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THE    NEW 

SCHAFF-HERZOG  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


or 


RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 


EDITED  BY 

SAMUEL  MACAULEY  JACKSON,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(^Edilar-in-Chief) 

WITH  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF 

CHARLES  COLEBROOK  SHERMAN 

AND 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  GILMORE,  M.A. 

(^  Associate  Editors) 

AND  THE  FOLLOWING  DEPARTMENT  EDITORS 


( LAROCE  AUGUSTINE  BECKWITH,  D.D. 

{Department  of  SysUmatic  Tkeology) 

HENRY  KING  CARROLL,  LLD. 

(Department  of  Minor  Denominations) 
JAMES  PRASCIS  DRISCOLL,  D.D. 

{Department  of  Liturgies  and  Religious  Orders) 


JAMES  FREDERIC  McCURDY,  PH.D.,  LLD. 

{Department  of  the  Old  Testament) 

HENRY  SYLVESTER  NASH,  D.D. 

{Department  of  the  New  Testament) 

ALBERT  HENRY  NEWMAN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

{Department  of  Church  History) 


PRANK  HORACE  VIZETELLY,  P.S.A. 

{Department  of  Pronunciation  and   Typography) 


Complete  in  ^voelve  IPolumes 


FUNK  AND  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 


/ 


-''  i 


Copyright,  1909,  by 
FUNK    &    WAGNALLS   COMPANY 


Registered  at  BUtioners'  Hall,  London,  England 


[Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America] 
Publighed  May,  1909 


r^2iM>u 


EDITORS 

SAMUEL  MACAULEY  JACKSOK,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(Editor-in-Chikf.  ) 
Professor  of  Church  History,  New  York  University. 


ASSOCL\TE   EDITORS 


CHAJtLSS  COLEBBOOK  8HEBMAN 

Editor  in  Biblical  Criticiaiii  and  Theology  on  *'Tbe  New  Inter- 
DAtioiial  Encyclopedia,**  New  York. 


aEOBGE  WILLIAM  GILMOEE,  M.A. 

New  York,  Formerly  Professor  of  Biblical  History  and  Lecturer 
on  Gomparatiye  Religion,  Bangor  Theological  Seminary. 


DEPARTMENT  EDITORS,  VOLUME  HI 


CLABSirCE  AT70T78TIKE  BECKWITH,  D.D. 

{Department  of  Si/Uematic  Tlieologu.) 
Profeaor  of    Systematic  Theology,  Chicago   Theological 
Seminary. 

HsmtT  Kora  oabboll,  ll.d. 

iDepartment  of  Minor  DenomiiuUions.) 

fbnaeriy  a  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Foreign 

MlaioDs  of  the  Methodist  Ipisoopal  Church,  New  York. 

JAKES  FRAKCIS  DEISCOLL,  D.D. 

{DepartmerU  of  Liturgiat  and  Relioiotts  Orders.) 
President  of  St*  Joseph^s  Seminary,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 


JAMES  FEEDEBICK  McGTTBDY,  Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

(Department  of  the  Old  Testament.) 
Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  University  College,  Toronto. 

HENBY  SYLVESTEB  If  ASH,  D.D. 

(Department  of  the  New  Tetitament.) 
Professor  of  the  Literature  and  Interpretation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

ALBERT  HENBY  NEWMAN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(Department  of  Church  History.) 

Professor   of  Church  History,  Baylor  Theological  Seminary 

(Baylor  Uniyersity),  Waco,  Tex. 


PBANK  HOBAOE  VIZETELLY,  F.S.A. 

(Department  of  Pronunciation  and  Typography.) 

Managing  Editor  of  the  Standard  Dictionary,  etc.. 

New  York  City. 


CONTEIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  III 


JUSTIN  EDWABDS  ABBOTT,  D.D., 

Missionary  in  Bombay,  India. 

HANS  ACHELIS,  PI1.D.,  Th.D., 

Profeasor  of  Church  History,  Univeraity  of  HaUe. 

BX7D0LF  ANSTEIN  (f), 
Late  Pastor  in  Basel. 

FBANXLIN  OABL  ABNOLD,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Professor  of  Chnrch  History,  Uniyersity  of  Breslau. 

WILHELM  BAUB  (f),  Th.D., 
Late  General  Superintendent  in  Bonn. 

aEOBGE  JAMES  BAYLES,  Ph.D., 

Writer  on  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Law. 

CLABENGB  AUaUSTINE  BEOKWITH, 
D.D., 
FraSemor  ot  Systematic  Theology,  Chicago  Theological  Semi- 
nary. 

XABL  BENEATH,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  rill irt'h  History,  University  of  Konigsberg. 


IMMANXJEL    aUSTAV   ADOLF    BEN- 
ZINGEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic, 

German  Orientalist  and  Vice-Consul  for  Holland  in  Jerusalem. 

OABL  BEBTHEAU,  Th.D., 

Pastor  of  St.  Michael's,  Hamburg. 

BEBNHABD  BESS,  Th.Lic, 

Librarian,  University  of  Halle. 

BX7D0LPH  MIOHAEL  BINDEB,  Ph.D., 

Lecturer  in  Sociology,  New  York  University. 

EMIL  BLOESOH  (f),  Th.D., 
Late  Professor  of  Theology,  Bern. 

HEINBIOH  BOEHMEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic, 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Bonn. 

AMY  GASTON  OHABLES  AUGUSTE 
BONET-MAUBY,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Independent  School  of  Divinity, 
Paris. 

(H)TTLIEB 


B0NWET80H, 


NATHANAEL 
Th.D., 

Professor  of  Chnrch  History,  University  of  Gottingen. 


VI 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  III 


FRIEDBIOH  B0S8B,  Ph.D.,  Th.Idc, 

▲asisUint  Llbrailan,  UnlTeralty  Library,  MarburK. 

GUSTAV  BOSSEBT,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Retired  Pastor,  Stuttgart. 

PEBOY  HOLMES  BOTNTON, 

Secretary  of  Instruction  In  tiie  Chautauqua  InatttnUon, 
Gbautauqua,  N.  T. 

JOHANNES   FRIEDBICH  THEODOB 
BBIEGEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Prof eaaor  of  Church  History,  UniTersity  of  Leipsic 

FBANTS  PEDEB  WILLIAM   BUHL, 
Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Profenor  of  Oriental  Languages,  Unlyerslty  of  Copenhagen. 

XABL  BUBGEB  (f),  Th.D., 
Lato  Supreme  Consistorlal  Councilor  in  Munich. 

HENBY  KING  OABBOLL,  LL.D., 

Formerly  Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society. 

WALTEB  CASPABI,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic., 

University  Preacher  and  Professor  of   Pivctlcal    Theology, 
University  of  Erhmgen. 

JACaUES  EXTGiNE  OHOISY,   Th.D., 

Pastor  in  Geneva. 

FEBDINAND  OOHBS,  Th.Lic, 

Consistorlal  Councilor,  Ufeld,  Germany. 

AUGUST  HEBMANN  OBEMEB  (f),  Th.D., 

Lato  Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  University  of 

Greifbwald. 

WALTEB  EWING  OBUM,  M.A., 

Coptic  Schohu-,  London. 

FBIEDBICH  WILHELM  OUNO  (f),  Th.Lic., 

Late  Pastor  at  Eddigehausen,  Hanover. 

SAMUEL  MABTIN  DEUTSCH,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Churoh  History,  University  of  Berlin. 

MOBTON  DEXTEB,  M.A., 

Congregational  Clergyman  and  Author,  Boston. 

DEODAT  DISSELHOFF, 

Pastor  at  Kaiserswerth,  Germany. 

BEBNHABD  DOMBABT  (f),  Fh.D., 
Formerly  Gymnaslal  Rector,  Ansboch,  Germany. 

JAMES  FBANCIS  DBISCOLL,  D.D., 

President  of  St.  Joseph^s  Seminary,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

HENBY  JAY  DUOXWOBTH,  D.D., 

Secretary  of  Educatton  for  the  Ohio  Central  Christian  Con- 
ference. 

LX7DWIG  ALFBED  EBIOHSON  (f),  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Lato  Preacher  at  SL  Thomas%  Strasbuiif,  Germany. 

HX7BEBT  EVANS,  Ph.D., 

Member  of  the  Editorial  Staff  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
Company,  New  York. 

THEODOB  F0EB8TEB  (f),  Th.D., 
Lato  Professor  of  Churoh  History,  University  of  Halle. 

0HBI8TIAN  HENBY  FOBNEY,  D.D., 
LL.D., 

Editor  of  the  Church  AdvoeaU^  Hairlsbarg,  Pa. 


BX7D0LF  FOSS  (f). 
Late  Councilor  in  Grosslichterfelde,  Germany. 

GUSTAV  WILHELM  FBANK  (f),  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  DogmatiGs,  Symbolics,  and  Christian  Ethics, 

University  of  Vienna. 

EMIL   ALBEBT    FBIEDBEBG,    Th.D., 
Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  Eodesiasttcal,  Public,  and  German  Law,  University 
of  Lalpsic 

JOHANN  FBIEDBIOH,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Munich. 

THEODOB  GEBOLD,  Th.D., 

President  of  the  Consistory,  Strasburg. 

JOHANNES    A-R-RATTAur   GEBTH    VAN 

WIJK  (t),  Th.D., 
Lato  Reformed  Churoh  Clergyman  at  The  Hague,  Holland. 

OHBISTIAN  GEYEB,  Ph.D., 

Clergyman  in  Nuromberg,  Germany. 

GEOBGE  WILLIAM  GILMOBE,  M.A., 

Former  Professor  of  BibUcal  History  and  Lecturer  on  CX>m- 
parative  Religion,  Bangor  Theological  Seminary. 

WILHELM  GOETZ,  Ph.D., 

Honorary  Professor  of  Geography,  Technical  High  School,  and 
Professor,  Military  Academy,  Munich,  Germany. 

CASPAB  BENA  GBEGOBY,  Ph.D.,  Dr.Jur., 
Th.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Leipsic. 

GEOBG  GBUETZMACHEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic., 

Extraordinary  Professor  of  Churoh   History,   Univeraity  of 
Heidelberg. 

XABL  BX7D0LF  HAGENBAOH  (f),    Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Theology,  University  of  Basel. 

ADOLF  HABNACX,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 
Dr.Jur., 

General  Director  of  the  Royal  Library  and  Professor  of  Church 
History,  University  of  Berlin. 

ALBEBT  HAUCX,  Ph.D.,  Th.D.,  Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Leipsic,  Editor-in> 
Chief  of  the  Hauck-Herzog  ReaiencyMopildie, 

HEBMAN  HAX7PT,  Ph.D., 

Professor  and  Director  of  the  University  Library,  Gieasen. 

CABL    FBIEDBICH  GEOBG  HEINBICI, 
Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Leipsic. 

EBNST  HENKE  (t),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Theology,  University  of  Marburg. 

HEBMANN  HEBING,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Philosophy  of  Religion  and  Homiletics,  University 
of  HaUe. 

JOHANN  JAKOB  HEBZOG  (f),  Ph.D.,Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Reformed  Theology,  University  of  Erlangen. 

PAX7L  HINSCHIUS  (f),  Dr.Jur.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  EoclesiasUcal  Law,  University  of  BerUn. 

XABL  HOLL,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Chureb  History,  University  of  Berlin. 

GEOBGE  ELLIOTT  HOWABD,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  InsUtutional  History,  University  of  Nebraska. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  in 


vu 


BDUABD  JACOBS,  Ph.D., 

P1I17  OouncUor,  WemUrerode,  Pnusian  Saxony. 

HEIHBIGH  FRIEDBICH  JAOOBSOK  (f), 
lAte  Processor  of  Law,  Unlverelty  of  KOnlgsberff  • 

HBBMAKN  JAOOBY,  Th.D., 

rof  HomUeticB,  Unlverefty  of  KbDigatoeiK' 


ITIV  XAEHLEB,  Th-D., 
Pioifurof  Dogmatici  and  New  TertameDt  Exegeito,  UtiWer- 
stty  of  Halle. 

FBIEDBIOH  WILSELM.  FEBBIKAND 
XATTSNBUSOH,  ThJD., 

ProfeHor  of  Dogmatios,  University  of  Halle. 

SMQi  FBIEDBIOH  XAXJTZSOHy  Ph.D.y 
Th.D., 

PiiifeMor  of  Old  TMUunent  Exegesta,  UnlyexBlty  of  Halle. 

PBTEB  OX78TAV  XAWSBAUy  ThJD.^ 

OoDriBtaflal  Councilor,  Uniyeralty  Praacber,  and  Profeasor  of 
Pracdcal  Tbeology.  Unlvendty  of  BresIaiL 

HUGO  WUfHELK  PAX7L  XIiEIVEBT, 
Ph.D.,  Th.D.y 

nofcMoi  of  Old  TBHament  Ezegwifl  and  Pmedcal  Ttieology, 
UnlTenity  of  Berlin. 

HEIHBICH  AVGTTST  KL08TBBMAKN, 

TI1.D., 
Pnf eanr  of  Old  Tvtament  Exegeila,  UnlTenity  of  Kiel. 

ntlBDBICH  BDUABB  XOENIG,  Ph.I>., 
Th.D.y 

'  of  OldTwfemimt  Ezegeils,  UnlTenity  of  Bonn. 


JUUim  KOB8TLIH  (t),  PI1.D.,  Th.D., 
I>r.Jur., 
liUe  Pnieaor  of  Theology,  UnlTenity  of  Halle. 

THBODOB  FBTBDBIOH   HEBMAKN 
KOLDX,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

ProfoMor  of  Charch  History,  UnlTenity  of  Erlangen. 

HSBKAHV  GtJBTAV  EDUABD  XBXTEOEB, 

Ph.I>.y  TII.D., 

PiuXtowor  oC  Choraii  History,  UnlTenity  of  Oieasen. 

J0HAHVB8  WILHELM  KTTNZEy  Ph.D., 
XhJ>., 

PioftMor  of  ^iteBiitieand  Practical  Tlieology,  Untrenlty  of 
Greitewald. 

KaZHDUAV  AliBEBT    LANBEBBB  (f), 

Ph.D.,  Th.I>.y 

Lste  Profe«or  of  Theology,  UnlTenity  of  TQblngen. 

WILIilAlK  HBimT  T.ABTIABKH,  IiL.D., 

PlatnOeld,  N.  J. 

XOBITZ  liATJTEBBXJBOy 

Profeasorof  Practical  Theology,  UniTersltyof  Bern. 

XABI*  LTJDWIO  IiBIMBAOH  (f),  Ph.D., 

Xh.D., 
Laie  ProrlDeial  Ooandlor  for  Schools,  UanoTer,  Germany. 

ItUBWIG  LEMMEy  Th.D., 

Prnfeaor  of  Systematic  Theology,  UnlTerslty  of  Heidelberg. 

EDXTABD  LEICPP9  Ph.D., 

Chief  Inspector  of  the  Boyal    Orphan    Asylmn,   Stuttgart, 
Germany. 

BBT7V0  UNDlTBBy  Ph.D.y 

Pn>fesK>r  of  Aryan  Languages,  UnlTeni^  of  Lelpslc. 


THOKAS  MABTIN  LINDSAY,  M.A.,  B.D., 

Principal  United  Free  Church  College,  Ghisgow. 

OEOBG  LOESOHE,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Evangelical  Theological  Fsculty, 
Vienna. 

WHiHELM  LOTZ,  Ph.D.,  Th.I>.y 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  Unlvendty  of  Erlangen. 

JAMES  FBEDEBIOX  McOXTBDY,  Ph.D., 
LL.D., 

Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  UnlTenity  of  Toronto. 

OTTO  MEJEB  (f),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  President  of  the  Consistory,  HanoTer. 

PHTTiTPP  HETEB,  Th.I>., 

Supreme  Consistorlal  Councilor,  HanoTer. 

OABL  THEODOB  KIBBT,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  UnlTerslty  of  XaitNUir. 

EBNST    FBIEDBIOH    KABL    KUELLEB, 
Th.D., 

Professor  of  Reformed  Theology,  UnlTerslty  of  Xrkngen. 

OEOBO  MUELLEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Inspector  of  Schools,  Lelpslc 

FBIEDBIOH  WILHELM  BEIKHABD 
MX7MM,  ThXic, 

General  Secretary  of  the  Free  Kodeslastlcal-Soclal  Conference, 
Berlin. 

HENBY  SYLVE8TEB  If  ASH,  D.D., 

Professor  of  the  Lttersture  and  Interpretation  of  the  New 

Testament,  Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge, 

Massachusetts. 

MABTIN  VON  If ATHUSITXS  (f),  Th.D., 
Late  Professor  of  Practical  Theology,  UnlTenity  of  GreiCnrald. 

ALBEBT  HENBY  NEWMAN,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Baylor  Theological  Seminary 
(Baylor  UnlTenity),  Waco,  Texas. 

THEODOB  JULIXTS  NEY,  Th.D., 

Supreme  Consistorlal  Councilor,  Speyer,  BaTarla. 

FBEDEBIOX  OHBISTIAN  NIELSEN  (f), 
D.D., 

Late  Bishop  of  Aarhus,  Denmark. 

OONBAD  VON  OBELLI,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  snd  History  of  Beligton, 
UnlTcrBlty  of  BaseL 

OHABLES  PFENDEB, 

Pastor  of  St.  PauPs  Erangellcal  Lutheran  Church,  Paris. 

FBEDEBIOX  DUNOLISON  POWEB,  M.A., 
LL.D., 

Pastor  of  Garfield  Memorial  Church,  Washington,  D.  C. 

EBWIN  PBEUSOHEN,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic., 

Pastor  at  Hirachhom-on-the-Neckar,  Germany. 

HEBMANN  BAHLENBEOX, 

Pastor  in  Cologne. 

X.  Bivfisz, 

Senior  of  the  Reformed  Church,  Kaschau,  Hungary. 

GEOBG  OHBISTIAN  BIETSOHEL,   Th.D., 

UnlTerslty  Preacher  and  Professor  of  Practical  Theology,  Unl- 
Tenity of  Leipsio. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  III 


HENDBIK    OOBNELIS   SOaGE  (f),  Th.I>., 
Late  Professor  d  History,  Univenlty  of  Amsterdam. 

EUGEN  SAOHSSE,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Practical  Tbeology,  University  of  Bonn. 

HUGK)  SACHSSE,  Ph.D.,    Th.Lic.,    Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  Eoclesiastical  Law,  University  of  Rostock. 

FEBDINAND  SANDEB, 

Councilor  for  Schools  in  Bremen,  Germany. 

ELIAS  BENJAMIN  8ANF0BD,  D.D., 

General  Secretary  of  the  National  Federation  of  Churches  and 
Christian  Workers. 

THEOBOB  SCHAEFEB,  Th.D.y 

Head  of  the  Deaconesstti*  Institute,  Altona. 

BAVTD  SOHLEY  SCHAFF,  DJ>., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
Allegheny,  Pennsylvania. 

PHTT.TP  SCHAFF  (f),  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York. 

ABOLPH  FBEBEBICK  SOHAUFFLEB, 
D.D., 

President  of  New  York  City  Mission  and  Tract  Society. 

OHBISTOPH  THEODOB  GOTTLOB  VON 
80HEX7BL  (f),  Ph.D.,  Th.D.y 

Late  Professor  in  Nuremberg. 

BEINHOLD  80HMID,  Th.Lic.y 

Pastor  in  OberhoUsheim,  WUrttemberg. 

HEINBIOH  SCHMIDT  (f), 
Late  ProfiBSBor  of  Theology,  University  of  Erlangen. 

XABL  SCHMIDT,  Th.D., 

Pastor  at  Goldberg,  Mecklenburg. 

THEODOB  SCHOTT  (f),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Librarian  and    Professor  of  Theology,  University  of 
Stuttgart. 

JOHANN   FBIEDBICH  BITTEB   VON 
SCHULTE,  Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  Law,  University  of  Bonn. 

VICTOB  SCHULTZE,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History  and  Christian  Archeology,  Univer- 
sity of  Groifswald. 

LX7DWIO  THEODOB  SCHULZE,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  University  of  Bostock. 

OTTO  8EEBAS8,  Ph.D., 

Educator,  Leipsic  Ctormany. 

BEINHOLD  8EEBEB0,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Univenlty  of  Berlin. 


EMIL  SEHLING,  Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  and  Commercial  Law,  University  of 
Erlangen. 

CHABLE8  COLEBBOOX  SHEBMAN, 

Editor  in  Biblical  Criticism  and  Theology  on  The  New  Inter- 
national EneyeUxpedia,  New  York. 

ALBEBT  B  SIMPSON, 

President  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance. 

ABTHUB  HENDEBSON  SMITH,  M.A., 

American  Missionary,  P'ang  Chuang,  China. 

BOBEBT  WAIiTEB  STEWABT,  B.Sc.,  B.D., 

Ghugow,  Scotland. 

JOSEPH  JAMES  SUMMEBBEU., 

Editor  of  The  Herald  of  Qoepel  Liberty^  Dayton,  Ohio. 

XABL  THIEME,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Dogmatics,  University  of  Lelpslc. 

EBNST  PETEB  WILHEUH  TBOELTSCH, 
Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Proftaor  of  Systematic  Theology,  University  of  Heidelberg. 

PAX7L  TSCHACKEBT,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Gottlngen. 

JOHANN  GEBHABD  WILHELM  XTHIi- 
HOBN  (t),  Th.D., 
Late  Conslstorial  Councilor,  Hanover. 

8IETBE  D0X7WES  VAN  VEEN,  Th.D., 
Professor  of  Church  History  and  Christian  Archeology,  Uni- 
versity of  Utrecht. 

MABVIN  BICHABDSON  VINCENT,  D.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and  Criticism,  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York. 

JOHANNES  WEISS,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Heidelberg- 

AUGUST  WILHELM  EBNST  WEBNEB, 
Th.D., 

Pastor  Prlmarius,  Guben,  Prussia. 

FBIEDBICH  LXTDWia  LEONHABD  WIE- 
GAND,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Greifkwald. 

SAMUEL  WELLS  WILLIAMS  (f),  LL.D., 
Late  Professor  of  Chinese  Language  and  Uteraturo,  Yale  College. 

JOSEPH  DAWSON  WILSON,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History    in    Reformed   Episcopal 
Seminary,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

BICHABD  PAX7L  WUELKEB,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  English  Philology,  University  of  Leipsic. 

OTTO  ZOECXLEB  (f),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Church  History  and  Apologetics,  Univenlty 
of  Greifkwald. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX- VOLS.  I-III 


The  following  list  of  books  b  supplementary  to  the  bibliographies  given  at  the  end  of  the  articles 
contained  in  volumes  I.-III.,  and  brings  the  literature  down  to  January,  1909.  In  this  list  each  vocabu- 
buy  entry  is  printed  in  capital  letters. 


Adam  of  Bremen  :    W.  P.  Kohlmann,  Adam  von 

Bremen,  Leipsic,  1908. 
Adamnan:   An  Irisk  Precursor  of  Dante.     A  Study 

on  the  Vision  of  Heaven  and  Hell  ascribed  to 

the  Sth-ceniury  Saint  Adamnan,  with  Trans- 
lation of  the  Irish  Text  by  C.  S.  Boswell, 

London,  1908. 
Akeo,  C.  F.  :  Old  Events  and  Modem  Meanings  and 

Other  Sermons,  New  York,  1908;    Wdis  and 

Palm  Trees:    cool  Water  and  abundant  Rest 

on  Life's  rough  Way,  ib.,  1908. 
Alcuin:  G.  F.  Browne,  Alcuin  of  York.    Lectures 

delivered  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Bristol 

in  1907  and  1908,  London,  1908. 
^Vltbed  the  Great:    Asser's  Life  of  King  Alfred, 

ed.  L.  C.  Jane,  London,  1908. 
Allen,  W.:   D.  B.  Camm,  William  Cardinal  AUeny 

Founder  of  the  Seminaries,  London,  1908. 
Amos:  J.  Touzard,  Le  Livre  d*Amos,  Paris,  1909. 
.\pHRAATEs:  P.  Scbroen,  Aprahat,  seine  Person  und 

sein    Verstdndnis   des   Christentums,   Berlin, 

1907. 
Apolloniub  of  Ttana:  F.  W.  G.  Campbell,  Apol- 

lonius  of  Tyana.    A  Study  of  his  Life  and 

Times,  London,  1908. 
Apologetics:     W.    Ernst,    Aufgdbe   und   Arbeits- 

methode    der   ApologHik  fur  die  Oegenwart, 

Berlin,  1908. 
Arabia:    M.  Hartmann,  Die  arabische  Frage  mil 

einen     Versuche    der    Archdologie    Jemens, 

Leipsic,  1909. 
Aristotle:    Works,  Eng.  transL,  vol.  viii.,  Metor- 

physics,  London,  1909. 
Art  and  Church:  H.  B.  Walters,  The  Arts  of  the 

Church,  Ojrford,  1908. 
.Vsstria:   R.  W.  Rogers,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and 

Assyria,  New  York,  1908. 
Atonement:     J.  Stalker,  The  Atonement,  London, 

1908. 
J.  Grimal,  Le  Sacerdoce  et  le  sacrifice  de  .  .  . 

Msus-Christ,  Paris,  1908. 
Augustine:      H.    Becker,    Augustin.    Studien   zu 

einer  geistigen  Entwicklunq,  Leipsic,  1908. 
W.  Thimme,  Augustine  geistige  Entvnckelung 

.  .  .  386-391,  Berlin,  1908. 
Austria:   J.    R.  Kusej,  Joseph  II.  und  die  dus- 

sere  Kirchenverfassung  innerdsterreichs   (Bis- 

turns,'  Pfarr-  und  Klosterregulierung) .     Ein 

Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  des  dsterreich.    Stoats 

kirehenrechtes,  Stuttgart,  1908. 
A\ila,  Juan  de:   Letters  of  Blessed  John  of  AvUa, 

translated  and  selected  from  the  Spanish  by 

the  Benedictines  of  Starirook,  with  Preface  by 

Gasquet,  London,  1904. 
Babylonia:  See  Asstria,  ut  sup. 


Barry,  A. :  Do  we  Believe  f    The  Law  of  Faith  per- 
fected in  Christ,  London,  1908. 
Baur,  F.  C:    G.  Schneider,  F.  C.  Baur  in  seiner 

Bedeutungfur  die  Theologie,  Munich,  1909. 
Behaism:  S.  Sprague,  The  Story  of  the  Bahai  Move- 
ment, London,  1908;  A  Year  with  the  Bahais 
in  India  and  Burma,  ib.,  1908. 
Bible  Text:   Biblia  Hebraica,  ed.  R.  Kittel,  Leip- 
sic, 1906. 
A.  B.  Ehrlich,  Randglossen  zur  hebrdischen  Bi- 
bel,  vol.  i..  Genesis  und  Exodus,  Leipsic,  1908. 
C.  R.  Gregory,  Die  griechischen  Handschriften 

des  N.  T.,  Leipsic,  1908. 
H.  C.  Vedder,  Our  New  Testament;  how  did  we 

get  it  ?  Philadelphia,  1908. 
Transcript  of  the  Turin  Manuscript  of  the  "  Do- 
dekapropheton  ";   tr.  and  collated  by  Rev.  W. 
C.  Oesterley,  New  York,  1908. 

Bible  Versions,  B.  IV. :  The  Gospel  of  St.  John  in 
West  Saxon,  Boston,  1904;  The  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew  in  West  Saxon,  Boston,  1904;  The 
Gospel  of  St.  Mark  in  West  Saxon,  1905; 
The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  in  West  Saxon,  Bos- 
ton, 1906,  ed.  J.  W.  Bright.  The  West 
Saxon  Psalms,  being  the  Prose  Portion,  or  the 
''first  my,*'  of  the  so-called  Paris  Psalter 
ed.  J.  W.  Bright,  Catherine  Donovan,  and 
R.  L.  Ramsay,  Boston,  1907. 
The  Coptic  {SaJiidic)  Version  of  Certain  Books 
of  the  Old  Testament  from  a  Papyrus  in  the 
British  Museum,  ed.  H.  Thompson,  New 
York,  1908. 

Biblical  Introduction:    C.  R.  Gregory,  Einlei- 
tung  in  das  N.  T.,  Leipsic,  1909. 

Biblical  Theology:    W.  E.  Orchard,  The  Evolur 
Hon  of  the  Old  Testament  Religion,  London, 
1908. 
W.    H.    Bennett.    Religion   of  the   Post-exilic 
Prophets,  Edinburgh,  1908. 

Boniface:   An  Eng.  transl.  of  the  correspondence 
of  Boniface,  ed.  E.  J.  Kylie,  London,  1908. 

Buddhism:   E.  Windisch,  Buddhas  Geburt  und  die 
Lehre  von  der  Seelenwanderung,  Leipsic,  1908. 

Calvin,  J.:    P.  Bess,    Unsere  religiosen  Erzieher, 
vol.  ii.,  Leipsic,  1908. 
R.  Schwarz  has  edited  a  collection  of  670  let- 
ters of  Calvin  in  Germ,  transl.,  Tubingen,  1908. 

Campion,  Edicund:  W.  Allen,  A  Brief e  Historie  of 
the  Glorious  Martyrdom  of  twelve  Reverend 
Priests.  Father  Edmund  Campion  and  his 
Companions;  with  contemporary  Verses  by 
the  venerable  H.  Walpole,  and  the  earliest 
Engravings  of  the  Martyrdom;  ed.  J.  H. 
PoUen,  Saint  Louis,  1908. 
L.  J.  Guiney,  Blessed  Edmond  Campion,  Lon- 
don, 1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX— VOLUMES  I-III 


Carmelites:  The  Ascent  of  Mi.  Carmd  by  St.  John 
of  the  Cro88f  trand.  by  D.  Lewie,  with  prefer 
iory  Eeeay  on  the  Development  of  Myeticiem 
in  the  Cormdile  Order,  by  B.  Zimmennann, 
London,  1906. 

Catechisms,  S  ^^'  Luther* e  Small  Catechism  De- 
veloped and  Explained^  Prepared  and  Pvb- 
lished  by  Avthoriiy  of  the  Ueneral  Synod  of 
the  Evangelical  Synod  of  the  Ev.  Luth.  Church , 
U.  S.  A.,  Philadelphia  (current). 

Cbmbterieb:  £.  Calve,  Bibliografla  delle  catacombe 
e  delle  chieae  di  Roma,  Kome,  1908. 

Charity,  Sisters  of:  L.  Bougaud,  Hist,  of  St.  Vinr 
cent  de  Paul,  .  .  .  and  of  the  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity, New  York,  1908. 

Chile:  G.  F.  S.  Elliot,  Chile,  its  Hist,  and  Devdop- 
ment,  London,  1907. 

China:   D.  Mao  GiUivray,  A  Century  of  Protestant 
Missions  in  China,  London,  1908. 
M.  Bromhall,  The  Chinese  Empire,  a  General 

and  Missionary  Survey,  London,  1908. 
A.  Launay,  Hist,  des  missions  Hranghres,  vols, 
i.— iii.,  Vannea,  1907-08. 

F.  L.  Norris,  China,  London,  1908. 

J.  Speicher,  Conquests  of  the  Cross  in  China, 

New  York,  1907. 
R.  W.  Thompson,  The  Story  of  Fifty  Years  in 

China,  London,  1908. 
Christoloot:  S.  Faut,  Die  ChristologieseitSchleier- 

macher,  xhre  Oeschichte  und  xhre    BegrUnd- 

ung,  Tubingen,  1907. 
Chrtbostom:   Chrysostamika.    Studi  e  ricerche  in- 

tomo  a  S.  Giovanni  Crisostomo  a  cwra  del 

camitato   per   il   XV   centenario   deUa    sua 

marte,  Rome,  1908. 
Church  and  State:  S.  Coit,  National  Idealism  and 

a  State  Church,  London,  1907. 
H.  von  der  Goltz,  Kirche  und  Stoat,  Berlin,  1907. 
Clement  of  Alexandria:    J.  Gabrielson,   Ueber 

die  Quellen  des   Clemens   von  Alexandrien, 

Leipsic,  1906. 
Clement  of  Rome:  C.  Schmidt,  Der  erste  Clemens- 
brief  in  altkoptischer   UAerselxung,  Leipsic, 

1908  (in  TV,  xcdi.  1.). 

G.  A.  van  den  Bergh  van  Eysinga,  Onderzoek 
naar  de  echtheid  van  Clemens  erste  brief  aan 
de  Corinthiers,  Leyden,  1908. 

Clifford,  John:  D.  Crane,  John  Clifford,  God's 
Soldier  and  the  People's  Tribune,  London,  1908. 

CoLLTER,  R.:  Some  Memories,  Boston,  1908. 

Common  Prater,  Book  of:  S.  Coit,  National  Ideal- 
ism and  die  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  An 
Essay  in  Re-interpretation  and  Revision, 
London,  1908. 

Communism:  W.  A.  Hinds,  American  Communities, 
2d  ed.,  Chicago,  1908. 

Comparative  Religion:  F.  B.  Jevons,  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Comparative  Religion, 
2d  ed..  New  York,  1908. 
H.  Webster,  Primitive  Secret  Societies.  A 
Study  in  early  Politics  and  Religion,  London, 
1908. 
A.  van  Gennep,  Tabou  et  tot^misme  d  Mada^ 

gascar,  Paris,  1904. 
R.  de  la  Grasserie,  Des  Ph^nomimes  reli^ieux 
dits  myst^es  (triades  ou  didoublements  dxvins; 
anthroposes  ou  incarnations;  avothysioses  ou 
redemptions  par  sacrifiog,  avec  leur  aboutisse- 
ment  aans  le  crdte),  Paris,  1908. 
E.  Doutt^,  Magie  et  religion  dans  VAfrique  du 
Nord,  Paris,  1908. 


B.  Thompson,   The  Fijians.    A  Study  of  the 

Decay  of  Custom,  London,  1908. 
Concordances:  A  Textual  Concordance  of  the  Holy 

Scriptures;    arranged  especially  for   Use  in 

Preaching,  New  York,- 1908. 
Concordats:     H.    Rudorff,    Zur    Erkldrung    des 

Wormser  Konkordats,  Weunar,  1906. 
Confirmation:    C.   R.  Ball,  Confirmation,  Before 

and  After,  London,  1909. 
Congregationalibts:    D.  Macfadyen,  Constructive 

Congregational  Ideals,  London,  1908. 
Conscience:    F.  Le  Dantec,  Science  et  conscience, 

Paris,  1908. 
CoNSTANTiNE  THE  Great  AND  His  SoNs:   Joannes 

M.    Pf&ttisch.    Die    Rede    Konstantins    des 

Grossen  an  die   Versammlung  der  HeUigen 

auf  ihre  Echtheit  unlersucht,   Freiburg  and 

St.  Louis,  1908.    [A  defense.] 
Conway,   Moncure   Daniel:    E.   C.   Walker,    A 

Sketch    and    an    Appreciation    of   Moncure 

Daniel  Conway,   Freethinker  arid  Humani- 
tarian, New  York,  1908. 
CoPLESTON,  R.  S.:    Buddhism,  Primitive  and  Pres- 
ent, new  ed.,  1908.    • 
Covenant:    F.  V.  Norton,  A  Lexicographical  and 

Historical  Study  of  ^tad^,  Chicago,  1908. 
Covenanters:    J.  K.  Hewison,   The  Covenanters. 

A  History  of  tAe  Church  in  Scotland  from  the 

Reformation  to  the  Revolution,  Glasgow,  1908. 
J.  Willcock,  A  Scots  Earl  in  Covenanting  Times, 

Being  the  Life  and  Times  of  Archibald,   9th 

Earl  of  Argyll  {16IS9-S6),  Edinburgh,  1908. 
Cross  and  its  Use  as  a  Symbol:    W.  M.  Clow, 

The  Cross  in  Christian  Experience,  London, 

1908. 
Crowther,   S.   a.:    J.   Page,    The   Black   Bishop. 

Samuel  Adjai  Crowther,  London,  1908. 
Damascus:  Ibn  al-Qalasani,  Hist,  of  Damascus,  ed. 

M.  H.  F.  Amedrog,  Leyden,  1908. 
David:  B.  Baentsch,  David  und  sein  Zeitalter,  Leip- 
sic, 1907. 
Death,  Dance  of:    K.  KUnstle,  Die  Legende  der 

drei  Lebenden  und  der  drei  Toten  und  der 

Totentam,  Freiburg,  1908. 
Deism:    I.   W.   Riley,   American  Philosophy;    the 

early  Schools,  pp.  191  sqq..  New  York,  1907. 
Descartes,   R.:    K.   Jungmann,   RenS  Descartes. 

Eine   EinfOhrung  in  seine   Werke,   Leipsic, 

1908. 
Diaspora:    E.  W.  Bussmann,  Evangdische  Diaepo- 

rakunde.    Handbuch  fUr  Pfarrer  und  Freunde 

deutscher  Auelandsgemeinden,  Marbuig,  1908. 
Did  ache:    A.  Seeber^,  Die  Beiden  Wege  und  das 

Aposteldekret,  Leipsic,  1908. 
Diseases  and  the  Healing  Art,  Hebrew:    A 

series  of  articles  by  E.  M.  Merrins,  M.D.  in 

Bibliotheca  Sacra,  April,  1904,  to  October, 

1908. 
Dogma,  Dogmatics:    F.  Ballard,  Christian  Essen- 

tials.  New  York,  1908. 
H.  H.  Wendt,  System  der  chrisUichen  Lehre, 

GOttingen,  1907. 
A.  H.  Strong,  vol.  ii.,  Philadelphia,  1908. 
F.    J.    Hall,    Dogmatic    Theology.       Vol.    ii., 

Authority,  Ecdesiaslical  and  Biblical,  Chicago, 

1908. 

DONELLAN   (DoNNELAN)   LECTURES:     1906-07.      H. 

J.  Dukinfield  Astley,  Prehistoric  Archaeology 
and  the  0.  T.,  Edinburgh,  1906. 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


Abbreyiationa  in  common  uge  or  self-evident  are  not  included  here.     For  additional  information  con- 
cerning the  works  listed,  see  vol.  L,  pp.  viii.-xx.,  and  the  appropriate  articles  in  the  body  of  the  work. 


ADB. 
Adt  . 
AJP.. 


j  AOgemeins  deuUehe  Bioffraphie,   Leipric, 
'  1      1875  8qq..  vol.  53.  1907 
. .  .advenuB,  "  against  " 

)  Amtriean    Journal    of    Philology,    Balti- 
'  \      more,  1880  sqq. 
J  /•  i  Amtrican  Journal  of  Theology,  Chicago, 

'*•'' ]      1897  aqq. 

jrp  SArehiv     fOr     kalhoUathM     KirthanrodU^ 

•^'^^ 1      Innsbruck,  1857-61,  Biains.   1872  sqq. 

iArehiv    fOr    lAUerOtwr'    und    Kirchenge- 
ALKG <     aehitkU     doB     MiUelalter;     Freiburg. 

(      1885  sqq. 

>^zD Ammean 

i  1/  J  j  Abhandtungen  dtr  MUnehener  Akademie, 

'*^'* )      Munich.  1763  sqq. 

{Anie-Nietne  Pathos,  American  edition 
by  A.  Cleveland  Coxe.  8  vols,  and  in- 
dex, Buffalo.  1887;  vol.  ix.,  ed.  Allan 
Mensiee.  New  York.  1897 

Apoc Apocrypha,  apocryphal 

Apol Apologia^  Apology 

Anb Arabic 

Aram Aramaic 

vt article 

ArtSchmal Schmalkald  ArUclee 

J  CD  )  Acta  sonctorum.  ed.  J.  Holland  and  others, 

'^^^ 1      Antwerp.  1643  sqq. 

J  Of/  i  Ada  oanctcrum  ordinia  8.  BenedicH,  ed. 

-^^-^ J     J.  MabiUon,  9  vols.,  Paris.  1668-1701 

.\iwyT Ass  jf  nan 

AT AUet  TMiament,  "  Old  Testament  " 

Aacii.  Con Augsburg  Confession 

A.  V Authorised  Version  (of  the  English  Bible) 

AZ AUgmteine  Zeiiung,  Augsburg.  Tubingen, 

Stuttgart,  and  TObingen,  1798  sqq. 
M.  Baldwin.  Dictionary  of  PhUoiophy 
and  Pwydhology,  3  vols,  in  4,  New  York, 
1901-05 

ArchiU>logie^ 


Baldwin, 
Diduinary 

Benanger, 
ArdiAologifB 

Berthoklt. 
Eiideitung. 


]'■ 


1 1.     Bensinger.     HebrAtMdts 
.)     2ded..  Freibunr.  1907 


Bertfkoldt.  H%9tori§ch'Kriti9chB  Bin- 
loiiung  .  .  .  <2es  AUen  und  Neuen  Te»- 
tamenta,  6  vols..  Erlangen.   1812-19 

BFBS British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 

Rin*K.»  \^'    Bingham.    Origine$    ecdeHattioB,    10 

^^ ]  SSUV^""-  ""-'*  "^  •^' 

( M.   Bouquet.   RaeueU  dea  hiatorient  daa 
Booquet,  R^a»eil\     Oaulaa  at  da  la  Prance,  continued  by 
I     various  hands.  23  vols..  Paris,  1738-76 
I  Archibald  Bower.   Hiatorv  of  the  Popea 


Bower,  Popaa. 


(fox. 


BQR. 


.<      .  .  .  to  1768,  eontinuad  by  8.  H. 
(     3  vols.,  Philadelphia.  1845-47 
SBapHat  Quarterly   Review,    Philadelphia. 
'  (      1867  sqq. 

BUG SeeJafftf 

Cant Canticles.  Song  of  Solomon 

«p eajml.  *'  chapter  " 

nMiii*r     A  ..jm.m  i  1^  CeilUer,  Hiataira  dea  autawra  aaeria  et 
ueiH^  Avteurai     ^eeliaia^iquea,    16  vols,   in   17.   Paris. 

•■*^ \      1858-60 

Chrw duwiieon,  "  Chronicle  " 

lOiioa I  Chronicles 

II  Chron II  Chronides 


CIQ  . 
CIL. 
CIS.. 


ecd 

oW.D 

^Tkeod 

Cot 


Corpua  inaaiptionum  Qraearufn,  Berlin, 

1825  sqq. 
Corpua  inacriptionum  Latinarum,  Berlin, 

Corpua  inacriptionum  Semiiiettnun,  Paris, 

1881  sqq. 
codex 
eodex  Beam 
codex  Theodoaianua 
Epistle  to  the  Coloeaana 
column,  columns 
Confaaaionea,  **  Confessions  " 


1  <aor. ...  .' .' .  .Firrt  Epistle*  to  the  Corinthiana 


Creighton, 
Papacy 

C8EL...: 

CSHB 

Currier.  Rdigicua 
Ordera 


II  Cor Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 

COT See  Schrader 

rnn  S  The  Church  Quarterly  Review,    London, 

^^* ^      1875  sqq. 

Corpua   Mnjnaloirum,   begun    at    Halle, 

CR <      1834,  vol.  Ixxxix.,  Berlin  and  Leipsio, 

1906  sqq. 
'M.  Creighton,  A  Hiatory  of  the  Papacy 
from  the  Great  Schiam  to  the  Sadt  of 
Rome,  new  ed..  6  vols.,  New  York  and 
London,  1897 
Corpua  acriptorum  acdeaiaatioorum  Lati- 

norum,  Vienna,  1867  sqq. 
Corpua    acriptorum    hiatorua    Byaantina, 

49  vols.,  Bonn.  1828-78 
C.  W.  Currier.  Hiatory  of  Rdigioua  Ordera, 

New  York.  1896 

D Deuteronomist 

nArr  i  F-  Gabrol.  Dictionnaira  d'ardUologie  chri- 

^^^^ 1     tienneetde  liiurgie,  Paris.  1903  sqq. 

Dan Daniel 

t  J    Ha>*t[ryj:M    IHtfirinary   vf   ihe  Bible,   4 

DB <      vc'i-^.    Hcjid   pxtrn  vol,^   Edinburgh  and 

Nf  w  York,  1808- 1&04 
W.  Smith  and  ^.  Cbeethimi,  Dictionary 
"      of  ChriaHa  n  A  niiqu  itit*,  2  vols. ,  London, 

|g75HM> 
I  W.  SrnitU  ami   H.  WacCt  DkHonary  of 
^      VhH^tion   BiiHtmpktt,   4  vols.,  Boston, 

ie77-K7 
\  J.  Hjikfltitnc*,  J.  A  H<»lbio,  anilJ,  C.  Lambert, 

DCO -j      .1  D^f^U'ffiir^  of  ( 'Ariif  o  rtti  the  Ooapala,  2 

voU.,  Edinbu/KhftniJ  New  V<jrk,  1906-08 

Deut Deuteronomy 

De  vir.  ill De  viria  illuatribua 

DeWette-  (W.  M.  L.  de  Wette.  LehHmch  der  hia- 

Sohrader,  f^ifi-s      toriad^-kritiachen  Einleitung  in  die  B^>elj 

leitung |     vol.  i.  il.  7..  ed.  E.  Schrader.  Berlin,  1860 

DCfQ See  Wattenbach 

!L.  Stephen  and  8.  Lee,  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography,  63  vols,  and 
supplement  3  vols..  London.  1885-1901 
rk_;_.-  r..iw>/i..^  ( S.  R.  Driver,  Introduction  to  the  lAteratura 
Dnver,  IntrodwyJ       .  ^   ^y    Taatament,   5th   ed..    New 

•^ {     York,  1894 

E Elohist 

K.  Chevpe  and  J.  S.  Black,  Encyclo- 
<adia   Biblica,   4   vols.,    London   and 


DCA. 


DCB. 


EB. 


(T.  K. 

•1  6:t' 


.^ew  York.  1899-1903 
,Ecdeaia,  ['  Church 


eccleaiaaticua. 


Bed 

deeiastical ' 

Ecdes Ecdeeiastes 

Ecdus Eksdesiasticus 

ed edition;  adidiL**  edited  by  " 

Eph Epistle  to  the  Ephesians 

Epiat Epiatola,  Epiatola,  "  Epistle."  "  Epistles  " 

Ersch  and  Gru-  1  J.  S.  Ersch  and  J.  Q.  Qruber.  AUgemeine 
ber.     Sneyklo"{     EneyklopOdia  der    WiaaenatAaften   und 

vMia {      KUnate,  Leipsic.  1818  sqq. 

E.V English  versions  (of  the  Bible) 

Ex Exodus 

Esek Esekiel 

faac faaciculua 

J.   Friedrioh,   Kirchengeadiichta  Deutach- 

landa,2  vols..  Bamberg,  1867-60 
O.  F.  Fritssohe  and  C.  L.  W.  Qrimm, 
omtiMdksmHand-'      Kurtgefaaatea     axegetiad^ea     Handbudi 
amnacnem  nana-       ^^   ^^   Apocryphen  dea   Alten   Taata- 

''^^^ I     menia,  6  parts,  Leipsic.  1851-60 

Qal Epistle  to  the  Qalatians 

P.  B.  Qams.  Beriaa  epiacoporum  eedeaiae 
Caiholicae.  Regensburg,  1873,  and  sup- 
plement, 1886. 
H.  Gee  and  W.  J.  Hardy.  DocumenU 
lUuairative  of  Engliah  Church  Hiatory, 
London,  1896 
.Qeneais 


Friedrioh,  KD.. 

Fritssche,     Exe- 
'     Hand- 


Gams,    Seriaa 
epiacoporum 


Gee  and  Hardy.. 
Documenta.. 


Gen. 


xii 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


Haddan  and 
Stubbs,   Coun- 
eila...: 


Hm-., 


Ha« 

Harduin,  Ctm- 
cilia 


Harnack,  Dof^ma 

Hamack,  Littero-, 

tur ^ 


Hauck,  KD. 


Hauck-Heriog, 
RE 


•1 


Hefe\e,ConcUienr-  J 
Oeschichte.  .  . 

Heimbucher,  Or-  j 
den  und  Kon--{ 
greoationen. . . 

Helyot.  Ordrf 
moTMBtiques. . 


Germ German 

^^  ^^ (     Bury,  7  vols.,  London.  1896-1900 

Gk Greek,  Greciied 

^C.  Gross,  The  Soturcea  and  lAierature  of 
Englith  History  ,  ,  .  lo  14S6,  London. 
1900 

Hab Habakkuk 

f  A.  W.  Haddan  and  W.  Stubbs.  CounciU 
and  Bcdenaetieal  DoeumenU  RetoHng 
to  Oreat  Britain  and  Ireland^  3  vols., 
^     Oxford,  1869-78 

Refers  to  patristic  works  on  hereaiee  or 

heretics.  Tertullian's  De  praecriptione, 

the    ProB    haireeeia    of    Irenieus,    the 

Panarion  of  Epiphanius,  etc. 

HaoKai 

J.    Harduin,    Conciliorum   coUecHo  regia 

maxima,  12  vols..  Paris,  1716 
A.  Hamack,  Hiatorv  of  Dogma  .  .  .  from 
the  Sd  German  edition^  7  vols..  Boston. 
1895-1900 
A.     Hamack,     Oeadiidite    der    olkhriMt- 
lichen   lAUeratur   bie  Eueebiue,  2  vols, 
in  3,  Leipsic,  1893-1904 
A.     Hauck.     KirchengeechicKte    Deutach- 
lande,  vol.    i..  Leipsic,   1904;  vol.   ii., 
1900:  vol.  iii..  1906;  vol.  iv..  1903 
ReaUncyklop/ldie  fUr  proteatanHeehe  The- 
ologie  und  Kircke,   founded   by  J.   J. 
Hersog,  3d  ed.  by  A.  Hauck.  Leipsio. 
,     1896-1909 

Heb Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 

Hebr Hebrew 

C.  J.  von  Hefele,  CondUengeeehidiU^  con- 
tinued by  J.  Hergenr6ther,  vols.,  i.-vi.. 
viii,-ix.,  Freiburg,  1883-93 
M.  Heimbucher.  Die  Orden  und  Kongre- 
gationen    der    katholiecfien    Kirdie,   2d 
ed.  3  vols.,  Paderbom,  1907 
P.    Helyot,    Hieioire   dee   ordree  monae- 
iiqttea,  religieux  et  militairea,    8   vols., 
Paris,  1714-19;   new  ed.,  1839-42 
Henderson,  Doe-  j  E.  F.  Henderson,  Select  Hiatorieal  Doeu- 

umente (      menU  of  the  Middle  Aget,  London,  1892 

Hist History,  histoire,  hietoria 

uimt    ^^1  3  Historia     edeaiaetioa,   ecdeeia,    "  Church 

^••'-  **^* (     History" 

Horn Homiliat   homiliaif   "  homily,    homilies  " 

Ho8 Hosea 

Ira Isaiah 

Ital Italian 

J Jahvist  (Yahwist) 

J  A Journal  Aeiatique,  Paris.  1822  sqq. 

P.     Jaff^.     Bibliotheca    rerum    Oermani- 

carum,  6  vols.,  Berlin,  1864-73 
P.  Jaff^,  Regeeta  porUifieum  Romanorum 
.  .  .  ad    annum    1198,  Berlin,     1851; 
2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1881-88 
Journal  of  the  American  OrierUal  SoeietUt 

New  Haven,  1849  sqq. 
Journal  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Ezege- 
eie,  first  appeared  as  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  BibliccU  Literature  and  Exe- 
gesis, Middletown.  1882-88,  then  Bos- 
ton, 1890  raq. 
The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  12  vols.,  New 

York,  1901-06 
The  combined  narrative  of  the  Jahvis 
(Yahwist)  and  Elohist 

Jer Jeremiah 

Jo8ephus,.ln<...]F»5^./«*P^^'    "  Antiquities   of   the 

Josephus,  Apion..  .Flavius  Josephus,  "  Against  Apion  " 

Joaephus,  Life Life  of  Flavius  Josephus 

Josephus,  If  or Flavius  Josephus,      The  Jewish  War" 

Josh Joshua 

vp<r  \JahrbQeher  fUr  protestantisdie   Theologie, 

''^^ 1      Leipsic,  1876  sqq. 

mrf  j  T'Atf   Jetvish  Quarterly   Review,    London, 

•'^« ]      1888  sqo. 

j0pig  \  Journal  of  Theological  Studies,  London, 

}      1899  sqq. 
Julian,  Hym-        j  J.   Julian,    A    Didionary  of  Hymnology, 

nUogy j      revised  edition^London,  1907 

r^fp  j  Jaarboeken  voor  Wetensehappelijke  Theo- 

•'"^^ 1      logie,  Utrecht,  1846  sqq. 

KAT See  Schrader 

KB See  Schrader 

KD See  Friedrich,  Hauck,  Rettberg 

Wetser  und  WeUe's  Ktreherdexikon,  2d 
ed.,  by  J.  Hergenrdther  and  F.  Kaulen. 
12  vols,.  Freiburg,  1882-1903 
G.  KrOger,  History  of  Early  Christian 
Literature  in  the  Pirst  Three  Centuries, 
New  York.  1897  I 


Jaf!6,BRO... 
JafT^,  Regesia.. 
JAOS 

JBL 

JE 

JE 


1 


KL. 


&Qger.    History 


Krumbacher. 
GeschidUe. 


Labbe.    Concilia- 
Lam 


Lanigan,  Ecd. 
Hist 

Lat 

Lev 


Ldchtenbercer, 
ESR 


K.  Krumbacher,  Oesehiehte  der  byzan- 
tinischen  lAUeratur,  2d  ed..  Munich. 
1897 

P.  Labbe,  Saerorum  conciliorum  note. 
et  amplissima  coUectio,  31  vols.,  Flor- 
ence and  Venice.  1769-98 

.Lamentations 

J.  Lanigan,  Ecdesiasticcd  History  of 
Ireland  to  the  13th  Century,  4  vols., 
Dublin,  1829 

Latin,  Latinised 

Leges,  Legum 

Leviticus 

F.  Lichtenberger,  EncydopUie  des  sci- 
ences religieuses,  13  vols.,  Paris.  1877- 
1882 
T^MTi.  nnti  )^-  Loreni,  Deutschlands  Oeschiehtsquel- 
ix>reni,  uwj  . . .  ^  ^  ^^  Mittelalier,  3d.  ed..  Berhn,  1887 
LXX The  Septuagint 

I  Mace I  Maccabees 

II  Mace II  Maccabees 

Mai,    Nova    col-  \  A.    Mai,    Scriptorum   veteru$n    nova   col- 
lectio 1     lectio.  10  vols..  Rome.  1826-38 

Mai Malachi 

M»nn   Pa«m*         j  R.   C.   Mann.   Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the 

MAnn.  I'opes. . . .  ^     ^^^^  MiddU  Aaes.  London.  1902  sqq. 
( G.     D.     Mansi,     Sanctorum     conciliorum 

Mansi.  Concilia. .  ■{     colledio  nova,  31   vols..   Florence  and 
(      Venice.  1728 

Matt Matthew 

Monumenta  Germanics  historica,  ed.  G.  H. 
Perts  and  others,  Hanover  and  Ber- 
Un,  1826  sqq.  The  following  abbrevia- 
tions are  used  for  the  sections  and  sub- 
sections of  this  work:  AnL,  Antiuui- 
tates,  '*  Antiquities  ";  AueL  ant.,  Aue- 
tores  antiquisaimi,  *'  Oldest  Writers  "; 
Chron.  min..  Chronica  minora,  "  Leswr 
Chronicles  ";  Dip.,  DipUmuUa,  "  Di- 
plomas, Documents ";  Epist.,  E pis- 
tola,  "  Letters ";  GesL  pont.  Rom., 
Gesta  pontificum  Romanorum,  **  DcecUi 
of  the  popes  of  Rome  ";  Leg.,  Leges, 
"  Laws  ";  Lib.  de  lite,  LiheUi  de  lite 
inter  regnum  et  sacerdotium  sa^ndorum 
xi  et  xii  coriscripti,  "  Books  concerning 
the  Strife  between  the  Civil  and  Eccle- 
siastical Authorities  in  the  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  Centuries ";  Nee.,  Ne- 
crologia  GermanicB,  "  Necrology  of 
Germany";  Poet.  Lat.  avi  Car., 
PoetcB  Latini  eevi  Carolini,  "  Latin 
Poets  of  the  Caroline  Time  ";  PoeL 
Lat.  med.  avi,  Poetoe  Latini  medii  avi, 
"  Latin  Poets  of  the  Middle  Ages  "; 
Script.,  Scriptores,  **  Writers  ";  Script, 
rer.  Germ.,  Scriptores  rerum  Germani- 
carum.  **  Writers  on  German  Sub- 
jects '';  Script,  rer.  Langob.,  Scriptores 
rerum  Langobardicarum  et  Italicarum. 
"  Writers  on  Lombard  and  Italian 
Subjects  ";  Script,  rer.  Merov.,  Scrip- 
tores rerum  Merovin^icarum,  **  Writers 
on  Merovingian  Subjects  " 

Mic Micah 

H.  H.  Milman,  History  of  Latin  Chris- 
'    '■         ■        '/    ■      ~ 


MGH, 


Milman,  Latin 
Chriiiianity. 


Blirbt.  Quellen. 

Moeller,  Chris- 
tian Church 


MPL 

MS..  MSS. 


tianity.  Including  that  of  the  Popes  to 
.  .  .  Nicholas  v.,  8  vols.,  London. 
1860-61 
C.  Mirbt,  Quellen  stir  Geschic^Ue  des  Papst- 
hims  und  des  rtimischen  Katholicismua, 
Tabingen,  1901 
W.    Moeller,     History    of    the    Christian 

Church,  3  vols.,  London,  1892-1900 

Mpn  i  •'■  P-  Migne,  Patrologict  cursus  completus, 

^^^ 1      series  Graica,  162  vols.,  Paris.  18.57-(U5 

i  J.  P.  Migne,  Patrologict  cursiM  covnj>lttitin. 
)      series  lAxtina,  221  vols.,  Paris.  1844-04 
..Manuscript,  Manuscripts 
Mxuutori,    Scrip-  J  L.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum  Italicarum  scrip- 
tores  »      tores,  28  vols..  1723-61 

iNeues  Ardiiv  der  OeseUschaft  fUr  6liere 

NA <     deutsche      Geschiddskunde,      Hanover. 

(      1876  sqq. 

Nah Nahum 

n.d no  date  of  publication 

turn  Church. . .  |      -^^^^^  Boston,  1872-81 

Neh Nehemiah 

M««>Aron      If  iL  i  ^-   P-   Niceron,   Mimoires  pour  senrir  d. 

J^iS    •  \     Vhistoire  des  hommes  iUuJtns  ....  43 

'^'^ j      vols.,  Paris,  1729-45 

tjv^  S  Neue  kirchliche  Zeitschrift,  Leipeic.    1890 

}      sqq. 

Nowack,    ArdiA-^W.    Nowack,    Lehrbudi    der    habraisdien 

ologie (     Archdologie,  2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1894 

n.p no  place  of  publication       ' 


LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


xui 


NPSF.. 


J  The  Nicena  and  Poet-Nioene  Father9.  Ist 
•eriM.  14  vols..  New  York.  1887-92;  2d 
aeries.  14  vols..  New  York.  1890-1000 
„  »  (New    Testament.    Novum    Tetlamentum, 

"•  * )      Nouveau    Tealameni,   NntM   Teatameni 

Nam Nombers 

Ob Olmdiah 

nan  i  Ordo    mneti    Benaiidti,    **  Order    of    St. 

"•■•*• 1     Benedict" 

O.T Old  Testament 

OTJC See  Smith 

P Priestly  document 

( L.  PMtor,  Ths  Hiatory  at  As  Popes  from 
Pastor.  Pspsa.  .A     As  CIoss  of  As  MvidU  Aqm,  8  vols.. 

(     London.  1801-1906 
p»  J  J  Paina  sodssia  Anglieanmt  ed.  J.  A.  Giles. 

^^^ 1     34  vols..  London.  183a-46 

PEF Palestine  Exploration  Fund 

I  Pet First  Emstle  of  Peter 

II  Pet Second  Epistle  of  Pcter 

PUny.  HiaL  nol... Pliny,  Htsfona  nalunilts 


Pbtthast,     Wag-} 


PlCT. .. 
P* 

FSB  A. 


Pottbast.  BMudhaca  hialoriea  madii 
avi.  Wagvotiatr  diireh  dia  OaachidUa- 
warka,  Berlin,  1890 


.Psalms 

SProeaadinoa    cf    As    Soeiaty    of   Biblioal 
I     iiroUolocy.  London.  1880  sqq. 
q.T..  qQ.T ^^^  (qu»)  vide,  **  wnich  see '"^ 

RDM Aenie  daa  daux  mondaa,  Paris,  1831  aqq. 

RE See  Hauek-Hersos 

Bcieb.  Dook-         I E.  Reich.  SaUdDoeumania  IttuatrcHng  Ma- 

mania I  diaval  and  Modem  Hiatory,  London,  1906 

REJ Raaua  daa  Hudaa  Jvivaa,  Paria,  1880  sqq. 

p^K..  rn       ^F.W.RBtthmrs,Kw^anoaaehiehtaDeutad»r- 
BetttMii.  KD. . .  ^      1^^^  2  vols..  QAttingen,  1840-48 

Est Book  of  Revelation 

itssus  da    Vhiatoira  daa  raWona,   Pttfia, 

1880  aqq. 
A.  L.  Biefater.  L^Hnuh  daa  kaffioUaehan 
und    avanoMadiien    iJCtreftenrscUs,    8th 
ed.  by  W.  Kahl.  Ldpsic,  1886 
E.     Robinaon,     Biblical    Raaaarehaa    in 
PoissMns,    Boston.     1841.    and    Latar 
Bihlieal  Raaaarehaa  in  Paiaatina,  3d  ed. 
of  the  whole,  3  vols..  1867 
J.  H.   Robinson,  Raadinffa  in  Btaropaan 


RBB 

Riditer.  iCirdkm- 


Rnbin«B,     Ra- 


Latar      Ra- 


Hiatory,  2  vols..  Boston.  1904-06 

and  I  J.  H.  Robinson  and  C.  A.  Beard,  Davdop- 


Bobinsoa,  Eva\ 

paanBialonf- 
Robinson     an  _ ^ 

Beard,  Modem '      mant  ^  Modem  Evropa^  2  vols.,  Boston, 

Bwopa i      1907 

Rom Epistle  to  the  Romans 

jRavua  daa  adaneaa  aceUaiaaHqma,  Airas, 
'  1      1860-74,  Amiens.  1876  sqq. 
Pfp  \  Rente    da    fhSologia    at    da    vhUoaophie^ 

^^^ 1     Lausanne,  1873 

R.T Revised  Version  (of  the  Endiah  Bible) 

sor soruiMm,  "  oentury  " 

I  Sam I  Samuel 

II  8am IlSamuel 

SitaunqtheridUe  der  BerUner    Akadetme, 

1     Berhn,  1882  sqq. 
F.  Max  Mailer  and  others.  The  Saerad 
Booka  at  As  Boat,  Oxford,  1879  sqq., 
VOL  xlviiL,  1904 
Socrsi  BooJbs  of  As  Old  rsstomsn<  r  Rain- 

SBOT *      bow   Bible'*).    Leipsc,    London,    and 

Baltimore,  1804  sqq. 
fco^jT   CkriHianS^'  ^'^^^^^  Hiatory  of  As  ChriaHan  Chunk, 


RSB.. 


8BA 


SBE. 


Ckmtk. 


Scbafl.  Crssds. 


COT..^ 


Sdtfadar.  JC^r. 
Sdndtf.  KB. . . 

SchOw, 
GaatkukM 


ti^ 

BcriTener. 
latodutHiam. 

Stat 

&J. 

SK 

8MA 


8ittth,jrMdU]».. 


vols.  i.-iv..  vi.,  vii..  New  YorlLl882-92, 

vol.  v.,  part  1.  by  D.  S.  Schaff.  1907 
P.   Sdiair.    The  Craada  of  Chriatendom, 

3  vols.  New  York,  1877-84 
E.  Sehrader,  Cuneiform  Inacriptiona  and 

As  Old   Taaiameni,   2  vols.,   London, 

1885-88 
E.  Sehrader,  Die  KaiUnetkHften  und  daa 

AUa  Taatament,  2  vols..  BerUn,  1902-03 
E.  Sehrader.  KailinaehrifaidkeSibUothak, 

6  vols..  Berlin.  1889-1901 
E.    Sohflrar.    OaaehidUa     daa    jUdiaehen 

Volkea  im  Zaiialter  Jaau  Chrietl,  4th  ed.. 

8  vols..  Leipsio.  1902 sqq.;  Eng.  transL,  6 

vols..  New  York,  1891 
.  .5eris«ores.  "  writers  " 
( F.  H.  A.  Scrivener.  IntrodueHum  to  New  Taa- 
t     tamani  Critidam^  4th  ed.,  London.  1894 
..SenienUai,  "  Sentences  " 
.  .5ocis«as  Jsstt,  "  Society  of  Jesua  " 
Theoloffiaehe  Siudien  und  KriUken,  Ham- 
burs.  1826  sqq. 
SUaungabariihta     der    MUnehener     Aka- 

dsmis.  Munich,  1860  aqq. 
W.  R.  Smith,  Kinahip  and  Marriaoa  in 

Sarly  Arabia,  London,  1908 


Smith,  OTJC. . . 

Smith.  PropheU.. 

Smith,     ReL     of 

Sam 


S.  P.  C.  K. 
S.  P.  G. . . . 


Ki^^q. 

airom. . . 


S.V 

Swete.  Inbrodue-  S 
Uon } 

8; 


tSs! 


Thatcher  and 
McNeAl,iSouro0- 
Book 

I  Theas 

II  These 

ThT 


Tillemont, 
motrss.. 

I  Tim 

II  Tim. . . . 


Af*.; 


TJB. 


TLB... 

TLZ... 
Tob.... 
TQ.... 

T8 

T8BA. 

TSK... 


TV. 


TZT 

Ugolini,  TheaaU' 

rua 

V.  T 


W.  R.  Smith.  The  Old  Taatament  in  the 

Jewiah  Chwrdi,  London.  1892 
W.  R.  Smith.  Prophata  of  laraal  .  .  .  to 

tha  Eighth  Century,  London,  1895 
W.    R.   Smith.   Rdigion  of  tha  Samitaa, 

London,  1894 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian 

Knowledge 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

in  Forei^  Parts 
and  following 
Stromata,  **  Miacellanies  " 
sub  voce,  or  sub  verbo 
H.  B.  Swete.  IntrodtuHon  fo  As  Old  Tss- 

tament  in  Oraak,  London,  1900 
.Syriac 

Trinitarian  Bible  Society 
O.  J.  Thatcher  and  £.   H.  McNeal,   A 

Source    Book    for   Madiaval    Hiatory, 

New  York,  1905 
First  Emstle  to  the  Thessaloniana 
Second  £pi8tle  to  the  Theasaloniana 
Thaologiaehe  Tijdathrift,  Amsterdam  and 

Leyden,  1867  aqq. 
L.  S.  le  Nain  de  Tillemont,  MSmoiraa 

.  .  .  accUaiaatiquea    daa    aix   jpramiera 

aiMea,  16  vols..  Paris.  1693-1712 
First  EpiBtie  to  Timothy 
Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 
Theologiacher  JahraaberidU,  Ldpsic.  1882- 

1887.  Freiburg.  1888.  Brunswick.  188»- 

1897.  BerUn.  1898  sqq. 
Theologiadiea  lAtieraharilaU,  Bonn,   1866 

ThaMogiaiha     LitteraturBaOung,     Leipsio, 

1876  sqq. 
Tobit 
Thaologiaehe     Quarlalaehritt,     Tubingen, 

1819  sqq. 
J.  _A.     Robinaon.     Taxta    and    Skadiaa, 


Wattenbach, 
DGQ 

Wellhausen, 
Haidentum. . . 

Wellhausen, 
Prolfl^OMSfui. . 


ZA 

Zahn,  Einlei- 
tung 


Zahn,  Kanon.,.. 

ZATW 

ZDAL 


ZDMO. 

ZDP.... 
ZDPV., 


Zech.. 
Zeph. 


Cambridge,  1891  sqq. 
TranaacHona   of   tha   Soeialy  of  Bihlioal 

Archaology,  London.  1872  sqq. 
Theologiadte  Studien  und  KriUken,  Ham- 

buig.  1826  sqq. 
Taxte  und  Unierau^ungan  aur  (hadtidUa 

der  altduiatlidien  Litterahir,  ed.  O.  von 

Gebhaidt   and   A.    Hamack,    Leipsio. 

1882  sqq. 
TUbinger   ZaitachHft  far  Theologia,    TO- 

binsen.  183&-40 
B.     tJgolinuB,     7%ssaurus     antiquitatum 

aaerarum,  34  vols.,  Venice,  1744-69 
Vatua  Teatamenium,  Vieux  Taalament,  "Old 

Testament " 
W.  Wattenbach,  Z>stilsoUands  OaaehidUa- 

qudlen,  5th  ed.,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1885; 

6th  ed.,  1893-94 
J.  Wellhausen,  Reata  arabiaehen  Heidet^ 

tuma.  Berlin,  1887 
J.  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  eur  Qaadiichte 

laraeU,    6th   ed..    BerUn,     1905.    Eug. 

tranal.,  Edinburgh,  1885 
Zaitachrift     Hkr     Aaayriologie,     Leipsio, 

1886-88.  BerUn,  1880  aqq. 
T.  Zahn,  Binlaitung  in  daa  Naue  Taata- 

meni.  3d  ed..  Leipaie,  1007 
T.    Zahn.    Oaadiichta   daa    neuiaalament- 

Uehen  Kanona.  2  vols..  Leipsio.  1888-02 
ZaitachHft  fUr  die  altteatamentUthe  Wia- 

aenaehaft  Gicssen,  1881  sqq. 
Zsitecftri/t  for  dsulscAss  illfsrAum  und  dsitf- 

aeheLUaratw.  BerUn.  1876  soq. 
Zaitachrift  der  deutaehan  morganUtndiachen 

OeadlMdudt,  Leipsio,  1847  sqq. 
Zaitarhrift  fOr  deutache  PhilUogia,  Halle, 


dss   deutaehan   PalOatina-Var- 


ZHT. 


ZKO  ... 
ZKR... 
ZKT.... 
ZKW. . . 
ZNTW. 
ZPK.,.. 

ZWT.,,. 


1860  sqq. 

Zaitaehr^   € 
aina,  Leipsio,  1878  sqq. 

Zeehariah 

Zephaniah 

Zntadtr^t  Htr  dia  hiatoriaehe  Theolcgia, 
pubUflhea  successively  at  Leipsio, 
Hambuig.  and  Gotha,  1832-75 

Zaitachrift  fUr  Kirchengaachichta,  Gotha, 
1876  sqq. 

ZaitachHft  Jfir  Kirehenratht,  BerUn,  Tu- 
bingen, Freibuig,  1861  sqq. 

Zaila^rift  fUr  koAoliedte  Theolegia,  Inna- 
bruck,  1877  sqq. 

Zaitachrift  fikr  ktrdiKdie  Wiaaanadudt  und 
kirchlichaa  Laban,  Leipsio.  1880-80 

Zeitachrift  fUr  die  neuteatamentUehe  Wia- 
aenadiaft.  Giessen.  1000  sqq. 

ZaUaehHft  tOrProtaatantiamuaundKirche, 


Erlangen.  1838-76 
Zeitachr^  fiir  vriaaanethaftliche  Theologie, 
Jena.  1868-60,  HaUa,  1861-07,  Leipsio. 
1868  sqq. 


SYSTEM  OF  TRANSLITERATION 


The  following  system  of  transliteration  has  been  used  for  Hebrew : 

K  =  '  or  omitted  at  the 

beginning  of  a  word. 

a  =  b 


3  =  bh  or  b 

l  =  g 

j  =  gh  or  g 
^  =  d 

1  =  dh  or  d 
n  =  h 
1  =  w 


r  =  z 

3  =  k 

3  =  kh  or  k 

D  =  m 
3  =  n 

D  =  s 


B  =  p 

B  =  ph  or  p 

P  =  k 
n  =  r 

B^=:sh 

r»  =  t 

n  =  th  or  t 


The  vowels  are  transcribed  by  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  without  attempt  to  indicate  qnantlty  or  quality.  Arabic 
and  other  Semitic  languages  are  transliterated  according  to  the  same  system  as  Hebrew.  Greek  is 
written  with  Roman  characters,  the  common  equivalents  being  used. 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


When  the  pronunciation  is  self-evident  the  titles  are  not  respelled ;  when  by  mere  division  and  accen- 
tuation it  can  be  shown  sufficiently  clearly  the  titles  have  been  divided  faito  syllables,  and  the  accented 
syllables  indicated. 


a  as  in  sofa 

a  "  "  arm 

a  "  "  at 

ft  "  "  fore 

e  "  "  pen' 

«  "  "  fate 

i  «  •'  tin 

t  ''  "  machine 

o  "  "  obey 

6  «'  '•  no 


e  as  in  not 

e  "  "  nor 

u  "  «  ftill* 

0  "  •*  rule 

u  *  "  but 

0  "  "  bum 

01  «  M  pine 
au  "  "  out 
ei  "  "  Oil 
iQ  *'  ••  few 


iu        as  in  diiration 

c  =  k    "    "    eat 

ch        "   "   church 

ow  =s  qu  as  in  ^ueen 

dh  (fh)    "  "  the 

i  '*  "  /anqr 

g(hanl)"  "firo 

H  "  "  lock  (Scotch) 

hw  (ti*)  "  •*  ti*y 

j  "  "  ;aw 


>  In  aooented  syllablei  only ;  In  ima4»6nt6d  syllables  it  apjiroziiiaites  the  amind  of  e  bi  OTsr.    The  letter  n,  with  a  dot 
beneath  it.  Indicates  the  sound  of  n  as  In  ink.    BUent  n  (as  in  French  words)  is  rendered  n. 
•  In  Qennan  and  Franoh  namea  a  aiiproxlmates  the  sound  of  u  in  dtAne. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 


CHAUBR,  flha^'myd',  DANIEL:  French  preacher 
(Kefonned);  b.  at  the  castle  of  Le  Mont,  near  Mocas 
(in  the  district  of  Saint-Maroellin,  23  m.  w.  of  Gre- 
noble), 1565;  killed  at  Montauban  Oct.  17,  1621. 
He  belonged  to  an  old  Roman  Catholic  family 
of  Avignon,  but  his  father  had  embraced  the 
Protestant  faith  and  gained  many  converts  in  the 
south  of  France,  especially  at  Mont^limar,  where 
he  became  pastor.  Daniel  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Orange  and  at  Geneva  under  Beza  and  De  la 
Faje  (1583-^).  He  was  ordained  minister  at 
Montpellier,  and  about  1595  succeeded  his  father 
at  Mont^limar.  His  intelligence  and  the  firmness 
of  his  character  led  the  provincial  synod  to  appoint 
him  deputy  to  the  national  synod  at  Saumur  and 
the  political  gathering  at  Loudun  in  1596,  and 
thenceforth  he  was  a  frequent  delegate  to  such 
assemblies.  He  succeeded  in  preventing  the  ad- 
dition of  certain  limitations  to  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
and  brought  the  Edict  to  the  Synod  of  Montpellier 
in  159&  In  1601  and  1602  he  took  part  in  two 
celebrated  discussions  at  Montpellier  with  the 
Jemits  Cotton  and  Gaultier.  In  1603  he  presided 
over  the  National  Synod  at  Gap,  when  an  article 
was  added  to  the  Reformed  confession  of  faith 
declaring  the  pope  to  be  the  Antichrist  foretold 
in  the  Scriptures.  In  1607  Henry  IV.  granted  him 
permission  as  representative  of  the  Church  of 
Dauphin^  to  establish  an  academy  at  Montpellier, 
and  he  became  professor,  returning,  however,  after 
a  short  time  to  Mont^limar.  In  1612  he  became 
pastor  and  professor  at  Montauban.  When  Louis 
XIII.  besieged  the  city  in  1621  Chamier  sent  his 
Ftudents  to  the  walls,  shared  himself  in  all  the 
dangers  and  misfortunes  of  the  citizens,  and  was 
mortally  wounded  during  the  defense.  In  theology 
he  held  fast  to  Calvin's  dogma  of  predestination, 
even  to  supralapsarianism;  in  some  other  respects 
he  differed  from  Calvin,  e.g.,  concerning  Christ's 
descent  into  hell  and  the  doctrine  of  angels.  His 
woiks  were:  Ditpuie  de  la  vocation  des  ministres 
de  Vigliee  rifonrUe  (La  Rochelle,  1589);  Epiatolce 
iexuiiiea  (Geneva,  1599);  La  Confusion  dee  diepuiee 
papieiee  (1600);  DieptUatio  echolaetico-theoloffica  de 
(Fcumenico  pontifice  (1601);     Im  Honte  de  Babylone 

Stian,  1612);  La  JieuUomanie  (Montauban,  1618); 
Journal  du  voyage  de  M.  D,  Chamier  d  Paris  el  d  la 
cour  de  HenH  IV.  en  1607  (ed.  C.  Read,  Paris,  1858). 

G.  Bonet-Maury. 

BrBU0GB4i«T:  J.    Quick,    Memoir   of   D.    Chamier,    wUh 
SoHeea  of  his  DeacendanU,  London,  1862.  also  ia  Bead's 
•ditioD  df  the  Journal,  ils. 
III.— 1 


CHANCEL:  In  the  narrowest  sense  the  sanc- 
tuary of  a  church,  i.e.,  an  enclosure  beyond  or 
within  the  choir  containing  the  altar.  As  the  dis- 
tinction between  clergy  and  laity  developed,  it 
became  customary  to  reserve  an  ever  larger  space 
for  the  former,  and  separate  it  from  the  body  of 
the  chiu>ch,  as  by  a  screen.  Their  space  then  came 
to  be  designated  as  the  chancel,  and  the  word  is 
often  employed  in  modem  usage  for  all  beyond  the 
nave  and  transepts.    See  Altar. 

CHANCERY,  APOSTOLIC  (Cancellaria  Apoe- 
tolica).    See  Curia,  §  3. 

CHANDIEU,  shan"dyt>',  ANTOINE  DE  LA 
ROCHE:  French  Reformed  theologian;  b.  at  the 
castle  of  Chabot  (near  Macon)  1534;  d.  at  Geneva 
Feb.  23,  1591.  His  trend  toward  the  Reformed 
was  strengthened  during  his  study  of  law  at  Tou- 
louse, and  after  a  theological  course  at  Geneva  he 
became  the  pastor  of  the  Reformed  congregation 
of  Paris,  155&-62.  When  in  the  night  of  Sept.  4, 
1557,  a  Protestant  meeting  was  attacked  and  140 
persons  were  imprisoned,  Chandieu  published  his 
Remonstrance  au  Rot  and  his  Apologie  des  bons 
Chretiens  contre  les  ennemis  de  lUglise  catholique. 
In  consequence,  he  was  arrested,  but  was  soon 
released  at  the  intervention  of  Anthony  of  Navarre. 
In  1558  he  went  to  Orleans,  but  soon  returned  to 
Paris.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  first  national  synod  of  the  Reformed  Church 
in  France  which  was  held  at  Paris  May  26-28, 
1559,  and  assisted  in  preparing  a  confession  of 
faith.  He  presided  at  the  third  national  synod  at 
Orleans,  Apr.  25,  1562,  where  Morelli's  doctrine 
regarding  the  general  right  of  voting  at  ecclesiastical 
elections  was  condemned.  The  controversy  never- 
theless continued,  and  Chandieu  wrote  a  rejoinder. 
La  confirmation  de  la  discipline  eccUsiastique  obser- 
v4e  en  iglises  rfformies  de  France  (Geneva,  1566). 
At  the  eighth  national  synod,  held  at  Nimes,  May 
6,  1572,  the  matter  of  Morelli,  who  was  seconded 
by  Pierre  Ramus,  De  Rosier,  Bergeron,  and  others, 
was  again  taken  up  and  again  condemned.  After 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  (1572),  Chandieu 
fled  to  Switzerland,  and  lived  first  at  Geneva  and 
afterward  at  Lausanne  and  Aubonne,  everywhere 
advocating  and  defending  the  cause  of  his  country- 
men, many  of  whom  lived  in  Switzerland.  In  the 
religious  war  of  1585  he  was  field-chaplain  to  Henry 
of  Navarre;  but  in  May,  1588,  he  returned  to  his 
family  at  Geneva,  where  he  died  three  years  later, 
lamented  by  the  Protestants  of  Geneva  and  France 


OhAndler 
Ohannlni 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


and  by  Bezs.  Chandieu  was  a  prolific  author, 
writing  under  the  pseudonyms  of  Zamariel,  Theo- 
psaltes,  La  Croix,  and,  after  1577,  of  Sadeel. 
Among  his  works  special  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  following:  MediUUiones  in  Paalmum  xxxii. 
(Geneva,  1578;  Eng.  transl.  by  W.  Watkinson, 
London,  1579);  De  verba  Dei  acripto  (1580);  De 
vera  peccatorum  remiasione  (1580);  Deunico  Ckristi 
aacerdotio  (Cieneva,  1581);  De  veritate  naturce  hur- 
mancB  Ckriati  (1585);  De  apirituali  manducaHone 
corporia  Ckriati  (1589;  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1859); 
and  De  aacramentali  manducaHone  corporia  Ckriati 
(Geneva,  1589).  A  collected  edition  appeared  at 
Geneva  in  1592  under  the  title  Antonii  Sadadia 
viri  nobUiaaimi  opera  theohgica.  Of  great  impor- 
tance was  his  Hiatoire  dea  pera^ctUiona  et  mariyra 
de  Vigliae  de  Paria  depuia  Van  1667  juaqu*au  tempa 
de  Charlea  IX,  (Lyons,  1563),  in  which  he  de- 
scribed his  residence  at  Paris  (1557-60).  He  also 
distinguished  himself  as  a  poet,  and  in  1563  defended 
his  Church  in  verse  against  the  attacks  of  the  poet 
Pierre  de  Ronsard.  (Theodor  ScHont.) 

Biblxoobaprt:  A.  Bemus,  Le  Miniatn  A.  de  Chandieu.  in 
Bulletin  tU  la  eocifU  de  Vhietoire  du  proteatantUme  fran^ie, 
xxxvu  (1888).  2  sqq.;  J.  Senebier.  Hietoire  liUhvire  de 
Oenhm,  i.  322  sqq.,  Geneva.  1786;  E.  and  E.  Haa«.  La 
France  proteetante,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier,  iii.  1049  sqq.,  PariB. 
1862;  lichtonbeiver,  E3R,  iii.  33-41,  PariB,  1878. 

CHAIIDLER,  EDWARD:  Church  of  England 
bishop;  b.  in  Dublin  about  1670;  d.  in  London 
July  20,  1750.  He  studied  at  Emmanuel  Ck)llege, 
Cambridge  (M.A.,  1693;  D.D.,  1701);  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Lichfield  1717,  and  in  1730  was 
translated  to  Durham.  He  gained  his  reputation 
by  his  Defence  of  Chriatianity  from  the  Propheciea 
of  the  Old  Testament  (London,  1725),  a  reply  to 
A  Diacourae  on  the  Grounda^  and  Reaaona  of  the 
Chriatian  Religion  (1724)  by  Anthony  Collins  (q.v.). 
Collins  replied  with  The  Scheme  of  Literal  Prophecy 
Considered  (1726),  and  Chandler  then  published 
A  Vindication  of  the  Defence  of  Chriatianity  from 
the  Propheciea  of  the  Old  Testament  (2  vols.,  1728). 
The  chief  point  of  their  debate  was  whether  or  not 
there  was  general  expectation  of  the  coming  of  a 
messiah  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Jesus,  Collins 
denying  this  and  Chandler  affirming  it.  (Chandler 
has  been  charged  with  having  bought  his  see,  and 
with  dying  "  shamefully  rich." 

CHAITDLER,  SAMUEL:  English  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Himgerford  (26  m.  w.s.w.  of  Reading),  Berk- 
shire, 1693;  d.  in  London  May  8,  1766.  He  was 
educated  at  Bridgewater  and  at  Gloucester,  where 
he  formed  lifelong  friendships  with  Bishop  Butler 
and  Archbishop  Seeker.  He  finished  his  studies  at 
Leyden;  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
at  Peckham,  Surrey  (a  suburb  of  London),  1716; 
assistant  at  the  Old  Jewry,  London,  1726,  and  in 
1728  pastor.  He  was  a  learned  and  talented  man, 
and  is  said  to  have  refused  offers  of  preferment  in 
the  Established  Church.  In  1760  he  preached  a 
sermon  on  the  death  of  George  II.,  in  which  he 
compared  the  deceased  king  to  David.  This  called 
forth  an  anonymous  pamphlet  in  which  David 
was  described  as  a  bad  man,  and  the  comparison 
objected  to  as  an  insult  to  the  late  king.  Chandler 
made  a   brief   reply  in  1762,  and  then  prepared 


A  Critical  History  of  the  Life  of  David  (2  vols.. 
London,  1766),  which  is  his  best  known  and  most 
valuable  work.  His  other  publications  were  nu- 
merous, and  are  for  the  most  part  controversial, 
directed  against  the  Deists  or  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics. Four  volumes  of  sermons  were  published 
posthumously  (1768).  In  theology  he  was  a  semi- 
Arian,  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  "  a  moderate  Cal- 
vinist." 

CHANGE  OF  CONFESSION:  The  change  from 
one  Christian  Church  to  another.  The  expression 
is  not  equivalent  to  change  of  religion,  and  the 
subject  has  practical  interest  mainly  as  concerns 
conversions  from  Roman  Catholicism  to  Protestant- 
ism and  vice  versa  in  certain  European  ooimtries 
where  legal  complications  are  involved. 

Where  only  one  confession  is  recognized  by  law, 
there  can  be  no  change  of  confession.  Thus  there 
was  none  before  the  time  of  the  Reformation;  not 
only  was  it  true  that  every  secession  from  the 
Church  was  considered  an  offense,  but  no  such 
thing  was  recognized  either  by  ecclesiastical  or 
secular  law.  In  Germany  rules  of  procedure  in 
cases  of  confessional  change  first  began  to  be  for- 
mulated after  the  Evangelical  princes  and  the 
German  Empire  ceased  to  acknowledge  the  law 
against  heretics  by  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg 
in  1555,  and  after  the  Empire  decreed  at  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia  in  1648  that  under  certain  conditions 
Protestants  in  Roman  Catholic  territories  and 
Roman  Catholics  in  Protestant  territories  might  be 
tolerated  and  possess  civil  rights.  These  rules 
were  further  developed  imder  the  modem  principle 
of  toleration,  according  to  which  the  State  recog- 
nizes in  the  Churches  only  more  or  less  favor^ 
associations,  and  treats  them  accordingly  from  the 
legal  point  of  view. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  however,  still  clings 
to  the  state  of  affairs  before  the  Reformation,  and 
still  considers  itself  the  only  existing  Church. 
According  to  the  Roman  view,  every  one  who 
goes  over  to  Protestantism  is  a  heretic,  and  every 
one  who  changes  from  Protestantism  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  returns  from  an  error  of  faith  to 
the  knowledge  of  truth  or  rather  to  the  churchly 
authority  which  possesses  this  truth.  The  ban  is  im- 
posed upon  every  one  who  leaves  the  Church;  even 
every  bom  Protestant  is  under  the  ban;  and  every 
one  who  goes  over  to  Catholicism  is  required  not 
only  to  make  the  Catholic  confession  of  faith,  but 
also  to  confess  that  as  Protestant  he  was  a  heretic, 
and  to  renoimce  his  heresy  and  ask  for  absolution. 

The  Protestant  Churches  admit  the  right  of 
change,  although  a  person  who  makes  use  of  this 
right  is  regarded  as  imfaithful.  The  declaration 
of  an  intention  to  make  a  change,  regular  attend- 
ance at  the  services  of  another  church,  or  at  its 
communion  table,  are  considered  sufficient  to  sever 
old  connections.  Whoever  comes  over  from  an- 
other Church  is  not  required  to  abjure  his  former 
faith,  but  simply  to  make  a  confession  according 
to  the  new  doctrine,  whereupon  he  is  admitted  to 
the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  signum  communionis. 

It  is  the  task  of  the  State  to  regulate  the  exist- 
ence of  different  confessions  side  by  side,  as  well 
as  to  protect  the  liberty  of  conscience  of  the  in- 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohandler 


dividual.  Accordingly  the  legal  ordinances  con- 
cerning change  of  confession  proceed  from  the 
State.  The  law  of  Prussia  forbids  the  making  of 
proselytes,  but  this  is  interpreted  to  mean  that  no 
religious  party  has  the  right  "  to  seduce  members 
of  another  confession  by  force  or  cimning  to  join 
its  own  Church/'  and  that  ''nobody  is  allowed 
to  disturb  the  peace  of  a  family  or  impair  its  rights 
under  the  pretense  of  religious  zeal."  In  Austria 
Protestants  were,  until  1868,  forbidden  to  con- 
veri  Roman  Catholics.  The  modem  State  has 
generally  fixed  a  certain  age  before  which  con- 
version can  not  take  place,  in  order  to  exclude  dis- 
putes as  to  the  capacity  of  judgment  of  the  con- 
vert. The  State  leaves  the  conditions  of  admission 
to  the  church  organizations,  but  sometimes  regu- 
lates the  form  of  withdrawal  for  the  sake  of  keeping 
accurate  ecclesiastical  statistics.  The  person  who 
leaves  has  sometimes  been  leqiured  to  announce 
his  withdrawal  to  the  pastor,  and  sometimes  a  cer- 
tificate of  dismissal  is  required.  The  Austrian 
interconfessional  law  of  May  25,  1868,  and  the 
Prussian  law  of  May  14,  1873,  require  only  a  dec- 
laration before  the  proper  state  official,  who  notifies 
the  Church.  (A.  Hauck.) 

CHANNnrG,  WILLIAM  ELLERY. 

Life  (I  1). 

His  Views  aa  Stated  by  Himaelf  (|  2). 

His  DoctriDes,  Influence,  and  Character  (|  3). 

Works  (I  4). 

William  EUery  Channing,  the  most  celebrated  and 
influential  Unitarian  theologian  America  has  pro- 
duced, was  bom  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Apr.  7, 
1780;  d.  at  Bennington,  Vt.,  Oct.  2,  1842. 
HiB  father  was  an  honored  judge  and  a  moder- 
ate Calvinist;  his  mother,  a  refined  and 
pious  woman.  Under  such  influences  he  early 
manifested  a  deeply  religious  nature,  and  chose 
the  clerical  profession.  He  traced  his  conversion 
to  the  influence  of  the  funeral  of  his  father,  and 
a  religious  revival  which  then  swept  over  New 
England.  After  his  father's  death  he  passed  under 
the  tuition  of  his  uncle  at  New  London,  the  Rev. 
Henry  Channing,  and  then  went  to  Harvard  Col- 
lege,  being  graduated  in   1798.     For 

I.  Life,  two  years  he  acted  as  private  tutor 
in  Richmond,  Va.,  and  while  there 
bad  such  mental  agony  from  religious  doubts  that 
be  was  physically  enfeebled,  and  returned  to  New- 
port in  1800  "  thin  and  pallid,"  with  a  constitution 
permanently  impaired.  At  home  he  associated 
much  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Hopkins — the 
fanx>tis  Calvinist,  and  pupil  of  Jonathan  Eklwards — 
for  whose  character  he  felt  the  deepest  reverence. 
In  1802  he  resumed  to  Harvard,  where  he  had 
been  elected  regent.  The  same  year  he  was  licensed 
to  preach,  and  at  once  distinguished  himself  by 
Ills  fire,  his  unction,  and  his  elegant  style.  On 
June  1,  1803,  he  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Federal  Street, 
Boffton,  his  only  pastoral  settlement.  Here  he 
introduced  a  new  era  in  preaching,  and  enlivenetl 
the  pulpit  by  themes  of  Christian  philanthropy 
^d  social  reform.  A  new  edifice  was  erected  in 
1809  to  aoconmiodate  the  increased  congregations. 
At  the  dose  of  his  sermons  Channing  was  often 


physically  exhausted.  In  the  earlier  period  of 
his  ministry  he  was  as  indefatigable  in  pastoral 
visitation  as  in  his  pulpit. 

Not  long  after  this  time,  it  became  apparent  that 
many  of  the  Congregational  churches  of  New 
England,  especially  in  Boston  and  its  neighborhood, 
had,  through  various  influences,  become  Anti- 
trinitarian  and  Anti-Calvinistic  (see  Conoreoa- 
TioNALisTS,  I.,  4,  {  8  ;  UNirARiANs).  In  the  separa- 
tion which  followed,  Channing  allied  himself  with 
the  so-called  "  Liberal  "  party,  and  became  its  ac- 
knowledged head.  In  a  famous  sermon  at  the 
installation  of  Rev.  Jared  Sparks  as  pastor  of  the 
Unitarian  Society  in  Baltimore  in  1810  he  gave  a 
clear  statement  of  the  points  wherein  he  diverged 
from  the  orthodox  churehes  of  the  time.  He  is 
commonly  called  a  Unitarian;  but,  in  his  own  lan- 
guage, he  wished  to  regard  himself  as  "  belonging 
not  to  a  sect,  but  to  the  conununity  of  free  minds, 
of  lovers  of  truth,  and  followers  of  Christ,  both  on 
earth  and  in  heaven.  I  desire  to  escape  the  narrow 
walls  of  a  particular  chureh  "  (Sermon  at  the  instal- 
lation of  Rev.  M.  J.  Motte,  1828).  This  catho- 
licity of  spirit  secured  him  the  esteem  of  men  of  all 
schools  and  parties.  In  a  letter  of  May  8,  1841, 
he  declared:  "  I  have  little  or  no  interest  in  Uni- 
tarianism  as  a  sect.  I  can  endure  no  sectarian 
bonds.  With  Dr.  Priestley,  a  good  and  great  man 
who  had  much  to  do  in  producing  the  late  Unitarian 
movement,  I  have  less  sympathy  than  with  many 
of  the  'Orthodox'"  (Memoir,  ii.  105).  In  a 
letter  of  Aug.  29, 1841,  addressed  to  an  l<^ngli«hipan, 
he  expressed  the  noble  sentiment: 
2.  His  Views  "  As  I  grow  older  ...  I  distrust  see- 
as  Stated  by  tarian  influence  more  and  more.     I 

Himself,  am  more  detached  from  a  denomina- 
tion, and  strive  to  feel  more  my  con- 
nection with  the  Universal  Church,  with  all  good 
and  holy  men.  I  am  little  of  a  Unitarian,  have 
little  ssrmpathy  with  the  system  of  Priestley  and 
Belsham,  and  stand  aloof  from  all  but  those  who 
strive  and  pray  for  clearer  light,  and  look  for  a 
purer  and  more  effectual  manifestation  of  Christian 
truth "  {Memoir,  ii.  106).  From  this  confession 
some  have  inferred  that  toward  the  dose  of  his 
life  he  leaned  more  to  orthodoxy;  but  this  is  em- 
phatically denied  by  his  nephew  and  biographer, 
and  by  E.  S.  Gannett,  his  colleague  and  successor. 
In  another  letter  written  three  months  later  (Nov., 
1841),  he  says:  "  I  value  Unltarianism,  not  because 
I  regard  it  as  in  itself  a  perfect  system,  but  as 
freed  from  many  great  and  pernicious  errors  of  the 
older  sjrstems,  as  encouraging  freedom  of  thought, 
as  raising  us  above  the  despotism  of  the  Church, 
and  as  breathing  a  mild  and  tolerant  spirit  into  all 
the  members  of  the  Christian  body"  (Memmr, 
ii.  121). 

Channing  opposed,  on  the  one  hand,  the  stiff, 
cold,  Puritan  orthodoxy  of  his  day,  and  combated 
vigorously  the  traditional  views  on  the  Trinity,  the 
atonement,  and  total  depravity;  on  the  other  hand, 
he  opposed  equally  the  rationalistic  and  radical 
Unitarianism,  and  sought  a  middle  way.  He  was 
averse  to  creeds  and  precise  doctrinal  statements, 
and  laid  stress  on  freedom  and  individuality  in 
belief  and  religious  experience.    He  insisted  upon 


Chaplain 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


the  expression  of  ChriBtian  belief  in  virtuous  action 
and  humanitarian  sympathies.  He  dwelt  much 
upon  love  as  expressing  God's  purpose  in  the  mis- 
sion of  Christ  and  as  the  supreme  manifestation  of 
Christian  character.  He  emphasized  the  human 
element  in  Christ  and  Christianity,  which  was  too 
much  overlooked  by  Calvinism,  and  paid  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  eloquent  tributes 
3.  His  Doc-  to  the  perfection  of  the  moral  character 
trineSy  In-  of  Christ.  He  held  up  his  example  as 
fluence,and  the  great  ideal  to  be  followed.  He 
Character,  found  in  Christ  a  perfect  manifestation 
of  God  to  men,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  ideal  of  humanity,  who  spoke  with  divine 
authority.  He  firmly  believed  in  his  sinlessness, 
miracles,  and  resurrection.  He  was  *'  always  in- 
clined," he  wrote  as  late  as  Mar.  31,  1832,  "  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  preexistence  of  Christ "  {Memoir, 
ii.  133).  He  was,  therefore,  not  a  humanitarian, 
like  Priestley,  but  rather  an  'Arian,  as  his  nephew 
calls  him.  His  talent  and  generous  cast  of  mind 
were  averse  to  controversy,  and  he  paid  little  atten- 
tion to  metaphysical  questions.  He  preferred  to 
dwell  upon  "  Christ's  spirit,  his  distinguishing 
moral  attributes,  the  purposes  of  his  mission '' 
(letter  of  Mar.  31,  1832,  Memoir^  ii.  133),  and  the 
problems  of  practical  Christianity.  He  remained 
a  supematuralist  to  the  end;  and  his  last  utter- 
ances on  the  Gospels  and  the  character  of  Jesus  are 
among  the  strongest  and  noblest.  Of  the  resur- 
rection he  said  (letter,  Nov.  20,  1839,  Memoir,  ii. 
145):  "  The  resurrection  of  Christ,  related  as  it  is 
to  his  character  and  religion,  and  recorded  as  it  is 
in  the  Gospels,  is  a  fact  which  comes  to  me  with  a 
certainty  which  I  find  in  few  ancient  histories." 
In  a  letter,  July  6,  1841,  regretting  omissions  in  a 
recent  sermon  of  Theodore  Parker,  he  wrote: 
"  Without  miracles  the  historical  Christ  is  gone. 
...  In  regard  to  miracles  I  never  had  the  least 
diflficulty.  The  grand  miracle  is  the  perfect  divine 
character  of  Christ,  and  to  such  a  being  a  miracu- 
lous mode  of  manifestation  seems  natural.  It  is 
by  no  figure  of  speech  that  I  call  Christ  miraculous." 
Channing,  however,  was  not  so  much  a  theologian 
as  a  preacher  and  a  philanthropist.  He  was  no 
dreamer,  but  a  practical  reformer.  He  labored  for 
the  purification  of  life  and  society,  and  entered 
heartily  into  schemes  for  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
of  intemperance,  of  prison-abuses,  and  of  war,  and 
for  the  circulation  of  the  Bible.  He  had  an  exalted 
idea  of  the  nobility  of  human  nature,  and  an  imdy- 
ing  faith  in  freedom  and  progress. 

Channing's  works  have  been  published  in  various 
forms  (complete  ed.,  6  vols.,  Boston,  1848;   1  vol., 
1875;   London,  1880;   etc.),  and  have  been  widely 
circulated  in  English  and  translations.     The  best 
known  are  Evidences  of  Christianity, 
4*  Works,  addresses    delivered    at    Cambridge, 
1821;     a    treatise   on  Slavery,    1841; 
discourses  on  the  Character  of  Christ ;  and  critical 
essays  on  Milton,  Finelon,  Bonaparte,  and  Self- 
culture,    The  centenary  of  his  birth  was  celebrated 
at  Newport  on  Apr.  7,  1880,  and  memorial  meet- 
ings were  also  held  in  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Wash- 
ington, and  several  cities  of  New  England.     The 
comer-stone  of  the  Channing  Memorial  Church  at 


Newport   (dedicated  Oct.    19,    1881)  was  laid  at 
this  time.  (P.  ScHAPFf)  D.  S.  Schaff. 

Biblxoorapht:  Memoir  of  W.  E.  ChanninOt  wUh  ExtractB 
from  kia  Corrtrpondence  and  ManuacripU,  by  his  nephew, 
W.  H.  Channing,  3  vols.,  Boston,  1848;  Channing,  «a  vie 
et  tet  cruvTM,  with  preface  by  C.  de  R^musat,  Paris,  1857, 
enlarged  ed.,  1861;  C.  A.  Bartol,  PrineijieB  and  Por- 
traiU,  Boston,  1880;  C.  T.  Brooks.  Wiiliam  EUery  Chan^ 
ning,  a  Centennial  Mem&ry,  ib.  1880;  Elisabetii  Palmer 
Peabody,  Reminieceneea  of  William  EUery  Channing,  ib. 
1880;  The  Channing  Centenary,  ed.  R.  M.  Bellows,  ib. 
1881;  W.  W.  Fenn,  W.  E.  Channing  and  the  Growth  of 
Spiritual  Chrietianiiy,  in  Pioneera  of  Religioiu  Liberty  in 
America,  ib.  1903.  Also  J.  H.  Allen,  The  Unitarians,  in 
the  American  Churdi  Hietory  Seriea,  New  York,  1804; 
G.  W.  Cooke,  Unitarianiem  in  America,  Boston,  1902; 
J.  W.  Chadwick,  William  EUery  Channing,  Miniater  of 
Religion,  ib.   1903;    and  other  works  mentioned  under 

UNrrABXANB. 

CHAinnNG,  WILLIAM  HENRY:  Unitarian, 
nephew  of  William  Ellery  Channing;  b.  in  Boston 
May  25,  1810;  d.  in  London  Dec.  23,  1884.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1829,  and  at  the  Cam- 
bridge Divinity  School,  1833.  He  filled  many 
pastorates,  most  of  them  of  short  duration,  the 
longer  and  more  important  being  at  Cincinnati, 
1838-41;  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1852-54;  Liverpool, 
England,  1854-61  (Renshaw  Street  Chapel,  1854- 
1857;  Hope  Street  Chapel,  1857-61,  where  he  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  James  Martineau);  Washington,  D.  C, 
1861-65.  He  returned  to  England  in  1865  and 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  there,  making  several 
visits,  however,  to  his  native  land.  He  was  an 
eloquent  speaker,  but  more  successful  as  a  lecturer 
and  occasional  preacher  than  as  pastor;  an  earnest, 
spiritual,  and  enthusiastic  man,  but  visionary  and 
impractical.  The  chief  elements  of  his  creed  were 
faith  in  God,  belief  in  Jesus  Christ  as  the  perfect 
man,  and  a  boundless  hope  for  humanity  to  be 
realized  through  organization  and  external  reme- 
dies. Schemes  of  social  reform  captivated  him, 
he  sympathized  with  the  Brook  Farm  experiment, 
and  adopted  many  of  the  ideas  of  Fourier.  The 
antislavery  struggle  in  America  enlisted  his  ardent 
support,  and,  while  pastor  in  Washington  during 
the  Civil  War,  he  labored  untiringly  for  the  Union 
cause  and  for  the  relief  of  the  wounded  in  the  field. 
He  was  chaplain  of  Congress,  1863-64.  In  1869 
he  delivered  a  course  of  Lowell  lectures  at  Boston 
on  the  "  Progress  of  Civilization."  He  published 
many  sermons,  addresses,  and  articles,  and  edited 
several  short-lived  periodicals;  translated  Jouf- 
fro/s  Introduction  to  Ethics  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1841); 
prepared  a  Memoir  of  his  uncle,  William  Ellery 
Channing  (3  vols.,  1848),  and  edited  a  volume  of 
his  discourses.  The  Perfect  Life  (1873);  edited  the 
Memoir  and  Writings  of  his  cousin,  J.  H.  Perkins 
(2  vols.,  1851);  and,  with  James  Freeman  Clarke 
and  R.  W.  Emerson,  edited  the  Memoirs  of  Margaret 
Fuller  (2  vols.,  1852). 

Biblioorapht:  O.  B.  Frothingham,  Life  of  WiUiam  Henry 
Channing,  Boston,  1886. 

CHAITTAL,  JEANNE  FRAN9OISE  FREMIOT 
DE.    See  Visitation,  Order  op  the. 

CHANTEPIE  DE  LA  SAUSSAYE,  shan"te-pi' 
de  la  s6"86',  PIERRE  DANIEL:  Dutch  Protestant; 
b.  at  Leeuwarden  (16  m.  e.n.e.  of  Harlingen)  Apr. 
9,   1848.     He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ghanninff 
Chaplain 


Utrecht  (D.D.,  1871),  and  after  being  a  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  Church  from  1S72  to  1878,  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  history  of  religions  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  remained  imtil  1899.  Since 
the  latter  year  he  has  been  professor  of  ethics  at 
Leyden.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  Anosterdam  and  several  other  learned 
societies,  and,  in  addition  to  many  briefer  con- 
tributions to  periodicals  and  a  number  of  sermons, 
has  written:  Lehrbuch  der  Religionageachichte  (2 
vols.,  Freiburg,  1887-79,  3d  ed.,  1905;  Eng.  transl. 
of  vol.  i.  by  B.  S.  Colyer-Fergusson,  London,  1892); 
Zekerheid  en  Twijfel  (Haarlem,  1893);  and  Re- 
ligion of  the  Ancient  Teutons  (Boston,  1901). 

CHAHTRT:  A  chapel  or  an  aisle  in  a  church 
endowed  for  the  purpose  of  having  masses  said  for 
the  soul  of  the  founder,  or  of  others  nominated  by 
him;  also  the  money  left  for  such  purposes.  The 
chantiy  priest  was  one  employed  on  such  a  foun- 
dation. There  were  1,000  chantries  in  England 
when  Henry  VIII.,  in  1545,  issued  his  order  for 
their  suppression  (37  Hen.  VIII.,  cap.  4),  on  the 
^und  that  their  possessions  were  generally  mis- 
applied. The  death  of  the  king  soon  ensuing,  their 
suppression  was  apparently  not  carried  out.  At 
all  events,  in  the  first  year  of  Edward  VI.  (1  Edward 
VI.,  cap.  14,  1547)  a  very  long  act  was  passed  dis- 
solving the  chantries,  along  with  free  chapels, 
hospitals,  fraternities,  brotherhoods,  gilds,  and 
other  promotions,  and  devoting  their  revenues  to 
charitable  and  educational  purposes.  The  reason 
given  for  such  appropriation  was  the  alleged  main- 
tenance of  superstition  and  ignorance  by  these 
foundations.  The  text  of  this  article  is  in  Gee  and 
Hardy,  Documents,  pp.  328-357. 

CHAPEL:  A  small  building  used  for  divine 
worship.  It  may  be  entirely  detached,  to  supply 
the  needs  of  people  at  a  distance  from  the  parish 
church;  or  form  a  separate  apartment  in  a  large 
building,  such  as  a  convent  or  a  nobleman's  house; 
or  run  out  of  and  form  part  of  a  large  church,  with 
an  altar  of  its  own.  In  this  last  sense  some  of  the 
larg^  Gothic  churches  have  small  chapels  en- 
tirely surrounding  the  east  end  or  choir,  the  "  Lady 
Chapel,"  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  being 
usually  directly  behind  the  high  altar  (see  Archi- 
tecture, Ecclesiastical).  In  modem  English 
usage  the  word  chapel  is  commonly  applied  to 
non-conformist  places  of  worship,  those  of  the  Es- 
tablishment alone  being  known  as  churches;  but 
the  tenn  "  chapel  of  ease  "  is  occasionally  applied 
to  Established  places  of  worship  coming  under  the 
meaning  first  given  above,  and  without  parochial 
boundaries. 

CHATm,  EDWIN  HUBBELL:  American  Uni- 
venalist;  b.  at  Union  Village,  Washington  Coimty, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  29,  1814;  d.  in  New  York  Dec.  26, 
1880.  He  studied  four  years  at  the  Bennington 
(Vermont)  Academy,  began  the  study  of  law,  but 
abandoned  it  in  1837  to  become  assistant  editor 
of  the  Evangelical  Magazine  and  Gospel  Advocate^ 
a  Universalist  paper  published  at  Utica,  N.  Y. 
He  was  ordained  in  1838.  He  was  pastor  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  1838-39;   at  Chariestown,  Mass., 


1840-45;  and  assistant  to  Hosea  Ballou  in  Bos- 
ton, 1845-48.  In  1848  he  went  to  the  Fourth 
Universalist  Church,  New  York,  and  remained 
there  till  death.  During  his  pastorate  the  society 
moved  from  Murray  Street  to  new  and  more  com- 
modious church  buildings  on  Broadway  near 
Spring  Street  (1852),  and  then  to  the  comer  of 
Fifth  Avenue  and  Forty-fifth  Street  (1866),  and 
adopted  the  name  "  Church  of  the  Divine  Pater- 
nity." He  was  one  of  the  prominent  clergymen  of 
New  York,  and  his  services  were  much  in  demand 
as  lecturer  and  on  special  occasions.  His  sym- 
pathies and  creed  were  broad,  his  preaching  was 
eloquent  and  popular.  He  possessed  a  ready  wit 
and  no  slight  poetical  talent;  an  admirable  ordina- 
tion-hynm,  "  Father,  at  this  altar  bending,"  is 
from  his  pen.  His  publications,  chiefly  sermons, 
include  Discoureee  on  the  Lord*8  Prayer  (Boston, 
1850);  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life  (New  York, 
1853);  Lessons  of  Faith  and  Life  (1877);  The 
Church  of  the  Living  God  (1881). 

Bzblioorapht:   S.  Ellis,  Life  of  Edunn  H.  Chapin,  Boston. 
1882. 

CHAPLAIN:  A  term  which,  with  its  equiva- 
lents (Lat.  CapeUanus,  Glenn.  Kaplan ^  Fr.  Des- 
servant),  designates  members  of  the  clergy  as- 
signed to  some  kinds  of  special  service.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Chivch  a  chaplain  is  a  priest 
who  acts  as  assistant  to  the  pastor  of  a  parish. 
According  to  both  Tridentine  and  earlier  law,  each 
parish  has  but  one  priest  in  full  charge;  if  it  is  too 
large  to  be  property  administered  by  him  alone,  he 
is  supposed  to  appoint  a  sufficient  number  of  chap- 
lains, with  the  approval  of  the  bishop. 
In  the  These  serve  directly  under  him,  are 
Roman  maintained  by  him,  and  may  be  dis- 
Catholic  missed  at  his  pleasure.  There  are  cases. 
Church,  however,  in  which  a  beneficed  founda- 
tion exists  within  a  parish,  with  chapels 
or  altars  at  which  the  incumbent  is  bound  to  say  a 
certain  number  of  masses.  Such  beneficed  chaplains 
{capeUani  curati)  are  either  bound  to  assist  the 
parish  priest,  or  may  be  specially  directed  to  do  so 
by  the  bishop.  As  beneficed  clergy,  they  can  not 
be  removed  at  the  latter's  will;  but  he  is  not  obliged 
to  avail  himself  of  their  services,  unless  certain 
parochial  duties  are  assigned  to  them  by  the  terms 
of  their  foundation.  Such  cases  occiu*  most  fre- 
quently in  chapels  situated  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  parish  church,  or  in  hospitals  and 
similar  institutions.  In  case  the  parish  priest  fails 
to  appoint  chaplains,  or  does  not  appoint  enough, 
when  directed  to  do  so  by  the  bishop,  the  latter, 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  Devolution  (q.v.), 
may  proceed  to  appoint.  In  some  places,  by  either 
written  law  or  custom,  the  bishop  has  a  general 
right  of  appointment  on  his  own  motion;  and  then 
the  chaplains  are  removable  not  by  the  parish 
priest  but  by  the  bishop — ^unless  they  have  bene- 
ficed rights  as  mentioned  above. 

In  France  the  chaplains  were  called  desservants. 
The  old  French  law  distinguishes  between  parish 
churches  (parochiales  eccUeia)  and  subsidiary  {svccur- 
sales)  chapels  which  supplement  them.  The  system 
of  the  seventeenth  century  drew  a  distinction  between 
parish  priests  who  were  independent  in  their  fimo- 


Chaplain 
Chapter 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


lions  and  chaplains  who  officiated  only  by  the 
license  of  the  bishop,  revocable  at  any  time.  This 
83r8tem  struck  Napoleon  when  he  was  thinking  of 
restoring  the  Church  after  the  destruction  wrought 
by  the  Revolution.    The  Concordat  of  1801  laid 

down  only  the  fundamental  principles, 
The  French  especially  regarding  the  bishops,  who 
Detservants.  were  permitted  to  name  incumbents 

approved  by  the  government  to  the 
parish  churches.  The  "  organic  articles  "  of  1802 
went  further  into  detail,  and  dealt  with  the  support 
of  the  churches.  As  the  payment  of  parish  priests 
was  imdertaken  by  the  State,  it  was  desirable  to 
limit  their  number,  and  provision  was  made  for 
the  establishment  of  one  in  each  district.  But  as 
these  districts  were  far  too  large  to  be  administered 
by  one  priest,  as  numy  others  as  were  necessary 
were  to  be  chosen  for  siuxuraales,  and  supported  by 
their  pensions  and  the  voluntary  offerings  of  the 
congregations.  Their  appointment  was  to  be  made 
by  the  bishop,  and  revocable  at  his  pleasure.  Im- 
perial decrees  of  May  and  December,  1804,  rear- 
ranged the  ajssignments  and  provided  a  stipend  of 
five  himdred  francs  apiece.  The  deaservants  made 
increasing  claims  to  independence;  but  the  bishops 
were  not  inclined  to  give  up  their  powers,  and 
Gregoiy  XVI.  sanctioned  the  existing  arrange- 
ment until  further  order.  Repeated  controversies 
arose  over  the  position  of  these  priests,  who  were 
by  far  the  larger  number  in  France,  Belgium,  and 
the  provinces  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine;  and 
while  still  theoretically  removable,  they  succeeded 
in  establishing  the  rule  in  practise  that  they  should 
not  be  displaced  except  for  cause,  after  an  investi- 
gation by  diocesan  officials. 

Historically,  also,  the  name  chaplain  was  early 
applied  to  priests  who  served  private  chapels,  in 
castles  and  royal  palaces.  Bishops  also  had  their 
private  chaplains,  who  served  partly  as  secre- 
taries. The  popes,  too,  have  always  had  their  own 
chaplains,  who  have  as  a  rule  acted  as  their  con- 
fessors. By  present  use  these  latter  are  divided 
into  three  classes:  honorary,  ceremonial,  and  private. 

(O.  MBJERf.) 

The  clergymen  employed  in  the  army  and  navy 
of  all  Christian  countries  are  called  "  chaplains," 
and  are  under  different  rules  and  regulations.  Thus 
in  the  British  army  they  are  under  a  chaplain- 
general  of  the  forces;  are  not  attached  to  particular 

regiments  or  corps,  but  to  garrisons 

In  MilitBry  and  military  stations  at  home  and 

and  Naval  abroad.    They  are  according  to  their 

Service,     length  of  service  divided  into   four 

classes,  corresponding  to  colonels, 
lieutenant-colonels,  majors,  and  captains,  re- 
spectively; and  after  twenty-five  years'  serv- 
ice are  entitled  to  retire  on*  a  pension.  They 
are  not  all  from  the  Church  of  England  or  Ireland, 
but  some  come  from  the  Presbyterian  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches.  In  the  United  States  chaplains 
are  appointed  by  the  president,  and  assigned  or 
transferred  by  the  secretary  of  war,  but  report 
monthly  to  the  adjutant-general,  especially  as  to 
the  baptism,  marriages,  and  fimerals  at  which  they 
have  officiated.  During  the  Civil  War  there  was  in 
the  Northern  army  a  chaplain  to  each  regiment. 


but  at  its  conclusion  all  were  discharged.  La- 
ter, thirty  were  engaged  and  sent  to  posts,  gen- 
eraily  on  the  frontier.  To-day  there  are  no  regi- 
mental chaplains,  but  only  chaplains  attached  to 
posts.  Much  depends  upon  the  post  commander 
whether  the  chaplain,  can  be  efficient  or  not.  In 
1907,  Major-General  Frederick  D.  Grant  reports, 
there  were  fifty-three  chaplains  in  the  whole  arm}', 
from  different  denominations  and  ranked  as  fol- 
lows: Majors  4,  Captains  41,  First  Lieutenants  8. 
He  adds:  "  In  general  their  duties  are  to  have 
charge  of  religious  instruction,  visit  the  sick,  bap- 
tize children,  officiate  at  marriages  and  funerals, 
and  by  statute  they  have  charge  of  post  schools  in 
the  English  branches."  The  number  of  chaplains 
in  the  United  States  x^wy  on  July  1st,  1907,  was 
twenty-five,  with  rank  as  follows.  Captains  4. 
Commanders  7,  Lieutenant-Commanders  5,  Lieu- 
tenants (junior  grade)  2.  Their  duties  are  thus  set 
forth  in  the  regulations  of  1905,  communicated  by 
the  commandant  of  the  New  York  Navy  Yard.  (1 ) 
The  chaplain  shall  perform  divine  service  and  offer 
prayers  on  board  of  the  ship  to  which  he  is  attached, 
at  such  times  as  the  captain  may  prescribe;  and  on 
board  other  ships  to  which  chaplains  are  not  attached, 
or  at  shore  stations  and  naval  hospitals,  when  so 
directed  by  the  senior  officer  present.  (2)  He  shall  be 
permitted  to  conduct  public  worship  according  to 
the  manner  and  forms  of  the  church  of  which  he  is 
a  minister.  (3)  He  shall  facilitate,  so  far  as  possible, 
the  performance  of  divine  service  by  clergymen  of 
churches  other  than  his  own,  who  may  be  permitted 
by  the  captain  to  visit  the  ship  for  that  purpot«e. 
(4)  He  may,  ^ith  the  sanction  of  the  captain,  form 
voluntary  classes  for  religious  instruction.  (5)  He 
shall  visit  the  sick  frequently,  unless  the  con- 
dition of  the  sick  renders  such  visits  unadvisable. 
(6)  Under  the  direction  of  the  captain,  he  shall 
supervise  the  instruction  of  such  persons  in  the  navy 
as  may  need  to  be  taught  the  elementary  principles 
of  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  geography. 
He  shall  report  in  writing  to  the  captain  at  the  end 
of  each  quarter  the  character  of  in^struction  given, 
the  nimiber  of  hours  of  instruction,  and  the 
progress  made  by  each  person.  He  shall  always 
report  at  quarters  when  on  board.  His  duty  in 
battle  is  to  aid  the  wounded,  and  his  station  at  quar- 
ters for  battle  and  for  inspection  shall  be  as  the 
captain  may  direct.  Chaplains  shall  report  annu- 
ally to  the  secretary  of  the  navy  the  official  services 
performed  by  them.  The  pay  of  these  army  and 
navy  chaplains  varies  according  to  their  length  of 
service  and  rank,  and  in  navy  according  to  whether 
they  are  at  sea  or  on  shore.  In  the  French  army 
and  navy  attendance  upon  the  chaplains'  services 
is  voluntary,  but  in  all  other  European  countries  it 
is  compulsory.  In  the  United  States  navy  the  pen- 
alty of  disturbing  a  church  service  is  three  months' 
imprisonment. 

Chaplains  are  also  attached  to  militia  regiments  in 
the  United  States.  They  are  chosen  by  the  regiments, 
generally  on  the  strength  of  their  outeide  reputation, 
so  that  it  is  a  distinct  compliment  and  recognition  of 
ability  and  popularity  to  be  asked.  They  preach 
an  occasional  sermon,  and  clad  in  a  distinctive 
uniform  appear  on  the  parades  of  their  regiments. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohaplaln 
Ohapter 


Chaplains  are  attached  to  parliamentary  bodies 
and  to  state  and  national  societies.  Their  duties 
ifl  congress,  the  state  legislatures,  and  the  British 
paitiament  are  mainly  connected  with  the  relig- 
ious service  at  the  beginning  of  each  day's  session, 
b  the  ease  of  societies  they  preach  before  the  body 
ODoe  a  year  and  say  grace  at  the  annual  banquet. 
Prisons,  almshouses,  asylums,  and  similar  institu- 
tioDS  also  have  chaplains,  who  commonly  Uve  in 
the  building  and  conduct  regular  services.  Where 
a  chaplain  is  a  man  of  the  right  stamp,  he  is  of  the 
utmost  help  to  the  officers,  as  he  can  do  much  to  pro- 
mote good  feeling  between  them  and  the  subor- 
dinates, beneficiaries,  or  inmates,  as  the  case  may 
be,  for  he  is  by  education  and  manner  of  life  the 
equal  of  the  chief,  and  by  profession  and  intercourse 
the  friend  of  all  the  rest.  It  is  good  poUcy  in  a 
government  or  institution  to  make  this  branch  of 
service  attractive  to  the  clerical  profession,  and  to 
maintain  it  by  strict  discipline. 

Bibuogbafbt:  L.  Ferraris,  Prompta  hMioOieea  eanonica, 
•JY.  **  capellanuB,"  Venioe.  1782-04;  Z.  B.  van  Espen, 
JuB^edaiaaiieumuniveraum,  part  2.  tit.  3,  chap.  2,  Louvain, 
170O;  D. Baair,TraeiatuM de  Parodut,  pp.  426  sqq.,  444  sqq., 
M5  Hiq..  Fuia.  1856;  A.  L.  Richter,  Ldtrbwh  det  .  .  . 
Kinkmntkia,  ed.  W.  Kahl.  p.  468,  Leipaic.  1886;  E. 
Friedbcrs,  LdtHnuh  dea  KirdianrachU,  pp.  175  eqq.,  ib. 
1805 

CHAPMAH,  (J)  WILBUR:  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Richmond,  Ind.,  June  17,  1859.  He  was  educated 
at  Lake  Forest  University  (B.A.,  1879)  and  Lane 
Theological  Seminary  (1882),  and  was  pastor  of 
the  Pint  Reformed  Church,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  from 
1883  to  1888.  He  was  pastor  of  Bethany  Presby- 
terian Church,  Philadelphia,  in  1888-93,  and  then 
engaged  in  evangelistic  work  until  1899,  when  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Pre8b3rterian  Church, 
New  Yoric  City,  where  he  remained  until  1903. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  chosen  executive  secretary 
of  the  General  Assembly's  Committee  on  Evan- 
gelistic Work  for  the  Presbyterian  Church.  His 
works  include:  Ivory  Palaces  of  the  King  (Chicago, 
1893);  Received  Ye  the  Holy  Ghost  t  (1894);  "  And 
PeUT*'  (1895);  Present-Day  Parables  (Qeveland, 
C,  1900);  Revivals  and  Missions  (New  York,  1900); 
Present-Day  Evangelism  (1903);  Fishing  for  Men 
(Chicago,  1904);  and  Samuel  Hopkins  HadUy  of 
ITaterSfrerf  (New  York.  1906);  Another  Mile  {l^m^ 

CHAPTER. 
Origin  and  Development  of  the  Cominon  Life  (f  1). 
In  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuriee  (f  2). 
Canons  (f  3). 

Ifodeni  Organisation  (f  4). 
Officen  (i  5). 

Legal  Provisions  and  Duties  (f  6). 
la  Pkotestant  Churches  (|  7). 

A  diapter  is  an  eccledastical  corporation  of  a  col- 
legiate nature,  whose  principal  fimction  is  to  pro- 
vide for  public  worship  in  the  cathedral  or  other 
church  to  which  it  is  attached.  The  origin  of 
diapteiB  may  be  traced  back  to  the  early  period 
vhoi  the  bishop  had  for  a  council  or  senate  his 
fndiyierium,  i.e.,  the  total  number  of  the  priests 
ind  deacons  belonging  to  his  own  particular  church. 
Ilw  farther  development  has  been  largely  influ- 
oead  flinoe  the  fourth  century  by  the  extension  of 
I  institutionfl  in  some  degree  to  the  secular 


clergy.  Eusebius  of  Vercelli  and  Augustine  estab- 
lished a  community  life  for  their  clergy  under  one 
roof,  and  at  Hippo  there  was  even  a 
I.  Origin  monastic  vow  of  poverty.  These  ex- 
and  Devel-  amples  were  imitated  in  Africa,  Spain, 
opment  of  and  Gaul;  in  the  last-named  the  ex- 
the  Com-  pression  mensa  eanonica  waa  used 
mon  Life,  as  early  as  Gregory  of  Tours.  The 
phrase  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
all  the  clergy  of  a  church  were  inscribed  in  a  special 
list  (matriciUa  or  canon),  from  which  regularly 
appointed  clergy  were  known  as  canonici.  This 
use  of  the  term  occurs  in  the  canons  of  the  Synod 
of  Laodicea  (c.  360),  and  in  the  sixth  century  was 
general  in  the  Prankish  kingdom.  The  mensa  ea- 
nonica, accordingly,  was  the  common  table  of  the 
clergy  of  a  particular  church,  and  the  vita  eanonica 
their  life  in  common.  There  was  originally  no  ref- 
erence in  the  term  to  any  rule  of  life,  as  some  have 
thought  from  another  use  of  the  word  canon.  By 
the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  this  community 
life  for  the  clergy  had  become  very  general  through- 
out the  Prankish  kingdom,  usually  following  the  reg- 
ulations laid  down  by  Chrodegang  of  Metz  for  his 
clergy.  At  the  Synod  of  Aachen  in  816  Louis  the 
Pious  caused  a  new  code  of  rules  to  be  drawn  up, 
based  on  Chrodegang's,  as  that  had  been  on  the 
Benedictine  rule,  and  relating  to  churches  other 
than  cathedrals  which  had  several  clergy,  later 
known  as  collegiate  churches.  According  to  both 
rules,  the  clergy  lived  with  the  bishop  or  other 
superior  in  a  prescribed  house  (clausirum),  and  were 
required  to  recite  together  the  canonical  hours  and 
to  render  obedience  to  their  head.  In  this  capacity, 
besides  the  bishop,  the  archdeacon  appears  in 
Chrodegang's  rule,  the  provost  in  that  of  Aachen. 
The  organization  differed  from  the  monastic  system 
in  being  conditioned  by  differences  of  clerical  rank 
and  by  the  permission  of  private  property.  In  the 
ninth  and  early  tenth  centuries,  this  became  the 
approved  form  of  clerical  life  in  cathedrals  and  other 
larger  churches,  and  the  name  chapter  was  applied 
to  the  organization.  In  the  rule  of  Chrodegang 
capitulum  designated  originally  the  chapter  to 
be  read  at  the  daily  gatherings  of  the  clergy, 
then  the  place  in  which  the  reading  occurred, 
then  the  gathering,  and  finally  the  community  aa 
a  whole. 

As  a  result  of  the  gradual  redistribution  of  the 
revenues  which  had  originally  served  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  community  Ufe,  and  the  permission 
of  separate  residences  (jnansiones)  for  individual 
clergy,  the  vita  eanonica  decasred  during  the  eleventh 
centiuy  in  many  churches  where  it  had  formerly 
obtained.    There  were,  however,  numerous  efforts 
directed  to  its  restoration,  in  the  spirit  of  the  new 
ascetic  movement  and  on  the  theory  that  the  pos- 
session of  private  property  had  caused 
a.  In  the  the  decay.    Supported  by  men  like 
Eleventh    Hildebrand,  F^ter  Damian,  and  Ger- 
and        hoh  of  Reichersberg,  and  favored  by 
Twelfth     the  popes,  these  efforts  were  decidedly 
Centuries,   successful,  and  led  to  an  enforcement 
of  the  common  life  by  the  Lateran 
Council  of  1059  under  Nicholas  II.,  which  extended 
the  community  principle  to  property.    In  the  later 


Chapter 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


eleventh  and  the  twelfth  centuries  the  former  secu- 
lar canons  were  in  many  localities  replaced  by  regular 
canons,  living  under  a  stricter  rule,  especially  that 
known  as  of  Saint  Augustine,  though  it  is  not 
his  composition,  but  a  collection  of  excerpts  from 
mainly  pseudo-Augustinian  sermons.  These  Augus- 
tinian  canons,  in  their  turn,  were  not  seldom  re- 
placed from  the  twelfth  century  on  by  Premon- 
stratensians.  But  the  ascetic  tendency  was  not 
strong  or  enduring  enough  to  reform  all  the  chap- 
ters. The  independence  given  by  the  possession 
of  property  prevented  their  reconstruction  on  the 
original  model;  and  the  worldliness  of  the  higher 
clergy  made  such  regulation  oppressive,  so  that 
the  institution  once  more  fell  into  decay  in  the 
thirteenth  centuiy. 

The  functions  of  the  preshyterium  as  the  bishop's 
council  were  assimied,  during  the  period  of  the 
prevalence  of  the  vita  canonica,  not  by  the  whole 
body  of  the  clergy  living  in  oonmiunity,  but  by 
those  of  the  higher  orders;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
room  wajs  found  for  the  cooperation  (in  important 
matters  affecting  the  diocese)  of  the  clergy  of  the 
other  churches  in  the  see  city  besides  the  cathedral, 
and  for  representatives  of  the  lay  population  of  the 
city.  The  actual  current  administration  was  indeed 
conducted  by  the  cathedral  chapter;  but  when 
the  distribution  of  revenues  above  alluded  to  made 
a  division  between  the  interests  of  the  bishop  and 
those  of  the  chapter,  the  former  was  very  apt  to 
neglect  to  consult  the  latter,  or  to  rely,  for  support 
in  his  measures,  on  the  other  clergy  and  prominent 
laity.  The  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX.  enforced  the 
right  of  the  chapter  to  a  consultative  voice;  and 
it  was  finally  established  as  common  law  that  the 
chapter  was  the  only  body  with  an  independent 
right  to  advise  the  bishop  in  the  conduct  of  diocesan 
affairs.  From  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  chapters  succeeded  in  excluding  the  other 
clergy  and  the  lay  nobility  from  any  voice  in  the 
election  of  bishops. 

A  full  or  capitular  canon  was  one  who  had  a 
vote  in  the  chapter,  a  stall  in  the  choir,  and  com- 
monly, though  not  necessarily,  a  prebend,  i.e.,  a 
fixed  income  derived  either  from  a  share  of  the 
commimity  revenues  or  from  certain  specially 
assigned  property,  tithes,  etc.  In  contrast  with  the 
full  rights  of  the  canonici  aeniorea,  who  were  in 
major  orders,  was  the  position  of  the  juniores — 

clerks  in  minor  orders  or  youths  re- 
3.  Canons,  ceiving    education    in    the    capitular 

school,  who  had  no  voice  in  the  chap- 
ter. The  niunber  of  both  classes  was  linuted  only 
by  the  amount  of  the  community  property.  Later, 
especially  in  Germany  from  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  number  of  canonries  and  prebends  was  limited  in 
many  chapters,  at  first  for  various  economic  reasons 
and  then  for  the  purpose  of  assuring  a  richer  live- 
lihood to  their  members.  The  custom  still,  how- 
ever, prevailed  of  receiving  youths  to  be  trained 
for  canonries.  A  special  fund  was  set  aside  for 
their  support,  and  they  were  boimd  on  their  side 
to  the  vita  communis.  They  were  known  as  /u- 
niorea  canonici  non  capitulares,  domicelli,  domv- 
ceUarta.  In  chapters  with  fixed  numbers  canonici 
9upranuTnerarii  were  those  waiting  for  a  prebend 


to  be  vacated  The  Lateran  Council  of  1179  had 
indeed  forbidden  the  conferring  of  Expectancies 
(q.v.);  but  under  the  lax  papal  interpretation  of 
the  application  ot  this  prohibition  to  capitular 
positions,  and  the  definite  concession  of  four  ex- 
pectancies to  each  chapter  by  Alexander  IV. 
(1254),  the  practise  continued,  and  admission 
among  the  domiceUarea  was  regularly  the  title  to 
a  full  canonry  in  order  of  seniority. 

Qualifications  for  admission  had  long  been  fixed 
by  the  chapters  themselves  before  the  common  law 
took  cognizance  of  the  question.  The  Clementina 
required  the  possession  of  holy  orders,  and  the 
Council  of  Trent  decreed  that  half  the  canonries 
should  be  given  to  doctors,  masters,  or  licentiates 
in  theology  or  canon  law,  and  that  in  cathedral 
chapters  half  should  be  held  by  priests.  The  older 
statutes  of  the  chapters  themselves  required  (be- 
sides the  possession  of  a  ''  title  ")  that  the  candi- 
date shoi^d  have  received  at  least  the  tonsure, 
and  be  free  from  notable  bodily  defects,  and  of 
unblemished  honor,  of  legitimate,  and  sometimes 
of  noble,  birth;  fourteen  years  conmionly,  some- 
times less,  was  the  minimum  of  age.  While  all 
canons  were  theoretically  equal,  there  were  offices 
among  them  to  which  special  functions  were  at- 
tached. Such  were  the  prcebenda  doctorales  for 
those  holding  doctor's  degrees,  others  destined  to 
provide  support  !or  university  professors,  proB- 
bendcB  parochiales  connected  with  a  parochial  cure, 
prcebendcB  presbyterales  for  those  in  priest's  orders 
who  performed  the  requisite  sacerdotal  functions 
when  the  majority  of  the  canons  were  deacons  or 
subdeaoons,  proebendce  exemptcs  or  libera  to  which 
the  obligation  of  residence  was  not  attached,  and 
prcebenda  regicB,  either  those  to  which  sovereigns 
had  the  right  of  presentation  from  having  founded 
them,  or  which  were  held  by  the  sovereigns  them- 
selves as  honorary  canons.  Besides  the  canons, 
who  were  frequently  hindered  by  political  position 
or  disinclination  from  performing  their  spiritual 
functions,  there  were  often  a  number  of  vicarii, 
mansionarii,  or  capellani,  who  had  charge  of  the 
services  and  represented  the  canons  in  them. 

The  organization  of  chapters  in  modem  times  is 
usually  a  simpler  one,  especially  owing  to  their  loss 
of  political  importance  in  modem  states.  They 
usually  consist  of  a  number  of  capitulares  or  nume- 
rarii,  who  enter  upon  their  rights  as  soon  as  they 
are  nominated;  the  canonici  exspectantes,  juniores , 
and  domiceUarea  have  almost  ceased  to  exist.  The 
requirements  are:  priestly  or  (in  some  cases)  any 
major  orders;  the  age  of  thirty  in  some  places,  in 
others  that  requisite  for  the  sub- 
4.  Modem  diaconate  or  twenty>two,  unless  they 

Organ-      must  be  priests,  when  it  would  be 

ization.  twenty-four;  practical  experience  in 
ecclesiastical  service  or  in  an  educa- 
tional position,  or  at  least  a  notable  degree  of  learn- 
ing; and  in  some  cases  native  birth,  either  within 
the  country  or  the  diocese.  Besides  the  full  canons, 
there  are  in  some  countries  honorary  canons;  in 
Austria  and  France  deserving  clerics  who  hold 
merely  an  honorary  title  without  effective  member- 
ship in  the  chapter,  while  in  Prussia,  although  the 
obligation  of  residence  is  not  imposed,  they  have 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Chapter 


a  sort  of  membership,  extending  at  least  bb  far  as 
participation  in  episcopal  elections.  The  office  of 
vicar  still  exists;  but  in  the  modem  chapter  its 
holders  are  assistants  rather  than,  as  formerly, 
representatives  of  the  canons. 

As  to  the  officers  of  the  chapter,  after  the  redis- 
tribution of  revenues  to  which  allusion  has  been 
made  and  the  acquisition  of  property,  the  provost 
gc^nerally  retained  only  the  right  of  presiding  over 
the  chapter  and  administering  its  property.  The 
enforcement  of  discipline  and  the  conduct  of  public 
worship  was  usually  in  charge  of  the  dean,  who  had 
a  certain  disciplinary  power,  to  be  exercised  with 
the  counsel  and  assent  of  the  chapter; 
5.  Officen.  in  the  Middle  Ages  his  functions  were 
frequently  combined  with  those  of 
the  archpriest.  Other  officials  were  the  primiceriua, 
cantor,  or  praeentor,  in  charge  of  the  services  and 
music;  the  scholasHcuSf  in  charge  of  the  chapter 
school,  and  often  of  other  schools  in  the  see  city 
or  the  diocese;  the  aacrista  or  thesaurariuaf  in 
charge  of  the  sacred  .vessels,  vestments,  and  other 
things  used  in  divine  worship;  the  cellerariuSf  who 
in  the  days  of  the  vita  communis  provided  for  the 
housekeeping,  and  the  portaritu,  who  in  the  same 
period  r^;ulated  the  intercourse  of  the  members  of 
the  chapter  with  the  outside  world.  In  the  nine- 
teenth-century reorganization  of  capitular  life 
this  whole  system  of  official  administration  has 
been  much  simplified  in  some  countries,  especially 
in  Germany,  while  others,  such  as  Italy  and  Spain, 
retain  more  of  the  medieval  arrangements.  In 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  a  theologian  and  a  penitentiary  are  appointed 
for  each  ch^ter. 

In  the  eariy  period  of  the  vita  ixrmmunia  the 
decision  as  to  the  reception  of  new  members  into 
the  community  rested  with  its  head,  either  bishop 
or  provost,  though  the  seniores  sometimes  had  a 
consultative  voice.  After  the  dissolution  of  the 
common  life,  the  chapter  had  the  right  in  some  cases 
to  confirm  or  reject  a  nomination  made  by  the 
bishop,  and  in  others  to  nominate  independently 
to  certain  canonries,  while  others,  again,  especially 
those  founded  by  a  bishop,  were  wholly  in  his  gift. 
Further  modifications  were  introduced  by  the  pi^al 
claim  of  reservation,  and  by  the  patronal  rights  of 
founders.  The  emperors  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  later  other  sovereigns  and  secular  and 
ecclesiastical  princes  in  their  own  countries,  claimed 
the  jti8  pnmariarvm  precum,  the  right  to  appoint 
one  person  to  each  chapter  after  their  coronation 
or  ooosecration.  Opposed  to  this  diversity  is  the 
principle  of  the  present  common  law  that  cathedral 
canonries  are  in  the  joint  gift  of  the  bishop  and  the 
chapter,  while  in  collegiate  churches  they  are  filled 
by  the  chapter  with  subsequent  institution  at  the 
hands  of  the  bishop. 

The  chapter  is  now,  since  the  dissolution  of  the 
vita  eommttnis  and  the  distribution  of  what  was 
originally  common  property,  a  corporation  with  a 
separate  legal  existence  of  its  own  apart  from  the 
bishop,  competent  to  deal  with  both  ecclesiastical 
matters  and  matters  of  property,  and  to  ordain  and 
manage  its  own  internal  affairs  independently,  as 
by  altering  its  former  statutes  and  making  new 


ones.     By  common  law  the  consent  of  the  bishop 
is  not  necessary  for  this,  though  it  is  by  special 

provision  in  some  of   the  newer  re- 

6.  Legal    organized  systems.    The  duties  of  the 

Provisions  chapter  as  a  whole  include  the  daily 

and  Duties,  performance  of  divine   service,  both 

mass  and  choir  offices.  Cathedral 
chapters  have  the  further  duty  of  assisting  the 
bishop  in  pontifical  functions  and  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  diocese.  The  right  corresponding 
to  the  last-named  duty  finds  expression  in  various 
ways.  The  bishop  is  required  to  have  the  assent  of 
the  chapter  for  any  alienation  of  the  property  of  the 
cathedral  or  diocesan  institutions,  for  any  notable 
change  in  the  system  of  benefices,  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  coadjutor,  for  any  measures  which  are 
prejudicial  to  the  rights  or  privileges  of  the  chapter, 
and  for  the  introduction  into  the  diocese  of  a  new 
feast  of  obligation.  He  is  further  reqxiired  to  seek 
their  coimsel  in  the  appointment  or  deposition  of 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  in  the  granting  of  dis- 
pensations or  confirmations,  in  matters  which  touch 
the  interests  of  the  chapter,  in  the  more  important 
questions  of  diocesan  administration,  etc.  For  the 
rights  of  the  chapter  during  the  vacancy  of  a  see 
or  the  incapacity  of  a  bishop,  see  Sedbs  Vacans. 
According  to  the  Roman  Catholic  theory,  cathedral 
chapters  are  not  essential  and  fundamental  parts 
of  the  constitution  of  the  Chureh,  but  the  product 
of  historic  development.  Accordingly,  church  law 
leaves  a  great  deal  to  local  usage  in  regard  to  the 
part  to  be  plajred  by  them  in  the  administration 
of  a  diocese;  and  they  are  lacking  entirely  in 
many  dioceses,  as  in  the  "missionary"  districts 
of  North  America,  while  in  others  (as  in  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  Canada)  their  organization  is 
very  loose. 

Little  need  be  said  here  about  the  survival  of 
chapters  in  the  Protestant  churches.  For  the  Eng- 
lish system,  see  England,  Chubch  of,  III.,  §  3. 
A  few  scattered  chapters,  of  either  cathedral  or  col- 
legiate type,  still  exist  in  evangelical  Germany, 
such  as  those  of  Brandenburg,  Naumburg,  Merse- 
burg,  and  Zeitz  in  Prussia,  and  Meissen  and  Wurzen 
in  Saxony.     After  the  Reformation   the  chapters 

which  came  over  to  the  new  doctrine 

7.  In  Prot-  with  their  bishops  were  usually  dis- 

estant      solved:   but  a  few  of  them  succeeded 

Churches,   in    maintaining    their    existence    in 

spite  of  the  local  sovereign,  especially 
those  which  did  not  become  wholly  Ptotestant  and 
went  on  as  "  mixed  chapters "  (Osnabrflck,  Hal- 
berstadt,  Minden),  with  a  system  of  alternation  as 
to  the  bishopric  between  the  two  religions,  lasting 
even  through  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  The  con- 
nection of  the  others  with  the  bishops  who  had 
become  Protestants  did  not  last  long,  and  most  of 
them  were  sooner  or  later  incorporated  with  the 
territories  of  the  sovereigns  who  had  at  first  been 
their  administrators;  and  only  those  named  above 
survived  the  general  secularization  of  1803.  Even 
these,  however,  are  not  properly  church  bodies, 
but  corporations  for  the  preservation  and  admin- 
istration of  certain  property  and  revenues;  and 
steps  have  been  taken  toward  the  aboUtion  of  the 
Prussian  chapters.  (A.  Hauck.) 


Chapter  and  Verse  Divieion 
Oharlsmata 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


10 


Biblxoorapby:  D.  Bouix,  De  eapUtdia,  Paris,  1862;  P. 
Schneider,  Die  bisefidfiidien  Domkapitd,  Mains,  1866; 
idem.  Die  Entwidulung  der  biediOfiidien  Domkapitd  bie 
sum  vienOtfUen  Jahrhunderte,  WQrsburs.  1882;  G.  A. 
HuUer,  Die  iurieHeche  Pere&rdiehkeiten  der  DomkapiUl  in 
Deuitchiand,  Bambeis,  1860;  G.  Finassi,  Dei  eapihUi 
caAedrali,  Lucca,  1863;  P.  Hinschius,  Kirehenrecht  der 
KeUKoUken  und  Proleetanten,  u.  49-161,  Berlin,  1871; 
A.  L.  Riehter,  Lehrbtuh  dee  kaitudiechen  und  evangdieehen 
Kirthenret^Ue,  8th  ed.  by  W.  Kahl,  pp.  440  sqq..  628, 
Leipeic,  1877-86;  W.  F.  Hook.  Churth  Dictionary,  s.vr. 
Chapter  and  Dean,  London,  1887;  E.  Hatch,  Orovoth  of 
Church  Inetitutione,  ib.  1887;  idem,  Organieaiion  of  Early 
Chrietian  Churchee,  ib.  1888:  E.  Friedbeig.  Ldirbuch  dee 
katholiedien  und  protettanHachen  Kirchenrechte,  p.  164, 
Leipeic,  1896;  H.  D.  M.  Spenoe,  The  White  Robe  of 
Churchee,  London,  1900;  H.  Schaefer,  Pfarrhirche  und 
StifU  Stuttgart.  1903;  A.  Wermingho£f,  Kirehenverfaeeung 
Deutechlande  im  MiUdaUer,  Hanover,  1905. 

CHAPTER   Aim    VERSE    DIVISION    IN    THE 
BIBLE.    See  Bible  Text,  III. 

CHAPTER-COURTS  (Chorgerichte):  The  name 
applied,  in  the  caaton  of  Bern  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, to  the  tribunals  having  charge  of  matrimonial 
causes  and  the  execution  of  church  discipline.  As 
early  as  1470,  the  town  council  of  Bern  had  seriously 
attempted  to  take  in  hand  the  moral  condition  of 
the  inhabitants,  neglected  by  the  Church.  In  the 
same  jspirit,  the  Reformation  here  was  rather  one  of 
practise  than  of  doctrine.  Thus,  after  the  issue  of 
the  first  reforming  decree,  it  was  naturally  one  of  the 
concerns  of  the  Bernese  authorities  to  replace  the 
suppressed  episcopal  courts  by  a  new  tribimal  which 
should  represent  the  civil  government  but  regard 
questions  coming  before  it  from  a  religious  stand- 
point. On  May  29,  1528,  the  new  court  began  its 
work.  It  was  composed  of  six  members — two 
from  the  greater  and  two  from  the  lesser  council, 
with  two  preachers.  It  met  in  the  building  belong- 
ing to  the  old  chapter,  whence  it  probably  took  its 
name.  In  September  it  set  forth  principles  to  gov- 
ern matrimonial  causes,  and  in  November  the  other 
matters  coming  under  its  jurisdiction.  These  were 
offenses  against  the  law  of  God  which  could  not  be 
punished  as  violations  of  express  civil  statutes — 
such  things  as  drunkenness,  incontinence,  usury, 
atheism,  superstition,  witchcraft,  blasphemy,  and 
gambling,  which  latter  was  strictly  forbidden  as 
unworthy  of  Christian  people.  An  appeal  had 
been  intended  to  lie  to  the  council,  but  this  was 
abrogated  in  Jan.,  1529.  In  March  of  this  year 
the  first  formal  regulations  were  put  forth,  evi- 
dently based  on  those  adopted  at  Zurich  in  1525. 
The  punishments  prescribed  consisted  of  depriva- 
tion of  honors  and  offices,  imprisonment,  banish- 
ment— ^not  often  money  fines,  which  became  more 
usual  later.  The  strictness  of  the  judges  caused 
no  little  murmuring  at  first,  and  the  "  Great 
Synod  "  of  Jan.,  1532,  was  obliged  to  promise  that 
greater  mildness  should  be  shown.  The  attend- 
ance of  the  preachers  was  even  for  a  time  partially 
dispensed  with,  but  in  1536  they  were  recalled, 
since  so  many  questions  came  up  in  which  their 
judgment,  as  expositors  of  God's  word,  was  needed. 
In  the  same  year  Bern  conquered  Vaud  and  the 
other  Savoyard  lands  to  the  southwest,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  introduce  the  Reformation  on  its  own 
principles.  The  ministers  of  Vaud,  especially 
Viret  and  Besa,  wished  to  set  up  a  system  of  strict 


church  discipline  on  the  Geneva  model;  but  this 
did  not  agree  with  the  Bernese  view  of  the  unity  of 
the  State,  including  the  Church  within  itself,  so 
that  ultimately  chapter-courts  were  set  up  in  each 
church  district  of  the  conquered  territory.  The 
ministers,  under  Calvin's  influence,  stood  out  ob- 
stinately for  strictly  ecclesiastical  discipline,  with 
excommunication  for  its  principal  weapon.  Things 
finally  came  to  an  open  breach,  and  the  banishment 
of  a  number  of  the  clergy.  All  this  attracted  greater 
attention  to  the  system  of  chapter-courts;  and 
greater  severity  than  ever  was  shown  against 
wanton  dress,  fortune-telling,  gambling,  and  im- 
moral dances  and  songs.  The  rules  of  the  chapter- 
courts  were  enforced  in  the  old  local  tribimals, 
which  were  gradually  abolished  (1561)  in  the  in- 
terest  of  administrative  unity;  the  same  thing 
happened  (1566)  in  certain  cities,  such  as  Bnigg 
and  Zofingen,  where  the  magistrates  had  for  a  time 
dealt  with  matrimonial  causes  and  general  morality. 
Viret  and  his  friends  had,  however,  been  right  in 
a  way.  The  chapter-courts  Were,  after  all,  of  the 
nature  of  civil  government  and  police.  As  such, 
they  had  done  a  good  deal  for  external  morality 
and  order;  but  they  could  do  little  for  the  pro- 
motion of  'vital  piety;  their  connection  with  the 
Church  was  loose  and  external.  The  duty  of  ex- 
amining and  licensing  candidates  for  church  offices, 
which  had  been  originally  given  to  them,  fell  to 
another  body  very  soon;  the  clergy  managed  their 
own  discipline  in  their  own  assemblies;  and  in  the 
end  the  chapter-courts  had  nothing  but  questions 
of  marriage  and  paternity  and  an  external  police 
dea  mceurs.  After  1704  appeals  were  granted  to 
the  town  council  or  the  Two  Hundred;  and  in 
1708  the  number  was  changed  to  eight  secular 
judges  with  two  clerical  assessors.  They  had  now 
a  formal  code  of  their  own,  with  purely  secular 
penalties,  which  was  revised  or  enlarged  at  need. 
They  continued  to  exist  (except  in  the  period  of 
the  Helvetic  Republic,  1798-1803)  imtil  the  re- 
vision of  the  constitution  in  1831.  By  the  law  of 
1874  most  of  the  duties  of  the  chapter-courts  were 
given  to  the  "  church-coimcils,"  which  now  regu- 
late questions  of  morality  in  so  far  as  the  modem 
State  permits.  (E.  BLOscHtO 

Bibuography:  C.  B.  HundMhagen,  Die  Konflikte  in  der 
Bern.  Landeekirehe,  in  C.  Trechsel,  Beitrdge,  Bern.  1841- 
1842;  Friokert.  Die  Kircheng^itudie  in  Bern,  Aaniu,  1846; 
Von  StOrler,  in  Archiv  dee  hietoriechen  Vereine  von  Bern, 
1862;  E.  Eeli,  Acteneammlung  eur  OeechidUe  der  ZUrcher 
ReformaHon,  Zurioh,  1879. 

CHARACTER:  The  composite  of  definite  moral 
and  personal  traits  which  serves  to  distinguish  an 
individual  and  to  mark  the  type  to  which  he  belongs. 
Morality  is  essentially  a  matter  of  wUl,  and  thus  of 
free  agency.  The  will  is,  therefore,  closely  associ- 
ated with  character ;  but  it  exists,  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word,  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  free  and  accepts  the 
new  modification  voluntarily,  instead  of  possessing 
it  by  nature,  or  being  constrained  to  it  by  external 
influences.  The  criterion  of  character,  in  Kantian 
phrase,  is  ''not  what  nature  makes  of  man,  but 
what  man  makes  of  himself."  Character  must, 
therefore,  di£fer  essentially  from  the  original  dis- 
position of  man.    The  ctifferent  forces  and  im- 


11 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohapter  and  Verse  Division 
Ohariemata 


pulses  of  the  mental  life  form  the  basis,  means,  and 
mateiial  for  will  and  character,  but  in  themselves 
thejr  are  only  anteethical.  They  may,  further- 
more, be  devoted  cither  to  lofty  or  to  low  ethical 
ends.  Such  a  naturalistic  basis  can  not  be  allowed 
to  ooodition  the  principle  of  decision  for  or  against 
the  will  of  God,  nor  can  it  be  permitted  to  control 
the  mora]  demand  and  aims.  In  terms  of  Christian 
ethics  the  fundamental  requirements  for  a  noble 
character  are  that,  as  divine  revelation  demands 
and  renders  possible,  it  should  obtain  a  heart 
established  with  grace  through  faith  (Heb.  xiii.  9), 
that  it  be  strengthened  with  might  by  the  Spirit 
and  become  rooted  and  grounded  in  self-denying 
lo\ie  (Eph.  iii.  16  sqq.),  that  it  come  unto  a  per- 
fect man,  unto  the  measure  of  the  stature  of  the 
fubtesB  of  Christ  (Eph.  iv.  13;  I  Cor.  xvi.  13), 
and  that  it  be  ready  to  perform  faithfully  every 
duty  which  its  special  ability  and  position  in  the 
vorid  requires.  The  natural  dispositions,  however, 
retain  their  importance  for  the  weal  or  wo  of 
character,  and  influences  of  the  temperament  may 
facilitate  or  aggravate  the  change  for  good  or  bad. 
On  this  account  the  will  must  influence  nature  lest 
it  should  destroy  the  formation  of  character  and 
check  the  fulfilment  of  certain  individual  duties, 
80  that  the  natural  man  must  accordingly  become 
subject  to  righteous  will.  Even  where  it  w  im- 
possible to  overcome  certain  natural  dispositions, 
character  must  at  least  oppose  them,  and  assert 
its  authority  by  discipline.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  natural  elements  of  psychic  life  should  be  allowed 
a  certain  influence  on  the  will,  in  case  their  tend- 
ency is  good.  Additional  influences  and  factors 
siise  from  external  conditions  and  social  positions, 
so  that  cluuacter  may  be  defined,  with  Scharling, 
"  as  the  impress  of  the  will  on  the  basis  of  natiu^l 
individuality."  Thus  arises  an  endless  variety 
and  diversity  of  characters,  ovnng  partly  to  moral 
and  immoral  free  will,  partly  to  varying  tempera^ 
ments,  and  partl3r  to  the  manifold  relations  be- 
tween the  will,  natural  disposition,  and  personal 
experience.  True  ethical  goodness  of  the  character, 
however,  always  lies  in  that  will  which  resigns 
itself  to  the  moral  principles,  subjects  the  natural 
man  to  them,  and  at  the  same  time  endeavors  to 
become  fit  for  the  tasks  assigned  to  it  individually, 
ever  striving  to  become  better  adapted  to  its  en- 
dowment and  position.  Christian  ethics  must 
naturally  be  directed  from  the  very  first  toward 
developing  and  strengthening  the  character.  Suc- 
ee«  here  implies  not  only  a  mature  discretion  and 
insight  into  the  basal  principles  of  morality,  but 
also  a  thorough  understanding  of  one's  own  tem- 
perament and  of  mankind  and  the  world. 

(J.  KOSTLINt.) 

CHAiaOT.    See  War. 

CHARISKATA,  cd-ris'ma-ta:  The  term  used 
by  theologians  to  designate  the  remarkable  signs  of 
the  divine  favor  and  power  which  accompanied 
the  work  of  the  primitive  Chureh,  beginning  with 
the  gift  of  tongues  on  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
fhe  belief  in  such  signs  exists  to-day  among 
large  nnmbera  of  Protestants  as  well  as  in 
the  Roman    Catholic    Church,    with  the    differ- 


ence that  the  latter  sees  in  the  miracles 
of  the  saints  the  continuation  of  these  mirac- 
ulous powers,  while  on  the  evangelical  side  they 
are  supposed  to  have  ceased  at  the  latest  with  the 
first  three  centuries,  either  through  the  fault  of 
the  Chureh  or  by  God's  design.  The  question  of 
the  continuance  of  the  charismata  is  in  many 
modem  treatises  connected  with  that  of  the  con- 
tinuance of  miracles,  the  writers  regarding  the 
gift  of  supernatural  power  to  effect  supernatural 
operations  as  a  fulfilment  of  Mark  xvi.  17,  18. 
Baur,  on  the  other  hand,  saw  in  the  charismata 
only  the  gifts  and  dispositions  which  the  individual 
converts  brought  to  Christianity,  transformed  by 
the  working  of  the  Spirit  into  the  various  forms 
of  Christian  consciousness  and  life.  This  view, 
which  excludes  any  giving  of  power  to  work  mir- 
acles, as  well  as  any  new  divine  gift  or  divine  re- 
enforcement  of  nattu^  gifts,  is  demonstrably  not 
(as  Baur  claims)  Pauline,  but  can  not  here  be  con- 
troverted at  length.  The  word  charisma  itself  does 
not  tell  anything  as  to  the  nature  of  the  gifts. 
Except  in  one  passage  of  Philo  and  in  I  Pet.  iv.  10, 
it  is  only  foimd  in  Paul's  use  of  it,  though  probably 
not  formed  by  him.  In  most  of  the  places  where 
he  employs  it,  it  denotes  an  extraordinary  evidence 
of  God's  favor;  in  II  Cor.  i.  11,  his  own  deliverance 
from  death;  in  Rom.  i.  11  a  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
such  as  comfort  or  illumination.  In  other  places 
it  refers  to  special  gifts  bestowed  upon  the  Chris- 
tian (I  Tim.  iv.  14;  II  Tim.  1.  6)  as  signs  and  tokens 
of  the  grace  received  by  belief  in  the  message  of 
redemption  (I  Cor.  i.  6,  7),  which  render  him  ca- 
pable of  a  particular  kind  of  action,  in  order  to  ren- 
der some  special  service  to  the  whole  body  (I  Cor. 
xii.  4  sqq.).  The  place,  therefore,  that  each  mem- 
ber has  in  the  community  he  has  by  virtue  of  a 
charisma,  which  he  is  to  administer  to  his  brethren 
(I  Pet.  iv.  10).  Natural  powers  as  such  are  useless 
to  the  life  of  the  body  of  Christ;  what  it  needs 
must,  like  itself,  be  spiritual.  Charismata,  then,  may 
be  defined  as  powers  and  capacities  necessary  for 
the  edification  of  the  Church,  bestowed  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  upon  its  members,  in  virtue  of  which 
they  are  enabled  to  employ  their  natural  faculties 
in  the  service  of  the  Church,  or  are  endowed  with 
new  abilities  for  this  purpose.  According  to  I  Cor. 
xii.  18;  Rom.  xii.  5-8;  Eph.  iv.  11,  the  charismata 
form  the  basis  of  the  offices  in  the  Chureh.  There 
can  be  no  office  without  a  charisma;  but  not  all 
charismata  are  applicable  to  the  exerdse  of  an 
office.  Those  which  correspond  to  permanent  and 
invariable  needs  of  the  Church  form  the  basis  of 
offices,  the  others  do  not.  To  the  latter  class  be- 
long those  of  a  miraculous  or  extraordinary  char- 
acter, like  those  which  are  peculiar  to  the  apostles 
or  to  the  apostolic  period.  Since  the  number  of 
the  charismata  must  correspond  to  the  needs  of 
the  Church,  it  follows  that  the  lists  in  I  Cor.  xii., 
Eph.  iv.,  and  Rom.  xii.  can  not  be  taken  as  ex- 
haustive. (H.  CREMERf.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  W.  J.  Conybeare  and  J.  8.  Howson.  lAfe  and 
EpUOM  of  8t  Paul,  chap,  sdii..  New  York,  1809;  Schaff. 
ChritHan  Churtik,  i.  230-242,  436-444  (reviews  the  opin- 
ionB);  Neander.  ChriaHan  Ckwnh,  i.  180-188  et  paanm; 
M.  Lauterburg.  Der  Begriff  d§a  ChariMma,  in  A.  Schlatter 
and  H.  Cremer,  BeitrOge  gur  Forderung  cMttfidber  7%#0- 


Charity 
Obarlemaffne 


THE    NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


12 


logie,  Gatereloh.  1898;    KL,  iii.  82-80;    DC  A,  i.  349-350; 
commentaries  oo  Acts.  Romans,  Corinthians,  and  £pbe- 


CHARITY,  BROTHERS  OF  (Fratres  caritcUis): 
A  name  common  to  several  benevolent  orders  of 
the  Western  Church  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
IB  applied  especially  to  the  society  founded  about 
1280  by  a  landowner  Guido  at  Joinville,  the  Frhes 
de  la  ChariU  de  la  bienfieureuse  Marie,  to  which 
Clement  VI.  gave  an  Augustinian  rule  and  which 
took  charge  of  the  great  Parisian  hospital  Les 
Billets  from  the  fourteenth  century  until  about 
1640.  In  1540,  almost  contemporaneous  with  the 
rise  of  the  Jesuits,  an  order  was  founded  in  Grenada 
by  the  Portuguese  Juan  Ciudad,  called  John  of 
God  (b.  1495;  d.  Mar.  8,  1550),  which  was  gen- 
erally known  under  the  name  of  Brothers  of  Charity. 
After  a  life  of  dissipation  and  wild  adventures  in 
the  army  of  the  Hungarian  King  Ferdinand  I.  in 
his  campaigns  against  the  Turks,  John  was  con- 
verted by  a  sermon  of  the  famous  Juan  d'Avila, 
and  imderwent  the  most  excessive  penances,  on 
which  account  he  was  regarded  as  a  madman. 
Learning  by  hia  own  experience  how  the  insane 
were  treated  in  the  hospitals  of  those  days,  he 
resolved  to  devote  himself  especially  to  the  nurs- 
ing of  these  unfortunates  and  others  in  special 
need.  In  the  house  which  he  rented  at  Grenada, 
and  which  became  the  first  scene  of  his  self-sacri- 
ficing work  of  love,  he  received  only  the  sick  from 
the  poorest  classes.  Soon  he  gathered  around  him- 
self and  his  first  two  associates,  Martino  and  Ve- 
lasco,  a  number  of  sympathetic  laymen.  After  ten 
years'  activity  he  died,  and  Martino  took  charge  of 
the  institution,  which  as  yet  had  neither  a  written 
rule  nor  a  monastic  organization.  The  number  of 
houses  soon  increased,  especially  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  large  hospital  at  Madrid,  which 
was  richly  endowed  by  Philip  II.,  to  which  others 
were  soon  added  in  different  cities  of  Spain, 
Italy,  and,  after  the  seventeenth  century,  in  France 
and  Germany.  The  bull  of  authorization  issued 
by  Pius  V.  (Jan.  1,  1572)  elevated  the  lay  society 
to  an  order  with  the  Augustinian  rule,  and  placed 
their  houses  under  episcopal  jurisdiction,  although 
the  brethren  were  permitted  to  elect  their  directors 
(majoreSf  not  priores  or  abbaUa)  and  to  present  some 
of  their  number  for  the  priesthood.  A  general 
chapter  held  at  Rome  by  Sixtus  V.  prepared  the 
outlines  of  the  constitution  of  the  order.  These 
articles  were  first  published  in  1589,  and  were  en- 
larged imder  Paul  V.,  Alexander  VII.,  and  Clement 
XI.  (cf.  the  final  redaction  dating  from  1718,  in 
Holstenius-Brockie,  Codex  regiUaruniy  vi.  293-362). 
The  statutes  included  in  their  requirements  a 
thorough  medical  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
hospital  staff.  The  secular  head  -master  and  the 
chief  tender  of  the  sick  had  to  be  an  experienced 
physician  and  siirgeon,  respectively.  Of  the  eleven 
provinces  in  which  the  order  is  found,  ten  belong 
to  the  old  world,  one  to  America.  The  number  of 
houses  is  at  present  about  120.    (O.  ZOcKLERf.) 

Bibliography:  The  early  Vita  of  John  of  God  ore  given  in 
A8B,  MftTch.  i.  814-^68.  Coiunilt  the  more  modem  treat- 
ments: L.  Saclier,  VU  de  S.  Jean  de  Dieu,  avee  Vhietoire 
.  .  .  de  la  fondoHon  et  du  diveloppement  de  eon  ordre,  Paris, 
1877;    C.  Wilmet,  Ltbenebeeehreibuno  dee  ,  .  .  Johannee 


von  GoU,  Regensburg.  I860.  Further,  on  the  order,  con- 
sult: Helyot,  Ordree  monaeUquee,  iv.  131-147;  Heim- 
bucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen,  ii.  491-496. 

CHARITY,  CHRISTIAN:  As  distinguished  from 
mere  compassion,  which  may  be  but  a  transiton* 
emotion  or  a  desire  without  accomplishment,  char- 
ity requires  the  cooperation  of  the  will;  it  pre- 
supposes a  permanent  willingness  to  help  one's 
neighbor  in  his  need.  If  love  comprehends  thf 
whole  of  Christian  moral  obligations  (Rom.  xiii.  9(. 
charity  is  its  manifestation  toward  our  fellows, 
whether  in  temporal  or  in  spiritual  need.  It  is  a 
permanent  attribute  of  God  (II  Cor.  i.  3),  because 
human  misery  is  always  before  his  eyes,  and  has 
been  operative  in  him  from  all  eternity,  in  his  plan 
of  redemption.  Under  the  old  covenant,  Gkxl. 
revealing  himself  as  merciful  and  gracious,  required 
his  people  to  show  mercy  toward  their  needy  breth- 
ren (Zech.  vii.  9).  It  has,  however,  a  deeper  foun- 
dation in  the  New  Testament.  As  the  children  of 
God  by  their  brotherhood  with  Jesus  Christ,  the 
disciples  could  not  but  imitate  the  mercy  of  God 
(Luke  vi.  36);  he  who  failed  in  this  re>»nl  showed 
that  he  was  imworthy  of  membership  in  the  new 
kingdom  (Matt,  zvfii.  33;  James  fi.  13).  The 
ethical  organization  of  men  is  founded  upon  charity, 
and  destroyed  by  its  absence  (Luke  x.  37;  Heb.  ii. 
17,  iv.  15).  Thus  the  true  Good  Samaritan  is  not 
only  the  model,  but  the  source  of  all  real  charity, 
and  his  disciples  show  their  fellowship  with  him 
by  it  (Matt.  ix.  13;  Rom.  xii.  4-5).  It  is  the  charac- 
teristic difference  between  the  Christian  and  the 
non-Christian  world,  which  knows  little  of  it.  Noth- 
ing in  primitive  Christianity  so  struck  the  outside 
observer;  even  the  emperor  Julian  was  obliged 
to  admit  its  force,  while  he  strove  in  vain  to  imi- 
tate it.  Step  by  step  it  did  away  with  heathen 
customs — ^infanticide,  removal  of  the  weak  and 
sickly,  brutality  to  slaves;  it  built  hospitals  and 
asylums  everywhere. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  according  to  the 
development  of  ethics  since  Ambrose  in  the  form 
of  a  system  of  virtues  and  duties,  charity  is  con- 
sidered under  both  heads.  Thomas  Aquinas  reckons 
it  among  the  so-called  "  theological  virtues,"  and 
says  that  it  is  the  highest  of  the  virtues  which  go 
out  to  our  neighbor.  He  enumerates  seven  cor- 
poral works  of  mercy  (feeding  the  hungry,  giving 
drink  to  the  thirsty,  clothing  the  naked,  ransoming 
the  captive,  sheltering  the  homeless,  visiting  the 
sick,  and  burying  the  dead),  and  seven  spiritual 
(admonishing  sinners,  instructing  the  ignorant, 
counseling  the  doubtful,  comforting  the  sorrowful, 
bearing  wrongs  patiently,  forgiving  all  injuries, 
praying  for  the  living  and  the  dead). 

(L.  Lemme.) 
Bibliggrapht:    The  stAndard   work  is   G.   Uhlhom.    Die 

chrietliche  UebeethdHgktit,    3    vols..   Stuttgart,    1882-9a 

£ng.  transl.  of  vol.  i..  New  York,  1883. 

CHARTTT,  SISTERS  OF:  A  name  applied 
loosely  to  various  female  conmiunities  in  the  Ronian 
Catholic  Church  devoted  especially  to  the  care  of 
the  sick  and  the  poor.  Some  associations  of  this 
kind  will  be  treated  in  the  article  Women,  Con- 
OREOATioNS  OF.  For  the  Irish  Sisters  of  Charity 
see  English  Ladies.     It  will  be  necessary  here  to 


13 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Charity 
Oharlemaffne 


tieal  only  of  the  two  best  known  and  most  influ- 
ential of  tbeae  communities. 

1.  The  Sistere  of  Charity  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul : 
The  title  of  Confr^rie  de  la  charUi  pour  V  assistance 
ipiritueUe  et  corporelle  dee  pauvres  malades  was  given 
by  Vincent  de  Paul  (q.v.)  originally  to  the  asso- 
ciation of  women  which  he  organized  in  1617  in  his 
small  parish  of  ChAtillon-les-Dombes,  in  the  diocese 
of  Lyons,  and  which,  after  approval  of  its  statutes 
by  the  archbishop,  spread  also  to  other  places. 
.AJfter  the  final  transfer  of  its  headquarters  to  Paris 
:1618),  he  founded  similar  associations  in  the 
capital  and  its  neighborhood.  He  entrusted  the 
direction  of  these  Dames  de  la  Charity,  after  the 
lieath  of  his  patroness  the  Countess  of  Gondy  (1625)i 
to  the  devoted  Louise  Marillac,  under  whose  guid- 
ance the  development  of  the  rapidly  growing  asso- 
ciation into  a  community  of  unmarried  women 
began  in  1633,  in  which  year  the  first  of  such  mem- 
bers were  admitted  to  the  confraternity.  On  the 
Fc^Ht  of  the  Annunciation  in  the  following  year  a 
number  of  these  FiUes  servantes  des  pauvres  de  la 
ckaritt  (biter  commonly  known  as  Scmre  Grises 
from  their  gray  habit)  took  their  vows  at  the  village 
of  La  Chapellc  near  Paris.  Eight  years  later  they 
were  transferred  to  the  city  itself,  where,  by  the 
time  of  the  death  of  Vincent  and  Louise  Marillac 
<br>th  in  1660),  they  had  already  twenty-eight 
liouses.  The  rule  drawn  up  by  the  foimder  was 
confiraied  by  Clement  IX.  in  1668.  It  includes 
the  obligation  of  rising  daily  at  four  o'clock,  making 
a  meditation  twice  daily,  willingly  tending  all  the 
sick,  even  the  most  repulsive,  and  rendering  un- 
conditional obedience  to  superiors.  Life-vows  were 
not  taken  by  the  sisters,  but  after  a  probation  of 
five  years  a  vo^^  of  obedience  was  pronounced 
which  was  to  be  renewed  from  year  to  year.  The 
opler  was  placed  in  a  sort  of  dependence  on  the 
"  Priests  of  the  Slission,"  or  Lazarists,  whose  su- 
perior was  to  be  their  director.  The  order  spread 
during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
principally  in  France  and  Poland,  and  reached  the 
number  of  500  houses.  With  the  other  religious 
oniers  it  was  suppressed  at  the  Revolution,  but 
continued  its  self-sacrificing  labors  none  the  less, 
until  it  was  formally  reestablished  by  Napoleon  in 
1^7.  and  began  a  new  and  wider  growth.  In 
France  alone  it  had  about  400  houses  in  1890;  but 
the  hiicudngof  the  hospitals  carried  out  by  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  last  few  years  has  considerably 
weakened  it  since.  Its  total  membership  in  all 
countries  is  supposed  at  present  to  be  about 
30.000.  [The  sisters  of  charity  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  were  established  in  the  United  States  in  1809 
by  Elizabeth  Seton  (q.v.).  In  1907  this  branch  of 
the  order  ntmibered  4,698  professed  sisters  and  had 
charge  of  27  asylums,  33  orphanages,  27  acade- 
mies, and  103  parochial  schools.] 

2.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St  Charles:  A 
community  of  similar  nature  and  purpose  grew  up 
under  this  name  in  1626  in  the  great  hospital  of 
St.  Charies  Borromeo  at  Nancy.  The  general  of 
the  Premonstraten^ians,  Epiphanius  Ludovicus, 
abbot  of  Estival,  drew  up  in  1652  a  rule  for  it, 
a^^rording  to  which  the  members  were  to  take  the 
three  usual  monastic  vows,  together  with  a  fourth 


binding  them  to  devote  themselves  for  life  to  the 
care  of  the  sick  poor  and  friendless  children.  From 
the  mother  house  at  Nanpy  they  spread  first  through 
France,  and  in  the  nineteenth  century  through  a 
large  part  of  Germany  and  Austria.  At  the  end 
of  this  century  they  numbered  about  450  houses 
with  nearly  3,000  members,  divided  into  four  con- 
gregations at  Nancy,  Prague,  Trebnitz,  and  Treves. 

(O.  ZdCKLEBf.) 

Biblioorapht:  F.  Bournaud.  Lea  Senara,  1633-1000,  Parw. 
1900;  F.  F.  Buflfl,  Der  Orden  der  barmhenigen  Sehvoeatem, 
SchaffliauBen,  1847;  D.  Wulf,  Daa  aegenareiche  Wirken 
der  Schweatem,  MOnster.  1861;  Siatera  of  Charity,  Catholic 
and  Proteatant,  London,  1856;  G.  Uhlhorn,  Die  ehriaUiche 
LiebeaUiAtiokeit  aeit  der  Reformation,  pp.  210-227,  Stuttgart, 
1882;  F.  Herv4-Baiin,  Lea  Oranda  Ordrta  dea  femmea, 
ParlB.  1880;  C.  de  Richemont.  Hiatoire  da  Mme.  U  Oraa, 
ib.  1894;  L.  Baunard.  La  VHUrable  Louiae  de  MarUlae, 
Paris,  1808;  B.  R.  Parkes.  Hiatoric  Nuna,  London.  1808; 
Currier,  Religioua  Ordera,  pp.  446-462;  Heimbucher. 
Orden  und  KonQregaHonen,  ii.  430-438. 

CHARLEMAGNE. 

Ecclesiastical  Policy  of  the  Prankish  Kings  (11). 
Charlemagne's  Policy  (I  2). 
Coronation  as  Emperor  (}  3). 
His  Services  to  Learning  (|  4). 
The  loonoolastic  Controversy  (|  6). 

Charlemagne  or  Charles  the  Great  (Lat.  Carolus 
Magnus),  founder  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
was  the  son  of  Pepin,  the  first  of  the  Carolingian 
line  of  Prankish  kings,  and  grandson  of  Charles 
Martel,  the  powerful  mayor  of  the  palace  under  the 
last  Merovingian  kings.  He  was  bom  c.  742,  per- 
haps at  Aachen  or  Ingelheim;  d.  at  Aachen  Jan. 
28,  814.  With  his  father  and  younger 
I.  Ecclesi-  brother,  Karlman,  he  was  anointed 
astical  king  of  the  Franks  by  Pope  Stephen  II. 
Policy  of  in  754.  He  ruled  jointly  with  Karbnan 
the  Frank-  after  Pepin's  death  in  768,  and  alone 
ish  Kings,  after  Karlman's  death  in  771.  He  was 
crowned  emperor  of  the  Romans  at 
Rome  by  Pope  Leo  III.  on  Christmas  Day,  800. 
In  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  matters  Charle- 
magne carried  out  with  consummate  ability  the 
policy  of  his  father.  From  Qovis,  the  first  Mero- 
vingian king  (481-511;  see  Franks),  onward  the 
Frajoki^h  rulers  piu^ued  the  policy  of  endowing 
and  extending  the  Roman  Church  as  a  means  of 
consolidating  and  strengthening  the  civil  adminis- 
tration. The  conquest  of  heathen  peoples  was  not 
thought  complete  until  they  were  Christianized 
and  the  newly  acquired  territory  had  been  provi- 
ded with  a  well-ordered  and  comprehensive  eccle- 
siastical establishment.  Resources  devoted  to 
ecclesiastical  equipment  and  endowment  were  sup- 
posed to  jrield  the  best  possible  results  in  assim- 
ilating and  loyalizing  the  communities  in  which 
they  were  expended.  Where  land  was  abundant 
it  cost  little  to  endow  with  landed  estates  arch- 
bishoprics, bishoprics,  abbacies,  etc.,  especially  as 
the  incumbents  owed  allegiance  to  their  bene- 
factors and  could  be  relied  upon  for  any  kind  of 
needful  service. 

The  Ijombards  (q.v.)  had  long  been  a  thorn  in  the 
side  of  the  papacy.  In  739  Pope  Gregory  III.  had 
entreated  Charles  Martel  to  come  to  his  relief,  but 
Charles  was  not  ready  for  so  great  an  undertaJdng^ 


Oh»rL„ 

Charles 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


14 


In  753  Stephen  II.  gained  permission  to  visit  Pepin 
for  secret  conference.  Pepin  sent  his  young  sons 
Charles  and  Karbnan  to  meet  him,  and  received 
him  (754)  with  the  utmost  cordiality.  The  con- 
ference was  epoch-making.  With  the  concurrence 
of  his  nobles,  Pepin  made  with  the  pope  an  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliance,  recogniased  the  pope's 
ecclesiastical  headship,  and  undertook  to  deliver 
the  papal  territory  from  Lombard  oppression  and 
to  promote  the  papal  cause  in  all  Prankish  posses- 
sions and  dependencies;  while  the  pope  commended 
Rome  and  the  Romans  to  the  protection  of  the 
king,  crowned  him  patriciits  Romanorum  and  king 
of  the  Franks,  crowned  his  two  sons,  and  undertook 
to  support  the  Prankish  kingdom  in  every  possible 
way.  A  successful  campaign  against  the  Lom- 
bards (754)  led  to  the  bestowal  on  the  pope  of  the 
territory  claimed  as  the  patrimony  of  Peter  (see 
Papal  States)  and  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  but 
the  conquest  did  not  prove  permanent,  and  it  was 
left  for  Charlemagne  to  complete  it  (774). 

From  his  childhood  Charlemagne  was  carefully 
instructed  by  his  father  in  warfare  and  in  state- 
craft, and  in  eariy  youth  was  associated  with  his 
father  in  the  government  of  the  realm.  When 
crowned  at  St.  Denis  (754)  he  was 
a.  Charle-  made  to  promise  to  Peter  and  his 

magne's  vicar  or  his  successors  to  be  a  friend  to 
Policy,  their  friends  and  an  enemy  to  their 
enemies.  As  ruler  his  policy  was  to 
extend  his  kingdom  as  widely  as  possible  by  con- 
quest and  to  bring  the  whole  domain  into  a  well- 
ordered  and  homogeneous  organism  by  diffusing 
throughout  Christian  civilization.  His  five  cam- 
paigns against  the  Lombards  (773,  774,  776,  780, 
and  7S4)  had  for  their  object  the  emancipation  of 
the  Church  from  Lombard  oppression  and  encroach- 
ment and  the  inclusion  of  their  territory  in  his  own 
domain.  The  bestowment  of  a  portion  of  the 
territory  upon  the  Roman  See  and  the  apparent 
recognition  of  the  alleged  Donation  of  Constantine 
(q.v.)  involved  no  surrender  of  his  own  sovereignty. 
His  eighteen  expeditions  against  the  Saxons  (770- 
784)  had  for  their  object  the  subjugation  of  their 
territoiy  to  Prankish  rule  and  the  Christianization 
of  the  entire  population.  He  regarded  the  latter 
work,  with  the  establishment  of  a  full  ecclesiastical 
system  dependent  on  the  Roman  See,  as  necessary 
to  the  permanence  and  effectiveness  of  the  former. 
His  five  campaigns  against  the  Saracens  in  It<aly 
were  for  the  protection  of  Prankish  territory  and 
of  Roman  Christiam'ty.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  his  seven  campaigns  against  the  Arabs  in  Spain. 
Many  of  his  wars  were  for  the  protection  of  fron- 
tiers already  established;  but  when  territory  was 
once  definitely  acquired  and  incorporated  in  his 
realm  his  first  thought  was  to  provide  for  the  speedy 
Christianization  of  its  population  by  covering  the 
territory  with  Christian  institutions  and  by  com- 
pelling the  people  to  submit  to  baptism  and  con- 
form to  the  cultus  of  the  Church.  Free  forms  of 
Christianity  fared  little  better  with  Charlemagne 
and  his  predecessors  than  paganism,  imiformity 
and  articulation  with  the  Holy  Catholic  Church 
being  regarded  as  essential  for  the  purposes  of  the 
State.    The  infliction  of  the  death  penalty  for 


attempts  to  evade  baptism,  for  desecration  or 
destruction  of  church  property,  and  for  the  cele- 
bration of  pagan  rites  was  based  upon  his  con- 
viction that  the  Christianization  of  the  entire 
population  was  essential  to  the  accomplishment  of 
his  political  ends. 

In  790  Pope  Leo  III.,  sorely  beset  by  a  hostile 

faction  and  driven  from  Rome,  made  his  way  to 

the  king's  court  at  Paderbom.     He  was  received 

with  all  honor  and  sent  back  with  a 

3.  Corona-  royal  guard  and  assurance  of  ample 
tion  as      protection.     Near    the    end    of    800 

Emperor.  Charlemagne  visited  Rome  to  com- 
plete the  restoration  of  order  and  of  the 
pope's  authority,  and  on  Dec.  25,  while  engaged  in 
a  religious  service,  he  was  crowned  emperor  by  the 
grateful  pope.  This  coronation  was  prized  by 
Charlemagne  as  involving  a  recognition  by  the  Ro- 
man See,  the  most  influential  surviving  represent- 
ative of  Roman  dignity  and  authority,  of  his  right 
to  be  regarded  as  the  legitimate  successor  of  the 
CsBsars  and  as  a  solemn  expression  of  the  pope's 
determination  to  make  common  cause  with  him 
in  the  work  of  building  up  a  world-wide  empire  in 
which  the  Roman  form  of  religion  should  have 
exclusive  sway.  It  is  evident  that  he  had  no 
thought  of  subordinating  the  civil  to  the  eccle- 
siastical authority.  After  the  coronation  as  before, 
he  legislated  as  freely  in  ecclesiastical  as  in  civil 
matters.  His  capitularies  and  laws  abound  in 
minute  regulations  for  evexy  department  of  eccle- 
siastical life  and  work. 

Of    primazy    importance    was    the    educational 

movement  begun  by  Pepin  and  carried  forward 

with  unremitting  zeal  and  vast  expenditure   by 

Charlemagne.     He   had   a  deep   per- 

4.  His  Serv-  sonal  interest  in  all  forms  of  knowl- 
ices  to      edge,  and  throughout  his  reign  was 

Learning,  diligent  in  his  efforts  to  learn.  The 
most  eminent  scholars  of  Britain  and 
of  Italy  were  drawn  into  his  service.  Something 
tike  a  university  was  maintained  in  the  court,  and 
by  an  educational  system  under  the  guidance  of 
Alcuin  (q.v.)  he  sought  to  diffuse  civilization 
throughout  his  realm.  The  monasteries  and  the 
churches  were  the  chosen  channels  for  the  qjread 
of  enlightenment.  It  is  probable  that  no  other 
ruler  ever  accomplished  so  much  for  the  diffusion 
of  learning.  A  statement  by  Einhard  (Vita,  xxv.) 
that  the  emperor  could  not  write  can  not  fairly 
be  taken  to  mean  more  than  that  he  neglected  to 
acquire  a  skilful  use  of  the  pen,  preferring  the  serv- 
ices of  amanuenses.  He  is  said  to  have  had  a 
speaking  knowledge  of  Latin,  to  have  understood 
Greek,  and  to  have  had  some  acquaintance  with 
Hebrew. 

Charlemagne  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Pepin 
in  his  attitude  toward  the  worship  of  images.     The 
Caroline  Books  (q.v.),  put  forth  in  the  name  of 
Charlemagne  and  with  his  authority, 
5.  The      combated  the  decisions  of  the  Second 
Iconoclastic  Nicene   Council    in   favor   of   image- 
Controversy,  worship,  approved  by  the  pope,  wlHle 
at  the  same  time  condemning  icono- 
clasm.     Images  are  declared  to  be  useful  for  the 
ornamentation  of  the  churches  and  the  perpetuation 


18 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OhftrleaMgae 
Charles  vT 


of  holy  deeds,  yet  they  are  by  no  means  neoessaiy. 
ChristuDS  having  fellowship  with  Christ  ought 
]ilwa3rB  to  have  him  present  in  their  hearts  and  to 
be  able  to  look  beyond  the  sensible  into  the  spiritual. 
The  Scriptures  and  not  images  are  the  proper 
outward  means  for  gaining  acquaintance  with 
Christ.  The  Synod  of  Frankfort  (794),  called 
and  controlled  by  Chariemagne,  condemned  the 
adoration  and  service  of  images  (see  Images  and 
Imagk-worship,  II.).  The  negotiations  between 
Charlemagne  and  the  empress  Irene  looking  to- 
ward the  marriage  of  the  two  sovereigns  and  the 
reuniting  of  the  East  and  the  West,  which  were 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  overthrow  of  the  em- 
press (802),  no  doubt  had  in  view  the  worid-wide 
unification  of  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil  admin- 
istration. 

Chariemagne  paid  little  heed  to  moral  or  eccle- 
siastical considerations  in  contracting  and  annul- 
ling his  marriages,  and  had  no  idea  of  limiting  liim- 
self  to  one  wife  at  a  time.  Besides  several  regular 
mairiages,  he  sustained  semimarital  relations  with 
a  number  of  women,  whose  children  he  recognized 
and  provided  for. 

A.  H.  Newbcan. 

BiBXJoomAFST:  A  convenient  lift  of  souroes  18  given  in 
Pottluwt,  W^gvm»er,  pp.  192-194.  1234-35.  The  Opera 
Ommia,  iadndinK  letten,  ftre  in  MPL,  xcrii.-xcviii.  The 
CmpOularia,  ed.  O.  H.  Ports,  are  in  MGU,Leg.,  i  (1835). 
32-lM,  and  the  Lt^ea  Lanoobardorum  are  in  the  same,  iv 
( 1868).  485-614.  Other  important  early  sources  are  given 
in  MOH,  Script,  i.-ii..  1826-29.  Several  short  docu- 
ments are  given  in  the  original  in  8.  Mathews.  Sdect 
UmUmoal  DoeumenU,  pp.  10-14.  Boston.  1892;  a  capitu- 
lary b  in  EIng.  transl.  in  E.  F.  Henderson,  DoewnenU, 
pp.  180-200:  several  documents  are  in  Thatcher  and  Mo- 
Neal.  &rairos  Book,  pp.  35-38.  Excellent  illustrative  ex- 
tracts are  given  in  English,  with  a  bibliography,  in  Robin- 
son. European  Hialory,  pp.  126-149. 

The  fundamental  life  is  the  Vita  Koroli  Maoni  by  Ein- 
hard:  it  is  in  A8B,  Jan..  ii.  877-888;  also.  ed.  PerU.  in 
MGB,  Script,  h  (1829).  443-463;  ed.  O.  Waits,  in  ScHpt 
rw.  Germ.,  Hanover.  1880;  in  MPL,  xcvii.  25-62;  a  good 
edition  is  by  A.  Holder.  Freiburg,  1882;  there  is  an  Eng. 
tmncL  by  8.  E.  Turner.  New  York.  1880,  and  in  Thatcher 
and  McNeaJ,  Source  Book,  pp.  38-48.  Modem  treatments 
of  the  life  are:  P.  A.  Thijm,  Karl  der  Groue  und  eeine  Zeit, 
MQBel«r.  1868;  E.  L.  Cutts,  Charlemaone  and  hie  Titnee, 
Ltfkdon.  1887;  J.  I.  Mombert,  Hiat.  of  Charlee  the  Great 
f.»iAi«,  1888  (echolarly.  discusses  the  aouroes);  J.  I. 
Uombcrt,  ffist  of  Chariee  Ike  Great,  ib.  1889;  R.  Foss. 
Kmi  dm'  Qroeee,  Gtltersloh,  1897;  T.  Hodgkin,  Ckarlte 
As  Ormat  New  York.  1897;  H.  W.  C.  Davis,  Charlemaone, 
New  York,  1900. 

Sborter  treatments  or  discussions  of  various  phases  of  his 
fife  aad  activities  are:  A.  Ebert.  AUgemeine  GeechitJUe 
dm  LUeredur  dee  Mittelaltere,  ii.  3-106.  Leipdo,  1880; 
A.  Weet^  Aiadn  and  Ihe  Biee  of  the  Chrieiian  Sehoole,  New 
York,  1803;  E.  F.  Henderson,  Germany  in  the  Middle 
A^ea,  pp.  66  sqq..  New  York,  1894;  F.  Gregorovius,  Rome 
in  Ike  Middle  Apee,  vol.  ii.,  book  iv.,  chaps.  4-7.  vol.  iii., 
book  v.,  chap.  1.  London,  1894-95;  J.  A.  Ketterer,  Karl 
der  Qroem  und  die  Kircke,  Munich,  1898;  C.  L.  Wells, 
Tke  Age  of  Ckarlemaone,  New  York.  1898;  J.  Nover, 
Kmi  der  Groeee  und  eeine  Paladine,  Glogau.  1900;  J. 
Bryee,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  especially  chap,  v.. 
New  York,  1904;  J.  B.  MuUinger.  The  Sehoole  of  Charlee 
Ike  Great  ib.  1904;  H.  Pruts.  The  Age  of  Charlemagne, 
vdL  vitL  of  Hieiorv  of  AU  NaHone,  ed.  J.  H.  Wright.  Phila- 
delphia, 1905:  Milman,  LaHn  Chrietianiiy,  book  iv..  chap, 
lo.,  book  v.,  ehftp  i.;  Neander,  ChrieHan  Church,  vol.  iii., 
pemam;  Sehaff.  ChrtaHan  Church,  iv.  236-249;  Moeller. 
Cyietian  Churdk,  it.  90-96.  (3onsult  also:  8.  Abel  and 
B.  SUnaoa.  JahrhQMAm'  dee  fr&nkiedien  Reiche,  2  vols., 
Ijtipmc  1883;  WattenYmrh,  DGQ;  and  the  literature  under 
Atccmr. 


CHARLES  V. 

Charles's  Policy.    The  Diet  of  Worms  (f  1). 
Political  Events  Favor  the  Protestant  Cause  (f  2). 
Attempts  at  Religious  Unity.     Diet  of  Augsburg  (f  8). 
Efforts  for  a  General  Council  (|  4). 
Renewal  of  Hostilities ;  Failure  to  Secure  Unity  (f  5). 
Abdication  (f  6). 

Charles  V.,  emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
1519-56  and  king  of  Spain  (as  Charles  I.),  was 
bom  at  Ghent  Feb.  24,  1500;  d.  at  the  monastery 
of  San  Jer6mmo  de  Yuste  (124  m.  by  rail  w.s.w. 
of  Madrid),  in  Estramadura,  Sept.  21,  1558.  He 
was  the  son  of  Philip  the  Handsome  of  Austria 
and  Joan  of  Aragon,  grandson  on  the  paternal  side 
of  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  and  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
on  the  maternal  side  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
who  had  united  Aragon  and  Castile  into  the  king- 
dom of  Spain.  In  1516  he  succeeded  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  as  king  of  Spain,  and  ruler  of  the 
Netherlands,  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  (including 
Sicily  and  Sardinia),  Milan,  Luxemburg,  and 
Franche-Comt^.  As  a  member  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg  he  was  archduke  of  Austria.  Thus  as  a 
youth  of  sixteen  he  was  by  far  the  most  powerful 
sovereign  in  Europe.  In  1519  he  was  elected 
emperor  in  competition  with  Fr^ds  I.  of  France, 
largely  through  the  influence  of  Frederick  of  Saxony 
(see  Frederick  III.,  the  Wise). 

From  the  beginning  of  his  reign  as  king  of  Spain 

Charles  was  beset  with  difficulties.     It  reqxiired  the 

most  strenuous  efforts  of  Ximenes,  chief  counselor 

of  Ferdinand,  to  prevent  open  revolt 

I.  Charles's  in  Spain,  where  Charles's  right  to  the 

Policy,      suco^on    was    considered    doubtful 

The  Diet  and  where,  because  of  his  Dutch  train- 
of  Worms,  ing  and  Dutch  counselors,  he  was 
impopular.  He  entered  upon  his  impe- 
rial administration  amid  the  throes  of  the  Prot- 
estant revolution,  threatened  in  the  West  by  the 
jealousy  and  ambition  of  the  king  of  France  and 
in  the  East  by  the  attacks  of  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
who  were  encouraged  by  France  to  do  their  worst. 
The  necessity  of  protecting  the  Netheriands,  his 
Italian  and  other  Western  possessions  from  French 
voracity,  and  the  Eastern  domains  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg  from  Turkish  aggression,  lay  at  the 
basis  of  Charles's  policy  in  ecclesiastical  matters. 
Immediately  after  his  coronation  as  emperor  at 
Aachen  (Oct.,  1520)  the  necessity  of  vigorous 
measures  for  the  suppression  of  Lutheranism  be- 
came manifest.  The  Diet  of  Worms  followed  (Jan. 
28-May  25,  1521),  but  Charles,  influenced  by 
his  confessor,  Quintana,  and  having  a  wholesome 
dread  of  civil  war,  refused  to  deal  as  simimarily 
with  Luther  as  the  papal  nuncio,  Girolamo  Alean- 
dro,  wished.  The  Edict  of  Wonns,  representing 
the  extent  to  which  Charles  was  prepared  to  go  in 
the  direction  of  coercion,  prohibited  the  printing, 
sale,  and  reading  of  Luther^s  books,  and  the  giving 
of  comfort  and  support  to  him;  but  the  safe- 
conduct  under  which  he  had  come  to  Worms  was 
respected  (see  Worms). 

On  May  8  a  secret  treaty  was  made  at  Worms 
betweeh  the  emperor  and  the  pope  against  France. 
Henry  VIII.  of  E^ngland  joined  the  alliance,  hoping 
to  acquire  territory  lost  to  France  and  to  increase 


Oharles  V. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


16 


his  own  importance  by  having  Wolsey,  his  chief 
counselor,  elected  pope.  War  broke  out  almost 
immediately.  The  duke  of  Bourbon 
a.  Political  espoused  the  imperial  cause.  The  pope, 
Events  Fa-  expecting  the  French  to  win  and  fear- 
Yor  the  ing  the  increase  of  imperial  power  in 
Protestant  Italy,  transferred  his  allegiance  to 
Cause.  Francis,  and  thus  angered  the  em- 
peror, who  proved  victorious  and  took 
Francis  prisoner  in  the  (battle  of  Pa  via  (1524). 
The  marriage  of  Charles  to  the  infanta  of  Portugal 
rather  than  to  Mazy,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII., 
caused  the  latter  to  withdraw  from  the  imperial 
alliance  and  make  peace  with  France.  Availing 
themselves  of  the  emperor's  absorption  in  extras 
German  enterprises,  many  German  princes  ignored 
the  Edict  of  Worms  and  openly  promoted  the 
Lutheran  cause.  In  July,  1525,  Duke  George  of 
Saxony,  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  the  arch- 
bishop-elector of  Mainz,  and  the  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick met  at  Dessau  and  formed  a  Catholic  league 
to  cooperate  with  the  emperor  in  exterminating 
"  the  accursed  Lutheran  sect."  In  Feb.,  1526,  the 
elector  of  Saxony  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse 
(joined  later  by  seven  other  princes)  formed  the 
Gotha-Torgau  alliance  for  the  defense  of  Lutheran- 
ism.  The  manifest  strength  of  the  evangelical 
cause  and  his  breach  with  the  pope  caused  Charles 
to  assume  a  conciliatoxy  attitude,  and  the  Diet  of 
Speyer  (June,  1526;  see  Speter,  Diets  op)  left 
the  German  princes  free  to  deal  with  religious 
questions  each  according  to  his  sense  of  duty. 
Turkish  invasion  in  the  east  and  the  need  of  a 
German  army  for  the  chastisei^ent  of  the  pope 
promoted  thiJB  policy  of  toleration.  In  May,  1526, 
a  secret  league  was  formed  by  the  pope,  France, 
England,  Venice,  Milan,  and  Florence,  against  the 
emperor,  who  (Sept.  17)  declared  the  pope  no 
pastor,  but  a  usurper,  and  appealed  from  him  to  a 
general  council.  In  1527  Charles  sent  a  German 
Lutheran  army  led  by  Georg  von  Frundsberg  and 
a  Spanish  army  led  by  the  duke  of  Bourbon  against 
the  pope  and  his  allies.  The  imperial  troops  forced 
their  way  into  Rome  at  the  cost  of  the  lives  of 
about  five  thousand  of  its  defenders  and  for  eight 
days  reveled  in  pillage,  dnmkenness,  and  outrage. 
The  pope  took  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo. 
Cardinals  were  dragged  through  the  city  and  forced 
to  pay  ransom.  St.  Peter's  was  used  for  a  stable. 
Just  before  the  sack  of  Rome  England  and  France 
had  agreed  to  unite  in  demanding  of  the  emperor 
the  release  of  the  French  princes  held  by  him  as 
hostages  and  the  payment  to  England  of  certain 
indemnities,  and  to  make  war  on  him  immediately 
in  case  of  his  refusal.  The  sack  of  Rome  and  mal- 
treatment of  the  pope  augmented  the  hostility  of 
England  and  France.  Henry  VIII.  hoped,  by  suc- 
coring the  pope  and  antagonizing  the  emperor,  to 
secure  the  good  offices  of  the  former  in  the  matter 
of  the  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  a  relative 
of  the  latter.  Charles  felt  it  advisable  to  come  to 
terms  with  the  pope.  He  restored  most  of  the 
territory  taken  from  him  and  received  a  promise 
to  convene  a  general  coimdl  for  the  pacification  of 
Christendom  and  the  reformation  of  the  Church. 
In  1528  the  duke  of  Bavaria  sought  the  coopera- 


tion of  England,  France,  and  Lorraine  in  an  effort 
to  depose  Charles;  and  Philip  of  Hesse  sought 
the  assistance  of  France,  Silesia,  Poland,  and  oth- 
ers against  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 
3.  Attempts  Charles's  decisive  victory  over  the 
at  Religious  French  led  to  the  Peace  of  Cambrai 
Unity.  (July,  1529),  and  was  followed  by 
Diet  of  an  agreement  between  him  and  the 
Augsburg.  French  king  to  cooperate  in  efforts 
for  religious  imification.  The  Second 
Diet  of  Speyer  (1529;  see  Speter,  Diets  op)  nul- 
lified the  tolerant  policy  of  the  first.  The  man- 
ifest determination  of  Charles  to  crush  Lutheran- 
ism  led  the  Lutheran  princes  to  unite  in  a  protest 
— whence  the  designation  "Protestants."  The  fail- 
ure of  Lutherans  and  Zwing^ans  to  unite  for  the 
defense  of  the  Evangelical  cause  (see  Marburo, 
Conference  op)  and  the  retreat  of  the  army  of 
Suleiman  from  the  gates  of  Vierma  caused  the 
emperor,  now  at  peace  with  France  and  the  papacy, 
to  feel  that  at  last  he  was  master  of  the  situation. 
He  was,  in  fact,  now  at  the  height  of  his  power,  and 
all  that  was  lacking  to  complete  success  was  the 
restoration  of  religious  unity.  He  plarmed  to  visit 
Germany,  call  a  diet  for  religious  pacification,  sum- 
mon the  different  Evangelical  parties  to  present 
their  views,  and  have  them  confuted  by  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  invited  for  the  purpose.  He 
annoimoed  his  intention  to  leave  all  past  errors  to 
the  judgment  of  Christ,  and  to  give  due  considera- 
tion to  every  man's  opinions;  yet  he  did  not  con- 
ceal his  determination  to  bring  all  the  people  of 
his  empire  into  one  commonwealth  and  one  Church. 
Arriving  in  Augsburg  for  the  diet  of  1530,  he  sought 
to  intimidate  the  German  princes,  insisting  that 
they  should  keep  their  preachers  silent  during 
the  sessions  of  the  diet  and  requesting  them  to 
join  him  in  the  Corpus  Christi  procession.  They 
stanchly  refused  compliance.  The  irenic  confession 
of  faith  prepared  by  Melanchthon  (see  Augsburg 
Confession  and  rrs  Apology)  was  attacked  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  theologians.  Charles  objected 
to  the  harsh  polemics  in  which  they  indulged  and 
insisted  on  a  more  conciliatory  statement  than  they 
at  first  prepared. 

The  confession  of  Zwingli  and  that  of  the  four 
cities  (see  Tetrapolftan  Confession)  were  treated 
with  even  less  consideration.  Lorenzo  Campeggi. 
representing  the  pope,  urged  drastic  measures  for 
the  extirpation  of  heresy;  but  Charles  was  too 
much  of  a  statesman  not  to  see  that  in  case  of  a 
conflict  the  Evangelical  princes  and  cities  would 
be  supported  by  France,  Bavaria,  and  other  anti- 
Hapsburg  powers,  and  again  assumed  a  concilia- 
tory attitude.  The  Schmalkald  League  (1531;  see 
ScHMALKALD  ARTICLES)  soou  had  as  its  members 
all  the  Lutheran  princes  and  cities  and  gained  the 
support  of  France,  England,  Dexmiark,  Himgary, 
and  the  duchy  of  Gelders;  and  Charles  was  again 
embarrassed  by  Turkish  aggression.  By  the  Relig- 
ious Peace  of  Nuremberg  (q.v.;  1532)  he  renew^ 
the  toleration  of  1526. 

Charles  spent  the  following  nine  years  in  Spain, 
and  from  this  time  onward  was  unwearied  in  his 
efforts  to  secure  the  convocation  of  a  general 
council  which  should  thoroughly  reform  the  eccle- 


17 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Obarles  V. 


nastical  administration,  redrefis  the  grievances  of 
the  Protestants,  and  make  possible  the  reunion  of 
Christendom.  His  overtures  to  the 
4.  Efforts  Lutheran  princes  for  the  settlement 
for  a  of  differences  by  a  free  ooimcil  were 
General  repelled,  and  for  the  next  few  years 
ConnciL  he  had  the  mortification  of  seeing 
Protestantism  advancing  more  rapidly 
than  ever  before.  In  1541  he  conferred  in  person 
with  Paul  III.  regarding  a  council,  and  Trent 
^as  selected  as  being  outside  of,  but  near  Italy 
and  in  Catholic  Aijstria  (see  Trent,  Council  of). 
Charles  insisted  that  reformation  should  have  pre- 
mlence  of  doctrinal  definition,  while  the  pope  and 
his  advisere  thought  the  latter  the  matter  of  supreme 
importance.  As  a  compromise  it  was  arranged 
that  alternate  sessions  should  be  devoted  to  refor- 
mation and  doctrine.  Charles's  interest  in  refor- 
mation was  political  rather  than  moral  or  religious. 
He  thought  efforts  at  coercion  without  antecedent 
reformation  would  result  in  war  and  render  uni- 
fication impossible.  He  repeatedly  invited  the 
Protestants  to  send  representatives  to  the  ooimdl, 
with  promises  of  safe-conduct  and  fair  treatment. 
At  the  Fourth  Diet  of  Speyer  (1544)  a  dispute 
between  the  duke  of  Bnmswick  and  the  elector  of 
Saxony  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  that  had 
resulted  in  the  imprisonment  of  the  former  and  the 
seizure  of  his  estates,  was  settled  by  the  emperor, 
and  he  secured  the  promise  of  a  large  German 
aimy  for  a  campaign  against  the  Turks.  With  the 
help  of  the  English  and  the  Germans  Charles  gained 
such  advantages  over  the  king  of  France  as  to  be 
able  to  make  a  favorable  peace  (Crespy,  Sept.,  1544). 
The  peace  involved  an  agreement  on  the  part  of 
the  two  sovereigns  to  unite  in  promoting  the  council 
and  in  reunifjring  Christendom. 

At  the  Diet  of  Worms  (May,  1545)  the  impossi- 
bility of  reconciling  the  Protestants  became  more 
manifest  to  the  emperor  than  ever  before,  and  he 
began  to  prepare  for  the  inevitable 
5.  Renewal  conflict.     War  was   immediately   re- 
of  Hostil-    newed  between  the  duke  of  Bnms- 
ities;       wick  and  the  elector  of  Saxony  and 
Failure  to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse.  It  resulted  dis- 
Secnre      astrouslyto  the  former.     The  elector 
Unity.      of  the  Palatinate  showed    Protestant 
leanings  early  in  1546  and  the  death  of 
the  elector-archbishop  of  Mainz  (Sept.,  1545)  precipi- 
tated a  strug^e  for  ascendency  between  supporters 
of  the  emperor  and  the  Protestants.     At  the  Diet 
of  Regensburg  (June,  1546)  the  Schmalkald  allies 
protested  against  the  coimcil  and  petitioned  for 
continuance  of  peace.     The  emperor  treated  their 
overtures  with  contempt  and  expressed  his  purpose 
to  vindicate  his  imperial  authority.     In  July  he 
dedared  war  against  the  allies  as  outlaws  and  rebels. 
The  defection  of  Maurice  of  Saxony  gave  a  marked 
advantage  to  the  imperial  cause,  and  by  June,  1547, 
Charles  had  destroyed  the  Schmalkald  League  and 
had  the  Protestants  at  his  mercy.     Yet  even  now 
he  was  too  prudent  to  attempt  the  sudden  and 
violent  extirpation  of  the  Evangelical  faith.     He 
secured  the  concurrence  of  the  Lutheran  princes 
^dA   theologians    in    the   Augsburg    and    Leipsic 
Interim.*)  (nee  Interim)  in  a  scheme  for  the  partial 
XII.— 2 


and  gradual  restoration  of  Roman  Catholicism. 
The  return  of  Maurice  to  the  support  of  the  Lu- 
theran cause,  disagreement  between  the  emperor  and 
the  pope,  and  the  intervention  of  France  deprived 
the  imperial  cause  of  the  advantages  that  had  been 
gained.  In  the  Treaty  of  Passau  (Aug.,  1552) 
Charles  felt  obliged  to  grant  amnesty  and  religious 
toleration  to  the  Lutherans,  and  by  1554  the  im- 
perial authority  had  become  so  weakened  that 
Charles  allowed  his  brother  Ferdinand  to  make 
peace  (1555)  with  the  Lutherans  on  terms  recog- 
nizing complete  equality  of  rights  for  Lutheran  and 
Roman  Catholic  princes  (see  Augsburg,  Relig- 
ious Peace  of). 

Deeply  humiliated  and  utterly  discouraged, 
Charles  abdicated  (1556),  leaving  to  his  son  PUlip 
his  hereditary  possessions.  He  was 
6.  Abdi-  succeeded  in  the  imperial  office  by 
cation,  his  brother  Ferdinand.  He  retired  to 
the  monastery  of  Yuste,  where,  broken 
in  health  and  depressed  in  spirit,  he  spent  the  two 
remaining  years  of  his  life.  Shortly  before  his 
death,  seeing  in  Luther  the  cause  of  all  his  woes, 
he  expressed  regret  that  he  had  not  burned  the 
archheretic  at  the  Diet  of  Worms.  Charles  was 
unquestionably  a  statesman  of  more  than  average 
ability,  self-possessed,  comparatively  tolerant,  free 
from  fanatical  zeal  for  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
less  treacherous  than  most  of  the  rulers  of  his  time, 
and  supremely  concerned  to  conserve  and  extend 
the  Hapsburg  possessions  and  power  and  to  effect 
religious  unification  as  a  means  to  this  end.  (Cir- 
cumstances beyond  his  control  made  his  position 
an  extremely  difficult  one.  From  his  point  of  view, 
it  probably  would  have  been  advisable  to  crush 
Lutheranism  in  its  infancy.  A.  H.  Newman. 

Bibuoorapby:  A  very  eztenaivo  bibliography  may  be 
found  in  the  BrUith  Muteum  Cataiogiie  under  "  Charles  V. 
Emperor  of  Germany."  Amonc  the  voluminous  aources 
may  be  mentioned:  K.  Lanx,  Correapondenz  dea  Kaiatra 
Karl  V.  auB  dem  kaiaerlichen  Archiv,  3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1844- 
1846;  Staatapapiere  tur  Oeuhichte  dea  Kaiaera  Karl  V., 
Stuttgart,  1845;  Actenatueke  und  Brief 0  zur  GeachichU 
KarU  v.,  Vienna,  1863-67;  J.  J.  I.  von  DOllinger,  Do- 
kumante  zur  Oeadkichte  Karla  V.,  in  BeitrOge,  vol.  i.,  Re- 
gensburg, 1862.  A  French  version  of  a  Portuguese 
transl.  of  the  lost  autobiography  of  Charles  was  pub- 
lished by  K.  de  Lettenhove,  Commentairea  de  Charlea- 
QuirU,  Brussels,  1862,  Eng.  transl.,  Autoinoffraphy  of  the 
Emperor  Charlea  V.,  London,  1862  (covers,  151fr-48). 
Early  lives  are  by:  A.  UUoa,  Venioej  1660;  Sandoval, 
Valladolid.  1606;  Sepulveda,  Madrid,  1780;  A.  de  Musica. 
Leipsic,  1728.  An  English  classic  and  standard  authority 
is  W.  Robertson,  Hiat.  of  Charlea  V.,  ed.  W.  H.  Prescott, 
best  ed.  Philadelphia,  1867,  new  ed.  London,  1882.  Con- 
sult further;  D.  G.  van  Male,  LeUrea  aur  la  vie  intirieure 
de  Vempereur  CharUa-Quint,  Brussels,  1843;  W.  Brad- 
ford, Correapondence  of  Charlea  V.  arui  hia  AnUnaaadora 
in  England  and  France,  London,  1860;  J.  J.  Hannusch, 
Kaiaer  Karl  V.,  aeine  Zeil  und  aeine  Zeitgenoaaen,  Vienna, 
1863;  A.  Pichot,  CharUa-Quint,  Chronique  de  aa  vie 
inUrieure  et  de  aa  vie  politique,  Paris,  1864;  W.  Mauren- 
brecher,  Karl  V.  und  die  deutadis  ProteatarUen,  1643-66, 
Dilsseldorf,  1866;  O.  C.  Krabbe,  Kaiaer  Karl  V.  und  daa 
Aug^narger  Interim,  Rostock,  1872;  A.  von  Druffel. 
Kaiaer  Karl  V.  und  die  rdmiache  Curie,  1644-40.  3  parts, 
Munich,  1877  sqq.;  H.  Baumgarten,  Oeachichte  Karla  V., 
Stuttgart,  1886;  W.  Stirling-Maxwell,  Cloiater  Life  of 
Charlea  V.,  ed.  J.  Stirling-Maxwell,  London,  1891;  Baum- 
garten, Karl  V,  und  die  deutathe  Reformation,  Coburg, 
1803;  O.  Wals,  Die  Denkwttrdigkeiten  Kaiaer  Karla  V„ 
Bonn,  1901;  J.  Bryoe,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  chap, 
xix..  New  York,  1904;  E.  Annstrong,  The  Emperor  Charlea 


Obarlei 
Ohaaa, 


160.  BUmabeth 
Irah 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


18 


F.,  2  toIb..  London.  1002;  Putor,  Popu,  vi.  370,  421; 
Creichton.  PapaeUt  vi.  100-127  et  pasaim;  SehAff,  Chriu^n 
Church,  vi.  262  0t  paanm;  Moeller,  ChruHan  ChvrA,  iii. 
28  0qq.  et  pMsim  (worth  oonmilting).  The  subject  is 
treated  neoeaaarily  in  works  on  the  Reformation  and  on 
the  choroh  history  of  the  period. 

CHARLES  (n6e  RUNDLE),  ELIZABETH: 
Church  of  England  authoress;  b.  at  Tavistock 
(13  m.  n.  of  Plymouth),  Devonshire,  Jan.  2,  1828; 
d.  at  Hampstead  (a  suburb  of  London)  Mar.  28, 
1806.  She  was  educated  at  home,  and  commenced 
to  write  at  an  early  age,  her  work  winning  the  ap- 
proval of  such  authors  as  James  Anthony  Froude 
and  Tennyson.  In  1851  she  married  Andrew  Paton 
Charles  (d.  June  4,  1868),  a  chandler,  and  did  much 
philanthropic  work  among  the  poor  of  Wapping. 
After  1894  she  resided  at  Hampstead,  where  she 
continued  her  interest  in  philanthropy,  attending 
the  meetings  of  the  North  London  Hospital  for 
Consumption,  and  taking  an  active  interest  in  the 
Metropolitan  Association  for  Befriending  Yoimg 
Servants,  while  as  early  as  1885  she  had  foimded 
at  Hampstead  a  home  for  incurables  called  Frieden- 
helm.  Mrs.  Charles  was  a  prolific  writer,  but  her 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  her  ChronicUa  of  the  SchOnberg- 
Cotta  Family,  first  published  at  London  in  1863. 
This  is  a  historical  romance  of  the  time  of  Luther, 
and  gained  wide  popularity,  running  through  many 
editions  and  being  translated  into  most  European  and 
several  Oriental  languages.  Among  her  other  works 
special  mention  may  be  made  of  her  Rest  in  Christy 
or  the  Crucifix  and  the  Croes  (London,  1848);  Tales 
and  Sketches  of  Christian  Life  in  Different  Lands 
and  Ages  (1850);  The  Two  Vocations  (1853); 
The  Voice  of  Christian  Life  in  Song  (1858);  The 
MoTtifrs  of  Spain  and  Liberators  of  Holland  (1862); 
Wanderings  over  Bible  Lands  and  Seas  (1862); 
Sketches  of  Christian  Life  in  England  in  the  Olden 
Time  (1864);  Sketches  of  the  Women  of  Christendom 
(1880);  An  Old  Story  of  Bethlehem  (1884) ;  The 
True  Vine  (1885);  The  Great  Prayer  of  Christen- 
dom :  Thoughts  on  the  Lord's  Prayer  (1886);  Wan- 
derings over  Lands  and  Seas  (1887);  Martyrs  and 
Saints  of  the  First  Twelve  Centuries  (1887);  "  By 
the  Coming  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  (1888);  "  By  Thy 
Glorious  Resurrection  and  Ascension  "  (1888);  and 
the  autobiographical  Our  Seven  Homes,  edited  by 
Mary  Davidson  (1806). 

CHARLES,  ROBERT  HENRT:  Anglican  theo- 
logian and  Ethiopic  scholar;  b.  at  Cookstown  (21 
m.  w.  of  Armagh),  County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  Aug. 
6,  1855.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  University, 
Ireland  (B.A.,  1877),  and  Trinity  College,  Dublin 
(6. A.,  18i81);  and  was  incorporated  M.A.  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  in  1802.  He  was  ordered  deacon 
in  1883  and  ordained  priest  in  1884,  and  was  suc- 
cessively curate  of  St.  Mark's,  Whitechapel  (1883- 
1885),  St.  Philip's,  Kensington  (1885^86),  and  St. 
Mark's,  Kennington,  Surrey  (1886^9).  In  1898- 
1906  he  was  professor  of  Biblical  Greek  in  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  in  1905  was  also  appointed 
Grinfeld  lecturer  on  the  Septuagint  at  Oxford. 
He  was  Hibbert  lecturer  at  Oxford  in  1898, 
Jowett  lecturer  in  London  in  1898-99,  and  select 
preacher  at  Dublin  in  1889-1900  and  1902-03,  and 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  British  Academy  in 


1906.  In  addition  to  numerous  contributions  to 
theological  periodicals  and  encyclopedias,  he  has 
written  Forgiveness  and  Other  Sermons  (London, 
1886);  The  Book  of  Enoch  (Ethiopic  text;  1903); 
Ethiopic  Version  of  the  Hebrew  Book  of  Jubilees 
(Oxford,  1894);  The  Apocalypse  of  Barueh  (Syiiac 
text  and  translation;  London,  1896);  The  Assumption 
of  Moses  (Latin  text  and  translation;  1897);  Critical 
History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  in  Israel^ 
in  Judaism,  in  Christianity  (Jowett  lectures  for 
1898-99;  1899);  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah  (Ethiopic, 
Greek,  and  Latin  texts  and  translation;  1900); 
The  Book  of  Jubilees :  or,  The  Little  Genesis  (trans- 
lation; 1902);  The  Ethiopic  Version  of  the  Book  of 
Enoch  (1905);  Greek  Version  of  the  Testaments  of 
the  Twelve  Patriarchs  with  the  Variants  of  the  Arme- 
nian and  Slavonic  Versions  and  the  Hebrew  and  Ara- 
maic Fragments  (Oxford,  1906);  TeOament  of  the 
Twelve  Patriarchs  (1908);  and,  with  W.  R.  MorfiU, 
translation  of  the  Slavonic  text  of  The  Book  of  the 
Secrets  of  Enoch  (1896). 

CHARLES,  SAnrr,  SISTERS  OF  CHARITY  OF. 

See  Chabitt,  Sibtebs  of. 

CHARLES,  THOMAS:  Welsh  Methodist;  b.  at 
Pantdwfn,  near  St.  Clears  (8  m.  w.s.w.  of  Carmar- 
then), Carmarthenshire,  Oct.  14,  1755;  d.  at  Bala, 
Merionethshire,  Oct.  5,  1814.  He  was  educated 
imder  Methodist  influences  in  Wales  and  at  Jesus 
CoUege,  Oxfoid  (1775-78;  B.A.,  1779),  was  or- 
dained deacon  and  priest  in  the  Church  of  England, 
and  held  a  curacy  in  Somersetshire;  but  his  opin- 
ions and  style  of  preaching  im  fitted  him  for  service 
as  an  English  curate,  and  in  1783  he  settled  at  Bala 
and  soon  became  a  leader  of  the  Welsh  Methodists. 
He  made  long  preaching  tours  over  all  North  Wales, 
instituted  "  circulating  schools "  and  Sunday- 
schools,  and  trained  teachers  at  his  own  expense. 
The  revival  which  began  in  1791  and  spread  from 
Bala  as  a  center  was  a  direct  result  of  his  labors. 
He  maintained  close  connections  with  the  English 
Methodists  and  extended  his  efforts  to  Ireland  in 
1807.  In  1802  he  helped  to  found  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  (see  Bible  SoGiiniES,  I.,  2). 
He  wrote  tracts  and  books  in  Welsh  for  the  relig- 
ious instruction  of  his  coimtrymen,  including  a  cate- 
chism, which  in  English  translation  was  recom- 
mended by  the  Coimtess  of  Huntingdon  for  use  in 
her  chapels,  and  a  *'  Scriptural  Dictionaiy "  in 
Welsh  (4  vols.,  Bala,  1805-08)  which  went  through 
seven  editions.  A  printing-press  which  he  estab- 
lished at  Bala  in  1803  issued  more  than  300,000 
copies  before  his  death. 

Biblioobafht:  Ekiward  Morgan,  Memoir  of  Ac  Life  and 
LabouTM  of  Thomat  CharUe^  London,  1828;  Wflliam 
Hushes,  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomae  Charlee,  Rhyl.  1881; 
Bteaya,  Lettert,  and  IniereaUng  Papere  of  Thomae  Charlee, 
ed.  E.  Morgan,  London,  1836. 

CHARlfOCK,  STEPHEN:  Puritan;  b.  in  Lon- 
don 1628;  d.  there  July  27,  1680.  He  studied  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  took  his  degree 
there,  and  became  minister  in  Southwark;  in  1649 
he  went  to  Oxford  and  became  fellow  of  New  Col- 
lege (1650)  and  proctor  (M.A.,  1652);  went  to 
Ireland  with  Henry  Cromwell  as  chaplain  (1655); 
returned  to  England  soon  after  the  death  of  Oliver 


19 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


2^^, 


Cromweil,  and  lived  for  fifteen  years  in  London  in 
retirement  and  without  regular  charge;  in  1675  he 
was  appointed  joint  pastor  with  Thomas  Wat- 
son of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  in  Bishopsgate 
Street,  London.  He  was  a  grave  and  impressive 
preacher  and  a  man  of  fervent  piety.  Ilis  chief 
work  was  On  the  Existence  and  AttribiUes  of  God, 
published  posthumously,  ed.  Richard  Adams  and 
Edward  Veal  (London,  1681;  many  subsequent 
editions;  American  ed.,  with  biographical  sketch 
by  William  Sjrmington,  2  vols.,  New  York,  1874); 
there  is  an  edition  of  his  Works  with  memoir  by 
Edward  Parsons  (9  vols.,  London,  1815),  and  an- 
other with  introduction  by  James  McCosh,  in 
SicMs  Series  of  Standard  Divines  (5  vols.,  Edin- 
bui^,  1864). 

BtBUOGBAPHT:  NoUoes  additional  to  those  mentioned  in 
the  text  are  A.  4  Wood.  Atkena  Oxonienaea,  ed.  P.  Bliss, 
ill  1234-36,  4  vola.,  London,  1813-20;  DNB,  x.  134- 
13& 

CHASRON,  ahar''r^h^  PIERRE:  French  Roman 
ratholicecdesiasticand  theologian;  b.  at  Paris  1541 ; 
d.  there  Nov.  16,  1603.  He  studied  law  at  Orleans 
and  Bourges,  and  practised  for  several  years,  after 
vhich  be  entered  the  Church  and  soon  became  a 
pulpit  orator  of  note.  He  preached  for  a  number 
of  years  in  various  cities  of  southern  France,  and 
was  finally  ^pointed  preacher  to  Queen  Margaret. 
Id  his  forty-seventh  year  he  returned  to  Paris 
and  wished  to  enter  a  monastic  order,  but  was  re- 
jected on  account  of  his  age.  He  then  resumed 
his  activity  aa  a  preacher,  and  in  Bordeaux  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Montaigne.  In  1594  he  was  ap- 
pointed vicar-general  by  the  bishop  of  Cahors,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  sent  aa  a  deputy  to  a 
eoDvention  of  the  French  clergy,  where  he  was  so 
highly  esteemed  that  he  was  chosen  first  secretary. 
Charron  was  the  author  of  three  works.  The  first 
of  these  was  his  TraiU  des  trois  viritis,  contre  Urns 
aUue9f  idoldtres,  fuifs,  mafumUtans,  hir^tiques  et 
fcfUsmatiques  (Bordeaux,  1594),  in  which  he  main- 
tained against  the  atheists  that  there  is  a  God  and 
a  religbn;  against  the  pagans,  Jews,  and  Moham- 
medans that  the  Christian  religion  alone  is  true; 
and  against  heretics  and  schismatics  that  salvation 
can  be  found  only  in  the  Roman  CathoUc  Church. 
He  likewise  wrote  a  collection  of  sixteen  Discours 
chrdiens  (1600),  on  the  mass,  the  knowledge  of 
God.  salvation,  and  the  communion  of  the  saints. 
Still  more  famous  was  bis  TraiU  de  la  sa^esse  (1601; 
Eng.  tranal.  by  S.  Leimard,  London,  1612  [?]),  in 
which  be  proceeded  from  the  thesis  that  the  true 
understanding  of  man  consists  in  knowledge  of 
himself  and  of  the  nature  and  limits  of  his  powers, 
fio  that  this  wisdom  should  direct  his  inward  and 
his  outward  life.  Truth,  on  the  other  hand,  can 
be  found  with  God  alone,  and  man  is  unable  to 
gain  it  by  himself.  This  agnostic  tendency  led 
Chama  to  express  himself  with  such  freedom 
concerning  all  positive  religions,  including  Chris- 
tianity, that  the  Jesuit  Garasse  branded  him  as  an 
atheist.  The  TraiU  was  accordingly  expurgated 
by  Jeannin  for  the  edition  of  1604,  but  in  this  form 
the  book  found  few  readers,  and  three  3rear8  later 
the  text  was  restored  with  Jeannin's  notes.  Shortly 
before  his  death  Charron  published  a  compendium 


of  his  work  with  an  apology  under  the  title  Petit 
traiU  de  la  sagesse  (Paris,  1606).     (C.  Pfendbb.) 

Biblxoorapht:  The  works,  with  a  Life  by  If .  de  la  Roch»- 
Maillet,  were  published,  Paris,  1636.  Consult:  G.  A. 
&unte-BeuTe,  Cau»erie9  tU  Z/undi,  vol.  xi.,  4th  ed.,  16 
voU.,  Paris.  1882-«5. 

CHARTERIS,  ARCHIBALD  HAMILTON:  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  Wamphray  (15  m.  n.e.  of  Dum- 
fries), Dumfriesshire,  Dec.  13,  1835.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh  (B.A.,  1853),  Tabingen  (1870)  and  Bonn 
(1871);  d.  at  Edinburgh  Apr.  24,  1908.  He  was 
minister  of  St.  Qui  vox,  Ayrshire  (1858-69),  New 
Abbey,  Dumfriesshire  (1859-63),  and  The  Park 
Parish,  Edinburgh  (1863-68).  From  1868  to  1898 
he  was  professor  of  Biblical  criticism  in  Edinburgh 
University.  He  was  chairman  of  the  General 
Assembly's  Committee  on  Christian  Life  and  Work, 
1869-94,  and  was  instrumental  in  establishing  the 
Young  Men's  Guild,  the  Woman's  Guild,  and  the 
Deaconesses'  Hospital,  and  in  reviving  the  order  of 
deaconesses  as  a  part  of  the  organization  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  He  was  appointed  a  chaplain 
to  the  queen  in  1869,  and  was  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in 
1892.  From  1901  to  1908  he  was  chaplain  in  ol^ 
dinary  to  the  king  in  Scotland.  In  theology  he 
was  a  conservative.  He  has  written  Life  of  Pro- 
fessor  James  Robertson  (Edinburgh,  1863);  Canon- 
icity:  A  Collection  of  Early  Testimonies  to  the 
Canonical  Books  of  the  New  Testament  (London, 
1880);  The  New  Testament  Scriptures  (1888);  and 
The  Church  of  Christ  (1905). 

CHASE,  FREDERIC  HENRY:  Anglican  bishop  of 
Ely;  b.  m  London  Feb.  21, 1853;  studied  at  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1876);  was  curate  of 
Sherborne,  Dorset  (1876-79),  and  of  St.  Michael's, 
Cambridge  (1879-84).  He  was  tutor  of  the  Qergy 
Training  School,  Cambridge,  from  1884  to  1887, 
and  its  principal  from  1887  to  1901,  and  was 
lecturer  in  theology  in  Pembroke  College,  Cam- 
bridge, from  1881  to  1890,  and  in  Christ's  (bllege 
from  1893  to  1901,  as  well  as  examining  chaplain 
to  the  archbishop  of  York  in  1894-1905.  He  was 
Hulaean  lecturer  in  1900,  and  was  Norrisian  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  Cambridge  University  and 
president  of  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  from 
1901  to  1905,  as  well  as  vice-chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity from  1902  to  1904.  In  1905  he  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Ely.  He  has  written  Chrysostom 
(London,  1887);  The  Old  Syriac  Element  in  the 
Text  of  Codex  Bezce  (1893);  The  Lord's  Prayer  in 
the  Early  Church  (Cambridge,  1891)';  The  Syro- 
Latin  Text  of  the  Gospels  (London,  1895);  Credi- 
bility of  the  Book  of  Acts  (Hulsean  lectures  for  1900- 
1901;  1902);  and  The  Gospels  in  the  Light  of  His- 
torical Criticism  (1905).  He  also  edited  F.  J.  A. 
Hort's  Commentary  on  I  Peter  (London,  1898). 

CHASE,  IRAH:  American  Baptist;  b.  at  Strat- 
ton,  Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1793;  d.  at  Newton  Center,  Mass., 
Nov.  1,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at  Middlebury 
0)llege,  Vt.,  1814,  and  Andover  1817;  he  was  or- 
dainwi  1817,  and  preached  for  a  year  as  missionary 
in  Virginia;  in  1818  he  became  professor  of  lan- 
guages and  Biblical  literature  in  the  first  Baptist 
theological  school  in  the  countiy,  then  at  Phila- 


Ohasidim 
Chastity 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


20 


delphia,  in  1822  incorporated  with  Columbian 
University  at  Washington;  he  resigned  in  1825 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Newton  Theo- 
logical Institution  and  professor  of  Biblical  theology 
there  till  1836,  of  ecclesiastical  history,  1836-45. 
The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  literary  work. 
He  wrote  much  for  the  religious  periodicals  and 
published,  with  other  books,  Remarks  on  the  Book 
of  Daniel  (Boston,  1844);  The  Work  Claiming  to  be 
Ute  ConetitiUione  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  including 
the  Canons,  Whiston^s  Version,  revised  from  the 
Greek,  with  a  prize  essay  upon  their  original  con- 
tents translated  from  the  German  (New  York,  1848); 
The  Design  of  Baptism  Viewed  in  its  Relation  to  the 
Christian  Life  (Boston,  1851);  Infant  Baptism  an 
Invention  of  Man  (Philadelphia,  n.d.). 

CHASmiM  (Heb.  J^sidhim,  "Pious"):  1.  A 
Jewish  religious  party  important  during  the  time  of 
the  Maccabean  wars.  They  advocated  the  strictest 
ideals  of  Judaism  prescribed  by  the  scribes,  op- 
posed the  Gredzing  tendencies  of  the  age,  and  for 
a  long  time  supported  the  Maccabees  in  the  strug- 
gle with  the  Seleuddffi  for  independence.  They 
were  the  precursors  of  the  Pharisees.  See  Has- 
MONBANS,  §  1. 

2.  The  adherents  of  a  religious  movement  which 
arose  among  the  Polish  Jews  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  was  essentially  a  pietistic  and  m3n3tic 
reaction  against  Talmudism,  and  thus  presents  a 
certain  analogue  to  the  pietism  current  in  Christian 
circles  about  the  same  period,  though  there  was  no 
actual  relation  between  the  two.  The  founder  of 
the  Chasidim  was  an  obscure  Polish  rabbi  named 
Israel  ben-Eleazar,  who  received  the  epithet  of 
Baal  Shem-Tob  or  "  Master  of  the  good  name  " 
(i.e.,  the  myotic  name  of  God),  whence  he  was  fre- 
quently termed  Besht  (from  the  initial  letters 
b^h4).  Teaching  a  religion  of  the  heart,  and  dis- 
carding Talmudic  formalism  for  personal  faith  and 
love  of  God,  he  gathered  about  him- 
The  self  an  enormous  following  which  num- 
Founder  of  bered  many  rabbis  whom  the  legalism 
the  Chasi-  of  the  Talmud  had  failed  to  satisfy, 
dim  and  his  About  1740  he  made  his  headquarters 
Teachings,  in  Miedzyboz  in  Podolia,  and  there 
developed  his  two  cardinal  doctrines 
that  God  is  everywhere,  and  that  man  may  com- 
mune with  God.  The  first  tenet  was  pantheistic 
and  the  second  cabalistic.  To  attain  perfect  com- 
mimion  with  the  deity  ecstatic  prayer  and  medita- 
tion, often  induced  by  violent  physical  motions 
or  even  by  the  use  of  intoxicants,  were  necessary, 
while  thus  a  direct  influence  might  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  God  himself.  Formalism  was  altogether 
discarded  by  Chasidism,  and  in  a  like  spirit  the 
non-Jewish  asceticism  grafted  on  Talirudic  ritual- 
ism by  the  "  practical  Cabala  "  was  rejected.  The 
Chasidim  werd  to  serve  and  worship  God  with 
gladness  and  in  the  freedom  of  the  spirit,  while 
reason  was  distinctly  subordinate  to  faith. 

He  who  realized  Chasidic  ideals  was  "  righteous  " 
{ffaddii)  and  had  preeminence  over  lesser  souls. 
Herein  lay  the  danger  of  the  system,  for  the  i^addik 
came,  in  increasing  measure,  to  be  regarded  as  a 
quasimediator  with  God,  who  could  influence  the 


deity  to  bestow  blessings  on  those  that  had  not 
achieved    perfect    righteousness    and  communion 

with   the  divinity.     This  concept  was 

The        thoroughly  non-Jewish,  nor  was  such 

Zaddikim.  homage  ever  rendered  to  any  rabbi 

as  to  the  ordinary  ^addiJf,  The  cleav- 
age between  the  orthodox  Jews  and  the  Chasidim 
grew  wider;  separate  synagogues  were  formed,  and 
changes  were  made  in  the  arrangements  of  the 
prayers,  the  rules  for  slaughtering,  and  other 
ancient  Jewish  customs.  It  was  not  until  after 
the  death  of  Besht,  however,  that  the  power  of  the 
lioddiJf  gained  full  development,  but  then  the  rule 
was  evolved  that  the  '*  righteous  "  should  be  sup- 
ported by  less  holy  souls  in  retiun  for  his  mediation 
with  God.  From  a  sincere,  though  often  ignorant, 
leader  of  his  flock  he  became  only  too  frequently  a 
mere  thaumatuigist,  healing  the  sick  and  per- 
forming other  mirades  with  his  amulets  and  the 
penances  which  he  imposed.  Yet  Chasidism  was 
not  a  homogeneous  system,  but  developed,  in  course 
of  time,  into  two  distinct  schools,  one  finding  its 
center  in  South  Russia  and  Poland,  and  the  other 
in  Lithuania  and  White  Russia.  The  cause  of  this 
demarcation  was,  in  the  main,  intellectual.  In 
South  Russia  and  in  Poland  the  mystical  and 
pietistic  trend  was  no  new  thing.  It  had  already 
been  exemplified  in  the  movements  headed  by  Jacob 
Frank  (q.v.)  and  in  the  religious  upheaval  caused 
in  Oriental  Judaism  by  the  pseudo-Messiah  Shab- 
bethai  Zebi.  It  had  been  augmented,  moreover, 
by  the  religious  anarchy  consequent  on  the  political 
disturbances  in  Poland  and  by  the  savage  perse- 
cutions of  Chmiehiicki  and  the  Haidamacks.  The 
result  was  a  combination  of  ignorance  and  despair, 
which  furnished  a  fallow  soil  for  an  optimistic  mys- 
ticism freed  from  all  restraints  of  the  ritual  law. 
In  these  regions,  then,  the  ^addil^  floiuished  and 
worked  his  mirades  at  the  expense  of  the  still 
more  benighted  Chasidim.  In  White  Russia  and 
Lithuania,  on  the  other  hand,  these  destructive 
factors  had  not  been  at  work,  and  the  Talmud 
retained  its  podtion  of  honor  and  its  conservative 

power.    There,    moreover,    the    Jews 
History     centered  in  the  dties,  and  thus  were 
of  under  the  intellectual   restraint  and    ' 

Chasidism.  stimulus  of  the  scholars  of  the  Talmud, 

while  in  the  villages  of  Poland  and 
South  Rusda  imagination  could  run  riot,  devoid 
of  the  restraint  of  scholarship.  For  all  these 
reasons  Chasidism  did  not  gain  in  the  north  the 
exdudve  dominance  which  it  possessed  in  the 
south,  and  its  break  with  rabbinical  Judaism  was 
far  less  radical.  The  ^addik  of  White  Russia  and 
Lithuania  was  little  more  than  a  heterodox  rabbi, 
and  was  deeply  influenced  by  the  "  rational  Chas- 
idism "  taught  by  Zalman  of  Liozna  (1747-1812), 
who  postulated  the  need  of  an  intelligent  faith 
rather  than  absolute  subjection  of  reason,  and 
reduced  the  ^addik  to  the  place  of  a  teacher  instead 
of  a  thaumaturgist. 

Chasidism,  being  suspected  (and  not  without 
some  probability)  of  an  afiinity  with  the  vagaries 
of  Frank  and  Shabbethai  Zebi,  was  everywhere 
bitterly  opposed  by  orthodox  Judaism,  represented 
by  the  mitnaggedim  (**  opponents  ").     In  the  north, 


21 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohasidim 
Chastity 


where  the  hold  of  Chasidifun  was  so  slight,  the  hos- 
tility was  extreme,  and  the  sectarians  were  de- 
nounced to  the  government,  although  without 
success.  The  result  was  the  existence  of  the  two 
scbooLs  side  by  side,  but  in  the  south  rabbinical 
Judaism  was  completely  routed,  and  the  ^addUcim 
took  the  place  of  the  rabbis.  The  Chasidim,  how- 
e\^r,  met  with  their  most  fonnidable  opponents 
when  the  maskilim  ("  enlightened  ")  arose  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  This  movement,  inspired  by 
Moses  Mendelssohn  and  his  followers,  was  fatal,  in 
it)  importation  of  Occidental  Christian  learning 
and  criticism,  to  the  ignorant  mysticism  of  Chasi- 
di^m.  Its  power  is  now  confined  to  the  uneducated 
Jews  of  southern  Russia,  where  the  maskilim  meet 

the  stubborn  resistance  of  stagnation 

Oppodtion  and  a  reactionazy  tendency  which  is 

to  the      more    intense,   because   less   enlight- 

SfBtem.     ened,  than  that  of  rabbinical  Judaism. 

This  trend  is  not  improbably  increased 
by  the  attitude  of  the  Russian  government  toward 
the  Jews,  but  elsewhere  the  despair  which  evoked  it 
no  longer  exists,  and  with  the  absence  of  the  cause 
the  effect  has  vanished.  Yet  in  passing  judgment 
on  Chasidism,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that,  with 
all  its  faults,  it  possessed  one  important  element 
which  was  the  secret  of  its  power,  the  insistence  on 
personal  piety  and  faith  as  the  means  of  salvation, 
rather  than  on  the  intellectualism  of  rabbinical 
legalism,  a  teaching  by  no  means  new  in  Judaism, 
but  revived  and  fostered  by  this  sect  in  a  time  of 
need. 

Bibuogea^ht:  H.  Graetx,  OtadiidUe  der  Jvdtn,  vol.  xi., 
ehAp.  3.  Leipdc.  1891  (the  fullest  aooount);  J.  M.  Jest. 
GtMckiehU  tUa  Jud^nihumB  und  seiner  Sekten,  iii.  184,  3 
pwtA,  ib.  1857-59;  L.  L5w,  Veroangenheit  und  Gegen- 
wart  der  ChandOer,  Budapest,  1859;  J.  R.  Ehrlich, 
Do-  Wtg  meifias  LAena,  Vienna,  1874;  S.  Schechter, 
StitdiM  in  JudaUmt,  Philadelphia,  1896;  KL,  iii.  102-103; 
JE,  Ti.  2S1-250. 

CHASTER  8ha8''tel^  ETIEinfE  LOUIS:  Swiss 
church  historian;  b.  at  Geneva  July  11,  1801;  d. 
there  Feb.  24,  1886.  He  was  educated  at  Geneva, 
and  subsequently  studied  in  France,  Italy,  and 
Engjand.  In  1832  he  became  a  pastor  in  his  native 
city,  where,  seven  years  later,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  church  histoiy  in  the  theological  faculty 
of  the  university.  He  was  a  prolific  author,  his 
chief  works  being  as  follows:  Conferences  sur  Vhis- 
toire  du  Christianisme  (2  vols.,  Geneva,  1839-47); 
Hidoire  de  la  destruction  du  paganisms  dans  V empire 
^Orient  (1850);  Etudes  historiques  sw  V influence 
de  la  chariU  durani  les  premiers  sikdes  ckrHiens 
(Paris,  1853;  Eng.  transl.  by  G.  A.  Matile,  Phila- 
delphia, 1857);  Le  Christianisme  au  dix-neuvihne 
fieck  (Geneva.  1874;  Eng.  transl.  by  J.  R.  Beard, 
London,  1875),  this  forming,  in  a  new  edition,  part 
of  his  Histoire  du  Christianisme  depuis  son  origins 
Pi»qu*&  nos  jours  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1881-84);  and 
lAttres  incites  de  Madame  de  Maintenon  au  lieu- 
tenant de  Baville  (1875).  His  Melanges  historiques 
ft  religieuz  appeared  posthumously,  together  with 
a  biographical  sketch  by  A.  Bouvier  (Paris,  1888). 

CHASmT:  Chastity  in  the  modem  accepta- 
tion of  the  word  is  a  condition  and  a  virtue — the 
state  of  physical  and  moral  purity  in  sexual  rela- 


tions, and  self-preservation  from  imallowed  sexual 
desires.  As  a  virtue  it  was  highly  esteemed  early 
in  heathen  antiquity,  by  the  Romans,  and  among 
the  Germanic  tribes— all  the  more  as  it  was  un- 
common. Even  to  the  present  day  it  has  been 
required  more  strictly  from  women  than  from  men, 
and  there  are  traces  of  this  inequality  in  the  Mosaic 
law.  Indeed  it  can  not  be  said  that  as  concerns 
chastity  Israel  rose  much  above  the  general  level 
of  the  pre-Christian  period;  the  nation's  moral 
consciousness  of  sexual  purity  was  not  acute. 
Christianity  first  gave  to  chastity  its  full  value. 
The  New  Testament  writers  use  the  word  hagnos 
in  this  connection,  which  originally  meant  "  dedi- 
cated," "holy,"  then  "pure,"  "chaste."  The 
New  Testament  idea  is  based  upon  the  entirely 
new.  Christian,  conception  of  the  value  and  sig- 
nificance of  the  human  body  and  of  its  life.  Included 
in  the  plan  of  salvation,  destined  to  eternal  com- 
munion with  God,  called  to  futiu«  transfiguration 
in  celestial  existence,  the  body  to  the  Christian  is 
an  object  of  solicitude  and  conscientious  care 
(I  Cor.  vi.  19). 

In  the  performance  of  this  duty  the  Christian 
must  fight  all  carnal  desires  (I  Pet.  ii.  11),  especially 
the  sexual  instinct,  which  in  all  times  and  places 
has  been  recognised  and  felt  by  men  as  one  of  the 
fiercest  and  most  invincible.  That  the  instinct 
in  itself  is  not  sinful  may  be  inferred  from  God's 
institution  of  wedlock.  But  any  transgression  of 
this  limit  is  unchastity,  whether  in  thought  (Matt. 
V.  28),  in  word  (Eph.  v.  3,  12),  or  in  deed  (I  Cor.  vi. 
15).  The  destructive  effect  of  incontinence  ex- 
tends not  only  to  the  body,  but  to  the  soul  as  well, 
which  is  thereby  polluted,  made  unfit  for  all  good, 
and  irretrievably  estranged  from  spiritual  inter- 
course with  God,  hence  these  sins  exclude  ^rom 
the  futiue  communion  of  heaven  (I  Cor.  vi.  9,  10; 
Eph.  V.  5;  Rev.  xxi.  8,  27). 

For  the  attainment  of  chastity  training  is  neces- 
sary. For  the  Christian  this  training  has  its  root 
in  the  grace  of  regeneration.  The  guidance  and 
support  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  indic^nsable  and 
assured  (Rom.  viii.  13;  Gal.  v.  22-23),  but  is  in- 
effectual without  personal  exertion  and  self-dis- 
cipline on  the  part  of  the  individual  (I  Cor.  ix.  27; 
Eph.  iv.  29,  V.  4;  Phil.  iv.  8;  I  Tim.  v.  22).  The 
duty  of  prayer,  watchfulness,  and  the  other  means 
of  self-training  is  incumbent  on  all  without  respect 
to  sex  or  age,  and  rests  in  an  especial  degree  upon 
those  whose  calling  is  to  educate  others.  While 
wedlock  is  a  holy  defense  of  chastity  (I  Cor.  vii.  2), 
it  is  no  guaranty  of  purity  (I  Cor.  vii.  3-5;  I  Pet. 
iii.  1-7).  Celibacy,  too,  has  its  dangers;  it  is  im- 
posed upon  many  by  circiunstances  in  modem 
times,  but  incontinence  is  not  excused  thereby. 
Finally  the  successful  result  of  Christian  training 
and  discipline,  made  possible  by  the  Christian's 
inward  relation  to  Jesus  Christ,  is  something  dif- 
ferent from  the  natural  sense  of  shame  and  outward 
deconmi,  also  from  the  particular  gifts  of  chastity 
referred  to  in  Matt.  xix.  12,  which  Paul  attributes 
to  himself  (I  Cor.  vii.  7),  for  which  the  tradition 
of  the  Chiurch  praises  the  Apostle  John,  and  which 
is  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse  (xiv.  4). 

Karl  BuRGERf. 


Oheetham 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


M 


CHASUBLE  (Lat.  castdQ):  The  principal  vest- 
ment worn  by  Roman  Catholic  priests  when  cele- 
brating   mass.    See    VEaniBirre    Ain>    Insignia, 

EcCLBSIAflTIGAL. 

CHAtEL,  sha^'tel',  FERDINAin)  FRAK^OIS: 
Founder  of  the  £glise  catholique-frangaifie;  b.  at 
Gannat  (34  m.  b.b.w.  of  Moulins)  Jan.  9,  1795;  d. 
at  Paris  Feb.  18, 1857.  At  first  chaplain  of  a  regi- 
ment of  the  line,  he  was  called  by  the  July  Revo- 
lution of  1830  to  a  place  of  importance  at  Paris. 
An  adherent  of  the  liberalism  of  the  period,  he 
sou^t  to  found  a  Church  based  on  reason  rather 
than  on  Rome,  retaining,  for  the  most  part,  the 
forms  of  Roman  Catholic  ritual,  yet  changing  their 
meaning  and  rendering  them  patriotic  in  tendency- 
His  theological  education  was  but  superficial,  and 
it  is  clear  that  at  first  he  was  rationalistic  and 
later  pantheistic  in  tendency,  while  he  preserved 
traces  of  the  cult  of  Reason  in  the  sense  that  term 
bore  during  the  French  Revolution.  Chfttel  soon  won 
a  considerable  following  in  his  movement  for  re- 
form, and  in  1831  he  was  able  to  announce  the 
establishment  of  the  £g^ise  catholique-frangaise,  a 
temple  for  several  thousand  persons  being  erected 
at  Paris  in  the  Faubourg  St.  Martin  two  years 
later.  On  the  high  altar  was  a  representation  of 
Reason  in  the  form  of  a  woman  who  supported 
another  holding  a  cross  and  typifying  Religion, 
while  near  them  was  a  lion  as  a  symbol  of  the 
strength  of  Reason.  The  sides  of  the  altar  were 
adorned  with  pictures  of  F^nelon  and  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  with  the  words  gloire  and  patrie.  The  service 
had  the  form  of  a  mass;  feasts  were  celebrated  in 
honor  of  great  men,  especially  Frenchmen;  and 
at  Christmas  Ch&tel  himself  was  honored  as  a 
"reformer"  by  the  side  of  Christ.  About  1837 
the  community  reached  its  height,  although  the 
majority  of  its  adherents  were  confined  to  Paris, 
but  in  1842  it  came  to  an  end.  The  government 
of  Louis  Philippe  favored  it  at  first,  but  later  be- 
came hostile  to  it.  ChAtel  long  survived  the 
organization  which  he  had  founded,  and  died  in 
poverty  and  neglect.  He  expounded  his  views  in 
a  series  of  works,  none  of  which  was  of  any  spiritual 
importance.  F.  Kattenbusch. 

Biblioorapht:  A.  Theiner,  in  TQ,  1832.  pp.  651  sqq.; 
H.  B/bUcbUn,DaaChr%9lentumin  Frankreieh,  pp.  283  Bqq., 
Hamburg,  1837;  F.  F.  Fleok,  Wwefuehaftiidie  Reiw 
dwrdi  .  .  .  FronJbreuA,  vol.  ii.,  part  2,  pp.  65  sqq.,  Leipeio. 
1838;  F.  Kunstmann,  in  ZeiUehrift  fur  Theoloffie,  iii 
(1840).  67  sqq.;  R.  Holsapfel.  in  ZHT,  xiv  (1844).  103 
Bqq.;  A.  Martin,  Chdtd  H  Viglite  francaiae,  Montauban, 
1004;  KL,  iii.  108-110. 

CHAUNCY,  CHARLES:  1.  Second  president 
of  Harvard  College;  b.  at  Ardeley  or  Yardley  Bury 
(10  m.  n.  of  Hertford),  Hertfordshire,  England, 
1592  (baptised  Nov.  5);  d.  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
Feb.  19,  1672.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge  (B.A.,  1613;  M.A.,  1617;  B.D.,  1624), 
and  became  fellow  and  lectiuer  in  Greek  (or  pro- 
fessor); was  vicar  of  Ware,  Hertfordshire,  1627-33, 
and  of  Marston  St.  Lawrence,  Northamptonshire, 
1633-37.  His  stem  Puritanism  brought  him  into 
difficulties  with  the  chureh  authorities  in  both 
parishes,  and  in  1634  he  was  suspended  and  im- 
prisoned; after  some  months'  confinement  he  made 
submission,  but  regretted  the  act  ever  afterward. 


He  decided  to  go  to  America,  and  before  sailing 
wrote  The  RetracUon  of  Charles  Chaunqf  formerly 
minister  of  Ware  in  Hertfordshire  (London,  1641), 
published,  as  he  says,  **  for  the  satisfaction  of  all 
such  who  either  are,  or  justly  might  be,  offended 
with  his  scandalous  submission,  made  before  the 
High  Commission  Court,  Feb.  11,  1635."  He  ar- 
rived at  Plymouth,  Dec,  1637,  and  acted  as  as- 
sistant there  till  1641,  when  he  went  to  Sdtuate; 
he  was  invited  to  retiun  to  Ware  in  1654  and  was 
making  preparations  for  departure  when  he  was 
offered  the  presidency  of  Harvard  to  succeed  Henry 
Dunster;  he  accepted  with  reluctance,  was  in- 
augurated Nov.  29,  and  filled  the  position  faith- 
fully and  well.  He  was  a  good  scholar  and,  in 
addition  to  his  attainments  as  a  theologian,  had 
considerable  knowledge  of  medicine;  he  is  said  to 
have  been  an  admirable  preacher  and  was  esteemed 
for  his  piety.  He  published  The  Doctrine  of  the 
Sacram/^f  with  the  right  use  thereof,  catechetically 
handled  by  way  of  question  and  answer  (London, 
1642);  a  volume  of  sermons  on  justification  (1659); 
and  Antisynodalia  scripta  Americana,  or  a  pro- 
posal of  the  judgement  of  the  dissenting  ministers  of 
the  churches  of  New  England  assembled  Mar,  10, 
1662  (Cambridge,  1662).  He  had  six  sons,  who 
were  all  graduated  at  Harvard,  all  became  ministers, 
and  all  are  believed,  like  their  father,  to  have  been 
physicians  as  well.  His  eldest  son  Isaac  (b.  at 
Ware  Aug.  23,  1632;  d.  in  London  Feb.  28,  1712) 
was  ejected  as  rector  of  Woodborough,  Wiltshire, 
by  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662,  and  in  1687 
became  minister  of  the  independent  congregation 
in  Buiy  Street,  London,  formerly  served  by  John 
Owen;  on  his  resignation  in  1701  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  assistant,  Isaac  Watts;  for  the  rest  of  his 
life  he  practised  medicine  and  tau^t.  He  was 
a  voluminous  writer. 

Biblioobapht:  William  Chaunoey  Fowler,  Memtniai*  t^ 
the  Chaunceya,  Boston,  1858;  Cotton  Mather,  in  his  Mao- 
nalia,  gives  a  chapter  to  F^vsiclent  Chauncy  under  the 
title  Cadmus  Amarieanua,  bk.  iii.,  chap,  xxiii..  vol.  i., 
pp.  463-476,  Hartford.  1865;  James  Savase.  Oensakx/ieal 
DieHonary  of  the  Firtt  SetOera  of  New  Bngland,  i.  366-369, 
Boston,  1860. 

2.  New  England  cleigjrman,  great-grandson  of 
President  Chauncy;  b.  in  Boston  Jan.  1.  1705; 
d.  there  Feb.  10,  1787.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1721;  ordained  assistant  minister  of  the 
First  Church  of  Boston,  1727,  and  remained  there 
till  his  death.  He  cultivated  a  plain  and  matter- 
of-fact  style  in  preaching,  and  was  noted  for  scrupu- 
lous integrity.  He  tried  to  check  the  extreme 
excitement  attending  the  preaching  of  Whitefield, 
and  v<rote  in  reference  to  it  Seasonable  Thoughts  on 
the  Stale  of  Religion  in  New  England  (Boston,  1743), 
and  two  or  three  open  letters  to  White  field  (1744- 
1745).  He  stoutly  opposed  the  establishment  of 
episcopacy  in  the  colonies,  and  published  The 
Validity  of  Presbyterian  Ordination  Asserted  and 
Maintained  (1762)  and  A  Complete  View  of  Epis- 
copacy until  the  Close  of  the  Second  Century  (1771). 
He  believed  in  the  final  restoration  of  all,  or  Uni- 
versalism,  and  advocated  it  in  The  Salvation  for  All 
Men  Illustrated  and  Vindicated  as  a  Scripture  Doc- 
trine (1782);  Divine  Glory  Brought  to  View  in  the 
Final  Salvation  of  All  Men  (1783);    The  Benevo- 


33 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Chasuble 
Cheetham 


lence  of  the  Deity  Fairly  and  Impartially  Considered 
<  1784);  Five  Dissertations  on  the  Scripture  Account 
of  the  FaU  and  its  Consequences  (1787). 

BmuooaArBT:    W.  C.  Fowler,  MemoriaU  of  the  Chaunceya, 
pp.  «»-70.  Boston.  1858. 

CHATrrAUQUA  IflSTlTUTlON:  An  institution 
on  Chautauqua  Lake  (poet-office,  Chautauqua, 
X.  Y.),  founded  in  1874  as  a  Sunday-school  teachers' 
normal  institute  by  John  H.  Vincent,  now  retired 
bishop  in  the  Methodist  Church,  and  by  Lewis 
Miller  of  Akron,  O.  Within  four  years  there  de- 
\'eloped  a  complete  system  of  popular  education, 
the  main  features  of  which  have  survived  to  the 
present  day. 

The  activities  of  the  institution  center  primarily 
about  a  smnmer  assembly  conducted  on  the  Insti- 
tution ground  for  eight  weeks  from  late  June  to 
late  August.  At  this  assembly  two  main  educa- 
tional features  are  carried  on  side  by  side.  A  series 
of  simmier  schools  has  been  evolved  which  divides 
itself  into  two  main  groups:  the  first — ^the  academic 
courses  or  schools — ^including  the  English  language 
and  literature,  modern  languages,  classical  lan- 
guages, mathematics  and  science,  psychology  and 
pedagogy,  and  religious  teaching.  The  second — 
the  professional  schools — includes  library  training, 
domestic  science,  music,  arts  and  crafts,  expression, 
phyaica]  education,  and  practical  arts,  llie  work 
in  these  schools  is  carried  on  for  six  weeks  (July- 
August)  and  is  conducted  by  a  faculty  of  some 
ninety  instructors  from  universities,  colleges,  and 
normal  schools  from  the  Atlantic  C>oast  to  the 
Middle  West  and  the  Far  South.  The  second 
systematic  scheme  for  general  education  is  pro- 
moted by  means  of  a  popular  programme  which 
includes  during  the  season  over  three  hundred 
lectures,  readings,  concerts,  and  entertainments. 

Besides  the  two  divisions  of  the  siunmer  schools  and 
puUic  progranmie,  Chautauqua  Institution  shows 
its  sense  of  responsibility  toward  visitors  through 
an  established  series  of  clubs  which  makes  place 
for  Chautauquans  of  all  ages  from  the  kindergarten 
child  to  the  members  of  the  men's  and  women's 
dubs.  Of  these  different  organizations,  five — the 
Kindergarten,  the  Girls'  Club,  the  Boys'  Club,  the 
Athletic  Qub,  and  the  Men's  C^ub — ^now  have  their 
own  well-equipped  and  centrally  located  buildings. 

The  work  of  the  Institution,  however,  does  not 
cease  with  the  close  of  the  summer  assembly,  for 
through  the  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific 
Cirde  large  numbers  of  people  are  reached  through- 
out the  year  by  means  of  a  regular  series  of  uni- 
versity extension  readings.  Four  books  are  pre- 
pared jreariy  for  the  course  and  The  Chautauquan, 
a  monthly  magazine,  supplements  the  lines  of 
thought  developed  in  the  text-books.  The  activity 
of  the  Reading  Cirde  is  directed  and  systematized 
by  the  adoption  of  a  succession  of  years — the 
American  Year,  En^h-Russian  Year,  Franco- 
German  Year,  and  Classical  Year;  by  reading  for 
four  years  a  person  passes  through  the  series  and 
qualifies  himself  for  the  certificate  of  completion  of 
the  oounie.  During  1905-07  registration  in  the  sum- 
mer schools  averaged  2,465,  the  total  attendance  at 
the  assembly  each  summer  was  somewhat  over  50,000, 


and  the  total  membership  for  the  Reading  Circle 
from  the  beginning  to  1907  approximated  270,000. 
The  plan  of  Chautauqua  Institution  is  extensive, 
but  constantly  developing.  On  the  tract  of  nearly 
three  hundred  acres  a  town  with  some  five  hundred 
cottages  has  sprung  up.  An  amphitheater  seating 
five  thousand,  a  hall  of  philosophy  with  a  capadty 
of  eight  hundred,  and  a  dozen  smaller  halls  and  class 
buildings  provide  amply  for  the  various  classes  and 
audiences.  The  Institution  holds  a  charter  from 
the  State  of  New  York  whereby  no  element  of 
private  profit  is  permitted.  It  owns  its  own  light- 
ing and  water  plants  and  its  own  printing  estab- 
lishment, and  performs  all  the  functions  of  an 
ordinary  town  although  upon  a  system  of  govern- 
ment which  is  entirely  unique.  The  Extension 
Department  circulates  each  year  over  a  million 
pieces  of  matter,  and  the  number  of  assemblies 
more  or  less  similar  in  natiue  which  all  owe  their 
stimulus  to  the  original  Chautauqua  aggregates 
nearly  three  hundred.  P.  H.  Botmton. 

Bibliography:  J.  H.  Vincent,  The  Chautauqua  Movement, 
Boston.  1886;  C.  A.  Teal.  CoutUino  the  Coet;  or,  a  Sun^ 
mer  at  Chautauqua,  New  York,  1889;  F.  C.  Bmy,  Reading 
Journey  through  Chautauqua,  Chautauqua,  1005  (on  the 
system  of  instruction). 

CHAVASSE,  sha'VOs',  FRAlf CIS  JAMES:  And- 
ean bishop  of  Liverpool;  b.  atEdgbaston  (a suburb 
of  Birmingham)  Sept.  27,  1846.  He  studied  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1869),  and  was  curate 
of  St.  Paul's,  Preston  (1870-73),  vicar  of  St.  Paul's, 
Upper  Holloway  (1873-78),  and  rector  of  St.  Peter- 
le-Bailey,  Oxford  (1878-89).  He  was  then  prin- 
cipal of  Wycli£fe  Hall,  Oxford,  in  1889-1900,  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Liver- 
pool. He  was  select  preacher  at  Oxfoid  in  1888- 
1889  and  1901-02,  and  at  Cambridge  in  1893  and  1902, 
and  was  also  lecturer  in  pastoral  theology  in  the 
latter  university  in  1898. 

CHEDORLAOMER.  See  BABTLOinA  (vol.  L,  p. 
407,  foot-note);  Israel,  History  of,  L 

CHEETHAM,  SAMUEL:  Anglican  archdeacon 
and  canon  of  Rochester;  b.  at  Hambleton  (20  m. 
n.e.  of  Leicester),  Rutlandshire,  Mar.  3,  1827;  d. 
at  Rochester  July  19,  1908.  He  was  educated  at 
Christ's  CoUege,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1850),  became 
deacon  in  1851,  and  priest  in  1852.  He  was  vice- 
principal  of  the  Collegiate  Institute,  Liverpool,  in 
1851^3,  and  from  1853  to  1858  was  assistant  tutor  of 
Christ's  College,  where  he  was  also  fellow  from  1850  to 
1866.  He  was  ciu^te  of  Hitchin,  Herts,  in  1858-61, 
vice-principal  of  the  Theological  College,  Chichester, 
and  curate  of  St.  Bartholomew's  in  the  same  city 
in  1861-63,  and  professor  of  pastoral  theology  in 
King's  College,  London,  from  1863  to  1882.  He 
was  also  chaplain  of  Dulwich  0>Uege  from  1866  to 
1884  and  archdeacon  of  Southwark  from  1879  to 
1882.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  made  archdeacon 
of  Rochester,  and  has  also  been  canon  of  the  same 
cathedral  since  1883,  as  well  as  examining  chaplain 
to  the  bishop  of  Rochester  from  1878  to  1897. 
He  was  Hulsean  lecturer  at  Cambridge  in  1896. 
In  theology  he  is  a  Broad-churchman.  In  addition 
to  numerous  minor  contributions,  ho  has  written 
The  Law  of  the  Land  and  the  Law  of  the  Mind  (Lon- 


Cheke 
Ohemosh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


d4 


don,  1866);  Colleges  and  Tests  (1871);  A  History 
of  the  Christian  Church  during  the  First  Six  Cen- 
turies (1894);  same,  iSince  the  Reformation  (1908); 
The  Mysteries^  Pagan  and  Christian  (Hubean  Lec- 
tures for  1896, 1897);  Mediceval Greek  History  (1899). 
He  likewise  edited  the  Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
iiquiiies  (2  vols.,  London,  1875-80)  with  Sir  William 
Smith,  and  contributed  a  large  number  of  articles 
to  it. 

CHEKE,  SIR  JOHN:  English  scholar;  b.  at 
Cambridge  June  16,  1514;  d.  in  London  Sept.  13, 
1557.  He  studied  at  St.  John's,  Cambridge,  and 
adopted  the  Reformation  doctrines  there;  became 
one  of  the  first  Greek  scholars  in  England,  and  in 
1540  regius  professor  at  Cambridge;  in  1544  was 
made  tutor  to  Prince  Eklward,  and  when  the  latter 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  in  1647,  received  honor 
and  wealth.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  was  her  secretary  of  state,  and  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower  by  Mary  in  1553;  released  the 
next  year,  he  went  abroad  and  settled  at  Strasburg. 
In  1556  he  visited  Belgimn,  was  arrested  there  by 
order  of  Philip  II.,  and  taken  to  England;  through 
fear  of  dying  at  the  stake  he  renounced  the  Protec- 
tant religion,  and  his  death  is  said  to  have  been 
hastened  by  shame  and  regret  for  his  weakness. 
He  made  an  English  translation  of  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew  (all  but  the  last  ten  verses)  and  of  the 
first  twenty  verses  of  the  first  chapter  of  Mark, 
with  notes  (ed.,  with  seven  of  his  letters,  James 
Goodwin,  London,  1843),  to  illustrate  a  notion  he 
had  about  "  reform  "  in  English  spelling  and  to 
show  that  it  was  possible  to  use  only  Saxon  words; 
he  edited  and  translated  into  Latin  some  of  the 
homilies  of  Chrysostom;  also  Cranmer's  treatise 
upon  the  Eucharist  (1553)  and  wrote  some  other 
tracts;  of  special  interest  is  The  Hurt  of  Sedition , 
how  grievous  U  is  to  a  Commonwealth  (1549). 
Biblioorapht:  J.  Stxype,  Life  of  the  Learned  Sir  John 
Cheke,  Oxford,  1821  (contains  a  tranal.  of  Gheke's  "  Trea- 
tise of  Superstition  ");  an  account  of  the  Life  is  also  added 
to  O.  Lansbaine's  ed.  of  The  True  Sulked  to  the  RebM, 
Oxford,  1641.  For  his  Gospel  transl.  consult  J.  I.  Mom- 
bert,  Engliah  Vereione  of  the  BtUe,  pp.  234-237.  London, 
new  ed.,  1908. 

CHEMNITZ   (KEMNITZ),  MARTIN. 

Pretheological  Activity  (§1). 

Work  as  a  Theologian  (§  2). 

Share  in  the  Formula  of  Ck)ncord  (§  3). 

Part  in  the  Adiaphorist  Ck)ntroverBy  (§  4). 

Polemics  against  the  Roman  Catholics  (§  6). 

Evaluation  of  Chemnits  (§  6). 

German  theologian  and  controversialist  of  the 
Reformation  period;  b.  at  Treuenbrietzen  (35  m. 
s.w.  of  Beriin),  Brunswick,  Nov.  9,  1522;  d.  at 
Brunswick  Apr.  8,  1586.  The  death  of  his  father 
when  he  was  a  boy  made  attainment  of  education 
difficult;  he  was  at  the  Magdeburg  school  from 
1539  to  1542,  and  then  earned  money  enough  by 
teaching  to  go  to  the  University  of  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder  for  a  time,  and  in  1545  to  that  of  Witten- 
berg. Here  he  came  into  contact  with  Melanchthon, 
on  whose  advice  he  took  up  mathematics,  which 
led  him  to  astrology.  These  studies  consumed 
60  much  time  that  he  paid  little  heed  to  Luther's 
teaching,  thou^  he  heard  him.  The  outbreak  of 
war  took  him  away  from  Wittenberg;  in  1547  he 


settled  at  Kdnigsberg  and  supported  himself  by 
teaching  some   young   Polish   noblemen,   becom- 
ing later  rector  of  the  school  at  Kneip>- 
I.  Pre-     hof .     He  still  pursued  his  astrological 
theological  studies,  until  on  a  visit  to  Wittenberg 
Activity,     he  was  advised  by  Melanchthon   to 
turn  his  attention  to  theology.    The 
plague  put  an  end  to  his  school  work,  and  he  ac- 
companied  Melanchthon's  son-in-law   Sabinus   to 
Salfeld,  where  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  theo- 
logical learning.     In  1550  he  retmned  to  K5nigs- 
berg,  where  the  duke,  who  esteemed  him  as  an 
astrologer,  made  him  his  librarian.     He  was  now 
convinced  of  the  insecure  foundations  of  astrology, 
and  devoted  himself  systematically  to  theology, 
studying  the  Bible  in  the  original,  the  Fathers,  and 
the  controversial  writers  of  the  time.     The  dis- 
turbances stirred  up  by  Osiander's  controversy  on 
justification  made  him  uncomfortable  at  Konigs- 
berg,  and  in  1553  he  returned  to  Wittenberg,  where 
he  lectured  for  a  time;  but  in  the  following  year 
went  to  Brunswick  to  settle  permanently,  as  coad- 
jutor  to    the   superintendent,  becoming   superin- 
tendent himself  in  1567  and  holding  the  post  until 
1584,  when  he  resigned  on  account  of 

2.  Work    his  health.    He  was  not  noted  as  a 
as  a        preacher,  but  he  .was  a  diligent  and 

Theologian,  methodical  pastor.  The  continuance 
of  his  studies,  however,  made  him 
known  rather  as  one  of  the  first  theologians  of  his 
time,  and  he  was  caUed  upon  to  take  part  in  every 
controversy.  In  1567  he  went  with  his  superior 
M6rlin  to  Prussia  to  reorganize  the  Church  there, 
distracted  by  the  divisions  over  Osiander's  teaching, 
and  the  Corpus  doctrince  PrtUenicum  was  the  result. 
He  rendered  still  more  important  services  in  the 
principality  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbtittel,  where,  in 
1568,  Duke  Julius  sunmioned  him,  with  AndreiL, 
to  assist  in  establishing  Protestantism.  The  docu- 
mentary results  of  his  work  here,  and  at  LOneburg 
with  Duke  William,  remain  in  the  Corpus  doc- 
trince Julium  and  the  Corpus  WUhelminum.  He 
also  gave  the  impulse  to  the  f oimding  of  the  Julian 
University  at  Helmst&dt  in  1576.  The  later  years 
of  his  life  were  largely  taken  up  by  work  connected 
with  the  Formula  of  Concord  (q.v.).  Its  final 
acceptance,  in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  was  largely 
due  to  the  untiring  work  of  Chemnitz.  Before  this, 
however,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  out  with 
Duke  Julius,  whom  he  rebuked  sharply  for  having 
his  son  consecrated  bishop  of  Halberstadt  with 
all  the  rites  of  the  old  Church.  The  Protestant 
princes    who   were   working   for    the 

3.  Share    adoption  of  the  Formula  omitted  on 
in  the  For-  this  account  to  invite  the  duke  to  their 

mula  of  conferences  at  Jilterbock,  and  he  de- 
Concord,  clined  to  have  anything  fiurther  to  do 
with  their  undertaking.  Thus  the 
Formula  was  not  definitely  accepted  in  Brunswick, 
and  the  Corpus  Julium  remained  the  standard 
there,  as  at  the  University  of  Helmst&dt,  which  thus 
assumed  an  isolated  position  ultimately  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  the  doctrines  of  a  Calixtus.  Chem- 
nitz wrote  a  defense  of  the  Formula  against  its 
critics,  which  was  published  at  Magdeburg  in  1582. 
This  the  Helmst&dt   theologians   attacked,  espe- 


25 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oheke 
Ohemosh 


cially  OQ  the  ground  of  its  containing  the  doctrine 
oi  ubiquity,  and  a  oonferenoe  was  called  at  Qued- 
linbuig  by  the  three  electors  and  Duke  Julius  to 
reconcile  the  differences.  Chemnitz  made  his  last 
important  public  appearance  at  this  meeting,  but 
could  not  prevail.  His  death  was  felt  as  a  public 
calamity  by  all  Protestant  Germany. 

His  first  participation  in  the  disputes  of  the  time 
was  occasioned  by  the  Adiaphorist  controversy 
(see  Adiafhora),  at  the  instance  of  MOrlin,  who 
was  a  steadfast  Lutheran.  He  was  next  moved  to 
utterance  on  the  question  of  the  Lord's  Supper  by 
the  fact  that  Zwinglianism  had  found  an  entrance 
into  Brunswick.  He  was  not  present  at  the  con- 
ference held  there  in  1561  by  Mdrlin  against 
Hardenberg,  the  principal  representative  of  this 
doctrine  in  northern  Germany,  but  sent  a  treatise 
which    contributed    to    Hardenberg's 

4.  Part  in  condemnation.  In  the  same  year  he 
the  Adi-  published  a  more  complete  and  sys- 
aphorist  tematic  RepetUio  aana  doctrinas  de 
Contro-     vera    j/rcBsentiay    in    which,    avoiding 

▼enj.  dogmatic  subtleties,  he  rests  his  be- 
lief in  the  real  presence  on  the  plain 
sense  of  the  words  of  institution.  In  1570  he  went 
on  to  treat  directly  of  the  Incarnation,  which  then 
(exactly  contrary  to  the  logical  sequence  of  the 
early  Church)  was  treated  as  dependent  on  the 
eucharistic  controversy,  in  his  De  duabus  nahiris 
in  Christo,  etc.  Soon  afterward  he  declared  against 
Crypto-Calvinism  (see  Philippistb)  in  two  forcible 
expressions  of  opinion  on  the  li^ttenberg  Cate- 
chism, which  influenced  the  action  of  the  authorities 
in  Brunswick  and  Lower  Saxony. 

But  he  was  even  better  known  through  his  polem- 
ics against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the 
Jesuits.  The  latter  in  1560  had  published  in 
Ccdogne,  where  they  were  strong,  a  criticism  of  a 
Protestant  catechism.  This  was  the  first  literary 
onslaught  of  theirs  to  attract  general  attention  in 
Germany,  and  Chemnits  was  the  first  to  take  it  up 
and  warn  people  of  the  danger  from  the  Order. 
His  counterblast  was  entitled  Theologia  Jesuitarum 
praeipua  capita  (1572).  Payva  d'Andrada  (q.v.), 
a  Portuguese  Jesuit  and  member  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  published  two  works  in  rejoinder  (1564), 
the  first  of  which  came  into  Chem- 

5.  Polemics  nits's  hands  together  with  the  decrees 
Against     of  the  Council,  to  which  it  appealed. 

tiie  This  seemed  to  him  to  open  the  way 
Roman  for  a  more  thoroughgoing  work,  and 
CatfaolicB.  gave  him  the  idea  of  his  famous 
Examen  concUti  Tridentini  (1565-73), 
than  which  no  book  of  the  period  was  more  dam- 
a^ng  to  the  Roman  claims.  It  ran  through  numerous 
editions,  and  was  translated  into  German  and 
French;  a  modem  edition  was  brought  out  by 
Preuss  (Berlin,  1861).  His  dogmatic  standpoint 
'» indicated  not  only  in  these  polemical  works,  but 
in  the  Loci  theologiei,  commenting  on  Melanch- 
tboD's  Loci,  which,  left  uncompleted  by  him,  his 
successor  heyaeT  and  his  son  published  in  1591. 
Here,  without  directly  contradicting  Melanchthon, 
he  interprets  him  in  a  tone  of  moderate  Lutheran 
oitJMdoxy,  attempting  to  work  out  a  consistent 
integral  body  of  doctrine,  and  to  show  its  relation 


to  the  Christian  life.  Leyser  also  edited  and 
published  his  incomplete  exegetical  works,  the 
Harmonia  evangelica  and  the  Poatilla  oder  Aua- 
legung  der  Evangelien,  in  1593. 

Chemnitz's  mind  was  not  of  the  creative  oider; 
but  it  was  just  what  was  needed  for  his  time, 
following  upon  an  age  of  productivity,  when  sys- 
tematization    and    confirmation    were    the    great 
requirements.     He     took    a    middle 
6.  Evalua-  course  among  the  parties  of  the  age; 
tion  of     strongly  influenced  as  he  had  b^n 
Chemnitz,  by  Melanchthon,  his  doctrine  leaned 
more  to   strict  Lutheranism,  and   the 
Philippists  (q.v.)  upbraided  him  as  an  apostate. 
Sober  discretion  characterized  both  his  writings  and 
his  practical  work.     He  was  suspicious  of  inno- 
vations, exhorting  his  readers  to  "  hold  fast  the 
form  of  sound  words,"  and  never  going  to  the  ex- 
tremes of  the  younger  Lutheran  school.     His  prac- 
tical cast  of  mind  shows  itself  in   his   theology, 
which  is  never  merely  speculative,  but  occupied 
rather  with  laying  down  serviceable  and  unques- 
tionable formulas.    His  life,  taken   as    a  whole, 
must  certainly  be  pronounced  a  blessing  to  the 
Church  he  served  so  long.    (Johannes  Kunze.) 
Biblioorapht:   The  best  source  for  a  life  is  J.  Rehtmeyer, 
Der  berUhnUen  Sladt  Braunaditoeig  KireKenhittorie^  iii.  273 
sqq.,  Brunswick,  1710.     Other  sources  are  the  letters  of 
Chemnits  in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Gottingen,  and 
J.  Gasner,  Oratio  de  vita,  aiudiU  et  obUu  M.  ChemniHi 
[Brunswick],    1588.     Other    accounts    are:     T.    Pressel, 
MarUn  Chemnitz,  Elberfeld,  1862;    C.  O.  H.  Lents,  l>r. 
Martin  Chemnitz,  Qotha,  1866  (usee  MSS.  sources);    H. 
Hachfeld,   Martin  ChemniU,   Leipidc   1867   (also  based 
partly  on  unprinted  sources);  R.  Mumm,  Dis  Polemik  de» 
M.  ChemniU  geifen  daa  KonsU  mm  Trent^  Leipsic,  1905; 
Sohaff,  Christian  Church,  vii.  601. 

OHEMOSH:  The  national  god  of  the  Moabites 
according  to  the  Old  Testament,  confirmed  by  the 
Moabite  Stone  (q.v.);  by  the  Moabitish  names 
KamuBuriadbi  (i.e.,  Chemoehnadab,  cf.  the  Hebr. 
Jehonadab),  mentioned  as  a  king  of  Moab  in  an  in- 
scription of  Sennacherib  ("Taylor  CJylinder,"  II. 
63;  H.  Zimmern,  in  Schrader,  KAT,  p.  472), 
Chemoshmelek  (or  Chemoshgad)^  the  father  of 
Mesha  (Moabite  Stone,  1),  and  Chemoshyehi,  upon 
a  gem  with  Phenician  inscription  found  at  Beirut 
and  probably  Moabitish  (E.  Renan,  Mission  de 
PlUnicie,  Paris,  1864,  pp.  351-352;  De  Vogtl^,  Me- 
langes d'archiologie  orientalef  Paris,  1868,  p.  89). 
The  name  may  possibly  be  found  also  in  one  or 
two  other  inscriptions  (W.  Gesenius,  in  Scriptura 
lingucBque  Phcenicia  manumenta,  Leipsic,  1837,  p. 
159;  P.  Le  Bas  and  W.  H.  Waddington,  Inscriptions 
grecqves  et  latines  recueiUies  en  Qrhce  ei  en  Asie 
Mineure,  iii.  1,  Paris,  1870,  n.  2220).  In  Judges  xi. 
24  Chemosh  is  spoken  of  apparently  as  god  of  the 
Ammonites;  but  elsewhere  in  the  Old  Testament  the 
Ammonitish  god  is  called  Milcom  (related  to  Molech) 
(I  Kings  xi.  5, 7,  33;  II  Kings  xxiii.  13),  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  passage  Judges  xi.  12-28 
is  an  interpolation  and  originally  referred  to  the 
Moabites  (cf.  the  commentaries  on  Judges).  The 
etymology  of  Chemosh  is  uncertain.  Concerning 
the  character  of  the  god  and  his  worship  not  much 
is  known.  His  priests  are  mentioned,  and  an 
image  of  him  (which  was  to  be  carried  away  as  a 
trophy  by  enemies)  is  implied  in  Jer.  xlviii.  7  (cf. 


Ohemoah 

Ohiamaoe 


THE  NEW   SC^.HAFF-HERZOG 


d6 


verse  13);  the  expression  "Chemosh  said  to  mc  " 
(Moabite  Stone,  14,  32)  indicates  prophets  or  an 
oracle;  he  was  worshiped  at  a  ''  high  place  '' 
(I  Kings  xi.  7;  Isa.  xvi.  12;  II  Kings  xxiii.  13;  Moab- 
ite Stone,  3)  and,  at  least  in  extreme  cases,  his  cult 
included  human  sacrifice  (II  Kings  iii.  27;  cf. 
Moabite  Stone,  14-17).  The  expression  "Ashtar 
Chemosh  '*  (Moabite  Stone,  17)  probably  indicates 
that  a  female  deity  was  associated  with  Chemosh; 
it  is  thought  by  some,  however,  that  Ashtar  is  an- 
other name  for  Chemosh  and  that  the  compound 
"  Ashtar  Chemosh  "  is  formed  like  Yahweh  Elohim 
(cf.  E.  Meyer,  in  ZDMG,  vol.  xxxi.,  1877,  p.  733; 
F.  Baethgen,  BeUrdge  zur  aemiiUchen  Religionage- 
schichte,  Berlin,  1888,  pp.  13  sqq.;  G.  A.  Barton, 
A  Sketch  of  Semitic  Origina,  New  York,  1902,  pp. 
141-144).  Chemosh  was  worshiped  by  the  idola- 
trous Israelites  (I  Kings  xi.  7,  33;  II  Kings  xxiii. 
13).  The  similarity  of  the  language  applied  to 
Chemosh,  both  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the 
Moabite  Stone,  to  that  used  of  Yahweh  ia  very 
striking.  The  Moabites  are  the  "  people  of  Che- 
mosh," his  sons  and  daughters  he  "gives into  cap- 
tivity "  (Num.  xxi.  29;  cf.  Jer.  xlviii.  46);  Che- 
mosh gives  possessions  (Judges  xi.  24).  In  the  Moabite 
Stone  Chemosh  is  the  lord  and  protector  of  Moab; 
he  commanded  Mesha  to  go  to  war  (14,  32)  and 
gave  the  victory  (4,  19);  the  slaughter  of  his  ene- 
mies was  a  "  pleasing  spectacle  for  Chemosh  "  (1 1- 
12);  because  he  was  "  angry  with  his  land  "  Che- 
mosh allowed  Omri  to  oppress  Moab  (5).  See 
Moab,  and  for  the  inscription,  Moabite  Stone. 
Bibuoorapht:  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned  and 
those  referred  to  in  the  article  MoABrrB  Stone,  oonsult: 
D.  Hackmann,  De  Chemotcho  MoabUarum  idolo,  firemen. 
1730;  F.  C.  Movers.  Die  Ph&nizigr,  i.  334-337.  Bonn,  1841; 
P.  Bchols.  OdUendienst  und  Zauberweaen  bei  den  aUtn 
HebrOem,  pp.  176-182,  Regensburg,  1877,  and  the  litera- 
ture under  Moab. 


CHENEY,  CHARLES  EDWARD:  Reformed 
Episcopal  bishop;  b.  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
12,  1836.  He  was  educated  at  Hobart  College 
(B.A.,  1857)  and  at  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Alexandria,  Va.,  from  which  he 
was  graduated  in  1859.  He  was  ordered  deacon  in 
1856  and  ordained  priest  two  years  later.  After 
being  curate  of  St.  Luke's,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  (1858- 
1869),  and  of  St.  Paul's,  Havana,  N.  Y.  (1859-60), 
he  became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Chicago,  in 
1860.  His  pronounced  evangelicalism,  however, 
caused  him  to  be  tried  by  Bishop  Whitehouse, 
although  the  verdict  was  overruled  by  the  civil 
courts.  His  church,  nevertheless,  seceded  from 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  communion,  and  in  1873, 
on  the  organization  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church,  he  was  elected  first  bishop,  still  retaining 
his  rectorate,  which  he  has  since  held  continu- 
ously. His  jurisdiction  was  changed  in  1878  from 
the  Northwest  to  the  Synod  of  Chicago,  and  in  1905 
he  was  president  of  the  Synod  of  Reformed  Episco- 
pal Churches  of  the  Central  States.  While  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  he  was,  naturally,  an 
adherent  of  the  pronounced  Low-church  party, 
and  now  describes  himself  as  "  believing  heartily 
in  the  great  fundamental  principles  held  by  all 
evangeliccd  Christians,"  and  as  "  totally  opposed  to 
all  that  leans  toward  any  compromise  with  Roman- 


ism, and  equally  opposed  to  the  radicalism  in- 
volved in  the  destructive  criticism  of  God's  Word." 
He  has  written:  Twenty-Eight  Sermons  (Chicago, 
1880);  A  Ward  to  Old-Fashioned  Episaypaliam 
(Philadelphia,  1884);  What  is  the  Reformed  Episco- 
pal Church?  (1885);  What  do  Reformed  Episcopa- 
liansBelievef  (1888);  The  Enlistmentof  the  Christian 
Soldier  (Chicago,  1893);  A  King  of  France  un- 
named in  History  (1903);  and  The  Second  Norman 
Conquest  of  England  (1907). 

CHERBURY,    EDWARD    HERBERT,     LORD. 

See  Deism,  I.,  (  1. 

CHERETHITES,  ker'e-thaits,  AlVD  PELETHTTES, 

peFe-thoits  (Heb.  hakkerethi  wehappelethi):  The 
designation  of  the  royal  body-guard  of  King  David, 
commanded  by  Benaiah  (II  Sam.  viu.  18,  xv.  18, 
XX.  7,  23;  I  Kings  i.  38,  44;  I  Chron.  xviiL  17; 
called  sdmatophylcJces  by  Josephus,  Ant.,  VII.  v.  4). 
The  interpretations  ''  executioners  and  runners " 
(Gesenius  and  others)  and  "  bowmen  and  sUngers  " 
(Targum  Jonathan,  Peshitto)  are  not  supported 
by  etymological  proof,  and  are  inadmissible  be> 
cause  the  Hebrew  forms  are  unquestionably  gen- 
tilic  nouns.  The  name  "  Cherethite  "  in  the  above 
passages  is  to  be  taken  as  in  I  Sam.  xxx.  14  (cf. 
Zeph.  ii.  5;  Ezek.  xxv.  16),  where  the  reference  is 
to  the  Philistine  population,  or  at  least  to  a  part 
of  the  same.  The  connection  of  this  people  with 
the  island  of  Crete  is  less  certain,  though  it  is  easily 
possible  that  they  were  Cretans  (see  Cafhthor). 
The  word  Pdethi  ("  Pelethites  ")  seems  to  be  an 
abbreviation  of  Peliehti  ("  Philistines  "),  intended 
to  rime  with  Kerethi,  and  the  two  words  taken 
together  allude  in  a  general  way  to  the  various 
elements  of  the  Philistine  population.  There  is 
nothing  improbable  in  David's  having  a  standing 
body-guard  wholly  or  chiefly  of  Philistines,  sub- 
ject to  himself  alone  and  reliable  in  times  of  civil 
strife.  His  attitude  toward  Ittai  and  his  country- 
men from  Gath  (II  Sam.  xv.  18-22,  xviii.  2)  shows 
that  such  relations  with  foreigners  (even  uncir- 
cumdsed)  were  not  found  offensive,  either  from 
a  national  or  a  theocratic  point  of  view.  This 
body-guard  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  "  mighty 
men  "  who  constituted  the  native  corps  d^Uite  (cf. 
II  Sam.  XX.  7). 

Probably  the  royal  body-guard  was  popularly 
known  as  the  "  Cherethites  and  Pelethites  "  untU 
long  after  David's  time,  though  the  appellation 
must  soon  have  become  inapplicable  to  the  nation- 
ality of  the  guardsmen.  In  the  time  of  Atbaliah 
mention  is  made  of  the  "  captains  and  the  guard  " 
(II  Kings  xi.  4,  19;  Heb.  hakkari  toefcoro^m, 
evidently  formed  after  analogy  with  the  old  double 
name).  The  '*  guard  "  are  the  footmen  and  the 
accompanying  halberdiers  who  ran  before  the  king's 
chariot  (II  Sam.  xv.  1;  cf.  I  Sam.  xxii.  17  and 
elsewhere).  The  "  captains,"  however,  are  more 
correctly  the  "  Carites  "  (cf.  R.V.)  or  "  Carians/' 
and  the  passage  shows  that  in  a  later  period  this 
adventurous  people,  who  were  often  employed  as 
mercenaries  (cf.  Herodotus,  ii.  152,  v.  Ill;  Livy, 
xxxvii.  40)  had  come  to  occupy  in  Jerusalem  the 
place  of  the  old  Philistines.  The  Hebrew  text 
(kethibh)  of  II  Sam.  xx.  23  has  kari  (both  English 


27 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ChemoBh 
Ohiemaoe 


versions  follow  the  Iperi  in  translating  "  Chere- 
tbites"),  perh^>B  by  confusion  with  the  later 
passage.  The  Great  Cylinder  Inscription  of  Sen- 
oacherib  seems  to  indicate  that  Hezekiah  had  an 
Arabian  body-guard  (cf.  Sayce,  Higher  Criticism 
and  the  Monuments,  pp.  431,  433,  London,  1894). 

C.  VON  Orelli. 
Bibuookafht:  The  diasertationB  of  Carpiov  and  Opitz, 
still  TBhiable.  are  in  Usolini,  Thesaunia  anHquiiatum  «i- 
crarumi^  rxvii.  423  sqq.,  451  sqq.,  34  vols.,  Venice,  1744- 
1789.  Consult  also  C.  Iken,  DiBaertaiwneM  jAUohgieo-Vieo- 
Ugicm,  pp.  111-132.  Leyden,  1727;  B.  Behrend,  Die  KreH 
wtd  PUti,  Krotosehin,  1868;  8.  R.  Driver,  Notea  on  the 
H«br.  Text  of  Samuel,  London.  1890;  R.  Kittel.  Hiatory 
of  Oko  Hobrmwe,  ii.  153.  164.  ib.  1806;  DB,  i.  376-377;  EB, 
I  730-740;  Smith,  OTJC,  p.  262. 

CHERUB.    See  Anoel. 

CHESHIRE,  JOSEPH  BLOTJITT,  JR.:  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  bishop  of  North  Carolina;  b.  at 
Tarborough,  N.  C,  Mar.  27,  1850.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1869, 
and  after  teaching  for  two  years,  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  to  the  North  Carolina  bar  in  1872. 
He  practised  for  six  years,  and  then,  having  studied 
theology  privately,  was  ordered  deacon  in  1878,  and 
priested  two  years  later.  He  was  curate  at  Chapel 
Hill.  N.  C,  1878-81.  and  was  rector  of  St.  Peter's, 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  1881-93.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  coadjutor  of  North  Caro- 
lina, and  within  the  year,  on  the  death  of  Bishop 
Lyman,  he  became  bishop  of  the  diocese. 
Bibuoobapht:  W.  S.  Perry,  The  EpiacoptUe  in  America, 

p.  361.  New  York.  1895. 


CHETHE,  ch^'ni',  THOMAS  KELLY:  Church 
of  England;  b.  at  London  Sept.  18,  1841.  He 
was  educated  at  Worcester  College,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1862),  and  also  studied  at  the  University  of  Gdt- 
tingen.  He  was  ordered  deacon  in  1864,  and  ordained 
priest  in  the  following  year,  and  from  1868  to  1882 
was  feUow  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  addition 
to  being  a  college  lecturer  on  Hebrew  and  divinity 
in  the  same  college  from  1870  to  1871.  He  became 
rector  of  Tendring,  Essex,  from  1880  to  1885;  was 
Oriel  professor  of  the  interpretation  of  Scripture, 
Oxford  188&-1908;  became  canon  of  Rochester  1885. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Company  in  1884,  was  Bampton  Lecturer  in  1889, 
and  American  Lecturer  on  the  History  of  Relig- 
ions in  1897-98.  He  is  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
'*  higher  criticism  "  of  the  Bible  in  the  English- 
Kpeakiog  worid,  and  in  this  spirit  edited  the  Ency- 
riapoedia  Btblica  in  collaboration  with  J.  S.  Black 
(4  vols.,  London,  1899-1903).  His  independent 
works  include,  in  addition  to  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  standard  works  of  reference,  as  well  as  to 
theological  periodicals,  Notes  and  Criticisms  on 
the  Htbrew  Text  of  haiah  (London,  1868);  The 
Rook  of  Isaiah  ChronolofficaUy  Arranged  (1870; 
m  collaboration  with  S.  R.  Driver);  The 
Fropheeies  of  Isaiah  (2  vols.,  1880-81);  Micah 
n882)  and  Hosea  (1884)  in  The  Cambridge  Bible , 
Jeremiah  in  The  Ptdpit  Commentary  (1883-84); 
The  Book  of  Psalms,  a  New  Translation  (1884);  Job 
and  Sotoman  (1887);  Jeremiah,  his  Life  and  Times 
ri888);  The  Origin  and  Religious  Contents  of  the 
Psalter  (1891;    the  Bampton  Lectures  for  1889);  I 


Aids  to  the  Devout  Study  of  Criticism  (1892);  Found- 
ers of  Old  Testament  Criticism  (1893);  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Book  of  Isaiah  (1895);  Book  of  Isaiah 
(critical  text  and  translation)  in  the  Polychrome 
Bible  (2  vols.,  1898-99);  Jewish  Religious  Life, 
after  the  ExUe  (New  York,  1898;  American  Lec- 
tures on  the  history  of  religions  for  1897-98);  The 
Christian  Use  of  the  Psalms  (London,  1899);  Critica 
Biblica  (1904);  BitAe  Problems  and  the  New  Ma- 
terials for  their  Solution  (1904);  and  Traditions 
and  Beliefs  of  Ancient  Israel  (1907). 

CHEYIVELL,  FRAlfCIS:  Puritan;  b.  in  Oxford 
1608;  d.  at  Preston,  near  Brighton,  Sussex,  1665. 
He  studied  at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  became 
fellow;  took  orders  and  held  a  curacy  near  Oxford 
and  a  living  near  Banbury;  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war  he  became  an  active  partizan  of  the  par- 
liamentary side,  and,  as  a  reward  for  his  services, 
was  given  the  living  of  Petworth,  Sussex,  in  1643. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly 
the  same  year.  In  1646  parliament  determined  to 
"  reform  "  the  University  of  Oxford  and  appointed 
Cheynell  one  of  a  commission  to  "  prepare  the  way," 
and  the  next  year  made  him  one  of  the  visitors; 
he  is  said  to  have  been  "  the  most  detested  as  well 
as  the  most  active  and  meddlesome  of  all."  In 
1648  he  took  forcible  possession  of  the  Lady  Mar- 
garet professorship  of  divinity  and  the  presidency 
of  St.  John's  C/ollege,  but  either  resigned  or  was 
removed  in  1650.  He  was  deprived  of  his  living 
some  time  before  the  general  ejection  of  non-con- 
forming ministers  in  1662.  He  attended  William 
Chillingworth  (q.v.)  in  his  last  illness,  showing 
himself  "  as  charitable  and  compassionate  as  his 
rigid  orthodoxy  would  permit  him  to  be"  (Des 
Maizeaux,  Life  of  Chillingworth,  p.  314):  he  refused 
to  officiate  at  the  burial,  but  attended  the  cere- 
mony with  Chillingworth's  book  in  his  hand,  and 
in  the  course  of  a  bitter  harangue  threw  it  into 
the  grave,  exclaiming,  "  Get  thee  gone,  thou  cursed 
book,  ...  rot  with  thy  author  and  see  corrup- 
tion." To  justify  his  conduct  he  published  Chil- 
lingworthi  novissima,  or  the  sickness,  heresy,  death, 
and  burial  of  W,  Chillingworth  (London,  1664);  he 
also  published  The  Rise,  Growth,  and  Danger  of 
Socinianism  (1643)  and  other  works. 
Biblxoorapht:  A.  Ik  Wood.  A&tena  Ozonieneee,  ed.  P.  BIIba. 
vol.  ii.,  4  vols..  London.  1813-20;  D.  Neal,  Hiet.  of  the 
PvffUana,  vol.  iv..  ib.  1738;  DNB,  x.  222-224. 

CmCAOO-LAMBETH  ARTICLES.  See  Fun- 
damental Doctrines  op  Christianity,  §  4;  Lam- 
beth Conference. 

CHIEMSEE,  ki''em-fl6^  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A 
bishopric  of  the  modem  Bavaria.  Before  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  a  monastery  was 
founded,  probably  from  Salzbuig,  on  an  island  in 
the  Chiemsee,  the  largest  lake  of  Bavaria.  In  788 
it  was  given  by  Charlemagne  to  the  church  of  Mets, 
which  retained  possession  of  it  till  891,  when  King 
Amulf  exchanged  it  for  Luxeuil  and  presented  it  to 
Salzburg.  The  foundation  of  the  bishopric  was  due 
to  Archbishop  Eberhard  of  that  see  (1200-46), 
and  was  confirmed  by  the  Lateran  Council  m  1215 
and  by  Innocent  III.  shortly  after  The  extent  of 
its  jurisdiction  was  only  about  eight  miles  by  four, 


Children's  Bibles 
China 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


28 


comprising  the  valleys  of  the  Prien  and  the  Achen 
with  their  tributaries.    The  see  was  suppressed  in 
1807,  in  the  process  of  reorganization  of  the  Ba- 
varian Church.  (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibliography:  J.    E.    von    Koch-Stemfeld,    Bevtr&ge   zur 
teutuhen  Lander-  .  .  .  und  SUuUenrKunde,   ii.    26^314, 
3  vols..  Munich.  I82&-33;  Rettberg.  KD,  ii.  243;  Hauck. 
KD,  u.  432,  iv.  655.  924;  /CL.  iii.  134-137. 

CHILDREN'S  BIBLES.  See  Bibles  for  Chil- 
dren. 

CHILDREN'S  COMMUNION.  See  Lord's  Sup- 
per, V. 

CHILDREN'S   DAY,    CHILDREN'S   SERVICES. 

See  Sunday-schools  and  Children's  Services. 

CHILE:  A  republic  of  South  America,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Peru,  on  the  east  by  Bolivia  and 
Argentina,  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean;  area,  307,620  square  miles;  population, 
2,712,150  by  census  of  1895,  estimated  in  1903  at 
3,205,992.     The  Indians  number  about  50,000. 

The  predominant  religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 
An  active  missionary  propaganda,  in  which  Fran- 
ciscans and  Jesuits  were  especially  zealous,  began 
immediately  after  the  Spanish  conquest  under 
Valdivia  in  1539-41,  from  the  town  of  Santiago 
(founded  1541)  as  a  base.  The  heroic  resistance  of 
the  Araucanians,  the  ruling  native  people,  prevented 
extensive  results  till  late  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. The  period  of  separation  from  Spain  began 
in  1810  and  ended  in  1827,  when  the  Spanish  garri- 
sons were  finally  withdrawn.  The  present  eccle- 
siastical organization  includes  the  archdiocese  of 
Santiago  of  Chile  (founded  1561,  raised  to  archi- 
episcopal  rank  in  1840)  and  the  dioceses  of  Con- 
cepcion  (1563),  Ancud  (1840),  and  La  Serena  (1840). 
The  vicariates  apostolic  of  Antofagasta  (for  Chile 
and  Bolivia)  and  Tarapacd  (for  Chile  and  Peru), 
and  the  prefecture  of  Araucania  have  been  estab- 
lished in  recent  years.  There  is  an  apostolic  dele- 
gate and  envoy  extraordinary. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  legally  recognized 
as  ''  protected  "  (protetta)  by  the  State,  and  the 
Church  receives  an  annual  subsidy  of  about  one 
million  pesos.  Freedom  of  religious  confession, 
however,  is  granted.  Plans  of  the  curia  concerning 
the  relations  between  the  Church  and  non-Catho- 
lics and  educational  affairs  led  to  a  difference  with 
the  government  in  1883;  nevertheless  President 
Balmaceda  maintained  the  provisions  respecting 
complete  tolerance  of  Protestant  worship,  and 
state  promotion  of  higher  instruction.  One  con- 
sequence was  the  founding  of  a  Catholic  University 
at  Santiago  in  1889;  beside  which  the  State  Uni- 
versity (founded  by  the  Jesuits,  1743)  with  five 
faculties  is  still  active. 

Primary  instruction  is  not  uniform,  and  school 
attendance  is  not  compulsory;  private,  parochial, 
and  public  schools  exist  side  by  side  for  both 
white  children  and  Indians;  approximately  1,960 
schools  are  maintained  by  public  funds  as  against 
somewhat  over  500  by  other  arrangements.  The 
State  also  provides  for  several  normal  schools. 
There  is  evidence  of  a  noteworthy  expansion  of 
secondary  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  and  the  man- 
agement and  equipment  are  good;    a  state  peda- 


gogical institute  for  this  branch  of  education  is  in 
operation  at  Santiago.  Higher  education  is  served, 
apart  from  the  university,  by  an  Academy  of  Art, 
a  Conservatory,  and  an  Institute  for  Agriculture 
and  Mining. 

Immigration  has  given  rise  to  a  niunber  of  con- 
siderable congregations  of  the  Anglican  Church 
and  of  the  Presbyterian  confession,  and  a  German 
Evangelical  Church  "  of  the  country."  The  former 
are  found  especially  in  Valparaiso,  Santiago,  Con- 
cepcion,  Iquique.  The  fourteen  German  Evan- 
gelical congregations  are  not  yet  completely  co- 
ordinated by  synodical  union,  but  they  have 
everywhere  an  assuring  support  in  the  way  of 
German  schools,  even  though  most  of  these  are 
not  strictly  associated  with  the  Church.  The 
German  total  is  estimated  at  12,000;  that  of 
English-speaking  Protestants  at  7,000. 

Wilhelm  Goetz. 
Bibuoorapht:  Mrs.  M.  R.  Wright.  Republic  of  Chile, 
Philadelphia.  1905;  J.  T.  Medina.  Loa  Aboriginee  de  Chile, 
Santiago,  1882;  C.  Ochseniua,  Chile,  Land  urui  Leute, 
Leipaic.  1885;  H.  Kuns.  Chile  und  die  deuUd»en  Kolonien, 
Leipsic,  1801;  A.  U.  Hancock.  A  Ilist.  of  Chile,  Chicaga 
1893. 

CHILIASM,  kiri-azm.  See  Millennium,  Mil- 
lenarianism. 

CHILLIN6W0RTH,  WILLIAM :  Church  of  Eng- 
land; b.  at  Oxford  Oct.,  1602;  d.  at  Chichester 
Jan.  30,  1644.  He  became  a  scholar  of  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  1618  (B.A.,  1620;  M.A.,  1623; 
fellow,  1628).  He  entered  heartily  into  the  theo- 
logical controversies  of  the  time,  and,  undertaking 
to  argue  against  a  Jesuit  at  Oxford  (John  Percy, 
but  known  as  John  Fisher),  became  himself  a  con- 
vert to  Romanism  and  went  to  Douai  in  1630; 
here  he  attempted  to  write  out  the  reasons  for  his 
change  of  faith  with  the  result  that  he  wavered, 
returned  to  Oxford  in  1631,  and  in  1634  declared 
himself  again  a  Protestant.  He  seems  to  have 
been  influenced  by  a  longing  for  authority  and 
certainty;  the  apparently  firmer  foundation  oflFereii 
by  the  Church  of  Rome  proved  delusive;  and  then 
he  settled  upon  Scripture  interpreted  by  reason. 
Some  of  the  daims  of  the  Church  of  England  seemed 
to  him  unreasonable,  and  he  declined  to  take  orders. 
His  great  work  was  called  forth  by  a  controversy 
between  a  Jesuit,  Matthias  Wilson  (alias  Edward 
Knott),  and  Dr.  Christopher  Potter,  provost  of 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  as  to  whether  Protestants 
could  be  saved.  Three  books  had  already  appeared 
when  Chillingworth  entered  the  contest  (Charity 
Mistaken,  1630,  and  Mercy  and  Truth,  1634,  by 
the  Jesuit;  Want  of  Charily  Justly  Charged,  1633, 
by  Dr.  Potter).  His  work,  after  being  examined 
and  approved  by  the  vice-chancellor  of  Oxford 
and  two  divinity  professors,  appeared  at  Oxford 
in  1638  with  the  title  The  Religion  of  Protestants  a 
Safe  Way  to  Salvation  :  or  an  Ansv?er  to  a  Book  en- 
titled Mercy  and  Truth.  A  second  edition  was 
necessary  within  five  months,  and  a  host  of  answers 
and  criticisms  was  called  forth,  from  Puritans  as 
well  as  Roman  Catholics.  It  is  a  defense  of  Protes- 
tantism, which,  he  says,  he  understands  to  be  not 
•*  the  doctrine  of  Luther,  or  Calvin,  or  Melanchthon; 
nor    the    confession    of    Augusta   [Augsburg],    or 


20 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Children's  Bibles 
Ohlna 


Geneva;  nor  the  catechifim  of  Heidelberg,  nor  the 
articles  of  the  Church  of  England;  no,  nor  the 
harmooy  of  Protestant  confessions;  but  that 
wherein  they  all  agree,  and  which  they  all  subscribe 
with  a  greater  harmony  as  a  perfect  rule  of  their 
faith  and  actions,  that  is,  the  Bible.  The  Bible, 
I  say,  the  Bible  only  is  the  religion  of  Protes- 
tants "  (part  i.,  chap,  vi.,  sec.  56).  He  argues 
strongly  for  free  inquiry,  and  denies  that  any  church 
is  infallible.  Concerning  the  Church  of  England 
he  declares  that  he  believes  its  doctrine  '*  so  pure 
and  orthodox  that  whosoever  believes  it,  and  lives 
according  to  it,  undoubtedly  he  shall  be  saved; 
and  that  there  is  no  error  in  it  which  may  neces- 
>itate  or  warrant  any  man  to  disturb  the  peace  or 
renounce  the  conmiunion  of  it.  This,  in  my 
opinion,  is  all  intended  by  subscription  "  (preface, 
ticc.  40).  This  being  acceptable  to  the  bishops, 
in  1638  Chillingworth  was  made  chancellor  of 
Salisbury  with  the  prebend  of  Brixworth  in  North- 
amptonshire annexed.  He  took  the  royalist  side 
in  the  contest  between  king  and  parliament,  and 
wrote  against  "rebels";  became  chaplain  in  the 
royal  army  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Arundel 
Castle  in  Dec.,  1643;  being  ill  at  the  time,  he  was 
taken  to  Chichester,  where  his  death  was  hastened, 
as  was  believed  by  his  friends,  by  the  injudicious 
efforts  of  the  Puritan  Francis  Cheynell  (q.v.)  to 
ctinvert  him. 

t']-iuooKA.PHT:  Chillinsworth'a  minor  writings  were  pub- 
lished in  1687  under  the  title  Additional  Diacouraea;  the 
bnkt  edition  of  his  Worka  is  that  of  Oxford,  1838,  3  vols.; 
a  Hiaiarieal  and  Critieal  Account  of  the  Life  and  Wri- 
tinga  of  WiBiam  ChiUingvorOi  by  P.  Des  Maiaeaux  ap- 
peared in  London.  1726;  and  his  Life  by  Thomas  Birch 
was  prefixed  to  the  tenth  folio  edition  of  his  Worka  (1742), 
reprinted  in  the  edition  of  1838.  Cf.  DNB,  x.  252-257. 
CHIMERE.    See     Vestments     and     Insignia, 

Km  L  ESI  AST!  C  A  L. 

CHUVA. 


The  Earliest  Period  (§  1). 
The  Second  Period  (f  2). 
The  Modem  Period  (f  3). 
3.  Protestant  Missions. 
The  First  Period,  to  1842 

(§1). 
The  Second  Period.  1842- 

1860  (f  3) 
The  Third  Period,  1860- 

1895  (f  3). 
The  Fourth  Period,  from 

1895  (§  4). 
General  Features.    Chri»- 

tian  Literature  (f  5). 
Various  Forms  of  Work 

(§6). 
StatUtics  (§  7). 


China  forms  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Chi- 
nese empire,  is  from  1,300,000  to  1,500,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  and  has  a  population  of  perhaps 
375,000.000.  Its  capital  is  Peking.  The  name 
•China  "  is  often  loosely  used  for  the  entire  empire, 
which  includes,  besides  China  proper.  Manchuria, 
Mongolia,  East  Turkestan,  and  Tibet.  The  gov- 
enimental  authority  in  large  districts  is  purely 
nominal,  and  for  this  reason  and  owing  to  the 
encroachments  of  European  powers,  the  boundaries 
•ukI  area  are  uncertain  and  fluctuating.  The  ex- 
tent is  given  as  about  4,200,000  square  miles,  and 


I.  Native  Retifpons 
I.  Coofueianimn. 

CoDfndua  Cl  1 ). 

The  Teacfains   of  Goofu- 
dos  (f  2). 

lu  Defects  ii  3). 
ITsoian. 

Origin  and    Cbaracteri<«- 

tJ€8(i  1). 

Saperstitioa  of  the  Chi- 
nese (i  2). 
3.  Buddhiflm. 

5.  Chinese  Sects. 
TI.  Cluvtian  Missions. 

1.  Ne^^torian  MiHsions. 

2.  Rixnan     Catholic      Mia- 


a  late  estimate  of  the  population  (admittedly  very 
uncertain)  is  425,000,000. 

L  Native  Religions:  In  speaking  of  the  "relig- 
ions "  of  the  Chinese  it  is  always  necessary  to  point 
out  that  not  only  does  the  Chinese  language  con- 
tain no  such  wonl  as  "  religion  *'  in  the  sense  of  a 
relation  between  God  and  man,  but  there  has  never 
been  any  equivalent  to  this  idea  in  the  minds  of 
the  Chinese  people.  The  teaching  of  the  Sages, 
which  are  ethical  as  distinguished  from  religious, 
are  grouped  under  the  term  "instruction."  To 
"  worship  the  gods "  means  also  to  pay  one's 
respects. 

1.  Confacianlam:    Confucius  (q.v.)  was  a  teacher 

and  a  philosopher  who  wished  to  reform  his  native 

state  by  a  return  to  the  past.     At  the 

1.  Oon-  age  of  fifty-five  he  became  an  official, 
ItLcius.  but  his  morals  were  too  pure  and  his 
aims  too  lofty  to  make  him  successful 
and  he  retired  in  disgust  to  private  life.  His  great 
work  was  the  instruction  of  his  pupils,  who  are  said 
to  have  numbered  3,000,  seventy-two  of  whom  arc 
enrolled  among  the  Sages  of  the  empire.  They 
gathered  up  his  sayings  in  a  kind  of  Memorabilia 
which  for  ages  hajB  been  a  text-book  in  every  Chi- 
nese school.  Confucius  edited  the  books  already 
reckoned  as  classical,  but  added  comparatively 
little  of  his  own,  his  most  important  work  being 
a  bald  compendium  of  Chinese  history  covering 
about  240  years,  including  his  own  lifetime.  Through 
the  use  of  them  as  text-books  his  comments  on  the 
Book  of  Rites,  the  Book  of  Poetry,  the  Book  of 
History,  and  the  Book  of  Changes,  together  with 
the  Memorabilia,  have  probably  exerted  more  influ- 
ence upon  a  greater  number  of  human  beings  than 
any  other  writings  in  the  history  of  mankind. 
The  Book  of  History  should  be  especially  mentioned, 
which,  as  Dr.  Williams  remarks,  "  contains  the 
seeds  of  all  things  that  are  valuable  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  Chinese — ^it  is  at  once  the  foundation 
of  their  poUtical  system,  their  history,  and  their 
religious  rites,  the  basis  of  their  tactics,  music, 
and  astronomy." 

Although  while  he  lived  his  precepts  were 
neglected,  Confucius  began  to  be  appreciated  after 
he  was  dead,  and  has  long  been  regarded  by  the 
Chinese  as  a  perfect  Sage  (otherwise  called  "  Holy 
Man  "),  to  whom  there  is  a  temple  in  every  city, 
where  there  are  annual  offerings  of  animals  and  of 
silk.  The  ornamental  portals  inform  the  passer-by 
that  his  "  Virtue  Equaled  Heaven  and  Earth," 
which  is  tantamount  to  his  deification.  In  the 
words  of  Dr.  Legge:  "  The  homage  which  is  offered 
to  the  Master  could  not  be  more  complete  were  he 
Shang  Ti  himself."  In  striking  contrast  with  this 
universal  estimate  of  the  Chinese  people  is  that  of 
Confucius  himself  in  such  modest  sentences  aa  the 
following:  "The  Sage  and  the  man  of  perfect 
virtue — ^how  dare  I  rank  myself  with  them?  It 
may  simply  be  said  of  me  that  I  strive  to  become 
such  without  satiety,  and  to  teach  others  without 
weariness.  In  letters  I  am  perhaps  equal  to  other 
men;  but  the  character  of  the  Superior  Man, 
carrying  out  in  his  conduct  what  he  professes,  is 
what  I  have  not  attained  to.  The  leaving  virtue 
without  proper  cultivation;    the  not  thorou^y 


China 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


30 


discussing  what  is  learned;  not  being  able  to  move 
toward  righteousness  of  which  knowledge  is  gained; 
and  not  being  able  to  change  what  is  not  good — 
these  are  the  things  which  occasion  me  solicitude. 
I  am  not  one  who  was  born  in  possession  of  knowl- 
edge; I  am  one  who  is  fond  of  antiquity,  and  earnest 
in  seeking  it.  A  transmitter,  and  not  a  maker, 
believing  in  and  loving  the  ancients."  This  latter 
trait  of  the  Master  has  been  perpetuated  in  the 
Chinese  people,  whose  face  has  for  more  than  two 
millenniums  continued  to  be  turned  to  the  past. 
Aside  from  the  voltuninous  works  which  constitute 
the  Chinese  classics,  a  view  of  what  is  for  conve- 
nience comprehensively  termed  Confucianism  must 
take  accoimt  of  the  standard  interpretation  of 
these  works  by  Chu  Hsi,  a  highly  distinguished 
scholar  of  the  Sung  dynasty  (1130-1200  a.d.), 
whose  oonmientaries  on  the  classical  works  have 
for  centuries  formed  the  recognised  standard  of 
orthodoxy. 

Like  all  other  complex  systems  of  human  thought, 
Confucianism  is  many-sided.  But  its  essence  is 
expressed  in  the  "  Five  Constant 
2.  The  ^^rtues  "  of  Benevolence,  Righteous- 
^■^  '  ness,  Propriety,  Wisdom,  and  Sin- 
OonftwSua.  <*"*y'  as  well  as  in  enforcing  the 
duties  of  the  "  five  relations "  of 
Prince  and  Minister,  Husband  and  Wife,  Father 
and  Son,  Brother  to  Brother,  and  Friend  to  Friend. 
Confucius  taught  the  duty  of  keeping  aloof  from 
spirits,  while  at  the  same  time  treating  them  re- 
spectfully. "  We  have  not  performed  our  duties 
to  men,"  he  says;  "  how  then  can  we  perform  our 
duties  to  spirits  ?  "  "  Not  knowing  life,  how  can 
we  know  about  death?  "  The  laws  of  nature,  and 
of  the  spiritual  world  as  well,  lie  beyond  the  com- 
prehension of  all  men  except  those  endowed  by 
natxue  with  the  spirit  of  wisdom.  "  He  who  has 
sinned  against  Heaven  has  no  place  for  prayer." 
It  has  been  claimed  that  there  are  six  essential 
elements  in  Confucianism,  five  of  which  differ- 
entiate it  from  any  other  system  of  non-Christian 
thought.  These  are:  (1)  The  direct  responsibility 
of  the  sovereign  to  Heaven,  Shang  Ti,  or  God. 
(2)  The  greater  importance  of  the  people  than  the 
sovereign.  (3)  The  discrimination  of  the  five 
social    relations,    with    their    appropriate    duties. 

(4)  Insistence  on  the  virtues  just  mentioned,  with 
the  doctrine  that  the  wise  and  the  able  should  rule, 
the  object  of  the  ancient  civil  service  examination 
being  to  ascertain  who  the  wise  and  the  able  are. 

(5)  The  presentation  of  an  ideal,  or  Princely  Man, 
as  a  model  upon  which  every  Confucianist  should 
form  his  character.  The  influence  of  this  upon 
the  unnumbered  millions  of  Chinese  must  have 
been  measureless.  (6)  Filial  piety,  which  involves 
not  merely  suitable  treatment  of  the  living,  but 
the  worship  of  ancestors,  the  real  religion  of  the 
Chinese  people,  and  perhaps  the  most  potent  among 
several  causes  which  have  perpetuated  the  race 
through  all  the  millenniums  ot  Chinese  history. 

Confucianism  is  mixed  with  and  debased  by  an 
intricate  system  of  nature- worship,  mduding  worship 
of  heaven  and  earth,  the  sun  and  the  moon,  the 
douds,  the  rain,  thunder,  the  five  great  mountains, 
tbe  north  pole,  the  spirits  of  dead  worthies,  and  much 


else,  combining  in  one  ritual  gods,  ghosts,  flags,  and 
cannon.    It  embodies  much  of  ideal  excellence  for 

an  ideal  world,  but  it  is  deficient  in  the 
Defects      ^^®^  °^  *^®  relations,  for  it  has  no 

knowledge  of  God,  its  account  of  men  is 
inadequate,  it  has  no  elucidation  of  the  fact  of  sin, 
and  no  remedy  for  it,  nor  any  explanation  of  the 
relation  between  man  and  God.  Confucius  used 
the  term  Heaven  instead  of  Shang  Ti.  As  Dr. 
Legge  says:  ''  He  was  unreligious  rather  than  ir- 
religious; yet  by  the  coldness  of  his  temperament 
and  intellect  in  this  matter  his  influence  is  unfa- 
vorable to  the  development  of  true  religious  feel- 
ing among  the  Chinese  people  generally,  and  he 
prepared  the  way  for  the  speculations  of  the  lite- 
rati of  medieval  and  modem  times  which  have 
exposed  them  to  the  charge  of  atheism." 

Confucianism  is  a  wonderful  product  of  human 
development,  with  a  unique  grip  on  its  adherents. 
Its  strength  lies  in  the  inherent  rectitude  of  its 
injunctions,  which,  if  followed,  would  make  the 
worid  a  very  different  one  from  that  which  we  see. 
But  it  has  the  fatal  defect  of  altogether  failing  to 
recognize  the  inherent  weakness  and  inability  of 
human  nature  to  fulfil  these  high  behests,  and  for 
this  inability  Confucianism  has  neither  explanation 
nor  remedy.  In  its  adoration  of  Confucius  and 
other  worthies,  its  face  is  ever  toward  the  past. 
Its  worship  of  ancestors  has  no  ethical  value,* 
and  is  quite  destitute  of  any  directive  or  restraining 
power.  While  Confucianism  has  unified  and  con- 
solidated the  Chinese  people,  it  has  not,  as  the 
Great  Learning  enjoins,  renovated  them,  and  it 
never  can  do  so.  It  can  do  no  more  for  China  than 
it  has  sdready  accomplished,  and  it  is  now  a  spent 
force. 

2.  Taoism:  The  Chinese  character  Tao  sig- 
nifies a  "  road,  reason,  doctrine."    The  indigenous 

religion  called  by  this  name  owes  its 

1.  Origin    reputed    origin    to    Lao-tssse    ("  Old 

OYi^raMt^    Master,"  as  distinguished  from  Con- 

^rtloB    "  ^^^^  ^  Master;  see  Lao^tbze),  who 

is  supposed  to  have  been  half  a  cen- 
tury older  than  Confucius,  and  to  whom  is  gener- 
ally attributed  the  work  called  "  Canons  of  Reason 
and  Virtue,"  a  treatise  remarkable  alike  for  its 
brevity  and  its  profundity.  Historically  next  to 
nothing  is  known  of  Lao-tsze,  and  the  authenticity 
of  the  treatise  passing  under  his  name  is  much 
disputed.  Taoists  are  linked  to  Confudanists  by 
a  common  regard  for  the  Book  of  Changes,  of  which 
great  use  is  made  by  them.  The  Taoism  of  the 
present  day  has  nothing  to  do  either  with  the  Canon 
of  Reason  just  mentioned  or  with  its  alleged 
author,  whose  philosophy  is  now  only  a  historical 
curiosity.  Modem  Taoism  occupies  itself  with  a 
quest  for  the  elixir  of  immortality,  the  conquest 

*  [This  statement  will  not  be  accepted  by  all  students  of 
Chinese  religion.  Many  of  them  look  upon  ancestor-worship 
as  the  apotheosis  of  the  family,  and  point  out  that  the  prac- 
tise of  laying  before  the  ancestral  tablet  as  a  worthy  offeriDg 
the  article  or  document  which  evidences  that  the  individual 
had  done  something  which  reflected  credit  on  the  family 
must  affect  the  offerer  and  his  descendants.  The  contem- 
plation of  distinguished  or  even  respectable  ancestors  has 
stirred  many  among  us  to  nobler  living.  Yet  it  is  true  that 
the  evangelising  of  China  is  hindered  by  the  practise. — Kd.] 


31 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


China 


of  the  pMB/ODB,  and  espedally  with  the  exorcising 
of  denioos.  It  is  extensively  mixed  with  Bud- 
dhist ideas,  having  borrowed  from  that  system  the 
DotioQ  of  a  trinity  of  Pure  Ones.  A  being  having 
the  same  title  as  the  Shang  Ti  of  the  Confudanists 
is  worshiped,  but  his  functions  are  practically 
delegated  to  a  divinity  called  Pearly  Emperor 
Supreme  Ruler,  who  is  regarded  as  an  apotheosis 
of  a  man  named  Chang  who  lived  in  the  Han 
d^rnasty  (189  B.c.)»  and  whose  supposed  successors, 
into  each  of  whom  the  soul  of  the  founder  trans- 
migrates, lives  on  the  Dragon-Tiger  mountain  in 
Kian^,  and  is  by  foreigners  termed  "  the  Taoist 
Pope."  Eight  *'  Immortals/'  each  of  great  ca- 
pacity, some  of  them  objects  of  worship,  figure 
largely  in  popular  Taoism.  In  almost  all  villages 
there  is  a  temple  to  the  local  god  (or  god  of  the 
Bofl)  who  is  regarded  as  a  constable  reporting  deaths, 
ete.,  to  the  dty  god  (Ch'eng  Huang)  in  whose 
temple  are  represented  by  images  the  most  horrible 
tortures  of  the  future  life,  visited  upon  the  wicked. 
A  8ea  Dragon  King  rules  the  waters,  and  is  often 
worshiped  in  the  form  of  water  (or  even  land) 
sniikes.  Taoism  boasts  an  immense  literatiu^,  but 
with  the  exception  of  the  classic  named  it  is  of 
little  value,  and  is  not  reducible  to  a  system.  It 
descends  into  owi'mfJ  worship  of  the  "  Five  Great 
Families/'  via.;  the  Fox,  the  Rat,  the  Weasel,  the 
Snake,  and  the  Hedgehog,  each  of  which  is  spoken 
of  to  terms  of  the  highest  respect,  and  considered 
to  be  endowed  with  supernatural  powers. 

The  dense  ignorance  of  the  Chinese  regarding 

the  unifonnity  of  nature,  and  the  apparent  absence 

of  any  intuition  of  cause  and  effect, 

*•  ^y*'"    make  the  popular  mind  a  fertile  seed- 

of  ^e      bed  for  the  cultivation  of  superstitious 

Chinese.  gP™M  of  every  sort.  Every  few  years 
a  wave  of  fanaticism  seems  to  be 
propagated  throughout  the  empire,  issuing  in  tales 
of  cue-cutting  without  visible  agency,  Iddnaping 
of  children,  and  the  like.  The  whole  Boxer  move- 
ment in  China  was  stimulated  by  beliefs  which 
negative  and  defy  the  laws  of  nature. 

Men  who  are  confident  that  no  sword  that  was 
ever  forged  can  cut  them,  that  no  rifle-bullet  can 
penetrate  their  charmed  bodies,  that  no  artillery 
can  destroy  them  are  dangerous  elements  in  any 
dviliied  land,  and  China  is  full  of  such  men.  It 
is  difficult  to  find  in  Taoism  at  the  present  day  a 
ungle  redeeming  feature.  Its  assumptions  are 
wholly  false,  its  bald  materialism  inevitably  and 
hopelessly  debasing. 

8.  Buddhism:  This  Indian  religion  is  supposed 
to  have  been  introduced  into  China  in  the  Han 
dynasty,  by  the  Emperor  Ming  Ti,  in  consequence 
of  a  dream.  At  different  periods  it  encountered 
great  opposition  both  from  the  agnostic  Confit- 
nanists  and  the  materialistic  Taoists.  The  essen- 
tial doctrines  of  Buddhism  (q.v.)  are  the  vanity  of 
^  material  things,  the  siipreme  importance  of 
charity,  and  the  certainty  of  rewards  and  punish- 
naent  by  means  of  the  transmigration  of  souls. 
The  Five  Precepts  of  Buddhism  forbid  the  taking 
of  life,  stealing,  lust,  improper  speech,  and  the  use 
of  wine. 

The  Buddhist  habit  of  renouncing  one's  family 


and  becoming  priests  or  nuns  is  in  theory  totally 
opposed  to  Confucian  teaching  and  instincts,  yet 
like  the  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and 
the  bliss  of  attaining  to  be  a  Buddha,  it  is  com- 
mended to  the  Chinese  by  long  custom.  The 
poverty  of  thousands  of  Chinese  makes  their  chil- 
dren available  for  service  in  the  temples,  though 
Confucianism  has  never  assented  to  it.  Yet  what- 
ever their  theoretical  views,  Chinese  of  all  ranks 
call  in  Buddhist  or  Taoist  priests,  or  both,  upon 
due  provocation,  especially  at  funerals.  The  im- 
limited  utterance  of  the  name  of  Omito  Fo  (Amita 
Buddha)  will  bring  great  felicity,  and  its  incessant 
enunciation  is  one  of  the  principal  industries  of  the 
Mongols.  The  power  of  Buddhism  has  arisen  from 
the  fatal  weakness  of  Confucianism,  which  has 
nothing  to  say  of  the  hereafter.  The  literature  of 
Buddhism,  like  that  of  Taoism,  is  appallingly  ex- 
tensive, embracing  both  translations  from  the 
Sanskrit  (which  embodies  the  northern  form  of 
Buddhism  as  the  Pali  language  does  the  southern), 
and  also  attempts  to  write  Sanskrit  texts  in  Chinese 
characters.  Although  Buddhist  tenets  are  deeply 
enshrined  in  the  hearts  of  the  Chinese  people, 
Chinese  scholars,  even  when  adopting  Buddhism, 
have  always  affected  to  despise  it.  It  has  ren- 
dered the  Chinese  more  compassionate  to  the  brute 
creation  than  they  would  otherwise  have  been,  and 
it  has  introduced  the  graceful  but  costly  pagoda, 
as  well  as  the  dagoba,  or  memorial  tope.  While 
often  displaying  the  negative  activity  arising  from 
the  cohesive  power  of  ancient,  vested  interests, 
Buddhism  in  China  has  long  since  lost  the  virility 
which  it  attained  through  persecution,  and  haisi 
passed  into  a  hopeless  and  senile  decay. 

4.  MohamTnedanimn !  Mohammedans  are  scat- 
tered throughout  China,  particularly  in  the  cities, 
being  strongest  in  the  southwestern  provinces, 
their  total  number  being  estimated  at  twenty 
millions.  They  reached  China  in  the  T'ang  dynasty, 
over  a  thousand  years  ago.  Their  mosques  are 
especially  in  evidence  in  such  great  centers  as 
Peking,  Tien-Tsin,  Canton,  etc.  The  Mohammedans 
are  much  more  lax  in  their  practises  than  their 
coreligionists  in  India.  They  do  not  intermarry 
with  the  Chinese,  but  sometimes  adopt  Chinese 
children.  They  do  nothing  to  propagate  their 
faith,  and  apparently  have  never  done  so.  The 
Chinese  consider  them  as  more  violent  in  temper 
and  more  cruel  in  disposition  than  themselves,  but 
the  days  of  their  early  persecution  have  long  since 
passed  away.  With  the  exception  of  their  mono- 
theism there  is  often  very  little  distinction  between 
the  followers  of  the  Prophet  and  the  Chinese. 

6.  Ohinese  Sects:  China  is  honeycombed  with 
many  varieties  of  secret  societies,  neariy  all  of 
which  profess  to  "  practise  virtue "  as  an  end. 
Many  of  them  are,  however,  semipolitical,  and 
all  of  them  are  tabooed  by  the  government.  Their 
manuals  are  copied  by  hand,  and  are  practically 
inaccessible,  and  their  tenets  are  compounded  of 
fragments  of  Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Bud- 
dhism brewed  in  a  common  kettle.  Their  practises 
have  unquestionably  had  their  origin  in  Indian 
sources,  the  Chinese  intellect  not  being  sufficiently 
metaphysical  to  originate,  or  even  to  comprehend, 


Ohlna 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


subtleties  of  this  sort.  Some  use  a  species  of 
planchette  for  obtaining  adumbrations  of  fate, 
some  keep  ledger  accounts  of  merits  and  demerits, 
while  others  strive  after  the  (Taoist)  "  pill  of  im- 
mortality." The  I  Ho  Ch'Uan  (or  "  Boxers  ")  in 
1899  adopted  the  name  of  an  organization  much 
more  than  a  century  old.  Whenever  any  society 
is  vigorously  repressed,  it  invariably  reappears 
under  a  new  name.  The  existence  of  these  count- 
less sects  is  a  conspicuous  witness  to  the  radical 
insufficiency  of  each  of  the  standard  "  religions  " 
of  China  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  the  human  soul. 

n.  Christian  Missions.— 1.  Nestcrian  Missions: 
According  to  ancient  tradition  Christianity  was 
carried  to  India  and  perhaps  even  to  China  by  the 
apostle  Thomas.  While  it  is  not  impossible  that 
a  knowledge  of  the  new  faith  may  have  penetrated 
so  far  in  the  early  centuries,  no  certain  evidence  of 
it  is  now  to  be  obtained.  The  Nestorians,  how- 
ever, sent  missionaries  to  China  at  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century,  as  is  proved  by  the  black 
marble  tablet  discovered  near  the  present  Si  Ngan 
Fu,  the  western  capital  of  China,  in  1625,  record- 
ing the  establishment  of  the  "  Illustrious  Doc- 
trine." The  date  of  this  justly  famous  monument 
of  the  past  is  781  a.d.,  and  its  authenticity,  once 
hotly  disputed,  is  now  irrefragably  established. 
Judging  by  the  allusions  in  Marco  Polo's  narrative, 
in  the  thirteenth  century  Nestorian  churches  must 
have  been  nmnerous.  The  followers  of  this  faith 
were  no  doubt  bitterly  antagonized  by  the  aggres- 
sive Mohammedans,  who  came  to  China  somewhat 
later  than  they,  the  Nestorians  in  turn  persecuting 
the  early  Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  Nestori- 
anism  seems  to  have  survived  for  almost  a  thou- 
sand years,  traces  of  it  being  mentioned  by  travelers 
as  late  as  the  fourteenth  century.  But  not  a 
building  which  the  Nestorians  erected,  not  a  page 
which  they  wrote  has  been  preserved,  and  after 
more  than  twelve  centuries  they  are  remembered 
only  by  a  stone  tablet  [In  Nov.,  1907,  probably 
on  account  of  the  increasing  nmnber  of  European 
vandab  in  the  province,  the  governor  of  8hen-Si 
removed  the  Nestorian  Tablet  from  its  ancient  posi- 
tion in  an  open  field  near  Si  Ngan  Fu  and  placed  it 
in  the  Peilin  Temple,  inside  the  walls  of  the  city.] 

2.  Boman  OathoUo  Missions:    The    efforts    of 

the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  establish  itself  in 

China  are  divisible  into  several  well- 

•;  *J*     marked  periods,  of  which  the  first  be- 

^  "      gan  with  the  arrival  of  John  of  Monte 

Period.  Corvino  (q. v.),  who  reached  China  in 
1292,  during  the  Yuan,  or  Mongol 
dynasty.  This  zealous  priest  labored  alone  for 
eleven  years,  being  later  reenforoed  by  seven  assist- 
ants and  himself  made  archbishop.  His  letters 
speak  of  translating  the  Psalms  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  Mongol,  and  of  some  30,000  ''  infidels  " 
converted.  But  with  the  advent  of  the  native 
Ming  dynasty  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Mongols  in 
1368,  so  completely  were  the  traces  of  the  past 
effaced  that  it  was  long  forgotten  that  Christianity 
had  ever  entered  the  Celestial  empire  at  all. 

The  second  period  of  Roman  Catholic  missions 
is  separated  from  the  first  by  more  than  two  cen- 
turies of  sileqoe.      The  great  missionary   Francis 


Xavier  (q.v.)  died  on  the  island  of  St.  John  in 
1552,  after  heroic  but  unavailing  efforts  to  enter 
China.  In  1582  two  Jesuit  priests 
s  *  ^^^A  "^^^^^^^  ^y  *  stratagem  in  getting  a 
Peri!^  foothold  in  the  province  of  K wangtung. 
One  of  these  was  Michele  Ruggieri 
(Roger),  and  the  other  the  celebrated  Matteo  Ricci 
(q.v.),  a  man  of  great  natural  abilities,  of  a  genial 
diplomatic  temperament,  and  gifted  with  an  un- 
wearying patience.  After  nearly  twenty  years  of 
romantic  adventures  he  at  last  accomplished  his 
great  purpose,  reaching  Peking  in  Jan.,  1601,  where 
his  labors  were  most  indefatigable,  and  at  his  death 
in  1610  at  the  eariy  age  of  fifty-five,  they  appeared 
to  be  crowned  with  success,  especi^y  in  winning 
the  literati.  Ricd's  Chinese  writings  remain  to 
this  day  as  an  evidence  of  his  unique  achievements. 
His  most  famous  convert  was  a  Han  Lin  named 
HsU,  who  took  the  name  of  Paul,  and  whose  daugh- 
ter (baptized  as  Candida)  was  a  foster-mother  to 
the  infant  Church.  The  family  estate  near  Shang- 
hai (locally  called  Sikawei — "  home  of  the  Hsu 
family  ")  is  now  perhaps  the  most  important  center 
of  Roman  Catholic  influence  in  China.  Ricci 
nominated  Longobardi  (Lombard)  as  his  successor, 
who  after  careful  investigation  felt  obliged  to  re- 
verse the  poUcy  of  concession  to  Chinese  customs 
in  regard  to  the  worship  of  ancestors,  and  in  the 
use  of  the  characters  Shang  Ti  as  the  designation 
for  God.  These  divisive  and  perversive  questions 
were  the  rock  upon  which  Roman  Catholic  missions 
in  China  ultimately  spUt.  The  talents  of  Adam 
Schaal,  one  of  his  successors,  like  those  of  Ricci 
himself,  were  various  and  imposing,  his  labors 
ranging  from  astronomical  eriidition,  exhibited  in 
the  reform  of  the  Imperial  calendar,  to  the  compo- 
sition of  works  of  theology,  and  of  metal  for  the 
casting  of  caimon.  His  success  was  provocative  of 
jealousy,  so  that  he  was  undermined  by  intrigues, 
and  died  of  grief  and  mortification  at  the  age  of 
seventy-eight,  having  been  thirty-seven  years  in 
the  employ  of  five  monarchs.  The  achievements 
and  honors  of  his  successor,  Ferdinand  Verbiest, 
were  if  possible  even  greater,  continuing  for  a 
period  of  thirty  years  to  1688.  This  trio  of  men  of 
extraordinazy  abilities  and  devotion  not  pefhai^s 
equaled  in  missions  in  any  other  part  of  the  world 
might  have  been  expected  to  insure  the  success  of 
the  Church  to  which  they  gave  themselves. 

But  meantime  the  seeds  of  dissension  which 
ultimately  proved  the  ruin  not  only  of  the  Jesuit 
labors  in  China  but  also  of  those  of  the  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans  who  followed  them  were  yielding 
their  harvest  of  ill.  Ricci  had  endeavored  in  every- 
thing to  regard  Chinese  prejudices  that  he  might 
win  the  Uterati.  Upon  the  representations  of 
Lombard,  Pope  Innocent  X.  (1645)  forbade  the 
worship  of  Heaven,  and  the  rites  to  the  dead,  but 
the  Jesuits  succeeded  in  getting  a  bull  from  Alex- 
ander VII.  (1656)  practically  (althouf^  not  in 
form)  reversing  the  decision.  A  third  bull  main- 
tained the  validity  of  each  of  the  former,  the  rites 
being  forbidden  to  those  who  thought  them  idol- 
atrous, but  lawful  to  those  who  considered  them 
as  merely  civil  and  not  religious.  In  1699  the 
Jesuits  with  signal  imprudence  appealed  the  ques- 


83 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohlna 


tioD  to  the  Emperor  K'ang  Hsi,  whose  decision  in 
their  favor  was  flatly  contradicted  by  a  bull  of 
Clement  XI.  (1704)  absolutely  forbidding  the 
rites,  and  the  use  of  the  terms  "  Heaven  "  and 
'*  Shang  Ti "  for  God.  The  Emperor  K'ang  Hsi 
was  not  the  man  to  divide  his  rule  with  an  Italian 
gentlenian,  and  the  result  was  that  while  missions 
were  still  patronized  at  court  for  scientific  pur- 
poses, they  were  persecuted  in  the  provinces  with 
the  connivance  of  the  emperor.  On  the  accession 
of  his  successor,  Yung  Cheng  (172S-36),  by  various 
decrees  the  missionaries  were  banished  and  the 
Church  extinguished.  It  is  said  that  ''  more  than 
300  churches  were  destroyed  or  suppressed,  and 
300,000  Christians  abandoned  to  the  fury  of  the 
heathen." 

Thus  at  the  end  of  a  century  and  a  half  of 
great  prosperity  the  work  of  the  past  appeared 
to  be  again  wholly  undone;  but  the  fortitude 
under  bitter  persecutions  and  the 
ifAm  oo^^^'^cy  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Period  Christians  during  the  succeeding  cen- 
tury and  a  quarter  till  the  practical 
toleration  of  the  Treaty  of  Whampoa,  and  the 
fuller  liberty  of  the  treaties  of  1858,  afford  the  most 
convincing  proof  of  the  genuineness  of  their  religion. 
During  the  last  half-century  the  expansion  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  all  parts  of  the  empire 
has  been  marked,  but  as  it  does  not  publish 
statistics,  only  estimates  are  possible.  In  a  re- 
cent work  by  the  vicar  apostolic  of  the  province  of 
Chehkiang  there  are  said  to  be  twenty-seven 
bishops,  and  the  number  of  Christians  is  esti- 
mated at  three-quarters  of  a  million,  although 
figures  twice  as  large  are  often  met  with.  From 
the  Protestant  standpoint  it  is  a  capital  defect 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  policy  that  practically 
Qo  use  is  made  of  street  chapel  preaching,  and 
that  the  Bible  as  a  whole  is  not  translated  for 
the  converts.  The  standard  of  admission  to  the 
Church  is  not  high,  and  great  harm  is  done  to  the 
cause  by  the  too  ready  acceptance  of  many  appli- 
cantB  whose  obvious  motive  is  the  prosecution  of 
lawsuits,  and  revenge.*    It  should  be  said  that  in 

*0n  March  15,  1899,  the  Chinese  government  was  m- 
<l'^rrd  to  inoe  this  decree,  which  is  thus  translated  in 
Froident  Hawks  Pott's  The  Outbreak  in  China,  pp.  107  sq. 
(Ncir  Y'ork,  1900):  "  Churches  of  the  Catholic  religion,  the 
propagation  of  which  has  been  long  sinoe  authoriied  by  the 
Imperial  Government,  having  been  built  at  this  time  in 
all  the  provinces  of  China,  we  long  to  see  the  Christiana 
aul  the  people  live  in  peace,  and,  in  order  to  make  their 
protection  more  easy,  it  has  been  agreed  that  local  authori* 
tin  fhaU  exchange  visits  with  missionaries  under  the  con- 
<litioii8  indicated  in  the  following  articles:  1.  In  the  differ- 
ent degzees  of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  bishops  being  in 
Tuak.  sad  dignity  the  equals  of  viceroys  and  governors,  it  is 
screed  to  authorise  them  to  demand  to  see  viceroys  and 
poveiaora.  .  .  .  Vicars-general  and  archdeacons  will  be  au- 
tborind  to  demand  to  see  provincial  treasurers  and  judges, 
tad  tsotaas.  Other  priests  will  be  authorised  to  see  pre- 
fects of  the  first  and  second  class,  independent  prefects,  sub- 
pnfecta.  and  other  functionaries.  2.  When  a  mission  ad- 
^.  jcrave  or  important,  shall  come  up  unexpectedly  in  any 
praviaee.  the  bishope  and  the  missionanes  of  the  place 
*twQld  ask  for  the  intervention  of  the  minister  or  consuls  of 
the  power  to  which  the  pope  has  confided  the  protection 
f>i  religion.  These  last  will  regulate  or  finish  the  matter, 
fither  with  the  Tsungli  Yam6n  or  the  local  authorities.  In 
*f^  to  avoid  protraeted  proceedings,  the  bishop  and  the 
I  have  equal  right  to  address  themselves  at  once 

m.— 3 


many  cases  the  Roman  Catholic  converts  showed 
the  greatest  firmness  under  the  persecution  of  the 
Boxer  period,  unknown  numbers  enduring  martyr- 
dom for  their  faith. 

8.  Protestant  Missions:  Protestant  missions  to 

China  owe   their  origin   to  a  general   revival  of 

spiritual  life  at  the  end  of  the  eight- 

^y  ®      eenth  century,  which  was  naturally 

Period      manifested   in   greatly   increased   ao- 

to  1842*.  tivity  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
These  missions  in  China  are  naturally 
divisible  into  four  distinct  periods,  each  terminated 
by  a  foreign  war.  In  this  vast  field  the  London 
Missionary  Society  had  the  honor  of  being  the 
pioneer,  in  the  face  of  difficulties  which  can  now 
be  but  imperfectly  comprehended.  Robert  Morri- 
son (q.  V.)  reached  Canton  by  way  of  New  York 
Sept.  7,  1807.  The  East  India  Company  would 
not  allow  him  passage  on  its  ships,  but  later  was 
glad  to  employ  him  as  its  interpreter,  when  it 
was  evidently  for  its  interest  to  command  the 
services  of  so  thorough  a  Chinese  scholar.  His 
labors  were  unintermittent  and  immense.  He 
completed  the  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  into 
Chinese  in  1818,  partly  in  collaboration  with  his 
associate,  William  Milne.  In  1823  his  great  Chi- 
nese Dictionary  was  published  by  the  East  India 
Company  at  an  expense  of  twelve  thousand  pounds 
sterling.  Dr.  Morrison  died  in  1834,  when  the 
relations  between  Great  Britain  and  China  were 
becoming  every  year  more  strained,  the  missionary 
outlook  being  then  almost  as  unpromising  as  when 
he  began  his  work.  The  impossibility  of  getting 
a  foothold  on  Chinese  soil  led  to  the  establishment 
of  an  Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca  (subse- 
quently transferred  to  the  newly  ceded  island  of 
Hongkong)  in  which  Mr.  Milne  labored  with  dili- 
gence in  teaching,  and  in  preparing  and  printing 
Christian  books.  Walter  Henry  Medhurst,  who 
came  as  a  printer,  spent  many  years  at  Batavia. 
The  next  society  to  begin  work  in  China  was  the 
American  Board,  which  sent  out  Rev.  Elijah  Cole- 
man Bridgman,  who  reached  Canton  in  Feb.,  1830, 
together  with  Rev.  David  Abeel  (q.v.),  who  soon 
after  joined  the  mission.  Three  years  later,  Mr. 
Samuel  Wells  Williams,  then  a  mere  youth,  went 
out  as  a  printer.  In  the  ensuing  decade,  before  the 
opening  of  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  three  other 
American  societies  entered  the  field,  the  Protestant 
Episcopal,  1835,  the  Baptist  Missionary  Union, 
1836,  and  the  Presbyterians  (North),  1838.  Med- 
ical work  in  this  period  was  begun  in  1834  by  Dr. 
Peter  Parker,  who  opened  a  hospital  in  Canton  Oct., 
1835,  where  the  successful  treatments,  especially  in 
eye  and  surgical  cases,  were  phenomenal  and  most 
influential  in  diminishing  prejudice.  Dr.  Thomas 
Richardson  CoUedge,  of  the  East  India  Company, 
opened  a  dispensary  at  his  own  expense  in  1827. 

to  the  local  authorities,  with  whom  they  may  negotiate  the 
matter  and  finish  it."  President  Pott  adds:  "  The  missions 
of  the  Anglican  Communion  and  other  Protestant  Churches 
have  unanimously  refused  to  a^k  for  any  similar  privileges, 
foreseeing  clearly  that,  althoxigh  the  possession  of  such 
would  vastly  increase  their  power,  yet  this  assumption 
would  be  attended  with  the  gravest  dangers,  and  could  but 
make  their  cause  unpopular  in  the  eyes  of  the  Chinese." — 
S.  M.  J. 


Ohlna 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


84 


8.  Th0 
Baoond 


Dr.  Bezgamin  Hobson,  of  the  London  Mission, 
also  conducted  a  hospital  in  Canton,  Macao,  and 
Honi^ong,  from  1839  to  1843.  The  war  with 
Great  Britain  was  teiminated  by  the  Treaty  of 
Nanking  in  1842,  as  a  result  of  which  the  ports  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Fuchau,  Ning-po,  and  Shanghai 
were  definitely  opened  to  trade. 

From  the  dose  of  the  war  to  the  settlement  at 
the  end  of  the  next  one  is  to  be  reckoned  as  the 
second  period  of  Protestant  missions 
to  China,  characterized  by  an  activity 

Period      ®°  *^®  P*"^  ®'  *'^®  British,  American, 

1848-60.  '^^  German  missionary  societies  fully 
equal  to  that  of  the  agents  of  com- 
merce. The  various  missions  to  the  Chinese  in 
Java,  Siam,  and  the  Straits  of  Malacca  were  now 
transferred  to  the  Chinese  empire  itself.  Among 
them  were  those  of  the  American  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Union,  removed  from  Bangkok  to  Hongkong  in 
1842,  and  thence  to  Swatow  in  1860;  the  American 
Presbyterian  Mission  from  Singapore  to  Canton, 
with  work  opened  later  at  Amoy  and  Ning-po,  the 
Southern  Baptists  likewise  beginning  in  Hongkong 
in  1842,  and  in  Canton  in  1845.  During  this  period 
of  renewed  energy  the  American  (Dutch)  Reformed, 
the  Church  Missionazy  Society,  the  English  Baptist 
Society,  the  American  Methodist  Episcopal  (lx)th 
North  and  South),  the  Berlin  and  Basel  Mission, 
the  English  Presbyterian,  the  American  Seventh- 
day  Baptists,  the  Wesleyan  Mission,  and  the 
Methodist  New  Connexion  were  first  seen  in 
China  (discrepancy  in  the  dates  of  the  opening  of 
some  of  these  missions  is  often  due  to  the  fact  that 
in  some  instances  the  preliminary  work  was  dis- 
continued). The  difficulties  inherent  in  the  initial 
stages  of  missions  among  the  self-centered,  sus- 
picious, and  practically  hostile  people  like  the 
Chinese  were  greatly  aggravated  by  the  rise  and 
rapid  growth  of  the  T'ai  P'ing  rebellion,  which 
devastated  nearly  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire, 
lasting  from  1850  to  1864,  when  Nanking  was 
captured,  and  in  its  sequelee  for  three  years  more. 
The  last  four  years  of  this  period  witnessed  another 
war  with  Great  Britain — the  effects  of  the  defeat 
half  a  generation  before  having  worn  off — ^the 
Taku  Forts  were  taken,  and  Peking  was  entered 
by  the  British  and  French  in  Oct.,  1860.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  of  1840-42  the  number  of  living 
Chinese  converts  might  have  been  counted  on  the 
fingers  of  one  hand.  After  eighteen  years  more 
of  sapping,  mining,  and  laying  of  foundations,  there 
were  in  1860  at  the  most  but  a  few  score,  but  im- 
portant beginnings  had  everywhere  been  made  in 
evangelistic,  medical,  educational,  and  literary 
work. 

All  the  open  ports  of  China  were  at  this  time 
centers  of  intense  and  unwearied  activity,  confined 
within  these  limited  areas  like  waters  behind  a  closed 
lock.  By  the  Treaty  of  Tien-Tsin  many  new  ports 
were  opened,  and  Christianity  in  each  of  its  forms 
was  explicitly  tolerated.  More  than  a  himdred  mis- 
sionaries had  been  penned  up  in  Shanghai  awaiting 
the  expected  opening  of  inland  China.  Tien-Tsin 
was  first  reached  by  Henry  Blodget  (American 
Board)  in  company  with  British  troops,  and  Peking 
by  Mr.  Joseph  Edldns  (London  Mission),  while  Mr. 


Griffith  John,  of  the  same  society,  settled  at  Hankow, 
from  which  strategic  point  missions  were  opened  in 
Hupeh  and    later  in   Szechuen    and 
8.  The      Hunan.    Similar  expansion  took  place 
^™       from  each  of  the  other  ports.     This 
1860-06     P®^^   ^^   missions  is  full  of  impor- 
tant political  events  so  intimately  re- 
lated to  aU  foreign  interests  that  the  one  can  not 
be  considered  without  the  other,  and  they  must  there- 
fore be  briefly  mentioned.  Among  them  are  the  sup- 
pression of  the  T'ai  P'ing  rebellion  (1864),  the  re- 
ception by  the  emperor  of  the  foreign  ministers  in 
audience  (1873),  the  murder  of  Mr.  Augustus  Ray- 
mond Margary  (1875),  with  the  resultant  Chef u Con- 
vention (1876),  by  which  greater  security  was  ^ven 
to  foreigners  in  China,  and  in  connection  with  which 
more  new  ports  were  opened.    A  great  steamship 
company  was  organized  under  Chinese  manage- 
ment, and  a  network  of  telegraph  lines  began  to 
overspread  the  empiro. 

The  most  important  sin^e  step  in  the  evan- 
gelization of  China  was  the  development  (rather 
than  the  organization)  of  the  China  Inland  Mission 
(1865),  founded  on  a  combination  of  faith  and 
works,  which  within  a  single  generation  has  covered 
China  with  a  chain  of  mission  stations.  Each  of 
the  older  societies  endeavored  to  expand  into  the 
illimitable  regions  beyond,  and  many  new  missions 
were  begun.  At  the  first  general  conference  of 
missionaries  in  Shanghai  in  May,  1877,  attended  by 
126  representatives,  the  total  nmnber  of  Protestant 
workers  was  473,  of  whom  228  were  connected  with 
thirteen  British  societies,  212  with  ten  American 
societies,  and  two  of  German  origin.  The  number 
of  Christians  in  ninety-one  stations  with  312  or- 
ganized churches  was  about  13,000.  Thirteen 
years  later  a  second  conference  was  held,  in  May, 
1890,  when  the  societies  had  increased  to  forty, 
male  missionaries  to  589,  married  women  to  391, 
and  the  unmarried  to  316,  a  total  of  1,296.  There 
were  522  churches,  and  the  Christians  were  neariy 
three  times  as  numerous  as  in  1877,  niunbeiing 
37,287.  More  than  sixty  hospitals  and  forty-four 
dispensaries  treated  in  1889  348,000  patients.  By 
the  end  of  the  century,  however,  this  work  had 
vastly  expanded,  so  that  128  hospitals  and  245 
dispensaries,  conducted  by  162  male  and  79  lady 
physicians,  treated  in  one  year  685,047  patients. 
The  influence  of  this  branch  of  missionary  work  in 
a  country  like  China  is  immeasurable.  Other  op- 
portunities for  philanthropy  arose  in  connection 
with  the  great  famine  of  1877-78,  which  over- 
spread all  northern  China.  The  loss  of  life  among 
the  Chinese  was  estimated  at  between  nine  and  a 
half  and  thirteen  millions.  Famine  relief  proved 
a  golden  key  to  unlock  many  closed  doors.  Similar 
relief  has  been  afforded  upon  a  large  scale  at  other 
times  in  connection  with  other  famines,  floods,  and 
pestilence,  not  without  visible  effect.  The  terrible 
massacre  at  Tien-Tsin  in  June,  1870,  was  one  of  a 
long  series,  the  most  numerous  outbreaks  taking 
place  in  1891-93,  apparently  as  a  direct  result  of  the 
blasphemous  Hunan  tracts,  the  whole  Yang-tzu  val- 
ley being  ablaze  with  excitement.  Another  atroc- 
ity took  place  at  Ku  Ch'eng,  Fukien  province,  in 
1895,  when  Mr.  Robert  Warren  Stewart  and  most  of  ' 


35 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


China 


his  family  were  murdered.  The  great  province  of 
Ssechuen  became  a  hotbed  of  violence,  foreigners 
were  temporarily  expelled,  and  50,000  Christians 
(largely  Roman  Catholics)  suffered,  many  being 
killed.  These  events  were  directly  connected  with 
China's  ignominious  defeat  by  Japan  (1894-95), 
for  which  all  foreigners  were  supposed  to  be  in 
some  way  responsible.  These  continual  outrages 
occurred  in  every  part  of  the  empire,  and  often 
without  warning,  in  spite  of  imperial  edicts  and 
official  proclamations,  but  in  no  instance  had  they 
any  permanent  effect  in  restraining  mission  work. 

For  a  long  time  the  bitter  but  wholesome  lessons 

of  the  war  with  Japan  seemed  to  be  forgotten  or 

ignored.     But   in    1898  the  emperor 

*•  T*^®      began    a   series   of   reform   measures 

p^od  ^^*^^  ^*^^  brought  on  a  crisis,  and 
2hmil886  **®  ^*®  ^*  aside  by  his  aunt,  the 
'  empress  dowager,  who  reversed  all 
his  measures.  The  effect  of  this  reaction  was  in- 
stantly felt  throughout  the  empire.  The  cumula- 
tive force  of  the  loss  of  Chinese  territory  by  for- 
eign aggression,  of  commercial  intrusion,  of  railways, 
and  the  opening  of  mines,  added  to  the  chronic 
prejudice  against  foreign  religions,  led  to  the  fanat- 
ical I  Ho  Ch'Qan  crusade  of  1899-1900,  with  its 
spectacular  oonaequenoes  of  the  flight  of  the  court 
and  the  occupation  of  Peking  by  foreign  armies, 
^hich,  however,  within  a  few  months  retired. 
The  native  Christians  had  now  established  their 
right  to  exist,  and  often  afforded  striking  object- 
lessons  of  fidelity.  Although  practically  all  mis- 
aon  property  (except  at  protected  ports)  had  been 
destroywl  from  the  Yellow  River  to  the  Amur, 
within  two  years  almost  everything  was  replaced 
with  a  far  better  plant  than  would  otherwise  have 
been  possible.  The  fidelity  of  the  Cliinese  Chris- 
tians,' while  not  uniform  nor  universal,  won  praise 
from  every  quarter,  many  thousands  of  them  los- 
ing their  lives,  ajs  well  as  135  Protestant  mission- 
aries, and  fifty-three  children,  thirty-five  Roman 
Catholic  fathers,  and  nine  sisters. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  combine  in  a  brief  and 

summary  view  some  features  of  missionary  work 

which   have   been   slowly  developing 

t.  0«aeral  (j^ipjng  the  sixty  and  more  years  since 

J2^2|J[;    the  Treaty  of  Nanking.     Bible  trans- 

Litera-  lation,  one  of  the  great  labors  of  the 
tore.  first  missionary,  has  ever  since  been 
prosecuted  with  untiring  zeal,  and  is 
stfll  in  progress.  It  is  impossible  to  go  into  details, 
but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  word  of  God 
has  hem  put  into  the  literary  style  (adapted  for 
universal  circulation  among  scholars),  into  man- 
darin colloquial,  supposed  to  be  spoken  in  some 
forai  by  75  per  cent  of  China's  four  himdred  mil- 
lions, and  into  the  patois  of  special  districts,  the 
l:i.-t-named  both  in  Chinese  characters  and  in 
an  increasing  degree  by  the  use  of  Roman  letters. 
The  three  great  Bible  societies,  the  British  and 
Foreign,  the  American,  and  the  Scotch,  have  been 
indefatigable  in  their  work  of  distribution,  largely 
by  sales,  which  were  never  on  so  extensive  a  scale 
a*  at  present.  Numerous  societies,  especially  the 
Thincac  and  the  Central  China  Tract  societies, 
have  put  into   circulation  imcounted  millions  of 


sheets,  booklets,  and  books,  so  that  at  times  it  has 
been  impossible  to  keep  pace  with  the  demand.  Great 
mission  presses,  notably  for  nearly  sixty  years  that 
of  the  American  Presbyterian  Mission,  and  more 
recently  those  of  the  United  Methodist  Missions  in 
Shanghai  and  Fuchau,  are  kept  constantly  busy. 
Influential  religious  journals  and  magazines  are 
issued  in  nearly  all  the  principal  mission  centers, 
especially  at  Shanghai,  penetrating  not  only  all 
parts  of  the  empire,  but  every  part  of  the  worid 
where  Chinese  are  to  be  foimd.  One  of  the  most 
important  agencies  for influendngChinese  thought  is 
the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  General 
Knowledge  Among  the  Chinese,  founded  by  Dr.  Alex- 
ander Williamson,  and  now  imder  the  leadership 
of  Dr.  Timothy  Richard.  Its  Review  of  the  Times f 
conducted  by  Dr.  Y.  J.  Allen,  has  long  reached  a 
large  circle  of  officials  in  every  province,  and  pr&- 
viously  to  the  reform  plans  of  1898  it  was  especially 
procured  by  the  emperor  himself  for  his  study. 
Great  quantities  of  Christian  and  useful  literature 
are  distributed  to  scholars  at  the  dvil-servioe  exam- 
inations in  the  provincial  capitals,  tending  to  dissi- 
pate prejudice  in  influential  quarters. 

The  distinction  between   the   Roman  Catholic 

and  the  Protestant  form  of  Christianity  has  now 

become    well    understood    both    by 

6.  Vari-  officials  and  people.  Woman's  work 
oas  Forms  for  woman  has  been  expanded  in  every 

of  Work,  direction,  in  evangelizing,  medical,  and 
educational  lines,  the  first  Woman's 
Medical  College  being  opened  in  Canton  Dec, 
1902,  with  an  immediate  success,  foretokening 
speedy  imitation  elsewhere.  The  Educational  As- 
sociation of  China  is  a  most  important  unifjring 
and  developing  force  for  every  agency  connected 
with  teaching,  especially  in  the  preparation  of 
text-books.  At  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  of  1904 
this  association  made  an  important  exhibit  of 
education  in  China  in  all  its  aspects.  The  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  has  established  an 
energetic  work  in  Shanghai,  Tien-Tsin,  Peking,  and 
other  centers,  which  promises  great  results  in  the 
future.  Christian  Endeavor  societies  (and  Ep- 
worth  leagues)  have  taken  firm  root  in  China,  and 
an  experienced  missionary  has  been  chosen  to  act 
as  a  traveling  secretary  in  the  interests  of  this 
effective  agency.  Student  Volunteer  conferences 
have  been  repeatedly  held,  at  which  influential 
and  representative  men  have  been  gathered  in 
large  numbers.  An  antifoot-binding  reform  move- 
ment, distinct  from  that  of  missionary  origin 
but  allied  to  it  and  in  sympathy  with  it,  has  spread 
widely  over  China,  promoted  by  some  of  its  highest 
statesmen,  and  favored  by  the  empress  dowager. 
Special  work  for  the  insane  has  been  begun  at 
Canton,  for  the  deaf  at  Chefu,  and  for  the  blind 
at  Peking.  The  hostile  and  bitterly  antiforeign 
province  of  Hunan  has  been  entered  and  is  now 
occupied  by  thirteen  societies  with  a  force  com- 
prising at  present  about  eighty-seven  mission- 
aries. As  an  incidental  result  of  the  cataclysm  of 
1900  three  leading  societies,  the  London  Mission,  the 
American  Board,  and  the  American  Presbyterian, 
have  formed  an  important  union  in  educational 
work  in  the  Chili  province,  looking  toward  a  union 


China 

Chrlat,  Order  of 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


36 


univeraity.  In  Shangtung  there  is  a  similar  partner- 
ship between  the  American  Presbyterian  and  the 
English  Baptist  Missions. 

The  relations  between  officials  and  all  mission- 
aries since  1900  have  been  much  improved.  Al- 
though occasional  outbreaks  still  occur,  earnest 
efforts  are  now  made  to  prevent  them  on  account 
of  their  possible  consequences.  It  can  not  be 
doubted  tiiat  the  result  of  the  war  between  Japan 
and  Russia  will  exert  an  important  influence  upon 
Christian  work  throughout  the  Chinese  Empire. 

In  Beach's  Geography  and  Atlas  of  Protestant 
Missions  (New  York,  1903),  68  Protestant  societies 
7  Btati  ^'^  reported  as  working  in  China  (33 
Soir*'  American,  22  British,  12  Continental, 
and  1  international),  with  a  total  of 
2,785  workers,  of  whom  610  were  ordained  men, 
578  unordained,  772  wives,  and  825  other  mis- 
sionary women,  living  in  653  stations,  and  working 
2,476  outstations.  There  were  162  male  physicians 
and  79  women  physicians,  with  259  hospitals  and 
dispensaries  treating  more  than  691,000  patients 
annually.  H.  O.  D wight's  Bins  Book  of  Missions 
for  1907  indicates  that  the  number  of  workers  was 
rapidly  increasing,  as  it  gives  from  the  reports  of  59 
societies  an  aggregate  of  3,146  missionaries.  The 
aggregate  of  native  workers  is  8,243,  and  the  total 
number  of  Christians  249,878.  Fukien,  at  the  be- 
ginning the  most  difficult  province,  has  the  largest 
number  of  converts,  with  continuous  accessions. 
There  were  1,819  day-schools  with  35,412  pupils,  and 
170  higher  institutions  instructing  5,150  students. 
According  to  tables  published  in  Shanghai  in  1904 
by  Dr.  Richard,  there  were  in  1901  4,126  Roman 
Catholic  churches  and  chapels  in  China,  904  Euro- 
pean missionaries,  471  native  priests,  3,584  schools, 
60  colleges,  and  720,540  Christians.  ([Considering 
the  brevity  of  a  century  in  comparison  with  the 
age-long  periods  of  Chinese  history,  the  excep- 
tional difficulties  to  be  overcome,  the  ignorance,  the 
conservatism,  and  the  contempt  of  the  Chinese 
race  for  everything  from  abroad,  the  results  of  a 
hundred  years  of  Protestant  missions  are  in  every 
way  remarkable  as  a  prophecy  and  a  promise  of 
what  is  yet  in  the  future.        Arthur  H.  Sbiith. 

Biblioobapht:  For  history:  S.  W.  Williams,  The  Middle 
Kingdom,  New  York,  1809  (comprehensive  and  stand- 
ard); A.  M.  Smith,  Chineae  Characteristic;  New  York, 
1900.  On  geography:  H.  P.  Beach,  Oeograi^y  and  Atlae 
of  Prolutant  Mientnu,  New  York,  1903;  E.  L.  Oxenham, 
Hieiorieal  Atlae  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  London,  1898. 

On  the  language  and  literature:  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  The 
Lore  of  Cathay,  New  York.  1901  (best);  R.  K.  Douglass. 
Lanouage  and  Literature  of  China,  London,  1875;  T. 
Walters,  Eeeaye  on  the  Chinese  LangiuMge,  Shanghai,  1889. 

On  the  religious  sources:  For  Confucianism,  3BE,  iii., 
xvi.,  xxvii.,  xx\'iii.:  J.  Legge,  Chinese  Classics,  7  vols.. 
London,  1861-87.  For  Taoism:  Lao-Tsie.  The  Canon  of 
Reason  and  Virtue,  by  P.  Carus.  Chicago,  1903;  W.  G. 
Old,  The  Classics  of  Confucius,  Shu  King,  London,  1906. 
For  Buddhism:  8BE,  xix.;  S.  Beal,  Buddhist  Literature 
in  China,  London.  1882,  and  Catena  of  Buddhist  Scrip- 
tures, London.  1871,  also  Dhammapada;  Texts  from  the 
Buddhist  Canon,  London.  1878;  E.  Chavannes,  Les  In- 
scriptions chinoises  de  Bodh-Gaya,  Paris.  1896.  On  the  r^ 
ligions  in  genera/:  P.  D.  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehr- 
buch  der  Religionsgeschichte,  i.  57-114,  TQbingen,  1905; 
8.  Johnson,  Oriental  Religions  .  .  .  China,  Boston,  1877 
(full,  but  discursive);  J.  H.  Plath,  Die  Rdigion  und  der 
CuUus  der  alien  Chinesen,  Munich,  1862;  R.  K.  Doug- 
las. Confuaaniam  and  Taoism,  London,  1879;  J.  Legge, 


RAigiona  of  China,  Confucianism  and  Taoism,  London. 
1881;  A.  Reville,  La  Religion  ehinoise,  Paris,  1889;  C.  de 
Harles,  Les  Religions  de  la  Chine,  Paris,  1891:  E.  U. 
Parker,  China  and  Religion,  London.  1906.  On  Con- 
fucianism: H.  A.  Giles,  Confucianism,  in  Rdigious  Sys- 
tems of  the  World,  London,  1901;  idem.  Religions  of  An- 
cient China,  ib.  1906;  E.  Faber,  Digest  of  the  Doctrines 
of  ConfueiiAS,  Hongkong,  1875,  and  Mind  of  Mencius, 
Shanghai,  1882.  On  Taoism:  A.  de  Pouvoirville,  U 
Taoisme  et  les  sodHis  secrites  chinoises,  Paris,  1897;  I.  W. 
Heysinger,  Lao  Tste,  the  Light  of  China,  Philadelphia, 
1903;  E.  H.  Parker,  China  and  Religion,  London,  1905. 
On  Chinese  Buddhism:  E.  Lamairesse,  Le  Bouddhisme 
en  Chine  .  .  .  ,  Paris,  1893;  J.  Edkins.  Chinese  Bud- 
dhism, London,  1880;  8.  Beal,  Buddhism  in  CMna,  in 
NonrChristian  Religious  Systems,  London.  1884  (Beal  is 
the  authority  on  Buddhism  in  China):  E.  J.  Eitel.  Hand- 
hook  .  .  .  of  Chinese  Buddhism,  London.  1888;  J.  J.  M. 
de  Groot.  Religious  System  of  China,  vols.  i.-v..  Leyden, 
1892-1907  (still  in  progress);  Tai-^tang  kan-ying  pien: 
Treatise  of  the  Exalted  one  on  Response  and  Retribution, 
from  the  Chinese  by  Teitara  Suzuki  and  Paul  Carus,  Chi- 
cago, 1906;  J.  D.  Ball.  The  Celestial  and  his  Religions; 
or,  the  Religious  Aspect  in  China,  ib.  1906. 

On  missions:  Statistical:  J.  S.  Dennis,  Centennial  Sur- 
vey of  Foreign  Missions,  New  York,  1902.  General: 
Memorials  of  Protestant  Missionaries  to  the  Chinese, 
Shanghai,  1867;  Conferences  on  Missions,  at  Shanghai. 
1877  and  1890.  at  Shantung  1893  and  1897  {Reports  pub- 
lished at  Shanghai);  J.  Gilmour.  Among  the  Mongols, 
London.  1884;  W.  Campbell.  Miesionary  Success  in  .  .  . 
Formosa,  London,  1889;  Church  Work  in  North  China, 
London.  1893  (on  Anglican  missions);  M.  G.  Guinness, 
Story  of  the  China  Inland  Mission,  2  vols.,  London,  1893; 
China  Mission  Handbook,  Shanghai,  1896;  G.  L.  Maekay. 
From  Far  Formosa,  .  .  .  Island,  People  and  Missions, 
New  York,  1896;  R.  Lovett.  Hist,  of  London  Missionary 
Society,  chaps,  xix.-xxvi.,  London,  1899;  J.  C.  Gibson, 
Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods  in  South  China, 
London,  1901;  L.  Miner.  China's  Book  of  Martyrs,  Bois- 
ton,  1903;  J.  Ross.  Methods  of  Mission  Work  in  Man- 
diuria,  London,  1903;  M.  Broomhall.  Pioneer  Work  in 
Hunan,  ib.  1906;  W.  A.  P.  Martin.  Awakening  of  China. 
New  York.  1907;  W.  E.  Soothill,  A  TypiaU  Mission  in 
China,  New  York.  1907. 

For  the  Boxer  troubles:  A.  H.  Smith,  China  in  Con- 
vulsion, New  York.  1901;  M.  Broomhall,  Martyred  Mis- 
sionaries of  Vie  China  Inland  Mission,  London.  1901; 
E.  H.  Edwards.  Fire  and  Sword  in  Shansi,  London,  1903: 
R.  C.  Forsyth,  China  Martyrs  of  1900,  London,    1904. 

On  Roman  Catholic  missions:  F.  Prandi,  Memoirs  of 
Father  Ripa,  London,  1844;  Abb^  Hue,  Christianity  in 
China,  Tartary  and  Thibet,  best  ed.,  3  vols.,  London. 
1857;  T.  Chancy,  La  Colonis  du  Sacri-Caeur  dans  les 
CSvennes  de  la  Chine  au  xvUL  siide,  Paris,  1889;  Abb^ 
Pierre,  La  Chine chritienne.  La  Vis  et  les  etumres  de  H.  A. 
LanguiUat,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1893. 

CHINIQUY,  sht"nl"k!'  or  chin"i-kwi',  CHARLES 
PASCHAL  TELESPHORE:  Presbyterian:  b.  of 
Roman  Catholic  parents  at  Kamouraska,  Quebec, 
Canada,  July  30,  1809;  d.  in  Montreal  Jan.  16, 
1890.  He  studied  at  the  college  of  Nicolet,  Canada, 
1822-29,  and  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  there 
till  1833;  was  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest 
1833;  vicar  and  curate  in  the  province  of  Quebec 
till  1846;  he  established  the  first  temperance 
society  there  and  won  the  title  "  Apostle  of  Tem- 
perance of  Canada."  In  1851  he  was  called  by 
Bishop  Vandevelde,  of  Chicago,  to  direct  the  tide  of 
Roman  Catholic  emigration  toward  the  prairies 
of  Illinois;  in  1858,  with  his  congregation  at  St 
Anne,  Kankakee  County,  111.,  he  left  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  joined  the  Canadian  Presbyterian 
Church.  He  lectured  in  England  1860,  1874.  and 
1882,  and  in  Australia  1878^80,  and  published  a 
number  of  books  and  tracts  upon  temperance,  and 
others   bitterly   hostile   to   the   Roman   Catholic 


37 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


China 

Ohrlat,  Order  of 


( hurch,  which  have  passed  through  many  editions 
and  been  traofilated  into  different  languages. 

BiBUOGKArHT:  His    autobiogrftphy,     Forty    Yeart    in    the 
Ckvth  of  Rame^  appeared  Chicago.  1900. 

CHIUR,  cd'un.    See  Remphan. 

CHOIR:  1.  In  the  older  churches,  especially 
the  Gothic,  that  part  which  contains  the  high 
altar  and  in  which  the  services  are  sung.  It  is 
usually  separated  from  the  nave  by  a  railing  or 
mod-screen,  and  in  monastic  churches  only  mem- 
U're  of  the  order  sit  within  it.  See  Architecture, 
EccLEBiAancAi.,  I.,  SS  15,  18.  2.  A  body  of  sing- 
ers appointed  to  lead  the  music  in  public  worship. 

CH0IS7,  shwa'^zf,  JACQUES  EUGENE:  Swiss 
Protestant;  b.  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  Feb.  26, 
1866.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  and  univer- 
sity of  his  native  dty,  from  which  he  was  graduated 
in  1885,  the  theologiod  faculty  of  Montauban,  from 
which  he  was  graduated  in  1888,  and  the  Univer- 
aity  of  Berlin.  Since  1898  he  has  been  pastor  of 
the  parish  of  Plainpalais,  Geneva,  and  was  also 
modentor  of  the  Compagnie  des  Pasteurs  from 
19(H  to  1905.  In  1898  he  received  from  the  faculty 
of  arts  of  the  University  of  Geneva  the  Theodore 
Clapar^e  prize,  and  three  years  later  was  awarded 
the  Daniel  Colladan  prize  by  the  consistory  of  the 
National  Protestant  Church  of  Geneva.  He  has 
been  a  member  of  the  Soci^t6  des  sciences  th^o- 
logiques  of  Geneva  since  1890  and  was  its  president 
in  1903-05,  and  has  also  been  a  member  of  the 
Geneva  Soci^t^  d'histoire  et  d'archtologie  since 
1893  and  president  of  the  Soci^t^  du  musde  his- 
torique  de  la  r^ormation  in  the  same  city  since 
its  foundation  in  1897.  In  theology  he  terms  him- 
self a  "  broad  Evangelical,  much  indebted  to  higher 
criticism  for  a  more  accurate  and  trustworthy 
understanding  of  God's  revelation  in  the  Bible." 
In  addition  to  a  translation  of  A.  Hamack's  Grund- 
TiM»  der  Dogmengeschichle  (Paris,  1893),  he  has 
written  PoKhase  Radbert,  itude  historiqtie  8ur  le 
newikme  nide  el  sur  le  dogme  de  la  Ctne  (Geneva, 
1888);  La  Thiocraiie  &  Oenkve  au  temps  de  Calvin 
(1897);  and  U6tat  chr&ien  calviniete  it  Oenkve 
ou  tempe  de  TfUodore  de  Bkze  (1903). 

CHORAL.    See  Mtxbic,  Sacbed. 

CH0RElfT£,  co-ren'tt  or  -t6.  See  Mesbauanb. 

CHOREPISCOPUS,  cO'^re-pis^co-ptTS  (Gk.  chOTe- 
pi»kopo9,  "  country  bishop  "):  The  name  given  to 
a  dasB  of  assistants  to  the  bishops  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  their  dioceses  from  the  third  to  the 
elevenUi  century.  As  the  name  implies,  they  ren- 
dered this  service  principally  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts. In  the  fourth  century  they  attended 
councils  like  the  bishops  (Ancyra,  314;  Neocses- 
area,  between  313  and  325;  Antioch,  341)  and 
had  some  at  least  of  the  episcopal  prerogatives, 
though  the  question  whether  they  received  epis- 
copal consecration  is  disputed.  A  tendency  showed 
itself  in  the  same  century  to  restrict  their  powers 
and  make  them  altogether  dependent  on  the 
diocesan  bishops.  The  Councils  of  Sardica  and 
Laodioea  attempted  to  suppress  them  entirely, 
foibidding  the  installation  of  bishops  in  country 


places  and  providing  for  the  needs  of  such  districts 
by  itinerant  visitors  of  a  merely  priestly  character. 
These  efforts  were  only  partially  successful,  and 
the  institution  continued  in  partial  use  in  the  East 
as  late  as  the  sixth  century,  though  now  in  entire 
subordination  to  the  diocesan  bishops  and  with  no 
further  claim  to  the  strictly  episcopal  character. 
In  the  West  chorepiscopi  are  hea[rd  of  only  from  the 
eighth  century,  as  assistants  or  deputies  of  mis- 
sionary bishops  in  the  new  dioceses,  or  as  admin- 
istrators of  vacant  sees.  There  is  no  demonstrable 
connection  with  the  Eastern  usage.  In  the  ninth 
century  they  are  also  found  in  the  see  cities  as 
assistants  to  bishops  who  were  much  occupied  with 
affairs  of  state.  The  reforming  legislation  of  this 
period,  appealing  to  the  Eastern  canons,  empha- 
sized their  dependence  on  the  diocesan  bishops, 
and  toward  the  middle  of  the  century  undertook 
to  suppress  them  altogether.  They  disappeared 
in  the  first  half  of  the  tenth  century  in  France,  but 
in  the  extensive  German  dioceses,  supported  by 
Rabanus  liaurus,  they  maintained  their  existence 
to  the  middle  of  this  century,  and  were  found  in 
Ireland  as  late  as  the  thirteenth.  Their  place  was 
to  a  great  extent  taken  by  the  archdeacons  (see 
Archdeacon  and  Archpriebt). 

(P.  HiNBCHIUSt.) 
BiBUoaBAPBT:  Hefele.  ConeUienoesdnehte,  ii.  200,  iii.  478, 
603,  665,  745,  Ens.  traiml.,  u.  60,  321.  iii.  158;  J.  L.  tod 
Moebeim,  InstUutet  of  Eed.  Uitt,  ed.  W.  Stubbs,  i.  63, 
230  sqq.,  London,  1863;  Bingham,  OrigineM,  book  ii., 
chap,  xiv.,  f  12;  Schaff.  Chrutian  Church,  iii.  200-270; 
KL,  iii.  ISa-lOl. 

CHRISM:  The  specially  prepared  mixture  used 
for  anointing  in  the  Eastern  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches,  except  in  the  case  of  Extreme  Unction 
(q.v.)  when  olive-oil  mixed  with  water  is  used.  That 
employed  in  the  administration  of  baptism,  con- 
firmation, and  holy  orders,  and  in  the  consecration 
of  churches  and  altars,  is  composed  according  to 
Roman  usage  of  oil  and  balsam,  to  which  other 
odorous  spices  are  added  by  the  Greeks.  It  early 
received  a  special  benediction,  as  is  shown  by  Ter- 
tullian,  De  bapHsmOy  vii.;  Cyprian,  Epiat.,  Ixx.  2; 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  VII.  xxvii.  1.  From  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century  the  right  to  consecrate  it 
was  reserved  to  the  bishops — ^in  the  East  later  to 
the  patriarchs.  From  the  fifth  century  Maimdy 
Thursday  was  the  day  appointed  for  the  blessing. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

CHRISMAL:  A  word  used  in  the  same  senses  as 
"chrisom"  (q.v.);  also  a  cloth  for  covering  relics. 

CHRISOM:  The  white  cloth  with  which  the 
Roman  priest  covers  the  head  of  an  infant  after 
the  adn^nistration  of  baptism  or,  in  the  early 
Church,  the  white  garment  put  upon  the  newly 
baptised  as  a  symbol  of  purity;  also  the  vessel  in 
which  the  chrism  is  preserved. 

CHRIST,  BRETHREH  IN.  See  Riveb  Breth- 
ren. 

CHRIST,  DISCIPLES  OF,  CHRISTIARS.  See 
Disciples  of  Christ. 

CHRIST,  ORDER  OF:  The  Knights  of  Jesus 
Christ,  an  order  founded  by  King  Dionysius  of 


Christ.  Order  of 
Ohrlstum 


Brothers 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


38 


Portugal  in  1317,  like  the  Spanish  orderB  of  Alcan- 
tara and  Calatrava  (qq.v.)  under  Cistercian  rule 
and  to  fight  against  the  Moors.  It  was  endowed 
with  property  of  the  Templars,  who  had  been  sup- 
pressed in  1312.  Papal  confirmation  was  received 
from  John  XXII.  in  1319,  the  grand  master  being 
made  subordinate  to  the  abbot  of  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  AloobaQa.  The  knights  gained  im- 
portant victories  and  became  rich  and  powerful. 
At  their  chief  seat,  Thomar  (75  m.  n.e.  of  Lisbon) 
in  Elstremadura,  and  at  Batalha,  twenty  miles 
farther  west,  they  erected  magnificent  buildings  in 
pointed  style,  imitating  the  churches  of  the  Tem- 
plars in  Cyprus  and  the  Mosque  of  Omar  in  Jerusa- 
lem (cf.  the  Visoount  de  Condeiza,  O  mosteiro  da 
Batalha,  with  French  transl.,  Lisbon  and  Paris, 
1892;  J.  Demjac,  Thomar  und  Batalha,  in  the 
Zettschrift  fUr  hildende  Kunst,  new  series,  vi  [1895], 
98-106).  About  1500  Pope  Alexander  VI.  re- 
leased the  order  from  the  vow  of  poverty.  It 
had  then  450  conunanderies  and  an  enormous 
income.  A  reform  was  effected  in  1550  by  the 
Hleronymite  abbot  Anton  of  Lisbon,  and  confirmed 
by  Pope  Julius  III.  At  the  same  time  the  grand- 
mastership  was  formally  attached  to  the  crown,  as 
it  had  been  actually  from  the  time  of  King  Emman- 
uel (1495-1521).  Pius  V.  in  1567  removed  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  abbot  of  Alcobaga,  and  Gregory 
XIII.  in  1576  granted  the  king  supreme  power  over 
both  knights  and  monks.  The  order  was  secu- 
larized in  1797  and  its  property  confiscated  in  1834. 
It  is  now  merely  an  order  of  merit.  A  less  important 
Italian  Ordine  di  Christo  was  founded  by  Pope 
John  XXII.  about  1320.  It  also  became  an  order 
of  merit.  (O.  Z6cKLERt.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Helyot,  Ordr^a  mona&iique;  vi.  72-76,  Paris, 
1718;  G.  Giuod.  Iconografia  Btorica  degli  ordini  reliffUm  e 
oavattereaehi,  i.  34-36.  Rome,  1836;  G.  Moroni,  Dizionario 
di  erudizione  9lorico-eccUHa»Hca^  xviii.  210-219.  Venice. 
1843;  Meimbucher,  Orden  und  KonartgaHonen^  i.  227; 
Currier.  Reli4nau9  Orden,  p.  217. 

CHRIST,  crlst,  PAUL:  Swiss  Protestant;  b.  at 
Zurich  Oct.  25, 1836;  d.  there  Jan.  14, 1908.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Tubingen  and  Basel, 
and  after  being  a  pastor  successively  in  the  canton 
of  Orisons  (1858-62)  and  at  Chur,  the  capital  of 
the  same  canton  (1862-65),  he  was  a  professor  in  the 
cantonal  school  of  Chur  from  1865  to  1870.  He  was 
then  pastor  at  Lichtensteig  (1871-75)  and  Rheineck 
(1875-80),  both  in  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  and  after 
four  years  of  retirement  on  account  of  impaired 
health  (1880-84)  was  municipal  archivist  at  Chur 
(1884-87)  and  again  professor  in  the  cantonai  school 
of  the  same  dty  (1887-89).  Since  1889  he  has 
been  professor  of  systematic  and  practical  theology 
at  the  University  of  Zurich.  In  theology  he  repre- 
sents the  speculative  and  liberal  school.  He  has 
written  CkrMiche  Religumalekre  (Zurich,  1875); 
Bilder  aua  der  Geschichte  der  chrisUichen  Kirche  und 
SiUe  (St.  Gall,  1876);  Bdigidw  Betrachtungen 
(1881);  Der  PesHmUmua  und  die  SiUenlehre  (Haar- 
lem, 1882);  Die  Lehre  vom  Gebet  nach  dem  Neuen 
Testament  (Leyden,  1886);  Die  eittiiche  Weltord- 
nung  (1894);  and  Grundrisa  der  Ethik  (Berlin,  1905). 

CHRISTADELPHIANS:  A  small  sect  which 
originated  in  the  United  States  about  1850.     They 


call  themselves  Christadelphians  because  of  the 
belief  that  all  that  are  in  Christ  are  his  brethren, 
and  designate  their  congregations  as  "  ecdesias  " 
to  ''  distinguish  them  from  the  so-called  churches 
of  the  apostasy."  John  Thomas,  the  founder,  a 
physician,  bom  in  En^and,  came  to  America  in 
1844  and  joined  the  Disciples  of  Christ.  In  a  short 
time,  however,  he  established  a  separate  denomina- 
tion, because  he  believed  that,  though  the  Dis- 
ciples were  the  most  "  apostolic  and  spiritually 
enlightened  religious  organization  in  America," 
the  religious  teaching  of  the  day  was  oontraiy  to 
the  teaching  of  the  Bible. 

Christadelphians  reject  the  Trinity.  They  be- 
lieve in  one  supreme  God,  who  dwells  in  unap- 
proachable light;  in  Jesus  Christ,  in  whom  was 
manifest  the  eternal  spirit  of  God,  and  who  died 
for  the  offenses  of  sinners,  and  rose  for  the  justi- 
fication of  believing  men  and  women;  in  one  bap- 
tism only — immersion,  the  "  burial  with  Christ  in 
water  into  death  to  sin,"  which  is  essential  to  sal- 
vation; in  immortality  only  in  Christ;  in  eternal 
punishment  of  the  wicked,  but  not  in  eternal  tor- 
ment; in  hell,  not  as  a  place  of  torment,  but  as 
the  grave;  in  the  resurrection  of  the  just  and  un- 
just; in  the  utter  annihilation  of  the  wicked,  and 
in  the  non-resurrection  of  those  who  have  never 
heard  the  Gospel,  lack  in  intelligence  (as  infants), 
or  are  sunk  in  ignorance  or  brutality;  in  a  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ  to  establish  his  kingdom  on 
earth,  which  is  to  be  fitted  for  the  everlasting 
abode  of  the  saints;  in  the  proximity  of  this  sec- 
ond coming;  in  Satan  as  a  Scriptural  personifica- 
tion of  sin;  in  the  millennial  reign  of  Christ  on 
earth  over  the  nations,  during  which  sin  and  death 
will  continue  in  a  milder  degree,  and  after  which 
Clirist  will  surrender  his  position  of  supremacy, 
and  God  will  reveal  himself,  and  become  Father 
and  Governor  of  a  complete  family;  in  salvation 
only  for  those  who  can  understand  the  faith  as 
taught  by  the  Christadelphians,  and  become  obe- 
dient to  it.  Tliey  have  no  ordained  ministers. 
There  are  about  sixty  *'  ecclesias  "  in  the  United 
States,  and  a  few  in  England,  where  most  of  their 
literature  is  published.  H.  K.  Carroll. 

Biblioorapht:  Sources  of  doctrine  are  the  works  of  the 
founder,  generally  published  in  pamphlet  form  in  Bir- 
mingham and  London.  The  principal  are:  Eureka,  1869; 
The  Revealed  Myatery,  1809;  Who  are  the  Chriaiaddvhianet 
1869;  The  Book  Unaealed,  1870;  Phaneroaie,  1870;  An- 
aetaaie,  1871;  Clerical  Theology  Uneeriptural,  1877,  and 
Elpie  Israel.  West  Hoboken.  1871.  Also  the  foUowing 
works  by  Robert  Roberts:  A  Defence  of  Ike  Faiih  Fro- 
tiaimed  in  Ancient  Timee,  .  .  .  Revived  in  Ae  Chrieta- 
delphiana,  Birmingham,  1868;  BverlaeHng  Puniehment 
not  "  Eternal  Tormente,"  ib.  1871;  Meaning  of  Ike  Chrieta- 
delphian  Movement,  London,  1872;  Thirteen  Leebiree  on 
the  Thinge  Revealed  in  ...  "  Revelation,**  Birmingham, 
1880;  The  Good  Confeeeion,  ib.  1881;  Dr.  Thomaa,  hie 
Life  and  Work,  ib.  1884.  Their  oigan  is  The  Chrietadel- 
phian,  published  at  Birmingham,  Eng.  Consult  H.  K. 
Carroll,  Religioue  Forcee  of  the  U.  S.,  pp.  89-90,  454,  New 
York,  1896. 

CHRISTENTUMSGESELLSCHAFT,  DIE 
DEUTSCHE  ("The  German  Society  for  Christen- 
dom "):  A  society  which  had  a  wide  influence  at 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth centuries.  In  that  period  of  deep  depres- 
sion   and    discouragement     for    the    Evangelical 


89 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Chriat,  Order  of 
Ohrietlan  Brothers 


Church  of  Gennany,  it  brought  believing,  earnest 
Chiifltians  together  by  personal  intercourse  and  by 
eorreqpondenoe,  and  helped  them  to  successful 
cooperation.  Its  special  object  whjb  to  oppose  the 
bold  depreciation  and  mockery  of  the  Word  of  God 
then  so  a»nmon,  as  well  as  the  tendency  repre- 
Bcnted  by  Nikolai's  ZeiUckrift  in  Berlin  and  the 
Gathaer  Zeitung.  Its  founder  was  Dr.  Johann 
August  Urispei^ger  (q.v.)>  of  Augsburg,  who  be- 
longed to  the  old  school  of  simple  Scriptural  faith 
and  piety.  He  thought  that  the  friends  of  the 
Gospel  should  stand  together  and  strengthen  one 
another  as  did  its  enemies.  In  1777  he  wrote  to  a 
number  of  German,  Dutch,  Danish,  and  Ehiglish 
theologians  without  getting  much  response,  and 
in  1779  and  1780  traveled  widely  in  the  hope  of 
effecting  more  by  personal  contact.  But  the  result 
was  still  the  same,  and  he  came  home  much  dis- 
couraged. In  Basel,  the  last  place  he  had  planned 
to  visit,  he  foimd  a  response.  Here  since  1756, 
stilted  up  by  lyAnnone,  the  aealous  pastor  of  Mut- 
teni,  a  number  of  like-minded  men  had  already 
been  oiganiaed,  who  listened  with  delight  to  Url- 
sperger's  ideas;  and  the  society  was  able  to  hold  its 
first  formal  meeting  on  Aug.  30,  1780.  The  begin- 
ning once  made,  the  thing  spread;  branches  were 
formed  at  Nuremberg  the  next  year,  then  at  Stutt- 
gart, Frankfort,  Berlin,  Magdeburg,  eto.  As  the 
numbers  grew,  and  correspondence  came  in  even 
from  America,  a  more  formal  organization  waa 
required.  Basel  was  made  the  headquarters  at  the 
end  of  1782,  and  a  manifold  activity  radiated  from 
it,  embracing  all  that  is  meant  nowadays  by  home 
and  foreign  missions.  Selections  from  the  vast 
mass  of  correspondence  were  sent  to  all  the  branches, 
in  printed  form  after  1783.  Urlsperger  had  orig- 
inally wished  to  write  and  circulate  good  theological 
treatises,  but  the  central  body  turned  its  efforts  in 
a  more  practical  direction,  wishing  indeed  to  up- 
bold  the  true  faith,  but  not  to  renew  the  old  con- 
troversies. The  name,  too,  was  changed  froqi  the 
original  DevUehe  OeseUschaft  zur  Befdrderung 
i^Bridlidur  WahrheU  und  GoUsdigkeit  ("German 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Truth  and 
Piety ")  to  the  present  title.  In  1801  Steinkopf , 
who  had  been  tl^  general  secretary,  was  called  to 
the  Savoy  Chapel  in  London,  and  formed  a  link 
between  Germany  and  England,  where  the  mighty 
revival  of  spiritual  life  set  a  standard  for  emulation. 
The  Basel  Bible  Society  was  founded  in  1804  as  the 
first  result;  and  the  second  was  the  mission  house, 
also  at  Basel,  planned  as  early  as  1805  by  C.  F. 
Spittier  on  the  model  of  the  Berlin  mission  school 
(founded  in  1800  by  Jftnicke,  a  member  of  the  so- 
ciety), and  realized  in  1815  with  the  help  of 
C.  G.  Blumhardt  (q.v.).  A  number  of  other  foun- 
dations and  special  organizations  marked  the  suc- 
ceeding years.  Among  them  were  the  training- 
Bcbool  and  orphanage  at  Beuggen  (1820);  the 
Society  of  the  Friends  of  Israel  (1831);  the  Society 
for  the  Spread  of  Christian  Literature  (1835); 
the  deaf  and  dumb  asylum  at  Biehen  (1838);  and 
tlie  deaconess  home  in  the  same  place  (1852). 
The  original  association  fulfilled  its  task  in  giving 
the  impulse  to  so  many  and  varied  good  works; 
it  still  exists,  however,  under  the  direction  of  a 


central  committee  in  Basel,  where  the  Sammlungen 

fiir  lAebhaber  chrisUicher  WahrheU  und  GoUadig- 

keit  is  still  published  periodically,  after  an  existence 

of  more  than  a  century.  (R.  ANBTSDrf.) 

Biblioorapht:    C.    J.    Riggenbaoh,    I.    Stookmeyer,    and 

H.   Pratoriua,    Zur  humUrHdhriogn    OeHuAtnUgfnar  d€r 

deutm^en  ChrUtentumtOMeUaekaft,  BamI,  1881;  A.  Ostertag, 

Snt8tehuno90eadiiehte  der  evanodUehmi  Mimon§unett9ehafi 

gu  Baad,  ib.  1865. 

CHRISTIAN:  The  term  Christians,  "of  the 
party  of  Christ,"  occurs  in  the  New  Testament 
only  in  Acto  xi.  26,  xxvi.  28;  I  F^t.  iv.  16. 
The  first  passage  states  that  it  originated  at  An- 
tioch,  which  accords  with  the  fact  that  the  ter- 
mination -ano8  was  recognized  and  emplojred  espe- 
cially in  Grecian  Asia.  The  date  implied  by  the 
passage  is  40-44  a.d.  None  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment passages  requires  an  invidious  meaning, 
though  it  is  suggested  in  the  second  and  third. 
There  is  no  historical  foundation  for  the  statement 
often  made  that  it  was  a  "  nickname."  Tertullian 
says  that  non-Christians  pronounced  it  Chiestianos, 
the  word  conmionly  associated  with  the  Qreek 
word  chrestoa,  "  serviceable,"  and  the  Codex  Sinau 
ticua  reads  Chrestianos  in  all  New  Testament  pas- 
sages. Ite  earliest  use  by  Christians,  apart  from 
the  New  Testament,  is  found  in  the  Apologiste, 
Justin  Martyr,  Athenagoraa,  Theophilus,  ete.,  after 
whose  time  it  was  generally  appropriated  by  Chris- 
tians. That  it  originated  outside  of  Christian  and 
Jewish  circles  is  most  likely  because  (1)  Christians 
spoke  of  one  another  as  "the  brethren,"  "the 
sainto,"  "  the  disciples,"  "  the  faithful,"  ete.;  (2) 
the  Jews  used  the  term  "Naaarene."  Ite  con- 
venience would  justify  ite  use;  while  the  frequency 
with  which  the  term  "  Christ "  occurred  in  the 
Christocentric  preaching  of  the  early  apostolic  age 
would  justify  ite  application  to  the  disciples. 

Geo.  W.  GmnoRB. 

Bxbuoobafht:  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Ueber  den  Uraprung  und 
.  .  .  Oebraudt  dM  ChrUtennamenB,  in  OratulaHonapro- 
gramm  der  theotogiaehen  FaeuWU  Jena  fUr  Haae,  1873,  pp. 
6-10;  DB,  i.  384-^6;  SB,  i.  762-763;  DCG,  i.  316-31& 

CHRISTIAll  BROTHERS  (BROTHERS  OF  THE 
CHRISnAir  SCHOOLS):  The  most  noted  and 
influential  of  the  Roman  Catholic  educational 
brotherhoods,  foimded  by  Jean  Baptiste  de  la 
Salle  (b.  at  Reims  Apr.  30,  1651;  d.  at  Rouen 
Apr.  7,  1719),  who  was  canonized  May  24,  1900. 
Placed  in  charge  of  a  congregation  of  Sisters  of 
Jesus  in  Reims  in  1080,  De  la  Salle  soon  added  to 
his  duties  the  direction  of  a  number  of  schools  for 
boys,  whose  teachers  he  bound  to  a  life  of  renun- 
ciation and  union.  The  brothers  were  required, 
in  addition  to  the  three  simple  vows,  to  give  in- 
struction invariably  without  compensation,  and  to 
wear  a  special  habit.  In  1088  their  founder  was 
appointed  their  first  superior-general  and  removed 
to  Vaugirard  near  Paris,  in  1696  to  Saint  Yon,  a 
house  of  novices  at  Rouen,,  which  remained  the 
center  of  the  congregation  until  1770.  The  Chris- 
tian Brothers  spread  rapidly  throughout  France, 
and  in  1724  were  recognized  by  Benedict  XIII. 
The  antimonastic  decree  of  the  National  Assembly 
of  Feb.  13, 1790,  dissolved  the  congregation,  which 
then  had  121  houses  in  France,  but  it  still  retained 
ite  organization  in  Italy,  and  was  reestablished  in 


Ohristlan  Brother* 
Ohrlatian  Boienoe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


40 


France  under  Napoleon  in  1804.  By  1822  the 
houses  of  the  Christian  Brothers  numbered  180 
in  France,  and  since  that  time  the  congregation  has 
spread  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
world  (especially  Belgium,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Aus- 
tria), and  is  represented  in  Turkey,  India,  Egypt, 
Australia,  and  America.  With  about  1,300  houses, 
over  2,000  schools,  and  14,000  members,  the  Chris- 
tian Brothers  are  now  the  strongest  Roman  Cath- 
olic male  order. 

Although  without  official  connection  with  the 
Jesuits,  the  Christian  Brothers,  who  are  also  called 
Ignorantins  because  of  their  law  which  forbids 
them  to  admit  to  their  number  priests  with  a 
theological  education,  have  many  points  in  com- 
mon with  the  older  order.  When  the  Jesuits  were 
expelled  from  France  in  1764,  the  Christian  Brothers 
aided  materially  in  maintaining  sympathy  for  the 
exiles  among  the  people  and  preparing  the  way 
for  their  return.  Much  of  their  organization  and 
discipline  also  recalls  the  Jesuit  system,  especially 
the  assistants  charged  with  the  supervision  of  the 
acts  of  the  superior-general,  the  frequent  visita- 
tions, the  rules  for  confession  and  prayer,  and  the 
training  of  their  members,  which  consists  of  a 
novitiate  and  a  course  of  practical  teaching  of  one 
year  each.  (O.  ZbcKLRH'f,) 

Biblioorapht:  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  KongregoHonen, 
ii.  280-285;  Dis  ekrUaiche  SchulbrUder,  2  vols..  Augs- 
burg. 1844;  J.  A.  Krebs.  Leben  dea  .  .  .  J.  B.  de  la  SalU, 
ntb§t  Anhang  aber  Oesckichte  .  .  .  teinea  Ordena,  Regent- 
burg.  1868;  F.  J.  Knecht.  J.  B.  de  la  Salie  und  da»  In- 
•HhU  d0r  ekrUaithen  Schtdbmder,  Freiburg.  1879;  Mra. 
M.  WilBon.  The  ChrUtian  BroOurB,  their  Origin  and  Work, 
London.  1883;  J.  B.  Blain.  La  Vie  du  .  .  .  J.-B.  de  la 
Salle,  Versailles,  1887;  P.  Helyot.  Ordrea  numaatiquee, 
Till.  233  sqq.;  Currier.  Beligioue  Order;  pp.  45&-457. 

CHRISTIAir  CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH 
IN  ZION:  A  religious  society,  the  formal  organization 
of  which  was  effected  by  John  Alexander  Dowie  (q. v. ) 
in  Chicago,  1896.  The  growth  of  the  movement  dates 
back  to  the  foimder's  discovery  of  his  alleged  power 
to  obtain  cure  of  disease  through  prayer,  on  accoimt 
of  which  he  retired  from  the  Congregational  min- 
istry in  Melbourne  and  established  a  church  and 
tabernacle  for  ''  divine  healing."  His  emigration 
to  the  United  States  in  1888  was  followed  by  the 
establishment  of  "  missions  of  healing  "  on  the  Pa- 
cific Coast.  After  his  settlement  at  Evanston,  111., 
in  1890  he  conducted  work  on  the  same  lines  there 
and  in  Chicago,  with  missions  in  Canada,  Minne- 
sota, Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  The  success  of 
his  efforts  in  Chicago  decided  him  in  1893  to  make 
that  his  center  of  operations,  and  a  tabernacle  and 
*'  divine  healing  rooms  "  were  erected.  His  fol- 
lowing was  so  large  that  organization  was  deter- 
mined upon.  In  1900  a  large  tract  of  land  was 
bought  on  Lake  Michigan,  42  m.  n.  of  Chicago,  and 
•*  Zion  City  "  was  planned,  where  were  to  be  erected 
schools,  a  college  to  train  the  ministry  and  propa- 
gandists, various  business  establishments  and  fac- 
tories (for  which  large  sums  have  been  solicited 
and  received  from  believers),  and  residences  for 
the  adherents  of  the  Church.  The  branches  already 
established  in  the  West  and  elsewhere  were  brought 
into  connection  with  the  central  organization,  in 
which  a  theocratic  element  was  claimed. 


In  the  organization  of  the  Church  Dowie  was 
**  general  overseer,"  and  claimed  to  be  Elijah  III., 
John  the  Baptist  being  Elijah  II.  Other  officers 
are  overseers,  elders,  evangelists,  deaconesses,  and 
conductors  of  gatherings.  The  propaganda  is 
carried  on  by  bc^ds  of  *'  Zion  Seventies  "  who  in 
twos  act  as  tract-distributors.  Missionaries  are 
sent  in  all  directions,  and  branches  are  established 
in  different  countries  in  Europe,  eastern  Asia,  and 
South  America.  The  basis  of  church-membership 
is  belief  in  the  Scriptures  as  the  rule  of  faith  and 
practise,  in  the  necessity  of  repentance  for  sin  and 
of  trust  in  Christ  for  salvation,  and  belief  in  the 
witness  of  the  Spirit. 

In  1905  Mr.  Dowie  was  oompulsorily  retired,  and 
Wilbur  Glenn  Voliva  elected  in  his  place,  though 
the  former  objected  that  the  election  violated  the 
theocratic  constitution.  No  statistics  are  obtain- 
able as  to  membership  or  ministry.  The  receiver 
appointed  for  the  affairs  of  Zion  City  reported  in 
Sept.,  1906,  total  assets  of  $2,528,581  and  liabilities 
of  $6,125,018.  W.  H.  Larrabee. 

Bxbuoorapht:  R.  Harlan,  John  Alexander  Dowie  and  the 
Chrietian  Catholic  Apoetolic  Chtarch  in  Zion^  EvansviUet 
Wis.,  1906;  J.  A,  Dowie  and  hie  Ziona,  in  Independent, 
liii  (1901),  1786;  Dowie  Movement  in  Chicago,  in  Out- 
look, Ixviii  (1901).  429;  J.  M.  Buckley.  John  Alexander 
Dowie,  Analyzed  and  Claaaified,  in  Century  Magazine,  xlii 
(1902).  928-982;  J.  Swain.  The  Prophet  and  hia  ProfiU, 
ib.,  pp.  122  sqq.;  J.  J.  Halsey,  Geneaia  of  a  Modem 
Prophet,  in  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  ix  (1903). 
310;  J.  K.  Friedman,  in  Everybody'a  Magazine,  ix  (1903). 
567;  J.  H.  Shepstone,  Dowie  and  hia  City  of  Zion,  in  the 
London  Sunday  Magazine,  xxxiii  (1904),  563. 

The  Church  periodical  is  Leavea  of  Healing,  a  weekly 
published  at  Zion  City. 

CHRISTIAN  COMMISSIOir,  THE  UinTED 
STATES:  An  organization  to  care  for  the  religious 
needs  of  the  soldiers  in  the  field  during  the  Ci\'il 
War,  first  proposed  by  Vincent  Ck)lyer,  of  New  York, 
in  1861.  The  idea  was  taken  up  by  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association,  and  at  a  convention 
held  in  New  York  in  Nov.,  1861,  a  commission  of 
twelve  was  organized  to  take  charge  of  the  work. 
Bibles,  hymnals,  tracts,  religious  books,  and  news- 
papers -were  distributed  through  the  armies,  and 
personal  religious  work  was  done.  Two  special 
works  were  undertaken:  The  Commission  aimed 
to  be  a  medium  of  speedy  and  reliable  communica- 
tion between  the  soldiers  and  sailors  and  their 
friends  at  home,  and  it  circulated  loan-libraries  of 
general  literature.  The  total  value  of  money  con- 
tributed and  other  gifts  was  officially  estimated  at 
$6,291,107.68.  The  final  meeting  of  the  Commis- 
sion was  held  in  Washington  Feb.  11,  1866.  The 
leading  men  in  the  movement  were  the  president, 
George  H.  Stuart,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Nathan 
Bishop  (q.v.),  of  New  York. 

Biblioqbapht:  Lemuel  Moss.  Annal*  of  Ae  United  Statea 
Chrietian  Commiaaion,  Philadelphia,  1868. 

CHRISTIAN  CONNECTION.    See  Christians. 

CHRISTIAN  DOCTRINE,  SOCIETY  OP;  The 
name  of  several  religious  associations  of  which  the 
most  important  are.  (1)  The  Society  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (Societd,  della  doUrina  cristiana)^  founded  at 
Rome  in  1562  by  Marco  de  Sadis  Cusani,  of  Milan 
(d.  1595),  to  instruct  the  people  in  Christian  teach- 


41 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohriatlan  Brothers 
Ohrlstian  Science 


in^  It  consisted  of  priests  and  laymen ,  and  spread 
in  Upper  Italy,  Germany,  and  Austria.  In  1586 
the  Koman  branch  was  made  a  spiritual  oongrega- 
tNHi  with  its  seat  at  the  church  of  St.  Agatha  in 
Traste\'ere  (whence  they  are  sometimes  called 
Agathiats).  The  others  constituted  a  brother- 
hood under  secular  presidents,  connected  with  the 
dericai  congregation  by  a  common  directing  body 
{definUorium).  They  founded  schools  and  under- 
took general  as  well  as  religious  instruction,  taught 
in  the  churches,  and  strove  to  lead  the  young  to  a 
religious  life.  The  number  of  clerical  members 
lud  fallen  to  fifty-four  in  1747,  for  which  reason 
Benedict  XIV.  in  that  year  united  them  with  a 
French  congregation  of  like  name,  (2)  the  Fathers 
of  Christian  Doctrine  {Phres  de  la  doctrine  chr^i- 
enne),  founded  in  1592  by  C^sar  de  Bus  (b.  at  Ca- 
YaiU<»  1544;  d.  1607),  with  the  help  of  a  former 
Calvinist,  J.  B.  Romillon,  canon  of  Isle,  and  a 
canon  of  Avignon,  named  Pinelli.  The  object  was 
to  instruct  in  Roman  doctrine  and  to  check  the 
spread  of  Calvinism.  Clement  VIII.  confirmed  the 
constitution  in  1597.  Most  of  the  members  were 
united  with  the  Somaschians  (q.v.),  while  a  mi- 
nority joined  the  Oratorians  of  Berulle  in  1616. 
In  1547,  however.  Innocent  X.  again  made  the 
Phet  doctrinaires  an  independent  body,  and  Alex- 
ander VII.  in  1659  allowed  them  to  take  the  simple 
vowB.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution 
they  had  twenty-eight  houses  in  France;  in  1900 
th^  had  one  in  France  (at  Cavaillon,  diocese  of 
AWgnon)  and  six  in  Italy.  Cardinal  Bellarmine 
wrote  his  DoUrina  criatiana  and  Dichiaratione  pHi 
eopiota  deUa  doUrina  cristiana  for  the  use  of  the 
Italian  congregation,  and  De  Bus  composed  a 
popular  exposition  of  the  catechism  for  the 
French  congregation  (published  at  Paris,  1666). 
The  only  scholar  of  the  congregation  worthy 
of  note  was  the  general  superior  Pierre  Annat 
(d.  1715),  author  of  an  Apparatus  meihodicus  ad 
pogUieam  theciogiam  (Paris,  17(X),  and  often). 

(O.  Z6CKLERt.) 

BiBuooaAPirr:  Helyot,  Ordrm  monaaiiqae;  iv.  232-252; 
Heimbucher.  Orden  und  KonifngaHonen,  ii.  338-341; 
Carrier.  iUliounu  Ordtr;  pp.  436-438;  P.  du  Mas,  La 
Vic  du  ^fnfraitU  CUar  de  Bum,  Paris,  1703;  J.  J.  Chamoux, 
Vie  du  vHUrabU  CUar  de  Bub,  Paris,  1864. 

CHIUSTIAn  ENDEAVOR  SOCIETY.  See  Young 
People's  Societieb. 

CHIUSTIAN  LOVE,  BROTHERS  OF.    See  Hip- 

POLTTTS,  SaDTT,  BROTHERS  OF. 

CHRISnAH  AND  MISSIONARY  ALLIANCE: 
An  of]giiniaUion  to  promote  a  deeper  spiritual  life 
ftmong  Christians  of  all  denominations,  and  a  more 
^a^nmye  missionary  work  in  neglected  fields  at 
borne  and  abroad.  The  work  was  begun  during  a 
convention  at  Old  Orchard,  Me.,  in  1887  by  a  num- 
ber of  Christian  men  and  women,  connected  with 
various  Ehrangelical  denominations  in  the  United 
Slates  and  Canada.  It  is  not  a  sectarian  body, 
bat  a  fraternal  union  of  Christians.  It  is  incoi^ 
porated  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
ud  is  managed  by  a  board  g|  fifteen  directors, 
elected  for  a  term  of  three  years  at  the  annual  meet- 


ing of  the  society.  It  has  about  200  branches  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  100  mission 
stations  in  foreign  countries.  There  are  about  200 
official  workers  in  the  home  land,  and  600  foreign 
laborers  in  the  mission  fields  abrcNEui,  of  whom  one- 
half  are  natives  and  the  others  American  and  Cana- 
dian missionaries.  There  are  about  4,000  commu- 
nicants in  the  various*  native  churches.  The  fields 
include  western  India,  southern,  central,  and  west- 
em  China,  Japan,  the  Kongo  and  the  Sudan  in 
West  Africa,  Palestine,  the  West  Indies,  Venezuela, 
Chile,  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and  Argentina. 

The  special  object  in  beginning  the  foreign  mission 
work  was  to  endeavor  to  reach  neglected  fields, 
where  other  missions  had  not  been  established. 
Tibet  was  the  first  objective  point  of  the  society, 
and  for  many  years  a  successful  mission  has  been 
established  on  its  borders.  In  other  coimtries  the 
most  destitute  fields  have  always  been  chosen,  and 
the  society  endeavors  to  avoid  duplicating  the 
work  of  other  societies.  Another  object  was  to 
employ  a  class  of  laborers  for  whom  an  open  door 
was  not  easily  foimd  under  other  organizations. 
Many  of  the  missionaries  of  the  Alliance  are 
laymen  specially  trained  for  this  work,  and  also 
unmarried  women.  A  large  and  successful  Bible 
Institute  is  maintained  at  South  Nyack,  N.  Y., 
for  the  preparation  of  the  laborers,  from  which 
over  3,000  students  have  gone  out  in  the  past 
twenty  years.  The  attendance  in  the  classes  of 
1906-07  was  over  300. 

The  work  of  the  society  is  sustained  by  volun- 
tary contributions.  During  the  past  twenty  years 
about  13,000,000  have  been  contributed  in  this 
way,  and  the  annual  income  at  the  present  time  is 
about  a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars.  One  aim  of 
the  society  is  to  cultivate  a  spirit  of  rigid  economy 
and  great  simplicity  and  self-denial  in  the  methods 
of  work.  The  missionaries  voluntarily  receive  no 
fixed  salary,  but  a  sufficient  amoimt  to  meet  their 
actual  expenses  on  the  field,  gladly  giving  their  lives 
in  disinterested  service  and  simple  faith  in  Qod  to 
take  care  of  them  through  the  friends  at  home. 
There  are  no  expensive  buildings,  and  most  of  the 
home  workers  and  officials  receive  no  salary  and 
give  their  services  freely  for  Christ's  sake.  In  this 
way  the  maximum  service  is  secured  at  the  smallest 
expense,  and  the  self-denial  of  those  who  give  finds 
its  response  in  the  self-sacrifice  of  those  who  go. 

A.  B.  Simpson. 

CHRISTIAN    MISSIONARY    ASSOCIATION:    A 

loose  confederation  of  churches  in  Kentucky,  in 
which  each  church  was  independent  and  claimed 
to  be  unsectarian.  The  churches  were  boimd 
together  by  no  creed  or  ecclesiastical  tie,  but  the 
general  system  of  doctrine  was  Evangelical,  and 
baptism  by  immersion  was  preferred.  The  confed- 
eration, now  extinct,  reported  in  1895  thirteen  or- 
ganizations and  754  conmiimicants. 

Biblioorapht:  H.  K.  Carroll,  RdUfiout  Foree$  of  the  United 
Siatea,  p.  06.  New  York.  1896. 

CHRISTIAN  REFORMED  CHURCH.  See  Re- 
formed Church,  Christian. 

I       CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE.  See  Sctence,  Christian. 


Chriatian  Sooialism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


42 


CHRISTIAN  SOCIALISM. 

I.  Definition  and  PrindplM. 
Tba  Term  (|  1). 

Balations  to  Science  and  Religion  (f  2). 
Attitude  to  Various  Forces  and  Theories  (|  3). 
II.  History. 

1.  England. 

Initiation  of  the  Morement  (§  1). 
Results  (I  2). 

2.  Continental  Europe. 
Basal  Principles  (|  1). 
Results  (I  2). 

8.  The  United  States. 

1.  Definition  and  Principles:  The  tenn  "Christian 
Socialism  "was  first  used  in  1848  by  J.  F.D.Maurice 
(q.v.).    He  wished  to  express  the  idea  that  social- 
ism is  a  development  and  outcome  of 

1.  The      Christianity;  and  that,  if  it  is  to  be 
Term,      effective,    it   must    have    a    definite 

Christian  basis.  To  this  view  later 
Christian  Socialists  have  always  adhered,  although 
the  term  has  been  used  to  express  a  number 
of  other  ideas,  especially  in  Europe.  It  is  fre- 
quently employed  there  loosely  to  indicate  any  ap- 
plication of  Christian  principles  to  social  life.  Both 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  have  so  applied 
the  phrase,  perhaps  in  order  to  show  that  the 
Church  was  not  antagonistic  to  socialism  when 
subjoined  to  the  leadership  of  the  Church.  The 
term  should,  however,  be  restricted  in  use  to  the 
idea  which  Maurice  desired  to  express;  although 
this  restriction  does  not  imply  adherence  to  the 
economic  views  held  by  early  Christian  Socialists. 
Circumstances  have  changed  and  social  thought 
has  developed.  Christian  Socialists  may,  and  do, 
hold  various  views  on  economics;  but  they  must 
believe  in  socialism  as  a  development  and  outcome 
of  Christianity  if  they  would  be  counted  among 
the  followers  of  Maurice  and  Charles  Kingsley. 

The  definition  of  Christian  Socialism  as  given  by 
Maurice  can  be  understood  only  on  the  basis  of  his 
ethical  and  religious  principles.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  is  that  there  are  two  forces  which 

came  into  prominence  in  the  nine- 

2.  Bttla-  teenth  century,  although  they  had  had 
tiona  to  A  prior  existence — science,  and  man  as 
Boienoe  an  end  in  himself.  The  Church  was 
and  Be-    compelled  to  adopt  some  attitude  in 

ligion.  regard  to  both,  since  both  seemed  hos- 
tile— science  as  threatening  the  en- 
tire structure  of  theology,  and  the  new  theory  of 
man  as  giving  rise  to  the  labor  movement  with 
socialism  as  an  attendant,  emphasizing  the  mate- 
rial advantages  of  civilization.  Christian  Socialists 
maintained  an  attitude  of  hospitality  toward  both 
of  these  forces.  They  claimed  an  essential  agree- 
ment between  the  ascertained  results  of  science 
and  the  fimdamental  teachings  of  the  Bible,  and 
argued  that,  since  God  was  ruler  both  in  the  spiri- 
tual and  the  secular  spheres  of  life,  there  could 
be  no  discrepancy  between  revealed  religion  and 
science  when  both  were  rightly  and  fully  under- 
stood. Both  were  inspired  by  God,  although  in 
different  degrees  and  for  different  purposes.  With 
respect  to  the  endeavor  of  the  masses  to  obtain 
fecognition  as  individuals.  Christian  Socialists 
maintained  that  the  essence  of  Christianity  was 
brotherhood,  and  that  its  aim  was  the  acquirement 


of  dignity  by  every  man  as  a  child  of  God.  They 
contend^  that  the  system  of  privileged  classes 
was  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  a  para- 
sitic growth  upon  the  body  politic.  The  fimda- 
mental principle  of  their  philosophy  may  be  sum- 
marized in  the  statement  that  the  worid  is  created 
by  God;  the  Christian  religion  is  revealed  by  him. 
The  principle  has,  however,  other  corollaries: 
(1)  Since  God  has  created  the  world,  he  has  also 
redeemed  it — ^the  whole  of  it,  each  human  being  in 
it,  and  all  hmnan  relations — because  the  incarna- 
tion was  a  imiversal  redemption.  (2)  Since  all 
men  are,  at  least  potentially,  the  children  of  Grod, 
they  are  brothers  in  all  relations.  (3)  Since  God 
has  created  men  individuals,  each  with  a  special 
endowment,  every  man  must  do  some  useful  work 
and  develop  his  God-given  faculties;  he  should, 
moreover,  have  the  opportunity  so  to  do. 

From  the  vantage-point  of  this  principle  Chris- 
tian Socialists  began  to  wage  war  upon  their  con- 
temporaries. They  fought  the  Calvinistic  doc- 
trine of  a  partial  redemption  through  election; 
Roman  Catholicism,  because  as  an  organization 
that  Church  depreciates  family  life  more  or  leas  by 
its  teaching  of  asceticism  and  by  ma- 
8.  Attitude  ^°^^  rewani  in  heaven  dependent  upon 
to  Various  "  good  works,"  in  this  way  putting  a 
Foroes  and  premimn  on  wealth  and  requiring  the 
Theories,  continuation  of  a  system  whereby  the 
few  are  able  to  reap  rewards  from  the 
labor  of  the  many.  Against  communists,  social- 
ists, and  anarchists  it  was  urged  that  they  denied 
the  raison  d'itre  of  nationality,  and  thus  violated 
a  fimdamental  law  of  human  nature,  since  the  de- 
velopment of  the  individual  could  take  place  only 
on  the  basis  of  nationalism,  and  not  on  that  of  co»- 
mopolitanism.  They  inveighed  against  the  laissez- 
faire  doctrine  as  a  perversion  of  Christian  doctrine 
and  of  sound  economic  principles.  They  berated 
the  rich  who  paid  wages  merely  sufiident  to  keep 
their  workmen  alive  and  thus  used  human  beings 
as  a  means  to  selfish  ends.  They  questioned  the 
ability  of  socialism  to  remedy  present  evils  merely 
by  changing  the  eystem.  of  economic  production 
and  distribution,  and  pointed  out  that  only  by  the 
infusion  of  the  spirit  of  Christian  brotherhood  and 
by  the  conversion  of  every  individual  could  the  in- 
dividual be  induced  to  work  for  all,  and  all  for  one, 
since  the  best  work  in  the  worid  had  not  been  done 
from  economic  motives,  but  from  an  unselfish  de- 
sire to  help  others. 

n.  History.— 1.  Bn^land:  The  year  1848  was  a 
dark   one   for   English  workingmen.     Conditions 
combined    to    bring    their    wrongs    and  suffer- 
ings to  a  head.    Chartism  had,  moreover,  stirred 
up  considerable  discussion  and  caused  much  po- 
litical unrest.    On  April  10  there  was 
1.  Initia-  cui    immense  mass-meeting  at   Ken- 
tion  of    nington    Common,   London;   100,000 
the  Kove-  men  proposed  to  march  to  Parliament 
m«nt.      and  force  it  to  accept  the  so-called  six 
points;  viz.,  universal  suffrage,  aboli- 
tion of  property  qualifications  for  members  of  Par- 
liament, annual  parliaments,  equal  representation, 
payment  of  representatives,  and  vote  by  baDot. 
TMs  programme  seemed  revoiutionaiy;  the  Gov- 


43 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OhrlstUa  SoolAllna 


eminent  put  WeUington  in  charge  of  London,  and 
150.000  householders  were  sworn  in  as  special  con- 
stables. But  the  assemblage  was  a  mere  rabble, 
ance  fiober  woridngmen  stayed  away,  and  O'Con- 
nor, the  Irish  agitator,  absented  himself.  A  heavy 
downpour  of  rain  cowed  the  crowd  completely,  so 
that  the  meeting  dispersed  in  confusion. 

But  the  danger  was  not  yet  passed.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  similar  or  more  dan- 
gprouB  meetings,  three  men,  Frederick  Denison 
M&uriee,  Charles  Kingsley,and  John  M.  Ludlow, 
decided  after  consultation  to  write  and  publish  Poli- 
tia  for  the  People  (May  6,  1848).  Only  seventeen 
weekly  numbers  appeared,  but  these  succeeded  in 
turning  the  inqiencfing  revolution  into  a  peaceful 
social  evolution.  The  writers  declared  thcdr  sym- 
pathy with  the  woridngmen,  warned  them  against 
viokoce,  appealed  to  the  justice  and  charity  of 
the  rich,  and  expounded  their  principles  with  skill 
and  leal.  Others  joined  them,  and  numerous 
meetings  were  held,  both  for  the  instruction  of 
workingmen  and  for  mutual  encouragement.  Henry 
Uayhew  had  contributed  a  series  of  articles  to  the 
Morning  Chronide  of  London  during  1849  on  the 
sweating  system,  and  these  called  forth  in  1850 
Kinsley's  tract  Cheap  Clothes  and  Nasty.  In  the 
same  year  the  little  group  of  friends  decided  to 
issue  Trade  on  Chrietian  Socialiemf  with  the  key- 
word: Association,  i.e.,  Cooperation  versus  Com- 
petition. In  order  to  alleviate  at  least  the  direct 
poverty  among  the  laboring  classes,  the  Christian 
Socialists  started  in  1850  the  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Woridngmen's  Associations.  Since  co- 
operative societies  were  not  legal  at  that  time,  Lud- 
low exerted  all  his  influence  to  have  the  Industrial 
and  Provident  Societies'  Act  passed  in  1852.  Mau- 
rice and  his  friends  inmiediately  used  this  oppor- 
tunity to  establish  a  number  of  cooperative  con- 
cerns. The  principles  underlying  them,  adopted 
at  Manchester  May  15,  1853,  were:  (1)  human 
society  is  a  body  consisting  of  many  members,  not 
a  collection  of  warring  atoms;  (2)  true  workers 
must  be  fellow  woricers,  not  rivals;  (3)  the  prin- 
ciple of  justice,  not  of  selfishness,  must  govern 
exchanges. 

These  sodeties  thus  established  have  prospered 
to  a  remarkable  degree.  In  1906  the  turnover  of 
the  Cooperative  Wholesale  Society,  with  more  than 
2,000  local  branches,  was  $500,000,000,  with  a  sur- 
plus of  over  $12,000,000.  In  1876  the  Guild  of  St. 
Matthew  was  formed  for  the  purpose 
S.  Basalts,  of  drawing  the  Church  and  the  work- 
ingmen closer  together,  and  to  close  as 
ftf  as  possible  the  social  chasm  between  the  rich 
and  the  poor.  It  was  absorbed  in  1880  by  the 
(^linstian  Social  Union,  under  the  leadersMp  of 
Canon  Scott  Holland,  although  it  still  maintains 
sn  individual  existence  within  the  larger  body, 
ttd  has  a  spokesman  in  the  Church  Reformer,  The 
Union  consists  of  men  of  all  classes  who  are  willing 
to  woik  for  the  following  purposes:  (1)  to  claim 
(or  the  Christian  law  the  ultimate  authority  in  so- 
Qsl  practise;  (2)  to  study  how  the  truths  and 
prindite  of  Christianity  may  be  applied  to  the 
•oeial  and  economic  difficulties  of  the  present  time; 
nd  (3)  to  present  Christ  as  the  living  king  and 


master,  the  enemy  of  wrong  and  of  selfishness,  and 
the  power  of  love  and  righteousness.  The  earlier 
Christian  Socialists  also  worked  in  other  fields,  such 
as  village  improvement  societies,  drew  up  a  pro- 
gramme for  the  National  Health  League,  founded 
the  Workingmen's  College  in  London,  and  secured 
the  passage  by  Parliament  of  a  number  of  laws 
for  the  benefit  of  workingmen.  They  encountered 
much  bitter  opposition  both  in  and  out  of  the  An- 
glican Church.  Some  of  them  suffered  persecu- 
tion, as  when  Maurice  was  removed  from  his  pro- 
fessorship at  King's  College  in  1853,  although  he 
was  later  (1866)  appointed  to  one  at  Cambridge. 
Nevertheless,  their  fearless  and  sincere  conduct  and 
self-sacrifice  made  many  friends  for  them.  While 
the  movement  as  a  separate  organisation  has  died, 
it  has  been  the  seed  of  many  reforms  throughout 
England  in  every  sphere  of  Ufe,  while  the  United 
Kingdom  itself  has  been  greatly  improved  socially 
and  morally  by  the  lives  and  teachings  of  these 
men.  The  conference  of  194  Anglican  bishops  as- 
sembled in  1897  practically  adopted  as  its  princi- 
ples the  platform  of  Maurice  and  of  the  Christian 
Social  Union  (see  Lambeth  Confbiubncb).  The 
non-conformists  have  also  caught  the  spirit,  and 
the  Rev.  John  CUfford  and  many  others  are  mem- 
bers of  the  Christian  Socialist  League. 

2.  Oontinental  Snrope:  Analogous  Continental 
movements  can  not  properiy  be  called  Christian  So- 
daUsm.  They  were  always  Christian,  but  never  so- 
cialistic. They  were  started  largely  with  the  purpose 
of  undermining  secular  socialism.  But  the  principal 
objection  to  applying  the  term  to  the 

1.  Basal  Continental  movements  is  that  they 
Prinoiples.  never  formulated  a  philosophy  of  life 
and  of  the  Sttfte  such  as  Maurice  and 
Kingsley  gave  to  England.  As  a  result  they  were 
unable  to  present  a  world-view  as  systematic,  far- 
reaching,  and  comprehensive  as  that  offered  to 
English  workingmen.  This  difference  may  ex- 
plain why  in  Great  Britain  the  socialist  party  and 
other  extremists  did  not  develop  great  strength 
after  the  appearance  of  the  Christian  Socialists. 
The  English  workingman  has  been  taught  to  look 
at  the  economic  problem  as  only  one  among  many, 
whereas  German  and  French  lalx>rers  came  to  con- 
sider that  of  supreme,  if  not  of  sole,  importance. 
Biarx  simply  sjrstematiaed  that  view  in  lus  Kapv- 
tal.  The  Christian  workers  of  France  and  Ger- 
many had  nothing  to  put  into  the  hands  of  work- 
ingmen which  could  compare  with  that  book. 
There  is  another  difference  of  prime  importance  be- 
tween the  two  schools.  The  Continentals  always 
leaned  on  the  arm  of  the  Church,  of  the  State,  or  of 
both;  whereas  Englishmen  were  not  afraid  to  at- 
tack either  or  both  whenever  necessary.  Conti- 
nental laboring-men  regarded  these  leaders  as  hire- 
lings of  the  State  or  emissaries  of  the  hierarchy, 
while  in  fact  they  were  defenders  of  society  on 
Church  and  State  principles,  and  sought  to  ally  the 
altar  and  the  crown. 

For  these  reasons  the  Oontinental  movement  was 
doomed  to  failure.  The  laboring  class  has  kept 
aloof,  and  adopted  Marxism.  The  leaders  were, 
nevertheless,  in  earnest,  and  began  woric  along 
other  lines.    The  Roman  Cathohcs  founded  nu- 


Chriatiaa  Socialiam 
Ghrlatlana 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


44 


merous  societies  under  the  leadership  of  Baron 
von  Ketteler  (q.v.),  archbishop  of  Mainz,  who  ex- 
erted a  great  influence.  The  object  of  these  so- 
cieties was  partly  ecclesiastical,  partly  political — 
the  people  were  to  be  guarded  from  the  infidelity 
of  the  socialists,  and  were  to  be  used  because  of 
their  possession  of  the  ballot.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  has  in  Gennany  succeeded  so  well  in 
this  that  it  has  been  able  through  the  votes  of  ar- 
tisans, laborers,  and  peasants  to  secure  a  large 
number  of  seats  in  the  Reichstag.  There  has  been 
no  hesitation  at  times  to  form  an  alliance  with  the 
socialists,  when  the  Church's  purposes  were  served, 
and  the  State  has  been  several  times  compelled  to 
capitulate  before  the  union  thus  effected.  But 
along  with  this  political  and  ecclesiastical  activity 
an  inunense  amount  of  valuable  practical  Christian 
work  has  been  done — ^a  description  of  which  would 
be  foreign  to  this  article. 

The  Protestant  Church  in  Germany  began  prac- 
tical Christian  work  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  which  made  rapid  headway  after 
1850.  Hardly  any  Church  in  Christendom  does  so 
much  valuable  work  as  the  Lutheran,  but — ^it  is 
all  done  under  the  auspices  or  in  alliance  with  the 
g  ^^  State,  and  is,  therefore,  discredited 
Kultm,  among  the  socialists  who  showed  their 
opposition  by  withdrawal  en  masse 
from  the  Church.  Men  of  influence  like  Drs. 
Stacker  and  Kdgel  failed  after  earnest  endeavors 
to  organize  an  independent  political  or  Christian 
party,  while  they  have  been  eminently  successful 
in  uniting  various  charitable  and  philanthropic 
movements  in  the  Innere  Mission  (q.v.).  In  France, 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Denmark,  and 
elsewhere  no  distinctively  Christian  Socialist  move- 
ments have  developed.  The  Christians  of  emi- 
nence in  these  coimtries,  such  as  the  Comte  de  Mun 
in  France,  Laveleye  in  Belgium,  and  Prince  von 
Lichtenstein  in  Austria,  who  might  have  led  in 
this  direction,  were  either  dependent  on  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  for  the  expression  of  their  views, 
or  did  not  imitate  a  distinctive  independent  Chris- 
tian Socialism.  They  simply  contributed  to  litera- 
ture or  founded  charitable  and  philanthropic  in- 
stitutions. 

8.  The  United  States:  The  seed  which  was  sent 
out  from  England  found  a  much  more  favorable 
soil  in  the  United  States.  This  country  had  been 
the  camping-groimd  of  numerous  communistic  and 
other  societies  (see  Communism),  and  the  experi- 
mental station  for  such  idealistic  organizations  as 
Brook  Farm  near  Boston.  No  hostility  was  mani- 
fested by  either  State  or  Church  to  independent 
movements  along  Christian  Socialist  lines,  nor  was 
the  attitude  of  the  people  unfavorable.  Neverthe- 
less, no  movement  of  any  national  importance  has 
been  inaugurated.  A  number  of  men  prominent 
in  the  Church  and  in  business  became  interested  in 
the  work  of  Maurice  and  Kingsley.  A  paper,  the 
Equity,  was  published  in  1874-75  in  Boston.  An 
organization  was  formed  in  that  city  April  15, 
1889,  largely  under  the  leadership  of  W.  D.  P. 
Bliss,  called  the  Society  of  Christian  Socialists. 
The  constitution  emphasized  the  stewardship  of  all 
gifts  and  of  property,  the  fatherhood  of  God,  and 


the  brotherhood  of  man,  it  deprecated  the  present 
industrial  and  commercial  systems  as  individual- 
istic, unjust,  and  contrary  to  the  law  of  God;  rec- 
ommended socialism  (without  defining  it)  as  the 
necessary  outcome  of  Christian  teachings;  and  in- 
vited all  Christians  and  Churches  to  join  the  new 
movement.  But  the  ideas  did  not  taJce  root,  and 
the  movement  to-day  is  a  mere  sentiment  which 
finds  a  channel  for  its  activities  in  charity  and  phi- 
lanthropy. Some  journals,  such  as  the  OuUook, 
the  Kingdoniy  the  Christian  Statesman,  advocate 
Christian  Socialism  to  a  limited  extent,  but  as  a 
whole  the  movement  has  taken  the  shape  of  prac- 
tical reform.    See  Socxaxism. 

Rudolph  M.  Binder. 

Bibuoobapbt:  Besides  the  publications  mentioned  in  the 
text,  the  sources  are  contained  in  Trada  on  Chriatian 
Soeialum,  London,  1850  sqq.;  the  Chrigtian  Soeiaiiat,  a 
journal  issued  from  Nov.  2,  1850,  to  June  28,  1851; 
Charles  Kincsley's  two  novels,  Yeaai,  London,  1848,  and 
Alton  Locke,  ib.  1860;  F.  D.  Maurice,  Moral  and  M^fta- 
Tphyaioal  PhUoaophy,  2  vols.,  ib.  1871-72;  and  other  wri- 
tings of  these  two  leaders.  Further  light  is  to  be  gained 
from  the  biographies  of  these  two  men.  For  different 
phases  of  the  subject  consult:  A.  V.  Wood  worth,  Chria- 
tian Soeialiam  in  England,  London,  1903  (contains  a  full 
bibliography);  E.  R.  A.  Seliipnan,  Otoen  and  the  Chriatian 
Soeialiata,  in  Political  Science  Quarterly,  June,  1886;  B.  F. 
Westcott,  Social  Aapecta  of  Chriatianity,  London,  1887; 
idem.  The  Inoamation  and  Common  Life,  ib.  1803;  M. 
Kaufnxann,  Chrutian  Socialiam,  ib.  1888;  W.  D.  P.  Bliss, 
What  Chriatian  Socialiam  la,  and  The  Social  FaiA  of  the 
Catholic  Churd^  (tracts).  New  York,  1894;  O.  D.  Herron. 
The  New  Redemption  and  the  New  Society,  Boston,  1804; 
F.  8.  Nitti,  Catholic  Socialiam,  London,  1806;  W.  D.  P. 
Bliss,  et  alia.  Encyclopedia  Social  Reform,  New  York,  1906. 

CHRISTIAN  UNION,  THE:  A  religious  organ- 
ization of  the  United  States,  founded  by  James 
F.  Given  in  the  first  year  of  the  Civil  War.  Mr. 
Given  (d.  1869)  was  a  graduate  of  Marietta  Col- 
lege and  an  ordained  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  In  1860,  when  political  ex- 
citement and  prejudice  were  high  and  bitter,  he 
found  himself  out  of  sympathy  with  his  Church. 
He  began  the  publication  of  a  religious  paper, 
the  Christian  Witness  (Columbus,  O.),  and  called 
a  meeting  of  others  who  shared  his  views  to  or- 
ganize an  antipolitical  and  antisectarian  brother- 
hood. Ministers  and  laymen  of  several  denom- 
inations, chiefly  from  Ohio,  met  in  Columbus  in 
1861,  where  they  chose  the  name  "  The  Christian 
Union,"  declared  the  Bible  the  only  rule  of  faith 
and  practise,  and  adopted  strict  congregational 
government  for  each  local  church.  The  first  gen- 
eral council,  held  in  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  in  1863, 
adopted  the  following  principles:  (1)  Christ  the 
only  head  of  the  Church;  (2)  the  Holy  Bible  the 
only  rule  of  faith  and  practise;  (3)  good  fruits  the 
only  test  of  fellowship;  (4)  each  local  church  to 
be  self-governed;  (5)  the  union  of  all  Christians 
to  be  worked  for;  (6)  political  preaching  discoun- 
tenanced. The  Christian  Witness  was  made  the 
organ  of  the  society. 

The  membership  of  the  Union  is  found  chiefly 
in  the  country  and  small  villages,  there  being  no 
city  churches.  It  stands  for  Evangelical  Chris- 
tianity and  pleads  for  the  union  of  all  Christians 
on  the  basis  of  the  Bible.  At  first  its  nimibers 
increased  rapidly,  but  in  recent  years  losses  and 
gains   have   been   about   equal.     Hiere  are  now 


45 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohriatian  SooialiuQ 
Ohriatiana 


about  250  ministers,  300  churches,  and  20,000 
membere,  of  whom  more  than  two-thirds  are  in 
Ohio  and  MisBOuri,  with  churches  also  in  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Oklahoma,  and 
Tennessee.  Two  or  three  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished, but  have  failed  to  receive  adequate  sup- 
port, and  at  present  there  are  no  denominational 
achoob  or  coUeges.  The  Ckrigtian  Union  Messen" 
^n  ^Greencastle,  Ind.)  and  the  Witness  Herald 
(E-xceiskx-  Springs,  Mo.)  are  papers  published  by 
clergnnen  of  the  Union.  H.  J.  Duckworth. 

CHRISTIAllIy  ARNOLD:  German  theologian; 
b.  at  Johannenhof  Dec.  14,  1807;  d.  at  Riga  Mar. 
16.  1886.  In  1838  he  became  pastor  of  Ringen; 
in  1849  dean  of  the  district  of  Werro;  in  1852  pro- 
fissor  of  practical  theology  at  Dorpat  and  preacher 
to  the  university.  From  1865  to  1882,  when  he 
rttired,  he  was  general  superintendent  of  Livonia. 
FMdes  a  volume  of  sermons  (Dorpat,  1852),  he 
published  tliree  books  on  the  Apocalypse  (Riga, 
1861-75),  in  which  he  followed  the  Erlangen  school. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

CHmSTIAHS:  As  a  denominational  designa- 
tion, a  name  given  to  two  religious  bodies  of 
America. 

1.  A  Church  dating  from  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  also  known  as  the  Disciples  of 
Christ  (q.v.). 

2.  A  denomination  sometimes  called  the  Chris- 
tian Comiection  for  purposes  of  identification — 
a  phrase  which  they  admit  usually  refers  to  them. 
The  name  which  they  use  themselves  was  formerly 
sometimes  incorrectly  pronounced  CHirist-iaDs.  The 
denomination  resulted  from  three  independent 
movements,  two  of  which  partook  of  the  nature  of 
spcessicMi.  In  1793,  in  North  Carolina  and  Vir- 
KinAa,  twenty  or  thirty  ministers,  influenced  chiefly 
by  Rev.  James  O'Kelly  (q.v.),  withdrew  from  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  on  account  of  objec- 
tions to  the  government  of  bishops  and  the  use  of 
creeds  and  disciplines.    They  were  followed  by 

about  1,000  members.     At  first  they 
Origin,      were    called  Republican  Methodists; 

but  in  1794  on  motion  of  Rev.  Rice 
Haggard  the  name  Christian  was  unanimously 
adopted,  and  since  that  time  they  have  ac- 
cepted no  other  name.  The  second  movement 
was  in  Vermont,  in  1800,  among  the  Baptists, 
Abner  Jones,  a  physician,  and  Rev.  Elias  Smith 
l<eing  prominent  in  it.  The  third  movement,  in 
K)0  and  1801,  was  in  Kentucky  chiefly,  among 
the  Presbyterians;  prominent  here  were  David  Pur- 
>ianoe,  John  Thomson,  Robert  Marshall,  John 
Dunlavy,  William  Kinkade,  Richard  McNemar, 
Nathan  Worley,  and  Barton  W.  Stone  (q.v.). 
The  three  movements  were  severally  unknown  to 
each  other  until  a  number  of  years  had  passed, 
when  they  came  together  without  negotiation  or 
formal  organic  action. 

Thpy  aU  accepted  the  Bible  as  the  only  creed, 
Hinstian  as  the  only  name,  and  Christian  charae- 
t<-r  a.")  the  only  test  of  fellowship.  Generally  they 
tjftptize  by  immersion,  but  some  ministers  sprin- 
'^i*'.  They  are  universally  open  communionists, 
«a  their  test   of  fdlowship  compels.    Sometimes 


they  are  called  trinitarian,  and  sometimes  anti- 
trinitarian;  but  almost  universally  they  hold  to 
the  divinity  of  Christ.  They  themselves  refuse  to 
pronounce  on  these  dogmas,  which  are  disputed 
among  Christian  people.  They  are  congregational 
in  government;  but  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
pressure  on  this  point  organically  since  the  O'Kelly 
movement  in  the  South.  They  have  annual  dis- 
trict conferences  and  quadrennial  general  conven- 
tions. 

In  1854,  at  the  general  convention  at  Cincinnati, 
resolutions    were   passed  condemning  human  sla- 
very.    The  Southern  brethren  of  the  denomination 
withdrew,  and  perfected  a  separate  organization. 
The  division  lasted  till  long  after  the 

History.  Civil  War;  but  at  the  convention  at 
Haverhill,  Mass.,  in  1894,  under  un- 
contested ruling  of  a  brother  temporarily  called  to 
the  chair  by  the  president,  that  the  Southern 
brethren  "  only  called  themselves  Christians,  took 
the  Bible  for  their  only  creed,  and  granted  full 
fellowship  to  all  Christians,  and  therefore  were 
entitled  to  membership  in  the  convention  on  the 
same  basis  of  representation  as  others,"  they  took 
their  seats  in  the  convention  and  have  been  work- 
ing with  the  general  body  ever  since,  greatly  in- 
creasing its  organic  effectiveness. 

The  question  of  the  "  union  "  of  denominations 
has  several  times  proved  injurious  to  the  Chris- 
tians. A  third  of  a  century  after  their  rise.  Bar- 
ton W.  Stone,  one  of  their  prominent  ministers, 
made  a  "  imion  "  with  Alexander  Campbell,  the 
founder  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ  (q.v.),  which 
really  proved  a  surrender  by  Stone.  Somewhat 
more  than  fifty  churches  were  in  this  way  lost 
to  the  Christians.  This  element  in  the  Disciple 
denomination  clung  to  the  name  "  Christian "; 
so  that  there  has  been  some  confusion,  many 
supposing  that  the  Disciples  are  the  original 
body.  But  the  Disciples  differ  from  the  Chris- 
tians in  giving  fellowship  exclusively  to  the  im- 
mersed; while  the  Christians  make  Christian 
character  their  only  test  of  fellowship  or  membei^ 
ship.  In  1885  and  1886  there  was  agitation  for 
union  with  the  Free  Baptists,  whose  genius  is  more 
like  that  of  the  Christians;  and  in  some  sections 
it  was  actually  voted  and  supposed  to  be  effected. 
But  the  churches  did  not  follow  the  leaders,  and 
the  movement  was  abandoned.  From  1893  to 
1898  organic  union  with  the  Congregationalists 
was  talked  of,  making  some  denominational  fric- 
tion, which  led  to  the  cessation  of  the  agitation. 

The  membership  of  the  Christians  is  almost 
wholly  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  number^ 
ing  about  120,000.  Former  estimates  were  too 
large.  They  have  few  churches  west  of  Kansas, 
or  south  of  North  Carolina.  The  following  insti- 
tutions of  learning  belong  to  them  or  are  affiliated 
with  them:  Union  Christian  College, 

Ntmibers    at    Merom,    Ind.;    Christian   Biblical 

and  Educa-  Institute  (a  theological  seminary),  at 

tionalln-    Stanfordville,  N.  Y.;  Elon  College,  at 

stitutions.    Elon  College,   N.   C;    Starkey  Semi- 
nary, at  Lakemont,  N.   Y.;  Defiance 
College,  at  Defiance,  O.;   Palmer    College,  at    Le 
Grand,  la.;    Kansas  Christian  College,  at  Lincoln, 


OliriatUaa 
Christinas 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


46 


Kan.;  and  Franklinton  Christian  College  (for  ne- 
groes), at  Franklinton,  N.  C.  Their  quadrennial 
convention  of  Oct.,  1850,  held  at  Marion,  N.  Y., 
directed  the  founding  of  a  college  giving  equal 
privileges  to  the  sexes;  and  they  established  An- 
tioch  College  at  Yellow  Springs,  O.,  and  made 
Hon.  Horace  Mann  its  first  president;  but  they 
later  lost  the  institution  to  the  Unitarians.  It 
was  the  first  college  to  give  fully  equal  honors  to 
both  sexes  in  "  coeducation."  Union  Christian 
College,  their  next  college,  may  be  considered  the 
effect  of  the  abortive  attempt  at  Antioch.  [In 
Canada  the  Christians  pay  the  salary  of  one  of 
their  members  as  professor  in  McMaster  Univer- 
sity, a  Baptist  institution,  and  encourage  their 
young  people  to  study  there. — A.  H.  N.] 

The  Christians  were  also  the  first  in  modem 
times  as  a  denomination  to  authorize  the  ordina- 
tion of  a  woman  to  the  Gospel  ministry;  but  they 
were  not  the  first  to  ordain;  this  being  done  irreg- 
ularly before  their  action.  The  foreign  mission 
work  of  the  Christians  is  only  twenty  years  old; 
it  is  carried  on  now  in  Japan  and  Porto  Rico,  and 
there  is  agitation  to  begin  work  in  India. 

In  1808  the  Rev.  Elias  Smith  established  the  first 
religious  newspaper,  the  Herald  of  Gospel  Liberty, 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  After  various  vicissitudes, 
it  is  now  the  property  of  the  general  body  and  is 
published  by  the  Christian  Publishing  Association, 
a  denominational  corporation  at  Dayton,  O.  Other 
periodicals  to  be  mentioned  are:  the  Ckristian  Sun, 
weekly,  property  of  the  Southern  Christian  Con- 
vention, Elon  College,  N.  C;  the  Christian  Van- 
guard, semimonthly,  property  of  the  Ontario  Chris- 
tian Conference,  Toronto  and  Newmarket,  Ontario; 
the  Young  People's  Worker,  monthly,  Raleigh,  N.  C; 
various  Sunday-school  periodicals,  issued  by  the 
Christian  Publishing  Association,  Dayton,  O.,  quar- 
terlies and  weeklies,  and  the  Christian  Missionary, 
monthly,  property  of  the  American  Christian  Con- 
vention, Dayton,  O.;  the  Afro^hristian  Messenger, 
monthly,  Franklinton,  N.  C. 

J.  J.  SUMMERBBLL. 
Biblioorapbt:  Smiih'B  Worka,  by  Elias  Smith,  Exeter, 
N.  H.,  1805;  John  Dunlavy,  ManifeMto,  Pleasant  Hill, 
Ky.,  1818;  John  Rogers,  Biography  of  Barton  Warren 
Stone,  Cincinnati,  1847;  D.  Purvianoe,  Biography  of  D. 
Purtfiance,  Dayton,  O.,  1848;  J.  R.  Freeae.  Chriatian 
Church  Hittory,  Philadelphia,  1852;  N.  Summerbell. 
Hiatoryof  the  Chriatiane,  Cincinnati,  1871;  £.  W.  Hum- 
phreys, Memoire  of  Deeeaeed  Chriatian  Miniatera,  Day- 
ton, 1880;  J.  F.  Burnett,  Origin  and  Prineiji^ea  of  the 
Chriatiana,  Dayton,  1903;  J.  J.  Summerbell,  Scripture 
Doctrine,  Dayton,  1904;  idem.  The  Chriatiana  and  the 
DiaeipUa,  Dayton,  1906. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN.    See  Mandjbans. 

CHRISTIANS   OF   ST.  THOMAS.    See    Nesto- 

RIAN8. 

CHRISTIE,  FRANCIS  ALBERT:  Unitarian;  b. 
at  Lowell,  Mass.,  Dec.  3,  1858.  He  was  educated 
at  Amherst  College  (B.A.,  1881),  and  studied  phi- 
lology at.  Johns  Hopkins  (1884-86)  and  theology  at 
the  universities  of  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and  Mar- 
burg (1889-93).  He  taught  in  the  Roxbury  Latin 
School,  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1881-84  and  was  clas- 
sical master  at  Lawrenoeville  School,  Lawrence ville, 
N.  J.,  in  1887-89.    He  was  subsequently  an  in- 


structor in  the  Harvard  Divinity  School  ( 1891-92). 
and  since  1893  has  been  professor  of  church  his- 
tory in  MeadviUe  Theological  School,  Mead  ville,  Pa. 

CHRISTLIEB,  THEODOR:  A  voluminous  theo- 
logical author;  b.  at  Birkenfeld  (27  m.  w.n.w.  of 
Stuttgart),  Wurttemberg,  Mar.  7, 1833;  d.  at  Bonn 
Aug.  15,  1889.  His  education  was  received  mainly 
at  Tilbingen,  where  he  studied  theology  under 
Tobias  Beck  and  F.  C.  Baur.  He  was  oixiained  in 
1856  as  assistant  to  his  father,  and  soon  took  charge 
of  a  church  at  Ruith  near  Stuttgart.  A  Lutheran 
by  education  and  conviction,  he  laid  more  stress 
on  honest  faith  and  real  conversion  than  on  dog- 
matic subtleties;  the  narrow  exclusiveness  of  many 
Lutherans  repelled  him,  and  he  had  close  asso- 
ciations with  numbers  of  the  Reformed,  coming 
later  to  be  among  the  supporters  of  definite  union. 
His  pastoral  duties  left  lum  time  for  literary  work, 
out  of  which  grew  his  L^)en  und  Lehre  des  Johann 
Scotus  Erigena  (Gk)tha,  1860).  From  1858  to 
1865  he  was  in  London  as  pastor  of  the  Lutheran 
German  church  of  Islington.  He  was  recalled  by 
the  king  of  Wtirttemberg  to  be  pastor  at  FrieJ- 
richshafen.  While  there  he  delivered  lectures  at 
St.  Gall  and  Winterthur,  afterward  enlarged  into 
his  second  important  work.  Modems  Zweifel  am 
christlichen  Glauben  (Bonn,  1868;  Eng.  transL, 
Edinburgh,  1874).  In  a  moderate  and  conciliator.- 
tone,  yet  not  paying  sufficient  attention  to  the 
results  of  Biblical  science,  he  attempted  to  meet 
some  of  the  principal  modem  objections  to  Chris- 
tianity, dealing  especially  with  materialism,  pan- 
theism, and  deism,  and  going  on  to  develop  a  Chris- 
tian theism,  paying  particular  attention  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  possibility  of  mii^ 
acles,  and  vigorously  opposing  the  rationalistic  con- 
ceptions of  Strauss,  Renan,  and  Baur.  In  1868 
he  was  called  to  Bonn  as  professor  of  practical 
theology  and  preacher  to  the  university,  and  here 
he  remained  until  his  death.  The  piupose  of  his 
lectures  was  rather  the  formation  of  earnest  and 
devout  pastors  than  the  display  of  scientific 
learning.  Similarly,  his  preaching,  which  had  a 
wide  influence,  was  characterized  rather  by  warm, 
earnest  pressing  home  of  the  great  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity than  by  a  seeking  after  oratorical  effect. 
His  work  extended  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  the 
university.  In  England  he  had  learned  to  know 
and  to  esteem  members  of  other  churches  than  his 
own,  and  he  worked  constantly  for  unity  of  spirit 
between  them,  without  wasting  time  in  fruitless 
efforts  for  external  imity.  He  took  part  in  the 
work  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and  attended  it^ 
conferences  in  Basel,  Copenhagen,  and  New  York, 
where  he  read  a  paper  on  The  Best  Methods  of 
Counteracting  Modem  Infidelity  (New  York,  1873), 
dealing  with  unbelief  as  it  shows  itself  in  the  indi- 
vidual, in  scientific  investigations,  and  in  the  prac- 
tise of  social  life.  In  order  to  stir  up  the  Geraian 
churches  to  more  zealous  activity,  he  delivered  a 
lecture  at  Copenhagen  in  1884  on  the  best  means  of 
counteracting  religious  indifference,  in  which,  while 
deprecating  sensational  methods  such  as  those  of 
the  Salvation  Army,  he  suggested  the  appointment, 
especially  in  large  places,  of  evangelists  who  should 


47 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Chrlatians 
Ohrlatmaa 


cany  the  Gospel  to  the  people  outside  the  church 
building,  working  in  harmony  with  the  pafitor. 
To  carry  this  idea  into  effect,  he  founded  the 
Oennan  Evangelistic  Union,  in  conjunction  with 
BernstoffiF  and  Puckler.  He  purchased  in  Bonn  a 
disused  Presbyterian  chapel  with  a  large  house  at- 
tached, and  turned  it  into  a  training-school  for 
evangelists.  After  his  death  the  institution  was 
transferred  to  Barmen,  where  there  was  thought  to 
be  a  wider  field  for  its  work.  He  was  also  an  en- 
thusiastic advocate  of  foreign  missions,  and  in 
IS74,  with  Wameck,  foimded  the  AUgemeine  Mis- 
sionszeiUckrift,  in  which  most  of  his  writings  on 
missionary  topics  first  appeared.  The  best  known 
of  these  is  Der  gegenwartige  Stand  der  evangdischen 
Heidenmistian  (Gutersloh,  1879;  Eng.  transL, 
London,  1880).  Another  of  his  numerous  works 
which  was  translated  into  English  was  his  sharp 
arraignment  of  England  for  permitting  and  even 
eDcouraging  the  opium  traffic,  Der  indobritische 
Opiumhandel  und  seine  Wirkungen  (1878;  Eng. 
tranal.,  London,  1879).  (E.  Sachsse.) 

Bxbudobapvt:  Zum  OedHdUniM  TKeodor  ChriaUiebt,  Bonn, 

1889;  Mrs.    T.    Christlieb.    TUodar   CKrUUitb  of  Bonn, 

London,  1892  (by  his  widow). 

CHRISTMAS:  The  supposed  anniversaiy  of  the 
birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  occurring  on  Dec.  25.  No 
sufficient  data,  however,  exist,  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  month  or  the  day  of  the  event.  Efforts 
to  reach  a  fixed  date  for  Zacharias's  ministration 
and  to  combine  this  with  the  **  sixth 
The  Day  of  month  "    mentioned    in    connection 

Clirist*B  with  the  annunciation  to  Mary  (Luke 
Birdi  not   i.  26)  have  given  no  assured  result. 

Known.  Hippolytus  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  to  fix  upon  Dec.  25.  He  had 
reached  the  conviction  that  Jesus's  life  from  con- 
ception to  crucifixion  was  precisely  thirty-three 
years  and  that  both  events  occurred  on  Mar.  25. 
By  calculating  nine  months  from  the  annimciation 
or  oonoeption  he  arrived  at  Dec.  25  as  the  day  of 
Christ's  birth.  The  uncertainty  of  all  the  data 
discredits  the  computation.  There  is  no  historical 
evidence  that  our  Lord's  birthday  was  celebrated 
during  the  apostolic  or  eariy  postapostolic  times. 
The  uncertainty  that  existed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  third  century  in  the  minds  of  Hippolytus  and 
others — ^Hippolytus  eariier  favored  Jan.  2,  Clement 
of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  i.  21)  "  the  25th  day  of 
Pachon"  (=May  20),  while  others,  according  to 
Clement,  fiLxed  upon  ^r.  18  or  19  and  Mar.  28 — 
proves  that  no  Christmas  festival  had  been  estab- 
lished much  before  the  middle  of  the  century. 
Jan.  6  was  earlier  fixed  upon  as  the  date  of  the 
baptism  or  spiritual  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  feast 
of  Epiphany  (q.v.)  was  celebrated  by  the  Basi- 
lidian  Gnostics  in  the  second  century  (cf.  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  ut  sup.)  and  by  catholic  Christians 
by  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century. 

The  earliest  record  of  the  recognition  of  Dec.  25 
as  a  church  festival  is  in  the  PMlocalian  Calendar 
(copied  354  but  representing  Roman  practise  in 
336;  cf.  Ruinart.  Acta  Martyrum,  p.  617;  MPL, 
xiii.;  Ligbtfoot,  The  LUberian  Calendar,  in  his 
Clement  of  Rome,  vol.  i.,  p.  246).  In  the  East 
tba  celebration  of  Jan.  6  as  the  physical  as  well 


as  the  spiritual  birthday  of  the  Lord  prevailed  gen- 
erally as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury.   Chrysostom  (in  386)  states  that 

Earliest    the  celebration  of  the  birth  of  Christ 

Traces  of    "  according  to  the  flesh  "  was  not  in- 

the  Church  augurated  at  Antioch  until  ten  years 

Festival,  before  that  date.  He  intimates  that 
this  festival,  approved  by  himself,  was 
opposed  by  many.  An  Armenian  writer  of  the 
eleventh  century  states  that  the  Christmas  festival, 
invented  in  Rome  by  a  heretic,  Artemon,  was  first 
celebrated  in  Constantinople  in  373.  In  Egypt 
the  Western  birthday  festival  was  opposed  during 
the  early  years  of  the  fifth  century,  but  was  cele- 
brated in  Alexandria  as  early  as  432.  The  Jeru- 
salem church  was  celebrating  birth  and  baptism 
on  the  same  day  (Jan.  6)  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century,  the  former  at  Bethlehem,  the  latter 
at  the  Jordan,  although  the  twenty-mile  journey 
between  involved  great  inconveniences  (supposed 
letter  of  Bishop  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  to  Bishop  Julius 
of  Rome,  preserved  in  Combefis,  Historia  hceresie 
monothelitarum).  The  Jerusalem  bishop  asks  the 
Roman  bishop  to  ascertain  the  real  date  of  Christ's 
birth  in  order  that,  if  possible,  the  practical  diffi- 
culty may  be  overcome.  Julius  is  represented  as 
sending  to  Cyril  a  calculation  in  favor  of  Dec.  25, 
based  upon  the  supposition  (derived  from  Josephus) 
that  Zacharias's  vision  took  place  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles.  The  Jerusalem  church,  however, 
persisted  till  549  or  later  in  celebrating  birth  and 
baptism  on  Jan.  6  (Cosmas  Indicopleustes).  The 
Christmas  festival  has  never  been  adopted  by  the 
Armenians,  the  physical  and  spiritual  birthdays 
being  still  celebrated  conjointly  on  Jan.  6. 

The  wide-spread  conviction  during  the  early 
centuries  that  the  baptism  of  Jesus  was  the  occa- 
sion of    his    spiritual    birth,  or    his 

Relation  adoption  as  Son  of  God  and  his  exal- 
to  the  tation  to  divine  rank  and  power, 
Epiphany,  tended  to  magnify  the  anniversary  of 
his  baptism  and  to  cause  comparar 
tive  indifference  as  regards  the  precise  date  of  his 
birth  according  to  the  flesh.  In  two  Latin  homi- 
lies, ascribed  by  some  to  Ambrose  of  Milan  (4th 
cent.)  and  by  others  to  Maximus  of  Turin  (5th 
cent.),  Jan.  6  is  declared  to  be  the  birthday  of  the 
Lord  Jesus,  "  whether  he  was  bom  of  the  Virgin  on 
that  day  or  was  bom  again  in  baptism."  It  is  his 
"  natal  feast,"  his  "  nativity  both  of  flesh  and  of 
spirit."  As  thirty  years  before  he  "was  given 
forth  through  the  Virgin,"  so  on  the  same  day  he 
was  "  regenerated  "  and  "  sanctified  "  "  through 
the  mystery."  The  writer,  or  an  interpolator, 
virtually  contradicts  the  statement  about  Christ's 
regeneration  by  explaining  that  "  Christ  is  bap- 
tized, not  in  order  that  he  may  be  sanctified  by 
the  waters,  but  that  he  may  himself  sanctify  the 
waters." 

The  naive  adoptionism  that  was  so  widely  prev- 
alent till  the  end  of  the  second  century  in  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  Italy,  northern  Africa,  and  elsewhere, 
and  for  centuries  later  in  Armenia,  Spain,  etc.,  was 
gradually  displaced  by  the  formulation  and  gen- 
eral acceptance  of  a  christology  (based  upon  the 
prologue  of  John's  Gospel  and  the  Epistles  of  Paul) 


Ohriatmas 
OhrlstolocT 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


48 


which  laid  stress  upon  the  preexistenoe  of  Christ  as 
the  eternal  divine  Logos  and  of  the  absolute  deity 
of  Jesus  Christ  from  the  time  of  his  conception. 
The  physical  birth  assumed  more  and  more  im- 
portance in  the  Christian  consciousness.  The 
celebration  of  Christmas  as  a  special  Christian 
festival  spread  rapidly  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  onward  in  sympathy  with  the  triumph  of 
the  orthodox  christology. 

How  much  the  calculation  of  Hippolytus  had  to 

do  with  the  fixing  of  the  festival  on  Dec.  25,  and 

how  much  the  date  of  the  festival  depended  upon 

the  pagan  Brumalia  (Dec.  25),  foUow- 

Relation  ing  the  Saturnalia  (Dec.  17-24)  and 
to  the       celebrating  the  shortest  day  in  the 

Roman  year  and  the  "  new  sun  "  or  the  begin- 
Saturnalia,  ning  of  the  lengthening  of  days,  can 
not  be  accurately  determined.  The 
pagan  Saturnalia  and  Brumalia  were  too  deeply 
entrenched  in  popular  custom  to  be  set  aside  by 
Christian  influence.  The  recognition  of  Sunday 
(the  day  of  Phoebus  and  Mithras  as  well  as  the 
Lord's  Day)  by  the  emperor  Constantine  as  a  legal 
holiday,  along  with  the  influence  of  Manicheism, 
which  identified  the  Son  of  God  with  the  physical 
Sim,  may  have  led  Christians  of  the  fourth  century 
to  feel  the  appropriateness  of  making  the  birthday 
of  the  Son  of  God  coincide  with  that  of  the  physical 
sun.  The  pagan  festival  with  its  riot  and  merry- 
making was  so  popular  that  Christians  were  glad 
of  an  excuse  to  continue  its  celebration  with  little 
change  in  spirit  or  in  manner.  Christian  preachers 
of  the  West  and  the  Nearer  East  protested  against 
the  unseemly  frivolity  with  which  Christ's  birthday 
was  celebrated,  while  Christians  of  Mesopotamia 
accused  their  Western  brethren  of  idolatry  and 
sim-worship  for  adopting  as  Christian  this  pagan 
festival.  Yet  the  festival  rapidly  gained  accept- 
ance and  became  at  last  so  firmly  established  that 
even  the  Protestant  revolution  of  the  sixteenth 
century  was  not  able  to  dislodge  it  and  Evangelical 
Christians  even  of  the  more  radical  types,  who  reject 
or  Ignore  nearly  all  of  the  ecclesiastical  festivals, 
have  never  been  able  wholly  to  ignore  it. 

The  religious  significance  of  Christmas  has  been 
too  commonly  minimized  among  Christians,  the  day 
among  adults  being  degraded  into  one  merely  for 
the  exchange  of  presents,  often  neither  given  nor 
received  in  any  affection,  but  out  of  a  sense  of  ob- 
ligation or  as  barter.  In  too  many  homes  the  chil- 
dren, whose  day  it  more  particularly  is,  are  not 
taught  to  link  their  menymaking  on  Christmas 
with  the  gift  of  God  to  the  world  in  the  person  of 
his  Son  Jesus  Christ.  Although  some  of  our  denom- 
inations hold  service  on  that  day,  the  vast  majority 
of  Protestants  do  not  attend,  and  most  of  our 
denominations  keep  their  churches  closed.  But  as 
it  is  unquestioned  that  the  Christian  Church  was 
foimded  by  Jesus  Christ,  it  will  be  well  to  celebrate 
the  event  of  his  birth,  if  not  on  Christmas  day,  then 
on  some  other  day.  The  old  gospel  story  of  the 
Nativity  was  formerly  taken  literally  and  has  in- 
spired many  beautiful  hymns  and  been  the  sugges- 
tion of  many  legends  and  elaborate  festivities.  By 
design,  on  Christmas  many  important  events  have 


taken  place,  as  the  crowning  of  Charlemagne  as 
Holy  Roman  Eknperor  (800),  and  William  as  King 
of  England  (1066).  A.  H.  Newman. 

Biblxoorapht:  E.  Mart^ne,  !>•  anHquU  eedmia  ritOfua,  m. 
31  sqq.,  Venioe,  1783;  A.  J.  Binterim,  DenkwOrdiffkeUa^ 
V.  1,  pp.  628  sqq..  Mains.  1829;  J.  C.  W.  Augusti.  Hand- 
frucA  <Ur  chrUUiehen  ArdUt^ogiet  3  voLb.,  Leipaie,  183&- 
1837;  J.  P.  Thompflon,  Chriatnuu  and  the  SaiumaUa,  in 
BibliotUea  Sacra,  zii  (1866),  144  aqq.;  P.  Cmaml  Weik- 
naditan;  UnprHno^t  BrOucke  und  Aberglauben,  Berlin, 
1862;  J.  Marbach,  Dis  heUioe  WeUmachtgfeier,  Frank- 
fort. 1866;  A.  H.  Grant,  The  Chtardt  Seaaona,  New  York. 
1881;  J.  H.  Hobart.  FuUvala  and  Feaata,  London.  1887; 
T.  K.  Henrey,  The  Book  of  CknatmoB:  demripUve  of  tKe 
Ctutoma,  CeremoniMt  TradiHona,  SuperaHtUma,  Fun, 
Feelino,  FaaHvUiaa  of  the  Chriaimaa  Seaaon,  London. 
1841.  New  York,  1888;  H.  Uaener,  Reliffionaoeaehiehtr 
licKa  Unieraudiunffen,  vol.  i.,  Bonn,  1889;  P.  de  Lacarde. 
MiUKeilunoen,  iv.  241-323.  Gdttincen.  1891;  F.  C.  Cony- 
beare.  Hiat.  of  Chriatnuu,  in  AJT,  iii  (1899).  1-21;  idem. 
The  Key  of  Truth,  Introduction.  Oxford,  1898;  H.  Thurs- 
ton, in  American  Eodeaiaatieal  Review,  Dec.,  1808;  A. 
Tille,  YuU  and  Chriatmaa,  London.  1899;  H.  Ans. 
Die  lateiniachen  Magierapiel.  Unieraudmngen  und  Tezte 
aur  VoroeBchichte  dea  .  .  .  Weihnachtaapiela,  Leipsio,  1907; 
R.  H.  Sohauffler,  Chriatmaa,  ita  Origin,  CelehraHon  and 
Signifieanea,  New  York,  1907;  Bingham,  Originea, 
XX.  iv.  (investigation  of  aouroea);  DC  A,  i.  367-364; 
DCG,  i.  261-262. 

CHRISTO  SACRUM  ("Sacred  to  Christ"):  The 
name  of  a  religious  society  organized  in  1792,  at 
Delft  in  Holland,  by  certain  well-educated  jroung 
men  belonging  to  the  Walloon  deacons'  confrater- 
nity. Its  purpose  was  the  defense  of  the  Christian 
faith  against  deistic  and  Voltairean  tendencies, 
and  the  promotion  of  universal  Christian  love,  inde- 
pendent of  ecclesiastical  affiliations.  Though  it 
disregarded  separate  creeds,  it  had  a  creed  of  its 
own,  expressing  its  own  minimum  of  belief;  it 
recognized  as  brothers  "  all  who  honestly  believe 
that  all  men  are  sinful  and  corrupt;  that  God 
requires  the  punishment  of  sin;  that  Jesus  Christ 
came  as  a  mediator  to  take  this  punishment  upon 
himself,  which  he  alone,  being  both  God  and  man, 
could  do;  that  those  who  believe  in  him  and  in  his 
satisfaction,  and  penitently  invoke  his  intercession, 
are  immediately  saved;  and  that  through  his  as- 
cension the  Holy  Spirit  operates  faith  and  con- 
version in  them."  The  society  grew  by  the  acces- 
sion of  members  of  various  churches,  until  a  special 
meeting-place  was  needed,  which  was  dedicated  by 
Canzius,  one  of  the  principal  founders,  in  1802. 
The  services  were  more  like  Lutheran  or  Anglican 
worship  than  Reformed,  and  everything  was  done 
to  enhance  the  solemnity  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  original  intention  was  to  have  the  members 
retain  their  former  church  connections;  but  when 
the  society  was  condemned  by  the  Walloon  and 
Reformed  authorities,  it  gradually  took  shape  as  a 
separate  sect.  It  numbered  as  many  as  117  mem- 
bers under  Canzius,  but  when  in  1810  he  removed 
to  Leyden  it  gradually  fell  off,  maintaining  a  pre- 
carious existence  imtil  1836,  when  the  building 
was   closed.  (J.  A.  Gerth  van  Wuk.) 

Bibliographt:  Kalender  voor  de  Proteatanten  in  Naderland, 
vii  (1862),  196-266;  H.  Gr^Koire,  Hiattrire  dea  aeetea  re- 
ligieuaea,  v.  331,  6  vols..  Paris,  1828-46;  B.  Glamus,  Ge- 
achiedenia  der  chriatdij'ke  kerk  en  godadienal  in  Nederland, 
iii.  376-380,  Amsterdam,  1844;  J.  Reitsma,  QtaOiiedenia 
der  Hervorming  en  hervormde  hark  in  Naderland,  p.  347, 
Groningen,  1893. 


49 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohristmaa 
Ohristoloffj 


CHRIST0L06T. 


L  The  Biblical  Chratolosy. 

1.  The  Old  Testament  Christology. 

2.  The  New  Testament  Christolocy.  VI. 
Christ  the  Ideal  Man  (|  1).  1. 
Yet  abo  God  (|  2).                                         2. 

II.  The  Ante-Nicene  Christolosy. 
1.  The  Early  Simple  Faith. 
Heresies  (fl). 

Hie  Church  Doctrine  (fi  2).  VII. 

The  DiTinity  of  Christ  Consistently 
Held  (I  3).  VIII. 

1  TheoloKical  Speculations. 
Jmtin  Martyr  (|  1).  1. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  (|  2).  2. 

Origen  (f  3). 

Irenctts  (|  4).  3. 

Tcrtnilian  (|  6).  IX. 

DioDysius  of  Rome  (I  6). 
m.  The  Nieene  Christolosy.  X. 

I?.  The  Chaloedonian  Christology.  1 . 

An  Answer  to  Heresies  (|  1). 
The  Chaloedonian  Statement  (|  2).  2. 

V.  The  Poet-Chaloedonian  Christology.  3. 

MoDophysitiBm  (f  1). 
Monothelitism  (|  2). 
Adoptionism  (|  3). 

Christology  is  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek 
after  the  analogy  of  "  theology  "  (q.v.).  It  em- 
braces the  doctrine  of  Christ's  person;  while  so- 
teriology  is  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  work  (the  doc- 
trine of  salvation).  The  word  was  used  by  the 
En^sh  theologians  in  the  seventeenth  century  * 
azKl  during  the  nineteenth  was  reintroduced 
from  Germany.  Christology  is  based  upon  the 
life  and  testimony  of  Christ,  as  represented 
historically  in  the  Gospds.  and  as  reflected 
doctrinally  and  experimentally  in  the  Acts  and 
Epistles.  It  treats  of  the  mystery  of  the  in- 
eamation  as  a  problem  of  personality,  viz., 
(1)  the  humanity,  (2)  the  divinity  of  our  Lord, 
and  (3)  their  relation  to  each  other  in  his  one  per- 
son. This  divine-human  personality  forms  the 
basis  of  his  work,  which  is  the  redemption,  recon-* 
ciliation,  and  reum'on  of  man  with  God.  It  is 
the  central  doctrine  of  Christianity,  was  the  one 
article  of  St.  Peter's  creed  (Matt.  xvi.  16),  and  forms 
the  heart  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.  The  leading 
evangelical  theologians  of  Europe  and  America 
have  come  to  agree  more  and  more  in  this  estimate 
of  its  importance;  and  the  ever-increasing  number 
of  lives  of  Christ  and  works  on  his  incarnation  and 
work  strengthens  the  christocentric  character  of 
modem  theology.  Yet  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
emphasise  the  incarnation  at  the  expense  of  the 
equally  important  doctrines  of  atonement  by 
Christ's  death,  and  regeneration  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  (see  ATomsuENr;  Regeneration). 

*Dr.  Thomaa  Jackson  (1505-1640)  defined  it  correctly  as 
"  that  part  of  divinity  which  displays  the  great  mystery  of 
fodliiMM — God  mmniStsied  in  the  human  flesh."  John 
Oven  used  the  term  in  his  XptvroAoytA,  or  a  DedanUion 
0f  Af  GloriPU»  Mytery  of  Ok*  PerMtm  of  Chritt^  Ood  and 
if oa  (London.  1679),  and  Robert  Fleming,  jun.,  a  Scotch 
dirine  (d.  1716).  wn>te  a  ChrivUAogy  (3  vols.,  London,  1705- 
1706).  Some  French  writers  also  use  it.  Lichtenberger 
'-Ef^r/dopfdie,  iii.  129)  defines  it  correctly:  "On  oomprend 
•nn»  ce  nom  "  (Christologiel  "  Tensemble  des  doctrines  tou- 
f  haat  la  personne  de  J^sus-Christ  dans  ses  rapports  avec  Dieu 
"t  avee  lliumanit^,  telles  qu'elles  sont  oontenues  dans  le 
.VoMMOtt  TeUameni  ct  telles  qu'elles  ont  €t&  d^velopp^es 
iMtiM  le  eoum  dee  nicies,  au  sein  de  I'^glise  chrdtienne." 
Ill.^l 


The  Medieval  Church  (|  4). 

The  Ecumenical  Christology. 

Its  I  leading  Ideas. 

Criticism. 

Favorable  Opinions  (I  1). 

Objections  and  Criticisms  (1 2). 

Real  Value  (|  3). 

The  Orthodox  Protestant  Chris- 
tology. 

The  Scholastic  Lutheran  Chris- 
tology. 

The  Communicatio  Idiomatum. 

The  Doctrine  of  the  Twofold  State 
of  Christ. 

The  Threefold  Office  of  Christ. 

The  Kenosis  Controversy  Be- 
tween Giessen  and  TQbingen. 

Modem  Christologies. 

The  Humanitarian  or  Unitarian 
Christology. 

The  Pantheistic  Christology. 

The  Christology  of  Schleiermaoher 
and  His  School. 

Schleiermacher  (§1). 


tJlImann  (I  2). 

Rothe  (I  3). 

Horace  Buahnell  (|  4). 

4.  The  Modem  Kenotio  Ilieory. 
General  Outline  (|  1). 
Gess  (§  2). 
Martensen  (fi  3). 
Kahniw  and  Lange  (|  4). 
Julius  MQller  (fi  6). 
Goodwin  and  Crosby  (|  6). 
Criticism  (fi  7). 

5.  The  Ritschlian  Theory. 
The  Theory  State^  (f  1). 
Its  Merit  and  Limitation  (§  2). 

6.  The  Theory  of  a  Gradual  or  Pro- 
gressive Incarnation. 

The  Theory  (f  1). 
Its  Merits  (I  2). 

7.  Conclusion. 
Elements  of  Truth  in  All  Theories 

(M). 
The  Mystery  of  Christ  (|  2). 
Limits  of  This  Article  (fi  3). 
XI.  Additional  Note. 
Preezistence  (§  1). 
Incarnation  (|  2). 

L  The  Biblical  Christology:  ThiB  embraces  (1) 
the  Messianic  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament; 
and  (2)  the  christology  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  includes  (a)  the  testimony  of  Christ  in  the 
Gospels;  and  (b)  the  christology  of  the  apostles — 
James,  Peter,  Paul  (including  the  christology  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews),  and  John  (including  the 
Apocalypse).  Christ  is  the  heart  of  the  Scriptures 
and  the  key  to  their  spiritual  understanding. 

1.  The  Old  Testament  Chriatoloflry :  The  Old 
Testament  is  the  preparation  for  the  New.  The 
soul  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  promise  of  the 
Messiah,  which  began  in  Paradise  with  the  prot- 
evangelium  of  the  serpent-bruiser,  and  culminated 
in  the  testimony  of  John  the  Baptist,  pointing  to 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  ta- 
keth  away  the  sin  of  the  world.   See  Messiah,  Mes- 

SIANISM. 

8.  The  New  Testament  Ohriatoloflry :  It  is  the 
unanimous  teaching  of  the  New  Testament  writings 
that  Christ  combines  in  a  most  real  though  mys- 
terious way  the  double  character  of  a  unique  divine 
sonship  and  a  unique  sinless  manhood  in  one  har- 
monious personality;  and  that  by  this  very  con- 
stitution of  his  person  he  is  qualified  to  be  the  Lord 
and  Savior  of  the  human  race,  and  the  only  Media- 
tor between  God  and  man.  He  represents  at  once 
the  nearest  approach  which  God  can  make  to  man, 
and  the  nearest  approach  which  man  can  make  to 
God.  The  orthodox  christology,  handed  down 
from  the  early  Church,  is  an  attempt  to  formu- 
late this  ''  mystery  of  godliness"  in  definite  state- 
ments and  to  guard  it  against  error;  but  every  age 
must  grapple  anew  with  this  problem  of  problems, 
and  make  it  alive  and  fruitful  for  its  own  intel- 
lectual and  spiritual  benefit. 

Christ  strongly  asserts  his  humanity,  and  calls 
himself  about  eighty  times  in  the  Gospels  **  the  Son 
of  Man"  (q-v.);  not  a  son  of  man  among  other  de- 
scendants of  Adam,  but  the  Son  of  Man  emphat- 
ically as  the  representative  of  the  whole  race.  He  is 
thus  interpreted  by  the  apostles  to  be  the  second 
Adam,  descended  from  heaven  (cf.  Rom.  v.  and 


ChristoloffF 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


50 


I  Cor.  XV.);  the  ideal,  the  perfect,  the  absolute  man, 
the  head  of  a  new  race,  the  king  of  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles, the  model  man  for  universal 
1.  Ohriat  imitation.  While  putting  himself  on  a 
the  par  with  us  as  man,  he  claims  at  the 
Ideal  Kaa.  same  time,  as  the  Son  of  Man,  superi- 
ority over  all,  and  freedom  from  sin, 
and  thus  stands  solitary  and  alone  as  the  one  and 
only  spotless  human  being  in  the  midst  of  a  fallen 
race,  as  an  oasis  of  living  water  and  fresh  verdure, 
surrounded  by  a  barren  desert.  He  nowhere  con- 
fesses sin,  betrays  a  consciousness  of  sm,  or  asks 
pardon  for  sin;  and  this  was  not  because  he  did  not 
feel  the  evil  of  sin,  for  he  pardoned  sin  and  con- 
demned sins  in  the  severest  terms.  He  alone 
needed  no  repentance,  no  conversion,  no  regenera- 
tion, no  pardon.  This  sinlesHneHs  of  Christ  is  the 
great  moral  miracle  of  histoiy  which  underlies  all 
his  miraculous  works,  and  explains  them  as  natural 
manifestations  of  his  miraculous  person. 

On  the  other  hand,  Christ  as  emphatically  as- 
serts his  divinity,  and  calls  himself  not  simply  a 
son  of  God  among  other  children  of  God  by  adop- 
tion, but ''  the  Son  of  God"  (q.v.)  above  all  others, 
in  a  peculiar  sense;  the  Son  by  nature;  the  Son  from 
eternity;  the  Son  who  alone  knows  the  Father, 
who  reveals  the  Father  to  us,  who  calls  him,  not 
**  our  "  Father  (as  we  are  directed  to  pray),  but 
"my"  Father.  He  is,  as  his  favorite  disciple 
calls  him,  the  "only-begotten  Son"  (according 
to  some  of  the  oldest  manuscripts,  "  the  only-be- 
gotten God,"  Gk.  theoa))  or,  as  the  Nicene  theology 
expresses  it,  "eternally  begotten  of  the  essence 
(Gk.  ousxa)  of  the  Father."  He  is  thus  represented 
by  himself;  and  the  representation  which  he  makes 
of  hunself  was  affirmed  by  the  apostles.  Paul 
never  calls  him  "  the  son  of  man,"  but  frequently 
"  the  son  of  God  "  ("  God's  own  son,"  Rom.  viii. 
3,  32,  etc.).  To  the  apostles  Christ  was  a  divine- 
himian  being,  truly  God  and  truly 
8.  Tet  man  in  one  person;  and  his  words 
also  Ood.  and  acts  and  sufferings  have  a  corre- 
sponding character  and  effect.  Hence 
he  puts  forth  claims  which  in  the  mouth  of  eveiy 
other  man,  no  matter  how  wise  and  how  good, 
would  sound  like  blasphemy  or  lunacy,  but  which 
from  his  lips  appear  as  natural  as  the  rays  of  light 
emanating  from  the  sun.  He  represents  himself  con- 
stantly as  being  sent  from  God,  or  as  having  come 
directly  from  God,  to  teach  this  world  what  he  had 
not  learned  from  any  school  or  book.  He  calls 
himself  the  Light  of  the  Worid,  the  Way,  the  Truth, 
and  the  Life;  he  invites  all  men  to  come  to  him, 
that  they  may  find  rest  and  peace;  he  claims  the 
power  to  forgive  sins,  and  to  raise  the  dead;  he 
says,  "  I  am  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life,"  and 
he  promises  eternal  life  to  eveiy  one  that  beheveth 
in  him.  Even  in  the  moment  of  his  deepest  humil- 
iation, he  proclaimed  himself  the  King  of  truth, 
and  the  Ruler  and  Judge  of  mankind.  His  king- 
dom is  to  be  coextensive  with  the  race,  and  ever- 
lasting as  eternity  itself.  And  with  this  conscious- 
ness he  sent  forth  his  disciples  to  proclaim  the  gospel 
of  salvation  to  every  creature,  forewarning  them  of 
persecution  and  pledging  them  his  presence  to  the 
end  of  the  world,  and  a  crown  of  glory  in  heaven. 


He  coordinates  himself  in  the  baptismal  formula 
with  the  Eternal  Father  and  the  Eternal  Spirit,  and 
allows  himself  to  be  worshiped  by  the  skeptical 
Thomas  as  his  "  Lord  "  and  his  "  God." 

This  central  truth  of  Christ's  divine-human 
person  and  work  is  set  forth  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings,  not  as  a  logically  formulated  dogma, 
but  as  a  living  fact  and  ^orious  truth,  as  an  object 
of  faith,  a  source  of  comfort,  and  a  stimulus  to  a 
holy  life,  in  humble  imitation  of  his  perfect  example. 
The  simple  narrative  of  the  Gospels  is  far  more  pow- 
erful for  the  general  benefit  of  mankind  than  all  the 
systems  of  theology.  But  the  mind  of  the  Church 
must  meditate,  and  tiy  to  grasp  this  truth;  and 
the  New  Testament  itself  furnishes  ever  new  impulse 
and  food  for  theological  speculation.  The  formu- 
lated statement  of  christology  begins  as  early  as 
Paul  and  John. 

n.  The  Ante-Hicene  Christology,  from  100  a.d. 
to  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  325. — 1.  The  Barly  Simple 
Faith:  The  ecclesiastical  development  of  the  fun- 
damental dogma  started  from  Peter's  confession 
of  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  (Matt.  xvi.  16),  and 
from  John's  doctrine  of  the  incarnate  Logos  (John 
i.  14).  It  was  stimulated  by  two  opposite  here- 
sies— ^Elbionism  and  Gnosticism;  the  one  essen- 
tially Jewish,  the  other  essentially  heathen;  the 
one  affirming  the  humanity  of  Christ  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  his  divinity,  the  other  running  into  the 
opposite  error  by  resolving  his  himianity  into  a 
delusive  show  (Gk.  dokisU,  pkantasma; 
1.  Hexeaiea.  see  Docetibm);  both  agreeing  in  the 
denial  of  the  incarnation,  or  the  real 
and  abiding  'union  of  the  divine  and  human  in  the 
person  of  our  Lord.  There  also  arose  in  the  second 
and  third  centuries  two  forms  of  Unitarianism  or 
Monarchianiam:  (1)  The  Rationalistic  or  Dynamic 
Unitarianism — ^represented  by  the  Alogi,  Theodotus, 
Artemon,  and  Paul  of  Samosata — ^which  either  de- 
nied the  divinity  of  Christ  altogether,  or  resolved 
it  into  a  mere  power  (Gk.  djfnamia),  althou^  its 
representatives  generally  admitted  bJs  supernatural 
generation  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  (2)  The  Patripas- 
sian  and  Sabellian  Unitarianism,  which  maintained 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  but  merged  it  into  the  es- 
sence of  the  Father,  and  so  denied  the  independent, 
preexistent  personality  of  Christ.  So  Praxeas, 
No^tus,  Callistus  (Pope  Calixtus  I.),  Beiyllus  of 
Bostra,  and  Sabellius.  See  the  articles  on  the  here- 
sies named  and  their  representatives. 

In  antagonism   to   these  heresies,   the  Church 

taught  the  full  divinity  of  Christ  (against  Elbion- 

ism  and  rationalistic  Monarchianism), 

Ch  h  ^^  ^^^  humanity  (against  Gnosticism 
Doctrine.  ^^^  Manicheism),  and  his  independent 
personality  (against  Patripassianism 
and  Sabelliamsm).  The  dogma  was  developed  in 
close  connection  with  the  dogma  of  the  TVinity, 
which  resulted,  by  logical  necessity,  from  the  deity 
of  Christ  and  the  deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the 
basis  of  the  fundamental  truth  of  Monotheism. 

The  ante-Nicene  christology  passed  through 
many  obstructions,  loose  statements,  uncertain 
conjectures  and  speculations;  but  the  instinct 
and  main  current  of  the  Church  was  steadily 
toward  the  Nicene  and  Chalcedonian  creed-state- 


51 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohristolonr 


meats,  especially  if  the  worship  and  devotional 
life  as  well  as  the  theological  literature  be  con- 
sidered.    Christ   was    the    object   of 
«.Jj^7*^  worship,  prayer,  and  praise  from  the 
Ohxist^n-  ^^'y  beginning,  as  must  be  inferred 
fliftantly'  ^'^^  such  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
Held,      ment  as  John  xx.  28;  Acts  vii.  59,  60, 
ix.  14,  21;    I  Cor.  i.  2;    Phil.  ii.  10; 
Heb.  i.  6;  I  John  v.  13-15;   Rev.  v.  6-13;   from 
the  heathen  testimony  of  Pliny  the  Younger  con- 
cerning the  aiaging  of  hymns  to  Christ  as  God 
("  Carmen  Ckrisio  quasi  Deo  dicere"  Epist,  x.  97); 
from  the  "  Gloria  in  Excelsis,"  which  was  the 
daily  morning  hymn  of  the  Eastern  Church  as  early 
as  the  second  century;    from  the  "  Tersanctus "; 
from  the  Hymn  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  to  the 
divine  Logos  {Padaffogus,  ill.  12);   from  the  state- 
ments of  Origen   {Contra  Cdsumf   viii.   67)   and 
Eusebius  {Hist,  ecd.,  v.  28);  and  from  many  other 
testimonies.     Christ  was  believed  to  be  divine,  and 
adored  as  divine,  before  he  was  clearly  taught  to 
be  divine.    The  ante-Nicene  rules  of  faith  as  they 
are  found  in    the  writings    of    Iren£eus,   Origen, 
Tertullian,  Cyprian,  etc.,  are    in  essential  agree- 
ment among  themselves  and  with  the    Apostles' 
Creed,  as  it  appears,  first  in  the  fourth  century, 
especially  at  Rome  and  AquUeia.     (Cf .  Rufinus,  De 
t^mbolo.)    They    all    confess    the    divine-human 
character  of  Christ  as  the  chief  object  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  but  in  the  form  of  facts,  and  in  simple, 
popular  style,  not  in  the  form  of  doctrinal  or  logical 
statement.     The  Nicene  Creed  is  much  more  ex- 
plicit and  dogmatic  in  consequence  of  the  preceding 
contest  with  heresy;  but  the  substance  of  the  faith 
is  the  same  in  the  Nicene  and  Apostles'  Creeds. 
(For  these  Ante-Nicene  Rules  of  Faith,  cf .  Schaff , 
Crteds,  ii.  11-45.) 

2.  TheolofficMtl  Speoolations:  In  the  apostolic 
Fathere  only  simple  practical,  BibUcal  statements 
are  found,  with  reminiscences  of  apostolic  preach- 
ing for  the  puiposes  of  edification.  Ignatius  of 
Antioch  calls  Christ  God  without  qualification 
{Ad  Ephes.,  vii.  18;  cf.  Ad  Rom,,  vi.).  Polycarp 
calls  him  "the  eternal  Son  of  God  "  {Ad  Phil,  ii.  8), 
and  associates  him  in  his  last  prayer  with  the  Father 
and  the  Spirit  {Martyrium  Polycarpi,  xiv.).  The 
theological  speculation  on  the  person  of  Christ 
began  with  Justin  Martyr,  and  was  carried  on  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen,  in  the  East; 
by  Irensus,  Hippolytus,  and  Tertullian,  in  the 
West. 

Justin  lfart3rr  (d.  166)  takes  up  the  Johannean 
Logos  idea,  which  proved  a  veiy  fruitful  germ 
of  theologiod  speculation.     It  was  prepared  by  the 
Old  Testament  personification  of  the  word  and 
wisdom  of  God,  assumed  an  idealistic  shape  in 
Philo  of  Alexandria,  and  reached  a  realistic  com- 
pletion in  St.  John,  although  it  is  not 
1.  Jnstin    lilcely  that  John's  had  anything  more 
Xartyr.      in  common  with  Philo's  idea  than  the 
name  "  Logos."  Following  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  double  meaning  of  the  Greek  logos  (ratio 
and  oraiio),  Justin  distinguishes  in  the  Logos  two 
i^lf'tnents — the  immanent  and  the  transitive;    the 
Revelation   of   God    ad  intra,   and   the  revelation 
ad  extra.     He  teaches  the  procession  of  the  Logos 


from  the  free  will  (not  the  essence)  of  God  by  gen- 
eration, without  division  or  diminution  of  the  divine 
substance.  This  begotten  Logos  he  conceives  as  a 
hypostatical  being,  a  person  distinct  from  the 
Father,  and  subordinate  to  him.  He  coordinates 
God,  the  Son,  and  the  prophetic  Spirit,  as  objects 
of  Christian  worship  {Apol.,  i.  6).  Peculiar  is  his 
doctrine  of  the  logos  spermaiikos,  the  ''  seminal 
Logos,"  or  the  Word  disseminated  among  men, 
i.e.,  Christ  before  the  incarnation,  who  scattered 
elements  of  truth  and  virtue  among  the  heathen 
philosophers  and  poets,  although  they  did  not 
know  it. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  (d.  220)  sees  in  the  Logos 

the  ultimate  principle  of  all  existence   (without 

beginning,  and  timeless),  the  revealer 

2.  Clement  of  the  Father,  the  sum  of  all  intelli- 

of  Alex-    gence  and  wisdom,  the  personal  truth, 

andria.  the  author  of  the  world,  the  source  of 
light  and  life,  the  educator  of  the 
race,  who  at  last  became  man  to  make  us  par- 
taken) of  his  divine  nature.  Like  some  other 
ante-Nicene  Fathers  (Justin  Martjrr,  Tertullian, 
and  Origen),  he  conceived  the  outward  appear- 
ance of  Christ's  humanity  in  the  state  of  humilia- 
tion to  have  been  literally  without  form  or  come- 
liness (Isa.  liii.  2,  3);  but  he  had  made  a  distinction 
between  two  kinds  of  beauty — the  outward  beauty 
of  the  flesh,  which  soon  fades  away;  and  the  moral 
beauty  of  the  soul,  which  is  permanent,  and  shone 
even  through  the  servant  form  of  our  Lord  {PtBdor 
gogus,  iii.  1). 

Origen  (d.  254)  felt  the  whole  weight  of  the 
christological  problem,  but  obscured  it  by  foreign 
speculations,  and  prepared  the  way  both  for  the 
Arian  heresy  and  the  Athanasian  orthodoxy, 
though  more  fully  for  the  latter.  On  the  one 
band  he  closely  approaches  the  Nicene  homo- 
ousion  by  bringing  the  Son  into  imion  with  the 
essence  of  the  Father,  and  ascribing  to  him  the 
attribute  of  eternity.  He  is,  properly, 
8.  Oriffen.  the  author  of  the  Nicene  doctrine  of 
eternal  generation  of  the  Son  from  the 
essence  of  the  Father  (though  he  usually  represents 
the  generation  as  an  act  of  the  will  of  the  Father). 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  teaches  subordinationism 
by  calling  the  Son  simply  "  God,"  and  "  a  second 
God,"  but  not  "the  God"  {ho  theos  or  aiUos  theos). 
In  his  views  on  the  humanity  of  Christ,  he  ap- 
proached the  semi-Gnostic  Docetism,and  ascribed 
to  the  glorified  body  of  Christ  ubiquity  (in  which 
he  was  followed  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa).  His  ene- 
mies charged  him  with  teaching  a  double  Christ 
(answering  to  the  lower  Jesus,  and  the  higher  Sotir 
of  the  Gnostics),  and  a  merely  temporary  validity 
of  the  body  of  the  Redeemer.  As  to  the  relation 
of  the  two  natures  in  Christ,  he  was  the  first  to  use 
the  term  "  God-man  "  and  to  apply  the  favorite 
illustration  of  fire  heating  and  penetrating  the 
iron,  without  altering  its  character. 

The  Western  Church  was  not  so  fruitful  in 
speculation,  but,  upon  the  whole,  soimder  and 
more  self-consistent.  The  key-note  was  struck  by 
Iremeus  (d.  202),  who,  though  of  Eastern  origin, 
spent  his  active  life  in  the  south  of  France.  He 
carries  special  weight  as  a  pupil  of  Polycarp  of 


Chriatoloffy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


52 


Sm3rma,  and  through  him  a  grand-pupil  of  8t. 
John,  the  inspired  master.  He  likewise  uses  the 
terms  "  Logos  "  and  "  Son  of  God  '*'  interchange- 
ably, and  concedes  the  distinction,  made  also  by 
the  Valentinians,  between  the  inward  and  the 
uttered  word,  in  reference  to  man;  but  contests  the 

application  of  it  to  God,  who  is  above 
4.  IrensBus.  all  antitheses,  absolutely  simple   and 

unchangeable,  and  in  whom  before 
and  after,  thinking  and  speaking,  coincide.  He 
repudiates  also  speculative  or  a  priori  attempts  to 
explain  the  derivation  of  the  Son  from  the  Father. 
This  he  holds  to  be  an  incomprehensible  mystery. 
He  is  content  to  define  the  actual  distinction  be- 
tween Father  and  Son  by  saying  that  the  former  is 
God  revealing  himself;  the  latter,  God  revealed. 
The  one  is  the  ground  of  revelation;  the  other  is  the 
actual,  appearing  revelation  itself.  Hence  he 
calls  the  Father  "  the  invisible  of  the  Son  ";  and 
the  Son,  "  the  visible  of  the  Father."  He  dis- 
criminates most  rigidly  the  conceptions  of  genera- 
tion and  of  creation.  The  Son,  though  begotten 
of  the  Father,  is  still,  like  him,  distinguished  from 
the  created  world  as  increate — ^without  beginning, 
and  eternal;  all  plainly  showing  that  Irenseus  is 
much  nearer  the  Nicene  dogma  of  the  essential 
identity  of  the  Son  with  the  Father  than  Justin 
Martyr  and  the  Alexandrians.  When,  as  he  does 
in  several  passages,  he  still  subordinates  the  Son  to 
the  Father,  he  is  certainly  inconsistent,  and  that 
for  want  of  an  accurate  distinction  between  the 
eternal  Logos  and  the  incarnate  Christ.  Expres- 
sions like  "  My  Father  is  greater  than  I,"  which 
apply  only  to  the  Christ  of  history,  in  the  state  of 
humiliation,  he  refers  also,  like  Justin  and  Origen. 
to  the  eternal  Logos.  On  the  other  hand,  he  is 
charged  with  leaning  in  the  opposite  direction — 
toward  the  Sabellian  and  Patripassian  views — ^but 
unjustly.  Apart  from  his  frequent  want  of  pre- 
cision in  expression,  he  steers  in  general,  with  sure 
Bibb'cal  and  churchly  t£u;t,  equally  clear  of  both 
extremes,  and  asserts  alike  the  essential  imity 
and  the  eternal  personal  distinction  of  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  He  vindicates  at  length  the  true  and 
full  himianity  of  Christ  against  the  Docetism  of  the 
Gnostic  schools.  Christ  must  be  man,  like  us  in 
body,  soul,  and  spirit,  though  without  sin  if  he 
would  redeem  us  from  sin,  and  make  us  perfect. 
He  is  the  second  Adam,  the  absolute,  universal  man, 
the  prototype  and  summing  up  of  the  whole  race. 
He  also  teaches  a  close  union  of  the  divinity  and 
himianity  in  Christ,  in  which  the  former  is  the 
active  principle,  and  the  seat  of  personality,  the 
latter  the  passive  and  receptive  principle. 

TertulUan  (about  220)  can  not  escape  the  charge 
of  subordinationism.  He  bluntly  calls  the  Father 
the  whole  divine  substance,  and  the  Son  a  part  of  it, 
illustrating  their  relation  by  the  figures  of  the 
fountain  and  the  streaih,  the  sun  and  the  beam. 
He  would  not  have  two  suns,  he  says;  but  he  might 
call  Christ  God,  as  Paul  does  in  Rom.  ix.  5.  The 
sunbeam,  too,  in  itself  considered,  may  be  called 
sun,  but  not  the  sun  a  beam.  Sun  and  beam  are 
two  distinct  things  {species)  in  one  essence  («t<6- 
stantia),  as  God  and  the  World,  as  the  Father  and 
the  Son.     But   figurative  language  must  not  be 


taken  too  strictly,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
Tertullian  was  especially  interested  to  distinguish 
the  Son  from  the  Father,  in  oppo- 
6.  Tertal-  sition   to   the   Patripassian    Praxeas. 
Uan.       In  other  respects  he  did  the  Church 
christology  material  service.     He  pro- 
pounds a  threefold  hypostatical  existence  of  the 
Son  (JUiaHo):  (1)  The  preexistent,  eternal  imma- 
nence of  the  Son  in  the  Father,  they  being  as  in- 
separable as  reason  and  word  in  man,  who  was 
created  in  the  image  of  God,  and  hence  in  a  measure 
reflects  his  being;   (2)  the  coming  forth  of  the  Son 
with  the  Father  for  the  purx>ose  of  the  creation; 
(3)  the  manifestation  of  the  Son  in  the  world  by 
the  incarnation.     He  advocates  the  entire  yet  sin- 
less humanity  of  Christ,  against  both  the  Docetistic 
Gnostics    {Adv.  Marcionem  and  De  came  Ckristi) 
and  the  Patripassians   {Adv.   Praxeam).     He  ac- 
cuses the  former  of  making  Christ,  who  is  all  truth, 
a  half  lie,  and,  by  the  denial  of  his  flesh,  resolving 
all  his  work  in  the  flesh  into  an  empty  show.    He 
urges  against  the  latter  that  God  the  Father  is 
incapable  of  suffering  and  change.     Professor  War- 
field  (see  bibliography)  lays  much  stress  upon  the 
definition  which  Tertullian  gives  of  the  Trinity, 
and  regards  Tertullian  rather  than  Origen  as  the 
real  father  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
Dionysius,  bishop  of  Rome  (262),  came  nearest 
the   Nicene   view.     He  maintained  distinctly,  in 
a    IM         *^®    controversy   with    Dionysius   of 
nysiuiB      Alexandria,  the  unity  of  essence  and 
of  Home.    *^®  threefold  personal  distinction  of 
Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  in  opposition 
to  SabelUanism,  tritheism,  and  subordinationism. 
His  view  is  embodied  in  a  fragment  preserved  by 
Athanasius  {De  sententiis  Dionysii,  iv.,  and  Routh, 
ReUquia  sacra,  iii.,  Oxford,  1846,  p.  384). 

m.  The  Hicene  Christology,  from  325  to  381: 
This  is  the  result  of  the  struggle  with  Arianism  and 
semi-Arianism,  which  agitated  the  Elastem  Churob 
for  more  than  half  a  century.  The  Arian  heresy 
denied  the  strict  deity  of  Cbnst  (his  coequality 
with  the  Father),  and  taught  that  he  is  a  subor- 
dinate divinity,  different  in  essence  from  God  (Gk. 
hetero-ou8ios)f  preexisting  before  the  world,  yet  not 
eternal  ("  there  was  a  time  when  he  was  not  ")f 
himself  a  creature  of  the  will  of  God  out  of  nothing 
(Gk.  ktisma  ex  ouk  ontOn),  who  created  this  present 
world,  and  became  incarnate  for  our  salvation. 
Semi-Arianism  held  an  untenable  middle  ground 
between  the  Arian  hetero-cusia  and  the  orthodox 
homo-ousiaf  or  coequality  of  the  Son  with  the  Father, 
and  asserted  the  hamoi-<msia,  or  similarity  of  essence, 
which  was  a  very  elastic  term,  and  might  be  con- 
tracted into  an  Arian,  or  stretched  into  an  ortho- 
dox, sense,  according  to  the  general  spirit  and  tend- 
ency of  the  men  who  held  it. 

In  opposition  to  these  heresies,  Athanasius  of 
Alexandria  ("the  father  of  orthodoxy")  and  the 
three  Cappadocian  bishops — Basil,  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus,  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa — maintained 
and  defended  with  superior  ability,  vigor,  and 
perseverance,  the  homo-onsiOf  i.e.,  the  essential 
oneness  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  or  his  eternal 
divinity,  as  the  comer-stone  of  the  whole  Christian 
system.    This  doctrine  triumphed  in  the  councils 


63 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Christology 


of  Nicsa  (325)  and  Gonfitantinople  (381),  and  is 
exppeased  in  the  Nicsno-Constantinopolitan  Creed, 
which  has  stood  ever  since  like  an  immovable  rock : 

"  (We  beliere)  ...  in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  only- 
beeotten  Son  of  God.  begotten  of  the  Father  beforo  all  worlds 
(God  of  God].  Li«ht  of  Light.  Very  God  of  Very  God,  Begot- 
ten, not  made,  being  of  one  substance  with  the  Father;  by 
whom  all  things  were  made;  who  for  us  men  and  for  our 
«alTation  came  down  from  heaven,  and  was  incarnate  by 
the  Holy  Ghost  of  the  Virgin  Mary."  etc 

See  Abianibm;  Athanasittb;  Conbtai«tinopol- 
HAH  Crxed;  Nicaa,  Councils  of. 

IV.  The  dudccdonian  Christology:    This  finds 
its  Donnal  expression  in  the  Chalcedonian  state- 
ment of  451  (see  below,  {  2).     It  was  the  answer  of 
the  orthodox  Church  to  the  heresies  relating  to  the 
proper  constitution  of  (Christ's  divine-human  per- 
son, of  which  the  chief  were  three,  viz.,  (1)  Apol- 
[inarianism,  a  partial  denial  of  the  humanity  of 
Christ.     Apollinaris    (the  Yoimger)   of   Laodioea 
(q.v.;  d.  390),  on  the  basis  of  the  Platonic  trichot- 
omy, ascribed  to  Christ  a  human  body  (Gk.  sOma) 
and  animal  soul  {psychi  alogos),  but  not  a  human 
spirit  or  reason  (psychi  logikif  nous,  pneuma);  he 
put  the  divine  Logos  in  the  place  of 
^  ^'^       the  rational  soul,  and  thus  substituted 
f^*'      a  theo8  tarkophoros  for  a  real  thean- 
Herasiea.     ^^^P^'* — &  mixed  middle  being  for  a 
divine-human  person.     From  this  er- 
ror it  follows,  either  that  the  rational  soul  of  man 
was  not  redeemed,  or  that  it  needed  no  redemption. 
(2)  Nestorianism    (from   Nestorius,   patriarch   of 
Constantinople,  d.  in  exile  440;    see  Nbstorius) 
admitted  the  full  deity  and  the  full  humanity  of 
Christ,  but  put  them  into  loose  mechanical  con- 
junction, or  affinity  (Gk.  synapheia),  rather  than  a 
vital  and  personal  union  (fundsia);    and  hence  it 
objected  to  the  unacriptural  term  "  mother  of  God  " 
(GL  theotoko9,  Lat.  Deipara),  as  applied  to  the  Vir- 
gin Mary,  while  willing  to  call  her  "mother  of 
Christ"   (Ckristotokas).    (3)   Eutychianism    (from 
Eutyches,  presbyter  at  Constantinople,  d.   after 
451;   see  Euttchianism)  is  the  veiy  opposite  of 
Nestorianiam,  and  sacrificed  the  distinction  of  the 
two  natures  in  Christ  to  the  imity  of  the  person 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  the  incarnation  an 
absorpUon  of  the  human  nature  by  the  divine,  or  a 
deification  of  human  nature,  even  of  the  body: 
hence  the  Eutychians  thought  it  proper  to  use  the 
phrases  "God  is  bom,"  "God  suffered,"   "God 
was  crucified/'  "  God  died." 

The  third  and  fourth  ecumenical  councils  (Ephe- 
lUB,  431,  and  Chaloedon,  451)  settled  the  question 
of  the  precise  relation  of  the  two  na- 
^  The      tures  in  Christ's  person.   The  decree  of 
T^®*"     the  CouncU  of  Ephesus,  under  the  lead 
g^^^      of  the  violent  Q^  of  Alexandria,  was 
gj^Q^^       merely  negative,  a  condemnation  of 
the  error  of  Nestorius,  and  leaned  a 
little  towaxd  the  opposite  error  of  Eutyches.     Nes- 
torianism triumphed  temporarily  in  the  "  Robber 
Synod "   of   ESphesus,  in   449,  under  the  lead   of 
Dioocurus  of   Alexandria,  who  inherited   all   the 
bad,  and  none  of  the  good,  qualities  of  his  prede- 
oenor,  Cyril.     But  Dyophysitism  reasserted  itself; 
aod  Dioecunis  and  Eutyches  were  condemned  by 


the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  This  council  gave  a 
clear  and  full  statement  of  the  orthodox  chris- 
tology as  follows  (for  Greek  and  Latin  text  and 
notes,  cf.  Schaff,  Creeds,  ii.  62-fi5): 

"  Following  the  holy  Fathera,  we  all  with  one  consent 
teach  men  to  confess  one  and  the  same  Son.  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  same  perfect  in  Godhead  and  also  perfect  in 
Manhood;  truly  God  and  truly  man.  of  a  rearonable  [rational] 
soul  and  body;  consubstantial  [coequal]  with  the  Father 
according  to  the  Godhead,  and  consubstantial  with  us  accord- 
ing to  the  Manhood;  in  all  things  like  unto  us,  without  sin, 
b^otten  before  all  ages  of  the  Father  according  to  the  God- 
head, and  in  these  latter  days,  for  us  and  for  our  salvation, 
bom  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Mother  of  God,  according  to  the 
Manhood;  one  and  the  same  Christ,  Son.  Lord,  Only-begot- 
ten, to  be  acknowledged  in  two  natures,  ineonftuedly,  un- 
ehanoeably,  indiviaMy,  inaeparobly;  the  distinction  of  na- 
tures being  by  no  means  taken  away  by  the  union,  but 
rather  the  property  of  each  nature  being  preserved,  and  con- 
ciirring  in  one  Person  and  one  Subsistence,  not  parted  or 
divided  into  two  Persons,  but  one  and  the  same  Son.  and 
only-begotten,  God  theiWord,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  as  the 
prophets  from  the  beginning  [have  declared]  concerning 
him.  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  himself  has  taught  us,  and 
the  Creed  of  the  holy  Fathers  has  handed  down  to  us." 

The  same  doctrine  is  set  forth  in  a  more  con- 
densed form  in  the  second  part  of  the  Symbolum 
Qiticunquef  or  the  so-called  Athanasian  Creed  (for 
text  and  transl.,  with  notes,  cf.  Schaff,  Creeds ,  ii. 
66-71;  see  Athanasian  Crebo). 

V.  The  Post-Chalcedonian  Christology:  The 
Chalcedonian  decision  did  not  stop  the  contro- 
versy, and  called  for  a  supplementary  statement 
concerning  the  two  wills  of  Christ,  corresponding 
to  the  two  natures.  Eutychianism  revived  in  the 
form  of  Monophysitism  (see  Monopht- 
1.  Kono-  sites),  or  the  doctrine  that  Christ  had 
phyaltlam.  but  one  composite  nature  (Gk.  mia 
physis  syrUhetos  or  mia  physis  ditU), 
It  makes  the  hiunanity  of  Christ  a  mere  accident 
of  the  immutable  divine  substance.  The  liturgical 
shibboleth  of  the  Monophysites  was  ''  God  has  been 
crucified,"  and  they  even  introduced  the  idea  into 
the  Trisagion  (q.v.);  hence  they  are  also  called 
Theopaschites  (from  theos,  "  God,"  and  paschein, 
"  to  suffer ").  The  tedious  Monophysite  contro- 
versies convulsed  the  Eastern  Church  for  more 
than  a  himdred  years,  weakened  its  power,  and 
facilitated  the  conquest  of  Mohammedanism.  The 
fifth  ecumenical  council  (553)  made  a  partial  con- 
cession to  the  Monophysites,  but  did  not  recon- 
cile them.  They  separated,  like  the  Nestorians, 
from  the  orthodox  Greek  Chureh,  and  continue 
to  this  day  under  various  names  and  organiza^ 
tions— the  Jacobites  in  Syria,  the  Copts  in  Egypt, 
the  AbjTssinians,  and  the  Armenians. 

Closely  coimected  with  Monophysitism  was  Mon- 
othelitism   (see   MoNOTHELrrEs),  or   the  doctrine 
that  Christ  had  but  one  will,  as  he  had  but  one 
person.    The  orthodox  maintained  that  will  is  an 
attribute  of  nature,  rather  than  of  person,  and 
consequently  that  Christ  had  two  wills — a  human 
will  and  a  divine  will — both  working 
8.  Kono-    in   harmony.     The   Monothelite  con- 
theUtiam.   troversy  lasted  from  633  to  680.    The 
Emperor  Heraclius  proposed  a  com- 
promise formula-'One  divine-human  energy  (mia 
theandrike  energeia);    but  it  was  opposed  in  the 
West.    The  sixth  ecumenical  council  condemned 


Chilstology 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


54 


the  Monothelite  heresy,  and  repeated  the  Chalce- 
donian  Greed,  with  the  following  supplement  oon- 
oeming  the  two  wills  (cf.  SchafF,  Creedi,  ii.  72-73): 

"  And  we  likewise  preach  tieo  natural  wHU  in  him  [Jesue 
Christ],  and  two  naiwral  operationM  undivided,  inconvertible, 
inseparable,  unmixed,  acoordins  to  the  doctrine  of  the  holy 
Fathers;  and  the  two  natural  wills  [are]  not  contrary  (far 
from  it),  as  the  impious  heretics  assert,  but  his  hiunan  will 
follows  the  divine  will,  and  is  not  resisting  or  reluctant,  but 
rather  subject  to  his  divine  and  omnipotent  will.  For  it 
was  proper  that  the  will  of  the  flesh  should  be  moved,  but 
be  subjected  to  the  divine  will,  according  to  the  wise  Atha- 
nasius." 

The  same  council  condemned  Pope  Honorius  I. 
(626-638)  as  a  Monothelite  heretic,  and  his  suc- 
cessors confirmed  its  decision.  Monothelitism  con- 
tinued among  the  Maronites  on  Moimt  Lebanon, 
who.  however,  afterward  submitted  to  the  Roman 
Church,  as  well  as  among  the  Monophysites,  who 
are  all  Monothelites. 

With  the  sixth  ecumenical  council  closes  the  de- 
velopment of  the  ancient  Catholic  christology* 
The  Adoption  controversy  (see  Adop- 

8.  Adop-   tionism),  which  arose  in  Spain  and 

tionlam.  France  toward  the  close  of  the  eighth 
century,  turned  upon  the  question 
whether  Christ  as  man  was  the  Son  of  God  by  nature 
(naturaliUr),  or  simply  by  adoption  {nuncupative). 
The  Adoptionists  maintained  the  latter,  and  shifted 
the  whole  idea  of  sonship  from  the  person  to  whom 
it  belongs  to  the  nature.  Their  theory  was  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Nestorian  error,  and  was  condemned 
in  a  synod  at  Frankfort,  794;  but  it  did  not  result 
in  a  positive  addition  to  the  creed  statements. 

The  scholastic  theology  of  the  Middle  Ages  made 

no  progress  in   christology,   and    confined   itself 

to  a  dialectical    analysis  and  defense 

4.  TheKe-  of  the  Chalcedonian  dogma,  with  a 

dleval      one-sided  reference  to  the  divine  na- 

Ohurch.  ture  of  Christ.  John  of  Damascus 
in  the  East,  and  Thomas  Aquinas  in 
the  West,  were  the  ablest  exponents  of  the  Chalce- 
donian dogma.  The  medieval  Church  almost  for- 
got, over  the  glorious  divinity  of  our  Lord,  his  real 
humanity  (except  his  passion),  and  substituted  for 
it  virtually  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  who 
seemed  to  appeal  more  tenderly  and  effectively  to 
all  the  human  sensibilities  and  sympathies  of  the 
heart  than  the  exalted  Savior. 

VL  The  Ecumenical  Christology  (i.e.,  the  chris- 
tology taught  in  conmion  by  the  doctrinal  standards 
of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Evangelical  Protestant 
Churches). 

1.  Its  Leading  Ideas:  These  may  be  stated  as 
follows:  (1)  A  true  incarnation  of  the  Logos,  i.e., 
the  second  person  in  the  Godhead  (Gk.  enanthrO- 
pi8i8  theoUf  ensarklkna  tou  logouy  Lat.  incamatio 
verbi).  This  is  an  actual  assumption  of  the  whole 
human  nature — ^body,  soul,  and  spirit — into  an 
abiding  union  with  the  divine  personality  of  the 
eternal  Logos,  so  that  they  constitute,  from  the 
moment  of  the  supernatural  conception,  one  un- 
divided life.  The  incarnation  is  neither  a  con- 
version or  transmutation  of  the  divine  nature 
into  the  human  nature,  nor  a  conversion  of  man 
into  God,  and  consequent  absorption  of  the  one, 
nor  a  confusion  (Gk.  krasisj  synchyaU)  of  the  two. 


On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  a  mere  indwelling 
(Gk.  enoikUis,  Lat.  inhabUatio)  of  the  one  in  the 
other,  nor  an  outward,  transitory  connection  (Gk. 
synapheia,  Lat.  conjunctio)  of  the  two  factors. 
(2)  The  distinction  between  nature  and  person. 
Nature  or  substance  (essence,  Gk.  oiLsia)  denotes  the 
totality  of  powers  and  qualities  which  constitute 
a  being;  while  person  (Gk.  hypostasiSf  prosdpon)  is 
the  ego,  the  self-conscious,  self-asserting,  and  acting 
subject.  The  Logos  assumed,  not  a  human  per- 
son (else  we  should  have  two  persons — ^a  divine 
and  a  himian),  but  human  nature,  which  is  common 
to  us  all.  (3)  The  God-man  (Gk.  iheanthrOpos)  as 
the  result  of  the  incarnation.  Christ  is  not  a  (Nes- 
torian) double  being,  with  two  persons,  nor  a 
compoimd  (Apollinarian  or  Monophysite)  middle 
being,  a  tertium  quid,  partly  divine  and  partly 
human;  but  he  is  one  person,  at  once  wholly 
divine  and  wholly  human.  (4)  The  duality  of 
the  natures.  The  orthodox  doctrine  maintains, 
against  Eutychianism,  the  distinction  of  na- 
tures, even  after  the  act  of  incarnation,  with- 
out confusion  or  conversion  (Gk.  asynchytSs  and 
atreptdSf  Lat.  inoonfuse  and  imfnutahUiter),  yet,  on 
the  other  hand,  without  division  or  separation 
(Gk.  adiavrelds  and  ach&rislOs,  Lat.  indiviae  and 
inseparabiliter);  so  that  the  divine  will  ever  re- 
main divine,  and  the  human  ever  human;  and  yet 
the  two  have  continually  one  common  life,  and 
interpenetrate  each  other,  like  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity  (Gk.  perichCresis).  According  to  a  fa- 
miliar figure,  the  divine  nature  pervades  the  hu- 
man as  the  fire  pervades  the  iron.  Christ  has  all 
the  properties  which  the  Father  has,  except  the 
property  of  being  imbegotten;  and  he  has  all  the 
properties  which  the  first  Adam  had  before  the 
fall;  he  has,  therefore  (according  to  John  of  Da- 
mascus), two  consciousnesses  and  two  physical 
wills,  or  faculties  of  self-determination  (Gk. 
autexouaia).  This  is  the  extreme  border  to 
which  the  doctrine  of  two  natures  can  be  car- 
ried, without  an  assertion  of  two  full  personalities; 
and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  draw  the  Une.  (5)  The 
unity  of  the  person  (Gk.  hendsia  kath'  hypo- 
stasinf  henOsia  kypoatattki,  Lat.  unio  hypoatatica  or 
unto  peraonalia).  The  union  of  the  divine  and 
human  nature  in  Christ  is  a  permanent  state,  result- 
ing from  the  incarnation,  and  is  a  real,  supernatural, 
personal,  and  inseparable  union,  in  distinction  from 
an  essential  absorption  or  confusion,  or  from  a 
mere  moral  union,  or  from  a  mystical  union,  such 
as  holds  between  the  believer  and  Christ.  The 
two  natures  constitute  but  one  personal  life,  and 
yet  remain  distinct.  '*  The  same  who  is  true 
God,"  says  Pope  Leo  I.  in  his  famous  Epistle, 
which  anticipated  the  decision  of  Chalcedon, . "  is 
also  true  man;  and  in  this  unity  there  is  no  deceit, 
for  in  it  the  lowliness  of  man  and  the  majesty  of 
God  perfectly  pervade  one  another.  .  .  .  Because 
the  two  natures  make  only  one  person,  we  read, 
on  the  one  hand,  'The  Son  of  man  came  down 
from  heaven '  (John  iii.  13),  while  yet  the  Son  of 
God  took  flesh  from  the  Virgin;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  '  The  Son  of  God  was  crucified  and  buried,' 
while  yet  he  suffered,  not  in  his  Godhead,  as 
coetemal    and    oonsubstantial   with  the   Father, 


55 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohristoloffy 


but  in  the  weakness  of  human  nature."  (6) 
The  vhole  work  of  Christ  is  to  be  attributed 
to  his  person,  and  not  to  the  one  or  the  other 
nature  exclusively.  The  person  is  the  acting 
subject;  the  nature,  the  organ  or  medium.  It  is 
the  one  divine-human  person  of  Christ  that  wrought 
mirades  by  virtue  of  his  divine  nature,  and  that 
suffered  through  the  sensorium  of  his  human  nature. 
The  superhuman  effect  and  infinite  merit  of  the 
Redeaner's  work  must  be  ascribed  to  his  person, 
because  of  his  divinity;  while  it  is  his  human- 
ity alone  that  made  him  capable  of,  and  liable 
to,  temptation,  suffering,  and  death,  and  renders 
him  an  example  for  our  imitation.  (7)  The  An- 
hifpostana^  or,  more  accurately,  the  Enhypostasia 
(Impersonality),  of  the  human  nature  of  Christ. 
The  meaning  is  that  Christ's  himian  nature  had 
no  independent  personality  of  its  own,  and  that 
the  divine  nature  is  the  root  and  basis  of  his 
personality.  His  humanity  was  enhypostatised 
throu^  union  with  the  Logos,  or  incorporated 
into  his  personality.  The  Synod  of  Chalcedon 
says  nothing  of  this  feature;  it  was  an  afterthought 
developed  by  John  of  Damascus.  It  seems  incon- 
sistent with  the  dyotheletic  theory ;  for  a  being  with 
consdousness  and  will  has  the  two  essential  ele- 
ments of  personality,  while  an  impersonal  will 
seems  to  be  a  mere  animal  instinct.  Ritschl  (Jus- 
tification and  BeconcUiaHon,  New  York,  1900,  p. 
437)  says:  "  That  the  divine  revealing  Word  con- 
stitutes the  form,  and  the  human  indUvidual  the 
substance,  of  the  person  of  Christ  ...  is  what  in 
the  end  the  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Church  comes  to. 
For  the  theory  of  the  anhypostaais  of  the  human 
nature  in  Christ  ...  is  intelligible  only  if  the 
Divine  Logos  is  the  form  in  which  this  human  in- 
dividual exists,  outside  of  which  he  has  no  real 
existence  at  all.  For  the  form  is  the  basis  of  real- 
ity" 

2.  Ghriticlsm:  The  Chalcedonian  christology  is 
regarded  by  the  Greek  and  Roman,  and  by  the 
majority  of  the  orthodox  English  and  American 
theologians,  as  the  highest  christological  knowl- 


1.  Vavor- 


edge  attainable  in   this  world.     Dr. 


aUaOoin  Shedd  {HisUrry  of  Christian  Doctrine, 
loaL  "  i.»  New  York,  1863,  p.  408)  thmks  it 
probable  that  "  the  human  mind  is 
unable  to  go  beyond  it  in  the  endeavor  to  unfold 
the  mystery  of  Christ's  complex  person."  Dr. 
Hodge  (Systematic  Theciogyy  ii..  New  York,  1872, 
pp.  397  sqq.)  notices  and  criticizes  several  of  the 
more  recent  ''erroneous  and  heretical  doctrines," 
but  holds  to  the  Chalcedonian  statement  as  adopted 
by  the  scholastic  Calvinists  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Chalcedonian  chris- 
tology has  been  subjected  to  a  rigorous  criticism 
in  Germany  by  Evangelical  as  well  as  rationalistic 
divines — by  Schleiermacher,  Baur,  Domer,  Rothe, 
and  the  modem  Kenoticists,  also  by  Ritschl  and  his 
followers,  and  by  Professor  Paine  in  America.  It 
is  charged  with  a  defective  psychology,  and  now  with 
dualism,  now  with  docetism,  according  as  its  dis- 
tinction of  two  natures  or  the  personal  unity  is 
made  its  most  prominent  feature.  It  is  said  to 
OBoUate  between  two  extremes,  without  truly  recon- 


ciling them;  as  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
stands  between  tritheism  and  modalism,  now  leaning 
to  the  one,  now  to  the  other,  when  either  the  tri- 
personality  or  the  union  is  emphasised.  It  assumes 
two  natures  in  one  person;  while  the  dogma  of  the 
Trinity  assumes  three  persons  in  one  nature. 
Professor  Paine  (Critical  History  of  the  Evolutian 
of  Trinitarianism,  Boston,  1900,  p.  279)  marvels 
*^  how  such  a  bald  antinomy,  Christ  wholly  God 
and  wholly  man,  could  have  been  adopted  by  theo- 
logians who  were  adepts  in  the  ArLstotelian  and 
Platonic  philosophies."  Again  he  speaks  of  the 
Chalcedonian  christology  as  "  an  unhistorical  and 
unscientific  violation  of  logical  and  psychological 
laws."  The  Chalcedonian  definition,  it  is  further 
objected,  teaches  a  complete  human 

8.  Ohjo^  nature  with  reason  and  will,  and  yet 
^ilti^  denies  it  personality.  It  does  not  do 
cisms.  justice  to  the  genuine  humanity  of 
Christ  in  the  Gospels,  and  to  all  those 
passages  which  assert  its  real  growth.  It  over- 
shadows the  hmnan  by  the  divine.  It  puts  the 
final  result  at  the  beginning,  and  ignores  the  inter- 
vening process.  If  we  read  the  Gospel  histoiy,  we 
find  that  Christ  was  a  helpless  infant  on  his  mother's 
breast — and  therefore  not  onmipotent  till  after 
the  resurrection,  when  **  all  authority  in  heaven  and 
on  earth  "  was  given  imto  him  (Matt,  xxviii.  18);  he 
grew  in  wisdom,  and  learned  obedience  (Luke  ii. 
40;  Heb.  v.  8),  and  was  ignorant  of  the  day  of 
judgment  (Mark  xiii.  32),  therefore  not  onmisdent; 
he  moved  from  place  to  place,  and  was  therefore 
not  omnipresent  before  his  ascension  to  heaven; 
he  was  destitute  of  his  divine  ^ory,  which  he  was 
to  regain  after  his  death  (John  xvii.  5).  To  con- 
fine these  limitations  and  imperfections  to  his 
himian  nature,  while  in  his  divine  nature  he  was, 
at  one  and  the  same  time,  onmipotent,  onmisdent, 
and  omnipresent,  even  in  the  manger  and  on  the 
cross,  is  to  destroy  the  personal  unity  of  life,  and 
to  make  two  Christs.  How  can  ignorance  and  onmi- 
sdence  simultaneously  coexist  in  one  and  the  same 
mind?  How  can  one  and  the  same  individual  per- 
vade and  rule  the  universe  in  the  same  moment  in 
which  he  exdaims,  "  My  God,  my  God,  why  hast 
thou  forsaken  me? "  Christ  speaks  and  acts 
throughout  as  one  undivided  ego.  We  must,  there- 
fore, so  reconstruct  or  improve  the  Chalcedonian 
christology  as  to  conform  it  to  the  historical  realness 
of  his  humanity,  to  the  full  meaning  of  his  own 
sayings  concerning  himself,  and  to  all  the  facts 
of  his  life.  This  is  generally  felt  among  the  Evan- 
gelical theologians  in  Germany,  where  christo- 
logical speculation  has  been  most  active  since  the 
Reformation,  and  by  not  a  few  in  other  countries. 
If  anything  has  resulted  from  the  multitude  of 
lives  of  Christ,  written  by  learned  and  able  men  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  it  is  the  fact  of  the  perfect 
and  unique  divine-human  personality  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  (cf.  some  good  remarks  on  this  subject 
by  Dr.  J.  O.  Dykes,  in  the  Expository  Times,  Jan., 
1906,  pp.  161  sqq.). 

At  the  same  time  the  Chalcedonian  dogma  is 
the  ripest  fruit  of  the  christological  speculations 
and  controversies  of  the  ancient  Church,  and 
can  never  be  lost.    It  gave  the  clearest  expree- 


Ohristoloffy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HER20G 


66 


Bion  to  the  faith  in  the  incarnation  for  ages  to 
come.  It  saves  the  full  idea  of  the  God-man  as  to 
the  essential  elements,  however  imper- 
8.  Beal  feet  the  form  in  which  it  is  cast.  It 
Value.  defines  with  sound  religious  judgment 
the  boundary-line  which  separates 
christological  truth  from  christological  error.  It 
guards  against  two  opposite  dangers — ^the  Scylla  of 
Nestorian  dualism,  and  the  Charybdis  of  Eutychian 
Monophysitism,  or  against  an  abstract  separation 
of  the  divine  and  human ,  and  an  absorption  of  the 
human  by  the  divine.  It  excludes  also  every  kind 
of  mixture  of  the  two  natures  which  would  result  in 
a  being  which  is  neither  divine  nor  human.  With 
these  safeguards,  theological  speculation  may  boldly 
and  hopefully  move  on,  and  penetrate,  if  possible, 
deeper  and  deeper  into  the  central  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

Vn.  The  Orthodox  Protestant  Christology:  The 
churches  of  the  Reformation  (Lutheran,  Anglican, 
and  Calvinistic)  adopted  in  their  confessions  of 
faith,  either  in  form  or  in  substance,  the  three  ecu- 
menical creeds,  and  with  them  the  ancient  Catholic 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  of  Christ's  divine- 
human  character  and  work.  They  condemned  the 
old  and  new  Antitrinitarians,  and  the  peculiar 
doctrine  of  the  Socinians — that  Christ  was  raised 
by  his  own  merit  to  a  participation  in  the  divine 
honor  and  dignity.  The  Unitarians,  like  the  Ana- 
baptists, were  everywhere  (except  in  Poland  and 
Transylvania)  imprisoned,  exiled,  or  executed;  and 
the  unfortunate  Servetus  was  burned  as  a  heretic 
imder  the  eyes  of  Calvin  and  with  the  approval  of 
the  mild  Bullinger  and  Melanchthon.  The  following 
are  the  relevant  passages  from  the  principal  Protes- 
tant confessions. 

The  Augsburg  Confession  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
(1630),  Art.  iii.  {De  FUio  Dei): 

"  The  Word,  that  is,  the  Son  of  Qod.  took  unto  him  man's 
nature  in  the  womb  of  the  bleaaed  Viisin  Mary.  >o  that  there 
are  two  natures,  the  divine  and  the  human,  inseparably 
joined  together  in  unity  of  person;  one  Christ,  true  God  and 
true  man:  who  was  bom  of  the  Virein  Mary,  truly  suffered, 
was  crucified,  dead,  and  buried." 

The  Second  Helvetic  Confession,  by  Bullinger 
(1566),  chap,  xi.: 

*'  There  are  in  one  and  the  same  Jeeus  Christ  our  Lord, 
two  natures,  the  divine  and  the  human  nature;  and  we 
say  that  these  two  are  so  conjoined  or  united  that  they  are 
not  swallowed  up,  confounded,  or  mingled  together,  but 
rather  united  or  joined  together  in  one  person,  the  properties 
of  each  nature  being  safe  and  remaining  still:  so  that  we  do 
worship  one  Christ  our  Lord,  and  not  two;  I  say,  one,  true, 
Qod  and  man;  as  touching  his  divine  nature,  of  the  same 
substance  with  the  Father,  and  as  touching  his  human  na- 
ture, of  the  same  substance  with  us,  and  *  like  unto  us  in 
all  things,  sin  only  excepted.'  " 

The  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England, 
Art.  ii.: 

"The  Son,  which  is  the  Word  of  the  Father,  begotten 
from  everlasting  of  the  Father,  the  very  and  eternal  Ckxl, 
and  of  one  substance  with  the  Father,  took  man's  nature  in 
the  womb  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  of  her  substance;  so  that 
two  whole  and  perfect  natures,  that  is  to  say,  the  Godhead 
and  Manhood,  were  joined  together  in  one  person,  never  to 
be  divided,  whereof  is  one  Christ,  very  God  and  very  man; 
who  truly  suffered,  was  crucified,  dead,  and  buried." 

The  Westminster  Confession,  chap,  viii.,  §  2: 

"  The  Son  of  God,  the  seoqnd  person  in  the  Trinity  being 


very  and  eternal  (jk>d.  of  one  substance  and  equal  with  the 
Father,  did  when  the  fulness  of  time  was  come,  take  upon 
him  man's  nature  with  all  the  essential  properties  and  com- 
mon infirmities  thereof,  yet  without  sin,  being  conceived  by 
the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  womb  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  of  her  sub- 
stance: so  that  two  whole,  perfect,  and  distinct  natures,  the 
Godhead  and  the  Manhood,  were  inseparably  joined  together 
in  one  person,  without  conversion,  composition,  or  confusion. 
Which  person  is  very  God  and  very  man,  yet  one  Christ, 
the  only  Mediator  between  God  and  men." 

The  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism,  which  ifl 
famous  for  dear  and  terse  definitions,  says 
(Qu.  xxi.): 

"  The  only  Redeemer  of  God's  elect  is  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who  being  the  eternal  Son  of  God,  became  man,  and 
so  was,  and  eontinueth  to  be.  God  and  man,  in  two  distinct 
natures,  and  one  person  forever." 

VnL  The  Scholastic  Lutheran  Christology:  On 
the  general  basis  of  the  Chalcedonian  christology, 
and  following  the  indications  of  the  Scriptures  as 
the  only  rule  of  faith,  the  Protestant,  especially 
the  Lutheran,  scholastics,  at  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth, and  during  the  seventeenth,  century,  built 
some  additional  features,  and  developed  new  aspects 
of  Christ's  person.  The  propelling  cause  was  the 
Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  real  presence  or  omni- 
presence of  Christ's  body  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
the  controversies  growing  out  of  it  with  the  Zwin- 
glians  and  Calvinists,  and  among  the  Lutherans 
themselves  (see  Lord's  Supper;  Luther;  Zwin- 
qu;  Brenz;  Chemnitz;  etc.).  These  new  features 
relate  to  the  communion  of  the  two  natures,  and 
to  the  states  and  the  offices  of  Christ.  The  first 
was  the  production  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and 
was  never  adopted,  but  partly  rejected,  by  the  Re- 
formed; the  second  and  thinl  were  the  joint  doc- 
trines of  both,  but  with  a  very  material  difference 
in  the  understanding  of  the  second. 

1.  The  Ooxnxnanlcatlo  IdlomatnxxL:  The  com- 
munication of  attributes  or  properties  (Gk.  uft^ 
mataj  Lat.  proprietates)  of  one  nature  to  the  other, 
or  to  the  whole  person.  It  is  derived  from  the  unio 
personalis  and  the  communio  naturarum.  The  Lu- 
theran divines  distinguish  three  kinds  or  genera: 
(1)  The  genus  idiomaticum  (or  idiopoiHikon), 
whereby  the  properties  of  one  nature  are  trans- 
ferred and  applied  to  the  whole  person,  for  which 
are  quoted  such  passages  as  Rom.  i.  3;  I  Pet.  iii. 
18,  iv.  1.  (2)  The  genus  apotelesmaticum  (koino- 
poiHikon),  whereby  the  redemptory  functions  and 
actions  which  belong  to  the  whole  person  (the 
apotelesmata)  are  predicated  only  of  one  or  the 
other  nature  (I  Tim.  ii.  5-6;  Heb.  i.  2-3).  (3) 
The  genus  auchem>aticum,  or  majestalicum,  where- 
by the  himian  nature  is  clothed  with  and  mag- 
nified by  the  attributes  of  the  divine  nature 
(John  iii.  13,  v.  27;  Matt,  xxviii.  18,  20;  Rom.  ix. 
5;  Phil.  ii.  10).  Under  this  head  the  Lutheran 
Church  claims  a  certain  ubiquity  or  omnipresence 
for  the  body  of  Christ,  on  the  groimd  of  the  personal 
union  of  the  two  natiues;  but  as  to  the  extent  of 
this  onmipresence  there  were  two  distinct  schools 
which  are  both  represented  in  the  Formula  of  Concord 
(1577).  Brenz  and  the  Swabian  Lutherans  main- 
tained an  absolute  ubiquity  of  Christ's  him:ianity 
from  his  very  infancy,  thus  making  the  incarnation 
not  only  an  assumption  of  the  human  nature,  but 
also  a  deification  of  it,  although  the  divine  attri^ 


57 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohristoloffy 


butes  were  admitted  to  have  been  concealed  during 
the  state  of  humiliation.  Chemnitz  and  the  Saxon 
divines  called  this  view  a  monfitroaity,  and  taught 
only  a  relative  ubiquity,  depending  on  Christ's 
will  (hence  called  voliprosaerUiaf  or  multivoliprcB- 
$entia),  who  may  be  present  with  his  whole  person 
wherever  be  pleases  to  be  or  has  promised  to  be. 
(4)  A  fourth  kind  would  be  the  genus  kenoticum 
(from  kenOsis)f  or  tapeinoticum  (from  tapeinOsia), 
Phil.  ii.  7,  8;  i.e.,  a  communication  of  the  prop- 
erties of  the  human  nature  to  the  divine  nature. 
But  this  is  decidedly  rejected  by  the  old  Lutherans 
98  inconsistent  with  the  unchangeableness  of  the 
divine  nature,  and  as  a  "  horrible  and  blasphemous  " 
doctrine  (Formula  of  Concord,  p.  612),  but  is  asserted 
by  the  modem  Kenoticists  (see  below,  IX.). 

The  Reformed  divines  never  conunitted  them- 
■eU-es  to  the  communicatio  idiomatum  as  a  whole 
(although  they  might  approve  the  first  two 
kinds,  at  least  by  way  of  what  Zwingii  termed 
aUaidttiSf  or  a  rhetorical  exchange  of  one  part  for 
another);  and  they  decidedly  rejected  the  third 
kind,  because  onmipresence,  whether  absolute  or 
relative,  is  inconsistent  with  the  necessary  limita- 
tion of  a  human  body,  as  well  as  with  the  Scrip- 
ture facts  of  Christ's  ascension  to  heaven,  and 
promised  return.  The  third  genus  can  never  be 
fully  carried  out,  unless  the  humanity  of  Christ 
U  also  eternalized.  The  attributes,  moreover,  are 
not  an  outside  appendix,  but  inherent  qualities  of 
the  gubstanoe  to  which  they  belong,  and  insep- 
arable from  it.  Hence  a  oommimication  of  attri- 
butes would  imply  a  communication  or  mixture 
of  natures.  The  divine  and  hiunan  natures  can 
indeed  hold  free  and  intimate  intercourse  with  each 
other;  but  the  divine  nature  can  never  be  trans- 
formed into  the  human,  nor  the  human  nature 
into  the  divine.  Christ  possessed  all  the  attributes 
of  both  natures;  but  the  natures,  nevertheless, 
remain  separate  and  distinct.  See  Communicatio 
Idiomatum. 

2.  The  ]>octri2ie  of  the  Twofold  State  of  Christ: 
This  is  the  state  of  humiliation  and  the  state  of 
exaltation.  This  doctrine  is  based  upon  Phil.  ii. 
>^,  and  is  substantially  true.  The  state  of  hu- 
miliation embraces  the  supernatural  conception, 
birth,  circumcision,  education,  earthly  life,  passion, 
death,  and  burial  of  Christ;  the  state  of  exaltation 
includes  the  resurrection,  ascension,  and  the  sitting 
at  the  right  hand  of  God. 

But  here,  again,  the  two  confessions  differ  very 
considerably.  First  as  to  the  descent  into  Hades. 
The  Lutherans  regarded  it  as  a  triumph  over  hell, 
and  made  it  the  first  stage  of  exaltation;  while 
the  Reformed  divines  viewed  it  as  the  last  stage 
of  the  state  of  humiliation.  It  is  property  the 
turning-point  from  the  one  state  to  the  other, 
and  thus  belongs  to  both  (see  Dbbcent  of 
CUBIST  imo  Hkll).  Secondly,  the  Lutheran  Creed 
refers  the  two  states  only  to  the  hiunan  nature  of 
Christ,  regaiding  the  divine  as  not  susceptible  of 
any  humiliation  or  exaltation.  The  Reformed  di- 
vines refer  them  to  both  natures;  so  that  Christ's 
human  nature  was  in  a  state  of  hiuniliation  as  com- 
pared with  its  future  exaltation,  and  his  divine 
nature  was  in  the  state  of  hiuniliation  as  to  its  ex- 


ternal manifestation  (ratione  occultationis).  With 
them  the  incarnation  itself  is  the  beginning  of 
the  state  of  humiliation,  while  the  Lutheran 
symbols  exclude  the  incarnation  from  the  humil- 
iation. Finally,  the  Lutherans  regard  the  hiunil- 
iation only  as  a  partial  concealment  of  the  actual 
use  (Gk.  krypsia  chriaeOs)  of  the  divine  attributes  by 
the  incarnate  Logos. 

The  proper  exegesis  of  the  classical  passage, 
Phil.  ii.  7  sqq.,  decides  here  in  favor  of  the  Reformed, 
and  against  the  Lutheran  theory.  The  kenOaitf 
or  self-humiliation,  con  not  refer  to  the  incarnate 
Logos,  who  never  was  "in  the  form  of  God," 
but  must  refer  to  the  preexistent  Logos  (the  Logo$ 
asarkoa).  This  is  admitted  by  the  Greek  Fathers, 
and  by  the  best  modem  commentators,  Lutheran 
as  well  as  Reformed.  (Cf.  quotations  in  Schaff, 
Creeds,  i.  328-329,  and  see  Jesus  Christ,  Two- 
fold State  of.) 

8.  The  Threefold  Office  of  Christ :  (a)  The  pro- 
phetical office  {munuSf  or  officium  propheHcum)  in- 
cludes teaching  and  the  miracles  of  Christ,  (b)  The 
priestly  office  (munus  scuxrdotale)  consists  of  the 
satisfaction  made  for  the  sins  of  the  world  by  the 
death  on  the  cross,  and  in  the  continued  interces- 
sion of  the  exalted  Savior  for  his  people  (redemptio 
et  intercessio  sacerdotalis),  (c)  The  kingly  office 
(munus  regium),  whereby  Christ  founded  his  king- 
dom, defends  his  Church  against  all  enemies,  and 
rules  all  things  in  heaven  and  on  earth.  The  old 
divines  distinguish  between  the  reign  of  nature 
(regnum  natura  sive  potentioB),  which  embraces  all 
things;  the  reign  of  grace  (regnum  gratia),  which 
relates  to  the  Church  militant  on  earth;  and  the 
reign  of  glory  (regnum  gloriw),  which  belonga  to 
the  Church  triumphant  in  heaven.  The  threefold 
office  or  function  of  Christ  was  first  presented  by 
Eusebius  of  Ceesarea.  The  theologians  who  fol- 
lowed Luther  and  Melanchthon  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  treat  Christ's  saving 
work  under  the  two  heads  of  king  and  priest.  Cal- 
vin, in  the  first  edition  of  his  "  Institutes  "  (1536), 
did  the  same,  and  it  was  not  tiU  the  third  edition 
(1559)  and  the  Genevan  Catechism  that  he  fully 
presented  the  three  offices.  This  convenient  three- 
fold division  of  the  office  of  Christ  was  used  by  the 
theologians  of  both  confessions  during  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Emesti  opposed  it,  but  Schleier- 
macher  restored  it.  See  Jesus  Christ,  Three- 
fold Office  op. 

IX.  The  Kenosis  Controversy  Between  Giessan 
and  Tiibingen:  This  is  the  last  chapter  in  the 
development  of  the  orthodox  Lutheran  christology 
on  the  basis  of  the  Formula  of  Concord.  It  arose 
in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  be- 
tween the  Lutheran  divines  of  the  universities  of 
Giessen  and  Tubingen  over  the  Kendsis  and  Kryp- 
sis  ;  that  is,  over  the  question  whether  Christ,  in 
the  state  of  humiliation,  entirely  abstained  from 
the  use  of  his  divine  attributes  (kendsis,  absHnentia 
ab  U8U,  Phil.  ii.  7),  or  whether  he  used  them  secretly 
(krypsis).  The  divines  of  Giessen  (Balthasar  Ment- 
zer,  his  son-in-law  Feuerbom,  and  Winkelmann)  de- 
fended the  Kenotic;  those  of  TQbingen  (Thunun, 
Hafenreffer,  Osiander,  Nicolai),  the  cryptic  view. 
Both  schools  were  agreed  as  to  the  possession  of  tbe 


Ohristoloffy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


58 


divine  attributes  by  Christ,  including  omnipotence, 
omniscience,  and  omnipresence,  during  all  the 
stages  of  his  himiiliation,  and  differed  only  as  to 
the  use  (chriais)  of  them — ^whether  it  was  a  krypais 
chrSaeiis  (a  concealed  use),  or  a  kendsis  chreseds 
(a  non-use).  The  cryptic  view  of  Tubingen  is 
logically  (i.e.,  from  Lutheran  premises)  more  con- 
sistent, but  carries  the  theory  of  the  communicatio 
idiomaium  to  the  very  verge  of  Gnostic  Docetism, 
which  resolves  the  human  life  of  Christ  on  earth 
into  a  magical  illusion.  The  Kenotic  view  of 
Giessen  is  more  in  accordance  with  the  facts  of 
Christ's  life,  but  agrees  with  the  other  in  principle, 
and  admits,  after  all,  an  exceptional  use  in  the 
performance  of  miracles.  The  controversy  was 
waged  with  violence,  and  threatened  to  weaken  the 
Protestant  cause  at  a  very  critical  period.  The 
Lutheran  princes  interfered.  In  their  name.  Hoe 
von  Hoenegg  (q.v.) ,  court  preacher  at  Dresden,  is- 
sued a  Solida  decisio  (1624),  essentially  favoring  the 
cause  of  the  Giessen  Kenoticists;  but  the  Tubingen 
theologians  defended  their  position  till  the  con- 
troversy was  lost  in  the  disastrous  events  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  without  leading  to  any  posi- 
tive result.  The  Kenotic  controversy  was  renewed 
recently,  but  in  a  modified  form,  and  on  a  new 
basis  (see  below,  X.,  4;  see  also  Kesobib). 

X.  Modem  Christologies:  The  orthodox  chris- 
tology  emphasized  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  left 
liis  humanity  more  or  less  out  of  sight  and,  in 
the  last  stage  of  its  Lutheran  development,  arrived 
at  the  brink  of  Gnostic  Dooetism.  Rationalism 
arose,  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
as  a  reaction  against  symbolical  and  scholastic 
orthodoxy,  and  ran  into  the  opposite  extreme;  it 
ignored  the  divine  nature,  and  fell  back  upon  a 
purely  human,  or  Ebionitic,  Christ.  Its  worth,  as 
well  as  its  weakness,  consists  in  the  examination 
of  the  human  element  in  Christ  and  in  the  Bible. 

With  the  revival  of  Evangelical  faith  in  Ger- 
many, the  divine  element  of  Christ  was  again 
duly  appreciated  by  theologians.  Hegel  and 
Schleiermacher  mark  a  new  epoch  in  christolog- 
ical  speculation,  with  two  tendencies — ^the  one 
pantheistic,  the  other  humanistic;  and  these, 
again,  were  followed  by  original  reconstructions 
and  modifications  of  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the 
God-man.  The  pantheistic  tendency  of  Hegel  is 
more  congenial  to  the  maxim  of  the  Lutheran 
Confession,  that  the  finite  is  capable  of  the  in- 
finite; the  humanistic  of  Schleiermacher  to  the 
tendency  of  the  Reformed  Confession,  which  guards 
the  genuine  humanity  of  Christ  against  confusion 
with  the  divine.  The  former  starts  from  the  divine, 
the  latter,  from  the  human  element;  but  both  may 
imite,  and  often  do  unite  when  they  proceed  from 
naturalistic  premises.  Both  Hegel  and  Schleier- 
macher gave  impulse  to  orthodox  as  well  as  nega- 
tive and  destructive  tendencies.  To  most  of  his 
pupils  Schleiermacher  was  a  sort  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, who  led  them  to  Christ. 

1.  The  Humanitarian  or  Unitarian  Ohrlstoloffy 
makes  Christ  a  mere  man,  though  the  wisest  and 
best  of  men,  and  a  model  for  imitation.  It  is  held 
in  various  forms,  from  the  conmiimicated  semi- 
divinity  of  the  old  Socinians  down  to  the  pure 


humanity  of  modem  Unitarians  and  Humanitarians. 
Professor  Bmce  {Humiliation  of  Christ,  Edinburgh, 
1881,  lecture  v.,  p.  193)  distinguishes  five  classes 
of  Humanitarians.  Kant  may  be  said  to  have 
inaugurated  the  modem  Himianitarian  view.  He 
regarded  Christ  as  the  representative  of  the  moral 
ideal,  but  made  a  distinction  between  the  ideal 
Christ  and  the  historical  Jesus.  The  conservative 
Unitarians  admit  the  sinless  perfection  of  Christ. 
William  Ellery  Channing  (q.v.)  was,  at  least  in 
his  earlier  period,  a  firm  believer  in  the  preexist - 
ence  of  Christ,  and  is  sometimes  called  an  Arian 
by  his  nephew  and  biographer.  He  certainly  rose 
above  the  mere  Himianitarianism  of  Priestley.  He 
saw  in  Christ  the  perfect  manifestation  of  Grod  to 
man,  and  the  highest  ideal  of  humanity,  and  paid 
one  of  the  noblest  and  most  eloquent  tributes  to 
Christ's  character  and  inspiring  example.  With 
this  school  must  be  reckoned  Prof.  Levi  L.  Payne, 
who  dissociates  christology,  or  the  person  of  Christ, 
from  theology,  or  the  doctrine  of  God,  and  joins 
it  to  anthropology.  Christ  is  a  man  and  to  be 
judged  as  a  man.  It  was  ''  not  necessary  that  his 
moral  consciousness  should  be  divinized."  He  is 
separated  by  no  miraculous  act  from  the  beings  he 
came  to  save,  and  yet  his  moral  consciousness  has 
surpassed  that  of  all  other  men  {Critical  History 
of  ike  Evolution  of  Trinitarianism,  Boston,  1900, 
pp.  199,  281). 

2,  The  Pantheistio  Ohrlstoloffy,  suggested  by 
Schelling  and  Hegel,  and  best  represented  by 
Daub,  Marheineke,  and  G6schel  (of  the  right,  or 
conservative,  wing  of  Hegelianism),  and  by  Baur, 
Strauss,  and  Bi^ermann  (of  the  left,  or  radical, 
wing),  starts  from  the  idea  of  the  essential  unity 
of  the  divine  and  human,  and  teaches  a  continuous 
incamation  of  God  in  the  human  raoe  as  a  whole, 
but  denies,  for  this  very  reason,  the  specific  dig- 
nity of  Christ  as  the  one  and  only  God-man.  This, 
at  least,  is  the  theory  of  the  "  left,"  or  radical  and 
negative,  wing  of  the  Hegelian  School,  although 
Hegel  himself  had  no  sympathy  with  rationalism, 
but  despised  it.  "  The  infinite/'  says  Strauss, 
**  can  not  pour  out  its  fulness  into  a  single  indi- 
vidual." The  peculiar  position  of  Christ,  however, 
is  that  he  first  awoke  to  a  consciousness  of  this 
unity,  and  that  he  represents  it  in  its  purest  and 
strongest  form.  Under  this  view  Biedermann 
{CkriaUiche  DogmaHk,  Zurich,  1869)  places  Christ 
highest  in  the  scale  of  humanity,  not  only  in  the 
past,  but  for  all  time  to  come.  Even  Strauss  was 
at  one  time  willing  to  go  so  far;  but  he  destroyed 
nearly  the  whole  historic  foundation  of  his  life, 
and  ended  in  the  philosophical  bankruptcy  of 
materialism. 

8.  The  Christoloffy  of  Sohleiennaoher  (d.  1834) 
and  his  School  represents  the  highest  form  of  Hu- 
manitarianism  with  an  important  admission  of 
the  supernatural  or  divine  element.  He  regards 
Christ  as  a  perfect  man,  in  whom,  and  in  whom 
alone,  the  ideal  of  humanity  (the  Urbiid)  has  been 
fully  realized.  At  the  same  time  he  rises  above 
Humanitarianism  by  emphatically  asserting  Christ's 
essential  sinlessness  and  absolute  perfection  {"  we- 
sentliche  Unsnndlichkeit "  and  "  sMechtkinige  VoU- 
kommenheit  "),  and  a  peculiar  and  abiding  indweU- 


59 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OhrUtoloffy 


ing  of  the  Godhead  in  him  {"tin  eigerUliches  Sein 

Gottts  in  ikm  "),  by  which  he  differs  from  all  men. 

He    admits    him    to    be    ''  a    moral 

1.  Schlcier-  mirade,"  which  means  a  great  deal 
nBxihM.      for  a  theologian  of  the  boldest  and 

keenest  criticism  in  matters  of  his- 
toiy.  He  was  willing  to  surrender  almost  every 
mirade  of  action  in  order  to  save  the  miracle  of 
the  person  of  him  whom  he  adored  and  loved  as 
his  Lord  and  Savior.  He  adopts  the  Sabellian 
\iew  of  the  Trinity  as  a  tlireefold  manifestation  of 
<iod  in  creation  (in  the  world),  redemption  (in 
Christ),  and  sanctification  (in  the  Church).  Christ 
I*  Ood  as  Redeemer,  and  originated  an  incessant 
flow  of  a  new  spiritual  life,  with  all  its  pure  and  holy 
emotions  and  aspirations,  which  must  be  traced 
to  that  source.  Sabellian  as  he  was,  Schleier- 
macher  did  not  hold  an  eternal  personal  preex- 
i<ttnce  of  the  Logos  which  would  correspond  to 
the  historical  indwelling  of  God  in  Christ.  His 
cunoeption  of  the  abstract  unity  and  simplicity 
of  the  Godhead  excluded  an  immanent  Trinity. 
Sot  his  christology,  cf.  his  Der  christliche  Glauber 
H  92-99,  vol.  ii.,  Beriin,  1830,  pp.  26-93;  cf.  also 
the  nharp  criticism  of  Strauss,  in  Die  christliche 
GlaubmUehrey  ii.,  TQbingen,  1841,  pp.  175  sqq.) 

llhnann  (d.  1865),  originally  a  pupil  of  Schleier- 

macher,  but  more  orthodox,  wrote  the  best  book 

on  the  important  topic  of  the  sinless- 

2.  Xmmann.  nesB  of  Christ,  which  has  an  abiding 

doctrinal  and  apologetic  value,  inde- 
pendently of  ail  speculative  theories  {Die  Siind- 
Uiigkeit  Jesu,  7th  ed.,  Gotha,  1863,  Eng.  transl., 
Edinbur^,  1870). 

Somewhat  similar  is  the  christology  of  Richard 
Rothe  (d.  1866),  one  of  the  greatest  speculative 
theologians  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  wrought 
out  an  original  system  of  ethics  of  the  highest  order, 
lie  abandons  the  orthodox  dogma  of  the  Trinity 
and  the  Chaloedonian  dyophysitism  (which  he 
thinks  goes  far  beyond  the  simplicity  of  Biblical 
tvaching,  and  makes  the  imion  physicid  rather  than 
moral),  but  fully  admits  the  divine-himian  charac- 
ter of  the  one  personality  of  Christ,  and  lays  great 
stress  on  the  ethical  feature  in  the  development 
of  Christ,  by  which  alone  he  can  become  our 
redeemer  and  example.  God,  by  a  creative  act, 
calls  the  second  Adam  into  existence 
8.  Sothe.  in  the  bosom  of  the  old  natural  hu- 
manity. Christ  is  bom  of  a  woman, 
yet  Dot  begotten  by  man,  but  created  by  God  (as  to 
\as  humanity) »  hence  is  free  from  all  sinful  bias,  as 
well  as  actual  sin.  His  development  is  a  real,  but 
normal  and  harmonious,  religious  moral  growth, 
«ith  a  correspondingly  increasing  indwelling  of 
God  in  him.  There  was  not  a  single  moment  in 
liis  conscious  life  in  which  he  stood  not  in  personal 
uiiicMi  with  God;  but  the  absolute  imion  took  place 
with  the  completion  of  the  personal  development 
of  the  second  Adam.  This  completion  coincided 
with  his  perfect  self-sacrifice  in  death.  Hence- 
forth he  was  wholly  and  absolutely  God  {gam  und 
^f'hleckthin  Gcit),  since  his  being  is  extensively  and 
intensively  filled  with  the  true  God;  but  it  can  not 
^  *^d,  vice  versa,  that  God  is  wholly  the  second 
Adam;   for  God  is  not  limited  by  an  individual 


person.  The  death  of  Christ  on  earth  was  at  the 
same  time  his  ascension  to  heaven  and  his  ele- 
vation above  all  the  limitations  of  material  exist- 
ence into  the  divine  mode  of  existence  (a  return 
to  the  marphS  theou),  which,  however,  implies  also 
his  perpetual  presence  with  his  Church  on  earth 
(Matt,  xxviii.  20). 

Here  is  the  place  also  for  the  theory  of  Horace 
Bushnell  (q.v.;  d.  1876),  which  strongly  resembles 
those  of  Schleiermacher  and  Rothe,  but  differs 
from  them  by  adhering  to  the  eternal  preexistence 
of  Christ  (though  only  in  a  Sabellian  sense).  It 
was  first  annoimced  in  his  Concio  ad  CUrumj  at  the 
aimual  commencement  of  Yale  College,  New  Haven, 
Aug.  15,  1848,  and  gave  rise  to  his  trial  for  heresy. 
Bushnell,  one  of  the  most  independent 
and  vigorous  American  thinkers,  read 


4.  Koraoe 
Bushnell. 


Schleiermacher's  essay  on  Sabellius 
as  translated  by  Professor  Moses  Stuart  in  the 
Biblical  ReposUaryy  and  said  that  "  the  general 
view  of  the  Trinity  given  in  that  article  coin- 
cides "  with  his  own  view,  and  confirmed  him  in 
the  results  of  his  own  private  struggles  {God  in 
Christ,  New  York,  1877,  pp.  111-112).  He  main- 
tains the  full  divinity  of  Christ  on  the  Sabellian 
basis.  He  rejects  the  theory  of  "  three  meta- 
physical or  essential  persons  in  the  being  of  God," 
with  three  distinct  consciousnesses,  wills,  and 
understandings;  and  he  substitutes  for  it  simply 
a  trinity  of  revelation,  or  what  he  calls  (p.  175)  an 
"  instrumental  trinity,"  or  three  impersonations, 
in  which  the  one  divine  being  presents  himself  to 
our  htmian  capacities  and  wants,  and  which  are 
necessary  to  produce  mutuality,  or  terms  of  con- 
versableness,  between  us  and  1dm,  and  to  pour  his 
love  most  efifectually  into  our  feeling  (p.  137). 
"  (jod  may  act/'  he  says  (p.  152),  "  as  a  human 
personality,  without  being  measured  by  it."  The 
real  divinity  came  into  the  finite,  and  was  subject 
to  himian  conditions.  There  are  not  two  distinct 
subsistences  in  the  person  of  Christ,  one  infinite 
and  the  other  finite;  but  it  is  the  one  infinite  God 
who  expresses  himself  in  Christ,  and  brings  himself 
down  to  the  level  of  our  himianity,  without  any 
loss  of  his  greatness  or  reduction  of  his  majesty. 
At  the  same  time,  Bushnell  holds  to  the  full  yet 
sinless  humanity  of  Christ;  and  the  tenth  chap- 
ter of  his  work  on  Nature  and  the  Supernatural  is 
one  of  the  ablest  and  most  eloquent  tributes  to 
the  sinless  perfection  of  the  moral  character  of 
Christ. 

4.  The  Kodem  Kenotlc  Theory  (see  Kenosis) 
differs  from  the  theories  just  noticed  by  its  ortho- 
dox premises  and  conclusions  as  far  as  the  dogma 
of  the  Trinity  and  of  the  eternal  Deity  of  Christ  is 
concerned;  but  it  likewise  departs  from  the  Chal- 
oedonian dyophysitism,  by  holding  to  one  divine- 
human  Christ,  with  one  consciousness  and  one  will. 
It  is  chiefly  based  on  the  famous  passage  Phil.  ii. 
6-8  (Gk.  heauton  ekenosen,  verse  7,  "  he  emptied 
himself,"  A.  V.,  "  made  himself  of  no  reputation," 
the  subject  of  the  Kenosis  being  the  preexistent, 
not  the  incarnate,  Logos),  and  also  on  II  Cor.  viii. 
9;  Johni.  14  (Gk.  egeneto,  "  became  ");  Heb.  ii.  17, 
18,  V.  8,  9;  and  on  the  general  impression  which  the 
gospel  history  makes  of  Christ,  as  a  truly  human, 


Ohzlatolo^T 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


60 


yet  divinely  human  being,  speaking  of  himself 
always  as  a  unit.  It  was  suggested  by  Zinzendorf 
in  the  fonn  of  devout  sentimentalism  that  brought 

the  divine  Christ  down  to  the  closest 

1.  Oeneral  intimacy  with   men;    it  was  Bcientif- 

Ontline.     ically  developed,  though  with  various 

modifications,  by  a  number  of  emi- 
nent German  divines  of  the  Lutheran  Confession 
(Thomasius,  Liebner,  Gcss,  Von  Hofmann,  Kahnis, 
Delitzsch,  SchOberiein,  KQbel),  and  several  Re- 
fonned  divines  (Lange,  Ebrard,  Godet,  Pres- 
■ens^,  in  Europe,  Henry  M.  Goodwin  and  Howard 
Crosby  in  America).  It  is  hardly  just  to  call  it 
(with  Domer)  a  revival  of  Apollinarianism  and 
Patiipassianism;  for,  while  it  resembles  both  in 
some  features,  it  differs  from  them  by  assuming 
a  truly  humanized  Logos  dwelling  in  a  human 
body.  It  carries  the  Kenosis  much  farther  than 
the  Giessen  Lutherans,  and  makes  it  consist,  not  in 
a  concealment  merely  {krypsis)^  but  in  an  actual 
abandonment  of  the  divine  attributes  of  omnipo- 
tence, omniscience,  and  omnipresence,  during  the 
whole  period  of  humiliation  from  the  incarnation 
to  the  resurrection;  the  differences  between  the 
advocates  of  this  theory  referring  to  the  degree  of 
the  Kenosis.  It  substitutes  a  genus  kenoHcum,  or 
tapeinottcumf  for  the  gentu  majesticum  of  the  Lu- 
theran Creed:  in  other  words,  a  communication  of 
the  properties  of  humanity  to  the  divinity  for  a 
communication  of  the  properties  of  the  divine  na- 
ture to  the  human.  Instead  of  raising  the  finite 
to  the  infinite,  the  Kenotic  theory  lowers  the  infi- 
nite to  the  finite.  It  teaches  a  temporary  self- 
exinanition  or  depotentiation  of  the  preexistent 
Logos.  In  becoming  incarnate,  the  second  Per- 
son of  the  holy  Trinity  reduced  himself  to  the 
limitations  of  himianity.  He  literally  emptied 
himself,  not  only  of  his  <^vine  g^ory,  but  also  of  his 
divine  mode  of  existence  (the  morphS  theou),  and 
assumed  the  human  mode  of  existence  (the  morphi 
doulou),  subject  to  the  limits  of  space  and  time 
and  the  laws  of  development  and  growth.  The 
incarnation  is  not  only  an  assumption  by  the  Son 
of  God  of  hiunan  nature,  but  also  a  self-limitation 
of  the  divine  Logos;  and  both  constitute  one  divine- 
human  personality.  Otherwise  the  infinite  con- 
sciousness of  the  Logos  could  not  coincide  with  the 
himian  consciousness  of  the  historical  Christ:  it 
would  transcend  and  outreach  it,  and  the  result 
would  be  a  double  personality.  The  self-limita- 
tion is  to  be  conceived  as  an  act  of  will,  an  act  of 
God's  love,  which  is  the  motive  of  the  incarnation; 
and  his  love  is  absolutely  powerful,  even  to  the  extent 
of  the  utmost  self-surrender.  This  was  the  view 
of  Thomasius,  a  Bavarian  Lutheran.  He  and 
Liebner  held,  first,  that  the  Logos  actually  became 
a  rational  human  soul;  but  afterward  they  assimied 
a  truly  human  soul  along  with  the  Kenosis  of  the 
Logos,  and  thereby  they  lost  the  chief  benefit  of 
the  Kenosis  theory. 

GesB,  a  Swabian  divine  brought  up  imder  the 
influence  of  the  school  of  Bengel,  Oetinger,  and 
Beck,  and  starting  from  a  theosophic  Biblical 
realism,  carried  the  Kenosis  to  the  extent  of  a 
Buspenmon  of  self-oonsciousness  and  will.  He 
identified  it  with  the  outgoing  of  the  Son  from 


tlip   Father,  or   his   descent   from    heaven,   which 

resulted  in  a  temporary  suspension  of  the  influx 

of  the  eternal  life  of  the  Father  into 

2.  GesB.  the  Son,  and  a  transition  from  a  stat« 
of  equality  with  God  into  a  state  of 
dependence  and  need.  Gess  and  Ebrard  assume 
an  actual  transformation  of  the  Logos  into  a  himian 
soul,  i.e.,  he  a^isumed  a  human  body  from  the  flesh 
of  the  Virgin,  but  became  a  rational  human  soul 
so  that  he  had  no  need  of  assuming  another  soul. 
Consequently  the  soul  of  Christ  was  not  derived 
from  Mary:  it  was  the  result  of  a  volimtary  Kenosis, 
while  an  ordinary  human  soul  derives  its  existence 
from  a  creative  act  of  God.  It  is  very  questionable 
whether  such  a  soul,  which  is  the  result  of  a  trans- 
formation which  begins  with  divinity  and  ends  with 
divinity,  can  be  called  a  truly  human  soul  any 
more  than  the  Apollinarian  Logos,  who,  remaining 
unchanged,  occupied  the  place  and  exercised  the 
functions  of  the  human  soul. 

Martensen,  the  Danish  theologian,  more  cau- 
tiously taught  only  a  relative,  though  real,  Kenosis. 
The  eternal  Logos  continues  in  God 

8.  Kar-     and  in  his  general  revelation  to  the 

tansen.  world  as  the  author  of  all  reason; 
while  at  the  same  time  he  enters  into 
the  bosom  of  himianity  as  a  holy  seed,  that  he 
may  arise  within  the  human  race  as  a  mediator 
and  redeemer.  He  would,  however,  have  be- 
come man  even  without  sin,  though  not  as  redeemer. 
Martensen  taught,  with  several  of  the  Fathers  and 
modem  German  theologians,  that  the  incarnation 
was  necessary  for  the  highest  revelation  of  God, 
and  was  only  modified,  not  conditioned,  by  the  fall. 

Kahnis  and  Lange  limited  the  Kenosis  sub- 
stantially to  an  abandonment  of  the  use,  rather 
4  Kah  1  *^*"^  *^®  possession,  of  the  attri- 
andLanse.  ^"*®®-  Lwige's  christology  abounds 
*  in  fruitful  and  original  hints  for 
further  and  clearer  development. 

Julius  M tiller,  one  of  the  profoundest  theo- 
logians, taught  likewise  in  his  lectures  a  moderate 
Kenosis  theory.  Paul  contrasts  the 
6.  Jollua   earthly  and   preearthly  existence  of 

Miiller.  the  Son  of  God  as  poverty  and  riches 
(II  Cor.  vii.  9),  and  represents  the 
incarnation  as  an  emptying  himself  of  the  full 
possession  of  the  divine  mode  of  existence  (Phil, 
ii.  6 ).  This  implies  more  than  a  mere  assumption  of 
human  nature  into  union  with  the  Son  of  God: 
the  incarnation  is  a  real  self-exinanition  {Selbstent- 
dusserung),  and  a  renunciation,  not  only  of  the 
use,  but  also  of  the  possession,  of  the  divine  attri- 
butes and  powers.  .  .  .  The  Church  is  undoubt- 
edly right  in  teaching  a  real  union  of  the  diviae 
and  human  nature  in  Christ.  But  in  the  state  of 
humiliation  this  union  was  first  only  potential  and 
concealed;  and  the  unfolded  reality  belong  to 
the  state  of  exaltation.  Only  with  the  assumption 
of  a  self-exinanition  can  we  fully  appreciate  the 
act  of  the  self-denying  condescension  of  divine 
love;  while  in  the  orthodox  dogma  God  gives  noth- 
ing in  the  incarnation,  but  simply  receives  and 
unites  something  with  his  person. 

Goodwin  differed  from  the  German  Kenoticists 
by  assuming  that  the  Logos  is  the  human  element 


61 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohristoloffy 


in  God  which  preexisted  in  him  from  eternity,  and 
became  incarnate  by  taking  flesh,  and  occupy- 
ing the  place  of  the  soul.  No  incar- 
e.  Goodwin  nation  is  possible  without  a  humani- 
uid  Crosby,  nation  of  the  divine;  and  this  implies 
a  self -limitation »  and  true  develop- 
ment from  ignorance  to  knowledge  and  wisdom. 
Tbe  incarnation  is  not  a  synthesis  or  union  of  op- 
posite natures,  but  a  development  of  the  divine 
in  the  form  of  tbe  human.  The  Word  did  not 
assume  flesh  or  human  nature,  but  it  became  flesh. 
As  tbe  true  idea  of  God  includes  humanity,  so  the 
true  idea  of  man  includes  God.  The  divine  and 
human  differ  only  as  the  ideal  differs  from  the  ac- 
tual, or  the  prototype  from  the  copy.  This  essen- 
tial unity  is  the  basis  of  the  possibility  of  the 
bcamation  as  a  Kenosis.  Howard  Crosby  held 
that,  according  to  the  Scripture,  the  Son  of  God 
reduced  himself  to  the  dimensions  of  hiunanity, 
to  a  state  of  "  dormancy."  His  Godhead,  there- 
fore, was  in  a  state  of  quiescence  during  his  humilia- 
tion and  awoke  with  the  resurrection,  after  which 
the  divine  overshadowed  the  human. 

A  theory  advocated  by  so  many  learned  and 
pbus  theologians    can    not  be    altogether    false. 
The  Kenotic  theory  has  the  merit  of  bringing  out 
the  tmth  of  the  classical  passage  in  Phil.  ii.  more 
forcibly  than  ever  before.     But  it  carries  the  idea 
of  the  self-limitation  of  the  Logos  to 
7.  Criti-    the  extent  of  a  metaphysical  impos- 
cism.       sibility:    it   contradicts  the  essential 
unchangeableness  of  God.    The   hu- 
miliation of  the  Logos  is  an  abandonment  of  the 
divine  daxa  and  its  enjoyment,  but  not  of  the 
divine  being.    The  true  Kenosis  is  a  renimciation  of 
the  use  {chrisis),  but  not  of  the  possession  (Arffois), 
of  divine  attributes.     The  fonner  is  possible,  the 
latter  impossible.     God    can  do  nothing  that    is 
contrary  to  his  rational  and  moral  nature.      It  is 
admitted  by  the  Kenoticists  that  the  Logos  can 
not,  in  the  incarnation,  limit  or  suspend  liis  moral 
attributes  of  love  and  holiness,  but   reveals  them 
mo6t  fully  in   the  state  of  hiuniliation.     But  his 
metaphysical    and    intellectual    attributes    belong 
just  as  much  to  the  essence  and  nature  of  God 
afl  his  moral   attributes,  and  all  are  inseparable 
from  his  nature;  so  that  God  can  not  give  up  any 
of  his  attributes  without  mutilating  and  so  far 
destroying  his  own  being.     He  can  not  commit 
wicide,  nor  can  he  go  to  sleep.     He  can  not  re- 
duce himself   to  the  unconscious  existence  of  an 
embryo,  without  ceasing  to  be  God,  and  without 
destroying  the  life  of  the  world,  which  without 
him  can  not  exist  a  single  moment.     The  illustra- 
tioQ  borrowed    from    sleep   proves   nothing;     for 
oun's  identity   continues    undisturbed    in    sleep, 
*nd  he  awakes  with  the  full  exercise  of  all  the 
faculties.    Moreover,  we  can  not  conceive  of  such 
ft  ielf-reduction  of  the  Logos  without  suspending 
the  intertrinitarian  process,  and  also  the  Trinity 
ol  revelation.     It    would    stop    for    thirty-three 
vran,  as  Gess  frankly  admits,  the  eternal  gener- 
ation of  the  Son,  the  procession  of  the  Spirit  from 
t^ie  Father  and  the  Son,  and  the  government  of 
(he  world  through  the  Logos.    To  say  that  the 
l^>go8  remained  unchanged  in  the  Trinity,  while 


at  the  same  time  he  went  out  of  the  Trinity  and 
became  man,  is  virtually  to  establish  two  distinct 
Logoi,  which  is  no  better  than  the  orthodox  theory 
of  two  parallel  natures,  one  infinite,  the  other 
finite.  The  Father  and  the  Son  have  but  one  es- 
sence; how,  then,  could  the  divinity  of  the  Son  be 
suspended,  or  almost  annihilated  for  a  time,  with- 
out suspending  the  divinity  of  the  Father  ?  It  may 
be  said,  with  Thomas  Aquinas,  that  it  was  not  the 
nature,  but  the  person,  of  the  Logos  that  became 
man.  True,  but  a  person  without  a  nature  is  an 
impossible  abstraction.  If  the  Logos  surrendered 
his  divine  self-consciousness,  his  omnipotence,  and 
omniscience,  how  did  he  regain  them  ?  Was  it 
by  a  recollection  of  his  preexistent  state  ?  Or  by 
a  reflection  on  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures? 
Or  by  a  revelation  from  the  Father?  Or  by  the 
development  of  a  native  instinct?  These  and 
similar  questions  can  not  be  satisfactorily  an- 
swered by  the  consistent  Kenoticists.  Professor 
Paine  {Critical  History  of  the  Evolution  of  Trini- 
tarianism,  Boston,  1900,  p.  281)  pronounces  the 
Kenosis  theory  ''  only  a  metaphysical  makeshift 
to  cover  the  real  contradiction  which  in  the  Chalce- 
donian  theology  stands  visible  to  every  intelligent 
eye." 

6:  The  Bltschlian  Theory  is  the  product  of 
Albrecht  Ritschl  (q.v.),  the  founder  of  the  theo- 
logical school  which  goes  by  his  name.  It  is  set 
forth  adequately  in  his  Chriatliche  Lehre  von  der 
Rechtfertigung  und  der  Versohnung  (3  vols.,  Bonn, 
1870-74;  3d  ed.,  1888-89;  Eng.  transL,  Edinburgh, 
vol.  i.,  1872,  vol.  iii.,  1900),  chap,  vi.,  "  The  Doc- 
trine of  Christ's  Person  and  Work"  (iii.  385-484 
of  Eng.  ed.).  The  theory  is  an  appreciation  of  Christ's 
ethical  and  religious  unity  with  the  Father  and 
a  denial  of  man's  ability  to  find  out  the  **  phys- 
ical origin"  of  the  Person  of  Christ.  Christ  is 
"  unique  in  his  own  order,"  that  is,  regarded  as  the 
revealer  and  bearer  of  religious  and  ethical  truth. 
In  this  sense  he  is  the  Son  of  God;  and  his  "  appre- 
hension of  himself  as  the  Son  of  God  is  ever  at- 
tained through  his  adoration  of  God  as  his  Father.*' 
It  is  folly  to  attempt  to  explain  the  physical  origin 
of  the  Person  of  Christ.  Ritschl's  theory  is  in 
accord  with  his  discarding  of  the 
1.  The  metaphysical  element  and  his  asser- 
Theory  tion  only  of  that  which  is  truly  re- 
Stated,  ligious.  In  other  words,  all  is  to  be 
set  aside  from  the  discussion  of  Christ's 
Person  which  can  not  be  and  has  not  been  tested 
by  the  Church,  or  "  the  Christian  community," 
in  its  experience.  Ritschl  says  that  the  three 
offices  of  Christ — prophet,  priest,  and  king — are  a 
step  toward  grasping  the  significance  of  Christ 
for  the  Church,  but  they  afford  only  a  defective 
conception  of  him.  Jesus  was  conscious  of  a  new 
and  previously  unknown  relation  to  God,  as  he 
testified  to  his  disciples  (p.  386).  He  esteemed 
himself  more  than  a  mere  human  being.  He 
regarded  his  life  as  an  instrument  of  God's  com- 
plete revelation  of  himself.  The  theology  of  the 
Reformers  adopted,  it  is  true,  the  ethical  mode  of 
looking  at  Christ  (p.  440);  but  all  the  older  theologies 
in  their  doctrine  of  Christ  failed  to  consider  his 
religious  activities,  namely  his  habit  of  prayer  and 


Ohrlstoloffy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


62 


his  Bubmifision  to  the  dispensations  of  God.  Christ 
as  the  Word  of  God  realizes  in  himself,  that  is  in  a 
human  person,  his  vocation,  which  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  universal  ethical  kingdom  of  God. 
This  kingdom  is  the  supreme  self-end  of  God  in 
the  world,  so  that  the  complete  revelation  of  God 
is  present  in  Christ,  "  in  whom  the  word  of  God 
is  a  human  person  "  (p.  451).  The  origin  of  the 
Person  of  Christ  is  not  a  proper  subject  of  inquiry, 
for  the  problem  transcends  all  investigation  (p. 
451).  What  ecclesiastical  tradition  offers  in  this 
respect  is  obscure  in  itself  and  is  not  fitted  to  make 
anything  clear.  Christ,  as  the  instrument  of  the 
perfect  revelation,  is  given  that  we  may  believe 
on  him,  and  believing  on  him  we  find  him  to  be  the 
revealer  of  God.  But  the  determination  of  the 
personal  relation  of  Christ  to  God  the  Father  is 
not  a  matter  of  scientific  inquiry.  Straining  after 
explanations  will  prove  fruitless.  It  will  result 
only  in  obscuring  the  recognition  of  Christ  as  the 
perfect  revelation  of  God  (p.  452).  The  specific 
and  complete  revelation  of  God  in  Christ  is  **  the 
grace  and  truth"  which  dwelt  in  him.  These 
are  his  divinity,  and  divinity  does  not  reside  in  the 
will  (p.  467).  In  the  discharge  of  his  vocation  the 
essential  will  of  God  is  revealed,  which  is  love 
(p.  454).  The  only  tests  of  the  revelation  of  God 
in  a  human  personality  are  **  grace  and  truth." 
In  Christ  the  divine  attributes  of  omniscience,  om- 
nipotence, and  omnipresence  are  not  to  be  sought. 
To  be  sure,  to  Christ  is  ascribed  power  over  the 
worid  (Matt.  xi.  27;  etc.),  but  this  power  mani- 
fests itself  chiefly  as  patience  under  suffering  (p. 
460).  Christ's  divinity  is  in  his  world-conquering 
power,  in  his  own  patience,  and  in  the  Christian 
community.  It  rests  not  in  his  physical  origin, 
which  has  never  yet  been  reconciled  with  his 
historic  appearance  and  never  can  be  (p.  467). 
In  virtue  of  the  love  which  inspired  him  and  in  view 
of  the  lordship  which  in  his  own  estimate  of  him- 
self and  by  his  patience  he  exercised  over  the  world, 
he  is  equal  with  God  (p.  483). 

It  is  Bitschl's  merit  that  he  emphasized  the 
ethical  element  of  Christianity  and  insisted  upon 
human  experience  as  a  test  of  the  great  principles 

of  the  Gospel.     He  can  preserve  the 

Merit  Mid  *®™^    "equality   with    the    Father" 

Lixni-       ^^^  "  preexistence  "  by  exalting  the 

tation.      love    which    moved    Christ    and    by 

exalting  Christ's  vocation,  which  was 
to  advance  the  universal  kingdom  of  God.  In 
doing  this  he  can  not  avoid  metaphysical  subtlety 
and  he  must  leave  out,  or  explain  away,  utterances 
of  Christ  which  on  their  face  refer  to  what  he  calls 
"  his  physical  origin  "  and  which  he  says  the  older 
theologies  in  vain  attempted  to  solve.  Theology 
will  not  be  satisfied  with  formulas  bearing  on  the 
ethical  and  religious  relationship  of  Christ  and  God 
while  so  much  is  said  in  the  New  Testament  about 
the  "physical  (essential)  relationship,"  especially 
as  this  "physical  relationship"  seems  to  be  the 
basis  of  the  ethical  and  religious  unity  of  the  Son  of 
God  and  the  Father. 

6.  The  Theory  of  a  Oradnal  or  Proffresalve  In- 
oamation  is  the  last  to  be  mentioned  as  promoting 
a  solution  of  the  problem.    It  carried  the  divine 


Kenosis,  or  the  motion  of  God's  love  to  men,  through 
the  whole  earthly  Ufe  of  Christ,  instead  of  confi- 
ning it  to  an  instantaneous  act  when  the  Holy 
Spirit  overshadowed  the  Blessed  Virgin.  When 
John  says  that  the  "  Logos  became  flesh,"  he 
spoke  as  one  of  those  who  "  beheld  his  glory,  the 
glory  of  the  only-begotten  of  the  Father,"  as  it 
manifested  itself  in  his  whole  public  life.  The 
impossible  idea  of  an  essential  self-limitation  of 
the   Logos  is    discarded,   and   in  Ms 

1.  The      place  is  assimied  the  rational  idea  of 
Theory,     a  limitation  of  the  self -communication 

of  the  Logos  to  humanity.  There  are 
various  degrees  in  this  self-communication.  The 
being  and  actuality  of  the  Logos  remained  meta- 
physically and  morally  unchanged;  but  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  possessed  the  Logos  merely  so  far  as  was 
compatible  with  the  truth  of  human  growth  and 
the  capacity  of  his  expanding  consciousness.  In 
other  words,  the  eternal  personality  of  the  divine 
Logos  entered  into  the  humanity  of  Jesus,  meas- 
ure by  measure  as  it  grew,  and  became  capable 
and  worthy  of  receiving  it.  There  were  two  corre- 
sponding movements  in  the  life  of  Christ — & 
descent  of  the  divine  consciousness,  and  an  ascent 
of  the  human  consciousness.  There  was  a  pro- 
gressive self-communication  of  the  divine  Logos 
to  Jesus,  and  a  moral  growth  of  Jesus  in  holiness 
keeping  step  with  the  former.  The  process  of  imion 
began  with  the  supernatural  conception,  and  was 
completed  with  the  ascension.  The  first  act  of  the 
incarnation  of  the  Logos  was  the  beginning  of  the 
man  Jesus,  and  both  constituted  one  undivided 
personality.  There  was  a  personal  unity  and  iden- 
tity throughout  the  whole  period,  the  same  life  of 
the  divine-human  personality,  but  in  actual  growth 
and  development  from  germ  to  full  organization, 
from  infancy  to  ripe  manhood.  Christ  became 
conscious  of  his  Godhead  as  he  became  conscious 
of  his  manhood;  but  the  divine  life  always  was  the 
basis  of  his  human  life.  The  twelfth  year  of 
Jesus  in  the  temple,  and  the  baptism  in  the  Jor- 
dan, mark  two  important  epochs  in  the  develop- 
ment of  this  divine-human  consciousness.  There 
was  in  connection  with  the  gradual  incorporation 
of  the  divine  Logos  into  the  humanity  of  Jesus  an 
actual  elevation  of  his  humanity  into  personal 
union  with  the  Godhead,  as  he  grew  in  moral 
perfection:  hence  his  exaltation  is  spoken  of  by 
Paul  as  a  reward  for  his  humiliation  and  obedience 
(Phil.  ii.  9;   cf.  Heb.  v.  7-10). 

This  theory  escapes  the  diflficulties  of  the  Ken- 
otic  theory,  and  is  even  better  reconcilable  with 
the  orthodox  christology  of  the  creeds, 

2.  Its      as    far    as    the    result   is  concerned. 
Kerits.     Nearly  all   christologists   admit  now 

the  genuine  growth  and  development 
of  Christ's  humanity,  to  which  the  Kenoticists  add 
the  impossible  growth  of  the  divine  Logos  from 
unconsciousness  and  impotence  to  omniscience 
and  omnipotence.  This  view  teaches  the  former 
without  the  latter,  and  saves  the  continued  integ- 
rity of  the  Logos.  There  still  remains  the  specu- 
lative problem  perceived  by  the  Reformed  divines- 
how  the  infinite  consciousness  of  the  eternal  Logos 
can  ever  become  absolutely  coincident  with  the 


68 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OhriatoIosT 


limited  oonsdousness  of  the  man  Jesus;  but  this 
difficulty  attaches  to  every  theory  which  holds  fast 
to  the  strict  divinity  of  our  Lord 

7.  Conolnaion:  In  reviewing  these  various  the- 
ories we  can  readily  accept  the  elements  of  truth 
which  they  variously  express.  Christ  is  the  ideal 
nun  realised,  the  head  of  the  redeemed  race,  the 
perfect  model  for  universal  imitation.  So  far, 
e\'en  the  Humanitarian  theory  is  correct;  only  it 
does  not  go  far  enough,  and  it  becomes  a  serious 
error  when  it  denies  the  higher  truth  beyond. 
For  Christ  is  also  the  et«mal  Son  of  God,  who  in 
infinite  love  renounced  his  ^ory  and 
S*of  ™*J®sty>  *^^  lowered  himself  to  a 
Tmthis  All  ^^^^  race,  entering  into  all  its  wants, 

Thaoriea.  ^^als,  and  temptations,  yet  without 
sin,  and  humbled  himself,  even  to  the 
death  on  the  cross,  in  order  to  emancipate  men 
from  the  guilt  and  power  of  sin,  and  to  reconcile 
them  to  God.  He  is  the  one  undivided  God-man, 
who,  as  man,  calls  out  all  our  sympathies  and 
trust,  and,  as  God,  is  the  object  of  true  worship. 
In  this  respect  we  accept  fully  the  faith  of  the 
Church  in  all  ages,  and  consider  the  divinity  of 
our  Lord  as  the  comer-stone  of  Christianity.  We 
bold,  with  Ritschl  and  Paine,  to  the  moral  nature 
of  the  God-manhood  of  Christ,  but  without  sacri- 
ficing his  eternal  divinity.  We  would  go  as  far 
with  the  Kenosis  theory  as  the  unchangeable 
nature  of  God  permits,  and  as  the  imbounded  love 
of  God  demands.  We  dissent  from  the  dyophysitic 
and  dualistic  psychology  of  Chaloedon,  and  hold 
to  the  inseparable  personal  unity  of  the  life,  and 
%t  the  same  time  to  the  genuine  growth  of  Christ, 
without  asserting,  with  the  Kenoticists,  a  growth 
of  the  divine  Logos,  who  is  unchangeable  in  his 
nature;  but  we  substitute  for  this  impossible  idea 
a  gradual  communication  of  the  divinity  to  the 
God-man. 

This  is,  in  substance,  the  Christ  of  the  Catholic 

creeds  and   the   Protestant   confessions  of   faith. 

He  is  a  mystery  indeed  to  our  intel- 

2.  The     lectual    and    philosophical     compre- 

Xystary    hension,  but  a  mystery  made  manifest 

of  dhxist.  as  the  most  glorious  fact  in  history — 
the  blessed  mjrstery  of  godliness,  the 
inexhaustible  theme  of  meditation  and  praise  for 
all  generations.  How  the  whole  fulness  of  un- 
created divinity  can  be  poured  out  into  a  human 
being  passes  our  understanding,  but  not  more, 
perhaps,  than  the  familiar  fact  that  an  immaterial 
and  inunortal  soul  made  in  God's  image,  and  ca- 
pable of  endless  perfectibility,  inhabits  and  inter- 
penetrates a  material  and  mortal  body.  And 
deeper  and  grander  than  both  mysteries  is  the 
infinite  love  of  God  which  lies  back  of  them  in  the 
very  depths  of  eternity,  and  which  prompted  the 
incarnation  and  the  death  of  his  only-begotten  Son 
for  the  salvation  of  a  sinful  world.  Yet  this  love 
of  God  in  Christ,  whose  "  breadth  and  length  and 
height  and  depth  passeth  knowledge  *'  (Eph.  iii. 
IS,  19),  is  more  certain  and  constant  than  the  light 
of  the  sun  in  heaven  and  the  voice  of  conscience  in 
man. 

It  has  been  thought  best  not  to  discuss  in  this 
article  the  bearing  of  the  denial  of  the  virgin-birth 


of  our  Lord  upon  the  problems  of  christology. 
Origen  and  other  early  Fathers,  whose  names  have 
a  prominent  place  in  the  development  of  chris- 
tology, emphasized  the  virgin-birth  as  an  integral 
element  of  Christ's  divinity.  The  purely  human 
origin  of  Christ  from  a  human  father  and  mother 
favors  strongly,  if  it  does  not  necessi- 
tate, the  view  that  Christ  was  only  a 


8.  Limits 
of  This 


-^j  ,  man  and  precludes  the  view  that  he  was 
either  preexistent  or  essentially  divine. 
Nor  has  it  seemed  necessary  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  view  of  the  contemporary  school  of  his- 
torical critics,  Pfleiderer,  Wemle,  and  others,  who 
make  a  sharp  distinction  between  Paul's  theology 
and  the  much  simpler  claims  Christ  made  for  him- 
self, and  who  regard  Paul  as  the  inventor  of  the 
deity  of  Christ  and  other  doctrines  which  the  Church 
has  always  held.  This  article  assumes  the  integrity 
of  the  four  Gospels,  and  that  the  Pauline  epistles 
interpreted  but  did  not  originate  the  doctrines 
concerning  Christ's  person. 

(Philip  ScHAFFf)  D.  S.  Schaff. 

XI.  Additional  Note:  Certain  questions  which 
have  come  up  in  the  recent  dogmatic  considera- 
tion of  the  person  of  Christ  require  an  additional 
statement.  That  this  problem  engaged  the  early 
attention  of  the  church  is  evident  by  the  birth- 
stories  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  the  stories  of  the  bap- 
tism, the  Logos-doctrine  of  the  Fourth 

I.  Preez-  Gospel  and  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
istence.  brews,  and  Paul's  conception  of  preex- 
istence.  In  addition  to  the  orthodox 
theory  of  the  Logos,  or  the  second  person  of  the 
Trinity,  who  assumed  human  nature  in  Jesus  Christ, 
and  the  speculations  of  those  who  have  advocated 
the  several  Kenotic  theories  (see  Kenosib),  various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  do  justice  to  the  New 
Testament  teaching  concerning  preexistence.  (1) 
The  preexistence  is  ideal.  According  to  a  form 
of  expression  common  in  the  time  of  Jesus,  things 
of  exceeding  worth,  as  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  the 
temple,  Jerusalem,  are  conceived  as  already  exists 
ing  in  heaven  with  God  before  they  are  manifested 
on  earth.  Thus  the  transcendent  ground  of  the 
person  of  Christ  was  within  God's  eternal  knowl- 
edge, so  that  in  the  divine  idea  and  purpose  of 
redemption  Jesus  had  eternal  existence  (cf.  Har- 
nack.  Dogma,  vol.  i.,  Appendix  I.).  Or,  the  mean- 
ing of  preexistence  is  that  Christ  in  human  form 
is  the  revelation  of  the  eternal  cosmic  principle 
through  which  in  creation  and  redemption  God  is 
disclosing  himself  (W.  A.  Brown,  Christian  The- 
ology in  OiUline,  pp.  179-180,  347,  New  York,  1906). 
(2)  The  "  heavenly  man  "  preexisting  in  the  image 
of  God  (I  Cor.  XV.  47,  cf.  Col.  i.  15-17;  II  Cor.  viu. 
9)  does  not  assume  human  nature,  but  becomes 
incarnate  in  Jesus  Christ.  This  interpretation, 
originating  in  Paul's  antithesis  of  flesh  and  spirit, 
found  a  congenial  soil  in  the  reUgious  ideas  of  the 
time — ^a  logical  deduction  backward  drawn  from 
belief  in  the  risen  Christ  (cf.  O.  Pfleiderer,  Pavlin- 
ism,  part  I.,  chap,  iii.,  London).  Or,  the  "  heavenly 
man  "  had  a  preexistent  life,  and  this  Ufe  was  divine 
not  in  the  absolute  sense,  but  as  conferred  upon  him 
by  God,  thus  identical  in  principle  with  the  glorified 
life  (C.  H.  von  Weizs&cker,  Apostolic  Age,  book  II., 


Chzlstoloffy 
Christopher,  Saint 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


64 


chap,  ii.,  §§  10-11,  New  York,  1804).  Or,  again, 
in  one  aspect  the  Logos  is  to  be  regarded  as  the 
eternal  Humanity  in  God,  the  **  Archetype  of  the 
not  yet  created  Man,"  which  became  incarnate  in 
Jesus  Christ  (T.  C.  Edwards,  The  God-Man,  Lon- 
don, 1896).  (3)  W.  Herrmann  holds  that  the  pre- 
existenoe  was  not  ideal,  but  personal — a  contra- 
diction indeed,  to  be  removed  only  when  the  riddle 
of  time  in  which  we  now  conceive  reality  had  been 
solved  for  us  {Die  Religion  im  Verhdltnias  turn 
Welterkennen  und  zur  SiUlichkett,  p.  438,  Halle,  1879) . 
As  to  theories  of  incarnation  several  tenden- 
cies are  evident.  (1)  The  ethical  aspect  of  the 
incarnation  is  increasingly  emphasized.  The  tra- 
ditional cb^tology  has  been  based 
a.  Incar-  on  the  essential  disparity  of  the  divine 
nation,  and  human  natures.  This  was  held 
to  be  necessary  in  order  to  safeguard 
the  integrity  of  the  two  natures.  But  however 
carefully  the  statement  of  the  doctrine  was  pro- 
tected, it  did  not  escape  the  force  of  the  criticism 
in  the  preceding  text  (see  VL,  2,  {  2).  To  meet  this 
difficulty,  therefore,  attention  has  been  directed 
away  from  the  two-nature  doctrine  on  its  purely 
metaphysical  side  to  the  ethical  and  religious  as- 
pects of  the  incarnation.  As  in  the  traditiunal 
view,  God  and  man  are  here  affirmed  in  all  the 
integrity  of  their  spiritual  being,  but  the  point  of 
view  is  changed.  It  is  not  so  much  a  question  of 
nature  and  essence  and  hypostasis  as  of  psycholog- 
ical experience  and  character,  of  inner  development 
and  historical  influence,  i.e.,  of  the  moral  and  spiri- 
tual consciousness  of  Jesus  Christ  in  which  the  pur- 
pose of  God  is  revealed  and  realized,  and  the  unity 
of  God  and  man  are  disclosed.  Accordingly,  the 
proof  of  the  incarnation  is  found  in  Jcsus's  con- 
sciousness of  his  vocation,  in  his  grace  and  truth,  his 
dominion  over  the  world,  and  his  success  in  estab- 
lishing his  community  with  attributes  analogous  to 
his  own.  This  ethical  estimate  of  Jesus  results  in  a 
religious  valuation  of  him.  We  call  Christ  God 
because  he  has  for  us  the  religious  worth  of  God 
(Ritschl).  (2)  The  incarnation  is  conceived  of  as 
an  immanent  necessity  in  the  love  of  God  to  self- 
expression.  Again,  if  man  was  created  in  the  image 
of  God,  and  his  perfection  was  possible  only  in 
union  with  God,  then  an  incarnation  of  one  who 
should  enable  man  to  consiunmate  this  union  was 
necessary  apart  from  sin.  Thus,  incarnation  for  the 
sake  of  redemption,  instead  of  being  an  afterthought 
of  God,  an  accidental  expedient  in  behalf  of  man, 
was  involved  in  the  essential  ethical  relation  of 
God  to  the  creation  (B.  F.  Westcott,  "  Gospel  of  the 
Creation,"  in  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St. 
John,  London,  1885).  (3)  The  proof  of  the  divin- 
ity of  Christ  is  becoming  less  external  and  dogmatic 
than  internal  and  ethical.  If  in  the  earlier  argu- 
ments the  greater  stress  was  on  the  application  to 
Christ  of  Old  Testament  terms  referring  to  God,  the 
ascription  to  him  of  names,  attributes,  and  works 
of  God,  the  New  Testament  designation  of  him  as 
Son  of  God  in  a  metaphysical  sense,  and  the  fact 
that  he  was  an  object  of  religious  worship,  in  more 
recent  thought  the  principal  emphasis  is  laid  on 
the  uniqueness  of  his  moral  character,  the  might  of 
his  moral  appeal  to  the  conscience  and  the  will,  the 


transformation  in  experience  which  follows  obedi- 
ence to  his  leadership;  in  a  word,  in  him  is  a  revela- 
tion of  that  which  is  most  real  in  God  and  most 
ideal  in  man — love.  This  ethical  impulse  to  the 
interpretation  of  Christ,  which  among  many  recent 
attempts  of  the  same  kind  was  disclosed  in  Bushnell'b 
incomparable  tenth  chapter  of  Naivre  and  the  Super- 
natural— "  The  Character  of  Jesus  Forbids  His  Pos- 
sible Classification  with  Men " — ^has  by  no  means 
lost  its  force,  and  every  modem  treatment  of 
the  person  of  Jesus  pays  tribute  to  this  demand. 
(4)  The  incarnation  is  increasingly  regarded  in  an 
essential  relation  to  the  redemptive  work  of  Christ. 
Not,  then,  the  atonement  irrespective  of  the  life 
of  Jesus,  but — a  truth  which  was  deeply  voiced  by 
Athanasius  in  The  Incarnation  of  the  TToni— <iod 
comes  to  man  both  to  reveal  and  to  realize  the  ideal 
oneness  of  God  and  man.  Thus  the  incarmition  is 
the  atonement  (cf.  J.  M.  Wilson,  The  Gospd  of 
the  Atonement,  London,  1899).  (5)  Further,  the 
cosmic  relations  of  the  incarnation  are  receiving 
renewed  attention.  Here  several  cmrents  meet 
and  mingle:  the  Pauline  conception  of  the  univer- 
sal significance  of  Christ  (Col.  i.  15-17),  the  federal, 
based  on  the  natural,  headship  of  Christ,  the  pan- 
theistic trend  which  discerns  in  the  particular  the 
essence  of  the  universal,  and  evolution  which  finds 
the  goal  and  crown  of  the  creation  in  the  ethical 
and  religious  consciousness.  Christ  is,  accordingly, 
the  supreme  expression  and  consununation  of  the 
Logos  of  God  in  which  the  whole  creation  finds  its 
interpretative  principle  and  end.  C.  A.  B. 

Bxbuooravbt:  I.  For  O.  T.  Christology  consult  the  works 
dted  under  Mesbiah.  For  N.  T.  Christolocy  consult  the 
work*  on  N.  T.  Theology,  especially:  W.  Beyschlsg. 
N.  T.  ThMtogy,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh.  1806;  E.  Reusa.  U 
ThSolooie  durHienne  au  nide  apottoUgue,  2  vols.,  Stras- 
burg,  1864;  J.  J.  Van  Oostersee.  Tkeology  of  N.  T.,  Lon- 
don. 1870:  B.  Weiss,  BiUucfu  Theotogie  de$  N.  T.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1003,  Eng.  transl..  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1882-83; 
H.  H.  Wendt.  Lehn  Jem,  2  vols..  Gdttingen.  1886-90. 
Eng.  trans!.,  London.  1802;  G.  B.  Stevens.  Theotooy  of 
N.  r..  New  York.  1800;  E.  P.  Qould.  BiUieat  Theology 
of  N.  T.,  ib.  1000.  Consult  further:  C.  F.  NoRgen, 
ChritiM  der  AfenscAen-  und  Gotteuohn,  Gotha.  1869; 
W.  F.  Gess.  ChriMii  Person  und  Werk,  3  vols.,  Basel, 
1870-78;  H.  Bushnell,  Ood  in  Chriat,  New  York,  1877; 
L  A.  Domer,  ChruUiehe  QlavbenaUkre,  ii.  257  sqq..  Ber- 
lin, 1880;  P.  Schaff,  Pereon  of  Chriat,  New  York.  18S2; 
A.  B.  Bruce,  Kingdom  of  Ood,  Edinburgh,  1880;  J.  A. 
Beet,  Throuah  ChriH  to  Ood,  pp.  215-301.  London.  1892; 
J.  Stalker,  ChriMtology  of  Jeeue,  ib.  1800;  A.  M.  Fair- 
bairn,  Philoeophv  of  the  Chrietian  Retiffion,  pp.  356-379. 
ib.  1002;  N.  Schmidt,  Prophet  of  Nazareth,  New  York.  1905. 
1 1. -I  II.  The  best  detailed  account  of  the  devek>pment 
of  doctrine  with  its  environment  is  still  Neander,  Chrie- 
tian  Church,  i.  575-608,  630-640.  u.  405-466,  478-504. 
Especially  valuable  are  the  histories  of  doctrine,  par- 
ticularly: Hamack,  Dogma,  vols,  i.-iii.;  I.  A.  Doraer, 
History  of  the  Devdopmeni  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person 
of  Christ,  Edinburgh,  1850;  F.  Nietasche,  Dogmenge- 
ediichU,  Berlin,  1870;  A.  ReviUe,  Hiataire  du  dogme  de 
la  diviniU  de  Jisue  Christ,  3d.  ed.,  Paris,  1904.  Eng. 
transl.,  Hist,  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Deity  of  Jesus  Christy 
London,  1870;  K.  R.  Hagenbach,  HisL  of  Doctrine,  vol. 
i.,  Edinburgh,  1880;  F.  Loofs,  Dogmengesdtiehte,  Halle. 
1803;  R.  Seeberg,  Lehrbueh  der  Dogmengesdiithte,  2  vols.. 
Erlangen.  1805-08;  G.  P.  Fisher,  HisL  of  Christian  Doe- 
trine,  New  York.  1806;  Hefeie.  ConeUiengesehidite,  vol. 
1.,  Eng.  transl..  vols,  i.-ii.  Consult  also:  D.  Petavius.  De 
theologicis  dogmatibus,  5  vols.,  Paris.  1644-50  (collects 
ante-Nioene  and  Nioene  testimonies);  G.  Bull,  Defensio 
fidei  Nietsnee,  Oxford.  1685  (a  standard);  E.  Burton. 
Testimonies  of   Ante-Nieene   Fathers   to   As  Divinity  of 


35 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Christoloflry 
Ohristopher,  Saint 


Ckritt,  Oxford,  1820  (also  a  elaosic);  F.  C.  Baur.  Die 
tkriatUcke  Lekn  von  der  Drneiniokeit  und  MenBchtoer- 
dung  Gotta,  3  vols.  TQbingen.  1841-43;  H.  Voigt.  Dm 
Itkrt  dta  Aihanantu,  Bremen.  1861;  W.  Maokintoah, 
Study  of  the  Doctrine  o/  Jeeue  a»  Developed  from  Judaiem 
end  Converted  into  Dogma,  Gla^ow,  1894;  O.  Pfleiderer, 
Eariif  CkrieUan  ConcepUon  of  Christ,  London,  1905; 
B.  B.  Warfield,  in  Princetfm  Theological  Review,  1906.  pp. 
529-557. 1906,  pp.  1-37,  145-168;  &thnB,ChrietianChurdi, 
a.  544^560.  iii  705-740. 

IV.-VII.  Consult,  beaidos  the  works  on  the  history  of 
doctrine  dted  above  (especiaUy  Hamack,  Dogma,  vols, 
iii.-iv.):  Schaff.  Chrieiian  Church,  vol.  iv.;  W.  A.  Arendt, 
Lm>  der  Groeae,  Mains.  1835;  J.  Fulton,  The  Chalcedonian 
Decree^  New  York,  1892;  L.  L.  Paine,  Critioal  Hietory  of 
Am  BvohUion  of  Trinitarianiem,  Boston,  1900;  J.  O. 
Dykes,  in  Expoeitory  Timee,  Oct.,  1905-Jan.,  1906;  Hefele, 
ConeiHengeeehuAte,  vols.  iii.-iv.,  Eng.  transl.,  vols.  iii. -v. 

VIII.  Oriicinal  documents  are,  Lutheran:  Formula 
Coneardim  (convenient  in  Jacob's  edition,  vol.  i.,  Phila- 
delphia, 1893);  J.  Breni,  De  pereonaU  unione  duarum  no- 
turantm  in  Chrieto,  1560;  idem,  De  majeetate  domini  nosfrt, 
1562;  M.  Cbemnits,  Deduahue  naturie  in  Chriato,  Frankfort. 
1576.  Reformed:  Admonitio  Neoeiadieneie,  1577;  L.  Dansus, 
I>€  dttabue  naturie  a  Chemnitio,  Geneva,  1581;  H.  Zanchi, 
De  inoamatione  filii  Dei,  HeidelberK.  1593;  the  christo- 
logical  writioca  of  T.  Bexa  and  Z.  Ursinus.  For  spedfie 
difcuaeions  consult.  Lutheran:  F.  H.  R.  Frank.  Theolo- 
g%e  der  Coneordienfonnel,  iii.  166-396,  Eriangen,  1865;  C. 
P.  Krauth.  ConeervoHve  Reformation  and  ite  Theotogy, 
pp.  456  aqq.,  Philadelphia.  1872;  H.  E.  Jacobs.  Book  of 
C&ncord,  voL  ii..  ib.  1893.  Reformed:  H.  L.  J.  Heppe, 
fefarmirte    Dogmatik,    pp.    351    sqq..    Elberfeld,    1861; 

^haSl,  Creede,  i.  285  sqq..  317  sqq.  Critical:  M.  Schneck- 
Durger,  Zur  kirchliehen  ChrieUdogie,  Pforsheim.  1861; 
.tj>[n«  Vergleichende  DareteUung  dee  lutheriechen  und 
rtfarmirten  Lehrbegriffg,  Stuttgart,  1856.  General  works 
sre  those  already  dted  of  Domer,  Reville,  Nietssche,  See- 
berg,  and  Baur;  R.  A.  Lipdus,  Dogmatik,  pp.  441-483, 
Hronswick,  1893.  Consult  also  H.  Schults,  Die  Lehre 
roit  dcr  Gottheit  Chriati,  Communicatio  idiomatum,  Gotha. 
1881;  A.  Ratschl.  Chrietian  Doctrine  of  JueHfUaOon  and 
Reconciliation,  pp.  416  aqq..  Edinburgh,  1872. 

IX.  On  the  G  lessen  side,  the  Saxon  Solida  deeieio, 
Leipsie,  1624;  J.  Feuerbom,  Sciaffraphia  de  divino  Jeeu 
CItriato  ....  1621;  idem,  Ktymoiypa^ie  xP*<rroA<ryuci9, 
Marburg,  1627;  B.  Mentser,  Neceeearia  et  juata  defeneio, 
Gieaen.  1624.  On  the  TObiogen  ude:  L.08iander,  De 
omnipnaeentia  Chrietihominie,  Tabingen,  1620;  T.  Thumm, 
Majeetatia  Jeeu  Chrieti  $*«a^pmwnv,  ib.  1621;  idem,  Taa-ci- 
mm9fipa4in  eocra,  ib.  1623;  AetaMentxeriana,  ib.  1625.  On 
the  Roman  Catholic  dde:  BMum  ubiquietieum  vetue  et  no- 
rum,  Dillingen,  1 627 ;  A  Iter  und  newer  liiUuriadurKataenkrieg 
ton  der  Ubiquitat,  Ingolstadt,  1629.  Historical  and  critical: 
J.  F.  Cotta,  Hietoria  doetrinas  de  duplice  atatu  Chriati,  in 
his  ed.  of  Cierfaard's  Loci  theologici,  iv.  60  sqq.,  Ttlbingen, 
1762-88;  J.  £.  I.  Waleh,  Einleitung  in  die  Religionatrei- 
tigkeiten,  L  206,  Jena,  1733;  F.  C.  Baur.  ut  sup.,  ii.  450; 
G.  Thomadus,  ChrieU  Peraon  und  Werk,  li.  391-450.  Er- 
iangen. 1857;  I.  A.  Domer.  ut  sup.,  ii.  788-809;  R.  Roeholl. 
Realpr^aem,  pp.  198  sqq..  GQtersloh.  1875. 

X.  1.  For  the  Racovian  Catechiem  (Eng.  transl.  by 
T.  Rees,  London,  1818)  see  Socinus;  J.  Priestley.  Early 
Opinione  concerning  Jeeue  Chriat,  Birmingham,  1786; 
I.  Kant,  R^iffion  innerhalb  der  Gremen  der  bloeaen 
Vemunft,  Konigsberg,  1793,  Eng.  transl.,  Relioion  teith^ 
in  the  Boundary  of  Pure   Reason,  Edinburgh,  1838;    W. 

E.  Cbanning.  Worke,  6  vols..  Boston,  1874;  T.  Parker. 
Dieeouree  of  Mattera  Pertaining  to  Religion,  ib.  1847; 
A.  Coquerel.  Chrietologie,  2  vols..  Paris,  1858;  J.  Martin- 
eao.  Siudiea  of  Chrietianity,  London,  1858;  idem,  Eaaaya 
Pktioeopkieal  and  Theological,  2  vob..  New  York,  1879; 
idem.  Religion  ae  A  ffected  by  Modem  Maierialiem,  Lon- 
don, 1874;  idem.  Seat  of  Authority  in  Relif/ion,  ib.  1890; 

F.  H.  Hedge.  Reason  in  Religion,  Boston,  1875;  M.  J. 
Sarage.  Out  of  Naeareth,  ib.  1904. 

2.  D.  F.  Strauss,  Die  ehriatUdte  Olaubenatdure  in  ihrer 
eetrkiehHichm  Entwicklung  und  im  Kampfe  mit  der  mo- 
^*mm  Wir.nenechafi,  ii.  193  sqq.,  Tflbingen.  1841  (a  work 
V  def>tnictiv<*  of  Christian  dogmatics  as  his  //«5en  Jeeu 
»  of  thf  evangelical  history);  A.  E.  Biedermann,  Chriat- 
iirhe  Dogmntik,  Zurich,  1869  (more  serious,  but  almost 
equally   revolutionary  in   its   results);   £.    Marius,   Die 

ni.— 6 


PeradnlichkeU  Jeeu  Chriati.  Mit  beaonderer  Rllckaicht  auf 
die  Mythologien  und  Myaterien  der  alien  V6lker,  Lcipde, 
1881  (a  strange  compound  of  the  mythical  views  of  Strauss 
and  the  mystical  interpretation  of  Swedenborg). 

4.  On  the  Kenotie  theory:  J.  L.  Kdnig,  Die  Menadi" 
werdung  Gottea,  Mains,  1844;  O.  Thomadus,  BeitrUge  zur 
kirchliehen  Chrietologie,  Eriangen,  1845;  idem,  Chriati 
Peraon  und  Werk,  ib.  1856;  T.  A.  Liebner,  Die  chrialUdie 
Dogmatik,  Gdttingen,  1849;  J.  H.  A.  Ebrard.  ChriatUAe 
Dogmatik,  Kdnigsberg,  1851-62;  J.  P.  Lange,  Poeitive 
Dogmatik,  pp.  595-782.  Hddelberg,  1851;  W.  F.  Gess,  ut 
sup.;  H.  L.  Martensen,  Chriatliche  Dogmatik,  Berlin, 
1853.  Eng.  trand.,  Edinburgh,  1866;  F.  Delitssch,  8ya- 
tem  der  bibliec/ien  Peychologie,  pp.  326  aqq.,  Leipde, 
1861.  Eng.  trand..  Edinburgh,  1865;  J.  Bodemeyer.  Die 
Lehre  von  der  Kenoaia,  GOttingen,  1860;  K.  F.  A.  Kahnis, 
Die  lutherieche  Dogmatik,  iii.  343,  Ldpdc,  1868;  L. 
Schdberlein,  Die  Geheimnieae  dee  Glaubene,  Hddelberg, 
1872;  R.  Kabel.  ChriaUichee  Lehrayatem,  Stuttgart,  1873; 
J.  J.  van  Oostersee,  Chrietian  Dogmatica,  London,  1878 
(moderately  and  cautiously  Kenotie);  F.  Godet,  in 
Studiee  on  the  New  Teatament,  Edinburgh,  1876;  idem. 
Commentary  on  .  .  .  John,  ib.  1881;  E.  de  Pressens^, 
Jieue  ChrUt,  Paris,  1866,  Eng.  trand.,  London.  1866; 
idem.  La  Diviniti  de  Jieue  Chriat,  in  Revue  ehrStienne,  iii. 
641  aqq.;  H.  M.  Goodwin,  Chriat  and  Humanity,  New 
York,  1875;  H.  Crosby,  The  True  Humanity  of  Chriat,  ib. 
1881;  F.  J.  Hall,  The  Kenotie  Theory,  London,  1898; 
J.  Kunse,  Die  ewige  Gottheit  Jeeu  Chriati,  Ldpdc,  1904; 
W.  Latgert,  Gottea  Sohn  und  Gottee  GeUt,  ib.  1904. 

For  adverse  criticism  of  the  Kenosis  theory  consult: 
I.  A.  Domer,  ut  sup.,  Eng.  transl.,  II.  iii.,  pp.  100  aqq.; 
idem,  in  JahrhUcher  fUr  deutache  Theologie,  1856,  1858; 
idem.  Chrietliche  Glaubenelehre,  ii.  367  aqq.,  Berlin,  1880, 
Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1880-82.  The  fulleat  account 
in  Eng.  is  in  A.  B.  Bruce,  Humiliation  of  Chriat,  Ltd,  iv., 
Edinburgh,  1881.  Dr.  Hodge,  SyatemaUe  Theology,  ii. 
439,  New  York,  1871,  notices  the  Kenotie  theories  of 
Thomadus,  Ebrard,  and  Gess,  and  oondemna  them. 

In  general.  I.  A.  Domer.  ut  aup.  The  following  Eng- 
lish works  deserve  notice,  though  mostly  confined  to  an 
expodtion  and  defense  of  the  Chalcedonian  dogma: 
R.  J.  Wilberforoe,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  of  our 
Lord,  London,  1852;  H.  P.  Liddon,  The  Divinity  of  our 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jeeue  Chriat,  ib.  1868.  The  ablest 
disousdon  of  Christ's  person  and  work  is  A.  M.  Fairbaim, 
Place  of  Chriet  in  Modem  Theology,  London,  1893.  Con- 
sult further  :  C.  Gore,  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  ib. 
1891 ;  J.  Denney,  Studiee  in  Theology,  chaps.  ii.-iii.,  New 
York,  1895:  "Chrietologie"  in  Hauck-Heraog.  RE,  iv. 
4-66;  M.  Braekner,  Die  Entetehung  der  pauliniechen 
Chrietologie,  Strasburg.  1903;  G.  Krfiger,  Dae  Dogma 
von  der  Dreieinigkeitund  Gott  Menechheit,  TQbingen,  1905 
(dedicated  to  Hamack,  written  from  the  Unitarian  stand- 
point) ;  S.  Faut,  Die  Chrietologie  eeit  Sehleiermacher,  ihre 
Geaddchte  und  ihre  BegrUndung,  TQbingen,  1907. 

CHRISTOPHER,  SAINT:  A  saint  highly  honored 
from  very  early  times  both  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches.  According  to  the  martyrologies  of  Ado, 
Usuard,  Notker,  and  others,  as  well  as  the  Martyro- 
logium  Romanum,  he  lived  at  Samos  in  Lycia, 
converted  many  to  Christianity,  and  died  a  martyr 
under  the  emperor  Dedus,  or,  according  to  some 
accounts,  under  an  emperor  (or  king)  called  Dag- 
nus.  No  Samos  in  Lycia,  however,  is  known,  and 
Dagnus  is  otherwise  unheard  of;  the  name  may  be 
a  corruption  of  Daza,  the  original  name  of  the  em- 
peror Maximin  II,  (305-314).  The  later  forms  of 
the  Christopher  legend  are  in  the  highest  degree 
fantastic.  For  example,  a  manuscript  of  Fulda 
describes  him  as  of  gigantic  stature,  with  the  head 
of  a  dog,  and  decks  out  his  life  and  death  with 
most  silly  wonders.  Somewhat  more  attractive 
and  credible  is  another  version,  containing  appar- 
ently elements  of  old  Germanic  mythology,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  giant  Christopher  at  first  served 
the  devil,  then  in  order  to  know  Christ,  one  said 


Ohiistopber,  Saint 
Ohromatitui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


66 


to  be  stronger  than  the  devil,  undertook  the  duties 
of  a  fenyman.  Finally  a  child,  whom  he  was 
oanying  across  the  river  on  his  shoulders,  disclosed 
himself  as  the  Savior,  forced  the  giant  beneath 
the  waves  by  his  ever  increasing  weight  and  so 
baptised  him,  giving  him  the  name  of  Christopher 
("  Christ-bearer '0-  The  veneration  of  Christo- 
pher was  general  in  the  East,  in  Italy,  Spain,  France, 
Germany,  and  other  lands.  Mention  of  his  wonder- 
working relics  is  frequent,  as  of  his  head,  said  to 
have  been  carried  from  Constantinople  to  France 
after  the  capture  of  the  city  in  1204,  and  of  his 
leg,  said  to  have  been  kept  in  Constantinople  till 
1453.  He  was  an  attractive  figure  to  medieval 
art  and  poetry,  and  is  represented  as  a  huge  fellow 
wading  through  waters,  carrying  a  child  on  his 
shoulders,  and  with  a  green  staff  in  his  hand.  His 
picture  is  frequent  in  the  vestibules  of  churches  as  a 
sort  of  guard.  Brotherhoods  of  St.  Christopher,  es- 
pecially for  the  care  of  travelers,  are  mentioned  up 
to  the  Reformation.  His  day  in  the  Greek  Churoh  is 
May  9,  and  in  the  Latin  July  25.    (O.  ZOcxLERf . ) 

BxBLioaBAPHT:  The  older  Vitm  ue  to  be  found  in  A8B, 
July,  vi.  125-149;  in  B.  Pei,  Themtunu  aneodotorum 
novtMimiMt  II.  iii.  27-122.  Augebuis,  1721;  and  in  Arut- 
Utta  BoOandiana,  ed.  C.  de  Smedt  and  others,  i.  121-148, 
z.  303-^106.  FmriB,  1882,  1801.  AU  the  different  elementa 
of  the  legend  are  combined  by  Jaoobua  de  Varagine  (q.v.) 
in  the  Ociden  Legend.  Consult:  J.  Grimm.  Deulaehe 
MvAoIoqU,  pp.  406-600,  GOttingen.  1844;  H.  P.  Huot. 
VU  de  8.  Chrietophe,  Soissons,  1861;  A.  Binemus,  Die 
Leaende  vom  heilioen  Chrietoph  und  die  PUuHk  und  Ma- 
2frm,  Hanover,  1868;  Le  Grand  8.  Chrieiophe  de  PaieeUne, 
eon  Aufotrs  authentigue  ei  ea  popularitS  dane  iee  deux 
mondee,  par  dee  Lorraine  bibiiophHeet  Nantes,  1800;  A. 
Muasafia,  Zw  ChriatopK-Legende,  Vienna,  1803;  K.  Rioh> 
ter.  Der  deuteehe  Chrieioph,  BerUn,  1806. 

CHRlSTOPEffiR,  DUKE  OF  WUERTTEMBBRO, 
aud  the  reformation  in  WUERTTEMBERG  : 

Christopher,  duke  of  WQrttemberg,  1650-68,  was 
bom  at  Urach  (22  m.  s.e.  of  Stuttgart)  May  12, 
1515;  d.  at  Stuttgart  Dec.  28,  1568.  When  he 
was  six  months  old,  his  mother,  Sabma  of  Bavaria, 
fled  to  her  native  land,  and  in  1519  his  father, 
Ulrie,  was  driven  from  his  country.  The  boy 
came  into  the  hands  of  Charles  V.  and  his  brother 
Ferdinand,  but  was  well  educated  by  Michael 
Tiffemus.  At  the  court  of  Charles  V.,  from  which 
he  fled  in  1532,  and  in  France,  where  he  spent  eight 
years,  he  grew  up  a  statesman  and  soldier.  His 
father,  who  in  1534  regained  his  country  and  re- 
formed it,  made  him  governor  at  Mdmpelgard,  and 
in  1544  brought  about  his  marriage  with  Anna 
Maria,  daughter  of  the  margrave  George  of  Bran- 
denburg-Ansbach.  The  reading  of  the  Bible  and 
the  writings  of  the  Reformers  gave  Christopher  a 
firm  and  dear  Evangelical  faith,  which  he  proved 
in  filial  reverence  and  love  toward  the  often  severe 
father  and  obstinate  mother  and  in  restless  activity 
for  his  people  and  the  Evangelical  Church. 

On  Nov.  6,  1550,  he  succeeded  his  father  as  duke 
and  soon  obtained  a  leading  position  among  the 
Evangelical  princes.  He  presented  the  Confessio 
Wirtembergica,  prepared  by  Brens,  to  the  Council  at 
Trent,  and  sent  Brens  and  other  theologians  to 
defend  it,  but  they  were  not  heard.  He  then 
prohibited  the  mass  in  the  parish-churches,  abol- 
ished the  Interim,  removed  the  images,  altars,  field- 


chapels,  and  all  remains  of  the  former  religious  serv- 
ice, turned  the  male  monasteries  into  schools  with 
Evangelical  abbots,  but  allowed  the  nuns  to  die  in 
their  monasteries;  those,  however,  who  left  were 
provided  for.  He  gave  a  new  discipline  to  the 
Evangelical  Church  of  Wdrttemberg,  introduced 

poor-boxes  in  1552,  and  appointed  four 

The  Refor-  district-physicians  for  the  care  of  the 

mation  in  sick.    The  marriage-law  was  regulated 

Wiirttem-   by  act  of  Jan.  1,  1553;  the  activity  of 

berg.       the  higher  church-authorities  by  the 

visitation  act.  The  religious  service, 
in  the  simplicity  given  to  it  by  Blaurer  and  Scimepff 
(qq.v.),  and  the  catechetical  instruction  of  the 
youth  were  regulated  by  the  Kleine  Kirchenardnung 
of  1553,  which  was  superseded  by  the  Groase  Kvrchen- 
ordnung  of  May  15,  1559,  including  also  school, 
sanitary,  and  poor  regulations.  The  duke  treated 
th^  chuit^hrproperty  of  the  Evangelical  Church  with 
perfect  disinterestedness,  divided  the  large  parishes 
for  the  better  care  of  the  congregation,  established 
new  parishes  in  the  Blade  Forest,  cared  for  the 
repair  of  the  churches,  and  enacted  in  1559  that 
church-registers  should  be  kept.  He  insisted  that 
the  teaching  of  the  Confessio  Wirtembergica  should 
be  maintained,  and  issued  harsh  injunctions  against 
Schwenckfeld  and  all  "  sectaries."  His  harshness 
was  felt  especially  by  the  Baptists  and  by  Bartho- 
lom&us  Hagen,  preacher  at  Dettigen,  who  was 
suspected  of  Calvinism  but  was  convinced  of  his 
error  at  the  Stuttgart  Synod  in  Dec.,  1559.  The 
university  received  new  regulations  in  1557.  The 
scholarship  founded  by  his  father  was  s^plied  to 
the  education  of  theologians  who  had  received  a 
humanistic  preparation  in  the  monastic  schools. 
Students  of  other  faculties,  who  were  prepared  in 
the  pedagogical  schools  at  Stuttgart  and  Tubingen, 
were  assisted  from  the  funds  of  the  church-property. 
By  the  school-regulation  of  1559  popular  education 
was  promoted ;  the  sacristan  now  acted  also  as  teacher. 
Christopher  was  anxious  for  the  reunion  of  the 
different  religious  parties,  proposed  in  1552  a 
national  council,  and  avoided  all  malicious  fault- 
finding. Calvinism  he  disliked  much,  especially 
as  it  made  its  inroad  into  the  Palatinate,  but  he  re- 
spected the  religious  courage  of  the  elector  Frederick 
of  the  Palatinate  and  did  not  favor  his  exclusion 
from  the  religious  peace.  He  promoted  Protestant- 
ism in  Austria  by  supporting  the  Slavic  press  at 
Urach  under  the  former  imperial  captain  Hans 
Ungnad.  He  offered  a  refuge  at  TQbingen  to  the 
former  papal  nuncio  Petrus  Paulus  Vergerius.  In 
1557  he  solicited  the  king  of  France  for  the  op- 
pressed Waldensians,  in  1559  for  the  Protestants; 
in  1561  he  sent  Beurlin  (q.v.)  and  Andre&  to  Paris, 
and  even  went  in  1562  with  Brena  to  Zabem  to 
attend  a  colloquy  with  the  Guises  to  win  France 
over  to  Protestantism,  but  saw  himself   at  last 

shamefully  deceived,  though  Catherine 

Chiisto-    de  Medici  offered  him  the  office  of 

pher's  In-  a  supreme  viceroy.    In  the  interest 

fluence     of  Protestantism  his  active  mind  was 

Abroad,     long   busy    with    matrimonial    plans 

for  the  daughters  of  Renata  of  Ferrara 
and  for  Queen  Elisabeth  of  Ehigland.  He  aided  the 
Reformation  by  his  advice  and  by  sending  theo- 


67 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohxistopher,  Saint 
Ohromatius 


logians  to  the  Palatinate,  in  the  margravate  Baden- 
Pfonbeim,  in  the  domain  of  Count  Helfenstein, 
in  the  oountiy  of  Oettingen,  in  the  free-towns  of 
Rothenbuig,  on  the  Tauber,  and  Hagenau,  also  in 
the  remote  duchies  of  Julich-deves  and  Brunswick- 
Wdfenbuttel,  whose  Duke  Julius,  his  cousin,  fol- 
lowed him  implicitly.  The  ecclesiastical  reservation 
carried  through  by  Ferdinand  at  the  Religious  Peace 
of  Augsburg  (q.v.)  Christopher  opposed  as  an 
impeiliment  to  Protestantism  and  a  denial  of  the 
principle  of  religious  liberty.  His  hopes,  however, 
in  Mayjmilian  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Fer- 
dinand, his  friend,  who  had  been  influenced  by  the 
spirit  of  the  Reformation,  were  not  realized.  He 
helped  exiled  Englishmen  in  1554-55,  the  Walden- 
sians  in  1557,  and  in  a  quiet  manner,  not  to  excite 
the  wrath  of  the  emperor,  in  1568  William  of  Orange 
in  the  war  of  liberation  in  the  Netherlands.  For 
his  people  and  the  Evangelical  Church  of  Germany 
Christopher's  death  came  too  soon.  His  efforts 
for  his  people's  welfare,  his  zeal  for  the  Church  and 
Protestantism,  his  pure  intentions  mark  him  as  one 
of  the  ablest  princes  of  Germany.  His  reign  and 
that  of  his  son  Louis  (1569-93)  form  the  golden 
age  of  Wurttemberg.  G.  Bossert. 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  C.  Pfii«ter,  Hertog  ChrUtoph  von  Wnrt- 
temimv,  2  vols..  Tflbingen,  1819-20;  B.  Kugler,  Chria- 
tovk,  Henog  von  WUrttemberg,  2  vols.,  8tutt«art,  1868-70; 
C.  F.  SUUin,  WartUmbergiache  Oeachichte,  vol.  iv.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1873:  E.  Schneider,  WUrttembergitehe  ReformationB- 
geaekiehle,  Stuttgart.  1887;  WUrttembergiache  Kirchmge- 
wthidOe,  Stuttgart,  1893;  E.  Schneider.  WiJtrUembergiache 
Geaekiehie,  Stuttgart,  1896;  V.  Ernst.  Briefwechad  de» 
Henoga  Chrialaph,  3  vols.,  Stuttgart.  1899-1902. 

CHRISTOPHORUS:  Pope  903-904.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  903  he  overthrew  Leo  V.  and  seized  the 
papal  throne;  but  a  few  months  later  he  met  the 
eame  fate  at  the  hands  of  Sergius  III.  According 
to  Herimannus,  he  became  a  monk;  Vulgarius,  on 
the  other  hand,  says  that  he  was  murdered  in 
prison.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BnuoGBAPBT:  Jaff^   Rsgeata,   i.   443-444;  Bower,   Popea, 

ii.  306. 

CHRO'DE-GAIIG  (Hrodegandus,  Ruotgang,  Rug- 
gandus):  Prankish  bishop;  b.  In  Hasbania  {ex 
pago  Hatbaniensit  in  the  Belgian  province  of  Lim- 
burg)  eariy  in  the  eighth  century;  d.  at  Metz  Mar. 
6. 766.  He  was  the  son  of  Sigramnus  and  Landrada, 
who  belonged  to  one  of  the  noblest  families  of  the 
Ripuarian  Franks,  was  set  aside  for  the  Church, 
admitted  into  the  clergy  of  the  court,  and  was 
raised  by  Charles  Martel  to  the  post  of  referen- 
darius,  a  position  influential  in  secular  as  well  as 
in  spiritual  affairs.  In  742  he  was  made  bishop 
of  Metz  by  Pepin,  and  became  the  means  of  rees- 
tablishing the  long-interrupted  intercourse  of  his 
country  with  Rome.  When  Stephen  II.  was  hard 
pressed  by  the  Lombards,  Chrodegang  received 
from  Pepin  in  733  the  commission  to  go  to  Italy  and 
to  accompany  the  pope  to  Gaul,  which  he  accom- 
plished successfully;  for  this  he  was  rewarded  by  the 
pope  with  the  dignity  of  archbishop,  the  use  of  the 
pallium,  the  privilege  of  having  the  cross  borne  before 
him«  and  of  consecrating  bishops,  although  Metz 
was  not  an  archbishopric.  His  property  he  gave 
to  the  needy,  for  the  founding  of  church-establish- 
ments, particularly  of  monasteries  (among  which 


Gorze  and  the  reestablished  Lorsch  were  notable), 
and  for  the  beautifying  and  renovating  of  churches. 
In  764  he  journeyed  to  Rome  in  quest  of  relics, 
but  his  chief  claim  to  be  remembered  is  found  in 
his  exertions  in  behalf  of  ecclesiastical  disdpline 
and  morals,  which  were  in  a  sad  plight  in  the  Gallic 
Church.  This  task  Boniface  had  in  part  accom- 
plished. Chrodegang  considered  that  the  most 
proper  means  of  accomplishing  this  end  would  be 
to  carry  over  the  discipline  and  mode  of  life  of  the 
regular  clergy  into  that  of  the  secular  clergy.  He 
enforced  strictly  the  rule  of  Benedict  of  Nursia, 
strengthened  the  work  begun  by  Eusebius  of  Ver- 
celli,  Augustine,  and  his  predecessors  among  the 
Franks,  and  drew  up  a  rule  of  thirty-four  chapters. 
This  was  in  great  part  a  verbal  repetition  of  Bene- 
dict's rule  (cf.  Hauck,  ii.  60),  retaining  even  the 
term  claustrum  for  his  new  institution,  though  exr 
changing  episcopua  and  archidiaconua  for  abbas 
and  prcepositus,  and  canonici  for  monacki.  The 
vita  canonicaf  the  keeping  of  the  horcB  canonical 
and  so  on,  cue  mainly  the  same,  differing  however 
in  two  places,  necessarily  so,  since  the  complete 
identification-  of  the  secular  clergy  with  the  regu- 
lars seemed  hardly  profitable.  These  differences 
were  (1)  the  distinction  between  major  and  minor 
orders,  with  their  interrelations,  and  (2)  the  vow  of 
poverty,  which  was  not  required  of  the  canonicals. 
The  rule  in  its  first  form  (cf.  Mansi,  Concilia,  xiv. 
313-314)  is  intended  only  for  the  cathedral  of  Metz. 
Later  it  was  enlarged  to  eighty-six  chapters  and 
has  now  a  more  common  form,  in  which  it  found  a 
place  in  the  RegtUa  Aquisgranensis,  817  a.d.  That 
Chrodegang  thus  helped  to  diffuse  Roman  customs 
through  Germany  was  noted  by  Paul  Wamef  ried, 
who  tells  us  also  that  Chrodegang  was  bishop  of 
Metz  for  twenty-three  years,  five  months,  and  five 
days.  He  lies  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Gorze, 
and  his  epitaph  is  to  be  found  in  Mabillon,  Vetera 
Analecta,  Paris,  1723,  377.  (E.  Friedbbrq.) 

Biblioqraphy:  Sources  for  a  history  are  in  Paulus  Wame- 
fridus.  Liber  de  epiacopia  Mettanaibua^  ed.  G.  H.  Perts, 
in  MOH,  Saript,  ii  (1829),  267;  the  EpUaphium,  ed. 
£.  DOmmler.  in  MGH,  Poeta  laHni  cBvi  Carolini,  i  (1881). 
108-109;  and  the  Vila  by  John  of  Gorse,  ed.  Perts,  in 
MOH,  Script,  x  (1852),  652-672,  and  in  ASB,  March, 
i.  352  sqq.  (cf.  G.  H.  Perts,  Uiber  die  VHa  Chrodegangi. 
Berlin,  1852).  Oinsult:  Rettberg,  KD,  i..  H  87-88; 
Hauck,  KD,  ii.  48  sqq. 

CHROMATIITS,  crd-m^'shius:  Bishop  of  Aqui- 
leia  from  387  or  389;  d.  406  or  a  little 
later.  He  was  a  highly  respected  and  much 
revered  contemporary  of  Ambrose,  Rufinus,  and 
Jerome,  who  owed  to  him  many  encouragements 
in  scientific  endeavors.  In  the  dogmatic  contro- 
versies of  the  time  he  was  a  bold  defender  of 
orthodoxy.  The  destruction  of  Arianism  in  Aqui- 
leia  was  his  work.  To  the  emperor  Honorius  he 
presented  an  opinion  on  Chrysostom,  who  was 
suspected  at  the  Byzantine  court,  and  Honorius 
officially  transmitted  it  to  his  brother  Arcadius. 
His  exegetical  writings  include  a  treatise  on  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew,  seventeen  short  writings,  and 
an  excellent  popular  homily  on  the  beatitudes. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  P.  Braida 
(Udine,  1816),reprintedinAf  PL,  xx.  247-368,  where 
the  literature  is  also  given.  G.  KrCobr. 


Ohronloles,  Books  of 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


68 


CHRONICLES,  BOOKS  OF. 

I.  Name. 
II.  Range  and  Divioions. 

III.  Place  in  the  Canon. 

IV.  The  Text. 

The  Aramaic  Targum  (f  1). 

The  Ssrriac  Translation  of  the  London  Polyglot  ({  2). 

The  Septuagint  ({  3). 

The  Latin  Translation  of  Jerome  (f  4). 

The  Masoretio  Text  (S  6). 
V.  Contents  and  Purpose. 
VI.  The  Author  and  His  Sources. 

L  Name:  The  Hebrew  title,  Dibhre  hayamimt 
of  the  two  hlBtorical  books  standing,  in  the 
English  Bible,  between  II  Kings  and  Ezra  may  be 
translated  ''the  occurrences  of  the  times";  for 
the  first  word  expresses  the  content  (history),  the 
second  the  form  (chronological).  As  this  refers  to 
time,  the  content  can  be  only  the  sum  of  deeds  or 
fortunes  of  men.  But  this  meaningless  general 
title  can  be  but  the  practical  abbreviation  of  a 
longer  one,  which  either  added  the  subject  referred 
to  (as  in  I  Chron.  xxvii.  24,  "  of  King  David  "), 
or  named  a  particular  period  within  the  whole  time. 
In  view  of  the  greater  part  of  the  subject-matter, 
the  (lost)  explanatory  clause  could  be  only  "  of 
the  Kings  of  Judah."  Indeed,  the  Syriac  gives  the 
name  "  The  Book  of  the*  Reign  of  the  Days  of 
the  Kings  of  Judah,  which  Bears  the  Name  Sepher 
D'baryamin  " ;  the  Arabic  title  is  similar;  and  the 
Septuagint  reads  in  Codex  Alexandrinus  and  else- 
where "Deeds  (?)  of  the  Kings  of  Judah." 
Strangely  enough,  the  Arabic,  after  translating 
the  title  adds,  "  the  Hebrew  is  dibra  hayyamim*^ ; 
in  the  Syriac  the  title  is  followed  by  the  Hebrew 
name  in  the  Syriacized  form  D*baryamin.  The  title 
"  Chronicles  "  dates  back  to  a  conmient  by  Jerome 
in  his  "  Preface  to  the  Books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  " 
(translated  in  NPNF,  2d  series,  vi.  490). 

n.  Range  and  Divisions:  The  Masoretic  notes 
at  the  end  of  Chronicles  reckon  1,656  divisions, 
evidently  meaning  verses  separated  by  a  colon; 
actual  count  in  the  editions  of  Opitz  and  Michaelis 
gives  the  number  as  1,764.  Computations  based 
upon  smaller  "commata"  are  as  follows:  the  Talmud 
gives  6,880  (cf.  H.  L.  Strack,  Prolegomena  criiica  in 
Vettts  Teetamentum  Hebraicum,  Leipsic,  1873,  p.  11), 
the  Syriac  5,603,  Nioephorus  5,500,  codices  of  the 
Septuagint  and  Synopsis  (cf.  E.  Klostermann,  Ana- 
lekta  zu  Septuaginta,  Hexapla  und  Patristiky  Leip- 
sic, 1895,  pp.  45,  81)  5,000,  the  Canon  Monmisen 
only  4,140.  The  division  into  two  books  is  com- 
paratively modem,  unknown  to  the  Masora  and 
the  canon-catalogues.  Origen  (cf.  Eusebius,  HUt 
eccl.t  VI.  XXV.  2),  Epiphanius,  Synod  of  Laodioea, 
Athanasius,  and  Rufinus  state  expressly  that 
Chronicles,  given  by  the  Septuagint  as  two  books, 
is  to  be  looked  upon  as  one.  The  Septuagint 
divides  it  after  the  death  of  David,  a  principle 
adopted  by  the  Syriac  and  Arabic;  the  former  has, 
however,  another  division  after  II.  v.  The  codex 
AmiaHnus  of  the  Vulgate  has  blank  spaces  after 
I.  ix.  and  I.  xxix.,  and  writes  I.  x.  1  and  II.  i.  1  m 
red  ink,  suggestive  of  early  division  at  those 
points. 

m.  Place  in  the  Canon:  Tradition  has  two 
places    for    Chronicles     among    the     Kethubhim 


(see  Canon  of  Scripture,  L).  The  order  fol- 
lowed by  the  German  manuscripts  and  by  the 
printed  Hebrew  Bibles  is:  Ps.,  Pro  v.,  Job,  the 
five  Rolls  (arranged  according  to  the  Jewish 
church-calendar),  Dan.,  Ezra^Neh.,  Chron.  The 
position  of  Chronicles,  following  Ezra,  suggests  to 
the  memory  the  remark  of  the  Mishnah:  ''Chron- 
icles is  given  only  for  investigation  ";  Daniel  and 
Ezra  were  edifjring  to  the  congregation,  whereas 
Chronicles  was  rather  scholastic  in  character. 
More  likely,  however,  is  it  that  Daniel  and  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  seem  to  belong  together,  as  on  the  one 
hand,  a  statement  of  the  divine  programme  and 
the  story  of  its  partial  fulfilment,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  as  possessing  literary  kinship,  since 
both  belonged  to  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  both  were 
largely  transmitted  in  Aramaic.  The  Tahnudic 
order  is  similar:  Ruth,  Ps.,  Job,  three  RoUs,  Dan., 
Esther,  Ezra-Neh.,  Chron.  The  other  arrange- 
ment is  the  totally  different  one  of  the  Masora: 
Chron.,  Ps.,  Job,  Prov.,  the  Rolls,  Dan.,  Ezra- 
Neh.;  as  though  Chronicles  together  with  Ezra, 
ranging  from  Adam  to  Jaddua,  furnished  the 
historical  setting  for  the  rest  of  the  Kethubhim 
(cf.  Augustine,  ChrisHan  Doctrine,  II.  viii.  13,  in 
NPNFf  1st  series,  ii.  541).  According  to  a  Mas- 
oretic codex  TschuftUe  (13  *Adath  dibburim,  cf. 
H.  Strack,  in  G.  A.  Kohut,  Semitic  Studies^  London, 
1897,  p.  570)  this  order  is  that  of  the  Land  of  Israel, 
and  is  the  only  correct  one,  to  be  adopted  ulti- 
mately by  all  scribes;  whereas  the  other,  in  which 
Chronicles  or  Esther  stand  at  the  end,  is  called  a 
corruption  by  the  people  of  the  Land  of  Sinear. 
Among  the  old  translations  of  the  Christian  Church 
is  the  fanciful  order  given  by  Junilius  and  by 
Epiphanius.  The  other  transmitted  catalogues 
either  join  Chronicles  to  Ezra,  to  Kings,  or  separate 
them.  That  gives  four  arrangements:  (1)  Kings, 
Chron.,  Ezra  (so  Origen,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Canon 
of  the  Apostles,  Apostolic  Constitutions,  Council  of 
Laodioea,  Gregory  Naziai^zen,  Amphilochius,  Atha- 
nasius in  his  "  Easter  Letter,*'  Vulgate,  Rufinus,  Ethi- 
opic  Bible);  (2)  Kings,  Chron.,  .  .  .  Ezra  (Melito, 
Augustine,  Codex  Alexandrinus,  Codex  Amiatinus, 
Canon  of  Hippo,  Decreta  Gelasii,  Canon  of  Monunsen, 
the  Second  Order  of  Cassiodorus);  (3)  Kings,  .  .  . 
Chron.,  Ezra  (First  Order  of  Cassiodorus,  Jerome 
in  "Preface  to  the  Books  of  Samuel  and  Kings"); 
(4)  Kings,  .  .  .  Ezra,  Chron.  (Rescript  of  Inno- 
cent I.).  In  general,  it  seems  that  where  Jewish 
scholasticism  did  not  influence  the  Christian  Church 
the  latter's  arrangement  was  ruled  by  the  con- 
viction that  Ezra-Nehemiah  was  intended  to  be 
the  continuation  of  Chronicles,  which  latter  in  its 
relation  to  Kings  bore  in  the  Septuagint  correctly 
the  name  "  Deeds  (?)  of  the  Kings  of  Judah." 

IV.  The  Text:  For  the  verification  of  the  Mas- 
oretic text  there  are  excellent  means  in  the  trans- 
lations   from    the    early    Hebrew.     The   Aramaic 

Targum  is  a  translation  which  shows, 

1.  The      on  the  one  hand,  a  close  following  of 

Aramaic    the  letter  of  the  text  and  an  endeavor 

Tarsmm.   to  reproduce    it    correctly;    and,    on 

the  other  hand,  an  attempt  to  satisfy 
the  spiritual  hunger  which  mere  names  and 
brief    statements     must    create   in   the    hearers 


69 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Chronicles,  Books  of 


aaxious  for  edification  and  entertainment.  This 
could  be  brought  about  by  etymological  interpre- 
tation (as  in  I  Chron.  viii.  33:  "  He  was  called  Ner 
because  he  lighted  the  lamp,  Hebr.  Ner,  in  the 
synagogue  ");  or  by  an  interpretation  of  the  text 
more  in  harmony  with  the  spiritual  vision  of  later 
Judaism,  to  which  the  war-heroes  of  old  had  become 
ilocton  of  the  Law.  The  zeal  of  late  Judaism  for 
interpretation  recognizes  no  limits;  it  knows  how 
to  harmonize,  to  combine,  to  do  away  with  dif- 
ferences and  contradictions.  The  spirit  which 
beguiled  the  prophets  of  Ahab  is  Naboth's  (II 
Chinon.  xviii.  20);  the  Syrian  archer  (II  Chron. 
xviii.  33)  is  Naaman;  Jabez  is  identified  with 
Othniel  (I  Chron.  iv.  9);  Ner's  original  name  is 
said  to  have  been  Abiel  (I  Chron.  viii.  33).  On 
II  Chron.  xxviii.  3  it  conunents  that  Hezekiah's 
life  was  saved  from  the  fire  by  divine  intervention. 
But  the  Midrash-additions  do  not  hinder  in  most 
eases  from  recognizing  the  text  which  lay  before 
the  authors  of  the  Targum.  Hence  it  is  worth 
while  for  the  textual  critic  to  consult  this  earliest 
translation  in  restoring  the  text. 

A  Syriac  translation,  not  found  in  the  Peshito, 
with  a  translator  other  than  he  who  rendered 
Ezra,  is  found  in  the  London  Polyglot  alongside  of 
itii  Arabic  translation.  This  latter  is  an  excellent 
help  in  correcting  the  many  textual  mistakes  of 
2.  The  **^®  Syriac;  but  where  both  have  the 
Syriao  same  omission,  it  is  difficult  to  deter- 
Transla-  mine  whether  the  omission  is  purposed 
tionofthe  by  the  translator  (as  perhaps  in  I 
London  Chron.  xxvii.,  xxvi.  13-32;  II  Chron. 
Polyglot,  xvi.  12)  or  whether  it  is  due  to  a 
corrupt  Syriac  text,  or  to  a  shorter  Hebrew  text 
(II  CJhron.  xxvii.  8,  also  wanting  in  Codex  Vati- 
eanus,  cf.  II  Chron.  x.  2).  The  nimierous  agree- 
ments of  the  Syriac  with  the  Targum  show  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  Jewish  traditional 
interpretation.  While  the  translator  tries  to  apply 
the  lesson  of  history  to  his  time,  makes  blunders  on 
account  of  his  deficiency  in  historical  knowledge, 
and  takes  delight  now  and  then  in  etymological 
dallying,  he  supplies  few  of  the  Midrashic  excur- 
suses BO  characteristic  of  the  Aramaic.  The  ad- 
ditions to  the  text  are  either  helps  to  a  correct 
understanding  (as  in  II  Chron.  xviii.  6,  xvi.  10), 
do  away  with  apparent  contradictions  (so  in  II 
Chron.  X3d.  6,  xxii.  3),  are  ba^ed  upon  scholastic 
theories  (as  in  I  Chron.  viii.  33,  34,  39,  40,  ix.  2), 
or  attempt  to  give  to  the  story  a  greater  definite- 
ness  and  completeness,  using  for  that  puipose  not 
legend  but  Biblical  lore  (II  Chron.  xxi.  11,  xxxii. 
1,  9,  xxxiii.  20;  I  Chron.  vi.  13,  xix.  16).  The 
longest  addition  is  found  in  II  Chron.  xi.  where 
w.  4-17  are  taken  from  I  Kings  xii.  and  xiv.  For 
the  rest,  the  translator  followed  very  closely  his 
Hebrew  copy  and  was  very  anxious  to  give  the 
idiom  of  the  Hebrew,  but  here  the  sparseness  of 
tradition  as  to  the  meaning  of  technical  expressions 
led  him  into  many  queer  errors  (as  in  I  Chron.  xv. 
16,  XX.  3,  xxix.  19;  II  Chron.  viii.  5,  ix.  27, 
XXX.  3,  etc.).  Many  of  his  odd  mistakes  are  due 
to  a  misreading  of  the  Hebrew  text  (I  Chron.  xi. 
8^:  II  Chron.  xxiv.  4,  xxv.  13,  16).  But  because 
be  peraiits  himself  to  be  influenced  by  the  Hebrew 


letter  his  translation  deserves  to   be   considered 
wherever  it  differs  from  the  Hebrew. 

Of  the  Greek  translations,  since  remarkably  few 
variants  of  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion 
have  come  down  (Field,  in  his  Hexapla,  Origenis 
Hexaplorum  quoB  superauntf  London,  1867,  gives 
also  those  of  Lucian),  only  the  Septuagint  requires 
attention.  It  is  a  most  important  witness,  since  it 
has  no  other  object  in  view  than  to  render  the 
Hebrew  text  into  Greek,  which  it  generally  does 
in  such  a  way  that  the  Greek  can  with  certainty 
be  reconverted  into  the  original.  Seldom  is  there 
an  un-Hebraic  sentence  (like  II  Chron.  xxxvi.  13). 
There  is  abundant  proof  that  Chronicles  had  a 
translator  different  from  Kings  (cf.  A.  Klostermann, 

Die  Biicher  Samuelis  und  der  K&nige, 
8.  The  Munich,  1887,  on  II  Kings  xxiii.  7). 
Snt*"  Unfortunately,  with  the  mass  of 
'^  *  names  appearing  barbaric  to  the  copy- 
ists such  a  confusion  has  been  imported  into  the 
genealogical  tables  that,  as  Origen  and  Jerome 
complain,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  how  the  original 
read.  Moreover,  the  many  recensions  underly- 
ing the  codices  used  by  Swete  differ  so  much  that 
the  exegete,  in  spite  of  the  many  editions  of  the 
Septuagint,  is  still  obliged  to  reconstruct  for  him- 
self its  original  readings  by  comparing  the  different 
recensions.  In  parallel  passages  that  reading  is 
preferable  which  in  the  context  gives  the  better 
sense  while  differing  most  from  the  Hebrew,  since 
the  Greek  has  often  been  brought  by  Jews  into 
harmony  with  the  text  of  their  times.  Consequently 
where  there  is  an  excess  or  a  deficiency  in  the  text, 
the  one  which  has  it  is  to  be  considered  nearer  the 
original  than  the  one  which  agrees  more  closely 
with  the  Hebrew.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
Hebrew  should  always  be  corrected  by  the  Sep- 
tuagint, though  it  may  be  that  the  aberration  can 
be  detected  through  the  Greek  as  due  to  purpose 
or  mishap  on  the  part  of  the  Hebrew.  As  already 
noted,  it  was  the  habit  of  the  scribes  to  seareh  for 
parallels  in  other  Biblical  books,  and  to  write  any 
addition  either  in  the  margin  or  in  the  text;  in 
such  cases,  the  recension  which  has  the  shorter 
text  is  to  be  preferred  if  the  Hebrew  text  contains 
the  longer  text.  Again,  it  may  happen  that  the 
inferior  Septuagint  text  which  has  the  shorter 
reading  is  still  to  be  preferred  to  the  better  Sep- 
tuagint text  with  the  longer  reading,  if  this  reading 
can  be  shown  to  have  its  parallel  elsewhere. 

In  his  preface  to  Chromatins  Jerome  asserts  that 
it  was  his  purpose  in  his  Latin  translation  to  correct 
the  many  variations  in  the  Septuagint  by  means 
of  the  Hebrew;  in  the  preface  to  Donmio  and 
Rogatianus  he  makes  evident  that  he  used  the  old 
Latin  translation  of  the  Septuagint.  To  be  abso- 
lutely sure  in  the  use  of  his  Hebrew  authority  he 
had  the  help  of  a  Jewish  rabbi  of  Tiberias,  with 

whom  he  went  over  the  entire  book. 

4.  The      In  using  Jerome's  translation  one  has 

_^^*^J.      therefore    to    bear   in   mind,    in    the 

of  JeromeT  ^*'  place,  that  his  endeavor  was  to 

give  an  intelligent  Latin  translation, 
and,  secondly,  that  in  spite  of  his  own  higher  cul- 
ture and  better  taste  he  permitted  himself  to  be 
influenced  by  the  Jewish   interpretations  of  his 


Ohronioles,  Books  of 
ChryBologns,  Petms 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


70 


teacher.  He  has  the  good  sense  to  follow  Lucian's 
Septuagint  in  I  Chron.  iv.  22  rather  than  the  Jewish 
fiction  of  the  Targum.  But  when,  contrary  to 
his  custom,  he  translated  in  the  same  verse  the 
proper  names  Jokim,  Kozeba,  Joash,  and  Saraf ,  his 
action  can  be  explained  only  as  due  to  the  influence 
of  his  Hebrew  teacher. 

When  one  tries,  with  the  help  of  the  versions, 
to  solve  the  many  riddles  found  in  the  Masoretic 
text,  the  latter  proves  to  be  a  descendant  of  an 
older  type  which  has  come  to  its  present  condition 
through  omissions  or  additions,  misreadings  or 
scribal  errors,  corrections  or  interpretations.  But 
even  this  older  type  is  not  the  text  written  by  the 
author.  It  bears  like  marks  of  change,  but  for 
want  of  older  witnesses  it  is  less  frequently  pos- 
sible to  bring  proof  of  the  fact.  For  example,  I 
Chron.  i.  11-16,  17^-23  according  to  the  Septuagint 
are  very  likely  additions;  similarly  I  Chron.  i.  4-10, 
30-34',  35-54;  I  Chron.  ii.  3**  are  transferred  from 
Genesis;  I  Chron.  xi.  10-41'*  from  II  Sam.  xxiii. 
(cf.  A.  Klostermann,  Oeschichte  IsraeU,  Munich, 
1896,  p.  157).  Against  such  designed  augmentation 
exists  another  kind  due  to  scribal  errors,  as 
when,  owing  to  the  identity  of  I  Chron.  viii.  28'* 
and  ix.  34^*,  the  copyist  repeats  viii.  29-38  in  ix. 
35-44.     It   is  natural   that   to   such 

*rj^*  additions  correspond  omissions,  as 
f^J^  ^  when  a  scribe  having  copied  out  of  the 
wrong  column,  noticing  his  mistake, 
skips  as  much  of  the  right  as  he  copied  from  the 
wrong.  For  it  is  certain  I  Chron.  x.  1  is  the  con- 
tinuation of  a  story  which  had  begun  a  new  book, 
the  beginning  of  which  was  lost  and  thus  the  story 
became  unintelligible.  How  much  confusion  may 
be  created  by  the  omission  of  a  single  word  may 
be  seen  in  I  Chron.  iv.  7-10,  where  the  student  is 
at  a  loss  what  to  make  of  Koi  (verse  8)  and  Ja^be^ 
(verse  9)  until  he  adds  with  the  Targum  weko^  at 
the  end  of  verse  7.  Similarly  the  Lucianic  codices 
still  retain  in  I  Chron.  ix.  18  the  two  words  which 
were  lost  in  the  Hebrew.  In  these  cases  the 
claim  of  antiquity  is  with  the  versions.  In  other 
cases  the  right  reading  exists  alongside  of  the  wrong 
one,  as  when  in  I  Chron.  vii.  5  one  copyist  wrote  a 
meaningless  word,  and  another  put  the  correct 
reading  in  the  margin,  whence  it  found  its  way  again 
into  the  text,  where  both  stand  to-day.  These  few 
examples  suffice  to  show  that  the  original  text  of 
Chronicles  was  written  in  a  more  careless  orthog- 
raphy than  that  of  the  books  generally  used  in  the 
community.  For  that  reason  it  was  misunder- 
stood and  misinterpreted  by  punctuators  and 
translators.  In  very  early  times  it  had  already 
undergone  correction  and  variation,  had  been  ex- 
tended by  interpretations  and  quotations  of  parallel 
passages,  and  had  lost  its  original  form  through 
additions  and  omissions.  The  consequence  is  that 
it,  more  than  any  other  Biblical  book,  needs  a 
thorough  revision  before  it  may  be  used  as  a  witness 
or  its  claims  denied. 

V.  Contents  and  Purpose:  To  tmderstand  these, 
use  must  be  made  of  Ezra-Nehemiah,  which  con- 
stitutes the  second  half  of  Chronicles.  Examina- 
tion of  Ezra  i.  1-3*  (=11  Chron.  xxxvi.  22-23) 
proves  the  unity  of  Chronides-Ezra-Nehemiah.  For 


the  meaning  of  the  repetition  is  (cf.  Nestle,  TSK, 
1879,  p.  517)  that  the  author  thereby  indicates 
that  the  story  of  Chronicles  is  continued  in  Ezra- 
Nehemiah.  Just  as  Ezra-Neh.  falls  into  three 
sections  (cf.  A.  Klostermann,  Geschichte  IsrtuUf 
Munich,  1896,  pp.  215-216)  so  with  Chronicles,  as 
follows:  (1)  I  Chron.  i.-ix.,  the  Book  of  Genealo- 
gies, gives  the  place  of  Israel  in  the  Adamic  family 
of  nations,  a  tabular  ramification  of  its  tribes, 
mostly  of  Judah  and  the  Davidic  family,  of  the 
Benjamites  of  Saul's  family  and  of  Jerusalem,  of 
Levi  and  Aaron,  and  of  a  few  families  of  Josephites. 
(2)  The  second  section,  I  Chron.  x.-II  Chron,  v., 
ends  (as  the  Syriac  correctly  surmises)  not  with 
the  death  of  David  (I  Chron.  xxix.)  but  with  the 
dedication  of  Solomon's  temple.  It  describes  how 
David  became  Israel's  sole  king,  how  he  prepared 
the  way  for  the  temple,  selected  its  site  in  Jerusa- 
lem, and  collected  the  means  for  its  construction; 
how  the  personnel  of  its  service  was  organized  and 
how  Solomon  became  the  divine  means  for  the 
accomplishment  of  David's  purpose.  (3)  The 
third  section,  II  Chron.  vi.  to  the  end,  narrates  the 
history  of  the  temple  till  its  destruction,  tells  of 
good  days  and  evil,  of  pious  and  godless  kings,  of 
faithful  and  neglected  temple-service,  of  obedience 
and  disobedience  of  prophetic  teaching,  and  ends 
with  the  edict  of  Cyrus.  It  was  evidently  the 
purpose  of  the  historian  to  bring  before  the  little, 
politically  dependent  congregation  of  the  insig- 
nificant second  temple,  which  had  been  built  by 
self-sacrificing  religious  zeal  in  obedience  to  the 
prophetic  word,  the  ideal  of  ancient  Israel  as  the 
adopted  congregation  of  the  h'ving  God,  revealing 
in  its  history  both  a  stimulus  and  a  warning. 

VI.  The  Author  and  His  Sources:  The  Talmud 
says  {Baha  Batkra  i.  14-15),  "Ezra  wrote  his  book 
(Ezra-Nehemiah)  and  the  genealogies  in  Chron- 
icles." Modem  critics  conclude  from  doubtful  in- 
dications that  the  author  wrote  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Greek  period  and,  from  his  full  description 
of  cult  and  clergy,  that  he  was  a  priest  oraLevite. 
Certain  it  is  that  he  wrote  at  a  time  when  the  mem- 
orabilia of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  consulted 
for  the  understanding  of  their  time.  Of  high  im- 
portance are  the  questions,  what  the  author  accom- 
plished, and  how  he  obtained  and  handled  his 
material.  From  the  second  half  of  his  work 
(Ezra-Nehemiah), where  he  contents  himself  (cf.  A. 
Klostermann,  Geschichte  Israels,  pp.  216-217)  with 
giving  extracts  from  the  autobiographies  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  and  from  other  official  documents, 
the  student  may  conclude  that  he  used  a  similar 
method  elsewhere.  For  I  Chron.  i.-ix.  there  was 
a  multitude  of  genealogies  valued  the  more  highly 
the  more  the  Dispersion  and  the  little  colony  at 
home  attempted  to  figure  as  the  continuation  of 
classic  Israel.  From  the  Lucian  Codex  (I  Chron. 
V.  17)  one  receives  the  impression  that  the  genealo- 
gies existed  in  the  Book  of  Kings;  so  in  I  Chron. 
ix.  1,  according  to  the  Syriac.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  other  two  sections.  The  author  knew  the 
Book  of  Isaiah  (II  Chron.  xxxii.  32),  in  which  at 
this  time  stood  already  chapters  xxxvi.  and  xxxix., 
also  Samuel  and  Kings  (II  Chron.  xx.  34,  xxiv. 
7,  23,  XXV.  26,  etc.),  and  the  hymns  of  David  and 


71 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohronioles,  Booka  of 
Ohrysoloffus,  Petnia 


his  chief  musician.  To  appreciate  our  author 
rightly  it  is  important  to  have  a  clear  conception  of 
this  extensive  Book  of  Kings.  It  is  certain  that  it 
was  finished  only  in  the  days  of  the  Restoration, 
that  it  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  canon- 
ical Books  of  Kings  the  history  of  both  kingdoms. 
From  this  one  may  infer  that  Chronicles  was  in- 
tended to  be  a  revised,  enlarged  edition  of  Kings,  for 
the  use  and  benefit  of  the  new  congregation,  to 
pave  the  way  to  a  theodicy.  As  the  new  Israel 
renewed  its  life  around  the  new  temple  and  wished 
to  know  of  the  past  and  of  its  organization,  there 
were  written  books  about  the  first  years  and  the 
last  yean  of  David,  one  about  Solomon,  one  about 
the  Judaic  IdngiB,  and  one  about  the  Israelitic  kings. 
The  last  three  still  existed  in  560  B.C.  Besides 
these  there  was  a  collection  of  Judaic  prophetic 
narratives.  Then  grew  up  the  traditional  inter- 
pretationa  of  the  schools,  vitalizing  dead  names, 
and  finally  the  traditions  of  priests  and  Levites  and 
important  families.  While  it  is  true  that  imagina- 
tion has  here  a  wide  field,  and  that  not  all  epochs 
received  equally  careful  attention,  nevertheless 
both  author  and  editor  acted  in  good  faith,  for  the 
latter  only  arranged  the  matter  which  he  extracted 
from  the  former,  where  he  employed  new  material, 
cited  his  sources,  and  his  statements  could  be  veri- 
fied. The  picture  of  the  beginning  of  the  cult 
which  the  chronicler  and  his  forerunner  carried  in 
their  soul  may  be  totally  different  from  that  of 
modem  critics,  but  the  material  which  underlies 
that  picture  they  neither  invented  nor  did  they 
purposely  change  its  meaning.  The  historical 
books  of  the  Bible,  including  Chronicles,  were  writ- 
ten for  the  practical  need  of  the  community,  and 
the  test  by  which  they  are  to  be  judged  is  whether 
they  satisfied  it  or  not.  Just  here  lie  the  limits  of 
their  value  to  the  modem  historian  who  would  like 
to  reproduce  out  of  authentic  docimients  a  picture 
of  persons  and  events  as  the  immediate  eye-wit- 
neaaes  had  it.  Like  all  historical  books,  even  more 
■0,  because  of  its  origin.  Chronicles  demands  an  able 
and  cautious  examination ,  if  one  would  not  sin  against 
the  Biblical  book,  nor  against  the  sdenoe  of  impartial 
historical  investigation.  (A.  Klostermakn.) 

BnuocmAPHT:  Tbe  best  editioxiB  of  the  Hebrew  text  are 
by  8.  Beer  And  F.  Delituch,  Liber  Chronicorum,  Leip- 
aie.  1888,  «ad  by  R.  Kittel.  in  SBOT,  New  York.  1806. 
CritioJ  diflcuasiiODs  are  by:  A.  Kuenen,  HiMioriath-krir 
ImA  Ondenodc  .  .  .  dM  ouden  VerboruU,  i.  433-520, 
Leydta.  1887  (very  thorough);  K.  H.  Graf,  Die  geBchich^ 
luhem  BUeiur  dee  Alien  Teetamenie,  pp.  114-247,  Leipsie, 
1866  (important);  J.  Wellhauaen,  De  ffeniibtte  et  famUiie 
Judaia  q^a  tn  I  Ckron.  \i.-iv.  enumerantur^  G^ttingen, 
1870;  idem.  Proleoomtna,  pp.  176-237,  Berlin,  1883, 
Eof.  traud..  pp.  171-227,  London,  1885;  G.  T.  Ladd, 
t>otlb\ee  of  Sacred  Scripture,  vol.  i.  passim.  New  York, 
1883;  W.  E.  Barnes,  Reliaioue  Standpoint  of  the  Chroni- 
der,  in  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Lanouageet  Oct.,  1806; 
G.  B.  Gray,  Studtee  \n  H^trew  Proper  Namee^  ehap.  iii., 
LoodoB.  1806:  W.  Sanday,  Bibhcal  IneptraHon,  ib.  1806; 
books  on  Introduction,  notably  Driver,  Inibroduciion, 
ebap.  XXL,  and  C.  H.  Comill,  Einleitung,  pp.  268-276, 
Freiboii.  1801.  Among  the  best  of  the  oommentariee 
»e.  C.  F.  KeU.  Ldpdc,  1870;  8.  OettU,  In  Kurtoefauier 
Knmmtntar,  Munich,  1880;  and  W.  H.  Bennett,  in  the 
Bxpoeilcr'B  Bible,  London,  1804.  Very  thorough  di»- 
CQMons  are  in  BB,  1.  763-772.  and  DB,  i.  380-307.  The 
Gvm.  transl.  in  Kautieeh*s  Die  hea%oe  Sckrift  dee  AUen 
TeHamentB,  pp.  037-1012,  Leipsie,  1806,  is  very  useful 
for  its  pengraphing  and  indication  of  sources  of  the  text. 


CHRONICON  PASCHALE,  cren'i-con  pas-ca'le 
C'  Easter  Chronicle,"  also  called  Chronicon  Alex- 
andrinum,  or  ConstarUinopolitanuin):  A  chrono- 
logical  work,  probably  composed  by  a  cleric  who 
belonged  to  the  entourage  of  Sergius,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  610-638.  It  extended  from  the 
creation  of  Adam  to  the  year  629,  but  the  beginning 
and  end  are  lost,  and,  as  preserved,  it  stops  in  627. 
The  name  ''  Easter  Chronicle  "  is  derived  from  the 
computation  of  the  Easter  canon,  which  forms  the 
basis  of  Christian  chronology.  The  author,  except 
for  his  own  time,  confined  himself  to  copying  the 
sources  (Eusebius,  John  Malalas,  and  others).  The 
so-called  Byzantine  or  Roman  era  is  used  for  the 
first  time  as  basis  of  the  chronology.  The  Chroni- 
con paschale  was  edited  by  L.  Dindorf  in  the  Cor-' 
pus  Scriptorum  hiatoricorum  Byzantmarum  (2  vols., 
Bonn,  1832),  reprinted  in  MPO,  xdi.  69-1028. 

G.  KrCqeb. 
BiBLioaRAPHT:  H.  Gelser,  Sexhte  Juliue  Africantu  und  die 
bytanHniache    Chronooraphie,    ii.     1,    Leipsie,    1886;  K. 
Krumbacher,  Oeechiekte  der  bytantinieeKen  Literaiur,  Mu- 
nich, 1807  (whera  the  literature  is  given). 

CHRONOLOGY.    See  Time.  Reckoning  op. 

CHRYSANTHOS,  cri-san'thos,  NOTARAS,  n6- 
td'ros:  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem;  b.  in  the  second 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century;  d.  at  Jerusalem 
1731.  He  was  the  nephew  of  the  celebrated  Do- 
sitheos  (q.v.),  patriarch  of  Jerusalem;  having 
completed  his  studies  at  Padua  and  Paris,  in  the 
year  1700  he  was  created  bishop  of  Csesarea  in 
Palestine  by  his  uncle,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the 
patriarchate  in  the  year  1707.  He  was  a  man  of 
scientific  culture  and  also  a  strong,  energetic  church- 
man. With  force  and  success  he  applied  himself 
to  church  reform  in  Palestine,  by  wbich  he  made 
bitter  enemies  of  the  Roman  Catholics  while  doing 
much  for  his  own  monasteries.  He  encouraged 
theological  science,  to  which  he  contributed  by  hif 
own  writings,  such  as  the  "  Histoiy  and  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Holy  Land  "  (Venice,  1728)  and  "  On 
the  Mysteries  of  the  Great  Church  *'  (last  ed.  Venice, 
1778).  For  the  Greek  Church  he  did  great  service 
through  his  edition  of  the  *'  History  of  the  Patriarchs 
of  Jerusalem"  by  Dositheos.  Le  Quien  in  his  Ortens 
Chri8tianu8  has  borrowed  liberally  from  Chiysan- 
thos.  (Phiupp  Meter.) 

Biblxoorapbt:  J.  A.  Fabridus,  Bibliotheoa  Qrctea,  to,  702, 

xiii.  470  sqq.,  14  vols.,  Hamburg,  1718-54. 

CHRYSOLOGUS,  cris"o-l6'gU8,  PETRUS,  pfi'trus 
(*'  Peter  the  Golden-worded  ") :  Archbishop  of  Ra- 
venna; b.  at  Imola  (22  m.  e.s.e.  from  Bologna)  406 
(7);  d.  at  Ravenna  449  or  450.  He  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Leo  the  Great,  and  stood  at  the  head  of 
the  Church  at  Ravenna  at  the  time  when  that  dty 
was  the  capital  of  the  Western  Empire.  As  a 
patron  of  art  he  is  still  remembered  (cf.  V.  Schultze, 
Archaeologie  der  altchristlichen  Kunstf  p.  85,  Munich, 
1895).  He  is  still  more  famous  as  an  orator:  his 
sermons  betray  everywhere  that  they  dealt  with  a 
select  and  pampered  public,  which  listened  leisurely 
and  "  delighted  in  being  startled,"  and  they  show 
a  continuous  striving  for  the  sensational  and  the 
unusual.  They  are  better  written  than  most  ser- 
mons of  those  times,  bear  witness  to  religious  ex- 
perience and  moral  earnestness,  and  at  times  carry 


Ohrysolog^s,  Petrus 
Chrysostom 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


72 


one  away  with  their  pathos  and  the  energy  of  their 
condensed  diction.  But  finally  the  sententious  un- 
rest, the  compression,  the  avoidance  of  the  simple, 
and  the  presence  of  much  that  is  obscure  or  gro- 
tesque induce  tedium  in  the  reader.  Yet  through- 
out a  great  talent  is  recognizable,  and  much  which 
would  otherwise  be  repulsive  is  useful  to  the  his- 
torian. In  his  sermons,  gathered  by  Felix,  arch- 
bishop of  Ravenna  (d.  Nov.  25,  724),  his  by-name 
does  not  appear;  it  is  found  first  in  Agnellus  (chap. 
47),  and  seems  to  have  been  given  him  in  order  that 
the  Western  Church  also  might  have  its  Chrysos- 
tom.  What  Agnellus  knows  of  his  life  is  taken 
partly  from  local  tradition;  how  imcertain  this 
had  become  in  400  years  is  proven  by  the  mass  of 
chronological  errors  and  the  confusion  among  the 
Peters,  the  bishops  of  Ravenna.  That  modem 
biographers  know  as  much  of  Chrysologus  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  take  the  Roman  Breviary 
(Dec.  4)  as  a  reliable  source.  The  year  of  his  birth 
and  that  of  his  death  are  equally  uncertain  (by  Oct. 
24,  458,  Neo,  bishop  of  Ravenna,  appears).  He  was 
named  Peter  by  his  parents  in  anticipation  of 
future  greatness  (cf.  MPL,  lii.  497),  but  that  he  was 
educated  in  a  monastery  can  not  be  inferred  from 
sermon  107.  Agnellus  says  that  Sixtus  III.  (432- 
440)  made  him  bishop  contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
Ravenna.  It  is  doubtful  whether  all  the  sermons 
in  the  edition  by  Felix  are  genuine.  The  title 
"  «.  Joannis  epiacopi  "  which  some  of  them  bear  in 
various  manuscripts  is  strange,  and  may  have  been 
due  to  the  copyist's  confounding  Chrysologus  with 
Chrysostom,  and  a  help  to  the  confusion  is  the  fact 
that  the  former  used  the  tatter's  sermons  liberally. 
Sermon  149  is  undoubtedly  a  translation  of  the 
speech  of  Severianus  of  Gabala  delivered  in  the 
year  401  (cf.  MPL,  lii.  599a,  with  Neander,  Chrysoa- 
tomuSf  ii.,  3d  edition,  Berlin,  1848,  p.  1 14).  How  much 
of  this  absorption  of  foreign  matter  into  his  sermons 
is  due  to  Chiysologus  himself  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine; but  the  principal  matter  is  undoubtedly 
authentic.  As  a  dogmatidan,  Chrysologus  wrestled 
with  the  problem  of  a  theodicy  (sermon  101);  in 
spite  of  his  letter  to  Eutyches,  he  leaned  strongly 
toward  Monophysitism,  attacked  Pelagianism,- was 
dependent  upon  Augustine  (sermons  11  and  30), 
sympathized  with  Paulinism  (sermons  108-116), 
"  and  at  the  feasts  of  the  Saints  preached  more  of 
faithful  endurance  than  of  works  "  (sermon  128). 
In  his  polemics  he  never  named  his  adversary,  but 
combated  Arians,  Pelagians,  Nestorians,  Novatians, 
and  Manicheans.  Sermon  6  was  highly  prized  by 
the  ancients,  sermon  35  seems  to  have  been  used 
by  Fulgentius,  sermons  50,  142,  143  found  a  place 
in  the  Roman  Breviary,  while  sermons  67-72  are 
valuable  for  the  history  of  catechetics.  In  sermon 
34  (MPL,  lii.  299a)  Chrysologus  combated  the 
conditional  immortality  of  the  Stoics  from  the 
text  I  Cor.  XV.  52;  in  sermon  61  he  touched  upon 
the  same  subject,  and  the  conclusion  of  sermon  62 
asserted  that  the  resurrection  has  the  character  of 
eternity  because  it  is  accomplished  through  the 
eternal  Christ,  which  is  better  rhetoric  than  logic. 

(F.  Arnold.) 

BxBUoaRAPHT:  The  SermonM,  together  with  the  authorita- 
tive  bfe  by  Agnellus.  were  pubhshed  Venice,  1750,  re- 


printed in  MPL,  lii.;  German  lelect  transl.  by  M.  Held, 
Kempten,  1874.  The  life  is  also  in  MGH,  Script,  rer. 
Langob.,  1878,  pp.  307-375.  New  material  is  gathered  by 
F.  Liverani,  in  Spicileoium  Liherianum,  pp.  125-203, 
Florence,  1863.  Consult:  H.  Dapper.  Der  heilioe  Peinu 
Chryaologua,  Coloffne.  1867;  the  biographical  sketch  by 
Held  is  in  his  tranal..  ut  sup.;  L.  8.  Tillemont.  Memoim 
.  .  .  eecliaiiutiquM,  xr.  184-195.  864-867;  Ceillier.  Au- 
tettn  aeurit,  x.  6-16;  J.  Feaeler,  InatitutioneB  pairologia, 
ed.  B.  Jungmann,  ii.  2,  pp.  240-256.  Innsbruck,  1896; 
DCB,  i.  617-518;   KL,  ix.  1898-1900. 

CHRYSOSTOM,  cris^es-tem. 

Life  to  398  (S  1). 

Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  398  (S  2). 

His  Opponents  and  Controversies  (S  3). 

The  Synod  ad  Quereum  (f  4). 

Chrysostom  Banished  (f  5). 

Writings  (5  6). 

His  Significance  and  Doctrine  (S  7). 

John  Chrysostom  {Joannes  ChrysastomoSf  "  John 
the  Golden-mouthed ")»  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, was  bom  at  Antioch,  probably  c.  345  or 
347;  d.  near  Comana,  in  Pontus,  Sept.  14, 407.  The 
name  "  Chrysostom,"  borrowed  from  Dion  of 
Prusa,  was  given  to  him  soon  after  his  death.  He 
came  of  a  rich  patrician  family,  and  his  father, 
Secundus,  died  soon  after  his  son's  birth;  the  boy 
was  brought  up  by  his  mother  Anthusa.  At  twenty 
he  was  among  the  pupils  of  the  rhetorician  Libanius 
at  Antioch,  and  attended  the  lectures  of  the  philoso- 
pher Andragathius.  He  intended  at  first  to  follow 
the  law,  but  the  details  of  the  life  displeased  him, 
and  he  decided  to  leave  the  worid  entirely,  finding 
a  companion  in  his  fellow  student  Basil,  of  whom 

nothing  more  is  known.     He  busied 

z.  Life  to  himself  now  with  the  Scriptures,  and 

398.        prepared  for  baptism,  which  he  reoei\'ed 

three  years  later  from  Meletius,  bishop 
of  Antioch  (c.  368,  certainly  before  370,  in  which 
year  Meletius  left  Antioch).  Almost  inmiediately 
after,  he  seems  to  have  been  ordained  as  a  reader. 
His  teachers  in  this  period  were  Diodorus  of  Tarsus 
and  a  certain  Karterius,  of  whom  nothing  more  is 
known;  his  friends  were  MaxLmus,  later  bishop  of 
Seleucia,  and  Theodore,  bishop  of  Mopsuestia. 
He  himself  tells  of  the  strictness  of  the  aacetic  life 
which  he  now  led  in  his  mother's  house.  Declining 
a  bishopric  about  373,  on  his  mother's  death  a  year 
or  two  later  he  betook  himself  to  a  moimtain  soli- 
tude near  Antioch,  where  he  spent  four  years  in 
asoetic  exercises  with  an  old  Syrian  monk,  and  two 
more  alone  in  a  cave,  imtil  need  of  medical  treat- 
ment brought  him  back  to  Antioch  about  380. 
Probably  in  the  early  part  of  the  next  year,  he 
was  ordained  deacon  by  Meletius,  and  priest  by  his 
successor  Flavian  at  the  beginning  of  386.  In 
this  capacity  he  labored  in  Antioch  for  twelve  years, 
laying  the  foundations  of  his  fame  as  a  preacher 
and  teacher  and  distinguishing  himself  by  the 
holiness  of  his  life. 

When  Nectarius,  the  successor  of  Gregory  Na»- 
ianzen  in  the  episcopal  see  of  Constantinople,  died 
on  Sept.  27,  397,  intrigue  was  busy  with  the  new 
choice.  The  weak  emperor  Arcadius  was  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  his  chamberlain  Ehitropius,  for 
whom  the  choice  was  interesting  only  as  subserving 
his  political  plans.  Theophilus,  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria, more  diplomat  than  bishop,  endeavored  to 


73 


REUGI0U8  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ChryBoloffus,  Petrus 
Ohrysostom 


fill  the  place  with  one  of  his  creatures,  Isidore 
by  Dsrae;  but  Eutropius,  pursuing  the  policy  in- 
augurated byTheodosius  the  Great  in  381,  was  not 
disposed  to  support  the  Alexandrian  influence  in 
this  manner,  and  gave  Theophilus  his 
3.  Fttriaich  choice  between  consenting  to  the 
of  Constan-  elevation  of  John  or  facing  serious 
tinople,  398.  charges.  He  chose  the  former  course, 
and  John  was  consecrated  on  Feb.  26, 
398.  He  threw  himself  with  energy  into  the  task 
of  reforming  manifold  abuses,  especially  among 
the  clergy.  He  drove  out  the  "spiritual  sisters,'' 
with  whom  many  of  them  were  living  in  a 
nominally  spiritual  marriage,  and  checked  the 
parasitic  habits  of  others  who  were  mere  hangers- 
on  to  the  rich;  he  cut  down  the  ecclesiastical  ex- 
penses, and  applied  the  saving  to  hospitals.  Nat- 
urally his  reforms  made  enemies  for  him,  but  they 
were  poweriess  as  long  as  the  court  was  on  his  side. 
Before  long,  however,  he  came  into  conflict  with 
the  all^x>werful  favorite,  whose  shameful  conduct 
he  fearlessly  rebuked;  but  before  Eutropius  could 
avenge  himself,  he  fell  from  power  (399),  and 
was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  very  church 
where  he  had  himself  violated  the  right  of  asy- 
lum to  others  a  few  years  earlier.  Chrysostom 
prote'Tted  him  from  the  soldiers  who  rushed  in  to 
seize  him. 

Meantime  the  number  of  the  devoted  prelate's 
enemies  was  growing.  Among  them  are  named 
various  ecclesiastics  who  were  dissatisfied  with  his 
strict  rule,  and  a  number  of  rich  and  woridly  women 
whose  lives  he  had  rebuked.  He  made  fresh  ene- 
mies at  a  council  held  at  Ephesus  in  400,  where  he 
dqxned  six  bishops  who  had  obtained  their  office 
by  simony.  The  empress,  however,  who  now  held 
the  reins  of  government,  still  upheld 
3.  Hif  Op-  him,  and  when  a  male  heir  to  the 
poncnts  and  throne  was  bom  (401),  he  seems  to 
Controver-  have  officiated  at  the  child's  baptism, 
sict.  His  position  was  none  the  less  insecure, 
as  was  shown  in  the  course  of  his  con- 
flict with  Severianus  (q.v.)  of  Gabala  who  had 
gained  a  footing  in  Constantinople  and  was  push- 
ing his  ambitious  plans  there.  Chrysostom  for- 
bade him  to  preach;  Severianus  yielded  and  retired 
to  Chaioedon,  but  Eudoda  forced  Chrysostom  to 
recall  him.  A  more  dangerous  foe  was  Theophilus 
of  Alexandria,  who  had  by  no  means  given  up  his 
designs  for  the  aggrandijsement  of  his  see.  He 
fomid  a  new  occasion  to  press  his  claim  that  the 
bishopric  of  Constantinople  belonged  to  his  pa- 
triarchal jurisdiction.  In  the  Origenistic  contro- 
versy which  then  agitated  the  Egyptian  Church, 
Theophilus  found  many  of  the  monks  of  the  desert 
recalcitrant  and  unwilling  to  give  up  their  beloved 
teaeher  Origen.  Four  among  them  of  special 
influence,  the  "  long  brothers  "  Dioscorus,  Ammo- 
iiius.  Eusebius,  and  Euthymius,  were  banished  by 
Theophilus,  and  went  first  to  Palestine;  pursued 
thither  by  the  enmity  of  Theophilus,  they  went  on 
to  Constantinople.  Chrysostom  behaved  guard- 
«fly  and  sought  to  effect  a  reconciliation.  The- 
ophilus at  first  did  not  answer,  and  then  adopted  a 
hsughty  tone.  When  it  appeared  that  Eudoda 
took  the  side  of  the  monks,  be  bent  all  his  energies 


to  their  destruction  and  that  of  Chrysostom,  who, 
he  thought,  stood  behind  them.  He  did  not  go 
himself  to  Constantinople,  but  sent  Epiphanius  of 
Salamis,  whose  narrow  zeal  was  easily  enlisted,  to 
carry  on  the  campaign  against  the  alleged  Origen- 
ism  of  Chrysostom.  Epiphanius  departed  in  ill 
humor  without  accomplishing  an3rthing,  and  died 
on  the  way  home. 

Chrysostom  now  ruined  himself  with  the  empress 
by  preaching  vehemently  against  the  luxury  of 
women's  dress,  in  a  way  which  she  and  others 
thought  was  aimed  directly  at  her.  Theophilus 
came  to  Constantinople  at  her  summons,  and  found 
the  train  laid.  He  had  assembled  the  bishops  on 
whom  he  could  count  in  a  church  in  a  suburb 
of  Chaloedon,  on  the  imperial  estate  called 
"  The  Oak  *'  (whence  the  gathering  is  known  by 
the  Latin  name,  Synodua  ad  Quercum),  in  the 
autiunn  of  403,  and  began  his  synod  when  all 
was  ready.  There  were  thirty-six  present,  of 
whom  twenty-nine  were  from  Egypt  (Photius, 
who  has  preserved  a  part  of  their  proceedings, 
says  forty-five,  but  perhaps  some  signed  after- 
ward). The  charges  brought  against 
4.  The      Chrysostom,    by    some    of    his    own 

Synod  ad    clergy,  were  for  the  most  part  of  no 

Quercum.  importance,  and  showed  nothing  but 
the  eiunity  of  the  accusers.  Yet  he  felt, 
as  he  sat  with  forty  friendly  bishops  in  his  palace  in 
Constantinople,  that  the  situation  was  a  very  dan- 
gerous one.  Summoned  to  appear  before  the  hostile 
synod,  he  made  the  condition  that  those  who  had 
expressed  their  intention  to  destroy  him — ^The- 
ophilus, Acadus,  Severianus,  and  Antiochus — 
should  be  excluded.  Meantime  application  had 
been  made  to  the  emperor  to  compel  his  attendance 
in  case  of  hesitation;  when  he  still  delayed,  he  was 
condemned  in  his  absence  and  deprived  of  his 
bishopric.  The  emperor  was  notified  and  requested 
to  enforce  the  sentence.  Although  it  was  obviously 
illegal,  Chrysostom  yielded  to  force  and,  when  the 
emperor  had  confirmed  the  deposition,  went  into 
exile  at  Prsenetus  (or  Pronectus),  in  Bithynia 
(28  m.  n.w.  of  Nicsea),  after  he  had  sought  to 
calm  the  excited  people  in  a  wonderful  sermon. 
The  next  night  something  alarming  happened  in 
the  imperial  palace — Theodoret  spesJks  of  an  earth- 
quake, but  neither  Socrates  nor  Sozomon  give  this 
— and  it  was  put  down  to  his  banishment.  The 
temper  of  the  people,  too,  was  threatening.  The- 
ophilus thought  it  best  to  depart  in  haste,  and  a 
few  days  later  an  imperial  messenger  was  sent  to 
recall  Chrysostom. 

The  peace,  however,  was  not  of  long  duration. 
Two  months  later  the  strife  broke  out  afresh,  on 
a  fresh  affront  to  the  empress's  vanity.  The 
prefect  Simplidus  had  erected  a  silver  statue  of  her 
on  the  south  side  of  the  great  church,  which  was 
dedicated  with  loud  rejoicings;  and  Chrysostom 
complained,  in  a  sermon,  of  noisy  popular  festiv- 
ities which  disturbed  the  devotions  of  the  faithful. 
Again  he  was  accused  of  intending  to  insult  the 
empress  i  and  once  more  she  set  herself  to  effect 
his  downfall.  A  synod  assembled  in  Constanti- 
nople, instructed  by  the  absent  Theophilus,  and  the 
pliant  bishops,  with  but  few  exceptions,  followed 


Ohrysostom 
Ohur,  Blflhopiio  of 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


74 


the  imperial  will.    The  method  to  be  employed 
gave    rise    to    lengthy  discussioius,  until    shortly 
before  Easter,  404,  the  emperor  or- 
5.  Chiys-  dered  Chrjrsostom  to  leave  his  church 
ostom      since  he  had  been  condemned  by  two 
Banished,   synods.    The  bishop  said   he  would 
yield  only  to  force;  and  force  was  em- 
ployed on  Thursday  in  Holy  Week,  the  adherents 
of  Chrysostom  being  driven  out  of  the  church  by  a 
violent  onslaught.    He  himself  remained  in  the 
suburbs,  strengthening  his  party,  until  on  June  10 
his  enemies  moved  the  emperor  to  further  meas- 
ures, and  on  the  20th,  after  an  affecting  farewell, 
he  took  ship  for  Asia  Minor,  the  country  indicated 
for  his  banishment.    The  same  night  a  fire  broke 
out  in  the  cathedral  church,  for  which  his  adherents 
were  blamed,  and  they  were  severely  repressed. 
A  feeble  old  man  named  Arsacius,  the  brother  of 
his  predecessor,  was  put  in  his  place  on  June  26. 

But  while  Chrysostom  was  on  his  way  to  Cucusus 
in  Armenia,  his  friends  were  not  idle.  Four  bishops 
went  to  Rome  with  a  letter  from  him,  to  move 
Innocent  I.  in  his  favor.  The  acts  of  the  synod 
which  had  first  condenmed  Chrysostom  were  sent 
to  Innocent  shortly  after  by  the  opposite  party, 
and  he  saw  that  the  sentence  had  been  illegal. 
He  wrote  to  Theophilus  that  the  affair  should  be 
brought  up  before  a  general  council,  and  exhorted 
Chrysostom  and  his  adherents  to  steadfastness. 
Honorius,  the  Western  emperor  and  brother  of 
Arcadius,  also  wrote  to  the  latter  in  favor  of  the 
banished  bishop,  but  without  success.  The  out- 
come was  a  breach  of  conmiunion  between  Old 
and  New  Rome.  After  the  death  of  Arsacius 
(Nov.  11,  405),  Atticus  became  bishop  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  and  persecuted  the  "  Johannites " 
with  renewed  severity.  Chrysostom  himself  was 
ordered  transferred  from  Cucusus  to  Pityus,  a 
still  more  desolate  place;  but  the  hardships  of  the 
journey  were  too  much  for  him,  and  he  died  near 
Comana,  the  modem  Tokat,  in  Sivas,  Asia  Minor. 
Thirty  years  later  his  remains  were  solemnly  trans- 
lated to  Constantinople  and  buried  with  honor  in 
the  church  of  the  Apostles,  Theodosius  II.  thus 
atoning  for  the  deeds  of  his  parents. 

The  writings  of  Chrysostom  may  be  divided, 
according  to  his  biographer  Palladius,  into  "  homi- 
lies, treatises,  and  letters."  The  list  known  as  the 
CaUUogus  Augustanua  (from  a  lost  Augsburg  MS.) 
numbers  102  separate  titles,  including  none  which 
is  not  genuine.  His  sermons  cover  practically 
the  whole  Bible,  including,  for  example,  seventy-six 
on  Genesis,  ninety  on  Matthew,  eighty-eight  on 
John,  fifty-five  on  Acts,  and  242  on  the  Pauline 
epistles,  without  counting  those  on  Galatians,  which 
are  preserved  only  in  the  form  of  a  connected  com- 
mentary worked  up  from  the  sermons. 
6.  Writings.  There  are  also  discourses  for  all  the 
principal  festivals,  and  a  large  number 
on  various  saints,  of  which  the  most  notable  are  the 
seven  on  Paul.  The  "  treatises  "  are  partly  apolo- 
getic and  partly  practical,  the  latter  being  the 
more  numerous.  The  earliest  we  have  are  two 
letters  to  Theodore,  afterward  bishop  of  Mopsuestia, 
who,  on  account  of  a  love-affair,  was  thinking  of 
returning  to  the  worid.    To  justify  his  declination 


of  a  bishopric,  about  373,  he  addressed  to  his 
friend  Basil  the  six  books  "  On  the  Priesthood  "; 
according  to  Socrates,  the  composition  of  this  work 
falls  in  the  period  after  his  ordination  as  deacon, 
i.e.,  after  381.  To  this  period  probably  belong 
also  the  two  books  "  On  Penance,"  and  the  three 
against  the  enemies  of  the  monastic  life.  The 
superiority  of  the  single  life  is  dealt  with  in  a  work 
on  virginity,  written  about  380,  and  two  smaller 
works  of  about  the  same  period,  **  To  a  Young 
Widow  "  and  "  Against  a  Second  Marriage."  With 
these  may  be  classed  the  two  pastoral  letters  of  his 
early  Constantinople  days,  directed  against  the 
abuses  in  clerical  life  already  referred  to.  His 
letters,  about  245  in  nimiber,  are  almost  all  from 
the  period  of  his  second  exile,  and  give  an  interest- 
ing picture  of  his  life  and  his  cares.  Of  works  im- 
properly attributed  to  him  there  is  no  lack.  The 
liturgy  bearing  his  name  is  not  his,  though  its 
relation  to  that  of  Antioch  deserves  a  closer  in- 
vestigation than  it  has  yet  received — as  does  the 
"  Synopsis  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments."  The 
"  Incomplete  Work  on  Matthew,"  consisting  of 
fifty-four  sermons,  is  a  Latin  original  composed 
by  an  Arian  toward  the  end  of  the  sixth  century. 

The  significance  of  Chiysostom's  work  does  not 
lie  in  the  domain  of  scientific  theology,  on  the 
development  of  which  he  had  but  little  influence. 
He  was  preeminently  a  practical  man,  and  it  was 
through  practical  teaching  that  he  left  his  mark. 
A  disciple  of  the  school  of  Antioch  (q.v.),  he  dis- 
played throughout  his  life  the  characteristics  of 
that  school.  The  pupil  of  Diodorus  of  Tarsus  is 
easily  to  be  recognized  in  his  sober  exegesis,  occu- 
pied with  determining  the  literal  sense  of  his  text. 
Constantly  bearing  in  mind  the  needs  of  his  flock, 
he  naturally  did  not  carry  the  exegetical  prin- 
ciples of  his  school  to  the  extreme  which  is  found 
in  the  commentaries  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia; 
but  he  was  a  master  of  the  art  of  developing  prac- 
tical truths  for  every-day  life  from  the  Scripture. 
Thus  his  sermons  surpass  Origen's  in  practical  value 
as  far  as  they  are  inferior  to  them  in  speculative 
insight.  His  was  not,  in  any  case,  a  systematic 
mind;  the  logical  development  of  dogma  from 
point  to  point  he  left  to  others.  Where  the  Church 
had  decided,  the  question  was  settled  for  him. 
He  took  his  stand  on  the  Nicene  theology,  and  was 
ready  to  defend  it  against  all  comers.  In  order 
fully  to  understand  and  respect  this  position,  one 
must  remember  the  difficulties  in  which  the  church 
teachers  of  Antioch  were  placed — how  they  had 
to  contend  not  only  against  pagans  and  Jews,  but 
against  Christian  sects  of  eveiy  description,  the 
various  kinds  of  Gnostics,  Novatians, 
7.  His  Sig-  Arians,  Manicheans,  and  many  others. 

nificance    In  his  anthropology  and   soteriology 
and        ChryBostom  faithfully  represents  the 

Doctrine,  teaching  of  Diodorus.  Man,  consist- 
ing of  body  and  soul,  is  disposed  both 
to  good  and  to  evil,  and  thus  there  is  no  room  for 
Manichean  dualism.  For  the  development  of  the 
first  man,  as  he  was  created  perfect  and  immortal 
by  God,  the  possession  of  free  will  proved  fatal. 
Not  knowing  how  to  use  his  freedom,  man  rebelled 
against  God  and  brought  on  himself  all  the  ooxnq>- 


75 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohrysostom 
Chur,  Bishopric  of 


tion  of  mortality.  Thus  sin  spread  from  our  first 
parents  to  the  whole  race.  He  expressly  contro- 
verts the  view,  however,  that  sin  is  an  integral  part 
I  of  our  nature.  Then  death  -followed  as  a  conse- 
quence of  sin.  From  tlus'position  man  attains  the 
good  by  means  of  his  free  will,  which  can  turn 
away  from  evil;  but  this  is  only  possible  by  means 
.  of  dime  grace.  Yet  the  operation  of  grace  does 
not  impair  our  free  will;  our  own  decision  must 
come  first,  and  then  God  begins  to  do  his  part. 
Tliat  the  East  took  so  little  interest  in  the  contro- 

%  ^Tfsy  about  graoe  is  due  largely  to  the  position 
assumed  by  the  school  of  Antioch  and  especially 
by  duysostom.  His  ascetic  inclination  is  shown 
not  only  in  his  early  writings,  but  in  many  passages 
of  his  sermons.  His  Eucharistic  doctrine  is  spe- 
cially noteworthy;  he  asserts  emphatically  the 
identity  of  the  bread  and  wine  with  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  going  so  far  as  to  say  that  Christ 

)  drank  of  his  own  blood  at  the  Institution.  The 
change  is  caused  by  the  words  of  institution  repeated 
by  the  priest;  their  operation  is  analogous  to  that 
of  the  words  of  creation  spoken  by  God.  The 
consequence  of  this  view  for  his  conception  of  his 
office  is  obvious,  and  in  this  point  his  influence  on 
succeeding  ages  is  important.  It  should  be  added 
that  he  never  had  an  opportunity  to  develop  his 

,  thoughts  carefully;  they  were  uttered  in  sermons 
of  which  only  a  small  part  probably  was  ppepared 
beforehand,  and  perhaps  received  no  very  thorough 
revision  after  they  had  been  taken  down  in  short- 
hand. What  made  his  preaching  so  powerful  was 
not  only  the  native  rhetorical  force  which  he  un- 
doubtedly pn«ae«acd^  hut  his  gjc^^  in  illimunating 
the  questions  of  daily  life  from  the  Scriptures,  in 
guiding  men  in  their  path  through  the  world.  He 
could  venture  to  preach  in  his  own  way,  "  and  not 
as  the  scribes."  He  boldly  rebuked  the  rich,  to 
Fuch  an  extent  that  he  WaS^rometiineisTjIamed  for 
it,  and  no  fear  of  the  displeasure  of  the  powerful 
ever  restrained  him  from  declaring  the  truth  of 
God.  (Ebwin  Preuschen.) 

Bibuoobafht:  The  Ojmra  wen  publiahed  in  13  vok.,  Paris, 
1718-38,  and  Veniee,  1 734-41 .  SeleetionB  are  translated  in 
NPNF,  1.  acr.,  voto.  ix.-xiv.  The  beet  account  of  the  life 
and  activities  is  in  L.  8.  TiUemont,  MimoireB  .  .  .  eccUn- 
•itiipu9.  xi.  1-406.  547-626.  Paris.  1706.  In  English  the 
best  nnsle  work  is  W.  R.  W.  Stephens.  St  Chryoutam,  hia 
Life  amd  TimM,  London,  1883.  On  the  life  consult 
further:  A.  Neander,  Der  heUi{fe  Chryaoatamuat  2  vols.. 
Berlin.  1848.  Eng.  transl.,  London.  1845;  E.  Martin.  S. 
Jmn  CkryaoaUmu,  3  vols..  MontpeUier.  1860;  R.  W.  Bush. 
U/t  and  Timea  of  Chryaoatom,  London.  1885;  F.  H. 
Chase.  CKryaoatom,  a  Study  in  iKe  HiaL  of  InUrpretaUon, 
Gambridce.  1887;  A.  Puech.  8.  Jean  Chryaoalome,  Paris. 
1891;  Schaff.  ChriaHan  Church,  iii.  033-941  et  passim; 
idem.  St  Chryaoatom  and  St  AuguaHna,  New  York.  1891; 
DCB,  L  518-535;  J.  H.  Willey.  Chryaoatom  the  Orator, 
Cincinnati,  1906.  On  special  subjects  connected  with 
Chryvoetom  consult:  F.  Ludwig,  Johannea  Chryaoaiomua 
in  aeinem  VerhAltnia  sum  byaaniiniachen  Hof,  Brauns- 
berg.  1883;  C.  Molines.  Chryaoalome  orateur,  Montauban. 
1886:  L.  Ackermann.  Die  Beredaamkeit  daa  .  .  .  Jo- 
hannea Chruaoatomua,  WOrxbuig.  1889;  S.  Haidacher.  Die 
Uhre  dee  .  .  .  Johannea  Chryaoatomua  Hber  dia  StArift- 
Mspirafum,  Salzburg.  1897;  G.  Marohal,  St  Jean  Chryaoa- 
InacP^tfis.  1898. 

CHUBB,  THOMAS:  English  Deist;  b.  at  East 
Hamham,  near  Salisbury,  Sept.  29,  1679;  d.  in 
Salisbury  Feb.  8,  1747.    He  was   a  tallow-chan- 


dler's assistant  all  his  life,  and  had  only  a  most  ele- 
mentary education.  After  Whiston  published  his 
Primitive  Christianity  Revived  (1710)  Chubb  wrote 
for  his  own  amusement  a  defense  of  the  idea  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  One  God  and  Father  expressed 
in  the  preface;  the  manuscript  was  shown  to 
Whiston,  who  corrected  it  and  had  it  published 
under  the  title  The  Swpremacy  of  the  Father  Asserted 
(London,  1715).  This  brought  Chubb  into  notice, 
he  obtained  patrons,  and  wrote  many  tracts  which 
were  much  read  and  talked  about,  and  Jonathan 
Edwards  noticed  and  criticized  his  doctrine  of 
free  will;  lack  of  knowledge  and  training,  however, 
impair  the  value  of  his  work.  His  principal  wri- 
tings were  A  Discourse  concerning  Reason  (London, 
1731),  in  which  he  imdertook  to  show  that  reason 
is  a  sufficient  guide  in  matters  of  religion;  Tfte 
True  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  Vindicated  (1739),  in 
which  he  advocates  the  pregnant  idea  that  Chris- 
tianity is  not  doctrine,  but  Ufe;  and  The  Author's 
Farewell  to  his  Readers^  published  in  Posthumous 
Works  (2  vols.,  1748),  which  is  the  most  complete 
summary  of  his  opinions.  He  denied  special 
providence,  miracles,  literal  inspiration,  and  appar- 
ently the  resurrection  of  Jesus.  He  was  a  man  of 
exemplary  life,  attended  church  faithfully,  and  con- 
sidered himself  a  Christian.    See  Deism,  I.,  §  6. 

Bibuoorapht:  L.  Stephen.  Hiat.  of  Engliah  Thought  in  the 
18th  Century,  i.  163.  London.  1880;  J.  Cairns.  Unbeliet 
in  the  18th  Century,  ib.  1881;  DNB,  x.  297-298. 

CHUR,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  bishopric  named 
from  the  capital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Grisona. 
The  valley  of  the  upper  Rhine  was  incorporated 
with  the  Roman  Empire  in  15  B.C.,  after  the  sub- 
jection of  the  Rhsetii.  Conmiunication  with  Italy 
was  provided  by  two  great  roads,  one  over  the 
Septimer,  the  other  over  the  SplQgen.  Where  the 
Rhine  bends  to  the  north,  a  casteUum  was  erected 
for  their  defense,  and  this  was  the  origin  of  the 
town  of  Chur.  When  Christianity  penetrated  this 
region  is  imcertain.  The  oldest  information  shows 
a  Christian  oonmiunity  already  fully  organised. 
In  452  Bishop  Abundantius  of  Como  signs  the 
decrees  of  a  Milanese  synod  for  himself  and  for 
the  bishop  of  Chur,  who  is  absent.  The  only 
notice  going  further  back  is  the  fantastic  legend 
of  the  British  king  Lucius  (see  Eleutherub),  who 
is  said  to  have  labored  as  a  missionary  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  at  first  in  Germany  and  finally  in  the 
vicinity  of  Chur;  but  this  is  mere  legend,  though 
relics  of  a  certain  Lucius  are  mentioned  in  a  petition 
of  Victor  II.  of  Chur  to  Louis  the  Pious  in  822. 
The  Roman  bishopric  of  Chur  seems  never  to  have 
gone  out  of  existence;  its  continuance  in  the  sixth 
century  is  attested  by  an  inscription  (of  later  date, 
it  is  true)  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Lucius,  conmiem- 
orating  Bishop  Valentinian,  who  died  in  548;  and 
in  the  seventh  by  the  signature  of  Bishop  Victor  at 
the  Council  of  Paris,  614.  This  is  explicable  by 
the  fact  that  the  Roman  population  was  never 
exterminated.  The  Alamanni  settled  in  eastern 
Switzerland,  but  Theodoric  maintained  peaceful 
relations  with  them,  and  the  old  institutions  were 
not  disturbed.  The  connection  with  Milan  still 
continued  in  842,  but  was  dissolved  not  long  after- 
ward, and  Chur  was  incorporated  with  the  ecde- 


Church  Army 
Church,  The  Christian 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


76 


siastical  province  of  Mainz.  In  the  Frankish  pe- 
riod the  diocese  wajs  practically  coterminous  with 
the  present  canton  of  Grisons.  Under  Louis  the 
Pious  the  diocese  had  more  than  230  churches. 
The  principal  monasteries  were  Disentis,  first  men- 
tioned in  736,  and  Pfeffers,  founded  about  731. 
The  diocese  was  maintained  through  the  Refor- 
mation changes,  though  most  of  its  inhabitants 
became  Protestants.  At  present  its  jurisdiction 
embraces  the  Roman  Catholics  in  the  cantons  of 
Grisons,  Zurich,  Glarus,  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  the  prin- 
cipality of  Liechtenstein.  (A.  Hauck.) 
Biblioqrapht:  T.  von  llobr,  Codex  DipZomoiiciM,  Samm- 
lung  der  Urkunden  tur  Oeachichte  Cur-ROtiena,  3  vols., 
Chur.  1848-«1;  Rettberg.  KD,  i.  216,  ii.  132;  P.  C.  Planta, 
Das  aUe  RiUien,  Berlin,  1872. 

CHURCH  ARMY:  An  organization  of  laity  in- 
side the  Church  of  England  for  aggressive  mission 
efforts,  founded  by  Rev.  Wilson  Carlile  (q.v.)  in 
1882.  It  is  the  resultant  of  four  similar  move- 
ments started  simultaneously  and  independently 
at  Kensington,  London,  by  Mr.  Carlile  ('*  The 
Church  Militant  Mission  "),  at  Richmond,  London, 
by  Rev.  Evan  Hopkins  ("  The  Chiurch  Gospel 
Army  ")»  at  Oxford  by  Rev.  Francis  Scott  Webster 
("  The  Church  Salvation  Army  "),  and  at  Bristol 
by  Rev.  Charles  Isaac  Atherton,  canon  of  Exeter 
("  The  Church  Mission  Army  ").  The  present  head- 
quarters are  at  55  Bryanston  Street,  Marble  Arch, 
London,  W.  In  1883  the  first  army  organ,  The 
BaUleaxCf  was  begun,  and  the  first  army  training 
home  was  opened  at  Oxford,  which  in  1885  was 
moved  to  London.  In  1885  the  first  conference 
of  officers  and  workers  was  held,  at  which  the 
report  was  made  that  whereas  in  Jan.,  1884,  the 
Army  had  only  fifteen  lay  officers,  then  it  had 
forty-five,  and  that  its  income  was  £2,500  in  regu- 
lar subscriptions  and  £4,000  in  working  people's 
pence.  The  Church  Army  Blue  Book  for  1906 
shows  that  at  the  end  of  1905  the  Army  had  318 
evangelistic  officers,  eighty-four  men's  labor  home 
managers  and  assistants,  forty-six  associate  evan- 
gelists, 285  mission-nurses,  and  twenty-three  asso- 
ciate mission-nurses. 

The  great  object  of  the  Army  is  to  reach  the 
unchurched  and  submerged  masses  with  all  agencies 
which  tend  to  uplift  soul  and  body.  It  differs 
from  some  similar  movements  in  that  it  works 
inside  the  Anglican  Church.  It  never  begins  opera- 
tions in  a  parish  without  being  invited  by  the  vicar, 
works  under  his  direction,  and  stays  as  long  as  he 
thinks  it  desirable.  Its  converts,  therefore,  help  to 
increase  the  number  and  efficiency  of  the  church 
agencies.  At  first  there  was  prejudice  against  its 
name  and  its  utterly  unconventional  methods  for 
gathering  a  crowd,  its  out-of-door  preaching  and 
testifying,  and  to  its  employment  of  laity,  both 
men  and  women,  generally  of  very  little  or  no 
culture  and  often  of  past  lives  of  vice  and  crime,  to 
speak  on  Christian  themes  and  win  new  hearers 
and  professed  Christians  to  a  deeper  religious  ex- 
perience. There  was  also  considerable  disorderly 
conduct  on  the  part  of  its  audiences.  But  now 
the  Army  is  accepted  both  by  the  Church,  whose 
errant  children  it  recalls,  and  by  the  classes  bene- 
fited as  an  accredited  helper  and  friend.    It  has 


now  much  to  do  with  the  body,  having  "  labor 
homes,  work  test  shelters,  labor  relief  depots  for 
men,  women,  and  youths  who  are  imemployed. 
criminal,  inebriate,  unfortunate,  outcast;  coffee 
taverns,  lodging  homes,  boarding  homes,  employ- 
ment agencies,  fresh  air  homes,  old  clothes  depart- 
ment; test  farms  for  emigrants  and  others  ";  antl 
imdertakes  to  send  emigrants  to  Canada.  But 
spiritual  work,  after  all,  commands  the  first  place, 
and  "  the  Church  Army  works  in  town  and  coun- 
try parishes  by  trained  evangelists  and  mission- 
nurses  working  under  the  clergy;  in  country  places 
by  vans  continually  itinerating;  in  crowded  slums 
by  pioneer  tent  evangelists;  in  workhouses  and 
reformatories  by  sp>ecial  missions;  in  convict  estab- 
lishments and  local  prisons  by  special  services, 
personal  interviews,  and  aid  to  discharged  pris- 
oners." Its  lay  workers  are  largely  recruited  from 
the  working  class,  but  they  are  carefully  trained 
and  under  strict  discipline.  The  Church  Army  ia 
a  limited  liability  company;  each  member  of  the 
executive  is  responsible  up  to  £100,  and  each  patron 
or  president  up  to  ten  shillings,  in  the  event  of  the 
winding  up  of  the  Society. 
Bibuoorapht:  £.  Rowan,  WiUon  Carlile  and  the  Church 

Army,  London,  1905;  The  Church  Army  Blue  Book  (an- 

nxial). 

CHURCH  BUILDING,  TAXATION  FOR:  Orig- 
inally (see  Taxation,  Ecclesiastical)  all  the 
property  of  each  diocese  was  vested  in  the  bishop, 
who  had,  accordingly,  to  provide  for  all  necessities, 
including  chiirch-building.  The  Roman  decrees 
of  Simplicius  (475)  and  Gelasius  (494)  prescribe  a 
division  of  this  property  into  four  parts,  one  to 
serve  for  the  Fabricaecclesice  (q.v.),  i.e.,  both  build- 
ing and  the  maintenance  of  public  worship.  Simi- 
larly, in  Spain  one-third  was  set  apart  for  this 
purpose  (Synod  of  Tarragona,  516).  A  different 
principle  came  up  in  the  Teutonic  law,  by  which, 
since  the  church  in  a  sense  belonged  to  the  land- 
owner, he  was  required  to  provide  for  keeping  it — 
unless,  indeed,  he  chose  to  let  it  fall  into  decay. 
The  church  authorities  strove  against  this  con- 
ception; e.g.,  the  Synod  of  Franicfort  (794)  con- 
ceded this  kind  of  ownership  only  on  condition 
that  the  church  should  not  be  allowed  to  fall  into 
decay.  Nevertheless,  the  later  ecclesiastical  prin- 
ciples are  really  founded  on  Prankish  law.  After 
the  development  of  the  system  of  benefices  (see 
Benefice),  the  holders  of  benefices  were  required 
to  contribute  for  this  piupose  from  what  they  had 
over  their  necessary  living  (conffrua).  And  in  case 
of  necessity  the  parishioners  were  obliged,  as  had 
been  the  case  in  the  Frankish  law,  to  bear  their 
part  of  the  burden.  There  is  evidence  that  this 
provision  was  sometimes  enforced  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  though  the  wealth  of  the  Church  and  the 
generosity  of  benefactors  made  it  seldom  necessaiy. 
There  was  great  local  diversity  in  the  laws  on  this 
whole  subject;  and  the  Council  of  Trent,  which 
settled  the  standard  of  modem  Roman  Catholic 
practise,  failed  to  unify  them,  lea\'ing  plenty  of 
room  for  local  traditional  customs  and  laws. 
According  to  its  decree  (Sess.  xxi.  7,  de  reforma- 
Hone),  a  distinction  is  made  between  patronal  and 
other  churches.    In  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  bur- 


77 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Church  Army 
Churoh,  The  OhrlstlAa 


den  falls  primarily  on  the  bidlding-fund,  though 
usually  the  capital  is  not  to  be  touched,  nor  even 
the  inoome  entirdy  exhausted.  Appeal  is  rather 
to  be  made  to  the  classes  who  are  bound  to  con- 
tribute bjT  local  law  or  custom;  to  all  who  receive 
income  from  the  church,  the  holders  of  the  benefice 
and  tithes  in  particular,  in  a  proportion  to  be 
judicially  determined;  if  there  are  not  enough  of 
these,  to  the  parishioners,  including  non-resident 
Iindowners,  in  case  the  tax  is  real  and  not  personal 
—and  only  in  this  last  case  is  the  exaction  independ- 
ent of  the  taxpayer's  personal  belief.  In  patronal 
rhurches  the  patron  is  included  among  those  who 
('hare  this  obligation;  but  only  (by  the  present 
interpretation)  when  he  receives  a  portion  of  the 
"  fruits "  of  the  benefice.  In  cathedrals  the  burden 
T?<B  first  on  the  building-fund,  if  there  is  one;  if 
not.  upon  the  bishop  and  chapter,  then  upon  the 
cathedral  clergy,  and  finally  upon  the  diocesan 
dergy.    In  some  places,  as  in  Prussia,  a  certain 


percentage  of  the  fees  in  each  church  is  levied  for 
the  support  of  the  cathedral.  In  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Germany,  the  obligation  comes  pri- 
marily upon  the  building-fund  and  next  upon  the 
congregation,  and  is  frequently  a  land-tax. 

(E.  Frisobsbg.) 

CHURCH  CHEST  (Ger.  Kirchenkasten,  Lat.  Area 
ecclesice):  Properly  a  receptacle  for  church  funds, 
but  applied  also  to  the  funds  themselves.  Then 
it  signifies  the  portion  of  the  revenues  appropri- 
ated for  the  expenses  of  divine  service  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  church  building  (see  Fabrica 
EccLEsiiE).  In  a  narrower  sense  it  is  a  box  (Lat. 
truncus,  Ft.  tronc)  put  in  a  church  to  receive  offer- 
ings of  money,  which  seems  to  have  originated 
in  connection  with  the  Crusades.  Innocent  III. 
(1198-1216)  ordered  that  one  should  be  put  in 
every  church,  and,  in  spite  of  opposition  and 
mocking  jibes,  the  custom  persisted. 


I.  Iieuui«  and  Uoe  of  the  Word. 
II.  The  Ckiireh  in  th«  New  Testament. 
The  lotentions  of  Jeeus  (SI). 
The  Sock  Apoetle  (|  2). 
Rdayov  of  the  Twelve  (S  3). 
The  Kiosdom  and  the  Church  (S  4). 
Memberahip  of  the  Churoh  (S  5). 
Church    Offices     Determined    by 
Church  Needs  (|  6). 
ill  The  Church  in  Traditional  Chria- 
tianity. 
1.  Id  PrimitiTe  Catholicism. 


CHURCH,  THE  CHRISTIAN. 

Tendency  toward  Legalism  (S  1). 

Bignifioance  of  "  Catholic  Church" 
(8  2). 

The  Ignatian  Episcopate  (S  3). 

The  Cyprianic  Episcopate  (8  4). 

Views  of  Augustine  (S  5). 

Later  (or  Roman)  Catholicism  in 
East  and  West. 

Eastern  Church  Mystical  (SI). 

Western  Church  QovemmentaI(S  2). 

"  Papal "  and  "  Episcopal  "  Sys- 
tems (S  3). 


IV.  Protestant  Doctrine  of  the  Church. 
WycUf's  Teaching  (f  1). 
Luther's  Teaching  (f  2). 
Questions  Left  Unsettled   by  the 

Reformers  (S3). 
CAlvinistic  Doctrine  of  the  Church 

(8  4). 
Post-Reformation  Doctrines  of  the 

Church  (S  5). 
Pietistio    and    Rationalistic    Doe- 

trines  (S  6). 


L  Heaning  and  Use  of  the  Word:  The  word 
"church"  (from  Greek  hfriakon,  "the  Lord's," 
ic, "  bouse  "  or  "  body  ")  meant  in  original  Christian 
usage  either  the  universal  body  of  Christian  be- 
YKYtn  or  a  local  congregation  of  believers.  In  the 
Komanoe  languages  the  idea  is  expressed  by  a 
word  from  another  root  (Fr.  ^glise,  Ital.  chiesa, 
from  Greek  ekklisia  '*  the  [body]  called  together  " 
or  "  called  out ").  The  Old  Testament  had  two 
wordfl  to  express  the  idea,  ^edhah  and  kahal  (Lev. 
iv.  13,  14),  both  meaning  "  assembly,"  the  latter 
implying  a  distinctly  religious  object.  In  modem 
usage  the  term  is  employed  to  denote  also  the  build- 
ing in  which  a  body  of  (Christians  meets  for  worship. 
An  extension  has  taken  place  in  recognised  usage 
in  accordance  with  which  men  speak  of  the  Bud- 
dhist or  the  Jewish  Church,  meaning  the  whole 
body  of  believers  in  Buddhist  or  Jewish  teaching. 

tL  The  Church  in  the  New  Testament:  It  has 
been  disputed  whether  Jesus  intended  to  found  a 
church,  i.e.,  a  particular,  organized  association  of 
his  disciples,  differing  specifically  from  the  existing 
national  unity  of  Israel.  He  proclaimed  the  near- 
ness of  the  kingdom  of  Ciod,  and  then  announced 
that  it  was  already  present.  His  discourses  dealt 
with  tl^s  kingdom,  with  the  con- 
1.  The  ditions  for  membership  in  it,  and  with 
latsattons  the  blessings  to  be  enjoyed  within  it. 

*"••"••  The  question  is  whether  there  is  a 

connection  between  the  foundation  of 

fioch  an  organised  body  of  believers  as  has  been 

mentioned  and  the  heavenly  kingdom  which  is  to  be 

ttt  l^>  in  the  world  by  divine  power.    The  state- 


ments and  parables  in  the  Gospels  do  not,  with  the 
exception  of  Matt.  xvi.  18, 19,  bear  on  this  question. 
In  the  parables,  for  example,  of  the  sower,  of  the 
wheat  and  the  tares,  of  the  net,  there  is  no  word  of 
any  binding  connection  among  those  who  enter 
the  kingdom.  In  that  of  the  leaven  there  is  indeed 
the  idea  of  the  spread  of  the  kingdom  as  a  body 
with  an  objective  unity;  but  we  are  not  told  how 
or  to  what  extent  an  organic  form  is  destined  for  it, 
nor  how  far  it  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  or- 
ganic association  of  Israel. 

But  in  truth  the  disciples  were  actually,  by  the 
very  fact  of  their  adherence  to  Jesus,  connected 
with  each  other.  They  formed  the  flock  of  the 
(xood  Shepherd  (Luke  xii.  32;  John  x.  1-15).. 
They  were  associated  by  the  fact  that  they  and 
they  alone  were  the  children  of  the  kingdom  which 
had  already  made  its  appearance  in  the  world. 
The  opposition  and  hatred  which  they,  as  well  as 
their  Master,  were  to  find  on  the  part  of  the  Jewish 
people  and  the  world  plainly  made  it  necessary 
that  they  should  exhibit  an  external  imity,  and 
herein  dissociate  themselves  from  their  former 
fellows  in  nationality  and  religion. 

There  is  thus  nothing  surprising  in  the  fact  that 
Jesus  speaks  in  two  places  of  a  community  of  his 
own  which  he  is  to  found;  it  is  surprising  only  that 
there  are  no  more  definite  or  detailed  statements 
on  the  subject.  It  is  significant  that  the  first  time 
that  he  spoke  of  this  was  when  he  had  just  received 
the  first  clear,  divinely  inspired  confession  of  faith 
in  iiim,  and  when  he  was  beginning  to  prepare  his 
disciples  for  his  death.    In  that  place  (Matt.  xvi. 


Ohuroh,  The  Ohristlan 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


78 


18)  he  spoke  of  that  oommunity  in  a  general  way; 
but  in  the  other  (Matt,  xviii.  17  sqq.)  he  referred 
more  definitely  to  the  association  of  his  followers 
as  met  together  to  deal  with  eyents  and  needs 
affecting  their  inner  life.  According  to  the  former 
passage,  he  intended  to  build  his 
i  iT  church  upon  the  rock  Peter,  who  just 
Apostle.  ^^^^  ^^  taken  the  lead  among  the 
disciples  with  his  confession.  The 
word  and  its  historical  fulfilment  must  be  con- 
strued by  the  context.  It  will  not  do  to  interpret 
the  rock  as  faith  in  Christ.  Peter  is  not  the  founda- 
tion in  the  sense  in  which  Christ  applies  the  term 
to  himself  (Matt.  xxi.  42).  But  the  church  was 
originally  built,  as  the  Acts  testify,  upon  the  preach- 
ing and  work  of  this  "  rock-man,"  though  other 
apostles  were  joined  with  him  (Eph.  ii.  20;  Rev. 
xxi.  14;  Gal.  ii.  9).  Whether  the  promise  in  re- 
gard to  the  foundation  had  anything  to  do  with 
a  continuous  government  of  the  church,  or  with 
a  line  of  successors  to  Peter,  is  one  of  the  funda- 
mental points  of  controversy  between  Protestants 
and  Roman  Catholics. 

The  twelve  apostles  were  indeed  designated  for 
a  position  of  prominence  in  the  future  organization 
by  the  status  which  they  acquired  in  relation  to 
Jesus  during  his  earthly  ministry,  as  witnesses  of 
his  deeds  and  the  hearers  of  his  words  (John  xv.  27 ; 
Acts  i.  21,  22).  But  no  definite  difference  in 
authority  was  provided  between  them 
Jj  *«1*^  and  other  disciples;  and  their  work 
^*  seems  to  consist  not  in  the  internal 
^^f^^^  direction  of  the  churches,  but  rather, 
as  soon  as  these  were  once  established, 
in  further  dissemination  of  the  message.  Christ 
spoke  of  sending  "  prophets  and  wise  men  cmd 
scribes  "  to  give  this  message  (Matt,  xxiii.  34);  but 
nowhere  did  he  smn  up  such  activities  as  are  thus 
indicated  into  the  terms  of  a  fixed  and  limited 
office,  or  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  any  per- 
sons were  to  be  appointed  to  discharge  them.  The 
names  here  used  recall  the  pre-Christian  dispen- 
sation, when  such  lii&its  and  external  ordinances 
did  not  exist.  To  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  of 
the  kingdom  and  the  cultivation  of  a  religious 
and  moral  life  in  the  power  of  that  gospel,  bap- 
tism (q.v.)  was  added  by  Christ's  own  ordi- 
nance, as  would  be  known  even  without  the 
gospel  record  by  the  way  in  which  the  rite 
at  once  took  its  place  and  in  which  it  is  spoken 
of  by  Paul  as  an  essential  element  of  Christianity. 
The  act  of  baptism  in  itself  had,  as  the  baptism  of 
John  shows,  no  necessary  connection  with  entrance 
into  an  organized  society;  but  as  soon  as  there  was 
a  society  of  Christians,  it  imdoubtedly  belonged 
to  that.  Finally,  the  Lord's  Supper  (q.v.) ,  as  he  had 
instituted  it  for  his  disciples,  was  celebrated  by 
them  as  a  main  element  in  their  corporate  edifica- 
tion. Evidently,  therefore,  the  foundations  already 
discussed  were  laid  not  only  for  a  wider  extension 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  and  for  the  development  of 
the  new  life  in  its  individual  members,  but  for  a 
corporate  connection  between  them.  Yet  so  far 
no  reason  has  appeared  for  the  negation  of  a  theory 
upon  which  the  new  Christian  conununity,  spread- 
ing throughout  Palestine  and  thence  among  the 


heathen,  might  still  live  under  the  external  insti- 
tutions of  the  old  covenant,  until  the  great  reve- 
lation of  the  kingdom  which  w^as  expected  at  the 
return  of  its  Lord.  The  working  out  of  the  truth 
expressed  in  the  saying  about  putting  new  wine 
into  old  bottles  was  left  to  the  increasing  knowl- 
edge of  the  disciples,  as  conditioned  by  their  wider 
experience. 

The  existence  and  development  of  the  church 
is  inextricably  interwoven  with  the  realization  of 
the  kingdom  of  God  in  the  worid.  It  would  be 
wrong  to  press  such  differences  as  appear  between 
the  two  conceptions  as  though  the  kingdom  were 
the  inner  or  ideal,  and  the  church  the 
*•  ^®  external  or  real.  The  kingdom  lias 
andthe^  a  real  existence  in  its  subjects  and 
Church.  ^^^^^  actual  relations;  it  accom- 
plishes its  destiny  by  means  of  the 
external  preaching  of  the  word,  and  announces 
itself  by  external  fruits.  The  church,  on  the  other 
hand,  although  like  other  associations  of  men  it  is 
an  external  union,  is  what  it  is  only  by  virtue  of  its 
inner  connection  with  Christ,  who  remains  in  the 
midst  of  it.  There  is  nothing  of  an  external  nature 
which  (if  the  words  of  Jesus  are  the  only  criterion)  is 
necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  church  which  does 
not  also  belong  to  the  realization  of  the  kingdom. 
It  is  commonly  said  that  the  church  was  defi- 
nitely founded  with  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  in  fact  it  did  on  that 
day  enter  upon  its  career  with  full  powers.  But  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  gathering  was  com- 
posed of  the  disciples  who  had  already  formed  a 
coherent  body  in  the  name  of  Christ;  to  whom  he 
had  already  said  "  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost " 
(John  XX.  22);'  and  from  whose  number,  by  a  cor- 
porate act,  the  number  of  the  apostles  had  been 
filled  out  after  the  fall  of  Judas.  It  had  thus 
already  been  living  and  working,  at  first  as  an 
association  within  the  larger  one  of  Israel,  though 
with  its  own  meetings  for  worship  and  its  own 
officers.  The  name  ekklesta  was  undoubtedly 
applied  to  it  very  early,  before  the  beginning  of 
Paul's  ministry,  since  he  uses  it  as  the  universally 
current  title  for  both  Jewish  cmd  Gentile  asso- 
ciations. It  is  commonly  applied  to  the  separate 
local  bodies  of  which  he  spoke,  but  he  used  it  in 
the  same  way  for  the  whole  body  of  Christians 
whenever  he  had  occasion  to  mention  it,  in  the 
older  epistles  (Gal.  i.  13;  I  Cor.  x.  32,  xii.  28,  xv. 
9)  as  well  as  in  that  to  the  Ephesians,  which  some 
have  tried  to  separate  in  this  particular  from  the 
others;  and  it  is  so  used  in  Acts  ix.  31. 

Whether  general  or  local,  the  church  consisted 

of  those  who  were   "  sanctified  in  Christ  Jesus " 

(I  Cor.  i.  2)  or  "  called  to  be  saints  "  (Rom.  i.  7), 

with  a  possible  allusion  to  the  etymological  con- 

nection  between  kletoif  **  called,"  and 

"h*     hi™"  f  ^*^^**^*  Paul's  conception  was  charac- 

*'the^  ^   terized  by  a  deep  sense  of  the  unity 

Church,     constituted  by  the  possession  of  "  one 

Lord,  one  faith,  one  baptism  "  (Eph. 

iv.  5);  and  elsewhere  the  entrance  into  this  united 

fellowship,  both  with  Christ  and  with  each  other, 

was  attached  to  baptism  (Gal.  iii.  27;  I  Cor.  xii.  13). 

If  the  question  is  asked  whether  the  church  as  an 


70 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Churoh,  The  Ohrlstian 


institution  stands  outside  and  above  tfaose  who 
compose  it,  or  simply  consists  of  them,  the  answer 
most  be  that  in  the  apostolic  use  of  the  word  it 
is  regazded  as  having  its  existence  wholly  in  those 
who  are  called,  not  as  though  it  had  come  to  them 
from  without  but  as  though  they  were,  by  their 
calling  and  reception  of  the  message  of  salvation 
and  baptism,  united  with  each  other  and  with 
Christ  into  one  body.  Paul  indeed  spoke  once  of 
a  "  Jerusalem  which  is  above  "  (Gal.  iv.  26)  as  the 
mother  of  Christians,  and  therefore  as  preexistent; 
but  this  is  not  the  same  thing  as  the  earthly  church. 
He  had  in  mind  a  common  Jewish  and  apostolic 
conception,  difficult  now  to  realize,  of  a  reality 
preexistent  in  heaven  which  was  the  prototype  of 
the  Old  Testament  theocracy,  which  had  for  its 
offspring  the  membere  of  the  church  on  earth,  who 
were  bom  from  above,  which,  finally,  was  one  day 
to  descend  in  its  completeness  when  the  full  reve- 
lation of  the  kingdom  takes  place  (Heb.  xii.  22; 
Vhil.  iii  20;  Rev.  xxi.  2).  The  name  *'  church  *'  was 
applied  solely  to  the  earthly  fellowship,  not  to  the 
company  of  the  departed  saints  (as  in  the  later 
conception  of  "  church  triumphant  ") — though  in  a 
Fense  to  them,  as  to  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  the 
faithful  on  earth  "  are  come  "  already.  The  vari- 
ous vital  functions  and  activities  of  the  church 
relate  to  mutual  edification  in  God,  whose  word 
is  to  ''  dwell  in  them  richly  "  (Col.  iii.  16);  to  the 
promotion  of  the  moral  and  religious  life  in  the 
individual  members  by  loving  admonition,  en- 
couragement, and  care.  All  the  members  of  the 
church  were  regarded  as  having  Qust  as  under  the 
old  covenant,  Ex.  xix.  6)  a  priestly  position  before 
God  (I  Pet.  ii.  6,  9;  Rev.  i.  6,  v.  10);  they  were  to 
offer  to  him  themselves,  their  bodies,  their  acts  of 
praise,  thanksgiving,  and  brotherly  love  as  a  sacri- 
fice (Rom.  xii.  1 ;  Heb.  xiii.  15,  16).  Each  mem- 
ber had  his  own  part  in  the  common  work  of  edi- 
fication; but  the  special  gifts  which  enable  him  to 
perfomi  it  varied  (see  Charismata). 

This  leads  to  the  question  of  offices  in  the 
aposU^c  church.  The  word  diahoniai,  **  minia- 
tries,''  in  I  Cor.  xii.  5,  denotes  special  functions 
incumbent  upon  definite  members  of  the  body  in 
the  service  of  the  whole.  While  the  word  "  office  " 
is  generally  applied  more  strictly  to  functions  com- 
mitted to  a  particular  man,  whether  by  church  or 
state,  the  New  Testament  has  no  word  for  offices 
in  this  sense.  The  functions  coming  under  this 
head  would  naturally  cover  the  external  direction 
of  the  church,  in  so  far  as  this  required  definite 
institutions  and  formally  i^pointed  and  recognized 
offioen.  So  the  elders,  or  epiacopoi,  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  churches,  and  deacons  were  charged 
with  the  care  of  material  needs  and  especially  of 
the  poor.    Formal  appointments  or  election  and 

formal  installation  occurred;   but  the 

6.  Church  New  Testament  nowhere  gives  a  law 

T^^  ^^  prescribing  this  course.    The  needs  of 

by  Church  ^^   church  determined   the  arrange- 

If^Q^^      ment.    Thus  the  apostles,  originally 

i^pointed  by  Christ  to  the  headship 
of  an  his  disciples,  were  obliged  to  abandon  first  the 
detailed  care  of  the  poor,  and  then,  under  the  pres- 
•we  of  their  wider  taaks  and  frequent  absence  from 


Jerusalem,  the  regular  direction  of  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  church  there.  Besides  the  offices 
mentioned,  prophecy  was  allowed  to  work  freely 
under  the  impulse  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  For  the 
exercise  of  the  function  of  teaching  or  admonition, 
the  possession  of  the  necessary  charisma  was  held 
to  suffice.  The  elders  naturally  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  instruction  and  exhortation  that  found 
place  in  the  gatherings  (I  Tim.  iii.  2,  v.  17),  but 
participation  in  it  was  by  no  means  confined  to 
them.  The  office  of  the  apostles  was  imique,  rest- 
ing upon  its  special  institution  by  the  Lord,  con- 
cerned with  the  establishment  of  his  kingdom  and 
the  original  spread  of  the  Gospel,  and  thus  inca- 
pable of  transmission  to  others. 

There  was  a  notable  difference  between  the 
churches  of  Jewish  and  those  of  Grentile  origin,  the 
former  desiring  to  give  the  latter  only  such  a 
position  in  the  chiu*ch  of  God  as  the  proselytes  of 
the  gate  held  under  the  old  dispensation,  while 
Paul,  on  the  contrary,  regarded  both  classes  alike 
as  saints  and  members  of  the  body  of  Christ.  The 
association  of  the  various  local  communities  into 
one  church  was  not  expressed  by  any  formal  con- 
stitution, but  by  the  free  conununion  of  fraternal 
love.  At  the  close  of  the  apostolic  period,  the 
epistles  of  John,  while  insisting  strongly  on  the 
necessity  of  this  loving  union,  laid  down  no  rules 
governing  external  unity  and  said  nothing  of  eccle- 
siastical forms.  Nor  is  there  any  warrant  [accord- 
ing to  the  views  of  some  modem  scholars]  for  see- 
ing in  the  "  angel  "  of  Rev.  ii.,  iii.  the  early  stage 
of  an  episcopal  office;  they  are  not  the  heads  and 
rulers  of  the  seven  churches,  but  rather  represent 
in  each  case  the  characteristic  spirit  of  the  particular 
church.   See  Organization  of  The  Early  Church. 

m.  The  Church  in  Traditional  Christianity. — 
1.  In  Primitive  Oatholioism:  Out  of  the  ekkUaia 
of  the  apostles,  and  principally  on  the  territory 
covered  by  Jewish  Christianity,  grew  up  a  post- 
apostolic  development  which  is  called  the  Catholic 
Church.  From  the  Evangelical  standpoint  we  can 
but  recognize  in  its  conception  of  the  way  of  salva- 
tion and  the  nature  of  the  church  a  notable  declen- 
sion from  the  original  principles,  which  continued 
progressively  down  to  the  Reformation.  Chris- 
tianity maintained  itself,  indeed,  as  an  organic 
whole  against  the  assaults  of  persecution  on  one 
side  and  heresy  on  the  other;  it  set  up  as  a  per- 
manent standard  for  its  religious  belief  the  New 
Testament  writings  admitted  to  be  apostolic, 
together  with  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament; 
and  it  undertook  on  the  basis  of  these  to  formulate 
a  summaiy  of  the  common  faith  in  its  Rule  of  Faith 
(q.v.).  But  even  in  the  subapostolic  period  there 
is  evident  a  general  weakening  of  the  original  spirit, 
a  lack  of  vital  comprehension  of  the  plan  of  salva- 
tion as  at  first  revealed,  and  a  tendency  toward  a 
legalistic  conception  and  regulation  of  Christian  life, 
as  well  as  to  a  conception  of  the  church 

1.  Tend-  which  found  its  essence  in  external 
^^^Za  o"liii*^ces.  And  these  ordinances,  es- 
Leffl^sm  P^^^^^ly  ^  pertaining  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church  and  the  priest- 
hood, continued  to  develop  until  they  ended  in  what 
is  known  as  Roman  Catholic  Christianity.    The 


OhUiToh,  The  Christian 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


80 


explanation  of  this  early  development  is  not  to  be 
found,  as  the  Ttibingen  school  attempted  to  show, 
in  a  fusion  of  Jewish  and  Pauline  Christianity.  It 
is  rather  to  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  with  the  decay 
of  the  apostolic  spirit  and  the  wide  expansion  of 
Christianity  the  forces  prevalent  among  men  be< 
fore  Christ's  coming,  which  had  been  for  a  while 
held  in  check,  resumed  their  sway  as  primitive 
fervor  decayed.  The  postapostolic  church  needed, 
in  view  of  its  p>osition  in  the  world,  a  more  definite 
external  organization;  it  is  in  the  meaning  and  form 
given  to  this  that  a  perversion  of  primitive  Christi- 
anity is  discerned.  In  the  first  stage  of  this  de- 
velopment there  was  a  diversity  of  tendencies 
in  regard  to  the  doctrine  concerning  the  church. 
Clement  of  Rome,  admonishing  the  Corinthians  to 
unity  and  subjection  to  those  who  are  over  them, 
drew  a  parallel  between  the  organization  of  the 
ruling  office  in  the  church  (i.e.,  of  an  episcopate 
as  yet  identical  with  the  presbytery)  and  the  di- 
vinely appointed  ordinances  of  the  old  law;  between 
the  gifts  which  the  presbyters  brought  to  God  in 
prayer  and  the  sacrifices  of  the  Jewish  priests. 
Somewhat  later,  however,  a  free  prophetic  voice 
was  heard  in  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas,  which  ven- 
tured to  rebuke  and  warn  the  officers  of  the  church. 
Its  main  subject  was  the  purification  of  the  church 
by  repentance.  The  high  place  which  the  church 
had  taken  in  the  minds  of  Christians  is  shown  by 
the  idea  that  (recalling  Paul's  "  Jerusalem  which 
is  above")  it  existed  before  the  world,  and  that 
the  world  had  been  created  for  it. 

Presently,  in  Ignatius  and  in  the  Muratorian 
Fragment,  a  "catholic  church"  appears.  The 
original  significance  of  this  phrase  has  been  much 
discussed,  and  is  still  imcertain.  Even  at  the  date 
of  these  passages,  it  had  already  developed  more 
than  one  sense.  The  church  was  called  catholic 
when  it  was  spoken  of  as  constituting  a  united 
whole  made  up  of  different  parts;  and  these  parts 
were  both  local  churches  and  single  members. 
Ignatius  compared  the  relation  of  the  local  church 
to  its  bishop  with  that  of  the  catholic 
2.  Siffnifi-  church  to  Christ;  and  similarly  the 
canoe  of  Muratorian  Fragment  speaks  of  a 
"  Oatholio  catholic  church  whose  edification  the 
Ohnroh.**  writers  of  the  epistles  had  in  mind 
even  when  addressing  local  churches 
or  individuals.  But  the  idea  of  a  universal  church 
comes  out  most  strongly  in  contrast  with  the  here- 
tics who  by  their  personal  beliefs  and  practises 
separated  themselves  from  the  great  body  of  Chris- 
tians. With  this  catholicity  was  connected  the 
idea  that  this  church  alone  had  the  necessary 
character  of  embracing  all  true  believers,  the  love 
that  holds  fast  to  unity,  and  the  primitive  Christian 
truth.  The  epithet  "  catholic "  designates  here 
not  its  extension  throughout  the  whole  world,  but 
the  inclusion  within  it  of  all  Chrif«tians,  whereso-. 
ever  they  dwell.  As  yet  the  definite  sense  applied 
to  the  term  by  Roman  Catholicism  was  not  ex- 
pressed by  it.  This  is  met  first  in  the  question  of 
what  constituted  valid  membership  in  this  church; 
and  according  to  the  Catholic  conception  there 
was  required  the  recognition  of  a  definite  exter- 
nal organization,  ordained  by  God,  and  the  ac- 


ceptance of  a  confession  of  faith  sanctioned  by  the 
church. 

The  idea  of  the  episcopate  comes  out  with 
remark&ble  definiteness  and  dignity  in  the  Ignatian 
epistles.  Each  local  church  was  subject  to  its 
bishop,  who  stood  in  the  place  of  Christ,  with  his 
presbyters  about  him  like  the  apostles.  Ignatius 
left  imanswered  the  questions  how  the  bishops  as  a 
class  reached  this  position,  how  individual  bishops 
were  raised  to  it,  how  far  they  were  endowed  with 
special  spiritual  gifts  and  the  churches  assured 
against  error  on  their  part.  The  extent  to  which 
the   elevation   of   the   episcopate   to 

3.  The  such  a  position  met  a  felt  want  of  the 
Ignatian  times  is  shovm  by  the  calmneas  with 
Episoopate.  which  it  was  accepted  imiversally, 
with  no  record  preserved  of  any  dis- 
cussion on  the  subject.  [This  circumstance  is 
naturally  urged  by  Roman  Catholic  apologists, 
together  with  other  arguments,  as  proving  the 
apostolic  and  consequently  divine  origin  ^  the 
episcopal  office.]  In  the  general  view  (cf.  es- 
pecially Irenteus  and  TertuUian),  the  bishops 
stood  in  the  place  of  the  apostles,  whose  teaching 
office  they  continued,  and  thus  guaranteed  the 
preservation  of  the  truth.  Their  succession  from 
the  apostles  involved  a  second  "  note "  of  the 
church — ^apostolicity.  From  the  idea  of  a  specially 
guaranteed  possession  of  the  truth  by  the  bishops 
in  virtue  of  their  historical  connection  with  the 
apostles  grew  the  belief  in  a  particular  charisma 
attached  to  their  office.  From  Tertullian  can  be 
seen  how  the  priestly  title  was  attributed  to  the 
rulers  of  the  church,  and  especially  to  the  bishops, 
although  the  mediatorial  fimctions  later  attributed 
to  them  were  of  gradual  development.  The  church 
thus  possessed  a  sacerdotal  order,  and  the  bishop 
stood  out  as  high  priest,  pontifex  maximiu  (Ter- 
tullian, Hippolytus,  Apostolic  Constitutions).  The 
Alexandrian  theology,  as  in  Clement  and  Origen, 
did  nothing  to  check  this  development.  It  did, 
indeed,  insist  on  the  inner  and  spiritual  side  of 
the  church,  and  claim  independently  to  recognize, 
in  its  Christian  gndsiSf  the  truth  of  the  doctrines 
handed  down  by  the  apostles.  But  it  had  no  word 
against  the  authority  of  the  episcopal  office,  in 
which  it  recognized  the  inheritance  of  the  apostolic 
pastoral  function.  Its  philosophic  and  aristo- 
cratic gndsis  was  not  fitted  to  contend  for  the 
spiritual  character  of  true  Christianity  in  the  New 
Testament  sense.  A  vigorous  reaction  did  set  in 
with  the  rise  of  Montamsm,  which  attempted  to 
purify  the  church  by  casting  out  such  members  as 
were  stained  with  mortal  sin  and  holding  those 
who  remained  to  a  high  standard,  in  virtue  of  a 
spirit  from  above  which  was  not  subject  to  these  ex- 
ternal offices.  Thus  Tertullian  said,  "The  church 
is  essentially  and  chiefly  spirit,"  and  contrasts 
this  "  church  as  spirit "  with  the  "  church  as  the 
body  of  the  episcopate."  But  the  spirit  of  Mon- 
tanism  was  not  that  of  the  New  Testament;  and 
it  could  not  alter  the  course  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
which  was  then  hard  at  work  building  up  in  the 
world  its  well-organized  kingdom. 

A  powerful  representative  of  the  progress  of  the 
latter  is  found  in  Cyprian,  for  whom  the  bishops  are 


81 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohnroh,  The  Ohrlstias 


now  essentially  and  without  distinction  the  rulers 
of  the  church,  endued  with  divine  authority.  The 
gpverament  of  the  whole  church  belonged  to  the 
episcopate  as  a  whole.  Such  strong  statements 
appear  as  "  the  bishop  is  in  the  church  and  the 
church  in  the  bishop/'  "  the  church  is  a  people 
united  with  the  priest,"  "  he  can  not  have  God  as 
father  who  has  not  the  church  as  mother/'  The 
last  was  uttered  against  Novatianism, 
4.  The  ^  whose  members  Cyprian  denied  the 
Cyprlanio  possibility  of  salvation  on  the  ground 
Episcopate,  of  their  schism,  and  the  validity  of 
whose  baptism  he  refused  to  admit. 
In  regard  to  the  conception  of  priesthood,  which 
for  him  was  centered  in  the  bishop,  it  is  observed 
that  in  the  Lord's  Supper  the  priest  stood  in  the 
place  of  Christ,  did  what  Christ  did,  offered  the 
body  of  Christ  (see  BfASs).  Even  if  all  his  expres- 
sions, like  those  of  Augtistine,  can  not  be  taken  in 
the  sense  in  which  the  later  Catholic  Church  would 
understand  them,  they  still  lead  up  to  the  highest 
function  attributed  by  the  latter  to  its  priests. 

But  Catholicism  owes  to  Augustine  the  most  and 
the  deepest  of  the  statements  which  express  its 
mind  on  the  subject  of  the  church.  Their  occasion 
was  a  new  separatist  movement  in  favor  of  enforced 
sanctity,  that  of  the  Donatists.  Augustine  had  a 
deep  and  vivid  conception  of  the  inner,  spiritual 
being  of  the  church,  of  the  operation  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  in  it  and  in  its  members,  of  Christ  living  in 
it  and  them,  of  all-pervading  and  all-uniting  love. 
Consequently  it  was  not  a  mere  controversial  argu- 
ment against  the  Donatists  when  he  distinguished 
in  his  doctrine  of  the  church  as  the  body  of  Christ 
between  "  the  true  body  of  the  Lord  "  and  a  "  con- 
fused "  or  "  pretended  "  one,  a  distinction  misinter- 
preted by  his  opponents  as  though  he  believed  in 
-  «-,  two  churches.     According  to  his  view 

^  of  grace,  it  is  entirely  a  matter  of  the 
AuffuBtine.  ^"®  g™ce  of  God  who  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  visible  church  is  a  member 
of  the  true  body;  and  those  who  are  predestined, 
evicn  though  they  are  outside  the  visible  unity, 
vet  belong  to  the  invisible  church.  Still,  it  is  the 
will  of  God  to  bring  these  into  external  communion, 
and  participation  in  the  blessings  of  salvation  and 
real  Christian  love  are  possible  only  within  this. 
He  did  not  lay  as  much  stress  as  Cyprian  upon  the 
divine  right  of  the  episcopate;  but  this  was  ad- 
mitted by  his  opponents  and  by  himself,  and  against 
the  Manicbeans  he  did  appeal  to  the  "  succes- 
non  of  bishops  "  in  the  apostolic  sees.  The  ques- 
tion then  arose  which  of  the  two  organizations, 
both  provided  with  sacraments,  priesthood,  and 
episcopate,  and  both  appealing  to  apostolic  tra- 
dition, was  the  true  Catholic  Church.  Augustine 
answered  it  by  saying  that  the  church  had  spread, 
according  to  the  piupose  of  Christ,  throughout 
the  whole  earth;  and  thus  only  that  communion 
from  which  the  Donatists  had  severed  them- 
selves could  daim  the  title  of  Catholic — ^as- 
f^uredly  not  their  small  sect,  confined  to  a  few 
districts  in  Africa.  He  made  the  belief  of  the 
individual  Christian  depend  upon  the  authority 
of  the  church  aa  catholic  in  this  sense  of  the 
word,  God  having  confirmed  it ''  partly  by  miracles, 
III.— 6 


partly  by  the  multitude  of  adherents";  indeed,  he 
went  so  far  as  to  say  "  I  could  not  believe  in  the 
Gospel  if  the  authority  of  the  church  catholic  had 
not  forced  me."  How  the  authoritative  judgment 
of  this  Catholic  Church  upon  questions  of  doctrine 
and  the  Christian  life  was  to  be  expressed  Augustine 
did  not  definitely  state;  he  regarded  the  Church  as 
represented  in  its  episcopate,  but  did  not  name  any 
constituted  organ  for  a  declaration  of  the  truth  by 
this  episcopate  as  a  unit. 

Besides  Augustine's  statements,  there  is  another 
important  definition  in  the  Commonitorium  of 
Vincent  of  Lerins,  which  is  in  substantial  agree- 
ment with  them.  According  to  him,  there  is  a 
**  test  of  universal  understanding,"  by  which  we 
are  bound  to  believe  quod  semper,  quod  ubique, 
quod  ab  omnibus  creditum  est.  Here,  instead  of  an 
authority  of  the  Church  as  one  whole,  an  over- 
whelming majority  must  suffice,  which  comes 
more  definitely  to  a  majority  of  the  "  sacerdotal 
orders "  and  "  rulers."  Vincent  contemplated 
further  definition  of  the  traditional  doctrine;  and 
this  led  to  the  questions  how  such  a  consensus  is  to 
be  attained  in  order  to  assure  people  of  the  truth 
of  such  later  definitions,  and  how  far  what  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  contained  implicitly  in  the 
original  deposit  may  be  elevated  to  the  rank  of  an 
article  of  faith.  The  Church  as  itself  an  object  of 
faith  requiring  formal  recognition  was  made  a  part 
of  the  formula  of  the  African  baptismal  confes- 
sion, and  directly  introduced  into  the  Con- 
stantinopolitan  supplement  to  the  Nioene  Creed 
(381),  ''in  one  Holy,  Catholic,  and  Apostolic 
Church,"    and   into   the  Apostles'  Creed. 

2.  Later  (or  Boman)  Oatholioiem  in  East  and 
West:  The  foregoing  has  traced  the  development 
of  the  idea  of  one.  holy,  catholic,  and  apostolic 
church,  with  its  priesthood  and  episcopate,  which 
was  common  to  both  Eastern  and  Western  Christi- 
anity. But  the  East  laid  much  less  stress  upon  the 
sacerdotal  and  episcopal  office  as  a  system  of  gov- 
ernment analogous  to  the  legal  discipline  of  the 
state;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  both  the  schisms 
which  arose  out  of  questions  relating  to  such  or- 
ganization (Novatianism  and  Donatism)  were  of 
Western  origin.  The  Greek  Church 
1.  Eastern  dwelt  more  on  the  idea  of  communion 

Ohoroh  with  the  Incarnate  Savior  in  devout 
Uyetical.  contemplation  and  knowledge,  and 
upon  the  representation  of  the  work 
of  redemption  in  the  rich  mysteries  of  the  liturgy. 
Thus  the  priestly  and  episcopal  organization  never 
attained  an  established  external  unity  for  the  whole 
church;  and,  without  objection  from  the  East,  the 
*'  one  Catholic  Church "  developed  there  into  a 
number  of  communities  belonging  to  various  states 
or  countries  and  closely  allied  in  their  supreme 
government  with  the  secular  polity.  To  the  Ro- 
man claims  it  opposed  the  idea  of  Christ  as  the 
sole  head  of  the  Church;  and  it  developed  no  infal- 
lible organ  for  the  decision  of  questions  of  faith. 
The  possibility  of  development  of  the  original  sacred 
deposit,  as  maintained  by  Vincent  of  Lerins,  was  no 
longer  strongly  affirmed,  and  ultimately  stagnation 
overtook  any  attempt  at  dogmatic  inquiry. 

In  the  West,  on  the  other  hand,  the  definite  or- 


OhoToh,  The  Ohristian 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


8S 


ganisation  of  the  church  at  large  took  shape  in  the 
papal  monarchy;  the  further  history  of  Catholidfim 
and  its  idea  of  the  church  is  really  a  histoiy  of  the 
Roman  primacy  (see  Pope,  Papacy,  and  Papal 
Stbtxii ).  IrensuB  had  placed  the  Roman  church, 
as  founded  by  Peter  and  Paul,  in  the  forefront  of 
his  appeal  to  apostolic  succession  and  tradition, 
finding  in  it  the  preeminent  survival  of  primitive 
leadership,  and  on  this  ground  requir- 
*•  1^***^"^  i^g  ^rom  the  other  churches  agreement 
Go^nna-  ^^^  ^*'  "^^  purely  historical  basis 
mental."  ^^^  <i®^crM^06  to  Rome  developed  into 
dogmatic  insistence  on  the  supremacy 
and  infallibility  of  the  church  founded  by  Peter; 
just  as  Cyprian's  view  of  the  unity  of  the  church 
as  represented  by  and  summed  up  in  Peter  and  the 
authority  given  to  him  grew  into  the  assumption 
and  the  dogma  that  this  unity  must  have  its  per- 
manent visible  representatives  in  the  successors  of 
Peter,  each  of  whom  becomes  the  visible  head  of  the 
church,  the  representative  of  Christ.  Pope  Le6  I. 
claimed  for  his  see  the  "  cure  of  the  church  univer- 
sal," making  it  the  head  of  the  body  from  which 
the  other  members  can  not  be  separated  and  live. 
Though  he  thought  of  discipline  and  polity,  not  of 
the  communication  of  grace  or  of  the  establishment 
of  doctrine,  his  statements  are  strong  enough  to 
afford  a  basis  for  all  the  later  claims  of  the  papacy. 
It  found  powerful  support  in  the  recognition  of  its 
primacy  by  the  emperors  (cf.  especially  an  edict 
of  Valentinian  in  445),  and  in  the  political  position 
of  Rome,  while  the  German  emperors  in  their  day 
built  up  their  whole  ecclesiastical  fabric  on  the  as- 
sumption of  subordination  to  one  central  authority. 
The  process  was  a  logical  continuation  of  the  im- 
pulse which  had  early  endeavored  to  bring  Chris- 
tianity to  expression  and  to  a  firm  position  in  the 
worid  by  a  solid  constitutional  organization.  More- 
over, the  medieval  nations,  both  Latin  and  Teu- 
tonic, had  a  marked  craving  for  a  representation  of 
the  divine  and  the  heavenly  by  visible  and  tangible 
things — of  the  one  heavenly  Lord  by  the  one  Roman 
vicegerent,  the  crucified  Savior  by  the  host  in  the 
mass,  the  blessings  of  salvation  by  the  sacraments. 
In  its  way  the  papacy  did  indeed,  in  its  greatest 
representatives,  a  Gregory  VII.  or  an  Innocent  III., 
accomplish  much  to  fulfil  this  ideal.  They  held 
the  church  together  amid  all  the  wild  tumults  of 
the  life  of  their  day;  they  protected  true  moral 
and  religious  interests  against  the  invasion  of  the 
world,  and  they  stood  for  the  maintenance  of 
ethical  discipline — ^though  it  is  also  true  that  they 
identified  these  interests  with  their  own  claims, 
that  human  ambition  and  avarice  was  not  always 
excluded  from  their  acts,  and  that  finally  the  eternal 
commandments  of  God  were  subordinated  to  human 
decisions. 

The  high  papal  conception  of  the  church's  con- 
stitution was  not  yet,  however,  a  dogma  sanc- 
tioned by  a  formal  decision  on  the  part  of  the  church. 
Against  its  prevalence  were  not  only  the  secular 
power  (which  endeavored  to  reverse  the  process  and 
subject  the  church  to  itself)  and  the  national  spirit 
on  which  that  power  could  rely  (as  in  France  against 
Boniface  VIII.),  but  also  the  consciousness  on  the 
part  of  the  bishops  of  the  meaning  of  their  office 


and  a  recollection  of  the  earlier  histoiy  of  the  church; 
while  the  inequalities  of  papal  clumicter  and  the 
great  schism  tended  to  stir  up  a  spirit  of  protest 
and    rebellion.    Thus    the    so-called 
3.   'Papal ""episcopal    system"     (see     Episco- 
"»d?        pact)   was   worked   out    mainly    by 
oo^kl^     French  theologians,  such  as  Gerson  and 
Systems.    I^'Ailly,  and  represented  in  the  great 
councils,  where  the  theoiy  was  heard 
of  a  "  universal  catholic  church  "  distinct  from  the 
Roman.    The  latter,  consisting  of  pope,  cardinals, 
bishops,  and  clergy,  might  err,  and  was  subject  to 
the  authority  of  general  councils,  which  represented 
not  only  the  classes  named,  but  also  all  true  mem- 
bers of  the  body  of  Christ,  and  in  which  Christian 
princes  and  delegates  of  the  universities  were  to 
have  a  voice. 

But  the  papal  theoiy  raised  its  head  once  more 
when  the  councils  had  succeeded  in  restoring  unity, 
and  dominated  the  Lateran  Council  under  Leo  X. 
The  Thomist  Sylvester  Prierias  (q.v.)  maintained 
against  Luther  the  proposition  ''  The  Church  uni- 
versal is  essentially  the  assembly  of  all  believers, 
practically  the  Roman  Church  and  the  pope;  repre- 
sentatively the  Roman  Church  is  the  college  of  cardi- 
nals, practically  it  is  the  pope."  Of  this  view  the 
Jesuits  were  Uie  principal  upholders.  Bellarmine 
maintained  against  the  Protestants  the  definition 
of  the  churoh  as  "  the  company  of  men  bound 
together  by  confession  of  the  same  Christian  faith 
imder  the  rule  of  legitimate  pastors  and  especially 
of  the  one  vicar  of  Christ  on  earth."  The  Council 
of  Trent  did  not  venture  to  make  an  outspoken 
decision  between  the  papal  and  episcopal  theories; 
and  such  a  decision  was  expressed  oxily  after  the 
latter  had  repeatedly  tried  to  enforce  its  claims 
(see  Gallicanism;  Ems,  Congress  of;  JANBiansT 
Church),  in  the  Vatican  Coimcil  of  1870. 

IV.  Protestant  Doctrine  of  the  Chuxch:  The 
first  medieval  Christian  body  which,  while  holding 
fast  to  the  general  Christian  faith,  abandoned  that 
doctrine  of  the  church  sketched  above  was  the 
Waldenses.  They  considered  themselves  members 
of  the  church  of  Christ  and  partakers  of  his  salva- 
tion, in  spite  of  their  exclusion  from  organised 
Christendom,  recognizing  at  the  same  time  a 
"  church  of  Christ  "  witbjn  the  organization  whose 
heads  were  hostile  to  them.  There  is  not,  however, 
in  their  teaching  any  dear  definition  of  the  nature 
of  the  church  or  any  new  principle  in  reference  to  it. 
The  first  theologian  to  bring  forward  a  conception 
of  the  church  radically  opposed  to  that  which  had 
been  developing  was  Wyclif;  and  Huss  foUowed 
him  in  it.  According  to  him  the  chureh  is  the 
"totality  of  the  predestinated"; 
^'  y^^h***  ^^^'^j  as  in  his  doctrine  of  grace,  he 
^^^ "  followed  Augustine,  but  took  a  stand- 
point contrary  as  well  to  Augustine's 
as  to  that  of  later  Catholicism  in  his  accoimt  of  the 
institutions  and  means  of  grace  by  which  God 
communicates  the  blessings  of  salvation  to  the 
predestined,  excluding  from  them  the  polity  of 
priest,  bishop,  and  pope.  He  denied  the  divine 
institution  both  of  papal  primacy  and  of  the  epis- 
copate as  distinct  from  the  presbyterate,  and  attrib- 
uted infallible  authority  to  the  Scriptures  alone. 


83 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohuroh,  The  Ohrtstiaa 


The  idea  of  both  Wyclif  and  Huss  was  thus  not  of 
an  actually  existing  body  of  united  associates,  but 
merely  the  total  of  predestined  Christians  who  at 
any  time  are  living  holy  lives,  scattered  among 
those  who  are  not  predestined,  together  with  those 
who  are  predestined  but  not  yet  converted,  and  the 
faithful  who  have  passed  away. 

Luther  defended  Wyclif's  definition  at  the  Leip- 
sic  Disputation  of  1519,  in  spite  of  its   condem- 
nation by  the  Coimdl   of  Constance.     But   his 
own  idea  was  that  the  real  nature  of 
ihee^'      the  church  was  defined  by  the  words 
Teaching    following  its  mention  in  the  creed — 
"  the  communion  of  saints,"  taking  the 
word  "  saints  "  in  its  Pauline  sense.     These    (al- 
though sin  may  still  cling  to  them)  are  sanctified 
by  God  through  his  word  and  sacraments — sacra- 
ments not  depending  upon  an  organized,  episco- 
pally  ordained  clergy,  but  committed  to  the  church 
as  a  whole;  it  is  their  faith,  called   forth   by  the 
word  of  God,  which    makes  them   righteous   and 
accepted  members  of  Christ  and   heirs  of  eternal 
life.   Thus  the  Lutheran  and,  in  general,  the  Calvin- 
ist  conception  of  the  church   depended  from  the 
first  upon  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith.    In 
harmony  with    Luther's   teaching,  the  Augsburg 
Confession    defines    the    church    as    "the    con- 
gr^ation  of  saints  in  which  the  Gospel  is  rightly 
taught  and  the  sacraments  are  rightly  adminis- 
tered."   In  one  sense  the  church  is  invisible,  since 
the  earthly  eye  can  not  tell  who  has  true  faith  and 
in  this  sense  is  a ''  saint,"  but  in  another  it  is  visible, 
since  it  has  its  being  here  in  outward  and  visible 
vital  forms,  ordained  by  God,  in  which  those  who 
are  only  "  saints  "  in  appearance  have  an  external 
share.    The  church,  too,  always  has  need  of  some 
sort  of  external  forms,  of  human  ordinances,  in 
which  to  clothe  the  administration  of  the  means  of 
grace,  the  preaching  of  the  word,  and  public  wor- 
ship;  but  these  must  not  claim  divine  sanction  or 
unconditional    obligation.    There    was,    however, 
one  thing  on  which  Luther  insisted  as  essential — 
that   the  public  administration  of  the  means  of 
grace  entrusted  to  the  church  by  God  should  be 
performed  only  by  persons  duly  called  to  that 
function,  who  were  to  feed  the  flock  with  the  word 
of  God.     His  conclusion  of  its  necessity  is  drawn  not 
from  any  divine  revelation  or  law,  but  from  the 
nature  of  the  case  and  the  need  of  a  settled  order. 
The  division  of  offices,  the  placing  of  superintend- 
ents or   bishops  over  the   pastors   of  the    local 
churches,    was   considered    a    matter  of  variable 
human  arrangement.    While  Luther  rejected  the 
papal  claim  to  condition  salvation  by  its  forms 
and  ordinances,  declaring  them  anti-Christian  and 
opposed  to  God's  will,  he  recognized  the  possibil- 
ity of  sanctified  believers  and  true  members  of 
the    body   of   Christ    living    within    the   Roman 
Church,  because  even  there,  in  spite  of  all  corrup- 
tion, the  power  of  the  word  and  sacraments  was 
still  working.     Here  is  a  difference  between   the 
Reformation   view    and    other  postapostoUc  con- 
ceptions of  the  church.     For  the  first  time  there 
were  two  bodies  with  opposite  religious  principles, 
each   accushig   the    other  of   grievous   error,  and 
yet  one    of    them    admitting    a    communion    in 


grace  with  the  other,  and  indeed  with  all  Chiii»- 
tians  of  whatever  name  who  cling  to  the  funda* 
mental  elements  in  the  message  of  salvation.  It 
was  in  this  sense  that  the  Reformers  taught  one 
catholic  church,  spread  throughout  the  Christen- 
dom of  all  times  and  places,  the  unity  of  which 
lacked  external  organization,  but  was  sufficiently 
established  by  its  possession  of  one  invisible  head, 
one  faith,  one  baptism.  Its  holiness  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  Christ  is  its  head,  and  that  the  sancti- 
fying grace  of  God  works  within  it;  its  apostolidty, 
by  its  original  foundation  at  the  hands  of  the  apos- 
tles and  its  continued  resting  upon  their  word. 

The  view  here  set  forth  left  unsettled  a  number 
of  questions  which  then  came  up  for  the  first  time 
and  influenced  later  theological  movements.  To 
what  extent  the  pure  preaching  of  the  Gospel  and 
due  administration  of  the  sacraments  was  necessary; 
how  far  the  name  of  a  church  of  Christ  might  be 
given  to  a  particular  church  which  was  lacking  in 
these  requisites;  how  far  an  effort  should  be  made 
to  attain  a  pure  expression  of  Evangelical  truth  in 
the  shape  of  creed  and  dogma — these  were  some  of 
the  questions.  The  last  led  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween essentials  and  non-essentials,  and  to  that 
between  the  Gospel,  or  the  simple  preaching  of  the 
word  of  God  as  a  source  of  life  and  grace,  and  theo- 
logical dogma.  Another  question  was  the  external 
government  of  the  church.    If  it  was  not  regarded 

as  a  matter  of  divine  institution,  who 

8.  ^^^  was  to  establish  and  exercise  it  ?    Who 

^"mi      ^^  ^  organize   the   churches   that 

tied  by  the  ^^^  springing  up  outside  the  andent 

Beformers.  ^^  traditional  Christendom?    Luther 

seems  to  haveoontemplated  originally 
a  free  organization  by  these  true  believers  them- 
selves into  a  church  with  simple.  Evangelical  wor- 
ship and  disdpline;  but  historical  drcumstances 
led  to  this  function,  as  well  as  the  continued  direc- 
tion of  the  church,  being  left  largely  to  secular 
princes  and  magistrates,  as  charged  by  God  with  the 
maintenance  of  morality  and  order  among  Chris- 
tian people  and  with  the  enforcement  of  the  fiist  as 
well  as  the  second  table  of  the  decalogue.  This 
result  was  brought  about  partly  by  the  fact  that 
for  years  a  hope  was  cherished  of  a  reunion  with 
the  old  episcopate,  and  such  institutions  as  were 
set  up  were  regarded  as  to  some  extent  provisional. 
So  by  degrees  the  organ  of  the  supreme  direction  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  came  to  be  in  the  hands  of 
consistories  appointed  by  the  local  secular  govern- 
ment, and  the  share  of  the  other  members  of  the 
church  was  reduced  to  an  assumed  tadt  consent  to 
legislation.  Melanchthon's  later  teaching  differed 
somewhat  from  Luther's.  He  was  influenced  by 
a  fear  of  spiritualistic  fanatidsm  and  a  desire  to 
see  the  Evangelical  religion  firmly  and  practically 
established.  He  considered  the  Christian  church 
visible  on  the  ground  of  its  self-expression  in  the 
preaching  of  the  word  and  administration  of  the 
sacraments;  and  he  emphasized  its  institutional 
character  much  more  than  Luther.  He  dung  as 
long  as  possible  to  the  desire  for  reunion  with  the 
great,  firmly  established  traditional  church.  Among 
Lutheran  theologians  it  was  not  till  after  Chemnitz 
that  the  doctrine  appeared  and  prevailed  which 


Ohuroh,  The  Ohristian 
Chnroh  Diet 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


84 


distinguished  between  the  visible  church  as  the 
**  assembly  of  the  called  "  and  the  invisible  church 
existing  within  this,  as  the  sum  of  all  the  really 
faithful  or  sanctified  or  regenerate.  This  distinc- 
tion belonged  originally  to  the  Calvinists  (see 
below);  though,  unlike  them  and  Wyclif,  the 
Lutheran  theologians  had  in  mind  not  the  predes- 
tined, but  all  who  were  within  the  real,  existing 
inner  body.  The  idea  of  the  objective  and  external 
use  of  the  means  of  grace  is  thus  no  longer  connected, 
as  by  Luther,  with  the  idea  of  a  church  which  is 
still  proclaimed  invisible,  but  with  that  of  a  visible 
church  within  which  the  saints  also  partake  of 
those  means  of  grace.  The  Lutheran  Church  is 
thus  in  its  essence  an  institution  existing  for  the 
conmiunication  of  grace  by  these  means,  in  relation 
to  which  the  individual  members  assimie  a  receptive 
attitude. 

The  Reformed  leaders  also  designated  the  church 
as  the  congregation  of  believers  or  saints,  and  made 
the  preaching  of  the  pure  word  of  God  a  condition 
of  its  existence.  But  they  laid  stress  on  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  visible  and  the  invisible  church, 
taking  their  conception  of  the  latter  from  Wyclif 
and  Huss.  Zwingli  not  only  allowed  the  significance 
of  the  sacraments  to  drop  out,  but  even  minimized 
that  of  the  revealed  word,  outside  of  the  sphere  of 
influence  of  which  he  believed  that  there  were  elect 
among  the  heathen.  Of  this  last  belief  Calvin 
knew  nothing,  though  he,  too,  considered  the  church 
as  the  invisible  fellowship  of  the  predestined;  and 
he  emphasized  much  more  than  Zwingli  the  neces- 
sity of  the  word  and  sacraments,  laying  besides  a 
peculiar  stress  on  the  exercise  of  government  and 
discipline,  through  teachers,  pastors,  and  elders. 
The  definite  Calvinistic  conception  found  ex- 
pression more  or  less  in  the  various  confessions. 

Thus .  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  de- 
4.  Oalvin-  gjjgg  ^jj^  church  generally  as  "  a 
J^^^^r  company  elected  to  life,"  assembled 
^Tu^ohf*  by  God  through  his  Spirit  and  his 

word.  That  of  Geneva  has  the  phrase 
"  body  of  the  faithful  whom  God  predestinated  to 
eternal  life  "\  but  besides  this  church,  which  is 
recognized  by  faith  alone,  it  speaks  of  a  visible 
church  with  definite  signs.  The  Westminster  Con- 
fession mentions  both  visible  and  invisible  side 
by  side.  The  great  difference  between  Lutheran  and 
Calvinist  views  lay  in  their  attitude  toward  the 
means  of  grace.  The  church  could  not  be  to  the 
Calvinist  an  institution  for  conveying  grace,  on 
accoimt  of  his  idea  of  the  absolute  sovereignty  of 
God  and  the  operation  of  the  Spirit  as  entirely 
independent  of  created  means.  Again,  the  ener- 
getic effort  to  sanctify  God's  people  for  his  service 
led  to  a  sort  of  new  legalism  in  both  corporate  and 
individual  life  among  the  Calvinists;  while  Luther- 
anism  tended  either  to  a  Quietism  in  which  the 
church  contented  itself  with  offering  the  means  of 
grace  and  the  individual  with  receiving  them,  or  to 
a  worldly  spirit  which  abused  the  liberty  of  the 
chilli r-^n  of  God. 

As  t;)  the  question  of  external  organization  and 
governnunt,  Zwingli  wished  discipline  to  be  exer- 
cised not  by  special  ecclesiastical  organs,  but  by 
those  who  stood  in  general  at  the  head  of  the  Chris- 


tian people,  thus  leading  to  Erastianism  (see 
Erastus).  The  theory  of  necessary  independence 
of  the  state  was  a  later  growth.  As  for  organiza- 
tion, different  theories  were  held.  Presbyterianism 
developed  its  teaching  and  ruling  elders,  and  its 
general  synodal  constitution  based  on  the  local 
presbyteries;  the  Independents  or  Congregational- 
ists  erected  no  general  organization,  identified  the 
functions  of  pastor  and  elder,  and  put  discipline 
and  the  decision  of  questions  affecting  the  church 
into  the  hands  of  the  local  churches;  Quakerism 
denied  that  any  such  forms  or  laws 

6.  PoBt-    ^ere  permissible,  appealing  to  Scrip- 

ti      ]So'   ^^'^  ^  support  of  its  contention.     The 

trines  of  P^**®^  ^^  *^®  Church  of  England  is  a 
the         peculiar  one.     While  the  doctrine  of 

Ohnroh.  i^  Articles  on  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
distinctly  Calvinistic,  it  defined  the 
church,  imder  the  influence  of  Melanchthon's  later 
teaching,  is ''  a  visible  congregation  of  futhful  men  " 
with  the  pure  word  of  God  and  due  administration  of 
the  sacraments.  With  its  episcopal  organization,  it 
preserved  more  the  character  of  official  Christianity 
than  any  other  Protestant  body;  but  the  doctrine 
of  the  necessity  of  the  apostolic  succession  supposed 
to  be  there  preserved  was  not  stated  in  the  Articles, 
and  did  not  become  influential  imtil  a  later  period. 

After  the  dominion  of  Protestant  orthodoxy, 
which  marked  the  period  with  both  its  strength  and 
its  weakness,  followed  another  in  which  the  newly 
aroused  subjective  piety  departed  more  or  less 
from  the  rigid  forms  of  corporate  church  life.  The 
tendency  of  Pietism  was  rather  to  erect  "  little 
churches"  for  the  satisfying  of  spiritual  needs; 
and  the  devotion  which  thus  found 
e.  PletiBtio  Q^pgggJQQ  took  on  a  narrow,   legal- 

^^*^  istic,  and  rather  Calvinistic  character, 

alistio^oo-  "^^^  came  rationalism,  with  its  reUg- 

trines.  "  ^^^^  indifferentism  and  lack  of  belief 
in  the  importance  of  the  church,  as 
that  importance  had  been  understood  in  both  eariy 
and  Reformation  times.  To  it  the  church  was 
merely  an  association  on  a  par  with  other  human 
and  earthly  societies,  and  it  asserted  with  great 
positiveness  that  Christ  himself  had  no  intention 
of  foimding  a  church  in  the  received  sense  of  the 
word.  But  it  would  require  far  too  much  space  to 
trace  in  detail  all  the  later  variations  of  local  or 
individual  attitude  toward  the  complicated  ques- 
tions which  have  been  here  discussed.  It  may, 
however,  be  remarked  that  the  tendency  to  form 
churches  wholly  independent  of  the  state  and 
receiving  no  support  from  it  is  characteristic  espe- 
cially of  the  Reformed  bodies,  though,  as  we  have 
seen,  it  can  not  be  traced  back  to  Zwingli  or  to 
Calvin.  Connection  of  any  kind  with  the  state 
was  felt  to  be  prejudicial  to  the  liberty  of  self- 
expression  claimed  for  the  Christian  Spirit.  The 
"  free  church "  movement  manifested  itself  first 
and  most  forcibly  in  Scotland,  in  the  Secession 
Church  of  1733,  the  Church  of  Relief  of  1752,  the 
union  of  both  under  the  name  of  United  Presby- 
terian Church  in  1847,  and  particularly  the  Free 
Church  of  1843,  the  two  last  having  effected  a 
further  imion  in  1900.     See  Church  and  State. 

(J.  KesTUNt.) 


85 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohnroh,  The  Christian 
Ohuroh  Diet 


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tions of  the  Church,  ib.  1885;  J.  M.  Lang.  The  Church  and 
Us  Social  Mission,  New  York,  1902. 

CHURCH  COUNCIL  (cancUium  ecclesicB,  Kir- 
ckenrat):  A  meeting  of  the  authorities  of  the 
Church  to  take  counsel  and  make  decisions  in  re- 
gard to  church  affairs.  Councils  may  be  ecumen- 
ical, of  the  whole  Church,  or  of  the  Church  of  a  single 
countiy,  or  of  a  province,  or  even  of  a  single  church, 


in  which  case  it  is  a  committee  chosen  from  a 
congregation  to  represent  it  (see  Councils  and 
Synods).  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  origi- 
nally the  laity  had  no  share  in  the  councils,  but  in 
the  course  of  time  assistants  had  to  be  found  among 
them  for  the  clergy,  especially  in  financial  matters. 
These  assistants  were  at  first  chosen  by  the  church 
authorities;  only  in  the  nineteenth  century  have 
the  laity  had  a  right  to  take  part  in  the  selection. 
In  regard  to  councils  in  the  Evangelical  churches, 
see  CoNGREGATiONALiSTs,  IV.;   and  Polity. 

(F.  H.  JACOBSONf.) 

CHURCH  DIET,  GERIIAN  EVANGELICAL 
(DEUTSCHEREVANGELISCHER  KIRCHENTAG) : 

A  convention  of  delegates  from  the  Evangelical 
churches  of  Gennany — the  Lutheran  and  Re- 
fonned,  the  churches  of  the  Union,  and  the 
Moravians.  Originating  in  1848,  its  chief  aims 
were :  (1 )  to  imite  the  Gennan  Evangelical  churches ; 

(2)  make  provision  for  the  Church  in  case  of  a  sep- 
aration of  Church  and  State;  (3)  to  oppose  the 
imbelief'of  the  time;  and  (4)  to  ameliorate  the  mis- 
erable condition  of  the  people.  The  real  conductor 
of  the  whole  imdertaking  was  Von  Bethmann- 
Hollweg,  professor  of  law  at  Bonn,  who  presided 
over  the  first  session  and  was  the  leader  until  the 
last  meeting.  In  1848  he  published  a  treatise, 
Vorachlag  einer  evangelischen  Kirchenveraammlung 
im  laufenden  Jahre  18J^,  in  which  he  advocated  a 
call  to  all  Evangelical  Christians  of  the  Gennan 
nation.  Simultaneously  and  independently,  the 
idea  occurred  to  Philipp  Wackemagel  (q.v.),  of 
Wiesbaden,  and  two  of  his  friends,  P.  Heller,  pastor 
of  Kleinheubach-on-the-Main  in  Bavaria,  and  Dr. 
Haupt,  then  pastor  of  Rimhom  in  the  Hessian 
Odenwald.  Their  ideas  found  ready  acceptance  at 
a  conference  of  ministers  from  Frankfort  and  the 
neighboring  states,  Nassau,  Hesse,  and  a  part  of 
Bavaria;  and  a  commission  was  appointed  to  "  dis^ 
cuss  and  prepare  the  convocation  of  a  general  eccle- 
siastical convention  of  Evangelical  Germany." 

The  first  general  convention  was  held  Sept.  21, 
1848,  at  Wittenberg.  Five  hundred  participated 
in  it,  the  leaders  being  such  prominent  men  as  Von 
Bethmann-Hollweg,  Stahl,  Wackemagel,  Schmie- 
der,  Domer,  Nitzsch,  Mtiller,  and  Krummacher. 
Of  the  resolutions  adopted  the  following  are  the 
most  important:  (l)The  Evangelical  commimities 
of  Gennany  meet  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a 
church  alliance.  (2)  The  Evangelical  Church  Alli- 
ance is  not  a  union  which  obliterates  the  confes- 
sional churches,  but  a  confederation  of  churches. 

(3)  The  Evangelical  Church  Alliance  comprises  all 
ecclesiastical  communities  which  stand  upon  the 
basis  of  the  Reformed  confessions,  especially  the 
Lutheran,  the  Reformed,  the  Union,  and  the  con- 
gregations of  Brethren.  (4)  Each  commimity  which 
joins  the  Alliance  retains  its  relations  to  the  State 
and  its  independence  in  matters  of  teaching,  service, 
and  constitution.  (5)  The  aim  of  the  Evangelical 
Church  Alliance  is  the  care  and  advancement  of  all 
common  interests  of  the  church  commimities  be- 
longing to  it.  The  Eisenach  Conference  (q.v.), 
which  was  called  into  life  in  1851,  did  not  come  up 
fully  to  the  idea  of  the  church  alliance,  but  the 
Congress  for  Home  Missions  was  an  immediate 


Ohuroh  Disoipllne 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


86 


result  of  the  efforts  for  a  church  alliance.  The 
Church  Diet  was  at  first  held  every  year,  later  every 
second  year.  In  1872  the  last  Diet  was  held  at 
Halle.  Although  it  did  not  bring  about  church 
alliance,  it  was  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  a  rally- 
ing-point  of  Uving  church  forces. 

(WiLHELM  BAUBf.) 

CHURCH  DISCIPLINE. 

I.  In  the  Apostolic  and  Postapostolio  Periods. 
II.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

III.  In  the  Lutheran  Churches. 
Methods  and  Results  (§1). 
Modem  Requirements  (§  2). 

IV.  In  the  Reformed  Churches. 
The  Zwinglian  System  (§1). 
Calvin's  Basal  Principles  (§  2). 
Genevan  Ecclesiastical  Tribunals  (|  8). 
In  France  (§  4). 

In  Great  Britain  (§  6). 
In  Holland  and  Germany  (§  6). 
Modem  Modifications  (§  7). 
V.  In  the  United  States. 

Church  discipline  is  a  means  of  securing  and 
maintaining  the  spiritual  purity  of  the  Christian 
Church.  This  exercise  arises  from  the  fact  that 
the  Church  is  a  human  institution,  the  members  of 
which  are  subject  to  the  limitations  and  weaknesses 
of  humanity.  The  Christian  congregation,  there- 
fore, like  every  other  community,  needs  a  means  of 
self-protection  in  order  to  suppress  or  eliminate 
whatever  might  impair  or  destroy  its  life.  But, 
from  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  the  character 
of  its  discipline  is  purely  spiritual.  Therefore  the 
only  means  which  can  properly  be  employed  is 
exclusion,  partial  or  total,  of  those  whose  acts 
jeopardize  it. 

L  In  the  Apostolic  and  Postapostolic  Periods: 
The  center  of  the  Scriptural  doctrine  of  ecclesi- 
astical discipline  is  Matt,  xviii.  15-18;  and  its 
practical  application  in  the  apostolical  church  is 
learned  from  I  Cor.  v.  and  II  Cor.  ii.  4-8.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  Corinthian  congregation  had  married 
his  stepmother,  and  the  congregation  had  suffered 
the  deed.  Paul  then  wrote  to  the  Corinthians 
that  the  offender  should  be  exoommimicated,  and 
"delivered  unto  Satan."  His  words  produced 
such  an  impression,  not  only  on  the  congregation, 
but  also  on  the  offender,  that,  when  he  wrote 
again  to  the  Corinthians,  Paul  could  recommend 
mercy.  It  is,  however,  not  only  for  such  flagrant 
offenses  as  the  above  that  Paul  demands  punish- 
ment, but  also  for  minor  failings  by  which  a  man 
is  made  a  burden  to  his  fellow  men  (II  Thess.  ill. 
6);  and  he  warns  the  congregations  against  heresy, 
for  it  cats  like  a  canker  (II  Tim.  ii.  17).  A  heretic, 
after  admonishing  him  once  or  twice  in  vain,  avoid 
(Tit.  iii.  10);  do  not  even  bid  him  Godspeed  (IlJohn 
10,  11).  The  punishment,  however,  must  never 
be  administered  in  a  spirit  of  retaliation. 
Church  discipline,  though  necessary  for  the  self- 
protection  of  the  church,  has  as  its  aim  the  recla- 
mation  and  reconciliation  of  the  offender;  hence  in 
the  spirit  of  love  it  must  dictate  its  punishments 
(II  Cor.  ii.  6-8).  That  the  discipline  is  exercised 
by  the  Church  is  indicated  in  all  the  passages  cited 
except  that  from  Titus,  where  the  direction  is  given 
for  personal  guidance  alone   (cf.   verse  9).    The 


apostolical  institutions  of  Excommunication  (q.v.) 
and  reconciliation  lived  on  in  the  postapostolic 
church,  and  during  the  period  of  persecution  be- 
came even  more  peremptory.  Under  Decius,  whose 
goal  seems  to  have  been  the  total  destruction  of 
Christianity,  there  occurred,  by  the  side  of  the  most 
admirable  examples  of  faithfulness,  so  frequent 
instances  of  defection  that  a  special  regulation 
for  the  reconciliation  of  the  lapsed  became  a  neces- 
sity. This  regulation,  which  continued  valid  down 
to  the  fifth  century,  established  a  course  of 
penance  which  ran  through  various  stages,  and 
comprised  a  period  of  several  years;  but  its 
severity  naturally  called  forth  devices  of  evasion 
and  subterfuge,  such  as  the  Ubelli  of  the  con- 
fessors (see  Lapsed),  and  church  discipline  became 
somewhat  lax.  A  reaction  toward  greater  severity 
followed,  and  the  Montanists  declared  that  the 
excommimicated  ought  to  remain  for  their  whole  life 
in  a  state  of  penance,  while  the  Novatians  affirmed 
that  the  Church  had  no  right  at  all  to  forgive  the 
lapsed,  though  the  Lord  might  be  willing  to  do 
so.  MeanwMle  the  developing  organization  of  the 
Church  had  reached  the  department  of  discipline,  and 
the  penitents,  who  had  been  excommunicated  and 
desired  to  be  received  back  into  fellowship,  were 
divided  into  four  classes  and  compelled  to  pass 
through  as  many  stages  of  penance  (see  Excom- 
munication). 

n.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church:  The  union 
of  Church  and  State  led  to  developments  in  dis- 
cipline, the  most  important  of  which  was  the  im- 
position of  civil  penalties  for  spiritual  offenses. 
This  was  carried  to  the  extreme  of  capital  punish- 
ment, inflicted  for  heresy  in  the  case  of  the  Spanish 
bishop  Priscillian  and  six  companions,  385  a.d. 
The  many  sentences  of  deposition  from  office 
accompanied  with  exile  during  the  controversial 
period  attest  the  alliance  of  Church  and  State  in  the 
infliction  of  church  discipline.  Penitential  disci- 
pline in  its  four  grades  was  continued  from  the 
earlier  period  and  was  sanctioned  by  the  councils 
of  the  fourth  century.  Yet  the  alliance  of  Church 
and  State  and  the  controversial  activities  produced 
a  concentration  of  disciplinary  attention  upon  her- 
esy which  allowed  grave  offenses  against  morals 
to  go  unpunished.  A  noteworthy  exception  to  this 
was  the  refusal  of  Ambrose  of  Milan  to  administer 
the  communion  to  Theodosius  I.  because  of  a  mas- 
sacre by  the  latter's  soldiers  in  Thessalonica.  In 
the  early  Middle  Ages  the  extension  of  the  Church 
among  the  barbaric  races  brought  about  further 
systematization.  Discipline  was  administered  by 
the  bishops  through  synodical  courts.  The  Peni- 
tential Books  (q.v.),  particulariy  the  Liber  pomi- 
tentialis  of  Halitgarius  of  Cambrai,  were  written 
for  the  guidance  of  confessors.  Besides  excom- 
munication, the  penalties  of  the  Anathema  and  the 
Interdict  (qq.v.)  were  developed.  Penance  (see 
Penance,  Repentance),  including  auricular  con- 
fession (see  Confession  of  Sins)  and  priestly  abso- 
lution, became  a  sacrament,  and  the  system  of 
Indulgences  (q.v.)  was  originated  which  later  be- 
came so  great  a  scandal  and  was  one  of  the  primary 
causes  of  the  Reformatjon.         Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

in.  In  the  Lutheran  Churches:    According  to 


87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohuroh  Diadpline 


the  Evangelical  Lutheran  conception,  exclusion 
from  the  sacraments  forms  the  core  and  center  of 
church  discipline.  The  employment  of  this  disci- 
pline (the  power  of  the  keys)  is  a  part  of  the  prac- 
tical duties  of  the  pastor.  The  pastor  who  admin- 
isters the  sacrament  dare  not  knowingly  admit  an 
unworthy  person,  since  to  do  so  is  to  participate 
in  the  sin.  But  on  the  basis  of  Matt,  zviii.  and  I 
Cor.  V.  the  congregation  has  a  right  to 
I.  Methods  cooperate  in  church  discipline  since  it 
and        may  not  tolerate  offense  in  its  midst. 

Remlti.  The  ban,  even  if  uttered  by  the  pastor, 
always  proceeds  in  the  name  of  the 
congregation;  but  participation  by  the  congrega- 
tion in  church  discipline  is  little  developed  in  Lu- 
theran state  churches  in  consequence  of  the  peculiar 
organiiation  of  the  congregations.  Instead  of  the 
congregations,  the  consistories  received  authority 
to  assist  the  pastor  in  this  exercise.  The  early 
practise  was  that  a  member  of  the  congregation, 
charged  with  public  sins,  was  at  first  admonished 
by  the  pastor  as  his  confessor,  and  if  he  did  not 
change  his  conduct,  he  was  excluded  from  the  Lord's 
Supper;  this  was  called  the  small  ban.  If  the 
sinner  remained  stubborn,  he  was  excluded  from 
churchiy  oonmiunion  altogether,  was  put  under  the 
so-called  great  ban.  If  he  were  in  any  way  com- 
promised before  the  congregation,  the  permission 
of  the  consistory  had  to  be  obtained,  and  the  so- 
called  great  ban  could  be  pronounced  by  the  con- 
sistoiy  or  the  state  only  aiter  investigation.  The 
whole  procedure  was  looked  upon  not  as  a  real 
punishment,  but  as  a  means  of  discipline.  The 
ban  could  be  nullified  when  the  sinner  showed 
repentance.  He  was  readmitted  on  condition  of 
pubiidy  asking  the  forgiveness  of  the  congregation. 
This  procedure  was  called  church  penance,  which  is 
eonsequenUy  not  an  act  of  punishment,  but  of 
reconciliation.  If  the  sinner  died  without  church 
penance,  he  was  buried  in  a  separate  place  without 
the  services  of  the  minister  and  the  congregation. 
Church  discipline  so  conducted  was  doomed  to 
failure  because  it  was  not  rooted  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  congregation.  During  the  seventeenth 
century,  from  an  act  of  reconciliation  church  pen- 
ance degenerated  into  an  act  of  punishment  which 
at  first  was  imposed  by  the  consistories  and  then 
by  secular  courts.  Attempts  were  made  by  men 
like  Johann  Valentin  Andre&  and  Spener  to  restore 
the  dd  church  discipline,  but  without  success. 
Pietism  produced  no  changes  in  this  exercise,  and 
rationalism  completed  its  destruction.  In  most 
states  church  discipline  was  expressly  abolished, 
and  to-day  there  are  only  sporadic  instances  of  it. 

With  the  reawakening  of  churchiy  life  a  desire 
for  the  reintroduction  of  church  discipline  made 
itself  felt.  Schleiermacher's  draft  of  a  church 
constitution  contained  propositions  to  this  effect; 
during  1840-60  the  question  was  earnestly  dis- 
2  XodAm  ^^^^"'^  because  of  the  reproach  which 

^j^^^^j^   the    lack    of    discipline    caused    the 

^^^^  churches  and  sects,  also  because  of 
the  social  element  which  crept  into 
the  oki  church  constitutions.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  civil  marriage  and  the  abolition  of  com- 
pulsory baptjpn^  there  has  been  felt  anew  the  need 


of  measures  against  such  as  despise  ecclesiastical 
marriage  and  baptism.  The  state  does  not  oppose 
the  imposition  of  church  discipline  as  long  as  it  is 
of  a  purely  religious  nature  and  is  not  public. 

(G.  UHLHOBN.t) 

IV.  In  the  Reformed  Churches:  The  Reformed 
Church  has  always  emphasized  that  faith  without 
moral  submission  to  the  law  of  God  is  inconceiv- 
able, but  it  was  only  Calvinism  that  laid  the  re- 
sponsibility for  the  regulation  and  discipline  of  the 
moral  life  of  the  members  upon  the  church.  Accord- 
ing to  the  common  Evangelical  view,  the  power  of 
the  keys  was  exercised  by  the  preaching  of  the  Word, 
but  Calvinism  found  it  expressed  chiefly  in  Chris- 
tian penitential  discipline  as  divinely  ordered. 

The  German-Swiss  Reformation  brought  about 
not  only  religious  knowledge,  but  an  inunediate 
ethical  renovation  of  popular  life.  There  existed, 
however,  as  yet  no  churchiy  discipline.  Zwingli 
tried  to  preserve  it  from  the  medieval 
1.  The  Church  in  so  far  as  it  did  not  conflict 
g  "  _  with  the  new  doctrines,  but  the  secular 
X^gg^  authorities  were  much  more  successful 
in  influencing  the  moral  education  of 
the  people.  An  authoritative  position  in  regard  to 
matrimonial  matters  only  was  assumed  apart  from 
the  civil  authority  in  1525.  A  tribunal  was  created 
consisting  of  two  secular  priests,  two  members  of  the 
larger  council,  and  two  members  of  the  smaller 
council;  but  this  institution  was  still  far  removed 
from  an  organization  of  the  ecclesiastical  congre- 
gation, it  simply  reported  its  findings  to  the  secular 
authority.  Although  there  existed  a  desire  for  an 
independent  church  discipline  also  in  the  sphere  of 
the  German-Swiss  Reformation,  Zwingli  was  satis- 
fied with  the  discipline  carried  through  by  the 
Christian  secular  authorities,  as  he  deemed  the 
discipline  itself  of  more  importance  than  the 
method  by  which  it  was  attained.  The  sermon, 
he  thought,  gave  the  idea,  while  the  dvil  authority 
was  the  executing  organ  in  the  union  of  State  and 
Church. 

In  strong  contrast  with  this  surrender  of  eccle- 
siastical independence,  there  reappeared  in  Geneva 
imder  the  guidance  of  Calvin  the  original  type  of 
strict  moral  discipline,  based  entirely  upon  the 
church.  Calvin  laid  down  his  dogmatic  views  con- 
cerning ecclesiastical  organization  and  discipline 
in  his  InstUutio,  especially  after  1543,  in  great  de- 
tail, and  they  form  the  basis  of  his  practical  efforts. 
The  normal  form  of  the  church  must  be  shaped 
according  to  Scripture.  The  body  of  Christ  ("  In- 
stitutes," IV.  iii.  2)  must  be  governed  according 
to  that  political  order  and  form  which  Scrip- 
ture prescribes  (IV.  vi.  9;  cf.  x.  1,  i.  15,  iv.  1;  **  Gal- 
ilean Confession,"  29).  Thus  discipline  or  govern- 
ment becomes  the  third  constituting  function  of  the 
right  church  (Operay  xiii.  283;  "  Belgic  Confes- 
sion," 29).  But  apart  from  depend- 
8.  Oalvln*B  g^ce  upon  Biblical  forms,  Calvin  had 
5*[^  the  conviction  that  the  church  could 
^^  not  exercise  her  educational  function 
*  without  a  corresponding  organization. 
Discipline  aims  primarily  to  prevent  desecration  of 
Christ's  congregation  and  Yaa  holy  sacrament,  the 
betterment  of  the  individual  is  considered  second* 


Ohuroh  Discipline 
Ohnroh  Extension  Society 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


88 


aiy.  If  the  interest  of  Calvin  had  been  confined 
to  individual  discipiine,  he  would  have  been  satis- 
fied, like  Zwingli,  with  the  moral  surveillance  which 
was  zealously  and  often  rigorously  exercised  by  the 
magistrate.  But  as  the  honor  of  Christ  seemed  to 
him  to  demand  the  independent  exercise  of  eccle- 
siastical fimctions,  he  coidd  not  tolerate  the  refusal 
of  a  parochial  organization.  The  church  can  solve 
her  ethical  problem  only  if  she  forms  herself  accord- 
ing to  her  own  principles.  Calvin  realized  his  plan 
only  after  his  expulsion  from  Geneva,  in  bis  in- 
dependent congregation  at  Strasbiu^,  and  thence 
brought  it  back  to  Geneva. 

Immediately  after  his  return  in  1541,  the  Ordon- 
nances  eccUsvastiquea  were  drawn  up  and  approved 
by  the  two  councils  and  the  assembly  of  citizens. 
The  church  order  establishes  as  a  basis  the  four 
offices  (pasteurSf  docteura,  anciena,  diacres)  which  the 
Lord  instituted  for  the  government  of  his  church. 
It  is  the  task  of  the  people  to  create  a  congregation 
that  enjoys  the  blessings  of  God  in  a  becoming 
manner  and  with  a  mature  consciousness,  especially 
in  the  sacraments.  For  the  regular  supervision 
over  the  congregation,  the  college  of  elders  is 
instituted  (officially  called  Consiatoire),  consisting 
of  the  clergymen  and  twelve  members  of  the  dif- 
ferent colleges  of  council.  The  lay  elders  are 
elected  by  the  smaller  council  on  the  initiative  of 
the  pastor.  Their  discipline  covers 
8.  Genevan  matters  of  faith  and  morals.  Smaller 
Ecolesiasti- offenses  were  adjusted  by  the  personal 
calTri-  admonition  of  an  elder;  obstinate 
bnnals.  sinners  were  simmioned  before  the 
college  which  met  every  week.  If 
they  remained  in  their  rebellious  disposition,  they 
were  excluded  from  the  Lord's  Supper  or  the 
congregation  of  believers.  Obstinate  opposition 
against  the  religion  of  the  state  and  its  institutions 
was  reported  to  the  secular  authorities,  who  in- 
fficted  their  own  penalties.  There  resulted  an 
intolerable  confusion  of  ecclesiastical  and  secular 
power;  these  conditions,  however,  were  due  not  so 
much  to  the  peculiar  ecclesiastical  theories  of 
Calvin  as  to  the  spirit  of  the  time,  which  could  not 
conceive  the  possibility  of  different  religions  exist- 
ing side  by  side  in  one  single  State.  It  is  rather 
due  to  Calvin  that,  in  spite  of  this  general  view, 
the  Church  was  not  absorbed  altogether  in  the  State. 
The  spirit  of  the  ordinances  of  Geneva  rules  in 
all  later  Reformed  church  orders.  In  the  French 
Protestant  Church  the  purely  ecclesiastical  char- 
acter of  discipline  foimd  a  clearer  expression,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  this  church  had  to  be 
*•  ^  built  up  independently  of  the  State 
and  even  m  opposition  to  it.  It  is 
the  difference  between  theocracy  and  free  church- 
ism.  The  degrees  of  discipline  were  the  same  as  in 
Geneva.  The  discipline  of  the  Church  extends  not 
only  over  gross  vices,  but  strives  after  honesty  and 
modesty  in  the  whole  conduct  of  life.  It  was  also 
earnestly  intent  upon  the  preservation  of  the  right 
confession. 

The  church  order  of  Lasco  in  London  dates  from 
1550.  It  shares  the  view  of  Calvin  that  the  Church, 
according  to  the  word  of  God,  needs  a  special 
government    and    discipline    with    a    presbyterial 


constitution,  but  it  embodies  a  freer  democratic 
spirit.  Puritanism  in  England  received  its  char- 
acteristic stamp  from  Scotland.    The  congregation 

of  strangers,  formed  by  John  Knox 

6.  In  Oreat  in    Geneva,    followed    closely    in    the 

Britain,     wake  of  Calvin,   and   their  Book  of 

Common  Order  (1558)  took  whole 
pages  from  the  "Institutes,"  but  after  their  re- 
moval to  Scotland  the  fear  of  hierarchism  led  them 
into  the  paths  of  Lasco.  Under  its  king  Christ 
and  according  to  his  word  in  Matt.  xvi.  and  xviii., 
the  congregation  rules  itself  by  its  officers:  minis- 
ters, or  teaching  eldere ;  ruling  elders,  including  the 
pastor,  for  the  supervision  of  morals  in  the  con- 
gregation; and  deacons.  Presbyterial  Puritanism 
foimd  its  completion  in  the  Westminster  Stand- 
ards of  1647,  the  discipline  of  which  exerted  great 
influence  upon  the  whole  non-episcopal  English- 
American   Protestantism. 

Another  group  is  formed  by  Holland,  East  Friaia, 
and  the  German  Lower  Rhine,  the  ecclesiastical 
discipline  of  which  was  based  upon  the  orders  of 
the  Wesel  Convention  (1568)  and  the  Emden  Synod 
(1571).  Here  the  chief  stress  is  laid  upon  the  moral 
and  social  organization.  The  Lord's  Supper  be- 
longs only  to  members  of  a  constituted  church. 

Each  elder  possesses  his  own  district, 

6.  In  Hoi-  *^d  ^  duty  is  chiefly  pastoral.     The 
land  and    elders  are  to  visit  the  members  of  the 

Germany,  congregation  regulariy,  together  with 
their  pastor.  Upon  this  solid  sub- 
structure the  different  degrees  of  discipline  were 
built  up.  In  the  other  German  territories  which 
received  their  Calvinism  from  their  rulers,  efforts 
to  introduce  church  discipline  were  made,  but  in 
many  cases  they  were  obstructed  by  unfavorable 
conditions.  Hesse-Cassel  derived  its  order  of  dis- 
cipline from  the  time  when  it  was  Lutheran,  but 
the  Palatinate  furnished  the  example  for  other 
territories.  Here  it  was  only  in  1750  that  the 
congregations  received  presbyteries,  and  not  till  s 
century  later  was  a  presbyterial  order  thoroughly 
worked  out  and  put  into  operation  at  the  time 
when  in  other  territories  the  Reformed  Church 
was  reconstructed,  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
The  organization  of  the  college  of  elders  and  the 
degrees  of  discipline  correspond  exactly  to  the 
French  church  onier,  but  the  whole  is  put  into  the 
frame  of  the  State,  the  presbyteries  being  depend- 
ent upon  the  secular  authorities. 

Modem  times  have  greatly  modified  or  in  part 
abolished  the  old  orders  of  discipline,  not  only 
in  Germany,  but  also  in  France  and  Switzerland. 
The  principle  of  alliance  superseded  the  order  of 
individual  congregations.  The  Dutch  Church  has 
preserved  considerable  remnants  of  the 

7.  Uodem  old  discipline,  but  the   firmest  oon- 
Uodifica-    nection   with   their   historical    origin 

tions.  has  been  maintained  by  the  Pres- 
byterian churches — ^their  strict  order 
of  church-membership  forms  still  a  soUd  basis  of 
discipline.  The  Scottish  Free  Church  returned 
even  consciously  to  the  old  traditions.  In  Ger- 
many the  old  remnants  of  Reformed  discipline  are 
being  met  with  the  beginnings  of  a  general  Evan- 
gelical reorganization.        (E.  F.  Earl  MOller.) 


89 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohnroh  Disolpllne 
Ohuroh  Bxteasion  Sooi«ty 


V.  In  the  United  SUtes :  In  the  Episcopal  Church 
the  discipline  is  laid  dovm  in  the  canons.  It  relates 
mainly  to  the  dergy;  but  laymen  can  be  kept  from 
the  Bacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  on  conviction 
of  serious  offenses. 

In  the  Presbyterian  Church  discipline  is  in  the 
bands  of  the  sesnon,  or  the  governing  board  of  each 
local  church,  consisting  of  the  pastor  and  elders; 
but,  if  the  party  feels  aggrieved,  an  appeal  can  be 
made  to  the  next  higher  court,  the  presbjrtery, 
thence  to  the  synod,  and  thence  to  the  general 
assembly.  The  method  of  trial  in  all  such  cases  is 
minutely  laid  dovm  in  book  ii.  of  the  Form  of 
Gov€nunent.  In  the  Northern  Presbyterian  Church, 
reference  to  the  highest  court  can  only  be  made 
when  the  points  involved  are  doctrinal  or  consti- 
tutional. Discipline  is  defined  to  be  "  the  exer- 
oae  of  that  authority,  and  the  application  of  that 
system  of  laws  which  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  has 
appointed  in  his  church."  The  subjects  of  dis- 
cipline are  "  all  baptised  persons."  The  offense 
must  be  public,  or  such  as  demands  the  cognizance 
of  the  church  judicatory;  but  private  exhortation 
must  first  be  employed. 

Similar  in  definition  and  practise  of  discipline 
are  the  Dutch  Reformed  and  German  Reformed 
churches.  Cf.  The  Constitution  of  the  Reformed 
Churdi  in  America,  articles  xi.~xiv.,  and  Consti- 
tuiion  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States, 
part  iiL 

In  churches  holding  the  Congregational  polity 
discipline  is  a  matter  for  the  local  congregation, 
which  may  be  advised  by  a  council  composed  of 
ministers  and  delegates  from  other  congregations, 
though  the  recommendations  of  the  council  are  not 
obligatory  upon  the  local  chimdi.  Cf.  H.  M.  Dex- 
ter, Congregationalism,  pp.  188-195,  Boston,  1876. 
In  the  Methodist  Church  "  an  accused  member 
shall  be  brought  to  trial  before  a  committee  of 
not  less  than  five,  who  shall  not  be  members  of 
the  quarteiiy  conference  (and,  if  the  preacher 
judge  it  neccanary,  he  may  select  the  oonmiittee 
from  any  part  of  the  district),  in  the  presence  of 
the  preaeher-in-charge,  who  shall  preside  at  the 
trial,  and  cause  exact  minutes  of  the  evidence 
and  proceedings  in  the  case  to  be  taken.  In  the 
selection  of  the  oonmiittee  the  parties  may  chal- 
lenge for  cause."  The  various  causes  of  such 
action  are  stated.  "  The  accused  shall  have  the 
right  to  call  to  hia  assustanoe  as  counsel  any  m&mr 
b^  in  good  and  regular  standing  in  the  Methodist 
E4>iacopal  Church."  If  the  pastor-in-charge  dis- 
■ent  from  the  finding  of  the  committee,  he  may 
^ipeal  to  the  ffFV"""g  quarterly  conference.  £bc- 
pulaion  is  the  penalty  for  unworthy  conduct  on 
the  part  of  accused  members.  Cf .  The  Doctrines 
and  THadftme  of  the  Methodis^Episcopal  Church, 
1880,  pp.  144-151. 

For  further  discussion  see  Dboradation;  Dep- 

osmoM;    Crubch    Qovbrniobnt;    JiTBisoicnoN, 

EccLBnASTicAi.;  and  Inquisition. 

BauooBAFsr:  The  history  of  diMsipliiw  may  be  tnoed  in 

MaE.  Ckriatian  CJkurdk.  i.  001^603.  ii.  187*192.  iii.  866- 

3».  iv.  371  aqq..  and  Neeader,  CkrisUan  Chwrt^,  i.  217- 

221,  iL  213-216.  iii.  187  aqq.,  4^1  •qq..  iv.  347  aqq.     Con- 

■oH  aho:  DCA,  i.  666  aqq.;  RL,  ii.    1661-00.     For   the 

hMory  of  diadptine  in  the  eaxly  Church  the  •ouroes  are 


the  Didaehst  the  works  of  Tertuliian  (especially  De  p<gni- 
tenOaX  Hippoljrtua,  Csrprian  (especially  De  lapHe),  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions,  and  the  Canons  of  the  early 
councils.  Consult:  N.  Marshall.  PeniienHal  Digeipiin*  of 
Oia  PrimiHve  Chtwch,  reprinted  in  the  Library  of  Anglo- 
Catholic  Thsolcffu,  Oxford.  1844;  J.  Kaye.  Extomal  Oov 
ommerU  and  DiBciplino  of  the  Church  of  ...  the  Firet 
Three  Centuriee,  London,  1866;  G.  N.  Bonwetsch.  Dm 
Oeedtiehie  dee  Montaniemue,  pp.  108-118,  Erlangen,  1881; 
Hefele.  ConeUienoeeehiehte,  i.  226  sqq.,  246. 

For  the  Catholic  Church  consult:  F.  W.  H.  Wa»er- 
schleben,  Bueeordnungen  der  abendldndied^^n  Kirehe, 
Halle.  1861;  F.  Frank.  Die  Bueedieeiplin  der  Kirehe, 
Blains.  1868;  T.  L.  Green,  Ittduloeneea,  Saeramenkd  Ab- 
eoluHona,  and  the  Tax  Tablee  of  the  Roman  PenitenHary, 
London,  1872  (Roman  (Catholic  apologetic);  R.  Gibbings. 
The  Taxea  of  the  Apoetdic  Penitentiary;  or  the  Prieet  of 
Sine  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  Dublin,  1872  (Protestant 
polemic);  F.  Probst.  SacramentaU  und  Saeramenialien, 
TQbingen,  1872;  Vacandard,  The  InQuieUion,  London, 
1008;  and  literature  under  iNQunmoN. 

For  the  Lutheran  Church  consult:  O.  Qoesohen,  Doo^ 

Irina  de  dieciplina  ecd Halle,  1860;  A.  L.  Riehter, 

OeedtidUe  der  evangeliedien  Kirchenverftueung  in  Deutaehr- 
land,  Leipsie.  1861;  idem,  Kirchenreeht,  ed.  Kahl.  §  227, 
ib.  1886;  F.  A.  Tholuck,  Vonteechichte  dee  RaOonalit- 
mue,  II.  i..  pp.  100  sqq..  Halle.  1863-62;  G.  K.  E.  F. 
Fabri,  UAer  Kirchentucht,  Stuttgart.  1864;  O.  Mejer. 
Kirehmsuchi,  Rostock,  1864;  idem,  Lehrbuch  dee  dmO- 
echen  KirthenrechU,  GOttingen,  1860;  C.  I.  Nitssch. 
PrakHeOte  Theologie,  i.  221  sqq.,  Bonn.  1860;  Schaff. 
Creede  (for  the  standards);  H.  £.  Jacobs,  Book  of  Con- 
cord, 2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1803. 

For  the  Reformed  Churches  consult  on  the  genera]  ques- 
tion, besides  the  works  of  Goeschen  and  Riehter  above: 
A.  L.  Riehter.  Die  evangeliechen  Kird^enordnunoen  dee  16. 
JahrhunderU,  Weimar.  1846;  8.  MUler.  Manual  of  Free- 
bytery,  ed.  J.  G.  Lorimer.  Edinburgh.  1842;  G.  V. 
Lechler.  Oeednehte  der  Preebyterial-  und  SyiuxUdverfae- 
euno,  Leyden,  1864;  C.  B.  Hundeshagen,  BeUrdge  nw 
Kirehenverfaeeungeoeechiehie,  Wiesbaden.  1864;  Q.  Oalli, 
Die  hUhefiechen  und  ealviniechen  Kirehenelrafen,  Bres- 
lau,  1870;  K.  Rieker.  OrundeOiae  reformirter  Kirchen- 
verfaeeuno:  R.  Btaehelin.  H.  ZwingU,  i.  446  sqq..  iL 
137  sqq..  440  sqq..  Basel.  1806-07;  E.  Eftli,  Analecta 
reformatoria,  i.  00  sqq..  Zurich,  1800;  F.  W.  Kampf- 
sohulto,  Joh.  Calvin,  i.  386  sqq.,  ii.  364  sqq..  Leipsie. 
1800;  La  Diedidine  eecUeiaatigfue  dee  ijflieee  rifor- 
mSee  de  France,  ed.  D'Huisseau,  Charenton,  1667;  J. 
Asrmon,  Totte  lee  eynodee  neUionaux  dee  fglieee  riformSes 
de  France,  The  Hague.  1710;  [W.  Dunlop],  A  CoUecHon 
of  Confeeeione  of  Faith,  Caiedtieme,  Direetoriee,  Booke  of 
Dieeipline  .  .  .  ,  Edinburgh,  1722;  J.  Bannermann,  The 
Churdi  of  Chriei,  ib.  1868;  J.  Cook,  Stylee  of  Write,  Forme 
of  Procedure  and  Practice  of  the  Church  Courte  of  Scot- 
land, ib.  1870;  W.  Pierce.  Ecdeeiaetical  Prineiplee  .  .  . 
of  Ae  Weeleyan  MelhodieU,  London.  1873;  T.  B.  Har- 
dem.  Chwreh  Dieeipline,  ite  HieL  and  Preeent  Aepeet, 
Cambridge,  1802;  Reitsma  en  van  Veen,  Ada  ...  en 
partieuliere  eynoden,  Qroningen,  1802-00. 

For  the  United  States,  besides  the  works  mentioned  in 
the  text,  consult:  T.  C.  Upham,  Ratio  diedplina,  Port- 
land, 1844;  F.  Wayland.  Prineiplee  and  Practice  of  Bap- 
tiet  Churchee,  New  York,  1857;  R.  Emery,  hiet.  of  the 
DiacipUne  of  the  Methodiet  Epiecopal  Churdi,  ib.  1864; 
R.  H.  Tyler,  American  Ecdeeiaetical  Law,  Albany.  1866; 
T.  B.  MoFalls  and  B.  Sunderland.  Manual  of  Predtyterian 
Law  and  Ueaoe,  Washington.  1873;  A.  T.  McGill.  Church 
Oovemment,  Philadelphia.  1800;  J.  Fulton.  Index  eano- 
num.  New  York.  1802;  J.  Andrews.  Church  Law,  ib.,  n.d. 
Vol.  iii.  of  Schaff's  Creede  contains  the  texts  of  the  prin- 
oipal  standards. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.    See  England, 

CUUHCH  OF. 

CHURCH  EXTENSION  SOCIETY:  A  society 
founded  in  Chicago  in  1905  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
sifiting  Roman  Catholic  home  missionary  work 
in  the  United  States.  The  movement  was  in- 
augurated and  organized  by  Rev.  Francis  C.  Kelley, 
then  pastor  at  Lapeer,  Mich.    The  object  of  the 


Ohuroh  of  Enf  land 
Ohuroh  of  Ood 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


90 


society  is  to  raise  funds  for  the  erection  and  main- 
tenance of  churches  and  chapels  in  those  numer- 
ous Western  and  Southern  districts  where  the  Cath- 
olic population  is  so  small  and  scattered  that 
self-supporting  parishes  are  either  an  impossibility 
or,  at  least,  can  subsist  only  in  distressing  conditions. 
The  means  adopted  to  this  end  is  a  systematized 
contribution  of  two  cents  per  week  from  all  Cath- 
olics in  the  United  States.  The  movement  soon 
became  popular,  and  at  present  it  counts  among 
its  governing  officers  many  of  the  most  promi- 
nent bishops  and  archbishops  of  the  country.  A 
monthly  paper,  Extension,  the  official  organ  of  the 
society,  is  published  in  Chicago  under  the  direction 
of  Father  Kelley.  James  F.  Dribcoll. 

CHURCH  FATHERS:  A  title  of  honor  applied 
to  the  early  writers  of  the  Christian  Church.  It 
was  originally  given  to  the  bishops;  when  appeal 
was  made  to  their  testimony  as  representatives  of 
the  teaching  office  of  the  Church,  it  was  an  easy 
transition  to  the  inclusion  with  them  of  venerated 
writers  of  an  earlier  period,  even  though  they  had 
not  held  the  episcopal  office.  Thus  by  the  fifth 
century  the  term  "  Fathers  "  is  found  used  in  very 
much  its  modem  sense.  Antiquity  alone,  how- 
ever, is  not  held  sufficient  to  confer  this  title,  as 
Vincent  of  Lerins  clearly  states  (Commonitorium, 
li.  24);  Hilary  of  Poitiers  (on  Matt,  v.)  says  that 
Tertullian  "  by  his  subsequent  error  destroyed  the 
authority  of  his  approved  writings."  Accordingly 
modem  Roman  Catholic  theologians,  among  whom 
the  title  is  most  strictly  used,  are  accustomed  to 
require  four  qualifications — orthodoxy  of  doctrine, 
sanctity  of  life,  the  approbation  of  the  Church,  and 
antiquity.  For  the  Latin  Church  the  line  of  the 
Fathers  closes  with  Pope  Gregory  I.  (d.  604); 
for  the  Greek  Church  with  John  of  Damascus 
(d.  754).  See  Apostolic  Fathsrs;  Doctor; 
Patribtics. 
Bibuoobafht:  Q.  R.  Crooka  and  J.  F.  Hunt,  Thgotogieal 

Bncjfdopimiia  and  Mtihodoiogy,  pp.  30d-309,  Now  York, 

18M. 

CHURCH  FEDERATION. 

I.  The  United  SUtee. 

The  National  Federation  of  Churches  (§  1). 
Ita  Aims  and  Achievements  (S  2). 
II.  Great  Britain  and  Other  Lands. 

The  term  **  church  federation "  has  come  into 
use  in  recent  years  to  designate  the  spirit  and 
methods  of  cooperation  and  unity  that  in  varied 
ways  are  bringing  Protestant  Churches  and  Chris- 
tian bodies  into  organized  afi&liation  and  united 
action  in  matters  of  common  interest  and  service. 
As  a  movement  it  is  for  the  most  part  confined  to 
the  fellowship  of  the  Churches  that  hold  to  his- 
torical and  Evangelical  Christianity.  As  a  prac- 
tical working  force  it  has  found  expression  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  and 
in  countries  where  foreign  missionary  work  is  caiv 
ried  on  by  societies  supported  by  these  nations. 

I.  The  United  States:  Historically  the  federa- 
tion movement  in  the  United  States  is  linked  with 
the  development  of  the  spirit  of  unity  which  found 
expression  in  the  nineteenth  century  through  the 
American  branch  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  (q.v.). 


A    conference    held  in  New  York,  Dec.  3,  1899, 

took  steps  which  resulted  in  the  oi^ganization  of 

the  National  Federation  of  Churches 

1.  The  Na-  and  Christian  Workers.     A  letter  was 

tional  Fed-  then  prepared  and  sent  out  by  the  Ex- 

aration  of  ecutive  Committee  expressing  the  hope 

Ohurohes.  that  it  might  be  the  forerunner  of 
a  "  National  Federation  of  all  our 
Protestant  Christian  denominations,  through  their 
official  action."  At  the  annual  meeting  held  in 
Washington,  Feb.,  1903,  action  was  taken  requesting 
''  the  highest  ecclesiastical  or  advisory  bodies  of  the 
Evangelical  Churches  to  appoint  representative 
delegates  to  a  National  Conference."  Thirty  de- 
nominational bodies  having  an  aggregate  membei^ 
ship  of  over  seventeen  million  members  responded 
and  were  represented  by  nearly  five  hundred  dele- 
gates in  the  great  Interchurch  Conference  on 
Federation  held  in  New  York,  Nov.  1&-21,  1906.* 
By  a  substantially  unanimous  vote  a  Plan  of  Fed- 
eration was  adopted  and  reconmiended  ''to  the 
Christian  bodies  represented  in  the  Conference  for 
their  approval."  This  plan  created  a  "  Federal 
Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America  "  and 
became  operative  when  approved  by  two-thirds 
of  the  constituent  bodies.  Such  approval  having 
been  received,  the  council  was  organized  and  its 
first  meeting  was  held  in  Dec.,  1908. 

The  preamble  to  this  Plan  of  Federation  expresses 

the  conviction  that  "  in  the  providence  of  God,  the 

time  has  come  when  It  seems  fitting 

8.  Ita  AfwT«  more  fully  to  manifest  the  essential 

and        oneness  of  the  Christian  Churches  of 

Achieve-  America,  in  Jesus  Christ  as  their 
menta.  Divine  Lord  and  Savior,  and  to  pro- 
mote the  spirit  of  fellowship,  service, 
and  cooperation  among  them."  The  object  of  the 
Federal  Council  is  stated  in  the  Constitution  to  be: 
''  (1)  To  express  the  fellowship  and  catholic  unity 
of  the  Christian  Church.  (2)  To  bring  the  Christian 
bodies  of  America  into  united  service  for  Christ  and 
the  world.  (3)  To  encourage  devotional  fellowship 
and  mutual  counsel  concerning  the  spiritual  life  and 
religious  activities  of  the  Churches.  (4)  To  secure  a 
biiger  combined  influence  for  the  Churches  of  Christ 
in  all  matters  afifecting  the  moral  and  social  condi- 
tions of  the  people,  so  as  to  promote  the  application 


I  The  following  is  the  list  of  Churohes  ropreeented:  the 
Baptist  Churohes  of  the  United  SUtes;  the  Free  Baptist 
General  Conference;  the  Christians  (Christian  Connection); 
the  Concregatlonal  Churches;  the  Disciples  <^  Christ;  the 
Evangelioai  Association;  the  Evangelical  Synod  of  North 
America;  the  Friends;  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church. 
General  Synod;  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South;  the  Primitive  Methodist 
Church;  the  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Amer- 
ica; the  Methodist  Protestant  Church;  the  African  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church;  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Zion  Church;  the  General  Conference  of  the  Mennonite  Church 
of  North  America;  the  Moravian  Church;  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America;  the  Cumberiand 
Presb3rterian  Church;  the  Welsh  Calvinistio  Methodist  or 
Presbyterian  Church;  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church; 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church;  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church;  the  Reformed  Church  in  America;  the  Refonned 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America;  Uie  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church;  the  Seventh-day  Baptist  Churches; 
the  United  Brethren  in  Christ;  the  United  Evangelieal 
Church. 


01 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Chnroh  of  Bnff] 
Ohurohof  Qod 


of  the  law  of  Christ  in  every  relation  of  human  life. 
(5)  To  aasist  in  the  organization  of  local  branches 
of  the  Federal  Council  to  promote  its  aims  in  their 
communities."  The  difference  between  federated 
union  and  organic  church  union  is  clearly  defined 
in  the  stipulation  that  "  this  Federal  Council  shall 
have  no  authority  over  the  constituent  bodies 
adhering  to  it:  but  its  province  shall  be  limited  to 
the  expression  of  its  counsel  and  the  recommending 
of  a  course  of  action  in  matters  of  common  interest 
to  the  Churches,  local  councils,  and  individual  Chris- 
tians." The  Council  "  has  no  authority  to  draw  up 
a  common  creed  or  form  of  government  or  of  worship, 
or  in  any  way  to  limit  the  full  autonomy  of  the 
Christian  bodies  adhering  to  it." 

Historically  this  national  movement  ''  for  the 
prosecution  of  work  that  can  be  better  done  in  union 
than  in  separation"  has  found  initiative  and  en- 
couragement through  federated  activities,  State  and 
local.  The  Interdenominational  Commission  of 
Maine  was  organised  in  1892,  and  is  composed  of 
membere  appointed  by  official  State  bodies  repre- 
senting the  Baptist,  Free  Baptist,  Christian,  Con- 
gregational, and  Methodist  Churches.  The  prin- 
ciples under  which  this  Commission  acts  seek  to 
secure  practical  reciprocity  among  these  denomina- 
tions, both  in  the  planting  of  new  churches  and  in  the 
readjustment  of  forces  when  through  overmultipli- 
cation  of  churches  or  decrease  in  population  con- 
ditions exist  that  demand  consolidation  through 
union  and  comity  of  action.  The  plans  of  the  Com- 
mission aim  not  to  organize  so-called  **  union 
churches/'  but  to  consolidate  religious  forces,  still 
leaving  them  within  the  limits  of  denominational 
fellowship.  The  secretary  of  the  Commission,  who 
has  held  this  position  since  its  work  began  in  1905, 
bears  testimony  "  that  in  thirty-seven  of  the  fifty- 
one  cases  entered  on  the  records  of  the  Commission 
consultation  respecting  the  clash  of  interests  has 
sufficed  to  relieve  the  strain:  mere  friendly  con- 
ference has  led  to  an  adjustment  of  the  difficulties. 
Many  other  cases,  without  such  mention  as  would 
justify  entrance  on  the  records,  have  been  adjusted 
by  the  same  friendly  means,  and  in  a  great  many 
other  instances  still  an  effective  influence  has  been 
exerted  in  ways  that  have  maintained  an  ideal 
ci  fraternal  cooperation  which  has  tended  to  ele- 
vate very  much  of  the  church  work  of  the  State 
from  the  low  level  of  partizan  and  sectarian  strife." 
C<Hnmiaaions  similar  to  that  in  Maine  exist  in  other 
States,  but  their  work  as  yet  has  not  been  as  effect- 
ive in  its  results.  In  the  aggregate,  however,  consul- 
tation and  comity  are  increasingly  taking  the  place 
of  competitive  action  in  home  mission  and  church 
extension  work.  The  State  Federations  organized 
in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Wisconsin,  and 
other  conomonwealths  have  already  proved  the  need 
and  effectiveness  of  imited  effort.  In  their  pur- 
poses they  have  a  common  aim,  but  in  methods 
they  are  working  along  lines  suggested  by  local 
enviroDment  and  limited  by  executive  resources. 

IL  Great  Britain  and  Other  Lands:  Church 
federation  in  England  and  Great  Britain  is  largely 
a  movement  unifying  the  activities  of  Nonconform- 
ist Churches  in  matters  of  common  interest.  Its 
orgaoizing  center  is  the  National  Council  of  the 


Evangelical  Free  Churches  which  was  founded  in 
1894.  Membership  in  this  Council  comes  through 
local  Councils.  "  The  Churches  constituting  the 
local  Councils  are  the  Congregational,  the  Baptist 
Churches,  the  Methodist  Churches,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  England,  the  Free  Episcopal  Churches, 
the  Society  of  Friends,  and  such  other  Evangelical 
Churches  as  the  National  Council  may  at  any  time 
admit."  The  total  number  of  Councils  in  1906 
was  897  with  more  than  fifty  District  Federations. 
The  latest  report  says:  "  The  aim  of  our  Movement 
has  from  the  beginning  been  preeminently  spiritual, 
and  the  main  work  of  the  local  Councils  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  has  been  United  Missions." 
The  relation  in  which  the  Free  Churches  stand  to 
the  Established  Church  of  England  has  been  a 
powerful  factor  in  drawing  them  into  close  and 
effective  fellowship.  The  work  of  the  local  Councils 
includes  activities  not  only  evangelistic,  but  social 
and  philanthropic. 

In  other  lands  church  federation  is  already  a 
potent  factor  in  the  unifying  of  Christian  forces 
represented  through  missionary  organizations. 
The  Standing  Committee  of  Cooperating  Christian 
Missions  in  Japan  is  made  up  of  representatives 
from  nearly  aU  the  different  missions.  Since  its 
organization  in  1902  it  has  exerted  a  notable  influ- 
ence in  advancing  plans  of  comity  and  cooperation. 
At  the  great  China  Centenary  Missionary  Confer- 
ence held  at  Shanghai  in  May,  1907,  steps  were 
taken  to  federate  all  of  the  Christian  forces  in  the 
empire.  In  India  the  missionary  workers  are 
laboring  not  only  to  federate  their  activities,  but 
achieve  definite  plans  of  organic  church  union. 
This  spirit  of  unity  and  desire  for  closer  fellowship 
is  illustrated  in  action  that  is  being  taken  in  every 
part  of  the  world  by  those  having  in  charge  the 
missionary  work  of  Protestant  Churches. 

The  indications  multiply  that  church  federation 
stands  for  a  movement  of  profound  significance  in 
its  relation  to  the  present  and  future  history  of 
Christianity  in  its  institutional  life  and  fellowship. 

E.  B.  Sanford. 
Biblxoorapht:  E.  B.  Sanford,  Chwdi  FederaHon,  New 
York,  1006  (contains  reports  of  the  Interchuroh  Con- 
ference on  Federation);  Federation  (the  quarterly  pub- 
lished in  New  York  by  the  Federation  of  Churches  in  New 
York  City);  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  National  Federa- 
tion of  Churches,  of  the  Committee  of  Cooperating  Mis- 
sions (Japan),  and  of  the  National  Council  of  Free  Churches 
(England). 

CHURCH  (CHURCHES)  OF  GOD:  The  name 
of  several  religious  bodies  in  America. 

1.  The  Church  of  God  in  North  America,  popu- 
larly known  as  Winebrennarians,  is  a  Baptist  de- 
nomination founded  by  John  Winebrenner  in  1830. 
The  founder  was  bom  at  Glade  Valley,  Frederick 
C5ounty,  Md.,  Mar.  25,  1797;  d.  at  Harrisburg,  Pa., 
Sept.  12,  1860.  He  studied  at  Dickinson  College, 
Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  learned  theology  under  Dr. 
Samuel  Helfcnstein.  Called  to  the  pastorate  of  the 
German  Reformed  Church  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  he 
was  ordained  at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  Sept.  24,  1820. 
His  earnest  preaching  resulted  in  a  revival,  in  which 
he  opposed  theaters,  dancing,  gambling,  lotteries, 
and  racing,  thus  causing  opposition  which  resulted 
in  official  charges  against  him«    He  severed  his 


Ohnroh  of  Qod 
Ohuroh  Government 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


92 


relatioDB  with  his  charge  and  with  the  Reformed 
Church  in  1825,  but  continued  his  ministry  in  and 
around  Harrisburg,  extensive  revivals  of  religion 
following.  His  theological  views  gradually  changed 
as  the  result  of  his  study  of  the  Bible.  Congre- 
gations were  formed  at  a  number  of  points,  and 
several  ministers  were  ordained.  In  Oct.,  1830, 
six  of  these  ministers  met  in  Harrisburg  and  agreed 
to  form  a  body  to  be  called  the  General  Eldership 
of  the  Church  of  God,  the  term  "  general  elder- 
ship "  being  used  to  distinguish  this  body  from  the 
eldership  of  the  local  church. 

In  doctrine  the  Church  is  prevailingly  Arminian 
and  orthodox.  It  is  largely  premillenarian,  and 
practises  three  ordinances:  baptism,  by  inmiersion; 
the  Lord's  Supper,  observed  in  the  evening;  and 
washing  of  feet.  The  local  church  polity  is  pres- 
byterial,  each  church  having  its  own  boaixl  of 
elders  and  deacons.  The  churches  within  a  given 
district  are  associated  together  for  cooperation  in 
general  work.  The  pastors  and  other  ordained 
ministers  within  a  district,  together  with  an 
equal  number  of  lay  elders,  constitute  an  annual 
eldership  which  appoints  the  ministers  to  the  various 
charges.  These  annual  elderships  elect  an  equal 
number  of  ministerial  and  lay  delegates,  who  con- 
stitute the  general  eldership,  changed  in  1905  from 
a  triennial  to  a  quadrennial  body,  the  highest 
judicatory  of  the  denomination. 

The  Church  now  reports  two  annual  elderships  in 
Pennsylvania,  two  in  West  Virginia,  two  in  Okla- 
homa, and  one  each  in  Maryland,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Missouri, 
Kansas,  Arkansas,  and  Oregon.  A  general  elder- 
ship, composed  of  delegates  from  the  annual  elder- 
ships, was  organized  in  1845,  and  the  General 
Eldership  of  the  Church  of  God  organized  in  1830 
became  the  East  Pennsylvania  eldership.  In  1866 
the  title  of  the  general  eldership,  as  also  those  of 
the  annual  elderships,  was  changed  to  the  form. 
The  General  Eldership  of  the  Churches  of  God.  The 
total  membership  is  estimated  to  be  about  40,000, 
with  500  ministers.  The  general  eldership  controls 
the  institutions  of  learning,  of  which  there  are  three 
(Findlay  College,  Findlay,  O.;  Fort  Scott  Collegiate 
Institute,  Fort  Scott,  Kan.;  and  Barkeyville 
Academy,  Barkeyville,  Pa.),  and  the  publishing 
house  and  book  store  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.  Each  an- 
nual eldership  is  engaged  in  missionaiy  work  in 
its  own  territory,  and  frontier  mission  work  is 
carried  on  by  the  general  eldership  in  Missouri, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  Oklahoma,  Arkansas, 
Oregon,  and  Washington.  There  is  a  Woman's  Gen- 
eral Missionary  Society,  which,  through  the  Board 
of  Missions  of  the  general  eldership,  supports  four 
American  missionaries,  ten  or  twelve  native  workers, 
and  a  nimiber  of  Bible  readers  in  Ulubaria  and 
Bogra  Districts,  Bengal  Province,  India. 

C.  H.  Forney. 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Winebrenner,  Brief  View9  of  tKe  Chvrch 
of  Qody  HarriBburg,  1840;  idem,  A  TreaUte  on  Regtnera- 
Hon,  ib.  1844;  idem,  Practical  and  Doctrinal  Sermon; 
ib.  1860.  The  church  paper  is  the  Church  Advocate,  Harris- 
buxv.  F^. 

fl.  The  Church  of  God  and  Saints  of  Christ  (the 
"BUck  Jews")  are  chiefly  negroes  who  claim  to  be 
the  descendanta  and  representatives  of  the  true 


Jews;  it  is  held  that  the  latter  were  originally  a 
black  people  and  that  the  descendants  of  the  lost 
tribes  have  changed  color  through  mixture  with 
the  Gentiles.  The  Church  was  founded  at  Topeka, 
Kan.,  in  1897  by  William  S.  Crowdy,  who  claimed 
to  be  called  "  to  be  a  prophet  of  God  sent  to  the 
whole  world."  The  Saints  respect  both  Jewish 
and  Christian  law  and  ritual,  and  interpret  the 
Scriptures  literally.  Their  system  of  doctrine  is 
presented  in  Crowdy's  manual.  The  Bible  Story 
Revealed  (Philadelphia,  1902).  Among  the  princi- 
pal points  of  belief  are:  repentance  the  first  step  to 
the  kingdom;  the  seventh  day  the  Sabbath;  absti- 
nence from  wine  and  strong  drink;  foot-washing; 
prayer  in  the  words  of  Jesus;  the  holy  kiss;  religion 
the  exercise  of  love,  charity,  and  hospitality;  the 
law  of  Moses  completed,  supplemented,  or  abolished 
by  the  law  of  God  in  Christ.  The  ministry  con- 
sists of  the  Prophet  Crowdy,  two  bishops  (one  in 
Africa),  evangelists  (whose  functions  are  those  of 
visitation),  and  elders  or  pastors  of  churches.  The 
polity  is  presbyterial,  with  an  annual  "  Board 
Meeting,"  and  a  quadrennial  General  Assembly. 
There  is  also  an  annual  celebration  of  the  Passover 
with  mingled  Hebrew  and  Christian  rites.  The 
organization  reports  about  one  hundred  churches 
(seven  in  Africa)  and  8,000  to  9,000  members. 
The  largest  church  and  the  denominational  head- 
quarters are  in  Philadelphia.  Business  enterprises 
are  conducted  in  connection  with  many  of  the 
churches,  a  farm  colony  is  located  at  Belleville, 
Va.,  and  the  establishment  of  a  widows'  and  or- 
phans' home  and  a  training-school  there  is  con- 
templated. W.  H.  Larrabee. 
Biblioorapht:  The  organ  of  the  denomination  is  the 
Weeklv  Prophet,  Philadelphia. 

3.  The  Adventist  Church  of  God,  a  branch  of  the 
Seventh-day  Adventists.     See  Adventists,  5. 

4.  The  Churches  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus,  popularly 
known  as  the  Age-to-come  Adventists.  See  Ad- 
ventists, 6. 

6.  The  Mennonite  Church  of  God  in  Christ.  See 
Mbnngnites. 

CHURCH  GOVERNMENT. 

Meaning  of  the  Expression  (§1). 
The  Refonned  Church  Government  (S  2). 
Fundamental  Differences  of  Lutheran  View   (f  3). 
German    Reformers    not    Opposed    to    State     Qovera- 

ment  (S  4). 
State  Government  Accepted  in  Luther's  Time  (§  6). 
Actual  Views  of  Luther  and  his  Contemporaries  (§  6). 
Influence  of  the  Idea  of  the  Common  Priesthood  ($  7). 
Modem  Development   of   German    Church    Government 

(§8). 

[The  following  article  is  a  condensation  of  the 
article  Kirchenregiment  in  the  Hauck-Herzog  RE  ; 
for  more  general  discussion  of  the  subject  see 
Polity.] 

Church  government  in  the  speech  of  to-day 
denotes  that  particular  conduct  of  the  ecclesiastical 
community  which  is  not  effected  by  means  of  the 
spiritual  administration  of  word  and  sacraments, 
but  by  means  which  on  occasion  may  be  of  civil 
constitution.  Prior  to  the  Reformation  the  pastor 
was  called  rector,  and  regere  ecdesiam  ("  to  gov- 
ern the  Church  ")  indicated  his  spiritual  care  over 


93 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohuroh  of  Qod 
Ohnroh  Government 


the  congregation  through  the  word  and  sacra- 
ments. Church  government  is  thus,  originally,  the 
pastoral,  though  logically  also  the  epis- 
I.  MiMining  copal,  and,  in  the  last  resort,  the  par 
of  the  Ez-  pal  cure  of  souls;  because  the  bishop 
prenon.  is  properly  the  pastor  of  his  diocese, 
and  the  pope — ^at  all  events  according 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  curia — pcarochtta  mundi  (see 
Cure  or  Souls).  However,  the  divinely  given 
authority  for  the  spiritual  control  (potestas  eccle- 
tiadica;  see  AuTHORrrY,  Ecclesiastical)  em- 
braces, according  to  the  theory  then  in  vogue,  every 
regulative  function,  whether  in  a  proper  sense 
spiritual  or  not;  that  is,  certain  fimctions  not 
within  the  direct  sphere  of  word  and  sacrament, 
provided  only  the  same  appear  expedient  to  the 
bishop  or  pope,  as  the  case  may  be,  with  relation 
to  the  cure  of  souls.  Hence  prior  to  the  Refor- 
mation church  government  was  regarded  as  part 
and  parcel  of  the  episcopal,  or  ultimately  papal, 
cure  of  souls.  It  was  only  after  the  establishment 
of  the  Reformers'  principle,  that  this  theory  con- 
flicts with  Scripture,  and  that  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  which  is  to  be  exercised  by  the  spiritual 
office  in  virtue  of  divine  commission  comprises 
rather  the  sole  administration  of  word  and  sacra- 
ments, and  not,  in  addition,  external  control,  that 
the  institution  of  church  government  as  a  power 
by  itself  could  become  developed  and  was  actually 
developed.  The  idea  of  church  government  in  this 
sense  is  Protestant;  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  in 
80  far  as  it  has  continued  upon  the  pre-Refor- 
mation  basis,  still  construes  the  matter  as  falling 
within  the  spiritual  province  of  ecclesiastical 
authority. 

Of  the  two  Protestant  Church  bodies  in  which, 
upon  the  basis  of  the  aforesaid  Reformation  doc- 
trine, a  scheme  of  church  government  has  taken 
f^hape  distinct  from  the  spiritual  economy  it  is 
pertinent  to  consider  first  the  Reformed  Church; 
and  in  fact  its  Calvinistic  branch  is  of  exceptional 
interest  in  this  connection.  The  task  of  organizing 
the  Protestant  Church  in  France  was 
3.  The  Rfr-  complicated  at  the  outset  by  the  hos- 
formed  tiUty  of  the  government.  In  the 
Church  face  of  this  enmity,  the  Church  had  to 
Govern-  organize  as  an  independent  association, 
ment  Starting  with  Calvin's  tenets  that  the 
church  organization  described  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Ap)ostle8>  and  the  pastoral  epistles  is 
ordained  by  cSod  to  be  directed  by  a  college  of 
elders,  and  that  this  Church  is  an  example  or  article 
of  faith  for  every  particular  congregation,  it  de- 
wlopcd  this  assumption,  following  Calvin's  inter- 
pretation of  Eph.  iv.  11  sqq.,  Rom.  xii.  7,  and 
1  Cor.  xii.  28,  into  the  doctrine  that  in  accordance 
with  the  aforesaid  divine  arrangement  there  are 
two  kinds  of  elders;  namely,  not  only  bearers  of 
the  teaching  office — who,  in  agreement  with  the 
Lutheran  Church,  were  held  to  be  restricted  to 
teaching  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments 
—but  also  "  ruling  "  elders,  who  were  regarded  as 
filling  the  spiritual,  but  not  the  teaching  office 
(Calvin's  "  Institutes,"  IV.,  chaps,  i.-v.,  xi.,  xii.). 
Pastor  and  ruling  elders  together  constituted  the 
SDveming  body  of  the  congregation  (Fr.  consis- 


toire,  cf.  K.  Rieker,  Grundsdtze  reformirter  Kirchefi" 
verfaasung,  Leipsic,  1899,  pp.  102  sqq.,  141  sqq.). 
Then  there  came  together  from  the  congregations, 
comprising  a  definite  group,  certain  delegates  of  the 
consistoireSf  both  teaching  and  ruling  officers,  to 
form  committees  ("  synods "),  through  whose 
agency  the  corresponding  church  circuit  was  gov- 
erned, the  same  as  the  congregation  by  the  agency 
of  the  consistoire.  Further,  the  French  Evangelical 
Church  as  a  whole  is  governed  by  a  general  synod 
(cf.  G.  von  Polenz,  Geschichte  dea  framosischen 
CalmnismuSf  4  vols.,  Gotha,  1857;  G.  V.  Lechler, 
Geschichte  der  Preshyterial'  und  Synodtdverfassung, 
Leyden,  1854,  pp.  64  sqq.).  The  essential  basis  of 
the  [Reformed]  church  government  is  thus  clearly 
apparent  in  the  main,  even  though  now  and  then 
its  lines  of  distinction  coalesce.  It  rests  upon  divine 
authority  just  as  in  the  pre-Reformation  Church; 
save  that  this  conmiissioned  authority  is  not  im- 
parted to  the  teaching  elders,  but  only  to  the  ruling 
ones.  Yet  the  former  take  part,  and  indeed  as 
weighty  personages,  in  the  sessions  of  the  govern- 
ing bodies,  though  this  is  only  because  they  admin- 
ister the  order  of  salvation,  and  because  all  church 
government,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  has  no  other 
object  than  to  render  possible  and  make  sure  the 
order  of  salvation;  hence  the  teaching  presbyters 
enjoy  their  influence  upon  church  government  not 
as  retainers  of  a  divine  commission  to  rule,  but  as 
expert  representatives  of  their  divine  commission  to 
teach;  so  much  so,  for  instance,  that  in  questions 
of  doctrine  the  non-spiritual  members  of  s3mods 
have  no  voice.  These  fundamental  ideas  of  the 
French  constitution  of  presbyterial-synodal  church 
government  have  undergone,  in  the  course  of  time 
and  in  connection  with  their  development  in  Ger- 
man territories,  various  alterations  an  accoimt  of 
which  properly  belongs  to  church  history. 

Two  fundamental  points  differentiate  the  Lu- 
theran theory  of  church  government  both  from 
the  pre-Refonnation  and  Roman  Catholic  theory 
and  from  the  Calvinistic-Reformed  the- 

3.  Funda-  ory.     In  the  first  place,  the  Lutheran 
mental     Church  does  not  assume  that  there 
Differences  is  any  form  of  church  government 
of         ordained  by  divine  commission,  coin-. 

Lutheran  ddently  with  the  institution  of  the 
View.  Church,  but  rather  esteems  every 
form  of  government  admissible  by 
whose  operation  sufficient  provision  is  made  for 
the  rightful  administration  of  word  and  sacra- 
ments. Hence  there  is  no  Lutheran  dogmatic  basis 
of  church  government;  and  Lutherans  accord  to 
the  claim  of  the  Reformed  that  there  is  no  such 
higher  dignity  than  that  of  a  theological  opinion. 
The  second  point  is  the  fact  that  the  Lutheran 
Church,  when,  in  accordance  with  the  imperial 
decree  of  1526  at  Speyer,  it  developed  the  State 
Church  polity,  virtually  from  the  very  start  placed 
church  government  in  the  State  sovereign's  hand. 
In  consequence  of  these  two  differences  the  ques- 
tion of  Lutheran  church  government  is  much  more 
complicated  than  that  of  the  pre-Reformation 
Church,  or  of  the  Roman  Catholic  or  of  the  Reformed 
Churches. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Reformers'  ideals 


Ohnroh  Gtovemmant 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


94 


were  inoonfiistent  with  state  gcvemment  of  the 
Church;  and  Bome  (notably  so  F.  J.  Stahl,  in 
Kirchenverfa88ung  nock  Lehre  und 
4.  Oerman  Recht  der  Protestanien,  Erlangen,  1840, 
Refonn-  2d  ed.,  1862;  Lutheriache  Kirche  und 
en  not  Union,  Berlin,  1859)  have  inter- 
Opposed  to  preted  these  ideals  as  tending  in  the 
State  Gov-  direction  of  the  pre-Refonnation  con- 
eminent  oeption;  others  (as  A.  L.  Richter,  in 
the  Zeitachrift  fiir  detdschea  RecfU  und 
die  Rechtsttnasenachaft,  iv.,  1840,  pp.  1  sqq.;  Lehr- 
buch  dea  Kirckenrechla,  Leipsic,  1841  sqq. ;  Geachichie 
der  evangeliacken  Kirchmverfaaaung  in  Deutach- 
landf  1851)  think  that  they  sympathize  with  the 
presbyterial-synodal  organization.  This  difference 
of  opinion  shows  how  slight  is  the  foundation  for 
either  side.  Both  views  have  arisen  from  the 
rational  desire  to  obtain  historic  support  and 
Reformation  authority  for  party  strivings — the 
product  and  expression  of  modem  times — and 
the  contentions  of  both  Stahl  and  Richter  are 
inadmissible.  The  chief  argument  against  Stahl 's 
theory  is  the  attitude  of  the  Reformers  with  refer- 
ence to  the  actual  institution  and  organization  of 
chiurch  government  by  the  territorial  sovereigns:  it 
is  incompatible  with  a  conception  of  polity  fimdar 
mentally  contrary.  Richter,  on  his  side,  to  demon- 
strate his  proposition  of  presbyterial-synodal  ide- 
als of  organization  on  the  part  of  the  Reformers, 
assmnes  that  their  views  underwent  a  change 
somewhere  about  1525;  before  that  time  their 
ideals  were  presbyterial-synodal,  but,  owing  to  their 
experiences  with  Anabaptism  and  the  Peasants' 
War,  the  said  ideals  were  crowded  out,  and  the 
Reformers  were  obliged  to  admit  the  actual  neces- 
sity of  church  government  under  territorial  sover- 
eignty. Richter  submits  this  contention  without 
more  particular  evidence,  which  would  be  hard  to 
find.  He  forgets,  for  one  thing,  that  the  prin- 
ciples from  which  the  territorial  sovereignty  form 
of  church  polity  is  deduced  theologically  were 
extant  even  prior  to  1525,  and  were  dedared  by  the 
Reformers;  on  another  side,  that  not  until  after 
that  year  did  the  Reformation  begin  its  eccle- 
siastical organization,  so  that  only  the  ideas  real- 
ized by  the  Reformers  after  that  year  are  in  ques- 
tion; it  was  not  in  the  spirit  of  that  age  to  project 
and  formulate  ideal  systems  of  organization  with- 
out practical  conditions  to  uphold  them. 

R.  Sohm  in  his  Kirchenrecht  (Leipsic,  1892)  has 
defended  the  thesis  that  the  territorial  sovereignty 
form  of  church  government  came  about  in  oppo- 
sition to  Luther's  doctrine  and  after 
5.  State     his  death,  and  that  it  was  a  product 
Ooyemment  of  the  pusillanimous  faith  of  Luther's 
Accepted    contemporaries  and  successors,  being 
in  Luther's  closely  related  to  the  reaction,  espe- 
Time.       dally  on  Melanchthon's  part,  to  Ro- 
man theories  and  to  the  consistorial 
fabric  which  grew  out  of  their  influence,  and  the 
reenforcement  of  these  consistories  with  temporal 
means  of  ooerdon.     This  thesis  is  untenable.     If 
historical  evolution  be  taken  just  as  it  stands,  and 
the  literature  of  the  sixteenth  century  be  considered 
as  a  whole,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Church  by  the  soverdgns  of  the  State 


was  in  harmony  with  the  Reformers'  theory; 
provided  in  this  connection  is  understood  by 
church  government  not  the  Reformers'  "eccle- 
siastical authority  "  (see  AuTHORmr,  Ecclesias- 
tical), but  all  that  is  involved  in  a  legal  direction 
of  the  church  organism.  The  theory  in  question 
is  not  in  any  way  taught  by  Melanchthon  exclusively, 
as  had  been  occasionally  affirmed  before  Sohm;  but 
in  its  main  outlines  it  is  apparent  as  early  as 
Luther's  tract  An  den  Add  deutacher  Nation  (cf. 
O.  Mejer,  Die  Grundlagen  dea  lutheriachen  Kirchen- 
regimenta,  Rostock,  1864,  pp.  26  sqq.),  and  it  is 
elsewhere  taught  by  Luther  and  others.  It  is 
dearly  implied  in  the  Lutheran  confessional  wri- 
tings (Augs.  Con.,  art.  xxviii.;  Art.  Schmal.,  de 
poteatate  papcB,  pp.  354-355;  Larger  and  Smaller 
Catechisms,  pp.  361,  363,  446,  and  elsewhere; 
most  plainly  in  Auga.  Con.  variata,  article  on 
marriage  of  priests,  in  Hase,  Libri  aymbolicij  p.  L.). 
Its  theological  basic  thoughts  come  to  light  in  a 
long  array  of  liturgies  and  other  kinds  of  promul- 
gations on  the  part  of  the  Reformatory  territorial 
sovereigns. 

The  Church  as  a  corporate  unity  separated  from 

the  State  is  a  thoroughly  modem  idea,  to  Luther 

thoroughly    unknown    (cf.    Schenkel, 

6.  Actual  TSK,  1850,  p.  1;  Hundeshagen,  ZKR, 
Views       i.,  pp.  451  sqq.;  W.  Kahl,  Verachieden' 

of  Luther  heit  der  katholiachen  und  evajigdischen 
and  his     Anachauung  uber  daa    Verhaltnia  von 

Contem-    Stoat  und  Kirche,  Leipsic,  1886;    0. 

poraries.  Mejer,  RechtaUben  der  deutachen  evan- 
geliacken Landeakirchen,  Hanover,  1899, 
pp.  28  sqq.;  K.  Rieker,  ut  sup.,  pp.  55  sqq.).  In 
this  unity  two  powers  work  side  by  side,  the  two 
swords  of  the  Middle  Ages;  but  this  indicates 
merely  a  "  division  of  the  administrative  organiza- 
tion of  the  single  body  ";  the  well-known  and  so 
often  misunderstood  utterances  of  Luther  as  to  the 
relation  of  the  temporal  to  the  spiritual  power  are 
not  intended  to  mean  that  the  temporal  power  has 
nothing  at  all  to  do  in  the  Church,  but  rather  that 
within  the  one  body  two  members,  each  in  its 
office,  have  to  cooperate  for  the  weal  of  the  whole 
organism,  only  neither  is  to  encroach  upon  the 
other  within  its  rightful  sphere.  The  spiritual 
commission  of  the  teaching  order  thus  appears  to 
be  confined  to  the  word  and  administration  of  the 
sacraments  (that  is,  ecclesiastical  power  in  Luther's 
sense  of  the  term);  the  authority  of  the  governing 
order  appears  to  be  directed  toward  rightfully  up- 
holding the  laws  of  God  as  expressed  in  the  Ten 
Commandments,  especially  according  to  the  first 
table  of  the  same,  to  the  end  that  no  unlawful 
form  of  divine  service  be  endured  in  the  land. 
From  these  premises  everything  essential  to  the  state 
control  of  church  government  proceeds  with  logical 
finality.  Nor  is  this  conclusion  impaired  by  the 
fact  that  the  Reformers  themselves  accounted  the 
government's  position  not  so  much  a  source  of 
rights  as  a  sum  of  obligations  the  government 
was  to  fulfil,  a  responsible  office  which  called 
into  play  all  those  prerogatives  which  modems 
are  wont  to  designate  as  corollaries  to  a  ''  govern- 
ment." 

To  be  sure,  alongside  these  lines  of  thought  are 


95 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohtiroh  Gk>v«mment 


ilso  to  be  found  certain  documentary  indications 
of  the  germs  of  a  second  and  divergent  theory;  not 
one,  however,  that  reaches  backward  toward  the 
pastoral  fonn  of  church  fi^vemment,  but  one  out  of 
which,  in  favoring  circumstances,  a  presbyterial- 
synodal  polity  might  have  grown.  There  is  here 
in  mind,  above  all,  that  fundamental  principle  of 
Protestantism,  the  common  priesthood.  For  even 
though  it  be  true  that  this  principle  was  conceived 
by  the  Reformers  only  as  a  religious 
7.  Infltt-  principle  (so  that  things  were  carried 
ence  of  the  too  far  when  in  earlier  times  it  was 
Idea  of  the  attempted  to  derive  from  this  basis 
Common  independent  administration  and  con- 
Mcsthood.  gregational  tenets,  and  set  these  up  as 
express  doctrines  of  the  Reformation), 
it  is  none  the  less  an  overshooting  of  the  mark  on 
another  side  when  modem  writers  like  Sohm  (ut 
sup.,  p.  510)  and  Rieker  (ut  sup.,  p.  79)  profess  to 
credit  this  thou^t  with  no  influence  at  all  upon 
the  constitution  of  the  Evangelical  Church  (cf. 
R  Sehling,  in  ZKR,  1894,  p.  229,  and  Kirchenge- 
tetZQ^nmg  urUer  Moriz  van  Sachsertf  Leipsic,  1898, 
pp.  3  flqq.).  If,  conformably  to  the  well-known 
doctrine  of  the  Lutheran  confessional  writings  (cf . 
the  same  collected  with  the  pertinent  citations  in 
0.  Mejer,  Lehrbtich  des  Kirchenrechta,  GOttingen, 
1869),  the  congregation  of  believers  is  bound  by 
the  obligations  of  faith  to  see  to  it  that  sufficient 
provision  is  made  at  all  times  for  the  rightful  ad- 
ministration of  word  and  sacraments,  and  if, 
furthermore,  this  congregation  is  charged  with 
responsibility  before  God  in  this  matter  {Apol., 
p.  292,  and  elsewhere),  it  follows  that  the  congrega- 
tion as  a  congregation  must  see  to  it  that  this  divine 
eommission  is  property  exerdsed  by  those  whom 
it  appcHnts  to  this  end.  Upon  such  bases  a  pres- 
byterial-synodal  church  government  might  veiy 
well  be  constructed.  But  these  ideas  were  not 
developed,  because,  as  above  set  forth,  they  were 
thnist  aside  and  suppressed  by  the  system  of  terri- 
torial sovereignty  that  governed  the  Church.  Or, 
dightly  changed,  they  were  introduced  into  the 
territorial  sjrstem  by  the  teaching  that  since  each 
member  of  the  congregation  is  bound  to  contribute 
Mcording  to  the  measure  of  his  ability  toward  the 
maintenance  of  a  rightful  and  adequate  adminis- 
tration of  the  word  and  sacraments,  and  since  the 
territorial  sovereign  possesses  an  especially  high 
measure  of  such  ability  (in  virtue  whereof  he  is 
designated  as  membrum  ecclesia  prcecipuum),  he 
must  aoooidingjy  apply  all  his  power  entrusted  to 
bim  by  (jod  towaid  the  satisfaction  of  that  obli- 
gation. By  this  process  the  government  of  the 
Church  might  practically  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
territorial  sovereign  alone;  because  the  means  at 
his  disposal  are  so  vastly  superior  to  those  of  all 
other  church-members  that  these,  in  comparison, 
find  nothing  further  to  do  (Luther's  Bedenken  von 
1590.  Erlangen  ed.,liv.,  p.  179;  Art.  Schmal.,p.  350; 
Mejer,  ut  sup.,  pp.  109  sqq.,  cf.  27,  36,  46).  The 
idea  of  membrwn  eccUsia  protcijmum,  to  be  sure,  is 
again  and  again  obscured  by  subsequent  absurd 
usage;  but  it  always  carries  the  assiunption  that 
the  territorial  sovereign  has  the  power  to  apply 
^  governing  rights  to  the  fmtherance  of  eccle- 


siastical ends.  This  was  the  case  in  the  Reforma- 
tion period  and  in  general  so  long  as  his  rights  were 
regarded  and  exercised  as  operative  private  rights. 
According  to  the  civil  law  of  to-day,  however,  the 
governing  rights  of  the  territorial  sovereign  are  in 
the  nature  of  public  powers,  which  reach  no  fmther 
than  their  corresponding  official  obligations.  The 
doctrine  of  membrum  ecdesue  prcecipuum  is  there- 
fore antiquated,  and  has  no  significance  in  present 
praxis.  On  the  other  hand,  conjointly  with  the 
custodia  prioria  tabulasy  it  constituted,  down  to  the 
middle,  or  thereabout,  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  prinoipal  foundation  upon  which  the  territorial 
sovereignty  rule  of  the  Church  was  declared  to  be 
a  part  of  the  territorial  governing  office,  and  as 
such  was  regarded  as  an  adjunct  of  state  supremacy. 
Meanwhile,  after  some  beginnings  of  changing 
views  that  were  even  earlier  apparent,  since  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  point  of  view 
according  to  which  church  government  is  admin- 
istered by  the  State  has  changed  more  and  more. 
In  place  of  the  purpose  to  uphold  the 
8.  Modem  first  table  of  the  Ten  Commandments, 
Develop-  there  intervened,  as  Territoriahsm 
ment  of  (q.v.)  came  into  power,  the  humani- 
German  tarian-political  aim  to  make  the  State 
Church  religiously  a  unity,  to  the  end  that 
Government,  quiet  and  peace,  the  supreme  ends  of 
the  State,  be  achieved;  and  when  a 
subsequent  fiurther  evolution  of  things  brought 
the  tolerance  principle  into  play,  for  this  aim  was 
substituted  one  deriving  from  freedom  of  conscience, 
which  determines  state  activity  on  this  side  to-day. 
The  theory  of  the  Chureh  was  next  changed  by  the 
natural  right  school;  the  Church  is  not  an  institu- 
tion founded  by  God,  but  a  society,  an  association 
within  the  State.  But  several  equally  legitimate 
churches  standing  side  by  side  in  the  State  can 
be  treated  by  the  state  government  only  as  church 
associations  which  govern  themselves;  and  if 
among  them  there  is  a  Lutheran  Church,  its  status 
does  not  differ  from  that  of  any  other,  and  the  right 
of  the  State  in  its  government  becomes  a  mere 
Kirchenhoheit  (jus  circa  sacra),  which  is  essentially 
the  police  control  of  associations.  This  appears  the 
more  equitable  since  the  new  constitutional  prog- 
ress has  brought  matters  to  such  a  pass  that  the 
popular  representatives  have  acquired  directly  or 
indirectly  a  determining  influence  in  legislation 
and  certain  other  specific  rights  of  government, 
indeed  the  entire  sphere  of  operation;  since,  fmther, 
all  representatives  in  the  Diet  have  equal  voice — 
the  Reformed,  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  non- 
Christian  members  the  same  as  the  Lutherans — 
and  this  equality  of  influence  on  the  part  of  non- 
adherents of  the  Lutheran  Church  is  inconsistent 
with  its  constitutional  parity.  Accordingly  there 
are  projects  on  every  side  in  the  direction  of  a 
logical  transformation  of  the  territorial  sovereignty 
form  of  church  polity  into  corporate  self-govern- 
ment. It  has  been  previously  remarked  that  the 
Reformers'  theology  opened  the  way  to  progress 
in  this  direction;  and  that  the  example  of  the 
Calvinistic  Reformed  Church  was  not  far  removed, 
even  though  the  latter's  dogmatic  tenets  were  not 
here  to  the  purpose.    And  in  fact  it  is  true  that« 


Ohuroh  HUtory 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


96 


as  Boon  88  the  oollegialistic  and  constitutional  State 
theories  gained  force  and  were  here  earlier,  there 
later,  here  more,  there  less,  carried  into  execution, 
likewise  in  the  Lutheran  Church  the  congregations 
have  employed  presbyterial  church  committees; 
synods  have  been  constituted  of  representatives  of 
these  committees  for  districts;  and  finally  a  general 
synod  for  the  land,  or,  where  several  Lutheran 
denominations  exist,  a  synod  of  the  denominations 
has  been  brought  together  as  the  general  repre- 
sentative body  of  the  church.  So  the  Lutheran 
Church  is  acquiring  the  organization  of  a  corporate 
Church,  in  virtue  whereof  it  governs  itself. 

E.  Sehlino. 


CHURCH  mSTORT. 


II. 


a.  Ancient  Christianity. 

b.  Medieval  Christianity. 

c.  Modern  Christianity. 
VI.  Value. 

VII.  Literature. 

1.  Ancient  Historians. 

2.  Historians    from    1500 

to  1800. 

3.  Historians  from  1800  to 

1900. 

4.  Manuals  of  Church  His- 

tory in  One  or  More 
Volumes. 

5.  Histories  of  Doctrine. 

6.  Chronoloeical  Tables. 

7.  Atlases. 


Nature  and  Aim. 
Church     History     and 
Secular  History. 

III.  Sources. 
Written  Sources  (§1). 
Unwritten     Sources 

(§2). 

IV.  Duty  of  the  Historian. 
Investigation  (S  1). 
Presentation  of  Results 

(§2). 

V.  Periods  and  Epochs. 

1.  Sacred  or  Biblical  His- 
tory. 

a.  Christian  History  or 
EodesiastiGal  History 
Proper. 

L  Nature  end  Aim:  Church  history  em- 
braces, in  the  widest  sense,  the  whole  religious 
development  from  the  creation  to  the  present 
time,  and  is  continually  growing  in  bulk.  In 
a  narrower  eense,  it  is  confined  to  a  history 
of  Christianity  and  the  Christian  Church  from 
the  birth  of  Christ  and  the  Day  of  Pentecost, 
when  Christianity  made  its  first  appearance  in  an 
organized  form  as  distinct  from  the  Jewish  religion. 
The  historian  has  to  trace  the  origin,  growth,  and 
fortunes  of  the  Church,  and  to  reproduce  its  life  in 
the  different  ages.  The  value  of  his  work  depends 
upon  the  degree  of  its  truthfulness,  or  exact  corre- 
spondence with  the  facts.  Church  histoiy  is  not  a 
heap  of  dry  bones,  but  life  and  power:  it  is  the 
Church  itself  in  constant  motion  and  progress 
from  land  to  land,  and  from  age  to  age,  until  the 
whole  worid  shall  be  filled  with  the  knowledge  of 
Christ.  It  IB  the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
world's  history,  as  religion  is  the  deepest  and 
most  important  concern  of  man,  the  bond  that 
unites  him  to  God.  It  embraces  the  external 
expansion  and  contraction  of  Christianity,  or  the 
histoiy  of  missions  and  persecutions,  the  visible 
organization  of  church  polity  and  discipline,  the 
development  of  doctrine  and  theology,  the  wor- 
ship, with  its  various  rites  and  ceremonies,  litur- 
gies, sacred  poetry  and  music,  the  manifestations 
of  practical  piety,  Christian  morality,  and  benevo- 
lent institutions;  in  one  word,  all  that  belongs  to 
the  inner  and  outer  life  of  Christianity  in  the 
worid.  It  is  a  panorama  of  God's  dealings  with 
the  human  race,  and  man's  relations  to  God  under 
all  aspects.  It  shows  the  gradual  unfolding  of  the 
plan  of  redemption — a  plan  of  infinite  wisdom 
and  goodness,  in  constant  conflict  with  the  Satanic 


powers  and  influences  which  are  struggling  for 
the  ascendency,  but  are  doomed  to  ultimate  de- 
feat, and  to  be  overruled  for  good.  It  is  the  great- 
est triumph  of  God's  wisdom  to  bring  good  out 
of  evil,  and  to  overrule  the  wrath  of  man  for  his 
owQ  gloiy  and  for  the  progress  of  truth  and  right- 
eousness. Church  histoiy  is  a  book  of  life,  full  of 
warning  and  precept,  of  hope  and  encouragement. 

n.  Church  History  and  Secular  History:  These 
differ  as  Church  and  State,  as  Christianity  and 
humanity,  as  the  order  of  grace  and  the  order  of 
nature;  3ret  they  are  inseparably  connected,  and 
the  one  can  not  be  understood  without  the  other. 
Among  the  Jews  the  spiritual  and  secular  history 
together  form  the  one  histoiy  of  theocracy.  Both 
currents  inteimingle  in  the  Byzantine  Empire, 
in  the  European  States  and  the  Latin  Church 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  in  the  period  of  the  Refor- 
mation, during  the  colonial  period  of  America,  and 
in  all  countries  where  Church  and  State  are  united. 
Gibbon's  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  is  in  great  part  also  a  history  of  the 
rise  and  progress  of  Christianity,  which  survived 
the  fall  of  Old  and  New  Rome,  and  went  forth  to 
conquer  the  barbarian  conquerors  by  Christianizing 
and  civilizing  them.  Every  history  of  the  papacy  ^ 
also  a  history  of  the  German  Roman  Eknpire,  and 
vice  versa.  No  history  of  the  sixteenth  century 
can  be  written  without  constant  reference  to  the 
Protestant  Reformation  and  Roman  Catholic  reac- 
tion. The  Franciscan,  Dominican,  and  Jesuit  mis- 
sions along  the  St.  Lawrence,  down  the  Mississippi, 
and  in  Mexico,  Florida,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Puritan  settlements  of  New 
England  are  the  beginning,  alike  of  the  ecdesias- 
tical  and  secular  history  of  North  America.  In 
modem  times  the  tendency  is  more  and  more 
toward  a  separation  of  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
powers;  nevertheless,  the  Church  will  always  be 
influenced  by  the  surrounding  state  of  civil  society, 
and  must  adapt  itself  to  the  wants  of  the  age,  and 
progress  of  events;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
world  will  always  feel  the  moral  influence,  the 
restraining,  stimulating,  and  sanctifying  power  of 
Christianity,  which  works  like  a  leaven  from  within 
upon  the  ramifications  of  society. 

nL  Sources:  These  are  mostly  written,  though 
in  part  unwritten.  The  written  sources  include 
(1)  The  official  documents  of  ecclesiastical  and  ci\il 
authorities,  such  as  acts  of  councils,  creeds,  litur- 
gies, hymn-books,  church-laws,  papal  bulls  and 
encyclicals.  (2)  The  writings  of  the 
1.  Written  personal   actors  in  the  history,  and 

Sourcaa.  contemporary  observers  and  reporters, 
such  as  the  Fathers  for  ancient  Chris- 
tianity, the  Schoolmen  for  medieval,  the  Reformers 
and  their  opponents  for  the  Reformation  period. 
(3)  Inscriptions  on- walls,  pictures,  churches,  tomb- 
stones, and  other  monuments.  The  history  of  the 
Hebrew  religion  has  derived  much  light  from  mod- 
em discoveries  of  monumental  remains  in  Egypt, 
Babylonia,  and  Assyria  (qq.v.),  the  deciphering  of 
the  hieroglyphic  and  cimeiform  inscriptions,  the 
Moabite  Stone,  and  the  code  of  Hammurabi.  See 
Inscriptions;  Moabite  Stone;  and  Hammurabi 
AND  H|s  Cops, 


97 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohnroh  History 


The  unwritten  sources  are  works  of  Christian 
art,  such  as  churches,  chapels,  pictures,  sculp- 
tures, crosses,  crucifixes,  relics,  and  other  monu- 
ments which  symbolize  and  embody  Christian  ideas. 
The  Roman  catacombs,  with  their  vast  extent, 
their  solemn  darkness,  their  lab3rrinthine  mystery, 
their  rude  epitaphs  and   sculptures, 

2.  Un-      their  symbols  of  faith,  and  their  relics 

written     of  martyrdom,  give  a  lifelike  idea  of 

Soupoes.  the  Church  in  the  period  of  perse- 
cution, ite  trials  and  sufiFerings,  ite 
faith  and  hope,  its  simple  worship  and  devoted 
piety.  "He  who  is  thoroughly  steeped  in  the 
ima^iy  of  the  catacombs  will  be  nearer  to  the 
thoughts  of  the  early  Church  than  he  who  has 
teamed  by  heart  the  most  elaborate  treatises  of 
Tertullian  or  Origen."  The  basilicas  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  Nioene  period;  the  Byzantine 
churches,  of  the  Byzantine  age  and  the  Eastern  and 
Russian  Church;  the  Gothic  cathedrals,  of  the 
palmy  days  of  medieval  Catholicism;  the  Renais- 
sance style,  of  the  revival  of  letters.  Even  now, 
most  churdies  and  secto  can  be  best  appreciated 
in  the  localities,  and  in  view  of  the  monumente 
and  the  people,  where  they  originated,  or  have 
their  center  of  life  and  action. 

IV.  Duty  of  the  Historian:    The  historian  must 

master  the  sources  in  the  original  languages  in 

which  they  were  written  (Greek,  Latin, 

1.  Invest!-  Sjrriac,  Coptic,  and  the  modem  lan- 

sation.  guages  of  Europe);  separating  the 
genuine  from  the  spurious,  the  orig- 
inal from  corruptions  and  interpolations,  sifting  the 
tnith  from  falsehood,  the  facte  from  fiction  and 
partisan  judgment,  comparing  the  accounte  of  all 
actors,  friend  and  foe,  narrator,  eulogist,  advo- 
cate, and  antagonist,  whether  orthodox  or  heretic, 
whether  Christian,  Jew,  or  Gentile,  aiming  in  all  this 
laborious  investigation  at  "  the  truth,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth." 

He  must,  then,  reproduce  the  clearly  ascertained 
facts  and  resulte  of  his  investigation  in  a  faithful 
and  lifelike  narrative,  so  as  to  present  the  objective 
course  of  history  itself,  as  it  were,  in  a  photo- 
graph, or  rather  in  an  artistic  painting;  for  a 
pbotogn^>h  gjves  a  dull  view  of  the  momentary 
look  of  a  person,  while  the  portrait  of  the  artist 
combines  the  changing  moods  and  various  aspecte 
of  his  subject  into  a  living  whole.  The  genuine 
writer  of  history  differs  as  much  from 

2.  Pna.  the  dry  chronicler  of  isolated  facts 
sntatlon  and  dates  as  from  the  novelist.  He 
^^••nlta.  must  represent  both  thoughte  and 
facts.  He  must  particularize  and  gen- 
eralize, descend  into  minute  details  and  take  a 
comprehensive  bird's-eye  view  of  whole  ages  and 
periods.  He  must  have  a  judicial  mind,  which 
deals  impartially  with  all  persons  and  evente  com- 
inic  before  his  tribunal.  He  must  be  free  from 
jartizan  and  sectarian  bias,  and  aim  at  justice  and 
(ruth.  It  is  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  divine 
mind  to  view  all  things  mb  specie  cOemitaHSf  and  to 
^^  the  end  from  the  beginning.  Man  can  know  things 
^ly  consecutively  and  in  fragmente.  But  his- 
tory is  its  own  best  interpreter;  and  the  farther 
it  advances  the  more  one  is  able  to  understand 
UL— 7 


and  appreciate  the  past.  Historians  differ  in 
gifte  and  vocation.  Some  are  miners,  who  bring 
out  the  raw  material  from  the  sources  (Flacius, 
Baronius,  Tillemont,  Gieseler,  Denifle,  Hamack, 
Pastor);  others  are  manufacturers,  who  work  up 
the  material  for  the  use  of  scholars  (Bossuet,  Mos- 
heim.  Gibbon,  DoUinger,  Milman,  Neander).  Some 
are  wholesale  merchante,  some  retailers.  Some  are 
bold  critics,  who  open  new  avenues  of  thought 
(Ewald,  Baur,  Renan);  others  popularize  the  re- 
sulte of  laborious  researches  for  the  general  benefit 
(Hagenbach,  Merie,  Hase,  Pressens^,  Fisher). 

V.  Periods  and  Epochs:  These  represent  the 
different  stages  in  the  religious  development  of 
the  race.  They  must  not  be  made  arbitrarily, 
according  to  a  mechanical  scheme  (such  as  the 
centurial  division,  introduced  by  Flacius  in  the 
"Magdeburg  Centuries,"  and  followed  by  Mos- 
heim),  but  taken  from  the  actual  stops  or  start- 
ing-pointe  (which  is  the  real  meaning  of  "epoch," 
from  Gk.  epechdj  "to  stop,"  "to  pause")  and 
circuite  (Gk.  peridot)  of  the  history  itself.  The 
following  are  the  natural  divisions: 

1.  Saored  or  Biblical  History:  The  history  of 
divine  revelation,  from  the  creation  to  the  close 
of  the  apostolic  age,  running  parallel  with  the 
Scriptures,  from  Genesis  to  Revelation.  Here  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  the  dispensation 
of  the  Law  and  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel,  or 
the  history  of  the  Old  Covenant  religion  and  that  of 
the  New  Covenant  religion. 

2.  Christian  History  or  Boolesiastical  History 
proper,  from  the  begLoning  of  the-  apostolic  age  to 
modem  times.     Subdivisions: 

(a)  History  of  Ancient  Christianity,  embracing 
the  first  six  centuries  to  Gregory  I.  (590):  Gre- 
co-Latin, Patristic,  Catholic,  the  common  stock 
from  which  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  and  the  Prot- 
estant churches  have  sprung.  Subdivisions: 
(1)  The  life  of  Christ  and  the  apostolic  age.  (2)  The 
age  of  persecution,  to  Constantine  the  Great  and 
the  Council  of  Nic»a  (325).  (3)  The  age  of  the 
union  of  Church  and  Stete,  of  the  formulation  of 
Christian  doctrine,  and  ecumenical  councils  (to 
590).  Some  historians  carry  ancient  Christianity 
down  to  Chariemagne  (800)  and  the  begirming  of 
the  Holy  Roman  ^npire  and  the  temporal  power 
of  the  papacy.  In  this  case  there  is  a  fourth  sub- 
division, from  Gregory  I.  to  Charlemagne  (590  to 
800).  But  Charlemagne  belongs  to  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  Germanic  phase  of  Christianity. 

(b)  History  of  Medieval  Christianity,  from  the 
close  of  the  sixth  to  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  or  from  Gregory  the  Great  (590), 
the  first  medieval  pope,  to  Luther  (1517).  The 
Greek  and  Roman  churches,  divided  since  the  con- 
troversy of  Photius  and  Pope  Nicholas  I.,  pursue 
their  independent  course.  The  papacy  receives  ite 
full  development,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  is  the 
dominant  power,  religious  thought  gradually  moves 
toward  the  Reformation,  and  Western  Europe 
comes  more  and  more  into  prominence.  Sub- 
divisions: (1)  The  missionary  period,  Gregory  I. 
to  Gregory  VII.  (590-1050);  the  Church  spreads 
among  the  Celtic,  Slavonic,  and  Teutonic  races  of 
Northern  and  Western  Eiuope,  Mohammedanisrn 


Ohnroh  History 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


98 


originates  and  grows,  the  Great  Schism  occurs 
between  the  East  and  the  West.  (2)  The  absolute 
papacy,  Gregory  VII.  to  Boniface  VIII.  (1050- 
1294) — the  period  of  the  Crusades,  the  rise  of  the 
mendicant  orders,  scholasticism,  the  rise  of  the  uni- 
versities and  Gothic  architecture,  the  development 
of  heretical  sects,  and  the  Inquisition.  (3)  The 
decline  of  the  papacy  and  signs  of  the  Reformation, 
Boniface  VIII.  to  Luther's  theses  (1294-1517)— 
the  "  exile  "  of  the  popes  at  Avignon,  the  papal 
schism,  the  reforming  coimcils  of  Pisa,  Constance, 
and  Basel,  Wyclif,  Huss,  Savonarola,  Wessel,  the 
German  mystics,  Eckhart  and  Tauler,  the  Renais- 
sance, the  discovery  of  printing  and  the  New  Worid. 

(c)  History  of  Kodem  Christianity,  from  the 
Reformation  (1517)  to  the  present  time.  Protes- 
tantism and  Romanism;  founding  of  the  various 
Evangelical  Churches  (the  Lutheran,  Calvinistic, 
Anglican,  etc.);  restoration  and  revival  of  Roman- 
ism; the  Council  of  Trent;  Jesuitism;  Jansenism; 
the  Puritan  conflict  in  England;  the  Westminster 
Assembly;  the  restoration  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
under  Charles  II.;  the  expulsion  of  the  Stuarts; 
the  Edict  of  Toleration;  the  organization  of  the  dis- 
senting denominations  (Presbyterians,  Independ- 
ents, Baptists,  Quakers);  the  settlement  of  North 
America;  Pietism  and  the  Moravians  in  Germany; 
the  rise  of  rationalism  in  Germany,  deism  in  Eng- 
land; the  Methodist  revival  in  England  and  the 
Colonies;  the  French  Revolution  and  spread  of 
infidelity;  organization  of  philanthropic  agencies, 
the  Sunday-school,  and  modem  missions;  progress 
and  triimiph  of  ultramontane  Romanism,  culmi- 
nating in  the  Vatican  Council  (1870);  conflict  of 
faith  with  rationalism  and  infidelity;  growth  of  the 
churches  in  the  United  States  on  the  basis  of  the 
voluntary  principle;  unionistic  movement  among 
English-speaking  Protestants;  the  new  criticism, 
based  on  the  historic  study  of  the  Scriptures  and 
early  church  history,  shaking  traditional  views  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  the  person  and  mission  of 
Christ.  Subdivisions:  (1)  The  age  of  the  Protec- 
tant Reformation  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Coun- 
terreformation  or  reaction  (1517-1648).  (2)  The 
age  of  scholastic  and  polemic  confessionalism,  in 
conflict  with  non-conformity  and  subjective  piety 
(1650-1750).  (3)  The  age  of  rationalism  and  re- 
ligious revival  and  church  union  (1750-1900). 

VI.  Value:  The  study  of  history  enables  one 
to  imderstand  the  present,  which  is  the  fruit  of 
the  past  and  the  germ  of  the  future.  It  is  the 
richest  storehouse  of  wisdom  and  experience.  It 
is  the  best  oonmientary  of  Christianity.  It  is  full 
of  comfort  and  encouragement.  It  verifies  on  ev- 
ery page  the  promise  of  the  Savior  to  be  with 
his  people  always,  and  to  build  his  Church  on  an 
indestructible  rock.  It  exhibits  his  life  in  all  its 
foms  and  phases,  and  the  triumphant  march  of 
his  kingdom  from  land  to  land  and  generation  to 
generation.  Earthly  empires,  systems  of  philoso- 
phy, have  their  day,  human  institutions  decay, 
all  tilings  of  this  worid  bloom  and  fade  away,  like 
the  grass  of  the  field;  but  the  Christian  religion 
has  the  dew  of  p>erennial  youth,  survives  all  changes, 
makes  steady  progress  from  age  to  age,  overcomes 
all  persecution  from  without,  and  corruption  from 


within,  is  now  stronger  and  more  widely  spread 
than  ever  before,  directs  the  course  of  civilization, 
and  bears  the  hopes  of  the  himian  race.  The 
history  of  the  world  is  governed  in  the  interest, 
and  for  the  ultimate  triimiph,  of  Christianity.  The 
experience  of  the  past  is  a  sure  guaranty  of  the 
future. 

Vn.  Literature:  Only  works  on  general  church 
history  will  be  mentioned  here. 

1.  Ancient  Historians:  Eusebius  (d.  340)— 
"Church  History"  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to 
Constantine  the  Great,  324 — and  his  successors  in 
the  Greek  Church,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  Theodoret. 
The  Latin  Church  (e.g.,  Rufinus)  contented  itself 
with  translations  and  extracts  from  Eusebius  and 
his  continuators.  The  Middle  Ages  produced  most 
valuable  material  for  history  (chronicles,  papal 
bulls,  theological  treatises,  etc.),  but  no  great  gen- 
eral church  history;  the  Reformation  first  called 
forth  the  spirit  of  critical  inquiry. 

2.  Historians  from  1500  to  1800:  Matthias 
Flacius  (d.  1575)  and  other  Lutheran  divines  of 
Germany  wrote  the  "  Magdeburg  Centuries  "  (Latin, 
Basel,  1559-74),  covering  thirteen  Christian  cen- 
turies in  as  many  volumes — the  first  history  from 
a  Protestant  point  of  view,  in  opposition  to  the 
claims  of  Romanism  (see  BIaodeburg  Centuries). 
In  defense  of  Romanism,  and  in  refutation  of 
Flacius,  Csesar  Baronius  (d.  1607)  wrote  in  Latin 
"  Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  in  12  folio  vols.  (Rome, 
1588  sqq.;  new  ed.,  by  A.  Theiner,  Bar-le-Duc, 
1868  sqq.),  continued  by  Raynaldus,  Spondanus, 
Theiner,  and  others — a  work  of  extraordinary 
learning  and  industry,  but  to  be  used  with  caution. 
Tillemont  (d.  1698),  in  his  invaluable  M^moirei 
(16  vols.,  Paris,  1693-1712),  wrote  the  history  of 
the  first  six  centuries  from  the  sources,  in  biblio- 
graphical style  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  more  liberal 
GaUican  Catholicism.  Gottfried  Arnold  (d.  1714), 
of  the  Pietistic  school  of  Spener,  in  his  Unpar- 
teiische  Kirchen-  und  Ketzerhiatorie  (4  vols,  folio, 
Frankfort,  1699  sqq.;  to  1688  A.D.),  advocated  the 
interests  of  practical  piety,  and  the  claims  of 
heretics  and  schismatics,  and  all  those  who  suf- 
fered persecution  from  an  intolerant  hierarchy 
and  orthodoxy.  J.  L.  Mosheim  (d.  1755)  wrote 
his  "  Institutes  of  Ecclesiastical  History  "  (in  Latin, 
Helmst&dt,  1755,  and  often  since  in  several  trans- 
lations) in  the  spirit  of  a  moderate  Lutheran  or^ 
thodoxy,  with  solid  learning  and  impartiality,  in 
clear  style,  after  the  centurial  arrangement  of  Fla- 
cius, and  furnished  a  convenient  text-book,  which 
(in  the  translation  of  Murdock,  with  valuable 
supplements)  has  continued  in  use  in  England  and 
America  much  longer  than  in  Germany.  J.  M. 
Schroeckh's  Christliche  Kirchengeschichte  (35  vols., 
Leipsic,  1768-1803),  continued  by  Ktrchenge- 
Bchichte  aeit  der  Reformation  (10  vols.,  1804-12),  is 
far  more  extensive  and  far  less  readable,  but  in- 
valuable for  reference,  and  full  of  information  from 
the  sources.  It  forsakes  the  mechanical  centurial 
division,  and  substitutes  for  it  the  periodic  arrange- 
ment. H.  P.  K.  Henke  (d.  1809)  followed  with  a 
thoroughly  rationalistic  work  (6  vols.,  Brunswick, 
1795-1806;  continued  by  J.  S.  Vater,  3  vols., 
1818-20). 


99 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Ohurch  Hl8tox7 


3.  Hiatorlans  from  1800  to  1900:  August  Nean- 
der,  a  converted  Israelite,  professor  of  church  history 
in  Berlin  (d.  1850),  marks  an  epoch  in  this  branch 
of  theological  literature;  and  by  his  truly  Christian, 
consdaitious,  impartial,  truth-loving,  just,  and 
liberal,  and,  withal,  thoroughly  learned  and  pro- 
found spirit  and  method,  he  earned  the  title  of 
**  Father  of  Church  History."  His  AUgemeine 
Geschiehle  tier  christlichen  Religion  und  Kirche  (6 
vols.,  Hamburg,  1825-52),  though  incomplete  (it 
stops  with  the  Council  of  Basel,  1430),  and  some- 
what diffuse  and  monotonous  in  style,  is  an  im- 
mortal monument  of  genius  and  learning.  It 
pays  special  attention  to  the  development  of  Chris- 
tian life  and  doctrine,  and  is  edifying  as  well  as 
instructive.  It  has  been  naturalized  in  England 
and  America  by  the  translation  of  Professor  Torrey 
(5  vols.,  Boston,  1847-52;  12th  ed.,  1872;  new 
ed.,  with  a  complete  index,  6  vols.,  1881),  and  will 
long  be  studied  with  profit,  although  in  some  re- 
specis  superseded  by  more  recent  researches  in  the 
first  three  centuries.  Equally  valuable,  though  of 
an  altogether  different  plan  and  spirit,  is  the 
Kirchengesckichte  of  J.  K.  L.  Gieseler  (5  vols., 
Bonn,  1824-56),  translated  first  by  Cunningham 
in  Philadelphia  (1846),  then  by  Davidson  and 
Hull  in  En^and,  and  revised  and  completed  by 
H,  B.  Smith  of  New  York  (5  vols.,  1857-^80).  The 
text  is  a  meager  skeleton  of  facts  and  dates; 
but  the  body  of  the  work  consists  of  carefully 
ttlected  extracts  and  proof-texts  from  the  sources 
which  furnish  the  data  for  an  independent  judg- 
ment. F.  C.  Baur's  work  on  church  history,  partly 
published  after  his  death  (5  vols.,  Tubingen,  1853 
8qq.),  is  distinguished  for  philosophic  grasp,  critical 
combinations,  and  bold  conjectures,  especially  in 
the  treatment  of  the  apostolic  and  postapostolic 
ages,  and  the  ancient  heresies  and  systems  of  doc- 
trine. K  R.  Hagenbach's  KircKengeschichte  (7  vols. , 
Leipaic,  1869  sqq.;  revised  ed.,  by  Nippold,  1885 
aqq.)  ia  a  popular  digest  for  the  educated  lay  reader, 
riiilip  Schaff's  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
(3  vols..  New  York,  1859  sqq. ;  Germ.  ed.  of  the  1st 
three  vols.,  Leipeic,  1868,  revised  ed.  of  same  in 
Eni^,  New  York,  1882-1907)  is  written  from  the 
An^o-German  and  Ang^o-American  standpoint. 
H.  C.  Sheldon's  History  of  the  Christian  Church 
(5  vols..  New  York,  1894)  is  by  an  American  Meth- 
odist. England  has  produced  greater  works  in 
ipedal  departments  than  in  general  church  history 
— «.g.,  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  Milman's  Latin  Christianity ^  Stanley's 
Jewish  Church  and  Eastern  Church,  Farrar's  Life  of 
Chritt,  The  Apostle  Paul,  and  Early  Days  of  Chris- 
tianity, J.  B.  Lightfoot's  Apostolic  Fathers,  Trench's 
Lectures  on  the  Mediaeval  Church,  the  Texts  and 
Studies  ed.  J.  A.  Robinson.  George  Waddington 
presents  the  general  histoiy  to  the  Reformation 
inclusive  (6  vols.,  London,  1833  sqq.);  his  work  is 
B^Mrseded  by  J.  C.  Robertson's  History  of  the 
Christian  Church  to  the  Reformation  (3  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1854  sqq.;  new  ed.,  8  small  vols.,  1875).  The 
older  work  of  Milner  (d.  1797)  is  written  in  popular 
style  for  edification.  The  most  valuable  contribu- 
tioQfl  of  modem  English  scholarship  to  ancient 
church  history  are  foimd  in  Smith  and  Cheetham's 


Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1875-80)  and  Smith  and  Wace's  Dictionary 
of  Christian  Biography  (4  vols.,  1877-87).  The 
largest  Roman  Catholic  church  history  of  recent 
times  is  Abb^  Rohrbacher's  Histoire  universeUe  de 
V6glise  catholique  (25  vols.,  Paris,  1842  sqq.). 

4.  KannaU  of  Church  History  In  One  or  Kore 
Volumes:  (a)  Roman  Catholic:  J.  J.  I.  von  Ddl- 
linger  (Vienna,  1836,  unfinished;  Eng.  transl.,  4 
vols.,  London,  1840-42);  J.  A.  Mdhler  (posthumous, 
ed.  P.  B.  Gams,  3  vols.,  Regensbui^g,  1867-70);  J.  B. 
Alzog  (10th  ed.,  by  F.  X.  Kraus,  2  vols..  Mains, 
1882;  Eng.  transl.,  4  vols.,  London,  1879^2;  3 
vols.,  Cincinnati,  1876);  F.  X.  Kraus  (3  parts, 
Treves,  1872-75;  4th  ed.,  1896);  J.  Hergen- 
rOther  (4th  ed.,  ed.  J.  P.  Eirsch,  3  vols., 
Freiburg,  1902  sqq.);  F.  X.  Funk  (4th  ed., 
Paderbom,  1902);  C.  J.  von  Hefele  (4th  ed.,  by 
A.  Kn6pfler,  1905).  (b)  Protestant:  K.  A.  Hase 
(11th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1886;  a  masterly  miniature 
picture;  Eng.  transl..  New  York,  1855);  C.  W. 
Niedner  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1866;  very  learned  and 
very  heavy);  J.  H.  Kurtz  (14th  ed.,  by  N.  Bon- 
wetsch  and  P.  Tschackert,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1906; 
Eng.  transl.,  3  vols..  New  York,  1888-89);  A.  Ebrard 
(4  vols.,  Erlangen,  1865-67;  polemically  Reformed); 
J.J.Herzog(3vols.,Erlangen,  1880-82;  moderately 
Reformed);  E.  Chsustel  (French,  4  vols.,  Paris, 
1859-74;  new  ed.,  1881  sqq.);  H.  Schmid  (2  vols., 
Erlangen,  1881);  K.  A.  Hase,  Vorlesungen  (4  vols., 
Leipsic,  1885  sqq.);  R.  Sohm  (9th  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1894;  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1895);  W.  MdUer 
(3  vols.,  Freibui^g,  1889-94;  2d  ed.,  by  H.  von 
Schubert  and  G.  Kawerau,  1897-1902;  Eng.  transl., 
London,  1892-1900);  Karl  Mailer  (2  vols.,  Tti- 
bingen,  1892-1902);  F.Loofs  (Halle,  1901);  H.  von 
Schubert  (2d  ed.,  Tubingen,  1904).  By  American 
and  English  scholars  are  G.  P.  Fisher,  History  of 
the  Christian  Church  (New  York,  1887);  J.  F.  Hurst, 
History  of  the  Christian  Church  (2  vols.,  New  York, 
1897-1900);  A.  H.  Newman,  Manual  of  Church  His- 
tory (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1900-03);  Cheetham  and 
Hard  wick,  Church  History  (4  vols.,  London,  1908). 

6.  Hiatories  of  Bootrlne:  G.  Mttnscher  (4  vols., 
Marburg,  1797-1809);  F.  C.  Baur,  Lehrbuch  der 
Dogmengeschichte  (Tttbingen,  1847;  3d  ed.,  1867); 
idem,  Vorlesungen,  ed.  by  his  son  (3  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1865-67);  A.  Neander  (ed.  J.  L.  Jacobi,  BerUn, 
1857;  Eng.  transl,  2  vols.,  London,  1858);  K.  R. 
Hagenbach  (5th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1867;  Eng.  transl, 
2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1880);  W.  G.  T.  Shedd  (2  vols., 
New  York,  1863);  G.  Thomasius  (2  vols.,  Erlangen, 
1874-76);  F.  D.  Nitzsch  (Berlin,  1870;  unfin- 
ished); A.  Hamack,  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte 
(3d  ed.,  3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1894-97;  Eng.  transl, 
7  vols.,  London  and  Boston,  1895-1900);  idem, 
Orundriss  der  Dogmengeschichte  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg, 
1905;  Eng.  transl.  New  York,  1893);  F.  Loofs 
(3d  ed.,  Halle,  1893);  R.  Seeberg  (2  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1895-98);  G.  P.  Fisher  (International  Theological 
Library,  1896);  H.  C.  Sheldon  (4th  ed.,  2  vols.. 
New  York,  1906).    See  Dogma,  DoaMATics. 

6.  Chronological  Tables:  H.  B.  Smith,  History 
of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  Sixteen  Chronological 
Tables  (New  York,  1860);  F.  X.  Kraus,  Synchro- 
nistische   Tabellen  gur  Ktrchengeschichte   (Treves, 


Ohuroh  Order 
Churoh  Beflifitera 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


100 


1876);  idem,  SynchronisHsche  Tabellen  zur  christ- 
lichen  KunstgeschichU  (Freiburg,  1880);  H.  Wein- 
garten,  ZeUtafdn  und  Ueberblicke  zur  Kirchenge- 
sckichte  (6th  ed.,  by  C.  F.  Arnold,  Leipsic,  1905). 

7.  AtlAsefi:  K.  Heussi  and  H.  Mulert,  Atlas  zur 
Kirchengeschichie,  66  maps  with  18  pages  of  intro- 
duction and  index  (Tubingen,  1905).  The  general 
historical  atlases  of  R.  H.  Labberton  (14th  ed., 
Boston,  1889),  F.  W.  Putzger  (24th  ed.,  Bielefeld, 
1900),  and  E.  A.  Freeman  (accompanying  his  His- 
torical Geography  of  Europe,  3d  ed.,  London,  1903) 
are  also  useful  for  church  history. 

The  main  activity  in  recent  times  in  historical 
investigation  and  treatment  has  been  devoted  to 
the  first  three  Christian  centuries,  including  the 
work  of  Hamack,  Fimk,  Kattenbusch,  Lightfoot, 
Robinson,  McGiffert,  and  many  others.  The  Mid- 
dle Ages  are  receiving  an  increasing  amount  of 
attention;  names  worthy  of  mention  in  this  field 
are  Ddllinger,  Ehrle,  Denifle,  Schwane,  Kirsch, 
and  Finke  among  Roman  Catholics,  and  Karl 
MQller,  ^auck,  Mirbt,  Sabatier,  Creighton,  Stubbs, 
lica,  and  others  among  Protestants. 

(Philip  ScHAPrt)  D.  S.  Schaff. 

Bxbxjoobapht:  For  fuller  infomubtion  cf.  Philip  Sohaff, 
HitUfry  of  the  Ckriaiian  Church,  i.  1-63.  New  York.  1882; 
and  introductions  to  other  general  works  on  church 
history.  Further.  Schaflf,  Whai  is  Church  Hiaioryf 
Philadelphia.  1846;  W.  Q.  T.  Shedd.  The  PhUoaophv  of 
HiBtory,  Andover,  1861;  H.  B.  Smith.  The  Nature  and 
Worth  of  the  Science  of  Church  Hietory,  in  his  volume  of 
essays,  Faith  and  Philoeophy,  pp.  49-87.  New  York.  1877; 
J.  De  Witt,  Churdi  Uietory  ae  a  Science,  in  the  BihUotheca 
Sacra,  1883;  E.  A.  Freeman,  The  Meihod  of  Hiaiorical 
Study,  London.  1880;  A.  C.  McGiflfert.  The  Study  of 
Church  Hietary,  in  the  BiMtolfteca  Sacra,  1893;  W.  Bright. 
The  Study  of  HieUrry,  in  Waymarke  of  Churdi  Hittory, 
London.  1894;  Lord  Acton.  The  Study  of  Hietary,  Lon- 
don. 1895;  A.  Hamack.  Dm  Chrietentum  und  die  Oe- 
•chichte,  I^ipsio,  1895;  K.  Lamprecht.  Wtiat  /«  Hittoryf 
transl.  from  the  Germ,  by  £.  A.  Andrews.  New  York. 
1905. 

CHURCH  ORDER  (Ger.  Kirchenardnung) : 
The  general  ecclesiastical  constitution  of  a  State. 
The  eariy  Evangelical  Church  attached  leas  im- 
portance to  ecclesiastical  ritual  than  the  pre- 
Reformation  Church  had  done.  As  early  aa  1526 
Luther  observes  in  Deutsche  Messe  und  Ordnung 
des  GoUesdiensts :  "  In  sum,  this  and  all  other  forms 
are  so  to  be  used  that  where  they  give  rise  to  a  mis- 
use they  should  be  forthwith  set  a^side,  and  a  new 
form  be  made  ready;  since  outward  forms  are  in- 
tended to  serve  to  the  advancement  of  faith  and 
love,  and  not  to  the  detriment  of  faith.  Where 
this  they  cease  to  do,  they  are  already  dead  and 
void,  and  are  of  no  more  value;  just  as  when  a  good 
coin  is  debased  and  retired  on  account  of  its  abuse, 
and  issued  anew;  or  when  e very-day  shoes  wax  old 
and  rub,  they  are  not  longer  worn,  but  thrown 
away  and  new  ones  bought.  Form  is  an  external 
thing,  be  it  ever  so  good,  and  thus  it  may  lapse  into 
misuse;  but  then  it  is  no  longer  an  orderly  form, 
but  a  disorder;  so  that  no  external  order  stands 
and  avails  at  all  of  itself,  as  hitherto  the  papal  forms 
are  judged  to  have  done,  but  all  forms  have  their 
life,  worth,  strength,  and  virtues  in  proper  use; 
or  else  they  are  of  no  avail  and  value  whatever  " 
(Werke,  Weimar  ed.,  xix.  72  sqq.).  According  to 
Lutheran  ecclesiastical  teaching  (Formula  of  Con- 


cord, II.;  Solida  declaraHo,  x.;  Apology,  xiv.;  Me- 
lanchthon's  Loci,  2d  redaction  in  CR,  xxi.  555-556; 
the  Saxon  VisitaHonsbuch  of  1528;  etc.)  a  uniform 
liturgy  is  requisite  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  indispen- 
sable to  uphold  proper  doctrine  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments;  whereas  in  general  the 
rightful  appointment  of  the  external  fimctions  of 
church  officers  and  their  sphere  in  the  congrega- 
tions is  committed  to  the  church  governing  board 
of  the  state  authorities.  The  spontaneous  develop- 
ment of  church  law,  and  especially  the  regulation 
of  divine  service,  the  sacraments,  and  discipline, 
as  Luther  ideally  conceived  it,  proved  impracti- 
cable, and  gave  place,  though  not  invariably  so,  to 
definition  on  the  part  of  temporal  sovereigns.  All 
these  regulations,  especially  those  of  governments 
and  cities,  by  means  of  which  the  canonical  church 
forms  that  had  previously  prevailed  in  the  land 
were  modified  in  a  reformatory  direction,  while  the 
newly  developing  church  sjrstem  became  progres- 
sively established,  are  called  "Church  Orders." 
Those  of  the  sixteenth  century  are  the  most  im- 
portant (cf.  E.  Sehling,  in  ZKR,  xxix.,  1897,  pp. 
328  sqq.,  and  introduction  to  his  edition  of  the 
Church  Orders,  i.,  Leipsic,  1902). 

A  Church  Order  usually  begins  with  a  dogmatic 
part  in  which  the  agreement  of  the  State  Church 
with  the  general  Lutheran  confessions  is  set  forth 
with  more  or  less  of  detail  (Credenda);  then  follow 
regulations  concerning  liturgy,  the  appointment  of 
church  officers,  organization  of  church  government, 
discipline,  marriage,  schools,  the  pay  of  church  and 
school  officials,  the  administration  of  church  prop- 
erty, care  of  the  poor,  etc.  (Agenda,  q.v.).  A  sys- 
tematic topical  arrangement  is  by  no  means  al- 
ways adhered  to.  As  a  rule,  later  compilations 
have  made  use  of  earlier  forms,  and  thus  the  Orders 
are  grouped  in  families.  E.  Sehxjno. 

Bxblioorapht:  H.  C.  KdniiE,  Bibliotheca  offendarum,  Zeller- 
feld.  1726;  J.  J.  Moser.  Carpue  jurie  evanffeliorum  eccL^ 
aiaetici,  2  vols..  Zollichau.  1737-38;  A.  L.  Richter,  Die 
evanodiechen  Kirchenordnunoen  dee  10.  Jakrhunderte,  2 
vols.,  Weimar.  1846. 

CHURCH  PATRON  SAINT  (patronus  sanctus): 
The  particular  saint  to  whom  a  church  is  dedicated, 
and  under  whose  protection  it  stands.  The  early 
Church  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  put  guardian  saints 
in  the  place  of  the  tutelary  deities  (dettUulares)  known 
to  the  pagan  religions  in  coimection  with  specific 
objects  and  relationships.  In  primitive  times 
church  patrons  were  taJcen  especially  from  the 
number  of  the  martyrs,  who  were  esteemed  to  be 
influential  mediators  with  God.  Then  when  the 
worship  of  saints  had  developed  from  the  venera- 
tion of  martyrs,  the  guardian  patrons  were  selected 
from  among  the  saints  not  only  for  separate  churches, 
but  also  for  countries,  dioceses,  orders,  cloisters, 
cities,  congregations,  gilds,  brotherhoods,  etc.  The 
possession  of  relics  of  a  saint  in  a  certain  church 
often  determined  his  choice  as  patron.  When  sub- 
sequently the  custom  arose  of  naming  churches 
after  some  Christian  mystery — as,  for  instance, 
the  Holy  Trinity,  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus — ^it  came  about  that  a  church  might  be 
commended  to  the  protection  of  a  saint  without 
bearing   his  name,  thus   creating  the  distinctioo 


101 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohnroh  Order 
Ohuroh  Be^fiters 


between  a  protective  and  a  titular  patron.  In 
accordance  with  its  teaching  as  to  the  saints  and 
veneration  of  relics,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
has  developed  a  special  doctrine  concerning  venera- 
tion, election,  alteration,  etc.,  of  church  patron 
saints  (cf.  the  decree  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII., 
Mar.  23,  1630,  in  L.  Ferraris,  Bibliotheca  prompta 
canoniea,  11  vols.,  Venice,  1782-94,  s.v.  patroni 
tancti). 

The  Refonners  and  Protestants  generally  have 
retained  the  old  custom  of  designating  churches  after 
saints  and  Christian  mysteries  for  the  purpose  of 
thus  bestowing  upon  them  a  definite,  distinguishing 
name.  In  the  choice  of  it,  more  or  less  deference 
is  shown  to  the  preferences  of  the  congregation  and 
the  founder.  E.  Sbhlino. 

BiBuooRAnrr:  M.  R  C.  Walcott,  Saend  Arth<gologv,  b.t. 

"Patroa,"  London,  1808. 

CHURCH  REGISTERS. 

Eariy  (%iireh  Books  (§  1). 

Mediend  Reeisten  ({  2). 

The  ficKinninga  of  Modem  Registers  (|  3). 

Contents  and  Gharscter  (|  4). 

Valoe  for  Other  than  Church  Uses  (|  5). 

Eodesiastical  and  Cml  Registers  ({  6). 

Collections  of  Church  Registers  ({  7). 

The  German  word  Kirchenbuch  has  different 
meanings.  It  refers  to  church  books  in  the  sense 
of  "service-books,"  and  to  parish  books  which 
recorded  inventories,  rents,  income,  ecclesiastical 
celebrations,  and  other  matters  referring  to  wor* 
ship;  but  in  modem  times  the  word  has  generally 
taken  the  meaning  of  registers  of  sacramental  acts, 
such  as  baptism,  marriage  ceremonies,  confessions, 
and  funerals. 

An  especially  old  and  remarkable  example  of  a 
"  church  book  "  in  the  older  sense  is  that  of  Old- 
edoe.  which  begins  before  1371  and  contains  a  table 
for  determining  Quinquagesima  Simday,  the  pas- 
toral epistle  of  Bertram,  bishop  of  LUbeck  (1376), 
lists  of  pastors,  also  of  tithes,  income  of  pastors, 
donations,  etc.  Church  books  of  another  kind, 
but  differing  from  modem  church  registers,  are  the 
cartularies  of  bishops  in  England,  as,  for  instance, 
the  Register  of  John  Pontissara  (1282-1304)  and 
the  Renters  of  John  de  Sandale  and  Rigaud  de 
Affierio,  bishops  of  Winchester,  1316-23  (London 
and  Winchester,  1897).  These  books  contain 
ever3rthing  relating  to  the  government  of  bishops. 
The  church  book  in  the  sense  of  a 
I.  Early  register  of  ecclesiastical  celebrations 
Church  is  important  for  the  history  of  modem 
Booki.  registers,  since  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  it  was  trans- 
fonned  into  the  church  register  of  baptisms, 
marriages,  etc.,  for  instance  in  Mecklenburg  and 
HoUtein.  Land-registers  and  registers  of  taxa- 
tion go  back  much  farther  in  Germany  into  the 
fifteenth  century,  in  England,  France,  Italy  into 
the  fourteenth  or  thirteenth,  even  earlier.  An- 
other source  for  the  date  of  personal  records  are 
the  church  bills  found  in  the  older  parish  registers. 
A  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  history,  nature, 
and  importance  of  church  registers  began  only 
when  efforts  were  made  to  collect  and  test  existing 
material.    Church  registers,  or  at  least  compilations 


corresponding  to  them,  are  traceable  to  the  civ- 
ilized nations  of  the  earliest  times,  for  instance  the 
Egyptians.  The  Hebrews  had  also  their  records 
of  birth  and  genealogical  tables.  In  the  Roman 
empire  registers  of  births  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  time  of  the  kings;  from  the  time  of  Augustus 
are  found  registers  of  marriages.  As  Christianity 
took  its  rise  in  the  Roman  empire,  it  accepted  to  a 
certain  extent  the  existing  elements  of  culture. 
The  diptyches  (see  Liber  VrriB;  Sculftxtrs, 
Christian)  were  adopted  from  the  Romans,  and 
adapted  to  Christian  usages,  the  members  of  the 
congregation  being  registered  not  for  military 
reasons  or  for  the  levying  of  taxes,  but  as  citizens 
of  the  kingdom  of  God.  Besides  the  dates  of  birth, 
there  were  also  recorded  dates  of  marriage  and  of 
death.  These  "  sacred  books  and  tablets  "  were 
important  preeminently  from  a  historical  stand- 
point, as  they  contained  the  names  of  bishops,  mar- 
tyrs, and  benefactors. 

The  diptyches  did  not  develop  into  church 
registers  of  the  modem  kind,  nor  were  they  of  any 
importance  for  the  modem  Church,  owing  chiefly 
to  the  degeneration  of  culture  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  to  a  perverted  tendency 
of  the  medieval  Church.  Instead  of  the  dip- 
tyches of   the  deceased   and   living, 

2.  Medieval  churches    and    monasteries    adopted 
Regiaters.   necrologies  and  morilogies,  in  which 

were  entered  especially  the  names  of 
donors  and  benefactors.  They  were  usually  called 
"  books  of  life "  (see  Liber  Vita).  Besides 
these,  there  were  in  existence  church  books  in 
the  older  sense,  that  is,  registers  of  taxes,  inven- 
tories, etc.  On  account  of  the  lack  of  personal 
registers,  princes  and  lords  had  their  own  family 
books,  while  the  age  of  other  people  had  to  be 
determined,  even  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century, 
by  the  testimony  of  living  persons.  At  the  close 
of  the  Middle  Ages  the  census  in  the  modem 
sense  was  instituted  in  flourishing  cities  like  Augs- 
burg and  Breslau. 

The  Renaissance  had  a  wholesome  effect  upon 
the  development  of  church  registers,  in  France  and 
Italy  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  A  register  of  baptisms  from  Cabridres 
near  Vauduse  dates  from  1308,  fragments  of  a 
register  of  marriages  and  deaths  in  Middle  France 
from  1335  and  1336.  In  Italy  the  use  of  such 
registers  may  be  traced  to  the  fourteenth  century. 
In  Spain  the  famous  cardinal  Ximenez  in  1407  at 
the  Synod  of  Toledo  ordered  the  introduction  of 
baptLnnal  and  matrimonial  registers;  soon  after- 
ward similar  orders  were  issued  in  Portugal.     In 

Switzerland    and    (jermany    church 

3.  The  Be-  registers  go  back  to  the  time  of  the 
ginningB  of  Reformation.    Earlier   attempts   had 

Modem  not  been  successful.  The  first  bap- 
RegisteiB.  tismal  register  in  Zurich  dates  from 
1525,  the  register  of  marriages  in 
Strasbui^  from  the  same  time.  Church  registers 
in  Constance  began  in  1531,  and  in  Frankfort, 
Thuringia,  Saxony,  and  Bohemia  about  the  same 
time.  In  the  imperial  dty  of  Nuremberg  they 
existed  from  1524,  in  Silesia  from  1534,  under  the 
influence  of  the  Silesian  Reformer  Hess;   the  other 


Chnrch  Be^nterB 
Ohuroh  and  School 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


102 


territories  followed  soon  afterward,  in  the  early 
sixties  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  number  of 
these  registers,  since  the  enormous  losses  resulting 
from  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  especially  in  Electoral 
Saxony,  can  be  estimated  only  approximately. 
There  is  reliable  information  of  the  existence  of 
more  than  150  registers  dated  1522-63.  The  ear- 
lier introduction  of  church  registers  in  Italy  and 
France  must  be  ascribed,  to  the  independent  influ- 
ence of  the  classical  renaissance,  which  became  of 
importance  in  Germany  only  after  its  union  with 
the  religious  efforts  of  Luther.  In  the  Netherlands 
the  Reformation  was  for  a  long  time  suppressed 
and  its  confessors  were  eidled,  but  a  s3rnod  in  1574 
changed  these  conditions,  and  church  registers 
were  soon  generally  introduced;  but  there  are 
extant  fragments  of  earlier  date.  From  Germany 
the  use  of  church  registers  penetrated  the  Scandi- 
navian kingdoms  at  a  comparatively  late  date. 
In  Denmark  they  were  introduced  by  royal  order 
in  1646,  in  Norway  in  1685,  in  Sweden  in  1686. 
As  in  Germany,  so  in  England,  the  general  intro- 
duction of  church  registers  followed  separation 
from  the  Papal  Church,  by  order  of  King  Henry 
VIII.  in  1538.  In  spite  of  this  unevangelical 
origin,  the  introduction  of  chiurch  registers  in 
England  was  accompanied  by  immediate  success. 
There  have  been  preserved  not  less  than  812  church 
registers  from  the  year  1538,  1,822  from  1528  to 
1558,  and  2,448  from  1558  to  1600.  From  1551 
date  the  first  evidences  of  church  registers  in  Scot- 
land; in  Ireland  their  general  introduction  took 
place  only  in  the  nineteenth  century.  In  trans- 
oceanic countries  personal  registers  were  used  from 
settlement  there  by  the  civilized  peoples  of  Europe. 
The  earliest  church  register  is  that  of  the  Dutch 
in  Reciff,  Brazil,  1633.  The  East  India  House  in 
London  preserves  church  registers  from  Bombay 
from  1703,  from  Bengal  dated  1713,  from  Madras 
dated  1743.  Of  Roman  Catholic  church  registers 
there  are  only  sporadic  cases  in  Germany  at  the 
time  of  the  Refonnation.  Their  general  introduc- 
tion followed  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
1563.  These  decrees  referred  only  to  registers  of 
baptisms  and  marriages;  records  of  funerals  were 
introduced  in  1614  by  the  Rituale  Romanum.  Dur- 
ing the  Thirty  Years'  War  chureh  registers  were 
sometimes  taken  away  from  the  Evangelicals  and 
continued  by  the  Catholics,  so  that  the  supposed 
antiquity  of  some  Catholic  registers  has  no  basis 
in  fact. 

The  church  renters  did  not  consist  solely  of  lists 
of  baptisms,  marriages,  and  funerals;  a  church 
register  at  Lehrbach  in  Hesse  contains  not  less  than 
twelve  columns.  The  registers,  especially  those 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  are  frequently  a  rich 
source  for  the  histoiy  of  ch\m;h  discipline.  The 
registers  of  the  catechumens  and  con- 

4.  Contents  firmed  form  a  part  of  the  church  record 
and        which  is  very  important  for  the  history 

Character,  of  Christian  worship.  They  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  first  period  of  the 
Refonnation.  The  most  curious  chureh  records 
are  found  among  the  so-called  family  books.  There 
the  members  of  the  congregations  are  arranged 
alphabetically  according  to  families,  and  their  resi- 


dences, with  the  religious  acts  performed  on  them, 
are  given.  In  this  way  there  originated  chronicles 
of  whole  villages;  so,  for  instance,  the  village  of 
Dankerode  in  the  Hartz  mountains.  Another 
noteworthy  class  is  found  in  the  so-called  minis- 
terial books  which  were  introduced  after  1686  in 
Sweden.  They  consist  of  six  different  parts: 
Register  (1)  of  births  and  baptisms;  (2)  of  deaths 
and  funerals;  (3)  of  marriages;  (4)  of  catechetical 
examinations  at  home;  (5)  of  newly  admitted 
members;  (6)  of  members  who  had  moved  to  other 
parishes.  The  most  interesting  part  is  the  fourth, 
which  contained  records  of  religious  instruction, 
of  examinations,  and  of  attendance  at  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  notes  on  conduct  and  discipline  before 
and  after  marriage. 

After  the  church  registers  had  become  known 
and  been  generally  introduced  in  all  civilized  states 
of  Europe,  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  their  value 
and  importance  began  to  be  appreciated  from  other 
points  of  view,  and  they  were  used  as  sociological 
sources,  first  in  England  after  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. After  Natwral  and  Political  Annotations  upon 
the  Bills  of  MortaHiy^  by  John  Graunt  (London, 
1666  and  1676),  there  followed  a  rich  literature  of 
similar  character  in  England,  France,  Germany, 
Holland,  Italy,  and  Sweden.  It  is  true,  many  of 
these  productions  were  merely  sociological,  but 
some  of  them  included  the  theological  side,  as,  for 
instance,  WilUam  Derham's  Physical  Theology 
(London,  1713).  This  work  formed  the  model 
for  Die  gdttliche  Ordnung  in  den 
5.  Value  for  Verdnderungen  des  menschlichen  Ge~ 
Other  than  schlechis,  by  Johann  Peter  SOssmilch 
Church  (1741,  3  vols.,  1776),  and  Mohsen,  a 
Uses.  physician,  published  in  his  work  on 
vaccination  for  the  first  time  a  history 
of  chureh  registers  of  baptisms  and  deaths.  Thus, 
a  powerful  influence  was  exerted  upon  them  by  the 
rapid  growth  of  sociology  and  statistics,  and  the 
attention  of  large  circles  was  called  to  them.  After 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  extracts  from 
church  registers  were  ordered  to  be  made  by  the 
pastors  and  superintendents  of  Brandenburg- 
Prussia  and  sent  to  the  government  offices  in 
Berlin  for  purposes  of  vital  statistics.  The  keeping 
of  chureh  registers  became  dependent  upon  the 
orders  of  civil  authorities;  this  led  to  their  general 
adoption  and  to  stricter  enforcement  of  rules,  but 
at  the  same  time  the  registers  lost  much  of  their 
churchly  character  as  they  were  used  chiefly  in 
court  and  for  purposes  of  taxation  and  for  military 
purposes.  In  conformity  with  the  general  law  of 
Prussia,  every  pastor  had  to  make  one  copy  of  his 
church  register  and  send  it  to  the  local  court. 
Electoral  Saxony  and  Austria  issued  similar  orders. 
In  the  course  of  time  personal  records  were  sep- 
arated altogether  from  the  Church  and  entrusted  to 
the  municipal  authorities,  civil  lists  taking  the 
place  of  church  registers.  This  was  due  in  France 
in  part  to  the  Revolution,  in  part  to  the  peculiar 
development  of  the  royal  authority.  King  Francis 
I.  issued  as  eariy  as  1539  an  order  making  church 
registers  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  munic- 
ipal  courts.     Under  Louis   XIV.  the   keeping  of 


103 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohuroh  Beslfiters 
Chnroh  and  Sohoo 


church  r^istere  was  altog;ether  due  to  himself  and 

the  wcuhir  government,  according  to  a  decree  of 

1667.     Further  decrees  were  issued  in 

6.  Eccksi-  France  in  1736  and  1792.    They  were 
astical  and  received  into  the  civil  code  of  Napo- 

Ci¥il  leon,  and  with  the  Napoleonic  con- 
Kegisten.  quests  were  carried  over  to  Belgium 
in  1796,  then  to  Holland  and  to  several 
states  of  Germany.  In  Germany,  the  entire  sep- 
aration of  eivil  affairs  from  connection  with  the 
Church  was  brought  about  especially  by  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  of  1848.  The  Pnissian  con- 
stitution of  1850  provided  for  the  introduction  of 
provisions  like  those  of  the  French  in  regard  to 
records  of  persons.  This  provision  was  made  a 
law  in  Pniffiia  in  1874;  accordin^y,  special  civil 
registry-offices  were  introduced,  and  from  that  time 
church  registers  lost  their  importance  in  public 
affairs.  In  1875  these  same  decisions  were  applied 
to  the  whole  German  empire.  Clexgsrmen  are  not 
eligible  as  legiBtiy  officers.  In  1895  civil  registers 
were  introduced  also  in  Austria-Hungary.  But 
with  the  enactment  of  these  laws  chureh  registers 
did  not  dis£4>pear  in  Germany;  on  the  contrary, 
they  regained  their  original  significance  and  were 
given  back  to  the  Chureh.  In  place  of  the  secular 
authorities,  the  ecclesiastical  leaders,  in  Prussia 
the  membere  of  the  consistories  and  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Superior  Chureh  Council,  assumed  the  super- 
vision of  the  church  registers.  The  kingdom  of 
God  and  the  dvil  order  of  the  State  are  two  different 
^heres  with  their  own  special  aims  and  purposes. 
Registration  of  baptisms  and  of  admission  into  the 
congregation,  of  marriages  and  funerals,  of  attend- 
ance at  confessions  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  of 
spiritual  discipline  are  facts  for  the  chureh  regis- 
ters, while  data  concerning  physical  births  and 
deaths,  matrimony  from  the  civil  point  of  view,  to- 
gether with  all  facts  concerning  the  physical  and  nat- 
ural being  of  man,  are  a  matter  of  the  civil  registry. 
In  modem  times  collections  of  chureh  registers 
have  been  undertaken;  there  is  a  genealogico- 
statistical  center  in  Denmark,  in  the  academy  of 
Sweden,  and  in  state  arehives  in  Mecklenburg  and 
CHdenbuig.  But  in  case  of  such  collections  dupli- 
cate copies  should  always  be  made,  because  it  is 
essential  that  at  least  one  copy  of  the 

7.  Collec-  chureh  register  remain  with  the  local 
tiont  of  church.  The  collections  should  be 
Church      under  the  supervision  of  chureh  author- 

Registen.  ities  and  be  deposited  in  church  ar- 
chives, not  in  state  arehives  or  other 
secular  institutions.  As  a  resiilt  of  the  French 
Revolution  and  subsequent  wars,  the  church  rec- 
ords of  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  Netherlands,  the  Rhine 
Palatinate,  the  Lower  Rhine,  and  the  duchy  of 
Berg  are  in  state  archives  or  in  superior  district 
courts.  In  Prussia  and  German  Austria-Hungary 
the  chureh  registers  were  left  with  the  churehes, 
in  ^ite  of  the  introduction  of  civil  registry-offices. 
Recently  attempts  have  been  made  in  Germany, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  Austria,  En^and,  and  Belgium 
to  consolidate  the  different  collections  of  church 
registere  for  statistical  purposes.  In  Belgium  a 
general  index  for  all  old  chureh  registers  was  pre- 
pared in   1865.    In  Austria  a  statistical  central 


conmodssion  was  instituted  in  1882  for  a  similar 
purpose.  In  England  an  enormous  amount  of 
material  has  been  collected  in  the  Record  Office, 
on  the  basis  of  the  Parish  Register  Act  of  1882. 

(E.  Jacobs.) 

Biblioorapht:  J.  C.  W.  Au^UBti.  Handbuch  der  ehrUaidien 
Arehaologie,  iii.  600-730,  Leipeio,  1837;  J.  S.  Bum,  HUt. 
of  Paritk  ReoiUtn,  aUo  of  tha  Reoiaien  of  Scotland,  /r«^ 
land  ....  London,  1862;  J.  Jaatrow,  Die  VoUumoJU 
d€utachtr  StddU,  BerUn.  1876;  R.  E.  C.  Waters.  PaHA 
ReoUten  in  England,  London,  1883;  H.  Truaen,  Dot 
preuaHaehe  KirdienredU  im  BerncKe  dtr  tvanoeliadUn 
Landeakirehe,  Berlin,  1804;  £.  Friedbers,  Ldirbueh  dsa 
tvangeliMchen  und  katholiaehen  KirchenrtehU,  Leipne, 
1805;  Epiaeopal  ReguUn  of  the  Diocaa§  of  WincheaUr, 
London,  1807;  J.  Gmelin,  in  Deutaehe  GctcAidUiMZtttr,  i 
(1000),  155-170;  Krieg.  in  KorreapondewMaU  dea  OeaanU- 
vereina  der  deutaekan  Oeaehiehia'  und  AUartumavarwina. 
1007.   no.  25.  pp.  102-105. 

CHURCH  AND  SCHOOL. 

Pablio  Sohoob  not  OriginaUy  Maintained  by  tht  CSrardb 

(5  1). 
Influence  of  the  Reformation  (§  2). 
Pietism  ({  3). 

Compulsory  Education  ({  4). 
Religion  and  Coercion  Exclusive  (§  5). 
Compulsory  Religious  Instruction  not  Desirable  (|  6). 
Position  and  Attitude  of  Teachers  ({  7). 
Denominational  and  Undenominational  Schoob  (|  8). 
Qerical  O>ntrol  of  Schools  (§  0). 

The  question  of  the  relation  of  Church  and  Scho<4 
did  not  become  a  burning  one  until  after  the  Refor- 
mation, when  the  modem  State  began  to  recognize 
its  duty  to  provide  public  elementary  schools  for 
its  subjects  and  make  school-attendance  obligatory. 
Since  compulsory  attendance  was  the  necessary  con- 
dition for  the  success  of  public  elementary  schools, 
the  Church,  from  its  very  nature  prevented  from 
employing  coercion,  could  not  compete  with  the 
State  in  this  field.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  for 
Church  and  State  to  come  to  an  understanding, 
particularly  as  the  latter  never  organized  its  school- 
system  de  novo,  but  took  over  and  developed  the 
educational  organization  of  the  Church. 

The  proposition  that  the  School  is  the  daughter  of 
the  Church  is  not  confirmed  by  the  history  of  the 
early  Church.    Religious  education  was  considered 
the  business  of  the  family  and  the  community; 
and  education  in  any  other  sense  was  a  private 
matter.    During    the    Middle    Ages 
z.  Public    the   Church   maintained   schools   for 
Schools  not  future  clerics  and  a  few  noblemen,  and 
Originally  prepared    children    for    confirmation. 
Maintained  It  was  Chariemagne  who  gave  the  first 
by  the      great  impetus  to  popular  education. 
Church.     Even  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages 
the  writing-schools  in  Germany  were 
maintained  either  by  the'  cities  or  by  private  in- 
dividuals, not  by  the  Chiurch. 

With  the  Reformation,  the  Church  assumes  a 

different  attitude  toward  popular  education.  Luther 

insists  on  the  establishment  of  schools;   and  Me- 

lanchthon  declares  that  the  imion  of 

2.  Influence  Church  and  School  is  necessary.    Pop- 

of  the  Ref-  ular  education  is  demanded  for  relig- 

orxnation.   ious  reasons;  but  the  right  to  provide 

for  the  same  is  recognized  as  belonging 

to  the  State.    The  existing  elementary  schools  in 

the  towns  were  reorganized;  and  the  introduction 


Churoh  and  Sohool 
Ohuroh  and  State 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


104 


of  religious  instruction  gave  them  the  character  of 
public  schools.  Similar  schobls  were  founded  in 
the  country  villages.  All  these  schools  were  quite 
elementary  in  character,  religion,  reading,  and 
writing  forming  practically  the  only  subjects  of 
instruction;  but  for  more  than  two  centuries  they 
offered  the  only  educational  opportunity  to  the 
great  majority  of  the  population. 

Even  such  schools  could  exist  only  under  favor- 
able circumstances.  Before  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
there  were  not  many  of  them  left;  and  after  the  war, 
when  the  ideas  of  Ratke  and  Comenius  began  to  be 
effective,  the  tendency  was  to  try  something  new, 
rather   than   to   reestablish    the   old 

3.  Pietism,  system.    In  this  movement  the  Piet- 

ists took  the  lead.  The  public  school, 
as  revived  by  them  in  the  interest  of  religious  edu- 
cation, was  introduced  by  various  German  states, 
but  first  by  Prussia  in  1763.  The  State  recognized 
the  service  of  the  Church,  and  even  entrusted  the 
supervision  of  these  schools  to  the  clerg;^,  who 
were  regarded  as  officials  of  the  State.    The  example 

of  Prussia  was  followed  by  Bavaria 

4.  Comjnil-  (1802),     Denmark     (1814),     Austria 
•ory  Edu-    (1869),  and  France  (1882),  with  the 

cation,  enforcement  of  school-attendance. 
Holland,  England,  and  the  United 
States  have  attained  all  that  is  necessary  by  less 
incisive  measures.  In  Italy  and  Spain  education  is 
compulsory  only  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  year, 
and  wretched  conditions  prevail  even  to-day  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  states  of  South  America.  In 
Russia  attendance  at  an  elementary  school  shortens 
the  period  of  military  service. 

Ever  since  the  State  took  charge  of  elementary 
education  and  made  it  oompiilsoiy  there  has  been 
a  movement  in  progress  toward  the  emancipation  of 
the  schools  from  the  clergy;  and  for  over  a  him- 
dred  years  three  questions  have  been  in  dispute: 
(1)  Is  compulsory  school-attendance  consistent 
with  religious  instruction?  (2)  Ought  the  school 
to  be  denominational  or  undenominational?  (3) 
Does  the  control  of  the  school  belong  to  the 
clergy  or  to  trained  schoolmen? 

In  principle,  religion  and  coercion  exclude  each 
other.  This  is  a  matter  about  which  Protestantism 
is  now  becoming  more  sensitive,  and  it  is  p>o6sible 
that  the  present  protest  against  oompulsoiy  religious 
instruction  may  develop  into  a  general  protest  against 
all  enforced  culture.  Of  course,  no  similar  protest 
is  heard  from  Rome.  The  Roman  Church,  accus- 
tomed to  the  maxim  "compel  them  to  come  in,"  is 
striving  for  power,  and,  for  this  reason, 

5.  Religion  seeks  contsol  of  the  schools.  It  is 
and  Coer-  willing  for  the  State  to  enforce  educa- 

don  Ex-  tion,  so  long  as  the  Church  is  benefited 
dudve.  thereby.  It  has  no  feeling  for  the 
inner  conflict  between  compulsory 
education  and  freedom  of  conscience,  regarding 
ooerdon  as  necessary  in  view  of  present  social  and 
religious  conditions.  So  much  the  stronger,  how- 
ever, is  this  feeling  in  Protestantism.  To  be  sure, 
in  the  training  of  children  a  certain  amoimt  of 
ooerdon  is  necessary,  since  the  pathway  of  educa- 
tion leads  through  obedience  to  freedom.  Par- 
ticularly  in   religious   instruction,    though,   is   it 


desirable  to  keep  the  end  in  view  and  gradually 
diminish  coercion  as  freedom  is  approached.  The 
custom  of  the  eariy  Church  to  leave  religious  in- 
struction to  the  family  justified  itself.  Even  if  it 
is  evident  that  the  religious  instruction  of  the  family 
needs  to  be  supplemented,  still  it  is  clear  that  the 
school  can  not  replace  the  family,  since  the  teacher 
alwasrs  represents  the  law,  while  religion  requires 
freedom.  There  have  been  many  school-teachers 
of  large  religious  nature  who  have  touched  the 
hearts  and  consdences  of  their  pupils  without  em- 
ploying coerdon;  but  still  the  fact  remains  that 
the  prevalence  of  religion  is  not  due  to  the  religious 
instruction  given  in  the  public  schools. 

As  regards  the  parents,  even  in  modem  states 
they  can  be  compelled  to  send  their  children  to 
schools  where  religious  instruction  is  given.  This 
is  justified  on  the  ground  that  the  children  are 
minors;  and  that  whatever  arbitrary  control  over 
the  children  the  parents  may  lose  is  more  than 
made  up  for  by  the  mental  growth  of  the  children. 
But  while  the  State  can  enforce  education,  the 
Church  is  prevented  from  doing  this  and  must, 
therefore,  protest  when  its  services  are  thrust  upon 
those  who  do  not  want  them.  An  effort  has  been 
made  to  conceal  the  nature  of    this 

6.  Compul-  religious  coerdon  by  insisting  that 
80iy  Re-  instruction  in  the  Bible  has  to  do  with 
Ugious  In-    historical     information    only.     While 

struction  such  an  argument  might  be  applied 
not  Desir-  to  mere  church  history,  it  is  inappli- 
able.  cable  here.  It  involves  a  misunder- 
standing of  the  most  important  part  of 
the  subject.  Two  methods  have  been  employed  to 
escape  this  difficulty.  Either  religious  instruction 
has  been  banished  from  the  school  entirely;  or 
an  effort  has  been  made  to  modify  it  to  meet  the 
needs  of  dissenters,  which  is  impossible  if  they  are 
atheists.  If  the  Church  is  to  exerdse  educational 
activity,  providon  must  be  made  for  it.  For 
instance,  one  whole  school-day  may  be  set  apart 
each  week  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  religious 
subjects,  as  is  the  case  in  France.  Also  in  Italy, 
Holland,  England,  and  some  states  of  the  United 
States  the  state  schools  are  non-religious  in  prin- 
dple.  No  cogent  argument  can  be  brought  against 
such  a  system,  for  religious  instruction  is  certainly 
not  the  business  of  the  State.  After  all,  the  in- 
terests of  Christianity  are  furthered  by  it.  By 
assuming  the  responsibility  of  instruction  in  the 
usual  school  branches,  the  State  makes  it  possible 
for  the  Church  to  concentrate  its  efforts  in  the 
religious  field.  It  is  not  so  much  the  mere  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State  that  seems  objectionable 
as  the  severing  of  an  old  historical  union  that  has 
richly  justified  its  existence  by  its  works. 

TUs  solution  of  the  old  problem  would  relieve 

the  teacher  of  the  embarrassment  of  teaching  things 

that  are  possibly  not  an  expression 

7.  Podtion  of  his  own  inmost  convictions — a 
and  Atti-    difficulty  often  experienced  by  minis- 

tude  of       ters.    The  teacher  should  either  be  al- 

Teachers.     lowed  to  teach  religious  subjects  in 

his  own  way,  or  else  be  relieved  of  the 

duty  entirely.    It  must  be  added,  however,  that  this 

separation  of  Church  and  State,  in  the  nuumer  in 


105 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Church  and  School 
Church  and  State 


which  it  hiui  been  accomplished  in  Holland,  France, 
Elng^and,  and  the  United  States,  has  aroused  oppo- 
sition in  the  ranks  of  the  teachers.  Conscious  of 
their  high  calling  as  educators,  rather  than  as  mere 
instructors,  they  are  unwilling  to  see  religion  ban- 
ished from  the  schools,  however  much  they  may  be 
opposed  to  the  domination  of  the  schools  by  the 
Church. 

Through  modem  emigration  the  various  religious 
sects  have  been  mixed  together,  especially  in  the 
cities.     Practical  considerations  make  it  necessary 

that  the  children  of  a  commimity  where 

8.  Denomi-  a  number  of  confessions  are  repre- 

national     sented  shall  all  attend  one  school;  and 

and  Unde-  thus  originated  the  undenominational 

nomina-     school.    This  arrangement  gives  chil- 

tional       dren  of  a  confession  that  is  in   the 

Schools,      minority  the  advantage  of   a   larger 

and  better  equipped  school  than  they 
could  attend  otherwise.  Further,  such  schools 
are  favored  by  the  spirit  of  tolerance  and  liber- 
alism now  prevailing  in  religious  matters,  and 
by  the  non-religious  character  of  the  modem  State. 
Against  undenominationalism  it  is  urged  that  the 
public  school,  as  an  educational  institution,  can 
least  of  all  dispense  with  religious  instruction,  which 
forms  the  basis  of  all  instmction;  that  religion, 
which  carries  with  it  the  Uteraiy  and  historical 
studies,  can  not  be  separated  from  all  other  sub- 
jects and  made  an  independent  study;  that  the 
personality  of  the  teacher  will  of  necessity  make 
such  schools  either  Protestant  or  Catholic;  and 
that  spies  of  the  opposite  confession  will  then  under- 
mine the  confidence  between  the  children  and  the 
teacher.  The  force  of  these  objections  can  not  be 
denied.  It  is  clear  that  a  school  that  educates 
must  have  harmony  among  its  pupils;  but  in  this 
view  denominationalism  in  the  school  becomes  a 
postulate  of  pedagogy,  not  of  the  Church.  There 
is  no  question  as  to  the  importance  of  the  Church 
for  education.  The  question  is  whether  practical 
theology  or  pedagogy  is  the  better  quslified  to 
dictate  the  method  to  be  employed  in  using  the 
educative  material  contributed  by  the  Church.  It 
is  plain  that  theology  needs  pedagogy  as  badly  as 
pedagogy  needs  theology. 

Among  the  reasons  that  have  decided  teachers 
against  the  denominational  school  one  remains  to 
be  mentioned:    the  usual  [in  Germany],  but   not 

necessary,  supervision  by  the  clergy. 

9.  Clerical    Reasons  alleged  in   favor  of  clerical 

Control      control  are:  the  splendid  pedagogical 

of  services    rendered     by     the    Church 

Schools,     through    such     men    as     Comenius, 

Fran<£e,  Niemeyer,  and  Schleier- 
maeher;  the  fine  background  of  religious  life 
which  tiie  clergy  bring  to  the  school,  and  their 
unselfishness  in  the  work;  the  confidence  expressed 
in  the  dergy  by  the  State  in  turning  over  to  them 
the  public  schools  after  the  Reformation;  and,  not 
least,  the -high  culture  of  the  clergy.  Against  such 
control  it  is  argued  that  the  public  school  is  only 
following  the  higher  institutions  of  leaming  in 
emancipating  itself  from  clerical  guardianship; 
that  the  imeducated  teachers  of  the  clerical  regime 
have  been  replaced  with  teachers  trained  scien- 


tifically in  the  theoiy  and  practise  of  pedagogy; 
that  the  clergy  have  not  kept  abreast  of  the  grow- 
ing science  of  education,  and  are,  therefore,  un- 
prepared for  the  work;  that  this  work  is  prejudi- 
cial to  their  high  calling  as  ministers  of  the  Gospel; 
and,  finally,  that  clerical  control  benefits  chiefly 
the  ultramontanes.  The  clergy  themselves  are 
becoming  less  prejudiced  in  the  matter  and  are 
beginning  to  admit  the  force  of  these  arguments; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  their  more  prudent  oppo- 
nents recognize  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Church, 
not  of  the  State,  to  keep  a  lookout  over  the  relig- 
ious and  moral  welfare  of  the  public  schools. 

C.  Geter. 
Biblxoorapht:  On  the  theory  of  education  in  relation  to 
Church  and  State  oonBult:  C.  Diekmann,  Der  hibliadM 
OttdiidUaufUerridU  in  der  VolkudiuU^  Leipaic,  1876; 
G.  A.  L.  Baur,  OrundgUoe  der  ErMtehunoeUhrt,  Gieaaen, 
1887;  R.  H.  Quick,  Remarke  About  MonU  and  Rtligioua 
Education,  in  his  E—ay,  London,  1887;  G.  A.  Coe,  Edu- 
cation  in  Religion  and  Morale,  New  York,  1884. 

On  the  history  of  education  oonault:  K.  Schmidt,  Oe- 
eehichU  der  Pddaooffik,  Kdthen,  1889;  W.  C  Grasby, 
Teaching  in  Three  Continente,  London,  1891;  J.  Pajrne, 
Hietory  of  Education,  ib.  1892;  J.  Bdhm,  Oeechiehte  der 
POdaooffik,  Nuremberg.  1893;  S.  G.  Williams,  Hietory  of 
Modem  Education  .  .  .  from  the  Revival  of  Leaming  to 
the  Preeent,  Syracuse.  1896;  T.  Davidson,  Hietory  of  Eel- 
ucaHon,  New  York.  1900;  E.  G.  Dexter.  Hietory  of  Edu- 
cation in  the  U.  S.,  New  York,  1904. 

On  the  question  of  religious  instruction  in  various 
countries  consult  in  Germany:  £.  Sachsse.  Die  Lehre  von 
der  kirchlichen  Ertiehung,  Berlin.  1897;  J.  Beyhl,  Die  Be- 
freiung  der  VolkeechuUehrer  aue  der  geietlichen  Herrechaft, 
Berlin.  1903;  F.  Naumann.  Der  Streit  der  Konfeeeionen 
um  die  Sdiule,  Berlin,  1904.  In  France:  L.  Duchesne, 
Autonomiee  eccUeiaeHquee.  £glieee  eipariee,  Paris,  1906. 
In  England:  Of  the  Education  Acts.  1870-91,  there  are 
discussions  by  A.  £.  Steinthal,  London.  1891;  C.  W.  A. 
Brooke,  ib.  1897.  Of  those  from  1870  to  1902.  by  Sir  H. 
Owen,  and  by  W.  A.  Casson  and  G.  C.  Whiteley,  both 
London,  1903.  On  the  Act  of  1902  consult:  C.  E.  Ben- 
ham.  H.  H.  Hanson,  H.  Mothersole,  £.  C.  Rawlings.  all 
London,  1903;  also:  W.  H.  Carnegie,  Church  and  the 
Schoole;  Churdiman'e  View  of  the  Education  Controverey, 
ib.  1905.  In  the  U.  S.:  S.  T.  Spear.  Religion  and  the 
State,  New  York.  1876;  J.  Conway,  ReepecHve  RighU  and 
Dutiee  of  Family,  State  and  Church  in  Regard  to  Educa>- 
tion,  ib.  1890;  J.  H.  Crooker.  ReHgioue  Freedom  in  Ameri- 
can Education,  Boston,  1903. 

CHURCH  AND  STATB. 

I.  General  Treatment. 
Scope  of  Subject  ({1). 

Ancient  Rome  and  the  Eastern  Empire  (|  2). 
Rise  of  Papal  Temporal  Power  (§  3). 
Subordination  of  Church  to  State  (|  4). 
The  Modem  State  (8  6). 
Relations  with  Rome  (8  6). 
The  Evangelical  SUte  Church  (§  7). 
Tendency  toward  Separation  (§  8). 
Decadence  of  Protestantism  in  Germany  (§  9). 
Self-Goyemment  for  Church  the  Remedy  (|  10). 
II.  The  United  States. 

PhikMophical  Background  (8  1). 
Colonial  Period  (8  2). 
Conditions  after  the  Revolution  (8  3). 
Speeial  Legislation  (8  4). 

I.  General  Treatment:  Since  the  Christian  oomr 
munity  presenta  itaelf  outwardly  as  a  part  of 
the  Bodal  order,  for  the  regulation  of  which  the 
State  exists,  the  question  arises,  What  shall  be  the 
relation  between  Church  and  State?  From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  dififerent  confessions  this  ques- 
stion    might   be    variously   answered.     However, 


Church  and  State 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


106 


disregarding  minor  distinctions,  three  answers  are 
possible:  The  State  may  rule  the  Church  and 
administer  ecclesiastical  affairs  for  its 
X.  Scope  of  own  purposes;  the  Church  may  rule 
Subject  the  State  and  use  the  temporal 
authority  to  fiurther  the  interests 
of  the  Church;  or  Church  and  State  may  be  com- 
pletely separated,  each  confining  itself  to  its  own 
sphere,  and  neither  exercising  any  authority  over 
the  other.  As  a  matter  of  history,  however,  Church 
and  State  have  seldom  been  completely  independ- 
ent of  each  other,  the  one  occupying  itself  solely 
with  things  spiritual,  the  other  restricting  itself  to 
things  temporal.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
still  insists  on  having  a  voice  in  the  control  of  tem- 
poral affairs,  and  the  Protestant  states  of  Europe 
usually  claim  a  considerable  share  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  The  difficulty  of  coordinating  the  eccle- 
siastical and  the  political  authority  as  two  distinct 
systems,  or,  indeed,  of  effecting  any  great  innova- 
tion where  the  Church  is  concerned,  is  to  be  ac- 
counted for  on  historical  grounds.  The  funda- 
mental legal  ordinances  involved  here  are  not  made 
by  act  of  will,  but  are  passed  along  from  one  period 
to  the  next,  from  one  community  to  another. 
Laws  and  rights  are  inherited;  and  in  no  field  is 
this  so  true  as  in  that  where  religion  is  concerned. 
Even  where  new  forces  have  effected  the  most 
complete  changes,  the  effort  is  made  to  prove  that 
each  form  links  itself  back  on  the  old.  The  time 
of  King  Josiah,  which  saw  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Israelitic  tradition  in  the  spirit  of  the  new  law; 
the  Pseudo-Isidor,  who  represents  the  asserted 
increase  in  the  power  of  the  hierarchy  as  an  old 
right;  even  the  Reformation  itself,  which  claimed 
so  frequently  to  restore  the  primitive  Church — 
all  bear  witness  to  the  statement. 

From  the  very  beginning  the  relation  between 
religious  worship  and  temporal  authority  was  a 
most    intimate    one.     The    chief    of 
2.  Ancient  the  tribe,  as  likewise  the  king  of  the 
Rome  and  first  commimity  that  could  be  called 
the  Eastern  a  state,  united  in  himself  the  functions 
Empire,     of  judge,  military  leader,  and  priest. 
He  represented  hia  people  in  their  re- 
lations toward  one  another,  toward  their  enemies, 
and  toward  God.     Religion  was  an  affair  of  the 
State.     In  the  later  development  the  ruler  might 
transfer  his  priestly  duties  to  a  special  class  of 
priests,  but  the  close  relation  between  religion  and 
rule  remained.     At  the  advent  of  Christianity  into 
the  world's  history  the  Roman  emperor,  as  pontifex 
maximuSf  stood  at  the  head  of  the  religious  system 
in  the  Roman  Empire.     It  was  not  his  object,  how- 
ever, to  suppress  the  foreign  gods  worshiped   in 
Roman  possessions  in  the  interest  of  the  Roman 
deities  whose  high  priest  he  was.     In  so  far  as  these 
foreign  gods  had  their  states  over  which  they  ruled, 
all,  including  Yahweh,  were  regarded  juristically 
as  free  and  equal,  though  Yahweh  was  deposed 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.    The  God  of 
Christianity,  on  the  other  hand,  having  no  visible 
kingdom,  was  not  a  deity  in  the  Roman  sense  of  the 
word.     Hence  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  as 
atheists.  With  the  advent  of  the  Christian  emperor 
the  oi^ganization  of  the  Church  and  its  relation  to 


the  State  was  definitely  determined  for  centuries 
to  come.  The  position  of  pontifex  maximus  which 
Constantine  united  with  his  arbitrary  authority 
had  not  been  depreciated  by  the  decay  of  the  old 
Roman  fcith.  He  was  the  absolute  head  of  the 
Church.  Even  after  the  title  of  pontifex  maximiu 
had  been  dropped,  toward  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  the  office  remained.  The  designation 
episcopus  universalis  is  only  a  Christian  translation 
of  the  heathen  expression.  To  be  sure,  the  em- 
peror no  longer  performed  the  functions  of  a  priest, 
but  he  united  in  himself  all  ecclesiastical  authority. 
He  appointed  and  disciplined  the  priests  and  exer- 
cised a  protectorate  over  the  leges  regias,  those 
duties  toward  God  which  were  required  of  every 
one.  Laws  and  rights  were  created  by  the  dictum 
of  the  emperor.  Thus  the  Churdi  became  an 
institution  of  the  State,  and  at  the  same  time  a  com- 
pulsory institution.  The  very  persecution  which, 
in  the  name  of  religion,  had  formeriy  been  directed 
against  Christianity  was  now  employed  to  uproot 
heathenism,  as  well  as  to  put  down  dissent  within 
the  Church.  To  be  a  citizen  of  the  empire  one  had 
to  be  an  orthodox  Christian.  This  system,  which 
was  most  consistently  developed  in  the  Eastern 
Empire,  after  its  separation  from  Rome,  became 
the  heritage  of  the  Russian  autocracy.  Though 
Russia  has  had  its  Holy  Synod  since  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great,  the  Czar  remains  the  only  source 
of  authority  in  the  Church,  and  uses  the  ecclesias- 
tical organization  to  strengthen  the  State.  Con- 
sequently withdrawal  from  the  state  church  is  not 
permitt^. 

The  second   characteristic    relation   of   Church 
to  State  was  developed  in  the  Western  Empire. 

While  the  temporal  power  in  the  West 
3.  Rise  of  gradually  waned  after  the  division  of 
Papal  Tem-  the  empire,  the  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
poral  Power,  tion  remained  intact;   and,  when  the 

ancient  State  disappeared,  the  pope 
virtually  succeeded  the  emperor  as  pontifex  maxi- 
mus  and  appropriated  as  much  temporal  author- 
ity as  was  consistent  with  his  priestly  character. 
This  transition  of  authority  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  in  the  year  445,  when  Valentinian  III.  pro- 
mulgated a  law  requiring  obedience  to  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  pope.  Thiis  the  religious  dream  of 
a  civilas  dei  was  fused  with  the  Roman  tradition 
of  an  imperium  inundi.  Over  against  this  papal 
State  stood  the  Germanic  tribes.  Their  conversion 
had  been  accomplished  without  difficulty,  but  for 
this  very  reason  it  had  not  been  profound.  Their 
indifference  toward  the  Roman  Church  is  ex- 
plained by  their  relation  to  Arianism.  Goths,  Bur- 
gundians,  and  Vandals  had  their  own  churches, 
which  were  separate  from  those  of  the  provincials. 
The  bishops  were  representatives  of  the  king,  and 
the  subjected  Roman  provincials  were  treated 
just  as  the  Phanariots  are  treated  by  the  Turks. 
Even  the  conversion  of  the  Franks  did  not  greatly 
improve  the  position  of  the  Roman  Church.  The 
Prankish  king  suffered  no  foreign  interference  in 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  not  even  from  the  pope  him- 
self. Here  material  interests  take  precedence, 
and  the  Church  assumes  importance  chiefly  as  a 
large  property-holder.    In  fact,  it  was  the  Franks 


107 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohuroh  and  State 


wbo  discovered  the  process  of  secularization.  With 
the  restoration  of  the  Western  Empire  by  Char- 
lemagne Byzantine  ideas  came  into  play.  The 
Roman  idea  of  a  papal  imperium  mundi  was  ap- 
parently dormant.  When,  therefore,  Germany 
became  the  center  of  gravity  of  European  history  it 
was  quite  natural  that  the  bishops  should  be  ad- 
vanced to  the  position  of  temporal  princes,  in  the 
interest  of  the  State.  Otto  the  Great  completed 
this  innovation  by  taking  under  his  protection  the 
spiritual  head  of  these  princes,  the  pope  himself. 
Thus  the  functions  of  the  bishop  were  largely 
secularized.  Investiture  with  property  constituted 
his  title,  and  his  chief  duty  was  to  aid  in  carrying 
on  the  business  of  the  empire.  Without  any 
premonition  of  the  danger  aiiead  of  them,  the 
Germanic  people  entered  upon  this  fatal  course. 

It  remained  for  Gregoiy  VII.  to  lift  the  veil  and 
show  the  Church  in  its  character  of  a  ruling  power. 
With  him  begins  the  period  of  the  so-called  spiritual 
universal  state,  which  lasted  for  several  centuries. 
Just  as  formerly  the  State  had  ruled  the  Church, 
so  now  the  Church,  to  a  large  extent,  ruled  the 
State.  The  officials  of  the  Church  were  brought 
under  the  authority  of  Rome,  and  such  public 
interests  as  education,  charity,  care  of  the  sick, 
and  even  legislation  and  the  administration  of 
justice,  were  made  affairs  of  the  Church.  As 
against  the  powerful  Roman  hierarchy  the  State, 
crude,  undeveloped,  and  split  by  dissensions,  was 
practically  helpless.  It  should  be  added,  however, 
that  not  infrequently  the  State  rebelled  against 
having  to  take  a  subordinate  position;  and  toward 
the  dose  of  this  period  it  developed  such  legal 
institutions  as  jjlacetum  regium  and  recurstu  ab 
abu9u  to  curtail  ecclesiastical  authority.  In  view 
of  this  fact,  the  spiritual  universal  state  must  be 
regarded  as  theoiy,  rather  than  reality,  and  the 
relation  of  Church  to  State  during  this  period  as  one 
of  legal  coordination,  but  with  the  preponderance 
of  competency  on  the  side  of  the  Chim;h. 

The  Renaissance  brought  a  revival  of  the  ancient 
idea  of  the  State,  and  with  this  a  transformation  of 

the  relation  of  Church  to  State.    The 

4.  Subor-    new  state  made  it  its  chief  function  to 

dinationof   advance  the  welfare,  or  happiness,  of 

Church  to   its  subjects,  but,  since  preparation  for 

State.        eternity  was  seen  to  be  essential  to 

human  welfare,  the  State  now  ex- 
tended its  activities  into  the  ecclesiastical  field. 
In  short,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  it  took  over 
the  organization  of  the  Church  and  assumed  re- 
sponsibility for  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  well- 
being  of  the  people.  The  famous  sentence  Dux 
Clivia  ett  papa  in  auta  terns,  the  reform-program 
of  the  Bavarian  grand  dukes,  of  George  of  Saxony, 
of  Louis  XIV.,  of  Joseph  II.,  and  finally  the  Con- 
atUution  civUe  du  derg€  of  1700 — all  these  give 
proof  of  the  characteristic  relation  between  Church 
and  State  which  had  its  origin  in  the  Renaissance. 
It  was  the  fate  of  the  Reformation  to  fall  in  the 
midst  of  this  political  development.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  the  new  Christian  conmiunity  should  have 
an  outward  organization;  but  whence  was  this  to 
oome?  Considered  juristically,  that  was  a  grave 
question.    For  Luther,  however,  it  presented  no 


difficulties.  It  was  sufficient  that  means  of  grace 
be  provided,  and  immaterial  how  this  might  be 
accomplished.  In  the  end,  it  was  found  t^t  the 
simplest  arrangement  was  to  entrust  the  care  of  the 
Church  to  the  existing  authorities.  Thus  arose  the 
German  state  churches,  as  the  mature  product  of 
the  state  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Reformat 
tion  did  not  recognize  the  necessity  for  an  eccle- 
siastical organization  distinct  from  that  of  the  State. 
The  Church  was  a  homogeneous  mass,  and  each 
temporal  prince  fostered  that  particular  section 
which  was  conterminous  with  his  temporal  domain. 
With  the  appearance  of  dissent  and  the  rise  of 
other  confessions,  the  inadequacy  of  this  simple 
arrangement  became  manifest.  The  solution  of 
the  difficulty  was  offered  by  the  theory  of  natural 
right,  which  was  expounded  byHobb^  (q.v.)  and 
Rousseau.  This  is  the  view  that  the  State  is  based 
upon  an  original  agreement  among  the  people,  who 
delegate  to  the  sovereign  whatever  authority  he 
has.  Every  church,  just  as  the  State,  is  a  com- 
munity; but  the  State  remains  the  supreme  com- 
mimity,  in  which  these  other  commimities  take 
their  place.  Thus  the  State  again  becomes  secular 
in  character.  To  be  sure,  the  temporal  prince 
retains  his  authority  over  the  churches.  This  he 
no  longer  claims  on  Christian  grounds,  but  by 
right  of  jus  territoriale.  In  this  way  the  territorial 
system  was  developed  (see  TERRrroRiALiBM).  It 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  this  was  the  form  in 
which  tolerance  first  asserted  itself.  The  next  step 
in  the  development  was  CoUegialism  (q.v.), 
which  is  only  a  palliated  territorialism.  The 
ruling  prince  remains  the  highest  authority  in 
the  Church.  The  only  result  was  that  now  a 
sharper  distinction  was  drawn  between  jura 
circa  sacra,  rights  which  are  naturally  incident 
to  the  position  of  a  sovereign,  and  jura  in  sacra, 
rights  which  are  deduced  from  the  Church.  The 
fact  that  these  rights  are  exercised  through  two 
sets  of  officials  is  merely  incidental,  being  due  to 
considerations  of  convenience.  Prussia  affords  the 
classic  example  of  this  kind  of  relation  between 
Church  and  State. 

Whatever  may  be  characteristic  of  the  present 
position  of  the  Church  in  its  relations  to  the  State 

has  not  been  brought  about  by  any 

5.  The      essential  change  in  the  Church,  but  by 

Modem     the   wonderful    development   of    the 

State.      modem  State  and  the  rapid  growth 

of  constitutional  government.  The 
State,  as  the  political  organization,  holds  the  su- 
preme authority,  which  can  not  be  modified  or 
limited,  except  by  the  State  itself.  Such  a  self- 
limitation,  however,  is  the  striking  characteristic 
of  the  modem  constitutional  State.  The  people 
have  been  given  a  voice  in  the  government.  In 
sharp  contrast  to  the  police-state,  which  absorbed 
eveiything,  has  been  the  fostering  care  exercised 
by  the  government  over  private  organizations  for 
the  conduct  of  affairs  of  public  interest.  This  new 
position  taken  by  the  State  has  been  particularly 
favorable  to  the  manifestations  of  religious  life. 
Religious  liberty  is  now  generally  secured  to  all  by 
state  constitutions.  At  the  head  of  the  various 
societies,  or  orgamzations,  which  now  enjoy  a  cer- 


Church  and  State 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


108 


tain  independence  under  the  law,  stand  those  great 
religious  communities  called  churches.  Legally 
they  occupy  a  veiy  high  position;  and  the  reason 
for  this  is  clear.  Their  functions  are  not  merely 
of  a  private  nature;  from  time  immemorial  the 
interests  of  the  Church  have  been  regarded  as 
national  and  ethically  coequal  with  the  a£fair8  of 
the  State  itself.  In  a  word,  religion  is  a  matter  of 
public  interest,  and  is  recognized  as  such  by  the 
State.  To  be  sure,  the  Church  is  subject  to  the 
State;  otherwise  the  sovereignty  of  the  State  would 
be  a  fiction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  modem 
German  state  waives  its  right  to  take  the  Church 
so  closely  under  its  control  as  did  the  old  police- 
state.  In  fact,  the  constitutional  state  regards  it 
as  essential  that  the  independence  of  the  Church 
be  maintained.  This  principle  has  been  often 
proclaimed,  e.g.,  in  the  Frankfort  Orundrechte  and 
in  the  Prussian  Constitution.  Thus  the  Church  is 
quite  propeily  given  the  position  of  a  separate  com- 
munity, existing  under  the  State  and  working  for 
the  public  weal.  The  legal  terminology  employed 
to  characterize  this  relation  of  Church  to  State 
recognises  self-government  as  the  essential  feature. 
The  French  law,  which  has  become  typical,  speaks 
of  ciUtea  reconnua,  not  as  a  juristic  person,  but  as  a 
part  of  the  public  authority,  and  calls  the  local 
organizations  itablissemerUs  pu^igues,  analogous  to 
political  communities.  Hence  the  protection  and 
aid  rendered  to  the  Church  by  the  civil  government. 
While  theoretically  the  State  may  subordinate 
the  Church  completely  to  itself,  in  practise  it  does 

not  do  it.  The  degree  of  authority 
6.  Relations  exercised  varies,  as  does  also  the 
with  Rome,  degree  of  independence  enjoyed   by 

the  Church.  In  view  of  the  funda- 
mental conception  of  the  State,  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  given  too  much  latitude  in  Germany 
and  the  Protestant  Church  too  little.  In  reality, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  not  simply  a  self- 
governing  state  church,  holding  itself  subject  to 
the  State.  It  remains  that  same  remarkable  world- 
power  which  in  the  Middle  Ages  shared  with  the 
State  the  fimctions  of  government.  If  the  power 
of  Rome  has  been  greatly  diminished  in  the  modem 
State,  this  has  been  accomplished  only  by  force. 
In  principle,  the  Roman  Church  has  3rielded  noth- 
ing. The  manner  in  which  the  present  organiza- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Germany 
came  into  being  is  characteristic.  The  German 
states  entered  into  agreements  with  the  Holy  See 
just  as  they  would  make  treaties  among  themselves 
regarding  secular  things  (see  Concordats  and 
Delimitino  Bulla).  France  led  the  way  in  the 
Napoleonic  Concordat.  The  necessity  of  restoring 
the  lost  equilibrium  at  once  manifested  itself, 
and,  too,  in  a  curious  manner.  All  the  states,  on 
their  own  initiative,  proceeded  to  supplement  the\ 
treaty  with  Rome  by  promulgating  laws  to  give  \ 
them  a  certain  supervision  over  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church.  Here  the  articles  organiquea  furnished 
the  model.  Of  course,  such  restrictions  have  never 
been  recognized  by  the  pope;  and  the  fact  that 
they  are  directed  against  him  only  serves  to  em- 
phasize his  position  as  a  temporal  ruler.  In  fol- 
lowing such  a  couwe,  the  State  puts  itself  in  the 


position  it  occupied  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when 
it  sought  to  assert  its  authority  against  Rome  by 
means  of  the  now  obsolete  placetum  regium,  rectir- 
8U8  ab  abuau,  nominaiio  regia,  and  by  the  exclusion 
of  persancB  mintis  gratce  (see  Placet;  Nominatio 
Rboia).  That  the  State  is  unable  to  substitute 
for  these  ancient  institutions  something  more  in 
accord  with  present  political  ideals  and  conditions 
can  be  due  only  to  a  lack  of  confidence  in  its  own 
sovereignty.  The  inner  contradiction  between  the 
theory  and  practise  of  the  State  in  the  niatter  of 
exercising  its  authority  toward  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  strikingly  shown  in  cases  where  the  pope 
is  actually  invoked  to  curb  some  Romanist  official 
who  is  attacking  state  institutions.  Thus,  through 
the  force  of  tradition,  the  modem  German  state 
has  been  placed  in  this  false  and  extremely  objec- 
tionable attitude  toward  Rome. 

Quite  different  in  this  regard  is  the  position  of 

the  Evangelical  Church.     In  contrast  to  the  Roman 

Catholic  Cliurch,  which  claims  such  a 

7.  The      large  interest  in  the  control  of  external 

Evangelical  affairs,   the   Protestant  body,   whose 

State       interests    are    spiritual    rather    than 

Church,  temporal,  would  be  satisfied  to  occupy 
the  modest  position  of  a  self-governing 
body  within  the  State.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany  has  never 
attained  to  that  measure  of  freedom  and  independ- 
ence which  the  constitutional  state  recognizes  to 
be  its  right.  Despite  all  the  assurances  on  the  side 
of  the  government,  the  old  territorial  system,  the 
administration  of  church  affairs  by  the  State,  con- 
tinues to  thrive.  It  IB  futile  to  assert  that  it  is  not 
the  State,  but  the  sovereign  in  person,  who  rules 
the  Church;  for,  in  public  affairs,  the  person  of  the 
ruler  can  not  be  separated  from  the  State.  In 
Germany  it  seems  to  be  taken  as  a  matter  of  course 
that  the  Evangelical  Church  ought  to  be,  -and  must 
be,  ruled  by  the  State.  Of  course,  the  Church  enjoys 
a  certain  academic  freedom;  also  the  provision  is 
maintained  that  the  State  shall  exercise  its  rule 
here  through  separate  authorities.  It  was  a  further 
step  in  this  direction  when  the  present  synodal 
system  was  introduced  in  the  last  century.  The 
local  parishes  have  their  administrative  boards, 
and  send  their  representatives,  clergy  and  laymen, 
to  the  Synod.  The  General  Synod,  the  highest 
representative  body,  cooperates  with  the  sovereign 
in  the  matter  of  ecclesiastical  legislation.  The 
logical  outcome  of  this  process  of  development 
should  have  been  complete  self-government  for 
the  Church;  but  such  has  not  been  the  case.  In- 
deed, this  entire  movement  is  only  a  phase  of  that 
more  general  movement  whose  object  has  been  to 
develop  and  strengthen  the  State.  The  Church  is 
organized  along  parallel  lines  with  the  State,  and 
church  administration  remains  state  administra- 
tion. Just  as  in  things  temporal  the  sovereign 
remains  supreme,  despite  local  self-government  and 
popular  representation,  so  in  things  ecclesiastical. 

The  present  relation  between  the  State  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  recognized  as  imsatis- 
factory,  and  on  both  sides  there  has  been  a  tend- 
ency to  change  it.  To  be  mentioned  particulariy 
is  that   significant    modem  movement    on   the 


109 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Church  and  State 


part  of  the  State  whose  object  has  been  the  com- 
plete separation  of  Church  and  State.   In  this  new 

departure  the  United  States  took  the 

&  Tendency  lead.    Since  then,  strange  to  say,  this 

Toward     essentially  Calvinistic  idea  has  been 

SeparatioiL  carried  out  by  such  Roman  CathoUc 

countries  as  Mexico,  Brazil,  Cuba, 
and  most  recently  by  France.  One  might  almost 
8ay  that  the  separation  of  the  Church  from  the 
State  is  recognized  by  a  republican  government  as 
an  obligation.  Such  separation  is  due  to  hostility 
toward  the  Church,  and  its  object  is  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  Church.  The  Protestant  sees  nothing 
(objectionable  in  this.  In  his  view  the  fact  that  the 
State  claims  a  certain  surveillance  over  the  out- 
ward organization  of  the  Church  has  no  signifi- 
cance for  the  inner  life  of  faith.  The  Roman 
Catholic,  on  the  other  hand,  who  carries  his  relig- 
ious sentiment  into  these  external  things,  strenu- 
ously opposes  any  influence  of  the  State  in  this 
direction.  The  Toleramanirag  of  the  Center, 
which  wafl  introduced  in  the  German  Reichstag  in 
1900,  is  suggestive.  Under  the  guise  of  demanding 
freedom  for  the  Church  in  general,  it  embodies  the 
complaints  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  It  demands, 
among  other  things,  complete  freedom  for  the  cure 
of  souU  throughout  the  empire,  for  the  erection  of 
church  building?  and  the  holding  of  reUgious  wor- 
ship, and  also  demands  the  removal  of  the  placetum 
and  of  all  restrictions  placed  by  the  State  upon 
religious  societies  and  associations.  It  is  this  last 
point,  the  question  of  religious  orders,  that  is  not 
80  easily  conceded.  Here  economic  interests  come 
into  consideration;  and  it  is  unlikely  that  the  exist- 
ing laws  limiting  the  acquisition  of  property  by 
mortmain  will  be  changed  in  the  interest  of  religious 
orders.  This  ToUranzantrag  makes  no  mention  of 
ministerial  education.  The  State  now  provides  for 
the  education  of  ministers,  but  whether  it  will  be 
able  to  nationalize  the  clergy,  and  thus  remove 
present  religious  dissensions,  is  doubtful.  The 
Evangelical  Church  gives  the  State  no  occasion  to 
rciwrt  to  radical  measiures;  but  naturally  a  separa- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  from  the  State 
carries  with  it  a  similar  separation  as  regards  the 
Evangelical  Church.  This  is  illustrated  by  recent 
e\'ent8  in  France. 

While  the  old  territorial  state  rendered  a  mag- 
nificent service  in  rescuing  the  Gospel,  the  close 

embrace  of  the  State  now  threatens 

9.  Deca«     the    Church    with    sufiFocation.    The 

dence  of     Evangelical  Church  in  Germany  has 

Protestant-  completely  lost  the  support  of    the 

ism  in       masses.    For  them  it  is  an  institution 

Gennanj.    of  the  State,  or  of  the  aristocracy,  and 

part  of  the  system  which  they  oppose. 
It  is  regarded  as  une  partie  du  gouvemement,  just  as 
was  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  France  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  But  how  is  any  other  con- 
dition possible  under  a  church  regiment  whose 
fundamental  principle  is  that  the  Church  must 
subserve  the  political  interests  of  the  State?  As  the 
Prussian  state  law  puts  it,  the  Church  must  show 
**  gentleness  and  tolerance  in  doctrine  and  beha- 
vior,'- and  it  "  must  abstain  from  all  interference 
in  private  and  family  affairs."    It  must  maint>ftin 


"  quiet  and  order,"  "  quiet  and  peace  ";  and  that 
is  the  main  consideration  for  the  State.  This 
program  is  carried  out  by  German  officials  with 
perfect  fidelity  to  duty,  and  with  as  much  love  to 
the  Church  as  the  Church,  in  its  present  depressed 
condition,  is  able  to  inspire  in  them.  Naturally, 
the  legal  pastor  must  fit  into  this  rigime.  The 
result  is  that  in  any  great  religious  movement,  for 
instance  against  Rome,  the  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion may  leave  a  Protestant  people  completely  in 
the  lurch.  Political  interests  predominate;  but 
such  interests,  which  come  and  go  with  ministries, 
do  not  coincide  with  those  of  the  Evangelical 
Church,  whose  chief  interest  is  to  extend  the  King- 
dom of  Jesus  Christ. 

While  it  woiild  be  a  mistake  for  the  Evangelical 

Church  in  Germany  to  aim  at  immediate  separation 

from  the  State,  the  remedy  for  exist- 

10.  Self-  ing  evils  lies  in  that  direction.  There  is 
Government  no  doubt  that  complete  separation  is 
for  Church  only  a  question  of  time;  but  for  the 
the  Remedy,  present  what  the  Protestant  Church 
needs  is  that  measure  of  independence 
which,  in  theory,  the  modem  State  accords  to  it. 
The  attainment  of  self-government  is  the  serious 
task  that  the  Church  now  confronts.  But  those 
who  uphold  the  old  territorial  system  ask  if  this  is 
practicable.  Here  the  only  thing  worthy  of  earnest 
consideration  is  the  question  of  the  continued 
existence  of  the  state  church.  It  has  been  argued 
that  independence  for  the  Church  would  bring  with 
it  a  dissolution  of  the  reUgious  body  into  innu- 
merable sects,  thus  destroying  the  national  charac- 
ter of  the  Church.  Although  the  small  religious 
society  offers  advantages  in  the  way  of  individual 
freedom,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  large  com- 
munity best  provides  for  the  service  of  the  Master. 
The  fear,  however,  that  the  Church  would  disinte- 
grate if  released  from  the  grasp  of  the  State  is 
ungrounded.  The  removal  of  the  antiquated  terri- 
torial system  does  not  mean  necessarily  that  hence- 
forth there  would  be  no  relation  whatsoever  between 
Church  and  State.  Between  the  territorial  system 
and  the  French  system  of  sheer  separation  there  is 
a  mean.  Self-government  for  the  Church  consti- 
tutes this  mean.  *  Under  such  a  system  the  Church 
would  be  freed  from  the  stifling  domination  of  the 
State,  without  being  reduced  to  the  position  of  a 
mere  company,  or  association.  Such  a  relationship 
for  the  Church  would  not  be  inconsistent  with  its 
popular  character.  In  France  the  two  branches  of 
the  Evangelical  Church  have  been  placed  in  the 
position  of  secular  organizations;  but  even  in  such 
a  guise  they  continue  to  flourish  as  national 
churches.  The  various  branches  of  the  Protestant 
Church  in  the  United  States  are  also  popular  in 
character,  the  general  impression  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding.  In  each  case  the  Church  is  some- 
thing more  than  the  aggregate  of  local  organiza- 
tions. Over  and  above  the  local  society  stands  the 
denomination,  the  Church,  to  which  others  than 
the  members  of  such  organizations  belong.  It  is  a 
spiritual  body;  but  as  such  it  is  formally  organized. 
It  is  provided  with  a  constitution,  and  is  recog- 
nized by  law. 

From  a  juristic  point  of  view  the  relations  be- 


Oharoh  and  State 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


110 


tween  Church  and  State  resulting  from  self-gov- 
ernment on  the  part  of  the  Church  ofifer  no  difficulty. 
From  a  practical  point  of  view  the  question  might 
be  raised:  Has  the  Evangelieal  Church  in  Germany 
the  strength  and  vitality  to  maintain  itself  without 
the  support  of  the  strong  arm  of  the  State?  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  it  has  been 
just  this  antiquated  system  of  state  government 
for  the  Church  that  has  made  such  a  question 
possible.  A  people  is  educated  by  its  institutions; 
and  in  this  respect  the  Evangelical  population  of 
Germany  has  been  badly  educated.  If  the  Evan- 
gelical Church  is  now  without  confidence  in  itself 
this  condition  of  affairs  is  due  to  centuries  of  state 
domination  over  the  Church.  It  may  be  admitted 
that  independence  for  the  Church  would  involve 
a  difficult  period  of  transition,  but  it  is  assumed 
that  the  State  would  continue  to  aid  the  Church 
until  the  Church  had  become  self-supporting.  For 
the  relations  between  Church  and  State  in  different 
countries  see  the  articles  upon  the  countries  and 
states.  See  also  the  numerous  related  articles, 
such  as  Church,  the  Chbistian;  Church  Gov- 
ernment; Jurisdiction,  Ecclesiastical;  Polity; 
and  Religious  Corporations.     (Otto  Mater.) 

n.  The  United  States:  The  relations  of  the  relig- 
ious and  political  institutions  in  the  United  States 
differ  radically  from  those  found  elsewhere  in  Chris- 
tendom, and  need  to  be  considered  separately.  The 
American  people  are  without  an  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishment provided  by  organic  law.  The  popular 
description  of  this  condition  is  that  there  is  ''  a 
complete  separation  of  Church  and  State  in  the 
United  States."  While  this  phrase  holds  the  kernel 
of  a  truth,  it  does  not  fairly  express  that  truth. 
The  fact  of  the  political  separation  is  unduly  em- 
phasized, while  the  real  connection  between  the 
two  institutions  is  overlooked. 

At  the  time  of  the  settlement  of  this  country  it 

was  universally  regarded  as  a  normal  function  of 

the  civil  power  to  see  to  it  that  all 

X.  Philo-     subjects,  in  theory  at  least,  sustained 

sophical     some   definite  ecclesiastical   relation; 

Back-       and  the  aggregate  of  such  relations  as 

ground,  had  the  sanction  and  support  of  the 
civil  power  constituted  an  ecclesias- 
tical establishment.  American  political  philosophy 
aa  it  developed  through  the  colonial  and  early 
national  periods  preserved  the  concept  that  the 
civil  power  is  charged  with  a  duty  in  respect  to  the 
religious  affairs  of  the  people,  that  it  has  an  eccle- 
siastical function  to  perform;  and  it  developed  this 
concept  to  the  effect  that  it  is  a  normal  function 
of  the  civil  powers  to  make  it  politically  possible 
and  legally  convenient  for  all  the  people  to  sustain 
volimtaiy  ecclesiastical  relations,  or  to  sustain  none 
at  all.  Under  the  American  political  system  all 
ecclesiastical  relations  must  be  voluntary,  must 
be  without  political  penalty,  and  must  be  legal; 
but  the  demand  upon  the  civil  government  as  the 
physically  dominant  institution  of  society  to  realize 
these  conditions  is  as  great  as  it  ever  was  to  pro- 
tect a  state  church.  This  obligation  of  American 
civil  governments  is  now  confirmed  by  a  public 
opinion  which  has  been  gaining  strength  through 
four  generations  and  is  now  generally  accepted 


without  controversy.  It  is  now  expressed  in  a 
series  of  guaranties  and  limitations  contained  in 
the  organic  law  of  the  several  commonwealths,  in 
a  well-developed  system  of  statute  legislation  pro- 
viding definite  legal  procedure  covering  many  eccle- 
siastical relations,  and  in  a  body  of  notable  judicial 
decisions  rendered  by  the  civil  courts  of  last  resort 
defining  under  ever  changing  circumstances  what 
shall  be  the  relation  of  Church  and  State. 

Historically,  this  development  has  been  as  follows: 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  the 
colonies  were  divided  ecclesiastically 
2.  Colonial  into  three  groups.  In  one  group,  con- 
Period,  sisting  of  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  the  direct 
establishment  of  the  communion  of  the  Church  of 
England,  without,  however,  a  resident  episcopacy, 
was  more  or  less  complete  in  law.  In  a  second 
group,  consisting  of  Massachusetts,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  Connecticut,  the  congregational  form  of 
ecclesiastical  organization  on  the  basis  of  the  terri- 
torial parish  was  established  in  law  and  in  fact.  In 
a  third  group,  consisting  of  Rhode  Island  and  Penn- 
sylvania, no  ecclesiastical  establishment  had  been 
developed  either  in  law  or  in  fact.  Wherever  there 
was  an  establishment,  what  may  be  described  as 
the  civil  chim;h  law  was  largely  political  and  ad- 
ministrative in  its  character.  As  a  result  of  political 
revolution  the  direct  establishments  by  royal  au- 
thority were  nullified  in  law  and  degraded  in  popu- 
lar estimation.  The  indirect  establishments  in  the 
New  England  commonwealths,  inasmuch  as  they 
were  based  upon  provincial  legislation  and  local 
administration,  remained  undisturbed  for  some 
years.  There  remained,  however,  as  survivals  of 
the  direct  establishments  a  number  of  incorporated 
parishes  in  New  York  and  Virginia  and  a  few  in 
other  states.  As  the  remains  of  a  still  eariier  estab- 
lishment in  New  York,  there  were  several  incor- 
porated Reformed  Dutch  churches  which  had  re- 
ceived special  protection  by  the  tenns  of  the  Treaty 
of  Breda  (1664).  During  all  the  colonial  period 
dissent  had  resisted  the  legal  church  establishments, 
especially  the  system  of  taxation  for  their  support; 
and  after  the  overthrow  of  British  sovereignty  a 
demand  developed  for  a  divorcement  of  political 
and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  An  illustration  of  the 
sentiment  prevailing  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution 
is  to  be  found  in  an  act  of  the  Assembly  of  Virginia 
of  the  year  1785,  the  preamble  of  which  declares 
that  "  to  suffer  this  ci\^  magistrate  to  intrude  his 
powers  into  the  field  of  opinion,  and  to  restrain  the 
profession  or  propagation  of  principles  on  the  sup- 
position of  their  ill  tendency,  is  a  dangerous  fallacy 
which  at  once  destroys  all  religious  liberty,"  and 
that  "  it  is  time  enough  for  the  rightful  purposes  of 
civil  government  for  its  ofiScials  to  interfere  when 
principles  break  out  into  overt  acts  against  peace 
and  good  order." 

At  the  formation  of  the  Federal  government  relig- 
ious liberty  was  seciu^  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  as  far  as  the  action  of  Congress  was  con- 
cerned, by  provision  of  the  Constitution  (art.  iv., 
chap.  3,  and  the  first  amendment).  It  wiU  be  seen 
that  both  of  these  provisions  are  limitations  upon  the 


Ill 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Church  and  State 


powers  of  Congress  only.  That  body  might  pass 
no  law  in  order  to  establish  a  state  religion,  neither 
could  it  provide  any  religious  test  as  a 
3.  Coadi-  qualification  for  holding  office  under 
tions  alter  the  Federal  government.  The  framers 
the  Revo-  of  the  Constitution  did  not  under- 
lution.  take  to  protect  the  religious  liberty  of 
the  people  against  the  action  of  their 
respective  state  governments.  Religious  affairs 
were  declared  to  be  within  the  sphere  of  domestic 
relations,  and  therefore  reserved  to  the  control  of 
the  states.  The  development  of  the  local  pecul- 
iarities in  the  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  the  sev- 
eral sections  of  the  coimtry  continued  without 
inteiTuptaon.  The  colonial  legislatures  had  granted 
a  few  charters  of  incorporation  to  local  churches, 
and  this  practise  was  continued  for  a  few  years  by 
the  state  legislatures.  It  was,  however,  soon  aban- 
doned because  of  the  popular  sympathy  ^ith  the 
complaint  that  such  particular  charters  of  incor- 
poration constituted  special  legislation  secured 
through  political  influence.  After  the  Revolution 
there  arose  a  demand  in  the  middle  states  for  a 
uniform  procedure  by  which  the  local  organizations 
of  all  religious  denominations  might  receive  a  cor- 
porate form.  To  meet  the  needs  of  the  time  legis- 
lation was  enacted  which  introduced  the  second 
stage  in  the  development  of  American  ecclesiastical 
policy,  via.,  the  era  of  the  general  statute.  The 
first  general  statute  that  could  serve  the  churches 
of  all  denominations  became  law  in  New  York  on 
April  6,  1784.  An  act  of  similar  intent  and  like 
provisions  was  passed  in  1793  by  the  state  of  New 
Jersey,  and}  these  two  statutes  with  their  subse- 
quent revisions  became  the  models  for  similar 
statutes  in  many  of  the  northern  states.  These 
early  statutes  resulted  from  the  necessity  of  pro- 
viding legal  trustees  with  a  standing  in  court,  in 
whom  mi^t  rest  the  title  to  property  devoted  to 
religious  purposes.  They  were  enacted  at  a  time 
of  little  religious  interest  and  of  bare  toleration  of 
religious  bodies  by  legislators.  The  powers  con- 
ferred upon  religious  corporations  that  might  come 
into  being  under  these  general  statutes  were  very 
limited;  and  in  no  state  were  such  corporations 
allowed  to  be  self-perpetuating.  Partiality  to  re- 
ligious denominations  on  the  part  of  the  state 
legislatures  was  dreaded,  and  there  was  also  a  very 
real  fear  among  the  lawmakers  themselves  lest 
something  might  be  done  toward  recreating  an 
ecclesiastical  establishment.  The  method  of  pro- 
viding for  the  incorporation  of  religious  societies 
by  means  of  a  general  statute  has  developed  un- 
equally in  different  sections  of  the  country,  and  it 
has  not  yet  been  adopted  by  all  the  states.  As  late 
as  1866,  the  states  of  Rhode  Island,  Virginia,  and 
South  Carolina  had  no  such  statute;  and  in  1896  a 
general  statute  of  incorporation  was  still  forbidden 
by  constitution  in  the  states  of  Virginia  and  West 
Virginia. 

A  third  stage  in  the  development  of  American 
civil  church  law  has  come  as  the  residt  of  special- 
ising legislation  with  reference  to  religious  organi- 
zations in  two  directions.  In  one  direction  in- 
creased discrimination  has  been  made  between 
ecclesiastical  bodies  proper,  and  other  social,  edu- 


cational,  and    philanthropic   organizations.    The 

second  form  of  specialization,  however,  is  of  far 

more  importance  than  the  first.     In  the 

4.  Special  states  having  the  most  highly  developed 
Legislation,  legislation  the  general  provisions  of 
the  statutes  have,  from  time  to  time, 
been  supplemented  by  special  optional  provisions 
affecting  convocations  of  particular  religious  de- 
nominations. The  demand  for  this  class  of  legis- 
lation has  in  nearly  every  case  come  from  the 
churches  themselves.  As  the  denominations  have 
grown  in  strength  and  their  members  have  devel- 
oped a  more  intelligent  interest  in  their  own  special 
features  of  polity,  many  of  them  have  made  efforts 
to  find  legal  expression  for  the  essential  features  of 
their  respective  polities.  Through  these  supple- 
mental provisions,  there  has  been  wrought  into  the 
statute  law  of  many  of  the  states  the  recognition  of 
purely  ecclesiastical  functionaries.  It  can  not  now 
be  said  to  be  the  intention  of  the  legislatures  to 
keep  the  control  of  the  temporal  affairs  of  the 
churches  in  the  hands  of  corporations,  "  inde- 
pendent of  priest,  bishop,  presbytery,  or  synod  or 
other  ecclesiastical  judicatory.''  There  has  devel- 
oped in  recent  years  a  marked  legislative  cordiality 
toward  the  churches.  While  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  avowed  policy  in 
American  legislation  was  to  treat  all  religious  in- 
terests alike  by  doing  as  little  as  possible  for  any 
of  them  and  forcing  all  to  conform  to  one  procedure, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  the  policy 
seems  to  be  to  treat  all  interests  alike  by  giving  to 
each  all  that  is  asked. 

The  early  concept  of  religious  organization  in 
American  law  was  very  naturally  that  of  a  simple 
and  completely  autonomous  local  society.  To  de- 
nominations whose  types  of  polity  correspond  to 
this  concept  the  legislation  of  the  general  statute 
era  has  been  satisfactory.  The  special  optional 
provisions  referred  to,  have,  therefore,  been  enacted 
for  the  benefit  of  churches  having  polities  by  which 
the  local  bodies  sustain  a  definite  relation  to  some 
more  general  authority.  It  has  been  those  denomi- 
nations which  have  an  administrative  or  episcopal 
type  of  organization  that  have  shown  the  greatest 
energy  in  securing  denominational  legislation  of  the 
kind  mentioned.  At  the  present  time  twenty-five 
distinct  religious  denominations  have  thus  been 
specially  legislated  for.  The  statutes  of  sixteen 
states  now  contain  special  provisions  for  the  in- 
corporation and  regulation  of  Protestant  Episcopal 
chiurches.  Eight  states  make  similar  provision  for 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  and  seven  states  for 
Methodist  Episcopal  churches.  The  privilege  that 
is  being  accorded  to  religious  bodies  of  having  such 
legislation  enacted  as  best  developed  their  respect- 
ive polities  is  resulting  in  what  may  be  defined  as  a 
legal  crystallization  of  ecclesiastical  polity.  Pres- 
byteries, conferences,  synods,  classes,  conventions, 
superintendents,  overseers,  presiding  elders,  vicars 
general,  bishops,  and  archbishops,  have  come  to 
have  a  legal  status  by  virtue  of  their  ecclesiastical 
status  and  legal  powers  incidental  to  their  spiritual 
jurisdiction.  Such  features  of  ecclesiastical  or- 
ganization as  secure  recognition  in  the  civil  law  are 
thereby  less  liable  to  alteration  than  the  non-legal 


Ohuroh  and  State 
Ohtirohyard 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


112 


features,  and  more  capable  of  resisting  the  influ- 
ences of  social  environment. 

The  fmidamental  principles  of  political  philosophy 
which  were  to  regulate  the  relations  of  Church  and 
State  among  the  American  people  had  been  well 
defined  and  generally  accepted  while  the  nation  was 
still  confined  to  the  original  states  along  the  Atlantic 
coast;  and  successive  expansions  of  the  national 
domain  have  not  resulted  in  any  radical  changes  of 
policy.  The  same  principles  have  been  applied  by 
the  Federal  government  in  Alaska,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
Nowhere  has  the  civil  power  failed  in  its  function 
of  affording  legal  protection  and  procedure  for 
religious  organizations,  and  nowhere  have  the 
churches  exceeded  these  legal  powers  and  infringed 
upon  civil  rights.  The  alien  peoples  who  have 
come  under  American  political  training  give  evi- 
dence of  appreciating  the  altered  relation  of  Church 
and  State.  After  more  than  one  hundred  years  of 
test  under  all  conditions,  it  is  now  as  true  as  at  the 
beginning  of  American  national  life  that  the  full 
and  free  right  to  entertain  any  religious  belief,  to 
practise  any  religious  principle,  and  to  teach  any 
religious  doctrine  which  does  not  violate  the  laws 
of  morality,  and  which  does  not  infringe  personal 
rights,  is  conceded  to  all.  The  law  knows  no  heresy, 
is  committed  to  the  support  of  no  dogma  and  to  the 
establishment  of  no  sect.    George  James  Batles. 

Bibuoobapbt:  W.  E.  GUdstone,  The  State  in  Us  Relationa 
loOfc  the  Church,  2  toIs:,  London*  1841;  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
On  the  Conetituiion  of  Church  and  State,  ib.  1852;  T.  R. 
Birke.  Church  and  State,  ib.  1869;  J.  W.  Joyce.  The  Civil 
Power  in  iU  RelaHon  to  the  Church,  ib.  1860;  E.  de  Pres- 
aens^.  Church  and  French  Revolution,  ib.  1869;  J.  RQttiman. 
Kirdie  und  Stoat  in  Nordamerika,  Basel.  1871;  E.  Fried- 
berg,  Die  Oremen  ewieehen  Stoat  und  Kirche  und  die 
Garantien  geoen  deren  Verletaung,  TQbingen.  1872;  J.  P. 
Thompson,  Church  and  State  in  the  United  States,  Boston, 
1873;  J.  S.  Mill,  State  Interference  with  Church  Property, 
in  his  Diaeertatione,  4  vols.,  London,  1873-75;  J.  Hcr> 
genrdther,  The  Catholic  Church  and  the  Christian  State, 
London,  1876;  H.  Gefifcken,  Church  and  State,  their  Re- 
lation* hietorically  Conndered,  2  vols.,  London,  1877; 
M.  Minghetti.  Stoat  und  Kirche,  Gotha,  1881;  F.  Nippold, 
Die  Theorie  der  Trennung  von  Kirche  und  StatU,  Bern, 
1881;  P.  Hinschius,  AUgemeine  DareteUung  der  VerhAlt- 
nieae  von  Stoat  und  Kirche,  Freiburg.  1883;  A.  P.  Stanley, 
Beaaye  chiefly  on  QuesHona  of  Church  and  State,  London, 
1884;  De  Gabriao,  L'Sgliae  et  I'ftat,  Paris,  1886;  W. 
Armitage,  Sketchea  of  Church  and  State  in  the  Firat  Eight 
Centuriea,  London,  1888;  P.  Schaff.  Church  and  State  in 
the  United  Statea,  New  York,  1888;  U.  Balzani,  The  Popes 
and  the  Hohenataufen, ,  New  York,  1889;  A.  T.  Innes, 
Churdi  and  State,  Edinburgh.  1890;  C.  Benoist.  L'£tat 
et  VSgliae,  Paris,  1892;  P.  E.  Lauer.  Church  and  State  in 
New  England,  Baltimore,  1892  (Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity Studies,  10  ser.,  nos.  2-3);  K.  Rieker,  Die  recKtliche 
SteUung  der  evangdiachen  Kirche  DeutacManda  in  ihrer 
geachichUichen  Entwieklung,  Leipsic,  1893;  W.  Kahl, 
Lehrayatem  dee  Kirchenrechta  und  der  KirchenpoHOk,  i. 
246  sqq.,  Freibung,  1894;  D.  A.  Wirgmann.  The  Church 
and  the  Civil  Povjer,  London,  1894;  F.  Satolli,  Loyalty  to 
Church  and  State,  Baltimore,  1895;  W.  D.  and  J.  B. 
Johnston,  Relationa  between  Church  and  State,  Ann  Arbor, 
1896-97;  T.  Mommsen,  RdnUaehea  Strafrecht,  Leipsic, 
1899;  T.  Kaftan,  Vier  KapUel  von  der  Landeakirche, 
Sleswick,  1903;  W.  D.  Abraham,  Church  and  State  in 
England,  London,  1905;  M.  Lecomte,  Rapport  au  a6nat 
aur  la  projet  de  loi  concemant  la  aipartUion  dea  Sgliaea  et  de 
Vital,  Paris.  1905;  E.  Troeltsch,  in  P.  Hinneberg,  Die 
Kultur  der  Qegenwart,  I.  iv.,  Leipsic,  1905;  P.  Sabatier, 
k  propoa  de  la  a&pmration  dea  igliaea  et  de  Vital,  Paris, 
190(8,  Eng.  tranal.,  DiaeaUMiahment  in  France,  New  York, 


1906;  W.  Bimey,  France  and  the  Pope;  the  Separation  of 
the  Churdiea  and  the  French  Republic,  New  York,  1907; 
A.  Eitel,  Der  KirchenattauU  vmter  Klemena  V.,  Beriin. 
1907. 

CHURCH  TRIUMPHANT:  1.  A  church  founded 
by  a  Mrs.  Beekman  (d.  1883),  who  claimed  to  be 
the  "  spiritiial  mother  of  Christ  in  the  second  com- 
ing "  and  declared  George  Jacob  Schweinfurth  the 
"  Messiah  of  the  New  Dispensation."  Mr.  Schwein- 
furth left  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  became  a  follower  of  Mrs.  Beekman,  and 
subsequently  the  leader  of  her  followers.  Head- 
quarters of  the  body  were  established  at  the  Weldon 
Farm,  six  miles  from  Rockford,  111.  The  Church 
accepted  the  Bible  as  the  word  of  God,  but  denied 
the  essential  divinity  of  Christ,  holding  that  he 
received  the  spirit  of  God,  became  free  from  sin 
and  its  curse  and  so  divine.  Schweinfurth  claimed 
equality  with  Jesus  in  this  respect  and  was  accepted 
us  the  "  Christ  of  the  second  coming."  The 
Church  is  now  extinct,  and  when  most  flourishing 
numbered  only  twelve  congregations  with  384  com- 
municants. 
Bibuoobapbt:  H.  K.  Carroll,  Rdigioua  Foreea  of  the  United 

Statea,  pp.  105-106,  New  York.  1896. 

2.  A  religious  and  communistic  society,  having 
headquarters  at  E^stero,  Fla.,  founded  by  Cyrus 
F.  Teed,  and  also  known  as  the  Koreshan  Ecclesia. 
See  Communism,  II.,  4. 

CHURCH  VISITATIONS:    A  method  of   eccle- 
siastical supervision  of  churches  and  church  work. 
This  institution  has  for  its  purpose  the  oversight 
of  church  government,  and  is  a  means  of  securing 
insight  into,  and  of  promoting,  church  life.     As 
early  as  the  fourth  century  it  was  the  custom  of  the 
Eastern  Church  for  the  bishops  or  their  deputies  to 
visit  the  churches  of  the  diocese.    In  the  West  also 
this  visitation  by' the  bishop  dates  from  an  early 
time.    This  institution  was  especially  cultivated 
in  the  Frankish  Church.    There  visitations  took 
place  when  the  bishop  traversed  his  diocese  to  per- 
form the  rite  of  confirmation.    Under  Charlemagne 
the  bishop  was  aided  and  controlled  by  the  count 
or  his  mayor.    They  jointly  held  the  synodal  court 
(Sendgericht)f  punishing  not  only  eccle- 
Early       siastical  offenses,  but  also  sins  like 
Practise     theft,     perjury,    sorcery,     etc.    The 
and  Its     decay  of  visitations  in  the  following 
Decay,      period  was  due  to   two   causes:  (1) 
the    bishops    were    more    and    more 
estranged  from  their  spiritual  calling  by  becoming 
secular  princes;    (2)  the  custom  of  redemption — 
that  is,  exemption  from  penalties  on  payment  of  a 
sum  of  money — ^was  introduced  into  the  synodal 
courts,  making  them  an  important  source  of  revenue. 
The  Council  of  Trent  ameliorated  these  conditions, 
and  made  it  the  duty  of  the  bishops  to  visit  their 
diocese  either  every  year  or  every  second  year, 
according  to  its  size. 

Visitations  became  important  again  at  the  time 
of  the  Reformation.  They  were  the  means  of 
carrying  out  the  Reformation  in  individual  terri- 
tories. That  in  electoral  Saxony  became  the 
model  and  basis  of  the  others.  The  first  impulse 
in  this  direction  came  not  from  Luther,  but  from 
Jacob  Strauss  in  Eisenach  (1525)  and  from  Nicolaus 


118 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohuroh  and  Btato 
Ohurohyazd 


Hwifwnann,  preacher  at  Zwickau.  Both  showed 
tlie  necessity  of  such  oversight.  Induced  by  the 
fanatics  and  the  Peafiants'  War,  Luther  strongly 
urged  the  elector  to  order  a  thorough  visitation. 
It  was  immediately  begim,  and,  although  at  first 
only  sporadic,  it  soon  revealed  its  necessity.  In 
1526  Luther  proposed  a  general  church-  and  school- 
visitation,  which  was  carried  out  by  a  commission 
of  clergy  and  laymen  in  1527-29.  The  Saxon  book 
of  visitation,  composed  by  Melanchthon,  Unter- 
richi  der  Visitatoren  an  die  Pfarhem  ym  Kurfiirst- 
enikum  zu  Sachsaen  (1528),  was  generally  adopted 
as  the  model.    There  the  principle  of 

Revival     church  government  by  the  state  found 

During      its    first   expression.    The    visitation 
the  Refer-  included  in  its  scope  the  official  con- 

mation.  duct  of  the  pastors,  the  order  of  church 
service,  cozifession,  and  church  disci- 
pline. The  whole  constitution  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  has  its  basis  and  model  in  this  institution. 
Because  of  their  historical  value  the  proceedings  of 
the  visitations  were  published,  either  as  a  whole  or 
in  part,  those  of  the  Wittenberg  district  by  Winter 
(1862),  those  of  the  district  of  JUterbogk  by  Gdtze, 
those  of  Magdeburg  by  Danneil  (1864).  Bui'k- 
hardt  plann^  a  comprehensive  history  of  the 
Cserman  church-  and  school-visitations  in  this 
period,  but  only  the  Saxon  visitations  appeared 
(1879).  Nebe  published  in  1880  (in  abstract  only) 
the  proceedings  of  the  visitations  of  the  bishopric 
of  Halberstadt  from  1564  to  1589;  the  complete 
visitations  in  the  Guelphic  states  from  1542  to  1544 
were  published  in  1897  by  Kayser.  While  the  first 
visitations  were  extraordinary  measures,  they  were 
soon  made  a  stated  order.  The  Prussian  articles 
of  1540  order  one  annually,  and  most  of  the  later 
church  orders  contain  ordinances  for  periodical 
repetition. 

After  the  Thirty  Years'  War  these  functions 
attained  again  their  former  importance  and  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  restoration  of  order  and 
church  life.  In  the  eighteenth  century  they  degen- 
erated, but  were  reinstituted  in  their  old  form  in  the 
German  state  churches  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
largely  through  their  advocacy  at  the  Eisenach 
conference  of  1852-53.  They  recur  regularly,  two 
to  six  years  apart.  The  superintendent  or  general 
superintendent  is  the  visitor,  often  in 

Modem     cooperation  with  an  officer  of  the  state ; 

Practise,  or  a  commission  is  instituted  with  the 
superintendent  as  leader.  The  visi- 
tations are  usually  held  on  Sunday  and  consist  of 
a  sermon  by  the  pastor,  an  address  by  the  visitor, 
an  examination  of  the  conditions  of  religious  in- 
struction, discussion  with  the  ministers  and  teachers, 
the  vestry  or  the  house  fathers,  revision  of  admin- 
istrative affairs,  of  church  registers  and  buildings, 
of  the  cemetery,  etc.  The  question  has  been  dis- 
cussed whether  in  these  visitations  the  element  of 
devotion  and  churchly  revival  should  predominate, 
or  whether  they  should  be  conducted  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  information.  In  this 
respect  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  different 
German  state  churches,  nor  do  they  agree  on  the 
question  whether  part  should  be  taken  by  s3modical 
representatives.  (G.  UHLHORNt) 

III. -8 


BiBUOoaA.PHT;  On  tlie  early  and  the  Lutheran  vintationa: 
J.  Auerbaeh,  D«  vinkUionum  §ccU9icB  proffreuu  a  primU 
imnporibut,  Frankfort,  1862;  A.  L.  Richter,  Oeaehiehte  <Ur 
«van0«lMcA«n  Kirehenverfauung  in  DetUaehland,  pp.  43 
■qq..  Leipdo,  1861;  C.  A.  H.  Burkhardt,  Geaehichte  der 
•dehBi9chen  Ktrchery-  und  Se/ttd-ViaitaUoMn,  16Bjh4S, 
ib.  1870;  K.  Kayser.  Die  nformaioritehen  Ktrchenvieita- 
Honen  in  den  wafieehen  Landen,  164^44,  OOttingen.  1807. 
On  Boman  Catholio  rules  oonoernins  visitations  consult  L. 
Thomassinus,  Vetue  ac  nova  eedeaia  .  .  .  inetrudio  es- 
Voeiia,  3  vols.,  Lucca.  1728;  P.  Melchers,  Dt  oanomea 
dioeeeium  viaikUione^  Cologne,  1803;  Bingham.  Origineet 
books  v..  IX..  XVII.;  XL,  s.v.  "  Visitationen." 

CHURCHWARDENS:  Two  lay  officers  in  each 
parish  of  the  Andean  communion,  whose  duty  is 
to  have  charge,  with  the  vestry,  of  the  temporalities 
of  the  church,  and  to  see  that  provision  is  made  for 
the  maintenance  and  orderly  celebration  of  public 
worship.  In  England  one  is  usually  nominated 
by  the  incumbent  and  the  other  elected  by  the 
parishioners;  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
both  (called  '*  senior  "  and  "  junior  "  wardens)  are 
elected  by  the  congregation  annually  in  Easter- 
week. 

CHURCHYARD:  Cbnfonnably  to  the  contem- 
porary Greek  and  Roman  custom,  the  primitive 
Christian  burial-places  lay  outside  the  community. 
There  was  no  difference  in  this  respect  between 
corporate  cemeteries  and  private  grounds,  between 
the  subterranean  and  those  on  the  surface.  East 
and  West,  this  actual  condition  is  the  same.  It 
appears  that  this  custom  was  broken  for  the  first 
time  within  the  pale  of  Christendom  through  the 
circumstance  that  Constantine  the  Great  was  en- 
tombed in  the  Chiurch  of  the  Apostles  at  Constan- 
tinople— a  decisive  precedent  for  the  future.  For 
that  matter,  during  antiquity  in  general  there  was 
provision  for  urban  burial  as  a  mark  of  special 
honor  (virtuUi  causa)— Augustus  and  Trajan,  for 
instance,  at  Rome;  and,  without  exception,  the 
Vestals.  Under  a  flexible  construction  there  also 
soon  followed  eminent  ecclesiastics  (e.g.,  Ambrose) 
and  persons  of  woridly  distinction,  but  first  and 
foremost  the  martyrs  and  saints,  whose  bodies  were 
exalted  and  lodged  in  the  neighborhood  churches. 
During  the  foiuth  century  it  was  even  customary 
in  Egypt  to  preserve  mimmiified  bodies  of  saints 
in  their  homes.  In  fact,  what  was  originally  the 
exception  began  to  be  the  general  rule  toward  the 
end  of  the  fourth  centiuy,  so  that  secular  and  spiri- 
tual authorities  were  obliged  to  forbid  the  multi- 
plication of  burials  in  churches.  Finally  a  com- 
promise was  arranged  whereby  burial  inside  the 
church  was  granted  in  exceptional  cases  by  episco- 
pal authorization;  whereas  to  the  congregation  as 
such  was  made  over  the  groimd  enclosing  the 
church  {atrium  ecdesia :  "  churchyard  ").  This 
ground,  it  is  true,  did  not  attain  to  the  high  esteem 
of  the  church  interior;  but  still  it  availed,  being 
consecrated,  as  holy  ground;  while  the  vicinity  of 
the  sacrificial  mass  and  of  the  sanctuary  prayer 
contributed  also,  in  a  degree,  to  enhance  its  favor. 
See  Cemeteries. 

The  medieval  Church  exercised  unrestricted 
authority  over  the  churchyard,  which  it  regarded 
as  an  adjimct  of  God's  house.  The  same  right  of 
asylum  protected  them  both  (cf .  Clerman  Friedhof^ 


Ohorohixi^  of  Women 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


114 


in  the  sense  "  safeguard  ")•  By  consecration  a 
particular  seal  was  imparted  to  the  churchyard; 
and  a  dedication  of  the  church  demanded  likewise 
a  new  consecration  of  the  churchyard,  though  not 
vice  versa.  The  execution  of  a  bloody  sentence  on 
this  ground  involved  excommunication.  The  not 
infrequent  custom  of  fortifying  the  churchyard, 
together  with  the  church,  for  the  protection  of  the 
church  was  ecclesiastically  contested,  indeed,  but 
not  annulled.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  required 
that  the  graveyard  be  well  fenced  in  or  hedged. 
Special  plots  are  reserved  for  the  priests.  The 
graves  of  children  who  die  without  baptism  are 
located  in  a  place  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the 
cemetery.  No  one  who  has  not  departed  this  life 
in  peace  with  the  church  may  be  laid  to  rest  in 
consecrated  ground. 

A  tall  cross  must  be  set  up  in  the  middle  of  the 
cemetery.  Another  necessary  requirement  is  a 
charnel-house  (pssuarium),  into  which  the  disin- 
terred bones  are  gathered.  There  belongs  lastly 
to  the  structural  completeness  of  the  cemetery  the 
lantern  of  the  dead,  a  round  or  polygonal  tower 
with  a  top-piece  for  the  reception  of  a  perpetual 
light.  Its  origin  inheres,  perhaps,  in  the  symbol- 
ism of  light;  but  popular  credulity  saw  in  this  light 
a  means  of  defense  against  evil  spirits.  Artistic 
decoration  of  the  graveyard  appears  to  have  been 
the  exception  in  medieval  times.  Such  an  excep- 
tion is  the  renowned  Campo  Santo  in  Pisa,  begim 
in  1278,  and  further  embellished  in  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  The  Church  of  Rome  has 
retained  the  observances  and  canonical  regulations 
of  medieval  usage,  but  only  in  isolated  instances — 
as  with  reference  to  tombstone  inscriptions  and  the 
maintenance  of  cemeteries  adjoining  the  chiu-ch — 
have  the  same  been  supplemented  with  new  regu- 
lations. 

Cemetery  development  in  the  Greek  Church 
generally  parallels  that  in  the  West.  The  Greek 
Church  likewise  classes  the  graveyard  with  conse- 
crated things,  provides  for  it  official  dedication, 
and  reckons  with  the  possibility  of  desecration. 

The  Reformation  consistently  broke  with  the 
medieval  conception  of  the  cemetery  as  locu8 
rdigiosua,  and  at  the  same  time  did  away  with  the 
specific  Roman  Catholic  burial  rites.  With  all 
this,  however,  the  duty  by  no  means  lapsed  of 
showing  a  pious  regard  for  the  resting-place  of  the 
dead.  The  church  ordinances  dwell  on  the  matter 
frequently.  Modem  legislation  has  revised  former 
customs  and  legal  usages.  Interment  in  the 
churches,  with  exceptions  of  princes  and  bishops, 
has  been  forbidden.  And  alongside  the  confes- 
sional cemetery  for  believers,  there  has  grown  up 
the  mimicipal  cemetery  for  non-confessors. 

Victor  Schultzb. 

Bibxjoobapbt:  Lists  of  works  germane  to  the  subject  will 
be  found  under  Bttrial  and  Ceueteries. 

CHURCH  YEAR:  The  comprehensive  term 
given  to  the  regular  succession  of  seasons,  feasts, 
and  fasts  in  the  calendar  of  the  Christian  Church, 
independent  of  the  civil  calendar  although  to  some 
extent  making  use  of  it  for  convenience  of  reckon- 
ing. The  simplest  basis  of  division  is  tliat  denoted 
by  the  week  of  seven  days,  which  was  in  use  among 


the  Jews  from  early  times,  and  had  been  introduced 
into  Roman  usage  shortly  before  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  replacing  the  period  of  eight  days 
{irUemundinum),  Both  Jewish  and  Gentile  Chris- 
tians, accordingly,  were  prepared  to  accept  this 
division,  although  they  rejected  the  pagan  names 
for  the  days  of  the  week,  and  preferred  to  call 
Sunday  the  Lord's  Day  {dies  dominica,  htmera 
kwriaki),  numbering  the  others  in  order  as  feria 
aecunda,  teriia,  etc.  With  this  for  a  basis,  and  Sun- 
day, the  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ,  as  the  earliest  approach  to  a  recurrent  fes- 
tival (see  Sunday),  the  entire  sequence  of  festivals 
and  seasons  gradually  grew  up  (see  Feastb  and 
FE8TIVAI8,  II.,  and  the  articles  on  the  separate 
days  thus  distinguished). 

In  the  Western  Churches  which  have  adopted 
such  a  chronological  scheme  the  ecclesiastical 
year  begins  with  the  first  Sunday  in  Advent,  which 
is  always  "  the  nearest  Sunday  to  the  feast  of  St. 
Andrew  "  (Nov.  30),  whether  before  or  after  (i.e., 
the  first  Sunday  after  Nov.  26).  There  are  four 
Sundays  in  this  season  of  preparation  for  Chris- 
tians. In  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican 
Churches  one  or  two  "  Sundays  after  Christmas  " 
follow  as  the  case  may  be  to  tluB  feast  of  the  Epiph- 
any (Jan.  6).  In  the  German  Lutheran  Churches 
D^.  26  is  the  "  second  Christmas,"  a  Sunday  from 
Dec.  27  to  Dec.  31  is  the  "  Sunday  after  Christmas," 
and  a  Sunday  from  Jan.  2  to  Jan.  5  is  the  "  Sunday 
after  New  Year"  (which  is  also  observed  as  a 
church  day).  Sundays  after  Epiphany  are  num- 
bered in  order,  there  being  from  one  to  six  of  them 
according  to  the  date  of  Easter.  Then  three  Sun- 
days, named  Septuagesima,  Sexagesima,  and  Quin- 
quagesima  from  the  approximate  distance  to  Easter, 
lead  up  to  the  forty  days  (forty  week-days,  the 
Sundays  not  being  included  as  fasting-days)  of 
lent  beginning  with  Ash  Wednesday  and  termi- 
nating in  the  festival  of  Easter.  The  next  five 
Lord's  days  are  known  as  Sundays  after  Easter, 
and  the  whole  period  of  fifty  days  following  Easter, 
with  the  feast  of  the  Ascension  occurring  on  the 
fortieth,  is  a  time  of  the  highest  spiritual  joyful- 
ness.  The  paschal  season  terminates  with  the 
festival  of  Pentecost  (Whitsunday),  which  falls  on 
the  seventh  Simday  after  Easter  (the  sixth  Simday 
after  Easter  being  the  "  Sunday*  after  Ascension- 
day  ").  The  succeeding  Sundays  to  the  end  of  the 
church  year  are  designated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  Sundays  after  Pentecost,  in  the  Anglican 
and  Lutheran  after  Trinity,  the  Feast  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  falling  in  all  these  bodies  on  the  octave  of 
Pentecost.  There  may  be  from  twenty-three  to 
twenty-eight  Sundays  after  Trinity,  twenty-four 
to  twenty-nine  after  Pentecost. 

In  the  Eastern  Church  the  jrear  is  divided  into 
three  parts  without  reference  to  the  date  on  which 
it  begins  (Sept.  1);  the  part  preparatory  to  Blaster, 
called  trididion  after  the  book  containing  the  litur- 
gical forms  used  during  the  season,  begins  with 
the  "  Sunday  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican  " 
(so  called  from  the  Gospel  for  the  day),  which 
corresponds  to  the  last  Sunday  after  Epiphany  in 
the  Western  reckoning;  the  paschal  season  (pen" 
tekostarion)  extends  to  and  includes  the  first  Sun- 


115 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Oharohyard 
Ohurohinff  of  Woman 


day  after  Penteco6t  (the  Greek  feast  of  AU  Saints) 
and  the  remaining  period  (oktoichos)  has  its  Sun- 
days designated,  according  to  the  evangelical 
lections,  either  as  "  Matthew  Sundays  "  (second  to 
fourteenth  after  Pentecost)  or  as  "  Luke  Sundays  " 
(fifteenth  after  Pentecost  to  the  Western  second  in 
Advent  and  those  after  Epiphany).  See  Calendar, 
THE  Christian. 

Tlie  following  «re  the  earliest  and  latest  dates  on  whioh 
the  Tariotts  chur^  days  named  can  fall: 
First  Sunday  in  Advent.  Nov.  27-Dee.  3. 
Septuaceeima  Sunday,  Jan.  18-Feb.  22. 
Ash  Wedneeday,  Feb.  4-Mar.  11. 
Easter.  Mar.  22-Apr.  25. 
Ascension  Day,  Apr.  30-June  3. 
Whitsunday.  May  10-June  13. 
Trinity  Sunday.  May  17-June  20. 

Bibuogkapht:  Consult  the  literature  dted  under  Fkabtb 
▲KoFEflnvALa,  especially  the  works  of  Augusti,  Bingham, 
Binterim.  and  Ouser:  J.  C.  W.  Augusti,  Die  Fette  der  aUen 
Ckriaien,  Leipaic.  1817-20;  F.  H.  Rheinwald.  Die  kirdUiche 
Arth6oloin€,  pp.  164-257,  Berlin.  1830;  H.  Alt,  Der  duris^ 
lUhe  Cultua,  part  2,  doM  KircKenjahr,  ib.  1860;  W.  I.  Kip, 
Tks  Hiat.,  Objtei  and  Proper  Obeervanee  of  Lent,  New  York, 
1875;  8.  Butcher.  The  Eedeeiaetical  Calendar,  London, 
1877;  A.  H.  Grant,  Church  Seaaone,  Hietorioal  and  Poetical, 
New  York«  1881;  Handbudi  der  theolooUchen  Wieaenn 
eehaftem,  ed.  O.  Zdckler.  iv.  361  sqq..  N6rdlingen,  1885; 
A.  Tait.  Hiifh  Daye  of  (ke  Chrietian  Year,  London,  1890; 
DC  A,  ii.  2054-59  (gives  list  of  the  celebrations  and  their 
names  in  the  different  calendars);  the  Uterature  under 
Calendab;  Common  Pbatbr,  Book  or. 

CHURCH,  ALFRED  JOHN:  Church  of  England 
classical  scholar;  b.  in  London  Jan.  29,  1829.  He 
was  educated  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1851  )i 
and  was  curate  of  Westport  St.  Mary's,  Gloucester, 
1853-56;  of  St.  Peter's  Chapel,  St.  Marylebone,  Lon- 
don, 1861-68;  rector  of  Ashley,  Tilbury,  Glouces- 
tershire, 1892--97;  professor  of  Latin  in  University 
College,  London,  1880-87.  In  theology  he  is  an 
orthodox  liberal  Anglican,  with  a  distinct  apprecia- 
tion of  the  value  of  higher  criticism.  His  reputar 
tion  rests  upon  his  many  pleasing  tales  from  the 
Latin  and  Greek  classics  and  from  church  history, 
those  from  the  latter  being  such  as  The  Story  of 
Jerusalem  (London,  1880);  "  To  the  Lions  "  (1889); 
The  Crusaders  (1904). 

CHURCH,  RICHARD  WILLIAM:  Dean  of  St. 
Paul's;  b.  in  Lisbon  Apr.  25,  1815;  d.  in  Dover 
Dec.  9,  1890.  He  entered  Wadham  College,  Ox- 
ford, 1833  (B.A.,.1836;  M.A.,  1839;  hon.  D.C.L., 
1875);  was  fellow  of  Oriel  1838-52;  tutor  1839-42; 
junior  proctor  1844-45;  rector  of  Whatley,  Somer- 
set, from  1852  to  1871,  when  he  became  dean  of  St. 
Paul's.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Oxford  1868, 
1876-78,  1881-^2.  The  religious  influences  to 
which  he  was  subjected  at  Redlands,  near  Bristol, 
where  he  attended  school  1828-33,  were  narrowly 
evangelical;  at  Oxford,  however,  he  was  drawn 
into  the  Tractarian  movement  and  he  became  an 
intimate  friend  of  Newman.  A  striking  incident 
of  his  career  was  the  veto  by  the  proctors  in  con- 
vocation at  Oxford,  Feb.,  1845,  of  the  proposition 
to  condemn  Newman's  Tract  90,  in  connection  with 
the  degradation  of  William  George  Ward  (q.v.). 
The  veto  was  pronounced  by  the  senior  proctor, 
Henry  Peter  Guillcmard,  but  it  was  inspired  by 
the  junior  proctor,  Church.  As  dean  he  restored 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  readjusted  its  revenues,  and 


reorganized  its  staff;  he  was  faithful  and  zealot2s, 
but  unostentatious.  He  translated  The  Catechetical 
Lectures  of  St.Cyrit  of  Jerusalem  (London,  1838)  for 
Pusey  and  Newman's  Library  of  the  Fathers,  wrote 
The  Beginnings  of  the  Middle  Ages  (1877)  for  the 
Epochs  of  Modem  History  series,  and,  with  Canon 
Paget,  revised  Keble's  edition  of  Hooker's  Ecdesir 
astical  PclUy  (Oxford,  1888).  He  published  a  crit- 
ical study  of  St,  Ansdm  (London,  1870);  an  essay  on 
Darde  (first  printed  in  the  Christian  Remembrancer^ 
1850;  reprinted  with  a  translation  of  Dante's  De 
monorchia  by  his  son,  F.  J.  Church,  1878);  Spenser 
(1879)  and  Bacon  (1884)  in  the  English  Men  of 
Letters  series.  His  last  work  was  The  Oxford  Move- 
ment (1891). 

Bxbuoobapht:  liary  C.  Church,  Life  and  Leitere  of  Dean 
Church,  London,  1804  (by  his  daughter);  A.  B.  Donald- 
son. Richard  WiUiam  Chtardi,  ib.  1006;  DNB,  suppla- 
ment,  ii.  6-9. 

CHURCHES  OF  GOD  IN  CHRIST  JESUS.    See 

Advbntistb,  6, 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN:  According  to  the 
prescriptions  of  Lev.  xii.,  women  were  regarded  as 
ceremonially  unclean  after  childbirth  (see  Dbfilb- 

MENT   AND    PURIFICATION,    CeBEMONIAL,  I.,  1,  §  2; 

II.,  1,  §  1),  and,  especially  since  Maiy  submitted 
herself  to  the  ordinance  of  purification  (Luke 
ii.  22),  the  idea  found  entrance  into  the  Church. 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  in  his  epistle  to  Basilides 
{MPO,  X.  1281),  treats  it  as  a  matter  of  course 
that  pious  mothers  will  not  approach  the  Lord's 
table  imtil  ceremonially  clean,  and  Zonaras  and 
Balsamon  gave  it  canonical  force.  According  to 
the  ritual  laid  down  for  the  first  visit  to  the 
church  (Groar,  Euchologion,  p.  267),  the  mother  was 
to  present  herself  on  the  fortieth  day  after  de- 
livery with  her  child  and  its  sponsor;  the  priest 
offered  a  prayer  for  her  complete  purification,  and 
another  for  the  child,  accompanied  with  the  sign 
of  the  cross;  then,  carrying  the  child,  he  led  the 
mother  within  the  church  with  an  appropriate 
formula.  In  an  Ethiopian  ritual  mother  and  child 
were  anointed  on  the  forehead  with  holy  oil.  The 
Western  Church  took  a  different  view.  Gregory 
the  Great  wrote  in  answer  to  a  question  of  Augus- 
tine of  Canterbury  that  recent  mothers  nught  in- 
deed abstain  for  a  time  from  communion  out  of 
reverence,  but  that  they  were  not  to  be  condemned 
if  they  received  it  soon  after  childbirth;  and  this  de- 
cision passed  into  the  canon  law  (Decreta  Gregorii, 
iii.  47).  The  Western  custom,  however,  was  to 
bring  the  mother  formally  to  church,  with  the 
child,  usually  on  the  fortieth  day,  and  the  con- 
ception of  purification  still  maintained  itself, 
symbolized  by  the  aspersion  with  holy  water  at  the 
church  door.  An  office  for  the  "benediction  of 
women  after  childbirth  "  is  contained  in  the  RUuale 
Romanum  as  edited  by  Paul  V.  in  1614.  The  priest, 
wearing  a  white  stole,  meets  the  woman  at  the  door, 
and  after  the  recitation  of  Ps.  xxiv.  holds  out  one 
end  of  his  stole  to  her  and  conducts  her  into  the 
church;  she  kneels  before  the  altar  while  certain 
prayers  are  said,  ending  with  a  blessing.  The 
Reformation  in  Germany,  for  the  most  part,  abol- 
ished the  ceremony  as  giving  rise  to  misconceptions 
and  abuses,   though  some   churches  retained  it, 


OhytrsBus 
Giroumciaion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


116 


giving  an  evangelical  character  to  the  rite,  and  the 
duty  of  thanksgiving  after  safe  delivery  was  fre- 
quently insisted  on.  In  the  rationalistic  period 
the  practise  of  giving  a  special  blessing  to  the  mother 
was  usually  dropped,  though  to  this  day  it  is  usual 
to  ask  the  prayers  of  the  congregation  for  her  and 
for  the  child  at  her  first  appearance  in  church: 
and  several  of  the  most  recent  Lutheran  service- 
books  contain  an  office  for  her  benediction  at  the 
altar  after  the  public  service.  [Such  an  office  is 
also  contained  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
...  of  the  Church  of  England.  Its  title  in  the 
first  book  of  Edward  VI.  was  "The  Order  of 
the  Purification  of  Women/'  but  this  was  altered 
in  the  second  to  "The  Thanksgiving  of  Women 
after  Child-birth,  commonly  called  the  Churching 
of  Women."]  (Geobg  Rietschbl.) 

Bibuoobapht:  A.  J.  StepheoB,  Book  of   Common  Prayer 
VfiOi  NotM,  iu.  1751-63.  London*  1863. 

CHYTRJEUSy  kai-tri'us  (KOCHHAFE),  DAVID: 

The  last  of  the  "  Fathers  of  the  Lutheran  Church  "; 
b.  at  Ingelfingen  (43  m.  n.n.e.  of  Stuttgart),  WUrt- 
temberg,  Feb.  26,  1531;  d.  at  Rostock  June  25. 
1600.  As  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon  he  belonged  to 
the  mediating  theologians.  He  was  no  original 
genius,  but  owing  to  his  disposition  and  power  of 
work  he  was  a  scholar  of  almost  encyclopedic 
knowledge,  but  without  the  gift  of  preaching.  His 
organizing  and  academical  activity  was  effective. 
He  was  the  center  of  the  University  of  Rostock,  a 
pure  personality,  filled  with  love  of  peace,  not 
wiUin^y  harsh,  but  rather  timid,  and  inclined  to 
avoid  oonfficts.  He  studied  at  Tilbingen  and  at 
Wittenberg,  where  he  lived  in  Melanchthon's  house, 
and  attended  Luther's  lectures  on  Genesis,  those  of 
Paul  Eber,  and  others.  After  a  brief  return  to 
Tubingen  (1547),  he  lectured  at  Wittenberg  on 
Melanchthon's  Loci,  on  rhetoric,  and  on  astron- 
omy. He  accompanied  his  friend  Johannes  Auri- 
faber  to  Rostock,  whither  he  was  called  after  a 
visit  to  Italy,  in  1550.  His  work  was  to  introduce 
beginners  into  the  doctrine  of  salvation,  expound 
the  classics,  and  deliver  encyclopedic  and  exegetical 
lectures  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Ros- 
tock was  thenceforth  his  home.  He  enjoyed  in  a 
high  degree  the  favor  of  the  duke,  to  which  he 
responded  by  a  mixture  of  fi'ankness  and  some- 
times rather  nauseating  servility.  After  the  di- 
vision of  the  coimtry  (1555),  Chytrseus  entreatc'd 
the  dukes  to  build  up  the  university,  which  was 
slowly  effected  in  spite  of  personal,  political,  finan- 
cial, and  physical  difficulties.  The  office  of  uni- 
versity-superintendent he  declined,  but  he  was 
looked  upon  as  the  pillar  of  the  institution.  He 
was  also  busy  with  ecclesiastical  regulations,  op- 
posed the  Flacian  adversaries  of  the  Formula  of 
Concord  who  had  been  driven  from  the  duchy, 
and  looked  upon  the  plan  of  some  princes  to  call  a 
general  synod  of  aU  Evangelicals  as  hopeless. 
Another  field  of  labor  opened  for  him  in  Austria. 
Emperor  Maximilian  II.,  who  sympathized  with 
Melanchthon,  granted  to  the  Lutheran  estates  of 
Lower  and  Upper  Austria  in  1568  the  free  exercise 
of  religion  on  the  basis  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
with  the  condition  that  they  first  agree  upon  a 
church-discipline.    The   estates    elected  a     com- 


mission for  that  purpose,  and  Chytrsus,  known  for 
his  moderation,  was  invited  to  assist.  In  the 
beginning  of  1569  he  arrived  in  Austria.  Of  the 
fourfold  work — the  preparation  of  a  liturgy,  an 
order  for  superintendents  and  consistories,  an  ex- 
position of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  an  examen 
ordinandorum — the  first  two  were  speedily  prepared. 
The  third  was  beset  with  difficulties  on  accoimt  of 
the  Flacian  ministers,  not  to  speak  of  delays  from 
other  causes.  Finally  the  free  exercise  of  religion 
was  obtained,  and  Chytraeus,  praised  by  the  em- 
peror, returned  home,  underrating  the  depth  of 
the  antagonistic  principles.  The  publication  of  the 
liturgy  caused  a  bitter  controversy,  which  the  em- 
peror terminated  by  force.  By  his  work  in  Austria 
the  estates  of  Styria  had  their  attention  drawn 
to  Chytrseus,  and  he  was  invited  to  rearrange 
church  matters  there,  after  the  religious  com- 
promise had  been  confirmed  by  Archduke  Charles. 
He  arrived  at  Graz  Jan.  2,  1574.  Despite  diffi- 
culties, the  church-discipline  was  completed  in  May, 
1574.  With  a  vote  of  thanks  he  returned  home 
and  took  up  his  relations  with  the  Scandinavian 
kingdoms.  Being  attacked  by  Antonio  Possevino 
for  his  activity  in  Austria  and  his  influence  in 
Sweden,  he  wrote  a  rejoinder  (Wittenberg,  1584), 
and  he  replied  to  a  request  from  Antwerp  to  give 
his  opinion  on  a  catechism,  in  1581. 

His  works  include:  (1)  Exegetical:  glossatory, 
dogmatizing  commentaries  of  slight  importance. 
(2)  Dogmatic:  a  Catechesis  (Wittenberg,  1555,  and 
often)  imitating  Melanchthon's  Loci,  a  short,  com- 
prehensive, and  able  work,  used  for  almost  a  cen- 
tury in  imiversities,  gymnasia,  and  public  schools, 
and  recommended  even  in  agenda;  De  studio 
theologicB  rede  inckoando  (1562;  enlarged,  Rostock, 
1572),  belonging  also  to  the  Melanchthonian  type, 
and  following  closely  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
the  Apology,  the  Wittenberg  Concordia,  and  the 
Schmalkald  Articles;  De  morU  et  vita  edema  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1581),  the  first  attempt  at  a  complete 
eschatology  in  the  Melanchthonian  spirit;  it  even 
gave  occasion  for  a  charge  of  crsrpto-Calvinism; 
the  colorless  RegtUcB  vitae  (1555),  following  the 
decalogue,  were  originally  composed  by  Melanch- 
thon. In  treating  of  single  doctrinal  points  a  more 
Lutheran  tendency  is  perceptible,  consistent  with 
his  participation  in  the  work  of  the  Concordia; 
but  Chytrseus  found  the  forms  of  the  true  doctrines 
''  mediocriter  constituta  "  in  the  Formula  of  Con- 
cord, and  deplored  the  damnation  of  the  excluded 
(Reformed)  churches.  (3)  Polemical:  the  re- 
joinder to  Possevino  and  a  controversial  letter 
against  the  provost  (jeorg  Coelestinus  concerning 
the  "  history  of  the  Augsburg  Confession."  (4) 
Of  his  philosophical,  or  rather  methodological, 
writings  the  RegtUa  studiorum  (best  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1595)  had  a  far-reaching  influence;  the  rich  con- 
tents of  the  Prcecepta  rhetoricce  inventionis  (Witten- 
berg, 1558)  suffer  by  its  fragmentary  character. 
(5)  In  his  historical  works,  written  with  care  and 
freshness,  Chytrseus  appears  to  better  advantage 
than  in  his  theological  writings;  the  proper  scien- 
tific treatment,  however,  is  lacking.  The  very 
popular  Onomasticon  theologicum  (1557)  was  an 
attempt   to  combine   a  theological  encyclopedia 


117 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


ChytrflBus 
Ciroumolalon 


and  a  Hebrew  dictionary;  it  displasrs  the  knowl- 
edge of  church  history  possessed  at  the  time.  De 
Icctione  historiarum  rede  instituenda  (Rostock, 
1563)  shows  little  criticism,  but  is  important  for 
the  history  of  historiography.  The  Hiatoria  der 
AugspuTffUchen  Confession  (Rostock,  1571;  Latin, 
Frankfort,  1578)  was  the  first  special  work  on  a 
part  of  this  period  based  upon  original  sources. 
The  Ckronicon  Saxoniae  (Wittenberg,  1585;  Leipsic, 
15^),  written  in  the  manner  of  annals  from  a 
nligious  point  of  view,  was  appreciated  in  all 
Europe.  In  his  very  carefully  prepared  genea- 
logical labors  Chytrseuswas  encouraged  by  Duke 
llrich,  and  in  general  his  historical  writings  bear, 
so  to  speak,  the  official  stamp  of  the  duchy  of 
Mecklenburg,  as,  following  the  custom  of  his  time, 
he  preferred  to  give  the  result  of  his  researches  in 
academical  lectures.  Chytrseus's  publications  in- 
clude also  the  works  of  others  edited  by  him  and  sev- 
eral volumes  of  a  public  character;  his  "  Orations  " 
were  many  and  interesting — a  collection  of  thirty- 
six  was  published  posthumously  by  his  son  David 
(Hanover,   1614).  Gboro  Loesche. 

Bibuoobapht:  The  early  source  is  O.  F.  SchQts,  De  vita 
DavidiM  Chvbrai  ....  3  vols.,  Hamburg,  1720-28.  Con- 
sult: T.  Prassel.  David  Chytrmu,  Elberfeld,  1862;  O. 
Krabbe.  David  Chytrmu,  Rostock,  1870. 

CIARAlf,  ki'&r-on  (KIERAN),  SAINT,  OF  CLON- 
MACHOISEy  "the  son  of  the  carpenter":  Irish 
saint  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century.  He 
studied  under  Finnian  at  Clonard,  where  he  had 
Colimiba  and  Brendan  among  his  fellows,  and 
under  Blnda  at  Aran.  He  founded  the  monastery 
at  Cioimiacnoise  (in  King's  County,  8  m.  s.w.  of 
Athlone)  after  540,  and  died  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
three.  The  accounts  of  his  life  contain  much  of  the 
miraculous.  Clorunacnoise  became  the  most  na- 
tional of  the  Irish  monasteries  and  more  than 
half  of  them,  it  is  said,  followed  its  rule.  The  site 
is  still  a  place  of  pilgrimage  on  St.  Ciaran's  day 
(Sept.  9). 

Bibuoohapht:  Laxugan,  Eed.  Hi&t.,  i.  31,  468,  ii.  6(H61; 
A.  P.  Forbes.  KaUndarB  of  SeottUh  SainU,  pp.  436--i36, 
Edinburgh.  1872;  G.  de  Smedt  and  J.  de  Backer,  Acta 
mndorttm  Hibemiea,  pp.  166-160,  Edinburgh.  1888; 
A.  Stokes,  Livet  of  SaitUa  from  the  Book  of  Liamore^  pp. 
117-134.  262-280.  366-369.  Oxford.  1890;  J.  Healy.  /»- 
«u/a  aaneiorum  §t  doetorum,  pp.  268  sqq.,  660-666,  Dublin, 
1890. 

CIARAN  (KIERAN),  SAINT,  OF  SAIGIR:  Bishop 
of  Ossory,  one  of  the  "  twelve  apostles  of  Ireland." 
His  "  Lives  "  say  that  he  was  bom  while  Ireland 
was  still  heathen,  that  he  studied  for  twenty  years 
at  Rome  and  was  ordained  bishop  there,  and  that 
while  returning  home  he  met  Patrick,  who  prophe- 
sied of  a  future  meeting  in  Ireland;  he  is  also 
said  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of  Finnian  of 
Clonard  and  of  Ciaran  of  Clonmacnoise,  and  to 
reconcile  these  statements  his  life  is  lengthened  to 
three  hundred  or  more  years.  He  established 
himself  a^  a  hermit  at  Saigir  (4  m.  e.  of  Birr,  or 
Parsonstown,  King's  County),  where  others  joined 
him,  and  in  time  the  great  monastery  of  Seirkieran 
aroee,  a  center  for  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  and 
a  large  industrial  community  noted  for  its  wealth. 
Some  identify  him  with  a  saint  who  is  said  to  have 


passed  over  to  Cornwall  and  labored  and  died  there 
under  the  name  of  Piran. 

Bibligobapbt:  Tianigan,  Bed.  Hi$L,  i.  29-33,  ii.  7-9,  98, 
101;  C.  de  Smedt  and  J.  de  Backer,  Ada  tanetorum  Hi- 
6em«ea,  pp.  805-618,  Edinburgh,  1888;  J.  O'Hanlon, 
Live9  of  the  Iriah  Sainia,  iii.  116,  Dublin  [1875]. 

CIBORinH,  si-bO'ri-um:  Originally  the  canopy 
which,  borne  by  four  columns,  surmounted  the 
altar,  but  afterward  specially  applied  to  the  vessel 
in  which  the  host  was  kept.  See  Baldachin; 
Vebseus,  Sacred,  §  3. 

CILICinM,  si-lis^i-xmi  (CILICE):  A  garment  of 
coarse  goat's  hair,  such  as  was  worn  in  ancient 
times  by  soldiers,  sailors,  and  peasants;  made 
principally  in  Cilicia,  whence  the  name.  It  was 
worn  by  penitents  on  Maundy  Thursday  at  their 
reconciliation  in  the  church.  The  same  name  was 
applied  from  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
to  the  hair  shirt  worn  by  monks  and  other  ascetics 
next  to  the  skin  as  a  measure  of  self-discipline. 
Cassian  knows  of  the  practise,  but  disapproves  it 
as  an  innovation,  and  as  tending  to  vainglory, 
besides  hindering  the  monk  in  his  daily  task.  The 
custom,  however,  spread  widely,  and  became  a 
normal  characteristic  of  the  ascetic.  The  hair 
shirt  was  worn  either  constantly  or  at  certain  times. 
Sometimes  it  was  replaced  by  a  girdle  of  the  same 
material,  worn  about  the  legs  or  arms,  or  (after  the 
sixteenth  century)  by  one  made  of  wire,  sometimes 
with  sharp  points  turned  inward.       (A.  BUuck.) 

CmCUHCELLIONES,  ser^'cum-sel'^i-^'nU:  North 
African  fanatics  who  appear  in  the  Donatist  contro- 
versy about  340.  That  they  were  of  pagan  origin  * 
(ThOmmel,  pp.  85-86)  can  not  be  proved,  nor  did 
Donatist  schism  call  them  into  being — ^they  had 
already  sprung  up  from  both  ecclesiastical  and 
social  conditions.  They  seem  to  have  called  them- 
selves agonistici  (with  reference  to  II  Tim.  iv.  7) 
and  designated  their  leaders,  Axido  and  Fasir,  as 
leaders  of  the  saints.  The  Donatist  Tichonius 
characterizes  them  as  "  superstitious  "  because  of 
their  uimecessary  religious  observances  including 
things  not  regularly  instituted,  and  as  seekers  after 
martyrdom;  he  says  they  overrun  whole  provinces 
because  they  can  not  live  in  peace  with  others  any- 
where. That  they  were  socialistic  appears  from 
attacks  upon  property,  the  use  of  threatening 
letters  and  violence  to  prevent  the  execution  of 
properly  imposed  sentences,  and  their  interference 
between  masters  and  slaves.  Donatus  of  Bagse, 
a  Donatist  bishop,  endeavored  to  make  use  of  them 
against  the  orthodox  party,  and  this  led  to  an  out- 
break of  persecution  in  North  Africa.    See  Dona- 

TISM. 

Bxbuoorapht:  W.  ThQmmel,  Zur  Beurfftailung  daa  Dona- 
Hamua,  Halle,  1803;  and  literature  under  Donatism. 

dRCUMCISION :  Strictly  and  properly,  the 
removal  of  the  foreskin  (or  a  portion  of  it),  accom- 
plished by  drawing  the  part  forward  and  cutting 
transversely — whence  the  name,  from  circumcideref 
"  to  cut  around."  The  word  is  loosely  used,  how- 
ever, and  often  does  not  have  this  precise  sig- 
nification. Mutilations  of  the  sexual  oi^gans  of 
both  male  and  female  are    common  as  general 


Oirenmoialon 
OistorolAns 


THE  NEW  SCHAFP-HERZOG 


118 


national  or  tribal  customs  of  peoples  in  the  bar- 
barous or  semicivilized  state.  The  first  of  such 
mutilations  to  become  known  to  modem  Europe 
was  circumcision  as  practised  by  Jews 
Meaning  and  Mohammedans  (true  circxmicision 
and  Use  of  as  defined  above),  by  whom  the  cus- 
tfae  Term,  tom  has  been  carried  on  to  the  higher 
stages  of  culture.  When  wider  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  brought  to 
light  other  more  or  less  similar  customs,  it  was  natu- 
ral to  give  to  each  the  name  already  known.  So 
it  has  come  about  that  practises  differing  widely  in 
operative  method  and  r^ults,  if  not  in  significance 
and  origin,  are  all  alike  called  "  circumcision/' 
and  the  term,  in  actual  usage,  b  almost  synony- 
mous with  mutilation  of  the  sexual  organs.  A 
complete  and  satisfactory  study  of  circumcisbn 
has  not  yet  been  published.  When  it  is,  the  first 
endeavor  will  necessarily  be  to  clear  up  the  con- 
fusion of  thought  manifest  in  this  vague  use  of  the 
term  and  resulting  from  it.  Preliminary  to  a  fruit- 
ful investigation,  the  various  mutilations  must  be 
precisely  diefined  and  named,  their  relations  must 
be  determined,  and  such  as  may  not  properly 
be  classed  and  considered  with  circumcision  must 
be  set  aside.  Incidentally  this  introductory  study 
will  probably  modify  somewhat — ^perhaps  very 
considerably — ^the  statements  now  common  con- 
cerning the  wide  extent  of  circumcision,  ascribing 
it  as  an  indigenous  practise  to  Africa,  Asia,  North 
and  South  America,  Australia,  and  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific. 

In  the  search  for  significance  and  origin  prac- 
tically no  help  is  to  be  obtained  direcUy  from 
any  people  who  circumcise.  The  explanation  uni- 
formly given  and  considered  quite  sufficient  by  the 
givers  is  "  We  follow  the  custom  of  the 
Significance  fathers."  Indirectly,  however — by 
and  noting  and  comparing  details  of  the 
Origin.  operation,  and  acts  and  remarks  con- 
nected with  it  or  with  the  circumcised 
and  uncircumcised  states — significance  may  be  dis- 
covered. Circumcision  serves  as  a  national  or 
tribal  sign  (Hebrews,  Jews,  and  certain  African 
tribes),  or  a  mark  of  distinction  for  classes  or  indi- 
viduals (ancient  Egypt  [?1  cf.  Josephus,  Apion, 
ii.  14;  dement  of  Alexandria,  Strom.,  i.  15;  Origen 
on  Rom.  ii.  13;  negroes  of  the  Niger  delta,  cf. 
Journal  of  the  Anthropologicdl  Institute,  xxix.,  new 
ser.,  ii.,  1899,  p.  56).  It  passes  as  a  bodily  adorn- 
ment (cf.  the  peculiar  Masai  mutilation,  best  de- 
scribed in  Verhandlungen  der  Berliner  GeseUachaft 
fUr  Anthropoloffie,  Apr.  27,  1895,  pp.  [302H303]; 
cf.  H.  H.  Johnston,  The  Kilimornjaro  Expedition, 
London,  1886,  p.  412,  note).  It  is  regarded  as  a 
hygienic  precaution  or  grounded  in  reasons  of 
physiology  (for  cleanliness,  to  moderate  sexual 
desire,  to  prevent  venereal  diseases,  to  secure  off- 
spring, to  remove  an  abnormal  development,  etc.). 
The  operation  marks  the  entrance  to  maturity, 
being  closely  connected  with  the  so-called  initiation 
ceremonies,  and  sometimes  a  severe  test  of  courage 
and  endurance  (cf.  C.  Niebuhr,  Beachreibung  von 
Arabien,  CJopcnhagen,  1772,  p.  269;  R.  F.  Bur- 
ton, Personal  Narrative  of  a  Pilgrimage  to  El- 
Utdinah  and  Meccah,  yd.  iii.,  London,  1856,  p.  80, 


note;*  David  Livingstone,  Missionary  Traveli 
and  Researches  in  South  Africa,  New  York,  1858, 
pp.  164-165;  ZeUschrift  fur  Ethnologie,  vi.,  1874, 
pp.  37-38;  C.  M.  Doughty,  Travels  in  Arabia  Deser- 
ta,vol.  i., Cambridge,  1888, pp.  128-129;  accountsfor 
South  America,  collected  by  Ploss,  see  below);  the 
circimicised  state  is  necessary  to  the  full  enjoyment 
of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  manhood  (cf .  refer- 
ences already  cited  and  ZeUschrift  fur  aUgemeine 
Erdkunde,  neue  Folge,  iv.,  1858,  p.  357,  for  the 
island  of  Rook,  east  of  New  Guinea;  J.  Sibree,  The 
Great  African  Island  [Madagascar!  London,  1880, 
p.  217).  Such  explanations  may  account  for  the 
retention  of  the  practise  in  later  times;  but  they  are 
speculations  of  a  more  advanced  culture  and  do  not 
indicate  the  origin,  which  must  be  consistent  with 
primitive  knowledge  and  thought.  Nor  is  the 
origin  found  by  naming  circumcision  a  rite  of 
religion.  It  remains  to  explain  why  and  how  this 
peculiar  mutilation  became  a  religious  rite,  and  the 
attempts  to  do  so  (making  it  a  development  of 
phallic  worship,  or  of  human  sacrifice  as  a  substitu- 
tionary act,  or  symbolic)  are,  like  the  explanations 
already  referred  to,  products  of  later  times  and  too 
conjectural  to  be  convincing.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
in  most  cases  religious  significance  is  not  apparent. 
It  has  been  asserted  among  the  ancient  Mexicans; 
but  a  careful  examination  of  the  early  accounts 
offers  little  support  for  the  statement  that  they 
either  circumcised  or  practised  any  distinctly  sexual 
mutilation.  It  is  foimd  among  Hebrews  and  Mo- 
hammedans. The  case  of  the  former  will  be  con- 
sidered below.  The  latter  have  adopted  it  as  a 
part  of  their  religion  because  the  first  Mohammed- 
ans observed  it,  and  with  them  it  was  already  the 
"  custom  of  the  fathers. "  The  more  intelligent  seem 
to  have  regarded  it  as  one  of  the  requirements  of 
common  decency  (it  is  not  commanded  in  the 
Koran,  but  taken  for  granted — cf.  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  mention  of  circumcision  in  the  decalogue 
or  the  older  laws  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  com- 
mentators class  it  as  one  of  the  usages  of  fiprah, 
"  natural  religion  ";  cf.  J.  Wellhausen,  Rests  arabU 
schen  Heidentums,  Berlin,  1897,  pp.  167  sqq.).  The 
Bedouin  women  of  Medain  Salih  may  be  allowed 
to  speak  for  the  more  ignorant  and  primitive  (cf . 
Doughty,  ut  sup.,  vol.  i.,  p.  410).  And  some  con- 
nection with  the  sexual  life  is  the  significance  most 
frequent,  most  prominent,  and  most  primitive,  so 
far  as  injformation  goes  (cf .  references  already  cited 
and  ZeUschrift  fUr  Ethnologie,  x.,  1878,  p.  399 
Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  x.,  1864-65,  p.  222 
Revue  d* Anthropologic,  2d  ser.,  iv.,  1881,  p.  292; 
Verhajidlungen  der  Berliner  Gesellschaft  fur  ArUhro- 
pologie,  Apr.  28,  1877,  p.  [180];  ZeUschrift  fOr 
Ethnologrie,  x.,  1878,  p.  18;  A.  Bastian,  Die  deuUche 
Expedition  an  der  Loango-Kuste,  Jena,  1874,  p. 
177;  Riedel  and  Valentijn  for  Dutch  East  Indies, 
quoted  in  Ploss,  Knabenbeschneidung,  pp.  21,  22, 
24).  To  conclude  that  the  primary  significance  is 
indicated  herein  is  consistent  with  the  knowledge 
and  conditions  of  the  time  when  circmncision  must 

*The  note  is  omitted  in  later  editions  of  Burton.  It  is 
copied  by  Julius  Wellhauaen  in  the  first  edition  of  his  Jtcste 
arabUchen  Heidentunu  (Berlin,  1887),  p.  215,  and  omitttd 
in  the  second  edition. 


110 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OlroiiiiioiBioB 
Oisteroians 


have  arisen;  it  is  easier  to  explain  the  other  sig- 
nificances as  secondary  to  this  than  to  explain  it 
as  secondary  to  any  of  them;  and  the  conclusion 
is  confirmed  by  the  fact  and  phenomena  of  "  female 
circumcision "  (improperly  so  called),  i.e.,  the 
cutting  off  of  the  internal  labia,  which  is  almost, 
if  not  quite,  as  common  as  the  male  mutilation  and 
as  a  rule  accompanies  it — ^a  fact  which  has  gener- 
ally been  ignored  and  its  significance  strangely 
overlooked. 

In  the  circimicision  of  Hebrews  and  Jews  three 

things  are  noteworthy:    (1)  Its  marked  religious 

significance;  (2)  the  early  age  at  which 

Hebrew     the  operation  is  performed;    (3)  the 
mmd  Jewish  absence  of  all  trace  of  a  female  muti- 

Circum-  lation.  Evidence  is  not  at  hand  to 
dnon.  prove  indisputably  whether  these 
features  are  original  or  secondary. 
The  Biblical  data  are  scanty,  and  when  they  were 
committed  to  writing  primitive  practises  were 
already  followed  because  they  were  "  the  custom 
of  the  fathers."  Circumcision  is  stated  to  be  "  a 
token  of  the  covenant  "  and  the  covenant  itself, 
and  its  institution  is  attributed  to  the  Almighty 
(Gen.  xvii.  10 — 11).  It  was  regarded  as  the  indis- 
pensable requisite  to  the  right  relation  with  God, 
participation  in  his  worship,  and  a  share  in  his  favor 
being  exacted  of  "  strangers  "  and  slaves  (Gen. 
xvii.  12-14;  Ex.  xii.  43-48) — ^in  later  times  of  prose- 
lytes. The  popular  mind  went  a  step  further  and 
looked  upon  circumcision  as  the  guaranty  of  the 
divine  favor,  a  conception  strenuously  combated 
by  the  prophets  (Jer.  iv.  4,  vi.  10,  ix.  25-26; 
Esek.  xUv.  9;  cf.  Deut.  x.  16,  xxx.  6).  These 
ideas  appear  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  vii.  8, 
51,  XV.  1;  Rom.  ii.  28-29,  iv.  11).  Indications 
are  not  lacking,  however,  that  in  its  origin  and  early 
significance  Hebrew  circumcision  did  not  differ 
from  that  of  other  peoples.*  If  the  statement  that 
"  Ishmael  was  thirteen  years  old  when  he  was 
circumcised  "  (Gen.  xvii.  26)  preserves  an  old  and 
true  tradition,  it  indicates  that  the  age  in  early 
times  was  the  usual  one  of  maturing  manhood. 
The  account  of  a  general  circumcising  at  Gilgal  in 
the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh.  v.  2-9)  has  still  more  the 
mark  of  an  old  tradition,  which  the  scribe  who 
wrote  it  down  thought  necessary  to  explain  in  the 
light  of  the  custom  of  his  own  time  (verses  4-7 
bemg  generally  considered  an  interpolation);  if 
so,  it  evidences  that  the  Hebrews  originally  cir- 
cumcised at  the  same  age  as  other  peoples,  and 
the  circimicision  of  a  number  at  one  time,  with  the 
hint  of  a  special  place  of  circumcision,  is  in  accord 
with  custom  frequently  found  (cf.  B.  Stade,  in 
ZATW,  vi.,  1886,  pp.  132-142).  The  use  of  flint 
knives  (cf.  Ex.  iv.  25)  is  also  noteworthy,  being 
a  circumstance  not  uncommon,  even  after  better 
cutting  tools  have  been  obtained,  and  indicating, 
perhaps,  the  antiquity  of  the  practise.  The  Dinah 
story  (Gen.  xxxiv.)  makes  circumcision  a  pre- 
requisite to  marriage.  The  passage  Ex.  iv.  24-26, 
commonly  called  (with  slight  reason)  J's  accoimt 


•Cf.  Btada,  quoted  in  Plou,  KnabenbMekneidun4f»  p.  12: 
'  In  praezilie  time  etreumciaion  in  lamel  was  solely  a  tribal 
Bgn:  only  in  the  Exile  did  it  acquire  the  aignificanoe  of  a 
I  symbol  (Heb.  oA)." 


of  the  origin  of  circumcision,  is  evidently  a  muti- 
lated and  incomplete  fragment  of  a  longer  narrative, 
and  the  text  of  what  is  preserved  is  uncertain.  Its 
meaning  is  well-nigh  unintelligible  and  it  affords  no 
secure  basis  for  inference.  Yet,  if  anything  is  clear 
from  it,  it  is  a  connection  between  circumcision  and 
marriage  or  the  sexual  life  (for  an  interesting  dis- 
cussion of  this  passage,  tracing  parallels  with  the 
use  made  of  the  severed  foreskin  by  various  tribes, 
cf.  H.  P.  Smith,  in  JBL,  xxv.,  1906,  pp.  14-24). 
Charles  C.  Sherman. 

Biblioobapht:  The  literature  is  enormous,  but  mueh  of  it 
may  be  dismissed  as  "  freakish,"  the  subject  being  one 
which  has  naturally  proved  attractive  to  erratic  minde; 
almost  all  of  the  more  serious  treatises  consider  the  prao- 
tise  too  exclusively  from  the  Biblical  or  Jewish  point  of 
view.  The  best  treatment  in  existence  is  that  of  H.  Ploss, 
in  Dos  Kind  in  Branch  und  Sitte  der  Vdker,  2d  ed.,  Leipeie, 
1884,  vol.  i..  pp.  342-3M.  with  which  should  be  compared 
the  chapter  on  Der  AbBchltua  der  Kinderjahre,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
411-446.  The  same  author's  OeBchichUidiea  und  Ethno- 
loffiaehea  Hber  Knabenbeechneidung,  Leipdc,  1886  (reprinted 
from  Arehiv  fUr  Gesehichte  der  Medicin  und  medicinitckt 
Oeoffraphie,  viii.,  1885),  is  a  partial  repetition  of  what  is 
contained  in  the  earlier  work  with  not  much  that  is  new. 
An  article.  Die  Beeehneidung,  by  R.  Andree,  in  Ardiiv  fOr 
Anthropdogie,  xiii  (1880),  pp.  53-78,  is  worth  consulting 
with  Ploss,  who  by  no  means  exhausted  all  the  material 
available  when  he  wrote.  Since  then  a  large  amount  of 
valuable  matter  has  accumulated  in  the  pages  of  anthzx>- 
pological  and  ethnographical  journals,  the  works  of  special 
investigators,  and  books  of  travel.  The  studies  of  the 
natives  of  Australia  by  Baldwin  Spencer,  F.  J.  Gillen, 
A.  W.  Howitt,  and  others  may  be  specially  mentioned. 
Die  Beeehneidung  in  ihrer  geechiehilidien,  ethnographiechen, 
religideen  und  mediciniechen  Bedeutung,  ed.  A.  Glassberg, 
Berlin,  1896,  is  a  sane  treatment  of  various  phases  of  the 
subject.  The  works  on  the  Mosaic  law.  Old  Testament 
theology,  Hebrew  archeology,  and  the  Biblical  commen- 
taries may  be  consulted  for  the  conventional  treatment; 
and  for  Jewish  conceptions  and  practises,  JE,  iv.  92-102. 

CmCUHCISION    OF   CHRIST,  FESTIVAL   OF. 

See  New-Year's  Festival. 

CISTERCIAirS,  BU-ter'shianB. 

Origin  and  Character  of  the  Order  (|  1). 
Golden  Age  of  the  Order  (|  2). 
Gradual  Decay  of  the  Order  (|  3). 
Bistory  Since  the  Reformation  (f  4). 

A  certain  Robert  (d.  1108;  life  in  ASB,  Apr.,  iii. 
662-^78)  retired  from  his  position  as  prior  at  Mon- 
tier  la  Oelle  to  become  head  of  a  company  of  an- 
chorites in  the  forest  of  Mol^me,  northwest  of 
Dijon.  The  monks  objected  to  his  strict  rule, 
however,  and  in  1098  with  twenty  followers  he 

withdrew  and   founded  a  monastery 

I.  Origin    at  Ctteaux  (Lat.  Cistercium,  20  m.  s.e. 

and  Char-  of    Dijon)    in    Burgundy.    A    papal 

acter  of  the  conmiand  required  him  to  return  to 

Order.      Moltoe  (1099),  and  he  was  succeeded 

as  abbot  at  Ctteaux  by  Alberic,  who 
composed  the  InstUuta  monachorum  Ciaterciennum 
de  Moliamo  venienHym.  Alberic  was  succeeded  by 
the  able  and  pious  Englishman  Harding  (or  Stephen  ; 
see  Hardino),  who  came  near  seeing  the  end  of  the 
monastery  for  want  of  novices.  But  the  en- 
trance of  the  young  Bernard  (see  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux)  and  th^y  of  his  friends  brought  a 
change.  From  this  time  on  the  number  of  monks 
increased  and  daughter  monasteries  were  estab- 
lished—at  La  Fert^,  1113;  Pontigny,  1114;  Morimud 


dstoroiftiui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


190 


and  Clairvatu,  1115.  Bernard  became  abbot  of 
the  last.  To  these  establishments  others  were 
added  by  Citeatu  and  the  daughter  foundations. 
It  soon  appeared  necessary  to  regulate  the  relation 
of  the  monasteries  to  one  another,  and  this  was  done 
in  a  manner  which  formed  a  new  stage  in  the  devel- 
opment of  monastidsm;  for  the  first  time  a  union 
of  monasteries  was  effected  by  a  fonnal  constitu- 
tion. The  Charta  charitaHSf  the  result  of  the  delib- 
erations of  the  abbots,  formed  the  basis,  which  was 
further  expanded  by  resolutions  of  subsequent 
general  chapters. 

The  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  order  may 
be  comprised  in  the  following  points:  (1)  A  strict 
observance  of  the  letter  of  the  rule  of  Benedict. 
(2)  The  greatest  simplicity,  even  poverty,  in  the 
mode  of  life;  the  very  churches  should  be  devoid 
of  all  show  and  adornment.  (3)  The  subsistence 
of  the  monasteries  to  be  derived  exclusively  from 
agriculture  and  cattle-raising — an  arrangement 
from  which  sprang  the  importance  that  the  order 
obtained  in  the  cultivation  of  the  land  and  colo- 
nisation. (4)  Besides  the  monks,  lay  brothers 
(converti,  Unci,  barbati)  are  also  to  be  received;  as 
the  monk,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations, 
while  not  freed  entirely  from  labor,  has  mostly  to 
devote  himself  to  devotion  and  choir-service,  so  the 
lay  brother  is  chiefly  occupied  with  manual  labor; 
the  example  of  Mary  and  Martha  is  often  quoted; 
there  were  also  laborers  (mercenarii,  afterward 
called  familiarea)  mentioned  as  early  as  the  statutes 
of  Alberic,  who  were  free  men  serving  for  pay  (since 
the  possession  of  serfs  was  precluded  on  principle). 
(5)  As  concerns  the  relation  of  parent  and  daughter 
monasteries,  each  monastery  has  a  certain  authority 
over  its  filiations.  At  the  head  stands  Clteaux, 
but  the  four  oldest  under-monasteries  also  enjoy 
an  exceptional  position:  their  abbots  visit  the 
mother  monastery  once  every  year,  and  with  Ct- 
teaux,  one  of  them  stands  at  the  head  of  each  of  the 
five  divisions  (linea)  of  the  order.  But  all  these 
authorities  are  subject  to  the  general  chapter,  which 
meets  annually  at  Ctteaux,  in  which  all  abbots  have 
a  voice,  and  which  has  not  only  the  highest  legis- 
lative power,  but  also  the  decision  in  all  cases  of 
questions  which  may  arise.  (6)  It  was  con- 
sidered highly  important  at  the  beginning  that 
there  shoidd  be  no  loosening  of  diocesan  bonds. 
The  foremost  representative  of  this  idea  is  Bernard 
(cf.  De  maribua  et  officiis,  ix.  33-37,  in  MPL,  clxxxii. 
830-834;  De  CanM.,  III.  iv.  4-'18).  Afterward, 
however,  this  principle  was  greatly  neglected.  In 
almost  all  these  regulations  can  be  perceived  a 
contrast  to  those  of  the  Climiacensians,  and  this 
contrast  was  intentional,  for  the  latter  were  con- 
ndered  as  having  apostatized  from  the  true  nature 
of  monasticiBm.  Bernard  also  at  first  was  severe 
and  bitter  against  them  (Epist. ,  i.),  but  later  he  was 
much  more  lenient  {Apol.  ad  Chiill.),  Peter  the 
Venerable  of  Glimy  was  still  more  friendly  (cf., 
e.g.,  his  Epi^.,  i.  28,  in  MPL,  clxxxix.  112-159; 
iv.  17=ccxxix.  of  the  letters  of  Bernard,  MPL, 
clxxxii.  398-417).  Thus  the  tension  was  relaxed, 
but  did  not  disappear  altogether.  Devotion  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  the  tendency  of  the  time,  was  not 
only  accepted  by  the  Cistercians,  but  their  fervency 


heightened  it.  Mary  is  the  patroness  of  the  order; 
the  general  chapter  of  1134  declares  that  all 
churches  of  the  order  shall  be  dedicated  to  her, 
and  it  devoted  to  her  a  special  liturgical  offiee  on 
Saturday. 

The  golden  age  of   the   order  extends  to    the 
second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century.    Different 

causes    contributed    to    a    powerful 

2.  Golden  growth    of   the    order:    besides    tbo 

Age  of  the  monastic  tendency  of  the  age,  there 

Order,      were   especially  the  personality  and 

the  labor  of  Bernard,  who  is  con- 
sidered as  the  real  saint  of  the  order,  and  from  him 
the  Cistercians  are  frequently  called  Bemardincs. 
Pious  contemplation  was  coupled  with  activity  in 
agriculture  and  strictly  regulated  authoritative  re- 
lations and  government,  in  which  all  took  part. 
At  the  death  of  Bernard  the  number  of  convents 
was  288,  and  in  vain  did  the  general  chapter  try 
to  stop  their  increase;  at  the  end  of  the  century 
there  were  529  abbeys,  to  which  were  added  yet 
142  in  the  thirteenth  century  until  about  1270. 
Then  began  a  standstill.  During  the  fourteenth 
century  forty-one  were  added,  in  the  fifteenth 
century  twenty-six,  so  that  the  whole  number  was 
738  during  the  medieval  period.  In  the  mean 
time  some  foundations  were  discontinued:  to  the 
Itnea  ClarcevaUis  belong  353  (half  of  the  entire 
number).  From  France  to  Hungary,  Poland,  and 
Livonia;  from  Sweden  to  Portugal;  from  Scotland 
to  Sicily,  Cistercian  monasteries  were  foimd.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  prosperity  the  connection  with 
Ctteaux  and  the  other  mother  monasteries  was 
maintained.  In  the  outward  construction  of  the 
monasteries  as  well  as  in  the  mode  of  life  of  the 
monks,  especially  in  the  regulation  of  religious 
worship,  a  conformity  existed  which  united  the 
Cistercians  of  the  different  countries  among  them- 
selves and  separated  them  from  all  other  commu- 
nities. In  the  Spanish  peninsula  the  kidghtly 
orders  of  Alcantara,  Calatrava,  and  Truxillo  (qq.v.); 
in  Portugal  the  order  of  A  viz  (q.v.)  were  connected 
with  the  Cistercians.  In  northeastern  Germany 
and  further  to  the  east  the  Cistercians  rendered 
great  service  to  civilization  by  their  colonizing 
activity.  Marshes  were  drained  and  forests  were 
cleared;  orchards  and  vineyards  were  planted  on 
a  gigantic  scale;  and  cattle  and  sheep  were  raised. 
The  improvement  of  its  property  was  the  principal 
aim  of  each  monastery.  This  period  has  been 
lucidly  described  by  Winter  (cf.,  however,  Hauck, 
KDf  iv.,  Leipsic,  1903).  During  the  twelfth  century 
and  into  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  the  Cistercians 
occupied  an  important  position  in  the  government 
of  the  Church.  Not  a  few  of  them  were  made 
cardinals.  Arnold  of  Cfteaux  under  Innocent  III. 
undertook  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenscs. 
Iimocent  III.  charged  them  with  so  many  things 
that  the  chapter  of  1211  asked  for  moderation. 
Honorius  III.  and  Innocent  IV.  overwhelmed  them 
with  privileges. 

In  the  task  of  influencing  spiritually  the  masses 
the  mendicant  friars  took  precedence  of  the  Cis- 
tercians. The  great  facility  with  which  they 
went  from  place  to  place  made  them  at  the  same 
time  more   eflicient  instruments    for   the  popes. 


121 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oisteroians 


Tension  between  the  two  orders  is  evident  in  the 

exclusion  of  the  mendicant  friars  from  the  studies 

of  the  Cistercians,  and  in  the  rule  that 

3.  Gradual  no  member  of  the  order  should  go 
Decay  of  to  confession  to  a  priest  of  another 
the  Order,  order.    Yet  the  decay  of  the  order  was 

due  mainly  and  essentially  to  inner 
causes.  The  riches  accumulated  through  industry 
and  economy  gradually  exercised  a  detrimental 
influence  on  the  life  of  the  brothers.  The  remark 
of  Cepsarius  of  Heisterbach  (q.v.)  on  the  ancient 
monasteries,  "  Religion  brought  forth  riches,  riches 
destroyed  religion/'  proved  true  also  with  regard 
to  the  Cistercians.  To  this  must  be  added  the 
impossibility  of  further  colonization.  Deprived  of 
its  strongest  outward  incentive,  the  order  rapidly 
declined  in  inner  zeal  and  energy.  The  life  became 
lax.  General  chapters  sought  to  ^tem  the  tide, 
and  popes  also  tried  to  interfere  (as  Clement  IV.  in 
1265  and  Benedict  XII.  in  1335).  The  fourteenth 
century  and  later  witnessed  the  financial  decay  of 
many  monasteries.  Under  the  laxity  of  discipline 
and  the  increasing  demoralization  the  former  in- 
dustry and  strict  economy  suffered.  While  it 
proved  impossible  to  reform  the  entire  order,  two 
new  congregations  were  organized  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  Cangregatio  regularis  ahaervarUicB 
regnarum  Hiapanicorum  in  Spain  (1425)  and  the 
Congregatio  Italiea  S.  Bemardi,  definitively  con- 
firmed by  Julius  II.  in  1511  in  Lombardy  and 
Tuscany,  which  separated  almost  entirely  from  the 
order  and  observed  greater  strictness.  It  must  also 
be  mentioned  that,  under  the  incitement  of  the 
mendicant  friars,  the  Cistercians  cultivated  scien- 
tific pursuits  to  a  certain  degree  and  founded 
studia  generalia,  of  which  the  college  of  St.  Bernard 
at  Paris  was  the  most  important.  These  measures, 
however,  were  not  sufficient  to  induce  scientific 
productiveness  on  a  large  scale,  and  services  ren- 
dered by  the  Cistercians  in  that  line  are  insig- 
nificant compared  with  those  of  the  Dominicans 
and  Franciscans. 

Through  the  Reformation  the  order  lost  all  its 
pooDcooions  in  England  and  Scotland,   Denmark, 

Sweden  and  Norway,  and  the  greater 

4.  History  part  in  Germany.  It  retained  them 
Since  the  in  France,  but  after  the  concordat  of 
Reforma-    1516   it  suffered  under  the  appoint- 

tion.  ment  of  abbots  in  commendam  by  the 
royal  power.  Even  the  Counter- 
reformation  did  not  help  the  order  much.  It  had 
no  more  any  important  practical  tasks,  and  the 
Urge  body  of  the  order  proved  incapable  of  re- 
turning to  the  austerity  of  ancient  monasticism. 
Nevertheless,  efforU  of  this  kind  were  not  wanting 
and  led  in  part  to  the  formation  of  new  branches, 
such  as  the  CongregaHo  LusUana,  confirmed  in 
1567  by  Pius  V.,  the  FeuiUants  after  1606,  who 
spread  in  France  and  Italy,  and  others  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries.  The  reform, 
surpassing  in  austerity  even  the  Carthusians,  which 
was  intnxluced  by  Abbot  Ranc^  in  the  monastery 
of  La  Trappe  did  not  attain  to  much  importance 
until  after  the  French  Revolution.  From  these 
branches  must  be  distinguished  the  congregations, 
improperiy  so  called,  which  united  after  the  fashion 


of  provinces,  when  the  linea  and  the  relation  of 
filiation  had  lost  much  of  their  importance,  such 
as  the  Polish  or  Pelpline  and  the  Upper  German, 
with  the  monastery  Salem  (Salmansweiler)  as  center. 
Many  interesting  details  concerning  conditions  in  the 
seventeenth  century  are  learned  from  notes  of  a  monk 
of  Raittenhaslach  (Drey  RaUen  nach  Cistertz,  Ciater- 
cienaer-Chronik,  iv.,  1892, 45sqq.)  in  1605,  1609,  and 
1615,  and  in  Joseph  Meglinger's  Iter  Cisterciense  von 
1667  (MPL,  clxxxv.  1565-1622),  and  from  the  jojj|C 
ney  of  Abbot  Laurentius  Scipio  of  Ossegg  to  the  gen- 
eral chapter  in  the  year  1667  {Ciatercienser-Chronik, 
viii. ,  1896, 289).  In  spite  of  all  losses,  the  number  of 
Cistercian  monasteries  was  still  great  in  the  last  quar- 
ter of  the  eighteenth  century.  From  that  time  on  the 
order  received  blows  which  left  only  a  few  scanty 
remains  of  this  once  powerful  community.  In 
Austria  Joseph  II.  confiscated  a  large  number  of 
the  monasteries;  the  French  Revolution  dissolved 
the  order  in  its  mother  country;  its  most  vener- 
able places,  Citeaux  and  C])lairvaux,  have  since  linen 
been  partly  destroyed.  New  losses  were  caused 
by  the  decree  of  1803  passed  by  the  imperial  depu- 
tation and  by  the  secularization  in  Pnissia  in  1810. 
In  1834  the  abbeys  in  Portugal  and  in  1835  those 
in  Spain  were  abolished,  and  the  like  fate  befell 
the  Polish  under  Nicholas  I.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  restoration  of  the  former  abbey  Senanque  in  the 
Vaucluse  took  place  in  1854,  which  was  followed  by 
the  founding  of  some  others. 

At  present  the  order  consists  of:  I.  The  Obser- 
vantia  communis,  comprising  (1)  the  Congregatio  S. 
Bemardi  in  Italia;  (2)  the  vicariate  in  Belgium; 

(3)  the  Austro-Hungarian  province  of  the  order; 

(4)  the  Swiss-German  province.  II.  The  Obser- 
vantia  media,  to  which  belong  (1)  the  congregation 
of  Senanque;  (2)  the  Trappenses  mitigati  of  Casa- 
mari.  III.  The  Observantia  atricta  (Trappists), 
who,  however,  were  entirely  separated  in  1892 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  general  abbot  chosen 
by  the  Observantia  communis.  More  particulars 
concerning  the  present  organization  and  rules  of 
the  different  congregations  are  given  in  the  article 
Ueber  die  Observanzen  der  Cistercienser  in  the  Cister- 
cienser-Chronik ,  vii  ( 1 895)  ,117  sqq. 

S.  M.  Deutsch. 
Bibuoobapht:  The  only  reliable  source  for  the  early  his- 
tory of  Ctteaux  is  the  Exordium  ordintM  CiMtereien§i9  (the 
ao-eaUed  Exordium  parvum),  by  Stephen  Harding,  in 
MPL,  dxvi.  1601-10.  Of  a  partly  legendary  character 
is  the  Exordium  magnum  O.  C,  MPL,  clxxxv.  095-1198. 
For  the  time  from  1115  to  1153  Bernard  of  Clairvaiix 
and  the  older  biographies  of  him  must  be  consulted.  An 
important  source  for  the  history  of  the  order  are  the  reso- 
lutions of  the  general  chapters,  of  which  the  most  copi- 
ous collection  is  in  Mart^ne  and  Durand,  TAesaurus 
novut,  iy.  1243-1646.  Paris.  1717.  The  basis  of  all  later 
works  on  the  order  is  L.  Janauschek,  Orioinum  CiaUr- 
ci*n*ium,  vol.  i..  Vienna,  1877,  containing  the  first  trust- 
worthy list  of  all  Cistercian  abbeys.  Collections  of  the 
regulations  of  the  order  are  contained  in  P.  Guignard, 
Les  Monumenta  primiUfa  de  la  rigle  Cistercienne,  Dijon. 
1878;  Nonuuticon  aeu  antiquioret  O.  C.  eof%atituHone§  a 
Juliana  Paria,  Fulcardimontia  abbate  colUcta,  Paris,  1664. 
odiJtio  nova  .  .  .  u9q^€  ad  nostra  tempora  deducta  a  R.  P. 
Hug.  SHaion,  Solesmes,  1892.  Consult  further:  C.  de 
Visch.  Biblioiheca  aeriptorum  aaeri  O.  C,  Douai.  1649, 
Cologne,  1656;  B.  Tissier,  Bibliotheea  pairum  Ciatereien- 
aium,  2  vols.,  Bonofonte,  1660-69;  Angelus  Manrique. 
Ciatercienaium  .  .  .  annalium  (omt  iv,  Lyons,  1642-59 
(reaching  to  the  year  1236;  very  important,  yet  to  be 


Cities  in  Palestine 
City  Kissions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


122 


used  with  critical  care);  D'Arbois  de  Jubainville,  6tudeM 
9ur  ViUU  inUrieur  dea  aJbbaye»  CiHerciennu  au  It.  el  au 
IS.  9iidea,  Paria,  1850;  Frans  Winter,  Du  Ciatercietuer 
dea  norddatlichen  DeutadUanda  bia  sum  Auftreien  der  Bet- 
tdorden,  3  vols..  Gotha,  1868-71  (an  excellent  work). 
Many  contributions  are  found  in  Studien  und  Mitteilungen 
aua  dem  BenedUUiner  und  Ciaiereiertaerorden,  Wflrsburg, 
1870  aqq.,  and  in  the  Ciatereienaerdtronik,  Bregens,  1889 
aqq.  The  literature  on  the  different  monasteriea  ie  found 
in  JanauBchek,  ut  sup.  Additional  material  may  be 
found  in  J.  L.  von  Mosheim.  InaHtuiea  of  Bed.  Hiat,  ii. 
44,  London,  1803;  R.  C.  Trench.  Leeturaa  on  Medieval 
Chwrdi  HiaL,  pp.  110  aqq..  New  York.  1878;  H.  C.  Shel- 
don. Hiat.  of  the  Ckriatian  Church;  the  Mediceval  Church, 
pp.  271-287,  ib.  1804;  W.  W.  Capes.  Eng.  Churdi  in  tMh 
and  16th  Ceniwriea,  passim,  ib.  1900;  W.  R.  W.  Stephens. 
Eng.  Church,  1066-1978,  pp.  213.  265-263.  ib.  1001; 
Ciatercian  Order,  iia  Object,  ita  Rule.  By  a  aecular  Prieat, 
Cambridge.  U.  S.,  1005;  W.  A.  P.  Mason.  Beainninga  of 
the  Ciatercian  Order,  in  Tranaactiona  of  the  Royal  Hiatorieal 
Society,  xiv  (1005);  Schaff,  Chriatian  Church,  v.  i..  pp.  337 
sqq. 

CITIES   IN  PALESTINE. 

Origin  (i  1). 

Cities  and  Villages  (|  2). 

Sites  and  Names  (f  3). 

Features  and  Charaeteristios  (|  4). 

The  Israelitic  cities  west  of  the  Jordan  in  most 
cases  were  of  Canaanite  origin.  An  astonishing 
niunber  of  fortified  places  is  named  in 
I.  Origin,  the  Amama  letters  and  in  the  Egyp- 
tian lists.  These  walled  cities  were 
ruled  by  petty  princes,  whose  authority  extended 
to  the  neighboring  villages.  Examples  of  such 
strongholds  are  Jerusalem,  Gezer,  Lachish,  Megiddo, 
etc.  The  Old  Testament  narrators  were  well  aware 
that  these  cities  were  conquered  by  the  Israelites 
only  at  a  relatively  late  period  (cf.,  e.g.,  the  case  of 
Jerusalem,  II  Sam.  v.  6-9).  There  were,  however, 
cities  of  Israelitic  origin.  Many  settlements  of  the 
invading  tribes  must  have  grown  gradually  into 
villages  and  cities,  which  were  later  walled  in  (Josh, 
xix.  50;  I  Kings  xii.  25).  In  the  Greek  period  the 
founding  of  cities  was  quite  usual;  in  many  cases, 
however,  some  older  city  was  merely  enlarged  and 
renamed.  Herod  the  Great  was  especially  de- 
voted to  building  (see  Herod  and  his  Family). 
Caesarea,  Phasaelis,  and  Herodeion,  Alexandreion, 
Hyrcania,  and  other  strongholds  were  built  during 
his  reign. 

Gity  and  village  are  always  distinguished  in  the 
Old   Testament;    a   city  is  a  walled   stronghold 
{'ir  fyymah,  Lev.  xxv.  30),  in  contrast  to  the  unpro- 
tected villages  and  the  scattered  hamlets  {hagerim, 
Lev.    xxv.    31;    kepharim,   I   Chron. 
a.  Cities     xxvii.  25).     Fiirther,  in  the  cities,  the 
and        seats  of  the  princes  and  the  lords  of 
^nilages.    the  land,  civilization  made  more  rapid 
progress  than  in  the  open  country.     At 
times  this  distinction  was  unusually  marked,  for,  in 
the  various  migrations  which  overran  the  land,  the 
invaders  first  occupied  the  open  country,  while  the 
cities  remained  for  a  long  time  in  the  hands  of  the 
original  inhabitants.    Among  both  the  Ganaanites 
and  the  Israelites  the  unprotected  villages  were 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  cities  (cf.  the  expres- 
sion "  mother  in  Israel,"  applied  to  a  city,  II  Sam. 
XX.  19,  and  "  a  city  and  the  villages  thereof,"  Num. 
xxi.  25,  32,  xxxii.  42).     In  the  Greek  period  the 
distinction  was  that  the  cities  {poleia)  had  a  con- 


stitution and  privileges  different  from  those  of  the 
villages  (kHmai ;  cf.  kdmopoleis  in  Mark  i.  38). 
The  choice  of  a  site  for  a  settlement  was 
largely  determined  by  the  presence  of  a  supply  of 
water,  though  Jerusalem  is  a  note- 
3.  Sites  worthy  exception.  Numerous  places 
and  are  named  after  their  fountains — 
Names.  En-gedi  ("  Fountain  of  the  Kid  "), 
En-shemesh  ("  Fountain  of  the  Sun  "), 
and  others.  Another  consideration  was  that  the 
site  should  afford  a  certain  protection;  elevations 
were  therefore  preferred.  All  laxger  fortified  dtiea 
were  built  upon  hills  or  mountain  slopes.  It  is 
generally  difficult  to  explain  the  names  of  towns; 
except  where  the  common  appellations  are  used 
Caytn,  "fountain";  beth,  "house";  'ir,  "dty"; 
etc.).  The  common  attempts  at  etymological 
explanation  may  generally  be  rejected,  for  the 
names  usually  belong  to  the  ancient  pre-Israelitic 
language,  and  have  often  changed  greatly  in  the 
course  of  centuries.  In  the  explanations  given 
in  the  Old  Testament  the  name  has  often  evidently 
given  rise  to  the  legend  (e.g.,  Gilgal,  which  is  ex- 
plained to  signify  the  rolling  off  of  a  reproach.  Josh. 
V.  9).  It  may  be  remarked  that  many  places  bore 
the  name  of  the  divinity  who  was  worshiped  there 
(Beth-el,  "  the  Seat  of  El ";  Beth-shemesh,  "  the 
House  of  the  Sun  ";  etc.).  It  is  unlikely  that  two 
names  were  in  use  for  the  same  place  in  the  earliest 
period.  Most  of  such  cases  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment seem  either  to  have  arisen  from  misunder- 
standing, or  else  to  have  been  adapted  for  harmo- 
nistic  purposes.  For  example  Jebuis-Jenisalem  is  a 
name  freely  invented  from  the  tribal  name  of  the 
Jebusites.  Only  in  the  Greek  period  did  a  change 
of  names  become  the  fashion  (Samaria  to  Sebaste, 
etc.). 

Aided  by  the  excavations  at  Megiddo  Taanach, 
Gezer,  Lachish,  and  elsewhere,  the  picture  of  an 
ancient  city  can  be  reconstructed  to  a 
4.  Features  certain  extent.  Gon  fined  to  a  small 
and  Char-  space,  with  thick  walls  made  of  clay 
acteristics.  bricks  or  of  medium-sized  rough- 
hewn  stones,  these  cities  may  be  com- 
pared in  many  respects  to  those  found  to-day  in 
Palestine.  The  streets  were  narrow  and  tortuous; 
the  houses  (see  House)  were  small;  and  the  gate  or 
gates,  close  to  which  was  the  only  open  square 
(Gen.  xxiii.  10;  Ruth  iy.  1;  II  Sam.  xv.  2;  II 
Kings  vii.  1,  etc.),  were  built  in  an  an^e  of  the  wall. 
The  houses  usually  had  the  natural  rock  for  their 
rear  wall;  indeed,  they  were  little  more  than  en- 
larged caves  built  up  in  front.  The  roofs  of  the 
lower  houses  formed  the  street  in  front  of  those 
built  higher  up;  paved  streets  are  first  found  in  the 
time  of  the  Herods  (Josephus,  An*.,  XX.  ix.  7).  A 
regular  police  is  not  employed  even  now,  but  night 
watchmen  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
(Ps.  cxxvii.  1;  Gant.  iii.  3,  v.  7;  Isa.  xxi.  11). 
The  work  of  cleaning  the  streets  was  left  to  the 
dogs  (Isa.  V.  25;  see  Doos).  Trades  and  shops  of 
the  same  kind  were  grouped  together  in  particular 
streets  (see  Gommerce  among  the  Ancient 
Israelites;  Handicrafts,  Hebrew).  Every 
walled  city  must  have  been  well  supplied  with 
cisterns  in  the  rocks,  for  it  was  rarely  possible  to 


Ids 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cities  in  Palestine 
Oity  Miaeione 


introduce  water  from  outside  within  the  circuit  of 
the  walls;  uncovered  pools  were  common  (see 
Jeru8a1j£m;    Water  Supply  in  Palestine). 

I.  Benzinger. 

Bibuoobapht:  A.  Billerbeck,  Der  Featungabau  im  aUen 
Oriant,  Leipsic,  1003;  the  publications  of  the  PEF^  par- 
tieolarly  the  Survey  of  Weatem  PaUaHnet  7  vols.,  and  of 
Bottom  PaUgUne,  1  vol.;  C.  R.  Gonder,  Tent  Work  in 
Paleatine^  1880;  idem.  Heth  and  Moab,  1883;  O.  Schu- 
macher. Aeroae  the  Jordan,  1886;  idem.  The  Jaulan,  1888; 
G.  Armstrong,  Namea  and  Plaeea  in  the  O.  and  N.  T.  and 
Apocrypha,  1887;  F.  Petrie.  Tel  a  Heey,  Laehiah,  1891; 
F.  J.  BUm,  a  Mound  of  Many  Citiea,  1894;  and  the 
Quartariy  SUUementa.  Consult  also  the  literature  under 
Pai^sbtimk  and  under  the  articles  discussing  the  several 
citiea. 

CITT  MISSIONS. 
L  In  Germany. 
II.  In  the  United  States. 

The  New  York  City  Mission  (|  1). 

L  In  Germany:  City  missions  constitute  one  form 
of  home  mission  work,  necessitated  by  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  life  in  large  cities  and  because  the 
needs  and  moral  shortcomings  caused  by  these 
conditions  can  be  supplied  and  corrected  most 
usefully  and  effectively  by  a  union  of  existing 
activities  and  by  a  uniform  plan  of  action.  A  city 
mission  was  organized  in  Glasgow  in  1826  by  David 
Nasmiths  (q.v.),  who  as  secretary  of  twenty-three 
Christian  societies  saw  the  necessity  of  uniting 
them  more  closely  and  employmg  a  number  of 
faithful  workers  in  missionary  service  without  con- 
nection with  an  individual  congregation.  His 
suggestion  was  followed  by  the  city  of  London  in 
1835»  under  the  vigorous  cooperation  of  Lord 
Shaftesbury  (q.v.) .  In  Germany  it  was  J.  H.  Wichem 
(q.v.)  who,  after  his  return  from  the  Wittenberg 
Church  Diet  of  1848,  suggested  among  the  friends 
of  the  Batihea  Haus  in  Hamburg  the  organization 
of  the  "  Hamburg  Society  for  the  Inner  Mission," 
calling  attention  to  the  London  CJity  Mission.  His 
association  had  the  twofold  task  of  bringing  about 
a  closer  union  of  existing  agencies  and  practising 
missionaiy  activity  in  Hamburg  after  the  model  of 
London,  with  due  regard,  however,  to  specifically 
Gennan  conditions,  by  organizing  special  com- 
mittees for  the  visitation  of  the  poor,  for  the  care  of 
needy  artisans,  for  journeymen  and  apprentices, 
for  the  circulation  of  good  literature,  for  the  union 
of  young  merchants,  and  for  the  suppression  of 
public  immorality.  In  course  of  time  these  sep- 
arate conunittees  were  replaced  by  local  district 
societies  which  were  in  close  connection  with  their 
respective  parishes  and  became  the  basis  for  similar 
societies  in  other  cities.  The  first  suggestion  for 
similar  efforts  in  Berlin  proceeded  also  from  Wich- 
em. But  real  success  was  not  attained  here  until 
1874,  when  Dr.  B.  B.  BrQckner,  general  superin- 
tendent of  Berlin,  devoted  his  energies  to  this  work. 
His  efforts  were  continued  in  1877  by  Court  Preacher 
Adolf  Stdcker  and  Privy  Councilor  J.  R.  Bosse,  the 
latter  minister  of  public  worship  and  instruction. 
They  were  assisted  by  two  theological  inspectors 
and  thirteen  city  missionaries.  In  Apr.,  1906, 
there  were  six  theological  inspectors  and  sixty-two 
city  missionaries,  including  eight  women.  During 
1905,  95,000  visits  were  made,  including  4,677 
because  of  unbaptized  children,  3,539  because  of 


couples  who  had  discarded  the  marriage  ceremony, 
and  959  because  of  children  brought  into  the  crim- 
inal courts.  Thirty-three  hundred  children  were 
enrolled  in  sixty-nine  Sunday-schools  and  religious 
services  were  held  in  twenty-four  places.  Other 
organizations  which  serve  missionary  purposes  in 
Berlin  are  the  "  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion "  (since  1882);  "  St.  Michael's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation "  (since  1883);  an  association  called 
"  Service  for  the  Unemployed  "  (since  1882);  and 
especially  the  "  CSty  Committee  (now  called  "  Main 
Association  ")  for  the  Inner  Mission  "  (since  1899). 
According  to  statistics  of  1899,  seventy  other  cities  of 
Germany  had  followed  the  example  of  Hamburg  and 
Berlin.  There  is  a  distinction  made  between  assist- 
ants of  the  congregations  (Gemeindehelfer)  and  city 
missionaries  in  the  more  restricted  sense  of  the  word. 
The  former  confine  themselves  to  the  work  of 
deacons,  while  the  duties  of  city  missionaries  are  of 
an  evangelizing  nature.  The  latter,  therefore,  aim 
to  serve  classes  who  are  compelled  to  work  on  Sun- 
days, and  those  who  have  no  permanent  home  such 
as  fishermen,  seamen,  the  imemployed,  and  pris- 
oners. They  also  combat  drunkenness  and  im- 
morality, circulate  Christian  tracts,  and  lecture  to 
reconcile  social  distinctions.  In  1888,  imder  the 
influence  of  the  present  emperor  and  empress,  there 
was  called  into  existence  the  "  Evangelical  Church 
Aid  Society  "  to  support  all  efforts  for  the  sup- 
pression of  irreligious  and  inunoral  conditions  in 
Berlin  and  other  large  cities  and  in  the  industrial 
districts  of  Prussia.  A  select  committee  of  this 
association  supports  the  existing  dty  missions  and 
tries  to  call  others  into  life.     (H.  Rahlenbeck.) 

n.  In  the  United  States:  City  mission  work  is 
done  in  most  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  United 
States,  the  call  for  such  work  being  specially  urgent 
here  because  so  large  a  part  of  the  enormous  emi- 
gration from  all  over  the  world  finds  its  permanent 
home  in  our  cities.  Many  of  these  people  who 
leave  their  church  homes  on  the  other  side  of  the 
ocean  would  drift  into  utter  godlessness  were  it 
not  for  the  effort  of  the  city  missionary,  who  seeks 
them  out  and  brings  them  into  vital  connection 
with  some  existing  church  organization.  Further- 
more, the  inevitable  tendency  toward  the  separa- 
tion of  the  well-to-do  classes  from  the  very  poor 
leaves  whole  sections  of  some  of  our  cities  with  only 
those  whose  incomes  hardly  suffice  to  maintain 
church  services.  Unless  they  are  to  be  wholly 
abandoned,  some  outside  means  must  be  provided 
for  their  religious  upbuilding — a  legitimate  field 
for  city  mission  activity. 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  city  mission 
work  is  carried  on  in  the  United  States.  Individual 
churches  establish  missions,  which  the  mother 
church  supports,  and  for  which  it  furnishes  both 
volunteer  and  paid  workers.  Such  missions  are 
often  organized  as  churches,  having  the  ordinances, 
but  dependent  on  the  mother  church  both  for  the 
necessary  means  of  support  and  for  ecclesiastical 
government.  In  other  cases  a  denomination  or- 
ganizes a  city  mission  society,  appealing  to  the 
denomination  for  the  needed  financial  support, 
and  directing  the  work  along  denominational  lines. 
In  New  York  City,  for  example,  there  are  such 


Olty  MlMions 
Olark 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


124 


societies  managed  by  the  Methodist^  the  Baptist, 
and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  denominations. 
The  third  method  is  that  of  imdenominational 
work.  The  different  denominations  unite  their 
forces,  and  put  missionaries  into  the  field,  who  are 
not  supposed  to  teach  the  distinctive  tenets  of  the 
denominations,  but  work  directly  and  exclusively 
for  the  moral  and  spiritual  regeneration  of  those 
to  whom  they  are  sent. 

Taking  the  New  York  City  Mission  and  Tract 

Society,  as  the  largest  and  oldest  of  such  oganiza^ 

tions,  as  a  norm,  the  following  may  serve  as  an 

illustration  of  the  methods  of  work. 

I.  The  New  This  society  began  over  eighty  years 

York  City   ago,  and  at  first  was  purely  volunteer 

Mission,  in  its  corps  of  visitors.  The  aim  was 
to  visit  the  churchless  population, 
and  invite  them  to  the  house  of  God,  at  the  same 
time  leaiong  at  each  dwelling  some  religious  litera- 
ture. In  1833  the  first  paid  agent  was  employed, 
as  the  work  had  grown  beyond  the  ability  of  the 
volunteers  to  accomplish  all  that  was  needed.  At 
present  there  are  between  sixty  and  seventy  paid 
workers,  the  majority  of  them  being  women,  since 
women  can  do  much  work  among  the  tenement 
house  population  that  men  can  not  accomplish. 
In  1866  the  society  was  incorporated  so  as  to  be 
able  to  hold  property. 

As  churches  followed  their  members  to  more 
favored  portions  of  the  city,  large  sections  were 
left  without  church  accommodations,  making  it 
necessary  for  the  visiting  missionaries  to  establish 
tenement  house  prayer-meetings  and  Sunday- 
schools.  Some  of  those  who  were  thus  influenced 
for  good  asked  to  have  the  ordinances  administered 
to  them,  which  necessitated  the  erection  of  suitable 
structures  for  worship,  and  the  carrying  on  of 
proper  church  activities.  The  first  of  these 
churches  was  built  by  the  City  Mission  in  1867 
in  a  crowded  part  of  the  city.  Because  of  the 
cosmopolitan  nature  of  the  population,  preaching 
and  teaching  is  carried  on  in  Eki^ish,  German, 
Italian,  Yid^h,  Arabic,  Greek,  Japanese,  and  in 
English  among  the  Chinese.  In  New  York  City 
overcrowding  has  gone  on  to  an  extent  unknown 
elsewhere  in  the  world.  Many  a  block  measuring 
only  seven  hundred  feet  by  two  hundred  contains 
a  population  of  2,500  people.  In  certain  districts 
whole  blocks  are  filled  with  Israelites,  while  in  others 
only  Italians  are  to  be  foimd,  and  in  yet  others  only 
Bohemians  or  negroes — a  condition  which  increases 
both  the  need  and  the  difiiculties  of  dty  mission 
work. 

In  course  of  time  the  New  York  City  Mission 
foimd  it  necessary  to  employ  regularly  trained 
nurses  for  those  who  for  various  good  reasons  could 
not  go  to  a  hospital.  Furthermore,  as  time  passed 
and  experience  grew  it  was  foimd  that  many  other 
things  besides  the  preaching  of  the  Word  and  the 
instruction  of  Sunday-school  scholars  was  called 
for.  The  result  was  the  establishment  of  what 
are  called  in  modem  parlance  "  institutional 
churches,"  aiming  to  minister  to  the  threefold 
nature  of  man — ^to  his  body,  his  mind,  and  his 
spirit.  This  necessitates  kindergarten  work,  library 
and  gymnasium  facilities  with  appropriate  attend- 


ants, fresh-air  work  in  the  summer,  and  dubs  of 
various  kinds  both  for  boys  dnd  girls. 

Regularly  ordained  men  administer  the  ordi- 
nances, and  the  women  missionaries  aid  in  the  work 
of  house-to-house  visitation.  Since  trained  workers 
can  do  the  best  work,  the  City  Mission  years  ago 
established  a  regular  training-school.  A  building 
was  purchased  and  fitted  up  where  those  in  training 
live  together  under  the  care  of  a  superintendent. 
The  course  is  one  year,  and  indudes  lectures  and 
practical  work.  The  total  cost  for  each  student  is 
only  $125.00  a  year. 

At  present  the  City  Mission  owns  property  to 
the  amount  of  about  $600,000  free  of  encumbrance. 
This  includes  three  costly  and  well-equipped  church 
buildings,  a  Christian  workers'  home  where  the 
women  missionaries  live,  a  training-school,  and  a 
sort  of  settlement  house  on  the  lower  west  side  of 
the  dty,  which  has  already  in  it  an  organized 
Italian  Church.  The  annual  expenditure  is  about 
$65,000  a  year,  which  comes  from  purely  voluntary 
sources.  The  doctrinal  basis  of  the  churches 
formed  under  the  care  of  the  sodety  is  the  Apostles' 
Creed.  The  churches,  of  which  there  are  two 
German,  two  Italian,  and  two  En^ish,  govern 
themselves  in  all  matters  spiritiial,  though  the 
directors  of  the  City  Mission  hold  the  veto  right 
over  any  action  that  the  churches  may  take.  This 
right  has  never  been  exercised.  The  property  is 
held  by  the  society,  but  the  chiurches  have  the 
use  of  it  without  payment  other  than  the  usual 
offertory  taken  for  actual  expenses.  This  does  not 
suffice  for  the  defraying  of  all  outlay  by  any  means, 
and  the  City  Mission  provides  the  balance.  Since 
its  establishment  the  City  Mission  has  received 
about  $375,000  in  legacies  besides  large  gifts  for 
the  erection  of  its  chiurch  edifices. 

A.  F.  SCHAUFFLER. 

Bibuoobapht:  On  I.  consult:  E.  G.  Lehmann,  Die  Stadt- 
fnission^  Leipsic,  1875;  £.  Kayser,  Die  evangditche  Stadtr 
miuion,  Gotha.  1890;  E.  Evere,  Die  Berliner  Siadimig- 
tion,  Berlin,  1902;  T.  Sch&fer,  Leitfaden  der  inneren  Afi»- 
Mon.  HambuTK,  1903,  and  the  periodical  Fliegende  BldiUr 
atu  dem  Rauhen  Haute,  1849-1907.  On  II.  consult: 
8.  L.  Loomis.  Modem  CiHee  and  the  Rdigious  Problenu, 
New  York,  1887;  W.  8.  UflFord,  Freeh  Air  Charity  in  Oie 
United  States,  ib.  1897;  E.  Judson.  The  inaHiutiond 
Chtarch,  ib.  1899;  J.  Strong,  Religioue  Movemente  for  So- 
did  Betterment,  ib.  1900;  W.  H.  Tollman,  The  Better  New 
York,  ib.  1904.  The  best  sources  of  information  are  af- 
forded by  the  reports  of  the  various  societies,  annual  and 
in  some  cases  monthly,  e.g.,  of  the  New  York  City  MissioD 
and  Tract  Society,  The  Brooklyn  City  Mission  and  Tract 
Society,  The  City  Mission  Society  of  Boston.  The  Albany 
City  Tract  and  Mission  Society;  also  the  Circulare  of  In- 
formation  of  the  Armour  Mieeion  in  Chicago.  For  London 
consult:  J.  M.  Weylland.  Theee  Fifty  Yeare,  London.  1884 
(deab  with  the  London  City  Mission);  C.  Booth.  Life  and 
Labour,  14  vols.,  ib.  1903  (in  three  series;  one  of  these 
deals  with  the  religious  forces  working  upon  city  prob- 
lems). 
CIXJDAD,  JUAW  (JOHN  OF  GOD).   See  Chabitt, 

Brothers  of. 
CLAIRVAUX.    See    Bernard    of   Clairvaux; 

Cistercians. 
CLAP,    THOMAS:    Fifth    president    of    Yale 

College;   b.  at  Scituate,  Mass.,  June  26,  1703;  d. 

in  New  Haven  Jan.  7,  1767.     He  was  graduated  at 

Harvard  1722;    was  minister  of  Windham,  Conn., 

from  1725  till  his  induction  as  president  of  Yale, 


1S6 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Olty  MiMions 
Olark 


1740.  He  was  already  noted  for  stringency  of 
discipline  and  pronoimced  Calvinism,  and  as  presi- 
dent his  course  was  somewhat  arbitrary  and  auto- 
cratic, but  nevertheless  was  marked  by  regard  for 
sound  scholarship  and  propriety.  The  college 
funds  were  increased  in  legitimate  ways  and  two 
new  buildings  were  added;  the  college  church  waa 
organized  and  the  professorship  of  divinity  was 
established.  He  sympathized  with  the  "  Old 
Lights"  in  the  disputes  stirred  up  by  Whitefield 
and  the  revival  preaching  of  his  time.  He  resigned 
the  presidency  in  1766,  a  few  months  before  his 
death.  Besides  many  controversial  pamphlets  he 
wrote  An  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Foundation  of 
Moral  Virtue  and  Obligation ,  intended  for  a  text- 
book (New  Haven,  176«5),  and  The  Annals  or  His- 
tory of  Yale  College  (1766). 

Biblioobapht:  F.  B.  Dexter,  in  the  Papera  of  the  New  Haven 
Colony  HiMtorical  Society,  v.  247-274.  New  Haven,  1894. 

CLARE  (CLARA),  SAINT,  AND  THE  POOR 
CLARES:  The  founder  of  an  order  of  women 
parallel  to  the  Franciscans,  and  the  order  itself. 
Clara  Scefi  was  bom  at  Assisi,  of  a  noble  family, 
July  16,  1194.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  she  was  ex- 
pecting to  be  married,  when  a  sermon  of  St.  Francis 
showed  her  the  vanity  of  earthly  things.  Under 
his  direction  she  put  on  sackcloth  and  went  out  to 
beg  for  the  poor.  On  Palm  Sunday  (Mar.  18, 1212), 
she  took  the  three  vows,  and  went  to  reside  pro- 
\n5aonally  in  the  Benedictine  convent  of  St.  Paul. 
Soon  she  was  joined  by  her  younger  sister  Agnes, 
and  Francis  made  a  little  cloister  for  them  near 
the  church  of  St.  Damian.  Others,  including  her 
mother  and  youngest  sister,  joined  her  here;  and 
she  acted  as  head  of  the  commimity  imtil  her  death, 
Aug.  11,  1253.  She  was  canonized  by  Alexander 
IV.  in  1255. 

The  growth  of  her  order  was  rapid;  and  it  was 
not  long  before  all  the  larger  towns  to  which  the 
Fninciscans  came  had  also  a  convent  of  Poor  Clares. 
At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  even  after  the 
Reformation  had  diminished  the  number,  there 
were  still  900  houses,  with  some  25,(X)0  sisters, 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  general  of 
the  Franciscans,  and  a  scarcely  smaller  number 
under  the  diocesan  bishops. 

Until  1219  Clare  and  her  associates  had  nothing 
but  the  oral  counsels  of  Francis  to  follow.  In  1219 
Cardinal  Ugolino  gave  them  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  with  some  additions  in  the  direction  of 
aewrity.  Later,  Francis  and  Ugolino  drew  up  for 
them  a  rule  in  twelve  chapters,  analogous  to  that 
of  the  Friars  Minor.  It  prescribed  the  strictest 
poverty,  confinement  to  the  enclosure  of  the  con- 
\Tnt,  fasting  and  abstinence,  and  prohibited  the 
holding  of  any  property,  even  by  the  convents. 
This  rule  was  formally  confirmed  by  Innocent  IV. 
m  1246,  and  accepted  by  the  majority  of  the 
convents.  By  degrees,  however,  varieties  of  observ- 
ance grew  up,  and  in  1264  Pope  Urban  IV.  attempt- 
ed to  enforce  a  revised  rule,  with  certain  mitiga- 
tions in  the  matter  of  fasting  and  income  for  their 
support.  This  was  accepted  in  most  countries; 
but  there  were  (and  are  still)  some  convents  in 
Italy  and  Spain  which  adhered  to  the  primitive 
rigor,  and  claimed  the  exclusive  right  to  the  name 


Clarisses,  while  the  others  were  known  as  Urban- 
ists.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  strict  reform  of  St.  Coleta,  based  upon  the  orig- 
inal rule  of  Francis  and  Ugolino,  was  introduced  in 
all  the  convents  over  which  she  had  influence. 
Upon  the  representation  of  the  Franciscan  John 
Capistran  to  Eugenius  IV.  that  the  rule  contained 
more  than  a  hundred  precepts  binding  imder  pain 
of  grievous  sin,  the  pope  ruled  in  1447  that  the  only 
precepts  binding  under  pain  of  mortal  sin  should 
be  those  relating  to  the  three  vows,  the  enclosure, 
and  the  election  or  deposition  of  an  abbess.  This 
is  still  the  case.  The  Capuchin  Sisters,  originating 
in  Naples,  1538,  and  the  Alcantarines,  1631,  taking 
their  name  from  the  reform  of  St.  Peter  of  Alcan- 
tara, are  simply  Clarisses  of  the  strict  observance. 
The  Poor  Clares  have  houses  in  England  and  Ire- 
land. They  established  themselves  in  the  United 
States  in  1875,  where  they  have  (1907)  five 
houses. 

Bibuoorapht:  ASB,  August,  ii.  73^768;  Life  of  St. 
Claire,  Dublin.  1854;  F.  de  More.  Vie  de  8.  Claire  d'Aeeiee, 
Parifl,  1856;  P.  Jouhanneaud.  Vie  de  S.  Claire  d'Aeeiee, 
Limoges,  1873;  Joseph  de  Madrid,  Vie  de  S.  Claire 
d'Aeeiee,  Paris,  1880;  E.  Wauer,  Entetehung  und  Atu- 
breitung  dee  Klariaeenordene,  Leipsic,  1006.  The  Reotda 
was  published  in  Italian  at  Barcelona,  1644,  and  in 
French  at  Laval,  1651.  On  the  order  consult:  E.  Lempp, 
in  ZKO,  sdii  (1892).  181-245;  Currier,  Relioioue  Ordere, 
pp.  240-262. 

CLARENDON,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF.    See  Beck- 

ET,  ThOBIAB. 

CLARENI  (CLARENINI).     See  Francib,  Saint, 

OF  AflSIBI,  AND  THE  FRANCISCAN  OrDER,    III.,  §  7. 

CLARK,  FRANCIS  EDWARD:  Congregation- 
alist,  founder  of  the  United  Society  of  Christian 
Endeavor;  b.  at  Aylmer,  Quebec,  Sept.  12,  1861. 
He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1873  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1876,  after  which 
he  was  pastor  of  Williston  Church,  Portland,  Me. 
(1876-83),  and  of  Phillips  Church,  South  Boston 
(1883-87).  In  1881  he  founded  the  Society  of 
Christian  Endeavor,  and  in  1887  resigned  his 
pastorate  to  devote  his  entire  energies  to  its  pro- 
motion. Since  that  year  he  has  been  president  of 
the  United  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  and  is 
also  president  of  the  World's  Christian  Endeavor 
Union  and  editor  of  The  Christian  Endeavor  World, 
the  official  organ  of  the  society.  In  the  interest 
of  the  society  he  has  traveled  over  the  world. 
Among  his  publications  may  be  mentioned  Young 
People's  Prayer  Meetings  (New  York,  1887);  Our 
Journey  around  the  World  (1894);  World-Wide 
Endeavor  (Boston.  1897);  and  A  New  Way  around 
an  Old  World  (New  York,  1900). 

CLARK,  GEORGE  WHITFIELD:  Baptist;  b. 
at  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  Feb.  15,  1&31.  He  was 
graduated  at  Amherst  in  1853  and  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary  in  1855,  and  was  pastor  at 
New  Market,  N.  J.  (1855-59),  Elizabeth,  N.  J. 
(1859-68),  Balston  Spa,  N.  Y.  (1868-73),  and 
Somerville,  N.  J.  (1873-77).  He  retired  from 
the  active  ministry  in  1877  on  accoimt  of  ill  health, 
and  since  1880  has  been  engaged  in  missionary, 
financial,  and  literary  work  for  the  American 
Baptist    Publication   Society.     Besides   a   History 


Olftrk 
Clarke 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


126 


of  the  First  Baptist  Church  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J,  (New- 
ark, 1863)  and  a  Oospel  Harmony  in  English  (New 
York,  1870),  he  has  written  a  Commentary  on  the 
New  Testament  (9  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1870-1907). 

CLARK,  THOMAS  MARCH:  Second  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  bishop  of  Rhode  Island;  b.  at 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  July  4,  1812;  d.  at  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  Sept.  7,  1903.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  1831 ;  studied  in  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary 1833-35  and  was  licensed  as  a  Presbyterian 
at  Newburyport  1835;  was  ordained  priest  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  1836;  became  rector 
of  Grace  Church,  Boston,  1836;  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Philadelphia,  1843;  assistant  at  Trinity,  Boston, 
1847;  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Hartfoid,  1851; 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Rhode  Island,  1854. 
His  books  include  Lectures  to  Young  Men  on  the 
Formation  of  Character  (Hartford,  1852);  The 
PHmary  Truths  of  Religion  (New  York,  1869); 
Readings  and  Prayers  for  Aid  in  Private  Devotion 
(1888);  Reminiscences  (1895). 

CLARK,  WILLIAM  ROBINSON:  Cliurch  of 
England;  b.  at  Inverurie  (13  m.  n.w.  of  Aberdeen), 
Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  Mar.  26,  1829.  He 
studied  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and  Hertford 
College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1864),  and  was  ordered 
deacon  in  1857  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  curate  of  St.  Matthias',  Birming- 
ham (1857-58)  and  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  Taun- 
ton, in  1858,  where  he  was  vicar  1859-80.  From 
1870  to  1882  he  was  prebendary  of  Wells,  and  since 
1883  has  been  professor  of  philosophy  in  Trinity 
College,  Toronto.  He  was  lecturer  of  St.  George, 
Toronto,  1882-85,  and  lecturer  in  history  in  Trinity 
College,  Toronto,  1883-91,  as  well  as  Baldwin 
lecturer  in  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1887,  and 
Slocum  lecturer  in  the  same  university  in  1899. 
In  1900  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada.  He  translated  Hagenbach's 
History  of  Doctrines  (3  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1880-81) 
and  the  major  portion  of  Hefele's  History  of  the 
Councils  (to  787,  4  vols.,  1871-96),  and  has  written, 
besides  other  works,  Witnesses  to  Christ  (Baldwin 
Lectures;  London,  1888);  Savonarola :  his  Life 
and  Times  (1892);  The  Anglican  Reformation 
(1896);  The  ParadeU  (Slocum  Lectures,  1900); 
and  Pascal  and  Port  Royal  (1902). 

CLARKE,  ADAM:  Wesleyan  preacher,  com- 
mentator, and  theologian;  b.  at  Moybeg  (near 
Kilcronaghan,  2  m.  e.  of  Draperstown),  County 
Londonderry,  Ireland,  c.  1762;  d.  in  London  Aug. 
26,  1832.  He  became  a  Methodist  in  1778,  and 
was  in  a  succession  an  exhorter,  local  preacher, 
and  regular  preacher.  His  first  circuit  was  that  of 
Bradford,  Wiltshire,  to  which  he  was  appointed  in 
1782.  He  served  in  various  places  and  traveled 
throughout  Great  Britain,  achieving  fame  as  a 
preacher,  and  being  president  of  the  British  Confer- 
ence m  1806,  1814,  and  1822.  After  1805  he  held 
an  appointment  in  London,  where  he  was  a  member 
of  the  conmiittee  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  for  several  years,  and  one  of  the  advisers 
of  its  Oriental  publications,  in  addition  to  editing 
certain  ancient  documents  of  state  in  continuation  | 


of  the  Fcsdera  of  Thomas  Rymer.  He  resigned 
from  this  task  in  1819,  having  retired  four  yean 
previously,  in  view  of  his  impaired  health,  to  Mill- 
brook,  Lancashire,  where  he  resided  until  his 
return  to  the  vicinity  of  London  in  1823.  He  was 
also  active  in  the  service  of  the  Wesleyan  Mission- 
ary Society  from  its  inception  in  1814,  making  two 
missionary  journeys  in  1826  and  1828  to  the  Shet- 
land Islands,  where  he  established  Methodism. 
The  most  important  of  his  numerous  works  was 
his  commentary  on  the  Bible  (8  vols.,  Liverpool, 
1810-26),  which  long  had  an  extensive  circulation. 
He  also  published  a  Biographical  Dictionary  (6 
vols.,  London,  1802)  and  its  supplement,  The 
Biographical  Miscellany  (2  vols.,  1806).  His 
Miscellaneous  Works  were  edited  in  thirteen  vol- 
umes by  J.  Everett  (London,  1836-37). 

Bibuoorapht:  An  Aeeouni  of  Ae  Infancy^  iZeli^iM  and 
Literary  Life  of  Adam  Clarke,  3  vols.,  London.  1833  (toI. 
i.  ia  autobiographical,  vols.  iL,  iiL  by  his  daughter,  M.  A. 
Smith,  with  an  Appendix  by  his  son,  J.  B.  B.  Clarke). 
Constilt  lives  by  J.  Everett,  London,  1843;  J.  W.  Ether- 
idge,  ib.  1858;  S.  Dunn,  ib.  1863;  and  DNB,  x.  413-414. 

CLARKE,  JAMES  FREEMAN:    Unitarian;    b. 
in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  Apr.  4,  1810;  d.  in  Boston  June 
8,    1888.      He  was  graduated  at  Harvard    1829, 
and  at  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School  1833;   was 
pastor  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  1833-40;  became  pastor 
of  the  newly  organized  Church  of  the  Disciples, 
Boston,  1841,  and  remained  there  till  his  death, 
with  the  exception  of  an  interval  between  1850  and 
1853  when  the  church  was  temporarily  disbanded. 
He  was  a  director  of  the  Unitarian  Association  from 
1845,  was  chosen  its  secretary  in  1859,  and  helped 
to   form   the    National   Conference   of    Unitarian 
Churches  in  1865.     He  was  a  leader  of  the  anti- 
slavery  movement,  and  an  efficient  member  of  the 
Sanitaiy  Conunission  during  the  Civil  War;  at  a  later 
period  he  advocated  civil  service  reform.     He  was 
prominent  in  educational  work  in  Boston,  an  over- 
seer of  Harvard,  and  a  trustee  of  the  public  library. 
In  1867  he  was  made  professor  in  the  Harvard 
Divinity  School  and  gave  lectures  on  comparative 
theology.  Christian  doctrine,  and  other  subjects, 
from  which  his  important  books.  Steps  of  Belief 
(Boston,  1870)  and  Ten  Great  Religions  (2  parts, 
1871--83)    were   developed.    The    Church    of   the 
Disciples  was  founded  expressly  to  allow  its  mem- 
bers entire  freedom  of  individual  belief,  and  he 
prepared  a  Service  and  Hymn  Book  (1844)  for  its 
use,  combining  the  features  of  ritualistic  and  non- 
ritualistic  worship.    Of  his  other  original  works 
mention  may  be  made  of  the  History  of  the  Cam- 
paign of  1812  and  Defence  of  Gen,  William  Hull 
[his  grandfather]  for  the  Surrender  of  Detroit  (1848); 
The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Forgiveness  of  Sin  (1852); 
The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Prayer  (1854);    Ortho- 
doxy, its  Truths  and  its  Errors  (1866);    Common 
Sense  in  Religion,  essays  (1874);    Essentials  and 
Non-essentials    in    Religion    (1878);     Events    and 
Epochs   in   Religious   History   (1881);     Legend  of 
Thomas  Didymus,  the  Jewish  skeptic   (1881;    re- 
issued as  The  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus,  as  Related  by 
Thomas  Didymus,  1887);   Anti-Slavery  Days  (New 
York,  1883);   The  Ideas  of  the  Apostle  Paul  Trans- 
lated into  their  Modem  Equivalents  (Boston,  1884); 


127 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Olark 
Clarke 


Manual  of  Untlarian  Belief  (1884);  Every  Day 
Religion  {18S6);  VexedQuesH^ms  in  Theology  (1886); 
The  Problem  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  (1886).  He  edited 
The  Western  Messenger  at  Louisville  1836-39  and 
printed  in  it  the  first  poems  of  Emerson;  with 
W.  H.  Channing  and  R.  W.  Emerson  he  prepared 
the  Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli  (3  vols., 
1852);  and  published  many  magazine  articles, 
addresses,  sermons,  and  pamphlets. 

Bibuogbapht:  /.  F.  CUnke,  Autobiography,  Diary,  and 
CorreMpondmee,  ed.  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Boston,   1891. 

CLARKE,  JOHN:  Early  American  Baptist, 
with  Roger  Williams  founder  of  Rhode  Island;  b. 
probably  in  Suffolk,  England,  Oct.  8,  1600;  d.  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  Apr.,  1676.  He  was  a  highly  edu- 
cated physician  who  left  England  as  a  persecuted 
separatist  and  arrived  at  Boston  Nov.,  1637,  just 
as  drastic  measures  were  being  taken  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts government  against  Anne  Hutchinson  and 
John  Wheelwright  (see  Antinomianism  and  Anti- 
NOMiAN  Controversies,  II.,  2).  Whether  from 
sjrmpathy  with  Mrs.  Hutchinson's  views  or  from 
his  aversion  toward  intolerance,  he  cast  in  his  lot 
with  the  banished  party  and  became  a  leader  in 
the  search  for  a  home  where  liberty  of  conscience 
could  be  enjo3red.  The  climate  of  New  Hamp>- 
fihire  having  been  found  too  severe,  the  party  led 
by  Clarke  and  William  Coddington  secured,  through 
the  good  offices  of  Roger  Williams,  the  right  to 
settle  on  Rhode  Island;  and  in  March,  1638,  the 
nineteen  male  members  entered  into  a  covenant 
to  subject  their  persons,  lives,  and  possessions  to 
the  Lord  Jesus  Clurist,  and  to  do  his  will  as  revealed 
in  Holy  Scripture.  Yet  they  guarded  jealously 
the  principle  of  liberty  of  conscience  by  providing 
that  "  none  be  accounted  a  delinquent  for  doctrine 
provided  it  be  not  directly  repugnant  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  laws  established."  In  1641  the  law 
establishing  liberty  of  conscience  was  reiterated 
and  fortified.  Clarke  had  much  to  do  with  the 
uniting  of  the  Rhode  Island  settlements  with 
Providence  under  a  charter  procured  by  Williams, 
and  is  thought  to  have  draft^  the  law-book,  which 
provides  for  democracy  and  liberty  of  conscience. 
If  not  an  antipedobaptist  before  he  left  England, 
he  became  such  probably  as  early  as  1641,  cer- 
tainly by  1644,  when  Mark  Lukar,  an  antipedo- 
baptist, became  associated  with  him  in  a  church 
at  Newport,  of  which  Qarke  had  been  pastor  from 
about  1641.  While  visiting  Lynn,  Mass.,  in  1651, 
Clarke  and  two  fellow  workers  were  arrested  and 
fined,  and  one  of  them  was  whipped.  Thereupon 
Qarke  published  III  Newes  from  New  England 
(London,  1652),  in  which  he  vindicated  the  princi- 
ples of  liberty  of  conscience  and  believers'  baptism. 
The  next  twelve  years  he  resided  in  En^and  as 
representative  of  his  colony.  In  1663  he  secured 
from  Charles  II.  a  charter  which  provided  for  com- 
plete civil  and  religious  liberty.  To  the  Newport 
church  many  Baptist  churches  owe  their  origin. 
Albert  H.  Newman. 

BiBUOoaAmr:  Reeorda  of  Ae  Colony  of  Rhode  Ititand  and 
Providence  Plantationa  in  New  England,  vol.  i.,  Provi- 
deoee.  1856;  J.  Callender.  An  Hiatarical  Diteourae  on  the 
Civil  and  Rdigiaue  A  ffaira  of  the  Colony  of  Rhode  Uland 
and  Frovidenee  PlantaHone,  Boston,  1730;  S.  G.  Arnold, 


Hiat.  of  the  State  of  Rhode  laland,  vol.  i..  New  York.  1859; 
I.  Badcus,  HiaL  of  New  England,  with  particular  Refer- 
ence to  the  Denomination  of  Chriatiana  called  BapHata, 
Newton.  Mass.,  1871;  H.  8.  Burrage,  Hiat.  of  the  Bap- 
tiata  in  New  England,  ib.  1804;  A.  H.  Newman,  Hist,  of 
the  Baptiat  Churchea  in  the  U.  S.,  ib.  1808;  DNB,  z.  432. 

CLARKE,  SAMUEL:  The  name  of  four  prom- 
inent English  theologians. 

1.  English  non-conformist;  b.  at  Wolston  (22 
m.  s.w.  of  Leicester),  Warwickshire,  Oct.  10,  1599; 
d.  at  Isleworth  (11m.  s.w.  of  London),  Middlesex, 
Dec.  25,  1683.  He  was  educated  at  Coventry  and 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  was  ordained  about 
1622,  and  held  charges  at  Knowle,  Warwickshire, 
Thomton-le-Moors  and  Shotwick,  Cheshire,  but  his 
Puritan  tendencies  soon  exposed  him  to  the  rebuke 
of  his  ecclesiastical  superiors.  He  held  a  lecture- 
ship at  Coventry,  but  was  inhibited  by  the  bishop 
from  preaching,  only  to  give  offense  by  a  similar 
course  at  Warwick.  In  1633  he  was  presented  to 
the  parish  of  Alcester,  Warwickshire,  whence  he 
went,  seven  years  later,  to  protest  to  the  king  against 
the  et  cetera  oath.  In  1642  he  went  to  London 
and  was  chosen  curate  of  St.  Bennet  Fink.  There 
he  was  a  governor  and  twice  president  of  Sion 
College,  and  was  also  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
ordainers  in  1643.  He  was  one  of  those  who  pro- 
tested against  the  execution  of  the  king,  and  opposed 
the  lay-preaching  permitted  by  the  Independents. 
After  the  Restoration  he  took  part  with  his  dose 
friend  Richard  Baxter  in  the  Savoy  Conference, 
and  was  ejected  from  his  living  in  1662.  He  re- 
moved to  Hammersmith  in  1666  and  later  went  to 
Isleworth,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
Among  his  nimierous  works,  valuable  on  account 
of  the  sources  used,  which  are  now  frequently 
almost  inaccessible,  special  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  following  biographical  collections:  The  Saints 
Nosegay  (London,  1642);  A  Mirror  or  LooHng-Glass 
both  for  Saints  and  Sinners  (1646);  The  Marrow 
of  Ecclesiastical  History  (2  vols.,  1649-50);  General 
Martyrology  {l^l);  English  Martyrology  (1652);  and 
Lives  of  Sundry  Eminent  Persons  in  the  Later  Age 
(1683).  He  also  published,  among  other  works, 
England's  Remembrancer  (Ix)ndon,  1657);  A  Dis- 
course against  Toleration  (1660);  and  Book  of  Apo- 
thegms (1681). 

Bibliography:  His  autobiography  was  prefixed  to  the 
lAvea  of  Sundry  Eminent  Peraona,  1683;  a  Memoir  by 
G.  T.  Clarke,  a  descendant,  was  prefixed  to  the  reprint  of 
the  Sainta  Noaegay,  London.  1881;  DNB,  z.  441-442. 

2.  Orientalist;  b.  at  Brackley  (16  m.  s.w.  of 
Northampton),  Northamptonshire,  1625;  d.  at 
Oxford  Dec.  27,  1669.  He  entered  Merton  College, 
Oxford,  in  1640,  but  left  the  university  during  its 
occupation  by  the  royal  troops.  After  the  surrender 
he  returned  (M.A.,  1648).  In  1649  he  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  architypographus  of  the  imiversity 
and  was  also  upper  bedell  of  the  civil  law.  In 
1650  he  was  master  of  a  school  at  Islington,  where 
he  assisted  Brian  Walton  in  his  Polyglot  Bible,  his 
attention  being  directed  chiefly  to  the  Hebrew  text, 
the  Aramaic  paraphrase,  and  the  Latin  translation 
of  the  Persian  version  of  the  Gospels.  He  returned 
to  Oxford  in  1658  and  was  reelected  to  both  his 
former   positions.     In   addition   to   his   work   for 


Clarke 

Claudianus  Mamertiis 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


128 


Walton,  he  wrote  ScientitB  metrica  et  rhythmicaf  aeu 
tractatua  de  prosodia  Arabica  (Oxford,  1661),  while 
the  Maasereth  Beracoth  Tiitdus  Talmudicua  (1667) 
ifi  also  ascribed  to  him. 
Bibuooraprt:  A.    k   Wood,    AihencB   OxonieriMt,    ed.    P. 

Bliaa.  iii.  882-885.  4  vola.,  London.  1813-20;  DNB,  x, 

440-441. 

3.  Biblical  commentator,  eldest  son  of  Samuel 
Clarke  the  non-conformist;  b.  at  Shotwick  (6  m. 
n.w.  of  Chester),  Cheshire,  Nov.  12,  1626;  d.  at 
High  Wycombe  (24  m.  s.e.  of  Oxford),  Bucks,  Feb. 
27,  1701.  He  received  his  education  at  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed  fellow  in  1644, 
but  was  deprived  of  his  fellowship  seven  years  later 
for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  pllegiance  to  the 
Commonwealth.  At  the  Restoration  he  held  the 
rectory  of  Grendon  Underwood,  Bucks,  but  was 
ejected  for  non-conformity  in  1662.  He  then  settled 
at  High  Wycombe.  In  theology  he  was  Baxterian, 
and  extended  divine  inspiration  to  the  verse- 
divisions  of  the  Bible.  His  chief  work  was  his 
Old  and  New  TestanienU  with  Annotations  and 
Parallel  Scriptures  (London,  1690),  beside  which 
mention  may  be  made  of  his  Survey  of  the  Bible 
(1694),  designed  to  supplement  his  earlier  work, 
and  The  Divine  Authority  of  the  Scriptures  (1699). 
Bibuographt:  DNB,  x.  442-443,  where  further  literature 

ia  given. 

4.  Philosopher;  b.  at  Norwich  Oct.  11,  1675; 
d.  in  London  May  17,  1729.  He  was  educated  in 
his  native  city  and  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge 
(B.A.,  1695).  There,  in  1697,  he  prepared  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  Traits  de  physique  by  Jean  Ro- 
hault,  to  which  he  added  notes  based  on  Newton's 
Principia.  The  work  was  long  the  standard  text- 
book of  its  subject  at  Cambridge  and  went  through 
repeated  editions.  In  1698  Clarke  became  chap- 
lain to  John  Moore,  bishop  of  Norwich,  and  held 
this  post  for  twelve  years,  in  addition  to  the  rectory 
of  Drayton  near  Norwich  and  a  small  living  in  the 
city.  In  1704-05  he  delivered  the  Boyle  Lectures 
on  The  Being  and  Attributes  of  God,  the  Obligations 
of  Natural  Religion^  and  the  Truth  and  Certainty  of 
the  Christian  Revelation  (2  vols.,  London,  1705-06). 
These  addresses  won  him  the  reputation  of  the 
leading  English  metaphysician  for  the  next  quarter 
of  a  century,  but  his  rationalism  exposed  him  to  the 
criticisms  of  the  ultraconservatives  on  the  one 
hand,  while  his  orthodoxy  brought  upon  him  the 
attacks  of  the  deists  on  the  other.  In  1706  he  as- 
sailed the  doctrine  maintained  by  the  nonjuror 
Henry  Dodwell  that  the  soul  receives  immortality 
only  through  baptism,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
presented  to  the  rectory  of  St.  Benet's,  London, 
holding  this  imtil  1709,  when  Queen  Anne  made  him 
rector  of  St.  James's,  Westminster.  There,  how- 
ever, he  gave  offense  in  1712  by  his  Scripture  Doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity y  which  exposed  him  to  the  charge 
of  Arianism.  A  prolonged  controversy  ensued, 
and  the  matter  was  finally  taken  up  by  the  House 
of  Convocation,  the  lower  house  being  especially 
hostile^  The  upper  house  practically  dropped  the 
case,  and  Clarke  refrained  from  giving  further 
offense,  although  he  does  not  seem  to  have  altered 
his  views.  About  1718  he  was  appointed  master 
of  Wigston's  Hospital,  Leicester,  but  the  remainder 


of  his  life  was  devoted  to  philosophy  rather  than 
theology.  He  became  involved  in  a  controversy 
with  Leibnitz,  Clarke  dedaring  that  time  and  space 
have  a  real  existence,  and  the  correspondenoe  was 
published  at  London  in  1717.  He  had  many 
adherents  among  the  Latitudinarians  and  meta- 
physicians, including  Bishop  Berkeley,  Arthur 
Collier,  Francis  Hutcheson,  Bishop  Butler,  William 
Whiston,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  Bishop  Hoadly. 
The  High-church  party,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
hostile  to  him.  Clarke's  writings  included,  in 
addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  sermons,  a 
Latin  translation  of  Newton's  Optics  (London,  1706), 
and  editions  of  Ceesar  (1712)  and  the  Iliad  (1729). 
They  were  collected  and  edited  by  Bishop  Benjamin 
Hoadly  in  four  volumes  (London,  1738). 

Biblioorapht:  W.  Whiston,  Hiaiorioai  Memovn  cf  .  .  . 
Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  London,  1741  (contadns  A.  A.  Syke'a 
Eloffium  of  Samud  Clarke,  and  T.  Emlyn's  Memoira  of 
.  ,  ,  Dr.  Samutl  Clarke);  the  Life,  by  B.  Hoadly,  was 
prefixed  to  hia  Work*,  ib.  1738;  DNB,  z.  443-140. 

CLARKE,  WILLIAM  NEWTON:  Baptist;  b. 
at  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  2,  1841.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Madison  (now  Colgate)  University  (B.A., 
1861)  and  Hamilton  Theological  Seminary,  Ham- 
ilton, N.  Y.  (1863).  He  held  Baptist  pastorates  at 
Keene,  N.  H.  (1863-69),  Newton  Centre,  Mass. 
(186&-80),  and  Montreal,  Canada  (1880-83).  He 
was  professor  of  New  Testament  interpretation  in 
the  Toronto  Baptist  College  1883-87,  and  pastor 
at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  1887-90.  Since  1890  he  has 
been  professor  of  Christian  theology  in  Colgate 
University.  His  theological  position  "  is  intended 
to  present  the  substance  of  the  Scriptural  teaching, 
interpreted  by  Christian  thought,  in  the  light  of 
modem  knowledge."  He  has  written  a  Commentary 
on  the  Oospd  of  Mark  (Philadelphia,  1882);  Out- 
line of  Christian  Theology  (New  York,  1898);  What 
Shall  We  Think  of  Christianity  t  (1899);  Can  I 
Believe  in  Ood  the  Father  f  (1899);  A  Study  of 
Christian  Missions  (1900);  and  The  Use  of  the 
Scriptures  in  Theology  (1905). 

CLARKSON,  THOMAS:  Antislaveiy  agitator; 
b.  at  Wisbeach  (35  m.  n.  of  Cambridge),  Cam- 
bridgeshire, England,  Mar.  28,  1760;  d.  at  Play- 
ford  Hall,  near  Ipswich,  Sept.  26, 1846.  He  studied 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1783). 
In  1785  he  won  a  prize  for  a  Latin  essay  upon 
the  negative  side  of  the  question  "whether  in- 
voluntary servitude  is  justifiable  "  (Eng.  transL, 
London,  1786;  enlarged,  1788).  Thenceforth  the 
story  of  his  life  is  the  history  of  the  anti- 
slavery  struggle.  He  labored  with  indefatigable 
perseverance  in  collecting  and  disseminating  in- 
formation, and  spent  most  of  his  modest  fortune 
upon  this  cause.  His  labors  were  crowned  with 
success  under  the  lead  of  William  Wilberforce  (q.v.). 
Of  his  many  writings  concerning  slavery  the  most 
important  is  The  History  of  the  .  .  ,  Abolition  of 
the  African  Slave  Trade  by  the  British  Parliament 
(2  vols.,  London,  1808;  new  ed.,  1839).  He  also 
wrote  A  Portraiture  of  Quakerism  (3  vols.,  1806); 
Memoirs  of  .  .  ,  William  Penn  (2  vols.,  1^13); 
An  Essay  on  the  Doctrine  and  Practice  of  the  Early 
Christians  as  they  Relate  to  War  (1817);  Researches, 
Antediluvian,  Patriarchal,  and  Historical  concerning 


Id9 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Clarke 

Olaudianus  Kamertna 


the  Way  in  vfhich  Men  first  Acquired  their  Knovsl- 

edge  of  God  and  Religion  (1836);  Essay  on  Baptism 

(1843);    The  Qrievances  of  our  Mercantile  Seamen 

(1845). 

Bibuookapbt:  T.  Taylor,  BioffraphietU  Sketch  of  Thomtu 

Clarkaon,   London,   1830;  J.  Elmes,   Thonuu  Clark§on,  a 

Monogruph,  ib.  1854;  DNB,  z.  464-456. 

CLASS-MEETING:  A  part  of  the  discipline  of 
the  Methodist  Churches,  whereby  the  members  of 
a  congregation  are  divided  into  sections  or  classes, 
over  each  of  which  is  a  class-leader,  appointed  by 
the  pastor,  whose  duty  it  is  (according  to  the  Book 
of  Discipline  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
pt.  i.,  chap,  ii.,  §  1):  "I.  To  seeeach  person  in  his 
class  once  a  week  at  least;  in  order  (1)  To  inquire 
how  their  souls  prosper.  (2)  To  advise,  reprove,  com- 
fort, or  exhort,  as  occasion  may  require.  (3)  To 
receive  what  they  are  willing  to  give  toward  the 
Relief  of  the  preachers,  church,  and  poor.  II.  To 
meet  the  ministers  and  the  stewards  of  the  society 
once  a  week;  in  order  (1)  To  inform  the  minister 
of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any  that  walk  disorderly, 
and  will  not  be  reprovedl  (2)  To  pay  the  stewards 
what  they  have  received  of  their  several  classes  in 
the  week  preceding."  The  class-meeting  is  said  to 
have  arisen  accidentally  in  1742  in  connection  with 
a  plan  to  pay  o£F  the  church  debt  contracted  by 
building  the  edifice  at  Bristol.  The  members  were 
diWded  into  sections  of  twelve,  and  one  of  each 
section  was  appointed  to  call  regulariy  every  week 
upon  the  others  of  his  section  to  receive  their  con- 
tributions. They  soon  began  to  report  delin- 
quencies in  conduct  on  the  part  of  those  whom 
they  visited,  and  the  possibilities  of  the  plan  in 
providing  a  means  of  diwdpHne  for  the  congregations 
was  at  once  apparent  to  Wesley.  He  introduced 
the  plan  in  London,  and  it  became  a  distinctive 
feature  of  Methodism.  At  first  the  leaders  called 
personally  upon  each  member  at  his  own  house; 
but  this  was  foimd  inconvenient  and  a  common 
meeting-place  was  appointed.  The  leader  began 
and  ended  each  meeting  with  singing  and  prayer, 
and  about  an  hour  was  spent  in  conversation. 

Bibuoobxpht:  L.  Tyerman,  Life  cf  John  WUUv,  voL  L,  pp. 
377-380.  London.  1876. 

CLAUDE,  JEAN:  A  French  Calvinist  preacher 
and  controversialist;  b.  at  Sauvetat-du-Dropt,  in 
the  department  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  1619;  d.  at 
The  Hague  Jan.  13,  1687.  He  studied  theology  at 
Montauban,  and  was  ordained  in  1645.  He  held 
charges  at  La  Treisse  and  St.  A£frique,  but  became 
pastor  at  Nimes  in  1654.  Here  he  lectured  before 
the  Academy  in  1656  on  homiletics  and  practical 
exegesis.  In  1661  he  presided  over  the  provincial 
synod  held  at  Ntmes,  and  opposed  so  vehemently  a 
project  of  reunion  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
C!hurch  brought  forward  by  the  Prince  de  Conti, 
governor  of  Languedoc,  Uiat  he  was  inhibited 
from  preaching  in  the  province.  In  October,  1661, 
he  went  to  Paris,  caUed  by  Countess  Turenne,  in 
order  to  refute  a  treatise  by  Nicole  who  sought 
to  show  that  transubstantiation  had  always  been 
held  in  the  Church.  In  1662  he  was  appointed 
professor  and  pastor  at  Montauban.  When  the 
government  forbade  his  preaching  here  also,  he 
returned  to  Paris,  and  was  in  1666  called  as  pastor 


of  the  Protestants  to  the  capital  by  the  consistory 
of  Charenton.  In  1668  and  1669  he  took  part  in 
the  celebrated  controversy  with  the  Jesuit  Nouet 
and  the  Jansenist  Amauld  on  the  mass;  and  in 
1678,  on  the  invitation  of  Mile,  de  Duras,  he 
had  a  discussion  with  Bossuet  in  her  presence, 
which,  however,  resulted  in  her  conversion  to 
Bossuet's  faith.  On  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  he  retired  to  The  Hague.  He  was  an 
eloquent  preacher  and  one  of  the  most  profound 
thinkers  of  his  day.  Among  his  works  are: 
R&ponse  aux  deux  trait^s  de  Nicole,  sur  la  per- 
pituiU  de  la  foi  (Charenton,  1665);  Relation  sue- 
cincte  de  V&at  oU  sont  maintenant  les  6glises  r^ 
formies  de  France  (1666);  TraiU  de  VEucharistie 
(Amsterdam,  1668);  R&ponse  au  livre  de  M,  Amauld 
"  De  la  perpituiU  de  la  foi  "  (QuevUly,  1670);  La 
defense  de  la  Reformation  contre  le  livre  intituU 
**  Pr^ug^  legitimes  contre  les  Cahnnistes"  (Que- 
villy,  1673;  Eng.  transl.,  by  J.  Townsend,  A  De- 
fence of  the  Reformation,  2  vols.,  London,  1815); 
TraiU  de  la  lecture  des  Pbres  et  la  justification 
(Amsterdam,  1685);  Les  plaintes  des  Protestants 
cruellement  opprimis  dans  le  royaume  de  France 
(Cologne,  1686;  Eng.  transl.,  An  Account  of  the 
Persecutions  ...  of  the  Protestants  in  France, 
London,  1686).  Certain  posthimious  writings  were 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1688  and  1689,  and 
selections  were  translated  into  English;  some  have 
proved  very  popular,  e.g.,  On  the  Composition  of  a 
Sermon  (latest  ed.,  London,  1853). 

G.  Bonbt-Maurt. 
Bibuoorapht:  [Dev^Be,  A.  R.  de  la],  Ahrigj  do  la  vis  do 
M.   Claude,   Amsterdam,    1687;  E.    and   E.    Haag.    La 
France  proteetanU,  ed.   H.   L.   Bordier,   Paris,   1877-86; 
Liohtenbeiser,  E8R,  iii  105-199,  Paris,  1878. 

CLAUDIANUS  MAMERTUS:  Viennese  philos- 
opher and  theologian;  b.  at  or  near  Lyons  c.  425; 
d.  at  Vienna  between  470  and  474.  His  brother 
Mamertus,  before  462  bishop  of  Vienna,  called  him 
there  as  a  presbyter.  He  devoted  himself  to  church 
music  and  appears  to  have  compiled  a  lectionary. 
Apollinaris  Sidonius  celebrated  the  industry  of  the 
two  brothers  (in  Epistoloe,  iv.  11).  The  hymns 
ascribed  to  him  are  by  other  authors.  His  letter  to 
Sapaudus  (Engelbrecht,  Untersuchungen  uber  die 
Sprache  des  Clatuiianus  Mamertus,  p.  203,  "^enna, 
1885),  ip  which  he  laments  the  decay  of  the  sciences, 
has  historical  value.  About  470  he  wrote  his  main 
work,Z>e  statu  animcB,  in  which  he  showed  acquaint- 
ance with-  Jerome  and  dependence  upon  Augustine. 
Of  the  Greek  Fathers  he  cites  only  Gregory  Nazi- 
anzen;  he  was  imacquainted  with  the  work  of 
Nemisius  of  Emesa,  "On  the  Nature  of  Man." 
Plato  was  to  him  king  of  philosophers,  though 
Plotinus's  Enneads  influenced  him  greatly;  in  the 
use  of  the  categories  of  Aristotle,  he  was  a  fore- 
runner of  the  Schoohnen.  His  work  is  used  by 
Cassiodorus  {MPL,  Ixx.  1279).  Berengar  of  Tours 
studied  and  valued  it  {MPL,  clxxviii.  1869),  and 
Nicolas,  secretary  to  Bernard  of  C^airvaux,  gave 
him  and  it  the  highest  praise  (MPL,  cdi.  499  C). 
He  was  one  of  the  most  consistent  and  positive 
champions  of  the  dualism  of  soul  and  body,  against 
the  naturalistic  conception  of  the  soul  as  a  mere 
product  or  "  harmony  "  of  the  body,  held  by  such 


Claudius 
uleznen 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


130 


men  as  Tertullian,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Cas8ian,and 
Faiistus  of  Riea.  His  arguments  for  a  spiritual 
substance  have  reappeared  substantially  in  works  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  and  Descartes.       (F.  Arnold.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  EpUtola  ad  Sidonium  is  in  MGH, 
Auet.  ant.,  viii  (1887),  63-64.  Gonflult:  Tillemont.  Mi- 
ffiotref.  xvi.  11^126,  741.  cf.  Hutoire  liUfraire  de  la  France, 
ii.  442-446;  M.  Schultse,  Claudianua  Mamertua  Hber  daa 
Weeen  der  Sede,  Dresden,  1883;  F.  Ueberwes.  GtaehichU 
dm-  Phitoaophie,  ii.  121.  Berlin,  1886,  Eng.  transl..  i.  362- 
364.  New  York.  1872;  De  la  Broise,  Mamerti  Claudiani 
vUu  ejtuque  doetrina  de  anima  hominie,  Paris,  1890;  C.  F. 
Arnold,  Ccuariiu  van  ArekUe  und  die  oallieche  KircKe 
eeiner  Zeit,  pp.  89.  131.  326-326.  Leipsic.  1894. 

CLAUDIUS  (Tiberius  Claudius  Germanicus): 
Roman  emperor  41-54  a.d.  His  name  comes 
into  connection  with  the  history  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity through  the  steps  taken  by  him  against  the 
Jews  in  Rome.  Soon  after  his  accession,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  policy  of  his  predecessor,  Caligula,  he 
had  restored  to  them  religious  liberty.  As  time 
went  on,  he  saw  himself  obliged,  at  least  as  con- 
cerned the  Roman  Jews,  to  return  to  a  policy  of 
repression.  It  is  to  this  that  Suetonius  alludes 
(Claudius f  xxv.).  This  measure  affected  the  Jewish 
couple  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  were  then  resi- 
dents of  Rome  (Acts  xviii.  2).  The  reference  of 
Suetonius  to  "  Chrestus  "  has  given  rise  to  a  long- 
standing controversy  whether  he  means  to  imply 
that  the  disturbances  were  caused  by  the  preaching 
of  Christianity  (about  which  Suetonius  evidently 
knew  little,  if  he  represents  Christ  as  living  in  Rome), 
or  whether  he  refers  to  a  later,  otherwise  unknown, 
Jewish  agitator  named  Chrestus.  The  possibility 
of  the  former  hypothesis  is  confirmed  by  other 
events  in  the  Apostolic  Age  (Acts  xvii.  5  sqq.,  xxi. 
278qq.) ;  but  it  is  unlikely  that  such  a  gross  mistake 
was  made  by  Suetonius,  who  must  have  known 
from  Tacitus,  with  whom  he  was  acquainted,  that 
Christ  had  already  been  put  to  death  at  Jerusalem 
in  the  time  of  Tiberius.  Considering,  moreover,  the 
active  intercoiu'se  between  the  Roman  Jews  and 
Palestine,  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  the  Messianic 
controversies  should  have  taken  fifteen  or  twenty 
years  to  reach  an  acute  stage  in  Rome,  and  that, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Christian  community  there 
should  have  already  attained  sufficient  importance 
for  their  relations  with  orthodox  Judaism  to  cause 
disturbances  of  so  serious  a  nature  as  to  necessitate 
such  severe  measures  on  the  part  of  a  government 
in  general  friendly  to  the  Jews.  The  exact  date  of 
the  expulsion  is  unknown.  Orosius  (Hist.,  VII.  vi. 
15)  assigns  it  to  the  ninth  year  of  Claudius  (49  a.d.). 
Josephus  is  silent  on  the  point.  The  vague  term 
"  lately  "  of  Acts  xviii.  2  offers  no  objection  to  this 
date.  Dio  Cassius  (Ix.  6)  apparently  refers  to  a 
different  procedure;  it  is  impossible  to  harmonize 
the  two  accoimts.  Victor  Sghultzb. 

BnuooRAPHT:  H.  Lehmann.  Clauditu  und  Nero  und  ihre 
Zeit,  vol.  L.  Gotha.  1868;  H.  Vogelstein  and  P.  Rieger, 
GeechiefUe  der  Juden  in  Rom,  i.  18  sqq.,  Berlin,  1869; 
K.  Schmidt,  Anfanoe  dee  Chrietenhime  in  der  Stadt  Rom, 
Heidelberg.  1879;  T.  Keim,  Rom  und  doe  Chrietentum, 
Berlin.  1881;  J.  Kneucker,  AnfAnge  dee  rdmiedien  Chrie- 
tentuma,  Carlsnihe,  1881;  Schflrer,  QeachithU,  i.  602-603. 
iii.  31-33.  74.  Eng.  transl..  I.  ii.  99.  II.  ii.  23d-237.  266; 
Moeller.  ChrisHan  Churdi,  L  76-76. 


CLAUDIUS,  MATTHIAS:  German  author;  b. 
at  Reinfeld  (10  m.  w.  of  Lubeck)  Aug.  15,  1740; 
d.  at  Hamburg  Jan.  21,  1815.  He  studied  law  at 
Jena,  and  spent  the  most  of  his  life  at  Wandsbeck, 
as  auditor  of  the  Bank  of  Sleswick-Holstein  at 
Altona,  and  as  private  citizen.  His  writings  are 
poems  and  articles  published  over  the  signature 
"  Asmus "  in  the  Wandsbecker  Bote  and  other 
periodicals.  He  issued  the  first  collection  of  these 
contributions  at  Hamburg  in  1775,  and  the  last  in 
1812  (8  vols.,  13th  ed.,  2  vols.,  Gotha,  1902),  en- 
titling his  work  Asmus  omnia  sua  secum  portans, 
Oder  sdmtliche  Werke  des  Wandsbecker  Boten, 
Claudius  was  not  a  theologian,  nor  were  his  essays 
homiletic  or  devotional,  while  his  poems  are  never 
used  as  hymns  in  the  churches.  His  leading  char- 
acteristics were  practical  Christianity,  expressed  in 
the  language  of  the  people,  and  earnestness,  thinly 
veiled  by  irony  and  humor.  In  tendency  he  was 
decidedly  opposed  to  the  rationalism  of  his  time, 
even  though  he  ridiculed  the  pedantry  of  an  anti- 
quated orthodoxy.  He  became  involved  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Friedrich  Jacobi,  in  which  he  based 
his  own  position  on  the  Biblical  proof  of  redemp- 
tion through  Christ,  and  his  general  view  was  that 
philosophy  and  human  reason  are  subordinate  in 
credibility  to  revelation. 

Bibliograprt:  The  Werke  were  edited  by  C.  Redlich,  2 
vols..  Gotha.  1882;  selections  are  in  Meyer's  Volkebiidter, 
Nob.  681-^83.  Leapsio.  1889.  His  life  was  written  by 
C.  Monckeberg.  Hamburg,  1869;  W.  Herfost.  Gotha, 
1878;  K.  Stockmeyer.  Basel.  1895.  Consult  also  C. 
Redlich.  Die  poetiachen  Beitrfige  eum  Wandtbeeker  BoUn 
geaammelt,  Hamburg,  1871. 

CLAUDIUS  OF  TUMir:  Bishop  of  Turin,  an 
example  of  the  type  of  statesman-bishop  under 
Charlemagne  and  Louis  the  Pious;  b.  in  Spain  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  eighth  century;  d.  in  Turin 
before  832.  Although  a  pupil  of  Felix  of  Urgel, 
the  leader  of  the  Adoptionists  (see  Adoptionism), 
he  did  not  share  his  heretical  views.  He  is  next 
found  at  the  court  of  the  king  of  Aquitaine  as  a 
priest,  instructing  his  fellow  clergy  in  Scriptural 
learning.  Immediately  after  his  accession,  Louis 
the  Pious  sent  Claudius  to  Turin  as  bishop  to 
instruct  the  ignorant  population  in  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  to  cope  with  the  piratical  Mohammedans 
in  the  maritime  Alps.  Chariemagne  had  acquired 
large  territories  in  northwestern  Italy  by  his  defeat 
of  the  Lombards,  and  used  some  of  these  lands  to 
endow  the  church  there,  which  had  been  plundered 
by  the  Arian  Lombards.  Feudal  service  in  the 
field  was  required  of  the  prelates  in  return.  Clau- 
dius himself  relates  that  he  rendered  such  service 
against  the  Moors,  taking  his  literary  work  with 
him  to  the  campaign.  He  produced  commentaries 
in  the  form  of  cateme  on  Genesis  (811),  Exodus 
(821),  and  Leviticus  (825),  also  on  Matthew  (815), 
Galatians  (816),  and  Ephesians  (817).  His  works 
were  read  throughout  Gaul.  At  the  request  of  the 
abbot  Theodemir,  he  wrote  a  work  on  the  books  of 
Kings,  which  is  mostly  a  compilation  from  Augus- 
tine, Gregory,  Isidore.  Bede,  and  Rabanus.  Some 
expressions  in  it  brought  him  under  suspicion  of 
Nestorianism;  and  Theodemir  laid  his  commentaiy 
on  I  Corinthians  before  the  bishops  and  dignitaries 
at  court  for  judgment.     Claudius  wrote  a  defense, 


131 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Olaudius 
Olemen 


of  which  a  copy  was  seen  in  the  monastery  of 
Bobbio  in  1461,  but  it  has  since  been  lost,  and  is 
only  known  by  the  rejoinders  of  Dungalus  and 
Jonas.  He  gave  ofifense  also  by  his  attitude  to- 
ward the  veneration  of  images,  which  among  the 
half-civilized  people  of  his  diocese  amoimted  to 
idolatry.  He  accepted  Augustine's  views  on  pre- 
destination, but  overlooked  that  side  of  his  teach- 
ing which  sets  forth  the  Church  as  the  abiding 
means  of  communication  between  God  and  man. 
He  disapproved  of  the  increasing  honor  paid  to  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  and  did  not  favor  pilgrimages  to 
Rome.  He  denied  that  Peter  had  received  power 
to  bind  and  loose,  and  spoke  of  a  double  primacy 
among  the  apostles,  one  given  to  Peter  for  the  Jewish 
mission,  and  one  to  Paul  for  the  heathen.  These 
and  other  expressions,  together  with  the  fact  that 
he  removed  not  only  images,  but  even  the  crosses 
from  his  churches,  gave  rise  to  deep  suspicion,  and 
Theodemir  wrote  to  him  that  it  was  reported  he 
had  f  oimded  a  new  sect  contra  regtUam  fidei  catholica. 
There  is  no  evidence  to  support  the  view  that  he 
was  the  real  foimder  of  the  Waldensians;  though 
he  may,  in  a  sense,  be  nimibered  among  the  pre- 
cursors of  the  Reformation.  (R.  Fossf.) 

Bibuogbapht:  The  best  collection  of  the  works  is  in  MPL, 
dr.,  cri  Consult:  T.  Ffirster,  Drei  Erzbiachdfe  vor  1000 
Jakren  (ClaudiuB  von  Turin,  .  .  .),  Gatersloh.  1874;  H. 
F.  Reuter,  O^adiiehU  der  reliffiSaen  AufkUkrung  im  MU- 
tdaUer,  i.  16-24,  Berlin,  1875;  A.  Ebert.  GtaehiehU  der 
Liieratur  de$  MittOaUera,  ii.  222-224,  Leipsic,  1880; 
Wattenbach.  DGQ,  6th  ed..  i.  155.  205.  207;  KL,  iii 
434^-437. 

CLEAJfllESS  AlVD  UNCLEAiniESS.  See  Defils- 

KENT  AND  PUHIFICATION,  CEREMONIAL. 

CLEMAN6ES,  cl^'mOnzh'  (CLAMAN6ES), 
mCHOLAS  POILLEVILLAIN,  pwal"le-vU"lah',  OF: 
A  French  theological  author  and  ecclesiastical 
statesman;  b.  at  Clamanges  near  Ch&lons-«ur- 
Mame,  90  m.  n.  by  e.  of  Paris,  c.  1367;  d.  at 
Paris  in  1437.  Like  Gerson,  his  teacher,  he 
was  educated  at  the  college  of  Navarre  in 
Paris  where,  by  his  studies  in  the  classics,  he 
attained  a  degree  of  excellence  in  rhetoric  that 
his  contemporaries  thought  almost  Ciceronian.  The 
influence  of  ancient  literature  revealed  itself  only 
in  his  style,  however,  as  his  interests  in  life  were 
entirely  churchly  and  theological.  At  an  eariy  age 
be  entered  the  arena  of  ecclesiastical  politics,  devo- 
ting himself  with  great  earnestness  to  furthering 
the  movement  for  the  healing  of  the  Great  Schism 
(see  Schism).  In  1397  he  became  papal  secretary 
to  Benedict  XIII.  In  1405  he  accompanied  Bene- 
dict on  a  journey  to  Genoa,  and  remained  there  on 
the  latter's  return  to  Avignon  in  the  fall  of  the 
following  year.  There  was,  however,  no  formal 
reparation;  and  when  Benedict  in  1408  threatened 
the  royal  house  of  France  with  excommunication, 
the  odium  aroused  fell  in  full  measure  upon  the 
head  of  Nicholas,  the  supposed  author  of  the 
obnoxious  bull.  Partly  out  of  fear  of  possible  con- 
sequences, partly  in  obedience  to  a  long  cherished 
desire,  he  abandoned  his  canonicate  at  Langres 
and  retired  to  a  Cistercian  cloister,  first  at  Val- 
profonds.and  then  at  Fontaine-du-bosc.  There  he 
gave  himself  up  to  serious  Biblical  study,  which. 


he  said,  he  had  hitherto  neglected.  Aside  from 
letters  addressed  to  such  friends  as  Gerson  and 
D'Ailly,  he  composed  a  number  of  treatises  dealing 
with  the  errors  and  oomiptions  that  he  saw  in  the 
Church  of  his  time.  De  fructu  eremi  and  De  fructu 
rerum  adversarium  deal  with  the  beneficent  influ- 
ence which  solitude  and  misfortune  may  exercise 
on  the  inner  life.  De  novia  festivUaJtibtM  rum 
inatituendia  protests  against  the  harmful  multipli- 
cation of  holy  days,  and  De  studio  theologico  extols 
the  life  of  the  active  parish  priest  above  that  of  the 
student.  In  his  Oratio  ad  OaUiarum  Principes  (c. 
1411)  he  pleaded  for  a  cessation  of  the  civil  strife 
that  was  sapping  the  life  of  France.  He  threw  him- 
self with  energy  into  the  movement  that  culminated 
in  the  Council  of  Constance,  depicting  with  power 
and  feeling  the  degenerate  state  of  the  Church  in 
his  De  ruina  ecdeaice,  or  De  corrupto  ecdesioB  atatu 
(1401).  His  authorship  of  this  work  has  been 
denied  by  some.  He  was  displeased  at  the  action 
of  the  Coimcil  of  Constance  in  decreeing  the  depo- 
sition of  the  three  rival  popes,  believing  that  the 
recognition  of  Benedict  would  have  brought  har- 
mony to  the  Church.  He  was  more  fortimate  than 
his  friend  Gerson  in  retaining  the  favor  of  the  men 
in  power  in  France.  He  sided  with  Philip  of 
Burgundy  against  the  Dauphin;  and  when  in  1425 
their  reconciliation  seemed  at  hand,  he  returned 
to  his  earliest  occupation  as  lecturer  on  rhetoric 
and  theology  at  the  college  of  Navarre.  He  holds 
a  high  place  in  the  history  of  the  early  French 
renaissance,  and  as  a  precursor  of  the  "  humanistic 
reformation."  His  ecclesiastical  ideals,  which  the 
brain  of  a  Wyclif  converted  into  revolutionary 
principles,  allowed  the  humanist  scholar  to  remain 
a  faithful  son  of  the  Church.  (B.  Bess.) 

Bibuoorapht:  An  incomplete  ed.  of  the  Opera  was  put 
out  by  J.  M.  LydiuB.  2  vols.,  Leyden,  1613.  The  beet  ac- 
count of  Clamanges  is  by  G.  Voigt,  Die  WiederbeUbung 
dee  klaeeieehen  AUerthume,  ii.  34^356,  Berlin,  1881; 
A.  MOnts,  Nichaiae  de  CUmangee;  eavieet  eee  ierite,  Stras- 
burg,  1846;  G.  Schuberth,  Nikolaua  von  CUmangee  ale 
Verfaeeer,  Groaeenhain,  1888;  Hefele,  ConcUiengeediidUe, 
vol.  vi.;  KL,  ix.  298-306;  Creighton,  Papacy,  i.  161.  221. 
301>303.  875. 

CLEMEN,  CARL  CHRISTIAN:  German  Protes- 
tant; b.  at  Sommerfeld  (a  suburb  of  Leipsic) 
Mar.  30,  1865.  He  studied  in  Tubingen,  Halle, 
Berlin,  and  Leipsic  (Ph.D.,  1889),  and  after  being 
an  assistant  pastor  in  London  1889-90,  became 
privat-dooent  at  Halle  in  1892.  In  1903  he  accepted 
a  call  to  Bonn  as  titular  professor  of  New  Testa- 
ment exegesis  and  systematic  and  practical  theol- 
ogy, and  was  also  an  assistant  in  the  university 
library  1903-05.  In  1899-1903  he  was  general 
secretary  of  the  Evangeliacher  Bund,  and  since  1902 
has  been  convener  of  the  international  committee 
for  the  promotion  of  the  Evangelical  Church  among 
the  Czechs.  His  theological  position  is  scientific. 
He  has  written  Die  Chronohgie  der  patUiniaehen 
Brief e  (Halle,  1893);  Die  EinheiUichkeit  der  paidi- 
niachen  Brief e  (Gdttingen,  1894) ;  Niedergefahren  lu 
den  Toten  (Giessen,  1900);  PatUua,  aein  Leben  und 
Wirken  (2  vols.,  1904);  Schleiermachera  Glaubena- 
lehre  (1905);  Die  Apoatelgeachichie  im  Lichte  der 
neueren  text-,  quellen-  und  hiatorisch-kritiaehen 
Forachungen   (1905);    Die  EnUUhung  dea  Neuen 


Clement 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ISd 


TettamefUa  (Ldpdc,  1006);   and  Predict  und  bib- 
liBcher  Text  (Gieasen,  1006). 

CLEMENT:    The  name  of  fourteen  popes  and 

three  antipopes. 

Clement  L    See  Clemsnt  of  Rome. 

Clement  IL  (Suidger) :    Pope  1046-47.    After  the 

abdication  of  the  simoniacal   pope   Qiegoiy  VI., 

Heniy  III.,  the  German  king,  then  all-powerful  in 

Rome,  nominated  Bishop  Suidger  of  Bamberg  in 

a  synod  held  in  St.  Peter's,  Dec.  24,  1046.     He 

took  the  title  of  Clement  II.,  and  crowned  Henry 

and  his  consort  on  the  following  day.    In  January 

he  held  a  synod  with  Heniy  to  condemn  simony, 

though  allowing  those  ordained  by  simoniacs  to 

retain   their  clerical  position.    He  died   Oct.   0, 

1047.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapbt:  The  BpUtoUt  §t  privilegia  an  in  MPL,  cxlii. ; 

Jaff«.  R^oeata,  i.  626;  F.  Oragorovius.  HitL  of  th4  Ci^  of 

Rom»,  ir.   67-09,   London,   1806;  J.   Langen.  GeachidttM 

der  rOmitehen  Kirdta,  iii.  436.  Bonn.  1802;  Hauck.  KD. 

iii.  580  sqq.;  Bower.  PojMt,  ii.  342;  Milman.  Latin  Chria^ 

HanUy,  iii.  237-238;  Neander.  Chrittian  Church,  iii.  378. 

Qement  m.  Antipope  1080-1100.  See  Gui- 
BERT  OF  Ravenna. 

Clement  m.  (Paolo  Scolari):  Pope  1187-91. 
A  Roman  by  birth,  he  became  cardinal  bishop  of 
Palestrina  and  was  elected  pope  at  Pisa  Dec.  19, 
1187.  In  the  following  February  he  was  able  to 
enter  Rome,  which  his  two  predecessors  had  never 
visited,  and  by  the  end  of  May  the  differences  be- 
tween the  papacy  and  the  senate  were  composed. 
Continuing  the  policy  of  Gregory  VIII.,  he  also 
brought  about  peace  with  the  empire,  agreeing  to 
crown  the  young  Henry  VI.  and  terminating  the 
strife  between  papal  and  imperial  claimants  of  the 
archbishopric  of  Treves,  and  demanding  in  return 
the  restoration  of  the  States  of  the  Church  to  their 
extent  under  Lucius  III.  By  these  mutual  con- 
cessions peace  was  restored  in  Apr.,  1189.  Clem- 
ent's principal  motive  for  this  attitude  was  the 
condition  of  affairs  in  the  East,  where  Saladin  had 
defeated  the  Christian  forces  at  Hattin  on  July  4 
and  5,  1187,  and  Jerusalem  had  fallen  on  Oct.  2. 
This  news  had  aroused  a  seal  in  Christendom  which 
exceeded  even  that  of  the  first  cnisade.  Clement 
used  every  means  in  his  power  to  forward  the 
undertaking.  The  maritime  cities  of  Italy  made 
great  preparations;  peace  was  restored  between 
Venice  and  the  king  of  Himgaiy,  who  claimed 
Dalmatia;  the  aged  emperor  Ferderick  I.  took  the 
cross  (Mar.,  1188);  and  the  legate  Heniy  of  Albano 
prevailed  upon  the  kings  of  England  and  France 
to  lay  aside  their  differences  and  support  the  crusade. 
The  death  of  the  emperor  on  June  10,  1190,  was  a 
heavy  blow  to  Clement's  hopes;  and  he  did  not  live 
to  see  the  end  of  the  crusade.  The  conflict  with 
the  king  of  Scotland  over  the  possession  of  the 
bishopric  of  St.  Andrews,  inherited  from  his  pred- 
ecessors, was  terminated  by  him  in  1188,  not  alto- 
gether in  favor  of  the  Roman  See.  The  final  settle- 
ment declared  Scotland  immediately  subject  to  the 
pope,  and  freed  it  from  the  legatine  authority  which 
the  archbishops  of  York  had  claimed  over  it. 
Fresh  difficulties  arose  in  another  quarter  on  the 
death  of  William  II.  of  SicUy  (Nov.  18,  1189). 
Clement  claimed  the  rights  of  a  suserain  over  the 


kingdom,  and  invested  with  it  the  illegitimate 
Tancred,  whom  a  faction  of  the  Nonnan  barons 
had  set  up  as  king.  This  brought  on  a  new 
struggle  with  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  and 
Henry  VI.  was  marching  on  Rome  when  Clement 
died.  Mar.  13,  1191.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bxbuographt:  Jaff^.  RaoMta,  ii.  635;  J.  M.  Watterich, 
Romanorum  pontifieum  .  .  .  vita,  ii.  603.  Leipaic,  1862; 
F.  Oragoroviui,  Hwt  of  the  City  of  Rome,  ir.  617-625, 
London,  1806;  J.  Langen,  Oeadtithte  der  rdmiechen  Kirthe, 
\y.  576.  Bonn.  1803;  W.  von  Oiesebrecht,  OeaehiehU  der 
deutachen  Kaiaergeit,  yol.  vi.,  Brunswick,  1805;  Hefele. 
Coneiiienifeadiiditet  y.  737  sqq.;  Bower,  Popea,  ii.  520- 
631;  Milman.  Latin  Chriatianity,  iv.  446;  Neander,  Chrit- 
tian CAurcft.  iv.  118-120. 

Clement  IV.  (Guido  Le  Gros):  Pope  1265-68. 
He  was  bom  at  St.  Gilles  on  the  Rhone,  of  a  noble 
Provengal  family,  studied  law,  and  practised  it 
with  distinction  at  the  court  of  Louis  IX.  On  the 
death  of  his  wife  he  took  orders  and  received  rapid 
promotion,  becoming  bishop  of  Puy  in  1256  or  1257. 
archbishop  of  Narbonne  in  1259,  and  cardinal 
in  1262.  After  a  four  months'  interregnum,  the 
French  party  among  the  cardinals  elected  him 
pope  Feb.  5,  1265.  In  the  distracted  state  of 
Italy  he  could  only  approach  Rome  with  great 
precaution,  reaching  Perugia  through  the  Ghibel- 
line  towns  in  the  disguise  of  a  mendicant  friar. 
Here  he  held  his  court  for  some  time,  and  after 
Apr.,  1266,  mostly  at  Viterbo.  The  principal 
question  of  his  pontificate  was  that  of  Sicily,  in 
which  he  followed  the  policy  of  Innocent  IV.  in 
opposition  to  the  Hohenstaufen.  On  Feb.  26, 1265, 
he  invested  Charles  of  Anjou  with  the  kingdom,  in 
return  for  certain  money  payments  and  a  promise 
to  abolish  the  institutions  of  Frederick  II.  as  far  as 
they  affected  the  Church.  Clement,  however,  soon 
became  dissatisfied  with  Charles's  conduct,  and 
was  thinking  of  negotiating  with  Manfred  when 
news  came  of  the  battle  of  Benevento  and  Man- 
fred's death  (Feb.  26,  1266).  He  rebuked  Charies 
still  more  strongly  for  his  bloodthirstiness  and 
avarice,  but  was  obliged  by  the  difficulties  of  his 
position  and  the  traditional  policy  of  the  Curia  to 
maintjiin  his  alliance.  When  the  young  Gonradin 
appeared  in  Italy,  Clement  excommunicated  him 
after  unheeded  warnings,  and  remained  undaimted 
even  after  Conradin's  victory  on  the  Amo,  the 
brilliancy  of  which  was  soon  obscured  by  the 
fatal  defeat  of  Tagliacozzo.  That  he  contributed 
to  or  approved  of  Conradin's  execution  is  improb- 
able. Charles  of  Anjou  went  on  in  his  own  way 
more  high-handedly  than  ever,  and  Clement  had 
eveiy  reason  to  fear  that  the  Hohenstaufen  would 
be  the  only  ones  to  make  war  upon  the  Church 
when,  just  a  month  after  the  last  of  them,  he  died 
on  Nov.  29,  1268,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  just 
and  noble-minded  ruler.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  A.  Potthast.  Reoeata  pontifieum  Roma- 
norum, ii.  1542,  Berlin,  1875:  E.  Jordan.  Lea  Rioiatrta 
de  CUment  IV,  Paris.  1893  sqq.;  MGH,  BpiaL  ponL, 
iii  (1894).  627  sqq.;  F.  Gregorovius.  HiaL  of  the  City  of 
Rome,  iv.  369,  London.  1896;  Muratori,  Seriptorea,  III. 
i.  594,  ii.  421;  Hefele,  Coneiliengeaehiehte,  vi.  26  sqq.; 
Bower.  Popea,  iii.  9-16;  Milman.  Latin  Chriatianity,  vi. 
87-117;  Neander,  Chriatian  Churt^,  iv.  289  et  passim. 

Clement  V.  (Bertrand  de  Goth):    Pope  1305-14. 
The  son  of  a  nobleman  of  Aquitaine,  he  was  made 


138 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Otament 


archbishop  of  Bordeaux  by  Boniface  VIII.,  and 
elected  pope  at  Perugia  June  5,  1305,  after  the 
conclave  had  lasted  eleven  months.  His  corona- 
tion took  place  in  Lyons.  Under  Philip  the  Fair's 
influence  he  remained  in  France,  residing  first  at 
Bordeaux,  Poitiers,  and  elsewhere,  and  fixing  his 
seat  at  Avignon  in  the  spring  of  1309.  He  is 
accused  by  ViUanl  of  avarice,  nepotbm,  and  simony; 
he  certainly  surrounded  himself  with  the  pomp  of 
a  worldly  sovereign,  and  was  suspected  of  a  crim- 
inal attachment  to  the  beautiful  countess  of 
P^rigord.  Another  fault  was  the  weakness  of 
character  which  made  him  a  slave  of  the  cold 
and  unacrupulous  king,  and  to  the  suppression  of 
the  Templars  (q.v.).  At  the  same  time  another 
process  was  begun  against  Boniface  VIII.,  which 
Philip  pressed  for  personal  reasons,  refusing,  how- 
ever, to  push  it  to  extremes  and  contenting  him- 
self with  the  bull  of  April  27, 131 1,  in  which  Clement 
declared  that  Philip  was  innocent  of  Nogaret's 
deeds  of  violence  and  of  the  plundering  of  the  papal 
treasure  (see  Boniface  VIII.),  and  annulled  Boni- 
face's exconmiunications  and  interdicts,  especially 
the  bull  Unam  aanctam.  In  the  affairs  of  the  Em- 
pire Clement  pursued  a  vacillating  course;  he  had 
recommended  the  election  of  Philip's  brother 
Charles  of  Valois,  but  willingly  recognized  Henry 
VII.,  and  crowned  him  in  the  Lateran,  June  29, 
1312.  When  Henry,  however,  fell  out  with  Robert 
of  Naples,  Clement  took  the  latter's  side,  threat- 
ening the  emperor  with  exconmiunication.  On 
Henry's  death  (Aug.  24,  1313)  he  named  Robert 
imperial  vicar  for  Italy,  claiming  the  supreme 
exercise  of  the  imperial  power  during  the  vacancy 
for  himself.  His  own  death  followed  a  few  months 
later  (Apr.  20,  1314).  His  collection  of  decretals, 
which  he  meant  to  form  a  seventh  book  in  the  great 
collection,  though  first  formally  confirmed  by  his 
successor  John  XXII.,  is  known  under  the  name  of 
Clementina  (see  Canon  Law,  II.,  6,  §  3). 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BnuoaBAmr:  Rtguhtmt  edited  by  the  Benedictines, 
Rome,  9  vols,  and  appendix,  1886-92;  hie  Tractahu  cum 
Htinrieo  VII.,  ed.  J.  Schwalm,  is  in  MOH,  ConMt.  imper., 
IT.  1,  pp.  338  Bqq.;  J.  Schwalm,  Neue  AkUnstHeke  tur 
Oe$chichU  .  .  .  Clemen*  V.,  Rome,  1904,  i.,  pp.  492-496. 
The  old  Vita  are  collected  in  E.  Baluxe.  Vita  paparum 
Avenioneneium,  i.  1-62,  85-162,  PariB,  1693.  Consult: 
Muratori.  Seriptoree,  III.  i.  673.  ii.  441;  L.  Kdnig.  Die 
p<kpeai4Jie  Kammer  unter  Clemene  V.,  Vienna.  1894;  £. 
Berchon.  Hiel.  du  pape  CUment  F.,  Paris.  1896;  F.  La- 
ooete,  Nouvdlet  itudee  eur  CUment  F.,  Bordeaux,  1896; 
Hefele,  ConeilienoeadiidUe,  vi.  394  sqq.;  Pastor,  Popee, 
I  68-61,  63-64  et  passim;  Bower,  Popea,  iii.  68-72; 
Uilman,  Latin  CkrieHanity,  vi.  373-631;  Neander,  Chrie- 
Han  Church,  v.  70,  341.  notes  2-23. 

aement  VL  (Pierre  Roger):  Pope  1342-52. 
Originally  a  member  of  the  Benedictine  order, 
councilor  and  keeper  of  the  seals  to  Philip  the  Fair, 
then  archbishop  of  Rouen,  he  was  elected  pope  at 
Avignon  May  7,  1342.  A  talented  man  and  a 
brilliant  orator,  he  was  wholly  devoted  to  the 
French  policy,  and  refused  the  pressing  invitation 
of  a  Roman  deputation,  which  included  Petrarch, 
to  return  to  Rome.  He  vigorously  carried  on  the 
struggle  with  Louis  the  Bavarian,  favored  by  the 
divisions  in  the  electoral  college  and  by  the  em- 
peror's weakness.    Louis  showed  his  readiness  to 


submit  to  any  humiliations,  but  Clement  was 
obdurate.  In  the  spring  of  1346  he  pronounced 
the  emperor's  excommunication  and  deposition. 
At  his  bidding  Charles  of  Luxemburg  was  inform- 
ally chosen  as  Charles  IV.  by  the  three  archbishops, 
John  of  Bohemia,  and  Rudolph  of  Saxony  (July  11, 
1346).  Louis  died  Oct.  11,  1347.  The  failure  of 
the  attempt  to  sat  up  another  claimant  in  his  place 
justified  Clement's  assertion  of  the  necessity  of 
papal  confirmation.  Fortune  seemed  to  favor  him. 
The  republican  rising  in  Rome  under  Cola  di  Rienzo 
(May-Dec.,  1347)  fell  to  pieces  of  itself.  Queen 
Joanna  of  Sicily,  suspected  of  the  murder  of  her 
husband,  appeared  before  him  and  was  acquitted 
and  allowed  to  retain  her  crown.  Needing  money, 
she  sold  the  county  of  Avignon  to  the  pope  for 
80,000  florins,  Charles  IV.  renouncing  his  claims 
to  it.  To  please  the  Romans  and  to  fill  his  treasure, 
Clement  reduced  the  period  between  jubilees  from 
a  hundred  to  fifty  years.  In  connection  with  the 
jubilee  of  1350,  the  scholastic  doctrine  of  the  super- 
abundant merits  of  Christ  was  extended  to  include 
those  of  the  saints,  and  the  right  to  distribute  the 
indulgences  based  upon  it  was  formally  claimed 
for  the  successors  of  Peter.  Clement  died  Dec.  6, 
1352.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bxbliooraprt:  The  Bpietola  ad  arehiepiacopum  Treviren- 
tern  ie  in  J.  P.  Schunk,  Beitrilae  nw  maimiBchen  Oeaehiehte, 
ii.  474,  liains,  1789;  the  Sermo  adv.  Heinritum,  ib.  ii. 
332  Bqq.  The  older  Vita  are  collected  in  E.  Baluxe, 
Vita  paparum  Avenioneneium,  i.  243-322,  PariB,  1693. 
Consult:  M.  Freyberg,  Die  Stdlung  der  deuteehen  OeieUidi- 
keU  eur  Wahl  KarU  IV.,  Halle.  1880;  C.  Mailer,  Der 
Kampf  Ludwige  .  .  .  mii  der  rOmieehen  Kurie,  ii.  163 
Bqq.,  Tubingen,  1880;  F.  Oregorovius,  Hiet.  of  ike  Ciiy 
of  Rome,  London,  1899;  Hefele,  ConeUiengetdiiehte,  vi. 
663;  Pastor,  Popee,  vi.  6  et  passim;  Bower,  Popee, 
iii.  93-104;  Milman,  Latin  Ckrietianity,  yii.  136-198; 
Neander.  Chrietian  Church,  v.  41-43. 

Clement  VIL  (Robert,  Count  of  Geneva):  Anti- 
pope  1378-94.  He  was  a  canon  in  Paris,  bishop 
of  TWrouanne,  and  finally  cardinal.  The  French 
cardinals  who  deserted  Urban  VI.  chose  him  pope 
at  Fondi.  He  soon  lost  hope  of  maintaining  himself 
in  Italy,  and  returned  to  Avignon.  The  struggle 
between  the  rival  claimants  is  narrated  under  Urban 
VI.  Its  course  was  unfavorable  to  Clement,  in 
spite  of  his  attempts  by  seductive  promises  to  stir 
up  Louis  of  Anjou  and  Charles  VI.,  and  he  died,  no 
nearer  the  goal  of  his  ambition,  Sept.  16,  1394. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Dibliographt:  N.  Valois,  La  France  et  le  grand  aehieme, 
vol.  ii..  Paris,  1896;  idem,  in  ROmiedie  QuartaUdurift, 
1893,  pp.  170  sqq.;  J.  Fraikin,  Nonciaturee  de  Clhnent 
VII,  vol.  i.,  Paris,  1906;  Bower,  Popee,  iu.  141;  Pastor, 
Popee,  i.  passim;  Creighton,  Papacy,  i.  72-144. 

Clement  VUL  (Egidio  Mufioz):  Antipope  1425- 
1429.  He  was  canon  of  Barcelona  when  three  car- 
dinals of  the  party  of  Benedict  XIII.  (q.v.)  elected 
him  to  succeed  the  latter.  He  was  recognized  by 
Alfonso  V.  of  Aragon,  but  never  attained  any  im- 
portance and  resigned  his  claims  July  26,  1429. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibliogbaprt:  Hefele,  ConeHiengeediiehie,  vii.  396,  417; 
Bower,  Popee,  iii  212;  Pastor,  Popee,  i.  274-277. 

Clement  VIL  (Giulio  de'  Medici):  Pope  162*- 
1534.  He  was  bom  May  26,  1478,  the  illegitimate 
son  of  the  Giuliano  who  was  murdered  in  the  con- 


Clement 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


134 


spiracy  of  the  Pazzi.  He  joined  the  Knights  of 
St.  John,  and  was  prior  of  Capua  when  his  cousin 
ascended  the  papsJ  throne  as  Leo  X.  Gaining 
from  him  a  dispensation  from  the  impediment  of 
illegitimacy,  and  then  a  declaration  that  he  was  not 
illegitimate  after  all,  since  his  parents  had  been 
secretly  married,  he  became  archbishop  of  Florence 
and  cardinal,  occupying  a  position  of  great  influ- 
ence at  Rome.  On  Nov.  18,  1623,  he  was  elected 
to  succeed  Adrian  VI.  His  position  was  extremely 
difficult,  between  the  conflicting  powers  of  the 
Empire  and  France,  which  he  endeavored  to  play 
off  against  each  other  in  order  to  increase  the 
temporal    dominions    of    the  papacy 

Policy  To-  and  the  power  of  his  family.     Charles 

ward  France  V.    expected    him    to    continue    the 

and         alliance  of  his  predecessor  with  the 

Germany.  Empire;  but  he  first  assumed  a 
neutral  position,  and  then  entered 
into  close  relations  with  Francis  I.  After  the  battle 
of  Pa  via  (Feb.  24,  1525),  he  saw  himself  obliged  to 
conciliate  the  emperor,  and  made  an  alliance  with 
him.  Charles's  power  seemed,  however,  so  threat- 
enii^  to  Italy  that  Clement  entered  (May  22,  1526) 
the  league  composed  of  France,  Venice,  Florence, 
and  Milan.  After  an  interchange  of  diplomatic 
communications,  in  which  Charles  spoke  his  mind 
very  clearly  as  to  the  pope's  course  and  appealed 
to  a  general  council,  hostilities  broke  out  in  the 
summer.  The  league  came  to  a  sudden  and  himiil- 
iating  end,  and  on  May  6,  1527,  Rome  was  taken 
and  plimdered  by  the  German  Landsknechta  under 
the  Constable  of  Bourbon.  The  temporal  power 
of  the  papacy  was  threatened  with  annihilation; 
but  Charles  was  unwilling  to  go  so  far,  and  in 
November,  on  Clement's  promise  of  neutrality, 
restored  him  his  liberty  and  his  states.  Clement 
now  aimed  at  restoring  to  his  family  the  dominion 
of  Florence,  which  he  attained  at  the  peace  of  Bar- 
celona (June  29,  1529).  On  Feb.  24,  1530,  he 
crowned  Charles  at  Bologna;  the  emperor  kissed 
his  feet  according  to  custom,  but  was  more  power- 
ful in  Italy  than  his  predecessors  had  been  for  many 
a  day,  and  Italian  independence  was  lost. 

Clement  still  hoped  at  least  to  see  1^  authority 
upheld  in  Germany  by  the  imperial  power.  Neither 
he  nor  the  Curia  understood  the  position  there; 
Campeggio's  action  as  legate  at  the  Diet  of  Nurem- 
berg (1524)  proved  entirely  unsuccessful,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  League  of  Regensburg  in  the 
same  year  had  not  much  better  results,  since  it  led 
to  the  formal  organization  of  the  Protestant  party 
in  the  Empire.  After  the  treaty  of  Barcelona  and 
that  of  Cambrai  (Aug.  5,  1529),  pope  and  emperor 
seemed  likely  to  work  together  for  the 

Events  in  suppression    of    Protestantism;     but 

Germany,  when  Campeggio  appeared  at  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530  to  propose 
eonfiflcation,  fire  and  sword,  and  the  Inquisition, 
Charles  was  not  inclined  to  go  with  him  until  after 
much  further  investigation,  and  renewed  his  re- 
quest for  a  council  to  be  simimoned  within  six 
and  held  within  eighteen  months.  Clement,  disin- 
clined as  he  was,  did  not  dare  openly  to  reject  the 
proposal,  but  he  threw  all  manner  of  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  its  fulfilment.    Time  went  by  without 


anything  being  done,  even  after  a  fresh  personal 
interview  with  Charles  at  Bologna;  and  Clement 
began  gradually  to  draw  closer  to  Francis  I.  again. 
He  had  discussed  the  marriage  of  his  niece  Catherine 
with  Francis'  second  son  Henry  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  1531;  and  this  union,  consunmiated  Oct. 
27,  1533,  only  set  the  seal  to  the  alliance  which  was 
practically  resolved  upon  in  two  meetings  between 
pope  and  king  at  Marseilles  about  the  same  time. 
Francis  had  all  along  opposed  the  idea  of  a  council, 
and  the  pope's  unwillingness  was  only  increased  by 
the  new  association.  To  be  fair,  one  must  admit 
that  it  was  out  of  the  question  for  him  to  call  such 
a  coimcil  as  the  Protestants  wanted,  while  such  a 
gathering  as  he  might  have  approved  would  have 
done  no  good.  The  council  idea  was  really  only  a 
stick  which  Charles  kept  to  beat  the  pope  with,  in 
the  hope  of  furthering  his  own  political  and  eccle- 
siastical plans. 

The  worst  reproach  that  can  be  brought  against 
Clement's  policy  is  its  utter  f ruitlessness  and  purely 
negative  character.     During  his  pontificate  the  new 
doctrines  made  giant  strides  in  Germany,  Scandi- 
navia, and  Switzerland,  acquired  con- 
His  Policy  siderable  power  in  France  and  England, 
Fruitiess    and  threatened  even  Italy  and  Spain, 
and  Futile.  Clement's  policy,  intended  to  strength- 
en himself  and  his  family  as  temporal 
powers,  really  helped  his  ecclesiastical  opponents. 
The  loss  of  England  was  a  consequence  of  this 
policy   (see  Cranmer,   Thomas).     This,  the   per- 
petual insistence  of  Charles  upon  a  council,  the 
discord  of  his  Florentine  relatives,  and  the  general 
failure  of  his  plans  so  preyed  upon  Clement  as  to 
hasten  his  end,  which  came  Sept.  25,  1534,  leaving 
the  papacy  notably  poorer  in  both  temporal  and 
spiritual  power  for  his  rule.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  BtUlarium  Rtnuanum,  vi.  26,  Turin,  1860; 
P.  Balan,  Monumenta  acBcidi  zvi.,  Innsbruck,  1885;  idem. 
La  PoliHca  di  Clemente  VII,  Rome.  1884;  W.  Hellwig, 
Die  politiaehe  Beziekunffen  ClemerUa  VII.  zu  Karl  F., 
Leipsio,  1889;  S.  Ehses,  Rdmiseke  Dokumente  zur  Ot- 
•€hichU  der  Eheteheiduno  Heinriche  VIII.,  Paderbom,  1883; 
idem,  in  Rdmi$cke  QuartaUchHft,  1891,  p.  292.  1892.  p. 
220;  Hefele,  ConcUienoeaehiehU,  ix.  326  aqq.;  Ranke. 
Popes,  i.  74-98,  iii.  28-96;  Bower,  PopM,  iii,  302-310; 
Creighton.  Papacy,  vi.  276  sqq.;  Milmitn,  LaHn  ChriM- 
Hanity,  vii.  220-273;  Neander,  ChriHian  CAunA,  vii.  47- 
49,  52,  65-58. 

Clement  Vm.  (Ippolito  Aldobrandini):  Pope 
1592-1605.  He  was  elected  in  a  short  but  stormy 
conclave  (Jan.  10^0),  as  the  candidate  of  the 
**  cardinals'  party,''  which  aimed  at  vindicating  the 
independence  of  the  Curia  against  Spanish  influ- 
ence. This  was  the  task  of  his  pontificate;  he 
accomplished  it  slowly  but  siu^ly.  In  Flinch 
politics  he  took  the  side  of  the  League  against 
Henry  of  Navarre,  and  proceeded  with  great  cau- 
tion toward  his  reception  into  the  Church,  giving 
him  solemn  absolution  on  Dec.  17,  1595.  His  good 
understanding  with  Henry  IV.  helped  to  free  the 
papacy  from  the  power  of  Spain  and  to  restore 
French  influence  in  Italy.  Henry's  support  made 
it  possible  for  Clement  in  1598,  on  the  extinction 
of  the  direct  line  of  the  house  of  Este,  to  resume 
possession  of  the  duchy  of  Ferrara  as  an  ancient 
papal  fief;  and  in  return  the  pope  allowed  the 
toleration  of  the  Huguenots  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 


13S 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Clement 


Other  important  events  of  his  reign  are  the  dip- 
lomatic decision  of  the  controversy  between  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Dominicans  on  the  question  of 
grace,  and  the  burning  of  Giordano  Bruno  (q.v.) 
for  heresy  in  Rome  (Feb.  17,  1600).  He  enlarged 
and  defined  the  rules  for  the  censorship  of  books, 
and  revised  the  breviary  by  the  bull  Cum  in  ecclesia 
(1602);  for  his  work  in  revising  the  Vulgate  see 
BiBL£  Versions,  A,  II.,  2,  §  5. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bduoobapht:  BvUarium  Ramanum,  ix.  618,  Turin,  1865; 
A.  Desert,  Le  Cardinal  d*099at,  .  .  .  ca  vie,  «m  rUgocia- 
HonM  d  Rome,  Paris.  1894;  Ranke,  PojMt,  ii.  39  sqq.,  iii. 
272-274;  Bower,  PopeMt  iii.  326. 

Clement  IZ.  (Giulio  Rospigliosi):  Pope  1667- 
1669.  He  was  bom  at  Pistoia  Jan.  28,  1600,  made 
cardinal  in  1657,  and  chosen  pope  June  20,  1667, 
as  the  candidate  of  the  French  party.  In  order  to 
oppose  a  united  Christendom  to  the  Turks,  he 
urged  Louis  XIV.  to  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
( 1668).  Acting  in  harmony  with  Louis,  he  attempt- 
ed to  reconcile  the  warring  factions  in  the  church 
of  France  by  the  Pax  Clementina  (see  Jansen, 
CoRNELiT78,  Jansenibm),  though  a  fresh  outburst 
of  strife  was  destined  to  foUow  his  death  on  Dec. 
9, 1669.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  BvUarium    Romanum,    zvii.    612,    Turin, 

1869;  Bower.  Pirpf,  iii.  332;  Ranke,  Pop€9,  ii.  330  sqq.; 

De  Bildt,  Chriatine  de  Suidm  ei  le  eondave  ds  CUment  IX, 

iieeO-terO),  Paris,  1906. 

Clement  X.  (Emilio  Altieri):  Pope  1670-76. 
After  a  five  months'  conclave,  he  was  elected  on 
Apr.  29,  1670,  as  a  compromise  candidate,  because 
he  was  eighty  years  old.  He  left  political  ques- 
tions mainly  to  Cardinal  Paluzzi,  who  was  adopted 
by  him  and  took  the  name  of  Altieri.  Paluzzi  was 
to  blame  for  the  outbreak  of  the  conflict  with  Louis 
XIV.  over  the  droit  de  rigdU  (see  Regale).  An- 
other international  question  was  stirred  up  by  the 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  withdraw  the  privilege  of 
extraterritorial  immunity  from  the  foreign  am- 
bassadors in  Rome.    Clement  died  July  22,  1676. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
BxBUoamArar:  BuOarium    Romanum^    vol.    zviii.,    Turin, 

18e9;  Ranke,   P<rp»,  ii.  417  sqq.,  iii.  445-453;  Bower, 

PopM,  iiL  332. 

Clement  XL  (Giovanni  Francesco  Albani):  Pope 
1700-21.  He  was  bom  at  Urbino,  and  was  elected 
pope  when  comparatively  yoimg,  only  fifty-one,  on 
Nov.  23,  1700.  Though  he  had  not  been  formally 
the  French  candidate,  he  maintained  close  relations 
with  France.  His  learning  and  his  political  acu- 
men are  indisputable;  but  his  foreign  policy  was 
unlucky.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  his  pro- 
test against  the  assumption  of  the  kingly  title  by 
Frederick  I.  of  Prussia  showed  the  traditional 
incapacity  of  the  Curia  to  understand  the  circum- 
stances of  Protestant  coimtries.  In  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  while  maintaining  an  appear- 
ance of  neutrality,  he  secretly  favored  the  Bourbon 
side.  As  this  came  more  and  more  to  light,  his 
relations  with  the  emperor  were  increasingly 
strained — so  far  that  he  even  threatened  him  with 
excommunication.  The  entry  of  imperial  troops 
mto  the  P^pal  States  compelled  him  to  make  peace 
with  Joseph  I.  (Jan.  15,  1709),  acknowledging 
Charles  IIL  as  king  of  Spain  and  promising  to 


invest  him  with  the  crown  of  Naples.  This  em- 
bittered Louis  XIV.  and  Philip  of  Anjou  against 
him.  Another  trouble  was  the  conflict  over  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  in  Naples,  which  lasted  even 
beyond  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  In  the  controversy 
between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits  over  the 
advisability  of  allowing  the  Chinese  converts  to 
retain  certain  pagan  customs,  he  decided  in  favor 
of  the  former;  the  Jesuits  apparently  submitted, 
but  the  conflict  continued.  In  tbte  Jansenist  con- 
troversy, on  the  other  hand,  he  strongly  supported 
the  Jesuits  (see  Jansen,  Cornelius,  Jansenism; 
Quesnel).  He  achieved  considerable  results  as  a 
reformer  of  the  internal  administration  of  his  states 
and  of  the  Roman  clergy,  supported  learning  and 
art,  and  was  a  liberal  benefactor  of  the  poor.  In 
1713  he  issued  the  famous  bull  Unigenitus  against 
Jansenism.    He  died  March  19,  1721. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  Epittola  et  hrevia  wdeda^  2  vols.,  Rome, 
1724;  BuUarium  Romanum,  vol.  xxi.,  Turin,  1871;  Ranke, 
Popea,  ii.  428  aqq.,  iii.  463-466,  471-473;  Bower,  Popet, 
iii.  335-338.  The  bull  UnioenituM  is  given  in  Reich,  Docu^ 
merUt^  pp.  386-389. 

Clement  XH.  (Lorenzo  Corsini):  Pope  1730-40. 
He  was  bom  April  7,  1652,  and  rose  in  life  as  a 
prot^g6  of  the  Albani  family,  taking  Clement  XI. 
for  his  model  as  pope,  though  without  his  gifts. 
He  did  not  attempt  to  mingle  in  the  wider  politics 
of  Europe,  but  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
assert  ancient  feudal  claims  to  Parma  and  Piacenza 
(1731)  and  to  incorporate  with  the  Papal  States  the 
small  but  ancient  republic  of  San  Marino  (1739). 
The  power  of  the  Church  was  limited  by  Charles  III. 
and  his  minister  Tanucci  in  Naples,  and  by  Philip 
V.  in  Spain;  and  in  France  the  literary  and  scien- 
tific opposition  to  the  papacy  grew  more  pronounced. 
His  services  to  foreign  missions  were  considerable, 
and  his  domestic  policy  creditably  followed  that  of 
Clement  XI.  He  died  Feb.  6, 1740.  (A.  Hauck.) 
Biblioobapht:  BuUarium    Romanum,    vols,    xxiii.,    zxiv., 

Turin;  Putor,    Pojw«,    i.    360;  Ranke,    Popet,    ii.    431; 

Bower,  Popea,  iii.  340. 

Clement  Xm.  (Carlo  Rezzonico) :  Pope  1 758-69. 
He  was  bom  in  Venice  March  7,  1693,  made  car- 
dinal in  1757,  and  on  July  6  of  the  next  year  elected 
pope.  It  is  impossible  to  decide  whether  he  was 
a  convinced  friend  of  the  Jesuits  or  simply  their 
tool,  either  directly  or  indirectly  through  the 
influence  of  Cardinal  Torreggiani.  Though  the 
order  had  been  suppressed  in  Portugal,  France, 
Spain,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  he  solemnly  confirmed 
and  approved  it  by  the  bull  Apostolicum  pascendi 
munus  (Jan.  7,  1765),  and  in  that  beginning  Ani- 
marum  saltUi  declared  under  an  interdict  the 
countries  which  had  expelled  the  Jesuits,  allowing 
them  alone  to  say  mass  and  administer  the  sacra- 
ments there  during  it.  The  bull  called  out  vehe- 
ment opposition,  and  the  popular  outburst  in  favor 
of  the  society  on  which  he  had  counted  did  not 
occur.  Some  of  the  cardinals  implored  him  to 
moderate  his  support  of  it,  but  without  effect.  As 
a  blow  at  the  Bourbon  courts,  he  took  notice  of 
some  reforming  measures  adopted  by  the  duke  of 
Parma,  an  unimportant  member  of  the  family.  A 
sharp  and  threatening  brief  {Aliud  ad  apostolatus, 
Jan.  30,  1768)  was  addressed  to  him;   it  rebuked 


Olement 

Olement  of  Alexandria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ld6 


him  as  a  contumacious  vassal,  pronoimoed  null 
and  void  the  measures  which  limited  ecclesiastical 
freedom,  and  menaced  him  with  excommunication. 
The  duke,  inspired  by  his  grandfather  Louis  XV., 
replied  by  arresting  and  then  expelling  all  the 
Jesuits  in  his  dominions.  The  Bourbon  kings  all 
protested  against  the  brief  and  the  use  which  it 
made  of  the  bull  In  coma  Domini^  and  insisted  on 
its  withdrawal  and  the  suppression  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  Clement  was  stubborn,  and  the  sover- 
eigns proceeded  to  use  force,  Louis  XV.  occupying 
Avignon  and  the  Comtat  Venaissin,  and  the  king 
of  Sicily  taking  possession  of  Benevento  and  Fonte 
Corvo  and  preparing  to  go  farther.  Clement  had 
called  a  secret  consistory  for  Feb.  3, 1769,  to  discuss 
the  situation;  but  in  the  preceding  night  he  died 
of  apoplexy,  a  natural  result  of  such  heavy  cares 
in  a  man  of  his  age.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  A.  von  Reumont,  OeadtichlB  der  Sladt  Rom, 

III.  ii  ess,    Berlin,   1870;    Ranke,   Pop€9,     ii.  443-448; 

Bower,  Popes,  ill.  347-350. 

Clement  XIV.  (Lorenzo  Ganganelli):  Pope  1769- 
1774.  He  was  the  son  of  a  physician,  b.  at  Arcan- 
gelo,  in  the  Papal  States,  Oct.  31,  1705;  he  entered 
the  Franciscan  Order,  became  a  consultor  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  was  made  cardinal  in  1759.  He 
had  been  an  advocate  of  reconciliation  with  the 
Bourbon  courts,  and  it  has  been  often  asserted 
that  he  promised  before  his  election  to  suppress 
the  Jesuits.  He  was  chosen  only  after  a  three 
months'  conclave,  marked  by  incessant  intrigue. 
He  disappointed  those  who  looked  for  a  speedy 
decision  of  the  burning  question  by  adopting  a 
cautious  and  temporizing  policy.  He  gave  the 
Jesuits  new  privileges,  and  declared  to  Louis  XV. 
that  he  could  neither  censure  nor  suppress  an 
institute  confirmed  by  nineteen  of  his  predecessors; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  refused  to  see  the  general 
of  the  Order,  and  closed  his  eyes  to  the  fact  that 
laws  which  infringed  on  ecclesiastical  prerogatives 
had  been  passed  in  Portugal,  Naples,  Venice,  the 
electoral  provinces  of  Bavaria  and  Mainz,  and  even 
in  the  Empire  under  Maria  Theresa.  The  brief 
directed  against  Parma  was  recalled,  and  the  bull 
In  ccma  Domini  (q.v.)  no  longer  solemnly  read. 
Conciliation,  in  fact,  was  offered  to  all  the  estranged 
powers:  an  understanding  was  reached  with  Portu- 
gal; and  the  nunciature  at  Lisbon  was  reestab- 
lished. But  the  ambassadors  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Naples  insisted  pertinaciously  on  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuits.  France  and  Naples  held  ecclesias- 
tical territory,  as  it  were  a  pledge  for  the  granting 
of  their  demands;  there  was  ttdk  in  all  three  king- 
doms of  a  formal  renimciation  of  papal  authority 
and  the  establishment  of  an  independent  patriarch. 
The  pope  now  resolved  to  suppress  the  Order.  It 
was  important,  however,  that  the  step  would  con- 
tent the  Roman  Catholic  powers,  and  not  rather 
give  the  signal  for  fresh  attacks.  Clement  seems 
to  have  first  assured  himself  cautiously  of  this. 
The  devout  Maria  Theresa  was  so  attached  to  the 
Order  that  he  had  to  use  his  authority  to  detach 
her  from  it.  Then  he  took  the  first  definite  steps, 
as  sovereign  of  the  Papal  States;  on  Oct.  17,  1772, 
the  Jesuits  were  removed  from  the  CoUegio  Romano 
and  the  Roman  seminary  on  a  pretext,  and  then 


their  houses  in  the  Papal  States  were  closed,  gen- 
erally after  a  visitation.  The  support  previously 
given  to  the  exiled  Portuguese  Jesuits  was  with- 
drawn. Finally,  on  July  21,  1773,  Clement  signed 
the  brief  Dominua  ac  Redemptor  noster,  entirely 
suppressing  the  Order.  It  was  signed  only  after  it 
had  been  submitted  to  the  Catholic  powers,  and  not 
published  until  Aug.  16.  In  this  dociuient  he 
gave  as  the  ground  for  his  action  that  the  Order 
was  no  longer  bringing  forth  the  rich  fruits  for  which 
it  was  designed,  and  cited  other  instances  of  the 
suppression  of  regular  orders.  He  explained  his 
long  hesitation  as  due  to  the  need  of  diligent  in- 
vestigation and  mature  deliberation.  Not  a  word 
implied  the  abandonment  of  any  claim  made  by  the 
Church  or  its  head;  his  censures  of  the  Order  were 
not  based  on  the  popular  charges.  The  decree  was 
at  once  put  into  execution  in  Rome.  Several  of 
the  fathers  who  were  proved  to  have  concealed  or 
misappropriated  money,  property,  or  documents 
belonging  to  the  Order  were  imprisoned,  and  Ricci, 
the  general,  was  put  under  strict  surveillance. 
The  news  gave  great  satisfaction  in  many  quarters; 
France  and  Naples  restored  the  papal  territories  in 
Apr.,  1774.  Only  in  the  non-papal  countries  of 
Prussia  and  Russia  were  the  Jesuits  allowed  openly 
to  continue  their  ministrations.  Much  obscurity 
hangs  over  the  close  of  Clement's  life.  The  asser- 
tions that  he  repented  of  his  action  and  declared 
it  had  been  wrung  from  him  by  force,  and  that  he 
was  poisoned  by  the  Jesuits,  have  been  often  made 
and  as  often  denied.  He  died  Sept.  22,  1774, 
leaving  in  the  Museum  Pio-Clementinum  a  monu- 
ment to  his  uncontested  devotion  to  art  and  learn- 
ing, though  the  most  diverse  views  have  been  and 
will  always  be  held  as  to  his  general  character. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bxbliograpbt:  LeUere,  hotts  e  diacorn  di  GanoantUi,  Flor- 
ence, 1845;  ClemerUu  XIV.  eputola  ac  brecia,  ed,  a 
Theiner,  Paris,  1862.  Consult:  A.  von  Reumont,  Gan- 
gantUi,  Papst  Clement  XIV.,  Berlin,  1847;  J.  Gr^tineau- 
Joly,  ClimentXIV.etlea  Jieuitee.Fnxia,  1847;  A.  Theiner, 
GeechiekU  dee  PonHficate  Clemens*  XIV.,  2  vob.,  Paris, 
1853;  O.  X.  D.  Ravignan,  Clement  XIII.  et  CUmeni  XIV., 
Paris,  1855;  Bower.  Popee,  iii.  350-380;  Ranke,  Popes,  ii. 
449-451. 

CLEMENT:  A  missionary  bishop  of  the  Celtic 
or  old  British  Church  in  the  Eastern  parts  of  the 
Frankish  domains  who,  like  Adalbert  (q.v.)  in 
Neustria,  stood  in  the  way  of  the  Romanizing  inno- 
vations of  Boniface  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighth 
century  (see  Boniface,  Saint).  We  know  of 
him  only  from  the  accounts  of  his  opponents,  who 
stigmatize  him  as  a  "  heretic,  misleader  of  the  peo- 
ple, disseminator  of  error,  servant  of  the  devU, 
and  false  priest."  He  was  married  and  had  two 
sons.  Justifying  himself  by  the  Mosaic  law,  he 
rejected  the  canonical  prohibition  of  marriage  with 
the  widow  of  a  deceased  brother.  He  had  views 
of  his  own  on  predestination  and  election,  and 
seems  to  have  held  to  some  sort  of  universalism. 
He  disputed  the  authority  of  the  Fathers,  Augustine 
and  Jerome,  and  did  not  acknowledge  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  pope.  At  the  instigation  of  Boniface  a 
Frankish  synod  in  745  condemned  him  to  imprison- 
ment; a  Roman  synod  added  the  anathema  of  the 
Church.    Nevertheless  Clement  held  fast  to  the 


1S7 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Clement 

Olement  of  Alexandria 


opinions  and  practises  of  his  fatherland.     His  ul- 
timate fate  is  not  known.  A.  Werner. 

Bibuogbapbt:  Rettberg,  KD,  L  324-325;  H.  Hahn,  Jahr- 
bueker  dM  fr&nkisdun  Reicha,  pp.  67-82,  Berlin.  1863; 
P.  Jaff6.  BMioih0ca  rtrwn  Oermaniottrum,  iii.  133,  136- 
149,  Berlin,  1866;  J.  H.  A.  Ebrard.  Di€  irotdutUUcha 
Misaianakirche,  GQterslob.  1874:  A.  Werner,  Bon^atius, 
pp.  113.  273.  Leipnc,  1875;  Hauok.  KD,  i.  611. 

CLEMENT  OF  ALEXAIIDRIA. 

HiaLifeCf  1). 

Hit  Literary  Work  (§  2). 

Hi8  Sisnifieanoe  for  the  Church  (§  3). 

Hit  Eclecticism  (§  4). 

Hia  Dependence  upon  Philosophy  (§  5). 

His  Relation  to  Ethics  (§  6). 

And  to  Scripture  and  the  Church  (|  7). 

Clement  of  Alexandria  (Titus  Flavius  Clemens), 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  teachers  of  the  Church 
of  Alexandria,  was  bom  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  and  died  between  211  and  216. 
He  was  certainly  not  bom  in  Egypt  (Strom,,  i.  1). 
The  indication  of  Athens  as  his  birthplace  by 
Epiphanius  is  supported  by  the  classical  quality  of 
his  Greek.     His  parents  seem  to  have  been  pagans, 

of  the  well-to-do  class.    The  thorough- 
X.  His  Life,  ness  of  his  education  is  attested  by  his 

constant  quotation  of  the  Greek  poets 
and  philosophers.  In  quest  of  the  best  instmction, 
he  traveled  in  Greece,  Italy,  Palestine,  and  finally 
Egypt.  He  became  the  colleague  of  Panteenus, 
the  head  of  the  catechetical  school  of  Alexandria, 
and  finally  succeeded  him  in  the  direction  of  the 
schooL  During  the  persecution  of  Septimius  Seve- 
rus  (202  or  203)  he  sought  refuge  with  Alexander, 
then  bishop  [possibly  of  Flaviada]  in  Cappadocia, 
afterward  of  Jerusalem,  from  whom  he  brought  a 
letter  to  Antioch  in  211. 

The  trilogy  into  which  Clement's  principal  re- 
mains are  connected  by  their  purpose  and  mode  of 
treatment  is  composed  of  the  Protrepticus  (**  Ex- 
horUUian "),  the  Pcedagogus  ("  Instructor "),  and 
the  Stromaia  (;*  Miscellanies '*).  Overbeck  calls 
it  the  boldest  literary  undertaking  in  the  history 
of  the  Church,  since  in  it  Clement  for  the  first  time 
attempted  to  set  forth  Christianity  for  the  faithful 
in  the  traditional  forms  of  profane  literature.  The 
Protrepticus  forms  an  introduction  inviting  the 
reader  to  listen,  not  to  the  mythical  legends  of  the 
heathen  gods,  but  to  the  "  new  song  "  of  the  Logos, 
the  beginning  of  all  things  and  creator  of  the  world. 
He  demonstrates  the  folly  of  idolatry  and  the  pagan 
mysteries,  the  horrors  of  pagan  sacrifice,  and  shows 
that  the  Greek  philosophers  and  poets  only  guessed 
at  the  truth,  while  the  prophets  set  forth  a  direct 
way  to  salvation;  and  now  the  divine  Logos  speaks 
in  his  own  person,  to  awaken  all  that  is  good  in  the 
soul  of  man  and  to  lead  it  to  immortality.  Having 
thus  laid  a  foimdation  in  the  knowledge  of  divine 
truth,  he  goes  on  in  the  Pcedagogus  to  develop  a 
Christian  ethic.  His  design  does  not  prevent  him 
from  taking  a  large  part  of  his  material  from  the 
Stoic  Musonius,  the  master  of  Epictetus;  but  for 
Clement  the  real  instructor  is  the  incarnate  Logos. 
The  first  book  deals  with  the  religious  basis  of 
Christian  morality,  the  second  and  third  with  the 
individual  cases  of  conduct.  As  with  Epictetus, 
true  virtue  shows  itself  with  him  in  its  external  ev- 


idences by  a  natural,  simple,  and  moderate  way 
of  living.  The  Stromaia  goes  further  and  aims  at 
the  perfection  of  the  Christian  life  by 
2.  His  initiation  into  complete  knowledge. 
Literary  The  first  of  these  works  is  addressed 
Work,  to  the  unconverted,  the  second  to  the 
new  Christian,  and  the  third  appeals 
to  the  mature  believer.  It  attempts,  on  the  basis 
of  Scripture  and  tradition,  to  give  such  an  account 
of  the  Christian  faith  as  shall  answer  all  the  demands 
of  learned  men,  and  conduct  the  student  into  the 
innermost  realities  of  his  belief.  Clement  entitled 
this  work  StrOmateis,  "patchwork,"  because  it  dealt 
with  such  a  variety  of  matters.  He  intended  to 
make  but  one  book  of  this;  at  least  seven  grew  out 
of  it,  without  his  having  treated  all  the  subjects 
proposed.  The  absence  of  certain  things  definitely 
promised  has  led  scholars  to  ask  whether  he  wrote 
an  eighth  book,  as  would  appear  from  Eusebius 
(VI.  xiii.  1)  and  the  Florilegia,  and  various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  identify  with  it  short  or  frag- 
mentary treatises  appearing  among  his  remains. 
In  any  case  the  "  excerpts  "  and  "  selections  " 
which,  with  part  of  a  treatise  on  logical  method, 
are  designated  as  the  eighth  book  in  the  single 
(Uth  century)  manuscript  of  the  Stromata,  are  not 
parts  of  the  Hypotyposes  which  Clement  is  known  to 
have  written.  This  work  was  a  brief  commentary 
on  selected  passages  covering  the  whole  Bible,  as  is 
shown  in  the  fragments  preserved  by  (Ecumenius 
and  in  the  Latin  version  of  the  commentary  on  the 
Catholic  Epistles  made  at  the  instance  of  Cassio- 
dorus.  Besides  the  great  trilogy,  the  only  complete 
work  preserved  is  the  treatise  "  Who  is  the  Rich 
Man  that  Shall  Be  Saved?  ''  based  on  Mark  x.  17-<31, 
and  laying  down  the  principle  that  not  the  posses- 
sion of  riches  but  their  misuse  is  to  be  condemned. 
There  are  extant  a  few  fragments  of  the  treatise  on 
the  Passover,  against  the  Quartodeciman  position  of 
Melito,  and  only  a  single  passage  from  the  "  £k;cle- 
siastical  Canon  "  against  the  Judaizers.  Several 
other  works  are  only  known  by  their  titles. 

The  significance  of  Clement  in  the  history  of  the 
development  of  doctrine  is,  according  to  Hamack, 
that  he  knew  how  to  replace  the  apologetic  method 
by  the  constructive  or  systematic,  to  turn  the  simple 
church  tradition  into  a  scientific  dogmatic  theology. 
It  is  a  marked  characteristic  of  his  that  he  sees  only 
superficial  and  transient  disagreement  where  others 
find   a  fundamental   opposition.     He   is  able  to 
reconcile,  or  even  to  fiise,  differing  views  to  an 
extent  which  makes  it  almost  impossible  to  attrib- 
ute to  him  a  definite  individual  system.     He  is 
admittedly  an  eclectic  {Strom,,  i,  37).    This  attitude 
determines  especially  his  treatment  of 
3.  His  Sig-    non-Christian    philosophy.     Although 
nificance      the  theory  of  a  diabolical  origin  for  it 
for  the       is  not  unknown  to  him,  and  although 
Church.       he  shows  exhaustively  that  the  phi- 
losophers owe  a  large  part  of  their 
knowledge  to  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  yet 
he  seems  to  express  his  own  personal  conviction 
when  he  describes  philosophy  as  a  direct  opera- 
tion of  the  divine  Logos,  working  through  it  as  well 
as  through  the  law  and  his  direct  revelation  in  the 
Gospel  to  communicate  the  tmth  to  men.     It  is 


Clement  of  AlexandrlA 
Clement  of  Bome 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


l38 


true  that  the  knowledge  of  the  philosophers  was 
elementary,  fragmentary,  and  incapable  of  im- 
parting true  righteousness;  and  it  was  far  surpassed 
by  the  revelation  given  through  the  law  and  the 
prophets,  as  that  again  was  still  further  surpassed 
by  the  direct  revelation  of  the  incarnate  Logos; 
but  this  idea  of  relative  inferiority  does  not  prevent 
him  from  showing  that  his  whole  mental  attitude  is 
determined  and  dominated  by  the  philosophical 
tradition.  Thus  he  emphasizes  the  permanent 
importance  of  philosophy  for  the  fulness  of  Chris- 
tian knowledge,  explains  with  special  predilection 
the  relation  between  knowledge  and  faith,  and 
sharply  criticizes  those  who  are  imwilling  to  make 
any  use  of  philosophy.  He  pronounces  definitely 
against  the  sophists  and  against  the 

4.  His  hedonism  of  the  school  of  Epicurus. 
Eclecticism.  Although  he  generally  expresses  him- 
self unfavorably  in  regard  to  the  Stoic 
philosophy,  he  really  pays  marked  deference  to  that 
mixture  of  Stoicism  and  Platonism  which  charac- 
terized the  religious  and  ethical  thought  of  the 
educated  classes  in  his  day.  This  explains  the 
value  set  by  Clement  on  gnosis.  To  be  sure,  he 
constantly  opposes  the  heretical  gnosis.  Faith  is 
the  foundation  of  all  gnosis,  and  both  are  given  by 
Christ.  As  faith  involves  a  comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  the  essentials,  knowledge  allows  the  believer 
to  penetrate  deeply  into  the  understanding  of  what 
he  believes;  and  this  is  the  making  perfect,  the 
completion,  of  faith.  In  order  to  attain  this  kind 
of  faith,  the  "  faith  of  knowledge,''  which  is  so 
much  higher  than  the  mere  ''  faith  of  conjecture," 
or  simple  reception  of  a  truth  on  authority,  phi- 
losophy is  permanently  necessary.  In  fact,  Chris- 
tianity is  the  true  philosophy,  and  the  perfect  Chris- 
tian the  true  Gnostic — but  again  only  the  "  Gnostic 
according  to  the  canon  of  the  Church  "  has  this  dis- 
tinction. Also,  he  rejects  the  Gnostic  distinction  of 
"  psychic  "  and  "  pneumatic  "  men;  all  are  alike 
destined  to  perfection  if  they  will  embrace  it. 

From  philosophy  he  takes  his  conception  of  the 
Logos,  the  principle  of  Christian  gnosis,  through 
whom  alone  God's  relation  to  the  world  and  his 
revelation  is  maintained.  God  he  considers  trans- 
cendentally  as  unqualified  Being,  who  can  not  be 
defined  in  too  abstract  a  way.  Though 
5.  His  De-  his  goodness  operated  in  the  creation 

pendence  of  the  world,  yet  inmiutability,  self- 
Upon  Phi-  sufficiency,    incapability   of   suffering 

losophy.  are  the  characteristic  notes  of  the 
divine  essence.  Though  the  Logos  is 
most  closely  one  with  the  Father,  whose  powers  he 
resumes  in  himself,  yet  to  Clement  both  the  Son 
and  the  Spirit  are  **  first-bom  powers  and  first 
created ";  they  form  the  highest  stages  in  the 
scale  of  intelligent  beings,  and  Clement  distin- 
guishes the  Son-Logos  from  the  Logos  who  is  im- 
mutably immanent  in  God,  and  thus  gives  a  foun- 
dation to  the  charge  of  Photius  that  he  "  degraded 
the  Son  to  the  rank  of  a  creature."  Separate  from 
the  world  as  the  principle  of  creation,  he  is  yet  in 
it  as  its  guiding  principle.  Thus  a  natural  life  is  a 
life  according  to  the  will  of  the  Logos.  The  Incar- 
nation, in  spite  of  Clement's  rejection  of  the  Gnostic 
Docetism,  has  with  him  a  decidedly  Docetic  char- 


acter. The  body  of  Christ  was  not  subject  to  human 
needs.  He  is  the  good  Physician;  the  medicine 
which  he  offers  is  the  communication  of  saving 
gnosis,  leading  men  from  heathenism  to  faith  and 
from  faith  to  the  higher  state  of  knowledge.  This 
true  philosophy  includes  within  itself  the  freedom 
from  sin  and  the  attainment  of  virtue.  As  all  sin 
has  its  root  in  ignorance,  so  the  knowledge  of  God 
and  of  goodness  is  followed  by  well-doing.  Against 
the  Gnostics  Clement  emphasizes  the  freedom  of  all 
to  do  good. 

Clement  lays  great  stress  on  the  fulfilment  of 
moral  obligations.     In  his  ethical  expressions  he  is 
influenced  strongly  by  Plato  and  the  Stoics,  from 
whom  he  borrows  much  of  his  terminology.     He 
praises   Plato   for  setting   forth    the 
6.  His      greatest  possible  likeness  to  God  as 
Relation    the  aim  of  Hfe;  and  his  portrait  of  the 
to  Ethics,  perfect  Gnostic  closely  resembles  that 
of  the  wise  man  as  drawn   by   the 
Stoics.     Hence  he  counsels  his  readers  to  shake  off 
the  chains  of  the  flesh  as  f ar  ss  possible,  to  live 
already  as  if  out  of  the  body,  and  thus  to  rise  above 
earthly  things.     He  is  a  true  Greek  in  the  value 
which  he  sets  on  moderation;  but  his  highest  ideal 
of  conduct  remains  the  mortification  of  all  affec- 
tions which  may  in  any  way  disturb  the  soul  in  its 
career.     As  Hamack  says,  the  lofty  ethical-relig- 
ious ideal  of  the  attaiimient  of  man's  perfection  in 
union  with  God,   which  Greek  philosophy   from 
Plato  down  had  worked  out,  and  to  which  it  had 
subordinated  all  scientific  worldly  knowledge,   is 
taken  over  by  Clement,  deepened  in  meaning,  and 
connected  not  only  with  Christ,  but  with  ecclesias- 
tical tradition. 

The  way,  however,  to  this  union  with  God  is  for 
Clement  only  the  Church's  way.     The  communi- 
cation  of  the  gnosis  is  bound  up  with  holy  orders, 
which  give  the  divine  light  and  life.     The  simple 
faith  of  the  baptized  Christian  contains  all  the 
essentials  of  the  highest  knowledge;  by  the  Eucha- 
rist the  believer  is  united  with  the  Logos  and  the 
Spirit,    and    made    partaker    of    incorruptibility. 
Though  he  lays  down  at  starting  a  purely  spiritual 
conception  of  the  Church,  later  the  exigencies  of 
his  controversy  with  the  Gnostics  make  him  lay 
more   stress   on   the   visible   church. 
7.  And  to  As  to  his  use  of  Scripture,  the  extra- 
Scripture    ordinary  breadth  of  his  reading  and 
and  the     manifold    variety   of    his   quotations 
Church,     from  the  most  diverse  authors  make 
it  very  difficult  to  determine  exactly 
what  was  received  as  canonical  by  the  Alexandrian 
Church  of  that  period.    Though  he  uses  the  Apoc- 
ryphal Gospels,  our  four  alone  have  supreme  author- 
ity for  him.     For  the  other  New  Testament  writings 
he  seems  not  to  have  had  as  definite  a  line  of  de- 
marcation;    but   whatever   he   recognized   as   of 
apostolic  origin  had  for  him  an  authority  distinct 
from,  and  higher  than,  that  of  all  other  ecclesiastical 
tradition.  (N.  Bonwetsgh.) 

Bibuoobapht:  The  best  text  of  Clement  is  in  course  of 
publication  by  O.  St&hlin,  to  be  in  3  vols.,  vols.  L-iit 
Leipsic.  1905-06;  that  by  J.  Potter.  2  vob.,  Oxford.  1715,  is 
reproduced  in  Af  PG,  yiii.-ix.  T.  Zahn  has  given  a  SuppU' 
mentum  ClemenHnum  in  his  Fonehunoen,  iii.  1-170,  Slfh- 
321.  Eriangen,  1884.    The  beet  EniE.  transl.  la  in  ANF, 


139 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Clement  of  Alexandria 
element  of  Borne 


iL  171-604.  An  ezhauBtive  bibliography  to  1886  is  in 
ASF,  Bibliography,  pp.  3^-43 ;  a  list  of  later  works  is 
grren  in  Ilamack,  LUteratur,  ii.  1,  pp.  4-5.  On  the  criti- 
cism of  the  text  consult:  C.  C.  J.  Bunsen,  Antdecta 
AnU-Sieaa,  i.  157-340.  London,  1854;  T.  B.  Mayor,  in 
CUutieal  ffsvtcw.  ix  (1894),  385-391;  O.  St&hlin,  BeUrAge 
ntr  Kennini99  der  MSS.  det  Clemena  Alex.,  Nuremberg. 
1895:  W.  Christ.  PhUolooi^ehs  Studien  tu  Clemena  AUxan- 
drinuM,  Munich.  1900. 

General  diseuasions  are:  C.  E.  Freppel,  CUmerU  d'AU- 
xandrie,  Paris.  1873;  B.  F.  Westcott,  General  Hiat  of  N. 
T.  Camm,  pp.  339-340.  350-354.  London.  1875;  C.  Bigg. 
Chrietian  PlaUmUU  of  Alexandria,  pp.  36-114,  Oxford, 
1886;  KrOger.  Uiatory,  pp.  162-173;  Scha£F.  ChrUHan 
Church,  ix.  781-785  et  passim;  Hamack.  lAtUratur,  i.  296- 
327,  836-841,  ii  1.  pp.  1  sqq.;  O.  St&hlin.  TU,  new  series, 
▼ol.  v.,  1901;  DCS.  L  569-567;  KL,  iii.  508-517;  O.  Bar- 
(leohewer,  QeaehithU  der  altkirchlicKen  Litteratur,  vol.  ii., 
Freiburg.  1903. 

On  the  teaching  of  Clement  consult:  F.  J.  Winter.  Die 
Etkik  dee  Clement  von  Alexandrien,  Leipsic.  1882;  J.  H. 
Mailer.  Idiee  dof/maiiquee  de  CUmerU  d'Alexandrie,  Stras- 
burg.  1861;  J.  Kaye,  Some  Account  of  the  WriHnge  and 
Opinions  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  London,  1835;  J.  Co- 
gnat,  CUment  d*Alexandrie,  ea  doctrine  et  §a  poUmiqtie, 
Paris,  1869;  W.  Seherer,  Klemene  von  Alexandrien  und 
eeine  Erkenntnieeprinxipien,  Munich,  1907. 

On  hia  relation  to  earlier  teaching  consult:  C.  Merk, 
Clemene  Alex,  in  eeiner  Abhangigkeit  von  der  griediiachen 
Philoeophie,  Leipsic,  1879;  E.  Hiller,  in  Hermea,  xxi 
(1886).  126-133;  E.  Kutter.  Clemene  Alex,  und  doe  N.  T., 
Gieasen.  1897;  £.  de  Faye,  CUment  d'Alexandrft,  Paris, 
1898. 

On  Clement  aa  a  hjrmnist  consult  Julian,  Hymnology. 

CLEMENT  OF  ROME. 

Discordant  Traditions  (§  1). 

Relationahip  to  the  Flavians  (|  2). 

The  First  Epistle  (§  3). 

Questions  Unsettled  (|  4). 

Second  Epistle  and  Other  Writings  (|  6). 
According  to  tradition  Clement  was  an  early 
bishop  of  Rome  and  a  distinguished  Christian 
author.  But  of  the  writings  attributed  to  him 
mo6t  are  certainly  not  his  and  not  one  is  undis- 
puted, and  the  facts  of  his  life  are  no 
I.  Discords  better  authenticated.  He  is  men- 
ant  Tra-  tioned  in  all  the  lists  of  the  early 
ditiona.  bishops  of  Rome,  though  there  is  no 
agreement  about  the  place  of  his  name. 
Irenaeus  (Hcer.,  IH.  iii.  3),  representing  the  Roman 
tradition  of  c.  180,  gives  Peter,  Linus,  Anencletus, 
Clement;  with  this  agree  Eusebius  {Hist  eccl.  and 
Chron.),  Epiphanius  (Hccr.,  xxvii.  6),  and  Jerome 
(De  vir.  til.,  xv.),  though  the  last-named  is  aware 
that  some  of  the  Latins  give  a  different  order,  and 
he,  as  well  as  Epiphanius,  gives  the  form  Cletus 
for  Anencletus.  A  different  order  occurs  first  in 
the  "  Chronicle "  of  Hippolytus,  where  Clement 
takes  third  place,  before  Cletus;  this  order  recurs 
in  the  Cataiogua  Liberianus,  and  is  accepted  by 
Augustine,  Optatus,  and  others.  In  the  Apostolic 
TonstitutionB  also  (vii.  46),  Clement  immediately 
follows  Linus,  the  variant  name  now  giving  two 
<lUtinct  persons,  Cletus  and  Anencletus.  The 
catalogue  of  the  time  of  Sylvester  reverts  to  the 
older  order,  while  the  Liber  FelicianuSf  fusing  this 
and  the  Liberian,  gives  Peter,  Linus,  Cletus,  Clem- 
ent, Anencletus.  According  to  the  epistle  to  James 
attributed  to  Clement  (preceding  the  Clementine 
Homilies),  Peter  designated  Clement  as  his  suc- 
cessor, and  himself  installed  him.  This  view 
probably  originated  with  the  purpose  of  bring- 
ing   Clement    into    closer   relation   with    Peter; 


and  the  lists  which  put  Clement  third,  between 
Linus  and  Cletus  or  Anencletus,  are  very  likely 
attempting  a  compromise  between  it  and  the  other 
tradition.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  Clement  does  not 
belong  to  the  epoch  immediately  following  the 
apostles,  but  that  two  men  came  between  him  and 
Peter.  He  was  not  bishop  of  Rome  in  the  strict 
sense,  as  the  first  epistle  shows  that  there  was  no 
bishop  there  in  his  time.  The  developed  episcopal 
idea  of  a  later  age  was  carried  back  in  the  attempt 
to  trace  the  succession  to  the  apostles;  and  the 
earliest  authorities  justify  no  more  than  the  assei^ 
tion  that  he  was  one  of  the  leading  presbyters,  or 
perhaps  the  first  of  them. 

Iremeus  (ut  sup.)  makes  Clement  a  disciple  of 
the  apostles.  Origen  (on  John  i.  29),  Eusebius, 
Epiphiuiius,  and  Jerome  identify  him  with  the 
Clement  mentioned  by  Paul  in  Phil.  iv.  3,  and 
Chrysostom  (on  I  Tim.)  even  makes  him  a  com- 
panion of  Paul  on  all  his  journeys;  while  the  Jew- 
ish-Christian Clementina  place  him  in  the  closest 
relations  to  Peter.  Various  attempts  were  made 
to  combine  these  conflicting  views.  The  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions  regard  linus  as  appointed  by 
Paul,  Clement  by  Peter.  Rufinus  regards  linus 
and  Cletus  as  having  performed  episcopal  functions 
in  Peter's  lifetime,  and  Clement  as  appointed  by 
the  apostle  when  both  were  dead.  Epiphaniun 
explains  that  Clement  was  appointed  by  Peter 
indeed,  but  laid  down  his  office  for  a  time,  during 
which  Linus  and  Cletus  held  it.  Modem  scholars 
have  usually  doubted  his  being  a  disciple  of  the 
apostles,  even  when  they  admit  his  authorship  of 
the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  The  identifi- 
cation with  the  Clement  of  Phil.  iv.  3  is  aban- 
doned by  most  of  these  scholars. 

Another  mooted  question  concerns  the  assertion 

of  the  Homilies  and  Recognitions  that  Clement  was 

a  connection  of  the  imperial  house. 

2.  Relation-  It  is  in  any  case  necessary  to  substi- 

ship  to  the  tute  Domitian  for  Tiberius,  whom  the 

Flavians.  Clementina  name  in  order  to  seciure 
greater  antiquity.  Assuming  that  not 
only  the  Flavia  Domitilla  mentioned  by  Eusebius, 
but  also  the  consul  Flavins  Clemens  whom  Domitian 
put  to  death,  belonged  to  the  Christian  conmiimity, 
we  should  have  two  prominent  Christians  of  the 
name  of  Clement  in  Rome  at  the  same  time.  The 
pseudo-Clementine  literature  identified  them  as 
one  person.  Von  Gebhardt  and  Hamack  leave 
the  question  undecided,  while  Lightfoot  is  inclined 
to  r^^ard  them  as  two  pensons.  Really  nothing  is 
known  of  Clement's  life  except  what  the  first 
epistle  tells  us.  It  is  even  uncertain  whether  he 
was  of  Jewish  or  pagan  descent,  though  both  views 
have  found  convinced  advocates. 

Among  the  numerous  writings  which  bear  the 
name  of  Clement,  decidedly  the  most  important 
are  the  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians.  Until  1875 
only  one  manuscript  of  these  was  known,  an  im- 
perfect copy  forming  part  of  the  famous  Codex 
Alezandrinus,  from  which  Junius  published  them 
with  a  Latin  translation  (Oxford,  1633);  new 
editions  were  made  from  the  manuscript  by  Wotton 
(Cambridge,  1718),  Jacobson  (Oxford,  1834), 
Tischendorf  (Leipsic,  1863,  1873),  Lightfoot  (Lon- 


Olement  of  BoniA 
Clemen  tina 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


140 


don,  1869),  and  Von  Gebhardt  and  Hamack  (Leip- 
sic,  1875),  besides  facsimile  reproductions  in  1856 
and  1879.  In  1875,  however,  appeared  the  first 
complete  edition,  based  upon  a  new  manuscript 
discovered  in  Constantinople..  Von  Gebhardt  still 
considered  the  Alexandrine  manuscript  the  more 
authoritative,  and  there  are  reasons  for  holding 
this  view,  even  since  further  light  has  been  thrown 
on  the  question  by  the  discovery  of  a  Syriac  and  a 
Latin  version,  the  latter  only  of  the  first  epistle. 

This  first  epistle  is  an  official  communication 
from  the  Church  of  Rome  to  that  of  Corinth,  which 
was  then  divided  by  controversies  apparently  re- 
lating to  the  position  and  authority  of  the  pres- 
byters. In  onler  to  put  an  end  to  the  strife,  .the 
Roman  Church  intervenes,  apparently  unsolicited, 
and  sends  a  deputation  to  Corinth,  "  to  be  witnesses 
between  you  and  us."  The  official  character  of  the 
letter  comes  out  more  clearly  now  that  it  exists 
complete,  and  new  light  is  thrown  on  the  relation 
of  the  Roman  Church  to  the  others. 
3.  The  Fh:8t  It  is  true  there  is  no  question  of  a  con- 
Epistle,  stitutionally  established  primacy,  but 
the  Roman  Church,  as  the  most  ma- 
ture and  firmly  settled,  keeps  a  watchful  eye  on 
the  concerns  of  the  others.  The  Clementine 
authorship  is  attested  by  Dionysius,  bishop  of 
Corinth  (cf.  Eusebius,  HiH,  eccl.,  iv.  23),  Irenseus 
{Har.,  III.  iii.  3),  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
Origen.  In  the  East  the  letter  was  read  in  public 
worship  as  Scripture.  Attempts  made  by  Calo- 
vius  (1673)  and  others  to  deny  its  authenticity 
were  revived  with  Sender,  Ammon,  and  later 
with  Baur  and  Schwegler;  but  the  arguments  of 
such  critics  have  not  been  found  decisive.  The 
majority  o^  scholars  now  hold  that  it  was  written 
in  the  first  century,  though  many  of  them  leave 
the  question  of  authorship  unanswered.  Doubts 
have  been  expressed  in  recent  years  about  the 
prayer  in  chap.  59,  but  Lightfoot  and  others 
have  rendered  improbable  the  theory  of  a  later 
addition;  the  question  is  still  unsettled  whether 
this  prayer  is  an  official  formula  of  the  Roman 
Church  or  the  composition  of  Clement. 

The  attempt  to  determine  the  date  of  the  epistle 
depends,  first,  on  the  question  whether  the  perse- 
cution at  Rome  mentioned  at  the  outset  was  that 
under  Nero  or  that  under  Domitian.    The  earlier 
critics  preferred  the  former,  which  gives  64-68  as 
the  date.     Scarcely  any  modem  scholars,  except 
Hefele  and  Wieseler,  adhere  to  this  view.    On  the 
other  hand,  sufficient  reasons  forbid   placing   the 
date  as  late  as  the  second  century.    According  to 
xliv.  3  there  are  still  some  presbyters  in  office  who 
were  instituted  by  the  apostles,  and  similarly  v.  3 
seems  to  assert  that  members  of  the  Church  con- 
temporary with  Peter  and  Paul  are  living;  there 
is  no  trace  of  Gnostic  heresies;    the 
4.  Ques-    constitution  of  the  Church,   in    both 
tionfl  Un-  Rome  and  Corinth,  is  not  the  episco- 
settled.      pal,  but  the  presbyterial.      Most  au- 
thorities, accordingly  date  the  epistle 
between  93  and  97;    Lightfoot  would  come  down 
as  far  as  the  reign  of  Nerva,  and  Hamack's  latest 
opinion  is  in  favor  of  the  end  of  Domitian's  (93-95), 
which  is  supported  by  Hegesippus   (in  Eusebius, 


Hist,  ecd.,  iii.  16).  Diverse  views,  again,  have  been 
held  as  to  the  doctrinal  standpoint  of  the  epistle. 
Schwegler,  followed  by  Reusch,  considered  it  a 
compromise  between  Jewish  Christianity  and  Paul- 
inism.  Lemme's  view  that  the  author  was  a 
fanatical  Jewish  Christian  is  disproved  by  the  way 
in  which  he  speaks  of  Paul  and  uses  the  Pauline 
epistles  and  Hebrews.  However,  Paul's  propo- 
sitions appear  here  as  little  more  than  mere  for- 
mulas. His  great  doctrine  of  justification  througli 
faith  is  indeed  strongly  expressed  (xxxii.  4);  but 
the  obligation  of  doing  good  works  is  derived  only 
from  the  will  and  example  of  God,  ¥nthout  the 
mention  of  any  relation  between  justifying  faith 
and  moral  power. 

The  second  epistle,  completely  known  only  since 
1875,  is  regarded  by  most  scholars  as  a  homily, 
rather  than  a  letter.  The  question  remains  in 
what  church  and  by  whom  it  was  delivered.  Hai^ 
nack's  theoiy  that  it  is  of  Roman  origin,  perhaps 
written  by  another  Clement,  the  one  mentioned 
by  Hermas  in  his  Shepherd,  is  scarcely  tenable. 
Lightfoot  thinks  it  originated  in  Corinth,  which  is 
likely.  Its  date  is  shown  to  be  in  the  second  cen- 
tury b^  its  attitude  toward  the  New  Testament 
canon  and  toward  Gnosticism.  Be- 
5.  Second  tween  130  and  140  is  the  most  probable 
Epistle  time.  Its  teaching  contains  some 
and  Other  peculiar  points,  which  can  not  be 
Writings,  pressed  to  show  that  the  author 
belonged  to  a  separate  sect,  but  mean 
only  that  he  lived  in  a  time  of  little  exact  dogmatic 
formulation.  Of  the  numerous  other  writings 
which  have  borne  the  name  of  Clement,  it  may 
safely  be  said  that  the  Homilies  and  Recognitions, 
in  the  various  forms  comprised  under  the  name 
Clementina  (q.v.),  are  not  by  him;  nor  are  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions  (q.v.).  The  two  "  Letters 
to  the  Virgins  "  are  worth  notice.  They  exist  only 
in  a  Syriac  version  in  a  codex  belonging  to  the 
Remonstrant  seminary  at  Amsterdam,  and  were 
first  printed  by  Wetstein  in  1752,  then  more  care- 
fully by  Beelen  (Loewen,  1856,  with  a  Latin  ren- 
dering, which  Funk  improved  and  appended  to  his 
Opera  patrumapostolicorumf  vol.  i.,  Tilbingen,  1887). 
The  theories  of  their  origin  range  between  two 
impossible  extremes — one  medieval,  that  of  Cot- 
terill;  the  other  Clementine,  that  of  Villecourt 
(who  edited  the  epistles  for  MPG)  and  Beelen 
(ut  sup.).  The  form  they  presuppose  for  eccle- 
siastical customs  and  ascetic  practise  belongs  to 
a  later  time,  possibly  that  of  Cyprian — ^but  not 
too  much  later,  since  they  were  probably  known 
by  Epiphanius  (Hcer,,  xxx.  12),  and  certainly  by 
Jerome  {Ad  Javin,,  i.  12).  They  must  have  been 
originally  one  book,  and  were  perhaps  divided  into 
two  (as  Hamack  suggests)  to  take  the  place  of  the 
two  epistles  of  Clement,  which  were  contained  in 
the  older  Syria  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. This  would  account  for  their  ascription  to 
Clement,  as  nothing  else  does. 

(G.  UHLHORNf.) 
Bibuoorapbt:  The  best  text  and  disoussion  is  in  J.  B. 
Lightfoot,  The  Apottolie  Fafhen,  part  i..  S.  Clement  of 
Rome,  a  Revieed  Text  with  Introductioiu,  2  vols.,  Londoo, 
1890;  text  alone  in  idem,  The  Apoetolic  Fathere  .  .  .  ,  ed. 
J.  R.  Harmer,  ib.  1891.    Translation  ia  in  ASF,  ix.  23»' 


141 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Olement  of  Borne 
Olementlna 


256,  aod  io  CkruUan  CUunc  Series,  vol.  vii.,  London, 
1882.  Next  to  Lichtfoot'a  the  best  discuBsion  is  R.  A. 
Upaiua,  De  CUmentU  Romani  epietola,  Leipsic,  1855; 
idem,  Chronatogie  der  rdmiechen  Biaehdfe,  Kiel,  1860. 
Consult  further:  M.  J.  Wocher.  Die  Briefe  dee  .  .  .  Cle- 
mens  und  Polyearpue,  Tabinffen.  1830;  C.  J.  von  Hefele, 
Pahr^m  apoeUAioorum  opera,  ib.  1842;  E.  W.  E.  fteuss, 
Hiatoire  de  la  tMologie  ehriHenne,  ii.  600  sqq.,  Paris,  1852; 
A.  R.  M.  Dresael.  Pairum  apoetolicorum  opera,  Leipsic, 
1857;  J.  Donaldson,  Hiaiory  of  Chrietian  Literature,  i. 
90-153.  London,  1864-66;  idem,  ApoetcHic  FaiKera,  pp. 
113-100.  ib.  1874;  F.  C.  Baur.  Lehrhuch  der  Dogmenge- 
tekickte,  I  155,  240  et  passim.  Leipsic,  1865;  T.  Zahn, 
//trt  dee  Hermae,  Gotha.  1868;  A.  Hilsenfeld,  Die  apoe- 
toiieehen  VAter,  Halle.  1853;  idem.  ClemerUie  Romani 
epiaiola,  Leipsic,  1876;  J.  M.  Cotterill,  Peregrinua  Proteue, 
Edinbursh.  1870;  idem.  Modem  Criticiem  and  ClemefU'e 
EpiatUa  to  Virgina,  ib.  1884;  F.  X.  Funk,  in  TQ,  1870,  pp. 
530  sqq.;  idem.  Opera  pairum  apoatolieorum,  vol.  ii.,  TQ- 
bineen,  1881;  8.  Maistre,  Cl6merU  de  Rome,  aon  hiatoire,  2 
vols..  Paris,  1883-^84;  C.  H.  Hoole.  Apoatolic  FatKera  .  .  . 
Iraiisl.  into  EngiiA,  with  introductory  Notea,  London,  1885; 
Hamack.  in  TU,  v  (1886).  82-84;  idem.  Litterahur,  i.  780 
et  passim.  II.  i.  251  sqq.,  442.  438  sqq..  II.  ii.  208.  304 
nqq.;  E.  Burton,  Apoatolie  Fathera,  part  i.,  Epiatlea  of 
Clement,  with  introduction,  London,  1888;  W.  Werde, 
Unteraudiungemum  eraten  Clemenabriefe,  GOttingen,  1801; 
C.  T.  CniUwell.  Literary  Hiatory  of  Early  Chriatianity, 
2  vols.,  London.  1803;  KrOcer,  Hiatory,  pp.  21-25,  62-63; 
Schaff.  ChriaHan  Church,  ii.  636-651;  DCB,  L  654-550; 
KL,  iiL  44»-458. 

CLEMElfTINA. 

The  Homilies  ({  1). 

Doctrinal  Teachings  ({  2). 

The  Reoosnitions  ({  3). 

The  Epitome  ({  4). 

Diseuasion  of  the  Clementine  Problem  ({  5). 

Relation  of  the  Reoognitions  to  the  Homilies  ({  6). 

The  **  Clementina  "  discufised  in  this  article  are 
a  very  remarkable  and  still  in  many  points  mys- 
terious group  of  early  Christian  writings,  closely 
related  in  their  contents  and  evidently  coming 
from  a  single  source,  of  which  three  are  still  extant 
— the  Clementine  Homilies,  Recognitions,  and 
Epitome.  For  the  collection  of  decretals  made  by 
Pope  Gement  V.  and  intended  by  him  to  form  a 
peventh  book  in  the  great  collection,  also  known  as 
"  Clementina/'  see  Canon  Law,  II.,  6,  §  3. 

Turrianus  was  the  first,  in* his  Pro  canonibus 

apoatolorum  (1573),  to  give  information  about  the 

Homilies,  using  a  manuscript  which  has  apparently 

disappeared.     They    were    published 

I.  The      in  1672  by  Cotelerius  from  a   manu- 

Homilies.  script  in  the  library  of  Paris,  which, 
however,  stopped  with  the  nineteenth 
homily,  and  offered  a  very  corrupt  text.  The  first 
complete  editon  was  that  of  Dressel  (1853),  from 
a  newly  discovered  manuscript  in  the  Ottobonian 
library  at  Rome.  Lagarde  niade  the  first  attempt 
to  give  a  critically  accurate  text  in  1865.  The 
book  consists  of  two  letters  to  the  apostle  James 
and  twenty  **  homilies "  also  addressed  to  him. 
The  first  letter  purports  to  be  from  Peter,  asking 
James  to  keep  secret  the  special  doctrines  he  has 
transmitted  to  him.  The  second  is  supposed  to 
be  from  Clement,  announcing  that  Peter  has  ap- 
pointed him  his  successor  in  Rome,  and  chaiged 
him  to  send  James  an  account  of  their  long  asso- 
ciation. Clement,  having  sought  truth  in  vain  in 
the  philosophical  schools,  hearing  something  of 
Jesus,  decides  to  go  to  Judea  for  an  answer  to  his 
questions.  In  Alexandria  he  meets  Barnabas,  who 
conducts  him  to  Peter  at  Csesarea  Stratonis.    Peter 


instructs  him  in  Christianity,  and  invites  him  to  be 
present  at  the  disputation  with  Simon  Magus  which 
is  soon  to  take  place.  It  lasts  three  days.  At  the 
end  Simon,  defeated,  takes  flight;  Peter  remains 
a  while,  founds  a  local  church,  and  sets  apart 
Zacchseus  as  its  bishop.  Before  himself  following 
Simon,  he  sends  Clement,  with  Niceta  and  Aquila, 
to  bring  back  news  of  him.  They  do  not  find  him 
in  Tyre,  but  meet  some  of  his  friends,  with  one  of 
whom,  Appion  the  Alexandrian  grammarian,  Clem- 
ent disputes  till  Peter  arrives.  Together  they  con- 
tinue their  journey,  Peter  preaching  to  the  heathen 
and  founding  churches.  On  the  way  Clement 
narrates  his  own  life — how  his  parents  and  two 
brothers  have  mysteriously  disappeared  long  before. 
Niceta  and  Aquila  turn  out  to  be  his  brothers. 
Discourses  and  dialogues  are  interspersed  with  these 
events.  Simon  arrives  here,  and  the  principal 
disputation  follows,  lasting  four  days,  on  divine 
revelations  in  visions,  on  the  most  high  God,  and 
on  evil.  Simon  is  defeated  and  retires,  but  pres- 
ently, by  his  magic  arts,  changes  the  appearance 
of  Clement's  brother  Faustus  into  his  own  likeness. 
In  this  form  Peter  sends  him  to  Antioch,  where 
the  real  Simon  has  many  adherents,  to  make  a 
recantation  of  all  his  teaching.  Peter  having  or- 
ganized a  church  in  Laodicea,  departs  for  Antioch. 
This  romantic  narrative,  however,  is  only  a 
framework  for  doctrinal  development.  The  doc- 
trine has  two  sides,  a  metaphysical  and  an  ethical, 
which  allows  irreconcilable  views  to  be  stated 
side  by  side.  The  aim  of  human  life  is  the  attain- 
ment of  the  highest  good,  only  possible  through  a 
true  knowledge  of  God  and  of  all  things,  which  sin 
prevents   man  from   gaining   without   revelation. 

God  revealed  himself  first  in  creation, 
2.  Doctrinal  and  then,  this  being  obscured  by  sin, 
Teachings,  through  the  "  true  Prophet."    He  is 

to  be  recognized  through  prophecy, 
and,  once  known,  must  be  followed  implicitly.  He 
has  appeared  not  in  one  single  person,  but  under 
divers  forms  and  names.  Eight  persons  have  had 
a  special  relation  to  this  revelation — Adam,  Enoch, 
Noah,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Moses,  and  Christ; 
Adam,  Moses,  and  Christ  stand  above  the  others, 
Christ  being  the  highest.  The  primeval  revelation 
in  Adam,  the  Mosaic  teaching,  and  Christianity 
are  essentially  identical.  Christianity  is  purified 
Mosaism,  with  the  addition,  however,  of  preaching 
to  the  heathen  and  baptism.  The  death  of  Christ 
does  not  mean  salvation  to  the  author,  and  he  ia 
silent  on  the  Resurrection.  The  fundamental  doc- 
trine of  the  one  God,  the  Creator,  develops  in 
two  different  directions — one  decidedly  pantheistic, 
and  another  which  leads  not  less  strongly,  by  an 
ethical  road,  to  a  totally  opposite  view  of  the  uni- 
verse. Here  God  is  still  one,  but  personal,  and 
described  in  the  most  anthropomorphic  terms. 
Man,  made  in  his  image,  is  free,  and  hence  comes 
sin.  The  devil  is  always  seducing  men,  and  the 
"  true  Prophet  "  teaching  them  again  how  to  serve 
God.  If  evil  comes  out  of  freedom,  there  can  be 
only  one  end  to  it,  eternal  punishment.  The 
author  has  evidently  tried  to  reconcile  these  two 
conflicting  tendencies,  especially  in  his  teaching  on 
evil.    All  property  is  sin;    the  eating  of  flesh  is 


glementina 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


14S 


forbidden;  marriage,  though  considered  a  defile- 
ment, is  allowed,  and  even  praised;  frequent 
ablutions  are  recommended  or  commanded.  The 
episcopate  appears  as  a  living  institution;  the 
bishop  sums  up  in  himself,  as  the  representative  of 
Christ,  the  lo(»l  church,  and  James,  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem,  the  whole  Church. 

The  Recognitions  are  extant  only  in  the  trans- 
lation of  Rufinus.  The  name  is  taken  from  the 
technical  language  of  the  drama,  and  refers  to  the 
reuniting  of  Clement's  family.  The  Latin  version 
exists  in  numerous  manuscripts,  without  as  yet  an 
adequate  modem  edition.  The  arrangement  of  the 
material  corresponds  on  the  whole  to  that  of  the 
main  body  of  the  Homilies.  Barnabas,  however, 
comes  to  Rome  instead  of  Clement  to 
3.  The  Rec-  Alexandria.     A  report  is  given  of  all 

ognitionfl.  three  days  of  the  first  disputation 
with  Simon,  varying  considerably 
from  that  in  the  Homilies.  Instead  of  the  second 
disputation  with  Simon,  there  is  a  three  days' 
discussion  on  fate  between  Peter,  Clement,  and 
his  father  and  brothers.  The  end  is  much  the 
same,  but  it  goes  further  to  narrate  the  foundation 
of  a  church  in  Antioch  and  the  baptism  of  Clement's 
father.  In  doctrine  it  shows  fewer  peculiarities 
than  do  the  Homilies  and  it  gives  the  impression  of 
a  revision  to  suit  a  certain  class  of  readers. 

The  Epitome,  first  published  by  Tumebus  (Paris, 
1555),  then  by  Cotelerius  in  his  Patres  Apostolici, 
is  an  extract  from  the  Homilies,  with  the  addition 
of  a  portion  of  Clement's  letter  to  James,  another 
from  the  account  of  his  martyrdom  by  Simeon 
Metaphrastes,  and  a  conclusion  from  the  narrative 
of  a  miracle  performed  by  him  which  is  attributed 
to  Ephraim,  bishop  of  Cherson.  Dressel  published 
an  edition  based  on  a  new  collation  of 
4.  The      manuscripts   (Leipsic,    1859),  with  a 

Epitome,  variant  copy  which  differs  from  the 
first  only  by  taking  in  more  of  the 
Homilies.  These  extracts  have  no  important  bear- 
ing on  the  main  questions  at  issue.  Great  hopes 
were  based  on  the  appearance  of  Lagarde's  edition 
of  a  S3rTiac  version  (1861),  but  this  throws  no  new 
light  on  the  origin  and  history  of  the  group.  The 
narrative  matter  continued  to  interest  long  after 
the  original  significance  of  the  books  was  forgotten. 
It  was  taken  into  the  body  of  medieval  legend, 
and  haa  been  thought  to  have  influenced  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Faust-story. 

The  scientific  discussion  of  the  whole  question 

really  began  with  Neander,  who  in  the  appendix 

to  his  Genetische  Entwicklung  der  gnostischen  Systems 

(1818)  gave  an  exposition  of  the  doctrinal  content, 

and  Baur,  who  drew  a  good  deal  of  evidence  for 

his  conception  of  the  primitive  Church  from  the 

Homilies.     He  considered  the  book, 

5.  Discus-  originating  in  the  Roman  Church,  to 

sion  of  the  be  an  evidence  of  the  prevalence  of 

Clementine  Judaism  there,  and  the  ecclesiastical 

Problem,  constitution  shown  in  it  to  be  the 
basis  of  the  Catholic  system.  In  op- 
position to  him  appeared  the  thorough  work  of 
Schliemann.  He  was  the  first  to  argue  the  priority 
of  the  Homilies  and  the  dependence  of  the  Recog- 
nitions.   Schwegler  accepted  this  view,  and  con- 


sidered the  Homilies  to  show  the  turning-point 
from  Ebionitism  to  fusion,  while  the  Recognitions 
marked  the  conclusion  of  this  process,  the  stage  of 
neutrality  and  peace. 

Up  to  this  point  the  literaiy  question  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  two  books  and  their  origin  from  older 
writings  had  been  neglected.  Hilgenfeld's  epoch- 
making  work  took  this  up.  He  saw  the  original 
in  the  Recognitions  and  a  recasting  in  the  Homilies. 
On  the  basis  of  minute  investigation,  he  evolved 
the  theory  of  an  earlier  "  Pr^hing  of  Peter," 
written  at  Rome  not  long  before  the 
6.  Relation  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  inter- 
of  the  Rec-  est  of  Jewish  Christianity.  On  the 
ognitionfl  indications  of  polemical  attitude,  he 
to  the  traced  a  series  of  recastings;  he 
Homilies,  thought  it  likely  that  the  opponent  of 
Peter  in  the  original  work  was  not 
Simon  Magus  but  Paul,  then  becoming  successively 
the  representative  of  Basilidian,  Valentinian,  and 
Marcionite  Gnosticism,  the  last  in  the  Homilies, 
which  he  believed  to  have  been  recast  from  the 
Recognitions  at  Rome  under  Anicetus  (151-161). 
Against  Hilgenfeld,  Uhlhom  undertook  to  defend 
the  priority  of  the  Homilies  once  more,  contending 
that  a  fragment  of  the  nucleus  was  to  be  found  not, 
as  Hilgenfeld  had  ithought,  in  Recogn.  i.  27-72,  but 
in  Hom.  xvi.-xxix.,  and  that  the  birthplace  of  the 
whole  group  was  neither  Rome  nor  Asia  Minor,  but 
eastern  Syria.  This  he  considered  to  be  proven  by 
the  composite  nature  of  the  doctrinal  system,  most 
closely  related  to  that  of  the  Elkesaites,  though  in- 
fluenced by  Hellenic  culture  and  showing  distinct 
Stoic  elements.  His  theory  was  that  the  original 
work  was  composed  there  about  150,  and  the 
Homilies  adapted  from  it  about  170,  with  a  view 
to  a  propaganda  in  the  pagan  world,  especially  at 
Rome.  For  this  purpose  Clement  was  introduced 
and  Roman  local  color  added.  The  Recognitions 
would  then  be  a  further  adaptation  made  in  Rome 
not  long  after  170,  more  acceptable  because  of  its 
nearer  approach  to  orthodox  Christianity. 

The  next  important  contribution  to  the  discussion 
wajs  Lehmann's,  who  took  a  middle  course  between 
Hilgenfeld's  and  Uhlhom's,  separating  the  Recog- 
nitions into  two  parts  of  different  authorship  (L-iiL 
and  iv.-x.),  of  which  the  first  is  earlier  and  the 
second  later  than  the  Homilies.  This  treatment 
was  carried  further  by  Lipsius,  who  found  the  nu- 
cleus in  a  hypothetical  Acta  Petri  of  strongly  anti- 
Pauline  tendency  written  some  time  before  150; 
traces  of  this  work  are  found  in  the  extant  Ada 
Petri  et  Pauli  (in  Tischendorf,  Adn  apostolarum 
apocrypha,  Leipsic,  1851),  but  revised  in  an  ortho- 
dox sense.  A  fragment  of  this  was  worked  up  in 
an  anti-Gnostic  sense  about  140-145,  the  result  again 
expanded  by  the  addition  of  the  Gement  romance, 
and  further  adapted  into  an  early  form  of  the  Recog- 
nitions, of  which  two  later  forms  exist,  one  strong- 
ly anti-Marcionite  in  the  Homilies,  the  other  in 
the  present  Recognitions,  in  which  the  dogmatic 
interest  is  subordinated  to  the  ethical,  and  the 
specifically  Ebionite  matter  is  eliminated.  Langen 
took  quite  a  different  view,  presupposing  a  "  Preach- 
ing of  Peter  "  composed  in  Rome  after  135,  with 
the  purpose  of  claiming  for  Rome  the  primacy  of 


148 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


01«imentina 
Olerffy 


Jewish  Christendom  lost  by  Jerusalem.  This  was 
revised  at  CaBsarea  shortly  before  200  in  a  strongly 
Jewish-Christian  sense,  to  support  the  claim  of 
Caesarea  to  the  primacy,  and  gave  us  the  Homilies, 
while  the  Recognitions  are  a  fresh  version  made  in 
favor  of  Antioch  early  in  the  third  century. 

None  of  these  views  has  ebtained  universal  accept- 
ance. It  is  impossible  to  assert  the  absolute 
priority  of  either  the  Homilies  or  the  Recognitions, 
or  to  regard  one  as  a  working-over  of  the  other. 
Opinions  as  to  date  of  composition  differ  more 
widely  than  ever.  Where  there  used  to  be  practi- 
cal unanimity  in  referring  the  works  to  the  second 
centuiy,  170  or  180  at  latest,  Hamack  has  said  that 
they  can  not  go  further  back  than  the  first  half  of 
the  third.  The  importance  of  the  Clementina  for 
eariy  church  history,  asserted  by  Baur  and  Schweg- 
ler,  is  now  abandoned.  (G.  UHLHORNf.) 

BiBuooBA.nnr:  A  bibliosraphy  to  1886  is  in  ANF,  Bibliogr^ 
phy.  pp.  02-05;  cf.  Krticer,  Hitlory,  p.  371,  and  Harnack, 
LUterahtr,  ii.  2,  pp.  518-610.  Eng.  tranal.  is  in  AN F,  viii. 
77-211,  215-346.  Consult:  KrOger.  Hiatory,  pp.  371-377; 
A.  Noander,  Die  peeudodementinUdten  Homilien,  Berlin, 
1818;  F.  C.  A.  Schwegler,  Das  nachapottoliache  ZeitalUr, 
L  386-406.  481-400,  Tubingen.  1846;  A.  Hilgenfeld.  D%€ 
tiemeniiniMdien  RecogniHonen  und  HomUien,  Jena,  1848; 
J.  Lehmann,  Die  eUmenlinitdten  Sehriften,  Gotha,  1860; 
R.  A.  Upaius,  Die  QudUn  der  rdmiedien  Petnie-Sage,  Kiel, 
1872;  A.  B.  Lutterbeck,  Die  Clementinen,  Gieasen,  1872; 
[W.  R.  Cassels].  Suvematural  Religion,  ii.  1-37,  336-354. 
London,  1870;  Hamack,  Dogma,  i.  311  sqq.;  idem,  LH~ 
teraiur,  i.  144.  212-213,  322  sqq.,  ii.,  part  1,  701;  C.  Bigg,  in 
Stadia  Biblica.  ii.  157-103.  Oxford,  1800;  J.  Langen,  Die 
KUtnenaromane,  Gotha,  1800;  DCB,  i.  567^578;  SehafF. 
CkriBtion  Church,  ii.  435--442. 

CLERGY. 

I.  TIm  Name. 
II.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Clerical  Office. 

Not  Instituted  by  Christ  as  a  Distinct  Office  ({  1). 

But  Necessary  and  Indispensable  (S  2). 

View  of  Ronoan  and  Greek  Churches  (S3). 

The  Lutheran  Doctrine  (S  4). 

The  Reformed  and  Anglican  Doctrine  ({  5). 
UI.  The  GaU. 
IV.  Legal  Status  of  the  Qeigy. 

The  clergy  constitute  the  entire  body  of  public 
servants  or  ministers  in  the  Christian  Church,  duly 
set  apart  for  their  office  by  Consecration  or  Ordi- 
nation (qq.v.);  the  remainder  of  the  Christian 
community,  in  contradistinction  to  the  clergy,  con- 
stitute the  Laity  (q.v.). 

L  The  Name:  The  English  word  "clergy" 
(and  the  French  dergif  clergie)  is  from  ecclesiastical 
Latin  (cfericus  =  "  clergyman,  priest,  clerk";  see 
Cleml)  and  is  more  remotely  connected  with  the 
Greek  kliroa,  "  lot,"  which  was  applied  to  the 
clergy  "  either  because  they  are  the  lot  of  the  Lord, 
or  else  because  the  Lord  himself  is  their  lot  and 
portion"  (Jerome,  Episi.,]n.f  ANF,  vi.  91;  cf. 
Acts  L  26;  Num.xviii.  20;  Deut.  x.  9,  xviii.2,  LXX.). 
Another  term  of  ecclesiastical  Latin  is  apirUuales. 
Paul  had  designated  as  "  spiritual  "  certain  Chris- 
tians in  whom  the  spirit  of  Christ  manifested  itself 
with  special  power  (I  Cor.  xiv.  37;  Gal.  vi.  1;  cf. 
Iremeus  on  I  Cor.  ii.  6,  Hcpr. ,  V.  vi.  1 ;  Theodoret  on 
I  Cor.  iL  15).  The  priest,  according  to  Chrysostom 
("  On  the  Priesthood,"  iii.  4;  NPNF,  1st  ser.,  ix. 
46), has  avocation  instituted  neither  by  "man,  nor 


angel,  nor  archangel,  nor  any  other  created  power, 
but  the  Paraclete  himself."  According  to  Peter 
Lombard  {Sent.,  iv.,  dist.  4),  the  office  is  a  muniia 
apirUuale ;  all  the  seven  grades  of  holy  orders  are 
spirUuales ;  the  ordo  is  "  something  sacred  by 
which  the  power  of  the  Spirit  is  imparted  to  the 
ordained."  In  consequence  of  this  point  of  view 
the  designation  "  apirituales "  and  its  German 
equivalent  **  GeisUiche  "  were  transferred  to  the 
incumbents  of  the  office. 

n.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Clerical  Office:  Christ 
promised  and  sent  the  Holy  Spirit  to  his  congre- 
gation here  below,  and  instituted  the  sacraments. 
According  to  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican  belief 
he  also  instituted  a  special  status  within  his  con- 
gregation, which  in  distinction  from  the  rest  of 
the  congregation  should  be  furnished  with  the 
prerogatives  of  the  spiritual  profession.  Thus  he 
called  the  Twelve,  made  them  his  companions  and 
representatives,  and  in  Matt,  xviii.  18  he  gives  his 
disciples  the  assurance  that  whatever  dispositions 
they  shall  adopt  as  his  disciples,  in  his  name,  and 
for  the  continuation  of  his  work  shall  be  effectual 
as  of  divine,  not  human  ordination.  Protestant 
bodies  other  than  the  Anglican  reject  these  claims.  In 
the  farewell  addresses,  John  xiii.-xvii.,  the  assembled 
disciples  are  considered  in  a  twofold  relation:  on 
one  side  as  the  founders  appointed  by  Jesus 
himself  for  his  congregation,  on  another 
^'  ^®*  ^^"  side  as  the  congregation  itself,  left 
OhrSrt  behind  by  Jesus  on  earth;  but  not  as 

an  ordained  estate  of  administrators 
with  a  commission  over  the  rest  of  the 
congregation.  In  John  xx.  21-23  the 
risen  Christ  reveals  to  those  present  the  transforma- 
tion which  his  resurrection  has  effected  in  their  re- 
lation to  his  person,  and  in  their  attitude  toward  the 
world;  but  what  he  says  does  not  apply  to  them  and 
their  contingent  successors  in  distinction  from  the 
rest  of  the  congregation.  In  II  Cor.  iii.  3-10  Paul 
treats  of  the  glory  of  the  New  Testament  minis- 
tration, but  not  of  its  particular  institution;  in 
Eph.  iv.  11  the  emphasis  rests  on  the  "  he  "  (Gk. 
autos):  by  him,  the  exalted  Christ,  are  they  all 
given  who  labor  for  the  congregation,  but  the 
passage  knows  naught  of  a  special  act  of  institution 
by  Jesus  when  living  in  the  flesh.  Again  it  is  stated 
in  Acts  XX.  28-29  that  the  Holy  Spirit  has  ap- 
pointed the  persons  addressed  as  **  overseers,"  but 
not  that  this  was  done  by  means  of  a  special  eccle- 
siastical act.  In  reality  there  confront  us  in  the 
New  Testament  all  kinds  of  designations  with 
respect  to  such  as  were  active  in  the  instruction 
and  administration  of  the  congregations:  **  elders  " 
(Gk.  preshyteroi ;  Acts  xv.  2,  xx.  17;  I  Tim.  v.  17; 
Titus  i.  5;  James  v.  14);  "  those  over  you  "  (prot- 
stamenoi;  I  Thess.  v.  12);  "  those  which  have  the 
rule  over  you  "  {hegoumenoi ;  Heb.  xiii.  7);  "  over- 
seers "  or  "  bishops "  (episkopoi ;  Acts  xx.  28; 
Phil.  i.  1;  I  Tim.  iii.  2);  "deacons"  (diakonai ; 
Phil.  i.  1;  I  Tim.  iii.  8,  12);  "  pastors  "  (poimenea  ; 
Eph.  iv.  11);  "angels"  {anggeloi ;  Rev.  i.  20); 
"  evangelists  "  and  "  teachers  "  (euanggelistaif 
didaskaUn ;  Eph.  iv.  11).  The  most  evident  in- 
ference from  any  of  these  names  is  the  special  ac- 
tivity of  those  mentioned;  there  can  be  no  question 


Distinct 
Oi&ce. 


Olexvy 
OlarC 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


144 


of  a  hierarchy,  or  an  organism  continuing  unchanged 
in  its  main  features.  And  the  most  that  can  be 
said  is  that  at  that  early  period  the  New  Testament 
congregations  were  not  wanting  in  defined  person- 
alities, active  in  their  charges;  in  this  respect  the 
Corinthian  congregation  constituted  no  exception. 
But  the  cleri^  profession  is  indispensable  though 
it  is  not  the  inmiediate  institution  of  Christ. 
For  the  means  of  grace  by  word  and 
2.  BatNeo-  sacrament  conferred  by  Jesus  on  the 
^Sm^  "*^  congregation  must  be  administered; 
sabl^"  *^®  powers  which  are  present  in  the 
congregation  through  the  Spirit  of 
Christ  must  be  organized  and  directed.  To  this 
end  there  is  need  of  definite  personalities  who 
belong  to  the  congregation  and  are  no  less  de- 
pendent, as  individuals,  upon  the  means  of  grace 
and  powers  bestowed  on  the  congregation  than  the 
congregation  as  a  whole,  but  who  still  assume  a 
position  of  leadership  within  the  congregation; 
which  leadership  is  authoritative  for  the  congre- 
gation in  so  far  as  the  holders  of  this  office  admin- 
ister these  gifts  and  powers  in  the  name  and  accord- 
ing to  the  will  of  the  Lord.  To  this  extent  there  is 
a  clerical  or  spiritual  profession  and  a  spiritual 
office,  and  there  must  be  both  of  these  so  long  as 
Christ's  congregation  lives  on  earth  separated  from 
its  Lord  by  the  confines  of  the  visible,  and  associated 
with  the  unchristian  world. 

Historical  evolution  parted  into  two  conceptions 
of  the  clerical  office,  of  which  one  has  found  its 
expression  in  the  Roman  sacerdoHum,  the  other  in 
the  Protestant  ministerium  ecdesias- 
^'^^'^  ®'  Hcum,  As  early  as  the  postapostolic 
a^^Qrne'k  *^'  ^^®  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
Oharohes.  P®*"  ^^  accounted  valid  only  when 
conducted  or  authorized  by  the  bishop 
(Ignatius,  Ad  Smyr.,  viii.).  The  right  to  bap- 
tize devolves  principally  on  the  bishop;  on  the 
presbyters  and  deacons  "  not  without  the  au- 
thority of  the  bishop,"  Tertullian,  De  hapt.,  xvii.; 
on  the  priest,  Apostolic  ConatUidionSf  VI.  xv.  1. 
The  bishops  and  other  priests  have  been  entrusted 
by  the  apostles  with  the  charge  of  doctrine  (Apos- 
tolic Constitutions,  VI.  xviii.  6);  they  must  be  heard, 
for  through  them  the  Lord  speaks  (Augustine, 
Serm.f  class  ii.  20).  In  the  celebration  of  the 
sacrament  the  priest  accomplishes  a  sacrifice  which 
far  surpasses  the  act  of  Elijah  on  Carmel;  the  priest 
excels  rulers,  for  his  authority  extends  to  heaven. 
From  this  doctrine  developed  the  Roman  theoiy 
of  the  priest's  profession,  a  mediation  between  God 
and  men  (cf.  the  Roman  catechism,  part  ii.,  chap.  7; 
see  Priest).  The  view  of  the  Greek  Church  of 
to-day  is  substantially  the  same.  The  consecra- 
tion of  priests  is  a  sacrament  wherein  the  Holy 
Spirit,  through  a  bishop,  ordains  duly  elected  can- 
didates to  the  office  of  administering  the  sacra- 
ments and  feeding  Christ's  flock. 

Luther  rejected  the  theory  that  the  clerical 
dignity  depends  upon  any  ecclesiastical  consecra- 
tion. "  Were  there  not  in  us  a  higher  consecration 
than  the  pope  or  bishop  gives,  there  would  nevei> 
more  a  priest  be  made  by  pope  or  bishop's  conse- 
cration; neither  could  he  celebrate  masses  or  preach 
or  absolve  "  (An  den  ckrietlichen  Add).    But  at  the 


same  time  he  was  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  a 

special    profession.     "The    Church    requires    the 

.   _.        word  of  God,  baptism,  the  sacrament 

Iiatheran  ^^  *^®  altar,  the  use  of  the  keys,  and, 

Dootrlne.  ^*^^y>  ^®  know  the  Church  out- 
wardly by  the  fact  that  it  consecrates 
or  calls  church  ministers,  or  has  offices  to  be 
administered.  For  one  must  have  bishops,  pastors, 
or  preachers  who  shall  publicly  and  expressly  dis- 
pense, administer,  and  exercise  the  aforesaid  four 
articles  of  salvation  on  account  and  in  the  name  of 
the  Church,  and  also — ^much  rather,  indeed — ^by 
reason  of  Christ's  institution  "  (Von  den  ConcUiis 
und  Kirchen,  part  iii.).  He  holds  that  the  clerical 
profession  is  not  rendered  imnecessary  by  the  uni- 
versal priesthood.  "Although  we  are  all  priests, 
yet  we  can  not,  nor  should  we,  all  preach  and  teach 
and  rule:  one  must  then  certainly,  from  the  entire 
body,  separate  and  elect  some  to  whom  such  duties 
shall  be  committed;  and  he  that  wields  the  same 
is  not  a  priest  on  account  of  the  office  (as  all  the 
others  are),  but  a  servant  of  all  the  others  "  (Ex- 
position of  Psalm  ex.).  To  hold  that  the  spiritual 
profession  is  instituted  by  God  is  not  inconsistent 
with  these  views  of  Luther,  since  the  work  it  must 
carry  forward  is  instituted  by  God;  hence  the 
Lutheran  confessions  and  dogmaticians  without 
hesitation  designate  the  profession  as  of  divine 
institution.  From  this  theory  there  deviates  a  new 
doctrine,  represented  principally  by  Kliefoth  and 
Vilmar,  according  to  which  the  clerical  profession 
is  instituted  inunediately  by  Christ,  being  entrusted 
with  the  fulfilment  of  the  means  of  grace,  not  as 
trustee  on  the  part  of  the  congregation,  but  as  ex- 
clusively empowered  thereto  by  the  Lord;  and  that 
the  same  has  been  perpetuated  throughout  the  cen- 
turies by  the  imposition  of  hands.  This  doctrine, 
which  is  not  substantiated  by  Scripture,  has  been  con- 
tested especially  by  HOfling,  Hofmann,  and  Harless. 

The  Calvinists  likewise  reject  the  Roman  idea 

of  priesthood,  though  they  strongly  emphasize  the 

divine  institution,  authorization,  and  organization 

of  ministers  (Confession  of  Baself  xv.-xx.;  Gallican 

Confession,  xxix.;  Geneva  Catechism,  De  verbo  Dei; 

Second    Helvetic   Confession,    xviii.)- 

"aff  ^^!Lt   ^^^^®  election  is  confirmed  through 

^~^**^  the  appointment  to  office  (Confession 

Axiffllcan  of  Basel,  xvii.).  The  Anglican  Church 
Dootrfne.  °^&k^  membership  in  the  clerical  pro- 
fession dependent  upon  reception  by 
act  of  the  privileged  estate  itself  (cf.  the  Latin 
text  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  art.  xxiii.,  and 
the  forms  of  the  Book  of  Conunon  Prayer  on  the 
"  Making,  Ordaining,  and  Consecrating  of  Bishops, 
Priests,  and  Deacons  "). 

nL  The  Call  {Vocatio):  The  cooperation  of  the 
congregation  in  the  calling  of  its  clergy  is  very  old. 
The  circumstance  that  Paul  makes  no  mention  of 
this  cooperation  in  Titus  i.  5,  in  connection  with  the 
commission  to  appoint  presb3rter8,  is  not  a  convincing 
argument  to  the  contrary,  since  exceptional  con- 
ditions in  Crete  may  have  compelled  Titus  to  dis- 
regard the  cooperation  of  the  congregation;  or, 
what  is  just  as  possible,  he  may  have  executed  the 
conunission  in  conference  with  the  congregation. 
In  favor  of  the  cooperation  of  the  congregation  are 


146 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


gST 


found  more  or  less  distinct  references  {Didache,  xv. 
1;  Cyprian,  Epist,,  xxxviiL,  Ixvii.  4;  Chrysostom, 
"  On  the  Priesthood,"  iii.  16;  Apoatdic  ConatUu- 
tions,  viL  31;  Leo  the  Great,  EptattX,  6;  Synod  of 
Orleans,  ii.  7,  iii.  3;  MisscUe  Francorum,  aUocutio 
in  ordinaHone  preabyteri).  That,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
this  right  of  the  congregation  was  often  enough 
greatly  encroached  upon  is  not  to  be  disputed. 
But  the  Council  of  Trent  did  not  revoke  the  right 
in  principle,  merely  pronouncing  the  opposite  pro- 
cedure to  be  just  as  valid  (Session  xxiii.,  chap.  4). 

Luther  distinguished  two  kinds  of  calling.  The 
first  proceeds  from  God  alone,  without  any  me- 
dium; and  this  calling  must  have  external  signs 
and  witness.  The  other  calling  needs  no  signs;  it 
comes  about  through  men  and  is  previously  con- 
firmed by  the  command  of  God  on  Mount  Sinai: 
Love  God,  and  thy  neighbor  as  thyself.  From  this 
view  of  Luther's  has  been  evolved  the  Lutheran 
doctrine  of  the  vocaHo  immediata  and  mediata. 
With  reference  to  the  latter  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion requires  that  he  who  holds  a  clerical  ofiBce 
must  be  "  duly  called."  Lutheran  dogmaticians 
generally  recognize  the  cooperation  of  the  congre- 
gation. It  is  to  be  observed  that  this  vocation  is 
ahvaya  imderstood  as  to  a  definitely  circumscribed 
sphere  of  operation. 

According  to  Calvin  ("  Institutes,"  IV.  iii.  17) 
the  voeatio  must  come  about  *'  with  the  consent  and 
approval  of  the  people;  but  other  pastors  ought  to 
preside  at  the  election."  According  to  the  Geneva 
ordinances  the  clergy  do  the  electing  and  the  laity 
voices  its  consent  (Second  Helvetic  Confession, 
xviiL).  A  detailed  description  of  the  election  as 
conducted  by  the  whole  congregation  is  found  at 
the  close  of  the  Liturgia  in  ecclesia  peregrinorum 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1554.        W.  Caspari. 

IV.  Legal  Status  of  the  Clergy:  In  the  United 
States,  there  being  no  ecclesiastical  establishment, 
the  clergy,  with  the  exception  of  chaplains  in  the 
Army  and  Navy  and  those  attached  to  legislative 
bodies,  have  no  governmental  connection.  The 
cleric^  profession  is,  however,  recognized  in  the 
statute  law  of  all  the  States  and  Territories.  In  law 
a  clerg3rman,  priest,  or  minister  is  one  who  has  been 
regularly  authorized  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  ad- 
minister the  ordinances  of  religion,  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  religious  body  to  which  he  is  attached. 
The  legal  status  of  the  clergy  remains  so  long  as  this 
clerical  office  is  recognized  by  the  body  to  which 
they  belong.  The  law  grants  them  exemption  from 
military  duty  and  from  service  in  petit  juries.  In 
the  case  of  grand  juries  this  exemption  is  sometimes 
optional.  The  law  also  grants  the  clergy  the  right 
to  solemnize  marriage,  which  right  is  shared  by  a 
number  of  civil  officials,  and  is  purely  statutory. 
I'nder  some  State  laws  providing  for  the  incorpora- 
tion of  religious  bodies  the  minister  in  charge  may 
be  elected  a  trustee  and  thus  a  member  of  the  cor- 
poration. The  profession  of  pastor  or  minister  in 
any  general  religious  body  does  not  in  law  develop 
any  contract  for  his  support,  while  he  is  bound  by 
the  laws  of  the  body  as  to  his  official  and  personal 
conduct  BO  long  as  his  office  is  recognized;  but  no 
ecclesiastical  connection  can  impair  his  civil  and 
property  rights.  A  minister  is  under  no  legal  ob- 
III.— 10 


ligation  to  mantain  his  ecclesiastical  connection. 
The  law  reads  into  a  contract  of  a  minister  for 
employment  by  a  local  church  all  the  rules  of  the 
denomination  that  recognizes  his  standing  as  a  min- 
ister as  though  such  rules  had  been  inserted  in  the 
call.  Where  the  religious  society  is  an  independent 
oiganization,  the  salaiy  is  generally  fixed  by  the 
qualified  electors  of  the  society,  and  certified  by 
the  trustees  having  control  of  the  temporalities  of 
the  Church.  For  salary  is  a  lien  upon  all  the  church 
property  other  than  that  held  in  trust  See  Ordi- 
nation; Benefit  OF  Clerqt;  Bishop;  Episcopacy; 
Deacon;  Presbyter;  Priest;  Orders,  Holy;  etc. 

Geo.  J.  Bayles. 
Biblxoorapht:  For  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  consult: 
KL,  iii.  537-547;  De  Marca,  De  di9crifnine  elericorwn  ei 
laieorum,  ed.  Baluse,  pp.  84-03,  Venice,  1770;  H.  Rump, 
Das  aUoemeine  Prietterthum  der  Chritten,  MQnster,  1860; 
W.  Schens,  Dob  Laien-  und  das  himmliachs  Priesterthumt 
Freiburg,  1873;  H.  Hurler,  Theclogia  dogmaUca  eompen- 
dium,  Toi.  iii..  chap.  "De  ordine,"  Innabruck,  1893. 

For  the  Lutheran:  K.  UUmann,  preface  to  TSK  for 
1840;  G.  C.  A.  von  Harlem,  Kirehe  und  Ami,  Stuttgart, 
1853;  J.  W.  F.  Hdfling.  Orundsdtxe  evanoelisch-luths- 
rischer  KirchenverfasaunOt  Erlangen,  1853;  K.  Lechler, 
Die  neuieatamenUiche  Lehre  vom  heiliaen  Amte,  Stuttgart, 
1857;  W.  Preger,  GeschichU  vom  oeUUiehen  AmU,  NOrd- 
lingen,  1857;  A.  F.  C.  Vilmar,  Die  Lekre  vom  geitUiehsn 
AmU,  Bfarburg,  1870. 

For  the  Reformed  and  Anglican  aides  consult:  Bing- 
ham, OrigineM,  books  iv.,  vi.;  Calvin,  InstUuies,  L.  iv.  3;  J. 
B.  lightfoot.  The  ChrieHan  Ministry,  new  ed..  New  York, 
1804;  £.  A.  Litton,  The  Church  of  Christ,  in  iU  Idea,  At^ 
tributes  and  Ministry,  London,  1851;  C.  Wordsworth, 
Outlines  of  the  Christian  Ministry,  ib.  1872;  C.  Gore, 
Ministry  of  the  Christian  Church,  ib.  1880;  H.  J.  Van 
Dyke,  The  Church,  her  Ministry  and  Sacraments,  New 
York,  1800;  W.  Lefroy,  The  Christian  Ministry,  London. 
1801.  The  subject  is  treated  in  works  on  the  Encyclo- 
pedia of  Theology  (q.v.)  and  on  Practical  Theology.  See 
the  literature  under  Ordwatxon. 

CLERICUS,  JOHANNES  Q^AN  L£  CLERC): 
Reformed  theologian;  b.  at  Geneva  Mar.  19,  1657; 
d.  at  Amsterdam  Jan.  8,  1736.  He  studied  at 
Geneva  under  Turretin  and  Mestrezat,  and  later 
went  to  Grenoble,  Saumur,  Paris,  and  London, 
where  for  some  months  he  preached  to  the  Reformed 
fugitives  from  Savoy  and  published  his  EpistolcB 
theologiccB  under  the  name  of  Liberius  de  Sancto 
Amore.  By  studying  the  works  of  l^tienne  de 
Courcelles  and  Episcopius  he  was  drawn  over  to  the 
Dutch  Remonstrants,  went  to  Amsterdam,  and 
was  appointed  there  professor  of  literature  and 
philosophy  in  the  Remonstrant  Seminary.  Here 
he  developed  a  great  activity  in  all  branches  of 
science.  He  published  much  and  corresponded  with 
many  scholars.  In  his  Eniretiena  (Amsterdam, 
1684)  he  maintained  that  reason  is  an  infallible 
guide  in  judging  of  all  that  man  needs  to  know  for 
salvation,  but  in  other  writings  he  declared  his 
belief  in  revelation  and  defended  himself  against 
the  charge  of  Socinianism.  As  a  theolbgian  his 
chief  service  was  his  contribution  to  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  Bible,  free  from  dogmatic  preju- 
dices. H.  C.  RoooEf. 

Biblioorapbt:  An  anonymous  life  in  Latin  was  published 
Amsterdam,  1711;  A.  des  Amorie  van  der  Hoeven,  De 
Joanne  Clerico,  ib.  1843. 

CLERK:  The  name  originally  used,  in  its  Latin 
form  dericuSf  to  designate  all  ordained  persons,  or 
members  of  the  "  clei^  "  (q.v.).    From  the  fact 


giermont 
Oluny 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


146 


that  during  the  Middle  Ages  they  were  the  most 
frequent  possessors  of  a  higher  education,  the  name 
came  to  be  loosely  applied  to  educated  men.  In 
English  post-Reformation  usage  the  name  of  clerk 
was  applied  to  a  lay  official  of  parish  churches 
whose  duty  it  was  to  assist  the  minister,  especially 
by  leading  the  responses  of  the  congregation. 

CLERMONT,  SYHODS  OF:  Of  synods  held  at 
the  town  of  Clermont  (Clermont-Ferrand,  Arwr- 
ntim,  capital  of  the  present  department  of  Puy-de- 
Dome,  250  m.  s.8.e.  of  Paris)  the  most  important 
was  that  convoked  by  Urban  II.  in  1095,  in  which 
the  crusades  originated  (see  Urban  II.).  Two 
earlier  synods  belong  to  the  Merovingian  time,  the 
first  on  Nov.  8,  535,  under  Theudebert  I.,  the  acts 
of  which  have  some  importance  for  knowledge  of 
eonditions  at  the  beginning  of  the  Frankish  period, 
and  the  second  between  584  and  591  under  Childe- 
bert  II.  to  consider  a  question  of  discipline.  For 
the  alleged  second  synod  in  549  cf.  F.  Maassen, 
0€$ehic)Ue  der  QuelUn  dea  kanoniachen  RechU,  i 
(Graz,  1871),  209-210.  Other  synods  have  no 
general  interest.  (A.  Hauck.) 

CLETUS.    See  Anaclbtub;  Clement  of  Rome. 

CLEVERHESS:  A  term  applied  to  mental  as 
opposed  to  spiritual  ability.  It  is  related  to,  but 
not  identical  with  wisdom,  is  often  connected  with 
it  (cf.  Jas.  iii.  13),  but  generally  with  the  distinction 
that  cleverness  is  referred  to  the  worldly  side  of 
knowledge  and  ability,  wisdom  to  the  spiritual  side. 
Frequently  it  has  an  ironical  undertone,  implying 
the  reverse  of  simplicity  and  humility. 

The  Jewish  nation  owns  cleverness  as  an  inher- 
itance from  Jacob.  Its  most  brilliant  represent- 
ative in  the  Old  Testament  is  Solomon.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  word  expressing  the  idea  is 
pkronimos,  the  principal  passage  is  Matt.  x.  16. 
The  disciple  of  Christ  must  have  a  discerning  mind 
and  eyes  open  to  the  things  of  this  world  in  order 
to  discern  the  dangers  threatening  him  and  the 
means  he  may  employ  against  them.  Cleverness, 
a  natural  gift  of  God,  is  not  objectionable  in  itself, 
but  it  should  be  controlled  and  raised  to  the  quality 
of  a  moral  virtue.  Attaching  to  it  is  the  temptation 
of  self-conceit  (cf.Rom.  xii.  16;  I  Cor.  iv.  10;  II  Cor. 
zL  19).  The  world  uses  cleverness  to  serve  self- 
interest  (Luke  xvi.  l-9\  The  ''wisdom  of  the 
Just"  (Luke  i.  17)  must  have  the  foundation  given 
Matt.  vii.  24,  and  must  be  controUed  so  as  to  keep 
an  unsullied  conscience  (Jas.  iii.  13)  in  order  to 
attain  a  blissful  issue  of  earthly  life  (Ps.  xc.  12). 
Worldly  cleverness  is  entirely  in  the  service  of 
eudemonism.  While  the  vocation  of  a  minister  calls 
for  cleverness,  the  clergyman  must  look  for  it  in 
the  sense  of  Jas.  L  5.  Karl  BuROERf. 

CLIFFORD,  JOHN:  English  Baptist;  b.  at 
Sawley  (7  m.  s.e.  of  Derby),  Derbyshire,  England, 
Oct.  16,  1836.  He  studied  at  Midland  Baptist 
College,  Leicester,  and  University  College,  London 
(B.A.,  1861).  Since  1858  he  has  been  minister  of 
Praed  Street  and  Westboume  Park  Church,  Pad- 
dington,  London.  He  was  president  of  the  General 
Baptist  Association  in  1872,  and  from  1876  to  1878 
was  secretaiy  of  the  London  Baptist  Association, 


becoming  president  in  1879.  He  was  also  president 
of  the  Baptist  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Irdand 
in  1888  and  1899,  as  well  as  of  the  National  Council 
of  Free  Evangelical  Churches  in  189^-99  and  of  the 
British  Chautauqua  in  1899-1900.  He  edited  The 
Oeneral  Baptiat  Magazine  1870-^  and  was  ooeditor 
of  The  Review  of  the  Churchee  1891-94  and  of  The 
Baptist  Union  Magazine  1892-95.  Of  his  publi- 
cations may  be  mentioned  Oeorge  Mostyn  (Lcoidon, 
1874);  Daily  Strength  for  Daily  Living:  Expo- 
eitiona  of  Old  Testament  Themes  (1885);  The  In- 
spiration and  Authority  of  the  Bible  (1892);  Typical 
Christian  Leaders  (1898);  Ood's  Greater  Britain 
(1899);  The  UltimaU  Problems  of  Chrietianity 
(Angus  lectures  for   1906). 

BiBuooKAPHT :  C.  T.  Batomaa,  Life  itf  John  diffcrd,  Lon- 
don, 1908. 

CLIFTON  (CLYFTON),  RICHARD:  Encash 
Separatist;  d.  at  Amsterdam  llay  20,  1616.  He 
was  pastor  of  the  congregation  which  met  at  the 
house  of  William  Brewster  (q.v.)  inScrooby  and 
had  John  Robinson  as  his  assistant;  emigrated  to 
Amsterdam  in  Aug.,  1608,  joined  the  church  of 
Francis  Johnson  there,  and  became  its  "  teacher." 
He  wrote  A  Plea  for  Infants  and  Elder  People  con- 
cerning their  Baptism  (Amsterdam,  1610)  against 
the  views  of  John  Smyth  (q.v.),  and  An  Advertise- 
ment  concerning  a  Book  Lately  Published  by  Chris- 
topher Lawne  and  Others  against  the  Exiled  English 
Church  at  Amsterdam  (1612),  which  called  forth  an 
Animadffersion  from  Heniy  Ainsworth  (1613).  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  effective  writer 
among  the  Separatists. 

CLINICAL  BAPTISM:  The  name  of  diniei  was 
applied,  from  the  third  century,  to  those  who  were 
baptized  at  home  in  illness  by  sprinkling,  not  im- 
mersion. Cyprian,  the  first  in  whom  the  word  is 
found,  disapproves  of  it  (EpisL,hdx.)  but  asserts 
the  fuU  validity  of  such  baptism.  On  the  other 
hand.  Pope  Cornelius,  referring  to  the  case  of 
Novatian,  who  was  thus  baptized,  apparently  ex- 
pressed a  doubt  (Eusebius,  Hist,  eccL,  VI.  xliiL  14, 
17).  This  doubt  or  prejudice  so  far  maintained 
itself  that  the  fourth  century  Council  of  Neo- 
CfBsarea  (canon  xii.)  forbade  the  ordination  of  such 
persons.  Since  the  traditional  but  not  essential 
accompanying  ceremonies  were  of  necessity  omitted 
in  these  baptisms,  it  appears  from  the  letter  of 
Cornelius  that  it  was  customaiy,  if  not  enjoined,  to 
supply  them  later.  [The  same  rule  is  foimd  to-day 
in  the  Rituale  Romanum  (ii.  15);  and  the  Anglican 
Prayer-book  provides  for  the  bringing  to  church  of 
those  who  have  been  privately  baptised,  and  their 
formal  "  reception  into  the  Church."] 

(A.  Hauck.) 

CLUinr,  ABBEY  AND  C0N6RE6ATI01I  OF. 

Foundation,  910  ({  1). 

Odo,  Seoond  Abbot,  027-941  ({  2). 

Odilo,  Fifth  Abbots  994-1049  ({  3). 

Rafonning  Influence  ({  4). 

Peter  the  Venerable.  Abbot  1122-55  ({  6). 

Decline  ({  6). 

The  abbey  of  Cluny  was  the  seat,  and  its  con- 
gregation the  result  of  an  early  and  far-reaching 
reform  of  the  Benedictine  order.     At  the  beginning 


147 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Olermont 
Olnny 


of  the  tenth  century,  after  Prankish  civilization 

and  relig;ious  institutions  had  suffered  from  the 

incursions  of  the  Normans  and  Saracens,  a  general 

movement  of  monastic  reform  began, 

1.  Foonda-  which  is  associated  with  the  abbey  of 
tion,  910.   Cluny  in  the  diocese  of  MAcon  and  the 

present  department  of  Sa6ne-et-Loire. 
This  was  founded  by  Duke  William  the  Pious  of 
Aquitaine  in  910,  and  Bemo,  a  Burgundian  of  noble 
family,  who  had  already  distinguished  himself  by 
the  reform  of  two  other  abbeys,  was  placed  at  its 
head.  The  act  of  foundation  placed  it  under  the 
special  protection  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul, 
and  of  the  pope,  which  meant  exemption  from 
all  other  jurisdictioti,  temporal  or  spiritual.  This 
relation,  while  it  protected  the  abbey  from  the 
exju;tions  and  ambitions  of  local  magnates,  com- 
mitted it  to  a  constant  interest  in  the  development 
of  the  papal  power. 

The  Benedictine  rule  formed  the  basis  of  the  new 
institutions,  with  the  addition  of  the  capitularies 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  of  817  and  the  reforms  of  Bene- 
dict of  Aniane.  Special  stress  was  laid  upon  the 
remmciation  of  private  property  and  the  abstinence 
from  the  flesh  of  quadrupeds,  and  silence  was  en- 
joined. The  recitation  of  the  psalms  and  reading 
of  Holy  Scripture  were  enforced,  and  unconditional 
obedience   to  the  strict  monarchical  government 

of   the  abbot  required.    On  Bemo's 

2.  Ode,  Sec-  death   in  927  his  disciple  Odo  suc- 
ond  ^bot,  ceeded  him.    The  new  abbot,  a  man 

927-941.  of  singular  spiritual  and  intellectual 
power,  undertook  a  wide  reform  of 
monastic  life,  on  the  strength  of  a  privilege  of  John 
XI.  (931)  which  permitted  him  to  assume  the  over- 
sight of  more  than  one  monastery  and  to  receive  at 
Cluny  monks  from  those  houses  which  had  not  been 
reformed.  He  succeeded  in  bringing  back  a  num- 
ber to  primitive  strictness,  though  most  of  them 
remained  independent  of  Climy.  With  the  support 
of  Leo  VII.  and  Alberic,  the  secular  ruler  of  the 
city,  he  reformed  several  abbeys  in  Rome  itself,  as 
well  as  other  Italian  monasteries,  including  Subiaco 
and  Monte  Caasino.  When  he  died  in  941  at  Tours 
the  reform  had  spread  throughout  all  France,  and 
as  far  south  as  Palermo.  His  sermons  and  other 
writings  ¥rith  a  life  by  an  Italian  monk  are  in  MPL, 
cxjodii. 

Under  Bemo's  successor  Aymard  there  were  160 
monks  at  Cluny,  but  as  yet  only  five  of  the  larger 
abbeys  were  directly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  its 
abbot.  Majolus,  its  next  head,  was  highly  esteemed 
and  favored  by  the  emperor,  Otto  I.,  who  was 
credited  ¥rith  a  design  to  place  all  the  monasteries 
in  his  German  and  Italian  dominions  under  Cluny. 
Hajolua  died  in  994,  and  was  succeeded  by  Odilo, 
a  typical  eleventh  century  abbot  in 

3.  OdilOy  his  combination  of  rigorous  asceticism 
VMk  Abbot,  and  mystical  piety  with  wise  and  skil- 

994-X049.  ful  management.  Under  him  the  re- 
form spread  into  Spain,  and  through 
the  influence  of  Cluny  the  native  rule  of  Isidore 
was  generally  replaced  by  that  of  Benedict.  From 
Odilo's  time  dates  the  definite  beginning  of  a  "  con- 
l^regation,"  the  reformed  or  newly  founded  monas- 
teries being  placed  in  permanent  dependence  upon 


the  mother  house.  He  had  a  great  influence  upon 
the  youthful  Otto  III.,  though  not  equal  to  that  of 
the  Italian  reformers,  with  whose  work  the  French 
is  now  for  the  first  time  demonstrably  connected 
(see  Camaldolites).  Poppo  carried  the  movement 
into  Germany,  becoming  abbot  of  Stablo  in  the 
diocese  of  Li^  and  of  St.  Maximin  in  that  of 
Treves,  and  wielding  a  powerful  influence  under 
Heniy  II.  and  Conrad  II.,  the  latter  of  whom  en- 
trusted to  him  a  number  of  great  imperial  abbeys, 
including  St.  Gall. 

By  degrees  the  reform  movement  widened  to 
embrace  social  life  outside  the  monasteiy  walls. 
The  efforts  of  Odilo  to  enforce  the  "  Truce  of  God," 
a  notable  blessing  to  agriculture  and  commerce, 
are  universally  recognized  as  important.  The 
reformers  attacked  the  problems  of 

4.  Reform-  general  church  life,  combating  simony, 
ing  Influ-  clerical  marriage,  and  the  uncanonical 

ence.  marriages  of  the  laity.  A  definite 
program,  however,  was  first  laid  down 
by  Abbo  of  Fleury  and  the  reformers  of  Loi^ 
raine,  in  the  full  enforcement  of  the  canon  law. 
Heniy  III.  found  powerful  support  in  the  leaders 
of  the  movement,  especially  Odilo  and  Petrus 
Damianus,  for  his  efforts  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  Church;  and  when  the  papacy,  now  raised 
from  its  degradation,  took  the  lead  in  the  general 
effort  for  betterment,  it  found  its  main  allies  in  the 
monks  of  Climy.  They  were  not,  however,  at  first 
decidedly  on  the  side  of  the  pope  as  against  the 
emperor,  and  in  the  conflict  between  Henry  IV. 
and  Gregoiy  VII.  the  successor  of  Odilo,  Hugo  I. 
(1049-1109),  remained  practically  neutral.  His 
influence  was  especially  great  under  Urban  11.,  the 
flrst  Guniac  pope.  In  1089  he  began  the  building 
of  the  great  basilica,  the  largest  church  in  the  world 
after  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  The  first  Cluniac  house 
wajs  established  in  England  with  the  help  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  and,  though  there  were  not  many 
direct  colonies  in  Germany,  the  spirit  of  Cluny 
spread  there  through  the  cognate  reforms  of  St. 
Blasien  and  at  Hirschau. 

The  first  symptoms  of  decline  appeared  under 
Abbot  Pontius,  who  in  1114  mediated  between 
Paschal  II.  and  Henry  V.  and  four  years  later 
offered  an  asylum  to  Gelasius  II.  fleeing  from  the 
emperor,  as  Anselm  of  Canterbury  had  found  one 
there  in  1097.  The  deposition  of  Gelasius  and  the 
election  of  his  successor  Calixtus  II.  took  place  in 
the   abbey.     Under   Peter   the    Ven- 

5.  Peter  the  erable  the  Consuetudinea  Clttniacensea 
Venerable,  were  drawn  up.     In  contrast  with  the 

Abbot  aristocratic  constitution  of  the  Cis- 
1122-55.  tercians,  they  emphasize  the  mon- 
archical and  centralized  system  of 
Cluny.  Without  the  permission  of  its  abbot  no 
novice  might  be  received  into  the  congregation, 
and  each  must  present  himself  at  the  mother  house 
within  three  years  from  his  reception  for  the  abbot's 
benediction.  Peter  arrested  the  process  of  decline, 
and  the  congregation  had  314  houses  at  his  death. 
But  the  predominant  position  of  Cluny  began  to  be 
taken  by  the  Premonstratensians,  and  then  still 
more  by  the  Cistercians.  The  declaration  of  Hugo 
III.  for  the  imperial  claimant  of  the  papacy  in 


Olnny 
OoooeiaB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


148 


1150  damaged  the  position  of  Cluny  still  more, 
and  neither  the  reforms  of  his  successors  nor  the 
attempt  of  Ivo  II.  in  1269  to  estab- 
6.  Decline,   lish  a  seat  of  learning  in  Paris,  the  Col- 
lege of  Cluny,  had  permanent  effects. 
The  independent  position  of  the  abbey  was  par- 
tially abandoned  by  Ivo  I.  in  1258  when  it  was 
placed  under  the  protection  of  Louis  IX.,  which 
led  later  to  subjection  to  the  French  crown.    First 
the  Avignon  popes  claimed  the  right  to  name  the 
abbot — John  XXII.  and  Clement  VI.  put  in  their 
own  relations — and  from  1456,  when  Charles  VII. 
of  France  appointed  John  of  Bourbon,  an  illegit- 
imate member  of  his  house,  the  kings  dominated  it. 
From  1528  to  1622  it  was  held  in  cammendam  by  the 
family  of  Guise.     At  the  Reformation,  with  the 
suppression  of  the  English,  German,  and  Swiss 
houses  and  the  attainment  of  independence  by  the 
Spanish  and  Italian,  the  congregation  lost  its  inter- 
national character.     During  the  Guise  period  the 
abbey  suffered  severely  in  the  wars  of  religion;   in 
1562  the  Huguenots  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the 
fine  buildings  and  dispersed  the  library.    Cardinal 
Richelieu  held  it  in  succession  to  the  last  regular 
abbot,   and  attempted  in   1634  to  combine  the 
congregation  with  that  of  St.  Maur,  an  act  which 
was  reversed  ten  years  later  by  his  successor  Armand, 
prince  of  Conti.    The  next  abbots  were  Cardinal 
Masarin  (1654-61)  and  Cardinal  Rinaldo  d'Este, 
brother  of  the  duke  of  Modena  and  protector  of 
France  at  Rome  (1662-72).    After  him  followed  an 
interregnum  of  eleven  years,  and  then  it  was  held 
from  1683  to  1710  by  the  Cardinal  de  Bouillon. 
In  1790  it  was  suppressed  by  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly, which  sold  the  magnificent  church  to  the 
commune  for  100,000   francs,  and   thus   brought 
about     its    almost     complete     destruction.    The 
MuB6e  de  Cluny  in  Paris,  originally  built  (1334)  as 
the  Parisian  headquarters  of  the  abbot,  preserves 
a  splendid  collection  of  antiquities,  a  large  part  of 
which  came  from  the  abbey.    (G.  GrCtzmacher.) 
Bibuogbapht:  Fturts  of  the  reoorda,  ed.  A.  Bernard  and 
A.  Bniel.  RecueU  de*  ehartee  de  VAbbaye  de  Cluny  802- 
IMIO,  fi  vola.,  Paria,  1876-94;  and  G.  F.  Duckett.  Record 
Evidence  among   (he   Archivee  of    Cluny,  4  vols.,  Lewes, 
1886-88.    The  early  aooount  is  M.  liarrier  and  A.  Quere- 
tanofl,   BiblioiKeea   Cluniaceneie,    Paris,    1614.    Consult: 
L.  Niepoe,  Lee  SiaUee  de  Cluny,  lee  ehartee  et  la  bibliO' 
Aique,  Lyons,  1882;  E.  Sackur,  Die  Cluniacerteer  hie  sur 
MiUe  dee  11.  Jahrhunderte,  2  vols.,  HaUe,  1802-94;  Viei- 
iatione  and  Chaptere^eneral  of  the  Order  of  Cluni,  1269- 
1S29,  London,   1803;    Cluny:  luminare   eacri   tnonaeterii 
Cluniaeeneie,   Paris,  1898;    Helyot,    Ordree   monaeHquee, 
voL  v.;  Heimbueher,  Orden  und  Kongregatioinen,  i.  116 
sqq.;  Neander.  C%rMlianC^urc^,iii.  381. 417-410;  Hauck, 
KD,  vol.  iii.;  KL,  iii.  554-661;  Schaff,  Chrititian  Church,  v. 
1.  pp.  330  sqq. 

COADJUTOR:  An  assistant  to  a  cleric  who  is 
partly  or  wholly  incapacitated;  appointed  either 
temporarily  or  permanently,  and  in  the  latter  case 
with  or  without  the  right  of  succession.  By  the 
canon  law  a  parish  priest  thus  incapacitated  may 
obtain  an  assistant  or  vicarius  from  his  superiors; 
but  this  appointment  is  temporaiy  and  revocable, 
and  the  Council  of  Trent  expressly  forbids  the  right 
of  succession  to  be  given — though  this  has  not  been 
held  to  prevent  the  pope  from  making  exceptions. 
The  title  coadjutor  is  regularly  applied  to  such  an 
assistant  given  to  a  bishop.    By  ancient  law  no 


successor  to  a  bishop  could  be  chosen  in  his  life- 
time, and  the  duties  of  an  incapacitated  bishop 
were  performed  either  by  neighboring  prelates  or 
by  a  specially  designated  interoentor  {dispensaim, 
intercessor).  Such  arrangements  were  usually  made 
by  the  provincial  council;  sometimes  the  pope 
was  consulted,  and  this  causa  episcapalis  was  grad- 
ually reserved  to  him.  The  ancient  principle,  laid 
down  by  the  C!ouncil  of  Nicaea,  that  there  should  not 
be  two  bishops  in  one  city  was  respected  at  least 
formally  by  the  designation  of  the  coadjutor  from 
the  title  of  some  other  see  (see  Bishop,  TrruukR). 
According  to  the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  coadjutors  may 
be  appointed  only  in  case  of  urgent  necessity,  and 
not  with  right  of  succession  unless  the  pope,  after 
full  investigation,  approves  the  necessity  and  the 
person  chosen.  The  diocesan  bishop  may  make 
the  request,  with  the  assent  of  his  chapter;  or  the 
chapter  may  take  the  initiative  in  case  of  the  in- 
capacity or  refusal  of  the  bishop,  in  which  case  the 
decision  rests  with  the  pope.  A  coadjutor  with 
right  of  succession  enters  on  the  full  jurisdiction 
immediately  upon  the  decease  of  his  principal, 
without  further  formality.  (O.  MEJERf.) 

Bibuoorapht:  G.  Gninau,  De  coadjuioribue  epieeoporum, 
Breslau,  1804;  Held,  Dae  RedU  eur  Aufeteilung  einee 
Koadjutort,  Munich,  1848;  A.  L.  Richter,  LehHnuA  dee 
.  .  .  Kirchewrechie,  Leipsie,  1886;  E.  Friedberg,  Lehrtruck 
dee  .  .  .  KirchenredUe,  p.  172,  Leipsie,  1805;  Bingham,  Qri- 
ginee,  books  iv.-vi. 

COANy  TITUS:  Missionary;  b.  at  Eillingworth, 
Conn.,  Feb.  1,  1801;  d.  at  HUo,  Hawaii,  Dec.  1, 
1882.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Asahel  Nettleton  (q.v.), 
by  whom  he  was  influenced  as  also  by  Charles  G. 
Finney;  he  studied  at  Auburn  Theological  Semi- 
nary 1831-^3;  spent  several  months  in  Patagonia 
examining  the  countiy  for  the  American  Board 
1833-34;  sailed  for  Hawaii  late  in  1834,  in  July, 
1835,  took  up  his  residence  at  Hilo,  and  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  there,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief 
visit  to  America  in  1870-71.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  physical  strength,  endowed  with  tact  and 
evangelistic  gifts.  ''  In  three  months  from  the 
time  he  first  set  foot  on  the  shores  of  Hawaii  he 
began  to  preach  in  the  native  tongue.  Before  his 
first  year  closed  the  audiences  drawn  to  hear  the 
Word  by  his  peculiar  power  reached  many  hun- 
dreds. And  in  six  years  from  his  arrival  three- 
fourths  of  the  adult  population  of  his  parish,  to  the 
number  of  more  than  seven  thousand,  were  gathered 
into  the  bonds  of  Christian  fellowship."  He  was 
an  authority  concerning  the  Hawaiian  volcanoes. 
He  published  Adventures  in  Patagonia  (New  York, 
1881);  Life  in  Hawaii,  an  Autobiographic  Sketchy 
1886-81  (1882). 
Bibuoorapht:  Besides   the   autobiography,   consult:  Bfrs. 

L.  B.  Coan,  THue  Coan,  a  Memorial,  Chicago,  1886. 

COBB,  HENRY  NTTCHIE:  Reformed  (Dutch); 
b.  in  New  York  Nov.  15,  1834.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1855  and  studied  at  Union  Ideological 
Seminary  1856-57.  He  was  a  Presbyterian  mis- 
sionary to  Persia  under  the  auspices  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  in 
1860-62;  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Mill- 
brook,  N.  Y.,  1866-81,  and  since  1882  has  been 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America.    He 


149 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oluny 
Ooooeliifi 


was  chairman  of  the  executive  committee  of  the 
Ecumenical  Conference  on  Foreign  Missions  held  in 
New  York  in  1900  and  was  a  deputy  to  the  Missions 
of  the  Refonned  Church  from  Oct.,  1904,  to  May, 
1905.  He  has  written  Far  Hence  :  a  Budget  of 
Letters  from  Our  Miaeion  Fields  in  Asia  (New 
York,  1893). 

COBB,  SANFORD  HOADLEY:  Presbyterian; 
b.  in  New  York  Feb.  4,  1838.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  1858  and  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  in  1862,  was  pastor  of  Reformed  churches 
at  Schoharie,  N.  Y.  (1864-71),  and  Saugerties, 
N.  Y.  (1871-83),  the  Westminster  Presbyterian 
Church,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  (1885-94),  and  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Greenwich,  Conn.  (1900- 
1901).  He  made  a  tour  of  the  world  in  1883-84, 
visiting  the  various  mission  fields,  and  has  writ- 
ten The  Story  of  the  Palatines  (New  York,  1897) 
and  The  Rise  of  Religious  Liberty  in  America  (1902). 

COBB,  SYLVAIVUS:  Universalist;  b.  at  Nor- 
way, Me.,  July  17,  1798;  d.  in  East  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct.  31,  1866.  His  early  life  was  that  of  a  New 
England  farmer's  son  of  the  time.  He  became  a 
Universalist  before  reaching  his  majority,  began  to 
preach  in  1820,  was  ordained  in  1821,  and  settled  in 
Waterville,  Me.,  where  he  organized  the  first  Uni- 
versalist church  in  the  State  in  1826.  He  was 
pastor  at  Maiden,  Mass.,  1828-37,  removed  to 
Waltham  in  1838,  and  to  East  Boston  in  1841. 
Much  of  his  time  was  given  to  evangelizing  tours 
which  made  him  widely  known  as  preacher  and 
lecturer.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Maine  and 
Massachusetts  legislatures.  In  1839  he  began  the 
publication  of  The  Christian  Freeman  and  Family 
Visitor,  a  weekly  paper  devoted  to  Universalism 
and  the  antislaveiy  and  temperance  causes,  and 
continued  it  till  1862,  when  it  was  united  with 
The  Trumpet,  Mr.  Cobb  remaining  as  editor  till 
1864.  In  1858-59  he  carried  on  discussions  in 
The  Freeman  with  the  Rev.  Nehemiah  Adams  on 
the  subject  of  endless  punishment,  and  with  the 
Rev.  C.  F.  Hudson  upon  annihilationism,  which 
were  afterward  published  in  book  form.  He  wrote 
A  Compend  of  Christian  Divinity  (Boston,  1845) 
and  The  New  Testament  with  Explanatory  Notes 
and  Practical  Observations  (1864). 
BxBLioaaAPHT:  8.  Cobb,  AtUobiography,  with  Memoir  hy 
8.  Cobb,  Jr.,  Boston,  1867  (the  Autobioffraphy  goes  to  his 
forty-first  year  and  is  continued  in  the  Mgmoir), 

COBLENZ  ARTICLES.    See  Ems,  Congrebs  of. 

COCCEIUS,  JOHANNES,  AND  HIS  SCHOOL. 

I.  Johannes  Coceeiiu.  Doctrines  ({  3). 

Life  and  Character  ({ 1 ).      II.  His  School. 
Literary  Works  (S  2). 

L  Johiumes  Coccesus:  Dutch  theologian;  b. 
at  Bremen  Aug.  9,  1603;  d.  at  Leyden  Nov.  4, 
1669.  He  was  the  son  of  the  municipal  secretary 
Timann  Koch.  Early  in  life  he  showed  extraor- 
dinary ability  in  the  ancient  languages,  and  his 
knowledge  of  Greek  was  deepened  through  his 
association  with  Metrophanes  Kritopulos,  who  for 
a  time  lived  at  Bremen.  Among  his  theological 
teachers  was  Ludwig  Crocius.  In  1625  he  went  to 
Hamburg  to  continue  his  Hebrew  and  rabbinic 


studies  under  a  learned  Jew.  In  the  year  1629,  to 
complete  his  theological  education  and  "to  escape 
the  dissolute  life  of  the  German  universities," 
Coch  (so  he  wrote  his  name  until  that  year)  went 
to  Franeker,  Holland.  He  had  as  teacher  there, 
besides  Maccovius  and  Amesius  [William  Ames], 
the  great  Orientalist  Sixtinus  Amana,  at  whose 
suggestion  he  published  Talmudic  studies  which 

brought  him  the  recognition  of  Grotius. 

X.  Life      After  a  short  visit  to  other  Dutch  luii- 

and        versities  he  returned  to  Bremen  and 

Character,  accepted  in  1630  the  professorship  of 

Biblical  philology  at  the  Gymnasium 
lUustre.  The  University  of  Franeker  called  him  in 
1636  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew.  His  commentaries  on 
passages  about  Antichrist  and  his  "  Introduction  to 
Ephesians  "  brought  him  a  theological  professoiv 
ship  in  1643.  As  successor  to  Fr.  Spanheim  the 
elder  in  1650,  he  moved  to  Leyden.  His  peaceful 
character,  which  even  opponents  such  as  the  worthy 
Voetius  duly  acknowledged,  made  an  agreeable 
impression  in  that  age  of  unmeasured  wrangling. 
Though  full  of  pure  piety,  he  withdrew  from  the 
common  life  of  the  church,  for  as  a  German  he 
never  felt  at  home  in  the  precision  of  strict  Dutch 
Calvinism. 

As  an  author  he  was  extremely  productive.  The 
"  Collected  Works ''  of  Cocceius,  completed  later, 
appeared  in  eight  volumes,  Amsterdam,  1673-75; 
a  2d  ed.,  revised  and  corrected,  Frankfort,  1689, 
repr.,  1702;  inferior  ed.,  10  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1701, 
and  2  vols.,  Opera  anecdota,  1706,  principally  letters. 
Previously  unprinted  letters  appear  in  the  The- 
saurus of  Hottinger,  xvi.  34.  His  works  may  be 
arranged  as  follows:  (1)  Commentaries,  which  treat 
of  the  principal  books  of  the  Bible,  viz.,  Job,  Ps., 

Eccles.,  Cant.,  Jer.,  MaJ.,  John,  Rom., 

2.  Literary  Gal.-Col.,    Tim.-Titus,    Heb.,    Jude, 

Works.      Rev.     (2)  Works  on  Biblical  Theology; 

Summa  doctrina  de  foBdere  et  testor 
mento  Dei,  Leyden,  1648,  enlarged  ed.,  1654;  Summa 
theologicB  ex  Sacris  Scripturis  repetita,  Leyden, 
1662,  reprinted,  Amsterdam  and  Geneva,  1665; 
vol.  vi.  of  his  "  Collected  Works,"  Amsterdam  ed., 
contains  his  Aphorismi  per  universam  theologiam; 
finally  his  last  work,  Explicatio  catecheseos  Heydd' 
bergensis,  setting  forth  his  system  of  doctrine.  (3) 
Dogmatics  and  Ethics;  Disputationes  .  .  ,  de  via 
salutis ;  Brevis  repetitio  quorundam  iUustrium 
locorum  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti  qui  de  Antichristo 
agunt;  an  anti-Socinian  polemic  in  justification  of 
an  edict  of  Sept.  19,  1653,  Equitis  Poloni  (Jonas 
Schliting7)Apo2o^  .  .  .  examinato;  several  tracts 
directed  against  the  Jesuits  Walenburg  and  Mase- 
nius,  SacrcB  Scriptura  potentia  demonstrata,  Jac. 
Macenii  factata  probatio  Scripturaria,  Admonitio  de 
prindpio  fidei  ecclesicB  reformata,  De  ecdesia  et 
Babylone  disquisitio,  and  a  number  of  tracts  on 
the  Sabbath.  (4)  Academical  Lectures,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  inaugural  addresses  given 
when  taking  his  positions  as  professor  or  as  rector 
in  the  di£ferent  universities  where  he  labored. 
(5)  Philological  Works;  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned Duo  tituli  thalmudici  sanhedrin  et  maccoth ; 
Defensio  altera  auctoritatis  verbi  divini  Veteris 
Testamenti;    the  great   Lexicon   et   commentarius 


OoooeiuB 
OcBle-Byria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


160 


germonU  Hebraici  et  Chaidaici,  Amsterdam,  1669 
.  and  often. 

Cocceius  baaed  his  theory  of  life  upon  the  Bible, 
and  in  this  lies  his  significance.  In  contradistinc- 
tion to  devotion  to  church  and  orthodoxy,  he  recom- 
mends a  life  in  and  through  the  Scriptures.  Against 
Hoombeek's  "Authority  of  the  Church"  he  put 
that  of  the  Bible  only,  which  was  to  him  a  wonder- 
ful expression  of  the  deeds  and  words  of  God.  C!on- 
sequently  all  his  theological  concepts  received  a 
Biblical  coloring;  and  his  peculiarity  was  not  scholas- 
tic but  Biblical  in  origin.  Concordant  with  this  was 
the  essentially  practical  bent  of  his  theology,  in 
which  lived  a  mild  type  of  the  German-Reformed 
spirit,  deviating  not  in  doctrine,  but  in  disposition 
from  later  Calvinism.  To  be  sure.  Biblical  theology 
does  not  operate  through  mere  imiform  exposition. 
Cocceius  unlocked  its  treasure  by  means  of  the 
central  idea  of  the  covenant  of  God.  Not  that 
he  originated  "Federal  Theology,"  the  roots  of 
which  lay  in  the  Reformation,  while  its  outline  had 
through  Calvin's  influence  long  passed  current  in 
Holland  by  means  of  the  activities  of  Hyperius, 
Olevian,  and  BuUinger.  Perhaps  Cocceius  received 
the  idea  from  Raph.  Ellin's  De  fadere 
3.  Doctrines.  graiicB  (Marburg,  1613).  What  was 
new  was  the  dynamic  force  of  his 
Biblical  theology,  on  the  lines  of  which  he  carried 
out  the  conception,  and  the  richness  of  knowledge 
of  Biblical  history  with  which  he  enriched  it.  His 
main  work,  De  fadere  et  iestamento  Dei,  portrays 
in  bold  and  clear  outline  the  whole  Scriptural  teach- 
ing on  salvation.  The  relation  between  God  and 
man  is  represented  as  a  covenant  at  first  existing 
as  a  divine  order,  then  as  a  compact  between  God 
and  man.  Then  came  the  covenant  of  works,  under 
which  developed  the  first  step  in  sin,  followed 
by  the  proclamation  of  the  "  covenant  of  grace." 
Though  faith  then  took  the  place  of  works,  this 
faith  was  no  new  law  and  Christ  no  new  lawgiver. 
The  power  of  the  "  Covenant  of  Grace  "  consists 
in  this,  that  in  contradistinction  to  the  "  cove- 
nant of  works"  it  develops  into  a  "Testament." 
This  method  runs  through  Cocceius's  exegetical 
works;  everywhere  in  the  Old  Testament  he  finds 
Jesus  Christ.  Though  differing  in  the  mode  of 
interpretation,  he  nowhere  departs  from  the  doc- 
trine of  his  Church.  It  is  his  merit  to  have  turned 
from  the  abstract  deductions  of  orthodoxy  to  the 
position  of  Calvin.  In  his  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
by  keeping  the  sacraments  in  the  background  and 
by  imderstanding  law  spiritually,  he  greatly  as- 
sisted Pietism.  Though  he  found  a  place  in  the 
covenant  of  grace  for  the  decalogue,  the  New 
Testament  idea  of  a  sanctified  life  and  disbelief  in 
the  necessity  to  keep  special  days  led  to  the  dispute 
upon  the  Sabbath  question.  It  was  through  this 
that  the  Church  became  aware  of  the  peculiarities 
of  his  doctrine;  the  polemical  Maresius  and  the 
worthy  puritanic  Voetius  entered  the  fray. 

n.  His  School:  Meanwhile  Cocceius  died,  but 
the  battle  continued  with  renewed  fury.  A  schism 
in  the  Church  was  narrowly  averted;  on  the  Sab- 
bath question  the  pupils  outdid  the  prudent,  prac- 
tical master,  the  affray  involved  the  laity  whom 
the  Biblical  sermons  of  Cocceius  had  made  theo- 


logians, from  there  it  entered  politics,  the  "  Voe- 
tians  "  being  the  Central  party,  and  the  Cocceians 
the  Remonstrants.  A  change  in  the  prayer-book 
was  widely  resented,  and  such  Cocceians  as  Hei- 
danus,  W.  Momma,  and  J.  van  der  Waeyen  were 
expelled  from  the  universities.  The  neighboring 
s3mods  uiged  peace  "in  the  name  of  the  conunu- 
nion  of  the  saints,"  and  the  consistory  of  Amster- 
dam observed  strict  impartiality;  none  the  less  in 
1694  it  was  necessary  for  the  Court  to  curb  the 
parties.  The  practise  was  adopted,  and  continued 
until  last  century,  of  appointing  a  Voetian  for  the 
chair  of  systematic  theology,  a  Cocceian  for  the 
chair  of  exegesis,  and  a  Lampean  for  the  chair  of 
practical  theology.  The  last-named  school  was 
founded  by  the  moderate  Cocceian  Fr.  A.  Lampe 
(q.v.),  who  did  much  to  heal  the  breach  of  the 
parties.  A  complete  change  for  the  better  was 
brought  about  in  the  Cocceian  system  through 
Fr.  Burmann's  Synopaie  Theologia;,  the  text-book 
of  later  "  Federalists."  Among  the  friends  and 
pupils  of  Cocceius  were  the  Burmanns,  father  and 
son,  Heidanus  (d.  1760),  J.  Braun,  and  the  great 
exegete  Campegius  Vitringa. 

(E.  F.  Karl  MCli^r.) 
Bibuoorapht:  His  autobiography,  completed  by  his  mm, 
J.  H.  Cocoeiufl,  is  prefixed  to  the  "  Collected  Works."  ed. 
of  1673-75.  His  life  is  also  given  in  Nic^ron,  Mimairet, 
viii.  103  sqq.,  and  in  A.  J.  van  der  Aa.  Bioaraphiack 
Wocrdenboek  der  Nederlanden,  iii.  518  sqq.,  Haarlem. 
1852.  Consult:  F.  A.  Tholuck,  Dob  akademUche  Lthen 
dcB  17ten  JdhrhunderU,  ii.  226  sqq.,  Halle.  1853;  G. 
Frank,  QfthidU*  der  proteatanHadt^en  Theologie,  ii.  240 
sqq.,  Leipdo,  1866;  H.  L.  J.  Heppe,  OeachutUe  de*  Pielia- 
mut  und  der  Myatik  in  der  reformbrten  Kvreka,  pp.  216 
sqq..  Leyden,  1879;  A.  RitschI,  OeachidUe  dea  Pietiamua 
in  der  reformirten  Kirtha,  pp.  130  sqq.,  Bonn,  1880. 

COCHUEUS  (DOBNECK,  WENDELSTHfUS), 
JOHAITNES:  Roman  Catholic  controversialist; 
b.  at  Wendelstein  (near  Schwabach,  9  m.  8.s.w.  of 
Nuremberg),  in  Middle  Franconia,  Jan.  10,  1479; 
d.  at  Breslau  Jan.  10,  1552.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
peasant,  and  began  bis  studies  comparatively  late. 
He  first  studied  in  Nuremberg,  where  Heinrich 
Grieninger,  a  humanist,  was  teacher  of  poetics. 
In  1504  he  entered  the  University  of  Cologne 
where  Count  Hermann  von  Neuenar,  Ulrich  von 
Hutten,  and  other  humanists  were  his  associates. 
He  also  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Carl  von  Mil- 
titz  who  later  became  papal  chamberlain.  From 
1510  till  1515  he  taught  at  St.  Sebald  in  Nurem- 
berg and  edited  several  of  his  manuals,  which  were 
highly  esteemed.  During  the  years  1515-19  he 
traveled  in  Italy  as  tutor  to  three  nephews  of 
Willibald  Pirkheimer.  Here  the  laxity  of  morals 
and  lack  of  religious  zeal  confirmed  a  dislike  al- 
ready formed  for  Italian  and  Roman  affairs. 
Although  repelled  by  scholastic  theology,  he  studied 
with  great  zeal  the  Bible,  Origen,  Chrysoetom,  and 
Augustine,  and,  in  1517,  acquired  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  theology  at  Ferrara.  At  Rome  he  was 
consecrated  priest  and  appointed  deacon  of  the 
Church  of  Our  Beloved  Lady  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was  inclined 
to  side  with  Luther,  but  changed  his  mind  to  re- 
tain good  relations  with  the  episcopal  court  of 
Mainz  and  with  Hieronymus  Aleander  of  Worms, 
who  applied  to  him  personally  for  the  purpose  of 


151 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oocceius 
OcBle-ByrlA 


a  discuflBion  on  the  best  means  of  opposing  Luther. 
From  this  time  he  employed  his  pen  for  the  cause 
of  Romanism. 

His  one  ambition  was  to  meet  Luther  in  a  pub- 
lic disputation,  and  with  the  aid  of  Aleander  he 
succeeded  in  being  admitted  to  private  negotia- 
tions with  Luther.  His  polemical  attacks  and  in- 
vectives overshot  the  mark  so  that  even  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  disapproved  of  his  actions.  Though 
without  friends  or  money,  his  zeal  increased  the 
more,  and  he  never  tired  of  finding  ways  to  ob- 
struct the  cause  of  Luther.  He  even 
Controversy  recommended  the  suppression  of  the 
with  Lttther.  University  of  Wittenberg.  In  1521 
he  ofifered  his  services  to  the  pope, 
but  nobody  cared  for  him  at  Rome.  It  was  not 
till  1522  that  his  first  treatise  against  Luther  ap- 
peared— De  gratia  sacrcunerUarum  liber  units  Joan- 
fits  CochUti  adveraus  asaertUmem  M,  LiUheri  (Stras- 
burg).  Luther  replied  with  his  Adversua  armatum 
virttm  CocUum,  wMch  again  was  answered  by  Coch- 
beus  in  Adversua  cucuUatum  minotaurum  Witten" 
bergeruem,  .  .  .  Deaacrarumffratiafiterum  (1523), 

In  the  autumn  of  1523  he  went  to  Rome  as  he 
did  not  feel  himself  safe  at  Frankfort,  but  returned 
early  in  1524.  Meanwhile  his  patrons  and  friends 
at  Frankfort  had  joined  the  opposing  party.  Coch- 
beus  accompanied  Campeggi,  the  papal  nimcio,  to 
the  Convention  of  Regensburg  as  interpreter  and 
member  of  the  commission  which  discussed  the 
reform  of  the  clergy.  His  position  at  Frankfort 
becoming  untenable,  he  fled  to  Cologne  in  1525, 
and  in  1526  received  a  canoniy  at  St.  Victor's  in 
Mainz.  He  attended  the  Diet  of  Speyer  in  1526, 
but  his  hope  of  holding  a  disputation  with  Luther 
was  not  fulfilled.  Although  Luther  had  ignored 
him  after  replying  to  his  first  treatise,  Cochkeus 
was  indefatigable  in  writing  polemical 
Disappoint-  tracts  against  Luther  and  the  Refor- 
mentsof  his  mation.  After  the  death  of  Hierony- 
Later  Life,  mus  Emser  in  1528  he  went  to  Dres- 
den as  adviser  and  assistant  of  Duke 
George  of  Saxony  in  his  literary  feuds  with  Luther. 
He  followed  the  duke  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  and 
was  one  of  the  Roman  theologians  commissioned 
to  refute  the  Augsburg  Confession.  His  attacks 
found  little  favor  with  the  Romanists,  and  Johann 
Eck  became  the  chief  author  of  the  ConfutaHo, 
Cochlsus's  hope  of  receiving  financial  support  from 
Rome  proved  illusoiy,  and  it  became  more  and 
more  difficult  for  him  to  get  his  numerous  unsa- 
lable pamphlets  printed.  In  1534  or  1535  George 
of  Saxony  secured  for  him  a  canonry  at  Meissen. 
Subsequently  he  was  provost  of  St.  Severus  at 
Erfurt  until  1539.  The  death  of  George  was  a 
severe  blow  for  him,  and  for  the  cause  of  Roman- 
ism. As  the  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Sax- 
ony made  it  impossible  for  him  to  retain  his  eccle- 
siastical offices,  he  accepted  in  1539  a  canonry 
from  the  cathedral  chapter  in  Breslau.  King  Fer- 
dinand called  him  to  the  diets  of  Hagenau,  Worms, 
and  Regensburg,  but  here  again  he  was  ignored. 
He  followed  with  sseal  the  preparations  for  the 
Council  of  Trent  without  being  able  to  take  part 
in  it.  He  remained  the  same  zealous  champion  of 
Roman  Catholicism  to  the  end,  although  he  found 


little  recognition,  and,  to  complete  his  tragic  fate, 
Pope  Paul  IV.  put  his  name  on  the  Index. 

Cochlseus's  Historice  HiuuiUarum  libri  xii.  (Mainz, 
1549)  is  still  valuable,  but  the  work  which  has 
made  his  name  popular  to  the  present  is  his  history 
of    Luther,    Commentaria  de  actia   et 
His  Most    scriplis  Martini  Luthert  Saxonis  chro- 
Important  nographice  ex  ordine  ab  anno  Domini 
Works.      1517  usque  ad  annum  1646  inclusive 
fideliter  conscripta  (Mainz,  1549).   The 
book  became  the  model  and  source  for  many  later 
polemical  productions,  and  the  view  expounded  in 
it  that  the  whole  Reformation  was  nothing  but  an 
incidental  jealousy  between  the  Dominican  and 
Augustinian  orders  was  believed  even  by  intelli- 
gent men.  (T.  Kolde.) 
Biblioobapbt:  U.  de  Weldige  Cremer,  De  Joanni§  Cochlai 
vita  et  ecripHa,  Manster,  1865;  K.  Otto,  Johannee  Coth- 
Icnu  der  Humaniet,   Breslau.    1874;  F.    Geas,   Johannee 
Cochlania  der  Oeoner  LutKere,   Leipsic,   1886;  M.  Spahn, 
Johannee  Cochlatue,  LebenebUd,  Berlin.  1898;  J.  KOstUn, 
Martin  Luther,  paasim,  2  vols.,  ib.  1903. 

CODMAN,  ROBERT:  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  Maine;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  30, 
1859.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  (B.A.,  1882) 
and  at  the  Harvard  Law  School,  from  which  he 
was  graduated  in  1885.  After  practising  a  few 
years,  however,  he  determined  to  take  orders,  and 
accordingly  studied  at  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1894. 
After  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  he  was  rec- 
tor of  St.  John's,  Roxbury,  Mass.,  until  1900,  when 
he  was  consecrated  third  bishop  of  the  diocese  of 
Maine. 

COB,  GEORGE  ALBERT:  American  philoso- 
pher; b.  at  Mendon,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  26,  1862.  He 
was  graduated  at  Rochester  University  (B.A., 
1884)  and  Boston  University  (Ph.D.,  1891),  and  as 
traveling  feUow  of  the  latter  institution  spent  the 
year  1890-91  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  was 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  South- 
em  California  1889-90  and  acting  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  Northwestern  University,  Evanston, 
ni.,  1891-93.  Since  the  latter  year  he  has  been 
John  Evans  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  same 
institution.  He  was  lecturer  on  the  psychology  of 
religion  in  Boston  University  in  19(X).  He  has 
written  The  Spiritudl  Life  :  Studies  in  the  Science 
of  Religion  (New  York,  1900);  The  Religion  of  a 
Mature  Mind  (Chicago,  1902);  and  Education  in 
Religion  and  Morals  (1904). 

COELDE,  DIETRICH  (Dietrich  of  Mttnster). 
See  Francis,  Saint,  of  Asisisi,  and  the  Francib- 
CAN  Order. 

C(ELE^YRIA  ("HoUow  Syria"):  The  eariy 
name  for  the  vaUey  which  separates  the  parallel 
ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  In  later 
times  the  name  came  to  have  a  wider  application 
and  to  include  the  whole  of  southern  Syria  except 
Phenicia  (cf.  Josephus,  Ant.,  XIV.  iv.  5).  It  there- 
fore contained  nearly  all  the  cities  of  Decapohs 
within  its  limits.  Though  the  name  does  not  occur 
in  the  Bible,  it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha (I  Esd.  ii.  24,  27,  iv.  48.  vi.  29;  I  Mace.  x.  69; 
II  Mace.  viii.  8,  x.  11)  and  by  Josephus  (Ant,,  XIII. 
iv.  2,  XIV.  ix.  5,  xi.  4)  and  other  writers.    It  has 


Coale-Syrla 
Oolani 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


163 


a  legendary  history  of  its  own,  attested  by  curious 
monuments.  At  Kerak  N(ih  is  shown  the  grave  of 
Noah,  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  feet  long;  and 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  plain  is  the  tomb  of  the 
prophet  Seth;  while  the  temples  at  Baalbek  (q.v.) 
have  astonished  the  world  for  many  centuries. 
Long  before  "  Toi,  King  of  Hamath/'  sent  presents 
to  David  (II  Sam.  viii.  ^11),  the  Hittites  of  that 
region  were  sufficiently  powerful  to  contend  there 
for  supremacy  with  the  Pharaohs  of  Egypt. 

This  remarkable  valley,  now  called  el-BCikA'a, 
"  the  cleft,"  extends  to  the  northeast,  from  Jubb 
Jentn,  imder  Hermon,  for  about  one  hundred  miles, 
having  an  average  width  of  seven  miles.  Its  sur- 
face as  seen  from  above  seems  to  be  quite  level; 
but  this  appearance  is  deceptive.  It  is,  in  fact,  an 
elevated  plateau  rising  gradually  northward,  until, 
at  the  northeast  end,  it  is  neariy  four  thousand  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  a  cold,  rugged,  and  barren 
region.  The  northern  end  is  drained  by  the  Orontes, 
called  el'Asy,  "  the  rebellious,"  because  its  course  is 
northward,  contrary  to  the  other  rivers  of  Syria. 
Its  most  southern  source  is  at  Lebweh,  the  Liboof 
the  ancients.  The  main  source  is  the  copious  foim- 
tain  that  flows  out  from  imder  the  cliffs  of  Lebanon, 
near  Mughftrat  al-R&hib.  Passing  below  KamCi'a 
H&rmul,  a  tmique  monument  with  hunting  scenes 
carved  upon  its  four  sides,  the  Orontes  irrigates  the 
extensive  plains  of  the  Biblical  Riblah  (II  Kings 
XXV.  6)  and  the  equally  fertile  region  around  the 
small  lake  of  Kedes.  The  shapeless  niins  near 
Tell  Neby  Mindau  may  mark  the  site  of  the  chief 
city  of  the  Hittite  kingdom.  Issuing  from  the 
artificial  lake  of  Kedes,  six  miles  south  of  Himis, 
the  river  pursues  its  winding  course  through  the 
land  of  Hamath,  past  the  extensive  ruins  of  Apamea, 
and  along  the  eastern  foot-hills  of  the  Nusairiyeh 
Mountains,  where  it  turns  westward,  and,  passing 
by  Antioch,  it  enters  the  sea  near  the  base  of  Moimt 
Casius.  The  central  and  southern  portions  of  the 
Buk&'a  are  comparatively  level,  and  their  fertility 
and  beauty  are  entirely  due  to  the  abundance  of 
water.  Perennial  streams  descend  from  the  moun- 
tains on  either  side,  and  copious  fountains  rise  in 
the  plain  itself,  in  such  positions  that  the  water 
can  be  conducted  to  all  parts  of  its  surface.  The 
center  and  south  of  the  Bukd'a  is  drained  by  the 
lit&ny,  the  ancient  Leontes,  one  of  the  longest 
and  lai^gest  rivers  of  Syria.  It  rises  at  'Ain  al- 
Sult&n,  above  Baalbek,  and  is  joined,  as  it  flows 
southward,  by  many  tributaries,  among  them  el 
Berdilny,  which  descends  from  snow-crowned 
Lebanon,  and  the  large  remitting  fountain  near 
'Anjar,  that  flows  out  from  the  very  roots  of  Anti- 
Lebanon,  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Chalcis. 
Below  Jub  Jentn  the  Lit&ny  enters  a  profound 
gorge,  along  which  it  has  worn  its  way  through 
southern  Lebanon  to  the  sea,  near  Tyre.  For  the 
history  see  Stria. 

Bibuoorapht:  G.  A.  Smith,  Historieal  Oeography  of  tht 
Holy  Land,  pp.  538-530.  553.  London.  1897;  W.  Smith, 
Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Oeographv,  p.  1071,  Lon- 
don, 1878,  and  the  literature  under  Stria. 

C(EUCaLM,  sl'1i-c6ni  ("Heaven  Worshipers"): 
A  name  applied  to  a  Christian  sect  extant  in 
northern  Africa    in   the  time  of    Augustine  (cf. 


Ejmt.,  xliv.,  NPNF,  i.  289).  They  doubtless  owe 
their  name  to  controversial  polemics.  They  seem 
to  have  laid  special  stress  on  adoration  of  the 
deity  without  images,  and  to  have  been  closely 
related  to  the  Eastern  Hypsistarians  (q.v.).  An 
edict  of  the  emperors  Honorius  and  Theodosius 
II.,  408  {Cod.  Theodo8,,X\l.  v.  43),  awarded  the 
houses  of  worship  of  the  Coelicolse  to  the  Catholic 
Church;  and  in  the  year  following  (409)  it  was 
further  decreed  that  the  Ccelicolse  must  either  adopt 
the  Christian  faith  within  a  year  or  incur,  in  the 
contrary  case,  the  penalty  imposed  upon  heresy 
{Cod,  Theodoa.,  XVI.  viii.  19).  G.  Kr^gek. 

Bxblzoorapht:  E.  SchOrer,  in  SitaungAerichte  der  Berliner 
Akademie,  1807,  pp.  200-225;  J.  M.  Schrdckh,  Christ- 
liehe  Kirchengeechichte,  vii.  442-144,  Leipuc,  1780. 

COELLN.cOhi,  DAMEL  GE0R6  KONRAD  VON: 

German  theologian;  b.  at  Oerlinghausen,  Lippe- 
Detmold,  Dec.  21, 1788;  d.  at  Breslau  Feb.  17, 1833. 
He  was  educated  at  Marbui^,  Tubingen,  and  Gi)t- 
tingen,  and  became  privat-docent  at  Marburg  1811, 
associate  professor  of  theology  1816,  and  professor 
of  theology  at  Breslau  1818.  In  a  spirit  of  modei^ 
ate  rationalism  he  wrote  Historiache  Beitrdge  zwr 
ErlaiUerung  und  Berichtigung  der  Begriffe  PietU- 
mti8,  Myaiicismiis  und  Fanaiismus  (Halberst&dt, 
1830).  His  zeal  for  the  union  of  the  two  leading 
Protestant  denominations  of  Germany  was  shown 
by  his  Ideen  aber  den  inneren  Zuaammenhang  der 
Glaubenseinigung  und  Glaubenareinigung  (Leipsic, 
1823).  The  celebration  of  the  jubilee  of  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  caused  him  and  his  friend  David 
Schulz  to  publish  their  Ueber  theologische  Lekrfrei- 
heit  auf  den  evangelischen  Universitdten  und  deren 
Beschrdnkung  durch  symbolieche  Biicher  (Breslau, 
1830),  in  which  they  condemned  the  Confession  as 
antiquated  and  advocated  the  preparation  of  a 
new  creed.  Their  position  was  attacked  by 
Schleiermacher,  and  they  replied  in  their  Ztoei  Ant- 
wortachreiben  an  Herm  D,  Friedr,  Schleiermacher 
(Leipsic,  1831),  the  controversy  ending  in  a  prac- 
tical defeat  for  the  older  theologian.  In  ad(Ution 
to  numerous  contributions  to  periodicals  and  to 
his  academic  writings,  Coelln  edited  the  first  volume 
and  a  half  of  the  third  edition  of  Wilhelm  Mun- 
scher's  Lehrbuch  der  christlichen  Dogmengeschichte 
(Cassel,  1832-34),  but  his  chief  work  was  the  Bib- 
lische  Theologie  (ed.  D.  Schulz,  2  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1836),  which  was  long  the  standard  on  its  subject, 
especially  for  the  Old  Testament. 

(G.  FRANKt-) 
Bxblioorapht:  A  memoir  by  D.  Sohuls  was  prefixed  to  the 
Bibliecfie  TheoloffU.    Consult  ADB,  iv.  391. 

C(EMGEN,  kem'gen  (KEVIN),  SAUVT.OF  GLEN- 
DALOUGH:  A  very  popular  Irish  hermit  saint 
of  the  fifth  century,  whose  story  is  given  here  as 
typical  of  those  of  his  kind.*    He  is  said  to  have 

•  With  reeard  to  the  alleged  histories  of  the  early  Irish 
saints  the  BoIIandists  remark  (June,  iii.  331,  com,  hitt  to 
Ufe  of  8.  Molingus  or  Dayrgellus):  "To  such  a  degrse  are 
the  same  things  related  of  all  Irish  saiats  that  it  is  difficult 
to  believe  them.  For  example,  baptism  is  received  from 
an  angel,  future  sanctity  is  foretold  in  boyhood,  the  hermit 
life  is  followed  in  a  hollow  tree,  a  forward  woman  shovinC 
her  preference  too  boldly  is  flogged,  and  there  is  a  wonder- 
ful power  over  the  animal  world." 


158 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OoBle-Syria 
Oolani 


died  June  3,  618,  at  the  age  of  120  years.  His 
parents  were  Christians  and  had  their  son  edu- 
cated by  Petitx;,  a  pious  Briton,  and  by  holy  men 
in  Ireland.  When  a  young  girl  showed  a  liking 
for  Coemgen  he  flogged  her  with  nettles.  Find- 
ing a  lonely  valley  with  a  lake  overshadowed  by 
mountains  (Glendalough,  County  Wicklow,  8  m. 
n.w.  of  Rathdrum),  he  settled  there,  living  in  a 
hollow  tree,  and  subsisting  on  herbs  and  water. 
Afterward  he  was  admitted  to  the  priesthood,  and 
returned  to  Glendalough,  where  he  founded  a 
monastery.  Then  he  withdrew  some  little  dis- 
tance, giving  orders  that  no  one  should  come  to 
him,  and  spent  four  years  in  his  new  retreat  in 
fasting  and  prayer.  For  a  time  he  was  prevailed 
upon  to  leave  his  hermit  life  and  rejoin  the  monks 
in  his  monastery,  but  he  soon  returned  to  solitude. 
The  birds  and  beasts  were  his  familiar  companions, 
"  the  branches  and  leaves  of  the  trees  sang  sweet 
songs  to  him,"  and  he  received  celestial  visitors. 
Then  he  was  seized  with  the  desire  of  wandering, 
visited  holy  men  in  various  parts  of  Ireland,  and 
had  in  mind  a  longer  journey,  but  gave  it  up  on 
the  advice  of  a  hermit,  who  told  him  that  "  it  was 
more  becoming  for  him  to  fix  himself  in  one  place 
than  to  ramble  here  and  there  in  his  old  age,  as  he 
could  not  but  know  that  no  bird  could  hatch  her 
e^  while  flying."  So  he  went  back  to  his  her- 
mitage. When  the  king  of  Ireland  invaded  Lein- 
ster  Ccemgen  advised  the  local  king  to  fight  for 
his  country;  and  the  invader  was  utterly  defeated 
and  slain.  Remains  of  Ccemgen's  monastery  still 
exist  in  Glendalough  and  a  cave  is  shown  as  "  St. 
Ccemgen's  Bed." 

BiBLioaRAPHT:  i45B,  Juxie,  i.  303-313;  Lanigan,  Bed.  HUt., 
iL  43-50;  G.  Petrie.  Th€  Ecclena9tioal  Architecture  of 
IreUxnd,  pp.  170-174.  247-267,  DubUn.  1846;  J.  Healy, 
Jneuia  aanetorum,  pp.  414  aqq.,  Dublin.  1890. 


CCENOBITES.    See  Monabticibm. 

COITy  STANTON:  Ethical  culturist;  b.  at  Colum- 
bus, O.,  Aug.  II,  1857.  He  was  graduated  at 
Amherst  in  1879,  studied  at  Columbia  and  the 
University  of  Berlm  (Ph.D.,  1885),  and  after  act- 
ing as  pastor  of  the  South  Place  Chapel,  London, 
E.  C,  in  1888-91,  withdrew  from  the  ministry,  and 
in  1892-93  was  head  of  the  University  Settlement 
in  New  York.  Since  1897  he  has  been  chairman 
of  the  Moral  Instruction  League,  London,  and  was 
also  lecturer  for  the  West  London  Ethical  Society 
m  1892  and  1906.  In  theology  he  denies  the  need 
of  a  belief  in  immortality  or  in  supernatural  beings, 
and  would  transform  churohes  into  ethical  socie- 
ties. He  18  editor  of  the  weekly  Ethical  Remew, 
and  has  written  Neighbourhood  Ouilda  (London, 
1890)  and  Die  ethiachen  Bewegungen  in  der  Religion 
(Leipsic,  1890). 

COS:£,  THOMAS:  First  Methodist  bishop;  b. 
at  Brecon,  Wales,  Sept.  9,  1747;  d.  at  sea  on  a 
voyage  to  Ceylon  May  3,  1814.  He  studied  at 
Jesus  CoUege,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1768;  M.A.,  1770; 
D.C.L.,  1775);  took  orders  in  the  English  Church 
and  became  curate  at  South  Petherton,  Somerset; 
fell  under  Methodist  influences  and  in  1777  openly 
joined  that  body  and  attended  the  conference  at 
BrifltoL    He  gave  much  help  to  Wesley,  who  styled 


him  "  his  right  hand  ";  in  1782  he  became  first 
president  of  the  Irish  conference;  in  1784  he  was 
set  apart  by  Wesley  at  Bristol  as  "  superintendent  " 
for  America.  Wesley  did  not  approve  of  the  title 
bishop,  which  the  American  conference  adopted  in 
1787  at  Coke's  instigation.  The  latter,  with  two 
elders,  arrived  in  America,  Nov.,  1784,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  the  famous  Christmas  conference  at  Bal- 
timore, at  which  he  ordained  Francis  Asbury  as 
superintendent.  With  Asbury  he  drew  up  the 
Doctrinea  and  Discipline  for  the  Methodist  Church 
in  America.  He  niade  nine  voyages  to  America 
(the  last  in  1803)  and  fulfilled  his  duties  there  ener- 
getically and  well.  He  was  a  leader  in  England 
after  Wesley's  death  (1791),  and  was  indefatigable 
in  the  cause  of  missions.  In  1813  he  wished  an 
appointment  .fjom  the  government  as  bishop  of 
India  and  offered  to  return  to  the  Established 
Church;  when  the  proposal  was  rejected  he  fur- 
nished funds  himself  to  establish  a  Methodist  mis- 
sion there,  sailed  with  a  band  of  helpers,  but  died 
on  the  voyage.  His  numerous  publications  in- 
clude Extracts  of  the  Journals  of  the  Rev.  Dr,  Cokeys 
Five  Visits  to  America  (London,  1793);  a  life  of 
John  Wesley  (1792),  prepared  in  collaboration 
with  Henry  Moore  (see  Wesley,  John);  A  Com," 
mentary  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (6  vols., 
1801-03);  A  History  of  the  West  Indies  (3  vols., 
Liverpool,  1808-11). 

BiBLioomAPHT:  LivM  were  published  by:  8.  Drew,  New 
York,  1837.  and  J.  W.  Etheridge,  London.  1860;  cf.  L. 
Tyennan,  lAfe  and  Timee  of  John  Weeley,  voL  iii.,  ib. 
1871;  W.  Moister.  The  Father  of  our  Mieeione,  ib.  1871; 
DNB,  xL  247-249. 

COLANI,  cd'aa'^ni',  TIMOTHEE:  French  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Lem4,  near  Sains  (190  m.  n.e.  of 
Paris),  department  of  Aisne,  Jan.  29,  1824;  d.  at 
Grindelwald,  Switzerland,  Sept.  2,  1888.  He  was 
a  son  of  the  Reformed  minister  at  Lem^,  and  a 
zealous  adherent  of  the  Riveil,  who  brought  him 
up  in  a  narrow  dogmatism  which  was  enhanced 
by  influences  at  NeuchAtel  and  by  the  Moravians 
of  the  Komthal.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  went 
to  Strasburg  to  study  theology.  Influenced  by 
Reuss,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  also  studied  philosophy,  history, 
and  literature.  In  1845  he  finished  his  academical 
studies  and  published  a  dissertation  on  Kant's 
religious  philosophy.  Two  years  later  he  obtained 
a  theolo^cal  licentiate  by  a  treatise  on  the  idea  of 
the  absolute.  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  La  R^ 
formation  aulQkme  sikiU,  edited  by  Edmond  Scherer 
at  Geneva,  which  represented  the  individualistic 
ideas  of  Vinet. 

He  now  considered  it  his  duty  to  contribute  to 
the  regeneration  of  theological  science  in  France. 
An  impulse  had  already  been  given  by  the  Stras- 
burg faculty,  but  without  lasting  efifect;  and  the 
orthodoxy  of  a  Grandpierre  and  Adolphe  Monod 
had  full  sway.  In  1849  Edmond  Scherer,  till  then 
professor  at  the  independent  theological  school  in 
Geneva,  published  his  two  letters  on  criticism  and 
faith,  in  which  he  pointed  out  a  revision  of  church 
dogmas  and  the  return  to  the  original  ideas  of  the 
Gospel  as  the  task  of  modem  theology.  Colani 
soon  joined  him  and  together  they  founded  the 


Gk>lani 
Ckilaridffe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


154 


Revue  de  th^hgie  et  de  phUoaophie  chritienne,  which 
under  Colani's  direction  became  the  organ  of  the 
''  Strasburg  School."  From  1856  Colani  preached 
often,  and  in  vol.  xiv.  of  the  Revue  he  developed 
his  ideas  on  the  sermon.  The  attacks  upon  his 
manner  of  preaching  induced  him  to  publish  first 
some  of  his  discourses  {UlndividtuUisme  chrHien, 
Le  Sacerdoce  univerael,  L*£ducatum  protestarUe), 
and  afterward  three  collections ,  Sermons  prichis  d 
Strasbourg  (Strasburg,  1857),  Nouveaux  sermons 
(1860), and  Quatre  sermons  prCchis  h  Nimes  (1861). 
The  fame  which  Colani  had  acquired  seemed  to 
point  him  out  for  one  of  the  first  places  in  church 
or  school;  but  the  authorities  were  afraid  to  sanc- 
tion officially  his  ideas.  For  this  reason  he  had  to 
support  hiinself  for  years  as  private  tutor.  His 
appointment  in  1861  as  lecturer  on  French  litera- 
ture at  the  Protestant  Seminary  in  Strasburg  raised 
a  storm  of  protest.  Still  greater  and  louder  was 
the  protest  when,  a  few  montlis  later  (May  15, 1862), 
he  was  appointed  pastor  of  the  French  congregation 
of  St.  Nicolas,  and  two  years  later  professor  of 
homiletics  in  the  theological  faculty  and  professor 
of  philosophy  at  the  Protestant  seminary.  In 
1864  he  was  made  doctor  of  theology  after 
publishing  his  noteworthy  work  J^sus<!hrist  et  les 
croyances  messianiques  de  son  temps  (Strasburg, 
1864).  Toward  the  end  of  that  year  he  commenced 
his  lectures  on  homiletics,  catechetics,  and  liturgies 
in  the  theological  faculty,  and  on  philosophy  at  the 
Protestant  seminary.  His  lectures,  distinguished 
by  scientific  depth,  keen  judgment,  and  elegant 
form,  attracted  a  large  audience.  In  1866  he  re- 
signed the  pastorate  to  devote  himself  wholly  to 
his  two  professorships.  The  war  of  1870,  however, 
compelled  him  to  leave  Strasburg;  he  joined  Gam- 
betta  at  Bordeaux  and  devoted  himself  to  politics. 
He  now  renounced  theology,  but  took  part  as  a 
lay  delegate  in  the  deliberations  at  the  synod  of 
the  Reformed  Church  of  France  in  1872,  and  with 
great  eloquence  advocated  Protestant  liberty.  For 
a  time  interested  in  an  industrial  undertaking  at 
Royon,  Colani  founded  in  1876  a  literary  journal, 
Le  Courrier  litt&aire,  published  at  Paris.  He  after- 
ward became  sublibrarian  of  the  Sorboime,  editor 
of  the  Gambettistic  journal  La  R&publique  fran- 
CaisSf  and  contributor  to  La  NouveUe  Revue.  He 
was  chosen  as  editor  of  Le  Temps  in  1888,  but  his 
death  intervened.  Over  against  the  rationalistic 
and  orthodox  intellectualism  Colani  emphasized 
again  the  mystical  and  ethical  element  in  Chris- 
tianity ;  and  against  the  principle  of  authority,  the 
right  of  historical  and  iimer  criticism.  He  brought 
about  a  change  of  the  Protestant  theology  of  France 
in  a  strictly  scientific  sense.  T.  Gerold. 

Bibuoorapht:  A  biographical  notice  may  be  found  in 
ProQrk%  rdiffieux,  Strasbuiv,  1888.  nos.  40  sqq.,  and  an- 
other by  J.  Reinacb  in  a  posthumous  volume  of  Ettau, 
Paris.  1805. 

COLARBASUS,    COLARBASIANS.    See   Valen- 

TINUS  AND  HIS  ScHOOL. 

COLEMAK,  LEI6HT0N:  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  Delaware;  b.  at  Philadelphia  May  3, 
1837*,  d.  at  Wilmington,  Del,  Dec.  14.  1907. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Academy  in    his   native   city   and    the   General 


Theological  Seminary,  New  York  City,  from  which 
he  was  graduated  in  1861.  He  was  rector  of  St. 
Luke's,  Bustleton,  Pa.  (1861-63),  St.  John's,  Wil- 
mington, Del.  (1863-66),  St.  Mark's,  Mauch  Chunk, 
Pa.  (1866-74),  and  Trinity  Church,  Toledo,  O. 
(1874-79).  From  1879  to  1887  he  resided  in  Eng- 
land, and  on  his  return  to  the  United  States  was 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Redeemer,  Sayre,  Pa., 
in  1887-88.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Delaware.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
American  Church  Temperance  Society  1900-06  and 
frequently  member  of  important  ecclesiastical  com- 
mittees. In  theology  he  was  a  Catholic  Churchman, 
and  as  such  energetically  maintained  the  cardinal 
doctrines  of  the  Church  and  Christianity.  He  pub- 
lished: History  of  the  Lehigh  VaUey  (Philadelphia, 
1868);  History  of  the  American  Chtarch  (London, 
1895);  and  Popular  History  of  the  American  Church 
(1906). 

COLEMANy  LYMAN:  Congregationalist;  b.  at 
Middlefield,  Mass.,  June  14,  1796;  d.  at  Easton. 
Pa.,  Mar.  16,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
1817;  was  principal  of  the  Latin  Grammar  School 
at  Hartford  1817-20;  tutor  in  Yale  1820-25;  stu- 
dent of  theology,  and  for  seven  years  pastor  of  the 
Belchertown  (Mass.)  Congregational  Church.  He 
resigned,  spent  two  years  in  foreign  travel,  held 
various  positions,  until  in  1862  he  became  professor 
of  Latin  in  Lafayette  College.  He  published:  An- 
tiquities of  the  Chrietian  Church  (Philadelphia, 
1841),  a  translation  and  compilation  from  Augusti'a 
Christliche  Arch&oiogie  and  other  German  works; 
Ancient  Christianity  Exemplified  (1852);  Historical 
Text-hook  and  Atlas  of  Biblical  Geography  (1854); 
and  Prelacy  and  Ritualism  (1869). 

COLENSO,  JOHN  WILLIAM:  Bishop  of  Natal; 
b.  at  St.  Austell  (13  m.  n.n.e.  of  Truro),  Cornwall, 
Jan.  24,  1814;  d.  at  Durban,  Natal,  June  20,  1883. 
After  taking  his  degree  at  Cambridge  (St.  John's 
College)  in  1836,  he  was  an  assistant  master  at 
Harrow  (1839-42),  and  then  returned  to  St.  John's, 
of  which  he  had  been  a  fellow  since  1837,  as  tutor 
for  four  years.  From  1846  to  1853  he  was  vicar 
of  Fomcett  St.  Mary  in  Norfolk,  and  in  1853  be- 
came the  first  bishop  of  the  new  see  of  Natal  in 
South  Africa.  He  worked  zealously  for  the  con- 
version of  the  natives,  for  whom  he  wrote  man- 
uals of  instruction  both  sacred  and  secular  in  the 
Zulu  language,  as  well  as  a  Zulu  granunar  and 
dictionary.  Suspicion  as  to  his  orthodoxy  was 
aroused  by  his  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  (1861);  and  when  his  Pentateuch  and 
Book  of  Joshua  Critically  Examined  (7  parts,  Lon- 
don, 1862-79)  began  to  appear,  its  line  of  thought 
(originally  suggested  to  him  by  the  questions  of 
his  simple  Zulu  converts)  and  especiaUy  his  call- 
ing in  question  the  historical  accuracy  and  tradi- 
tional authorship  of  these  books,  wherein  he  an- 
ticipated many  of  the  ideas  of  later  scholarship, 
aroused  a  perfect  storm  of  opposition.  His  metro- 
politan, Bishop  Gray  of  Cape  Town,  put  him  on 
trial  and  deposed  him  at  the  end  of  1863,  while  his 
book  was  condemned  in  the  following  year  by  both 
houses  of  the  Convocation  of  Canterbuiy.  Deny- 
ing Bishop  Gray's  jurisdiction,  Colenso  appealed 


166 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oolaail 


to  the  Crown,  and  the  judicial  committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  pronounced  his  deposition  null  and 
void.  A  state  of  schism  ensued,  Colenso  main- 
taining himself  as  still  lawfully  bishop  of  Natal, 
whfle  out  of  communion  with  the  rest  of  the  An- 
glican body  in  South  Africa,  which  set  up  the 
bishopric  of  Bfaritzburg  to  take  the  place  of  Natal. 
Bishop  Colenso  was  a  warm  friend  of  the  Zulus, 
and  in  the  later  part  of  his  life  alienated  many  of 
his  English  adherents  in  South  Africa  by  his  advo- 
cacy of  their  cause.  In  1875  he  visited  England 
to  obtain  justice  for  a  native  chief  against  the  local 
authorities,  and  in  the  war  with  Cetywayo  in  1879 
and  following  years  he  stood  boldly  for  right  treat- 
ment of  the  king  and  his  people  regardless  of  the 
fears  and  selfish  interests  of  the  colonists.  Be- 
sides the  works  already  mentioned,  he  published 
two  volumes  of  NaUd  Sermons  (London,  186^-68) 
and  The  New  Bible  Commentary  by  Bishops  and 
Other  Clergy  of  the  Anglican  Church  [i.e.,  the 
"Speaker's  Conmientary,"  ed.  F.  C.  Cook,  which 
was  gotten  up  largely  to  answer  his  views]  Crit- 
icaUy  Examined  (6  parts,  London,  1871-74). 

BiBuoomiiPRT:  For  list  of  writiocs  by  and  on  Bishop 
Colenso.  consult:  G.  C.  Boase  and  W.  D.  Courtney.  Bib- 
liotkeea  ComtUnenais,  i.  76-79,  iii.  1125-27.  London, 
1874-81;  Lif9  is  by  Q.  W.  Cox,  2  vols.,  ib.  1888;  DNB, 
XL  290-203. 

COLERIDGEy  SAMUEL  TAYLOR:  A  famous 
English  poet,  philosopher,  and  critic;  b.  at  Ottery 
St.  Maiy  (12  m.  e.  of  Exeter)  Oct.  21,  1772;  d. 
in  London  July  25,  1834.  After  gaining  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  the  classics,  and  of  Shakespeare 
and  Milton,  at  the  "  Bluecoat  School  "  in  London, 
he  was  sent  in  1791  to  Jesus  College,  Cambridge. 
He  suddenly  left  the  university  without  a  degree 
in  1793,  and  enlisted  in  a  regiment  of  dragoons, 
from  which,  however,  his  friends  procured  his  dis- 
charge not  long  afterward.  He  decided  now  to 
devote  himself  to  a  literary  career,  and  joined 
Southey  at  Bristol,  forming  part  of  a  group  of  en- 
thusiastic young  men  who  hidled  the  French  Revo- 
lution as  the  beginning  of  a  new  order  of  things. 
They  dreamed  of  foimding  a  sort  of  communistic 
cobny,  to  which  they  gave  the  high-sounding 
name  of  Pantisocracy,  on  the  banks  of  the  Susque- 
hanna. Southey  soon  saw  the  futility  of  the  un- 
dertaking, and  withdrew  from  it;  and  Coleridge 
settled  for  a  while  at  Nether  Stowey,  near  Bridge- 
water,  in  Somersetshire,  whither  presently  Words- 
worth also  came.  The  two  friends,  du  r- 
Life.  ing  their  long  walks  and  talks,  felt  the 
need  of  applying  their  principles  of  free- 
dom to  literature,  and  especially  to  poetry.  They 
broke  altogether  with  the  stiff,  artificial  style  which 
had  been  the  rule  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
boldly  proclaimed  their  intention  of  going  straight  to 
nature  for  both  subject  and  manner  of  treatment. 
Their  first  appearance  in  print  after  this  decision 
was  taken — ^anonymous,  so  little  confidence  had 
they  in  its  reception — ^was  with  the  epoch-making 
book  Lyrical  Ballads  (1798),  which  is  usually  con- 
sidered as  marking  the  formal  beginning  of  the 
English  romantic  movement.  Coleridge's  con- 
tributions to  the  book  were  only  four  in  number, 
of  which  "  The  Ancient  Mariner  '*  was  the  most 


important.  In  fact,  there  is  probably  no  poet  in 
the  whole  range  of  English  literature  to  whom  so 
high  a  rank  has  been  universally  conceded  on  the 
basis  of  so  small  a  body  of  first-rate  poetry,  in- 
cluding, besides  the  poem  mentioned,  especially 
"  Chnstabel,"  "  Kubla  Khan,"  and  "  Genevieve." 
Coleridge  made  a  trip  to  Germany  in  the  company 
of  Wordsworth  and  his  sister  Dorothy,  spent  some 
time  at  G6ttingen,  and  became  absorbed  in  the 
philosophy  of  Kant,  which  he  was  the  first  to  in- 
troduce to  his  coimtrymen.  Indeed,  the  main 
purpose  of  his  later  life  was  the  interpretation  and 
enforcement  of  its  principles.  With  the  exception 
of  a  year  in  Malta  and  Rome,  he  spent  most  of  the 
time  until  1810  with  his  friends  in  the  Lake  Dis- 
trict, after  which  he  went  to  London,  and  for  the 
last  nineteen  years  of  his  life  was  an  inmate  of  the 
house  of  Dr.  Gillman  at  Highgate  Hill.  Gillman's 
influence  and  care  finally  succeeded  in  weaning 
him  from  the  opiiun  habit,  to  which,  at  first  imder 
the  stress  of  physical  suffering,  he  had  become  en- 
slaved. He  pkmned  many  books,  and  partly  exe- 
cuted a  few;  but  he  exerted  more  power  in  wonder- 
ful conversations  with  his  friends,  including  a  large 
number  of  yoi^mger  men  who,  as  his  reputation  for 
transcendental  wisdom  increased,  resorted  to  him 
as  an  oracle.  The  combination  of  manifold  gifts 
which  he  possessed  was,  in  a  way,  a  hindrance  to 
achievement.  He  was  too  much  of  a  poet  to  be 
a  strict  philosopher,  and  too  much  of  a  philoso- 
pher, at  least  in  his  later  life,  to  give  free  play  to 
his  marvelous  poetic  faculty.  Moreover,  with  all 
his  learning,  he  was  lacking  in  the  energy  neces- 
sary to  fuse  into  one  whole,  according  to  a  definite 
plan,  the  scattered  material  of  which  his  mind  was 
full.  He  was  a  very  great  critic;  in  fact  the  de- 
cided opinion  of  so  competent  a  judge  as  Mr.  Saints- 
bury  (History  of  Criticism,  iii.  230,  London,  1904) 
is  that  he  deserves  in  this  capacity  the  third  rank, 
surpassed  only  by  Aristotle  and  Longinus.  Not 
the  least  of  the  services  which  he  rendered  as  a 
critic  was  the  restoration  of  Shakespeare  to  his 
rightful  position,  after  the  oblivion  into  which  the 
eighteenth  century  had  cast  him. 

Coleridge  had  especially  what  is  called  a  "  semi- 
nal "  mind;  there  was  probably  no  one  in  his  gen- 
eration who  sowed  the  seeds  of  so  many  ideas 
which  were  destined  later  to  bring  forth  much 
fruit.  Even  more  than  in  poetry,  he  was  the  orig- 
inator of  new  tendencies  in  religious  thought.  On 
account  of  the  desultory  and  fragmentary  way  in 
which  he  left  his  reflections,  it  is  not  easy  to  bring 
his  views  into  a  clear  and  definite  system.  While 
some  have  seen  in  him  a  convinced  defender  of 
revealed  religion  against  deism  and  pantheism, 
others  have  thought  that  he  was  a  pantheist  him- 
self, or  at  least  a  thorough  Neoplatonist.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  he  passed  through  successive 
phases  of  belief,  from  the  empiricsi  philosophy 

through  pantheism  to  Christian  theism. 

His  Religion  In  his  youthful  ambition  for  freedom, 

and  Philoe-  he  cut  loose  from  the  dogmas  of  the 

ophy.        Church  of  England  and  threw  in  his 

lot  with  the  Unitarian  movement.  Of 
his  German  masters  he  followed  Kant  most 
closely,  though  he  went  a  good  deal  beyond  him 


Ooleiiace 
Oolismy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


156 


in  a  positive  direction.  At  the  same  time  he  adopt- 
ed not  a  few  Neoplatonist  ideas,  and  so  finally  by 
this  eclectic  process  built  up  the  fabric  of  belief 
which  is  found  in  his  Biographia  lUeraria  (1816), 
still  more  in  his  Aids  to  Reflection  (1825),  and 
also  in  his  essay  On  the  ConstUiUion  of  Church  and 
StaU  (1S2Q), 

Coleridge  recognizes  the  equality  of  the  claims 
of  belief  and  knowledge;  but  as  he  wishes  to  hold 
the  entire  content  of  revelation,  especially  the  spe- 
cifically Christian  doctrines,  he  is  anxious  to  show 
the  reasonable  nature  of  revelation.  The  Chris- 
tian faith  is  a  perfect  completion  of  human  reason; 
but  the  less  this  truth  is  generally  recognized  the 
more  necessary  it  is  to  clear  away  nusunderstand- 
ings  which  lead  to  false  conclusions.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  his  intellectual  process  man  must  know 
himself,  in  order  to  rise  to  the  knowledge  of  God, 
in  whose  likeness  he  is  created.  Now  man  finds 
in  himself  a  spiritual  element,  which  is  his  will. 
This  will,  however,  is  limited  on  one  side  by  the 
law  of  conscience,  on  the  other  by  the  existence  of 
evil.  In  accordance  with  this  foundation,  religion 
is  essentially  ethical — its  aim  a  practical  one,  the 
moral  and  intellectual  elevation  of  mankind. 
Questions  of  Christian  doctrine  must  thus  be  de- 
cided by  the  practical  reason  rather  than  by  the 
intellect.  Speculative  thought  has  no  place  in 
religion  but  the  formal  and  negative  one  of  show- 
ing that  the  Christian  doctrines  do  not  contradict 
himian  reason.  This  practical  reason,  the  source 
of  our  religious  knowledge,  is  the  gift  of  God,  who 
is  himself  the  highest  Reason  and  in  whose  light 
we  see  light.  It  is  an  intuitive  power,  and  the 
ideas  perceived  by  it  are  of  a  true  reality.  In  re- 
gard to  the  relation  of  this  practical  reason  to  Holy 
Scripture,  Coleridge  says  that  the  Gospel  must  be 
taken  at  its  own  valuation — ^not  as  a  theological 
system  of  theoretical  propositions  designed  to  en- 
lai^  our  knowledge,  whether  ethical  or  metaphys- 
ical, but  as  a  historical  narrative  recounting  or 
explaining  certain  facts  which,  though  they  are  doc- 
trinal truths,  are  none  the  less  facts.  The  Bible  is 
inspired  only  so  far  as  it  bring?  the  voice  of  God 
to  the  heart. 

Eveiything  must  be  considered  in  the  light  of 
the  significance  it  has  for  the  moral  life  of  man- 
kind. The  ethical  character  of  Coleridge  thus 
comes  out  especially  in  his  doctrine  of  sin,  regen- 
eration, and  justification.  Sin  has  its  source  in 
the  wiQ,  which  inclines  to  evil  and  thus  loses  its 
freedom  and  power  for  good;  but  it  can  liberate 
itself  once  more,  by  renewed  subjection  to  the  light 
of  God  in  the  conscience,  to  become  again  a  ra- 
tional will.  This  is  regeneration,  by  which  man 
recovers  the  possibility  of  vital  intercourse  with 
the  divine  spirit.  Redemption  is  thus  an  ethical 
act  of  the  subject,  and  there  is  no  room  in  this 
scheme  for  an  objective  redemption.  Salvation  is 
indeed  said  to  proceed  from  Christ;  but  his  person 
as  well  as  his  work  remains  a  mystery,  since  the 
capacity  of  suffering  is  inconsistent  with  his  divine 
attributes,  and  a  vicarious  sacrifice  with  ethical 
conceptions.  In  the  attempt  to  include  the  whole 
content  of  revelation,  Coleridge  admits  the  possi- 
bility of  believing  doctrines  which  transcend  hu- 


man reason.  Some  of  these,  like  that  of  the  Trin- 
ity, he  does  not  consider  objects  of  the  practical 
reason,  although  he  says  that  the  true  idea  of  God 
includes  such  a  notion.  His  understanding  of  it 
is  based  on  Neoplatonism.  The  Logos,  the  divine 
light,  is  immanent  in  humanity.  He  has  revealed 
himself  in  history,  in  religion,  as  well  as  in  philos- 
ophy and  poetry — ^most  perfectly  in  Christ  and 
Christianity,  but  Socrates  and  Plato  have  a  place 
beside  Paul  and  John.  The  Logos  leads  mankind 
to  ever  higher  moral  and  intellectual  development, 
not  only  in  this  life  but  also  in  the  next;  and  thus 
the  restoration  of  all  things  is  made  possible. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  attempt  to  widen 
Christianity  into  a  religion  embracing  all  that  is 
true,  good,  and  beautiful  in  the  world  should  have 
met  with  strong  opposition  and  equally  strong  ap- 
proval. Coleridge's  modest  earnestness,  the  pa- 
cific tone  of  his  argument,  the  mystical  element  in 
the  intuitive  reason,  the  emphasis  laid  upon  the 
ethical  side  of  Christianity,  the  reconciliation  of 
faith  and  knowledge,  the  recognition  of  good  in 
any  form,  and  the  wide  freedom  given  to  individual 
conceptions  were  characteristics  which  appealed  to 
many  minds  in  that  period  more  than  any  other 
form  of  Christian  belief.  Those  who  were  influ- 
enced by  this  teaching,  though  they  did  not  go  so 
far  as  to  foimd  a  new  church,  took  up  some  ele- 
ment or  elements  of  it  and  developed  them  further 
along  the  same  lines;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  Coleridge  was  the  originator  of  the  Broad- 
church  or  liberal  movement  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land which  was  so  striking  a  feature  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

Bibuoorapht:  Materials  for  a  life  are  found  in  his  own 
Biooraphia  literaria,  ed.  with  notes  by  his  nephew.  H.  N. 
Ck>leridKe,  for  Bohn't  Library,  1866;  in  the  Table  Talk  and 
Omniana,  ed.  for  the  same  series  by  T.  Ashe.  1888.  re- 
published by  Bell.  1905;  and  in  his  Miscellanie*,  ed. 
Ashe,  1888.  Various  LeUert  appear  in  Sir  H.  Davy '3 
FroffmerUary  Remaina,  London.  1858;  in  C.  K.  Paul's 
W.  Godwin,  ib.  1876;  in  Franr't  Magazine,  July.  1878: 
Weatminater  Review,  April  and  July,  1870;  and  in  E.  V. 
Lucas's  CharUa  Lamb  and  the  Lloyda,  New  York,  189S. 
Ck>leridKe  BibHographiea  are  provided  by  R.  H.  Shep- 
herd, London,  1001,  and  by  J.  L.  Haney.  ib.  1904.  Lives 
are  by:  J.  D.  Campbell,  ib.  1894  (a  critical  study  of  the 
life,  not  going  into  the  literary  work);  A.  Brandl,  Berlin, 
1886,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1887;  H.  Caine.  ib.  1887; 
W.  Pater,  in  AppreciaHona,  ib.  1889;  H.  D.  Traill,  in 
EnoU^  Men  of  Lettera  Seriea,  ib.  1890;  cf.  L.  Stephen. 
Houra  in  a  Library,  ib.  1892;  W.  Watson,  in  ExatTtioM 
in  CriHdam,  ib.  1893.  Consult  further  the  essays  by  W. 
G.  T.  Shedd  and  J.  Marsh  in  the  Complate  Worka  of  Cole- 
ridge, i.  9-64.  67-110,  New  York,  1856;  J.  Tulloch,  Mait- 
ment  of  Relioioua  Thouf^  in  Britain,  pp.  1-40.  ib.  1886. 

COLET,  JOHN:  One  of  the  "reformers  before 
the  Reformation";  b.,  probably  in  London,  1466  or 
1467;  d.  there  Sept.  16,  1519.  He  studied  at  Ox- 
ford and  on  the  Continent.  In  1497  he  began  to 
give  lectures  on  the  New  Testament  at  Oxford. 
Rejecting  the  allegorical  interpretation  and  the 
scholastic  method,  he  aimed  to  get  at  the  sense,  and 
he  showed  independence  by  suggesting  that  the 
first  chapters  of  Genesis  were  poetry.  At  Oxford 
he  met  Erasmus  and  became  his  intimate  friend. 
In  1504  he  was  made  dean  of  St.  Paul's  and  took 
the  degree  of  D.D.;  he  introduced  expository 
preaching  and  a  perpetual  divinity  lecture  on  three 
days  in  each  week.    In  1505  he  inherited  a  fortune 


157 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oolerid«e 
Ooligny 


from  his  father,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  shortly 
after  applied  to  the  foundation  of  St.  Paurs  School. 
In  1509  he  prepared  in  English  a  little  treatise  on 
Latin  accidence  for  the  boys  in  St.  Paul's  School, 
to  which  William  Lilly,  head  master  of  the  school, 
famished  a  syntax;  it  was  probably  printed  about 
1510,  and  has  been  reprinted  many  times  since,  even 
as  late  as  1836.  A  Right  Fruitful  Admonition  con- 
ceming  the  Order  of  a  Good  Christian  Man's  Life 
Made  by  the  Famous  Dr.  Colet  was  first  printed  in 
1534;  later  it  came  to  be  known  as  Daily  Devotions, 
or  the  Christian's  morning  and  evening  sacrifice,  and 
to  include  matter  not  by  Colet. 

BiBUOGiiAPBT:  His  manuscripts  have  been  published  with 
transL  and  notes,  5  vols.,  London,  1867-74.  by  J.  H. 
Lupton,  who  edited  and  translated  Erasmus's  life  of 
Colet.  ib.  1883.  and  wrote  A  Life  of  Dean  Colet,  ib.  1887 
(the  beet  nuxlem  life).  Consxilt:  F.  Seebohm,  Three  Ox- 
jard  Reformer;  Colet,  Eraemite,  More,  ib.  1887;  A.  J. 
Mason,  Leeturf  on  Colet^  Fiaher,  and  More,  ib.  1895; 
DNB,  3d.  321-328. 

COUGHY,   c6"ll"nyi',    GASPARD  DE:    French 
statesman  and  Huguenot  leader;    b.  at  Ch&tillon- 
Eur-Loing   (80   m.  s.e.    of    Paris)   Feb.    16,   1516; 
assassinated  at  Paris  Aug.  24,  1572.     He  was  the 
second  son  of   Gaspard  de  Chdtillon,    marshal   of 
France  (d.  1522),  and  Louise  de  Montmorency,  a 
sister  of  the  famous  constable  of  France,  but  became 
the  head  of  the  family  in  1533.     He  had  thorough 
military  and  diplomatic  training,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  character  of  singular  purity.     He  fought 
with  great  distinction  against  Charles  V.  (1542-44), 
and  in  1547  was  made  commander  of  the  French 
infantry.     In  1552  he  was  made  admiral  of  France, 
and  in  1555  governor  of  Picardy.     As 
I.  Life  to     such  he  signed  the  armistice  of  Van- 
1559-  Con-  celles  Feb.  5,  1166;   but  when  Henry 
version  to  II.  broke  it  he  fought  valiantly,  de- 
Protestant-  spite  his  disapproval  of  the  act,  and 
ism.        after  the  defeat  of  the  constable  at 
St.  Quentin,  Aug.  10, 1557,  he  actually 
saved  Paris  by  holding  the  city  of  St.  Quentin  for 
seventeen  days,  thus  enabling  the  French  to  reor- 
ganize their  army.    On  its  siurender  he  was  carried 
a  prisoner  into  the  Netherlands,  where  he  was  con- 
fined first  at  Sluis  and  then  at  Ghent,  until  ransomed 
at  enormous  expense  after  the  peace  of  Ch4teau- 
Cambr^sis  (Apr.  3,  1559).     But  from  the  prisons  of 
Philip  II.  he  returned  a  Protestant.    He  was  not 
entirely  a  stranger  to  the  Reformation.     His  mother 
was  familiar  with  the  **  new  ideas,"  and  had  refused 
to  allow  a  priest  to  attend  her  at  death.    His  tutor, 
Nicolas  B^rauld ,  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus.    His  wife, 
Charlotte  de  Laval,  was  strongly  attracted  by  the 
movement;    his  brother  Odet  later  joined  the  Re- 
formed, and  his  other  brother  Andelot  had  openly 
embraced   Protestantism.     In  his  long  imprison- 
ment Ooligny  had  leisure  to  read  Calvinistic  writings 
sent  him  by  Andelot.    His  resolve  to  break  with 
the  established  faith  was  strengthened  by  a  letter 
from  Calvin,  dated  Sept.  4,  1558. 

Through  the  sudden  death  of  Henry  II.  (1559), 
and  the  accession  of  Francis  II.,  the  Guises  gained 
full  control,  whereupon  Ooligny  retired  from  court 
»nd  resigned  the  governorship  of  Picardy  (1560), 
though  he  retained  his  post  as  admiral.  He  did  not 
openly  acknowledge  his  belief  until  July,  1559,  being 


fully  aware  that  his  step  might  be  fatal  to  his 
family.  Meanwhile  the  public  disooatent  at  the 
usurpation  of  the  Guises  reached  a  climax.  The 
conspiracy  of  AmlxBiK  in  1560  amply  shows  the 
state  of  popular  opinion  in  France.  At  the  Con- 
vention of  the  Notables  at  Fontainebleau  (Aug. 
21-26,  1559)  Ooligny  made  brave  hf^  ^  efl5cient 
attempts  to  gain  more  freedom  of  w^"  x^^'for  the 
Protestants,  but  the  sudden  death  of 

2.  1560-66.  Francis   II.    (Dec.    5,    1560)  changed 

the  whole  aspect  of  affairs.  Cath- 
erine de'  Medici  became  regent  for  her  son  Charles 
IX.,  then  ten  years  of  age,  and  adopted  a  policy  of 
accommodation  which  furthered  the  spread  of 
Protestantism  throughout  France,  so  that  when 
Ooligny  again  pleaded  for  his  coreligionists  at  the 
assembly  of  the  States-General  at  Orleans  (Dec.  13, 
1560)  his  words  were  not  ignored.  Persecution 
ceased,  toleration  was  shown  on  both  sides,  and 
there  were  fair  prospects  of  ending  the  conflict 
with  a  peaceable  settlement.  But  on  Mar.  1,  1562, 
the  massacre  of  Vassy  took  place,  and  a  month 
later  the  first  religious  war  began  with  the  occupa- 
tion of  Orleans  by  Andelot.  On  one  side  were  the 
Roman  Catholics,  the  Guises,  and  Anthony  of 
Navarre;  on  the  other,  the  Protestants,  Ool^y, 
the  Prince  of  Ck)nd^,  and  Henry  of  Navarre;  and 
between  the  two  parties,  the  court,  the  king,  and 
Catherine  de'  Medici.  The  war  actually  ended  with 
the  araassination  of  Francis  of  Guise  by  Jean  Poltrot 
de  Merey,  in  the  camp  before  Orleans,  Feb.  24, 
1563;  and  on  Mar.  19  peace  was  concluded  at 
Amboise,  by  which  freedom  of  conscience,  and, 
within  certain  limits,  liberty  of  worship  were 
granted  to  the  Protestants.  But  the  hatred  of  the 
house  of  Guise  for  Ooligny  was  only  deepened  by 
the  events.  Poltrot  declared  that  he  had  been 
encouraged  to  murder  Francis  of  Guise  by  Ooligny, 
Beza,  and  others,  but  Ooligny  was  acquitted  by  the 
Assembly  of  Notables  at  Moulins  (Jan.  29,  1566). 
Four  years  of  peace  followed.  But  in  the  mean 
time  the  development  of  affairs  in  the  Netherlands, 
the  imprisonment  of  Egmont  and  Horn  (Sept.  9, 
1567),  and  rumors  of  a  plan  to  capture  the  prince  of 
Cond^  and  execute  Ooligny  so  aroused  the  Protes- 
tants that  they  incited  the  second  religious  war. 
The  scheme  of  seizing  the  king  at  Monceaux,  near 
Meaux,  failed  (Sept.  27,  1567),  but  the  victory  at 
St.  Denis  (Nov.  10,  1567)  led  to  the  brief  peace  of 
Longjumeau  (Mar.  23,  1568),  by  which  the  agree- 
ment of  Amboise  was  renewed.    With- 

3.  1566-72.  in  the  year,  however,  the  tl\ird'  relig- 
The  Mas-    ious  war  began.     It  ended  with  the 

sacre  of  St  peace  of  St.  Germain  (Aug.  2,  1570), 
Bartholo-    after  the  battles  of  Jamac,  Moncon- 
mew.       tour,  and  Amay  le  Due,  and  gave  the 
Protestants  freedom  of  conscience  and 
worship  together  with  three  cities  of  safety.    Mean- 
while Charles  IX.  had  become  averse  to  the  Spanish 
direction  which  French  politics  had  lately  shown. 
Ooligny  was  called   to  Blois  Sept.  12,  1571;    and 
the  king  seemed  to  listen  to  him  with  confidence. 
The  negotiations  for  a  marriage  between  Margaret 
of  Valois,  the  sister  of  the  king,  and  Henry  of 
Navarre  finally  succeeded,  and  were  regarded  as 
favorable  to  the  Protestant  cause.    The  wedding 


OoUaglallBin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


163 


ceremony  was  celebrated  Aug.  18.  But  Aug.  22, 
when  Coligny  returned  from  the  Louvre  to  his  house 
(the  present  No.  144  Rue  de  Rivoli)  he  was  fired 
upon  twice  and  slightly  wounded  by  an  assassin. 
The  next  day  the  king  and  queen  dowager  visited 
him.  Oh»>tH«  way  back  to  the  Louvre  the  king 
confesse<iS20).  mother  that  Coligny  had  urged  him 
to  retain  tWroyal  power  in  his  own  hands.  The 
queen  mother,  already  an  avowed  enemy  of  Coligny, 
now  resolved  to  destroy  both  him  and  hL  adherents. 
All  arrangements  having  been  quickly  completed, 
the  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  (q.v.)  was  be^^un  at 
four  o'clock  on  Sunday,  Aug.  24,  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day.  The  first  object  of  attack  was  Coligny,  who 
was  slain,  thrown  from  the  window,  his  head  cut  off, 
and  his  body  dragged  through  the  streets  and  hanged 
on  the  gallows  of  Montfaucon.  After  a  few  days 
his  corpse  was  taken  down  and  buried  by  Marshid 
Montmorency,  and  after  many  vicissitudes  it  was 
reinterred  in  a  fragment  of  the  wall  of  his  ancestral 
castle  (which  was  destroyed  during  the  French  Rev- 
olution) on  Sept.  7, 1851.  From  Paris  the  massacre 
spread  throughout  France,  sparing  neither  sex,  age, 
rank,  nor  learning.  The  estimated  number  of  Hu- 
guenots killed  varies  between  10,000  and  100,000, 
but  may  most  probably  be  reckoned  at  5,000  in  the 
capital  and  somewhat  over  20,000  in  the  rest  of 
France.  At  the  command  of  the  king  the  Parlia- 
ment declared  Coligny  guilty  of  high  treason  and 
pronounced  his  children  infamous  (Oct.  27,  1572), 
although  this  decision  was  reversed  by  another  of 
the  same  body  on  June  10,  1590.  A  solemn  Te 
Deum  was  sung  at  the  Vatican  by  Gregory  XIII., 
who  also  had  Vasari  paint  three  frescos  represent- 
ing the  wounding  of  Coligny,  the  conference  con- 
cerning the  massacre,  and  its  execution.  On  July 
17,  1889,  a  marble  statue  was  erected  in  honor  of 
Coligny  by  Protestant  subscriptions  and  in  disre- 
gard of  Roman  Catholic  protests,  in  the  Rue  de 
Rivoli  near  the  place  where  he  was  woimded. 

The  literary  work  of  Coligny  was  scanty.  His 
accoimt  of  the  siege  of  St.  Quentin,  written  in  ad- 
mirable style,  was  first  printed  imder  the  title 
Mimoirea  de  Vamiral  de  Coligny  (Paris,  1623;  Eng. 
transl.  by  D.  D.  Scott,  Edinburgh,  1844),  while  a 
number  of  briefer  works  and  letters  are  scattered 
in  various  journals,  and  his  military  regulations 
have  been  edited  by  M.  L.  Cimber  and  F.  Danjou 
(Archives  curieueee  de  Vhietoirt  de  France^  series  i., 
voL  viiL).  (Thsodor  ScHorrt.) 

Bibuoobapht:  The  first  life  was  written  at  the  request  of 
the  family  by  F.  Hotmann,  Giupcari*  CoUmii  .  .  .  vita, 
Leyden,  1676,  Eos.  transl.,  London.  1696,  Fr.  transl., 
Paris,  1676.  An  excellent  account  is  by  £.  Bersier, 
Coligny  avant  let  auerre$  de  reHgum,  Paris,  1884,  Eng. 
transl..  The  Earlier  Life  of  Coligny,  London,  1886  (comes 
down  to  1660).  A  still  more  elaborate  Ufe  was  begun 
by  E.  Maroks,  Gaepard  von  Coligny.  8ein  Leben  und  doe 
Prankreieh  eeiner  Zeit,  vol.  i..  part  1,  Stuttgart,  1892 
(comes  down  to  1662).  Consult  further:  J.  Delaborde, 
Gaepard  de  Coligny,  Paris.  1879-83;  A.  Meyhiu,  Vie  de 
Gaepard  de  Coligny,  ib.  1862;  W.  M.  Blackburn,  Admiral 
Coligny  and  the  Rite  of  the  HuguenoU,  Philadelphia.  1869; 
C.  Buet,  L'Amiral  de  Coligny  et  lee  gueme  de  religion, 
Paris,  1884;  W.  Besant.  Oaepard  de  Coligny,  London, 
1894;  Camhridge  Modem  Hiatory,  vol.  iii.,  chaps,  i.,  vii., 
viii..  New  York,  1906. 

On  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  consult:  W.  Sol- 
dan,  Qeechichte  dee  Proteetantiemue  in  Frankreidi,  Leip- 


sio,  1866  (stiU  the  best);  H.  White,  Maaeaere  of  8L  Bar- 
thdomew.  New  York,  1868;  H.  M.  Baird.  Riee  iff  Ik^ 
HuguenotB,  ib.  1879;  H.  Baumgarten,  For  der  Bartko- 
hm&uenaeht,  Strasbuzg,  1882. 

COLIGNY,  ODET  DE:  Cardinal  of  Chfttillon, 
brother  of  Gaspard  de  Coligny;  b.  at  the  castle  of 
Ch&tillon-sur-Loing  (75  m.  s.e.  of  Paris),  depart- 
ment of  Loiret,  July  10,  1517;  d.  at  Cajiterbuiy, 
England,  Mar.  22,  1571.  He  received  a  cardinal's 
hat  from  aement  VII.  in  1533,  and  in  1534  went 
to  Rome  for  the  election  of  a  new  pope;  and, 
although  he  had  not  yet  been  ordained  priest,  he 
was  made  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  and,  in  1535, 
bishop  coimt  of  Cambrai,  which  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  a  nobleman  of  France.  In  1560  Pius  IV. 
named  him  grand  inquisitor  of  France,  but  the 
opposition  to  the  institution  on  the  part  of  the 
Parliament  of  Paris  relieved  him  from  the  odious 
duties  of  the  position.  Diu-ing  the  reign  of  Heniy 
II.  (d.  1559)  he  was  apparently  indifferent  to  the 
religious  dissensions,  but  in  April,  1561,  he  publicly 
accepted  the  Reformed  faith.  He  now  took  active 
part  with  his  brother  in  the  religious  quarrels  and 
mediated  between  the  Huguenots  and  Catherine  de' 
Medici.  In  1562  he  was  declared  heretical  by  the  In- 
quisition. He  fled  to  Lyons,  relinquished  his  title  of 
cardinal,  calling  himself  the  count  of  Beauvais,  and 
served  in  the  field  in  the  religious  wars.  In  1568  he 
went  to  London,  where  Queen  Elizabeth  showed 
many  marks  of  favor  to  him  and  his  wife  C'  Mme.  la 
Cardinale  " ).  While  preparing  to  join  his  brother  at 
La  Rochelle,  he  was  poisoned,  as  it  was  rumored, 
by  his  valet  at  the  instigation  of  Catherine  de' 
Medici.  He  wrote  Lea  Conetitittione  synodales  (Paris, 
1554),  and  a  number  of  unpublished  letters  are 
in  the  Bibliothdque  Nationale  in  Paris  and  the 
Record  Office  in  London.  He  is  buried  in  the 
Canterbuiy  cathedraL 

G.  BoNKr-MAURT. 

Bibuoorapht:  Bouchet,  Preuvee  de  Vhietoire  g^nialogique 
de  la  maieon  de  Coligny,  Paru,  1662;  Q.  Bonet-Maury, 
Lee  originee  de  la  riforme  h  Beauvaie,  ib.  1874;  Beoquerel, 
Scwaenire  hieloriquee  aur  VAmiral  Coligny,  ea  famUle  et 
ea  eeigneurie,  Paris.  1876;  L.  Marlet,  Le  Cardinal  de 
ChdHUon,  ib.  1883;  idem,  Correepondanee  d'Odet  tU 
Coligny,  ib.  1885;  E.  G.  Atkinson,  The  Cardinal  of  CKd- 
iUlon  in  England,  1368-71,  London.  1890. 

COLLECT :  A  short  prayer  which  fonns  a  normal 
part  of  the  mass  and  breviary  offices  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  as  of  the  communion  service  and 
morning  and  evening  prayer  in  the  Anglican  com- 
munion. Like  the  epistle  and  gospel  which  follow 
it  in  the  altar  service,  it  changes  with  the  day  or 
season,  and  on  festivals  has  reference  to  the  event 
or  person  commemorated.  It  is  usually  concise, 
and  its  normal  structure  embraces  an  invocation, 
a  reason  for  the  petition,  the  petition  itself,  the 
benefit  hoped  for  from  its  granting,  and  the  con- 
clusion pleading  the  merits  of  Christ,  since  most 
collects  (especially  the  ancient)  are  addressed  to 
God  the  Father.  Many  of  the  collects  now  in  use 
can  be  traced  back  to  the  sacramentaries  of  Gela- 
sius  and  Gregory  the  Great,  if  not  farther. 

Bibliooraprt:  W.  Brisht,  Ancient  CoUede,  London,  1861; 
DC  A,  1.  403-404;  KL,  iii.  603-606;  McCUntock  and 
Strong.  Cychpadia,  ii.  409-410  (valuable). 


169 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ooliffny 
OoUesialism 


COLLEGIA  KATIOirALIA  (POHTIFICIA):  The 
name  of  several  training-schools  in  Rome  for  mis- 
gioDAnes  destined  to  labor  in  Christian  but  not 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  Their  original  f ounda- 
tbn  was  due  to  Ignatius  Loyola,  who  established  the 
first  of  them  for  Germany  in  1552.  The  later  ones 
are  all  modeled  after  this,  the  Collegium  Germani- 
cum.  After  a  short  period  of  prosperity,  it  declined 
and  was  in  a  poor  condition  when  Gregory  XIII. 
restored  it  in  1573,  following  up  this  action  by  the 
foundation  of  Greek  (1577),  English  (1579),  Hun- 
garian (united  in  1584  with  the  German),  Maronite 
(15S4),  and  Thracian-Illyrian  colleges,  as  well  as 
three  similar  institutions  at  Vienna, 
Origin  and  Prague,  and  Fulda.  The  system  re- 
Early  ceived  two  notable  additions  on  the 
History,  foundation  of  the  English  College. 
Candidates  for  admission  were  to  be 
received  only  after  several  months'  probation  and 
the  taking  of  a  vow  never  to  abandon  the  clerical 
state  and  to  be  always  ready  to  return  to  their  na- 
tive countiy  and  work  there  at  the  bidding  of  their 
superiors.  Five  special  privileges,  moreover,  con- 
siderably facilitating  ordination,  were  conceded  to 
those  who  were  thus  received.  These  two  points, 
with  their  analogy  to  monastic  conditions,  made 
the  colleges  almost  monastic  congregations,  whose 
superiors  were  the  cardinal  protectors  assigned  to 
them.  The  revised  statutes,  however,  given  to  the 
German  College  in  1584  forbade  the  reception  of 
those  who  had  already  taken  the  vows  of  an  order, 
or  the  taking  of  such  vows  by  a  member  of  the 
college,  as  this  would  have  been  inconsistent  with 
their  lifelong  dedication  to  their  special  work. 

Some  of  Gregory's  foundations,  including  those  at 
Prague,  Vienna,  and  Fulda,  lapsed  in  course  of  time. 
The  German-Himgarian,  (}reek,  English,  and  Mar- 
onite went  on,  and  Clement  VIII.  added  a  Scottish 
CoQege  in  1600.  On  the  establishment  in  1622  of 
the  Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide  the  over- 
sight of  the  colleges  gradually  passed  into  its  hands 
in  all  essential  points.  Under  its 
Later  De-  auspices  the  Collegium  Urbanum  de 
Tdopment.  Propaganda  Fide  was  foimded  by 
Gregory  XV.  in  1627,  and  the  Irish 
(Allege  a  year  later.  Other  new  or  revived  foun- 
dations outside  of  Rome  with  similar  aims  were 
those  of  Vienna,  Prague  and  Loreto  (1627),  Fulda 
(1628),  the  archiepiscopal  seminary  of  Prague 
(1638),  the  Greek  seminary  at  San  Benedetto  in 
UUano  (1732),  and  the  Chinese  at  Naples  (1736). 
By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Mar- 
onite (Allege  had  been  united  with  the  Urbaniun, 
and  a  number  of  others  founded,  including  a  Greek 
seminary  at  Palermo;  a  Swiss  at  Milan;  the  great 
S^ninaire  des  Missions  £trang^res  for  China  and 
the  neighboring  regions  and  the  S^minaire  du  Saint- 
Esprit  for  the  French  colonies,  both  in  Paris;  an 
Irish  college  there  and  at  Douai,  and  four  colleges 
in  Ireland  itself,  at  Dublin,  Yoimghall,  Thurles, 
tnd  Carlow,  the  last  destined  for  foreign  mission- 
aries. 

Of  the  national  colleges  erected  in  Rome  the 
German,  Greco-Ruthenian,  English,  Scottish,  and 
Irish  are  still  in  operation.  These  all  train  their 
students  for  work  in  a  definite  geographical  area; 


even  the  general  Collegium  Urbanum  educates 
each  student  for  his  own  native  coimtry,  and  as  a 
rule  sends  him  back  there.  The  constitutions  of 
all  these  colleges  follow  more  or  less 
Present  closely  that  of  the  (jierman  College. 
SatuB.  The  students,  drawn  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  country  in  which  they  are  to 
work,  are  under  the  direction  of  some  order,  usually 
the  Jesuits.  They  remain  in  a  permanent  relation 
of  intercourse  with  the  rector  of  their  college,  who 
in  his  turn  is  subject  to  the  Propaganda.  There 
are  a  number  of  other  more  or  less  similar  insti- 
tutions in  Rome  which  must  not  be  confoimded 
with  the  national  colleges.  These  serve  for  their 
respective  countries  (North  and  South  America, 
Belgium,  Poland,  Bohemia,  Switzerland,  France) 
as  homes  for  the  students  coming  thence  to  attend 
the  lectures  of  the  Collegium  Roman  urn;  only  the 
North  American  and  the  Polish  have  the  status  of 
collegia  pontificia,  i.e.,  imder  the  immediate  supers 
vision  of  the  pope.    (See  Curia.) 

(E.  Friedberg.) 
Bxbuoobapht:  O.  Mejer,  Die  Propaoanda,  G6ttingen,  i. 
73-01,  225-245,  Gdttingen,  1852;  A.  Belleaheim,  WiUiam 
Cardinal  AUen  und  die  engliaehen  Seminare  auf  dem  Feet- 
lande,  Mains,  1885;  KL,  iii.  610-646  (very  extended  treat- 
ment). On  the  German  Ck>llege:  D<u  deuUdie  CoUegium 
in  Rom^  Leipaio,  1843;  A.  Steinhuber,  Geeehithlte  dee  Col- 
legium  ffermantcum^un^artcttm  in  Rom^  2  vols.,  Freiburg, 
1894. 

COLLEGIAL    OR    COLLEGIATE    CHURCHES: 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  churches  served  by 
a  body  of  canons,  regular  or  secular,  living  together 
in  collegia;  and  in  the  Anglican  Church,  by  a  dean 
and  a  number  of  canons,  while  the  cathedral 
churches  are  always  served  by  a  bishop.  In  New 
York  aty  the  term  "  Collegiate  Church  "  is  best 
known  as  applied  to  a  corporation  in  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church  which  owns  considerable  property, 
out  of  whose  rental  the  deficit  in  the  support  of 
four  churches  with  their  clergy  and  chapels  is  met. 

COLLEGIALISM:  [A  term  denoting  a  concep- 
tion of  the  relation  between  Church  and  State 
which  developed  in  Germany  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  name,  first  used  by 
J.  H.  B6hmer  of  Halle  (d.  1749),  was  derived  from 
the  Roman  law,  which,  before  Constantine,  con- 
sidered the  Christian  congregations  as  collegia 
iUicUa  ("  illegal  associations  ").] 

The  school  of  natural  rights,  which  has  been 
running  its  triumphant  course  since  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  teaches  as  follows:  the 
State  is  not  a  divine  foundation  and  institution, 
but  a  corporate  unity,  founded  by  means  of  a  social 
compact  of  free  men  (pactum  unionis);  under  this 
bond  the  "  powers  that  be  "  have  arisen  by  virtue 
of  an  additional  compact,  or  pactum  subjectionia. 
Furthermore,  neither  is  the  Church  any  longer  a 
divine  institution,  but  a  collegium  which  has  grown 
up  in  the  State  through  a  social  compact.  Accord- 
ing to  these  doctrines,  the  medieval  idea  of  the 
unity  of  Church  and  State,  of  unum  corpus  christir 
anum,  is  given  up.  The  State  has  no  longer  in 
common  with  the  Church  the  object  of  promoting 
the  spiritual  welfare  of  men,  but  the  object  of  the 
State  is  the  prosperity  of  its  subjects:  the  State  is 
an  object  in  itself.    Several  religious  associations 


GolliiiB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


160 


are  conceivable  side  by  side;  and,  intrinsically  re- 
garded, all  these  associations  stand  on  a  perfectly 
equal  footing:  there  is  no  internal  warrant  given 
for  any  difference  of  treatment  among  them  on  the 
side  of  the  State.  Still  a^ain,  if  the  Church  is  only 
one  association  within  the  State,  it  is  of  course  but 
logical  that  the  Church  governs  itself  and  admin- 
isters its  affairs  independently,  and  that  the  sover- 
eign State  authority  exercises  over  this  association, 
the  same  as  over  other  associations,  merely  a  right 
of  surveillance. 

On  the  basis  of  this  doctrine  of  natural  right, 
territorialism  (q.v.)  had  maintained,  in  theory,  the 
independence  of  the  Church;  but  it  was  coUegialism, 
an  elaboration  of  territorialism,  that  carried  that 
doctrine  to  its  logical  conclusion.  The  first  and 
foremost  exponent  of  coUegialism  is  conceded  to  be 
Christoph  Matthaus  Pfaff  (q.v.).  Its  adherents 
include  Mosheim,  G.  L.  Bdhmer  (whose  views  are 
embodied  in  the  Prussian  common  law,  his  Principia 
jtiris  canonici  speciatim  juris  ecdesiastici,  Gdttingen, 
1762,  having  been  used  in  the  revision  of  the  eccle- 
siastical law),  Georg  Wiese,  Schleiermacher,  Puchta, 
and  others.  It  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
The  Church  as  a  voluntary  association  has  only  two 
classes  of  members,  teachers  and  hearers — ^not  the 
three  estates  of  nobility,  clergy,  and  people  (Germ. 
Wehr-,  Lehr-  undNdkrstdnde) — ^and  these  two  classes 
stand  side  by  side  with  equal  rights,  the  teachers 
having  no  sovereign  authority  over  the  hearers. 

In  this  way  the  rights  of  the  third  estate  become 
still  more  sharply  emphasized  than  was  the  case 
under  territorialism.  As  free  associations  the 
churches  are  self-governing  (jura  acurarum  coUegi- 
alia))  the  State  has  only  the  same  rights,  as  affect- 
ing them,  that  it  has  in  relation  to  any  other  asso- 
ciations existing  in  the  State;  that  is,  only  the 
right  of  supervision,  the  jura  sacrorum  majeatatica. 
And  these  latter  are  restricted  by  the  exponents  of 
coUegialism  to  actual  rights  of  supervision;  so  that 
the  power  inherent  in  association  is  guaranteed  the 
character  of  a  real  government.  At  the  same  time, 
this  power  of  association  may  be  made  over  by  an 
act  of  transfer  to  the  State  ruler;  and  the  expo- 
nents of  coUegialism  teach  that  this  was  the  case  in 
Germany  by  virtue  of  a  tacit  transfer.  The  rights 
of  the  State  sovereign  over  the  Church  are  therefore 
not  identical  with  the  State's  rights  (as  in  terri- 
torialism), but  they  are  the  power  of  association  as 
conveyed  per  pactum,  which  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  sovereign's  inherent  rights  in  the  way  of 
State  surveillance.  Although  this  system  has  been 
able  to  change  practically  nothing  in  actual  con- 
ditions, nevertheless,  by  defining  more  sharply 
than  did  territorialism  the  division  between  Church 
and  State,  between  power  of  ajBsociation  and  State 
sovereignty,  it  has  prepared  the  way  toward  the 
modem  comprehension  of  things  and  the  modem 
construction  of  the  constitution  of  the  Church.  See 
Church  and  Statb.  E.  Sehlino. 

Bxbuoorapht:  F.  J.  Stahl,  Kirehenverfaaauna  nadi  Lehre 
und  RedU  der  ProteHarUen,  Erlangen,  1840;  A.  L.  Rich- 
tor,  Ge8chi4^Ue  der  evangdUchen  Ktrchenverfasaung  in 
DeuUchland,  Leipsic,  1851;  O.  Mejer,  Orundlagen  det 
lutheriadten  KirehenreoitnenU,  Rostock,  1864;  K.  Rieker, 
RedUliche  Stellung  der  evangdischen  Kirche  DeiU$dilandt, 
Leipac,  1893. 


COLLEGIANTS  (RHYHTSBURGERS) :  A  branch 
of  the  Remonstrants  in  HoUand  (see  Reimon- 
BTRANTs).  In  1619  the  Remonstrant  minister 
Christopher  Sopingius  was  dismissed  at  Warmond, 
whereupon  Gysbert  van  der  Kodde  proposed  that 
the  congregation  hold  services  without  the  min- 
istrations of  a  clergyman.  Such  exercitia  or  col- 
loquia  prophetica  were  common  in  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  One  prayed  and  read  and  any  one 
who  felt  inclined  addressed  the  congregation.  At 
first  meetings  were  held  every  month,  afterward 
every  week.  After  the  death  of  Prince  Maurice 
(1625)  the  Remonstrant  ministers  were  aUowed  to 
retum,  but  Van  der  Kodde  opposed  the  settlement 
of  a  minister  at  Warmond  and,  with  a  number  of 
followers,  removed  to  the  neighboring  vUlage  of 
Rhynsburg  (3  m.  n.  of  Leyden),  where  they  con- 
tinued their  services. 

The  example  of  Rhynsbuig  was  foUowed  and  coU 
legia  were  formed  in  various  places,  one  of  which 
(at  Rotterdam)  lasted  tUi  1787.  Delegates  met 
annuaUy  at  Rhynsburg,  where  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  celebrated  and  adults  were  baptized.  A  result 
of  Spinoza's  residence  at  Rhynsbuig  (1661-64)  was 
that  many  CoUegiants  accepted  his  ideas  and 
rejected  prophecy  and  miracles.  This  caused  a 
spUt,  and  for  years  two  parties  met  separately  imtU 
a  reconciliation  was  efifected  at  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

The  CoUegiants  beUeved  that  Christianity  had 
sadly  degenerated  through  the  influence  of  the 
sects.  They  claimed  fr^om  of  speech  for  aU 
and  mutual  toleration.  They  did  not  desire  to 
establish  a  new  Church  and  admitted  aU  Christians 
to  their  meetings.  They  were  noted  for  benevo- 
lence, especiaUy  for  caring  for  the  poor  and  for 
orphans.  They  did  not  seek  public  offices  and  they 
had  a  horror  of  war.  Their  significance  lies  in  the 
fact  that  they  defended  the  principle  of  the  Refor- 
mation— ^the  right  of  the  individual  in  matters  of 
religion — ^against  those  who  wished  to  limit  this 
right.  H.  C.  RooGEt. 

The  influence  of  Polish  Socinianism  is  discerned 
in  two  particulars,  in  the  liberal  type  of  doctrine 
and  in  the  practise  of  immersion.  The  CoUegiants 
drew  largely  from  the  Mennonites,  who  had  no 
adequate  educational  -facUities  and  were  attracted 
by  the  able  exegesis  of  the  Bible  in  the  CoUegiant 
meetings.  The  last  meeting  seems  to  have  been 
held  May  27,  1787.  A.  H.  N. 

Bxbuoorapht:  J.  C.  van  Slee.  De  RijnMburger  CoUeaianten, 
Haarlem,  1885  (best);  J.  M.  Schr«ck.  KirchengesckichU,  v. 
330-331, 10  vols.,  Leipsio,  1804-12;  H.  Grdgoire,  Hittmredet 
•ecUa  rdioieuaea,  v.  328  sqq.,  6  vols.,  Paris.  1828-^45;  J.  L. 
von  Mosheim,  Church  Hiatory,  cent,  zvii.,  book  iv.,  chap, 
viii.,  London,  1863;  KL,  iii.  607-'606. 

COLLENBUSCH,  SAMUEL:  German  mystic; 
b.  at  Wicklinghausen  (a  suburb  of  Barmen)  Sept. 
1,  1724;  d.  at  Barmen  Sept.  1,  1803.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Duisburg  and  Strasburg,  in  the  latter 
place  becoming  interested  in  mysticism  through  the 
large  coUection  of  works  on  that  subject  and  on 
alchemy  found  there.  For  a  time  he  engaged  in 
experiments  in  alchemy,  but  after  repeated  failure 
returned  to  Duisburg  and  took  up  the  practise  of 
medicine.    In  1784  he  removed  to  Barmen. 


161 


RELIC5I0US  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CtoUesimliam 
OollinB 


His  reading  included  Leibnitz's  TkSodic^  and 
the  writings  of  Anton,  Oetinger,  and  Bengel,  by 
vhieh  his  tendency  toward  a  mystic  piety  was 
strengthened.  In  Duisburg  he  had  won  a  place  in 
the  circle  in  which  J.  G.  Hasencamp  was  leader, 
and  in  Barmen  he  was  brought  into  relations  with 
a  similar  circle,  the  characteristic  of  which  was  a 
deep  and  earnest  piety.  He  became  interested  in 
problems  of  dogmatics,  particularly  in  soteriology 
and  eschatology. 

His  system  is  to  be  understood  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  new  learning.    To  the  question,  Why 
has  God  sent  his  Son  into  the  world  7  the  answer 
was  given  in  the  words  of  Rom.  viii.  4:   That  the 
ordinance  of  the  law  might  be  fulfilled  in  us.     Christ 
as  the  antithesis  of  Adam,  who  brought  death  on 
man,  offers  life,  and  this  has  come  about  through 
the  love  of  God,  which  induces  faith.    But  in  his 
doctrine  of  the  Christ  he  held  a  thoroughgoing 
Kenosis  (q.v.)  as  best  expressing  the  self-humiliation 
through  which  Christ  achieved  salvation.    Going 
with  this  was  a  strong  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of 
predestination.     For  him  revelation  was  history, 
and  Biblical  history  the  story  of  redemption,  finally 
accomplished  on  the  cross.     The  force  of  his  expo- 
sition gained  him  large  influence,  and  his  teaching, 
extended  by  the  labors  of  his  disciples  Krafft,  of 
Erlangen,  and  G.  Menken,  had  a  formative  bearing 
upon  the  newer  theology  as  represented  by  Tho- 
masius  and  Hofmann.     His  outlook  upon  this  life 
gave  a  practical  turn  to  the  activities  of  his  fol- 
lowers which  is  expressed  in  the  Missionary  Society 
and  Mission  House  of  Barmen.     (H.  CrsmerI.) 
BfBUooBAPRT:  For  his  doctrines  consult:  ErkUkrutHf  Inb" 
litcJier   Wakrheiien,    2  vols.,  Elberfeld,    1807-16;  Ooldene 
Aepfd  in  mlbemen  Sehalen,  Barmen,  1854;  F.  W.  Krug, 
Die  Lekn  dea  Dr.  CoUenhuMch,  Elberfeld,  1846.     For  his 
life  consult:  MittheUunoen  aus  dem  Leben  und  Wirken 
S.  ColUnbuseh  in  Barmen,  Barmen,  1853;  K.  C.  £.  Eh- 
mann,  F.  C.  OeHnaer'a  Ltben  und  Briefe,  pp.  778-708, 
Stuttcart,  1869. 

COLLIER,  JEREMY:  Nonjuring  English  cler- 
gyman; b.  at  Stowe  Qui  or  Quire  (5  m.  n.e.  of 
Tambridge),  Cambridgeshire,  Sept.  23,  1650;  d.  in 
London  Apr.  26, 1726.  He  studied  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge  (B.A.,  1673;  M.A.,  1676),  took  orders, 
and  was  rector  at  Ampton,  Suffolk,  1679-85,  then 
n»Rided  in  London.  After  the  Revolution  he  wrote 
a  number  of  bitter  political  pamphlets  on  the  Jacob- 
ite side,  and  made  himself  offensive  to  the  govern- 
ment by  his  conduct;  he  was  twice  imprisoned 
(1688  and  1692),  but  was  treated  leniently  on  the 
whole;  was  made  bishop  by  the  nonjurors  in  1713. 
He  led  a  life  of  great  literary  activity;  his  Short 
View  of  the  Immorality  and  Profaneness  of  the 
English  Stage  (London,  1698)  was  a  vigorous  attack 
and  was  vigorously  resisted;  it  is  hypercritical  and 
too  vehement,  nevertheless  it  marks  the  beginning 
of  a  better  day  for  the  English  drama.  His  Essaya 
^complete  collected  edition,  1722)  are  interesting 
and  not  without  historical  value.  His  work  of 
most  permanent  value  was  An  EcclesioMical  His' 
Vwy  of  Great  Britain  to  the  End  of  the  Reign  of  Charles 
II.  (2  vols.,  1708-14;  ed.  with  life  by  T.  Lathbury, 
9  vols.,  1852).  He  published  also  The  Great  His- 
torical, Geographical,  Genealogical,  and  Poetical 
Dictionary  (4  vols.,  1701-21),  a  translation  and 
UI.-ll 


continuation  of  Moreri's  Dictionnaire  historique, 
and  translated  the  Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
(1701). 

BiBUooaAPHT:  There  is  an  extended  notice  in  DNB,  zi. 
341-347,  with  references  to  literature. 

COLLINS,  ANTHONY :  Deist ;  b.  at  Isleworth  (2  m. 
s.w.  of  Brentford,  a  s.w.  suburb  of  London)  or  at 
Heston  (3  m.  w.  of  Brentford)  June  21,  1676;  d. 
in  London  Dec.  13,  1729.  He  studied  at  Eton 
and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  the  Temple, 
London,  but  never  practised  law.  He  was  a  man 
of  means,  possessed  of  no  slight  ability  in  practical 
affairs,  amiable  and  blameless  in  private  life. 
Locke  was  his  intimate  friend,  and  during  visits  to 
Holland  in  1711  and  1713  be  became  acquainted 
with  Le  Clerc  and  other  scholars  there.  After 
1715  he  lived  in  Essex  and  was  justice  of  the  peace, 
deputy  lieutenant,  and  treasurer  of  the  county. 
His  works  are  noteworthy  more  for  the  commotion 
they  occasioned  than  for  their  intrinsic  merit.  The 
best  known  is  A  Discourse  of  Free-Thinking  (Lon- 
don, 1713),  in  which  he  asserts  that  sound  belief 
must  rest  on  free  inquiiy,  and  hints  that  the  adop- 
tion of  rational  principles  would  exclude  a  belief  in 
supematuralism.  Richard  Bentley  made  a  reply 
(Remarks  ,  .  .  by  Phileleutherus  lApsiensis,  1713), 
in  which  he  showed  many  defects  in  Ck)llins' scholar- 
ship; Swift  also  entered  the  lists  with  Mr,  CoUins's 
Discourse  of  Freethinking  Put  into  Plain  English  by 
Way  of  Abstract  for  the  Use  of  the  Poor  (1713). 
Earlier  works  were  An  Essay  Concerning  the  Use  of 
Reason  (1707),  Priestcraft  in  Perfection  (1709),  and 
A  Vindication  of  the  Divine  Attributes  (1710);  in 
the  last-named  he  maintains  that  we  can  have  a  true, 
even  if  limited,  knowledge  of  the  divine  attributes. 
In  1715  he  published  A  Philosophical  Inquiry  Con- 
cerning Human  Liberty,  a  defense  of  determinism. 
A  Historical  and  Critical  Essay  on  the  Thirty-mine 
Articles  (1724)  elaborates  an  aigument  of  Priest- 
craft in  Perfection  that  the  twentieth  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  is  fraudulent.  In  A  Discourse  on  the 
Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1724) 
he  assumes  that  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  is  the 
only  valid  proof  of  Christianity,  and,  since  such 
fulfilment  can  be  found  only  by  taking  unwarranted 
liberties  with  the  text,  he  argues  that  Christianity 
has  no  valid  proof.  A  reply  to  this  work  by  Ekiward 
Chandler  (q.v.)  called  forth  The  Scheme  of  Literal 
Prophecy  Considered  (1726).  Collins's  works  were 
published  anonymously,  but  their  authorship  was 
really  no  secret.  See  Deism,  I.,  S  ^ 
Biblioobapht:  L.  Stephen,  Hiatory  of  BnoUth  Thouoht, 
2  vols.,  London.  1881;  J.  Cairns,  Unbdief  in  tha  BigKt- 
eenOi  Century,  pp.  37-78,  ib.  1881;  DNB,  zi.  363-364. 

COLLINS,  WILLIAM  RUSSELL:  Reformed 
Episcopalian;  b.  in  New  York  City  Dec.  14, 
1862.  He  was  graduated  from  the  Reformed  Epis- 
copal Theological  Seminary  at  Philadelphia  in 
1888,  and  was  minister  and  rector  of  Emanuel 
Church,  Baltimore  (1887-91);  assistant  rector  of 
St.  Paul's,  Philadelphia  (1891-93);  and  rector  of 
Christ  Church,  Cumberland,  Md.  (1893-97);  Trinity, 
Ashtabula,  O.  (1897-1900);  Church  of  the  Recon- 
ciliation, Brookljm  (1900-02);  and  St.  Paul's, 
Woodlawn  Heights,  New  York  City  (since  1903). 
Since  1903  he  has  also  been  professor  of  liturgiology 


8S] 


lon^theBlbU 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


16d 


and  ecclesiology  and  of  the  literary  study  of  the 
English  Bible  in  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Seminary, 
Philadelphia.  In  theology  he  is  an  adherent  of 
moderate  Calvinism,  being  likewise  opposed  to 
ritualism  and  to  the  higher  criticism. 

COLLTER,  ROBERT:  Unitarian;  b.  at  Keigh- 
ley  (31  m.  n.e.  of  Manchester),  Yorkshire,  England, 
Dec.  8,  1823.  He  was  a  mill-hand  from  1832  to 
1838,  and  a  blacksmith  in  England  and  America 
from  1838  to  1859,  being  also  a  local  Methodist 
Episcopal  preacher  during  the  latter  ten  years  of 
this  period.  He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in 
1850,  and  nine  years  later,  becoming  a  convert  to 
Unitarianism,  went  to  Chicago  as  pastor  of  Unity 
Church,  where  he  remained  until  1879.  He  then 
accepted  a  call  to  the  Church  of  the  Messiah,  New 
York  City,  holding  this  charge  until  1903,  when  he 
became  pastor  emeritus.  He  has  published  sev- 
eral volumes  of  discourses  and  addresses,  a  biog- 
raphy of  A.  H.  Conant  (Boston,  1868),  and  collab- 
orated with  J.  H.  Turner  in  the  History  of  the  Town 
and  Parish  of  Ilkley  (London,  1886). 

COLLYRIDIANS:  A  sect  of  women,  mentioned 
by  Epiphanius  (H  or,,  lxxviii.-lxxix. ),  who  came  from 
Thrace  to  Arabia,  and  seem  to  have  espoused  a 
peculiar  form  of  devotion  to  the  Virgin,  offering  to 
Mary,  on  appointed  days,  a  cake  or  loaf  (Gk.  kol- 
lyris).  While  there  are  not  wanting  religious  and 
historic  analogies  to  this  custom,  they  neverthe- 
less come  short  of  certain  application.  Accord- 
ing to  Jer.  xliv.  19,  the  Jewish  women  in  Egypt 
prepared  cakes  for  the  queen  of  heaven  (cf. 
R68ch,  Astarte  und  Maria,  in  TSK,  Ixi.  265  sqq.). 
Ceremonial  pastry  was  likewise  a  feature  of  the 
Thesmophoric  rites  in  Athens  (cf.  Mommsen,  Faste 
der  Stadt  Athen  im  AUerium,  Leipsic,  1898).  There 
is  possible,  also,  some  misconception  of  a  Christmas 
custom  (cf.  Mdller,  Kirchengeschichte,  L  535,  Frei- 
burg, 1889).  Indeed,  to  this  day  in  modem  Greece 
the  word  koUoura  is  used  for  a  kind  of  cake,  and  in 
certain  of  the  Ionian  Islands  such  a  koUaura  is 
consecrated  and  consumed  on  Christmas  eve  in  the 
family  circle  with  all  sorts  of  ceremonies  (cf.  B. 
Schmidt,  Das  Volksleben  der  Neugriechen  und  das 
heUenische  AUertum,  i.  62  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1871). 

G.  KrCqer. 

Biblioorapht:  C.  W.  F.  Waleh,  H%§tor%e  der  Ketzereien, 
iii.  625-^4.  Leipsic,  1766;  J.  L.  von  Mosbeim,  InttUutet 
of  Ecd.  HiaL,  ed.  W.  Stubbs.  i.  317,  London.  1863; 
Neander,  Ckritlian  Church,  ii.  376. 

COLMAlf,  SAINT:  Third  abbot  and  bishop  of 
lindisfame;  d.  on  the  island  of  Inishbofin,  off  the 
eoast  of  County  Galway,  Ireland,  Aug.  8,  676.  He 
was  a  monk  of  lona,  and  succeeded  Finan  (q.v.)  at 
Lindisfame  in  661.  The  dispute  between  the 
Roman  and  Irish  parties  in  England  came  to  a 
crisis  shortly  thcre^ter.  Colman  was  the  leader  of 
the  latter  at  the  Synod  of  Whitby  (q.v.)  in  664, 
and  when  he  was  defeated,  with  the  Irish  monks 
and  about  thirty  of  the  English,  he  left  the  country, 
taking  with  him  the  bones  of  Aidan  (q.v.).  They 
went  first  to  lona,  and,  after  four  years  there,  to 
Inishbofin.  Dissensions  crising  between  the  Irish 
and  English,  Colman  founded  a  new  monasteiy 


for  the  latter  on  the  mainland,  but  himself  re- 
mained on  the  island. 
Biblioorapht:  Bede.  Hi»L  eed.,  iii.  25-27,  iv.  1,  4.   24; 

W.  Bright.  Early  ETigliA  Church  HUtory,  pp.  221-232, 

Oxford.  1897. 

COLOGNE,  ARCHBISHOPRIC  OF:  The  rise  of 
the  city  of  Cologne  is  connected  with  the  trans- 
plantation by  Augustus  of  the  Germanic  tribe  of 
the  Ubii  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Their 
capital  was  Oppidum  Ubiorum,  in  the  year  50 
made  a  Roman  veterans'  colony  (Colonia  Agrip- 
pina).  It  became  the  political  and  military  head- 
quarters of  the  province  of  Lower  Germany,  and 
soon  the  most  populous  town  on  the  lower  Rhine. 
If  the  remark  of  Irensus  (I.  x.  2)  about  Christian 
communities  in  the  Germanic  provinces  is  to  be 
taken  literally,  it  would  indicate  an  antiquity  for 
the  church  of  Cologne  extending  into  the  second 
century.  The  first  certain  datum  is  reached  with 
the  participation  of  Bishop  Matemus  in  the  Synod 
of  Aries  (mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Optatus), 
and  with  some  fourth-century  inscriptions  given 
by  Kraus.  The  small  number  of  the  latter  shows 
that  Cologne  was  a  less  important  Christian  center 
than  the  neighboring  Treves;  with  which  agrees 
the  mention  of  the  church  there  as  a  conventiculum 
by  the  pagan  writer  Ammianus  Marcellinus  in  355. 
The  list  of  bishops  goes  no  farther  back  than  Mater- 
nus,  and  the  attribution  of  the  same  name  to  the 
legendary  founder  indicates  that  tradition  knew 
of  no  earlier  bishop.  His  successor,  Euphrates,  is 
mentioned  as  a  participant  in  the  Synod  of  Sbt- 
dica  by  Athanasius;  his  name  does  not  occur  in  the 
lists,  and  was  probably  erased  in  consequence  of  a 
later  (Frankish)  legend  which  stigmatiiEed  him  as 
an  Arian,  and  asserted  that  he  was  deposed  by  a 
synod  at  Cologne  in  346.  The  mention  by  Venan- 
tius  Fortunatus  of  Carentius,  who  does  not  occur 
in  the  lists,  shows  that  they  are  not  to  be  depended 
on;  and  the  same  conclusion  follows  from  the  fact 
that  only  four  names  are  given  for  the  first  three 
centuries.  It  is  probable,  though  not  certain,  that 
the  church  of  Cologne  lasted  through  the  downfall 
of  the  Roman  power  and  the  Frankish  conquest, 
in  the  first  years  of  which  it  is  possible  that  the 
bishops  gained  or  claimed  metropolitan  rank;  but 
the  metropolitan  system  soon  lost  its  importance 
in  the  Frankish  kingdom,  and  the  occupants  of  the 
see  appear  as  simple  bishops  in  the  eighth  century. 
The  elevation  of  Cologne  to  a  metropolitan  see  did 
not  take  place  until  the  consecration  of  Hildebold 
about  795;  the  suffragan  sees  were  at  first  the 
Frankish  Li^ge,  the  Friesian  Utrecht,  and  later  the 
Saxon  Munster,  Osnabriick,  Minden,  and  Bremen. 
The  actual  diocese  of  Cologne  was  a  very  large  one. 
Under  the  rule  of  Philip  of  Heinsberg  (1168-91) 
its  previous  possessions  were  enlarg^  and  con- 
solidated by  purchase  and  exchange,  and  after  the 
downfall  of  Henry  the  Lion  the  duchy  of  West- 
phalia and  Engem  {Angraria)  was  added  (1180). 
From  this  time  on  the  archbishops  were  the  most 
powerful  princep  in  northwestern  Germany. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

The  archbishops  of  Cologne  were  prominent  in  the 
conflicts  of  the  Hohenstaufens  with  their  enemies, 
and  Engelbert  I.,  coimt  of  Beig  (1216-25),  was  the 


163 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Collyer 

Colors  in  the  Bibld 


kftding  magnate  of  Germany  and  the  administra^ 
tor  of  the  empire  during  the  absence  of  Frederick 
II.  in  Sicily.  A  position  of  equal  importance  was 
held  by  Conrad  of  Hostaden  (123^-61)  for  a. time 
titer  Frederick's  deposition,  when  he  was  papal 
le^te  for  Germany,  anointed  William  of  Holland  at 
Aachen,  and,  according  to  the  traditional  preroga- 
tive of  his  see,  crowned  Richard  of  Cornwall  as  his 
successor.  The  history  of  the  next  two  centuries 
is  largely  a  record  of  strife  arising  out  of  contested 
imperial,  papal,  and  archiepiscopal  elections,  until 
the  rule  of  the  sixty-sixth  incumbent  of  the  see, 
Herman  IV.  of  Hesse,  called  the  Peacemaker  (1480- 
1508),  brought  about  many  reforms.  Herman  V., 
count  of  Wied  (see  Herman  ofWied),  became  a 
favoxer  of  the  Reformation  in  the  last  five  years  of 
his  rule,  and  was  deposed  and  excommunicated  in 
1546,  and  the  same  was  the  case  with  Gebhard  II., 
Truchsess  of  Waldburg  (1577-83;  see  Gebhard  II.), 
while  the  yoxmg  Ernest,  prince  of  Bavaria  (1583- 
1612),  set  no  very  creditable  example  to  his  Hock. 
His  nephew  Ferdinand  (1612-50)  followed  him, 
and  did  much  to  repair  the  damage  already  wrought 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  cause;  and  his  nephew, 
again,  Maximilian  Henry  ruled  the  great  arch- 
diocese from  1650  to  1688  with  such  a  lack  of 
political  wisdom  that  it  was  laid  waste  by  contend- 
ing armies,  and  French  influence  became  prer 
dominant.  Under  another  Bavarian  prince,  Joseph 
Clement  (1688-1723),  the  external  history  of 
Cologne  was  bound  up  with  that  of  the  general 
European  conflicts.  His  secular  interests  so  pre- 
occupied him  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  reign  that  he 
did  not  even  take  up  his  spiritual  functions  until 
1707,  when  he  was  consecrated  at  Lille  by  F^nelon, 
and  thereafter  devoted  himself  zealously  to  the 
promotion  of  religion.  The  last  archbishop  of  the 
Bavarian  house  was  Clement  August  I.  (1723-61), 
brother  of  the  Elector  Max  Emmanuel;  but  the 
house  of  Austria  supplied  an  archduke,  brother  of 
the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  Maximilian  Francis  (1784- 
1801),  who  was  driven  out  by  the  French  and  spent 
his  last  days  in  Vienna.  The  diocese  was  divided 
by  Napoleon,  and  the  ecclesiastical  conditions  were 
full  of  confusion  until  1821,  when  the  archbishop- 
ric was  reconstituted  with  a  diminished  territory, 
and  with  Treves,  Milnster,  and  Faderbom  for  suf- 
fragans. The  most  notable  of  the  nineteenth-century 
archbishops  was  Clement  August  II.,  Baron  Droste- 
Vischering  (1835-45),  whose  episcopate  was  marked 
by  a  vigorous  conflict  with  Hermesianism  and  with 
the  Prussian  government  over  the  question  of  mixed 
marriages  (see  Drobtb-Vischsrino). 

BnuocmAPHT:  Souroes  an:  T.  J.  Laoomblet,  Urkunden- 
^uch  far  die  OeachichU  dM  Niederrhein*^  4  vols.,  DQssel- 
dorf.  1840-68;  MGU,  SeripL,  ziii  (1881).  282  sqq..  xvii 
(1861).  723  Bqq.,  zxiv  (1879).  332  sqq.  Ck>n8ult:  E. 
Podledi,  GttdiiehU  der  End%6ceu  Kdln,  Mains.  1879; 
C.  A.  Ley.  Kdlniache  Kirehen(/e9ehiehle,  Cologne.  1882; 
F.  Lau,  DiB  enbiaehdflidien  Beamien  in  der  Stadt  Koln, 
Labeck.  1891;  A.  J.  Binterim  and  J.  H.  Moovern.  Die 
Endioeeee  K6ln,  DOsaeldorf,  1892;  Rettberg.  KD,  vol. 
L;  Friedrich,  KD;  Hauck.  KD,  vols,  i.-iii. 

COLOMBIA:  A  republic  of  northwestern  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean 
Sea  and  Venezuela,  on  the  east  by  Venezuela  and 
Brasil,  on  the  south  by  Brazil  and  Ecuador,  on  the 


west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  No  exact  figures  are 
available  for  either  the  area  or  the  population,  but 
an  estimate  of  the  former  is  473,000  square  miles 
and  of  the  latter  4,000,000  souls,  including  500,000 
whites  and  1,5(X),000  or  more  half-breeds. 

The  constitution  of  1886  declares  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  the  religion  of  the  nation,  but  that 
the  Catholic  Church  shall  not  be  a  State  Church, 
and  grants  religious  toleration.  Ecclesiastics  are 
excluded  from  public  office,  though  Catholic  priests 
may  be  employed  in  public  instruction  and  charity. 
The  buildings  of  the  Catholic  worship  and  clergy 
are  exempt  from  taxation.  A  concordat  was  made 
between  Pope  Leo  XIII.  and  the  republic,  Dec.  31, 
1887  (see  Concordatb  and  DEUMrriNO  Bulls, 
VI.,  6).  The  church  organization  is  as  follows: 
Archdiocese  of  Bogota  (founded  1563),  with  the 
suffragan  dioceses  of  Ibagu^  (1900),  Nueva  Pam- 
plona (1835),  Socorro  (1895),  and  Tunja  (1880); 
archdiocese  of  Cartagena  in  the  Indies  (diocese, 
1534;  archdiocese,  1900),  with  the  suffragan  dio- 
ceses of  Santa  Marta  (1534)  and  Panama  (1534); 
archdiocese  of  Medellin  (diocese,  1868;  archdiocese, 
1902),  with  the  suffragan  dioceses  of  Antioquia 
(1873)  and  Manizales  (1900);  archdiocese  of 
Popayan  (diocese,  1546;  archdiocese,  1900),  with 
the  suffragan  dioceses  of  Garz6n  (1900)  and  Pasto 
(1859).  There  are  also  two  vicariates  apostolic, 
Casanare  (1893)  and  Goajira  (1905),  and  three  pre- 
fectures apostolic,  Caquet^  (1904),  the  East  (1903), 
and  San  Biartin  (1904),  all  dependent  on  the  "  Con- 
gregation of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs." 
A  del^ate  apostolic  and  envoy  extraordinaiy  of 
the  pope  resides  in  Bogotd. 

Protestants  are  represented  by  the  few  foreigners 
resident  in  the  country.  There  is  a  Presbyterian 
mission  in  Bogotd.  Elementary  education  is  free, 
but  not  compulsory.  According  to  the  constitu- 
tion, "  public  education  shall  be  organized  and 
administered  in  harmony  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,"  and  both  the  lower  and  higher  education 
are  largely  in  the  hands  of  congregations. 

WiLHELM  GOETZ. 

Biblioorapst:  R.  S.  Peieira.  Lee  £tat§-Unie  de  CoUnnbie, 
Paris.  1883;  R.  Nuflei  and  H.  Jalbay.  La  Ripubliqiue  de 
Cohmirie,  ib.  1808;  W.  L.  Scruggs,  Colombian  and  Venee- 
udan  BepubUee,  Boston,  1006. 

COLONNA,  EGIDIO.    See  Maimva  db  Colubcna. 

COLORS  m  THE  BIBLE. 

I.  Ck>lor-Peroeption  and  Color-Nomenelaturs. 
II.  Coloring-Materials. 
Purple  (S  1). 
Scarlet  (S  2). 
III.  Symbolical  Significance. 
White  (S  1). 
Scarlet,  Purple,  and  Blue  (S  2). 

L  Color-Perception  and  Color-Nomenclature:  A 
Midrash  story  {Bamidhbar  Rabbah  xii.)  indicates 
that  red,  blue,  purple,  and  white  fire  were  collect- 
ively a  symbolic  representation  of  the  being  of 
God.  In  the  old  Semitic  scale  of  colors  green  and 
blue  were  not  distinguished,  so  that  sea,  grass,  and 
sky  appeared  of  the  same  tint.  The  Semite  has 
as  yet  no  distinct  word  for  the  blue  of  heaven. 
People  remaining  in  primitive  conditions  paint 
themselves  either  red  or  yellow.    But  among  the 


Ctolora  in  the  Bible 
Oolnmba 


THE  NEW  SCHAPF-HERZOG 


164 


Semites  there  is  no  word  for  "yellow,"  and  that  color 
plays  no  part  in  the  cultus.  The  same  word  in  the 
Old  Testament  applies  to  the  green  of  the  leaf,  the 
yellow  of  the  grain,  and  the  paleness  of  the  coun- 
tenance; another  word  is  used  for  the  blood-red  or 
brown  skin-color  of  men,  the  brown  of  the  horse  or 
the  cow,  and  the  yellow-brown  of  the  lentil ;  still 
another  stands  for  the  raven-blackness  of  the  hair, 
for  the  color  of  the  skin  [when  tanned  by  exposure], 
and  for  the  gray  of  the  morning  twilight. 

n.  Coloring-Materials:  At  theheaidof  coloring- 
material  in  the  Bible  stands  purple.  For  this  the 
Old  Testament  had  no  appellative;  it  had  only 
special  words  for  the  purple-red,  to  which  as  a  dye 
it  gave  a  name,  and  for  purple-violet,  to  which  it 
applied  the  name  of  the  shell-fish.  The  Septuagint 
and  Latin  translations  render  the  latter  by  hyacin^ 
thus  and  use  the  word  for  both  the  blue  stone  and  a 
blue  flower.  Purple  was  an  early  monopoly  of  the 
artistic  Phenicians  of  the  Mediterranean  coast. 
The  mussel  which  produced  it  was 
X.  Purple,  afterward  found  on  other  coasts 
(Ezek.  xxvii.  7,  where  "  Elisha " 
probably  means  the  Lacedsemonian  coast).  Thya- 
tira  was  later  celebrated  for  its  purple  (cf.  Acts 
xvi.  14),  though  Tyre  was  the  place  where  it  was 
first  made.  The  mounds  near  the  latter  place 
prove  what  the  shell-fish  was  from  which  the  dye 
was  obtained.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of 
fish  which  furnish  a  red  or  violet  liquid,  but  their 
product  fades  on  exposure  to  light  and  air.  The 
varieties  which  furnished  the  old  puiple  dye  were 
the  Murez  trunculua  and  the  Murex  brandaris. 
The  dye  is  not  the  blood,  but  a  slimy  secretion. 
At  first  this  is  not  purple  or  red,  but  whitish, 
changing  through  yellowish  and  greenish  tints  to 
purple  and  making  an  unfading  dye.  Pliny  says 
{Hist,  not,,  ix.  62)  that  the  purple  of  Tyre  was  best 
when  it  was  like  coagulated  blood  and  when  looked 
at  from  above  ran  into  black  while  from  the  side 
it  reflected  the  light.  Of  the  purple-blue  he  said 
that  it  was  a  cold  color,  like  the  angiy  sea. 

Scarlet  is  a  red  which  has  more  of  yellow  or  brown 
in  it  than  has  the  purple.  It  was  obtained  from 
an  insect  (coccus  ilicis)  which  fed  on  oaks  and  shrubs, 
supposed  to  be  a  product  of  the  tree,  hence  called 
coccus,  **  berry,"  and  the  oak  on  which  it  was  found 
was  called  the  "  berry-bearing  oak."  The  Penta- 
teuch recognizes  the  insect  and  names  it  the  **  shi- 
ning worm."  The  Persian  name  kirm  found  its  way 
mto  late  Hebrew  (II  Chron.  ii.  6,  13;  ill.  14);  and 
the  word  scarlet,  since  the  Middle  Ages  the  name  of 
the  coloring  obtained  from  this  insect,  is  a  loan- 
word from  the  Turkish.  This  was 
a.  Scarlet  among  Greeks  and  Romans  the  color 
of  the  outer  garments  of  soldiers, 
hence  according  to  Matt,  xxvii.  28  the  soldiers  put 
a  scarlet  cloak  on  Jesus  (Mark  xv.  17;  John  xix.  2 
makes  it  purple).  The  coccus  ilicis  is  still  a  source 
for  this  coloring-matter,  though  less  extensively 
used  than  the  coccus  cacti  of  Mexico  and  Peru. 
Another  red  coloring-matter,  "  vermilion,"  is  men- 
tioned as  a  material  for  painting  walls  and  images 
(Jer.  xxii.  14;  Ezek.  xxiii.  14).  This  is  a  mineral 
red,  in  the  Septuagint  miUos,  elsewhere  meaning 
"  crayon,"  also  **  oxid  of  lead  "  and  ''  minium." 


These  four  mineral  reds  were  used  by  the  ancients, 
who  did  not  always  discriminate  in  their  employ- 
ment of  the  names.  The  henna  used  in  the  East  as 
a  means  of  beautifying  the  person  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  Talmud  and  Tai^gum 
wrongly  find  in  Isa.  iii.  16  a  hint  at  painting  the 
eyes  with  a  red  or  yellow-red  powder,  though  kohl, 
xised  to  darken  eyelids  and  eyebrows,  was  a  favorite 
cosmetic  among  the  Hebrews  (Ezek.  xxiii.  40;  II 
Kings  ix.  30).  When  it  is  said  that  the  Lord  will 
make  the  foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalena  of 
sapphires,  the  pinnacles  of  rubies,  and  the  gates  with 
carbuncles  the  question  arises  why  sapphire-blue 
is  appropriated  to  the  foundation  and  fiery-red  to 
the  battlements  and  walls,  and  it  also  leads  to  the 
problem  of  the  symbolism  of  Biblical  representa- 
tions and  to  that  of  the  cultus  founded  upon  the 
Pentateuch.  The  Babylonians  divided  the  various 
colors  among  the  "  seven  lights  of  earth,"  and 
(Herodotus,  i.  98)  the  seven  concentric  walls  of 
Ecbatana  had  each  its  own  color. 

HL  Symbolical  Significance:    Purple,  blue,  scar- 
let, and  white  are  the  four  colors  of  the  Mosaic  cul- 
tus.  Philo  and  Josephus  associate  these  colors  with 
the   four  elements,  the  sea  (purple),  the  fire  (scar- 
let), the  air  (blue),  the  earth  (white),  combinations 
which  are  purely  arbitrary.     The  four  colors  were 
uped  in  the  outer  curtains,  the  veil,  the  entrance- 
curtain,  and  the  gate  of  the  court,  sa  also  in  the 
ephod,  girdle,  and  breastplate  of  the  high  priest. 
The  first  three  were  used  in  the  pomegranates 
about  the  hem  of  the  robe  of  the  high  priest.     Ex- 
clusively blue  were  the  robe  of  the  high  priest,  the 
lace  of  the  high  priest's  breastplate,  the  lace  on  his 
miter,  and  the  fifty  loops  of  the  curtains.     Ex- 
clusively   white    were    the    breeches    and    miter 
of  the  high  priest.     The  cloths  for  wrapping  the 
sacred  vessels  were  blue,  scarlet,  or  purple.     White 
were  also  the  clothes  of  the  lower  priests.     Add 
to  this  the  blue  ribbon  and  the  fringe  of  the  Hebrew 
dress,  and  there  is  seen  at  once  the  use  and  appli- 
cation of  the  colons  employed  in  the  Hebrew  serv- 
ice.   The  red  is  used  only  once  (Ex.  xxvi.  14); 
the  sealskins  which  covered  the  tabernacle   were 
dyed  that  color.     Black  is  excluded  everywhere, 
as  well  as  yellow  and  green.    That  purple,  blue, 
scarlet,  and  white  only  were  used  is  not  accidental, 
but  the  outgrowth  of  the  consciousness  of  their 
significance.     The  reason  for  the  use  of  the  white 
to  the  total  exclusion  of  the  black  is  easy  to  per- 
ceive.   Black,  as  it  absorbs  all  colors  and  thus 
buries  the  light,   is  the  symbol  of  death.    But 
activity,  life,  light,  holiness,  and  joy,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  cessation,  death,  darkness,  malice,  and 
sorrow,  on  the  other  hand,  are  Biblical  contrasts,  of 
which  white  and  black  are  the  representatives  of 
this  twofold  series  of  opposites.    White,  however,        * 
reflects  the  light;    hence  it  symbolizes  purity  and 
victory.    While  the  third  rider  of  the  Apocalypse 
sits  on  a  black  horse,  bringing  with  him  famine 
and  death  (Rev.  vi.  5),  the  Persian  horses  in  the 

eighth  vision  of  Zechariah  are  white,  be- 
I.  White,  cause  no  worldly  power  had  ever  shown 

a  more  noble  disposition  toward  Israel 
than  the  dynasty  of  the  Achemenids,  which  set        ^ 
the  exiles  free  and  promoted  the  building  of  the 


166 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oolon  in  the  Bible 
Oolamba 


temple.  The  first  of  the  four  apocalyptic  riders 
has  a  white  horse  (Rev.  vi.  2);  for  he  went  forth 
to  conquer.  The  "  Ancient  of  Days,"  i.e.,  the 
Ever-living  (Dan.  vii.  9),  appears  in  a  garment  white 
as  snow;  even  the  hair  of  his  head  is  like  the  pure 
wool.  And  thus,  likewise,  the  glorified  Christ 
(Rev.  i.  14).  Even  the  throne  of  God  which 
Ezekiel  saw  was  white.  White  denotes  the  victory 
of  the  light ;  hence  it  is  clear  why  the  garments  of 
the  priests  were  white.  Even  the  high  priest  wore 
the  so-called  golden  robes  over  the  white  ones; 
and  in  the  temple  which  Ezekiel  saw  in  his  vision 
the  priests  wore  white  garments  only.  The  robes 
of  the  priests  are,  according  to  their  natural  color, 
white,  as  the  angels  and  blessed  appeared  to  the 
seers,  and  as  the  garments  of  Jesus  became  white 
**  like  the  light  "  on  the  mount  of  transfiguration. 
God  is  light,  and  gives  light,  or  he  is  holy,  i.e., 
holy  love.  The  colors  in  the  garments  of  the 
priests  have  reference  to  their  office;  viz.,  to  act  as 
the  medium  between  God  and  his  congregation,  it 
is  their  duty  to  go  before  the  people  in  holiness  and 
purity. 

The  three  other  colors  are  not  inherently  sym- 
bolic as  is  white.  Strictly  speaking,  white  is  not  a 
color.  No  color  is  inherently  symbolic,  but  gains 
symbolic  value  by  its  associations.  It  is  true  that 
the  colors  produce  psychological  effects,  and  that 
in  proportion  to  their  relation  to  the  yellow-red; 
bright-red  is  disquieting,  while  blue  is  soothing. 
But  this  does  not  create  symbolism.  Thus  green 
is  the  color  of  hope  because  associated  with  plant- 
growth,  with  the  period  to  which  people  look  for- 
ward in  winter.  Connected  with  white  is  its  oppo- 
site, scarlet,  as  the  emblem  of  fire.  The  dark-red 
horses  in  the  first  vision  of  Zechariah  bring  about 
bloody  war;  and  the  yellow-red,  a  consuming  fire. 
But  light  and  fire  are  opposites  according  to  the 
ethical  idea  of  Holy  Writ;  viz.,  the  light  is  the 
symbol  of  <M>mmunicating  love,  the  fire,  that  of 
consuming  anger.  When  Isaiah  describes  the  sins 
of  his  people  he  speaks  of  them  as  being  red  like 
scarlet,  not  like  purple.  The  scarlet  along  with  the 
white  in  the  high  priest's  garment  means,  there- 
fore, to  say  that  he  is  not  only  the  servant  of  the 
God  of  love,  but  also  of  the  God  of  anger  (Ex.  xx.  5). 
As  to  the  purple  and  blue,  which  are  always  con- 
nected, be  it  along  with  white  and  scarlet,  or  between, 

as  they  are  only  two  kinds  of  one  and 

3.  Scarlet,  the  same  purple  color,  which  agam  is 

Purple,     not  a  natural  but  an  artificial  color, 

and  Blue,   consisting  of  red  and  violet,  they  refer 

to  a  twofold  attribute  of  the  royal 
King — ^the  piu*ple  to  the  majesty  of  God  in  his 
glory,  and  the  blue  to  God's  majesty  in  his  conde- 
scension. The  purple  of  the  garments  of  the  high 
priest  denotes,  therefore,  that  he  is  a  servant  of  that 
God  of  whom  the  song  at  the  Red  Sea  says,  "  The 
Lord  will  reign  forever  and  ever"  (Ex.  xv.  18); 
and  the  song  of  Moses,  "  And  he  was  king  in  Jeshu- 
nin  "  (Deut.  xxxiii.  5).  The  red  color  of  the  red 
heifer,  whose  ashes,  mixed  with  water,  were  to 
be  used  in  purification  of  the  unclean,  had  also 
a  symbolical  signification.  Red  is  the  color  of 
blood,  which,  again,  is  the  life.  The  animal  in- 
tended as   antidote  against  uncleanness  through 


contact  with  a  dead  body  was  to  be  without  blem- 
ish, and  upon  which  never  came  yoke,  and  thus 
represented  in  its  color  a  picture  of  fresh  and  vig- 
orous life.  It  may  be  that  the  colors  of  the  twelve 
precious  stones  which  were  on  the  breastplate  of 
the  high  priest  had  a  symbolical  significance  as 
to  their  relation  to  the  twelve  tribes  whose  names 
were  engraved  on  them  (Ex.  xxviii.  17-21).  This 
at  least  may  be  derived  from  Jewish  tradition. 

(W.  LoTZ.) 

Biblioorapht:  F.  Delitssch,  IrU.  Farhenatudien  und 
Blumen9tack0,  Leiprio,  1888;  G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiei, 
Hitt.  of  Art  in  Sardinia,  Judaa^  Syria  and  Ana  Minor, 
i.  109-370,  London,  1800;  Bensinger,  ArcfMologie,  pp. 
26^270;  Nowaok,  ArchOaloaie,  pp.  263  sqq.;  E.  C.  A. 
Riehm,  HandwSrterbuch  dn  hibliaiehen  AUertumM^  pp.  436 
Bqq.,  Bielefeld,  1803-94;  EB,  i.  869-877;  DB,  i.  467- 
468;  JE,  iv.  174-178. 

COLOSSIANS,   EPISTLE   TO   THE.    See   Paul 
THE  Apostle. 

COLUMBA,  SAINT  (in  Ireland  and  the  western 
isles  known  as  Colum-ciUe,  **  Columba  of  the 
church  ''):  The  apostle  of  the  Picts;  b.  at  Gartan 
(25  m.  w.  of  Londonderry),  County  Donegal,  Ire- 
land, Dec.  7,  most  probably  in  the  year  521;  d. 
on  the  island  of  lona  June  9,  597.  He  was  of 
royal  blood  on  both  his  father's  and  his  mother's 
side  and  akin  to  many  powerful  families.  His 
studies  were  begun  under  Finnian  of  Moville  and 
continued  with  Gemman,  an  aged  bard 
In  Ireland,  of  Leinster,  with  Finnian  of  Clonard, 
and  with  Mobhi,  the  head  of  a  monas- 
tery at  the  present  Glasnevin,  near  Dublin.  About 
546  he  founded  his  first  monastery,  at  Deny 
(Londonderry),  and  during  the  next  fifteen  years 
added  about  forty  others,  the  most  famous  being 
at  Durrow  (about  50  m.  w.  of  Dublin),  his  most 
important  establishment  in  Ireland,  founded  in 
553,  and  at  Kells  (35  m.  n.w.  of  Dublin),  founded 
at  an  uncertain  date. 

In  563  he  left  his  native  land,  actuated  doubtless 
by  the  love  of  wandering,  and,  possibly,  other 
motives.  A  bloody  battle  took  place  in  561  be- 
tween Columba's  clansmen  and  the  followers  of  the 
king,  and  the  Irish  accounts  state  that  Columba 
instigated  it  because  the  king  had  violated  the  right 
of  sanctuary  at  one  of  his  monasteries,  and  had 
also  given  what  he  considered  an  unjust  decision 
against  him  concerning  the  ownership  of  a  book 
(see  Finnian,  Saint,  of  Moville).  Adamnan 
tells  of  an  attempt  to  excommunicate  him  at  a 
synod  at  Teltown  in  Meath;  it  is  not  known  when 
it  was  held  or  what  was  the  charge,  but  presu- 
mably it  was  an  effort  of  the  king  to  retaliate.  Ac- 
cording to  an  Irish  legend  Columba's  conscience 
troubled  him  for  his  part  in  inciting  strife  and 
bloodshed,  and,  on  the  advice  of  a  friend,  he 
decided  to  go  into  exile  as  penance,  to  win  as  many 
souls  for  Christ  as  lives  had  been  lost  in  the  battle, 
and  never  to  look  upon  his  native  land  again.  If 
this  be  true  he  modified  his  determination,  for  he 
returned  to  Ireland  more  than  once 
In  Scotland,  and  continued  prominent  in  Irish  af- 
fairs. Missionary  zeal  is  indicated  by 
his  choice  of  a  refuge.  With  twelve  associates  he 
established  himself  on  the  island  of  lona  (q.v.),  ofiF 


Columba 
OomeniuB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


166 


the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  on  the  border  between 
the  territories  of  the  Picts  and  the  Scots  (Irish)  of 
British  Dalriada,  whose  king,  Conall,  was  his  kins- 
man. It  was  an  admirable  center  for  missionary 
work.  At  first  he  labored  chiefly  among  his  coun- 
trymen, whose  Christian  faith  was  sorely  .tried  by 
their  heathen  neighbors.  Then  he  proceeded  through 
Pictland  to  the  court  of  King  Brude,  near  Inver- 
ness. He  converted  the  king  (565),  and  the  people 
followed  as  a  matter  of  course.  During  the  follow- 
ing years  he  visited  in  person  nearly  all  of  modem 
Scotland.  Everywhere  he  founded  churches  and 
monasteries,  adding  their  charge  to  those  already 
under  his  rule  in  Ireland.  When  Conall  died  (574) 
his  successor,  Aidan,  sought  and  obtained  inau- 
guration at  Columba's  hand.  In  575  he  attended 
a  convention  at  Drumceatt  in  northern  Ireland. 
It  was  proposed  there  to  abolish  the  order  of  bards; 
but  Columba,  who  not  improbably  belonged  to  the 
order  himself,  succeeded  in  having  measures  adopted 
looking  toward  reformation  rather  than  annihilation. 
He  also  secured  a  more  independent  position  for 
Aidan  and  his  kingdom. 

Columba  was  fond  of  fine  manuscripts,  and  during 
his  last  years  spent  much  time  in  transcribing. 
On  the  day  before  his  death  he  was  at  work  upon 
the  Psalter  and  reached  the  end  of  a  page  with  the 
words:  ''  They  that  seek  the  Lord  shall  not  want 
any  good  thing  "  (Ps.  xxxiv.  10).  "  Here,"  he  said, 
"  I  must  stop;  let  Baithene  [his  cousin  and  suc- 
cessor as  abbot]  do  the  rest.''  When  the  monks 
entered  the  church  for  matins  the  next  morning 
they  found  him  lying  before  the  altar,  and,  with  a 
feeble  effort  to  give  his  blessing,  he  passed  away. 
Colimiba  was  impulsive  and  at  times,  perhaps, 
failed  to  curb  an  imperious  temper.  But  his  faults 
were  those  of  his  race,  and  were  lightly  regarded 
in  his  time.  He  was  emphatically  a 
His  man  of  action,  bom  to  lead  and  also 
Character,  to  win.  Adamnan  describes  him  as 
''  like  an  angel  in  countenance,  of 
polished  speech,  holy  in  work,  of  most  excellent 
disposition,  great  in  counsel,  through  thirty-four 
years  living  as  an  island  soldier  [of  Christ].  Not  a 
single  hour  would  he  allow  to  pass  without  devoting 
himself  to  prayer,  or  reading,  or  writing,  or  at  least 
to  some  manual  labor.  Day  and  night,  without 
any  intermission,  he  was  so  occupied  in  unwearied 
exercises  of  fasts  and  vigils  that  the  special  burden 
of  any  one  labor  might  seem  beyond  human  pos- 
sibility. And  meanwhile  he  was  dear  to  all,  always 
showing  a  cheerful,  holy  face,  and  was  gladdened  in 
his  inmost  heart  by  the  joy  of  the  Holy  Spirit." 
Three  Latin  hymns  are  attributed  to  Columba  and 
several  Irish  poems  of  more  or  less  doubtful  gen- 
uineness. The  Rule  of  St.  Columba  is  a  collection  of 
maxims  for  a  solitary  living  near  a  monastery 
rather  than  a  monastic  rule  properly  so  called. 

BtBUOORAPHT:  For  the  hymna  oonsult  J.  H.  Todd,  The 
Book  of  Hymna  of  the  Ancient  Church  of  Ireland,  ii.  201- 
283.  Dublin.  1869;  The  Altua  of  SL  Columba,  ed.  by  the 
IfArqueas  of  Bute.  Edinburgh.  1882;  Bernard  and  Atkin- 
ion.  Ths  Iriah  Liber  Hymnorum,  for  the  Henry  Bradshaw 
Sodety.  xiii  (1898),  i.  62-^9,  ii.  23-28.  140-172;  for  the 
Iriah  poems,  W.  Reeves,  Life  of  St  Columba,  pp.  Ixxviii.- 
Ixxix.,  264-277,  286-289,  Dublin,  1857;  for  the  rule, 
Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Couneile,  ii.  119-121;  W.  F.  Skene, 
CeUie  SeoOand,  iL  608-609,  Edinburgh,  1877.    The  stand- 


ard life  is  by  Adamnan  [679-704],  edited  with  notes  and 
dissertations  by  W.  Reeves,  Dublin,  1857.  new  ed..  with 
Eng.  transl.  and  an  unfortunate  rearrangement  of  the 
notes  by  W.  F.  Skene,  Edinburgh,  1874.  A  useful  edition 
of  Adamnan 's  work  is  by  J.  T.  Fowler,  Oxford.  1894. 
transl.  1895;  it  is  newly  translated  by  W.  Huysshe.  Lon- 
don, 1906,  and  is  in  MPL,  Ixxxviii.  For  other  lives, 
ete..  consult  ASB,  June,  ii.  180-236;  J.  Colgan,  Triaa 
thaumaturga,  pp.  317-514,  Louvain,  1647;  Lanigan.  Bed. 
Hiet,  ii.  106-181,  236-259;  C.  F.  R.  de  Montalembert. 
Lee  Moinee  d'ocddevU,  iii.  99-331,  Paris,  1866,  Eng. 
transl.  printed  separately  as  SL  Columba,  Apoetle  of  Caie- 
donia,  London,  1868;  W.  D.  Killen,  EccUnatHeal  Hia- 
tory  of  Ireland,  i.  30-39,  London.  1875;  W.  F.  Skene, 
CeUie  Scotland,  ii.  62-66,  79-84,  85  sqq.,  467-607.  Edin- 
burgh. 1877;  A.  Bellesheim.  Oeachiehte  der  ka0u)li9chen 
Kirche  in  SchotOand,  i.  27-66.  Mains,  1883;  J.  Healy, 
InnJa  eanctorum,  pp.  291-331,  Dublin,  1890;  G.  F.  Mao- 
lear,  Apoetlee  of  Medioeval  Europe,  pp.  41-56,  London, 
1888;  E.  A.  Cooke.  St,  Columba,  hie  Life  and  Work,  Edin- 
burgh, 1893. 

COLUMBAN,  SAINT  (called  also  the  "  Younger 
Columba"):  Abbot  of  Luxeuil  and  of  Bobbio; 
b.  in  Leinster,  Ireland,  c.  550;  d.  in  Bobbio  (37 
m.  n.e.  of  Genoa)  Nov.  23,  615.  Like  his  older 
namesake  and  so  many  of  his  countrymen,  impelled 
by  the  love  of  wandering  and  the  longing  for  the 
ascetic  life,  influenced  also  by  the  admonition  of 
an  aged  female  recluse,  he  left  parents  and  home. 
For  many  years  he  was  a  member  of  Comgall's 
monastery  at  Bangor  on  Belfast  Lough.  Then 
with  twelve  companions  he  went  by  way  of  Britain 
to  Gaul  (c.  590).  Christian  life  on  the  Continent 
was  then  suffering  from  the  irruption  of  the  bar- 
barians, which  had  destroyed  the  old  civilization 
and  settled  lai^  bodies  of  heathen  in  many  places. 
Columban  and  his  company  were  well  received  at 
the  court  of  Guntram,  king  of  Burgundy  (d.  593), 
and  established  themselves  in  the  wilderness  of  the 
Vosges,  at  the  site  of  a  ruined  fortress,  Anagrates 
( Anegray ),  in  the  present  department  of  Haute-Saone 
(590-691).  As  the  number  of  monks  increased  he  j 
founded  another  monastery  eight  miles  distant,  amid 
the  ruins  of  Luxuvium  (Luxeiiil,  72  m.  n.  e.  of  Dijon), 
once  famous  for  its  warm  baths.  The  little  band 
brought  with  them  their  Irish  teachings  and  cus- 
toms and  comported  themselves  to  a  large  extent 
independent  of  the  diocesan  bishop.  Nevertheless, 
they  suffered  little  interference.  Their  date  for 
Easter  gave  most  offense,  and  Columban  saw  fit  to 
send  letters  defending  his  practises  to  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great,  to  a  synod  of  Gallican  bishops  (603), 
and  to  a  later  pope,  probably  Sabinian.  In  610  all 
Irish  monks  were  expelled  from  Burgundy,  not, 
however,  because  of  religious  differences,  but  in 
consequence  of  the  boldness  with  which  Columban 
rebuked  the  vices  of  the  king,  Theodoric,  and  of  the 
court.  It  was  intended  to  send  them  back  to 
Ireland,  but  at  Nantes  they  were  allowed  to  go  at 
will.  After  spending  some  time  with  Clothair  IL, 
king  of  Neustria,  at  Soissons,  Columban  went  to 
Theodebert,  king  of  Austrasia,  at  Metz,  and  at  the 
king's  request  undertook  missionary  work  among 
the  heathen  Alemanni  and  Suevi.  He  settled  at 
Bregenz,  at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Constance,  but  in 
612  his  old  enemy,  Theodoric,  defeated  Theodebert 
and  seized  his  dominions.  Columban  then  crossed 
the  Alps,  tarried  for  a  while  at  Milan  with  Agilulf, 
the  Lombard  king,  and  wrote  there  a  treatise 
against  the  Arians,  which  is  not  preserved.     In  614 


167 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ooluniba 
Oomenixis 


he  established  himself  at  Bobbio,  restoring  an  old 
basilica  for  a  monastery  and  building  a  new  church 
to  the  Virgin.  For  many  years  this  monastery 
remained  a  center  of  learning  and  study,  while 
Loxeuil  became  the  most  famous  house  in  Gaul 
with  afiBliated  foundations  extending  from  Lake 
Geneva  to  the  North  Sea.  Columban  was  a  man  of 
strong  convictions,  unwavering,  and  courageous, 
but  also  headstrong  and  stubborn.  His  writings 
in  many  passages  breathe  the  true  spirit  of  the 
Gospel,  but  in  others  show  a  tendency  to  formalism 
and  legality.  He  counseled  moderation  in  ascetic 
practises,  but  was  himself  overrigorous.  He  ad- 
dressed the  pope  with  all  respect  and  acknowl- 
edged Rome  as  the  metropolis  of  the  Church. 
His  learning  was  genuine  and  he  is  eminent 
among  the  writers  of  the  Merovingian  time.  He 
shows  an  acquaintance  with  Vergil,  Horace,  and 
Seneca,  perhaps  also  with  Ovid  and  Juvenal;  he 
had  some  knowledge  of  Greek,  and  was  well  read 
in  Christian  Latin  Uterature.  The  most  important 
of  his  extant  works  are  his  letters  and  his  monastic 
rule,  which  consisted  originally  of  two  parts,  the 
first  commonly  known  as  the  Reguia  S.  Coluwbani, 
containing  ten  chapters  giving  general  rules  for  the 
monastic  life  in  a  spirit  of  moderation  and  Chris- 
tian freedom ;  the  second,  the  so-called  Reguia  cob- 
nobialiM  fratrum  Hibemensium,  gives  pimishments 
for  offenses  of  monks  and  imposes  rigorous  penal- 
ties for  trivial  faults.  In  its  existing  form  it  has 
been  added  to  from  old  Irish  sources,  which  doubt- 
less were  also  used  originally  by  Columban.  There 
are  frequent  indications  that  he  used  the  Basilian 
rule,  as  well  as  reminiscences  of  Cassian  and  Pa- 
chomiuB  (of.  O.  Seebass,  Ueher  Columban  von  Lu- 
xemU  Klo9terregel  und  Buasbuchf  Dresden,  1883). 

Otto  Seebabb. 
BnuooBAPHT:  Columban'0  worka,  excepting  a  eommen- 
ftaiT  on  the  PBalme  (found  in  II  codice  irlantUM  dM'Am- 
hrotiana,  ed.  G.  I.  Aaooli,  2  vols..  Rome,  1878-79),  are 
in  MPL,  Ixzx.  The  letters,  ed.  W.  Qrundlaoh.  are  in 
MGH,  BpiaL,  iii  (1891),  154-190.  All  the  other  works 
ba^  been  published  by  O.  Seebass  in  ZKO,  ziv  (1894). 
76-^2,  430-448,  xr  (1895).  366-386,  zvii  (1897).  215-234. 
CSolumban's  life  by  Jonas,  a  contemporary  monk  of  Bob- 
bio,  is  in  MPL,  Ixzxvii.,  Eng.  transl.  by  D.  C.  Munro  in 
TrandaUonB  and  ftsprinte  published  by  the  Univ.  of  Pa., 
it  7,  Philadelphia,  1895;  also.  ed.  Knisoh,  in  Mitteilungen 
dt»  inttUuU  far  6Mt0rneichueh€  Q€9chichUfor§diunQ,  xiv. 
885  sqq.,  Innsbruek,  1893.  Consult  Lanlgan,  Bed.  HiaL, 
iL  280-209,  lY.  348  sqq.;  G.  F.  Maclear.  ApovtUa  of  Medi- 
•vol  Europe,  pp.  57-76,  London.  1888;  J.  Healy,  /n- 
•  sttla  saiKlorum.  pp.  370-381.  Dublin.  1890;  T.  Olden,  The 
Chuteh  cf  Ireland,  pp.  91-98.  London,  1892;  Hauck.  KD, 
1240-270. 

COMBA,  EMILIO:  Waldensian;  b.  at  San  Ger- 
mane, Waldensian  Valleys,  Italy,  Aug.  31 ,  1839;  d.  at 
Guttannen,  9  m.  s.e.  of  Meiringen, Switzerland,  Sept. 
3, 1904.  He  studied  atTorre-Pellice  and  at  Geneva 
(under  Merle  d'Aubign^,  was  ordained  in  1863,  and 
until  1872  was  an  evangelist,chiefly  in  Venice.  In 
Sept.,  1872,  he  became  professor  of  historical  the- 
ology and  homiletics  in  the  Waldensian  college, 
Florence.  He  was  also  for  many  years  pastor  of  a 
Waldensian  church  in  Florence,  and  after  1873  the 
editor  of  the  monthly  Rivista  Cristiana  which  he 
had  founded.  He  defended  with  learning  and  suc- 
ests  the  proposition  that  the  original  Waldensians 
daU  from  Peter  Waldo  in  the  twelfth  centuiy  and 


not  from  the  days  of  the  apostles,  also  that  they  had 
much  to  learn  from  the  Protestant  Reformers  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  His  publications  are  very 
numerous.  Besides  reprinting  in  his  Biblioteea 
della  Riforma  Italiana  Sec.  X  VI.  works  of  Vergerio 
(1883),  Vermigli  (1883),  Vaides  (1884),  Ochino 
(1884),  Parravicino  (1886),  and  Virginio  (1886), 
he  wrote  Francesco  Spiera  (Florence,  1872),  En- 
rico Amaud  (1889,  also  in  French,  HenK  Amaud,  La 
Tour,  1889),  and  /  nostri  protestanti,  2  vols.,  Flor- 
ence, 1895-97;  but  his  life-work  was  upon  the  his- 
tory of  his  own  people,  drawn  from  the  sources, 
which  he  told  best  in  the  Histoire  dea  Vaudoia 
(Paris,  1901);  unfortunately  he  brought  out  only 
the  first  part,  De  Valdo  d  la  r^forme.  The  English 
reader  has  these  researches  in  their  earlier  form  in 
the  History  of  the  Waldenses  of  Italy,  from  Thnr 
Origin   to  the  Reformation   (London,  1889). 

COMBEFIS,  c«n"be''fl',  FRAN9OIS:  Patristio 
scholar;  b.  at  Marmande  (30  m.  s.e.  of  Bordeaux), 
France,  ^crv.,  1605;  d.  in  Paris  Mar.  23,  1679. 
He  studied  with  the  Jesuits  in  Bordeaux,  and  joined 
the  Dominicans  in  1624;  taught  philosophy  and 
theology  in  various  houses  of  his  order,  and  in  1640 
was  sent  to  Paris;  here  he  soon  retired  from  teach- 
ing and  devoted  himself  to  the  preparation  of 
texts,  translations,  etc.,  of  the  works  of  the  Fathers. 
His  publications  include  Novum  audarium  Graeo^ 
latincB  bibliotheccB  patrum  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1648),  a 
work  which  was  not  well  received  at  Rome  because 
of  certain  statements  about  the  Monothelite  con- 
troversy; Bibliotheca  patrum  concionatoria  (8  vols., 
1662;  reprinted  1747);  a  complete  edition  of  the 
works  of  Basil  the  Great  (2  vols.,  1679);  the 
works  and  fragments  of  Amphilochus,  Methodius, 
Andrew  of  Crete,  Maximus,  and  others. 

COMBER,  THOMAS  JAMES:  Baptist  pioneer 
missionary  to  the  Kongo;  b.  in  Clarendon  street, 
Camberwell,  London,  Nov.  7,  1862;  d.  at  Loango, 
French  Kongoland,  June  27,  1887.  He  studied  at 
Regent's  Park  College,  was  sent  in  1876  by  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Society  to  western  Africa, 
labored  in  Victoria  and  the  Kamerun,  and  the 
next  year  was  sent  into  the  Kongo.  After  a  brief 
visit  to  England  in  1878-79  he  returned  to  his  post. 
In  1882  he  reached  Stanley  Pool  and  conducted 
missionary  operations.  In  1885  he  paid  another 
visit  to  England,  but  before  that  ye&r  closed  was 
again  at  work  in  the  Upper  Kongo.  There  sickneai 
overtook  him  and  he  hastened  to  the  coast,  only  to 
die.  His  work  was  in  new  fields  of  difficulty  and 
danger. 

BzBLioaBAPHT:  J.    B.   Myers,    T.   J.   Comber,   Mieeionary 
Pioneer  to  the  Congo,  London,  1888. 

C0MEinUS,co-m6'n!-us,  JOHANlfES  AMOS  (Lat- 
inized from  Komenski,ko-men'ski):  Moravian  bish- 
op; b.  at  Niwnitz  (near  Ungarisch-Brod,48  m.e.of 
Brilnn),  in  Moravia,  July  28, 1592;  d.  at  Amsterdam 
Nov.  1 5, 1670.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he  entered  the 
Latin  school,  and  in  1611  was  able  to  enter  Herbom 
University,  where  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
the  encyclopedist  Alsted.  After  an  educational 
journey  as  far  as  Holland,  he  completed  his  studies 
in  Heidelberg  imder  the  care  of  Parens.  Return- 
ing to  his  home  in  1614,  he  took  charge  of  the  high 


ComeniuB 
Commendatory  Letters 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


I6d 


school  at  Prerau.  He  was,  in  1616,  ordained  in 
the  church  of  the  United  Brethren,  becoming  pastor 
at  Fulnek,  1618.  The  misfortunes  which,  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  came  upon  the  Evangelicals 
in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  visited  him.  In  1621  the 
Spaniards  burned  Fulnek,  and  the  plague  robbed 
Comenius  of  wife  and  child.  From  1624,  when  the 
Evangelical  ministers  were  driven  from  their  pul- 
pits, until  1627,  when  all  Evangelicals  were  ban- 
ished, he  traveled  among  his  scattered  conuudes 
and  lived  in  the  mountain  castles  of  the  nobility, 
ministering  to  his  brethren  in  the  faith.  He  then 
accompanied  some  of  them  to  Poland,  where  others 
had  preceded  them,  and  in  the  border  city  Lissa, 
under  the  protection  of  Ck)unt  Leszczynsld,  there 
■prang  up  a  flourishing  Protestant  population 
whose  gymnasium  under  Comenius  grew  into  great 
fame.  His  text-books,  practical  works,  and  reform 
of  educational  methods  brought  him  into  contact 
with  other  states.  In  1641  he  went  to  England 
and  Sweden,  and  in  1650  to  Transylvania.  From 
1632  he  had  been  senior  bishop,  and  from  1648  the 
only  bishop  of  the  Brethren's  Church.  Returning 
to  Lissa  shortly  before  the  Swedish-PoUsh  War, 
he  and  the  Protestants  were  banished  by  the  Poles 
in  revenge  for  the  victory  of  Charles  X.  He  fled 
to  Amsterdam,  where  he  lived  in  high  honor  and 
busied  himself  in  literary  labor,  in  the  care  of  his 
scattered  brethren^  and  in  the  training  of  youth. 
He  was  a  man  of  varied  talents.  To  his  church 
he  gave  in  1626  the  Psalter  in  ancient  verse-form 
and  in  1659  a  new  edition  of  the  hymnal;  he  was 
also  its  foremost  preacher;  his  two  books  ''  The 
Labyrinth  of  the  World  and  the  Paradise  of  the 
Heart "  (1623)  and  "  One  Thing  Necessary  "  (in 
the  latter  of  which  the  man  of  seventy-seven  years 
gives  the  harvest  of  a  rich  and  tireless  life)  will 
live  among  the  classics  of  Christian  teaching.  He 
was  no  less  great  in  his  activity  as  bishop.  But 
the  different  forms  of  government,  and  the  current 
confessionalism  with  its  emphasis  on  "  central 
dogmas,"  seemed  to  him  only  to  confuse  the  com- 
mon man.  Peaceful  by  nature,  he  tried  to  combine 
excellences  and  develop  good  qualities  wherever 
he  found  them.  His  claim  to  world-fame  rests 
upon  his  work  as  pedagogue.  Here  he  owed  much 
to  his  church  and  its  catechetical  system.  The 
"  Door  to  Language  Opened,"  translated  within  a  few 
years  into  fifteen  languages,  and  the  "World  Por- 
trayed "  (Eng.  transl. ,  by  C.  Hoole,  reprint,  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  1887)  were  the  most  famous  of  his  works. 
In  this  labor  also  it  was  his  religious  nature  which 
controlled  him.  Here  he  developed  what  later 
made  the  names  of  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi  famous. 
The  child  should  grow  into  knowledge  by  assimi- 
lation, should  not  be  forced  but  should  be  assisted 
to  know,  to  think,  and  to  speak.  But  the  object 
should  ever  be  to  understand  all  that  ia  worth 
knowing  of  God,  the  world,  and  oneself.  The  end 
of  his  pedagogical  labor  is  "  universal  knowledge," 
the  striving  for  universal  education,  the  founding 
of  scientific  academies,  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  all  languages,  the  creation  of  a  universal 
language,  and  the  establishment  of  congresses  of 
rel^on.  When  he  had  been  almost  foigotten 
Herder  rediscovered  him  by  bringing  to  light  one 


of  the  most  beautiful  of  his  works.  In  1890,  at  the 
third  centenary  of  his  birth,  the  Comenius  Society 
was  founded  to  perpetuate  his  name  and  labor. 

(P.  Kleinert.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  important  literature  is  found  in  the 
ComeniuB-Studien,  6  parts,  Znaim,  1892-d3.  and  in  the 
publications  of  the  Comenius-Geeellschaft,  Berlin,  1892 
sqq.  Consult:  H.  F.  von  Criesern,  J.  A.  ComeniuM  aU 
Theoiog,  Leipsic,  1881;  J.  Beeger  and  E.  Zoubek,  Came- 
fiittS  fuuh  •einem  Leben  und  Sehriflen,  ib.  1883;  L.  W. 
Seyffarth,  Comeniu9  nadi,  aeinem  LAen  und  pddoffogiMeher 
BedeutunQ,  ib.  1883;  R.  H.  Quick,  in  Earnifa  on  Educa- 
tUmal  Reforment  privately  printed,  1887;  J.  Kvacsala, 
J.  A.  ComeniuB;  9ein  Leben  und  aeine  Schriften,  Leipsic. 
1892;  S.  8.  Laurie,  J.  A.  Comeniue,  .  .  .  hie  Life  and 
Educational  Worke,  Cambridge,  1885.  Syracuse,  1893. 
Consult  also  J.  A.  Comenius.  77ie  Greof  DtdacHc,  now  far 
the  First  Time  Englitked,  vaith  Introduction  by  ilf .  W.  Keat- 
inge,  London,  1896  (gives  a  bibliography). 

COMES.    See  Pericope. 

COMGALL,  SAINT»  OF  BANGOR:  Founder  of  a 
famous  Irish  monastery  at  Bangor  on  the  southern 
shore  of  Belfast  Lough.  He  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixth  century  and  was  a  friend  and  asso- 
ciate of  Columba,  Brendan,  and  other  monastic 
founders.  He  established  many  monasteries,  that 
at  Bangor  in  554  or  558,  and  is  said  at  one  time  to 
have  had  3,000  monks  under  him  there  and  in  affil- 
iated houses.  A  so-called  rule  of  Comgall  is  ex- 
tant, consisting  of  thirty-six  quatrains  written  in 
Irish;  it  is  of  great  age  and  may  possibly  have 
formed  the  basis  of  Columban's  discipline  at  Lux- 
euil  and  Bobbio,  and  of  that  at  St.  Gall.  The 
"  Antiphonary  of  Bangor,"  a  book  of  anthems 
compiled  for  the  congregation  at  Bangor,  written,  it 
is  supposed,  soon  fJter  680,  preserved  at  Milan, 
contains  an  alphabetical  hymn  in  Comgall's  honor. 
Bibugobapht:  ASB,    May,    ii.    677-587;  Lanigan,    Eed. 

UieL,  ii.  61-69;  W.  Reeves,  Ecdeeiaetical  AntiquUiee  of 

Doton,  Connor,  and  Dromore,  pp.  93  et  passim,  Dublin, 

1847;  J.  O'Hanlon,  Livee  of  the  Irish  Saints,  y.  152-185. 

DubUn,  n.d.;  J.  Healy,    Insula  sanctorum,  pp.  364  sqq.. 

Dublin,    1890;  The   Antiphonary  of  Banoor,   ed.   F.   E. 

Warren  for  the  Henry  Bradshaw  Society,  2  vols.,  London, 

1893-95. 

COMMAlfDMENTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  (proBcepta 
or  mandata  ecclesia):  The  title  of  a  section  of  the 
catechism  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  not  familiar  with 
it.  The  Council  of  Trent  (session  vi.,  canon  xxii.; 
session  xxii.,  passim)  uses  the  phrase  for  regula- 
tions which  the  Church  sets  forth  authoritatively 
for  the  guidance  of  the  faithful,  especially  in  the 
province  of  devout  morality;  such  commandments 
complement  the  commands  of  God  {prcecepta  Dei), 
as  learned  from  the  Bible.  The  Jesuit  Petrus 
Canisius  (q.v.)  made  the  doctrine  of  these  com- 
mandments a  part  of  the  catechism.  He  pre- 
pared a  brief  summary  of  those  devotional  precepts 
of  the  Church  which  he  regarded  as  the  most  im- 
portant for  the  life  of  the  people,  five  in  number, 
and  since  his  time  it  has  been  usual  in  the  Roman 
Church  to  speak  of  '*  Ten  Commandments  of  God 
and  five  chief  commandments  of  the  Church/' 
The  latter  conunandments,  as  Canisius  selected 
them,  are  as  follows:  (1)  Thou  shalt  observe  the 
appointed  feasts  of  the  Church.  (2 )  Thou  shalt  hear 
mass  and  the  sermon  every  Sunday.  (3)  Thou 
shalt  observe  the  fasting  seasons.     (4)  Thou  shalt 


16d 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ComenluB 
Commendatory  Lettara 


confess  thy  sins  at  least  once  every  year,  and  this 
to  thy  rej^ar  parish  priest.  (5)  Thou  shalt  seek 
the  communion  at  least  every  year  at  Easter. 
These  commandments  were  adopted  in  almost  all 
catechisms  after  Canisius.  In  countries  where  the 
Roman  Church  is  not  supported  by  the  State,  an 
additional  sixth  commandment  has  been  widely  in- 
troduced into  the  catechism:  Thou  shalt  provide 
a4%ording  to  thy  means  toward  the  support  of  the 
Church  and  the  priests.  Pius  X.  formidates  these 
commandments  more  strictly  and  detailed  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Thou  shalt  attend  holy  mass  on  all  Sun- 
days and  festivals  of  obligation.  (2)  Thou  shalt 
observe  the  lenten  fast,  the  four  embeiHiays,  and  the 
vigils  of  obligation;  thou  shalt  eat  no  meat  on 
prohibited  days.  (3)  Thou  shalt  confess  at  least 
once  every  year,  and  at  Easter  communicate  in  the 
parish  church  proper.  (4)  Thou  shalt  pay  the 
bounden  or  customary  dues  to  the  Church.  (5) 
Thou  shalt  not  wed  in  forbidden  seasons;  namely, 
from  the  first  Advent  Sunday  till  Epiphany  and 
from  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent  until  the  octave  after 
Easter. 

In  the  Greek  Church  the  following  command- 
ments are  in  force:  (1)  Every  one  shall  be  present 
at  the  principal  hours  and  the  liturgy  on  sJl  Sun- 
days and  festivals.  (2)  Observe  the  four  great  fasts. 
(3)  Reverence  the  clergy,  and  especially  the  father 
confessor.  (4)  Confess  regularly  four  times  a  year, 
in  particular  at  Easter.  (5)  Beware  of  heretical 
books  and  intercourse  with  heretics.  (6)  Make 
intercessions  for  every  estate,  especially  the  clei^, 
the  government,  and  benefactors  of  the  Church. 
(7)  Keep  not  aloof  from  any  specially  prescribed 
fasts  and  processions.  (8)  See  to  it  that  the  Church 
does  not  suffer  in  her  incomes.  (9)  Take  no  part  in 
stage  performances  and  adopt  no  strange  manners. 
It  is  probable  that  Petrus  Mogilas  was  indirectly 
influenced  by  Canisius  in  the  matter  of  minutely 
specifying  the  chief  commandments  set  forth  by 
the  Church  beside  the  commandments  of  God. 

F.  KATTi»IBUSCH. 

Bibuoobapst:  Roman  Catholic:  P.  CaniaiuB,  Summa  doe- 
trina  tkriaHana  in  three  editions,  the  "  larger,"  1555; 
"snallest/'  1656;  "small."  1558;  Compendio  ddla  doi- 
trina  ekrittiana  (the  catechism  of  Pius  IX.),  Rome,  1005 
(also  in  three  forms);  O.  Bramisberger,  EnUtAung  und 
enU  EfUwiekdung  d€r  KcUechUmen  deM  ...  P.  Caniaiut, 
FreibuTK.  1803;  F.  Loofs,  Symbolik,  I  307  sqq..  Freiburg, 
1902;  KL,  v.  161  sqq.,  vu.  288  sqq. 

Greek:  Confeuio  orthodoxa  dea  PetrM  Moo%ia»,  part  1, 
questions  87-05,  in  Monumenta  fidei  ecdeaia  orienialit, 
ed.  E.  J.  Kimmel,  vol.  i.,  Jena.  1850;  W.  Gass,  Symbolik 
dcr  grUehiaehen  Kircke,  pp.  370  sqq.,  Berlin,  1872;  F. 
Kattenbuseh,  ConfeaaiimakuiuU,  i.  510  sqq.,  Freiburg. 
1891;  F.  Loofs.  ut  sup.,  i.  162  sqq. 

COMHENDA:  A  technical  term  for  the  admin- 
istration of  an  ecclesiastical  office,  especially  of  the 
temporalities  connected  with  it,  conmiitted  to  a 
person  who  has  no  actual  right  to  the  office.  Nor- 
mally, according  to  canon  law,  commendce  are 
granted  only  in  order  to  provide  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  office  in  the  case  of  a  vacancy  or  of 
the  incapacity  of  the  holder;  only  to  a  qualified 
person  who  already  holds  an  ecclesiasticai  office; 
and  to  him  merely  as  administrator.  The  custom 
gave  rise,  however,  to  great  abuses.  The  Avignon 
popes  especially  used  this  means  to  bestow  the 


incomes  of  benefices  upon  persons  whom  the  pro- 
hibition of  pluralities  prevented  from  holding  the 
benefices  themselves;  they  were  granted  for  life, 
and  without  any  obligation  to  the  dischaige  of  the 
duties  of  the  office.  Thus  abbeys  were  frequently 
granted  in  commendam  to  secular  cleigy.  This 
latter  practise  was  so  deeply  rooted  that  the  Council 
of  Trent,  which  attempted  to  extend  to  the  whole 
system  of  irregular  commendce  the  law  against 
pluralities,  was  not  able  to  do  more  than  regulate 
it.  Temporal  rulers  often  in  like  manner  ''  com- 
mended "  monasteries  and  churches,  with  their 
property,  to  laymen,  in  order  to  reward  their  serv- 
ices by  the  enjoyment  of  the  temporalities,  on  a 
pretext  of  protection.  (C.  T.  G.  v.  ScHEURLf.) 
Biblioorapht:  L.  Thomassin,  Vetu§  et  nova  eccUHa  dia- 
eiplina,  P.  I.  1,  iii..  chaps.  10-21.  Lucca.  1728;  Richter, 
Kird^enndU,  p.  1323;  Friedberg,  Kirchenreeht,  p.  325. 

COMMENDATORY  LETTERS  (LITERiE  FOR- 
MATiE):  Letters  of  introduction  and  recommen- 
dation (called  also  liter  a  canonica)  given  in  the 
early  Church  to  Christians  traveling  from  one  place 
to  another.  The  use  of  such  letters  is  extremely 
ancient,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  New  Testament 
(Acts  acviii.  27;  Rom.  xvi.  1,  2;  II  Cot,  iii.  1),  and 
is  readily  explicable  from  the  close  mutual  relations 
of  the  conmiunities  and  their  generous  hospitality. 
On  the  other  hand,  II  John  10  forbade  the  reception 
of  one  who  was  unsound  in  doctrine,  and  it  accord- 
ingly became  necessary  for  a  traveler  to  be  able  to 
prove  his  orthodoxy  (cf.  Didache  xii.  1),  this  usu- 
ally being  done  by  a  letter  of  commendation  written 
by  the  head  of  the  congregation.  These  letters 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  official  communi- 
cations of  the  congregations  with  each  other,  of 
which  an  entire  series  antedating  Irenseus  is  either 
extant  or  known  by  title.  Another  category,  which 
may  be  traced  to  the  third  century,  is  formed  by  the 
"  letters  of  peace  "  readmitting  excommmiicated 
members  of  the  Church.  I^ater,  however,  "  let- 
ters of  peace  "  connoted  the  certificates  given  those 
who  intended  to  visit  the  emperor  or  high  digni- 
taries of  the  Church  and  showing  that  the  recipient 
of  the  letter  was  making  his  journey  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  writer.  After  the  fourth  century  these 
letters  were  distinguished,  in  their  turn,  from  the 
"  letters  of  introduction,"  which  were  given  only  to 
persons  of  rank.  As  early  as  the  end  of  the  second 
or  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  the  bishops 
seem  to  have  announced  their  elections  by  letters 
and  to  have  exchanged  letters  of  recommendation, 
while  in  the  same  manner  they  reported  their  cele- 
bration of  festivals,  especially  of  Easter.  There 
were  also  general  encyclicals,  and  special  regula- 
tions have  been  preserved  regarding  all  problems 
connected  with  letters  of  commendation  and  intro- 
duction^ 

Letters  of  both  these  types  were  forged  at  a  very 
early  date,  as  is  clear  from  the  complaint  of  Dio- 
nysius  of  Corinth  during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  and  by  the  time  of  the  great  councils  from  the 
fourth  to  the  seventh  century  these  forgeries  had 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  letters  were  re- 
quired to  have  a  definite  prescribed  form,  and  were 
accordingly  termed  formcUcB  or  canonica.  It  is  un- 
certain whether  the  designation  fomuUa  refers  to 


OommentarleB 
OommoduB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


170 


the  fact  that  they  were  modeled  on  public  docu- 
ments, or  whether  it  is  derived  from  forma  in  the 
sense  of  "  seal,"  or  whether  the  rigid  phraseology 
gave  rise  to  the  epithet.  (A.  Harnack.) 

Biblioorapht:  Bingham,   Orioinea,  XVII.  iii.  6-8,  cf.  II. 

iv.  5.  and  references  given  there  to  earlier  literature;  DC  A, 

i.  407-408. 

COMMENTARIES.  See  Exegesis  or  Her- 
MENEuncs,  IV.,  §  2,  and  bibliography;  see  also 
the  articles  on  the  different  books  of  the  Bible  for 
commentaries  on  particular  books. 

COMMERCE  AMONG  THE  ANCIENT  ISRAELITES. 

Trade  Routes  Through  Palestine  (f  1). 

The  Beginnings  of  Hebrew  Ck>inmeroe  (f  2). 

Solomon  (f  3). 

The  Two  Kingdoms  (f  4). 

After  the  Exile  (f  6). 

Palestine  lay  on  the  chief  commercial  high- 
ways of  the  ancient  world,  being  traversed  by  the 
roads  which  connected  Babylon  and  Egypt,  and 
by  the  routes  which  united  the  more  distant  East 
with  the  Mediterranean.  From  Egypt  the  great 
military  road  ran  along  the  coast  to  Beirut  and  then 
inland  to  Assyria,  while  south  of  Mount  Carmel  a 
branch  traversed  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  crossed  the 
Jordan  on  its  way  to  Damascus  and  the  Euphrates. 
Gaza  was  the  terminus  of  the  road  connecting 
Akabah  and  southern  Arabia  with  the 
I.  Trade  Mediterranean,  while  the  second  great 
Routes  road  out  of  Arabia  ran  along  the  east- 
Through  em  edge  of  the  east-Jordan  district 
Palestine,  northward  to  Damascus.  Active  com- 
merce early  developed  along  these 
routes.  As  early  as  3000  B.C.  Sargon  I.  and  Gudea 
of  lAgash  obtained  cedars  from  the  Amanus  as 
well  as  stone  and  timber  from  Phenicia.  The 
Egyptian  trade  with  Syria  developed  but  little  later. 
This  interchange  became  important  even  at  this 
early  period  inasmuch  as  each  region  lacked  some  of 
the  products  of  the  other.  Egypt  obtained  its  silver 
from  Asia,  while  Babylon  needed  gold  from  Nubia; 
Amanus  and  the  Lebanon  were  the  sources  of 
timber;  Arabia  produced  perfumes  and  spices. 
The  middlemen  were,  in  the  main,  in  the  oldest 
time  the  Phenicians,  who  by  virtue  of  their  geo- 
graphical position  were  well  qualified  to  perform 
such  a  function.  By  1500  B.C.  Phenicia  controlled 
trade  with  Egypt,  while  for  the  East  the  Arameans, 
somewhat  later,  assumed  a  similar  position.  In 
the  South  the  trade  with  Arabia  and  India  passed 
through  the  hands  of  the  Minseans,  who  had  centers 
for  trade  with  Damascus  in  their  North  Arabian 
province  of  Mu^ri,  as  well  as  on  the  coast,  their 
warehouses  being  at  Gaza. 

Through  their  settlement  in  Canaan  the  Israel- 
ites became  interested  in  this  system  of  conmierce, 
although  it  was  not  until  they  had  assimilated  the 
culture  of  the  region  that  they  could  take  part  in 
trade.     Nor  did  they,  at  first,  need 
a.  The  Be-  commerce,  since  the  native  productions 
ginnings  of  were  sufficient  for  them.    Trade  ac- 
Hebrew     cordingly  pursued  its  old  course  un- 
Commerce.  disturbed,  and  Canaanite  and  Pheni- 
cian  retailers  traversed  the  land  with 
their  wares,  so  that  "  Canaanite  "  long,  remained  a 
synonym  for  ''merchant"  (Jobzli. 6;  Isa.  xxiii. 


8;  Hos.  xii.  7).  Within  Palestine  salt  was  an  ar- 
ticle which  could  be  obtained  only  by  trade  from 
the  Dead  Sea.  When,  however,  in  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  Israel  was  secure  against  foreign  aggres- 
sion and  had  assimilated  the  Canaanites,  it  sought 
its  share  in  international  conmierce.  Trade  with 
Phenicia  increased  as  the  development  of  culture 
created  needs  not  met  by  native  products  and 
workmanship.  Solomon  imported  from  T^re  tim- 
ber and  artisans  (II  Sam.  v.  11;  I  Kings  v.  13-18). 
The  establishment  of  the  northern  kingdom  by 
the  house  of  Omri  had  a  powerful  influence  on 
trade  and  the  development  of  Phenician  industries. 
Purple,  products  of  the  loom,  and  works  of  art  in 
brass,  silver,  gold,  and  the  like  found  ready  pur- 
chasers among  the  Israelites,  who  gave  in  return 
the  surplus  of  their  oil,  wheat,  honey,  and  similar 
exports  (I  Kings  v.  11;  Ezek.  xxviL  16  sqq.). 
There  was  also  an  active  trade  in  slaves  (Amos  i.  9), 
and  the  tribes  of  Zebulun  and  Issachar,  settled  near 
the  Phenicians  and  along  the  trade  routes  through 
the  plain  of  Jezreel,  were  the  chief  middlemen 
(Deut.  xxxiii.  18-19). 

Solomon  cooperated  with  the  Phenicians  in 
voyages  from  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea  to  Ophir, 
the  land  of  gold,  which  apparently  lay  on  the  south- 
em  coast  of  Arabia  (see  Ophir).  In  their  ''  ships 
of  Tarshish,"  as  the  vessels  were  later  called  when 
Tarshish  became  their  port  of  destination,  the  crews 
of  Hiram  of  Tyre  sailed  with  the  officials  of  Solomon, 
returning  with  gold,  silver,  ivory,  apes,  and  peacocks 

(I  Kings  ix.  26-28;  cf.  x.  22  and 
3.  Solomon.  Benzinger's     conmientary    ad    loc.). 

The  accoimt  of  the  queen  of  Sheba 
seems  to  show  that  trade  was  carried  on  with  the 
Minseans,  who  were  succeeded  by  the  Sabeans,  and 
Minffian  Midianites  are  described  as  merchants  and 
leaders  of  caravans  (Gen.  xxxviL  28,  36).  At  a 
later  time  Ezion-geber  and  the  road  leading  to  it 
came  under  the  sway  of  the  Edomites,  but  the 
attempt  of  Jehoshaphat  to  resume  control  of  the 
Red  Sea  ended  in  failure  (I  Kings  xxiL  48-49), 
and  there  is  no  record  of  further  really  successful 
undertakings  of  a  similar  character. 

It  is  obvious  that  trade  with  Egypt  was  active 
in  the  reign  of  Solomon,  especially  as  he  was  con- 
nected by  marriage  with  the  Pharaoh.     After  the 

division  of  the  kingdoms,  Israel  tra- 
4.  The  Two  ded  with  Phenicia  and  Syria  rather 
Kingdoms,  than  with  Egypt,  while  Judah  dealt 

with  its  southern  neighbor,  although 
in  all  other  respects  it  was  cut  off  from  international 
commerce,  since  the  trade  routes  ran  through  the 
northern  kingdom.  Commerce  was  likewise  carried 
on  in  the  north  with  the  Arameans.  Solomon 
obtained  horses  from  Mu^ri  in  northern  Syria  and 
from  Kue  (Cilicia)  through  the  Arameans  and 
Hittites  (I  Kings  x.  2^29,  according  to  the  conwt 
reading).  Later,  when  Israel  came  under  the  polit- 
ical domination  of  the  Arameans,  conmieroe  in- 
creased correspondingly,  and  Israelitic  merchants 
in  Damascus  had  at  one  time  their  bazaars  in  the 
markets  just  as  Damascus  tradera  had  theirs  in  Sa- 
maria (1  Kings  XX.  34),  although  what  the  artideB 
of  conmaerce  were  is  unknown. 
Previous  to  the  exile,  however,  Israel  was  not  a 


171 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OommentarlMi 
Oommodua 


commercial  people,  nor  was  trade  the  occupation 
of  a  laiige  portion  of  the  population.     Neither  the 
earlier    legislation    nor    the    Deuter- 
5.  After    onomist    took    commerce    into    con- 
the  Exile,  sideration  or  regulated  it.     The  cap- 
tivity,  on  the  contrary,   altered  the 
entire  condition   of  affairs.     In  Babylonia  com- 
merce was  highly  developed,  and  many  of  the  exiles 
had   no  alternative  but    to  take  part  in  it.     In 
Palestine,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Iwaelites  were  at 
first  too  poor  to  engage  in  trade,  which  was  still 
in  the  hands  of   Phenicians,  Eklomites,  and  other 
foreigners  (cf.  Neh.  x.  31,  xiii.  15-22).     Not  until 
the  Greek  period  did  the  Jews  again  become  mer- 
chants; but  during  this  epoch  there  were  colonies 
of  Jews  engaged  in  traffic  in  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  and  even  in  Rome.     For 
the  means   of  transportation    see    Ass;    Camel; 
Horse;    Mule.  I.  Benzinoer. 

BiBUoaBAPHT:  L.  Hersfeld,  Handelge^diiehte  der  Juden  de» 
AUeriym*,  Bninswiek,  1879  (the  one  book);  F.  Buhl.  Dis 
aodttUn  Vtrhattni9M  der  larasliien,  pp.  76-83,  Berlin, 
1890;  SehOrer,  OeBchiehte,  Index.  8.r.  "  Handel."  Eng. 
tnuud..  Index.  8.v.  "  Trade  ";  DB,  iv.  802-806;  JE,  iv. 
166-188;  BB,  iv.  6145-09  (exhaiutive). 

COMMINATION  SERVICE:  An  addition  to  the 
usual  service  on  Ash  Wednesday  in  the  Prayer- 
book  of  the  Church  of  England,  designed  by  the 
Reformers  to  take  the  place  of  the  ceremony  of 
sprinkling  ashes  on  the  congregation  in  token  of 
penitence.  It  consists  of  the  recitation  of  the 
curses  pronounced  by  God  a^unst  impenitent 
sinners  in  the  Old  Testament  (whence  its  name, 
commination — "  threatening  ")f  and  of  Ps.  11.  and 
other  penitential  prayers.  In  the  revised  Prayer-book 
of  the  American  Episcopal  Church  is  a  modified  form 
called  "A  Penitential  office  for  Ash- Wednesday." 

COHMODIAHUS,  cem-mo-di-^'nos:  Early  Chris- 
tian poet  of  the  middle  of  the  third  century. 
His  birthplace  is  unknown,  but  his  dose  contact 
with  Cyprian  makes  it  likely  that  he  spent  at  least 
his  manhood  in  North  Africa.  By  birth  a  heathen, 
after  groping  from  one  superstition  to  another,  he 
was  converted  by  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
Scriptures.  A  manuscript  calls  him  bishop.  He 
is  the  oldest  known  Christian  poet  writing  in  Latin, 
and  seemfl  to  have  written  for  the  common  people. 
His  form  of  verse,  though  externally  hexameter, 
deviates  from  the  strict  principle  of  quantity  in 
favor  of  accent,  and  his  verse  must  have  been  pain- 
ful to  the  educated.  For  that  reason,  no  doubt, 
be  is  Ignored  by  the  Fathers,  though  heretical  views 
might  have  had  much  influence,  for  he  was  a 
Patripaasian  and  a  Chiliast.  Hence  his  writings 
are  designated  in  the  decree  of  Gelasius  as  **  apoc- 
ryphal" {MPL,  lix.  163);  nevertheless,  this  very 
disapproval  shows  that  he  still  had  his  readers. 
The  Instmctiones  and  the  Carmen  Apologeticum  are 
all  that  have  survived.  The  former  (of  1,259  lines, 
divided  into  two  books  of  forty-one  and  thirty-nine 
[thirty-eight]  separate  poems,  mostly  acrostic  in 
form)  treats  in  book  i.  of  the  heathen,  contrasting 
their  religion  with  the  Christian  faith;  at  the  same 
time  Christians  are  reprimanded  for  being  too 
intimate  with  their  heathen  neighbors;  the  con- 
clusion is  a  polemic  against  the  Jews.    The  second 


book  hss  sober  exhortations  for  all  classes  of  Chris- 
tians. Between  the  two  parts  are  instructions 
which  treat  of  Antichrist,  of  the  resurrection,  and 
the  final  judgment.  The  Carmen  Apologeticum 
(of  about  1,060  lines)  begins  likewise  with  the 
heathen  and  continues  with  a  dogmatic-historical 
review  of  the  Christian  faith;  in  the  second  part  is 
a  description  of  the  end  of  the  world,  containing 
among  other  things  references  to  the  invasion  of  the 
Goths  (240  A.D.7)  and  the  appearance  of  two  Anti- 
christs among  the  heathen  and  the  Jews  (though 
the  Instructumea  knew  only  of  one).  From  his 
.writings  Commodianus  appears  to  have  been  a 
Christian  of  strong  principles  and  robust  nature; 
he  is  never  extreme  and  does  not  commend  the 
aspiration  for  a  bloody  martyrdom;  his  diction  is 
faulty,  but  his  thoughts  often  border  on  the  sub- 
lime, and  at  times  he  is  successful  in  satire.  Sur- 
prising are  his  aversion  to  the  Roman  government 
(cf.  Carmen,  line  887)  and  his  leaning  toward  the 
Goths,  as  though  he  were  aware  of  the  coming  union 
of  Christianity  and  the  German  world. 

(B.  DOMBARTT.) 

Bxblxoorapht:  The  works  are  in  MPL,  v.,  and  (best)  ed. 
Dombart  in  CSEL,  xv.,  1887.  Eng.  tranal.  is  in  ANF, 
iv.  203-218.  Conmilt:  W.  8.  Teuffel.  0t9diiehte  der  rdmt- 
echen  Litteratur,  p.  972,  Leipeio.  1800;  Harnack.  LiUera- 
fur.  i.  731.  ii.  2.  pp.  433-i4Q;  KrOger.  Hieiorv,  pp.  317-320; 
KL,  iii.  701-704;  DCB,  L  610-611. 

COM'MO.DnS  (MARCUS  AURELIUS  COMMO- 
DUSANTONINnS):  Roman  emperor  180-192.  The 
son  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Faustina,  he  inherited  far 
more  his  mother's  than  his  father's  character,  and 
spent  his  time  in  games  and  dissipation,  leaving 
the  government  in  the  hands  of  his  favorites. 
Utterly  indifferent  to  religious  questions,  he  left 
his  Christian  subjects  in  peace.  At  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  the  effects  of  his  father's  polii^^  were 
still  felt;  but  before  long  persecution  ceased  through- 
out the  empire,  to  which  Eusebius  (Hist,  ecd.,  V. 
xxi.  1)  attributes  the  accession  of  lai^  numbers  of 
converts.  According  to  Irensus  (IV.  xxx.  1)  some 
of  these  were  found  even  in  the  imperial  household. 
Among  these  was  Marcia  Aurelia  Cejonia  Demetrias, 
who  seems  to  have  been  responsible  for  the  tolerant 
attitude  of  the  government.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  a  freedman,  but  brought  up  by  Hyacinthus,  a 
Christian.  Hippolytus,  her  contemporary,  calls 
her  {Philos,,  ix.  12)  "  the  pious  concubine  (n-aAAaic^) 
of  Commodus,"  and  mentions  important  services 
rendered  by  her  to  Christian  exiles  in  Sardinia. 
Dio  Cassius  also  speaks  of  her  benevolence  toward 
the  Christians  and  her  intercession  for  them  with 
Commodus,  ''  with  whom  she  could  do  anything  " 
(Ixxii.  4).  In  these  days  she  was  probably  a 
catechumen;  neither  Christian  nor  pagan  authors 
speak  of  her  absolutely  as  a  Christian.  The  diffi- 
culty of  understanding  her  relations  to  the  Roman 
Church  in  connection  with  that  in  which  she  stood 
to  the  dissolute  emperor  are  lessened  by  recalling 
the  fact  that  the  regular  concubinage  in  which  she 
lived  with  Conunodus  at  this  time  was  not  forbidden 
by  either  secular  or  ecclesiastical  law,  and  that  there 
is  no  evidence  of  her  taking  any  personal  part  in 
the  corrupt  practises  by  which  she  was  surrounded. 
After  the  assassination  of  Commodus,  she  married 


Oommon  Lift 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


172 


the  f  reedman  Eclectus  and  remained  at  the  court  of 
Pertinax.  When  he  in  turn,  together  with  Eclectus, 
had  been  murdered  by  the  pretorian  guards,  the 
new  Emperor  Didius  Juiianus,  yielding  to  their 
demands,  ordered  Marcia's  execution. 

Victor  Schultzb. 

BiBUOORiiPHT:  B.  Aube,  Let  Chritiens  daiu  Vemjrire  Re- 
main, pp.  1  sqq.,  Paria,  1881;  T.  Keim,  Rom  und  dtu 
Chriatenium,  pp.  634  sqq..  Berlin.  1881;  H.  Schiller.  Ge- 
BchidUe  der  r&mi»ehen  KaiUeneit,  I.  ii.  660  sqq.,  QothA, 
1883;  Neander.  ChrUHan  Church,  rol.  i.  paasixn;  Moeller. 
ChriBHan  Church,  i.  166;  Schaff,  ChruHan  Church,  ii.  66; 
DCB,  i.  611. 

COMMON  LIFE,  BRETHREN  OF  THE. 
Geert  Qroote.    The  First  Community  (f  1). 
Buach's  Account  Inaccurate  (f  2). 
The  Life  of  the  Brethren  an  Active  One  (§  8). 
Prejudice  and  Opposition  (f  4). 
Characteristic  Features  (f  6). 
The  Various  Houses  (f  6). 
The  Houses  for  Women  (§  7). 
Different  Names  (|  8). 
Dress  (f  9). 

Oisanixation  and  Discipline  (|  10). 
The  "  Modem  Devotion  "  (f  11). 
Daily  Life  (|  12). 
Tendency  to  Asceticism  (f  13). 
The  Copying  of  Manuscripts  (f  14). 
Their  Influence  and  Importance  (f  15). 
Their  Limitations  (f  16). 
Their  Influence  on  Education,  Literature,  and  Art  (§  17). 

The  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  (Fratrea 
communis  vUcb)  were  a  religious  association  of 
a  semimonastic  nature  which  flourished  in  the 
transition  period  between  the  Middle  Ages  and 
the  Reformation.  It  dates  from  the  second  half 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  northern 
Netherlands  were  the  scene  of  constant  conflicts 
of  the  nobility  among  themselves,  with  their 
vassals,  and  with  the  towns,  which  had  notably 
increased  in  wealth  and  power  since  the  Crusades. 
This  increase  in  power  had  given  rise  to  a  lively 
interest  in  political,  social,  and  ecclesiastical  ques- 
tions, and  the  growing  love  of  liberty  had  shown 
itself  in  a  wide-spread  antagonism  to  the  clergy, 
which  was  fostered  by  the  development  of  scientific 
study,  and  still  more  by  the  mysticism  which  was 
then  so  popular,  in  contrast  with  the  hard  and  un- 
bending scholasticism  of  an  earlier  period.  Two 
men  especially  represented  this  warmer  and  more 
earnest  religious  feeling — Jan  van  Ruysbroeck 
(q.v.),  a  priest  of  Brabant,  and  Geert  Groote  (q.v.), 
a  citizen  of  Deventer,  who  was  the  founder  not  only 
of  the  influential  congregation  of  Windesheim  (q.v.) 
and  the  monastic  reform  that  proceeded  from  it, 
but  also  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life. 

Groote  makes  his  appearance  in  the  time  of  the 

great  Western  Schism   (see  Schism)  and  of  the 

*'  Babylonish  exile  "  of  the  popes  (see  Avignon). 

By  the  counsel  of  Ruysbroeck,  then  eighty-four 

years  old,  and  with  the  bishop's  license,  he  began 

to  preach  repentance  throughout  the 

I.  Geert     diocese  of  Utrecht.    Crowds  flocked  to 

Groote.  The  hear  him  from  all  classes,  at  Deven- 

First  Com-  ter,  Zwolle,  Leyden,  Delft,  Gouda,  and 

mtmity.     Amsterdam.    But  when  he  attacked 

the  sins  of  the  clergy  and  the  lazy 

beggary  of  the    monks    the   bishop  forbade   his 

preaching  after  four  years,  and  he  retired  to  his 

native  town  of  Deventer.     Here  he  matured  his 


plan,  already  conceived,  for  enabling  those  who  had 
been  converted  to  a  pious  Christian  life  to  carry  out 
practically  their  desire  for  perfection.  He  gathered 
a  few  friends  around  him,  who  regarded  him  as  their 
head  until  his  death,  after  which  the  leadership 
was  taken  up  by  Florentius  Radewyns  (q.v.).  It 
was  not  originally  a  quasimonastic  community 
separated  from  the  world,  with  a  definite  system 
of  common  life  and  work.  This  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  several  of  Groote's  friends,  such  as 
Jan  Brinckerinck  (q.v.),  belonged  to  the  circle 
without  deserting  their  own  monastic  associations. 
It  was  only  after  the  foimder's  death  that  the  com- 
munity was  shaped  by  Florentius  in  a  direction 
that  promised  greater  stability  and  growth. 

This  view,  as  put  forth  and  justified  by  (jeiretflen 
in  his  biography  of  Florentius  (Nymwegen,  1891), 
differs  in  not  a  few  important  particulars  from  that 
previously  held  by  such  writers  as  Acquoy,  Hirsche, 
and  Grube.  According  to  their  view,  which  rests 
mainly  on  the  Liber  de  origine  devotionis  modemas 
by  Jan  Busch  (q.v.),  Groote  sought  to  create  a  better 
type  of  clergy  by  educational  influence  upon  the 
young,  and  supported  many  poor  students  at  the 
.  cathedral  school  of  Deventer  by  giving  them  manu- 
scripts to  copy  for  his  library.  After  a  while  he 
handed  over  the  care,  both  temporal  and  spiritual, 
of  these  youths  to  his  younger  friend  Florentius, 
who  took  them  into  his  own  house  and  had  them 
work  under  his  direction.  Then  one  day,  accord- 
ing to  Busch's  aocount,  Florentius  suggested  that 
it  would  be  more  economical,  as  times  were  hard, 
if  they  should  all  combine  their  resources  and  live 
in  common.  Groote  at  first  feared  that  the  jealousy 
of  the  mendicant  orders  would  be  aroused,  but 
finally  bade  him  go  on  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

Busch,  however,  reads  into  the  earliest  history  the 

practise  of  later  times,  which  even  then  was  casual 

and  not  of  primary  importance.     It 

2.  Busch's    is  true  that  Groote,  and  still  more 

Account  In-  Florentius,   cared  for  poor    scholars; 

accurate,  but  these  were  not  a  part  of  the  brother- 
hood, and  left  when  their  education 
was  completed.  There  are  other  inaccuracies  in 
Busch's  account.  Relating  that  Groote  on  his 
death-bed  answered  the  question  of  his  adherents 
by  saying  that  Florentius  should  be  their  head,  he 
understands  this  of  the  Deventer  house  and  brothers, 
while  it  is  clear  that  Groote  meant  the  movement 
as  a  whole.  The  final  choice  of  a  head  for  the 
Deventer  house  was  long  delayed;  the  deed  for  its 
purchase  in  1391  indicates  a  joint  rule  by  Floren- 
tius, Brinckerinck,  and  Gronde,  and  Florentius 
was  not  made  sole  head  imtil  later — probably 
between  1391  and  1396,  by  which  time  a  more 
definite  organization  had  been  rendered  necessary 
not  only  by  the  growth  of  the  brotherhood  and  the 
foimdation  of  new  houses,  but  as  a  means  of  pro- 
tection against  external  attacks.  As  long  as  Groote 
lived  his  influence  was  a  sufficient  shield  for  his 
converts;  but  soon  after  his  death  so  great  hos- 
tility showed  itself  among  the  citizens  that  the 
Brethren  scarcely  dared  to  appear  in  the  streets, 
and  a  municipal  official  converted  by  Groote  was 
obliged  to  interpose.  Yet  Florentius  succeeded  in 
canying  on  the  work — at  first  in  his  own  presby- 


173 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cknnmon  Ufl» 


tery,  and  when  that  grew  too  small  in  a  rented 
house  near-by,  exchanged  in  1391  for  another  which 
had  been  inhabited  by  a  community  of  pious  women. 
But  even  after  the  organization  had  crystallized 
still  further  there  remained  a  fundamental  differ- 
ence between  it  and  the  Windesheim  congregation. 
Both  institutions  sprang  from  the  same  spirit  of 
"  modem  devotion";  but  while  some  thought  they 
could  preserve  this  spirit  only  in  the  monasteries 
where  they  knew  it  to  prevail,  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life  felt  called  to  help  on  the  spread  of 
that  spirit  by  preaching  to  the  people,  by  caring 
for   the  education  of  the  young  and 

3.  The  Life  especially  those  who  were  to  be  priests, 
of  the      and  by  the  mighty  influence  of  a  godly 

Brethren  an  life  lived  in  the  world.  The  asso- 
Active  One.  ciations  of  serious   pious   men  which 

thus  began  to  spring  up  in  various 
places,  followed  by  the  foundation  of  houses  for 
the  community  life  of  women,  had  features  of 
novelty  which  excited  attention  and  not  infre- 
quently disapproval.  As  a  loose  and  informal 
association,  the  Brethren  were  classed  by  many 
with  the  Beghards  and  Beguines  (see  Beohards), 

and  thus  fell  under  suspicion  of  heresy; 

4.  Prejudice  as  conmiunities  somewhat  resembling 
and  Oppo-   the  monastic  orders,  they  incurred  the 

sition.  jealousy  of  the  latter,  especially  of  the 
mendicants  by  the  very  difference 
that  they  did  not  beg  but  worked  for  their  living; 
as  conmiunities  of  workingmen,  again,  they  were 
regarded  as  competitors  by  the  ordinary  working- 
men  and  women.  It  was  some  time,  therefore, 
before  they  could  secure  general  permission  for  the 
formation  of  their  communities  and  the  acquisition 
of  land.  Formal  opinions  as  to  the  lawfulness  of 
their  position  were  frequently  sought  from  the 
authorities,  both  by  their  friends  and  by  their 
enemies.  The  most  important  of  these  opinions 
is  the  unprejudiced  and  favorable  one  pronounced 
in  1393  by  Abbot  Arnold  of  the  Benedictine  abbey 
of  Dickeninge,  in  the  province  of  Drenthe  (Holland), 
and  now  extant  in  the  Royal  Library  of  The  Hague. 
With  this  may  be  classed  another  procured  by  the 
Brethren  from  the  law  faculty  of  the  new  Univer- 
sity of  Cologne,  when  the  first  waa  not  accepted  by 
their  opponent  Matthias  Grabow,  who  had  asked 
for  it.  According  to  both  the  following  seem  to 
have  been  regarded  as  the  characteristic  features  of 
the  new  organization:  (1)  They  wished  to  live  a 
common  life  extra  religionem;  that  is,  without  ta- 
king the  ordinary  monastic  vows.  (2) 
5.  Charac-  They  lived  by  their  work,  rejecting 

teristic  mendicancy.  (3)  They  lived  in  com- 
Features,  muni,  men  and  women  separately  and 
thus  without  marriage,  sharing  freely 
with  each  other,  so  as  to  gain  the  advantage  of 
mutual  influence  and  brotherly  exhortations.  (4) 
They  rendered  voluntary  obedience,  not  con- 
ditioned by  a  vow,  to  a  leader  chosen  from  their 
brotherhood.  (5)  They  edified  each  other  and 
people  outside  by  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in 
the  vernacular.  Of  these  points,  what  principally 
struck  people  in  general  was  their  living  in  common, 
whence  their  name;  but  their  living  thus  without 
monaatic  vows  was  what  seemed  to  the  older  relig- 


ious conununities  dangerous,  and  was  the  chief 
ground  of  the  attacks  upon  them  up  to  the  Council 
of  Constance.  But  if  they  differed  from  the  monks 
in  feeling  it  unnecessary  to  leave  the  world  and 
bind  themselves  by  solenm  vows,  they  had  many 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  monastic  life — obe- 
dience, absolute  while  it  lasted  though  not  irrev- 
ocable, celibacy,  poverty  in  the  sense  of  conunon 
ownership;  and  they  ozdy  seemed  to  stand  in  con- 
trast with  it  because  so  many  monasteries  had 
fallen  away  from  their  original  principles. 

Nor  had  either  founders  or  followers  any  idea 
of  departing  from  the  teaching  of  the  Church. 
What  they  strove  for  was  an  ever-increasing  refor- 
mation in  life — ^the  life  of  the  Church  and  the  life 
of  the  world.  The  statutes  of  their  houses  show 
plainly  enough  what  was  the  main  thing  in  their 
minds.  Those  of  the  commimity  at  Herford  may 
be  quoted:  "  For  the  promotion  of  oiu*  souls'  salva- 
tion, as  well  as  for  the  edification  of  our  neighbor 
in  the  purity  of  the  true  Christian  faith  and  the 
unity  of  oiu*  Mother  the  holy  Christian  Church, 
we  will  and  intend  to  live  a  pure  life,  in  harmony 
and  conmiunity,  by  the  work  of  our  own  hands,  in 
true  Christian  religion  and  the  service  of  God.  We 
purpose  to  live  a  life  of  moderation,  without  beg- 
gary; to  render  obedience  with  reverence  to  our 
superiors;  to  wear  a  humble  and  simple  habit; 
diligently  to  observe  the  canons  of  the  holy  Fathers, 
in  so  far  as  they  are  of  profit;  diligently  to  apply 
ourselves  to  the  virtues  and  other  holy  exercises 
and  studies;  and  not  alone  to  live  a  bhuneless  life, 
but  to  give  a  good  pattern  and  example  to  other 
men." 

The  mother  house  of  Deventer  has  an  interesting 
history,  extending  to  1574;  here  Erasmus  was  a 
student  for  several  years,  and  learned  Greek  from 
the  distinguished  scholar  Synthis  (Sinder).  The 
next  in  age  and  importance,  that  of  ZwoUe,  also 
founded  by  Groote  himself,  was  governed  with 
wisdom  and  eneigy  from  1407  to  1456  by  Diderik 
van  Herxen,  a  writer  of  note,  who  made  it  a  center 
of  colonization.  It  held  together 
6.  The  until  1590.  Thomas  k  Kempis  and 
Various  Jan  Busch  both  probably  taught  in 
Houses,  the  school  here,  and  were  certainly 
inmates  of  the  house,  as  was  Wessel, 
the  most  significant  precursor  of  the  Reformation. 
Hoom  (1385)  and  Ammersfoort  (1395)  were  the 
only  other  foundations  in  the  lifetime  of  Florentius. 
Of  importance  for  the  history  of  the  movement  in 
the  northern  provinces  where  it  originated  are 
Delft  (1403),  Hulsbergen  (1407),  Gouda,  Hertogen- 
bosch,  and  Doesbuig  (1425),  Utrecht  (1474),  and 
Nymwegen  (1592).  In  the  southern  Netherlands 
U^  was  the  first  town  to  receive  a  colony  of  the 
Brethren,  and  was  followed  by  Louvain,  Ghent, 
Brussels,  probably  Antwerp,  Mechlin,  and  Cam- 
brai.  The  earliest  settlements  in  Germany  were 
due  to  the  labors  of  Heinrich  von  Ahaus  (q.v.),  who 
founded  the  three  most  famous  German  houses, 
those  of  Miinster,  Cologne,  and  Wesel,  of  which 
the  second  lasted  on  until  its  secularization  by  the 
French  in  1802,  and  has  an  interesting  connection 
with  the  early  history  of  printing.  Others  were 
early  founded  at  OsnabrUck,  Enunerich,  Treves, 


Ckunxnon  I«if6 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


174 


Herford,  Hildeflheim,  Cassel,  Butzbach,  Marburg, 
KOnigstein,  Rostock,  and  Culm  (1473,  the  farthest 
point  reached  to  the  eastward).  The  Herford 
community,  which  (sec  below,  §  16)  went  over 
bodily  to  the  Reformation,  remained  in  existence 
as  a  Lutheran  brotherhood  until  1841. 

Even  before  the  foundation  of  the  first  house 
for  the  brothers,  Groote  had  presented  (1374)  to 
the  burgomaster  of  Deventer  a  dwelling  owned  by 
him,  to  serve  as  a  home  for  poor  women,  either 
unmarried  or  widows  and  without  any  monastic 
ties.  The  house  did  not  seem  at  first  to  prosper, 
either  under  Groote  or  under  his  successor  Jan  van 
Gronde,  who  was  an  able  preacher,  but  lacked  the 
special  gifts  required.  The  sixteen  women  lived 
much  as  they  pleased,  and  did  little  work,  so  that 
poverty  pressed  them  and  the  outlook. was  dis- 
couraging, when  in  1393  Brinckerinck  took  charge 
of  the  house  and  put  new  life  into  it, 
7.  The  with  constant  spiritual  care  and  strict 
Houses  for  discipline.    As    in   the    case    of   the 

Women,  brothers,  new  houses  were  soon 
founded,  which  offered  a  striking  con- 
trast to  many  of  the  nunneries,  in  the  degenerate 
condition  in  which  the  latter  too  often  were. 
The  rapid  spread  of  these  houses  affords  a  proof  of 
the  strength  which  the  spirit  of  free  devotion  pos- 
sessed in  its  earliest  days.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  at  least  eighty-seven  of  these 
communities  sprang  up,  nearly  all  in  the  Nether- 
lands. Usually  there  was  only  one  in  a  town, 
though  Zutphen  had  three,  Deventer  five,  and 
ZwoUe  six.  Many  of  them,  however,  transferred 
themselves  before  long  to  the  Third  Order  of  Saint 
Francis  or  adopted  the  rule  of  the  Windesheim 
nuns,  though  such  a  change  does  not  seem  to  have 
involved  the  total  severance  of  relations  with  the 
brothers  and  sisters  of  Groote's  society.  The  sisters 
were  very  commonly  known,  not  only  in  Deventer 
but  elsewhere,  as  Beguines — ^the  name  frequently 
given  in  those  days  to  the  tertiarics  of  the  mendi- 
cant orders  and  other  non-cloistered  associations  of 
women.  The  rule  which  governed  them  is  known 
from  the  extant  statutes  of  more  than  one  house; 
it  does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  the  ter- 
tiaries  imder  the  charge  of  the  Utrecht  chapter. 
Their  dress  was  gray  in  color,  rather  old-fashioned 
in  cut,  so  that  they  were  frequently  objects  of 
ridicule.  Their  food  was  as  simple  as  their  dress. 
There  seems  to  have  been  no  definite  age-limit  for 
reception;  at  Deventer  girls  of  nine  and  women  of 
fifty  were  admitted.  Each  house  was  ruled  by  a 
mistress,  and  had  other  officials  corresponding, 
mvtatis  mutandiSf  to  those  of  the  brothers.  They 
occupied  themselves  in  all  kinds  of  women's  work, 
as  it  was  then  understood;  occasionally  in  nursing, 
teaching  girls,  and  copying  manuscripts.  Outside 
of  the  Netherlands  their  extension  was  greatest  in 
Germany,  where  they  seem  to  have  reached  a  con- 
siderable number  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Besides  the  names  most  usually  employed  by  them- 
selves (Jraires  vUce  communis  or  boncB  voluntatis), 
the  Brethren  had  a  variety  of  popular  appellations 
in  different  places.  Thus  they  were  called,  from 
their  manner  of  delivering  not  formal  sermons  but 


plain    talks,    fratres   coUationum    or    coUationcnrii  ; 
because  they  imitated  the  apostles  in  their  manner 

of  living,  ''apostolic  brothers";  from 

8.  Different  their  diligence  in  copying  manuscripts, 

Names.      "  brothers   of  the  pen  ";  where  they 

had  schools,  "  school  brothers " ; 
"  cowled  brothers  "  or  "  blue  brothers,"  from  their 
habit;  and  various  other  names  taken  from  the 
saints  to  whom  they  were  specially  devoted  as 
patrons  or  examples,  Gregory,  Jerome,  Michael, 
George,  Martin,  and  Mark.  The  names  of  "  Lol- 
lards "  or  "  Nollards "  seem  also  to  have  been 
applied  to  them  by  their  enemies. 

Since  they  made  no  vows  on  entrance,  each 
brother  could  leave  at  any  time  without  incurring 
ecclesiastical  penalty.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as 
because  they  considered  it  possible  to  combine  the 
interior  life  with  mingling  in  the  world,  the  title  of 

religiosi  was  frequently  denied  to  them. 
9.  Dress.    Their  clothing  consisted  in  a  uniform, 

simple,  but  dignified  outer  garment  of 
black  or  gray  linen,  confined  at  the  waist  by  a 
black  woolen  girdle;  for  clerics  it  reached  to  the 
feet,  for  novices  and  lay  brothers  only  to  the  knees. 
Bieneath  this  was  worn  a  rough  shirt,  to  be  washed 
once  a  month  in  summer,  every  other  month  in 
winter,  and  drawers  of  the  same  material.  The 
cloak  was  a  bluish-gray,  and  a  black  hood  or  cowl 
covered  the  head. 

The  inmates  of  the  houses  were  divided  into  three 
classes — priests  and  clerics,  laymen,  and  proba- 
tionary candidates.  The  first  class  performed  ail 
spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  functions,  the  second 
the  domestic  tasks  of  house  and  garden;  but  all 
were  brothers.  The  time  of  probation  ranged  from 
two  or  three  months  to  a  year.  Each  new  brother 
was  free  to  dispose  of  his  property  as  he  chose;  but 
if  he  gave  it  to  the  house  he  could  not  reclaim  it 
on  leaving.  Every  house  had  a  head  called  the 
rector,  not  as  among  the  Windesheim  commimities, 
the  prior;    there  was  an  effort  to  avoid  imitating 

monastic  usage  in  such  detaib.  Id 
10.  Organ-  the  sisters'  houses  the  confessor  was 
izationand  also  called  rector.  The  rector  was 
Discipline,   chosen  with  the  greatest  care;    later, 

the  choice  was  not  left  wholly  to  the 
individual  house,  and  if  no  suitable  person  were 
among  the  community,  one  was  sent  from  another 
house.  All  the  members  were  pledged  to  obey  him; 
without  his  permission  none  could  leave  the  house 
or  go  anywhere  except  to  church.  In  the  rector's 
absence  one  of  the  clerical  brothers  in  his  place 
decided  all  questions  that  did  not  admit  of  post- 
ponement. If  there  were  any  complaints  against 
the  rector,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  priests  to  consider 
them.  Next  to  the  rector's,  the  office  of  procurator 
was  of  importance;  he  had  charge  of  the  external 
relations  of  the  house,  of  the  buildings,  of  receipts 
and  purchases.  In  the  larger  houses  a  cellarer  was 
also  required.  One  of  the  most  important  officials 
was  always  the  librarian,  who  not  only  was  custo- 
dian of  the  books,  but  supervised  the  copying  in- 
dustry and  provided  the  materials  for  it.  Other 
officials  mentioned  are  a  novice-master,  a  precentor, 
a  sacristan,  an  infirmarian,  a  cook,  a  gardener,  etc. 
For  purposes  of  discipline  a  chapter  of  faults  (as 


175 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Common  Lite 


di8tiDg;uished  from  the  occasional  particular  chap- 
ter for  the  discussion  of  the  affairs  of  the  com- 
munity) was  to  be  held  at  least  once  a  week.  First 
the  youngest  brother  was  to  kneel  in  the  midst 
and  accuse  himself  of  any  breaches  of  the  statutes 
or  customs  of  the  house;  but  (with  the  sober  com- 
mon sense  which  characterized  all  the  regulations) 
he  was  not  to  presume  to  go  beyond  two.  Having 
asked  pardon  for  his  faults,  accepted  the  penalty 
imposed  by  the  rector,  and  promised  amendment, 
he  returned  to  his  place  and  the  next  in  order 
followed.  If  the  penalty  of  expulsion  were  in- 
flicted, in  case  of  a  grave  offense,  such  as  heresy, 
immondity,  or  theft,  the  rector  decided  how  much 
the  offender  might  take  with  him  in  addition  to 
his  clothes,  which  were  always  allowed.  Besides 
these  domestic  gatherings,  there  were  yearly  meet- 
ings of  representatives  of  a  group  of  related  houses. 
These,  with  the  visitations,  formed  a  means  of 
keeping  up  an  essentially  united  spirit  in  the  ever- 
increasing  circle  of  conmumities;  they  were  insti- 
tuted soon  after  the  death  of  Florentius,  and  took 
place  on  Low  Sunday,  first  at  Zwolle  and  then  in 
different  places,  such  as  Groningen,  Hertogenbosch, 
and  flmmerich. 

At  the  very  foundati6n  of  the  whole  life  lay  the 
modema  devotio^  daily  progress  in  communion  with 
God,  out  of  a  spirit  of  love  and  a  pure  heart.     The 
means  to  this  were  the  knowledge  of  self,  the  con- 
tinual struggle  to  conquer  the  baser  desires,  to 
abase  pride,  to  despise  temporal  things,  to  break 
down  self-will.     To  this  end  were  directed  all  their 
spiritual  exercises,  their  early  rising 
II.  The     and  their  hard  work,  their  speech  and 
"Modem    their  silence,  their  submissive  obedi- 
Devotion."  ence.    The   man   who   asked   to   be 
received  into  the  brotherhood  could 
not  but  know  that  he  "  desired  a  good  work."    That 
was  the  purpose  of  the  care  shown  in  admitting 
new  members,  the  time  of  probation,  the  oversight 
of  the  novice-majster,  before  they  could  be  added 
to  the  list  of  the  "  perpetual "  or  "  canonical " 
brothers. 

The  life  of  each  day  was  strictly  organized.  The 
bell  rang  at  three  each  morning,  and  at  half-past 
three  all  must  be  ready  to  rise  and  offer  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  day  to  God  in  prayer  and  meditation. 
From  that  hour  until  nine  at  night,  when  the 
brothers  went  to  bed,  every  hour  (with  the  excep- 
tbn  of  the  periods  for  mc»ls  and  recreation)  was 
divided  between  work  and  spiritual  exercises.  The 
work  was  varied;  the  educated  clerics  spent  a  good 
deal  of  time  in  copying  manuscripts,  and  many  of 
the  laymen  learned  the  art  from  them,  but  there 
were  all  kinds  of  other  tasks.  Humil- 
12.  Daily  ity  was  especially  insisted  upon;  it 
life.  was  common  for  the  Brethren  to  con- 
fess their  sins  not  only  to  a  priest  but 
to  each  other,  a  custom  which  gave  rise  among 
outsiders  to  a  suspicion  of  their  orthodoxy.  The 
spirit  of  submission  in  which  they  were  taught  to 
accept  reproof  and  chastisement  from  superiors 
was  shown  also  in  the  patient  bearing  of  sickness  or 
suffering.  A  regular  feature  of  the  life  was  the 
a^latumes  or  conferences — edifying  discourses,  fre- 
quently diversified  by  question  and  answer,  or 


taking  the  form  of  a  dialogue  for  a  longer  time. 
These  were  of  two  classes,  one  destined  for  outsiders 
to  whom  on  Sundays  and  holidays  the  doors  of  the 
house  were  open,  and  always  in  the  vernacular, 
the  other  taking  place  daily  among  the  inmates  of 
the  house  at  the  time  of  their  midday  or  evening 
meal  (the  name  probably  coming  from  the  use  of 
the  word  coUaJtio  in  the  sense  of  a  common  meal). 

The  life  of  the  Brethren  could  never,  as  has  been 
seen,  have  been  a  luxurious  one;  but  its  ordinary 
limitations  did  not  suffice  the  devotion  of  some, 
who  attempted  to  strengthen  themselves  still  fur- 
ther against  temptation  and  increase  their  power 
of  despising  temporal  things  by  accustoming  them- 
selves to  specially  poor  and  distasteful  food,  or  by 
wearing  a  torturing  hair-shirt.  If  they  found  their 
health  was  being  injured  by  these  austerities,  they 
thought  of  some  other  way  to  practise  mortifica- 
tion and  abandoned  what  had  proved  excessive — 
though  this  exercise  of  conmion  sense,  in  the  spirit 
of  the  time  and  especially  of  the  rehg^ 

13.  Tend-  ious  life  of  the  time,  was  frequently 
ency  to  As-  justified  by  an  appeal  to  some  vision 

ceticism.  or  revelation.  The  spiritual  life  of  the 
Brethren  was  largely  nourished  on 
Holy  Scripture,  to  the  study  of  which  a  special 
section  is  devoted  both  in  the  Herford  statutes  and 
in  the  Reformatarium  vUcd  clericorum.  The  quiet 
morning  hours  were  consecrated  to  this,  and  all 
unnecessary  running  about  was  accordingly  for- 
bidden. Systematic  meditation  on  spiritual  things 
was  another  feature;  each  day  had  its  special  sub- 
ject— Sunday  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  Monday 
death,  Tuesday  the  mercies  of  God,  Wednesday 
the  last  judgment,  Thursday  the  pains  of  hell, 
Friday  the  sufferings  of  Christ  (which  they  were 
also  to  contemplate  during  mass),  and  Saturday 
their  sins.  From  this  practise  arose  many  little 
books  of  written  meditations,  some  of  which,  like 
the  various  SpeciUa  (monachorum,  Bemardi,  pec- 
catorum),  enjoyed  wide  popularity. 

Among  the  great  variety  of  trades  and  occupa- 
tions by  which  the  Brethren  sought  to  provide  for 
their  own  subsistence,  and  at  the  same  time  to  have 
enough  left  over  for  works  of  charity,  that  of  copy- 
ing manuscripts  held  an  important  place.  Floren- 
tius had  specially  commended  it  to  his  immediate 
associates,  who  were  principally  clerics,  as  the  most 
becoming  for  them;  and  the  increasing  practise  of 
it  became  a  permanent  blessing  to  the  Christian 
world,  A  large  number  of  manuscripts  are  still 
extant,  in  private  and  public  collections 
14.  The  of  Holland  and  Belgium  especially, 
Copying  of  which  were  written  in  the  houses  of 
Manu-  the  Brethren.  Those  most  frequently 
scripts,  selected  were  liturgical  books,  the 
Vulgate,  the  Fathers,  and  works  of 
spiritual  edification.  They  had  the  custom  also  of 
compiling  collections  of  the  most  striking  passages 
from  the  books  they  read  or  copied,  sometimes  with 
the  addition  of  reflections  by  the  compiler.  These 
anthologies  (rapiaria)  are  not  always  written 
throughout  by  the  same  hand.  Perhaps  the  work 
was  taken  up  by  another  after  the  death  of  the  first 
compiler,  or  several  small  collections  were  fused 
into  one.    The  most  diverse  authors  are  met  with 


Common  JAA 
Oonunon  Prayer 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


176 


in  them:  some  classical,  especially  Seneca;  some 
patristic,  most  frequently  Augustine,  Bernard,  and 
Johannes  Climacus,  to  whom  Gerson  may  be  added; 
and  some  from  their  own  circle,  like  Thomas  k 
Kempis  or  David  of  Augsburg,  the  author  of  the 
Speculum  monachorum  particularly  cherished  and 
commended  by  Florentius. 

Such  a  life  as  has  been  described  was  the  best 
defense  of  the  Brethren  against  all  attacks  which 
could  be  made  upon  them.  Even  if  there  are  some 
things  in  their  system  which  seem  to  our  minds 
exaggerated  or  objectionable,  it  is  impossible  to 
deny  their  importance  to  the  Church's  history.  In 
attempting  to  siun  up  this  importance,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  say  at  once  that,  with  our  fuller  knowledge, 
they  can  no  longer  be  described,  in  the  way  once 
customary,  as  precursors  of  the  Reformation. 
None  the  less,  their  influence,  both  personal  and 
corporate,  was  an  inspiring  and  a  purif3ring  one. 
They  took  different  ground  from  the  already  exist- 
ing "  religious  "  communities  when  they  showed 
that  free-will  offerings  made  in  a  spirit  of  devotion 
might  serve  God  and  ope's  neighbor 
15.  Their  In- acceptably,  from  both  the  ethical  and 
fluence  and  the  social  standpoints;  that  a  life  of 
Importance,  piety  waa  possible  in  the  midst  of 
daily  labor  and  intercourse  with  the 
world  in  its  lower  and  earthly  as  well  as  its  higher 
spiritual  tasks.  Such  separation  from  the  world 
as  they  practised  was  not  a  flight  in  the  false  and 
one-sided  conception  of  devotion  and  the  service  of 
God,  but  was  intended  to  render  positive  service  to 
human  society.  Their  ideal  of  true  inner  piety, 
springing  from  the  love  of  the  heart,  had  a  powerful 
influence  on  many  who  were  merely  externally 
members  of  the  Church,  especially  such  priests  and 
monks  as  were  performing  their  service  in  a  mere 
formal  spirit.  To  say  nothing  of  their  direct  influ- 
ence on  the  clergy  by  education  of  young  candi- 
dates for  orders,  they  stirred  up  many  a  secular 
priest  to  a  more  faithful  care  of  souls,  a  greater 
diligence  in  imparting  spiritual  gifts  by  preaching 
and  teaching.  The  "  conferences,"  offering  relig- 
ious instruction  to  the  plain  man  in  his  mother 
tongue,  had  an  effect  that  extended  far  beyond  the 
walls  of  the  houses;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  close 
adherence  to  Scripture  and  its  application  to  the 
practical  details  of  every-day  life. 

But  the  best  preaching  is  that  of  example;  and 
this  spoke  so  eloquently  to  the  people  that  every- 
where, except  where  hostility  was  stirred  up  against 
them  by  the  jealousy  of  bad  priests  or  monks,  their 
life  was  revered.  Municipal  authorities,  private 
citizens,  parochial  clergy  were  forward  to  help 
them  in  their  work.  After  the  Church  had  pro- 
nounced a  formal  approval  of  their  work  at  the 
Coxmcil  of  Constance,  bishops,  cardinals,  and  popes 
were  desirous  to  assist  it  in  every  way,  as  by  the 
granting  of  many  privileges,  even  including  special 
indulgences. 

The  "  modem  devotion "  which  has  been  de- 
scribed, with  its  insistence  on  conversion  and  real 
sanctification,  has  been  compared  not  altogether 
unjustly  by  Acquoy  with  Methodism,  and  by 
Ritschl  with  Pietism;  but  both  comparisons  are 
only  true  up  to  a  certain  point.    The  eystem  of  the 


Brethren  was  far  more  ecclesiastical  than  either  of 
the  others;  the  Word  by  which  alone  new  Ufe  can 
be  planted  and  nourished  takes  a  less  prominent 
place  with  them.  Instead  of  it,  they  have  their 
self-chosen  exercises  and  meditations.  This  is  only 
natural,  in  view  of  the  traditional  church  teaching 
which,  with  their  Semi-Pelagian  scheme  of  salvation 
requiring  absolutely  their  own  cooperation,  they 
fvdly  shared.  In  their  meditations 
16.  Their    the  life  and  sufferings  of  Christ  counted 

Limitations,  more  as  an  example  and  encourage- 
ment for  their  own  trials  than  as  the 
sacrifice  for  their  sins  and  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world.  Justifying  faith,  as  the  source  of  the  new 
life  called  into  existence  by  the  grace  of  God,  as  the 
synthesis  of  religion  and  ethics,  meant  less  to  them 
than  the  process  of  sanctification.  They  lacked 
both  the  deep  consciousness  of  sin  and  the  cer- 
tainty of  faith  in  the  healing  grace  that  blots  out 
sin.  Thus  they  emphasized,  indeed,  the  freedom  of 
the  will,  but  not  that  which  makes  it  free,  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Holy  Ghost  through  the  Word;  they 
stood  out  as  a  free  association  compared  with  the 
monasteries,  but  not  free  with  the  perfect  liberty  of 
the  children  of  God.  Attempts  at  reformation  of 
Christian  life  in  those  days,  whether  of  individuals, 
monastic  communities,  or  the  whole  Church,  thus 
remained  restricted  to  the  region  of  externals;  they 
did  not  touch  the  heart  of  the  matter.  The  long- 
desired  reformation  could  not  be  brought  about  in 
the  way  offered  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Common 
Life.  When  Luther's  call  to  repentance  and  his 
preaching  of  faith  penetrated  into  their  houses 
some  of  them  thought  they  had  all  that  was  re- 
quired in  the  inward  reality  of  their  devotion,  not 
knowing  the  true  freedom;  others  closed  their  ears 
to  the  proposal  of  what  seemed  innovations;  others, 
again,  were  influenced  by  the  intellectual  power  of 
the  humanist  forces  that  took  the  side  of  the  Ref- 
ormation; and  some  few,  like  the  brothers  of  Her- 
ford,  gave  themselves  up  to  the  gospel  of  free  grace, 
winning  Luther's  word  of  praise  that  he  could 
gladly  suffer  such  houses,  and  wished  there  were 
more  of  them.  But  nearly  all  the  communities 
began  to  decay  from  this  time;  and  as  the  old  ones 
were  dissolved  new  ones  did  not  arise  to  take  their 
place.  Their  organization  had  not,  on  the  one  hand 
(as  the  Windesheim  monks  had  always  said),  the 
security  of  vows  and  complete  renunciation  of  the 
world;  nor,  on  the  other,  was  it  adapted  to  ful- 
filling the  high  demands  of  the  spiritual  life,  on  the 
plane  on  which  the  Reformation,  following  the 
Word  of  God,  had  set  it;  the  old  bottles  could  not 
be  filled  with  the  new  wine. 

A  word  remains  to  be  said  of  their  more  specif- 
ically educational  and  intellectual  influence,  which 
was  considerable  and  excellent,  although  it  has  been 
often  misunderstood.  The  old  view,  represented 
by  Cramer,  Von  Raumer,  and  K&mmel,  ascribed  to 
them  a  very  far-reaching  effect  upon  the  school 
system  and  upon  the  improvement  of  the  curricu- 
lum and  the  methods  of  teaching.  But  careful 
recent  investigation  shows  that  this  was  much  exag- 
gerated. There  were  not  many  places  where  the 
schools  belonged  to  the  Brethren  or  were  under 
their  direction.    Most  of  the  houses  educated  only 


177 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oommon  I«ife 
Common  Prayer 


young  candidates  for  orders;  they  seldom  supplied 
teachers  to  the  public  schools  except  in  special 
cases.  Nor  did  they  possess  a  particular  educa- 
tional method  of  their  own,  outside  of 
17.  Their  In-  the  general  principles  followed  in  their 
fluence  on  houses.  Their  influence,  in  fact,  was 
Education,  mainly  that  of  their  sincere  Christian 
literature,  piety,  which  had  its  effect  on  all>who 
and  Art  came  within  their  sphere.  In  this 
way,  beginning  with  Groote  himself 
and  his  relation  with  Petrarch,  as  well  as  his  own 
humanistic  studies,  a  friendship  sprang  up  between 
them  and  the  leading  German  humanists  which  had 
notable  results.  Men  like  Cela,  Hegius,  Sinthis, 
and  Arsenius  at  Rostock  imbibed  from  the  Brethren 
a  simple  Christian  piety  which  was  one  of  the  great 
causes  of  the  difference  between  the  tendency  of 
German  and  Italian  humanism.  In  this  sense  both 
the  Reformation  and  the  liberation  of  the  sciences 
which  proceeded  from  it  were  indebted  to  the 
Brethren.  They  were  not  hostile  to  art;  their 
churches  were  adorned  to  the  best  of  their  power, 
and  in  miniature-painting  they  have  left  some 
creditable  results.  From  the  literary  standpoint, 
their  own  productions,  whether  original  or  com- 
piled, are  mainly  in  the  department  of  ascetics. 
Poetry  occasionally  found  a  home  among  them; 
and  Heinrich  of  Alkmar,  the  author  of  Reineke  Vos, 
came  from  the  Zwolle  house.  Of  special  importance 
to  popular  culture  is  the  fact  that  they  showed  a 
strong  tendency  to  write  in  the  vernacular  or  to 
make  translations  into  it.  Besides  the  Scriptures 
and  other  spiritual  works  (e.g.,  a  German  verse 
translation  of  the  "  Imitation  "  made  at  Cologne), 
they  circulated  numerous  books  in  the  vernacular 
of  a  historical  or  otherwise  educational  nature;  in 
the  earlier  period  they  engaged  not  only  in  the 
cop3ring  of  manuscripts,  but  also  in  the  work  of 
adorning  them  with  miniatures  and  illustrations, 
and  even  of  preparing  the  parchment  for  them,  and 
of  arranging  libraries;  and  with  the  invention  of 
typography,  not  a  few  houses  set  up  presses  and 
sold  printed  books,  thus  contributing  in  a  new 
way  to  the  general  spread  of  learning. 

L.  SCHULZE. 

BiBUOomAPHT:  For  th«  founders  the  souroes  are  in  the 
"  Life  "  by  Thomas  k  Kempis  in  his  Chronicon  moruuterii 
8.  AffiuiiB,  ed.  Rosweyde,  Antwerp,  1615,  1622,  Eng. 
trmnsl.  by  J.  C.  Arthur,  London,  1005.  Consult:  O. 
Bonet-Maury,  Oerard  de  OrooU  d'apria  dea  document 
inSdiU,  Paris,  1878;  K.  Gnibe,  Oerard  Orooi  und  §eine 
SUftafHfen,  Cologne,  1883;  KL,  v.  1286. 

For  the  brotherhood  the  sources,  besides  Thomas  k 
Kempis,  are  Scriptum  Rudolphi  Diet  de  Muden  de  Magi*' 
iro  O.  Orote.  in  G.  Dumbar,  AnaUda,  pp.  88-244,  Deren- 
ter.  1719-22;  J.  Buschius,  Chronicon  VFindesAsmeiMS,  ed. 
K.  Onibe.  pp.  1-375,  Halle.  1886.  Consult:  C.  H.  M. 
Delprat.  Over  de  Broederechap  van  OeertOroot,  Amhem, 
1856;  J.  G.  R.  Aoquoy,  Met  Klooaier  ie  Windeeheim  en 
sija  invhed,  3  vols.,  Leyden,  1875-80;  8.  Kettlewell, 
TKomaa  h  KempU  and  the  Brothara  of  the  Common  Life, 
2  vols..  London,  1882-84;  E.  Mfibius,  Charaderiatik  der 
BrQder  dee  gemeinaamen  Lebena,  1887;  G.  Bonet-Maury, 
De  opera  ackohutiea  fratrum  eommunia  vita,  Paris,  1880; 
G.  Hdning.  Die  BrQder  dee  gemeinaamen  L^bena  und  ihre 
Bedeutung  fUr  ihre  ZeU,  Gatersloh,  1804;  Ddbner,  BrQder 
dee  gemeinaamen  Lehena  %n  HUdeaheim,  Leipsic,  1003;  S. 
H.  Gem,  Hidden  Sainta,  a  Stvdy  of  the  BrotKere  of  the  Com- 
wton  Life,  New  York,  1007;  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kon- 
gregationen,  1.  306,  403,  400-410,  u.  320  sqq.,  336;  Pas- 
tor, Popee,  1.  147-148.  160;  KL,  iy.  1924  sqq. 

111.-12 


COMMON  FRA7BR,  BOOK  OF. 

Early  Forms  (|  1). 

First  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VL  (|  2). 

Second  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.  (|  3). 

Liturgy  of  EUsabeth  (§  4). 

Last  Revision  (f  5). 

Irish  and  Scotch  Ptmyer-books  (|  6). 

American  Prayer-book  (|  7). 

The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  the  only  ofBcial 
servioe-book  used  in  the  Church  of  EIngland  and 
its  aflUiated  bodies.  Although  the  service-books 
of  the  English  Church  before  the  Reformation 
were  mostly  in  Latin,  English  primers,  original 
ting,  probably,  in  still  simpler  manuals  of  great  an- 
tiquity, were  in  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  Poriiforium  secundum  U8um  Sarum, 
or  "  Primer  of  the  Salisbury  Use "  (c.  1400),  is 
clearly  the  basis  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
and  contains  in  English:  (1)  Matins  and  Hours  of 
our  Lady;  (2)  Evensong  and  Compline;  (3)  The 
seven  penitential  psalms;  (4)  The  fifteen  gradual 
psalms;  (5)  The  Litany;  (6)  Placebo;  (7)  Dirige; 
(8)  The  psalms  of  commendation;  (9)  Pater  noster; 
(10)  Ave  Maria;  (11)  Creed;  (12)  The  ten  com- 
mandments; (13)  The  seven  deadly  sins.  Marshall's 
Prymer  (ante  1630  and  1636)  and  Hilsey's  Prymer 
(1639),  set  forth  at  the  command  of 

I.  Eaily  Cromwell,  led  the  way,  with  others. 
Forms,  for  The  Prymer  Set  Forth  by  the  King/' a 
Majesty  (1646),  which  omits  Nos.  4,  6, 
10,  and  13  of  the  aforesaid  contents,  but  makes 
several  additions  as  of  the  Calendar  and  "certain 
godly  prayers."  The  Litany  contains  petitions  re- 
questing the  prayers  of  angels,  saints,  and  mar- 
tyrs, and  to  be  delivered  from  the  tyranny  of  the 
Church  of  Rome;  and  the  Dirige  has  prayers  for  the 
dead.  The  former  was  compiled  by  Cranmer  from 
the  old  litanies  and  the  litany  prepared  by  Me- 
lanchthon  and  Butzer  in  1643  for  Herman  (q.v.)  of 
Wied,  archbishop  of  CV>logne.  Before  the  Prymer 
of  1646,  convocation  had  authorized,  in  1637,  The 
Godly  and  Pious  Institution  of  a  Chrysten  Man,  con- 
taining the  Lord's  Prayer,  Hail  Maiy,  Creed,  dec- 
alogue, the  seven  sacraments,  etc.,  and  in  1643  the 
same,  corrected  and  altered,  entitled  A  Necessary 
Doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any  Chrysten  Man.  The 
former  was  called  ''  The  Bishops'  Book  ";  the  latter, 
''The  King's  Book";  and  both,  with  theiirtic^M  of 
1636,  contain  the  authoritative  opinions  of  the 
Church  of  England  during  Henry  VIII.'s  reign, 
and  exhibit,  on  the  whole,  a  retrogression  in  matters 
of  doctrine.  A  commission,  appointed  in  1647  to 
revise  the  church-service,  published  March  8,  1648, 
as  a  first  instalment.  The  Order  of  the  Communion, 
framed  in  its  new  portions  on  Herman's  ConsuUor 
turn,  from  which  the  Exhortation,  the  Confession, 
and  the  Comfortable  Words  are  derived.  It  was 
a  tremendous  step  in  the  direction  of  reform;  for 
it  ordered  the  communion  to  be  solemnised  in 
English,  and  restored  the  cup  to  the  laity. 

The  First  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VL,  pub- 
lished June  9,  1649,  differed  from  the  Prayer-book 
now  in  use  as  follows:  Matins  and  Evensong  began 
with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  omitted  all  prayers 
after  the  third  collect.  The  Litany  contained  a 
petition  for  delivertmce  from  the  tyranny  of  th« 


Oommon  Prayer 
Oommnnioatio  Zdlomatnm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


178 


bishop  of  Rome,  while  it  omitted  the  invocatioxiB 
fonnerly  addressed  to  the  Virgin  and  other  saints. 
The  Communion  Office  began  with  an  introit,  and 
omitted  the  Decalogue;  the  Virgin  was  mentioned 
by  name  in  the  praise  given  for  the  saints;  the 
sign  of  the  cross  was  used  twice  in  the  consecration 
«f  the  elements,  and  the  formula  of  administration 
contained  only  the  first  clause  of  that 
2.  First  now  in  use;  water  was  mixed  with 
Prayer-  the  wine.  In  the  Baptismal  Office 
book  of  forms  for  exorcism,  anointing,  and 
Edward  VL  trine  immersion  were  provided.  In 
the  offices  for  Confirmation,  Matri- 
mony, and  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick  the  sign  of  the 
cross  was  retained;  in  the  first,  the  candidate  made 
no  promise,  in  the  second,  money  was  given  to  the 
bride,  and,  in  the  third,  the  sick  might  be  anointed; 
the  Burial-Service  contained  a  prayer  for  the  per- 
son deceased  and  a  special  service  for  communion. 
The  Collects,  Epistles,  and  Gospels  were  almost 
identical  with  those  in  the  Sarum  Missal;  much  of 
the  new  matter  introduced  was  taken  from  Her- 
man's Consultation.  The  ordinal,  entitled  The 
Forme  and  Manner  of  Makyng  and  Consecrating  of 
Archbishoppes,  Bishoppes,  Priestes,  and  Deacons 
(1549),  was  published  separately,  and  differed  from 
the  present  office  in  requiring  the  chalice  and  paten, 
as  well  as  the  Bible,  to  be  placed  in  the  priests' 
hands,  and  the  pastoral  staff  to  be  committed  to 
bishops  before  the  words,  "  Be  to  the  flock  of  Christ 
a  shepherd." 

The  Second  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.,  pub- 
lished in  1552,  went  much  farther  in  the  Protes- 
tant direction.     It  introduced:  (1)  the  sentences, 
exhortation,    confession,    and    absolution    at    the 
opening  of  the  service;    (2)  the  Decalogue  in  the 
communion  office;    (3)  the  use  of  the  Litany  on 
Sundays.     It    omitted:  (1)    in    the    Communion- 
Service:  the  Introit,  the  name  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
thanksgiving  for  the  Saints,  the  sign  of  the  cross  in 
consecration,    the   invocation   of   the 
3.  Second  Word  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  admix- 
Prayer-     ture  of  water  with  wine,  and  the  first 
book  of    clause   of   the   present   form   at   the 
Edward  VL  delivery  of  the  elements;    (2)  in  Bap- 
tism, the  form  of  exorcism,  the  anoint- 
ing, and  the  trine  immersion;    (3)  in  Confirmation, 
the  sign  of  the  cross;   (4)  in  Matrimony,  the  sign  of 
the  cross  and  the  giving  of  money;  (5)  in  the  Visita- 
tion of  the  Sick,  the  allusion  to  Tobias  and  Sarah, 
the  anointing,  and  the  directions  about  private 
confession;    (6)  in  the  Burial-Service,  the  prayers 
for  the  dead  and  the  Eucharist.     The  most  impor- 
tant change  referred  to  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
consecrated  elements  as  not  differing  from  his  pres- 
ence to  the  prayers  of  believers.    As  the  influence 
of  Luther's  Service  of  1533  colored  the  first  Liturgy 
of  1549,  so  that  of  Butzer,  Peter  Martyr,  Valerandus 
PoUanus,  and  John  k  Lasco  may  be  traced  in  the 
second  Liturgy  of  1552. 

The  Liturgy  of  Elizabeth  (1560)  agreed  substan- 
tially with  the  book  of  1652,  except  "  with  one 
alteration,  or  addition  of  certain  Lessons  to  be 
used  on  every  Sunday  in  the  year,  and  the  form  of 
the  Litany  altered  and  corrected,  and  two  sentences 
only  added  in  the  delivery  of  the  Scu;rament  to  the 


communicants,  and  none  other  or  otherwise";  and 
**  that  such  ornaments  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
ministers  thereof  ^hall  be  retained  and 
4.  Liturgy  be  in  use  as  was  in  this  Church  of  Elng- 
of  Elizabeth,  land,  by  authority  of  Parliament,  in 
the  second  year  of  King  Edward  VI., 
untn  other  order  shall  be  therein  taken,  etc." 
(1  Ehz.  c.  2,  April  28,  1559).  The  prayers  for 
the  queen,  and  for  the  clergy  and  people,  and  the 
collect,  "  O  God,  whose  nature,"  etc.,  were  intro- 
duced, but  placed  at  the  end  of  the  litany;  and 
one  of  two  collects  for  the  time  of  death  was  omitted. 
Some  further  changes  were  made  early  in  the  reign 
of  James  I.,  including  the  addition  of  forms  of 
thanksgiving  on  various  occasions  and  of  questions 
and  answers  on  the  sacraments  in  the  catechism 
(see  Hampton  Court  Conference). 

In  1645  (Jan.  3)  Parliament  took  away  the  Book 
of  CV>mmon  Prayer,  and  established  the  Directory, 
which  rejected  the  Apocrypha,  discontinued  private 
baptism,  sponsors,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  the  wedding- 
ring,  and  private  conmiunion,  removed  the  com- 
munion-table into  the  body  of  the  church,  abolished 
saints'  days  and  vestments,  the  burial-service,  and 
the  pubUc  recitation  of  the  Decalogue  and  of  the 
creeds,  though  the  Decalogue  and  the  Apostles' 
Creed  were  subsequently  supplied. 

The  last  revision  of  the  En^h  Prayer-book  was 
made  in  1662.  Among  the  important  changes  were, 
(1)  the  extracts  from  the  Bible — except  the  Psalter 
(which  is  Coverdale's  text  of  1539),  the  Decalogue, 
and  the  sentences  in  the  conmiunion-service — 
give  the  text  of  the  Authorized  Version;  (2)  the 
separate  printing  of  the  Order  for  Morning  and 
Evening  Prayer,  with  the  introduction  of  the 
last  five  prayers  from  the  Litany,  and  of  the  Oc- 
casional Prayers,  augmented  by  a 
5.  Last  second  prayer  for  fair  weather,  the 
Revision,  two  prayers  for  the  ember  weeks,  the 
prayers  for  Parliament  and  All  Condi- 
tions of  Men,  as  well  as  the  Greneral  Thanksgiving, 
and  a  thanksgiving  for  restoring  public  peace  at 
home;  (3)  some  new  collects,  epistles,  and  gospels 
were  supplied,  and  verbal  changes  made,  such  as 
"  church  "  for  "  congregation,"  and  "  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons,"  for  "  bishops,  pastors,  and 
ministers";  (4)  the  exhortations  in  the  conmiu- 
nion-service were  altered;  the  rubrics  relating  to 
the  offertory,  the  placing  of  the  bread  and  wine  on 
the  table,  and  their  disposition,  directing  the  form 
of  consecrating  additional  bread  and  wine,  and  the 
covering  of  the  elements,  were  added;  the  last 
clause  respecting  departed  saints  was  added  to  the 
Prayer  for  the  Church  Militant;  and  in  the  Order 
in  Council  (1552),  at  the  end  of  the  office,  the 
phrase  "  corporal  presence  "  was  substituted  for 
"real  and  essential  presence";  (5)  among  the  more 
important  additions  in  the  rest  of  the  book  are  the 
Office  for  the  Baptism  of  those  of  Riper  Years,  the 
Form  of  Prayer  to  be  used  at  Sea,  new  psalms  in 
the  Churching  Service,  and  the  last  five  prayers  in 
the  Visitation  of  the  Sick. 

The  Prayer-book  of  1549  was  used  first  in  Ireland 
on  Easter-day,  1551;  and  the  Irish  Act  of  Unifor- 
mity authorized  a  Latin  version.  The  book  of  1552 
not  having  been  ordered  for  observance,  the  Irish 


179 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oommon  Prayer 
Ooxnxnanicatio  Idiomatum 


Parliament,  in  January,  1560,  passed  an  Act  of 

Uniformity,  authorizing  the  Prayer-book  set  forth 

in    England,    and  the   Latin  version 

6.  IriBh  and  (made  by  Haddon)  for  the  benefit  of 
Scotch  ministers  unable  to  use  English,  and 
Prayer-  because  there  was  no  Irish  printing- 
books,       press,  and  few  could  read  Irish.     The 

use  of  the  Book  of  1662,  approved  by 
the  Irish  Convocation  (August-November,  1562), 
was  enjoined  by  the  Irish  Parliament  in  1666. 
Since  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church  in 
1870,  a  revision  of  the  Prayer-book  has  been  made, 
strongly  "  evangelical  "  in  tendency.  In  Scotland 
the  Prayer-book  had  been  in  general  use  in  the 
time  of  Elizabeth  (between  1557  and  1564);  but 
the  Scottish  bishops  being  averse  to  the  adoption 
of  the  English  Book,  urged  by  James  I.,  in  the 
next  reign  framed  a  book  of  their  own  on  the 
English  model,  with  certain  variations,  which, 
though  sanctioned  by  royal  authority  and  printed, 
never  came  into  general  use.  The  English  Book, 
except  the  Conununion  Office  (framed  upon  the 
Book  of  1549),  is  now  used  by  most  of  the  ministers 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland;  but  the 
Scottish  Communion  Office  is  still  preferred  in  many 
places. 

The  American  Prayer-book  is  framed  closely 
upon  the  model  of  the  English  book,  and  was  the 
work  of  three  successive  General  Conventions 
(1785,  1786,  1789).  It  was  adopted  substantially 
in  its  present  form  by  the  General  Convention  of 
1789,  with  many  variations  from  the  English  book, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  most 

7.  American  important:  it  entirely  omits  the  Atha- 
Prayer-     nasian  Creed,  the  Absolution  in  the 

book.  Visitation  Office,  the  Magnificat  and 
the  Nunc  dimittis,  the  Commination, 
and  the  versicles  after  the  Creed;  it  leaves  optional 
the  use  of  the  cross  in  baptism,  of  the  words  "  He 
descended  into  hell "  in  the  Creed,  of  the  Gloria 
Patri  between  the  Psalms,  and  altogether  con- 
siderably enlaiges  the  discretionary  power  of  the 
minister.  It  adds  to  the  number  of  the  Occasional 
Prayers  also  a  form  of  prayers  for  the  Visitation  of 
Prisoners,  a  form  of  prayer,  etc.,  for  the  Fruits  of 
the  Earth,  a  form  of  Family  Prayers.  A  form  for 
Consecrating  Churches  (resembling  that  published 
by  Bishop  Andrewes)  was  provided  in  1795,  and 
an  Office  of  Institution  in  1804.  The  change  of 
"Absolution"  into  "Declaration  of  Absolution," 
of  "  verily  and  indeed  taken "  into  "  spiritually 
taken  "  (Catechism),  and  the  permission  of  using 
an  alternative  formula  instead  of  "  Receive  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  etc.  (Ordinal),  are  as  significant  as 
the  introduction  of  the  prayers  of  invocation  and 
oblation  in  the  Communion  Office,  which  was  in- 
sisted on,  as  rendering  the  liturgy  more  in  accord- 
ance with  primitive  models,  by  the  Scottish  bishops 
in  the  Concordat  drawn  up  prior  to  their  conse- 
cration of  Bishop  Seabury.  The  changes  rendered 
necessary  by  political  and  local  causes  need  not  be 
mentioned:  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  the  eighth 
does  not  mention  the  Athanasian  Creed,  the  twenty- 
first  is  omitted,  and  the  thirty-fifth  printed  with  a 
proviso. 
A  strong   desire  arose  in  the  latter  part  of  the 


nineteenth  century  for  a  revision  in  the  direction 
of  liturgical  enrichment  and  increased  flexibility, 
which  resulted,  after  careful  consideration  at  three 
General  Conventions,  in  the  final  adoption  in  1892 
of  a  considerable  number  of  changes,  many  of  which, 
as  the  restoration  of  the  Magnificat  and  Nunc 
DimiUis  jhrought  the  book  into  closer  harmony  both 
with  the  English  and  with  the  earlier  models.  See 
LiTURGics;  LrruRQicAL  Formulas;  and  Thirty- 
NiNB  Articles. 

J.  I.  MOMBERT. 
BiBuoaBAPHT:  Reprints  or  faosimile  reproductions  which 
are  noteworthy  are:  Book  of  Common  Prayer  from  the 
oriifinal  MS.  aUaehed  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  166$, 
London,  1892;  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  1649^  facaunile, 
ib.  1896;  Prayer  Book  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  .  .  .  from 
OriginaU,  ib.  1898;  Fir9t  Prayer  Book  of  Edumd  VI., 
ib.  1903.  1905;  Second  Prayer  Book  of  King  Edumd  VI., 
ib.  1905.  Consult:  J.  H.  Blunt.  Annotated  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  ib.  1890;  E.  Cardwell.  The  Two  Book*  of 
Common  Prayer  aet  forth  ,  .  ,  in  Vie  Reign  of  Edioard 
VI.,  ib.  1852;  C.  E.  Hammond,  Litwrgiee  Eaatem  and 
Weetem,  ib.  1878;  W.  M.  Campion  and  W.  J.  Beaumont. 
Prayer  Book  Interleaved,  ib.  1880;  W.  Maskell,  Ancient 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  ib.  1882;  A.  T.  Wirg- 
mann.  The  English  Reformation  and  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  1631-1669,  Milwaukee.  1887;  F.  A.  Gasquet. 
Eward  VI.  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  London.  1891; 
J.  Cornford,  Book  of  Common  Prayer  uith  Explanatory 
Notee,  ib.  1897;  J.  C.  Jones,  Concordance  to  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  Philadelphia,  1898;  J.  Dowden,  Work- 
manehip  of  the  Prayer  Book,  London,  1899;  L.  Pullan, 
Hiet.  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  ib.  1900;  £.  Daniel, 
Prayer-Book;  ite  Hietory,  Language  and  Contente,  ib. 
1901;  H.  Qee.  Elizabethan  Prayer  Book  and  Omamente, 
ib.  1902;  F.  Procter  and  W.  H.  Frere.  New  Hiet.  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  ib.  1905;  A.  R.  Fausset,  Guide 
to  the  Study  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  ib.  1904;  M. 
McCoU.  The  Royal  Commieeion  and  the  Omamente  Rvbrie, 
ib.  1906. 

On  the  American  Prayer-book  consult:  C.  M.  Butler, 
Hiet.  of  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  New  York,  1880;  J.  H. 
Garrison,  The  American  Prayer  Book,  ite  Prindj^  and 
the  Law  of  ite  Use,  PhUadelphia.  1887;  C.  E.  Stevens, 
Oeneeie  of  the  American  Prayer  Book,  New  York,  1893; 
W.  R.  Huntington,  Short  Hietory  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  ib.  1898. 

COBOfUNICATIO  IDIOMATUM. 

Doctrine  before  the  Reformation  (|  1). 

Luther  (f  2). 

Brens.  Chemnitz,  and  their  Followers  (|  3). 

The  Formula  of  Concord  (f  4). 

Later  Lutheran  Theology  (|  5). 

In  Lutheran  dogmatics  Communicatio  Idioma- 
tum C*  communication  of  the  attributes  or  prop- 
erties ")  is  a  term  referring  to  the  relation  between 
the  divine  and  the  human  nature  as  united  in  the 
one  person  of  Christ.  The  thought  which  it  ex- 
presses aims  to  establish  the  connection  between 
the  unio  personalis  and  the  communio  naturarum. 
Having  for  its  purpose  to  illustrate  the  undivided 
personal  life  and  work  of  the  God-man  on  the  basis 
of  the  twofold  nature  united  in  him,  it  stands  in 
the  closest  connection  with  the  historical  appearance 
of  Jesus,  since  it  undertakes  to  give  the  final  dog- 
matic declaration  concerning  the  person  of  Christ. 

The  doctrine  starts  with  the  assertion  that  by 
virtue  of  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God  as  the 
second  person  of  the  Divine  Trinity  there  exists  an 
undivided  subject  of  the  God-man  by  virtue  of  the 
initiative  of  the  Logos  assuming  the  human  nature 
so  that  both  natures,  the  divine  and  the  human, 
are  indissolubly  and  perfectly  connected  with  one 
another  in  personal  unity.    The  dogmatic  formu- 


Oommunlcatio  Idiomatoin 
Oommimion  of  Saints 


THE  NEW  SGHAFF-HERZOG 


180 


lation  of  the  ancient  Church  limited  itself  to  fixing 
the  fact  of  the  incarnation — one  divine-human 
person  (Gk.  hen  proaiypon  or  mia  hypostasis)  of 
perfect  and  like  essence  with  God 
X«  Doctrine  according  to  the  divine  nature,  of  per- 
before      feet  and  like  essence  with  man  accord- 

the  Ref-    ing  to  the  human  nature,  vindicating 

ormation.  the  integrity  of  both  natures  in  the 
union  and  within  the  personal  unity 
and  retaining  its  plainly  indissoluble  conhection 
(Chalcedonian  Statement  of  451).  When  the 
question  as  to  the  natures  of  the  God-man  turned 
into  that  concerning  the  will  and  volition  in  the 
Monothelitic  controversy,  it  was  natural  that  the 
statement  of  the  integrity  and  absolute  connection 
already  made  concerning  the  natures  should  also 
be  extended  to  the  theUmata  and  energeia,  as  ad- 
hering to  the  natures,  constituting  their  essence 
(Constantinopolitan  Creed  of  680-681;  cf.  R.  See- 
berg,  Dogmengeschichte,  i.,  Leipsic,  1895,  pp.  221- 
222,  230).  John  of  Damascus  tried  to  define  more 
clearly  the  communication  of  the  properties.  By 
virtue  of  the  "  penetration  "  (Gk.  perichSresis)  of 
both  natures  in  the  personal  unity  each  commu- 
nicates to  the  other  of  its  own,  and  it  may  therefore 
be  said:  "  the  Lord  of  gloiy  was  crucified,"  and  on 
the  other  hand:  ''  this  man  is  uncreated "  (Da 
fide  orihodoxa,  iiL  3-4).  The  penetration  proceeds 
indeed  from  the  deity  (iii.  7,  end),  but  after  the 
divine  nature  has  once  penetrated  the  flesh  it 
allows  also  the  flesh  to  penetrate  it.  The  pene- 
tration is  so  far  mutual;  the  human,  without  abro- 
gating its  essence,  becomes  divine,  the  hiunan 
knowledge  of  Christ  is  enriched  with  all  wisdom,  the 
human  will  becomes  almighty  by  means  of  the 
permeating  divine  will,  the  flesh  making  alive.  An 
advance  in  this  direction  in  medieval  scholasticism 
was  the  less  possible  as  the  notion  of  God  became 
more  and  more  opposed  to  eveiything  changeable, 
creature-like,  human,  and  as  the  disinclination 
grew  to  revise  the  foundations  on  which  rests  the 
doctrine  of  the  communicaiio  idtomatum. 

It  was  with  no  theological  scientific  interest,  but 
to  help  faith,  that  Luther  from  the  very  start  em- 
phasized the  fact  that  the  Son  of  God  had  assiuned 
so  much  of  our  flesh  and  blood  that  we  have  now 
become  one  flesh  with  him.  To  this  end  he  em- 
phasized the  truly  human  being  and  human  devel- 
opment of  Christy  without  limiting  thereby  the 
divine  essence  of  the  Logos;  eveiy- 
a.  Luther,  thing  that  Christ  does  or  suffers  he 
refers  back  as  being  done  and  suffered 
by  God,  but  without  an  equal  extension  to  both 
natures.  Starting  with  the  unity  of  the  God-man, 
he  went  so  far  in  the  assertion  of  the  union  of 
natures  and  the  communication  of  the  properties 
that  he  supposed  that  the  divine  nature  gives  its 
property  to  the  human,  and  again  the  humanity  also 
to  the  divine  nature.  Influenced  especially  by 
the  controversy  over  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  gave 
the  human  nature  of  Christ  a  share  in  the  illocal 
existence  of  the  Logos,  and  this  since  the  unity  of 
persons  on  which  this  communication  rests  exists 
from  the  moment  of  the  incarnation. 

The  Wurttemberg  theologians,  headed  by  Johann 
Brenz,  took  up  Luther's  conception  most  decidedly 


and  carried  it  to  its  logical  conclusion,  viz.,  that  by 
means  of  the  personal  union  of  both  natures  in  the 
incarnation  the  humanity  of  Christ  is  also  every- 
where where  the  divinity  is,  so  that  all  communi- 
cation of  the  natiu'es  and  their  properties  actually 
existed  with  this  accomplished  imity;  and  that 
for  the  subsequent  exaltation  of  Christ  there  re- 
mained only  the  emeiging  and  mani- 

3.  Brenz,  festation   of   what   actually   existed. 

Chemnitz,  Hereby  the  truth  of  the  human  nature 

and  their   and   development   was  the   less   ob- 

FoUowers.  scured,  since  they  retained  not  only 
the  statement  "  God  has  suffered  and 
died,"  but  also  advanced  to  the  assertion  that  even 
the  divine  nature  has  in  its  way  taken  part  in  the 
suffering  of  Christ.  "  The  properties  and  acts  of 
these  natures  have  their  condition,  that  one  com- 
municates its  properties  or  acts  to  the  other,  which 
is  called  the  '  communicatto  idionuUum  '  '*  (Brenz, 
De  libello  BuUingeri,  p.  105).  The  Lower  Saxon 
theologians,  headed  by  Martin  Chemnitz,  shrank 
from  this  logical  canying  out  of  the  unity  of  person 
with  reference  to  the  communion  of  the  natures 
and  their  properties,  and  endeavored  to  maint^iTi 
in  spite  of  the  unity  of  the  person  the  lasting  dif- 
ference of  the  natures  as  well  as  that  of  the  two 
states  of  Christ.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  an 
essential  difference  existed  between  the  Saxon  and 
Swabian  doctrine  with  reference  to  the  supposi- 
tions and  foundations  themselves.  For  Chemnits 
himself  expressly  denied  that  the  hypostatic  union 
or  the  personal  indwelling  of  the  entire  fulness  of 
the  deity  in  the  assumed  human  nature  had  become 
"  in  the  course  of  years,  progressively  greater,  closer, 
fuller,  and  more  perfect,"  and  rather  asserted  this 
indwelling  "  from  the  flrst  moment  of  the  hypostatic 
union "  (De  duabtis  naturiSf  p.  216),  and  most 
decidedly  declared  against  the  assumption  that 
God  can  be  placed  somewhere  without  placing 
there  also  the  hiunanity  assumed  by  him  (p.  203). 

The  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  communv- 
catio  tdiomatum  as  developed  in  the  Formula  of 
Concord  is  thus  plainly  imintelligible  in  all  points, 
if  detached  from  the  immediate  interest  of  faith. 
Starting  therefore  with  the  so-called  proposUionea 
pereonales  (God  is  man,  man  is  God)  concerning 
which,  according  to  the  statement,  no  difference 
existed  between  the  Fhilippistic  and  the  Swiss  theo- 
logians, they  proceeded  to  the  statement  of  the 
communicatto  idiomatum  based  upon  the  generally 
acknowledged  personal  imion  of  the  natures  and  to 
be  interpreted  by  it.  They  asserted  first  the  genus 
idiomaticumf  that  kind  of  communi- 
4.  The     cation    of    properties    whereby    the 

Formula  common  properties  are  to  be  ascribed 
of  Concord,  to  the  person  of  the  God-man  with 
distinction  of  the  natures.  For  ex- 
ample, the  son  of  God  was  bom  according  to  the 
human  nature,  the  son  of  man  is  almighty  according 
to  the  divine  nature.  Here,  too,  there  was  agree- 
ment with  their  opponents,  but  the  difference  of  the 
meaning  which  was  discerned  in  the  expression 
results  from  this,  that  on  the  part  of  the  Reformed 
this  communicatio  was  only  considered  as  a  dicdec- 
tica  proBdicatiOf  not  as  a  realis  communicaHo. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  confession  of  the  Lutheran 


181 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oommonioatlo  Xdlomatam 
Oommimioxi  of  Saints 


Church  the  question  was  not  decided,  whether  and 
in  what  respect  all  divine  attributes  of  the  divine 
nature  were  conununicated  to  the  human,  but  that 
the  attempt  was  made  merely  to  point  out  those 
pro()ertie8  whose  communication  was  immediately 
connected  with  the  reality  of  the  work  of  redemption 
and  the  functions  of  Christ  based  thereon  {Solida 
Declaration  viii.  66).  Concerning  the  manner  of 
the  communication  they  were  satisfied  to  assert 
that  it  really  took  place,  but  without  fusion  and 
equalization  of  the  natures,  after  the  manner  of 
personal  union  (viii.  63-64).  The  immediate  in- 
terests of  faith  at  the  time,  according  to  which  the 
statement  must  be  interpreted,  were  thus  satisfied, 
and  they  were  satisfied  also  by  knowing  that  the 
divine  omnipotence,  power,  majesty,  and  glory 
showed  themselves  in,  with,  and  through  the 
assumed  human  nature, "when  and  how  it  seemed 
good  to  Christ,"  namely  where  his  office  "  as  me- 
diator, head,  king,  and  high  priest "  required  it 
(cf.  viiL  78).  And  this  irrespective  of  the  general 
statement  that  wherever  the  person  of  Christ  is 
it  is  as  God  and  man  (viii.  S2);  for  this  statement 
also  is  not  meant  to  be  conceived  of  as  an  ab- 
stract one,  but  as  one  of  Christian  faith,  for  which 
the  God-man  is  just  this,  since  otherwise  it  would 
not  consider  him  as  being  able  to  save  (cf.  F.  H.  R. 
Frank,  Die  Theologie  der  Konkordienfarmel,  iii., 
Erlangen,  1862). 

The  Lutheran  theology  which  followed  the 
Formula  of  Concord  has  contributed  little  toward 
advancing  the  doctrine  of  the  communicatio  vdio- 
malum  (cf.  H.  Schmid,  Die  Dogmatik  der  evange- 
lischen  hUheriscken  Kirche,  GOtersloh,  1893,  pp. 
226  sqq.,  234  sqq.).  Wherever  in  modem  theology 
the  original  position  of  the  Church  has  been  abol- 
ished— which  necessarily  led  to  the  question  per- 
taining to  the  communicatio  idiomatum 
5.  Later  — ^that  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity, 
Lutheran  hypostatically  conceived  of,  in  the 
Theology,  act  of  incarnation  assumed  the  human 
nature  for  a  personal,  from  that  time 
lasting  and  existing  union,  the  question  can  be  no 
more  of  further  advancing  that  doctrine  of  the  com- 
munication of  the  properties  in  the  old  ecclesias- 
tical sense.  Modem  Lutheran  theology  which  par- 
ticipates in  that  old  ecclesiastical  suggestion  has 
abided  mostly  either  by  the  statement  of  the  con- 
fession and  the  corresponding  doctrine  of  the  the- 
ology of  the  seventeenth  century,  or  has  endeavored 
to  bring  about  the  dogmatically  necessary  advance 
by  revising  and  recasting  more  minutely  the  foun- 
dations on  which  rests  the  doctrine  of  the  com- 
munication of  the  properties,  especially  by  assu- 
ming a  self-limitation,  a  kenosis  of  the  Ix)go8  at  the 
incarnation,  without,  however,  a  general  agreement 
or  adoption  within  the  Lutheran  Church.  See 
C^RISTOLOOT,  VIII.  R.  Seebero. 

BiBUOOKiiPHT:  Consult  besides  the  works  eited  under 
CBBxarroXiOOT  by  Baur,  Domer.  Thomasius,  Liebner, 
y^hnJM,  Frank,  Nitssoh,  Lipeius,  Qess,  Brens,  Dansus, 
Ueppe,  Sohneckenburger,  and  Hodge:  J.  Wigand,  De 
eommunieaiume  idi<muUum,  Basel.  1668;  H.  E.  Jacobs, 
Book  of  Concord,  i.  619.  030.  632-633.  641.  PhiladelphU. 
1803;  H.  Sohmid.  Doctrinal  TheoLogy  of  the  Evanoeiieal 
Lulhemn  Church,  Eng.  transl..  ib.  1880;  Neander.  Chris- 
tian Church,  ii.  489.  601-^2.  iii.  169-162.  183.  iiL  340. 


COMMUinON.    See  Lord's  Supper. 

COHMUNION  OF  THE  DEAD:  In  the  ancient 
church  the  custom  existed  of  putting  a  piece  of  the 
eucharistic  bread  as  viaticum  into  the  mouth  of 
Christians  who  by  sudden  death  had  been  prevented 
from  communing.  The  practise  was  prohibited  by 
the  synods  of  Hippo  (393),  third  of  Carthage  (397), 
Auxerre  (578),  and  the  second  Tnillan  (692). 
Balsamon  states  that  bishops  were  given  the  Eucha- 
rist after  their  death,  to  protect  them  from  demons 
while  on  their  way  to  heaven.  This  idea  was  at 
the  bottom  of  the  custom.  Later,  a  piece  of  the 
consecrated  bread,  instead  of  being  put  in  the  mouth 
of  the  corpse,  was  simply  laid  upon  the  breast,  and 
buried  with  it.  Gregory  the  Cireat  tells  {Dialogic 
book  ii.)  how  Benedict  of  Nursia  did  this  in  the 
case  of  a  young  monk  who  had  left  his  monasteiy 
and  gone  home  without  permission,  lest  the  earth 
should  refuse  to  harbor  his  dead  body.  The  monk 
Yso  relates  in  the  ninth  century  that  when  the 
body  of  Othnutr,  abbot  of  St.  Gall,  was  moved, 
under  his  head  and  upon  his  breast  were  found 
round  pieces  of  bread.  Yso  was  ignorant  of  the 
object  of  the  bread — showing  how  entirely  the  early 
custom  had  vanished  even  from  memory. 
Bibuoorapht:  F.  X.  Kraus.  RoalSneyklopOdie  der  chriMi- 

lichen   AUerthUmer,    ii.    886.    Freiburg.    1886;  Bingham. 

Ori4/in«a,    book   xv.;  Hefele,    ConeUienoeechiehtet    ii.    66; 

H.  M.  Luckook.  EtuharisHc  Sacrifice  and  Interoeteion  for 

the  DeparUd,  London.  1907;  DCA.  i.  636. 

COHMUNION  OF  SAINTS:  A  dogmatic  term, 
found  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  though  not  in  the 
doctrinal  formulas  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The 
time  and  motive  of  its  insertion  in  the  ancient 
baptismal  symbol  and  the  meaning  originally  at- 
tached to  it  are  still  matters  of  controversy  among 
theologians.  The  earliest  certain  evidence  for  the 
inclusion  of  the  words  sanctorum  communionem  in 
the  creed  is  furnished  by  Faustus,  bishop  of  Riez  in 
the  south  of  France,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fifth  century,  from  whose  use  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  clause  was  received  as  of  unquestioned 
antiquity  in  the  wide  region  repre- 
Eariy  Tes-  sented  by  Faustus,  and  that  he  knew 
timonies  to  no  form  of  the  creed  without  it.  He 
the  understands  it  specifically  in  the 
Formula,  catholic  sense  of  the  word  "  saint," 
already  pretty  definitely  established 
in  his  time,  and  refers  it  to  the  saints  in  their  state 
of  perfection  in  the  other  world.  Not  much  later 
are  the  pseudo-Augustinian  sermons  ccxli.  and  ecxlii., 
which  quote  the  words  as  part  of  the  creed,  and 
interpret  them  as  meaning  communion  "  with  the 
saints  who  have  died  in  the  faith  which  we  have 
received."  A  still  older,  though  not  so  well 
authenticated  witness  is  that  of  the  Explanatio 
symbolif  composed,  according  to  Gennadius,  by 
Bishop  Nicetas — probably  not  Nicetas  of  Aquileia, 
but  one  who  lived  at  Remesiana  in  Dalmatia  as  a 
missionary  bishop  about  400,  and  was  a  friend  of 
Paulinus  of  Nola.  His  words  have  evident  ref- 
erence to  the  baptismal  formula,  and  are  important 
as  showing  a  wider  reception  of  the  clause  than 
could  have  been  argued  from  Faustus  alone. 
Here  it  seems  to  adopt  the  same  interpretation  as 
that  borne  by  the  words  of  Faustus.    This  amounts 


Oommunlon  of  Saints 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


18S 


to  saying  that  in  the  earlier  period  at  which  we  know 
of  the  clause  the  only  meaning  assigned  to  it  is  a 
different  one  from  that  which  it  bears  in  modem 
Protestant  theology — ^though  this  is  not  to  say  that 
it  was  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  sanctioning 

the  cultus  of  the  saints  and  defend- 
Meaning.    ing  it  against  attack.    The  question 

is  whether  this  meaning  was  borne 
by  it  at  the  time  of  its  origin,  which  must  have 
preceded  the  date  already  mentioned  by  a  suffi- 
cient interval  to  aUow  it  to  attain  the  wide  rec- 
ognition already  seen.  The  words  were  certainly  not 
used,  before  they  became  part  of  the  creed,  with 
reference  only  to  the  perfected  saints  in  heaven, 
but  rather  to  the  fellowship  here  below  of  those  who 
are  sanctified  in  Christ,  just  as  the  Church  on  earth 
is  called  holy.  The  controversy  between  Augustine 
and  the  Donatists  turned  on  the  question  whether 
the  existence  of  the  ecclesia  aancta  depended  on  the 
expulsion  of  all  those  whose  character  gave  them 
no  right  to  belong  to  it.  And  so  Nicetas  calls  the 
existing  Church,  whose  members  are  only  later  to 
attain  the  fulness  of  the  communio  aandorum,  a 
congregatio  sanctorum.  It  is  at  least  a  plausible 
theoiy  that  the  clause  was  originally  put  into  the 
creed  to  express  in  the  widest  sense  the  fellowship 
of  all  the  saints,  existing  already  here  and  to  be 
perfected  hereafter;  and  that  the  narrower  inter- 
pretation came  in  under  the  influence  of  the  in- 
creasing cultus  of  those  whom  we  now  caU  the  saints. 
This  view  would  bring  the  clause  into  connection 
with  the  Donatist  controversy;  while  the  sectaries 
boasted  of  their  ''  commimion  of  saints,"  the  catho- 
lic Church  desired  solemnly  to  testify  to  its  belief 
in  that  same  blessing,  and  its  confidence  of  possess- 
ing it.  But  the  theoiy  is  weakened  by  the  fact 
that  the  North  African  Church  recited  the  creed 
without  this  clause.  The  theoiy  that  communio 
sanctorum  is  a  rendering  of  the  Greek  koin&nia  ten 
hagiOn,  "  holy  things  "  in  the  neuter  sense,  as  in 
the  versicle  of  the  liturgy  ta  hagia  tois  hagiois,  may 
be  dismissed. 


It  is  worth  remarking  that  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  strongly  as  it  presses  the  veneration  of  the 
saints  in  the  narrower  sense,  has  never  confined 
itself  to  this  meaning  in  its  interpretation  of  the 
clause,  but  is  rather  inclined  (as  in  the  Catechismua 
Romanus)  to  expound  it  as  an  expansion  or  com- 
plement of  the  preceding  "  Holy  Catholic  Church." 
To  this  communion  belong  the  members  of  the 
Church  on  earth  (the  Church  militant),  those  in 

purgatory  (the  Church  patient),  and 

Roman     the  saints  in  heaven  (the  Church  Tri- 

Catholic  In-  umphant).    The   communion  is   em- 

teipretation.  phasized  by  the   prayers  which   the 

last-named  offer  for  their  brethren  on 
earth  and  in  puigatory,  and  by  the  doctrine  of  the 
treasure  of  the  merits  both  of  Christ  and  the  saints 
which  are  available  for  the  Church  on  earth.  In  a 
somewhat  similar  manner  Luther  explains  the  clause 
under  discussion  as  an  alternative  expression  for 
"  Holy  Catholic  Church,"  translating  it  rather  as 
"  the  fellowship  of  the  saints  ";  he  understands, 
however,  different  terms  for  the  sharing  of  the 
blessings,  and  knows  nothing  of  saints  in  the  narrow 
sense.  The  older  Lutheran  theologians  followed 
this  view;  and  the  Calvinist  confessions  do  not 
differ  widely  from  it,  explaining  that  those  who  are 
sanctified  in  Christ's  fellowship  are  bound  to  a 
mutual  sharing  of  all  the  benefits  they  receive 
from  God.  (J.  KasruNf.) 

Bibuoorapht:  H.  B.  WiJaon,  Ths  Communion  of  SatiUt, 
Oxford.  1861;  W.  Rede,  The  Commiunion  of  SainU,  Lon- 
don, 1893.  DisouasioiiB  will  generally  be  found  in  trea- 
tisee  on  the  oreeda,  such  as:  C.  P.  CasfMri,  QuelUn  tut 
QttekichU  de9  TaufaymboU,  Leipsic,  1866-75;  H.  Cramer. 
Zum  Kampf  urn  dtu  ApoatoUcum,  Berlin,  1803;  T.  Zaho, 
Dew  apo^oliach€  Symbol,  Nuremberg,  1893;  O.  Zdckler, 
Zum  Apottolikwnalrnt,  Munich,  1893;  F.  KattenbuMh, 
Da§  apo9toU9ch€  Symbol,  Leipae,  1804-1000;  A.  Hahn, 
SymboU  und  Olaubontrtgeln  dor  aUon  ITtrdkc,  Bnslatt, 
1807;  A.  Hamaek,  The  AjnmOm'  Crwrf,  London,  1901; 
A.  C.  MoGiflFert.  ApotOn  Creed,  New  York,  1902;  KL,  t. 
1621-22. 


COMMUNION  OF  THE  SICK. 

PER,  v.,  i  2. 


See  Lord's  Sup- 


I.  Theory,  History,  and  CritidBn. 
The  Communist  Theory  (f  1). 
History  (|  2). 
Historical  Examples  (|  3). 
Criticism  (|  4). 
II.  Communism  in  America. 

Type  and  Character  of  American 
Communism  (f  1). 

1.  The  Adonai  Shomo. 

2.  The  Altruist  Commtmity. 

L  Theoiy,  Histoiy,  and  CriticiBm:    The  words 
commmiism  and  socialism  are  often  used  s3mon- 
ymously;  but  this  usage  leads  to  confusion.    As 
the  opposite  of  individualism,  socialism  is  merely 
the  general  view  that,  in  the  organization  of  soci- 
ety, the  welfare  of  the  whole  shall  take  prece- 
dence of  the  rights  of  individuals.    It 
1.  The     18  not  sometfaJng  absolute,  but  ad- 
OommuniBt  mits  of  degrees,  according  to  the  ex- 
Theory,     tent  to  which  it  recognizes  individual- 
ism. Communism,  or  coDectivism,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  a  definite  system.     It  is  a  theory 
as  to  the  distribution  of  property  in  the  interest 


COHHTJNISM. 

8.  The  Amana  Society. 

4.  The  Church  Triumphant,  Kore- 

shanity. 
ft.  The  Ephrata  Community. 

John  Conrad  Beissel.  The  Build- 
ings (§  1). 
Oisaniaation  and  Doctrines  (|  2). 
Growth  and  Decline  (f  3). 

6.  The  Harmony  Society. 

7.  Icaria  and  New  Icaria. 


t.  The  Perfectionists  or  Oneida  Com- 
munity. 
9.  The  Separatists. 
10.  The    Shakers  or    the    ifnunnial 
Church. 
Orisin  and  Early  History  (f  1). 
Doctrines  (f  2). 

Organisation  and  Government  (|  3)< 
Heligious  Services.  Preaent  Statu 
(§4). 


of  humanity  and  morality,  and  forms  a  definite 
social  and  economic  system.  It  demands  the  abol- 
ishment of  private  property  and  the  ownership  of 
all  industries  and  utilities  by  the  State.  Property 
is  divided  into  two  classes:  one  of  things  intended 
for  consumption — ^food,  clothing,  and  the  like; 
the  other  of  things  serving  for  production — ^land, 
machines,  factories,  etc.  According  to  commu- 
nism, the  interests  of  society  are  best  served  ^en 
all  productive  property  belongs  to  the  commu- 
nity. The  individual  then  is  an  employee  of  the 
State,  and  h&s  a  right  only  to  those  commodities 
that  are  apportioned  out  to  him  <rom  the  oonunoQ 


188 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oommanion  of  Saints 
Oommunlfliii 


fltorehouse  in  remuneration  for  his  contribution 
to  the  common  work.  The  communist  maintains 
that  many  of  the  existing  economic  evils  would  be 
removed  by  such  a  system.  Production,  he  be- 
lieves, would  regulate  itself  automatically;  there 
would  be  no  more  crises  caused  by  overproduction; 
and  there  would  be  no  more  strikes.  Besides,  by 
concentrating  the  industries  the  work-day  would 
be  shortened,  thereby  allowing  more  time  for  in- 
tellectual enjoyments.  Poverty  would  disappear, 
and  also  the  Idndred  evil,  wealth.  The  source  of 
all  evil  passions  and  crime,  private  property,  would 
be  removed.  Jealousy,  selfishness,  egoism  would 
be  meaningless.  The  whole  social  and  economic 
world  would  be  unified;  there  would  be  only  one 
government,  and  that  by  the  people.  The  whole 
of  humanity  would  form  one  happy  family.  Since 
the  basis  of  this  system  is  the  equal  enjoyment  of 
this  world's  goods,  it  is  evident  that  the  kind  of 
communism  here  described  is  thoroughly  material- 
istic. It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  ascetic  com- 
munism, in  which  it  is  contempt  for  things  earthly 
that  leads  to  renunciation  of  private  property. 

History  shows  that  the  higher  the  civilization  of 
a  country  the  more  highly  developed  have  been 
the  forms  of  private  property.  Among 
2.  History.  Slavic  peoples  the  land  surrounding 
the  village  is  still  held  in  common. 
The  Germanic  peoples  early  divided  the  arable 
land;  but  in  modem  Germany  forests  have  re- 
mained common  property  to  a  great  extent,  and 
likewise  pasture-land  till  near  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Communism  as  a  theoretical  sys- 
tem first  appeared  among  the  Greeks,  the  most 
famous  example  being  furnished  by  Plato's  "  Re- 
public." Aristotle  recognized  its  impracticability, 
but  believed  that  the  use  of  private  property  ought 
to  be  regulated  by  law  in  the  interest  of  the  public. 
Similar  reactions  against  the  division  of  society 
into  rich  and  poor  are  found  in  the  Orient,  where 
disdain  of  riches  leads  to  renunciation  of  property; 
the  Buddhist  monks  are  particularly  noteworthy. 
Christianity  pointed  a  new  way.  True,  Christ 
taught  that  earthly  treasures  are  unimportant  com- 
pared with  things  eternal  (Matt.  xvL  26);  but  for 
this  very  reason  both  poverty  and  riches  are  of 
like  import  to  the  Christian.  Both  were  consid- 
ered oiUy  from  the  standpoint  of  the  moral  dan- 
gers tbey  bring  with  them.  So  far  from  commend- 
ing renunciation  of  earthly  goods,  Paul  declared 
work  and  remunerative  work  fundamental  for  every 
Christian  (Eph.  iv.  28;  II  Thess.  iii.  10);  and  Jesus 
emphasized  the  duty  of  faithfulness  where  private 
possessions  are  concerned  (Luke  xvi.  11).  The 
New  Testament  teaches  complete  self-denial,  but 
not  communism;  and  to  conceive  of  the  first  con- 
gregation in  Jerusalem  as  communistic  is  to  mis- 
understand both  the  passage  describing  it  (Acts  ii.~ 
v.)  and  Christianity  (cf.  O.  Holtzmann,  in  ZKG, 
xiv.,  1893,  p.  327;  Nathusius,  Mitarbeii,  p.  402; 
W.  Roscher,  Orundlagen  der  NaiumalOkonamie, 
Stuttgart,  1892,  p.  199).  The  later  communistic 
interpretation  of  Christianity  was  due  to  two 
causes:  the  taking  up  into  Christian  thought  of  the 
heathen  contempt  for  matter  as  such,  and  the  sub- 
■titutloD  «if  the  Law  for  the  Gospel.    In  its  Chris- 


tian garb  communism  has  been  based  upon  asceti- 
cism, or  upon  greed  disguised  as  asceticism,  as 
with  the  CHrcumcelliones  (q.v.)  of  the  Donatist  con- 
troversy (see  Donatism).  The  idea  that  communism 
is  ethically  a  higher  form  of  possession  than  indi- 
vidualism was  common  in  the  Church  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages.  This  made  it  easy  for  the  Church 
to  move  the  people  to  surrender  their  property. 

[Strong  communistic  tendencies  appeared  among 

the  medieval  Waldenses,  Apostolic  Brethren,  Beg- 

hards,    and   Lollards.    But   the   most  important 

medieval  commimistic  experiment  was  that  of  the 

Taborites  (q.v.),  the  radical  Bohemian 

8.  Histor-  party   in  the  Hussite  wars.    Among 

ioal  Ex-    the  articles  set  forth  by  them  in  1420 

amples.  were  the  following:  "  In  these  days 
there  shall  be  no  king,  ruler,  or  sub- 
ject on  the  earth,  and  all  imposts  and  taxes  shall 
cease;  no  one  shall  force  another  to  do  anything,  for 
all  shall  be  equal  brethren  and  sisters.  Aa  in  the 
town  of  Tabor  there  is  no  mine  or  thine,  but  all  is 
held  in  common,  so  shall  everything  be  common  to 
all,  and  no  one  own  anything  for  himself  alone. 
Whoever  does  so  commits  a  deadly  sin."  All  were 
required  to  deposit  their  possessions  in  a  conunon 
treasury.  Later  each  carried  on  his  own  industry, 
but  brought  all  the  surplus  product  for  common  use. 
The  more  radical  of  the  Taborites  insisted  upon 
community  even  in  wives  (see  Adamites,  3; 
and  Nioolaitanb).  At  first  the  Bohemian  Breth- 
ren (q.v.)  required  all  who  would  enter  their 
fellowship  to  renounce  property  and  rank,  and 
schism  occurred  (1491)  when  the  dominant  ele- 
ments decided  to  relax  the  conditions  of  member- 
ship in  the  body,  in  favor  of  nobles  and  gentry. 
In  the  early  Reformation  time  Thomas  Mtlnzer 
(q.v.),  influenced  by  Nicholas  Storch  (see  Zwickau 
Prophigtb),  made  a  determined  and  enthusiastic 
effort  to  overthrow  the  existing  order  with  its  in- 
justice and  oppression,  and  to  establish  a  kingdom 
of  Christ  on  earth,  conceived  of  as  communistic 
or  semicommunistic.  The  revolutionary  peasants 
(see  Peasants'  War)  did  not  demand  absolute 
community  of  goods;  but  the  forests  for  timber, 
fuel,  and  game,  the  streams  for  fish,  exemption 
from  oppressive  taxes,  rents,  and  imposts,  and  a 
free  enjoyment  of  the  products  of  labor  by  the 
laborer  were  earnestly  insisted  upon.  All  of  thp 
Anabaptists  recognized  the  obligation  of  contribu- 
ting freely  of  their  means  for  the  supplying  of  the 
needs  of  brethren,  and  many  of  them  tau^t  and 
practised  a  thoroughgoing  communism.  This  is 
true  especially  of  the  Moravian  Anabaptists,  who 
established  larger  households,  in  which  thousands 
lived  in  a  communistic  way  imder  a  general  super- 
intendent. (Consult  on  medieval  and  sixteenth 
century  communism:  K.  Kautsky,  Cammuniam  in 
Central  Europe  in  the  Time  of  the  Reformatum, 
London,  1897,  and  J.  Loserth,  Der  Commttniemua 
der  Mahriechen  Wiedertdufer,  Vienna,  1894.) 

A.  H.  N.] 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  propaganda  for 
communism  assumed  the  form  cK  fiction.  The 
most  important  work  of  this  character  was  the 
Utopia  (1516)  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (q.v.).  Com- 
mimism  in  its  present  form  may  be  said  to  havs 


^7OOU0Ci^EL&XflD& 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


164 


begun  in  the  party  of  the  Mountain  in  the  French 
Revolution,  when  Marat  maintained  that  equality 
of  rights  leads  to  equality  in  enjoyment.  Thus 
communism  was  robbed  of  its  religious  guise  and 
placed  upon  its  present  materialistic  basis.  How- 
ever, the  real  father  of  modem  communism  was 
8aint-Simon  (q.v.).  His  ideas  were  taken  up  by 
Fourier  (d.  1837);  Enfantin  (d.  1864),  who  advo- 
cated community  of  women;  and  others,  including 
Cabet  (d.  1856),  who  founded  communistic  col- 
onies in  America  (see  below,  II.,  6).  Later  Karl 
Marx  (d.  1883)  attempted  to  reduce  the  more  or 
less  obscure  and  idealistic  thoughts  9f  Saint-Simon  to 
a  cold  logical  Gfystem  by  deducing  common  owners 
ship  from  the  nature  of  property.  The  position  of 
the  radical  social  party  in  Germany  to-day  is 
founded  upon  the  theories  of  Marx.  A  product  of 
the  latter-day  communistic  thought  was  Edward 
Bellamy's  Looking  Backward  (1888).  The  philan- 
thropic aims  of  the  later  communism  have  at- 
tracted certain  of  the  clergy,  as  they  did  earlier  the 
contemporary  of  Saint-Simon,  Robert  Owen  (q.v.); 
but  the  resiilt  is  a  new  mixture  of  the  ideas  of 
Christian  asceticism,  based  on  a  misunderstanding 
of  the  Gospel,  with  the  materialistic  desires  of  the 
multitude.  A  like  tendency,  with  the  same  con- 
fusion of  thought  and  result,  appears  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  Lamennais  (q.v.)  and  other 
Frenchmen.  The  theories  of  Henry  Geoige  (d. 
1896)  differ  from  communism  in  essential  points 
and  are  only  allied  to  the  latter. 

Idke  many  other  things,  commimism  is  beautiful 
in  theory;  but  it  does  not  work  in  practise.  The 
successful  control  by  the  government 
4.  Ozitlcinii.  of  isolated  utilities  forms  no  argimient 
for  the  eonmion  ownership  of  every- 
thing. Granting  that  the  entire  industrial  world 
eould  be  organized  under  a  single  management,  on 
what  principle  would  the  fruits  of  the  common 
work  be  divided  among  the  individual  members  of 
society?  According  to  the  needs  of  the  individual, 
or  the  amount  of  his  production?  according  to  the 
number  of  hours  employed,  or  according  to  the 
quality  of  his  work,  physical  or  intellectual?  Such 
practical  considerations  show  that  thoroughgoing 
communism  is  only  a  theory.  We  are  neither  ma- 
chines nor  slaves;  yet  such  a  system  would,  in 
.effect,  condemn  the  wholp  of  humanity  to  penal 
servitude.  There  would  be  no  longer  any  indi- 
vidual endeavor;  for  all  articles  of  use,  whether 
pig  iron,  potted  ham,  or  poetiy,  would  be  forth- 
coming at  the  command  of  some  general  commit- 
tee. Even  a  philosopher  would  be  prohibited 
from  spending  his  leisure  hoiurs  in  pleasant  medi- 
tation; for  in  a  communistic  society  all  philosoph- 
ical problems  would  have  been  solved,  and  further 
speculation  must  be  considered  dangerous  to  the 
existing  social  organization.  Such  an  offense  would 
constitute  a  sort  of  lese-majesty.  Arguments  for 
communism  are  superficial  and  can  be  met  by  a 
simple  appeal  to  the  nature  of  man  as  a  fvdl  moral 
agent.  Commimism  based  upon  an  equal  enjoy- 
ment of  this  world's  goods  is  imchristian  and  is 
not  supported  by  revelation.  God  makes  men  to 
differ  from  one  another,  and  this  fact  is  recog- 
nized  in  the  Bible.    The  institution  of  private 


property  is  supported  by  every  passage  in  the  Bible 
where  property  is  mentioned;  and,  in  fact,  it  Ls  a 
postulate  of  Christian  ethics.  Is  it  not  through 
accumulating  that  the  Christian  is  to  make  himself 
a  useful  member  of  society  ? 

(M.  VON  NATHUsrosf.) 
n.  Communism  in  America:  [Almost  from  its 
discovery  America  seemed  marked  out  as  the  home 
of  communistic  experiments.  The  Jamestown 
charter  (1606)  included  a  provision 
Type  and  for  a  common  storehouse,  and  the 
Character  Pilgrims  for  a  time  maintained  some 
of  Ameri-  features  of  communism.  More  direct 
can  Com-  and  systematic  attempts  to  embody 
munisnL  the  idea  in  practise  were  the  Labadist 
community  in  Maryland  (1680;  see 
Labadis,  Jean  de,  Labadists)  and  the  community 
of  the  "  Woman  in  the  Wilderness  "  in  Pennsyl- 
vania (1604).  It  is  significant  of  the  hopes  which 
were  entertained  concerning  America  that  such 
communistic  bodies  as  the  Shakers,  Harmonists, 
Separatists,  Amana  Society,  and  Icarians  (see  be- 
low) were  growths  transplanted  from  other  lands. 
The  teachings  of  Owenism,  Fourierism,  and  Cabet- 
ism  were  tested  hei;p,  as  well  as  in  later  times  those 
of  Marx  and  his  school.  In  many  of  these  the  re- 
ligious principle  was  central.  Other  efforts  disre- 
garded the  religious  basis  and  were  either  purely 
social  or  a  mingling  of  the  social  and  economic. 
Some  of  those  which  started  as  religious  move* 
ments  became  purely  economic.  Of  early  founda- 
tions  only  the  Oneida  Conununity,  the  Amana  So- 
ciety, and  the  Shakers  are  now  in  existence.  Where 
the  basis  was  the  thought  of  a  single  mind  empha- 
sizing personal  idiosjmcrasy,  and  where  the  essay 
was  made  in  ignorance  of  vital  and  economic  laws 
success  could  be  only  temporary.  Division  and 
dissension  soon  wrought  the  ruin  of  the  experiment. 
Some  of  these  essays  at  a  communal  life  left  their 
impress  upon  both  life  and  literature.  Such  a  one 
was  Brook  Farm,  which  figures  in  the  works  of 
Hawthorne,  Alcott,  and  the  New  England  writers 
of  their  time.  The  tendency  of  the  last  two  dec- 
ades has  been  away  from  a  strictly  communistic 
and  toward  a  cooperative  type  of  society.  The 
life  of  these  experiments  is  not  yet  sufficiently  ex- 
tended to  afford  basis  for  judgment  as  to  the  pei^ 
manence  they  will  attain.  The  more  important 
of  them  are  the  following.] 

1.  The  Adonal  Shomo  ('<  the  Lord  is  there  *')'. 
A  religious  society  holding  the  doctrines  of  the 
Second  Advent,  which  existed  in  Massachusetts 
1861-96.  Its  founder,  Frederick  I.  Howland,  s 
Quaker  of  New  Bedford,  was  converted  to  the  Sec- 
ond Advent  doctrine  under  the  preaching  of  Will- 
iam Miller  (q.v.)  in  1843.  Believing  that  he  had 
received  the  gift  of  inspiration  in  1855«  he  formed 
an  association  in  1861  with  other  like-minded  per- 
sons, who  settled  in  Athol  and  afterward  in  Peters- 
ham, Mass.  The  fundamental  principles  of  the 
society  as  given  by  one  of  its  presidents  were:  "The 
Jesus,  the  Mystery  of  Christ,  and  belief  in  times  of 
restitution  of  all  things,  of  which  Qodhath  spoken  by 
the  mouth  of  all  his  holy  prophets  since  the  world 
began;  and  that  the  elect,  by  grace  through  eaid 
I  faith,  will  attain  to  the  Melchisidek  priesthood,  which 


185 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ffftwnWMiwlMm 


is  after  the  power  of  an  endless  life."  All  possessions 
were  held  in  common;  the  seventh  day  was  ob- 
served aa  the  Sabbath,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  was 
presented  bs  the  offering  of  the  morning  and  eve- 
ning sacrifice.  Rowland  held  also  that  the  true  fol- 
lowers of  Christ  had  already  begun  the  eternal  life. 
The  Adonai  Shomo  never  had  more  than  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  members.  It  possessed  840  acres  of 
land  and  a  dwelling.  It  was  chartered  in  1876. 
In  1896,  only  one  of  its  members  surviving,  the 
charter  was  annulled  by  the  State  Supreme  Court; 
and  in  the  following  year  the  property  was  sold. 

W.  H.  Larrabee. 
Bibuograpbt:  H.  F.  Hacer,  in  Amaiean  Soeialitt,  1877; 

W.  A.  Hinds.  American  CommunUiea,  pp.  403~407,  Chi- 

ci«o.  1008. 

8.  The  Altruist  Oommunity:  A  society  occupy- 
ing a  small  estate  at  Sulphur  Springs,  on  the  Mia- 
sissippi  River,  23  m.  s.  by  w.  of  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
It  waa  fotmded  by  Alcander  Longley,  who  had 
been  a  member  of  the  North  American  Phalanx 
(one  of  the  most  successful  of  the  American  com- 
munities based  upon  Fourieristic  principles)  and 
of  the  Icaria  Community  (see  below,  7)  and  also  a 
member  and  director  in  several  cooperative  stores 
and  colonies.  It  allows  equal  rights  and  privileges 
to  all  its  members,  both  men  and  women,  in  all 
the  business  affairs;  and  it  makes  no  interference 
with  the  marriage  or  family  affairs  of  its  mem- 
bers, or  with  their  religious,  political,  or  other  opin- 
ions. It  carries  on  a  poultry  and  gardening  busi- 
ness. It  has  few  members,  but  additional  ones  will 
be  received  as  fast  as  they  can  be  profitably  em- 
ployed. The  society  has  also  headquarters  at  St. 
Louis,  with  a  printing  establishment  where  its 
monthly  journal,  books,  and  tracts  are  published. 

W.  H.  Larrabee. 
Bzbuoobapht:  W.  A.  Hinds,   American  Communitiee,   pp. 

486.  487.  Chicaco,  1906;  The  AUruiit,  St.  Louis  (a  monthly); 

A.  Longley,  What  w  Communiemf    St.  Louis. 

8.  The  Amana  Society:  Located  at  Amana, 
Iowa.  The  origins  of  the  society  go  back 
to  the  revived  communities  of  the  "  inspired  " 
in  Germany  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  (see  Inspired,  The).  The  an- 
noyances which  the  members  of  these  revivi- 
fied congregations  suffered  at  home  because 
they  separated  from  the  State  Church,  refused 
to  send  their  children  to  the  public  schools, 
declined  to  bear  arms,  serve  in  war,  take  oaths, 
and  the  like,  led  to  their  emigration  to  America. 
Under  the  lead  of  Christian  Metz,  Barbara  Heine- 
mann(see  Inspired,  The),  Councilor  G.  A.  Weber 
of  lich,  and  a  manufacturer  of  Ronneburg  named 
Morechel,  they  bought  a  tract  of  land  near  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  where  they  built  six  villages,  besides  two 
in  Canada.  About  800  persons  came  during  the 
years  1843-^.  They  gave  their  settlement  the 
name  Ebenezer,  and  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
cloth  manufacture.  In  1854  a  tract  was  bought 
on  the  Iowa  River,  on  which  seven  villages  were 
laid  out,  and  the  colony  removed  thither  during 
the  ensuing  ten  years.  The  community  wsa  in- 
corporated in  1859  BS  the  Amana  Society,  under  a 
constitution  providing  that  all  property  should  be 
held  in  common,  that  agriculture,  manufacturing, 
and  trade  should  furnish  the  means  of  sustenance, 


and  that  the  surplus  should  be  applied  to  com- 
munal improvements  and  educationad  and  benevo- 
lent purposes.  Metz  was  the  head  till  his  death  in 
1867,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Barbara  Heine- 
mann  (who  had  married  Georg  Landmann).  Since 
her  death  (1884)  no  member  has  received  the  gift 
of  prophecy. 

The  fundamental  doctrine  of  the  Amana  Society 
is  that  "  God  can  now  as  well  as  of  old  inspire  men 
to  declare  his  word  and  will,  and  thus  act  as  mes- 
sengers of  divine  teaching  to  the  world."  This 
gift  is  not  continuous,  but  is  supposed  to  fall  upon 
special  persons.  The  utterances  of  all  the  society's 
prophets  have  been  recorded  and  are  read  at  the 
meetings  along  with  the  Scriptures.  The  doctrines 
of  the  Trinity,  justification  by  faith,  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  and  the  final  judgment  are  incul- 
cated in  the  catechism.  The  Lord's  Supper  is  cel- 
ebrated whenever  inspired  direction  is  given  to  do 
so,  and  then  with  peculiar  observances;  baptism 
is  not  practised. 

The  basis  pf  the  communistic  system  is  wholly 
religious.  Persons  joining  the  society  surrender 
all  their  property  and  all  claim  to  wages,  and  are 
promised  in  return  board  and  dwelling,  support  in 
old  age,  sickness,  and  infirmity,  and  an  annual 
allowance  for  clothing  and  other  expenses.  If  they 
withdraw,  they  receive  back  what  they  originally 
contributed  to  the  common  fund.  Marriage  is 
permitted;  but  those  who  marry  lose  their  stand- 
ing for  a  time.  Membership  is  of  three  orders,  of 
which  the  first  includes  the  youth  and  probation- 
ers. A  thorough  inquisitorial  examination  of  the 
spiritual  condition  of  the  whole  community  is  held 
every  year.  The  temporal  government  of  the  so- 
ciety is  vested  in  a  board  of  thirteen  trustees,  who 
are  chosen  annually  by  the  male  members.  A  suit 
brought  for  the  dissolution  of  the  Amana  Corpo- 
ration on  the  ground  of  its  carrying  on  a  secular 
business  was  decided  by  the  District  Court  in  Iowa 
in  1905  in  favor  of  the  society.  The  society  re- 
ports (1906)  a  membership  of  1,770,  and  property 
aggregating  in  value  $1,750,000. 

W.  H.  La^rrabeb. 
Bibuoorapbt:  The  society  haa  iasued  A  Brief  Hietory  cf 
ihe  Amana  Society  (Amana.  la..  1900).  Conault  W.  A. 
HindB,  American  CommuniHe;  pp.  301-326,  Chicago, 
1908;  C.  NordhoflF.  CommunvtHc  Societiee  of  the  United 
Statee,  New  York,  1875;  A.  Shaw.  Life  in  the  Amana 
Colony,  in  The  Chautauqudn,  viii  (1888),  pp.  300  eqq.; 
K.  Knorti,  Die  xoahre  Inepirationegemeinde  in  loum, 
Leipeio,  1896;  R.  Ely,  Amana;  A  Study  of  Retiffioue 
Communiem,  in  Harper' 9  Maoaeine,  er  (1902),  pp.  669 
oqq.     See  the  bibliography  of  Inbpibkd,  The. 

4.  The  Ohuroh  Triumphant,  Koreahanity:  A 
religious  society  at  Estero,  Lee  County,  Fla., 
whither  its  headquarters  were  removed  from 
Chicago  in  1903.  It  was  founded  in  Chicago  in 
1886  by  Dr.  Cyrus  R.  Teed,  who  claimed  to 
have  experienced  a  spiritual  illummation  in 
1870,  with  a  revelation  of  the  system  which  he 
denominated  Koreshanity  (from  Koreah,  the  He- 
brew equivalent  of  his  own  name,  Cyrus),  while  a 
practising  physician  of  Utica,  N.  Y.  The  system 
is  based  on  the  Koreshan  Cosmogony,  which  holds 
that  the  universe  is  a  hollow  sphere,  whose  phys- 
ical body  is  the  earth,  and  that  men  live  in  the  in- 
side of  the  cell.    The  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  stars 


OoillBllUllfll& 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


186 


are  all  within  the  globe.  The  earth  is  supposed  to 
be  eternal,  a  great  battery  continually  renewing 
itself.  Alchemy,  rather  than  chemistry,  is  held  to 
be  true,  matter  and  spirit  to  be  interchangeable 
and  interdependent.  God  is  a  personal  being,  in- 
vested with  a  trinity  of  specific  attributes;  Jesus 
Christ  was  God  Almighty,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  was 
the  product  of  his  transmutation  or  of  the  burning  of 
his  body.  The  coming  of  the  Messiah  is  the  fruition 
of  an  evolution  through  a  succession  of  reincarna- 
tions. The  divine  seed  was  sown  1 ,800  years  ago, 
and  the  first  fruit  is  another  Messianic  personality, 
who  is  afiirmed  to  be  now  in  the  world,  declaim- 
ing his  scientific  gospel.  Reincarnation  is  the 
central  law  of  life  and  identical  with  resurrection, 
which  is  reached  through  a  succession  of  reem- 
bodiments.  The  origin  and  destiny  of  man  are 
found  in  God.  The  standard  of  Koreshan  purity 
is  the  virgin  life  of  Jesus.  The  Bible  is  accepted 
as  the  best  written  expression  of  the  divine  mind, 
and  its  truth  is  demonstrated  by  Koreshanity. 
The  Koreshan  government  has  as  its  principal  di- 
visions the  Church  Triumphant,  the  College  of 
Life,  and  the  Society  Arch-Triumphant.  There 
are  also  three  general  orders:  the  investigative 
court,  the  marital  order,  and  the  communistic  and 
celibate  order,  the  last  being  the  highest  and  most 
central  of  the  three.  The  following  of  Koreshanity 
is  estimated  at  about  5,000,  and  the  property  at 
$250,000.  The  town  of  Estero  includes  an  area 
of  110  square  miles.  W.  H.  Larrabee. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  literature  of  the  oociety  oompriaes: 
C.  R.  Teed's  Koresh.  The  Imntortal  Manhood;  L.  Page 
Borden,  The  Logoe  or  Word  Book;  G.  R.  Teed  and  U.  G. 
Morrow,  The  CeUtUar  Coemology/t  a  aeries  of  pamphlets 
explaining  the  principles  of  the  society,  all  published  at 
Estero,  and  The  Flaming  Svoord,  the  periodical  of  the 
oommunity.  Consult  also  W.  A.  Hinds,  American  Comr 
munUiee,  pp.  471-185.  Chicago,  1908. 

6.  TheEphrata  Oommunity:    A  society  founded 

in  Lancaster  County,  Pa,,  in  1732  by  John  Conrad 

Beissel  (b.  at  Eberbach,  12  m.  e.    of  Heidelberg, 

Germany,  1690;  d.  at  Ephrata  July  6, 1768).    He 

is    said    to   have    been   converted    in    1715,    to 

have  come  under  Pietistic  influence, 

1.  John    and  especially  to  have  been  affected 

Sui^     by  the   ideas    of    Gottfried    Arnold 

The  '     (QV-)-      In    1720    he    emigrated    to 

Bnildinffs.  America,  intending  to  join  the  com- 
munity of  the  "  Woman  in  the  Wilder- 
ness," on  the  banks  of  the  Wissahickon;  but 
finding  that  society  no  longer  in  existence,  he 
joined  the  Dunkers  (q.v.)  in  1724.  Later  he 
became  convinced  of  the  duty  of  celebrating 
the  seventh  day  as  Sabbath  and  published  Das 
Biichlein  vom  Sabbath  (Philadelphia,  1 728).  He  then 
withdrew  from  the  Dunkers  and  adopted  a  soli- 
tary life  in  a  cabin  on  the  Cocalico  Creek,  where 
he  was  joined  by  three  men  and  two  women. 
About  this  nucleus  a  community  was  formed,  com- 
posed mainly  of  Dunkers,  and  in  1733  a  conven- 
tual mode  of  life  was  formally  adopted;  buildings 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  members  were 
erected,  of  which  those  constructed  in  1746-47  are 
still  standing  (near  the  borough  limits  of  the  pres- 
ent town  of  Ephrata,  19  m,  s.w.  of  Reading).  They 
were  made  entirely  of  wood,  and  the  use  of  iron 


was  long  avoided  in  the  entire  life  of  the  commu- 
nity. The  sister  house  shows  the  method  of  con- 
struction, being  divided  into  some  fifty  cells,  each 
about  six  feet  long  by  five  wide,  containing  a  win- 
dow eighteen  inches  by  fourteen  and  a  door  sixty 
inches  by  twenty,  while  under  the  window  was  a 
bench  about  eighteen  inches  wide  upon  which  the 
occupant  slept  with  a  block  for  a  pillow.  The 
halls  were  so  narrow  that  they  permitted  the  pas- 
sage of  only  one  person  at  a  time.  The  walls  of 
the  Saal,  another  early  building,  are  still  hung  with 
charts,  illustrated  texts,  and  drawings  made  by  the 
inmates  in  the  early  days,  all  done  with  the  quill 
pen;  and  in  the  library  are  preserved  numuscript 
hymn-  and  tune-books  done  not  later  than  1750. 

The  community  was  organized  upon  a  basis  of 
voluntary  celibacy,  those  who  were  married  living 
apart.     In  the  neighborhood  gradually  gathered 
a  number  of  persons  who  accepted  the 
2.  Organ-  religious  principles  of  the  oommunity 
ization  and  except  those  of  celibacy  and  commu- 
Bootilnes.  nism.    Within    the    community    the 
members    assumed    monastic   names, 
and  the  founder  was  known  as  Friedsam  and  Gott- 
recht.    A  small  tract  of  land  was  acquired,  all  the 
work  on  which  was  done  by  the  members.     In 
1740  the  holding  of  property  by  individual  mem- 
bers was  declared  sinful,  and  all  who  joined  the 
community  were  required  to  surrender  all  they 
had  to  the  common  fund;  in  1786  this  regulation 
was    abolished.    The    religious    mysticism    which 
underlay  the  society  assumed  that  true  Christian- 
ity could  be  attained  only  by  overcoming  the  bonds 
of  the  flesh,  and  true  wisdom  was  to  be  sought  by 
union  with  the  celestial  Sophia.    Man  originally 
combined  in  one  perfect  being  the  male  and  the 
female  elements,  which  condition,  lost  at  the  Fall, 
is  to  be  regained  in  the  body  of  Christ.     To  the 
attainment  of  perfect  happiness  there  is  necessaiy 
right  living,  purity  of  life,  renunciation  of  self  and 
of   himian   love   and   marriage,    meditation,   and 
praise  of  Christ,  all  of  which  lead  to  the  mental 
state  where  the  celestial  male  and  female  elements 
shall  be  united.    The   New   Testament   was  ac- 
cepted as  the  bond  of  faith,  trine  baptism  was 
practised  with  the  laying  on  of  hands  while  the 
candidate  knelt  in  the  water,  the  Lord's  Supper 
was  celebrated  on  the  evening  of  the  Sabbath  to- 
gether with  washing  of  feet,  and  love-feasts  and 
night  services  were  held  as  occasion  demanded. 
The  conmiunity  was  opposed  to  the  taking  of  oaths 
and  to  bearing  arms,  though  the  buildings  were 
opened  as  a  refuge  after  fights  on  the  frontier,  and 
after  the  battle  of  Brandywine  the  place  served  as 
a  hospital  with  the  members  of  the  community  as 
nurses.    Compensation  from  the  British  govern- 
ment and  from  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  for  these 
services  was  refused  on  the  ground  that  it  would 
be  a  temptation  to  worldliness. 

By  1740  thirty-six  men  and  thirty-five  women 
had  united  with  the  society.  Its  largest  mem- 
bership is  given  as  300.  While  the  society 
regarded  agriculture  as  its  principal  business,  it 
possessed  the  second  printing-press  set  up  in  the 
State,  had  a  paper  mill,  and  also  saw  mills,  grist 
mills,  and  other  like  enterprises.    It  furnished  the 


187 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oomniiuilsiii 


paper,  and  is  believed  to  have  printed  and  bound 

a  part  of  the  edition  of  Christopher  Sower's  Bible, 

published  at  GermantoWn,  1743  (see 

8.  Growth  Sower,   Christopher).      The  school 

and        maintained  by  the  brethren  enjoyed  a 

I>ecUno.  high  reputation,  and  drew  students 
from  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  The 
community  was  celebrated  also  as  a  musical  center, 
and  the  founder  was  a  prolific  writer  of  hymns  and 
music.  His  GdUliche  Liebe  and  Lobesgetdne,  printed 
liy  Benjamin  Franklin  in  1730,  are  believed  to  be 
the  earliest  books  of  German  poetry  printed  as  na- 
tive productions  in  America. 

After  the  death  of  Beissel  in  1768  the  society  de- 
clined; and  in  1814  the  remaining  members  be- 
came incorporated  as  the  Seventh-day  Baptists, 
German,  receiving  authority  to  hold  the  land  and 
buildings  in  trust  for  religious  and  educational  pur- 
poses. Their  principles  and  practises  are  substan- 
tially those  of  the  Ephrata  Community,  with  the 
elimination  of  the  communistic  and  celibate  prin- 
ciples. They  have  congregations  in  the  counties 
of  Bedford,  Franklin,  Lancaster,  and  Somerset, 
Pennsylvania,  a  bishop  emeritus,  six  active  and 
two  retired  ministers,  and  about  250  members. 
They  possess  an  estate  of  110  acres,  and  the  total 
value  of  all  property  is  about  $100,000.  The  num- 
bers are  not  increasing,  and  in  1907  one  of  the 
churches  united  with  the  Seventh-day  Baptist  Gen- 
eral Conference.  W.  H.  Larrabee. 

Bibuoohapht:  Chronieon  Ephratenae:  a  HUL  of  Vis  Com' 
munity  of  StverUh  Day  BaptUta  at  Ephrata,  finished  in 
1786,  translated  by  J.  M.  Hark,  Lancaster.  Pa..  1880 
(carries  the  reader  to  the  death  of  the  founder);  C.  Nord- 
hoft,  Communiatie  Societies,  pp.  133-134.  New  York.  1876; 
O.  Setdeneticker,  in  The  Century  Magazine,  vol.  i.,  no.  1, 
1881;  S.  G.  Fisher.  The  Making  of  Pennaylvania,  Phila- 
delphia. 1806;  J.  F.  Sachse.  The  German  Sectariana  of 
Pennaylvania.  CriHeal  and  Legendary  Hiat,  of  the  Ephrata 
Cloiater  and  Oie  Dunkera,  Philadelphia,  1000;  W.  A.  Hinds. 
American  CommuniOea,  pp.  16-24.  Chicago.  1008;  A. 
H.  Lewis,  in  The  Sabbaih  Recorder,  Plainfield.  N.  J..  May 
and  June,  1006. 

6.  The  Harmony  Society:  Founded  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Indiana  by  Georg  Rapp  (q.v.),  who 
came  to  America  with  a  number  of  followers  from 
Warttembei^  in  1803.  Five  thousand  acres  of 
land  were  bought  in  Butler  County,  Pa.,  as  a  site 
for  a  settlement,  to  which  the  name  Harmony  was 
given.  Other  followers  of  Rapp  came  the  next 
year  and  the  organization  of  the  community  was 
completed  in  1805.  The  members  placed  their 
property  in  a  conmion  fund,  covenanted  to  labor 
for  the  good  of  the  community,  and  promised  to 
make  no  demand,  in  case  of  withdrawal  from  the 
society,  for  compensation  for  their  labor  or  that  of 
their  children.  In  1807  they  gave  up  marriage; 
in  1818  they  renounced  the  right  of  receiving  back 
their  original  contributions  in  case  of  withdrawal, 
and  the  records  of  these  contributions  were  burned. 

The  site  of  the  colony  proving  unsuitable  in 
some  respects,  30,000  acres  of  land  were  bought  in 
Poeey  County,  Ind.,  in  1814  and  a  new  settle- 
ment was  founded.  Agricultural  and  manufactur- 
ing enterprises  were  undertaken  on  a  liberal  scale, 
and  a  considerable  trade  was  built  up.  But  un- 
pleasant conditions  developed,  and  the  property 
was  sold  in  1824  to  Robert  Owen  (q.v.),  who  es- 


tablished another  conmiunity  upon  it.  Rapp  and 
his  associates  returned  to  Pennsylvania,  and  set- 
tled at  Economy,  on  the  Ohio  River  (17  m.  n.w.  of 
Pittsburg),  which  remained  the  home  of  the  com- 
munity during  the  rest  of  its  existence.  In  1832 
the  society  suffered  severe  loss  by  the  withdrawal 
of  250  members  following  a  disaffected  leader, 
whose  claims  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  satisfy 
by  the  payment  of  upward  of  $100,000. 

While  they  were  without  any  religious  organiza- 
tion separate  from  their  community  and  had  no 
written  creed  except  the  Bible,  the  Harmonists 
made  the  salvation  of  their  souls  their  supreme 
object.  They  believed  that  Adam  was  created 
in  the  likeness  of  God,  androgynous;  that  he  be- 
came discontented  when  God  separated  the  female 
part  from  him,  and  this  was  the  fall  of  man;  that 
the  celibate  state  is  the  more  pleasing  to  God;  that 
in  the  renewed  world  man  will  be  restored  to  the 
dual  Godlike  and  Adamic  condition;  that  Jesus 
was  bom  in  the  likeness  of  the  Father,  a  dual  be- 
ing, and  taught  and  commanded  a  community  of 
goods.  A  cardinal  point  of  their  doctrine  was  that 
the  coming  of  Christ  and  the  regeneration  of  the 
world  were  near  at  hand;  and  one  of  their  aims 
was  to  be  in  readiness  for  the  event.  All  who 
sought  admission  to  the  society  were  required  to 
make  a  complete  confession  of  sins  to  one  of  the 
elders. 

The  society  declined  rapidly  during  the  later 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1890  the 
United  States  Census  gave  the  number  of  members 
as  250;  in  1900  there  were  nine.  After  a  period  of 
financial  strain,  of  lawsuits  brought  by  seceding 
members,  which  were  decided  in  the  society's  favor 
in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  their 
property  was  sold  in  Apr.,  1903. 

W.  H.  Larrabeb. 

BiBUOoaAPHT:  W.  A.  Hinda,  American  Communitiea,  pp. 
6(M»,  Chicago,  1906;  A.  Williams,  The  Harmony  Soei^ 
ety  at  Economy,  Pa.,  Pittoburg,  1866;  C.  NordhoflF.  Com^ 
muniatic  Societiaa,  New  York.  1875;  G.  B.  Lockwood. 
New  Harmony  Communiiiea,  Marion,  Ind.,  1902;  W.  O. 
Davis.  The  Paaaing  of  the  Rappiata,  in  Ounion'a  Magaaine, 
XXV  (1003),  20  sqq.;  J.  A.  Bole.  Thci  Harmony  Society, 
Philadelphia,  1904;  F.  Podmore,  Robert  Oven;  a  Bi- 
ography, 2  vols..  New  York,  1907. 

7.  Icarla  and  New  Icazla:  A  society  formed  in 
1848  by  French  immigrants  who  settled  in  Texas 
under  the  leadership  of  £tienne  Cabet,  a  French 
revolutionary  agitator  connected  with  the  society 
of  the  Carbonari,  author  of  several  historical  and 
socialistic  works,  and  a  member  of  the  French  As- 
sembly of  1831.  His  radical  utterance  against  the 
French  king  and  ministry  led  to  his  expulsion 
from  France,  but,  in  1840,  he  returned  and  gained 
many  thousand  adherents  to  his  socialistic  theories 
through  his  fanciful  descriptions  in  Le  Voyage  en 
Icarie  (Paris,  1842)  of  an  ideal  society  in  which  all 
class  distinctions  were  abolished  and  equality  pre- 
vailed, and  through  their  promulgation  in  the 
journal  Le  Populaire.  In  1848  he  purchased  land 
in  Texas  for  the  purposes  of  a  colony.  The  coun- 
try being  wild  and  practically  inaccessible,  it  proved 
unfit  for  the  purpose.  Homes  were  procured  for 
the  baffled  and  disappointed  immigrants,  several 
hundred  in  niunber,  who  had  suffered  great  hardships 


ll'l^^^ia^ntlMWft 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HER20G 


188 


in  fruitless  efforts  to  establish  themselves  on  this 
site,  in  Nauvoo,  111.,  then  recently  abandoned 
by  the  Mormons  (q.v.).  The  society  was  afflicted 
with  dissensions  that  resulted  in  several  secessions 
and  the  founding  of  new  colonies,  which  had  only 
short  lives. 

The  conmiunity  at  Nauvoo  removed  to  Iowa  in 
1860,  and  was  again  involved  in  a  controversy  in 
which  legal  measures  were  employed.  By  a  set- 
tlement in  1879,  one  of  the  parties  remained  on  the 
site  and  retained  the  name,  Icaria;  while  the  other 
formed  a  new  settlement,  named  New  Icaria,  on 
the  Nodaway  River.  The  older  colony  lived  only  a 
short  time;  while  the  community  of  New  Icaria 
existed  till  1895,  when  it  wsa  dissolved  by  the  unan- 
imous vote  of  the  twenty-three  remaining  mem- 
bers. 

The  Icarian  Community  was  organised  without 
any  religious  basis.  Complete  tolerance  was  given 
to  individual  opinion  in  matters  of  religion  so  long 
as  its  expression  did  not  provoke  dissension.  The 
society  was  a  pure  democracy,  in  which  a  com- 
plete community  of  goods  was  contemplated.  Di- 
rection wa£  vested  in  a  general  assembly  of  all  the 
members,  whose  decisions  were  carried  into  effect 
through  officers  elected  annually.  Transgressions 
of  the  principles,  laws,  and  regulations  of  the  com- 
mimity  were  punished  by  public  censure,  depriva- 
tion of  civil  rights,  or  exclusion  of  the  transgressor, 
according  to  the  gravity  of  the  offense. 

W.  H.  Larrabsb. 
BtBLiooBAFHT:  W.  A.  HincU,  Ameriean  CommuniHeM,  pp. 
361-306.  Chicago.  1906;  C.  Nordhoff.  CommunitUe  Sa- 
cieiiM,  New  York,  1875;  A.  Shaw,  Icaria.  A  CAapfar  in 
i)u  Hiat.  of  Commuftiam,  ib.  1884;  J.  Pnidhommeaux, 
loarit  €i  ton  fondateiw  Btienns  Cabet,  Paris,  1907  (a  large 
Tolume  of  more  than  700  pages). 

8.  The  Porfeotlonists  or  Oneida  Oommiinity: 
Founded  in  1846  by  John  Humphrey  Noyes  (b.  at 
Brattleboro,  Vt.,  Sept.  6,  1811;  d.  at  Niagara  flails, 
Canada,  Apr.  13,  1886).  He  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1830,  studied  theology  at 
Andover  and  Yale,  and  was  licensed  as  a  Congre- 
gationalist  minister  about  1833.  Avowing  a  belief 
that  the  second  coming  of  Christ  had  occurred  with- 
in a  generation  and  professing  the  doctrine  of  Per- 
fectionism (q.v.),  he  withdrew  from  the  ministry 
and  retired  to  his  home  in  Putney,  Vt.  There  he 
established  a  Bible  class,  which  grew  into  an  asso- 
ciation of  Perfectionists  and  was  organised  in  1845 
into  the  Putney  Corporation.  Adverse  public 
opinion  gradually  developed  especially  against  its 
views  respecting  marriage.  In  Nov.,  1847,  Noyes 
and  other  members  withdrew  and  with  new  re- 
cruits settled  in  Central  New  York,  where,  in  Sept., 
1848,  a  new  community  was  formed,  "  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  kingdom  on  the  principles  of 
heavenly  association,"  of  which  the  renunciation 
of  any  claim  to  private  property  was  one.  The 
remainder  of  the  Putney  community  joined  them 
in  June,  1849.  Besides  the  main  community  at 
Oneida,  N.  Y.,  six  branch  societies  were  main- 
tained for  a  time,  but  all  these  were  eventually 
given  up  except  one  at  Wallingford,  Conn.  Agri- 
cultural and  small  manufacturing  industries  were 
carried  on,  and  the  products  of  the  community 
acquired  a  wide  reputation  for  excellence. 


The  Perfectionists  had  a  peculiar  theory  of  the 
sexual  relations  which  they  called  complex  mar- 
riage, and  the  marriage  contract  was  regarded  as  i 
an  affair  of  the  community.  Couples  were  united 
temporarily  according  to  their  preferences  under 
the  supervision  of  the  society,  but  a  permanent 
exclusive  attachment  of  one  person  to  another  was 
regarded  as  wrong.  Children  who  had  reached  an 
age  to  bear  separation  from  the  mother  were  put 
into  the  children's  house  to  be  cared  for  by  nurses 
during  the  day  and  returned  to  their  mothers  at 
night;  later  they  were  passed  to  a  second  depart- 
ment, and  the  mother  resumed  her  place  in  the 
household.  A  unique  feature  of  the  society  was 
a  system  of  mutual^criticism  to  which  all  were  sub- 
ject, and  in  which  all  might  take  part.  This  con- 
stituted the  principal  means  of  discipline  and  gov- 
ernment. 

The  pressure  of  public  opinion  against  the  doc- 
trines and  practises  of  the  Oneida  Community  be- 
came so  strong  that  the  community  yielded  and 
gave  up  the  system  of  complex  marriage  in  1880. 
Finally,  Jan.  1,  1881,  the  community  organization 
was  dissolved  and  the  society  was  converted  into 
a  joint  stock  company.  The  Oneida  Community 
was  exceptionally  well  managed  and  enjoyed  a 
prosperity  and  harmony  seldom  found  in  such  en- 
terprises. At  the  time  of  dissolution  there  were 
306  members  at  Oneida  and  Wallingford  and  the 
new  company  started  with  a  paid  up  capital  of 
$600,000.  The  present  capital  stock  is  $1,200,000 
held  by  about  250  stockholders,  of  whom  not  far 
from  120  are  connected  with  the  factories  or  offices 
of  the  company.  Employment  is  given  to  some 
800  people  in  addition  to  the  resident  stockholders. 

W.  H.  Labbabee. 

Bibuooraprt:  For  history  oonault  W.  A.  Hinds,  Ameriean 
CommuniHea,  pp.  181-231.  Chicago,  1906;  C.  Nordboff. 
CommunitHe  Sociefiet,  New  York.  1875;  J.  H.  Nor«s. 
HiML  of  American  Soeialieme,  Philadelphia,  1870;  A.  Est- 
lake.  The  Oneida  Community,  London,  1000;  H.  Dixon. 
New  America,  London.  1867  (a  criticism  to  which  Mr. 
Noyes  replied  in  Dixon  and  hie  Copyiete,  Oneida,  1871); 
J.  H.  Noyes,  Handbook  of  the  Oneida  Community,  Ondda. 
1871.  The  doctrines  of  the  community  appear  in  the 
writings  of  Noyes— 7%«  Perf«*ioniei,  Putney,  Vt.,  1843- 
1846;  The  Berean,  ib.  1847;  Religioue  Bxperieneea,  1850: 
On  SdenUfie  Propagation,  1873.  From  1854  to  1874  the 
organ  of  the  community  was  The  Ciradar. 

9.  The  Separatists:  A  society  of  German  origin, 
which  settled  in  Zoar,  Tuscarawas  County,  0., 
1817-19.  The  movement  gathered  first  in  Wurt- 
temberg  around  Barbara  Grubermann,  a  Swiss 
refugee  to  Germany,  whom  those  who  seiiarated 
from  the  German  State  Church  (whence  the  name) 
accepted  as  their  leader.  On  her  death  Joseph 
Baumeler  (Bimeler;  d.  1853)  became  the  head  of 
the  movement,  and,  securing  the  aid  of  some  Eng- 
lish Quakers  in  the  persecution  which  followed,  led 
the  emigration  of  his  followers  to  the  United  States. 
The  first  intention  was  not  to  adopt  the  commu- 
nistic principles,  but  the  diversity  of  station  among 
the  members  and  the  great  inequality  of  meims 
seemed  to  make  this  necessary.  Marriage  was  dis- 
couraged in  the  beginning,  but  was  adopted  a  few 
years  later.  The  society  reached  its  largest  mem- 
bership about  1832  through  immigration  from  Ger- 
many, when  it  numbered  about  500  persons.    The 


189 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oommunlsm 


original  enthusiasm  continually  declined  and  the 
society  was  finally  dissolved.  On  Sept.  13,  1898, 
the  property  was  allotted  to  the  remaining  mem- 
bers, 222  in  number. 

The  articles  of  faith  of  the  Separatists  embraced 
belief  in  the  Trinity,  the  fall  of  man,  return  through 
Christ  to  God  the  Father,  and  recognition  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  as  the  ultimate  authority.  All 
ceremonies  were  rejected,  all  ecclesiastical  con- 
nections and  constitutions  were  repudiated,  and 
such  signs  of  respect  as  uncovering  the  head,  bend- 
ing the  knee,  and  the  distinctions  of  courtesy  in 
forms  of  address  were  refused  as  according  to  mor- 
tals honors  which  were  due  to  God.  Members  were 
of  two  classes.  Minors  and  those  who  had  not  signed 
the  covenant  constituted  the  first  class,  and  were 
eligible  to  full  membership  on  coming  of  age  or 
after  a  year's  delay  following  application.  The 
candidate  for  the  second  class  or  full  membership 
signed  a  covenant  giving  up  all  his  property,  his 
present  and  prospective  rights,  titles,  and  posses- 
sions, to  the  society  forever,  and  obligated  himself 
to  give  obedience  to  the  trustees.  In  the  early 
period  of  the  society  the  children  were  under  the 
care  of  the  trustees;  but  later  they  were  left  with 
their  parents.  The  government  of  the  conununity 
was  vested  in  a  standing  committee  of  five  members, 
under  whom  a  board  of  three  trustees  directed 
business  affairs.  W.  H.  Larrabee. 

Bibliograpbt:  E.  O.  R*ndall,  Hitt.  of  the  Zoar  Society, 
Columbus,  Om  1809;  C.  Nordhoff,  Communietic  Societiea, 
New  York,  1875;  W.  A.  Hinds,  American  CommuniHeat 
pp.  90-131,  Chicago,  1008.  The  society  issued  Baumeler's 
Works  in  three  voiumes,  regarded  as  inspired,  and  also 
collections  of  hymns  by  Barbara  Grubermann  and  Baumeler. 

10.  The  Shakers  or  the  Killennial  Ohurch:  A 
body  of  believers  living  in  communistic  celibacy, 
who  hold  their  founder,  Ann  Lee  (q.v.),  to  have 
been  a  prophetess  inspired  by  God,  and  the  doc- 
trines which  she  taught  to  be  divine  revelations. 
Their  origin  is  connected  with  a  revival  that  fol- 
lowed the  demonstrations  of  the  so-called  French 
Prophets  in  England  (see  French  Prophets),  who 
exhibited  under  religious  excitement  marked  phys- 
ical manifestations.     Some  members  of  the  Society 
of  Friends  in  Manchester,  England,  of  whom  James 
and    Jane    Wardley  were    the    most 
1.  Origin    prominent,  came  under  the  influence 
and  Barly  of  the  revival,    and    were  joined  by 
History.    Ann  Lee  and  her  parents.     From  their 
movements  under  religious  excitement 
these  people  were  called  "  Shaking  Quakers ''  or 
"  Shakers."    They  were  subjected  to  persecution, 
and  the  leader   and   some  of  the  members  were 
imprisoned.     On   Jan.  5,  1762,   Ann  Lee  married 
Abraham  Standerin,  a  blacksmith,  and  became  the 
mother  of  four  children  who  died  in  infancy.     She 
then  learned  that  celibacy  was  the  holy  state,  for 
proclaiming    which     doctrine    she    was    sent    to 
jail,  where,   in    1770,   she  experienced    a    vision 
of  Jesus  Christ,   in  which  she  claimed   to   have 
TH^ived  a  revelation  "  of  Christ's  kingdom   and 
glory,   of   man's   loss,   and   the  way  of   redemp- 
tion/'   From  that  time  she    was    acknowledged 
as  a  mother  in  Christ  and  called  ''Mother  Ann." 
In  obedience   to   one   of   these   revelations,  she 


came  to  America  in  1774,  with  a  few  other  mem- 
bers of  the  society.  The  band  supported  them- 
selves by  labor  for  two  years,  and  then  settled 
in  Niskeyima,  now  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  They  at- 
tracted much  attention,  and  prejudices  were  aroused 
against  them,  under  the  influence  of  which  they 
were  imprisoned,  but  were  released  by  Governor 
George  Clinton.  A  revival  in  the  Baptist  Churches 
of  the  vicinity  brought  additions  to  their  number. 
Through  numerous  visitors  from  New  York  and 
the  New  England  States  to  the  settlement  knowl- 
edge of  Shaker  doctrine  was  widely  spread.  Mother 
Ann,  with  five  other  members  of  the  society,  made 
a  journey  through  New  England  of  more  than  two 
years'  duration,  preaching  and  prophesying,  but 
not  without  many  trials  and  sufferings.  After  her 
death  in  1784  she  was  succeeded  by  James  Whit- 
taker,  under  whom  the  first  Shaker  meeting-house 
was  built,  at  Mt.  Lebanon,  N.  Y.;  and  he  in  1787 
by  Joseph  Meacham,  followed  by  Lucy  Wright  (d. 
1821),  who  were  all  active  in  founding  other  soci- 
eties in  New  England,  New  York,  and  the  West. 
These  new  communities  were  generally  the  fruits 
of  revivals,  upon  which  the  Shakers  laid  great 
stress.  They  were  actively  interested  in  the  great 
revival  in  Kentucky  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  James  Meacham  with  two  com- 
panions set  out  on  a  missionary  journey  from  Mt. 
Lebanon  Jan.  8, 1805,  and  traveled  on  foot  to  Leb- 
anon, O.;  thence  into  Indiana  and  Kentucky,  where 
several  societies  were  formed. 

According  to  one  of  its  books,  the  Shaker  Church 
rests  upon  the  principles  of  virginal  purity,  Chris- 
tian communism,  and  separation  from  the  world. 
It  holds  that  God  is  a  duality,  male  and  female; 
that  Adam  was  dual,  having  been  created  in  God's 
image;  that  all  spirits  are  also  dualities,  male  and 
female;  and  that  Christ  is  the  highest 
8.  Doctrines,  of  spirits,  appearing  first  in  the  per- 
son of  Jesus,  representing  the  male, 
and  later  in  the  person  of  Ann  Lee,  representing 
the  female  element  of  God.  It  teaches  that  the 
religious  history  of  mankind  is  divided  into  four 
cycles,  which  are  also  represented  in  the  spirit- 
world,  each  of  which  has  its  appropriate  heaven 
and  hell.  The  first  cycle  included  the  antedilu- 
vians; the  second,  the  Jews  up  to  the  coming  of 
Jesus;  the  third,  those  who  lived  up  to  the  appear- 
ance of  Ann  Lee;  and  the  fourth  and  last  is  the 
present  dispensation,  the  heaven  of  which  is  in 
process  of  formation  and  will  supersede  all  other 
heavens.  The  Shaker  Church  is,  therefore,  the 
Church  of  the  last  dispensation;  and  its  establish- 
ment marks  the  dawn  of  the  day  of  judgment,  or 
the  beginning  of  Christ's  kingdom  on  earth.  It  is 
held,  further,  that  the  Pentecostal  Church  was  es- 
tablished on  right  principles,  that  the  Christian 
Chiutshes  rapidly  and  fatally  fell  away  from  it,  and 
that  the  Shakers  have  returned  to  this  perfect  doc- 
trine and  practise.  The  Shakers  reject  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Trinity,  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
and  of  the  atonement.  They  consider  Jesus  and 
Ann  Lee  elders  of  the  Church,  to  be  respected  and 
loved,  but  not  objects  of  worship.  They  are  spir- 
itualists, believing  fully  in  the  reality  of  spiritual- 
istic communications. 


CornxDJUiiMBi 
OomparatiTe  Belifflon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


190 


There   are   three   orders   of   membership.    The 
first,  the  novitiate  or  outer  order,  consists  of  those 
who  receive  the  faith,  but  choose  to  live  in  their 
own  families.     The  second  or  junior 
3.  Oryan-  order  is  composed  of  those  who,  being 
ixation  and  under  no  charges  or  bonds  to  prevent 
OoTam-     their  living  in  community,  choose  to 
la^sit-       enjoy  the  benefits  of  that  situation 
without  entering   into   full   membei^ 
■hip.     They   retain   the   title   to  their   property, 
though  they  may  give  the  use  of  it  for  the  time  to 
the  family.    The  third  order  is  made  up  of  those 
who  become  full  members  and  dedicate  themselves 
permanently  to  the  society.    Should  such  mem- 
bers afterward  withdraw,  they  take  nothing  away 
as  a  matter  of  right,  but  in  practise  "  no  person 
who  withdraws  peaceably  is  sent  away  empty." 
The  government  of  the  community  is  vested  in  a 
ministry  composed  of  four  elders,  two  of  each  sex. 
Of  the  several  ministries,  that  of  Mt.  Lebanon, 
N.  Y.,  is  recognized  as  the  central  executive  of  all 
the  societies.     Subordinate  to  the  ministry  are  two 
male  and  two  female  elders  in  every  fully  organized 
eommimity  or  family  in  each  society,  having  charge 
of  its  spiritual  affairs,  and  two  deacons  and  two 
deaconesses  subordinate  to  the  elders  and  having 
charge  of  the  temporal  concerns.     A  Shaker  village 
usually  includes  two  or  more  families  of  thirty  or 
forty  persons  each,  living  in  unitary  houses,  hav- 
ing their  own   households,  and  being 
A  Tt^Uffi^n^  independent  in  domestic  affairs. 
Servloas.       The  religious  service    includes  ad- 
Freaent    dresses,   singing  of   hynms   and    an- 
Btatus.     thems,    and    a    characteristic  rhjrth- 
mical  marching,  accompanied  by  other 
movements,  in  which  all  take  part.     These  ex- 
ercises are  supposed  to  be  a  survival  of  move- 


ments characteristic  of  the  founders  of  the  society. 
The  Shakers  had  at  one  time  eighteen  societies. 
The  present  number  is  fifteen,  with  about  twenty- 
five  families  and  about  1,000  members.  No  exact 
evaluation  of  their  property  has  ever  been  made, 
but  it  is  believed  to  be  worth  between  $3,000,000 
and  $5,000,000.  W.  H.  Lareiabeel 

Biblxooeapht:  For  list  of  Shaker  literature  consult  J.  P. 
MacLean,  A  BihUograjihy  of  Shaker  LUeralure,  Columbufi, 
O..  1005.  For  the  history  consult:  H.  Elkins,  Fifteen 
YeoTB  in  th*  Senior  Order  of  Shaker;  Hanover,  N.  H., 
1853;  F.  W.  Evana.  Compendium  of  the  Oriffin^  Hietary, 
Frindflu,  .  ,  .  of  the  United  Society  of  Believere  in 
Chritl^e  Second  Appearing,  New  York.  1853;  C.  E.  Robin- 
eon,  Coneiee  Hi$t.  of  the  .  .  .  Shakere,  E.  Canterbury'. 
N.  H..  1803;  W.  A.  Hinds,  American  Commwniiiee,  pp. 
32-68.  Chicaco,  1008;  Anna  White  and  Leila  8.  Taylor. 
^iokeriem^  He  Meaning  and  Meeeage,  Columbus.  O.. 
1004.  For  the  doctrines  and  practises  consult:  F.  W. 
Evans,  ut  sup.;  idem,  Second  Appearing  of  Chriet,  Bos- 
ton, 1853;  idem.  Teste  of  Divine  IneptraHon^  New  Lebanon, 
1853;  idem,  Cetibacy  from  the  Shaker  Standpoint,  New 
Lebanon,  1866;  idem.  Shaker  Communiem,  London,  1871; 
Testimony  of  ChrieVe  Second  Appearing,  4th  ed.,  Albany. 
1856;  H.  L.  Eads,  Shaker  Sermone  [Lebanon.  N.  Y.]. 
1870. 

BiBUOORAPHT  of  the  general  subject:  Besides  the  works  of 
Nordhoff,  J.  H.  Noyes.  and  W.  A.  Hinds,  mentioned  under 
the  societies  above,  sll  of  which  deal  more  or  less  with 
general  features,  consult:  H.  A.  James,  Com$nuniem  in 
America,  New  York,  1870;  V.  Steocanella,  Del  Comunie- 
mo,  Rome,  1882;  L.  Felix.  Bntwiekelunoeo^thiehte  dee 
Eigentume,  Leipsic,  1883;  M.  Kaufmann,  Sodaliem  and 
Communism,  London,  1883;  E.  de  Laveleye,  Le  Soda- 
lisme  ooniemporain,  Paris,  1888;  D.  Boigstrdm,  Kom- 
muniam  och  Sodaliem,  Stockholm.  1800;  A.Hauck,  DerKomk- 
muniamue  im  chritaidien  Oevoande,  Leipsic,  1801;  B- 
Malon,  Le  Socialieme  integral,  Paris,  1803;  R.  Pohlmann, 
Geediichte  dee  antiken  Kommuniemue  und  Socialiemu*, 
2  vols..  Munich,  1803-1001;  K.  Kautsky,  Communism  in 
Central  Europe  at  Oie  Time  of  A«  Reformation,  London, 
1807;  M.  von  Nathusius,  Die  Mitarbeit  der  Kirche  an  der 
Ldeung  der  sosialen  Frage,  Leipsic,  1807.  Phases  of  the 
subject  are  treated  under  Chbibtzan  SodAUSM  and 
Socialism. 


I.  Definition  and  Names. 
U.  History  of  the  Discipline. 

Reasons  for  Its  Recent  Origin  (|  1 ). 
Prejudice  Peculiarly  Potent  (|  2). 
Preparatory  Work  (|  3). 
Max  Mailer  and   Recent  Develop- 
ments (I  4). 

III.  Aim  and  Scope. 

IV.  The  Methods  Employed. 
V.  The  Auxiliary  Sciences. 

The  Method  of  History  (|  1). 
The  Facts  of  History  (|  2). 
Comparative  Mythology  and  Folk- 
lore (I  3). 
Other  Allies  (|  4). 
VI.  The  Results. 
1.  In  Primitive  Religion, 
a.  Primitive  Religion  in  the  Psycho- 
logical Sphere. 

1  Defined  (|  1). 


COMPARATIVE  RELIGION. 

Idea  of  Soul,  how  Obtained  (|  2). 

Anthropomorphic     Conception      of 
Causation  (|  3). 

Incipient  Dualism  (|  4). 

Magic — Natural,   Mimetic,    Sympa- 
thetic (I  5). 

Metempsychosis  (|  6). 

Myth  Defined  (|  7). 

Explanations  of  Myth  (|  8). 
b.  Primitive    Religion    in    the  Social 
Sphere. 

Kinship  (|  1). 

Totemism  Defined  (|  2). 

Marks  of  Totemism  (|  3). 

Its  Supposed  Origin  (|  4). 

Its  Ritual;  the  Mysteries  (|  6). 

Blood-Brotherhood  (|  6). 
o.  Primitive    Religion  in  the  Ethical 
Sphere. 

Things  Taboo  (|  1). 


Charaetariaties  of  Taboo  (|  2). 
Penalties    of    Breaoh  of  Taboo 
(13). 
d.  Primitive  Religion  in  the  Sphere 
of  Cult. 
Communal  Sacrifice  (|  1). 
Honorific  Sacrifice  (|  2). 
Piacular  Sacrifice  (|  3). 
Human  Sacrifice  (|  4). 
2.  In  National  and  Universal  Relig- 
ions. 

a.  Dependence  on  Tribal  ReligioiL 

b.  Common  Features. 
Psychological  (|  I). 
Social  (I  2). 
Ethical  (I  3). 
Cultic  (I  4). 

o.  Modifications  Due  to  Ethnic  or 

Local  Differences, 
d.  Parallel  Lines  of  Developmeni. 


I.  Definition  and  Names:  Scientifically  con- 
sidered, "  Comparative  Religion  "  is  the  second  of 
three  stages  of  study — the  History,  Comparison, 
and  Philosophy  of  Religion;  but  because  of  the 
newness  of  the  discipline  and  because  the  collec- 
tion of  data  is  still  in  progress,  the  term  as  popu- 
larly employed  includes  all  three  stages,  and  this 
usage  is,  for  the  time  at  least,  justified  by  the  state 
of  the  science.  Other  phrases  have  indeed  been 
proposed  as  substitutes,  among  which  the  most 


fitting  is  "The  Science  of  Religion" — a  name 
against  which  three  objections  are  urged:  (1)  the 
other  term  is  now  in  possession,  and  popular  usage 
in  language  is  conservative;  (2)  rigid  scientists 
affirm  that  for  the  present  stage  the  term  "  science  " 
is  too  ambitious;  (3)  religionists  shrink  from  ad- 
mitting that  the  rigorous  methods  of  investigation 
implied  by  "  science  "  may  be  applied  in  the  sacred 
sphere  of  religion.  To  these  objections  the  reply 
may  be  made  that  "science"  does  not  imply 


191 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oommunlsm 
OoxnpcuratlTe  Beliglon 


knowledge  completed,  but  only  knowledge  verified 
and  systematized  so  far  as  the  state  of  learning 
permits.  To  the  third  objection  it  must  be  op- 
posed that  science  admits  no  bar  to  its  investiga- 
tion. It  claims  all  spheres  as  rightly  its  own  and 
is  not  deterred  by  the  charge  of  irreverence:  in- 
deed, its  only  reverence  is  for  verified  fact,  before 
which  alone  it  bows.  Hence  the  time  is  near  when 
the  expression  "  Science  of  Religion ''  may  be  ad- 
mitted, and  when  the  entry  of  the  scientific  method 
into  religious  inquiry  will  be  not  only  permitted, 
but  privileged.  The  term  "  Comparative  Re- 
ligion "  is  employed  in  this  article  as  best  express- 
ing the  conmion  conception  of  what  is  here  to  be 
discussed. 

n.  History  of  the  Discipline :    This  discipline  is 
comparatively   new.     Max   MUller  remarked   just 
before  his  death  that  within  his  own  recollection 
the  "  Histoiy  of  Religion  "  (Religionsgeschichte)  em- 
braced  only   Christianity   and   Judaism    (LiUelVa 
Living  Age,  Dec.  31,  1898).     The  religions  of  Greece 
and   Rome    were    classed    as    "  superstition "    or 
"mythology,"  and  other  religions  were  practically 
unknown.     For  centuries,  up  to  the 
I.  Reasons  Elizabethan  era,  the  only  other  faith 
for  its       within  the  ken  of  Christians  was  Mo- 
Recent      hanmiedanism,   and  candid   or  sym- 
Origin.      pathetic  examination  of  the  faith  of 
the  other  by  the  adherents  of  either 
was  precluded  by  the  antagonism  engendered  by 
centuries    of    wsurfare.     Before    Comparative    Re- 
ligion could  come  into  being,  two  things  were  neces- 
sary: the  existence  of  many  faiths  had  to  become 
known,  and  recognized  as  religion.    For  the  first,  the 
age  of  travel  and  discovery  begun  by  the  fifteenth 
centiuy  was  necessary;  for  the  second,  a  process  of 
education  in  candor  and  a  grounding  in  the  his- 
torical method  were  essential.     Lack  of  informa- 
tion and  prejudice  were  the  two  barriers  against 
the  new  science,  and  the  second  was  the  more  diffi- 
cult to  surmount.     Three  centuries  were  occupied 
in  the  collection  of  data  the  importance  of  which 
was  of  course  at  the  time  unrecognized;  even  the 
direction  in  which  it  bore  was  unnoted.     For  the 
discovery  of  the  pertinence  of  this  body  of  facts  to 
religious   inquiry  further  illumination  was  needed 
which  came  only  in  the  nineteenth  century  in  the 
discovery  of  some  of  the  ethnic  sacred  books  and 
in  the  growth  of  the  science  of  anthropology. 

To  discern  the  nature  and  difficulty  of  the  ob- 
stacle interx)06ed  by  prejudice  is  not  easy  in  this 
more  tolerant  age.     It  is  easy  to  forget  that  the 
native  attitude  of  religion  is  exclusive  and  intoler- 
ant.   When  some  Christians  could  declare  of  others 
that  the  latter  were  "  unregenerate  "  and  could  do 
no  good  thing,  and  that,  if  they  could,  it  could  not 
be  pleasing  to  deity,  other  faiths  could  scarcely  be 
judged  on  their  merits.    This  attitude  of  Chris- 
tianity toward   other   religions   may 
2.  Preju-  be  illustrated  by  two  examples:  (1)  by 
dice  Pecul-  the  naive  explanation  given  by  Ro- 
iariy        man  Catholic  missionaries  of  monas- 
Potent.      ticism,  the  mass,  the  rosary,  and  like 
parallels  of  Catholic  practise  found  in 
non-Christian   lands — ^they  were  the  mocking  de- 
vices of  the  devil;  (2)  by  the  curt  censure  admin- 


istered by  Franke  to  the  pioneer  missionary  Zie- 
genbalg,  who  had  sent  home  a  book  on  the  Hindu 
faiths:  "  You  were  not  sent  to  India  to  study  Hin- 
duism, but  to  preach  the  Gospel."  Further,  this 
attitude  of  contempt  and  scorn  was  changed  into 
something  like  hate  when  it  was  discovered  that 
many  of  the  claims  put  forward  for  Christianity 
were  duplicated  by  "  blasphemous  "  claims  for  the 
other  faiths.  Thus  each  of  the  "  book  religions  " 
claims  inspiration  for  its  scriptures.  It  then  seemed 
that  such  claims  must  either  be  unqualifiedly  de- 
nied or  the  inspiration  of  the  Christian  Bible  be 
given  up.  The  unscriptural  dogma  that  the  voice 
of  God  was  heard  for  only  a  few  centuries  and  only 
in  a  limited  area  closed  the  ear  and  the  eye  of  Chris- 
tianity to  testimony  that  he  had  spoken  to  others 
than  the  chosen  people  in  lands  other  than  the 
"  Holy  Land."  Hence  the  view  concerning  other 
religions  entertained  by  Christians  is  well  expressed 
in  the  title  of  more  than  one  book  or  chapter  on 
religion — "  The  True  Religion  and  the  False  Re- 
ligions." 

Comparative  Religion  in  its  original  phase  is  an 
outcome  of  Comparative  Linguistics.  Two  events 
precipitated  the  formation  of  the  discipline:  first, 
the  opening  of  India  with  the  learning  of  Sanskrit 
and  the  discovery  of  the  Vedas  and  other  literature 
of  the  country;  second,  the  (somewhat  earlier) 
finding  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  resulting  in  the  dis- 
covery that  Hindus,  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans, 
Teutons,  Slavs,  and  Celts  spoke  languages  which 
were  akin.  This  led  to  the  knowledge  that  these 
peoples  had  gods  who  were  related  and  had  inspired 
faiths  which  were  not  unlike.  Comparative  Lin- 
guistics led  to  Comparative  Mythology,  and  the 
step  to  Comparative  Religion  then  became  easy  and 
short.  The  man  to  whom  more  than  to  any  other 
the  praise  is  due  for  leading  the  way  to  this  result 
is  the  famous  Oxford  professor  already  mentioned, 
F.  Max  MtiUer. 

In  thus  giving  the  chief  meed  of  praise  to  the 
celebrated  Sanskritist,  no  injustice  is  intended  or 
done  to  those  who  preceded  him.  All  great  dis- 
coveries have  their  adumbrations.  The  gestation 
of  the  science  of  religion  was  a  long  one.  The  Re- 
ligions of  the  World  (London,  1653),  by  Alexander 
Ross,  was  a  prophecy  of  coming  interest  in  the  non- 
Christian  faiths,  though  to  the  author  they  were 
still  "  false  "  religions.  B.  Picart  and  J.  F.  Ber- 
nard {C&^monies  et  cotUumes  de  tous  les  peuplea 
du  monde,  9  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1723^3,  partly 
translated  in  Ceremonies  and  Religious  Customs  of 
the  .  ,  .  World,  6  vols.,  London,  1733-^34)  dis- 
covered in  other  religions  the  degenerate  descend- 
ants of  a  pure  primitive  faith — the  comparative 
method  began  here.  J.  G.  von  Hei^ 
3.  Prepara-  der  {Ideen  zur  Philosophie  der  Ge- 
tory  Work,  schichte,  4  parts,  Leipsic,  1784-91) 
laid  a  broader  basis  in  a  sort  of  an- 
thropology which  was  to  concatenate  mankind  and 
his  faiths.  C.  Meiners  (Grundriss  der  Geschichte 
oiler  Religionen,  Lemgo,  1785,  and  AUgemeine  kri- 
tische  Geschichte  der  Religionen,  2  vols.,  Hanover, 
1806-07)  proved  that  the  historical  spirit  as 
against  the  dogmatic  had  entered  the  sphere  of  re- 
ligious investigation.    Charles  Dupuis  {Origine  de 


CtomparatlTa  Selisrlon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


192 


tou8  les  euUe8,  Paris,  1795)  anticipated  Herbert 
Spencer  and  Mr.  Tylor  in  attempting  to  derive  all 
religion  from  some  one  root,  in  his  case  the  wor- 
ship of  the  great  powers  of  nature.  G.  W.  von 
Hegel  {Philosophie  der  Religion^  Berlin,  1832)  an- 
ticipated still  another  line  of  modem  research, 
iavestigation  of  savage  or  primitive  belief  and 
practise. 

But  undue  emphasis  has  often  been  laid  upon 
the  work  of  these  and  other  forerunners,  such  as 
the  Deists  in  England.  They  were  prophets  rather 
than  achievers,  their  methods  speculative  rather 
than  historical.  The  real  start  was  made  by  Max 
Mailer.  Despite  the  criticism  by  Mr.  Jordan 
(Comparative  Rdigum,  pp.  150  sqq.,  521  sqq.,  New 
York,  1905),  no  one  did  so  much  as  Professor  MUller 
to  establish  the  new  science.  No  series  of  works, 
hardly   any  collection  of   other  vol- 

4.  Max  umes  which  could  be  made,  has  so 
Muller  and  stimulated  the  study  as  the  Sacred 
Recent  De-  Booke  of  the  East,  Since  Max  Mailer's 
yelopments.  first  approach  to  the  study  in  the  Rig 
Veda  Sanhita  (6  vols.,  London,  1849- 
1874)  the  development  has  been  rapid.  To  mention 
only  the  great  names,  C.  P.  Tiele  and  C.  de  la  Saus- 
saye  in  Holland,  R^ville,  father  and  son,  in  France, 
Herbert  Spencer,  E.  B.  I^lor,  J.  G.  Fraz/cr,  §. 
Hartland,  and  Andrew  Lang  in  England,  D.  G. 
Brinton  and  James  Freeman  Clarke  in  America, 
have  uncovered  a  wealth  of  material  long  buried 
and  have  shown  how  it  is  to  be  intelligently  em- 
ployed. In  this  development  two  schools  have 
grown  up.  The  first,  of  which  the  Oxford  pro- 
fessor was  the  leader,  was  the  linguistic  school, 
which  sought  by  investigating  purely  linguistic 
material,  the  roots  and  changes  of  words  and  the 
structure  of  language,  to  determine  the  develop- 
ment of  religious  ideas.  The  result  wsa  often 
a  forced  method  of  explanation  which  was  ob- 
viously inadequate.  A  school  developed  in  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  which 
the  name  of  the  anthropological  school  has  been 
given,  the  fundamental  method  of  which  is  histor- 
ical, which  examines  data  gathered  from  all  re- 
gions and  times,  and  upon  the  basis  of  compara- 
tive psychology  and  anthropology  explains  the 
resemblances  and  differences  in  religious  beliefs  and 
practises  and  their  origins.  In  the  hands  of  this 
second  class,  which  of  course  does  not  discard  lin- 
guistic data,  the  science  has  rapidly  taken  form, 
materials  fall  easily  into  their  appropriate  setting, 
and  the  law  of  evolution  is  revealed  as  operating 
in  the  field  of  religion  with  a  distinctness  which  is 
almost  beauty. 

nL  Aim  and  Scope:  The  aim  of  the  study  in- 
cludes the  collection,  collation,  and  explanation  of 
religious  phenomena  in  order  to  discover  the  na- 
ture, genesis,  development,  and  laws  of  religion. 
From  what  has  already  been  said  of  the  precon- 
ceptions with  which  early  investigations  were  con- 
ducted, it  is  evident  that  so  comprehensive  a  purpose 
was  not  originally  in  view.  Early  studies  were  polemic 
as  against  ethnic  faith  and  practise,  apologetic  as  con- 
cerned Christian  faith  and  practise.  But  the  prog- 
ress of  the  study  has  already  compelled  a  modifi- 
cation of  earlier  estimates  of  other  religions  and 


an  increasing  gentleness  in  discussing  them.  The 
statement  can  no  longer  be  made  without  chal- 
lenge even  from  Christians  that  the  world  out-  i 
side  Christendom  is  an  "  inmiense  welter  of  errors '' 
(Calvin).  In  living  non-Christian  religions  (Mo- 
hammedanism Buddhism,  Confucianism,  Parsee- 
ism),  aa  in  those  that  have  fallen  (the  religions  of 
"Egypt  and  Babylonia),  are  recognised  mighty 
truths,  and  the  claim  to  the  exclusive  possession 
of  these  by  Christian  dogmatists  is  no  longer  made, 
or  if  made  is  disallowed.  There  results  (1)  an  in-  i 
creasing  appreciation  of  the  discovery  that  relig- 
ion is  one,  in  different  stages  of  growth,  and  (2)  a 
growing  willingness  to  grant  to  eSi  religious  faiths 
impartial  examination  and  candid  recognition  of 
whatever  excellencies  they  may  possess.  The  en- 
deavor is  made  to  discover  whether  there  be  a 
common  basis  for  all  forms  of  religion,  and  if  so, 
what  it  is,  and  to  set  forth  the  nature,  origin,  growth, 
and  laws  of  religion  in  generaL 

The  scope  of  the  science  b  involved  in  the  fore- 
going. No  place,  time,  or  people  from  which  evi- 
dence or  testimony  can  be  gathered  is  exempted 
from  its  examination.  Evidence  from  neolithic 
graves  in  the  shape  of  vessels  or  implements  (which 
bespeak  belief  in  the  continued  existence  of  the 
defunct),  or  from  modem  savage  life,  involving 
belief  in  obligations  to  powers  superhuman,  is  no 
less  pertinent  than  are  the  injunctions  of  Zoroas- 
ter, Confucius,  the  Buddha,  or  the  Christ.  Neither 
the  religion  of  Jesus  nor  the  mysteries  of  the 
Australian  Bushman  may  be  excluded  from  the 
inquiry.  Moreover,  facts  and  practises  once 
thought  purely  social  or  merely  utilitarian  are  now 
seen  to  be  informed  with  the  religious  spirit.  The 
area  of  religion  has  been  immensely  widened  dui^ 
ing  the  progress  of  the  investigation.  It  has  been 
no  uncommon  thing  for  a  book  to  assert  of  some 
tribe  that  it  had  no  religion,  though  the  volume  con- 
tained accounts  of  whole  series  of  acts  which  were 
only  and  all  religious.  Such  mistakes  arose  in  the 
author's  too  narrow  conception  of  what  religion 
is.  A  further  discovery  is  that  the  very  compre- 
hensiveness of  the  influence  of  the  supernatural  in 
the  life  of  the  savage  makes  it  necessary  to  ask  of 
his  every  act  whether  or  not  it  be  religious  or  at 
least  have  religion  as  an  element.  Hence  the  ex- 
amination covers  not  only  the  ''  great "  religions, 
but  also  primitive  faith  and  all  the  gradations  which 
lie  between. 

IV.  The  Methods  Employed:  Comparative  Re- 
ligion is  an  inductive  science.  Its  operation  is 
threefold:  (1)  collection  and  verification  of  facts 
(the  historical  method);  (2)  collocation  of  these 
verified  data  to  ascertain  their  relations  and  in- 
terrelations (the  comparative  method);  (3)  ex- 
planation of  the  results  reached  by  the  other  two 
methods  upon  a  psychological  baais,  referring  local 
features  to  ascertained  mental  habits  of  the  tribes, 
groups,  or  peoples  where  those  features  are  mani- 
fested, and  universal  features  to  general  charac- 
teristics of  the  human  mind  (the  psychological 
method).  A  fair  illustration  of  the  combined 
operation  of  these  methods,  uniting  the  extreme 
past  with  the  present  and  with  world-wide  belief, 
is  presented  in  the  following  case,  which  is  but  on^ 


198 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OomparatiTe  Beliffion 


out  of  many  which  might  be  chosen.  The  skulls 
of  neolithic  man  sometimes  bear  unmistakable 
traces  of  trepanning  during  life — an  operation 
which  must  have  been  excruciating  torture  in  times 
when  the  only  instruments  were  flints  and  there 
were  probably  no  anesthetics,  and  an  explanation 
was  long  sought  in  vain.  It  has  recently  been  dis- 
covered, however,  that  in  cases  of  epilepsy  modem 
Kabyles  trepan  the  patient  and  then  conjure  forth 
the  obsessing  spirit  which  they  believe  to  be  seated 
in  the  brain,  causing  the  affection.  Alongside 
these  two  facts  is  put  a  third,  viz.,  wide  induction 
has  proved  that  primitive  peoples  of  diverse  race 
and  habitat  attribute  diseases,  especially  mental 
affections,  to  obsession  by  spirits.  The  neolithic 
fact  receives  a  most  probable  explanation  from  the 
modem  Kabyle  practise,  while  the  psychological 
habit  is  made  clear  from  a  wide  circle  of  induction. 

V.  The    Auxiliary   Sciences:    Comparative   Re- 
ligion IS  necessarily  dependent  upon  a  number  of 
auxiliary  sciences.     Its  most  intimate  associations 
are  with  the  science  of  history  in  its  modem  form. 
To  this  a  twofold  debt  is  due,  first  for  the  historico- 
critical  method.    The  phenomena  under  investi- 
gation are  by  nature  elusive,  and  the  observer  is 
liable  to  error  because  his  point  of  view 
z.  The      differs  from  that  of  the  people  whose 
Method  of  actions  and  beliefs  he  studies.    The 

History,  motives  a  Christian  imputes  to  wor- 
shipers belonging  to  another  religion 
may  be  quite  other  than  the  real  motives.  More- 
over, the  phenomena  lie  in  a  realm  where  volun- 
tary testimony  is  seldom  given,  because  primitive 
peoples  believe  that  between  them  and  their  dei- 
ties exists  a  confidential  relation  which  would  be 
endangered  by  reporting  to  a  stranger  in  what  that 
relationship  consists.  So  there  is  necessitated  in 
this  kind  of  investigation  relentless  criticism  of 
alleged  facts,  which  have  to  be  pursued  to  their 
very  lair  and  dragged  out  naked  of  falsehood  and 
stripped  of  misconstruction. 

A  second  debt  is  incurred  by  the  access  given  to 
the  great  body  of  facts  presented  by  history.  This 
storehouse,  new  treasures  from  which  are  constantly ' 
coming  into  use,  is  being  worked  over  and  over  as 
more  accurate  knowledge  illumines  both  the  items 
and  the  tout  ensemble.  An  example  of  the  way  in 
which  this  is  being  accomplished  is  furnished  by  the 
history  of  Greek  religion.  A'half  century  ago  Greek 
religion  was  regarded  as  thoroughly  known.  It 
had  been  for  two  millenniums  the  source  of  liter- 
ary allusion  and  flavor;  nearly  all  Western  litera- 
ture is  seasoned  with  Attic  salt.  Yet  in  the  light 
of  phenomena,  some  of  which  had  been  on  record 
all  the  time  (as  in  Pausanias  and  Herodotus),  and 
others  which  have  been  gained  by  modem  research 
like  the  investigations  at  Mycens  and  in  Crete  and 
Cyprus,  the  entire  history  of  Greek  religion  is  be- 
ing rewritten,  the  Olympic  pantheon  is  traced  to 
its  elements,  and  the  constmction  and  growth  of 
a  national  faith  is  revealed  to  the  mod- 
2.  The  Facts  em  observer.  Still  another  depart- 
of  History,  ment,  that  of  travel,  is  proving  rich 
treasure  trove.  Sailors  and  mer- 
chants, travelers,  and  trained  observers  whose 
business  it  is  to  discover  what  is  done  and  thought 

m.-i3 


by  other  peoples,  officers  in  government  service  who 
by  long  residence  have  come  to  know  thoroughly 
the  tribes  among  which  they  lived,  and  faithfiii 
missionaries  furnish  material  which  only  the 
trained  investigator  can  appreciate.  The  very  de- 
tachment from  each  other  of  the  reports  made  by 
these  observers  proves  of  the  greatest  value;  for 
example  the  use  of  the  swastika  as  a  symbol  with 
religious  significance  is  proved  for  practically  all 
quarters  of  the  world  in  remote  antiquity  and  in 
the  living  present,  and  the  "  bull-roarer  '*  is  dis- 
covered to  be  nearly  ubiquitous  as  a  sign  of  the 
performance  of  the  mysteries  of  primitive  tribes. 
Other  departments  of  history,  such  as  art  and 
architecture,  have  their  pregnant  lessons  and  in- 
dispensable use.  The  subdepartment  of  ceramics 
has  contributed  to  the  history  of  Greek  religion 
some  of  its  most  convincing  material.  On  the 
value  of  the  history  of  architecture  there  is  no  need 
to  dilate;  the  mere  mention  of  it  suggests  rever- 
ence and  worshipful  toil  as  represented  in  struc- 
tures from  the  reed  booth  of  the  fetish-worshiper 
to  the  peerless  Parthenon. 

Newer  and  younger  offshoots  of  the  historic  spirit 
are  Comparative  Mythology  and  Folk-lore.    The 
key  to  appreciation  is  understanding,  and  the  world 
had  largely  forgotten  its  infancy.    Upon  the  re- 
covery of  his  memory  depended  man's 
3.  Com-    imderstanding  of  nearly  the  whole  of 
parative     primitive  religion.    When  the  prac- 
Myth(4ogy  tises  of  modem  primitive  tribes  stand 
and  Folk-  out  as  the  parallels  of  the  practises  of 
lore.        the  Greeks  and  Romans,  what  once 
seemed  foolish  or  inexplicable  in  the 
latter  and  "  curious  "  in  the  former  received  ex- 
planation as  performances  of  the  childhood  of  the 
race.    How  could  human  beings  trace  their  de- 
scent from  animals  or  plants  on  the  one  side,  or 
from  deities  on  the  other?    These  things  were  done 
and  were  accepted  as  facts.    As  the  doings  of  the 
childhood  of  humanity  they  have   their   perfect 
explanation.    Thus   Comparative    Mjrthology  and 
Folk-lore  by  recovering  the  methods  of  thought  of 
the  race  in  its  childhood  have  contributed  much  to 
the  understanding  of  such  "  oddities." 

No  slight  debt  also  is  due  to  the  mental  sciences, 
particularly  to  psychology,  though  in  this  depart- 
ment a  part  of  the  obligation  is  repaid  by  return 
contributions.  Psychology  has  exposed  the  method 
of  operation  of  the  mind  of  savage  and  epileptic, 
of  individuals  and  of  the  crowd.  In  tum,  epidem- 
ics like  that  of  the  dancing  mania  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  communication  of  prophetic  frenasy  like  that 
of  Saul,  the  mental  operations  of  an  Elisha  and  a 
Mohammed,  and  the  working  of  re- 
4.  Other  vivals  are  explained  upon  sound 
Allies.  principles  and  reveal  the  methods  by 
which  religious  acts  began,  became 
customary  and  authoritative.  It  may  seem  out  of 
place  to  claim  as  an  ally  of  Comparative  Religion 
the  sciences  of  geology  and  paleontology.  Yet  a 
moment's  consideration  of  the  example  of  the  neo- 
lithic trepanning  referred  to  above  will  show  that 
the  dating  of  the  early  subject  of  the  operation 
must  depend  upon  the  pronouncements  of  geology 
upon  the  environment  in  which  the  relics  were 


CknnpATatlva  Baliffion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


194 


found.  Similarly,  paleontology  has  no  little  to  say 
as  to  the  relative  height  of  man  in  the  scale  of  be- 
ing in  the  age  to  which  the  trepanned  is  referred. 
Many  other  facts,  all  significant  in  settling  the 
question  of  the  age  of  man  on  the  earth — an  im- 
portant factor  for  the  evolution  of  religion — might 
be  adduced  to  show  the  dependence  of  Comparar 
tive  Religion  on  the  one  side,  and  the  helpfulness 
of  geology  and  paleontology  on  the  other  in  the 
quest  for  the  origin  and  authority  of  religious 
ideas. 

VL  The  Results:  What  are  the  accomplish- 
ments of  a  branch  of  study  thus  defined,  thus  born 
and  developed,  with  such  an  aim  and  scope,  using 
such  materials,  and  with  such  auxiliaries?  It  has 
discovered  and  oriented  the  whole  realm  of  primi- 
tive religion,  has  discovered  the  conditions  under 
which  were  originated  what  may  be  called  the  or- 
ganized religions  and  has  established  their  part 
and  value  in  the  uplift  of  the  race,  and  has  dis- 
covered a  genetic  relationship  between  the  two 
varieties;  it  shows  that  all  religion  is  one  in  vari- 
ous stages  of  development,  that  religion  is  a  de- 
velopment, and  that  man  is  one  in  acknowledging 
by  action  in  all  times  and  places  of  which  there  is 
record  an  impulse  to  worship  a  being  or  beings 
whom  he  deems  greater  than  himself. 

1.  In  PrimitlYe  Religion:  The  distinction  be- 
tween "  primitive  "  and  *'  organized  "  religions  is 
difficult  to  make.  Mr.  Frazer  (polden  Bough,  i. 
348,  ed.  of  1890)  gives  as  the  marks  of  primitive 
religion  the  following:  (1)  no  special  class  is  set 
apart  to  perform  rites;  (2)  no  special  place  is  des- 
ignated for  this  purpose — there  are  no  temples; 
(3)  spirits,  not  gods,  are  recognized;  (4)  the  rites 
are  magical,  rather  than  propitiatory.  But  no  one 
of  these  marks  can  be  held  everywhere  to  delimit 
the  two  spheres.  The  shaman  shades  into  the 
priest.  A  temple  is  not  necessarily  a  structure, 
and  in  primitive  religion  localities  are  the  resi- 
dence of  spirits  where  they  are  worshiped.  More- 
over, gods  have  been  found  among  some  of  the 
tribes  lowest  in  the  scale  of  being,  and  magic  versus 
prayer  is  an  insecure  test.  It  is  proved  in  some 
cases  that  primitive  religion  passed  by  degrees 
from  this  stage  to  that  of  organized  religion,  no- 
tably so  in  the  cases  of  Greece  and  India.  While 
then  Mr.  Frazer's  tests  individually  break  down, 
it  may  yet  be  held  that  the  total  effect  of  his  dis- 
tinctions make  a  practical  line  of  demarcation. 

a.  Primitive  Beliffion  in  the  Fsyohologlcal 
Sphere:  Animism  is  usually  but  loosely  defined  as 
"  the  doctrine  of  souls  and  spirits.''  A  more  lucid 
statement  is  that  animism  means  that  stage  in  hu- 
man development  in  which  man  be- 
z.  Animism  lieves  in  the  parity  of  all  existences 

Defined*  so  far  as  their  possession  of  sentient 
life  is  concerned.  Men  in  that  stage 
may  hold  that  a  stone,  a  tree,  a  mountain,  a  stream, 
a  wild  animal,  a  heavenly  body,  a  wind,  indeed 
any  object  within  the  realm  of  real  or  fancied  ex- 
perience, possesses  just  such  a  "  soul "  as  he  con- 
ceives himself  to  have,  and  that  it  is  animated  by 
desires  and  moved  by  emotions  parallel  to  those 
he  perceives  in  himself. 

The  question  how  man  came  to  possess  the  idea 


of  soul  has  been  answered  in  two  ways,  both  of 
which  reproduce  reasons  given  under  primitive  con- 
ditions for  asserting  the  existence  of  a  non-cor- 
poreal yet  intracorporeal  entity.  The  phenomena 
leading  to  such  a  conception  are  (1)  those  of  dream 
life,  (2)  the  difiference  between  the  waking  and  the 
sleeping  state,  or  between  life  and  death.  If  in  a 
company  of  primitive  hunters  one 
2.  Idea  of  sleeps  in  his  companions'  presence  and 
Soul,  how  in  that  sleep  has  a  dream  which  upon 
Obtained,  waking  he  relates,  stating  that  he  has 
been  upon  the  chase,  he  and  his  com- 
panions make  and  accept  the  explanation  that 
some  part  of  him  not  his  body  has  been  away,  and 
no  reasoning  could  convince  him  that  the  dream 
experience  was  unreal.  In  this  way  in  part  the 
conception  that  man  is  a  duality  manifested  itself. 
But  the  fact  that  nothing  had  been  seen  to  go  and 
return  invested  the  fugitive  part  with  a  character 
expressed  in  many  languages  by  the  equivalent 
of  "spirit"  (Lat.  apiritus,  "breath"),  and  this 
spirit  was  regarded  as  an  intangible  but  very  real 
entity.  The  second  line  of  experience  corroborated 
and  strengthened  this  impression.  The  superficial 
difference  between  a  living  and  a  dead  body  is  the 
absence  from  the  latter  of  the  breathing  function. 
The  last  act  observable  in  the  dying  is  the  expul- 
sion of  the  final  breath.  It  is  no  wonder  then  that 
man  in  his  primitive  philosophy  began  the  habit 
of  speaking  of  his  second  part  as  the  "  spirit "  or 
breath.  And  that  the  phenomenon  of  sleep  is  also 
explained  by  absence  of  the  spirit  from  the  body, 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  existent  tribes  do  not 
permit  a  sleeper  to  be  waked  suddenly  lest  his 
spirit  have  not  time  to  return  and  he  die.  To 
these  two  lines  of  what  had  the  force  of  convincing 
evidence  to  early  man  a  third  must  be  added,  viz.: 
the  appearance  in  dreams  of  those  who  had  died 
Such  visions  were  accepted  as  realities  in  advanced 
stages  of  civilization  (cf .  Augustine,  De  civUate  dei^ 
xviii.  18),  confirmed  the  belief  already  accepted 
of  a  dual  existence  of  man,  and  had  other  momen- 
tous results.  They  opened  up  the  entire  region  of 
a  future  existence,  as  well  as  other  beliefs  which 
still  survive  as  "  superstitions." 

A  fact  which  had  great  influence  on  man's  eaiiy 
conceptions  was  that  many  of  the  events  which  he 
witnessed  were  traceable  to  visible  causes.  In  the 
infancy  of  the  race  death  was  probably  in  a  large 
proportion  of  cases  due  to  external  causes.  Death 
was  not  always  "  the  inevitable."  *  And  since  man 
himself  caused  death  and  knew  himself  the  agent 
of  that  change,  when  death  resulted  from  visible 
causes  he  attributed  to  the  material  agent  con- 
scious and  determined  action.  Even  when  death 
came  from  what  are  now  termed  natural  causes, 
he  would  seek  and  find  causes  of  the  same  sort 
So  that  both  disease  and  death  were  regarded  as 
consciously  brought  about,  if  not  by  visible  means, 


*  For  cases  where  death  is  even  yet  regarded  as  an  ab- 
normal event,  consult:  £.  Crawley,  MytUe  Roae,  pp.  2&- 
27,  60,  67,  68,  69,  85,  95,  New  York,  1902;  L.  Decle,  Thm 
YearB  in  Africa,  pp.  75.  512,  London,  1898;  C.  B.  KIobs,  /» 
the  Andamana,  p.  123.  London,  1903;  B.  Spenoer  and  F.  J- 
Gillen,  Native  TribeM  of  Central  Aiutndia,  p.  476,  London, 
1899;  J.  Maodonald.  in  Folklore,  m.  344. 


195 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oomjiaratlva  Selisrlon 


then  by  beings  mysterious  in  their  nature  and  mode 
of  working.  Thus  to  practically  all  objects  he  at- 
tributed life,  power,  emotions,  and  de- 
3.  Anthro-  terminative  acts  such  as  those  he  felt 
pomorphic  or  committed.  So  he  came  to  apply 
Conception  his  experience  (supposed  or  real)  to 
of  Causa-  all  existence;  all  events  were  effects, 
tion.  though  he  could  not  detect  the  causes. 
If  the  spirit  could  go  unperceived 
from  the  sleeping  or  moribund  and  participate  in 
the  hunt  or  leave  the  forsaken  one  dead,  if  the 
dead  could  reappear  in  the  dream,  were  there  not 
other  spirits  which  interfered  with  human  action, 
helped  or  thwarted  human  effort,  inflicted  disease 
and  death?  Thus  man  was  furnished  with  a  primi- 
tive philosophy  which  answered  his  queries  in.  a 
way  that  seemed  conclusive  and  satisfied  his  de- 
sire for  explanation.  With  this  may  be  compared 
the  habit  of  calling  a  pestilence  a  **  visitation  of 
God  "  instead  of  considering  it  the  inevitable  con- 
sequence either  of  ignorance  or  of  disregard  of 
natural  law.  Objects  which  to  modem  man  are 
inanimate  to  early  man  had  both  life  and  soul; 
they  had  power  which  they  employed  determi- 
natively.  Into  animal,  plant,  and  inorganic 
substance  were  read  the  nature  and  qualities  of 
humanity.  In  accord  with  this  belief  modem  sav- 
ages talk  to  the  beasts  they  slay,  smoke  the  pipe  of 
peace  with  the  dead  bear,  and  attempt  to  deceive 
the  trapped  tiger  so  that  its  kin  or  its  ghost  may 
not  exact  vengeance.  And  beside  these  tangible 
things  there  were  imagined  innumerable  spirits 
until  the  world  swarmed  with  them,  and  forest  and 
field,  glen,  hill,  and  stream  were  peopled  with  spirits 
having  power  and  purpose  to  work  weal  or  wo  to 
humans. 

But  it  would  not  be  long  before  man  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  results  of  his  own  efforts  were 
not  always  conunensurate  with  what  he  seemed  to 
have  the  right  to  expect.  That  the  spirits  about 
him  interfered  either  for  good  or  ill  was  a  natural 
conclusion.  Spirits  were  roughly  di- 
4-  Incipient  vided  into  the  well-disposed  and  the 
Dualism,  spiteful  and  malicious.  This  is  the 
belief  constantly  encountered  among 
primitive  peoples,  some  of  whom  dare  not  move 
during  the  night,  so  great  is  their  fear  of  the  ghosts 
which  lie  in  wait.  And  when  such  belief  is  estab- 
lished, a  demonology  is  created  out  of  which  de- 
velops the  whole  hierarchy  of  evil;  while  out  of 
the  conception  of  good  spirits  come  angelology  and 
theism  of  various  sorts  (see  Demon). 

But  man  would  carry  this  process  further.  He 
knew  himself  subject  to  menace  and  blandishment, 
to  tricky  bluff  or  actual  force,  he  was  conciliated 
by  gift  or  persuasion  and  made  hostile  by  assault 
or  trespass.  To  the  spirits  he  attributed  the  same 
qualities.  So  that  threats  and  bluffs  were  used 
against  the  spirits  (even  against  the  gods),  magic 
was  employed  to  overpower  them,  gifts  and  per- 
suasion were  tried  to  render  them  complaisant. 
Out  of  this  developed  the  cults  and  the  practise 
of  magic  and  witchcraft  in  all  their  varieties. 

In  magic  particularly  lies  a  result  of  this  reason- 
ing- Magic  may  for  convenience  be  divided  into 
natural  and  sympathetic.    The  former  is  the  use 


of  anthropomorphic  devices  to  gain  one's  end  from 
the  spirits.  Chinese  sailors  carry  paper  junks  to 
throw  overboard  in  a  hurricane  so  that  when  the 
mimic  bark  sinks  in  the  waves  the  storm  spirits 
may  suppose  that  the  real  ship  has  sunk  and  be 
satisfied.  Gongs  are  beaten  to  frighten  away  un- 
welcome spirits.  A  herb  which  is  supposed  to 
have  qualities  obnoxious  to  a  spirit  is  burned  that 
the  smoke  may  keep  off  the  undesired.  In  these 
and  other  ways  natural  magic  works. 

5.  Magic —  Sympathetic  magic  in  one  of  its  va- 
Natural,  rieties  depends  upon  the  supposed 
Mimetic,  fact  that  like  affects  like,  any  effect 
Sympa-     may  be  produced  by  an  imitation  of 

thetic.  it.  Hain  may  be  caused  by  scatter- 
ing of  water,  a  thunder-storm  by  imi- 
tation of  the  sound  and  by  scattering  sparks  to 
imitate  the  lightning,  a  yam  field  may  be  made 
fruitful  by  burying  in  it  a  stone  shaped  like  a  yam, 
or  the  yield  of  a  palm  is  increased  by  hanging  on 
the  tmnk  or  laying  at  the  root  a  stone  or  other 
natural  object  which  looks  like  the  date  or  the 
coconut.  An  enemy  is  made  to  suffer  by  per- 
forming operations  upon  a  wax  image  which  rep- 
resents him.  Another  variety  depends  upon  the 
supposed  sympathy  between  a  man  and  his  be- 
longings. His  hair,  nail-parings,  any  article  of 
clothing,  even  his  shadow  or  his  name,  may  be 
used  against  him.  His  footprint  on  the  sand  is 
sufficient,  if  one  knows  how,  to  work  him  ill.  And 
that  some  men  claimed,  perhaps  honestly,  to  be 
expert  in  these  practises  and  that  the  claim  was 
allowed  is  a  matter  of  history.  Thus  the  witch 
and  shaman  and  medicine  man  had  their  careers 
prepared,  ready  to  practise  on  spirits  and  men,  and 
with  all  the  terrible  consequences  known  to  history. 
An  interesting  group  of  results  from  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  animistic  stage  is  that  which  centers 
about  metempsychosis  in  its  various  forms.  Meta- 
morphosis, transmigration,  lycanthropy,  are  but 
variant  shapes  of  the  same  idea.  If  man,  animals, 
and  plants  (and  eventually  spirits  and  gods)  are 
on  the  same  plane  of  existence,  exchange  of  form 
and  being  might  be  brought  about  either  purposely 
or  by  accident.  So  in  the  550  births  of  the  Buddha 
he  passed  through  every  grade  of  being — vegetable, 
animal,  human,  and  divine.  That  a  man  should 
be  transformed  into  an  animal  seemed  not  strange, 
and  Circe's  miracles  were  not  only  credible  but 
reasonable  to  Homer's  hearers.    Fur- 

6.  Metemp-  ther,  these  exchanges  were  not  con- 
sychosis.     fined  to  the  lower  order  of  beings. 

Why  should  not  a  spirit  take  posses- 
sion of  a  human  body,  or  why  should  not  a  god 
become  incarnate?  With  spirits  good  and  bad  all 
about,  eager  to  exercise  their  power,  the  virgin 
birth  of  a  god  (a  common  thesis  in  religion)  and 
obsession  of  a  human  by  evil  spirits  are  but  oppo- 
site consequences  of  the  theory  of  equality  of  be- 
ing. Moreover,  if  the  soul  is  so  loosely  attached 
to  its  tenement  that  in  sleep  it  goes  forth  to  ad- 
ventures, the  idea  of  a  wandering  soul  consciously 
put  forth  in  the  interest  of  its  owner  or  of  some  one 
who  has  power  over  him  becomes  possible  and  ap- 
parently actual.  The  lineage  of  the  mahatma 
idea  of  modem  theosophy  is  thus  revealed.    But 


ComparatlTe  Balislon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


196 


if  the  soul  or  life  could  be  thus  isolated,  it  might 
perhaps  be  laid  aside  or  deposited  in  some  safe 
place,  thus  rendering  its  possessor  immune  in  the 
midst  of  some  deadly  encounter.  This  motif  rules 
in  many  folk-lore  cycles  and  even  invaded  the  Old 
Testament. 

A  final  psychological  effect  is  discovered  in 
Mythology  (Gk.  myihos,  "narrative  ")•  In  modem 
usage  the  word  has  two  meanings:  (1)  the  branch 
of  investigation  which  deals  with  the  narratives 
about  gods  and  demigods,  heroes,  creation,  origins, 
and  the  like;  (2)  the  narratives  themselves.  A 
myth  is  a  story,  on  a  subject  kindred 

7.  Myth     to  those  just  mentioned,  now  admitted 

Defined,  to  be  untrue  and  often  irrational,  but 
to  its  first  hearers  and' their  immedi- 
ate descendants  self-evident.  It  shows  primitive 
reason  working  according  to  primitive  logic,  seek- 
ing to  explain  a  real  or  a  supposed  fact.*  Magic 
is  primitive  science,  myth  is  primitive  phfiosophy. 
Thus  the  sacred  stone  at  Delphi,  a  fact,  was  ac- 
counted for  by  the  myth  that  it  was  the  stone  by 
which  Chronos  was  deceived  when  Zeus  was  bom, 
which  he  disgorged  some  time  later.  The  Cray- 
fish Clan  of  the  Choctaws  explained  their  name  and 
origin  by  the  myth  that  the  first  of  the  clan  were 
crayfish  which  were  coaxed  from  their  shells,  taught 
to  stand  up  and  use  their  claws,  finally  becoming 
ancestors  of  the  Crayfish  Clan.  Gen.  vi.  1-4  is  a 
myth  accounting  for  the  reputed  giants  as  the 
product  of  a  union  between  spirits  and  women. 

When  larger  experience  and  growing  mentality 
discredited  these  tales,  various  attempts  were 
made  to  account  for  them.  Xenophanes  (sixth 
century  b.c.)  and  Porphyry  (d.  303  a.d.)  regarded 
them  as  inventions  to  inculcate  moral  truth.  The- 
agenes  (c.  520  b.c.)  and  Empedocles  (c.  444  B.C.) 
regarded  them  as  allegorical  expressions  of  physical 
philosophy.  Aristotle  looked  on  them 
8.  Ezpla-  as  intended  to  incxilcate  respect  for 
nations  of  legal  and  social  institutions  ("Meta- 
Myth.  physics,"  XI.  viiL  19).  Euhemerus 
(c.  300  B.C.)  accounted  them  the  im- 
aginative-rendering of  history — e.g.,  the  gods  were 
deified  men.  Of  modem  theories  Herbert  Spencer's 
revives  Euhemerism.  Max  Mailer  and  the  philo- 
logical school  attributed  myth  to  a  '' disease  of 
language  "  by  which  events  narrated  of  one  object 
were  attributed  to  another  bearing  the  same  or  a 
similar  namb.  The  anthropological  school  ac- 
counts for  myth  by  making  it  a  "  disease  of  thought " 
taking  its  rise  in  animism.  Thus  later  Egyptians 
were  perplexed  by  the  animal  forms  of  their  deities 
and  accounted  for  the  supposed  fact  by  the  story 
that  the  gods  took  refuge  from  their  enemies  in  the 
animal  bodies.  To  modem  man  both  the  sup- 
posed fact  and  the  explanation  are  irrational;  to 
the  Egyptians  the  fact  was  real  and  the  explana- 
tion all-sufficient  under  the  hypothetical  parity  of 
being.  The  distinction  between  myth,  religion,  and 

*  Prof.  N.  S.  Shaler  has,  without  intending  it,  given  a 
good  description  of  the  mythological  process:  "  The  com- 
monest misuse  of  the  reason  and  the  imagination  is  to  sup- 
port an  irrational  motive  which  is  strong  enough  to  be 
mastering,  yet  is  felt  to  need  ezplanation  **  (T%«  Neiahbor, 
p.  268,  Boston,  1904). 


theology  should  be  clearly  made.  Theology  is 
man's  belief  about  the  gods,  mjrth  is  the  tale  he 
teUs  to  account  for  his  belief  in  them,  religion  ex- 
presses his  practical  attitude  toward  them  (cf.  A. 
Lang,  Custom  and  Myth,  pp.  45  sqq..  New  York, 
1885) 

b.  Primitive  Beliarion  in  the  Social  Sphere: 
The  institution  of  totemism  can  be  understood  only 
by  recognising  that  kinship  as  reckoned  by  civ- 
ilized society  is  very  different  from  kinship  under 

primitive  conditions.  To  the  civ- 
z.  Kinship,  ilized,  kinship  is  a  matter  of  degree. 

Under  the  totemistic  regime  it  is  ab- 
solute and  reckoned  not  by  family  but  by  the  clan 
or  totem  gens.  It  is  not  even  solely  a  matter  of 
birth,  but  may  be  acquired  (see  below,  Blood- 
Brotherhood).  The  absoluteness  of  this  tie  is 
shown  by  W.  R.  Smith,  Rel,  of  Sem,,  pp.  272-273, 
277:  '^  In  a  case  of  homicide  Arabian  tribesmen 
do  not  say  *  the  blood  of  M  or  N  has  been  spilt/ 
they  say,  '  our  blood  has  been  spilt.'  "  The  clan- 
brethren  are  all  of  one  blood,  no  others  are  of  their 
blood.  And  the  contrariety  of  this  form  of  rela- 
tionship to  that  current  in  civilized  conununities 
is  sharply  expressed  by  the  statement  that  under 
it  husband  and  wife  are  not  kin,  that  in  most  cases 
father  and  children  are  not  kin,  but  that  mother 
and  children  are.  Totemism  is  then  an  affair  of 
the  community.  But  since  all  community  matters 
are  under  primitive  conditions  religious,  the  in- 
terest of  comparative  religion  in  the  subject  be- 
comes evident. 

Totemism  "  is  the  name  for  the  custom  by 
which  a  stock  (scattered  through  many  tribes) 
claims  descent  from  and  kindred  with  some  plant, 

animal,  or  other  natural  object.    It       1 

2.  Totem-  is  a  state  of  society  and  cult  ...  in 
ism  De-     which  sets  of  persons,  believing  them- 

fined.  selves  to  be  akin  by  blood,  call  each  | 
other  by  the  name  of  some  plant, 
beast,  or  other  object  in  nature  "  (A.  Lang,  Custom 
and  idyth,  p.  260).  Jevons  shows  another  phase 
when  he  says  that  it  is  "  the  alliance  of  a  clan  with 
an  animal  (or  plant  or  other  natural  object)  spe- 
cies "  {Introduction  to  Hist,  of  Rdigion,  p.  120). 
W.  R.  Smith  makes  the  proofs  of  the  existence  of 
totemism  in  any  one  place  to  depend  upon  "  (1)  the 
existence  of  stocks  named  after  plants  and  animals; 

(2)  the  .  .  .  conception  that  the  members  of  the 
stock  are  of  the  blood  of  the  eponym  animal  or  are 
sprung  from  a  plant  of  the  species  chosen  as  totem; 

(3)  the  ascription  to  the  totem  of  a  sacred  charac- 
ter "  (Kinship,  p.  188). 

Because  the  matter  has  been  confused  (e.g.,  by 

Mr.  Frazer,  Encydopcsdia  Britannica,  "  Totemism," 

and  in  his  Totemism,  London,  1885,  and  others),  it 

must  be  noted  (1)  that  totemism  is  a  community 

affair,  and  individual  only  as  the  in- 

3.  Marks  of  dividual  is  a  part  of  the  community; 
Totemism.  (2)  the   totem   is   always   a  species, 

never  an  individual,  except  m  the 
(rare)  case  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  (3)  it  involves 
both  sexes,  never  one  alone;  (4)  the  solidarity  of 
the  human  clan  is  treated  as  absolute,  as  is  that 
of  the  animal  species.  Thus  is  to  be  corrected  Mr. 
Frazer's  statement  that  there  are  three  kinds  of 


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OomparatiTe  Balicrion 


totems,  "the  sex-,  individual-,  and  clan-totem." 
There  is  but  one,  the  clan-totem;  the  "sex-  and 
mdividual-totem "  belong  in  a  totally  different 
realm,  do  not  affect  kinship  or  descent  or  society, 
and  have  but  one  thing  in  common  with  clan- 
totem,  vi2. :  that  neither  is  eaten.  The  totem  tie  is 
like  the  family  name:  a  man  becomes  a  Brown, 
Jones,  or  Robinson  by  being  bom  into  the  family; 
similarly,  a  man  is  bom  into  the  wolf,  bear,  or 
beaver  clan.  But  whether  a  particular  Brown 
shall  be  named  William  or  Clarence  or  some  other 
"  Christian  "  name  is  fortuitous;  similarly  whether 
the  "  individual-totem  "  shall  be  wolf  or  oak  de- 
pends on  what  the  individual  sees  in  his  puberty 
watch  or  chooses  under  advice.  The  two  things 
are  discrete.  With  these  fundamental  character- 
istics go  certain  vital  accompaniments.  First,  re- 
lationship is  usually  traced  through  the  mother; 
second,  marriage  is  prohibited  between  members 
of  the  same  totem  gens.  Husband  and  wife  are 
of  different  blood  and  are  not  made  kin  by  mar- 
riage. The  totem  bond  overrides  what  is  now 
blood-relationship;  half-brother  and  sister  not  of 
uterine  relationship  may  marry,  they  are  of  differ- 
ent gens  (cf.  II  Sam.  xiii.  13  and  Gen.  xii.  13,  xx. 
2,  Abraham  and  Sarah  were  probably  half-brother 
and  sister).  And,  finally,  to  all  members  of  any  totem 
gens  the  corresponding  animal  species  is  sacrosanct. 
Totemism  is  a  himian  institution,  subject  there- 
fore to  the  changes  of  advancing  civilization.  In 
one  place  it  may  appear  in  its  bloom,  in  another 
only  the  vestiges  may  remain.  Thus  in  North 
America  and  in  Australia  it  appears  complete,  only 
its  vestiges  are  discernible  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Hindus.  It 
passes  through  several  stages,  each  of  which  re- 
veals a  relationship  to  the  institution  in  its  prime. 
The  salient  evidences  of  the  former  existence  of 
totemism  in  any  place  are:  (1)  the  tradition  of  the 
sacredness  of  an  animal  species,  (2)  a  clan  name 
the  same  as  that  of  an  animal  or  plant  species, 
(3)  a  place  name  derived  from  a  clan  name,  (4)  an 
animal  epithet  given  locally  to  a  deity,  (5)  images 
of  an  animal  associated  with  a  deity,  (6)  an  animal 
used  as  a  badge  or  mark,  (7)  myths  accounting  for 
the  place  of  the  animal  in  the  cult. 

The  origin  of  totemism  can  be  only  conjectured; 
but  granted  the  tmth  of  the  hypothesis  put  for- 
ward to  explain  the  origin,  every  subsequent  stage 
can  be  fully  accoxmted  for  on  the  basis  of  known 
laws.    The   accepted   explanation   is 
4.  Iti  Sup-  that  the  institution  arose  under  ani- 
poMd       mistic  conceptions  of  existence.     In 
Origin,      the  struggle  for  life  man  sought  allies. 
The  supposedly  superior  quality  of 
Bome  ftnitnula  or  plants  made  them  seem  desirable 
m  that  relationship  and  the  pact  was  made.     In 
later  stages  the  notion  of  kinship  and  then  of  de- 
scent entered  as  explanations  of  the  fact  once  im- 
agined as  real.    Meanwhile  the  living  and  the  dead 
animal  were  treated  as  was  the  living  or  dead  hu- 
man; in  £!gypt  corpses  of  both  were  munmiified, 
in  Greece  they  were  buried  or  bumed.    But  from 
sacredness  to  godship  was  but  a  stage,  the  individ- 
ual became  deity — so  with  the  cat,  bull,  crocodile, 
etc.,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Greece  the  horse,  mouse. 


snake,  ram,  even  the  lobster.  But  thought  grew 
more  anthropomorphic,  and  the  animal  head  was 
placed  on  a  human  body  (so  in  Greece  and  Egypt). 
Next  the  animal  came  to  represent  deity,  and 
finally  was  simply  sacred  to  Imn.  The  relationship 
of  totemism  to  religion  is  thus  in  part  revealed, 
though  there  are  other  connections.  That  out  of 
this  came  in  part  zoolatzy,  idolatzy,  and  even  poly- 
theism is  demonstrable. 

Totemism  had  a  ritual  which  affected  the  crises 
of  life.  As  an  infant  bom  a  Christian  must  be 
baptized,  perhaps  confirmed,  before  the  fulness  of 
his  birthright  is  his,  and  as  at  marriage  and  death 
the  Chiireh  has  its  functions,  so  with  totemism. 
At  birth  the  totem  mark  is  tattooed 
5.  Its  Rit-  or  painted  on  the  infant  or  the  totem 

ual;  the  formula  is  repeated.  Before  being 
Mysteries,  admitted  to  rank  as  a  brave  the  neo- 
phyte undergoes  ordeals,  while  even 
at  marriage  appropriate  rites  occur  and  at  death 
the  member  may  be  laid  in  a  grave  shaped  like  the 
totem.  Of  all  these  ceremonies  the  most  impor- 
tant is  the  initiation  in  the  "  mysteries  "  of  the 
tribe,  a  fact  only  recently  discovered.  Evident  in 
many  cases  is  the  connection  of  these  mysteries 
with  the  power  of  reproduction,  in  itself  no  less  a 
mystery  to  civilized  man  than  to  the  savage.  The 
use  of  the  phallic  emblems  is  proved  in  many  cases. 
The  initiation  takes  place  at  puberty.  Each  sex 
has  its  ceremonial  from  which  the  other  is  barred. 
The  initiations  take  place  in  secluded  spots,  often 
at  night,  and  a  well-understood  signal  is  displayed 
or  the  "  buU-roarer  "  is  employed  to  wam  away 
the  profane.  The  neophyte  is  instructed  in  the 
privileges  and  duties  of  adulthood  and  submits  to 
severe  ordeals.  The  dance,  having  religious  pur- 
port, is  among  the  accompaniments,  and  not  sel- 
dom there  is  a  mimic  death,  burial,  and  resurrec- 
tion, implying  ethical  or  eschatological  reference. 

The  usual  method  of  entrance  into  a  totem  clan 
is  then  by  birth  and  initiation.    But  since  the  con- 
ception of  the  tie  was  that  of  a  common  blood 
flowing  in  the  veins  of  the  clan,  it  was  conceived 
that  this  fact  could  be  artificially  pro- 

6.  Blood-    duced.    To  make  a  man  not  a  brother 

Brother-  take  that  relationship  it  was  neces- 
hood.  sary  that  the  blood  of  each  should 
flow  in  the  other's  veins.  Accord- 
ingly, if  an  individual  wished  to  become  a  member 
of  another  clan,  blood  was  drawn  from  his  veins 
and  transferred  to  the  body  of  one  or  more  of  the 
clan,  while  he  absorbed  blood  from  some  member 
of  the  same.  This  was  done  by  making  incisions, 
often  in  the  arms,  and  putting  the  bleeding  parts 
together;  transfusion  was  supposed  to  take  place. 
Or  each  sucked  blood  from  the  other's  wound,  or 
the  blood  of  both  was  mingled  with  a  medium  and 
both  partook  of  the  mixture;  or  a  sacrificial  ani- 
mal was  slain  and  both  partook  of  the  blood,  a 
common  fluid  thus  flowing  in  the  veins  of  both. 

o.  Primitive  Beliffion  in  the  Bthloal  Sphere: 
Taboo  (Polynesian,  "  strongly  marked  ")  denotes 
whatever  is  prohibited  under  severe  (supernatural) 
penalties.  In  primitive  life  it  controls  the  entire 
life  of  the  adult.  It  governs  "  his  food  and  drink, 
his  marriage  and  social  relations,  the  disposition 


OompAratlTe  Beliglon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


198 


of  property  and  the  choice  of  his  wives.  An  in- 
fraction of  its  laws  .  .  .  means  exile  or  death  " 
(D.  G.  Brinton,  Religioru  of  Primitive  Peoplea,  p. 
38,  New  York,  1897).  "  In  the  earliest  phases  of 
religion  the  law  is  essentially  prohibitory.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  the  negative  '  thou  shalt  not.'  .  .  .  The 
taboo  extends  its  veto  into  every  department  of 
primitive  life.  It  forbids  the  use  of  certain  arti- 
cles of  food  or  raiment;  it  hallows  the  sacred  areas; 
it  lays  restrictions  on  nmrriage;  ...  it  denounces 
various  actions,  often  the  most  trivial  and  inno- 
cent, and  thus  lays  the  foundation  for  the  cere- 
monial law  "  (idem,  p.  108). 

The  character  of  the  institution  is  seen  in  the 

things  it  prohibits.     (1)  The  sanctuary,  with  all 

its  furnishings,  vestments  and  the  like,  is  taboo. 

Intrusion  renders  the  intruder,  man 

z.  Things  or  beast,  the  property  of  the  god. 
Taboo.  (2)  Persons  are  taboo.  A  chief  may 
not  be  touched  nor  any  of  his  posses- 
sions, whOe  what  he  touches  becomes  his — ^he  rep- 
resents or  is  deity.  Similarly,  priests,  shamans, 
attendants  are  sacred  persons.  The  sick  are  often 
taboo  and  are  removed  that  they  may  not  **  in- 
fect **  the  house.  Especially  taboo  is  the  woman 
in  childbirth  (see  Defilement  and  Pubification, 
Ceremonial).  A  corpse  is  taboo,  and  infects  all 
who  come  into  contact  with  it.  (3)  Blood  is  of  all 
things  taboo.  Sacrificial  blood  was  caught  in  ves- 
sels that  it  might  not  infect  the  ground.  Its 
sacredness  in  covenants  is  a  matter  of  history  and 
survives  in  Christian  theology.  It  was  not  eaten 
bysacrificers,  but  was  sacred  to  deity.  By  associa- 
tion of  ideas  things  red  are  taboo.  In  Africa  red 
earth  may  not  be  trodden  or  red  berries  eaten. 
In  Japan  entrances  to  holy  places  and  bridges  re- 
served for  the  Mikado's  use  are  red.  (4)  A  name 
may  be  taboo,  that  of  God  or  of  the  chief  or  of 
the  dead.  Even  the  syllables  which  composed  a 
name  may  not  be  used,  and  new  ones  have  to  be 
employed  in  their  place.  Thus  the  quadriliteral 
name  of  God  was  not  used  by  the  later  Jews,  and 
out  of  a  device  to  avoid  it  arose  the  name  Jehovah 
(see  Yahweh),  (6)  The  hair  and  the  beard  may 
be  taboo.  The  Naziritic  vow  of  the  Hebrews  (see 
Nazirite)  is  in  point,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  hair 
is  a  frequent  fact.  (6)  The  totem  animal  species 
is  taboo  to  all  of  the  clan.  (7)  Time  may  be  taboo. 
This  is  the  origin  of  the  Sabbath,  derived  from  pre- 
Semitic  Babylonians.  (8)  Whole  groups  of  things 
may  be  taboo,  as  food,  or  the  use  of  food  for  a  period 
may  be  taboo.  (9)  The  paraphernalia  of  the  mys- 
teries are  taboo. 

A  characteristic  of  taboo  is  its  transmissibility. 
An  article  which  has  become  taboo  communicates 
this  quality  to  whatever  comes  into  contact  with 
it,  thiis  second  to  a  third,  and  so  on.  The  same  is 
true  of  persons  (cf.  Isa.  Ixv.  5,  which  should  read 
"  which  say,  keep  by  thyself,  come  not  near  to 
me;  for  else  shall  I  sanctify  thee/'  i.e., 

2.  Charac-  make  thee  taboo).    Contact  of  a  pei^ 
teristicB    son  ceremonially  unclean  with  sacred 

of  Taboo,    vessels  was  forbidden  (cf.  Vergil,  ^ne- 

id,  iL  717-720  for  a  fine  illustration). 

Taboo  might  be  communicated  in  several  ways — 

by  touch,  as  in  the  preceding  cases;  or  by  a  look. 


as  when  the  African  king  may  not  look  at  a  river; 
or  through  the  ear,  as  when  a  man  who  hears  of  a 
death  in  his  family  becomes  unclean;  or  through 
speech,  as  when  a  man  pronounces  the  name  d  a 
chief.  The  duration  of  a  taboo  varies.  It  may  be 
perpetual,  as  of  a  sanctuary  and  its  appurtenances; 
or  of  a  chief  or  other  sacred  person,  during  his  life- 
time. Or  it  may  be  temporary,  depending  upon 
purgation  by  ceremonial,  or  by  expiration  after  a 
conventional  period  (as  in  mourning).  Similariy, 
a  taboo  may  be  natural  (after  a  fashion),  like  that 
of  the  sanctuary  or  chief;  or  arbitrary,  like  the 
taboo  of  food  for  a  day  by  Saul  (I  SaoL  xiv.  24  sqq.). 
The  explanation  of  taboo  is  that  it  was  connected 
with  the  supernatural.  Fear  of  offense  of  the  po- 
tent powers  which  were  supposed  to  exist  and  of 
consequent  evil  to  self  or  kin  or  possessions  seems 
to  be  the  bottom  fact.  That  a  tree  in  a  sacred 
domain  is  taboo  is  easily  explained.  But  it  has 
not  been  so  clear  why  a  newborn  babe,  a  woman 
in  childbirth,  a  corpse  should  be  taboo.  The  rea- 
son is  that  under  primitive  conditions  whatever 
deals  with  the  mysteries  of  the  beginning  or  end  of 
life  has  the  aspect  of  awe.  Man  stands  in  awe  of 
the  mystery  of  life  and  death.  Taboo  involves 
therefore  (1)  caution  against  things  holy  (for  the 
things'  sake)  and  things  unclean  (for  the  person's 
sake);  (2)  purification  from  the  contact  with  holy 
things  so  as  not  mediately  to  convey  holiness  to 
other  things  (as  when  the  priest  washed  after  ex- 
ercising his  office  before  putting  on  his  ordinary 
apparel);  (3)  purification  from  contact  with  the 
unclean  to  restore  a  lost  condition  of  purity. 

Some  taboos  are  from  their  nature  fatal.  The 
murder  of  a  clansman  or  the  killing  of  a  totem  ani- 
mal involved  either  the  execution  of  the  culprit  or 
(which  amounted  to  the  same  thing)  his  exile  from 
the  clan.  In  the  latter  case  he  was  in  the  position 
of  the  masterless  man  of  feudal  times,  whosoever 
found  him  could  kill  him  without  fear 
3.  Penalties  of  the  blood  feud  (cf.  Gen.  iv.  14). 
of  Breach  An  absolute  taboo,  breach  of  which 
of  Taboo,  was  death,  is  given  I  Sam.  xiv.  24, 
44.  The  basis  of  this  was  a  rude  so- 
cial utilitarian  ethics.  Were  the  offender  not  pun- 
ished, the  offended  spirit  might  avenge  himself  on 
the  tribe  (cf.  I  Sam.  xxi.  1).  But  all  breaches 
were  not  so  serious;  even  primitive  man  has  a 
sense  of  proportion.  Means  of  purification  were 
hit  upon  in  accordance  with  primitive  philosophy. 
The  principal  agents  were  water  and  fire,  often 
accompanied  by  gifts.  In  Madagascar  a  babe  is 
kept  in  the  presence  of  fire  and  lifted  over  or 
through  it  when  first  taken  from  the  house.  Many 
tribes  use  water  or  a  decoction,  some  applying  it 
by  aspersion.  Christian  baptism,  whether  by  as- 
persion or  immersion,  has  a  long  ancestry.  Other 
means  were  the  touch  of  a  sacred  person,  as  of  a 
chief,  a  priest,  or  a  child. 

The  effect  of  taboo  on  ethics  is  profoimd  and  far- 
reaching,  beyond  what  has  been  adduced.  So 
with  totemism,  especially  in  inducing  fidelity  and 
educing  gratitude.  On  the  other  hand,  sugges- 
tion (a  subject  only  just  becoming  understood)  had 
tremendous  power  ethically,  working  along  all  the 
lines  ah:eady  suggested    The  thought  that  the 


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Ck>mparatlve  Belicrion 


supernatural  interferes  to  secure  justice  and  right, 
always  powerful  in  the  primitive  reahn,  still  works 
in  civilised  society,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  oath  and 
the  otherwise  meaningless  ceremony  of  kissing  the 
Bible  in  court,  which  is  the  last  vestige  of  the 
primitive^  ancient,  and  medieval  ordeal.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  transmigration  upon  ethics  may  be 
seen  in  the  written  records  of  religious  peoples,  and 
heard  in  the  naive  explanations  of  tribes  yet  with- 
out  writing,  as  they  tell  why  this  one  became  a 
sziake  and  that  one  a  noble  animal.  Distinctions 
between  modes  of  existence  are  made  by  savages 
and  attributed  to  ethical  or  non-ethical  behavior 
in  this  Hfe.  To  this  contributed  belief  in  the  re- 
turn of  the  dead.  A  crude  heaven  and  hell  is  found 
among  savages  as  a  cardinal  doctrine  of  belief,  in 
which  existence  hereafter  is  conditioned  by  con- 
duct in  this  life;  reward  and  retribution  are  the 
salient  ideas. 

d.  Primitive  BeUffion  in  the  Sphere  of  Cult: 
The  most  cluu-acteristic  and  illuminative  facts  in 
this  region  are  connected  with  sacrifice  (Lat.  aacrifi" 
eium,  Gk,  hierourgia,  "  action  within  the  sphere 
of  things  sacred  ")•  In  modem  usage  the  word 
implies  painful  or  costly  self-denial.  In  this  it 
follows  the  later  developments  of  the  institution, 
in  the  earlier  phases  such  a  sense  was  entirely  lack- 
ing. The  motive  of  sacrifice  is  to  initiate  or  main- 
tain friendly  relationship  with  the  supernatural, 
or  to  recover  it  if  lost,  the  end  being  the  blessing 
of  mankind.  That  it  had  its  origin  as  far  back  as 
the  animistic  stage  is  clear  both  from  the  forms 
and  the  conceptions  attached  to  the  rite  and  from 
the  anthropopathic  views  of  the  supematiu^  pow- 
ers with  which  sacrificial  communion  was  had. 
Sacrifice  as  seen  in  history  may  be  treated  as  com- 
munal, honorific,  and  piacular. 

A  full  definition  of  communal  sacrifice  embraces 
the  following.  It  is  in  its  primitive  form  a  festal 
meal,  with  the  god  and  his  worshipers  as  partici- 
pants, a  meal  equally  necessary  to  both  parties  to 
it,  the  essential  part  of  which  was  a  slain  victim; 
the  title  to  participation  was  vested 
X.  Commu-  in  kinship  as  then  conceived;  the  meal 
nal  Sacri-  was  both  a  pledge  of  the  tie  of  kinship 
fice.  and  a  means  of  its  continuance;  the 
celebration  was  a  community  affair,  and 
the  entire  consimiption  of  the  victim  was  a  neces- 
sity. The  unfolding  of  the  definition  requires  the 
remark  that  sacrifice  antedated  the  idea  of  prop- 
erty (cf.  Jevons,  pp.  385,  390,  and  the  authorities 
cited  there).  The  leading  idea  was  not  a  gift  to 
the  god,  but  a  meal  in  which  god  and  'worshipers 
partook  in  common  of  a  victim  (Smith,  Rel.  of 
Sem,,  p.  226).  The  notion  of  the  kinship  of  gods 
and  men  is  an  old  one  of  which  the  "  Our  Father  " 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  line  of  Aratus  quoted 
by  Paul  (Acts  xvii.  28)  are  late  expressions.  It  is 
animistic  in  origin,  arising  in  the  conceived  parity 
of  all  existence.  The  god  was  of  the  same  stock 
as  his  worshipers,  and  commensality  implied  all 
that  these  mutual  relations  involved.  The  meal 
was  festal.  Observers  have  often  remarked  that 
the  eariier  stages  of  religion  seem  less  afflicted  with 
awe  than  the  later.  Instances  as  wide  apart  as 
the  Vedic  religion  compared  with  the  Brahmanic, 


and  the  celebrations  of  the  period  of  the  Judges 
and  the  Priestly  sacrifice  of  the  Hebrews  confirm 
this.  The  normal  spirit  was  that  of  music,  dancing, 
and  mirth.  Of  this  meal  the  god  was  a  partaker, 
not  the  only  recipient.  That  the  deity  should  eat 
was  a  notion  not  at  all  abnormal,  and  is  illustrated 
by  the  fact  that  the  dead  were  supposed  to  need 
nourishment  and  were  supplied,  often  by  channels 
opening  into  the  grave.  Advancing  culture  modi- 
fied this  idea,  and  to  gods  was  given  the  blood  or 
the  fat  or  both,  and  later  the  food  was  suited  to 
the  spiritual  nature  of  deity,  being  etherealized  by 
fire.  But  for  long  the  gods  were  supposed  to  re- 
quire nourishment.  In  Egypt  records  exist  of  the 
threat  that  were  not  the  gods  complacent  the  magic 
word  of  power  would  be  uttered  which  would  blot 
out  the  worlds  and  starve  the  gods  out  of  exist- 
ence. Anthropopathism  was  carried  to  its  logical 
limits  (cf.  Judges  ix.  13).  Inasmuch  as  kinship 
was  a  matter  of  blood,  as  a  part  of  the  feast  a  slain 
victim  was  required;  without  blood  there  was  no 
sacrifice  (Smith,  Rel.  of  Sem,,  pp.  280,  376).  The 
mystic  sacrifice  of  totemism  and  the  camel  sacri- 
fice cited  from  Nilus  when  a  camel  was  torn  in 
pieces  alive  and  eaten  on  the  spot  (cf.  G.  Allen, 
Idea  of  God,  pp.  323-324,  London,  1897;  J.  E. 
Harrison,  Prolegomena,  p.  482,  ib.  1903;  J.  M. 
Robinson,  Pagan  Christs,  pp.  110  sqq.,  ib.  1903; 
J.  G.  Frazer,  Golden  Bough,  iii.  134  sqq.,  ib.  1900; 
R^ville,  "  Hibbert  Lectures,"  pp.  89  sqq.,  ib.  1884) 
may  as  a  survival  point  to  the  time  when  the  vic- 
tim was  eaten  raw  and  in  the  blood.  The  totem 
as  a  mystic  sacrifice  appears  as  the  only  case  in 
which  the  animal  was  eaten  by  its  human  kin,  ex- 
cept in  case  of  dire  necessity.  The  explanation 
of  this  mystic  rite  is  that  it  was  an  actual  eating 
of  the  god  to  renew  the  kinship  and  to  obtain  some 
share  of  his  qualities,  as  a  savage  devours  the  heart 
of  his  slain  enemy  that  he  may  absorb  the  courage 
and  skill  of  that  enemy.  The  explanation  of  the 
law  of  consuming  the  entire  animal  is  not  easy. 
It  may  have  been  that  nothing  might  be  left  to 
cause  a  breach  of  taboo,  or  it  might  have  been  a 
desire  to  obtain  as  much  of  the  feast  as  possible. 
The  Jewish  Passover  is  but  one  case  out  of  many 
that  may  be  adduced  for  the  custom. 

The  origin  of  honorific  sacrifice  was  likewise  an- 
thropopathic.   Man's  conception  of  deity  led  him 
to  attribute    to  the  gods    the   same 
2.  Honor-  pleasure  in  gifts  as  he  himself  felt,  so 
ific  Sacri-  that    honorific    sacrifice   in    perhaps 
flee.        three  varieties  developed  out  of  vary- 
ing experience,  viz.:  emergential,  im- 
plying special  communion  when  a  favor  was  de- 
sired; periodical    (a   form    which   the   communal 
came  to  take),  having  the  idea  of  tribute;  and  pi- 
acular, which  became  the  general  type  when  the 
idea  of  sin  (by  no  means  a  primitive  idea)  came 
into  experience.    Honorific  sacrifice  was  the  e£Fect 
of  transferring  to  deity  the  position,  attributes, 
and  qualities  of  a  ruler.    As  the  chief  was  pleased 
with  gifts  and  kindly  disposed  to  those  who  made 
them,  and  in  emergencies  would  grant  his  favor 
to  a  donor,  and  as  he  demanded  them  as  tribute, 
deity  was  regarded  as  governed  by  the  same  mo- 
tives.   Out  of  this  grew  the  gifts  and  libations  at 


Oomparati^e  BeUfflon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


200 


the  beginning  of  an  enterprise  of  whatever  sort,  the 
thank-o£Ferings  for  the  like  when  successfully  ac- 
complished, the  periodical  precative  offerings  at 
seed-time  and  the  thank-offerings  of  harvest. 

That  piacular  sacrifice  in  its  earliest  phases  in- 
volved no  more  than  that  the  deity  was  tempora- 
rily estranged  is  the  conclusion  of  W.  R.  Smith  and 
most  anthropologists.  But  the  seriousness  of  the 
estrangement  grew  in  the  mind  and  came  to  dom- 
inate the  whole  conception  of  sacrifice. 

3.  PiacuUr  It  became  necessary  for  oonununity 
Sacrifice,    and  individual  to  take  note  of  actual 

and  putative  transgression  which  re- 
quired purgation  at  stated  intervals,  that  the  rela- 
tionship of  god  and  people  might  be  reestablished. 
While  honorific  sacrifice  continued  and  the  old 
feast-sacrifice  tried  to  hold  its  own,  the  type  which 
expressed  atonement  came  to  be  regarded  as  sacri- 
fice proper.  The  idea  of  an  angry  god  to  be  pro- 
pitiated became  regnant  in  theology,  the  atoning 
sacrifice,  devoted  to  the  deity,  became  dominant 
in  cult. 

The  question  of  hxmian  sacrifice  is  difficult.  That 
it  was  primeval  is  improbable,  that  it  was  primi- 
tive is  certain.  The  cases  of  foundation  sacrifice, 
of  human  victims  offered  to  rivers,  and  particu- 
larly the  redemption  of  the  first-bom  are  decisive. 
That  after  savagery  was  left  behind  it  was  an  ex- 
treme measure  appears  from  II  Kings  iii.  27.  In 
times  of  famine  the  German  tribes  offered  sacrifices 
of  increasing  worth,  the  last  and  noblest  the  life  of 

the  chief,  if  the  gods  did  not  take  pity. 

4.  Human  Yet  that  at  an  earlier  period  the  sac- 
Sacrifice,  rifioe  of  a  guilty  tribesman  was  re- 
quired is  proved  not  only  by  such 

narratives  as  Josh.  vii.  25,  but  by  the  primitive 
law  of  blood-revenge,  a  life  for  a  life.  Substitution 
came  in  time  in  both  spheres,  divine  and  human; 
but  the  redemption  of  the  first-bom,  man  and 
beast,  common  to  many  nations,  speaks  for  the 
absolute  surrender  of  that  first-bom  in  the  primi- 
tive age.  Substitution  in  divine  affairs  is  anthro- 
popathic.  An  offended  clan  with  a  blood-feud 
would  compound  for  a  lesser  victim  or  a  money 
consideration,  so  would  the  deity.  This  was  car- 
ried so  far  that  among  some  peoples,  as  in  Mexico, 
the  mimicry  of  sacrifice  of  the  human  was  per- 
formed upon  a  puppet  of  dough,  or,  as  in  Egypt, 
the  maiden  sacrificed  to  Father  Nile  was  an  image 
of  mud  formed  on  the  bank  of  the  river.  But  this 
mimicry  is  no  less  decisive  of  the  former  fact  of 
himian  sacrifice  than  is  the  play  of  the  rape  of  the 
virgin  of  the  eariier  marriage  by  capture. 

2.  In  National  and  Universal  Religions.—*.  De- 
pendence on  Tribal  Belifflon:  It  is  but  assert- 
ing the  evolution  of  religion  to  declare  that  the  ver- 
dict of  historical  investigation  is  that  the  great 
religions  developed  out  of  preexisting  religion.  This 
is  true  both  of  the  "  personal "  religions  which 
owed  their  origin  in  each  case  to  a  great  teacher 
and  of  those  faiths  which  can  be  traced  to  no  single 
founder.  The  indebtedness  of  Zoroaster  to  the 
Indo-Persian  "  Urreligion  "  is  made  out;  the  rise 
of  Brahmanism  out  of  Vedism  and  the  evidences  of 
animistic  and  fetishistic  belief  in  the  hymns  of  the 
Rik  carry  the  ancestry  of  the  great  religions  of  In- 


dia back  to  its  roots  in  primitive  faith  and  prac- 
tise; recent  study  in  the  religions  of  Greece  and 
Rome  (Harrison's  Prolegomena  and  Granger's  Wor- 
ship of  the  Romans)  is  leading  to  similar  aniimstic 
paternity  in  the  faiths  of  Homer  and  Vergil;  Moses 
built  on  old  Semitic  foundations  and  Jesus  on  Mo- 
saism;  Mohammed  combined  elements  from  Juda- 
ism, Christianity,  and  the  earlier  Arabic  religion. 
In  the  Chinese  Book  of  Rites  there  is  embedded 
evidence  of  the  old  magical  regime  against  the  re- 
peated assertion  of  an  original  monotheism  against 
which  every  detail  of  history  cries  out.  An  ele- 
ment of  proof  in  this  direction  consists  of  sur- 
vivab  or  "  superstitions."  This  last  word  et3rmo- 
logically  expkdns  itself  and  the  argument.  It  tells 
of  something  auperstans,  "  remaining  over  "  (from  a 
former  condition  of  things).  And  it  is  the  dis- 
covery by  modem  investigators  of  the  fact  of 
survivals  in  religion  and  of  the  other  fact  that 
psychological  law  is  constant  in  the  mass  which 
has  brought  the  roots  of  religion,  to  light.  The  one 
example  of  the  "  harvest-maiden  "  may  be  ad- 
duced, a  practise  still  followed  in  many  parts  of 
Europe  which  leads  in  direct  recession  back  to  the 
worship  of  Core  or  the  earth-maiden,  and  thence  to 
the  corn-spirit  of  each  plot  of  land,  and  thence  into 
sheer  animism  (Frazer,  Golden  Bough). 

b.  Common  Features:  The  great  religions  all 
show  two  conflicting  methods  in  their  psycholog- 
ical operations.  One  is  the  enunciation  of  crystal- 
lised dogma,  the  formulation  of  regulations  which, 
once  expressed,  are  expected  to  govern  perma- 
nently the  life  of  man.  This  mode  of  thought  de- 
fines God,  man,  the  relations  of  each 
z.  Psycho-  to  the  other  and  to  the  universe,  and 
logical,  endeavors  so  to  express  duty  that  that 
expression  shall  wholly  ensphere  man's 
entire  life  of  thought  and  act.  It  creates  an  or- 
thodoxy to  repudiate  which  involves  the  charge 
of  heterodoxy,  not  seldom  of  atheism.  The  other 
method  notes  the  freedom  of  thought,  the  elusive- 
ness  of  the  idea  of  the  supematural,  the  indefinable- 
ness  of  the  spiritual,  and  claims  the  right  of  the 
individual  soul  to  achieve  in  its  own  way  right  re- 
lationship with  God,  man,  and  the  imiverse.  These 
two  roads  to  right  relationship,  the  dogmatic  and 
the  mystic,  opposed  in  the  main  though  they  are, 
show  often  a  curious  effort  to  come  together.  The 
dogmatician  loses  himself  in  metaphysical  vague- 
ness, while  the  mystic,  turning  aside  to  lonely  con- 
templation, finds  himself  at  the  head  of  a  com- 
munity and  formulates  rules  of  guidance  for  his 
followers. 

A  second  psychological  tendency  is  that  which 
envelops  as  with  a  halo  the  founder  of  the  religion, 
if  a  founder  there  be,  and  conceives  him  as  in  a 
special  sense  divine.  Even  Mohammed,  who  dis- 
claimed miracle,  was  by  his  own  generation  re- 
ported to  have  performed  miraculous  deeds.  The 
habit  of  forming  legend  concerning  a  religious 
leader  is  the  operation  in  the  religious  sphere  of 
that  which  works  in  all  spheres.  iGsculapius  be- 
came a  god,  Lycurgus  was  thought  impeccable, 
Frederick  the  Great  and  Washington  might  have 
been  as  religiously  sinless  as  they  are  politically, 
had  their  activities  been  in  the  religious  sphere. 


doi 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OomparatiTO  Beligion 


The  extent  to  wliich  use  of  religious  legend  runs  is 
governed  largely  by  the  need  created  by  dogmatic 
assertion,  by  the  necessities  of  the  system  de- 
veloped. Operating  in  another  region,  each  re- 
ligion sees  in  its  own  scriptures  the  very  word  of 
God,  and  from  this  word  the  dogmatician  draws 
his  proof  texts  for  his  closely  cut  definitions,  while 
the  mystic  seeks  from  the  same  source  justification 
for  his  wildest  imaginings  and  even  for  his  anti- 
nomian  practise.  Common  psychological  action 
is  observable  in  the  religions  which  perceive  in  the 
physical  something  by  nature  so  opposed  to  good 
that  conquest  over  the  body,  even  to  its  destruc- 
tion, becomes  a  religious  necessity.  And  this  con- 
quest is  sought  by  the  same  two  methods;  either 
by  an  asceticism  which  starves  and  so  vanquishes 
the  material,  or  gives  it  free  rein  and  destroys  it 
by  extreme  license.  The  development  in  so  many 
regions,  in  India,  China,  Arabia,  Greece,  Rome, 
Peru,  and  Mexico,  with  features  which  repeat  or 
caricature  Christian  monasticism,  is  one  of  the 
facts  of  history. 

Socially,  it  is  rarely  that  religion  becomes  the 
controlling  factor  in  advanced  stages  of  civiliza- 
tion. Mohanunedanism  was  unique  in  that  it 
welded  together  the  Arab  tribes  into  a  whole  in 
which  intense  tribalism  was  merged  into  fanatical 
religious  fervor.  Society  and  religion  interact.  Re- 
ligion responds  to  the   change  made 

2.  SocUl.    by  the  transformation  of  pastoral  into 

agricultural  and  commercial  life,  and 
modifies  its  idea  of  God  and  of  the  service  due  him. 
Yet  there  is  always  a  conservative  element  opposed 
to  these  transformations  in  life  of  which  the  Rech- 
abites  (q.v.)  in  Israel  are  fairly  representative. 
The  factors  which  are  influential  in  the  develop- 
ment of  society  and  of  culture  are,  however,  in  early 
stages  the  care  of  religion.  The  first  tribunals,  are 
the  sanctuaries,  where  the  god  pronounces  judg- 
ment. Physical  ills  are  first  treated  by  the  priests 
learned  both  in  simples  and  in  the  magic  spells 
which  condition  their  correct  use.  Astronomy  de- 
velops in  the  priestly  schools;  mythology  gives 
way  to  philosophy  in  priestly  speculation;  music 
is  often  the  development  of  the  service  at  the 
abrine;  architecture  and  art  make  their  noblest 
flights  in  the  erection  and  adornment  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. Yet  these  arts  and  sciences  emancipate 
thenaselves  from  the  thraldom  of  the  priesthood, 
become  independent  and  even  opposing  forces,  and 
the  interaction  of  these  forces,  no  longer  one  but 
many,  contribute  to  the  diversity  and  so  to  the 
devdopment  of  society. 

It  is  the  natural  result  of  the  early  dominance 
of  religion  in  the  life  of  man  that  religion  sought  to 
control  ethics.  Yet  the  moral  sense  and  the  re- 
ligious have  interacted  throughout  history.  Ethics 
itself  has  a  history,  a  development.  No  absolute 
standard  of  ethics  is  yet  attained,  nor  is  it  likely 

that  the  highest  standard  of  conduct 

3.  EthicaL   now  ideally  possible  will  not  have  to 

give  way  to  one  still  higher.  That  is 
the  law  of  history.  It  is  asserted,  and  with  rea- 
son, that  religion  has  offended  against  the  ethics 
of  a  later  age,  sometimes  of  its  own  age.  Samuel 
hewed  Agag  in  pieces  "  before  the  Lord  ";  Serve- 


tus  was  burned  as  a  heretic;  the  Quakers  were  per- 
secuted for  righteousness'  sake  in  godly  Massachu- 
setts; and  it  was  the  moral  sense  which  did  away 
with  that  religious  but  immoral  institution,  the 
Inquisition.  Religion,  in  primitive  stages  the  ar- 
biter of  conduct,  in  the  organized  religions  has  had 
to  submit  to  the  dicta  of  moral  consciousness.  The 
relations  of  the  family  and  the  intercourse  of  man 
in  society  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  advance- 
ment of  morals;  but  religion  gives  its  sanction  to 
the  development  and  elevates  the  standard  by  in- 
troducing consideration  of  the  divine.  And  it  is 
memorable  that  in  most  regions  the  most  powerful 
incentive  to  right  living  has  come  through  the  re- 
ligious teaching  upon  eschatology.  The  concept 
that  happiness  in  the  future  life  is  contingent  upon 
right  conduct  in  this  life  constitutes  an  appeal  to 
that  powerful  and  ever-present  motive,  desire  for 
one's  welfare.  A  powerful  adjunct  to  the  forces 
developing  morality  are  the  codes  put  forth  from 
the  heart  of  the  sanctuary. 

When  the  organized  religions  came  into  existence 
the  sense  of  the  holiness  of  God  and  of  the  sinful- 
ness of  man  produced  the  idea  of  a  chasm  between 
deity  and  humanity.  The  bridge  of  that  chasm 
was  the  cultic  institution  of  the  sacrifice,  the  medi- 
ator between  god  and  man  being  the  sacrifioer. 

So  sacrifice,  which  in  the  earlier  stages 
4.  Cultic.    of  religion  had  been  the  sign  of  the 

conmiunity  of  god  and  man,  became 
an  at-one-ment,  the  means  of  reintroducing  a  hai^ 
mony  which  had  been  lost.  But  the  right  method 
of  offering  this  appeasing  gift  had  come  to  be  al- 
most as  important  as  the  gift  itself,  so  that  a  rit- 
ual developed  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  class 
claiming  the  knowledge  and  therefore  the  right  ex- 
clusively to  perform  the  sacred  office.  Hence  the 
universal  factors  in  religion  in  the  cultic  sphere  are 
the  sacrifice  and  the  priest.  Worship  may  be  multi- 
form and  diverse,  but  these  factors  remain,  though 
disguised  more  or  less  skilfully.  Originally  as 
accompaniments  of  the  sacrifice,  later  in  part  di- 
vorced from  them,  prayer  and  praise  became  so 
universal  that  the  Psalms  of  the  Hebrew  temple 
have  their  analogues  in  all  the  worship  of  man. 

c.  Uodlfioations  Due  to  Ethnic  or  Local  BilTer- 
ences:  Why  different  religions  exist  can  no  more 
be  answered  than  why  races  are  brown,  yellow, 
white,  or  black.  Each  people  has  its  favorite  no- 
tions, in  religion  as  elsewhere.  Hence  each  de- 
veloped religion  has  something  of  its  own  upon 
which  it  places  emphasis.  Egypt  was  dominated 
by  the  idea  of  the  effect  of  conduct  here  upon  the 
life  beyond;  China  taught  the  apotheosis  of  the 
family  and  emphasized  the  fifth  commandment; 
India  laid  special  stress  upon  the  immanence  of 
God  in  his  world;  Persia  was  concerned  with  the 
absolute  holiness  of  God;  Mohammedanism  is  ab- 
sorbed with  the  oneness  of  deity;  Greece  laid  stress 
on  the  divine  in  the  human;  Rome  emphasized 
the  supremacy  of  law  and  the  fixity  of  ritual.  That 
these  separate  specialties  were  the  expression  of 
national  peculiarities  is  as  far  as  one  may  go,  the 
wherefore  is  inexplicable. 

d.  Parallel  Lines  of  Development:  The  organ- 
ized religions  often  follow  parallel  lines  of   de- 


Oomparatlve  Kelifflon 
Oomte 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


202 


velopment.  (1)  In  the  primitive  sta^  spirits 
are  innumerable,  **  they  swarm."  No  Umits  can 
be  placed  on  the  number  of  objects  possessed 
by  them  as  their  home,  and  countless  hordes 
besides  roam  homeless  in  earth  and  sea  and  air. 
But  as  man's  mentality  grows,  he  compares  and 
generalizes  and  groups.  To  take  one  example: 
whereas  each  plot  of  ground  once  had  its  corn-spirit 
whose  gift  the  crop  of  that  field  was,  comparison 
gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  an  earth-goddess,  a  Deme- 
ter  or  Ceres  or  Core,  by  whose  beneficence  came 
all  the  gifts  earth  made  to  man  in  growing  crops. 
The  corn-spirits  of  a  district  coalesced  and  then 
became  a  national  deity  to  whom  finally  all  in- 
crease of  the  earth  was  attributed.  The  history  of 
Zeus  among  the  Greeks  also  illustrates  this  prin- 
ciple. Nearly  200  names  are  known  for  this  deity, 
only  about  one-third  of  which  are  poetic  or  de- 
scriptive. Nearly  all  the  rest  are  referred  to  local 
or  elemental  deities  whom  he  absorbed  or  dis- 
placed, assuming  their  functions  and  their  cults, 
the  latter  of  which  are  in  several  cases  discordant 
with  his  normal  worship  and  alien  to  his  nature  as 
a  sky-god.  The  explanation  is  that  as  Zeus  be- 
came the  great  national  deity  through  the  leader- 
ship of  the  tribes  whose  principal  god  he  was,  he 
took  over  the  being,  attributes,  offices,  shrines,  and 
worship  of  older  gods  whose  memory  lingered  solely 
in  the  names  added  to  his  as  expressive  of  some 
special  phase.  So  was  it  everywhere.  The  num- 
bier  of  the  gods  was  ever  diminishing.  Pantheons 
replaced  the  hordes  of  worshipful  spirits,  and  in 
these  the  principal  god  obscured  the  lesser  who 
tended  to  vanish  from  cult  and  recognition.  Thus 
in  Assyria  Asshur  became  almost  the  only  god 
aside  from  Ishtar,  and  in  Israel,  where  according 
to  the  first  commandment  the  gods  of  the  nations 
were  recognized  as  real  existences,  by  the  time  of 
the  exile  Yahweh  had  come  to  be  regarded  as  the 
only  god  of  all  the  earth.  Sometimes  in  this  proc- 
ess gods  were  associated  in  triads  or  trinities,  as  in 
Egypt,  Babylonia,  and  India,  in  the  last  case  paral- 
leling every  phase  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  Thus  the  tendency  is  toward  monothe- 
ism, a  result  achieved  only  in  Judaism,  Christian- 
ity, Mohammedanism,  and  possibly  in  Zoroastrian- 
ism.  (2)  Another  general  tendency  is  that  toward 
crystallization  in  ritual  and  creed.  At  the  rise  of 
a  religion  observances  and  conceptions  are  sponta- 
neous, free,  individualistic.  But  as  the  community 
grows  exhortation  hardens  into  doctrine,  confes- 
sion into  creed,  observance  into  ritual,  acceptance 
of  which  and  conformity  to  which  mark  the  true 
believer.  Thus  orthodoxy  and  heterodoxy  take 
their  rise  and  become  integral  parts  of  religious 
thinking  and  terminology.  (3)  There  is  also  a 
general  tendency  toward  sectarianism.  Against 
the  disposition  to  define  correct  modes  of 
teaching,  of  belief,  and  of  worship  arises  the 
individualistic  and  diversified  mentality  of  man- 
kind, protesting  against  the  limitations  placed 
upon  conceptions  of  God  and  on  ways  of  serv- 
ing him.  Groups  of  individuals  find  themselves 
agreeing  together  in  disagreeing  with  the  stand- 
ards erected.  The  result  is  that  sect  arises 
wherever  attempt  is  made  at  uniformity.   As  an 


example,  what  is  perhaps  the  most  rigid  and  im- 
yielding  religious  platform  yet  made,  the  teaching 
of  Mohammed,  is  obliged  to  accommodate  Sunni 
and  Shiah  with  their  almost  untellable  variety  of 
subdivisions.  Judging  from  the  universal  tend- 
ency of  religion  to  develop  sect,  if  history  fore- 
casts the  future,  oneness  of  belief  will  never  be  at- 
tained. And  if  the  apparent  demands  of  human 
nature  be  taken  into  the  reckoning,  such  a  result 
is  not  desirable.  The  Calvinistic  mind  must  be 
left  to  its  adoration  of  the  mathematical  precision 
of  definite  and  exact  foreordination,  while  the  Ar- 
minian  mind  rejoices  in  the  absolute  responsibility 
of  the  individual  for  his  own  salvation  or  destruc- 
tion. Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Biblioqrapht:  I.-V.:  The  indispenaable  book  here  is  H. 
Jaatrow.  The  Study  of  Rsliifian,  New  York,  1901  (thor- 
ough, profound,  and  sound).  Consult  alao:  J.  E.  Car- 
penter, Place  of  Hiet.  of  Relioion  in  ThedooiaU  Study. 
London,  1891;  Chabin,  La  Science  de  la  Rdiffion,  Paris, 
1898;  L.  H.  Jordan,  Comparative  Reliffion,  Its  Oeneaia  and 
Growth,  New  York,  1905  (very  useful  for  bibliography, 
but  uneven  and  not  always  sound  in  judinnent);  P.  D. 
Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Ldtrhudi  der  Reiigianao^ 
Bdiichte,  i.  1-16.  TQbingen,  1905;  £.  CJrawley,  The  Tree 
of  Life.  A  Study  of  Reliffion,  London,  1905  (rationalistic 
but  suggestive);  8.  von  Csobel.  Die  EntuHckelung  der  Be- 
ligionabegriffe,  2  vols..  Leipsic,  1907;  O.  Pfleiderer.  Re- 
ligion and  Hietoric  Faithe,  New  York,  1907;  C.  Schasr- 
Bchmidt,  Die  Religion.  EinfiJurung  in  ihre  EntmddMinge- 
geeehichie,  Leipsic,  1907. 

yi.:  On  primitive  religion  the  literature  is  imm^niift. 
On  the  whole  field  the  following  four  books  are  indispen- 
sable and  supplement  each  other:  E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive 
Culture,  London,  1903  (the  classic  on  Animism);  D.  G. 
Brinton,  Religione  of  Primitive  PeopUe,  New  York,  1807 
(by  the  highest  American  authority);  J.  G.  Eraser,  Geiden 
Bough,  3  vols.,  London,  1900  (primarily  oonoemed 
with  Magic,  it  covers  the  whole  field  of  primitive  religious 
conceptions);  F.  B.  Jevons,  Introduction  to  HieL  of  Re- 
ligion, London,  1896  (valuable,  but  handicapped  by  pxe- 
suppositions;  cf.  the  keen  criticism  in  J.  11.  Robertson, 
Pagan  ChriaU,  ib.  1903). 

For  Animism  and  primitive  psychology  consult:  W. 
Mannhardt,  Antike  Wald-  und  Feld-KuUe,  2  vols.,  Ber- 
lin, 1876-77;  F.  Granger,  Worship  of  the  Romans,  Lon- 
don, 1895;  Marian  R.  (3ox,  Introduction  to  Folklore,  ib. 
1897  (valuable  as  a  "  first  book  ");  Mrs.  J.  H.  Philpot. 
The  Sacred  Tree,  ib.  1897;  A.  S.  Geden,  Studies  in  Com^ 
parative  Religion,  ib.  1898  (clear,  excellent);  A.  Bor- 
chart,  Der  Animismus,  Freiburg,  1900;  F.  Schultse. 
Psychologie  der  NatwrvOiker,  book  iii.,  Leipsic,  1000;  A 
E.  Oawley,  Mystic  Rose,  New  York,  1902  (suggestive, 
though  erratic);  F.  H.  Cushing.  Zuni  Tales,  New  York. 
1902  (should  be  read  by  all  students  of  primitive  no- 
tions); R.  H.  Nassau.  Fetichism  in  Weut  Africa,  ib.  10O4 
("  Fetichism  "  is  equivalent  here  to  "  religion  ");  E- 
Clodd,  Animism,  London,  1905  (low-priced,  should  be  in 
every  library);  Anthropological  Essays  Presented  to  E.  B. 
Tylor  in  Honour  of  his  76th  Birthday,  Oxford,  1007 
(treats  many  of  the  more  recondite  matters  touched  on  in 
the  text). 

On  Magic,  besides  the  general  works  mentioned  above, 
consult:  A.  C.  Haddon,  Magic  and  Feti^ism,  London, 
1906  (one  of  the  "  good  little  books ");  F.  I.«norznant, 
Chaldcean  Magic,  London,  1877;  L.  W.  King,  Babylonian 
Magic,  ib.  1896;  T.  W.  Davies,  Magic,  Divination,  and 
Demonology,  ib.  1898:  E.  A.  T.  Budge,  Egyptian  Magic 
ib.  1899;  W.  W.  Skeat.  Malay  Magic,  ib.  1900;  A.  Lang. 
Magic  and  Religion,  ib.  1901. 

On  Mythology  consult:  F.  Max  Mailer,  Contribuiioni 
to  the  Science  of  Mythology,  2  vols.,  London,  1807  (his 
completed  statement,  cf.  his  Natural  Religion,  heel.  xri.. 
1889,  and  Science  of  Language,  Lect.  ix.,  1880);  A.  Lang. 
Ciistom  and  Myth,  London,  1884;  idem,  My^,  Ritual  and 
R^igion,  ib.  1899  (Mr.  Lang  is  the  leading  exponent  of 
the  anthropological  school):  J.  Fiske,  MyOts  and  Mv^ 
makers,  Boston,  1872;  D.  G.  Brinton.  Myths  of  Ae  Se» 
World,  Philadelphia,  1896;  Jevons,  ut  sup.,  chap.  six. 


203 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oompajrati^e  Keli^on 
Oomte 


On  Totemism  consult:  A.  Lang,  Secret  of  the  Totem, 
London.  1905  (with  which  may  be  compared  his  Cuatom 
and  Myth  and  his  Myth,  Ritual  and  Religion);  J.  McLen- 
nan, Studiee  in  Ancient  Hietory,  2  series,  ib.  1876-96; 
W.  R.  Smith,  in  Journal  of  PhUoloffy,  ix  (1880).  79  sqq.. 
and  in  his  Rd,  of  Sem.  and  Kinahip  (Smith  and  McLen- 
nan are  the  highest  authorities);  J.  K5hler,  Zur  Urge- 
achichte  der  Ehe,  Totemiemue  ....  Stuttgart,  1897; 
Mrs.  K.  Langloh  Parker.  The  Euahlayi  Tribe,  ib.  1905 
(with  Mrs.  Parker's  books  should  be  read  B.  Spencer  and 
F.  J.  Gillen.  Native  Tribee  of  Central  AuetnUia,  ib.  1899. 
and  Northern  Tribee  of  Central  Auetralia,  ib.  1904);  H. 
Webster.  PrimiHve  Secret  SocieOea,  New  York.  1908.  The 
subject  ia  illustrated  also  by  H.  C.  Trumbull.  Blood  Cove- 
nant, New  York.  1885;  idem.  Threahold  Covenant,  ib.  1896. 

On  Taboo  consult:  Smith.  Rel.  of  Sem.,  151  sqq..  446 
sqq.,  479  sqq.;  idem,  Kinahip,  passim;  A.  Lang,  Cuatom 
and  Myth,  pp.  64-86;  Granger,  ut  sup.,  pp.  200-219; 
S.  Hartland.  Legend  of  Peraeua,  ii.,  chaps,  ix.-xiii..  London. 
1897;  Crawley,  MyaOe  Roae,  pp.  10-80. 

On  Sacrifice  consult:  A.  Lang.  Cuatom  and  Myth,  pp. 
105-120;  idem.  Modem  Mythology,  pp.  70-91;  H.  Spen- 
cer. Rrinciplea  of  Sociology,  part  i..  chap,  xix.,  London, 
1889;  G.  Allen.  Evolution  of  Idea  of  Ood,  chaps,  v.-vii.. 
xyi..  ib.  1897;  F.  B.  Jevons,  ut  sup.,  chaps,  xi.-xii.;  W. 
R.  Smith.  ReL  of  Sem.,  pp.  213-end;  idem,  Kinahip,  pp. 
306  sqq.;  Fraser.  ut  sup.,  chap,  iii.;  S.  Hartland.  ut  sup., 
dbap.  xviii 

Consult  further:  J.  F.  C.  Hecker,  Dancing  Mania  of  the 
Middle  Agea,  New  York.  1888;  B.  Sidis.  Paychology  of 
Suggeation,  ib.  1898;  R.  N.  Cust.  Common  Featurea  which 
'  in  all  Rdigiona,  London.  1895. 


COMPLIHE:  The  concluding  part  of  the  day's 
office  in  the  breviary  (q.v.),  normally  recited  just 
before  bedtime  and  corresponding  in  some  ways 
to  prime,  though  even  more  than  the  latter  office 
it  has  a  general  and  invariable  character  all  through 
the  year.  It  begins  with  a  short  lesson  (I  Pet.  v. 
8),  followed  by  the  confession  and  absolution,  four 
psalms,  the  hymn,  another  short  lesson  with  re- 
sponsory,  the  Nunc  dimiUis  or  Song  of  Simeon 
(Luke  ii.  29-^2),  and  certain  prayers.    See  Vespers. 

COKPQSTELLA:  Properly  Santiago  de  Com- 
postella,  a  city  of  Galicia,  northwestern  Spain  (33 
m.  8.  by  w.  of  Corunna),  reputed  burial-place  of 
the  apostle  James  the  Greater  and  for  several  cen- 
turies the  most  frequented  place  of  pilgrimage  in 
Western  Europe.  Although  the  book  of  Acts  (xii. 
2)  states  that  James  was  put  to  death  in  Jerusalem 
(44  A.D.),  Spanish  tradition  declares  that  he  went 
to  Spain  and  suffered  mart3rrdom  there.  For  a 
long  time  his  burial-place  was  unknown,  but  it  was 
miraculously  discovered  early  in  the  ninth  century. 
A  chapel — ^which  in  time  gave  way  to  a  cathedral 
—was  built  on  the  spot,  and  a  town  grew  up  there, 
called  Ad  sanctum  Jaccbum  apoatolum  or  Giacamo 
Vostolo,  whence  Compostella  (?).  The  story  is  first 
found  in  the  ninth  century  (Walafried  Strabo, 
Poema  de  xii.  aposiolis,  and  others),  and  is  gener- 
ally rejected  by  Protestants.  Most  Roman  Catho- 
lic scholars  also  do  not  accept  the  alleged  visit  of 
James  to  Spain,  but  incline  to  believe  the  tra- 
dition concerning  his  burial-place.  Santiago  is 
now  a  town  of  about  25,000  inhabitants,  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop  and  of  a  university.  For  the 
Order  of  Compostella  see  James,  Saint,  of  Com- 

HJSTELLA,  Order  op.  (O.  ZOCKLERf.) 

Bduoobapht:  H.  Floras.  Bapafla  aagrada,  iii.,  app.  x.,  pp. 
414-435.  Madrid.  1754;  Natalis  Alexander.  Hiatoria  ecde- 
9iaaUoa,  aeo.  i..  diawrt.,  prop.  i..  vol.  iii.  161  eqq..  Venioe. 
1778;  P.  B.  Gams.  Die  Kirchengeachidite  Spaniena,  ii.  1, 
PP.  285-299,  iL  2.  pp.  361-396.  Rcgenaburg,  1864;  KL, 
iii.  774-777. 


COMPSTON,    HERBERT    FULLER    BRIGHT: 

Church  of  England;  b.  at  Bamsley  (21  m.  n.  of 
Sheffield),  Yorkshire,  England,  Oct.  17,  1866.  He 
studied  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1891), 
and  was  curate  of  Totnes  (1893-94),  Holy  Trinity, 
Bournemouth  (1895-97),  and  St.  Saviour's,  Brix- 
ton Hill  (1898-1903).  In  1900  he  was  appointed 
lecturer  in  Latin  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
lecturer  in  Hebrew  three  years  later.  He  is  also 
a  member  of  the  faculty  of  theology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  London  and  has  been  curate  of  St.  Mark's, 
North  Audley  Street,  London,  W.,  since  1903.  In 
theology  he  is  a  liberal  Churchman. 

COMPTON,  HENRY:  Bishop  of  London;  b.  at 
Compton  Wynyates  (25  m.  n.n.w.  of  Oxford),  War- 
wickshire, 1632,  youngest  son  of  the  Earl  of  North- 
ampton; d.  at  Fulham,  near  London,  July  7,  1713. 
He  studied  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  1649-52, 
went  abroad  and  did  not  return  to  England  until 
the  Restoration,  when  he  received  a  conmiission  in 
the  army;  decided  to  enter  the  Church  and  was 
admitted  M.A.  at  Cambridge  1661;  entered  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  1666  (B.D.  and  D.D.,  1669);  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Oxford  1674,  translated  to 
London  1675.  He  was  privy  councilor,  and  was 
entrusted  with  the  religious  education  of  the  king's 
nieces,  Mary  and  Anne,  each  of  whom  afterward 
became  queen  of  England.  In  1686,  under  James 
II.,  he  was  suspended  from  his  bishopric  for  hav- 
ing refused  to  suspend  at  the  king's  command  Dr. 
John  Sharp,  dean  of  Norwich,  who  had  preached 
against  popery.  He  actively  espoused  the  cause 
of  William  and  Mary,  crowned  them  king  and  queen 
in  1689,  and  was  reinstated  in  his  old  positions 
and  given  new  honors  and  responsibilities.  The 
close  of  his  life  was  embittered  by  disappointment 
at  not  receiving  the  primacy.  He  was  concilia- 
tory toward  dissenters,  but  his  efforts  to  unite 
them  to  the  Church  met  with  little  appreciation 
from  either  churchmen  or  non-conformists.  He 
gave  liberally  to  all  in  need  and  for  building  churches 
and  hospitals,  and  died  poor  in  consequence.  He 
was  a  good  botanist  and  in  his  grounds  at  Fulham 
had  ''  a  greater  variety  of  curious  exotic  plants 
and  trees  than  had  at  the  time  been  collected  in 
any  garden  in  England."  Besides  episcopal  let- 
ters (republished  as  Episcapalia  with  Memoir  by 
S.  W.  Cornish,  Oxford,  1842)  and  charges,  he  pub- 
lished The  Life  of  Donna  Olimpia  Maldachini 
(1667),  translated  from  the  Italian;  The  Jeauils' 
Intrigues  (1669)  and  A  Treatise  of  the  Holy  Comr 
munion  (1677),  translated  from  the  French. 

COMTE,  cent,  ISIDORE  AUGUSTE  MARIE 
FRA59OIS  XAVIER  (usuaUy  simply  AUGUSTE): 
The  founder  of  the  positive  school  of  philosophy  (see 
PosrrnnsM);  b.  at  MontpeUier  (76  m.  w.n.w.  of 
Marseilles)  Jan.  19,  1798;  d.  in  Paris  Sept.  5,  1857. 
He  was  educated  mainly  at  the  £cole  Polyteoh- 
nique  in  Paris.  In  1817  he  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Saint-Simon,  who  helped  to  determine 
the  future  course  of  his  mental  activity.  In  1826 
he  began  a  course  of  lectures  covering  the  whole 
range  of  science  as  conceived  by  him,  which  was 
terminated  by  an  attack  of  brain  fever,  resulting 
in  such  cerebral  disturbance  as  to  necessitate  his 


Oomta 
Ooncordaaoea 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


204 


confinement  in  an  asylum  and  to  cause  several 
attempts  at  suicide.  In  1828  he  took  up  the  course 
again,  and  the  next  year  definitely  began  the  con- 
struction of  his  Cours  de  philoaophie  poHtive  (6 
vols.,  1830-42).  Some  minor  educational  appoint- 
ments assured  him  a  modest  income,  until  in  1842, 
when  he  lost  the  post  of  examiner  for  admission 
to  the  ficole  Polytechnique,  and  with  it  the  half 
of  his  revenue.  Through  the  efforts  of  John  Stuart 
Mill,  some  of  his  English  admirers  made  up  the  de- 
ficiency for  a  time,  and  from  1848  Littr6  and  other 
French  friends  did  the  same.  After  the  comple- 
tion of  the  PhiloMphie  poaiHve,  he  proceeded  to 
apply  its  principles  to  the  reconstruction  of  society 
in  the  Systhne  de  politique  positive  (4  vols,,  1851- 
1 854).  He  gave  practical  expression  to  his  views  by 
founding  in  1848  the  "  Positive  Society,"  and  by 
giving  courses  of  free  lectures,  which  were  sup- 
pressed by  the  government  in  1861.  The  Politique 
positive  is  much  less  coldly  intellectual  than  his  first 
great  work,  and  is  marked  by  an  enthusiasm  for 
the  welfare  of  humanity  which  he  exalted  into  a 
religion.  The  book,  however,  with  certain  small 
later  works,  the  Cat^hisme  positiviste  (1853),  Ap- 
pel  aux  conservateurs  (1855),  and  SynMse  nibjec- 
live  (1856),  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  a 
section  of  his  followers,  of  whom  Littr6  was  the 
most  important.  In  his  later  years  Comte  was 
less  the  founder  of  a  philosophiciJ  system  than  the 
high  priest  of  a  new  religion  of  humanity. 

Biblioorapht:  Amonc  the  many  translations  of  Comte's 
works  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  The  Phiiotophy 
of  MathmuUica,  by  W.  M.  Gillespie,  New  York.  1861; 
The  Poeitive  Philoaophy,  by  Harriet  Martineau,  4  vols.. 
London.  1853,  2  vols.,  1875,  republished  by  Bohn.  3  vols., 
ib.  1896;  The  Catechiem  of  PoeUive  Religion,  ib.  1858; 
A  Oeneral  View  of  Poeiiiviem,  ib.  1805;  Syetem  of  PoaiUve 
Polity,  by  J.  H.  Bridges,  F.  Harrison,  and  others,  4  vols., 
ib.  1875-79;  The  Eight  Cireulare,  by  S.  Lobb  and  others, 
ib.  1882;  Religion  of  Humanity,  by  R.  Congreve,  ib.  1891. 
For  discussion  of  the  philosophy  of  Comte  see  PoBxnv- 
IBM  and  the  literature  there.  For  the  life  and  work  con- 
sult: his  Correepondanee  inSdite,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1903; 
J.  8.  Mill,  Auguate  Comte  and  Poeitiviam,  London, 
1865,  new  ed.,  1882  (answered  by  M.  P.  £.  Littr^.  Aun 
guele  Comte  et  Stuart  Mill,  Paris,  1866.  and  J.  H.  Bridges. 
The  Unity  of  Comte'a  Life  and  Doctrinee,  London,  1866); 
£.  Caird.  The  Social  Philoaophy  and  Religion  of  Comte, 
Glasgow.  1885;  H.  Gruber.  Augi*9U  Comte  .  .  .  Leben 
und  I^re,  Freiburg.  1889  (translated  into  Fr.  and  Ital.); 
J.  F.  £.  Robinet.  L'CEuvre  etlavie  d*Auguate  Comte,  Paris, 
1891;  G.  Audeffrent,  Atiguate  Comte  ,  .  .  aavieetaa  doe- 
trine,  ib.  1894;  A.  Sohaefer,  Die  Moralphiloaophie  A. 
Comtea,  Basel,  1906. 

CONAlfT,  THOMAS  JEFFERSON:  Baptist;  b. 
at  Brandon,  Vt.,  Dec.  13,  1802;  d.  in  Brooklyn 
Apr.  30,  1891.  He  was  graduated  at  Middlebury 
College,  Vt.,  1823;  was  professor  of  languages  at 
Waterviiie  College  (Colby  University),  Me.,  1827- 
1833;  professor  of  languages  and  Biblical  literature 
Hamilton  Theological  Institution  (Colgate  Uni- 
versity), N.  Y.,  1835-51,  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Biblical  exegesis  Rochester  Theological  Seminary 
1851-67.  From  1857  to  1875  he  was  in  the  service 
of  the  American  Bible  Union  (see  Biblb  Socie- 
ties) and  edited  their  revision  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (1871)  and  portions  of  the  Old.    He  also 


published  The  Meaning  and  Use  of  BapOeein  phUo- 
logically  and  historically  investigated  for  the  Ameri- 
can Bible  Union  (New  York,  1860),  translated  the 
eleventh  edition  of  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Grammar 
(Boston,  1839),  contributed  anew  version  and  phil- 
ological notes  to  the  volume  on  the  Psalms  in  the 
Schaff-Lange  commentary  (New  York,  1872),  and 
with  Lyman  Abbott  edited  a  Dictionary  of  Religious 
Knowledge  (1875).  He  was  a  member  of  the  Amei^ 
lean  Old  Testament  Revision  Company. 

C0NAT7,  THOMAS  JAMES:  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  of  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles;  b.  at  Kilna- 
leck  (67  m.  n.w.  of  Dublin),  County  Cavan,  Ire- 
land, Aug.  1,  1847.  He  studied  at  Montreal  Col- 
lege (1863-67),  College  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
Worcester,  Mass.  (B.A.,  1869),  and  Montreal  Theo- 
logical School  ( 1872 ).  He  was  assistant  rector  of  St. 
John's  Church,  Worcester,  Mass.  (187^-80),  and 
rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  the 
same  city  (1880-97).  On  nomination  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  bishops  of  the  United  States  he  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of 
Ajnerica,  Washington,  by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  1896. 
In  1897  he  was  designated  domestic  prelate  to  the 
pope  with  the  title  of  Right  Reverend  Monsignor, 
and  in  1901  he  was  appointed  titular  bishop  of 
Samos.  In  1903  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Monterey  and  Los  Angeles.  He  was  founder  and 
editor  of  the  monthly  Catholic  School  and  Home 
Magaxine  1892-96,  and  has  written  BibU  Studies 
for  SehooU  (New  York,  1897). 

CONCEPTION,    THE   IMMACULATE.     See  In- 

MACULATE  (k>NCEFnON. 

CONCEPTION  OF  OUR  LADY,  NUNS  OF  THE 
ORDER  OF  THE:  A  religious  order  founded  by 
Beatrix  de  Silva,  sister  of  James,  first  count  of 
Poralego,  Portugal,  in  1484;  confirmed  by  Innocent 
VIII.  1489;  given  the  rule  of  St.  Clare  by  Cardinal 
Ximenes,  but  by  Julius  II.  given  a  separate  rule  in 
1511. 

CONCEPTUALISM.    See  Scholasticism. 

CONCLAVE.  See  Pope,  Papacy,  and  Papal 
System. 

CONCOMITANCE:  An  expression  originating 
with  Alexander  of  Hales  and  made  by  Thomas 
Aquinas  a  regular  part  of  scholastic  theology,  sanc- 
tioned later  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  to  designate 
the  doctrine  that  as  the  living  Christ  is  received  in 
the  Eucharist,  and  thus  his  body  and  blood  can  not 
be  separated,  both,  together  with  his  divinity, 
must  inevitably  be  received  under  the  species  either 
of  bread  or  of  wine.  It  is  in  accordance  with  this 
doctrine  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  justiBes 
the  giving  of  communion  in  one  kind,  asserting 
that  '*  the  whole  Christ  "  is  thus  received,  though 
imder  the  form  of  bread  alone.    See  Transubstan- 


CONCORD,   BOOK   OF;    FORMULA   OF.    See 
Formula  of  Concobd. 


205 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oomte 
Oonoordanoea 


I.  Tbe  First  Coneordanoas. 
11.  Hebrew  ConoordanoeB. 
1524-1878  (f  1). 
Mandelkern'e  Gonoordance  (f  2). 

III.  Greek  Conoordanoes. 
1.  The  Old  Testament. 
3.  The  New  Teetament. 

IV.  Latin  Copcordancee. 


CONCORDAHCES. 

Manufloripts  (f  1). 
1470-1533  (f  2). 
1565-1685  (f  3). 
1751-1892  (f  4). 
^  German  Conoordanoea 
1609-50  (f  1). 

LanckiBoh's  Conoordanoe  (f  2). 
1707-1893  (f  3). 


VI.  Eogliah  GonoordaaoM. 
VII.  FrenehConoordanoM. 
VIII.  Duteh  Conoordanoee. 
IX.  Danish  Conoordanees. 
X.  Swedish  Conoordaaoes. 
XI.  Syriac  Conoordanoes. 
XII.  Topical  Indexes. 


The  name  ooncordanoe  is  applied  to  books 
listing  the  words  of  the  Bible  in  alphabetical 
or  other  classified  order.  Eveiy  great  book  needs 
a  table  of  contents.  The  lists  for  the  Bible 
are  called  concordances,  perhaps  because  of  the 
unison  of  the  one  word  that  stands  out  in  each 
reference,  or  perhaps  because  the  chief  reason  in 
old  times  for  comparing  passages  was  the  attempt 
to  make  them  agree  with  each  other.  Verbal  con- 
cordances are  usually  arranged  according  to  the 
single  words  of  the  text  and  either  add  to  each  the 
simple  chapter  and  verse  where  the  word  occurs, 
or  give  besides  the  words  of  the  passage.  Subject 
concordances  or  topical  indexes  aim  rather  at  the 
matter  than  at  the  words,  and  often  contain  a 
brief  explanation  of  the  subject.  In  this  article 
the  verbal  concordances  are  chiefly  in  view. 

L  The  First  Concordances:  The  first  concord- 
ance seems  to  have  been  in  Latin  and  to  have 
been  made  by  the  Burgundian  Hugo  of  St. 
Cher  (Hugo  Carensis,  d.  1263  or  1264),  the  first 
Dominican  cardinal;  it  is  fabled  that  he  set 
five  hundred  Dominicans  at  work  on  it.  He 
finished  it  about  1230  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
James  at  Paris,  whence  the  name  ConcordanticB  S. 
Jacobi,  also  cialled  Concordantus  brevea  because 
without  the  wording  of  the  passages.  About  the 
year  1250  three  Englishmen  in  the  same  monas- 
tery, John  of  Darlington,  Richard  of  Stavenesby, 
and  Hu^  of  Croydon,  added  the  full  wording  in 
the  ConeordatUicB  S.  Jacobi,  AnglicancB  or  Maxima, 
6o  named  because  of  the  complete  passages.  Arlot 
(Arlotto)  of  Prato,  a  Tuscan,  in  1285  appointed 
minister  general  of  the  Franciscans,  improved 
Hugo's  concordance.  Conrad  of  Deutschland 
or  of  Halberstadt  (flourished  about  1290), 
rewrought  and  abbreviated  Hugo's  book  and 
added,  according  to  Sixtus  Senensis,  the  inde- 
clinable words  (on  Hugo,  Arlot,  and  Conrad  cf. 
Sixtus  Senensis,  Bibliotheca  sancta  ...  a  Joanne 
Hayo  .  .  .  iUustrata,  pp.  249,  250,  201,  220,  the 
last  also  falsely  printed  201,  Lyons,  1593).  In  con- 
nection with  the  Council  of  Basel  in  1433,  1435-40, 
because  of  the  discussions  with  the  Bohemians 
about  ntst,  John  vi.  54,  and  with  the  Greeks  about 
ex  and  per,  John  Stoikowitz  (also  called  John  of 
Ragusa)  is  said  to  have  been  especially  distressed 
at  the  lack  of  a  concordance  of  the  particles  and 
directed  his  Scotch  chaplain,  Walter  Jonas,  to  make 
one.  Jonas  began  to  prepare  a  volume  with  the 
particles  arranged  according  to  the  books  of  the 
Bible,  which  he  nearly  finished  in  three  years. 
Then  two  others  took  it  up  and  completed  it,  and 
they  probably  introduced  the  alphabetical  ar- 
rangement. John  of  Socubia  or  Segovia,  arch- 
do;icon  of  Villaviciesa  in  the  diocese  of  Oviedo,  wrote 
the  preface.  Some  have  thought  that  the  Can- 
cordantuB  maxima  were  so  named  not,  as  stated 


above,  because  they  gave  the  full  passages  instead 
of  merely  chapter  and  verse,  but  because  they  con- 
tained also  the  indeclinable  words. 

n.  Hebrew  Concordances:  Rabbi  Isaac  Mor- 
decai  (on  the  name  cf.  Buxtorf's  preface,  leaf  4a) 
ben  Nathan  made  a  Hebrew  concordance  1438- 
1448:  r*^B^Jfcm)pJ)p  Knpjn  TT\:  TKD.  He  ar- 
ranged the  roots  alphabetically,  save  that  the 
quadrilaterals  stood  at  the  end;  derivatives  stood 
under  the  roots.  It  was  published  by  Daniel 
Bomberg  Venice,  1524,  in  folio,  and  again  in  1564 
under  the  Doge  Amald  Ferrer,  superintended 
by  Meir  ben  Jacob  Franconi  an.  published  by 
Lorenzo  Bragadini,  printed  by  Maggio  Parentini. 
Ambrose  Froben  reoublished  it  in  Basel,  1580, 
under  the  title:  TJD3  jnpjn  TfO  I^K^  1DD 
fiTK^^DJfcm^pJ^p  (in  the  edUio  pnma  of  1524 
this  was  the  second  title,  after  the  sheet  with 
the  preface,  but  closing  with  B^^),  in  fifty 
sheets  beside  the  sheet  in  front  (at  least  in  the 
Leipsic  copy);  the  colimms  often  agree  with  the 
coiimms  of  15i24;  at  the  end  is  Aaron  Pesaro's  Ust 

of    the    passages    explained    in    the 

z.  1524-    Babylonian  Tidmud.      Anton  Reuch- 

1878.       Hn,  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Strasburg, 

published  an  edition  at  Basel,  1556, 
in  which  Rabbi  Nathan's  explanation  of  the  words 
was  given  in  Latin,  but  badly;  Johann  Brenz 
wrote  the  preface;  it  appeared  again,  Basel,  1569. 
Solomon  Mandelkem  saw  in  the  royal  library  at 
Munich  the  manuscript  of  a  concordance  that  Elias 
Levita  Bachur  wrote  in  1516-21:  m^liatn  1DD. 
Another  manuscript  revised  by  Elias  Levita  and 
provided  with  a  German  translation  is  in  the  Na- 
tional Library  at  Paris  (cf.  Mandelkem's  preface). 
Conrad  Eircher  of  Augsburg,  pastor  at  Donau- 
w6rth,  published  a  Hebrew  concordance;  unfor- 
tunately, because  he  had  given  the  wording  of  the 
passages  from  the  Greek  text  of  the  Septuagint  he 
called  the  book  incorrectly:  Concordantia  V,  Ti. 
GroBca,  Ebrcns  voctlma  reapondentes,  noXixpv^oi 
.  .  .  ,  2  vols.  Frankfort,  1607  (4  leaves),  2,271, 
2,310  cols.  (1  leaf),  290  pp.,  quarto.  The  second 
volume  gives  the  Greek  words  with  references  to 
the  places  in  which  they  occur  in  the  first  volume 
and  with  the  passages  from  the  Apocrypha.  Le 
Long  mentions  (p.  456)  a  manuscript  summary 
from  Eircher  made  by  Arnold  Bootius  and  called 
it  Bibliotheca  Segueriana  pag.  37  and  a  manuscript 
Greek-Danish  concordance  to  the  Apocrypha  by 
Frants  Michael  Vogel.  Martin  Troost  treated  the 
Chaldee  sections  by  themselves:  Concordantia 
Chaldaica  et  Syriaca  ex  Danielis  et  Ewa  capUibua 
Chaldaice  scriptis,  Wittenberg,  1617,  quarto.  Marius 
de  Calasio,  a  Franciscan  (d.  1620),  made  an 
edition  published  in  Rome,  1621-22,  by  Michael 
Angelo  of  St.  Romulus:  Concordantife  sacrorum 
bibliorum    Hebraicorum  ...»     published     again. 


Oonoordanoes 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


206 


Cologne,  1646;  London,  1648;  Rome,  1657;  and 
by  William  Romaine,  London,  1747-49,  in  4  vols. 
(15  leaves),  1,366,  1,234,  1,326,  852,  184  cols.  (43 
leaves),  folio.  John  Buxtorf's  concordance  was 
published  by  his  son:  Concordantia  btbliorum  He- 
braicaf  nova  et  cartifidoaa  methodo  dispoaita  in  to- 
cia  innumsrU  depravoHs  emendaUB.  .  .  .  Aooeaae- 
runt  nova  concord.  Chaldaica  .  .  .  per  Johannem 
Buxtorf  fU,,  Basel,  1632  (10  leaves),  and  sheets  A- 
Yy3ryy.  The  preface  tells  of  the  earlier  concord- 
ances. Buxtorf  left  the  particles  out  (cf .  Glauch, 
De  uau  concordantiarum  biblicarum  achediaama, 
Leipsic,  1668,  p.  24).  In  Le  Long,  Bibliotheca  sacra, 
Paris,  1723,  there  is  found  under  Christopher  Crine- 
sius:  "Cane,  Hebr,,  Wittenberg,  1627,  quarto."  J6- 
cher  has  pi37  *1DD  seu  cmalyaia  Novi  Ti.  per  IB7  tar 
bulas.  (Is  that  the  same  book?)  Andreas  Sennert 
published  at  Wittenberg,  1653, 12  leaves  to  announce 
a  book  that  he  would  like  to  publish  if  some  one 
would  bear  the  cost:  ppn  DIpD  i^HT^'Dt  etve  mor 
nuale  concordantiarum  Ebrtso-Btblicarum  d.  J,  Btix- 
torfii.  Christian  Raue  abbreviated  Buxtorf:  Cone, 
Hdtr.  et  Chald.  I,  Buxtorfii  epitome,  Berlin  and 
Frankfort,  1677.  Christian  Nolde  gave  the  parti- 
cles: Conoor.  poHtcu^orum  £&r.-CAaU.,  ()openhiEigen, 
1670;  Sim.  Bened.  Tympe  added  to  it  Joh.  Micha- 
elis's  and  Christian  Koerber's  particles:  Nolde,  Cone, 
partic,  .  ,  .  S,  Gottfr,  Tympitia  eumma  cura  recenr 
Muit  .  .  .  inseruit  concordantiaa  pronominum  eepon 
ratonim  Ebr.  et  Chald,  nunc  primum  congeetaa  a 
SxTneone  Benedido  Tympio  denique  appendicia  loco 
eubjynxit  lexica  particularum  Ebraicarum  Joh, 
Michaelia  [cum  prafatione  Aug,  Pfeifferi  ;  cf.  Bind- 
seil,  XXXV.,  note  1]  et  Chriatiani  Koerheri,  Jena, 
17^.  Le  Long  names  William  Robertson,  Theaaurua 
ling,  aanct,  aeu  cone,  lexicon  Ebr,'Lat,'bibl,,  London, 
1680,  and  Antony  Laymann,  ConcordanticB  Hebrmo- 
aaercB  iuxta  aeriem  cuiuaque  constnictionia  ayntactica, 
n.p.,  1681.  (Is  that  really  a  concordance?)  John 
Taylor  made  a  very  good  Hebrew  concordance 
adapted  to  the  English  text,  1764,  2  vols.  Isaac 
ben  Tsebi  from  Soldin  in  Prussia  siunmarized  Bux- 
torf: .  .  .  3^m  TKD  iDon  iwp  wm  yr*  cne^ 

irVJimipjlp  Knpjn,  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  1768. 
Julius  Fttrst's  great  work:  BHpnpKO  IVIK,  Leipsic, 
1 840,  is  still  much  used;  editions  by  B.  Baer,  Stettin, 
1847  and  1861.  G.  V.  Wigram  aided  by  S.  P.  Treg- 
elles  and  B.  Davidson  published  the  Englishman'a 
Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Concordance,  London,  1843,  3d 
•d.,  1866;  Davidson,  revised  by  Joseph  Hughes, 
London,  1876.  Strack  refers  to  concordances  of 
proper  names  by  Gid.  Brecher,  Frankfort-on- 
Main,  1876,  and  by  L.  M.  Schusslowitz,  *1DD 
WDB^  niVK.  Wilna,  1878. 

In  the  year  1884  Solomon  Mandelkem  announced 
a  new  concordance:  Die  neubearbeitete  Hebrdisch- 
chcUddiache  Btbel-Concordam  .  .  .  nebat  GtUachten 
von  Fachgelehrten,  and  published  15  pp.  quarto; 
later  an  approving  word  of  H.  L.  Fleischer's  was 
added  on  a  separate  leaf.  Finally  the  book  ap- 
peared: Solomon  Mandelkem  Veteris  Teatamenti 
concordanticB  Hdrraicce  et  Chaidaicce  ,  .  .  (and  a 
Hebrew  title),  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1896,  xv.,  1,532  pp. 
folio.  Later  Mandelkem  made  a  small  edition 
without  the  wording  of  the  passages,  Leipsic,  n.d., 
viiL  (1),  1,010  (1)  pp.  quarto.    This  work  had  been 


long  preparing  and  was  published  at  Leipsic  where 
there  are  good  compositors  and  good  proof-read- 
ers in  every  branch;  it  should  therefore  have  been 
careful  and  accurate,  but  it  is  not  at  all  well  done. 
Consequently  it  is  desirable  that  scholars  in 
ttus  department  should  collect  their  contributions 
to  the  correction  of  the  errors  and  send  in  the 

lists  of  mistakes  found,  so  that  the 

2.  Mandel-  publishers   can   issue   a  supplement, 

kern's  Con-  which  they  are  willing  to  do.    The  best 

cordance.    way  would  be  to  divide  the  book  up 

between  a  large  number  of  men,  so 
that  nothing  could  escape  detection.  Some  of 
the  contributions  are  already  made:  Carl  Siegfried, 
Stellenfehler  in  Mandelkem'a  V,  T.  cone.  Hebr.,  in 
ZWT,  1897,  465-467;  Rudolf  Kittel,  Ein  kurzes 
Wort  aber  die  beiden  Mandelkemachen  Concordan- 
ten,  in  ZATW,  1898,  165-167;  B.  Jakob,  Georg 
Beer,  Gustaf  Dahnan,  Bemhard  Stade,  ZATW, 

1898,  348-351;  Herman  L.  Strack,  TLZ,  1898,  no. 
13,  358-359;  (Mandelkem,  ,  ,  .  Pro  dome,  ZATW, 

1899,  183-186);  A.  BUchler,  B.  Jakob,  K  Ludwig, 
E.  K6nig,  A.  von  GaU,  ZATW,  1899,  187-191, 
350;  (I.  L  Kahan,  ZATW,  1899.  353-356;  Man- 
delkem, ZATW,  1900,  173-176;  Kahan,  ZATW, 

1900,  338-344);  E.  Rosenwasser,  ZATW,  1902, 
320;  A.  Zillessen,  ZATW,  1903,  94r-95;  Von  Gall. 
ib.  95-96;  Mayer  Lambert,  ib.  352-354;  Von  Gall 
and  E.  Nestle,  ib.  354;  Rosenwasser,  ZATW,  1904, 
146,  326;  M.  Brann,  in  Monataackrift  fur  GeachichU 
und  Wiaaenachaft  dea  Judentutna,  1898,  529-537; 
Badt,  in  Monataackrift  fur  Geaehichte  und  Wiaaen- 
achaft dea  Judentuma,  1899,  523, 524;  J.  Gdttsbeiger, 
Bibliache  Zeitachrift,  ii.,  1904,  259;  Sven  Hemer,  in 
ZDMO,  Ixi  (1907),  7-17.  Doubtless  other  scholars 
have  further  corrections.  Professor  Kautzsch  in 
Halle  has  given  the  following: 

p.  34  D3^Din  'Si  read  Hob.  2,  S,  instead  of  2,  2. 

p.  251  read  ^nSuni  instead  of  >rhunn, 

p.  315  read  on^>n.  but  Job  6,  21.  on^;n. 

p.  371  ^^n  Ct  3, 4  should  be  put  by  itself  as  stet.  eonstr. 

p.  479  Why  has  Mandelk.  I  Chr.  3.  5.  ^tSu  f  Ed.  Maat^ 
Baer,  Ginsb.  have  here  also  vh^y 

p.  488  ^Oin  Prov.  30,  6  is  wanting. 

p.  503  at  least  I  Ki.  18,  3  does  not  belong  under  the  per- 
fect Kn\  but  under  the  adj.  verbaU,  and  probably  also  I 
Ki.  1.  61;  18.  12;  Prov.  14.  16;  Job.  1,  9. 

p.  729  instead  of  n^^n  ed.  Mant..  Baer  nj^n. 

p.  733  read  V]  (  =  T^i)  instead  of  Pi  and  TM. 

p.  771  HK^J  (infin.  absl.  Niph.7)II  Sam.  19. 43  is  wanting. 

p.  1005  '^r.lOen.  32.  a  instead  of  32,  7. 

He  expressed  the  wish  that  some  one  would 
make  a  concordance  of  the  words  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  end  of  the  words,  so  that  a  scholar  could 
work  rapidly  with  fragments  of  the  inscriptions 
and  of  manuscripts;  cf.  Friedrich  Zimmer's  Greek 
termination-concordance. 

in.  Greek  Concordances:  Sixtus  Senensis  re- 
lates that  about  1300  a  Basilian  monk,  Eutha- 
lius  of  Rhodes,  made  a  Greek  concordance  of  the 
whole  Bible,  following  Hugo  of  St.  Cher's  example 
in  the  Latin  Bible.  This  is  said  to  have  been  seen 
in  manuscript  at  Rome,  but  is  unknown.  Another 
Greek,  George  Sugdures,  who  studied  at  Rome 
toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  and 
afterward  taught  at  Constantinople,  is  said  to  have 
worked  thirty  years  on  a  Greek  concordance  of  the 


807 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Conoordanoes 


whole  Bible,  but  not  to  have  published  it;  cf.  Le 
Long,  456a,  and  JOcber. 

I.  The  Old  Testament:  Trommius  (Abraham 
van  der  Trommen),  ConcordantuB  Gtcbccb  veraionia 
vulgo  dicta  LXX  interpretum  .  .  .  Leguntur  hie 
prcUerea  voces  GraecB  pro  Hebraida  reddUcB  ab  an- 
tiquis  omnibiis  Veteris  Testamenti  interprelibua  .  .  . 
AquHa,  Symmacho,  Theodotione,  .  .  .  Amsterdam 
and  Utrecht,  1718,  was  until  lately  the  only  con- 
cordance for  the  Greek  Old  Testament.  At  the 
end  are  ^ven  a  Hebrew-Chaldee  dictionary,  a 
Greek  dictionary  to  Origen's  Hexapla  from  Mont- 
faucon,  prepared  by  Lambert  Bos,  and  Bos's  com- 
parison of  the  chapters  and  verses  in  the  Sixtino- 
Vatican  edition  of  the  Septuagint  with  those  in 
the  Frankfort  edition  of  1597,  which  both  Kircher 
and  Trommen  used.  Trommen  wrote  in  1718  a 
defense  of  his  book  against  Gagnier,  who  defended 
Kircher.  A  second  edition  of  Trommen  appeared 
at  Amsterdam,  1742.  Bagster published:  A  Handy 
Concordance  of  the  Septuagint,  London,  1887. 
Now  there  exists  the  great  work  of  Edwin  Hatch 
and  Henry  A.  Redpath,  A  Concordance  to  the 
Septuagint  .  .  .  ,  Oxford  (1892,  1897,  1900),  with 
a  supplonent  giving  the  proper  names  (all  should 
have  been  in  one  list). 

a.  The  New  Testament:  Sixtus  Birken  of  Augs- 
burg made  a  concordance  for  the  New  Testament: 
Xystus  Betulejus,  Xvfi^vla  ^  avTike^t^  ry^  diad^iofc 
^W  Nu  TL  concord.,  Basel,  1546.  Henri  Estienne 
finished  his  father's  (d.  1559)  concordance: 
Concordantia  Or, -Lot.  Teetam,  novif  Paris,  1594; 
2d  ed.,  Geneva,  1624.  Erasmus  Schmid  of  Wit- 
tenberg made  a  concordance,  Ni.  Ti,  .  .  . 
TAMEION,  Wittenberg,  1638,  repeated  by  Ernst 
Salomon  Qyprian,  Gotha  and  Leipsic,  1717,  often 
reprinted,  e.g.,  by  John  Williams,  London,  1767; 
without  name,  2  vols.,  Glasgow,  1819;  by  William 
Greenfield,  London,  1830;  in  the  most  conve- 
nient form  by  the  London  publisher  Bagster.  Ethel- 
bert  W.  BuUinger  issued  A  Critical  Lexicon  and 
Concordance  to  the  English  and  Greek  New  Tester- 
ment,  London,  1877,  5th  ed.,  1908.  The  chief  work 
at  present  is  Karl  Hermann  Bruder's,  Leipsic, 
1842,  4th  ed.,  1888,  but  it  will  be  surpassed  by 
Paul  Wilhelm  Schmiedel's,  now  preparing.  George 
V.  Wigram  (see  above)  also  prepared:  The  Eng- 
lithman*s  Greek  Concordance,  London,  1839  and 
later.  Otto  Schmeller,  TAMEION,  London,  1869. 
In  America  Hosea  L.  Hastings  had  an  excellent 
concordance  prepared  by  Charles  F.  Hudson  and 
revised  by  Ezra  Abbot:  A  Critical  Greek  and  Eng- 
lish Concordance,  Boston,  1870,  3d  ed.,  1875.  Es- 
pecial attention  must  be  called  to  Friedrich  Zimmer's 
Concordantia  suppiUmentarics  omnium  vocum  Novi 
Testamenti  Grcsci  et  dassibus  secundum  terminor 
tvones  distributarum  et  derivatarum  cum  nativis  ver- 
bis coUocatarum  composUa  a  F,  Z,,  Gotha,  1882, 
and  to  W.  F.  Moulton  and  A.  S.  Geden,  A  Con- 
cordance to  the  Greek  Testament  according  to  the  Texts 
of  WestcoU  and  Hart,  Tisdiendorf,  and  the  English 
Remsers,  Edinburgh,  1897;  2d  ed.,  1899. 

IV.  Latin  Concordances:  The  Latin  concord- 
ances were  the  eariiest  and  are  now  very  com- 
plete. They  have  an  interesting  history,  closely 
boimd  up  with  the  development  of  academic  life  in 


Western  Europe.  A  few  manuscripts  are  noted 
here  as  an  incitement  for  one  who  can  give  him- 
self to  the  history  of  these  books,  also  a  few  out 
of  the  many  printed  concordances  of  the  Latin 
Bible.  The  Biblioth^ue  Nationale  at  Paris  contains 
ten  manuscripts  of  concordances  all  of  which  are 
dated  from  the  foiurteenth  century.  These  are  the 
MSS.  Lat.  513,  514,  515,  516,  517, 
X.  Manu-  (all  five  from  Colbert's  library);  518 
scripts,  and  519  (from  the  Carmelite  Monas- 
tery); 520,  601  (belonged  formerly  to 
Baluze:  in  quinque  libros  distrtbiUos);  602  (once 
Tellier's:  concordantia  ordine  alphabetico  digesta); 
603,  606  scarcely  seem  to  contain  concordances. 
The  city  library  at  Bordeaux  owns  a  MS.  of  the 
"  larger  concordance,"  MS.  15,  fourteenth  century, 
parchment,  470  leaves,  3  cols,  on  a  page:  biblir 
orum  concordantia  maiores  ;  the  beginning  is:  Cui- 
libet  volenti  requirere  concordancias  in  hoc  libra, 
unum  est  prima  aUendendum,  and  the  end  is:  Ge. 
XXX,  b.  sentiens  lya  qiuxi  parere  desisset,  Zelfam 
ancUlam  marito  tradidit,  Expliciunt  magna  con- 
cordantie,  MS.  no.  6  in  the  monastery  Heiligen- 
kreuz  (-Neukloster)  in  Vienna  seems  to  begin  and 
end  in  the  same  way.  The  university  library  at 
Leipsic  has  three  manuscripts  which  seem  to  be 
of  the  same  kind  as  those  at  Bordeaux  and  Vienna; 
they  are  ascribed  to  Conrad  of  Germany;  these 
are  MS.  Lat.  99,  perhaps  of  the  14th  century,  MS. 
Lat.  100,  of  about  the  15th  century,  and  MS.  Lat. 
101,  of  about  the  15th  century. 

Conrad  of  Alemannia's  Concordantia  bibliorum 
is  said  to  have  appeared  at  Strasburg,  1470.  At 
Leipsic  there  is  one  (Hain,  5629,  says  by  J.  Men- 
telin,  Strasburg,  c.  1475)  dated  1474  by  the  rubri- 
cator,  who  probably  knew  the  precise  date.  It 
appeared  again  at  Bologna,  1479,  1486;  Basel, 
1480,  studio  Joan.  Nivicellensis,  The  first  edition 
of  the  Concordantia  Anglicana  is  supposed  to  be 
Nuremberg,  1485,  as  Concord,  magna  ;  again  1487. 
Sebastian  Brant  published  Conrad's 
2.  concordance  as  Cone,  S,  Jacobi,  and 

1470-1533.  John  of  Segovia's  at  Froben's  in  Basel, 
1496,  in  two  parts,  repeated  by  Fro- 
ben  1506;  Concordantia  maiores  biblie  tam  dictionum 
dedinabilium  quam  indeclinabUium  de  novo  summa 
dUigentia  cum  textu  vise  ac  secundum  veram  orthogra- 
phiam  emendalissime  excuse,  with  preface  by  Con- 
radus  Leontorius  Mulbrunnensis,  dated  May  12, 
1506,  Ex  ArtavaUe  ultra  Birsam  Basileanam;  the 
colophon  says  that  the  work  was  printed  opera  et 
impensis  Johannini  Amerbachii,  Petri  de  Langen- 
dorff,  et  Froben  de  HammeHburg  iam  denuo  in  urbe 
BasiXeorum,  The  first  part  contains  sheets  a-e, 
A-Z,  Aa-Ff,  folio;  the  second  part  is  entitled  Con- 
cordantie  partium  sive  dictionum  indedinabilium 
totius  biblie,  and  the  preface  of  John  of  Segovia 
tells  something  of  the  way  in  which  preparations 
for  it  were  made.  A  further  title,  over  the  first 
word,  says  that  John  of  Segovia  published  the 
book  at  the  Council  of  Basel  in  1430;  this  is  prob- 
ably intended  as  a  general  date  for  the  councU  and 
not  for  the  book,  for  according  to  John's  preface 
the  book  was  not  done  before  1440  at  the  earliest; 
repeated  Basel,  1516,  1521,  1523,  1525,  1526; 
Strasburg,    1526,  1530;  Lyons,  1526,  1528,    1540, 


Oonoordaaoas 


THE  NEW  SCHAPF-HERZOG 


208 


1545;  ed.  Johannes  Gaste  from  Breisach,  Basel, 
1552.  In  1533  Joannes  Steels,  an  Antwerp  book- 
seller, published  a  handy  little  volume  Index  utri- 
usque  Testamenti,  the  first  convenient  rival  of  the 
large  concordances. 

In  Paris,  1555,  Robert  Estienne's  improved  con- 
cordance came  out:  ConcordarUuB  hibliorum  utrir- 
usque  Testamenti,  V.  et  iVt.,  navce  et  integrce,  Qtuu 
revera  maiores  appellare  possis,  for  which  Estienne 
divided  the  New  Testament  into  verses.  At 
Basel  Joh.  Hervage  published,  1561  and  again 
1568,  a  concordance  by  his  father.  Jean  Benoit 
made  an  edition  (Paris?),  1562,  George  Bullock 
one  in  Antwerp,  1572,  Leyden,  1586,  1603,  1615. 
From  the  Clementine  Vulgate  of  1592,  Antwerp, 
1599;  (Frankfort),  1600;  again  1618  (Hanover?); 
Cologne,   1611;    Geneva,   1611;    with 

3.  notes  by  Franz  Lukas  from  Bruges, 
1555-1^5-  Antwerp,  1606,  1612;    Venice,   1612; 

Orleans,  1612;  Lyons,  1612, 1615  (con- 
fused with  Leyden,  1615?);  Antwerp  and  Venice, 
1618;  Geneva,  1620,  1624;  Geneva  and  Frank- 
fort, 1625;  Rome,  1627,  by  Gaspard  de  Zamora, 
S.  J.;  Paris,  1635,  1638,  1646;  O)logne,  1628 
(1629?),  1661,  1663;  Bamberg,  1721.  Hubert 
Phalesius  corrected  in  1642  Frams  Lukas's  edition 
of  1617,  printed  Lyons,  1649,  1652,  1667,  1687, 
1700;  Paris,  1656;  CJologne,  1684;  Mainz,  1685;  and 
at  other  times  and  places,  for  example,  Vienna,  1825. 
The  Benedictine  monks  in  Wessobrunn  pub- 
lished: CancordantiiB  nova  methodo  amatcB,  Augs- 
burg, 1751,  with  whole  verses  or  at  least  sentences. 
F.  F.  Dutripon's  Vvlgatm  edUionis  bibliarum  sacro- 
rum  concordanticBf  Paris,  1838,  has  reached  at  least 
a  7th  ed.,  Paris,  1880,  Regensburg,  1886.  Tonimi 
revised  it,  Prado,  1861.     H.  de  Raze,  Ed.  de  Le- 

chaux,  and  J.  B.  Flandrin,  all  S.  J., 

4.  published  a  Concordantium  s.  s.  manur 
X751-X892.  ale,  Lyons,  1852,  13th  ed.,  Paris,  1895. 

De  Raze's  arrangement  of  words  ac- 
cording to  cases  or  tenses  is  also  used  by  Peultier, 
fitienne,  Gantois,  in  their  Concordantium  .  .  .  the- 
saurus (in  R.  Comely,  J.  Knabenbauer,  Fr.  von 
Hummelauer's  Cursus  sacr.  script.  Pars,  III.  Tex- 
tus  V.\  Brussels  [1897].  Add  here:  V.  P.  Robert, 
Aurifodina  sacra  scientiarum  divinarum  ex  fontibus 
aureis  uJtriusque  Testamenti^  ordine  alphabetico  din 
gesta,  Turin,  1873;  M.  Bechi's  Concord,  propter  al- 
phab.  ordinem  in  grammaticalem  redactoB,  Turin, 
1887;  C.  Legrand,  Bruges,  1889;  V.  CJormert,  Con- 
cordanticB  for  preachers  in  choosing  texts,  Paris 
and  Bruges,  1892. 

V.  Gennan  Concordances:  Several  small  books 
appeared  with  only  a  selection  of  passages,  first  of 
ah  Johannes  Schroeter's  Konkordantz  des  Newen 
Testaments  zu  teutsch,  Strasburg,  1524,  according 
to  Luther's  translation.  Leonhard  Brunner,  pas- 
tor in  Worms,  extended  this  to  the  whole  Bible, 
Strasburg,  1546.  Michael  Milling  published  a 
little  Conkordam-Bibel.  Leipsic,  1602,  and  finally 
Lucas  Stockle,  H.  Gotlicher  Schrift  Schatzkammer  : 
Oder  Teutsche  Biblische  Concordantzen,  Herbom  in 
the  coimty  Nassaw  Catzenelnbogen,  1606. 

The  first  large  work  came  from  the  Nuremberg 
printer  Conrad  Bawr  (Latinized  Agricola),  with  a 
preface  of  July  5th,  1609:  ConcordantuB  hibliorum, 


d.  t.  htbl.  Concordantz  und  Verzeichniss  der  Fur- 
nembsten  Worter  .  .  .  auf  Mart.  Luther's  Ao.  I64S 
am  letzten  revidvrte  Bibel  qerichtet,  Frankfort-on- 
Main,  1610,  1621,  1632,  1640.  In  1612  he  added 
an  appendix.  Christian  Zeise,  pastor  in  Oeltzschau 
near  Leipsic,  improved  Bawr's  work,  Frankfort- 
on-Main  (1657),  1658, 1674;  a  supple- 
X.  ment    in    1664.     Le   Long  mentions 

1609-50.  concordances  by  Johannes  Fischer,  Her- 
bom, 1610;  Johannes  Faber,  Ingol- 
stadt,  1615;  Paul  Orell,  Frankfort,  1627;  Daniel 
Fessel,  Frankfort,  1662;  Johannes  Janus,  Scrip- 
ture Oder  Stella  calorum,  Frankfort,  1650;  Biartin 
Gumbrecht,  Dresden,  1654. 

Friedrich  Lanckisch,  a  Leipsic  bookseller,  pre- 
pared an  enormous  work,  but  died  in  1669  before 
he  could  print  it.     Volume  i.  came  out  in  the  shape 
the  author  had  intended:  ConcordanticB  bibliorum 
Germanico-Hebraico-GrcBCtBf  Leipsic,  1677,  new  ed., 
1688;    3d  ed.,   1696,  4th  ed.,  1705,  enlarged  by 
Christian  Reineccius,  1718,  second  part,  1742.    The 
Hebrew  or  the  Greek  word  was  placed 
2.  Lanck-    beside  each  German  word.    Volumes 
isch's       ii.  and  iii.  were  then  abbreviated  and 
Concord-    published   as    follows :    ConcordatUia 
ance.       bibliorum  Hebrcso-  et  GrcBca-Germanica, 
duabus  partibus  absoluicB,  quorum  prior 
voces  Hebraicas  et  Chaldaicas  V.  Ti.,  posterior  txnxs 
omnes   Gracas  [N.  Ti.,  Apocr.   et   LXX.  inUrpp.] 
.  .  .  cum     siffnificatibus     Germanicis     e    versions 
Luiheri  ordine  alphabet,  recenset.    Magni  concar- 
dantiarum  operis  a  F.  Lanckisch  conscripti  epitome, 
2  parts,  Leipsic  and  Frankfort,  1680.    This  is  a 
Hebrew-Latin-Oerman    and    Greek-Latin-Geiman 
dictionary  without  any  note  of  the  passages. 

Georg  Michaelis's  Kleine  Concordantz  of  1686 
appeared  in  a  sixth  edition  of  the  first  part,  Leip- 
sic, 1707,  and  in  a  second  edition  of  the  second 
part,  Leipsic  and  Jena,  1718;  with  preface  by  F. 
A.  Hallbauer,  Jena,  1733;  G.  Michaelis  voUstdndige 
Real-  und  VerbalrConcordanz  .  .  .  vermehrel  von 
M.  Adam  Lebrecht  Midler.  Mii  einer  Vorrede 
Joh.  Georg  Walchs,  Jena,  1767.  Wohletnge- 
richtete  Anweisung  zur  Biblischen  Concordanz  vermii- 
telst  einem  Biblischen  Spruch  Register  ...»  Lem- 
gO  (1720?),  1725;  BiUisches  Spruchregister,  5th  ed-. 
Lemgo,  1736,  enlarged,  Basel,  1746.  Avenarius 
issued  Biblisches  SpruckregisteT,  Gotha,  171 3.  Nieder- 
werfer's  Biblischer  Kern  und  Stem  oder  Hand-conr 
cordantz  appeared  Leipsic,  1814.  Johannes  Kam- 
prads  made  a  Biblical  Sprachregister, 
3.  published     with    preface     by    Sieg- 

X707-1893.  fried  Becker,  the  Leipsic  superin- 
tendent, Dresden  and  Leipsic,  1727. 
Gottfried  BQchner  inade:  Verbal  Hand-Concordant 
oder  exegetisch'homiletisches  Lexikon,  Jena,  1740, 
3d  enlarged  ed.,  Jena,  1756;  6th  ed.,  enlarged  by 
Heinrich  Leonhard  Heubner,  Halle,  1840,  23d  ed., 
Berlin,  1899;  with  supplement  of  12,000  Bible  pas- 
sages by  Lutz  and  Riehm,  Basel,  1890;  Pliilip 
Schaff  prepared  a  reprint  of  the  Heubner  ed.  by 
BQchner,  Philadelphia,  1871,  in  which  A.  Spath 
added  8,060  passages.  BUchner  first  issued  his 
Grosse  Bibl.  Real  und  Verbal-Concordantien,  Jena, 
1750,  3d  ed.,  1765.  Others  are:  Jacob  Christof 
Beck,    VoOstdndiges    Biblisches    Wdrterbuch,    oder 


200 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonoordanoes 


Real-  und  VerbalnConcordam,  Basel,  1770;  Gott- 
fried Joachim  Wichmann,  Biblische  Handcon- 
cordanz,  Nebst  Vorrede  von  Christian  Wilhdm 
From  Walck,  Dessau  and  Leipsic,  1782;  2d  ed., 
thoroughly  wrought  over,  Leipsic,  1796;  new 
unchanged  ed.,  with  preface  by  Eindervater, 
Leipsic,  1806;  Heinrich  Schott,  Biblische  Hand- 
concordam,  Leipsic,  1827;  Biblische  Hand-Con- 
cordam,  1841,  2d  much  enlarged  ed.,  Leipsic, 
1S47;  Frank  Julius  Bemhard,  pastor  at  Magde- 
bom  near  Leipsic,  Biblische  Concordam  oder  drei- 
laches  Register  Ober  SprUche  im  AUgemeinen,  fiber 
TextsteUen  fOr  besondere  FdUe  und  Hber  Sachen, 
Namen  und  Worte  der  von  Dr.  Luther  iibersetzten 
htUigen  Schrift,  Leipsic,  1850,  1851;  2d  thoroughly 
revised  ed.,  1857;  7th  reprint,  Dresden,  1888;  Cal- 
\jper  Bibelkonkordam  oder  voUstdndiges  biblisches 
Wortregister.  Nach  der  revidirten  Luther  Ud}ersetZ' 
ung,  Calw  and  Stuttgart,  1893. 

VL  English  Concordances  (cf.  M.  C.  Hazard,  in 
Walker's  Concordance):  The  Concordance  of  the 
New  Testament,  apparently  by  John  Day  helped 
by  the  printer  Thomas  Gybson,  came  out  undated, 
but  before  1540.  John  Marbeck  published:  A 
Concordance  for  the  whole  Bible,  London,  1550. 
Walter  Lynne  translated  Conrad  Pellican's  In- 
dex Librorum  [Zurich,  1537];  A  brief  and  a  com- 
pendious Table,  in  the  Manner  of  a  Concordancef 
London,  1550.  Robert  F.  Herrey  made  Two 
Right  Profitable  and  FruUfvU  Concordances^  Lon- 
don, 1578,  and  his  printer,  Christopher  Barker, 
published  A  Concordance  by  J,  W.,  London,  1579. 
Qement  Cotton  prepared  a  larger  work,  London 
(1618  sqq.?),  1625,  from  the  Geneva  New  Testa- 
ment; 1627,  from  the  Old  Testament;  1631,  from 
the  whole  Bible.  John  Downame  made  a  smn- 
mary  of  this  at  Cotton's  wish,  London,  1635,  again 
1689.  Richard  Bernard  made  a  Thesaurus  bibli- 
C1M,  London  (?),  1644,  and  Robert  Wickens,  A 
Corn-pleat  and  Perfect  Concordance,  Oxford,  1647; 
1655.  Samuel  Newman,  who  went  to  New  Eng- 
land in  1636  or  1638,  published:  A  Large  and  Com- 
plete Concordance,  on  the  basis  of  Cotton,  London, 
1643;  2d  ed.,  1650;  3d  ed.,  1658  (in  this  the  Apoc- 
rypha); then  1662,  only  with  Newman's  initials 
S.  N.;  and  finally  as  the  Cambridge  Coricordance, 
1720,  without  Newman's  name.  Mulbing  issued 
one,  London,  1666.  John  Jackson  wrote  a  short 
concordance  (Cambridge),  1668;  John  Owen, 
London,  1673;  and  Samuel  Clark,  1696.  Cruden's 
Concordance  came  out  in  1737  and  has  often  been 
republished  in  various  forms,  for  example,  by  John 
Butterworth,  Philadelphia,  1867;  John  Brown, 
London,  1816;  C.  S.  Carey,  London,  1867;  John 
Eadie,  with  preface  by  David  King,  New  York, 
1850;  with  preface  by  Joel  Hawes,  Hartford,  1867; 
0>le;  Hawker;  David  King,  Boston,  1845;  Alfred 
Jones,  London,  about  1855;  Smith,  Youngman,  and 
Thomas  Taylor,  Brooklyn,  1809.  Robert  Young's 
Analytical  Concordance,  Eklinburgh,  1873,  also 
1881,  added  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  original  words. 
James  Bradford  Richmond  Walker's  Comprehen- 
five  Concordance  wUh  an  Introduction  by  Marshall 
Custiss  Hazard,  leaves  unimportant  matter  out, 
yet  contains  50,000  more  passages  than  Cruden;  it 
appeared  Boston  and  Chicago,  1894;  James  Strong, 
lU.— 14 


Exhaustive  Concordance  of  the  Bible ;  also  brief  dio 
tionaries  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  of  the 
original,  with  reference  to  the  English  words.  New 
York,  1894  (takes  in  every  word). 

Vn.  French  Concordances :  Only  Protestant 
ones  are  given.  Concordance  de  la  Bible,  Ge- 
neva, 1566;  Marc  Wilks,  Concordances  des  Saintes 
£critures,  Paris,  1840;  W.  B.  Mackensie,  Concor- 
dance for  the  Osterwald  translation,  Paris,  1867, 
again  1874;  Didionnaire  des  concordances  des 
Saintes  iScrUures  d'aprhs  la  version  du  Dr,  Segond, 
Lausanne,  1886. 

Vni.  Dutch  Concordances:  Peder  Janz  Twisck, 
a  Mennonite,  published  a  concordance  to  the  Flem- 
ish Luther-Bible,  Hoom,  1615;  then  Sebastian 
Dranck,  Haarlem,  1618,  and  again  1648.  Jan  Mar- 
tin (van  Dantzigs?  from  Danzig?)  began  a  Flem- 
ish concordance,  and  Abraham  van  der  Trooomen 
finished  it  before  his  Greek  one:  NederUmdsche 
Concordantiedes  Bijbels,  Groningen,  1685-92;  Leeu- 
warden,  1754.  H.  Valse  issued  Kleyne  concor- 
dantie,  The  Hague,  1704. 

IX.  Danish  Concordances :  E.  Ewald,  Copenhagen, 
1748,  1749;  E.  Levinsen,  Verbal-Concordans  eller 
BibelrOrdbog  til  det  Nye  TestamenU,  Copenhagen, 
1856. 

X.  Swedish  Concordances:  According  to  Le 
Long,  Achaz  Rahamb  translated  a  German  con- 
cordance, of  which  the  letter  A  was  published  in 
Stockholm  about  1709.  Lorenz  Holenius  (Hale- 
niusT),  Svensk-Hebraisk  og  Svensk-Grekisk  concor- 
dans  over  G.  og  N.  Testam,,  Stockhohn,  1734,  1742. 

XL  Syriac  Concordances:  Carl  Schaaf,  Lexicon 
Syriaeum  concordantiale  omnes  Ni,  Ti.  Syriaci  voces 
.  .  .  complectens,  Leyden,  1709. 

Xn.  Topical  Indexes:  Cf.  C.  Mangenot,  in  Vi- 
gouroux's  Dictionnaire  de  la  bible,  ii.  89^905,  Paris, 
1899.  Many  of  the  concordances  named  above 
were  at  the  same  time  more  or  less  topical,  the 
concordance  of  the  words  being  the  best  concord- 
ance of  the  subjects.  The  topical  indexes  go 
back  to  the  work  of  Antony  of  Padua  (1195-1231), 
whose  ConcordantuB  morales  ss.  biblia  seem  to  be 
contained  in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Leip- 
sic, MS.  Lat.  102,  leaf  l-123r,  with  possibly  a  frag- 
ment in  MS.  Lat.  543  (5).  It  was  often  printed, 
as  for  example,  Venice,  1575;  Rome,  1621,  again 
1623  (?);  by  De  la  Haye,  Paris,  1641;  Cologne, 
1647.  Franz  Lukas  Wading  (cf.  Mangenot)  added 
to  Antony  a  sermon-prompter  by  an  Irish  monk 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  something  similar 
was  printed  at  Paris,  1497.  A  great  many  indexes 
could  be  added  to  this  book  of  Antony's,  for  ex- 
ample Conrad  Pellican's,  Zurich,  1537;  Peter 
Patiens,  in  Landau,  Frankfort,  1571;  Jan  Har- 
lems,  in  the  Antwerp  Polyglotte,  viii.,  Antwerp, 
1572;  Anton  BroidniQr  von  Koninsteyn,  Cologne, 
1550;  Paris,  1551  and  1554;  William  Allot,  Ant- 
werp, 1581,  2d  ed.,  1585;  Anton  von  Balinghem, 
Douai,  1621;  Cologne,  1659;  Trevoux,  1705; 
Lyons,  1711;  Eulard,  Antwerp,  1625;  Philip  Paul 
Merz  after  Allot,  Augsburg,  1731,  1738,  1751,  1791; 
Venice,  1758,  1818;  Paris,  1822,  1825,  1883;  Jo- 
hannes Jakob  Ohm,  Biblische  Spruchconcordanz  by 
Chr.  Liebeyott  Simon,  Leipsic,  1812;  Joh.  Michael 
Otto,  Biblischee  Spruchregister,  ed.  J.  G.  R<ibn«r| 


ConooTdats  and 

DeUmitlnff  Bulls 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


210 


Sulzbach,  1823;  C.  G.  Haupt,  Bibliache  Real'  und 
Verbal'EncyclajfMdie,  Quedlinburg,  1823-27;  J.  G. 
Haufif,  Biblische  Realr  und  Verbtdkankordam,  Stutt- 
gart, 1828-^;  Matal^ne,  Paris,  1837,  again  1864; 
A.  J.  James,  Paris,  1835;  Lueg,  Biblische  Realcon- 
eordam,  2d  ed.  by  Heiin,  Regensburg,  1855;  C. 
Mazeron,  Paris,  1869.     Caspar  Ren£  Grboort. 


Bxblxoorapbt:  C.  Kiroher,  De  etmoordanHa  hikliea  .  . 
iMu.  Wittenberg.  1622  (a  polemic  asainat  Romvuan); 
J.  Buxtorf.  preface  to  hia  ConeordanHcE,  Basel  1632:  A. 
Glauch,  De  concordaniiaruin  bibUcanun  unt,  Leipsie,  1668; 
W.  Frants,  Tradaiut  theotogicua  de  inUrpreiatume  Man- 
rum  Scrij4uranu.m,  pp.  52-70,  Wittenbers.  1706;  J.  Le  Long, 
Biblicum  9acrum,  i.  464a-459b,  Paris.  1723;  H.  E.  Bind- 
■eil,  ConcordanUarum  .  .  .  tpeeimen  ....  Halle,  1867; 
Visouroux,  DicUonnavn  de  la  bible,  ii.  8112-005,  Paris,  1890. 


CONCORDATS  AND  DELIMITING  BULLS. 


Legal  Theories  of  Concordats  (S  1}. 
I.  Early  Concordats. 
II.  Concordats    Reeulting     from    the 
Council  of  Constimce. 
III.  Concordats  after   the    Council   of 
Basel. 

1.  Germany. 

The     Princes'     Concordats,     1446 

(«1). 
The  Concordat   of  Aschaftenbuxis 

or  of  Vienna,  1448  (S  2). 

2.  iVance. 

rV.  The  Seventeenth  Century. 

V.  The  E^hteenth  Century. 

VI.  The  Nineteenth  Century. 


1.  France. 

The  Concordat  of  1801  (f  1). 
French  Dependencies  (S  2). 
The  Concordat  of  Fontaine- 

bleau,  1813  ((  3). 
The  Concordat  of  1817  (S  4). 

2.  Germany  and  Austria. 
Inconclusive  Negotiations    of 

the  Napoleonic  Era  ((  1). 
Concordat  with  Bavaria,  1817 

(12). 
Delimiting    Bull    for    Prussia, 

1821  ((  3). 
Delimiting  Bull   for  Hanover, 

1824  (S  4). 


The    States    of   the    Eodesiastiesl 

Province    of    the    Upper   Rhioe 

(85). 
Concordat  with  Austria.  1855  (f  6). 
Agreements  with  Hesse-Dannstadt, 

WQrttemberg,  and  Baden,  1855- 

1850  (S  7). 
Modification   and   Repeal   of    the 

Austrian      Concordat,     1867-70 

(8  8). 

3.  Italy. 

4.  Other  European  States. 

5.  Central  America. 

6.  South  America. 
VII.  Spanish  Concordats. 


The  term  concordat  was  used  in  a  much  broader 
sense  in  past  centuries  than  to-day.  Concordats 
are  now  usually  understood  to  be  treaties  between 
the  sovereign  of  a  state  and  the  pope  of  Rome, 
whereby  the  affairs  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  the  country  concerned  receive  general  regulation. 
Agreements  between  a  state  sovereign  and  the  pope 
with  respect  to  particular  questions  are  not  desig- 
nated as  concordats;  for  instance,  the  so-called 
biUlcB  circumscriptionis,  by  which  the  bounds  of  a 
diocese  are  determined.  Nor  is  an  understanding 
between  a  state  sovereign  and  the  bishops  of  a 
country  so  named,  or  an  agreement  between  the 
State  and  a  Protestant  church.  In  former  cen- 
turies the  conclusion  of  such  agreements  was  des- 
patched in  very  diversified  forms;  in  modem  times 
it  has  been  customary  to  comprehend  the  result  of 
the  transactions  effected  by  plenipotentiaries  of 
both  sides  in  a  document  which  is  duly  published 
as  state  law  upon  ratification  by  the  State  and  as 
canon  law  when  accepted  by  the  Church. 

The  legal  nature  of  concordats  is  disputed;  but  essen- 
tially three  theories  obtain:  (1)  The  Privilege  Theory:  If 
the  State  be  the  servant  of  the  C)hurch,  it  is  obliged  to  ful- 
fil the  offices  undertaken  by  it  in  the  concordat;  hence  all 
concessions  of  Church  to  State  are  privileges.  Every  con- 
cordat therefore  consists  of  two  elements,  which  legally  are 
not  coordinate;  vis.,  the  acknowledgment  of  obligations  on 
the  part  of  the  State  which  were  already  incumbent  on  the 
State,  and  the  grant  of  an  indult  on  the  part  of  the  Church. 
The  former  is  permanent;  the  latter,  in  the  nature  of  the 
case,  revocable.  The  evolution  of  the  mod- 
em State  has  removed  the  foundation  of  a 
practical  realisation  of  these  elementary  prin- 
ciples; but  the  privilege  theory  itself  has  not 
been  surrendered  on  the  Roman  side,  and 
Pius  IX.  in  a  brief  of  June  19.  1872.  referred 
to  the  concordats  as  pacia  seu  indulta.  (2)  The  Treaty 
Theory:  Concordats  are  treaties  equally  binding  on  both 
sides,  of  the  nature  of  international  or  public  law.  The 
fulfilment  of  these  treaties  inheres  in  the  fact  that  each  of 
the  two  parties  promulgates  a  law  conformably  to  the  text 
of  the  treaty,  and  makes  no  alteration  in  the  status  thus 
determined  without  the  consent  of  the  other  party;  it  be- 
ing, however,  understood  that  in  the  event  of  changed  cir- 
cumstances each  party  retains  the  right  of  withdrawal. 
This  construction  of  concordats  was  prevalent  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  it  is  not  satisfactory, 
since  it  assumes  a  coordination  of  Church  and  State  that 
can  not  be  reconciled  with  the  State's  pretention  to  eccle- 
■iastical  supremacy;  and  since  there  is  wanting  a  common 


1.  Legal 
Theories 
of  Con- 
cordata. 


legal  basis  for  Church  and  State,  such  as  must  obtain  for 
the  conclusion  of  legal  treaties.  There  is  consequently  rea- 
son to  prefer  (3)  The  Legal  Theory:  The  agreement  ex- 
pressed in  the  concordat  is  not  legally  obligatory,  but  ia 
merely  a  preliminary  step  to  the  state  law  that  is  to  be 
promulgated  subsequently,  for  which  the  agreement  col- 
lects and  arranges  the  material.  The  substance  of  the  con- 
cordat becomes  civil  and  canon  law  only  when  the  civil  and 
canonical  enactments  to  that  efifect  have  been  decreed  on 
the  basis  of  the  concordat.  The  State,  however,  is  not 
bound  by  such  law  any  more  than  by  any  other  law  by  it 
enacted;  that  is  to  say,  it  can  modify  the  same  by  process  of 
new  legislation  the  same  as  any  other  act  of  state  legislation. 

I.  Early  Concordats:  The  so-called  Concordat 
of  Worms,  dated  Sept.  23,  1122  (text  and  bibliog- 
raphy in  Mirbt,  QueUen,  pp.  115-116;  cf.  also 
D.  Schftfer,  Zur  Beurteilung  des  Wormser  Konkcfr- 
datSy  in  the  Abhandlungen  der  Berliner  Akademie, 
1905),  and  terminating  the  German  investiture  dis- 
pute (see  iNVESTiruRE),  is  usually  accounted  the 
oldest  concordat.  The  emperor  Henry  V.  at  this 
time  renounced  the  investiture  with  ring  and  staff, 
as  practised  by  him  till  then;  conceded  that  in 
the  churches  of  his  realm  the  election  and  consecra- 
tion of  bishops  should  be  free;  promised  the  res- 
toration of  all  church  possessions;  and  agreed  to 
give  temporal  aid  to  the  Church  whenever  it  was 
demanded.  Pope  Calixtus  II.,  on  his  part,  con- 
ceded to  the  emperor  that  the  German  elections 
should  be  held  in  his  presence;  and  that  the 
dignitary  elect  should  receive  his  regalia  from  the 
emperor  in  feudal  tenure,  in  Germany  before,  in 
other  parts  of  the  empire  (Italy  and  Burgundy) 
after,  his  consecration. 

Besides  the  Concordat  of  Worms,  the  following  agree- 
ments lay  claim  to  the  name  of  concordats  during  the  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries:  (1)  The  treaty  be- 
tween Adrian  IV.  and  King  William  of  Sicily  at  Benevento 
in  1156.  (2)  The  treaty  between  Celestine  HI.  (1191-M) 
and  King  Tancred.  (3)  Between  Innocent  III.  and  Queen 
Constance  of  Sicily  (1108).  (4)  Clement  IV.  and  Charlea 
I.  of  Anjou  (1265),  referring  entirely  to  Sicily.  (5)  Gregory 
XL  and  Queen  Eleanor  of  Aragon  (1372).  (6)  The  under- 
standing between  the  bishops  of  Portugal  and  King  Dio- 
nysius,  approved  by  Nicholas  IV.  (1288-02). 

n.  Concordats  Resulting  from  the  Council  of 
Constance:  The  shattering  of  the  ecclesiastical 
preponderance  which  prevailed  in  the  prime  of  the 
Middle  Ages  created  new  conditions  for  the  tto- 


211 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Conoordats  and 

Delimitinff  BuUs 


elusion  of  concordats  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  councils  of  Pisa  (1409)  and  Constance  (1414-18), 
contrary  to  the  Curia's  intention,  divided  them- 
selves into  "  nations/'  each  consisting  of  the  bishops, 
abbots,  and  prelates  of  the  national  Church,  the 
delegates  from  the  princes,  and  the  doctors  in 
theology  and  canon  law,  and  each  constituting  an 
independent  college  with  defined  spheres  of  activity 
officially  recc^nized  as  representative  of  the  eccle- 
siastical and  civil  interests  of  its  respective  people. 
There  was  thus  a  German,  an  English,  a  French,  an 
Italian,  and  finally  also  a  Spanish  nation  (cf.  B. 
Hubler,  Die  Konstamer  ReformcUion  und  die  Kon- 
kordaU  von  14^3,  Leipsic,  1867;  see  Constance, 
Council  op). 

The  German  nation  did  not  succeed  in  pushing 
through  at  Constance  its  demand  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  Church  before  the  election  of  a  new  pope, 
and,  on  Nov.  11,  1417,  the  council  elected  Cardinal 
Colonna  as  Pope  Martin  V.  Little  was  thereby 
gained  toward  solving  the  council's  major  task; 
but  in  view  of  the  impossibility  of  bringing  about 
a  general  reform  in  the  Church,  it  was  still  an  essen- 
tial advance  that  some  expedient  was  found  in  the 
way  of  particular  laws  for  the  churches  of  the  sev- 
eral countries,  for  removing  their  most  serious  dis- 
tresses. The  first  impulse  along  these  lines  was 
furnished  by  the  German  nation  by  means  of  a 
memorial  presented  in  the  opening  days  of  the 
year  1418  (cf.  Hermann  von  der  Hardt,  Magnum 
fxcumenicum  Constantiense  concilium^  i.  999-1011, 
Frankfort  and  Leipsic,  1700).  Like  steps  were  also 
taken  by  the  other  nations.  As  they  were  unable 
to  agree  in  regard  to  the  pope's  answer,  Martin  V. 
proffered  separate  treaties  with  each  nation;  and 
in  this  way  concordats  were  concluded,  on  the  basis 
of  the  papal  proposals,  with  the  German,  English, 
French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  nations. 

The  German  (Von  der  Hardt,  ut  sup.,  L  1055  sqq.)  and 
the  French  concordat  (Von  der  Hardt.  iv.  1566  eqq.),  of 
nearly  equivalent  import,  were  published  May  2,  1418.  The 
Engliah  concordat  (Von  der  Hardt,  i.  1079  eqq.;  Wilkene, 
Conalia  Maona  Britianice,  iii.,  London,  1737,  391  eqq.)  ia 
dated  July  21,  1418.  The  Spanish  concordat  is  dated  May 
13.  1418  (Tejada,  Coleceion  completa  de  concordaioa  eapa- 
nokM,  Madrid.  1862,  pp.  9  eqq.;  B.  Fromme,  Die  tpaniache 
Nation  und  daa  Konttamer  KoruU,  Mtlnater,  1896).  Prob- 
ably a  separate  Italian  concordat  was  also  concluded. 

With  reference  to  the  contents  of  these  concordats,  chap. 
L  restricts  the  number  of  the  cardinals,  and  defines  their 
qualifications  and  the  manner  of  their  nomination;  chap. 
ii.  restricts  the  papal  reservations;  chap.  iii.  treats  of  the 
ID-called  annates  or  taxes;  chap.  iv.  explains  what  griev- 
ances are  to  be  carried  to  Rome  and  what  not;  chap.  v. 
circumscribes  the  right  in  commendam;  chap.  vi.  declares 
against  simony;  chap.  vii.  declares  that  excommunicated 
persons  need  not  be  avoided  before  the  express  publication 
of  the  ban;  chap.  viii.  circumscribes  the  dispensations  of 
the  (}uria;  chap.  ix.  treats  of  the  income  of  the  Curia;  chap. 
X.  limits  the  bestowal  of  indulgences  in  Germany;  chap. 
XL  makes  the  qualification  for  (jiermany  and  France  that 
aU  this  is  merely  a  provisional  status  to  be  binding  for  five 
years  only;  the  English  agreement  was  permanent. 

The  concordat  was  accepted  in  France  notwithstanding 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris;  the  his- 
tory of  Its  experience  in  Spain  and  Italy  still  continues  ob- 
jure; and  the  same  is  true  of  the  English  concordat.  The 
(jennan  concordat  took  effect  at  once,  but  being  of  a  pro- 
▼urional  tenor,  like  the  French  concordat,  it  proved  of  no 
lasting  rignificanoe,  and  served  simply  as  foundation  for 
■uhaequent  transactions,  for  which  an  occasion  was  fur- 
nished by  the  Conndl  of  Basel. 

ni.  Concordats   after  the   Council  of   Basel.— 


1.  a^nnany:  The  great  contest  between  the  Coun- 
cil of  Basel  (1431-47)  and  Pope  Eugenius  IV. 
divided  Western  Christendom  into  two  hostile 
camps  for  many  years;  but  when  Germany  and 
France  reached  an  understanding  with  Eugenius 
the  victory  of  the  papacy  over  "  councilism  "  was 
decided.  In  Germany  the  electors,  assembled  after 
the  death  of  Emperor  Sigismund  for  the  election  of 
King  Albert  V.,  declared  themselves  against  pope 
and  council  Mar.  18,  1438,  and  proclaimed  their 
neutrality.  On  Mar.  24,  1439,  an  imperial  diet 
at  Mainz  adopted  the  reform  decrees  of  Basel, 
though  with  some  alterations,  and  excluding  the 
resolutions  which  centered  upon  the  contest  with 
Eugenius  IV.  (cf.  C.  Koch,  Sanctio  pragmatica  Ger- 
manorum  illustraia,  Strasburg,  1789,  pp.  105-171). 
King  Albert,  too,  approved  this  **  acceptation." 
In  the  same  year  the  Council  of  Basel  took  the  final 
step,  deposing  Eugenius  IV.  on  July  25,  1439,  and 
electing  for  his  successor  Felix  V.  Nov.  5.  The 
development  of  the  Church  question  in  Germany 
was  greatly  affected  by  the  sudden  death  of  King  Al- 
bert Oct.  27,  1439.  He  was  succeeded  on  Feb.  2, 
1440,  by  his  cousin,  Frederick  III.;  and  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  the  latter  sided  entirely  with  Eugenius 
IV.  Decisive  understandings  ensued  in  Sept.,  1445, 
at  Vienna,  Frederick  demanding  and  obtaining 
large  concessions  as  to  the  declaration  of  obedience. 
Eugenius  IV.  by  this  time  felt  himself  strong 
enough  to  proceed  against  his  most  considerable 
opponents  in  Germany  with  aggressive  measures. 
Through  the  buU  Ad  comprimendam  quorundam, 
Jan.  29, 1446,  he  deposed  the  archbishops  of  Cologne 
and  Treves,  and  forthwith  replaced  them  with  new 
appointments.  But  those  whom  he  attacked  found 
succor  with  their  peers.  The  electors  of  Mainz, 
Cologne,  Treves,  and  the  Palatinate  met  at  Frank- 
fort, and  on  Mar.  21,  1446,  they  concluded  a  treaty 
for  the  common  vindication  of  their 
1.  The  rights;  which  on  Apr.  23  was  also 
Prlnoes'  subscribed  by  Saxony  and  Branden- 
dS-ts'"  ^"'^*  '^^®  electors  addressed  four 
1446!  demands  to  the  pope  and  proffered 
him  obedience  on  condition  of  their 
being  granted;  in  the  event  of  refusal,  a  rapproche- 
ment with  the  Council  of  Basel  was  contemplated. 
Eang  Frederick  III.,  when  besought  to  intervene, 
sent  his  secretary,  ^neas  Sylvius  Piccolomini,  to 
Rome.  But  the  negotiations  carried  on  at  Rome 
in  July  were  without  positive  result,  although  an 
understanding  was  reached  at  last  in  connection 
with  the  Imperial  Diet  convened  at  Frankfort  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year.  Still,  shortly  before  his 
death,  Eugenius  IV.  complied  with  the  desires  of  the 
German  princes,  in  the  so-called  Princes'  Concor- 
dats; and  thus  brought  it  about  that  they  and  with 
them  the  German  Empire  accorded  their  submission. 

There  are  four  principal  documents  (Koch,  ut  sup.,  pp. 
181  Bqq.):  (1)  The  brief  Adeaex  debito,  to  King  Frederick, 
Feb.  5,  1447.  promiaea  to  convoke  a  new  general  council  in 
a  German  city  within  fifteen  months,  and  to  open  the  same 
within  eighteen  months.  (2)  The  bull  Ad  trammiUiUMlUm^ 
Feb.  15,  1447,  is  concerned  with  the  decrees  of  Basel  ac- 
cepted at  Mainx,  and  also  with  the  indemnity  awarded  to 
the  Roman  See  (3)  In  the  bull  Ad  ea  qua,  Feb.  6,  1447, 
Eugenius  promises  the  reinstatement  of  the  deposed  arch- 
bishops of  Mains  and  Treves.  (4)  The  bull  Inter  coetera 
deeideria,  Feb.  7,  1447,  recognises  all  the  ehangea  effected  in 


Oonoordats  and 

DflllmitlTig  Bulla 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


212 


the  Qeniuui  Churoh  during  the  so-called  "  neutrality  "  pe- 
riod. 

Eugenius  IV.  belieyed  he  had  made  great  oonceasions 
with  all  these  grants.  To  guard  against  going  too  far  he  pre- 
pared a  fifth  bull,  Decet  Ramani  ponHftcia  prudenHam  (Ray- 
naldus,  AnnaUt  ecelui(utici,  no.  7).  Feb.  8,  1447,  in  which 
he  explains  that  he  had  not  intended  to  concede  anything 
**  that  might  be  contrary  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Fathers 
or  that  should  tend  to  the  prejudice  of  this  Holy  Apostolic 
See."  After  the  promulgation  of  these  bulls,  the  embassy 
formally  accorded  him  obedience. 

Eugenius  IV.  died  Feb.  23,  1447.  His  successor, 
Nicholas  V.,  forthwith  confirmed  his  predecessor's 
constitutions.  He  recognized  the  assemblage  of 
German  princes  convoked  at  Aschaffenburg  on 
July  13,  1447,  by  King  Frederick  III.  Moreover, 
the  still  recalcitrant  electors  of  Cologne,  Treves,  and 
the  Palatinate  acknowledged  obe- 
*•  ^*^*  dience  to  Nicholas  V.;  so  that  there 
?  A^^fV  ^^  °°^  concluded  a  treaty  between 


of  AjKshaf. 
f«nlmxv  or 


the  emperor  in  the  name  of  the  Ger- 
ofVi^niT  "^^^  nation  and  the  cardinal  legates, 
1446.  '  ^^^'  ^^t  l^^Sf  which  is  known  as  the 
Concordat  of  Aschaffenburg,  though  it 
might  be  more  correctly  designated  as  Concordat  of 
Vienna  (Mirbt,  Quellen,  pp.  165-169).  Its  import 
has  reference  only  to  the  constitution  Ad  tran- 
quiUUatem  of  1447,  mentioned  above,  whose  con- 
cessions are  confirmed  while  the  indemnity  pre- 
viously promised  to  the  See  of  Rome  is  fulfilled 
by  surrender  of  the  Basel  decrees  as  accepted  at 
Mainz  and  provisionally  ratified  by  Eugenius  IV.; 
also  by  recurring  in  part  almost  litertdly  to  the 
second  and  third  chapters  of  the  Concordat  of  Con- 
stance in  1418.  Through  the  text  of  the  bull  Ad 
taeram  Petri  tedem,  Mar.  19,  1448,  Nicholas  V. 
promulgated  this  Vienna  treaty  as  law  of  the 
Church.  The  concordat  was  opposed  at  the  start 
by  various  territorial  sovereigns,  but  as  these  were 
promptly  won  over  by  favorable  rulings,  it  soon 
gained  such  recognition  that  the  Princes'  Concor- 
dats were  quite  forgotten. 

2.  Pranoe:  King  Charles  VII.  of  France  man- 
aged to  secure  for  his  countiy  the  reformatory 
decrees  published  at  Basel  in  1438  with  the  modi- 
fications demanded  by  French  interests,  by  means 
of  the  so-called  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges, 
Jxily  7,  1438  (Ordonnancea  dea  rots  de  France  de  la 
troiaihne  race,  vol.  xiii.,  ed.  Viievault  and  Br4- 
quigny,  Paris,  1782,  p.  267;  Mirbt,  Quellen,  pp. 
160-161;  see  Pragmatic  Sanction).  The  Ciuia 
never  recognized  it,  and  repeatedly  pronounced  it 
null  and  void  (Eugenius  IV.,  1439;  Pius  II.,  1459; 
Sixtus  IV.,  1471).  Charles  nevertheless  remained 
firm,  and  appealed  in  particular  against  the  dec- 
laration of  1459  to  a  general  council  in  the  year 
following.  His  successor,  Louis  XI.  (1461-83), 
repealed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  in  1461;  but 
when  he  found  that  his  political  ends  were  not 
advanced  to  the  degree  desired  by  this  means, 
he  did  not  maintain  his  decision  against  the  op- 
position of  Parliament.  Between  this  acceptance 
and  non-acceptance  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
there  naturally  ensued  a  vacillating  practise.  At 
the  council  convened  by  Pope  Julius  II.  (1512)  and 
continued  as  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  by  Leo  X. 
the  Sanction  was  again  declared  null  and  void 
(Mirbt^  Qu/dlen,  p.  178).    Hereupon,  after  a  per- 


sonal conference  at  Bologna,  Dec.  11,  1515,  and 
after  prolonged  negotiations  extending  into  Aug., 
1516,  a  concordat  was  concluded  between  King 
Francis  I.  and  Pope  Leo  X.  It  was  signed  by 
Francis  on  Aug.  18,  1516,  and  was  adopted  by  the 
Lateran  Ck>uncil  on  Dec.  19  of  the  same  year. 
Notwithstanding  opposition  of  the  Parliament  and 
the  University  of  Paris,  the  king  carried  this  con- 
cordat through  as  law  of  the  land.  It  is  mainly 
identical  with  the  German  concordats  of  1447  and 
1448,  including  the  subsequent  concessions  to  Ger- 
man territorial  sovereigns  (Nussi,  pp.  20  sqq.). 

For  the  oonoordat  of  Nicholas  V.  with  Savoy,  1451,  ef. 
Hefele,  XofmiieYioMchicAte,  yii.  846  sqq. 

For  the  agreements  of  Emperor  Charles  V.  with  Popes 
Adrian  VI.  and  Clement  VII.,  1523  and  1529,  see  below,  VII. 

rv.  The  Seventeenth  Century:  As  belonging  to  the 
seventeenth  oentury,  Nussi  (pp.  39-^40)  sets  forth  a  treaty 
between  Ferdinand  II.  and  Urban  VIII.,  in  1630,  wherein 
the  pope  cedes  to  the  emperor  as  king  of  Bohemia  all  eccle- 
siastical rights  that  were  alienated  there  in  the  bygone 
"  heretical  times,"  and  any  church  estates  that  still  rested 
in  private  hands,  in  return  for  the  concession  of  a  tax  on 
salt  to  be  paid  to  the  Church. 

For  the  Spanish  concordat  of  1640  see  below.  VII. 

V.  The  Biffhteenth  Century :  In  the  eighteenth  oentury 
not  a  few  oonoordats  were  concluded,  consistently  with  the 
evolution  of  the  absolute  State  and  the  alterations  thence 
resulting  with  respect  to  the  relations  of  Churoh  and  State. 
The  contracts  thus  brought  about  fell  to  the  several  coun- 
tries as  follows: 

Sardinia:  The  treaties  between  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  and 
King  Victor  Amadous,  Mar.  24  and  May  29,  1727  (Nusai. 
pp.  48  sqq.;  64  sqq.).  The  treaties  between  Pope  Bene- 
dict XIV.  and  King  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  1741  (Nussi, 
pp.  69  sqq.).  1742  (Nussi,  pp.  98  sqq.),  1750  (Nussi,  pp.  117 
sqq.),  and  1770  (Nussi,  pp.  132  sqq.). 

Sicily:  Convention  between  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  and 
King  Charles  III.,  1741  (Nussi,  pp.  72  sqq.;  secret  articles 
to  this  convention,  pp.  377  sqq.). 

Milan:  Concordat  between  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  and  Em- 
press Maria  Theresa  with  reference  to  the  duchy  of  Milan. 
1767  (Nussi,  pp.  128  sqq.);  between  Pope  Pius  VI.  and 
Emperor  Joseph  II.  as  duke  of  Blilan  and  Mantua,  1784 
(Nussi,  pp.  138  sqq.). 

Poland:  Convention  between  Cardinal  Paulutiua,  in  the 
name  of  the  Apostolic  See,  and  King  Augustus  and  the 
Commonwealth  of  Poland,  1736,  confirmed  by  Pope  (Elem- 
ent XII.  (Nusai,  pp.  64  sqq.). 

Portugal:  Concordat  between  Pope  Pius  VI.  and  Queen 
Maria  of  Portugal,  1778  (Nussi,  pp.  136  sqq.). 

For  Spanish  concordats  of  this  eighteenth  oentury  see 
below,  VII. 

VL  The  Nineteenth  Century. — 1.  France:  First 
and  foremost  among  the  concordats  of  the  nine- 
teenth century — ^which  is  preeminently  the  time  of 
concordats — ^stands  the  French  concordat  of  1801. 
It  evokes  peculiar  interest  both  on  account  of  its 
antecedent  history  and  by  reason  of  its  influence 
upon  the  conclusion  of  concordats  in  Germany 
during  the  following  decades.  Like  most  of  its 
successors,  it  was  called  forth  by  the  perturbations 
which  the  French  Revolution  had  occasioned  in 
relation  to  the  Church,  and  was  intended,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  surmount  them.  Napoleon  had  become 
First  Consul  on  Dec.  25,  1799.  Pius 
1.  The  VII.  was  chosen  pope  on  Mar.  14, 
Conoordat  1800,  was  enthroned  on  Mar.  24,  and 

of  1801.  on  July  3  was  able  to  enter  Rome. 
On  June  19  Napoleon  opened  negoti- 
ations with  the  pope  through  Cardinal  Martiniana, 
bishop  of  Vercelli,  with  reference  to  restoring  the 
status  of   the  Church   in   France.     After  an  ex- 


213 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonoordats  and 

Delis^tinff  BolU 


plicit  answer  from  Pius  VII.  on  July  10,  the  ne- 
gotiations proceeded,  and  from  Nov.,  1800,  they 
were  conducted  in  Paris  between  the  papal  delegate, 
Monsignor  Spina,  and  the  Abb^  Bemier.  Napo- 
leon demanded  a  reduction  of  the  number  of  bishop- 
rics from  158  to  60;  resignation  of  all  existent 
French  bishops;  right  of  episcopal  nominations 
for  the  First  Consul;  remuneration  of  the  clergy 
out  of  the  state  exchequer,  and  express  pledge  of 
obedience  to  the  state  government;  relinquish- 
ment of  claims  to  church  property  that  had  been 
sold;  pardon  for  the  priests  who  during  the  Revo- 
lution had  married;  and  transfer  of  the  police 
inspection  of  public  worship  to  the  Council  of  State. 
Spina  in  tiun  demanded  that  with  the  repeal  of  all 
adverse  laws  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  should 
be  declared  as  that  of  the  State,  and  the  consuls  be 
bound  to  that  confession.  The  proceedings  dragged 
along,  and  when  Napoleon  had  despatched  to 
Rome  a  draft  elaborated  by  Spina  and  Bemier 
and  accepted  by  Talleyrand,  but  found  it  subjected 
there  to  procrastinating  explanations,  he  demanded, 
on  May  13,  1801,  either  an  immediate,  uncondi- 
tional acceptance  or  the  rupture  of  diplomatic 
relations.  Cacault,  who  shortly  before  had  been 
Bent  to  Rome  for  the  resumption  of  diplomatic 
intercourse ,  was,  in  fact,  recalled.  At  his  suggestion, 
however,  the  papal  secretary  of  state,  Consalvi, 
went  straightway  in  person  with  large  and  full 
powers  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  on  June  20;  and 
after  an  arduous  conference  on  July  15,  1801,  with 
the  imperial  commissioners,  Bemier  and  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  he  concluded  the  concordat,  which  then 
was  ratified  on  both  sides,  though  not  without 
demurrings. 

The  oonoorcUt  (Blirbt.  QiuUen,  pp.  334-336)  is  drawn  up 
in  French:  it  contains  seventeen  articles,  and  is  entitled, 
Conx€niion  en*^f  le  tfouvememant  franfou  et  aa  SainietS  Pie 
Vll.  By  way  of  preamble  it  declares:  "  The  government 
of  the  French  Republic  reoosnises  the  fact  that  the  Catho- 
lic. Apostolic,  and  Roman  religion  is  the  religion  of  the 
great  majority  of  French  dtisens.  His  Holiness  likewiee 
recognises  the  fact  that  this  same  religion  has  derived,  and 
■till  anticipates  at  this  time,  the  best  and  greatest  advan- 
tage from  the  establishment  of  the  Catholic  worship  in 
France;  and  from  the  particular  profession  thereof  on  the 
part  of  the  consuls  of  the  Republic."  Art.  i.  reads:  "  The 
Catholic,  Apostolic  and  Roman  religion  shall  be  freely  ex- 
erdaed  in  France;  its  acte  of  worship  shall  be  public,  and 
in  accord  with  such  civil  regulations  as  the  Government 
Bhall  judge  necessary  in  behalf  of  public  tranquillity."  Art. 
ii.  promisea  a  reduction  of  the  bishoprics.  Art.  iii.  regu- 
lates Che  dismissal  of  former  bishops,  and  provision  is  then 
made  in  arts,  iv.-vi  for  future  episcopal  appointments. 
The  Church  relinquishes  legal  claims  to  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty sold  during  the  Revolution  (art.  xiii.),  but  the  State 
guarantees  a  competent  maintenance  for  the  bishops  and 
parochial  clergy  (art.  xiv.),  and  allows  foundations  bene- 
ficial to  the  Church  (art.  xv.).  The  same  rights  and  pre- 
rogatives are  conceded  to  the  First  Consul  aa  the  former 
Kovemment  had  enjoyed  in  relation  to  the  Apostolic  See 
(art.  xvi.).  The  first  articles  proved  the  most  troublesome, 
because  the  Church  was  unwilling  to  yield  the  point  that 
Roman  Catholicism  was  a  state  religion  in  France;  and  the 
State  hesitated  to  waive  the  point  that  the  Church  must 
comply  with  all  and  sundry  state  police  provisions,  instead 
of  simply  with  those  of  a  general  scope. 

The  ratification  on  the  pope's  side  ensued,  aa  in  the  case 
of  preceding  oonoordats,  by  his  embodying  the  entire  Latin 
text  in  the  bull  EceUaia  Chriati,  dated  Aug.  13,  1801.  On 
Sept.  10  (tS  Fructidor  an  IX.)  the  ratifications  were  inter- 
changed at  Paris;  upon  which  the  publication  for  France 
took  place  as  follows.  A  state  law  was  passed  on  Apr.  8, 
1802  {Jjoi  nkJiva  &  VorQawMtion  du  euUe  du  18  Oerminal 


an  X,),  by  which  the  concordat  (not  the  papal  bull)  was 
promulgated  with  statutory  force,  together  with  two  sepa- 
rate appertaining  "  organic  articles  "  (Mirbt,  QwdUn,  pp. 
336-338)  relating  to  Ckttholic  and  Protestant  worship. 
These  "  organic  articles  "  aimed  to  institute  an  introduo- 
tory  status,  but  they  start  from  premises  about  the  State's 
influence  in  ecclesiaiitical  affairs  that  were  not  acknowledged 
by  the  Church.  At  the  same  time  the  powers  of  the  papal 
representative  at  Paris,  Cardinal  Cktprara,  were  raoogniied, 
and  on  the  following  day  he  published  the  papal  bull  of  rati- 
fication of  Aug.  13;  a  brief  of  Nov.  20,  1801,  which  gave 
him  authority  to  institute  new  bishoprics;  the  promised 
delimiting  bull  for  France  (Qui  CkrisH  Daminia  vteet);  and 
an  indult  reducing  the  number  of  festivals,  all  of  the  same 
date.  The  government  expressed  a  qualified  acquiescence 
on  Apr.  10. 

The  original  documents  relating  to  the  concordat  ara 
found  complete  in  J.  Desenne,  Code  ghUral  fran^aia  eonU- 
nantlM  Una  at  aetaa  du  ooutfememant  jmbliia  dapuia  U  6  mai^ 
1789,  iuaqu'au  8  juiUat,  1816,  Paris,  1818  eqq.,  vol.  x.,  pp. 
438-403.  Material  for  the  history  of  the  concordat  was 
gathered  by  J.  E.  M.  Portalis  in  Diaeoura,  rappoiia  at  tny- 
vaux  irUdiia  sur  la  canandat  da  1801,  lea  Artidaa  orQanupua 
ate,,  Paris,  184fi,  and  has  been  lately  augmented  by  Boulay 
de  la  Meurthe,  Doeumenta  aur  la  nigoeialion  du  amoordat  ai 
lea  aulrea  rapporia  da  la  France  avec  le  SainirSUge  an  1800 
at  1801,  6  vols..  Paris,  1801-00.  Consult  also  Mimoiraa  du 
Cardinai  Conaalvi  etc.,  avee  une  introdudion  ei  dee  noiaa  par 
J.  CrMiMVrJoly,  2  vote.,  Paris,  18(J4;  Comte  d'Hausaon- 
ville,  L'Soliae  romaine  at  la  premier  Empire,  1800-1814,  5 
vote.,  Paris,  1808  sqq.;  A.  Theiner,  Hiatoire  dea  deux  conn 
cordaia  da  la  ripublique  francaiae  at  da  la  ripublique  eiaalpina 
etc.,  2  vols..  Paris,  1860;  O.  Mejer,  Zur  Gesc^tdkis  der  rO- 
miadirdmUaclun  Fraga,  part  i.,  Rostock,  1871,  pp.  162-200; 
L.  Sech^,  Las  Orioinaa  du  concordat,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1804; 
A.  Debidour,  Hiatoire  dea  rapporta  de  l'£oliae  et  de  l'£tat 
en  France  de  1789  H  1870,  Paris,  1808;  Wirts,  Daa  franed- 
•Mcfcs  Konkordat  mm  1801,  in  AKR,  vol.  Ixxxv.  85  aqq.,  200 
sqq.  For  the  concordat  in  Alsaoe-Lorraine  cf.  AKR,  vol. 
xxiv.,  p.  306;  vol.  xlv.,  p.  302. 

This  concordat  regulated  the  relations  between 
Church  and  State  in  France  for  more  than  a  hundred 
years.  Tension  between  France  and  the  Papal  See, 
due  to  various  causes,  occasioned  the  rupture  of  their 
diplomatic  relations  in  1904,  and  it  was  then  pro- 
posed, after  the  fall  of  Minister  Combes  and  under 
the  ministry  of  Rouvier,  to  disestablish  the  Church. 
The  repeal  of  the  concordat  was  decreed  by  the 
legislative  bodies.  The  law  respecting  the  separa- 
tion of  State  and  Church  came  before  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  on  Mar.  21,  1905,  and  was  adopted  on 
July  3  by  341  votes  to  233.  The  Senate  began  to 
deliberate  the  measure  on  Nov.  9,  and  on  Dec.  6 
approved  the  biD  by  179  votes  to  103.    See  Francs. 

The  concordat  of  1801  and  the  new  drcumaeription  be- 
came operative  within  the  boundaries  of  France  as  deter- 
mined by  the  peace  negotiations  of  Luntfville  and  Amiens; 
hence  they  applied  also  to  Belgium,  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  and  the  parts  which  France  had  acquired  of  Switier- 
land  and  Savoy.  For  the  Italian  Republic,  Pius  VII.  con- 
eluded  a  special  concordat  with  Napoleon  as 

8.  Frenoh  its  president,  on  Sept.  16,  1803;  it  was  ap- 
Dependen-  proved  by  the  State  Council  at  Milan,  Sept 
oles.  27,  and  ratified  by  the  pope  on  Oct.  20,  by 
Napoleon  on  Nov.  2  of  the  same  year.  It  is 
a  recasting  of  the  French  concordat,  whose  arts.  iv..  vi., 
vii.,  X.,  xiii.  it  contains  literally,  while  others  are  of  a  more 
favorable  construction  for  the  Church.  It  also  contains 
rulings  upon  points  that  were  not  touched  in  the  Concordat 
of  1801,  but  were  first  agitated  on  occasion  of  the  strife 
which  even  then  broke  out  on  account  of  the  "  organic  arti- 
cles '*  iBuUarium  Romanum,  ed.  Barberi,  vol.  xii.,  pp.  60 
sqq.).  It  continued  in  force  also  for  the  Kingdom  of  Italy 
that  was  erected  in  the  year  1805,  superseding  the  Italian 
Republic. 

The  so-called  Concordat  of  Fontainebleau,  or  second  con- 
cordat of  Napoleon,  dated  Jan.  25,  1813,  which  he  nego- 
tiated and  oonoluded  personally  with  the  pope;  which  h* 


Oonoordats  and_ 

DeUmitlnv  BuUs 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


dl4 


iNiblished,  contrary  to  the  pope's  will,  aa  imperial  law  on 

Feb.  13,  and  on  Mar.  26  provided  with  the  neoeasary  execu- 

->    »  t»v«  proTiaionB  for  France  and  the  Kingdom 

8.  The       of  Italy  (of.  Desenne.  ut  aup..  pp.  681.  683: 

Oonoordat  Debidour,  ut  sup.,  pp.  603  aqq.),  was  never 

of  Fon-     recogniied  by  Piua  VII.  as  a  concordat,  but 

talnebleau,  ^m  always  declared  to  be  only  a  prelimi- 

1818.        ^9^  outline,  and  even  as  such  was  revoked  by 

him  on  Mar.  24,  1813.     It  refers  mainly  to 

the  official  oonfirmation  of  the  bishops.     The  treaty  never 

actually  went  into  efiFeot,  inasmuch  as  the  Napoleonic  rule 

ceased. 

The  concordat  of  1817  between  Pope  Pius  VII.  and  King 
Louis  XVIII.  of  France  never  attained  to  the  force  of  law. 
An  attempt  was  made  after  the  Restoration  to  repeal  the 
concordat  of  1801  and  the  **  orsanic  articles,"  and  negoti- 
ate a  new  concordat,  more  acceptable  to  the  Curia;  exten- 
sive proceedings  to  that  end  took  place  at  Rome  between 
the  French  envoy.  Count  Blacas  d'Aulps.  and  the  cardinal 
secretary  of  state,  Consalvi.  The  result 
4.  The  was  the  treaty  of  June  11.  1817.  which  le- 
Conoordat  stored  the  concordat  of  1616  in  place  of  the 
of  1817.  concordat  of  1801  and  the  "  organic  arti- 
cles," and  promised  to  rehabilitate  the  epis- 
copal sees  abrogated  by  the  bull  of  Nov.  29,  1801,  and  coor- 
dinate them  with  the  existing  dioceses  by  endowing  both 
alike  with  landed  estates  and  public  revenues.  Moreover, 
the  king  declared  in  art.  x.  of  his  agreement  with  the  pope 
that  he  purposed  to  employ  all  the  means  at  his  command 
**  to  abate  as  soon  as  possible  the  disorders  and  obstructions 
which  interfere  with  the  weal  of  religion  and  the  execution 
of  the  laws  of  the  Church."  As  the  Protestants  likewise 
would  lose  their  legal  protection  by  repeal  of  the  "  organic  arti- 
des,"  it  is  obvious  that  this  step  contemplated  some  redress 
for  them  also.  The  French  government  being  too  shrewd 
to  mistiJce  the  dangers  of  this  agreement,  submitted  the 
concordat  to  the  legislative  chambers  in  modified  form,  safe- 
guarding the  State's  position;  but  as  it  encountered  vehe- 
ment opposition  both  inside  and  outside  the  chambers,  it 
was  withdrawn  by  the  government  and  never  again  intro- 
duced {BvUarium  Romanum,  xv.,  pp.  366  sqq.;  Debidour, 
ut  sup.,  pp.  606  sqq.;  Nussi,  pp.  163  sqq.). 

2.  Oermany  and  Austria:  The  status  set  up  by 
the  Princes'  Concordats  and  by  the  Concordat  of 
Vienna  was  modified  in  Germany  by  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555,  and 
the  Peace  of  OsnabHlck  in  1648,  but  not  over- 
turned. Not  until  the  secularization  of  church 
property  in  the  German  Empire  by  the  decree  of 
the  imperial  deputation,  Feb.  25,  1803  (Mirbt, 
Qu«2^,  pp.  338-339),  did  the  ancient  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  of  Germany  collapse.  At  the  outset  Pius 
VII.  had  hoped  to  be  able  to  recon- 
1.  Incon-  Btruct  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
Germany  by  means  of  a  concordat 


olual^e  Ke- 
gotlations 


of  the  ^^^  ^^®  empire,  and  in  this  he  had 
Napoleonic  counted  upon  Napoleon's  assistance. 

Era.  But  when  he  saw  that  he  was  deceived 
therein,  and  when  furthermore  the 
Peace  of  Pressburg  (Dec.  26,  1805),  the  conclusion 
of  the  Rhenish  Confederation  (July,  1806),  and  the 
abdication  of  the  German  imperial  crown  by  Em- 
peror Francis  II.  (Aug.  6,  1806)  precluded  the 
prospect  of  an  alliance  with  the  empire  as  such,  he 
entered  into  negotiations  through  an  extraordinary 
nuncio,  Cardinal  della  Genga  (subsequently  Pope 
Leo  XII.),  with  various  individual  German  states. 
From  Jidy,  1806,  till  Sept.,  1807,  he  negotiated 
fruitlessly  with  Bavaria  (cf.  H.  von  Sicherer,  Stoat 
und  Kirche  in  Bayem  vom  RegierungsantriU  dea 
Kurfursten  Max  Josephs  IV,  his  zur  ErJddrung  wm 
Tegerruee,  179^1821,  Munich,  1874,  pp.  112-113), 
and  he  proceeded  with  WOrttemberg  and  Baden 
from  Sept.  8,  1807,  till  the  close  of  October.  Owing 
to  the  intervention  of  Napoleon,  however,  all  nego- 


tiations came  to  nothing;  and  the  Roman  Church  in 
Germany  stilU  found  itself  in  the  same  status  is 
1813  and  1815  as  in  1803.  At  the  time  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  (Sept.,  1814-June,  1815)  only 
five  inciunbents  of  German  episcopal  sees  were  still 
alive;  and  four  of  these  were  past  seventy  years. 
The  Curia  proposed  no  new  arrangement,  but  as 
far  as  possible  the  restoration  of  the  old.  It  asked 
for  restitution  of  the  status  quo  ante  heUum,  and  in 
Germany  especially  the  relinquishment  of  eccle- 
siastical property  and  revenues  that  had  been  lost 
to  the  Church  since  1801  and  1803;  also  the  re- 
habilitation of  the  spiritual  principalities,  and  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  German  Nation  mth 
its  old  legal  temporal  and  ecclesiastical  relations 
with  the  papacy.  When  the  Curia  failed  to  obtain 
its  demands  at  the  Congress  it  reserved  all  of  its 
rights  in  the  form  of  a  solenm  protest  on  the  part 
of  the  papal  legate,  on  July  14,  1815;  and  Pius  VIL 
confirmed  his  action  in  an  allocution  of  Sept.  4  of 
the  same  year.  At  the  same  time  he  expressed  the 
hope  of  a  salutary — in  the  Roman  view — under- 
standing with  the  German  Confederation,  an  idea 
which  was  entertained  at  Rome  till  1816. 

Meanwhile,  as  early  as  February  of  the  year  in 
question,  the  Curia  made  known  its  disposition  to 
institute  separate  negotiations,  at  all  events  with 
Bavaria.  The  Bavarian  government  had  cherished 
the  thought  of  a  separate  concordat  ever  since  the 
Peace  of  Lun^ville  and  the  decree  of  the  imperial 
deputation  in  1803.     It  had  resinned  diplomatic 

intercourse  with  the  pope  in  the  sum- 
dat  ^h"  ™®''  °^  ^®^^'  for  this  purpose,  and  in- 
Bavarla     ^f^^ted  its  envoy  H&ffelin  to  further 
1817.  '    ^^®   business.     The  upshot  was  the       I 

conclusion  of  a  concordat  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Oct.,  1817,  though  it  is  dated  June  5.  King 
Maximilian  ratified  it  on  Oct.  24;  the  pope,  in  an 
allocution  of  Nov.  15,  published  the  bull  which  con- 
firmed the  same. 

The  "  convention  "  is  worded  in  Latin,  and  ita  fonn  it 
patterned  after  the  French  agreement  {BvUarium  Romanum, 
xiv.,  pp.  314  sqq.;  Nuasi,  pp.  146  aqq.;  Mirbt,  <?ueUm,  p. 
344).  A  tacit  reservation  of  the  State  found  ezpreasioD 
when  the  oonoordat  'was  published  as  state  law.  This  wm 
accomplished  first  by  an  '*  Edict  eonoeming  the  Extemsl 
Lesal  Relations  of  the  Elingdom  to  Religion  and  Eodeaiss- 
tical  Organisations  "  (the  so-called  "  Religious  Edict ")  of 
May  26,  1818.  Herein  the  provisions  of  the  concordat 
were  treated  not  as  applying  to  the  kingdom,  but  merely 
to  the  Catholics  of  the  kingdom,  and  that  only  with  respect 
to  the  internal  affairs  of  their  communion.  These  "or- 
ganic articlM  "  oouJd  not  have  been  a  surprise  to  the  Cans, 
but  some  appearance  was  made  of  regarding  them  in  that 
light;  and  in  connection  with  them  there  arose  a  dispute 
similar  to  the  one  in  France,  not  even  yet  quite  settled, 
between  the  Bavarian  government  and  the  papal  court  sa 
to  the  actual  signification  of  the  concordat.  Not  until  a 
declaration  of  the  religious  edict  was  assured  by  King  Max- 
imilian Joseph  of  Bavaria  did  Pius  VII.  publish  the  delimit^ 
ing  bull  of  Apr.  1,  1818,  Dei  ae  damini  no§tri  Juu  Chriati 
iBvUarium  [Romanum,  (xv.  17  sqq.),  on  Sept.  8,  1821.  The 
history  of  the  Bavarian  Concordat  is  thoroughly  treated  on 
the  basis  of  the  archives  in  Von  Sicherer 's  Siaat  nni  Kirche, 
mentioned  above;  cf.  also  N.  von  Lerchenfeld,  Zur  (h- 
•diidUe  dea  baifriechen  KonkordaU,  Ndrdlingen,  1882;  H. 
Brack.  OeMdiicfUe  der  kaiholiaehen  Kirche,  ii..  Mains,  1889, 
pp.  12  sqq.;  M.  von  SeydeV  BayriaAea  Siaatareehi,  vL, 
Freiburg,  1803. 

With  the  Protestant  states  of  Gemany  the  Curia 
desired  to  conclude  concordate  in  order  to  secure  in 


615 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ooncoid&ta  and 

Delimiting  Bulla 


them  the  rights  d  the  Roman  Church  in  a  legal 
form  that  should  bind  the  State  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible. At  the  outset,  too,  the  Protestant  states 
were   disposed  to  the  conclusion  of    concordats. 

Prussia,  like  Bavaria,  had  entertained 

^ in^^sSl"  ^^  thought  of  an  understanding  with 

*  Rome  since  the  sununer  of  1814 — a 

yy„^^^     matter    that    seemed    indispensable, 

1821.       indeed,  on  account  of  the  disoiganiza- 

tion  of  the  Prussian  dioceses.  With 
reference  to  the  kind  of  stipulation  to  be  concluded, 
great  diCFerences  of  opinion  prevailed  in  Beriin. 
The  final  result  of  negotiations  conducted  by  Nie- 
buhr  was  the  bull  De  saltUe  animarum,  of  July  16, 
1821,  which,  having  been  sanctioned  according  to 
its  essential  substance  and  incorporated  into  the 
legal  code,  was  published  in  Priissia  by  a  cabinet 
order,  Atigust  23,  albeit  with  reservation  of  all 
sovereign  rights. 

For  the  bull  eonralt  the  BuUarium  Romanum,  xv.  403 
sqq.;  Niiasi.  pp.  188  aqq.;  Mirbt.  QuelUn,  pp.  347-349;  for 
the  nesotiatioDfl  consult  Mejer,  ut  sup.,  vol.  ii.,  part  2,  pp. 
3-116.  205  aqq..  300.  vol.  iii.,  part  1.  pp.  88-184;  R  A.  T. 
Laspeyres,  Ch$€hidiie  und  hetUige  Verfaaaung  der  kalKoliBchen 
Kircka  PreuMaena,  part  i.,  Halle.  1840;  Brack,  ut  sup.,  ii. 
38  aqq.;  C.  Uirbt.  Dia  preitaaiaeKa  Otaandtaehaft  am  Hofa 
daa  Papaiea,  Leipeic  1899,  pp.  13  eqq. 

Negotiations  for  a  concordat  with  Hanover  were 
opened  in  the  summer  of  1817,  and  continued  with 
long  intermissions  until  about  the  middle  of  1820. 
The  Hanoverian  government  conditioned  its  con- 
sent to  the  concordat  upon  the  concession  of  four 
provisos:  absolute  right  of  rejecting 
4.  Delimit-  ^^^  clergy  that  might  be  appointed; 

inffBiiU    oversight  of  church  property;    reser- 

forKan.  vation  of  certain  prerogatives;  and 
over,  1804.  the  dependence  of  the  legal  status  of 
new  foundations  upon  government 
confirmation.  The  Curia  just  as  definitely  refused 
these  concessions.  In  Mar.,  1822,  following  the 
example  of  Prussia,  the  Hanoverian  government 
announced  through  its  envoy  that,  instead  of  a  con- 
cordat, it  likewise  desired  merely  a  delimiting  bull. 
A  draft  of  agreement  was  therefore  prepared, 
which,  being  substantially  accepted  by  the  Hano- 
verian government,  was  approved  by  Pope  Pius  VII. 
a  few  days  before  his  death,  in  a  note  dated  Aug.  13, 
1823.  The  ratification  by  Hanover  took  place 
early  in  1824,  and  the  bull  Impensa  Romanorum 
•ponHficum  was  issued  by  Pope  Leo  XII.  on  Mar. 
26,  1824,  authorizing  the  organization  of  the  episco- 
pal sees  of  Hildesheim  and  Osnabrttck  (Nussi,  pp. 
222  sqq.).  Their  constitution  is  similar  to  the 
Prussian,  and  their  confirmation  by  King  George 
IV.  took  effect  under  date  of  May  20,  1824  (cf. 
Mejer,  ut  sup.,  vol.  ii.,  part  2,  pp.  117-164,  241- 
264,  vol.  iii.,  part  1,  pp.  62-S7;  BrQck,  ut  sup., 
vol.  iL,  pp.  75  sqq.). 

At  the  initiative  of  WQrttemberg,  delegates  of 
WQittemberg,  Baden,  both  the  Hessian  states, 
Nassau,  the  Saxon  duchies,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
Oldenburg,  Labeck,  and  Bremen,  assembled  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Mar.  24, 1818,  to  deliberate 
concerning  the  conclusion  of  a  common  concordat 
with  Rome.  Afterward  Frankfort,  Lippe,  Wal- 
deck,  and  both  HohenzoUems  took  part  in  the 
deliberations.     It  la  true  that  the  interest  of  all 


these  states  in  the  conference  was  not  the  same, 
and  some  of  them  shortly  withdrew.    The  dele- 
gates   finally  agreed   to  formulate  a 
5.  The      8^*tc  1*^  concerning  the  affairs  of  the 
States  of  Catholic  Church  in  their  districts  in 
the  Ecde-  terms  of  a  declaration  and  submit  the 
siastical    same  to  the  pope.     The  declaration 

^  *Si^"  ^*°^®  *"^®  there  were  outlined  certain 
per  &nine.  „  Fundamental  Provisions  for  an 
Organic  Church  Law  of  the  State," 
resembling  in  the  main  the  French  "  organic 
articles" — ^together  with  instructions  for  an  em- 
bassy that  was  to  carry  the  declaration  to  Rome. 
The  states  represented  at  Frankfort  accepted  these 
documents  as  the  basis  of  transactions  with  the 
Curia  by  a  formal  agreement,  Oct.  7,  1818.  In 
Feb.,  1819,  Baron  von  TUrekheim  (Protestant)  and 
Schmitz-GroUenburg  (Catholic)  went  to  Rome  aa 
envoys  of  the  federated  states.  After  long  waiting 
for  enlightenment  in  regard  to  the  pope's  real  atti- 
tude, on  Aug.  10,  1819,  Consalvi  issued  the  explicit 
note  entitled  "Exposition  of  the  Views  of  His 
Holiness  concerning  the  Declaration  of  the  United 
Protestant  Princes  and  States  of  the  German  Feder- 
ation." In  this  note  certain  modifications  of  the 
declaration  are  proposed,  which  would  have  com- 
pletely changed  its  tenor;  and  finally  the  proposi- 
tion was  made  of  merely  a  new  delimitation  of  the 
bishoprics.  The  several  governments  voted,  in 
Mar.,  1821,  to  accept  the  delimitation,  still  expect- 
ing further  negotiations  in  relation  to  its  details, 
and  they  were  surprised  when  the  bull  {Prowda 
sollersque  ;  Nussi,  pp.  229  sqq.)  actually  appeared, 
dated  Aug.  16,  1821,  constituting  the  present  eccle- 
siastical province  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  The  con- 
ference reassembled  at  Frankfort  in  Oct.,  182 1, 
and  its  acceptance  of  the  buU  was  communicated 
to  the  Roman  Court  at  the  close  of  November. 
All  parts  of  the  declaration  of  1818  which  were  not 
touched  upon  in  the  bull  had  been  meanwhile  em- 
bodied in  the  contemplated  statute,  and  with  the 
same  had  been  made  into  a  so-called  "Church 
Pragmatic,"  which  it  was  intended  to  publish  in 
all  the  states  at  the  same  time  with  the  buU.  This 
evoked  energetic  opposition  from  the  Roman  See, 
but  the  federated  governments  refused  to  yield  and 
added  a  new  compact,  Feb.  8,  1822,  to  that  of  Oct. 
7,  1818.  On  June  13,  1823,  the  pope  refused  to 
substantiate  propositions  in  regard  to  the  episcopal 
appointments,  he  demanded  the  total  retraction  of 
the  "  Church  Pragmatic,"  and  then  issued,  on  June 
16,  1825,  an  ultimatum  which  gave  occasion  to  the 
reopening  of  the  Frankfort  Conference  (Jan.,  1826). 
The  net  result  of  all  the  negotiations  was  that  on 
Apr.  11,  1827,  Leo  XII.  issued  the  bull  Ad  dominici 
gregis  cuatodiamf  which  in  its  first  four  articles 
gave  directions  for  the  election  of  the  bishops  and 
chapters;  but  then  in  articles  v.  and  vL,  agreeably 
to  the  ultimatum  and  without  regarding  the  re- 
joinder of  the  governments,  prescribed  that  in  every 
diocese  there  should  be  a  seminary  conformably 
to  the  decrees  of  Trent,  and  that  the  bishops  and 
archbishops  should  enjoy  free  communication  with 
the  pope,  and  all  the  rights  of  jurisdiction  which 
accrued  to  them  according  to  the  canon  law  as 


Ooncoid&ts  and 

DeUmltinff  Bulls 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


die 


previously  in  force  and  consistently  with  the  vital 
discipline  of  the  Church.  Upon  the  statutory  con- 
firmations and  publications  of  both  bulls,  which 
took  place  at  last  after  the  signature,  on  Oct.  8, 
1827,  of  an  amendment  to  their  state  compact  of 
1818  and  1822  (in  Nassau,  Oct.  9,  1827;  in  Baden, 
Oct.  16;  in  WQrttemberg,  Oct.  24;  in  Electoral 
Hesse,  Aug.  31;  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse, 
Oct.  16, 1820),  the  bull  Ad  daminici,  with  the  omis- 
sion, in  part,  of  its  last  two  articles,  and  with  ex- 
press insistence  upon  sovereignty  rights  of  the  State, 
etc.,  was  incorporated  into  the  states'  legislative 
acts.  But,  besides  this,  there  was  issued  in  all  these 
states,  Jan.  30,  1830,  a  similarly  worded  regulation 
with  respect  to  the  protection  of  state  sovereignty 
and  supervisory  rights  over  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church;  the  "  Church  Pragmatic  "  was  literally 
repeated  in  all  essential  points,  insomuch  that  Pius 
VIII.,  esteeming  this  edict  contrary  to  agreement, 
protested  against  it  in  a  brief  of  June  30,  1830, 
addressed  to  all  the  bishops  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  rejected  the  regula- 
tion, and  admonished  the  bishops  to  guard  the 
rights  of  the  Church. 

The  documents  axe  in  Maneh,  ut  eup.,  ii.  309-417;  NuMi, 
pp.  209  sqq.,  239  sqq.;  for  the  history  consult  Mejer,  ut 
■up.,  vol.  ii.,  part  2,  pp.  16&-240,  vol.  iii..  part  1,  pp.  7-61, 
186-229;  H.  Brtlek,  Die  oberrhieinueKe  KirtJ^enprovinM  von 
ihnr  OrUndung  bia  sur  Otgenwart,  Mains,  1868;  E.  Fried- 
beis.  Der  Stoat  und  die  Biedhojewdtden  in  DeuUddani^  Leip- 
■ie,  1874,  part  i.,  pp.  125  sqq.,  part  ii.,  pp.  114  sqq.;  C. 
Mirbt,  Die  kaiholieef^-theoloaieehe  FakuWU  su  Marbwrg, 
Marburg,  1906,  pp.  16-44,  76-130. 

The  governments  which  had  taken  part  in  the 
Frankfort  Conference  and  were  not  directly  affected 
by  the  delimitation  of  the  bull  Provida  aoUersque 
attached  themselves  subsequently  in  part  to  the 
Prussian,  in  part  to  the  Upper  Rhenish  diocesan 
circuits,  save  that  Brunswick  joined  the  circuit  of 
Hanover  (cf.  Mejer,  Die  Propaganda,  ihre  Proviruen 
und  ihr  Rechtf  ii.,  GOttingen,  1853,  pp.  500  sqq.). 

In  Austria  the  territorialism  of  Emperor  Joseph 
II.  was  abandoned  even  at  the  time  of  the  German- 
Austrian  constitution  of  Apr.  25,  1848,  and  after- 
ward in  the  constitution  of  Mar.  5,  1849,  and  in 
an  imperial  patent  of  the  same  date  the  social  free- 
dom of  the  Church  was  set  forth  in  the  formula  then 
in  vogue  deriving  from  the  Frankfort  "  Fundamen- 
tal Rights,"  to  the  effect  that  the 
e.  Ooncor-  Church  should  "  independently  regu- 

dat  with    l&te  and  administer  "  its  affairs.    As 

Austria,  early  as  1848,  all  sorts  of  memorials 
1866.  from  Austrian  bishops  relating  to 
particular  ecdesiasticid  demands  had 
appeared,  and  in  the  following  year  they  were  sum- 
moned by  the  government  to  a  convention  at 
Vienna  to  formulate  their  demands.  The  detailed 
and  extensive  petitions  which  were  there  drawn 
up  were  approved  by  the  pope  on  July  9  (cf.  M. 
BrUhl,  Acta  ecdeaiastica,  Mainz,  1853).  The 
government  answered  with  the  decrees  of  Apr. 
18  and  23,  1850,  and  the  patent  of  Dec.  31,  1851, 
wliich,  however,  were  to  have  only  a  temporary 
effect,  pending  the  result  of  negotiations  with 
Rome  for  a  concordat.  The  negotiations  were 
yu»g\m  in  Vienna  in  1853,  and  were  completed  at 
Home  on  Aug.  18,  1855.    The  concordat  was  pub- 


lished as  law  in  the  bull  Detu  kumanm  saltdis  audor, 
Nov.  3,  1855,  and  by  the  imperial  patent  of  Nov. 
5,  1855.    See  Aubtbia. 

The  oonoordat  begina  with  the  aasuranoe  of  the  Bavarian 
oonoordat,  namely,  that  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in 
Austria  shall  have  "  all  powers  and  prerogatives  "  which 
belong  to  it  "  aooording  to  divine  dispensation  and  the 
canonical  ordinances  ";  the  restriction  which  was  subjoinM 
in  Bavaria  by  the  religious  edict  was  not  appended.  In 
other  respects  also,  the  Church  in  Austeia  was  eetab 
lished  on  a  much  more  favorable  basis.  In  the  dosdnx 
articles  (34,  36),  all  and  sundry  state  laws  of  Austria  whica 
are  contrary  to  the  oonoordat,  or  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church,  or  to  its  present  practise  as  approved  by  the  Holy 
See,  are  repealed;  in  articles  5  sqq.,  10  sqq.,  the  Church  is 
charged  with  education,  the  surveillance  of  literature,  the 
regulation  of  marriage;  and,  furthermore,  it  is  expressly 
guaranteed  all  freedom  of  action  with  repeal  of  placet  and 
the  right  of  appeal.  In  fact,  this  oonoordat  concedes  to 
the  Church  the  full  sovereignty  demanded  by  the  Ultn- 
montanes,  together  with  the  subordination  of  State  to 
Church,  in  all  essential  relationships. 

For  the  text  of  the  oonoordat  consult  Nussi,  pp.  310  aqq.; 
AKR,  i.,  pp.  iv.  sqq.,  xiv.,  03  sqq.;  xviii.  449  sqq.; 
ColL  Laoeneie,  v.  1321  sqq.;  secret  articles  in  Mirbt,  Qwl- 
ten,  pp.  363-365.  Consult  further:  AKR,  i.  180  sqq..  218 
sqq.,  365  sqq.;  vi.  176  sqq.,  100  sqq.;  viii.  292  sqq.  E. 
Friedberg,  Die  Oreneen  swiedien  Stoat  und  Kirche^  TQbiogen, 
1872,  pp.  403  sqq. 

After  the  demands  for  ''  church  freedom  "  had 
repeatedly  been  expressed  in  the  so-called  popular 
demands  of  1848,  though  the  Frankfort  national 
assembly  adhered  to  the  practise  of  describing  the 
churches  as  societies  subordinated  to  the  laws  of 
the  State,  the  German  episcopate  assembled  at 
Wttrzburg  in  October  of  that  year  for  common 
conference.  The  bishops  here  united  in  a  plea  to 
the  state  governments,  which  was  afterward  voiced 
in  a  series  of  memorials  issued  by  all  the  separate 
sees,  to  the  end  that  the  governments  should  recog- 
nize the  independence  of  the  church  corporation. 
By  "  independence  "  the  bishops  understood  that 
in  all  its  affairs  which  the  Church  interpreted  as 
church  business  it  should  be  subjected  to  no  kind 
of  restrictions  or  surveillance  by  the 
7.  Airree-  State.  As  no  German  government 
ments  with  consented  to  the  demands  of  these 

^•■^"     petitions,  the  leaders  of  the  movement 

~?!"J*~*' next  pursued  the  contest  in  Baden, 

bexw  and    ^^^"^  *  majority  of  Roman  Catholic 

B^gjj  subjects  happened  to  be  governed  by 
1866-50.  &  Protestant  line  of  princes.  They 
gradually  stirred  up  conditions  which 
led  the  neighboring  governments  of  Hesse-Dann- 
stadt  and  Wilrttemberg,  and  at  last  also  that 
of  Baden,  to  seek  relief  from  the  Church  itself. 
By  means  of  agreements  in  the  nature  of  con- 
cordats, they  recognized,  much  as  Austria  had 
done,  the  non-competency  of  the  State  in  the 
domain  of  canonical  legislation,  so  far  as  to  request 
of  the  Curia  the  institution  of  the  regulations  they 
deemed  necessary.  On  the  other  hand ,  they  granted 
"  church  freedom."  Such  promises  as  those  of  the 
first  article  of  the  Bavarian  and  the  Austrian  con- 
cordats, could  not,  indeed,  be  adopted  by  Protes- 
tant governments,  but  at  least  they  guaranteed  to 
protect  the  full  development  of  the  episcopal  juris- 
diction according  to  canonical  definition,  without 
qualification  for  the  Protestants  and  without  ex- 
press reservation  of  sovereignty  rights  over  the 
Church.    This  was,  however,  distinctly  assumed. 


di7 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonoordats  and 

DelimitizurBuUs 


It  is  evident  in  not  a  few  passages  that  they  also 
followed  the  outlines  of  the  Austrian  concordat  in 
drawing  up  the  paper.  The  Hessian  agreement  of 
Aug.  23,  1854  (cf.  A.  Schmidt,  KirchenrechlaqueUen 
des  Grossherzogtums  Hessen,  Giessen,  1891,  pp.  57 
sqq.),  did  not  satisfy  the  Curia,  and  was  supple- 
mented in  1856  by  the  desired  amendments.  The 
Wurttemberg  agreement  was  concluded  directly 
with  the  Curia  on  Apr.  8,  1857  (Nussi,  pp.  321  sqq.; 
cf.  Friedberg,  Gremen,  ut  sup.,  pp.  440-471;  L. 
Golther,  Der  Stoat  und  die  katholische  Kirche  im 
Konigreich  Wurttemberg,  Stuttgart,  1874;  AKR, 
ii.  688  sqq.;  iii.  444  sqq.,  577  sqq.;  iv.  307  sqq.; 
V.  202;  vi.  398  sqq.).  It  was  published  by  the 
pope  in  the  bull  Cum  in  sublimit  June  22;  by  King 
William  I.,  Dec.  21,  1857,  subject  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  state  sovereignty  rights,  and  with  reserva- 
tion of  legislative  approval  for  the  points  wherein 
the  State's  laws  were  affected.  The  Baden  agree- 
ment was  concluded  with  the  same  clauses,  June 
28,  1859,  and  published  by  the  pope  on  Sept.  22 
in  the  bull  Mtemi  pairis  vicaria  (Nussi,  pp.  330  sqq.; 
cf.  H.  MaaA,  Geackichte  der  katholischen  Kirche  im 
Grosaherzogtum  Baden,  Freiburg,  1891,  pp.  229  sqq.). 
The  agreement  was  published  by  the  government 
on  Dec.  5, 1859.  In  Baden,  and  then  in  Wiirttem- 
berg,  the  legislative  bodies  refused  their  approba- 
tion. Both  governments  thus  found  themselves 
obliged  to  announce  to  the  Curia  that  they  were  not 
in  a  position  to  carry  out  their  agreements,  but 
must  suffer  them  to  lapse;  whereupon,  first  in 
Baden,  under  several  laws  dated  Oct.  9,  1860,  then 
also  in  WQrttemberg,  imder  laws  of  Dec.  31,  1861, 
Jan.  23  and  30,  1862,  the  relation  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  the  State  was  regulated  in  a 
one-sided  way.  The  same  thing  subsequently  took , 
place  in  Hesse-Darmstadt. 

Austria,  too,  had  promptly  learned  that  the  con- 
cessions of  the  concordat  could  not  be  maintained, 
and  consequently  made  efforts  as  early  as  1860, 
and  again  in  1863,  to  have  it  modified,  but  in  vain. 
Owing  to  the  outcome  of  the  Diet  of  Princes  at 
Frankfort  in  1863,  and  to  the  result  of  the  war  of 
1866,  Austria's  plans  in  relation  to  Germany  were 
frustrated,  and  the  government  applied 
8.  Kodifl-   itself  to  the  reorganization  of  internal 
cation  and  affairs.     In  the  laws  of  Dec.  21, 1867, 
Bepeal  of  «<  Concerning  the  Common  Rights  of 
^®^^^;  atizens "    (§  xv.)  it    declared    that 
^l       "  "  every  legally  recognized  church  and 
1867-70.   religious  association  should  independ- 
ently   regulate    and    administer     its 
internal  affairs " ;    but    "  every  association  is  to 
be  subordinated  to  the  State's  laws  as  a  whole." 
Herein     it    diverged    from    the   concordat,    and 
there  followed  a  marriage  law,  a  law  respecting 
schools,  and  a  law  touching  interconfessional  rela- 
tions, all  three  dated  May  25,  1868;    there   were 
several  subsequent  decrees  of  like  nature   (AKR, 
xix    459    sqq.).    The    pope   forthwith   protested 
against    these   laws   through   his   Vienna  nuncio, 
FalcineUi,  and  in  an  allocution  of  June  23,  1868, 
pronounced  the  entire  array  of  Austrian  constitu- 
tional laws  as  issued  without  the  requisite  compe- 
tency, and  "  abhorrent  "  (leges  abominaka  ;  Mirbt, 
Que^,  p.  371).    After  the  Vatican  Council  the 


Austrian  government  formally  retracted  the  con- 
cordat, on  July  30,  1870  (AKR,  xxiv.  284  sqq.), 
declaring  in  the  accompanying  despatch  that  the 
government  had  found  itself  constrained  "  to  return 
to  its  perfect  freedom  of  action,  in  order  to  be 
equipped  against  the  eventual  institution  of  the 
ecclesiastical  power,  such  as  it  was  to  be  construed 
by  the  terms  of  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council." 

8.  Italy:  For  the  oonoordat  of  Sept.  16.  1803.  between 
Napoleon  and  Pius  VII.,  aee  above,  VI.,  1,  \  3.  Other  con- 
cordats with  Italian  states  in  the  nineteenth  century  were 
made  as  follows:  (1)  Between  Pius  VII.  and  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  I.  of  Sardinia  in  the  bull  BeaAi  Petrutn  apo$to- 
lorum,  July  17,  1817  iBtdlarium  Romanum,  xiv.  344  sqq.; 
Nussi,  pp.  166  sqq.).  (2)  Between  Gregory  XVI.  and 
King  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  Aug.  23,  1836.  and  Mar. 
27.  1841  (Nussi,  pp.  246  sqq.,  266  sqq.).  (3)  Between 
Pius  VII.  and  King  Ferdinand  I.  of  Naples  for  the  king- 
dom of  the  two  Sicilies,  concluded  Feb.  16,  1818,  published 
by  the  bull  In  ntpremo  apoatoliece.  Mar.  6,  and  by  law  of 
Mar.  21,  1818  iBtdlarium  Romanum,  xv.  7  sqq.;  Nussi,  pp. 
178  sqq.).  (4)  Between  Pius  VII.  and  King  Ferdinand  II. 
of  Naples,  Apr.  16,  1834  (Nussi,  pp.  264  sqq.).  (6)  Between 
Pius  IX.  and  Leopold  II.,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany.  Apr.  26, 
1861  (Nussi,  pp.  278  sqq.). 

4.  Other  European  States:  For  oonoordata  with  Spain 
in  the  nineteenth  century  see  below,  VII. 

A  concordat  was  concluded  between  Pedro  V.,  king  of 
Portugal,  and  Pius  IX.  in  1857  respecting  Indian  episcopal 
appointments  (Nuasi,  pp.  318  sqq.,  390-391).  It  was  su- 
perseded under  Leo  XIII.  by  a  concordat  of  June  23,  1886 
\AKR,  Iviii.  3  sqq.). 

Gregory  XVI.  made  a  convention  with  Csar  Nicholas  I. 
of  Russia,  Aug.  3,  1847,  with  reference  to  Catholics  of  the 
Latin  rite  (Nussi,  pp.  273  sqq.;  AKR,  vi.  170  sqq.).  It  was 
not  carried  out,  and  the  same  is  true  of  a  later  concordat, 
Dec.  23,  1882  (AKR,  xUx.    323  sqq.;  1.  352  sqq.;    liii.  144). 

A  concordat  was  concluded  with  Montenegro,  Oct.  18, 
1886  {AKR,  Iviii.  26  sqq.). 

Leo  XII.  made  a  concordat  with  William  I.,  king  of  Bel- 
gium, June  18.  1827  (Nussi.  pp.  232  sqq.). 

TlMre  was  an  understanding  of  Mar.  26,  1828,  between 
Leo  XII.  and  the  Swiss  cantons  of  Bern,  Lucerne.  Soleure. 
and  Zug  concerning  the  foundation  of  the  bishopric  of  Basel 
(Nussi.  pp.  242  sqq.  for  the  history;  cf.  F.  Fleiner,  Stoat  und 
JBiachofavoahl  im  Biatum  Ba»el,  Leipsic,  1897).  The  under- 
standing reached  between  Gregory  XVI.  and  the  Council 
of  the  canton  of  Saint  Gall  with  reference  to  the  founding 
of  that  diocese  is  dated  Nov.  7,  1846  (Nussi,  pp.  269  sqq.; 
cf.  C.  Gareis  and  P.  Zom,  Stoat  und  Kirche  in  der  Sdiweia, 
2  vols..  Zurich,  1877-78). 

6.  Central  America:  The  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the 
Central  American  republics  were  regulated  after  their  eman- 
cipation from  the  Spanish  dominion  by  concordats  modeled 
after  the  Spanish  concordat  of  1861  (see  below,  VII.). 
These  concordats  are  substantially  the  same  in  contents 
(cf.  F.  Sentis,  Die  Konkordate  dee  rOmiedien  Stuhlee  mit 
den  Republiken  Centralamerikae,  in  AKR,  xii.  225-234),  and 
were  concluded  with  Pius  IX.  as  follows:  with  Costa  Rica 
under  President  Mora.  Oct.  7,  1862,  confirmed  by  the  pope 
May  16.  1863  (Nussi.  pp.  297-303);  with  Guatemala  under 
General  Carrera.  Oct.  7.  1862,  confirmed  Aug.  3,  1863  (Nut- 
si.  pp.  303-310);  with  Nicaragua.  Nov.  2,  1861.  confirmed 
May  26.  1862  (Nussi,  pp.  361-367);  with  San  Salvador,  Apr. 
22,  1862,  confirmed  June  1,  1863  (Nussi.  pp.  367-372);  with 
Honduras,  Apr.  22,  1862  (Nussi,  p.  349). 

6.  South  America:  Agreements  were  made  between 
Pius  IX.  and  the  president  of  Veneiuela.  July  26,  1862 
(Nussi,  pp.  366  sqq.);  between  the  same  pope  and  the 
president  of  Ecuador,  Sept.  26,  1862.  repealed  1878  (Nussi. 
pp.  349  sqq.;  Mirbt,  Quellen,  pp.  366-366;  AKR,  xl.  321); 
between  Leo  XIII.  and  Colombia,  Dec.  31. 1887  iAKR,  Ixii., 
pp.  113-114). 

A  concordat  was  concluded  between  Pius  IX.  and  the 
president  of  Haiti.  Mar.  28.  1860  (Nuasi.  pp.  346  sqq.). 

Vn.  Spanish  Concordats:  The  compact  of  Pope 
Adrian  VI.  with  Emperor  Charles  V.,  Sept.  6,  1523, 
accorded  the  latter  a  limited  right  of  appointment 
to  the  archiepiscopal  and  episcopal  churches  of  the 


Ooncordatfl     and     DeUndtlnv 
OonoursuB  DiTiniui  [Bulls 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


218 


realm;  by  terms  of  an  agreement  with  Clement  VII., 
Dec.  14,  1529,  he  was  allowed  a  perfectly  free  hand. 
The  Concordia  Facheneti,  of  Oct.  8,  1640,  named 
after  the  nmicio  of  that  time  at  Madrid,  Cesare 
Facheneti,  archbishop  of  Damiate,  endeavored  to 
rectify  grievances  which  King  Philip  IV.  (1621-65) 
had  set  forth  to  the  Curia  in  a  memorial  of  Dec.  18, 
1634,  on  the  subject  of  ecclesiastical  diBorders;  and 
especially  concerning  the  nuncio's  official  conduct. 
When  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  on  account 
of  the  pope's  attitude  in  the  war  of  the  Spanbh 
Succession,  things  had  come  to  a  complete  rupture 
between  King  Philip  V.  (1700-^)  and  aement 
XL,  the  difficulties  of  bringing  about  a  reconcilia- 
tion proved  extraordinarily  serious.  The  concordat 
concluded  on  June  17,  1717,  continued  unfulfilled 
notwithstanding  ratification  on  both  sides;  nor 
did  the  bull  of  Innocent  XIII.,  Apostotici  ministerii, 
dated  Mar.  13,  1723,  prove  a  satisfactory  substitute, 
though  this  bull,  being  acknowledged  by  royal 
decree  and  statutory  legblation,  and  renewed  by 
Benedict  XIII.,  is  classed  among  the  Spanish  con- 
cordats. The  complete  restoration  of  harmony 
with  Rome  did  not  ensue  prior  to  the  concordat  of 
Sept.  26,  1737,  which  all  in  all  was  very  favorable 
to  the  See  of  Rome.  In  sharp  contrast  herewith 
stands  the  concordat  concluded  between  Pope 
Benedict  XIV*  and  King  Ferdinand  VI.  of  Spain, 
on  Jan.  11, 1753  (Nussi,  pp.  120  sqq.;  P.  A.  Kirsch, 
Das  durch  Papst  Benedict  XIV.  im  Jahre  1573  mii 
Spanien  abgeschhssene  Konkardat,  in  AKR,  Ixxx. 
313-322),  whereby  the  pope  was  compelled,  against 
an  indenmity  of  1,300,000  scudi  (about  6,500,000 
francs),  to  grant  royal  patronage  in  toto,  and  be 
satisfied  with  the  fact  that  he  was  allowed  the  be- 
stowal of  fifty-two  benefices.  This  concordat  re- 
mained in  force  until  the  conflicts  which  broke  out 
after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  Sept.  29,  1833. 
When  with  a  view  to  newly  ordering  the  affairs  of 
the  Church  a  compact  had  been  concluded  on  Apr. 
27,  1845,  French  statecraft  brought  it  about  that 
the  royal  ratification  was  withheld.  The  proceed- 
ings led  to  no  positive  result  before  1851.  The 
concordat  of  Mar.  16,  of  that  year,  between  Pius  IX. 
and  Queen  Isabella  II.  comprises  forty-six  articles 
{Ada  Pii  IX.,  Rome,  1858,  part  i.,  293-341;  Nussi, 
pp.  281-297;  Mirbt,  Quellen,  p.  361).  The  good 
understanding  between  the  papacy  and  the  Spanish 
kingdom  was  again  disturbed  not  many  years  later, 
but  an  agreement  was  concluded  at  Rome,  on  Aug. 
25,  1859,  between  Cardinal  Antonelli  and  the  Span- 
ish envoy  {AKR,  vii.  391-399;  Nussi,  pp.  341- 
345),  which  assumes  the  operation  of  the  concordat 
of  1851,  and  seeks  to  supplement  it  in  the  matter  of 
the  endowment  of  public  worship  and  the  clergy. 
After  the  Cortes  had  approved  on  Nov.  7,  1859, 
there  followed  on  the  part  of  the  queen  and  the 
pope  the  ratification  of  the  concordat,  Nov.  7  and 
24  respectively,  and  its  publication  as  law  of  the 
State  Apr.  4,  1860.  Pope  Pius  X.  concluded  a 
concordat  with  King  Alphonso  XIII.  concerning 
the  religious  orders,  on  June  19,  1904,  which  was 
legally  confirmed  by  the  Spanish  Cortes  June  23, 
1904  {AKR,  Ixxxv.  319  sqq.). 

The  oonoordata  with  Spain  are  treated  comprehensively 
by    HflKSeoi^ther,    Spanient    Verhandlunffen    mil    dem  ro- 


miMdtm  StuhUMAKR,  x.  1-15.  185-214;  xL  252-263. 367- 
401;  xii.  46-60.  38&-430;  ziii.  91-106.  393-444;  xv.  170- 
215.  There  is  an  anonymous  Colecdon  de  Im  ooneordalo$  y 
demat  convenioa  cMbradosdeBpuetdd  Coneilio  Tridentino  entn 
loB  nues  de  EwpaAa  y  la  Santa  Sede,  Bfadrid.  1848. 

CarlHikbt. 

Bibuoobaprt:  References  for  particular  oonoordata  and 
special  points  have  been  siv^n  in  the  article.  The  work 
cited  as  "  Nussi  **  is  Vincentio  Nussi.  Conventionea  de  r«- 
buB  eccUnaaUeU  inter  eandam  eedem  et  eivUem  poteetatem 
variiM  formiM  initm  ex  eoUeeHone  Romana  (i.e..  the  BuUor 
Hum  Romanum),  Mains,  1870;  *'  Mirbt,  QueUen  "  ia  Carl 
Mirbt,  Qudlen  eur  Oe$dudUe  dee  Pap^tums  und  det  r^ 
miadunt  Katholieiemue,  Tflbingen.  1901;  the  edition  of  the 
Buttarium  Romanum  dted  is  that  of  A.  Barberi.  19  Tola.. 
Rome.  183&-57;  AKR,  vol.  i..  Innsbruck,  1857,  vol. 
Ixzxvii..  Mains.  1907.  An  additional  collection  of  con- 
cordats is  R  Mflnch.  VoUetOndige  Sammlung  alier  diteren 
und  neueren  Konkordate,  nebat  einer  OeediidUe  ihrer  Ent- 
atehung  und  ihrer  Sehiekaale,  2  parts,  Leipsic.  1830-31. 
For  general  presentations  cf.  T.  Ealvy,  Kirehe  und  Siaai 
in  ihren  Vereinbarunoen  auf  dem  Orunde  dee  Ktrckenr- 
redUa,  Staaterechia  und  VoUcemchta,  Regensburg.  1881; 
B.  Huebler,  Zur  Reviaion  der  Lehre  von  der  redtUidun 
NaJtur  der  Konkordate,  in  ZeUaehrift  fOr  Kirdtenradii,  iii 
(1864).  iv  (1864).  The  subject  is  treated  by:  N.  P.  S. 
Wiraman,  Four  Advent  Lecturea  on  Conoordata,  London. 
1855;  R.  J.  Phillimore,  Commentariea  on  IntemoHontU 
Law^  4  vols.,  ib.  1879-89.  Also  by  J.  L.  von  Mosheim. 
Inatitutea  of  Bed.  HiaL,  ed.  W.  Stubbs,  ii.  225.  331.  376. 
iii.  536.  545.  ib.  1863.  Oinsult  also  Reich,  Document*, 
pp.  162-163,  240,  448-452;  the  Concordat  of  hWorma  ia 
translated  in  Thatcher  and  McNeal,  Doeumenta,  pp.  164- 
166. 

COIfCUBINAGE  (Lat.  concvbincUus):  A  legal 
and  durable  union  between  two  persons  of  opposite 
sex,  differing  from  marriage  in  that  it  did  not  in- 
clude the  affedio  mairilalis.  It  resembled  marriage 
de  facto,  but  not  de  jure,  as  the  woman  was  not  the 
man's  coequal  companion  for  life.  It  could  be 
entered  into  only  with  a  freed  woman  or  freebom 
woman  of  the  lowest  class;  whereas  a  honesta 
femina  could  become  a  concubine  only  by  the  proc- 
ess of  express  testatio,  without  which  the  union 
came  under  the  head  of  etuprum.  Not  until  the 
ninth  century  was  concubinage  prohibited  in  the 
Eastern  Empire,  by  Emperor  Leo  VI.  (cf.  P.  Meyer, 
Der  rdmieche  Koncubinat  nock  den  RechUqudlen 
und  den  Insckriften,  Leipsic,  1895).  The  Germanic 
peoples  also  admitted,  collaterally  with  marriage, 
a  valid  union  of  distinguished  men  with  free  women 
of  inferior  estate,  or  even  with  bondwomen. 

Down  to  the  fifth  century  the  state  of  concu- 
binage was  not  contested  on  the  side  of  the  Church. 
Since  that  time,  however,  the  Church  has  disal- 
lowed concubinage,  having  qualified  marriage  as  the 
sole  morally  justified  sexual  union,  although  not 
forbidding  concubinage  altogether.  Accordingly  it 
persisted,  especially  in  the  Roman  and  the  Germanic 
empires,  and  even  the  national  council  of  Mainz  in 
851  merely  repeated  certain  moderate  restrictions 
of  the  fifth  century.  Though  concubinage  was 
interdicted  in  the  case  of  certain  of  the  clergy, 
ecclesiastical  legislation  down  to  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury conveyed  no  threat  of  actual  penalties  against 
the  practise  on  the  part  of  laymen.  In  the  Evan- 
gelical Church  the  moral  opprobrium  of  concubinage 
has  never  been  doubtful;  so  little,  indeed,  that  it  is 
liable  to  church  discipline. 

Concubinage  is  not  recognized  by  the  civil  law, 
being  rather  treated  as  other  extramarital  sexual 
intercourse,  and  in  particular  as  touching  the  claims 
of  concubines  on  account  of  illicit  pregnancy,  and 


810 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonoordatfl     and     IHilimtting 
OoncuTBUs  DivinuB  [Bulli 


the  rights  of  a  concubine's  children  to  support  and 
inheritaoTO  against  him  who  maintained  her. 

For  concubinage  among  the  Hebrews  see  Family 
AND  Marriage  Relations,  Hebrew. 

E.  Sehlino. 

Bibuookapht:  G.  E.  Howard,  Hiat.  of  Matrimonial  Intti- 
tuHona,  3  vola..  Chicago.  1904;  H.  Klee,  Die  Ehe,  eiw 
doffmaUachrarekaologiBckt  Abhandluno,  Mains,  1833;  J.  J. 
I.  DdUiioger,  Hippolytua  and  CaUiHuu,  pp.  147  sqq.,  Edin- 
burxh,  1876;  H.  C.  Lea,  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  chap,  zii.. 
New  York,  1907;  Hefale,  ConeUiengeediiehU,  v.  380  et  pait- 
■iin. 

CONCURSUS  DIVINUS:  The  divine  activity  in 
its  relation  to  the  agency  of  finite  creatures  and 
potencies,  or  in  its  relation  to  the  development  of 
the  world  in  so  far  as  this  is  conditioned  by  finite 
"  efficient  causes."    This  relation  to  cosmic  evo- 
lution through  "  final  causes  "  is  termed  "  gov- 
ernance."   Both  cancursus  and  "  gov- 
Biblical     emance"    accordingly    involve     the 
and         problem  of  the  relation  of  the  divine 
Scholastic    activity  to  the  free  will  of  man.    In 
Doctrines,  the  Bible  both  concepts  are  represented. 
The  earth  brings  forth  verdure,  and 
man  and  animals  multiply  (Gen.  i.  11  sqq.),  while 
**  thine  hands  have  made  me  and  fashioned  me 
altogether  roimd  about "  (Job  x.  8);    so  that,  on 
the  one  hand,  man  acts  from  the  impulses  of  his 
own  heart,  and,  on  the  other,  in  God  alone  "we 
live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being  "  (Acts  xvii. 
28).     The  relation  of  the  two  theses  involves  not 
only  dogmatics,  but  also  philosophy.    The  chief 
hypotheses  on  the  concursua  divinus  were  developed 
by  the  schoolmen,  and  the  view  current  in  Roman 
Catholic  and  early  Protestant  dogmatics  was  best 
elaborated    by    Thomas    Aquinas.     He    teaches 
{Summa,  i.,  qtusstio  105):    "  God  works  in  every 
work,"  not  only  as  the  end  of  all  and  as  prime  mover 
and  preserver  of  the  forms  and  powers  of  all  things, 
but  also  because  **  he  directs  the  forms  and  powers 
of  all  things  to  act";  no  creature  can  "  proceed  in 
action  unless  it  is  moved  by  God  "  (qucBstio  109). 
This  view  was  opposed  by  Durand  of  St.  Pourgain 
(q.v.),  who  contended  that  God  need  not  cooperate 
immediately  in  that  which  takes  place  through 
finite  or  intennediate  causes,  but  only  mediately; 
and  a  third  opinion  was  advanced  by  Gabriel  Biel 
(q.v.)  that  creatures  themselves  do  not  act,  that 
God  himself  is  the  sole  factor,  though  his  operations 
are  conditioned  by  the  existence  of  creatures.    The 
Thomistic    conception   is   also    expressed    in   the 
Roman  catechism,  and  has  become  the  prevailing 
view  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Churoh. 

Among  the  Refonners  the  conviction  that  only 
God's  pure,  free  grace  can  save  from  the  misery  of 
sin  was  combined  from  the  very  beginning  with 
the  deepest  sense  of  the  iuiiver»Ed  dependence  of 
the  creatures  on  their  creator,  and  on 
Protestant  the  most  vital  relation  of  their  creator 
Doctrine,    to  them.    This  consciousness  shows 
itself  in  the  works  of  the  old  Lutheran 
dogmaticians.    J.  Gerhard    (Loci,   VII.   vii.-viii.) 
did  not  advance  to  the  stage  of  a  general  definition 
of  the  coneursits,  since  he  treated  only  of  the  rela- 
tion of  God  to  the  evil  acts  of  the  creatures.    After 
him  sharply  defined  metaphysical  utterances  on 
this  subject  are  found  in  A.  Calovius   (JSyatema 


locorum  theologicorum,  iii.,  De  providentia,  ii.), 
A.  Quenstedt  (Theologia  didactico-polemica,  xiii.), 
D.  Hollaz  {Examen  theologicum,  I.  vi.  14,  16  sqq.), 
and  others  who  followed  Thomas  in  theory .  W  here- 
as  Gerhard  stated  merely  that  God  preserves  unto 
his  creatures  the  power  of  actual  and  free  activity 
and  assists  them  in  their  work,  his  successors  argued 
that  God  influences  the  individual  act  and  activity 
of  the  creature  so  that  the  act  is  the  work  both  of 
God  and  of  the  creature,  thus  postulating  a  teaching 
midway  between  Durand  and  Biel.  Unlike  the 
doctrines  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  however,  the  divine 
act  is  regarded  by  these  theologians  as  excluding 
an  "  initial  motion  "  of  the  creature,  and  as  merely 
cooperating  with  the  creature.  In  the  main, 
Lutheran  dogmaticians  agree  with  the  theories  of 
Roman  Catholics.  The  specifically  Protestant 
doctrine  commences  only  with  the  question  of  the 
limitation  of  the  human  will,  especially  by  original 
sin  rather  than  by  the  cooperation  of  God.  On 
account  of  this  limitation  an  anticipatory  as  well  as 
a  cooperative  activity  on  the  part  of  God  becomes 
necessary  to  raise  man  from  his  sin,  and  this  divine 
agency  is  found  in  the  activity  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Man  being  thus  morally  transfonned,  a  "  coopera- 
tion "  of  grace  commences,  which  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  general  cooperation  of  God  with 
the  natural  agencies.  In  Reformed  dogmatics  the 
concursris  is  treated  by  some  as  a  special  part 
beside  the  "  conservation "  (the  divine  activity 
considered  as  a  first  cause)  and  governance;  by 
others  it  is  subsumed  with  the  rest  (cf.  H.  L.  J. 
Heppe,  Dogmatik  der  evangelisch-reformirten  Kirche, 
Gotha,  1861,  p.  190).  Here  the  concuraiu  is  re- 
garded not  merely  as  simultaneous,  but  as  antici- 
patory (J.  H.  Heidegger,  MeduUa  theologicB  Ckris- 
tiance,  Zurich,  1697,  loc.  vii.  14),  and  it  is  also 
taught  that  God  works  according  to  the  individ- 
uality of  the  creatures.  It  is  likewise  held  both  in 
the  Protestant  and  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine 
that  God,  who  in  such  orderly  manner  cooperates 
with  the  natural  agencies,  has  nevertheless  the 
power  to  stop  their  activity  or  to  work  without 
them,  or,  in  other  words,  can  do  miracles.  Thus 
God,  by  whose  concursus  the  fire  bums,  can  with- 
draw his  concuraits  and  the  fire  bums  no  more,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  three  men  in  the  fiery  furnace. 

The  question  has  been  treated  by  such  modems 
as  A.  D.  G.  Twesten,  F.  A  Philippi,  K.  F.  A.  Kahnis, 
J.  Mailer,  F.  A.  B.  Nitzsch,  and  R.  A.  Lipsius. 
The  problem  belongs  to  philosophy,  rather  than  to 
dogmatics.  Divine  control  of  events  and  things  is 
inconceivable  without  the  assumption  that  God 
works  in  them;  his  activity  can  not  be  referred  to  an 
initial  point,  as  if  he  directed  them  then,  but  were 
now  inactive,  and  it  is  equally  impossible  to  declare 
his  activity  to  be  merely  preservative  in  character, 
for  in  contradistinction  to  a  truly  effective  activity 
it  would  then  appear  as  something  negative  or  not 
admitting  of  destruction.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
ethico-religious  consciousness  itself  concedes  to  the 
world  a  real  existence,  just  as  man  is  conscious  of 
existing  in  it  as  a  relatively  independent  creature, 
with  a  sphere  and  material  for  his  work,  and  just 
as  the  word  is  perceived  to  be  a  tme  revelation  of 
God  and  a  practical  proof  of  divine  love.    For  these 


Conder 
Confession 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


220 


reasons  it  must  always  be  acknowledged  that  finite 
events  are  produced  by  the  will  of  a  personal  God, 
already  above  nature  and  the  world,  and  working 
in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  world  and  lead  it 
to  his  purposes.  The  term  concursus  is  awkward, 
as  suggesting  that  one  activity  runs  parallel  with 
another.  (J.  KOBTLmt.) 

CONDER,  CLAUDE  REI6NIER:  English  sol- 
dier and  archeologist;  b.  at  Cheltenham  (90  m. 
w.n.w.  of  London),  Gloucestershire,  Dec.  29,  1842. 
He  studied  at  University  College,  London,  but  did 
not  graduate,  and  was  in  command  of  the  survey 
of  Western  Palestine  in  1872-78  and  1881-82.  He 
was  in  the  army  till  1906.  He  has  written  Tent 
Work  in  Palestine  (2  vols.,  London,  1878);  Jiuiaa 
MaccabcBue  (1879);  Handbook  to  the  Bible  (in  col- 
laboration with  F.  R.  Conder,  1879);  Memoirs  of 
the  Survey  of  Western  Palestine  (4  vols.,  in  collab- 
oration with  H.  H.  Kitchener,  1881-83);  Heth 
and  Moab  (188S);  Pnmer  of  Bible  Geography  (ISSi); 
Altaic  Hieroglyphs  and  Hittite  Inscriptions  (1887); 
The  Survey  of  Eastern  Palestine  (1889);  Palestine 
(1889);  TeU  Amama  Tablets  (1893);  The  Bible 
and  the  East  (1896);  The  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusa- 
lem (1897);  The  Hittites  and  their  Language  (1898); 
The  Hebrew  Tragedy  (1900);  The  First  Bible  (1903); 
and  The  Rise  of  Man  (1908). 

CONDIQIflTY  AND  CONGRUITT,  or  meriium 
de  condigno  and  meriium  de  congruo  :  Terms  used 
by  the  schoolmen  after  Thomas  Aquinas  in  their 
attempts  to  reduce  the  doctrines  of  grace  to  one 
harmonious  system.  In  a  general  way,  meriium  in 
the  concrete  signifies  a  supernatural  work  worthy  of  a 
recompense.  If  the  work  be  such  that  the  reward 
is  due  ex  justitiaf  or  rather  in  virtue  of  the  divine 
promise,  it  is  called  de  condigno,  and  chief  among 
the  conditions  required  for  its  existence  is  that  the 
agent  be  in  the  state  of  grace.  If,  however,  he  be 
not  yet  justified,  and  perform  under  the  inifluence 
of  actual  graces  certain  good  works  conducive  to 
justification,  such  are  reckoned  as  merit  only  in  an 
imperfect  sense,  meriium  de  congruo.  The  Catholic 
doctrine  of  merit  is  based  on  those  New  Testament 
texte  (e.g.,  II  Tim.  iv.  7;  I  Cor.  ix.  24-25;  Matt.  v. 
12,  etc.)  which  represent  eternal  life  as  a  reward, 
for  though  it  is  a  gift  of  divine  grace,  God  has  willed 
to  give  it  the  character  of  a  recompense.  Protes- 
tants generally  deny  the  existence  of  merit,  but  the 
controversy  is  not  so  much  one  of  principle  as  of 
definition  of  terms. 

CONDITIONALISM,  CONDITIONAL  IMMOR- 
TALITY. See  Annihiiationibm;  and  Immortalitt. 

CONE,  ORELLO:  Universalist;  b.  at  Linck- 
laen,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  16,  1835;  d.  at  Canton,  N.  Y., 
June  23,  1905.  He  was  educated  at  Casenovia 
Seminary,  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.,  and  after  teaching  in 
the  public  schools  for  several  years  was  an  instructor 
in  St.  Paul's  College,  Palmyra,  Mo.  (1858-61).  He 
was  pastor  of  the  Universalist  Church  at  Little 
Falls,  N.  Y.,  1863-65;  professor  of  Biblical  lan- 
guage and  literature  in  St.  Lawrence  University, 
Canton,  N.  Y.,  1865-80;  president  of  Buchtel  Col- 
lege, Akron,  O.,  1880-96;  resided  in  Boston  and 
Berlin  1896-98;    professor  in  St.  Lawrence  Uni- 


versity, 1899  till  his  death.  He  wrote  Gospel  Criti- 
cism and  Historical  Christianity  (New  York,  1891); 
The  Gospel  and  Its  Earliest  Interpretations  (1893); 
Paul,  the  Man,  the  Missionary,  and  the  Teacher 
(1898);  and  Rich  and  Poor  in  the  New  TestamaU 
(1902).  He  also  edited  the  International  Hand- 
books to  the  New  Testament  to  which  he  himself 
contributed  Epistles  to  the  Hebrews,  Colossiam, 
Ephesians,  Philemon,  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  James, 
Peter,  and  Jude  (1901). 

CONFERENCE:  A  word  of  various  meaning?  in 
religious  usage.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
it  signifies  (1)  a  homiletic  address,  aiming  at 
instruction,  in  conversational  manner.  The  so- 
called  "  higher  conferences  "  are  defined  as  "  in- 
structive addresses  for  educated  hearers  on  relig- 
ious or  religio-social  truths  in  freer  form  than  a 
sermon,"  and  less  frequently  given  in  a  church. 
They  were  employed,  especially  by  the  clergy  of 
Paris  in  the  late  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth 
centuries,  to  refute  the  alleged  attacks  of  scienco 
on  religion,  and  have  been  given  elsewhere  to  meet 
local  or  passing  conditions.  (2)  Conferences  of  the 
clergy  appear  in  the  ninth  century  because  of  the 
great  size  of  the  diocesan  synods,  which  made  it 
impossible  for  all  the  clergy  to  meet  together. 
Accordingly  district  meetings  were  summoned  by 
the  archpriest,  archdeacon,  or  dean,  on  the  first  of 
each  month  (hence  called  Calendce,  also  CoUa- 
tiones,  Consistoria,  Synodi,  etc.).  The  aim  was 
general  consultation  and  mutual  edification.  They 
considered  cases  of  conscience  and  the  like,  and 
sometimes  investigated  crimes  and  announced  the 
penalties.  The  last  of  such  conferences  recorded  is 
said  to  have  been  held  in  London  in  1237.  In  1565 
Cardinal  Carlo  Borromeo  instituted  clerical  con- 
ferences and  issued  directions  for  their  organiza- 
tion and  guidance  with  a  view  to  the  better  in- 
struction of  the  clei^.  The  example  was  followed 
widely,  but  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury such  conferences  fell  into  disuse.  Since  then 
they  have  been  revived  in  many  places. 

In  the  Lutheran  Churches  of  Germany  there  are 
diocesan  clerical  conferences,  at  which  the  8upe^ 
intendents  preside.  See  also  Conference,  Free 
Ecclesiastical-Social;  and  Eisenach  Confer- 
ence. For  the  Lutheran  Synodical  Conference 
in  the  United  States  see  Lutherans.  For  the 
Conferences  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
see  Methodists.  The  Wesleyans  of  England  and 
Ireland  have  annual  conferences  attended  by 
all  the  ministers.  The  Free-will  Baptists  and  other 
minor  bodies  call  their  annual  meeting  by  this 
term. 

CONFERElffCE,  FREE  ECCLESIASTICAL' 
SOCIAL:  An  organization  in  Germany  which 
aims  to  popularize  Christianity  by  bringing  it  to 
bear  upon  social  problems.  It  was  organized  at 
Cassel  Apr.  27-28, 1897,  as  an  offshoot  of  the  Evan- 
gelical-Social Congress  (q.v.).  A  second  general 
conference  was  held  at  Barmen  the  following  Novem- 
ber; and  since  then  conferences  have  been  convened 
annually,  usually  in  April  or  May.  The  membership 
has  grown  from  100  in  1897  to  3,251  in  1906.  There 
are  seven  standing  committees  for  various  phases  of 


221 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonder 
Oonfesslon 


Christian-social  work,  viz.:  (1)  confession,  church 
law,  and  church  policy;  (2)  popular  evangelization; 
(3)  social  problems;  (4)  the  press,  art,  and  literature; 
(o)  apologetics;  (6)  education;  (7)  the  woman- 
question.  The  conference  seeks  particularly  to 
overcome  the  enmity  toward  the  Church  common 
among  the  laboring  classes,  and  to  Christianize 
Social  Democracy.  Its  purpose  was  outlined  in 
resolutions  adopted  at  the  third  general  meeting 
held  in  Berlin  Apr.  19-20,  1898,  and  its  chief  work 
tias  been  to  organize  Evangelical  unions  among 
working  people,  both  men  and  women.  There  are 
branches  of  the  organization  in  most  of  the  German 
states.  Dr.  Adolf  Stacker,  court  preacher  in  Ber- 
lin, is  president.  The  official  organs  are:  Kirchlichr 
^(Kiale  Bldtter  (Berlin,  1901  sqq.),  a  weekly,  and 
Ilefte  der  fre^ien  kirchlichrsocialen  Konferem  (Berlin, 
1900  sqq.),  in  which  are  printed  the  papers  read  at 
the  various  conferences.  (R.  Mumm.) 

Bibuogbapht:  The  gist  of  the  proceedings  is  contained  in 
Hefte  der  freien  kirchlichrsoeialen  Konfereru,  Berlin,  1890 
sqq.  Statistical  material  is  contained  in  the  current 
DeuUch-evang^iachet  Jahrbueh,  Berlin;  and  in  J.  Schnei- 
der. KircfUidua  Jahrhuch,  Gtttersloh,  1907. 

CONFESSIOIf  OF  FAITH.    See  Stmbolicb. 

CONFESSIOn  OF  SINS. 

Confession  not  General  in  the  Early  Church  (S  1). 

Its  Earliest  Forms  (S  2). 

Made  a  Law  of  the  Church,  1216  (S  3). 

Attitude  of  Luther  (S  4). 

Confession  as  Retained  by  Lutherans  and  Reformed  (§5). 

Opposition  to  Private  Confession  among  Lutherans  (§  6). 

Its  Place  Taken  by  a  General  Confession  ($  7). 

Private  Confession  Revived  in  the  19th  Centtiry  (§  8). 

Usage  of  Different  Churches  ($  9). 

Confession  of  sins  is  an  acknowledgment  of  sin, 
which  may  be  made  by  a  Christian  either  to  God 
alone,  to  a  fellow  Christian,  or  to  one  who  holds  an 
pfclcsiastical  office.  Confession  as  an  act  prescribed 
or  recommended  by  the  Church  is  made  in  accord- 
ance with  the  free  decision  of  the  individual  (vol- 
untary private  confession),  in  compliance  with 
Epecial  rules  of  church  training  and  discipline  (con- 
fession of  catechumens  and  penitents),  and  in  con- 
formity with  general  regulations  binding  on  all  (a 
prescribed  confession,  either  of  individuals  or  the 
congregation  as  a  whole).  The  present  article  is 
confined  to  the  last-named  form;  its  end  is  to 
attain  absolution. 

The   New    Testament   knows   nothing   of   con- 
fession as  a  formal  institution,  Jas.  v.  16  referring 
to    the    close    association    with    the 
I.  Confes-  brethren,  although  the  words  of  Jesus 
sion   not    in  Luke  v.  20,    vii.  48  may  be  com- 
General  in  pared     to     ecclesiastical     absolution, 
the  Early    Individual    confession   as   a   part    of 
Church,     ecclesiastical  discipline  was,  of  course, 
customary  in  ancient  times,  and  also 
served  as  a  voluntary  act  of  a  distressed  sinner. 
The  confession  of  sin  and  proclamation  of  pardon 
were  Ukewise  customary  in  the  service  of  the  ancient 
Church.    But  that  confession  existed  in  the  earliest 
time  as  an  established  ecclesiastical  institution  is 
not  proved  by  such  isolated  instances  as  are  occa- 
sionally met  with. 
The  authorities  desired  and  recommended  con- 


fession, but  the  laity  opposed  it.  It  was  thus  first 
enforced  upon  the  monks  and  clergy,  and  afterward 
upon  the  laity  as  well.  The  Irish  Columban,  abbot 
of  Luxeuil,  endeavored  to  introduce  the  confession 
which  existed  in  his  country  both  for  clergy  and 
laity  into  the  Prankish  Church.  This  could  not 
be  accomplished  at  once,  but  by  degrees  the  people 
were  moved  through  the  exhortations  of  the  priests 
to  adopt  it.  The  general  mode  of  procedure  was 
as  follows:    the  priest  humbled  himself  in  prayer 

before  God,  asked  the  penitent  con- 

2.  Its       ceming  his  faith,  his  readiness  to  for- 

Earliest     give  others,  and  his  sins,  and  gave  him 

Forms,      absolution  in  the  form  of  a  wish  or 

prayer.  Since  the  priest  spoke  with 
the  penitents  in  the  vernacular,  the  formularies  were 
translated.  Connected  with  absolution  was  the 
obligation  of  Penance  (q.v.).  But  as  the  penitents 
could  be  treated  neither  arbitrarily  nor  uniformly 
as  to  penance,  the  duration  of  the  period  of  peni- 
tence was  fixed  according  to  individual  sins,  while 
the  payment  of  a  certain  sum  of  money  instead  of 
doing  penance  was  allowed  at  an  early  period. 

After  the  laity  had  become  accustomed  to  make 
confession  at  certain  times,  to  specify  gross  offenses, 
and  to  be  questioned  by  the  confessor,  the  Lateran 
Council  of  1215  made  regular  confession  an  abso- 
lute law  of  the  Church:  "  The  faithful  of  both  sexes, 
after  arriving  at  years  of  discretion,  shall  confess  at 
least  once  annuaUy  to  their  own  priests,  reverently 
receiving  the  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist  at  least 
at  Easter,  and  faithfully  acknowledging  in  private 
all  their  sins."  The  form  of  absolution  was  now 
changed  to  the  judicial:  "  I  absolve  thee."  The 
penitent  was  assured  of  the  secrecy  of  the  priest, 

who  was  to  be  unfrocked  and  im- 

3.  Made  a  prisoned  for  life  in  a  monastery  if  he 
Law  of  the  violated  the  seal  of  the  confessional. 

Church,  A  second  kind  of  confession,  a  gen- 
12x5.  eral  confession,  gained  ground  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  During  the  serv- 
ice a  confession  was  read  in  the  vernacular  and  the 
congregation  received  absolution  in  the  precatory 
form.  This  general  confession  existed  in  Italy, 
France,  and  Germany  (see  General  Confession). 

As  early  as  1619  Luther  wrote:  "  There  is  nothing 
in  the  Church  which  needs  reform  so  much  as  con- 
fession and  penance,"  and  in  addition  to  occasional 
expressions  he  spoke  of  this  reform  of  the  con- 
fessional system  in  special  writings:  Kurze  UrUer- 
weisung,  xoie  man  beichten  soil,  1619;  Von  der 
Beichte,  1521;  Sermon  von  der  Beichte  und  dem 
Sakramentf  1524;   Kurze  VerTnahnung 

4.  Attitude  zur  Beichte^  1629  (at  the  end  of  the 
of  Luther.  Larger    Catechism).     Luther    contro- 
verted the  existing  confessional  system 

because  it  had  become  a  source  of  pecuniary  gain, 
because  he  disapproved  the  torture  of  the  con- 
science in  mentioning  individual  sins,  and  because 
the  unworthy  demeanor  of  the  medieval  friars  who 
largely  controlled  the  confessional  system  was 
offensive  to  him.  He  did  not,  however,  reject 
confession  itself,  but,  on  the  contrary,  recognized 
no  one  as  a  Christian  who  withdrew  from  confession, 
though  he  sometimes  takes  it  in  the  wider  sense  of 
confession  of  one's  sins  to  God  and  prayer  for  mercy. 


Oonfession 
Confirmation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


222 


Luther  also  advocated  oonfefision  to  the  brethren. 
The  main  thing  with  him  was  absolution.  This 
might  be  received  without  ecclesiastical  confession, 
and  took  place  also  in  baptism  and  in  the  commu- 
nion. 

The  Reformers  wished,  moreover,  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  custom  of  the  laity  to  go  to  confession 
at  regular  intervals,  since  they  were  thus  enabled 
to  gain  a  knowledge  of  their  lives,  examine  their 
conversation,  instruct  them,  and  influence  them. 
The  old  order  that  the  laity  should  go  to  confession 
before  the  communion  was  maintained.  The  peni- 
tent went  to  church,  either  without  special  reason 
or  a  day  or  two  before  the  celebration  of  the  com- 
munion; the  confessor  arranged  an  examination 
in  the  catechism,  which  might,  however,  be  omitted, 
if  he  had  confidence  in  the  penitent;  the  latter  was 
asked  to  name  a  sin  which  especially  troubled  him, 
and  was  examined  concerning  some 
5.  Confes-  special  sins.  If  there  was  no  impedi- 
sionasRe-  ment,  he  was  absolved.  Luther's 
tained  by  formula  of  absolution  was  the  col- 
Luther-  lative:  "  I  forgive  thee,"  while  the 
ana  and  Brandenburg- Nuremberg  ritual  has 
Reformed,  the  declarative  formula:  "  I  pronounce 
to  thee."  But  the  difference  is  not  a 
matter  of  principle,  because  this  same  ritual  has 
the  parallel  formulas:  "  God  forgiveth  thee  "  and 
**  I  absolve  thee."  Luther  preferred  the  collative 
form  because  of  its  clearness.  The  power  to  forgive 
sins,  he  says,  belongs  alone  to  God,  but  he  exer- 
cises it  through  the  outward  office  of  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins.  If  absolution  is  to  be  right  and  effect- 
ive, it  must  proceed  from  the  command  of  Christ 
in  John  xx.  21-23  and  read  thus:  "  I  absolve  thee 
from  thy  sins  in  the  name  of  Christ  and  by  virtue 
of  his  command,  so  that  it  is  not  I,  but  he,  who 
through  my  mouth  forgives  thee  thy  sin,  and  this 
thou  must  accept  and  firmly  believe  as  if  thou  hadst 
heard  it  from  the  lips  of  Christ  the  Lord."  Private 
or  individual  absolution  was  best  in  keeping  with 
this  concept  of  absolution.  When,  therefore,  the 
Nuremberg  congr^;ation  would  not  give  up  the 
public  confession  and  general  absolution,  the  Wit- 
tenbergers  expressed  their  acceptance  of  private 
and  individual  confession  in  harmony  with  ancient 
custom,  so  long  as  both  parties  would  exhort  their 
people  to  private  confession.  In  the  first  half  of 
the  Reformation-period  the  Lutherans  of  Wtlrt- 
temberg  had  become  content  with  a  general  ex- 
hortation and  the  offer  to  hear  a  private  confession. 
Among  the  Reformed  private  conifession  was  mostly 
dropped,  but  a  service  preparatory  to  the  com- 
munion was  retained,  as  well  as  the  general  con- 
fession of  sin.  Compare  also  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  with  its  general  confession  at  the  commu- 
nion and  its  confession  of  sin  in  morning  and  eve- 
ning prayer. 

Among  the  Lutherans  the  canying  out  of  the 
private  confession  met  with  great  difficulties.  In 
large  communions  the  clergy  were  obliged  to  per- 
form it  in  an  unsatisfactory  manner,  and  the  moral 
harm  of  these  mechanical  confessions  was  justly 
regarded  as  a  ground  of  complaint.  The  collative 
or  exhibitive  formula  of  absolution  roused  oppo- 
sition.    Spener  declared   that   the   collative   and 


declarative    formulas    were,    on    the  whole,    the 
same,  and   that    he   would   not   hesitate   to  use 
the  absolute   formula,  where  it  was 
6.  Oppo-    prescribed.    But  the  spirit  of  antag- 
sition   to    onism  rem^ed  and  has  remained  to 
Private     this  day.    The  confessional  fees,  more- 
Confession  over,  debased  the  existing  practise  of 
among     the  Lutherans.    Although  Luther  had 
Lutherans,  repudiated  these  fees,  they  remained, 
since  many  ministers  could  then  not 
very  well  get  along  without  them,  especially  as  they 
were  regarded  as  justified  and  not  as  extorted  by 
compulsion.    But  they  soon  gave  rise  to  scandal, 
and  it  was  felt  that  both  the  dignity  of  the  office 
and  the  proper  cooperation  of  colleagues  suffered 
by  the  system.     In  some  congregations  the  fees 
were  not  customary.    Here  and  there  they  were 
voluntarily  changed  into  New  Year's  gifts,  while 
some  ministers  declared  that  they  would  take  no 
fees  at  all  on  account  of  the  abuses  of  the  custom. 
Most  of  these  abuses  concerned  the  general  con- 
fession just  as  much  as  the  private  confession,  but 
popular  disapproval  was  directed  against  the  latter. 
The  general  confession  existed  as  early  as  the  six- 
teenth century  among  the  Lutherans  of  WOrttem- 
berg  while  in  the  electorate  of  Saxony  it  became 
general  after  1657.     In  1697  J.  K.  Schade  convened 
his   communicants   in   a   general   confession  and 
absolved  them  as  a  whole.    His  col- 
7.  Its  Place  leagues  disapproved  of  his  procedure, 
Taken  by  which  had  also  provoked  dissatisfac- 
a  General  tion  among  the  citizens,  but  the  elector 
Confession,  dispensed  with  private  confession  in 
1698,   appealing  to   many   Lutheran 
churches  in  Sweden  and  Denmark,  in  Upper  Ger- 
many, and  to  all  the  Lutheran  churches  in  Holland 
and  neighborhood,   where  neither  a  confessional 
nor  private  confession  is  to  be  found.     The  older 
national  churches  followed  this  example,  except  in 
Mecklenburg,  where,  according  to  Kliefoth,  pri- 
vate confession  and  absolution  have  never  been 
abolished.     On  the  other  hand,  the  rule  was  ob- 
served that  each  communicant  had  to  confess  before 
the  conmiunion  and  thus  take  part  in  the  general 
confession.     With  private  confession  private  abso- 
lution ceased;  and  though  here  and  there  the  peni- 
tents are  individually  absolved  by  laying  on  of 
hands,  it  is  only  a  special  application  of  the  general 
absolution.     In  place  of  hearing  the  individual  the 
confessionaiy  sermon  was  introduced.    The  priv- 
ilege of  making  a  private  confession  to  the  confessor 
was  not  abrogated  by  this  arrangement,  but  was 
seldom  claimed. 

With  the  cessation  of  the  private  confession  a 

very  useful  instrument   was    taken    from    special 

pastoral  care,  and  a  revival  has  taken 

8.  Private  place  during  the  ninet'Oenth  centuiy- 

Confession  This  is  not  intended  as  a  mere  resto- 

Revived  in  ration,  however,  for  the  same  abuses 

the  nine-   which  were  felt  in  times  past  would 

teenth      again  return  in  an  increased  degree. 

Century.     An  ecclesiastical  body  which  would 

make  private  confession  an  obligatory 

preUminary  to  conmiunion  would  not  only  injure 

the  celebration  of  the  communion,  but  such  a  law 

would   be   unjustifiable.    Private  confession  can 


223 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OonfiBwdon 
Oonflrmation 


be  only  voluntary,  and  the  penitent  must  be  con- 
vinced that  the  seal  of  the  confessional  remains 
secure.  This  was  the  duty  of  the  confessor  in 
fonner  times,  but  even  this  obligation  had  its  ex- 
ceptions. Aside  from  the  theoretical  question 
whether  the  Protestant  churches  have  or  can  have 
a  seal  of  the  confessional  which  must  be  kept  abso- 
lut^y,  their  relation  to  the  government  and  to  public 
weal  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  This 
point,  moreover,  can  scarcely  be  of  practical  im- 
portance, for  thingis  which  would  sometimes  com- 
pel the  confessor  to  ignore  the  seal  of  the  confes- 
sional would  seldom  be  confessed  in  a  voluntary 
private  confession. 

Among  the  Moravians,  after  the  conununion  has 
been  announced,  an  examination  of  the  families  is 
ananged  with  the  minister,  and  at  the  communion 
a  penitential  prayer  with  absolution  is 
9-  Usage  of  used,  which  the  communicants  answer 
Different  with  "  Amen  "  and  a  song  of  praise. 
Churches.  The  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  com- 
mences the  Eucharist  with  confession 
and  absolution;  the  Methodists,  after  the  invitation 
to  receive  the  communion  has  been  made,  have  a 
general  confession  which  closes  with  a  prayer  for 
forgiveness.  The  Anglican  liturgy  has  a  coi^fession 
and  a  precative  absolution  at  the  communion,  and 
contemplates  private  confession  with  judicial  abso- 
lution in  the  visitation  of  the  sick.  The  prepara- 
tion for  the  communion  among  the  Reformed  is 
like  confession  among  the  Lutherans.  The  Greek 
churches,  the  Russian  as  well  as  that  under  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinpole,  demand  confession  as 
an  act  of  preparation  for  the  communion.  When- 
ever the  commimion  of  the  laity  takes  place  in  the 
Roman  Church,  during  or  outside  of  the  mass  an 
assistant  pronounces  the  ConfUeor  and  the  priest 
the  Miaereattar  and  IndtdgerUiam.     W.  Caspari. 

Bxbuoobafht:  H.  C.  Lea,  A  Ht9t.  of  Aurieulttr  Confe—ion, 
3  Tola..  Philadelphia,  1896;  W.  Elwin,  Confe9aion  and 
AbtokUUm  in  th§  BibU,  ib.  1883;  J.  Ferret.  La  Confe§aion, 
PariB.  1883;  H.  J.  Sehmiti,  Die  BuUbiUher  und  die  B%i—- 
diecipHn  der  Kirdie,  pp.  864«  Mains.  1883;  C.  P.  Reichel, 
Hietory  and  Claima  of  the  Cowfeewional^  London,  1884; 
G.  Pell,  Dae  Doffma  von  der  SUnde  und  Erldeung,  Regens- 
bms.  1886;  C.  H.  Davis.  Apoetolieal  and  Ministerial  Ah- 
eoluiion,  London,  1887;  L.  DeeanctiB,  The  Confeeeional, 
ib.  1887;  K.  E.  Sohieler,  Die  VerwaUung  dee  BueMakra- 
mente^  Paderbom,  1894,  Eng.  transl..  Theory  and  Prac' 
Hee  of  the  Confeeeional,  New  York,  1905;  £.  C.  Adielis, 
Lehrbueh  der  prakHedten  Theologie,  i.  389  eqq..  Leipaic, 
1806;  T.  W.  Dniry,  Confeeeion  and  AbeoluHon,  London, 
1904;  J.  Reuter,  Der  Beiehtvater  in  der  VertpaUuno  teinee 
Amiee,  Resenebtirg.  1901;  C.  M.  Roberts.  The  Hiat.  of 
Confeeeion  until  it  deveioped  into  Auricular  Confeeeion, 
London,  1901;  Fuiham  Paiaee  Conference;  Confeeeion 
and  Abeolution,  ib.  1902;  H.  H.  Henson.  Moral  Died- 
vHne  in  Ote  Chrietian  Church,  ib.  1905;  A.  G.  Mortimer, 
Confeeeion  and  Absolution,  New  York,  1906. 

CONFIRMATIOlff. 

In  the  Early  Church  (§  1). 

Medieval  and  Later  Developments  (§  2). 

Praetase  of  the  Reformers  (§3). 

Modem  Latheran  Teachinss  (§  4). 

The  Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  Churehes  (§  5). 

Confirmation  is  a  rite  which  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  Greek  churches  is  considered  a  sacrament 
convesring  strength  for  the  Christian  warfare  and 
completing  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  bestowed  in 


baptism,  and  by  which  in  the  Anglican  and  Lu- 
theran churches  baptized  persons  are  received  into 
full  communion.  At  an  early  period  in  the  primi- 
tive Church  baptism  was  accompanied  with  unc- 
tion (Tertullian,  De  haptismo,  vii.;  Cyril,  "  Mysta- 
gogic  Lectures,"  iii.  2-6),  with  which  theologians 
associated  communication  of  the  Spirit.  A  second 
rite  connected  with  baptism  was  the 

z.  In  the  laying  on  of  hands  (Acts  viii.  17,  xiz. 
Early       6).    Unction  and  lajring  on  of  hands 

Church,  became  later  separate  ceremonies, 
performed  by  the  bishop;  but  since 
baptism  remained  associated  with  imction,  there 
were  two  anointings,  one  at  baptism  and  a  second 
performed  by  the  bishop.  From  the  latter  cere- 
mony developed  confirmation.  According  to  medi- 
eval doctrine  this  took  the  place  of  the  laying  on 
of  hands  (Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  1439). 
The  historical  development  of  the  rite  culminates 
in  the  bull  ExuUaU  of  Eugenius  IV.  (1431-47); 
the  material  is  an  unguent  of  oil  and  bidsam;  the 
formula,  "  I  seal  thee  with  the  sign  of  the  cross  and 
confirm  thee  with  the  oil  of  salvation  in  the  name  of 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  "  [the  form  em- 
ployed in  the  Greek  Church  is:  "  the  seal  of  the  gift 
of  the  Holy  Spirit"  (is  imparted  to  thee)];  theonli- 
nary  minister  is  the  bishop;  the  efifect  is  the  giving  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  with  strength  boldly  to  confess 
Christ.  The  alajKif  i.e.,  the  practise  of  giving  the 
candidate  a  blow  on  the  cheek  is  not  mentioned  in 
this  bull,  though  already  customary  (William  Du- 
rand,  Rationale  divinorum  officiorumf  vi.  84). 

In  the  Middle  Ages  opposition  to  confirmation 
had  beea  aroused  by  Wyclif  and  the  Bohemians, 
and  the  latter  replaced  it  by  a  rite  which  is  to  be 
regarded  as  the  prototype  of  Evangelical  confirma- 
tion (W.  Caspari,  Kanfirmatian,  Leipsic,  1890,  pp. 
168-171).  The  Reformers  also  decisively  pro- 
nounced against  it.  The  fact  that  infant  baptism  was 
retained;  the  consequent  Anabaptist  objections  that 
in  this  way,  contrary  to  the  baptismal 
2.  Medieval  conmiand  of  the  Lord,  baptism  became 

and  Later  anterior  to  teaching;  the  ignorance  of 

Develop-  the  congregations  in  the  main  articles 
ments.  of  Christianity;  the  fear  that  on  this 
account  the  Eucharist  might  be  re- 
ceived by  the  unworthy;  and,  above  all,  solicitude 
for  the  flock  imposed  on  the  Reformers  the  duty  of 
promoting  Christian  instruction  through  catechizing. 
Admission  to  communion  was  made  contingent 
upon  an  examination  in  the  chief  truths  of  the 
Christian  religion.  As  early  as  1534  Butzer  (in 
Ad  monasterienses)  taught  that  baptized  children 
after  antecedent  Christian  instruction  might  make 
public  profession,  and  that  the  ancient  usage  from 
which  confirmation  had  arisen  might  be  renewed, 
namely,  that  the  bishops  should  lay  hands  on  the 
baptized  and  thereby  "  literally  "  impart  to  them 
the  Holy  Ghost.  The  section  "  Confirmatio  "  of 
the  Wittenberg  Reformation  of  1645  (CR,  v.  679) 
expressed  itself  in  similar  terms. 

Meanwhile  in  certain  districts  in  Hesse  and  Stras- 
burg  a  rite  had  been  introduced,  instituted  by  But- 
zer, who  was  acquainted  with  the  Moravian  lay- 
ing on  of  hands  {the  Kirchenardntmg  of  Cassel,  1539). 
The  same  liturgical  manual  contains  the  formula 


confirmation 
Conflict  of  Duties 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


224 


still  in  use:  ''  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost,  safeguard  and 

shelter  against  aU  malice,  strength  and  help  toward 

all  good,  from  the  gracious  hand  of  God  the  Father." 

But  this  rite  gained  ground  in  only  a  few 

3.  PractiBe  districts  of  the  Lutheran  jurisdiction, 
of  the  Re-  since  during  the  transitional  negotia- 

f ormers.  tions  this  modi  fied  confirmatio  fell  under 
suspicion  of  being  an  unjustified  conces- 
sion to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  was  on  that  account 
rejected  by  the  opposers  of  the  Interim.  Hence 
for  a  long  time  the  rite  was  not  instituted  in  some 
of  the  Lutheran  districts,  though  it  readily  gained 
admission  with  the  Calvinists.  Among  the  Luther- 
ans it  was  customary  to  observe  only  the  so-called 
private  confirmation;  the  catechumen,  in  his  later 
boyhood,  was  brought  by  his  sponsors  before  the 
qualified  minister,  by  him  examined,  and  thereupon, 
if  found  competent,  admitted  to  communion.  The 
general  adoption  of  public  confirmation  was  expe- 
dited by  the  desire  to  enhance  the  effect  of  catechet- 
ical instruction  by  a  ceremonial  conclusion;  by  the 
endeavor  to  counteract  the  inroads  of  the  Roman 
propaganda,  and  by  the  effort  to  implant  religion 
in  the  child's  receptive  nature.  Since,  however, 
the  introduction  of  public  confirmation  coincided 
in  part  with  a  time  when  the  existing  liturgies 
were  no  longer  binding,  the  rite  was  frequently 
shaped  according  to  the  preference  of  individual 
ministers. 

Now  that  confirmation  has  become  in  the  Luther- 
an churches  a  generally  solemnized  ecclesiastical 
rite,  and  also  a  church  rite  which  even  the  outer 
world  notices  with  deference  to  family  ties  and 
friendship,  theologians  have  naturally  attempted 
to  account  for  its  nature  and  meaning.  It  has  been 
regarded  as  supplementary  to  baptism 

4.  Modem  (Schleiermacher),  or  as  an  act  of  re- 
Lutheran    ception  into  the   confessional  church 

Teachings.  (Wegschneider,  Bretschneider);  as  a 
testimonial  of  majority  in  the  case  of 
those  baptized  as  children  (Nitzsch,  Dorner);  as 
reception  into  the  congregation  of  adults;  as  a  means 
of  constituting  a  more  limited  congregation  upon 
which  devolves  the  direction  of  the  life  of  the  Church, 
but  which  also  alone  enjoys  the  privilege  of  com- 
munion (J.  C.  C.  von  Hofmann);  as  a  consummation 
of  the  state  of  a  baptized  catechumen  and  as  a 
renewal  of  the  baptismal  bond  on  the  subjective 
side;  as  a  lay  ordination  and  reception  into  the 
communing  congregation  (Zezschwitz);  as  a  charis- 
mal  commimication  of  the  Spirit  through  the  la3ring 
on  of  hands  (Vilmar).  To  all  these  explanations 
there  are  weighty  objections.  The  theory  of  mod- 
em times,  that  confirmation  in  so  far  as  it  bestows 
the  right  to  commimion  should  be  deferred,  is  sub- 
ject to  the  objection  that  a  potential  participation 
in  the  Eucharist  is  compatible  with  such  penitent 
and  faithful  reception  as  may  be  presupposed  in  the 
case  of  baptized  and  instmcted  children.  So  it  is 
best  to  bestow  the  right  to  commune  upon  baptized 
and  instructed  children,  by  solemn  confirmation 
or  laying  on  of  hands  before  the  assembled  con- 
gregation. W.  Caspari. 

In  the  Anglican  Church  there  has  been  a  wide- 
spread popular  tendency  to  look  upon  the  rite  in 
the  light  of  a  formal  admission  to  conununion,  the 


rubric  in  the  Prayer-book  reading:  "And  there  shall 

none  be  admitted  to  the  Holy  Communion  until 

such  time  as  he  be  confirmed,  or  be 

5.  The  An  -  ready  and  desirous  to  be  confirmed." 

glican  and  But  the  latter  alternative  shows  that 
Roman  no  essential  connection  exists  between 
Catholic     the  two;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there 

Churches,  is  no  practical  difference  between  the 
teaching  of  at  least  the  High-church 
party  and  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on 
this  subject.  The  definition  in  Article  XXV.,  which 
includes  confirmation  as  among  "  those  five  com- 
monly called  sacraments,"  but  "  not  to  be  counted 
for  sacraments  of  the  Gospel,"  seems  to  place  it 
with  the  thingis  which  "  have  grown  of  the  corrupt 
following  of  the  Apostles  " — ^as  regards,  that  is,  the 
medieval  form.  Omitting  the  chrism,  and  em- 
phasizing the  laying  on  of  hands,  the  Anglican 
Church  goes  back  to  the  New  Testament  record; 
but  it  is  contended  by  Roman  Catholic  theologians 
that  the  contact  with  the  bishop's  hand  in  the  act 
of  unction,  to  say  nothing  of  the  blow  upon  the 
cheek  (intended  to  symbolize  the  conferring  of  the 
character  of  a  soldier  of  Christ,  who  must  be  ready 
to  "  endure  hardness  "),  is  quite  sufficient  to  cover 
this  point. 

BxBuoaRAPHT:  Bingham,  Originea,  book  zii.;  EL  ICart^ne, 
De  antiquU  tcdeaia  rififrut,  vol.  i.,  chap.  L,  Antwerp, 
1736;  J.  F.  Bachmann,  Die  Coniirmation  der  Cafeeftttmen«n, 
3  vola..  Berlin.  1852;  F.  X.  Kraus.  Realeneyklopddie,  arti- 
de  "Salbung."  Freiburg.  1882-86;  H.  Hurter,  Theo- 
looia  dogmatica  compendium,  vol.  iii.  Innabruck,  1893; 
XL.  iv.  1506-14;  DCA,  i.  424^26. 

CONFITEOR:  The  name  applied,  from  ite  first 
word  in  Latin,  to  the  formula  used  for  public  con- 
fession in  the  Roman  Catholic  missal  and  breviary, 
and  also  usually  employed  to  begin  a  private  con- 
fession. It  consists  of  an  acknowledgment  of  sin 
primarily  to  God,  and  then  also  to  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  other  saints  and  to  the  priest  or  congregation 
present,  as  all  injured  in  some  degree  by  the  sins 
acknowledged  (I  Cor.  xii.  26);  and  of  a  request 
addressed  to  the  same  persons  to  pray  God  for  the 
sinner.  The  oldest  sacramentaries  and  Ordines 
Romani  do  not  contain  this  formula;  the  first  trace 
of  it  appears  with  Egbert,  archbishop  of  York 
(735),  and  Chrodegang,  bishop  of  Mets  (d.  743),  as 
an  introduction  to  sacramental  confession.  There- 
after it  appears,  in  various  forms  and  uses,  until  the 
revised  nJssal  of  Pius  V.  finally  introduced  uni- 
formity. 

CONFLICT  OF  DUTIES:  A  term  which  usu- 
ully  covers  a  larger  ground  than  that  strictly  and 

logically  falling  under  it.  It  actually 
Origin,      means    the    coincidence    of     ethical 

demands  which  exclude  each  other 
and  thus  excite  a  conflict  in  the  person  whose 
actions  they  claim.  Under  the  influence  of  classical 
antiquity,  especially  of  Cicero,  the  doctrine  of  virtue, 
combined  with  the  doctrine  of  duties,  became  the 
fundamental  basis  of  ethics,  and  the  conflict  of 
duties  became  a  favorite  theme.  Where  ethics  was 
developed  essentially  in  the  form  of  a  doctrine  of 
duties  the  question  became  inevitable  how  various 
demands  could  exist  side  by  side  and  what  should 


225 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Conflrmatloxi 
Oonfliot  of  DatiM 


be  done  if  they  should  clash  with  each  other.  Since 
Cicero  gave  the  word  officium  the  signification  of 
a  universal  ethical  conception,  there  originated  in 
actual  practise  the  possibility  of  a  collision  between 
the  universal  idea  of  moral  obligation  and  the  indi- 
vidual concrete  action.  This  difficulty  finds  its 
illustration  in  the  ethics  of  Kant  and  Schleier- 
macher.  With  Kant,  the  conception  of  duty  loses 
its  concrete  content  by  changing  itself  into  the  law 
of  free  wiU,  obedience  to  the  consciousness  of  duty 
which  is  not  bound  by  any  moral  law.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  no  conflict  of  duties  can  here  be  spoken 
of,  "  since  duty  and  obligation  are  conceptions 
which  express  the  objective  practical  necessity  of 
a  certain  action,  and  two  rules  that  oppose  each 
other  can  not  present  themselves  at  the  same  time." 
According  to  Schleiermacher,  "  man's  highest  good 
is  the  totality  of  all  actions  in  conformity  with 
duty.  If  these  were  in  conflict,  some  parts  of  the 
highest  good  of  man  would  be  in  conflict,  which  is 
impossible.  Thus  there  can  be  no  conflict  between 
duties."  Kant  and  Schleiermacher  were  followed 
by  ethical  teachers  who  did  nbt  share  their  presup- 
positions— Reinhard,  Baumgarten-Orusius,  Daub, 
Marheineke,  Rothe,  Schwarz,  Heppe,  Luthardt,  and 
others. 

Conflicts  of  duties  may  be  arranged  under  three 
heads.  There  may  be  (1)  a  conflict  between  duty 
and  personal  inclination.  In  this  case,  strictly 
speaking,  there  is  no  conflict  of  duties; 
Three  but  still  there  are  cases  in  which  sinful 
Kinds  of  habits  take  on  the  form  of  an  objective 
Conflict,  claim  of  duty,  as  in  the  conception  of 
honor  prevalent  among  Germans  and 
other  peoples.  A  Christian  officer  of  the  army  may 
wish  to  discard  dueling  in  conformity  with  the  law 
and  his  own  conviction;  but  when  he  has  to  choose 
between  participation  in  a  duel  and  relinquishment 
of  his  calling,  there  originates  a  real  oonffict  of 
duties.  Moreover,  inclination  and  duty  are  often 
hard  to  distinguish;  since  the  choice  of  a  calling 
should  correspond  closely  to  one's  gifts,  there  may 
originate  a  conffict  between  the  inclination  to  such 
choice  and  the  duty  toward  the  family.  Also  many 
matrimonial  unions  create  not  only  conflicts,  but 
real  collisions.  Or,  (2)  concrete  duty  may  con- 
flict with  the  general  moral  obligation.  An  officer 
of  the  State,  in  executing  his  official  duty,  may  be 
compelled  to  commit  actions  the  injustice  of  which 
he  recognizes,  and  to  omit  others  which  according 
to  his  moral  conviction  are  just.  A  judge  may  be 
compelled  by  the  laws  in  force  to  acqmt  in  cases 
where  clear  insight  and  moral  consciousness  con- 
demn, and  to  condemn  where  reason  and  morality 
acquit.  There  are  also  cases  in  which  the  concrete 
duties  of  one's  official  calling  or  to  his  family  claim 
his  whole  attention  and  activity  in  such  a  way  that 
faith  in  the  practise  of  love  toward  one's  neighbor 
is  considerably  impaired.  Again  (3)  a  conffict  of 
duties  exists  when  concrete  duty  is  opposed  to 
concrete  duty.  Thus  duty  toward  the  State  and 
duty  toward  the  family  may  conflict;  also  duty 
toward  the  Church  and  duty  toward  the  State; 
duty  toward  the  Church  and  duty  toward  the  fam- 
ily. Even  specific  duties  of  one  sphere  may  con- 
flict with  each  other;  duty  toward  children  and 
III.-15 


duty  toward  wife  or  husband,  duty  toward  one's 
calling  and  duty  of  obedience  to  the  authorities. 
Only  one  whose  vision  has  been  obscured  by  ab- 
stract theories  can  think  that  such  confficts  are 
only  apparent  and  imaginary,  or  due  to  defective 
moral  development.  On  the  contrary,  moral  char- 
acter intensifies  them. 

The  cases   of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxii.),  Jephthah 

(Judg.  xi.  34-40),  David  (II  Sam.  xxiv.  12-14), 

and  others  present  conflicts  of  duties  in  the  Old 

Testament;    in    the   New    Testament    there    are 

confficts    in    Matt.    viii.    22,     xvii.   24  sqq.     In 

conffict  between  faithfulness  to    confession    and 

obedience    to    the    secular    authori- 

Biblical     ties  (Matt.  x.  17  sqq.;    John  xvi.   2) 

niustra-     the  Lord  exhorted  to  a  strength  which, 

tions.       even  in  martyrdom,  would  maintain 

the  freedom  of  religion  (Acts  iv.  19, 

v.  29);  but  he  foresaw  that  not  all  would  find  this 

strength  (cf.  Luke  xiv.  18  sqq.).    Paul  also  felt  the 

conffict  between  his  duty  to  attack  Judaism  and 

the  love  for  his  people  (Rom.  ix.  1  sqq.). 

According  to  the  old  casuistry,  there  ought  to 
be  a  solution  of  every  conflict.  The  most  impor- 
tant and  correct  rule  that  has  been 
Solution,  laid  down  is  that  the  duty  of  right 
precedes  the  duty  of  love.  Apart 
from  such  rules,  the  solution  is  often  expected  from 
the  perfect  development  of  Christian  character. 
This  view  might  be  correct  if  confficts  originated 
inwardly;  but  their  peculiarity  consists  in  the  pres- 
sure of  external  demands  upon  the  moral  con- 
sciousness, and  thus  they  may  be  rather  intensified 
by  the  development  of  Christian  character  (Matt. 
X.  34).  There  is,  however,  a  deep-rooted  con- 
viction in  the  consciousness  of  redemption  possessed 
by  God's  children  that  such  conflicts  can  not  dis- 
turb the  peace  and  joy  of  the  state  of  grace  (John 
xiv.  27,  XV.  11,  xvii.  13)  since  the  attainment  of 
the  highest  good  is  independent  of  our  actions. 
When  a  Christian  father  of  a  family,  for  instance, 
finds  himself  forced  to  neglect  the  duty  of  educa- 
ting his  children,  on  account  of  his  duty  to  support 
his  family,  there  is  after  all  no  solution  of  the  con- 
flict in  the  inevitable  choice  of  the  latter  duty 
before  the  former;  the  conffict  rather  becomes 
continuous.  In  many  cases  self-renunciation  must 
take  the  place  of  an  actual  solution.  Conflicts  of 
duty  may  be  looked  upon  not  only  from  the  per- 
sonal, but  also  from  the  social  point  of  view.  Pub- 
lic reforms  and  progress  often  make  their  way 
through  conflicts  of  duty.  Where  consciences 
sleep  there  are  no  confficts;  but  where  men  with 
living  conscience  take  hold  of  duties  and  earnestly 
desire  their  fulfilment  there  will  grow  from  the 
confficts  of  duties  energetic  efforts  for  their  redress. 
In  all  confficts  the  believing  Christian  ought  to 
remember  not  only  the  words  of  Luke  xvii.  10, 
but  also  of  I  John  iii.  19-21.  See  Casuistry; 
Conscience;  Duty;  and  Ethics. 

(L.  LSMME.) 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  E.  Erdmann,  Ueber  KoUition  der  Pflieh' 
ten,  Berlin,  1853;  G.  Sohulie,  Ueber  den  Widereireit  der 
PflidUen,  Halle,  1878;  H.  L.  Marteiuen,  Chrietian  Ethiee, 
§  139.  6  vols.,  EdinbuTsh,  1866-82;  F.  H.  R.  Frank,  Sye- 
tem  der  durieUichen  SUaiehkeii,  i.,  §  22,  pp.  7  sqq.,  Erlangen, 
1884(  and  in  general  treatises  on  ethics  and  easuistry. 


Oonfratemities 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


226 


COIfFRATERiaTIES,  RELIGIOUS. 

Origin  and  Development  (§1). 

The  Modern  System  (S  2). 

In  the  Nineteenth  Century  (§  3). 

By  this  term  are  now  usually  understood  organi- 
zations of  men  and  women  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  which  are  formed  under  ecclesiastical  sanc- 
tion, often  with  a  definite  rule  of  life,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  devotion  to  some  special  good  work,  doctrine, 
or  saint,  or  merely  of  obtaining  a  special  grace. 
They    seem    to    have    derived    their 

I.  Origin  initial  impulse  (under  a  form  which 
and  Devel-  has  no  historical  continuity  with  the 

opment.  present)  from  England,  where,  it 
appears,  there  were  as  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century  associations  for 
mutual  intercession  among  the  members  of  one 
monastic  commimity,  or  of  two  or  more  together, 
sometimes  including  outsiders.  St.  Boniface  intro- 
duced this  custom  on  the  Continent.  A  variant  of 
it  appears  in  the  undertaking  of  the  bishops  and 
abbots  at  national  and  provincial  83mods  to  unite 
their  chapters  and  monasteries  for  this  purpose; 
the  first  documentary  evidence  of  this  is  from  the 
Synod  of  Attigny  in  762,  though  the  custom  ia  doubt- 
less earlier.  It  was  not  long  before  the  laity  sought 
to  have  a  share  in  the  spiritual  advantages  of  these 
systematic  intercessions,  those  of  the  monks  being 
especially  valued.  The  reception  of  laymen  into 
these  confraternities  was  the  return  for  notable 
gifts  or  services.  The  names  of  members  were  in- 
scribed in  what  was  often  called  the  "  book  of 
life  "  (see  Liber  Vita),  which  took  in  a  manner 
the  place  of  the  ancient  diptychs  as  lists  of  the  living 
or  dead  Christians  for  whom  the  Holy  Sacrifice  was 
offered.  The  system  spread  throughout  the  whole 
Western  Church,  and  seems  to  have  attained  its 
greatest  strength  under  the  influence  of  the  Cis- 
tercian order.  As  the  number  of  members  of  a 
confraternity  increased  into  the  thousands,  the 
advantages  of  special  prayer  for  the  individual 
(whether  in  life  or  after  death)  decreased  in  pro- 
portion; and  the  old  confraternities,  though  in  some 
cases  they  maintained  their  existence,  gradually 
lost  their  importance  for  the  religious  life. 

The  modem  brotherhood  system  dates  from  the 
period  of  the  rise  of  the  cities  and  their  industries— 
the  trade  gilds,  though  serving  an 
3.  The  Mod-  economic  purpose,  were  usually  under 
em  System,  the  patronage  of  some  saint — and  of 
the  almost  simultaneous  development 
of  the  mendicant  orders.  Bonaventura  is  said  to 
have  founded  (1267)  the  Confraternity  of  the  Gon- 
falonieri  in  Paris,  for  the  purpose  of  ransoming 
Christians  held  in  captivity  among  the  Moham- 
medans. Others  attribute  it  to  St.  Dominic;  but 
the  establishment  of  the  C!onf  ratemity  of  the  Rosary 
is  wrongly  ascribed  to  the  latter,  and  the  most  that 
can  be  said  with  certainty  is  that  the  first  real 
development  of  the  more  modem  confraternities 
took  place  under  the  influence  of  the  mendicant 
orders.  Their  special  aim  was  the  union  of  people 
living  in  the  world  for  some  definite  spiritual  pur- 
pose not  already  of  universal  obligation.  It  is 
possible  that  the  Carmelites  were  the  first  to  crys- 
tallize this  general  tendency,  by  forming  those  who 


wished  to  unite  with  them  in  devotion  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  to  receive  the  scapular  supposed  to  have 
been  revealed  in  a  vision  to  St.  Simon  Stock  (at 
Cambridge,  1251)  into  the  Confraternity  of  the 
Scapular  of  our  Lady  of  Mount  Cannel.  Tradition 
names  the  Servites  as  the  next  to  follow  this  pat- 
tern, with  their  Confraternity  of  the  Seven  Sor- 
rows of  Mary.  Similar  confraternities  attached  to 
numbers  of  houses  of  mendicants  were  soon  stri- 
ving, under  the  leadership  of  the  friars,  to  attain 
greater  holiness,  and  were  attracted  by  the  expecta- 
tion of  many  graces  in  accordance  with  the  papal  in- 
dulgences. How  widely  they  had  extended  by  the 
second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  is  shown  by 
Wyclif's  sharp  attacks  on  them;  he  scourges  the 
hypocrisy,  the  self-seeking,  the  commercial  spirit 
of  expecting  a  quid  pro  quo  from  heaven,  which  had 
already  crept  into  them.  They  had  their  real 
popular  development  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
when  nearly  every  mendicant  house  had  its  special 
association,  with  a  special  altar  in  the  church,  before 
which  the  members  assembled  at  least  once  a  month, 
often  once  a  week.  In  return  for  their  prayers  and 
alms,  they  were  entitled  to  rich  indulgences  and  to 
a  share  in  the  prayers  and  good  works  of  the  friars; 
in  case  of  death  masses  were  said  for  them,  and  the 
brotherhood  followed  them  to  the  grave,  sometimes 
paying  the  expenses  of  the  funeral.  The  particular 
feasts  of  the  confraternity  were  celebrated  with 
much  pomp,  and  as  an  additional  attraction  a 
social  meal  was  held,  which  in  places  led  to  great 
disorders  before  the  close  of  the  century.  The 
services  of  the  saints  were  now  for  the  first  time 
specialized,  as  patrons  in  various  kinds  of  danger  i 
or  necessity;  and  nothing  helped  so  much  to  make 
a  new  saint  popular  as  the  foundation  of  a  brother- 
hood in  his  honor.  The  entrance  fee — to  say  noth- 
ing of  other  payments — ^ranged  from  one  to  twenty 
florins  in  Germany  for  example,  or  at  the  present 
value  of  money  say  from  four  to  eighty  dollars; 
from  which  it  may  be  seen  both  how  Mghly  the 
people  valued  these  religious  privileges  and  what 
vast  sums  must  have  passed  through  the  hands  of 
the  directors.  Luther  sternly  rebuked  their  abuses, 
and  pointed  men  to  the  real  confraternity  of  Christ's 
Church  in  their  place;  and  in  a  short  time  they  dis- 
appeared from  all  places  which  were  conquered  by 
the  Reformation,  except  a  few  which  were  recast  in 
a  Protestant  shape  or  served  secular  puiposes. 
Even  in  the  Roman  Catholic  countries  their  influ- 
ence decayed.  The  Jesuits  recognizing  the  serv- 
ice they  could  render  to  the  Counterreformation, 
infused  fresh  life  into  them.  The  confusion  of  the 
seventeenth  century  was  unfavorable  to  the  growth 
of  brotherhoods,  though  the  great  League  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  arose  toward  the  end  of  it,  and  in  the 
rationalizing  eighteenth  they  seem  to  have  bad 
but  a  precarious  existence.  Still,  Vienna  had  in  the 
year  1779  no  less  than  116  confraternities,  with 
property  valued  at  nearly  700,000  florina.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  partly  through 
the  recovered  powe^  of  the  Jesuits,  they  took  a 
fresh  start,  and  ultimately  reached  a  height  never 
before  attained.  They  have  learned  aome  things 
from  Protestant  polemics;  whereas  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  chief  duty  of  the  members  was  to  pay 


227 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonfiratemitiefl 


dues,  and  the  devotional  exercises  were  almost  in- 
cidental, now  little  or  no  money  contributions  are 
required,  the  essence  of  membership  consisting  in 
pious  works,  exercises  of  devotion,  and  fidelity 
to  the  pope. 

The  anociations  which  are  strictly  called  con- 
fraternities (as  distinguished  from  "  pious  unions  ") 
must    be   established    by    competent 
3.  In  the    ecclesiastical  authority,  and  attached 
nineteenth  to  a  definite  church.    What  are  called 
Century,     arch-confraternities  are  sometimes  es- 
tablished by  the  pope,  in  cases  where 
the  aim  is  very  important  or  corresponds  to  a  uni- 
versal need  of  the  Church;    these  have  power  to 
affiUate  to  themselves  other  confraternities  of  like 
aim  and  name,  imparting  to  them  the  privileges 
already  granted  to  the  arch-confraternity.    These 
are  frequently  limited  to  a  definite  country;   as  a 
rule,  only  the  Roman  arch-confraternities  have  the 
power  of  imlimited  aggregation,  though  there  are 
exceptions,  such  as  that  of  the  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary  in  Paris.    The  tendency  of  the  period  has 
^ven  the  greatest  extension  to  those  which  are 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  especially  the  Marian 
sodalities.     The  first  was  founded  at  the  Collegio 
Romano  by  the  scholastic  John  Leon  of  Li^ge  in 
1563,  and  confirmed  as  an  arch-confraternity  by 
Gregory  XIII.  in  1584.     It  was  originally  intended 
for  young  students,  and  the  Jesuits  found  it  a  power- 
ful auxiUaiy  to  their  work  in  educational  institu- 
tions.   In  1586  Sixtus  V.  extended  its  operation  to 
all  the  faithful  of  the  male  sex;    it  was  not  the 
Jesuits'  wish  to  include  women,  as  their  idea  was 
to  fonn  a  body  of  active  public  workers;  but  from 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  branches  for 
women  and  girls  have  been  affiliated.    According 
to  their  own  description,  the  Jesuits  aim  through 
these  societies  at  promoting  Christian  perfection, 
according  to  each  member's  state  of   life,  and  so 
ultimately  reforming  each  class,  and  thus  the  world. 
Since  the  conversion  of  heretics  has  always  been 
one  of  the  works  principally  encouraged,  it  is  easy 
to  see  what  importance  these  societies  assimied  in 
the  Counterrefonnation,  especially  in  Austria  and 
Bavaria.    Each    **  congregation "    has    a    priest, 
normally  a  Jesuit,  as  "  moderator."    A  president, 
to  be  approved  by  the  moderator,  is  chosen  by  the 
members.    A  number  of  other  officers  assist  him, 
thus  enabling  as  many  as  possible  to  be  specially 
interested  in  the  work.    The  applicant  for  mem- 
bership must  pass  through  a  period  of  probation, 
under  strict  supervision,  after  which  he  is  received 
with  impressive  ceremonies.     He  takes  a  solemn 
obligation  of  special  devotion  to  the  Virgin,  makes 
the  Tridentine  profession  of  faith,  including  an 
obligation  to  maintain  and  spread  it  among  all 
those  who  are  in  any  way  under  his  charge,  and 
receives  a  blessed  medal  as  a  badge  of  membership 
^d  a  protection  against  harm;  this  may  be  taken 
from  him  in  case  of  misconduct,  so  that  a  system  of 
discipline  and  of  supervision  comes  into  existence. 
The  regulations  prescribe  the  frequency  of  attend- 
ance at  mass,  of  conmiunion,  and  of  meetings, 
besides  the  making  each  year  of  the  spiritual  exer- 
^ises  of  St.  Ignatius,  and  a  number  of  devotional 
practises;    in  return  for  which  an  abundance  of 


plenary  and  partial  indulgences  is  at  the  disposal 
of  members.  This  system  has  been  described  at 
length  because  It  has  served  in  general  as  a  model 
for  the  modem  confraternities. 

Next  in  antiquity  and  in  importance  come  the 
tertiaries  (q.v.)  of  the  Franciscan  order,  who,  al- 
though they  have  the  form  of  a  confraternity,  in 
one  sense  are  reckoned  as  members  of  the  order. 
Nowadays  the  most  approved  and  undoubtedly 
the  most  wide-spread  of  these  organizations  is  the 
League  of  the  Sacred  Heart  or  Apostleship  of  Prayer 
(see  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Devotion  to), 
which  has  a  membership  of  many  millions,  as  has 
also  the  cognate  arch-confraternity  of  the  Inunacu- 
late  Heart  of  Mary  for  the  Conversion  of  Sinners, 
founded  in  Paris,  1856.  Among  the  obligations  of 
members  of  the  latter  is  "  the  offering  of  all  one's 
good  works,  in  union  with  the  sacred  heart  of  Mary, 
for  the  conversion  of  sinners,"  and  assisting  at  the 
special  masses  said  for  that  intention.  Of  the 
numerous  others  that  have  arisen  in  late  years  may 
be  mentioned  the  following:  the  arch-confratemity 
of  the  Assumption,  for  the  aid  of  the  souls  in  purga- 
tory; the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Michael,  founded  at 
Vienna,  1860,  and  the  Leonine  Society,  both  de- 
voted to  the  defense  of  the  pope,  and  the  latter 
especially  of  the  temporal  power;  the  arch-confra- 
ternity of  St.  Joseph,  founded  1860,  confirmed 
1862;  the  arch-confraternity  of  St.  Peter's  Chains, 
whose  members  wear  a  small  representation  of  the 
alleged  original  chains  of  St.  Peter,  as  preserved  in 
Rome,  in  token  of  their  loyalty  to  the  (captive) 
pope;  and  the  Confraternity  of  "Our  Lady  of 
Compassion,"  established  by  Leo  XIII.  in  1897 
for  the  conversion  of  En^fUmd  to  the  Catholic 
faith.  Besides  those  which  are  strictly  to  be  called 
confraternities,  there  are  a  large  number  of  pious 
unions,  which  differ  from  them  principally  in  being 
more  free  and  elastic.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned the  association  founded  in  1862  by  Julie 
von  Massow,  and  a  similar  one  dating  from  1868, 
with  the  title  Ut  omneo  unum  ("  that  they  all  may 
be  one,"  John  xvii.  21) — both  having  for  their 
purpose  the  promotion  of  the  reunion  of  Christen- 
dom, and  both  connected  with  the  arch-confra- 
ternity of  Our  Lady  of  Sorrows  (founded  1450),  in 
which,  since  the  Reformation,  prayer  for  reunion 
has  been  a  regular  practise.  Their  members  use 
the  white  "  reunion  rosary,"  for  whose  daily  reci- 
tation Leo  XIII.  offered  large  indulgences  in  1888. 

(T.  KoLnB.) 

Organizations  called  "  brotherhoods  "  have  been 
formed  in  the  Protestant  churches  which,  while 
having  some  resemblance  to  the  confraternities  of 
the  Roman  Cathdic  Church,  necessarily  differ  in 
form  and  in  purpose.  There  may  be  named  here 
the  interdenominational  Brotherhood  of  Andrew 
and  Philip  (see  Anorew  and  Pbiup,  Brother- 
hood of),  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  (see 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church),  and  the  Brother- 
hood of  St.  Paul  (see  Methodists). 

Bibuoorapht:  F.  Falk,  Die  ConfratemiUUen  dec  MiUdal- 
ter;  in  Der  Kaiholik,  xlviii.  1  (1868).  548  eqq.;  T.  Kolde. 
Die  kire/Uidten  Bnidendiaften  .  .  .  tm  modemtn  Katholi* 
ciamuM,  Erlangen.  1896:  Bouvier,  Der  Ablaee,  die  Bru- 
deraehaflen  und  doe  JvhiiAvm,  Regenaburg.  1869:  M.  V. 
S»ttler,   QetdkicMe  dtr  fnorianiacAen  Kongreoaiiontn  \n 


Oonfaoius 
Oonarregatlon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


228 


Bayem,  Mnnieh,  1864;  L.  DelpUoe,  HtMtoire  det  eon^ 
oritfaiiont  de  la  8.  Vitrge,  Lille,  1884;  P.  LdfiSer.  in  8Hm- 
men  au»  Maria  Loach,  xxvii  (1884).  230  aqq..  343  aqq.; 
A.  Ebner,  IHb  kl6§terlichen  O^fettvereiniaunoen  bU  mm 
Auaganoe  dtM  karolinff%»ehen  ZeitaUerB,  Resensburg.  1890; 
F.  Beringer.  Die  AbUUee,  ihr  Weten  uni  QtbratuK  PP. 
09<l  sqq.f  Paiderbom,  1805. 

CONFUCIUS,  cen-fiG'shi-UB. 

Early  Life  (§  1). 

Later  Life  and  PoBthumoiui  Honors  (§  2). 

His  Ideals  and  Teaching  (§  3). 

His  Influence  (§  4). 

The  name  of  this  Chinese  sage  is  the  Latinized 
form  of  Kung  fu-Uze,  i.e.,  the  "  Master  Kung  ";  he 
was  bom  in  the  district  of  Tsow,  in  the  feudal  king- 
dom of  Lu,  now  the  southern  part  of  Shantung,  in 
the  year  551  B.C.;  d.  in  Lu  478  b.c.  His  father 
was  governor  of  the  district  at  the  time — ^a  man 
honored  by  his  country,  who  died  at  the  age  of 
seventy-three,  when  his  son  was  three  years  old. 
His  mother  carefully  cherished  his  love  of  learning, 
but  information  concerning  his  early  training  is 
scanty  and  legendary.  His  grave  demeanor  and 
precocious  mind  early  attracted  attention,  and  he 
was  led  to  study  carefully  the  ancient  laws  and 
records.  At  nineteen  he  married.  The  following 
year  he  became  a  keeper  of  granaries  and  overseer 
of  public  fields,  and  the  reforms  he  instituted  gained 
him  the  favor  of  his  sovereign.    In- 

I.  Early  duced  by  the  disregard  for  law  among 
Life.  his  countrymen  to  examine  more 
closely  the  ancient  writings,  and  satis- 
fied of  the  ability  of  their  teachings  to  check  exist- 
ing evils,  he  began  to  gather  pupils.  Although  only 
twenty-two,  his  reputation^  attracted  many  young 
men  to  his  house;  and  their  numbers  increased  as 
the  value  of  his  instructions  was  recognized.  The 
death  of  his  mother  when  he  was  twenty-four  af- 
forded him  opportunity  to  offer  a  tribute  to  her 
memory  and  to  revive  an  old  custom  of  retiring 
from  office  in  order  to  mourn  three  years.  His 
example  has  been  followed  to  the  present  day. 
With  the  exception  of  a  visit  to  the  court  of  the 
Duke  of  Lu,  he  devoted  the  next  ten  years  to  further 
study  and  instruction  of  his  disciples,  all  the  while 
rising  in  influence  as  a  public  teacher  and  learned 
man,  qualified  to  rule  and  advise  in  affairs  of  the 
state.  This  course  of  life  he  continued  till  he  was 
thirty-four  years  old,  when  his  wish  to  enter  public 
service  was  gratified.  One  of  the  chief  ministers 
of  Lu  on  his  death-bed  (517  b.c.)  advised  his  son 
to  join  the  school  of  Confucius  to  learn  the  nature 
of  ceremonial  observances,  in  order  better  to  per- 
form his  official  duties.  He  and  a  near  relative 
did  so;  and  they  gave  new  tclat  to  the  master,  who 
was,  at  their  representation,  sent  by  Duke  Chao  to 
the  imperial  court  at  Loh-yang  to  study  the  rites 
then  in  use,  so  as  to  introduce  them  into  Lu.  He 
went  as  a  private  man,  to  see  and  learn,  and  re- 
turned home  the  same  year. 

Soon  after,  Duke  Chao  was  obliged  to  fly  to  the 
adjoining  state  of  Tsi  to  save  his  life,  and  Con- 
fucius followed  as  a  loyal  subject.  Not  approv- 
ing his  position  there,  the  sage  returned  home. 
He  was  now  known  as  a  great  teacher.  Lu  was 
distracted  by  civil  strife,  from  which  he  kept  aloof 
during  the  next  fifteen  years.    In  the  year  500 


Duke  Chao's  brother,  Ting,  came  into  power  in  Lu, 
and  the  rival  factions  were  put  down.  Confucius 
when  fifty  years  old  was  appointed  magistrate  of  the 
town  of  Chung-tu.  The  influence  of  his  virtue  and 
the  wisdom  of  his  administration  wrought  a  speedy 
revolution  in  the  condition  of  the  place.  The  next 
year  he  was  raised  to  be  minister  of 
2.  Later  crime,  in  which  position  he  introduced 
Life  and  many  reforms  to  simplify  and  enforce 
Posthu-  the  administration  of  justice.  These  re- 
mou8  forms  excited  the  envy  of  neighboring 
Honors,  lords,  whose  efforts  finally  succeeded 
in  inducing  the  ruler  of  Lu  to  remove 
the  sage  from  office  (496  b.c).  During  the  next 
thirteen  years  he  wandered  from  state  to  state,  at 
one  time  honored,  at  another  in  danger  of  his  life, 
but  always  surrounded  by  a  band  of  faithful  dis- 
ciples. When  sixty-six  years  old  he  returned  to 
Lu,  and  employed  his  remaining  years  in  completing 
his  Uterary  works.  His  wife  and  only  son,  Kung  Li, 
had  died  before  him;  but  he  was  honored  and 
mourned  by  many  attached  followers.  His  tomb 
at  Kiuh-fau  in  Shantung  is  surrounded  by  an  ex- 
tensive collection  of  temples,  halls,  and  courts,  and 
has  been  well  described  by  Rev.  A.  WilUamson  in 
his  Journeys  in  North  China^  i.,  chap.  xiii.  His 
descendants  stiU  live  in  that  region,  and  the  head 
of  the  family  is  known  as  the  Sacred  Duke  Kung. 
Though  discouraged  and  neglected  at  the  end  of  his 
career,  Confucius,  through  his  literary  works,  was 
destined  to  compel  such  homage  from  his  fellow 
men  as  few  others  have  had.  In  every  city  of  China, 
down  to  those  of  the  third  order,  there  is  a  temple 
to  him,  and  in  every  college  and  school  he  is  ven- 
erated and  adored. 

The  ideal  of  C!onfucius,  to  the  attainment  of 
which  all  his  efforts  and  teachings  were  directed, 
was  a  condition  of  happy  tranquillity  throughout 
the  empire.  He  considered  that  this  could  be 
accomplished  by  maintaining  the  sacredness  of  the 
five  obligations  of  human  society;  viz.,  those  be- 
tween sovereign  and  minister,  father  and  son,  hus- 
band and  wife,  elder  and  younger  brother,  and 
between  friends,  all  persons  faithfully  performing 
the  reciprocal  duties  arising  from  each  relationship. 
He  claimed  an  almost  unlimited  authority  for  the 
sovereign  over  the  minister,  father  over  the  son, 
husband  over  the  wife,  elder  brother  over  younger; 
and  enjoined  kind  and  upright  dealings  amnng 
friends,  thus  inculcating  as  his  leading  tenets  sub-  i 
ordination  to  superiors,  and  virtuous  conduct. 
In  harmony  with  the  practical  character  of  his 
system,  he  laid  special  stress  upon  the  care  and  | 
education  of  the  young,  which  he 
3.  His  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the 
Ideals  and  welfare  of  the  state.  His  teachings 
Teaching,  in  regard  to  political  and  social  moral- 
ity are  based  essentially  upon  the 
same  grounds.  His  idea  of  government  was  a 
paternal  despotism.  But  on  the  other  hand,  as- 
cribing great  importance  to  the  power  of  example*, 
he  insisted  upon  personal  rectitude  and  good  gov- 
ernment as  the  pledges  and  arguments  for  a  ruler's 
maintenance  in  power.  The  general  tendency  of 
the  philosophy  of  Confucius  is  good;  and,  com- 
pared with  that  of  Greece  and  Rome,  it  takes 


229 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OontaoixLB 
Conffrefiration 


precedence  by  the  purity  of  its  teachings  and  the 
attention  paid  to  the  rules  governing  the  common 
intercourse  of  life,  but  is  inferior  to  them  in  pro- 
fundity. Throughout  his  teaching  Confucius  sel- 
dom referred  to  the  great  problems  of  human  con- 
dition and  destiny.  To  his  practical  mind  the 
consideration  of  theology  and  metaphysics  seemed 
uncertain;  and  he  evaded,  if  he  did  not  rebuke, 
bis  disciples  when  they  pried  into  thmgs  beyond 
their  depth.  "  To  give  one's  self  earnestly,"  said 
he,  "  to  the  duties  due  to  men,  and,  while  respecting 
spiritual  beings,  to  keep  aloof  from  them,  may  be 
called  wisdom."  This  is  his  teaching  in  regard  to 
the  ancient  creed  of  China.  While  he  enjoined 
respect  for  its  worship  and  religious  observances, 
enforcing  conmiand  by  example,  he  crushed  out 
every  spiritual  tendency  by  discountenancing  specu- 
lation upon  higher  things. 

For  twenty-three  centuries  Confucius  has  held 
sway  over  the  minds  of  nearly  a  third  of  the  human 
race.  The  source  of  this  influence  may  be  ascribed 
to  the  use  of  the  Four  Books  and  the  Five  Classics 
as  text-books  (see  China,  I .,  1 ,  §  1) .  In 
4.  His  In-  adopting  them  as  the  text-books  at  the 
fluence.  national  examinations,  the  rulers  of 
China  took  the  best  moral  guides  their 
literature  afforded,  and  trained  their  rising  youth 
in  the  best  principles  of  government  they  pos- 
sessed. Not  only  does  every  scholar  learn  at  the 
lap  of  Confucius,  but  civil  offices  are  reached 
only  after  going  through  the  competitive  exami- 
nations in  those  nine  classics.  His  doctrines  are 
thus  deeply  impressed  upon  the  Chinese  mind.  But, 
however  great  his  influence  has  been  in  the  past, 
it  is  destined  to  wane  in  the  near  future.  His 
system  is  not  capable  of  being  expanded  propor- 
tionately with  the  progress  of  the  nation,  for  it 
lacks  the  high  sanctions  and  the  vital  force  of  Chris- 
tianity. S.  Wblis  WlLUAMst. 

The  attitude  of  Confucius  to  the  Golden  Rule  is 
often  discussed.  The  facts  are  these:  He  was 
asked  what  one  word  would  serve  as  a  rule  of  prac- 
tise for  all  of  life,  and  replied  with  the  word  shu, 
which  Williams  translates  "  reciprocity,"  and  added: 
"  What  you  do  not  want  done  to  yourself  do  not  to 
others"  (Analects,  xv.  23).  Again  some  one  asked: 
"  What  say  you  of  the  principle  that  injury  should 
be  recompensed  with  kindness?  "  The  Master  said: 
"  With  what  then  will  you  recompense  kindness  ? 
Recompense  injury  with  justice,  and  kindness  with 
kindness "  (Analects,  xiv.  36).  Thus  it  appears 
that  though  Confucius  specifically  rejected  the 
doctrine  later  embodied  by  Christ  in  the  teaching 
"  love  your  enemies,"  that  doctrine  was  discussed 
in  China  500  years  before  its  utterance  by  Christ  in 
Palestine — a  most  interesting  fact.  See  China,  I.,  1 . 

G.  W.  G. 
Bibuoobapht:  J.  Legge,  Chinese  Claesice,  i.  56-120,  Lon- 
don, 1861  (contains  all  that  is  trustworthy);  A.  Loomis, 
Confucitu  and  the  Chinese  Claesice,  San  Francifloo,.1867; 
J.  H.  Plath.  Confucius  und  seine  SchUler:  Leben  und 
Lehren,  4  parts,  Munich,  1860-74;  A.  H.  Smith,  Chinese 
Char€ieieristies,  New  York,  1000  (exhibits  the  profound 
influence  of  the  sage  on  Chinese  life).  Ckinsult  also  the 
books  mentioned  under  China. 

CONGREGATIOIf :  [A  word  variously  employed 
in  religious  and  ecclesiastical  usage.    In  the  Eng- 


lish Old  Testament  it  represents  several  Hebrew 
words,  especially  mo^edh,  *edhah,  and  l^ahal.  The 
first  (from  ya'adh,  "  to  appoint  ")  means  an  ap- 
pointed meeting,  then  the  place  or  time  of  such 
meeting;  it  occurs  especially  in  the  phrase  ohel 
mo'edh,  rendered  "  tabernacle  of  the  congregation  " 
in  the  A.  V.,  but  better  "  tent  of  meet- 
Various  ing  "  in  the  R.  V.  The  second  (from 
Usages,  the  same  root)  denotes  the  theocratic 
assembly  of  Israel,  thought  of  as  meet- 
ing by  appointment  with  Yahweh.  Kahal  (from 
kciial,  "to  assemble")  denotes  any  assembly,  and 
the  gathering  of  Israel  in  particular.  The  com- 
monest Septuagint  renderings  of  these  words  were 
synagOgB  and  ekkUsta,  and  these  passed  into  the 
New  Testament  (see  CJhurch,  Thb  Christian;  cf. 
Hebrew  dictionaries  and  dictionaries  of  New  Testa- 
ment Greek  under  the  words  named  and  the  Bible 
dictionaries,  articles  "  Assembly  "  and  "  Congre- 
gation ").  In  Roman  Catholic  usage  congregation 
denotes:  (1)  One  of  the  standing  committees  of 
cardinaLs  charged  with  some  particular  branch  of 
ecclesiastical  administration  (see  Curia).  (2)  An 
association  of  men  or  women,  usually  of  modem 
origin,  living  under  a  quasimonastic  rule,  but  not 
strictly  included  among  the  monastic  orders  and 
not  bound  by  the  solemn  and  irrevocable  vows  of 
the  latter;  e.g.,  the  Christian  Brothers,  English 
Ladies,  Redemptorists,  and  many  others  (see  the 
separate  articles).  (3)  A  congregation  may  also  be  an 
association  of  houses  within  a  certain  order,  united 
in  some  special  manner,  as  the  congregations  of 
Cluny  and  St.  Maur  (qq.v.).  (4)  At  the  Council  of 
Constance  (1414-18)  the  name  "  congregation " 
was  given  to  the  separate  sessions  of  the  different 
nations  (see  Constance,  Council  of),  and  since 
then  has  designated  meetings  in  which  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  members  take  part- — ^practically  com- 
mittees appointed  to  prepare  and  facilitate  the 
business  of  the  council,  like  the  committees  of  mod- 
em legislative  bodies.  In  modem  Protestant  usage 
"  congregation  "  means  an  assembly  for  religious 
purposes,  in  more  restricted  sense  a  local  church 
or  the  lay  members  of  a  local  church  as  distin- 
guished from  the  mimster  and  authorities,  some- 
times where  a  distinction  is  made  between  professed 
"  members  "  and  mere  attendants,  the  latter  as 
distinguished  from  the  former.  The  condensation 
of  the  article  Gemeinde,  kirchliche,  in  the  Hauck- 
Herzog  RE  follows.] 

The  ecclesiastic£d  congregation  (Germ.  A;trc^- 
liche  Gemeinde  ;  Lat.  eccUaia,  congregaiio  fidelium) 
in  the  widest  sense  is  the  association  (Gemeinschaft) 
of  all  faithful  Christians;  in  a  narrower  sense,  the 
members  of  a  particular  Church — confessional,  na- 
tional, provincial,  etc. — or  of  a  local  church.  In 
the  following  article  the  word  is  understood  in  the 
last-named  sense. 

After  the  development  of  the  conception  of  the 
mass  as  a  sacrifice,  of  the  priesthood  as  a  neces- 
sary medium  of  salvation,  and  of  the  consequent 
essential  difference  between  clergy  and  laity  which 
made  the  latter  merely  the  passive  object  of  clerical 
activity,  there  remained  for  the  layman  no  independ- 
ent share  in  the  life  of  the  congregation.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  fundamental  principles    of    the 


Oonffroffation 
OonsreffatlonallBts 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


230 


pre-Refonnstion  ecclesiastical  system,  as  developed 
from  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.,  the  pope,  as  vicar  of 
Christ,  is  pastor  of  the  world;  he  ap- 
The  Pre-  points  bishops  as  his  representatives, 
Reforma-  one  for  each  geographical  district  (di- 
tion  Idea,  ocese);  every  bishop  appoints  priests 
as  his  representatives,  one  for  eveiy 
subdistrict  (parish;  see  Church  Govbrnmbnt, 
I  1;  Curb  of  Souia).  The  Christian  population 
of  such  a  parochial  district,  ecclesiastically  united 
because  placed  under  the  care  of  a  pastor  and  regu- 
larly dependent  on  him  alone  for  its  spiritual  needs, 
forms  the  parochial  congregation.  The  latter  is 
naturally  interested  in  having  the  funds  of  the  local 
church,  from  which  the  expenses  of  the  pastor  and 
his  hdpers  as  well  as  of  the  religious  services  are 
defrayed,  administered  faithfully  and  properly. 
This  interest  was  recognized  in  pre-Reformation 
canon  law  by  allowing  the  so-called  "  church- 
fathers  "  and  "  patrons "  (patrini),  who  were 
chosen  from  the  members  of  the  pilrish,  to  share  in 
the  administration;  but  they  can  scarcely  be  called 
representatives  of  the  congregation,  as  they  were 
generally  chosen  by  the  clergy.  Only  in  conse- 
quence of  privileges  and  old  customs  did  a  few 
churches  here  and  there  have  any  degree  of  inde- 
pendence, e.g.,  the  right  to  choose  their  own  pastor. 
As  a  rule,  the  congregation  was  merely  a  "  flock 
united  to  the  shepherd,"  and  its  position  is  expressed 
in  the  Corpus  juris  cananici,  when  it  says :  ''  We  have 
decreed  that  laymen  should  not  presume  to  transact 
ecclesiastical  affairs  "  (2,  X.,  de  judicvU  [ii.  1]); "  we 
forbid  any  layman  to  be  allowed  to  dispute  concern- 
ing the  Catholic  faith  "  (2,  {  1,  <2e  hcgreticisy  and  VI. 
[v.  2]);  "  laymen  must  obey,  not  exercise  authority  " 
(12,  X.,  de  rdms  ecdesiaaticia  non  aliendU  [iii.  13]). 
The  (Churches  of  the  Reformation,  both  Lutheran 
and  Reformed,  placed  the  congregations  on  a  dif- 
ferent basis.  Rejecting  the  mediatory  position  of 
the  priesthood  and  its  consequences,  and  emphasi- 
zing the  responsibility  of  the  individual,  they  make 
it  the  religious  duty  of  the  layman  to  see  that  word 
and  sacraments  are  rightly  administered;  accord- 
ingly, they  teach  that  the  congrega- 
The  Lu-  tions  have  a  divine  commission  to 
theran  turn  away  from  false  doctrine  and  to 
Churches,  provide  for  a  right  ministry  in  case 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  do  not  do 
so.  The  Lutheran  Church  asserts  the  right  of  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  to  representation  and  a 
voice  in  synods  and  church  courts,  so  far  as  they 
are  qualified  to  serve  in  such  capacities,  and  of 
admonishing  or  lodging  complaint  against  preachers 
offensive  in  doctrine  or  conduct.  It  allows  the 
congregation  at  least  the  right  of  veto  in  the  choice 
of  pastor  and  a  share  in  the  administration  of  the 
local  funds.  The  congregation  must  be  consulted 
by  the  authorities  before  constitutional  changes 
can  be  made,  and  the  right  to  a  share  in  church 
discipline,  so  far  as  allowed  by  Scripture,  is  granted. 
The  Reformers  themselves  and  the  Rostock  theo- 
logians, Johan  Quistorp  and  Theophilus  Grossgebauer 
in  the  seventeenth  centuiy,  recognized  the  need  of 
church  committees  and  boards  of  elders  to  make 
these  congregational  rights  effective.  But  in  the 
evolution  of  the  German  national  Church  boards 


of  elders  had  no  proper  place  and  therefore,  like  the 
congregational  rights  themselves,  did  not  flourish. 
The  modem  development,  however,  has  everywhere 
asserted  the  principle  of  self-government  in  indi- 
vidual Lutheran  congregations,  though  in  varying 
degree  in  different  churches  (see  CJhurch  Govebn- 
MBNT,  II  3-8). 

The  Reformed  Churches  gave  the  congregations 
a  more  important  development.  That  of  Zwin^^ 
to  be  sure,  followed  essentially  the  same  principles  aa 
the  Lutherans,  and  certain  modifications  resulted 
only  from  the  fact  that  it  grew  on 
The  Re-  republican  soil  and  the  Swiss  churches 
formed  already  enjoyed  privileges  in  the  choice 
Churches,  of  a  pastor.  Calvin,  however,  taught 
separation  of  Church  and  State  and 
independent  church  govenunent  as  divinely  insti- 
tuted, and  started  with  the  assumption  that  the 
form  of  the  local  church  organization  is  ordained 
in  the  Bible.  According  to  his  view  there  must 
be  a  board  (consistoirt,  session)  at  the  head  of 
each  church,  consisting  of  two  kinds  of  elders, 
ruling  and  teaching.  The  care  of  the  poor  is  en- 
trusted to  deacons.  These  ideas  were  not  carried 
out  in  Geneva,  where  Calvin  had  to  accommodate 
himself  to  Zwinglian  views,  but  came  to  full  reali- 
zation in  France,  and  extended  thence  to  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands,  and  to  Germany  when  Reformed 
congregations  settled  there  to  escape  persecution. 
[See  Church  Government,  ||  2-3;  Baptists,  I.,  3, 
S  1 ;  and  Congrbqationajjsts,  IV.  These  and  other 
denominations,  iaduding  many  of  the  minor  ones, 
have  embodied  in  their  chinch  polity  the  principle 
of  democracy  more  fully  than  the  parties  mentioned 
in  the  text.]  E.  Sehlino. 

Bxbxjoobapht:  For  the  Biblical  oonoeption  ooiuiilt:  G.  F. 
Moore,  Commentary  on  Judge*,  on  Judges  xx.  1,  New 
York,  1895;  W.  M.  Ramaay,  in  Expoeitor,  6th  ser..  iii 
137  sqq.;  SchOrer,  GewAuAle,  ii.  427  sqq.,  £ng.  tnmsl.. 
II.  ii.  60  Bqq.  For  the  early  Christian  congregation  con- 
sult: F.  J.  A.  Hort,  ChrieUan  Ecdeeia,  London,  1897.  For 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches:  A.  L.  Riditer.  Gf- 
achichte  der  evangdiadien  Kirehenveriaaeung,  Leipsic,  1851; 
O.  Mejer,  OrundUnfen  dee  luOteriecken  Kvrchetmoimmta, 
Rostock,  1864;  idem.  KirchenredU,  pp.  166  sqq..  Gatting- 
en.  1869;  R.  Sohm,  Kirbhenrecht,  i.  460  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1892. 

CONGREGATIONAL  UNION  LECTURES:  A 
lectureship  imder  the  auspices  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Union  of  Great  Britain.  It  was  established 
in  1831,  and  the  first  series  was  delivered  in  1833 
by  Ralph  Wardlaw  on  Christian  ethics  (published 
in  London,  1833).  The  aim  is  "  to  illustrate  the 
evidence  ...  of  the  great  doctrines  of  Revela- 
tion, to  exhibit  the  .  .  .  principles  of  philology  in 
their  application  to  such  doctrines,  to  prove  the 
accordance  ...  of  genuine  philosophy  with  .  .  . 
Scripture,  to  trace  to  their  sources  the  .  .  .  cor- 
ruptions which  have  existed  in  the  Christian  Church, 
and  to  point  out  the  methods  of  refutation  and 
counteraction."  The  lectureship  is  not  endowed, 
the  funds  coming  from  the  sales  of  volumes  of  lec- 
tures already  delivered;  consequently  the  lectures 
are  given  at  irregular  intervals.  The  last  series 
was  delivered  in  1897  by  John  Brown  on  Apoftcl- 
teal  Succession  in  the  Light  of  History  and  of  Fad 
(London,  1898).  A  full  list  of  lectures  and  their 
subjects  is  given  in  L.  H.  Jordan,  ComparaHve  Be- 
ligum,  pp.  564-665,  New  York,  1905. 


231 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonffraffation 
OonffraffatlonalUts 


I.  History. 

1.  The  Kngliiih  GongregatioiiAliBts. 

Robert  Browne  (|  1). 

Hia  Views  (|  2). 

Barrowe  and  Greenwood  (|  3). 

Johnson  and  Ainsworth  (|  4). 

The  Scrooby  Gonsregation  (|  6). 

The    Pilgnm    Church    in    Holland 
(16). 

The  Emisration  to  Ameriea  (|  7). 

CoogreBationalists    in    England    to 
leeo  (I  8). 

Sinoe  1660  (|  9). 

At  the  Present  Time  ({  10). 

Minionary  Work  ({  11). 
1  Congregationalists    in    the    British 


CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

Colonies. 

3.  Congregationalists  on  the  Continent 

of  Europe. 

4.  CongregationaUsts  in  America. 
The  Pilgrim  Church  at  Plymouth 

(ID. 
Massachusetts  and  Other  Colonies 

(I  2). 
The  Half-way  Covenant  (|  3). 
Growth  and  Development  after  1700 

(14). 
Tlieologioal  Ck>ntroverBy  (|  6). 
Attempted  Change  of  Polity  ({  6). 
Growth  in  the  West  and  South  (§  7). 
The  Unitarian  Controversy  (|  8). 
The  Andover  Controversy  ({  9). 


Home  Mission  Work.  Other  Socie- 
ties (I  10). 
The  American  Board  (|  11). 
II.  Educational  Work. 
America  (|  1). 
Great  Britain  and  (}olonies  (|  2). 

III.  Theology. 

Creeds  and  Platforms  (|  1). 
Late  Tendencies  (|  2). 

IV.  Polity  and  Practise. 

The  Two    Underlying  Principles 

(ID. 
Councils  (I  2). 

Ck>nferences  and  Associations  ({  3). 
Worship  and  Practise  (§  4). 
V.  Stotistics. 


1.  Bobsrt 
Browii0* 


Congregationaliflin  is  a  form  of  ecclesiastical 
polity  rather  than  of  doctrinal  belief .  Its  distinctive 
features  are  two:  (1)  the  absolute  independence 
of  each  local  church;  (2)  the  privilege  and  duty 
of  cooperative  fellowship  among  the  churches.  It 
is  believed  that  the  apostolic  churches  were  (Con- 
gregational and  remained  such  until  after  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  century. 

L  Histoiy. — 1.  The  En«rUsh  Oonffresratlonallata: 
Modem  Congregationalism  can  be  traced  back  to 
the  third  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Some 
assert  that  a  small  church  in  London,  in  1570,  of 
which  Richard  Fsrtz  was  pastor,  was  Oongrega- 
tional,  but  this  claim  is  doubtful.  The  earliest 
demonstrable  Congregational  church  of  that  era 
was  formed  by  Robert  Browne  (q.v.)  at  Norwich, 
apparently  in  1580.  The  Anglican 
Church  was  characterized  by  world- 
liness  and  even  corruption,  and  it 
retained  many  Roman  Catholic  practises.  These 
defects  its  more  enlightened  and  devout  adher- 
ents deplored  but  failed  to  correct.  Conse- 
quently, many  of  its  members — especially  those 
who  had  fled  to  the  Continent  in  the  time  of  Mary, 
and  had  become  acquainted  there  with  the  princi- 
ples and  leaders  of  the  Reformation — had  learned 
to  favor  Presbyterianism  and  sought  to  introduce 
it  at  home  after  their  return.  They  were  Puri- 
tans. But  the  proposed  reform  seemed  to  some 
insufficient.  It  waited  for  the  civil  rulers  to  in- 
augurate and  direct  it.  It  indorsed  the  old  the- 
ory of  a  State  Church,  including  every  citizen  of 
whatever  character.  To  Browne  it  did  not  ap- 
pear radical  enough.  He  sought  for  immediate  re- 
form and  the  purity  of  the  Church.  About  1578 
he  was  called  to  a  parish  in  Cambridge.  But  in 
his  view  the  church,  not  the  bishop,  should  have 
invited  him,  and,  although  he  served  six  months, 
he  refused  to  be  regulariy  inducted  into  office. 
Then  he  went  to  Norwich,  and,  conferring  with 
Robert  Harrison  (q.v.),  gathered  an  independent 
church. 

He  declared  that  all  true  Christians  should  with- 
draw from  the  Ang^can  Church,  as  it  then  was, 
uid  form  new  churches  including  only  sincerely 
religious  persons,  that  any  company 
2.  His  of  such  believers,  imited  by  a  public 
▼iewa.  covenant  with  each  other  and  with 
God,  is  a  true  and,  so  far  as  concerns 
organization,  a  perfect  church;  that  ecclesiastical 
authority  rests  only  in  Christ's  supremacy  over 


such  local  churches,  whose  members  are  to  in- 
terpret the  teachings  of  the  Bible  and  the  sugges- 
tions of  divine  providence  imder  the  promised  guid- 
ance of  the  Holy  Spirit;  that  each  such  church 
should  have  for  officers — choosing  them  itself,  each 
member  having  equal  rights  with  every  other — ^a 
pastor,  a  teacher,  one  or  more  elders,  one  or  more 
deacons,  and  one  or  more  deaconesses;  that  all 
members  of  such  a  church  should  exercise  con- 
stant mutual  watchfulness  and  correct  each  other's 
faults;  and  that  all  such  churches  should  claim  the 
privilege  and  fulfil  the  duty  of  mutual  fellowship 
and  cooperation.  This  system— called  Brownism 
by  its  opponents  and  by  many  since,  although 
its  early  adherents  generally  did  not  accept  the 
title — was  substantial  Congregationalism  and  of- 
fered immediate  and  adequate  remedy  for  existing 
evils. 

Persecution  soon  drove  Browne's  church  from 
Norwich,  at  least  in  part.  Some  members  either 
maintained  it  there  or  revived  it  after  a  few  years, 
for  its  existence  is  mentioned  as  late  as  1598  (G. 
Johnson,  DUcourae,  etc.,  Amsterdam,  1603,  p.  205). 
Yet,  practically  as  a  body,  it  emigrated  in  1581  to 
Middelburg  in  Zealand.  But  after  about  two 
years  it  was  dissolved,  largely  because  of  ill-judged 
appUcations  of  its  rule  as  to  mutual  criticism,  and 
Browne,  returning  to  England,  abandoned  the 
work  of  reform  and  reentered  the  State  Church. 
Six  books  by  him  survived,  five  continuing,  so 
far  as  they  were  accessible,  the  work  which  he  gave 
up,  and  their  conceded  importance  is  proved  by 
a  royal  proclamation  against  them.  But  the 
sixth  defended  the  State  Church.  (See  Brownb, 
Robert.) 

It  was  not  long  before  another,  although  less 
self-consistent,  type  of  Congregationalism  appeared, 
since,  known  as  Barrowism.  Henry  Barrowe  (q.v.) 
a  lawyer  of  Gray's  Inn,  London,  was  arrested  in 
1586,  and  he  and  his  friend  John  Greenwood  (q.v.) 
were  imprisoned  together  during  most 

and^^^  °^  *^®  ^*™®  ^"^^^  ^^^  martyrdom  in 
1593.  But  even  in  jail  they  managed 
to  become  voluminous  authors.  They 
promulgated  a  new  theory  of  ecclesi- 
astical government,  for  which  Barrowe  seems  to 
have  been  chiefly  responsible.  They  accepted 
Browne's  fundamental  principle  of  the  independ- 
ence of  each  local  church.  But  they  distrusted 
his  teaching  of  the  equality  of  all  church-members 
in  managing  church  affairs,  and  advocated   the 


Oreen- 
wood. 


Oonffreffationalists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ddd 


Presbyterian  theory  of  Thomas  Cartwright  (q.v.)f 
that  such  control  should  be  vested  in  a  board  of 
elders.  Browne's  plan  had  included  elders  among 
church  officers,  but  only  meaning  that  such  men, 
representing  the  "  most  forwarde  in  gifte/'  should 
do  substantially  the  work  of  the  church  (or  stand- 
ing) committee  in  modem  Ck)ngregationalism,  with- 
out dominating  the  church.  Upon  the  Barrowist 
theory  the  elders  were  to  rule.  It  offered  a  com- 
promise, of  which  the  Congregationalism  was  to 
promote  reform  of  belief  and  life,  while  the  Pres- 
byterianism  was  to  prevent  such  errors  as  that 
which  had  ruined  Browne's  church  at  Middelburg. 
But  the  danger  that  the  elders  might  assume  ex- 
cessive authority  was  overlooked.  This  Barrowist 
system  met  with  some  approval. 

There  are  proofs  of  the  existence  of  a  Barrowist 
church  in  London  in  1592,  which  had  existed  in- 
formally since  1589,  or  even  1587,  of  which  Francis 
Johnson  (q.v.)  became  pastor  in  1592.  John 
Greenwood — ^probably  at  large  on  bail  at  his  elec- 
tion— was  chosen  its  **  teacher."  This,  too,  was 
persecuted  sharply  and  part  of  it  es- 
4.  Johnson  caped  to  Holland  during  that  year, 
and  Alns-  The  remainder,  including  the  pastor, 

worth,  remained  imprisoned  in  London  until 
1597«  but  then  the  church  was  re- 
united at  Amsterdam,  Henry  Ainsworth  (q.v.)  suc- 
ceeding Greenwood  as  **  teacher."  Although  at 
first  harmonious,  later  it  was  rent  by  divisions,  of 
which  the  gravest  was  due  to  the  determination 
of  the  pastor  and  one  or  two  elders  to  exalt  the 
elders  in  authority  above  the  other  members. 
Practically  it  became  a  Presbyterian  church,  and 
of  an  exaggerated  type.  By  1618,  when  Johnson 
died,  it  was  nearly  extinct.  In  1610  many  mem- 
bers, under  Ainsworth,  withdrew,  were  given  the 
church  property  by  the  courts,  and  thenceforth 
continued  as  a  separate  church  and  practised  a 
more  modest  theory  of  the  eldership,  although  still 
magnifying  it,  until  Ainsworth's  death  in  1622  or 
1623. 

In  1602  a  Congregational  church  was  formed  at 
Gainsborough,  England.  It  was  identified  with 
John  Smyth  (q.v.),  who  became  its  pastor  in  1606. 
He  agreed  with  Browne  rather  than  Barrowe,  al- 
though emphasizing  the  fellowship  of  the  churches 
less  than  Browne.  This  church  also  underwent 
persecution  almost  at  once,  and  in  1606  it  emi- 
grated under  Smyth's  leadership  to  Amsterdam. 
But  it  had  included  members  from  a  distance, 
some   of    whom  did  not  accompany 

fl  *  tv  **•  ^  these  a  number  lived  in,  or 
Oon«?^-  "®*''  ^^^  ^^^^^  °^  Scrooby,  Notting- 
^Qj^^  hamshire,  and  they  formed  there,  in 
1606,  the  church  which  later  became 
that  of  the  Mayflower  and  of  the  Plymouth  Col- 
ony in  America.  At  that  date  one  of  them,  William 
Brewster  (q.v.),  was  bailiff  of  the  archbishop  of  York 
and  a  royal  postmaster,  and  occupied  the  Scrooby 
Palace,  or  Manor-house,  which  belonged  to  the 
see  of  York.  Doubtless  the  church  was  formed  in 
the  chapel  of  the  palace,  and  the  manner  of  its 
organization  is  recorded  (J.  Murton,  DeBcription, 
etc.,  London?,  1620,  p.  169).  Probably  its  original 
pastor  w&j  Richard  Clifton  (q.v.),  formerly  rector 


of  Babworth  (7  m.  s.e.),  and  the  famous  John  Robin- 
son (q.v.)  apparently  was  its  "  teacher,"  and  cer- 
tainly was  its  pastor  afterward.  Another  member 
was  William  Bradford,  who  became  the  governor 
of  the  Plymouth  Colony  for  many  years  and  its 
first  historian.  His  graphic  narrative  portrays 
touchingly  the  oppression  of  the  church  by  the 
government  and  its  flight  to  Amsterdam  in  1608. 

Thus  there  were  then  three  professedly  Congrega- 
tional   churches    in    Amsterdam.    The    first   was 
Francis  Johnson's,  called  the  Ancient  Church  be- 
cause the  oldest,  which  became  practically  Presby- 
terian.   The  second  was  Smyth's,  which,  because 
of  his  personal  peculiarities,  repeatedly  dissolved 
and    reorganized    itself    and    soon    disappeared. 
Neither  afforded  an  example  of  true  Congregation- 
alism.   The    third    was    the   Pilgrim 
6.  The      church,  imder  Robinson.    This  lived 
PilgTim     harmoniously  but,    after  a  year,  in 
Church     order   to   avoid   involvement  in  the 
Holland,    troubles  of  the  others,  it  removed  to 
Leyden.    There    it    remained  eleven 
years.     It  was  distinctly  Congregational.    Although 
it  retained  the  eldership,  its  elders  were  merely 
leaders  among  equals,  and  had  little  authority,  ex- 
cepting that  of  high  character  and  ability.    The 
church  was  not  precisely  like  a  modem  Congrega- 
tional church,  but  the  differences  were  slight  and 
did  not  relate  to  essentials. 

Ecclesiastically  it  was  peaceful  and  prosperous, 
but  its  members  suffered  severely  from  the  inevi- 
table hardships  of  their  life  in  a  foreign  land.  Fi- 
nally, appreciating  the  impossibility  of  attracting 
other  English  people  in  sufficient  nimibers  and 
fearing  absorption  into  the  Dutch  community, 
hoping  for  greater  material  prosperity  elsewhere, 
distrusting    the    influence    of    Dutch 

I  tl  to  ^'^^"^P^®  upon  its  young  people,  dread- 
^^eriMu^  ing  the  renewal  of  the  Dutch  war  with 

Spain,  and  animated  by  an  earnest 
missionary  spirit,  the  Pilgrim  church  resolved  to 
emigrate  again,  and  this  time  to  America.  In 
the  end  a  part,  including  Robinson,  remained,  in- 
tending to  follow  as  soon  as  possible.  The  others, 
including  Brewster  and  Bradford,  sailed  from  Delfs- 
haven  on  July  22  (Aug.  1),  1620,  and  after  vari- 
ous detentions  left  Plymouth,  England,  on  Sept. 
6  (16)  and  reached  Cape  Cod,  Mass.,  on  Nov.  U  I 
(21)  and  the  site  of  the  future  Plymouth  on  Dec. 

II  (21). 

In  1 61 6  Henry  Jacob  organized  in  Southwark,  Lon- 
don, the  earliest  of  the  surviving  English  churches 
(see  Baptists,  I.,  2,  §  1),  and  in  1621,  also  in  South- 
wark,  another  church  was  formed  by  a  Mr.  Hub- 
bard.    Allusions  also  occur  in  the  corporation  ^e^ 
ords  of  Yarmouth  in  1630  to  aBrownist  church  there, 
consisting  chiefly  of  persons  recently  returned  froni 
Holland.  But  Congregationalism  made 
®"  Oonirre-  ^^  noteworthy  progress  in  England 
iSiiSs^    for  another  ten  years.    Then  history 
England  to  repeated  itself.     In  the  days  of  Laud 
xeeo.       many  Puritans  had  exiled  themselves 
to  the  Continent  because  of  the  popish 
ceremonies  in  the  State  Church,  the  silencing  and 
suspension  of  devout  ministers,  and  the  persecution 
of  all  who  disputed  the  demands  of  the  ecclesiastical 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonflrraffationalists 


authorities.  They  had  fled,  as  they  said,  ''to  en- 
joy the  liberty  of  their  conscience  in  God's  worship, 
and  to  free  themselves  from  human  inventions." 
Returning  about  1640,  a  number  of  them,  including 
William  Bridge,  Jeremiah  Burroughs,  Thomas  Good- 
win, Philip  Nye,  and  Sidrach  Simpson,  became 
members  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  (q.v.). 
They  tried  to  secure  a  new  national  ecclesiastical 
organization,  or,  at  any  rate,  fully  tolerated  Con- 
gregational churches.  The  rigid  Presbyterians 
opposed  them,  but  under  Cromwell  Congregational 
churches  were  founded  widely.  Other  leaders 
among  them  were  Joseph  Caryl,  Stephen  Chamock, 
Theophilua  Gale,  and  John  Howe. 

But  theories  of  religious  freedom  were  still  vague 
and  sometimes  contradictory.  Many  Congrega- 
tionalists  then  advocated  a  liberty  including  only 
Christians,  and  Congregationalism  was  not  re- 
garded as  inconsistent  with  a  State  Chureh.  Some 
of  its  churches  were  formed  independently  of  terri- 
torial boundaries.  Others  were  parochial,  i.e., 
limited  to  a  given  parish  and  supported  by  tithes. 
This  attempt  to  be  independent  Congregation- 
alists  within  a  State  Church  enabled  their  ministers 
to  be  maintained  more  easily;  but  it  led  to  serious 
difRculties.  In  some  cases  non-professors  of  relig- 
ion, residing  in  a  parish,  demanded  on  the  ground 
of  such  residence  that  the  sacraments  be  adminis- 
tered to  them.  At  this  time  Congregationalism 
had  gained  no  footing  in  Scotland,  but  had  made 
some  progress  in  Ireland. 

After  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  (1660)  the 
State  Chureh  regained  supremacy  and  resumed  its 
attitude  of  severity  toward  dissenters.  On  Aug.  24, 
1662,  all  clergymen  refusing  the  new  Act  of  Uni- 
formity (q.v.)  were  ejected.  They  numbered  over 
two  thousand.  Most  were  Presbyterians,  but  many 
were  Congregationalists.  Congregationalism  then 
was  severed  from  the  State  Church  finally  and  re- 
mained under  the  ban  for  a  quarter-century.  But 
after  the  revolution  of  1688  the  Act  of  Toleration 
(q.v.)  allowed  the  revival  of  both  Con- 

0.  Sinoa  gregationalism  and  Presbyterianism. 
1660.  As  the  latter  then  had  no  presby- 
teries, they  resembled  each  other  con- 
siderably, excepting  that  in  the  Presbyterian 
churches  the  elders  had  greater  power.  In  1691 
an  unsuccessful  effort  was  made  to  combine  them 
as  the  United  Brethren.  Yet  the  more  general 
statements  of  the  proposed  heads  of  agreement 
supplanted  the  stricter  provisions  of  the  Savoy 
Declaration  (see  below,  III.,  §  1),  to  which 
Congregationalists  had  conformed,  and  have  pre- 
vailed ever  since.  After  the  death  of  William  III. 
it  was  attempted  again  to  deprive  dissenters  of  their 
partial  liberty,  but  since  that  of  Queen  Anne  that 
liberty  gradually  has  been  increased  and  now  is 
practicaUy  complete. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  English  Congre- 
gational churches  increased  rapidly  in  number  and 
their  importance  became  conspicuous.  They  still 
hold  firmly  to  their  independence  and  often  are 
called  the  Independent  Churches.  But  they  recog- 
nize increasingly  the  value  of  fellowship  and  coop- 
eration. In  1831  they  formed  the  Congregational 
Union  of  England  and  Wales.    Although  organ- 


ized only  for  purposes  of  deliberation   and  advice 

and  guarded  carefully  against  assuming  authority 

over  the  churches,  it  is  a  uniting,  stim- 

10.  At  the  ulating    force    of    great    imxx)rtance. 

Present  Most  English  Congregational  churches 
Time.  agree  to  its  Declaration  of  Faith  (see  be- 
low, III.,  $1),  although  tliis  is  not  bind- 
ing. The  Congregational  Union  of  Scotland  dates 
from  1812,  and  that  of  Ireland  from  1829.  At  pres- 
ent a  tendency  is  apparent  to  approve  some  method 
of  closer  cooperation  among  the  churches  which 
shall  render  the  denominational  activities  more 
fruitful.  A  national  Council  has  just  been  formed, 
intended  to  be  a  legislative,  administrative  body, 
but  without  involving  any  appreciable  sacrifice  of 
individual  liberty.  Only  witUn  the  last  half-cen- 
tiuy  have  associations  and  local  councils  of  churches 
found  much  favor.  But  the  needs  of  the  feebler 
churches  and  of  missions  have  caused  them  to 
become  better  appreciated,  although  councils  are 
not  yet  common. 

Foreign  missionary  work  was  undertaken  as  early 
as  1760.  The  London  Missionary  Society  was  or- 
ganized in  1795.  At  first  several  denominations 
imited  in  its  support,  but  for  some  time  it  has  been 
sustained    mainly    by    Congregation- 

11.  Mis-    alists.     It  began  work  in  the  South 

donary     Sea  Islands  in  1797,  in  India  and  South 

Work.  Africa  in  1798,  in  China  in  1807,  in  the 
West  Indies  in  181 8,  and  in  Madagascar 
in  1861.  The  Colonial  Missionaiy  Society  was 
formed  in  1836,  and  the  two  cooperate.  The  Con- 
gregational Church  Aid  and  Home  Missionary 
Society  was  founded  in  1878,  and  the  Irish  Evan- 
gelical Society  and  Congregational  Home  Missionaiy 
Society  in  1814.  The  work  of  these  societies  now  is 
being  transferred  to  the  charge  of  the  national 
Council. 

2.  Con^regatlonalistB  in  the  British  Ooloniest 
Congregational  churches  in  the  various  British 
colonies  are  numerous.  The  earliest  church  in 
Canada  was  formed  in  1760,  in  British  Guiana  in 
1808,  in  South  Africa  (colored)  in  1811  and  (white) 
in  1820,  in  Tasmania  and  in  New  South  Wales  in 
1833,  in  Jamaica  in  1834,  in  South  Australia  in  1837, 
in  Victoria  in  1838,  in  New  Zealand  in  1842,  in 
West  Australia  in  1846,  and  in  Queensland  in  1853. 
The  Canadian  churches  maintain  cordial  relations 
with  those  of  the  United  States,  but  are  counted  as 
British  rather  than  American. 

8.  Oonffregationalists  on  the  Oontinent  of 
Europe:  Details  of  Congregationalism  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe  are  not  abundant.  In  France  the 
McAll  Missions  are  practically  Congregational,  and, 
apart  from  missions,  a  few  churches  exist  in  Ger- 
many, Hungary,  Poland,  Norway,  Switzerland,  and 
Portugal.  In  Holland  the  Band  van  Vrije  Chris- 
telijke  Gemeenten  numbers  sixteen  churches,  and  in 
Sweden  there  are  more  than  a  thousand  free 
churches  with  more  than  100,000  members. 

4.  Con^regationaliBts  in  America:  The  Plym- 
outh colonists  brought  an  organiased  Congrega- 
tional Church,  that  formed  in  1606  at  Scrooby. 
Not  all  of  them  belonged  to  it,  although  nearly  all 
who  came  from  Leyden  must  have  been  members. 
As  part  of  this  church  was  to  emigrate  and  part  to 


Oonffraffatioaalista 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


2a4 


ohnaatts 


remain,  it  was  agreed  that  each  part  should  be 
considered  a  complete  church,  and  that,  if  any 
members  of  either  should  rejoin  the  other,  they 
should  be  recognised  as  already  members.    The 
Congregationalism  of  this  Pilgrim  church  was  es- 
sentially like  that  of  the  present.    But 
1.  The     it  did  not  blend  the  offices  of  pastor 
^•"'^    and  teacher  and  it  retained  the  eldei^ 
"®       ship,  to  which  attached  for  some  time 
Plymouth,  nether  more  of  authority  than  to  the 
diaconate,  which  gradually  absorbed 
the  eldership.     In  Leyden  it  luid  been  trained  to 
a  liberality  which  permitted  communion  with  the 
Reformed  churches,  and  in  the  Plymouth  Colony 
no  man  was  interfered  with  for  his  religion  unless 
he  antagonized  the  Congregational  churches  ac- 
tively.   But  such  was  its  high  conception  of  the 
ministry  that,  as  it  had  no  ordained  pastor  until 
1629,  when  it  secured  Rev.  Ralph  Smith,  it  had  no 
administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  until  then. 
Eider  Brewster,  however,  served  efficiently  as  its 
preacher  and  religious  leader. 

The  Massachusetts  Bay  colonists,  in  1628-30, 
were  Puritans  rather  than  Congregationalists. 
Although  repeUed  by  many  of  its  features,  they 
did  not  mean  to  separate  from  the  Anglican  Church. 
Moreover,  although  animated  strongly  by  a  re- 
ligious motive,  theirs  was  primarily  a  commercial 
colony.  But  Congregationalism,  as 
illustrated  at  Plymouth,  seemed  so 
^^^  peculiarly  adapted  to  their  new  con- 
Other  ditions  that  they  adopted  it  at  once, 
Ooloniee.  organizing  a  church  at  Salem  in  Aug. 
1629,  the  Plymouth  church  being  rep- 
resented. Other  similar  churches  soon  were  formed, 
as  well  as  in  the  neighboring  New  England 
colonies,  and  until  1700  there  were  hardly  any 
others  than  Congregational  churches,  although  a 
policy  of  entire  ecclesiastical  freedom  was  adopted 
in  1691.  But  soon  the  original  simplicity  of  their 
Congregationalism  was  modified.  The  Massachu- 
setts Bay  and  Connecticut  colonies  limited  political 
suifrage  to  church-members,  although  the  former 
abandoned  this  practise  in  1693  and  the  latter  as 
early  as  1664.  Moreover,  and  this  continued  until 
well  into  the  nineteenth  century,  Congregational 
churches  and  ministers  were  supported  by  public 
taxation,  a  plain  violation  of  the  principle  of  a 
free  Church  in  a  free  State.  But  for  some  time  be- 
fore its  abandonment  taxpayers  were  allowed  to 
select  the  church  which  they  preferred  to  help 
maintain. 

An  important  feature  in  Congregational  history 

during  that  century  was  the  Half-way  Covenant. 

It  was  the  early  rule  to  baptize  infants  one  of 

whoee  parents  was  a  church-member.    When  such 

baptized  persons  grew  up  and  married 

^^*     but  failed  to  join  the  Church,   the 

.^^^y       question  arose  whether  their  children 

OoTenant.  should  be  baptized,   and  it  became 

customary  to  allow  such  baptized  but 

non-communicant  parents  to  "  own  the  covenant." 

They  publicly  accepted  the  fundamental  truths  of 

the  Gospel  and  promised  to  maintain  a  general 

feUowship  with  the  Church,  and  then,  although 

they  could  not  receive  the  communion  or  vote  in 


church  matters,  they  could  have  their  children 
baptized.  This  compromise,  although  strongly 
opposed,  became  common,  but  led  to  laxity  in  ad- 
mitting members  to  the  churches  and  was  practi- 
cally abandoned  about  1800  (cf.  Walker,  Creeds, 
238-339). 

In  Vermont  the  first  church  was  established  at 
Brattleboro  in  1762,  and  by  1800  there  were  seven- 
ty-four and  they  had  formed  a  general  convention. 
New  York  had  been  occupied  by  the  Dutch,  but 
it  contained  a  few  Congregational 
4.  Orc^rth  churches.     In  New  England  churches 

Deveh>p-  ^^ontinued  to  multiply  rapidly,  most, 
ment  "  ^^^  ^  many  localities  aU,  being  Con- 
after  1700.  gregational.  But  the  specially  note- 
worthy feature  of  the  Congregation- 
alism of  that  centuxy  was  its  theologicsJ  and 
religious  development.  In  1700  a  serious  spiritual 
decline  had  become  general.  Carelessness  in  requir- 
ing evidence  of  piety  before  admission  to  the 
Church,  the  influence  of  the  deism  then  prevalent 
in  Europe,  increased  absorption  in  the  pursuit  of 
material  prosperity,  and  the  diversion  of  public  at- 
tention from  religion  due  to  the  excitements  of  the 
Revolution  had  combined  to  diminish  the  vix-id- 
ness  of  personal  religious  belief  and  experience. 
Partly  to  counteract  this  tendency,  Yale  College 
had  been  founded  at  Saybrook,  Conn.,  in  1701,  and 
the  B3mod  at  Saybrook,  Sept.  9,  1708,  instituted  by 
the  General  Court  of  Connecticut  to  prepare  a  form 
of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  had  recommended  as  a 
doctrinal  statement  the  Savoy  Declaration,  which 
Massachusetts  had  adopted  in  1680,  and  had  drawn 
up  the  Saybrook  Platform,  which  remained  civil 
law  until  1784  (see  below.  III.,  {  1).  But  the  chief 
cause  of  the  spiritual  change  which  followed  was 
the  Great  Awakening,  a  wide-spread  religious  re- 
vival, which  began  in  1734-35  and  continued  in- 
termittently for  about  seven  years  (see  Rbvivals 
OF  Religion). 

Out  of  the  inevitable  theological  discussions  ac- 
companying it  grew  up  two  schools  of  belief.  The 
more  conservative  was  that  of  the  New  England 
Theology  (q.v.),  or  the  New  Divinity.  The  more 
advanced  was  called  the  Arminian,  or  Liberal. 
The  former  adhered  to  the  traditional 

6.  Theo-    Calvinism,  with  minor  modificatioDS. 

loffloal      The  latter  rejected  it  in  respect  to  cei^ 

Con-       tain  prominent   doctrines,    e.g.,  sin, 

troversy.  Christ's  deity,  and  the  atonement,  and 
exalted  rectitude  of  life  rather  than  the 
work  of  Christ  as  the  means  of  salvation.  A  long  and 
earnest  controversy  resulted  which  produced  a  con- 
siderable literature.  On  the  conservative  side  the 
elder  and  the  younger  Edwards,  President  Tim- 
othy Dwight  of  Yale,  Joseph  Bellamy,  Samuel 
Hopkins,  and  Stephen  West  were  eminent,  and 
among  the  Arminians  Lemuel  Briant,  Charles 
Chauncy,  Experience  and  Jonathan  Mayhew,and 
Samuel  Webster. 

But  this  controversy  caused  no  open  rupture  and 
political  affairs  soon  overshadowed  ecclesiastical. 
Congregationalism  had  so  aided  in  developing  the 
democratic  spirit,  alike  in  Church  and  State,  that 
it  was  an  influential  cause  of  the  Revolution,  and 
its  ministers  and  other  leaders,  with  few  excep- 


235 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Consreffationaliata 


tions,  were  active  in  promoting  the  colonial  suc- 
cess. The  earliest  written  code  of  Massachusetts, 
The  Body  of  Liberties,  published  in  1641,  had  been 
the  work  of  a  Congregational  minister.  Rev.  Na- 
thaniel Ward,  of  Ipswich,  and  the  earliest  written 
constitution  in  human  history  which  led  to  a  civil 
government — excepting  the  famous  Mayflower 
compact — ^that  of  Connecticut,  had  been  largely 
drawn  up  by  Rev.  Thomas  Hooker  (q.v.),  of  Hart- 
ford, in  1639. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  efforts  for  spiritual 
reform  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  century  occurred 
a  modification  of  Congregationalism  in  practise. 
Probably  the  prevalent  religious  indifference  caused 
within  the  churches  some  consciousness  of  inefii- 
ciency,  and  an  external,  rather  than  the  more  neces- 
sary internal,  remedy  was  sought.  Associations 
of  ministers  had  been  distrusted  as 
tttmoted  ^'^^^^^^^^  their  members  to  assume  ex- 
0han8«  of  ^^^^^^^  authority  over  the  churches. 
Polity.  There  had  been  a  Ministers'  Conven- 
tion in  Massachusetts,  but  it  was 
feeble.  At  this  time  it  was  revived,  new  local  as- 
sociations were  formed,  and  it  was  proposed  to 
"  consociate  "  the  churches  into  formal  unions  and 
to  establish  standing  councils.  In  Massachusetts 
this  policy  was  attempted  in  1705,  but,  although 
adopted,  it  became  a  dead  letter.  But  in  Con- 
necticut, where  it  was  adopted  somewhat  later 
than  in  Massachusetts,  it  prevailed  generally,  and, 
although  of  little  significance,  it  never  has  been 
abandoned  whoUy.  The  Mathers  were  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  it,  and  that  it  accomplished  so  little 
was  due  principally  to  Rev.  John  Wise  (q.v.),  of 
Ipswich,  Mass.  Its  tendency  was  to  destroy  the 
independence  of  the  churches,  but  [practically  it 
has  had  scanty  results  of  any  sort. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  Congregational- 
ism made  rapid  progress,  in  spite  of  hindrance  out- 
side of  New  England  by  a  plan  of  union  with  the 
Presbyterians,  agreed  upon  in  1801,  of  which  the 
unforeseen  operation  cost  it  at  least  2,000  churches. 
In  1827  an  Illinois  Band  was  formed  by  a  dozen 
recent  graduates  of  Yale  Divinity  School,  who  ac- 
complished large  results  in  that  State,  and  similar 
bodies  afterward  did  notable  service 
7.  Qrowth  u^  other  Western  States.  Stimulated 
in  the  West  by  the  needs  of  the  native  settlements 
and  South,  in  the  Interior  and  the  West,  and  by 
the  enormous  inflow  of  foreigners, 
Congregationalists  have  followed  the  westward 
movement  of  population  indefatigably.  In  the 
Middle  West  the  earliest  church  in  Ohio  was  formed 
in  1796,  in  Michigan  in  1827,  in  Illinois  in  1831, 
in  Indiana  in  1834,  in  Wisconsin  in  1836,  in  Iowa 
in  1838,  in  Minnesota  in  1851,  and  in  Kansas  in 
1854.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  earliest  in  Oregon 
<iates  back  to  1844,  in  California  to  1851,  and  in 
Washington  to  1865.  Throughout  the  whole  In- 
terior and  West  Congregational  churches  have  in- 
creased from  hundreds  to  thousands  within  the 
last  fifty  years.  They  are  less  numerous  relatively 
in  the  Middle  States;  and  in  the  Southern  States, 
although  one  or  two  were  formed  in  1852-53,  and 
one  even  in  1832,  there  were  very  few  before  the 
Civil  War.    Since  then  they  have  multiplied  con- 


siderably, although  less  rapidly  than  in  the  West. 
The  first  Congregational  general  assembly  since 
the  Cambridge  Synod  in  1646-48  was  the  Albany 
Convention  in  1852,  which  gave  a  vigorous  im- 
pulse to  the  denominational  activities.  Its  mem- 
bers represented  seventeen  states.  It  abandoned 
the  Plan  of  Union,  indorsed  the  Congregational 
Home  Missionary  Societies,  condemned  slavery, 
called  for  $50,000  for  chureh  building  in  the  West, 
and  took  steps  resulting  in  the  publication,  in  1854, 
of  the  annual  Year-Book,  containing  the  denomi- 
national statistics,  and  in  the  organization  of  the 
American  Congregational  Association. 

The  theological  differences  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury became  more  marked  during  the  early  years 
of  the  nineteenth  and  developed  into  the  Unitarian 
Controversy.  Its  special  arena  was  eastern  Mas- 
sachusetts. Many  ministers  and  churehes  gradu- 
ally had  come  to  deny  certain  doctrines  believed 
vital,  and  therefore  insisted  upon  the  more  strongly 
by  others;  e.g.,  the  moral  corruption  of  human 
nature,  Christ's  deity,  the  need  and  nature  of 
the  atonement,  and  eternal  punishment.  Friction 
increased  steadily.  Finally  matters 
8.  The  Uni-  reached  a  climax  in  the  election  of 
tartan  Con- Rev.  Henry  Ware  (q.v.)  as  Hollis 
troversy.  professor  of  divinity  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1805,  a  Unitarian  success. 
Thirty-nine  churehes  became  Unitarian.  Nearly 
a  hundred  others  were  divided,  the  conservatives 
usually  being  obliged  to  withdraw  and  form  new 
churches  and  the  Unitarians  retaining  what  had 
been  the  common  property.  Among  the  leaders 
of  the  latter  were  Drs.  J.  S.  Buckminster  and  W. 
E.  Channing  and  President  Kirkland  and  Prof. 
Andrews  Norton,  of  Harvard.  Eminent  defenders 
of  the  old  faith  were  Drs.  Lyman  Beecher,  Nathaniel 
Emmons,  Jedidiah  Morse,  £2noch  Pond,  Moses 
Stuart,  Samuel  West,  Leonard  Woods,  and  Samuel 
Worcester.  The  Unitarians  have  been  lealoualy 
loyal  to  Independency  as  a  polity,  but  the  name 
of  Congregationalists  by  general  consent  has  con- 
tinued to  signify  the  Trinitarian  body.  A  tem- 
porary result  of  this  controversy  was  a  revival, 
especially  in  Connecticut,  of  the  desire,  for  conso- 
ciation, already  described. 

Diuing  the  last  twenty  years  of  the  century, 
another  doctrinal  difference  caused  intense  feeling. 
Advocates    of    the    so-called    "  New    Theology," 
styling  [itself  Christocentric,  holding  radical  views 
of  the  nature  of  inspiration  and  the  office  of  Biblical 
criticism  and  asserting  a  possible  fu- 
0.  The  An-  ture  probation  for  at  least  some  of  the 
dover  Con-  impenitent,  claimed  to  be  true  Con- 
troversy,   gregationalists   in  doctrine,  but   the 
claim    was    disputed    stoutly.    This 
difference  affected  the  settlement  of  pastors  for 
some  years,  but  was  notable  chiefly  in  connection 
with  the  choice  of  professors  at  the  Andover  Sem- 
inary and  of  candidates  for  foreign  missionary 
service.     It  reached  the  courts,  but  indecisively. 
It  led  to  no  formal  rupture,  however,  and  now  the 
teachingB  of  the  New  Theology  are  tolerated,  al- 
though not  universally  accepted  by  Congregation- 
alists. 
When  the  first  Congregational  settlers  came  to 


Con8T68»tionali«ts 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


236 


America  they  avowed  their  earnest  purpoee  to  serve 
as  Christian  missionaries.  The  Plymouth  Pil- 
grims made  attempts  in  this  direction,  but  found 
few  natives  in  their  vicinity.  There  were  more  near 
the  Bay  Colony,  and  Rev.  John  Eliot  (q.v.)  under- 
took work  among  them  in  1646  and  continued  it 
until  1690  with  remarkable  success.  The  Con- 
gregational Home  Missionary  Society  was  organized 
in  1826,  and  the  American  Missionary  Association, 
to  do  similar  work  among  negroes,  Indians,  and  the 
Chinese  in  this  country,  in  1846.  The  former  has 
lately  begun  work  in  Cuba  also  and  the  latter  in 
Porto  Rico  and  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
10.  Home  "^^^  Congregational  Sunday-school  and 
Klasion  Publishing  Society,  founded  in  1832, 
Work,  organizes  Sunday-schools  and  sup- 
Other  plies  religious  and  general  literature. 
Societies.  The  Congregational  Church  Building 
Society,  formed  in  1853,  aids  in  erect- 
ing houses  of  worship  and  parsonages.  These 
societies  have  established  and  equipped  thousands 
of  churches  and  Sunday-schools,  and  the  Congre- 
gational Education  Society,  started  in  1816,  has 
aided  thousands  of  yoimg  men  into  the  ministry. 
The  American  Congregational  Association,  organ- 
ized in  1853,  has  erected  in  Boston  a  fine  building 
as  the  denominational  headquarters,  which  con- 
tains the  Congregational  library,  a  large  collection 
specially  rich  in  denominational,  colonial,  and  socio- 
logical literature.  The  world-wide  Young  People's 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  although  now  unde- 
nominational, was  founded  in  1881  by  Rev.  F.  E. 
Clark,  then  pastor  of  the  Williston  Congregation,  a 
church  in  Portland,  Me.,  and  gained  its  first  suc- 
cesses among  Congregationalists. 

Congregational  foreign  mission  work  is  in  charge 
of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions.     Established  in  1810,  it  has  had  successful 
missions  among  the  Choctaw  and  Cherokee  Indians 
in  our  own  country  and  in  Mexico, 
11.  The     Spain,  Austria,  European  and  Asiatic 
American  Turkey,  Persia,  Ceylon,  the  Madura 
Board,      and  Marathi  districts  of  India,  China, 
Japan,  Central  Africa,  Zululand,  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  Bficronesia,  and  the  Philippines. 
Some  of  these  missions  have  outgrown  the  need  of 
external  aid.     Several  have  been  transferred   to 
other  denominations.    One  or  two  are  but  recently 
established.    The  Board  now  has  ninety-six  sta- 
tions, 

IL  Edocationai  Work:  Congregationalists  al- 
ways have  zealously  promoted  popular  education. 
In  the  United  States  they  have  founded  Harvard, 
Yale,  Amherst,  Bowdoin,  Dartmouth,  Middlebiuy, 
Williams,  Oberlin,  Illinois.  Beloit,  Carleton,  Wash- 
bum,  Colorado,  Berea,  Fisk,  Atlanta, 
1,  America,  and  other  universities  or  colleges, 
more  than  forty  in  all,  as  well  as  Mt. 
Uo\yokf%  Smith,  and  Wellesley,  among  women's 
f'/AU'ftitn,  and  many  high-class  preparatory  schools, 
i f ,/ 1  'i/ii  f J K  t Uii  t  wo  famous  Phillips  Academies.  But 
t^/fi**  lA  th/fHe  institutions  are  sectarian.  Robert 
i/,u*"/*'.,  at  Oinstantinople,  and  the  Doshisha  Uni- 
T*7e.»y,  at  Kyoto,  Japan,  and  other  such  educa- 
te/' 4A  *'^M\Mr%  are  results  of  their  missionary  labors. 
V  A  h!ta-rit'/4ih  Board  has  established  seventeen  in 


various  lands.  There  are  eight  Congregational 
theological  seminaries  in  the  United  Stat-es:  An- 
dover,  Atlanta,  Bangor,  Chicago,  Hartford,  Oberlin, 
Pacific  (Berkeley,  Cal.),  and  Yale. 

In  Great  Britain  and  its  colonies  there  are  fifteen 
such  institutions,  usiially  uniting  the  work  of  the 
college  and  the  theological  school:    Bala-Bangor; 
Brecon  Memorial;  Carmarthen  (Presbyterian  with 
Congregational     affiliations) ;      Che&- 
2.  Great    hunt  at  Cambridge;    the  Ekiinburgh 
Britain  and  Theological  Hall;  Hackney,  at  Hamp- 
Oolonies.    stead;  the  Lancashire  Independent,  at 
Manchester;     Mansfield,    at    Oxford; 
New,  at  South  Hampstead;   the  Nottingham  Con- 
gregational  Institute;    Western,   at   Bristol;    the 
Yorkshire  United,  at  Bradford;  the  Montreal  (Con- 
gregational   College;    the  Victoria   Congregational 
College,    in    Australia ;    and    Camden    Collie,  at 
Sydney,  N.  S.  W.    The  London  Missionary  Society 
also  has  ten  institutions  of  learning  in  heathen  lands. 
nL  Theology:    Congregationalists     regard    the 
Bible  as  the  only,  and  sufficient,  rule  of  faith  and 
practise.     In  doctrine  they  agree  substantially  with 
the  other  Evangelical  denominations.    The  eariiest 
surviving  Congregational  creed  is  that  of  Heniy 
Barrowe  and  John  Greenwood  in  1589  (True  Ik- 
Bcription,  1-5),  but  it  was  only  an  unauthoritative 
expression    of    personal     conviction. 
1.  Oreeda    Afterward    Congregational     churches 
and        generally   accepted   the   Westminster 
Platforms.  Confession  (1646)  and  the  Savoy  Dec- 
laration  (1658).     The     former    was 
based  upon  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church 
of  England,  but  was  more  Calvinistic.     It  embodies 
the  teachings  of  the  Reformed  Churches  on  the  Con- 
tinent as  well  as  in  Great  Britain.     It  founded  the 
authority  of  the  Scriptures  upon  internal  evidence 
and  the  testimony  of  the  Holy  Spirit  instead  of  upoD 
the  external  witness  of  the  Cbiux:h;    emphasized 
predestination  and  limited  redemption,  and  the  fact 
of  two  diAone  covenants,  of  works  and  of  grace,  with 
men;  urged  the  Puritan  view  of  the  Sabbath;  gnve 
to  presbyteries  and  synods  large  legislative  and  ju- 
dicial  authority;     and   conferred   upon   the  civil 
magLstrate  power  to  prohibit  or  punish  heresy, 
idolatry,  and  blasphemy.    The  Savoy  Declaration 
differ^  Uttle  from  the  former,  but  discarded  its 
Presbyterianism  in  iK)lity  and  denied  the  authority 
of  magistrates  to  interfere  with  ecclesiastical  liberty. 
Modem  British  churches  nominally  adhere  to  the 
Declaration  of  Faith  of  the  Congregational  Union 
of  England  and  Wales  in  1833,  which  is  briefer  and 
less  severely  CJalvinistic,  but  which  probably  would 
not  be  adopted  now,  partly  because  of  changes  of 
doctrinal  emphasis  and  partly  because  such  state- 
ments are  increasingly  believed  to  interfere  with 
Christian  freedom.    Subsequent  American  utter- 
ances have  been  the  Burial  Hill  Declaration  (I860), 
adopted  at  Plymouth  by  the  General  Council  held 
at  Boston,  which  reaffirmed  somewhat  indefinitely 
the  symbols  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the 
Creed  of  1883.  formulated  by  a  conmiittee  provided 
for  by  the  Triennial  National  Council  in  1880,  which 
set  forth  tersely  and  fairiy  the  belief  generally  held 
by  the  churches  then.    This  creed  is  that  commonly 
professed  at  present.    But  the  admirable  statement 


as7 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ConffrevatlonallBts 


of  faith  issued  at  Dayton,  O.,  in  Feb.,  1906,  by  the 
joint  committee  on  doctrine,  in  view  of  the  pro- 
posed union  of  Congregationalists,  Methodist  Prot- 
estants, and  United  Brethren  is  likely  to  be  adopted 
widely.  It  is  sincerely  Evangelical  and  affirms 
"  consent  to  the  teaching  of  the  ancient  symbols  of 
the  imdivided  church,  and  to  that  substance  of 
Christian  doctrine  which  is  common  to  the  creeds 
and  confessions  which  we  have  inherited  from  the 
past."  But  it  is  silent  as  to  some  doctrines  for- 
merly enimciated  in  such  utterances.  No  Congre- 
gational church,  however,  is  obliged  to  accept  any 
creed  or  declaration  of  faith.  (For  text  of  the 
dociuuents  mentioned  here  and  further  informa- 
tion cf.  Schaff,  Creeds,  i.  820-840;  iii.  707-737;  W. 
Walker,  The  Creeds  and  Platforms  of  Congregationd^ 
ism.  New  York,  1893;  A.  E.  Dunning,  Congregational- 
ists in  America^  1894;  The  Congregationalists  Feb. 
17,  1906.) 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years  two  tendencies 
have  appeared.    One  is  to  put  less  emphasis  upon 
certain  doctrines,  e.g.,  the  fall  of  man,  the  govern- 
mental theory  of  the  atonement,  the 
2.  Ijata     equal    and    infallible    inspiration    of 
Tenden-    ^j^^   Scriptures,    and  eternal   punish- 
■*        ment,  and  more  upon  certain  others, 
e.g.,  the  divine  fatherhood,  human  brotherhood,  and 
the  immanence  of  the  divine  Spirit.    The  other  is 
to  shorten  and  simpUfy  creeds.    The  old  Calvinistic 
phraseology  ia  being  abandoned.     Some  churches 
adopt  two  creeds;    one  a  formal  declaration,  like 
the  Creed  of  1883,  expressing  its  doctrinal  position 
fully,  and  another,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  or  some 
even   briefer,   simpler  statement  of  vital  truths, 
for  use  in  admitting  children  or  other  comparatively 
immature  applicants  for  church-membership.    Some 
churches  even  have  discarded  the  creed  and  content 
themselves  with  a  covenant. 

IV.  Polity  and  Practise:  The  two  underlying 
principles  of  Congregationalism  have  been  stated: 
(1)  the  independence  of  the  local  church,  and  (2) 
the  fellowship  of  the  churches.  The 
1.  The  Two  joint  committee  on  polity  in  view  of 
Under-  the  proposed  union  has  expressed  them 
lyinsr  well,  viz.:  "  (a)  The  imit  of  our  fellow- 
Prlnclplea.  ghip  is  the  local  church,  and  the  char- 
acter of  our  fellowship  is  that  of  a 
representative  democracy,  (b)  Our  coordinate 
principles  are  freedom  and  fellowship,  a  freedom 
which  leaves  each  local  church  free  in  its  separate 
affairs,  a  fellowship  which  unites  all  the  churches 
for  mutual  care  and  cooperant  action."  Dur- 
ing the  Colonial  period  the  American  churches 
ordinarily  accepted  the  Cambridge  Platform  (1649) 
until  the  Saybrook  Platform  (1705)  superseded  it 
in  Connecticut.  The  framers  of  these  accepted  the 
Westminster  and  Savoy  Confessions  in  respect  to 
doctrine,  but  not  as  to  church  government.  The 
fonner  emphasized  the  independence  of  the  local 
church,  the  fellowship  of  the  churches,  and 
the  representative  character  of  the  ministry,  fun- 
damental principles  of  Congregationalism,  but 
nevertheless  gave  to  the  civil  magistrate  excessive 
authority  in  matters  of  faith  and  practise  alike. 
The  latter  provided  for  consociations  of  churches 
and  associations  of  ministers,  established  by  and 


under  the  authority  of  civil  law,  an  abnormal 
system  which  was  not  abrogated  formally  until 
1784  and  which  remained  in  more  or  less  active 
use  for  many  years  longer.  At  present  each  church 
has  entire  self-control  in  its  own  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  It  may  draw  up  its  creed  and  cov- 
enant, formulate  its  order  of  worship,  elect  and 
install  its  pastor  and  other  officers,  etc.  Until 
within  about  thirty  years  it  was  customary  in  the 
United  States  for  a  society,  or  parish,  to  be  formed 
side  by  side  with  each  church  to  attend  to  all  its 
secular  concerns.  Ordinarily  most  of  its  mem- 
bers were  also  church-members,  so  that  neither  body 
antagonized  the  other.  But  differences  occasion- 
ally arose.  For  example,  as  the  pastor  held  a  legal 
relation  to  the  society  only,  the  society  sometimes 
could  elect,  or  depose,  the  pastor  in  opposition  to  a 
majority  of  the  church.  It  is  now  becoming  com- 
mon for  the  church  itself  to  be  incorporated,  thus 
being  enabled  to  manage  all  its  affairs,  whether 
religious  or  secular. 

Most  churches  adopt  creeds  and  covenants  which 
are  similar,  and  often  identical.  And  in  matters  of 
conunon  interest  each  church  seeks  the  advice  and 
cooperation  of  its  sister  churches.  In  the  settle- 
ment or  dismissal  of  a  pastor  fellowship  is  recog- 
nized by  calling  a  council.  Formerly  no  man  ex- 
cepting the  pastor  of  a  church  was  considered  a 
minister.  But  within  fifty  years,  owing  largely 
to  the  need  of  ministers  where  churches  had  not  yet 
been  established,  this  conception  has  been  broad- 
ened, and  now  a  man  ordained  to  serve  anywhere 
as  a  pastor  or  evangelist  is  accepted  as  a  minister. 

Councils  are  temporary  bodies,  composed  of 
pastors  and  delegates,  chiefly  of  neighboring 
churches,  assembled  by  a  letter  missive  from  some 
church  to  recognize  its  existence  or  to  advise  and 
assist  it  in  regard  to  the  settlement  of  a  pastor,  a 
case  of  discipline,  or  any  other  matter  as  to  which 

advice  is  desired  and  in  which  the 
2.  Councils,  other   churches   also   are   interested. 

The  membership  of  a  council  is  limited 
strictly  to  the  representatives  of  the  invited  churches 
and  any  individuals  invited  by  name,  and  its  action 
is  limited,  with  equal  strictness,  to  the  matters 
specified  in  the  letter  missive.  The  result  of  a 
council  is  only  morally  binding,  but  usually  is  ac- 
cepted as  final.  In  cases  of  difficulty  between  two 
churches  or  between  a  church  and  one  or  more  of 
its  members,  if  both  sides  imite  in  calling  the  coun- 
cil, it  is  termed  mutual.  If  a  church  refuse  to  join 
a  justly  aggrieved  member  in  calling  a  council,  he 
may  simmion  one,  which,  if  the  church  persist  in  its 
refusal,  acts  as  an  ex-parte  council.  A  council,  un- 
less it  is  to  be  eo;  parte,  always  must  be  called  by  some 
church,  excepting  that  one  may  be  called  by  a 
company  of  persons  seeking  recognition  as  a  new 
church.  In  a  case  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  whole 
body  of  churches,  and  in  which  the  church  particu- 
larly involved  refuses  to  act,  a  council  to  consider 
the  situation  in  that  church  may  be  siunmoned  by 
any  other  church.  This  emergency,  however, 
occurs  rarely.  When  controversies  reach  the  civil 
courts,  the  courts  refuse  to  go  behind  the  usages  of 
(Congregationalism,  as  determined  by  councils,  and 
merely  declare  what  they  are. 


CoBffreffatioiialists 
Oonon  of  Tarsus 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZCX} 


288 


Most  of  the  affain  of  the  churches  in  fellowship 
are  transacted  by  local  councils.  But  for  sufficient 
reason  a  council  of  broader  inclusiveness  may  be 
caUed.  The  first  general  council  in  America  was 
that  at  Newtowne,  now  Cambridgei  Bfass.,  in  1637, 
to  consider  the  Antinomian  teachingi  of  Rev.  John 
Wheelwright  and  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson  (see 
Antinomianism,  and  foot-note  to  Gounciijb  and 
Synods,  |  10).  The  next  was  the  Cambridge 
Synod  in  1646-48.  The  third  was  the  Albany 
Convention  in  1852,  and,  to  promote  the  better 
acquaintance  and  cooperation  of  all  Congregational 
churches  in  the  United  States,  a  National  Council 
was  held  in  Boston  in  1865.  In  1871  the  first 
Triennial  National  Council  met  at  Oberlin,  and 
similar  gatherings  have  been  held  regularly  ever 
since.  The  name  of  conference  would  be  more 
appropriate  for  this  body,  however,  as  it  is  not 
strictly  a  council.  It  discusses  important  current 
topics  of  denominational  interest  and  advises  the 
churches,  but  has  only  a  moral  authority.  In  1891 
an  International  Council  was  held  in  London,  com- 
posed of  delegates  from  bodies  of  Congregational 
churches  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  a  second  such 
council  met  in  Boston,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1899.  A  third 
is  to  be  held  in  Eklinburgh  in  1908.  British  and 
other  foreign  Congregational  churches  hitherto 
have  made  much  less  use  of  local  coimcils  than  the 
churches  of  the  United  States,  but  have  been 
sealous  in  promoting  the  International  Councils. 

Fellowship  also  is  maintained  by  conferences  of 

churches,    local    bodies,    usually    including    the 

churches  of  a  given  county,  or  some 

3.  Confer-  smaller,   if   well   populated,   district, 

enccs  and  which    meet    semiannually   for   dis- 

Astocia-  cussion  of  religious  and  kindred  topics. 
tiona.  In  the  United  States  the  churches  of 
each  State  also  hold  an  annual  Confer- 
ence, or  Association,  for  similar  purposes.  There 
are  also  Ministerial  Associations,  small  local  bodies 
of  ministers,  and  until  recently  they  have  deter- 
mined ministerial  standing.  But  responsibility 
for  this  now  is  being  transferred  to  the  Conferences 
of  churches. 

All  ministers  and  churches  are  equal,  no  one 
having  any  authority  over  others.  But  lately  it 
has  been  urged  that  the  Moderator  of  the  Trien- 
nial National  Council  should  exercise  his  repre- 
sentative function  during  his  three  years  of  office, 
giving  something  more  than  the  merely  nominal 
leadership  which  has  been  customary;  and  in  some 
states  also  a  tendency  again  is  evident  toward 
consociation  of  the  churches,  as  in  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut  early  in  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries,  and  it  is  proposed  to  institute  some 
fonnal,  permanent  organization,  and  perhaps  to 
revive  the  Standing  Council.  These  proposals 
have  been  made  only  tentatively  and  their  outcome 
is  uncertain. 

In  the  order  of  public  worship  there  is  variety  in 
minor  particulars,  yet  a  general  likeness  exists. 
Baptism  customarily  is  administered  by  sprinkling, 
but  pouring  or  immersion  is  used  occasionally. 
The  form  is  considered  immaterial.  In  the  colo- 
nial days  it  was  sometimes  common  to  install  cer- 
tain minor  church  officers  formally.    This  practise 


disappeared  during   the   ei^teenth   century,  but 
lately  has  been  revived  by  some  churches.    Ap- 
parently the  early  colonial  churcbee 
4*  Worship  held  no  midrweek  meetings.    But  in 
and        time  they  established  the  weekly  lec- 
PractiBe.    ture,   and  gatheringps  somewhat  like 
the    modem    prayer^neeting    b^an 
to  be  held  about  1740  but  did  not  become  usual 
until  after  1800.    The  First  and  the  Brattle  Street 
churches   in    Boston   instituted    the    preparatoiy 
lecture  before  the  Communion  Sunday  on  Mar.  4, 
1720.    Sunday-schools  were  not  established  until 
after    1800.    The    modem    institutional    church, 
which  supplements  direct  spiritual  efforts  by  pro- 
moting the  physical,  intellectual,  and  social  welfare 
of  the  community,  has  been  exemplified  conspicu- 
ously among  Congregationalists. 

V.  Statistics:    The  En^h  Year  Book  for  1908 
gives  the  following  figures  : 


Great  Britain 

British  Colonies  and  Mts- 
siona   

Totol  British 

Continent  of  Europe  . . . 

Total 


Churohes.     Ministfera. 


4.928 
1.142 


6,070 

Not 

reported. 


6,070+ 


3,197 
506 


3.703 

iiot 

reportod. 


3.703  + 


Church- 
memben. 


498,953 

Not 
reported. 


498.953  + 
100.000  + 


596.953  + 


The  American  Year  Book  for  1907  gives  the  cui^ 
rent  statistics  of  the  denomination  as  follows: 

Churohes. 

Ifinistera. 

Church- 
members. 

United  Stotes 

Dependencies  (1906). . . 

5.923 
108 

6.900 
94 

696.723 
7,827 

Total 

6.031 

5.994 

7O4.6S0 

The  world  statistics  for  Congregationalism 
(1907)  is  given  as  12,583  churches  and  1,333,731 
members. 

Morton  Dexter. 

Bibuoorapht:  On  ConcragationAl  orisins  and  English  God- 
gregationalism  consult:  The  works  of  Robert  Browne 
(q.y.);  J.  Smyth,  Principle9  and  Infenncea  ooneeminn  th* 
Vi9%bU  Church,  Amsterdam.  1607;  Diffennem  of  th* 
Churehe*  of  the  Separation,  etc.  1606;  J.  Robinson,  World, 
ed.  R.  Ashton.  3  vols..  London,  1851;  B.  Baxter,  B»- 
liguia  Baxieriana,  ib.  1696;  Abridaen»ent  oi  Mr.  Baiter'i 
Hiakfry  of  Hit  Life,  trith  Account  of  Bieded  Minieten,  by 
E.  Calamy.  in  8.  Parker's  Nonconformiet  Memorial,  2 
vols.,  ib.  1802;  D.  Neal.  Hielory  of  New  Enotand,  2  voK. 
ib.  1720;  idem.  HiUory  of  Pwitane,  4  vols.,  ib.  1732-38. 
ed.  J.  Toulmin.  5  vols.,  ib.  1822;  B.  Brook.  JAve$  of  Pun- 
toiM,  3  vols.,  ib.  1813;  J.  Toulmin.  Hielorieal  View  of 
State  of  Proteetani  Dieaeniera  in  England,  Bath.  1814; 
T.  Price.  Hiatory  of  Proteatant  Nonconformity  in  Srnfiand, 
2  vols..  London,  1836-38;  B.  Hanbury.  Hiatoriad  Memo- 
riala  ROaHno  to  the  Independenta,  3  vols.,  ib.  1839-44; 
J.  Fletcher.  Hiatory  of  Revival  and  Progreaa  of  Independ- 
ency in  Enoland,  4  .vols.,  ib.  1847-49;  R.  Vaoghan.  Eng- 
lieh  Nonconformity,  2  vols.,  ib.  1862;  J.  Stooghton, 
Chvuvh  and  State  tOO  Yeara  Ago,  ib.  1862;  J.  Wsdding- 
ton,  CongreooHonal  Hiatory,  5  vols.,  ib.  1869-78;  R.  W. 
Dale.  Manual  of  Con^/reooHonal  Prindplea,  ib.  1884; 
idem,  Hiat.  of  Engliah  CongregaiionaUam,  ib.  1907;  J- 
Brown.  Pilgrim  Fathera  of  New  England,  New  York, 
1897. 
On   American   Congragationalism   consult:  W.  Brsd* 


930 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OonffreffationaliBts 
Gonon  of  Tarsus 


ford,  HiaUny  of  Plimoulh  PlarUaiioih  reprinted  in  CoUee- 
fiofw  of  the  Mom,  Hutorioal  Society,  Boston,  1856,  repro- 
duced in  facsimile,  Massachusetts  State  edition,  ib.  1898; 
ed.  W.  T.  Davis.  New  York,  1008;  idem.  Dialogue, 
in  A.  Young.  Chronidea  of  Piigrim  Fathere,  ib.  1841, 
ed.  C.  Deane,  ib.  1870;  N.  Morton,  New  England'e  Me- 
moriall,  Cambridge,  1660,-  republished,  Boston,  1866; 
J.  Winthrop.  Journal,  ed.  J.  Savage,  ib.  1863;  R.  Mather, 
Churt^  OovemmerU  Dieeuaeed,  London,  1643;  J.  Cotton, 
Doctrine  of  the  Church,  ib.  1642;  idem.  Way  of  Congrega- 
tional  Churthee  Cleared,  ib.  1643;  idem.  Way  of  Churchee 
of  Chriet  in  New  England,  ib.  1646;  T.  Hooker,  Survey  of 
Ae  Sum  of  Church  Diecipline,  ib.  1648;  I.  Mather.  FirH 
Prindplee  of  New  England,  including  J.  Cotton's  Plan 
for  Conference;  Boston,  1676;  idem,  DiequiaUion  con' 
ceming  Ecdeaiaatical  CouneHa,  1716.  reprinted  in  Congre^ 
gaUonal  Quarterly,  1870;  Platform  of  Church  Diadpline, 
Cambridge,  1649  and  often;  C.  Mather,  Magnolia  ChrieH 
Americana^  London,  1702,  republished.  Hartford.  1866; 
idem.  Ratio  Diaciplinta,  Boston,  1726;  Confeaaion  of  Faith, 
.  .  .  Heada  of  Agreement  and  Artidea  for  the  Adminiatra^ 
turn  of  Church  Diadpline  (Saybrook  Platform),  New  Lon- 
don, 1710;  Q.  Punehard,  View  of  Congregationaliam, 
SflJem,  1840;  idem,  Hiatory  of  Congregationaliam,  New 
York,  1866;  idem,  Congregationaliam  in  America,  Boston, 
1880-Bl;  J.  S.  Clark.  Hiatorieal  Sketch  of  Congregational 
Churdtea  in  Maaaadiuaette,  ib.  1868;  H.  F.  Uhden.  The 
New  England  Theocracy,  ib.  1868;  H.  M.  Dexter,  Con- 
Oregationaliam,  ib.  1866;  idem.  Handbook  of  Congrega- 
tionaliam, ib.  1890;  idun.  Congregationaliam  aa  Seen  in 
the  Literature  of  [the  Laat  900  Yeara,  New  York.  1880; 
idem  and  M.  Dexter.  The  England  and  Holland  of  the 
Pilgrima,  Boston.  1905;  L.  Bacon,  Oeneaia  of  New  Eng- 
land Churchee,  New  York.  1874;  G.  T.  Ladd.  PHndplea 
of  Church  Polity,  New  York.  1882;  W.  Walker,  Creede 
and  Platforma  of  ConQregationaliam,  New  York,  1893; 
idem,  Hilary  of  Congregational  Churchee  in  the  United 
Statee,  ib.  1894;  A.  E.  Dunning,  Congregationaliata  in 
America,  ib.  1894;  G.  A.  Hood,  National  Council  of  Con- 
gregational Churchee,  Boston,  1901;  S.  L.  Blake,  The 
Separatee  or  Strid  Congregatianaliata  of  New  England, 
ib.  1902;  G.  M.  Boynton.  The  Congregational  Way, 
ib.  1903;  L.  W.  Bacon.  The  Congregationalieta,  New 
York,  1904;  A.  Anderson,  Congregational  Faith  and 
Practice,  Boston,  1906;  T.  P.  Prudden,  Congregation-' 
aHaU:  Who  they  Are,  Boston,  1906. 

COKGRESS,  EVAKGELICAL-SOCIAL:     An   or- 
ganization formed  in  Germany  in  1890.     The  Im- 
perial government  as  well  as  the  governments  of  the 
single  states  turned  their  attention  in  the  eighties 
to  social  questions.     The  empire  opened,  under  Bis- 
marck's leading,  with  insurance  against  illness  in 
1883,  against  accident  in  1884  (both  of  these  being 
further  developed  in  1885,  1886,  and  1887),  and 
against  permanent  debility  and  age  in  1889.     It  was 
thought  desirable  for  Christians  to  do  something 
to  bring  the  educated  people  and  the  workingman 
together,  and  to  prevent   the  latter  from  suppo- 
sing that  religion  was  only  a  tool  to  keep  the  work- 
men down.     At  the  close  of  1889  or  at  the  open- 
ing of  1890,  Adolf  Stdcker,  then  court  preacher, 
Pastor  Weber,  Prof.  Adolf  Wagner,  and  Dr.  Kro- 
patschek  issued  an  invitation  to  an  Evangelical- 
Social  Congress  to  meet  at  Whitsimtide  in  Berlin. 
Meanwhile  Emperor  Wiliam  II.  issued  two  strong 
social  orders  on  Feb.  4,  1890.     On  May  27,  1890, 
a  confidential  conference  took  place,  in  which  both 
Stdcker  and  Prof.  Adolf  Hamack  took  part,  and  it 
was  agreed  that  all  evangelical  groups  should  be 
asked  to  share  in  the  Congress.     The  first  session 
opened  at  Berlin,  May  29,  1890,  and  on  Oct.  23, 
1890,  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Congress  met 
at  Berlin  and  chose  an  executive  committee.     M.  A. 
Nobbe,  the  director  of  a  hail-insurance  company, 
was  made  chairman  of  the  Congress  and  continued 


to  fill  that  position  with  great  acceptance  for  twelve 
years,  when  the  pressure  of  business  compeUed  him 
to  resign.  In  1903  Prof.  Adolf  Hamack  of  Berlin 
became  chairman  and  has  shown  unusual  gifts  for 
the  place. 

The  session  of  1895  at  Erfurt  was  marked  by  the 
first  public  address  by  a  woman  in  such  meetings, 
delivered  by  Mrs.  Gnauck;  she  spoke  on  the  social 
condition  of  women,  and  Stdcker  followed  her  in  a 
second  address.  In  1896,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
Stdcker  had  become  the  leader  of  a  political  party, 
it  was  thought  by  some  that  it  woiild  be  better  if 
he  should  give  up  his  seat  as  second  president  of  the 
Congress,  although  it  was  desired  that  he  should 
remain  in  the  committee;  finally  he  left  the  Con- 
gress altogether  and  became  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Ecclesiastical-Social  Conference  (q.v.). 

The  Congress  has  published  the  addresses  at  the 
yearly  meetings  in  successive  volumes  of  Verhand- 
lungen  and  formerly  issued  "  Communications " 
(MitteUungen)  in  a  little  newspaper.  This  news- 
paper became  at  the  thirteenth  session  (1904)  a 
little  magazine,  imder  the  title  of  EvangeLiachSozial. 
Organized  groups  in  Baden,  Sleswick-Holstein, 
Wiirttemberg,  and  Saxony  are  connected  with  the 
Congress.  Different  religious  and  political  circles 
are  to-day,  as  at  the  beginning,  represented  in  the 
Congress.  The  executive  committee  consists  of 
Hamack,  Adolf  Wagner,  Prof.  Gierke,  Prof.  Kaftan, 
Prof.  Hans  DelbrUck,  Pastor  Friedrich  Naumann, 
Prof.  Von  Soden,  Pastor  Kirmes,  Mrs.  SchmoUer, 
Mrs.  Broicher,  Dr.  Ludwig  Keller,  Pastor  Schnee- 
melcker,  and  the  writer. 

Caspar  Ren£  Greoort. 

BiBiJoaRAPHT:  "  Tranaactions  "  (Verhandlungen),  "  Re- 
ports  "  iBeriehte),  or  "  Communications  "  are  published 
yearly,  Berlin,  18QO-06.  Gdttingen.  1897-1901,  Berlin, 
1^92  sqq.  Consult:  O.  Kraft,  Die  Harmonie  der  eedia 
eraten  evangdiedi^^ocialen  Kongreeae,  Halle,  1896;  Bl.  A. 
Noble,  Der  evangdiadi-aoeiale  Kongreaa  und  adne  Oegner, 
Gdttingen,  1897. 

CONON:  Pope  686-687.  After  the  death  of 
John  V.  (Aug.  2,  686)  a  controversy  arose  between 
the  clergy  and  the  soldiery  over  the  choice  of  his 
successor,  the  former  proposing  the  archpriest 
Peter,  the  latter  the  priest  Theodore.  The  clergy 
finally  elected  Conon,  a  priest,  bom  in  Thrace  and 
educated  in  Sicily.    He  was  consecrated  Oct.  21, 

686,  but  he  was  ill  at  the  time  and,  after  a  pontifi- 
cate of  eleven  months  during  which  he  accom- 
plished nothing,  died,  and  was  buried  on  Sept.  22, 

687.  (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoorapbt:  Liber  pontifiealie,  ed.  T.  Mommsen,  in  MOH, 

OeaL  ponL  Rom.,  i  (1898).  207-209;  Jaff6,  Regeeta,  i.  243; 
Bower,  Popea,  i.  490--491;  Mann,  Popea,  1.  ii  68-76. 

CONON  OF  TARSUS:  Bishop  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century.  He  held 
certain  tritheistic  views  which  he  had  derived  from 
Johannes  Philoponos  (q.v.;  see  also  Tritheistic 
Controversy) .  These  he  subsequently  abandoned, 
and  differed  from  his  old  teacher  also  by  affirming 
that  the  substance  of  the  human  body  survived 
death  and  was  eternal.  The  sect  of  which  he  was 
the  leader  had  disappeared  by  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century. 
Bibuographt:    W.  Cave,  Seriptorum   eedeeiaetioorum  hia- 

toria  literaria,  L  673,  London,  1683;    DCB,  i.  621;  KL, 

iii.948. 


Conrad  of  GtolnhauMn 
OonndTi 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


240 


COmtAD  OF  GELNHATJSEN:  Theologian  and 
scholar;  b.  m  the  Electoral  Palatinate  1320;  d. 
at  Heidelberg  1390.  His  name  first  appears  in 
1344  as  member  of  the  faculty  of  the  University  of 
Paris.  In  a  document  of  the  foUowing  year  he  is 
mentioned  as  provost  at  St.  Maurice.  In  1363  he 
was  canon  in  Mainz  and  later  became  provost  at 
Worms.  He  was  procurator  of  the  German  nation 
in  Bologna  as  early  as  1369,  and  obtained  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  canon  law  there.  Then  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
theology,  and  finished  his  theological  studies  prob- 
ably in  Prague.  After  1387  he  was  in  Heidelberg, 
a  doctor  of  theology  and  chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity. His  collection  of  books  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  university  library.  Among  them  were  four 
theological  writings  of  his  own:  Sermones;  Qucps- 
Hones;  Circa  serUerUias;  and  Super  librum  Cantica 
Canticorum, 

Conrad's  fame  rests  upon  the  Epistola  concordice 
which  he  wrote  in  Paris  in  May,  1380,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Charles  V.  of  France,  after  giving  this  sov- 
ereign in  the  preceding  year  the  same  advice  in  a 
shorter  form;  viz.,  to  cooperate  with  other  princes 
in  calling  a  general  council  without  the  popes.  Ap- 
pealing expressly  to  Thomas  Aquinas,  but  in  real- 
ity leaning  upon  Occam  and  developing  his  ideas, 
he  aigued  logically  from  the  acknowledged  supe- 
riority of  the  Catholic  Church  that  the  exceptional 
circumstances  of  the  schism  exempted  from  the 
letter  of  the  law  and  justified  the  meeting  of  a 
council  without  papal  convocation.  He  did  not 
advance  beyond  this  step;  but  his  work  became 
the  basis  upon  which  Henry  of  Langenstein  (q.v.) 
and  the  conciliar  theologians  continued  to  build. 

(B.  Bess.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Epittola  concordice  is  edited  in  E.  Mar- 
t^ne  and  U.  Durand,  Thesaiurus  novua  anecdotorumt  ii. 
1717.  pp.  1200-26,  Paris.  1717.  Ojnsult:  F.  J.  Scheuff- 
gen,  BnirOife  tw  Geachichte  dea  groaxen  Sehimnaa,  pp.  75- 
91.  Freibuiv.  1880;  A.  Kneer,  Die  Entttehung  der  komili- 
aren  Theorie,  Rome,  1893;  K.  Wenck,  in  Hiatoriache  Zeit- 
adurift,  new  series,  xl.,  1895. 

CONRAD  OF  MARBURG:  Inquisitor-general  of 
Germany;  killed  at  Marburg  July  30,  1233.  The 
year  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  and  it  is  not  certain 
whether  he  was  a  Dominican  or  a  Franciscan.  He 
was  selected  by  Gregory  IX.  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
troducing the  papal  inquisition  into  Germany  (see 
Inquisition).  He  first  appears  probably  in  con- 
nection with  the  great  auto  da  f^  which  was  held 
at  Strasburg  1212.  On  June  17,  1227,  a  bull  for 
the  extirpation  of  heresy  (Ripoll,  BuUarium  ord. 
prcBd.,  L,  Rome,  1729,  p.  20)  gave  him  full  power 
in  the  matter;  and  his  powers  were  still  further 
increased  by  Gregory's  chief  bull  against  heresy  in 
Germany  (Hartzheim,  Concilia  GermanicBf  iii.  540). 
When  Frederick  II.  gave  imperial  confirmation  to 
the  severe  papal  measures  against  heretics  (Mar^. 
1232),  then  "  began  the  flame  to  get  power  over 
mortals "  (Annales  CoUmienaes  maximi,  MGH, 
Script.,  xvii.,  1861,  p.  843).  Conrad  now  pro- 
ceeded, with  the  assistance  of  certain  colleagues 
(e.g.,  the  Dominican  Droso),  to  utilize  this  un- 
limited power,  which  even  dispensed  him  from  ob- 
serving ordinary  forms  of  trial;  and  so  led  count- 
less   victims   to   death.    The    fact   is   confirmed 


especially  by  the  report  of  Bishop  Siegfried  XXL  of 
Mainz  to  Gregory  IX.  (MGH,  Script.,  xxm.,  1874, 
p.  931);  and  in  the  face  of  its  evidence,  the  latter- 
day  Roman  Catholic  apology  for  Conrad  (by  the 
Jesuit  PfQlf,  in  KL,  vii.  951)  is  ineffectuaL  In 
1233,  after  he  had  vainly  endeavored  to  draw  the 
German  princes  into  a  more  eager  persecution  of 
heresy,  Conrad  brought  one  of  their  number.  Count 
von  Sayn,  before  the  tribunal,  but  the  count  con- 
trived to  vindicate  himself  before  a  synod  at  Mainz. 
Conrad  next  assembled  a  veritable  crusaders'  army; 
but  at  this  juncture  his  fate  swiftly  overtook  him, 
and  he  was  slain  by  certain  Hessian  knights,  while 
traveling  to  Marburg. 

A  second  occasion  of  interest  in  Conrad's  career 
is  his  relation  to  the  pious  Landgravine  Elizabeth 
of  Thuringia.  He  is  a  typical  Roman  Catholic  spiri- 
tual guide,  to  whom  the  confiding  penitent  sur- 
renders blindly  (see  Elizabeth,  Saint).  The 
view  that  Conrad's  excessive  zeal  in  the  perse- 
cution of  heretics  is  accountable  for  the  fact  that 
the  papal  Inquisition  was  unable  to  assert  itself  in 
Germany  is  erroneous;  after  his  death  there  still 
occurred  (1234  and  1235)  cases  of  the  burning  of 
heretics  at  the  stake  by  papal  inquisitors,  and  even 
down  to  the  fourteenth  century  such  cases  re- 
curred again  and  again.  The  fact  is,  the  same  In- 
quisition was  powerfully  supported  in  the  foux^ 
teenth  century  by  the  Emperor  Charies  IV.,  and 
exacted  numberless  victims  in  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
and  in  parts  of  North  Germany. 

K.  Benrath. 
Biblioorapht:  Geata  Treverorum,  ConUmuaiio  IV.,  ed.  G. 
Waits,  in  MGH,  Script.,  xxiv  (1879).  300-404;  A.  Hau5- 
rath.  Der  Kettermeiaier  Konrad  von  Marburg,  MarbuTE:. 
1861;  E.  L.  T.  Henke,  Konrad  von  Marburg,  ib.  1861; 
L.  Cuno,  Conrad  von  Marburg,  ib.  1877;  B.  Kaltner,  Kon- 
rad von  Marburg  und  die  InguiaiHon  in  Deuimddand, 
Prague.  1822;  H.  C.  Lea.  Hiai.  of  the  InguiaiHon,  u.  325- 
341,  New  York,  1906;  K.  Benrath.  in  DeutatA^evange- 
liacha  Blatter,  part  5.  Halle,  1901. 

CONRING,  HERMANN  (Hermannue  Canrinffius): 
German  theologian;  b.  at  Norden  (75  m.  n.w.  of 
Bremen)  Nov.  9,  1606;  d.  at  Hehnst&dt  (21  m.  e. 
of  Brunswick)  Dec.  12,  1681.  He  studied  at 
Helmstadt  and  Leyden,  was  appointed  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  at  Helmstadt  in  1632,  and 
was  transferred  to  the  medical  faculty  five  years 
later.  In  1650  he  was  made  physician  to  the  queen 
of  Sweden,  and  eleven  years  later  became  pri\7 
councilor  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick.  He  received 
a  pension  from  Louis  XIV.  in  1664,  and  in  1669 
was  appointed  councilor  of  state  by  the  king  of 
Denmark.  Conring's  wealth  of  learning,  like  his 
legal  and  diplomatic  knowledge,  was  devoted  to 
proving  that  the  Protestant  Church  was  entitled 
to  exist  as  a  part  of  the  Church  catholic.  In  this 
spirit  he  wrote  his  De  constitutione  episcaporum 
GermanicB  (Helmst&dt,  1647),  and  in  the  same  year 
prepared  an  annotated  edition  of  the  letters  of  Leo 
III.  to  Charlemagne.  In  his  De  conciliis  et  circa  ea 
summa  potestatis  auctoritate  (1650)  he  asserted  the 
right  of  the  emperor  and  the  estates  to  convene, 
conduct,  and  confirm  plenary  councils,  and  also  to 
enact  ecclesiastical  rulings  without  their  aid,  while 
in  the  following  year  his  De  eUctUme  Urbani  IX. 
et  Innocentii  X.  ponHficum  assailed  the  method  of 


841 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonrad  of  GMnhauaen 
Conaalvl 


electing  popes.  The  Roman  Catholic  propaganda 
which  had  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  his  close 
friend  Baron  Johann  Christian  von  Boyneburg 
evoked  two  polemic  works  from  his  pen,  the  De- 
fensio  ecclesia  Proteatantium  adversum  duo  pon- 
tificiorum  argumerUa  (1664),  in  which  he  impugned 
the  doctrine  that  a  Church  is  invalid  without  apo&- 
tolic  succession,  and  FundamerUorum  fidei  pon- 
tificiw  conctiasio  (1654),  denying  that  either  the 
pope  or  an  ecumenical  council  was  the  infallible 
representative  of  God  on  earth  in  matters  of  faith 
and  conduct.  This  called  forth  a  series  of  refu- 
tations, to  which  Conring  replied  in  the  same  year 
with  vigor.  He  also  essayed  irenics,  and  in  his 
posthumous  De  scriptaribus  aedecim  post  Christum 
naium  aaxulorum  commentarius  (1705)  discussed 
the  Church  Fathers,  and  in  his  De  Germanorum 
imperio  Romano  (1644)  considered  the  changed 
legal  relations  existing  between  emperor  and  pope. 
He  likewise  touched  on  dogmatics,  exegesis,  and 
criticism  in  works  of  minor  importance 

(E.  HENKEf.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Opera,  ed.  J.  W.  Qoebel,  incomplete, 
in  7  vols.,  appeared,  Brunawiok,  1730.  Consult:  O. 
Stobbe.  H.  ConritHi,  Berlin,  1870;  K  F.  H.  Marx,  Zwr 
Erinnerung  der  QnUiehen  WirkMoimkeit  H.  Conring;  Gdt^ 
tin«en,  1873. 

CONSALVIy    ERCOLE:    Italian    cardinal    and 
diplomat;  b.  at  Rome  June  8,  1757;  d.  there  Jan. 
24,  1824.     He  received  his  early  education  at  the 
school  of  the  Piarists  at  Urbino,  which  he  left  to 
enter  the  coUege  founded  by  Cardinal  Henry  of  York 
at  Frascati.     The  youth's  talents  won  the  favor  of 
the  cardinal  duke.    From  Frascati  he  went  to  the 
ecclesiastical  academy  at  Rome.    On 
Early      leaving  the  Academy  in   1783,  he  re- 
life  and     ceived  a  post  in  the  papal  household. 
Training,    and  aided  by  the  influence  of  his  kins- 
man, Cardinal  Negroni,  moved  rapidly 
through  several  grades  of  office,  receiving  in  1792 
the  post  of  auditor  for  Rome  at  the  Roman  Rota. 
He  became  so  prominent  a  figure  in  the  churchly 
and  noble  circles  of  Rome  and  Frascati  that   he 
gained  the  sobriquet  of  '*  Monsignore  Everywhere." 
He  was  military  assessor  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of 
the  French  Directory,  and  when  the  latter  com- 
pelled Pius  VI.  to  leave  Rome,  Consalvi,  after  suf- 
fering a  short  term  of  imprisonment  in  the  castle  of 
St.  Angelo,  made  his  way  to  Venice  where  he  was 
chosen  secretary  of  the  conclave  that  met  to  elect 
a  successor  to  Pius  VI. 

By  Pius  VII.  he  was  created  secretary  of  state 
Aug.  11,  1800,  and  at  the  same  time  was  made  car- 
dinal deacon  of  St.  Agata  in  Suburra.  Thence- 
forth he  appeared  as  the  prime  mover  of  the  papal 
diplomacy.  The  first  task  to  which  he  applied 
hkoself  was  the  negotiation  of  a  concordat  with  the 
French  Republic,  which  was  successfully  accom- 
plished July  15, 1801  (see  Concordats,  VI.,  1,  {  1). 
Napoleon's  innovations,  as  Consalvi  admitted,  en- 
tirely annulled  the  results  of  his  now  laborious 
efforts.  Napoleon  knew  him  as  his  opponent  and 
in  1806,  when  the  French  emperor  submitted  to 
the  pope  a  plan  for  a  defensive  alliance  coupled 
with  the  recognition  of  the  pope  as  sovereign  in 
Rome  and  of  Napoleon  as  Holy  Roman  emperor,  he 
III.— 16 


declared  that,  if  Consalvi  refused  to  acquiesce  in 
the  proposition,  it  would  be  better  for  him  to  re- 
tire from  his  post.  The  proposal  was  rejected, 
and  in  June,  1806,  Consalvi  was  superseded  by 
Cardinal  Casoni. 

When  in  1809  Pius  VII.  was  deported  from  Rome 

Napoleon  summoned  the  college  of  cardinals  to 

assemble  at  Paris,  partly  from  the  desire  to  add 

the  luster  of  their  presence  to  the  celebration  of 

his  marriage  to  Marie  Louise,  partly 

Diplo-      that  he  might  hold  them  under  his 

matic      immediate  influence  in  case  of  the 

Achieve-  death  of  Pius  VII.  Consalvi  arrived  at 
ments.  Paris  in  February,  1810.  He  was  one 
of  the  thirteen  "  black "  cardinals 
who  refrained  from  attending  the  marriage  cere- 
mony of  the  emperor,  thereby  arousing  the  anger  of 
Napoleon  to  the  point  where  he  threatened  the 
ex-secretaiy  of  state  with  death.  His  property 
was  sequestrated,  with  that  of  the  other  twelve,  he 
was  foii>idden  to  display  the  insignia  of  his  rank, 
and  was  ordered  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Reims, 
where  he  composed  his  M&moires  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1864;  2d  ed.,  1866).  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
Concordat  of  Fontainebleau  (Jan.  25,  1813;  see 
Concordats,  VI.,  1,  {  3)  he  took  up  his  residence  with 
Pius  VII.  Upon  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  was  sent 
to  Paris  as  representative  of  the  papal  interests  in 
the  council  of  the  powers,  and  in  the  same  capacity 
he  visited  London  and  attended  the  Congress  of 
Vienna.  There  he  revealed  a  depth  of  insight  and 
suppleness  of  spirit  which  aroused  the  admiration  of 
the  pope  and  the  Viennese  diplomats.  Thoroughly 
a  modem,  he  fought  zealously  for  the  interests  of 
the  Church  without  deluding  himself  with  medieval 
conceptions  of  the  rights  and  powers  of  the  papacy. 
Article  103  of  the  Peace  of  Vienna  restored  to  the 
Church  possession  of  the  districts  of  Camerino, 
Beneventum,  and  Pontecorvo,  and  the  legations  of 
Ravenna,  Bologna,  and  Ferrara,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  strip  of  territory  included  within  the 
last,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Po.  "  His  was  the 
boldest  and  keenest  game  played  on  the  green 
table,"  said  Talleyrand  to  Mettemich. 

Before  leaving  Vienna,  Consalvi  pledged  him- 
self to  the  powers  to  put  an  end  to  the  sacerdotal 
regime  in  Rome,  a  promise  which  he  found  im- 
possible to  keep.  For  the  government  of  the  States 
of  the  Church  he  issued  a  code  of  laws  which  aimed 
at  their  reduction  to  a  centralized  and  uniformly 
organized  principality.  The  papal  territories  were 
divided  into  seventeen  delegations,  each  under  the 
authority  of  a  prelate  exercising  functions  similar 
to  those  of  the  prefect  of  a  department 
Failure     in  France.     In  the  administration  of 

and  Re-    affairs  he  was  opposed  by  the  zealots 

tirement  under  Cardinal  Pacca,  who  detested 
Consalvi  as  the  representative  of  mod- 
em and  worldly  ideals.  After  1815  he  was  en- 
gaged in  the  negotiation  of  a  series  of  concordats  by 
which  the  relations  of  the  Church  with  every  Catho- 
lic state  but  Austria  were  regulated  anew.  In  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1820  he  showed  him- 
self resolutely  opposed  to  all  concession,  and  with 
the  help  of  the  Austrian  troops  order  was  main- 
tained in  the  legations.    Soon,  however,  his  rela- 


Oonsdanoo 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


S4S 


tions  with  the  Austrian  government  became 
strained  and  it  was  the  opposition  of  that  power 
which  destroyed  his  chances  of  being  chosen  suc- 
cessor to  Pius  VII.,  whose  death  occurred  Aug.  20, 
1823.  Upon  the  election  of  Leo  XII.  Consalvi 
went  into  retirement.  During  the  height  of  his 
t>ower  after  the  Ck)ngre8s  of  Vienna  he  had  been  a 
patron  of  the  arts,  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen  being 
among  those  who  enjoyed  iiis  protection. 

(F.  NiEJLSKNt.) 
BzBUOomAPHT:  Camtpondance  du  .  .  .  Conaalvi  avec  .  .  . 
Mettemieh,  1816-»5,  ed.  C.  van  Duenn,  LouTBin.  1890; 
N.  P.  8.  WiflemAn,  tUeolUeUoiu  of  the  Laat  Four  Popea, 
London,  1859;  F.  Nielsen,  OMchidUe  de»  PavtOwmM  im 
19.  Jahrhundert,  vol.  i.,  Goth*,  1880,  Eng.  tranal..  New 
York,  1906;  L.  S^ch^,  Lea  Originea  du  txmeordai,  Paris, 
1894;  MSmairm  du  Cardinal  Conaalvi,  iniroducUan  par 
J,  CraHneau-Joly,  new  ed.,  published  by  J.  K  B.  Dro- 
•hon,  ib.  1896;  E.  L.  Fischer,  Cardinal  Conaalvi,  Ltbena- 
wmd  CkaraktarbUd,  Mains,  1899. 

COKSCIENCE. 

Oxigin  of  the  Term  (S  1). 

Paul's  Use  of  it  (§  2). 

The  Fathers  and  Schoolmen  (|  3). 

The  Reformers  ({  4). 

Modem  Philosophers  ({  5). 

Present-Day  Problems  (S  6). 

Intuitional  and  Evolutionary  Views  ({  7). 

The  Eng^h  word  "  conscience  "  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  conscientiaf  which  is  parallel  in  deriva- 
tion and  meaning  to  the  New  Testament  ttyneidSsis 
(Attic  Gk.  8yneidos);  but  in  the  classical  authors 
the   word   denotes   originally   simply 

X.  Origin  consciousness,  without  any  ethical 
of  the  bearing.  Its  use  in  the  modem  sense 
Term.  of  "  conscience,"  or  the  moral  sense  of 
the  individual  applied  to  his  own  con- 
duct, occurs  not  infrequently  in  Cicero  and  Seneca. 
The  latter  name  especially  has  been  taken  to  sug- 
gest that  the  ethical  connotation  came  from  the 
Stoic  anthropology  and  legal  doctrine;  but  the 
word  does  not  occur  in  this  sense  in  any  Stoic 
writer  except  Seneca,  and  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  acquired  its  later  meaning  gradually  in  the  course 
of  the  process  which  led  the  ancient  world  from  un- 
thinking obedience  to  traditional  custom  up  to  the 
appeal  to  the  inner  tribunal  of  every  man's  heart, 
lids  inner  witness  had,  however,  no  religious  con- 
nection. The  daimon  of  Socrates  expresses  a  confi- 
dence in  higher  guidance  which  has  a  religious  color- 
ing, the  consciousness  of  his  mission  felt  by  the 
great  man,  but  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  old 
ayneidlsU ;  and  the  often-quoted  passage  (Epist.f 
xli.)  in  which  Seneca  speaks  of  *'  the  holy  spirit  that 
dwells  within  us  "  is  merely  the  expression  of  the 
Stoic,  and  therefore  not  religious,  pantheism. 

The  term  is  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament  or 

among  the  words  of  Jesus.     It  was  introduced 

into  the  primitive  Christian  vocabulary  by  Paul, 

outside  of  whose  letters  it  occurs  in  the 

3.  Paul's    New  Testament  only  in  the  Acts  (in 

Use  of  it  Paul's  mouth),  in  I  Peter,  and  in 
Hebrews.  In  his  work  Paul  comes  in 
contact  with  the  general  human  conscience  (II  Cor. 
iv.  2),  and  appeals  to  it  (Rom.  ii.  15;  xiii.  5,  6),  or 
corrects  deviations  in  it  proceeding  from  remnants 
of  heathen  ideas  (I  Cor.  viii.  7;  x.  23  sqq.).  Other- 
wise it  is  the  Christian  conscience  alone  to  which 


appeal  is  made  (Acts  zxiii.  1;  II  Tim.  i.  3);  only 
the  author  of  Hebrews  (ix.  9)  uses  the  conception, 
by  this  time  accepted  in  Christian  terminolc^y,  aa 
a  short  expression  for  the  critical  standpoint  of  the 
new  religion  toward  the  condition  of  things  under 
the  old  covenant.  With  Paul  the  pre-Christian 
conscience  stands  for  the  divine  natural  order  of 
society  (Rom.  xiii.  4,  5)  or  more  generally  for  the 
moral  law  whose  commands  are  felt  in  the  heart, 
in  substantial  agreement  with  the  Jewish  revealed 
law,  and  thus  in  a  way  taking  its  place  for  the 
Gentiles  (Rom.  ii.  14, 15).  It  makes  them  morally 
independent  by  a  sdf-judgment  which  penetrates 
to  the  most  hidden  motives  (Rom.  ix.  1 ;  II  Cor.  i. 
12),  coordinate  with  that  of  the  Seareher  of  hearts; 
and  it  is  capable  also  of  passing  judgment  on  others 
(II  Cor.  V.  11;  iv.  2).    But  Paul  nowhere  hints  at 

«  a  recognized  theonomy  through  the  conscience,  nor 
yet  at  a  distinction  between  the  pre-Christian  and 
the  Christian  conscience.  Again,  the  imperative 
conscience  is  nowhere  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Paul  recognizes  the  possibility  of  a  con- 
science being  weak,  subject  to  other  powers  than 
the  one  God  (I  Cor.  viii.  7, 12),  and  erroneous  in  ita 
judgment.  This  leads  him  to  the  recognition  of  the 
individuality  of  conscience,  its  right  of  independent 
judgment,  the  denial  of  which  would  destroy  moral 
personality  (I  Cor.  x.  29,  viii.  10).  By  the  blood 
of  Christ  the  conscience  is  cleansed,  and  the 
Christian  obtains  a  "  good  "  conscience  (Rom.  ix. 
1;  II  Cor.  i.  12;  Heb.  ix.  14.  x.  22);  this  wholly 
good  conscience  is  connected  (I  Pet.  iii.  21;  Heb. 
X.  22)  with  the  gift  of  grace  in  baptism.  This  good 
conscience  is  not  the  certainty  of  reconciliation, 
but  the  mirror  of  the  moral  condition.  Hence  its 
chief  characteristic  is  its  sincerity  (II  Cor.  i.  12), 
which  attests  its  purity  (I  Tim.  iii.  9;  II  Tim.  i.  3). 
Its  opposite  is  a  branded,  defiled  conscience  (I  Tim. 
iv.  2;  Titus  i.  15).    The  "  faith  unfeigned  "  stands 

.  or  falls  with  a  pure  conscience  (I  Tim.  i.  5,  19;  iii. 
9;  iv.  1,  2). 

But  although  Paul  thus  gave  a  definite  sanction 
to  the  term,  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  passed 
from  him  into  the  current  speech  of 
3.  The      the  early  Chureh;    it  is  seldom  met 
Fathers    with  in  the  primitive  literature,  and 
and        then     first    in    exegetical    writings 
Schoolmen;  Chrysostom,  with  his  practical  tend- 
ency, is  the  first  to  make  much  use 
of  it,  describing  it  as  an  independent  source  of  moral 
insight  and  coordinating  it  with  the  created  uni- 
verse as  a  means  of  the  knowledge  of  God.    While 
he  goes  thus  far  beyond  the  pagan  conception, 

-  Augustine  and  his  opxx)nent  Pelagius  are  inclined  to 
rest  in  the  mere  idea  of  a  consciousness  which  attests 
and  judges  moral  action.  From  Augustine  the 
connection  of  conscience  with  the  more  general 
consciousness  was  handed  on,  sometimes,  as  with 
Abelard,  in  the  form  of  the  consdousness  of  obliga- 
tion, sometimes,  as  with  Bernard,  in  that  of  the  in- 
corruptible judgment,  and  served  to  emphasize  the 
inner  life  in  contrast  with  the  extemaliran  of  eccle- 
siastical theology.  The  scholastic  theology  followed 
Alexander  of  Hales  rather  closely  throughout;  the 
classical  expression  of  it  is  found  in  Thomas  Aquinas 
(Summa,  I.  Ixxix.;  II.,  part  ii.  xciv.).    The  pecu- 


248 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonflolaiioe 


liarity  of  this  earliest  scientific  treatment  of  the 
subject  is  the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  synUrisis, 
interpreted  by  the  scholastics,  in  dependence  upon 
the  Aristotelian  psychology,  as  the  practical  intel- 
lect, i.e.,  in  their  conception,  the  poterUia  or  habitua 
of  moral  principles,  while  conscieniia  is  distinguished 
from  it  as  the  application  of  these  to  the  individual 
act.  With  this  distinction  came  in  the  idea  of  the 
-  fallibility  of  the  conscience;  and  so  the  door  was 
opened  to  all  sorts  of  hairnsplitting  judgments,  ex- 
emplified in  the  books  on  casuistry.  The  extreme 
result  of  this  tendency  is  seen  among  the  Jesuits, 
whose  moral  sjrstem  knows  nothing  of  synUriaUy 
and  regards  oonscientia  as  a  prejudice  to  be  removed 
by  probabilism  (see  Ethics,  II.,  |  9).  The  Latin 
mysticism,  on  the  other  hand,  made  a  fruitful 
use  of  the  scholastic  doctrine  when,  following 
patristic  hints,  it  defined  (especially  in  Gerson) 
the  synUriaia  as  the  power  by  which  the  soul 
longs  and  is  able  to  come  into  immediate  contact 
with  God. 

The  attention  paid  by  both  professional  theolo- 

giana  and  the  practical  system  of  the  Church  to  the 

conscience,  far  as  it  went  beyond  New 

4.  The  Re-  Testament  limits,  was  a  reason  why 
formers,    conscience    was    such    an    important 

factor  in  the  discussions  of  the  Refor- 
mation. These,  however,  derive  rather  from  Ber- 
nard and  Abelard  than  from  the  schoolmen.  To 
Luther  and  his  fellows  it  was  now  the  independent 
consciousness  of  duty,  now  the  sorrowful  conscious- 
ness of  sin,  the  accuser  not  to  be  silenced  except 
in  the  assurance  of  justification  by  faith.  In  what- 
ever terms  it  is  defined,  it  amounts  to  the  relation 
of  the  moral  life  to  God,  with  its  judging,  even  its 
condenming,  function  principally  emphasized;  it  is 
'the  organ  for  the  relation  of  justice  between  God 
and  man.  In  like  manner  Calvin  caUs ,  it  "  the 
sense  of  the  divine  judgment  and  empire.''  Spe- 
cially characteristic  are  the  passages  in  which  he 
deals  with  it,  particularly  in  his  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  and  of  Christian  liberty.  The  eye 
of  faith  now  looks  out  boldly  and  clearly  from  the 
secure  watch-tower  of  unconditional  religious  obli- 
gation over  the  broad  domain  of  freedom  of  con- 
science. 

The  way  in  which  the  orthodox  theologians  spoke 
of  the  Christian  conscience,  presupposing  a  rela- 
tion of  religious  dependence  upon  God 

5.  Modem   and  obligation  to  obey  his  law,  was 
Philoco-     attacked  by  English  deism  when  it 

phert.  opposed  the  natural  as  the  universal 
to  the  positive  historical  as  the  unsup- 
ported particular.  Since  Hutcheson  it  had  been 
customary  in  England  to  replace  *'  innate  ideas  " 
by  the  moral  sense,  understood  so  as  to  combine 
this  moral  obligation  with  intellectual  skepticism 
as  to  a  universally  binding  ethical  law,  and  to  deny 
any  religious  relation.  The  ultimate  consequence 
of  this  opposition  between  nature  and  history  is 
seen  in  Rousseau,  whose  *'  natural  conscience  "  was 
a  mere  instinct  leading  to  morality,  with  no  content 
of  guilt  or  obligation.  Kant,  on  the  other  hand, 
emphasised  and  recognized  an  inner  tribunal  of 
incomparable  dignity.  Fichte  defined  conscience 
as  '*  the  immediate  consciousness  of  specific  duty," 


which  involves  the  unconditional  certainty  of  a 
consciousness  of  duty  with  which  a  practical  judg- 
ment, logicaUy  deduced  from  reoognLeed  premises, 
is  endowed.  The  exaggerated  emphasis  laid  upon 
formal  certainty  led  to  the  extension  of  the  word 
to  a  judgment  of  taste  in  all  practical  relations,  as 
with  Herbart  and  with  Krauss  ("  the  innate  neces- 
sity to  have  an  ideal  and  to  acknowledge  it  as  a 
judge  set  over  us  ")t  and  thus  in  the  modem  phrase 
"  the  artistic  conscience."  This  is  a  notable  declen- 
sion from  the  former  high  claims;  and  it  goes  still 
further  when  Hegel,  though  recognizing  uncon- 
ditional subjective  certainty  from  the  standpoint  of 
morality,  insists  that  it  must  be  measured  by  the 
idea  or  the  objectivity  of  social  ethics;  when 
Schopenhauer  replaces  the  infallible,  imperative 
consciousness  of  duty  by  a  "  protocol  of  facts," 
which  is  a  purely  objective  and  empirical  standard. 
Since  his  day  there  has  been  an  increasing  tendency 
to  substitute  for  the  self-conscious  autonomy  of  the 
subject  the  cultural  development  of  society,  and  to 
regard  conscience,  with  Spencer,  as  a  product  of 
education,  good  or  bad. 

This,  then,  raises  the  first  of  the  points  most 
discussed  in  modem  theological  treatises;  whether 
conscience  is  an  innate,  primeval  thing, 
6.  Present-  and  then  whether  it  is  only  a  subjeo- 
Day  Prob-  tive  phenomenon,  the  formal  conscious- 
lemt.  ness  of  duty,  or  has  a  content  from 
without.  This,  with  the  other  ques- 
tion of  the  relation  of  religion  and  morality,  is 
a  matter  of  great  interest  to  those  who  now  discuss 
religion  from  the  anthropological  standpoint.  The 
solution  of  the  problem,  however,  depends  as  a 
rule  upon  the  general  views  held  by  each  of  the 
many  authors  who  have  recently  treated  the  sub- 
ject of  conscience.  A  further  question,  this  time 
rather  a  practical  than  a  theoretical  one,  deals  with 
freedom  of  conscience.  This  depends  upon  the 
individuality  of  the  conscience,  and  is  opposed  to 
the  claim  that  one  may  be  morally  bound  by  any 
other  authority  than  that  of  God.  Such  a  claim 
appears  in  its  most  obvious  form  when  an  institu- 
tion like  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  identifies  its 
utterances  with  the  divine  revelation.  From  the 
Reformers'  protest  against  such  a  claim  have  sprung 
first  the  demand  for  the  free  exercise  of  religion 
within  the  limits  of  the  social  order,  and  then  that 
of  unrestricted  expression  of  any  religious  or  ethical 
conviction;  but  such  unqualified  freedom  would 
obviously  imperil  all  ordered  social  life. 

(M.  KAhlbr.) 
The  moral  law  originates  in  custom  and  is  at  fbrst 
identical  with  it,  as  is  evident  in  the  terms  "  ethics  " 
and     "morals."     The     outstanding, 
7:  Intu-     most  advantageous,  and  necessary  cua- 
itional  and  toins  are  crystallized  into  positive  law; 
Evolution-  later,  positive  laws  conflict  with  cus- 
ary^ewB.   tom  or  with  each  other.     This  con- 
flict may  be  resolved  temporarily  by 
casuistry  or  by  making  one  command  supreme. 
And  the  validity  of  the  moral  law  may  for  a  time 
rest  back  on  punishment.    Attempts  to   find  an 
ultimate  basis  of  the  moral  law  in  the  nature  of  man 
have  given  rise  to  two  theories  of  conscience,  the 
intuitional  and  the  evolutionary.    According  to  the 


Oonsoieiioe 
Oonalll*  B^WAffelioa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


244 


former,  conscience  is  a  clear  perception  of  good  and 
evil,  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  unconditioned 
obligation  and  of  irreversible  approval  or  disap- 
proval of  actions — intuitive,  original,  universal, 
supernatural,  "  the  voice  of  God  in  the  soul  of  man." 
This  theory  has  been  subjected  to  the  criticism  that 
the  conscience  does  not  infallibly  disclose  what  one 
ought  to  do,  that  the  judgment  of  right  and  wrong 
varies  in  different  places  and  is  subject  to  change, 
that  in  the  moral  consciousness  the  judgment  of 
good  and  evil  may  conflict,  and,  finally,  that  the 
ground  of  obligation  is  objective  as  well  as  sub- 
jective. Hence,  the  explanation  of  conscience  is 
sought  in  evolution.  The  external  occasion  for  its 
origination  lies  in  social  experience,  registered  in 
customs  and  changing  laws.  The  earliest  sense  of 
duty  is  the  consciousness  of  custom;  later,  the  sense 
of  obligation  appears  in  the  conflict  between  par- 
ticular inclinations  and  obedience  to  the  customary. 
Through  experience  new  conditions  give  rise  to 
advantageous  forms  of  action  which  will  in  turn 
be  antagonized  by  custom.  The  ideal  principle  of 
this  newer  action  is,  however,  elevated  into  a  con- 
trolling law,  first  for  an  individual,  then  for  the 
conmiunity,  resulting  either  in  quiet  and  gradual 
readjustment  of  ethical  relations,  or  in  the  sudden 
and  radical  beginning  of  a  new  era  of  ethical  ideal 
and  law.  Thus  the  conscience  is  that  aspect  of 
consciousness  which  unifies  the  system  of  social, 
i.e.,  of  moral  relations  with  reference  to  individual 
and  social  development  and  completeness — ^the 
response  in  the  moral  consciousness  of  a  imiform 
objective  stimulus.  Accordingly,  the  conscience,  in- 
stead of  being  set  free  from  the  influence  of  divinity 
as  something  alien  to  the  nature  and  entering  it 
from  without,  discloses  the  inmianence  of  the  divine 
tcleolQgical  (transcendent)  action  in  the  individual 
consciousness  within  the  social  order.  See  Ethics; 
Duty;  Conflict  of  Duties;  and  Cabuistry. 

C.  A.  Bbckwith. 
BiBUoaaAPHT:  For  the  Biblical  side  oooBult  the  lexicooB  of 
H.  Cramer  and  J.  H.  Thasrer,  and  the  works  on  N.  T.  the- 
ology; also  J.  T.  Beck,  Umri99  der  bibUtihen  SeelenUhre, 
Stuttgart,  1871.  Eng.  transl.,  Edinbui^h,  1877;  P.  Ewald, 
De  vocU  9uneidi9e69  apud  9criptore9  N.  T.,  Leipsio,  1883. 
For  the  history  of  the  subject  consult:  T.  Ziegler,  Gr- 
tchichie  der  Ethik,  Bonn,  1881-«6;  K.  K6stlin,  G€9chichU 
der  Ethik,  vol.  i.,  Ttlbingen,  1887;  H.  Sidgwick,  Hist  of 
EtkicM,  London,  1896.  For  treatment  of  Ck>n8eienoe  con- 
sult: E.  Kant,  Critiquie  on  PrcicHcal  Rea9on,  London,  1896; 
Joseph  Butler,  Three  Semuma  on  Human  Nature,  with 
IntrodueHon  and  Notee  by  T.  B.  KUpalrick,  Edinburgh, 
1888;  R.  H.  Hoffmann,  Die  Lehre  von  dem  Oewieeen, 
Leipsio,  1866;  W.  Qass,  Die  Lehre  vom  Gewiaaen^  Berlin, 
1869;  J.  F.  D.  Maurice,  The  Conecienee,  London,  1872; 
M.  KAhler,  Dae  Gewiaeen,  Halle.  1878;  W.  T.  Davison, 
The  ChruiHan  Conaeienee,  London,  1888;  R.  Seeberg, 
Gewiaaan  und  GawiaaenbUdunOf  Erlangen,  1896;  N.  8. 
Rulison,  Study  of  Conacienee,  Philadelphia,  1901;  O. 
Huckel,  A  Modam  Study  of  Conacience,  ib.  1907;  DB,  i. 
468-475;  modem  works  on  ethics,  particularly  N.  Smyth, 
Chriaiian  Ethica,  New  York,  1892.  and  J.  Martineau,  Typea 
of  Ethicai  Theory,  London,  1898;  and  modem  treatises 
on  psychology.  For  the  intuitional  theory  of  the  con- 
science consult:  H.  Galderwood,  Handbook  of  Moral 
PhUoaophy,  Edinburgh,  1888;  J.  Ifartineau,  Typea  of 
Ethical  Theory,  2  toIs.,  London,  1886.  For  the  evolution- 
ary or  anthropological  view  consult:  W.  K.  Clifford, 
Lecturea  and  Eaaaya,  London,  1879;  S.  Alexander,  Moral 
Order  and  Progreaa,  London,  1889;  J.  H.  Muirhead,  Ble- 
menta  of  EthUa,  pp.  63-88,  216-236,  New  York,  1892; 
F.  Paulsen,  Syatam  of  Ethiea,  pp.  340-378,  New  York* 
1809. 


CONSCIENTIARn  (Germ.  Gewiisener):  The  ad- 
herents of  Matthias  Knutsen,  a  theological  can- 
didate from  Sleswick  who,  in  Sept.,  1674,  came  to 
Jena  and  there  set  on  foot  a  propaganda  for  his 
deistic  and  atheistic  principles.  According  to  him, 
conscience  was  to  be  the  sole  authority,  even  at  the 
cost  of  rejecting  faith  in  God  and  immortality; 
but  his  conscience  was  one  which  could  justify  the 
most  immoral  relations,  putting  marriage  on  the 
same  level  as  indiscriminate  sexual  intercourse. 
He  boasted  that  he  had  a  following  of  seven  hun- 
dred townsmen  and  students  in  Jena  and  Altdorf. 
This  brought  about  an  investigation  which  showed 
that  his  claims  were  unfounded,  and  he  thought  it 
best  to  disappear.  The  University  of  Jena  vindi- 
cated its  reputation  in  a  formal  statement  of  the 
truth  by  Musaeus,  one  of  its  professors;  and  the 
seet  soon  died  out. 

CONSECRATION:  [The  formal  setting  apart  of 
a  person  or  thing  as  sacred  or  devoted  to  God  by  a 
special  religious  rite.  For  the  consecration  of  the 
elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper  see  Efiklesis; 
Eucharist,  |  5.  For  the  consecration  of  bishops 
see  Bishop;  see  also  Priest.  For  the  consecration 
of  things  (altars,  bells,  etc.)  see  Benediction; 
Sacramentaib.  This  article  will  be  confined  to  the 
consecration  of  churches.] 

Churches  were  solemnly  consecrated  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Constantine,  both  those  which  were  rebuilt 
after  destruction  in  times  of  persecution  (Eusebius, 
Hist,  eccl,f  X.  2-5)  and  new  buildings  (Eusebius, Vita 
ConstarUini,  xlv.).  The  fundamental  thought  was 
naturally  the  idea  that  the  deity  had  obtained  a  new 
abode  of  visible  presence  (cf .  Augustine,  Sermones, 
clxiii.),  wherewith  was  later  associated  the  maxim 
that  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  may  never  be  per- 
formed without  an  altar,  and,  cases  of  necessity 
excepted,  only  in  consecrated  churches  or  public 
chapels.  Even  in  comparatively  early  times, 
relics  were  used  in  connection  with  the  consecra- 
tion. In  the  Middle  Ages  the  ceremonies  increased; 
the  most  noteworthy,  according  to  the  Liber  sacra- 
mentorum  Gregorii  Magni  (after  XIL  KaUndas 
Januarius),  waa  that  the  bishop  traced  with  ashes 
the  Greek  and  Latin  alphabets  (earlier  also  the 
Hebrew)  diagonally  across  the  church  from  comer 
to  comer,  the  two  lines  intersecting  in  the  form  of 
a  cross.  The  signification,  as  explained  by  Ivo  of 
Chartres  was  "  the  union  of  both  peoples  [Gentiles 
and  Jews]  by  the  single  bond  of  the  cross."  The 
present  Roman  ceremonial  is  found  in  the  Pontifical, 
and  consecration  devolves  upon  the  bishop  (see 
Sacramentals).  The  consecration  of  chinches 
with  Eastern  Orthodox  Christians  lays  great  stress 
on  relics  (cf .  A.  Maltzew,  BUt-f  Dank-  und  TFA- 
gottesdimste,  Berlin,  1897,  p.  xcix.).  Protestant 
churches  need  neither  to  be  cleansed  of  demons  nor 
be  hallowed  for  the  administration  of  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass.  Nevertheless,  the  need  of  some  act 
analogous  to  consecration  was  early  felt  (cf .  Secken- 
dorf 's  description  of  the  opening  of  the  castle  church 
at  Torgau,  in  his  Histaria  Lutkeraniami,  bk.  iii-i 
(118,  and  Luther's  sermon,  Erlangen  ed.,  vol.  xvii.)- 
In  the  later  liturgies  forms  of  consecration  for 
separate  objects — e.g.,  organs  and  ^bells — occur 
frequently. 


246 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OonBcience 
GonBllla  Evanffelioa 


Even  as  early  as  the  fourth  century  the  churches 
on  Golgotha  and  the  site  of  the  Resurrection  were 
thronged  on  occasion  of  the  "  encsnia,"  or  anniver- 
sary of  the  church  dedication  (cf.  the  **  Pilgrim- 
age "  of  Silvia  of  Aquitaine,  Palestine  Pilgrims*  Text 
Society  transL,  pp.  76-77).  Isidore  of  Seville  (De 
officiis,  i.  35)  explains  the  anniversary  festival  as  a 
reviv^  of  the  Jewish  encsenia.  The  lessons  Rev. 
xxi.  1-5  and  Luke  xix.  1-10  were  transferred  to  the 
Lutheran  pericopes  from  the  medieval  lectionary 
which  was  in  use  in  Germany.  Luther,  however, 
was  not  partial  to  the  church  dedication  festival, 
observing  (An  den  christlichen  Adel),  "  Church 
dedications  ought  to  be  abolished  altogether,  seeing 
they  have  become  naught  else  than  very  taverns, 
yearly  fairs,  and  playhouses."  Nevertheless,  the 
festival  of  church  dedication  persisted,  and  it  may 
be  that  the  attendant  excesses  conspired  to  main- 
tain it.  These  excesses  perhaps  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  the  day  of  church  dedication  was  to  be 
preceded  by  abstinence,  while  the  day  itself  was  to 
be  regarded  as  a  feast  of  joyousness.  For  Protes- 
tants the  anniversary  festival  of  church  dedication 
can  have  no  other  significance  than  that  of  a  thanks- 
giving feast  for  the  blessings  of  a  well-regulated 
ecclesiastical   status.  W.  Caspari. 

Bibuggrapht:  Bingham,  Originea,  book  viii.,  chap,  ix.; 
H.  Gerbert,  MonumerUa  veteria  lihurgiae  Alemania,  di»- 
quintion  vi.,  chap,  i.,  San  Bbu,  1758;  E.  G.  HarrinBton, 
The  Object  .  .  .  of  the  Rite  of  Coneeeration  of  ChureKee, 
London,  1844;  H.  A.  Daniel,  Codex  liturgicuet  4  vols., 
Leipsic,  1847-53. 

CONSILIA  EVAlfGELICA  ("  EvangeUcal  coun- 
sels "):  The  name  given  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  a  class  of  norms  of  moral 
conduct  authorized  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
term  is  used  in  distinction  from  prcecepta  ("  com- 
mands " ;  i.e.,  injunctions  which  may  not  be  dis- 
regarded, and  thus  fall  within  the  sphere  of  im- 
perative duty).    The  distinction   dates   back   to 

Tertullian,  who  repeats  the  words  of 
Origin  and  I  Cor.  vii.  25,  "  I  have  no  command- 
Eariy  De-  ment  of  the  Lord;  yet  I  give  my  judg- 
velopment.  ment,"  in  De  exhortatume  ccutitatia,  iv., 

and  makes  it  in  five  other  places,  and 
it  occurs  in  the  Vulgate  rendering  of  the  passage 
mentioned  (prcBceptum  damini  non  habeOf  consilium 
Qutem  do).  Two  of  the  ideas  which  gave  Tertullian 
occasion  to  expoimd  the  distinction  came  in  time  to 
have  great  significance:  namely,  "  what  one  may 
disregard  is  advised  rather  than  commanded;  " 
and  that  a  merely  advised  renunciation  of  some- 
thing in  itself  permitted  (e.g.,  marriage)  consti- 
tutes merit.  This  is  repeated  by  Cyprian  (De  habiiu 
virginum,  xxiii.),  and  the  same  doctrine  had  been 
already  conveyed  in  the  Shepherd  of  Hemuu  (mand. 
IV.  iv.  2;  sim.  V.  iii.  3).  The  opinion  therefore 
seems  well  founded  that  it  was  Ambrose  who  first 
expressly  formulated  the  distinction  between 
prcBcepta  and  eonsUia  (De  viduisj  xii.).  After  him  it 
appears  in  Optatus,  Jerome,  notably  in  Pelagius 
(ad  Demetriuntf  ix.-x.),  and  also  in  Augustine. 
With  reference  to  the  latter *s  doctrine,  H.  Renter 
(Auqusiinieche  Studien,  Gotha,  1887,  pp.  399-403, 
425-427,  476)  has  noted  a  conflict  between  two 
tendencies.    On  the  one  hand,  the  external  and 


literal  observance  of  the  counsels  (as  of  poverty 
and  virginity)  is  conmiended  as  a  higher  standard 
of  morality,  procuring  a  higher  order  of  merit.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  becomes  precarious  to  measure 
by  this  test  the  ultramoral,  in  so  far  as  all  conduct 
is  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  inner  moral  intention. 

Between  Augustine  and  Aquinas  the  doctrine  of 
the  counsels  gives  ever  greater  and  greater  weight 
to  the  first  tendency,  upholding  or  exalting  monas- 
ticism  as  the  state  of  perfection.  In  St.  Thomas, 
however,  the  other  tendency  also  comes  forward. 
According  to  his  Summa  (II.  i.,  qu.  108,  art.  4),  the 
commandments  are  given  "  concerning  those  things 
which  are  necessary  to  attain  the  end  of  eternal 
felicity ";  but  the  counsels,  "  concerning  those  by 
means  of  which  one  can  attain  the  end  aforesaid 
better  and  more  quickly."  Man  stands  between 
the  things  of  this  world  and  spiritual 
Thomistic  goods.  To  cleave  altogether  to  the 
and  former  is  forbidden  by  the  conunand- 
Medieval  ments,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  cast 
Teaching,  them  absolutely  away  to  reach  eternal 
blessedness;  "  nevertheless  one  will 
come  to  it  more  quickly  by  rejecting  entirely  the 
goods  of  this  world,  and  therefore  the  Evangelical 
counsels  are  given  about  this."  They  fall  under 
these  three  general  heads:  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience;  to  which  also  the  various  particular 
specifications  may  all  be  referred.  Secunda  eecun- 
dcB  treats  of  the  counsels  under  "  the  state  of 
perfection."  Query  184,  art.  3,  teaches  that  per^ 
fection  consists  essentialiter  in  the  command  of 
love,  but  instrumentaliter  depends  on  the  counsels. 
They  are  "  so  to  speak,  instruments  for  attaining 
to  perfection  " ;  they  remove  obstacles  to  the  higher 
degrees  of  love,  so  long  as  love  holds  any  command- 
ments for  whoever  professes  even  the  least  degree 
of  it.  In  the  Middle  Ages  twelve  counsels  were 
commonly  enumerated,  which  were  found  espe- 
cially in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount;  and  after  the 
aforesaid  three  general  heads,  which  concerned  the 
religious  orders,  there  were  recommended,  for  in- 
stance, the  injunctions  "  love  your  enemies " 
(Matt.  V.  44),  "  resist  not  evil "  (Matt.  v.  39-41), 
etc. 

Luther  contested  the  idea  of  St.  Thomas  that  the 
higher  degrees  of  love  are  not  commanded.  He  con- 
demned every  infraction  of  the  law,  on  the  giound 
that  it  commands  absolute  fulfilment;  inferior 
"  perfection  "  is  not  allowed,  but  is 
Protestant  a  sin,  which,  however,  God  forgives 
Teaching,  on  condition  of  faith  with  daily  repent- 
ance and  moral  amendment.  The 
Lutheran  confessions  oppose  the  Roman  doctrine 
as  to  the  counsels,  because  it  sets  up  merita  euper^ 
erogationia  (Augs.  Con.,  xxvii.  12;  ApoL,  xxvii. 
24-25,  39);  because  it  constructively  permits  pri- 
vate revenge  (Augs.  Con.,  xxvii.  64;  ApoL,  xvi.  69), 
and  casts  doubt  upon  the  civil  commonwealth 
(Augs.  Con.,  xxvii.  66;  Apol.,  xvi.  66;  cf .  also  Augs. 
Con.,  xxvii.  61;  Apol.,  xxvii.  9).  It  can  not,  of 
course,  be  disputed  that  among  the  moral  norms 
which  concern  Christendokn  at  large  there  exist, 
side  by  side  with  "  commandments  of  God " 
(I  Cor.  vii.  19),  "  commandments  of  the  Lord  " 
(vs.  25, 10),  also  the  "  judgments  "  of  Paul.    Paul's 


Oonaistory 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


d46 


"  judgmentfl  "  diverge,  again,  from  his  own  "  com- 
mandments "  (cf.  II  Cor.  viii.  10,  8;  I  Cor.  xvi.  1, 
vii.  17,  19,  6).  The  essential  feature  of  his  "  judg- 
ments "  consists  in  the  fact  that  they  **  cast  no 
snare  "  (I  Cor.  vii.  35).  That  is  to  say,  they  do  not 
enslave,  they  do  not  obligate  all  because  their 
acceptance  presupposes  a  gift  (chari9ma)  of  God 
(vs.  7).  On  the  basis  of  I  Cor.  vii.  we  may  correctly 
distinguish  between  the  advisory  norm  and  the 
absolute  force  of  a  commandment;  and  indeed  a 
similar  norm  occurs  in  Matt.  xix.  11-12.  But  the 
Pauline  and  Lutheran  doctrine  as  to  this  "  counsel  " 
is  by  no  means  identical  with  the  Roman  doctrine 
of  the  "  counsels.''  The  true  general  definition  is: 
the  counsels  are  auxiliary  norms  toward  the  dis- 
cernment of  those  obligating  commands  which 
govern  a  Christian  in  his  particular  situation. 

Karl  Thiicme. 
Bibuoorapht:  The  works  on  moral  theology,  mieh  u 
(Roman  Catholic).  T.  H.  Simar.  ||  17-18.  Freiburs.  1893; 
and  M.  T.  G6pfert,  i..  f  5.  Paderbom,  1807;  (Protestant). 
C.  E.  Lttthardt.  Die  Ethik  iMiUrt,  pp.  72-80.  8&-«6. 
Leipeic,  1875;  idem,  Komp^ndium  der  theologiaehen  Ethik, 
I  46.  Leipsic  1898;  J.  T.  Beck,  VorUeunoen  Ober  diritt- 
lUM  Ethik,  ii.  113-143.  QQtersloh.  1883;  R.  Rothe.  Th£o- 
logiBche  Ethik,  iii.  856.  n.  3,  Bremen,  1895;  K.  Base, 
Handbueh  der  jirot€MtafUi$ehen  PoUmik,  Leipsie,  1900. 

C05SIST0RT,  C05SIST0RIAL  ORGANIZATION. 

Origin  of  the  German  Cooaistory  (|  1). 

The  First  Consistory,  at  Wittenberg.  1539  (|  2). 

Other  Similar  Attempts  (|  3). 

The  Later  CSerman  Consistories  (|  4). 

Powers  of  (}onaiatories  (|  5). 

Modem  Modifications  (|  6). 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  cansiatortum  sig^ 
nifies  the  session  of  the  College  of  Cardinals  under 
the  presidency  of  the  pope,  as  well  as  the  advisory 
board  which  assists  the  vicar  general,  the  bishop's 
auxiliary  for  execution  of  the  fura  juriadictumia. 
This  latter  signification  affords  a  point  of  contact 
for  the  term  as  it  is  usually  employed  in  the  German 
Evangelical  Church,  the  subject  of  this  discussion. 
The  German  use  first  appears  in  a  memorial  ad- 
dressed to  the  Elector  John  Frederick,  on  May  13, 
1537,  by  a  committee  of  the  great  diet  of  the  elec- 
torate of  Saxony,  assembled  at  Torgau.    The  said 
memorial  had  manifestly  some  con- 
z.  Origin    nection  with  a  resolution,  a  few  weeks 
of  the      previously,  by  the  Schmalkald  Con- 
German     vention,  which  had  emphasised  the 
Consistory,  duty  of  the  territorial  powers  in  cases 
"  where  the  bishops  rule  amiss,  or  are 
negligent,"  in  the  matter  of  appointing  ecclesias- 
tical courts,  especially  in  relation  to  matrimonial 
affairs;   but  the  term  **  consistories  "  was  not  em- 
ployed at  Schmalkald.    The  memorial  was  referred 
to  the  faculty  of  theology  and  law  at  Wittenberg 
for  an  opinion  how  to  put  it  in  execution.    This 
opinion  (printed  in  A    L.  Richter,  GeschichU  der 
evangeliachen     Kirchenverfaasung    in    Deutachlandj 
Leipsie,  1851,  pp.  81-82),  drawn  up  in  the  main  by 
Jonas,  was  reported  in  the  course  of  the  year  1538, 
and  it  discusses  the  need  of  consistories  and  the 
powers  to  be  assigned  to  them. 

The  execution  of  the  Wittenberg  opinion,  espe- 
cially in  relation  to  independent  executive  authority 
and  excommunication,  received  consideration,  pos- 
■ibly  from  Luther  and  BrUck,  to  whom  final  decision 


was  reserved,  and,  at  all  events,  from  the  elector; 
and,  apparently  at  BrUck's  initiative,  provision 
was  made  for  the  merely  tentative  institution  of 
a  consistory  for  the  electorate  only.  This  was 
established  at  Wittenberg  at  the  beginning  of  Feb., 
1539,  but  with  limited  competency,  for  it  was  only 

a  matrimonial  and  disciplinaiy  court; 
2.  The  Fint  it  did  not  consist  of  a  single  judge,  but, 
Consistoxy,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  visitation 
at  Witten-  committees,  of  a  college  of  territorial 
berg,  1539.  "  commissaries  ''    composed    of    two 

theologians  and  two  lawyere,  who  were 
selected  from  the  younger  members  of  the  academic 
college  of  teachers.  Finally  it  lacked  executive 
power  and  specific  instructions.  In  the  absence  of 
instructions,  the  consistory  in  difficult  cases  was  to 
avail  itself  of  the  coimsel  of  Luther  "  and  the  other 
theologians  and  jurists  ";  and  in  the  autimm  of 
1540  it  was  directed  to  confer  with  BrQck,  and  then 
"  to  formulate  an  orderly  procedure  as  it  may  be 
executed,  established,  and  written  out  by  us." 
The  work  was  done  by  the  close  of  1542,  and  under 
the  title  of  ConatUutUm  und  ArtUcel  dea  geiatiichen 
CoTiaiatorii  zu  Wittenberg  it  was  published  by  Georg 
Buchholtzer  as  early  as  1563  (reprint  in  E.  Sehling, 
Kirchenordnungenf  i.,  Leipsie,  1902,  pp.  200  sqq.). 
Yet  even  this  work  remained  a  mere  plan;  and  so 
long  as  Wittenberg  belonged  to  the  Ernestine  line 
this  consistory  did  not  have  the  constitution  of 
a  formal  consistory  (cf.  Mejer,  in  ZKR,  xiii. 
28-123,  and  in  Zum  KirchenrechU  dea  Refarmar 
tiona-Jahrhundertaf  Hanover,  1891,  pp.  1  sqq.). 

Regarding  Albertine  Saxony,  the  purpose  of 
Duke  Henry  at  the  introduction  of  the  Reformation, 
of  instituting  a  consistory  at  Leipsie,  did  not  find 
realization  (cf.  E.  Sehling,  Kirchenordnungen,  i.  94). 
Duke  Maurice  duly  espoused  the  same  plan,  but 
turned  aside  to  the  project  of  restoring  the  episco- 
pal organization.  The  conferences  and  opinions  con- 
cerning the  questions  at  issue  are  of  great  interest. 
At  Merseburg  Prince  George  of  Anhalt  took  the 
conduct  of  things  in  hand  as  Evangelical  bishop; 
and  a  collegiate  board  or  consistory  was  given  to  him 
quite  in  the  Roman  manner.  At  Meissen,  where 
the  bishop  persisted  in  the  ancient  doctrine,  the 
consistory  could  be  maintained  only  temporarily. 

The  episcopal  period  reached  its  end 

3.  Other    in   1548.    The   Merseburg  consistory 

Similar     was  removed  to  Leipsie  in  1550,  and 

Attempts,   the  consistory  of  Meissen  was  later 

transferred  to  Dresden  (cf.  E.  Seh- 
ling, KirckengeaeUgebung  unter  MortU  von  SaehaeUf 
Leipsie,  1899,  pp.  13  sqq.;  Kvrchenordnungen^  i.  96 
sqq.).  Other  bodies  akin  to  the  consistories, 
though  the  term  consistory  is  not  applied  to  them 
(cf.  O.  Mejer,  Die  Orundlagen  dea  lutheriachen 
Kirchen'regimenta,  Rostock,  1864,  pp.  133  sqq.),  be- 
longing to  the  early  Reformation  period,  turn  out  in 
every  instance,  upon  closer  examination,  to  be  a  city 
council  or  deputation  of  the  same,  reenforoed  by 
one  or  more  clerical  experts.  In  the  year  1554  a 
theory  of  consistorial  organization  appeared  in  the 
book  of  Erasmus  Sarccrius:  Von  den  MiUdn  und 
Wegen^  die  rechte  und  wahre  Religion,  V)elche  una 
GoU  in  dieaen  letzten  und  gefahrlichen  Zeiten  wieder- 
um  geoffenbaret  kat,zu  bef&rdem  und  tuerhaUen, 


247 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonsifltory 


Of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  consistories  (cf . 
Mejer,  Grundlagen,  pp.  144-145)  only  special  phases 
need  be  considered  here.  For  Prussia  the  subject 
is  well  treated  by  H.  F.  Jacobson,  in  Evangeliaches 
Kirchenrecht  dea  preussischen  Staatea  (Halle,  1864, 
pp.  141  sqq.);  and  for  Saxony  by  MUUer,  in  Bei- 
tfUge  zur  addiaischen  Kirchengeschichief  ix.  and  x. 
(Leipsic,  1894).  After  the  Saxon  pattern,  com- 
posed on  collegiate  lines  of  clerical  and  non- 
clerical  members,  and  with  superintendents  as 
subordinate  officials,  the  consistories  became 
diffused  through  all  the  Lutheran 
4.  The  churches  of  Germany.  They  took 
Later  Ger-  the  place  of  the  original  district  visi- 

man  Con>  tation  committees.     They   were   not 

sistories.  mere  imitations  of  the  Saxon  prece- 
dent, but  spontaneous  products  of  the 
operation  of  the  theory  of  state  church  poUty, 
which  not  only  required  officers  for  the  protection 
of  church  property  and  of  the  outward  ecclesias- 
tical dispensation,  but  also  theological  experts  for 
the  maintenance  of  pure  doctrine  and  rightful  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments.  Accordingly,  with 
but  insignificant  variations,  the  constitution  of  the 
consistories  remains  always  the  same.  Sometimes 
consistories  were  created  to  restrict  doctrinal  dis- 
putations and  encroachments  of  clergymen  upon 
the  domain  of  ecclesiastical  discipline;  on  this 
ground  the  consistory  at  Weimar,  for  instance,  was 
called  into  existence  in  1561  (cf.  Sehling,  Kirchen- 
ordnungen,  i.  65).  Where  the  consistories  have  a 
distinctly  independent  status  they  are  said  to  be 
"  formiert  "  ;  where  they  are  adjuncts  to  temporal 
courts  or  administrative  authorities  they  are  said 
to  be  "  nuMformieriJ*  In  smaller  territories  these 
latter  were  of  frequent  occurrence;  and  imtil  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  there  was  even  a  fores- 
try board  that  was  at  the  same  time  a  conaiatorium. 
Consistories  appointed  by  the  sovereign  are  called 
immediate;  those  filled  by  authorities  subordinated 
to  civil  officials  are  called  mediate.  In  the  Refor- 
mation period  conditions  of  this  kind  arose  where 
feudatory  towns  or  great  landed  proprietors  exer- 
cised certain  rights  of  territorial  supremacy,  and  con- 
sequently rights  of  church  government  as  well;  in 
modem  times  the  mediate  consistories  were  done 
away  with  by  the  mediatizations  of  1806  and  1815. 

From  the  very  outset  consistorial  powers  have 
not  been  everywhere  the  same.  In  not  a  few  states 
they  entirely  took  the  place  of  episcopal  jurisdic- 
tion; in  others,  as  in  case  of  the  Wittenberg  con- 
sistory of  1539,  their  functions  were  more  circum- 
scribed; so  that  sometimes  consistories  are  merely 
church  courts — ^the  one  of  Mecklenburg  at  Ros- 
tock, for  instance,  was  scarcely  more  than  that; 
and  elsewhere  they  have  also  carried  with  them 
by  transfer  the  administrative  affairs  of  church 
polity,  which  are  ascribed  to  them 

5*  Powers  by  Saroerius.    In  the  former  case  ad- 

of  Con-     ministrative  affairs  devolve  upon  the 

•iitoriei.    state  chancery  or  privy  council,  and 

the  practical  knowledge  of  spiritual 

affairs  is  furnished  by  affiliated  court  preachers  or 

superintendents.    The  church-governing  privileges 

vested  in  the  consistories  are  usually  cidled  jura 

^'^^^^^;  those  reserved  to  the  peraonal  decision  of 


the  sovereign  are  called  jura  reservata.  The  con- 
sistories are  always  boards  of  the  sovereign  and 
government;  that  there  should  also  inhere  in  them 
some  independent  representation  of  the  Church  is 
a  thought  that  first  sprang  up  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  This  thought  had  its  practical  sequel  in 
certain  provisions  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  by 
virtue  of  which,  even  under  a  sovereign  of  different 
faith,  consistories  on  a  basis  of  confessional  integ- 
rity were  guaranteed.  The  point  was  overlooked, 
however,  that  in  the  same  Westphalian  peace  ne- 
gotiations church  govemment  was  expressly  char- 
acterized as  an  attribute  of  state  supremacy,  and 
that  nothing  more  was  contemplated  than  that 
the  state  sovereign  must  exercise  such  rights 
through  officers  of  the  respective  confession. 

According  to  the  principle  of  the  State's  ctutodia 
prioris  tabulcBf  wl^ch  obtained  in  govemment 
praxis  far  into  the  eighteenth  century,  the  subjects 
of  the  State  stood  without  exception  under  the 
church-governing  surveillance  of  the  territorial 
sovereignty.  They  were  also  subject  as  a  body  to 
the  sovereign  authorities  with  respect  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  this  jurisdiction.  Thus,  not  only 
Protestants  who  did  not  belong  to  the  state  church, 
but  likewise  Roman  Catholics  and  even  Jews  were 
under  the  consistories.    The  consistory  as  mod- 

emly  developed  had  up  to  that  time 
6.  Modem  enjoyed    not    only    church-governing 
Modifies-   functions,  but  also-— because  no  distinc- 
tions,      tion  was  made — functions  of  church 

sovereignty;  and  the  pioneer  expo- 
nents of  the  tolerance  principle,  who  Ukewise  had 
not  yet  learned  sufficiently  to  distinguish  between 
the  two  spheres  of  activity,  now  came  to  attribute 
to  church  polity,  in  its  general  scope,  only  what 
were  essentially  church  sovereignty  problems; 
hence,  too,  as  reacting  against  false  theories  of 
office,  they  could  seriously  debate  the  question 
whether  the  importation  of  theologians  into  the 
consistories  were  not  superfluous.  Nor  was  it  the 
less  in  accord  herewith  that  Reformed  or  Catholic 
officers  were  occasionally  appointed  to  Lutheran 
consistories.  It  was  a  more  wholesome  develop- 
ment from  the  time  of  the  absolute  poUce  regime 
that  after  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  over  ecclesiastical 
persons  and  affairs  was  withdrawn  more  and  more 
from  the  consistories,  as  likewise  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  prelatical  authorities,  and  transferred  to 
the  ordinary  courts.  Even  the  jurisdiction  in 
matrimonial  concerns  was  at  last  taken  from  them, 
so  that  apart  from  their  administrative  business, 
they  retain  simply  a  corrective  jurisdiction  over 
official  transgressions,  and  on  occasion  a  denuncia- 
tory prerogative  that  goes  with  their  exercise  of 
ecclesiastical  supervision.  (For  the  law  as  now  in 
force  cf.  £.  Friedberg,  Verfaaaunga-Recht  der  evati' 
gdischm  Landeakirchen,  Leipsic,  1888.)  From  the 
consistorial  organization  is  to  be  distinguished  the 
synodal,  in  virtue  of  which  the  Chiuxsh  governs  itself 
by  means  of  committees — sjmods,  presbyteries,  etc. 
(see  Presbyter;  and  Presbyterians);  and  the 
so-called  mixed  form  of  church  organization  preva- 
lent in  Germany  to-day,  which  combines  both  these 
theories  of  organization.  E.  Sebung. 


Oonstanoe 
Oonstantine 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


248 


For  the  organization  of  the  Lutheran  churches 
in  America  see  Lttthbranb.  In  the  Reformed 
Dutch  and  Reformed  French  churches  the  consis- 
tory is  an  ecclesiastical  court  corresponding  to  the 
Presbyterian  session  in  the  former,  and  to  the  pres- 
bytery in  the  latter;  in  the  Church  of  England  it 
is  a  diocesan  court  presided  over  by  the  chancellor 
of  the  diocese. 

CONSTAlfCE,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  The  origin  of  the 
see  of  Constance  can  not  be  positively  determined. 
In  the  Roman  period  no  bishopric  is  mentioned  in 
northwestern  Helvetia;  but  among  the  subscrip- 
tions to  the  Burgundian  Synod  of  Epao  (517)  and 
the  Frankish  synods  of  Orleans  (541,  549)  occur 
the  names  of  two  bishops  of  Vindonissa,  a  name 
which  is  still  preserved  in  that  of  the  village  of 
Windisch  at  the  confluence  of  the  Aar  and  the  Reuss. 
This  was  the  headquarters  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  legions,  and  it  is  likely  that  a  Christian 
church  existed  there  in  Roman  days.  The  last 
mention  of  such  a  bishopric  is  the  signature  of  Gram- 
maticus  as  epiacopua  ecdesia  UindunnensiB  in  549. 
Early  in  the  seventh  century  a  good  authority,  the 
Vita  Columbani,  mentions  a  bishop  in  one  of  the 
"  neighbor  "  towns  to  Bregens.  The  nearest  epis- 
copal sees  are  Augsburg,  Chur,  and  Vindonissa; 
but  none  of  these  could  quite  be  called  vieina  tarha. 
It  is  a  natural  supposition,  therefore,  that  the  town 
of  Constance,  founded  at  the  end  of  the  Roman 
period,  was  at  this  time  an  episcopal  see,  which 
probably  replaced  that  of  Vindonissa  between 
549  and  610.  It  included  all  the  territory  of  the 
Alemanni  not  included  in  the  older  dioceses  of  Chur, 
Augsburg,  Strasburg,  and  Basel,  and  extended  from 
the  Aar  and  the  Rbdne  to  the  lUer,  and  from  the 
middle  course  of  the  Neckar  to  the  St.  Gk>thard, 
including  the  Swabian  highlands — thus  embracing 
the  greater  part  of  modem  Wttrttemberg,  southern 
Baden,  central  and  northeastern  Switzerland.  No 
German  diocese  was  so  rich  in  prominent  monas- 
teries; among  the  best-known  may  be  mentioned 
St.  Gall,  Reichenau,  Kempten,  Zurich,  lindau, 
Einsiedeln,  St.  Blasien,  Petershausen,  Muri,  and 
Weingarten.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Originally  subject  to  the  archbishop  of  Besan^on, 
Constance  was  placed  under  the  jiurisdiction  of  Mainz 
when  the  latter  was  raised  by  Boniface  to  the  dig- 
nity of  the  metropolitan  see  of  Grermany.  Here 
as  elsewhere  during  the  Middle  Ages,  canonical 
election  of  the  bishops  gave  way  to  royal  nomina- 
tion, and  probably  all  the  bishops  of  the  eleventh 
century  owed  their  elevation  to  this  source.  Otto  I. 
(1071-^)  was  a  strong  partisan  of  Henry  IV.,  and, 
though  the  two  bishops  who  covered  the  period  from 
1127  to  1165  were  canonically  chosen,  during  the 
struggle  with  Barbarossa  Constance  was  usually  on 
the  side  of  the  imperial  claimant  of  the  papacy. 
In  1220  the  process  of  acquiring  the  temporal 
dignity  of  a  prince  of  the  empire  for  the  bishop  was 
completed,  though  the  secular  jiurisdiction  em- 
braced only  twenty-two  square  niiles,  only  a  small 
part  of  the  diocese,  and  did  not  include  the  see  city. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  contested  papal  and 
episcopal  elections  brought  much  imrest,  until  the 
long  rule  of  Henry  III.  of  Brandis,  abbot  of  Einsie- 


deln (1357-83),  restored  order.  At  the  Reforma- 
tion most  of  the  Swiss  part  of  the  diocese  adopted 
the  new  religion,  while  Duke  Ulrich  introduced 
Protestantism  into  WUrttemberg  in  1534.  The 
city  of  Constance  declared  for  Zwinglian  tenets,  and 
was  one  of  the  four  towns  which  presented  the 
Tetrapolitan  Confession  (q.v.)  at  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg in  1530.  In  1526  the  bishop  transferred  his 
residence  to  Meerstadt,  where  his  successors  pre- 
ferred to  remain,  even  after  the  victory  of  the  im- 
perial arms  had  crushed  out  both  the  Protestantism 
and  the  freedom  of  the  city.  But  though  the  dio- 
cese had  come  through  many  perils  without  hopeless 
loss,  it  fell  a  victim  to  the  changes  brought  about  by 
the  French  Revolution.  The  Peace  of  Lun6\ille 
(1802)  abolished  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the 
bishop,  which  was  divided  between  Baden  and 
Switzerland.  The  bishopric  itself  went  down  in 
the  general  upheaval,  and  the  Swiss  territory,  after 
being  administered  for  a  time  by  a  vicar-apostolic, 
was  assigned  to  the  sees  of  Basel,  Chur,  and  St.  GaO, 
that  nowinWtlrttemberg  to  the  new  see  of  Rotten- 
berg,  and  the  Bavarian  section  to  Augsburg.  The 
last  vestige  of  the  old  diocese  disappeared  in  1S21, 
when  the  small  remainder  was  incorporated  with 
the  diocese  of  Freiburg,  the  metropolitan  see  of  the 
new  province  of  the  Upper  Rhine. 
Bibuoorapht:  Sources  are  in  Wirtemberoi9ehg»  Vrkunden^ 

hueh^  6  Tola..  Stuttgart.  1849-64;  Reo^aia  Badanaia,  ed. 

C.  G.  DOms^.  OarlBTuhe,  1839;  MOH,  Script,  xiii  (1881). 

324  Bqq.,  zv  (1888).  1023-24.  1284  aqq.;  ReoeataepUcopo- 

rum  Corutantiafmum,  2Tob..  Innsbniok,  1894-06.   Consult: 

Rettberg.  KD,  ii.  98  sqq.;  Friedrieh,  KD,  2  rols.;  Hauck. 

KD,  vols.  L-iiL;    E.  Egli,  Kirt^angaadiuAU  tUr  SduatiM, 

Zurich,  1893. 

CONSTAlfCE,  COUNCIL  OF:  The  second  of  the 
three  "  reforming  councils  "  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  was  called  by  Pope  John  XXIII.  and  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund,  and  sat  from  Nov.  5,  1414,  to  Apr. 
22,  1418.  Its  three  great  objects  were  to  heal  the 
papal  schism  (see  Schism),  to  examine  the  heresy  of 
Wyclif  and  Huss  and  the  religious  disturbances 
thereby  caused  in  Bohemia,  and  to  carry  through  a 
general  reform  of  the  Church.  It  was  attended  by 
twenty-nine  cardinals,  three  patriarchs,  thirty-three 
archbishops,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  bishops, 
more  than  one  hundred  abbots,  a  larger  number  of 

professors  and  doctors  of  theology  and 

General     canon  law,  and  more  than  5,000  monks, 

Character,  besides  princes,  noblemen,   ambasssr 

dors,  etc.  Beside  an  ecclesiastical  as- 
sembly a  general  European  congress  was  in  prog- 
ress. The  number  of  strangers  in  Constance  is  put 
by  the  lowest  estimate  at  50,0(X),  and  among  them 
such  characters  as  money-lenders,  strolling  actors, 
and  low  women  were  well  represented.  The  pope 
rode  into  the  city  on  Oct.  28,  with  great  magnifi- 
cence, sixteen  hundred  horses  carrying  his  retinue 
and  luggage.  The  emperor  arriv^  on  Christmas 
Eve  with  an  imposing  following.  The  most  promi- 
nent and  most  influential  members  of  the  council 
were  Pierre  d'Ailly  and  Jean  Gerson,  who  soon 
became  its  soul. 

The  Council  of  Pisa  (1409)  had  attempted  to 
put  an  end  to  the  schism  by  deposing  both  Gr^ry 
XII.,  who  resided  in  Rome,  and  Benedict  XIIL, 
who  resided  at  Avignon,  and  electing  in  their  stead 


i249 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonstance 
Oonatantine 


Alexander  V.  But  the  result  was  simply  that 
there  now  were  three  popes  instead  of  two;  and 
the  confusion  continued  unabated,  when,  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  V.  (1410),  the  leaders  of  the 
Pisan  council  elected  John  XXIII.  All  three  popes 
were  invited  to  Constance,  but  only  John  was  pres- 
ent. He  was  crafty  and  unscrupulous,  dissolute 
and  avaricious;  but  he  was  courageous,  shrewd, 
inexhaustible  in  shifts  and  intrigues. 
The  Queft-  and  equal  to  any  emergency.  He 
tion  of  the  hoped  to  control  the  council  by  means 
Schism,  of  the  very  great  number  of  Italian 
prelates,  who,  mostly  dependent  upon 
him,  accompanied  him  to  Constance.  But  in  this 
he  failed.  The  order  of  business  adopted  (Feb.  7, 
1415)  on  the  proposal  of  the  English  was  that  of 
working  and  voting  by  nations;  and  in  the  plenary 
sessions  the  Italian  nation,  had,  of  course,  only  one 
vote  beside  the  other  nations — the  German,  French, 
English,  and,  after  the  deposition  of  Benedict  XIII., 
the  Spanish.  Each  nation  formed  an  efficient 
organization,  in  which,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the 
pope,  his  chief  opponents — the  doctors,  the  lower 
clergy,  the  princes  and  their  representatives — had 
voice  and  vote.  John  now  endeavored  to  urge  upon 
the  assembly  the  view  that  the  Council  of  Constance 
was  nothing  but  a  continuation  of  that  of  Pisa,  which 
had  formally  condemned  his  two  rivals,  and,  in- 
directly at  least,  legitimized  his  own  election. 
But  in  this,  too,  he  fa^ed;  and  the  party  of  Pierre 
d'Ailly  finally  succeeded  in  carrying  a  motion  that 
the  three  popes  should  be  compelled  to  abdicate, 
and  a  new  election  take  place.  John  abdicated 
in  the  hope  of  being  reelected;  but  he  soon  became 
aware  of  his  mistake,  fled  in  the  disguise  of  a  groom 
(Mar.  20,  1415),  protested,  was  caught,  and  was 
finally  brought  to  acquiesce  in  the  decisions  of  the 
council.  In  its  fifth  plenary  session  (Apr.  6,  1415) 
the  assembly  agreed  that  an  ecumenical  council, 
legally  convened,  and  fully  representative  of  the 
Church,  has  its  power  directly  from  Christ,  and  that 
its  decrees  are  consequently  obligatory  on  all,  even 
on  the  pope.  May  29,  1415,  John  XXIII.  was 
deposed;  July  4  Gregory  XII.  voluntarily  abdi- 
cated; July  26,  1417,  Benedict  XIII.  was  deposed; 
and  Nov.  11,  1417,  Cardinal  Oddo  CJolonna  was 
elected  pope,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Martin  V., 
who  closed  the  council  Apr.  22,  1418,  at  its  forty- 
fifth  session. 

The  Bohemian  affairs  were  treated  with  great 
thoroughness;  for  Huss  was  burned  July  6,  1415, 
and  Jerome  of  Prague,  May  30,  1416.    But  a  final 
settlement  was  not  arrived  at,  still  less  a  satisfac- 
tory one  (see  Huss,  John,  Hussites).    Still  more 
conspicuously  the  council  failed  in  its 
The  Hus-   reform   plans.    A  collegium  reforma- 
site  Heresy  torium  was  formed  in  Aug.,  1415;  but, 
and  Ques-  characteristically  enough  for  the  whole 
tion  of      situation,    when    Cardinal    Zabarella 
Reform,     read  aloud  to  the  assembly  the  decree 
of  Apr.  16,  1415,  he  wilfully  left  out 
the  passage  it  contained  on  the  power  of  the  council 
to  imderUJce  reforms  in  the  CJhurch.     It  was  the 
lower  clergy,  the  monks,  the  doctors,  and  pro- 
fessors,   led   by   Pierre  d'Ailly  and  Gerson,   and 
supported  by  the  emperor,  who  demanded  reforms. 


But  they  were  unable  to  agree  among  themselves, 
and  the  abuses  in  which  reforms  were  necessary— 
such  as  the  appeals  to  the  pope,  and  the  papal  proce- 
dure, the  achninistration  of  vacant  benefices,  and 
the  giving  in  commendam,  simony,  dispensations, 
indulgences,  etc. — were  the  sources  from  which  the 
pope,  the  cardinals,  and  the  huge  swarm  of  eccle- 
siastical officials  in    Rome    drew  their  principal 
revenues.     In   fighting  against  reforms,   the  car- 
dinals fought  for  their  very  existence,  and  they 
proved  unconquerable.     In  the  thirty-ninth  session 
(Oct.  9,  1417)  the  few  articles  upon  which  agree- 
ment was  reached  were  approved  and  the  decree 
Frequena  was  issued,  providing  for  another  council 
after  five  years,  a  second  seven  years  later,  and 
thereafter  one  every  ten  years.     Eighteen  specific 
reforms  were  brought  forward,  which  the  new  pope 
should  arrange  with  the  council  or  "  the  deputies 
of  the  nations."    The  emperor  wished  the  ques- 
tion of  reform  discussed  and  decided  before  the 
election  of  a  new  pope;  but  the  cardinals  declared 
that  the  worst  ailing  of  the  Church  was  its  lack  of 
a  head,  and  when  Martin  V.  was  elected  he  under- 
stood how  to  bury  the  whole  affair  quietly  and 
smoothly,  by  grave  hesitations  and  cautious  pro- 
crastinations. (B.  Bebs.) 
Biblxoorapht:  Soutom  are:  Ulrich  von  Raohenthal,  Chro- 
nik  d$*  Conataruer  CannU,  ed.  M.  R.  Buck,  Stattsart, 
1882;  H.  van  der  Hardt,  Magnutn  ConatanlienM    eond- 
Hum,  7  Tola.,  Frankfort  and  Berlin.  1698-1742;  Acta  eon^ 
eilii  ConatancUn§i»,  ed.  H.  Finke,  vol.  i.,  MOnster,  1806; 
Manai,  Concilia,  vob.  xzvL-zxvii.    Conault:  J.  Lenfant, 
Hittoin  du  eoncile  de  CorMtonee,  2  vols.,    Amsterdam, 
1727,  Eng.  tranal.,  London,  1730;  F.  Steinhausen,  Aiup- 
leeta  ad  hutoriatn  eoncUii  .  .  .  CorutanHm,  Berlin,  1862; 
J.   Oaro,  Aim  der  Kandei   Kaiter    Siffiamunds    urkuttd- 
lidie  BeitrAo*  *vr  OatdiidUe  d$»  Conatatuer  CondU,  Vienna, 
1879;  B.   Bess,    Zur  OetehiehU  dea  Konatanaer  Konaila, 
Marburg,   1801;  B.  Fromme,  Dis  apaniache  Nation  und 
daa  Konatanaar  Konsil,   2  parts,   MOnster,    1894-96;  H. 
Blumenthal,    Dia    Voroaachichte  daa   Conakmaer   Comila, 
Halle.  1897;  L.  Salembier.  La  Grand  Schxame  d'Ocddent, 
Paris,    1900;  J.   H.   Wylie.   Council  of  Conatanea  to  the 
Daath  of  John  Hua,  London,  1900;  Hefele,  Concilianoa- 
achidkla,   vols.  vi.-yii.;  Milman,    Latin   CkriaHanity,    yii. 
426-624;  Pastor,  Popaa,  i.  194-207;  Creighton,  Papacy, 
i.  228.  307-346,  ii.  26-126;  also  the  literature  dted  under 
Hobs,  John. 

CONSTAimNE    THE    GREAT  AND    HIS    SONS. 

I.  Constantine  the  Great. 

CSonstantine's  Father.  Constantius  (I  1). 

Constantine's  Mother,  Helena  (I  2). 

Political  Disorders,  306-311  (§  3). 

Constantine's  Conversion.     The  Edict  of  Milan  (|  4). 

Constantine's  Later  Life  and  Reign  (§  5). 

His  Cautious  and  Wise  Policy  (§  6). 

Legal  Gains  of  Christianity  (§  7). 

Constantine  Opposed  to  Paganism  from  the  First  (|  8). 

Political  Value  of  Religious  Unity  (|  9). 

Constantine's  Personality  (|  10). 
II.  Constantine's  Sons. 

1.  Constantine  II. 

2.  Constantius  II. 

3.  Constans. 

L  Constantine  the  Great  (Flavins  Valerius  Oon- 
Btantinus):  Roman  emperor  305-337;  b.  atNaissus, 
in  Upper  McBsia  (the  present  Naissa  or  Nish,  130 
m.  s.e.  of  Belgrade,  in  Servia),  probably  288;  d. 
at  Achyrona,  a  suburb  of  Nicomedia,  May  22,  337. 
A  proper  understanding  of  0>nstantine's  early  life 
requires  a  knowledge  of  the  history  and  personality 
of  his  father,  Flavins  Valerius  0>nstantius  (the  sur- 
name Chlorus  comes  into  use  only  with  later  By- 


Oonxmd  of  Gtolnhansen 
OonaalTi 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


240 


CONRAD  OF  6ELNHAXJSEN:  Theologian  and 
scholar;  b.  in  the  Electoral  Palatinate  1320;  d. 
at  Heidelberg  1390.  His  name  first  appears  in 
1344  as  member  of  the  faculty  of  the  University  of 
Paris.  In  a  document  of  the  following  year  he  is 
mentioned  as  provost  at  St.  Maurice.  In  1363  he 
was  canon  in  Mainz  and  later  became  provost  at 
Worms.  He  was  procurator  of  the  German  nation 
in  Bologna  as  early  as  13G9,  and  obtained  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  canon  law  there.  Then  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
theology,  and  finished  his  theological  studies  prob- 
ably in  Prague.  After  1387  he  was  in  Heidelberg, 
a  doctor  of  theology  and  chancellor  of  the  imiver^ 
sity.  His  collection  of  books  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  university  library.  Among  them  were  four 
theological  writings  of  his  own:  Sermonea;  Quces- 
tiones  ;  Circa  serUerUias  ;  and  Swper  librum  Cantica 
CarUicorum, 

Conrad's  fame  rests  upon  the  Epiatola  concordice 
which  he  wrote  in  Paris  in  May,  1380,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Charles  V.  of  France,  after  giving  this  sov- 
ereign in  the  preceding  year  the  same  advice  in  a 
shorter  form;  viz.,  to  cooperate  with  other  princes 
in  calling  a  general  council  without  the  popes.  Ap- 
pealing expressly  to  Thomas  Aquinas,  but  in  real- 
ity leaning  upon  Occam  and  developing  his  ideas, 
he  argued  logically  from  the  acknowledged  supe- 
riority of  the  Catholic  Church  that  the  exceptional 
circumstances  of  the  schism  exempted  from  the 
letter  of  the  law  and  justified  the  meeting  of  a 
council  without  papal  convocation.  He  did  not 
advance  beyond  this  step;  but  his  work  became 
the  basis  upon  which  Henry  of  Langenstein  (q.v.) 
and  the  conciliar  theologians  continued  to  build. 

(B.  Bess.) 
Biblzooeapht:  Th«  Epiatola  coneordicB  is  edited  in  E.  Mar- 
line and  U.  Durand,  T?uaaunu  noviu  aneedotorum,  ii. 
1717,  pp.  1200-28,  ParU,  1717.  Consult:  F.  J.  ScheufiF- 
gen,  BeUrUge  sttr  OeachicfUe  dea  grouen  Sdiimneu^  pp.  75- 
91,  Freibuis,  1889;  A.  Kneer,  Die  EnUt^ung  der  kotuili- 
arm  Theorie,  Rome,  1893;  K.  Wenok,  in  HiBtoriaehe  Zeit- 
aehrift,  new  series,  xl.,  1896. 

CONRAD  OF  MARBURG:  Inquisitor-general  of 
Germany;  killed  at  Marburg  July  30,  1233.  The 
year  of  his  birth  is  not  known,  and  it  is  not  certain 
whether  he  was  a  Dominican  or  a  Franciscan.  He 
was  selected  by  Gregory  IX.  for  the  piirpose  of  in- 
troducing the  papal  inquisition  into  Germany  (see 
Inquisition).  He  first  appears  probably  in  con- 
nection with  the  great  auto  da  f^  which  was  held 
at  Strasburg  1212.  On  June  17,  1227,  a  bull  for 
the  extirpation  of  heresy  (RipoU,  Bvilarium  ord. 
prced,,  L,  Rome,  1729,  p.  20)  gave  him  full  power 
in  the  matter;  and  his  powers  were  still  further 
increased  by  Gregory's  chief  bull  against  heresy  in 
Germany  (Hartzheim,  Concilia  Germanics,  iii.  540). 
When  Frederick  II.  gave  imperial  confirmation  to 
the  severe  papal  measures  against  heretics  (Mar^, 
1232),  then  "  began  the  flame  to  get  power  over 
mortals "  (Annales  Colonienaes  maximi,  MGH, 
Script,  xvii.,  1861,  p.  843).  Conrad  now  pro- 
ceeded, with  the  assistance  of  certain  colleagues 
(e.g.,  the  Dominican  Droso),  to  utilize  this  un- 
limited power,  which  even  dispensed  him  from  ob- 
serving ordinary  forms  of  trial;  and  so  led  count- 
less   victims   to   death.    The   fact   is   confirmed 


especially  by  the  report  of  Bishop  Siegfried  III.  of 
Mainz  to  Gregory  IX.  {MGH,  Script,  xxiii.,  1874, 
p.  931);  and  in  the  face  of  its  evidence,  the  latter- 
day  Roman  Catholic  apology  for  Conrad  0>y  the 
Jesuit  Pfalf,  in  KL,  vii.  951)  is  ineffectuaL  In 
1233,  after  he  had  vainly  endeavored  to  draw  the 
German  princes  into  a  more  eager  persecution  of 
heresy,  Conrad  brought  one  of  their  number,  Count 
von  Sayn,  before  the  tribunal,  but  the  count  con- 
trived to  vindicate  himself  before  a  synod  at  Mainz. 
Conrad  next  assembled  a  veritable  crusaders'  army; 
but  at  this  juncture  his  fate  swiftly  overtook  him, 
and  he  was  slain  by  certain  Hessian  knights,  while 
traveling  to  Marburg. 

A  second  occasion  of  interest  in  Conrad's  career 
is  his  relation  to  the  pious  Landgravine  Elizabeth 
of  Thuringia.  He  is  a  typical  Roman  Catholic  spiri- 
tual guide,  to  whom  the  confiding  penitent  sur- 
renders blindly  (see  Elizabeth,  Saint).  The 
view  that  Conrad's  excessive  zeal  in  the  perse- 
cution of  heretics  is  accountable  for  the  fact  that 
the  papal  Inquisition  was  unable  to  assert  itself  io 
Germany  is  erroneous;  after  his  death  there  still 
occurred  (1234  and  1235)  cases  of  the  burning  of 
heretics  at  the  stake  by  papal  inquisitors,  and  even 
down  to  the  fourteenth  century  such  cases  re- 
curred again  and  again.  The  fact  is,  the  same  In- 
quisition was  powerfully  supported  in  the  four- 
teenth century  by  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  and 
exacted  numberless  victims  in  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
and  in  parts  of  North  Grermany. 

K.  Benrath. 
Biblioobaphy:  Oe$ta  Treverorum,  ContinuaUo  IV.,  ed.  G. 
WaitB,  in  MOH,  Script.,  xxiv  (1879).  390-404;  A.  Hsus- 
rath,  Der  Ketxermeieter  Konrad  von  Marburg,  Marburg, 
1861;  E.  L.  T.  Henke.  Konrad  von  Marburg,  ib.  1861; 
L.  Cuno,  Conrad  von  Marburg,  ib.  1877;  B.  Kaltner,  Kon- 
rad von  Marburg  und  die  InquiaiHon  in  Deuiachland, 
Prague.  1822;  H.  C.  I^a,  Hiet.  of  the  Inquintion,  ii.  325- 
341,  New  York.  1006;  K.  Benrath.  in  Deutech-evange- 
Uache  BUUter,  part  6,  Halle.  1901. 

CONRING,  HERMAim  (Hermannus  Canringius): 
German  theologian;  b.  at  Norden  (75  m.  n.w.  of 
Bremen)  Nov.  9,  1606;  d.  at  Hehnstadt  (21  m.  e. 
of  Brunswick)  Dec.  12,  1681.  He  studied  at 
Helmst&dt  and  Leyden,  was  appointed  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  at  Helmstadt  in  1632,  and 
was  transferred  to  the  medical  faculty  five  years 
later.  In  1650  he  was  made  physician  to  the  queen 
of  Sweden,  and  eleven  years  later  became  privy 
councilor  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick.  He  received 
a  pension  from  Louis  XIV.  in  1664,  and  in  1669 
was  appointed  councilor  of  state  by  the  king  of 
Denmark.  Conring's  wealth  of  learning,  like  his 
legal  and  diplomatic  knowledge,  was  devoted  to 
proving  that  the  Protestant  Church  was  entitled 
to  exist  as  a  part  of  the  Church  catholic.  In  this 
spirit  he  wrote  his  De  constittUione  episcoporum 
GermanioB  (Helmst&dt,  1647),  and  in  the  same  year 
prepared  an  annotated  edition  of  the  letters  of  Leo 
III.  to  Charlemagne.  In  his  De  conciliia  et  circa  ea 
summa  potestatia  auctorUaie  (1650)  he  asserted  the 
right  of  the  emperor  and  the  estates  to  convene, 
conduct,  and  confirm  plenary  councils,  and  also  to 
enact  ecclesiastical  rulings  without  their  aid,  while 
in  the  following  year  his  De  elecHone  Urbani  IX. 
et  Innocentii  X.  porUificum  assailed  the  method  of 


841 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonrad  of  GMnhaaaen 
Oonsalvi 


electing  popes.  The  Roman  Catholic  propaganda 
which  had  resulted  in  the  conversion  of  his  close 
friend  Baron  Johann  Christian  von  Boyneburg 
evoked  two  polemic  works  from  his  pen,  the  De- 
fensio  ecdesicB  Protestantium  adveraum  duo  pon- 
tificiorum  argumenta  (1654),  in  which  he  impugned 
the  doctrine  that  a  Church  is  invalid  without  apos- 
tolic succession,  and  Fundamentarum  fidei  jxm- 
tificice  conciLSsio  (1654),  denying  that  either  the 
pope  or  an  ecumenical  coimcil  was  the  infallible 
representative  of  God  on  earth  in  matters  of  faith 
and  conduct.  This  called  forth  a  series  of  refu- 
tations, to  which  Conring  replied  in  the  same  year 
with  vigor.  He  also  essayed  irenics,  and  in  his 
posthumous  De  scriptoribtta  sedecim  post  Chriatum 
natum  sceculorum  commerUaritu  (1705)  discussed 
the  Church  Fathers,  and  in  his  De  Germanorwn 
imperio  Romano  (1644)  considered  the  changed 
legiad  relations  existing  between  emperor  and  pope. 
He  likewise  touched  on  dogmatics,  exegesis,  and 
criticism  in  works  of  minor  importance 

(E.  HENKBf.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Opera,  ed.  J.  W.  Qoebel,  inoomplete, 
in  7  vola.,  appeazed,  BruoBwiok.  1730.  ConBult:  O. 
Stobbe.  H,  Conrinif,  Berlin.  1870;  K.  F.  H.  Marx.  Zur 
Erinnerung  der  OrMtliehen  Wirk9amkeit  H.  Conrinfftt  G6t- 
tingen.  1873. 

CONSALVI,    ERGOLE:    Italian    cardinal    and 
diplomat;  b.  at  Rome  June  8,  1757;  d.  there  Jan. 
24,  1824.     He  received  his  early  education  at  the 
school  of  the  Piarists  at  Urbino,  which  he  left  to 
enter  the  college  founded  by  Cardinal  Henry  of  York 
at  Frascati.     The  youth's  talents  won  the  favor  of 
the  cardinal  duke.     From  Frascati  he  went  to  the 
ecclesiastical  academy  at  Rome.     On 
Early      leaving  the  Academy  in   1783,  he  re- 
Life  and     ceived  a  post  in  the  papal  household, 
Training,    and  aided  by  the  influence  of  his  kins- 
man, Cardinal  Negroni,  moved  rapidly 
through  several  grades  of  office,  receiving  in  1792 
the  post  of  auditor  for  Rome  at  the  Roman  Rota. 
He  became  so  prominent  a  figure  in  the  churchly 
and  noble  circles  of  Rome  and  Frascati  that   he 
gained  the  sobriquet  of  "  Monsignore  Everywhere." 
He  was  military  assessor  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of 
the  French  Directory,  and  when  the  latter  com- 
pelled Pius  VI.  to  leave  Rome,  Consalvi,  after  suf- 
fering a  short  term  of  imprisonment  in  the  castle  of 
St.  Angelo,  made  his  way  to  Venice  where  he  was 
chosen  secretary  of  the  conclave  that  met  to  elect 
a  successor  to  Pius  VI. 

By  Pius  Vll.  he  was  created  secretary  of  state 
Aug.  11,  1800,  and  at  the  same  time  was  made  car- 
dinal deacon  of  St.  Agata  in  Suburra.  Thence- 
forth he  appeared  as  the  prime  mover  of  the  papal 
diplomacy.  The  first  task  to  which  he  applied 
hixnself  was  the  negotiation  of  a  concordat  with  the 
French  Republic,  which  was  successfully  accom- 
plished July  15, 1801  (see  Concordats,  VI.,  1,  §  1). 
Napoleon's  innovations,  as  Consalvi  admitted,  en- 
tirely annulled  the  results  of  his  now  laborious 
efforts.  Napoleon  knew  him  as  his  opponent  and 
m  1806,  when  the  French  emperor  submitted  to 
the  pope  a  plan  for  a  defensive  alliance  coupled 
with  the  recognition  of  the  pope  as  sovereign  in 
Rome  and  of  Napoleon  as  Holy  Roman  emperor,  he 
1X1.-16 


declared  that,  if  Consalvi  refused  to  acquiesce  in 
the  proposition,  it  would  be  better  for  him  to  re- 
tue  from  his  post.  The  proposal  was  rejected, 
and  in  June,  1806,  Consalvi  was  superseded  by 
Cardinal  Casoni. 

When  in  1809  Pius  VII.  was  deported  from  Rome 
Napoleon  summoned  the  college  of  cardinals  to 
assemble  at  Paris,  partly  from  the  desire  to  add 
the  luster  of  their  presence  to  the  celebration  of 
his  marriage  to  Marie  Louise,  partly 
Diplo-  that  he  might  hold  them  under  his 
matic  immediate  influence  in  case  of  the 
Achieve-  death  of  Pius  VII.  Consalvi  arrived  at 
ments.  Paris  in  February,  1810.  He  was  one 
of  the  thirteen  "  black "  cardinals 
who  refrained  from  attending  the  marriage  cere- 
mony of  the  emperor,  thereby  arousing  the  anger  of 
Napoleon  to  the  point  where  he  threatened  the 
ex-secretary  of  state  with  death.  His  property 
was  sequestrated,  with  that  of  the  other  twelve,  he 
was  forbidden  to  display  the  insignia  of  his  rank, 
and  was  ordered  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Reims, 
where  he  composed  his  Mimoires  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1864;  2d  ed.,  1866).  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
Concordat  of  Fontainebleau  (Jan.  25,  1813;  see 
Concordats,  VI.,  1,  §  3)  he  tookup  his  residence  with 
Pius  VII.  Upon  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  was  sent 
to  Paris  as  representative  of  the  papal  interests  in 
the  council  of  the  powers,  and  in  the  same  capacity 
he  visited  London  and  attended  the  Congress  of 
Vienna.  There  he  revealed  a  depth  of  insight  and 
suppleness  of  spirit  which  aroused  the  admiration  of 
the  pope  and  the  Viennese  diplomats.  Thoroughly 
a  modem,  he  fought  zealously  for  the  interests  of 
the  Church  without  deluding  himself  with  medieval 
conceptions  of  the  rights  and  powers  of  the  papacy. 
Article  103  of  the  Peace  of  Vienna  restored  to  the 
Church  possession  of  the  districts  of  Camerino, 
Beneventum,  and  Pontecorvo,  and  the  legations  of 
Ravenna,  Bologna,  and  Ferrara,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  strip  of  territory  included  within  the 
last,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Po.  "  His  was  the 
boldest  and  keenest  game  played  on  the  green 
table,"  said  Talleyrand  to  Mettemich. 

Before  leaving  Vienna,  Consalvi  pledged  him- 
self to  the  powers  to  put  an  end  to  the  sacerdotal 
regime  in  Rome,  a  promise  which  he  found  im- 
possible to  keep.    For  the  government  of  the  States 
of  the  Church  he  issued  a  code  of  laws  which  aimed 
at  their  reduction  to  a  centralized  and  unifonnly 
organized  principality.    The  papal  territories  were 
divided  into  seventeen  delegations,  each  under  the 
authority  of  a  prelate  exercising  functions  similar 
to  those  of  the  prefect  of  a  department 
Failure     in  France.     In  the  administration  of 
and  Re-    affairs  he  was  opposed  by  the  zealots 
tirement    imder  Cardinal  Pacca,  who  detested 
Consalvi  as  the  representative  of  mod- 
em and  worldly  ideals.    After  1815  he  was  en- 
gaged in  the  negotiation  of  a  series  of  concordats  by 
which  the  relations  of  the  Church  with  every  Catho- 
lic state  but  Austria  were  regulated  anew.     In  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1820  he  showed  him- 
self resolutely  opposed  to  all  concession,  and  with 
the  help  of  the  Austrian  troops  order  was  main- 
tained in  the  legations.    Soon,  however,  his  rela- 


OonBoienoe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


242 


lions  with  the  Austrian  government  became 
strained  and  it  was  the  opposition  of  that  power 
which  destroyed  his  chances  of  being  chosen  suc- 
cessor to  Pius  VII.,  whose  death  occurred  Aug.  20, 
1823.  Upon  the  election  of  Leo  XII.  Consalvi 
went  into  retirement.  During  the  height  of  his 
t>ower  after  the  Congress  of  Vienna  he  had  been  a 
patron  of  the  arts,  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen  being 
among  those  who  enjoyed  his  protection. 

(F.  NlELSBNt.) 
Bzbuoorapht:  CorrMpandanee  du  .  .  .  Conaalvi  avee  ,  .  . 
MeUtmidt,  1816-tS,  ed.  C.  van  Duerm.  LouvBin.  1809; 
N.  P.  S.  Wiaeman,  IUcolUtiion»  of  the  Laat  Four  Pope; 
London.  1860;  F.  Nielsen,  OeachichU  dee  Papetthume  im 
19.  Jahrhundert,  vol.  i..  Goth*.  1880.  Eng.  transl..  New 
York,  1006:  L.  8^h^,  Lee  Originee  du  concordat,  Paris. 
1804;  Mimoiree  du  Cardinal  Conealvi,  introduction  par 
J.  CreUneau-Joly,  new  ed.,  published  by  J.  £.  B.  Dro- 
•hon.  ib.  1805;  E.  L.  Fischer,  Cardinal  Conaalvi,  LAene- 
imd  CAoroMerbOd.  Mains.  1800. 

CONSCIENCE. 

Origin  of  the  Term  (§  1). 

Fatul's  Use  of  it  (|  2). 

The  Fathers  and  Schoolmen  (|  3). 

The  Reformers  (|  4). 

Modem  Philosophers  (|  5). 

Preeent-Day  Problems  (|  6). 

Intuitional  and  Evolutionary  Views  (|  7). 

The  English  word  "  conscience  "  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  conadentiat  which  is  parallel  in  deriva- 
tion and  meaning  to  the  New  Testament  syneidisis 
(Attic  Gk.  8yneido8);   but  in  the  classical  authors 

the   word   denotes   originally   simply 

I.  Origin    consciousness,    without    any    ethical 

of  the      bearing.    Its  use  in  the  modem  sense 

Tenn.      of  "  conscience/'  or  the  moral  sense  of 

the  individual  applied  to  his  own  con- 
duct, occurs  not  infrequently  in  Cicero  and  Seneca. 
The  latter  name  especially  has  been  taken  to  sug- 
gest that  the  ethical  connotation  came  from  the 
Stoic  anthropology  and  legal  doctrine;  but  the 
word  does  not  occur  in  this  sense  in  any  Stoic 
writer  except  Seneca,  and  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  acquired  its  later  meaning  gradually  in  the  course 
of  the  process  which  led  the  ancient  world  from  un- 
thinking obedience  to  traditional  custom  up  to  the 
appeal  to  the  inner  tribunal  of  every  man's  heart. 
This  inner  witness  had,  however,  no  religious  con- 
nection. The  daimon  of  Socrates  expresses  a  confi- 
dence in  higher  guidance  which  has  a  religious  color- 
ing, the  consciousness  of  his  mission  felt  by  the 
great  man,  but  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  old 
gynaidiais ;  and  the  often-quoted  passage  {EpisL, 
xli.)  in  which  Seneca  speaks  of  "  the  holy  spirit  that 
dwells  within  us  "  is  merely  the  expression  of  the 
Stoic,  and  therefore  not  religious,  pantheism. 

The  term  is  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament  or 
among  the  words  of  Jesus.  It  was  introduced 
into  the  primitive  Christian  vocabulary  by  Paul, 

outside  of  whose  letters  it  occurs  in  the 
3.  Patil's  New  Testament  only  in  the  Acts  (in 
Use  of  it    Paul's  mouth),  in   I   Peter,   and  in 

Hebrews.  In  his  work  Paul  comes  in 
contact  with  the  general  human  conscience  (II  Cor. 
iv.  2),  and  appeals  to  it  (Rom.  ii.  15;  xiii.  5,  6),  or 
corrects  deviations  in  it  proceeding  from  renmants 
of  heathen  ideas  (I  Cor.  viii.  7;  x.  23  sqq.).  Other- 
wise it  is  the  Christian  conscience  alone  to  which 


appeal  is  made  (Acts  xxiii.  1;  II  Tim.  i.  3);  only 
the  author  of  Hebrews  (ix.  9)  uses  the  conception, 
by  this  time  accepted  in  Christian  terminology,  as 
a  short  expression  for  the  critical  standpoint  of  the 
new  religion  toward  the  condition  of  things  under 
the  old  covenant.  With  Paul  the  pre-Christian 
conscience  stands  for  the  divine  natural  order  of 
society  (Rom.  xiii.  4,  5)  or  more  generally  for  the 
moral  law  whose  commands  are  felt  in  the  heart, 
in  substantial  agreement  with  the  Jewish  revealed 
law,  and  thus  in  a  way  taking  its  place  for  the 
Gentiles  (Rom.  ii.  14,  15).  It  makes  them  morally 
independent  by  a  self-judgment  which  penetrates 
to  the  most  hidden  motives  (Rom.  ix.  1 ;  II  Cor.  i. 
12),  coordinate  with  that  of  the  Searcher  of  hearts; 
and  it  is  capable  also  of  passing  judgment  on  others 
(II  Cor.  V.  11;  iv.  2).     But  Paul  nowhere  hints  at 

<  a  recognized  theonomy  through  the  conscience,  nor 
yet  at  a  distinction  between  the  pre-Christian  and 
the  Christian  conscience.     Again,  the  imperative 

I  conscience  is  nowhere  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Paul  recognizes  the  possibility  of  a  con- 
science being  weak,  subject  to  other  powers  than 
the  one  God  (I  Cor.  viii.  7, 12),  and  erroneous  in  its 
judgment.    This  leads  him  to  the  recognition  of  the 

'  individuality  of  conscience,  its  right  of  independent 
judgment,  the  denial  of  which  would  destroy  moral 
personality  (I  Cor.  x.  29,  viii.  10).  By  the  blood 
of  Christ    the  conscience    is  cleansed,    and    the 

■  Christian  obtains  a  "  good  "  conscience  (Rom.  ix. 
1;  II  Cor.  i.  12;  Heb.  ix.  14.  x.  22);  this  wholly 
good  conscience  is  connected  (I  Pet.  iii.  21;   Heb. 

'  X.  22)  with  the  gift  of  grace  in  baptism.  This  good 
conscience  is  not  the  certainty  of  reconciliation, 

•  but  the  mirror  of  the  moral  condition.     Hence  its 

-chief  characteristic  is  its  sincerity  (II  Cor.  i.  12), 
which  attests  its  purity  (I  Tim.  iii.  9;  II  Tim.  i.  3). 
Its  opposite  is  a  branded,  defiled  conscience  (I  Tim. 
iv.  2;  Titus  i.  15).    The  "  faith  unfeigned  "  stands 

-  or  falls  with  a  pure  conscience  (I  Tim.  i.  5,  19;  iii. 
9;  iv.  1,  2). 

But  although  Paul  thus  gave  a  definite  sanction 
to  the  term,  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  passed 
from  him  into  the  current  speech  of 
3.  The      the  early  Church;    it  is   seldom  met 
Fathers    with  in  the  primitive  literature,  and 
and        then     first    in    exegetical     writings. 
Schoolmen;  Chrysostom,  with  his  practical  tend- 
ency, is  the  first  to  make  much  use 
of  it,  describing  it  as  an  independent  source  of  moral 
insight  and  coordinating  it  with  the  created  uni- 
verse as  a  means  of  the  knowledge  of  God.     While 
he  goes  thus  far  beyond  the  pagan  conception, 
Augustine  and  his  opponent  Pelagius  are  inclined  to 
rest  in  the  mere  idea  of  a  consciousness  which  attests 
and  judges  moral  action.    From  Augustine  the 
connection  of  conscience  with  the  more  general 
consciousness  was  handed  on,  sometimes,  as  with 
Abelard,  in  the  form  of  the  consciousness  of  obliga- 
tion, sometimes,  as  with  Bernard,  in  that  of  the  in- 
corruptible judgment,  and  served  to  emphasize  the 
inner  life  in  contrast  with  the  extemaUsm  of  eccle- 
siastical theology.    The  scholastic  theology  followed 
Alexander  of  Hales  rather  closely  throughout;  the 
classical  expression  of  it  is  found  in  Thomas  Aquinas 
{Summa,  I.  Ixxix.;  II.,  part  ii.  xciv.).    The  pecu- 


243 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonaoi«no« 


liarity  of  this  earliest  scientific  treatment  of  the 
subject  is  the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  aynUriaiaf 
interpreted  by  the  scholastics,  in  dependence  upon 
the  Aristotelian  psychology,  as  the  practical  intel- 
lect, i.e.,  in  their  conception,  the  potentia  or  habitus 
of  moral  principles,  while  conacierUia  is  distinguished 
from  it  as  the  application  of  these  to  the  individual 
act.  With  this  distinction  came  in  the  idea  of  the 
fallibility  of  the  conscience;  and  so  the  door  was 
opened  to  all  sorts  of  hair-splitting  judgments,  ex- 
emplified in  the  books  on  casuistry.  The  extreme 
result  of  this  tendency  is  seen  among  the  Jesuits, 
whose  moral  system  knows  nothing  of  aynUrisia, 
and  regards  conacierUia  as  a  prejudice  to  be  removed 
by  probabilism  (see  Ethics,  II.,  {  9).  The  Latin 
mysticism,  on  the  other  hand,  made  a  fruitful 
use  of  the  scholastic  doctrine  when,  following 
patristic  hints,  it  defined  (especially  in  Gerson) 
the  gynUrisia  as  the  power  by  which  the  soul 
longs  and  is  able  to  come  into  inmiediate  contact 
with  God. 

The  attention  paid  by  both  professional  theolo- 
gians and  the  practical  system  of  the  Church  to  the 
conscience,  far  as  it  went  beyond  New 

4.  The  Re-  Testament  limits,  was  a  reason  why 
formers,     conscience    was    such    an    important 

factor  in  the  discussions  of  the  Refor- 
mation. These,  however,  derive  rather  from  Ber- 
nard and  Abelard  than  from  the  schoolmen.  To 
Luther  and  his  fellows  it  was  now  the  independent 
consciousness  of  duty,  now  the  sorrowful  conscious- 
ness of  sin,  the  accuser  not  to  be  silenced  except 
in  the  assurance  of  justification  by  faith.  In  what- 
ever terms  it  is  defined,  it  amounts  to  the  relation 
of  the  moral  life  to  God,  with  its  judging,  even  its 
condemning,  function  principally  emphasized;  it  is 
'the  organ  for  the  relation  of  justice  between  God 
and  man.  In  like  manner  (3alvin  calls, it  "the 
sense  of  the  divine  judgment  and  empire."  Spe- 
cially characteristic  are  the  passages  in  which  he 
deals  with  it,  particularly  in  his  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  and  of  Christian  liberty.  The  eye 
of  faith  now  looks  out  boldly  and  clearly  from  the 
secure  watch-tower  of  unconditional  religious  obli- 
gation over  the  broad  domain  of  freedom  of  con- 
science. 

The  way  in  which  the  orthodox  theologians  spoke 
of  the  Christian  conscience,  presupposing  a  rela- 
tion of  religious  dependence  upon  God 

5.  Modem   and  obligation  to  obey  his  law,  was 
Philoio-    attacked  by  English  deism  when  it 

phers.  opposed  the  natural  as  the  universal 
to  the  positive  historical  as  the  unsup- 
ported particular.  Since  Hutcheson  it  had  been 
customary  in  England  to  replace  ''  innate  ideas  " 
by  the  moral  sense,  understood  so  as  to  combine 
this  moral  obligation  with  intellectual  skepticism 
as  to  a  universally  binding  ethical  law,  and  to  deny 
any  religious  relation.  The  ultimate  consequence 
of  this  opposition  between  nature  and  history  is 
seen  in  Rousseau,  whose  "  natural  conscience  "  was 
a  mere  instinct  leading  to  morality,  with  no  content 
of  guilt  or  obligation.  Kant,  on  the  other  hand, 
emphasised  and  recognized  an  inner  tribunal  of 
incomparable  dignity.  Fichte  defined  conscience 
as  "  the  immediate  consciousness  of  specific  duty," 


which  involves  the  unconditional  certainty  of  a 
consciousness  of  duty  with  which  a  practic^  judg- 
ment, logically  deduced  from  recognized  premises, 
is  endowed.  The  exaggerated  emphasis  laid  upon 
formal  certainty  led  to  the  extension  of  the  word 
to  a  judgment  of  taste  in  all  practical  relations,  as 
with  Herbart  and  with  Erauss  ("  the  innate  neces- 
sity to  have  an  ideal  and  to  acknowledge  it  as  a 
judge  set  over  us  "),  and  thus  in  the  modem  phrase 
**  the  artistic  conscience."  This  is  a  notable  declen- 
sion from  the  former  high  claims;  and  it  goes  still 
further  when  Hegel,  though  recognizing  uncon- 
ditional subjective  certainty  from  the  standpoint  of 
morality,  insists  that  it  must  be  measured  by  the 
idea  or  the  objectivity  of  social  ethics;  when 
Schopenhauer  replaces  the  infallible,  imperative 
consciousness  of  duty  by  a  "  protocol  of  facts," 
which  is  a  purely  objective  and  empirical  standard. 
Since  his  day  there  has  been  an  increasing  tendency 
to  substitute  for  the  self-conscious  autonomy  of  the 
subject  the  cultural  development  of  society,  and  to 
regard  conscience,  with  Spencer,  as  a  product  of 
education,  good  or  bad. 

This,  then,  raises  the  first  of  the  points  most 
discussed  in  modem  theological  treatises;  whether 
conscience  is  an  innate,  primeval  thing, 
6.  Present-  and  then  whether  it  is  only  a  subjec- 
Day  Prob-  tive  phenomenon,  the  formal  conscious- 
lems.  ness  of  duty,  or  has  a  content  from 
without.  This,  with  the  other  ques- 
tion of  the  relation  of  religion  and  morality,  is 
a  matter  of  great  interest  to  those  who  now  discuss 
religion  from  the  anthropological  standpoint.  The 
solution  of  the  problem,  however,  depends  as  a 
rule  upon  the  general  views  held  by  each  of  the 
many  authors  who  have  recently  treated  the  sub- 
ject of  conscience.  A  further  question,  this  time 
rather  a  practical  than  a  theoretical  one,  deals  with 
freedom  of  conscience.  This  depends  upon  the 
individuality  of  the  conscience,  and  is  opposed  to 
the  claim  that  one  may  be  morally  bound  by  any 
other  authority  than  that  of  God.  Such  a  claim 
appears  in  its  most  obvious  form  when  an  institu- 
tion like  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  identifies  its 
utterances  with  the  divine  revelation.  From  the 
Refomiers'  protest  against  such  a  claim  have  sprung 
first  the  demand  for  the  free  exercise  of  religion 
within  the  limits  of  the  social  order,  and  then  that 
of  unrestricted  expression  of  any  religious  or  ethical 
conviction;  but  such  unqualified  freedom  would 
obviously  imperil  all  ordered  social  life. 

(M.  KAhler.) 
The  moral  law  originates  in  custom  and  is  at  first 
identical  with  it,  as  is  evident  in  the  terms  "  ethics  " 
and     "  morals."     The     outstanding, 
7;  Intu-     most  advantageous,  and  necessary  cus- 
itional  and  toms  are  crystallized  into  positive  law; 
Evolution-  later,  positive  laws  conflict  with  cus- 
ary  Views,   tom  or  with  each  other.     This  con- 
flict may  be  resolved  temporarily  by 
casuistry  or  by  making  one  command   supreme. 
And  the  vaHdity  of  the  moral  law  may  for  a  time 
rest  back  on  punishment.    Attempts  to   find  an 
ultimate  basis  of  the  moral  law  in  the  nature  of  man 
have  given  rise  to  two  theories  of  conscience,  the 
intuitional  and  the  evolutionary.    According  to  the 


ntine  . 
atinopto 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


254 


vice  of  extortion  to  come  to  the  BUifaoe,  which  also 
debased  high  state  offices  to  a  mercenary  footing. 
In  Jan.,  3^,  the  chief  conmiander  of  the  Jovians 
and  Herculians,  the  German  Magnentius,  made  an 
uprising  in  Autun,  assumed  the  purple,  and  caused 
the  fleeing  emperor  to  be  struck  down  by  murderers 
in  the  church  of  Helena.  In  the  autumn  of  the  next 
year  this  new  dominion  collapsed  in  the  victorious 
battle  near  Mursa,  and  Constantius  thereby  became 
sovereign  of  all  the  empire.  Destiny  had  spared 
the  most  valiant  of  the  three  brothers  for  this  diffi- 
cult task.  As  he  died  childless,  the  proper  dynasty 
of  Constantine  vanishes  with  Constantius  from  the 
field  of  history.  Victor  ScHui;rzE. 

BiBuoaBAFHT:  Eftrly  soureM  m  the  "  Iif«  of  Constan- 
tine "  by  Euoebius,  and  the  Hi$L  «eel.  of  the  two  writers 
Soerates  and  Sosomen,  all  in  Eng.  transl.  in  NPNF,  2d 
series,  vols.  i-ii.  Consult:  J.  Burekhardt,  Dis  Zeit  Kon^ 
akmUna  dm  GnMSsn,  Leipsio,  1880;  T.  Keim,  Der  Ueber- 
iriU  Kon§kmiina  dm  Qrotaen  mm  ChrUt^ntum,  Zurieh, 
1862;  A.  P.  Stanley.  Hittory  of  As  Battem  Church,  Leo- 
ture  tL,  London,  1862;  T.  Zahn,  KonttanHn  dtr  Oraam 
und  di$  Kirehe^  Hanoyer,  1876;  E.  L.  Gutts,  ConaianHne, 
London.  1881  (popular);  V.  Schultse.  in  ZKO,  vii  (1886). 
343-^371,  viii  (1886),  517-642;  idem,  GmdiiehU  den  Un^ 
Urgafi4ft9  dm  griachuA^Omiadtien  Hmdentunu,  vol.  L-ii., 
Jena,  1887;  O.  Seeek.  Omdtiehte  dea  VnUrganoea  der  an- 
Hhm  Wait,  vol.  i.,  Berlin,  1897;  Gibbon,  Dtdina  and  Fail, 
ehaps.  ziv.,  zvii.-zzi.;  Schaff,  Chriatian  Church,  vol.  iii., 
ehap.  L;  DCB,  i.  623-664.  On  the  vision  of  Constantine 
consult:  Abb<  du  Voisin,  DiȤaiation  ariUqua  tur  la  viaion 
da  ConakmUn,  Paris,  1774;  J.  H.  Newman,  in  Two  Eaaaya 
an  .  .  .  Mindaa,  pp.  271-286,  London,  1873. 

CORSTAHTINE :    The  name  of  two  popes. 

Constantine  I.:  Pope  708-715.  He  was  a 
Syrian  by  birth,  consecrated  Mar.  26,  708.  He 
steadfastly  adhered  to  the  traditional  papal  policy 
toward  both  the  Italian  bishops  and  the  Eastern 
emperor.  Felix  of  Ravenna,  having  obtained  con- 
secration from  him  without  furnishing  the  under- 
takings required  by  the  emperor,  was  blinded  by 
order  of  Justinian  II.  and  banished  to  Pontus, 
whence  he  was  able  to  return,  after  Justinian's 
death,  only  by  assenting  to  the  declaration  required 
of  him  by  Constantine,  who  also  supported  the 
bishop  of  Pavia  against  Benedict  of  Milan  because 
he  wished  to  enforce  his  own  claim  to  jurisdiction 
over  Pavia.  The  emperor  commanded  him  to 
appear  in  Constantinople,  probably  to  extort  his 
assent  to  the  Trullan  canons,  which  had  been  re- 
jected by  Rome.  He  bore  himself  with  discretion, 
and  maintained  the  attitude  of  his  predecessors 
during  his  two  years'  absence  (709-71 1 ).  The  next 
emperor,  Philippicus  Bardanes,  himself  a  Monothe- 
lite,  attempted  to  impose  that  heresy  on  his  sub- 
jects, but  was  steadily  opposed  by  Constantine, 
who,  by  making  his  opposition  dogmatic  and  not 
political,  acquired  a  commanding  influence  among 
the  contending  factions.  On  the  fall  of  Philippicus, 
his  successor,  Anastasius,  hastened  to  send  to  Rome 
an  orthodox  profession,  in  which  the  patriarch 
John  of  Constantinople  joined.  Constantine  died 
Apr.  9,  715,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoorapht:  lAbar  ponHfiealia,  ed.  T.  Mommsen,  in 
MOH,  Oaat.  pont.  Rom.,  i  (1898).  222-226;  Jaff«,  Ragaala, 
L  247;  Paulus  Diaoonus.  Hiatoria  Langobardorum,  vL  31, 
ed.G.  Waits,  in  MOH.  Script,  rer.  Langob.,  vi.,  pp.  12-187. 
1878;  F.  Qresoroviufl,  HiaUny  of  the  City  of  Rome,  ii.  201- 
202,  212,  London,  1894;  Bower,  Popes,  ii.  14-20;  Milman, 
LaHn  Chriatianity,  ii.  290-291;  Mann,  Popes,  127-140. 


Constantine  IL :  Pope  767-768.  Though  &  lay- 
man, he  was  chosen  pope  by  the  influence  of  a 
faction  immediately  after  the  death  of  Paul  L  and 
was  consecrated  July  5,  767.  He  was  but  the 
creature  of  his  ambitious  brother  Toto,  duke  of 
Nepi,  and  as  soon  as  the  opposition,  headed  by 
officials  of  the  previous  pope,  could  organize  (July 
28,  768),  he  was  overthrown  by  an  armed  onset. 
Toto  was  killed,  and  Constantine  sought  sanctuary 
in  a  church,  from  which  he  was  dragged  by  the 
soldiery.  Sentence  of  deposition  was  pronounced 
upon  him,  with  imprisomnent  in  a  monastery, 
where  he  was  set  upon  and  blinded,  though  he  lived 
until  the  next  year  at  least,  when  he  tried  in  vain 
to  make  his  peace  with  his  successor  Stephen  III. 
(IV.).  [By  Roman  Catholic  writers  he  is  not  con- 
sidered a  strictly  legitimate  pope.]  (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuographt:  Liber  pofOiftealia,  ed.  L.  Duchesne,  i.  468 
Bqq.,  Paris,  1886;  Mansi,  Concilia,  zii.  717-718:  Jalf^ 
Raoaata,  p.  283;  F.  Qracoroyius,  HiaL  of  the  City  of  Rome, 
iL  322-330.  London,  1894;  Bower.  Popaa,  ii.  114-115: 
Mtlman.  LaHn  ChriaHaniiy,  u.  432-^435;  Mann,  I.  iL  363 

**"*'  CONSTAimilOPLE. 

I.  The  Ancient  City  and  the  Fattriarchato. 
Theatyd  1). 
The  Patriarchate  (I  2). 
II.  Councils  and  Synods. 

L  The  Ancient  City  and  the  Patriarchate:  The 
city  of  Byzantium,  situated  at  the  union  of  the 
Thracian  Bosphorus  and  the  Propontis  (Sea  of 
Marmora)  and  founded,  according  to  tradition,  by 
Megarian  colonists  in  656  B.C.,  attained  importance 
at  an  early  date  as  a  commercial  and  political  cen- 
ter. After  many  vicissitudes  under  Persian, 
Macedonian,  Gallic,  and  Athenian  control,  it  was 
incoiporated  in  the  Roman  Empire,  and,  despite  its 
destruction  by  Alexander  Severus  (192),  became 
the  second  capital  of  the  empire  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. After  Constantine  the  Great  (q.v.)  had  either 
conquered  or  pacified  his  foreign  enemies,  he  deter- 
mined to  build  a  city  which  should  bear  his  name 
and  be  equal  to  Rome.  He  chose  Bysantium  in 
326,  and  adorned  it  with  churches  and 
z.  The  City,  palaces,  as  well  as  with  works  of  art 
from  Italy  and  Greece,  while  he  forced 
colonists  to  settle  there  and  gave  vast  estates  to 
families  of  prominence.  The  first  church  erected 
by  him  was  a  magnificent  structure  in  honor  of  the 
Apostles,  and  he  also  founded  the  churches  of  St. 
Michael  and  of  St.  Sophia,  although  the  latter  was 
rebuilt  by  Justinian  in  538.  No  pagan  temples 
were  permitted  in  the  city  except  during  the  reign 
of  Julian,  and  many  conversions  were  made  among 
Jews  and  heathen. 

The  early  history  of  Constantinople  is  given  by 
Chrysostom.  The  population  in  his  time  was  about 
100,000,  and  the  prevailing  culture  was  a  mixture  of 
Greek  and  Roman,  Christian  and  Gentile  elements, 
but  the  predominant  character  was  Oriental.  The 
chief  studies  were  medicine  and  law,  although 
rhetoric  and  oratory  were  regarded  with  favor. 
The  logic  of  Aristotle  and  the  philosophy  of  I^ato 
enjoyed  wide  vogue,  but  mathematics  easily  degen- 
erated into  astrology.  The  Byzantine  mind  was 
lacking  in  creative  vigor,  but  possessed  a  marvelous 
retentive  power.  The  art,  literature,  morals,  and 
diction  of  the  period  have  a  close  fonnal  resem- 


255 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonsta&tine 
Constantinople 


bhmce,  and  are  distinguished  by  a  ciuious  combi- 
nation of  delicacy,  bombast,  and  artificiality.  The 
very  catholicity  of  the  Byzantines,  moreover,  led 
to  such  confusion  that  each  power  invaded  the 
realm  of  its  neighbor  and  sought  to  usurp  alien 
functions,  since  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  world, 
sharply  distinguished  elsewhere,  were  here  com- 
bined. Sometimes  the  monks  and  clergy  became 
political  despots,  and  again  the  emperors  turned 
theologians.  Yet  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
Constantinople  protected  Christian  Europe  against 
perils  from  the  Orient,  withstood  papal  supremacy 
and  preserved  a  non-Roman  Catholicism,  and  nur- 
tured the  Greek  language  and  learning. 

In  his  division  of  the  empire  Constantino  laid  a 
foundation  for  the  simultaneous  development  of 
the  metropolitanate  (see  Archbishop)  and  the 
union  of  the  dioceses  into  great  hierarchic  coipora- 
tions.  The  principle  that  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion should  follow  close  on  political  gave  a  sudden 
promotion  to  the  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who  was 
originally    subordinate    to    the    metropolitan    of 

Heraclea.  In  381  the  second  ecu- 
2.  The  Pa-  menical  council  enacted  that  the  bishop 
triarchate.  of    Constantinople,    as    New    Rome, 

should  have  the  highest  rank  next  to 
the  bishop  of  Rome,  so  that  the  title  of  patriarch 
afterward  ^ven  the  metropolitans  of  the  first  class 
(Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Rome)  was 
thus  assured  to  him.  The  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(451)  went  still  further  and  gave  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  the  same  rank  as  the  pope,  while 
his  powers  were  extended  to  comprise  the  dioceses 
of  Pontus,  Asia,  and  Thrace,  the  right  to  ordain  all 
metropolitans  subordinate  to  himself,  to  convene 
provincial  synods,  and  to  be  the  court  of  last  appeal 
for  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  the  East.  Despite  these 
prerogatives,  certain  factors  combined  to  keep  the 
patriarchate  within  bounds.  The  Greek  Church 
was  not  amenable  to  centralization,  so  that  in  the 
Monophysite  controversy  the  bishops  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Antioch  were  able  to  oppose  the  patriarch 
of  .Constantinople  without  imperiling  their  inde- 
pendence, while  in  the  Middle  Ages  they  were  sub- 
ordinate to  him  only  in  so  far  as  relations  with  the 
pope  and  resistance  to  the  Latin  Church  were  chiefly 
decided  at  the  capital.  The  oscillating  relations 
with  Rome  were  also  detrimental  to  the  independ- 
ence of  the  patriarchs.  Leo  I.  protested  against 
the  equality  of  both  ecclesiastical  capitals  decreed 
by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  and  it  was  only  after 
his  own  humiliation  that  Anatolius  succeeded  in  con- 
ciliating the  pope.  In  a  like  spirit  Pelagius  II. 
and  Gregory  I.  refused  to  allow  Johannes  Jejunator 
(587)  to  assimie  the  title  of  ecumenical  patriarch. 
A  misunderstanding  concerning  the  meaning  of  this 
terai  seems  to  have  prevailed  between  Rome  and 
Constantinople.  It  is  scarcely  probable  that  the 
patriarch  ever  desired  to  be  a  universal  bishop,  but 
rather  a  bishop  of  the  empire,  of  whom  there  might 
be  several.  But  as  Flavian  of  Constantinople 
sought  the  aid  of  Leo  I.,  and  Sergius  I.  of  Constan- 
tinople invoked  the  assistance  of  Honorius  in  the 
Monothelite  controversy,  there  were  many  acts  of 
the  patriarchs  which  might  at  least  be  construed 
as  appeals  to  Rome.    The  result  of  this  alternate 


jealousy  and  recognition  was  a  feeling  of  supremacy 
on  the  part  of  Rome  which  led,  with  such  men  as 
Photius  and  Csrularius  (qq.v.)f  to  a  definite  schism. 
In  the  following  centuries  the  Greek  Uniats  showed 
themselves  ready  to  admit  Roman  supremacy  within 
certain  limits,  while  the  Orthodox  maintained  a 
sturdy  resistance  which  they  defended  on  scholarly 
groimds.  The  freedom  of  the  patriarchs,  moreover, 
was  frequently  restricted  by  the  emperors.  The 
patriarchs  were  the  highest  ecclesiastical  vassals, 
but  the  fact  that  their  election  and  deposition  de- 
pended generally  on  the  conunand  of  the  emperor, 
that  many  were  raised  by  imperial  mandate  aJmost 
immediately  from  laymen  to  the  patriarchate,  and 
that  the  emperors  continually  interfered  in  eccle- 
siastical and  dogmatic  affairs,  deprived  the  office  of 
much  of  the  dignity  and  power  which  it  would  other- 
wise have  possessed. 

The  succession  of  the  patriarchs  of  Constanti- 
nople is  known  with  tolerable  certainty,  though  a 
very  dubious  tradition  carries  it  through  the  first 
centuries,  the  ostensible  founder  being  the  Apostle 
Andrew.  Except  for  the  early  centuries,  four  periods 
may  be  distinguished:  (1)  from  Constantine  to 
the  Photian  controversy  (861)  or  to  the  entire  break 
with  the  West  imder  Cserularius  (1054);  (2)  to  the 
interregnum  of  the  Latins,  which  forced  the  patri- 
archs and  the  emperor  to  take  refuge  in  Nicaea, 
while  a  Latin  patriarchate  existed  in  Constanti- 
nople (1204-61);  (3)  to  the  capture  of  the  city  by 
the  Turks  (1453);  and  (4)  to  the  present  time. 
The  extent  of  the  patriarchate  was  greatest  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  but  in  1589  it  suffered  its  first  serious 
loss  when  the  Russian  patriarchate  was  created, 
and  in  the  nineteenth  centuiy  the  development  of 
nationalism  in  the  Balkan  peninsula  produced  an 
unnecessary  number  of  autonomous  churches,  which 
weakened  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  and 
the  entire  Eastern  Greek  Church.  The  first  of 
these  schisms  was  made  by  Greece;  Bulgaria  has 
been  more  or  less  independent  since  1872;  and 
Servia  and  Rumania  have  had  separate  chiuches 
since  1885.  All  these  bodies,  however,  are  more  or 
less  closely  related,  and  the  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople still  possesses  a  certain  moral  authority. 

The  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453  brought  an 
increase  in  power  to  the  patriarch,  who  now  exer^ 
cised  much  control  over  the  destinies  of  the  con- 
quered. On  the  other  hand,  he  was  subject,  in 
great  measure,  to  the  caprice  of  the  sultan  and  his 
viziers.  Unfortunately,  the  official  venality  of  Tur- 
key extended  even  to  the  patriarchal  throne,  and 
no  patriarch  could  gain  the  position  without  simony. 
The  present  legal  status  of  the  patriarchate  is  de- 
fined by  a  rescript  of  Feb.  18,  1856,  by  which  the 
patriarch  is  aided,  or  rather  restricted,  by  several 
bodies  coordinated  with  him,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  the  synod,  an  institution  of  ancient 
date  which  became  obsolete,  but  was  revived  in 
1593.  (Philipp  Meter.) 

n.  Cotmcils  and  Synods:  The  second,  fifth, 
sixth,  and  eighth,  of  the  general  or  ecumenical 
councils  met  in  Constantinople  as  follows:  (1)  The 
First  Council  of  Constantinople  w^as  called  by 
Theodosius  I.  in  381  to  confinn  the  I^cene  faith 
and  deal   with  other  matters  of  the  Arian  con- 


Constantinople 
GonBtantinopolltan  Creed 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


956 


troveisy  (see  Arianism;  Conbtantinopolitan 
Creed).  Meletius  of  Antioch,  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
and  Nectarius  successively  presided.  Gregory 
Nazianzen  was  made  patriarch,  but  soon  resigned, 
and  Nectarius  was  then  put  in  his  place.  Seven 
canons,  four  doctrinal  and  three  disciplinary,  are 
attributed  to  the  council  and  accepted  by  the 
Greek  Church,  but  the  Roman  Church  accepts  only 
the  first  four.  (2)  The  Second  Constantinople  met 
in  553  under  Justinian,  and  was  an  episode  of  the 
Three  Chapter  Controversy  (q.v.).  (3)  The  Third 
Constantinople,  Nov.  7,  680-^pt.  16,  681,  was 
called  by  Constantine  Pogonatus  and  dealt  with 
Monothelitism.  It  is  also  known  as  the  First 
TruUan  Council  (see  MoNOTHELrrEs;  Trullan 
CouNciLfl).  (4)  The  Fourth  Constantinople,  Oct. 
5, 869-Feb.  28, 870,  was  called  by  Emperor  Basil  the 
Macedonian  and  Pope  Adrian  II.  (q.v. ).  It  deposed 
and  condemned  Photius  as  patriarch  (see  Photius) 
and,  of  the  four  Eastern  patriarchates,  ranked  Con- 
stantinople before  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusa- 
lem (canon  xxi.).  Of  other  gatherings  the  most 
important  are  the  Second  Trullan  in  692  (see  Trul- 
lan Councils),  and  one  which  met  under  Constan- 
tine v.,  Copronymus,  in  754  to  condemn  the  pres- 
ence of  images  in  the  churehes  (see  Images  and 
Imaqe-worship,  II.). 

Bibuoorapbt:  On  the  city  and  its  history  consult:  W.  J. 
Brodribb  and  W.  Besant,  ConBtanHnople  and  ita  Siege*, 
London,  1878;  J.  ▼.  Tamamchef.  Der  Kampf  um  Con- 
etarUifwpel,  Vienna,  1887;  J.  B.  Bury.  History  of  the  Later 
Roman  Empire,  2  vols.,  ib.  1889;  P.  Loti,  Lee  CapitaUe 
du  monde,  Paris,  1892,  Eng.  transl.,  2  vols..  London,  1892; 
E.  A.  Qrosvenor,  ConetaiUinople,  2  vols.,  ib.  1895;  W.  H. 
Button,  ConeianUnaple,  ib.  1900;  H.  O.  Dwight,  Con- 
etanHnaple  and  Ite  ProUeme,  New  York.  1901;  Diehl  on 
the  Hippodrome  at  Constantinople  is  in  transl.  in  D.  C. 
Munro  and  Q.  G.  Sellery,  MedicBval  CivUiealtion,  pp. 
87-113.  New  York,  1904. 

On  the  patriarchate  consult:  Knimbacher,  Oeeehiehite  (pp. 
911-1067  contain  a  sketch  of  Byzantine  history  by  H.  Gel- 
ler,  and  on  pp.  1068-1144  is  an  exhaustive  bibliography)* 
M.  Le  Quien,  Oriene  thrietianue,  especially  vol.  i.,  Paris, 
1740;  J.  Hergenr6ther,  Photi\ie,  3  vols.,  Regensburg, 
1867;  M.  J.  Gedeon,  Patriarchikoi  Katalogoi,  ib.  1890; 
N.  Nilles,  Kalendarium  manuale  utriiuque  eccleeice,  2  vols., 
Innsbruck,  1896-97;  E.  W.  Brooks,  On  the  LieU  of  the 
Patriarehe  of  Conetaniinople,  CSH-715,  Leipsic,  1896; 
idem,  London  Cataloffue  of  the  Patriarehe  of  Conelaniv- 
nople,  ib.  1898.  On  the  councils  and  synods:  Hefele, 
ConeiliengeschichU,  ii.  1-33.  854-902,  iii.  260-286.  328- 
344,  iv.  384-434,  Eng.  transl..  vols.  i.-v. 

COlfSTAimilGPGLITAlf  CREED. 

Traditional  Account    of 

Origin  (§  4). 
Its  Difficulties:  External 

(§5). 
Its  Difficulties:   Internal 

(§6). 
Modem  Theory  of  Origin 

(§7). 


I.  Texts. 
The  Three  Principal  Texts 

(§1). 
The    Addition  of  "Filio- 

que  "  (I  2). 
The  Omission  of  "  in,"  and 

the  Use  of  the  Singular 

(§3). 
Minor    Texts    or    Forms    III.  History  of  its  Acceptance. 

(I  4).  Acceptance  in  the  West 

11.  Origin.  (§  1). 

Nicene  Creed  Proper  (§1.)  Acceptance  in  the  East 

Inadequacy     Felt     Later  (§  2). 

(§  2).  Theory  as  to  Manner  of 

Attempts  to  Remedy  Sanction  (§3). 

(§  3).  Conclusion  (§  4). 

The  Constantinopolitan  Creed  is  second  of  the 
so-called  ecumenical  creeds  of  the  Christian  Church, 
and  the  one  which  has  the  best  right  to  the  term, 
being  received  not  only  by  the  Greek  and  Roman 


Catholic  communions,  but  by  the  various  heretical 
bodies  of  the  East  and  by  the  great  majority  of 
Protestant  churches.  It  is  known  also  as  the  Nice- 
no-Constantinopolitan  Creed,  or  simply  as  the  Nicene 
Creed;  this  name,  however,  connotes,  not  the  con- 
fession of  faith  adopted  at  the  First  Council  of 
NicsDa  in  325  (see  Nic^ea,  Councilb  of,  I.),  but  a 
version  professing  to  be  a  mere  enlargement  of  it, 
traditionally  supposed  to  have  been  adopted  by 
the  so-called  ecumenical  Council  of  Constantinople 
in  381  (see  Arianism). 

I.  Texts:    There  are  three  principal  texts  of  the 
creed.     (1)  The  Greek  text  as  found  in  the  acts  of 
the  second  (imperfectly),  fourth,  and  sixth  ecu- 
menical councils  and  the  works  of  the  later  Greek 
Fathers.     (2)  The  Latin  text,  represented  by  a 
series  of  translations  from  the  Greek  in  various  manu- 
scripts, of  which  the  most  important 
X.  The      are    the    so-called    interpretation   of 
Three       Dionysius  Exiguus,  the  acts  of  the 
Principal    Council  of  Toledo  (589),  those  of  the 
Texts.      Council  of  Friuli  (796),  and  that  put 
up  by  Leo  IIL  in  St.  Paul's  church 
at  Rome.     (3)  The  Greek  text  used  in  the  West,  as 
preserved  in  some  manuscripts  of  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centimes.    Mention  may  also  be  made  of 
certain  ancient  versions,  such  as  the  Sjrriac  (Nitrian 
MS.  of  562  in  the  British  Museum),  the  Arabic- 
Coptic,  and  two  Anglo-Saxon  (MSS.  of  the  eleventh 
and  thirteenth  centuries  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge). 
The  Latin  text,  especially  in  its  present  form,  as 
received  by  the  entire  West,  is  distinguished  from 
the  Greek,  apart  from  small  variations,  by  three 
principal  peculiarities:  the  addition  of  the  Filioque, 
the   omission   of  in  before  unam  .  .  .  eccUsiamt 
and  the  singular  form  of  the  words  used  for  assent, 
Credo,  confiteor,  spero. 

The  addition  of  FiUoque,  first  met  with  in  the 
acts  of  the  Third  Council  of  Toledo  (589),  occurs  in 
several  Spanish  documents  of  the  subsequent  age 
and  in  some  of  the  Carolingian  State  Church  (796; 
see    FiLiOQUB    Controversy).    The 
2.  The      doctrine  of  the  double  procession  of 
Addition  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  formulated  by 
"  Filioque."  Augustine,  and  was  prevalent  in  the 
West  from  the  fifth  to  the  seventh 
centuries.     Its  reception  into  the  creed  took  place 
in  Spain  as  a  safeguard  against  Visigothic  Arianism; 
thence  it  spread  to  the  Carolingian  empire,  and  was 
there  accepted  as  the  official  version  of  the  creed  in 
the  first  decade  of  the  ninth  century.     In  Rome, 
though  the  Augustinian  doctrine  was  approved, 
the  creed  was  recited  without  the  addition  till  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  centuiy,  as  is  shown  by  the 
tablet  of  Leo  III.  and  his  reply  to  the  Frankish 
envoys  in  809.    Soon  after,  however,  it  was  intro- 
duced there  also,  as  evidenced  by  the  Ordo  Ramanus 
belonging  possibly  to  the  second  half  of  the  ninth 
century,  and  by  the  controversy  with  Photius. 

The  omission  of  in  before  ecclesiam  was  not  acci- 
dental. It  is  coeval  in  the  West  with  the  first 
attestation  of  the  creed.  Some  Latin  versions 
restore  the  tn,  but  they  are  either  accurate  trans- 
lations by  scholars,  or  to  be  referred  to  the  fact 
that  by  the  usage  of  that  time  tn  might  be  used 
merely  to  indicate  that  ecclesiam  was  the  accusative. 


257 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ctonatantinople 
Oonstantinopolitaa  Craed 


This  variant   also  goes  back   to  the  Augustinian 

theology,  and  ultimately    to  still   older  Western 

feeling,  which  objected  to  designating 

3.  The      anything  else  than  the  Triune  God  as 

Omission    the  object   of  religious  faith  in  the 

of  "  in,"    highest  sense.  This  view  received  form- 

and  the     al  expression  in  Augustine's  distinction 

Use  of  the  between  credere  aliquid,  alicui,  and  in 

Singular,    aliquem.    The  change  from  plural  to 

singular  in  the  words  of  acceptance, 

which  occurs  in  the  oldest  Spanish,  Roman,  Frank- 

ish,  and  Anglo-Saxon  recensions,  is  connected  with 

the  usage  of  the  traditio  and  redditio  aymbolif  by 

which  the  creed  was  used  as  the  personal  expression 

of  the  individual  who  recited  it.    The  Western 

Greek  texts  largely  share  the  peculiarities  of  the 

Latin,  while  that  written  with  Roman  letters  in  the 

Gelasian  Sacramentary,  as  well  as  in  a  liturgical 

MS.  of  the  Vienna  library,  is  identical  with  the 

Eastern  text. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  creed-forms  calling 
themselves    Niceno-Constantinopolitan   or   Nicene 
and  considered  by  Caspari  as  modifications  of  the 
Constantinopolitan.    These    are:  (1)    the    revised 
Antiochian;    (2)  the   Nestorian;    (3) 
4.  Minor    the  Philadelphian;  (4)  the  form  given 
Texts  or    in  the  pseudo-Athanasian  "  Interpre- 
Forms.      tation  of  the  Creed " ;  (5)  the  second 
and  longer  creed  in  the  Ancaraiue  of 
Epiphanius;    (6)  the  Cappadocian- Armenian;    (7) 
the  exposition  of  the  Nicene  Creed  ascribed  to  Basil; 
(8)  one  of  the  two  creeds  read  at  Chalcedon  and 
there  described  as  Nicene.     In  spite  of  the  resem- 
blance of  these  to  the  Constantinopolitan,  they  are 
(as  Hort  has  very  well  shown)  rather  sister  than 
daughter  recensions,  and  are,  as  will  be  seen  later, 
of  no  slight  importance  for  the  solution  of  the  ques- 
tion of  origin. 

n.  Origin :    The  Nicene  Creed  proper  was  adopt- 
ed at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  325  as  a  first  settle- 
ment of  the  Trinitarian  controversy  (see  Arian- 
ism).    The  process  which  led  up  to  the  victory  of 
the  Alexandrian  theology  and  to  the 
I.  Nicene  reception  of  the  creed  is  still  obscure. 
Creed       and  the  original  meaning  of  the  crucial 
Proper,     term  homooitewa  can  not  be  absolutely 
determined.    But    Eusebius    is    un- 
doubtedly right  when  he  says  that  the  formula 
proposed  by  him  was  the  basis  of  the  new  confes- 
sion.  The  Nicene  Creed  differs  from  this  formula  by 
some  omissions  and  slight  alterations,  by  the  inser- 
tion of  the  Alexandrian  christological  formulas,  and 
by  a  thorough  revision  based  on  a  comparison  with 
the  baptismal  symbols  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch. 
The  changes  made  by  omission  are  of  importance  as 
showing  that  the  victorious  Alexandrian  party  was 
bent  on  avoiding  any  ambiguity  and  indisposed  to 
compromise;  the  omitted  phrases  are  mostly  Bibli- 
cal in  phraseology,  but  such  as  were  on  the  lips  of 
open  or  half-avowed  opponents  of  the  strict  ortho- 
dox belief.     That  the  Nicene  Creed  was  intended 
not  as  a  baptismal  symbol  but  as  a  christological 
rule  of  faith  is  shown  by  the  brevity  of  the  third 
section  and  by  the  bearing  of  the  appended  anathe- 
mas.   All  these  characteristics  gave  the  creed  a 
theoretical,    unliturgical,    and    unscriptural    form 
IIL— 17 


which  was  used  as  a  justification  for  attacks  upon 
it  in  the  next  period  by  the  Arians  and  Eusebians, 
and  for  acceptance  with  reservations  even  by 
some  who  were  in  the  main  orthodox. 

The  next  few  decades  saw  acute  controversy  rage 
around  it,  and  its  opponents  proposed  a  series  of 
alternatives  for  it  up  to  34  L    This  controversy 
deepened  the  attachment  of  its  defenders  to  its 
literal   expression,   and    made  them 
2.  Inade-  avoid  even  any  expansion  of  it  in  an 
quacy  Felt  orthodox  sense.    Thus  at  the  Coimcil 
Later,      of  Sardica  (344)  it  was    simply  reaf- 
firmed without  changes,  and  numer- 
ous passages   might    be  collected  from  both  or- 
thodox and  heterodox  sources  between  350  and 
450   to   show   the  unique  reverence  paid  to  the 
Nicene  formula.     Difficulties  arose  in  regard  to 
its  use  as  a  baptismal  symbol,  of  which  there 
is  no  evidence  between  325  and   361,  the    older 
provincial  creeds  remaining  in  use.    Later,  however, 
after  Julian's  accession  and  the  regaining  of  power 
by  the  orthodox  party,   which  strengthened  its 
position  by  the  great  synods  of  360-370  and  by  the 
labors  of  strong  bishops  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria, 
the  desire  of  expressing  the  pure  Nicene  faith  in  con- 
nection with  the  act  of  baptism  was  felt.    This 
could  be  done  in  three  ways:   by  in- 
3.  Attempts  coiporating   the   Nicene   watchwords 
to         into  the  old  provincial  creeds,  by  ex- 
Remedy,    panding  the  Nicene  Creed  into  a  com- 
pleteness adequate  for  the  purpose,  or 
by  keeping  it  unchanged,  in  spite  of  its  incomplete- 
ness and  its  polemical  bearing,  and  still  using  it  for 
a  baptismal  symbol.    All  these  three  ways  were, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  tried  in  the  century  between  the 
synods  of  Alexandria  and  of  Chalcedon;   and  the 
origin  of  the  creed  under  discussion  may  best  be 
sought  in  the  history  of  these  experiments. 

The  traditional  account,  held  from  the  sixth 
century  and  accepted  in  both  East  and  West,  is 
that  the  creed  was  drawn  up  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople   in   381.    This   synod 
4.  Tradi-    was  supposed  to  have  supplemented 
tional  Ac-  the  Nicene  Creed  by  an  expansion  of 
cotmt  of     the  third  section,  and  the  resulting 
Origin.       Niceno-Constantinopolitan  Creed  was 
assimied  to  have  been  at  once  received 
into  universal  ecclesiastical  use.    The  first  thing 
that  shook  the  common  belief  was  the  realization 
that  the  Ancoratxte  of  Epiphanius  (373-374)  con- 
tained a  creed  which,  apart  from  its  being  supple- 
mented by  the  Nicene  anathemas  and  from  two 
phrases  in  the  text,  was  wholly  identical  with  the 
Constantinopolitan.    This  could  only  be  explained 
in  harmony  with  the  traditional  view  by  the  theory 
that  Epiphanius  himself  added  it  to  his  book  after 
381,  as  Franzelin  maintains,  or  that  it  was  a  much 
later  interpolation  by  another  hand,  as  Vincenzi 
asserts.    Hefele,  accordingly,  like  Tillemont  before 
him,  took  the  view  that  the  coimcil  did  not  actually 
draw  up  a  new  creed   but  adopted  that  of  Epi- 
phanius with  a  few  slight  changes,  giving  it  the  rank 
of  an  ecmnenical  creed.    He  demonstrates  that  it 
was  not  written  by  Epiphanius  himself,  nor  in 
Cyprus,  but  rather  in  Syria,  some  years  before  373. 
But  there  is  no  documentary  evidence  of  a  promi- 


Oonstantinopolitan  Creed 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


258 


nent  part  played  by  Epiphanius  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople,  to  say  nothing  of  the  acceptance  of 
a  creed  proposed  by  him. 

The  fact  is  that  the  tradition  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  creed  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
is  no  longer  tenable,  quite  apart  from  the  view  held 
of  the  creed  of  Epiphanius.  The  council  was  not 
really  ecumenical;  it  was  summoned  by  Theo- 
dosius  from  his  own  division  of  the  empire,  and  was 
not  completely  representative  even  of  the  East. 
Its  canons  were  not  included  in  the  oldest  Greek 
collections,  and  the  evidence  goes  to  show  that  they 
did  not  find  universal  acceptance  in 

5.  Its  Dif-  the  East  until  after  451.  The  creed  is 
ficulties:  not  found  among  the  few  documents 
ExtemaL    which  remain  from  the  council,  and 

when  it  was  placed  among  them  later, 
the  compiler  obviously  knew  nothing  of  its  origin, 
as  it  appears  without  introduction  or  connection. 
Socrates  (v.  8)  tells  that  the  council  confined  itself 
to  affirming  the  Nicene  faith  after  the  Macedonian 
bishops  had  left;  and  the  accounts  of  Sozomen 
(VII.  vii.  9)  and  Theodoret  (v.  8)  are  substantially 
the  same.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  was  in  attend- 
ance, in  his  comprehensive  letter  on  the  rule  of  faith 
written  soon  after  its  close,  mentions  only  the  Nicene 
Creed,  and  is  silent  as  to  its  expansion  or  the  draw- 
ing up  of  a  new  creed,  besides  which  he  expressly 
remarks  that  the  Nicene  Creed  is  inadequate  as  to 
the  Holy  Ghost,  which  would  have  been  quite  im- 
possible if  the  council  had  just  completed  it  in  that 
regard.  In  a  word,  between  381  and  451  there  is 
no  undoubted  trace  in  East  or  West  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Creed  of  Constantinople;  and  during  this 
period  it  was  nowhere  used  as  the  Creed  of  Constan- 
tinople or  as  the  official  baptismal  symbol,  while  the 
Nicene  Creed  came  more  and  more  into  use  for  this 
piupose,  especially  in  the  East,  and  increctsed,  if 
possible,  in  consideration.  In  fact,  with  the  single 
exception  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451 ),  which 
mentions  the  Creed  of  Constantinople  together  with 
the  Nicene,  and  ascribes  it  to  the  council  of  381, 
there  is  no  valid  evidence  for  it  imtil  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century,  after  which  it  is  frequently 
mentioned.  Thus  the  external  evidence  is  wholly 
against  its  having  been  the  work  of  the  coimcil  of 
381. 

The  internal  evidence  is  still  more  unfavorable; 
for  it  can  be  shown  that  the  Constantinopolitan 
Creed  is  no  mere  expansion  of  the  Nicene,  which 
disposes  of  the  theory  that  the  authorities  who 
assert  the  simple  confirmation  of  the  Nicene  by  the 
council  meant  the  creed  imder  discussion;  while  if 
the  council  drew  up  a  new  creed  or  expanded  the  old 
one,  its  version  could  not  possibly  have  been  worded 
as  this  creed  is.     As  to  the  first,  it 

6.  Its  Dif-  is  to  be  noticed  that  this  creed  differs 
Acuities:  from  the  Nicene  not  merely  by  the 
IntemaL    addition  to  the  third  section,  but  is 

really  different  all  the  way  through, 
and  comes  from  another  original  source,  even  though 
it  has  adopted  a  certain  number  of  the  Nicene 
watchwords.  To  sum  up  the  points  of  difference 
which  a  careful  comparison  of  the  two  discloses, 
we  find  ten  additions  besides  the  long  one,  four 
omissions,  and  five  distinct  changes  in  order  of 


words  or  sentence-structure;  or,  as  Hort  puts  it, 
of  178  words  in  the  O>nstantinopolitan  Creed  only 
thirty-three,  or  less  than  a  fifth,  can  be  positively 
said  to  be  taken  from  the  Nicene. 

The  creed  is  therefore  either  a  new  and  independ- 
ent one  with  certain  Nicene  insertions,  or  based 
upon  some  older  baptismal  creed,  edited  in  a  Nicene 
sense — ^probably  the  latter,  since  there  is  no  case 
known  of  the  composition  of  a  wholly  new  baptismal 
creed  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century.  This  hypothe- 
sis is  supported  by  a  consideration  of  two  additions 
— the  "  before  all  worlds  "  which  fol- 
7.  Modem  lows  "  begotten  of  his  Father,*'  and 
Theoxy  of  the  '*  according  to  the  Scriptures " 
Origin,  after  the  assertion  of  the  resurrection. 
As  to  the  former,  it  is  well  known  that 
the  Nicene  Fathers  carefully  avoided  any  limitation 
of  time  for  the  generation  of  the  Son  by  the  Father, 
and  deliberately  omitted  these  words  from  the 
creed  of  Eusebius.  This  attitude  was  made  even 
more  rigid  by  the  history  of  the  compromise-for- 
mulas of  Antioch  and  Sirmium;  and  it  is  impossible 
to  suppose  that  these  very  words  were  with  equal 
deliberation  added  by  the  bishops  at  Constantinople, 
when  such  an  action  would  have  been  construed  as 
a  concession  to  the  Semi-Arians.  The  whole  sit- 
uation at  the  time  allows  no  other  explanation  than 
that  these  words  were  already  contained  in  an 
ancient  baptismal  creed,  revised  in  a  Nicene  sense 
(not,  of  course  at  Constantinople),  and  that  the 
revisers  did  not  see  any  necessity  for  omitting  them, 
but  were  satisfied  with  adding  the  most  important 
Nicene  watchwords.  The  words  "  according  to 
the  Scriptures,"  again,  had  become  so  suspicious  in 
the  course  of  a  long  controversy  that  no  adherent  of 
Nic«ea  would  have  thought  of  inserting  them  in  a 
creed  which  did  not  already  contain  them,  least  of 
all  in  the  Nicene  Creed. 

These  conclusions  are  confirmed  by  the  third 
section,  which  is  traditionally  supposed  to  have 
been  the  especial  work  of  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople. It  is  certain  that  the  Macedonians  were 
combated  at  this  council;  that  from  it  dates  their 
definite  exclusion  from  the  Church;  and  that  it 
showed  no  tendency  to  make  the  slightest  com- 
promise with  them.  It  is  equally  certain  that  the 
dogmatic  "  tome  "  issued  by  the  coimcil  (now  un- 
happily lost)  expressed  the  full  unity  of  substance 
between  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Father  and  the 
Son.  But  the  creed,  instead  of  emphasizing  tliis 
unity  of  substance,  contents  itself  with  phrases  that 
bear,  indeed,  a  homoousian  meaning  but  do  not 
clearly  express  it — ^phrases  which  might  have 
sufficed  against  crude  Arianism,  but  would  have 
been  quite  inadequate  to  combat  the  energetic 
denials  of  the  homoausia  of  the  Holy  Spirit  about 
380.  The  fact  that  the  creed  thus  contains  an  evi- 
dently orthodox  but  not  sufficiently  definite  ex- 
pression on  this  point  brings  us  again  to  the  theory 
of  an  ancient  baptismal  creed  which  was  revised  in 
a  Nicene  and  anti-Macedonian  sense  after  362  and 
some  time  before  381.  Its  inclusioiA  in  the  Ancora- 
tus  of  Epiphanius,  which,  it  is  aow  plain,  can  not 
be  regarded  as  due  to  a  subsequent  mterpolation, 
may  help  to  throw  light  on  its  actual  origin. 
Although  the  words  in  which  Epiphanius  com- 


259 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OonatantlnopoUtan  Oreed 


mends  the  creed  to  the  church  of  Pamphylia  are  not 
clear  and  the  text  is  possibly  corrupt  in  at  least  one 
place,  it  is  evident  that  he  sets  it  forth  as  a  creed 
substantially  of  apostolic  and  Nicene  origin.  Now 
the  question  as  to  the  soiu^e  from  which  he  received 
it  led  as  long  ago  as  the  days  of  Gerhard  Voss  to  the 
comparison  of  its  wording  with  that  of  the  Jerusalem 
creed;  and  vi  modem  times  Hort  has  conclusively 
justified  the  s^tement  that  the  creed  of  Constan- 
tinople is  nothing  but  the  baptismal  symbol  of 
Jerusalem  increased  by  the  addition  of  the  most 
important  Nicene  formulas  and  definitions  on  the 
Holy  Ghost.  The  whole  first  section  and  the  second 
down  to  "  before  all  worlds  "  is  identical  in  both; 
the  structure  of  the  second  section  is  that  of  Jeru- 
salem, with  the  addition  of  the  Nicene  phrases  and 
four  supplementary  expressions — and  of  these  one 
or  two  may  have  been  in  the  Jerusalem  creed,  which 
is  only  known  by  reconstruction  from  Cyril's  cate- 
chetical lectures;  the  third  reads  **  and  in  one  Holy 
Ghost,  the  Comforter,  who  spake  by  the  prophets," 
which  words  afford  a  basis  for  the  longer  state- 
ment of  the  Constantinopolitan  Creed. 

The  latter  would  therefore  be  a  revision  of  the  old 
Jerusalem  creed  made  between  362  and  373,  under 
the  influence,  there  is  scarcely  a  doubt,  of  Cyril, 
bbhop  of  Jerusalem  from  351  to  386.  Three  of  the 
creeds  mentioned  above  as  resembling  but  distinct 
from  the  Nicene  came  into  being  under  precisely 
the  same  circumstances.  The  creed  of  Antioch  was 
probably  a  revision  of  the  old  baptismal  creed  of  that 
church  made,  in  dependence  on  the  Nicene,  by 
Meletius  about  373;  the  Nestorian  creed  still  in 
use  was  a  fiurther  revision  of  the  Antiochian  creed 
made  on  the  basis  of  the  Nicene  about  366,  and 
designated  as  Nicene  in  its  introduction;  and  that 
laid  before  the  Council  of  Ephesus  by  Charisius  was 
an  ancient  creed  of  Asia  Minor,  revised  in  a  thor- 
oughly orthodox  direction  in  the  last  third  of  the 
fourth  century.  The  whole  seven  creeds  belong  to 
this  class,  in  fact,  may  for  more  than  one  reason  be 
attributed  to  the  period  just  named,  which  wit- 
nessed much  activity  in  the  formulation  of  baptis- 
mal creeds  in  the  East. 

in.  History  of  its  Acceptance:  How  it  came  to 
be  designated  as  *'  of  Constantinople,"  and  to  enjoy 
ecumenical  authority,  is  a  more  difficult  question. 
The  Council  of  Constantinople  did  not  acquire  this 
authority  in  the  East  until  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century,  in  the  West  from  seventy  to  a  hundred 
years  later.  The  patriarchate  of  Constantinople 
attained  supremacy  in  the  East  in  451,  aft-er  which 
it  had  every  reason  for  exalting  the 
I.  Accept-  authority  of  the  council  held  in  that 

ance  in     city  in  381  as  equal  with  the  Nicene. 

the  West  The  Monophysite  churches  held  back 
for  twenty  years  from  acknowledging 
these  claims,  and  they  were  not  conceded  in  the 
West  for  nearly  a  century,  not,  in  fact,  until  the 
dependence  of  the  popes  upon  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors brought  about  a  tacit  acceptance  of  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  and  its  decrees.  Pope 
Vigilius  (538-555)  is  apparently  the  first  to  call  it 
ecumenical;  but  possibly  before  his  pontificate  the 
creed  in  a  Latin  version  was  appended  to  the  first 
three  canons  of  Constantinople  in  the  collection  of 


Dionysius  Exiguus,  though  he  does  not  affirm  the 
ecumenicity  of  the  council.  Gregory  the  Great, 
who  took  up  the  sorry  inheritance  of  the  Byzantine 
period,  puts  the  four  great  councils,  including  that 
of  Constantinople,  on  a  level  with  the  four  Gospels. 
While  the  reverent  reception  of  the  creed  in  the 
West  can  not  be  clearly  shown  before  the  middle 
third  of  the  sixth  century,  it  increased  with  remark- 
able rapidity,  once  the  formula  was  regarded  as  the 
production  of  a  council  now  recognized  as  ecumen- 
ical, and  had  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  baptismal 
creed  by  the  Roman  and  Spanish  churches,  partly 
owing  to  the  need  of  a  strong  defense  against  Visi- 
gothic  Arianism.  The  addition  of  the  word  FUi- 
aque  took  place  in  589 — so  soon  after  the  reception 
of  the  Creed  in  the  West  that  it  is  almost  possible 
to  defend  it  as,  for  the  West,  no  innovation.  After 
the  creed  had  once  taken  its  position  as  a  baptismal 
symbol  in  the  most  important  Western  provinces, 
and  the  legislation  of  Justinian  had  stamped  it  as 
authoritative  there  also,  there  was  little  chance  of 
any  question  being  raised  as  to  its  origin  or  sanc- 
tion, and  it  retained  its  place  in  the  mass  and  other 
solemn  functions  as  of  equal  validity  with  the 
Apostles',  and  under  the  name  of  the  Nicene.  The 
Council  of  Trent  solemnly  reaffirmed  it,  and  the 
Reformers  (though  Calvin  for  a  time  was  inclined 
to  criticize  it)  accepted  it  as  Nicene  and  approved 
its  teaching. 

Its  reception  in  the  West  shows  that  soon  after 

500  it  must  have  passed  in  at  least  a  part  of  the 

East  as  a  Constantinopolitan  revision 

2.  Accept-  of  the  Nicene  creed.    The  process  of 
ance  in     its  enforcement  as  such  must  have 

the  East  begun  shortly  before  450  and  been 
completed  about  500.  It  has  been 
maintained  that  its  presence  in  the  acta  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon  is  due  to  an  interpolation;  but 
there  are  several  strong  reasons  against  the  accept- 
ance of  this  view. 

It  is  at  least  plausible  to  suppose  that  Cyril,  whose 

orthodoxy  was  questioned  by  some,  presented  to  the 

council  his  revised  Jerusalem  creed  as  a  guaranty 

of  his  soundness;  that  it  was  approved 

3.  Theoxy  by  the  council,  and  included  in  their 
as  to  Man-  acts,  just  as  that  of  Eusebius  waa  by 

ner  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  that  of  Charisius 
Sanction,  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  and  that 
of  Hosius  by  the  Council  of  Sardica. 
When,  at  a  later  period,  the  need  was  felt  in  Con- 
stantinople of  an  expansion  of  the  Nicene  Creed, 
and  it  waa  sought  for  in  the  acts  of  the  council,  this 
confession  was  discovered,  which  offered  a  com- 
pletion of  the  third  section  capable  of  a  homoousian 
construction  and  valuable  formulas  in  the  second 
section.  It  was  comparatively  easy,  then,  when 
the  council  began  to  be  received  as  ecumenical,  to 
give  out  what  purported  to  be  its  eciunenical  creed 
as  a  completion  of  the  Nicene,  and  to  secure  legisla- 
tive and  liturgical  sanction  for  it,  though  not  with- 
out opposition,  which  finally  died  out  only  in  the 
sixth  century. 

The  Constantinopolitan  Creed  is  therefore,  like 
the  Apostles'  and  the  Nicene,  in  one  sense  of  the 
word  "  apocryphal."  It  is  both  older  and  later 
than  the  council  whose  name  it  bears — older  in  its 


Oonstantlnopolltan  Creed 
OonTereion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


260 


original   source,   later  in  its  reception.    The  his- 
torical exposition    of    its  text  must  rest  largely 
upon  the  writings  of  Cyril  and  Atha- 
4.  Con-     nasius,  which  will  sometimes  alter  the 
clindon.     conception  of  its  meaning.  The  Fathers 
who  received  it  from  the  second  half 
of  the  fifth  century  as  ecumenical  did  so  because 
they  knew  how  to  employ  its   testimony  against 
ApoUinaris,  Nestorius,  and  Eutyches.    Thus  also 
the  statements  as  to  the  Holy  Ghost  must  be  ac- 
cepted in  the  strictest  homoousian  sense,  though 
their  wording  does  not  necessarily  involve  this;   and 
the  phrase   **  proceeding  from  the   Father/'   his- 
torically considered,  is  an  attempt  not  to  answer 
the  question  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Spirit,  but  to 
condemn  the  Arian  assertion  that  the  Spirit  was 
subordinate  to  and  a  product  of  the  Son,  by  refei^ 
ring  his  origin  directly  to  the  Father,  the  primal 
radix  of  the  Godhead.  (Adolf  Harnack.) 

Bibuoorapht:  For  a  full  liBt  of  the  older  literature  con- 
sult: £.  KdUner,  Symbolik  alter  cArutfkAen  Confeuionen, 
i.  1  8qq..  28-62.  Hamburg.  1837.  Consult:  W.W.  Har- 
ney, Hut.  and  Theoiogy  of  the  ThrtB  CrMd9,  2  yols.,  Lon- 
don, 1854;  C.  A.  Heurtley,  Harmonia  SymlMiea,  Oxford, 
1868;  idem,  Hiatory  of  the  Earlier  Formulariea  of  Fail^, 
London,  1892;  A.  P.  Forbes.  Short  ExpoeiHon  of  the  Ni- 
eene  Creed,  ib.  1866;  C.  A.  Swainson.  Nieene  and  Apoe- 
tlee*  Creede,  ib.  1876;  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  Tw>  Dieeeriaiiona,  11. 
on  the  ConetanHnopoiitan  Creed,  ib.  1876;  J.  R.  Lumby, 
HieL  of  the  Creed;  ib.  1880;  F.  Kattenbusch,  LOixbuch 
der  vergleiehenden  Konfeeeionakunde,  rol.  i.,  Freibuis, 
1802;  G.  B.  Howard,  The  Canone  of  the  Primitive  Churdi; 
tptih  the  Creeda  of  Niaea  and  Conatantinopla,  London, 
1896;  J.  J.  Lias,  The  Nieene  Creed;  a  Manual,  ib.  1897; 
Harnack,  Dooma,  iii.  209-210,  iy.  95  sqq..  passim,  y.  302- 
303,  vii.  passim;  F.  Kunse,  Dae  nicAniaeh-konakinH- 
nopolitaniadu  Symbol,  Leipsic,  1898;  T.  H.  Bindley. 
(Ecwnenical  Doeumenia  of  the  Faith,  London.  1899;  W. 
Schmidt,  in  NKZ,  1899.  pp.  935  sqq.;  G.  Gallow.  HiaL  of 
Orioin  and  Development  of  Creeda,  London,  1899;  A.  G. 
Mortimer.  The  Creeda:  Hiatorieal  .  .  .  Expoaition  of 
the  .  .  .  Nieene  .  .  .  Creed,  ib.  1902;  Neander,  Chria- 
Han  Chvtrdi,  ii.  415  sqq.,  iii.  554  sqq.;  Schaff,  Creeda,  i. 
12-34  (history),  ii.  57-61  (text)>  idem.  Chriatian  Church, 
iii.  687-689.  Consult  also:  P.  Caspari,  in  Zeitaehrift  fUr 
luiheriache  TheologU,  1857.  pp.  634  sqq.;  Hefele.  Con- 
ciliengeadiidUe,  ii.  passim,  Eng.  transl.,  ii.  379  sqq.,  et 
passim. 

CONSUBSTANTIATIOlf;  A  technical  term  de- 
noting the  Lutheran  view  of  the  elements  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  in  contradistinction  from  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  view — transubstantiation.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Roman  doctrine,  the  bread  and  the  wine 
are  by  the  consecration  transformed  into  the  flesh 
and  blood  of  Christ:  while,  according  to  the  Lu- 
theran doctrine,  the  bread  and  wine-  remain  bread 
and  wine;  though,  after  the  consecration,  the  real 
flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  coexist  in  and  with  the 
natural  elements,  just  as  a  heated  iron  bar  still  re- 
mains an  iron  bar,  though  a  new  element,  beat,  has 
come  to  coexist  in  and  with  it — an  illustration  which 
Luther  himself  used  in  his  letter  to  Henry  VI IL 
Lutheran  theologians  repudiate  the  popular  term 
"consubstantiation,"  in  the  sense  of  a  permanent 
connection  of  the  elements  with  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,  confining  this  connection  to  the  act  of 
the  communion.    See  Tranbubstantiatign. 

CONTARINI,  csn"t(l-rt'ni,  6ASPAR0:  Italian 
cardinal;  b.  at  Venice  Oct.  16,  1483,  d.  at  Bologne 
Aug.  24,  1542.  After  a  thorough  scientific  and 
philosophical  training,  he  began  his  career  in  the 


service  of  his  native  city.  In  1521  be  was  the 
Republic's  ambassador  to  Charies  V.  He  accom- 
panied Charies  to  Spain,  later,  after  the  sack  of 
Rome,  he  assisted  in  reconciling  the  emperor  and 
Clement  VII.,  also  the  emperor  and  the  Republic  of 
Bologna.  His  accomplishments,  but  still  more  his 
mild  resoluteness  and  blameless  character,  made 
him  everywhere  respected.  One  of  the  fruits  of  his 
diplomatic  activity  is  his  De  magistrattbus  et  repub- 
lica  Venetorum.  In  1535  Paul  III.  unexpectedly 
made  the  secular  diplomat  a  cardinal  in  order  to 
bind  an  able  man  of  evangelical  disposition  to  the 
Roman  interests.  Contarini  accepted,  but  in  his 
new  position  did  not  exhibit  his  former  ind^)end- 
ence.  The  disposition  which  Ranke  (Popes,  L 
118)  calls  "  the  collected  product  of  all  his  higher 
faculties  "  governed  his  action  also  in  the  new  field. 
At  first  everything  seemed  to  work  well.  In  1536 
Paul  III.  appointed  a  commission  to  devise  ways 
for  a  reformation.  The  evangelical  movement  had 
made  such  progress  in  Italy  that  something  had  to 
be  done,  and  it  seemed  best  that  the  most  influen- 
tial be  the  agents.  The  decision  was  a  bold  one; 
Paul  III.,  however,  received  favorably  Contarini's 
Consilium  de  emendanda  ecdesia,  but  it  remained 
a  dead  letter,  and  his  successor  Paul  IV.,  once  a 
member  on  the  commission,  in  1539  put  it  on  the 
Index,  a  deed  which  still  embarrasses  Catholic  his- 
torians. What  Contarini  had  to  do  with  it  is 
shown  by  his  letters  to  the  pope  in  which  he  com- 
plained of  the  schism  in  the  church,  of  simony  and 
flattery  in  the  papal  court,  but  above  all  of  papal 
tyranny.  But  he  came  a  century  too  late.  Con- 
tarini in  a  letter  to  his  friend  Caidinal  Pole  [dated 
Nov.  1 1 ,  1538]  says  that  Us  hopes  had  been  wiUcened 
anew  by  the  pope's  attitude.  He  and  his  friends 
thought  that  all  would  have  been  done  when  the 
abuses  in  churchly  life  had  been  put  away.  This 
was  the  judgment  of  a  diplomat  of  noble  and  virtu- 
ous nature,  reared  on  the  best  fruits  of  antiquity 
and  refined  through  the  Gospel,  urged  on  by  a 
desire  for  peace  and  unfettered  by  dogmatic  for- 
mulas. But  he  was  soon  to  see  the  other  side.  In 
the  year  1541  he  was  papal  delegate  at  the  diet  and 
religious  debate  at  Ratisbon.  There  eveiything 
was  unfavorable;  the  Catholic  states  were  bitter, 
the  Evangelicals  were  distant.  Contarini's  in- 
structions though  apparently  free  were  full  of  papal 
reservations.  But  the  papal  party  had  ^adly  sent 
him,  thinking  that  through  him  a  union  in  doctrine 
could  be  brought  about,  while  the  interest  of  Rome 
could  be  attended  to  later.  Though  the  princes 
stood  aloof,  the  theologians  and  the  emperor  were 
for  peace,  so  the  main  articles  were  put  forth  in  a 
formula,  Evangelical  in  thought  and  Catholic  in 
expression.  The  papal  legate  had  revised  the 
Catholic  proposal  and  assented  to  the  formula 
agreed  upon.  All  gave  their  approval,  even  Eck, 
though  he  later  regretted  it.  This  did  little  good, 
for  the  P^testants  could  see  in  it  only  Roman  cun- 
ning; at  home  the  cardinal  fared  still  worse.  His 
own  position  is, shown  in  a  treatise  on  justificatioQ, 
composed  at  Ratisbon,  which  in  essential  points  is 
Evangelical,  differing  only  in  the  omission  of  the 
negative  aide  and  in  being  interwoven  with  the 
teaching  of  Aquinas.    Meanwhile  the  papal  policy 


961 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OonatantinopoUtan  Or«6d 


had  changed,  and  Contarini  was  compelled  to  fol- 
low his  leader.  He  advised  the  emperor,  after  the 
conference  had  broken  up,  not  to  renew  it,  but  to 
submit  everything  to  the  pope.  In  a  second  de- 
cision he  is  even  more  ultramontane.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  reconcile  this  course  of  action  with  his 
character,  for  from  the  beginning  Luther  repelled 
him  as  did  the  popular  movement  in  Gennany. 
He  lived  in  the  belief  that  a  reformation  should 
begin  at  the  head,  and  bis  birth,  education,  and 
diplomatic  career  made  him  view  the  question 
rather  from  the  point  of  polity  than  of  doctrine, 
and  consequently  he  was  willing  to  mediate  here. 
But  the  negative  side,  which  had  produced  the 
schism,  remained  unintelligible  to  him,  he  could  con- 
cede only  the  marriage  of  the  clergy  and  conmiu- 
nion  in  both  elements.  Meanwhile  Rome  had  drifted 
further  into  reaction,  and  he  died  while  legate  at 
Bologna,  at  a  time  when  the  Inquisition  had  driven 
many  of  his  friends  and  fellows  in  conviction  into 
exile.  He  was  happily  spared  a  decision  which 
perhaps  would  have  been  too  hard  for  him,  and  so  he 
could  leave  behind  him  the  character  of  a  man  who 

knew  the  truth  and  willed  the  good.  ^  _ 

(T.  Bhibobr.) 
Biblioorapht:  The  two  earlier  lives  are  the  Viia  Contarini 
by  Giovanni  della  Casa,  in  VUcb  adeeiorum  aliquot  viro- 
rum,  pp.  154-186,  London.  1704,  and  L.  Beocadilli,  Vita 
dd  CardinaU  G.  Contarini,  latest  issue,  Venice.  1827. 
Consult:  T.  Brieger,  O.  Contarini  und  daa  Reoenrinurger 
Concordienwerk  de9  Jahret  15U,  Gotha.  1870;  Die  Corrt- 
apondenz  dsB  .  .  .  Contarini  .  .  .  16U1,  ed.  L.  Pastor, 
Monster,  1880;  F.  Dittrich.  Reoettm  und  Briefe  dea  Con- 
tarini, 1U8S-16U!,  Braunsberg,  1881;  idem,  Oarparo  Con- 
tarini, tint  Monographim,  ib.  1885;  Ranke,  Pope;  i.  Ill- 
128.  150.  iii..  no.  18. 

COHVENTICLE  (Lat.  convenHctUum):  In  the 
primitive  church  any  meeting  for  the  sake  of  relig- 
ious worship;  since  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  applied 
in  English  only  to  the  meetings  of  the  dissenters 
from  the  Church  of  England. 

COHVEIITICLE  ACT:  An  act  passed  by  the 
Cavalier  Parliament  of  Charles  II.  in  1664,  re- 
enacted  with  less  severity  in  1670,  and  repealed  by 
the  Toleration  Act  of  1689.  By  its  provisions  the 
attendance  of  more  than  five  persons  outside  of  one 
family  at  meetings  for  religious  rites  other  than 
those  of  the  Established  Church  was  punished  by 
three  months'  imprisonment  for  the  first  offense, 
six  months  for  the  second,  and  for  the  third  the 
alternative  of  transportation  to  the  American 
plantations  for  seven  years,  under  pain  of  death  for 
a  return  before  the  expiration  of  that  period,  or  a 
fine  of  a  hundred  pounds.  Elizabeth  hieui  passed  a 
similar  act  in  1593;  but  that  of  1664  was  more 
significant  and  more  burdensome,  as  part  of  the 
systematic  repression  of  non-conformity  sometimes 
known  as  the  Clarendon  Code,  including  also  the 
Corporation,  Uniformity,  and  Five  Mile  Acts  (qq.v.; 
1661-65),  which  broke  forever  the  pretensions  of 
Puritanism  to  political  supremacy  and  confined 
its  sphere  to  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  These 
acts  were  administered  with  cruel  zeal,  the  justices 
of  the  peace,  restored  Cavalier  squires,  being 
bitter  foes  of  dissent 

Biblioobapht:  The  text  of  the  Seoond  Conventicle  Act 
(1670)  is  given  in  Gee  and  Hardy,  Doeumenta,  pp.  623- 
632.  Consult  D.  Neal.  Hiatory  of  1h«  Puritana,  part  iv., 
chaps.  7-S,  Am.  ed..  iL  261  aqq..  New  York.  1844. 


CONVERSE,  JAMES  BOOTH:  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Philadelphia  Apr.  8,  1844.  He  was  g^u- 
ated  at  Princeton  (B.A.,  1865)  and  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Va.  (1869),  and  was  pastor  1869- 
1871  and  editor  of  the  Christian  Observer  1872-79. 
He  then  returned  to  the  active  ministry  and  was 
an  evangelist  for  two  years,  after  which  he  held  a 
regular  chai^  until  1887,  again  becoming  an  evan- 
gelist in  1888,  while  from  1890  to  1895  he  was  edi- 
tor of  the  Christian  Patriot  (Morristown,  Tenn.). 
In  theology  he  is  a  Calvinistic  Presbyterian,  and 
also  holds  that  the  teachings  of  the  Mosaic  law 
upon  economic  problems  were  intended  and  are 
sufficient  to  banish  poverty  from  the  earth.  He 
advocates  the  doctrine  that  the  authority  of  Christ 
and  the  Bible  should  be  recognized  by  all  patriots 
and  Christians  as  supreme  in  civil  affairs.  He  has 
written  A  Summer  Vacation  Abroad  (Louisville, 
Ky.,  1878);  The  Bible  and  Land  (a  single-tax  book; 
Morristown,  Tenn.,  1889);  and  Uncle  Sam's  Bible, 
or,  Bible  Teachings  about  Politics  (Chicago,  1899). 

COnVERSIOlf. 

Ezegetieal  Baais  of  the  Doctrine  (|  1). 

History  of  the  Doctrine  (|  2). 

Dogmatic  Expression  of  the  Doctrine  (|  8). 

Conversion  (Lat.  conversion  Gk.  epistrophif  tht 
noun  only  in  Acts  xv.  3)  denotes  both  the  act  in 
which  man  turns  again  to  God  and  the  divine  ac- 
tivity by  virtue  of  which  this  takes  place.  Dog- 
maticians  differentiate  the  latter,  as  conversio 
transitiva,  from  the  former,  the  conversio  iniransir 
Hva, 

The  New  Testament  terms  which  exprees  the 
idea  of  conversion  are  episirephein  and  metanoein 
or  metanoia  (cf.  Acts  iii.  19,  xxvi.  20).  The  cor- 
responding term  in  the  Old  Testament  is  shvbh 
(e.g.,  Isa.  i.  27,  x.21;  Jer.  iii.  12,  14,22;  IlChron. 
vi.  24).  In  New  Testament  usage  the  word  epir 
strephein  as  a  rule  denotes  the  deed  by  which  a  per- 
son turns  from  idols,  or  evil,  to  God  (Acts  xiv.  15, 
cf.  XV.  19,  xxvi.  18,  20;  I  Thess.  i.  9;  I  Sam.  vii. 
3);  or  to  the  Lord  (Acts  ix.  35;  II  Cor.  iii.  16;  cf. 
also  I  Pet.  ii.  25).  In  the  same  sense  the  expres- 
sion is  used  absolutely  (Luke  xxii.  32;  Acts  xxviii. 
27).  According  to  Acts  the  conversion  is  effected 
through  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel; 

X.  Ezeget-  it  consists  in  man's  turning  away  from 

ical  Bans  darkness  and  evil  and  toward  God.    If 
of  the      in  the  passages  cited  the  word  epistre- 

Doctrine.  phein  is  used  in  an  intransitive  sense, 
in  Luke  i.  16,  James  v.  19-20,  it  is 
used  transitively  with  respect  to  man;  whereas 
I  Pet.  ii.  25  is  probably  to  be  understood  in  a 
passive  sense.  If  episirephein  denotes  more  the. 
change  of  the  religious  tendency,  metanoein  and 
metanoia  denote  rather  the  change  of  the  ethical 
disposition  (Acts  viii.  22).  It  is  the  giving  up  of 
the  sinful  disposition  (Rev.  ii.  21)  as  well  as  the 
giving  up  of  evil  conduct  (Rev.  ii.  5,  16,  22,  iiL  3, 
19,  ix.  20-21,  xvi.  11;  Heb.  vi.  1,  6;  II  Cor.  xiii 
21;  II  Pet.  iii  9;  Matt.  xi.  20-21,  xii.  41;  Luke 
XV.  7,  10,  V.  32,  xvi.  30).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
positive  side  of  the  new  disposition  is  emphasized. 
The  call  to  repentance  aims  at  a  confession  of  sin 
and  a  new  moral  life  (Matt.  iiL  2,  6,  8,  10;  Mark 


Converdton 
Oonwell 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


262 


i.  15;  Luke  xiii.  3,  6;  II  Tim.  ii.  25;  Acts  xvii. 
30;  Heb.  xii.  17;  Rev.  xvi.  9),  which  shows  itself 
in  new  moral  works  (Matt.  iii.  8;  Acts  xxvi.  20) 
and  secures  for  man  salvation  and  forgiveness  of 
sin  (II  Cor.  vii.  10;  Luke  xxiv.  47;  Acts  viii.  22, 
xi.  18).  The  term  metanoein  when  combined  with 
piatia  denotes  the  whole  new  life  of  the  Christian, 
as  in  Mark  i.  15;  cf.  Heb.  vi.  1;  Acts  xx.  21.  The 
metanoia  is  expected  of  man  and  is  enjoined  upon 
him  (Matt.  iii.  2,  iv.  17;  Mark  vi.  12).  But  it  is 
just  as  certain  that  God  works  repentance  in  man 
(Acts  xi.  18,  V.  31;  Rom.  ii.  4;  II  Tim.  ii.  25). 

It  is  here  that  the  real  problem  of  the  concep- 
tion lies.  On  the  one  hand  it  is  required  of  man 
tliat  he  should  turn  toward  God,  and  on  the  other 
hand  it  is  said  that  God  produces  this  turn.  The 
problem  is  stated  sharply  in  Phil.  ii.  12-13:  "  Work 
out  your  own  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling: 
for  it  is  God  that  worketh  in  you  both  to  will  and 
to  do."  This  was  not  in  the  first  instance  re- 
garded as  a  problem  by  the  Chureh;  one  could  jiist 
as  easily  expect  everything  of  the  free  will  of  man 
as  speak  of  his  being  sunk  in  sin  and  death.  The 
Greek  Chureh  never  overcame  this  lack  of  clear- 
ness. Man  begins  to  do  good,  and  somehow  God 
helps  him  to  the  goal:  "  For  it  is  ours  to  choose 
and  to  will;  but  God's  to  complete  and  to  bring 
to  an  end"  (Chrysostom,  In  Heb,  horn.,  xii.;  cf. 
R.  Seeberg,  Dogmengeschichte,  i.,  Erlangen,  1895, 
256,  238  sqq.).  In  the  West  Augustine  undertook 
a  solution  in  connection  with  his  doc- 

2.  History  trines  of  original  sin  and  predestina- 
of  the      tion.    Man  dead  in  sin  is  converted 

Doctrine,  to  the  good,  provided  this  is  predes- 
tinated. The  divine  virtua  leads  the 
human  will  indedinabUUer  et  xnauperabUiter,  so  that 
it  becomes  a  new  will  (De  corrupt,  et  ffrat.,  xii.  38; 
cf .  Seeberg,  ut  sup.,  274  sqq.).  In  the  Middle  Ages 
man's  own  work  was  strongly  emphasised.  Such 
theories  under  the  influence  of  the  later  Nominal- 
ism rose  to  Pelagianism  (cf .  Seeberg,  ii.  186).  Over 
against  this  the  Reformation  again  emphasised 
the  inability  of  man  to  choose  the  good,  and  re- 
demption sola  gratia.  The  Holy  Spirit  effects  con- 
version. He  begets  in  man  the  "new  spiritual 
motives,"  the  Tegeneratio  and  renovatio.  The  hu- 
man will  is  only  mbjectum  convertendum ;  "  it 
does  nothing  but  only  suffers,  it  is  purely  passive." 
The  conversion,  however,  is  mediated  by  the 
"  preaching  and  hearing  of  the  word,"  that  is,  it 
is  not  effected  without  a  movement  on  the  part  of 
the  subject.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  man  is  man, 
the  clumge  can  not  take  place  in  the  manner  in 
which  a  statue  is  cut  out  of  stone  or  in  any  similar 
way,  but  the  passivity  that  characterises  the  act 
of  reception  goes  over,  as  soon  as  (quam  primum) 
the  Holy  Spirit  has  effectually  taken  hold  of  the 
heart,  into  the  activity  of  a  synergy,  which,  how- 
ever, acts  only  by  virtue  of  the. newly  received 
powers.  The  servum  arbitrium  becomes  the  libera^ 
turn  arbitrium,  and  by  virtue  of  this  man  can  take 
hold  of  the  good  and  under  the  continuous  opera- 
tion of  the  Spirit  persevere  therein.  The  moment 
in  which  the  Holy  Spirit  effectually  takes  hold  of 
the  heart  is,  according  to  the  Formula  of  Concord, 
the  moment  of  conversion.    But  when  this  takes 


place  the  new  life  with  its  cooperation  is  also  pres- 
ent. Even  where  there  is  a  minimum  of  faith, 
prayer,  longing  for  salvation,  the  conversio  has 
taken  place.  Similarly,  the  old  Lutheran  dogma- 
ticians:  the  will  of  man  cooperates  in  conversion 
"  because  God  first  comes  to  us  in  the  word  and 
divine  influence  moving  and  impelling  the  will. 
But  after  this  impulse  has  been  divinely  given,  the 
human  will  is  not  purely  passive,  but,  moved  and 
helped  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  does  not  resist,  but  as- 
sents and  becomes  a  fellow  worker  with  God " 
(Chemnitz,  Loci,  L  199;  cf.  H.  Schmid,  Die  Dog- 
matik  der  evangeliachriutheriachen  Kirche,  GUtersloh, 
1893,  335-336,  340  sqq.). 

According  to  the  conception  in  the  Scriptures 

and  the  Evangelical  understanding  of  grace,  the 

dogmatic  conception  may  be  framed 

3.  Dogmatic  as  follows:  God  frees  man  from  the 

Expression  old   tendency   through   the   personal 

of  the      operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.    When 

Doctrine,  the  spirit  makes  man  feel  the  reality 
of  his  effectual  presence  and  of  the 
new  aims  thus  brought  home  to  man's  conscious- 
ness, man  is  inwardly  made  free  to  let  Grod  influ- 
ence him  and  to  place  his  life  in  the  service  of  God. 
But  this  last  act  can  happen  only  when  man  him- 
self experiences  God  and  gives  himself  with  full 
purpose  to  God.  The  divine  influence  of  grace, 
therefore,  gives  man  the  ability  to  lead  a  new  life, 
but  this  new  life  is  not  realized  concretely  in  any 
other  way  than  in  acts  of  the  soul.  The  conversio 
tranaitiva  is  therefore  the  cause  of  the  converaio  in- 
iranaitiva.  At  the  same  time  the  conversion  may 
be  defined,  on  the  one  hand,  as  the  following  of 
the  new  tendency  for  the  first  time ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  may  use  the  term  to  designate  that  entire 
complex  of  inner  experiences  and  transactions 
which  denotes  the  basis  of  our  Christian  estate. 

R.  Seeberg. 

The  new  study  of  the  psychology  of  religion  has 
directed  attention  afresh  to  the  subject  of  conver- 
sion and  also  thrown  much  light  on  it,  both  as  an 
adolescent  and  as  an  adult  phenomenon.  This  in- 
quiry has  disclosed  the  following  results:  (1)  Ado- 
lescent conversion  is  incidental  to  the  flowering  time 
of  childhood  and  youth,  during  the  years — ^between 
fourteen  and  seventeen — of  greatest  susceptibility 
and  awakening,  in  which  the  soul  begins  to  be  con- 
scious of  those  relations  in  which  personality  is 
realized.  The  preliminary  symptoms  are  various, 
such  as  haunting  introspection,  harassing  doubts, 
feeling  of  depression  and  of  imperfection,  conviction 
of  sin,  fear  of  death,  and  longing  for  the  infinite.  It 
is  thus  the  awakening  of  the  person  to  spiritual 
realities.  (2)  As  an  adult  phenomenon  regarded 
as  a  single  act,  in  religious  experience  conversion  is 
repudiation  of  sin  and  surrender  of  self  to  God  in 
Christ;  as  an  ethical  fact,  it  is  identification  of  self 
with  one's  individual  and  social  ideal;  as  a  psychical 
act,  the  hitherto  more  or  less  dissociated  activities 
of  the  self  are  unified  in  an  emotional  experience. 
The  two  types  of  conversion  are  the  volitional — one 
strives  to  become  a  new  man — and  the  self-surrender 
type  in  which  effort  either  for  or  against  the  new 
life  gives  place  to  an  invasion  from  the  subliminal 
region  in  which  after  a  longer  or  shorter  incubation 


263 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Conversion 
Oonwell 


one  suddenly  and  freely  identifies  himself  with  God. 
Such  sudden  experiences  are  due  in  part  to  a  pro- 
nounced sensibility  with  tendency  to  automatisms 
and  siiggestibility  of  the  passive  type.  The  change 
is  often  aooompanied  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
emotional  and  physical  disturbance.  (3)  Conver- 
sion as  a  gradual  experience  is  more  commonly  true 
of  thoee  in  whom  the  rational  or  volitional  powers 
predominate:  the  judgment  is  progressively  con- 
vinced, and  the  will  is  as  the  judgment.  These 
various  tjrpes  of  conversion  are  primarily  not  of  re- 
ligious, but  of  psychological  significance.  The  essen- 
tial reality  is  the  beginning  of  an  identification  with 
God  and  with  the  ideal  unity  of  personal  beings. 
The  action  of  the  spirit  of  God  is  presupposed.  The 
literature  of  the  subject  is  growing,  and  the  fol- 
lowing works  may  be  consulted:  E.  D.  Starbuck, 
Ptychalogy  of  Religum,  New  York,  1899;  G.  A.  Coe, 
The  SpiriiuaL  Lije,  ib.  1900;  idem.  Education  in 
Religion  and  Morals,  ib.  1904;  W.  James,  Vari- 
eties of  Religious  Experience,  pp.  189-258,  ib.  1902; 
J.  B.  Pratt,  Psychology  oj  Religious  Belief,  pp.  191- 
261,  ib.  1907;  Leuba,  in  American  Journal  of 
Psychology,  vii  (1896),  309  sqq.;  G.  S.  Hall,  Ado- 
lescence, New  York,  1904.  C.  A.  B. 

COnVOCATION:  In  the  Church  of  England,  a 
deliberative  assembly  of  the  bishops  and  clergy  of 
each  province  under  their  respective  metropolitans 
for  the  discussion  of  ecclesiastical  afifairs.  In  the 
plan  devised  by  Edward  I.  for  a  national  assembly 
(1283),  the  clerical  estate  was  to  be  represented  by 
its  proctors  as  were  the  counties  by  their  knights 
and  the  towns  by  their  burgesses.  But  the  clergy 
preferred  to  be  an  estate  apart,  taxing  itself  sep- 
arately. It  was  brought  completely  under  royal 
control  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1635,  Cromwell,  a  lay- 
man, presiding  for  the  king  as  vicar-general  The 
priv^ege  of  taxing  itself  was  definitely  taken  from 
the  clerical  order  in  1664  and  settled  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  in  which  clei^gymen  were  not  allowed 
to  sit,  though  they  were  in  a  sense  represented  by 
the  bishops  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Convocation 
continued  to  exist  until  the  attacks  of  the  High- 
church  and  Tory  parsons  on  the  liberal  bishops 
came  to  a  head  in  the  Bangorian  controversy  (see 
HoADLT,  Benjamin),  when  the  Convocation  of 
Canterbury  was  prorogued  in  1717,  and  the  license 
of  the  crown  necessary  to  enable  it  to  proceed  to 
business  was  no  longer  granted.  It  met  from  time 
to  time  as  a  matter  of  form,  but  its  life  was  prac- 
tically dormant  imtil  in  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  by 
Bishop  Wilberforce  and  Bishop  Phillpotts  of  Exe- 
ter for  its  revival.  Its  recovery  of  deliberative  pow- 
ers took  place  in  1861,  since  which  time  it  has  met 
regularly,  concurrently  with  the  sessions  of  Pai^ 
liament,  to  discuss  and  advise  on  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  though  shorn  of  its  ancient  powers.  It  con- 
sists of  two  houses,  the  upper  containing  the  b]shoi)s 
of  the  province,  the  lower  the  deans,  archdeacons, 
and  representatives  of  the  cathedral  and  parochial 
clergy;  the  archbishop  presides  in  the  upper  house, 
an  elected  prolocutor^in  the  lower.  In  recent  years 
a  house  of  laymen  has  also  been  created,  which, 
though  not  technically  a  part  of  Convocation,  ex- 


ercises by  its  debates  a  concurrent  influence.     The 
term  convocation  is  applied  in  some  dioceses  of  the 
American  Episcopal  Church  to  the  annual  legisla- 
tive assembly,  and  more  frequently  to  gatherings 
of  clergy  and  laity,  usually  for  missionary  purposes. 
Biblioorapht:  J.   H.   Blunt.  Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and 
HiMtorical  Theology,  pp.  152-158.  London,  1870  (a  sum- 
mary of  the  history);  J.  Overall,  The  Convocation  Book  of 
1606,  commonly  called  Bishop  Overall'a  Convocation  Book, 
in  the  Library  of  Anglo-Catholic  Theology,  Oxford.  1844; 
W.  Kennet.  A  CompUat  HieU  of  Convocationa,  1S66-1689, 
London,   1730;  T.   H.   Fellows,   Convocation:   ite  Origin, 
Progreee  and  Authority,  ib.  1852;  T.  Lathbury,  Hiet,  of 
the  Convocation  of  the  Church  of  England,  ib.  1853. 

CONVULSIONISTS.  See  Janbbn,  Corneuub, 
Jansenism. 

CONWAY,  MONCXTREDAinEL:"' Liberal;  b.  at 
Middleton  Farm,  Stafford  Co.,  Va.,  Mar.  17,  1832; 
d.  in  Paris  Nov.  15,  1907.  Educated  at  Dickin- 
son College,  Carlisle,  Pa.  (B.A.,  1849),  and  Harvard 
Divinity  School  (B.D.,  1854),  after  having  studied 
law  (1849-50).  He  was  first  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Church  in  Maryland  (1850-53),  then 
of  the  Unitarian  Church  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
(1854-57),  the  First  Congregational  (Unitarian) 
Church,  Cincinnati,  O.  (1857-62),  and  the  South 
Place  Chapel,  London  (1863-85  and  1892-97). 

Conway  was  active  in  the  movement  for  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  slaves,  a  fact  which  compelled  him 
to  retire  from  Washington,  and  subsequently  led 
him  to  go  to  England  to  explain  the  attitude  of 
the  North  in  the  Civil  War.  He  edited  the  Dial  at 
Cincinnati  and  later  the  Boston  Commonwealth; 
while  in  London  he  was  on  the  staff  of  the  Daily 
News  and  the  PaU  MaU  Gazette,  He  edited  many 
works  of  English  literature,  of  which  the  most 
noteworthy  are  The  Sacred  Anthology  (New  York, 
1876)  and  The  Writings  of  Thomas  Paine  (4  vols., 
1894-95),  and  produced  many  books,  of  which 
these  having  religious  interest  may  be  mentioned: 
Tracts  for  To-Day  (Cincinnati,  O.,  1857);  The 
Earthward  Pilgrimage  (New  York,  1870);  Idols 
and  Ideals  (1877);  Demonology  and  Devil  Lore  (2 
vols.,  1879);  The  Wandering  Jew  (1881);  Th(nnas 
Carfyle  (1881);  Emerson,  at  Home  and  Abroad  (Bos- 
ton, 1883);  FareweU  Discourses  (1884);  Life  of 
Thomas  Paine  (2  vols.,  1892);  Solomon  and  Solo- 
monic Literature  (Chicago,  1890);  Autobiography 
(2  vols..  New  York,  1904);  and  My  Journey  to 
the  Wise  Men  of  the  East  (Boston,  1906). 

CONWELL,  RUSSELL  HERMAIT:  Baptist;  b. 
at  Worthington,  Mass.,  Feb.  15,  1842.  He  entered 
the  law  school  at  Yale  in  1860,  but  interrupted  his 
studies  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  and  served 
in  the  Union  Army  as  captain  of  infantry,  being 
promoted  lieutenant-colonel  in  1865.  He  then  re- 
sumed his  studies  at  Albany  University  (B.A., 
1866),  practised  law  in  Minneapolis  1865-67,  and 
was  inunigration  agent  of  Minnesota  to  Germany 
1867-68.  He  was  foreign  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Tribune  and  the  Boston  Traveler  in 
1868-70,  and  after  his  return  to  the  United  States 
practised  law  in  Boston  until  1879.  He  was  or- 
dained to  the  Baptist  ministry  in  1879  and  for  ten 
years  (1881-91)  was  pastor  of  Grace  Baptist  Church, 
Philadelphia,  and  since  1891  of  the  Baptist  Temple 
there.     In   1888  he  founded  Temple  College,  of 


OonylMare 
Oooper 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


264 


which  he  haa  since  been  president,  and  two  years 
later  established  the  Samaritan  Hospital.  Hjb  has 
written  biographies  of  President  Hayes  (1876), 
Bayard  Taylor  (1879),  President  Garfield  (1881), 
Joshua  Gianavello  (1884),  James  G.  Blaine  (1886), 
Charles  H.  Spurgeon  (1892),  and  other  volumes. 

CONYBEARE,     FREDERICK      CORHWALLIS: 

Church  of  England  layman;  b.  at  Kew  in  the  year 
1856.  He  was  educated  at  University  College,  Ox- 
ford (M.A.,  1883),  where  he  became  fellow  and 
prelector  in  1881.  He  is  particularly  noted  for  his 
attainments  in  Armenian,  and  is  a  member  of  the 
Venetian  Armenian  Academy.  In  1903  he  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  His  wri- 
tings embrace:  A  Cottation  with  the  Ancient  ArTne- 
nian  Venuma  of  the  Greek  Texts  of  Aristotle* e  Cate- 
gories, etc.  (London,  1892);  The  Apology  and  Acts 
of  ApoUoniiis  and  Other  Monuments  of  Early  Chris- 
tianity (1894;  2d  ed.,  The  Armenian  Apology  and 
Acts  of  ApoUonius,  1896);  Philo  about  the  Contem- 
plative Life,  or,  the  Fourth  Book  of  the  Treatise  Con- 
cerning Virtues  (Oxford,  1895);  The  Key  of  Truth, 
a  Manual  of  the  Paulician  Church  of  Armenia,  the 
Armenian  Text  edited  and  translated  (1898);  The 
Story  of  Ahikar,  from  the  Syriac,  Arabic,  Armenian, 
Ethiopic,  Greek  and  Slavonic  Versions  (1898);  The 
Dialogues  of  Athanasius  and  Zachceus  and  of  Timothy 
and  Aquila  (1898);  The  Dreyfus  Case  (London, 
1898);  Roman  Catholicism  as  a  Factor  in  European 
PolUics  (1901);  RUuale  Armenorum  (Oxford,  1905); 
and  Old  Armenian  Texts  of  Revelation  (1906). 

COIVTBEARE,  JOHN:  Bishop  of  Bristol;  b.  at 
Pinhoe,  near  Exeter,  Jan.  31,  1692;  d.  at  Bath 
July  13,  1765.  He  studied  at  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
ford (fellow,  1711;  B.A.,  1713;  proctor,  1725;  B.D., 
1728;  D.D.,  1729);  became  rector  of  Exeter  1730, 
dean  of  Christ  Church  1733,  and  bishop  of  Bristol 
1750.  He  was  a  popular  preacher,  reformed  many 
abuses  as  rector  of  Exeter,  and  was  an  energetic 
dean.  His  most  important  publication  was  A 
Defence  of  Revealed  Religion  against  the  Exceptions 
of  a  late  Writer  (London,  1732),  which  was  pro- 
noimced  one  of  the  four  ablest  books  (the  other 
three  by  James  Foster,  John  Leland,  and  Simon 
Browne)  written  in  reply  to  Tindal's  Christianity 
as  Old  as  the  Creation  (1730)..  Two  volumes  of  his 
Sermons  were  published  at  London,  1757. 
Bzbuoobapht:  J.  Leland,  View  of  iKe  DeitHeal  Writent  8 

Yols..  London,  1754-66;  DNB,  zii.  60-61. 

COIVTBEARE,  WILLIAM  JOHN:  Church  of 
England;  b.  Aug.  1,  1815,  eldest  son  of  William 
Daniel  Conybeare;  d.  at  Wey bridge  (on  the  Thames, 
20  m.  S.W.  of  London),  Surrey,  July  22,  1857.  He 
was  student  and  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge (B.A.,  1837;  M.A.,  1840);  was  first  princi- 
pal of  Liverpool  Collegiate  Institute  1842-48; 
vicar  of  AxnidnBter,  Devonshire  (succeeding  his 
father),  1848-54.  He  is  best  known  for  his  work 
upon  the  Life  and  Epistles  of  St,  Paul  in  collabora- 
tion with  J.  S.  Howson  (2  vols.,  London,  1852; 
2d  ed.,  revised,  1856;  many  other  editions);  of  the 
twenty-eight  chapters  of  this  work  Mr.  Conybeare 
contributed  nine,  including  the  speeches  and  letters 
of  Paul,  all  of  which  he  translated  and  annotated. 
A  volume  of  his  Sermons  Preached  in  the  Chapel 


Royal,  Whitehall,  appeared  in  1844,  and  his  contri- 
butions to  the  Edinburgh  Review  were  reprinted 
with  additions  under  the  title  Essays,  Ecdekastical 
and  Social  in  1855.  He  also  published  a  novel, 
Perversion,  or  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  In- 
fidelity (3  vols.,  1856). 

COOKy  CHARLES:  The  father  of  Methodism  in 
France  and  Switzerland;  b.  in  London  May  31, 
1787;  d.  at  Lausanne  Feb.  21,  1858.  He  entered 
the  Wesleyan  ministry  in  1817  and  the  next  year 
went  to  France,  where  he  was  indefatigable  in 
labor,  and  it  was  largely  through  his  agency  that 
there  was  a  revival  of  religion  among  French  Prot- 
estants under  the  Restoration.  Merle  d'Aubigne 
said  of  him:  "  The  work  which  John  Wesley  did 
in  the  British  kingdom,  Charles  Cook  did  upon  the 
Continent,  except  that  it  was  not  so  extensive." 
He  organized  numerous  small  societies,  which  either 
joined  the  Reformed  Church  or  continued  inde- 
pendent. A  controversy  with  C^sar  Malan  upon 
the  doctrine  of  predestination  led  to  the  publica- 
tion of  his  mdst  important  work,  U Amour  de  Dieu 
pour  tous  les  hommes, 

Bibugobapht:  VU  dt  ChariM  Cook  by  hia  aon,  J.  P.  Cook. 
Puia,1862. 

COOK,  EMILE  FRANCIS:  French  Methodist; 
b.  at  Niort  (34  m.  e.n.e.  of  La  Rochelle)  1830,  son 
of  Charles  Cook  (q.v.);  d.  at  Hy^res  (12  m.  e.  of 
Toulon)  Jan.  29,  1874.  He  was  educated  in  Lau- 
sanne and  the  Wesleyan  institutions  in  England; 
ordained  in  1854;  and  in  1866  came  to  Paris  to  be 
pastor  of  the  Wesleyan  Congregation  there.  He 
came  to  America  as  delegate  to  the  General  Con- 
ference of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  held  in  New 
York  Oct.  2-12,  1873,  and  escaped  shipwreck  in  the 
ill-fated  ViOe  du  Havre  (Nov.  22,  1873),  only  to  die 
shortly  after  on  land. 
BiBUoaBAPHT:  L.  8.  Houghton,  Faithful  to  the  End;   .  .  . 

BmUe  Cook'9  Life,  Philadelphia,  1881. 

COOE;  FREDERIC  CHARLES:  Church  of  Eng- 
land; b.  at  Milbrook  Dec.  1,  1804;  d.  at  Exeter 
June  22,  1889.  He  studied  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge  (B.A.,  1831;  M.A.,  1844),  and  at  Bonn; 
was  ordained  1839;  was  inspector  of  schools;  preb- 
endary of  St.  Paul's  1856-65;  preacher  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  1860-80;  prebendaiy  in  linooln  cathe- 
dral 1861-64.  He  became  chaplain  in  ordinary 
to  the  Queen  1857;  canon  residentiary  of  Exeter 
1864;  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  London  1869; 
precentor  of  Exeter  1872.  He  was  a  learned  Bib- 
lical scholar  and  a  remarkable  linguist,  acquainted, 
it  is  said,  with  fifty-two  languages.  His  most  im- 
portant work  was  done  for  The  Speaker's  Commen- 
tary (10  vols.,  London,  1871-82),  which  was  planned 
in  1864  to  refute  the  theories  advanced  by  Bishop 
Colenso  and  modem  critics;  Canon  Cook  was  chosen 
editor  in  chief  and,  in  adc^tion  to  his  woric  as  edi- 
tor, wrote  personally  the  introductions  to  Exodus, 
the  Psalms,  and  the  Acts,  the  entire  conomentaiy 
on  Job,  Habakkuk,  Mark,  Luke,  and  I  Peter,  and 
part  of  that  on  Exodus,  the  Psalms,  and  Matthew. 
He  criticized  severely  the  work  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment revisers  in  The  Revised  Version  of  the  First 
Three  Oospels  Considered  in  its  Bearings  upon  the 
Record  of  our  Lord's  Words  and  of  Incidents  in  kit 


265 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonybeare 
Oooper 


Life  (1882)  and  in  Deliver  Us  from  Evil  (1883). 
His  last  works  were  The  Origins  of  Religion  and 
Language  (1884)  and  Letters  Addressed  to  the  Rev, 
H.  Mace  and  the  Rev.  J.  Earle  (1885),  in  which  he 
argued  for  the  unity  of  language  and  a  primitive 
divine  revelation  to  man. 

COOK,  (FLAVIUS)  JOSEPH(US):  Congrega- 
Uonalist;  b.  at  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  26,  1838; 
d.  there  June  25,  1901.  He  entered  Yale  in  1858 
but  left  owing  to  ill  health  in  junior  year;  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  1865,  and  at  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary  1868;  was  resident  licentiate  at 
Andover  1868-70;  acting  pastor  of  the  First  (Con- 
gregational) Church,  Lynn,  Mass.,  1870-71 ;  studied 
and  traveled  in  Europe  1871-73.  He  was  never 
ordained.  His  reputation,  which  was  world-wide, 
was  that  of  lecturer  upon  the  relation  of  religion 
and  science.  His  knowledge  of  theology  was  con- 
siderable, but  his  claim  to  speak  for  science  would 
be  disputed.  From  1874  to  1895  he  spoke  each 
Monday  morning  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  for 
years  in  succession,  in  Tremont  Temple  in  Boston 
upon  his  general  topic,  with  a  "  prelude  on  current 
events."  He  also  lectured  elsewhere,  and,  indeed, 
during  1880  to  1883  went  round  the  world  on  a 
lecturing  tour.  His  conservatism  was  most  pro- 
nounced and  his  dogmatism  also.  He  was  im- 
mensely popular,  and  really  was  astonishingly  well 
informed.  As  a  public  speaker  he  was  always  vehe- 
ment, but  not  always  easily  intelligible.  His  Mon- 
day lectures  were  first  printed  in  the  newspapers 
as  stenographically  reported,  then  revised  and  com- 
prised in  three  volumes:  Biology  (Boston,  1877),  in 
opposition  to  the  "  materialistic,  but  not  the  theistic 
theory  of  evolution";  Transcendentalism  (1877) 
and  Orthodoxy  (1878),  a  discussion  of  the  views  of 
Theodore  Parker;  Conscience  (1879) ;  Heredity  ( 1879) ; 
Marriage  (1879);  Labor  (1880);  Socialism  (1880). 
To  these  were  afterward  added  Occident  (1884); 
Orient  (1886);  Current  Religunts  PeriU  (1888).  He 
established  a  religious  monthly,  Our  Day,  in  1888. 

COOKE»  GEORGE  ALBERT:  Churoh  of  Eng- 
land; b.  in  London  Nov.  26,  1865,  was  scholar  of 
Wadham  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1888);  curate  of 
Headington,  1889-90;  scholar  and  Hebrew  lec- 
turer of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  1889-92;  chap- 
lain of  Magdalen  Ck>llege,  Oxford,  1890-92;  fellow 
of  the  same  1892-99;  curate  of  St.  Mary  the  Viigin, 
Oxford,  1894-96;  examiner  in  school  of  Oriental 
languages,  Oxford,  1895-99  and  in  1904;  rector 
of  Beaconsfield  1896-99;  rector  of  Dalkeith  1899- 
1908,  when  he  succeeded  Canon  Cheyne  as  Oriel 
professor  of  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  in 
Oxford.  His  most  important  book  is  A  Text-book 
of  North  Semitic  Inscriptions,  London,  1903. 

COOKEy  HENRY:  The  champion  of  Orthodoxy 
against  Arianism  in  the  Irish  Church;  b.  on  a  farm 
near  Biaghera  (28  m.  e.s.e.  of  Londonderry),  County 
Deny,  Biay  11,  1788;  d.  in  Belfast  Dec.  13,  1868. 
He  studied  at  Glasgow  College  but  did  not  gradu- 
ate; was  ordained  assistant  minister  of  Duneane, 
near  Randalstown,  (bounty  Antrim,  1808;  settled 
at  Donegore  in  the  same  county  1811.  Here  he 
undertook  to  supplement  his  early  training  by 


systematic  study,  attended  two  sessions  at  Glas- 
gow 1815-17,  and  heard  lectures  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  1817-18,  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  medi- 
cine as  well  as  of  theology.  In  1818  he  was  called 
to  Killeleagh,  County  Down,  and  in  1829  to  the 
May  Street  Church,  Belfast.  After  1847  he  was 
professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  the  General  Assem- 
bly's theological  coUege  at  Belfast,  continuing  his 
pastoral  duties  at  the  same  time.  He  forced  the 
Arians  in  the  Synod  of  Ulster  to  secede  in  1829, 
when  the  Remonstrant  Synod  of  Ulster  was  formed 
under  the  lead  of  Henry  Montgomery  (q.v.),  and 
continued  his  opposition  till  Arianism  was  ban- 
ished from  the  colleges,  synods,  and  congregations 
of  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church.  He  was  also 
active  in  politics  and  was  the  founder  and  leader 
of  the  Protestant  party  in  Ulster  after  his  removal 
to  Belfast.  He  was  a  master  of  all  the  arts  of 
public  speaking,  had  imconunon  skill  in  argument, 
and  was  an  imrelenting  opponent.  He  was  mod- 
erator of  the  General  Ass^bly  in  1841  and  1862. 
His  statue  was  erected  in  Belfast  in  1875.  He 
wrote  many  pamphlets  and  magaadne  articles,  but 
nothing  of  permanent  value. 

Bibuogbapht:  J.  L.  Porter.  Life  and  TimM  cf  Henry  Cooke, 
Belfast,  1875  (by  hia  son-in-law,  an  able  eulogy  rather 
than  a  biocraphy);  DNB,  zii.  87-00  (where  a  full  list  of 
souroes  is  given). 

COOKMAN,  ALFRED:  Methodist  ;  b  at  Co- 
limibia.  Pa.,  Jan.  4,  1828;  d.  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
Nov.  13,  1871.  He  was  licensed  as  an  exhorter  in 
Baltimore  1845;  served  as  pastor  in  West  Chester, 
Harrisburg,  Pittsburg,  and  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  in 
New  York,  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  and  in  Newark. 
He  warmly  supported  the  Union  cause  during  the 
Civil  War  and  served  the  Christian  Commission  in 
the  field.  He  was  a  leader  in  the  movement  in 
1867  which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  "  National 
Camp-meeting  Association "  and  was  prominent 
at  the  various  meetings  which  it  held. 
Bibuoobapht:  H.  B.  Ridgaway.  Life  of  Rev,  Alfred  Cook- 
man,  trith  eome  Account  of  hie  Father,  Rev.  O,  C,  Cook- 
man,  New  York,  1873. 

COOPER,  JAMES:  Scotch  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Elgin  (71  m.  n.w.  of  Aberdeen),  Elginshire,  Scot- 
land, Feb.  13,  1846.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Aberdeen  (M.A.,  1867),  and  was  minister  of  St. 
Stephen's,  Broughty  Ferry,  Fifeshire  (1873-^1),  and 
the  East  Parish  of  St.  Nicholas,  Aberdeen  (1881- 
18d8).  Since  1898  he  has  been  professor  of  church 
history  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  is  presi- 
dent of  the  Aberdeen  Ecclesiological  Society  and 
edited  its  transactions  1886-1903,  and  also  edited 
the  transactions  of  the  Scottish  Ecclesiological 
Society,  of  which  he  was  president  in  1903.  He 
edited  Cartularium  EcdesicB  Sancti  Nicolai  Aber- 
doneneis  (2  vols.,  Aberdeen,  1888-92);  and  made 
an  English  translation  of  the  Sjrriac  Testament  of 
Our  Lord  (London,  1902;  in  collaboration  with 
A.  J.  Maclean). 

COOPER,  THOMAS:  English  Baptist;  b.  at 
Leicester,  Eng.,  Mar.  20,  1805;  d.  at  Lincoln  July 
15,  1892.  He  went  to  school  till  he  was  fifteen 
and  then  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker.  He 
was  eager  to  learn,  studied  Greek,  Latin,  and  He- 
brew in  his  leisure  time,  and  applied  himself  so 


Cooper 
Goptlo  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


SM 


steadily,  with  insufficient  food,  that  his  health 
failed  in  1827.  He  then  tried  school-teaching  at 
Gainsborough  and  Lincoln,  and  became  abio  a 
Methodist  local  preacher  in  1829.  Dififerences  with 
the  Methodist  superintendents,  for  which  he  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  altogether  at  fault,  brought 
him  out  of  sympathy  with  religious  work.  He  be- 
came a  reporter  for  country  newspapers  and  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  obtain  work  in  London.  In  1840 
he  joined  the  Chartist  movement  and  for  four  years 
was  a  leader  of  their  extreme  party;  served  two 
years  in  Stafford  jail  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  and 
sedition.  After  his  release  he  abandoned  the  Chart- 
ists and  appeared  as  a  lecturer  on  historical  and 
pohtical  subjects  before  radical  and  freethinking 
audiences.  In  1856  his  views  changed  and  he  be- 
came an  itinerant  preacher,  and  lecturer  on  the 
evidences  of  natural  and  revealed  religion.  In  the 
course  of  eight  and  one-half  years  he  preached 
1,169  times,  lectured  2,204  times,  visited  every 
coimty  of  England,  and  many  of  the  counties  of 
Scotland  and  Wales.  In  1866  his  health  broke 
down  and  certain  of  his  friends  presented  him  with 
an  annuity  of  £100;  he  went  back  to  his  work, 
however,  the  next  year.  He  joined  the  General 
Baptists  in  1859.  Besides  political  writings^  nov- 
els, and  poems  (collected  ed.,  London,  1877),  he 
published  The  Bridge  of  History  over  the  Gvlf  of 
Time;  a  popular  view  of  the  historical  evidence  for 
the  truth  of  Christianity  (London,  1871;  4th  ed., 
1889);  Plain  PuLpU  Talk  (1872;  2ded.,  1873);  his 
lAfCy  written  by  himself  (1872;  popular  ed.,  1880); 
God,  the  Soul,  and  a  Future  State  (1873);  The  Ver- 
ity of  Christ's  Resurrection  (1875;  new  ed.,  1884); 
The  Verity  and  Value  of  the  Miracles  of  Christ  (1876); 
Evolution  :  the  stone  book  and  the  Mosaic  record  of 
creation  (1878);  The  Atonement  (1880);  Thoughts 
at  Fourscore  and  Earlier  (1885). 

COOPERATOR:  A  priest  appointed  for  an  indefi- 
nite time  to  assist  the  regular  incumbent,  depend- 
ent upon  the  latter  and  strictly  subordinate  to 
him;  the  term  is  applied  especially  to  an  assistant 
in  a  mother  church  which  has  affiliations. 

COPE.    See  Vestmbnto  and  Insignia,  Eccls>- 

SIASTICAL. 

CGPLESTOlf,  REGINALD  STEPHEN:  An- 
glican bishop  of  Calcutta  and  metropolitan  of  India; 
b.  at  Barnes  (6  m.  w.  of  London),  Surrey,  Dec.  26, 
1845.  He  studied  at  Merton  0>llege,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1869;  M.A.,  1871),  was  ordered  deacon  in  1872,  and 
ordained  priest  in  1875.  He  became  a  fellow  and 
tutor  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1869,  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Colombo  in  1875,  and  trans- 
lated to  the  diocese  of  Calcutta  in  1902.  He  has 
written  jEschylus  (Ix)ndon,  1870)  and  Buddhism, 
Primitive  and  Present,  in  Magadha  and  in  Ceylon 
(1892). 

COPPm  (COPPING),  JOHN:  English  Separa- 
tist. He  lived  at  Bury  St.  Edmimds,  became  an 
enthusiastic  adherent  of  Robert  Browne  (q.v.), 
preached  Browne's  doctrines,  and  disseminated  his 
books.  For  refusing  to  conform  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical laws  and  usages  he  was  imprisoned,  1576,  and 
kept  in  confinement  for  seven  years,  but  was  treated 


leniently.  Persisting  in  his  course,  using  violent 
language,  and  behaving  offensively,  in  1583,  with 
a  fellow  prisoner  named  Elias  Thacker,  he  was 
brought  to  trial  charged  with  disobeying  the  laws 
and  **  dispersing  Browne's  books  and  Harrison's 
books."  Both  were  convicted  and  hanged,  Thacker 
on  June  4,  Coppin  on  June  5,  1583. 
Bzblxoobapht:  H.  M.  Dexter,  Congretfationaliam  of  the  Laat 
Three  Hundred  Yeare,  pp.  208-210,  New  York.  1880. 

COPTIC  CHURCH. 

1.  History. 

To  the  Death  of  Justinian,  605  (|  1). 
The  Arab  Dominion,  639-1517  (|  2). 
Turkish  and  Modem  Rule  (|  3). 
Statistics  (|  4). 
II.  Constitution,  Eoclesiastioal  Law,  ate. 

III.  Liturgy,  Church  fiuildines,  etc. 
Liturgies  (|  1). 

Doctrine  and  Practise  (|  2). 
Churches  (|  3). 

IV.  Monasticism. 

V.  Eoclesiaatieal  Literature. 

The  Coptic  Church  is  the  Monoph3rBite  or  Jacob- 
ite Church  of  Egypt.  The  word  *•'  Coptic  "  is  the 
European  form  of  the  Arabic  Kibt,  the  Greek  [AH- 
gyptos. 

I.  History:  The  traditional  apostle  of  Egypt  is 
St.  Mark  (as  early  as  Eusebius,  Hist,  ecd.,  ii.  16), 
though  evidences  of  still  earlier  Christianity  may 
be  seen  in  Acts  ii.  10,  viii.  26  sqq.,  xi.  20,  ziii.  1, 
xviii.  24.  From  apostolic  times  to  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  little  is  heard  beyond  the  names 
of  Alexandrian  teachers  (see  Alexandria,  School 
of)  and  bishops.  Among  subsequent  bishops  the 
first  to  stand  forth  distinctly  is  Demetrius  (d. 
231),  the  friend  and  later  the  opponent  of  Origen 
(q.y.);  of  his  successors,  Dionysius  (d.  264)  and 
Peter  (qq.v.;  d.  311)  are  conspicuous.  It  is  only 
by  the  heavy  tribute  of  martyrs  in  the  persecutions 
during  the  lives  of  these  two,  to  which — ^under  Dio- 
cletian— Peter  fell  a  victim,  that  we  realize  some- 
thing of  the  strength  of  the  new  religion  in  south- 
em  Egypt.  The  peace  of  Constantine  was  speedily 
upset  by  the  Arian  disturbance,  which  appears, 
however,  to  have  affected  mainly  the  Greek-speak- 
ing population  of  the  north.  In  the  southern  dis- 
tricts, the  real  home  of  Egyptian  (yhristianity,  the 
Athanasians  found  steady  support.    On 

X.  To  the    the  basis  of  the  Nicene  victoiy,  Atha- 

Death  of  nasius  had  raised  his  chureh  to  a  dom- 
Justinian,  inant  place,  a  position  maintained  for 
565.  almost  a  century.  His  successors, 
notably  Theophilus  (d.  412),  were 
ambitious  of  further  magnifying  their  advantage, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  rebuff  at  the  Council  of 
381  (see  Arianism),  Cyrl  (d.  444)  was  eventually 
able,  thanks  to  the  opportunity  afforded  him  by 
Nestorius  (q.v.),  to  figiue  at  Ephesus  (431)  as  the 
champion  of  orthodoxy.  The  Coptic  Chureh  was 
interested  in  this  struggle  by  the  presence  at  Ephe- 
sus of  Shenoute,  the  famous  abbot  of  the  White 
Monastery  (Achmim),  Cyril's  uncompromising  sup- 
porter. With  Cyril's  tactless  and  violent  succes- 
sor, Dioscurus,  the  turning-point  of  the  Church's 
history  is  reached.  Successful  at  the  "  Robber 
Synod  "  (449),  he  was  defeated  and  exiled  at  Chal- 
cedon  (451);  yet  his  Monophysite  creed  (see  MoNO- 
PHTsiTEs),  condemned  by  official  orthodoxy,  now 


267 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cooper 
Ooptio  Ohiiroh 


became  the  national  faith  of  Egypt,  the  history  of 
whose  Church  is  henceforth  reduced  to  a  record  of 
the  struggles  between  the  royal  ("Melkite")  and 
Monophysite  sects,  each  headed  by  its  own  patri- 
archs. The  latter  party  always  comprised  the  vast 
majority  of  the  Egyptian  population,  while  the  royal 
sect  consisted  solely  of  the  official  class;  but  suc- 
cess or  failure  was  not  independent  of  the  momen- 
tary attitude  of  the  court,  whose  influence  was 
exerted,  now  in  pacification  (Zeno,  Anastasius), 
now  in  coercion  (Justinian).  The  reign  of  Justin- 
ian (d.  565)  saw  the  final  extinction  of  Egyptian 
paganism  (cf.  Victor  Schultze,  Geachichte  des  Un- 
Urgangs  des  ffriechisch-romischen  Heidenthums,  ii., 
Jena,  1892,  pp.  226  sqq.),  which,  despite  the  ener- 
gies of  Theophilus  and  Cyril,  still  lingered  in  out- 
lying districts. 

In  the  succeeding  generation  the  Byzantine 
world  was  occupied  with  the  Monothelite  contro- 
versy (see  MoNOTHEUTEs),  and  in  Egypt  a  union 
«ith  the  Monophysites  was  enforced  for  the  mo- 
ment by  the  imperial  patriarch,  Cyrus  (cf.  A.  J. 
Butler,  Arab  Conquest  of  Egypt,  London,  1902,  p. 
508).  The  impotence  of  the  empire  had  already 
made  possible  the  Persian  invasion  (616-627);  that 
of  the  Arabs  in  639  finally  crushed  and  impover- 
ished the  national  Church.  If  the  Copts  looked 
to  their  new  masters  for  relief  from  imperial  tyr- 
anny, they  were  speedily  undeceived.  The  promises 
of  the  first  invaders  were  soon  forgotten,  and  op- 
pressive taxation  began  to  cause  those  defections 
to  the  religion  of  the  conquerors  which  character- 
ized the  subsequent  history  of  native  Christianity. 
The  story  of  the  Coptic  Church  is  henceforth  a  mere 
Ust  of  oppressions  due  to  official  expediency  or 
official  greed  with  occasionally  a  con- 
a.  The  Arab  sequent  revolt,  bloodily  suppressed 
Dominion^  (cf.  C.  H.  Becker,  Beitrdge  zur  Ge- 
639-15x7.  schichte  AegypUns,  Strasburg,  1902). 
Throughout,  the  meager  history  of 
Severus  is  the  sole  authority;  the  Moslem  his- 
torians, except  Makrizi,  pay  no  heed  to  Christian 
affairs.  The  internal  war  of  sects  continued 
unaffected  by  larger  misfortunes.  D3mastic 
changes,  as  from  Ommiads  to  Abbassids  (750), 
brought  no  improvement,  though  the  new 
house  usually  foimd  it  politic  to  begin  with  promises 
of  indulgence  or  relief.  Extortion  resulted  in  uni- 
versal  simony;  all  ecclesiastical  offices  were  bought 
and  large  sums  paid  to  the  civil  authorities  for  pre- 
ferment. The  rise  of  the  Fatimites  (969)  saw  in- 
deed many  Copts  in  civil  employment;  and  ere  long 
(996)  the  terrible  persecution  of  Al-Hakim  sur- 
passed all  that  the  Christians  had  hitherto  suffered. 
A  century  later  a  succession  of  Armenian  viziers 
(from  1074)  lightened  the  burdens  of  their  core- 
ligionists. But  indulgence  provoked  a  renewal  of 
Moslem  animosity.  Under  such  conditions  the 
Church  could  not  maintain  a  high  code  of  morals 
or  conduct.  The  relatively  mild  government  of 
the  Aiyubite  Sultans  (from  1169)  seemed  but  to 
give  freedom  to  the  misconduct  of  the  clergy,  con- 
spicuous among  whom  was  the  infamous  patriarch 
Cyril  in.  (IhnLaklak),  With  Cyril's  death  (1243) 
we  lose  even  the  guidance  of  Severus's  patriarehid 
histoiy,and  knowledge  of  the  subsequent  medieval 


period  is  of  the  most  threadbare  nature.  In  1440 
one  of  the  Coptic  patriarchs  is  found  making  ad- 
vances to  Rome  at  the  Council  of  Florence,  and  in 
the  succeeding  centuries  various  attempts  were 
made  by  the  popes  to  obtain  possession  of  the 
Church. 

Neither   the    Turkish  conquest   (1517)  nor  the 
French   (1798)  had  much  effect  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  native  Christians;  but  Moham- 
3.  Turkish  med  Ali   (1805)  gave  freedom  to  all 
and  Modem  creeds  alike  and  this  led  to  the  com- 
Rule.       mencement  of  foreign  missionary  en- 
terprise among  the  Copts  and  allowed 
a  movement,  initiated  by  CJyril  IV.  (1854),  for  their 
improvement  in  matters  of  church  government  and 
education.     A  mixed  clerical  and  lay  council  was 
established  in  the  hope  of  controlling  patriarchal 
action,  but  its  place  was  subsequently  taken  by  a 
smaller  conmiittee,  while  the  education  of  the  clergy 
was  provided    for  by  the  establishment  of   semi- 
naries. 

Statistics  show  a  steady  increase  in  the  Coptic 
population  since  the  succession  of  the  present  khe- 
dival  house.  Their  total  in  1820  was  about  100,000, 
in  1855  about  217,000,  in  1870  250,000,  while  the 
census  of  1897  gave  592,374  or  about 
4.  Statistics,  one-sixteenth  of  the  total  population. 
The  Copts  are  at  present  most  numer- 
ous in  the  lower  (northern)  Said  (Siut,  Achmim, 
Girgeh),  where  they  form,  in  many  villages,  the 
majority.  At  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  this 
Copts  (then  practically  the  whole  population)  num- 
bered some  six  millions  (Abu  Salih,  22a);  in  a  hun- 
dred years  this  number  had  been  reduced  by  a 
miUion  (Al  Kindi,  in  Abu  Salih,  26b),  and  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  they  no  doubt  constantly  di- 
minished in  numbers. 

IL  Constitution^  Ecclesiastical  Law,  etc.:  The 
bishop  of  the  capital  was  doubtless  not  long  in  ex- 
tending his  authority  over  the  inmnediately  sur- 
roimding  districts  (Mareotis),  and  gradually  over 
the  rest  of  the  Nile  valley,  including  Nubia  and 
(indirectly)  Ethiopia  to  the  south  and  Libya  to 
the  west.  Originally  nominated,  it  would  seem, 
by  presbyters  (cf.  Cabrol,  Dictiannaire,  1204),  the 
papas  or  patriarch  was,  in  all  later  times,  chosen 
by  the  clergy,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  people 
of  Alexandria  or  Cairo,  and  eventually  with  that 
of  the  Moslem  government.  Since  the  eleventh 
century  he  has  resided  in  Cairo,  the  remaining 
bishops  occupying  the  capitals  of  the  ancient  nomes 
with  which  their  sees  were  generally  conterminous. 
The  existence  in  early  times  of  intermediate  met- 
ropolitans is  imoertain;  at  present  there  exist  five 
or  six.  Diocesan  bishops  are  met  with  imder  De- 
metrius (d.  231),  and  Athanasius  could  aheady 
coimt  about  a  himdred  sees.  The  completest  list 
(though  in  recent  MSS.  only)  gives  eighty-five  (cf. 
E.  Am^lineau,  La  Giographie  de  V^gypte  d  Vipoque 
copte,  Paris,  1893,  pp.  571  sqq.).  Poverty  and 
persecution,  however,  by  degrees  reduced  their  nimi- 
ber,  by  the  amalgamation  of  poor  neighbors,  until 
in  the  seventeenth  century  Wansleben  could  coimt 
but  seventeen.  Patriarch  and  bishops  have  been 
invariably  chosen  from  the  monasteries.  The  re- 
maining   clerical    orders    are:  archpriest    (higou- 


Coptic  Ohuroh 
Ooquerel 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


96S 


menoSf  Kvmmiis)^  priest,  deacon,  reader,  and,  in 
early  times  (cf.  JTS,  i.  254)  the  minor  orders  also. 

The  canon  law  whereby  the  Church  is  governed 
is  based  upon  pseudoapostolic  docimients  and  con- 
ciliar  and  patriarchal  (external  as  well  as  native) 
decisions,  digested  by  medieval  scholars  into  nomo- 
canons  or  preserved  independently,  always  in  Ara- 
bic translations.  Considerable  judicial  power  still 
remains  in  the  hands  of  the  patriarch  and  bishops. 

nL  Liturgy,  Church  BuUdings,  etc.:  Among 
the  earliest  sources  for  a  knowledge  of  Egyptian 
liturgical  usage  are  the  so-called  Hippolytan  Canons. 
Those  bearing  the  names  of  Basil  (cf.  W.  Riedel, 
Die  KirchenrechUqueUen  des  Patriarchats  Alexan- 
drien,  Leipsic,  1900,  pp.  272  sqq.;  PSBA,  xxvi. 
57)  and  Athanasius  (ed.  Riedel-Crum,  1004)  also 
contain  early  evidence.  For  information  from 
third  century  patristic  writers  cf.  F.  Probst,  Lv- 
turgie  des  trierten  JakrkunderU,  MOnster,  1893,  p. 
106;  Brightman,  504.  After  the  schism  of  451 
the  Egyptian  Church  was  obliged  to  revise  its  lit> 
urgy  in  conformity  with  the  dogmatic 
I.  Lit-  position  it  had  adopted;  hence  in 
urgiea.  time  arose  a  niunber  of  Greek,  then 
Greco-Coptic,  finally  Copto-Arabic  (to- 
day even  simply  Arabic)  service-books,  of  which 
the  Anaphoras  of  Basil,  Gregory,  and  Cjrril  are  the 
most  conspicuous  survivors.  Since  about  the  thir- 
teenth century  these  and  all  other  liturgical  books 
have  been  read  in  the  northern  dialect  of  Coptic; 
but  sufficient  remains  are  extant  to  show  that  an 
independent  series  existed  in  the  more  ancient 
southern  idiom.  Besides  the  missal  (or  eucholo- 
gium),  there  are  separate  books  for  the  sacramen- 
tal and  paschal  services,  lectionaries  (hata  meros), 
gynaxaria  (lives  of  saints  to  be  read  in  church),  with 
several  psalm  and  hymn-books  in  constant  use. 
The  church  festivals  are  preceded  by  long  fasts, 
amoimting  in  all  to  seven  months  of  the  year. 

Only  a  few  of  the  characteristic  features  of  Cop- 
tic religious  life  can  here  be  mentioned.  The  clergy 
communicate  frequently,  the  laity  seldom,  but  in 
both  kinds;  previous  confession  is  not  now  de- 
manded. Transubstantiation,  the  efficacy  of  rel- 
ics, of  prayers  for  the  dead,  and  of  the  intercession 
of  saints  are  accepted  doctrines.  Baptism  is  by 
triple  immersion,  boys  being  frequently  circum- 
cised beforehand;  and  confirmation  follows  imme- 
diately The  services  are  generally  of  inordinate 
length,  beginning  often  at  six  in  the 
a.  Doctrine  morning.  Magic  has  always  played  a 
and        part  in  the  belief  of  the  Copts,  as  with 

PractiBe.  their  pagan  ancestors,  and  among  the 
less  educated  is  still  freely  resorted  to. 
Much  has  been  written  as  to  the  relations  of  popu- 
lar Christianity  in  Egypt  to  the  foregoing  heathen- 
dom (cf.  Am^lineau,ini2H/2,  xiv.,  xv.;  Forbes  Rob- 
inson, in  commentary  to  his  CopUe  Apocryphal 
Gospels,  Cambridge,  1896),  and  it  is  undeniable 
that  superficial  features  of  the  surrounding  idolalxy 
were  adopted  and  reinterpreted  by  the  converts 
to  the  new  religion;  but  as  yet  no  study  of  these 
relations  has  been  made  sufficient  to  warrant  gen- 
eralization. 

Of  the  earliest  churches  in  Lower  Egypt  (as  at 
Alexandria,  churches  of  St.  Mark,  of  Theonas,  of 


Dionysius,  of  Athanasius)  no  undisputed  traces 
survive.  Many  were  destroyed  in  etuiy  times,  or 
in  later  ages  converted  into  mosques.  In  the  south 
the  sites  are  still  visible  (at  Phils, 
3.  Churches.  Thebes,  Heracleopolis,  etc.,  and  in  the 
Outer  Oasis)  of  churches,  set  often  di- 
rectly within  the  ancient  temple  precincts.  Pagan 
rock  tombs  also  have  often  been  utilized  as  chapels 
(Thebes,  El-Amama,  Der  Abu  Hennis).  Among 
the  older  of  the  churches  still  in  use  are  the  group 
in  Old  Cairo  (Babylon ).  These  lie  to-day  embedded 
in  masses  of  later  building  and  have  been  repeatedly 
restored.  Their  form  is  usually  the  basilican,  with 
three  parallel  apsides  and  several  cupolas.  The 
number  of  churches  officially  recorded  in  Egypt  in 
1896  was  only  about  400. 

IV.  Monasticism:  A  primary  incentive  toward 
the  eremitic  life  may  have  been  persecution;  the 
desire  for  contemplative  seclusion  at  any  rate  early 
led  many  in  Egypt  to  retire  into  solitude,  whether 
singly  or  in  communities.  Among  the  earliest  of 
these  was  Anthony  (c.  270)  and,  farther  south, 
Pachomius  (c.  315;  see  Monasticism;  Pachoious). 
Coptic  monasticism  since  the  Council  of  Chaloedon 
(451),  however,  has  received  little  attention;  the 
materials  for  its  study  are,  in  great  part,  still  un- 
published,  while  the  usual  authorities  (Moschus, 
Leontius  of  Neapolis,  Sophronius,  the  Acta  seme- 
tarum)  are  Catholic  and  ignore  Monophysites.  A 
mild  form  of  oenobitism  appears  to  have  supers 
seded  the  anchorite  type.  The  Pachomian  rule 
was  revived  and  reformed  by  Shenoute  (d.  451), 
the  founder  of  the  great  White  Monastery,  near 
Achmim  (cf.  Pears,  in  Archceological  Journal,  June, 
1904).  We  hear  nothing  of  other  rules,  that  of 
Anthony  being  a  relatively  late  production.  Yet 
it  is  by  this  last  that  Coptic  monks  to-day  claim  to 
live.  Vows  are  now  no  longer  professed,  though 
they  observe  certain  general  precepts  as  to  obedi- 
ence, fasting,  etc.  For  the  medieval  requirements 
cf.  J.  M.  Wansleben,  HisUnre  de  Valise  d'Alexan- 
drie,  Paris,  1677,  39  sqq.  The  schema  {ashim), 
once  the  sign  of  superior  strictness  of  life,  is  now 
worn  by  all.  Inmates  of  the  monasteries  are  ex- 
empt from  taxation  and  military  service — a  privi- 
lege which  has  been  fruitful  of  abuses.  The  mon- 
asteries were  early  liable  to  episcopal  interference, 
and  in  the  seventh  century  appear  as  under  the 
control  of  two  bishops.  In  later  times  the  patri- 
arch would  take  over  the  direction  and  so  the  rev- 
enues of  certain  houses  to  his  own  use.  Monastic 
officials  still  bear  the  same  titles  as  in  earlier  times. 
Those  of  the  White  Monastery  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury were:  archimandrite  or  hegumenus  (elsewhere 
proestOs),  deuterarios,  ceconomus  (stewud),  arch- 
deacon, didaskahs.  The  property  of  the  monas- 
tery grew  by  pious  bequests,  the  number  of  its  in- 
mates by  the  "  oblation  "  of  children  (at  any  rate 
in  the  eighth  century).  The  abbot  might  sometimes 
dispose  of  the  monastery  by  will  or  it  might  be 
sold,  like  any  sec\ilar  property.  Of  the  countless 
monasteries  and  nunneries  which  once  covered 
Egypt  (cf.  Abu  Salih  and  Makrizi)  but  few  have 
remained  in  use.  Among  these,  seven  are  conspic- 
uous; four  of  the  once  numerous  group  in  the  Nit- 
rian  oasis,  with  ten  to  twenty  monks  each;  those 


260 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ooptio  Church 
CkKLuarel 


of  Anthony  and  Paul  in  the  eastern  desert;  that  of 
Mohairak  in  Bfiddle  Eg3i>t,  with  some  eighty  monks 
and  still  considerable  property. 

V.  Ecclesiastical  Literature:  A  description  of 
Ck>ptic  ecclesiastical  literature  is  equivalent  to  an 
account  of  the  literature  of  Christian  Egypt  gen- 
erally; for  of  all  the  nations  of  the  Christian  East 
the  Copts  were  the  poorest  in  secular  works.  The 
first  fruits  of  conversion  were  presumably  the  Bible 
versions,  made  independently  in  at  least  four  dia- 
lects, at  any  rate  by  the  fourth  century  (see  Bible 
Versions,  A,  VII.,  and  cf.  Leipoldt,  in  Church 
Quarterly  Review,  Ixii.  292  sqq.  Of  almost  equal  an- 
tiquity would  be  the  translations,  on  the  one  hand, 
of  various  Gnostic  works  which  have  reached  us 
{Pisiis  Sophia,  Books  of  Jeu,  etc.)  and,  on  the  other, 
of  the  "apostolic  fathers"  (Hermas,  Ignatius)  and 
the  apocryphal  gospels  and  acts  (ed.  Guidi,  F.  Rob- 
inson, Revillout,  Lacau),  of  which  many  fragments, 
showing  varsring  degrees  of  divergence  from  the 
primitive  forms,  are  extant.  The  Christito  phi- 
losophy of  the  third  century  (Origen,  Clement)  is 
of  course  not  represented;  such  works  could  find 
little  favor  with  a  priesthood  revering  Theophilus 
and  CyriL  But  from  the  Nicene  age  till  the  final 
schism  of  451,  the  principal  Greek  writers  are  rep- 
resented in  translation.  The  vast  bulk  of  the  sur- 
viving works — and  these  all  fragmentary — consists 
of  homilies  and  acta,  destined  all  to  be  read  in  the 
church  service,  and  from  the  latter  of  which  the 
synaxaria  were  subsequently  abbreviated.  The 
sole  writer  whose  works  we  have  in  their  original 
Coptic  form  is  Shenoute  (see  above),  the  chance 
survival  of  his  monastic  library  having  pre- 
served intact  many  of  his  writings,  as  well  as  almost 
aU  known  besides  of  the  literature  of  the  more  an- 
cient, southern  (Saidic)  dialect.  The  northern 
(Bohairic)  is  of  far  less  importance,  though  its  geo- 
graphical position,  aroimd  the  civil  and  ecclesias- 
tical metropolis,  insured  its  survival  after  its  more 
interesting  southern  rival  had  been  extinguished. 
Coptic  was,  it  seems,  written  till  about  the  four- 
teenth century;  but  before  that  its  place  had  been 
usurped  by  Arabic,  in  which  language  several  Chris- 
tian writers  have  left  original  works  (see  Riedel, 
ut  sup.)  or,  what  is  of  greater  value  now,  transla- 
tions €i  Coptic  texts,  otherwise  lost  to  us. 

W.  E.  Cruh. 

BiBuoaKAPBT:  Lists  of  literature  are  to  be  found  in  Bm' 
mnons,  Rome.  1900-01  (by  Benigni),  in  LitUrature  ehrS- 
Hnwe  <U  Vtgypi^  Fttfis,  1890  (by  P.  Renaudin).  in  the 
Artkm>U>oical  Reporta  of  the  Bfn/pi-ExplonUUm  Fund  since 
1803  (by  W.  E.  Cnim),  and  in  F.  Cabrol,  Dietionnaim 
d*anMoliOgi»  dirHienne^  pt.  iy.  1177-82.  Aooounts  of 
Egyptian  literature  may  be  read  in:  £.  M.  Quatremfere, 
AseA«rdke0  ariiiquea  et  hiMtoriquM  sur  la  langue  et  la  litUra- 
tun  de  vAgvpU,  Paris,  1806;  Q.  Zoega,  CaidloguM  eodieum 
Coptieorum  Mutei  Bargiani^  Rome,  1810;  E.  Am^li- 
oeau,  ConiM  et  romaru  ds  VtgypU  €hrHAtnnt,  2  vols., 
Paris,  1888. 

Souroee  for  lustory  are  derived  from:  John  of  Nikiou, 
ed.  H.  Zotenberg,  in  NotUM  et  extraita  dee  M8S.  de  la 
BtftltoAiotM  SatiofuUe,  zny..  part  1,  pp.  126-005,  Paris. 
1883;  Eutyehius,  Annaiee,  Let.  transl.  in  MPO,  cxi.; 
Abu  Salih,  The  Ckurchee  and  Monaeterise  of  Bovpt,  ed. 
and  trsnsl.  B.  T.  A.  Eyetts,  in  Anecdota  Oxanieneia^  Ox- 
ford. 1805;  Makrisi.  "  History  of  the  Copts,"  Germ,  transl. 
by  F.  WOstenfeld.  G6ttingen.  1845.  Eng.  transl.  by  8.  C. 
Malan.  London.  1872;  Abu  Dakn.  "  History  of  the  Jaoob- 
itss."  ed.  T.  Marshall,  Oxford,  1676,  8.  Hayerkamp,  Ley- 


den,  1740.  Enc.  transl.  by  E.  Sadleir.  London,  1602; 
SynoxoKum,  in  Corpue  eariptarvm  ChrieOanarum  ori- 
entalium,  xyiii.  1,  Leipsic,  1006  (with  Germ,  transl.); 
Sinuthii  .  .  .  vita  et  pjMro,  ed.  J.  Leipoldt  and  W. 
Crum,  Paris,  1006. 

For  more  modem  aoeounts  consult:  J.  M.  Wansleben, 
Hieioire  de  Vigliee  d*Alexandrie,  Paris,  1677;  K  Renaudot, 
in  A.  Amauld,  La  PerpHuitS  delafoide  Viifiiee  eaOtolique, 
yol.  iy.,  6  yob.,  Paris,  1704-18;  idem,  Hietoria  patriat' 
dutrum  Alexandrinorum  Jaeobitarum,  ib.  1718;  M.  Le 
Quien.  Oriene  duietianue,  ii.  820  sqq.,  ib.  1740;  M.  LOttke. 
Aeovplene  neue  Zeit,  Leipdo,  187^;  Kummus  Feltaus, 
**  Modem  Cateohism,"  Eng.  transL  by  N.  Odeh,  London, 
1^2;  E.  Am^Iineau,  Monvmente  pour  eenrir  h  Vhietoire  de 
VEgypte  chrHianne,  Paris,  1886-80;  Ellen  L.  Butcher, 
Story  of  ihe  Churdi  of  Bgyp^  2  vols.,  ib.  1807  (good 
for  the  modem  period);  A  Coptie  Layman,  in  Contem' 
porary  Review^  bad  (1807),  734  sqq.  (the  best  aocount 
of  recent  times);  If.  Fowler,  Chrietian  Bgyp^  London, 
1001  (giyes  statistics);  8.  L.  Poole,  Hietory  of  Egypt 
in  the  Middle  Agee,  ib.  1001;  K.  Beth,  Die  orientalieche 
ChrietenheU  der  MUtelmeerldnder,  Berlin.  1002. 

On  the  constitution  of  the  (Church  consult:  W.  Riedel, 
KtrdiienredUequetten  dee  Patriarchate  Alexandrient  Leip- 
sic, 1000;  K.  Labeck,  ReicheeinteUung  und  kirddiehs  Hier- 
ardiie  dee  Oriente^  Mflnster,  1001. 

On  the  liturgies  and  church  orders  consult:  E.  Renau- 
dot, Liturgiarum  orientalium  coUeetio,  yol.  i.,  Paris,  1716. 
Eng.  transl.,  Dublin,  1822,  partly  in  J.  A.  Giles,  Codex 
apocryphorum  N.  T..  London,  1852;  A.  J.  Butler,  Ancient 
Coptie  Churdiee  of  Egypt,  2  yols.,  Oxford.  1884;  Ritee  of 
the  Coptic  Church,  Order  of  Baptiem  and  ,  ,  .  of  Matrir 
tnony,  transl.  from  the  Coptic  by  B.  T.  A.  Eyetts,  ib. 
1888;  F.  E.  Brightman,  Liturgiee  Baetem  and  Weetem, 
ib.  1806;  A.  Gayet.  L'AH  Copte,  Paris,  1802. 
*  On  monastioism  consult:  E.  AmAineau,  Coptic  Texts, 
in  Annaiee  du  Mueie  Ouimet,  xyii.,  xxy.,  1800,  1804;  E. 
C.  Butler.  Laueiae  Hietory,  in  T8,  yi  (1808);  M.  JuUien, 
L'£gypte,  eouvenire  hibligiuee  et  diritiene,  Lille,  1800;  W. 
E.  Oum,  Coptie  Oetraea,  London,  1002. 

COQUEREL,  cdc^'rel',  ATHA5ASE  JOSUE: 
French  Protestant,  son  of  Athanase  Laurent  Charles 
Coquerel  (q.v.);  b.  at  Amsterdam  June  16,  1820; 
d.  at  Fismes  (18  m.  e.n.e.  of  Reims)  July  24, 
1875.  He  studied  theology  at  Geneva  and  Stras- 
burg;  was  ordained  by  his  father  at  Ntmes  in  1843; 
called  to  Paris  in  1848.  His  views  were  even  less 
acceptable  to  the  orthodox  party  than  his  father's, 
and,  after  suffering  much  annoyance,  in  1864  he 
was  forced  to  relinquish  his  pidpit;  he  opened  a 
free  liberal  church  and  became  the  leader  of  the 
liberal  Protestants  of  France.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Soci^t^  de  rhistoire  du  protestan- 
tisme  frauQais  in  1852,  and  he  edited  Le  Lien  from 
1849  to  1870.  His  publications  include  Dee  beaux- 
arisen  Italie  au  point  de  vue  religieux  (Paris,  1857; 
Eng.  transl.,  London,  1859);  Jean  Calae  et  sa/amtUe 
(1858;  2d  ed.,  1869);  Pride  de  Vhistoire  de  Vigliee 
rifomUe  de  Parte  (1862);  Lettree  iniditee  de  Voltaire 
sur  la  tolirance  (1863);  Le  Catholicieme  et  le  pro- 
teetantieme  coneidirie  dans  leur  origine  et  leur  d&- 
veloppement  (1864);  Dee  premiiree  transformations 
histariques  du  Chrietianisme  (1866;  Eng.  transl., 
Boston,  1867);  La  conscience  et  la  foi  (1867;  Eng. 
transl.,  with  memoir  by  A.  R^ville,  London,  1878); 
Libres  itudes,  religion,  critique,  histoire,  beauanxris 
et  voyages  (1868);  Histoire  du  Credo  (1869). 

Bibuoorapht:  E.  Stroehlin,  AAanaee  Coquerel  file,    6tude 
biographique,  2  yols..  Peris.  1886. 

COQUEREL,  ATHA5ASE  LAUREIVT  CHARLES: 

French  Protestant;  b.  in  Paris  Aug.  27,  1795;  d. 
there  Jan.  10,  1868.  He  came  of  an  old  Jansenist 
family,  and  was  brought  up  by  his  aunt  Helen 


OoQa< 
Oom( 


^"SS. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


270 


Maria  Williams  (q.v.);  studied  theology  under  the 
Protestant  faculty  of  Montauban  1811-16;  in  1818 
became  pastor  of  the  French  Reformed  Church  at 
Amsterdam;  was  called  to  Paris  in  1830  as  assist- 
ant to  Pastor  Blarron,  and  succeeded  to  the  hit- 
ter's place  upon  his  death  in  1832.  He  was  elo- 
quent and  popular  and  wielded  a  wide  influence 
both  as  preacher  and  as  citizen.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1848,  and  of 
the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1849,  but  after  the  coup 
d'itai  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  confined  himself  to  his 
pastoral  duties.  He  was  liberal  in  theology,  re- 
jected the  doctrines  of  eternal  punishment,  and  of 
the  Atonement  and  the  Trinity  in  their  orthodox 
form,  and  strongly  opposed  the  Calvinistic  theory 
of  predestination.  He  founded  and  edited  three 
periodicals  to  express  his  views,  Le  Protestant 
(1831-33),  Le  Libre  Examen  (with  M.  Artaud, 
1834-36),  and  Le  Lien  (1841-44);  m  the  last-named 
he  labored  to  imite  the  branches  of  French  Prot- 
estantism. Besides  many  sermons  (8  vols.,  1819- 
1852),  his  works  include:  Biographic  sacrie  (4  vols., 
Amsterdam,  1825-26);  Histoire  aainte  et  analyse  de 
la  Bible  (Paris,  1838);  R&ponee  an  livre  du  docteur 
Strauss,  "  La  vie  de  Jisus"  (1841;  Eng.  transl., 
1844);  L'orthodoxie  modeme  (1842);  Le  Christia- 
nisme  exp&imental  (1847);  Christohgie  (2  vols., 
1858);  Ohservaiions  pratiques  svr  la  pridication 
(I860);  Pro  jet  de  discipline  pour  les  £glises  r6- 
fomUes  de  France  (1861). 

Bibuooeafht:  Lichtenberger,  B8R,  iii.  413-416;   Nouv^au 
LarousM  iiluttri,  iiL  265,  Paris,  n.d. 

COQXTBREL,  CHARLES  AUGUSTIN:  French 
Protestant;  b.  at  Paris  Apr.  17,  1797;  d.  there 
Feb.  1,  1851.  Like  his  brother,  Athanase  Laurent 
Charles  Coquerel  (q.v.),  he  was  brought  up  by  his 
aunt  Helen  Maria  Williams  (q.v.)  and  studied  the- 
ology at  Montauban.  His  tastes,  however,  were 
more  literaiy  and  scientific  and,  after  returning  to 
Paris,  he  occupied  himself  as  a  layman  in  critical 
and  exegetical  studies  on  the  history  of  the  canon 
and  of  the  Gospels,  at  the  same  time  studying  medi- 
cine, chemistry,  mathematics,  and  astronomy.  His 
chief  literary  work  was  the  first  Histoire  des  £glises 
du  Desert  (Paris,  1841). 

CORBINIAIT,  c5r"b!''nyah':  An  early  Prankish 
missionary,  one  of  the  predecessors  of  Boniface, 
who  aimed  at  completing  the  conversion  of  Ger- 
many, and  the  establishment  of  church  authority 
and  discipline  among  both  clergy  and  laity;  said 
to  have  died  at  Freising  Sept.  8,  probably  730. 
The  only  authority  for  his  life  is  the  biography  of 
Aribo,  bishop  of  Freising,  written  about  768.  Ac- 
cording to  this,  Corbinian,  whose  name  was  orig^ 
inally  Waldekiso,  was  bom  at  Chartrettes  near  Me- 
lun,  and  early  adopted  the  life  of  a  recluse.  His 
renown  for  piety  attracted  the  attention  of  Pepin 
of  Heristal  (d.  714),  and  brought  so  many  disciples 
about  him  that  he  attempted  to  flee  from  their 
veneration,  and  went  to  Rome,  where  Gregory  II. 
(715-731)  consecrated  him  as  bishop  and  sent  him 
back.  In  spite  of  a  second  request  to  be  allowed 
to  retire  into  the  obscurity  of  a  monastery,  he  was 
obliged  once  more  to  retrace  his  steps.  This  time, 
passing  through  Bavaria,  he  was  prevailed  upon 


by  the  duke  to  remain  in  Freising,  where  he  was 
the  head  of  a  coUege  of  priests  and  did  much  to 
break  down  heathen  superstitions  and  enforce 
Christian  discipline.  There  are  numerous  histor- 
ical difliculties  in  Aribo's  account;  but  there  seems 
to  be  a  more  or  less  sound  historical  basis  for  Cor- 
binian's  Prankish  birth  and  episcopal  character 
conferred  very  likely  at  the  request  of  Pepin,  who 
favored  the  sending  of  Prankish  clergy  to  Bavaria 
to  spread  the  Prankish  influence  there,  and  his 
activity  in  Freising  and  southern  Tyrol  under 
Dukes  Grimwald  and  Hugbert.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBLtooBAPHT:  The  Viia  by  Aribo,  ed.  8.  Riesler,  is  in  ^^ 
handlungen  der  hayeriadien  Akademie^  hUtoriache  KUuae, 
xviii.  210-274,  Munich,  1888;  and  a  reoension  of  it  with 
comment  by  the  monk  Hrotroc  is  in  ASB,  Sept.,  iiL  261- 
296.     Consult:  Rettberg.  KD,  ii.  214;  Hauck,  KD,  L  345. 

CORDELIERS,  cer'de-lirz  or  cer^de'aye':  A 
name  given  in  France  to  the  Franciscan  monks, 
from  the  girdle  of  knotted  cord  which  they  wear 
(see  Francis,  Saint,  of  Assisi).  It  was  also  the 
name  of  a  famous  political  club  of  the  Revolu- 
tion,  which  met  in  an  old  Franciscan  convent. 

CORDOVA:  A  city  of  Andalusia  (on  the  Gua- 
dalquivir, 275  m.  s.s.w.  of  Madrid),  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  Bsetica  in  Roman  times,  the  most 
important  Moorish  town  in  Spain  from  the  eighth 
to  the  eleventh  centuries,  and  one  of  the  great  cen- 
ters of  learning,  art,  and  industry  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  ecclesiastical  history  it  is  noteworthy  as 
the  episcopal  seat  in  the  fourth  century  of  one  of 
the  foremost  opponents  of  Arianism,  the  bishop 
Hosius  (q.v.),  as  the  gathering-place  of  several 
provincial  synods,  and  for  its  university. 

Synods  of  Cordova:  The  first  met  in  839  to  sup- 
press the  "  Casians,"  followers  of  a  certain  Casi- 
anus  (C!assianus),  who  were  then  making  trouble 
at  Epagro,  in  the  diocese  of  Egabra,  by  laxity 
concerning  marriage,  opposition  to  the  veneration 
of  relics,  excessive  rigor  in  fasting,  and  the  demand 
that  the  bread  of  the  Lord's  Supper  should  be  re- 
ceived not  in  the  mouth  but  in  the  hand  of  the 
communicant.  More  important  are  synods  held 
tmder  Emir  Abdalrahman  II.  (d.  852)  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Mohammed.  The  first  of  these  was  called 
in  852  by  Abdalrahman  to  try  to  check  the  fanati- 
cism of  certain  Christians  who  sought  martyrdom 
by  reviling  the  prophet  of  the  Mohammedans  and 
in  other  ways  giving  them  tmneceesary  offense 
(see  Alvar  op  Ck)RDOVA;  Eulogiub  op  Oordova). 
The  bishops  who  attended,  including  Hostegisis  of 
Malaga  and  Reccafred  of  Seville  (or  according  to 
others  of  Merida),  condemned  the  seeking  of  mar- 
tyrdom and  sanctioned  a  law  of  the  Stat«  forbid- 
ding it.  The  acts  of  the  synod  were  suppressed 
by  the  orthodox,  and  their  content  is  known  only 
from  the  writings  of  Eulogius.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  majority  justified  their  attitude  toward 
the  Mohammedans  by  the  fact  that  the  latter  wor- 
sliiped  the  true  God  and  acknowledged  the  prin- 
ciples of  morality  and  revelation.  There  were  two 
later  synods,  in  862  and  863,  both  dominated  by 
Hostegisis.  At  the  first  an  abbot,  Samson,  a  leader 
of  the  fanatics  just  mentioned,  was  condemned 
as  a  heretic  for  accusing  Hostegisis  of  teaching 
anthropomorphic  views  of  God,  and  at  the  second 


a7i 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Coquerel 
OomelinB 


a  bishop,  Valentiniis  of  Cordova,who  supported  Sam- 
son was  deposed  and  a  number  of  decrees  were  is- 
sued in  accordance  with  the  views  and  practise  of 
the  laxer  party  (cf.  Baudissin,  177  sqq.).  For  the 
synods  of  1494  and  1540  cf.  Hefele,  ConcUienge- 
achichU,  viii.  364,  796. 

The  University  of  Cordova  was  founded  c.  980 
by  the  Calif  Hakim  II.  It  is  true  that  both  the- 
ology and  jurisprudence  had  been  cultivated  in 
Cordova  before  this  time  by  famous  teachers;  but 
it  was  due  to  Hakim's  energy  and  support  that 
chairs  were  estabHshed  for  other  branches  of  learn- 
ing, the  library  was  augmented,  and  a  complete 
university  began  to  flourish.  That  the  library 
grew  to  600,000  books  may  be  an  exaggeration,  but 
it  was  certainly  the  best  in  Arab  Spain.  At  the 
time  of  its  greatest  prosperity  (c.  1100)  Cordova 
had  the  best  astronomical  observatory  in  all  Europe 
and  was  renowned  as  the  center  of  the  study  of  as- 
tronomy, mathematics,  medicine,  and  philosophy. 
A  little  later  it  became  the  principal  seat  of  the 
Arabian  study  of  Aristotle,  and  thus  it  became  the 
mediator  between  the  ancient  philosophy  and  medi- 
eval speculation.  Its  most  famous  teacher  was 
Averroes  (b.  in  Cordova  1126),  and  his  most  fa- 
mous pupil  was  Maimonides  (q.v.).  The  capture 
of  Cordova  by  the  Christians  (1236)  made  an  end 
of  the  university,  and  a  Jewish  school  which  had 
flourished  for  several  centuries  did  not  long  sur- 
vive the  fall  of  the  city.  (O.  ZdCKLERf.) 

Bibuoobapht:  On  the  bishoprio  consult  KL,  iii.  1002- 
1094.  On  the  synods:  J.  S.  de  Aguirre,  CoUedio  maxima 
coneiliorufn  .  .  .  Hiapania,  iii.  140,  Rome,  1603  (also 
ed.  G.  Catalani,  6  vols.,  Rome,  1763-65);  W.  Baudissin, 
Eulogitu  und  Alvar,  pp.  70  sqq.,  127-128,  177  eqq..  Leip* 
eic,  1872;  W.  Gams,  Kirchengetchiehte  Spaniena,  II. 
iL  311  sqq.,  Regensburg,  1874;  Hefele,  ConcUiengetchich'' 
te,  IT.  90.  170,  260.  On  the  university:  H.  Rashdall, 
UniveraiHu  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Agee^  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1806;  V.  de  la  Fuente,  Hietoria  de  lae  Univeraidadee 
.  .  .  in  EepaHa,  vols,  iii.-iv.,  Madrid,  1888-80.  On  the 
philosophy:  E.  Renan,  Averroie  et  Vaverroieme,  Paris, 
1861;  L.  Dugat,  Hietoire  dee  j^Uoeophea  et  dee  tMologiene 
MumdmanM  est'1268,  ib.  1878;  A.  F.  Mehren,  ttudee 
mil-  la  philoaophie  d'Averrhoie,  ib.  1888;  KL,  i.  1746-60; 
and  the  worlu  on  hist,  of  philosophy. 

CORDUS,  cer'dxw,  EURICIUS,  yu-rt'shius:  Hu- 
manist of  the  sixteenth  century;  b.  at  Simtshausen 
near  Wetter  (7  m.  n.w.  of  Marburg),  Hesse,  1486; 
d.  at  Bremen  1535.  He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant, 
went  to  school  in  Marburg,  and  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Erfurt  in  1505.  Here,  after  teaching  a 
while  in  Cassel,  he  became  magister  in  1516  and 
rector  of  St.  Mary's  school.  In  1521  he  studied 
medicine  in  Ferrara.  When  he  returned  to  Ei^ 
furt  the  humanists  were  scattered  as  a  result  of 
civic  tunnoil.  He,  therefore,  in  1523  gladly  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  be  a  physician  in  Brunswick,  and 
still  more  eagerly  he  went  in  1527,  on  the  invitation 
of  Landgrave  Philip,  to  the  newly  founded  Uni- 
versity of  Marburg.  But  as  a  result  of  controver- 
sies with  colleagues  his  continuance  there  became 
unpleasant,  so  in  1534  he  accepted  a  position  as 
teacher  in  the  gymnasium  at  Bremen.  He  laid  the 
foundations  of  his  fame  as  a  poet  chiefly  by  his 
witty  epigrams,  of  which  more  than  1,200  were 
collected  in  thirteen  books;  Lessing's  dependence 
on  Cordus  has  been  demonstrated.  His  Bvcoli- 
corum  tdogn   appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1518.    As  a 


medical  writer  he  labored  to  free  the  art  of  healing 
from  superstition,  and  he  imdertook  in  the  book 
Botanologicon  (Cologne,  1534)  to  point  out,  by 
means  of  the  empirical  observation  of  nature,  new 
paths  for  the  investigation  of  the  plant  world. 
In  distinction  from  most  humanists,  Cordus  was 
not  satisfied  with  directing  his  ridicule  merely 
against  the  evils  of  church  life  and  the  faults  of  the 
clergy,  but  he  sided  energetically  and  permanently 
with  the  Reformation.  He  defended  it  in  a  poem 
of  more  than  1,500  hexameters  addressed  to  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  German  princes. 

Carl  Mirbt. 

Bibliogbaprt:  C.  Krause,  Etaiciue  Cordua,  Hanau,  1863; 
idem,  Heliua  Eobanua  Heaaua,  aein  Leben  und  aeine  Werke, 
2  vols.,  Gk>tha,  1870;  G.  Bauch,  Die  UniveraitOt  Erfurt  im 
Zeitalier  dea  Fruhhumaniamua,  Breslau,  1904. 

CORINTH.    See  Greece,  I. 

CORINTHIANS,  FIRST  AND  SECOND  EPIS- 
TLES TO  THE.    See  Paul  the  Apostle. 

CORNELIUS:  Pope  251-252.  After  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Fabian  (Jan.  20,  250)  the  see  was 
vacant  for  over  a  year,  during  which  time  the 
rigorist  presbyter  Novatian  (q.v.)  presided  over  the 
Church.  In  Apr.,  251,  Cornelius  was  chosen  bishop. 
Of  his  early  life  little  is  known.  Cyprian  tells  that  he 
had  gone  through  all  the  lower  orders  and  that  he  did 
not  seek  the  episcopal  office,  but  was  compelled  to 
accept  it,  and  characterizes  him  as  a  quiet,  modest, 
and  humble  man,  an  excellent  administrator,  and  a 
steadfast  upholder  of  the  faith.  A  strong  man  was 
needed  at  this  period  (that  of  the  Decian  persecu- 
tion), especially  as  the  rigorist  teaching  of  Novatian 
threatened  to  bring  about  a  schism  in  the  Church. 
He  blamed  ComeUus  for  his  conduct  in  the  time  of 
the  persecution,  and  asserted  that  he  had  been  a 
libeUaticuSj  i.e.,  had  saved  himself  by  an  equivocal 
written  declaration  made  before  the  pagan  official 
(see  Lapsed).  Novatian  even  had  himself  conse- 
crated to  the  Roman  See  by  three  foreign  bishops. 
Both  he  and  Cornelius  made  efforts  to  have  their 
election  acknowledged  by  the  metropohtans  of 
Carthage,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  and 
Ephesus.  Cyprian  of  Carthage  delayed  his  decision, 
and  sent  two  bishops,  Caldonius  and  Fortunatus, 
to  Rome  to  inquire  into  the  matter.  But  before 
they  returned,  having  in  the  mean  time  seen  the 
legates  of  Cornelius,  the  bishops  Pompeius  and 
Stephanus,  he  declared  against  Novatian.  From 
that  time  on  the  relations  between  Cyprian  and  Cor- 
nelius were  cordial,  and  Cyprian  earnestly  and  suc- 
cessfully endeavored  to  detach  Novatian's  followers 
from  him  and  induce  them  to  acknowledge  Cor- 
nelius. On  Sept.  14  or  15,  252,  Cornelius  suffered 
martyrdom  with  twenty-one  Christians  of  both  sexes 
at  Centumcellse  (now  Civitk  Vecchia).  Several  let- 
ters of  Cornelius  are  extant  concerning  his  contro- 
versy with  Novatian,  somewhat  vehement  in  tone 
and  biased  in  judgment.  [They  have  been  fre- 
quently appealed  to  by  controversialists  on  both 
sides  of  the  question  of  the  Roman  primacy,  and 
are  of  interest  also  in  regard  to  the  question  of 
baptism  by  heretics.]  The  death  of  Cornelius  is 
placed  by  some  authorities  in  June  or  July,  253. 

K.  liEIMBACHt* 


Cornelius  a  Laplds 
Oorpi^s  Soctrinn 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


272 


Bibuoorapht:  The  chief  sources  are  the  correspondence 
between  Oyprian  and  Cornelius,  in  AfPL,  iii.  700-874, 
transl.  in  ANF,  ▼.  319-347.  cf.  Hirbt,  QuOUn,  pp.  21-28. 
Also  consult:  Libtr  ponHfioalU,  ed.  Duoheme,  i.  160, 
Paris,  1886.  ed.  Mommsen,  in  MGH,  GeaL  pont,  Rom.,  t. 
28-31;  J.  Langen,  OMchiehte  der  rthnitehen  Kirdu,  vol. 
L,  Bonn,  1881;  Bower,  PopM,  i.  26-20;  MUman,  Latin 
ChriMlianity,  i.  83^86. 

CORITELIUS  A  LAPIDE  (Coraelis  van  den  Steen) : 
A  Roman  Catholic  Biblical  commentator;  b.  at 
Borcboet,  a  village  in  the  diocese  of  Li^ge, 
Dec.  12,  1567;  d.  at  Rome  Mar.  12,  1637.  He 
studied  philoeophy  at  the  Jesuit  colleges  in  Maes- 
tricht  and  Cologne,  and  theology  at  Douai  and 
Louvain,  entering  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1507. 
He  lectured  on  the  Bible  and  on  Hebrew  at  Louvain 
from  1596  to  1616,  when  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  Roman  College  of  the  onder,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
fertile  exegetes  of  the  Jesuit  order,  and  his  com- 
mentaries have  retained  their  influence.  He  was 
an  ardent  advocate  of  Roman  Catholic  propaganda 
at  a  time  when  his  society  zealously  devoted  itself 
to  exegesis  in  order  to  refute  those  heretics  who 
appealed  to  the  Bible.  He  derived  much  from  his 
enemies,  the  influence  of  the  Clavis  acripturce  sacra 
of  Biatthias  Flacius  being  especially  marked,  but 
his  chief  source  for  historical  and  chronological  data 
was  Baronius.  He  possessed  a  remarkably  clear 
sense  for  all  that  was  interesting  and  attractive, 
and  made  profuse  allusions  to  legends  and  antiq- 
uities with  many  apt  citations.  Although  solving 
every  difficulty  with  an  affirmation  of  the  verity  of 
Roman  Catholic  dogma,  he  was  skilled  in  the  dis- 
covery of  formulas  in  support  of  Ms  arguments. 
His  concept  of  the  "  literal  meaning  "  is  shown  by 
his  sixth  canon  in  which  he  adopts  the  medieval 
rule  of  quadruple  exegesis.  Thus,  in  the  account 
of  the  temptation  of  Joseph,  Joseph  allegorically 
represents  Christ  and  Potiphar's  wife  the  synagogue; 
symbolically  Joseph  represents  the  king  and  Poti- 
phar's wife  rebellion;  typologically  Joseph  repre- 
sents constancy  and  Potiphar's  wife  lust.  In  sup- 
port of  the  ''  true  meaning  "  he  cited  an  abundance 
of  legendary  material,  so  that  in  his  characteriza- 
tion of  Paul,  for  example,  he  entered  into  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  worship  of  the  saints.  Similar  digres- 
sions fill  a  large  portion  of  his  commentary,  and 
much  space  is  occupied  by  his  classical  citations, 
as  when  he  prefixes  to  his  commentary  on  Eccle- 
siastes  a  compendium  of  ancient  philosophy. 

His  textual  criticism  is  worthless,  since  he  cites 
the  Oriental  versions  only  at  second  hand  and  re- 
gards the  Vulgate  as  infallible.  His  commentaries, 
of  which  the  most  valued  were  those  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, the  Gospels,  and  the  Pauline  epistles,  appeared 
in  Antwerp  in  the  following  order:  the  Pauline  epis- 
tles, 1614;  the  Pentateuch,  1616;  Jeremiah,  Lamen- 
tations, Baruch,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  1621;  the  minor 
prophets,  1625;  Acts,  the  Catholic  Epistles,  Revela- 
tion, 1627;  Ecclesiasticus,  1634;  Proverbs,  1635; 
Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Wisdom.  1638;  the  four  Gos- 
pels, 1639;  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  Kings, 
Chronicles,  1642;  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Tobit,  Judith, 
Esther,  and  Maccabees,  1645.  All  have  been  fre- 
quently reprinted  (16  vols.,  Antwerp,  1681 ;  24  vols., 

Paris,  1859-63;  10  vols.,  1874,  etc.).,^   „ 

(G.  HEiNRia.) 


Bibugobapht:  A  translation  by  T.  W.  Hossman  of  ti» 
Conunentaries  on  the  O.  T.  is  issued,  6  vols..  London 
1892-03,  and  one  of  those  on  the  N.  T.  is  promisecL  Con- 
sult: Sommervogel,  BiblioOkkque  ds  la  eompaonie  de  Jima, 
BibHographU  «v.,  Brussels,  1803;  R.  Simon,  HiMoin  ai- 
Hque  de»  jtrineipavtx  eommerUaieurM,  pp.  656r-665,  Rott^- 
dam.  1003;  Q.  H.  Goes,  in  VU  du  vinirabU  J,  Benkmana, 
pp.  607-612.  Paris.  1863. 

CORNILLy  CARL  UEIHRICH:  German  Lu- 
theran; b.  at  Heidelberg  Apr.  26, 1854.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic  (Ph.D.,  1875),  Bonn,  and  Marburg  (lie. 
theol.,  1878),  becoming  lecturer  at  Marbui^  in  1877 
and  privat-dooent  in  1878,  and  also  being  first  lec- 
turer in  the  Seminariimi  I%ilippinum  at  Msiburg 
1877-86.  In  1886  he  was  made  associate  pro- 
fessor, but  in  the  same  year  he  accepted  a  call  to 
KOnigsberg,  where  he  was  made  full  professor  in 
1888.  Since  1898  he  has  been  professor  of  Old 
Testament  exegesis  at  Breslau.  In  theology  he 
describes  himself  as  "  scientific  in  matters  of  science 
and  faithful  in  matters  of  faith."  He  has  written: 
Jeremia  und  seine  Zeit  (Heidelberg,  1880);  Dax 
Buck  des  PropheUn  Ezechiel  (Leipsic,  1886);  Ein- 
leitung  in  daa  AUe  Testament  (Freiburg,  1891; 
Eng.  transl.,  2  vols..  New  York,  1907);  Der  Israeli- 
tische  Praphetismus  (Strasburg,  1894;  Eng.  transL, 
Chicago,  1898);  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel  (Oii- 
cago,  1898;  Eng.  transl.,  Chicago,  1898);  and  Das 
Buck  Jeremia  (Leipsic,  1905).  He  also  edited  the 
Hebrew  text  of  Jeremiah  for  the  Polychrome  Bible 
(New  York,  1895). 

CORPORAL:  A  square  linen  cloth,  about  as 
wide  as  the  altar,  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  place  under  the  sacrament  either  before 
consecration  in  the  mass  or  at  any  time  of  exposi- 
tion. It  was  originally  large  enough  to  spread  over 
the  oblations,  including  not  only  the  sacramental 
bread  and  wine  but  any  other  offerings  brought  by 
the  faithful.  In  course  of  time,  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, it  was  divided,  the  smaller  part  now  used 
to  cover  the  chalice  and  stiffened  with  cardboard 
being  called  the  pall.  The  older  custom  was  long 
maintained  in  the  Gallican  Church  and  the  Carthu- 
sian order.  The  Greek  Church  also  uses  a  corporal, 
and  two  palls,  one  for  the  paten  and  one  for  the 
chalice.  The  corporal  is  supposed  to  symbolise 
the  linen  cloth  in  which  the  body  of  Jesus  was 
wrapped  before  being  placed  in  the  sepulcher  (Mark 
XV.  46).  When  not  in  use  it  is  folded  and  placed 
with  the  pall  in  a  receptacle  called  the  burse. 

CORPORATION  ACT:  An  act  passed  in  1661 
by  the  Cavalier  Parliament  of  Charles  II.,  the  first 
of  the  series  of  repressive  measures  sometimes  known 
as  the  Clarendon  Code,  by  which  the  membership  of 
the  mimicipal  bodies,  who  ruled  the  towns  and  usu- 
ally controlled  the  elections  of  their  parliamentary 
representatives,  was  confined  to  members  of  the 
Church  of  England.  They  were  expressly  required 
to  renounce  the  covenant,  to  take  the  oath  of  non- 
resistance,  and  to  receive  the  Lord's  Supper  ac- 
cording to  the  Anglican  form,  thus  degrading  a 
sacred  rite  into  a  political  test.  This  provision, 
though  suspended  by  temporary  statutes  after 
1689,  was  not  finally  abolished  until  1769,  when  a 
promise  not  to  injure  or  weaken  the  Church  of 
England  was  substituted. 


273 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OomelinB  a  Lapid« 
Oorpus  Soctrlnn 


Bibuoobapht:  The  text  u  giwn  in  Gee  and  Hardy,  Doei^ 
menu,  pp.  694-600.  Titles  of  many  pamphlets  called 
forth  by  the  act  are  given  in  the  BriUA  Af  ussum  Cotaloffue, 
England,  part  1,  6&-68. 

CORPORATIOlfS.  See  Rsugious  Corpora- 
tions. 

CORPUS  CATHOLICORUM:  The  organization 
of  delegates  from  the  Roman  Catholic  states  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  tacitly  made  in  opposition  to 
that  of  the  Corpus  Evangelicorum  (q.v.).  Though 
its  formation  as  a  definite  body  with  a  corresponding 
purpose  is  expressly  asserted  in  the  report  of  the 
Evangelical  delegates  in  1720,  the  name  "  Corpus 
Catholicorum  "  is  never  used  in  the  Reformation 
period  and  hardly  ever  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  papal  recognition 
could  never  be  seciued  for  it,  since  the  recognition 
of  a  special  corporation  with  rights  and  privileges 
would  have  easUy  led  to  a  limitation  of  the  papal 
autocracy  in  Germany.  None  the  less,  the  body 
existed  in  fact,  needhig  formal  sanction  the  less 
becaiise  the  emperor,  as  the  protector  of  their 
Church,  and  the  imperial  coimcilors  would  naturally 
forward  their  interest.  As,  too,  they  denied  the 
right  of  the  Protestants  to  form  a  similar  corpora- 
tion, they  were  precluded  from  making  open  claim 
to  such  recognition.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia 
(1648)  took  cognizance  of  the  existence  of  the  two 
bodies,  without  mentioning  the  names  of  either. 
Apart  from  formal  organization,  a  union  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  states  took  place  earlier  than  of  the 
Protestant,  as  their  joint  action  at  the  Nuremberg 
Diet  and  the  formation  of  the  league  at  Regensburg 
(1524)  shows.  Jointly,  again,  they  met  the  Prot- 
estants at  the  Diet  of  Speyer  (1529),  and  concluded 
a  peace  with  them  at  Nuremberg  in  1532;  and  their 
organization  appears  plainly  in  the  Holy  League  of 
1538.  The  deliberations  of  the  Corpus  Catholi- 
conim,  after  its  action  became  systematized  and 
permanent,  were  usually  held  in  a  monastery  of 
the  town  in  which  the  diet  was  sitting,  sometimes 
in  the  quarters  of  the  delegate  from  Mainz,  which 
naturally,  from  its  precedence  in  the  empire,  took 
the  headship  of  the  body.  The  dissolution  of  the 
empire  itself,  and  of  the  Corpus  Evangelicorum 
with  it,  in  1806,  put  an  end  tacitly  to  the  Corpus 
Catholioorum  as  well.  (E.  Friedbero.) 

CORPUS  CHRISn,  cdr'pxTS  cris'ti  ("  the  Body 
of  Christ ''):  A  festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
CJhurch  in  honor  of  the  Eucharist,  celebrated  on  the 
Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday.  As  early  as  Augus- 
tine's time  it  was  usual  to  celebrate  the  institution 
of  the  Holy  Communion  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  last 
week  in  Lent.  In  1246  Bishop  Robert  of  Li^ge, 
prompted  by  the  visions  of  a  nun  (Juliana  of  Mont- 
Comeillo),  inaugurated  a  new  festival  in  honor  of 
the  sacrament,  in  a  pastoral  letter  intended  for  his 
own  diocese.  The  forms  of  its  observance  were 
quite  simple:  divine  service,  lections,  antiphonal 
chants  were  the  essential  elements  of  the  ceremony. 
Shortly  afterward  Pantaleon,  archdeacon  of  li^ge, 
became  Pope  Urban  IV.  and  gave  the  festival  its 
ecumenical  character  (see  Bolbena,  Miracle  of). 
His  bull  of  1264  appoints  the  fifth  day  after  the 
octave  of  Pentecost  as  the  festival's  calendar  place, 
111.— 18 


and  indicates  for  its  proper  object  that  it  shall  bring 
Christ  near  in  his  real  presence.  The  sumptuous 
exposition,  together  with  the  indulgence  accorded 
by  the  pope  to  the  participants  in  the  festival,  was 
designed,  no  doubt,  to  extend  the  same;  and  not 
less  instrumental  in  this  regard  was  the  friendly 
attitude  of  the  great  schoolman  Thomas  Aquinas. 
But  in  this  second  phase  also,  the  festival  continued 
within  modest  boundaries. 

The  real  turning-point  in  the  development  of  this 
festival  came  in  the  time  of  John  XXII.  (1316-34), 
who  instituted  the  accompanying  procession;  there 
now  took  place  the  public  exposition  of  the  host  in 
the  monstrance.  Aiter  the  Council  of  Constance 
(1414-18)  the  popes  took  occasion  by  the  amplifi- 
cation of  indulgences  to  stimulate  the  zeal  of  the 
faithful  still  further.  The  splendid  exhibition  be- 
came more  simiptuous,  even  kings  and  princes 
began  to  take  pajt  in  the  processions,  and  in  this 
way  there  soon  came  about  a  striking  mixture  of 
ecclesiastical  parade  and  worldly  splendor.  After 
the  fifteenth  century  Corpus  Christi  plays  also 
came  into  vogue,  being  popular  presentations  of 
sacred  history.  Hermann  Herino. 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  C.  W.  Augtuti,  DenkwHrdigkeiten,  iii. 
804  Miq..  Leipoio,  1820;  A.  J.  Binterim,  DenkwOrdioMUn, 
▼.  It  pp.  275  Bqq..  Mains,  1829;  A.  Butler,  The  Move- 
abU  Feute,  Faatt  .  .  .  of  the  Caiholie  Church,  DubUn, 
1839:  Bendel,  in  TQS,  xzsdy  (1862).  244  sqq.  On  the 
plays:  W.  Creisenach,  Oeaehiehte  dee  neueren  Dramae,  L 
162  eqq.,  Halle,  1893.  From  the  Protestant  standpoint: 
P.  Tsehaokert,  Evanpeliedte  Polemik,  pp.  81-82,  267. 
Gotha,  1886;  C.  H.  H.  Wright  and  G.  Neil.  A  ProtettorU 
DieHonary,  pp.  146-146.  London,  1904. 

CORPUS  DOCTRINJB,  doc'tri-ni  or  -nd. 

Origin  of  the  Term  (I  1). 
CorpuB  Misnioum  and  Its  Rivals  (|  2). 
Lutheran  Tentative  Corpora  (|  3). 
Formula  and  Liber  Concordia  (|  4). 

The  name  ''Corpus  Doctrins  "  was  applied  in 
the  sixteenth  century  to  collections  of  doctrinal 
statements  composed  as  authorized  expressions  of  a 
certain  type  of  faith,  or  the  belief  of  an  individual 
church.  The  Augsburg  Confession  early  became  a 
standard  of  belief  for  the  local  Lutheran  churches, 
and  the  Apology,  as  a  commentary  on  it,  ranked 
with  it;  appeal  was  likewise  made  to  the  Apostles^ 
Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds,  known  as  symbola. 
Melanchthon,  however,  designated  the 

z.  Origin  whole  body  of  writings  in  which  the 
of  the  pure  faith  of  the  Gospel  is  expressed 
Tenn.  corpus  doctrxncB,  and  (especially  after 
1660)  insisted  strongly  on  the  necessity 
of  having  such  a  recognized  norm.  The  internal 
controversies  of  Protestantism  became  so  threaten- 
ing that  a  common  basis  for  agreement  was  sought 
in  1668  in  the  compendium  known  as  the  Frank- 
fort Recess  (q.v.),  and  again,  on  the  failure  of  this 
to  find  universal  acceptance,  at  the  meeting  at 
Naumburg  in  Jan.,  1661  (see  Naumburo  Conven- 
tion), but  equally  without  success. 

The  so-called  Corpus  doctrince  PkiUppicum  or 
Misnicum  met  with  great  success  among  the  bodies 
which  inclined  to  the  Philippist  party.  It  was  put 
out  by  Vdgelin,  the  learned  Leipsic  publisher,  as  a 
private  venture,  first  in  German  and  then  in  Latin, 
in  1561.    Besides  the  three  creeds,  it  consisted  of  all 


Corims  Sootrlnn 
Oorrodi 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


274 


the    principal    doctrinal  writings  of  Melanchthon, 
including  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  Apology, 
the  Saxon  Confession,  the  Loci  theolo- 
2.  Corpus   gici,  Examen  ordinandorum,  etc.     It 
Misnicum  wss  officially  recognized  in  Pomerania 
and  Its      (1561)  and  electoral  Saxony  (1566); 
Rivals,      other   churches    (Hesse,    Nuremberg, 
Silesia,  Anhalt,  Sleswick-Holstein,  and 
Denmark)  practically  though  informally  approved 
it.     Representing  exclusively,  however,  the  influ- 
ence of  Melanchthon,  it  was  opposed  by  others.     In 
Warttemberg  Duke  Christopher  had  put  forth  in 
1559  the  Wttrttemberg  Confession  (drawn  up  orig- 
inally by  Brenz  in  1551)  as  the  official  standard  of 
faith;  to  this  was  added,  later  in  the  year,  a  special 
declaration  on  the  Lord's  Supper.     In  North  Gei^ 
many,  the  Lttbeck  Formula  consensus  de  doctrina 
evangelii  (1560)  set  forth,  besides  the  Augsburg 
Confession    and    the    Apology,    the    Schmalkald 
Articles.    The  Lower-Saxon  gathering  of  Ltkneburg 
in  1561  named  besides  these  the  Catechism  "  and 
other  writings  of  Luther  "  as  the  true  Scriptural 
explanation  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.    At  Ham- 
burg in  1560  a  collection  of  five  declarations  issued 
since  1549  by  the  clergy  of  that  place  was  recog- 
nized as  the  norma  docendi. 

The  first  specifically  Lutheran  collection,  how- 
ever, to  bear  the  title  of  Corpus  doctrincB  was  that  of 
Brunswick  (1563),  which  contained  the  constitu- 
tion drawn  up  by  Bugenhagen  in  1528,  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  the  Apology,  the  Schmalkidd 
Articles,  and  the  Liinebiu^  Articles.  The  Corpus 
Pomeranicum  dates  from  1564;  before  that  date 
Melanchthon's  Corpus  had  been  accepted,  but  its 
one-sided  tendency  was  now  corrected  by  the 
addition  of  the  Schmalkald  Articles,  Luther's  Great 
and  Small  Catechisms,  and  some  minor  treatises  of 
his.  In  Prussia  the  final  publication  of  a  specif- 
ically Lutheran  standard  was  brought 
3.  Lutheran  about  by  the  controversies  originated 
Tentative  by  Osiander  in  1549.  With  a  view  of 
Corpora,  suppressing  his  teaching,  Duke  Albert 
in  1567  recalled  several  theologians 
who  had  been  exiled  on  account  of  their  opposition 
to  it,  especially  M6rlin,  who  brought  Chemnitz 
with  him  from  Brunswick;  and  as  a  result  of  their 
labors  a  Corpus  Prutenicum  was  promulgated  at 
Kdnigsberg.  The  example  of  Brunswick  was  fol- 
lowed in  1568  by  the  town  of  G5ttingen,  which 
published  its  ecclesiastical  constitution  of  1531,  the 
Small  Catechism,  and  the  Schmalkald  Articles, 
with  the  Augsburg  Confession  and  the  Apology  in 
the  Frankfort  edition  of  1565  bound  up  with  them 
to  save  expense.  This  Corpus,  with  the  addition 
of  the  three  creeds,  was  again  recognized  as  the  norma 
docendi  in  1585;  in  1600  the  Formula  ConcordicB 
was  acknowledged  for  the  first  time,  the  Great 
Catechism  added,  and  the  Schmalkald  Articles  and 
the  1531  constitution  omitted.  The  promulga- 
tion of  a  Corpus  doctrinos  for  Brunswick-Wolfen- 
bUttel  was  prepared  for  by  the  constitution  drawn 
up  by  Chemnitz  and  Andrese  and  published  by 
Duke  Julius  in  1569,  which  designated  as  the  Cor- 
pus doctrince,  not  the  Misnicum,  but  the  Bible,  the 
three  ancient  creeds,  and  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
as    explained   in   the    Apology,    the    Schmalkald 


Articles,  the  Catechism,  and  Luther's  other  writings. 
This  ducal  Corpus  was  confirmed  the  next  year  by  a 
clerical  assembly.  In  ducal  Saxony,  immediately 
after  John  William's  accession,  the  Corpus  Thu- 
ringicum  appeared  in  1570,  with  a  preface  by  the 
duke.  It  contained  the  three  creeds,  the  two  cate- 
chisms, the  Augsburg  Confession  and  Apology,  the 
Schmalkald  Articles,  the  Thuringian  Confession  of 
1549,  and  the  Confutation  of  1558.  The  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  John  George,  followed  in  1572  with 
the  Corpus  Brandenburgicum,  prefaced  by  himself, 
and  containing  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  Small 
Catechism,  and  the  compilation  of  Luther's  ex- 
positoxy  writings  made  in  1570  by  Musculus  for 
Joachim  II.  The  next  year  saw  the  establishment 
of  a  Corpus  for  a  part  of  Silesia.  Duke  George  of 
Brieg  declared  as  the  valid  doctrine  the  prophetic 
and  apostolic  writings  and  approved  creeds,  whose 
fundamental  teaching  was  to  be  found  in  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  and  Apology,  in  the  Corpus  Mis- 
nicum, the  Mecklenburg  Agenda,  the  writings  of 
Luther  and  others  that  agreed  with  them.  The 
close  of  this  process,  which  prepared  the  way  for 
the  Formula  Concordios,  may  be  seen  in  1575  and 
1576  in  the  duchies  of  Brunswick-LUneburg  and 
Brunswick-Wolfenbilttel.  In  the  former,  Duke 
William  published  in  1575  two  expository  treatises 
by  Rhegius  and  Chenmitz,  following  this  up  in  the 
next  year  with  the  formal  Corpus  Wilhelminum ;  and 
about  the  same  time  appeared  the  Corpus  Julium  of 
the  other  duchy,  which  contained,  besides  the  usual 
formulas,  the  treatises  of  Rhegius  and  Chenmitz. 

All  these  local  Corpora  doctrince  lost  their  im- 
portance when  the  whole  Lutheran  Church  suc- 
ceeded in  finding  a  conmion  ground  in  the  Formula 
Concordia  and  the  LSber  Concordia.  In  a  con- 
siderable minority,  however,  of  the 
4.  Formula  states  which  had  accepted  the  Augs- 
and  Liber  burg  Confession,  the  Formula  was  not 
Concordis.  accepted.  Some  of  these,  such  as 
Nassau,  Bremen,  Anhalt,  and  Lower 
Hesse,  were  finally  driven  into  Calvinism;  others 
maintained  their  position  as  Lutherans  without 
the  Formula — Lutherans,  that  is,  who  were  not  pre- 
pared to  go  as  far  as  the  absolute  exclusion  of  the 
Philippist  party.  These  latter  either  adhered  to 
their  original  Corpus  or  gradually  worked  out  new 
ones.  Holstein  accepted  the  documents  contained 
in  the  Liber  concordia  with  the  exception  of  the 
Formula  itself.  Brunswick-Wolfenbilttel  adhered 
to  the  Corpus  Julium  ;  Pomerania  supplemented  its 
Corpus  in  1593  by  the  addition  of  the  sections  on 
the  Lord's  Supper,  the  Communicatio  idiomatumj 
and  predestination;  Hesse-Darmstadt  produced  a 
Corpus  Hassiacum  in  1 617-26  by  adding  the  Witten- 
berg agreement  of  1536  to  the  Brunswick-Wolf en- 
btlttel  selection  of  1569.  Nuremberg  took  a  middle 
course,  in  conjunction  with  Brandenburg- Ansbach, 
by  combining  writings  of  Luther  and  of  Melanch- 
thon; and  much  the  same  attitude  was  adopted  in 
1578  by  the  county  of  Hohenlohe.  Among  the 
Reformed  bodies,  the  Geneva  Corpus  et  synicgma 
confessionum  fidei  of  1612  was  received  in  some 
places  in  the  same  way  as  the  Lutheran  Corpora 
doctrina.    See  Formula  of  Concord. 

(G.  Kawerau.) 


276 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oorpua  Dootrln» 
Corrodi 


Bibuoorapht:  J.  A.  Schmidt,  De  eorporibua  dodrintB  Phir 
Uppieo,  etc.,  HelmBtadt.  1706;  C.  A.  Salig.  Hutorie  fUr  Aug*- 
tfurver  Confeuion,  i.  702  sqq.,  Halle,  1730;  E.  KOllner. 
SynMik  der  hUkerxKhen  Kirehe,  pp.  95  sqq.,  Hamburg, 
1837;  H.  Heppe,  Die  konfeBtioneUe  ErUwiekeluna  der  aU- 
proteMlanHsehen  Kirehe  DeutecfUande,  pp.  179  sqq..  Mar- 
burs,  1854;  F.  Loofs,  Leitfaden  der  DogmenoeaekidUe,  pp. 
007  sqq..  Halle.  1906;  H.  E.  Jaoobe,  The  Book  of  Concord, 
2  Tols..  Philadelphia,  1893. 

CORPUS  EVANGELICORUM,  6"van-jel"i'-c6rum 
(also  called  Corpus  Sociorum  AuguatancB  Confes- 
sumis):  A  body  composed  of  delegates  from  the 
Evangelical  states  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and 
organized  into  what  was  practically  an  independent 
political  assembly.  Its  origin  is  not  to  be  sought  in 
such  temporazy  alliances  among  the  German  Prot- 
estants as  the  Leagues  of  Torgau  and  Schmalkald, 
nor  in  the  repeated  but  always  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts of  individual  princes  to  unite  the  states  with 
which  they  were  in  religious  sympathy  either  by 
the  formation  of  a  permanent  confederation  or  by 
a  regular  "  correspondence."  It  grew  out  of  the 
need  felt  by  the  Protestant  states  in  the  diet  to 
treat  and  to  protect  their  several  interests  as  joint 
interests.  The  same  need  was  felt  on  the  other  side, 
and  so  the  two  parties  in  the  diet  crystallized  more 
and  more  into  distinct  corporations — ^the  Corpus 
Evangelicorum  and  the  Corpus  Catholiconmi  (q.v.) 
—and  came  to  treat  with  each  other  as  such.  The 
formal  organization  of  the  Corpus  Evangelicorum 
a.s  a  permanent  institution  took  place  at  the  Diet 
of  Regensburg,  July  22,  1653,  when  the  represent- 
atives of  all  the  Protestant  states  (then  thirty- 
nine)  met  for  deliberation  as  to  their  action  in  the 
house  of  the  delegate  from  electoral  Saxony,  and 
agreed  to  act  permanently  as  a  body  imder  the 
leadership  of  that  state.  Though  regarded  with 
disfavor  by  the  imperial  court,  it  maintained  its 
existence,  took  cognizance  of  everything  which 
affected  Evangelic^  interests,  and  corresponded 
quite  independently  with  the  emperor,  with  the 
several  states,  and  with  foreign  sovereigns.  When 
the  Elector  Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxony  became 
a  Roman  Catholic  in  1677,  followed  later  by  his 
heir  apparent,  the  question  was  hotly  debated 
whether  Saxony  could  still  be  allowed  to  retain  the 
presidency.  Brandenburg,  Brunswick,  and  the  Er- 
nestine line  of  Saxony  were  anxious  to  take  the 
place;  but  the  elector  gave  all  assurances,  and  the 
fear  that  his  influential  house  might  go  over  to 
the  Corpus  Catholicorum  determined  the  delegates  to 
leave  the  presidency  where  it  had  always  been,  ex- 
press stipulations  being  made  that  the  elector 
should  not  interfere  with  his  representative,  who 
was  to  receive  directions  from  the  privy  council  at 
Dresden.  The  regular  meetings  of  the  Corpus  were 
held  at  Regensburg  every  fortnight.  After  1770 
there  were  two  standing  committees,  one  for  the 
investigation  of  religious  complaints  as  to  which  its 
action  was  requested,  and  one  charged  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  six  funds  belonging  to  it.  The 
Corpus  Evangelicorum  existed  on  this  basis  until 
1«06.  when  it  perished  with  the  empire;  but  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  usefulness  of  its  reorganization  have 
heen  since  made  more  than  once.  (E.  Friedberg.) 

CORPUS  JURIS  CANONICL    See  Canon  Law, 

II.,  7. 


CORRECTION,  HOUSES  OF:  Among  the  pen- 
alties employed  by  the  Chureh,  especiaBy  against 
delinquent  clerics,  was  in  very  early  times  the 
confinement  of  the  offender,  for  his  own  amend- 
ment, or,  if  he  proved  incorrigible,  for  the  removal 
of  a  scandal  from  the  eyes  of  the  community. 
Special  places  for  such  imprisonment  (decaniea)  are 
mentioned  in  a  decree  of  Areadius  and  Honoriua 
in  369;  other  terms  used  for  them  are  decaneata, 
diaconica,  secretaria.  Numerous  synods  of  the 
sixth  and  seventh  centuries  prescribed  imprison- 
ment for  delinquent  and  especially  for  deposed 
clerics.  Monasteries  and  (after  their  erection  be- 
came general)  seminaries  were  frequently  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  present  Roman  Catholic  Chureh 
has  institutions  of  this  nature  in  some  places. 

(O.  MEJERf.) 


CORRIGAN,  MICHAEL  AUGUSTINE:  Third 
Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  New  York;  b.  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  Aug.  13,  1839;  d.  in  New  York 
May  5,  1902.  He  studied  at  St.  Maiy's  College, 
Wilmington,  Del.,  and  at  Moimt  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege, Emmittsburg,  Md.  (B.A.,  1859);  was  the  first 
student  from  the  United  States  to  seek  admission 
to  the  American  College  at  Rome  (opened  1859), 
and  continued  his  studies  there  for  four  3rearB,  re- 
ceiving the  degree  of  D.D.  on  examination  in  1864; 
was  ordained  at  Rome  subdeacon  Mar.,  deacon 
Aug.,  priest  Sept.,  1863.  He  became  professor  of 
dogmatic  theology  and  Sacred  Scripture  at  Seton 
Hall  Seminary,  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  1864,  vice- 
president  of  Seton  Hall  College  1865,  president 
1868  (resigned  1876).  In  Oct.,  1868,  he  was  ap- 
pointed vicai^general  of  the  diocese  of  Newark, 
bishop  of  Newark  1873,  coadjutor  to  Cardinal 
McCloskey,  archbishop  of  New  York,  with  the 
title  archbishop  of  Petra,  1880,  and  succeeded  to 
the  archbishopric  1885.  He  was  a  faithful  and 
efficient  administrator,  possessed  of  much  capacity 
for  system  and  details,  whUe  his  uniform  courtesy 
and  the  nobility  of  his  aims  won  the  respect  of  the 
commimity.  From  his  coming  to  New  York  in 
1880  to  the  end  of  1895,  when  his  labor  was  light- 
ened by  the  appointment  of  an  auxiliary,  he  con- 
firmed 194,678  persons. 
Bxbuoorapbt:  Michael   A.    Corrioan,    Memorial   Volume, 

New  York.  1902. 

CORRODI,  HEINRICH:  Rationalistic  writer; 
b.  at  Zurich  July  31,  1752;  d.  there  Sept.  14,  1793. 
His  father,  a  clergyman  and  Pietist,  lived  in  Zu- 
rich as  private  tutor,  and  the  son  was  brought  up 
in  Pietistic  narrowness.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
where  the  influence  of  Semler  had  a  decisive  effect 
on  his  mind,  and  he  followed  this  liberal  theologian 
entirely.  In  1781  he  published  anonymously  an 
important  work,  Kritische  Geschichte  des  Chinas' 
mus  (2  parts,  Leipsic;  2d  ed.,  4  vols.,  1794),  which 
has  preserved  his  memory,  being  written  upon  the 
fundeunental  assumption  of  the  **  Enlightenment " 
(q.v.)  that  the  history  of  dogmas  is  a  history  of  hu- 
man errors,  and  applying  this  assumption  rigorously 
to  each  doctrine.  The  author  discovers  the  essence 
of  Christianity  in  the  field  of  ethics  and  considers  the 
Epistle  of  James  as  its  purest  expression;  the  wri- 
tings of  the  apostles,  he  thinks,  are  full  of  Judata- 


Zndlooplonstas 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


276 


tic  prejudices.  In  the  same  "enli^tened"  spirit 
he  wrote  other  works  to  prepare  the  way  for  a 
rational  religion.  Returning  to  Zurich,  his  great 
learning  and  undoubted  tident  for  investigation 
secured  him  an  appointment  there  as  teacher  of 
natural  law  and  ethics.  He  lived  with  the  simplicity 
of  Diogenes,  and  numaged  to  save  something  every 
month  from  his  meager  income  "for  the  worthy 
poor."  Paxil  Tbchackebt. 

Bibuoorapht:    F.  SehliohtesroU,  NtkroUtg  avf   dot  Jahr 
1705.  i.  283-208,  Gothft.  1704;  ADB,  !▼.  502-604. 

CORVEY:  Celebrated  Benedictine  abbey  near 
the  town  of  HOxter,  at  the  junction  of  the  Scheldt 
and  the  Weser  (45  m.  8.s.w.  of  Hanover).  It  was 
founded  by  a  colony  from  the  abbey  of  Corbie 
near  Amiens,  at  the  impulse  of  Abbot  Adalhard 
and  his  brother  Wala  (see  Adalhard  and  Wala). 
Several  monks  were  sent  about  815  with  the  young 
Saxon  Theodrad  to  foimd  a  monastery  at  Hethis 
in  the  Sollinger-Wald;  but  the  soil  proved  un- 
fruitful, and  the  colonists  were  barely  able  to  ex- 
tract a  living  from  it.  Adalhard  asked  Louis  the 
Pious  for  permission  to  transfer  the  monks  to 
some  more  fertile  spot,  and  the  permanent  home 
of  the  abbey  was  chosen.  By  the  autumn  of  822 
the  buildings  were  completed  and  the  chureh  was 
consecrated  by  Bishop  Badurad  of  Paderbom  imder 
the  invocation  of  St.  Stephen,  the  abbey  receiving 
the  name  of  "  New  Corbie  "  {Nova  Corbeja),  Many 
rich  gifts  and  privileges  were  bestowed  upon  it  by 
the  emperor  and  nobles,  and  it  soon  grew  to  con- 
siderable strength.  Adalhard  died  Jan.  2,  826, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Warin,  who  ruled  the  com- 
mimity  for  thirty  years.  In  the  thousand  years 
following  his  death  sixty  more  abbots  succeeded  one 
another.  The  abbey  reached  its  highest  point  of  pros- 
perity under  the  Saxon  emperors,  in  whose  time  the 
convent  school,  foimded  soon  after  the  abbey  and 
conducted  for  a  while  by  Ansgar  (q.v.),  attained  a 
wide-spread  fame.  Literary  activity  distinguished 
the  monks,  among  whom  the  best-known  author  is 
Widukind  (q.v.).  The  collection  of  a  library  was 
soon  begun;  among  its  treasures  was  the  only 
known  manuscript  (Ilth  cent.)  of  the  first  six 
books  of  the  "Annals"  of  Tacitus.  [This  is 
called  the  First  Medioean  MS.  of  Tacitus  be- 
cause brought  to  Rome  to  Cardinal  Giovanni  de' 
Medici  (afterward  Leo  X.)  in  1509.  It  is  now 
in  the  Vatican  library.]  Corvey  had  been  a 
royal  abbey  from  its  foundation;  in  1066  Adal- 
bert of  Bremen  obtained  a  grant  of  it  from 
Henry  IV.,  but  the  monks,  supported  l^  Otto  of 
Nordheim,  succeeded  in  vindiicating  their  inde- 
pendence. The  administration  of  Wibald  of  Sta^- 
blo  (q.v.)  was  its  last  brilliant  period.  After  his 
time  it  began  to  decline;  discipline  feU  off,  and 
internal  dissensions  arose.  It  managed,  however, 
to  sustain  itself  through  the  Reformation,  only  to 
suffer  its  hardest  blows  in  the  Thirty  Yeare'  War, 
when  its  library  and  arehives  were  destroyed,  its 
buildings  damaged,  and  its  property  and  revenues 
much  diminished.  In  1792  Pius  VI.  changed  the 
abbey  into  a  bishopric,  with  a  jurisdiction  of  five 
square  miles  and  9,000  souls.  Through  the  settle- 
ment of  1803,  the  territory  passed  to  the  house  of 
Nassau-Orange,  and  later  to  the  kingdom  of  West- 


phalia, finally  coming  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
Prussia.  The  bishopric  on  its  spiritual  side  was 
suppressed  in  1821.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  AnmUtt  Carbei«nt«9  are  in  MGH, 
Script.,  iii.  1-18.  Consult:  P.  Wigand.  Gwhidde  da 
.  .  .  AHey  Corvey,  Hdxter,  1819;  idem,  TradUionm  Cor- 
beienaea,  Leipeic.  1843;  W.  Wattenbach,  DOQ,  5th  ed..  iL 
472;  Neander,  CkrUHan  Churdt,  iii.  273-276.  et  paadm; 
Hauok,  KDt  toI.  ii..  paaaim. 

CORVINUS  (RABE,  "raven/'  not  RAEBENER), 
AUTONIUS:  Protestant  Reformer;  b.  at  Waibuig 
(20  m.  n.w.  of  Cassel)  Feb.  27,  1501;  d.  at  Han- 
over Apr.  6,  1553.  He  was  educated  in  the  Cister- 
cian monasteries  of  Riddagshausen  in  Brunswick, 
and  Loocum  in  Hanover,  at  the  University  of  Leip- 
sic,  and  probably  also  at  Wittenberg.  He  early 
embraced  the  Reformation;  in  1526  he  is  found  at 
Marbui^g;  in  1528  he  went  to  Goslar  to  establish 
the  Reformation  there,  and  worked  successfully  till 
1531,  when  persecution  drove  him  to  Witsenhausen 
in  Hesse.  There  and  elsewhere  in  the  countiy  and 
neighboring  lands  he  played  a  prominent  part  and 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  landgrave.  With  the 
latter's  permission  he  preached  in  Hanover  and 
Gdttingen,  in  Minden  and  Pattensen.  In  1546  the 
duke  of  GOttingen-Kalenberg  became  a  Roman- 
ist, and  when  Corvinus  vigorously  opposed  the 
Augsburg  Interim  of  1548  he  was  thrown  into 
prison  at  Kalenbei^  (Nov.  2,  1549)  and  not  re- 
leased till  Oct.  21,  1552.  He  possaased  consider^ 
able  learning,  some  poetical  ability,  but  greater 
organizing  talents,  and  by  devotion,  patience,  and 
self-sacrifice  he  won  a  place  among  the  Reformers 
of  the  second  rank. 

Bibliographt:  G.  Uhlhom,  Antonitu  ConrinuB,  Hanover, 
1901;  P.  Tschaekert,  Antoniua  Corvinut  Leben  und  Sckrif- 
ten.  ib.  1900;  hia  BnefiMC^MC,  ed.  P.  Tschaekert.  1900; 
and  hie  BeritAt  vam  KoUoquium  m  Regendnav  ISAt,  ed- 
P.  Tschaokert,  in  Arthiv  fUr  RefcrmationaifntAielUe,  1903; 
Q.  Geisenhof,  BiUioiheea  Corviniana,  Brunswick.  1900; 
J.  Ktetlin,  Martin  Luther,  ii.  209,  311-312.  Berlin,  1903. 

CORWnr,  EDWARD  TANJORE:  Reformed 
(Dutch);  b.  in  New  York  City  July  12,  1834.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  then  the  Free  Academy  (B.A.,  1853),  and 
the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary  (1856), 
where  he  was  a  graduate  student  1856-57  and  in- 
structor in  Hebrew  and  Old  Testament  exegesis 
1883-^.  He  held  pastorates  at  Paramus,  N.  J. 
(1857--63),  and  Hillsborough  (BlGllstone),  N.  J. 
(1863-88).  He  was  then  rector  of  Hersog  Hall, 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1888-95,  and  gave  instruc- 
tion at  various  times  in  the  Theological  Seminary. 
After  a  pastorate  at  Greenport,  N.  Y.,  1895-^7, 
he  was  in  Holland  in  1897-98  as  the  agent  of  the 
General  Sjmod  to  collect  documents  relating  to 
the  Amst^!dam  Correspondence,  which  passed  be- 
tween the  classis  of  Amsterdam  and  the  colonial 
Dutch  Reformed  churches  of  New  Netherlands 
and  the  Province  of  New  York.  These  papers 
were  brought  out  under  his  editorship  by  the 
State  of  New  York  (Ecdenasticdl  Records  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  6  vols.,  Albany,  1901-06).  He 
was  president  of  the  General  Synod  of  his  de- 
nomination in  1891,  and  is  the  official  historiog- 
rapher of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America.  In 
theology   he  is  a  conservative.    Among  his  nu- 


277 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oorrey 

Oosmas  Indloopleuates 


znerous  writings  special  mention  may  be  made  of 
his  Manual  of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church 
in  North  America  (New  York,  1859,  4th  ed.,  1902); 
History  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America  (1895); 
and  A  Digest  of  the  Constitutional  and  SynoduxU 
Legislation  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America 
(1906).  He  likewise  wrote  a  number  of  histories 
of  counties  and  local  churches,  and  edited  Cen- 
tennial Discourses,  in  collaboration  with  T.  W. 
Chambers  and  J.  Anderson  (New  York,  1876),  and 
Centennial  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at  New 
Brunswick,  N,  J.,  with  D.  D.  Demarest  and  P.  D. 
Van  aeef  (1885). 

COSIN,  JOHN:  Bishop  of  Durham;  b.  in  Nor- 
wich Nov.  30,  1594;  d.  in  London  Jan.  15,  1672. 
He  studied  at  Cambridge  (Caius  College);  became 
secretary  to  Bishop  Overall  of  Lichfield,  and 
chaplain  of  Bishop  Neile  of  Durham;  became  preb- 
endary of  Durham  1624,  archdeacon  of  the  East 
Riding  of  Yorkshire  1625,  master  of  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge,  1635,  vice-chancellor  of  the  university 
1639,  dean  of  Peterborough  1640.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Laud  and  a  strict  ritusdist;  also  a  man  of  strong 
character  who  made  his  views  effective;  conse- 
quently he  came  early  into  collision  with  the  Puri- 
tans. In  1641  he  was  sequestered  from  all  his 
benefices  by  vote  of  the  House  of  Comiyons;  in 
1644  he  was  rejected  from  his  mastership,  having 
been  concerned  in  sending  the  college  plate  to  the 
royal  mint.  He  went  to  Paris,  where  he  acted  as 
chaplain  to  the  ladies  of  Queen  Henrietta  Maria's 
household  belonging  to  the  Church  of  England. 
On  the  Restoration  he  was  reinstated  in  his  bene- 
fices and  made  bishop  of  Durham  (1660).  His 
strong  convictions  and  earnest  life,  his  energy  and 
administrative  ability,  with  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  world,  pleasing  manners,  and  a  commanding 
presence,  have  caused  him  to  be  characterized  as 
"  one  of  the  greatest  prelates  of  his  own  or  of  any 
age."  He  was  severe  toward  Romanists  and 
Puritans,  and  used  his  full  power  to  rid  his  diocese 
of  them;  nevertheless  his  Puritan  antagonists 
charged  him  with  "popery,"  and  some  of  his  prin- 
ciples and  practises  were  little  short  of  Puritanical. 
He  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Savoy  Conference 
in  1661,  and  probably  had  more  influence  than 
any  one  else  in  the  revision  of  the  prayer-book 
made  the  same  year.  His  best-known  work  is  his 
Collection  of  Private  Devotions  in  the  Practice  of  the 
Ancient  Church  Called  the  Hours  of  Prayer  (Lon- 
don, 1627;  new  ed.,  1867),  which  was  prepared  by 
royal  command  for  the  use  of  the  queen's  maids  of 
honor,  and  gave  much  offense  to  the  Puritans.  In 
France  he  wrote  Historia  transubstantiationis  papar 
lis  (published  1675;  Eng.  transl.,  1676;  ed.,  with 
memoir,  by  J.  S.  Brewer,  1840  and  1850);  Regni 
AnglicB  religio  catholica,  prisca,  casta,  defaxata,  a 
vindication  of  the  Church  of  England  (first  pub- 
lished by  Thomas  Smith  in  his  ViUz  quorumdam 
eruditissimorum  et  illtutrium  virorum,  London, 
1707;  several  later  editions;  translations  into  Ital- 
ian, 1853,  1866,  into  Spanish  and  modem  Greek, 
1856,  French  and  German,  1857,  Russian,  1866, 
English,  by  F.  Meyrick,  1870);  and  A  Scholastical 
History  of  the  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture :  or  the  cer- 


tain and  indubitate  books  thereof  as  they  are  received 
in  the  Church  of  England  (1657).  His  Notes  on 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  (published  in  NichoU's 
Comment  on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  1710)  is 
of  interest  for  the  history  of  the  prayer-book.  His 
complete  works  were  published  in  the  Library  of 
Anglo^atholic  Theology  (5  vols.,  Oxford,  1843-55), 
and  his  correspondence  was  published  by  the  Sur- 
tees  Society  of  Durham  (2  vols.,  1869-72). 
Biblxoorapbt:  Consult,  bendes  the  memoir  in  his  Hitloria 
trannUMtafUiatumia,  ut  sup..  DNB,  xii.  264-271;  Wright 
and  Neil.  Prote$tant  Dictionary,  pp.  146-148,  London,  1004. 

COSMAS  AKD  DAMIAN,  SAINTS :  According  to 
legend,  two  brothers  from  Arabia,  Christians,  who 
practised  medicine  at  ^gs,  on  the  Bay  of  Issus, 
Cilicia,  at  the  time  of  the  Diocletian  persecution. 
They  took  no  fees,  and  by  means  of  prayer  and  the 
sign  of  the  cross  accomplished  wonderful  cures. 
They  refused  to  renounce  their  faith  at  the  bidding 
of  the  governor,  Lysias,  endured  manifold  tox^ 
tures,  and  finally  were  executed  by  the  sword. 
Their  brothers,  Anthimus,  Leontius,  and  Eupre- 
pius,  suffered  at  the  same  time  with  like  fortitude. 
Cosxnas  and  Damian  are  the  patrons  of  physicians 
and  apothecaries,  and  are  represented  with  the 
emblems  of  their  profession,    llieir  day  is  Sept.  27. 

(O.  ZdCKLEBt.) 
BnuooRAPHT:  A8B,    Sept.,    rii.    400-448;  AnaUeta   Bol- 
iandiana,  i  (1882),  686-696;  J.  E.  Wenely.  ikanogravhiM 
Gotiea  und  dm'  Heiligen,  p.  136,  Leipnc,  1874. 

COSMAS  niDICOPLEXTSTES  C'Cosmas  the  In- 
dian  navigator  ") :  An  Alexandrian  merchant  who, 
in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century,  visited  Abys- 
sinia, Arabia,  and  India;  afterwani  he  became  a 
monk  and  wrote  several  books,  of  which  the  only 
one  preserved  is  called  "  A  Christian  Topography 
of  the  World  "  (written  in  Greek,  in  twelve  books; 
published,  with  Latin  version,  in  MPG,  Ixxxviii. 
10-475;  Eng.  transl.,  with  notes  and  introduction 
by  J.  W.  McCrindle,  vol.  xcviii.  of  the  Hakluyt  So- 
ciety's Publications,  London,  1897).  The  purpose 
of  the  writer  is  to  set  forth  certain  views  about 
geography  and  cosmography  supposed  to  be 
tau^t  in  the  Bible;  incidentally  he  has  much  vili- 
fication for  those  who  drew  their  natural  science 
from  another  source,  particularly  such  as  impiously 
asserted  the  earth  to  be  roimd.  To  his  way  of 
thinking  an  exact  model  of  the  universe  was  fur^ 
nished  by  the  Mosaic  tabernacle;  there  are  two 
worlds,  an  upper  and  a  lower,  divided  by  the  fir- 
mament; the  table  of  showbread  represented  the 
earth,  which  consequently  is  a  rectangular  plane 
twice  as  long  from  east  to  west  as  broad  from  north 
to  south;  the  candlestick  typified  the  sun;  there 
is  another  earth  beyond  the  ocean,  which  was  the 
seat  of  paradise  and  the  abode  of  man  till  the  del- 
uge, when  the  ark  floated  over  the  intervening 
waters;  the  heavens  form  four  walls  joined  to  the 
outer  edges  of  the  earth  and  are  vaulted  overhead. 
Notwithstanding  his  fantastic  science,  Cosmas  was 
a  good  observer,  shrewd  of  judgment,  and  is  con- 
sidered truthful;  "  the  nonsense  of  the  monk  was 
mingled  with  the  practical  knowledge  of  the  trav- 
eler" (Gibbon,  Decline  and  FaU,  v.  148-149).  His 
reports  of  Absrssinia,  India,  and  China  are  inter- 
I  esting,  and  the  fifth  book  has  value  for  Biblical 


Oounoils  and  Synods 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


278 


introduction  because  of  statements  concerning  the 
authorship,  purpose,  and  contents  of  different  books. 
Bibuooraphy:  R.   Beasley,    The  Dawn  of  Modem  Ooog- 
raphy,  i.  273-803  et  paaaim,  London,  1807. 

COSTA,  IZAAK  DA.    See  Da  Costa. 

COSTA  RICA.    See  Central  America. 

COTELERIUS,  JOHAKHES  BAPTISTA  (JBAN- 
BAPTISTE  COTELIER):  French  classical  scholar; 
b.  at  Nimes  (30  m.  n.e.  of  Montpellier)  Dec.,  1627; 
d.  at  Paris  Aug.  19,  1686.  In  1641  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  philosophy  and  theology,  and 
became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  in  1648.  In  1667 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  minister  Colbert  to 
investigate  and  catalogue  the  Greek  manuscripts 
of  the  Royal  Library,  and  in  1676  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Greek  at  the  Coll^  de  France.  He 
attained  high  fame  as  a  church  historian  by  his 
edition  of  the  apostolic  Fathers,  entitled  Sanctorum 
Patrum  qui  temporOma  apostolicis  floruerurUf  Bar- 
nab(B,  ClementU,  Hermay  Ignaiii,  Pdycarpi,  opera 
edita  et  rum  edita  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1672).  The  most 
of  the  copies  of  this  edition  were  destroyed  by  a 
fire  in  the  College  Montaigu,  but  a  second  and  third 
edition  was  prepared  by  J.  Leclerc  (2  vols.,  Ant- 
werp, 1698;  Amsterdam,  1724).  He  also  edited 
other  documents  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity  in 
HomxUce  quattuor  in  PacUmoa  et  inlerpretatio  pro- 
phetce  Danidis  (Paris,  1661),  which  he  ascribed  to 
Chrysostom,  and  in  Ecdesice  Grceca  monumenta  (3 
vols.,  1677-^),  of  which  a  fourth  volume  appeared 
posthumously  as  Analeda  Grceca  (1692). 

(C.  Pfendbr.) 
Bibliography:  A  letter  by  8.  BaIum,  which  follows  the 

preface  to  vol.  ii.  of  Leclerc's  ed.  of  the  PoItm,  ut  sup.; 

Nio^ron,  MimoirM,  iv.  243  sqq. 

COTTA.  See  Vestments  and  Insignia,  Eccle- 
siastical. 

COTTA,  URSULA.    See  Luther,  Martin. 

COTTERILL,  THOMAS:  Hynmologist;  b.  at 
Cannock  (15  m.  ii.n.w.  of  Birmingham),  StalTord- 
shire,  Dec.  4,  1779;  d.  at  Sheffield  Dec.  29,  1S23. 
He  was  a  student  and  fellow  of  St.  John's,  Cam- 
bridge (B.A.,  1801;  M.A.,  1805);  became  curate 
of  Tutbury  and  of  Lane  End,  Staffordshire,  in  1803 
and  1808,  respectively;  perpetual  curate  of  St. 
Paul's,  Sheffield,  1817.  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  A  Selection  of  Paalma  and  Hymne,  published  at 
Uttoxeter,  Staffordshire,  1805,  and  with  the  help 
of  James  Montgomery  (q.v.)  compiled  a  Selection 
of  Psalms  and  Hymns  (Sheffield,  1810;  8th  and 
most  important  ed.,  1819).  The  use  of  hymns  in 
the  English  service  was  not  yet  establbhed,  and 
an  attempt  by  Cotterill  to  force  his  book  upon  his 
congregation  led  to  a  lawsuit;  the  dispute  was 
compromised  by  preparing  a  new  edition  (9th), 
London,  1820,  in  which  the  number  of  hymns  was 
greatly  deduced  and  those  printed  were  approved 
by  Edward  Harcourt,  archbishop  of  York.  This 
book  had  great  influence  upon  the  hymnody  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  is  remarkable  for  the  free- 
dom with  which  the  verses  of  others  printed  in  it 
are  altered  from  their  original  form  or  rewritten. 
Cotterill  also  published  a  book  of  Family  Prayers 
(2d  ed.,  London,  1816). 


Bibuoorapbt:  S.  W.  DuiBeld«  BngliA  Hvmna,  pp.  58-54. 
New  York.  1886;  Julian.  HvmnoUvy,  pp.  263-264. 

COTTON,  JOHN:  Puritan,  early  minister  of 
Boston;  b.  at  Derby,  England,  Dec.  4,  1584  (bap- 
tized at  St.  Alkmund's,  Derby,  Dec.  15,  1584);  d. 
in  Boston  Dec.  23,  1652.  He  studied  at  Derby 
Grammar  School,  and  Trinity  and  Emmanuel  cot- 
leges,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1604  or  eariier;  MA, 
1606;  B.D.,  1613);  became  fellow  of  Enmumuel 
(not  later  than  1607),  dean,  and  catechist,  and  dis- 
tmguished  himself  as  tutor,  orator,  and  scholar. 
In  1612  he  became  vicar  of  St.  Botolph's,  Boston, 
Lincohishire,  and  gained  there  a  great  reputation  for 
learning  and  piety,  as  well  as  for  Puritan  inclinations, 
which  steadily  became  stronger.  In  July,  1633, 
to  escape  from  a  sunmions  to  appear  before  the 
High  Commission  Court  in  London  and  answer  to 
a  charge  of  not  kneeling  at  the  Sacrament  and 
discarding  some  other  ritual  observances,  he  fled 
to  America,  landing  in  September.  In  October 
he  was  ordained  ''  teacher  "  of  the  First  Church  in 
Boston  and  colleague  of  John  Wilson,  and  soon 
became  the  most  influential  person  in  the  com- 
munity.* His  reputation  continued  great  in  Puri- 
tan circles  in  England,  and  in  1642  he  was  strongly 
inclined  to  comply  with  pressing  entreaties  to  re- 
turn. He  engaged  in  controversy  with  Roger  Will- 
iams ^nd  defended  the  latter's  expulsion  from 
Massachusetts.  In  the  antinomian  dispute  he 
was  at  first  inclined  to  side  with  his  enthusiastic 
admirer  Mrs.  Hutchinson  (whose  son,  Edward,  had 
accompanied  him  on  his  flight  to  America),  but 
ended  as  her  opponent  (see  Antinomianibu  and 
Antinomian  Controversies,  II.,  2). 

John  Cotton's  writinga  were  numerous  and  deal  with  a 
wide  variety  of  subjects.  The  **  bibliography  "  of  Dr.  H. 
M.  Dexter's  ConorejftUumalittn  of  As  Laat  Tkne  Hundred 
Yean  (New  York,  1880)  has  36  entries  ascribed  to  him. 
For  other  lists  consult  Allen's  American  Biographical  Die- 
Honary  (Boston,  1867),  sub  titulo;  J.  8.  Clark,  in  the  Con- 
ffregaHonat  Quarterly,  in.  133-148  (Apr.,  1861);  and  the 
article  John  Cotton,  by  Alexander  Gordon,  in  DNB,  supple- 
ment, vol.  ii.  All  were  published  in  London,  and  many  in 
two  or  more  editions.  Some  of  the  more  noteworthy  est: 
Abetnui  of  the  Lowe  of  New  England,  a  summary  of  Jewish 
laws  supposed  to  be  of  perpetual  obligation  (1641;  re- 
printed in  the  CoUecHone  of  the  Maeeaehueette  Hietorieal  So- 
ciety, ser.  i.,  vol.  v  [1816],  171-192;  cf.  W.  C.  Ford,  John 
Cotton' e  Moaee,  hie  Judidalle  and  Abetract  of  the  Lowe  o/ 
New  England,  in  the  Proceedinge  of  the  Maeeaehueette  Hie- 
torieal Society,  Oct.,  1902);  The  Pouring  OtU  of  the  S€ven 
Viale,  or  an  expoeition  of  the  16th  chapter  of  the  RevelaUon, 
jffith  an  applieation  of  it  to  our  Hmee  (1642;  the  fifth  Tisl 
is  made  to  mean  episcopal  government);  The  Keye  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven  and  Power  thereof  according  to  tt«  Word 
of  Ood  (1644;  reprinted  Boston.  1852;  considered  one  of 
the  most  authoritative  expositions  of  Congregationalism); 
MUk  for  Babee,  Drawn  out  of  the  Breaete  of  both  TeetamenU, 
diiefly  for  the  epiritual  nouriehment  of  BoHon  babee  in  eUhtr 
Englaiui,  but  may  be  of  like  uee  for  any  t^ildren,  a  catechism 
(1646;  and  many  subsequent  editions,  one  at  Oambridee, 
1656;  included  in  the  New  England  Primer;  Cotton  Mather 
calls  it  "  peculiarly  the  catechism  of  New  England,"  and 
says  it,  will  "  be  valued  and  studied  and  improved  until  New 
England  cease  to  be  New  England  ");  The  Bloody  Tenri 
Waehed  and  Made  White  in  the  Blood  of  th0  Lamb  (1647; 

*"He  was  the  ecclesiastical  leader  of  the  Maasaohufletti 
colony,  a  part  of  about  all  that  was  done  in  Church  and 
State  till  his  death  "  (Walker.  Creede  and  Platfonne  of  Con- 
gregationaliem,  184,  note  3).  "  He  very  quickly  came  to 
wield  a  power  in  that  theocratic  settlement  akin  to  that 
now  exercised  by  a  political  boss"  (Paul  Leicester  Ford, 
The  New  England  Primer,  89). 


270 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ooata,  Tyflf^^f  da 
Oouncils  and  Synods 


a  reply  to  Roger  Williams,  who  had  charged  Um  with  hold- 
ing a  "  bloody  tenet  of  persecution  ");  A  Brief  Expontion 
vith  PraeHeal  ObtervaHonM  upon  0*0  Whole  Book  of  Eeele- 
naetea  (1054);  The  Sainta'  Support  and  Comfort  in  the  Time 
of  IHetve  and  Danger,  with  divert  other  treatitet  (1658;  a 
new  edition  of  Ood'a  Mercy  Mixed  with  hie  Juetice,  1641). 
Two  of  his  writings  against  Roger  Williams  were  published 
by  the  Narracansett  Club  (A  Letter  of  John  Cotton  and 
Roger  WiUiam**a  Reply,  ed.  R.  A.  Guild,  Providence.  1866; 
Matter  John  Cotton'e  Anewer  to  Master  Roger  WilUame,  ed. 
J.  L.  Diman,  1867). 

Bibuoobapht:  Consult,  besides  the  works  mentioned 
above.  Cotton  Mather  (his  grandson),  Magnolia,  i.  252- 
286,  Hartford  ed..  1855;  John  Norton,  Abel  Being  Dead 
yet  Speaketh,  or  the  life  and  death  of  that  deaervedly  famoue 
man  of  God,  Mr.  John  Cotton,  London.  1658.  ed.  with 
notes  by  Enoch  Pond,  Boston,  1834;  A.  W.  M'Clure,  lAfe 
of  John  Cotton,  Boston,  1846  and  1870;  P.  Thompson. 
The  Hietary  and  AnHquitiea  of  Boeton  [Lincolnshire],  pp. 
412-424  et  passim,  Boston.  1856;  M.  C.  Tyler,  Hiatory  of 
American  Literature,  i.  210-216,  New  York,  1878;  W. 
Walker,  Ten  New  England  Leadere,  pp.  49-96,  New  York, 
1901  (where  references  to  the  sources  are  fully  given). 

COXTLIN,  cQl'ln',  FRAITK:  Swiss  Protestant; 
b.  at  Geneva  Nov.  17,  1828.  He  was  educated  at 
the  college  and  academy  of  his  native  city  (B.A., 
1844);  resided  in  Germany  1844-47;  studied  in  the 
theological  faculty  of  Geneva  imtil  his  ordination 
in  1851.  After  extensive  travels  he  became  in 
1853  pastor  at  Genthod,  a  village  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Geneva,  and  there  remained  till  1895,  when 
he  retired  from  active  life.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  held  at 
New  York  in  1873,  and  on  his  return  was  asked  to 
conduct  the  courses  in  homiletics  in  the  faculty  of 
free  theology  at  Geneva.  He  continued  these  lec- 
tures until  1886.  He  has  written:  Les  (Euvres  chrS- 
tiennes  (Geneva,  1865);  Le  File  de  Vhomme  (1866; 
Eng.  transl.,  by  J.  Sturge,  London,  1869,  The  Son 
of  Man);  and  La  Vocation  du  chritien  (1870). 

COXTLLIE,  PIERRE  HECTOR:  Cardinal;  b.  at 
Paris  Mar.  14,  1829.  He  was  educated  at  the 
seminary  of  St.  Nicholas-des-Champs  and  at  St. 
Sulpice,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in 
1851.  He  was  vicar  at  Ste.  Marguerite,  St.  Eu- 
stache,  and  Notre  Dame  des  Victoires,  and  in  1876 
was  consecrated  bishop  coadjutor  of  OrMans  with 
the  title  of  bishop  of  Sidonia.  In  1878  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  bishopric,  and  in  1893  was  enthroned 
archbishop  of  Lyons  and  Vienne.  In  1897  he  was 
created   cardinal  priest   of   Santa  Francesca  Ro- 


COUNCILS  AKD  SYNODS. 

Origin  (i  1). 

Provincial  Synods  (f  2). 

Ecumeni<^  Coiindls  ((3). 

Teutonic  Synods  of  the  Early  Middle  Ages  (|  4). 

Papal  Councils  of  the  Middle  Ages  ((  6). 

The  Reforming  Coundb  of  the  Fifteenth  Century  (|  6). 

Councils  and  Synods:  Modem  Roman  Catholic  System  (ft  7). 

The  Synods  oil  Protestantism.  Reformed  Ch\ux;hes  (ft  8). 

Adoption  in  the  German  Lutheran  Churches  (ft  9). 

The  Synodal  System  in  America  (ft  10). 

In  the  ecclesiastical  sense,  "  coimcils  "  or  "  syn- 
ods''  are  assemblies  of  representatives  of  the 
Church  for  the  discussion  and  decision  of  questions 
of  faith,  points  of  discipline,  and  monds.  The 
gathering  of  the  apostles  mentioned  in  Acts  xv. 
(see  Ap^tolic  Council  at  Jerusalem)  may  be 
passed  over  as  having  no  connection  with  the  later 
development.     The  earliest  synods  deserving   of 


mention  are  those  held  in  Asia  Minor  in  reference 

to  the  Montanist  question  (see  Montanism),  and 

those  which  in  both  East  and  West 

I.  Origin,  attempted  to  settle  the  quartodeciman 
controversy  (see  Easter,  II.,  §  1). 
The  former  took  place  probably  between  160  and 
175;  our  information  in  regard  to  them  is  derived 
from  an  almcNst  contemporary  narrator  whose  ac- 
coimt  is  utilized  by  Eusebius  [Hist  eccl.,  V.  xvi. 
10).  He  does  not  use  the  name  "  synod,"  and  in 
fact  his  words  do  not  necessarily  imply  such  as- 
semblies; but  the  usual  interpretation  of  the  pas- 
sage is  probably  correct,  involving  gatherings  of  a 
number  of  local  churches  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing the  new  prophecy.  The  term  "  the  faith- 
ful," which  he  uses,  of  course  includes  bishops,  but 
presumably  is  not  limited  to  them.  The  method 
of  representation  is  uncertain;  it  is  possible  that 
in  some  cases  only  the  bishop  appee^ed  to  speak 
for  his  church;  it  is  also  possible  that  a  certain 
number  of  clerics  accompanied  him,  and  that  prom- 
inent laymen  were  not  absent;  in  some  cases  they 
may  even  have  been  more  niunerous  than  the 
clergy,  or  have  constituted  the  only  representa- 
tives of  their  community.  The  terms  in  which 
Eusebius  (V.  xxiii.  2)  speaks  of  the  synods  held  in 
connection  with  the  paschal  controversy  give  on 
the  surface  a  different  picture;  but  such  knowl- 
edge as  we  have  of  his  sources  shows  that  he  un- 
consciously approximated  his  accoimt  of  synods  at 
the  end  of  the  second  century  to  those  of  his  own 
day.  The  synods  held  about  195  were  not  gathei^ 
ings  of  bishops  exclusively;  although  the  episco- 
pate occupied  the  most  prominent  position,  the 
time  was  still  remembered  when  these  assemblies 
were  gatherings  of  all  the  faithful.  The  fact  that 
the  monarchical  episcopate  was  fully  developed  by 
the  period  first  alluded  to  (160-175),  and  that  this 
constitution  of  synods  is  not  altogether  harmoni- 
ous with  it,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  such  gath- 
erings had  been  usual,  at  least  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  second  century.  Sohm  finds  their 
origin  in  the  expansion  of  gatherings,  such  as  are 
mentioned  earlier,  of  a  local  church  for  the  election 
of  a  bishop;  others  trace  them  to  the  analogy  of 
the  secular  ''  provincial  council,"  or  make  them 
a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  need  to  discuss  difficult 
questions. 

A  full  understanding  of  their  origin  can  not  be 
obtained  without  remembering  the  constant  in- 
tercourse by  means  of  accredited  representatives 
which  the  primitive  Christian  communities  main- 
tained. If  a  local  church  was  distracted  by  dis- 
cord, the  neighboring  churches  felt  bound  to  assist 
in  the  restoration  of  order  (Clementina,  I.  Ixiii.  3); 
when  peace  was  restored  after  a  storm  of  persecu- 
tion, even  distant  churches  sent  envoys  to  express 
their  joy  (Ignatius,  Ad  Philadelphenos,  x.;  ad 
SmymeoSf  xi.;  ad  Polycarpum,  vii.);  if  a  bishop 
was  to  be  chosen  in  a  small  church,  the  delegates 
of  the  larger  conununities  round  about  assisted  in 
the  deliberations.  Such  envoys,  who  might  be 
bishops  or  lower  clergy,  were  chosen  in  a  general 
gathering  of  the  local  church  (Ignatius,  Ad  Poly- 
carpum, vii.;  od  Smymeoa,  xi.).  It  is  then  on  the 
surface  scarcely  a  step  further  to  the  assembly  of 


Oounoilaand  Synods 


THE  NEW  SCHAPF-HERZOG 


280 


representatives  of  a  number  of  churches  for  the 
purpose  of  reaching  a  common  decision  on  a  dis- 
puted question.  But  a  little  reflection  will  show 
that  it  is  not  the  same  thing.  Both  the  discussion 
of  a  local  question  with  the  assistanoe  of  repre- 
sentatives from  outside,  and  the  meeting  to 
discuss  a  question  which  affected  a  number  of 
communities  alike,  sprang  from  the  primitive  Chris- 
tian feeling  of  unity  and  from  the  consequent 
mutual  intercourse;  but  they  had  different  aims 
and  significance. 

The  synods  of  the  second  oentuiy  were  loosely 
organized;  they  came  together  when  a  question 
happened  to  need  decision,  and  represented  no  de- 
terminate group  of  churches;  they  had  no  ex-of- 
ficio  members,  and  no  authority  which  could  inter- 
fere with  local  independence.  By 
2.  Frovin-  degrees,  however,  the  logical  conse- 
cial  SSynods.  quenoes  of  the  monarchical  episcopate 
and  the  theory  of  apostolic  succession 
followed.  In  the  third  oentuiy  the  bishops  prima- 
rily constituted  the  synods.  It  is  true  that  in  this 
period  presbyters  still  universally  took  part  with 
the  bishops,  as  is  evidenced  in  Alexandria  in  the 
first  synod  held  by  Demetrius  against  Origen  (Pho- 
tius,  MPG,  ciii.  397);  in  Antioch  (Eusebius,  Hist, 
eed,,  VII.  XXX.  2,  xxviii.  1);  in  Cappadocia  (Cyp- 
rian, Epist,,  Ixxv.  4);  in  Rome  (Eusebius,  Hist, 
eed.,  VI.  xHii.  2,  on  the  basis  of  the  letter  of  Cor- 
nelius to  Fabius  of  Antioch);  and  in  Africa  (Cyp- 
rian, Episi,,  xix.  2).  But  none  the  less  the  center 
of  gravity  had  shifted.  Though  Cyprian  mentions 
the  presence  of  presbyters  and  deacons,  it  is  evi- 
dent from  more  than  one  passage  that  in  his  mind 
it  was  the  bishops  who  decided  the  questions.  The 
records  of  the  synod  of  Sept.,  256,  note  the  pres- 
ence of  many  bishops  from  three  provinces,  with 
presbyters  and  deacons  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
laity;  but  in  the  decision  the  votes  of  the  bishops 
alone  are  given.  Thus,  too,  the  African  synodal 
epistles  are  subscribed  by  the  bishops  only  (of. 
Epist,,  Ivii.,  Ixiv.,  Ixvii.,  Ixx.)-  The  presence  of  the 
lower  clergy  and  the  laity  contributed  to  the  pub- 
licity of  the  proceedings,  not  to  the  decision,  which 
was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  episcopate.  The  de- 
velopment which  was  complete  by  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  in  Africa  was  somewhat  slower 
elsewhere.  At  Rome  in  250  the  consensus  of  the 
clergy  and  laity  was  still  considered  essential  to  a 
synodal  decision  (Cyprian,  Epist.,  xxx.  5),  and  a 
similar  state  of  things  is  found  in  Cappadocia  (Cyp- 
rian, EpisL,  Ixxv.  4).  But  the  same  tendency  was 
everywhere  in  evidence.  It  is  not,  therefore,  sur- 
prising that  in  the  First  Coimcil  of  Nicsea  and  in 
that  of  Antioch  (341)  it  should  be  taken  for  granted 
that  only  the  bishops  were  the  active  members  (cf. 
eanon  v.  of  Nicsea,  xiv.,  xv.  of  Antioch).  In  har- 
mony with  this  development  was  the  general  con- 
ception of  synodal  authority.  The  bishops,  as  suc- 
cessors of  the  apostles,  were  officially  endued  with 
the  Holy  Spirit;  they  made  their  decisions  "  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  (Csrprian,  Epist., 
Ivii.  5)  or  ''  in  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
his  angels  "  (synodal  letter  of  the  First  Council  of 
Aries,  Mansi,  CancUia,  ii.  469);  the  decision  of  a 
synod  is  equivalent  to  a  divine  sentence  (letter  of 


Constantine  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Council  of 
Aries,  Mansi,  Concilia^  ii.  478). 

The  next  step  was  to  make  s3mods  ordinaiy  in- 
stitutions of  the  Chiirch.  Extraordinary  ones  con- 
tinued to  be  held,  but  they  were  additional  to  the 
regular  ones,  which  are  assumed  in  the  first  men- 
tion of  Eastern  synods  by  a  Western  writer,  prob- 
ably between  210  and  220  (Tertullian,  De  jejunio, 
xiii.).  Annual  meetings  soon  became  the  rule,  as 
can  be  evidenced  in  Cappadocia  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  third  century  (Cyprian,  Epist.,  Ixxv. 
4).  This  regular  recurrence  led  to  the  restriction 
of  the  district  represented,  and,  probably  on  the 
analogy  of  secular  assemblies,  the  bishops  of  each 
province  met  in  its  capital.  The  institution  bo- 
came  legally  established  by  the  First  Council  of 
Nicffia  (canon  v.),  which  provided  for  two  meet- 
ings in  the  year,  one  before  Lent,  the  other  in  the 
autumn.  At  Antioch  in  341  (canon  xx.)  the  dates 
were  defined  as  four  weeks  before  Pentecost  and 
Oct.  15,  and  the  arrangement  continued  long  in 
force  (Cioimcil  of  Constantinople,  381,  canon  iL;  of 
Chalcedon,  451,  canon  xix.).  Finally  the  Tnill&n 
Council  of  692  (canon  viii.)  and  the  Second  Nicene 
of  787  (canon  vi.)  contented  themselves  with  re- 
quiring a  single  annual  session.  The  provincial 
synod  became  the  most  important  oigan  for  the 
episcopal  government  of  the  Church.  The  metro- 
politan called  it  and  presided  over  it.  Its  compe- 
tence was  practically  unlimited,  extending  over  all 
questions  of  faith  and  morals,  public  worship,  and 
the  discipline  and  organization  of  the  Oiurch.  The 
development  of  provincial  synods  accompanied 
that  of  metropolitan  jurisdiction.  After  the  or- 
ganization of  the  patriarchal  system  in  the  East, 
the  idea  came  up  of  having  special  synods  for  these 
larger  divisions,  and  attempts  were  made  to  cany 
it  out;  but  they  did  not  lead  to  regular  annual 
meetings  or  to  the  permanency  of  the  institution. 

Ecumenical  coimcils  had  come  into  being  before 
the  complete  organization  of  the  provincial  synods. 
In  the  course  of  the  Donatist  controversy  Constan- 
tine committed  the  decision  of  it  first  to  an  epis- 
copal commission  meeting  in  Rome,   then  to  a 
larger  body  of  bishops  assembled  at 
3.  Ecumen-  Aries  (see  Donatism).     These  assem- 
ical        blies  have  been  commonly  considered 

Councils,  as  synods,  and  such  they  were  in  the 
sense  of  being  deliberative  assemblies 
of  bishops;  but  it  is  obvious  that  they  differed  from 
all  previous  synods.  Their  initiative  came  not 
from  the  bishops  but  from  the  emperor,  who  de- 
termined both  the  membership  and  the  place  and 
subject  of  the  discussion,  and  gave  his  authority  to 
the  decisions,  which  were  to  be  authoritative  in 
secidar  law.  They  were  thus  not,  like  the  provin- 
cial synods,  organs  of  free  episcopalrgovemment, 
but  assemblies  for  the  purpose  of  counseling  the 
emperor  as  to  his  decisive  action  in  ecclesiastical 
questions.  These,  however,  and  not  the  provincial 
synods,  were  the  prototypes  of  the  ecumenical 
councils.  Constantine  acted  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  at  the  convocation  of  the  Council  of  Ni- 
cffia.  It  was  his  intention  that  the  Arian  question 
should  be  settled  by  the  coimcil,  and  so  he  took  a 
personal  part  in  the  proceedings;  the  adoption  d 


281 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Connolls  and  Synods 


the  Nicene  formula  was  the  result  of  his  ui^ncy, 
and  he  recognised  it  as  binding  in  law,  imposing 
penalties  on  those  who  refused  to  subscribe  it;  he 
himself  promulgated  the  decision  as  to  the  Easter 
celebration,  and  imposed  its  observance  on  the 
bishops.  Thus,  though  the  Nicene  council  was 
theoretically  a  meeting  of  the  catholic  episcopate, 
and  the  authority  attributed  to  all  synods  might 
be  supposed  to  belong  to  it  in  a  preeminent  de- 
gree, it  was  really  not  an  organ  of  the  self-govern- 
ment of  the  Church,  but  an  aid  to  its  government 
by  the  secular  ruler.  The  following  eciunenical 
councils  were  modeled  on  this  and  bore  the  same 
character.  The  decision  to  convoke  them  origi- 
nated at  the  court,  and  was  always  carried  out  by 
the  secular  authority.  They  met  under  the  presi- 
dency, or  at  least  in  the  presence,  of  imperial  com- 
missaries. Their  decisions  were  submitted  to  the 
emperor  before  publication,  as  occurred  in  the  case 
of  the  dogmatic  decree  of  Chalcedon  (Mansi,  Con- 
cilia,  vii.  117,  136).  He  might  either  confirm  their 
decrees,  as  at  Chalcedon  (Mansi,  vii.  476)  and  Con- 
stantinople (Mansi,  xi.  697,  724),  or  refuse  his 
assent,  as  at  Ephesus  (Mansi,  iv.  1377).  Their  de- 
pendence upon  the  court  increased,  until  Constan- 
tius  could  say  with  brutal  frankness  at  the  Synod 
of  Milan,  "What  I  will,  let  that  be  considered  a 
canon "  (Athanasius,  "  History  of  the  Arians,'' 
xxxiii.).  The  detailed  history  of  the  several  ecu- 
menical councils  will  be  found  in  other  articles  (see 
the  name  of  the  place  of  meeting).  Roman  Catho- 
lic historians  number  eight  in  this  early  period: 
Nictea  I.,  325;  Constantinople  I.,  381;  Ephesus, 
431;  Chalcedon,  451;  Constantinople  XL,  553; 
Constantinople  III.,  680;  Nicsea  II.,  787;  Constan- 
tinople IV.,  869.  But  this  enumeration  is  not  his- 
torically justifiable.  Apart  from  the  facts  that 
the  Constiuitinopolitan  council  of  381  represented 
only  the  Eastern  Empire  [and  that  of  869  is  re- 
jected by  the  Eastern  Church],  those  of  Sardica 
342,  Ephesus  449,  and  Constantinople  754  have 
just  as  much  right  to  the  title  of  ecumenical,  nor 
was  confirmation  lacking  to  the  decrees  of  the  two 
latter.  Their  omission  can  only  be  based  upon  the 
fact  that  later  development  took  a  direction  op- 
posite to  their  conclusions.  The  importance  of  the 
ecimienical  councils  lies  in  their  legislative  activity, 
especially  in  regard  to  doctrine,  which  usually  fui^ 
nished  the  reason  for  their  convocation.  They  dealt 
also  with  many  questions  of  ecclesiastical  organ- 
ization and  private  morality;  but  their  action  as 
a  supreme  judicial  tribunal  is  comparatively  unim- 
portant. Their  excommunications  were  always 
the  consequences  of  their  dogmatic  decrees,  which 
were  considered  infallible  from  the  conception 
of  the  episcopate  as  endowed  with  the  charisma 
verilatia,* 

The  synodal  system  underwent  a  new  develop- 
ment in  the  Teutonic  nationalities  which  arose  on 

^  The  list  of  eetimenical  eoiincils  as  accepted  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  is  as  follows:  1.  NicsBa  I.,  325;  2.  Constanti- 
nople 1.,  381;  3.  Ephesus.  431;  4.  Chalcedon.  461;  5.  Con- 
stantinople 11..  5fi3;  6.  ConsUntinopIe  III.  (First  Trallan), 
680-681;  7.  Nicea  II..  787;  8.  Constantinople  IV..  869;  9. 
Latermn  I.,  1123;  10.  Lateran  II..  1139;  11.  Lateran  III., 
1179;  12.  Lateran  IV.,  1216;  13.  Lyons  I..  1246;  14.  Lyons 
II..  1274;    15.  Vienne.  1311-12;    16.  Constance,    1414-18; 


the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  old  division 
of  ecclesiastical  provinces  had  much  less  impor- 
tance now  than  of  old;  the  larger  unit  of  church 
life  above  the  diocese  was  not  the  metropolitan 

jurisdiction  but  the  national  Church, 

4.  Teutonic  and  the  former  disappeared  entirely 

Synods  of  for  a  time  in  the  Prankish  kingdom. 

the  Early  Moreover,    at   the   beginning   of   the 

Middle      Middle  Ages  the  diocese  was  no  longer 

Ages.       a  town  community  governed  by  the 

bishop  with  a  united  presbytery  about 
him,  but  an  extended  territory  divided  into  a  large 
nflmber  of  coordinate  parishes.  The  relation  of 
the  king,  again,  to  the  Church  was  important. 
Though  not  carrying  such  unlimited  power  as  the 
emperors  had  possessed,  it  was  sufficiently  analo- 
gous to  theirs  for  the  provincial  synod  to  lose 
much  of  its  earlier  importance,  and  to  become  a 
merely  occasional  gathering.  This  was  especially 
the  case  in  the  Prankish  kingdom,  where  in  the 
Merovingian  period  only  a  few  such  synods  are 
heard  of,  and  the  acts  of  only  one  are  extant.  Bon- 
iface asserted  in  742  that  no  synod  had  been  held 
for  more  than  eighty  years;  but  neither  his  efforts 
nor  those  of  Charlemagne  availed  to  alter  the  situa- 
tion materially.  The  case  was  the  same  in  Eng- 
land; the  ancient  provisions  were  not  forgotten, 
but  simply  not  followed. 

Provincial  synods  were  most  frequent  in  Spain, 
as  long  as  the  Visigoths  were  Arian  (Tarragona 
516,  Gerunda  517,  Lerida  524,  Valencia  624, 
Toledo  527,  Barcelona  540).  The  place  of  the 
provincial  synods  was  taken  by  national  coun- 
cils. The  first  of  these  in  the  Prankish  king- 
dom was  called  by  Clovis  at  Orleans  in  511, 
and  they  never  ceased  to  be  held  during  the 
Merovingian  period,  either  for  the  whole  kingdom 
or  one  of  its  divisions.  They  were  distinguished 
from  provincial  synods  by  being  not  regularly  re- 
curring assemblies,  but  meetings  summoned  or  at 
least  sanctioned  by  the  king  for  a  special  purpose. 
Their  decisions  did  not  necessarily  require  royal 
confirmation,  but  the  kings  felt  themselves  at 
liberty  to  alter  or  abrogate  them,  especially  when 
they  overstepped  the  bounds  of  spiritual  adminis- 
tration. After  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century 
they  met  in  the  presence  of  the  king  or  his  repre- 
sentative. The  Burgundian  kingdom  also  had  its 
national  synods  (Epaon  517;  Lyons  517).  It  is 
significant  that  in  Spain  they  b^in  with  the  con- 
version of  Recared  (Toledo  589,  597,  633,  636,  638, 
etc.),  and  seem  at  once  to  have  taken  the  place  of 
the  provincial  synods.  A  peculiarity  here  was 
that  the  magnates  of  the  kingdom  and  the  royal 
officials  were  considered  members.  Only  in  Eng- 
land did  the  national  coimcil  fail  to  acquire  im- 
portance. This  system  lasted,  imchanged  in  es- 
sentials, through  the  whole  first  half  of  the  Middle 
Ages.    The  extension  of  the  empire  under  Charle- 

17.  Basel-Ferrara-Florenoe.  1431-42;  18.  Lateran  V..  1512- 
1517;  19.  Trant.  1545-63;  20.  Vatican.  186^70.  The  6rst 
seven  of  these  are  accepted  by  the  Greeks,  the  others  re- 
jected; they  also  accept  the  Second  Tnillan  Council  or 
Quiniseztum,  602  (rejected  by  the  West),  considerinc  it  a 
continuation  of  the  First  Tnillan  or  Third  Constantinople. 
The  eighth  general  council  of  the  Greeks  was  held  in  Con- 
stantinople in  879  and  rejected  by  the  Latins  (see  Piiotius). 


Oounolla  and  Synods 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


282 


magne  made  these  assemblies  practically  councils 
of  the  entire  West  (Regensburg  792,  Frankfort 
794).  While  adhering  in  essentials  to  the  catholic 
doctrine  and  institutions,  they  allowed  themselves 
a  fairly  wide  latitude  in  their  legislation.  The 
new  diocesan  system  developed  synods  also  for 
each  separate  diocese,  somewhat  on  the  lines  of  the 
primitive  presbyteriumf  presided  over  by  the  bishop 
and  including  the  parish  priests,  abbots,  and  deans 
of  the  diocese.  The  earliest  of  these  were  the  two 
at  Auxerre,  between  573  and  603  and  695,  and 
that  of  Autun,  between  663  and  680.  The  attempt 
was  made  to  establish  the  custom  of  meeting  an- 
nually, but  apparently  without  much  success. 

The  popes  did  not  overlook  the  weight  which 
synodal  decisions  carried;  and  thus,  although  Italy 
waa  never  a  scene  of  much  conciliar  activity,  more 
assemblies  of  this  kind  were  held  in  Rome  imder 
papal  presidency  than  in  any  other  city  of  Chris- 
tendom.    The  position  of  the  popes 

5.  Papal   brought   about   the   participation   in 

Coimcils  them  of  distant  churches.  Julius  I. 
of  the      siunmoned  one  for  the  year  341,  to 

Middle  which  he  bade  the  Eastern  antago- 
Ages.  nists  of  Athanasius.  They  refused  to 
appear;  but  more  than  fifty  bishops 
attended,  including  some  from  Thrace,  CcBle-syria, 
Phenicia,  and  Palestine.  Gallic  bishops  sat  with 
those  of  Italy  in  the  synod  called  by  Damasus  in 
369,  and  similar  gatherings  continued  to  be  held. 
They  were  called  by  the  popes  not  as  patriarchs 
of  the  West,  but  as  successors  of  St.  Peter;  and 
the  papal  sanction  gave  them  high  authority.  The 
importance  of  the  synods  held  by  the  Carolingian 
emperors  north  of  the  Alps  somewhat  diminished 
the  preeminent  authority  of  these  Roman  councils; 
but  a  change  came  with  the  pontificate  of  Leo  IX. 
(1048-54),  who  was  the  first  pope  to  raise  the  papal 
dignity  once  more  after  its  prolonged  humiliation. 
He  made  much  use  of  synods,  and,  not  content 
with  holding  them  in  Rome  and  other  parts  of 
Italy,  presided  in  person  at  the  imperial  synods 
held  in  Germany  and  France.  From  the  middle  of 
the  eleventh  century  the  papal  synods  constantly 
increased  in  importance  and  consideration  (Lateran 
synod  of  1059  under  Nicholas  II.;  1063  under  Alex- 
ander II.;  1074,  1075,  1076,  1078,  1079,  1080,  1083 
under  Gregory  VII.;  1095  at  Piacenza  and  Clermont 
under  Urban  II.;  1119  at  Reims  under  Calixtus 
II.).  The  last  of  these  popes  summoned  the  Lat- 
eran council  of  1123  under  the  name  of  a  general 
council;  but  the  placing  of  it  on  a  level  with  the 
old  ecumenical  ones  came  later  and  gradually;  that 
of  Constance  reckoned  in  this  category  only  three 
modern  councils — Lateran  1215,  Lyons  1274,  and 
Vienne  1311.  Roman  Catholic  theologians  now 
add  to  these  three  more  Lateran  synods  (1123, 
1139,  1179)  and  the  first  of  Lyons,  1245.  These 
had,  it  is  true,  an  authority  in  the  medieval  Church 
answering  to  that  of  the  old  ecumenical  councils 
imder  the  Roman  Empire;  but  they  were  confined 
to  the  papal  obedience,  called  and  presided  over 
by  the  pope,  and  dependent  on  his  sanction  for 
the  validity  of  their  decrees,  so  that  they  were 
merely  orgaiu  for  his  government  of  the  Western 
Chiirch. 


The  beliefs  as  to  the  pope's  position  current  in 

the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  were  shaken 

by  the  Great  Schism,  which  forced 

6.  The  Re-  men  to  seek  an  authority  powerful 
forming  enough  to  restore  unity  even  in  spite 
Coimcils    of  conflicting  claimants  of  the  papacy. 

of  the  Fif-  This  they  thought  they  had  found  in 
teenth      the  general  council,  on  lines  f oreshad- 

Century,  owed  even  in  the  fourteenth  century 
by  Marsilius  of  Padua  and  William  of 
Occam.  At  the  very  outset  of  the  Schism,  after 
the  election  of  Clement  VII.,  the  appeal  to  a  uni- 
versal coimcil  was  heard  (see  Clement  VII.;  Ur- 
ban VI.).  Presently  it  was  taken  up  by  such  in- 
fluential theologians  as  Pierre  d'Ailly  and  Gerson, 
and  became  prevalent.  The  attempt  to  end  the 
Schism  by  the  Council  of  Pisa  (q.v.)  was  indeed  a 
failure,  but  this  did  not  affect  the  belief  in  the 
eflicacy  of  this  method.  The  Council  of  Constance 
(q.v.)  boldly  attempted  to  alter  the  constitution 
of  the  Western  Church  by  the  introduction  of  gen- 
eral councils  as  a  regular  factor  in  its  government, 
to  recur  at  intervals  of  five,  seven,  and  ultimately 
ten  years.  But  the  execution  of  this  plan,  though 
approved  by  the  Council  of  Basel  (q.v.),  was  ren- 
dered impossible  by  the  natural  opposition  of  the 
Curia.  When  Eugenius  IV.  transferred  the  Coun- 
cil of  Basel  to  Ferrara  (see  Ferrara-Florence, 
Council  of),  he  took  his  stand  on  the  principles 
accepted  before  Constance,-  and  logically  declared 
null  and  void,  with  the  assent  of  his  council,  the 
decrees  of  Basel  as  to  the  superiority  of  the  coun- 
cil over  the  pope.  In  the  Lateran  Council  of  1512- 
1517  Leo  X.  struck  a  mortal  blow  at  the  idea  in 
the  bull  Pastor  cBtemus. 

After  this  the  Curia  had  an  unconcealed  distrust 

of  general  coimcils,  and  it  was  only  the  pressure  of 

political  powers  which  led  to  the  reoiganization 

of  Catholicism  after  the  storms  of  the 

7.  Councils  Reformation  by  that  of   Trent    (see 
and  Synods :  Trent,  Council  of).  It  was  only  when 

Modern  the  last  trace  of  opposition  to  imUmited 
Roman  papal  power  disappeared  in  the  nine- 
Catholic  teenth  century  that  this  distrust  was 
System,  finally  lulled,  so  that  Pius  IX.  could 
give  the  world  the  long  imseen  spec- 
tacle of  a  general  council  in  1870  (see  Vatican 
Council).  The  principles  now  accepted  are  that 
these  assemblies  may  only  be  called  by  the  pope 
and  presided  over  by  him  or  his  delegates;  that 
their  membership  is  confined  to  the  cardinals, 
bishops,  vicars  apostolic,  generals  of  religious  or- 
ders, and  such  dignitaries,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
laity;  that  the  subjects  discussed  must  be  laid  be- 
fore them  by  the  pope,  and  their  decisions  con- 
firmed by  him.  They  are  thus  nothing  more  than 
assemblies  of  advisers  about  the  pope,  with  no  in- 
dependent power  of  their  own.  Nor  have  pro- 
vincial synods  any  longer  a  necessary  place  in  the 
polity  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  ordained,  indeed,  that  they  should  be 
held  every  three  years — a  period  which  it  was  pro- 
posed at  the  Vatican  Council  to  extend  to  five — 
but  the  rule  is  not  observed  in  practise.  Much  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  diocesan  synods,  which 
the  Council  of  Trent  required  to  be  held  annually. 


d8d 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Connoils  and  Synods 


The  Reformation  broke  with  all  the  medieval 
ideas  on  the  subject.     Luther  very  early  repudi- 
ated the  belief  in  the  infallibility  of  councils,  and, 
where  Roman  Catholic  theology  had  tended  to  put 
their  decisions  on  a  par  with  the  Writ- 
8.  The      ten  Word,  was  inclined  rather  to  con- 
Synods  of    sider  the  two  opposed,  withdrawing  the 
Protestant-  whole  domain  of  faith,  morals,  and 
ism.  Re-     worship  from  their  legislative  jurisdic- 
formed      tion  and  leaving  them  only  the  duty 
Churches,    of  guarding  against  departures  from 
Scriptural   faith  and   practise.     Thus 
he  considered  them  practically  as  judicial  tribunals, 
in  which  character  they  were  to  be  composed  not 
only  of  bishops  but  also  of  godly  secular  persons. 
From  these  principles,  qb  from  the  emphasis  laid 
on  the  assertion  that  the  Church  needed  to  care 
only  for  preaching  and  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments,  there  was  no  reason  to  expect  that 
any  use  would  be  made  of  a  Reformed  synodal  sys- 
tem in  the  organization  of  the  Lutheran  territorial 
churches;  and   in  their  later  development,  with  a 
few  sporadic  exceptions,  no  such  system  was  con- 
sidered.    In  England  the  synodal  system  of  the 
Middle  Ages  waa  carried  over  into  the  Established 
Church.     But  the  convocations,  after  the  Refor- 
mation as  before,  were  exclusively  clerical  assem- 
blies; and  in  accordance  with  the  doctrine  of  royal 
supremacy  they  were  not  permitted  to  meet  with- 
out the  sovereign's  license,  nor  were  their  decisions 
valid  without  his  assent. 

The  home  of  the  new  synodal  system  was  the 
Reformed  Church,  in  which  questions  of  organiza- 
tion were  regarded  as  of  more  importance  than 
among  the  Lutherans.  The  presbyterial  organ- 
ization established  by  Calvin  at  Geneva  became 
the  model  for  all  the  Reformed  churches.  That  of 
France  was  the  first  to  develop  the  synodal  system 
for  a  national  Church.  At  the  first  national  synod 
(1559)  it  was  resolved  that  no  local  church  should 
have  any  precedence  over  any  other;  that  general 
synods  should  meet  from  time  to  time  as  occasion 
arose,  composed  of  the  ministers  and  one  or  more 
elders  or  deacons  from  each  church,  imder  a  presi- 
dent elected  at  the  meeting;  that  in  each  province 
twice  a  year  the  ministers  and  at  least  one  elder 
or  deacon  from  each  congregation  should  meet  in 
synod.  In  1565  the  composition  of  the  national 
synods  was  changed  to  either  one  or  two  elected 
ministers  and  elders  from  each  provincial  synod. 
These  synods,  of  mixed  clerical  and  lay  character, 
were  charged  with  the  government  of  the  Church. 
On  the  same  lines  proceeded  the  organization  of 
the  Reformed  churches  of  Scotland,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  northwestern  Germany.  The  polity  was 
in  each  case  built  up  on  a  national  basis;  the  idea 
of  completing  it  by  an  international  organization 
seems  to  have  been  unknown,  and  the  Synod  of 
Dort  was  a  mere  isolated  exception. 

The  imperfection  of  the  older  Lutheran  system 
became  more  and  more  obvious  after  the  seven- 
teenth century,  but  the  first  attempts  at  improve- 
ment dealt  with  the  local  churches.  It  was  not 
until  political  changes  gave  occasion  for  reorgani- 
sation in  many  of  the  German  states  that  the  idea 
of  introducing  the  synodal  element  was  taken  up. 


In  1807  Schleiermacher  made   a  proposal   for   a 
new  constitution  of  the  Protestant  Church  in  Prus- 
sia, which  included  the  adoption  of  the 
Q.  Adoption  synodal  system,  and  this  principle  has 
in  the  Ger-  since  been  dominant.     Since  the  rela- 
man  Lu-    tion  of  the  Church  to  the  temporal 
theran      sovereigns  made  it  impossible  simply 
Churches,   to  adopt  the  Reformed  plan,  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  combine  the  syn- 
odal and  the  conslstorial  systems.     In  1817  presby- 
teries were  formed  in  Prussia,  and  the  first  synods 
were  constituted   of  ministers  alone.     Not  much 
came  of  these  attempts  there,  although  they  were 
followed  by  Bavaria  in  1818  and  Baden  in  1821. 
Before  half  a  century  had  passed,  however,  all  but 
a  few  of  the  Lutheran  churches  of  Germany  adopted 
synodal  constitutions,  Warttemberg  1854,  Hanover 
1864,  Saxony  1868,  Prussia  1873-76,  etc.     These 
German  synods  are  not,  like  the  old  Reformed  ones, 
charged  with  the  government  of  the  Church,  but 
are  rather  the  representatives  of  the  Church  with 
the  government.    They  consist  of  both  ministers 
and  laymen,  and  are  chosen  for  the  district  synods 
by  the  congregations,  for  the  provincial  and  na- 
tional synods  by  the  bodies  below.     Owing  to  va- 
rious  causes — ^their   restricted   competence,    their 
infrequent  meetings  (every  four,  five,  or  six  years), 
their  imwieldy   numbers,   and    cumbrous   parlia- 
mentaiy  forms — ^they  have  not  produced  the  re- 
sults that  were  hoped  from  them,  and  can  scarcely 
do  so  unless  the  gift  of  greater  freedom  of  action 
makes    them    really  organs    of    a    self-governing 
Church. 

The  Protestant  emigrants  from  England  to 
America  were  at  first  mostly  Independents,  and  it 
was  not  till  after  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  that  the  number  of  Presbyterians  gradu- 
ally increased.*  The  first  union  of  several  congre- 
gations into  a  presbytery  occurred  in  1705  or  1706, 
and  the  first  synod  met  in  Philadelphia  in  1717 
(see  Presbyterians,  section  on  America).  The 
system  took  firm  root  in  America,  and  was  adopted 

^  [The  first  eettlera  in  Vincinia  (1007)  and  most  of  those 
that  followed  for  a  century  or  more  were  members  of  the 
Established  English  Church.  Althouffh  Puritanical  tenden- 
cies early  appeared,  episcopalian  institutions  long  prevailed. 
The  founders  of  the  Plymouth  colony  (1620)  were  semi- 
Separatists,  and  soon  reached  a  pooition  that  resembled  "  In- 
dependency." The  founders  of  Salem  (1622  onward)  were 
Puritans,  strongly  committed  from  the  first  to  non-conformist 
principlee,  and  early  won  to  essentially  Congregational  prin- 
ciples through  the  influence  of  the  men  of  Plymouth.  The 
Massachusetts  Company  (1628)  were  Puritans,  who  in  leaving 
England  professed  the  warmest  attachment  to  the  Church  of 
England  and  so  were  not  avowed  non-conformists.  They 
early  developed  a  strong  theocratic  and  presbyterial  system. 
In  Axigust,  1637,  a  ssmod  was  held  at  (^mbridge,  consisting 
of  about  twenty-five  ministers,  "  others  sent  by  the  churches," 
and  the  Massachusetts  magistrates,  for  the  suppression  of 
the  antinomian  heresy.  In  1648  "  the  elders  and  meseen- 
gers  of  the  churchra  assembled  at  Cambridge  "  agreed  upon 
*•  A  Platform  of  Church  Discipline/'  which  was  afterward 
adopted  by  the  churches  and  the  General  Court,  in  which  it 
is  declared  that  "  Synods  orderly  assembled,  and  rightly 
proceeding  according  to  the  pattern.  Act.  15,  we  acknowledge 
as  the  ordinance  of  Christ  .  .  .  necessary  to  the  well-being 
of  churches.  .  .  .  Magistrates  have  power  to  call  a  synod. 
...  It  belongeth  unto  synods  and  councils  to  debate  and 
determine  controversies  of  faith  and  eases  of  consdenoe," 
etc.     For   the    councils  of  the  Congregational  Church  aee 

CONOBEOATIONAUSTS,  IV.,   ||  2-3.  A.  H.  N.] 


Oouxudla  and  Synods 
Court 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


284 


with  variations  not  only  by  the  Lutherans  there, 
but  also  by  the  Episcopal  Church.  The  Reformed 
synods  in  America  were  in  the  main 
10.  The  framed  on  the  French  model,  except 
Synodal  that  the  elders  were  chosen  by  the 
Syttem  in  congregations  and  were  considered  as 
America,  representatives  of  the  congregations. 
As  to  the  Lutherans,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  they  came  not  only  from  Germany, but 
also  from  the  Netherlands,  where  the  presbyterial 
system  had  been  in  force  from  the  beginning,  and 
from  Sweden,  which  had  something  of  a  similar 
organization.  But  even  among  the  Germans  the 
fact  that  their  principal  oiganizer,  H.  M.  MQhlen- 
berg  (q.v.),  belonged  to  the  school  of  Spener  and 
organized  his  congregation  with  elders  gave  an 
impulse  toward  the  adoption  of  the  synodal  sys- 
tem. The  first  Lutheran  synod  was  held  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1748,  consisting  of  six  pastors  and  a 
laiger  number  of  lay  delegates  (see  Lutherans). 
After  1760  annual  synods  were  held.  The  Epis^ 
copal  Church,  as  the  daughter  of  the  Church  of 
England,  began  with  the  same  constitution;  but 
the  separation  following  upon  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence forced  it  to  adopt  a  new  organization, 
whose  principles  were  established  in  the  General 
Conventions  of  Philadelphia,  1784,  and  Richmond, 
1785,  both  composed  of  clergy  and  laity  sitting  to- 
gether. The  former  laid  down  the  principle  **  that 
to  make  canons  or  laws  there  be  no  other  author- 
ity than  that  of  a  representative  body  of  the  clergy 
and  laity  conjointly,"  which  has  since  been  fol- 
lowed (see  Protsstant  Episcopal  Church).  See 
Church  Council.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  For  the  ooUaotiona  of  the  Acta  of  Councils 
by  LabM,  Harduin,  Manai,  and  Hefele  see  vol.  i.  of  this 
work.  Preface,  p.  xiz.  The  earliest  oollection  was  by 
J.  Merlin.  ConcUia  oeneralia,  Paris,  1523,  1530.  1536.  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  P.  Grabbe,  ConeUia  omnia  tarn  generalia 
quam  parHcularia,  2  vols.,  Cologne,  1538.  Partial  col- 
lections and  translations  are:  H.  T.  Bruns.  Canone$  aj)09- 
iolorum  ef  eoneUiorum,  Berlin,  1839;  W.  Lambert,  Church 
Canont;  ths  firat  four  CounciU,  London,  1871;  J.  Chrys- 
tal,  AuthorUaUve  ChrisHanUy;  fte  Dociaiona  of  tha  nx 
9oU  ecumenical  CouncilBt  vols.  i.-iii.,  Jersey  City,  1891- 
1904;  J.  Fulton,  Index  eanonum;  Greek  text,  Eng.  tranai., 
and  complete  Digeet  of  the  .  .  .  Canon  Law  of  the  undi- 
vided primiUve  Chureht  New  York,  1892.  A  translation  of 
the  canons  and  decrees  of  the  seven  ecumenical  councils 
is  in  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  vol.  xiv.  The  Acts  of  the  Catholic 
synods  since  1682  are  in  the  Acta  et  decreta  eandorum 
condUorum  reoentiorum,  7  vols.,  Freiburg,  1870  sqq. 

Collections  for  individual  lands  are:  J.  F.  Bchannat  and 
J.  Hartsheim,  Concilia  (Tsrmania,  11  vols.,  Cologne,  1749- 
1790;  MOH,  ConcUia,  vols.  i.-u.  1.  1893-1906;  J.  Sir- 
mond.  ConcUia  antiqua  OaUiiB,  8  vols.,  Paris,  1629;  Con- 
eUiorum  OaUioB  coUectio,  Paris,  1789;  D.  Wilkins,  Conn 
eUia  Maona  Briiannia  et  Hibernim,  4  vols.,  London,  1737; 
E  Gibson,  Synodue  AngUcana,  fb,  1854;  J.  W.  Joyce, 
England'e  Sacred  Synode,  ib.  1855;  Haddan  and  Stubbs, 
CouncUe;  J.  Robertson,  ConeUia  ScoHa,  Edinburgh,  1866; 
Synodicon  Betgicwn,  ed.  J.  F.  van  de  Velde  and  P.  F. 
X.  de  Ram.  4  vols.,  Mechhn,  1828-59;  H.  Reuterdahl, 
Staiuta  eynodalia  veterie  eedeeia  SveogoOiica,  Lund,  1841; 
J.  8.  de  Aguirre  and  J.  Catalano,  CoUeetio  maxima  conr- 
eUiorum  omnium  Hiepania,  Rome,  1753;  C.  Peterfy,  Con- 
eUia ecdeeia  Romana  CathoUca  in  regno  Hungarim,  2 
vols.,  Posen,  1741-42;  J.  Aymon,  Toue  lee  eynodee 
naiionaux  dee  ^lieee  rifarmiee  de  France,  2  vols.,  The 
Hague.  1710;  £.  Hugues,  Lee  Synodee  du  dieert,  8  vols.. 
Pans,  1885. 

Discussions  on  the  subject  are:  F.  Salmon,  TraUS  de 
I'Hude  dee  concUee  et  de  leure  coUecHone,  Paris,  1724  and 
often;  A.  J.  Binterim,  OeechidUe  der  deutedien  .  .  .  Con- 


cUien,  7  vols..  Mains,  1835-48;  W.  A.  Hammcmd.  The 
Deftnitiane  of  Faith  and  Canone  of  Dieeipline  of  the  Six 
(Ecumenical  CouncUe,  Oxford,  1843;  L.  Richta-.  Gc- 
echichte  der  evangeliechen  Kirthenverfaaeung  in  Deutoeh- 
land,  Leipsic  1851;  G.  Lechler.  QeediichU  der  Prethit 
terial-  und  Synodalverfaeeung  eeU  der  ReformaHon,  Ley- 
den.  1854;  J.  F.  von  Schulte.  Die  Stdlung  der  CondUen, 
P&pete  und  BiechOfe  vom  hieUnieehen  und  eanonieeken 
Standpunkte,  Prague,  1871;  E.  Michaud,  Diacumeion  eur 
lee  eept  concUee  teeuminiquee,  Bern,  1878;  E.  B.  Puaey, 
The  CouncUe  of  the  Churdi  from  .  .  .  51  to  .  .  .  S81, 
Oxford,  1878;  E.  Hatch,  The  Growth  of  Church  In*tii»- 
tione,  London.  1887;  idem.  The  Organization  of  the  Early 
Chrietian  Churdtee,  ib.  1895;  H.  Finke.  Konxilionehtdieu 
tur  GeediidUe  dee  IS.  Jahrhunderte,  Munster,  1891;  W. 
Bright,  Notee  on  the  Canone  of  the  Firet  Four  General 
CouncUe,  London,  1892;  E.  H.  Landon,  Manual  of  the 
CouncUe  of  the  Holy  Caiholie  Churd^  2  vols.,  ib. 
1893;  W.  P.  Du  Bose,  The  Ecumcmcal  CouncUe, 
New  York,  1896;  P.  Gudrin,  Lee  ConcUee  giniraux  et 
parHculiere,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1897;  P.  de  Felice,  Lee  Pro- 
teetante  d'auirefoie,  5  vols.,  Peris,  1897-1902;  K.  von 
Schwarts.  Die  Enietehung  der  Synoden,  Leipoic  1896;  H. 
von  Ho£Fmann,  Dae  KirthenverfaeeungeredU  der  nieder- 
Htndiedien  Reformierten,  ib.  1902;  G.  B.  Howard,  Storie* 
of  the  Firet  Four  CouncUe,  London,  1906.  The  subjeet 
is  treated  in  all  the  principal  treatises  on  church  his- 
tory; the  literature  on  the  individual  councils  and  synods 
will  be  found  under  the  articles  dealing  with  them.  A 
valuable  guide  may  be  found  in  Ceillier,  Auieure  eaerea, 
index  volume  under  "  Condles,"  giving  directions  to  a 
rich  literature.  Consult  also  DC  A,  i,  473-485;  KL,  iiL 
779-810. 

COUNTERREFORIIATION:  The  general  name 
for  the  complex  of  causes  and  results  which  from 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  checked  the 
progress  of  the  Protestant  Reformation  and  won 
back  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  much  of  the 
territory  and  the  prestige  which  had  been  appai^ 
ently  lost  to  it;  in  a  narrower  sense,  the  reform  and 
revival  in  the  Roman  Church  which  was  one  of 
these  causes.  See  Reformation;  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church;  Italy,  the  Reformation  in;  Spain, 
THE  Reformation  m;  also  the  articles  upon  the 
events,  leaders,  and  agencies  of  the  Coimterrefor- 
mation  which  are  mentioned  in  these  articles,  as 
well  as  the  articles  devoted  to  the  Oounterref  onna- 
tion  in  certain  lands  and  localities,  viz.:  Albert 
V.  of  Bavaria  (for  Bavaria);  Balthazar  of 
Dernbach  (Fulda);  Cysat,  Ren  ward  (Switaer- 
land);  Daniel,  Elector  of  Mainz  (the  Eichs- 
feld);  Ferdinand  II.  (Austria);  Gerhard  II., 
Elector  of  Cologne  (the  Lower  Rhine);  Innis 
Austria;  Jacob  Christopher,  Bishop  of  Basel 
(Switzerland);  Jacob  of  Eltz  (Archbishopric  of 
Treves);  Julius  Echter  (WUrzburg). 

COURATER,  ca''ra''y6',  PIERRE  FRANCOIS  L£: 
Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Rouen  Nov.  17,^1681;  d. 
in  London  Oct.  17,  1776.  He  became  canon  of  St. 
Genevieve  in  Paris  1697,  presbyter  and  professor 
of  theology  1706,  librarian  of  the  abbey  1711.  He 
was  interested  in  the  reunion  of  the  Anglican  with 
the  Roman  Catholic  Chureh,  and  defended  the 
validity  of  Anglican  orders  in  a  series  of  books 
which  were  fiercely  attacked  by  Gervaise,  Bar- 
douin,  Le  Quien,  and  others,  and  were  formally 
condemned  by  the  French  bishops.  Elncouraged 
and  helped  by  Bishop  Francis  Atterbiuy,  he  went 
to  England  in  1728,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  He  was  excommunicated  in  1728;  neverthe- 
less he  always  professed  to  be  a  true  Roman  Cath- 
olic, although  he  rejected  certain  of  the  alleged 


285 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oonnoils  and  Synods 
Ooort 


superstitions  of  the  Church.  His  works  were  Dis- 
sertation gur  la  validiU  des  ordinations  des  Anglois 
et  star  la  swxessum  des  Piques  de  Viglise  anglicane 
(Brussels,  1723;  Eng.  transL,  by  D.  Williams,  Lon- 
don, 1725  and  1728;  revised  and  corrected,  with 
an  account  of  the  author  and  his  works,  notes, 
etc.,  Oxford,  1844);  Defense  de  la  dissertation  sur 
la  validity  des  ordinations  des  Anglois  (2  vols.,  Brus- 
sels, 1726;  Eng.  transL,  1728);  Relation  historique 
et  apologHiqtie  des  sentiments  et  de  la  conduite  du 
P,  Le  Courayer  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1729);  Swp- 
pUment  attx  deux  ouvrages  fails  pour  la  defense  de 
la  validity  des  ordinations  anglieanes  (Amsterdam, 
1732);  Examen  des  cUfauts  thSologiques  oiL  Von  in- 
dique  Us  moyens  de  les  reformer  (1744);  Didaror 
lions  de  mes  demiers  sentiments  sur  les  diffirens 
dogmes  de  la  religion  (London,  1787;  Eng.  transl., 
1787). 

COURCELLES,  car^'sd'  (CurcelloBus),  ETIENITE 
DE:  Arminian;  b.  at  Geneva  May  2,  1586;  d.  in 
Amsterdam  May  22,  1659.  He  studiied  theology 
under  Calvin  and  Beza,  and  in  Heidelberg,  and  was 
appointed  pastor  at  Bois-le-Roi,  near  Fontaine- 
bleau,  in  1614.  In  1621  he  became  pastor  at 
Amiens;  but,  having  refused  to  subscribe  the  de- 
crees of  the  Syuod  of  Dort,  he  was  deposed.  He 
afterward  gave  a  qualified  assent,  and  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Vitry,  but  gave  up  this  position 
in  1634,  went  to  Amsterdam,  and  became  (1637) 
Episcopius'  successor  as  professor  of  theology  in 
the  Remonstrants'  College.  He  studied  particu- 
larly the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
published  an  edition  of  it  with  many  variant  read- 
ings (Amsterdam,  1658).  He  published  also  a 
Vindicia  Arminii  (1646);  Defensio  Blondelli  (1657); 
Dissertationes  (1659);  all  of  which,  with  others  of 
his  writings,  appeared  in  a  collected  edition  of  his 
works  at  Amsterdam,  1675. 

COURT,  cilr,  AITTOINE:     1.  Reorganizer  of  the 
Reformed  Church  in  France;  b.  at  Villeneuve  de 
Berg  (50  m.  n.  of  Nimes)  Mar.  17,  1696;  d.  at 
Lausanne  June  12,   1760.    He  determined  at  an 
sarly  age  to  become  a  Protestant  minister,  and 
wandered  throughout  Vivarais  with  an  itinerant 
preacher,   delivering  sermons  and  becoming  still 
more  firmly  convinced  of  his  calling.     In  1714-15, 
defying  the  rigid  laws  promulgated  against  Prot- 
estantism by  Louis  XIV.,  he  undertook  his  first 
tour,  which  comprised  C^vennes,  Languedoc,  and 
Dauphin^.     On  Mar.  8,  1716,  an  edict  of  the  king 
declared  Protestantism  non-existent  in  France,  but 
on  Aug.  21  of  the  same  year  Court 
Labon  in  convened  the   "  first  synod "  in  an 
Organizing  abandoned  quarry  at  Monoblet  (De- 
Church  of  partment    of    Gud).    There    certain 
Desert,     plans  of  organization  were  dra^  :i  up, 
elders  were  chosen,  the  Bible  was  de- 
clared to  be  the  only  rule  of  faith  and  doctrine, 
women  were  forbidden  to  preach,  and  an  earnest 
warning  was  made   against   "  revelations."    The 
rraolutions  were  disseminated  in  writing,  and  the 
work  of  propaganda  was  actively  carried  on,  while 
Court,  who  held  a  second  synod  in  the  following 
year,  was  unceasing  in  his  sermons  and  efforts  to 
obtain  religious  books  forbidden  by  the  author- 


ities. On  Nov.  21,  1718,  he  was  ordained  minis^ 
ter  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  Pierre  Carri^re 
(commonly  known  under  the  name  of  Corteis),  and 
now  made  provision  for  the  training  of  young 
preachers,  although  the  administration  of  the 
sacrament  and  the  laying  on  of  hands  were  re- 
stricted to  the  ordained  ministers.  The  organisa- 
tion thus  effected  was  termed  "  the  Church  of  the 
Desert "  (with  reference  to  Rev.  xiL  6),  and  was 
characterized  by  vigorous  opposition  to  Roman 
Catholicism. 

The  hostility  manifested  by  Louis  XIV.  to  the 
Reformed  worship  was  continued  by  the  regency 
after  his  death,  and  its  observance  was  sternly 
punished.  In  1719  it  was  rumored  that  the  Span- 
ish minister  Alberoni  intended  to  call  the  Protes- 
tants of  Languedoc  and  Poitou  to  arms,  and  the 
regency,  in  its  fear  of  a  second  Camisard  revolt, 
entered  into  correspondence  with  Court 
Successful  as  well  as  with  B4n6dict  Pictet  and 
Leadership.  Benjamin  Basnage,  urging  them  to  ad- 
monish their  coreligionists  of  their  obe- 
dience. Basnage  responded,  but  denied  that  the 
Protestants  had  the  right  to  hold  services  publicly. 
He  was  answered  by  Court  in  his  R&ponse  des  pas- 
teurs  du  disert  d  Vinstruction  pastorale  de  Basnage, 
but  the  latter's  hope  of  securing  greater  leniency 
for  the  Protestants  was  disappointed.  In  1720  he 
visited  Geneva,  where  he  sought  to  win  the  leaders 
of  Swiss  Protestantism  to  his  side,  and  at  the  same 
time  entered  into  correspondence  with  William 
Wake,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Returning  in 
Aug.,  1722,  he  found  his  church  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  but  a  decree  of  May  14,  1724,  renewed 
all  the  restrictions  placed  upon  Protestantism. 
The  Reformed,  however,  persisted  in  their  course, 
and  on  May  16,  1726,  a  general  synod  was  held  in 
a  small  valley  of  Vivarais.  The  organization  pre- 
vailing in  Languedoc  was  adopted,  synods  were 
required  at  regular  intervals,  and  definite  parishes 
were  assigned  the  clergy.  A  docmnent  of  the 
latter  half  of  1728  gives  the  number  of  Reformed 
in  Languedoc  and  Dauphin^  at  200,0(X)  (which  is 
probably  too  high).  Languedoc,  together  with 
Rouergue  and  Vivarais,  contained  120  parishes, 
three  synods,  sixteen  conferences,  four  ministers, 
and  eighteen  candidates,  and  this  organization  was 
maintained  in  the  face  of  the  utmost  difficulty  and 
danger.  Until  1729  Court  shared  this  life  of  toil, 
acting  not  only  as  pastor  but  as  leader  of  the  en- 
tire movement,  in  addition  to  maintaining  an  enor- 
mous correspondence,  instructing  candidates  for 
the  ministry,  convening  synods,  preparing  memo- 
rials for  the  king,  and  collecting  docimients  for  a 
history  of  his  churcL  In  September  of  that  year 
he  resolved  to  leave  France,  and  accordingly  went 
to  Lausanne,  where  for  three  years  French  stu- 
dents had  been  trained  for  the  ministry  in  their 
native  coimtry.  Under  his  supervision,  although 
he  occupied  no  fixed  position  in  it,  the  seminary 
steadily  increased  in  numbers  and  efficiency. 
Meanwhile  a  schism  arose  which  divided  the  church 
of  Languedoc  into  two  camps,  and  on  June  2, 
1744,  Court  left  Geneva  and  hastened  to  France. 
There  he  quickly  restored  harmony  and  was  chosen 
general  deputy  in  place  of  Duplan  by  the  national 


Ooort 
OoTsnant 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


286 


synod  of  June  18,  1744.  On  Oct.  2  he  returned 
to  Lausanne.  In  that  year  the  Reformed  Church 
contained  thirty-three  pastors;  Normandy  had 
seventeen  parishes,  Poitou  thirty,  and  Dauphin^ 
sixty;  and  in  Nimes  there  were  20,000  believers. 
In  1756  the  number  of  clergy  was  forty-eight,  in 
addition  to  eighteen  candidates  and  fifteen  stu- 
dents; and  in  1763  there  were  sixty-two  ministers, 
thirty-five  candidates,  and  fifteen  students.  De- 
spite executions,  imprisonments,  fines,  dragonades, 
and  the  reenforcement  of  all  the  old  restrictions, 
it  became  evident  that  such  measures  could  not 
overthrow  the  church,  and  a  period  of  tacit  tol- 
eration prevailed  from  1754  to  1760.  The  final 
years  of  Court's  life  were  passed  in  quiet  retire- 
ment, far  from  this  scene  of  struggle.  Though  he 
was  a  prolific  writer,  the  library  of  Geneva  con- 
taining 116  volimies  of  his  manuscripts,  his  only 
published  work  of  value  was  his  Histoire  des  trovr 
Ues  dea  Civenne8f  ou  de  la  guerre  des  Camiaards 
(ViUefranche,  1760). 

2.  Antoine  Court  de  Gebelin,  the  only  son  of  the 
preoBding,  wu  bom  at  Ntmes  Jan.  25,  1725,  and 
died  at  Paris  May  10,  1784.  After  completing  his 
education  at  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  he  was  0]> 
dained  in  the  former  city  (1754),  but  never  held 
a  regular  charge.  He  acted  as  secretary  and  as- 
sistant to  his  father,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter 
became  his  informal  successor.  His  life  was  de- 
voted partly  to  the  duties  of  his  office  and  partly 
to  scientific  studies.  The  Calas  affair  in  1762, 
which  created  great  excitement  among  the  Prot- 
estants of  France  (see  Rabaut,  Paul),  inspired 
Court  to  publish  his  Les  Touiouaainea,  ou  lettrea 
histariquea  et  apolog^Hquea  en  faveur  de  la  religion 
Tiformie  (Edinburgh,  1763),  but  Voltaire,  who  had 
been  a  leader  in  the  agitation,  disapproved  of  the 
work,  and  Court  in  anger  left  Lausanne.  After  a 
tour  of  southern  France,  he  settled  in  Paris,  where . 
he  soon  gained  great  popularity  and  in  1765  was 
appointed  general  deputy  by  the  Protestants. 
About  1780  he  was  made  royal  censor,  and  availed 
himself  of  his  double  position  to  ameliorate  the 
miseries  of  the  Protestants.  His  fame  as  a  scholar 
was  established  in  1773  by  the  first  volume  of  his 
Le  Monde  primitif  analyai  et  compart  avec  le  monde 
modeme  (9  vols.,  Paris,  1773-84),  a  learned  but 
capricious  attempt  to  discover  the  original  lan- 
guage and  alphabet,  and  to  give  an  allegorical  in- 
terpretation of  mythology,  as  well  as  of  Greek  and 
French  etymologies,  and  the  like.  He  also  wrote 
Lettre  eur  le  magniiiame  animal  (1784)  and  the  pos- 
thimious  Devovra  du  'prince  et  du  citoyen  (1789),  and 
collaborated  on  the  Affairea  d'Angleterre  et  de 
VAmMque,  a  magazine  edited  by  Benjamin  Frank- 
Un  and  others  (Antwerp,  1776  sqq.). 

(Theodob  ScHont.) 

Bibuoobapht:  B.  Hucoet,  Anion  Court,  Hi^oire  de  la 
ntlawraUon  du  vroto&tanHomo  on  Pranee  ou  xviiio.  oiieU, 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1872  (the  ehief  work);  idem,  MSmoirea 
d'Antoine  Court,  Toulouae,  1886  (autobiography);  A. 
Coquerel,  Hioloiro  doo  HHitoo  du  dSaert,  2  yob.,  Paris,  1841 
(still  of  value);  P.  Rabaut,  Let  Uttrea  h  A.  Court,  ed.  A. 
Picherol-Dardier  and  C.  Dardier,  ib.  1886;  ib.  Le»  Uttrea  h 
divert,  ed.  C.  Dardier,  ib.  1891;  T.  Bohott,  Die  Kirche  der 
WiUU,  HaUe.  1803;  H.  M.  Baird,  Tho  HuguonoU  and  the 
RovooaHon  of  the  Edict  of  NantoB,  vol.  ii..  New  York.  1895 
(from  tb«  newett  aouroes);  E.  Oombe,  Anton  Court  et  sea 


aermone,  Lausanne,  1896.  The  BvUeHn  de  la  aoeUU  dt 
Vhidokre  du  proteetantiame  fran^ia  contains  many  notices 
of  Oourt  and  his  times. 

Concerning  Corteis  consult  J.  G.  Baum,  Minurirea  de 
Pierre  CarrUre  dU  Corteia,  Strasburg,  1871.  On  Roger. 
D.  Benoit,  Un  martur  du  dSaert,  Jaequea  Roger,  Toulouae. 
1896.  On  Oourt  de  Gebelin  consult  C.  Dardier,  Court  de 
Oebelin,  Ntmes,  1896  (an  acute  study). 

COUSIN,  cQ"zah',  VICTOR:  Phfloeophcr;  b.  in 
Paris  Nov.  28,  1792;  d.  at  Cannes  Jan.  14,  1867. 
He  studied  at  the  £cole  Nonnale  in  Paris,  and  be- 
gan to  lecture  on  philosophy  there  and  at  the  Sor- 
bonne  1815.  In  1821  he  was  removed  for  political 
reasons,  and  during  the  next  seven  years  gave  him- 
self to  study,  and  produced  the  first  volume  of  his 
Fragmena  phUoaophiqtiea  (1826),  his  editions  of 
Proclus  (6  vols.,  1820-27;  2d  ed.,  1864)  and  Des- 
cartes (U  vols.,  1824-26),  and  began  his  transla- 
tion of  Plato  (13  vols.,  1822-40).  In  1828  he  was 
reinstated  and  for  three  years  lectured  to  large 
audiences.  After  the  Revolution  of  1830  he  be- 
came councilor  of  state,  peer  of  France,  director 
of  the  £cole  Normale,  member  of  the  Academy, 
member  of  the  council  of  public  instruction,  and 
minister  of  public  instruction  in  the  cabinet  of 
Thiers  in  1840.  He  was  the  real  head  of  the  uni- 
versity,  and  for  nearly  twenty  years  dominated  the 
teaching  of  philosophy  in  France;  he  also  reor- 
ganized the  French  primary  school  system.  The 
downfall  of  Louis  PUlippe  in  1848  made  an  end 
of  his  political  career,  and  the  remainder  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  quiet,  devoted  to  study  and  the  col- 
lection of  a  remarkable  library,  wbdch  he  left  at 
his  death  to  the  professors  of  the  university. 

Cousin's  direct  influence  on  Christian  theology 
was  not  great,  but  indirectly  his  activity  was  of 
consequence.  He  changed  the  character  of  French 
philosophy,  and  led  its  students  from  the  materi- 
alism of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  idealism  of 
the  Scotch  school.  Furthermore,  he  made  an  end 
of  the  dogmatic  method  of  the  French  and  Scotch 
philosophy  and  introduced  the  dialectic  method  of 
German  philosophy.  He  was  an  eclectic  and  did 
not  produce  a  complete  system,  but  his  eclecti- 
eism  was  not  a  mere  mosaic.  The  vigorous  under- 
standing and  vivid  representation  of  the  various 
philosophical  systems  which  he  gives  are  every- 
where permeated  by  a  spirit  of  idealism,  which,  in 
the  latter  part  of  tJs  life,  drew  him  and  his  pupils 
nearer  and  nearer  to  Christianity. 

His  literary  activity  was  great.  His  writings  on 
philosophy  appeared  in  many  editions  with  ex* 
tensive  changes;  the  following  works  and  editions 
are  named  as  important  for  the  study  of  his  sys- 
tem: Fragmena  phUoaophiquea  (4  vols.,  1847-48); 
Uhiatoire  gHUrale  de  la  phihaopkie  (1861);  Du 
vrai,  du  beau  et  du  hien  (1867);  Coura  de  Vhistoin 
de  la  phUoaophie  modeme  (8  vols.,  1866).  He  ed- 
ited the  works  of  Abelard  (Quvragea  inidita  ^AU- 
lard,  1836;  Petri  Abelardi  opera,  2  vols.,  184^ 
1859).  In  the  latter  period  of  his  life  he  published 
several  studies  of  the  lives  of  women  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  their  time  (Jacqueline  Pascal, 
1844;  Mme.  de  Longueville,  1853;  Mme.  de  Haute- 
fort,  1866;  La  SocUU  fran^iae  au  xviL  aikie,2 
vols.,  1858;  and  others),  which  have  much  h»- 
torical  and  literary  value.    Certain  writmgB  cod- 


287 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Court 
Govenant 


oeming  education,  as  a  report  upon  the  schools  of 
Gennany  (1833)  and  Holland  (1837),  are  also 
worthy  of  mention.  These  reports  and  some  of  his 
essays  have  been  translated  into  English;  also  The 
Philosophy  of  the  Beautiftd  by  J.  C.  Daniel  (Lon- 
don, 1848);  and  Course  oj  the  History  of  Modem 
Philosophy  (2  vols.)  and  Lectures  on  the  True,  the 
Beautiful,  and  the  Good  by  O.  W.  Wight  (Edin- 
burgh, 1852  and  1854). 

Bibuoobaprt:  Sir  William  Hamilton  ("  the  aoutest  eritio 
of  Cousin's  philosophy "),  Diaaunona  on  Phitoaophy^ 
LUeratun,  EdueaHon,  and  Univeraity  Rafcrm^  London, 
1852  (the  first  articlb  is  a  review  of  Cousin);  P.  Janet, 
Victor  Couain  et  aon  ctuvre,  Paris,  1885;  J.  Simon,  Victor 
Couain,  ib.  1887.  Eng.  transl..  London,  1887;  J.  B.  St.  Hi- 
laire.  Victor  Couain,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1805. 

COUSSIRAT,  cas"st''ra',  DANIEL:  Canadian 
Presbyterian;  b.  at  N^rac  (66  m.  s.e.  of  Bordeaux), 
France,  Mar.  6,  1841;  d.  at  Montreal  Jan.  8,  1907. 
He  was  graduated  at  Toulouse  in  1859,  and.  at  the 
theologi^  seminary  at  Montauban  1864;  was 
stated  supply  to  the  Reformed  Church  at  Bellocq 
(Basses-F^^n^es)  1864;  pastor  of  the  French 
Evangelical  C)hurch  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1864-66; 
professor  of  divinity  in  Montreal,  Canada,  1867-75; 
pastor  of  a  Reformed  church  at  Orthez  (Basses- 
Pyr^n^es)  1875-80.  After  1880  he  was  French  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  Presbyterian  College  in 
Montreal,  and  professor  of  Semitic  languages  and 
literatures  in  McGill  University  after  1882.  In 
1885  he  founded  the  Soci^t^  musicale  et  litt^raire 
de  Montrtol,  and  was  an  officier  do  I'instruction 
publique.  Theologically  his  position  was  evangel- 
ical, and  he  felt  no  fear  of  either  higher  or  lower 
criticism.  He  was  one  of  the  revisers  of  the  French 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Sociitd  Biblique  de  France  (Paris,  1881). 

COVENANT. 

Original  Meaning  of  the  Terms  ((  1)> 
Historic  Development  of  the  Meaning  (|  2). 
Covenant  Ceremonies  and  Symbols  (|  3). 
Religion  as  a  Covenant  (|  4). 
Provisions  and  Sanctions  (ft  5). 
Prophetic  Development  of  the  Conception  (|  6). 
Later  Phases  of  the  Conception  ($7). 
Covenant  in  the  New  Testament  ($  8). 

The  term  "  covenant  "  (Hebr.  bhith,  cf.  Assyrian- 
Babylonian  birit,  "  bond,  fetter,"  probably  intro- 
duced into  Canaan  during  the  long  Babylonian 
occupation  of  the  "  Westland  ";  Gk.  diaihekS,  "  will, 
testament  **)  is  one  of  the  most  significant  in  the 
whole  range  of  Biblical  literature  as  well  as  in  busi- 
ness, social,  political,  and  religious  re- 
1.  Original  lations.     From    the    primary    signifi- 
Meaningof  cations  given  above  all  the  historical 
the  Terms,  applications  of  the  word  are  readily 
drawn.     Not  all,  indeed  not  most  of 
these,  are  implied  in  the  English  "  covenant,"  which 
generally  applies  to  a  contract  between  two  parties 
acting  freely,  while  both  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek 
words  may  be  used  of  anything  binding  upon  the 
two  parties  to  any  transaction,  whether  the  terms 
•are  accepted  voluntarily  or  imposed  by  one  of  the 
parties  or  by  another.    The  use  of  the  Greek  dia- 
theki  in  the  sense  of  "  covenant "  in  the  Septiiagint 
and  New  Testament  is  due  to  the  usage  of  bMth, 
as  indicated  above,  including  the  disposals  of  the 


divine  covenants  (cf.  the  word  ''  will "  as  suggest- 
ing the  essential  character  of  a  testament  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  testator).  In  classical  Greek  the 
word  is  very  rarely  employed  in  the  sense  of  a  con- 
tract or  agreement. 

The  historical  development  of  the  Hebrew  word 
which  determined  the  usage  of  the  Greek  must  be 
the  chief  guide  in  determining  what 
2.  Historic  the  Bible  means  by  **  covenant." 
Develop-  Originally  the  b^rtth  was  an  agreement 
ment  of  the  between  two  clans  or  tribes  represented 
Meaning,  by  their  leaders,  and  also  between  in- 
dividuals for  themselves.  Such  were 
the  terms  of  peace  between  Isaac  and  Abimelech, 
(Gen.  xxvi.  28  sqq.)  or  between  Laban  and  Jacob 
(Gen.  zxxi.  44)  which  also  bound  their  respective 
families  and  dependents.  Such  also  was  the  trans- 
action, really  a  primitive  tribal  affair,  between  She- 
chem  and  the  sons  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxiv.),  where, 
however,  the  word  for  covenant  is  not  directly  used. 
The  main  object  of  such  early  agreements  was  the 
promotion  of  peace  and  safety,  since  the  natural 
condition  of  primitive  man  was  that  of  warfare. 
Hence  the  significance  of  the  phrase  "  covenant  of 
peace  "  (Num.  xxv.  12;  Isa.  liv.  10)  for  which  the 
word  "  peace  "  alone  may  be  used  (Jer.  xvi.  5), 
accordingly  those  who  were  not  at  war  with  one 
another  were  supposed  to  be  imder  a  covenant  of 
peace;  hence  breaking  a  covenant  is  equivalent  to 
making  war  (I  Kings  xv.  19;  A.  V.,  *'  league  "). 
So  one  could  be  in  covenant  with  the  beasts  and 
with  the  stones  of  the  field  (Job  v.  23,  A. V.,  "league" 
that  is,  with  the  superhuman  powers  resident  therein 
(cf.  Hos.  ii.  18).  Ck)venants  were  made  for  mutual 
support  or  protection  (e.g.,  II  Sam.  iii.  12-13),  or 
for  the  fulfilment  of  common  obligations  to  a  third 
party  (II  Kings  xi.  17);  even  submission  to  a  su- 
perior enemy  might  be  called  making  a  covenant 
(I  Sam.  xi.  1),  in  which  case  also  both  parties  were 
of  course  obligated  (I  Kings  xx.  34).  And,  gener- 
ally speaking,  duties,  obligations,  or  services  required 
of  his  subjects  or  servants  by  a  sovereign,  suzerain, 
or  feudal  ford  might  be  the  subject  of  a  covenant 
because  they  were  imposed  by  the  superior  under 
certain  conditions.  This  is  the  key  to  the  prevailing 
use  of  the  word  "  covenant  "  in  the  Bible,  which 
was  natiuiilly  religious,  as  setting  forth  the  relations 
between  God  and  his  people. 

There  were  many  kinds  of  covenant  among  an- 
cient peoples,  as  well  as  various  modes  of  ratifying 
them.     And,  just  as  ail  covenants  have  the  one 
essential  condition  or  object  of  a  mutual  under- 
standing and  obligation,  so,  as  seems  probable,  all 
ceremonies  confirming  the  agreements  are  based 
upon  one  fundamental  notion,  that  of 
3*  Covenant  a  community  of  feeling  or  sentiment 
Ceremonies  between  the  parties.     This  naturally 
and        implied  among  primitive  men  the  con- 
Symbols,     ception  of  a  community  of  life — ^the 
participants  were  for  the  time  being 
members  of  the  same  community  of  clan  or  "  life." 
Most  prominent  therefore  among  such  ceremonies 
was  the  well-known  ceremony  of  the  blood-covenant 
(see  Comparative  Religion,  VI.,  1,  b,  §  6).    As  a 
substitute  for  the  mixing  of  the  blood  came  the 
natural  and  universal  usage  of  animal  sacrifice, 


Covenant 
Covenantars 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


288 


which  was  always  a  most  solemn  method  of  ratifying 
a  covenant;  note  how  its  sacredness  is  implied  in 
Ps.  1.  5.  An  elaborate  symbolism  in  the  develop- 
ment of  this  rite  is  shown  in  the  custom  of  cutting 
the  animal  in  pieces,  between  which,  when  laid  out, 
the  parties  solemnly  passed  (Gen.  xv.;  cf.  Jer.  zxxiv. 
18,  19).  This  ceremony  is  supposed  by  many  to 
explain  the  word  hlhrith  as  being  something  "  cut,'' 
but  its  obvious  secondary  character  makes  the 
hypothesis  improbable.  In  another  main  direction 
the  primary  notion  of  sharing  a  common  feeling  or 
life  is  symbolized  by  the  partaking  of  common  food 
— ^the  most  convenient  and  frequent  of  all  forms  of 
covenant-making,  from  the  "  covenant  of  salt  "  to 
a  solemn  sacramental  meal  (see  Comparative  Rs>- 
LiGiON,  VI.,  1,  d,  §  1).  Both  of  these  comprehen- 
sive types  are  also  present  in  the  covenant  made 
between  God  and  man,  since  in  every  sacrifice  the 
blood  or  life  of  the  victim  was  presented  to  God,  as 
also  at  every  meal  a  portion  of  the  animal  or  vege- 
table partaken  of  was  also  dedicated  to  him.  Both 
forms  are  exemplified  in  their  deepest  significance 
in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

"  Religion  "  means  literally  the  bond  that  unites 
man  to  God,  and  this  is  precisely  the  Biblical  con- 
ception of  religion  which  is  constantly  represented 
as  the  observance  of  a  covenapt  with  Yahweh. 

The  dedication  of  the  nation  to  the 

4.  Religion  service  of  God  at  Sinai  is  figured  thus: 

as  a        ''  that  thou  shouldst  enter  into  the 

Covenant   covenant   of  Yahweh  thy  God,  and 

into  his  oath  which  Yahweh  thy  God 
makethwith  thee  this  day  "  (Deut.  xxix.  12;  cf.  Jer. 
ii.  2,  6,  xxxi.  31).  To  be  estranged  from  God  and 
his  service  is  to  "  forsake  "  or  "  foiget  "  or  "  break  " 
or  "  profane  "  or  "  transgress  "  the  covenant  (Gen. 
xvii.  14;  Deut.  iv.  23,  31,  xxix.  25,  xxxi.  20;  Mai. 
ii.  10;  Hos.  viii.  1).  Similar  is  the  conception  of 
God's  own  fidelity  to  the  covenant  which  he  has 
imposed  (Judges  ii.  1;  Deut.  xxxi.  16;  Ps.  Ixxxix. 
34;  cf.  Jer.  xxxiii.  20-21).  Fulfilling  the  duties  of 
practical  life  as  well  as  the  obligation  of  worship 
is  called  *'  keeping  the  covenant  "  (Ps.  ciii.  18;  Isa. 
Ivi.  4). 

The  provisions  and  sanctions  of  the  covenant  are 
contained  or  smnmarized  in  the  **  laws "  which 
were  at  various  times  promulgated  in  Israel. 
This  was  necessarily  so  for  two  reasons.  On  the 
one  hand,  a  covenant  is  not  merely  a  theoretical 

conception,  but  is  concretely  an  actual 

5.  Pro-      engagement  made  upon  explicit  con- 

visionaand   ditions;    and  these  conditions  as  dio- 

Sanctiona.    tated  by  Yahweh  were  the  obligations 

or  rules  of  his  service,  which  answer 
to  the  abstract  term  "  covenant  "  as  the  concrete 
commandments  or  statutes  answer  to  the  abstract 
torah  or  "  Law."  On  the  other  hand,  conversely, 
"  the  covenant  was  the  only  form  in  which  a  law 
could  be  fashioned  and  sanctioned  in  Israel " 
(Smend).  Hence  the  earliest  legislation  (Ex,  xxi.- 
xxiii.)  is  called  "  the  book  of  the  covenant  "  (Ex. 
xxiv.  7)  and  the  ten  commandments  of  Ex.  xxxiv. 
are  called  **  the  words  of  the  covenant,  the  ten 
words  "  (Ex.  xxxiv.  28).  It  is  not  certain  that  this 
codification  and  its  comments  were  completed  be- 
fore the  reign  of  llanasseh;  but  the  idea  had  long 


been  familiar,  and  in  the  Jehovistic  and  Elohistic 
writings  of  the  ninth  and  eighth  centuries  b.c.  a 
covenant  between  God  and  the  fathers  (Gen.  xv. 
18;  cf.  xxiv.  7,  from  J)  is  so  taken  for  granted  that 
its  extension  to  Moses  and  Israel  in  the  law  of  Sinai 
is  the  natural  sequel. 

It  is  through  the  Deuteronomistic  writers  that 
this  conception  of  the  covenant  by  law  and  precept 
has  obtained  widest  currency.  Although  the  word 
itself  occurs  only  once  (xvii.  2)  in  the  legislation 
proper  of  Deuteronomy  (chaps.  xii.-xxvi.),  it  is 
found  more  often  in  the  book  as  a  whole  than  in 
any  other  of  the  Old  Testament  writings.    Next  in 

frequency  of  use  are  the  prophecy  of 

6.  Prophetic  Jeremiah,  whom  one  might  venture  to 

Develop-    call  a  mediator  of  the  Old  Covenant, 

ment  of  the  and  in  the  Psalms,  where  its  hold  on 

Conception,  the  thought  and  life  of  the  later  Israel 

receives  practical  illustration.  In 
Deuteronomy  not  only  are  the  *'  ten  words  "  called 
"  covenant,"  but  they  are  said  to  have  been  written 
on  two  tablets  of  stone  and  placed  in  an  ark  (v.  2, 
ix.  9  sqq.,  x.  1  sqq.;  cf.  Ex.  xxxii.  15-16,  xxxiv.  1, 
probably  influenced  by  D).  Thus  the  covenant 
was  incorporated  into  the  religious  life  of  Israel  as 
centered  in  the  Temple.  It  is  in  Jeremiah  and  his 
pupil  Ezekiel  that  the  prophetic  conception  of 
bhith  attains  its  consmnmation.  It  is  still  a  matter 
of  dispute  whether  Jeremiah  was  the  author  of  the 
great  prophecy  cL  xxxi.  31-34.  But  all  will  admit 
that  it  is  written  in  his  spirit  and  that  "  the  new 
heart "  is  a  mere  adaptation  of  his  preaching  (cf. 
xiii.  23,  xvii.  9-10)  about  the  essential  moral  bent 
of  the  human  soul.  In  his  most  profound  words 
exists  in  any  case  the  germ  of  the  "  new  covenant." 
Ezekiel,  who  is  less  set  on  the  fundamental  impor- 
tance of  righteousness  or  morahty,  develops  on  the 
other  hand  the  idea  of  the  covenant  as  a  union  be- 
tween Yahweh  and  his  people  on  the  metaphorical 
basis  of  the  marriage  relation.  Thus  he  completes 
and  reenforoes  Hosea's  germinal  conception  of  the 
marriage-bond  as  a  symbol  of  the  love  and  fidelity 
which  Israel  owed  to  Yahweh  as  contrasted  with 
the  Baals,  which  the  earlier  prophet  had  not  asso- 
ciated with  the  national  covenant  between  Yahweh 
and  Israel. 

By  the  second  Isaiah  the  covenant  was  projected 
from  the  sphere  of  preaching  into  the  realm  of 
prediction  (e.g.,  Isa.  xlii.  6,  xlix.  8,  Iv.  4).  In  the 
course  of  the  prophetic  history  the  primary  con- 
ception of  the  covenant  as  a  body  of  precepts  had 
gradually  given  way  to  its  interpretation  as  a  living 

bond  of  union  between  Yahweh  and 
7.  Later     his  people  and  a  guaranty  of  his  faith- 
Phases  of    fulness  to  his  guardian  trust.     Henoe 
the  Con-    the  restoration  of  the  kingdom  founded 
caption,     by  David  comes  to  be  an  animating 

principle  of  religious  patriotism  in  the 
closing  years  of  the  exile  and  the  inspiration  of  the 
builders  of  Jerusalem  during  the  many  weary  3^ear9 
that  followed  the  return  under  Gyrus,  the  Messiah  of 
Yahweh  (cf.  Hagg.  ii.  5).  Next  to  the  practical 
reflections  of  the  Psalms  the  latest  writings  on  the 
covenant  are  those  of  the  priestly  narratives,  which 
describe  in  detail  the  earliest  covenants:  that  with 
Noah  (Gen.  ix.  9-17;    cf.  Isa.  liv.  9)  replaced  by 


289 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oovenant 
Govenanters 


that  with  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.)  as  preceding  and 
preparing  for  the  rise  and  progress  of  Israel  as  the 
people  of  Yahweh.  In  still  later  times  this  cove- 
nant with  the  fathers  was  most  frequently  in  the 
minds  of  fiiblical  writers  as  the  foundation-stone  of 
the  whole  structure  of  Israel's  religious  history,  at- 
tested as  it  was  by  the  mark  and  sign  of  circumci- 
sion. Soy  for  example,  in  the  Psalms  (e.g.,  cv.  6 
sqq.;  I  Chr.  xvi.  16  sqq.;  Neh.  ix.  8). 

The  New  Testament  writers  in  their  few  allusions 
to  the  ancient  covenants  refer  in  the  same  way  to 
that  made  with  Abraham.  So  Paul  in  Gal.  iii. 
makes  this  fundamental  and  practically  exclusive, 
the  Law  of  Sinai,  and  still  more  the 
8.  Covenant  mediatorial  work  of  Christ,  being  its 
in  the  Ne^  realization  and  fulfilment.  In  the 
Testament,  realm  of  his  practical  theology  the 
most  fruitful  idea  was  that  which  saw 
in  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  the  ratification  of 
the  promise  that  in  Abraham  ail  the  nations  of  the 
earth  should  be  blessed.  The  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, a  priestly  work,  while  it  uses  the  promise  to 
.\braham  incidentally  as  an  illustration  of  God's 
covenant-faithfulness  (vi.  13  sqq.),  places  in  the 
foreground  the  shadowy  figure  of  Melchizedek  as  a 
type  of  him  who  by  his  sacrifice  '*  became  the  surety 
of  a  better  covenant  "  (vii.  1-22).  The  author  uses 
the  word  also  in  the  later  classical  sense  of  "  testa- 
ment "  (see  §  1),  combining  the  two  meanings  in 
the  statement  that  Christ  is  '^  the  mediator  of  a  new 
covenant  "  according  to  the  conditions  of  whose 
'  testament,"  made  operative  only  by  the  death  of 
the  *'  testator,"  an  "  external  inheritance  "  is  made 
sure  to  the  beneficiaries  along  with  **  redemption  for 
the  transgressions  that  were  under  the  old  covenant " 
(ix.  15,  16;  compare  Acts  iii.  25,  vii.  8;  Eph.ii.  12). 

J.  F.  McCURDY. 
Bibuoorapht:  Excellent  diBCuaaions  are  to  be  found  in  DB, 
i.  50&-615;  BB,  i.  928-^7;  DCO,  i.  373-380.  Consult 
further:  H.  Guthe,  De  faderiB  notione  Jeremiana^  Leipsic, 
1877;  Valeton,  in  ZATW,  xu  (1892),  1-22,  224-260, 
xiii  (1893).  245-279;  R.  Kraetssohxnar.  Die  Bundeavar- 
»teUuno  im  A.  7.,  Marburg,  1896;  W.  M.  Ramsay,  in 
Expontor,  Nov..  1898,  pp.  321-336;  Smith,  Rel.  of  5«m., 
pp.  269  sqq.,  312  sqq..  479  sqq.;  idem.  Kinship,  pp.  46 
Bqq.;  and  such  works  on  the  theology  of  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament  as  H.  Schulti,  O.  T.  Theolooy,  ii.  1  sqq., 
Edinburgh,  1892;  and  W.  Beyschlag,  N.  T.  Theology,  2 
vols.,  Edinburgh,  1896.  For  the  modem  idea  consult: 
C.  Burrage.  The  Church  Covenant  Idea;  Ua  Origin  and 
Development,  Philadelphia,  1907. 

COVENANTERS. 

Early  Agreements  to  1572  (§1). 

The  King's  Confession  and  Other  Agreements  to  1696  (i  2). 

The  NaUonal  Goyenant  of  1638  (ft  3). 

The  Solenm  League  and  Covenant,  1643  (f  4). 

Divisions  Among  the  Covenanters  (|  6). 

Persecution  Under  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  (|  6). 

The  Later  "  Covenanters  "  (ft  7). 

The  name  "  Covenanters  "  was  given  to  Scotch 
Presbyterians,  or  a  portion  of  them,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  because  of  the  solenm  agreements 
by  which  they  bound  themselves;  since 
I.  Early      then  it  has  been  applied  to  a|  small 
Agreements  party  in  Scotland  who  have  held  to 
to  1572.      similar  views.     In  the  confusion  of  the 
Reformation  time  in  Scotland,   when 
the  central  authority,  with  little  power  of  its  own, 
was  liable  to  fall  under  the  control  of  temporary 
III.— 19 


groups  of  the  turbulent  gentry  or  to  be  swayed 
by  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  anxious  for  their 
secular  interests,  the  legal  position  of  innova- 
tors and  agitators  was  never  clear.  The  Protes- 
tant parties  therefore  sought  sanction  and  secur- 
ity in  the  various  steps  they  took  by  entering  into 
formal  "covenants,"  which  had  a  double  charac- 
ter, religious  and  political.  There  is  a  suggestion 
of  a  "  band  "  at  a  meeting  of  Forfarshire  gentle- 
men in  1556;  the  first,  however,  of  which  there  are 
definite  details — ^an  ancient  copy  is  in  the  National 
Museum  of  Antiquities  in  Edinburgh — "the  com- 
mon band  "  (Knox)  was  drawn  up  in  1557  on  the 
renewal  of  the  Reformers'  invitation  to  John  Knox 
(q.v.)  to  return  to  Scotland.  Three  others  in  1559 
marked  as  many  crises  in  the  struggle  with  the 
queen  regent,  and  a  fourth  signed  in  1560  by  the 
leading  nobility  was  the  prelude  to  the  expulsion 
of  the  French  and  the  triumph  of  the  Reformation 
ratified  in  the  Parliament  of  that  year.  In  alarm 
at  Mary's  policy,  Knox  and  the  Ayrshire  gentry 
signed  a  covenant  in  1562.  St.  Bartholomew's 
massacre  suggested  the  idea  of  another  in  1572, 
but  possibly  this  was  not  carried  out. 

More  important   than   these    early    bands    di- 
rected to  special  emeigencies  was  the  lengthy  cove- 
nant of   1580  called  the  King's  Confession,   the 
Second  Confession   of  Faith,  or  the 

a.  The     Negative  Confession.     It  was  drawn 

King's  Con-  up  by  John  Craig  (q.v.)  and  subscribed 

fession  and  by  all  classes  from  the  boy  king  James 

Other      VI.  downward.    The  original  is  now 

Agreements  in  the  Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh. 

to  1596.  It  is  a  strongly  Protestant  manifesto 
in  which  the  declaration  of  allegiance 
to  the  crown  is  carefully  interwoven  with  the  dec- 
laration of  the  duty  of  the  crown  to  maintain  the 
constitution  of  the  Reformed  Kirk  and  the  Prot- 
estant settlement  embodied  in  previous  acts  of 
Parliament.  It  was  signed  again  in  1587.  Once 
more  the  party  of  the  Ruthven  raid  in  1582  had 
made  a  '*  band."  The  Spanish  Armada  inspu^d 
a  national  "  band  "  in  1588.  Another  was  signed 
in  1589.  In  1590  the  King's  Confession  and  the 
band  of  1588  were  printed  and  circulated,  multi- 
tudes subscribing  throughout  Scotland.  The  year 
1592  saw  another  "  band  "  in  Aberdeen  against 
suspected  treason.  In  1596  a  more  durectly  relig- 
ious movement  was  initiated  by  the  assembly  and 
spread  downward  through  presbyteries  to  parishes. 
There  were,  if  not  formal  signatures,  at  least  meet- 
ings for  humiliation  and  confession  at  which  vows 
of  steadfastness  were  renewed. 

Court  diplomacy  directed  to  the  reintroduction 
of  episcopacy  was  now  busy;  but  James'  success 
did  not  much  affect  the  local  groundwork  of  Pres- 
byterian practise,  and  Charles  I.  and  Laud  found, 
when  they  were  free  to  turn  attention 

3.  The      to  Scotland,  that  conformity  with  Eng- 
National    lish  episcopacy  was  far  from  being  a 
Covenant    reality.    The    new   service-book   was 
of  1638.    sent  down  to  Edinbui^gh;  Dean  Han- 
ney  tried  to  read  it  in  St.  Giles'  Ca- 
thedral and,  according  to  tradition,  Jenny  Geddes 
(q.v.)    threw  her  stool   at    him  on  July  23,  1637. 
The  covenanting  instinct  of  a  previous  generation 


Oovenanters 
Oowan 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


290 


came  into  play,  and  1638  saw  the  enthusiastic  and 
almost  universal  subscription  to  the  National  Cove- 
nant inaugurated  in  the  Greyfriars'  churchyard. 
This  covenant  consisted  of  the  King's  Confession 
of  1580  followed  by  a  lengthy  legal  remonstrance 
and  statement  by  Johnston,  of  Warriston,  and  a 
popular  religious  conclusion  by  Henderson,  of  Leu- 
chars  (see  Henderson,  Alexander).  As  before, 
loyalty  to  king  and  religion  were  carefully  inter- 
wound,  ''  the  true  worship  of  God  and  the  king's 
authority  being  so  straitly  joined  as  that  they  .  .  . 
did  stand  and  fall  together."  The  organized  Pres- 
byterians are  at  this  time  referred  to  in  royal  cor- 
respondence as  "Covenanters."  During  two  years 
Charles's  attempts  to  use  unwilling  English  forces 
against  the  Scots  were  thwarted  by  the  skill  of 
Alexander  Leslie,  a  great  ex-genersJ  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  Leslie  avoided  any  vigorous  invasion 
which  would  rouse  English  sentiment,  and  the 
peace  (164 1 )  saw  the  Scotch  army  established  quietly 
in  Northumberland  and  Durham  and  subsidized  by 
the  Long  Parliament. 

In  1643,  in  their  darkest  hour,  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment sought  a  definite  alliance  with  the  Scots. 
The  latter  suggested  a  religious  covenant  instead 

of  the  civil  league  favored  by  English 

4.  The      Independents,  and  the  Solemn  League 

Solemn     and  Covenant  was  drawn  up  in  Ekiin- 

League  and  burgh  by  Henderson,  there  approved. 

Covenant,  and  sent  up  to  be  adopted  at  West- 

1643.       minster  by  the  Assembly,  Lords,  and 

Commons,  the  majority  of  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  being  disposed  to  make  trial  of 
Presbyterianism  as  the  only  visible  alternative 
to  episcopacy.  This  league,  which  was  signed 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  Britain, 
pledged  subscribers  to  the  maintenance  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  of  Scotland  and  the  Reformation  in 
England  and  Ireland,  to  the  extirpation  of  popery 
and  prelacy,  to  a  common  endeavor  after  uniform- 
ity of  discipline  and  doctrine  according  to  the  Word 
of  God  and  the  example  of  the  best  Reformed 
churches,  and  to  loyalty  to  Parliament  and  crown. 
It  was  renewed  in  Scotland  in  1648  and  signed 
with  the  National  Covenant  by  Charles  II.  in  1650 
and  1651. 

But  rigid  Presbyterianism  made  itself  impracti- 
cable in  England,  and  the  execution  of  Churles  I. 
completed  the  alienation  of  the  Scots.  A  party  in 
Scotland  signed  an  "  engagement "  with  Charles 
with  a  view  to  his  liberation,  and  Hamilton  led  an 
army  to  defeat  by  Cromwell  at  Preston  in  1647. 

The  "  non-Engagers  "  headed  by  Ar- 

5.  Divisions  gyll,  who  had  protested  against  this 

Among     treachery  to  the  English  Parliament, 

the  Cove-  now  came  into  power,  and  while  tum- 

nanten.     ing  against  Cromwell  by  proclaiming 

Charles  II.,  whom  they  kept  nevei^ 
theless  in  strict  tutelage,  they  passed  the  Act  of 
Classes  excluding  "  malignants,"  or  "  engagers/' 
from  all  offices  aiid  from  the  army.  Cromwell's 
victorious  march  from  Dunbar  made  it  seem  ex- 
pedient to  a  short-sighted  majority  to  pass  "  reso- 
lutions "  rescinding  this  Act,  for  every  soldier  was 
wanted.  The  stricter  party  protested.  A  re- 
monstrance was  signed  in  the  West.    The  increased 


army  availed  nothing  against  Cromwell,  who  forced 
upon  Scotland  a  period  of  profound  peace  and 
prosperity,  reproaching  Presbyterians  with  then- 
divisions  and  hostility  to  himself  and  favoring  the 
more  Evangelical  and  zealous  party  of  the  Protest- 
ers. In  these  days  true  religion  made  great  ad- 
vances, but  the  strife  of  "  Resolutioners  and  Pro- 
testers "  continued  to  divide  the  Covenanters  into 
bitterly  opposed  factions.  This  schism  and  the 
fact  that  the  Resolutioners  had  admitted  many 
half-hearted  into  place  and  power  account  for  the 
strange  facility  with  which  Charies  II.  at  the  Res- 
toration in  1660  was  able  to  impose  his  agents  on 
the  Scotch  kirk  and  nation. 

The  Resolutioners  were  betrayed  at  the  outset 
by  their  chosen  agent,  James  Sharp  (q.v.),  who  got 
himself  made  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  The 
Court  of  High  Commission  was  set  up  and,  without 
effective  protest,  episcopacy  and  the  machinery  for 
enforcing  it.  The  Solemn  League  and 
6.  Persecu-  Covenant  was  burned  in  London  and 
tion  Under  Linlithgow.  A  packed  Scotch  Parlia- 
Charles  U.  ment  rescinded  all  the  Acts  of  the 
and  preceding  twenty  years.  One  new 
James  U.  Act  commanded  abjuration  of  the 
Covenant.  Another  voided  all  min- 
isterial appointments  since  1649,  ordering  such 
ministers  now  to  request  presentation  from  the 
patron  and  the  bishop.  Four  hundred,  chiefly  in 
the  West  and  South,  heroically  chose  ejectment. 
The  country  awoke  at  the  spectacle.  Few  waited 
on  the  ministrations  of  the  new  curates.  Rolls  of 
parishioners  were  therefore  made  up  and  soldiers 
sent  to  enforce  attendance  by  fines.  The  people 
flocked  with  increasing  numbers  and  enthusiasm 
to  conventicles  in  bams  or  on  the  moors.  Three 
successive  "  indulgences  "  to  "  outed  "  ministers 
being  accepted  by  a  few  in  spite  of  the  compromise 
involved  fulfilled  in  slight  degree  their  aim  of  sow- 
ing dissension.  At  the  same  time  measures  against 
the  faithful  became  ever  harsher,  and  Aigyll  and 
Guthrie  had  been  executed  in  1661.  Men  like 
Graham,  of  Claverhouse,  and  Lauderdale  earned 
immortal  infamy.  A  long  roll'^all  of  martyrs 
follows  during  these  twenty-eight  years  of  the 
''killing  time" — Hugh  Mackail,  Cargill,  John 
Brown,  of  Priesthill,  the  two  dauntless  women  who 
were  slowly  drowned  in  the  rising  tide  at  Wigtown 
(see  Wilson,  Margaret),  the  preacher  Renwick, 
nameless  ones  without  number.  Hundreds  were 
sold  into  slavery  in  Barbados,  among  them  many 
women.  Others  died  of  exposure  or  rotted  in 
dungeons.  Many  were  horribly  tortured.  Alto- 
gether many  thousands  perished.  The  offenses 
were  refusals  to  abjure  the  Covenant  or  attend  the 
parish  kirk, and  the  frequenting  of  conventicles  and 
"  intercommuning  "  with  those  who  did.  It  was 
punishable  to  let  a  child  remain  unbaptised  by  the 
parish  ciu^te.  Fighting  took  place  at  Rullion 
Green,  Drumclog,  and  Bothwell  Bridge.  Richard 
Cameron  (q.v.),  who  proclaimed  a  definite  rebellion 
at  Sanquahar  in  1680,  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Ayrsmoss.  On  the  other  hand,  Sharp  had  been 
killed  in  1679  by  nine  Covenanters-  Every  sol- 
dier of  the  government  was  allowed  to  kill,  and 
their  cruelty  was  directed  on  women  and  children  as 


291 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OoTenaatara 
Oowan 


on  men.  A  children's  covenant  hcuB  survived  signed 
in  the  village  of  Pentland  by  fifteen  girls,  the  first 
on  the  list  being  then  ten  years  old.  The  accession 
of  James  II.  brought  no  relief.  Another  Argyll 
perished  in  an  abortive  rising  in  1685.  At  last  on 
James's  flight  in  1688  the  persecution  ceased. 

William  of  Orange  believed  in  toleration  and  left 
the  Scotch  Estates  to  settle  their  own  religious  af- 
fairs. Prelacy  was  at  once  thrown  off,  and  the  Par- 
liament of  1690  renewed  the  Act  of  1592  establish- 
ing Presbyterianism.  As  only  about  ninety  of  the 
ministers    "  outed "    in   1661    now  survived,   the 

complaisant  curates  were  allowed  to 

7.  The  Later  stay  on.     The  aggressive  Presbyterian 

**  Covenant-  ideal  of  1638  and  1643  was  abandoned. 

era."      Some    of    the    obnoxious    legislation 

since  then  was  left  unrescinded.  There- 
fore, a  stricter  section  calling  themselves  Camero- 
niana,  or  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scot- 
land, holding  the  nation  still  bound  by  the  great 
National  Covenants  of  the  preceding  generation, 
refused  to  approve  the  settlement  and  protested 
against  the  constitution  of  both  Church  and  State. 
There  was  of  course  no  more  persecution,  and  they 
and  their  descendants  maintained  their  testimony 
and  their  aloofness  from  all  exercise  of  civil  rights 
undisturbed.  Almost  all  joined  the  Free  Church 
in  1876,  but  several  congregations  still  remain. 
See  Cameron,  Richard,  Cameronians;  also  the 
section  of  Presbtterians  treating  of  the  Scotch 
CJhurch. 

(R.  W.  Stewart.)  Thomas  M.  Lindsay. 

Biblioorafht:  For  the  earlier  '*  bands  "  the  iouroes  are: 
John  Knox,  Hiat.  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  ed.  D. 
Laixi«.  vols.  i.-ii.  of  Works,  Edinburgh.  184&^7;  D.  Cal- 
derwood.  Hiat.  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  8  vola.,  republished, 
ib.  1842-49;  A  Cloud  of  WOneesee  for  the  Royal  Preroqa- 
tivee  of  Jeeue  Chriet,  or  the  last  Speeches  and  Testimonies 
of  those  teho  suffered  for  the  Truth  in  Scotland  since  .  .  . 
1680,  ib.  1730;  J.  Howie.  Scots  Worthies,  ed.  W.  H.  Car^- 
law,  ib.  1885.  Modem  boolu  are  R.  Simpson.  Traditions 
of  the  Covenanters,  Edinburs^.  1889;  D.  H.  Fleming. 
Story  of  the  ScoUish  Covenants,  ib.  1904  (baaed  upon  ear- 
lier sources,  readable,  condensed).  Scott's  grossly  un- 
fair Tales  of  My  Landlord  was  answered  by  T.  McCrie 
in  Christum  Instructor,  1817  (reprinted  with  his  Sermons), 
and  a  reply  by  Soott  is  in  the  Quarterly  Review,  xvi.  439^ 
480.  Other  works  are:  J.  Dodds.  Fifty  Years*  Struggles 
cf  (he  Scottish  Covenanters,  London.  1871;  J.  K.  Hewi- 
son.  Hist,  of  the  Church  in  Scotland  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  RevduHon,  2  vols.,  Glasgow,  1908. 

COVERDALE,  MILES:  Bible  translator;  b. 
probably  in  the  district  known  as  Cover-dale,  in 
that  part  of  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire  called 
Richmondshire,  1488;  d.  in  London  and  buried  in 
St.  Bartholomew's  Church  Feb.  19,  1568.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge  (bachelor  of  canon  law  1531), 
became  priest  at  Norwich  in  1514,  and  entered  the 
convent  of  Austin  friars  at  Cambridge,  where  Rob- 
ert Barnes  (q.v.)  was  prior  in  1523  and  probably 
influenced  him  in  favor  of  Protestantism.  When 
Barnes  was  tried  for  heresy  in  1526  Coverdale  as- 
sisted in  his  defense,  and  shortly  afterward  left  the 
convent  and  gave  himself  entirely  to  preaching. 
From  1528  to  1535  he  appears  to  have  spent  most 
of  hiB  time  on  the  Continent,  where  his  Bible  (the 
first  complete  Bible  in  English)  was  published  in 
1535— at  what  place  and  by  whom  is  disputed.  In 
1538  he  was  in  Paris,  superintending  the  printing 


of  the  "  Great  Bible,"  and  the  same  year  were 
published,  both  in  London  and  Paris,  editions  of 
a  Latin  and  an  English  New  Testament,  the  latter 
being  by  Coverdale.  He  also  edited  ''Cranmer's 
Bible  "  (1540).  (For  further  information  concern- 
ing Coverdale's  Bible  translations  see  Bible  Ver- 
sions, B,  IV.,  §  4.)  He  returned  to  England  in  1539, 
but  on  the  execution  of  Thomas  Cromwell  (who 
had  been  his  friend  and  protector  since  1527)  in 
1540  was  compelled  again  to  go  into  exile,  lived 
for  a  time  at  Ttlbingen,  and,  between  1543  and 
1547,  was  Lutheran  pastor  and  schoolmaster 
at  Bergzabem  in  the  Palatinate,  and  very  poor. 
In  Mar.,  1548,  he  went  back  to  England,  was  well 
received  at  court  and  made  king's  chaplain  and 
almoner  to  the  queen  dowager,  Catherine  Parr.  In 
1551  he  became  bishop  of  Exeter,  but  was  deprived 
in  1553  after  the  succession  of  Mary.  He  went 
to  Denmark  (where  his  brother-in-law  was  chap- 
lain to  the  king),  then  to  Wesel,  and  finally  back 
to  Bergzabem.  In  1559  he  was  again  in  England, 
but  was  not  reinstated  in  his  bishopric,  perhaps 
because  of  Puritanical  scruples  about  vestments. 
From  1564  to  1566  he  was  rector  of  St.  Magnus's, 
near  London  Bridge.  "  He  was  pious,  conscien- 
tious, laborious,  generous,  and  a  thoroughly  hon- 
est and  good  man.  He  knew  German  and  Latin 
well,  some  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  a  little  French. 
He  did  little  original  literary  work.  As  a  transla^ 
tor  he  was  faithful  and  harmonious.  He  was  fairly 
read  in  theology,  and  became  more  inclined  to 
Puritan  ideas  as  his  life  wore  on.  All  accounts 
agree  in  his  remarkable  popularity  as  a  preacher. 
He  was  a  leading  figure  during  the  progress  of  the 
Reformed  opinions,  and  had  a  considerable  share 
in  the  introduction  of  German  spiritual  culture  to 
English  readers  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  six- 
teenth century." 

Biblioobapht:  Goverdale's  works  and  letters  were  pub- 
lished by  the  Parker  Society,  ed.  G.  Pearson,  2  vols..  Wri- 
tings and  Translations,  Cambridge.  1844;  Remains,  1846. 
A  list  of  his  works,  with  information  oonoeming  his  life 
and  the  souroee,  is  given  in  DNB,  zii.  364-372.  Consult: 
Memorials  of  Myles  Coverdale^  London,  1838;  C.  Anderson, 
Annals  of  the  English  Bible,  pp.  314-318,  443-440.  ib. 
1862;  F.  Pry,  The  Bible  by  Coverdale,  MDCXXXV.,  ib. 
1867;  J.  I.  Mombert,  Hand-book  of  the  Eng.  Versions  of 
the  BibU,  chap,  v..  New  York,  1882;  H.  W.  Hoare,  Evo- 
lution of  the  Eng.  Bible,  chap,  vi.,  London,  1902. 

COWAN,  HENRY:  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at 
Ayr  (40  m.  s.s.w.  of  Glasgow),  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
Sept.  17,  1844.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  (M.A., 
1864),  Bonn,  Halle,  and  Tttbingen,  holding  from 
Edinburgh  a  Greek  traveling  fellowship  (1865)  and 
the  Pitt  theological  scholarship  (1866-68).  In 
addition  to  being  theological  examiner  at  Edin- 
burgh 1871-73,  he  held  pastorates  at  West  Parish, 
Aberdeen  (1869-74),  Rubislaw,  Aberdeen  (187&- 
1882),  and  New  Greyfriars',  Edinburgh  (1882-89), 
and  since  1889  has  been  professor  of  church  his- 
tory in  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  as  well  as  dean 
of  the  faculty  of  divinity  since  1894.  He  has  been 
vice-convener  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Endow- 
ment Scheme  since  1886,  and  jointrconvener  of  the 
Scottish  Universities'  Mission  Committee  since 
1900,  and  was  also  Baird  Lecturer  in  1895  and 
chairman  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Aberdeen 
Normal   Training  College  Board   1896-1906.     In 


Cowl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


202 


theological  doctrine  he  is  abroad  Evangelical, and  in 
Biblical  criticism  he  is  a  moderate.  In  addition  to 
briefer  contributions,  he  has  ^tten:  Landmarks  of 
Church  History  (Edinburgh,  1894);  Influence  of  the 
Scottish  Church  in  Christendom  (Baird  lectures  for 
1895);  and  Life  of  John  Knox  (New  York,  1905). 

COWL:  Primarily  the  hood  with  which  the  early 
monks,  following  a  style  of  dress  conunon  among 
all  classes  in  the  Roman  Empire,  covered  their 
heads.  It  increased  in  length  after  its  wearing  had 
been  positively  prescribed  for  Western  monks  by 
Benedict,  untU  Benedict  of  Aniane  ruled  that  it 
should  be  uniform  in  size  and  not  reach  below  the 
knees.  Thus  the  name  came  to  apply  not  only  to 
the  hood  but  to  the  whole  characteristic  outer  gai^ 
ment  of  a  monk.  The  hood  proper  in  more  mod- 
em times  was  attached  with  the  Franciscans  and 
Capuchins  to  the  habit,  with  the  Brothers  of  Char^ 
ity  to  the  scapular,  with  canons  to  the  cappa  or 
mozetta ;  the  Augustinians  and  Servites  retained  it 
as  a  separate  garment.  At  the  present  time  the 
shape  varies  in  different  orders,  and  the  color  is 
that  of  the  habit.  It  does  not  as  a  rule  form  part 
of  the  dress  of  orders  founded  since  the  Middle 
Ages. 

COWLES,  HENRY:  Gonmientator;  b.  in  Nor- 
folk, Conn.,  Apr.  24,  1803;  d.  at  Janesville,  Wis., 
Sept.  6,  1881.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  1826, 
studied  in  the  Yale  Divinity  School  182^28,  and 
was  from  1828  to  1835  a  missionary  on  the  West- 
em  Reserve  in  Ohio.  From  1835  to  1848,  he  was 
professor,  first  of  Greek  and  Latin,  and  then  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  sacred  literature  in  Ober- 
lin  College;  from  1848  to  1863  he  was  editor  of 
the  Oberlin  Evangelist.  He  published  a  com- 
mentary on  the  entire  Bible  (16  vols..  New  York, 
1867-81),  a  Hebrew  History  (1873),  and  other  works. 

COWPER,  WILLIAM:  Poet  and  hynm-writer; 
b.  at  Great  Berkhainpstead  (28  m.  n.w.  of  Lon- 
don), Hertfordshire,  Nov.  15,  1731;  d.  at  East 
Dereham  (15  m.  w.n.w.  of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  Apr. 
25,  1800.  He  studied  law  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1754,  but  took  more  interest  in  literature 
than  in  his  profession.  He  was  naturally  inclined 
to  morbid  brooding,  and  suffered  from  an  unhappy 
love-affair;  in  1763  nervous  dread  of  an  examina- 
tion for  which  he  was  preparing  preliminary  to 
entering  upon  a  government  position  so  wrought 
upon  his  mind  that  it  was  necessaiy  to  confine 
him  in  an  asylum.  After  about  eighteen  months 
he  was  able  to  go  free,  but  was  subject  to  attacks 
of  insanity  ever  afterward,  and  never  fully  recov- 
ered from  the  last  in  1787.  For  thirty  years  he 
lived  a  retired  life  at  Olney,  Buckinghamshire,  and 
at  the  neighboring  village  of  Weston.  He  was 
tenderly  cared  for  by  his  relatives  and  had  kind 
friends  who  encouraged  him  to  write  to  divert  his 
mind;  he  became  excessively  pious  and  devout, 
was  ever  a  prey  to  religious  doubts  and  hallucina- 
tions, and  often  in  deep  depression.  At  Olney  he 
was  intimate  with  John  Newton  (q.v.),and  helped 
him  in  his  parish  work  as  a  sort  of  lay  curate.  Some 
of  Cowper's  poems  are  models  of  tender  verse,  and 
his  letters  have  none  superior  in  all  literature. 
His  hymns  include  the  familiar  and  admirable 


"God  moves  in  a  mysterious  way,"  "There  ba 
fountain  filled  with  blood,"  and  "O  for  a  closer 
walk  with  God."  He  joizied  Newton  in  writing 
the  Olney  Hynms  (1779;  see  Newton,  John),  and 
contributed  sixty-eight  to  Newton's  280. 

Bibuooraphy:  The  best  edition  of  hia  Worka  with  his  life 
is  by  Robert  Southey,  16  vob.,  London,  1836-37;  re- 
printed in  Bohn*M  Standard  Library,  8  vols.,  ib.  1853-55; 
other  lives  are  by  J.  Bruoe,  in  "  Aldine  Eklition  "  of  his 
poems,  3  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1865;  by  W.  Benham,  in 
"  Globe  Edition "  of  his  poems.  New  York,  1870;  by 
Goldwin  Smith,  London.  1880;  and  by  T.  Wright,  ib. 
1892.  Wright  has  also  edited  his  UnpuUiAad  and  Un- 
ooUected  Poenu,  ib.  1000;  and  his  CorrMpondenee,  4  vok, 
ib.  1904;  selections  from  his  letters  are  by  W.  Benham, 
ib.  1884,  and  by  W.  T.  Webb,  ib.  1895. 

COX,  SAMUEL:  English  Baptist;  b.  in  London 
Apr.  19,  1826;  d.  at  Hastings  Mar.  27,  1893.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Stepney  Baptist  Theological 
College,  London,  1851,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of 
St.  Paul's  Square  Baptist  Church,  Soutbaea;  be- 
came pastor  at  Ryde,  Isle  of  Wight,  1855;  resigned 
because  of  throat  trouble  1859;  was  pastor  of  the 
General  Baptist  Church,  Mansfield  Road,  Notting- 
ham, 1863-^.  He  was  president  of  the  British 
General  Baptist  Association  in  1873.  He  is  best 
known  in  connection  with  the  Expositor,  which  he 
founded  in  1875  and  edited  till  1884;  some  of  the 
volumes  are  almost  entirely  his  work.  According 
to  his  own  statement,  he  wrote  thirty  independent 
books  and  edited  twenty  more,  including  The  Que^ 
of  the  Chief  Good  :  Expository  Lectures  on  the  Book 
Ecdesiastes,  with  a  New  Translation  (London,  1S68; 
rewritten  for  the  Expositor's  Bible,  1890);  The 
Private  Letters  of  St,  Paul  and  St.  John  (1867); 
Salvator  Mundi;  or,  is  Christ  the  Saviour  of  ail 
Men  t  a  defense  of  restorationism,  the  best  known 
of  his  books  (1877);  Expository  Essays  and  Dis- 
courses (1877);  CommerUary  on  the  Book  of  Job 
(1880);  The  Larger  Hope,  a  sequel  to  Salvator  Mundi 
(1883);  Miracles,  an  Argument  and  a  ChaHenge 
(1884);  ExposUions  (4  vols.,  1885-88);  and  The  He- 
brew Twins,  a  Vindication  of  God's  Ways  with  Jacob 
and  Esau  (1894)  witha  Afemotr  by  his  wife. 

COX,  SAWJEL  HAKSON:  Presbyterian;  b.  of 
Quaker  parentage  at  Rahway,  N.  J.,  Aug.  25, 1793; 
d.  in  Bronxville,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  2,  1880.  He  was  or^ 
dained  in  1817,  and  was  pastor  at  Mendham,  N.  J., 
till  1820,  when  he  settled  in  New  York  as  pastor, 
first  of  the  Spring  Street  Church  (1820-25)  and 
then  of  the  Laight  Street  Church  (1825-35).  He 
was  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  the- 
ology in  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  1836-37, 
pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Brook- 
lyn 1837-64,  was  president  of  Ingham  University 
1856-63,  and  thenceforth  lived  in  retirement  in  and 
near  New  York.  He  was  one  of  the  f  oundeis  of  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York  and  of  Union 
Theological  Seminary.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  New 
School  party  in  the  disruption  of  1837  and  was 
moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1846.  Many 
stones  are  told  of  his  fondness  for  big  words  and 
peculiar  expressions  in  public  prayer.  But  he  pos- 
sessed much  eloquence  and  learning. 

COXE,  ARTHUR  CLEVELAND:  Second  bishop 
of  western  New  York;  b.  at  Mendham,  N.  J.,  May 
10, 1818;  d.  at  Clifton  Springs,  N.  Y.,  July  20, 1896. 


998 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oraiy 


He  was  a  son  of  Samuel  Hanson  Cox  (q.v.)  and 
himself  added  the  "  e  "  to  his  name.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York 
1838,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  1841;  became  rector  of  St.  Ann's, 
Morrisania,  N.  Y.,  1841;  of  St.  John's,  Hartford, 
Conn.,  1842;  of  Grace,  Baltimore,  1854;  of  Cal- 
vary, New  York,  1863;  bishop  of  western  New  York 
1865.  In  1868  his  diocese  was  divided  and  the 
new  diocese  of  Central  New  York  formed.  He 
was  provisional  bishop  of  Haiti  1872-74.  The  Old 
Catholic  movement',  P^re  Hyacinthe,  and  all  that 
concerned  Gallicanism  and  Anglo-Catholicism  had 
his  active  sjrmpathy.  He  helped  to  form  the  Anglo- 
Continental  Society  ( 1853 )  and  gave  it  its  name.  In 
1873  he  collaborated  with  Bishop  Wilberforce  in 
issuing  a  serial  in  defense  of  Anglo-Catholicism 
against  Romanism.  In  his  pamphlet,  An  Apology 
for  the  English  Bible  (New  York,  1857),  he  gave 
voice  to  the  opposition  against  the  attempt  of  the 
American  Bible  Society  to  introduce  slight  changes 
in  the  text  and  pimctuation  of  the  Scriptiues,  and  the 
plan  was  abandoned  (see  Bible  Societies,  III.,  1, 
§  5).  He  also  opposed  the  Revised  Version  of  1881- 
1885,  but  advocated  a  revision  of  the  prayer-book. 
His  writings  include  several  volumes  of  poems,  of 
which  Christian  Ballads  (Hartford,  1840;  enlaiged 
ed.,  New  York,  1901)  is  best  known.  Several  hymns 
in  general  use  C'ln  the  silent  midnight  watches"; 
"  O  where  are  kings  and  empires  now?  "  and  others) 
are  from  his  pen.  Works  upon  theological  topics 
were  Absolution  and  Confession  (New  Haven,  1860); 
Sermons  on  Doctrine  and  Duty  (Philadelphia,  1855); 
Thoughts  on  the  Services  (Baltimore,  1859;  rev.  ed., 
Philadelphia,  1900);  The  Criterion,  defining  his 
position  concerning  the  Oxford  movement  (New 
York  and  Oxford,  1866);  A  Letter  to  Pius  IX., 
relating  to  the  call  for  the  Vatican  Council  (New 
York,  1869);  Moral  Reforms  (Buffalo,  1869); 
Lectures  on  Prophecy  (1871);  Apollos,  or  the  Way 
of  God  (Buffalo,  1871);  U&piscopat  de  V Occident,  a 
defense  of  the  Church  of  England  (Paris,  1874); 
Covenant  Prayers  (1875);  The  Penitential  (New 
York,  1882);  Institutes  of  Christian  History,  Bal- 
dwin lectures  before  the  University  of  Michigan, 
1887  (Chicago,  1887);  Holy  Writ  and  Modem 
Thought,  Bedell  lectures  at  Kenyon  College,  1891 
(New  York,  1892).  He  edited  the  American 
reprint  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (9  vols.,  New 
York,  1885-«7). 

Bibuoobapht:  W.  8.  Perry,   The  Epitcopate  in  America, 
pp.  150-161,  New  York,  1895. 

COYLE,  ROBERT  FRANCIS:  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Roeeneath,  Ont.,  July  28,  1850.  He  studied  at 
Wabash  College  (B.A.,  1877)  and  Auburn  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (B.D.,  1879),  and  held  pastorates 
at  Fort  Dodge,  la.  (1879-85),  Fullerton  Avenue 
Church,  Chicago  (1885-91),  and  the  First  Presby- 
terian Church,  Oakland,  Cal.  (1891-1900).  Since 
1900  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  (Jentral  Presbyterian 
Church,  Denver,  Col.  He  was  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  in  1903, 
and  has  written  Foundation  Stones  (Chicago,  1887); 
Workingmen  and  the  Church  (New  York,  1896); 
and  The  Church  and  the  Times  (1905). 


CRAFTS,  WILBUR  FISK:  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Fryebuig,  Me.,  Jan.  12,  1850.  He  studied  at  Wes- 
leyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.  (B.A.,  1869), 
and  Boston  University  School  of  Theology  (B.D., 
1871),  and  held  various  Methodist  pastorates  from 
1867  to  1879.  In  the  latter  year  he  entered  the 
Congregational  Church,  and  in  1883  he  became  a 
Presbyterian.  His  chief  pastorates  were  those  in 
Stoneham,  HaverviUe,  and  New  Bedford,  Mass., 
Dover,  N.  H.,  Chicago,  Brooklyn,  and  New  York. 
He  has  been  active  in  Sunday-school  work  since 
1871,  and  has  written  on  the  Sunday-school  lessons 
for  the  Sunday  School  Times,  International  Lesson 
Monthly,  Pocket  Lesson  Notes,  and  the  Christian 
Herald,  In  1889  he  founded  the  American  Sab- 
bath Union,  and  for  six  years  lectured  throughout 
the  United  States  chiefly  on  Sabbath  observance. 
In  1895  he  foimded  the  Reform  Bureau,  now  called 
the  International  Reform  Bureau,  particularly  for 
the  promotion  of  social  purity,  the  defense  of  the 
Sabbath,  the  suppression  of  the  liquor  traffic,  and 
the  protection  of  children  and  the  less  civilized 
races.  As  the  superintendent  of  this  bureau  he  has 
been  active  both  as  a  lecturer  and  in  the  preparation 
of  laws  to  further  its  aims.  He  was  chief  editor 
of  the  Christian  Statesman  1901-03,  and  of  the 
Twentieth  Century  Quarterly  since  1896.  He  also 
edited  departments  in  Our  Day  (1888-91),  Ram*s 
Horn  (1896-98),  and  the  Advance,  and  has  written, 
among  others,  the  following  books,  several  in  col- 
laboration with  his  wife:  Through  the  Eye  to  the 
Heart  (New  York,  1875);  Talks  to  Boys  and  Girls 
About  Jesus  (1881);  The  Sabbath  for  Man  (1884); 
Social  Progress  (Washington,  1896);  Protection  of  Na- 
tive Races  Against  Intoxicants  and  Opium  (Chicago, 
1900);  and  The  March  of  Christ  Down  the  Centuries 
(1902). 

CRAIG,  cr6g JAMES  ALEXANDER:  Layman;  b. 
at  Fitzroy  Harbour,  Ont.,  Mar.  5,  1855.  He  studied 
at  McGiQ  University,  Montreal  (B.A.,  1880),  Yale 
Divinity  School  (B.D.,  1883),  and  the  University 
of  Leipsic  (Ph.D.,  1886).  He  was  instructor  and 
adjimct  professor  of  Biblical  languages  in  Lane 
Theological  Seminary,  Cincinnati,  1886-90,  pro- 
fessor of  Old  Testament  literature  and  exegesis  in 
Oberlin  Theological  Seminary  1891-93;  and  since 
1893  has  been  professor  of  Semitic  languages  and 
literatures  and  Hellenistic  Greek  in  the  University 
of  Michigan.  He  has  edited  The  Semitic  Series  of 
Handbooks,  and  written  The  Monolith  Inscription 
of  Salmanesar  IL  (Leipsic,  1888);  Hebrew  Word 
Manual  (Cincinnati,  1890);  Assyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian Religious  Texts  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1895-97); 
and  Astronomical-Astrological  Texts  (1899). 

CRAIG,   JOHN :  The  name  of  two  Scotchmen. 

1.  Scotch  Reformer;  b.  about  1512;  d.  in 
Edinburgh  Dec.  12,  1600.  He  studied  at  St. 
Andrews,  and  became  a  Dominican  monk;  went 
to  England  in  1536,  thence  to  Rome,  and  served 
his  order  on  missions  in  Italy  and  to  the  island 
of  Chios,  and  as  teacher  at  Bologna.  He  was 
converted  to  Protestantism  by  reading  the  "  In- 
stitutes "  of  Calvin,  it  is  said,  and  was  in  prison  at 
Rome,  condemned  to  the  stake,  when  the  pope, 
Paul  IV.,  died  (1559)  and  the  mob  opened  the 


Cralr 
Cranmar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


294 


prisons  and  he  escaped.  He  went  to  Vienna, 
thence  to  England  in  1560,  and  back  to  his  native 
land;  was  appointed  colleague  to  Knox  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1563,  and,  after  the  death  of  Knox  (1572), 
succeeded  to  the  leadership  of  the  Scottish  Church. 
At  first  he  refused  to  proclaim  the  banns  between 
Maiy  and  Bothwell,  but  yielded  later,  protesting 
that  "  he  abhorred  and  detested  the  marriage." 
After  1579  he  was  king's  chaplain  and  was  bold 
enough  to  rebuke  the  king  to  his  face,  but  too  con- 
ciliatory to  suit  the  extreme  party  led  by  Melville. 
He  compiled  part  of  the  "  Second  Book  of  Disci- 
pline," wrote  the  "  King's  Confession  "  (see  Cove- 
nanters, S  2)  in  1580,  and  published  A  Short  Sum 
of  the  Whole  Catechiam  (Edinburgh,  1581;  reprinted 
in  facsimile  with  introduction  by  T.  G.  Law,  1883), 
and  a  shorter  catechism,  A  Form  of  Examination 
Before  the  Communion  (1590).  Both  catechisms 
are  reprinted  in  H.  Bonar's  Catechiams  of  the  Scot- 
Hah  Reformation  (London,  1866). 
Bzblioorapht:  J.  Knox,  Worka,  ed.  D.  Laing,  ii.  456,  Edin- 

burffh,  1896;  T.  MoCrie.  lAU  of  John  Knox,  ii.  53-57.  ib. 

1841;  DNB,  zii.  446-447. 

2.  Scotch  mathematician;  d.  in  London  Oct.  11, 
1731.  He  lived  in  Cambridge  and  London,  and 
had  decided  mathematical  talent;  from  1708  he 
was  prebendary  of  Salisbury.  He  is  mentioned 
here  for  his  curious  Theologia  CkristiancB  principia 
mathematica  (London,  1699;  reprinted,  with  a 
learned  preface,  Leipsic,  1755),  in  which  he  en- 
deavors "  to  calculate  the  duration  of  moral  evi- 
dence, and  the  authority  of  historical  facts."  By 
applying  the  theory  of  probabilities  he  attempts  to 
show  that  the  proofs  of  the  Christian  religion 
steadily  become  weaker  sa  the  force  of  the  testimony 
decays,  and  in  the  year  3144  Christianity  will  en- 
tirely disappear,  "  unless  the  second  coming  of 
Christ  prevent  its  extinction."  He  also  calculated 
"  the  ratio  of  happiness  promised  in  another  world 
to  that  obtainable  in  this,  and  proved  it  to  be  in- 
finite." 
Bduoorafht:  DNB,  xii.  448  (gives  the  eouroes). 

CRAKAHTHORPE,  RICHARD:  Puritan;  b.  at 
or  near  Strickland  (25  m.  8.s.e.  of  Carlisle),  West- 
moreland, 1567;  d.  at  Black  Notley  (35  m.  n.e.  of 
London),  Essex,  1624  (buried  Nov.  25).  He  be- 
came fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  1598,  went 
to  Germany  as  chaplain  to  Lord  Evens,  ambassador 
extraordinary;  became  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of 
London  and  to  the  king;  rector  of  Black  Notley, 
and  of  Paglesham,  Essex.  His  most  noteworthy 
work  was  a  Defenaio  eccleeice  Anglicance  (London, 
1625;  republished  in  the  Library  of  Anglo-catholic 
Theciogy,  Oxford,  1847),  a  reply  to  the  ConaUium 
reditua  of  Marco  Antonio  de  Dominis  (q.v.).  Cra- 
kanthorpe's  Latin  and  learning  are  commended, 
but  his  tone  is  described  cub  "  savage." 

CRAMER,  JOHAinV  AllDREAS:  German  theo- 
logian and  hynmologist;  b.  at  J6hstadt  (7  m.  s.e. 
of  Annaberg,  Saxony)  Jan.  27,  1723;  d.  at  Kiel 
June  12,  1788.  He  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  from 
1748  to  1750  was  pastor  at  Crollwitz  near  Merse- 
burg,  where  he  began  the  publication  of  a  trans- 
lation of  sermons  and  minor  writings  of  Chrysostom 
(10  vols.,  Leipsic,  1748-51).     In  1750  he  was  ap- 


pointed chief  court  preacher  and  councilor  of  the 
consistory  at  Quedlinburg,  and  four  years  later,  at 
the  recommendation  of  Klopstock,  became  (jerman 
court  preacher  at  Copenhagen.  There  his  sermons 
and  his  personality  gained  him  a  position  of  im- 
portance, and  he  influenced  the  spiritual  life  of 
Denmark  by  the  Nordiacher  Aufaeher,  which  he 
edited  (3  vols.,  Copenhagen,  175Sk70),  and  which 
contained,  in  addition  to  reviews  of  important 
literary  works,  studies  on  ethics  and  esthetics. 
From  this  time  date  two  collections  of  sermons 
and  an  elucidation  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1757).  In  1765  he  was  made 
professor  of  theology  at  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen, but  was  dismissed  and  expelled  from  Den- 
mark on  account  of  his  bold  opposition  to  Struen- 
see.  After  acting  for  three  years  as  superintendent 
at  Ltlbeck,  where  he  prepared  a  rationalistic  cate- 
chism, he  accepted  a  call  to  Kiel  in  1774  as  profes- 
sor of  theology  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  university. 
There  he  remained  fourteen  years,  developing  a 
versatile  activity,  especially  in  the  interests  of  the 
young  theologians,  and  also  providing  for  the 
salaries  of  the  instructors  by  the  establishment  of 
a  Sckulmeiateraeminar,  In  the  Church  of  Sleswick- 
Holstein  Cramer  exercised  great  influence  through 
the  h3rmnal  edited  by  him  (Altona,  1780),  which 
remained  in  use  until  1887.  Throughout  his  life 
he  composed  religious  poems,  of  which  444  have 
been  enumerated,  in  addition  to  sixty-four  revisions 
of  older  h3rmns,  and  thirteen  religious  songs.  Espe- 
cially noteworthy  was  his  Poetiache  JJdyeraetzung 
der  Paalmen  mit  Abhandlungen  uber  dieaelben  (4 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1755-64).  Some  of  his  hymns  are 
reminiscent  of  the  swing  of  Klopstock,  wMle  others 
recall  the  measured  movement  of  Gellert,  but  in 
too  many  cases  quality  was  sacrificed  to  quantity. 

Carl  Berthkau. 
Bibuoorapht:  K.  H.  Jfirdena,  Lexikon  deuto<^ier  DidUer, 

i.  328-^47.  Y.  828  sqq.,  Leipsic  1806-10;  E.  E.  Kooh« 

Oetdiidiie  dea  Kirchsnlieds,  vi.  334-344.  Stuttgart,  ISOQ; 

8.  W.  Duffield.  Enoli9h  Hymnt,  p.  589.  New  York,  1886; 

Julian.  Hymnology,  pp.  267-268;  ADB,  iv.  65a 

CRAMER,  SAMUEL:  Dutch  Mennonite;  b.  at 
MiddelbuTg,  Holland,  July  3,  1842.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  AthensBum  of  Amsterdam  and  the  uni- 
versities of  Heidelbeig  and  Zurich,  and  after  being 
a  Mennonite  pastor  at  Zijldijk  (1866-70),  Emden, 
Hanover  (1870-72),  Enschede  (1872-85),  and 
ZwoUe  (1885-90),  was  appointed  to  his  present 
position  of  professor  of  practical  theology  at  the 
Mennonite  theological  seminary  of  Amsterdam. 
He  is  a  member  of  the  editorial  board  of  Teyler's 
Theologiach  Tijdschrift,  an  associate  editor  (with 
F.  Pijper  of  Leyden)  of  the  BOdiotheca  Beforma- 
toria  Neerlendica,  and  editor  of  the  Doopagezinde 
Bijdragen. 

CRANE,  LOUIS  BURTON:  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Mt.  Sterling,  111.,  Apr.  23,  1869.  He  studied  at 
Princeton  University  (B.A.,  1891),  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  and  Berlin,  Erlangen,  and  Gies- 
sen.  He  was  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church,  Princeton,  N.  J.  (1896-99),  and  Calvary 
Presbyterian  Church,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  (1899-1902). 
In  1902-05  he  was  professor  of  New  Testament  lit- 
erature and  interpretation  in  Chicago  Theological 


295 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oralff 
Cranmer 


Seminary,  and  since  1906  has  been  pastor  of  Brain- 
erd  Union  Church,  E^aston,  Pa.  He  has  written 
The  Teatking  of  Jesus  Concerning  the  Hciy  Spirit 
(New  York,  1906). 

CRARMER,  THOMAS:  The  first  Protestant 
archbishop  of  Canterbury;  b.  at  Aslacton  (9  m.  e. 
of  Nottingham),  Nottinghamshire,  July  2,  1489; 
d.  at  Oxford  Mar.  21,  1556.  He  spent  eight  years 
at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
B.A.  in  1510  or  1511  and  his  M.A.  in  1515,  and 
was  elected  to  a  fellowship.  About  the  time  of  the 
publication  of  Erasmus's  New  Testament  (1516) 
and  Luther's  theses  (1517),  he  began  a  systematic 
study  of  the  Scriptures;  he  was  ordained  before 
1520,  and  in  that  year  was  university  preacher  and 
examiner  in  theology.  About  1525  he  had  begun 
"  in  private  to  pray  for  the  abolition  of  the  papal 
power  in  Engbmd,"  but  did  not  commit  himself 
openly. 

In  the  summer  of  1529,  talking  over  the  question 

of  the  divorce  with  the  king's  chief  agents,  Fox 

^  ^       and     Gardiner,     Cranmer     suggested 

''aa ^"  taking  the  matter  out  of  the  hands  of 

b"  ftl  D*     *^®  lawyers  and  referring  it  to  the 

Royal  Di-  theologians  of  the  universties.  Henry 
^®'^**  grasped  at  the  suggestion,  summoned 
Cranmer,  and  commissioned  the  preparation  of  a 
treatise  on  the  question,  making  use  of  Cranmer's 
influence  also  in  other  ways,  and  attaching  him  to 
the  embassy  which  left  England  early  in  1530  to 
see  the  pope  and  the  emperor.  He  brought  back 
tittle  definite  result,  but  the  king  rewarded  his 
services  by  the  gift  of  the  archdeaconry  of  Taunton, 
and  early  in  1532  made  him  ambassador  to  the 
emperor.  During  his  sojourn  in  Germany  he  was 
brought  much  into  contact  with  the  Lutheran 
leader  Osiander,  and  married  his  niece  Margaret. 
In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  Henry  determined 
to  appoint  him  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury, 
vacant  by  Warham's  death;  and  he  was  conse- 
crated on  Mar.  30,  1533,  after  having  drawn  up  a 
formal  protest  to  the  effect  that  he  would  consider 
the  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope  a  form  and  not  a 
reality,  and  that  he  did  not  intend  to  bind  himself 
to  do  anything  contrary  to  the  king  and  common- 
wealth of  England,  or  to  restrain  his  liberty  in 
things  pertaining  to  the  reformation  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  and  the  government  of  the  Church  of 
England.  In  April  he  asked  the  king's  leave  to 
proceed  with  the  trial  of  Catherine's  case,  opened 
his  court  in  May,  and  on  the  23d  pronounced  sen- 
tence, declaring  that  the  marriage  of  Henry  and 
Catherine  had  been  void  from  the  beginning.  Five 
days  later  he  declared  the  king's  marriage  with 
Anne  Boleyn  valid,  and  on  June  1  crowned  her  as 
queen. 

The  breach  with  Rome  on  the  side  of  jurisdiction 
widened  steadily;  that  in  doctrine  was  somewhat 
behind  it.  In  1534  Cranmer  issued  a  pastoral  en- 
joining silence  in  regard  to  masses  for  the  dead, 
prayers  to  the  saints,  pilgrimages,  and  celibacy — 
points  on  which  it  was  hoped  that  an  authoritative 
decision  might  be  reached  within  a  year.  In  1536, 
though  speaking  with  the  greatest  personal  regard 
for  Anne  Boleyn,  he  was  obliged  officially  to  pro- 


nounce Henry's  marriage  with  her  also  void,  and 
on  the  day  she  was  beheaded  issued  a  license  for  him 

to  marry  Lady  Jane  Seymour.     The 

Beginnings  revision  of  doctrine  proceeded  by  de- 

of  the  Ref-  grees,  and  was  assisted  by  the  publi- 

ormation.    cation  of  the  English  version  of  the 

Scriptures,  which  had  been  a  favorite 
project  of  Cranmer's  for  some  time.  He  remained 
at  his  post  under  the  reactionary  system  enforced 
by  the  Six  Articles,  but  during  the  last  years  of 
Henry's  reign  was  subject  to  continual  assaults 
from  the  Roman  party.  Sheltered  by  Henry's  un- 
failing protection,  he  went  quietly  on  maturing  his 
plans  for  religious  reform.  He  worked  at  the  prep- 
aration of  English  services,  of  which  the  Litany 
that  appeared  in  1545  was  the  first  to  come  into 
use.  Tlie  First  Prayeivbook  of  Edward  VI.  was, 
in  the  form  in  which  it  came  before  Parliament,  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  the  work  of  Cranmer, 
though  afterward  modified  into  the  shape  of  a 
compromise  between  the  two  parties.  The  new 
ordinal,  published  in  Mar.,  1550,  was  also  principally 
his  work.  During  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he 
was  constantly  busy  with  projects  for  completing 
the  new  order  of  things,  including  the  revision  of 
the  canon  law  known  as  Reformatio  legum  ecdesiae^ 
ticarunif  and  the  Forty-two  Articles,  afterward  re- 
duced to  thirty-nine. 

The  Second  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.  repre- 
sented Cranmer's  furthest  advance  toward  Conti- 
nental Protestantism;  but  he  adhered  firmly  to  it 
after  Mary's  accession,  knowing  that  he  did  so  at 
the  peril  of  his  life.  A  manifesto  which  he  wrote 
to  define  his  position  got  into  circulation  befoire  he 
intended  it,  and  led  to  his  arrest  in  Sept.,  1553, 
and  to  his  trial  ior  treason  two  months  later,  on 
account  of  his  yielding  to  the  plan  to  proclaim 
Lady  Jane  Grey  queen.     He  was  condemned  to 

death,  but  his  ecclesiastical  character 

Fall  Under  made  it  impossible  to  carry  out  the 

Mary  and  sentence,  as  the  law  then  stood.     For 

Death.      months  he  lay  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower, 

until  the  passing  of  the  statute  De 
haretico  comburendo  in  Jan.,  1555,  warned  him  to 
prepare  for  his  end.  He  was  taken  to  Oxford,  and 
there  submitted  to  a  searching  examination  before 
a  court  possessing  papal  jurisdiction.  On  Nov.  25 
he  was  pronoimced  contumacious  by  the  pope  for 
not  appearing  in  Rome  and  solemnly  excommuni- 
cated. Pole  was  appointed  to  the  vacant  arch- 
bishopric, and  a  commission  was  issued  for  Cran- 
mer's degradation  and  delivery  to  the  secular  arm. 
He  appealed  in  vain  to  a  general  council,  and  in 
the  following  February  Bonner  and  Thirlby  went  to 
Oxford  to  execute  the  sentence.  Cranmer  now 
signed  the  documents  which  have  been  known  as 
his  successive  recantations;  but  the  first  three,  at 
least,  are  not  really  recantations,  but  submissions 
to  authority,  such  as  his  political  principles  always 
impelled  him  to  make.  His  fifth,  or  real,  recan- 
tation was  signed  rather  under  the  influence  of 
seductive  hopes  held  out  to  him  than  under  that  of 
fear.  It  surrendered  every  point  for  which  he  had 
fought,  anathematized  the  whole  heresy  of  Luther 
and  Zwingli,  and  recognized  the  pope  as  Christ's 
vicar  and  supreme  head  of  the  Church  on  earth.     A 


Cranston 
Creation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


296 


sixth  and  still  more  humiliating  confession  was 
signed  on  Mar.  18.  When  he  saw  that  all 
availed  nothing,  and  that  his  death  was  resolved 
on,  he  braced  himself  to  a  final  effort,  publicly  re- 
canted his  recantations  and  heroically  met  his 
fate,  dying  by  fire  in  Broad  Street,  Oxford,  on  the 
same  spot  where  Ridley  and  Latimer  had  already 
suffered.  He  was  a  man  of  simple  and  amiable 
character,  a  learned  theologian,  as  well  as  a  great 
patron  of  learning  in  others.  Though  naturally  of 
a  shrinking,  sensitive  temperament  and  a  some- 
what slow  and  hesitating  mind,  when  once  he  saw 
his  duty  he  showed  no  lack  of  courage;  and  if  at  the 
last  "  he  tried  to  concede  that  impossible  change  of 
belief  which  his  inquisitors  required,  he  redeemed 
his  fall  by  a  heroism  in  the  hour  of  death  to  which 
history  can  find  few  parallels." 

Bibuoorapht:  Cranmer's  Remaina  were  collected  by  H. 
Jenkyns,  4  vols.,  Oxford,  1833;  his  Warka  were  edited  by 
J.  £.  Cox,  for  the  Parker  Society.  2  vols.,  LondoD,  1844-. 
1846;  and  his  LetUra  in  Lettera  of  the  Mariyra  of  the  Enoliah 
Churdi,  ib.  1883.  Sources  are:  J.  Strype,  MemcriaU  of 
Cranmer,  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1840  (contains  appendix  of 
documents);  idem,  EccUaiaatical  MemoriaU^  3  vols..  Lon- 
don, 1842;  NctmHvea  of  the  Daya  of  (Ka  RefarmaHon 
.  .  .  vnih  TtDO  CotUeniporary  Btographiea  of  Archbiahop 
Cranmer,  ed.  J.  O.  Nichols  for  Camden  Society,  ib.  1869. 
There  are  Livea  by  H.  J.  Todd,  London,  1831;  C.  W.  Le 
Bas,  ib.  1833;  W.  F.  Hook,  in  Livea  of  Arehbiahopa  of 
Canterbury,  vols,  v.-vii.,  12  vols.,  ib,  1860-77;  C.  H. 
CoUette,  ib.  1887;  A.  J.  Mason,  ib.  1808;  A.  F.  PoUanl, 
New  York,  1004.  Consult  also:  A.  D.  Innes,  Cranmer  and 
Oie  Reformation  in  England,  Edinbuiish.  1000;  DNB,  xiii. 
10-31. 

CRANSTON,  EARL :  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop ; 
b.  at  Athens,  O.,  June  27,  1840.  He  studied  at 
Ohio  University,  Athens,  O.  (B.A.,  1861),  and  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War  in  the  Ohio  infantry 
and  West  Virginia  cavalry,  being  promoted  captain. 
He  entered  the  Ohio  Conference  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  ministry  in  1867,  and  after  holding  vari- 
ous pastorates  for  fourteen  years  was  elected  pub- 
lishing agent  of  his  denomination  in  1884.  In 
1896  he  was  elected  bishop,  and  spent  the  years 
1898-1900  in  an  official  tour  of  inspection  which 
covered  China,  Japan,  and  Korea.  Since  1903  he 
has  had  special  charge  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
missions  in  Mexico.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  Denver  University,  and  has  been  treasurer  and 
a  member  of  the  examining  board  of  the  Freed- 
men's  Aid  and  Southern  Education  Society,  as  well 
as  treasurer  of  the  trustees  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  (at  large)  and  a  trustee  of  Ohio  Uni- 
versity. 

CRAPSET,  ALGERNON  SIDNEY:  Protestant 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Fairmount,  O.,  June  28,  1847. 
He  was  graduated  at  St.  Stephen's  College,  Annan- 
dale,  N.  Y.  (1869),  and  at  the  General  Theological 
Seminary  (1872).  He  was  on  the  staflF  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York  City,  1872-79;  rector  of  St. 
Andrew's,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1879-1906,  when  he 
was  convicted  of  violating  his  ordination  vows  in 
denying  certain  statements  of  the  Apostles'  treed, 
particularly  the  Virgin  Birth.  In  theology  he 
holds  "  to  the  theistic  conception  of  the  universe; 
one  God  who  is  all  in  all;  Jesus  the  son  of  Joseph, 
the  manifestation  of  God  in  the  ethical  sphere," 
while  to  him  "  the  catholic  creeds  are  the  interpre- 


tation of  God  to  the  Greco-Roman  world,"  and 
"  to  love  God  and  man  is  salvation."  He  has  writ- 
ten: Five  Sorrowful  Mysteries  (New  York,  1883); 
Fiw  Joyful  Mysteries  (1886);  A  Voice  in  the  WU- 
demess  (1897);  Life  and  Labors  of  Sarah  Wisner 
Thome  (1900);   and  Religion  and  Politics  (1905). 

CRATO  OF  CRAFFTHEIM.   See  Krafft, 

JOHANN. 

CRAVEN,  ELIJAH  RICHARDSON:  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Mar.  28,  1824; 
d.  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  5,  1908.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (B. A.,  1842)  and 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (1848),  mean- 
while studying  law  (1842-44)  and  being  tutor 
in  mathematics  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (1847- 
1849).  He  was  pastor  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  at  Somerville,  N.  J.,  1850-54,  and  of  the 
Third  Presbyterian  Church,  Newark.  N.  J.,  1854- 
1887;  secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publi- 
cation and  Sabbath  School  Work  1887-1904,  when 
he  retired  as  secretary  emeritus.  He  was  chair- 
man of  the  committee  for  the  revision  of  the  Book 
of  Discipline  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  1879-82, 
and  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  North,  in  1885.  In  theology 
he  was  an  Old  School  Presbyterian.  He  edited  the 
American  edition  of  J.  P.  Lange's  Commentary  on 
the  Book  of  Revelation  (New  York,  1874). 

CRAWFORD,  CLARENCE  KERR:  Presbyterian 
(Southern  Church);  b.  at  Perryville,  Ky.,  Mar.  16, 
1864.  He  studied  at  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky. 
(B.A.,  1884),  and  Danville  Theological  Seminary 
(1889).  He  was  tutor  in  Hebrew  (1887-96)  and 
professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  (1897-1901) 
in  the  latter  institution,  and  since  its  consolidation 
with  the  Louisville  Theological  Seminary  in  1901 
to  form  the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminaiy  of 
Kentucky  at  Louisville  he  has  been  professor  of 
Old  Testament  exegesis  and  hermeneutics  in  the 
new  institution.  In  theological  position  he  is  a 
liberal  conservative. 

CREA6H,cr^J0HNTH0MAS:  Roman  Catholic; 
b.  at  Wakefield,  Mass.,  Mar.  7,  1870.  He  studied 
at  Boston  College  (B.A.,  1891),  St.  John's  Seminary, 
Brighton,  Mass.,  and  the  Seminario  Romano,  Rome 
(S.T.D.,  1896;  J.C.D.,  1897),  and  in  1896  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  canon  law  in  the  CathoUc 
University  of  America,  Washington.  He  has  been 
lecturer  on  Religion  at  Trinity  College,  Washington, 
D.  C,  since  1902,  and  has  written  Remarriage  After 
Divorce  (New  York,  1905). 

CREATION,  BABYLONIAN  ACCOUNTS:    UntU 
1875  knowledge  of  the  Babylonian  conception  of 
creation  had  come  only  through  Berosus  (a  Baby- 
lonian priest  of  Marduk,  c.  300  B.C.),  whose  narra- 
tive  was   transmitted   by   Alexander   Polyhistor, 
from  whose  book  probably  it  was  taken  by  Eusebius 
into  his  Chronicon  (book  i.).    This  account  tells  of 
a  primeval  darkness  in  which  beings 
Account    combining  parts  of  the  form  of  man. 
of  Berosus.  beast,  and  bird   inhabited   a  watery 
waste  along  with  reptiles,  fishes,  and 
monsters,  all  under  the  rule  of  Thamte  (Tiamat;  see 
below).    Marduk  came,  cut  Thamte  in  two,  of  one 


297 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OranatCMt 
Oreation 


half  creating  the  heaven  and  of  the  other  the  earth, 
and  destroyed  or  shut  up  the  monsters  whom  she 
had  ruled.  This,  however,  left  an  uninhabited 
earth  which  was  peopled  by  the  device  of  cutting 
ofT  Marduk's  head  (at  his  direction),  when  the  blood 
which  fell  was  mixed  with  earth  by  the  gods,  men 
and  animals  being  formed  from  the  mixture.  Mar- 
duk  created  also  the  heavenly  bodies. 

In  1875  George  Smith  discovered  a  tablet  from 
the   library  of  Asshurbcmipal  which  ran  in  part 
parallel  with  the   account   of  Berosus.     This  he 
translated,  in  great  part  correctly,  but  made  mis- 
takes which  misled  many.     From  time  to  time 
other  fragments  were  f oimd  and  trans- 
Cuneiform  lated,  in  some  of  which  rightly  and  in 
Accounts,    others  mistakenly  parts  of  the  creation 
narrative   were   seen.     Thus   the   so- 
called  "  Cuthsean  account  "  is  now  shown  not  to 
refer  tx)  creation  but  to  the  story  of  a  king  of  Cutha. 
It  soon  became  evident  from  the  diversities  that 
there  were  several  accounts  current  in  early  times 
and  that  creation  was  attributed  in  different  cen- 
ters to  different  deities. 

The  creation  account  of  Babylonia  which  finally 
became  current,  to  which  Mr.  Smith's  tablet  be- 
longed, has  finally  by  L.  W.  King  of  the  British 
Museum  been  shown  to  have  been  written  on  a 
series  of  seven  tablets  as  a  narrative  poem  in  994 
lines,  of  which  more  than  half  are  now  fully  re- 
covered, and  so  much  of  the  rest  that  three-quar- 
ters of  the  whole  text  are  now  in  hand.  The  tablets 
carried  from  138  to  146  lines  each,  and  in  some  cases 
there  are  at  least  four  copies  of  parts  of  the  inscrip- 
tion, Mr.  King's  reconstruction  involving  the  use  of 
forty-nine  separate  tablets.  These  are  of  different 
periods,  none  older  than  the  Assyrian  period  and 
some  as  late  as  the  Persian,  a  few  being  the  exei^ 
cise  studies  of  Babylonian  students. 

The  epic  was  known  to  Babylonians  from  the 
opening  words  as  the  **  When  above  "  series.  This 
account  is  in  part  at  least  a  theogony  as  well  as  a 
cosmogony,  this  part  having  its  closest  parallel  in 
the  Japanese  theogony.  The  primal  existences  are 
said  to  have  been  Apsu,  "the  deep,"  Mmnmu, " con- 
fusion "  (?),  and  Tiamat  (Hebr. 
Content  of  Tehom),  "Chaos" — watery  existences 
the  Latter,  which  in  darkness  mingled  their  floods. 
No  gods  then  existed.  In  the  course 
of  time  appeared  the  primal  gods  Lahmu  and  Lah- 
amu;  then  Anshar  and  Kishar,  while  Ann's  name 
is  read  in  a  much  mutilated  section.  After  a  long 
gap  in  the  text  it  appears  that  in  consequence  of  the 
existence  of  the  gods  an  orderliness  was  coming  into 
being  because  of  which  Apsu  and  Mummu  precipi- 
tated a  conflict  with  the  gods  in  which  Ea  by  his 
wisdom  defeated  the  opponents  of  order.  A  second 
conflict  was  forced  by  Tiamat,  a  monster  so  forbid- 
ding that  the  gods  could  not  stand  before  her  until 
Manluk  stood  forth  as  their  champion  on  condition 
that  he  be  recognized  as  supreme  among  them.  After 
a  banquet  of  the  gods  at  which  the  terms  were  ac- 
cepted Marduk  overcame  the  monster  and  with 
nets  captured  and  imprisoned  or  slew  her  and  her 
hosts.  With  the  fourth  tablet  the  narrative  of 
creative  work  begins.  Marduk  cleft  in  two  the 
body  of  Tiamat,  and  out  of  one  half  made  the  firma- 


ment restraining  the  upper  waters,  created  heaven, 
and  appointed  to  their  stations  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea. 
He  marked  out  the  years,  months,  and  days,  ap- 
pointing for  this  office  the  heavenly  bodies.  Prob- 
ably the  fifth  tablet  told  of  the  creation  of  trees 
and  plants,  since  in  the  closing  ode  of  praise  Marduk 
is  hailed  as  lord  and  giver  of  vegetation.  The  sixth 
tablet  teUs  of  the  creation  of  man,  caused  by  the 
plaint  of  the  gods  that  there  was  no  one  to  minister 
to  them.  To  this  end  Marduk's  blood  was  used  as 
in  the  account  of  Berosus. 

A  variant  is  found  in  a  tablet  according  to  which 
originally  there  was  no  heaven,  earth,  vegetation, 
house,  or  city,  only  a  watery  waste.  Marduk  laid 
a  reed  on  the  water,  poured  on  it  dust  which  he 
created,  made  a  habitation  for  the  gods,  and  then 
with  the  help  of  the  goddess  Amaru  created  man 
and  beast,  then  ^he  rivers  of  Babylonia,  and 
dammed  out  the  sea  and  erected  houses  and  cities. 
Still  other  texts,  one  in  Sumerian  and  a  parallel  in 
Semitic,  give  a  variant  account  of  the  creation  of 
sun  and  moon. 

The  analysis  of  the  principal  myth  pieced  out  by 
Mr.  King  reveals  a  complex  narrative  evidently 
built  up  after  Marduk  became  chief  deity  and  in 
his  honor,  the  composite  showing  traces  of  diverse 
origin  of  the  components  in  centers  where  other 
deities  than  Marduk  were  honored.     The  double 
contest,  the  conception  of  the  victory  by  Ela  in  the 
first  battle,  suggestions  of  participation  by  En-lil, 
and  the  synonymity  of  the  names  of 
Composite  the    three    primeval    existences    be- 
Origin.      speak  separate  myths  of  diverse  origin, 
which  were  combined  into  the  narra- 
tive which  became  dominant.     This  conclusion  is 
corroborated  by  references  in  isolated  texts  to  the 
creative   work  of   Ea,   En-lil,    Ishtar,   and   other 
deities.     While  none  of  the  extant  texts  are  earlier 
than  the  time  of  Asshurbanipal,  the  essential  facts 
are  referred  to  as  early  as  the  third  pre-Christian 
millennium.     The  most  likely  time  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  epic  is  the  age  of  Hammurabi. 

The  points  of  contact  with  the  Hebrew  narrative 
have  been  overrated  through  the  influence  of 
George  Smith.  The  Babylonian  text  is  still  too 
fragmentary  to  afford  a  satisfactory  basis  of  com- 
parison. The  similarities  are  (1)  the  original 
watery  chaos,  (2)  the  creation  of  the  firmament 
(a  common  ethnic  notion),  (3)  the  creation  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  as  rulers  of  time,  (4)  the  crowning 
of  creative  operations  by  the  production  of  man 
(in  one  case  by  the  blood  of  deity,  in  the  other  by  his 
breath),  and  (5)  the  coincidence  of  Tiamat  and 
Tehom  (Gen.  i.  2)  and  of  i^imu  and  c?em,  "  bone  " 
(Gen.  ii.  23),  in  the  two  narratives. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibuoobapht:  The  most  important  book  is  L.  W.  King, 
Seven  Tableta  of  CreaHon,  2  vola.,  London,  1902.  Con- 
sult: George  Smith,  Chaidctan  .  .  .  Oeneeia,  New  York, 
1876  (the  epoch-making  work);  P.  Jensen,  Koemologie 
der  Babylonier,  Strasburg,  1890;  idem,  MyiKen  und  Epen, 
Berlin,  1900;  H.  Gunkel.  Schiipfung  und  Chao9,  Gotting- 
en,  1896  (traces  relationship  of  Hebrew  and  Babylonian 
literature);  F.  Delitssch,  Die  babyloniaehe  WeUechCpf- 
unoal^ire,  Leipsio,  1896;  C.  J.  Ball,  Light  from  the  Boat, 
London,  1899;  H.  Radan,  in  Moniat,  xii.  604  sqq.,  xiv. 
81-87;  Aatvrian  and  Babylonian  Literature^  ed.  R.  F. 
Harper,  pp.  282-303.  New  York,  190L 


Creation  and  Praaarvation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


298 


CREATION  AlID  PRESERVATION  OF  THE 
WORLD. 

I.  The  Biblical  and  Theological  Doctrine. 
II.  The  Connogonies  of  Andent  and  Modem  Paganiflm. 

1.  The  Mythological  Coflmogonies  of  Paganism  Proper. 

2.  Coemogonio    Notions    in    Ancient,    especially    Greek, 

Philosophy. 

3.  The  Gnostio-Manicfaean  Cosmogonies. 

4.  Speculative  Cosmogonies  of  the  Modem  Pantheistic- 

Materialistic  Natural  Philosophy. 

III.  The  Creation  Theories  of  the  Older  Judaism  and  the 
Judaising  Christianity  of  Many  Fathers  and  Modem 

Tlieologians. 

1.  In  Judaism  Proper. 

2.  In  the  Patristic  Period. 

3.  In  Modem  Times. 

IV.  The  Normal  Via  Media  between  Jewish  and  Pagan  The- 


V.  Preservation  of  the  World. 

L  The  Biblical  and  Theological  Doctrine:  The 
idea  of  the  origm  of  the  universe  through  the 
creative  power  of  God  is  inseparable  from  the 
fundamental  conception  of  monotheism.  If  there 
is  but  one  living,  personal  God,  nothing  in  the  world 
can  have  come  into  being  but  through  his  will. 
Nowhere  is  this  idea  more  clearly  expressed  than  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  According  to  the 
Mosaic  account,  God  created  "the  heaven  and 
the  earth,"  that  is,  the  whole  natural  universe,  "  in 
the  beginning "  of  all  temporal  being.  In  six 
working-days  he  called  into  existence  all  inorganic 
and  organic  beings  by  the  simple  word  of  power, 
"  Let  there  be  "  this  or  that  (Gen.  i.  1-ii.  3).  God 
is  not  less  the  absolute  creator  of  the  world  to  the 
authors  of  Ps.  xxxiii.  and  civ.  and  Job  xxxviii. 
With  the  same  definiteness  the  deutero-canonical 
or  apocryphal  literature  of  pre-Christian  Judaism 
emphasizes  the  monotheistic  nature  of  the  idea  of 
creation  (Ecclus.  xvi.  26-xvii.  9;  II  Mace.  vii.  28; 
Wisd.  xi.  17  sqq.).  In  the  New  Testament  the 
content  of  the  Mosaic  cosmogony  is  presupposed 
in  numerous  sayings  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  as 
in  those  which  mention  the  foundation  of  the  world 
(John  i.  24;  Matt.  xxv.  24;  Luke  xi.  60;  Eph.  i.  4; 
I  Pet.  i.  20;  Heb.  iv.  3),  the  creation  of  man  and 
woman  (Matt.  xix.  4-6;  Acts  xvii.  24-26;  I  Tim. 
ii.  13),  and  the  Sabbath,  on  which  God  rested 
(Heb.  iv.  4;  cf.  John  v.  17).  God  is  repeatedly 
spoken  of  as  the  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  who 
made  both  (Matt.  xL  25;  Luke  x.  21;  Acts  xvii. 
24;  cf.  Rev.  iv.  11);  as  the  primal  source,  of  whom 
are  all  things  (I  Cor.  viii.  6;  Rom.  xi.  36;  cf.  Eph. 
iv.  6);  as  the  everlasting  Father,  who  through  the 
Son  made  the  world  (John  i.  3;  Col.  i.  15-18; 
Heb.  i.  2);  as  the  invisible  God,  who  reveals  his 
eternal  power  and  Godhead  by  the  works  of  his 
hands  (Rom.  i.  20;  Acts  xiv.  17).  The  creation 
of  the  world  out  of  nothing  is  mentioned  at  least 
once  in  the  New  Testament  (Heb.  xi.  3). 

On  the  basis  of  this  Biblical  teaching  the  dog- 
matic theology  of  the  Chureh  developed.  The 
most  important  Fathers,  the  scholastics,  and  the 
old  Protestant  theologians  are  in  essential  agree- 
ment in  the  doctrine  of  a  miraculous  creation  of  the 
world  out  of  nothing.  The  distinction  is  made 
between  a  first  or  immediate  and  a  second  or  me- 
diate creation.  The  former  is  the  creation  of  *'  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,"  i.e.,  of  the  substance  of 
the  universe  both  within  and  without  this  world, 


as  well  as  of  purely  spiritual  or  immaterial  essences. 
The  second  is  the  gradual  development  and  organi- 
zation of  the  matter  immediately  created  out  of 
nothing.  As  the  operative  cause  of  creation  the 
entire  Trinity  is  named,  the  Father  creating  the 
world  by  the  Son  in  the  Holy  Ghost  (Ps.  xxxiiL  6; 
Gen.  i.  2;  John  i.  3;  Heb.  i.  2;  Col.  i.  16;  cf.  also 
Rom.  xi.  36;  Eph.  iv.  6).  As  the  final  end  of 
creation  dogmatic  theology  places  the  glorification 
of  God  or  the  complete  revelation  of  his  power, 
wisdom,  and  goodness — as  the  intermediate  end 
the  beatification  of  men  through  their  union  with 
God  (cf.  Gen.  i.  31;  Ps.  viii.  6,  xix.  2,  cxv.  16;  Is. 
xlv.  18;  Acts  xvii.  26;  I  Cor.  xv.  46). 

The  variations  from  this  doctrine  which  have 
made  their  appearance  in  the  history  of  human 
speculation  have  related  either  to  the  creative  sub- 
ject or  to  the  manner  of  creation,  modifying  either 
the  conception  of  a  conscious  personal  Creator  or 
that  of  a  determinate  process  of  creation  rising 
by  a  definite  progression  to  man.  On  the  fiist 
point,  they  are  inclined  toward  changing  creation 
into  a  mere  cosmogony  or  slow  development  of  the 
world;  on  the  second,  toward  neglecting  the  ele- 
ment of  cosmogony  or  well-ordered  plan  in  creation. 
The  former  is  the  common  error  of  all  pagan  doc- 
trines of  the  origin  of  the  universe,  as  well  as  of 
such  pagan-pantheistic  speculation  as  has  taken 
place  within  the  Church.  The  doctrine  of  later 
Judaism  and  the  Judaizing  supematuralism  of 
many  of  the  Fathers  and  late  Christian  thinkers 
suffers,  on  the  other  hand,  from  too  exclusive  mono- 
theistic emphasizing  of  the  absolute  action  of  God 
in  creation. 

XL  The  Cosmogonies  of  Ancient  and  Modem 
Paganism:  To  pagan  thought,  creation  in  its 
essence  is  a  slow  self-originating  process,  into  which 
the  theogonic  element  enters,  if  at  all,  only  in  the 
final  stages.  Its  result  is  the  universe  considered 
as  mere  thusisy  or  nature,  not  as  ktiaiSj  or  the  crea- 
tiue.  This  is  true  equally  of  the  polytheistic, 
dualistic,  and  pantheistic  systems  of  non-Christian 
paganism,  of  modem  pantheistic  tendencies  with 
Christian  form,  and  of  their  logical  consequence, 
atheistic  materialism. 

1.  The  Mythological  Oosmoffonlea  of  Pacanim 
Proper :  These  are  all  characterized  by  some  notion 
of  emanation;  they  consider  the  world  and  the 
substances  within  it  as  effluxes  of  the  Godhead, 
and  thus  suggest  a  certain  coherence  of  matter  and 
the  created  world  of  spirits  with  God.  This  is  tme 
also  of  the  dualistic  religions,  according  to  which  the 
world  originates  from  the  joint  action  of  the  ema- 
nations from  the  good  god  of  light  with  those  from 
the  god  of  darkness — either  in  the  way  of  a  hostile 
conflict  of  the  two  principles,  as  in  the  Persian 
legend,  or  in  that  of  the  parallei  development  of 
both,  as  in  the  mythologies  of  the  Slavic,  and  to 
some  extent  of  the  Germanic,  peoples.  Into  both 
the  dualistic  and  the  pantheistic  systems  much 
that  is  originally  polytheistic  has  penetrated,  just 
as  scarcely  any  developed  pagan  cosmogony  ia 
without  suggestion  of  the  monotheistic  conception. 
A  complete  classification  of  the  pagan  cosmogonies 
will  not  be  attempted  here;  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
glance  at  the  most  characteristic  ones,  beginning 


299 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Or«atlon  aad  Preaoryatloa 


with  thofle  most  closely  related  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment account. 

According  to  the  Persian  myth  in  the  BundahUhn, 
Ormuzd,  with  the  Amshaspands,  created  the  world  in 
six  periods  by  his  word  (see  Zoroaster,  Zoroabtri- 
AN  ism).  The  usual  order  is  the  heavens  and  the  light » 
the  water,  the  earth,  the  trees,  the  animals,  and  men 
as  descendants  of  the  archetypal  man  Gayomart. 
The  division  of  the  process  into  definite  periods  of 
one  thousand  years  is  apparently  later,  but  in  both 
earlier  and  later  sources  an  absolute  creation  out 
of  nothing  is  affirmed.  StUl  more  definitely  the 
traditional  stoiy  of  the  Etruscans  seems  to  point  to 
an  original  connection  with  the  Old  Testament. 
The  world  is  here  said  to  have  been  created  by  God 
in  six  periods  of  one  thousand  years — first,  heaven 
and  earth,  then  the  firmament,  the  sea  and  other 
waters,  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  the  animals,  and 
lastly  men.  Ajs  the  earliest  authority  for  this 
belief  is  Suidas  (s.v.  Tvpptrvia),  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible to  avoid  the  conclusion  of  Jewish  or  Christian 
influences  in  the  account.  Much  fuller  of  obscure 
mythological  elements  are  the  cosmogonies  of 
several  peoples  of  Western  Asia.  In  the  Old 
Babylonian,  according  to  Berosus  (about  3(X)  B.C.), 
the  primitive  chaos  was  dominated  by  the  sea- 
goddess  Markaya  or  Homoroka,  i.e.,  the  ocean; 
then  the  supreme  god  Bel-Zeus  split  her  in  two 
and  out  of  one  half  made  the  heavens,  out  of  the 
other  half  the  earth;  then  Bel  had  hki  own  head 
cut  ofT,  and  men  were  formed  out  of  the  blood 
which  flowed  from  him,  mixed  with  earth  (see 
Creation,  Babylonian  Accounts).  Some  con- 
fused similarities  to  the  Old  Testament  account, 
with  a  large  admixture  of  theogonic  myths,  are 
found  in  the  Phenidan  legends,  as  given  by  the 
somewhat  doubtful  authority  Sanchuniathon.  Ac- 
cording to  this,  the  spirit  which,  as  a  dark  wind, 
brood^  over  the  primeval  chaos  was  in  some  way 
united  with  the  matter  of  this  chaos;  and  out  of 
this  union,  which  is  called  Desire,  originated  first  a 
fertile  watery  slime  in  which  lay  concealed  the  seed 
of  all  things;  then  the  heaven,  in  the  shape  of  an 
egg*  out  of  which  came  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
the  air  and  the  sea,  the  clouds  and  the  wind,  thunder 
and  lightning;  and  finally,  awakened  by  the  thun- 
der, intellectual  beings  of  both  sexes.  In  the  cos- 
mogonies of  the  Greeks  and  the  Egyptians,  par- 
tially related  to  these,  the  gods  originate  together 
with  the  forming  world.  According  to  the  oldest 
Greek  legend  in  Hesiod,  out  of  chaos  proceeded  first 
Gala,  Tartaros,  Eros  (the  earth,  the  depths,  and 
love);  next  the  pair  Erebos  and  Nyx  (darkness 
and  night),  who  produced  Aither  and  Hemera 
(the  light  of  heaven  and  the  day).  Gaia  then 
brought  forth  at  intervals  other  cosmic  powers 
and  the  Titans  from  whom  Zeus,  the  other  gods  of 
Olympus,  and  men  were  descended.  A  somewhat 
sixnilar  cosmogony,  though  rather  more  influenced 
by  Eastern  myths,  is  found  in  Aristophanes. 

According  to  the  Egyptian  cosmogony,  as  given 
by  Diodorus  Siculus,  the  elements  originally  mixed 
in  chaos  were  separated  by  a  self-originating  move- 
ment of  air;  the  heavier  ones  sank  and  gradually 
separated  into  land  and  sea,  under  the  continuous 
impulse   of  this  movement.    Out   of  the  earth. 


while  it  still  retained  a  half-fluid  character,  the 
heat  of  the  sun  generated  animals.  The  older 
Egyptian  mythology  is  more  monotheistic.  Amun, 
or  Chnum,  or  Thoth  appears  as  the  supreme  crea- 
tive god,  who  produces  the  heavens,  earth  and  its 
vegetation,  animals,  men,  and  gods.  Here  also 
thm  are  several  remarkable  reminders  of  Genesis. 

In  the  oldest  religious  literature  of  India,  as  in  the 
Rig- Veda,  there  are  also  traces  of  monotheism.  The 
much  later  book  of  Manu  is  more  fantastic.  Ac- 
cording to  it  the  universe  was  once  a  confused 
chaotic  darkness;  God,  the  great  originator  of  all 
things,  appeared  and  drove  away  the  darkness  by 
his  light,  creating  first  water,  and  in  it  the  seed  of 
light.  Out  of  this  seed  developed  a  golden  egg,  in 
which  Brahma  sat  a  whole  year  in  calm  meditation, 
finally  breaking  it  and  making  heaven  and  earth 
out  of  its  halves.  A  similar  process  is  described  in 
the  Mahabharata  and  generally  in  the  later  sources 
of  Indian  mythology,  some  of  which  go  more  into 
detail,  as  in  deducing  varioils  elements  from  the 
different  parts  of  Brahma's  body.  The  notion  of 
the  primeval  egg  is  found  in  other  mythologies, 
such  as  the  old  Chinese,  the  Japanese,  the  Finnish 
(in  the  ancient  epos  Kalewala  the  formation  of 
heaven  and  earth  from  the  two  halves  of  the  egg  is 
described  just  as  by  Manu),  and  even  that  of  the 
South  Sea  Islands.  Again,  the  story  of  the  origin 
of  different  parts  of  the  world  from  the  severed 
limbs  of  a  gigantic  primitive  man  or  anthropo- 
morphic god  is  found  also  in  the  old  (jermanic  and 
Scandinavian  cosmogony. 

As  common  traits  of  all  these  mythological  cos- 
mogonies may  be  mentioned  the  development  of 
the  process  of  formation  from  less  perfect  to  more 
perfect,  or  from  original  chaos  to  the  final  creation 
of  man;  the  predominance  of  water  in  the  original 
condition  of  the  earth;  the  evolution  of  a  luminous 
or  spiritual  principle  which  reacts  on  this  prime- 
val water;  and  finally  the  emphasis  laid  upon  the 
godlike  origin  of  man,  or  his  mediate  relation  to 
the  Deity,  as  a  ground  of  superiority  over  the 
animals  generated  from  the  earth  by  elementary 
forces. 

8.  Oosmoffonio  Notions  in  Ancient,  •specially 
Greek,  Philosophy:  The  philosophy  of  both 
lonians  and  Dorians  is  essentially  a  natural  phi- 
losophy, and  thus  largely  cosmologies!.  The 
Ionian  philosophers  searched  for  the  material 
principle  of  things,  which  they  defined  variously. 
Thales  found  it  in  water  or  abstract  moisture; 
Anaximander  in  the  apeiran,  i.e.,  infinite  and  in- 
definite primeval  substance;  Anaximenes  in  the 
air;  Heraclitus  in  ethereal  fire;  Anaxagoras  in  the 
seeds  of  things,  once  inextricably  intermingled  in 
chaos,  then  disentangled  and  formed  into  a  well- 
ordered  cosmos  by  the  divine  spirit,  the  absolutely 
simple,  indivisible,  impassible  noua ;  Leucippus 
and  Democritus  in  the  atoms,  those  indivisible, 
infinitely  small  bodies  which  are  distinguished  from 
each  other  not  by  their  qualities,  but  only  geo- 
metrically by  form,  position,  and  arrangement,  and 
whose  sum  constitutes  abstract  fulness  in  contrast 
with  the  other  primeval  principle  of  emptiness  or 
nothingness.  The  Doric  philosophers  in  Magna 
Graecia  and  Sicily  directed  their  attention  toward 


Oreatlon  and  Preflarvation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


800 


discovering  an  ideal  or  formal  principle  of  things. 
The  Pythagoreans  found  it  in  numbers,  geometrical 
forms,  and  relations;  the  Eleatics  (Xenophanes, 
Parmenides,  Zeno,  Melissus)  in  the  conceptual 
unity  of  being.  A  clever  attempt  to  combine  the 
Ionic  and  Eleatic  standpoints  was  made  by  Empe- 
docles,  who  defined  four  material  and  two  ideal 
elements  or  roots  of  things — the  former  being  earth, 
water,  air,  and  fire,  the  latter  the  motive  powers  of 
love  and  hate,  to  one  of  which  the  \mion,  to  the 
other  the  separation  of  things  in  the  process  of 
world-formation  is  attributed.    See  Materialism. 

In  the  main  period  of  Greek  philosophy  the  oppo- 
sition between  idealistic  and  realistic  (or  material- 
istic) cosmology  recurs  in  the  relation  of  the  Pla- 
tonic to  the  Aristotelian  theory,  then  in  that  of  the 
Stoic  to  the  Epicurean.  Plato,  who  considered 
ideas,  and  especially  the  highest,  that  of  the  Good, 
as  the  only  eternal  things,  asserts  the  temporal 
nature  of  the  world,  or  at  most  makes  it  to  have 
been  created  by  God;  the  absolute  Good,  out  of 
matter  without  quality  and  actually  unreal.  First 
the  Anima  mundi,  or  soul  of  the  world,  was  formed 
by  harmonic  union  of  indivisible  and  divisible  sub- 
stance, then  the  body  of  the  world.  The  relation 
of  the  world-isoul  to  the  material  universe  corre- 
sponds, in  the  human  microcosm,  to  that  between 
the  immortal  soul  with  its  seat  in  the  head  and  the 
body  with  its  two  inferior  souls.  Aristotle,  on  the 
other  hand,  declared  the  world  to  be  finite  in  space 
or  extension,  but  infinite  in  time.  According  to 
him,  the  first  thing  to  be  set  in  motion  by  the 
"  immovable  mover  "  was  the  heaven  of  the  fixed 
stars,  as  the  highest  of  the  spheres  which  surround 
the  earth.  The  cosmology  of  the  Stoics,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  generally  idealistic  attitude,  ap- 
proached more  closely  to  the  Platonic  and  the 
Eleatic  than  to  Aristotle.  They  considered  the 
world  as  eternal,  but  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  the  result 
or  the  image  of  the  eternal  power  of  the  Grodhead 
which  works  in  it.  This  Godhead,  who  is  in  the 
world  as  an  all-pervading  breath,  as  a  formative 
fire,  as  a  rational  soul,  and  includes  in  itself  the 
individual  rational  type-forms  or  logai  spermatikoi, 
separates  itself  through  a  creative  process  into 
four  elements,  as  well  as  into  bodies  formed  by 
various  combinations  of  them.  After  the  expira- 
tion of  a  certain  period  things  return,  by  a  consu- 
ming conflagration,  once  more  into  the  Godhead, 
which  then  creates  the  world  anew,  only  to  destroy 
it  once  more  when  the  time  comes.  Epicurus  and 
his  school,  going  back  for  their  physics  to  the 
realistic  natural  philosophers,  especially  Democ- 
ritus,  aflGum  the  eternity  of  space,  and  in  it  of  atoms 
distinguished  by  size,  shape,  and  weight.  These 
atoms,  tending  downward  on  account  of  their 
weight,  generate  by  collision  certain  movements 
which  end  in  the  rotary  motion  that  forms  worlds, 
countless  in  number.  Animals  and  men  are  mere 
products  of  the  earth;  the  formation  of  the  latter 
(whose  souls  are  substances  with  the  nature  of  air 
and  fire,  consisting  of  refined  atoms,  diffused 
throughout  the  whole  body)  includes  a  gradual 
evolution  toward  perfection. 

Coming  to  the  philosophical  movements  which 
follow  the  close  of  independent  intellectual  life  in 


Greece  (the  last  centuiy  B.C.),  the  Skeptics  declared 
all  certain  knowledge  on  these  subjects  impossible, 
while  the  Eclectics,  such  as  Cicero,  attempted  to 
combine  various  elements  of  the  Platonic,  Stoic, 
and  Epicurean  cosmology.  These  problems  were 
taken  up  with  still  greater  interest  by  the  theo- 
sophic-syncretistic  schools  of  the  last  century  be- 
fore and  the  first  after  Christ — especially  the 
Jewish-Alexandrian  school,  the  Neo-Pythagoreans, 
and  the  Neoplatonists.  According  to  Philo,  the 
principal  representative  of  the  first-named,  in 
contrast  with  God  as  the  absolute  active  principle, 
stands  matter  without  form  or  quality  as  the 
principle  of  absolute  passivity;  the  former  produces 
first  the  world  of  ideas  (the  Logos  or  kosmos  noetos), 
and  then  impresses  the  type  of  this  ideal  world  on 
the  eternal  matter.  The  Logos,  or  divine  ideal 
world,  which  according  to  this  doctrine  was  the 
mediate  cause  of  the  world's  existence,  became 
in  the  Neo-Pythagorean,  partially  Gnostic  system 
of  Numenius  of  Apamea  (c.  170)  the  demiurge,  a 
second  God  beside  the  supreme  and  purely  spiri- 
tual God,  or  NouB,  This  second  God,  who  gains 
by  contemplation  of  the  transcendental  arche- 
types the  knowledge  which  enables  him  to  exercise 
creative  power  on  matter,  constructs  out  of  it  the 
world  as  a  sort  of  third  God,  or  the  offspring  of  the 
two  higher  ones.  Finally,  in  Neoplatonism  (q.v.), 
especially  with  Plotinus  and  Porphsny,  the  con- 
necting principle  in  the  formation  of  the  universe 
is  again  the  world  of  ideas,  which  is  not,  however, 
as  with  Plato,  identified  with  the  Godhead,  but 
appears  as  an  emanation  or  radiation  from  the 
highest  Good.  It  generates  souls  in  its  image, 
together  with  the  bodies  dependent  upon  and  gov- 
erned by  them,  as  well  as  the  other  beings  percep- 
tible by  the  sense  or  material.  Matter  in  itself  is  a 
formless,  negative  substance  which  gains  form 
and  life  first  by  the  entrance  of  the  higher  powers, 
the  logoif  which  proceed  from  the  Now  and  its 
ideas. 

8.  The  Onoatio-Xanichean  Oosmoffoniea:  The 
ideal  and  abstract  treatment  of  the  question  which 
has  been  seen  in  the  speculation  of  these  philoso- 
phers, together  with  much  more  fantastic  and 
arbitrary  solutions  of  the  problem  which  come 
from  the  mythical  cosmogonies  of  the  still  older 
period,  was  to  a  certain  extent  combined  with 
Christian  ideas  in  the  Gnostic  theories.  All  of  them 
appeared  as  paganizing  perversions  of  the  Christian 
revelation.  They  have  a  more  or  less  hostile  atti- 
tude toward  the  Old  Testament,  although  they 
usually  attempt  to  find  a  place  for  its  monotheistic 
teachhig  concerning  the  creation  and  government 
of  the  world  in  their  practically  pagan  systems. 
For  this  purpose  they  make  use  of  the  peculiar 
figure  of  the  demiurge.  The  demiurge  of  the 
Gnostics  is  not,  however,  a  higher  divine  principle, 
like  the  Platonic  Logos,  but  rather  a  representative 
of  the  life  of  the  world  as  distinguished  from  God. 
He  IB  generally  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  natural  world  which  is  to  be  overcome  and 
elevated  into  a  higher  form  of  existence  in  the 
spiritual  kingdom  of  Christ.  The  creation  accom- 
plished by  him  is  only  an  imperfect  preliminary  to 
redemption;    and  this  he  is  able  to  bring  about 


801 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oreation  and  Preserratton 


neither  by  himself  nor  by  the  psychic  Messiah  sent 
by  him.  For  it  the  spiritual  Christ  is  required, 
the  higher  eon  who  is  revealed  at  his  baptism  in 
Jordan  as  stronger  than  the  demiurgic  Messiah, 
coming  to  execute  his  mission  by  a  dooetic  life  and 
death.  Gnostic  speculation  took  two  distinct 
forms — ^the  Western,  or  Greek-Egyptian,  based  large- 
ly upon  Platonic  thought,  and  the  Eastern,  or  Per- 
sian-Syrian, following  more  the  dualistic  thought  of 
the  Parsees.  In  the  former  the  transition  from  the 
divine  being  and  life  to  the  development  of  the  world 
appears  as  an  emanation  or  the  production  of  a 
series  of  hypostatic  effluxes  from  the  world  of  light 
(the  Pleroma),  growing  weaker  and  less  divine  the 
farther  they  go,  down  to  the  demiurge,  the  lowest, 
to  whom  the  formation  of  formless  or  empty  matter 
is  attributed.  The  latter  class  considered  the  world 
essentially  as  a  product  of  conflict  between  the 
eons  of  the  kingdom  of  light  and  Satan  and  his 
demons,  in  which  matter,  created  and  dominated 
by  Satan  and  thus  a  positive  efflux  of  the  evil 
principle,  forms  the  battle-ground,  and  is  partially 
wrested  from  him  by  the  good  eons.  See  Gnosti- 
cism. 

The  history  of  Manicheanism,  a  theory  of  the 
world  whose  foundation  is  more  pagan  than  Chris- 
tian, has  been  shown  by  recent  investigation  to 
have  a  special  importance  for  the  development  of 
Christian  thought  on  its  heretical  side.  The  roots 
of  this  remarkable  syncretistic  religion  reach  down 
into  the  primitive  age  of  Christianity,  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  Jewish-Christian  and  Gnostic  sects 
of  the  Elkesaites  and  Mandsans;  and  the  offshoots 
of  the  developed  Persian  Manicheanism  of  the  third 
century  appear  throughout  the  latter  history  of 
medieval  sects,  both  Eastern  and  Western — Pris- 
cillians,  Paulicians,  Euchites,  Bogomiles,  and 
Albigenses.  Some  of  their  ideas,  especially  those 
relating  to  the  creation  of  the  world  and  of  man, 
have  even  had  their  influence  on  the  systems  of 
some  modem  Christian  theosophists,  such  as  Weigel 
<and  Jakob  Bdhme.  Both  ancient  and  medieval 
Manicheanism  dispensed  with  the  figure  of  the 
demiurge,  and  made  the  whole  earthly  or  material 
creation,  including  mankind,  both  body  and  soul, 
a  product  of  Satan  and  his  demons  as  imitators  of 
the  creative  activity  of  the  Light-god.  See  Mani- 
CHEANs;  and  Mandjeanb. 

4.  Specnlatlve  Oosmoffonies  of  thelEodem  Pan- 
theistlc-UaterlaUBtic  Natural  Philosophy:  These 
are  not  without  points  of  contact  with  the  cosmo- 
logical  theories  of  the  old  Greek  philosophers,  and 
even  with  those  of  the  Gnostic  and  of  the  old  pagan 
mythologies.  The  principal  difference  is  that  mod- 
em pantheistic  paganism  more  completely  excludes 
the  free  creative  and  formative  operation  of  a  per- 
sonal wUl.  The  most  thoroughgoing  in  this  direc- 
tion is  materialism  proper  or  logical  sensualism,  as 
found  in  the  systems  of  English  freethinkers  and 
deists  since  Hobbes,  the  French  Encyclopedists 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  scientific  atom- 
istic theories  of  modem  Germany,  best  known 
through  Haeckel.  This,  excluding  a  personal 
Creator  and  all  spirit-life,  together  with  freedom, 
immortality,  and  all  ethical  principles,  recognizes 
only  abstract  matter,  divided  into  an  infinite  num- 


ber of  hypothetical  atoms,  infinitely  small,  as  the 
operative  cause  and  explanation  of  all  present  and 
past  phenomena  of  life.  This  view  is  most  logically 
carried  out  in  Czolbe's  Neu$  DarsteUung  des  Sen- 
siuUiamus  (Leipsic,  1855),  according  to  which  the 
world  is  without  beginning  as  without  end;  matter 
exists  from  eternity,  in  its  smallest  atoms  as  well  as 
in  its  organic  forms;  it  is  absolutely  without  begin- 
ning, coeval  with  the  world-^soul,  which  may  be 
considered  as  the  principle  which  holds  it  together 
and  vivifies  it.  See  Enctclopedibts;  and  Mate- 
rialism. 

In  contrast  with  this  sensualistic  theoiy  of  the 
eternity  of  the  world.  Pantheism  (q.v.)  considers  the 
universe,  both  in  matter  and  form,  as  temporal,  but 
regards  it  as  the  efflux  or  inevitable  evolution  of  an 
eternal  power  of  idea  which  underlies  it.  Where 
this  absolute  idea  is  considered  as  a  primeval  union 
of  spirit  and  nature,  or  of  thinking  and  extended 
substance,  separating  in  creation,  it  leads  to  the 
realistic  form  of  the  pantheist  theory,  as  represented 
by  Spinoza  and  Schelling;  where  it  is  conceived  as 
being  entirely  without  substance,  as  absolute  spirit, 
the  idealistic  form  results,  which  is  represented  by 
Fichte  and  Hegel.  For  both  schools  the  accept- 
ance of  a  real  creative  act  is  impossible,  since  they 
deny  any  transcendence  of  God  over  nature,  and 
consider  it  rather  as  a  special  form  of  divine  exist- 
ence, as  a  phase  of  development  or  method  of  mani- 
festation of  the  divine  principle  dwelling  in  it  and 
thus  fully  realizing  itself.  To  all  of  these  philoso- 
phers the  world  is  practically  an  emanation  of  the 
primal  divine  spirit,  a  successive  self-potentiation 
of  the  absolute  idea,  according  to  which  this  original 
nothing  develops  itself  through  the  stages  of  ether, 
cosmic  matter,  coarse  planetaiy  matter,  and  or- 
ganic substance  up  to  the  existence,  both  material 
and  spiritual,  of  animal  and  human  organisms.  For 
the  formation  of  space  and  of  the  earth  as  a  body 
the  nebular  hypothesis  of  Kant  and  Laplace  is 
taken  as  a  basis;  for  the  origin  of  the  geological 
structure  of  the  earth,  the  quietistic  theory  of 
Lyell  and  his  school;  and  for  the  analogous  devel- 
opment of  the  organic  species  of  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms,  the  theory  of  evolution  as  held 
by  Darwin  and  Spencer. 

m.  The  Creation  Theories  of  the  Older  Judaism 
and  the  Judaizing  Christianity  of  Many  Fathers 
and  Modem  Theologians:  In  contrast  with  the 
systems  already  discussed,  which  emphasize  the 
cosmogonic  element  at  the  expense  of  the  mono- 
theistic, these  latter  dwell  exclusively  on  God's 
action  in  creation,  to  the  neglect  of  what  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  powers  and  laws  set  in  motion 
by  him. 

1.  In  Jndaiam  Proper:  Here  not  only  is  the 
creation  of  heaven  and  earth  out  of  nothing  strongly 
emphasized,  but  special  stress  is  laid  on  the  rela- 
tive nothingness  or  weakness  of  the  creature  in 
comparison  with  God  (Wisd.  xi.  23;  Ps.  xxiii.  6; 
Isa.  xlviii.  13;  Judith  xvi.  18;  Ps.  xcvii.  5;  Mic. 
i.  4;  Rev.  vi.  13).  In  harmony  with  the  uncon- 
ditional supematuralism,  nay,  acosmism  of  such  a 
view,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  the  six  creative 
days  of  Genesis  taken  in  the  strict  literal  sense,  or 
even  minimized  into  mere  points  of  time  in  a  defi- 


Or«ation  and  Preaervatlon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


802 


nite  prearranged  sequence.  The  last  is  the  case 
especially  with  Philo»  who,  in  spite  of  his  Platonic 
acceptance  of  the  eternity  of  matter,  regards  its 
formation  into  an  orderly  cosmos  as  a  work  which 
God  could,  if  necessary,  have  accomplished  in  a 
moment,  and  which  he  divided  into  six  days  merely 
for  the  sake  of  orderly  procedure. 

8.  In  the  Patristic  Period:  Here  the  absolute 
nothingness  out  of  which  God  created  the  world 
is  sharply  emphasized,  as  by  Tertidlian  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  dualism  of  the  Gnostic  Hermogenes, 
and  by  later  representatives  of  the  ecclesiastical 
creationism,  such  as  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and  the 
scholastics  from  Peter  Lombard.  Here  again 
occurs  the  assertion  that  God  needed  no  more  than 
an  instant  for  the  creation  of  the  world.  The 
Alexandrian  school  especially  followed  Philo's 
view  on  this  point;  Clement  even  denies  that  the 
world  was  created  in  time,  since  time  came  into 
existence  with  created  things.  Origen,  asserting 
the  same  thing,  places  over  against  it  an  eternally 
creative  activity  of  God,  which,  indeed,  he  con- 
fines to  the  production  of  the  spiritual  world. 
Athanasius,  Basil,  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  assert  the 
same  practically  instantaneous  and  extratemporal 
creation;  and  so  also  Ambrose  and  Augustine  in  the 
West.  The  underlying  thought  of  a  creation  not 
gradual  but  at  once  concluded,  and  the  accom- 
panying proposition  that  the  world  was  made 
"  not  in  time,  but  with  time,"  descended  from  Au- 
gustine and  the  schoolmen,  and  so  to  the  common 
orthodox  teaching. 

8.  In  Kodem  Timaa:  Even  here  a  certain  Judai- 
sing  or  abstract  monotheistic  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject is  to  be  noticed — not  only  among  Roman 
Catholic  theologians,  but  also  within  the  boundaries 
of  Protestantism,  where  the  literal  interpretation 
of  the  six  days  as  six  periods  of  twenty-four  hours, 
generally  given  in  orthodox  dogmatics  from  Luther 
on,  retained  the  extreme  supematuralist  character, 
left  no  space  for  organically  independent  elements, 
and  brought  on  an  inevitable  conflict  with  the 
ascertained  facts  of  geology  and  astronomy.  These 
sciences  have  demonstrated  the  origin  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  before  the  earth;  the  slow  and  gradual 
origin  of  the  mountains  and  the  strata  of  the  earth's 
surface;  and  a  long  succession  of  many  organisms, 
now  for  the  most  part  vanished  and  evidenced  only 
by  fossil  remains,  as  preliminaxy  to  those  existing 
at  present.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  real- 
ized that  the  account  in  Genesis,  so  far  from  re- 
quiring a  literal  interpretation  of  the  six  days, 
lends  itself  readily  to  the  explanation  of  indefinite 
periods  of  time — a  view  which  is  supported  not 
only  by  the  cosmogonic  passages  in  Ps.  civ.  and 
Job  xxxviii.,  but  by  the  analogy  of  the  old  Persian 
and  Babylonian  legends  of  the  creation,  which  are 
more  or  less  parallel  with  the  Scriptural  narrative. 
Of  the  various  h3rpotheses  put  forth  by  modem 
apologetics  in  order  to  reconcile  the  account  in 
Genesis  with  geology  and  astronomy  two  deserve 
mention:  one  which  admits  the  necessity  of  the 
long  periods  required  for  the  formation  of  the  earth, 
and  conceives  them  as  preceding  the  six  days'  work ; 
and  one  which  denies  the  great  duration  of  the  pri- 
tiicval  epochs,  and  considers  the  geological  for- 


mations, with  the  petrifactions  contained  in  them, 
to  have  originated  after  the  creative  process  de- 
scribed in  Gen.  i.  The  latter  of  these  is  supported 
by  reference  to  the  flood  described  in  Gen.  vi-ix., 
with  its  accompanying  cataclysms  to  which  ancient 
legends  testify.  Its  root-ideas  are  found  as  early 
as  Tertullian  and  Hippolytus,  and  numerous  mod- 
em writers  have  adopted  the  same  mode  of  ex- 
plaining the  presence  of  petrified  shells  and  skele- 
tons of  animals  in  geological  formations.  But 
while  this  theory  has  its  value  ss  a  protest  against 
the  extravagant  assumptions  of  geologists,  with 
their  formative  periods  of  thousands  or  even  mil- 
lions of  years,  it  is  still  untenable  on  purely  scien- 
tific grounds.  The  other,  sometimes  known  as  the 
restitution  theory,  which  places  the  formative 
period,  of  a  length  suflicient  to  satisfy  geologists, 
before  the  six  days'  work,  and  regards  this  as  a 
restoration  or  setting  in  order  of  the  confused 
chaotic  results  of  frequent  cataclysms,  is  objection- 
able rather  on  exegetical  grounds.  This  hypothesis, 
which  commonly  includes  some  traces  of  the  par- 
tially Gnostic  or  Manichean  idea  of  the  interference 
of  Satan  and  his  demons  in  the  process  of  creation, 
seems  to  have  foimd  its  first  expression  in  the 
Arminian  theologian  Episcopius;  its  serious  scien- 
tific defense  was  first  undertaken  by  J.  G.  Rosen- 
mQller  in  his  Antiquisaima  telluria  historia  (Ulm, 
1776),  while  at  the  same  time  and  later  a  number 
of  theosophic  writers  used  the  idea  of  restitution  in 
connection  with  the  speculations  of  Bohme.  What- 
ever its  advantages  in  meeting  the  contentions  of 
modem  science,  it  is  open  to  the  obvious  objection 
that  the  narrative  in  Genesis  is  clearly  that  of  a 
primitive  creation,  not  of  a  recreation,  and  in  more 
than  one  of  its  details  is  irreconcilable  with  this 
theory. 

IV.  The  Normal  Via  Media  between  Jewish  and 
Pagan  Theories :  In  place  of  the  restitution  theory, 
now  usually  abandoned,  there  has  been  in  modem 
times  an  attempt  to  harmonize  the  conclusions  of 
science  and  religion  by  a  direct  parallel  between  the 
days  of  creation,  taken  as  periods  of  indeterminate 
length,  and  the  main  epochs  of  geological  develop- 
ment. This  was  made  first  by  some  of  the  anti- 
deistic  apologists  of  the  latter  eighteenth  century, 
and  taken  up  by  Cuvier,  the  founder  of  modem 
paleontology.  He  was  followed  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  both  theologians  and  scientists,  among  others 
Hugh  MiQer,  J.  D.  Dana,  F.  de  Rougemont,  G.  B. 
Pianciani,  Delitzsch,  Gilttler,  Secchi,  and  PesneL 
This  parallel,  which  is  carried  out  in  minute  detail 
by  some  of  its  advocates,  removes  at  least  a  part 
of  the  diflSculties  offered  at  the  first  glance  by  the 
Scriptural  account.  Thus  the  objection  that  light 
was  created  before  the  sun,  which  came  into  being 
after  the  earth,  is  met  by  the  assumption  that  the 
narrative  in  Gen.  i.  14-19  is  a  purely  optical  or  phe- 
nomenological  one.  Certain  difficulties,  to  be  sure, 
stiU  remain  unsolved,  such  as  the  relation  of  the 
six  days  or  periods  in  the  light  of  their  different 
duration,  and  their  separation  from  each  other, 
which  is  given  variously  by  different  harmonista. 
The  total  number  of  the  geological  epochs  is  con- 
siderably more  than  six  (according  to  some  geolo- 
gists as  many  as  twenty  or  thirty),  so  that  a  direct 


303 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Creation  and  Preaervmtioa 


combination  of  them  with  the  six  days  is  only  pos- 
sible by  a  great  reduction.  In  the  way  of  a  too 
specific  harmonization  stands  also  the  fact  that  the 
Mosaic  account  postulates  a  gradual  progression 
from  vegetable  to  animal  life,  and  within  the  latter 
from  one  class  to  another,  while  according  to  the 
geological  history  plants  and  animals  must  have 
been  simultaneously  present  from  the  first.  In  any 
case,  a  too  strict  harmonizing  is  forbidden  by  the 
character  of  the  Biblical  narrative,  which  is  not 
literally  historical,  but  prophetically  ideal;  it  is  con- 
sidered as  a  sort  of  inverse  prophecy  even  by  some 
of  the  Fathers,  such  as  Chrysostom  and  Severianus. 
The  more  this  view  of  the  Mosaic  narrative  is  ac- 
cepted; the  more  it  is  realized  that  its  author  was 
intending  not  to  teach  the  elements  of  geology,  but 
to  reveal  the  fundamental  conceptions  of  theology; 
the  more  it  is  seen  that  his  standpoint  was  that  of 
religion,  not  of  natural  history,  the  clearer  will  it 
become  that  it  is  necessary  to  give  up  the  idea  of 
carrying  out  the  reconciliation  in  every  detail  and 
to  be  content  with  establishing  an  ideal  harmony  in 
the  main  outlines.  It  is  of  no  slight  value  to  be 
able  to  include  in  this  harmony  the  fundamental 
truths  of  the  revealed  accoimt:  (1)  the  priority  of 
the  inorganic  elements  of  the  earth's  constitution 
to  the  creation  of  oi^anisms;  (2)  the  separate 
origin,  in  accordance  with  a  definite  plan,  of  the 
various  species,  orders,  and  classes  of  plants  and 
animals;  and  (3)  the  constant  rising  of  these 
representatives  of  the  organic  creation  to  man 
as  the  crown  and  dominant  end  of  the  entire 
process. 

This  view,  if  properly  realized,  leads  to  a  deeper 
speculative  solution  of  the  problem  which  does  jus- 
tice also  to  the  theological  side  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject, its  relations  to  the  eternal  being  and  life  of 
the  Godhead. .  If  the  real  Christian  or  concrete 
theistic  idea  of  creation  is  to  receive  its  proper  de- 
velopment, it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  con- 
ceive the  act  of  creation  as  a  product  of  the  free 
Trinitarian  self-determination  of  the  personal  God. 
This  involves  a  full  and  exhaustive  utilization  of 
the  Scriptural  doctrine  of  the  creation  of  all  things 
through  the  Son  as  the  absolute  archetype  of  a 
universe  which  attains  its  perfection  in  the  free 
intellectual  life  of  man  made  in  the  image  of  God 
(John  i.  1-3;  Heb.  i.  2;  I  Cor.  viii.  6;  Col.  i.  16); 
and  not  less  a  careful  speculative  development  of 
the  idea  of  creation  in  the  Spirit  of  God,  or,  in  the 
Scriptural  phrase,  "  by  the  breath  of  his  mouth  " — 
by  the  formative  and  vivifying  principle  from  which 
proceed  the  organic  disposition,  differentiation, 
and  development  of  the  world  created  after  the 
image  and  by  the  word  of  the  Son  (Ps.  xxxiii.  6, 
civ.  30;  Job  xxxiii.  4;  cf.  Gen.  i.  2).  Through  the 
conception  of  creation  through  the  Son  it  is  possible 
to  set  forth  the  true  nature  of  the  transcendence  of 
God  in  his  creative  activity,  while  the  idea  of  a 
creation  in  the  Spirit  of  God  brings  the  immanence 
of  this  activity  vividly  before  the  mind.  The 
former  doctrine  serves  to  utilize  what  is  true  in 
deism  for  the  Christian  view,  while  the  latter  serves 
to  utilize  what  is  true  in  pantheism,  especially  the 
transmutation  or  development  theory  of  the  mod- 
em scientific  pantheism.    The  former  takes  the 


abstract  monotheistic  view  of  Judaism,  as  the  latter 
takes  the  polytheistic,  atheistic,  or  pantheistic  view 
of  pagan  thought,  purifies  them  both  from  their 
one-sided  or  superstitious  or  fantastic  elements 
and  develops  them  into  a  truly  Christian  or  con- 
crete monotheistic  belief. 

V.  Preservation  of  the  World:  In  the  form  just 
outlined,  the  idea  of  creation  by  God  is  inseparably 
coimected  with  the  idea  of  the  preservation  of  the 
world  by  him.  God's  "  rest  "  on  the  seventh  day 
is  not  mentioned  as  a  contrast  with  his  activity  on 
the  preceding  six,  as  a  transition  to  idle  inactivity, 
but  merely,  in  accordance  with  the  radical  sense  of 
the  Hebrew  word,  denotes  the  completion  of  the 
work.  The  New  Testament  leaves  no  doubt  of 
this  interpretation  of  God's  rest  (John  v.  17;  Heb. 
iv.  1-10,  ii.  3).  The  doctrine  of  the  Church  gives 
the  same  view  of  the  relation  of  God's  activity  as 
creator  and  as  preserver.  The  scholastics  desig- 
nated the  conservation  of  the  world  as  a  continuance 
of  creation.  Nor  is  this  conservation  merely  nega- 
tive. What  is  required  is,  in  the  words  of  Baier, 
"  a  divine  action  which  imports  a  continuous  influ- 
ence upon  created  things,  such  as  is  convenient  and 
necessary  for  each  according  to  its  nature,  to  the 
end  that  they  may  be  able  to  continue  in  their 
essence  and  power."  This  influence  is  of  funda- 
mental importance;  together  with  God's  trans- 
cendence, his  immanence  must  be  asserted.  The 
creation,  the  preservation,  and  the  governance  of 
the  world  are  an  inseparable  group  of  divine 
activities. 

The  doctrine  in  regard  to  the  preservation  of  the 
world  attains  special  importance  on  account  of  its 
points  of  contact  with  the  modem  scientific  doc- 
trine of  evolution.  These  are  sufficiently  numerous, 
since  the  created  world  nowhere  presents  itself  to 
us  in  any  other  shape  than  aa  a  development  from 
lower  stages  and  forms  of  life  to  higher  and  higher 
ones.  God  preserves  the  universe  which  he  has 
created,  not  as  a  lifeless  machine  eternally  standing 
still,  but  in  a  condition  of  progressive  motion;  the 
preservation  of  the  world  is  practically  equivalent 
to  the  development  of  the  world.  In  this  doctrine 
of  the  preservation  of  the  universe  is  the  point  of 
connection  for  whatever  elements  of  truth  are  con- 
tained in  the  theories  of  Kant  and  Laplace  on  the 
formation  of  the  world  and  in  Darwin's  theory  of 
the  origin  of  species;  and,  though  they  may  be 
received  with  caution  in  the  province  of  the  history 
of  creation,  freer  play  may  and  must  be  allowed  to 
them  in  that  of  the  preservation  of  the  world.  See 
Evolution.  (Q.  ZdcKLBRf.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  most  convenient  book  for  a  study  of 
comparative  cosmology  is  P.  D.  C.  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehr- 
buck  der  ReligionsgeMehi/^Ue,  2  vols.,  Tflbingen,  1005. 
Consult:  H.  Faye,  Sur  Vorigine  du  monde.  ThSorieB  oos- 
mogoniguea  dea  ancient  et  det  modemea,  Paris,  1885;  E.  B. 
Tylor.  Brimiiive  Culture,  London,  1003;  F.  Lukaa,  Orund- 
hegriffe  tu  den  Koamogonien  der  <Uten  V6lker,  Leipflic,  1803. 
For  special  cosmogonies:  A.  V.  W.  Jackson,  Iraniache 
Religion,  Strasburg,  1000;  J.  Dpfmesteter,  Ormuad  el 
Ahriman,  Paris,  1877;  P.  JenmtC\oamoloaie  der  Bahy 
lonier,  Strasburg,  1800;  G.  ^tfasp^ro,^  Davm  of  Civiliza- 
tion, London,  1806;  R.  Pietschmann,  OeadiidUe  der 
Phdnicier,  Berlin,  1880;  G.  St.  Clair,  Creation  Recorda  in 
Egypt,  London.  1808;  H.  W.  Wallis.  Coemology  of  the 
Rigveda,  London.  1887;  £.  H.  Meyer.  Die  Eddiache  Koe- 
mogoniet   Freiburg.   1801;  J.   Curtin,   Creation  Mytha  of 


Oreation  and  Preserratioii 
Orete  in  the  Apostolic  A^e 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


804 


PrimiHve  America,  Boston,  1898;  D.  G.  Brinton,  Mytha 
of  (he  New  World,  Philadelphia,  1896. 

On  the  Genesis  narrative  and  its  relations  to  the  Baby- 
lonian account  the  later  commentaries  should  be  con- 
suited.  One  of  the  best  single  works  is  H.  E.  Ryle,  Early 
NarraUvea  of  Oeneeia,  London,  1892.  Consult:  W.  Bau- 
dissin.  Studien  gur  semtiMcften  Relioumageeehichte,  Leipsio, 
187(V-78;  J.  H.  Oswald,  Die  Sehdpfungelehre,  Paderbom. 
1885;  H.  Gunkel,  Sd^Opfuno  und  Chaoe,  Gottingen,  1895 
(a  remarkable  book);  L.  T.  Townsend,  EvoltUion  or  Crea^ 
tion,  Retfiew  of  the  Scientifie  and  Scriptural  Theoriee  of 
Creation,  New  York.  1896;  H.  Radau,  Creation  Story  of 
Gen.  i.,  Chicago,  1902  (highly  oonunended);  Schrader, 
KAT. 

For  the  classical  philosophy  of  oreation  consult  the 
works  on  history  of  philosophy  by  J.  £.  Erdman,  3  vols., 
London.  1893;  W.  Windelband,  New  York,  1901;  P. 
Janet  and  O.  Sdailles,  HUtory  of  the  ProUeme  of  Philoeo- 
phy,  2  vols.,  ib.  1903.  For  the  Gnostic  and  Manichean 
cosmologies  see  works  dted  under  Gnobticibm  and  Mani- 

CHEANS. 

On  late  Jewish  thought  consult:  A.  Schmidl,  Studien 
Hber  jiidiaehe  .  .  .  Reliffionephiloeophie,  Vienna,  1869; 
J.  Guttmann,  Die  Scholaetik  dee  dreitehnten  Jahrhundertaf 
Breslau,  1902. 

The  following  treat  the  subject  from  the  scientific  or 
philosophic  standpoint:  J.  W.  Dawson,  Origin  of  the 
World,  London,  1886;  C.  Wolf,  Lee  Hypothtaee  eoemogo- 
niQuee,  Paris,  1886;  D.  Nys,  Le  ProbUme  coemdoffique, 
Louvain,  1888;  C.  Braun,  U^ter  Koamogonie  vom  Stand- 
punkt  chriMicher  Wieaenechaft,  Mftnater,  1889;  E.  Mao- 
Lennan.  CoanUoal  Evolution,  ib.  1890;  £.  H.  P.  A. 
Haeckel,  Hiatory  of  Creation,  ib.  1892;  idem,  Creation  or 
Development,  ib.  1899;  Riddle  of  the  Univerae,  New  York. 
1900  (all  of  Haeckel's  works  are evolutionistic);  T.  Mitchell, 
Coamogony,  ib.  1894;  R.  8.  Foster,  Creation,  Ood  in  Time 
and  Space,  ib.  1895;  J.  Guibert,  In  tfie  Beginning,  Lon- 
don. 1900;  J.  M.  E.  McTaggart,  Studiea  in  Hegelian  Coa- 
mology.  New  York,  1901;  F.  Paulsen,  Problem  of  Coamolr 
bgy,  ib.  1902. 

From  the  theological  standpoint:  O.  Zdckler,  Oeachichte 
der  Betiehungen  swiachen  Theologie  und  Naturufiaaen^ 
achaft,  2  vols.,  Gfltersloh.  1877-79;  W.  H.  Dallinger,  The 
Creator  and  .  .  .  Method  of  Creation,  hondon,  1881;  £.  de 
Preasens^.  Lee  Originea,  Paris,  1883,  Eng.  transl.,  London, 
1887;  A.  B.  Bruce,  Providential  Order  of  the  World,  ib. 
1897;  A.  Wagenmann,  Daa  Syatem  der  Welt,  vol.  i.,  Cann- 
statt,  1905;  R.  Schmid,  Naturwiaaenachaftlidiea  Olaubena- 
bekenntnia  einea  Theologen,  Stuttgart,  1906. 

On  the  preservation  of  the  world:  J.  McCosh,  Method 
of  Divine  Government,  London,  1870;  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Die 
gbtUiche  Weltregierung,  Frankfort.  1878;  W.  W.  Smyth, 
The  Government  of  Ood,  London,  1882;  A.  A.  Hodge.  Rela- 
tion  of  God  to  the  World,  in  Preabyterian  and  Reformed  Re- 
view,  1887,  pp.  1-15;  W.Schmidt,  Die  gOttliche  VoraO^ 
ung  und  daa  SefbatUben  der  Welt,  Berlin,  1887;  F.  Bettex, 
SymbolUc  der  Schdpfung  und  ewige  Natur,  Bielefeld,  1898. 

CREATIONISIL    See  Soul  and  Spirit. 

CREDENCE  TABLE:  A  small  table  or  shelf  at 
one  side  of  the  altar  in  Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican 
churches,  on  which  the  bread  and  wine,  and  some- 
times the  sacred  vessels,  are  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  service. 

CREDNER,  KARL  AUGUST:  New  Testament 
scholar;  b.  atWaltershausen  (7  m.  w.s.w.  of  Gotha), 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Jan.  10,  1797;  d.  at  Giessen 
July  16,  1857.  He  studied  at  Jena  (1817)  and  at 
Breslau  (1817-21).  Being  rejected  by  the  Halle 
missionaiy  society  for  service  in  the  East  Indies 
owing  to  his  reluctance  to  bind  himself  to  a  definite 
creed,  he  went  to  G5ttingen  and  studied  and  taught 
privately  there  from  1821  till  1825.  From  1825  to 
1827  he  was  tutor  at  Hanover.  In  1828  he  became 
privat-docent,  in  1830  extraordinary  professor  at 
Jena,  and  in  1832  ordinary  professor  of  New  Testa- 
ment exegesis  and  church  history  in  Giessen,  where 
his  chief  Uterary  work  was  done.     He  had  rational- 


istic tendencies,  which  became  more  marked  as  he 
grew  older.  Nevertheless,  his  labors  as  a  Biblical 
critic,  especially  his  investigations  of  the  origin  oi 
the  New  Testament  books  and  of  the  history  of  its 
canon,  had  value  which  is  generally  acknowledged, 
not  only  because  of  their  richness  of  information, 
but  also  for  the  clearness  and  objectivity  of  pres- 
entation. His  principal  works  were:  Beilrdge  gur 
EirUeitung  in  die  biblischen  Schriften  (2  vols.,  Halle, 
1832-38);  EinUUung  in  daa  Neue  Testament  (1836), 
generally  considered  his  chief  work,  although  never 
finished;  Zvr  Qeschichle  des  Kanons  (1847);  Ge- 
8ckichte  de8  neutestamentlichen  Kanons  (ed.  after 
his  death  G.  Volkmar,  Berlin,  1860). 

(O.  Z6CKLERt.) 
Bibuoobafht:  W.   BaldeiupeiVBr,   Karl  Attguat  Kredner, 
aein  Leben  und  aeine  Theologie,  Leipeie,  1897  (addren  on 
the  centenary  of  Credner's  birth);  ADB,  iv.  575  sqq. 

CREEDS  AlID  CONFESSIONS.    See  Stmboucs. 

CREI6HT0N,  crS'tun,  MANDELL:  Bishop  of 
London;  b.  at  Carlisle  July  5,  1843;  d.  in  London 
Jan.  14,  1901.  He  studied  at  Merton  College,  Ox- 
ford (B.A.,  1867;  M.A.,  1870),  and  was  feUow  and 
tutor  of  his  college,  1866-75,  during  which  time  he 
devoted  himself  to  historical  work  and  lectured 
chiefly  on  ecclesiastical,  Italian,  and  Byzantine 
history.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1870,  priest 
in  1873.  In  1875  he  became  vicar  of  Embleton, 
Northumberland,  and  in  1884  he  went  to  Cambridge 
as  Dixie  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  fel- 
low of  Emmanuel.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Peterborough  in  1891,  and  was  transferred  to  Lon- 
don in  1897.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Oxford 
1875-77,  1883,  1886-88,  at  Cambridge  1887;  ex- 
amining chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Newcastle,  1882- 
1883,  to  the  bishop  of  Worcester,  1886-90;  w^as  nom- 
inated canon  of  Worcester  1886,  of  Windsor  1890; 
honorary  fellow  of  Merton,  Oxford,  1889,  of  Em- 
manuel, Cambridge,  1891.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  was  member  of  the  Privy  Council,  dean  of  Her 
Majesty's  Chapels  Royal,  provincial  dean  of  Can- 
terbury, and  a  member  of  many  official  boards  and 
learned  societies  in  England  and  abroad.  His  trans- 
ference to  the  episcopate  deprived  the  study  of 
church  histoiy  of  one  of  its  best  exponents,  while 
it  involved  him  in  cares  and  anxieties  which  short- 
ened his  days.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  his 
history  of  the  papacy,  which  was  intended  to  cover 
the  entire  period  of  the  Reformation,  only  goei 
down  to  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527. 

Bishop  Creighton  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  mod- 
em English  churchmen,  an  extraordinarily  bril- 
liant man,  who  distinguished  himself  in  eveiy 
sphere  which  he  filled — as  student  at  Oxford,  as 
vicar  of  a  country  parish,  as  teacher  at  Cambridge, 
and  as  bishop.  He  was  a  man  of  affairs,  a  states- 
man, as  weU  as  a  scholar.  He  was  a  good  preacher 
and  much  in  demand  as  speaker  on  social  and 
official  occasions.  He  represented  Emmanuel  O)!- 
lege  at  the  250th  anniversary  of  Harvard  in  1886, 
and  the  English  Church  at  the  coronation  of  the 
Czar  Nicholas  II.  at  Moscow  in  1896.  As  bishop  of 
London  he  was  confronted  by  serious  difficulties 
owing  to  ritualistic  controversies,  and,  although  a 
High-churchman  himself,  he  followed  a  conciliatory 
course,  aiming  to  establish  true  liberalism.    His 


805 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oreation  and  Preservation 
Orate  in  the  Apostolic  Age 


chief  books  were:  A  Primer  of  Raman  History 
(London,  1876);  The  Age  of  Elizabeth,  The  Tudors 
and  the  Reformation,  and  Simon  de  Montfort  (1876); 
The  Shilling  History  of  England  (1879);  A  History 
of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the  Reformation, 
his  chief  work,  but  left  incomplete  (5  vols.,  1882- 
1894;  2d  ed.,  A  History  of  the  Papacy  from  the  Great 
Schism  to  the  Sack  of  Rome,  6  vols.,  1897);  Cardinal 
Wolsey  (1888);  Carlisle  (1889);  Persecution  and 
Tolerance,  Hulsean  lectures  at  Cambridge,  1893-94 
(London,  1895);  The  Early  Renaissance  in  Eng- 
land, Rede  lecture  at  Cambridge,  1895  (Cambridge, 
1895);  The  English  National  Character,  Romanes 
lecture  at  Oxford,  1896  (London,  1896);  Queen 
Elizabeth  (1896;  2d  ed.,  1899);  The  Heritage  of  the 
Spirit  and  Other  Sermons  (1896);  Church  and  State 
(1897);  The  Story  of  Some  English  Shires,  papers  on 
certain  counties  which  he  had  visited  on  pedestrian 
and  other  tours  (1897);  Lessons  from  the  Cross, 
Addresses  Delivereid  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  during 
Holy  Week  1898  (1898);  The  Position  of  the  Church 
of  England,  an  address  delivered  at  ruridecanal  con- 
ferences in  the  diocese  of  London,  1898  (1899); 
The  Church  and  the  Nation,  charge  to  the  clergy  of 
the  Diocese  of  London  1900  (1900).  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  The  English  Historical  Review  and 
its  editor  1886-91.  The  following  volumes  ap- 
peared posthumously,  edited  by  his  wife:  Church 
and  Nation :  Charges  and  Addresses  (1901 ) ;  Thoughts 
on  Education  :  Speeches  and  Sermons  (1902);  /fis- 
torical  Essays  and  Reviews  (1902);  Historical  Lec- 
tures and  Addresses  (1903);  University  and  Other 
Sermons  (1903);  The  Mind  of  St,  Peter  and  Other 
Sermons  (1904);  Claims  of  the  Common  Life  (1905); 
Counsel  for  the  Young  (1905). 

Biblioorapht:  Mandell  Creighton,  hU  Life  and  LMen^  5y 
Am  TFi/e,  London,  1004;  Dl^B^  supplement  voL,  ii.  82-^. 

CREMER,  AUGUST  HERMANN :  German  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Unna  (30  m.  s.  of  Mtinster)  Oct.  18, 
1834;  d.  at  Greifswald  Oct.  4,  1903.  He  studied 
at  Halle  and  Tubingen,  and  in  1859  was  appointed 
pastor  at  Ostdnnen,  near  Soest,  Westphalia.  Eleven 
years  later  he  became  professor  of  systematic 
theology  at  Greifswald,  and  pastor  of  St.  Mary's. 
Cremer  was  a  prolific  writer,  his  principal  works 
being  as  follows:  Die  eschatologische  Rede  Jesu 
Christi,  Matthdi  £4.  £5  (Stuttgart,  1860);  Ueber 
den  hiblischen  Begriff  der  Erbauung  (Leipsic, 
1863);  Ueber  die  W under  im  Zusammenhang  der 
gottlichen  Offenbarung  (1865);  Biblischrtheologi- 
sches  Worterbuch  der  neutestamentlichen  GrdcUat 
(Gotha,  1866-67;  9th  ed.,  1902;  Eng.  transl.  by 
W.  Urwick,  Edinburgh,  1872);  Vemunft,  Gewissen 
und  Offenbarung  (Gotha,  1869;  Eng.  transl.  by 
D.  Heagle,  Boston,  1871);  Die  Auferstehung  der 
Todten  (Barmen,  1870);  Der  GoU  dee  Alien  Bundes 
(1872);  Ueber  die  Befdhigung  zum  geistlichen  Amte 
(1878);  Die  Btbel  im  Pfarrhaus  und  in  der  Ge- 
meinde  (1878);  Ueber  den  Zustand  nach  dem  Tode, 
nebst  einigen  Andeutungen  aber  das  Kindersterben 
und  aber  den  Spiritismus  (Gtitersloh,  1883;  Eng. 
transl.  by  S.  T.  Lowrie,  Beyond  the  Grave,  New 
York,  1885);  Zum  Kampf  um  das  Apostdikum 
(7th  ed.,  Berlin,  1893);  Glaube,  Schrift  und  heilige 
GeschichU  (Giltersloh,  1896);  Die  christliche  Lehre 
von  den  Eigenschaften  Gottes  (Grotha,  1899);  Die 
HI.— 20 


paulinische  Rechtfertigungslehre  im  Zusammenhang 
ihrer  geschichtlichen  Voraussetzungen  (2d  ed.,  Gu- 
tersloh,  1900);  Taufe,  WiedergebuH  und  Kinder- 
taufe  (1900);  Weissagung  und  Wunder  (1900); 
Bedeutung  des  Artikels  von  der  Oottheit  Christi  fUr 
die  Ethik  (1901);  Das  Wesen  des  Christenthums 
(1901;  Eng.  transl.  by  B.  Pick,  Reply  to  Hamack, 
on  the  Essence  of  Christianity,  New  York,  1903); 
and  GrundvjahrheUen  der  christlichen  Religion  nach 
D.  Seeberg  (1903). 

Biblzogbapht:   A%iouat  Hermann  Cremer,  OedenkbliUier,  GO- 
tersloh.  1904. 

CRESPIN,  cr6''pah',  JEAN:  French  Protestant; 
b.  at  Arras  c.  1520;  d.  at  Geneva  1572.  He  studied 
law  at  Lou  vain.  In  1540  he  was  in  Paris,  where 
he  worked  with  his  friend  F.  Baudouin  under 
the  celebrated  advocate  C.  du  Moulin,  and  became 
himself  advocate  at  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  He 
became  interested  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Reformed 
Church  and,  upon  his  return  to  his  native  town,  his 
relations  with  the  Protestants  caused  him  to  be 
treated  as  a  heretic.  In  1545  he  went  to  Strasburg, 
where  he  married.  In  1548  he  was  able  to  realize 
his  dearest  wish  and  live  near  his  friend  Calvin; 
with  his  family  he  settled  in  Geneva,  where  he 
established  a  printing-press.  In  1555  he  received 
citizenship.  Like  other  printers  and  publishers  of 
his  time  he  also  wrote  books,  viz.:  Le  Livre  des 
Martyrs  (Geneva,  1554);  RecueU  de  plusieurs  per^ 
sonnes  qui  ont  constamment  enduri  la  mart  pour  le 
nam  de  N.  S.  J.  C,  depuis  Jean  Hus  jusqu'di  cette 
anrUe  prisenie  1554  (1555);  Indice  et  concordance 
des  choses  contenues  d  la  Bible  (1554);  Le  Marchand 
converti,  tragidie  nouvelle  (1558);  Histoire  des 
vrays  timoins  de  la  v4rit4  de  VJ^vangHe  depuis  Jean 
Hus  jusqu'h  prisent  (1570).  G.  Bonbt-Maurt. 
Bibuographt:  E.  and  £.  Haas,  La  France  proteetante,  ed. 

H.  L.  Bordier,  vol.  iv.,   Paris,   1884;  Bibliographie  dee 

martyrologee  proteetanie  Nierlandaie,   The   HacuBt   1800; 

Lichtenberger,  ESR,  iii.  471-474. 

CRETE  m  THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE:  Crete,  once 
the  flourishing  "  isle  of  the  hundred  cities,"  was 
entirely  devastated  in  the  last  century  before  Christ 
by  continual  civil  wars,  and  for  the  countries  of  the 
Mediterranean  it  became  a  continuous  menace  on 
account  of  the  pirates  who  swarmed  there.  In  the 
Cretan  war  (68-67  B.C.)  the  proconsul  Quintus 
Metellus  subdued  the  icdand.  He  also  began  its 
organization  as  a  province,  which  organization  was 
completed  66  B.C.  by  Pompey.  In  the  year  27 
B.C.  after  the  death  of  Antony  its  administration 
was  united  by  Octavian  with  that  of  Cyrene,  and 
the  name  of  the  province  varied  between  Creta- 
Cyrene  or  Crete  and  C!yrene  (Dio  Cass.,  LIII.  xiL  4; 
Strabo,  xvii.  3,  840).  It  belonged  to  the  senate 
and  was  governed  by  a  propretor  with  the  title 
proconsid.  Among  the  cities  which  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans  were  connected  with  the  government 
seated  in  Crete  were  the  famous  Gortyna,  Kydonia, 
and  Knossos;  the  latter  was  a  Roman  colony. 
When  Paul  on  his  voyage  as  a  prisoner  (Acts  xxviL 
7)  had  come  to  Crete  his  ship  passed  over  against 
Salmone.  Sailing  along  the  southern  coast  one 
comes  to  Fair  Havens,  near  the  city  of  Matala. 
The  city  of  Lasea  can  not  be  located.  The  haven 
of  Phcenix  which  the  sailors  wished  to  reach  (Acts 


Oretonl 
Cromwell 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


806 


xxvii.  12)  is  called  by  Ptolemy  (III.  xvii.  3)  "  Har- 
bor of  Phoenice  ";  he  caUa  the  idand  Klaudos  (III. 
xvii.  11).  The  population  of  Crete  contained  a  strong 
Semitic  element.  From  I  Mace.  xv.  23  it  is  clear 
that  Jews  lived  there  (in  Gortyna;  cf .  also  Josephus, 
Ant.,  XVII.  adL  1;  Wan,  IL  ciiL;  Philo,  Legal,  ad 
Cajum,  i  36,  ii.  587,  ed.  Biangey).  The  "Cretans" 
mentioned  Acts  ii.  11  were  Cretan  Jews  or  prose- 
Ijrtes.  The  bad  reputation  of  the  population  of 
Crete  is  referred  to  in  Titus  i.  12,  where  is  given 
(R.  V.)  the  translation  of  the  well-known  hexameter, 
"  Cretans  are  always  liars,  evil  beasts,  idle  gluttons," 
said  by  Clhrysostom  to  have  been  derived  from 
Epimenides,  the  priestly  seer  and  miracle-worker, 
one  of  the  seven  wise  men.  The  Greek  had  a  verb 
formed  from  the  noun  which  meant  "  to  lie  and 
deceive  ";  "  to  Crete  a  Cretan  "  meant  "  to  outwit 
a  knave."  (Johannes  Wkibs.) 

Bibuookapht:  Beaidas  the  commentaries  on  Acts,  there 

may  be  consulted   Sabatier,  in    lichtenberfer.  E8R,  tii. 

474^75;  DB,  L  105-620;  SB,  I  95&-9M, 

CRETONI,  SBRAFmO:  Cardinal;  b.  at  Soriano 
(7  m.  e.  of  Viterbo),  Italy,  Sept.  4,  1833;  d.  at 
Rome  Feb.  3,  1909.  He  was  educated  at  Rome, 
became  archivist  of  the  Propaganda,  secretary  of 
the  committee  for  Oriental  affairs  at  the  Vatican 
Council,  and  councilor  at  the  Holy  Office.  In  1877 
he  was  sent  by  Pius  IX.  to  the  general  chapter  of 
the  Armenian  Mekhitarists  at  Venice,  but  was  re- 
called by  Leo  XIII.  and  appointed  assistant  secre- 
tary of  state,  1879.  In  1880  he  returned  to  the 
Propaganda  as  secretary  for  Oriental  affairs,  and 
in  1889  became  an  assessor  of  the  Holy  Office.  In 
1893  he  was  consecrated  titular  archbishop  of 
Damascus,  and  went  as  papal  nuncio  to  Madrid, 
where  he  remained  three  yeare.  In  1896  he  was 
created  cardinal  priest  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva, 
and  in  1900  became  prefect  of  the  Congregation  of 
Indulgences.  After  1903  he  was  prefect  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
gregations of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  the  Councils, 
Supervision  of  Provincial  Councils,  the  Propaganda, 
the  Propaganda  for  the  Oriental  Rite,  and  Cere- 
monials, as  well  as  of  the  Laurentian  Congregation. 

CRISP,  TOBIAS:  Antmomian;  b.  in  London 
1600;  d.  there  Feb.  27,  1643.  He  took  his  first 
degree  at  Cambridge,  then  removed  to  Balliol 
CJoUege,  Oxford  {M.A.,  1626;  D.D.,  before  1642); 
in  1627  became  rector  of  Brinkworth,  Wiltshire; 
removed  to  London  in  1642  because  of  persecution 
from  royalist  soldiers.  At  first  he  was  a  rigid 
Arminian,  but  later  went  to  the  opposite  extreme, 
and  after  going  to  London  was  fiercely  attacked  as 
an  Antinomian  by  the  ministers  there.  Anthony 
Wood  says  (AthencB,  iii.  50,  ed.  P.  Bliss,  London, 
1817):  "He  was  baited  by  fifty-two  opponents  in  a 
grand  dispute  concerning  the  freeness  of  the  grace 
of  God,  in  Jesus  Christ,  to  poor  sinners.  By  which 
encounter,  which  was  eagerly  managed  on  his  part, 
he  contracted  a  disease  that  brought  him  to  his 
grave."  His  life  is  described  as  innocent  and  up- 
right, "  zealous  and  fervent  of  all  good."  He 
made  himself  popular  at  Brinkworth  by  the  lavish 
hospitality  which  his  private  fortune  enabled  him 
to  extend.  His  sermons  were  published  after  his 
death  with  the  title  Christ  Alone  Exalted  (4  vols., 


1643-83);  they  were  collected  by  his  son  (London, 
1690),  and  were  republished  by  Dr.  John  Gill, 
with  notes  and  brief  memoir  (2  vols.,  1791). 

CRISPIN  AND CRISPIHIAlfySAniTS:  Twobroth- 
era  of  good  Roman  family,  who,  it  is  said,  went  to 
Gaul  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Diodetian  to 
labor  for  the  conversion  of  the  pagans.  They  set- 
tled at  Soissons,  where  they  preached  with  much 
success  by  day  and  labored  at  night  at  their  trade 
of  shoemaking  (whence  they  have  become  the  patron 
saints  of  shoemakere),  sellhig  the  shoes  to  the  poor; 
according  to  a  tradition  they  stole  the  leather  that 
they  mi^t  sell  at  a  low  price.  They  were  put  to 
death  with  cruel  tortures  by  the  governor  in  287. 
Their  day  is  Oct.  26. 

Bibuoorapht:  ASB,  Oct.,  ad.  485-640;  F.  Gdma.  in  JPT, 
ziu  (1887),  part  2. 

CRinCI  SACRI:  A  thesaurus  of  Bible  antiq- 
uities and  exegesis,  undertaken  as  an  appendage  to 
Walton's  Polyglot  at  the  instigation  and  expense 
of  (Cornelius  Bee,  a  London  bookseller,  and  pre- 
pared under  the  direction  of  John  Pearson,  mAt- 
deacon  of  Surrey  (afterward  bishop  of  (tester); 
Anthony  Scattergood,  canon  of  Lincoln;  Francis 
Gouldman,  rector  of  South  Ockendon,  E^asex; 
and  Richard  Pearson,  fellow  of  King's  OoUege 
(brother  of  John).  The  full  title  is  Critici  sacri : 
nve  doctissimarum  virorum  in  SS.  BMia  annota- 
tianee  et  tractatru  (9  vols.,  London,  1660).  The 
work  combines  the  labors  of  many  of  the  best 
English  and  Oontinental  scholare  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries.*  It  was  reprinted 
twice  at  Frankfort,  and  a  new  edition,  augmented 
and  provided  with  index,  appeared  at  Amsterdam 
in  nine  volumes,  1698.  The  Thesaurue  theologico- 
phUotogictLS  eive  aylloge  diseertoHonum  ekganHortan 
ad  eelecHora  et  iUustriora  VeterU  et  Novi  Testamenti 
loca,  a  theologie  Protestantibus  in  Gennania  wepa- 
ralimdiverne  temporibue  oonscnpUxrum  (2  vols.,  folio, 
1701-02)  and  the  Theeaums  novue  theUogtoo-phHo- 
logicus  (2  vols.,  1732),  both  works  edited  by  Theo- 
dor  Hase  and  Cionrad  Iken,  constitute  a  supplement. 
The  Synopsis  criticorum  of  Matthew  Poole  (q.v.)  is 
an  abridgment  of  the  original  work  with  addi- 
tional matter.  For  contents  of  the  Critiei  saeri 
consult  James  Darling,  Cydopadia  Bibliographica 
(London,  1864),  816-826. 

CROALL  LECTURES:  A  lectureship  on  a  foun- 
dation created  by  a  bequest  of  £6,000  by  Uf.  John 
Croall.  The  aim  is  to  defend  and  maintain  the 
doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion  and  "to  in- 
crease the  religious  literature  of  Scotland."  The 
lectures  are  delivered  in  alternate  years  in  Edin- 
burgh, the  lecturer  is  by  preference  from  one  or 
other  of  the  Presbyterian  churehes  of  Scotland, 

*  In  »  note  from  *'  Cornelius  Bee  to  the  reader  "  it  is  seid: 
*'  If  any  one  should  be  disposed  to  blame  us  either  for  the 
great  sise  of  the  work  or  because  of  its  priee,  let  him  know 
that  we  have  aimed  both  to  benefit  him  and  to  save  him 
money.  For  here  about  ninety  books,  in  their  entirety, 
are  brought  together  into  nine,  and  fifty  pounds  more  or 
less  (you  would  find  it  hard  to  buy  them  all  for  leas  at  the 
present  time,  if  you  oould  get  them  at  all)  are  reduced  to 
fifteen.  So  there  is  no  good  reason  why  any  one  should 
find  fault  with  us;  on  the  contrary,  every  one  should  fed 
much  satisfaction." 


807 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oreteal 
OromwdU 


though  he  may  be  a  "  clergyman  of  any  Refonned 
Church  other  than  Presbyterian,"  and  may  not  be 
reappointed.  The  first  lecturer,  in  1875-76,  was 
John  Tulloch,  and  his  subject  was  The  Christian 
Doctrine  of  Sin  (Edinburgh,  1877).  A  full  list  of 
lecturers  and  their  subjects  is  given  in  L.  H.  Jor- 
dan, Comparative  Religion^  p.  668,  New  York,  1906. 

CROCIIJS,  JOHANNES:  Reformed  theologian;  b. 
at  Laasphe  (36  m.  8.8.e.  of  Amsberg),  in  the  cpunty  of 
Wittgenstein,  Germany,  July  28, 1690;  d.  at  Marburg 
July  1,  1669.  After  studying  at  Herbom  and  Mai^ 
buig,  he  became,  in  1612,  court  preacher  to  the  Land- 
grave Maurice  in  Cassel  and  obtained  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  theology  1613.  With  the  permission  of  his 
prince  he  entered  for  two  years  the  service  of  the 
elector  John  Sigismtmd  of  Brandenburg,  who  in  1617 
appointed  him  professor  of  theology  at  the  University 
of  Marburg.  In  1624  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Cas- 
sel, in  consequence  of  the  closing  of  the  university. 
During  this  period  he  played  a  great  part  in  the  Hes- 
sian Church,  which  had  gone  over  to  the  Reformed 
confession,  and  in  the  time  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
he  wrote  in  support  of  the  political  demands  of  the 
Reformed  party  in  Germany.  His  chief  work  was 
a  polemic  against  Roman  Catholic  attacks:  Anti- 
Becanue  i.e.  controveraiarum  communium,  qtuis  M. 
Becanus  ...  in  manuali  movU  examen  ex  S,  S,  et 
antiquitate  inetUidum  (Cassel,  1643).  In  1631  he 
took  part  in  the  religious  conference  at  Leipsic 
between  Lutheran  and  Reformed  theologians.  At 
the  reopening  of  the  Reformed  imiversity  in  Mar- 
burg in  1663  he  returned  thither,  and  became  its 
first  rector.  He  had  a  great  share  in  the  church 
order  published  by  Landgrave  Louis  VI.  in  1667. 

Carl  Mirbt. 
Biblioorafht:  F.   C.   Qaua,   JohannM  CroduB,   Maxburg, 

1857;  F.    W.    Strieder.    Heuiache   GeUhriengesehieKU,    ii. 

397  sqq..   Gdttingen,  1782;  H.  Heppe,  OetchiehU  d§r  theo- 

hffiadun  FakulUU  xu  Marburg,  Harburs,  1873. 

CROMWELL,  OLIVER:  Lord  Protector  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  England;  b.  at  Huntingdon  (17 
m.  n.w.  of  Cambridge),  Huntingdonshire,  Apr.  26, 
1699;  d.  in  London  Sept.  3,  1668.  He  entered 
Cambridge  University  in  1616,  but  left  it  a  year 
later  to  care  for  his  mother  and  sisters  on  his 
father's  death.  In  1628  he  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment from  Huntingdon,  from  which  town  he 
removed  to  Ely  in  1636.  In  1640  he  was  again 
sent  to  the  House  of  Commons,  this  time  from 
Cambridge,  and  in  the  Long  Parliament  he  soon 
took  his  stand  in  opposition  to  the  royal  preroga- 
tive. In  1642  he  moved  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  to  put  the  kingdom  in  a  posture  of 
defense,  and,  when  Essex  received  the  commission 
to  raise  a  parliamentaiy  army,  raised  a  troop  of 
arquebusiers,  sixty  Godfearing  men  who  fought 
first  at  Edgehill. 

Early  in  his  career,  when  the  modem  idea  of 
religiouB  liberty  was  in  its  infancy,  he  took  a  de- 
cided stand  in  its  favor,  with  the 
Defense  of  younger  Vane  but  against  the  great 

Religious    majority  of  those  who  fought  on  his 

Liberty,     side.     In  defense  of  his  Independent 

principles,  he  had  to  contend  not  only 

against  the  attempt  of  the  Scotch  to  force  their 

rigid  Presbyterianism  upon  England,  but  with  the 


English  Presbyterians  who  had  a  majority  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  hampered  and  weakened 
the  army  because  it  was  not  in  sympathy  with 
their  narrow  views.  Their  action  forced  Cromwell 
into  open  opposition  to  Parliament,  in  favor  of  the 
liberty  proclaimed  in  Milton's  Areopagiiica  (1644) 
and  Jeremy  Taylor's  lAbeHy  of  Prophesying  (1647). 

In  July,  1647,  Cromwell  and  his  son-in-law  Ireton 
submitted  to  the  king  the  treaty  known  as  the 
"  Heads  of  the  Proposals,"  which  if  carried  into 
effect  would  have  been  the  settlement  of  1689  with 
a  laiger  flavor  of  democracy  and  Puritanism,  and 
left  all  forms  of  worship,  including  the  Prayer- 
book,  to  the  free  choice  of  the  worshipers.  In  all 
his  efforts  Cromwell's  aim  had  been  to  strengthen 
toleration  by  intertwining  it  with  the  old  con- 
stitutional pillars  of  king  and  parliament;  but  he 
found  out  by  degrees  that  nothing  was  to  be  hoped 
for  from  the  king,  and  ultimately  sat  as  a  member 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  which  tried  and  exe- 
cuted him,  contributing  more  than  any  other  mem- 
ber to  the  result. 

In  the  following  August  he  was    made  lord- 
lieutenant  and  commander  in  chief  in  Ireland,  and 
put  down  opposition  with  a  strong 

Rise  to  hand.  Appointed  captain-general  of 
Power,  all  the  forces  of  the  Commonwealth 
(June  26,  1660),  he  marched  into 
Scotland,  and  won  the  successive  victories  of  Dun- 
bar, Edinburgh,  and  Perth.  The  battle  of  Worces- 
ter (Sept.  3,  1661)  ended  the  war,  and  Oomwell 
returned  to  London.  In  April,  1663,  he  dissolved 
the  "  Rump  "  Parliament  and  formed  a  council  of 
state.  After  the  "  Little  "  or  "  Barebones  "  Par- 
liament had  sat  from  July  to  December,  he  was 
installed  at  Westminster  (Dec.  16)  as  Lord  Protector 
under  the  conditions  of  the  **  Instrument  of  Gov- 
ernment "  drawn  up  by  the  militaiy  power. 

One  of  the  early  important  measures  of  the  Pro- 
tectorate was  the  establishment  of  a  new  scheme  of 
church  government.  The  minister  presented  to  a 
living  was  to  have  a  certificate  of  fitness  from  three 
persons  of  known  godliness  and  integrity,  one  of 
them  being  a  settled  minister.  After  this  had  been 
passed  by  commissioners  known  as  Triers,  he  became 
an  incumbent,  liable  to  expulsion  by  a  local  body 
of  Ejectors  for  immorality,  blasphemy,  or  atheism; 
but  while  he  remained  he  might  uphold  any  Puritan 
system  he  chose,  and  organize  his  con- 

Pdlicyof    gregation  on  the  Presbyterian,  Inde- 

Protect-  pendent,  or  Baptist  system,  if  they 
orate.  would  follow  him.  Any  who  ob- 
jected to  the  system  adopted  in  their 
parish  might  form  separate  congregations  at  their 
own  discretion.  Later  on,  toward  the  close  of  1666, 
the  Jews,  who  had  been  exiled  from  England  since 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  were  allowed  to  return. 
But  ultimately  the  position  held  by  the  Prayer- 
book  as  a  symbol  of  attachment  to  royalty  drove 
Cromwell  to  proscribe  its  use  as  thoroughly  as  that 
of  the  mass;  yet  the  persecution  along  this  line  was 
sharp  only  for  a  time,  and  on  the  other  hand  he 
stood  forth  before  all  Europe  as  the  champion  of 
religious  liberty  by  his  espousal  of  the  cause  of  the 
Vaudois  Protestants  against  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
and  his  foreign  policy  looked  toward  the  establish- 


Oromwell 

Oroas  and  It«  XTse 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


808 


ment  of  an  alliance  which  shotild  uphold  Protes- 
tantism everywhere. 

Though  he  was  limited  by  the  defects  which 
make  imperfect  the  character  of  the  best  of  men,  it 
has  been  generally  admitted,  now  that  old  preju- 
dices have  passed  away  (especially  since  the  publi- 
cation of  Carlyle's  great  work),  that 
Modem     Cromwell  was  a  man  of  sincere  devo- 
Estimate.    tion  to  duty  and  to  his  ideal  of  what 
a  Christian  man  shoidd  be.     No  sour 
fanatic,  he  was  strict  in  banishing  not  merely  vice, 
but  the  folly  which  leads  to  vice.     Long  reviled  as 
a  regicide,  a  hypocrite,  and  a  tyrant,  he  is  now 
recognized  as  a  patriotic,  wise,  and  just  ruler. 
Bduoorapbt:  A  diacriixdiuitinc  eriticiam  of  literature  prior 
to  1887  may  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  article  in  the 
DNB,  adii.  165-186.     The  only  early  life  of  value  is  H. 
Fletcher.    TU    Perfect    PoUHeian  .  .  .  T%«    Life    of   O. 
Cromwell^  London,  1660.     Consult :    O.  Cromwell,  Mem^ 
otra  of  the  Protector  .  .  .  and  of  hie  Sone  Ridtard  and 
Henry^  2  vols.,  London,  1823  (by  a  deaoendant  and  in 
apologetic  tone);  T.  Carlyle,  Oliver  CromvfeU*e  LetUre  and 
Speediee,  3  vols.,  London,  1846,  reprinted  often,  e.g.,  1906 
(a  vindication  of  Cromwell,  turned  the  eurrent  of  opin- 
ion eonoemins  the  subject);  D.  Masson,  Life  of  MUion^ 
6  vols.,  Cambridge.  1867-80  (indispensable);  J.  Forster, 
Lives  of  Eminent  Staleemen  of  the  ConunanweaUh^  vol.  i., 
London,  1863  (adverse);  F.  P.  G.  Ouisot.  Life  of  Oliver 
CromwdL,  0th  ed.,  ib.  1899;  J.  A.  Pioton,  Oliver  CrwnvoeU, 
the  Man  and  hie  Mieeion,  ib.  1889  (defensive);  8.  R.  Qt- 
diner,  Hiet.  of  the  CommonweaUh  and  Protectorate,  1849- 
00,  London,  1894;  idem,  Oliver  Cromwell,  ib.  1903;  8.  H. 
Church,  Oliver  Cromwell,  Life,  Eztraete  from  LeUere  and 
8pee(hee,  New  York  and  London,  4th  ed.,  1899;  J.  Morley. 
OUver  CromweU,  ib.   1904.     From    the    view    of    church 
history:  W.  Clark,  Anglioan  Reformation,  pp.  396.  428-429, 
436^M0,  New  York,  1897;  J.  H.  Overton,  The  Church  in 
England,  ii.  114-119,  London,  1897;  W.  H.  Hutton,   The 
EnoUeh  Chwrch  .  .  .  iet&-1714,  ib.  1903.     An  interesting 
volume  is  Menaeeeh  Ben  lerai^e  Mieeion  to  Oliver  Crom- 
weU.   A  Reprint,  ed,  L.  Wolf,  ib.  1901. 

CROOKER,  JOSEPH  HENRY:  Unitarian;  b.  at 
Foxcroft,  Me.,  Dec.  8,  1850.  He  was  educated  at 
Norway,  Me.  (1864-67),  and  Ypeilanti  Union  Sem- 
inary (1870),  and  after  a  Baptist  ministry  of  five 
years  became  a  convert  to  Unitarianism  in  1877. 
He  held  charges  at  Madison,  Wis.  (1881-91),  Hel- 
ena, Mont.  (1891-97),  and  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  (1898- 
1905).  Since  1905  he  has  been  minister  of  Ros- 
lindale  Unitarian  Church,  Boston.  He  has  written 
Je9U8  Brought  Back  (Boston,  1889);  Problems  in 
American  Society  (1889);  Different  New  Testament 
Views  of  Jesus  (1890);  The  New  Bible  and  its  New 
Uses  (1893);  The  Unitarian  Church  (1901);  Relig- 
ious Freedom  in  American  Education  (1903);  and 
The  Supremacy  of  Jesus  (1904). 

CROOKS,  GEORGE  RICHARD:  Methodist;  b. 
in  Philadelphia  Feb.  3,  1822;  d.  m  Madison,  N.  J., 
Feb.  20,  1897.  He  was  graduated  at  Dickinson 
College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1840;  became  teacher  in 
the  grammar-school  of  the  college  1842,  its  prin- 
cipal 1843,  adjunct  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
the  college  1846;  was  pastor  in  Philadelphia,  Wil- 
mington, New  York,  and  Brooklyn  1848-^;  pro- 
fessor of  historical  theology  in  Drew  Theological 
Seminary,  Madison,  N.  J.,  1880  till  his  death.  In 
the  General  Conference  of  1856  he  led  the  move- 
ment which  sanctioned  theological  seminaries  in 
the  Methodist  Church,  and  he  aimed  steadily  at 
higher  ideals  of  culture  for  the  ministry.  From 
ISdO  to  lS7b  he  Mied  The  Methodist.    With  John 


F.  Hurst  he  prepared  an  adaptation  of  Hagen- 
bach's  EncydopcBdia  and  Methodology  (New  York, 
1884);  independently  he  published  an  edition  of 
Butler's  Analogy,  containing  a  life  and  completion 
of  Emory's  analysis  (1852);  The  Life  and  Letters  of 
Rev.  Dr.  John  McClintock  (1876);  the  Sermons 
(1885)  and  Life  (1890)  of  Bishop  Bfatthew  Simpscxi; 
The  Story  of  the  Christian  Church  (1897). 

CROSBY,  FANIIY  (FRANCES  JANE  YAH  AL- 

STYHE):  Hynm-writer;  b.  at  South  East,  N.  Y., 
Mar.  24,  1820.  She  became  totally  blind  in  in- 
fancy, and  was  educated  at  the  New  York  Institute 
for  the  Blind,  where  she  taught  En^ish  grammar 
and  rhetoric,  as  well  as  Greek,  Roman,  and  Amer- 
ican history,  1847-58,  when  she  married  Alexan- 
der Van  Alstyne,  a  blind  man.  She  has  written 
more  than  three  thousand  hymns,  among  the  best 
known  being  "  Safe  in  the  arms  of  Jesus;  "  "  Jesus, 
keep  me  near  the  Cross;  "  "  Pass  me  not,  O  gentle 
Savior;  "  "  Rescue  the  perishing;  "  and  "  Sweet 
hour  of  prayer."  She  has  also  written  The  Blind 
Girl  and  other  Poems  (New  York,  1844);  Monterey 
and  other  Poems  (1849);  A  Wreath  of  Columbia's 
Flowers  (1859);  Bells  at  Evening  and  other  Poems, 
with  biographical  Sketch  by  Robert  Lowry,  1898  (5th 
ed.,  1903);  and  Memories  of  Eighty  Years  (1907). 

CROSBY,  HOWARD:    Presbyterian;   b.  in  New 
York  Feb.  27,  1826;   d.  there  Mar.  29,  1891.     He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York  1844;  was  professor  of  Greek  there  1851-59, 
at  Rutgers  College  1859-63;  was  also  pastor  of  the 
First  I^«sbyterian  Church  of  New  Brunswick  1861- 
1863;  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Avenue  Presbyterian 
Church,  New  York,  1863  till  his  death.     From  1370 
to  1881  he  was  chancellor  of  the  New  York  Univer- 
sity;   member  of  the  American  Bible   Revision 
Committee;    moderator  of  the  General  Assembly 
at  Baltimore  1873.    He  advocated  Christian  union, 
favored  a  restriction  of  wealth,  and  was  outspoken 
in  behalf  of  temperance   in  the  proper  meaning 
of  the  word  (not  total  abstinence).    He  assisted  in 
organising  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
of  New  York  and  was  its  president  1852-55;    he 
was  also  the  chief  founder  of  the  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of  Crime  in  1877  and  its  president  till 
his  death.    Besides  occasional  pamphlets,  articles, 
etc.,  he  published  Lands  of  the  Moslem,  travels 
(New  York,    1851);    an  edition  of  the  (Edipus 
Tyrannus  of  Sophocles  (1852);'  The  New  Testa- 
ment with  Brief  Explanatory  Notes  or  Scholia  (1863); 
Social  Hints  for  Young  Christians,  three  sermons 
(1866);   BibU  Manual  (1870);  Jesus,  his  Life  and 
Work  (1871);    The  Healthy  Christian,  an  appeal  to 
the   Church    (1871);     Thoughts   on   the   Decalogue 
(Philadelphia,    1873);     Expository   Notes    on    the 
Book  of  Joshua  (New  York,  1875);  Nehemiah  in  the 
American    Lange    series    (1877);     The    Christian 
Preacher,  Yale  lectures  on  preaching  for  1879-80 
(1880);   The  True  Humanity  of  Christ  (1880);   The 
New   Testament  in  Both  Authorised  and  Revised 
Versions  Carefully  Annotated  (Boston,  1885);    The 
Bible  View  of  the  Jewish  Church  (New  York,  1888); 
The  Good  and  Evil  of  Calvinism  (1890);   The  Seven 
Churches  of  Asia,  or  v)orldliness  in  the  Church  (1890); 
Will  and  Providence  (1890).    A  volume  of  Sermons 


809 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oromwell 

Oroas  and  It«  XTse 


appeared  in  New  York,  1891,  and  At  the  Lord^s 
TabU,  1894. 

Bibuoobapht:  Hotpard  Crotby,  Memorial  Paptrt  and  Rem- 
inuoenceM,  New  York,  1892. 

CROSS  AND  ITS  USE  AS  A  SYKBOL. 

The  Sign  of  the  Cross  ({  1). 

Its  Form  (S  2). 

Am  an  Amulet.    Ecclesiastical  Symbolism  ({  3). 

The  Croos  in  Art.     Different  Forms  ({  4). 

Similar  Pre-Christian  Symbols  ({  6). 

The  significance  and  importance  of  the  cross  in 
Christianity  are  obviously  due  to  its  association 
with  the  death  of  Jesus.  Its  use  as  an  instrument 
of  torture  and  capital  pimishment,  and  the  cross  of 
Jesus  are  treated  under  the  headhig  Crucifixion. 
Other  topics  are  most  conveniently  discussed  in 
connection  with  the  symbolism  of  the  cross,  to 
which  this  article  will  be  in  the  main  devoted.  Its 
historical  associations  and  its  connection  with  the 
salvation  of  men  made  the  cross  the  emblem  of 
Christianity  even  from  the  beginning.  The  sym- 
bolic act  known  as  the  sign  of  the  cross  appears 
veiy  early,  signifying,  of  course,  Christ's  death  on 

the  cross;    but  inevitably  importance 

X.  The  Sign  came  to  be  attached  to  the  mere  act 

of  the      and  it  was  believed  to  be  helpful  in 

Croes.      securing  the  blessing  and  efficacy  of 

this  holy  event  and  of  the  exalted 
Christ.  As  early  bs  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  a  superstitious  conception  and  application 
had  so  far  developed  that  the  popular  faith  of  the 
Church,  not  without  support  from  theology,  sought 
by  performing  the  act  a  powerfid  device  against 
the  will  of  demons,  by  whom  people  imagined 
themselves  beset  and  threatened.  The  expedient 
wajs  also  applied  in  case  of  sickness  and  other  perils, 
before  battle  and  elsewhere.  The  sign  was  usu- 
ally made  on  the  forehead,  but  also  on  other  parts  of 
the  body,  which  were  supposed  to  need  its  protect- 
ive operation.  The  sign  is  also  used  contempo- 
raneously in  public  worship,  as  conferring  a  blessing 
or  consecration  and  protection  against  the  ungodly 
world.  Its  supposed  efficacy  comes  to  light  espe- 
cially in  exorcism.  Possibly  the  pagan  reproach 
of  cross-worship  had  some  connection  with  this 
comprehensive  practise. 

The  medieval  development  occasioned  in  some 
respects  a  very  considerable  increase  in  the  use  of 
the  sign  of  the  cross  in  public  worship.  The  West- 
em  Church  exhibits  the  double  form  of  the  so-called 
Latin  and  the  so-called  German  sign  of  the  cross. 

The  former  is  made  by  touching  the 
a.  Its  Form,  forehead  and  breast  and  then  the  left 

and  the  right  shoulder  with  the  open 
right  hand;  using  the  formula:  In  nomine  patris  et 
filii  et  apiriius  aancti  amen ;  or:  AdjtUorium 
nostrum  in  nomine  dominif  or:  In  nomine  do- 
mini  nostri  Jesu  Christi,  The  German  cross  con- 
sists in  touching  the  forehead,  lips,  and  breast  with 
the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  right  hand  brought 
together,  while  the  left  hand  rests  on  the  breast. 
The  accompanying  words  are:  "  In  the  name  of 
God  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  Amen." 
The  Greeks  place  thumb,  index  finger,  and  middle 
finger  of  the  right  hand  together,  the  two  remaining 


fingers  closed  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  so  touch 
the  forehead,  breast,  right  and  left  shoulders.  The 
three  extended  fingers  denote  for  them  confession 
of  the  Trinity;  the  two  closed  ones  express  faith  in 
the  divine  and  human  nature  in  Christ.  Their 
formula  runs:  "  Holy  God,  Holy  Strong  One,  Holy 
Immortal,  have  mercy  on  us."  The  Lutheran 
Churches  have  retained  the  sign  of  the  cross  in 
particular  acts  of  devotion  (baptism,  communion, 
and  some  others),  and  likewise  the  Anglican  Church; 
whereas  Reformed  Protestantism  rejected  it  strictly. 

To  the  private  and  devotional  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  the  cross  as  a  symbol  correspond  the  extent 
and  affluence  of  its  representations,  even  in  the 
early  Christian  era.  The  superstitious  phase  of  the 
matter  is  exemplified  in  the  use  of  the  cross  on 
amulet  inscriptions;  and  even  the  amulet  itself 
takes  the  form  of  a  cross.  The  mark- 
3.  As       ing   of  walls,   doors,   and   household 

an  Amu-  objects  with  a  cross  may  in  many  cases 
let.   Eccle-  be  attributed  to  the  same   motive. 

siastical  However,  the  cross  occurs  for  the  most 
Sym-       part  as  a  symbol  and  notation  of  Chris- 

bolism.  tianity.  Accordingly  the  use  of  it  in- 
creases with  the  victorious  progress  of 
the  new  religion  through  the  heathen  world  from 
the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great.  Ornaments  are 
marked  with  it,  especially  rings,  vestments,  and 
other  dress  fabrics,  various  utensils  like  lamps, 
combs,  caskets,  and  boxes,  as  well  as  sarcophagi 
and  epitaphs.  Nor  does  the  ecclesiastical  use  of  it 
fall  short  of  the  private  use.  The  cross  became  the 
outward  and  visible  token  of  church  edifices.  Then 
the  State  had  it  circulated  on  its  coins  throughout 
its  entire  dominion  and  beyond;  and  it  crowned  the 
imperial  globe,  scepter,  and  diadem. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  it  is  true,  the  cross  recedes  in 
the  sphere  of  private  usage,  but  it  gains  all  the 
more  ground  in  the  public  life  of  the  Church.  It  is 
the  symbol  of  ecclesiastical  seizin  and  right  of 
possession;  it  is  used  to  excess  in  one  form  or  an- 
other in  connection  with  ecclesiastical  functions 
(altar  dedication,  proclamation  of  indulgences, 
processions,  etc.);  becomes  more  lavishly  appropri- 
ated to  devotional  objects,  and  is  the  most  charac- 
teristic Christian  burial  token.  It  participates  in 
the  ordeal  (q.v.);  admonishes,  in  detached  situa- 
tions, to  religious  thoiights  and  acts  (wayside  crosses, 
etc.),  and  is  affixed  by  clerics  and  secular  persons  to 
their  signatures.  It  is  adopted  as  ground-plan  of 
churches  (both  the  Latin  and  the  Greek  cross). 
Monastic  and  knightly  orders  and  civil  gilds, 
spiritual  and  temporal  lords,  municipalities  and 
countries  adopt  it  as  emblem.  It  is  borne  on 
banners  and  arms.  Asceticism  and  mysticism, 
and  religious  poetry  direct  their  thoughts  to  it. 
It  is  at  once  the  simplest  and  most  universal  Chris- 
tian symbol.  And  as  far  as  the  evidence  goes,  there 
was  no  distinction  in  this  respect  between  Eastern 
and  Western  Christianity. 

In  the  West  a  powerful  reaction  was  occasioned 
by  the  Reformation,  so  far,  at  least,  as  the  super- 
stitious and  generally  tmworthy  use  of  the  cross  as 
a  symbol  was  in  question.  But  although  Reformed 
Protestantism  took  radical  measures  in  the  matter, 
the    Lutheran   movement,   consistently   with   its 


OrcMM  and  Its  XTm 
Orosthwaite 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


310 


proper  nature,  confined  itaelf  to  doing  away  with 
unevangelical  practises. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  even  before  Constantine's 
time  the  cross  was  used  in  plastic  art  and  painting, 
and  especially  in  the  minor  arts,  though  only  in- 
frequently. But  the  earliest  certain  representa- 
tions of  it  extant  are  later  than  Constantine.  This 
is  explained,  for  one  thing,  by  the  greater  wealth  of 
monumental  material  preserved  from  the  later  time; 
but  it  is  also  due  to  a  growing  predilection  which 
originated  in  Constantine's  time  or  later;  the  rep- 
resentations become  more  and  more 
4.  The  Cross  frequent  as  time  goes  on.  The  oldest 
in  Art  forms,  probably  simultaneous  in  origin, 
Different  are  the  "  Greek  cross  "  (  t )  and  the 
Forms.  "  Latin  cross"  (crux  immiasa,  -f- ).  The 
cross  was  anticipated,  even  though  not 
intentionally,  in  the  Greek  letter  "  chi "  of  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ  (see  Jesus  Christ,  Monooram  of). 
It  is  sometimes  combined  with  the  letters  "  alpha  " 
and  "  omega,"  or  it  is  enclosed  in  a  circle,  or  offset 
with  doves  or  long-stemmed  flowers.  It  is,  further- 
more, adorned  with  precious  stones,  and  associated 
with  the  monogram  in  the  triumphal  labarum  (see 
CoNSTANTiNB  THE  Grbat,  I.,  §  4).  As  emblem  of 
victory  it  soars  in  the  starry  dome,  upheld  by 
hovering  angels;  and  in  the  fifth  century  it  enters 
into  the  nimbus  of  Christ,  imparting  to  the  same 
its  characteristic  form  down  to  this  day.  Less 
frequent  is  the  "  tau  "  form  of  the  cross  (  T  t  "  S^- 
Anthony's  "  or  "  Egyptian  cross,"  crux  commiasa), 
which  originated  in  the  symbolic  reflections  of 
church  writers,  and  is  not  demonstrably  extant 
before  the  fourth  century.  To  the  Middle  Ages 
belong  "  St.  Andrew's  cross  "  (  x ,  crux  decuatata), 
which  legend  reputed  to  be  St.  Andrew's  implement 
of  mart^dom  (see  Crucifixion);  the  papal  cross 
with  three  crossbars  (  ^  )  and  the  patriarchal 
cross  with  two  (  4*  )»  <^^  numerous  others  con- 
structed upon  the  fundamental  traditional  out- 
lines, and  belonging  distinctively  to  heraldry — the 
Maltese  cross,  the  cross  fleury,  the  cross  patt^,  and 
others. 

Similar  or  equivalent  pre-Christian  symbols  of 
this  description  have  neither  an  intrinsic  nor  ex- 
traneous connection  with  the  Christian  cross,  al- 
though such  relationship  has  been  and 
5.  Similar   is  persistently  asserted.    The  Egyp- 
Pre-Chris-  tian    "handle    cross"    (  f,    ankh), 
tian        which  has  been  transferred  in  isolated 
Symbols,    instances  to  Coptic  art,  has  been  merely 
reconstructed   and   transformed  into 
the  cross    of   Christ.     The    swastika  (^,   crux 
gamminata,  gammadion,  or  fylfot),  a  veiy  ancient 
prophylactic  qrmbol  occurring  among  all  peoples, 
perhaps  owes  its  not  infrequent  adoption  by  Chris- 
tians to  its  resemblance  to  the  cross;  at  least  this 
resemblance  may  have  made  the  adoption  easier; 
but  the  fylfot  also  stands  independently  beside 
the  cross.  Victor  Schuivtze. 

Bibuoorapht:  W.  W.  Sesrmour,  Thg  Cro—  in  Tradition, 
HiH,,  and  AH,  New  York,  1808;  J.  Stookbauer,  Kunat- 
gtaehithU  det  KrtuMe;  Schaffhauaen,  1870;  E.  Dobbert, 
Zur  EnUUihunQ»ge9ckiehU  det  Kre%ue9,  Berlin.  1880;  O.  S. 
Tysck,  Th4  Croat  in  Ritual,  Ardtiteeture  and  Art,  London, 
1896;  J.  Hoppenot,  Le  Crucifix  dana  Vhiatoire  et  dan» 
Vart,  FviM,  1890;  W.  O.  Stopbans,  Th»  CroM  in  the  Ufa 


and  LUBraiurt  of  Ab  AngloSaxona,  New  York.  1904: 
P.  M.  C.  Kermode.  Manx  Cro—a  .  .  .  6thto  iSth  C€ntvry. 
London.  1007;  E.  Beresford-Ocroke,  The  Sign  of  Ihm  Croaa 
in  the  Weatem  LUurgiaa,  London,  1007;  Sebaff.  ChruHan 
Church,   vol.  ii.,   cbap.  iv.;    KL,  viL  1054-88. 

On  pre-Chrifltian  and  non-Gbrutian  forma  aad  uaa^e 
oonBult:  G.  de  Mortillet,  Le  Signe  de  la  eroix  avant  U 
ekriatianieme,  Paris,  1866;  E.  von  Bunaen.  Daa  Symibol 
dea  Kreuaea  bei  alien  Nationen,  und  die  Bntatdtuno  dea 
Kreuaaymbola  der  ihrieaichen  Kinhe,  Berlin.  1876;  W.  W. 
Blake.  The  Croaa  Ancient  and  Modem,  New  York,  1888; 
Anaault.  La  eroix  avant  JSaue  Chriat,  Paris.  1804;  J.  D. 
Parson,  The  Non^hriatUzn  Croaa,  London,  1896;  T.  Wil- 
son. The  Swutika,  ib.  1808. 

CROSS,  EXALTATION  OF  THE:    One  of  the 

older  church  festivals,  although,  as  it  appears,  it 
had  no  independent  status  to  begin  with,  but  was 
an  addition  to  the  festival  of  the  Invention  of  the 
CroBS  (q.v.),  celebrated  on  the  following  day  (Sept. 
14).  The  first  mention  and  account  of  it  is  by 
the  Aquitanian  pilgrim  Silvia,  about  385.  It  was 
naturalized  in  Constantinople  as  early  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  century,  and  in  the  first  half  of 
the  same  it  is  on  record  with  respect  to  Syria  and 
Egypt.  Probably  during  the  fifth  century  the 
festival  spread  through  the  entire  Church  of  the 
East.  The  way  was  paved  for  it  on  every  side, 
directly  and  indirectly,  by  the  migration  of  allied 
fragments  of  the  cross.  The  recovery  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  which  in  614  was  carried  off  by  the  Persian 
king  Chosroes  II.,  but  in  628  was  brought  back  to 
Jerusalem  in  solemn  procession  by  the  emperor 
Heraclius  in  person,  doubtless  gave  the  festival  a 
new  impulse.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  West 
under  Pope  Sergius  (687-701).  Victor  Schultze. 

Biblxoorapht:  The  Pilgrimaoa  of  S,  Silvia  of  Aquiiania,  in 
Palestine  Pilsrima'  Text  Society  leries.  vol.  L.  London. 
1806;  A.  J.  Binterim.  DenkwQrdiokeiten,  V.  i.  465  sqq.. 
Mains.  1820;  DCA,  i.  602-503;  ASB  and  ASM  for  Sept.  14. 

CROSS,  HVVBIITION  (OR  FDIDING)  OF  THE: 

The  name  of  an  ancient  festival  of  the  Church.  In 
the  history  of  the  discovery  of  "  holy  sites "  the 
finding  of  the  cross  of  Jesus  has  its  place,  even 
prior  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  While 
Eusebius  of  Csesarea  and  the  Pilgrim  of  Bordeaux 
(333)  have  nothing  to  say  in  the  matter,  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  not  long  afterward  (347  or  348),  pre- 
supposes the  existence  of  this  cross  and  the 
wide  distribution  of  splinters  detached  from  it 
("  Catechetical  Lectures,"  iv.  10,  x.  19;  "  Let- 
ter to  Constantine,"  iii.;  MPG,  xxxiii.  468,  680, 
1168;  NPNF,  2  ser.,  vii.  21,  63).  StiU  in  the 
same  century,  the  legendary  account,  no  doubt 
incited  by  the  visit  of  the  empress  Helena  (the 
mother  of  Constantine  the  Great)  to  the  holy 
scenes,  associates  her  directly  with  the  event.  The 
empress,  it  relates,  conjointly  with  the  bishop 
Macarius,  instituted  researches  as  to  buried  crosses 
on  Golgotha;  and  thanks  to  the  aid  of  a  Jew,  or 
even  of  a  divine  revelation,  the  three  crosses  were 
discovered.  The  true  one  was  reoogniaed  by 
means  of  the  attached  titulus  (Matt,  zxvii.  37,  and 
parallels)  or  by  virtue  of  a  miracle  of  healing. 
The  reports  vary  in  detail,  but  are  essentially  the 
same  in  substance.  It  is  nevertheless  d^on- 
strable  that  this  narrative  has  its  origin  in  the 
transference  to  the  empress  Helena  of  a  sinular 
episode  in  the  legend  of  Abgar  {Doctrina  Addai; 


311 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OroM  and  Its  T7m 
GhroBthwaite 


cf.  T.  Zahn,  Forschungen  tut  OeschichU  des  new 
testamenUichen  Kanons,  i.,  Erlangen,  1891,  pp.  370 
sqq.;  Socrates,  Hist,  eccl,  i.  17,  Eng.  transl.  in 
\PNF,  2  scr.,  ii.  21;  Sozomen,  HiaL  eccl.,  ii.  1, 
in  NPNF,  2  aer.,  ii.  258-259.  These  relate  the 
discoveries  at  length). 

Both  Greeks  and  Latins  commemorated  the 
occurrence  in  a  special  festival,  the  former  com- 
bining it  with  the  annual  celebration  of  the  dedi- 
cation of  Constantine's  Basilica  on  Sept.  13,  the 
latter  appointing  a  particular  date  for  it  on  May  3. 
The  first  traces  of  a  Latin  observance  appear  in 
Gaul  at  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
fusion  of  the  Gallic  and  Roman  ritual  carried  the 
festival  to  Rome  about  800,  whence  it  became 
gradually  di£fused  through  the  Western  Church. 

Victor  Schultzb. 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  H.  Newnum,  Two  eMay  <m  .  .  .  Mvra- 
cUa,  pp.  287-320.  London.  1873  (defends  the  legend);  W. 
C.  Prime,  HtBtory  of  the  Invention,  Freaervation  and  Dia- 
appearaneeof  the  Wood  knotonae  the  True  Croee,  New  York, 
1877;  The  Leoendary  Uiatory  of  the  Croae,  a  Seriea  of 
eixtu-four  Woodeuia  from  a  Dutch  Book  .  .  .  i4SS,  .  .  . 
with  Preface  by  S.  Barinff-Oould,  ib.  1887;  InvenHonie 
crude  .  .  .  hymnue  antiquue,  ed.  A.  Holder,  Leipsic,  1880; 
E.  Nestle,  De  eanda  cruce,  Berlin,  1880;  J.  H.  Bernard. 
The  Churehee  of  Conetantine  al  Jeruealem,  Being  Tranela- 
Hone  from  BueeUue  and  the  early  Pilgrime,  London,  1806; 
DC  A,  i.  603-606. 

CROSS,  ORDERS  OF  THE  {Crucifori,  Crucigeri): 
A  term  applied  to  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic 
Order  (q.v.)  and  also  to  four  medieval  orders  in 
other  countries. 

1.  The  Italian  Knights  of  the  Cross  traced  their 
origin  to  Cyriacus,  the  martyr-bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
who  died  c.  362,  or,  according  to  another  tradition 
of  the  order,  to  Cletus  (Anacletus),  one  of  the  early 
bishops  of  Rome.  Historically,  however,  they  are 
not  known  to  have  existed  before  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century,  when,  c.  1160,  Alexander  III. 
granted  to  their  mother  house,  a  large  hospital  at 
Bologna,  certain  privileges  which  were  increased 
by  Urban  III.  and  Innocent  III.  Gerhard  de 
Rocha,  the  prior  of  the  mother  house  under  Alex- 
ander and  Urban,  seems  to  have  raised  the  order 
to  a  position  of  importance  in  Italy  by  establishing 
daughter  houses  throughout  the  country,  even  if  he 
wajs  not  actually  the  founder.  In  the  time  of  its 
greatest  prosperity,  during  the  rule  of  Clement  IV., 
the  order  possessed  more  than  200  houses  in  the 
five  provinces  of  Bologna,  Venice,  Rome,  Milan, 
and  Naples.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  however, 
the  Knights  began  to  degenerate  through  schisms 
and  lax  discipline.  A  general  chapter  held  at 
Bologna  in  1462  proved  unable  to  check  the  decline 
by  the  reforms  which  it  proposed,  and  the  order 
was  finally  dissolved  under  Alexander  VIII.  in  1656. 

2.  In  1211  a  canon  of  Li^  named  Theodore  of 
CeUes  founded  at  Huy,  a  town  in  his  diocese,  an 
order  which  was  destined  to  spread  through  Hol- 
land, France,  the  west  and  south  of  Germany,  and, 
for  a  time,  even  to  Ireland.  The  chief  object  of 
the  new  order  was  the  conversion  of  heretics,  and 
its  Augustinian  rule,  modified  according  to  Domin- 
ican principles,  is  said  to  have  received  the  sanction 
of  Innocent  III.  in  1216.  These  Knights  of  the 
Cross  have  preserved  their  existence  until  the  pres- 
ent day,  despite  the  losses  which  they  Bu£Fered 


both  at  the  Reformation  and  during  the  French 
Revolution.  At  present  they  have  five  houses,  two 
in  Holland,  two  in  Belgium,  and  one  in  Germany. 
The  indult  granted  them  by  Leo  X.  in  1516,  by 
which  they  are  permitted  to  bless  rosaries  with  an 
indulgence  of  500  days  for  each  Pater  Noster  or  Ave 
Maria,  has  been  confirmed  repeatedly  by  succeeding 
popes,  most  recently  by  Leo  XIII.  in  1884. 

8.  The  Knights  of  the  Cross  with  the  Red  Star 
(Qrdo  miliiaris  crucigerorum  cum  rubra  atella)  be- 
lieve that  they  originated  as  an  order  of  knights 
spiritual  during  the  Crusades,  although  historically 
they  seem  to  have  been  established  c.  1235  as  a 
hospital  brotherhood  in  a  Franciscan  monastery 
founded  at  Prague  by  the  Bohemian  princess  Agnes. 
In  1252  they  received  their  rule  with  their  emblem 
of  a  cross  within  a  hexagonal  red  star.  Within  the 
year  they  had  assumed  control  of  a  hospital  newly 
erected  at  Breslau,  and  Bohemia  and  Silesia  re- 
mained the  centers  of  their  activity.  The  order 
soon  became  wealthy,  but  at  the  same  time  degen- 
erated and  many  of  its  houses  later  passed  to  other 
orders,  the  one  at  Prague  being  controlled  suc- 
cessively by  the  Jesuits  (1555)  and  the  Capuchins 
(1599). 

4.  A  distinctively  Polish  Order  of  Knights  of  the 
Cross  with  the  Red  Heart  was  established  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Mark  at  Cracow  in  the  second 
half  of  the  thirteenth  century.  It  was  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  order,  which  was  clothed  in 
black,  by  a  white  habit,  and  was  primarily  a  peni- 
tential organization  (known  officially  as  Ordo  de 
ptgnitentia  sanctorum  martyrum).  It  attained  its 
greatest  prosperity  about  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  after  which  it  rapidly  declined. 

(O.  ZdCKLERf.) 
Bibuoorapht:  1.  B.  Leoni,  Oriffin*  •  fondatione  deU'ctt' 
dine  di  Crociferi,  Venice,  1608;  Helyot,  Ordree  monae- 
tiquee,  ii.  222  sqq.;  KL,  vii.  1101-04;  Currier,  R^igioue 
Ordera,  p.  188.  2.  C.  R.  Hennana,  Anncdee  eawmicorum 
regularium  .  .  .  ordinia  S.  crude,  Boi»-Ie-due.  1858;  He- 
lyot, ut  sup.,  ii.  222-234;  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kof^ 
greoaUonen,  i.  400-408;  Currier,  ut  nip.,  pp.  188-180;  XL, 
Tii.  1106-11.  3.  F.  Jachaee,  Die  ritterlidte  Orden  der 
Kreuaherren  mU  dem  roten  Stem,  Vienna,  1882;  Helyoi, 
ut  tup.,  ii.  230  sqq.;  Heimbueher,  Orden  und  KongreoO' 
Honen,  I  408-400;  KL,  vii  1111-17.  4.  Helyot.  ut 
sup.,  ii.  241;  Heimbueher.  ut  lup.,  i.  400;  KL,  ii.  1440- 
1450. 

CROSS,  SIGN  OF  THE.  See  Crobs  and  itb  Uss 
AS  A  Symbol. 

CROSTHWAITE,  ROBERT  JARRATT:  Biahop 
of  Beverley;  b.  at  Wellington  (7  m.  b.w.  of  Taunton), 
Somersetshire,  England,  Oct.  13,  1837.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1860),  where 
he  was  fellow  1862-67.  He  was  successively 
curate  of  North  Cave,  Yorkshire  (1862-66),  and  of 
Bishopthorpe,  York  (1866-68),  private  secretary 
and  domestic  chaplain  to  the  archbishop  of  York 
(1866-69),  and  vicar  of  Waghen-Wrawne,  York- 
shire (1869-74),  Brayton,  Yorkshire  (1874-^),  and 
St.  Lawrence  cum  St.  Nicholas,  Yorkshire  (1883- 
1885).  He  was  also  chaplain  to  the  archbishop  of 
York  1879-84,  prebendary  of  Grindal  in  York 
Cathedral,  and  archdeacon  of  York  since  1884,  and 
rector  of  Bolton  Percy,  Yorkshire,  since  1885.  He 
was  rural  dean  of  Selby,  Yorkshire,  in  1883-85  and 
of  Ainsty,  Yorkshire,  1893-95.     In  1889  he  was 


Orowther 
Omolflzlon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


812 


oonaecrated  bbhop  of  Beveriey,  suffragan  to  the 
archbishop  of  York.  He  has  written  The  Ootpels 
of  the  New  Tettament,  their  Otnuineneee  and  Au- 
therUicity  (London,  1887). 

CROWTHER,  SAMUEL  ADJAI:  Churoh  of 
England  missionary  bishop  of  the  Niger;  b.  at 
Oshogun  Yoruba,  Central  Africa,  1808;  d.  at  Lagos, 
West  Africa,  end  of  Oct.,  1891.  When  twelve  and 
a  half  years  old  he  was  captured  by  Mohammedan 
sUve  traders,  sold  to  the  Portuguese,  and  shipped 
from  Lagos.  The  ship  was  captured  by  a  British 
man-of-war  and  he  was  landed  at  Bathuist,  Sierra 
Leone,  and  given  his  freedom.  There  in  the  Church 
of  England  mission  he  was  educated  and  converted, 
and  baptized  on  Dec.  11,  1825,  taking  the  name  of 
Samuel  Orowther.  He  showed  marked  ability  and 
learned  with  avidity.  In  1826  he  studied  in  the 
parochial  school  at  Islington,  London.  In  1827  he 
returned  to  Africa  and,  after  graduating  from  the 
Fourah  Bay  college  at  Sierra  Leone,  was  put  in 
charge  of  the  school  at  Regents  Town  in  1830,  in 
1832  of  that  at  Wellington,  and  in  1832  was  pro- 
fessor in  his  alma  mater.  In  1841  he  was  sent  by 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  to  explore  the  Niger 
country.  In  1842  he  was  ordained  in  England.  In 
1843  he  resumed  work  at  Sierra  Leone.  In  1844 
he  began  the  Yoruba  mission.  On  June  29th,  1864, 
he  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  the  Niger  in  Can- 
terbury CathedraL 
Bduoorapht:  J.   Pl«e,  Samud  CtowAmt,  Biahop  of  At 

Niotr,  New  York,  1889;  DNB,  rapplemaDi  voL.  ii.  08. 


CROZIER:  A  tall  staff,  terminating  in  a  cross, 
which  is  borne  before  Roman  CathoUo  patriarchs 
and  archbishops  as  a  sjrmbol  of  jurisdiction.  That 
of  the  ordinary  archbishop,  which  he  uses  only 
within  his  own  province,  has  a  single  cross-piece; 
that  of  a  patriarch  two,  and  of  the  pope  three.  A 
cross  similar  to  an  archbishop's  is  also  borne  before 
cardinals  in  particular  solemnities.  The  name 
crosier  is  sometimes,  though  less  correctly,  applied 
to  the  pastoral  staff  or  crook  of  bishops,  for  which 
see  Vkbtmentb  and  Inbionia,  Eoclbbiastigal. 

CROZIER,  JOHN  BAPTIST:  Bishop  of  Down, 
Connor,  and  Dromore;  b.  at  BaUyhaiae  (65  m.  s.  of 
Londonderry),  County  Cavan,  Ireland,  Apr.  8, 
1853.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  (B.A., 
1872;  M.A.,  1875),  and  was  curate  of  St.  Stephen's, 
Belfast  (1876-77),  St.  Anne's,  Belfast  (1877-80), 
vicar  of  Holywood,  County  Down  (1880-97).  He 
was  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Down  1885-86,  chap- 
lain to  the  archbishop  of  Armagh  1886-93,  and 
chaplain  to  the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  1891-97. 
He  was  also  prebendary  of  Dunsford  in  Down 
Cathedral  1889-90,  treasurer  of  Down  Cathedral 
1890-97,  and  prebendary  of  Wicklow  and  canon  of 
St.  Patrick's  National  Cathedral  1896-97  He  was 
honorary  secretary  of  the  General  Synod  of  the 
Church  of  Ireland  in  1896-97,  and  select  preacher 
to  Dublin  University  in  1898  and  1906,  and  to 
Cambridge  University  in  1903.  In  1897  he  was 
consecrated  to  the  see  of  Ossory,  Ferns,  and  Leighr 
lin,  and  in  1907  was  translated  to  Down. 

CRUCIFIX:  A  cross  bearing  the  image  of  the 
crucified  Christ.    Early  Christian  art  did  not  at- 


tempt to  portray  the  crucifixion,  and  crucifixes  do 
not  seem  to  be  older  than  the  ninth  century.  They 
show  the  same  general  characteristics  as  artistic 
representations  of  the  crucifixion  in  general  (see 
Crucifixion,  {  4).  In  the  West  crucifixes  have 
been  much  used  in  the  churches  as  objects  of 
public  devotion  and  also  as  objects  of  private  devo- 
tion in  houses,  and  are  worn  on  the  person  by  eccle- 
siastics and  others. 

CRUCIFIXION. 
Fonn  of  the  Crofla  (|  1). 
Method  of  Faateninc  to  the  Crose  ({  2). 
Tlie  Croae  and  Cnicifizion  of  Jesua  (|  3). 
The  Cnioifizion  in  Art  ({  4). 

Crucifixion  ("  fixing  to  the  cross  "),  aa  tk  method 
of  inflicting  the  death  penalty,  originated  in  the 
East  and  was  practised  by  Modes,  Persians,  and 
Semitic  peoples  (except  the  Jews);  later  by  the 
Greeks  and  especially  by  the  Romans.  The  scanty 
and  not  always  clear  information  ex- 

1.  Form  of  tant  with  reference  to  the  form  of  the 
the  Cross,   cross  used   reveals  two  main  types: 

the  so-called  crux  acuta,  a  perpendic- 
ular stake  or  pale,  sharpened  at  the  top;  and  the 
form  consisting  of  an  upright  post  and  a  superim- 
posed, or  transverse,  cross-beam  (  T  t  "t"  )•  I'he 
so-called  St.  Andrew's  cross,  reputed  to  have  sig- 
nalised the  martyrdom  of  the  Apostle  Andrew,  and 
traditionally  conceived  as  consisting  of  two  arms 
of  equal  length  intersecting  obliquely  (  X  )»  is  a 
product  of  medieval  legend.  WYaHe  the  simple 
stake  was  employed  for  the  impalement  aa  well  as 
for  the  suspension  of  those  under  sentence,  the 
composite  cross  was  used  for  the  latter  purpose  only. 
The  length  of  the  main  portion  was  ordinarily  but 
little  above  human  stature;  the  cross-piece  {pati- 
bulum)  was  either  bolted  fast  to  the  upright  post, 
which  stood  driven  into  the  ground;  or,  as  oftener 
happened,  the  cross-piece  was  carried  to  the  place  of 
execution  by  the  sentenced  culprits. 

Tliere  was  no  uniform  process  of  fastening  the 
delinquent  on  the  cix)ss.    A  certain  latitude  appears 
to  have  been  allowed  the  executioners  both  in  re- 
gard to  the  means  employed  and  abo 

2.  Method  with  reference  to  the  manner  and 
of  Fasten-  method  of  suspension — a  fact  ex- 
ing  to  the  plicable  by  the  circumstance  that  the 

Croti.  Roman  law  recognized  crucifixion 
only  as  punishment  for  slaves  and 
people  of  inferior  standing.  Either  cords  alone 
or  cords  and  nails  were  employed;  and  in  the  latter 
case,  now  only  the  hands,  again  both  hands  and 
feet  were  nailed  fast.  The  "  seat  "  {eediie),  serving 
to  support  the  body,  a  block  or  pin  on  which  the 
condemned  was  placed  astride,  apparently  was  not 
used  in  all  cases;  and  the  same  is  true  with  respect 
to  a  wooden  step  for  the  feet  (represented  in  the 
"travesty  crucifixion"  of  the  imperial  palace  at 
Rome;  see  AsmAiin) — ^which,  by  the  way,  is  not 
to  be  confused  with  the  hypopodium  or  suppedaneum 
of  medieval  portrayals  of  the  crucifixion,  the  exist- 
ence of  which  in  antiquity  is  not  sufficiently  con- 
firmed by  the  testimony  of  Gregory  of  Toun.  The 
transgressor's  offense,  where  not  made  known 
orally  by  a  preceding  crier,  was  usually  written  on  a 
tablet  {tUulue),  which  the  delinquent  carried  him- 


818 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Orowther 
Oruoifizion 


self  or  another  carried  before  him.  Naturally  this 
titiUtu  waa  attached  to  the  cross  after  the  act  of 
execution  (cf.  Matt,  xxvii.  37,  and  parallels). 

No  definite  data  are  found  in  the  New  Testament 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  cross  on  which  Jesus 
died.  It  is  only  the  Church  writers  after  Justin 
Martyr  who  indicate  the  composite  four-armed 
cross  as  Christ's  vehicle  of  torture.  Justin,  Ire- 
nicus,  Tertullian,  and  others  mention 
3.  The  Cross  the  presence  of  a  aedile.  The  palatine 
and  Cruci-  travesty  cross  belonging  to  the  begin- 

fixion  of  ning  of  the  third  century  is  of  the 
Jesus.  four-armed  pattern,  but  without  the 
aedile  and  with  the  wooden  step. 
There  is  no  valid  reason  for  supposing  that  the 
representation  of  the  form  of  the  cross  of  Jesus 
given  by  ecclesiastical  antiquity  is  an  imaginary 
construction  of  later  times.  If  there  were  witnesses 
of  the  death  of  Jesus,  and  if  the  words  from  the 
cross  furnished  the  central  theme  of  apostolic  and 
postapostolic  preaching,  then  a  genuine  tradition 
as  to  the  form  of  the  Lord's  cross  may  well  have 
been  maintained  till  the  time  of  Justin.  Indeed,  in 
the  Gospel  narrative  itself  some  indications  are 
found  which  confirm  this  conclusion.  The  "  cross  ** 
borne  by  Jesus  himself  (John  xix.  17)  or  by  Simon 
of  Cyrene  (Matt,  xxvii.  32,  and  parallels)  can  hardly 
have  been  the  upright,  embedded  post,  with  or 
without  the  patibidum,  since  the  strength  of  one 
nuin  alone  might  scarcely  have  sufficed  for  so  great 
a  burden.  If  "  cross,"  however  (Gk.  Btauros),  in 
the  passages  cited  be  interpreted  as  meaning  the 
pcUibulum — ^which  is  quite  possible — ^the  narrative 
is  in  accord  with  custom,  as  already  noted.  Fur- 
thermore, at  Jerusalem  as  elsewhere,  posts  were 
no  doubt  in  readiness  at  the  place  of  execution 
driven  into  the  ground  to  serve  their  purpose. 
From  the  circumstance,  finally,  that  the  execu- 
tionary  order  caused  the  titulua  to  be  fastened  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  cross  it  may  be  deduced  that 
the  cross-piece  did  not  rest  on  top,  but  intersected 
the  post;  or,  in  other  words,  the  cross  was  a  four- 
armed  one.  A  basis  for  estimating  the  height  of 
the  cross  of  Jesus  is  afforded  by  John  xix.  29  (cf. 
Matt.  xxviL  48,  and  parallels).  The  length  of  the 
"  [reed  of]  hyssop"  there  mentioned  was  probably 
about  one  yard;  the  height  of  the  entire  cross, 
therefore,  was  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  yards. 

Crucifixion  was  accounted  in  all  antiquity  the 
most  cruel  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  infamous 
death  penalty,  and  was  applied  almost  exclusively 
to  slaves  and  persons  of  inferior  estate  (servile 
eupplicium),  or  to  aliens  lacking  Roman  citizen- 
ship; and  this  for  both  common  and  political  trans- 
gressions. A  scourging  commonly  preceded,  con- 
joined with  all  kinds  of  mockery  at  the  expense  of 
the  culprit.  The  disrobing  which  anticipated  the 
closing  act  accorded  with  a  general  custom,  as 
did  also  the  distribution  of  raiment  among  the 
executioners.  The  ooipse  was  ordinarily  left  on 
the  cross.  Nevertheless,  there  was  no  statutory 
obstacle  to  the  surrender  of  the  body.  Value  was 
attached  to  publicity  of  execution;  and  for  this 
reason  highways  or  elevated  squares  were  selected 
for  the  place.  The  crucifixion  of  Jesus  accords 
fully  with  our  general  knowledge  of  such  executions. 


save  that  certain  peculiar  features  were  added 
owing  to  Jewish  views  and  customs:  for  instance, 
the  stupefying  potion  (cf.  Prov.  xxxi.  6)  and  the 
removal  of  the  body  no  later  than  Friday  evening 
(Deut.  xxi.  22-23).  The  matter  of  nailing  the  feet 
is  debatable,  and  a  positive  decision  on  this  point 
is  not  attainable.  Constantine  the  Great  abolished 
the  penalty  of  crucifixion. 

The  first  picture  of  the  crucifixion,  so  far  as 
known,  is  the  "travesty  crucifixion"  referred  to 
above  (J  2),  and  is  by  a  pagan  hand.  The  religious 
sentiment  of  Christianity  regarded  the  Savior  not 
so  much  in  the  act  of  his  humiliation  as  in  his  power- 
ful exaltation;  and,  accordant  with  this  feeling, 
Christian  art  for  a  long  time  made  no 
4.  The  Cm-  representations  of  the  Passion.  When 
cifixion  in  the  first  irresolute  steps  were  taken 
Art  in  the  way  of  such  art,  the  controlling 
design  appears  to  have  been  to  soften 
the  agony  as  far  as  possible  (cf.  Victor  Schultxe, 
Arckaologie  der  altchrUtlichen  Kunat,  Mimich,  1896, 
pp.  332  sqq.).  The  first  example  of  a  crucifixion 
of  Christian  origin  is  found  in  a  relief  of  the  timber 
door  of  Santa  Sabina  at  Rome,  dating  at  the  earliest 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  The 
backgroimd  represents  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
The  heroic  form  of  the  Savior  is  accompanied  by 
the  two  malefactors,  the  latter  being  of  a  somewhat 
youthful  design.  Oi  perhaps  the  same  age  is  a 
North  Italian  ivory  tablet  of  the  British  Museum, 
grouping  John  and  Mary  with  the  Savior,  and  ex- 
pressing chiefly  an  emotion  of  deep  silent  sorrow. 
In  both  cases  Christ  is  represented  as  alive  and 
free  from  suffering.  How  strongly,  indeed,  the 
earlier  sentiment  still  acted  even  a  century  later  is 
attested  by  the  small  metal  flasks  at  Monza  in 
North  Italy,  which  came  from  Jerusalem  to  the 
West  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great.  They 
manifestly  endeavor  to  deviate  from  the  real  cruci- 
fixion, and  stop  short  with  suggestions;  as  where, 
in  one  instance,  Jesus  extends  his  arms  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  crucified  victim,  though  the  cross  itself  is 
wanting;  or,  again,  where  only  his  head  hovers 
above  the  cross. 

During  the  transition  from  the  early  Christian 
to  the  Romanesque  period,  the  reactive  influences 
of  the  more  primitive  age  stiU  appear;  Christ  is 
represented  as  living,  draped  only  with  the  loin 
cloth,  his  feet  placed  side  by  side.  In  another 
aspect,  the  increasing  number  of  accompanying 
figures  indicates  an  elaboration  of  the  treatment; 
while  also  the  long  timic  occurs,  though  this  ex- 
ceptionally. In  contrast  with  the  West,  Byzantine 
art  favors  both  in  this  period  and  subsequently  the 
representation  of  the  dying  Savior,  as  he  succumbs 
in  death's  agony.  In  every  instance  his  hands  and 
feet  are  pierced,  the  feet  resting  on  a  step-fashioned 
cross-piece.  The  Romanesque  epoch,  during  which 
the  crucifixion  was  most  extensively  treated  as  a 
theme  of  painting  or  sculpture,  adorns  the  head  of 
Christ  with  a  wreath  or  diadem;  but  there  now  also 
occur  more  and  more  frequent  examples  of  the 
treatment  of  the  Lord  as  dead  or  dying;  in  fact, 
there  is  a  tendency  toward  sharpest  realism.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  still  persists  as  a  characteristic 
trait  the  composure  of  the  feet  side  by  side;   and 


Crucilixlon 
Crusades 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-IIERZOG 


314 


this  custom  is  observed  as  far  down  as  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century. 

A  material  transformation  was  brought  about  by 
the  Gothic  style,  partly  under  the  sway  of  religious 
individuality,  partly  through  the  realistic  reaction 
of  devotional  plays.  The  kingly  crown  gives  place 
to  the  crown  of  thorns;  the  effect  of  pain  becomes 
visible  in  the  bodily  attitude,  often  most  acutely 
so;  the  head  is  bowed,  the  body  bent.  A  single 
nail  now  pierces  or  transfixes  both  feet,  which  are 
superimposed  (for  what  is  alleged  to  be  better 
knowledge  cf.  F.  Piper,  EinUitung  in  die  monu- 
mentale  Theologie,  Gotha,  1867,  pp.  619  sqq.).  The 
convulsive  and  tragical  elements  of  the  events  are 
also  reflected  in  the  general  setting.  To  this  prov- 
ince belongs  the  German  art  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, especially  as  illustrated  in  DUrer  and  Holbein. 
It  aspires  to  historical  truth,  and  is  not  repelled  by 
what  is  ghastly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Italian 
Renaissance  mitigates  the  harsh  tones  by  appli- 
cation of  its  ideal  of  beauty.  The  same  tendency 
is  followed  in  the  main  by  the  art  evolution  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries;  while  the 
so-called  "  Nazarenes  "  introduced  an  insipid  sen- 
timental tone  into  portrayals  of  the  Passion,  which 
has  its  exponents  even  to-day.  The  modem  relig- 
ious inclination  seeks  to  enforce  historic  truth,  and 
does  not  shrink  from  the  sternest  realism. 

At  the  outset  the  other  personages  presented  by 
the  Gospel  narrative  appear  only  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent (John  and  Mary,  and  one  or  two  soldiers); 
but,  as  the  Middle  Ages  draw  to  a  close,  richly  ani- 
mated scenes  are  created  from  the  accessory  de- 
tails; most  notably  so  on  the  carved  altars.  The 
religious  dramas  were  of  conspicuous  influence  in 
this  direction.  However,  during  the  Romanesque 
period  as  well,  certain  legendary  or  allegorical  fig- 
ures begin  to  group  themselves  about  the  cross. 
Personifications  of  the  Church  and  the  Synagogue 
occur:  the  former  as  Victrix,  the  latter  as  Van- 
quished (cf.  Paul  Weber,  Geistlichea  Schauspiel  und 
kirchliche  Kurut  in  ihrem  Verh&Unis  erldutert  an 
einer  Ikanographie  der  Kirche  und  Synagoge^  Stutt- 
gart, 1894,  with  illustrations).  Adam  and  Eve, 
the  primogenitors  of  sin,  which  the  Savior  expiated 
for  them  as  well  as  others,  kneel  beside  the  cross; 
though  usually  Adam  alone  is  seen,  resting  in  his 
grave  beneath  the  cross,  or  in  the  act  of  rising  and 
uplifting  his  hand  toward  the  Crucified.  With 
reference  to  the  grave  on  Golgotha,  the  skull  and 
cross  bones  appear  at  the  foot  of  the  cross.  Further- 
more, in  connection  with  Gen.  iii.  15,  a  serpent  is 
twined  about  the  base  of  the  cross.  The  chalice  on 
which  rests  the  Savior's  foot,  or  which  is  fastened 
under  the  step,  represents  the  Holy  Grail.  The 
chalice  also  is  sometimes  held  in  the  hand  of  the 
Church,  Ecclesia,  At  a  quite  early  period,  sun  and 
moon  are  drawn  into  the  scene,  either  in  their 
natural  semblance  or  personified;  likewise,  lament- 
ing angels,  God  the  Father,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  on 
high.  The  popularity  and  wide  circulation  of  the 
legend  of  Veronica  (q.v.),  again,  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  the  devout  lady  finds  a  place  with  especial 
frequency  on  the  way  to  the  place  of  execution, 
though  sometimes  as  well  in  the  viciaity  of  the 
Crucified. 


The  cross  generally  adheres  to  its  traditional  form. 
The  medieval  legends  as  to  the  wood  of  the  cross 
became  influential  in  approximating  the  cross  in 
greater  or  less  degree  to  the  tree  form.  These  ob- 
servations attest  the  tremendous  attractive  power 
which  the  cross  and  the  crucifixion  exercised  upon 
the  religious  temperament  and  upon  ecclesiastical 
usage;  and  therewith,  both  directly  and  indirectly, 
upon  art.    See  Cross  and  its  Use  as  a  Symbol. 

Victor  Schitl,tze. 

Biblxoorapbt:  O.  Zdekler,  Da$  KreuM  ChriHi,  Gaterrioh. 
1876,  Eng.  tranoi.,  London,  1877  ("  sane  and  dJBcriniiiia>- 
ting  ");  H.  Fulda,  D<u  Kreuz  und  die  Kreunffung^  Bm- 
lau,  1878  (of  great  value);  C.  A.  Zestermann,  Die  hUd- 
li^  DareteUung  dee  Kreuzee  und  die  Kreungung  Christi, 
2  parts,  Leipsio.  1867-68;  T.  Reil.  Die  fmhehrieUiehen 
DareteUungen  der  Kreutigung  CkrieH,  ib.  1904;  DB,  L  528- 
629;  EB,  i.  957-961.  For  list  of  books  on  tbe  Croes 
in  Art  see  under  Cboss  and  m  Usii  as  ▲  Stmbou 

CRUCIGER  (CREUZIGER,  CREUTZIHGER), 
KASPAR:    The  name  of  two  German  theologians. 

1.  Kaspar  Cruciger  the  Elder:  Luther's  secretary 
and  collaborator;  b.  at  Leipsic  Jan.  1,  1504;  d.  at 
Wittenberg  Nov.  16,  1548.  In  1513  he  matricu- 
lated at  Leipsic,  where  he  heard  the  disputation 
between  Eck  and  Luther.  In  1521  he  matricu- 
lated in  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  studied  also 
mathematics  and  botany.  In  1525  he  became 
rector  of  St.  John's  School  and  pastor  at  Magde- 
burg, but  in  1528  he  returned  to  Wittenberg  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  minister  at  the  Schlosskirche, 
where  he  remained  with  a  few  intermissions  until 
his  death.  He  assisted  Luther  in  his  translation 
of  the  Bible,  gave  instruction  when  Melanchthon 
and  others  were  called  away,  and  participated  in 
theological  debates  and  conferences.  His  most 
important  public  service  was  coimected  with  the 
establishment  of  the  Reformation  in  Leipsic  (1539), 
which  he  carried  through  with  the  help  of  Myconius. 
The  city  council  tried  to  keep  him  there,  but  Luther 
declared  him  indispensable  to  Wittenberg.  The 
Schmalkald  war  and  the  Interim  embittered  his 
last  years.  He  wrote  exegetical  and  dogmatic 
works,  most  of  which  were  published  after  his  death. 
He  had  a  knowledge  of  shorthand  and  thus  pre- 
served many  of  Luther's  sermons.  With  Georg 
R5rer  he  edited  the  first  volumes  of  the  Witten- 
berg edition  of  Luther's  Works  (1539  sqq.). 

2.  Kaspar  Cruciger  the  Younger:  Melanchthon's 
successor  at  Wittenberg,  son  of  the  elder  Kaspar 
Cruciger;  b.  at  Wittenberg  Mar.  19,  1525;  d.  at 
Cassel  Apr.  16,  1597.  In  the  discussions  after 
1570  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Philippists, 
and  was  engulfed  in  their  catastrophe  in  1574. 
He  was  imprisoned  and  was  banished  from  Saxony 
in  1576.  After  a  short  residence  with  the  count 
of  Nassau  at  Dillenberg  he  went  to  Hesse,  and  died 
as  pastor  and  president  of  the  consistory  at  (}assel. 

(Ferdinand  Cohss.) 

Biblioqrapht:  For  1.  CA,  zi.  833-^1;  O.  G.  Schmidt, 
Caepar  Crudgen  Leben,  Leipsic,  1862;  T.  Preasel.  Caepar 
Cruciger,  Elberfeld.  1862;  J.  KdstUn.  Martin  Lutker,  2 
vola.,  Berlin.  1003.  For  2.  G.  J.  Planck.  CfeechiefUe  der 
Enuiehung  .  .  .  Tprotesianiiedten  Lehrbegriffe,  V.  iL  626 
sqq.,  Leipsic.  1790;  H.  Heppe.  Geeehiehie  dee  deuteeken 
ProteetanHemue,  ii.  312  sqq.,  Maxburs.  1853. 

CRUDEN,  ALEXAIIDER:  The  author  of  "Cru- 
den's  Concordance  ";  b.  at  Aberdeen  May  31,  1701; 


315 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oruolflxion 
OrasadeB 


d.  in  London  Nov.  1,  1770.  He  studied  at  Maris- 
chal  College,  Aberdeen,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.A. 
(year  not  known).  Indications  of  an  unsound 
mind,  from  which  he  suffered  more  or  less  all  his 
life,  soon  became  evident  and  he  was  in  confine- 
ment for  a  short  time.  In  1722  he  went  to  London 
and  foimd  employment  as  tutor  in  Hertfordshire 
and  the  Isle  of  Man  till  1732,  when  he  opened  a 
bookseller's  shop  in  London,  also  acting  as  corrector 
of  the  press.  He  began  the  Concordance  in  1736 
and  issued  it  the  following  year  in  quarto.  It  was 
not  a  success  pecuniarily;  he  lost  his  business, 
suffered  another  attack  of  insanity,  and  was  again 
put  in  an  asylum.  After  a  few  weeks  he  escaped 
and  in  Mar.,  1739,  issued  a  curious  pamphlet  relating 
to  his  confinement,  with  the  title  The  London- 
Citizen  exceedingly  Injured,  or  a  British  Inqui- 
sition Displayed,  He  instituted  proceedings  for 
damages,  pleaded  his  own  cause  (unsuccessfully), 
and  published  a  report  of  the  trial  dedicated  to 
King  Geoige  II.  He  was  again  in  confinement 
for  a  short  time  in  1753.  In  1754  he  became  proof- 
reader for  the  Public  Advertiser  (daily  newspaper); 
at  the  same  time  he  was  busy  as  general  corrector 
of  the  press  and  labored  diligently  in  revising  the 
Concordance,  The  hard  and  regular  work  seems 
to  have  been  beneficial  to  his  health,  and  it  was  not 
necessary  to  send  him  again  to  the  asylum.  He 
supervised  the  printing  of  an  edition  of  Matthew 
Henry's  Commentary,  and  published  a  Compen- 
dium of  the  Holy  Bible,  .  .  .  Designed  for  Making 
the  Reading  more  Easy  (1750);  he  compiled  a 
Scripture  Dictionary,  which  was  published  in  two 
volumes  at  Aberdeen  shortly  after  his  death;  it  is 
said  also  that  he  wrote  prefaces  for  many  books, 
and  he  prepared  the  verbal  index  for  Bishop  New- 
ton's edition  of  Milton  (1749).  He  issued  second 
and  third  editions  of  the  Concordance  in  1761  and 
1769,  and  received  considerable  profit  from  them. 
The  explanations  of  Scripture  terms  (omitted  in 
some  editions)  were  published  separately  by  the 
Religious  Tract  Society  (1840);  they  are  strongly 
Calvinistic.  Many  stories  are  'told  of  Cruden's 
eccentricities.  He  thought  himself  divinely  ap- 
pointed as  the  public  censor,  especially  in  regard 
to  swearing  and  Sabbath  keeping,  and  took  the 
title  **  Alexander  the  Corrector."  He  went  about 
London  with  a  sponge,  erasing  obscene  words  on 
walls  and  other  things  which  did  not  meet  with 
his  approval.  He  appeared  as  candidate  for  par- 
liament in  1754,  applied  for  knighthood,  sought  to 
marry  the  daughter  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of  London, 
and  paid  unwelcome  and  embarrassing  addresses  to 
other  young  ladies.  To  promote  his  schemes  he 
issued  several  extraordinary  pamphlets.  But  not- 
withstanding all  this  he  was  kind-hearted,  benevo- 
lent, fearless  in  the  dischaige  of  duty,  a  useful 
citizen,  and  a  humble,  devout  Christian;  and  he 
was  honored  and  respected  where  he  was  fully 
known.  He  was  a  member  of  an  Independent 
chureh  in  London.  He  gives  much  information 
about  himself  in  his  pamphlets,  particularly  the 
three  which  he  called  The  Adventures  of  Alexander 
the  Corrector  (1754-65). 

Biblioorapht:  His  life  by  Alexander  Chalmers,  written  for 
the  Biographia  Britannioa  (1780),  was  reprinted  in  the 


6th  edition  of  the  oonoordanoe;  a  memoir  by  Samuel 
Blackburn  was  prepared  for  the  first  octavo  edition 
(1823);  another  by  William  Youngman  is  found  in  some 
editions.    Consult  DNB,  xii.  249-261. 

CRUSADES. 

The  First  Crusade.  1006-00  ((  1). 

The  Second  and  Third  Crusadee.  1147-40,  1180-02  (|  2). 

The  Fourth  Crusade.  1202-04  ({  3). 

The  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Seventh  Crusades.  1228-70  (|  4). 

Power  of  Papacy  Increased,  also  Intoleranoe  ({  6). 

Devotion  Stimulated,  Absolution  Extended  (S  6). 

The  Renaissance  and  Reformation  ({  7). 

The  Crusades  were  expeditions  of  Christian  Eu- 
rope in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  for 
the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land.  They  are  a  part 
of  the  thousand  years'  conflict  between  Christianity 
and  Islam;  yet  they  constitute  in  themselves  a 
complete  phase  of  Ustorical  development.  They 
came  at  a  time  when  the  wave  of  Mohammedan 
conquest  had  been  at  a  standstill  for  more  than  four 
himdred  years,  and  the  old  fanatic  zeal  of  Islam 
had  given  way  to  the  pursuit  of  worldly  interests 
and  the  fostering  of  that  high  cidture  which  still 
constitutes  its  title  to  historic  fame.  In  Christian 
Europe,  on  the  contrary,  religious  feeling  had  been 
gaining  in  strength.  There  was  a  movement  of 
revulsion  from  earthly  interests,  even  of  actual 
hatred  for  them,  and  a  passionate  longing  for  the 
felicities  of  another  world  and  for  a  more  intimate 
union  with  God.  In  this  spirit  of  piety  which 
strove  to  attain  material  vision  of  the  Deity  must 
be  sought  the  true  causes  of  the  Crusades.  An  age 
which  laid  so  much  stress  on  sacred  relics  would  as 
a  matter  of  course  be  extraordinarily  susceptible 
to  the  influence  of  the  greatest  of  all  relics,  the  Holy 
Land.  The  many  pil^ims  of  the  eleventh  century 
may  scarcely  be  regarded  as  precursors  of  the  Cru- 
sades; yet  the  motives  that  animated  them  throw 
light  upon  the  character  of  the  later  and  greater 
movement.  Had  not  thousands  of  individuals  ex- 
perienced the  yearning  for  the  heavenly  Jerusalem, 
statecraft  would  not  have  found  it  possible  at  a 
later  date  to  enlist  great  hosts  for  the  recovery  of 
the  earthly  capital. 

As  early  as  1074,  when  Asia  Minor  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Seljuk  Turks,  Gregory  VII.  had  pro- 
jected a  war  against  the  infidels,  having  also  for  its 
object  reunion  with  the  Greek  Church.  The  plan 
was  thrust  into  the  backgroimd  by  the  conflict  with 
the  emperor  Henry  IV.  Urban  II.  (1088-09),  who 
next  took  up  the  idea,  was  animated  not  so  much 
by  the  political  considerations  of  Gregory  as  by 
actual  religious  impulse.  From  the  Church  should 
come  the  impelling  force;  on  the  secular  powers 
rested  the  actual  execution  of  the  plan.  Before 
this,  Norman  knights  had  engaged  in  conflict  with 
the  infidel,  and  the  conception  of  a  crusade  against 
the  Saracen  was  therefore  no  absolute  novelty  to 
the  nations  of  the  West.  The  Byzantine  emperor 
Alexius  I.  was  quite  aware  of  this  when  he  turned 
to  Urban  for  aid  against  the  Turks 
z.  The  First  in   1094,   and  met  with  a  ready  re- 

Cnssadey    sponse  from  the  general  religious  en- 

1096-^.    thusiasm,  from  the  ambitions  of  the 

Church,  and  from  the  lust  for  adventure 

and  conquest.  When  the  Greek  ambassadors  arrived 

Urban  was  preparing  for  the  Council  of  Clermont; 


Cmubdas 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


316 


and  there  before  great  throngs  the  pope  first 
preached  the  crusade,  Nov.  26, 1095,  in  words  which 
have  not  come  down,  but  which  stirred  the  mighty 
multitudes  to  frenzied  enthusiasm.  The  number 
of  those  who  assumed  the  crusader's  cross  increased 
daily,  and  the  movement,  soon  passing  beyond 
papal  restraint,  seized  upon  the  lower  classes. 
The  peasant  exchanged  his  plow  for  arms  and 
was  joined  by  the  dissatisfied,  the  oppressed,  and 
the  outcast;  members  of  the  lower  clergy,  nm- 
away  monks,  women,  children  gave  to  this  advance- 
guard  of  the  crusading  army  the  character  of  a  mob, 
recognizing  no  leadership  but  that  of  God.  This  un- 
dercurrent of  opposition  to  the  pope  gave  rise  to 
the  legend,  which  is  still  current,  that  not  Urban, 
but  Peter  the  Hermit  (Peter  of  Amiens)  was  the 
true  representative  of  the  crusading  idea.  Peter 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  fanatical  bands,  whose 
contribution  to  the  enterprise  was  a  story  of  an 
alleged  personal  appearance  of  Jesus,  giving  him 
commission  to  acquaint  Christendom  with  the  sad 
condition  of  the  Holy  Land.  After  the  wildest 
excesses,  in  which  the  Jews  appear  as  the  principal 
sufferers  at  their  hands,  these  tumidtuous  hosts 
found  a  pitiful  end  in  Hungary  and  beyond  the 
Bosporus. 

The  real  crusading  armies  set  out  in  1096.  They 
comprised  the  men  of  Lorraine  under  the  brothers 
Godfrey,  Eustace,  and  Baldwin  of  Bouillon;  north- 
em  French  under  Robert  of  Normandy;  Proven- 
gals  under  Raymond  of  Toulouse;  and  Nonnans  of 
Italy  under  Bohemund  and  Tancred.  The  Chris- 
tian cause  suffered  from  dissensions  among  the 
leaders,  not  all  of  whom  resembled  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon  in  his  freedom  from  worldly  motives,  and 
it  had  to  contend  against  the  machinations  of 
Alexius  I.,  who  was  roused  to  a  sense  of  danger  to 
his  realm  by  the  presence  of  the  Western  armies. 
Niciea  was  taken,  the  Sultan  of  Iconium  was  de- 
feated at  Dorylieum,  and  on  June  3,  1098,  Antioch 
was  captured  and  on  Jime  28  was  successfully 
defended  against  the  Sultan  of  Mosul;  on  July  15, 
1099,  Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
was  made  Protector  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  He  died 
in  July,  1100,  and  under  his  successors,  Baldwin  I. 
(d.  1118),  Baldwin  II.  (d.  1131),  and  Fulk  (d.  1143), 
the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom  were  extended 
through  successful  warfare.  The  kingdom  drew 
strength  from  the  influx  of  new  crusading  forces, 
from  the  presence  of  the  Italian  merchants  who 
established  themselves  in  the  Syrian  ports,  and 
from  the  religious  and  military  orders  of  the  Tem- 
plars and  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  But  prosperity 
led  to  a  weakening  of  the  military  spirit,  and  internal 
strife  crippled  the  resources  of  the  kingdom.  On 
Christmas  day,  1144,  the  capture  of  the  strong 
frontier  fortress  of  Edessa  by  the  Emir  of  Mosul 
inflicted  a  serious  blow  on  the  Christian  power. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  Edessa  led  to  a  second 
crusade  (1147-49),  headed  by  Louis  VII.  of  France 
and  Conrad  III.  of  Germany.  In  spite  of  the  lofty 
motives  which  animated  the  French  Idng,  the  sec- 
ond crusade  shows  a  waning  of  the  spirit  of  enthu- 
siasm which  had  brought  about  the  first.  The 
political  danger  involved  in  the  triumph  of  the 
Mohammedan  arms  was  a  determining  factor  in  the 


departure  of  the  crusading  armies,  and    Bernard 

of  Clairvaux,  the  great   preacher  of  this  crusade, 

foimd  it  expedient  to  dwell  upon  the 

2,  The  taking  of  the  cross  as  a  potent  means 
Second  and  in  gaining  absolution  for  sin  and  at- 
Third  Cm-  taining  grace.     Lack  of  harmony  be- 

sades,  1 147-  tween  the  royal  leaders  and  the  treach- 
49,  X189-92.  eroua  policy    of    the  Byzantines  led 

to  irremediable  disaster.  Tlie  Ger- 
man army  was  almost  totally  destroyed  in  Asia 
Minor  during  the  winter  of  1147-48,  and  the  other 
crusading  host  succumbed  to  defeat  and  the  climate 
in  the  smnmer  of  1 148.  Baldwin  III.  by  his  unwise 
seizure  of  Ascalon  in  1153  brought  Egypt  into  the 
sphere  of  conflict  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Egypt  after  1169  was  ruled 
by  the  powerful  Seljuks,  whose  great  champion 
Saladin  made  it  the  object  of  his  life  to  drive  the 
Christian  power  from  Palestine.  The  war  was  car- 
ried on  in  a  half-hearted  manner  by  the  ChristiaD 
princes.  On  July  4,  1187,  Saladin  won  the  battle  of 
Hattin,  and  on  Oct.  2  the  Holy  City  surrendered. 
The  Christian  power  was  restricted  to  Antioch . 
Tripoli,  Tyre,  and  Margat.  In  the  third  crusade 
(1189-92),  to  which  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  gave  occa- 
sion, Richard  I.  of  England,  Philip  Augustus  of 
France,  and  Eknperor  Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa, 
participated.  The  German  emperor  was  drowned 
at  Salef  in  June,  1190;  Acre  was  taken  by  Richard 
and  Philip,  but  the  two  kings  quarreled  and  Philip 
retired;  and  Richard  left  Palestine  in  1192,  after 
securing  by  treaty  with  Saladin  the  right  for  pil- 
grims to  visit  the  Holy  Sepulcher  in  small  bands 
and  imarmed. 

The  vital  crusading  spirit  was  now  dead,  and  the 
succeeding  crusades  are  to  be  explained  rather  as 
arising  from  the  efforts  of  the  papacy  in  its  struggle 
against  the  secular  power,  to  divert  the  militaiy 
energies  of  the  European  nations  toward  Syria. 

A  systematic  agitation  was  carried  on, 

3.  The      and  in  1201  a  large  army  was  collected 
Fourth      which  it  was  planned  to  transport  on 

Crusade,  Venetian  vessels  to  E^ypt.  The  Ve- 
1202-04.  netians  imder  their  astute  doge, 
Enrico  Dandolo,  succeeded  in  turning 
the  crusading  movement  to  their  own  purposes. 
The  crusaders  threw  themselves  against  the  Byzan- 
tines, Constantinople  was  taken  and  sacked  (1204), 
and  the  empire  was  apportioned  between  Venice 
and  the  Christian  leaders.  The  Latin  empire  at 
Constantinople  was  established.  An  outburst 
of  the  old  enthusiasm  led  to  the  Children's 
Crusade  of  1212,  which  Iimocent  III.  interpreted 
as  a  reproof  from  heaven  to  their  unworthy 
elders.  By  processions,  prayers,  and  preaching,  the 
Church  attempted  to  set  another  crusade  on  foot, 
and  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  formu- 
lated a  plan  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land. 
A  crusading  force  from  Hungary,  Austria,  and 
Bavaria  achieved  a  remarkable  feat  in  the  capture 
of  Damietta  in  Egypt  in  1219,  but  under  the  urgent 
insbtence  of  the  papal  legate,  Pelagius,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  a  foolhardy  attack  on  Cairo,  and  an  in- 
undation of  the  Nile  compelled  them  to  choose 
between  surrender  and  destruction. 

In  1228  Emperor  Frederick   II.  set  sail  from 


817 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Orofladea 


Brindisi  for  Syria,  though  laden  with  the  papal  ex- 
communication.    Through  diplomacy  he  achieved 
unexpected  success,  Jerusalem,  Naz- 
4.  The  Fifth,  areth,  and  Bethlehem  being  delivered 
Sixth,  and  to  the  Christians  for  a  period  of  ten 
Seventh     years.    The  papal  interests  represented 
Crusades,    by  the  Templars  brought  on  a  con- 
1228-70.    flict  with  Egypt  in  1243,  and  in  the 
following  year  a  Korasmian  force  sum- 
moned by  the  latter  stormed  Jerusalem.     Europe's 
last  efforts  appear  in  the  two  unsuccessful  crusades 
of  Louis  IX.  of  France,  against  Cyprus,  Egypt,  and 
Syria  in  1248-64  and  against  Tunis  in  1270.     With 
the  fall  of  Antioch  (1268),  Tripoli  (1289),  and  Acre 
(1291)  the  last  traces  of  the  Christian  occupation 
of  Syria  disappeared. 

First  among  the  results  of  the  Crusades  is  to  be 
counted  the  great  increase  they  brought  about  in 
the  power  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
5.  Power  papacy.  The  achievements  of  the 
of  Papacy  religious  wars  fell  far  behind  expec- 
Increased,  tations;  but  the  idea  became  finnly 
also  Intol-  fixed  that  the  pope  at  the  head  of 
erance.  armed  Christendom  had  effected  the 
conquest  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  It 
was  he  who  gave  the  call  to  arms,  who  supplied  the 
necessary  means  from  the  treasures  of  the  Church, 
who  showered  on  the  warriors  of  the  cross  priv- 
ileges and  benedictions,  and  who  led  them  on  through 
his  legates;  and,  though  the  actual  work  of  battle 
fell  to  the  secular  princes,  the  latter  were  held  firmly 
in  the  control  of  the  hierarchy  by  their  irrevocable 
crusader's  vow.  Through  the  instrumentality  of 
his  legates,  who  now  became  an  important  part  in 
the  ecclesiastical  administration,  the  pope  drew  to 
himself  increased  authority  within  the  Church.  A 
more  material  source  of  strength  was  the  riches 
which  inured  to  the  Church  as  a  result  of  the  sacri- 
fices of  individuals  in  providing  themselves  with 
the  means  for  making  the  crusade.  Princes  and 
knights  sold  or  mortgaged  their  estates,  and  the 
Church  was  the  readiest  and  unchallenged  purchaser 
in  the  open  market.  The  popes  drew  a  special 
profit  from  this  state  of  affairs,  for,  whereas  during 
the  twelfth  century  the  bishops  were  accustomed 
to  contribute  out  of  their  funds  toward  the  cost  of 
the  military  expeditions,  after  the  Lateran  Council 
of  1215  these  bounties  were  claimed  by  Rome  as 
the  supreme  leader  of  the  holy  war  and  became  the 
basis  of  a  regular  tax  that  was  enforced  throughout 
Europe  long  after  the  fall  of  the  last  Christian 
citadel  in  the  East.  Further,  the  crusades  acted 
as  a  powerful  incentive  to  the  growth  of  the  spirit 
of  religious  intolerance.  From  warfare  against 
the  non-believer,  whether  Mohammedan,  Jew,  or 
pagan,  it  was  not  a  far  step  to  war  against  the 
heretic.  Here,  too.  Innocent  III.  appears  as  an 
epoch-maker  when  he  ventured  to  turn  the  secular 
arm  against  the  internal  enemies  of  the  Church 
and  to  preach  a  crusade  of  extermination  against 
the  Albigenses  of  southern  France.  The  Inqui- 
sition with  all  its  horrors  could  never  have  taken 
such  deep  root  but  for  the  awakening  of  religious 
passions  which  marked  the  Crusades.  As  an  offset 
it  can  hardly  be  maintained  that  European  knowl- 
edge profited  by  the  wars  with  the  Mohanmiedans. 


The  introduction  of  the  study  of  Aristotle  in  the 
West  is  to  be  ascribed  rather  to  the  friendly  rela- 
tions which  prevailed  between  Christians  and  Sara- 
cens in  Spain  and  Sicily.  Nor  is  it  absolutely  cei^ 
tain  that  Western  art  was  materially  enriched  by 
contact  with  Byzantium  and  Syria;  the  numerous 
objeta  d*art  brought  back  as  booty  from  the  East 
did  no  more  than  influence  the  development  of  a 
decorative  art  by  supplying  models  for  imitation. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
overestimate  the  stimulating  effect  of  the  Crusades 
on  the  spirit  of  devotion  in  Christian  £}urope.  In 
the  papal  emissaries  entrusted  with 
6.  Devotion  the  preaching  of  the  crusade  the  first 
Stimulated,  popular  preachers  of  the  Middle  Ages 
Absolution  are  met  with.  The  clerics  left  their 
Extended,  churches  and  addressed  the  multi- 
tudes in  the  field  and  public  squares; 
to  them  in  large  measure  may  be  traced  the  fei^ 
vent,  imaginative  eloquence  of  the  later  mendicant 
monks.  The  questionable  practise  of  searching  out 
localities  supposedly  connected  with  sacred  tra- 
dition and  the  establishment  therein  of  ceremonies 
endowed  with  peculiar  efficacies  now  arises.  The 
period  is  one  of  tradition-making,  which  up  to  the 
present  day  has  plunged  the  geography  of  Palestine 
into  confusion.  The  pilgrim  who  after  the  fall  of 
Acre  was  shut  off  from  the  greatest  shrine  of  Chris- 
tian worship  turned  to  the  sacred  places  of  the 
West  or  of  his  own  land,  and  the  creation  of  such 
centers  and  objects  of  devotion  became  an  impor- 
tant function  of  tlte  Church.  The  worship  of 
relics  extended  enormously  and  the  trade  in  holy 
remains  was  carried  on  in  all  conceivable  forms 
and  not  without  the  grossest  absurdities  or  decep- 
tions. The  body  of  legend  increased  and  the 
Virgin  became  an  especially  favorite  subject  of 
presentation  in  narrative  and  art.  It  would  also 
seem  that  the  great  importance  of  the  rosary,  which 
before  this  period  appears  prominently  only  in 
isolated  instances,  is  to  be  regarded  as  dating  from 
the  thirteenth  century,  when  it  developed  imder 
the  influence  of  the  sixnilar  feature  of  Mohammedan 
worship  known  as  tasbify. 

Of  portentous  importance  was  the  effect  wrought 
by  the  Crusades  on  the  system  of  absolution.  Orig- 
inally inmiunity  from  the  penalties  of  transgression 
was  granted  only  to  those  who  assumed  the  cross 
out  of  purely  religious  motives;  but  as  early  as 
Celestine  III.  (d.  1198)  the  mere  contribution  of 
money  toward  an  expedition  against  the  infidel 
was  rewarded  with  at  least  partial  remission,  while 
Innocent  III.  granted  complete  remission  to  one 
who  sent  a  substitute  to  the  field.  And  inasmuch 
ss  one  might  be  absolved  from  his  crusader's  vow 
on  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money,  and  absolution 
eventually  was  offered  for  such  minor  acts  of  piety 
as  the  mere  listening  to  an  exhortation  to  take  the 
cross,  it  is  evident  that  wide  opportunities,  indeed, 
were  offered  for  escape  from  the  penalties  of  sin. 

The  Crusades  were  not  without  effect  on  the 
Renaissance  and  the  Reformation.  Friendly  in- 
tercourse with  the  Mohammedan  world  brought 
Europe  into  contact  with  accomplishments  and  vir- 
tues which  were  felt  to  be  lacking  at  home.  Men 
became  aware  of  a  moral  ^stem  independent  of 


Ghodworth 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


818 


Christianity  that  was  DevertheleBB  worthy  of  re- 
spect. Tkieological  disputations  between  Christian 
and  Mohammedan  revealed  the   fact 

7.  The  Re-  that  the  Cat(iolic  dogma  was  not  invul- 
naisaance    nerable.    FVom  the  attention  to  the 

and  Refer-  hitherto  unsuspected  merits  of  an 
mation.  opponent  it  was  not  a  far  step  to 
a  critical  examination  of  one's  own 
condition.  In  Germany  suspicion  of  the  motives 
of  the  Church  in  urging  the  wars  against  the 
Mohammedans  and  a  reluctance  to  contribute 
toward  the  realization  of  the  plans  fonnulated 
by  an  ambitious  papacy  and  carried  on  by  self- 
seeking  warriors  became  manifest.  Thus  the  Church, 
which  had  made  itself  the  leader  of  the  Crusades, 
came  to  suffer  the  consequences  of  their  ill  success. 
Faith  in  papal  absolutism  waned;  and  a  new 
religious  spirit  appeared,  first  in  the  sectaries 
(Cathari  and  Albigenses),  and  later  in  the  Refor- 
mation. This  spirit  was  fostered  by  the  inspiration 
of  that  higher  culture  of  which  Frederick  II.  is  the 
preeminent  type,  by  the  development  of  the  sci- 
ences, and  by  the  growth  of  commerce  with  the 
East,  which  enriched  Europe  and  turned  the  atten- 
tion of  men  from  purely  religious  to  material  and 
cultural  interests  in  the  movement  known  as  the 
Renaissance.  (Frixdrich  Wieoand.) 

BnHiiooBAFHT:  The  best  collection  of  aouroes  are  tUetiM 
det  hiitoritng  de9  aroiaadea,  13  vols.,  Paris,  1841-85  (under 
the  care  of  the  Academy);  J.  llichaud,  BiUioUUvue  dea 
CroiaadM,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1829.  Sincle  aouroes  are:  Jean 
de  JoinTille,  Hi$toir€  da  8L  Louia  IX.,  ed.  A.  Delboulle, 
Paris,  1882,  Ens.  transl.,  in  Boht^a  lAbrary,  London,  1848; 
Qeoffroy  de  Villehardouin,  Hiatoira  da  I'ampira  da  Con- 
alanUnopU,  ed.  £.  Bouchet,  2  vols..  Paris,  1801,  Enc. 
transl.,  in  Bohn'a  Library,  London,  1848;  Ansbert,  Hia- 
toria  da  axpadiHona  Fridarici  .  .  .  ,  ed.  J.  Dobrowsky, 
Pracue,  1827;  Odo  of  Deuil,  Da  profaetiona  Ludoviei 
VII.  in  orimUam,  ed.  G.  H.  Perts,  in  MOH,  Saript,  xxvi 
(1882),  59-73;  Hiatoria  of  William  of  Tyre,  transl.  by 
Mary  N.  Colom  for  the  Early  EncUsh  Text  Society.  Lon- 
don, 1893;  original  documents  in  TranalaHona  andRaprinla 
from  tha  Orif/inal  Sourcaa  of  Europaan  Hiatory,  vol.  i., 
Philadelphia,  1902;  H.  von  Sybel.  HiaL  and  Litaratura  of 
iha  Cruaadaa,  ed.  Lady  D.  Gordon,  London,  1861  (a 
compilation,  not  a  translation  of  any  one  work,  gives  ac- 
count of  literature). 

On  the  general  history  of  the  Crusades  the  best  single 
work  is  still  J.  liiehaud,  Hiatoira  daa  Croiaadaa,  4  vols., 
Paris,  1856,  Eng.  transl.,  with  preface  and  supplement, 
by  H.  W.  Mabie,  3  vols.,  Boston,  1881.  Other  general 
works  are:  F.  Wilken,  OaaehidUa  dar  Krauaaltifa,  7  vols., 
Leipsic,  1807-32;  R.  Rdhrioht,  BeitrHoa  sur  Gaadtiehta 
dar  KrauagUga,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1874-78;  B.  Kugler.  Oa- 
adiiehta  der  Krauaa^loa,  Berlin,  1891;  J.  I.  Mombert.  Short 
Hiatory  of  tha  Cruaadaa,  New  York,  1894  (popular);  T.  A. 
Aroher  and  C.  L.  Kingsford,  Tha  Cruaadaa,  ib.  1895;  J. 
M.  Ludlow,  Aoa  of  tha  Cruaadaa,  ib.  1897  (contains  bibli- 
ography); L.  von  Ranke,  WeUgaadkichta,  vol.  viii.,  Leip- 
sic, 1898;  E.  Heyck,  Dia  KrauaaUga  und  daa  hailiifa  Land, 
ib.  19(X);  Assays  on  tha  Cruaadaa,  by  D.  C.  Munio.  C. 
Diehl,  and  H.  Pruts,  Burlington,  1903;  L.  Brehier,  Vtgliaa 
at  Voriani  au  moyan  dga.  Laa  croiaadaa,  Paris,  1907;  W. 
B.  Stevenson,  Tha  Cruaadera  in  tha  Eaat.  A  brief  Hiat.  of 
tha  Wara  of  lalam  with  tha  LaHna,  It -IS.  Centuriaa,  Cam- 
bridge, 1907;  Schaff,  Chriatian  Church,  v.  1,  pp.  211-295. 

For  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  consult:  R.  R6hricht, 
OaadiiehU  daa  KOniffraicha  Jeruaalem,  1100-1291,  Inns- 
bruck, 1898;  C.  R.  Conder,  The  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jeru- 
aalam,  1099-1291,  London.  1897. 

On  individual  Crusades  consult:  H.  von  Sybel,  Ge- 
aehichta  daa  aratan  Kreuaauga,  Leipsic,  1881;  T.  Wolff,  Die 
BauamkrauaaUga,  TQbingen.  1891;  B.  Kugler,  Studien  tur 
Oaaehiehta  daa  atoeiten  Krauzsugaa,  Stuttgart.  1866;  E. 
Fe»n,ThaFaUofConatantinopie,  London,  1885;  R.  Rdh- 
richt,  Studian  aur  Geaehichte  daa  fUnftan  Krauagugaa,  Inns- 


bruck, 1891;  H.  Klettke,  Robartof  Maramliea,  or  Ae  Cr^ 
aadaof  tha  ChUdrwn,  Philadelphia.  1883;  G.  Z.  Gray.  CkU- 
dran'a  Cruaada,  Boeton,  1886;  M.  Schwob.  Chiidran'a 
Cruaada,  ib.  1906. 

CRUSIUSy  CHRISTIAK  AUGUST:  Gennan  the- 
ologian; b.  at  Leuna,  near  Merseburg  (10  m.  s.  of 
Halle),  Jan.  10,  1716;  d.  at  Leipdc  Oct.  18,  1775. 
He  entered  the  UniveiBity  of  Leipsic  in  1734,  be- 
came profeeeor  of  philosophy  there,  and  in  1750 
professor  of  theology.  He  was  an  independent 
follower  of  J.  A.  Bengel  and  an  opponent  of  the 
Wolfian  philosophy,  founding  all  knowledge  on 
positive  revelation  and  seeking  to  prove  that  it 
harmonises  with  reason.  At  the  same  time  he 
intermingled  mystic  peculiarities,  and  thus  con- 
structed a  strange  typico-prophetical  system  of 
doctrine.  While  his  colleague  Emesti  explained 
the  Scriptures  in  a  purely  grammatical  way,  Cni- 
sius  followed  the  Church  doctrine,  which  he  inter- 
preted in  a  mystical  sense.  Of  his  many  writings 
the  most  important  are  Hypomnemata  ad  theologiam 
prapheticam  (3  parts,  Leipsic,  1764)  and  Kurzer 
Begriff  der  MoraUheoiogie  (2  parts,  1772-73). 
Here  he  opposes  the  divine  will,  Imown  from  reve- 
lation as  moral  principle,  to  the  Wolfian  principle 
of  perfection.  His  **  Prophetic  Theology "  was 
brought  into  notice  in  the  nineteenth  century  by 
Hengstenberg  and  Delitzsch,  who  called  attention 
to  the  fact  that  Crusius  conceived  of  the  essence 
and  aim  of  prophecy  in  connection  with  the  scheme 
of  salvation,  which  no  theologian  before  him  had 
done  with  like  emphasis.  Crusius  left  the  reputa- 
tion of  a  learned,  keen,  original  thinker  and  of  a 
pure,  pious,  and  mild  character.  Even  in  the  great 
controversy  which  divided  the  University  of  Leipsic 
into  "  Emestians  "  and  "  Crusians  "  he  maintained 
his  pious  and  mild  manner,  though  there  was  no 
question  that  Emesti's  views  were  caning  the 
upper  hand.  Paul  Tbchackert. 

Bxbuoorapht:  H.  Dfiring,  Dia  G^ahrtan  Thaotoo^n  Dautaek- 
1anda,i.  291-296.  Neustadt,  1831;  ADB,  it.  630-631;  J. 
£.  Erdmann,  Geaehichte  der  Philoaophia,  voL  iii..  i  290. 
Berlin,  1870,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1893. 

CRUTTWELL,  CHARLES  THOXAS:  Church 
of  England;  b.  at  London  July  30,  1847.  He 
studied  at  the  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London, 
and  St.  John's  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1871),  and 
was  elected  fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  in 
1870,  where  he  was  also  tutor  in  1875-77.  He  was 
curate  of  St.  Giles's,  Oxford,  1875-77,  head  master 
of  St.  Andrew's  College,  Bradfield,  1878-^,  and  of 
Malvern  College  1880-85.  He  was  rector  of  Sutton, 
Surrey  (1885),  Denton,  Norfolk  (1885-91),  and 
Kibworth-Beauchamp,  Leicestershire  (1891-1901), 
as  well  as  rural  dean  of  Gartree,  diocese  of  Peter- 
borough (1892-1902).  Since  1901  he  has  been 
rector  of  Ewelme,  Oxfordshire,  and  was  honorary 
canon  of  Peterborough  Cathedral  in  1897-1903, 
of  which  he  has  been  residentiary  canon  since 
1903,  being  also  appointed  proctor  in  convocation 
for  the  clergy  of  the  diocese  of  Peterborough  in 
1900-05  and  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of 
Peterborough  in  1900.  He  has  written  A  His- 
tory of  Roman  Literature  (London,  1877);  Speet- 
mens  of  Roman  Literature  (1879;  in  collabora- 
tion with  P.  Banton);  Literary  History  of  Early 


810 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OruMulea 
Oudworth 


Ouittianily  (2   vols.,  1893);  and  Six  Lecturer  on 
the  Oxford  Movement  (1899). 

CRYPT:  An  architectural  term  most  frequently 
used  to  denote  a  subterranean  story  or  division  of  a 
church.  The  word  was  early  applied  to  the  sub- 
terranean cemeteries  of  the  Christians,  the  so-called 
catacombs,  or,  more  properly,  single  passages  and 
galleries  of  them  in  which  martyrs  or  saints  were 
buried.  As  it  became  customary  to  erect  churches 
above  the  catacombs,  just  over  the  grave  of  a 
martyr,  and  with  an  opening  imder  the  altar  which 
allowed  the  worshipers  to  look  down  into  the  grave, 
into  the  crypt,  it  was  natural  that  afterward  the 
name  "  crypt "  should  be  transferred  to  similar 
excavations  under  the  choir  of  the  basilicas  and 
churches  of  the  Romanesque  style,  which  sometimes 
were  so  extensive  as  to  form  whole  subterranean 
churches,  and  often  were  used  as  places  of  inter- 
ment for  bishops.  With  the  Romanesque  style 
the  crypts  disappeared. 
Bxblioorapbt:  H.  D.  M.  Spenea,  WhiU  Rob€  of  ChurdiM, 

pp.  77-00.  New  York,  1000. 

CRYPTO-CALVmiSTS:  The  term  applied  to 
those  Germans  who  secretly  held  or  were  accused 
of  holding  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist. 
See  Philippibtb. 

CUDWORTHy  RALPH:  The  most  celebrated 
of  the  school  of  seventeenth  century  philosophers 
known  as  the  "  Cambridge  Flatonists  "  (q.v.);  b. 
at  Aller,  in  Somersetshire  (12  m.  s.w.  of  Wells), 
1617;  d.  at  Cambridge  June  26,  1688.  He  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1632,  and,  after 
taking  his  M.A.  degree  in  1639,  became  fellow  and 
tutor  of  the  college.  In  1642  he  entered  the  lists 
against  the  Catholic  party  with  his  first  published 
work,  A  Diecoitrae  concerning  the  True  Nature  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  which  he  considers 
Life.  to  be  that  of  a  "  feast  upon  a  sacri- 
fice," analogous  to  the  feasts  which 
followed  the  legal  sacrifices  among  the  Jews;  not 
itself  eacrificium,  but,  in  Tertullian's  language,  par^ 
tidpatio  eacrifwii.  Soon  after  he  published  The 
Union  of  Christ  and  the  Church  ;  in  a  Shadow,  in 
which  he  attempted  to  vindicate  what  he  thought 
Protestants  had  too  much  lost  sight  of,  the  higher 
meaning  of  marriage.  Young  as  he  was,  he  had 
already  mastered  all  the  main  sources  of  philosophy, 
medieval  as  well  as  classical,  and  quotes  freely  from 
the  Neoplatonists  and  Cabalists,  as  well  as  from 
such  modem  Platonists  as  Vives  and  Pico  deUa 
Mirandola  (q.  v .) .  In  1 644  he  was  appointed  master  of 
Clare  Hall  by  the  Parliamentary  visitors,  and  a  year 
later  was  made  regius  professor  of  Hebrew,  a  posi- 
tion which  his  knowledge  of  Jewish  Uterature  and 
antiquities  made  congenial  to  him.  It  seems  that 
he  thought  of  leaving  Cambridge  in  1651,  but  the 
election  to  the  mastership  of  Christ's  College  in 
1654  settled  him  there  anew.  In  spite  of  his  close 
relations  with  the  Commonwealth  government,  he 
was  undisturbed  at  the  Restoration,  and  was  even 
presented  in  1662  to  the  rectory  of  Ashwell  in  Here- 
fordshire by  Sheldon,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  made  a  prebendary  of  Gloucester  in  1678. 
Academic  and  philosophic  labors  occupied  the 
remainder  of  his  life.    Alarmed  by  the  tendencies 


of  the  irreligious  and  deistic  writers  of  the  time, 
especially  Hobbes,  he  essayed  to  meet  them  by  a 
counter-philosophy  which  should  go  to  the  depth 
of  himian  thought  and  belief.  The  most  impor- 
tant part  of  what  in  his  conception  was  intended 
to  constitute  one  great  whole  was  The  True  In- 
tellectual System  of  the  Universe,  finished  in  1671 
but  not  published  until  1678.  Its  full  importance 
was  not  recognized  imtil  after  its  author's  death; 
Le  Clerc  published  extracts  from  it  in  1703,  and 
attracted  to  it  the  attention  of  Continental  thinkers; 
in  1706  an  abridged  edition  was  published  in  London 
by  Wise;  and  in  1733  Mosheim  brought  out  a  Latin 
version  with  valuable  notes  of  his  own,  reproduced 
in  the  London  edition  of  1845.  In  this  great  trea- 
tise Cudworth  combated  the  atheistic  hypothesis. 
He  planned  to  set  forth,  against 
Philo-  various  forms  of  fatalism  which  ap- 
sophical  peared  to  him  inconsistent  with  the 
System,  true  order  of  the  imiverse,  three  great 
principles  which  should  sum  up  relig- 
ious and  moral  truth.  These  were  (1)  the  reality 
of  a  supreme  divine  intelligence  and  a  spiritual 
world,  against  the  atomistic  materialism  of  Democ- 
ritus  and  Epicurus;  (2)  the  eternal  reality  of 
moral  ideas  against  the  medieval  Nominalists  and 
their  successors;  and  (3)  the  reality  of  moral  free- 
dom and  responsibility  in  man  against  all  panthe- 
istic naturalism  and  stoicism.  Of  these  the  InUt- 
lecttud  System  deals  formally  with  the  first  only. 
To  the  later  parts  belong  the  Treatise  on  Eternal 
and  Immutable  Morality,  posthumously  published 
by  Bishop  Chandler  in  1731,  and  the  Treatise  on 
Free  Will,  ed.  Allen,  1838,  as  well  as  some  two 
thousand  folio  pages  of  manuscript  still  lying  in 
the  British  Museum.  Though  inferior  in  originality 
and  clearness  to  Descartes  and  Hobbes,  the  writers 
with  whose  views  his  are  most  strongly  contrasted, 
he  went  to  the  root  of  his  side  of  the  questions 
imder  discussion.  As  a  philosopher  he  was  not  a 
pure  Platonist;  in  metaphysics,  indeed,  he  fol- 
lowed Plato  and  the  Neoplatonists,  but  in  natural 
philosophy  the '  Atomists,  and  in  that  of  .religion 
Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury.  His  theological  stand- 
point was  determined  partly  by  his  philosophy, 
partly  by  the  circumstances  of  his  time.  He  as- 
serted the  necessity  of  revealed  religion,  but  saw 
in  philosophy  a  divine  illumination.  Averse  from 
partisan  strife,  he  held  a  middle  course  between 
the  rigid  High-churchmanship  of  the  school  of 
Laud  and  Independent  fanaticism,  combining  the 
recognition,  with  the  former,  of  the  rightfulness  of 
an  ecclesiastical  constitution  and  an  order  of  wor- 
ship, and  with  the  latter  of  the  necessity  of  inner 
light  and  an  unswerving  devotion  to  ethical 
ideals. 

Bibliographt:  The  principal  authority  is  the  piefaee  to 
the  ed.  of  Cudworth'a  Works,  Jena,  1733,  for  which  the 
materials  were  furnished  probably  by  Thomas  Baker. 
The  best  treatment  of  Cudworth'a  system  is  in  J.  Mar- 
tineau,  Typet  of  Ethical  Theory^  ii.  396-424,  London, 
1885.  Consult:  J.  Tulloch,  Rational  Theotoffif  .  .  .  tn 
England  in  2?th  Cent.,  ii.  103-293,  Edinburgh.  1872;  C. 
E.  Lowrey,  The  Philoeophy  of  Ralph  Cudtoorth,  New 
York,  1884;  W.  R.  Scott,  Introduction  to  Cvdworth'9 
TreaHm  .  .  .  ,  London,  1891  (contains  a  life  and  an 
apology):  DNB,  xii.  271-272;  also  the  works  cited  under 
Cambridoe  Platonists. 


Culdeea 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


820 


CULDEES.  See  Celtic  Church  in  Britain 
AND  Ireland,  III.,  2,  {  4. 

CULM,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  bishopric  in  West 
Prussia,  originally  the  southernmost  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Teutonic  Order.  It  was  constituted  in 
1243  by  the  legate  of  Innocent  IV.,  Bishop  William 
of  Modena,  and  included  the  lands  between  the 
rivers  Weichsel,  Ossa,  and  Drewenz.  The  bishop's 
seat  was  originally  Culmsee  (85  m.  s.  of  Danzig) 
and  is  now  Pelplin  (50  m.  farther  north).  The 
first  bishop  was  the  Dominican  Heidenreich  (1245- 
1263),  who  encouraged  colonization  and,  strongly 
supported  by  the  Teutonic  Order,  built  many 
churches.  The  bishop  was  the  temporal  as  well  as 
the  spiritual  ruler,  but  excercised  his  judicial  and 
legislative  rights  through  an  appointed  sheriff,  who 
was  also  the  military  leader  in  case  of  need.  As  in 
the  three  other  Prussian  bishoprics  founded  during 
the  supremacy  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  the  bishops 
recognized  a  certain  not  strictly  feudal  suzerainty 
in  its  heads,  whose  decisions  were  either  taken  in 
consultation  with  them  or  accepted  by  them  on 
promulgation.  Annual  visitations  (known  as 
synodi  laicales)  were  held  by  the  bishop  or  his  dep- 
uties; diocesan  synods  are  known  to  have  been  held 
in  1438  and  1481;  and  provincial  s3mods  met  in 
1427  at  Elbing  and  1428  at  Riga,  under  the  metro- 
politan jurisdiction  of  which  latter  see  Culm  was 
placed  by  Alexander  IV.  in  1255.  By  the  Peace  of 
Thorn  in  1466  Culm,  with  a  part  of  Prussia,  came 
under  Polish  rule,  and  the  bishopric,  henceforth  a 
secular  one,  was  to  be  subjected  to  the  archbishop 
of  Gnesen — ^though  the  last  provision  was  not  con- 
firmed by  the  pope,  and  it  was  only  after  the  see  of 
Riga  had  perished  in  the  Reformation  that  Bishop 
Peter.  Kostka  (1577)  soiight  union  with  Gnesen. 
The  Reformation  had  been  presaged  in  the  fifteenth 
century  by  considerable  Hussite  and  Wyclifite 
activity;  and  in  the  sixteenth,  in  spite  of  secular 
repressive  measures,  the  Protestants  rapidly  in- 
creased in  numbers,  and  won  religious  liberty  in 
Thorn  from  King  Sigismund  in  1558.  Most  of  the 
diocese  came  imder  Prussian  rule  at  the  first  par- 
tition of  Poland  in  1772  (Thorn  not  until  the  second 
in  1793),  and  the  estates  of  the  bishop,  chapter,  and 
monasteries  were  confiscated  by  the  State,  which 
undertook  to  pay  over  half  the  net  annual  revenues. 
The  Protestant  faith,  which  had  been  kept  down 
under  the  Polish  government,  now  spread  once  more 
under  the  Prussian  crown,  which  has  had  posses- 
sion of  the  district  except  when  (1807-15)  it  formed 
a  part  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw. 

Biblzoorapht:  Urkundenbueh  de»  BiM^ma  Culm,  ed.  C.  P. 
Woelky.  Danxig.  1884>87;  F.  Schuls,  GetchidUt  der  Stadt 
und  dea  Kreiaea  Kuim,  Danxig,  1876-77. 

CULVERWEL,  NATBLANAEL:  An  English  phil- 
osophical writer,  belonging  to  the  school  known  as 
the  '*  Cambridge  Platonists  "  (q.v.);  b.  about  1615; 
d.  not  later  than  1651.  He  became  a  pensioner  of 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1633,  B.A.,  1636, 
and  M.A.,  1640,  and  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  in 
1642.  His  chief  work,  the  Discourse  of  the  Light  of 
Nature,  was  published  with  several  smaller  treatises 
in  1652  (new  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1857).  It  seems  to  have 
been  suggested  by  the  De  veritate  of  his  contempo- 


rary Lord  Herbert  of  Cherfoury  (see  Deism,  I.,  §  1), 
with  whose  views  on  epistemology  he  coincides  to 
a  remarkable  degree,  though  controverting  his  at- 
tack upon  Christianity  from  the  side  of  reason. 
For  grandeur  and  harmony  of  conception,  as  weU 
as  for  rare  insight  and  the  spiritual  rapture  which  is 
almost  the  only  trace  of  the  Calvinism  in  which  he 
was  apparently  brought  up,  the  book  is  one  of  the 
most  striking  productions  of  the  Cambridge  school. 
Its  main  theme  is  the  use  of  reason  and  the  special 
nobility  of  its  function  in  the  search  after  truth; 
a  second  part  was  projected,  to  deal  with  the  con- 
ciliation of  faith  and  reason,  against  the  Socinians 
and  other  opponents  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 
Bibuoobapht:  E.  T.    Campacnao,  The   Cambridoa    Piaio- 

ni»U,  SeUi^iona  from  the  Writinge  of  ...  N.  Culvertoel. 

Oxford.  1001;  J.  Tullooh,  RaHonal  TheoUfgy  .  .  .  in  Eno- 

land  in  17th  Cent,  ii.  410-426,  Edinburgh,  1872;  DNB, 

joi.  288-280. 

CUMBERLAlfD     PRESBYTERIAN     CHT7RCH. 

See  Prebbtterians. 

CTJMMIAlf  (CUMEAIfy  CUMnVEy  CUIMIlfE): 
The  name  of  several  Irish  monks,  of  whom  the  best 
known  is  Cuimine  Ailbhe  ("  Cummian  the  Fair  "), 
seventh  abbot  of  lona,  657-669.  He  wrote  a  life  of 
St.  Colimiba,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  third 
book  of  Adamnan's  life  of  Coliunba  as  well  as  of 
some  chapters  in  the  preceding  books.  Colgan  and 
others  think  that  he  was  also  the  author  of  a  letter 
on  the  Easter  controversy  addressed  in  634  to 
Seghine,  fifth  abbot  of  lona,  while  lianigan  and 
others  think  it  impossible  that  an  ardent  advocate 
of  the  Roman  Easter,  like  the  author  of  this  letter, 
can  have  been  made  abbot  of  lona  in  the  seventh 
century,  and  ascribe  the  letter  to  another  of  the 
same  name.  By  whomever  written,  it  is  an  able 
document;  it  shows  familiarity  with  the  Scriptures 
and  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  quotes  the  decrees 
of  councils,  and  displays  mathematical  powers  of 
no  mean  order.  The  writer  feels  the  insignificance 
of  his  land  among  the  great  nations  of  the  world, 
and,  referring  to  the  stubbornness  of  his  country- 
men, ironically  exclaims:  "  Rome  is  wrong;  Jeru- 
salem is  wrong;  Antioch  is  wrong;  all  the  world 
is  wrong;  only  the  Irish  and  Britons  know  what  is 
right."  He  had  himself  followed  the  old  custom 
till  about  630,  and  changed  only  after  careful  and 
thorough  study  lasting  a  whole  year. 

Certain  writings  known  as  the  ExcarpsuB,  the 
Pcmitentiale  Remense,  and  the  Capttula  jtidiciorum, 
published  by  Wasserschleben  and  Schmits  in  their 
works  on  the  ancient  penitential  discipline,  are 
traditionally  ascribed  to  "  Cummian,'*  but  nothing 
is  known  as  to  the  identity  of  the  author.  The 
most  probable  date  for  the  composition  of  the 
works  is  the  first  half  of  the  eighth  century.  The 
Excarpsus  circulated  throughout  the  Prankish  king- 
dom and  in  Italy,  and  was  used  in  later  penitentiid 
books  as  well  as  collections  of  canons  before  Gratian. 

Biblioorapht:  The  life  of  Golumba  ia  in  ASM,  i.  342-340. 
and  in  De  Smedt  and  De  Backer,  Acta  eanetorum  Hiber- 
nice,  pp.  845-870,  Edinburgh,  1888;  the  letter  in  Uasher, 
Veterum  epiatolarum  Hibemioarum  ajfUoge,  Dublin,  1632. 
Worke,  iv.  432-444,  whence  it  ia  copied  in  MPL,  Ixxxvii 
060-078;  for  the  other  works  named  consult:  F.  W.  H. 
Wasserschleben,  Bueeordnunoen,  72,  460  sqq.,  Halle. 
1851;  U.  J.  Schmits,  BuaetHicher  und  Btuadietiplin^  602 


821 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oald 
Con: 


nlnffham 


0qq..  Mains,  1883.  For  life  of  Cummian  oonsult:  J. 
Colgan.  Acta  mneiorum  Hibemia,  Louvain,  1645.  408-411; 
Lanigan,  Bed.  HiaL,  ii.  395-402. 

CUMMmS,  GEORGE  DAVID:  Bishop  and  one 
of  the  organizers  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church; 
b.  near  Smyrna,  Kent  County,  Del.,  Dec.  11,  1822; 
d.  at  Lutherville,  near  Baltimore,  June  26,  1876. 
He  was  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  1841;  served  as  a  Methodist  preacher  for 
two  years,  but  changed  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  1845.  He  be- 
came assistant  minister  at  Christ  Church,  Baltimore, 
1846;  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Norfolk,  Va.,  1847; 
of  St.  James's,  Richmond,  1853;  of  Trinity,  Wash- 
ington, 1855;  of  St.  Peter's,  Baltimore,  1858;  of 
Trinity,  Chicago,  1863.  In  1866  he  was  consecrated 
assistant  bishop  of  Kentucky.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  "Evangelical"  or  "  Low-church  "  party  of  his 
communion,  and  favored  a  revision  of  the  prayei^ 
book.  In  1873  he  attended  the  meeting  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  in  New  York  and  officiated  at 
a  joint  communion  service  held  there.  For  this 
act  he  was  sharply  criticized,  and,  as  a  result,  a 
month  later  formally  withdrew  from  the  Episcopal 
Church,  declaring  that  he  could  no  longer  counte- 
nance by  his  presence  the  ritualistic  practises  of 
certain  churches  of  his  diocese,  that  he  had  lost  all 
hope  of  rectification  of  abuses  by  the  Church,  and 
that  he  must  take  his  place  where  he  could  give 
open  expression  of  Christian  brotherhood  without 
alienating  those  of  his  own  household  of  faith. 
Conferences  with  others  whose  position  or  views 
were  similar  to  his  own  followed,  and  the  result  was 
the  organization  in  Dec.,  1873,  of  the  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church  (q.v.),  of  which  he  became  senior 
bishop. 

Bibuographt:    Mrs.  G.  D.  CummiiiB,  Memoir    of   O.    D. 
Cumimina,  New  York.  1878. 

CUITEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.  See  Inscrip- 
tions, II. 

CUNIBERT,  ca^ni'^bftr"':  Bishop  of  Cologne;  d. 
about  660.  He  was  educated  in  the  cathedral 
school  of  Treves  and  became  archdeacon  in  that 
city.  He  received  the  bishopric  of  Cologne  before 
626,  probably  by  royal  appointment.  In  626  or 
627  he  took  part  in  the  Synod  of  Clichy  and  in 
the  Synod  of  Reims  under  Sonnatius  (627-630). 
After  the  retirement  of  Amulf  of  Metz  (629  or  630) 
he  became  veiy  influential  in  politics  at  the  court  of 
the  Merovingian  kings  Clothaire  II.,  Dagobert  I., 
and  especially  Sigebert  III.  (632-656),  who  was  not 
yet  of  age.  He  was  active  in  spiritual  and  secular 
affairs,  for  instance,  in  the  division  of  the  public 
treasury  (638),  in  founding  monasteries  like  those 
of  Cougnon,  Stablo,  and  Maknedy  (642-650),  in 
different  donations  and  acquisitions  of  the  Church 
of  Cologne,  also  in  the  missionary  activities  among 
the  Frisians.  After  the  death  of  King  Sigebert  III. 
Chinibert  seems  to  have  retired  to  his  bishopric,  but 
in  660  he  probably  reassumed  his  political  position 
under  King  Childeric  II.  He  must  have  died  soon 
afterward.    Later  he  was  honored  as  saint. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  Rettberg,  KD,  i.  206,  535.  ii.  602;  Fried- 
ricli.  KD,  ii.  295;  Uftuek.  KD,  i.  377-378. 
III.— 21 


CUNITZ,  AUGUST  EDUARD:  Alsatian  Protes- 
tant; b.  at  Strasburg  Aug.  29,  1812;  d.  there  June 
16,  1886.  After  completing  his  theological  educa- 
tion in  his  native  city,  he  visited  Gottingen,  Berlin, 
and  Paris,  and  in  1837  entered  the  Protestant  Sem- 
inary as  privat-Klocent.  In  1864  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  New  Testament  exegesis,  and  eight  years 
later  was  transferred  to  the  newly  established  Uni- 
versity of  Strasburg.  His  work  was  devoted  for 
the  most  part  to  church  history,  and  especially  to 
the  period  of  the  Reformation.  He  collaborated 
with  G.  Baum  and  E.  Reuss  in  editing  the  com- 
plete works  of  Calvin  (59  vols.,  Brunswick,  1863- 
1900),  and  wrote  the  historical  commentary  for  the 
first  ten  volumes,  which  contain  the  Reformer's 
correspondence  He  also  completed  the  edition  of 
the  Histaire  eccUaiastique  des  iglisea  r^formdes  au 
royaume  de  France,  begun  by  Baimi  and  attributed 
to  Beza  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1883-89).  From  1847  to 
1855  he  and  Reuss  edited  the  Strassburger  Beir 
trdge  zu  den  theologischen  Wissenschaften.  He  also 
wrote  De  Nicolai  decreto  de  eledione  pontificum 
Romanorum  (Strasburg,  1837);  Considiraiions  his- 
toriquee  9UT  le  d^veloppement  du  droit  eccUsiastique 
protestant  en  France  (1840);  Historiache  Daretellung 
der  Kirchenzucht  unter  den  Protestanten  (1843); 
Ueber  die  AnUebeJugnisee  der  Konsittarien  in  den 
protestantischen  Kirchen  Frardcreiche  (1847);  and 
Bin  kathariaches  Rihiale  (Jena,  1852). 

(A.  ERICHSONt.) 

CUNNINGHAM,  JOHN:  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  at  Paisley,  Renfrewshire,  Biay  9,  1819;  d.  at  St. 
Andrews  Sept.  1,  1893.  He  studied  at  Glasgow 
(1836-40),  and  Edinburgh  (1840-45),  was  ordained 
in  1845  to  the  ministry  of  Crieff,  Perthshire,  and 
in  1886  was  appointed  principal  of  St.  Mary's 
College,  St.  Andrews.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
Scotch  Presbyterians  to  introduce  instrumental 
music  into  his  church,  and  also  manifested  his 
liberal  views  in  other  ways.  In  1886  he  was  chosen 
moderator  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  He  wrote  The  Church  History  of  Scot- 
land from  the  Commencement  of  the  Christian  Era 
to  the  Present  Century  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1859); 
The  Quakers  from  their  Origin  till  the  Present  Time 
(London,  1868);  A  New  Theory  of  Knowing  and 
Being  Known,  with  Some  Speculations  on  the  Border- 
Land  of  Psychology  and  Physiology  (Edinburgh, 
1874);  Episcopacy,  Presbytery,  and  Puritanism  in 
Scotland,  1672  to  1660  A.D,  (St.  Giles'  lectures; 
1881);  and  The  Growth  of  the  Church  in  tte  Organi- 
tation  and  Institutions  (Croall  lectures;  London, 
1886). 

CUNNINGHAM,  WILLIAM:  1.  Scotch  theolo- 
gian; b.  at  Hamilton  (10  m.  s.e.  of  Glaogow), 
Lanarkshire,  Oct.  2, 1805;  d.  in  Edinburgh  Dec.  14, 
1861.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh;  was  licensed  in 
1828;  settled  as  minister  in  Greenock  in  1830;  was 
translated  to  Trinity  College  Church,  Edinburgh, 
in  1834;  appointed  professor  in  the  New  College 
in  1843,  and  principal  in  1847.  He  threw  himself 
with  great  energy  into  the  strife  in  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  which  began  to  become  earnest  about  the 
time  of  his  settlement  in  Edinburgh.  Both  his 
ecclesiastical  learning  and  his  debating  power  found 


Curia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


322 


a  splendid  field,  as  the  strife  advanced,  in  conflict 
with  such  learned  men  as  Lord  Medwyn  and  Sir 
William  Hamilton.  When  appointed  professor  he 
was  requested  by  the  General  Assembly  to  go  to 
America  and  learn  the  methods  of  study  pursued 
there,  and  this  led  to  many  warm  friendships.  In 
theology  Dr.  Cunningham  was  a  thorough  Cal- 
vinist.  His  works  (chiefly  posthumous)  were: 
Historical  Theology  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1862); 
The  Reformers  and  the  Theology  of  the  Reformation 
(1862);  Discussions  on  Church  Principles  (1863); 
Sermons  from  1828  to  1860  (1872);  Lectures  on 
Subjects  Connected  with  Natural  Theology  (London, 
1878). 

Biblxoobapbt:  R.   Rainy  and  J.   Mackensie,   Life  of  W, 
CunninffKam,  Edinburgh,  1871;  DNB,  xii.  321-323. 

2.  Church  of  England;  b.  at  Edinburgh  Dec. 
29,  1849.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  (M.A.,  1870), 
and  Gonville  and  Caius  and  Trinity  Colleges,  Cam- 
bridge (B.A.,  1873),  was  ordered  deacon  in  1873, 
and  ordained  priest  in  1874.  He  was  curate  of 
Homingsea,  Cambridgeshire,  1873-74,  a  licensed 
preacher  in  the  diocese  of  Chester  1875-79,  and 
curate  of  St.  Mary  the  Great,  Cambridge,  1879-93, 
as  well  as  chaplain  of  Trinity  College  1880-91.  He 
was  elected  a  fellow  and  lecturer  of  Trinity  College 
in  1887,  and  vicar  of  St.  Mary  the  Great,  Cambridge, 
and  has  also  been  rural  dean  of  Cambridge  since 
1894  and  honorary  canon  of  Ely  and  honorary  fel- 
low of  Gonville  and  Caius  Colleges,  Cambridge,  since 
1896.  He  was  likewise  proctor  of  the  diocese  of 
£3y  from  1891  to  1906,  and  Lady  Margaret  preacher 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1905,  while 
academically  he  bias  been  Hulsean  lecturer  in  1885, 
professor  of  economic  science  in  King's  College, 
London,  1891-97,  and  lecturer  in  economic  history 
in  Harvard  University  in  1899.  In  theology  he  was 
at  first  a  Presbyterian,  but  became  dissatisfied 
with  that  system  both  for  ecclesiastical  and  theo- 
logical reasons,  and  is  now  a  decided  High-church- 
man. He  has  written  The  Epistle  of  St.  Barnabas 
(London,  1877);  St.  Austin  and  his  Place  in  the 
History  of  English  Thought  (1886);  and  The  Gospel 
of  Work  (1902). 

CUMNJLliGHAH  LECTURES:  A  lectureship  on 
a  foundation  created  by  a  bequest  of  £2,000  by 
Dr.  W.  Binny  Webster  to  perpetuate  the  memory 
of  the  Rev  William  Cunningham  (q.v.).  They 
are  delivered  annually  in  Edinburgh,  the  appoint- 
ment to  the  lectureship  is  made  for  not  less  than 
two  nor  more  than  three  years,  the  incimibent  is  by 
preference  a  professor  or  minister  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  each  series  must  consist  of  not  less 
than  six  lectures  The  first  series  was  delivered  in 
1864  by  Robert  A.  Candlish  on  the  subject  The 
Fatherhood  of  God  (London,  1866).  The  subjects 
thus  far  discussed  have  all  been  concerned  with 
Christian  history  and  doctrine  or  with  the  Bible. 
A  full  list  of  the  lecturers  and  their  subjects  may  be 
found  in  L.  H.  Jordan,  Comparative  Religion,  pp. 
666-667,  New  York,  1905. 

CURATE:  A  name  applied  primarily  to  a  parish 
priest,  as  having  the  care  (cure)  of  souls.  In  the 
strict  canonical  use  of  the  term,  it  designates  the 
holder  of  a  bencficium  curatum  (see  Benefice), 


who  is  thus  directly  charged  with  the  cure  of  soulsw 
Priests  who  are  merely  confessors  are  not  properiy 
designated  as  curati,  since  their  function  is  limited 
to  the  administration  of  the  sacrament  of  penance. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  chaplains  of  institutions 
may  be  so  called  when  they  are  bound  to  assist  the 
parish  priest  in  the  discharge  of  his  pastoral  duties. 
In  modem  English  usage  (though  the  strict  ancient 
meaning  occurs  in  the  rubrics  of  the  prayer-book) 
the  name  curate  is  commonly  applied  to  unbene- 
ficed clergy  who  assist  the  rector  or  vicar  of  a  pariah; 
"  perpetual  curate,"  however,  was  until  recently 
the  legal  title  of  a  priest  who  had  sole  chai^  ol 
a  district  not  organized  as  a  regular  parish  (see 
Chaplain).  (£.  Fbikdbebo.) 

CURCI,  CARLO  MARIA:    Italian  Jesuit;    b.  at 

Naples  Sept.  4,  1809;    d.  at  Careggi  (3  m.  n.  of 
Florence)   June    9,   1891.    He    was  educated   at 
Naples  and  Rome  among  the  Jesuits,  and  entered 
the  order  Sept.  14, 1826.    In  its  defense  he  wrote  his 
Fatti  ed  argomenti  (Naples,  1845),  directed  against 
the  attacks  of  the  Prolegomeni  of  Vincenzo  Gioberti, 
and  in  1850  he  founded  at  Naples  and  edited  for 
three  years  the  CivUtd  Cattolica,  a  religious  and 
political  review,  which  soon  became  the  organ  of  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Vatican.     In  1870  he  defended  the 
temporal  power  of  the  pope,  but  in  the  preface  to 
his  Lezione  essegetiche  e  morali  aopra  i  quattro 
Evangeli  (5  vols.,  Florence,  1874-76)  he  urged  the 
pope  to  become  reconciled  with  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.    Emphasizing  the  same   idea   in   a   letter 
addressed  to  Pius  DC.  and  in  his  book  II  modemo 
dissidio  tra  la  chiesa  e  V Italia  (1877),  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  his  order  and  was  not  readmitted  until  a 
few  days  before  his  death.     In  1879  he  submitted 
a  general  declaration  of  obedience  to  the  Church, 
but  in  1881  he  again  advocated  his  former  views  in 
his  La  nuova  Italia  ed  i  vecci  zelanti  (1881).     This 
work,  as  well  as  the  still  bolder  //  VoHcano  regio, 
tarlo  superstite  della  chiesa  cattolica  (1883),  was  put 
upon  the  Index,  and  the  author  was  suspended  from 
all  ecclesiastical  functions;  but  after  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Lo  Scandalo  del  vaticano  regio  (1884)  he 
was  forced  to  recant.    His  chief  works,  in  addition 
to  those  already  mentioned,  are  as  follows:  La  ques- 
tions romana  neWassemblea  francese  (Paris,  1849); 
La  demagogia  iialiana  ed  il  papa-re  (Naples,  1849); 
La  natura  e  la  grazia  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1865);    // 
Libro  di  Tobia  esposto  in  lezioni  (1877);   II  Nuovo 
Testamento  volgarUzcUo  ed  esposto  in  note  essegetiche 
e  morali  (3  vols.,  Naples,   1879-^);    II  SaUerio 
volgarizzalo  dall*Ebreo  ed  esposto  in  note  essegetiche 
e  morali  (Turin,  1883);  and  Di  un  socialismo  cris- 
tiano  nella  questione  operaia  e  nel  conserto  sehaggio 
degli  modemi  stati  Hvili  (Rome,  1885). 
Biblxoorapht:  The  first  portion  of  his  Memoria,  •xtendix^ 

to  1849,  was  published  at  Florenoe  in  1891;  F.  H.  ReuMh. 

Der  Index  der  verbotenen  BUdher,  pp.  ii.,  858,  862,  1137. 

1166.  Bonn.  1885. 

CURETON,  WILLIAM:  Semitic  scholar;  b.  at 
Westbury  (11  m.  w.  of  Shrewsbury),  Shropshire, 
18()8;  d.  in  London  June  17,  1864.  He  studied  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1831;  M.A.,  1833; 
B.D.  and  D.D.,  1858;  D.D.,  hon.,  Halle);  was 
curate  of  Oddington,  Oxfordshire,  chaplain  of 
Christ  Church,  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  queen 


323 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


GNinninffhAin 
Our  la 


(1847),  canon  of  Westminster  and  rector  of  St. 
Margaret's  (1849).  He  was  sublibrarian  at  the 
Bodleian  Library  from  1834  to  1837,  when  he  be- 
came assistant  keeper  of  manuscripts  at  the  British 
Museum.  Up  to  this  time  he  had  devoted  himself 
particularly  to  Arabic,  but  the  receipt  of  many  new 
Syriac  manuscripts  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Mary 
Deipara,  not  far  from  Cairo,  turned  his  attention  to 
Syriac.  In  the  collection  he  discovered  certain 
copies  of  the  letters  of  Ignatius,  and  published 
The  Ancient  Syriac  Version  of  the  EpisUes  of  St. 
Ignatius  to  St.  Polycarp,  the  Ephesians,  and  the 
Romans,  with  extracts  from  the  epistles  collected 
from  various  writers  (text,  transl.,  and  notes, 
London,  1845),  maintaining  that  here  was  the 
original  and  genuine  text;  this  view  being  attacked 
(see  Ignatius  of  Antioch),  he  published  Vindir 
cicB  Ignatiance  (1846);  and,  in  1849,  the  Corpus 
IgruUianum,  a  complete  collection  of  the  Ignatian 
Epistles  in  Syriac,  Greek,  and  Latin.  Another  dis- 
covery, and  that  by  which  his  name  is  best  known, 
was  that  of  the  ''  Curetonian  Gospels,''  a  fragmen- 
tary Syriac  version,  unlike  the  Peshito,  and,  in 
Cureton's  opinion,  representing  the  original  of 
Matthew  more  closely,  published  (text  and  transl.) 
in  The  Remains  of  a  very  Ancient  Recension  of  the 
Four  Gospels  in  Syriac  hitherto  unknown  in  Europe 
(1858).  Other  Syriac  works  were:  The  Festal  Let- 
ters of  Athanasius  (1848;  Eng.  transl.,  by  Heniy 
Burgess,  in  Pusey's  Library  of  the  Fathers,  1854); 
The  Third  Part  of  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  John, 
Bishop  of  Ephesus  (1853;  transl.  by  Payne  Smith, 
1860);  Spicilegium  Syriacum,  containing  Remains 
of  Bardesan,  Meliton,  Ambrose,  and  Mara  bar  Sera- 
pion  (text,  transl.,  and  notes,  1855);  Eusebius*s 
History  of  the  Martyrs  in  Palestine  (text  and  transl., 
1861).  He  also  published  Fragments  of  the  Uiad 
from  a  Syriac  Palimpsest  (1851).  Ancient  Syriac 
Documents  relative  to  the  Earliest  Establishment  of 
Christianity  in  Edessa  and  the  Neighboring  Coun- 
tries appeared  posthumously,  edited  by  W.  Wright 
(1864).  In  Arabic  he  published  the  text  of  Shah- 
rastani's  "  Mohammedan  Sects  "  (2  vols.,  London, 
1842-46);  the  commentary  on  Lamentations  of 
Tanchum  ben  Joseph  of  Jerusalem  (1843);  the 
Pillar  of  the  Creed  of  the  Sunnites  by  al-Nasafi 
(1843);  and  the  catalogue  of  Arabic  manuscripts  in 
the  British  Museum  (1846). 

CUREUS,  ca-r^Qs,  JOACHIM:  German  theo- 
logian of  the  Reformation  period,  whose  original 
name  was  Scheer;  b.  at  Freystadt  (45  m.  n.w.  of 
Liegnitz),  Silesia,  Oct.  23,  1532;  d.  at  Glogau  (35 
m.  w.n.w.  of  Liegnitz)  Jan.  21,  1573.  From  1550 
to  1554  he  was  at  the  University  of  Wittenberg, 
where  he  came  at  once  under  Melanchthon's  influ- 
ence. Returning  to  his  native  town  to  teach  in  the 
school,  he  work^  there  for  a  while  in  the  spirit  of 
Mclanchthon  to  make  his  pupils  love  the  Scriptures 
as  well  as  their  lessons.  Meantime  he  began  to 
Btudy  medicine,  and  spent  two  years  (1557-59)  at 
Padua  and  at  Bologna,  where  he  became  a  doctor 
of  medicine.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  as  town 
physician  at  Glogau.  He  made  his  name  known 
as  a  medical  writer  in  1567  by  his  treatise  De  sensu  et 
sensibilibus,  and  as  a  historian  in  1571  by  his  Gentis 


SilesicB  annales.  V6gelin  published  his  Formvlcs 
precum  e  lectionHms  dominicaWms  in  the  year  of  his 
death;  it  is  interesting  especially  for  the  view  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  expressed  in  his  Eucharistic  prayer. 
Of  greater  consequence  was  the  Exegesis  perspicua 
et  ferme  integra  de  Sacra  Coma,  which  he  had  writ- 
ten against  Heshusen  in  1562  and  circulated  anony- 
mously in  manuscript.  The  year  after  his  death, 
however,  Vdgelin  published  it,  pretending  that  it 
came  from  Geneva,  and  circulated  the  edition 
cautiously  in  Wittenberg,  and  especially  at  Heidel- 
berg and  in  France.  Its  distinction  between 
Luther's  real  teaching  and  the  expressions  which 
had  fallen  from  him  in  the  heat  of  controversy,  its 
appeal  to  the  martyrdoms  of  the  Calvinists  as  tes- 
timonies to  the  "  celestial  verity  "  for  which  they 
had  died,  and  its  opposition  to  ubiquity,  manducatio 
oralis,  and  reception  by  the  unbelieving,  stirred  up 
much  feeling  and  brought  down  heavy  penalties 
and  ultimate  exile  upon  VOgelin. 

(G.  Kawerau.) 
Bibuoorapht:  The  early  Viia  was  by  J.  FeriDarius,  Lieg- 
nits,  1601,  reproduoed  in  C.  F.  Heuringer.  Commentatio 
de  J.  Cureo,  Marburg,  1853.  and  M.  Adami.  Vita  Oer- 
manorum  medicorum,  pp.  197-216,  Heidelberg,  1620. 
Gonsxilt  H.  Heppe,  OeBchichU  dea  deuUcken  PraUataniU- 
mtM,  L  169  sqq..  438  sqq.,  Marburg,  1862. 

CURIA. 

The  Cardinals  (i  1). 

Offieiala  of  Bute  (I  2). 

Judieiary  and  Administration  (I  3). 

CongregationB  (14). 

Diplomatic  Agents  and  SoUeitorB  (I  5). 

Curia  is  a  comprehensive  term  used  in  the  phrase 
Curia  Romana,  "  the  Court  of  Rome,"  for  the  entire 
system  of  officials  of  various  kinds  and  degrees 
who  compose  the  administration  of  the  pope.  He 
may  be  regarded  in  various  lights — as  bishop  of 
Rome;  as  metropolitan  of  a  province  comprising 
eight  dioceses;  as  primate  of  the  Roman  West; 
or,  according  to  Roman  Catholic  teaching,  as  the 
successor  of  Peter,  prince  of  the  apostles,  and 
ccnterpoint  of  all  Christendom.  Until  recently  he 
was  also  the  temporal  ruler  of  the  States  of  the 
Church  (see  Papal  States),  and  the  Curia  included 
a  number  of  secular  officials  whose  duties  related 
to  this  aspect  of  their  chief's  position. 

Originally,  just  as  an  ordinary  metropolitan  has 
no  subordinate  officials  as  such,  but  makes  use  of 
those  attached  to  his  own  sec,  the  pope's  assistants 
in  not  only  his  metropolitan, but  also  his  primatial 
action,  were  the  presbyters  who  gathered  about  him 
as  bishop  of  Rome.  The  bishop  of  Rome  had  no 
special  church,  or,  in  the  modem  phrase,  no  cathe- 
dral; in  the  oldest  period  known  the  city  was 
divided  into  districts,  each  with  its  own  principal 
church.  In  charge  of  each  of  these  tituli  was  a 
priest  who  represented  the  bishop,  and  who,  as 
placed  over  such  an  important  church,  bore  very 

early   the   name   incardinatus,   cardir 

I.  The  Car-  nalis.    The   meetings  of  this  presby- 

dinals.      terium  were  known  either  as  synods  or 

as  consistories,  and  in  them  all  im- 
portant affairs  relating  to  the  administration  not 
only  of  the  local  church,  but  of  the  primacy,  were 
considered.  According  to  the  Pontifical  of  Damar 
sus  (d.  384)  the  city  had  been  divided  by  Pope 


OvrU 
Curione 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


824 


Maroellus  (308)  into  twenty-five  "titles";  and 
from  the  first  the  deacons  who  had  charge  of  the 
seven  charitable  districts,  said  to  have  been  laid 
out  by  Clement  I. ,  were  associated  with  them  as 
cardinals.  Under  Pope  Stephen  III.  (IV.)  (d.  771) 
the  suburban  bishops  were  added  to  the  nimiber, 
which,  however,  varied  much  at  different  periods. 
In  the  twelfth  century  it  seldom  rose  above  thirty; 
in  the  thirteenth  it  went  as  low  as  seven;  the 
Council  of  Basel  (1431-49)  fixed  it  at  twenty-four; 
in  1516  there  were  only  thirteen  cardinals;  under 
Pius  IV.  (d.  1559)  once  as  many  as  seventy-six. 
Sixtus  V.  (1585-90)  finally  settled  the  number  at 
seventy,  corresponding  to  the  elders  of  Israel  chosen 
by  Moses.  These  were  to  include  the  six  "  subui^ 
bicarian  bishops  "  (of  Ostia,  Porto,  Frascati,  Sabina, 
Palestrina,  and  Albano),  fifty  cardinal  priests,  and 
fourteen  cardinal  deacons.  All  the  seventy  places 
are,  however,  rarely  filled  at  any  one  time. 

According  to  the  present  law,  a  cardinal  is  "  crear 
ted  "  by  the  pope,  his  eligibility  depending  on  the 
same  conditions  as  in  the  case  of  a  bishop,  with  a 
special  provision  against  the  nomination  of  a  per- 
son of  illegitimate  birth,  even  though  subsequently 
legitimated.  He  must  have  been  for  a  year  at  least 
in  minor  orders,  and  have  no  children  or  grand- 
children, even  by  a  previous  lawful  marriage,  nor 
must  he  have  any  near  relation  (in  the  first  or 
second  degree  of  the  canonical  computation)  among 
the  existing  cardinals.  All  nations  are  supposed 
to  be  considered  in  making  the  selections,  but  in 
modem  times  Italians  have  always  been  in  a  large 
majority.  Until  comparatively  recent  years  cex^ 
tain  European  sovereigns  had  a  prescriptive  right 
to  suggest  the  creation  of  one  cardinal  each  to 
represent  their  interests  at  the  capital  of  Christen- 
dom; these  were  known  as  crown  cardinals.  The 
creation  takes  place  originally  in  a  secret  consistory, 
and  is  then  proclaimed  in  a  public  one.  Sometimes 
a  cardinal  may  be  created  and  his  name  not  pub- 
lished for  some  time,  but  reserved  in  petto,  as  the 
phrase  is. 

The  cardinals  take  rank  immediately  after  the 
pope,  of  whom  they  are  the  electors.  Though  in 
theory  any  one  otherwise  eligible,  even  a  layman, 
may  be  chosen.  Urban  VI.  (1378)  was  the  last  pope 
who  was  not  a  cardinal.  They  have  as  insignia  the 
broad  red  hat  with  pendent  tassels,  conferred  by 
Innocent  IV.  in  1245,  the  red  robe  (by  Paul  IV., 
1464),  and  the  title  of  "  Emmence  "  (Urban  VIII., 
1630).  They  have  the  privilege  of  a  quasiepiscopal 
jurisdiction  within  their  own  '*  titles,"  may  wear 
pontifical  vestments  there,  and,  if  they  are  at  least 
priests,  may  confer  the  tonsure  and  minor  orders 
on  their  subordinates  and  members  of  their  house- 
hold. The  senior  cardinal  bishop  is  dean  of  the 
sacred  college.  During  a  vacancy  of  the  papacy 
they  attend  to  necessaiy  administrative  details, 
and  proceed  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  election  of  a 
new  pope  (see  Pope).  The  cardinal  camerlingo 
(answering  to  the  archdeacon  in  the  historical 
development  of  Western  dioceses)  early  received 
charge  of  the  general  internal  administration  under 
the  pope.  He  was  assisted  by  the  vice-camerlingo 
or  goverruUore  for  criminal  jurisdiction,  the  auditor 
camera  for  civil  jurisdiction,  and  the  tesoriere  for 


the  custody  of  property.  The  cardinal  vicar  (anal- 
ogous to  the  archpresbyter  in  the  early  chapters) 
attended  to  the  local  episcopal  functions  of  an 
ordinary  diocesan  bishop.  For  the  special  adminis- 
tration of  the  "  power  of  the  keys,"  the  pope  has, 
like  other  bishops,  a  member  of  what  may  be  called 
his  chapter,  the  cardinal  penitentiary. 

Down  to  1815  the  States  of  the  Church  were 
regarded  as,  what  indeed  they  were  originally, 
simply  estates  held  by  the  pope  as  a  landowner, 
and  as  such  he  administered  the  pcUrimontum  Petri, 
in  so  far  as  the  nobility  did  not  interfere  or  the 
people  of  Rome  preserve  their  ancient  independence. 
When  the  outlying  provinces  known  as  legations 

were  acquired,  they  preserved  in  large 

2.  Officials  measure    their    former    constitutions, 

of  State,     the  pope  merely  sending  a  legate  to 

assimie  the  chief  government  and 
transmit  the  revenues  to  Rome.  As  long  as  this 
''  patrimonial "  system  prevailed  the  cardinal 
camerlingo  had  great  influence  and  was  practically 
minister  of  the  interior  and  head  of  the  department 
of  finance  (the  camera  apostolica).  Toward  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  popes  became 
more  and  more  normal  secular  sovereigns  of  this 
territory,  a  minister  who  should  represent  the 
monarchical  principle  developed  by  degrees — called 
at  first  the  cardinal-nephew,  or,  when  this  desig- 
nation was  inappropriate,  cardinal-patron,  now  car- 
dinal secretary  of  state.  He  gradually  absorbed 
a  good  many  of  the  functions  of  the  cardinal  camei^ 
lingo,  took  command  of  the  legate  governors  and 
of  the  papal  troops,  and  also  fulfilled  the  functions 
of  a  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  not  only  in  purely 
secular,  but  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  When,  after 
1815,  modem  ideas  began  to  be  applied  to  the 
organization  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  the  busi- 
ness of  this  office  increased  so  much  that  in  1833 
it  was  divided,  the  former  secretary  of  state  con- 
fining himself  mainly  to  foreign  affairs,  and  another 
secretary  of  state  for  internal  affairs  being  created, 
though  subordinate  to  the  original  official. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  legal 
questions  were  dealt  with  by  the  Rota,  the  highest 
court  of  the  States  of  the  Church;    questions  of 

government  by  the  college  of  cardinals 

3.  Judidiry  assembled  in  consistory;   questions  of 

and        conscience  by  the  cardinal   peniten- 

Adminia-    tiary  and  the  office  known  as  Pctni- 

tration.     tentiaria  under  him;    while  the  pope 

had  an  office  called  Signatura,  with 
certain  advisory  assessors  (referendarii)  for  matters 
requiring  his  personal  signature.  The  last  was 
divided,  according  to  the  two  classes  of  papal  action 
—spiritual  administration  and  justice — ^into  the 
Signatura  groHce  and  justitia,  which  became  later 
two  distinct  bodies.  For  the  keeping  of  an  accurate 
record  and  checking  financial  abuses,  the  chancery 
{CanceUaria  apostolica)  was  organised  out  of  the 
earlier  body  of  notaries;  and  the  Dataria  grew  up 
for  the  purpose  of  ooimtersigning  and  registering  the 
vast  mass  of  grants  of  benefices,  etc.  These,  with 
the  secretariate  of  briefs,  which  originally  served 
mainly  for  the  pope's  private  correspondence,  con- 
stituted the  system  at  the  time  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.    Those  of  them  which  now  exist  as  active 


326 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ouria 
Gurione 


institutions  of  the  Curia  are  the  College  of  Cardinals, 
the  PoBnitentiaria,  the  DcUaria,  the  secretariate  of 
briefs,  and  the  chancery. 

Their  position  has,  however,  been  altered  to  a 

considerable  extent  by  the  erection  of  a  number  of 

permanent   committees   of   cardinals   for  definite 

branches  of  business.    All  these  "  con- 

4.  Congre-  gr^tions,"  besides  the  cardinals 
gations.  strictly  composing  them  (of  whom  the 
head  is  called  the  prefect),  have  a 
number  of  expert  subordinates  who  have  a  voice, 
though  not  a  vote,  in  their  meetings,  and  really  do 
the  detailed  work.  These  are  usually  called  con- 
suitors,  sometimes  qualificators,  relators,  etc.  The 
Congregation  of  the  Inquisition,  of  which  the  pope 
himself  is  prefect,  is  the  oldest  congregation,  founded 
in  1542  in  consequence  of  the  Reformation,  for  the 
repression  of  all  sorts  of  heresy.  It  was  reenforced 
by  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  under  Paul  V.,  to 
supervise  the  publication  of  books  (see  Censor- 
ship AND  PROHiBmoN  OP  BooKs).  On  the  proc- 
lamation of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
1564,  Pius  IV.  established  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council  for  the  enforcement  of  these  decisions;  and 
Sixtus  V.  in  1587  gave  it  the  express  right  to  decide 
questions  (not  of  a  dogmatic  nature)  which  might 
arise  in  regard  to  their  interpretation.  At  the 
same  time  he  erected  three  more,  the  Congregation 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  for  the  oversight  of  bishops 
and  monastic  orders  in  general  and  in  their  mutual 
relations;  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  for  the  supei^ 
vision  of  public  worship  in  all  its  details,  canoniza- 
tion, etc. ;  and  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory, 
for  the  preparation  of  business  to  come  before  the 
whole  body  of  cardinals.  In  1622  was  added  the 
Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide,  for  the  central- 
izing of  missionary  work  among  both  the  heathen 
and  non-Catholics,  and  for  the  government  of  the 
Church  in  non-CathoKc  countries.  In  1626  ori^ 
inated  the  Congregation  of  Ecclesiastical  Immuni- 
ties, for  the  protection  of  the  rights  of  the  Church 
in  relation  to  the  State;  after  1815  a  large  part  of 
its  business  was  transferred  to  the  Congregation  on 
Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs.  In  1669  was 
erected  the  Congregation  of  Indulgences  and  Relics; 
and  others  have  since  been  founded,  sometimes  for 
a  temporary  purpose.  In  most  current  business 
these  various  bodies  are  competent  to  decide  inde- 
pendently, in  accordance  with  their  faculties  and 
their  traditional  practise;  only  the  most  important 
affairs  come  before  the  pope  personally. 

The  requirement  that  every  petitioner  shall  ap- 
pear either  in  person  or  by  proxy  before  the  body 
with  which  he  has  business  has  led  to  the  gradual 
evolution  of  a  vast  system  of  petty  diplomacy,  in 
which    personal    infiuence    and    ex- 
5.  Diplo-    perience  count  for  much.    For  many 
matic      centuries  each  diocese  had  its  agents 

Agents  and  accredited  to  the  Curia,  the  same  one 

Solicitors,  frequently  representing  several  bishops. 
They  attended  not  only  to  the  matters 
brought  up  by  the  bishop  himself,  but  also  to  all 
that  came  through  him,  such  as  requests  for  dis- 
pensations. The  minor  details  were  left  in  the 
hands  of  a  subordinate  official  called  spedusionere. 
The  diminutionin  the  volume  of  business  after  1808, 


and  the  establishment  of  embassies  of  a  modem 
type  in  Rome,  throiigh  which  many  bishops  found 
themselves  for  the  time  obliged  to  treat  with  the 
Holy  See,  led  by  degrees  to  the  effacement  of  the 
distinction  between  the  agent  and  the  apedizionere  ; 
and  the  official  who  discharges  both  functions,  now 
that  the  bishops  treat  once  more  directly  with  the 
pope,  is  commonly  known  as  a  solicitor  of  pontif- 
ical briefs.  See  Conbistort;  Papal  States;  and 
Pope,  Papacy.  (J.  F.  von  Schulte.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  best  tingle  volume  in  P.  EUnaehiuB, 
KireKtnreekt  der  Katholiken  .  .  .  in  Deut§eMand,  vol.  ii., 
Berlin,  1871-78,  to  be  supplemented  by  reference  to  F. 
H.  Vering,  Lehrbuch  des  katKoluehen  ,  .  .  KircktnreehU, 
Freiburg,  1876.  Consult  also:  J.  H.  Bangen,  Die  rd- 
miMche  Curie,  Mdnster.  1854;  F.  Qrimaldi.  Lee  Congr^OOn 
Hone  romainee.  Sienna,  1890;  L.  Lector,  Le  Condave,  Paris. 
1894;  idem,  L'ElecHon  papaU,  ib.  1896;  A.  Pieper,  Zur 
Entetehungeoeeehichte  der  etikndioen  Nuntiaturen,  Frei- 
burg. 1894:  P.  A.  Baart,  The  Roman  Court,  New  York. 
1895  (useful);  A.  R.  Pennington,  Papal  Condavee,  Lon- 
don. 1897;  W.  Humphrey,  Urhe  et  orbia:  the  Pope  oj 
Biehop  and  ae  Pontiff,  ib.  1899  ("the  purpose  ...  is  to 
set  forth  the  Papacy  in  action  ");  P.  M.  Baumgarten.  Der 
Papet,  die  Regierung  und  die  VenoaUung  der  KeUigen 
Kirche  in  Rom,  Munich  [1904];  D.  Sladen,  The  SecreU  of 
the  Vatican,  London.  1907;  N.  Helling,  Procedure  at  the 
Roman  Curia,  ib.  1907;  and  the  annual  semiofficdal  pub- 
lication, Qerardiia  cattolica. 

CURIONE,  cQ-ri"o-n6',  CELIO  SECOIVDO:  Ital- 
ian Reformer;  b.  at  Cirid  (13  m.  n.w.  of  Turin) 
Biay  1,  1503;  d.  at  Basel  Nov.  24,  1569.  Early 
left  an  orphan,  relatives  had  him  carefully  educated, 
especially  in  the  classics.  A  monk  of  the  Augus- 
tinian  monastery  at  Turin  provided  him  with 
Luther's  writings,  and  these  and  Melanchthon's 
Loci  theologici  led  him  into  freer  paths.  With  two 
like-minded  friends  he  undertook  to  cross  the  Alps 
to  meet  Erasmus  and  the  Germans,  but  the  bishop 
of  Aosta  obstructed  their  way  and  sent  Curione  to 
the  monastery  of  San  Benigno.  At  a  festival  at 
which  relics  were  usually  shown  he  put  a  Bible  into 
the  shrine  with  the  superscription:  "  This  is  the  ark 
of  salvation."  When  it  was  discovered  he  saved 
himself  by  flight.  In  1530  he  was  teacher  in  Milan, 
then  at  Casale,  where  he  became  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  Fulvio  Pellegrini,  called  Morato,  the 
father  of  Olimpia  Morata  (q.v.),  famous  in  the 
history  of  the  Italian  Reformation.  He  went  to 
Pavia,  where  he  spent  some  years  at  the  imiversity 
teaching  grammar  and  rhetoric.  Being  obliged  to 
leave  in  1538  by  the  Inquisition,  he  went  to  Venice, 
where  he  felt  "  in  a  safe  haven  of  rest."  At  the 
instance  of  Morato  he  was  called  to  Ferrara,  and 
afterward  removed  to  Lucca  in  1541.  The  follow- 
ing year  became  decisive  for  Curione  and  many 
other  friends  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Italian 
peninsula.  On  the  same  day  (June  10,  1642)  on 
which  he  dated  the  preface  to  a  work,  De  liberis 
piechriatianequeeducandis,  he  wrote  to  Morato  that 
he  was  no  longer  safe.  In  July  the  bull  Licet  ab 
inUio  was  published,  which  inaugurated  a  general 
persecution,  and  in  August  men  like  Berniutiino 
Ochino  and  Peter  Martyr  Vermigli  (qq.v.)  had 
already  taken  to  flight.  Curione  escaped  when  the 
bailiffs  stood  before  his  door,  left  his  family,  and 
crossed  the  Alps.  After  serving  a  long  time  as 
private  tutor,  he  was  appointed  professor  at  Basel 
in  1547.    In  the  mean  time  he  composed  his  best- 


Currier 

CUMk 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


826 


known  work,  PasquiUus  ecstaticua  (Basel,  c.  1544; 
enlarged  ed.,  Geneva,  1544),  a  severe  satire  on  the 
utterances  of  papacy  in  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
Pasquino  and  Marferio.  He  followed  eagerly  the 
reformatory  movement  in  his  native  cotrntry, 
translated  the  Considerazionea  of  Juan  de  Vald^s 
(Basel,  1550),  and  composed  a  work  on  doctrines, 
ChriaHancB  reUgumia  insiUuHo  (1540).  In  secret 
he  corresponded  with  the  representatives  of  a 
radical  Protestantism  among  the  Italians,  and  in 
1550  he  took  part  in  the  so-called  "  council  "  of  the 
Anabaptists  in  Venice,  though  he  nowhere  stated 
or  defended  the  views  expressed  there.  In  his 
work  De  ampliiudine  regni  Dei  (1554)  he  deviated 
from  rigid  Calvinism  in  the  doctrine  of  predestina^ 
tion,  but  in  1559  he  asserted  his  undeviating  ortho- 
doxy in  a  public  confession  of  faith. 

KBenrath. 
Bibxjoobapht:  The  main  souroe  it  the  OraHo  panegyrioa 
by  J.  N.  BtupanuB,  Basel,  1570;  his  EpUtotarum  selec- 
forum  Ubri  duo,  together  with  the  Opera  of  Olimpia  Morata, 
were  published,  Basel,  1570.  The  best  modem  treat- 
ment is  by  C.  Schmidt,  in  ZHT,  1860.  pp.  571-634.  Con- 
sult also  J.  Bonnet,  La  FamilU  de  Cwrione,  Basel,  1878. 

CURRIER,  CHARLES  WARREN :  Roman  Cath- 
olic; b.  at  St.  Thomas,  Danish  West  Indies,  Mar. 
22,  1857.  He  studied  at  the  Redemptorist  College, 
Roermond,  Holland  (1871-74),  and  the  Redemp- 
torist College,  Wittem,  Holland  (1874-80).  He 
was  a  foreign  missionary  in  Surinam,  Dutch  Guiana, 
1880-81,  and  a  missionary  in  the  United  States 
1881-92  and  1897-1900,  holding  various  parishes 
in  the  interval.  From  1900  to  1905  he  was  rector 
of  St.  Mary's,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  in  1905-06 
was  connected  with  the  Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian 
Missions,  Washington.  He  has  written  Carmel  in 
America  (Baltimore,  1890);  History  of  Religuma 
Orders  (New  York,  1894);  Dimitrioe  and  Irene,  or 
The  Conquest  of  Constantinople  (1894);  Church  and 
Saints  (New  York,  1897);  The  Rose  of  Alhama  (1898); 
Mission  Memories  (Baltimore,  1898);  The  Divinity 
of  CkrUt  (1898);  and  The  Mass  (1899). 

CURTIS,  EDWARD  LEWIS:  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  Oct.  13,  1853.  He  studied  at 
Yale  College  (B.A.,  1874)  and  Union  Theological 
Seminary  (1879),  and  spent  two  years  in  Germany, 
chiefly  at  Berlin;  was  instructor  of  Old  Testament 
literature  in  McCormick  Theological  Seminary, 
Chicago,  1881-84,  professor  of  the  same,  1884-91, 
when  he  went  to  Yale  Divinity  School  in  the  same 
capacity. 

CURTIS,  WILLIAM  ALEXANDER:  Church  of 
Scotland;  b.  at  Thurso  (65  m.  n.  of  Elgin),  Caith- 
nesshire,  Scotland,  Mar.  17,  1876.  He  studied  in 
Edinburgh  (M.A.,  1897;  B.D.,  1901),  and  in  Heidel- 
berg, Leipsic,  and  Oxford  in  1901-03.  Since  the 
latter  year  he  has  been  professor  of  systematic  theol- 
ogy at  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  In  1903  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  and 
General  Assembly's  committee  on  the  education  of 
ministers  and  on  probationers,  and  in  1906  was 
made  a  member  of  the  same  body's  committee  on 
the  Formula  of  Subscription  to  the  Confession  of 
Faith.  In  theology  he  is  an  Evangelical  Protestant 
of  liberal  ssrmpathies,  and  has  written  Religion^ 
Yesterday,  To-day,  To-morrow  (Edinburgh,  1903). 


CURTISS,  SAMUEL  IVES:  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  Union,  Conn.,  Feb.  5,  1844;  d.  in  London, 
Eng.,  Sept.  22,  1904.  He  was  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  1867,  and  at  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary, New  York,  1870.  The  years  1872-78  he 
spent  in  Grermany,  studying  at  Bonn  and  Leipsie 
and  serving  as  pastor  of  the  American  Chapel  in 
Leipsic,  1874-78.  In  1878  he  became  professor  of 
Biblical  literature  in  Chicago  (Congregational)  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  and  in  1879  became  professor  of 
Old  Testament  literature  and  interpretation.  He 
translated  several  works  from  the  German  and 
wrote  The  LevitiaU  Priests  (Edinburgh,  1877); 
IngersoU  and  Moses  (Chicago,  1879);  From  De- 
litzsch:  a  Memorial  TribuU  (Edinburgh,  1891); 
and  Primitive  Semitic  Religion  To-day  (New  York, 
1902). 

CURTIUS  (KORTE,  KORTHEIM,  KORTMAHN ), 
VALENTIN:  Reformer  in  Rostock  and  Labeck; 
b.  at  Lebus  (5  m.  n.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder) 
Jan.  6,  1493;  d.  at  Lftbeck  Nov.  27,  1567.  He 
studied  first  at  LUbeck,  matriculated  in  theology 
at  Rostock,  1512,  and  soon  entered  the  Minorite 
monastery  of  St.  Catherine,  where  he  became  reader. 
Won  for  the  Reformation  through  Joachim  Sltiter, 
he  became  minister  at  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
in  1528,  and  in  1531  at  St.  Mary's.  In  opposition 
to  SlUter,  he  favored  the  retention  of  some  Latin 
hymns.  On  account  of  his  opposition  to  the 
people's  party  led  by  Dr.  Johann  Oldendorp,  he 
was  obliged  to  leave  Rostock  in  1534.  Where  he 
went  first  is  uncertain,  but  for  many  years,  first  as 
deacon,  after  1545  (7)  as  chief  pastor,  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  St.  Peter's  in  Ldbeck,  then  the  center  of 
orthodox  Lutherdom  in  North  Germany.  He  was 
city  superintendent  there  from  1554  until  his 
death. 

Curtius  took  a  prominent  place  in  the  confes- 
sional contentions  after  Luther's  death.  While  still 
ofiiciating  as  pastor  he  interpellated  Melanchthon 
concerning  the  Liber  Augustanus  (Melanchthon 's 
answer  of  July  21, 1548,  in  CR,  vii.  75  sqq.);  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  conference  of  the  Labeck  ministry 
against  Lorenz  Mdrsken;  in  1551  he  charged  Me- 
lanchthon with  novelty  in  doctrine  (answer,  CR,  vii. 
756  sqq.);  in  1553  he  signed  the  Sententia  of  the 
ministry  against  Georg  Major  in  favor  of  Flacius;  in 
1554  as  the  first  act  of  his  superin tendency  be 
expelled  the  Belgic-French  Calvinists  under  John 
a  Lasko,  whom  Maiy  Tudor  had  driven  from 
London. 

Curtius  led  the  ministry  in  the  Osiandrian  and 
Oypto-Calvinistic  controversies,  and  often  was  its 
representative  in  conventions  and  disputations,  as 
at  Kosswig  and  Wittenberg  (1557),  M5Un  (1558), 
Brunswick  (Feb.,  1561),  and  LOneburg  (July,  1561). 
He  was  the  author  of  the  short  but  important 
Formula  consensus  de  doctrina  evangelii  et  admini- 
stroHone  sacramentorum  (the  so-called  Ltlbeck  For- 
mula of  Feb.,  1560,  considered  authoritative  till 
1685;  in  C.  H.  Starcke,  LObeckische  Kirchen-Historief 
pp.  196-197,  Hamburg,  1724),  and  the  comprehen- 
sive Protestatio  contra  synodum  Tridentinam  (in 
Starcke,  pp.  208-243),  occasioned  by  the  pope's  in- 
vitation of  Labeck  to  the  council,  Apr.  22,  1561; 
it  attempts   to   prove  the   council    unlawful   on 


827 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Currier 
Onaa 


seven  gronndfl!  (1)  because  called  by  the  pope 
and  not  by  the  emperor;  (2)  because  the  pope, 
rejected  by  the  Lutherans  as  their  enemy,  could 
not  be  their  judge;  (3)  because  it  should  be  held  in 
Germany;  (4)  because  the  pope  is  himself  a  party 
to  the  case;  (5)  because  the  laity  is  excluded;  (6) 
because  the  object  is  to  crush  the  Evangelicals,  not 
to  find  truth;  (7)  because  its  norm  is  papal  laws, 
not  the  Bible.  Curtius's  entire  libraiy  was  des- 
troyed by  fire  and  some  of  his  writings  may  have 
perished  at  that  time. 

(FERDINAin)  COHRS.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Q.  J.  Flanek,  BfUgUhung  .  .  .  unaena  pro' 
Utlaniiaeh^n  Lehrbtgriff;  ri.  67  sqq.,  2S5  sqq.,  Leipsic, 
1800;  H.  Heppe,  Oeaehiehte  dst  dmUaeh^  ProteMtantiBmua, 
i.  123  sqq.,  Marburg,  1862. 

CUSA,  NICHOLAS  OF  (NIKOLAUS  CRTFTZ  or 
KREBS;  Nicolaus  Cuaanus):  Bom  at  Cues  on  the 
Moselle  (25  m.  n.e.  of  Treves)  1401;  d.  at  Todi  (24 
m.  s.  of  Perugia)  Aug.  11, 1464.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  sailor  and  attended  the  school  of  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  at  Deventer.  Then  he  studied  law 
at  Padua,  as  well  as  Greek,  Hebrew,  philosophy, 
mathematics,  and  astronomy.  Having  been  or- 
dained, he  was  sent  in  1432  as  representative  of  the 

archbishop-elect   Ulric   of   Treves   to 
Life.       the  Council  of  Basel.    As  the  pope  had 

not  confirmed  the  election  of  Ulric, 
and  Nicholas  had  to  represent  the  claims  of  his 
superior,  he  naturally  joined  the  antipapal  party; 
but  when  a  disruption  of  the  council  took  place,  he 
sided  in  1437  with  the  minority  which  upheld  the 
papal  claims.  His  new  associates  soon  entrusted 
him  with  important  diplomatic  missions,  including 
one  to  Constantinople,  whence  he  accompanied  the 
Greek  emperor  to  take  part  in  the  negotiations  for 
reimion  at  Florence.  After  a  short  rest  in  his 
native  land,  where  he  finished  the  important  work 
De  doda  ignorantia,  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
pope  as  legate  and  devoted  his  energy  especially 
to  opposing  the  position  of  the  council.  HLs  work 
was  recognized  in  1449  by  his  nomination  as  cai^ 
dinal.  In  1450  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Brixen, 
and  sent  to  Germany  with  extraordinary  authority 
as  visitor  of  the  whole  German  Church.  He  traveled 
through  Germany,  held  synods  everywhere,  recon- 
structed and  "  reformed  "  with  great  energy.  He 
was  less  successful  in  his  own  diocese.  Archduke 
Sigmund  of  the  T^rol  was  ill  disposed  toward  him 
from  the  beginning,  and  was  still  further  alienated 
when  he  claimed  for  his  bishopric  feudal  supremacy 
over  the  Tyrol.  When  Nicholas  attempted  to  reform 
the  monasteries  Sigmund  protected  the  disobedient 
nuns  and  monks.  At  Easter,  1460,  the  duke  im- 
prisoned him.  Upon  his  release  he  went  to  Rome, 
and  returned  no  more  to  Germany.  For  the  rest  of 
his  life  he  was  constantly  occupied  in  literaiy  or 
political  matters.  His  property  and  library  he 
left  to  the  hospital  founded  by  him  at  Cues,  where 
various  relics  of  him,  including  manuscripts,  are 
still  to  be  seen. 

Nicholas  of  Cusa  may  be  regarded  either  as  a 
scholar  or  as  a  churchman.  Strongly  influenced  by 
the  humanist  movement,  he  stood  opposed  to 
scholastic  theology,  not  to  Christian  dogma,  which 
with  its  rich  philosophical  content  serves  hitn  as 


both  the  basis  and  the  outcome  of  his  original  specu- 
lations, resting  upon  Neoplatonic  ideas  and  deriving 
a  little  from  Augustine  and  Dionysius  the  Areop- 
agite.  God  is  the  endless  unity,  the  absolute  supei^ 
lative,  at  once  the  greatest  and  the  least;  the  world, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  the  realm  of  the  comparative, 
the  greater  and  the  lesser.  The  world 
Phi-     «  is  the  ens  under  the  form  of  contra- 

losophy.  dictions;  God  is  the  identity  of  all  con- 
tradictions, possibility  and  actuality 
at  the  same  time.  As  absolute  activity,  will,  and 
knowledge  he  b  the  triune  God.  He  is  absolutely 
transcendent;  we  know  of  him  only  that  he  is  un- 
knowable (hence  the  titles  of  some  of  Nicholas's 
works,  De  docta  ignararUia,  Idiota,  etc.).  Thus 
philosophy  ends  in  mysticism.  On  the  way  of 
faith  through  knowledge  to  vision  we  beconie 
"  sons  of  God."  What  is  new  in  his  philosophy  is 
mainly  the  mood  in  which  it  is  written,  one  of 
optimism  rejoicing  in  the  world,  thirst  for  and  joy  in 
knowledge,  which  turns  as  much  to  the  works  of  the 
ancients  as  to  nature.  Though  it  is  not  carried  out 
to  its  logical  conclusions,  his  system  contains  rich 
germs  of  future  development.  Giordano  Brur.o 
called  him  "  divino  "  and  appealed  to  him  as  his 
forerunner.  Modem  scholars  have  pointed  out  his 
affinity  with  Leibnitz,  Kant,  Fichte,  and  Hegel,  and 
assigned  a  place  to  him  as  a  leading  representative 
of  Renaissance  philosophy,  at  the  point  where  the 
modem  development  begins.  He  was  also  a  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer  of  some  importance.  At 
Basel  he  proposed  the  correction  of  the  Julian  cal- 
endar. His  conception  of  the  universe  is  not  the 
Ptolemaic:  the  planets,  even  the  earth,  move 
each  in  its  own  sphere  without  a  common  local 
center. 

In  regard  to  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  in 
the  work  dedicated  to  the  Council  of  Basel,  De 
cancardarUia  ccUholica,  he  still  advocates  a  moderate 
conciliarism.  He  made  little  use  of  dangerous 
historical  discoveries,  like  the  spuriousness  of  the 
Donation  of  Constantine;  he  is  far  removed  from 
the  "  destmctive  radicalism  "  of  Marsilius  of  Padua. 
Since  he  regarded  papacy  as  a  necessary  and  divine 
institution,  and  was  an  enthusiastic  believer  in  the 
unity  and  infallibility  of  the  Church,  in  his  stmggle 
against  the  pope  his  hands,  like  those  of  similar 
thinkers  at  the  time,  were  tied.  Thus,  e.g.,  he  says 
that  the  pope  can  neither  dissolve  nor  prorogue  the 
council,  but  that  the  council  must  conduct  itself 
toward  him  "  without  passion,  and  with  the  greatest 
meekness."  The  unity  of  his  character  lies  in  the 
practical  domain.  From  beginning  to  end  he  was  a 
reformer,  as  the  word  was  then  understood.  His 
moral  ideal,  the  imitation  of  Christ, 

Church-    was  the  catchword  of  the  time.   That 

manship.  he  was  nevertheless  a  good  medieval 
Catholic  may  be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  he  could  not  conceive  of  the  reform  of  the 
Church  without  restoring  the  full  power  of  the 
hierarchy.  But  he  tried  also  to  reform  the  papal 
court  by  a  strict  supervision  of  morals.  What  he 
did  in  Germany  toward  awakening  religious  feeling, 
promoting  the  moral  education  of  the  people, 
raising  the  standard  of  leaming  and  fidelity  to  duty 
among  the  clergy,  has  already  been  referred  to. 


Gush 
Guthbert 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


32d 


In  the  reform  of  the  monasteries,  Busch,  Van  Hejlo, 
and  others  were  fellow  workers  of  his.     It  is  chai^ 
actcristic  of  the  time  and  significant  of  the  final  out- 
come of  these  reforming  efforts  that  the  Wilsnack 
pilgrimage   soon   after   obtained   papal   sanction. 
Although  his  real  life-work  had,  therefore,  no  lasting 
success,  and  there  is  no  justification  for  setting  him 
up  as  a  true  Catholic   *'  reformer "  against  the 
"  revolution  "  of  the  next  century,  no  one  will  deny 
to  his  character  the  respect  which  belongs  to  his 
strenuous  and  unflagging  labors  for  what  he  be- 
lieved to  be  the  right.  R.  Schmid. 
Dibliographt:  There   are   two   principal   editiona   of   the 
Opera  of  CusanuB,   one  by  Faber  Stapulensis,  3  vols., 
Paris.  1514.  the  other  by  Petri.  3  vols..  Bawsl.  1566.     On 
his  life  consult:  F.  A.  Scharpff.  Der  Cardinal  .  .  .  Nieo- 
laiu  von  Cum,  vol.  i..  Mains,  1843;  J.  M.  IXix,  Der  deutache 
Cardinal  Nicolatu  von  Cuaa,  2  vols.,  Regensburg,  1847- 
1848.     For  his  philosophy  consult:  F.  A.  Scharpff,  Nieo- 
latiM  von  Cuaa  aU  Reformator  in  Kirche,  Reich  und  PhUoao- 
Tphie,    Tabingen,    1871:  R.   Falckenberg,  OrundgQge    der 
PhUoeophie   dee    Nieolaua    Cueaniu,    Breslau.    1880;  M. 
Qlossner,  Nikolaxia  von  Cttaa  und  M.  Nizoliua  aJU  Vor- 
Idufer  der  neueren  Philoaophie,  MQnster,  1801;  O.  KAstner, 
Der  Begriff  der  Entufickluno  bei  NikolauB  von  Kuee^  Dem, 
1806.     On  other  phases  of  his  activity  consult:  T.  Stumpf, 
Die  poIilUehen  Ideen  dee  Nikolaue  von  Cuee^  Ck>logne, 
1865;  J.  Uebinger,  Die  OotteeUhre  dee  Nikolaua  CusaniM, 
Paderbom,  1888;  Pastor,  Popee,  i.,  passim. 

CUSH,  cush,  CUSHITES:  A  tribal  and  place 
name  appearing  frequently  in  the  Old  Testament, 
in  the  versions  genendly  rendered  "  Ethiopia,"  and 
until  recently  supposed  always  to  refer  to  a  region 
south  of  Egypt.  Since  the  decipherment  of  the 
cimeiform  inscriptions,  and  a  more  thorough  ex- 
amination of  the  historical  inscriptions  of  Assyria, 
Babylonia,  and  Arabia,  it  has  been  discovered  that 
the  form  may  represent  two  other  regions  and  peo- 
ples: (1)  the  inhabitants  of  a  region  east  of  cen- 
tral Babylonia,  who  were  known  as  Kasshites  or 
Kosshites  (Gk.  Kossaioi)  and  ruled  Babylonia  be- 
tween the  seventeenth  and  twelfth  centuries  B.C.  (see 
Babyix)nia,  VI.,  5);  (2)  a  land  and  people  in  north- 
em  Arabia.  The  discovery  of  the  existence  of  the 
land  of  Muzri  in  Arabia  and  the  supplementary 
discovery  that  the  Hebrew  text  confused  the  coun- 
try with  Egjrpt  (Heb.  Misp-aim)  have  cleared  up 
many  difficulties  of  exegesis. 

An  examination  of  the  passages  where  the  words 

Cush,   Cushite,   and  Cushltes   occur   reveals   four 

classes:  (1)  those  which  indicate  a  region  in  Africa; 

(2)  those   best  explained   by   an   Arabian  locus; 

(3)  those  which   point  to  an   East- 

Cush       Elamitic    situation;    and     (4)    those 

in  Africa,  which  are  in  themselves  indecisive  or 
may  be  satisfied  with  either  of  two  in- 
terpretations. In  the  first  class  are  II  Kings  xix. 
9  (cf.  Isa.  xxxvii.  9);  II  Chron.  xii.  3;  Esther  i.  1, 
viii.  9;  Ps.  Ixviii.  32;  Isa.  xviii.  1;  Jer.  xiii.  23,  xlvi. 
9;  Ezek.  xxix.  10,  xxx.  4-5;  Nah.  iii.  9;  Dan. 
xi.  43.  These  are  so  obvious  as  to  require  no  dis- 
cussion. 

In  the  second  group  Num.  xii.  1,  mentioning  the 
Cushite  wife  of  Moses,  is  to  be  compared  with  Ex. 
ii.  16,  21,  where  the  wife  of  Moses  is  called  a  Midi- 
anite,  a  term  frequently  used  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  denote  Arab  nomads.  While  the  presence  of  an 
Ethiopian  woman  in  the  camp  is  not  absolutely 
precluded,  the  probabilities  are  greater  that  by 


"  Cushite  woman  "  a  native  of  Cush  in  Arabia  is 
meant,  since  the  name  is  that  of  a  district  not  far 
from  the  locus  of  the  story.  In  II  Sam.  xviii.  21- 
32  the  R.  V.  diflfers  from  the  A.  V.  for  the  better, 
rendering  Kushi  "the  Cushite"  while  the  latter 
renders  it  as  a  proper  name,  though  it  has  the  gen- 
tilic  ending  and  seven  times  out  of 
Cush  in  eight  has  the  article.  After  David's 
Arabia,  conquest  of  the  nomadic  tribes  of 
the  border  the  historic  probabilities 
greatly  favor  the  presence  in  his  army  of  an  Arab 
rather  than  of  an  Ethiopian.  II  Chron.  xxi.  IG 
is  quite  unambiguous  when  once  the  eyes  are 
opened  to  the  existence  of  the  Arabian  Cush.  The 
phrase  "  the  Arabians  who  are  beside  the  Cushites  " 
(Ethiopians)  is  to  be  construed  rather  of  those  liv- 
ing in  the  same  region  than  of  peoples  separated 
by  the  Red  Sea  and  a  stretch  of  desert,  particu- 
larly since  Ethiopia  must  have  been  beyond  David's 
sphere  of  vision.  II  Chron.  xiv.  9-15  has  until 
recently  been  a  passage  difficult  to  explain.  The 
catalogue  in  verse  15  of  the  spoil  of  the  conquered 
"  Ethiopians  "  ("  tents  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  camels  '•) 
suits  the  situation  of  a  nomadic  people  such  as  the 
Cushites  of  Arabia  were,  but  is  incongruous  in  the 
case  of  a  people  fighting  under  Egyptian  leader- 
ship. Moreover,  no  place  for  Zerah  is  found  among 
the  Pharaohs,  since  neither  Osorkon  I.  nor  II.  fits 
the  case.  A  victory  by  Asa  over  Egypt  is  histor- 
ically improbable,  but  conquest  of  a  nomadic  foe 
is  within  the  bounds  of  probability,  especially  as 
the  beginnings  of  a  new  migration  from  Arabia 
took  place  in  the  period  in  which  Asa  lived.  The 
Cushite  in  this  passage  is  almost  certainly  Arabian. 
Isa.  xliii.  3  must  also  be  taken  as  Cush  in  Arabia. 
The  three  regions  mentioned  are  Mizraim  (read 
Mt?ri),  Kush,  and  Seba  (cf.  xlv.  14,  where  read 
"  the  labor  of  Mizri,  and  merchandise  of  Cush  and 
the  Sabeans").  "  Ebed-melech  the  Ethiopian" 
occurs  in  Jer.  xxxviii.  7-12.  The  name  is  Semitic, 
and  b  intelligible  if  borne  by  an  Arabian  Cushite, 
not  easily  explained  if  borne  by  an  African  Ethio- 
pian. Amos  ix.  7  is  to  be  taken  in  the  same  way. 
The  reference  in  the  passage  is  to  the  control  by 
Yahweh  of  the  migrations  of  the  nations,  and  men- 
tion of  the  Arabian  Cushites  was  particularly  ap- 
propriate in  view  of  the  restlessness  of  the  Arabs 
at  the  time  in  question.  Habakkuk  iii.  7  is  be- 
yond dispute;  "  Cushan  "  is  a  word  formed  from 
Cush  like  Ithran  from  Jether  and  Kenan  from 
Kain,  and  is  in  parallelism  with  Midian,  which  can 
mean  only  Arabian  tribes. 

The  third  class  of  passages  is  more  difficult.  In 
Gen.  ii.  13  the  entire  environment  is  Babylonian, 
and  Cush  is  placed  in  connection  with  Eden  (cf. 
the  Sumerian  name  for  Babylonia,  Edin,  "  the 
plain,"  see  Babylonia,  I.)  and  the  river  Qihon,  now 
generally  identified  with  the  Kerkhah.  This  locates 
the  Cush  of  the  passage  where  the  home  of  the 
Kasshites  was  situated,  relieves  the  passage  of  ex- 
egetical  difficulties  insuperable  under  the  supposi- 
tion that  Ethiopia  in  Africa  is  meant,  and  requires 
no  disturbance  of  the  consonantal  text.  In  Gen. 
X.  6-S  (cf.  I  Chron.  i.  &-10)  Cush  is  brother  of 
Egypt  (Mizraim),  Put  (either  southeast  of  Egypt, 
or,  as  claimed  by  Glaser,  in  Arabia),  and  Canaan, 


839 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ouah 
Outhbert 


And  father  of  Seba  (South  Arabia),  Havilah  (North- 
e&st   Arabia),   Sabta   (as   yet   unlocated,   though 
claimed  for  Arabia  by  Glaser,  Skizze,  ii.  252,  Ber- 
lin, 1890),  Ramah  (Regma  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  cf. 
Ptolemy,  Geographike,  vi.  7,   14;  the 
The  Bast-  Septuagint    reads    Regchma,    Regma, 
Elamitic    and  in  Esek.  xxvii.  22  Rama  or  Rag- 
Cush.       ma)f   Sabteca   (still   unlocated),   and 
Nimrod     (Babylonia    and    Assyria). 
Apart  therefore  from  Egypt  (Mifraim^  which  may 
be  an  error  for  Murt),  the  entire  aspect  of  Cush 
in  the  passage  is  eastward  of  the  Red  Sea,  and 
Ethiopia  in  Africa  is  out  of  the  question.    Conse- 
quently either  the  Arabian  or  the  Elamitic  (}ush 
is  indicated,  while  the  weight  of  authority  is  in- 
clining toward  the  latter.    Zeph.  ii.  12,  iii.  10  re- 
ceive new  light  and  relief  by  seeing  in  Cush  the 
Elamitic  region.    The  passages  deal  with  the  op- 
pressors of  the  Hebrews  during  the  Assyrian  age, 
when  Egypt  had  not  been  active  in  Palestine. 
Moreover,  in  iL  13  Aa^ria  and  Nineveh  are  men- 
tioned as  in  the  north. 

On  the  fourth  class  of  passages  dogmatism  is 
unbecoming.  While  Winckler  sees  the  Arabian 
Cush  in  Ps.  IxxxviL  4  and  Isa.  xx.  2-5,  in  the  latter 
passage  reading  Miapri  {or  Mip-aim,  the  case  is  not 
altogether  clear.  In  Isa.  xi.  11  for  "  Pathros  "  the 
Septuagint  reads  "  Babylonia."  In  that  case  Cush 
stands  altogether  in  an  eastern  environment  be- 
tween Elam  and  Babylonia,  the  location  of  the 
Kasshites.  In  the  Masoretic  text  Cush  is  placed 
between  Pathros  (perhaps  the  region  immediately 
east  of  Egypt)  and  Elam,  which  would  suggest 
the  Arabian  Cush.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  Mizraim 
may  be  an  error  for  M^ri.  The  arrangement  of 
the  names  in  the  passages  is  not  such  as  to  afford 
a  basis  for  conclusive  reasoning,  except  that  Ethi- 
opia in  Africa  can  hardly  be  meant.  On  Ezek. 
xxxviii.  5  no  pronouncement  can  be  delivered,  for 
the  text  is  undoubtedly  corrupt. 

Cush  is  also  the  name  of  an  individual  mentioned 

in  the  superscription  of  Ps.  vii.,  and  Cush  occurs 

as  the  name  of  two  individuals:  an  ancestor  of 

Jehudi,  Jer.  xxxvi.  14,  and  the  father  of  Zephaniah, 

Zeph.  i.  1.  Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibuoobaprt:  E.  Glaaer,  SkiMBe  und  OMchiehU  und  Oeo- 

grapKie  Arabiena,  ii.  326  sqq.;  H.  Winckler,  AUUatameni- 

lidi»  UnUrnuhungtn,  pp.  146  sqq.,  Berlin,  1892;  idem, 

AUorisnialiache  Fcr§ehungtn,  vols,  ii.,  iv.,  vii.,  ib.  1804- 

1808;  A.  H.  Sayce,   "  Hi4fher  Criticitm  "  and  the  Af onu- 

menu,  London,  1894;  Bchrader,  KAT,  pp.  60,  71,  01.  04, 

137.  eoMctally  144-148,  172,  BerUn,  1002. 

OUST,  ROBERT  NEEDHAH:  Church  of  Eng- 
land layman;  b.  at  Cockayne  Hatley  (42  m.  n.  of 
London),  B^ordshire,  England,  Feb.  24,  1821. 
He  studied  at  Eton,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
the  East  India  Company's  College  at  Haileybury, 
and  the  College  of  Fort  William,  Calcutta,  gradu- 
ating from  the  last-named  institution  in  1844.  He 
was  present  at  the  battles  of  Mukdi,  Firuzshah,  and 
Sobraon  in  1845-46,  and  at  the  close  of  the  Sikh 
campaign  was  placed  in  charge  of  a  new  province 
in  the  Punjab.  There  he  filled  in  succession  every 
office  in  the  judicial  and  revenue  departments,  and 
was  rapidly  promoted  until  1867,  when  he  resigned 
and  returned  to  England,  after  having  been  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Viceroy's  Legislative  Council  and  Home 


Secretary  to  the  Gov/emment  of  India  in  1864-65. 
Since  his  resumption  of  residence  in  England  he 
has  devoted  himself  to  scientific  research,  philan- 
thropy, and  magisterial  and  municipal  duties,  de- 
clining reappointments  in  India.  He  is  member 
and  officer  in  many  scientific,  philanthropic,  and 
religious  societies  and  a  prolific  writer;  of  his  many 
books  special  mention  may  be  made  of  the  follow- 
ing :  Drajt  Bill  of  Codes  Regulating  Rights  in  Land  and 
Land-Revenue  Procedure  in  Northern  India  (London, 
1870);  Modem  Languages  of  the  East  Indies  (1878); 
Pictures  of  Indian  Life  (1881);  Modem  Languages 
of  Africa  (2  vols.,  1883);  Poems  of  Many  Years  and 
Many  Places  (2  vols.,  1887-97);  Three  Lists  of  Bible 
Translations  Actually  Accomplished  (1890);  Africa 
Rediviva  (1891);  Essay  on  the  Prevailing  Method 
of  the  Evangelization  of  the  Non-Christian  World 
(1894);  Common  Features  Which  Appear  in  AU 
Forms  of  Religious  Belief  (1895);  The  Gospel- 
Message  (1896);  Memoirs  of  Past  Years  of  a  Sep- 
tuagenarian (Hertford,  1899);  (Ecumenical  List  of 
Translations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  to  1900  (Lon- 
don, 1900);  and  Linguistic  and  Oriental  Essays  (7 
vols.,  1880-1904). 

OUTHBERT,  SAINT:  Bishop  of  lindisfame;  d. 
on  Fame  Island  (2  m.  from  Bamborough,  Northum- 
berland) Mar.  20,  687.  He  was  of  Scotch  origin, 
probably  from  the  neighborhood  of  Dunbar.  While 
still  a  boy,  employed  as  a  shepherd,  he  thought 
that  he  saw  one  night  the  soul  of  Aidan  carried 
to  heaven  by  angels,  and  thereupon  went  to  the 
monastery  of  Old  Melrose  and  became  a  monk 
(651).  His  fame  for  piety,  diligence,  and  obedi- 
ence was  soon  great.  When  Alchfrid,  king  of 
Deira,  founded  a  new  monastery  at  Ripon  C^th- 
bert  became  its  prcepositus  hospitum  or  entertainer 
of  guests.  Alchfrid,  however,  adopted  Roman 
usages,  and  in  661  the  Scottish  monks  returned  to 
Melrose,  where  Cuthbert  was  made  prior.  He 
spent  much  time  among  the  people,  ministering 
to  their  spiritual  needs.  After  the  Synod  of  Whit- 
by (q.v.)  he  seems  to  have  accepted  the  Roman 
customs,  for  his  old  abbot,  Eata,  then  at  Lindi»- 
fame,  called  him  to  introduce  them  there.  It  was 
an  ungracious  task,  but  Cuthbert  disarmed  oppo- 
sition by  his  loving  nature  and  patience.  In  676 
he  adopted  the  solitary  life  and  retired  to  a  cave. 
After  a  time  he  settled  on  one  of  the  Fame  Islands, 
south  of  Lindisfame,  and  gave  himself  more  and 
more  to  austerities.  At  first  he  would  receive 
visitors  and  wash  their  feet,  but  later  he  confined 
himself  to  his  cell  and  opened  the  window  only  to 
give  his  blessing.  After  nine  years  he  was  pre- 
vailed upon  to  return  to  Lindisfame  as  bishop  and 
was  consecrated  at  York  by  Archbishop  Theodore 
and  six  bishops.  Mar.  26,  685,  but  after  Christmas, 
686,  he  returned  to  his  cell.  Cuthbert's  fame  after 
his  death  steadily  grew  and  be  became  the  most 
popular  saint  of  North  England.  Numerous  mir- 
acles were  attributed  to  hkn  and  to  his  remains. 
He  was  buried  at  Lindisfame.  In  875  the  Danes 
took  the  monastery  and  the  monks  fled,  carrying 
with  them  Cuthbert's  body,  in  obedience  to  his 
dying  injunction.  After  seven  years'  wandering  it 
found  a  resting-place  at  Chester-le-Street  until  995, 


Cnyler 
Oyprion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


830 


when  another  Danish  invasion  led  to  its  removal 
to  Ripon.     Then  the  saint  intimated,  as  was  be- 
lieved, that  he  wished  to  remain  in  Durham.     A 
new   stone   church  was  built,   the  predecessor  of 
the  present  grand  cathedral,  and  there  the  body 
has  remained  since  999,  not,  however,  without  being 
several  times  disturbed  in  succeeding  centures. 
BiBuooaAPBT:  The  writingB  which  have  been  attributed  to 
Cuthbert  do  not  now  exist  and  there  ie  little  reason  to 
believe  that  they  ever  did.     Two  Uvea  by  Bede  |aie  in 
MPL,  xdv.  675-696,  729-770,  and  in  Stevenflon'e  Beda 
opera  hutoriea  mifwra,  pp.  1-137,  269-317,  London,  1841. 
Several  lives  and  other  tracts  may  be  found  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Surtees  Society  of  Durham,  i.,  viii.,  li., 
Izxxrii.,  1836-91.     Consult  also  Bede,  HiaL  ecd.,  iv.  2&- 
32.     Consult:  R.  Hegge,  The  Legend  of  St,  CuOtbert,  Lon- 
don, 1663,  reprinted,  Sunderland,  1816,  Durham,  1828; 
J.  Raine,  St  Cuthbert,  with  an  Account  of  the  StaU  in  v>hich 
hie  Remaine  toere  found  upon  (hs  opening  of  hie  tomb  in 
Durham  Cathedral  in  1887,  Durham,  1828;  C.  Eyre,  The 
Uietory  of  St  Cuthbert  London.  1849;  F.  L.  Catoheside, 
Life  of  St  CuOtbert,  London,   1879;  A.  C.  Fryer,  Cuth- 
berht  of  Lindiefame,  Edinburgh,   1880;  E.  Consitt,  Life 
of  St  Cuihbert,  London,  1887;  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Leadere 
of  the  Northern  Church,  London,  1890;  W.  Bright.  Chap- 
tere  of  Early  Englieh  Church  Hietory,  pp.  214-216,  239- 
240.  300-306,  372-388,  Oxford,  1897;    DCS,  i.  724-729; 
DNB,  xu.  369-362. 

CUYLER,  THEODORE  LEDTARD:  Presbyte- 
rian; b.  at  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  10,  1822;  d.  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  26,  1909.  He  studied  at 
Mendham,  N.  J.,  Princeton  College  (B.A.,  1841), 
and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (1846),  and 
was  stated  supply  at  Burlington,  N.  J.  (1846-49), 
pastor  of  the  Third  Presbyterian  Church,  Trenton, 
N.  J.  (1849-53),  Market  Street  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church,  New  York  City  (1853-60),  and  the  Lafay- 
ette Avenue  Presbyterian  Church,  Brooklyn  (1860- 
1890).  In  1890  he  resigned  to  become  a  min- 
ister at  large.  He  was  particularly  active  in 
temperance  and  philanthropic  work.  In  theo- 
logical position  he  was  a  moderate  Calvinist.  He 
niade  a  large  number  of  contributions  to  re- 
ligious periodicals,  many .  of  which  have  been 
gathered  up  into  volumes.  Of  his  separate  pub- 
lications may  be  mentioned  Pointed  Papers  far  the 
Christian  Life  (New  York,  1878);  From  the  Nile 
to  Norway  (1881);  Newly  Enlisted,  or,  Talks  to 
Young  Converts  (1889);  How  to  he  a  Pastor  (1891); 
Recollections  of  a  Long  Life  (1902);  Chir  Christmas- 
Tides  (1904). 


CYWEWULF  (KYNEWULF,  CYNWULF):  Be- 
sides CflBdmon  the  only  Anglo-Saxon  poet  whose 
name  is  known.  He  flourished  in  the  second  half 
of  the  eighth  century  and  was  probably  a  Mercian 
(cf.  Anglia,  xvii.,  pp.  106  sqq.,  Halle,  1894).  His 
knowledge  of  Latin  indicates  that  he  may  have 
studied  in  a  monastery  school,  but  of  his  life  noth- 
ing is  known  except  what  he  tells  himself  in  his 
poem  Elene  (v.  1236  sqq.).  He  long  roamed  about 
as  wandering  minstrel  and  took  part  in  battles 
and  voyages  over  the  sea.  Then,  when  he  was  well 
along  in  years,  something  changed  his  life,  he  re- 
nounced the  world,  and  in  the  quiet  of  a  monastery 
or  hermitage  he  produced  four  poems,  entitled  Fata 
apostolorum,  Crist,  Juliana,  and  Elene,  into  which 
be  interwove  his  name  in  runic  letters,  thus  attest- 
ing his  authorship.  They  are  all  religious  narra- 
tives, based  on  legend  with  the  exception  of  the 


Crist,  which  is  in  three  parts,  treating  of  the  three- 
fold coming  of  Christ  (birth;  resurrection  and 
period  on  earth  to  the  ascension;  the  last  judg- 
ment). Traces  of  the  veneration  of  saints  and  of 
Mary  appear.  C^newulf's  art  is  predominantly 
subjective,  his  poetiy  is  often  lyrical,  sometimes 
dramatic,  but  never  epic.  His  lively  descriptions  of 
battles  and  voyages  remind  of  his  early  life,  and  he 
is  fond  of  alliteration  and  rime.  Many  other  poems 
have  been  attributed  to  Cynewulf ,  of  which  a  Death 
of  GtUhlac  has  the  best  claim  to  genuineness.  A 
collection  of  ninety-six  Riddles  belongs  to  his  time, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  all  or  any  of  them 
are  his.  (R.  WOlker.) 

Bibuoobapht:  The  text  of  CynewulfB  poemB  is  in  C.  W. 
M.  Qrain'e  BibUothek  der  anoeleHeheiechen  Poeeie,  ed.  B. 
walker.  3  vols..  Caaeel  and  Leipaic.  1883-OS.  The  Criet, 
ed.  with  transl.  I.  Gollsnos,  London,  1892;  also  ed.  A.  8. 
Cook,  tranal.  by  C.  H.  Whitman.  Booton.  1000.  The 
Elene,  ed.  G.  W.  Kent  with  notes  and  glossary,  Boston. 
1889;  Eng.  transl.  by  Re  F.  Weymouth.  Boston,  1888. 
J.  M.  Gamett,  Boston.  1889,  Jane  Mensies.  Edinbuzsh, 
1895  (a  metrical  transl.).  and  J.  H.  Holt.  New  York, 
1904.  Yale  Studiee  in  EnsHeh,  no.  zxi.  Consult:  C.  ten 
Brink,  Oeechiehte  der  engliedien  Litteratur,  i.  64r-05,  Bei^ 
lin,  1877,  Eng.  transl.,  pp.  186-189.  New  York,  1883;  IL 
walker,  Qrundriee  sur  OeediidUe  der  ang^Acheiedten  Lit- 
firofur.  pp.  147-217,  Leipsio.  1885;  H.  Morley,  BnoUeh 
Writere,  ii.  192-248.  London,  1888;  G.  Hersfeld.  Die 
Rdteel  dee  Exeterbuehee  und  ihr  Verfaeeer,  Berlin,  1890; 
M.  Trautmann,  Kynewulf,  der  Bieehof  und  DidOer,  Bonn, 
1898. 

CYPRIAN. 

Flees  During  the  Deoian  Persecution  (i  1). 
Controversy  Over  the  Lapsed  (i  2). 
Controversy  Concerning  Heretic  Baptism  (f  3). 
Persecution  Under  Valerian  (f  4). 
Cyprian's  Writings  ({  6). 

Cyprian  (Thascius  Csecilius  Cyprianus),  bishop 
of  Carthage  and  an  important  early  Christian 
writer,  was  bom  probably  at  the  beginning  of 
the  third  century  In  North  Africa,  perhaps  at  Car- 
thage, where  he  was  educated  from  his  early  child- 
hood; d.  a  martyr  at  Carthage  Sept.  14, 258.  His 
original  name  was  Thascius;  he  took  the  name 
CsBcilius  in  addition  in  memory  of  the  presbyter 
of  that  name  to  whom  he  owed  his  conversion. 
He  belonged  to  a  provincial  pagan  family  and  be- 
came a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  He  was  baptized  prob- 
ably in  245  or  246.  He  soon  gave  a  part  of  his 
fortune  to  the  poor,  imposed  upon  himself  austere 
penances,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Bible  and  the  earlier  Christian  writers,  especially 
Tertullian.  In  the  early  days  of  his  conversion  he 
wrote  an  Epistola  ad  Donaium  de  gratia  Dei,  a 
treatise  on  the  vanity  of  idols  (if  this  work  is  gen- 
uine), and  controversial  works  against  the  Jews. 
Not  long  after  his  baptism  he  was  ordained  deacon, 
and  soon  afterward  presbyter;  and  in  248  he  was 
chosen  bishop  of  Carthage. 

After  much  hesitation  he  yielded  to  the  stormy 
demand  of  the  people,  but  a  part  of  the  presbyters 
soon  formed  an  opposition  party,  hampered  him 
in  all  his  efforts,  and  even  spread  evil  reports  about 
him.  At  first  Cyprian  treated  them  with  wise  con- 
sideration, and  asked  their  advice;  but  he  soon 
had  to  use  sharper  measures.  He  was  strict  with 
priests  and  consecrated  virgins  who  had  broken 
the  moral  law.  During  the  Decian  persecution  (Jan., 


831 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cuyler 
Oyprian 


250,  to  Apr.,  251;  see  Dbcian)  he  saved  himself  by 
flight,  though  his  official  income  was  sequestrated. 
His   secret  departure  was  indeed  in- 
I.  Flees      terpreted  by  his  enemies  as  cowardice 
During  the    and  infidelity,  and  they  hastened  to  ac- 
Decian  Per-  cuse  him  at  Rome.    The  Roman  clergy 
ecution.      (the  see  was  vacant   at  that    time) 
wrote  to  Cyprian  in  terms  of  disap- 
proval.   Cyprian  rejoined  that  he  fled  in  accord- 
ance with  visions  and  the  divine  command.   From 
his  place  of  refuge  he  ruled  his  flock  with  earnest- 
ness and  zeal,  using  a  faithful  deacon  as  his  inter- 
mediary. 

The  persecution  was  especially  severe  at  Cai^ 
thage;  many  Christians  fell  away,  but  afterward 
asked  to  be  received  again  into  the  Church.  Their 
request  was  early  granted,  no  regard  being  paid 
to  the  demand  of  Cyprian  and  his 
a.  Contro-  faithful  clergy,  who  insisted  upon 
▼ersy  Over  earnest  repentance;  the  arrogance  of 
the  the  confessors  became  more  and  more 
Lapsed,  unbearable.  Their  intervention  al- 
lowed hundreds  of  the  Lapsed  (q.v.)  to 
return  to  the  Chimsh.  Cyprian  censured  all  laxity 
toward  the  lapsed,  refused  absolution  to  them  ex- 
cept in  case  of  mortal  sickness,  and  desired  to  post- 
pone the  question  of  their  readmission  to  the  Church 
to  more  quiet  times.  A  schism  broke  out  in  Car^ 
thage.  One  Felicissimus,  who  had  been  ordained 
deacon  by  the  presbyter  Novatus  during  the  ab- 
sence of  Cyprian,  opposed  all  steps  taken  by  Cyp- 
rian's representatives.  Cyprian  deposed  and  ex- 
communicated him  and  his  supporter  Augendius. 
Felicissimus  was  upheld  by  Novatus  and  four  other 
presbyters,  and  a  determined  opposition  was  thus 
organized.  When,  after  an  absence  of  fourteen 
months,  Cyprian  returned  to  his  diocese  he  called 
a  council  of  North  African  bishops  at  Carthage,  to 
consider  the  treatment  of  the  lapsed  and  the  schism 
of  Felicissimus  (251).  The  council  in  the  main 
sided  with  Cyprian,  and  condemned  Felicissimus. 
The  libellaticif  i.e.,  Christians  who  had  made  or 
signed  written  statements  that  they  had  obeyed  the 
behest  of  the  emperor,  were  to  be  restored  at  once 
upon  sincere  repentance;  but  such  as  had  taken 
part  in  heathen  sacrifices  could  be  received  back 
into  the  Chiutsh  only  when  on  the  point  of  death. 
Afterward  this  regulation  was  essentially  mitigated, 
and  even  these  were  restored  if  they  repented  im- 
mediately after  a  sudden  fall  and  eagerly  sought 
absolution;  though  clerics  who  had  fallen  were  to 
be  deposed  and  could  not  be  restored  to  their  func- 
tions. The  followers  of  Felicissimus  elected  Foi^ 
tunatus  as  bishop  in  opposition  to  Cyprian;  and  the 
followers  of  the  Roman  presbyter  Novatian,  who 
refused  absolution  to  all  the  lapsed  and  had  elected 
Novatian  as  bishop  of  Rome  in  opposition  to  Cor- 
nelius, secured  the  election  of  a  rival  bishop  of 
their  own  at  Carthage,  Maximus  by  name.  Nova- 
tus now  left  Felicissimus  and  followed  the  Nova- 
tian party.  But  these  extremes  strengthened  the 
influence  of  the  wise,  moderate,  yet  firm  Cyprian, 
and  the  following  of  his  opponents  grew  less  and 
less.  He  rose  still  higher  in  the  favor  of  the  peo- 
ple when  they  witnessed  his  self-denjring  devotion 
during  the  time  of  a  great  plague  and  famine.    He 


comforted  his  brethren  by  writing  his  De  mortali- 
tote,  and  in  his  De  eleemosynis  exhorted  them  to 
active  benevolence,  while  he  gave  the  best  pattern 
in  his  own  life.  He  defended  Christianity  and  the 
Christians  in  the  treatise  Ad  Demetrianwn  against 
the  reproach  of  the  heathens  that  Christians  were 
the  cause  of  the  public  calamities. 

But  Cyprian  had  yet  to  fight  another  battle,  in 
which  his  opponent  was  the  Roman  bishop  Stephen. 
The  matter  in  dispute  was  Heretic  Baptism  (q.v.). 
Stephen  declared  baptism  by  heretics  valid  if  ad- 
ministered according  to  the  institution  either  in 
the  name  of  Christ  or  of  the  holy  Trinity.  Cyp- 
rian, on  the  other  hand,  believing  that  outside  the 
Church  there  was  no  true  baptism,  regarded  that 
of  heretics  as  null  and  void,  and  bap- 

3.  Contro-  tized  as  for  the  first  time  those  who 
versyCon-  joined    the    Church.    When    heretics 

ceming  had  been  baptized  in  the  Church,  but 
Heretic  had  temporarily  fallen  away  and 
Baptism,  wished  to  return  in  penitence,  he  did 
not  rebaptize  them.  Cyprian's  def- 
inition of  the  Church  was  too  narrow;  this  led  him 
to  wrong  inferences  and  made  him  in  this  respect 
the  connecting-link  between  his  teacher,  the  rig^ 
orist  TertuUian,  and  the  Donatists  who  appeared 
later  in  North  Africa.  The  majority  of  the  North 
African  bishops  sided  with  Cyprian;  and  in  the 
East  he  had  a  powerful  ally  in  Firmilian  of  Csesarea. 
But  the  position  of  Stephen  came  to  find  general 
acceptance.  While,  however,  Cyprian  defended 
his  position  with  wisdom  and  dignity,  Stephen 
showed  a  blind,  blunt  zeal;  and  there  appears  in 
his  letters  the  claim  of  superiority  of  the  Roman 
See  over  all  bishoprics  of  the  Church.  To  this  claim 
Cyprian  answered  that  the  authority  of  the  Ro- 
man bishop  was  coordinate  with,  not  superior  to, 
his  own.  Stephen  broke  off  communion  with  Cyp- 
rian and  Carthage,  though  perhaps  without  go- 
ing as  far  as  a  formal  excommunication  of  Cyprian. 
Modem  Roman  Catholic  writers  make  a  special 
effort  to  show  that  the  controversy  concerned  only 
a  question  of  discipline,  not  of  doctrine. 

At  the  end  of  256  a  new  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians under  Valerian  broke  out,  and  both  Stephen 
and  his  successor,  Xystus  (Sixtus)  II.,  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom at  Rome.  In  Africa  Cyprian  courageously 
prepared  his  people  for  the  expected  edict  of  per- 
secution by  his  De  exhortatione  martyrii,  and  him- 
self set  an  example  when  he  was  brought  before 
the  Roman  proconsul  Aspasius  Patemus  (Aug.  30, 
257).  He  refused  to  sacrifice  to  the  pagan  deities 
and  firmly  professed  Christ.  The  consul  banished 
him  to  the  desolate  Curubis,  whence  he  comforted 
to  the  best  of  his  ability  his  flock  and 

4.  Penecu-  his  banished  clergy.    In  a  vision  he 
tion  Under  saw  his  approaching  fate.    When  a 

Valerian,  year  had  passed  he  was  recalled  and 
kept  practically  a  prisoner  on  his  own 
estate,  in  expectation  of  severer  measures  after  a 
new  and  more  stringent  imperial  edict  arrived  which 
demanded  the  execution  of  all  Christian  clerics. 
On  Sept.  13,  258,  he  was  imprisoned  at  the  behest 
of  the  new  proconsul,  Galerius  Maximus.  The  day 
following  he  was  examined  for  the  last  time  and 
sentenc^  to  die  by  the  sword.    His  only  answer 


Cyprlftn 

Cynl  of  Alexandria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


332 


was  "Thanks  be  to  GodT'  The  execution  was 
carried  out  at  once  in  an  open  place  near  the  city. 
A  vast  multitude  followed  Cyprian  on  his  last  jour- 
ney. He  removed  his  garments  without  assist- 
ance, knelt  down,  and  prayed.  Two  of  his  clergy 
blindfolded  him.  He  ordered  twenty-five  gold 
pieces  to  be  given  to  the  executioner,  who  with  a 
trembling  hand  administered  the  death-blow.  The 
body  was  interred  by  Christian  hands  near  the 
place  of  execution,  and  over  it,  as  well  as  on  the 
actual  scene  of  his  death,  churches  were  afterward 
erected,  which,  however,  were  destroyed  by  the 
Vandals.  Charlemagne  is  said  to  have  had  the 
bones  transferred  to  France;  and  Lyons,  Aries, 
Venice,  Compi^gne,  and  Rosnay  in  Flanders  boast 
the  possession  of  the  martyr's  relics. 

Besides  a  number  of  epistles,  which  are  partly 
collected  with  the  answers  of  those  to  whom  they 
were  written,  Cyprian  wrote  a  number  of  treatises, 
some  of  which  have  also  the  character  of  pastoral 
letters.  His  most  important  work  is  his  i)e  uniiate 
eccUHcB,  In  this,  which  makes  the  one  episcopate, 
not  of  Rome,  but  of  the  Church  at  large,  the  f oun- 
dationnstone  of  the  Church,  occur  the  following 
statements:  "  He  can  no  longer  have  God  for  his 
Father  who  has  not  the  Church  for  his  mother; 
.  .  .  he  who  gathereth  elsewhere  than  in  the  Church 
scatters  the  Church  of  Christ  "  (vi);  "  nor  is  there 
any  other  home  to  believers  but  the  one  Church  " 
(ix.).  The  most  famous  saying  of 
5.  Cyprian's  Cyprian,  usually  though  inadequately 

Writings,  traiislated  "  Outside  the  Church  there 
is  no  salvation,"  isfound  inEpist.  Ixxii. 
Ad  Jubajanum  de  hcBreticis  bapHzandis,  **  Quia 
salus  extra  ecclesiam  non  est."  His  work  De  oro' 
iione  dominica  is  an  adaptation  of  Tertullian's  De 
oratione ;  he  also  worked  over  Tertullian's  De  par 
tientia  in  his  work  De  bono  paiierUuB,  The  follow- 
ing works  are  of  doubtful  authenticity:  De  apecta- 
eulie ;  De  bono  pudicUicB ;  De  idolanim  vaniUUe 
(which  may  perhaps  belong  to  Novatian);  De  laude 
marti/rii ;  Advereus  aUatorea  ;  De  montHbui  Sina  et 
Sion.  The  treatise  entitled  De  duplici  martyrio  ad 
Fortunatum  was  not  only  published  for  the  first 
and  only  time  by  Erasmus,  but  was  probably  also 
composed  by  him  and  fathered  upon  Cyprian. 

Posterity  has  had  less  difficulty  in  reaching 
a  universidly  accepted  view  of  Cyprian's  personal- 
ity than  his  contemporaries.  He  combined  lofti- 
ness of  thought  with  an  evei^present  consciousness 
of  the  dignity  of  his  office;  his  earnest  life,  his  self- 
denial  and  fidelity,  moderation  and  greatness  of 
soul  have  been  increasingly  acknowledged  and  ad- 
mired. He  was  the  type  of  a  prince  of  the  Church. 
The  glory  of  his  courageous  and  edifying  martyr^ 
dom  can  not  be  extinguished  by  the  earlier  charges 
of  cowardice.  As  a  writer,  however,  he  was  in  gen- 
eral by  no  means  original  or  especially  deep. 

K  LsiMBACHt. 

BnuooBAPHT:  The  Opera  of  Cyprian  have  been  frequently 
published.  Early  editions  are.  e.g..  by  Andreas,  Rome. 
1471;  by  Erasmus,  Basel.  1520;  by  Fell.  Oxford.  1682; 
MPL,  vol.  iv.  The  best  ed.  is  by  W.  Hartel.  in  CSEL, 
8  vols.  They  have  been  translated  into  Eng.  by  W. 
Marshall.  London,  1717.  and  a  transl.  of  the  genuine  and 
disputed  works  is  in  ANP,  v.  264-676.  A  bibliography 
is  in  ANF,  Index  vol.  pp.  00-63. 


The  basiB  for  a  life  is  in  the  Vila  CaeiUi  Cypriam,  at- 
tributed  to  the  deacon  Pontius,  printed  in  ASB,  Sept..  iv. 
326-332,  in  MPL,  iiL.  and  in  Hertel's  ed.  of  the  Opera. 
ut  sup.,  iii..  xc.  sqq.  Auxiliary  sources  are  the  lotters  of 
Cyprian.  For  m<Mne  modem  treatment  consult:  F.  W. 
Rettberg,  Thatciu*  CacUiru  CyprianuM,  Gdttingen.  1831; 
C.  E.  Frappel.  S.  Cyprian  «t  Vigliae  d'Afrigue,  Paris,  1873 
(Roman  Catholic,  ultramontanistic);  B.  Feohtrup,  Drr 
hnlige  Cyprian,  MQnster.  1878;  O.  Ritaohl,  Cyprian  von 
Kariiago,  Gdttingen,  1886;  E.  W.  Benson.  Cyprian,  his 
Life,  Timee,  Work,  London.  1897  (the  work  of  a  lifetime): 
Q.  A.  Poole,  Ufe  and  Timee  of  Cyprian,  latest  ed..  1888; 
J.  A.  Faulkner,  Cyprien  Ihe  Chvrdtman,  Cincinnati.  1906; 
Neander,  Chrietian  Church,  vols.  i.-ii..  paasim;  BtheJi, 
ChrieHan  Chweh,  iL  842-849;  KrOger.  Hietory,  pp.  280- 
304;  Hamack.  LiUeraiur,  i.  688-723.  IL  i..  paanm;  DCB, 
i.  739-766. 

On  literary  and  philosophical  questions  connected  with 
Cyprian's  works  consult:  J.  Pearson.  Annaiee  Cypriani, 
Oxford.  1682.  reprinted  in  Fell's  ed.  of  the  Opera  Cypriani, 
ut  sup.  (a  work  of  great  merit  and  permanent  worth); 
T.  Zahn,  Cyprian  .  .  .  und  die  deuiedie  Faueteaae,  £r- 
langen,  1882;  Le  Provoet,  £tude  philoeophique  et  UtUraire 
ewr  3.  Cyprien,  Paris.  1888;  K.  Goeta.  OeeehichU  dtr 
typrioiwMyen  lAUeratur,  Basel,  1891  (valuable);  idem. 
Die  Bueeldite  Cypriane,  Kdnigsbeig.  1896;  W.  Sanday 
and  C.  H.  Turner,  in  Siudia  irihlica  et  ecdeeiaetiea,  iii.  217- 
326,  Oxford.  1891;  A.  Hamack  treato  of  the  Letters  in 
Theolooieehe  AbhandJunoen  Carl  von  WeiMedcker  oevid- 
met,  pp.  1-36,  Freiburg,  1892;  H.  Ton  Soden.  Die  Cypri- 
aniedte  Briefeamndung,  in  TU,  xxv.  3  (1903). 

CTPRIAN,  ERNST  SALOMON:    One  of  the  few 

learned  defenders  of  orthodox  Lutheraniam  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  oentuiy;  b.  at  Ostheim 
(5  m.  8.W.  of  ABchaifenburg),  Franconia,  Sept.  22, 
1673;  d.  in  Gotha  1746.  He  studied  at  Leipdc 
and  at  Jena;  in  1698  followed  his  friend  Andreas 
Schmidt  to  Helmstedt;  became  professor  extraor- 
dinary of  philosophy  1699;  in  17(X)  went  as  di- 
rector to  the  Gymruuium  academicum  at  Coburg; 
Frederick  II.  of  Gotha  called  him  in  1713  into  tbs 
upper  conaiBtory,  and  Frederick  III.  appointed  him 
its  vice-president  in  1735.  While  at  Helmstedt 
he  wrote  against  Arnold's  Kircken-  und  Ketzer- 
histarie,  and  in  1719  against  Romanists  who  be- 
gan encroachments  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick  and 
Rastatt.  But  his  chief  exertion  was  in  opposition 
to  the  movement  toward  union  between  Reformed 
and  Lutherans  by  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia. 
He  wrote  three  pamphlets,  Abgedrunffener  Unter-^ 
richt,  etc.  (1722),  AtUhenlieche  RechlferHgung,  etc 
(1722),  and  Das  Urtheil  engliecher  Theologen  von  der 
Synode  tu  Dortrecht  und  ikrer  Lekre  (1723),  which 
by  their  rich  historical  illustrations  give  considei^ 
able  information  about  the  whole  question. 

(Georo  MCller.) 
Bibuoorapht:  J.    M.    8chr5ckh.    La»enebeedure%bunoen  he- 

mhnUer  Oeiehrten,  II.  iii.   377.  Leipsic.  1767;  G.  Frmnk. 

Oeethiehte  der  proieetanOeehen  TUt^ogie,  u.  287,  ib.  1865: 

ADB,  iv.  667-669. 

CYPRUS.    See  Asia  Minor,  X 

CYRAN,  SAINT.  See  Du  Veroixr  to:  Hauranns, 
Jean. 

CYRENIUS.    See  Quirinius. 

CYRIACUS,  sir-ai'a-cus  ( »  Lat.  Daminieue,  "  be- 
longing to  the  Lord  **):  The  name  of  several 
saints,  a  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  a  num- 
ber of  bishops. 

1.  Saints:  No  less  than  eleven  saints  of  the 
name  are  mentioned  in  the  Acta  eanctorum.  They 
include  (1)  a  deacon  of  Rome,  who  is  said  to  have 


838 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oyprion 

Oyril  of  Al0zaadrl» 


been  condemned  to  the  galleys  under  Diocletian, 
to  have  escaped  to  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  and  to 
have  been  bdieaded  under  MaxiTnian.  His  day  is 
Aug.  8.  (2)  An  alleged  pope,  who  is  said  in  the 
Ursula  legend  (twelfth  oentuiy)  to  have  resigned 
the  papal  chair  to  follow  that  saint  and  her  com- 
pany of  virgins  (see  Ursula.,  Saint),  and  suffered 
martyrdom  with  her  at  Cologne.  A  pope  of  the 
name  is  otherwise  unknown,  and  the  stoiy  is  very 
possibly  a  development  of  that  of  the  Roman  dea- 
con just  mentioned. 

2.  Cyriacus:  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  59&- 
606,  succeeded  John  IV.  and,  like  him,  assumed  the 
title  of  "  Ecumenical  Patriarch  ";  a  synod  at  Con- 
stantinople confirmed  the  title.  But  it  was  highly 
displeasing  to  Gregoiy  I.  of  Rome,  and  he  pro- 
tested violently,  writing  letters  to  Cyriacus,  to  the 
other  patriarchs  of  the  East,  and  to  the  emperor 
Maurice,  and  denouncing  the  title  as  scandalous, 
criminal,  perverse,  worthless,  even  anti-Christian 
and  diabolic  (Jafif^,  Regeata,  1470,  1474,  1476, 
1477,  1683,  1906  [vol.  i.,  Leipsic,  1885,  pp.  176 
sqq.]).  When  Phocas,  a  rude  and  coarse  soldier, 
dethroned  Maurice  in  602,  Cyriacus  crowned  him; 
but  a  disagreement  soon  arose  and  Gregory  did 
his  best  to  enlist  Phocas  on  his  side.  Whether 
Phocas  really  issued  an  edict  declaring  Rome  caput 
omnium  eccUsiarum,  as  is  asserted,  is  uncertain. 
At  any  rate,  Cyriacus  died  (Oct.  7,  606)  before  it 
was  issued. 

8.  Cyriacus:  Metropolitan  of  Carthage,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century  and  was 
one  of  the  last  Christian  bishops  of  northern  Africa. 
He  refxised  to  perform  uncanonical  consecration, 
and  for  this  reason  some  of  his  flock  accused  him 
before  the  Saracenic  emir,  who  tortured  him  in 
a  cruel  manner.  He  addressed  himself'  to  Gregoiy 
VII.  and  received  letters  of  consolation  and  ex- 
hortation from  the  pope.  Later,  in  1076,  Gregory 
commended  him  to  Servandus,  a  newly  consecrated 
bishop  of  Hippo  Regius.  (O.  ZocKLERf.) 

Bxblioorapbt:  1.  (1)  A8B,  Aug.,  ii.  327-340;  Anaketa 
BoOandiana,  ii.  247-258.  (2)  A3B,  Oet.,  ix.  101  aqq.; 
F.  W.  Rettbers.  KD,  i.  112  sqq..  638;  J.  J.  I.  von  Ddllin- 
gar,  Die  PapUfabeln  dea  MiUelaU«n,  pp.  46  sqq.,  Munioh, 
1863;  DCB,  i.  75&-768. 

2.  ASB,  Oct..  xiL  344-351;  Nioephoras  GaUistus.  HitL 
•ecL,  xviii.  40-42;  Theophanes,  Chronoffnvhia,  i.  446 
sqq.,  in  C3HB,  xxvi.,  Bonn,  1839;  letters  of  Gregory  the 
Great,  bk.  vii.  4-7.  31.  ix.  68.  xiii.  40;  Baronius,  AnnaUt, 
ad  an.  506  sqq.;  M.  le  Quien.  Orten»  ChruHanuB,  i.  67, 
Paris.  1740;  R.  Baxmann.  Die  Politik  der  Pitpeie,  i.  129 
sqq.,  Elberfeld.  1868. 

3.  Gregory  VII..  Reoietrum,  I  22-28.  iu.  19;  P.  Jaff<, 
Regeela,  ad  an.  1073,  Sept.  15  (noi.  4793-94);  and  1076, 
June  (no.  4994). 

CYRIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA :  Archbishop  of  Alexan- 
dria; d.  there  June  27,  444.    His  early  life  is  known 
only  from  notices  in  Socrates  and  a  few  elsewhere. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  the  archbishop  Theophilus, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  403  to  Constantinople  to 
attend  the  synod  Ad  Quercum  (seeCHBTsosTOM,  §  4). 
When   the  uncle  died,  Oct.   15,  412, 
Life  and    Cyril  succeeded  him  in  his  see.    The 
Character,  government  was  not  pleased  with  this 
choice.     It  feared,  not  without  reason, 
that  the  new  bishop  would  show  too  much  inde- 
pendence;  and,   indeed,   on  every   occasion  Cyril 


proved  that  he  was  master  in  Alexandria.  He 
closed  the  churches  of  the  Novatians,  expelled 
the  Jews  from  the  city  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  prefect  Orestes,  and  when  soon  afterward 
Nitrian  monks  insulted  the  prefect  in  the  open 
street,  he  praised  their  leader  as  a  martyr.  He 
did  not  order  the  murder  of  Hypatia  (q.v.),  but 
his  lector  and  the  parabolani,  who  were  guilty  of 
it,  were  well  aware  that  the  female  philosopher  was 
an  eyesore  to  the  archbishop.  His  restless,  vio- 
lent conduct,  which  excited  the  masses,  seems  to 
have  hurt  him  at  the  court.  Theodosius  II.  as  well 
as  Pulcheria  listened  to  him  rather  than  to  the  pre- 
fect. For  the  rest  of  the  archbishop's  life,  which  is 
closely  connected  with  the  dogmatic  controversies 
of  the  times,  see  Nestorius.  From  the  veiy  be- 
ginning Cyril  opposed  Nestorius.  It  was  the  cli- 
max in  his  life  when  the  emperor  confirmed  the 
deposition  of  his  opponent  which  he  had  decreed 
at  the  Synod  in  Ephesus  in  431,  whereas  he  re- 
tained his  office,  though  the  Syrian  bishops  had 
declared  him  also  deposed.  His  administration 
shows  the  Alexandrian  bishops  at  the  height  of 
their  power  and  influence,  from  which  they  were 
thrown  by  the  pretentious  but  short-sighted  and 
incapable  Dioscurus  (see  Euttchianism;  Monopht- 
srrEs).  Among  the  Greeks  Cyril  is  commemorated 
on  June  9,  among  the  Latins  on  Jan.  28.  Leo  XIII. 
promoted  him  in  1883  to  the  rank  of  doctor  ecclesia. 

In  general  Cyril's  literary  activity  was  in  the 
dogmatic  and  exegetical  field.  In  his  homilies  and 
epistles  dogmatic  subjects  are  often  touched  upon. 
As  an  apologist  Cyril  became  famous  by  his  refu- 
tation of  the  attack  of  the  emperor  Julian  upon 
Christianity,  in  thirty  books,  of  which  only  the 
first  ten  are  extant  entire,  eleven  to  twenty  in 
fragments.  The  dogmatico-polemical  literaiy  ac- 
tivity of  the  archbishop  was  veiy  comprehensive. 
At  the  head  stand  the  writings  on  the 

Literary     doctrine  of  the  Trinity  composed  be- 

Activities.  fore  the  Christological  controversy. 
The  controversy  itself  caused  a  large 
number  of  treatises  against  Nestorianism.  The 
results  of  the  exegetical  labor  of  the  patriarch  are 
contained  in  the  seventeen  books  ''  On  Worship  in 
Spirit  and  in  Truth,"  in  the  thirteen  books  of  "  Ele- 
gant Expositions  "  on  the  Pentateuch,  as  well  as 
in  numerous  commentaries  on  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  The  typico-allegorical  interpretation, 
characteristic  of  the  Alexandrian  school  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Antiochian  school,  is  veiy  prominent  in 
Cyril's  exegesis.  The  most  important  work  in  that 
direction  is  the  comprehensive  commentary  on  the 
Gospel  of  John. 

Aa  regards  his  teaching,  Cyril  not  unjustly  bears 
the  title  of  "  Seal  of  the  Fathers,"  as  the  one  who 
finally  fixed  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Great 
as  is  his  glory  in  that  direction,  the  question  has 
'  often  been  raised  whether  his  Christology  does  not 
contain  traces  of  a  relationship  with  Apollinarian- 
ism,  which  he  himself  opposed  from  conviction  (see 
Apollinarib  of  Laodicea).  At  any  rate,  his  Chris- 
tology approaches  very  near  the  limit  which  separates 
orthodoxy  from  Monophysitism.  It  rests  on  the 
suppositions  of  the  older  Alexandrians  (Athana- 
sius)  and  the  Cappadocians  by  which  they  knew 


Oyril  of  ▲lezandrla 
Oyril  Ijuoar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


384 


themselves  in  agreement  with  Apollinaris  against 
every  theoiy  that  denied  the  substantial  unity  of 

the  incarnate  Redeemer  with  the  sec- 
Significance  ond  person  of  the  Trinity.  Looking 
for  at  the  personality  of  the  Redeemer, 
Doctrine,    the  energetic  assertion  of  the    imity 

of  the  person  resulted  from  it  in- 
deed, but  also  a  reckless  neglect  of  the  individual 
man  in  him.  The  God-Logos  remained,  with  the 
hiunan  nature  which  he  has  assumed,  the  same 
one  inseparable  subject  which  he  was  before.  The 
"  physical  union  "  is  "  not  confounded,"  though 
both  natures  are  to  be  distinguished  "  in  theory 
alone."  The  attacks  to  which  this  view  was  ex- 
posed on  both  sides  Cyril  could  only  meet  by  giv- 
ing to  the  idea  of  ''  nature  "  a  meaning  which  dis- 
regards everything  individual.  In  this  way  alone 
does  the  assertion  become  explicable  that  before 
the  incarnation  two  natures  existed,  the  divine  and 
the  human,  but  after  the  incarnation  only  one,  the 
definite  divine-human  nature,  or,  as  Cyril  ex- 
pressed it  in  the  words  of  the  creed  regarded  by 
him  as  Athanasian,  but  in  reality  composed  by  the 
hated  Apollinaris,  "  one  nature  of  God  the  Logos 
made  flesh."  The  nature  is  here  only  thought  of 
as  ''  conunon."  Christ  is  no  man  like  Paul  and 
Peter;  he  is  the  author  of  a  new  humanity.  Never^ 
theless,  Cyril  makes  all  dependent  on  the  Redeemer's 
assuming  the  perfect  human  nature.  But  Cyril's 
assertions  do  not  help  ^ver  the  contradiction  that 
this  Redeemer  in  spite  of  his  "rational  soul"  had 
no  free  will,  but  was  "  inflexible  in  mind."  They 
are,  indeed,  not  intended  for  that,  because  by  his  use 
of  the  idea  of  nature  Cyril  did  not  need  to  take 
exception  to  the  "perfect  man,"  like  Apollinaris. 
He  could  speak  the  easier  in  favor  of  a  mutual  com- 
munication of  the  properties  of  the  divine  and  hu- 
man nature  in  the  Redeemer  (communicoHo  idio- 
mo/um),  and  thus  avoid  the  danger  of  a  fusion  at 
least  for  his  belief.  The  "  in  two  natures  "  of  the 
Chalcedonian  formula  of  451  found  no  support  in 
Cyril's  Christology.  But  his  Christology  overcame 
that  formula,  for  the  Byzantine  theologians  who 
had  to  interpret  it  did  so  by  explaining  the  doc- 
trine of  the  two  natures  according  to  Cyril's  teach- 
ing of  one  nature  (see  Leontiub  of  Bys^antium; 

MONOPHTSITES).  G.  KRt^OER. 

BiBUooaAPBT:  The  Opera  of  Cyril,  ed.  J.  Aubert,  appeared 
in  7  vob.,  Paris,  1638.  new  ed.,  1737,  reproduced  in  MPO, 
IxviiL-lzxviL  An  edition  of  the  fragments  of  the  com- 
mentary  on  Luke  from  the  Syriao  by  R.  P.  Smith  was 
iomied  Oxford,  1859.  Eng.  transl.,  2  vols.,  1850,  and  of  the 
same  from  another  MS.,  by  W.  Wright,  London,  1874; 
P.  E.  Pusey  edited  the  commentary  on  the  twelve  minor 
prophets,  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1868,  a  selection  of  the  theo- 
logical works,  2  vols.,  ib.  1875-77,  transl.  of  the  com- 
mentary on  St.  John,  ib.  1838,  and  a  text  and  transl.  of 
the  Thne  EpiMtlea,  ib.  1872.  The  commentary  on  John 
in  Eng.  transl.  was  published  anonymously,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1874-85.  On  the  life  of  Cyril  consult:  ASB,  Jan., 
ii.  843-854;  Abb«  Rambouillet,  Le  Pape  Pilage  /.,  S. 
CyrilU  .  .  .  e<  IHnfaUibUiU,  Paris,  1870;  A.  Largent,  in 
Aevuc  de9  queetionM  hiaioriquea^  xii  (1872).  5-70;  J.  Ko- 
pallik,  Cyriilua  von  Alexandrien,  Mains,  1881;  A.  Rohr- 
mann.  Die  Chrieiologie  dee  heiliaen  CyriU  von  Alexandrien, 
Heidelberg.  1902;  E.  Weigl.  Die  HeiUUhre  dea  heiligen  Cyrill 
von  Aleioandrien,  Mains.  1905;  Schaff,  Chrietian  Churdi,  iii. 
942-949.  Bibliographies  are  found  in  8.  F.  W.  Hoffmann, 
BUiUooraphieAee  Lexikon,  i.  484-494,  Leipsie,  1838;  U. 
Cheraiier,  Repertoire  dee  eourcee  fcutort^uct,  pp.  533-534, 
2688,  Pauis,  1877-«8. 


CYRIL  OF  JERUSALEM :  A  distinguished  theo- 
logian of  the  early  Church;  d.  386.  Little  is  known 
of  his  life  before  he  became  bishop;  the  assignment 
of  the  year  315  for  his  birth  rests  on  mere  conjec- 
ture. He  seems  to  have  been  ordained  deacon  by 
Bishop  Macarius  of  Jerusalem  about  335,  and  priest 
some  ten  years  later  by  Maximus.  Naturally  in- 
clined to  peace  and  conciliation,   he 

Life  and    took  at  first  a  rather  moderate  posi- 

Character,  tion,  distinctly  averse  from  Arianism, 
but  (like  not  a  few  of  his  undoubted- 
ly orthodox  contemporaries)  by  no  means  eager 
to  accept  the  uncompromising  term  homoousios. 
Separating  from  his  metropolitan,  Acacius  of 
Csesarea  (q.v.),  a  partisan  of  Arius,  Cyril  took  the 
side  of  the  Eusebians,  the  "  right  wing "  of  the 
post-Nicene  conciliation  party,  and  thus  got  into 
difficulties  with  his  superior,  which  were  increased 
by  Acacius's  jealousy  of  the  importance  assigned 
to  Cyril's  see  by  the  Coimcil  of  Nicsa.  A  council 
held  under  Acacius's  influence  in  358  deposed  C3rnl 
and  forced  him  to  retire  to  Tarsus.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  conciliatory  Council  of  Seleucia  in  the 
following  year,  at  which  Cyril  was  present,  deposed 
Acacius.  In  360  the  process  was  reversed  through 
the  metropolitan's  court  influence,  and  Cyril  suf- 
fered another  year's  exile  from  Jerusalem,  until 
Julian's  accession  allowed  him  to  return.  The 
Anan  emperor  Valens  banished  him  once  more  in 
367,  after  which  he  remained  undisturbed  until  his 
death,  his  jurisdiction  being  expressly  confirmed 
by  the  Second  Council  of  Nicsea  (381),  at  which  he 
was  present. 

Though  his  theology  was  at  first  somewhat  in- 
definite in  phraseology,  he  undoubtedly  gave  a 
thorough  adhesion  to  the  Nicene  orthodoxy.  Even 
if  he  does*  avoid  the  debatable  term  homoousios, 
he  expresses  its  sense  in  many  passages,  which  ex- 
clude equally  Patripassianism,  Sabellianism,  and 
the  Arian  formula  "  There  was  a  time  when  the  Son 
was  not."  In  other  points  he  takes  the  ordinary 
ground  of  the  Eastern  Fathers,  as  in  the  emphasis 
he  lays  on  the  freedom  of  the  will,  the  atUexousion, 
and  his  imperfect  realization  of  the 
Theological  factor  so  much  more  strongly  brought 

Position,  out  in  the  West — sin.  To  him  sin  is 
the  consequence  of  freedom,  not  a 
natural  condition.  The  body  is  not  the  cause,  but 
the  instrument  of  sin.  The  remedy  for  it  is  repent- 
ance, on  which  he  insists.  Like  many  of  the 
Eastern  Fathers,  he  has  an  essentially  moralistic 
conception  of  Christianity.  His  doctrine  of  the  Res- 
urrection is  not  quite  so  realistic  as  that  of  other 
Fathers;  but  his  conception  of  the  Church  is  de- 
cidedly empirical — ^the  existing  catholic  Church 
form  is  the  true  one,  intended  by  Christ,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Church  of  the  Old  Testament.  His 
doctrine  on  the  Eucharist  is  noteworthy.  If  he 
sometimes  seems  to  approach  the  symbolical  view, 
at  other  times  he  comes  very  close  to  a  strong 
realistic  doctrine.  The  bread  and  wine  are  not 
mere  elements,  but  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 

His  famous  twenty-three  catechetical  lectures 
(Gk.  Katech^eis),  which  he  delivered  while  still  a 
presbyter  in  347  or  348,  contain  instructions  on 
the  principal  topics  of  Christian  faith  and  practise, 


336 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oyril  of  Alexandria 
Oyril  Luoar 


in  rather  a  popular  than  a  scientific  manner,  full 
of  a  warm  pastoral  love  and  care  for  the  catechu- 
mens to  whom  they  were  delivered.  Each  lecture 
is  based  upon  a  text  of  Scripture,  and  there  is  an 
abundance    of    Scriptural   quotation    throughout. 

After  a  general  introduction,  eighteen 

Catechet-   lectures  follow  for  the  campeterUes,  and 

ical  Lee-    the  remaining  five  are  addressed  to 

tares.       the    newly  baptized,   in  preparation 

for  the  reception  of  the  conmiunion. 
Parallel  with  the  exposition  of  the  creed  as  it  was 
then  received  in  the  church  of  Jerusalem  are  vigor- 
ous polemics  against  pagan,  Jewish,  and  heretical 
errors.  They  are  of  great  importance  for  the  light 
which  they  throw  on  the  method  of  instruction 
usual  in  that  age,  as  well  as  upon  the  liturgical 
practises  of  the  period,  of  which  they  give  the  full- 
est account  extant.  (T.  FORSTERf-) 

Bxblxoobafht:  The  Opera  of  Cyril  were  edited  by  A.  A. 
Toutt^,  Paris.  1720.  in  MPO,  xxxiii..  and  by  G.  C. 
Reiflchl  and  J.  Rupp.  2  vols..  Munich.  1848-60.  A  tran»- 
lation  of  selected  works  is  in  NPNF,  2d  series,  vii.  1- 
183,  with  valuable  introduction.  The  "  Catechetical  Lec- 
tures "  were  translated  for  the  Library  of  the  Fathers,  Ox- 
ford, 1838.  Five  Ledtwrea  on  the  Myateriea,  in  Greek  and 
Eng.  and  Lat.  and  Eng.,  ed.  H.  de  Romestin.  appeared, 
Oxford,  1887.  Sources  for  a  life  are  in  Socrates,  Hiet. 
ecd..  ii.  28,  40;  Sozomen.  H%$L  eeel.,  iv.  25  (both  in  NPNF, 
2d  series,  vol.  ii.).  Consult:  ASB,  March,  ii.  625-633; 
G.  Delacroix,  8.  CjfriUe  de  J&ruaalem,  «a  rie  el  set  auvrea^ 
Paris,  1865;  J.  Mader,  Der  heilige  CyriUue  ,  .  .  in  eeinem 
Leben  und  eeinen  Sdvriftent  Einsiedeln,  1891;  Sohaff, 
Chruiian  Church,  ill.  923-1)25. 

CTRIL  LXJCAR. 

Early  Life  (i  1). 

Patriarch  of  Alexandria  and  Constantinople  (i  2). 

Efforts  for  Protestantism  ({  3). 

Cyril  Lucar  (Gk.  KyrUloa  Loukaria),  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  1620-38,  was  bom  at  Candia,  Crete, 
Nov.  13,  1572;  d.  at  Constantmople  June  26,  1638. 
After  studying  in  his  native  island,  he  went  to 
Venice  and  Padua,  where  he  doubtless  heard  Cre- 
monini  and  Piccolomini,  and  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Maximos  Margunios,  whom  he  had  met 
while  living  in  Crete  as  a  monk,  and  who  was  an 
enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  union  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches.  Through  Margunios,  Cyril 
became  acquainted  with  such  Western  scholars  as 
David  HOschel  and  Friedrich  Sylburg,  yet  he  never 
came  wholly  under  the  sway  of  Occi- 

I.  Early  dental  views.  His  training  was  phil- 
Life.  osophical  and  logical,  rather  than  theo- 
logical. He  completed  his  studies  in 
1594,  and  in  May,  1595,  was  syncellus  at  the  court 
of  Meletios  Pegas,  patriarch  of  Alexandria.  From 
1595  to  1602  he  resided  abroad,  and  in  1596  was 
rector  of  the  Russian  academy  at  Vilna.  During 
this  period  he  took  part  in  the  numerous  confer- 
ences for  union  in  Poland  and  Lithuania  as  the 
representative  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  but 
the  statement  that  he  visited  Geneva  and  Witten- 
berg, and  for  a  sum  of  money  embraced  Protes- 
tantism, is  apocryphal,  as  is  his  alleged  accept- 
ance of  Roman  Catholicism. 

Meletios  Pegas  died  at  latest  a  few  months  be- 
fore May,  1602,  and  with  Cyril's  appointment  as 
his  successor  the  first  period  of  the  latter's  life 
closes.    As  yet  there  was  no  trace  of  Protestant 


influence.  The  second  part  of  Cyril's  career  is 
marked  by  a  gradual  break  with  Roman  Catholi- 
cism and  an  approximation  to  Prot- 
2,  Patri-  estantism,  together  with  an  ever-in- 
arch  of  creasing  desire  to  reform  his  own 
Alexandria  Church.  He  was  energetic  in  his  ad- 
and  Con-  ministration  and  did  not  shrink  from 
stantinople.  a  conflict  with  the  ecumenical  patri- 
archs. During  his  frequent  tours  he 
preached  many  sermons,  but  unfortimately  few  of 
them  are  accessible,  although  a  large  number  are 
extant  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  library  of  the 
priory  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  at  Constantinople. 
According  to  hb  own  statement,  he  became  a  con- 
vert to  Protestant  doctrines  after  three  years  of 
study,  but  the  exact  date  is  uncertain.  In  1611  he 
was  characterized  by  an  English  traveler  as ''  a  friend 
of  the  Reformed  Church,"  and  two  years  later, 
shortly  after  declining  the  ecumenical  patriarchate 
because  he  was  unwilling  to  pay  the  price  demand- 
ed for  it,  he  was  obliged  publicly  to  defend  himself 
against  the  charge  of  Lutheranism  (June  4,  1613). 
It  is  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  this  was  the 
period  of  his  conversion,  especially  as  he  was  then 
receiving  Protestant  books,  and  made  special  men- 
tion of  one  by  Arminius,  with  whose  teachings  he 
expressed  much  sympathy,  especially  with  regard 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  baptism,  and 
the  Eucharist;  he  avoided  the  tenets  on  free  will, 
justification  by  faith,  and  predestination.  On  the 
other  hand,  his  correspondence  with  the  Dutch 
statesman  David  Le  Leu  de  Wilhem  shows  his  lack 
of  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  Reformation, 
an  ignorance  doubtless  due  in  great  measure  to 
the  fact  that  hitherto  he  had  been  practically  re- 
stricted to  the  writings  of  the  Arminians.  Hb 
hopes  of  reform  within  the  Greek  Church  had  now 
been  abandoned.  To  thb  same  period  belong  sev- 
eral brief  polemics  against  the  Roman  Catholics, 
one  of  which  b  interesting  as  showing  that  Cyril 
sought  to  appeal  solely  to  the  Bible  in  defense  of 
hb  position.  As  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  more- 
over, he  publbhed  a  "  Pragmatic  Compend  against 
the  Jews "  (Constantinople,  1627).  On  Nov.  4, 
1620,  he  became  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
in  this  position  was  still  more  courted  by  the  Prot- 
estant powers,  especially  the  Dutch,  while  Jesuit 
dblike  of  him  increased.  In  1623  he  was  banbhed 
for  the  first  time,  though  not  until  after  hb  oflScial 
status  had  obliged  him  to  canonize  Gerasius  the 
Younger  in  1622.  It  should  abo  be  noted  that  he 
set  up  in  Constantinople  the  press  imported  from 
England  by  Nikodemos  Metaxas  about  1527,  but 
it  was  destroyed  by  the  Turks. 

The  third  period  of  Cyril's  life  began  with  the 
arrival  of  the  Calvinbtic  Antoine  Leger  of  Pied- 
mont, who  was  sent  by  the  clergy  of  Geneva  in 
1628.     At  that  time  the  patriarch  seems  to  have 
felt  the  need  of  strengthening  hb  po- 
3.  ££fort8  sition  with  the  Protestante.    As  early 
for  Protes-  as   1616  he  had  entered  into    corre- 
tantism.    spondence  with  George  Abbot,  arch- 
bbhop  of  Canterbury,  and  later  sent 
him  the  famous  Codex  AUxandrinus,  possibly  as  a 
means  of  gaining   Englbh  sympathy.     Instead  of 
contenting  himself  with  giving  instruction  to  Cyril 


Oyxll  I<uoar 

Oyril  and  Hethodius 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


836 


and  hifl  clergy  and  waiting  for  the  Reformed  tenets  to 
be  intzodueed  among  the  people  by  their  own  priests, 
Leger  undertook  an  immediate  Calvinistic  propa- 
ganda. Within  a  year  after  his  arrival  he  urged 
that  the  Bible  be  translated  into  the  vemaculari 
and  it  accordingly  appeared  at  Geneva  in  1638, 
the  Romaic  version  being  prepared  by  Maximos 
Kalliupolites  with  the  assistance  of  Cyril.  Leger 
likewise  advocated  the  establishment  of  schools 
(which  soon  decayed)  and  proposed  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  catechism,  although  it  is  unknown  whether 
this  was  done.  In  1629  Cyril  published  at  Con- 
stantinople his  famous  "  Confession  of  the  Chris- 
tian Faith  "  (Eng.  transL,  London,  1629),  which  is 
essentially  Calvinistic,  but  approximates  as  closely 
as  possible  the  language  and  creed  of  the  Greek 
Church.  The  reception  accorded  the  confession  in 
Constantinople  is  unknown,  although  in  1636  Me- 
letios  Pantogallos,  archbishop  of  Ephesiis,  wrote  in 
its  defense.  On  the  other  hand,  it  evidently  roused 
much  opposition  and,  despite  the  fact  that  the 
majority  did  not  understand  it,  its  author  and  his 
adherents  were  branded  as  heretics.  A  synod  also 
examined  the  work,  but  failed  to  condemn  the 
patriarch,  whereupon  his  opponents  summoned 
Georgios  Koressios  to  Constantinople  to  dispute 
with  Leger,  and  the  Swiss  theologian  left  the  city 
in  1636.  Cyril  had  long  been  surrounded  by  oppo- 
sition and  had  been  repeatedly  banished  and  as 
often  recalled.  On  the  eve  of  an  expedition  of  the 
Sultan  Murad  against  the  Persians  he  was  accused 
of  attempting  to  rouse  the  Cossacks,  and  the  Sul- 
tan accordingly  had  him  strangled  and  thrown  into 
the  sea.  His  friends  foimd  the  body  and  buried 
it  far  from  Constantinople,  where  it  remained  many 
years  before  it  could  be  brought  back  to  the  capital. 
That  the  Protestant  movement  did  not  end  with 
the  death  of  Cyril  is  shown  by  the  synods  held  at 
Constantinople  (1638),  Jassy  (1642),  Jerusalem 
(1672),  and  again  at  Constantinople  (1691).  It  is 
also  evident  tliat  the  Reformed  tendency  found  a 
large  number  of  sympathizers,  although  Cyril's 
successors  were  not  in  harmony  with  his  views. 
Meletios  Pantogallos,  the  archbishop  of  Ephesus 
mentioned  above,  on  the  other  hand,  was  driven 
from  Constantinople  and  forced  to  take  refuge  in 
Holland.  The  patriarch  Neophytoe  III.  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  hke  manner,  was  an  adherent  of 
Cyril,  as  were  Sophronios,  metropolitan  of  Athens, 
and  the  patriarchs  Parthenios  the  Yoimger  and 
Theophanes  of  Jerusalem.  Among  the  monks  and 
minor  cleigy  Cyril's  followers  were  numerous,  in- 
cluding Maximos  Kalliupolites,  the  translator  of 
the  Bible;  Nathanael  Konopios,  who  went  to  Ox- 
ford after  the  death  of  Cyril  and  prepared  a  Greek 
version  of  Calvin's  **  Institutes ";  Acbatios  of 
Cephallenia;  Nikodemos  Metaxas;  Eugenios  Aito- 
los;  and,  above  all,  the  Calvinist  Johannes  Karyo- 
phylles,  as  well  as  a  number  of  minor  characters. 

(Philipp  Meyer.) 

BiBLHooRAnnr:  The  aouroes  are  (1)  the  ooirespondence  col- 
lected in  E.  Legrand,  Bibliographie  HelUnique,  4  vole.. 
FrndB,  1894-06  (of  the  firat  importance);  (2)  T.  Smith. 
An  Aeeouni  of  the  Greek  Church  .  .  .  under  CunUue  Lu- 
httrit,  London,  1680;  idem,  Afieeellanea,  ib.  1090;  idem. 
CoOeetanea  de  CunUo  Lueario,  ib.  1707  (contains  A.  Leger'n 
Fraiimentum  viUb  C.  Luoarii);  (3)  J.  Aymon,  Monumetu 


auAenUquM  de  la  religion  dee  Oreee,  The  Hacue,  170S. 
Consult:  A.  Pichler,  Der  Patriarth  Luearie  und  eeine  ZeiL 
Munich,  1862;  A.  Mettetal.  £tudee  hietoriquee  m%tr  .  .  . 
CyriUe  Lucar,  Paris.  1860;  XL,  u.  716,  iii.  456,  1021,  ir. 
1380.  V.  1261,  vi.  1360-60. 

CYRIL  AND  METHODIUS. 

Eariy  Life  of  Cyril  (i  1). 
Mission  to  the  SUvs  (i  2). 
Appeal  to  Rome  ({  3). 
Methodius  as  Bishop  ({  4). 
Methodius  and  the  Germans  ((  5). 

Of  the  two  "  Apostles  to  the  Slavs,"  Cyril  (orig- 
inally named  Constantine)  died  in  869;  Methodius 
in  885.  They  were  the  sons  of  a  subordinate  mili- 
tary officer  named  Drungarius,  bom  at  Thessa- 
lonica,  of  Greek  descent,  but  acquainted  with  Sla- 
vonic. The  Vita  CyriUi  has  a  marked  preference 
for  the  number  seven;  according  to  it,  Cyril  or 
Constantine  was  the  youngest  of  seven  brothers, 

at  seven  years  of  age  gave  himself  to 

I.  Early     the  pursuit  of  heavenly  wisdom,  at 

Life  of      fourteen  was  left  an  orphan.     An  in- 

CyriL       fluential  official,  possibly  the  eunuch 

Theoctistes,  brought  him  to  Constan- 
tinople. Photius  ia  said  to  have  been  among 
his  teachers;  Anastasius  mentions  their  later 
friendship,  as  well  as  a  conflict  between  them  on  a 
point  of  doctrine.  After  the  completion  of  his 
education  Cyril  took  orders,  and  seems  to  have 
held  the  important  position  of  chartophylax,  or 
secretary  to  the  patriarch  and  keeper  of  the  a]> 
chives,  with  some  judicial  functions  also.  After  six 
months'  quiet  retirement  in  a  monastery  he  began 
to  teach  philosophy  and  theology.  In  this  period 
may  fall  his  controversy  with  the  deposed  icono- 
clast patriarch  John.  The  Vita  also  speaks  of  a 
journey  into  Mohammedan  territory,  and  discus- 
sions with  the  inhabitants;  and  precisely  at  this 
time  the  difference  between  Christianity  and  Mo- 
hammedanism had  become  more  sharply  marked. 
The  Vila  connects  his  anti-Jewish  polemics  with 
his  mission  to  the  Chazars,  a  Finnish-Turkish  tribe 
on  the  Sea  of  Azof  under  a  Jewish  king  who  al- 
lowed Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  Christians  to  live 
peaceably  side  by  side.  It  is  uncertain  how  far  we 
may  trust  the  account  of  this  journey,  undertaken 
at  the  emperor's  bidding;  but  Dttnunler  has  point<?d 
out  that  the  description  of  perils  incurred  from  the 
Hungarians  corresponds  closely  to  what  is  known 
from  other  sources  of  their  activity  in  those  r^ons 
at  this  exact  time.  According  to  the  Vita,  Cyril 
found  at  Cherson  an  opportunity  to  learn  the  He- 
brew and  Samaritan  languages,  and,  according  to 
the  Italian  Legenda,  also  that  of  the  Chazars.  Anas- 
tasius says  that  he  described  his  discovery  of  the 
bones  of  Saint  Clement  in  a  Storida,  a  Sermo  de- 
clamatoritts,  and  a  Hymnus,  the  first  two  of  which 
Anastasius  translated  into  Latin.  Since  Cyril,  out  of 
modesty,  omitted  to  mention  his  own  name,  it  may 
be  inferred  that  the  account  extant  in  Slavonic,  but 
no  doubt  originally  Greek,  comes  from  one  of  these 
works,  probably  from  the  Sermo  declamatarius. 
The  statement  that  Methodius  accompanied  him 
on  the  mission  to  the  Chasars  is  probably  a  later 
growth.  Methodiiis,  a  man  of  great  practical  en- 
( rgy,  had  already  acquired  a  positibn  of  political 
importance,  presumably  the  govemoiship  of  the 


337 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oyrll  liuoar 

Oyrll  and  Uethodlua 


Slavonian  part  of  the  empire;  later,  he  became 
abbot  of  the  famous  monastery  of  Polychron. 

But  both  brothers  were  now  to  enter  upon  the 
work  which  gives  them  their  historical  importance. 
An  independent  Slavonic  principality  had  been 
established  by  Rostislav,  duke  of  Moravia;  and  to 
maintain  thb  independence  it  was  necessary  to 
assert  also  the  ecclesiastical  independence  of  his 
state,  which  had  been,  at  least  externally,  Chris- 
tianized from  the  German  side.  Hauck  accepts 
the  statement  of  Theotmar  that  Roetislav  expelled 
the  Teutonic  clergy  at  the  beginning  of  his  con- 
test with  the  Franks.  He  then  turned 
2.  Mission  to  Constantinople  to  find  teachers  for 
to  the  his  people.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
Slavs.  opportunity  to  extend  Byzantine  in- 
fluence among  the  Slavs  would  be 
there;  and  the  task  was  entrusted  to  Cyril  and 
Methodius.  Their  first  work  seems  to  have  been 
the  training  of  assistants.  The  assertion  that  Cyril 
now  undertook  his  translation  of  part  of  the  Bible 
contradicts  the  statement  of  the  Legenda  that  it 
had  already  been  made  before  his  undertaking  of 
the  Moravian  mission;  and.  the  oldest  Slavonic 
documents  have  a  southern  character.  Cyril  is 
designated  by  both  friends  and  opponents  of  con- 
temporaiy  date  as  the  inventor  of  the  Slavonic 
script.  This  would  not  exclude  the  possibility  of 
his  having  made  use  of  earlier  letters,  but  implies 
only  that  before  him  the  Slavs  had  no  distinct 
script  of  their  own  for  use  in  writing  books.  The 
so-called  Glagolitic  script  can  be  traced  back  at 
least  to  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  possibly 
even  into  the  ninth;  it  presupposes  a  man  of  some 
education  as  its  originator,  and  is  evidently  de- 
rived principally  from  the  Greek,  but  also  partly 
from  the  Latin  cursive.  The  CyriUian  script  is 
undoubtedly  later  in  origin,  and  apparently  was 
first  used  in  Bulgaria.  It  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine with  certainty  what  portions  of  the  Bible  the 
brothers  translated.  Apparently  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Psahns  were  the  first,  followed  by 
other  lessons  from  the  Old  Testament.  The  Trans- 
lotto  speaks  only  of  a  version  of  the  Gospels  by 
Cyril,  and  the  Vila  Methodii  only  of  the  evange- 
lium  Slovenicum;  but  this  does  not  prove  that 
Cyril  did  not  translate  other  liturgical  selections 
(see  Bible  Vebsignb,  B,  XVI.,  §  1).  The  ques- 
tion has  been  much  discussed  which  liturgy, 
that  of  Rome  or  that  of  Constantinople,  they 
took  as  a  source.  Since,  however,  the  opposition 
objected  only  to  the  liturgical  use  of  the  Slavonic 
language,  not  to  any  alleged  departure  from  the 
Roman  type  of  liturgy,  it  is  probable  that  the  West- 
em  source  was  used.  This  view  is  confirmed  by 
the  "  Prague  Fragments "  and  by  certain  Old 
Glagolitic  liturgical  fragments  brought  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Kief  and  there  discovered  by  Ssres- 
newsky — ^probably  the  oldest  document  for  the 
Slavonic  tongue;  these  adhere  closely  to  the  Latin 
type,  as  is  shown  by  the  words  "  mass,"  "  preface," 
and  the  name  of  one  Felicitas.  In  any  case,  the 
circimistances  were  such  that  the  brothers  could 
hope  for  no  permanent  success  without  obtaining 
the  authorization  of  Rome. 
Accordingly,  they  went  to  Rome  after  three  and 
III.— 22 


a  half  years  of  labor,  passing  through  Pannonia, 
where  they  were  well  received  by  the  chieftain 
Kozel.  The  account  of  a  discussion  in  Venice  on 
the  use  of  Slavonic  in  the  litui^  is  doubtful.  But 
there  is  no  question  of  their  welcome  in  Rome, 
due  partly  to  their  bringing  with  them  the  relics 
of  Saint  Clement;  the  rivalry  with  Constantinople, 
too,  as  to  the  jurisdiction  over  the  territory  of 
the  Slavs  would  incline  Rome  to  value 

3.  Appeal   the  brothers  and  their  influence.     The 
to  Rome,    learning  of  Cyril  was  also  prized;  An- 

astasius  calls  him  not  long  after  "  the 
teacher  of  the  Apostolic  See."  The  ordination  of 
the  brothers'  Slav  disciples  was  performed  by  For- 
mosus  and  Gauderic,  two  prominent  bishops,  and 
the  newly  made  priests  oflSciated  in  their  own  tongue 
at  the  altars  of  some  of  the  principal  churches. 
Feeling  his  end  approaching,  Cyril  put  on  the 
monastic  habit  and  died  fifty  days  later  (Feb.  14, 
869).  There  is  practically  no  basis  for  the  asser- 
tion of  the  TranakUio  (ix.)  that  he  was  made  a 
bishop;  and  the  name  of  Cyril  seems  to  have  been 
given  to  him  only  after  his  death. 

Methodius  now  continued  the  work  among  the 
Slavs  alone;  not  at  first  in  Moravia,  but  in  Pan- 
nonia, owing  to  the  political  circumstances  of  the 
former  coimtry,  where  Rostislav  had  been  taken 
captive  by  his  nephew  Svatopluk,  then  delivered 
over  to  Carloman,  and  condemned  in  a  diet  of  the 
empire  at  the  end  of  870.  Friendly  relations,  on 
the  other  hand,  had  been  established  with  Kozel 
on  the  journey  to  Rome.  This  activity  in  Pan- 
nonia, however,  made  a  conflict  inevitable  with 
the  German  episcopate,  and  especially  with  the 
bishop  of  Salzburg,  to  whose  jurisdiction  Pannonia 
had  belonged  for  seventy-five  years.  In  865  Bishop 
Adalwin  is  found  exercising  all  episcopal  rights 
there,  and  the  administration  under  him  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  archpriest  Richbald. 

4.  Metho-  The  latter  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
diua  as  Salzburg,  but  his  superior  was  natu- 
Bishop.     rally  disinclined  to  abandon  his  claims. 

Methodius  sought  support  from  Rome; 
the  Vita  asserts  that  Kozel  sent  him  thither  with 
an  honorable  escort  to  receive  episcopal  consecra- 
tion. The  letter  given  as  Adrian's  in  chap,  viii., 
with  its  approval  of  the  Slavonic  mass,  is  a  pure 
invention.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  pope  named 
Methodius  not  bishop  of  Pannonia,  but  archbishop 
of  Sirmium,  thus  superseding  the  claims  of  Salzburg 
by  an  older  title.  The  statement  of  the  Vita  that 
Methodius  was  made  bishop  in  870  and  not  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  an  archbishop  until  873  is  contra- 
dicted by  the  brief  of  John  VIII.,  written  in  June, 
879,  according  to  which  Adrian  consecrated  him 
archbishop;  John  includes  in  his  jurisdiction  not 
only  Moravia  and  Pannonia,  but  Servia  as  well. 
The  archiepiscopal  claims  of  Methodius  were  con- 
sidered such  an  injury  to  the  rights  of  Salzburg 

that  he  was  forced  to  answer  for  them 

5.  Metho-   at   a  gynod   held   at   Regensburg  in 
dius  and  the  the  presence  of  King  Louis.    The  as- 

Germans.    sembly,  after  a  heated  discussion,  de- 
clared the  deposition  of  the  intruder, 
and  ordered  him  to  be  sent  to  Gennany,  where  he 
was  kept  a  prisoner  for  two  years  and  a  half.     In 


Cyril  and  Hethoditui 
Cyeat 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


838 


spite  of  the  strong  representations  of  the  Conversio 
Bagoariorum  et  Carantanorum,  written  in  871  to 
influence  the  pope,  though  not  avowing  this  pur- 
pose, Rome  decLEkred  emphatically  for  Methodius, 
and  sent  a  bishop,  Paul  of  Ancona,  to  reinstate  him 
and  pimish  his  enemies,  after  which  both  parties 
were  commanded  to  appear  in  Rome  with  the 
legate.  The  papal  will  prevailed,  and  Methodius 
secured  his  freedom  'and  his  archiepiscopal  au- 
thority over  both  Moravia  and  Pannonia,  though 
the  use  of  Slavonic  for  the  mass  was  still  denied 
to  him.  His  authority  was  restricted  in  Pannonia 
when  after  Kozel's  death  the  principality  was  ad- 
ministered by  German  nobles;  but  Svatopluk  now 
ruled  with  practical  independence  in  Moravia,  and 
expelled  the  German  clergy.  This  apparently  se- 
cured an  undisturbed  field  of  operation  for  Metho- 
dius; and  the  Vita  (x.)  depicts  the  next  few  years 
(873-879)  as  a  period  of  fruitful  progress.  Metho- 
dius seems  to  have  disregarded,  wholly  or  in  part, 
the  prohibition  of  the  Slavonic  liturgy;  and  when 
Prankish  clerics  again  found  their  way  into  the 
country,  and  the  archbishop's  strictness  had  dis- 
pleased the  licentious  Svatopluk,  this  was  made  a 
cause  of  complaint  against  him  at  Rome,  coupled 
with  charges  regarding  the  Filioque,  Methodius 
vindicated  his  orthodoxy  at  Rome,  the  more  easily 
as  the  creed  was  still  recited  there  without  the 
Filioque  clause,  and  promised  to  obey  in  regard  to 
the  liturgy.  The  other  party  was  conciliated  by 
giving  him  a  Swabian,  Wiching,  as  his  coadjutor. 
When  relations  were  strained  between  the  two, 
John  VIII.  steadfastly  supported  Methodius;  but 
after  his  death  (Dec,  882)  the  archbishop's  posi- 
tion became  insecure,  and  his  need  of  support  in- 
duced Goetz  to  accept  the  statement  of  the  Vita 
(xiii.)  that  he  went  to  visit  the  Eastern  emperor. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  after  his  death,  which 
is  placed,  though  not  certainly,  on  Apr.  6,  885, 
an  open  conflict  eventuated.  Gorazd,  whom  he 
had  designated  as  his  successor,  was  not  recognized 
by  Stephen  VI.,  and  was  soon  expelled,  with  the 
other  followers  of  Methodius.     ^^^  ^ 

(N.  BONWBTSCH.) 
Bibuoobapht:  Some  first-hand  sources  are  collected  in 
ASB,  March,  ii.  12-25.  and  Oct..  xi.  168-171.  For  others 
oonsxilt:  J.  Friedrich,  in  SiUungaberidUe  der  kaiaerlidir- 
bayerUdien  Ak€uiemie,  phUoaophiscK-f^Uologiaehe  und  hU- 
torische  Claaae,  part  3,  pp.  3Q3-442.  Munich.  1892;  E. 
DfUnmler,  in  Archiv  fUr  Kunde  dHerreu^iaeher  GeachidiU- 
guellen,  xiii  (1854).  145-109;  idem  and  F.  Miklo8iB<^  in 
DenkMduiften  der  kdniglich-kaiaerlichen  Akademie  der 
Wiueneehaften,  philoaophieefi-hiMioriadie  CUuae^  xix.  214- 
246.  Vienna.  1870;  MOH,  Script.,  xi  (1854),  1-14.  Con- 
sult: J.  Dobrowsky,  in  Ahhandlunoen  der  h6hmudiien 
GetelUchaft  der  WiMenechaften,  viii.  2.  Prague,  1823; 
W.  Wattenbach,  Beitr&ge  xur  Geechichte  der  ckriatlichen 
Kirche  in  MUhren  und  Bdhmen,  Vienna.  1849;  J.  A.  Gin- 
sel,  Geeehichte  der  Slatoenapoatel  CyriU  und  Method,  IjtiU 
meritz,  1857;  A.  WOrfel,  Daa  Leben  und  Wirken  der  heUir 
gen  Apoatel  CyriU  und  Method,  Prague.  1863;  L.  L^er. 
Cj/rille  et  Miihode,  Paris,  1868;  J.  Martinov.  in  Revue 
dee  queatione  hiatoriquea,  xxviii  (1880),  369-397,  xxxvi 
(1884),  110-166,  xli  (1887),  220-232;  D.  Rattinger.  in 
SHmmen  au8  Maria^Laaeh,  xxii.  38-52,  157-169,  400- 
419.  Freiburg,  1882;  A.  d'Avril,  S.  CyrUU  et  S.  Mithode, 
Paris.  1885;  N.  Bonwetsch,  Cyrill  und  Method,  Erlangen, 
1885;  B.  Bretholi,  GeschichU  M&hrena,  1.  i.  64  sqq.. 
BrOnn,  1893;  L.  K.  Goetz,  GeechichU  der  Slavenapoatel 
CyriUund  Method,  Gotha.  1897;  Pastmek,  D^ini  alovanek. 
apoet.  Cvr.  a  Meth.,  Prag.  1902;  J.  Franks,  in  Archiv  fur 
elavieche  Pkiloloffie,  xxviii.  229  sqq. 


CYRUS  THE  GREAT  (also  called  Cyrus  the  Elder, 
to  distinguish  him  from  Cyrus  the  Younger,  son  of 
Darius  II.,  killed  at  Cunaxa,  401  b.c):  Founder 
of  the  Persian  Empire;  b.  about  600  b.c;  d.  in 
July,  529  B.C.  He  belonged  to  the  elder  line  of 
the  Achffimenidffi,  which  became  extinct  with  the 
death  of  his  son,  Cambyses.  Herodotus  and  Ctesias 
relate  that  he  was  of  humble  origin;  but  from  in- 
scriptions still  preserved  it  is  evident  that  he  was 
of  royal  descent.  In  his  cylinder  inscription  he 
designates  his  predecessors  up  to  Teispes  as  Ifingg 
of  Anshan,  which  by  some  has  been  interpreted  as 
Susiana,  by  others  as  the  ancestral  seat  of  the 
AchfemenidsB.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  559, 
but  not  as  an  independent  ruler,  being  forced  to 
recognize  Median  overlordship.  However,  in  550 
he  conquered  the  last  of  the  Median  kings,  Asty- 
ages,  captured  Ecbatana,  in  546  assumed  the  title 
"  king  of  Persia,"  and  gained  for  the  Persians  do- 
minion over  the  Iranian  p^eoples.  An  alliance  was 
formed  against  Cyrus  by  Croesus  of  Lydia,  Naboni- 
dus  of  Babylon,  and  Amasis  II.  of  Egypt;  but  be- 
fore the  allies  could  unite  Cyrus  had  occupied 
Sardis,  overthrown  the  Lydian  kingdom,  and  taken 
Croesus  prisoner  (546  b.c).  In  638  there  followed 
the  occupation  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus.  According 
to  the  Babylonian  inscription  this  was  in  all 
probability  a  bloodless  victory  (see  Babyix)nia, 
VI.,  7,  §  3).  From  the  list  of  countries  subject  to 
Persian  rule  given  on  the  first  tablet  of  the  great 
Darius  inscription  of  Behistan,  written  before  any 
new  conquests  could  have  been  made  except  that 
of  Egypt,  the  dominion  of  Cyrus  must  have  cov- 
ered all  Hither  Asia  and  reached  as  far  eastward 
as  the  borders  of  India.  According  to  Herodotus 
and  Ctesias,  Cyrus  met  his  death  in  the  year  529, 
while  warring  against  tribes  northeast  of  the  head- 
waters of  the  Tigris.  He  was  buried  m  the  town  of 
Pasargadse.  Both  Strabo  and  Arrian  give  descrip- 
tions of  his  tomb,  based  upon  reports  of  men  who 
saw  it  at  the  time  of  Alexander's  invasion.  The 
tomb  northeast  of  Persepolis,  which  has  been 
claimed  as  that  of  Cyrus,  is  evidently  not  his,  as 
its  location  does  not  fit  the  reports. 

Cyrus  was  distinguished  no  less  as  statesman 
than  as  a  soldier.  His  statesmanship  came  out 
particularly  in  his  treatments  of  newly  conquered 
peoples.  By  pursuing  a  policy  of  generosity,  in- 
stead of  repression,  and  by  favoring  the  local  re- 
ligion, he  was  able  to  make  his  new  subjects  his 
enthusiastic  supporters.  A  good  example  of  this 
policy  is  found  in  his  treatment  of  the  Jews  in 
Babylon.  (B.  Lindner.) 

CJyrus  figures  in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  patron 
and  deliverer  of  the  Jews.  He  is  mentioned  twenty- 
three  times  by  name  and  alluded  to  several  times 
more,  viz.:  II  Chron.  xxxvi.  22  (twice),  3;  Ezra  i.  I 
(twice),  2,  7,  8,  iii.  7,  iv.  3,  13,  14,  17,  vi,  3;  Isa. 
xliv.  28,  xlv.  1;  Dan.  i.  21,  vi.  28,  x.  1.  From  these 
statements  it  appears  that  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia, 
was  the  monarch  under  whom  the  captivity  of  the 
Jews  ended,  for  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign  he  was 
prompted  of  Yahweh  to  make  a  decree  that  the 
temple  in  Jerusalem  should  be  rebuilt  and  that  such 
Jews  as  cared  to  might  return  to  their  land  for  this 
purpose.     Moreover,  he  showed  his  interest  in  the 


339 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cyril  and  Hethodius 
Oyeat 


project  by  sending  back  with  them  the  sacred  ves- 
sels which  bad  been  taken  from  the  temple  and  a 
considerable  sum  of  money  to  buy  building  mate- 
rials with.  After  the  work  had  been  stopped  by 
enemies  of  the  Jews  it  was  reconmiended  under  the 
exhortations  of  the  prophets,  and  when  the  author- 
ities asked  the  Jews  what  right  they  had  to  build  a 
temple  they  referred  to  the  decree  of  Cyrus.  Da- 
rius, who  was  then  reigning,  caused  a  search  for  this 
alleged  decree  to  be  made,  and  it  was  found  in  the 
Babylonian  archives  (Ezra  vi.  2),  whereupon  Darius 
reaffirmed  the  decree  and  the  work  proceeded  to  ite 
triumphant  close.  Daniel  was  in  the  favor  of  Cyrus, 
and  it  was  in  that  year  of  Cyrus  that  he  had  the 
vision  recorded  in  his  tenth  chapter. 

Bibuogbapht:  HerodotuB,  Hitt.,  i.  95,  108>130,  177-214; 
Cteeias,  Peraica,  vii.-xi.;  transl.  of  the  Cyrus  and  Naboni- 
dua  Inscriptions,  Records  of  the  Paai,  new  series,  v.  144 
sqq..  London,  1882.  Consult:  F.  Justi,  Oe§chichie  det 
€dten  Perneiu,  Berlin,  1879;  T.  G.  Pinches,  in  TSBA, 
vii..  1880;  V.  Floigl,  Cyrua  und  Herodot,  Leipsic,  1881; 
J.  V.  Prasek,  Medien  und  daa  Hau9  det  Kyaxarea,  Ber- 
lin, 1890;  E.  Schrader  and  F.  Peiser,  in  KeilintchrifUictie 
BibliaOtek,  iu.  2.  pp.  120  sqq.,  iv.  258  sqq.,  Berlin,  1892- 
1896;  T.  K.  Cheyne.  Jevouh  Religunu  Life  After  the  Exile, 
New  York,  1898;  G.  F.  Un«er,  in  Abhandlungen  der  kai- 
serltcAen  bayeriachen  Akademie,  1.  Classe,  vol.  xvi.,  part 
3;  DB,  L  641-542;  EB,  i.  978-982. 

CYSAT,  RENWARD,  AND  THE  COUNTERREF- 
ORHATION  m  SWITZERLAND. 

Situation  After  the  Battle  of  Kappel  (|  1). 
Carlo  Borromeo  and  the  Jesuits  (|  2). 
Various  Agencies  (S3). 

The  battle  of  Kappel  in  1531  (see  Zwinqli,  Huld- 
reich)  had  obstructed  the  advance  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  the  Swiss  Confederacy  and  brought  about 
a  reactionary  subscription  to  the  Roman  faith. 
The  majority  of  the  thirteen  cantons  as  then  or- 
ganized belonged  to  the  Roman  Church  (Lucerne, 
Schwytx,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  Soleure,  Fri- 
bourg);  two  were  on  a  footing  of  religious  equal- 
ity (Glarus,  Appenzell);  while  only  four  (Basel, 
Bern,  Schaffhausen,  Zurich)  were  strictly  Prot- 
estant. The  last  four,  however,  were 
I.  Situation  superior  in  actual  power  and  in  intel- 
After  the  lectual  forces  to  the  remaining  cantons 
Battle  of  all  together.  The  Roman  cantons  had 
Kappel.  the  advantage  of  a  closely  compact  sit- 
uation, and  the  original  cantons  were 
bordered  on  the  south  by  the  entirely  or  still  pre- 
dominantly Roman  districts  of  Valais,  Ticino,  and 
Grisons;  the  other  Roman  jurisdictions,  also  (Fri- 
bourg,  Soleure,  diocese  of  Basel,  Saint  Gall),  sepa- 
rated the  Protestant  cantons.  Prior  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  the  status  of  the  Roman  Church  in 
these  her  subject  jurisdictions  was  by  no  means 
more  hopeful  than  elsewhere;  the  spirituality  and 
with  it  the  entire  existence  of  the  Church  was 
everywhere  in  a  state  of  melancholy  decline;  only 
the  support  of  the  governing  powers  and  the  con- 
servative disposition  of  the  people  at  large  consti- 
tuted the  mainstay  of  Catholicism  in  these  demo- 
cratic little  communities. 

The  Counterreformation  found  two  centers  in 
Switzerland:  in  the  diocese  of  Basel  (see  Jacob 
Christoph,  Bishop  of  Basel)  and   in  the  orig- 


inal cantons,  where  the  chief  center  was  Lucerne. 
Here  Ludwig  Pfyflfer,  the  mayor — ^the  "Swiss 
King" — (d.  1694)  and  Renward  Cysat,  the  mod- 
est town  clerk  (b.  1545;  d.  Mar.  16,  1614),  were 
the  life  of  the  movement,  the  former  of  greater 
public  renown,  though  the  latter  in  his  nuuiy-sided 
activity  as  statesman,  man  of  letters,  ecclesiastical 
zealot,  and  friend  of  the  Jesuits  is  the  more 
distinctively  typical  figure.  Originally  an  apothe- 
cary, but  broadening  himself  with  extensive  cul- 
ture, especially  in  languages,  Cysat  became  "un- 
derclerk  "  of  Lucerne  in  1570;  and  from  1575  till 
his  death  he  was  town  clerk.  His  office,  which 
conjointly  with  that  of  the  mayor  was  the  most 
important  with  regard  to  the  public  afifairs  of  the 
town  and  State,  gave  him  a  right  to  exert  a  par- 
tial influence  over  the  ecclesiastical  and  political 
concerns  of  Lucerne.  His  office  was  not  subject 
to  annual  mutation,  and  through  his  hands  all  doc- 
uments of  any  consequence  had  to  pass.  As  ''  Ro- 
man notary  "  from  1570  various  channels  of  com- 
munication were  opened  up  for  him  with  spiritual 
dignitaries  and  even  with  the  Curia;  and  as  early 
as  that  very  year,  1570,  he  came  thus  into  closer 
touch  with  Carlo  Borromeo  (q.v.),  cardinal  and 
archbishop  of  Milan. 

Borromeo's  journey  to  Switzerland  in  1570  is  the 
external  starting-point  of  the  Counterreformation 
for  that  country.  It  was  Borromeo's  indefatigable 
activity  which  secured  in  the  same  year  the  enact- 
ment of  the  Council's  resolutions,  and  incited  to 
measures   for   ameliorating   the    evil 

3.  Carlo  condition  of  the  clei^;  later  (1579) 
Borromeo  he  founded  in  Milan  a  Swiss  College 

and  the     (fioUegium  Helveticum)  for  the  edu- 

Jesuits.  cation  of  worthy  Swiss  clerics.  He 
now  gave  his  stimulating  coimsel  at 
Lucerne,  and  continued  afterward  in  communica- 
tion with  the  leading  men  of  the  Roman  districts. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Pfyffer  and  Cysat  a  Jesuits' 
College  was  instituted  at  Lucerne  in  1574,  and  the 
Jesuits'  activity  soon  bore  fruits;  by  means  of  the 
school  they  influenced  youth;  and,  by  their  strict 
example,  the  cieigy  and  the  life  of  the  community. 
Voluntary  liberality  increased,  new  churches  were 
built;  processions,  festival  plays,  ecclesiastical 
feasts  soon  again  played  an  extensive  part  in  pub- 
lic life.  The  municipal  authorities  everywhere 
supported  the  Jesuits'  purposes;  and  negligent 
priests  were  disciplined  by  temporal  magistrates. 
In  1579  Bishop  Bonomi  of  Vercelli  came  to  Lu- 
cerne as  papal  nuncio,  and  the  seven  Roman  can- 
tons and  the  dioceses  of  Constance  and  Basel  were 
placed  under  his  jurisdiction.  By  visitations,  by 
founding  a  Capuchin  convent  at  Altdorf,  which 
became  a  point  of  departure  for  many  further 
foundations,  and  a  Jesuits'  College  at  Fribouig  he 
promoted  the  Coimterreformation;  in  fact,  by  these 
measures  and  especially  by  his  advocacy  of  a 
league  contracted  in  1579  between  the  bishop  of 
Basel  and  the  Roman  cantons  he  became  so  odious 
to  the  Protestant  cantons  that  in  1580  he  was 
rudely  insulted  in  the  jurisdiction  of  Bern.  This 
incident,  which  came  near  causing  civil  war,  and 
Bonomi's  doubtless  warranted  and  yet  not  quite 
unobjectionable  encroachment  upon  affairs  in  the 


OyMt 
DftiTon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


840 


diocese  of  Coire  led  to  his  recall  in  Sept.,  1581. 
Not  until  1686  did  Bishop  Santonio  of  Tricarico 
arrive  as  new  ntmcio  at  Lucerne;  since  that  time 
this  Swiss  appointment  of  the  ntmcio's  office  has 
been  permanent. 

The  work  of  ecclesiastical  renovation  by  this 
time  was  well  organised:  the  supervision  and  ex- 
ercise of  discipline  rested  in  the  nuncio's  hands; 
the  education  of  the  clergy  was  carefully  regu- 
lated, and  the  schools  were  organised  anew.     In 
these    matters   the    Jesuits'    activity 
3.  Various  proved  eminently  effectual.    Both  Je- 
Agencies.    suits  and  Capuchins  were  fruitfully 
diligent  in  the  cure  of  souls.    The  in- 
creasing number  of  their  colleges  and  convents 
affords  the  best  demonstration  of  their  eveiven- 
laiging  labor;  in  1581  there  arose  a  Jesuits'  Col- 
lege in  Fribouig;  at  Puntrut  in  1588;  in  Valais, 
1607;  while  the  Capuchins  established  themselves 
at  Stans  in  1582,  at  Lucerne  in  1583,  in  Schwyts  in 
1585,  in  Fribourg  in  1586;  in  Soleure,  Sitten,  and 
Appenzell,   1588;  and  in  Zug,   1597.    Cysat  was 
widely  active  in  connection  with  the  founding  of 
Jesuits'  colleges.    The  temporal  authorities  of  the 
Roman  cantons  supported  all  these  cooperative 


agencies,  and  directed  their  external  p>olicy  to  the 
same  object.  Opposition  to  the  Protestant  can- 
tons led  to  a  closer  cohesion  of  the  Catholic  asso- 
ciates in  faith;  in  1579  a  union  was  ratiSed  be- 
tween the  seven  Roman  cantons  and  the  bishop 
of  Basel;  and  in  Oct.,  1586,  the  "  Golden  League" 
of  the  Catholic  Confederates  for  the  defense  of 
their  faith  came  into  being;  an  alliance  was  sought 
with  France,  but  above  aU  with  Spain  and  Savoy. 
The  league  with  Spain  took  effect  in  May,  1587, 
thus  incorporating  the  Roman  cantons  in  the  great 
Catholic  alliance  between  the  League  in  France, 
Philip  XL,  Savoy,  &&<!  the  Curia.  More  than  once 
the  danger  of  civil  war  was  imminent  in  Switzer- 
land. But  no  blood  was  shed  from  that  time,  and 
the  events  of  Reformation  and  Counterreforxnation 
went  on  side  by  side  from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Walter  Goetz. 

BxBLiooaAFHT:  A.  P.  Ton  Segewisr,  ReekUgetckidkie  der 
Btadt  und  RtpuJbiik  LuMem,  vols.  iiL-iv.,  LuoerDe,  1857- 
1858;  idem,  lAtdrng  Pfvff^  ^nd  mim  ZwU,  3  vols..  Bern. 
1880-82;  B.  Hidber,  Rwward  Cymii,  in  Arehiv  fvr 
BchtoMMeriaehe  OMdnUkte,  vols,  xui.,  zz.,  Zurich.  1863. 
1870;  KL,  iii.  1307-06. 

CZBRSKI9   JOHAim.    See   GnacAN    Cathou- 

CIBM. 


D :  The  symbol  employed  to  designate  the  Deu- 
teronomic  school  of  writers  whose  work,  according 
to  the  critical  school,  is  found  not  only  in  Deuter- 
onomy, but  in  the  historical  books  from  Judges  to 
II  Kings,  except  Ruth.  See  Hsbbew  Language 
AND  Literature,  II.,  §  4. 

DABHET,  ROBERT  LEWIS :  American  Presby- 
terian (Southern);  b.  in  Louisa  County,  Va.,  Blar. 
5,  1820;  d.  at  Austin,  Tex.,  Jan.  3,  1898.  He 
studied  at  Hampden-Sidney  College,  Va.,  and  the 
University  of  Virginia  (M.A.,  1842),  and  was  grad- 
uated at  Union  Theological  Seminaiy,  Hampden- 
Sidney,  Va.,  in  1846.  He  was  then  a  missionary  in 
Louisa  County,  Va.,  1846-47,  and  pastor  at  Tinlding 
Spring,  Va.,  1847-53,  being  also  head  master  of  a 
classical  school  for  a  portion  of  this  time.  From 
1853  to  1859  he  was  professor  of  ecclesiastical  hi»- 
toiy  and  polity  and  from  1859  to  1869  adjunct  pro- 
fessor of  Bsrstematic  theology  in  Union  llieological 
Seminary,  Va.  He  then  became  fuU  professor  of 
the  latter  subject  and  held  this  position  until  1883, 
when  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Texas.  In 
1894  failing  health  compelled  him  to  retire  from 
active  life,  although  he  still  lectured  occasionally. 
He  was  copastor  of  the  Hampden-Sidney  College 
Church  1858-74,  also  serving  Hampden-Sidney 
College  in  a  professorial  capacity  on  occasions  of 
vacancies  in  its  faculty.  During  the  vacation  of 
1861  he  was  chaplain  of  the  Virginia  troops  in  the 
Confederate  army,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
chief  of  staff  to  "  Stonewall "  Jackson  in  the  bril- 
liant Valley  Campaign.  While  at  the  University 
of  Texas  he  practically  founded  and  maintained 
the  Austin  School  of  Theology,  and  in  1870  was 
moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presby- 


terian Church,  South.  In  theology  he  was  a  con- 
servative. He  wrote  Memoir  of  Rev.  Dr.  Francis 
S.  Sampson  (Richmond,  1855),  whose  commentary 
on  Hebrews  he  likewise  edited  (New  York,  1857); 
Life  of  General  Thomae  J,  Jackaon  (1866);  Defense 
of  Virginia  and  the  SoiUh  (1867);  Trealiae  on  Sacred 
Rhetoric  (Richmond,  1870);  Theology,  Dogmatic 
and  Polemic  (1871);  Sensualietic  Philosophy  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century  Examined  (New  York,  1875); 
Practical  Philosophy  (Mexico,  Mo.,  1896);  and  the 
posthumous  Penal  Character  of  the  Atonement  of 
Christ  Discussed  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Popular 
Heresies  (Richmond,  1898).  A  nimiber  of  his 
shorter  essays  have  been  edited  by  C.  R.  Vaughan 
under  the  title  Disctissions  (vols.  i.-iii.,  Richmond, 
1890-92;  vol.  iv.,  Mexico,  Mo.,  1897). 

BxBUoaEAPHT:  T.  C.  Jobnaon.  Lt/e  and  Lttten  of  Robert 
Lewis  Datmey,  Richmond,  1903. 

DACH,  SIMON:  German  religious  poet;  b.  at 
Memel  (72  m.  n.e.  of  KOnigsbeig)  July  29,  1605; 
d.  at  KOnigsberg  Apr.  15,  1659.  He  studied  at 
Memel,  KOnigsberg,  Wittenberg,  and  Bfagdebuig, 
attaining  proficiency  in  the  use  of  the  classic  lan- 
guages, the  cultivation  of  which  in  poetic  form 
constituted  his  most  grateful  occupation  through 
life.  Returning  to  KOnigsberg,  he  matriculated  at 
the  university,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the- 
ology and  philosophy,  and  in  1633  was  attached  to 
the  Cathedral  school,  of  which  he  became  asso- 
ciate rector  in  1636.  In  1639  he  became  professor 
of  poetry  in  the  university. 

Dach  was  the  most  gifted  member  of  a  group  of 
Prussian  theologians,  scientists,  and  poets  com- 
monly known  as  the  KOnigsberg  School,  and  com- 
prising, among  others,  Robert  Robertin,  Michael 
and    Andreas    Adersbach,    Christof    Caldenbach, 


341 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Johann  Baptist  Faber,  Christof  Wilkow,  Erasmus 
Landenberg,  Michael  Behm,  and  Georg  Mylius. 
Throughout  the  poetical  works  of  this  group,  relig- 
ious or  secular,  runs  the  constant  theme  of  the 
mutable  and  transitory  nature  of  life,  expressed  in 
verse  which  shows  more  or  less  skill,  yet  reveals, 
especially  in  its  numerous  pastorals  and  songs  of 
friendship,  little  sincerity  or  poetic  fire.  Dach  alone 
rises  above  the  level  of  his  age  to  a  height  where 
he  stands  comparable  with  Gerhardt.  His  secular 
poems  were  written  to  order  under  the  stress  of 
pressing  poverty,  and  show  all  the  faults  of  this 
class  of  composition.  A  striking  exception,  how- 
ever, is  the  song  Anke  van  T?uirau  written  in  Platt- 
deutsch.  It  has  become  a  popular  folk-song.  In 
his  religious  poems,  however,  Dach  finds  his  true 
sphere.  Sincerity  of  emotion,  a  simple  fulness  of 
faith  and  confidence  in  the  justice  of  providence 
in  the  midst  of  a  world  of  turmoil  and  uncertainty 
characterize  them;  in  expression,  melody,  and 
deftness  of  rhythm  and  rime  they  are  not  un- 
worthy of  comparison  with  the  productions  of  a 
higher  age.  That  a  surprisingly  small  number  of 
his  sacred  songs  have  been  retained  in  the  Evan- 
gelical hymnals  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that,  as 
poems  written  for  specisJ  occasions,  they  reveal  the 
quiet  spirit  of  meditation  rather  than  the  sonorous 
swing  of  the  hymn.  His  collected  poems  were  pub- 
lished by  Oesterley  at  Stuttgart  in  1877. 

(H.  Jacoby.) 

Bibuoorapbt:  H.  Stiehler,  Simon  Dadi,  KOnigsbeis.  1806; 
C.  V.  Wintorfeld,  D^r  €vanotUa(k9  Kirdiiangtming,  vol.  ii., 
Leipsie,  184&;  Q.  Q.  Genrinus,  (TefcAuAte  der  deutecA^n 
Diektung,  vol.  iii.,  Leipole,  1872;  K.  Qoedeke  and  J. 
Tittmann.  D€viUd%»  Diehitr  dea  aubetuaknten  Jahrhun- 
dmrU,  ib.  1870;  Julian,  HymnolooVf  PP.  276-277. 

D'ACHERT,  JEAN  LUC.  See  Achert,  Jkan 
Luc  d'. 

DA  COSTAy  IZAAK:  Dutch  poet  and  Christian 
apologist;  b.  at  Amsterdam  Jan.  14,  1798;  d.  there 
Apr.  28,  1860.  His  parents  were  wealthy  Jews  of 
Portuguese  descent  who  had  departed  in  faith, 
though  not  in  practise,  from  the  hereditary  belief, 
and  were  opposed  to  the  political  and  social  ide- 
als of  French  revolutionism.  At  an  early  age  Da 
Costa  acquired  a  love  for  Greek  literature  which 
remained  with  him  throughout  life,  and  later  the 
influence  of  the  scholar  and  poet  Willem  Bilder- 
dijk,  to  whom  the  elder  Da  Costa  entrusted  the 
education  of  his  son,  molded  his  entire  career.  In 
1816  Da  Costa  entered  the  University  of  Leyden, 
and  took  his  doctorate  in  law  in  1818,  and  in  phi- 
lology in  1821.  Bilderdijk  had  accepted  a  pro- 
fessorship at  Leyden,  and  there  his  tmobtrusive  but 
persistent  inculcation  of  the  principles  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  won  Da  Costa  from  the  teachings  of 
Voltaire's  deism  to  a  fervent  belief  in  the  Gospel. 
In  Oct.,  1822,  he  was  baptized,  and  he  then 
devoted  himself  with  characteristic  zeal  to  the 
service  of  his  new  faith,  bringing  to  the  task  an 
earnestness  of  conviction,  a  disregard  of  public 
opinion,  and  a  gift  for  litenuy  expression  that  were 
destined  to  exert  a  formative  influence  on  the  sub- 
sequent religious  histoiy  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
genius  of  the  time  was  one  of  inoffensive  neutrality 
between  religion  and  secular  culture,  but  men  were 


inclined  to  interpret  religion  in  the  spirit  of  that 
secular  culture.  In  1823  Da  Costa  published  at 
Leyden  his  Betwaren  iegen  den  geett  der  eeuWj  in 
which  he  combated  the  complacent  belief  of  his 
contemporaries  that  the  nineteenth  century  was 
destined  to  surpass  all  that  had  gone  before.  As 
a  period  of  decline  in  faith,  morals,  toleration,  and 
humanitarianism,  he  chose  rather  to  call  it  the  age 
of  slavery,  unbelief,  superstition,  and  darkness;  De 
Saddtuxen,  published  in  the  following  year,  was  in 
the  main  an  exposition  of  the  same  theme,  com- 
paring the  theology  of  his  own  time  and  the  Armin- 
ianism  of  the  seventeenth  century  with  the  Sad- 
duoeeism  of  the  days  of  Christ.  Da  Costa  thus 
became  the  apologist  of  the  old  simple  faith  and 
orthodoxy,  and  this  not  alone  in  his  prose  works 
but  in  hk  poems,  which  are  warm  with  the  spirit 
of  the  old  singers  of  the  Bible.  The  bold  position 
he  assumed  subjected  him  to  virulent  attacks  by 
the  press,  and  he  was  regarded  with  suspicion  by 
the  police.  With  the  revolution  of  1830,  however, 
an  event  which  he  had  predicted  with  almost  pro- 
phetic foresight,  adherents  began  to  flock  to  him. 
From  that  time  to  the  end  of  his  life  his  zeal  re- 
mained unabated  in  the  furtherance  of  the  cause 
of  the  new  orthodoxy;  and  though  the  forces  he 
had  set  in  motion  soon  came  to  be  directed  by 
other  hands,  he  may  be  called  the  prophet  of  the 
new  movement,  while  others  developed  his  prin- 
ciples. 

Aside  from  his  activity  as  an  author.  Da  Costa 
conducted  classes  in  the  study  of  the  Bible,  lectured 
frequently  throughout  the  country,  and  was  iden- 
tified with  every  movement  favorable  to  the  cause 
of  religious  revival.  His  poetical  works  were  pub- 
lished by  J.  P.  Hasebroek  at  Haarlem  in  1861;  his 
theological  writings  were  issued  two  years  later  by 
H.  J.  Koenen.  Of  these  the  principal  are:  Voor- 
lezingen  over  de  eenheid  en  overeenaUmming  der  Evan- 
gelUn  (2  vols.,  Leyden,  1840;  Eng.  transl.  The 
Four  Witnesaee,  London,  1851);  Paulue  (2  parts, 
1846);  lerM  en  de  Volken  (1849;  Eng.  transl, 
lerael  and  the  OentUea.  Contr^nUiona  to  dis  History 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Earlieat  Timee  to  the  Present  Day^ 
London,  1850) ;  and  Beaehouwingen  van  dei  Handel- 
ingen  der  Apoatelen  (3  parts,  1856-58). 

(J.  A.  Gerth  van  WUKf.) 
Bibuoorapbt:  W.  G.  C.  Bijyanok,  Dajeugd  van  /«.  da  Cotta, 
2  vols..  Leyden,  1894-06;  H.  J.  Koenen,  Levenaberi^  van 
Mr.  la,  da  Coata,  ib.  1860;  Q.  J.  Voe,  Gaadiiadmia  der 
vaderlandadte  kerk,  ii.  184-272,  Dordrecht.  1882;  A.  Pier- 
aon,  Ovdera  Tiidoenooten,  pp.  1-35,  AmBterdam,  1888; 
J.  Reitoma.  OMd^iadania  van  da  Karvcrming  an  da  har^ 
varmda  hark  der  NadaHanden,  Qroningen.  1893. 

DAGON:  A  deity  of  the  Philistines,  perhaps  the 
principal  god  of  that  people.  He  had  temples  at 
Gaza  (Judges  xvi.  21  sqq.)  and  Ashdod  (1  Sam.  v. 
1-2;  I  Maoc.  x.  82-85,  xi.  4).  The  location  of  the 
temple  mentioned  in  I  Chron.  x.  10  is  not  given. 
Indications  are  found  in  place-names,  pointing  to 
the  worship  of  a  deity  with  this  name  over  a  wider 
territory  than  that  occupied  by  the  Philistines. 
Thus  a  Beth-dagon  ib  mentioned  Josh.  xv.  41,  which 
IB  possibly  the  modem  Beit-Dejan  (6  m.  s.e.  of 
Joppa) ;  there  is  a  place  of  the  same  name  7  m.  e.  of 
Nablus  and  another  near  Jericho.  The  inscription 
of  Eshmunaiar  of  Sidon  speaks  of  Dor  and  Joppa 


toa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


842 


M  aeats  of  the  worship  of  Dagon.  A  seventh  cen- 
tury Phenician  seal  is  known  on  which  is  an  in- 
scription read  Baal- Dagon;  and  this  is  corroborated 
by  the  testimony  of  Philo  Byblios  to  the  effect  that 
Dagon  was  worshiped  elsewhere  than  in  Phenicia 
and  that  he  was  worshiped  by  other  Semites  to  the 
East.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  a  king 
of  Isin  (see  Babylonia,  VI.,  3,  §  4)  is  named  Ishmc- 
Dagan,  while  that  of  the  Amama  Tablets  is  by  a 
Dagan-takala — the  name  of  the  deity  entering  as 
an  element  in  both  names. 

The  meaning  of  the  word  and  the  form  of  Dagon 's 
image  are  cognate  questions  still  under  discussion. 
Some  see  in  the  word  a  diminutive  of  affection 
formed  from  the  Semitic  dag,  **  fish  "  (cf.  ahimahon, 
"  little  sun  "),  and  affirm  that  the  form  was  that  of 
a  fish  with  the  head  and  hands  of  a  man.  To  this 
theory  the  statement  in  I  Sam.  v.  4,  "  only  Dagon 
(i.e.,  the  fishy  stump)  was  left  to  him,"  is  made 
tributary,  and  the  explanation  is  given  that  after 
the  human  head  and  hands  were  broken  off,  only 
the  fish-like  form  was  left.  With  this  agree  the 
reports  from  the  Greek  age  of  the  worship  on  the 
Philistine  coajst  of  a  deity  half  fish  and  half  man. 
Philo  Byblios  derives  the  name  from  a  Semitic  root 
dagarif  **  grain/'  and  makes  of  the  god  a  deity  of 
agriculture  (Zeu8  arotrioa).  With  this  fits  in  well 
the  ear  of  grain  on  the  Phenician  seal  mentioned 
above,  though  the  argument  is  not  strongly  cogent. 
Both  of  these  derivations  seem  to  have  warrant  in 
early  Semitic,  if  not  in  Sumerian  worship,  as  in  the 
case  of  E&  (see  Babylonia,  VII.,  2,  §  3)»  a  deity 
derived  from  the  water,  and  of  the  Oannes  or  Oda- 
kon  of  Berosus,  who  was  pictured  as  part  man,  part 
fish.  A  Babylonian  god  Dagon  was  known,  and  the 
Arabic  dagn,  **  fruitful  rain,"  suggests  a  connection 
with  agriculture.  Sayce,  Delitzsch,  and  Schradcr 
agree  in  finding  a  pre-Semitic  origin  for  the  deity. 
In  Greco-Roman  times  a  goddess  Derceto  (Atar- 
gatis)  was  known,  also  connected  with  agriculture, 
who  may  have  been  the  consort  of  Dagon  but  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  him. 

Nothing  is  known  of  the  form  of  the  cult  except 
that  the  worshipers  avoided  stepping  on  the  thresh- 
old of  the  temple — ^a  custom  which  has  its  parallels 
elsewhere.  Possibly,  though  not  certainly,  allusion 
is  made  to  this  in  Zeph.  i.  9. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibuograpbt:  A.  H.  Sayoe.  Higher  CrUieiMm  and  the  Mon- 
umenU,  pp.  325-327,  London.  1804;  F.  Delitssoh,  Wo  lag 
doe  Paaradieef  Leipnc.  1881;  Q.  F.  Moore,  CommetUary  on 
Judgee,  pp.  358-359;  Schrader,  KAT,  p.  358;  P.  Jensen. 
Koemtdooie  der  Babylonier,  pp.  449-456,  Strasburg,  1890. 
Earlier  material  is  found  in:  J.  Selden,  De  dU  Stfria,  ii.. 
ehap.  iii.,  London,  1617;  F.  C.  Movers,  Die  Ph6nixier,  i. 
143-144,  590,  Bonn,  1841;  P.  Schols.  ObUendienet  und 
Zavbenceeen,  pp.  238-244,  Regensburg,  1877.  Consult 
also:  Dfi,  i.  544;  EB,  i.  983-985;  Menant,  in  RHR,  xi 
(1885).  295-301. 

DAILLE,  dfi'lyfi'  (DALLJEUS),  JEAN:  French 
Protestant;  b.  at  Chatellerault  (160  m.  s.w.  of 
Paris),  department  of  Vienne,  Jan.  6,  1594;  d.  at 
Charenton  (an  eastern  suburb  of  Paris,  where  the 
Protestants  met  for  worship  after  1606;  see  Ablon) 
Apr.  15,  1670.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Poitiers 
and  at  Saumur.  In  1612  the  governor  of  the  last- 
named  city,  the  celebrated  Du  Plessis-Momay, 
made  him  tutor  of  his  grandsons.    With  his  pupils 


he  traveled  in  Italy  (1619),  and  at  Venice  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi.  In  1623,  after 
his  pupils  had  passed  their  examination,  he  became 
chaplain  at  Momay's  ch&teau  La  For^t.  His  bene- 
factor having  died  soon  after,  Daill^  returned  to 
Saumur,  where  he  prepared  Momay's  memoir  for 
the  press  and  was  appointed  preacher.  In  162t> 
he  was  called  as  minister  of  the  Paris  congregation 
at  Charenton.  He  belonged  to  the  liberal  party, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Calvinist  83mods,  and  wa> 
a  moderator  of  the  last  Synod  of  Loudim.  His 
most  important  works  were  TraiU  de  VempLoy  de^ 
SairUa-P^ea  pour  le  jugemerU  des  difffrenU  qui  soni 
aujourd*hut  en  la  religion  (Geneva,  1632;  £n^. 
transl.,  A  TreaHae  concerning  the  Right  Use  of  the 
Fathera  in  the  Decieion  of  the  Controversies  that  are 
at  this  Day  in  Religion^  London,  1651  and  167o: 
reissued  1841);  Apologie  des  igliaea  r^f armies  oii  eM 
montree  la  n£cessiU  de  leur  separation  d^avec  Vf-glise 
Romaine,  contre  ceux  qui  lea  accuaent  de/aire  schisme 
en  la  ChreatienU  (Charenton,  1633;  Eng.  transl. . 
An  Apologie  for  the  Reformed  Churches,  1653) ;  La 
Foy  fondle  sur  les  Saintes  ^critureSf  corUre  lea  nou- 
veaux  MHhodiatea  (1634);  De  la  cr^nce  des  peres 
sur  lefait  des  images  (Geneva,  1641). 

G.  Bonbt-Maurt. 
Biblioorapht:  Sources  are:  J.   Daill^,  L'AbrfgS  de  ta  vie 

de  J.  DailU,  Geneva,  1671  (by  his  son);  E.  and  "&.  Haag. 

La  France  proteatante,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier,  vol.  v..  Pahs, 

1886;  LichtenberKer,  ESR,  iii.  557-662. 

DALAM),  WILLIAM  CLIFTON:  Seventh-day 
Baptist;  b.  at  New  York  City  Oct.  25,  1860.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute in  1879  and  Union  Theological  Seminary  in 
1886.  While  in  the  Seminary  he  changed  from  the 
Baptists  to  the  Seventh-day  Baptists.  He  held 
pastorates  at  Leonardsville,  N.  Y.  (1886-91),  Wes- 
terly, R.  L  (1891-96),  London  (1896-1900),  and 
again  at  Leonardsville  (1900-02).  Since  1902  he 
has  been  president  of  Milton  College,  Milton,  Wis., 
where  he  is  also  professor  of  philosophy  and  Eng- 
lish. He  was  recording  secretary  of  the  Seventh- 
day  Baptist  Missionary  Society  in  1891-96.  In 
theology  he  is  a  Trinitarian  in  the  sense  of  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed,  and  philosophically  is  a  moderate  Cal- 
vinist, although  an  Arminian  practically.  As  re- 
gards authority,  his  views  are  **  Bibliocentric,"  and 
he  accepts  the  conclusions  of  a  moderate  and  rev- 
erent criticism.  He  has  published  an  annotated 
translation  of  the  Song  of  Songs  (Leonardsville, 
N.  Y.,  1887). 

DALE,  JAMES  WILKINSON:  American  Pres- 
byterian; b.  at  Cantwell's  Bridge  (Odessa),  New 
Castle  County,  Del,  Oct.  16,  1812;  d.  at  Media, 
Pa.,  Apr.  19,  1881.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  1831;  studied  theology  at 
Andover,  1832-33,  at  Princeton,  1833--34,  and  was 
graduated  at  Andover,  1835;  he  also  studied  medi- 
cine (M.D.,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1838)  with 
a  view  to  more  efficient  service  as  a  missionary  in 
India,  but  financial  difficulties  of  the  American 
Board  prevented  his  departure;  he  was  agent  of  the 
American  Bible  Society  for  Pennsylvania,  1838- 
1845;  pastor  at  Ridley  and  Middletown,  Pa.,  1845- 
1866,  at  Media,  1866-71,  at  Wayne,  1871-76.  He 
issued  many  sermons  and  labored  zealously  in  be- 


343 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dftffon 
Dalton 


half  of  total  abstinence.  His  reputation  was  made, 
however,  by  his  elaborate  works  on  baptism,  viz.- 
Classic  Baptism  (Philadelphia,  1867);  Judaic  Bap- 
tism (1869);  Johannic  Baptism  (ISri);  Christie  and 
Patristic  Baptism  (1874).  A  condensed  statement 
of  his  views,  which  were  in  favor  of  pedobaptism 
and  sprinkling,  may  be  fomid  in  The  Cup  and  the 
Cross  (1872). 

BiBUOORAnnr:  J.  Roberts,  Memorial  of  Jatnea  Wilkimon 
Dale,  Philadelphia,  1886. 

DALE,  ROBERT  WILLIAM:  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  London  Dec.  1,  1829;  d.  at  Birmingham  Mar. 
13,  1895.  He  studied  at  Spring  Hill  College,  Bir- 
mingham (M.A.,  University  of  London,  1853),  and 
was  associate  pastor  of  Carr's  Lane  Congregational 
Church,  Birmingham,  1853-59,  after  which  he  was 
sole  pastor  until  his  death.  In  1869  he  was  chair- 
man of  the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and 
Wales  and  in  1877  was  Lyman  Beecher  lecturer  at 
Yale.  In  1885  he  was  appointed  by  the  crown  a 
member  of  a  conmiittee  for  investigating  the  work- 
ing of  the  English  system  of  elementary  education. 
He  was  likewise  a  governor  of  King  Edward  VI. 's 
School,  Birmingham,  and  in  theology  was  liberal 
and  an  advocate  of  conditional  inmiortality.  His 
publications  embrace  Life  and  Letters  of  the  Rev, 
John  AngeU  James  (London,  1861);  The  Jewish 
Temple  and  the  Christian  Church  (1865);  Christ  and 
the  Controversies  of  Christendom  (1869);  The  Holy 
Spirit  in  Relation  to  the  Work  of  the  Ministry ^  the 
Worship,  and  the  Work  of  the  Church  (1869);  The 
Ten  Commandments  (1871);  Protestantism^  its  Ultv- 
maU  Principle  (1874);  The  Atonement  (1875),  a 
book  which  has  had  a  remarkable  reception;  Nine 
Lectures  on  Preaching  (Lyman  Beecher  lectures; 
1877);  Impressions  of  America  (New  York,  1878); 
The  Evangelical  Revival^  and  Other  Sermons  (Lon- 
don, 1880);  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  its  Doctrine 
and  Ethics  (1882);  The  Laws  of  Christ  for  Common 
Life  (1884);  Manual  of  Congregational  Principles 
(1884);  Impressions  of  Australia  (1889);  The  Old 
Evangelicalism  and  the  New  (1889);  The  Living 
Christ  and  the  Four  Gospels  (1890);  Fellowship  with 
Christ  and  Other  Discourses  (1891);  Christian  Doc- 
trine (1894);  Christ  and  the  Future  Life  (1895);  The 
Epistle  of  James  and  Other  Discourses  (1895);  and 
Essays  and  Addresses  (1899).  He  likewise  edited 
The  English  Hymn-Book  (Birmingham,  1875). 

Bibuoorafht;  A.  W.  W.  Dale  (his  1011),  lAfe  of  R.  W. 
Dale  of  Birmingham^  London,  1898. 

DALICAIT,  GUSTAF  HERMAITII:  German  Lu- 
theran; b.  at  Niesky  (11  m.  n.n.w.  of  GOrlits), 
Silesia,  June  9,  1855.  He  studied  at  the  Moravian 
school  in  his  native  town  and  the  Moravian  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Gnadenfeld,  where  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  Old  Testament  exegesis  and  practical 
theology  1881-^.  In  1887  he  left  the  Moravians 
for  the  Lutherans,  studied  at  Leipsic  (Ph.D.,  1887), 
and  until  1902  was  professor  and  later  director  of 
the  Institutimi  Delitzscl^num  at  Leipsic.  He 
was  privat-docent  1891-96  and  since  1896  has  been 
associate  professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  in 
Leipsic.  Since  1902  he  has  been  on  furlough  in 
Palestine  as  president  of  the  German  Evangelical 


Archeological  Institute,  and  was  also  appointed 
honorary  Swedish  consul  for  Palestine  and  Da- 
mascus in  1903.  In  theology  he  '*  belongs  to  no 
party  of  any  description,  and  tries  to  unite  Evan- 
gelical Christian  faith  with  scientific  progress.*'  Of 
his  numerous  publications  may  be  mentioned: 
Studien  zur  biblischen  Theologie  (2  parts,  Berlin, 
1889-97);  Jesaja  63,  das  Prophetenwort  vom  Sithnr 
leiden  des  Heilsmittlers  (Leipsic,  1890);  Kurzge- 
fasstes  Handbuch  der  Mission  unter  Israel  (Berlin, 
1893);  Grammatik  des  judisch-palOstinischen  Ara- 
mdisch  (Leipsic,  1894);  Eben  Ezer,  Gedenkbuch  der 
Familie  Julius  Marx  (1897);  Aramdisch-neuhe- 
brdisches  Wortertmch  zu  Targum,  Talmud  und  Mid- 
rasch  (2  parts,  Frankfort,  1897-1901);  Christentum 
und  Judentum  (Leipsic,  1898;  Eng.  transl.,  Chris- 
tianity and  Judaism,  by  G.  H.  Box,  Oxford,  1901); 
Die  Worte  Jesu  mil  besonderer  BerOcksictUigung  des 
nachkanonischen  jOdischen  SchrifUums  und  der  ara- 
mdischen  Sprache,  i.  (Leipsic,  1898;  Eng.  transl.. 
The  Words  of  Jesus  Considered  in  Light  of  Post- 
Biblical  Jewish  Writings  and  the  Aramaic  Language, 
by  D.  M.  Kay,  Edinbui^h,  1902);  and  Paldstinischer 
LHwan  (Leipsic,  1901).  He  edited  the  monthly 
Berith  Am  from  1893  to  1902  and  the  annual  report 
of  the  Deutsches  Evangelisches  Institut  fur  Alter- 
tumswissenschaft  des  heiligen  Landes  since  1905. 

DALIIATIC.  See  Vestments  and  Insignia, 
Ecclesiastical. 

DALTON,  HERMANlff:  German  Reformed;  b. 
at  Offenbach  (4  m.  s.e.  of  Frankfort)  Aug.  20, 
1833.  He  studied  at  Marburg,  Berlin,  and  Heidel- 
berg 1853-56,  and  was  pastor  of  the  German  Re- 
formed church  in  St.  Petersburg  1858-59.  In  the 
latter  year  he  retired  from  active  life,  and  has  since 
resided  in  Berlin.  In  1868  he  was  created  a  con- 
sistorial  councilor,  and  in  1876  founded  the  Evan- 
gelical city  mission  in  St.  Petersbui^.  His  wri- 
tings include:  Nathanael,  apologetische  Vortrdge 
iiber  eimige  Punkte  des  Christentums  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1861);  Geschichte  der  reformierten  Kirche  in 
Russland  (Gotha,  1865);  Immanuel,  der  HeideU 
berger  Katechismus  als  Bekenntnis-  und  Erbauungs- 
buch  (Wiesbaden,  1870);  Reisebilder  aus  dem  Orient 
(St.  Petersburg,  1871);  Johannes  Gossner,  ein 
Ld)enabild  aus  der  Kirche  des  neumehnten  Jahr- 
hunderts  (1874);  Johannes  von  Muralt,  eine  Pdda- 
gogenr  und  PastorengestaU  der  Schweiz  und  Russ* 
lands  aus  der  ersten  Halfte  des  neumehnten 
Jahrhunderts  (Wiesbaden,  1876);  Johannes  a  Lasco, 
Beitrag  zur  Reformationsgeschichte  Polens,  Deutsch- 
lands  und  Englands  (Gotha,  1881;  Eng.  transl.  by 
M.  J.  Evans,  London,  1886);  Reisebilder  aus  Grie- 
chenland  und  Kleinasien  (Bremen,  1884);  Ferien- 
reise  eines  evangelischen  Predigers  (1886);  Beitrdge 
zur  Geschichte  der  evangelischen  Kirche  in  Russland 
(4  vols.,  Gotha  and  Berlin,  1887-1905);  Die  evange- 
lische  Kirche  in  Russland  (Leipsic,  1890);  Offenes 
Sendschreiben  an  den  Oberprokureur  dies  russi- 
schen  Synods,  Herrn  Wirklichen  Geheimrat  Kon- 
stantin  Pobedonosieff  (1890;  Eng.  transl..  On  Re- 
ligious Liberty  in  Russia,  Open  letter,  1890),  Am/ 
Missionspfaden  in  Japan  (Bremen,  1895);  Indische 
Reisehriefe  (GOtersloh,  1899);  Aus  dem  Leben  einer 
evangelischen  Gemeinde  (1901);   Daniel  Ernst  Jalh 


Damaaoenns 
Damianiia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


344 


ZtrntH  (Berlin,  1903);  and  Lebefuerinnerungen  (2 
vols.,  1906-07). 

DAHASCENUS  (DAHASKBfOS)  THE  STUDITE: 

The  most  important  popular  writer  of  the  Greek 
Church  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  came  from 
Thessalonica,  was  a  disciple  of  Theophanes  Elea- 
bulkos  in  Constantinople,  and  a  member  of  the 
Studite  monastery  (see  Accembti);  he  became 
bishop  of  Lite  and  Rhendine,  and  in  1573  was 
metropolitan  of  Naupactus  and  Arta.  His  chief 
work  was  the  **  Treasury  "  (1st  ed.  probably  1570; 
2d  ed.,  1589;  many  later  eds.,  down  to  the  present), 
containing  thirty-six  sermons  or  homilies,  with 
seven  ethical  treatises  by  Joannikios  Kartanos 
(q.v.).  The  addresses  are  written  in  the  popular 
speech  of  the  time  and  based  upon  Bible  texts  or 
saints'  lives.  The  aim  is  practical  rather  than  theo- 
logical, and  Damascenus  does  bot  disdain  now  and 
then  to  please  his  hearers  by  a  joke.  So  far  as  his 
theology  appears,  he  is  strongly  orthodox.  He 
avoids  polemics,  except  sometimes  against  the  Jews. 

(Philipp  Meyer.) 

DAMASCUS:  Perhaps  the  oldest  dty  in  Syria. 
Its  name  appears  in  the  principal  early  tongues  of 
the  region  (Heb.  Dammesk^  Darmeae^,  and  Dumn 
me8ek;  Egyptian  Timaslfu,  Saranuuilfu;  Assyr. 
DimashJfi  and  Dimashlfa;  Arab.  Dimashkf  Dimislp 
eUSkam^  or  elrSham).  It  lies  east  of  Mt.  Hermon  in 
33®  32'  n.  lat.,  36''  18'  e.  long.,  133  m.  n.n.e.  of  Je- 
rusalem and  about  60  m.  e.  of  the  Mediterranean, 
at  an  altitude  of  2,260  feet,  at  the  western  end  of 
the  exceedingly  fertile  plain  of  the  Ghuta  (a  hollow 
sheltered  by  hiUs  and  watered  by  the  Barada  and 
the  Awaj),  along  the  principal  branch  of  the  Barada 
C*  Abana,"  II  Kings  v.  12;  Gk.  Chryaarrhoaa).  It 
is  about  a  mile  in  length  from  east  to  west  and  half 
a  mile  from  north  to  south,  with  a  suburb  of  con- 
tinuous buildings  on  the  south  nearly  a  mile  in  ex- 
tent, thus  presenting  in  contour  the  shape  of  a  mal- 
let with  its  handle.  Its  site  is  nearly  level,  it  is 
walled,  only  the  foundations  of  most  of  the  wall 
being  ancient,  and  it  gives  entrance  by  seven  gates. 
Its  location  on  a  plain  unusually  rich  in  its  products 
of  fruits  in  many  varieties,  of  grains  and  other  prod- 
ucts useful  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  and  its 
situation  on  great  trade  routes  have  combined  not 
only  to  prolong  its  life,  but  to  cause  its  speedy  re- 
covery from  the  many  disasters  which  have  befallen 
it  in  the  course  of  history.  It  has  been  famed  at 
different  times  for  its  wines,  its  wool  products  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  18),  its  silk  (Amos  iii.  12,  R.  V.  margin;  cf. 
the  **  damask  "  of  commerce),  and  its  ''  Damascus 
blades."  Besides  a  part  of  the  wall  for  which  an 
early  date  is  claimed,  there  is  no  ancient  structure. 
It  is  likely  that  the  Onuniad  Mosque  is  situated  on 
the  site  of  the  old  Church  of  St.  John,  which  took 
its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  was  supposed  to  be 
the  repository  of  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist. 
The  conjecture  has  been  offered  that  this  was  on 
the  site  of  an  early  temple. 

The  history  of  the  city  has  been  very  varied.  It 
is  first  mentioned  in  connection  with  Abraham, 
Gen.  xiv.  5,  xv.  2.  In  the  fifteenth  century  b.c. 
it  figures  as  one  of  the  conquests  of  Thothmes  III., 
and  at  the  same  time  its  name  is  found  in  the  Amar- 


na  Tablets,  while  in  the  thirteenth  it  is  dainied  as  z 
part  of  the  territory  of  Rameses  III.     According' 
II  Sam.  viii.  3  sqq.  (cf.  I  Chron.  xviii.  5  sqq.)  it  ws5 
included  in  the  realm  of  David,  but  must  have  been 
lost  to  the  Hebrews  soon  after,  according  to  I  "Kins-. 
xi.  23-25.     It  appears  later  to  have  become  tL*. 
head  of  the  Syrian  confederacy  which  opposed  for 
so  long  the  westward  march  of  the  As83rrian  empire 
(see  Assyria,  VI.,  3,  §§  7  sqq.),  and  the  power  wLic'i 
was  centered  there  was  almost  continuously  anta^cr- 
nistic  to  the  Hebrew  kingdoms.     A  Rezon  son  of 
Eliadah  appears  to  have  made  himself  king  in  Xise 
time  of  Solomon.     A  king  named  Ben-hadad  helped 
Asa  against  Baasha  (I  Kings  xv.  16-21),  and  the 
same  king  or  one  of  the  same  name  defeated  Omri 
and  established  a  trading  station  in  Samaria  (I 
Kings  XX.  34),  while  a  son  had  to  yield  under  defeat 
the  same  privilege  to  Ahab  in  Damascus.     In  a 
later  campaign  against  the  same  power  Ahab  met 
his  death  (I  Kings  xxii.).   In  the  yesLrs  854,  850,  and 
847  the  forces  of  Damascus  under  a  Ben-hadad  were 
defeated  by  Shalmaneser  II.,  yet  the  city  seems  to 
have  recovered  and,  under  a  king  whose  name  w£l> 
also  Ben-hadad,  besieged  Samaria  (II  Kings  ^i- 
vii.)-     The  throne  was  soon  after  seized  by  Hazael 
(II  Kings  viii.  15),  who  defeated  Jehoram  (II  Kin^s 
viii.  28-29),  and  was  defeated  by  Shalnuuieser  11. 
in  843  and  840.     Yet  the  same  speedy  recovery  v^o 
often  shown  by  the  city  enabled  its  king  to  regain 
territory  from  Israel  east  of  the  Jordan  and  even  to 
threaten  Judah  (II  Kings  xii.  17-18)  and  to  con- 
tinue hostile  operations  against  Jehoahaz  and  Je- 
hoash  (II  Kings  xiii.   3,   25).     In  803  a  king  of 
Damascus  whose  name  is  given  in  the  inscriptioTis 
as  Mari  was  assailed  by  Ramman-nirari  III.,  and 
Israel  seized  the  opportunity  to  recover  territory 
east  of  the  Jordan  (II  Kings  xiv.  28).     In  773  the 
battering  of  the  Assyrians  was  renewed,  in  740  the 
ruler  Rezin  paid  tribute  to  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  (cf. 
II  Kings  XV.  19  sqq.,  xvi.  7  sqq.),  who  took  the 
city  in  733,  killed  Rezin,  deported  the  inhabitants, 
and  introduced  Assyrian  colonists.     In  732  Ahab 
visited  the  city  to  pay  homage  to  the  Assyrian 
overlord.     In  713  Damascus  was  again  found  in  an 
anti- Assyrian  league  and  was  again  crushed  in  the 
defeat  at  Karkar.     Under  the  Persians  the  city  was 
made  a  seat  of  provincial  government.     When  the 
region  came  under  the  sway  of  Alexander  he  issued 
coins  from  the  city;  but  after  his  empire  was  divided 
Damascus  was  compelled  to  yield  the  chief  place  in 
importance  to  Antioch,  though  it  was  often  a  second* 
ary  capital.     In  85  b.c.  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Aretas  the  Nabatsean.     It  was  occupied  in  65  by 
the  Romans,  and  seems  to  have  been  ruled  by  an 
ethnarch  for  another  Aretas  in  the  time  of  Paul 
(II  Cor.  xi.  32).     According  to  the  testimony  of 
coins,  between  34  and  62  a.d.  the  city  was  not  under 
Roman  control.     Christianity  seems  to  have  made 
an  early  entrance  into  the  dty,  most  likely  through 
Jewish  converts  (Acts  ix.  1  sqq.),  and  in  Christian 
history  the  place  is  famous  as  the  place  where  or 
near  which  Paul  was  converted.     A  bishopric  was 
erected  there,  the  incimibent  of  which  took  rank 
after  the  patriarch  of  Antioch.     In  635  a.d.  it  be- 
came the  residence  of  Mu'awiya,  the  first  Ommiad 
calif.     During  the  crusades  it  was  frequently  the 


346 


RELIGIOUS  ENCVCLOPEDIA 


DamascenuB 
Damianus 


object  of  attack,  was  captured  by  the  Mongols  in 
1260,  plundered  by  the  Tatars  in  1300,  and  taken 
by  the  Turks  under  Selim  in  1516,  since  which  date 
it  has  been  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  province,  ex- 
cept for  the  period  1832-41,  when  it  was  under 
Egyptian  control.  The  present  population  is  not 
accurately  known,  estimates  varying  from  160,000 
to  180,000,  of  whom  about  100,000  are  Moham- 
medans, about  5,000  Jews,  22,000  Orthodox  Greeks, 
and  the  rest  are  distributed  among  the  Christian 
sects.    See  Aram,  Arameans,  §§  9-10. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibuoorapbt:  J.  L.  Porter,  Five  Years  in  Damaaeue,  Lon- 
don. 1855;  W.  K.  Kelly,  Sjfria  and  the  Holy  Land,  chaps. 
XT.-xvi..  ib.  1844;  P.  Schaff.  Throui^  Bible  Lande,  pp.  361 
aqq.,  New  York,  1878;  Mrs.  Madntoah,  Danuueue  and  its 
PeopU,  London,  1882;  M.  F.  von  Oppenheim,  Vom  Mittel- 
meer  turn  pertieehen  Odf,  i.  49-86,  Berlin,  1899;  Schflrer, 
Oeaehiehte,  iii.  117  sqq.  et  paaeim;   Eng.  tnuud.,  passim. 

DAMASUS:    The  name  of  two  popes. 

Damasus  I. :  Pope  366-384.  He  was  bom  in  305, 
probably  in  Rome,  the  son  of  a  priest  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Laurence.  After  the  death  of  Liberius,  he  was 
elected  bishop  by  a  part  of  the  Church,  while  another 
faction  chose  the  deacon  Ursinus.  Damasus  could 
secure  recognition  only  after  a  conflict  marked  by 
bloodshed,  which  lasted  two  years  on  account  of 
the  uncertain  attitude  of  Valentinian  I.;  and  even 
after  the  suppression  of  the  disturbances  the  party 
of  Ursinus  maintained  their  opposition,  to  the  point 
of  schism.  During  these  troubles  clerics  had  been 
summoned  before  secular  judges,  and  torture  had 
even  been  used.  On  complaint  being  made,  Valen- 
tinian issued  a  rescript,  the  substance  of  which  is 
known  from  Ambrose  (Epist.f  xxi.  2);  it  is  summed 
up  in  the  phrase  "  that  priests  should  judge  priests." 
Rade  thinks  that  the  emperor  meant  to  declare  a 
fundamental  division  between  secular  and  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction;  but  this  is  too  much  to  infer 
from  the  words.  It  was  only  an  express  recog- 
nition of  the  disciplinaiy  power  of  bishops  and 
councils,  as  it  had  been  previously  recognized  in 
practise,  and  limited  to  questions  of  faith,  morals, 
and  contests  over  ecclesiastical  offices.  The  appeal 
of  the  Roman  council  of  378  or  379  to  Gratian  was, 
in  view  of  the  occasion,  an  attempt  to  secure 
not  extension,  but  recognition  of  the  disciplinary 
power  of  the  Roman  See,  which  was  practically 
nullified  as  long  as  imperial  officials  declined  to  en- 
force the  sentence  of  ecclesiastical  tribunals.  This 
the  council  asked  that  they  should  be  instructed  to 
do,  and  Gratian  agreed.  There  appears  nothing  in 
all  this  to  support  the  contention  of  Rade  and 
Langen  that  the  Western  bishops  at  least  were  sub- 
ject to  the  tribunal  of  the  pope;  and  the  imperial 
decrees  mentioned  above  can  scarcely  be  cited  as 
triumphs  of  the  policy  of  Damasus.  In  fact,  he 
does  not  seem  to  have  known  how  to  use  either  these 
or  the  famous  edict  of  Theodosius  (Feb.  27,  380), 
or  the  third  canon  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
in  381,  as  means  to  the  elevation  of  Rome's  eccle- 
siastical position — which,  indeed,  was  actually 
damaged  by  his  conduct  in  the  Antioch  contro- 
versy (see  Meletiub  of  Antioch),  and  did  not 
again  make  progress  until  the  pontificate  of  Siri- 
cius.     In   dogmatic   confficts  Damasus  remained 


steadfast  in  the  traditional  Roman  policy.  He  op- 
posed the  Arians,  and  took  strong  measures  against 
the  Luciferians.  It  was  during  his  pontificate  that 
the  understanding  was  reached  between  the  Old 
and  Young  Nioene  parties  in  the  East;  but  he 
rather  hindered  the  rapprochement  than  helped  it, 
taking  the  side  of  the  strict  old  orthodox  party  in 
the  schism  of  Antioch.  Basil  of  Csesarea  tried  in 
vain  to  get  him  to  acknowledge  Meletius.  A 
Roman  synod  of  382  renounced  communion  with 
Flavian.  The  measures  taken  by  Damasus  against 
Arianism  in  Italy  were  not  very  successful.  Ap- 
parently as  early  as  369  he  had  condemned  Auxen- 
tius  of  Milan  at  a  council  of  Italian  bishops,  but  the 
sentence  was  not  executed  by  the  secular  authori- 
ties; Auxentius  remained  bishop  until  his  death, 
and  only  in  the  election  of  Ambrose  to  succeed  him 
did  orthodoxy  come  into  power.  He  was  more 
successful  in  his  repeated  pronouncements  against 
Apollinarianism,  which  was  condemned  in  Roman 
councils  of  (probably)  377  and  381.  Damasus  was 
not  lacking  in  learning,  and  did  a  good  work  by 
setting  on  foot  a  revision  of  the  Latin  Bible.  He 
wrote  a  (lost)  treatise  on  virginity  and  a  nimiber 
of  metrical  inscriptions  for  the  catacombs,  on  which 
he  bestowed  intelligent  care.  He  died  Dec.  11, 
384.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobaprt:  The  Opera  of  Damaaufl  are  in  MPL,  xiii., 
and  hiB  EpigrainnuUaf  ed.  M.  Ihm,  were  publiBhed,  Leip- 
810, 1895.  Consult:  Liber  pontificalia  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  212, 
Paris,  1886,  and  ed.  Monunsen  in  MOH,  OetL  pont.  Rom., 
i.  82-84;  Jaff«,  Regetta,  i.  37;  M.  Rade,  Damaeue,  Bieehof 
von  Rom,  Freiburg,  1882;  Hefele,  Coneilienoeediiehte, 
vols.  i.-ii.:  Bower,  Popee,  i.  83-107;  Milman,  Latin  Chria- 
Hanitu,  i.  108-110.  Consult  also  B.  HOlscher,  De  Da- 
maei  hymnie,  MUnster,  1868. 

Damasus  IL  (Poppo):  Pope  1047-48.  After  the 
premature  death  of  Clement  II.,  Popp>o,  bishop  of 
Brixen,  was  nominated  to  succeed  hhn  by  Henry 
III.  at  Christmas,  1047.  He  was  conducted  to 
Rome  in  the  following  summer,  consecrated  July 
17,  and  died  Aug.  9.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioobapht:  Jaff^,  Reoeela,  i.  528;  J.  Lancen,  Oetchiehle 
der  rOmiedten  Kirche  .  ,  ,  bie  Oregor  VIL,  Bonn,  1892; 
Hauok,  KD,  iii.  593;  Bower,  Popee,  ii.  343;  Milman. 
Latin  ChrieHanity,  iii.  239. 

DAMIAK,  SAINT.    See  Cobmas  and  Damian, 

Saintb. 

DAMIAin,  PIETRO.  See  Pbtsr  Damian,  Saint. 

DAHIANUS:  Jacobite  patriarch  of  Alexandria; 
b.  in  Syria  July,  678;  d.  June  12, 605.  He  succeeded 
Peter  IV.  as  patriarch  of  Alexandria  in  578 
under  circumstances  which  were  probably  of  a 
turbulent  character.  Controversies  between  the 
Jacobites  and  Paulites  (the  latter  the  adherents  of 
Bishop  Paul  the  Black  of  Antioch,  d.  probably  685) 
ensued  and  passed  over  into  Egypt.  On  a  journey 
in  Syria  and  to  Constantinople  Damianiis  endeav- 
ored to  frustrate  peace  negotiations  which  had  al- 
ready commenced.  The  Jacobite  patriarch  Peter 
of  Aiitioch  was  consecrated  by  him  in  Alexandria 
(680  or  681),  and  later  a  controversy  arose  between 
the  two  which  is  known  as  a  phase  of  the  tritheistic 
controversy  (see  Trttheibm);  Damianus  defended 
a  position  similar  to  that  of  Sabellianism  (q.v.). 
On  two  Coptic  ostraca  a  writing  of  Damianus  is 


Banoers 
Daniel 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


846 


mentioned    with   the    title   K&rugmata  (cf.  Crum, 
Coptic  Ostraca,  London,  1902,  no.  18,  p.  7). 

G.  KrOqer. 
Bxbuoorapht:  The  souroes  are:  John  of  Ephesus,  Hut, 
ecd.,  iii.  4,  33,  38,  41-45.  60,  Syriac  and  En«.  transl.  by 
W.  Cureton,  London,  1853;  Timotheus,  De  recepHont  hcere- 
Heorum,  in  MPO,  Ixxxvi.;  Sophronius,  EpUlola  adSergium, 
in  MPO,  Ixxxvii.;  and  Sevenu,  in  J.  B.  Asseman,  Bihlio- 
theca  orierUalis,  ii.  70  aqq.,  Rome,  1721.  Gonsult:  J.  P. 
N.Land,  Joanne;  BiMchof  von  Epkeaua,  pp.  136-139,  Ley- 
den,  1856;  C.  W.  F.  Walch,  Hi$torie  der  Ketxereien,  viii 
687,  Leipsic,  1778;  A.  von  Quteohmid,  Kleine  Schriften, 
ii.  498-499,  ib.  1890. 

DAMIEN,  FATHER.  See  Venster,  Joseph  db. 
DANCERS  (DANSATORES,  CHORIZAFTES) : 
A  Bet  of  wild  enthusiasts  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  whose  peculiarities  offered  one 
of  those  strange  mixtures  of  physical,  spiritual, 
and  moral  elements  to  be  found  in  the  popular 
life  of  the  Middle  Ages.  They  made  their  appear- 
ance at  Aachen  in  the  sununer  of  1374,  coming 
from  southern  Germany,  and  then  spread  east- 
ward to  Cologne,  southward  to  Metz,  and  westward 
into  Hainault.  Their  membership  was  numbered 
by  thousands,  of  both  sexes,  and  almost  exclu- 
sively from  the  lower  classes.  They  danced  madly 
through  the  streets  and  in  and  out  of  the  churches 
for  hours  at  a  time,  until  they  were  completely 
exhausted.  They  paid  no  attention  to  the  amazed 
spectators,  their  minds  being  taken  up  with  the 
contemplation  of  the  most  fantastic  visions.  Some- 
times they  imagined  that  they  were  wading  in  a 
stream  of  blood,  to  get  out  of  which  they  leaped 
wildly  in  the  air;  others  saw  heaven  opened  and 
Christ  upon  his  throne.  The  morbid  mental  con- 
dition which  undoubtedly  underlay  these  actions 
took  the  form  of  the  popular  notions  of  the  day. 
It  is  probable  that  in  many  cases  it  was  only  simu- 
lated, and  that  lazy  rascals  joined  and  imitated 
the  Dancers  to  get  a  share  in  the  gifts  which  were 
freely  bestowed  upon  them;  and  these  excited 
mobs  offered  a  natural  breeding-groimd  for  im- 
morality of  all  kinds.  The  clergy  and  the  people 
at  large,  however,  sought  no  natural  psychological 
explanation  of  the  phenomena,  but  regarded  the 
dancers  as  demoniacs;  the  priests  attempted  to 
help  them  by  exorcism,  while  the  populace  was 
inclined  to  attribute  their  misfortune  to  imworthy 
priests,  whose  baptism  had  not  sufficient  validity  to 
expel  the  demons.  The  dancers  in  their  delirium 
invoked  St.  John  Baptist,  which  may  be  connected 
with  the  fact  that  the  outbreak  occurred  while  the 
old  popular  celebration  of  his  festival  at  midsununer, 
with  its  many  excesses,  was  still  observed.  A  simi- 
lar epidemic  occurred  at  Strasburg  in  1418.  Here 
it  was  customary  to  invoke  St.  Vitus  for  the  cure  of 
the  malady,  on  account  of  the  old  tradition  which 
has  led  to  the  application  of  the  name  "  St.  Vitus's 
dance  "  to  the  disease  technically  known  as  chorea. 

(A.  Hatjck.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  J.  F.  C.  Hecker,  Die  groMen  Volkakrank- 
hHUn  dM  MiUOaUerM,  ed.  A.  Hinch,  pp.  143-193,  Berlin, 
1866,  Ens.  transl.  of  earher  edition,  pp.  81-138.  London. 
1846  (where  the  authorities  are  given  and  reference  made 
to  similar  phenomena  elsewhere);  Bncydopctdia  Bri- 
tanniea,  xxiii.  60,  s.v.  "  Tarantism  ";  P.  Fr^d^rioq.  Corpu% 
doeumentorum  inquiaWonU  Neerlandiea,  i  231  sqq., 
Ghent.  1889;  idem,  De  eeeten  dee  geeeelaare  en  der  daneere 
in  de  Nederlanden,  Brussels,  1897. 


DANCING:  Dancing  as  a  religious  observance 
occupied  an  important  place  in  the  ceremonies  of  all 
ancient  religions.  It  is  connected  with  sacred  pro- 
cessions (as  in  the  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  festiirals) 
and  with  conmiunity  rites  at  the  altar,  the  sacred 
tree,  or  the  sacred  stone  (cf.,  e.g.,  the  account  of 
such  dances  which  comes  from  Cyprus,  M.  H.  Ohne- 
falsch-Richter,  Kypros,  die  Btbd  und  Homer,  Ber- 
lin, 1893,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1893,  plates  IxxxiiL 
6,  cxxvii.  4,  etc.).  In  the  Mohammedan  festival 
at  Mecca  the  march  around  the  Kaaba  still  re- 
mains the  culminating  point  of  the  celebration. 
The  Old  Testament  reports  that  at  the  great  Baal 
sacrifice  on  Mt.  Carmel  the  priests  went  "limp- 
ing" around  the  altar  (I  Kings  xviii.  26,  R.  V. 
margin),  and  mention  is  made  also  of  dancing 
around  the  golden  calf  (Ex.  xxxii.  19).  Sacred 
processions  fell  into  disuse  in  the  worship  of  Yah- 
weh  after  the  ark  was  transferred  to  Solomon's 
Temple;  but  the  bringing  of  the  ark  into  the 
Temple  (I  Kings  viii.  1  sqq.)  and  its  conveyance  to 
Zion  (II  Sam.  vi.  5)  were  accomplished  in  the  man- 
ner usual  in  sacred  processions.  David  and  all 
Israel  danced  before  the  ark.  Processions  and 
dances  without  the  ark  formed  an  important  part 
of  festal  celebrations  (cf.  the  description  of  such  a 
procession  in  Ps.  Ixviii.  25),  at  triumphal  festivals 
(Ex.  XV.  20;  Judges  xi.  34),  and  at  the  annual 
festival  at  Shiloh  (Judges  xxi.  21).  Indeed,  the 
whole  celebration  takes  its  name  from  them,  the 
Hebrew  ^fugg  signifies  the  festival  procession  or 
dance.  This  remained  true  till  the  latest  period 
of  Jewish  history.  For  the  Psalmist  the  dance 
around  the  altar  was  part  of  the  proper  praise  of 
God  (Ps.  cxlix.  3,  cl.  4).  On  the  evening  of  the 
feast  of  atonement  the  celebration  was  closed  by 
dances  of  the  maidens  of  Jerusalem  in  the  vine- 
yards (Taanit  iv.  8).  A  peculiarity  of  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  was  the  processions  of  those  carrying 
branches  of  citron  and  palm  around  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering,  and  even  more  especially  the  torch- 
dances  of  the  most  prominent  men  on  the  night 
between  the  first  and  second  days  of  the  festival. 

Naturally,  dancing  also  formed  a  part  of  the  secu- 
lar festivals  (Jer.  xxxi.  4,  13;  Matt.  xi.  17;  Luke 
vii.  32,  xv.  25),  and  at  the  banquets  of  the  nobles 
dancing  women  could  not  have  been  lacking  (cf . 
the  Egyptian  customs),  although  they  are  men- 
tioned nowhere  in  the  Old  Testament  (but  note  the 
dance  of  the  daughter  of  Herodias,  Matt.  ziv.  6). 

I.  Benzinoer. 

Bxblioorapht:  John  Spenoer,  in  B.  Ugolinus,  Tkeeaurve 
anUguiiatum  eacrarutnt  zzzii.  1133,  34  vols.,  Venioe.  1744- 
1760;  R.  Voes,  Der  Tone  und  eeineGeeehidUe,  Berlin,  1868; 
F.  Delitssch,  Irie,  pp.  189-206,  London,  1880;  W.  Smith, 
Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  AnH^itiee,  ii.  602-504* 
ib.  1801;  H.  B.  Tristram.  Eaelem  Cueiome,  pp.  207-210, 
ib.  1804;  Mrs.  L.  Grove,  Dancing,  ib.  1806;  H.  Emmanuel, 
La  Danee  greeque  antique^  d'aprie  lee  mommmenie  mfwrie, 
Paris,  1876;  DB,  i.  540-661;  SB,  i.  008-1001;  JB,  iv. 
424-426. 

DANEAU,  da"n6'  (DAlffNiEUS),  LAMBERT: 
French  Protestant;  b.  at  Beaugency-sur-Loire 
(15  m.  S.W.  of  Orleans)  ISSQ;  d.  at  Castres  (80 
ra.  w.  of  Montpellier)  Nov.  11,  1596.  He  was  of 
Roman  Catholic  family,  began  the  study  of  law  at 
Orleans,  went  to  Paris  in  1547,  and  returned  to 


347 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Banoers 
Daniel 


Orleans  in  1552,  where  he  studied  four  years  with 
Anne  du  Bourg  and  obtained  the  degree  of  doclor 
in   tUroque  jure  1559.     For  a   long   time  he  was 
inclined  toward  Protestantism,  and  the  death  of  his 
master,  Du  Bourg,  decided  him  to  go  to  Geneva  in 
1560,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Calvin 
and  adhered  to  the  Reformed  Church.     In  1561 
he  became  pastor  at  Gien,  where  he  remained  till 
St.  Bartholomew's  day.    From  1574  he  was  pro- 
fessor at  Geneva  and  in  1581  was  granted  citizen- 
ship.    The  same  year  he  was  called  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Leyden  and  became  minister  of  the  Walloon 
Church  there.    But  when  he  tried  to  organize  it  on 
the  Genevan  model  he  met  with  much  difhculty 
and  had  to  leave  Leyden  the  following  year.    For 
a  year  he  was  professor  and  preacher  in  Ghent, 
then  at  Orthez,  and  at  Lescar  (1591).     In  1593  he 
was  called  to  Castres.    Daneau  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  theologians  of  the  sixteenth  century; 
he  belonged  to  the  extreme  Calvinist  party,  and 
wrote  many  works  on  philosophy,  jurisprudence, 
and   theology,  including  Methodus   Sacra    Scrip- 
tuTCB  in  piUdicU  turn  coficianibus  utUiter,  atque  in- 
teUigenter  tractandw  (Geneva,  1 570);  Lea  Sorciere,  dup- 
logue  trha  utUe  et  niceaaaire  pour  ce  temps  (1574); 
Brihve  remontrance  sur  lea  jeux  de  aort   (1574); 
Traits  dea  danaea  auquel  eat  amplement  riaolua  la 
queation,  d  aavoir  a'il  eat  permia  aux  Chrdiena  de 
danaer  (1579);    TraiU  de  Veatal  honneate  dea  Chrea- 
tiena  en  leur  accouatrement  (1580);    Orationia  Do- 
miniccB   explicaiio    (1582);     Apologia  aeu   vera   et 
orthodoxa  orihodoxcrum  Patrum  aententia,  defenaio 
ac  interpretatio  de  adoratione  camia   domini   noatri 
Jeau  Chriaii  (1583).  G.  Bonet-Maury. 

Biblioorapht:  P.  de  F^ce,  Lambert  Daneau,  Pazio,  1882; 
Nio^ron,  M&moire;  xzvii.  21-36;  £.  and  E.  Haac.  La 
France  proteetante,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier,  vol.  v.,  Paria,  1886. 

DANIEL,  APOCRYPHAL  ADDITIONS  TO.    See 
Apocrypha,  Old  Testament,  A,  IV.,  3. 

DANIEL,  BOOK  OF. 

I.  Diviflioiia  and  Contents.  The  Author's  Key  ({  2). 

II.  Interpretation.  IV.  The  Date. 

Fourth  Kincdom  Greece         Antiochus  the  Tenninua 

(»  1).  »d  Quern  (J  1). 

Fotuth    Kincdom  Rome         Narrative     Unhistor- 

(»  2).  ioai  (I  2). 

Return   to    Earlier  View    V.  The  Value. 

(I  3).  The  Author's  Faith  (i  1 ). 

Decision      Affected      by  Use  of  Sources  ({  2). 

Views  on  Unity  (i  4).     VI.  Critical    Objections   An- 
III.  The  Unity.  swered. 

The  Two  Languaces  and  Major  Objections  ({1). 

Use    of    First    Person  Minor  Objections  ({  2). 

(»1). 
I.  Divisions  and  Contents:  The  book  named 
after  the  prophet  Daniel  divides  into  narrative 
(i.-vi.)  and  prophecy  (vii.-xii.).  The  first  division 
contains  six  stories:  (i.)  the  fortune  of  the  four 
Hebrew  youths  at  the  court  in  Babylon,  (ii.)  Nebu- 
chadrezzar's dream,  (iii.)the  episode  of  the  golden 
image,  (iv.)  the  second  dream  of  the  king,  (v.)  Bel- 
shazzar's  feast,  (vi.)  the  episode  of  Daniel  in  the 
lions'  den.  The  second  division  contains  four 
visions:  (vii.)  that  of  the  four  beasts,  (viii.)  of  the 
ram  and  the  goat,  (ix.)  the  interpretation  of  Jere- 
miah's (Jer.  XXV.  12,  cf.  xxix.  10)  seventy  weeks 
as  seventy  year-weeks,  (x.-xii.)  Daniel's  final  vision, 
dealing  with  the  last  things.    Besides  this  the 


Septuagint  and  Theodotion  have  as  additions  chap, 
iii.  the  Prayer  of  Azariah  and  the  Song  of  the  Three 
Children,  The  Story  of  Susanna,  and  the  Story  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  (see  Apocrypha,  A,  IV. ,  3).  Inas- 
much as  the  Story  of  Susanna  was  certainly  written 
in  Greek,  and  the  other  additions  probably  so,  they 
have  no  bearing  upon  the  canonical  book  and  show 
merely  to  what  extent  the  person  of  Daniel  was 
used  by  the  Jews  of  the  Greek  world. 

n.  Interpretation:  One  of  the  oldest  witnesses 
to  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  I  Mace.  i.  54,  where  the 
heathen  altar  erected  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  is 
called  the  ''  abomination  of  desolation  "  (cf.  Dan. 
ix.  27,  xi.  31,  xii.  11),  thus  connecting  these  verses 
with  the  time  of  this  king.  Similarly,  the  Sibyl- 
line Oracles  (iii.  394  sqq.)  allude  to  Dan.  vii.  7, 
which  is  referred  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  his 
successors.  Again,  the  queer  rendering  of  Dan.  ix. 
24  sqq.  in  the  Septuagint  points  to  the  supposition 
that  the  events  there  mentioned  had  been  fulfilled 
under  that  king.  Ephraem  Syrus  (Opera,  Rome, 
1732-46,  ii.  206,  214,  232),  probably 

1.  Fourth   following  Jewish  tradition,  construed 
Kinfirdom  the  fourth  kingdom  (Dan.  ii.,  vii.)  as 

areece.  the  Greek  Empire,  the  little  horn  (Dan. 
vii.)  as  Antiochus  Epiphanes;  the 
resurrection  (Dan.  xii.)  is  referred  figuratively  to 
the  revival  of  the  religious  spirit,  but  Dan.  ix. 
25-26  to  Christ,  in  agreement  with  Christian  inter- 
pretation. Julius  Hilarianus,  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  in  his  De  mundi  duratione,  computed 
from  this  verse  that  the  end  of  the  seventy  weeks 
coincided  with  the  reign  of  Antiochus.  But  this 
oldest  interpretation  was  displaced  by  another. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  description  of  the 
last  grievous  days  before  the  Messianic  deliverances 
are  referred  to  the  future  in  the  eschatological  sense 
(cf.  II  Thess.  n,  4  with  Dan.  xi.  36;  Rev.  xL  2,  3, 
xii.  6,  14,  xiii.  5).  Christ  himself,  in  picturing  the 
parousia  of  the  Son  of  Man  (Matt.  xxiv.  20),  made 
use  of  Dan.  vii.  13.  From  Matt.  xxiv.  15,  16  and 
Luke  xxi.  5,  6,  it  appears  that  Rome  has  taken  the 
place  of  Greece.  It  was  no  doubt  understood  by 
Josephus  in  this  way.  With  but  few  exceptions, 
the  patristic  exegetes  followed  this  later  interpre- 
tation. Though  differing  much  in  particulars 
(thus  for  Dan.  ix.  25-26  Jerome  enumerates  nine 
different  computations,  while  Fraidl  in  the  fifteenth 
century  registers  no  less  than  107),  the  fundamental 
conception    is    the    same.     So    Hip- 

2.  Fourth    polytus  refers  the    first  world-power 
Kingdom    (Dan.  ii.,  viL )  to  Babylonia,  the  second 

Borne.  to  Persia,  the  third  to  Greece,  the 
fourth  to  Rome.  The  ten  horns 
(Dan.  vii.)  belong  to  the  future,  the  little  horn  is 
Antichrist.  The  anointed  one  in  Dan.  ix.  25  sqq. 
is  the  high  priest  Joshua,  after  whom  comes  Christ, 
434  years  having  intervened.  The  last  year-week 
IB  eschatological;  between  the  sixty-second  and  the 
final  week  Hippol3rtus  inserts  Christianity;  Dan. 
xi.  he  interprets  historically,  but  the  two  kings  in 
verses  25  sqq.  are  Alexander  Balas  and  Ptolemy 
Philometer;  at  Dan.  xi.  36  his  exegesis  makes  a 
bold  leap,  referring  what  follows  to  the  eschatological 
future  and  the  coming  Antichrist.  This  method 
of  interpretation  foimd  a  strong  opponent  in  Por- 


Daniel 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


348 


phyiy  (see  Neoplatonism).  In  book  xii.  of  his 
extensive  work  against  Christianity  Porphyiy  dis- 
cussed the  Book  of  Daniel,  and  placed  its  author 
in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  To  prove  his 
position,  Porphyry  gave  abundant  extracts  from 
Greek  authors;  theae  were  used  liberally  by  the 
Fathers  (so  Jerome  on  Dan.  xi.)»  but  otherwise  his 
work  had  no  influence.  The  patristic  view  dom- 
inated the  Middle  Ages.  Only  a  few  Jewish  exe- 
getes  had  a  dififerent  conception;  thus  Saadia  and 
Ibn  Ezra  saw  the  Mohammedan  empire  in  the  fourth 
world-power.  But  all,  Christians  and  Jews,  Catho- 
lic and  Protestant,  agreed  that  the  book  was  writ- 
ten during  the  Exile.  That  Uriel  Acosta,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  agreed  with  Porphyiy  in 
calling  it  a  forgery  made  little  impression.  Semler 
made  the  statement  anew;  but  only  through  the 
investigations  of  Corrodi  (1783),  Bertholdt  (1806- 
1808),  and  especially  of  Gesenius  and  Bleek  did 

criticism  come  to  its  own.     In  a  short 

8.  Betam  time  the  recognition  that  the  historical 

to  Sarlier  vision  of  the  book  does  not  go  beyond 

View.       Antiochus  and  that  its  author  lived 

during  his  reign  became  universally 
accepted  among  Uberal-minded  scholars.  Among 
orthodox  theologians  this  revival  of  Porphyry's 
view  met  with  strong  opposition,  especially  in  the 
apologies  of  Hengstenberg  and  Hftvemick.  For  a 
while  Franz  Delitzsch  took  a  middle  position,  but 
finally  recognized  the  book  as  a  product  of  the 
times  of  the  Seleucids. 

Thus  far  mention  has  been  made  only  of  those 
who  held  to  the  unity  of  the  book;  but  it  is  neces- 
sary to  notice  the  endeavors  made  to  separate  it 
into  parts.    Some  orthodox  theologians  used  this 

method  to  save  at  least  part  of  the 

4.  Deoiaion  book  as  exilic.    The  oldest  exponent 

Affected    of  this  theory  of  a  composite  Daniel  is 

by  Views    Spinoza,  who  saw  in  Dan.  viii.-xii.  a 

on  Unity,  genuine    work    and    suggested    from 

linguistic  data  that  Dan.  i.-vii.  were 
taken  from  chronological  works  of  the  Chaldeans. 
B.  Newton  pointed  out  that  Dan.  vii.-xii.  were 
written  in  the  first  person,  consequently  they  alone 
had  claims  to  genuineness.  This  view  found  a 
champion  later  in  August  Kohler.  Essentially 
different  is  Orelli's  treatment;  he  contends  that 
originally  the  four  kingdoms  were  Babylonia, 
Medo-Persia,  Macedonia,  and  Rome,  and  that  a 
Jew  living  in  the  troublous  times  of  Antiochus 
thought  he  had  discovered  imder  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes the  fulfilment  of  the  old  prophecies  of  Daniel, 
and  extended  the  book  to  make  the  reference  evi- 
dent to  his  contemporaries.  ZOckler  found  one 
interpolation  of  Maccabean  date  (Dan.  xi.  5-45); 
J.  P.  Lange  found  two  (Dan.  x.  1-11,  44,  xii.  5-13); 
Meinhold  held  the  part  written  in  Aramaic  to  be  ex- 
ilic, that  written  in  Hebrew  Maccabean ;  Lagarde  held 
that  chap.  vii.  was  written  in  Roman  times  (69  a.d.). 
ra.  The  Unity:  The  totally  different  results  at 
which  the  opponents  of  the  book's  unity  arrive 
create  but  little  faith  in  their  method.  That  the 
book  is  partly  Hebrew,  partly  Aramaic,  would 
prove  something  only  if  the  parts  differed  also  in 
contents.  But  this  is  by  no  means  the  case.  Dan. 
ii.  4,  where  the  Aramaic  begins,  is  part  of  a  coherent 


narrative;  vii.  belongs  with  viii.  and  not  with  iL- 
vi.     The  question  why  two  languages   are    used 
can    not    be   conclusively    answered 
1.  TheTwo<^^<'8^^c'  unsatisfactory   is   the   ei- 
Lantfnaffes  planation  that  the  author  uaed  the 
and  X7se  of  Aramaic  because  he  thought  it   the 
Virst       language  employed  by  the  speakei^. 
Person,     f^^  then  he  forgot  himself  untfl  he 
came  to  viii.  1!    The  simplest  expla- 
nation is  that  a  lacuna  in  the  original  Hebrew  was 
filled  in  at  a  later  time  from  an  Aramaic  translation. 
The  use  of  the  first  person  in  vii.-xii.  has  littk 
weight  as  groimd  for  partition  for  the  reaaon  that 
it  is  hedged  in  by  the  use  of  the  third  persao. 
Therefore  internal  grounds  alone  can  help  in  de- 
ciding whether  exilic  documents   are  incorporated 
or  whether  a  (late)  author  designedly  used  as  a 
part  of  his  art  the  pretext  of  possession  of  genuine 
prophecies.     Similarly  the  affirmation  of  a  *'  tend- 
ency  "  is  not  to  be  used  as  ground  for  partition, 
for  this  appears  in  both  parte  alike.     Thus  the 
main  question  remains,  whether  or  not  the  book 
everywhere  in  its  description  of  the  future  has  the 
same  horizon. 

The  investigation  must  begin  with  viiL  and  xL 
In  viii.  the  book  itself  gives  a  clear  interpretation. 
The  ram  with  the  two  horns  refers  to  the  kings  d 
Media  and  Persia,  the  goat  is  Greece  (viii.  20,  21). 
The  great  horn  of  the  goat  is  the  first  Greek  kin^ 
(Alexander  the  Great).  After  his  death  the  king- 
dom is  divided,  and  the  Ptolemies  and 
8.  The  Seleucidse  enter.  Chapter  xL  gives 
Author's  a  detailed  outline  of  the  political 
Key.  relations  between  the  kings  of  the 
north  and  of  the  south,  that  is,  between 
the  Seleucidseandthe  Ptolemies;  xi.  21sqq.  refers  to 
Antiochus,  xi.  25  sqq.  describes  his  first  campaign 
against  Egypt  (179  B.C. ),  xi.  29  sqq.  relates  his  second 
campaign  (168  B.C.);  and  the  "  ships  of  Chittim  " 
refers  to  the  arrival  of  Popilius  Leenastoaid  Elgypt. 
In  anger  on  account  of  the  failure  of  his  Egyptian 
campaign,  Antiochus  revenged  himself  against  the 
Jews  by  eliminating  their  daily  worship  and  setting 
up  a  heathen  altar  in  the  temple  (cf .  Dan.  xi.  39  sqq. 
with  I  Mace.  i.  47  sqq.,  57,  62).  That  from  Dan.  xi. 
36  to  the  end  of  the  chapter  another  king  is  meant 
is  impossible.  The  fined  destruction  of  the  king 
and  the  expression  "  at  that  time  "  denote  the  end 
of  the  history  and  the  beginning  of  Messianic  times. 
If  we  examine  now  chap.  ii.  it  appears  undeniable  that 
the  fourth  kingdom,  first  of  iron,  later  of  iron  and 
clay,  with  its  many  futile  attempts  at  union  through 
matrimony,  can  refer  only  to  Greece.  It  is  ob- 
jected that  history  knows  only  one  world-power 
between  the  Babylonian  and  the  Macedonian;  how- 
ever, the  question  is  not  one  of  history,  but  of  the 
author's  view,  and  he  has  two  kingdoms,  the  Median 
and  the  Persian  (vi.  1,  ix.  1,  x.  1 ).  Since  the  bound- 
aries of  the  two  nations  join,  they  appear  in  chap, 
viii.  as  a  relative  unit  in  the  ram  with  the  two  horns. 
As  thus  chaps,  ii.,  viii.,  and  xi.  have  the  same 
horizon,  the  supposition  is  that  this  is  true  also  of 
chap.  vii.  Here  the  ten  horns  of  the  fourth  animal 
create  some  difficulty.  Lagarde  has  seen  here  ten 
Csesars,  but  as  he  had  to  count  in  Antoninus  and 
to  connect  Vespasian  with  the  little  horn  (to  whom 


349 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Daniel 


it  IB  impossible  that  vii.  24,  25  refer),  his  theory 
must  be  rejected;  but  the  question  remains  whether 
the  ten  horns  may  not  be  brought  into  connection 
with  ten  Grecian  rulers.  This  is  so  easy  that  the 
only  difficulty  is  to  decide  among  the  many  possible 
combinations  at  which  Nestle,  Von  Gutschmid, 
Gunkel,  and  others  arrive.  There  remain  for  ex- 
amination only  the  celebrated  conclusions  to  chap. 
ix.  Here  the  evil  prince  is  by  general  agreement 
no  other  than  Antiochus,  who  is  similarly  described 
in  vii.  25,  viii.  23  sqq.,  xi  31.  That  he  is  to  reign 
half  a  week  (3i  years)  agrees  with  vii.  25,  xii.  7, 
and  his  reign  precedes  that  of  the  Messisdi  (chap, 
xi.);  thus  his  horizon  is  limited  to  the  Greek  period. 
The  anointed  one  is  not  Cyrus  (Isa.  xlv.),  but  a  rul- 
ing high  priest;  the  sixty-two  weeks  embrace  post- 
exilic  times  under  the  guidance  of  a  line  of  legiti- 
mate high  priests,  the  end  of  which  period  is  marked 
by  the  removal  of  this  line,  probably  in  the  person  of 
Onias  III.;  the  last  year-week  is  that  during  which 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  did  away  with  the  daily 
service.  Comparison  of  these  7  x  62  years  with  the 
time  between  536  B.C.  and  170  gives  sixty-^ight 
years  too  many,  but  one  has  only  to  read  Josephus 
to  appreciate  the  labors  and  difficulties  of  a  Jewish 
historian  of  his  time  and  the  futility  of  seeking  a 
perfectly  satisfactory  reckoning. 

IV.  The  Date:    The  result  of  an  unbiased  inves- 
tigation of  the  book  is  therefore  that  the  described 
period  nowhere  goes  beyond  that  of  Antiochus; 
thus  the  question  as  to  the  time  of  its  composition  is 
settled.     Nearly  all  the  Old  Testament  prophets 
join  the  time  of  the  end  closely  to  their  own  times. 
A  similar  expectation  is  expressed  in  Daniel,  but 
only  from  the  moment  when  the  power  of  Anti- 
ochus had  reached  its  zenith.    According  to  Bib- 
lical analogy,  the  book  was  written 
1.  An-      j^^  ^  ^injg  when  the  description  of  the 
***^^**     future  takes  on  the  character  of  other 
Terminus  Prophetical  books;   while  the  minute, 
ad  Qoem.  unprophetical  description  of  the  period 
between    the    Exile    and    Antiochus 
must  be  taken  as  a  description  of  past  events. 
Such  passages  as  viii.  13,  19,  xii.  6  sqq.,  11  imply 
that  the  question  which  concerns  the  author  is 
how  long  the  teirorism  of  Antiochus  is  to  last.     In 
complete  accord  with  this  are  the  directions  (viii.  26, 
xii.  4)  to  the  exilic  Daniel  to  seal  the  book,  by  which 
the  author  indicates  that  up  to  his  time  the  book 
was  unknown. 

This  result  \a  justified  by  a  number  of  weighty 
considerations.    That  the   book   in   the    Hebrew 
canon  is  not  among  the  "  prophets/'  but  among  the 
'*  writings  "  is  intelligible  only  if  it  were  written 
at  a  time  when  the  canon  of  the  Prophets  was 
already  formed.    Absolutely  impossible  is  the  hy- 
pothesis of  the  book's  origin  in  exilic  times  when 
the  total  unhistoricity  of  the  description  of  exilic 
times  is  compared  with  the  correctness 
2.  Narra-  of  the  later  history  (cf.  Dan.  i.  1  with 
tive  XJn-    Jer.  xxxvi.  9,  29).    Every  detail  of 
historioal.  the    earlier    period    is    unhistorical; 
Belshazzar  was  not  the  son  of  Nebu- 
chadrezzar (Dan.  V.  22),  was  not  king  (v.  1);  Baby- 
lon was  not  conquered,  but  surrendered  voluntarily 
to  Cyrus  (not  to  Darius,  as  the  book  has  it).    Ara- 


maisms  and  Gredsms  in  the  Aramaic  sections  are 
marks  of  a  later  age.  That  it  was  used  by  I  Mace, 
mattere  little,  as  the  latter  was  composed  in  106 
B.C.;  still  less  weight  has  Josephus'  story  that 
Alexander  the  Great  had  read  the  book,  for  this  is 
denied  by  the  book  itself  (Dan.  viii.  26,  xii.  4). 

V.  The  Value:  A  result  which  demands  recog- 
nition is  that  it  could  have  been  composed  only  in 
the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Only  by  this 
knowledge  is  it  possible  to  see  the  greatness  of  the 
book.  The  time  must  be  still  further  limited.  One 
totally  misunderstands  the  character  of  the  book  if 
he  thinks  of  it  as  written  after  the  cleansing  of  the 
temple  in  165  B.C.  Everything  which  the  book 
contains  of  comfort  and  promise  is  pure  hope,  for 
the  whole  book  was  composed  at  a  time  of  extremest 
need.  It  is  evident  that  the  author  did  not  know 
the  eastern  campaign  of  Antiochus;  the  third  cam- 
paign against  Egypt  is  a  pure  prophetic  picture 
(Dan.  xi.  40  sqq.);  from  the  author's  calling  the 
Maccabean  insurrection  **  a  little  help "  Kuenen 
rightly  concludes  that  Judah's  victory  over  Lysias 
in  165  B.C.  was  unknown;  and  viii.  14  is,  like  ix.  24, 
a  Messianic  expectation.  From  this  point  of  view 
the  vacillation  in  the  length  of  the  reign  of  terror 
(3i  years,  vii.  25,  ix.  27,  xii.  7;  1,150  days,  viii.  14; 
1,290  days,  xii.  11;  1,335  days,  xii.  12)  is  most  easily 
understood;  they  are  pure  surmises  or  computa- 
tions which  can  not  be  verified  because  the  key  is 

lacking.    The  greatness  of   the  book 

1.  The      consists  in  the  fact  that  its  author 

Author**   drew  all  promises  out  of  his  own  faith. 

Faith.      And  in  this  hope  he  was  not  deceived, 

for  the  following  year,  through  the 
cleansing  of  the  temple  and  the  death  of  the  tyrant, 
brought  a  relative  fulfilment  of  his  promises,  jiist 
as  in  earlier  days  the  return  from  exHe  was  a  rela- 
tive fulfilment  of  the  promises  of  Deutero- Isaiah. 
Tlus  relative  salvation  the  author  has  seen  along- 
side of  an  absolute  Messianic  one,  and  in  this  vision 
of  the  future  lies  the  particular  and  lasting  value 
of  the  book.  Odd  and  uncouth  though  his  reading 
of  history  is,  his  vision  of  the  age  to  come  is  deep 
and  full  of  meaning.  He  did  not  try  to  support 
himself  and  his  contemporaries  by  detailed  and 
glaring  sensual  pictures,  but  he  gave  comfort 
through  the  rebirth  of  pure  prophetic  thought. 
After  the  fourth  world-kingdom  had  run  its  full 
demonic  course  the  longed-for  judgment  was  to 
come  (vii.  10),  and  with  it  the  end  of  the  history  of 
revelation  and  that  of  man  (ix.  24);  thereupon  was 
to  come  the  divine  kingdom  from  Heaven  (vii.  27), 
without  limit  in  time  or  space  (ii.  44),  in  the  glory 
of  which  even  the  pious  dead  should  participate, 
while  the  worldly  recreants  would  receive  their  due 
(xu.  2). 

It  is  more  difficult  to  take  a  position  respecting 
the  narratives  of  the  first  part.  One  soon  sees, 
however,  that  they  can  serve  only  as  the  material- 
ization of  the  same  faith  as  has  created  the  vision 

of  the  future.    This  by  no  means  ex- 

*•  Y**     eludes  use  of  sources;   on  the  other 

Sonxoes     hand,   even  if  one  could   point   out 

everywhere  a  direct  reference  to  Anti- 
ochus, this  by  no  means  makes  it  pure  fiction. 
There  is  much  that  points  to  the  use  of  older  ma- 


Danl«l 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


350 


terial.  The  name  Daniel  occurs  elaewhere  (Ezra 
viii.  2);  in  Esekiel  it  is  placed  between  Noah  and 
Job  (Esek.  xiv.  14,  xxviii.  3).  Comparing  Euae- 
bius's  PrcBparaiio  evangelica,  ix.  41  with  Dan.  iv. 
one  may  conclude  that  the  author  of  Daniel  used 
here  a  Babylonian  legend.  The  same  may  be  true 
for  chap,  v.,  since  he  did  not  get  the  names  of  Bel- 
shazzar  and  Darius  from  the  Bible;  the  latter  per- 
sonality he  undoubtedly  found  in  Darius  Hystaspis, 
but  w^y  he  saw  in  this  Persian  king  a  Mede  is  un- 
known. (F.  Buhl.) 

VL  Critical  Objections  Answered:  None  of  the 
historic  statements  of  Daniel  can  be  invalidated. 
Alleged  errors  are  as  follows:  (1)  No  secular  his- 
torian nunes  Belshazzar,  therefore  Belshazzar 
never  existed.  But  in  1854  Belshazzar  was  found  in 
the  monuments.  (2)  Daniel  caUs  Nebuchadrezzar 
king  before  Nabopolassar  died.  But  so  does  Jer. 
xxvii.  6;  Nebuchadrezzar  was  admitted  to  co- 
sovereignty.     (3)  Daniel  terms  a  gild  of  wise  men 

"  Chaldeans/'  a  use  unknown  till  four 

1.  Major    centuries  after  the  exile.    But  Herod- 

Oldeotions.  otus  (i.  181,  185)  in  the  same  century 

with  Daniel  iises  the  same  term. 
(4)  Belshazzar  was  not  king,  nor  was  he  the  son  or 
grandson  of  Nebuchadrezzar.  But  somebody  was 
left  in  command  at  Babylon  when  Nabonidus  led 
out  the  army  to  Sippar.  Who  but  his  oldest  and 
favorite  son?  Exercising  royal  authority,  Bel- 
shazzar was  king  as  much  as  was  Nebuchadrezzar 
in  similar  ciroumstances.  The  queen  mother  (Dan. 
v.  11)  said  Nebuchadrezzar  was  Belshazzar's 
father  (or  grandfather).  Probabilities  sustain  her 
truthfulness,  thus:  Eril-Merodach,  Nebuchadrez- 
zar's son,  succeeded  his  father,  and  was  succeeded 
by  NerigUssar  because  he  had  married  a  daughter 
of  the  great  king,  the  legitimate  successor  being 
Neriglissar's  son.  The  son  of  Neriglissar  dying,  how 
came  Nabonidus  to  occupy  the  throne  in  turbulent 
Babylon,  unchallenged  for  seventeen  years?  If  he 
had  married  another  daughter  of  Nebuchadrezzar, 
then  his  son  Belshazzar  was  grandson  of  Nebuchad- 
rezzar, and  legitimate  heir,  and  the  prophecy  of  Jer. 
xxvii.  6-7,  "  Nebuchadrezzar,  his  son,  and  son's 
son,"  was  fulfiUed.  (5)  Dan.  i.  1,  "  third  year," 
is  inconsistent  with  Jer.  xxxvi.  9,  xlvi.  2,  "  fourth 
or  fifth  year."  This,  if  true,  would  eliniinate  the 
conjectured  Maccabean  fabricator,  for  a  fabricator 
with  Jeremiah  before  him  (Dan.  ix.  2)  would  not 
contradict  Jeremiah  in  the  first  sentence  of  his  ro- 
mance. But  there  is  no  inconsistency.  (6)  The 
annalistic  tablet  of  Cyrus  intimates  that  Babylon 
was  taken  easily.  This  agrees  with  Daniel  (v.  30, 
31),  but  there  must  have  been  some  struggle,  for  the 
tablet  says  **  the  king's  son  died,"  and  Daniel  says 
"  that  night  Belshazzar  was  slain."  The  tablet 
says  further  that  the  city  yielded  to  (jobryas — 
Cyrus  not  appearing  for  several  weeks — and  that 
Gobiyas  was  made  governor  and  appointed  other 
governors;  all  of  which  corresponds  to  Darius  the 
Mede  who  "  received  "  the  kingdom  and  appointed 
satraps,  etc.  (Dan.  v.  30,  vi.  1).  Cyrus  had  other 
conquests  to  make,  and  left  a  subordinate  king  in 
Babylon,  wisely  appointing  a  Mede.  Abydenus 
and  .^Jschylus  say  that  the  first  ruler  of  the  city 
was  a  Mede,  and  the  scholiast  of  Aristophanes  men- 


tions a  Darius  who  reigned  before  Darius  Hysta^- 
pis.  (7)  There  are  three  Greek  words  in  Dan.  iL, 
5.  They  are  the  names  of  musical  instrument?, 
and  these  carry  their  native  names  with  them. 
(8)  Part  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  in  Aramaic,  ii.  4- 
vii.  But  so  is  Ezra  iv.  8-vi.  18.  Ezra  too  va- 
brought  up  in  Babylon.  His  Aramaic  is  "  all  hw. 
identical "  (Driver)  with  Daniel's.  Aramaic  va5 
the  vernacular.  Each  writer  drops  into  it  upon 
slight  suggestion,  fizra  upon  quoting  an  AramBi<> 
letter;  Daniel  upon  quoting  the  frightened  Ch^- 
deans.  The  tablets  from  Nippur  in  course  of  de- 
cipherment by  Professor  Clay  are  in  point;  t\^ 
business  contracts  are  written  in  Bab^donian  cunei- 
form, the  labels  or  dockets  on  the  back  are  in  Ara- 
maic, for  quick  reference  by  the  clerks  in  the  office. 
As  to  the  other  "  historic  inacciuacies,"  as  Dan- 
iel's being  too  young  for  Ezekiel  to  have  known- 
he  was  forty,  possibly  fifty  years  old  when  Ezekiel 
wrote  of  him;  as  to  his  not  knowing  how  to  spell 
the  name  Nebuchadrezzar — he  spells 
2.  Klnor  it  as  Kings,  Chronicles,  and  Ena  do 
01]jeotions.  and  as  Jeremiah  does  half  the  time. 
Gn  the  other  hand,  there  was  a  Daniel, 
eminent,  wise,  and  godly  enough  to  be  linked  with 
Noah  and  Job  (Ezek.  xiv.  14,  20).  There  is  no 
Daniel  but  the  man  whose  book  is  under  considera- 
tion and  whom  Jesus  called  a  prophet  (Matt.  xxir. 
15).  The  incident  narrated  by  Joeephus  (AnI., 
XI.  viii.  5),  that  Alexander  saw  Danid's  mention 
of  himself,  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that,  while 
Alexander  destroyed  every  city  in  Syria  friendly 
to  Persia,  he  spared  and  greatly  favored  Jerusalem. 
He  consulted  the  shrines  at  Gordium  and  Amon. 
Why  not  Jerusalem?  The  only  shadow  of  a  shade 
upon  the  historicity  of  Daniel  is  the  omission  of  his 
name  in  Ecclesiasticus  (200  B.C.).  But  other  names 
are  omitted  and  Daniel,  the  person,  certainly 
existed  prior  to  or  contemporaneously  with  Eze- 
kiel. The  Book  Ecclesiasticus  is  itself  a  witness  to 
the  antiquity  of  the  Book  of  Daniel;  though  it  pre- 
sented the  dominant  type  of  Jewish  thought  at  the 
time  the  canon  was  forming,  it  was  not  admitted 
to  the  canon  because  it  was  not  ancient  enough. 
Daniel  was  admitted.  Daniel  is  not  listed  in  the 
division  called  the  "  Prophets  "  (see  Canon,  I.,  1, 
§  4).  The  reason  probably  was  to  satisfy  the  scru- 
ples of  those  rabbis  who  objected  to  prophecy  de- 
livered outside  the  Holy  Land.  Ezddel  was  ad- 
mitted, says  Rabbi  Jarehd,  because  his  first  prophecy 
(Ezek.  xvii.)  was  delivered  in  Jerusalem.  The 
Aramaic  version  interpolates  "  in  the  land  of  Israel  " 
in  pursuance  of  this  scruple  (Ezek.  i.  3).  There  is 
no  mention  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  madness  (Dan. 
iv.)  in  secular  history.  Nebuchadrezzar  recovered, 
which  accounts  for  the  prudent  silence  of  court 
historiographers;  but  Nebuchadrezzar  himself  in 
his  Standard  Inscription,  after  the  usual  royaJ 
boasts, records:  "  Four  years  .  .  .  the  seat  of  my 
kingdom  in  the  city  .  .  .  which  .  .  .  did  not  re- 
joice my  heart.  In  all  my  dominions  I  did  not 
build  a  high  place  of  power;  treasures  I  did  not 
lay  up.  In  Babylon  buildings  for  myself  and  my 
kingdom  I  did  not  lay  out.  In  the  worship  of 
Merodach,  my  lord,  I  did  not  sing  praises.  I  did 
not  furnish  his  altars,  nor  dear  cansJs."    To  thoee 


361 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Daniel 


who  do  not  believe  that  miracles  ever  occurred, 
the  fieiy  furnace  and  the  lion's  den  will  seem  in- 
credible, but  it  is  not  incredible  that  a  writer  in 
the  exile  believed  them.  The  "  atmosphere  "  of 
the  book  betrays  its  place  of  origin.  "  The  more  I 
read  Daniel/'  says  Lenormant,  "  the  more  I  am 
struck  with  the  truth  of  the  tableaux  of  the  Baby- 
lonian court  traced  in  the  first  six  chapters."  The 
tablets  now  undergoing  decipherment  show  a  peo- 
ple given  over  to  superstition,  magic,  and  talis- 
mans. The  naivete  of  truth  appears  in  the  men- 
tion that  the  Chaldeans  spoke  in  Aramaic.  They 
were  frightened.  There  was  no  time  for  the  com- 
position of  a  reply  in  the  court  language.  The  un- 
conscious revelation  of  the  emergence  of  Law  as 
superior  even  to  the  will  of  kings,  when  the  Persian 
power  came  in.  "  The  law  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, which  altereth  not,"  shows  contemporaneity. 
The  simplicity  of  truth  appears  through  all.  The 
book  is  "  sealed  "  at  its  close.  This  means:  it  is 
ended,  or,  it  is  attested,  or,  it  is  such  that,  as  in 
Isa.  xxix.  10-14,  some  will  pretend  they  can  not 
imderstand.    All  these  are  true  of  Daniel. 

Joseph  D.  Wilson. 
Bibuoorapht:  The  earlier  oommentaries  are  mostly  worth- 
less; few  of  the  modem  ones  are  much  better.  In 
English  the  best  by  far  and  of  the  highest  intrinsio  value 
is  S.  R.  Driver,  in  Cambridgt  Bil>U  for  ScKooU,  1900. 
Consult  also  the  commentaries  by  A.  Bevan,  Cambridge, 
1892;  J.  D.  Prince,  London,  1890;  K.  Marti.  Ttlbingen, 
1901;  and  C.  H.  H.  Wright.  Daniel  and  ita  Critiea,  Lon- 
don. 1906.  Discussion  of  critical  problems  ure  in  Driver, 
Introduction,  chap,  zi.;  A.  H.  Sayoe,  "  Higher  Critieiem  " 
and  ,  ,  .  ike  MonumenU,  pp.  495-537,  London,  1893; 
O.  Behrmann,  Dae  Buck  Daniel,  CUittingen,  1894;  DB, 
i.  551-557;  EB,  i.  1001-15;  JE,  iv.  430-432.  Particu- 
lar questions  are  treated  in  J.  Meinhold,  Die  CompoeiHon 
dee  Buehee  Daniel,  Greifswald.  1884;  idem,  Beitr&ge  zur 
Erkldruno  dee  Daniel,  Leipsic,  1888;  A.  Kamphausen, 
Dae  But^  Daniel  und  die  neuere  Oeeehichteforeehuno*  ib. 
1892;  H.  Gunkel,  8<hdpfung  und  Chaoe,  pp.  266-270, 
323-335,  Gdttingen,  1895;  C.  Braston,  6tudee  eur  Daniel, 
Paris,  1896.  On  the  unity  consult:  A.  von  Gall,  Die 
Einheiaichkeit  dee  .  ,  .  Daniel,  Giessen,  1895;  G.  A. 
Barton,  in  JBL,  xvii  (1898).  62-86.  On  the  seventy 
weeks:  F.  Fraidl,  Die  Exegeee  der  70  Wodien  in  der  alten 
und  mitUeren  ZeU,  Gras,  1883;  Van  Lennep,  De  70  jaar- 
xoeken  van  Daniel,  Utrecht.  1888.  For  the  text:  Hebrew 
is  by  A.  Kamphausen,  in  8B0T,  New  York,  1896;  best 
LXX.  text  by  Swete,  Old  Teetament  in  Greek,  vol.  iii.. 
Cambridge,  1896.  Consult:  M.  L5hr,  in  ZATW,  xv 
(1895).  75  sqq..  193  sqq.,  xvi  (1896),  14  sqq.;  A.  Bludau, 
Die  dUxandrinieehe  UebereeiMuno  dee  Buthee  Danid,  Frei- 
burg, 1897. 

DAlflEL,  BLBCTOR  OF  MAINZ,  AND  THE  COUN- 
TERREFORMATION  IN  THE  BICHSFBLD. 

His  General  Policy  (f  1). 

Severe  Measures  in  the  Eichsfeld  (f  2). 

The  Results  (f  3). 

Events  After  Daniel's  Death  (f  4). 

Daniel  Brendel  of  Homburg  (b.  1523;   d.  1582) 
became  elector  of  Mainz  in  1555 — ^to  the  chagrin  of 
the  citizens — by  a  majority  of  one  vote  over  the 
palgrave  Reichardt,  who  had  Protestant  leanings. 
His   official   policy   was   determined   openly   and 
mainly  by  political,  rather  than  by  re- 
I.  His      ligiouB  considerations.     He  sought  to 
General     maintain  a  good  understanding  with 
Policy,      his   powerful   neighbor  of   the  Palat- 
inate, though  at  a  later  period  he  ap- 
pears more  reserved  than  at   first;    he  discreetly 
abstained  from  intermeddling  in  French  and  Neth- 


erlandish affairs;  and  in  imperial  transactions  he 
allied  himself  closely  with  Emperor  Maximilian 
II.  That  this  policy  was  not  prompted  by  ecclesias- 
tical indifference  is  witnessed  by  measures  in  other 
connections:  in  1561  Daniel  founded  a  Jesuit 
college  at  Mainz,  and  he  furthermore  expressed 
his  regard  for  the  Jesuits  by  presents,  by  admitting 
them  to  the  cathedral  pulpit,  by  founding  a  school, 
by  patronizing  a  Jesuit  confessor,  and  by  the  stim- 
ulus he  gave  to  other  spiritual  princes  toward 
founding  Jesuit  colleges.  In  only  one  part  of  his 
archbishopric — ^in  the  so-called  Eichsfeld  region,  be- 
tween Thuringia  and  the  Harz  country — did  Daniel 
carry  through  the  Counterreformation;  in  the 
electorate  proper  (Mainz  and  its  vicinity),  Protes- 
tant elements  continued  to  be  tolerated,  even  in  the 
government  and  in  the  elector's  official  household. 
The  Reformation  had  quite  early  penetrated  the 
Eichsfeld,  especially  by  way  of  Erfurt,  and  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  entire  dis- 
trict was  fairly  Protestant.  At  the  outset  Daniel, 
like  his  predecessors,  tolerated  this  state  of  affairs; 
but  afterward,  albeit  with  a  regard  to  the  rights  of 
sovereignty  duly  drawn  up  and  subscribed  for  him 
by  the  Protestant  nobility,  he  interfered  with  rigor. 
To  subdue  a  disobedient  vassal,  he  betook  him- 
self to  the  Eichsfeld  in  June,  1574,  with  a  consider- 
able array  of  troops,  and  accompanied  by  two 
Jesuits.  The  nobleman  in  question  was  quickly 
overcome,  and  the  Protestant  preachers  were  driven 
out  of  the  two  towns,  Duderstadt  and  Heiligenstadt. 
Since  the  elector  proceeded  only  against  the  towns, 
and  at  the  same  time  granted  freedom  of  conscience 

to    the    territorial    knighthood,    any 

2.  Severe    general   resistance  to   these  extraor- 

Measures    dinary   measures   was   for   the    time 

in  the      being    averted.    A    zealous    convert, 

Bichsf eld.    Lippold  of  Stralendorf ,  was  entrusted, 

as  temporal  chief  officer,  with  the 
prosecution  of  the  work  thus  begun;  and  the  spiri- 
tual conunissioner,  Heinrich  Bunthe,  was  of  equally 
strict  Catholic  sentiments.  At  the  beginning  of 
1575  they  were  joined  by  the  Jesuit  J^ard  and 
other  Jesuits  despatched  to  the  elector  by  the  Curia. 
Elgard  soon  made  himself  indispensable,  and  meas- 
ures animated  by  a  spirit  heretofore  unknown  in 
the  Eichsfeld  rapidly  multiplied.  At  Duderstadt 
they  sought  to  take  the  churches  from  the  Protes- 
tants; visitations  began  alike  in  the  towns  and  in 
the  country,  that  is,  within  the  sphere  of  the  knightly 
patronages;  the  Protestant  clergy  were  driven 
away,  and  ecclesiastical  burial  was  refused  to  their 
adherents.  Against  this  manner  of  procedure  the 
knightly  estate  of  the  district  now  rose  up,  reen- 
forced  by  the  neighboring  princes  of  Hesse  and 
electoral  Saxony,  but  without  effectual  results; 
still  more  energetic  measures  were  prosecuted  in 
favor  of  the  Counterreformation.  A  fresh  impor- 
tation of  Jesuits  ensued;  the  dispersion  of  the 
Protestant  clergy  continued;  the  frequenting  of 
outside  Protestant  churches  and  participation  in 
the  commimion  according  to  the  Lutheran  rite 
were  forbidden;  and  even  very  secular  methods 
were  applied  to  render  the  population  submissive, 
such  as  the  prohibition  of  the  export  of  Duderstadt 
beer. 


Daniel 
Dante 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


852 


The  victory  of  the  Roman  party  at  the  Diet 
of  Regensbuig,  1676,  led  to  new  oppressionB  of 
the  PxoteBtants.  The  still  remaining  Protestant 
preachers  were  driven  away;  the  churches  were 
forcibly  withdrawn  from  Protestant  worship  and 
were  ooDflecrated  anew;  the  people  were  forced  to 
attend  mass  with  the  aid  of  the  electoral  officers 
and  their  troops.  As  time  passed,  indeed,  it  hap- 
pened again  and  again  that  upon  withdrawal  of  the 
temporal  power  the  Roman  clergy  who  had  been 
introduced  by  force  were  at  once  expelled,  while 
parsonages  and  churches  again  were  occupied  by 
the  returning  Protestant  preachers.  In  spite  of  all 
their  prospective  advantages,  the  number  of  con- 
verts remained  very  small;  where  no  Protestant 
service  could  be  longer  observed,  the  people  got 
along  without  spiritiial  provision  entirely  or  trav- 
eled for  miles  to  take  part  in  secret  worship  or  in 
Protestant  worship  still  tolerated  for  want  of  re- 
pressive power.  The  elector's  arrangement,  how- 
ever, was  enforced  by  the  sanction  of  the  emperor 
Rudolph,  who  admonished  the  Council  of  Duder- 
stadt  to  obey  the  elector;  nor  did  the  interven- 
tion of  Protestant  electors  have  any  effect. 

When  Daniel  died  in  1582  very  little  had  been 
gained  for  the  Roman  Church.  The  Roman  clergy, 
to  be  sure,  were  everjrwhere  present;  divine  serv- 
ice, baptisms,  marriages,  and  burials  were  en- 
forced aocoxding  to  Roman  rite;  but  the  people  at 
laige  remained  almost  solidly  loyal  to 
3*  The     the   Protestant   faith.     In   only   one 

Results  place,  perhaps,  was  a  somewhat 
firmer  basis  gained  for  the  Counter- 
reformation.  A  Jesuit  school  had  been  opened  in 
Heiligenstadt  in  1676;  in  1681  a  well-endowed 
coUe^  with  seven  aliunni  scholarships  was  erected 
by  the  elector;  and  the  neighboring  Evangelical 
peasants  had  to  contribute  bond-service  thereto. 
The  school  at  first  attracted  more  scholars  from 
the  surrounding  districts  than  from  the  Eichsfeld 
itself;  but  the  scholastic  festivities,  with  their 
cleverly  chosen  allurements,  the  public  presenta- 
tion of  Biblical  dramas,  in  the  course  of  time  won 
candidates  for  instruction  from  the  home  town  and 
country  as  welL  The  Jesuits  were  never  discour- 
aged by  the  failure  of  their  plans  or  intimidated 
by  the  odium  exhibited  against  them. 

Daniel's  successor,  Wolfgang  of  Dalberg  (1682- 
1601),  continued  the  work  already  begun;  the  same 
coercive  measures  with  their  merely  momentary 
results  were  applied  over  and  over  again,  while  all 
complaints  and  petitions  of  the  knighthood  met 
with  the  same  negative  answer.  The  knighthood 
proper,  however,  were  now  allowed  the  liberty  of 
Protestant  worship  behind  closed  doors,  though 
not  for  their  dependent  subjects.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618)  conditions  had 
changed  somewhat;  the  Jesuit  school  in  Heili- 
genstadt  had   gnulually   exerted    its 

4«  Events  influence;  this  town  had  again  be- 
After       come  predominantly  Roman  Catholic, 

Daniel's     and  in  like  manner  throughout  the 

Death.      district    the    Protestants    had    been 

driven    back.     In    Duderstadt    alone 

there  still  persisted  a  secret  band  of  Protestants 

who  remained  steadfast  through  all  the  military 


oppressions,  and  eventually  secured  their  right  of 
existence.  During  the  first  period  of  the  war  the 
quartering  of  imperial  troops  and  Tilly's  soldiers 
was  one  means  employed  to  distress  the  Protestanta 
and  bring  them  into  subjection;  subsequently  there 
came  respites  of  better  times  with  the  Swedish 
troops.  It  was  decreed  at  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648)  that  the  status  of  Jan.  1,  1624,  should 
be  in  force  with  respect  to  church  affairs — a  ruling 
not  exactly  favorable  to  the  Protestants.  Public 
Protestant  worship,  however,  was  allowed  in  Duder- 
stadt, and  a  dosen  noble  parishes  received  freedom 
of  rdigious  practise  by  the  terms  of  the  Peace. 
Oppression  of  the  Protestants  at  the  hands  of 
electoral  officers,  however,  did  not  cease  till  the 
termination  of  the  electoral  state  of  Mains  and  the 
incorporation  of  the  Eichsfeld  into  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia.  Walter  Gosrz. 

Bibuographt:  N.   Serarivs,  Am  Moguntiactt,  i.  862  sqq^ 

Fhuikfort,  1722;  H.  Heppe.  Die  Re9tauraiUm  dee  Katko- 

lifiMtiw  ...  oil/    dem    EiehtfeUU,    MarbuiK.     1850;  W. 

BuishArd,  Die  Oegenrefcrmaiion  auf  dem  Biehefelde,  IS7S- 

79,  vob.  i.-ii..  ib.  1890-91;  L.  von  Wuitsiiiserod»-KnorT. 

in  Stkriften  dee  Vereine  fitr   ReformaHoneffeedkiehle,  Nos. 

86.  42,  Halle.  1892-03;  H.  Morits,  Die  WaMl  Rvdeife  lU 

Marburg,  1895. 

DAlflfy  CHRISnAir  ADAM:  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Tabingen  Dec.  24,  1758;  d.  at  Stuttgart  Mar.  19, 
1837.  He  was  of  Huguenot  descent,  and  studied 
at  Balingen,  later  at  the  cloister-school  at  BUu- 
beuren,  and  after  1777  in  his  native  city.  In  1793 
he  was  called  to  a  deaconry  in  Gdttingen,  in  1794 
as  assistant  at  St.  Leonhard  in  Stuttgart.  In  1812 
he  was  transferred  to  Oeschingen,  a  village  twelve 
miles  from  TQbingen,  and  in  1817  to  MOssingen, 
near  Stuttgart.  He  was  recalled  to  Stuttgart  in 
1824,  first  to  the  cathedral  church,  one  year  later 
to  St.  Leonhard,  where  he  preached  eleven  years 
to  crowded  congregations.  From  his  youth  he  was 
under  the  influence  of  Bengel  and  Pietism.  A  strong 
cliampion  of  the  ethical  demands  of  the  Gospel  in 
the  lajc  times  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  he  had  a  deep, 
stem  conviction  of  sin.  Christianity  was  to  him 
essentially  an  ''institution  of  pardon,  atonement, 
and  compensation."  The  Christ  of  the  Gospels 
was  not  only  his  constant  example,  but  also  medi> 
ator  and  redeemer.  In  the  Eucharist  he  found 
"  the  most  intimate  blessed  union  with  Christ.*' 
He  wrote  a  large  number  of  occasional  tracts  on 
various  subjects — among  the  rest  against  crueltv 
to  animals  and  vivisection.  With  Rieger  he 
founded  in  1811  the  charity  organization  of 
Stuttgart.  He  labored  long  for  a  revision  of  the 
hymnal,  which  finally  appeared,  five  years  after 
his  death;  it  contains  the  most  beautiful  of  his 
hymns,  "  Gekreuzigter,  zu  deinen  FOssenl " 
Bibuoorapht:  Denkmal  der  ZAebe  fOr  den  votttndflten  C.  A. 
Dann,  Stuttgart,  1837;  A.  Knapp,  in  Gemtmmeite  Wwht, 
vol.  ii..  ib.  1875;  Der  Chrielenbote,  1  (1880).  204. 

DAlfimAUER,  JOHAHN  CONRAD:  Lutheran 
teacher  of  Spener;  b.  at  KOndringen  (10  m.  n.  of 
Freiburg)  Mar.  24,  1603;  d.  at  Strasburg  Nov.  7, 
1666.  He  began  his  education  in  the  gymnashini 
at  Strasburg  and  was  the  master  of  a  thorough  phil- 
osophical training  before  he  commenced  his  theo- 
logical work  in  1624.  He  continued  his  studies  a' 
Marburg,  Altorf,  and  Jena,  lecturing  at  the  same 


358 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Daniel 
Dante 


time  on  philosophy  and  linguistics  and  winning 
recognition  at  Jena  by  his  exegesis  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians.  Returning  to  Strasburg  in  1628, 
he  entered  upon  an  active  career  as  administrator, 
teacher,  and  theologian.  Made  seminary  inspector 
in  1628,  he  became  in  the  following  year  professor 
of  oratory,  and  in  1633  professor  of  theology,  pastor 
of  the  cathedral,  and  president  of  the  ecclesiastical 
assembly.  Although  the  judgment  of  his  contem- 
poraries,  Bebel,  Spener,  and  others,  placed  him 
in  the  front  rank  of  the  theologians  of  the  time, 
Dannhauer  has  received  scant  justice  at  the  hands 
of  posterity.  The  influence  exerted  upon  Spener 
by  his  teacher  must  not  be  underestimated  because 
of  the  formal  tone  of  the  poem  dedicated  by  the 
founder  of  the  Pietists  to  his  teacher's  memory. 
Their  relations  were  certainly  not  characterized  by 
the  warmth  of  personal  friendship,  but  were  rather 
in  the  nature  of  an  intercourse  based  on  common 
interests.  Dannhauer  ordained  Spener,  and  in  all 
probability  secured  for  him  the  post  of  private 
tutor  at  the  court  of  the  elector  palatine.  Spener, 
in  return,  seems  to  have  been  connected  with  the 
preparation  of  the  second  edition  of  the  Hodosophia 
for  the  press  and  to  have  acted  as  critic  of  another 
work  of  Dannhaucr's  which  has  not  yet  been  iden- 
tified. The  estrangement  between  the  two  was 
apparently  caused  by  Dannhauer's  nephew,  Bal- 
thasar  Bebel,  who  was  in  control  of  the  theological 
faculty  at  Strasburg  at  the  time  of  the  publication 
of  Spener's  Pia  desideria,  Dannhauer  was  a  pro- 
lific writer,  his  principal  works  being  as  follows: 
Hodosophia  Christiana  sive  theolngia  posUiva  (1649); 
Katechismusmilch  oder  Erkldrung  des  kirchlichen 
Katechismus  (1657-78)  and  Liber  conseierUicB  apertus 
sive  theologia  conscierUiaria  (1662-67). 

(F.  BossE.) 

Biblxoorapht:  The  best  source  is  J.  Reisseisen,  Stra$»- 
hwvi»die  Chronik,  1667-77,  ed.  R.  Reuss,  Strasbung,  1879. 
Consult:  E.  L.  T.  Henke.  Oeorg  Calixhu,  Halle.  1863; 
ADB,  iv.  745-746;  P.  GrOnborg,  P.  J.  Spener,  vol.  i.. 
Gottingen,  1893. 

DANOVIUS,  da-n6'vl-as,  ERNST  JAKOB:  Lu- 
theran; b.  at  Redlau  or  Kleinkatz  (near  Danzig) 
Mar.  12,  1741;  d.  at  Jena  Mar.  18,  1782.  He  was 
educated  at  Danzig,  Helmst&dt,  and  Gdttingen,  and 
in  1765  accompanied  Abbot  Schubert  to  Greifswald 
as  tutor  to  his  sons.  Thence  he  was  called  to  the 
rectorate  of  the  JohannLsschule  at  Danzig,  and  in 
1768  went  to  Jena.  His  specialties  were  New 
Testament  exegesis,  symbolics,  moral  theology, 
and,  most  of  all,  dogmatics,  but  he  felt  little  sym- 
pathy with  historical  theology.  His  point  of  view 
may  be  characterized  as  modem  supematuralism, 
substituting  for  inspiration  a  miraculous  guidance 
of  God,  which  gave  protection  against  all  error, 
yet  by  no  means  denying  the  human  element  in  the 
sacred  writings  He  avoided  the  excessive  con- 
cepts of  the  divine  likeness,  denied  that  original 
sin  was  actual  guilt  in  the  descendants  of  Adam, 
and  identified  justification,  in  the  widest  sense  of 
the  term,  with  predestination.  Danovius  was  pre- 
vented from  giving  expression  to  his  views  both 
by  his  faculty  and  by  the  government,  and  when  he 
finally  enunciatod  them  in  two  Christmas  pro- 
grain-s  of  1774-75  he  was  publicly  opposed  by 
III.— 23 


the  theological  faculty  of  Erlangen.  He  defended 
himself  in  a  number  of  pamphlets  {Drei  Abhand' 
lungen  von  der  Rechifertigung  des  Menschen  vor  Oott, 
Jena,  1777,  and  Kurze  Erkldrung  iiber  die  neue  von 
D,  Seller  der  Lehre  von  der  Bechtfertigung  halber 
herausgegebene  Schrift,  1778).  While  he  desired  a 
union  with  the  Reformed,  and  while  he  did  not 
regard  their  doctrines  of  the  absolute  decree  and 
irresistible  grace  or  their  views  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
as  grounds  of  hindrance,  he  feared  their  teaching 
concerning  the  incarnation,  since  it  rendered  doubt- 
ful the  efficacy  of  the  meritorious  works  and  death 
of  Christ. 

The  delivery  of  Danovius  was  admirable  in  the 
professorial  chair,  though  unpopular  in  the  pulpit, 
but  his  literary  style  was  crabbed,  and  he  wrote 
slowly  and  with  difficulty.  His  melancholy  nature, 
aggravated  by  excessive  work,  led  him  to  take 
his  own  life.  In  addition  to  the  works  already 
mentioned  and  a  nimiber  of  programs,  he  wrote 
Schreiben  an  Herm  D,  Sender,  dessen  neuere  Streitig- 
keiten  betreffend  (Jena,  1770)  and  Super  libro  Tor- 
genst  Censura  Holsato-Sleswicensis  variis  ohserva- 
tionibus  iUustrata  (1780).  He  also  edited  the 
Opuscula  of  J.  D.  Heilmann  (1774-77),  and  made 
a  translation  of  a  work  by  A.  J.  Roustan  (pastor 
of  the  Swiss  church  in  London)  under  the  title 
Briefs  zur  Vertheidigung  der  ckrisUichen  Religion 
(Halle,  1783).  (G.  FRANKf.) 

Biblioobapht:  C.  G.  F.  Sehflti,  Leben  .  ,  .  dee  E.  J. 
Danoviue,  appendu  to  A.  J.  Roustan,  Brief e  eur  Verthei- 
diguno  der  dirieaiehen  Reiiffion,  Halle,  1783;  G.  Frank, 
OeeekieKle  dee  Rationaliemue,  pp.  Ill  aqq.,  127-128,  Leip- 
ne,  1876. 

DAIITB,  dOn'td  or  dan'te,  ALI6HIERI,  a'Oi-gt-^'il. 
L  life. 

Eduoation  and  Early  Life  (f  1). 
Floreatine  Parties  (f  2). 
Dante's  Banishment  (f  3). 
His  Wanderings.    Later  Life  (f  4). 
U.  Literary  Works. 

L  Life:  Dante,  the  greatest  poet  of  Italy  and 
one  of  the  greatest  of  the  world,  was  bom  at  Florence 
between  May  18  and  June  17,  1265,  and  died  at 
Ravenna  Sept.  14  (13?),  1321.  The  name  Dante 
is  a  contraction  of  Durante.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
notary.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  schools  or  teachers. 
Stories  of  his  studies  at  the  universities  of  Bologna, 
Padua,  and  Paris  lack  confirmation.  He  was  an 
omnivorous  reader,  and  compassed  most  of  the 
learning  of  his  age.  He  was  a  master  of  Latin,  but 
knew  neither  Greek  nor  Hebrew.  He  was  versed 
in  dialectic,  rhetoric,  grammar,  arithmetic,  geome- 
try, astronomy,  and  music,  and  in  the  Provencal 
and  Old  French  literature.  He  drew, 
I.  Educa-  and  had  some  knowledge  of  painting. 
tion  and  He  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
Early  Life,  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  through 
Latin  translations,  and  derived  from 
him  his  whole  system  of  physics,  physiology,  and 
meteorology.  He  was  familiar  with  the  Bible, 
and  with  the  writings  of  Aquinas,  Bonaventura, 
and  Albertus  Magnus,  and  with  those  of  Ambrose, 
Jerome,  and  Augustine.  He  knew  Ptolemy  and 
Euclid  in  astronomy  and  mathematics,  and  was 
not  ignorant  of  the  Arabian  philosophers  Averroes 
and  Avicenna.     Of  the  Latm  classical  writers  he 


Dante 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


354 


shows  an  acquaintance  with  Vergfl,  Cicero,  Lucan, 
Horace,  Ovid,  Livy,  and  Statius.  At  the  age  of 
nine  he  saw  for  the  first  time  Beatrice,  the  daughter 
of  Foico  Portinari,  for  whom  he  conceived  an  ardent 
passion  which  stimulated  his  poetical  genius  and 
found  its  last  expression  in  the  Divina  Commedia. 
Their  intercourse  was  confined  to  occasional  salu- 
tations, and  she  married  in  1287  and  died  in  1290. 
Dante,  some  time  before  1298,  married  Gemma 
Manetto  Donati,  who  bore  him  four  children. 

The  party  divisions  in  Florence  in  Dante's  time 

were  twofold,  one  Italian,  the  other  local.     The 

former  was  between  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines,  the 

latter    between    Bianchi    and    Neri 

2.  Floren-  ("  Whites  and  Blacks  ")•     The  Guelfs, 
tine        the  popular  party,  were  represented 

Parties,  by  the  burghers  and  trade-gilds. 
The  Ghibellines  represented  the  aris- 
tocracy and  the  soldiery.  Dante  was  originally  a 
Guelf  and  a  White.  Later  he  passed  over  to  the 
Ghibellines,  but  finally  broke  away  from  both 
parties.  During  Dante's  earlier  life  the  power 
was  gradually  shifting  from  the  nobles  to  the  people. 
In  1289  the  Tuscan  Ghibellines  were  routed  at  the 
battle  of  Gampaldino  (June  11),  where  Dante 
served  as  a  soldier,  as  he  did  a  little  later  at  the 
siege  and  capture  of  the  Pisan  castle  of  Caprona 
by  the  Florentines  and  Luccans.  The  revolution 
of  1293  overthrew  the  grandees,  and  the  demo- 
cratic character  of  the  constitution  was  confirmed 
by  the  reforms  of  Giano  della  Bella,  a  noble  with 
popular  sympathies.  Thenceforth  the  nobles  were 
excluded  from  the  office  of  prior.  However,  they 
continued  their  intrigues,  which  were  now  pro- 
moted by  the  newly  elected  pope,  Boniface  VIII. 
(1294),  who  aimed  to  concentrate  in  himself  all 
authority,  temporal  and  spiritual.  The  control  of 
Tuscany  was  an  important  means  to  this  end. 

Without  membership  in  one  of  the  industrial 
gilds  no  one  could  hold  office.  Dante  was  en- 
rolled in  the  Gild  of  Physicians  and  Apothecaries 
in  1295,  and  in  1300  became  one  of  the  priors,  in 
whom  the  executive  power  of  the  State  was  lodged. 
The  division  between  the  Whites  and  the  Blacks — 
the  Cerchi  and  Donati — ^now  came  to  the  front. 
The  Cerchi  represented  the  democracy,  and  the 
Donati  the  pope  and  his  policy.  A  fight  took 
place  between  the  two  factions.  Boniface  des- 
patched a  legate  to  Florence,  nominally 

3.  Dante's  as  a  pacificator,  really  to  support  the 
Banish-     Blacks.    Dante  with  the   signory  re- 

ment  fused  his  overtures.  As  the  disturb- 
ance continued,  the  priors  banished 
the  leaders  of  both  factions.  Corso  Donati  went  to 
Rome  and  appealed  to  Boniface,  who  selected  as  his 
tool  Charles  of  Valois,  brother  of  Philip  the  Fair  of 
France.  He  sent  him  to  Florence  with  an  armed 
force,  on  the  pretense  of  restoring  peace,  and  his 
arrival  was  the  signal  for  a  ferocious  attack  upon 
the  Whites  by  the  Blacks.  Dante's  house  was 
sacked.  The  priors  were  deposed.  On  Jan.  27, 
1302,  Dante  wajs  pronounced  guilty  of  extortion, 
embezzlement,  and  corruption;  of  resistance  to  the 
pope  and  Charles;  and  of  assisting  to  expel  the 
Blacks,  the  servants  of  the  Church.  With  four 
others  he  was  banished  for  two  years,  condemned 


to  pay  a  heavy  fine,  and  excluded  from  holding 
office  thereafter.  On  Mar.  10  a  second  sentence  was 
pronounced,  forbidding  him  to  return  to  Florence 
on  penalty  of  being  burned. 

It  is  impossible  to  follow  the  track  of  Dante's 
wanderings.  It  appears  that,  after  the  proecrip- 
tion,  in  1302,  1303,  and  1306,  three  attempts  were 
made  by  the  banished  Whites  to  enter  Florence. 
In  the  first  and  probably  in  the  second  of  these 
Dante  took  part;  but  he  soon  broke  finally  with  \m 

associates,    and    thenceforth    was    a 

4.  His  Wan-  party   by   himself.     His    first   refuge 

derings.     was   with   the    Scaligers   at    Verona, 

Later  Life,  after   which   he   wandered   over   the 

greater  part  of  Italy.  He  was  at 
Padua  in  1306,  and  the  same  year  with  the  Mala- 
spini  at  Lunigiana.  He  was  also  at  Mantua.  It 
has  been  claimed  that  he  resided  in  Paris,  and  that 
he  visited  England  and  Flanders.  After  the  death 
of  Henry  VII.,  in  1313,  he  appears  at  Lucca.  In 
1316  the  Government  of  Florence  offered  amnesty 
to  political  exiles,  and  Dante  was  granted  permiasion 
to  return  on  condition  of  undergoing  the  public 
penance  of  a  malefactor.  The  offer  was  indignantly 
refused.  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  resided 
chiefly  with  Guido  da  Polenta  at  Ravenna,  but  was 
for  a  considerable  time  at  Verona  with  Can  Grande 
della  Scala.  He  was  invited  to  go  to  Bologna  to 
receive  the  poet's  crown,  but  declined.  He  was 
sent  as  an  ambassador  to  Venice  by  Polenta,  upon 
whom  the  Venetians  had  made  war.  Shortly  after 
his  return  he  died,  and  was  interred  near  the  church 
of  San  Francesco. 

n.  Literary  Works:  (1)  The  Vila  Nuava :  The 
story  of  his  passion  for  Beatrice  in  prose,  inter- 
spersed with  brief  poems.  It  explains  the  part 
which  Beatrice  plays  in  the  Commedia.  (2)  The 
Convivio  or  "  Banquet "  (the  form  Convito  is  later): 
Projected  in  fourteen  treatises,  only  four  of  which 
were  written;  a  philosophical  conmientary  on  three 
of  Dante's  own  Camoni.  It  treats  of  questions  of 
geography,  astronomy,  etymology,  and  dialectics, 
but  also  of  philosophy,  patriotism,  and  nobility  of 
soul.  (3)  Camoniere :  Minor  poems,  songs,  bal- 
lads, and  sonnets.  (4)  De  mmuxrchia  :  In  Latin, 
in  three  books.  Monarchy  is  the  normal,  divinely 
instituted  form  of  government.  The  Roman  Em- 
pire is  invested  with  universal  monarchy  by  the 
decree  of  God,  and  is  perpetuated  in  the  Hohen- 
staufens.  The  normal  administration  of  human 
affairs  is  through  two  coordinate  agents,  the  Em- 
pire and  the  Church.  The  pope  and  the  emperor 
are  equally  God's  vicars.  (5)  De  vulgari  eloqueniia  : 
A  treatise  in  Latin.  It  examines  the  fourteen 
dialects  of  Italy,  and  discusses  the  meter  of  the 
camone,  giving  rules  for  the  composition  of  Italian 
poetry.  Four  books  were  projected,  of  which  only 
two  were  written.  (6)  Epistles :  Number  and 
authenticity  much  disputed;  fourteen  have  been 
attributed  to  Dante,  and  ten  are  doubtfully  accepted 
as  genuine.  (7)  De  aqua  et  terra :  A  treatise  in 
Latin.  Dante's  authorship  has  been  generally  de- 
nied, but  some  modern  scholars,  notably  Profes- 
sor  Edward  Moore,  believe  it  to  be  authentic.  The 
question  discussed  is:  Can  water  in  its  own  sphere 
or  natural  circumference  be  in  any  place  higher 


355 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bftnte 


than  the  dry  land  or  habitable  part  of  the  earth  ? 
(8)  The  Bucolic  Eclogues  :  Twc  Epistles  in  Latin 
hexameters,  to  Giovanni  del  Vergilio,  who  blamed 
Dante  for  not  writing  the  Commedia  in  Latin,  and 
urged  him  to  compose  Latin  poems,  and  to  come 
to  Bologna  to  receive  the  poetic  crown.  (9)  The 
Divina  Commedia  :  It  is  written  in  terza  rxmaf  and 
the  theme  is  Dante's  journey  through  hell,  purga- 
tory, and  paradise.  The  poem  is  caUed  Cormnedia, 
because  although  it  begins  horribly  with  hell,  it 
ends  happily  with  paradise.  The  epithet  "  Divine  " 
was  a  later  addition  of  admirers.  Dante  says  that 
the  subject  of  the  work,  taken  literally,  is  the  state 
of  souls  after  death,  regarded  as  a  matter  of  fact. 
Taken  allegorically,  it  is  man,  so  far  as  by  merit  or 
demerit  in  the  exercise  of  free  will  he  is  exposed 
to  the  rewards  or  punishments  of  justice.  The 
astronomical  and  geographical  elements  of  the 
poem  are  derived  from  the  Ptolemaic  system  of 
astronomy  and  from  the  geographical  writings  of 
Orosius  (4th  cent.).  Hell  and  purgatory  are 
treated  as  geographical  facts.  Hell  is  directly 
beneath  Jerusalem,  the  center  of  the  land-hemi- 
sphere. It  is  a  hollow  inverted  cone,  the  interior 
circumference  of  which  is  divided  into  nine  con- 
centric ledges,  each  devoted  to  the  punishment  of  a 
distinct  class  of  sinners.  At  the  apex  of  the  cone, 
the  center  of  gravity,  Lucifer  is  fixed  in  eternal  ice. 
Purgatory  is  a  lofty  conical  mountain  rising  from 
an  island  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Its  lower 
section,  antepuigatory,  is  traversed  by  a  spiral 
track  of  three  rounds,  which  terminates  at  the  gate 
of  St.  Peter.  Above  this  is  purgatory  proper, 
which  consists  of  seven  concentric  terraces,  on  each 
of  which  one  of  the  seven  deadly  sins  is  expiated. 
At  the  summit  of  the  mountain  is  the  earthly  para- 
dise, the  original  Eden,  where  is  the  river  Lethe, 
whose  waters  obliterate  the  memory  of  sin  and 
sorrow,  and  the  river  Eunoe,  which  restores  the 
memoxy  of  good  actions. 

The  poem  consists  of  three  parts.  Inferno^  Purga- 
torto,  Paradiso,  In  Apr.,  1300,  Dante  finds  him- 
self astray  in  a  rough  and  gloomy  forest.  Emerging 
from  this,  he  attempts  to  ascend  a  hill,  but  is  driven 
back  by  three  ravenous  beasts.  He  is  met  by  the 
shade  of  Veigil,  who  proposes  to  conduct  him  through 
hell  and  purgatoxy,  and  then  to  commit  him  to  the 
charge  of  Beatrice,  who  will  guide  him  through 
paradise.  On  the  evening  of  Good  Friday,  Apr. 
8,  they  enter  the  gate  of  hell,  and,  passing  through 
the  successive  circles,  reach  the  apex,  pass  the  center 
of  gravity,  and  ascend  to  the  island  of  purgatory. 
Through  antepurgatory  they  reach  the  gate  of  St. 
Peter,  are  admitted,  and  traverse  the  successive 
terraces.  At  the  summit  Dante  sees  a  magnificent 
symbolic  vision  of  the  triumph  of  the  Church. 
Beatrice  appears,  and  Vergil  vanishes.  Having 
been  plunged  in  Lethe,  and  having  drunk  of  Eunoe, 
Dante  mounts  with  Beatrice  through  the  nine 
heavens  to  the  empyrean,  where  he  beholds  the 
bliss  of  the  glorified,  and  the  blessed  Trinity. 

It  is  preeminently  a  moral  and  religious  work. 
It  is  the  story  of  the  human  soul  in  its  relation  to 
God.  In  the  conditions  of  departed  souls  which  it 
portrays  it  reflects  the  multiform  aspects  of  the 
life  of  men  and  women  of  all  ranks,  stations,  and 


employments,  from  the  emperor  to  the  peasant. 
It  is  the  consummate  expression  of  medievalism 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The 
range  of  allusion  is  vast  and  wonderful  in  its  variety. 
The  portrayal  of  human  character  and  human 
passion  is  vivid  and  subtle.  The  poet's  intense, 
pervading  moral  purpose  divests  of  vulgarity  even 
the  hideous  details  of  the  Inferno,  He  is  a  plain 
speaker,  but  no  word  or  picture  ever  appeals  to  a 
sensual  instinct.  Under  his  dominant  conception 
of  man  as  the  inheritor  of  a  moral  destiny,  distinc- 
tions of  time,  race,  and  position  disappear,  and 
classic  heroes  and  mythological  monsters  mingle 
with  popes,  martyrs,  and  Christian  emperors.  His 
biting  satire  respects  neither  civil  nor  ecclesiastical 
dignity.  The  poem  is  packed  with  similes,  alle- 
gories, portraits,  historical  and  personal  references, 
and  theological  and  philosophical  disquisitions.  It 
is  intensely  personal,  often  egotistic,  revealing  the 
poet's  consciousness  of  his  own  genius,  tinged  with 
bitterness  of  spirit,  yet  displaying  the  sympathy  and 
the  tenderness  of  a  great  soul.  Dante  is  impatient 
of  V£^eness.  He  is  intensely  realistic.  Every 
space  is  measured,  every  region  mapped,  every 
dimension  recorded.  His  similes  are  chosen  with- 
out regard  to  their  source,  with  the  single  view  of 
illustrating  his  thought;  and  the  most  grotesque 
images  appear  amid  the  very  sublimities  of  heaven. 
With  his  wonderful  sense  of  form  he  unites  a  deli- 
cate sense  of  color  and  soimd.      ,,  ^   ., 

M.  R.  VmcBNT. 

Biblioorapht:  Liata  of  literature  are:  G.  de  Batinee,  Bib- 
lioorafia  Dante^ca,  2  vols..  Prato,  1846-46.  supplemented 
by  C.  F.  Carpellini.  1866.  by  B.  della  Lega.  1883.  and  by 
Guido  Biad.  1888;  G.  J.  Ferassi,  Manuale  Danieico,  5 
vols..  Baasano.  1865-77  (useful,  but  oonfuaed  in  arrange- 
ment); T.  W.  Koch,  Dante  in  America,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1896  (for  the  Dante  Society);  W.  C.  Lane,  Dante  ColUc- 
Oona  in  the  Harvard  .  .  .  and  Boeton  .  .  .  Lt5rartM, 
Boston,  1890;  W.  M.  Rossetti,  BUdiography  of  the  Worke 
cf  Dante,  London,  1005. 

General  and  introductory  critical  works  are:  G.  A. 
Scartaszini.  Dant&-Handbuch,  Leipsic,  1892,  Eng.  transl., 
London.  1893;  H.  C.  Barlow.  Critical,  Hiatarical  and 
Philoeophieal  Contributiona  to  the  Study  of  Dante,  2  vols., 
ib.  1864-66;  E.  Moore,  Studiee  in  Dante,  3  series,  ib.  1896- 
1903  (very  valuable);  F.  X.  Kraus,  Dante,  eein  Leben  und 
eein  Werk,  Berlin,  1897.  More  popular  works  are:  M.  F. 
Rossetti,  A  Shadow  of  Dante,  Edinburgh,  1884;  R.  W. 
Church,  Dante  and  Other  Eeeaye,  London,  1888;  J.  A. 
Symonds.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Dante,  ib.  1890:  L. 
Ragg.  Dante  and  Hie  Italy,  ib.  1907.  On  Dante's  as- 
tronomy, geography,  and  chronology  consult  £.  Moore, 
in  Dante  Studiee,  vol.  iii.,  London,  1903,  and  his  Time 
Referencee  in  the  Divina  Commedia,  ib.  1887. 

Biographical  works:  The  biographies  by  Boocacdo  and 
Bruni  are  translated  by  P.  H.  Wicksteed,  in  A  Provieional 
TranaL  of  the  Early  Livee  of  Dante,  Hull.  1898;  a  critical 
r^um^  of  the  five  early  biographies  is  by  E.  Moore, 
Dante  and  hie.  Early  Bvograpkere,  London,  1880.  Consult 
further:  F.  X.  Wegele,  Dante  AlighitrVe  Leben  und  Werke, 
Jena,  1879  (valuable);  G.  A.  Scartasiini,  Dante  Alighieri, 
Frankfort.  1879. 

Dictionaries  and  oonoordanoes  are:  L.  G.  Blanc,  Vo- 
cabolario  Danteeeo,  Leipsic,  1862;  Donato  Bocci,  IH- 
tionario  .  .  .  della  Divina  Commedia  di  Dante  Alighierit 
Turin,  1873;  G.  A.  Scartasiini,  Eneidopedia  Danteeea, 
Bfilan,  1896-99,  continued  by  A.  Fiamasso,  1905  (sup- 
plement includes  the  Latin  works;  valuable);  P.  Toyn- 
bee.  Dictionary  of  Proper  Namee  and  Notable  Mattere  in 
.  .  .  Dante,  London,  1898  (useful);  E.  A.  Fay,  Concord- 
ance of  the  Divina  Commedia,  Boston,  1894  (very  valu- 
able); E.  Sheldon  and  A.  C.  White,  Concordanee  delle 
opere  .  .  .  di  Dante,  ib.  1906  (also  indispensable). 

Editions  deserving  notice  are.  The  superb  quarto  of 
G.  G.  Warren  Lord  Vernon,  in  which  the  four  earliest 


Dmnte 
DMvaa 


THE  NEW  SGHAFF-HERZOG 


356 


•ditioiis  of  V6Stoo,  JMi  Mftntaa.  and  Naples  (16th  cent.), 
•d.  A.  Punasi.  aia  airaiwad  in  paimllal  oolnmiia,  London, 
1868  (only  100  oopias  printad);  iba  two  Aldina  aditiona 
of  1602  and  1616:  iba  Giuntina  and  Delia  Cnuca  aditiona 
aia  tba  chief  of  the  10th-«ent.  aditiona;  for  studenta  the 
edition  of  Padua,  1822,  reprinted,  1  toL.  1850.  ia  exoeK 
leat;  a  beautiful  edition,  with  yariant  readinss,  is  that 
of  C.  Witta,  Barlia,  1862.  Convanient  testa  are:  P. 
Fratiealli,  Florence,  1870;  the  TempU  DanU,  London, 
1902;  and  the  Oxford  text  of  £.  Moore,  3  Tob..  ib.  1902, 
in  fine  open  type. 

Of  oommentarjee,  the  eariiar  onea  are:  Jaoopo  della 
Lana.  1321-28;  the  Ottimo,  1334;  P.  di  Dante,  1340; 
BenTenuto  da  ImoU,  1379;  Boccaccio,  1373;  Franoeeco 
da  Buti.  before  1406  (all  important):  the  chief  one  of  the 
18th  cent,  ia  by  P.  B.  Lombardi  (nuuiy  editions,  of  which 
the  Padua,  1822,  6  vols.,  ed.,  is  very  fine).  Later  com- 
mentaries are  by  N.  Tommaaeo.  Turin,  1837,  .  .  .  1869; 
P.  Fratioelli,  Florence,  1852  and  often;  O.  A.  Scartasiini, 
Leipaic  1874-1800^  3d  minor  ed.,  1899  (indispensable); 
W.  W.  Vernon,  3  vob.,  London,  1897  (baaed  on  Ben- 
venuto  da  Imola);  M.  R.  Vincent,  New  York,  1904 
(transl.  and  oommantary).  Of  Encliah  translations  the 
following  (in  Terse)  are  noteworthy:  H.  Boyd,  London, 
1802;  H.  F.  Gary.  ib.  1814  (more  than  20  editions):  C. 
B.  Cayley,  ib.  1861;  H.  W.  Lonsfellow,  Boston,  1863 
(often  printed);  E.  H.  Plumptre.  London,  1886;  T.  W. 
Parsons,  Boston,  1893;  K.  H.  Haaelfoot,  London,  1899; 
M.  R.  Vincent,  New  York,  1904;  (and  in  proae)  J.  Cai^ 
lyle,  London.  1840;  A.  H.  BuUer,  ib.  1892;  C.  £.  Nor- 
ton, Boston,  1901;  H.  Oelsner  and  P.  H.  Wicksteed. 
London,  1901-O2;  H.  F.  Toser.  ib.  1904. 

The  above  entriea  relate  chiefly  or  entirely  to  the  Divina 
Commedia.  Of  his  other  works  referred  to  in  the  above 
article  these  editions  and  translationa  may  be  mentioned: 
(1)  Vita  Nuava:  "  The  New  Life,"  ed.  A.  d'Ancona,  Pisa, 
1864;  Eu8.  transl.  by  T.  Martin.  London,  1862,  4th  ed., 
1904;  C.  E.  Norton.  Boston.  1867.  10th  impression,  1896; 
D.  G.  Rossetti,  London,  1874  and  often;  C.  8.  Boswell, 
ib.  1896;  text  and  transl.  by  L.  Ricci.  ib.  1903.  (2)  Cowrito: 
"  The  Banquet,"  transl.  by  E.  P.  Bayer.  London,  1887; 
by  Katharine  Hillard,  ib.  1889.  (3)  Caruoniere:  "  Lyric 
Poems."  ed.  P.  Fraticelli,  Florence,  1861-62;  transl.  by 
D.  G.  Rossetti,  London,  1861,  new  ed.  1892,  by  E.  H. 
Plumptre  (with  his  tmnsl.  of  the  Divitia  Commedia,  2 
vols..  London,  1886-^87).  (4)  De  Monorchia:  "  On  Mon- 
archy." ed.  C.  Witte.  Berlin.  1862;  Eng.  transl.  by  F. 
J.  (%arch.  London,  1879;  by  A.  Henry,  ib.  1904.  (5) 
De  vtUffttri  eloquentia:  Enfc.  transl.  by  A.  O.  Ferrers  How- 
ell, London.  1890.  (6)  Epistles,  ed.  P.  FraticelU.  Flor- 
ence. 1862:  Ens.  transl.  by  P.  H.  Wicksteed.  London, 
1808;  by  C.  8.  Latham.  Boston,  1904.  (7)  Ds  0911a  si 
lerra:  transl.  by  C.  H.  Bromby,  A  QustHon  of  Ihe  Water 
and  the  Land,  London,  1897.  (8)  EcLoga:  Bueolie  Ee- 
lotntett  Eng.  transl.  by  P.  H.  Wicksteed  (in  his  ProvieunuU 
Transl.  of  the  Early  lAvee  of  Dante\  London.  1898.  In 
general,  P.  Toynbee,  In  the  Footprinte  of  Dante.  A  Treae- 
ury  of  Veree  and  Proee  from  the  Worke  of  Dante,  London. 
1907. 

DANZ,  dOntz,  JOHAlfN  TRAUGOTT  LEBE- 
RECHT:  Church  Ustorian;  b.  at  Weimar  May  31, 
1769;  d.  at  Jena  May  15,  1851.  He  was  educated 
at  Weimar,  Jena,  and  GOttingen,  and  became 
teacher  at  the  gymnasium  and  normal  school  in 
his  native  city.  Through  the  influence  of  Herder 
he  went  to  Jena  in  1798  as  rector  of  the  mu- 
nicipal school.  He  became  privat^ocent  at  Jena 
in  1804,  assistant  professor  of  theology  in  1810, 
full  professor  in  1812,  and  retired  in  1837. 
His  theological  tendency  was  that  of  a  Bibli- 
cal ration^^st,  and  he  postulated  that  both  the 
rationalist  and  the  supematuralist  could  prac- 
tise the  true  religion  of  Christ.  Like  Herder,  he 
was  characterized  by  breadth  of  learning  and  by 
skilful  presentment  of  the  most  diverse  themes. 
His  most  important  theological  book  was  his  Lehr- 
buch  der  chrvitHchen  Kirchengeschichte  (2  vols., 
Jena,  1818-26),  of  which  he  made  compendiums  in 


his  Kungefaatte  Ztuammentidlung  der  christlithen 
KirchenguchiehU  (1824)  and  in  his  Kirchengaekvchi' 
liehe  TabeOe  (1838).  He  also  prepared  an  edition 
of  the  BiUioiheca  patruiica  of  Johann  Georg  Walch 
(1834),  with  which  his  own  Initia  dodrince  patristica 
(1839)  was  closely  connected,  and  he  dedicated  to 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  his  edition  of  the  Libri  sifm- 
Mici  eodesia  Romano-Calholie<B  (Weimar,  1836). 
He  likewise  wrote  an  Eneykiopddie  und  Methodo- 
logis  der  theologiachen  Wiasenachaften  (1832)  and 
an  Univer8dlwdrierbuch  der  iheologiachen  LiUeratttr 
(Leipsic,  1843),  having  already  summarized  prac- 
tical theology  in  his  Grundriu  der  Wieaenachaften 
dee  geietlichen  Berufe  (Jena,  1824).  He  was,  more- 
over, the  author  of  a  curious  Vereuch  einer  allge- 
meinen  Geechichie  der  menechliehen  Nahrungemittd 
(Leipsic,  1806)  and  a  philological  work  entitled 
AfUilexilogue  (Jena,  1842).  (G.  FRANKf.) 

BnuooBAFBT:  AwnaUe  aeademim  Jenenme,  ed.  H.  C.  A. 

Eichstadios,  pp.  18  sqq..  Jena,  1823;  Neuer  Nekroloo  der 

Deuteehen,  1851.  i.  874-382. 

DAPONTEy  da-pon't£  (secular  name,  Constaji- 
tinos),  CJESARIUS:  Greelc  monk  and  poet;  b.  (on 
the  island  of  Skopelo,  15  m.  n.  of  Eubcea,  in  the 
.£gean)  1713  (17147);  d.  in  the  monastery  Xiro- 
potamu,  on  Mount  Athos,  1784.  He  recei^-ed  a 
good  education  in  Bucharest  through  the  favor  of 
Prince  Racovitza.  As  secretary  to  Prince  Mauro- 
gordatos  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  Turkish 
authorities  and  was  imprisoned  for  some  years. 
Becoming  a  monk  in  1753,  he  adopted  the  name 
Casarius,  and  entered  in  1757  the  monastery  in 
which  he  died.  He  is  the  greatest  poet  of  the  New 
Greek  Church.  Gf  his  works  (all  in  £.  Legrand, 
PublicaUone  de  V4cole  dee  languee  arientalee  rt- 
vantee,  Paris,  1886)  the  following  are  important 
from  a  theological  standpoint  (for  his  historical 
works  cf .  TLZ,  1893,  pp.  422  sqq.) : "  Wonoan's  Look- 
ing-glass "  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1766);  its  secular  com- 
panion, "  Woman's  Lantern,"  the  contents  of  which 
are  given  by  Lambros  in  his  "Catalogue  of  the 
Greek  MSS.  on  Mt.  Athos  "  (Athens,  1888,  L  221); 
"  Honesty  of  Character  "  (Venice,  1770);  "  The 
Spiritual  Table"  (Venice,  1778,  not  seen  by  Le- 
grand); the  book  for  the  people,  "Exposition  of 
the  Divine  Service  "  (Vienna,  1795).  Exoeedmgly 
interesting  is  "  The  Garden  of  Graces  "  (edited  by 
£.  Legrand,  Biblioihkque  grecque  vulgaire,  vol.  ill., 
Paris,  1881).  His  monastery  preserves  the  MSS.  of 
his  later  works  in  ailtograph.  (Philipf  Meter.) 
Bibuoorapht:  6.    Legrand,    PuUieaiiona    de    VieoU    dee 

languee  orientalee  vivantee,  1st  series,  vols,  xiv.,  xr..  Pkri^ 

1880-81    (Dnponte's  work  on  the  Four  Years'  War  is 

given). 

DARBY,  JOHN  NBLSON:  The  most  prominent 
among  the  founders  of  the  Plymouth  Brethren, 
whence  they  are  sometimes  (especially  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe)  called  "  Darbyites  "  (see  Plym- 
outh Brethren);  b.  in  London  Nov.  18,  1800; 
d.  at  Bournemouth  Apr.  29,  1882.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1819  and  W3:> 
called  to  the  Irish  bar  about  1825;  but  soon  gave 
up  the  law,  took  orders,  and  served  a  curacy  in 
Wicklow  until,  in  1827,  doubts  as  to  the  Scriptural 
authority  for  church  establishments  led  him  to 
leave  the  Church  altogether  and  meet  with  a  little 


867 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dante 


company  of  like-minded  persons  in  Dublin.  In 
1830  he  visited  Paris,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  and 
then  went  to  Plymouth,  where  an  assembly  of 
Brethren  was  shortly  formed,  and  the  town  soon 
lent  its  name  to  the  movement.  James  L.  Harris, 
perpetual  curate  of  Plymstock,  resigned  his  living 
to  unite  with  them  and,  in  1834,  started  the  Ckria- 
tian  WUne88,  their  first  periodical.  Darby  became 
an  assiduous  writer,  and  published  his  Parochial 
Arrangement  Destructive  of  Order  in  the  Church  in 
the  first  voliune  of  the  Wiineea,  and  his  Apoetaxy  of 
the  Successive  Dispensations  (afterward  published  in 
French  as  Apostasie  de  V^conomie  actueUe)  in  the 
same  paper  in  1836.  Dissensions  among  the  Breth- 
ren had  already  begun,  and  Darby  was  accused  of 
departmg  from  their  original  principles. 

Between  1838  and  1840  Darby  worked  in  Swit- 
sserland.  In  the  autumn  of  1839  an  influential 
member  of  the  congregation  at  Lausanne  invited 
him  thither  to  oppose  Methodism.  In  March,  1840, 
he  came,  and  obtained  a  hearing  by  discourses  and 
a  tract,  De  la  doctrine  des  Wesleyens  &  Vigard  de  la 
perfection.  His  lectures  on  prophecy  made  a  great 
impression,  and  he  soon  gathered  young  men  round 
him  at  Lausanne,  with  whom  he  studied  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  fruit  of  these  conferences  was  his 
Etudes  sur  la  Parole,  a  work  which  appeared  in 
English  as  Synopsis  of  the  Books  of  the  B^le  (5  vols., 
London,  1857-67).  Many  congregations  were 
formed  in  Cantons  Vaud,  Geneva,  and  Bern.  Cer- 
tain of  his  followers  started  a  periodical,  Le  T^ 
jnoignage  des  disciples  de  la  Parole. 

When,  by  Jesuit  intrigues,  a  revolution  broke 
out  in  Canton  Vaud  (Feb.,  1845),  the  Darbyites 
in  some  parts  of  Switzerland  suffered  persecution, 
and  Darby's  own  life  was  in  jeopardy.  He  returned 
to  England  the  same  year,  but  his  heart  seems  ever 
to  have  turned  toward  Switzerland  and  France. 
Thenceforth  he  took  a  more  active  lead  among  the 
English  Brethren,  with  the  result  that  they  became 
split  into  two  parties,  the  Darbyites  or  exclusives 
and  the  Bethesda  or  open  brethren.  In  1853  he 
visited  Elberfeld  and  again  in  1854,  when  he  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  into  German.  He  was 
also  in  Germany  in  1869,  when  he  took  part  in  a 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into  German. 
He  visited  Canada  and  the  United  States  in  1859, 
1864-65, 1866-68, 1870, 1872-73,  and  1874.  About 
1871  he  went  to  Italy,  and  in  1875  to  New  Zealand. 
He  visited  abo  the  West  Indies.  Between  1878 
and  1880  he  was  much  occupied  with  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  into  French,  in  connection 
with  which  he  sojourned  long  at  Pau.  He  had 
already  made  a  French  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  in  1859. 

Darby  was  a  most  voluminous  writer  on  a  wide 
range  of  subjects — doctrinal  and  controversial, 
devotional  and  practical,  apologetic,  metaphysical, 
on  points  of  scholarship,  etc.  His  CoUeded  Wri- 
tings (incomplete)  have  been  published  by  W.  Kelly 
in  thirty-two  volumes  (London,  1867-^83).  They 
include  Irrationalism  of  Infidelity  (1853),  a  reply  to 
Newman;  Remarks  on  Puseyism  (1854);  The  Suf' 
ferings  of  Christ  (1858)  and  The  Righteousness  of 
God  (1859),  two  works  which  produced  much  con- 
troversy;   Analysis  of  Newman*s  Apologia  (1866); 


FamUiar  Conversations  on  Romanism,  written  be- 
tween 1870  and  1880;  Meditations  on  the  AcU  of 
the  Apostles,  composed  in  Italian;  Letters  on  the 
Revised  New  Testament  (1881),  in  which  he  criticised 
the  revisers  principally  in  respect  to  the  aorist 
tense,  a  subject  he  had  previously  discussed  in  the 
preface  to  an  English  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (2d  ed.,  1872).  He  was  a  hynm-writer  and 
edited  the  hynmal  in  general  use  among  the  Breth- 
ren. A  volume  of  his  Spiritual  Songs  was  pub- 
lished in  London  in  1883,  and  three  volumes  of  his 
lettera  in  1886-89. 

BiBLXOORArar:  W.  B.  Neatby.  HM.  of  the  Plymouih  Bnlh- 
rcn,  London,  1901  (brat  on  both  Darby  and  the  Plym- 
outh Brethren);  F.  Estteule,  Le  Plynumthimne  d'autnfoi§ 
el  le  Dar&yieme  d'aujourd'hui,  PariB,  1858;  W.  H.  Dorman, 
The  Ctoee  of  $8  Yean  of  Aeeodatum  with  J.  N.  Darby, 
London,  1866;  Stokee,  in  CofUemporary  Review^  Oet., 
1885,  pp.  637^552;  S.  W.  Duffield,  Bnglieh  Hymns,  pp. 
403-405.  New  York.  1886;  Julian.  Hymnology,  pp.  279- 
280;  DNB,  ziv.  43-44;  and  the  literature  under  Pltm- 

OUTH  BaCTHBBf . 

D'ARCY,  ddr'si,  CHARLES  FREDERICK: 
Church  of  Ireland,  bishop  of  Ossory;  b.  at  Dublin 
Jan.  2,  1859.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin (B.A.,  1882),  and  was  curate  of  St.  Thomas, 
Belfast  (1884-90),  rector  of  BiUy,  County  Antrim 
(1890-93),  rector  of  Ballymena,  with  Ballydug, 
County  Antrim  (1893-1900),  and  dean  of  St. 
Anne's  Cathedral  and  vicar  of  Belfast  (1900-03). 
He  was  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Down 
1892-1903,  chaplain  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land 1895-1903,  prebendaiy  of  Connor  in  Connor 
Cathedral  1898-1900,  prebendary  of  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral,  Dublin,  1902-03,  and  Donellan  lecturer 
in  the  University  of  Dublin  1897-98.  In  1903  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Clogher  and  in  1907  was 
translated  to  Ossory,  Ferns,  and  Leighlin.  Theo- 
logically he  is  interested  in  the  philosophic  expres- 
sion of  Christian  doctrine  and  in  the  relation  of 
religion  and  science,  while  he  expects  important 
results  from  recent  criticisms  of  idealistic  forms  of 
thought  and  from  the  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. He  has  written  A  Short  Study  of  Ethics 
(London,  1895);  Idealism  and  Theology  (1899); 
and  Rtding  Ideas  cfOur  Lord  (1901). 

DARGAN,  EDWIN  CHARLES:  American  Baptist; 
b.  at  Springville,  Darlington  0)unty,  S.  C,  Nov.  17, 
1852.  He  was  educated  at  Furman  University, 
Greenville,  S.  C.  (M.A.,  1873),  and  at  the  Southern 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  then  at  Greenville, 
S.  C,  now  at  Louisville,  Ky.  (full  graduate,  1877). 
He  has  been  pastor  of  Baptist  churches  in  Roanoke 
County,  Va.  (1877-81),  of  the  First  Baptist  Chureh, 
Petersbittg,  Va.  (1881-87),  the  Baptist  Chureh  at 
Dixon,  Cal.  (1887-^88),  the  Citadel  Square  Baptist 
Chureh,  Caiarieston,  S.  C.  (1888-92),  professor  of 
homiletics  in  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological  Sem- 
inary (1892-1907),  and,  since  June,  1907,  pastor  of 
the  First  Baptist  Chureh,  Macon,  Ga.  He  has  also 
been  a  member  of  various  boards  and  other  organi- 
zations of  his  denomination.  He  is  '*  Evangelical 
and  conservative  in  general  theological  views  "  and 
"  Calvinistic  in  type  of  theology."  His  principal 
works  are:  Ecclesiology  (Louisville,  1897;  revised 
ed.,  1905);  A  History  of  Preaching,  from  A,D.  70 
to  1672  (New  York,  1905);    The  Doctrines  of  Our 


Dariofl 
Daaffli«rty 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


358 


Faiih  (Nashville,  1905);  and  Society,  Kingdom,  and 
Church  (Philadelphia,  1907).  He  also  published  a 
commentary  on  (jolossians  (Philadelphia,  1890),  and 
edited  J.  A.  Brodus's  Prepanaion  and  Delivery  of 
Sermons  (New  York,  1898). 

DARIUSy  da-Toi^us:  The  name  given  to  several 
kings  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  earliest  form  of 
the  word  is  given  in  the  old  Persian  inscriptions  as 
Darayava(h)ush, "  up-holding-weal." 

1.  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  vi.  1  sqq.,  xi.  1), 
According  to  Dan.  ix.  1,  was  son  of  Ahasuerus. 
These  passages,  in  their  mention  of  this  king,  raise 
the  question  of  the  authenticity  of  Daniel  (q.v.). 
Dan.  vi.  1,  in  connection  with  v.  28  sqq.,  niakes 
Darius  at  the  age  of  sixty-two  the  immediate  suc- 
cessor of  Belshazzar,  who  is  the  immediate  pred- 
ecessor of  Cyrus  as  ruler  of  the  Medo-Persian  Em- 
pire according  to  Dan.  vi.  2, 8, 26, 29.  But  accord- 
ing to  the  Ptolemaic  canon,  C^rus  the  Persian 
succeeded  Nabonidus,  the  last  Chaldean  king,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  annals  of  Nabonidus  and 
by  the  clay  cylinder  of  Cyrus  (cf.  E.  Schrader, 
KeOineckHjaiche  Bibliothek,  III.  i.,  Berlin,  1890). 
A  kingdom  of  Cyrus  immediately  after  the  fall  of 
the  Chaldeans  was  known  to  Berosus,  Ctesias, 
Alexander  Polyhistor,  Strabo,  and  other  ancient 
historians.  In  full  accord  with  these  facts  is  an- 
other, viz.,  that  Cyrus  ruled  Babylon  nine  years, 
and  died  529  B.C.,  so  that  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
over  that  city  coincides  with  tfie  fall  of  Nabonidus. 
There  seems  therefore  little  ground  for  a  defense 
of  the  historicity  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  in  this  pai^ 
ticular.  A  hypothesis  which  has  been  supposed  to 
relieve  the  difficulty  identifies  Darius  the  Mede 
with  the  CTyaxares  II.  of  Xenophon's  CyropcBdia. 
Josephus  (Ant,  X.  xi.  4)  is  held  to  warrant  making 
Cyaxares  the  son  and  successor  of  Astyages  and 
uncle  of  CyruB  (Xenophon,  Cyropcedia,  I.  v.  2). 
Then,  as  the  general  of  CTyaxares  (  =  Darius),  Cyrus 
took  Babylon,  married  the  daughter  of  Cyaxares, 
and  became  his  heir.  But  this  introduces  new 
difficulties,  since  Dan.  ix.  1  makes  Ahasuerus 
(Xerxes)  the  father  of  Darius.  Other  hypotheses 
faO  as  signally  to  relieve  the  difficulty.  Schrader 
(KAT,  p.  437)  explains  the  difficulty  best  by  suggest- 
ing that  the  representation  running  through  Daniel 
of  some  Median  interregnum  between  Nabonidus  and 
Cyrus  leans  upon  an  indistinct  recollection  of  the 
once  great  power  of  the  Medes,  and  refers  to  a  later 
Darius. 

2.  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes,  of  the  Acluemenidse, 
king  of  Persia  521-485  b.c.  He  is  best  known 
through  the  ten  well-known  trilingual  cuneiform 
inscriptions  (original  in  Persian,  and  two  versions). 
The  most  important  of  these,  the  rock-inscription 
of  Behistan,  reports  in  detail  the  overthrow  by 
Darius  of  the  magian  Gaumata  (the  Pseudo- 
Smerdis  of  the  Greeks)  and  his  campaign  against 
other  rebels.  In  the  inscription  Darius  appears  as 
a  prince  zealous  in  piety;  in  other  sources  he  is 
praised  for  the  benefits  he  conferred  upon  the  Peiv 
sian  Empire  during  a  fortunate  reign.  In  the  second 
and  fourth  3rears  of  his  reign  the  prophecies  of 
Haggai  (i.  1,  15)  and  several  of  Zechariah  (i.  1,  7; 
vii.  1)  were  dated;  in  his  second  year  (Ezra  iv.  24) 


the  work  of  rebuilding  the  temple  was  recommenced 
and  finished  in  his  sixth  year  (Ezra  vi.  15). 

8.  Darius  Codomannus  (336-330  B.c.)>  the 
''  king  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  "  conquered  by 
Alexander.  He  must  be  the  Darius  of  Neh.  xii. 
22,  since  the  Jaddua  there  named  is  necessarily  the 
one  mentioned  by  Josephus  (Ant,,  XI.  viiL  4)  aa 
high  priest  under  Alexander.        (E.  Kautzsch.) 

Bibuoobapht:  M.  Duneker,  GeadbtdUt  dsa  AUgrtiumu,  iv. 
264  sqq.,  Leipaic,  1877;  F.  Spiegel.  Di§  aUperaUehtn  Keil- 
ifuekrifUn,  lb.  1881;  G.  RawUnaon,  Seven  Oreai  Moft- 
ardiiea.  New  York.  1000;  DB,  i.  658-660;  BB,  i.  1016-17; 
and  the  literature  under  Danixii,  Book  or;  and  PsaaiA. 

DARLINGTON,  JAMES  HENRY :  Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishop  of  Harrisburg,  Pa.;  b.  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  June  9,  1866.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  the  CJity  of  New  York  (B.A.,  1877)  and  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  (1880).  He  was  licensed 
by  the  Presbyteiy  of  Newark  1879;  but  was  or- 
dered deacon  and  ordained  priest  in  1882  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and  from  1883  to 
1905  was  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Bedford  Avenue, 
Brooklyn,  as  well  as  archdeacon  of  Brooklyn  in 
1896-98.  In  1905  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Harrisburg.  He  was  lecturer  in  New  York  Uni- 
versity in  1902-03.  He  has  written  Pastor  and 
People  (Brooklyn,  1902),  and  has  edited  The  Hymnal 
of  the  Church  (New  York,  1900). 

DATHE,  da'te,  JOHANN  AUGUST:  Oriental 
scholar  ;b.  at  Weissenfels  (20  m.  s.w.  of  Leipsic),  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  July  4, 1731;  d.  at  Leipsic  Mar.  17, 1791. 
He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic,  and  GOttingen; 
was  professor  at  Leipsic  from  1762.  His  chief  work 
was  a  Latin  translation  of  the  entire  Old  Testament, 
with  notes,  one  of  the  results  of  his  labors  in  pre- 
paring  his  lectures  (6  vols.,  Halle,  1773-89);  the 
translation  is  free,  exegetical,  and  somewhat  para- 
phrastic,  aiming  to  give  the  sense  in  good  Latin, 
which  occasioned  the  remark  that  Dathe  made  the 
prophets  talk  like  Cicero.  He  also  edited  the 
PsaUerium  syriacum  of  Erpenius  (Halle,  1768),  the 
Grammatica  and  Rhetorica  of  the  PhUologia  sacra 
of  Glassius  (Leipsic,  1776),  and  Walton's  Pro- 
legomena (1777).  His  minor  works  appeared 
posthumously,  edited  by  E.  K.  F.  Rosenmtiller 
under  the  title  Opuscula  ad  crisin  et  interpreta- 
tionem  Veteris  TestamenH  spectantia  (Leipsic,  1796). 

DATHENUSy  da-thi'nus,  PETRUS  (Pieter  Daten): 
Flemish  Reformer;  b.  at  Cassel  (27  m.  n.w.  of 
Lille)  in  the  present  Department  of  Nord,  France, 
1531  or  1532;  d.  at  Elbing  (34  m.  e.s.e.  of  Dansig), 
West  Prussia,  Mar.  17,  1588.  While  stiU  a  youth, 
in  the  Carmelite  monastery  at  Ypres,  the  new  ideas 
took  possession  of  him,  and  he  became  a  sealous 
champion  of  Evangelical  truth  in  West  Flanders. 
Because  of  persecution  he  fled  to  England  with 
others,  but  a  similar  fate  met  him  under  Mary 
Tudor.  Johannes  a  Lasco  called  him  to  Frankfort, 
where  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Flemish  con- 
gregation, Sept.,  1555,  by  Micronius.  Here  he 
suffered  much  from  the  Lutheran  clergy,  incited 
by  Joachim  Westphal  of  Hamburg.  On  Apr.  23, 
1561,  the  magistrates  forbade  the  congregation  to 
worship  after  their  fashion  in  spite  of  the  interces- 
sion of  the  elector  Frederick  III.  and  Philip  of 
Hesse.     Part  moved  to  England,  some  went  home 


859 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Darius 
Danffherty 


(where  most  of  them  perished  in  the  Inquisition), 
and  the  rest  found  a  shelter  through  the  elector  in 
the  monastery  of  Gross  Frankenthal,  which  soon 
became  a  flourishing  industrial  city.  As  court 
preacher  of  the  Palatinate  Dathenus  served  in 
many  political  missions,  and  became  leader  of  the 
foreign  congregations.  In  the  cause  of  union  he 
translated  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Psalms 
of  Client  Marot,  revised  the  Confession  of  Guy 
de  Br^s,  and  composed  a  liturgy.  Recalled  to 
Holland  through  the  compromise  of  the  nobility 
in  1566,  he  participated  in  field-preaching  and 
presided  at  the  synod  at  Antwerp  in  May.  In  1567 
the  Inquisition  drove  him  again  to  the  Palatinate, 
and  with  the  count  palatine  John  Casimir  he  went 
as  field-preacher  to  France.  In  Nov.,  1568,  he 
was  moderator  in  Wesel,  in  1571  at  the  Franken- 
thal  debate,  in  1577  at  the  conference  at  Frankfort. 
Called  to  Ghent  in  1678,  he  was  imprisoned  there 
for  eight  months  and  again  driven  into  exile. 
Thenceforth  he  lived  as  physician  at  Husum, 
Stade,  Danzig,  and  Elbing.         (F.  W.  CuNof.) 

Bibuoobafht:  H.  ter  Haar,  Spedmrnt  kutorieo-OtMlogi' 
eum  P.  Datheni  vitam  ^xhiberu,  Utreoht,  1868;  H.  Q. 
Janaaen,  POruB  Dathenu§,  Delft,  1872. 

DAUB,  KARL:  German  theologian;  b.  at  Cas- 
sel  Mar.  20,  1765;  d.  at  Heidelberg  Nov.  22,  1836. 
He  studied  in  his  native  city  and  at  Marburg,  where 
he  became  privat-docent  in  1791,  lecturing  on  phi- 
lology, philosophy,  and  theology.  Suspected  of 
Kantianism  in  theology,  he  was  transferred  in  1794 
to  a  school  at  Hanau  as  professor  of  philosophy, 
but  in  the  following  year  was  called  to  Heidelbeiig 
as  professor  of  theology.  His  position  was  pri- 
marily Kantian,  and  in  this  spirit  he  wrote  his 
Lehrbuch  der  Katechetik  (Heidelberg,  1801),  insist- 
ing on  an  ethical  basis  of  religion,  a  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  legalistic  religion  and  the  religion  of 
reason,  an  emphasis  on  the  practical  import  of  the 
Bible,  and  a  rejection  of  the  supernatural.  Yet 
even  in  this  book  there  are  traces  of  dissatisfaction 
with  the  Kantian  position,  and  in  the  HeideJherger 
Sttuiien,  which  he  edited  in  collaboration  with 
Georg  Friedrich  Creuzer  after  1805,  he  acknowl- 
edged his  conversion  to  the  principles  of  Schelling. 
He  now  regarded  religion  as  purely  objective,  and 
assuming  distinct  forms  according  to  racial  and 
individual  characteristics.  Christianity  is  a  folk- 
religion,  represented  on  the  side  of  cult  by  Roman 
Catholicism,  and  on  the  side  of  doctrine  by  Protes- 
tantism; any  unification  of  these  two  elements  into 
a  single  Church  would  lead,  in  his  opinion,  to  the 
destruction  of  the  German  nation.  This  change  of 
view  is  fully  developed  in  his  Theologumena  (1806) 
and  Einleitung  in  daa  Studium  der  Dogmatik  (1810). 
Rejecting  both  supematuralism  and  rationalism, 
he  assumed  a  speculative  basis,  implying  by  this 
term  that  the  concept  of  God  must  form  the  foun- 
dation, while  religion  is  the  revelation  of  God  in 
the  soul  of  man,  and  attains  perfection  only  in 
Christianity.  Since,  from  his  premises,  Daub 
could  assume  no  origin  of  the  world  from  God  as 
separate  from  the  divinity,  he  was  obliged  to  define 
the  universe  as  having  only  the  appearance  of  being. 
Creation  was  construed,  in  Platonic  fashion,  as  the 
fall,  and  the  Atonement  was,  accordingly,  the  recon- 


ciliation of  the  world  to  God,  a  process  which  was 
metaphysical  rather  than  ethical.  In  his  inter- 
pretation of  the  historic  Christ  Daub  regarded  the 
definitions  of  the  Bible  and  the  Church  concerning 
the  personality  and  deeds  of  Christ  as  symbolic 
statements  of  the  general  cosmical  and  meta- 
physical process,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
personality  and  deeds  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  were 
taken  as  historical  and  were  regarded  as  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  concept  of  incarnation  and  atonement. 

The  weak  point  of  Daub's  system  was  his  ignore 
ing  of  the  problem  of  evil,  and  he  was  thus  led  to 
still  another  stage  of  development,  which  was  rep- 
resented in  Judas  hcharioth,  oder  Betrachtungen 
iiber  das  Bose  im  VerhdUnisa  zum  Guten  (2  parts, 
1816-18),  which,  in  a  sense,  forms  the  direct 
antithesis  of  his  former  views.  The  historical, 
hitherto  practically  ignored,  now  received  full  rec- 
ognition, and  he  became  obsessed  with  the  con- 
cept of  evil  as  a  positive  factor  of  destruction  to 
such  an  extent  that  he  approximated  Gnostic  dual- 
ism. The  necessity  of  reconciling  his  theory  of 
evil  with  the  tenets  of  speculative  philosophy 
obliged  him  to  advance  the  hypothesis  that  evil  is 
an  actual,  though  false,  "  miracle,"  which  is  op- 
posed by  the  fivefold  positive  "  miracle  "  of  the 
primal  good  in  God,  his  ideational  realization  in  the 
creation  and  order  of  the  world,  and  finally  the 
restoration  of  good  in  a  world  estranged  from  God 
through  his  incarnation  and  the  absolute  sinlessness 
of  Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  With  all  its  eccentricities, 
this  book  was  the  ablest  work  of  its  author. 

The  final  position  of  Daub  was  strongly  Hegelian, 
and  the  result  of  Hegelian  speculation  and  orthodox 
theology  was,  in  his  case,  the  reincarnation  of  a 
medieval  scholastic.  A  long  period  of  literaiy 
quiescence  followed,  until  the  publication  of  his 
Dogmatiache  Theologie  jeiziger  Zeit  (1833),  in  which 
he  pitilessly  revealed  the  weaknesses  of  the  theology 
of  the  time.  Extravagantly  blamed  and  as  extrav- 
agantly praised,  the  work  is  marred  by  the  same 
lack  of  historic  sense  and  impartiality  which  de- 
tract from  the  value  of  his  other  works.  A  far 
more  pleasant  impression  is  gained  from  his  Theo- 
logische  und  philoaophische  Vorlesungen,  edited 
after  his  death  by  T.  W.  Dittenberger  and  P.  C. 
Marheinecke  (7  vols.,  Berlin,  1838-44),  although 
even  these  are  not  altogether  free  from  his  charac- 
teristic faults.  (M.  A.  LANDERERf.) 
Biblioobapht:  G.    Rosenkrani,    Erinneruno€n    an    Daub, 

Berlin,  1837;  K.  P.  Fiacher,   Vertuch  nner  CharakUri§iik 

(F.  von  Baaderg)  Tkeo9ophie  und  ihrea  VerhOUmBBeB  tu  dtn 

Syttemen  DavJm,  Erlangen.  1866. 

D'AUBIGNE.    See  Merle  D'AuBiONib. 

DAUGHERTYy  ddH'er-ti,  JEROME:  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Baltimore  Mar.  25,  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  Loyola  College,  Baltimore,  and  in 
1865  was  admitted  to  the  Society  of  Jesus.  He 
studied  also  at  Frederick,  Md.,  and  at  Woodstock, 
Md.,  and  in  1872  became  a  member  of  the  faculty 
of  Georgetown  University,  where  he  subsequently 
continued  his  theological  studies.  He  taught  at  St. 
Francis  Xavier's  CoUege,  New  York  City  (1881-^), 
and  was  director  of  schools  at  Boston  University 
(1882-84),  professor  at  Loyola  College  (1884-85), 
vice-president   of  Gonzaga  College,   Washington, 


Bant 
David 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


360 


D.  C.  (1885-89),  professor  at  the  College  of  the 
Holy  Cross,  Worcester,  Mass.  (1889-1900),  and 
assistant  to  the  provincial  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  at 
New  York  (1900-01).  In  1901-05  he  was  presi- 
dent of  Geoi^getown  University,  chancellor  at  Ford- 
ham  University  1905-07,  and  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Woodstock  College  since  1907. 

DAUTy  JOHAim  MAXDaLIAN:  German  mys- 
tic; the  date  and  locality  of  his  birth  and  death 
are  unknown  (c.  1690-1737).  A  journeyman  shoe- 
maker of  Frankfort,  he  belongs  in  the  line  of  vision- 
aries who  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury declared  an  impending  judgment.  At  the 
command  of  God,  as  he  declared,  he  published  in 

1710  his  Hette  Donnerpoaaune^  and  also,  according 
to  some,  a  French  version,  wherein  he  predicted 
woes  especially  for  Frankfort  and  threatened  the 
empire  and  other  countries  with  destruction,  from 
which  only  a  little  flock,  after  the  conversion  of 
the  Turks,  Jews,  and  heathen,  were  to  escape  to 
celebrate  the  "  marriage-feast  of  the  Lamb."  His 
invectives  were  especially  severe  against  the  Lu- 
theran clergy.     Driven  from  Frankfort,  he  went  in 

1711  with  a  certain  Boomen  to  the  mystic  Ueber^ 
feldt  in  Leyden.  With  him  he  soon  quarreled  and 
wrote  also  against  him,  calling  his  party  "  Judas 
brethren,"  but  later  he  became  reconciled,  having 
his  home  at  ^chwarzenau  in  Wittgenstein.  At 
Giengen  on  the  Brenz  and  at  Geislingen,  near  Ulm, 
he  and  Tennhardt,  a  wig-maker,  gained  so  great  a 
following  among  the  peasantry  that  the  council  of 
Ulm,  Sept.  19,  1712,  issued  an  edict  against  them. 
The  account  of  his  conversion  given  by  Johann 
Frick  is  in  error.  To  his  writings  belong  the 
GeisUiche  BetracfUungen  (1711),  full  of  chiliastic  and 
mystic  ideas,  and  the  Harmonie  der  Zeiten  und 
Werke  GaUes.  About  1735  he  revoked  his  Donner- 
posaune,  (A.  Haugk.) 
Biblioorapht:  J.  O.  Walch,  EirUeiiung  in  die  JUliifiaru- 

StreiHokeHen,  ii.  794.  v.  1051,  Jena,  1733-36;  G.  M. 
PfaflF,  Introditctio  in  hiatoriam  theologia  .  .  .  ,  ii.  372. 
Ttibingen,  1720;  Burger.  ExercitaHo  d»  tutoridtM  fanaUeiat 
Leipaic.  1730. 

DAVENPORT,  CHRISTOPHER:  English  Ro- 
man Catholic;  b.  in  Coventry,  Warwickshire,  1598; 
d.  in  London  May  31,  1680.  At  the  age  of  fifteen, 
with  his  elder  brother,  John  (q.v.),  he  entered  Mer- 
ton  College,  Oxford;  influenced  by  a  Roman  priest, 
he  went  to  Douai  (1615)  and  Ypres  (1617),  and 
joined  the  Franciscans;  he  took  degrees  in  divinity 
at  Salamanca.  Under  the  name  of  Franciscus  a 
Sancta  Clara  he  went  to  England  as  a  missionary 
and  became  chaplain  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria. 
He  devoted  himself  with  some  success  to  the  attempt 
to  reconcile  the  churches  of  England  and  Rome 
and  lived  on  terms  of  cordial  intimacy  with  many 
of  the  Anglican  clergy  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
The  civil  war  caused  him  to  leave  England,  but 
only  for  a  short  time;  he  was  not  molested  during 
the  Commonwealth,  and  at  the  Restoration  was 
restored  to  court  favor  and  his  position  as  chaplain 
to  the  queen.  He  was  a  learned  man,  of  winning 
manners,  and  liberal  in  his  views.  His  chief  work 
was  a  ParaphraMica  expositio  articiUorum  confes- 
sionis  AnglicancF  (printed  first  separately  and  then 
as  an  appendix  to  a  volume  called  Detis,  natura, 


gratia,  Lyons,  1634;  reprinted  with  translation, 
1865),  intended  to  show  that  the  English  articles 
and  Roman  doctrine  are  not  essentially  antagonist 
tic.  A  two-volume  edition  of  his  works  appeared 
at  Douai,  1665-67. 

Bibuoorapht:  A.  k  Wood,  Afhenm  Oxonienaea,  ed.  P. 
BliflB,  vol.  iii..  4  vols..  London,  1813-20;  J.  Oillow,  BibHo- 
ffraphical  DicHonary  of  Bngli^  CatKoliea,  ii.  24r-28,  Lon- 
don (1886):  DNB,  ziv.  106-100. 

DAVENPORT,  JOHN:  One  of  the  founders  and 
first  minister  of  the  New  Haven  colony;  b.  at 
Coventry,  Warwickshire,  England,  1597  (baptised 
Apr.  9);  d.  in  Boston  Mar.,  1670  (the  day  of 
the  month  is  variously  given  as  the  11th, 
13th,  15th,  and  16th).  He  was  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Oxford  (B.A.,  1615;  M.A.  and 
B.D.,  1625);  was  chaplain  at  Hilton  Castle  (12  m. 
n.e.  of  Durham)  for  about  six  months,  1615-16; 
went  to  London,  where  he  became  curate  of  St. 
Lawrence  Jewry,  1619,  and  vicar  of  St.  Stephen's, 
Coleman  street,  1624.  He  won  great  regaxd  by 
his  faithfulness  to  duty  in  1625,  when  the  city  was 
devastated  by  the  plague.  In  1626  he  joined  in  a 
scheme  to  purchase  impropriations  (church  prop- 
erty in  the  hands  of  laymen)  and  use  the  profits  to 
maintain  ministers  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
and  was  one  of  twelve  feoftece  (trustees)  entrusted 
with  the  care  of  the  funds  raised  for  the  purpose. 
The  plan  was  considered  by  Laud  and  others  a 
movement  in  the  interest  of  non-conformity,  suit 
was  brought  against  the  feoffees,  and  in  Feb.,  1633, 
the  association  was  dissolved  as  illegal  and  the  im- 
propriations which  had  been  purchased  were  con- 
fiscated. In  1629  Davenport  helped  to  obtain  the 
charter  for  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony,  gave  £50 
toward  the  expense,  and  his  name  was  first  on  the 
committee  to  draw  up  instructions  for  the  colonists. 
He  took  alarm  when  Laud  (who  had  long  been  sus- 
picious of  him)  was  appointed  archbishop  in  1633, 
and  late  in  the  year  went  to  Holland,  where  he 
became  copastor  with  John  Paget  of  the  English 
church  in  Amsterdam.  He  did  not  approve  of  the 
baptism  of  children  whose  parents  were  not  church- 
members,  controversy  arose  between  the  two  pas- 
tors on  the  subject,  and  after  less  than  six  months 
Davenport  gave  up  preaching  in  public,  but  con- 
tinued to  hold  meetings  in  his  house.  He  returned 
to  England  about  the  beginning  of  1637,  decided 
to  follow  the  advice  of  John  Cotton  and  others  to 
go  to  New  England,  and  landed  in  Boston  June  26. 
He  was  well  received  there,  but  in  Apr.,  1638,  went 
to  Quinnipiac  (New  Haven),  as  minister  of  the  new 
colony.  He  approved  of  the  provision  in  its  con- 
stitution, which  was  settled  in  Jime,  1639,  limiting 
the  franchise  and  eligibility  to  office  to  church- 
members,  and  was  one  of  the  "  seven  pillars  of 
state  "  who  were  charged  with  the  government. 
In  1642  he  declined  an  invitation  to  attend  the 
Westminster  Assembly,  and  in  1661  helped  to 
shelter  the  regicides  Whalley  and  Goffe.  The 
New  Haven  colony  was  absorbed  in  Connecticut  in 
Jan.,  1665,  contrary  to  his  wishes;  and  dissatisfac- 
tion with  his  position  after  the  event  induced  him 
to  accept  a  call  from  the  First  Church  in  Boston  in 
September.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  opposition  to 
the  Half- Way  Covenant,  and  this  caused  a  split  in 


361 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dant 
David 


the  church  when  he  was  installed  in  Dec.,  16C8, 
and  the  fonnation  of  the  Old  South  Church.  He 
wrote  comparatively  little.  Of  most  interest  are 
The  SairU*8  Anchor-hold  in  AU  Storms  and  Tern- 
peals  (London,  1661)  and  The  Power  of  Congrega- 
tional Churches  Asserted  and  Vindicated  (1672). 

Biblxoorapht:  F.  B.  Dexter,  in  the  Paptf  of  the  New 
Haven  Colony  Hieiarical  Society,  ii  (1877),  204-238;  Ck>t- 
ton  Mather,  Magnolia,  bk.  iii.,  vol.  i.,  chap,  iv.,  pp.  821- 
331.  Hartford,  1865;  B.  Brook.  lAvee  of  the  Puritana,  ui. 
446-451,  London,  1813;  DNB,  ziv.  110-111. 

DAVID. 

Diseuttion  of  Souroes  (f  1). 

Early  Life  (9  2). 

Early  Rule  (f  3). 

Domestic  and  Administrative  Diffioolties  (f  4). 

Servioes  to  the  Cultus  (f  5). 

Character  (9  6). 

David  was  the  second  king  of  Israel,  and  ruled, 
according  to  the  traditional  computation,  about 
1055-15  B.C.;    according  to  Kamphausen  {Chrono- 
logie,  Bonn,  1883),  lOlQ-978  B.C.     He  was  a  son 
of  Jesse  of  Bethlehem,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.    The 
Book  of  Ruth  names  the  grandparents  of  Jesse, 
Boaz  and  the  Moabitess  Ruth.    The  main  source 
for  the  life  of  David  is  the  books  of  Samuel  and 
Kings.    The  books  of  Chronicles  give  additions 
aiming  to  emphasize  David's  services  to  the  cultus. 
In  the  books  of  Samuel  the  prophet- 
I.  DiscuA-   ical  historiography  prevails,  and  his 
sion  of      political  and  military  activity  is  treat- 
Sources,     ed  only  in  a  sunmiary  way,  since  the 
religious  interest  predominates.    The 
narrative  of  David's  earliest  life  is  less  uniform,  and 
the  sources  are  not  adjusted  throughout.     In  the 
statements  about  his  reign  the  narrative  is  uni- 
form, following  almost  contemporaneous  sources. 
The  post-Biblical  notices  (e.g.,  the  statements  of 
Josephus)  have  little  historical  value. 

David  was  first  anointed  secretly  at  Bethlehem 
by  Samuel  (I  Sam.  xvi.  1-13).  On  that  occasion 
he  appears  as  the  youngest  of  eight  sons  (I  Sam. 
xvL  10,  xvii.  12);  according  to  I  Sam.  xvi.  14-23, 
David  went  to  the  court  of  Saul  to  banish  by  his 
harp  the  evil  spirit  of  the  king,  and  was  made  Saul's 
armor-bearer.  In  I  Sam.  xvii.  he  appears  again  as 
shepherd-boy,  who  with  his  sling 
2.  Eariy  kills  Goliath  of  Gath.  It  is  difficult 
Life.  to  harmonize  xvii.  55-58,  where  Saul 
does  not  know  David,  with  chap.  xvi. 
But  no  doubt  there  were  different  sources  (see 
Samuel,  Books  of).  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the 
Septuagint,  cod.  Vat,,  verses  55  sqq.,  together  with 
xviii.  1-5,  also  xvii.  12-31,  are  Wanting.  It  is  de- 
bated whether  the  Septuagint  omitted  these  pas- 
sages for  the  sake  of  avoiding  the  difficulty  or 
whether  they  came  later  into  the  canonical  text. 
Even  in  the  latter  case  they  may  belong  to  an 
ancient  book  on  David.  At  any  rate,  David's  vic- 
tory over  the  gigantic  Philistine,  which  is  also 
attested  by  the  Septuagint,  may  not  be  rejected  as 
unhistorical,  continued  as  it  is  by  I  Sam.  xxi.  9, 
xxii.  10.  Whether  this  Philistine  was  really  called 
Goliath  (see  Philistines),  which  some  deny  on 
account  of  II  Sam.  xxi.  19  (cf.  I  Cnut>n.  xx.  5),  is 
unimportant.     David's  fame  made  Saul  distrustful 


(I  Sam.  xviii.  6-9).  He  denied  to  him  his  daughter 
Merab,  whom  he  had  promised  to  the  victor,  and 
only  reluctantly  gave  his  second  daughter,  Michal, 
who  loved  David  (I  Sam.  xviii.  17-27).  He  often 
threatened  David's  life  (I  Sam.  xviii.  11,  xix.  10- 
17).  Even  Saul's  son  Jonathan,  who  was  warmly 
attached  to  David,  could  not  influence  the  father 
in  his  favor;  but  he  made  with  David  a  covenant 
of  friendship  (I  Sam.  xviii.  3-4,  xx.,  xxiii.  16-18). 
Here,  too,  the  narrative  is  not  harmonious,  and  the 
simpler  rendering  of  the  Septuagint  is  perhaps 
nearer  the  original,  according  to  which  Merab  had 
never  been  promised  to  David  and  Saul  cast  his 
javelin  at  the  singer  once  only.  David  for  a  time 
sought  refuge  with  Samuel  in  the  colony  of  the 
prophets,  but  soon  had  to  leave  (I  Sam.  xix.  1^ 
XX.  1).  The  assistance  granted  by  Ahimelech  the 
priest  at  Nob  became  detrimental  to  the  latter  and 
bis  whole  house  (I  Sam.  xxi.-xxii.;  see  Doeo). 
David  first  went  to  the  Philistines  (I  Sam.  xxi.  10^ 
15),  and  then  made  his  abode  in  the  cave  Adullam 
in  Judah.  Here  he  became  the  leader  of  a  band 
of  400  men  and  supported  himself  by  bold  attacks 
upon  the  enemies  of  his  people  and  by  tribute 
levied  upon  the  owners  of  land  and  herds  (I  Sam. 
xxii.  1-2,  xxiiL,  xxv.).  His  life  in  the  hill  and 
desert  country  of  Judah  was  restless  and  dangerous. 
Saul  drove  him  from  one  hiding-place  to  another, 
and,  though  the  king  was  twice  in  his  power, 
David  magnanimously  saved  him  (I  Sam.  xxiii.- 
xxvi.). 

When  David  was  no  longer  able  to  maintain  him- 
self in  Judah  he  offered  his  servioes  to  King  Achish 
of  Gath,  who  gladly  accepted  this  reenforcement  and 
gave  him  the  city  of  Ziklag  (Zuheilikah,  six  hours 
and  a  half  southwest  of  Bet-Jibrin)  for  a  residence; 
he  was  supposed  to  fight  against  the  Judeans,  but 
in  reality  he  attacked  their  enemies,  the  Gfeshurites, 
Gezerites,  and  Amalekites  (I  Sam.  xxvii.).  A  year 
later  Achish  asked  David  to  join  him  in  a  campaign 
against  Israel,  but  the  other  princes  of  the  Philis- 
tines insisted  that  David  be  sent  back  (I  Sam. 
xxix.).  Ziklag  had  meanwhile  been  plundered  by 
the  Amalekites,  but  David  recovered  the  booty 
(I  Sam.  XXX.).  The  Israelites  were  defeated  at 
Mount  Gilboa,  and  Saul  and  his  son  Jonathan  were 
slain  (I  Sam.  xxxi.).  In  his  "  Song  of  the  Bow  " 
(II  Sam.  i.)  David  has  beautifully  immortalized  the 
general  mourning  and  his  personal  grief  for  his 
friend. 

Encouraged  by  divine  direction,  David  took  his 
place  in  the  land  of  Judah,  and  made  his  abode  in 
Hebron,  where  the  Judeans  proclaimed  him  king 
(II  Sam.  ii.  1-4).  At  first  he  was  king  over  Judah 
only  for  seven  years  and  six  months  (II  Sam.  ii  11, 
v.  5).  The  northern  tribes  were  induced  by  Abner, 
Saul's  captain,  to  swear  allegiance  to 

3.  Eaxly  Jb^baal  (more  generally  called  Ish- 
Rule.  boshelK),  a  son  of  Saul  who  resided  at 
Mahanaim  in  the  East  Jordan  land 
(II  Sam.  ii.  8-9).  Abner  tried  to  subject  Jjudah  to 
him,  but  was  defeated  by  Joab,  David's  captain  (II 
Sam.  ii.  10-32).  Abner  afterward  negotiated  with 
David  and  offered  to  him  the  rule  of  all  Israel,  but 
was  murdered  by  Joab  (II  Sam.  ill.  6-27).  Ish- 
baal  was  slain  soon  after  (II  Sam.  iv.  1-8).    David 


Baidd 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


362 


did  not  approve  of  the  murder  of  Abner  and  pun- 
ished those  who  slew  Ishbaal  (II  Sam.  iii.  2^-39, 
iv.  9-12).  All  Israel  then  did  homage  to  David, 
hut  he  seems  to  have  continued  his  residence  at 
Hebron  (II  Sam.  ii.  11,  v.  6;  I  Chron.  xxix.  27). 
David  soon  perceived  the  necessity  of  making  his 
seat  at  some  central  point,  and  with  shrewd  fore- 
sight selected  the  Jebusite  fortress  Jerusalem,  which 
was  taken  by  Joab  in  a  bold  attack  (II  Sam.  v.  1-12). 
To  this  new  center  David  transferred  also  the  an- 
cient national  sanctuary,  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
and  showed  his  humble  adherence  to  his  God  (II 
Sam.  vi.).  His  reign  was  spent  in  numerous  wars 
against  the  neighboring  peoples.  By  repeated 
victories  he  broke  the  power  of  the  PbJlistines  (II 
Sam.  V.  17-25,  viii.  1-13,  xxi.  15-22),  and  warred 
successfully  with  the  Anunonites,  who  were  in  league 
with  the  Syrians,  i.e.,  with  Damascus,  and  the  king 
of  Zobah  (in  cuneiform  .inscriptions  Zubtt)  (II 
Sam.  viii.  3-8,  x.  15-19).  His  army  had  experi- 
enced champions  in  the  "  mighty  men  "  under  the 
command  of  Abishai,  Joab's  brother  (II  Sam.  xxiii. 
8-39;  I  Chron.  xi.  10-47;  see  Abishai),  and  David 
himself  was  surrounded  by  a  body-guard  whose 
name  points  to  a  Philistine  origin  (see  Cherbthitbs 
AND  F^lethites).  With  the  organisation  of  the 
army  is  no  doubt  connected  the  census  which 
the  prophet  Gad  censured  as  an  offense  for  which 
David  humbled  himself  (II  Sam.  xxiv.;  I  Chron. 
xxi.). 

Successful  as  were  David's  undertakings  abroad, 
he  experienced  heavy  affliction  at  home,  the  result 
of  his  own  sins.     His  most  disgraceful  fall  was  the 
adultery   with   Bath-sheba  and   the   removal   of 
Uriah,  her  husband  (II  Sam.  xi.),  for  which  he  was 
called  to  account  by  the  prophet  Nathan  (II  Sam. 
xii.).    The  Eastern  custom  of  polygamy  was  also 
detrimental  to  the  kingdom,  proved  by  the  dis- 
sensions of  the  royal  family,  connected  with  which 
was  the  attempt  of  Absalom  to  supplant  his  aging 
father  on  the  throne.   lAfter  scheming  for  years, 
Absalom  imagined  that  the  time  had 
4.  Domes-  come    to    usurp    the    royal    power, 
tic  and     From  Hebron,  where  he  had  been  pro- 
Admin-     claimed  king,  the  usurper  advanced 
Istrative     with  his  followers  toward  Jerusalem. 
Difficulties.  To  save  the  capital,  David  went  with 
his  choice  troops    to    Mount  Olivet. 
On  this  sad  retreat  David  exhibited  magnanimity 
and  presence  of  mind,  and  revealed  an  honest,  deep 
piety.    Absalom,  spending  his  time  in  celebration 
of  victoxy,  missed  his  opportunity.    With  a  great 
multitude  he  pursued  his  father  over  the  Jordan, 
but  lost  the  victory  and  his  life  in  the  "  wood  of 
Ephraim  "  (II  Sam.  xv.-xxiii. ).    Though  the  people 
were  still  dissatisfied,  David  was  honorably  brought 
back  to  Jerusalem  (II  Sam.   xix.)  and  reigned  in 
peace  unto  his  end.    When,  shortly  before  his  death, 
his  son  Adonijah  sued  for  the  favor  of  the  people 
and  was  supported  even  by  Joab  and  Abiathar, 
this  plan  was  frustrated  by  David  at  the  advice  of 
Nathan  and  Bath-sheba,  who  had  Solomon  anointed 
king  (I  Kings  i.). 

The  king,  a  lover  of  song,  had  always  given  special 
care  to  the  cultus.  He  was  seriously  considering 
the  idea  of  building  a  worthy  sanctuary  on  Mount 


Zion,  where  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was.   But  the 
prophet  Nathan  revealed  to  him,  that  this  was  not 

to  be  done  by  him,  but  by  his  successor, 

5.  Services  adding  the  promise  that  God  would 

to  the      build   for  himself  a  home  and  enter 

Cultus.      into    a   paternal    relation    with    his 

seed.  The  Chronicler  ascribes  to 
David  the  organization  of  Levitical  chanting 
(I  Chron.  XV.  16-24;   cf.  xxiii.). 

David's  character  has  been  (Ufferently  estimated. 
In  subsequent  times  he  was  considered  by  his 
people  and  by  the  greatest  prophets  the  pattern  of 
a  Idiog  after  the  heart  of  God;  some  modem  writers 

by  giving  a  one-sided  prominence  to 

6.  Char-    his  weaknesses  and  sins  have  made 

acter.       a  caricature  of    him  (Ba^,  Tindal, 

Voltaire,  Reimarus,  and  others).  He 
was  the  most  gifted  of  all  the  kings  of  Judah.  It 
needed  his  courage  and  presence  of  mind,  his 
direction  and  endurance,  to  unite  under  one  royal 
scepter  the  jealous  tribes.  How  he  spared  his 
people  is  learned  from  II  Sam.  xxiii.  17;  how  the 
people  loved  him,  from  I  Sam.  xviii.  16;  II  Sam. 
xviii.  3,  xxi.  17.  His  imperial  virtues  were  fruits 
of  the  childlike,  devout  piety  which  David  pre- 
served as  the  deepest  secret  of  his  strength  unto  his 
end.  Many  things  with  which  he  is  personally 
reproached  may  be  explained  from  the  notions  and 
customs  of  his  time,  e.g.,  the  cruelty  to  conquered 
enemies  (II  Sam.  viii.  2,  xii.  31).  His  sincerity 
toward  Saul's  family  is  shown  by  his  lamentation, 
II  Sam.  L  (cf.  I  Sam.  xxiv.  7).  The  incident  re- 
lated in  II  Sam.  xxi.  must  be  understood  from  the 
notions  of  the  time  concerning  the  necessity  of  an 
atonement  which  the  whole  family  had  to  nuike  for 
blood  innocently  shed.  The  same  is  true  for  the 
last  words  of  David  (I  Kings  ii.)  concerning  Joab's 
death.  The  unanimous  agreement  of  tradition 
that  David  was  the  gifted  author  of  psalmody  is 
evidence  that  his  love  of  God  was  sincere.  The 
opinion  which  in  recent  times  ascribes  not  one 
psalm  to  David  is  regarded  by  some  scholars  as 
arbitraiy  skepticism  (cf.  James  Robertson,  The 
Poetry  and  the  Religion  of  the  Psalms,  Edinburgh, 
1898).  For  the  development  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  he  did  more  than  many  a  prophet.  In  con- 
tradistinction to  Saul,  he  showed  that  the  true  great- 
ness of  the  anointed  of  the  Lord  consists  in  his 
relation  to  God,  and  thus  mediated  to  the  later 
prophets  the  lofty  idea,  which  they  bring  out  in 
their  prophecies:  that  of  the  perfect  Son  ^  David, 
an  idea  which  David  himself  represented  only  in 
an  imperfect  manner.      See  Psalms;  I^luodt. 

C.  VON  Obklli. 

Bxbuoobapht:  BeaideB  the  M>propriate  Mctions  in  tlw 
works  OD  the  History  of  Israel  mentioiied  under  Ahab, 
consult:  A.  KOhler.  Lduhuch  der  6iUiseA«n  OMdUdbfa. 
II.  L  184-188.  873.  ErUuogen.  1884  (an  nble  ehnracter- 
isation);  L.  P.  Paton,  Early  HiaL  of  Syria  and  Paletium, 
New  York,  1901.  Of  oonunentaries  the  two  best  are  K. 
Budde.  RidUer  und  Samud,  pp.  210-276.  Gieasen,  1890: 
H.  P.  Smith,  in  IntemaHonal  CriUcal  Commrnkvy,  New 
York.  1899.  Other  works  worth  eonsulting  are:  C.  it 
Conder,  Scenery  of  David't  Outioto  Lt/e,  in  PBF,  Quar- 
Urly  StaHemgm,  1871.  pp.  41-^;  J.  J.  Stfthelin.  Dos  LA» 
David9,  Basel.  1866  (useful  for  Oriental  parallels  cited); 
L.  von  Ranke,  WeUgetdtieKU,  1 1.  Leipsio.  1881;  E.  Meyer. 
GeuJiiehte  dss  AUerthvnu,  L  861  sqq..  Stuttgart,  1884; 
A.  Kamphausen,    in    ZATW,    vi    (1886),   48   aoq.;  T. 


363 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bavid 


Cheyne,  Devout  Study  of  CriUeimn,  part  1.  London.  1802; 
8.  A.  Cook.  Cntical  Noie»  on  O.  T.  Hittory;  the  Traditione 
of  Saul  and  David,  ib.  1907;  O.  Beer.  Saul,  David,  Salomo, 
Tubingen.  1007;  DB,  i.  560-573;  EB,  i.  1010-35.  For 
David's  family  and  list  of  his  mighty  men:  J.  Bfarqiiardt, 
Fundamente  ieraelilueher  und  jUdiacher  GesehidUe,  Gut- 
tingen,  1806. 

DAVID  OF  AUGSBURG:  Franciscan  mystic; 
b.  at  Augsbuiig  about  1215;  d.  there  Nov.  19, 
1272.  Of  the  life  of  David  very  little  is  known. 
He  was  master  of  the  novices  in  the  Franciscan 
settlement  at  Regensburg  founded  in  1226,  and 
after  1243  probably  also  in  Augsburg.  Either 
alone  or  in  company  with  his  famous  pupil  and 
friend,  Berthold  of  Regensburg  (q.v.),  he  went  about 
preaching  and  wrote  his  treatises  for  the  novices. 
It  is  difficult  to  state  which  these  treatises  were, 
since  the  Epistola  Jrairis  David  and  the  introduc- 
tion prefixed  to  the  Augsburg  edition  of  1596  are 
wanting  in  other  manuscripts,  and  all  tractates  for 
the  novices  are  found  also  among  the  works  of 
Bonaventura.  Indeed,  the  very  first  of  these  treatises, 
De  ezteriorU  hominis  Teformatione,  is  among  Bona- 
ventura's  writings  with  the  title  De  insiittUione 
novUiorumf  and  also,  in  a  more  original  form, 
among  the  works  of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  with  the 
title  Optuculum  in  hcee  verba ;  ad  quid  veniati  t 
It  is  therefore  debatable  how  much  in  this  tract- 
ate really  belongs  to  David.  The  second  and  third 
treatises,  De  interioris  hominis  reformatiane  and 
De  8€ptem  processibua  religion  ^  belong  undoubtedly 
to  David,  though  they  are  also  printed  among 
Bonaventura's  works  with  the  title  De  pro/ectu 
religioeorum.  To  David  also  belongs  the  fourth 
book  found  in  manuscript  and  extant  in  Bona- 
ventura's works  as  De  inatittUiane  naviticrum.  To 
the  treatises  for  novices  belong  also  the  two  German 
tractates  Die  eieben  Vorregdn  der  Tugend  and 
Spiegel  der  Tugend,  whereas  the  other  German 
treatises  ascribed  by  Pfeifter  to  David  are  un- 
doubtedly spurious.  The  two  German  treatises  are 
pearls  of  German  prose;  the  Latin  tractates  are 
verbose.  On  account  of  these  writings  Preger 
called  David  a  mystic.  There  is  no  doubt  that  he 
was  mystic  in  tendency,  but  in  the  main  this  tend- 
ency is  shown  only  in  two  larger  sections  of  the 
Interiorie  hominis  reformatio  (ix.-xv.)  and  the 
SepUm  processus  (xxxv.-xli.).  David  is  too  sober 
to  be  a  true  mystic;  with  him  the  principal  things 
are  the  practical  injunctions  in  which  he  refers  to 
the  pattern  of  Christ,  especially  to  meekness,  hu- 
mility, and  love.  For  a  time  David  successfully 
serv^  the  Inquisition.  The  fruit  of  his  experience 
appears  in  the  treatise  De  inquisUione  hcareticorum. 
Here  he  shows  himself  a  child  of  his  time.  The 
heretics  are  foxes  and  wolves,  who  are  neither  to  be 
refuted  nor  opposed  with  spiritual  weapons,  but  are 
to  be  annihilated,  and  in  such  a  hunt  hunger,  tor- 
ture, lies,  and  treachery  are  allowed.  In  the  last 
decade  of  his  life  he  composed  an  **  Exposition  of 
the  Rules  of  the  Order  of  the  Minorites,''  in  which 
he  tried  to  mediate  between  the  clerical  body  and 
the  community,  but  actually  came  to  the  point  of 
view  of  the  conmiunity.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
his  sermons  which  John  Trithemius  had  seen  are 
lost.  His  characteristic  was  a  sober  conmion  sense 
which  was  averse  to  everything  untrue  and  exag- 


gerated. His  importance  lies  mainly  in  his  activity 
as  preacher  and  in  his  silent  work  of  educating  the 
rising  generation  of  monks,  of  whom  Berthold  of 
Regensburg  was  the  most  prominent.   E.  Lempp. 

Bibuooba,pht:  The  De  inquiaiHone,  ed.  W.  Preger,  ap- 
peared in  AMA,  ziv.  2  (1870).  181-235.  Consult:  F. 
Pfeiffer.  Deutaehe  MyeHker  dee  14-  JakrhunderU,  vol.  i.. 
Leipeio,  1845;  W.  Preger,  OeeekieKU  der  deuteehen  My- 
Hk,  i.  268  sqq.,  ib.  1874;  E.  Lempp,  in  ZKO,  xix  (1808). 
ISsqq. 

DAVID,  CHRISTIAll.    See  Unity  of  thk  Brxtb- 

REN. 

DAVID    OF   DINAHT  or  DINAN :    Pantheistic 
philosopher;  supposed  to  have  been  bom  either  at 
Dinant  (on  the  Meuse,  15  m.  s.  of  Namur),  Belgium, 
or  at  Dinan  (14  m.  s.  of  St.  Malo)  in  Brittany;   d. 
after  1215.     He  is  said  to  have  enjoyed  the  favor 
of  Pope  Innooent  IIL  (1198-1216)  because  of  his 
subtle    dialectics.    At    the  provincial  council    of 
1210  held  at  Paris,  which  condemned  Amalric  of 
Bena  (q.v.),  the  Quatemuli  of  David  was  also  or- 
dered to  be  burned,  and  in  1215  the  reading  of  ex- 
tracts from  David's  work  was  prohibited  in  the 
University  of  Paris.     David  fled  from  France,  and 
the  further  events  of  his  life  are  unknown.    Albertus 
Magnus  finds  the    basis  of   David's  teaching  in 
the  identity  of  everything  real  in  the  absolute. 
David  distinguished  three  kinds  of  things,  corporeal, 
spiritual,  and  divine  substances.     For  each  of  the 
three  kinds  he  assumed  a  general,  indivisible  prin- 
ciple; for  the  corporeal,  a  primitive  "  stuff  ";  for  the 
spiritual,  the»  spirit;  for  divine  things:  Grod.    Be- 
tween these  three  principles  no  distinction  can  exist; 
each  can  be  conceived  of  only  as  an  undifferentiated 
entity,  and  the  three  must  accordingly  be  identical. 
The  details  of  his  system  and  eouroes  of  his  pan- 
theistic teaching  can  not  be  ascertained  with  oer^ 
tainty.    At  all  events,  he  is  not  dependent  on 
Amalric    of   Bena,  but  was  rather  influenced  by 
Aristotelian    writings    and    Jewish    and    Moorish 
comment  on  them.    Some  thoughts  of  Giordano 
Bruno  and  Spinoza  show  a  relationship  to  the 
pantheistic  system  of  David's.     Hsrman  Hauft. 
Bibuoorapht:  J.    H.    KrOnlein,   De  .  .  .  Davidie  de  Di- 
nanio  dodrina,  Gieeeen,  1847;  W.  Preger,  GeeehiehU  der 
deuteehen  MyeHk,   i.    184-101,    Leipaio.    1874;  Mhnoiree 
de  Vaeadimie  dee  inecriptiane  et  bellea  lettree,  xxvi  2  (1870), 
467-408  (by  G.  Jourdain);    B.  Haurteu,  MSmaire  eur  la 
vraie  eource  dee  erreure  atlribuSee  h  David  de  Dinan,  in 
Mhnoiree  de  Vacad&mie,  ut  sup.,  xzix.  2  (1870),  310- 
330;  O.    Bardenhewer,    Die    peeudoarietotdieehe    Sdirift 
aber  doe  reine  Gute,  pp.  212  sqq.,  Freiburg,  1882;  J.  E. 
Erdmann,  GeeehiehU  der  Philoeophie,  i.  352,  Berlin,  1806, 
Eng.  transl.,  London,  1808;  F.  UeberwQg,  GeeehiehU  der 
Philoeophie,  pp.  206-212,  Berlin,  1808,  Eng.  tranal.,  L 
388-402,  New  York,  1874;  Neander.  ChneHan  Church,  iv. 
445-448. 

DAVID  JORISZOON.    See  JoBis. 

DAVID,  SAIHT:  The  patron  saint  of  Wales.  All 
that  is  known  of  him  is  that  he  died  about  601, 
that  he  was  bishop  of  Menevia  (St.  David's)  in 
southwest  Wales,  and  that  he  presided  at  two  oynods 
of  the  Welsh  Churoh,  the  later  of  the  two  being 
held  in  569  (cf.  Haddan  and  Stubbe,  Councils,  i. 
116-118).  His  legendary  and  fictitious  history 
makes  him  metropolitan  archbishop  of  Wales,  con- 
secrated at  JeruMdem,  ascribes  to  him  numerous 
foundations,  and  says  that  he  extirpated  Pelagian- 


Davidis 
Davidson 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


364 


iBm  in  Wales  at  the  synods  already  referred  to;  it 
is  well  decked  out  with  miracles,  visions,  and  the 
like.  He  was  popular  in  both  Wales  and  Ireland, 
where  many  churches  were  dedicated  to  him.  His 
day  is  Mar.  1. 

Bduoobapht:  W.  J.  Rees.  IAvm  at  tK€  Camh/ro-BriHith 
Sointe,  pp.  102-144,  40^-448.  Llandovery.  1803;  DCB,  i. 
791-798;  DNB,  adv.  118-116. 

DAVIDIS,  FRAKCISCUS. 

flw'vioo  M  a  RaforoMr  (f  1). 
Adoption  of  Unitarianism  (f  2). 
Theology  (f  3). 
Ck>ntn>veraies  (f  4). 
Influence  (f  5). 

Franciscus  Davidis  (Ferencz  David),  a  Unitarian  of 
Transylvania,  was  bom  at  lOausenburg  (Kolossvar; 
72  m.  n.n.w.  of  Hermannstadt),  Hungary,  1510  (?); 
d.  at  Deva  (37  m.  8.w.  of  Karlsburg)  Nov.  15,  1579. 
He  was  probably  of  Saxon  descent.  Franciscus, 
the  episcopal  vicar  of  Weissenbuig,  enabled  him  to 
study  theology  at  Wittenberg.  From  1551  to  1552 
he  was  rector  of  a  school  in  Bistrits.  Later  he 
accepted  the  Lutheran  faith  and  was  called  to 
Petersdorf  (Peterfalva)  as  first  Evan- 
z.  Services  gelical  preacher.  In  1555  he  became 
as  a  rector  in  Klausenburg,  in  1556  also 
Reformer,  superintendent  of  the  Evangelical  Hun- 
garian Churoh  in  Transylvania.  He 
soon  became  the  champion  of  the  Reformation 
in  his  country,  following  Melanchthon  and  com- 
bating Calvinism.  The  state  assembly  of  Thoren- 
burg  in  1558  permitted  only  the  Lutheran  and  the 
Catholic  religion,  but  the  controversies  continued 
without  interruption,  especially  on  the  doctrine  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  Calvinistic  party  headed 
by  Peter  Melius  (q.v.)  gained  many  adherents 
among  the  nobility.  Davidis  himself,  anxious  to 
maintain  and  increase  his  influence,  turned  toward 
Calvinism.  From  the  discord  of  confessions  resulted 
a  separation  of  nationalities,  the  Saxons  under 
their  superintendent  Matthias  Hebler  remaining 
faithful  to  Lutheranism,  and  the  Hungarians  under 
Melius  and  Davidis  accepting  Calvinism;  after 
1564  both  parties  were  l^ally  acknowledged. 
Davidis  became  Calvinistic  superintendent,  and 
soon  afterward  court  preacher  of  the  sovereign 
John  Sigismund  Zdpolya. 

At  this  time  an  irresistible  current  of  Unitarian 
doctrines  from  Italy    Switzerland,  and  especially 
from  Poland,  made  itn  way  into  Transylvania,  and 
the  controversies  turned  from  the  Lord's  Supper  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  person  of  Christ. 
Davidis,  again  following  the  current 
a.  Adoption  of  the  time,  accepted  the  new  doctrine 
of  tJnitari-  and  was  chiefly  influential  in  intro- 
anism.      ducing  Unitarianism  at  the  court,  and 
at  the  University  of  Klausenburg.     In 
1566  he  attacked  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  a 
disputation  with  Peter  Kto>lyi,  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity in  Klausenburg.    A  number  of  conventions 
were  held,  treatises  were  written,  and  the  contro- 
versies assumed  greater  and  greater  dimensions, 
Davidis  and  Melius  becoming  the  most  passionate 
opponents.    Davidis  and  Georgius  Blandrata  (q.v. ), 
court  phjrsician  of  the  prinoe,[sucoeeded  in  winning 
the  majority  of  the  nobility  over  to  Unitarianism; 


and  in  1567  the  prince  placed  at  their  disposal  a 
printing-press  at  Weissenbuig.  The  state  assemblj 
held  at  Thorenburg  in  1568  granted  entire  freer 
dom  in  matters  of  religion,  and  in  the  same  year  & 
great  disputation  was  held  at  Weisaenbuiig  witli 
Peter  Melius  and  Peter  Kdrolyi  on  the  one  side  and 
Davidis  and  Blandrata  on  the  other.  The  contro- 
vexsies  were  continued  at  synods  and  in  treatises. 
In  1568  the  Unitarian  Chureh  was  constituted  in- 
dependently with  Davidis  as  bishop.  Its  adhei^ 
ents  were  almost  exclusively  of  the  Hungarian  an<l 
Ciech  population,  with  Klausenburg  and  Wetssen- 
burg  as  their  strongholds. 

The  fundamental  thoughts  of  Davidis's  doctrine 
were  that  the  Reformation  must  be  placed  upon  a 
broader  basis,  and  the  ceremonies  and  articles  of 
faith  must  be  reduced  to  the  simplicity  of  apostdic 
times.  The  main  obstacle  to  such  a  reform  is  the 
scholastic  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  a  product  of  Greek 
philosophy,  and  the  source  of  all  idolatry  in  the 

Churoh.  There  is  no  triune  God,  but 
3.  Thmlogy.  only  one  God,  the  Father  and  Creator 

of  the  universe;  to  him  alone  divinity 
in  the  full  sense  is  to  be  ascribed.  Christ  waa  bom 
of  Maiy  in  a  supernatural  manner.  The  Son  of 
God  exists  eternally  in  the  divine  decree;  but  in 
reality  he  is  not  bom  from  eternity,  but  has  origi- 
nated only  with  the  incarnation  of  Christ,  llw 
Holy  Spirit  is  not  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity, 
but  the  power  that  emanates  from  the  Father  and 
is  communicated  to  us  through  the  Son  for  our 
sanctification.  Davidis  spread  his  doctrines  abroad 
in  Latin  and  Hungarian  writings,  in  catechisms, 
sermons,  and  Latin  distichs.  But  the  predomi- 
nance of  Unitarianism  in  Transylvania  was  of  but 
short  duration.  Ziipolya,  the  reigning  prince,  died 
in  1571,  and  his  successor,  Stephen  B&thory,  a 
Roman  Catholic,  called  the  Jesuits  into  the  country. 
Most  of  the  Unitarians  took  the  part  of  Caspar 
B4kes,  a  pretender,  and  were  involved  in  his  utter 
defeat  in  1575.  Bdthory  immediately  removed 
all  Unitarians  from  the  court,  and  their  publica- 
tions were  subjected  to  a  severe  censorship;  all 
innovations  in  religion  were  threatened  with  ex- 
communication and  punishment  by  the  sovereign. 
Davidis,  however,  received  important  aid  from 
Unitarians  of  foreign  countries  who  sought  refuge 
in  Transylvania,  as,  for  instance,  Johann  Sommer  of 
Saxony,  and  Jacob  Palieologus,  an  exile  from 
Poland.  Bdthory  succeeded  in  vnnning  some  of 
the  Unitarians,  especially  Blandrata,  over  to  his 
political  cause.  A  separation  from  his  wife  in- 
jured Davidis's  authority,  and  the  liberties  of  the 
Unitarians  were  more  and  more  restricted. 

To  make  matters  worse,  Davidis's  position  became 
so  radical  that  he  rejected  the  worship  of  Christ 
altogether.  A  controversy  then  ensued  between 
him  and  Blandrata,  who,  belonging  to  the  more 

moderate  party,  invoked  the  aid  of 

4.  Contro-  Faustus  Socinus.    The  latter  came  in 

versiea.     person  from  Basel    Davidis  expressed 

his  views  in  four  theses  De  non  is- 
vocando  Jesu  Ckristo  in  precibua  socris.  He  held  a 
synod  with  his  adherents  at  Thorenburg,  where  be 
decreed  the  NonrodoraHo.  Thereupm  Blandrata 
and  Socinus   effected    his  suspension  from  oflSoe 


365 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BaTidflon 


and  imprisonment  until  a  general  synod  should 
request  him  to  revoke  his  heresy.  In  June  of  the 
same  year  a  disputation  took  place  at  a  synod  in 
Thorenburg;  and  in  July  Davidis  was  tried  at 
Weissenburg  in  the  presence  of  the  sovereign,  con- 
demned as  innovator  and  blasphemer,  and  thrown 
into  prison  for  life  at  the  mountain-fortress  of  Deva. 
His  party  did  not  disappear.  Although  Blan- 
drata  succeeded  for  the  moment  in  winning  the 
Unitarian  divines  over  to  an  adorantistic  confession 
of  faith  and  in  reintroducing  the  ceremonies  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  there 
5.  Influence,  separated  themselves  from  these  New 
Unitarians  the  adherents  of  Davidis 
as  Old  Unitarians  or  Davidists  or  Non-ador antes, 
and  from  the  latter  again  there  originated  the  sect 
of  the  Sabbatharians,  thus  completing  the  circle 
from  Catholicism  through  Lutheranism,  Calvinism, 
Unitarianism,  Non-adorantism  to  a  sect  in  which 
Christianity  closely  approached  Judaism.  Davidis 's 
literary  works  were  occasioned  by  his  controvei^ 
sies,  the  most  important  being  De  falsa  et  vera  unius 
Dei  Patris,  Filii  et  Spiritus  Sancti,  cognitione  libri 
duo  (Weissenburg,  1567)  and  Refviatio  scripti  G, 
Majoris  (1669).  The  latter  treatise  was  occasioned 
by  his  controversy  on  the  Trinity  with  G.  Major  of 
Wittenberg.  Davidis  also  wrote  in  Hungarian 
"  On  the  Divinity  of  the  One  God-father  and  His 
Blessed  Holy  Son  Jesus  Christ  "  (1571). 

K.  HOLL. 
Bibuoorapot:  Th«  best  monograph,  unfortunately  only 
in  Hungarian,  Ib  Elek  Jakob,  David  Ferenes  Bmlike,  2 
volt..  BudapMt,  1879.  Consult:  F.  C.  Baur,  Die  ehrut^ 
licKe  Lthn  von  dtr  Dreieiniokeilt  iii.  144  sqq.,  TQbingen, 
1843;  O.  Fock,  Der  Socinianiemue,  Kiel.  1847;  P.  Bod. 
Hist,  Hungarorum  ecd.^  ed.  L.  W.  E.  Rauwenhoff  and 
J.  J.  Prini.  i.  397-457.  Leyden.  1888  (history  of  Unita- 
rianism  in  Hungary);  J.  H.  Allen.  HiML  of  UniiarianM,  pp. 
60-68.  10&-112,  New  York,  1894.  On  the  communion 
oontroveny:  K.  Landsteiner.  /.  Paldologiu,  Vienna.  1873. 
A  statement  of  Daridis's  principles  is  in  Opera  J.  Ptdcto- 
logi,  Basel.  1681.    Consult  KL.  iii  1421-23;  ADB,  ir.  787. 

DAVIDISTS:  Followers  of  David  Joris.  See 
J0RI8.' 

DAVD>S,  THOMAS  WILLIAM  RHTS:  English 
student  of  comparative  religion  and  Buddhist 
scholar;  b.  at  Colchester  (51  m.  n.n.e.  of  London), 
Essex,  May  12, 1843.  He  studied  at  Breslau  (Ph.D., 
1865),  and  entered  the  Ceylon  Civil  Service  in 
1866.  In  1877  he  became  a  barrister  at  the  Middle 
Temple,  London,  and  in  1883  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Pali  and  Buddhistic  literature  at  Univer- 
sity College,  London.  Since  1904  he  has  also  been 
professor  of  comparative  religion  at  Victoria  Uni- 
versity, Manchester.  In  1882  he  founded  the  Pali 
Text  Society,  of  which  he  has  since  been  president, 
also  editing  its  Journal  and  other  publications.  He 
was  Hibbert  lecturer  in  1881,  and  has  been  secre- 
tary and  librarian  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
since  1887.  He  has  written,  edited,  or  translated: 
Ancient  Coins  and  Measures  of  Ceylon  (London, 
1877);  Buddhism  (1878);  Buddhist  Birth-Stories, 
i.  (1880);  Lectures  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of 
Religion  as  Illustrated  by  Some  Points  in  the  History 
of  Buddhism  (Hibbert  lectures;  1881);  Buddhist 
Suttas,  in  SBE,  xi.  (Oxford,  1881);  Vinaya  Texts, 
ib.  xiii.,  xvii.,  xx.  (in  collaboration  with  H.  Olden- 
berg;    1881-85);    The  Questions  of  King  Milinda, 


ib.  xxxv.  (1890);  Buddhism,  Its  History  and  Litera- 
ture (New  York,  1896);  Dialogues  of  the  Buddha 
(London,  1899);  and  Buddhist  India  (1902).  He 
is  also  the  editor  of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  Bud- 
dhists, for  which  he  edited  Dialogues  of  the  Buddha 
(London,  1899)  and  the  LHgharNlkdya  (1899), 
while  to  the  Journal  of  the  Pali  Text  Society  he 
contributed  an  edition  of  the  Sumafigala  Vilisini 
in  collaboration  with  J.  E.  Carpenter  (London, 
1886). 

DAVIDSON,  AUDEEW  BRUCE:  United  Free 
Church  of  Scotland;  b.  on  the  farm  of  Kirkhill, 
parish  of  Ellon  (15  m.  n.  of  Aberdeen),  Aberdeen- 
shire, 1831  (probably  Dec.,  although  the  exact  date 
is  uncertaia);  d.  at  Edinburgh  Jan.  26,  1902.  He 
studied  at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen  (M.A., 
1849),  taught  in  the  Free  Church  school  of  Ellon 
until  1852,  and  was  graduated  at  New  College,  the 
divinity  hoallf  the  Free  Church,  Edinburgh,  in  1856. 
He  filled  several  pulpits  temporarily,  but  never  held 
a  charge.  In  1858  he  was  appointed  assistant  to 
John  Duncan,  professor  of  Hebrew  in  New  College, 
and  in  1863  became  full  professor  of  Oriental  hm- 
guages  and  Duncan's  colleague.  After  the  latter's 
death  in  1870  Davidson  was  sole  professor  until 
1900,  when  he  was  senior  colleague.  He  was  an 
admirable  Biblical  scholar  and  critic,  and  a  famous 
teacher.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament 
Company  of  Revisers.  He  preached  occasionally 
and  with  great  acceptance,  but  reluctantly  and 
preferably  in  obscure  places.  His  literaiy  work 
was  relatively  small  in  amoimt,  but  superior  in 
quality.  In  addition  to  editing  for  The  Cambridge 
Bible  for  Schools  the.  volumes  on  Job  (Cambridge, 
1884),  Ezekiel  (1892),  and  Nahum,  Habbakuk, 
and  Zephaniah  (1896),  as  well  as  Isaiah  for  The 
Temple  Bible  (London,  1902),  he  wrote:  Outlines  of 
Hebrew  Accentuation,  Prose  and  Poetical  (London, 
1861);  A  Commentary  on  Job  (Edinbuiigh,  1862), 
which  covers  only  the  first  third  of  the  book;  In- 
troductory Htbrew  Grammar  (1874;  17th  ed.,  1902); 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hdrrews  with  Introduction  and 
Notes  (1882);  and  Hebrew  Syntax  (1894;  3d  ed., 
1905).  After  Davidson's  death  his  colleague, 
J.  A.  Patterson,  issued  his  Biblical  and  Literary 
Essays  (1902);  Old  Testament  Prophecy  (1902); 
and  two  volumes  of  sermons,  The  Called  of  God 
(1902;  with  a  biographical  introduction  by  A.  T. 
Innes)  and  Waiting  upon  God  (1903);  while  Princi- 
pal S.  D.  F.  Sahnond  edited  his  Theology  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1904). 

DAVIDSON,  RAHDALL  THOMAS:  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  primate  of  all  England;  b.  at 
Edinburgh  Apr.  7,  1848.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford  (B.A.,  1871),  was  curate  of  Dartford, 
Kent,  1874-77,  and  chaplain  and  private  secretary 
to  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  Tait  (1877-82)  and 
Benson  (1882-83).  He  was  dean  of  ^mdsor(  1883-91), 
became  bishop  of  Rochester  1891,  was  translated 
to  the  see  of  Winchester  1895,  and  consecrated 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  1903.  He  waa  domestic 
chaplain  to  the  Queen  1883-91,  and  clerk  of  the 
closet  to  the  Queen  1891-1901,  and  to  the  King 
1901-03,  a  prelate  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter  18U5- 
1903,  while  in  1904  he  was  created  a  Grand  Com- 


Day 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


366 


mander  of  the  Victorian  Order.  He  has  written 
lAfe  of  Archbishop  TaU  (2  vols.,  London,  1891;  in 
collaboration  with  W.  Beecham)  and  The  Christian 
Opportunity  (1904),  and  has  edited  The  Lambeth 
Conferences  of  1867, 1878,  and  1888  (London,  1889). 

DAVIDSON,  SAMUEL:  English  Congregation- 
alist;  b.  at  Kellswater  (4  m.  s.  of  Ballymena), 
County  Antrim,  Ireland,  Sept.  23,  1807;  d.  at 
London  Apr.  1,  1898.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
Royal  Academical  Institution,  Belfast,  in  1832. 
Three  years  later  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Biblical  criticism  at  Belfast  to  the  General  Synod 
of  Ulster,  and  retained  this  position  until  1841, 
when  he  became  a  Congregationalist.  In  1842  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Biblical  literature  and 
ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Lancashire  Independent 
Ck>llege,  Manchester.  He  resigned  in  1857,  on 
account  of  opposition  to  his  views  of  inspiration, 
and  in  1862  was  elected  Scripture  examiner  in 
London  University,  and  removed  to  London.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Committee.  His  theology  was  rationalistic.  In 
addition  to  translations  he  wrote:  Sacred  Herme- 
neutics  (Edinbui^h,  1843);  Ecclesiastical  Polity  of 
the  New  Testament  (London,  1848);  Treatise  on 
Biblical  Criticism  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1852);  The 
Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament  Revised  from 
Critical  Sources  (London,  1855);  The  Text  of  the 
Old  Testament  Considered,  with  a  Treatise  on  Sacred 
Interpretation,  and  a  Brief  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament  Books  and  the  Apocrypha  (1856;  vol.  ii. 
of  the  tenth  edition  of  T.  H.  Home's  Introduction 
to  the  Critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures);  An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
Critical,  Historical,  and  Theological  (3  vols.,  1862- 
1863);  An  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (2  vols., 
1868);  On  a  Fresh  Revision  of  the  English  Old  Tes- 
tament (1873);  The  Canon  of  the  Bible  (1876);  and 
The  Doctrine  of  Last  Things  Contained  in  the  New 
Testament,  Compared  with  the  Notions  of  the  Jews 
and  the  Statements  of  the  Church  Creeds  (1882). 
Bibuoobapbt:  Autobiognphy  and  Diary,  with  selection  of 

letters,  edited  by  his  daughter,  Bfias  A.  J.  Davidson,  Edin- 

buish,  1890. 

DAVIES,  JOHN  LLEWELYN:  Church  of  Eng- 
land; b.  at  Chichester  Jan.  26,  1826.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1848;  M.A., 
1851),  where  he  was  fellow  1851^9.  He  was  curate 
of  St.  Anne's,  Limehouse,  1851-52,  vicar  of  St. 
Mark's,  Whitechapel,  1852-56,  and  rector  of  Christ 
Church,  St.  Bfarylebone,  1856-89,  and  rural  dean 
1882-88.  Since  1888  he  has  been  vicar  of  Kirkby- 
Lonsdale,  Westmorelandshire.  He  was  honorary 
chaplain  to  Queen  Victoria  1876-81,  chaplain  in  or- 
dinary 1881-1901,  and  is  an  honorary  chaplain  to 
Iving  Edward  VII.,  while  he  has  been  principal  of 
Queen's  College  for  Ladies,  London,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Workingmen's  College,  London, 
and  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  New  Hos- 
pital for  Women.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Oxford 
in  1881,  Hulsean  lecturer  at  Cambridge  in  1890, 
and  Lady  Margaret  preacher  at  the  same  university 
ten  years  later.  In  theology  he  is  a  follower  of 
F.  D.  Maurice.  Among  his  numerous  publications 
may  be  mentioned:  Morality  According  to  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper  (London,  1865);  Epistles 


of  St,  Paul  (1866);  The  Gospel  and  Modem  Lije 
(1869);  Homilies,  Ancient  and  Modem  (2  vok. 
1884);  Social  Questions  from  the  Point  of  Vvk 
of  Christian  Theology  (1885);  and  Workingment 
College,  1854-1904  (1904). 

DAVIES,     SAMUEL:    Presbyterian;      b.     near 
Summit  Ridge,  New  Castle  County,  DeL,  Nov.  3, 
1724;    d.  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Feb.  4,  1761.     He 
studied  at  Samuel  Blair's  School  at  Fagg's  Manor 
(Londonderry),  Chester  County,  Pa.;  was  ordained 
in  1747  and  sent  to  Hanover  County,  Va.,  where 
his  position   was   difficult   and  delicate  owing  to 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  authorities  to  di'*- 
senters.     In    175^54   he  was   in    England,   with 
Gilbert  Tennent,  soliciting  funds  for  the  CoUege  of 
New  Jersey  (Princeton),  and  while  there  securevi 
a  royal  declaration  that  the  Act  of  Toleration  ex- 
tended to  Virginia.     Returning  to  America,  he  or- 
ganized the  first  presbytery  in  Virginia  in  1755. 
In  1759  he  succeeded  Jonathan  Ekiwards  as  pn>st- 
dent  of  Princeton.     He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
admired  in  England  as  well  as  in  America. 
Biblioorapht:   Hia  sermons  were  printed  in  fi'VB  Tolunife?. 
London.    1767-71;   the  best  Am.  edition.  3  voU..   Nev 
York.   1846,  has  an  essay  on  his  life  and  timea  by  Albert 
Barnes,  and  a  separate  Memoir  was  published  at  Bos- 
ton in  1832.     Consult  also  E.  H.  Gillett.  HuHory  of  tke 
Prtalryterian  Church,  ohape.  vii.,  viii.,  Philadetphia,  1864. 

DAVIES,  THOMAS  WITTON:  English  Baptist; 
b.  at  Nantyglo  (16  m.  n.w.  of  Newport),  Mon- 
mouthshire, Feb.  28,  1851.  He  studied  at  the 
Baptist  colleges  at  Pontypool  and  Regent's  Park. 
University  College  and  Manchester  Ck>llege,  London 
(B.A.,  London  University,  1879),  and  the  univer- 
sities of  Berlin,  Leifwic  (Ph.D.,  1898),  and  Stras- 
burg.  He  was  minister  of  the  High  Street  Baptist 
Church,  Merthyi^Tydfil  (1879-81);  professor  of 
Hebrew,  classics,  and  mathematics  in  the  Baptist 
college  at  Haverfordwest  (1881-91);  principal  and 
professor  of  theology  in  the  Midland  Baptist  College, 
Nottingham  (1891-98);  and  lecturer  in  Arabic  and 
Syriac  at  University  College,  Nottingham  (1896-98). 
Since  1898  he  has  been  professor  of  Semitic 
languages  in  the  University  College  of  North 
Wales,  Bangor,  and  was  also  professor  of  Old 
Testament  literature  in  the  Baptist  College,  Ban- 
gor, 1898-1906.  In  doctrinal  theology  he  is  in 
the  main  Evangelical,  and  in  criticism  is  an 
adherent  of  the  Graf-Wellhausen  school.  He  has 
written:  Oriental  Studies  in  Great  Britain  (Woking, 
1892);  Magic,  Divination,  and  Demonalogy  Among 
the  Hebrews  and  Their  Neighbours  (London,  1897): 
The  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  (in  Welsh. 
Wrexham,  1900);  Heinrich  Euxdd,  Orientalist  and 
Theologian,  1803-1903:  A  Centenary  Appreciation 
(London,  1903);  and  Psalms  73-160  with  Introduc- 
tion and  Commentary  (in  The  Century  Bible,  1906). 

DAVIS,  JOHN  D.:  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  Mar.  5,  1854.  He  studied  at  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  (B.A.,  1879),  the  University  of  Bonn 
(1879-80),  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (1880- 
1883),  and  the  University  of  Leipsic  (1584-86).  He 
has  been  instructor  in  Hebrew  in  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1883^4  and  1886-88),  and  p^x^ 
fessor  of  Hebrew  and  cognate  languages  (1888-9*2), 
of  Semitic  philology  and  Old  Testament  histoid 


367 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DaTldson 
Day 


(1892-1900),  and  Oriental  and  Old  Testament  lit- 
erature (since  1900),  in  the  same  institution.  In 
theology  he  is  Calvinistic,  and  in  Old  Testament 
criticism  is  a  conservative.  He  has  written  Genesis 
and  Semitic  Tradition  (New  York,  1894)  and  A 
Dictionary  of  the  BibU  (Philadelphia,  1898). 

DAVISON,  WILLIAM  THEOPHILnS:  EngUsh 
Wesleyan;  b.  at  Bath,  Somersetshire,  Oct.  6,  1846. 
He  was  graduated  at  London  University  in  1869, 
held  various  pastorates  1868-81,  was  for  ten  years 
professor  of  Biblical  literature  in  Richmond  College, 
Surrey,  was  professor  of  theology  in  Handsworth 
College,  Birmingham,  until  1904,  and  in  1905  re- 
turned in  a  similar  capacity  to  Richmond  College. 
He  is  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  theology  in  Lon- 
don University,  and  in  1901  was  president  of  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Conference.  He  has  written: 
Praises  of  Israel  (London,  1893);  Wisdom  Litera- 
ture of  the  Old  Testament  (1895);  The  Lard's  Supper 
(1896);  Strength  for  the  Way  (1902);  and  Psalms  in 
The  Century  Bible  (1903). 

DAWSON,  SIR  JOHN  WILLIAM:  Canadian 
Presbjrterian  layman;  b.  at  Pictou,  N.  S.,  Oct.  13, 
1820;  d.  at  Montreal  Nov.  19,  1899.  He  studied 
at  the  College  of  Pictou  and  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  (B.A.,  1846).  In  1850  he  was  appomted 
superintendent  of  education  in  Nova  Scotia,  and 
three  years  later  was  made  professor  of  geology  and 
principal  of  McGill  0>llege  and  University,  Mon- 
treal, holding  this  position  until  he  retired  as  pro- 
fessor emeritus  in  1893.  He  was  the  first  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  in  1883,  of  the 
American  Association  in  1884,  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion in  1886,  and  of  the  American  Geological  So- 
ciety in  1893.  He  was  made  a  Companion  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George  in  1882,  and 
two  years  later  was  knighted.  In  theology  his 
position  was  conservative.  He  wrote  more  than 
twenty  books,  of  which  those  of  special  theological 
interest  are:  The  Bible  and  Science  (London,  1875); 
The  Origin  of  the  World  According  to  Revelation  and 
Science  (1877);  Facts  and  Fancies  in  Modem 
Science  :  Studies  of  the  Relation  of  Science  to  Prev- 
alent Speculations  and  Religious  Belief  (Philadel- 
phia, 1882);  Egypt  and  Syria,  Their  Physical  Fea- 
tures in  Relation  to  Bible  History  (London,  1886); 
Modem  Science  in  Bible  Lands  (1888);  Modem 
Ideas  of  Evolution  as  Related  to  Revelation  and 
Science  (New  York,  1890);  and  Eden  Lost  and 
Won :  Studies  of  the  Early  History  and  Final  Destiny 
of  Man  as  Taught  in  Nature  and  Revelation 
(London,  1896). 

DAWSON,  WILLIAM  JAMES:  English  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Towchester  (45  m.  n.e.  of 
Oxford)  Nov.  21,  1854.  He  studied  at  Didbury 
College,  Manchester,  and  entered  the  Wesleyan 
ministry  in  1875.  He  held  pastorates  at  Wesley's 
Chapel,  City  Road,  London,  and  at  Glasgow  and 
Southport  until  1892,  when  he  became  a  Congre- 
gatiozialist  and  was  appointed  minister  of  High- 
bury Quadrant  Church,  London,  resigning  this 
position  in  1905  to  become  an  evangelist.  He  has 
lectured  widely  on  literary  and  historical  topics, 
and  in  1891  was  a  delegate  to  the  Methodist  Ecu- 
menical Conference  at  Washington,  D.  C.    He  has 


written:  Arvalan  (London,  1878);  A  Vision  of 
Souls  (poems;  1884);  Quest  and  Vision :  Essays 
on  Life  and  Literature  (1886);  The  Threshold  of 
Manhood  (1889);  The  Makers  of  Modem  Poetry 
(1890);  The  Redemption  of  Edward  Strahan  :  A 
Social  Story  (1891);  The  Church  of  To-morrow 
(1892);  Poems  and  Lyrics  (1893);  The  Making  of 
Manhood  (1894);  The  Comrade-Christ  (sermonsf 
1894);  London  Idylls  (1895);  The  Story  of  Hannah 
(1896);  The  House  of  Dreams  (1897);  Through 
LaUice  Windows  (1897);  The  Endless  Choice  and 
Other  Sermons  (1897);  Table  Talk  unth  Young  Men 
(1898);  Judith  Boldero  :  A  Tragic  Romance  (1898); 
Makers  of  Modem  Prose  (1899);  Savonarola  :  A 
Drama  (1900);  The  Doctor  Speaks  :  Episodes  in 
the  Experiences  of  John  Selkirk,  M.D.  (1900);  The 
Man  Christ  Jesus  (1901);  The  Quest  of  the  Simple 
Life  (1903);  The  Reproach  of  Christ  and  Other 
Sermons  (1903);  The  Evangelistic  NoU  (1905); 
Makers  of  English  Fiction  (1905);  and  The  For- 
gotten  Secret  (1906). 

DAY,  THE  HEBREW:  The  civil  day  was  reck- 
oned by  the  Hebrews  from  sunset  to  sunset,  so  that 
the  day  began  at  that  time  both  on  ordinary  occa- 
sions and  on  Sabbaths  and  feasts.  In  this  matter 
the  Hebrews  were  in  accord  with  the  Athenians, 
and  the  Greeks  in  general,  as  well  as  with  the  Ger 
mans;  and  this  mode  of  reckoning  goes  well  with 
the  habits  under  a  cult  of  the  moon  (see  Moon, 
Semitic  Conceptions  of).  Yet  according  to  De- 
litzsch  and  Dillmann  (in  their  commentaries  on 
Crenesis  i.  5),  the  reckoning  indicated  in  Gren.  i.  5 
sqq.  is  not  to  be  taken  as  from  evening  to  evening, 
but  after  the  Babylonian  fashion,  from  morning  to 
morning.  Excepting  only  the  seventh  day,  the  days 
of  the  week  had  no  proper  names,  that  system  of 
designation  which  gave  the  days  the  names  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets  being  rejected  because  of 
heathen  associations. 

For  the  divisions  of  the  day,  besides  the  ordinary 
terms  of  dawn,  morning,  midday,  and  evening, 
there  were  in  use  such  expressions  as  **  the  heat  of 
the  day  "  (Gen.  xviii.  1),  "  the  height  of  the  day," 
or  "  the  perfect  day  "  (Prov.  iv.  18),  and  "  the  cool 
of  the  evening "  (Gen.  iii.  8).  The  reckoning  by 
hours  does  not  appear  in  the  Old  Testament  until 
the  book  of  Daniel,  when  the  word  used  is  Aramaic. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  reckoning  by  hours  is 
customary,  the  first  hour  is  sunrise  and  the  sixth 
is  midday  (cf.  Matt.  xx.  1  sqq.),  though  it  is  de- 
batable whether  the  Gospel  of  John  does  not  follow 
the  Roman  civil  mode  by  reckoning  the  hours  from 
midnight  (cf.  John  xix.  14  and  xviii.  28  with  Matt, 
xxvii.  45;  Mark  xv.  26,  33;  Luke  xxiii.  44).  The 
hour,  dependent  upon  the  sun  and  the  seasons, 
varies  in  the  latitude  of  Palestine  from  forty-nine 
to  seventy-one  minutes  in  length.  A  sun-dial 
(doubtless  an  obelisk  with  stefw),  which  marked  the 
hours  as  the  shadow  passed,  was  used  by  Heze- 
kiah  (II  Kings  xx.  9-10).  The  night  was  divided 
by  the  Hebrews  into  three  watches  (Lam.  ii.  19; 
Judges  vii.  19;  Ex.  xiv.  24).  In  New  Testament 
times  the  Roman  division  of  the  night  into  four 
watches  was  employed  (Mark  xiii.  35),  though  the 
Talmudists  retained  the  earlier  division  into  three 
watches.  (C.  von  Obslu.) 


Day  of  the  liord 
Deacon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


368 


Bduoomapbt:  C.  L.  Ideler,  Bandbudi  dtr  ,  ,  .  Chrono- 
loffis,  L  80  aqq.,  Berlin,  1825;  C.  Wieseler.  Chronologv- 
9€h§  Synopm  der  vier  Evangelien,  pp.  410  sqq.,  Hamburg, 
1848,  Eog.  tnuiBl.,  0«mbridge.  1877;  Bensinser,  ArchAo- 
logie^  pp.  202-203:  Nowack,  Archiioloffie,  i.  214-215; 
DB,  i.  573;  BB,  i.  1035-38. 

DAT  OF  THE  LORD  (Heb.  Yam  Yahweh,  "Day 
of  Yahweh ") :  A  complex  prophetic  concept 
brought  into  connection  with  Hebrew  Messianism 
and  later  iised  with  eschatological  significance. 
The  full  expression  "  day  of  the  Lord  *'  is  not  always 
used,  the  terms  "  the  day,"  "  that  day,"  "  the  day 
of  trouble/'  "  the  great  and  terrible  day,"  "  that 
time,"  and  other  like  phrases  being  interchange- 
able with  it.  Indeed,  the  word  "  day  "  itself,  in 
Hebrew  as  in  Arabic,  often  had  a  sinister  content 
and  was  equivalent  to  ''  day  of  battle  "  (cf.  Isa. 
ix.  4).  The  idea  undergoes  so  great  development 
in  the  histoiy  of  Messianism  that  no  general  de- 
scription of  it  applies  to  any  one  period.  Its  fun- 
damental and  abiding  characteristic  is  that  it  is 
the  time  of  the  manifestation  of  Yahweh  as  savior 
of  (the  actual  or  the  ideal)  Israel  by  the  punish- 
ment of  his  enemies,  when  his  benign  purposes  for 
that  people  will  be  accomplished.  In  its  physical 
aspects  it  is  a  day  of  terrifying  phenomena,  all 
nature  partaking  of  the  awe  inspired  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Creator  and  showing  that  awe  in  heaven 
by  the  darkening  or  falling  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
and  on  earth  by  quakes  and  cataclysms  and  by  the 
unbounded  terror  of  the  nations.  The  idea  seems 
to  have  originated  in  the  popular  mind  as  a  national- 
istic ideal,  founded  not  in  ethics  but  in  the  crude 
religious  ideas  concerning  the  effect  of  the  covenant 
by  which  Yahweh  was  conceived  as  bound  to  help 
his  people  simply  because  they  were  his  people  and 
served  him  alone. 

This  day  had  from  the  very  beginning  and  always 
retained  two  sides  (cf.  Mai.  iv.  1-2),  judgment  (of 
Israel's  and  therefore  of  Yahweh's  enemies,  later 
of  the  wicked)  and  redemption  (of  Israel,  later  of 
the  righteous).  It  was  taken  into  the  circle  of 
prophetic  ideas  by  Amos,  who  lifted  it  out  of  the 
nationalistic  and  unethical  by  the  startling  an- 
nouncement that  the  day  involved  not  (as  the  peo- 
ple assumed)  the  punishment  of  Israel's  enemies, 
but  of  Israel  itself  because  of  its  offenses  against  a 
righteous  God.  Sinners  were  the  enemies  of  Yah- 
weh and  not  the  Gentiles  as  Gentiles,  and  on  them 
the  troubles  of  the  day  would  fall.  With  this  rep- 
resentation Hosea  agreed,  and  Isaiah  and  Micah 
applied  the  same  reasoning  to  Judah.  In  these 
cases  the  precedent,  ever  faithfully  followed,  was 
set  of  stating  the  purpose  of  the  day  to  be  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  righteous  people.  While  the  ethical 
element  thus  introduced  remained  dominant,  it  was 
frequently  united  with  the  nationalistic  element,  so 
that  while  the  judgment  was  to  discriminate  be- 
tween Israel  and  its  enemies,  it  did  so  on  the  as- 
sumption that  Israel  was  righteous  while  the  enemy 
was  wicked.  The  exact  form  which  the  concep- 
tion took  fluctuated  according  to  the  external  con- 
ditions and  the  view  of  the  individual  prophet. 
Thus  in  Nahum  and  Habakkuk,  dealing  with  times 
when  Israel  was  oppressed,  the  view-point  is  na- 
tional and  the  judgment  is  to  be  against  the  (wicked) 
Assyrians  and   in  favor  of   (righteous)  Israel.    In 


Zephaniah  an  advance  is  made,  and  the  day  of  the 
Lord  becomes  a  world-judgment;  but  this  is  a 
corollary  of  the  conception  of  Yahweh  as  not  merely 
God  of  Israel,  but  God  of  the  whole  earth  (i.  8-13, 
ii.  1-6,  iii.  8).  In  the  later  prophets  this  is  accom- 
plished by  an  assembling  of  the  peoples  (Isa.  xlv. 
20;  Zech.  xii.  3;  Joel  iii.  2),  when  judgment  is 
meted  upon  them.  In  Jeremiah  the  day  is  once 
more  primarily  against  Judah,  though  other  na- 
tions are  involved  (i.  18,  xxv.  15-24;  xxv.  27-33  is 
a  later  interpolation).  Already  in  Jeremiah  the 
idea  is  becoming  denationalized  and  individualizcni, 
the  cause  of  judgment  being  not  collective  or  na- 
tional, but  individual,  and  in  Ezekiel  this  is  fully 
accomplished.  The  Messianic  kingdom  was  to  be 
introduced  by  this  day,  and  a  regenerate  Israel  was 
to  survive.  According  to  the  exilic  prophets,  the 
day  inaugurated  the  Messianic  kingdom,  but  the 
guilt  was  largely  individual.  Haggai  (chaps,  ii.- 
iii.)  and  Zechariah  (i.  15,  ii.)  returned  again  to  the 
nationalistic  ideal,  but  their  position  was  reversed 
by  Malachi.  Up  to  this  point  the  judgment  was 
conceived  as  taking  place  and  the  kingdom  being 
established  on  the  earth,  and  this  kingdom  was 
earthly  in  character.  This  was  changed  in  Isa. 
Ixv.-lxvi.  (before  400  B.C.),  where  a  new  heaven  and 
a  new  earth  is  introduced — a  fruitful  suggestion  for 
further  development.  Joel  (c.  350  B.C.)  exhibits 
the  day  in  all  its  terror  (ii.  30-31),  but  returns  to 
the  nationalistic  view-point  (iii.  1-2,  9-21),  and  the 
same  idea  prevails  in  Zech.  xii.-xiv.  (of  about  the 
same  date  as  Joel).  In  Isa.  xix.  (c.  300)  a  univer- 
salism  of  worship  of  Yahweh  (which  is  merely  illus- 
trated by  mention  of  Egj'pt,  Assyria,  and  Israel) 
is  ushered  in  by  "  that  day."  In  Daniel  (166-165) 
the  result  of  the  coming  of  the  day  is  the  overthrow 
of  the  world-kingdoms,  the  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  in  which  will  share  the 
righteous  dead  of  Israel,  raised  from  the  grave. 
Here  first  appears  the  resurrection  of  the  individ- 
ual, Ezekiel's  resurrection  (chap,  xxxvii.)  being 
national.  In  the  earlier  Pseudepigrapha  (q.v.)  a 
great  development  takes  place,  in  part  through  the 
doctrine  that  Sheol  (see  Hades)  is  a  place  of  punish- 
ment for  the  wicked,  heaven  appearing  by  contrast 
as  the  abode  of  the  blessed  (foreshadowed  in  the 
Old  Testament  in  Ps.  xlix.  15,  bcxiii.  24).  The 
resurrection  is  generalized,  the  wicked  being  raised 
for  final  condemnation,  the  righteous  for  partici- 
pation in  the  new  kingdom.  Complete  transcen- 
dentalizing  does  not  take  place,  since  sometimes  the 
new  Jerusalem  is  localized  on  earth,  at  other  times 
it  is  a  heavenly  city.  In  these  earlier  books  **  the 
day "  ushers  in  the  Messianic  kingdom.  In  the 
later  Pseudepigrapha  the  earthly  Messianic  rule  is 
only  the  temporary  prelude  to  the  real  kingdom  of 
God,  and  "  the  day  "  with  the  final  judgment  comes 
at  its  close.  While  the  representation  varies  in 
different  books,  development  takes  place  on  the 
whole  along  these  lines.  In  the  Gospels  the  day  is 
implicit,  and  is  involved  [in  the  parusia  (Mark 
viii.  38  and  parallels)  which  is  to  be  heralded 
by  the  same  cataclysmic  phenomena  as  accom- 
pany the  day  of  Yahweh  in  the  Old  Testament 
(Mark  xiii.  7-8,  24-27).  In  Paul  the  "  day  of 
Yahweh "    has    become  the  "  day  of   our   Lord 


869 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Day  of  the  Itoxd 
Peaoon 


Jesus  Christ "  (I  Cor.  i.  8).    See  Ebchatoloot; 

and  Hadeb.  Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  beat  book  is  R.  H.  Charles,  Critical 
Hist,  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  pp.  85  sqq.  et  pAS- 
flim,  London,  1890.  Consult  further  the  literature  on 
O.  T.  theology  and  Messianic  prophecy.  e.g..  H.  Schults, 
O.  T,  Theology,  ii.  356  sqq.,  Edinbursh.  1892;  C.  A. 
Briggs,  Meeaianic* Prophecy,  pp.  487-490  et  passim.  New 
York,  1898;  idem,  Meaeiah  of  the  OoepeU,  pp.  309  sqq., 
ib.  1894;  P.  Vols,  Jiidieche  Bechatologie  von  Daniel  hie 
Akiba,  Tabingen.  1903;  A.  B.  Davidson,  Theology  of  ike 
O.  T.,  pp.  374  sqq..  ib.  1904;  DB,  i.  574,  434  sq0.,  440, 
iii.  377,  ir.  771;   EB,  ii.  1348  sqq. 

DAY,  CHARLES  ORRIN :  Congregationalist;  b. 
at  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  8,  1851.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1872,  and  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
in  1877.  He  was  a  city  missionary  at  Montreal 
1877-78,  and  pastor  at  Williamsburg,  Mass.,  until 
1884.  He  then  spent  a  year  in  postgraduate  study 
at  the  Yale  Divinity  School,  after  which  he  was 
pastor  at  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  until  1898,  when  he 
became  chaplain  of  the  First  Vermont  regiment  at 
Chickamauga  during  the  Spanish-American  war. 
From  1898  to  1901  he  was  secretary  of  the  Congre- 
gational Educational  Society,  and  since  the  latter 
year  has  been  president  of  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  and  Bartlet  professor  of  homiletics  and 
practical  theology. 

DAY,  JEREMIAH :  Congregationalist,  ninth  pres- 
ident of  Yale  College;  b.  in  New  Preston,  Conn., 
Aug.  3,  1773;  d.  in  New  Haven  Aug.  22,  1867.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  1795,  and  the  same  year 
succeeded  Timothy  D wight  (q.v.)  as  principal  of 
the  Greenfield  Academy;  was  tutor  at  Williams 
1796-98,  at  Yale  1798-1801;  was  elected  professor 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at  Yale 
1801;  succeeded  Timothy  Dwight  as  president  in 
1817;  resigned  in  1846.  Besides  a  series  of  mathe- 
matical text-books,  he  wrote  An  Inquiry  Respecting 
the  Self-delermining  Power  of  the  Will,  a  refutation 
of  Cousin  (New  Haven,  1838),  and  An  Examination 
of  President  Edwards  on  the  Will,  a  conciliatory  and 
apologetic  defense  of  Edwards  (1841). 
Biblioorapht:  A   memorial   address  by   President   T.    D. 

Woolsey  is  in  The  New  Englander,  xxvi  (1867).  692-724. 

DAYANAUD,  da^ya-ntod',  SARASWATI,  sfl^rOs- 
wQ'ti:  Hindu  reformer  and  founder  of  the  Arya 
Samaj  (see  India,  III.,  3);  b.  of  Shivite  Brahmanic 
parentage  at  Mori,  a  town  in  the  n.w.  of  Kathiawar, 
in  1827;  d.  at  Ajmere  Oct.  30,  1883.  He  early  be- 
gan the  orthodox  course  of  study,  and  by  the  time 
he  had  reached  fourteen  years  of  age  had  committed 
to  memory  a  Sanskrit  dramatic  work,  a  Sanskrit 
vocabulary,  the  whole  of  the  Yajur-Veda,  and  part 
of  other  Vedas.  He  very  early  felt  the  inconsist- 
ency between  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Vedas  and 
those  connected  with  the  worship  of  Shiva,  and 
he  reluctantly  yielded  to  his  father's  insistence 
upon  performance  of  the  idolatrous  rites  of  Shiva. 
On  one  occasion,  when  thus  taking  part  in  this 
worship,  the  ceremonies  having  continued  long  into 
the  night,  his  father  and  others  fell  asleep.  While 
watching  the  idol  the  boy  saw  a  mouse  take  away 
an  offering  that  had  been  made  to  it.  Suddenly  the 
inconsistency  of  worshiping  God  in  the  form  of  a 
Btone  so  overpowered  him  that  he  left  the  temple, 
and  ntrer  again  worshiped  an  idol.  Death  in  his 
111—24 


family  led  him  into  deep  thought  of  the  meaning 
of  life,  and  he  determined  to  break  away  from  ex- 
ternal form  and  find  the  true  path  through  the 
efforts  of  the  soul.  His  parents,  thinking  the  boy 
too  meditative,  determined  on  his  marriage.  The 
preparations  were  nearly  completed  when  he  silently 
left  his  home  by  night,  and  never  returned  from 
his  wanderings  in  search  of  some  one  who  could 
guide  him  to  the  truth.  At  last,  in  Nov.,  1860,  he 
found  a  welcome  at  Mathura,  with  a  religious 
teacher  named  Swami  Virjananda  Saraswati.  With 
this  profound  scholar  of  the  Vedas,  who  had  been 
blind  from  infancy,  Dayanand  stucfied  the  Vedas 
for  four  years.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  education 
Virjananda  sent  him  forth  to  spread  the  enlighten- 
ment gained  from  the  Vedas.  In  obedience  he 
traveled  over  India,  visiting  especially  places  of 
pilgrimage  where  he  denounced  idolatry  and  the 
superstitions  of  Hinduism.  In  1872  he  visited 
Cfjcutta  and  met  Devendranath  Tagore  (see  Ta- 
GORE,  Devendranath)  and  Keshav  Chandra  Sen 
(see  Sen,  Keshav  Chandra),  leaders  in  the  Brahma 
Samaj  movement  (see  India,  III.,  1),  with  whom  he 
had  long  and  earnest  conversations.  In  1874  he 
arrived  in  Bombay,  and  after  some  months  of 
effective  labor  organized  the  Arya  Samaj,  Apr.  10, 
1875,  extending  it  in  1877  in  the  course  of  a  lecture 
tour  in  the  Punjab.  In  1883  he  visited  the  Maharaja 
of  Jodhpur.  There  he  was  greatly  disturbed  by  the 
revelry  and  dissipation  that  marked  the  court  life, 
and  like  John  the  Baptist  rebuked  the  Maharaja  to 
his  face,  as  a  consequence  of  which  he  was  poisoned 
by  a  woman  whom  he  had  offended  by  his  rebuke. 
Dayanand  Saraswati  taught  the  inspiration  of  the 
Vedas  as  the  pure  fountain  of  all  true  knowledge. 
He  looked  upon  the  forms  of  popular  Hinduism  as 
the  result  of  ignorance  through  a  falling  away  from 
the  teachings  of  those  books.  He  taught  the  pei^ 
sonality  of  God  as  the  sole  object  of  worship.  God 
and  the  soul  are  related  as  pervader  and  pervaded. 
The  eternal  and  distinct  substances  are  God,  soul, 
and  matter;  salvation  is  the  state  of  emancipation 
from  birth  to  death.  He  denounced  the  system  of 
caste  and  the  worship  of  idols. 

Justin  E.  Abbott. 
Bibuoorapht:  Three  of  Dayanand's  works  have  been  traiw- 
lated:  The  Ocean  of  Mercy,  Lahore,  1880;  The  Five  Great 
DtUiee  of  Dayanand  SaraetoaH,  Ajmere,  1897,  and  A 
Hand-hook  of  the  Arya  Samaj,  Arya  Tract  Society,  1006. 
Consult:  Arjan  Singh,  Dayanand  SaraevoaH,  Lahore,  1001; 
Bawa  Chhajju  Singh,  The  Life  and  Teachinge  of  Swam 
Dayanand  SaraeuKUi,  ib.;  and  literature  under  India. 

DEACON. 

I.  In  the  New  Testament. 

Origin  of  the  Diaoonate  (I  1). 
Duties  in  New  Testament  Time  (|  2). 
II.  In  the  Ronuui  Catholic  Church. 

Change  in  Position  after  the  Apostolic  Age  (f  1). 
Duties  in  the  Later  Church  (ft  2). 

III.  In  the  Protestant  Churches. 

IV.  The  Modern  Associations  of  Deacons  in  Germany. 
Johann  Hinrich  Wichem  (|  1). 

Extension  of  Wichem's  Work.    Conditions  of  Admis- 
sion (ft  2). 
Training  (ft  3). 
Organisation.    Wide  Extent  of  the  Work  (ft  4). 

I.  In  the  New  Testament:  The  term  "deacon" 
(Gk.  diakonos,  "servant,  attendant,  minister," 
Lat.  diaconus;  also  Gk.  diakdn,  Lat.  diacones  [pi J 


Deaoon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


370 


in  Cyprian  and  synodical  decrees)  in  its  generic 
sense  is  used  of  all  ministers  of  the  Gospel  as  serv- 
ants of  God  or  Christ  (I  Thess.  iii.  2;  I  Cor.  iii.  5; 
II  Cor.  vL  4,  xL  23;  Col.  i.  7,  iv.  7;  I  Tim.  iv.  6), 
also  of  magistrates  (Rom.  xiii.  4).  In  a  technical 
sense  it  denotes  the  second  and  lower  class  of  con- 
gregational officers,  the  other  class  being  the  pres- 
byter-bishops. Deacons  first  appear  in  the  sixth 
chapter  of  Acts  (under  the  name  of  the  "  seven  "), 
and  afterward  repeatedly  (as  Phil.  i.  1;  I  Tim.  iii. 
2,  8,  12).  The  word  diakonta,  "  ministry,"  is  also 
used  frequently  of  the  apostles  (Rom.  xi.  13)  and 
others. 

Like  the  presbyterate  (see  Presbtter),  the 
Christian  diaconate  had  a  precedent  in  the  Jewish 
synagogue,  which  usually  employed  three  officers 
for  the  care  of  the  poor  (cf.  Lightfoot,  Horce  He- 
braiccB,  ad  Acta,  vi.  3).  Vitringa  and  some  others 
wrongly  derive  it  from  the  i<iz2an  (Gk.  hypiretes, 
Luke  iv.  20;  John  vii.  32),  who  was  merely  a  sexton 
or  beadle.  As  related  in  Acts  vi.  1-6,  the  office  grew 
out  of  a  special  emergency  in  the  congregation  of 
Jerusalem,  in  consequence  of  the  complaint  of  the 
Hellenists,  or  Greek  Jews,  against  the  Hebrews,  or 
Palestinian  Jews,  that  their  widows  were  neglected 
in  the  daily  ministration  (Gk.  diakonia)  at  the 
common  love-feasts  (Agapse).  Hence  the  apostles, 
who  had  hitherto  themselves  attended 

X.  Origin  to  this  duty,  instructed  the  congrega- 
of  theDiac-  tion  to  elect  from  their  midst  seven 
onate.  brethren,  and  ordained  them  by 
prayer  and  the  laying  on  of  hands. 
The  diaconate,  therefore,  like  the  presbytero- 
episcopate,  grew  out  of  the  apostolic  office,  which 
at  first  embraced  all  the  functions  and  duties  of  the 
ministry — the  ministry  (diakonia)  of  tables  and  of 
the  word  (Acts  vi.  2,  4).  Christ  chose  apostles 
only,  and  left  them  to  divide  their  labor  imder  the 
guidance  of  his  Spirit,  with  proper  regard  to  times 
and  circumstances,  and  to  found  such  additional 
offices  in  the  Church  as  were  useful  and  necessary. 

The  "  seven  "  elected  on  this  occasion  were  not 
extraordinary  commissioners  or  superintendents 
(Stanley,  Plumptre,  W.  L.  Alexander,  McGiffert, 
pp.  78-79,  Friedberg,  p.  13,  Sohm,  and  others),  but 
deacons  in  the  primitive  sense  of  the  term;  for 
although  they  are  not  called  "  deacons  "  in  the 
Acts  (which  never  uses  this  word),  their  office  is 
expressly  described  as  one  of  ''  ministry "  (dia- 
konia)  or  "  serving  at  the  tables."  Exegetical  tra- 
dition is  almost  unanimously  in  favor  of  this  view, 
and  many  of  the  best  commentators  sustain  it  (as 
Meyer,  Alford,  Hackett,  Lange-Lechler,  Jacobson, 
Howson  and  Spence,  Stokes  in  the  Expositor's 
Bible,  on  Acts  vi.  3;  also,  very  emphatically,  Light- 
foot,  Philippiana,  pp.  185  sqq.).  •  In  the  ancient 
Church  the  number  seven  was  considered  binding; 
and  at  Rome,  for  example,  sua  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  third  century,  there  were  only  seven  deacons, 
though  the  presbyters  numbered  forty-six  (Eusebiiis, 
Hist,  ecd.,  vi.  43;  Hamack,  TU,  ii.,  pp.  92,  97.  The 
number  seven  was  given  up  in  Rome  under  Honorius 
II.  [1124-30]  and  eighteen  deacons  were  then  ap- 
pointed, to  twelve  of  whom  was  given  the  care  of 
the  poor,  while  six  served  as  papal  assistants  at  the 
altar.     Sixtus  V.  in  ISSH  finally  fixed  the  number 


of  cardinal  deacons  at  fourteen).  There  is  indeed 
a  difference  between  the  apostolic  and  the  eccle- 
siastical deacons,  which  is  acknowledged  by  Chiys- 
ostom,  (Ecumenius,  and  others;  but  the  latter 
were  universally  regarded  as  the  Intimate  suc- 
cessors of  the  former — as  much  so  as  the  presby- 
ters were  the  successors  of  the  presbyter-bishois 
of  the  New  Testament — ^notwithatanding  the 
changes  in  their  duties  and  relations.  The  deacons 
in  the  Apostolic  Age  are  closely  associated  with  the 
presbyter-bishops  and  always  are  subordinate  to 
them.  This  close  association  and  subordination  are 
maintained  in  the  subapostolic  age  and  later. 

The  diaconate  waa  instituted  first  for  the  care  of 
the  poor  and  the  sick.  But  this  care  was  spiritual 
as  well  as  temporal,  and  implied  instruction  and 
consolation  as  well  as  bodily  relief.  Paul  counts 
helps  and  ministrations  (Gk.  atUilepseis)  among  the 
spiritual  gifts  (I  Cor.  xii.  28).  Hence 
2.  Duties  in  the  appointment  of  such  men  for  the 
New  Testa-  office  of  deacons  as  were  of  stnHig 
ment  Time,  faith  and  exemplary  piety  (Acts  vi.  3; 
I  Tim.  iii.  8  sqq.).  The  moral  quali- 
fications prescribed  by  Paul  are  essentially  the 
same  as  those  for  the  bishop  (presbyter).  Hence  the 
transition  from  the  diaconate  to  the  presbyterate 
was  easy  and  natural.  Stephen  preached,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  Paul's  ministry  of  the  Gen- 
tiles; and  Philip,  another  of  the  seven  deacons  ot 
Jerusalem,  subsequently  labored  as  an  Evangelist 
(Acts  viii.  5-40,  xxi.  8).  But  they  did  this  in 
the  exercise  of  a  special  gift  of  preaching,  which 
in  the  Apostolic  Age  was  not  confined  to  any  pai^ 
ticular  office.  The  patristic  interpreters  under- 
stand the  passage  in  I  Tim.  iii.  13  of  promotion 
from  the  office  of  deacon  to  that  of  presbyter; 
but ''  the  good  standing  "  which  is  gained  by  those 
who  "  have  served  well  as  deacons  "  refers  to  the 
honor  rather  than  to  the  promotion.  The  liberty 
of  the  Apostolic  Church  should  not  be  confounded 
with  the  fixed  ecclesiastical  order  of  a  later  age. 

n.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church:     After  the 
departure  of  the  apostles,  during  the  mysterious 
period  between  70  and  150  a.d.,  where  information 
is  so  scant,  that  change  in  the  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation must  have  taken  place  which  is  found  pretty 
generally  established  toward  the  close  of  the  second 
century.     The  Didache  knows  only  two  classes  of 
officers  for  the  local  churches,  bishops  and  deacons; 
they  were  to  be  elected  by  the  con- 
I.  Change   gregations,  and  are  to  receive  honor 
in  Position  **  together    with    the    prophets    and 
after   the   teachers "  (xv.  1-2).     Ignatius  men- 
Apostolic    tions  deacons  as  a  necessary  part  of 
Age.       the  governing  body  of  the  local  churcJi. 
With  him  the  bishops  are  raised  above 
their  fellow  presbyters,  and  later  they  were  regarded 
as  successors  of  the  apostles;    the  presbyters,  at 
first  simply  pastors  and  teachers,   were  clothcii 
with  sacerdotal  dignity  ("  priests  "),  which  in  tlte 
New  Testament  appears  as  the  common  property 
of  all  Christians;  and  the  deacons  became  Levites, 
subject  to  the  priests.     They  are  often  compared 
to  the  Levites  of  the  Old  Testament.     These  thrpe 
officers  constituted  the  three  clerical  orders  (orrfine* 
majorea  or  hierarchici)  in  distinction  from  the  laity. 


371 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baaoon 


An  act  of  ordination  marked  the  entrance.  No 
one  could  become  a  bishop  without  passing  first 
through  the  two  lower  orders;  but  in  some  cases 
a  distinguished  layman,  as  C^prian  or  Ambrose, 
was  elected  bishop  by  the  voice  of  the  people,  and 
hurried  through  the  three  ordinations.  The  sub- 
deacon  was  later  associated  with  the  deacon  and 
was  declared  a  member  of  the  "  major  orders  "  by 
Innocent  III.  (1198-1216;  cf.  Friedberg,  Kirchen- 
recht,  p.  150;  see  Orders,  Holy).  In  fact,  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the  canon  law  have 
never  formally  decided  whether  the  episcopate  is 
a  distinct  order  or  not.  The  Council  of  Trent 
did  not  decide  the  question,  although  it  speaks 
of  the  hierarchy  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons 
(Schafif,  Creeds,  ii.  186-187).  The  schoolmen,  in- 
cluding Peter  Lombard  {SerU,,  IV.xxiv.  9),  Hugo  of 
St.  Victor  (De  scuramentis,  II.  ii.  5),  Thomas  Aquinas 
(SuppletnerUum,  xxxvii.  2,  ed.  Migne,  iv.  1056), 
and  Bonaventiu^  {Breviloquium,  vi.  12,  ed.  Peltier, 
vii.  327),  say  again  and  again  that  the  episcopate  is 
not  a  distinct  order,  but  an  office  or  function.  They 
regarded  the  presbyters,  deacons,  and  subdeacons 
as  constituting  the  three  major  orders.  The  pre- 
vailing view  to-day  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
if  not  the  universal  one  (so  Hergenr5ther,  Lehrhuch 
des  kaiholischen  Kirchenrechts,  pp.  208-209,  Frei- 
burg, 1888),  is  that  the  episcopate  is  a  distinct 
order  and  that  the  subdeaconate  is  not. 

The  deacons  continued  to  be  the  almoners  of 
the  charitable  fimds  of  the  congregation.    Jerome 
calls  them  "  ministers  of  the  tables,  and  of  widows." 
They  had  to  find  out  and  to  visit  the  aged,  the 
widows,  the  sick  and  afflicted,  the  confessors  in 
prison,  and  to  administer  relief  to  them  under  the 
direction  of  the  bishop.    But  in  the  course  of  time 
this  primary  function  became  secondary,  or  passed 
out  of  sight,  as  the  sick  and  the  poor  were  gath- 
ered together  into  hospitals  and  alms- 
2.  Duties  in  houses,     the    orphans     into    orphan 
the  Later   asylums,  and  as  each  of  these  insti- 

Church.  tutions  was  managed  by  an  appropriate 
officer.  Another  duty  became  the 
prominent  one — viz.,  to  assist  in  public  worship, 
especially  at  baptism  and  the  holy  communion. 
Justin  MartjT  (Ayol.,  Ixv.;  ANF,  i.  185)  says  the 
deacons  distributed  the  bread  and  wine  at  the 
Eucharist  after  they  were  blessed  by  the  presiding 
officer,  and  also  carried  them  to  the  sick.  They 
arranged  the  altar,  presented  the  offerings  of  the 
people,  read  the  Gospel,  gave  the  signal  for  the 
departure  of  the  unbelievers  and  catechumens,  re- 
cited some  prayers,  and  distributed  the  consecra- 
ted cup  (in  the  absence  of  the  priest,  the  bread  also), 
but  were  forbidden  to  offer  the  sacrifice.  Preaching 
Is  occasionally  mentioned  among  their  privileges, 
after  the  examples  of  Stephen  and  Philip,  but  very 
rarely  in  the  West.  Hilary  the  Deacon  (Pseudo- 
Ambrose),  in  his  commentary  on  Eph.  iv.  11,  says 
that  originally  all  the  faithful  preached  and  bap- 
tized, but  that  in  his  day  the  deacons  did  not  preach. 
In  some  cases  they  were  forbidden,  in  others  author- 
ized to  preach.  The  Poniificale  Rofnanum,  how- 
e\er,  defines  their  duties  and  privileges  with  the 
words  "  it  is  the  duty  of  a  deacon  to  minister  at  the 
altar,   to  baptize,   and   to  preach."     They  stood 


near  the  bishops  and  presbyters,  who  were  seated 
on  theur  thrones  in  the  church,  and  they  were 
deputies  and  advisers  of  the  bishops  and  often 
sent  on  confidential  missions.  This  intimacy  gave 
them  an  advantage  and  roused  the  jealousy  of  the 
presbyters.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  (ii.  44; 
ANF,  vii.  416)  calls  the  deacon  "  the  bishop's  ear 
and  eye  and  mouth  and  heart  and  soul,  tluit  the 
bishop  may  not  be  distracted  with  many  cares." 
The  archdeacon  (q.v.)  occupied  a  position  little 
inferior  to  that  of  the  bishop  and  hence  he  is  called 
"the  bishop's  eye."  He  transacted  the  greater 
part  of  the  business  of  the  diocese.  The  canonical 
age  for  the  deacon's  order  was  set  in  385  by  Siricius, 
bishop  of  Rome,  at  thirty  and  later  it  was  twenty- 
five,  according  to  Num.  viii.  24;  the  Council  of 
Trent  reduced  it  to  twenty-three  (Sess.  xxiii.  12). 

nL  In  the  Protestant  Churches:  In  the  Church 
of  England  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of 
the  United  States  deacons  form  one  of  the  three 
sacred  orders,  as  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches. 
The  canons  require  the  age  of  twenty-three  years 
before  ordination.  Deacons  are  permitted  to  per- 
form any  of  the  divine  offices  except  pronouncing 
the  formula  of  absolution  and  consecrating  the 
elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  practise  the 
diaconate  is  merely  a  stepping-stone  to  the  priest- 
hood. So  the  deacons  are  what  in  other  churches 
are  called  candidates  for  the  ministry  or  licen- 
tiates. The  archdeacon  in  England  is  a  priest 
and  a  permanent  officer  next  after  the  bishop,  with 
a  part  of  the  episcopal  power  and  jurisdiction:  he 
is  ez  officio  examiner  of  candidates  for  holy  orders, 
and  has  a  seat  in  convocation.  The  institution 
dates  from  Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
the  first  prehkte  who  appointed  an  archdeacon  in 
his  diocese  (1075). 

In  the  Lutheran  Church  "diaconus"  is  merely  a 
title,  inherited  from  the  Roman  Church,  of  assist- 
ant clergymen  and  chaplains  of  subordinate  rank. 
They  are  often  called  second  or  third  preacher 
or  pastor.  Luther  desired  the  restoration  of  the 
apostolic  deacons  for  the  care  of  the  poor  and  the 
church  property  {Works,  ed.  Walch,  xiii.  2464).  In 
the  last  century  the  name,  like  the  feminine  form, 
"  deaconess,"  was  applied  in  Germany  to  members 
of  certain  fraternities,  organized  and  trained  for 
general  Christian  service  (see  IV.,  below,  and  the 
article  Deaconess,  III.). 

In  the  Reformed  churches  the  apostoUc  diaconate 
was  revived,  as  far  as  circumstances  would  permit, 
with  different  degrees  of  success.  In  the  Refoi^ 
mation  of  the  Church  of  Hesse  (1526)  it  was  pre- 
scribed that  each  pastor  (epUcopus)  should  have  at 
least  three  deacons  as  assistants  in  the  care  of  the 
poor.  The  Church  of  Basel  in  1529  made  a  similar 
provision.  Calvin  regards  the  diaconate  as  one  of 
the  indispensable  offices  of  the  Church,  and  the 
care  of  the  poor  (cura  pauperum)  as  their  proper 
duty  ("  Institutes,"  bk.  iv.,  chaps.  3,  9).  The  Re- 
formed confessions  acknowledge  this  office  {Conf. 
Gallicana,  art.  xxix.;  Conf.  Helgica,  art.  xxx.  and 
xxxi.).  In  the  Dutch  and  German  Reformed 
churches  the  deacons  are  *'to  collect  and  to  dls- 
tril)ute  the  alms  and  other  contributions  for  the 
relief  of  the  poor,  or  the  necessities  of  the  congregar 


Peftoon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


372 


tion,  and  to  provide  for  the  support  of  the  ministry 
of  the  Gospel."  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America  teaches,  in  its  form  of 
government  (chap,  vi.):  "  The  Scriptures  clearly 
point  out  deacons  as  distinct  officers  in  the  church, 
whose  business  it  is  to  take  care  of  the  poor,  and  to 
distribute  among  them  the  collections  which  may 
be  raised  for  tbeir  use.  To  them,  also,  may  be 
properly  committed  the  management  of  the  tem- 
poral affairs  of  the  church."  ^n  accordance  with 
this  principle,  deacons  are  a  normal  part  of  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  local  churches  and  receive  ordina- 
tion, though  they  are  not  members  of  the  church 
session  (the  govemiog  body  of  the  local  church; 
see  Prebbtterians).  The  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  has  held  (1878)  that  the  office  is  open  to 
women,  and  in  several  presbyteries  they  have  been 
ordained  to  this  service.] 

In  the  Congregatiomd  or  Independent  churches  the 
deacons  are  vexy  important  officers,  and  take  the 
place  of  the  lay  elders  in  the  Presbyterian  churches. 
At  first  the  Piigrim  Fathers  of  New  England  elected 
ruling  elders;  but  the  custom  went  into  disuse,  and 
their  duties  were  divided  between  the  pastor  and 
the  deacons.  Cf.  H.  M.  Dexter,  CongregationaUtm 
of  the  Last  Three  Hundred  Yean,  Boston,  1876,  pp. 
131  sqq. 

In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  deacons 
constitute  an  order  in  the  ministry,  as  in  the  Episco- 
pal Church,  but  without  the  jfwre  divino  theory  of 
apostolical  succession.  They  are  elected  by  the 
annual  conference,  and  ordained  by  the  bishop. 
Their  duties  are,  "  (1)  To  administer  baptism,  and 
to  solemnise  matrimony;  (2)  To  assist  the  elder  in 
administering  the  Lord's  Supper;  (3)  To  do  all  the 
duties  of  a  traveling  preacher."  Traveling  deacons 
must  exercise  their  office  for  two  years  before  they 
are  eligible  to  the  office  of  elder.  Local  deacons  are 
eligible  to  the  office  of  elder  after  preaching  four 
years.  (Phiup  ScHAFFf)  D.  S.  Schaff. 

IV.  The  Modem  Associations  of  Deacons  in  Ger- 
many: Like  the  similar  deaconesses'  organizations 
(see  Dbaconsss,  III.),  these  fraternities  for  Chris- 
tian service  are  an  outgrowth  of  the  movement 
within  the  Protestant  Church  of  Germany  usually 
known  as  the  "  Innere  Mission  "  (see  Inners  Mis- 
sion). But  this  work,  however  much  it  might  be 
regarded  as  incumbent  on  all,  can  not  be  so  well 
done  by  untrained  volimteers  as  by  professional 
workers  who  devote  their  whole  lives  to  it  and 
receive  the  requisite  special  education.  It  was  the 
''  Innere  Mission  "  which  for  the  first  time  among 
German  Protestants  clearly  perceived  this  truth 
and  undertook  to  train  such  workers.  The  epoch- 
making  dates  are  1833,  when  the  Rauhes  Haua  was 
founded  for  male  workers,  and  1836,  when  the  first 
home  for  deaconesses  was  established  at  Kaisers- 
werth. 

The  Rauhee  Haue,  at  Horn  near  Hamburg,  was 
established  by  Johaim  Hinrich  Wichem  (q.v.)  as 
a  rescue-home  for  neglected  children.  The  original 
foundation  speedily  expanded  into  a  community, 
where  the  children  dwelt  in  "  families  "  or  groups, 
each  group  constituting  a  unit  for  the  purposes  of 
moral,  intellectual,  suod  manual  training.  The 
"  housefather "    associated    with   himself   in    the 


administration  of  the  work  a  number  of  assistants : 
and,  as  the  work  expanded  and  the  number  of 
institutions  increased,  the  necessity 
I.  Johann  arose  of  a  normal  training  for  the 
Hinrich  instructors.  The  Rauhes  Haue  became 
Wichem.  therefore  a  seminary  for  the  trainiBg 
of  workers  in  the  field  of  the  "  Innere 
Mission,"  its  early  candidates  coming  almost  ex- 
clusively from  the  humbler  classes  and  compriaiztg 
men  whose  simple  piety  and  (Christian  spirit  of 
self-sacrifice  and  devotion  to  duty  qualified  them 
admirably  for  this  service.  Wichem  gave  the 
name  of  "  Brethren  "  to  his  first  aasodates.  In 
the  execution  of  his  wider  plans  he  came  into  con- 
ffict  with  the  authorities  of  the  Rauhes  Haus  who 
regarded  with  mistrust  the  departure  from  the 
original  idea  of  an  institution  for  children,  and  be 
was  finally  allowed  to  proceed  with  his  plans  for 
a  brotherhood  only  on  condition  that  he  should 
assiune  the  financial  risks  of  the  venture.  His 
devoted  labors  brought  their  reward;  means  were 
soon  obtained  for  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  the  fraternity  which  Wichem  sought  to 
organise  on  the  model  of  the  medieval  Brothers 
of  the  Common  Life  so  far  as  that  was  possible 
under  modem  conditions.  He  did  not  attempt  to 
revive  the  office  of  deacon  as  it  existed  in  the  primi- 
tive Church,  and  only  reluctantly  did  he  assent  to 
the  use  of  the  term  "  deacon,"  which  to  him  con- 
noted a  person  officially  set  apart  by  the  Church, 
while  "  brother "  bore  a  more  secular  and  inde- 
pendent signification. 

Wichem  supplied  the  model  upon  which  all  later 
institutions  of  a  similar  nature  have  been  founded, 
which  differ  from  the  original  only  in  the  general 
use  of  the  name  deacon,  and  in  the  wider  scope  of 
work  which  the  necessities  of  other  times  produced. 
By  the  side  of  those  institutions  whose  field  em- 
braced every  phase  of  Christian  charity,  others 
arose  devoted  to  particular  branches  of  work.  Thus 
in  southwestern  Germany  there  are  institutions  for 
the  training  of  teachers  for  the  poor,  dating  from 
the  period  of  predominantly  educational  interest 
which  saw  the  rise  of  the  "  Iimere  Mission."  Fur- 
ther, there  are  associations  for  lav 
a.  Bxten-  preaching  and  others  whose  special 
sion  of  field  lies  among  the  German  Ftotes- 
Wichem's  tants  scattered  in  Catholic  countries 
Work.  Con-  (see  Diaspora).  The  inner  organi- 
ditions  of  sation  is  practically  the  same  every- 
Admission.  where,  consisting  of  a  clerical  chief 
executive  who  exercises  control  over 
the  educational  and  administrative  work,  and  a 
curalorium  or  committee  of  trustees  in  whom  the 
property  of  the  institution  is  vested.  Common 
also  are  the  conditions  for  admission,  of  whicb 
a  summary  of  the  regulations  prevailing  in  the 
Rauhes  Haus  may  serve  as  an  illustration.  Ap- 
plicants must  be  of  unblemished  reputation,  and 
masters  of  some  trade  or  profession  upon  which  in 
case  of  emergency  they  may  fall  back;  admission 
for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  a  trade  or  profession 
is  not  tolerated.  Candidates  must  be  between  the 
ages  of  twenty  and  thirty,  unmarried,  and  must 
have  completed  their  term  of  military  service. 
They  must  be  prepared  to  yield  absolute  obedience 


373 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


I>»ecMi 


to  the  head  of  the  house,  submit  to  all  tasks  im- 
posed upon  them,  and  look  upon  their  office  not 
as  a  temporary  calling,  but  as  their  mission  in 
life.  The  course  of  training  lasts  three  years, 
with  an  extension  to  five  or  six  for  those  handi- 
capped by  a  lack  of  the  requisite  educational  qual- 
ifications, or  preparing  themselves  for  positions  of 
responsibility  in  the  service  of  the  "  Innere  Mis- 
sion." Candidates  are  not  allowed  to  determine 
beforehand  to  which  branch  of  the  work  they  will 
devote  themselves,  and  must  be  ready  to  pursue 
their  work  for  a  part  of  the  time  in  affiliated  in- 
stitutions. The  documents  that  must  accompany 
applications  for  admission  are  comprehensive  and 
deal  minutely  with  the  facts  of  the  applicant's  life 
and  his  moral  and  spiritual  history,  including  the 
testimony  of  phsrsicians,  pastors,  and  parents 
or  guardians.  The  greater  number  of  candidates 
for  admission   are  from  the  artisan  and  peasant 


The  chief  aim  of  the  training  to  which  candi- 
dates are  subjected  is  the  formation  of  steadfast 
Christian  character,  and  in  this  respect  the  rela- 
tions of  the  head  of  the  house  toward  his  associates 
and  assistants  are  among  the  most  decisive  factors. 
The  standard  of  intellectual  acquirements  set  up  is 
approximately  that  of  the  elementary  school  teacher 
or  lower  government  official.  In  addition,  how- 
ever, there  is  the  special  knowledge  of  the  main 
principles  of  pedagogy  and  of  the  history  of  edu- 
cation, studied  chiefly  in  the  form  of  biography, 
together  with  a  mastery  of  catechetical  methods. 

The  specialization  of  function  must 
3.  Training,  also  be  kept  in  view  so  that  the  needs 

of  the  future  colporteur,  instructor  for 
the  feeble-minded,  or  elementary  teacher  may  be 
provided  for.  The  problem  presented  is  by  no 
means  a  simple  one,  in  that  it  involves  the  training 
of  students  possessing  the  education  of  the  child 
with  the  experience  of  the  youth  or  the  fuU-grown 
man.  Practical  work  is  carried  on  side  by  side 
with  theory,  and  every  house  of  deacons  stands  in 
close  connection  with  one  or  more  relief  institutions 
— rescue-homes,  hospitals,  asylimis  for  the  feeble- 
minded, homes  for  epileptics,  etc.  An  important 
element  is  the  religious  life  of  the  brotherhoods. 
Some  satisfy  their  needs  by  attendance  at  the 
churches  of  the  community  of  which  they  form  a 
part,  while  others  possess  chapels  of  their  own. 
The  training  of  a  brother  once  completed,  he  is 
detailed  to  outside  duty,  his  graduation  and  dis- 
missal being  marked  by  a  solemn  service.  The 
regulations  of  the  Rauhea  HauSf  which  may  be  taken 
again  as  typical,  provide  that  on  the  acceptance  by 
a  brother  of  an  office  to  which  he  \b  reconunended 
by  the  head  of  the  house  he  is  pledged  to  render 
conscientious  service  and  not  to  abandon  his  post 
without  seeking  the  advice  of  the  head  of  the  house; 
failure  to  do  so  will  exclude  him  from  further  ap- 
pointment. A  brother  who  abandons  the  service 
of  the  "  Innere  Mission  "  ceases  thereby  to  be  a 
member  of  the  fraternity.  From  the  foregoing  it  is 
apparent  that  the  brotherhoods  possess  their  spiri- 
tual center  in  the  deacons'  houses.    The  truth  is 


briefly  expressed  in  the  following  sunmiary  from 
the  regulations  of  the  Rauhes  Haua :  "  The  breth- 
ren of  the  Rauhea  Haua  are  gathered  in  fraternal 
communion  about  the  Rauhea  Haua  as  a  center, 
and  their  aim  is  to  oome  to  the  aid  of  the  commu- 
nity by  devoting  themselves  to  the  welfare  of  those 
who  have  been  estranged  from  the  Church  and  its 
teachings.  In  belief  and  practise  they  live  within 
the  bounds  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  to  whose 
ordinances  they  submit  themselves." 

While  the  problem  of  the  cooperation  and  com- 
munication is  not  a  serious  one  with  the  minor 
fraternities,  it  is  a  weighty  one  in  the  case  of  the 
Rauhea  Haua^  whose  branches  are  found  in  all  parts 

of  Germany.     Here   conferences  em- 

4*  Organi-  bracing  the  oi:ganizations  of  the  vari- 

zation.      ous  provinces  are  held  eveiy  year,  in 

Wide  Extent  addition  to  which  special  conferences 

of  the  Work,  and  general  conventions  are  held  from 

time  to  time  at  the  Rauhea  Haua. 
With  regard  to  their  spheres  of  activity,  every  house 
has  its  special  field.  At  the  Rauhea  Haua  special 
emphasis  was  laid  in  the  beginning  upon  rescue 
work;  Duisburg  devoted  itself  primarily  to  the 
care  of  the  sick;  the  summoning  of  Wichem  to 
Berlin  led  to  the  rapid  rise  of  mission  work  in  the 
prisons.  From  many  deacons'  houses  members 
have  been  called  to  positions  as  colonial  and  home 
missionaries,  superintendents  of  labor  colonies, 
heads  of  other  houses,  etc.  A  complete  list  of  in- 
stitutions wherein  the  members  of  the  brotherhoods 
have  been  active  would  include  rescue-homes,  or- 
phan asylums,  homes  for  destitute  children,  work- 
houses, hospitals,  asylums  for  the  feeble-minded,  the 
insane,  and  the  epileptic,  industrial  schools,  appren- 
tices' lodging-houses,  city  and  harbor  missions, 
penal  institutions,  and  institutes  for  the  cure  of 
alcoholism.  (Thbodor  ScHlraR.) 

Bibuoobapht:  I.  J.  B.  Loghtfoot,  Comm/tntary  on  PhUip- 
pianM,  pp.  170  sqq.,  London,  1878;  £.  Hatch,  OrganiMO' 
Hon  cf  Ote  Barly  Chriatian  Church,  pp.  26  sqq.,  Oxford. 
1888  (the  preceding  are  the  two  authoritative  dieeoMionfl); 
R.  Sohm.  KirAanneht,  Leipde,  1802;  F.  J.  A.  Hort, 
ChriaUan  Beekna,  London,  1807;  A.  C.  McQiffert,  Apo9- 
tolie  Ao*,  pp.  76-77.  667  sqq..  New  York.  1807;  T.  M. 
Lindsay,  Church  and  Am  Minittry  in  tfte  Early  C&nturie§, 
pp.  164-lfi6.  104-105.  London,  1002;  W.  Lowrie,  Ths 
Church  and  ite  OrgamMaiion,  pp.  370-383,  ib.  1006;  Sohaff. 
ChrUHan  Church,  L  60  eqq.;  A.  Hamack,  in  TU,  ii.  6,  pp. 
57-103.  1886;  DB,  L  574t-67B;  SB,  I  1038^10;  and  the 
various  treatises  on  the  Didaehe  (q.v.). 

U.  and  lU.  J.  N.  Seidl.  Dsr  Dtoamof  indarkaihoU$eh§n 
Kirehe,  Regensbuig.  1884;  A.  J.  Binterim,  DmikwOrdio- 
Amten.  L  335-386.  Mains,  1826;  J.  C.  W.  August!,  Denk- 
tffflriwlwiten,  zL  104  sqq.,  Leipeic.  1830;  Bingham,  Ori- 
ffinn,  book  ii..  chap.  20;  DCA,  i.  526-533;  KL,  iiL  1660- 
1674;  and  for  modem  practise,  the  Book  of  DitdpUnt  of 
the  various  denominations. 

IV.  Important  sources  of  knowledge  are  the  Monata- 
aehrift  fikr  Diakonio  und  In/term  MtBoion,  and  Monaiaochrift 
fUr  Innen  Miuion;  also  AkionaiQcke  aua  dor  Vorwaiiuno 
doa  evangdiad^en  Oberkirdtanraiha,  toIs.  iii.-iv..  Berlin, 
1856-57  (contain  accounts  of  Fliedner.  Widiem,  Jakobi, 
and  others  prominent  in  the  moYemant).  Consult:  P. 
Schaff.  Oarmany,  ita  UnivaraiHaa,  Thaology  and  RaUgion, 
chap,  xxzviii..  Philadelphia.  1857;  J.  Wichem,  Daa 
Rauha  Haua  und  dia  ArMtafaldar  dar  BrQdar  daa  Rauhan 
Hauaaa,  18S9-8S,  Hamburg,  1883;  idem,  /.  H,  Wieham 
und  dia  BrUdaraehaft  daa  Bankan  Hauaaa,  ib.  1802;  Q. 
Uhlhom.  Dia  ehriatUeka  LUbaaOkMgkaU,  iiL  847  sqq., 
365  sqq.,  Stuttgaft,  188a 


Baaoon^sa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


874 


I.  In  the  Apostolic  Ace. 
II.  In  the  Patristic  Ace. 

Deaoonenes  and  Widows  (|  1). 
Age  (I  2). 
Duties  (§  3). 
Ordination  (§  4). 
III.  In  the  Protestant  Churebes. 

1.  The  Earlier  Period. 

2.  The  Nineteenth  Century. 

I.  In  the  Apostolic  Age:  The  function  dates 
from  the  earliest  period  of  the  Church,  though  the 
technical  term  in  the  feminine  form,  '*  deaconess  " 
(Gk.  (fiakonissa;  Lat.  diaconissa,  diacona),  does  not 
occur  till  a  later  period.  Phoebe  was  a  deaconess 
in  the  church  of  Genchrea,  the  masculine  form, 
diakonoSj  being  applied  to  her  (Rom.  xvi.  1;  transl. 
"servant"  in  Eng.  versions).'  The  women  whose 
names  are  given  in  Rom.  xvi.  12  were  probably  of 
the  same  class.  It  is  not  probable  that  there  was 
a  distinct  order  of  deaconesses  in  the  Apostolic 
Church  in  the  modem  sense.  Nevertheless,  Paul's 
mode  of  referring  to  Phcebe  implies  that  she  was 
recognized  at  Cenchrea  and  by  himself  as  having 
a  special  work  and  authority.  It  is  possible  that 
deaconesses  are  referred  to  in  I  Tim.  iii.  11.  If  so, 
they  were  distinguished  from  the  "  widows  "  (I  Tim. 
V.  3-16),  who  were  not  to  be  enrolled  in  that  class 
till  they  had  reached  sixty  years  of  age.  From  the 
earliest  times  the  need  must  have  been  felt  of  a 
special  class  of  women  who  should  devote  them- 
selves to  Christian  service  at  times  of  baptism,  visit 
the  parts  of  the  houses  set  aside  for  females,  and 
perform  other  duties.  While  Phcebe  is  the  only 
person  in  the  New  Testament  distinctly  called  a 
deaconess,  there  are  indications,  as  in  the  case  of 
Dorcas  (Acts  ix.  36)  and  other  cases,  that  woman's 
service  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Church  and 
had  a  distinctive  character. 

n.  In  the  Patristic  Age:    The  earliest  reference 

in  the  subapostolic  age  to  women  functionaries  in 

the  Chureh  is  by  the  younger  Pliny  in  his  letter 

(x.  96)  to  Trajan  about  110  a.d.    He  speaks  of 

"  young  women  who  are  called  ministra  ";  that  is, 

"  deaconesses."    The  notices   in    the 

I.  Deacon-  literature  of  the  second  and  third  cen- 

esses  and  turies  are  very  rare  before  the  Apos- 

WidowB.  tolic  Constitutions,  which  contain  fre- 
quent references  to  both  the  widows 
and  deaconesses  and  directions  for  their  work  and 
induction  into  office.  When  the  ApostoUc  Consti- 
tutions were  written  the  widows  and  deaconesses 
were  distinct  bodies  (ii.  26;  ANF^  vii.  410),  and 
the  widows  occupied  a  position  inferior  to  the  dea- 
conesses and  are  enjoined  to  be  in  subjection  to 
them  (iii.  7).  Different  rules  are  given  for  the  con- 
secration of  each  (vii.  19,  25).  On  the  one  hand, 
it  is  not  clear  that  in  the  second  century  this  dis- 
tinction was  maintained.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
clear  that  in  the  fourth  century  the  order  of  widows 
was  abandoned,  while  the  order  and  term  of  dea- 
conesses remained.  The  Council  of  Nicsea  (325) 
speaks  only  of  ''  deaconesses."  The  Council  of 
Origins  (533)  speaks  of  the  "  widows  who  are 
called  deaconesses." 

In  the  literature  of  the  second  century,  with  the 
exception  of  the  passage  in  Pliny,  there  is  no  ref- 


DEACONESS. 

a.  Germany. 
Origin.     Theodor  Fliedner  ( §  1 ). 
The     Kaiserswerth      Institute 

(12). 
Other  Institutions  (§  3). 

b.  England. 
Sisterhoods  (|  1). 
Deaoonesses  in  the  Church  of 

England  (|  2). 


Wesleyan  Deaooneaaes  (|  3). 

c.  Sootland. 

d.  America. 

The  Lutherans  (|  1). 

The  Protestant  EpiaeopalChurdt 

(§2). 
The  Methodista  (|  3). 
Other  Denominations  (|  4). 


erenoe  to  the  deaconess  by  name  and  no  distinct 
reference  to  any  class  but  the  widows.  When 
Tertuilian,  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
speaks  of  "  virgins  "  and  distinguishes  them  from 
the  "widows"  (Z)e  virginibus  vdandia,  ix.;  De 
monogamia,  xi. ;  etc.)  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
in  mind  a  class  of  functionaries  in  the  Church. 
Ignatius  in  his  letter  to  Symma  (xiii. ;  cf .  Light- 
foot,  ii.  322  sqq.)  speaks  of  **  virgins  who  are  called 
widows,"  and  Polycarp  in  his  letter  to  the  Philip- 
pians  (iv.;  Lightfoot,  ii.  912)  calls  ''the  prudent 
widows  "  the  altar  of  God.  This  expression,  which 
is  also  used  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (ii.  26^ 
was  interpreted  to  mean  that  the  women  devoted 
themselves  to  prayer  and  holy  thoughts.  Polycarp 
is  speaking  of  widows  in  their  official  relation,  as  he 
mentions  them  before  deacons  and  priests.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century  the  institution  of 
widows  seems  to  have  been  widely  prevalent 
Clement  (Ham.,  xi.  36,  Recogniiiones,  xv.)  ani 
Tertuilian  refer  to  them  repeatedly.  Lucia n  in  his 
**  Death  of  Peregrinus  "  also  speaks  of  aged  widow> 
who  ministered  to  Peregrinus  in  prison,  bringing 
orphans  with  them.  But  a  change  took  place  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  century  the  "  widows  '* 
at  Rome  were  simply  a  class  of  poor  women  de^ 
pendent  upon  the  support  of  the  Church  (EusebiiLs. 
HUt.  eccl.,  VI.  xliii.  11). 

While  the  order  of  widows  was  given  up  in  the 
West,  it  continued  to  flourish  in  the  East.  But 
they  can  not  be  followed  beyond  the  time  of  com- 
position of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  The  tenn 
**  widow  "  seems  to  have  been  dropped.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  deaconess  comes  into  prominence 
and  Lb  mentioned  in  the  conciliar  decisions  of  the 
E^t  and  the  West  and  in  the  legislation  of  Justinian 
(Novella,  vi.  6,  cxxiii.  30;  cf.  G.  Pfannmaller.  Dit 
kirchliche  GeseUgdmng  Jtistinians,  Berlin,  1902,  pp. 
72  sqq.).  In  the  West,  Ambrose,  commenting  upon 
I  Tim.  iii.  11,  declared  that  women  were  forbidden 
to  hold  office  in  the  Chureh,  and  Jerome  in  com- 
menting upon  Rom.  xvi.  1  and  I  Tim.  iii.  11  (the 
quotations  are  given  by  Uhlhom,  p.  408)  speaks  of 
women  functionaries  as  still  existing  in  the  East 
and  gives  the  impression  that  they  had  ceased  to 
exist  in  the  West.  However,  there  seem  to  hsLve 
been  deaconesses  in  Gaul  as  late  as  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, as  attested  by  the  Second  Council  of  Ori^ns 
in  533.  An  inscription  at  Ticinum,  dated  539,  bears 
the  name  of  the  *'  deaconess  (diaamissa)  Theodora  " 
(Uhlhorn,  p.  409).  Deaconesses  continued  in  the 
Eastern  Chureh  down  to  the  eighth  century.  The 
terms  "  deaconess  "  and  "  archdeaconess  "  were 
used  as  designations  of  the  officers  in  convents  and 
they  are  still  foimd  in  the  twelfth  century  at  Con- 
stantinople aiding  in  the  communion. 

The  reason  why  the  orders  of  widows  and  deacon- 


376 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Deaoonesft 


I  fell  into  desuetude  is  in  part  the  abuses  of  the 
Montanists,  who  allowed  women  to  preach,  while 
Montanus  himself  went  about  with  two  women,  a 
thing  which  gave  much  scandal.  Some  of  the  here- 
tics, following  Simon  Magus,  were  mixed  up  with 
prophetesses  who  were  supposed  to  be  subjects  of 
revelation  and  taught  contrary  to  the  teaching  of 
Paul.  Other  reasons  were  the  moral  dangers  be- 
setting such  women.  Rules  were  required  dis- 
tinctly forbidding  clerics  of  the  lower  orders  to 
visit  widows  and  deaconesses  without  special  per- 
mission from  the  bishop  or  priest  and  then  not 
without  an  attendant  (Synod  of  Hippo,  393;  cf. 
Hefcle,  ConcUiengeachichte,  ii.  68).  Still  other  rea- 
sons were  the  growth  of  monastic  houses  for  nuns 
which  offered  a  safe  refuge  as  well  as  a  distinct 
religious  and  clerical  calling  for  women,  and  the 
cessation  of  the  need  of  female  ministries  after  adult 
baptism  gave  way  to  infant  baptism. 

The  age  at  which  women  might  enter  the  class  of 
widows  was  reduced  from  sixty  {Apostolic  Con- 
stitviionSf  iii.  1).  Tertullian  {De  virginibtia  vdan- 
diSf  ix.)  tells  of  a  virgin  who  had  been  admitted 
into  the  order  of  widowhood  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
but  speaks  of  it  as  a  notorious  irregularity.  The 
Theodosian  code  of  390  (cf.  Hefele,  ut  sup.,  ii. 
519)  required  obedience  to  the  Pauline  rule  re- 
quiring the  age  of  sixty.  As  for  the 
2.  Age.  deaconesses,  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(451;  canon  xv.;  cf.  Hefele,  ut  sup.) 
allowed  their  consecration  at  the  age  of  forty, 
but  only  after  probation.  The  Justinian  code 
{NovellcB,  cxxiii.  13)  likewise  prescribed  the  age 
of  forty.  In  case  a  deaconess  married,  both  she 
and  her  husband  were  to  be  anathematized.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Justinian  code,  if  she  married  or 
allowed  herself  to  be  seduced,  she  became  liable  to 
the  death  penalty  and  the  man  suffered  death  by 
the  sword  (PfannmUller,  ut  sup.,  p.  72).  Olympias 
(d.  420),  the  deaconess  of  Constantinople  praised 
by  Chrysostom  and  to  whom  he  addressed  seven- 
teen letters,  became  a  widow  at  eighteen  and  seems 
to  have  immediately  entered  upon  diaconal  func- 
tions. 

The  statement  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
(iii.  15)  is  regulative  of  the  functions  of  these  women: 
''  A  deaconess  is  to  be  ordained  for  the  ministra- 
tions toward  women."  She  is  called  the  assistant 
or  minister  of  the  deacon  (viii.  28).  She  was  to  be 
sent  to  do  certain  services  for  which  it  was  distinctly 
ordered  that  the  deacon  should  not  be  sent  (iii.  15). 
At  baptism  she  assisted  the  presbyter  '*  for  the 
sake  of  decency  '*  (viii.  28).  The  bishop  was  in- 
structed to  anoint  only  the  head  of  a 
3.  Duties,  woman  and  the  anointing  of  the  other 
parts  was  left  to  the  deaconess  (iii. 
15).  A  change,  however,  took  place  and  this  cus- 
tom was  deliberately  set  aside.  The  Synod  of 
Dovin  in  Armenia  (527;  Hefele,  ut  sup.,  p.  718) 
forbade  the  ministry  of  deaconesses  at  baptism. 
The  prohibition  probably  grew  out  of  the  unwill- 
ingness to  allow  to  women  even  the  appearance  of 
performing  clerical  services.  Tertullian  (De  bap- 
itsmo,  xvii.)  allowed  laymen  to  baptize,  but  ex- 
pressly forbade  women  both  to  baptize  and  to 
teach.    The  Apostolic  Constitutions  (iii.  9;    also 


Origen,  Homily  on  Isa.  vi.)  state  expressly  that 
deaconesses  were  not  to  serve  at  the  altar,  and  for- 
bid them  to  teach  and  baptize  or  in  any  wise  per- 
form the  functions  of  the  priest.  Another  duty  of 
the  deaconess  was  to  stand  at  the  entrance  to  the 
church  through  which  the  women  passed  to  their 
own  place  in  the  auditorium  to  greet  those  that 
entered,  to  show  them  seats,  and  to  preserve  order 
(Apostolic  ConstitiUionSf  ii.  57). 

Roman  Catholic  scholars  in  interpreting  the  pa- 
tristic statements  on  the  induction  of  the  deaconess 
into  office  deny  that  there  was  any  rite  of  ordina- 
tion. This  interpretation  has  plainly  in  its  favor 
the  nineteenth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea 
(Hefele,  ut  sup.,  i.  427),  which  distinctly  states 
that  *^  the  deaconesses  are  without  any  imposition 
of  hands  and  are  to  be  ranked  with  the  laity." 
The  Synod  of  Laodicea,  a  generation  or  two  later, 
which  speaks  of  presbutidea  and  prokathSmenai,  that 
is,  female  presbytids  (not  presbyters;  cf.  Epipha- 
nius,  Ixxix.)  and  overseers,  seems  to  deny  them 
official  position  in  the  Church,  but  the  meaning  of 
the  passage  is  vague  (cf.  Hefele,  i.  757).  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  plain  statements  that  a  rite 
of  ordination  was  performed.  There  was  an  im- 
position of  hands  (Epiphanius,  ut  sup.),  and  such 

imposition  was  made  by  the  hands  of 

4.  Ordina-  the  bishop  and  in  the  presence  of  the 

tion.        presbytery,    the   deacons,    and    those 

already  belonging  to  the  order  of  dea- 
conesses (Apostolic  Constitutions,  viii.  19).  The 
code  of  Justinian  treats  of  their  ordination  (cf. 
Pfannmiiller,  ut  sup.,  p.  72).  The  form  of  prayer 
used  on  such  occasions  is  given  in  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions  (viii.  20).  The  S3mod  of  Orange  in 
441  (canon  xxvi. ;  Hefele,  ii.  295)  forbade  the  further 
ordination  of  women  and  allowed  them  only  the 
consecration  imparted  to  the  laity.  By  the  Synod 
of  Epao  in  317  (Hefele,  ii.  684)  such  ordination 
was  forbidden  in  all  Bui^imdy.  Similarly  the 
Second  Synod  of  Orleans  in  533  (Hefele,  ii.  758) 
denied  to  women  "  on  account  of  the  weakness  of 
their  sex  "  the  diaconal  benediction.  This  would 
seem  to  have  been  of  the  same  nature  as  ordination 
to  the  diaconate.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the 
heretical  sects  ordained  deaconesses  (cf.  Dollinger, 
i.  186,  203,  and  elsewhere). 

ni.  In  the  Protestant  Churches. — 1.  The  Earlier 
Period:  The  Reformers  made  no  provision  for  the 
official  recognition  of  women  as  functionaries  in  the 
Church.  Among  the  rare  notices  of  deaconesses 
are  those  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Wesel 
from  1575  to  1610  and  the  Puritan  church  of  Am- 
sterdam. One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Church  of 
Wesel  was  to  decide  to  employ  women.  After 
long  delay  the  S3mod  of  Middelburg  in  1581  pro- 
nounced against  the  proposition  ''  on  account  of 
various  inconveniences  which  might  arise  out  of  it, 
but  in  times  of  pestilence  and  other  sicknesses 
where  any  service  is  retiuired  among  sick  women 
which  would  be  indelicate  to  deacons  they  ought  to 
attend  to  this  through  their  wives  or  others  whose 
services  it  may  be  proper  to  engage."  The  con- 
clusions drawn  up  by  Thomas  Cartwright  (q.v.)  and 
Walter  Travers  as  the  result  of  several  confessions 
of  Puritan  ministers  in   1575  contained  a  clause 


Deaooness 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


376 


"  touching  deacons  of  both  sorts,  namely  men  and 
women."  Both  were  to 'be  chosen  by  the  congre- 
gation and  "  to  be  received  into  their  office  with 
the  general  prayers  of  the  whole  Church  ''  (cf.  D. 
Neal,  History  of  the  Puritans,  i.,  New  York,  1855, 
p.  140).  In  Gov.  Bradford's  Dialogue  it  is  stated 
that  there  was  one  deaconess  "  who  visited  the  sick, 
relieved  the  poor,  and  sat  in  a  convenient  place  in 
the  congregation,  with  a  little  birchen  rod  in  her 
hand,  and  kept  little  children  in  great  awe  from  dis- 
turbing the  congregation.  She  did  filsquently  visit 
the  sick  and  weak,  especially  women,  and  if  there 
were  poor  she  would  gather  relief  for  them  of  those 
that  were  able,  or  acquaint  the  deacons,  and  she 
was  obeyed  as  a  mother  in  Israel  and  an  officer  of 
Christ  "  (A.  Young,  Chronicles  of  the  PHqrim  Fathers, 
Boston,  1841,  pp.  445-446).  Early  American  Con- 
gregationalism recognized  the  office  and  ordered  the 
"  ancient  widows  (where  they  may  be  had)  to  min- 
ister in  the  Church,  in  giving  attendance  to  the 
sick,  and  to  give  succor  unto  them,  and  others  in 
the  like  necessities "  {Cambridge  Platform,  1648, 
vii.  7).  This  theory  was  not  put  in  practise  (cf.  W. 
Walker,  History  of  the  Congregational  Churches  in 
the  United  States,  New  York,  1894,  p.  230).  The 
Mennonites  of  Holland  seem  to  have  had  the  cus- 
tom of  appointing  deaconesses  to  serve  among  the 
sick  and  poor  and  do  other  Christian  and  charitable 
work. 

2.  The  irineteeiitli  Oentury:  No  more  important 
feature  characterizes  the  recent  history  of  Protes- 
tantism than  the  development  of  woman's  public 
activity  in  the  Church.  Woman's  work  among 
women  and  for  women  in  the  various  missionary 
organizations  and  in  other  bodies  is  in  the  direct 
line  of  the  diaconal  work  of  Phoebe  and  other 
female  ''  helpers  "  of  the  early  Church.  Some  of 
the  Protestant  bodies  have  given  official  recog- 
nition to  the  vocation  of  the  congregational 
dea4X)ness  in  one  form  or  another,  without,  how- 
ever, sanctioning  an  order  of  deaconesses  in  the 
sense  that  the  order  of  deacons  is  sanctioned.  It 
is  difficult  to  make  a  sharp  distinction  when  an 
ecclesiastical  body  commends  training-schools  for 
deaconesses  and  yet  denies  their  election  and 
setting  apart  to  th^ir  office  by  the  individual  con- 
gregation. 

a.  (Germany:    The     oiganization    and     official 
training  of  women  for  Christian  work  in  the  Prot- 
estant Churches  were  developed  in  the  early  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  found  their  first 
embodiment    in    the    institution    of    deaconesses 
founded  by  Pastor  Theodor  Fliedner  (q.v.),  which 
has    been    the    model    for    similar    organizations 
throughout   the   Protestant   world.     This   institu- 
tion was  founded  in  1836  at  Kaiserswerth  on  the 
llhine,  near  Dtlsseldorf.     Fliedner  was  not  moved 
in  the  first  instance  by  the  pious  idea 
1.  Orlffin.    of    reviving    the    apostolic    order    of 
Theodor     female  helpers,  although  he  believed 
Fliedner.    Jt  to  have  been  in  existence  in  primi- 
tive   times.      He    was    animated    by 
practical  considerations  to  meet  a  pressing  need  of 
his  day,  the  proper  care  of  the  sick  and  the  training 
of  neglected  children.     A  feeling  existed  in  certain 
pious  German  circles  that  the  Church  needed  an 


order  of  trained  women,  similar  to  the  sisterhoods 
of    the    Roman    Catholic    Church.     This    feeliii*; 
found  expression  in  a  pamphlet  published  by  Pastor 
Kl6nne  of  Bislich  near   Wesel  in   1820,   entitled 
"  The  Revival  of  the  Deaconesses  of  the  Ancient 
Church  in  our  Ladies  Societies."    In  1835  the  pious 
Coimt  Adalbert  von  der  Recke-Volmerstein  b^:an 
the  publication  of  a  periodical  "  Deaconesses,   or 
Life  and  Labors  of  the  Handmaids  of  the  Church 
in  Teaching  and  Training  and  in  Nursing  the  Sick.' 
It  was  Fliedner,  however,  who  gave  practical  em- 
bodiment to  this  feeling.     Before  1836,  on  his  visits 
to  Holland  in  1823  and  1832,  he  was  struck  with 
the  employment  of  deaconesses  among  the   Men- 
nonites.   They    were    appointed    by    the    official 
boards  of  the  churches  and  did  their  work  without 
remimeration.     In  his  description  of  his  experiences 
in  Holland  he  wrote:    ''  This  praiseworthy   early 
Christian    institution    of    deaconesses    should    be 
revived  by  other  Protestant  conununions."     He 
was  also  sMnck,  on  his  visit  in  Ehigland  in  1832, 
with  the  contrast  between  the  fine  architecture  of 
the  hospital  buildings  and  the  incompetency  of  the 
attendants    within.     Impressed   by    the    need    of 
trained  women,  after  these  visits  he  prepared  a  con- 
stitution for  **  the  Order  of  Deaconesses  for  the 
Rhenish  Provinces,"  which  was  signed  in  the  house 
of  Count  Stolberg  at  Dtlsseldorf,  1836.     In  October 
of  the  same  year  the  first  deaconess,  Gertnid  Rei- 
chard,  entered  the  Institute.     Two  years  later  it  sent 
the  first  deaconesses  to  the  city  hospital  of  Elber- 
feld. 

The  Institute  has  grown  to  large  proportions.     It 
educates   three   kinds   of   deaconesses.     The    first 
class  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  the 
poor,  and  the  fallen  in  Magdalen  asylums.     The 
second  dedicate  themselves  to  teaching;   the  third 
class  aid  ministers  in  parish-work.     The   fiuida- 
mental   conditions   of   admission   are 
2,  The      Christian  character  and  a  strong  con- 
Kaisers-    stitution.     Other  rules  are  that  candi- 
werth  In-   dates  mtist  be  of  suitable  age,  must  be 
■***^*«'     unmarried  or  widows,  and  must  con- 
secrate themselves  for  five  years  to  the 
office.    Candidates  are  accepted  on  probation  for 
a  year.    The   Kaiserswerth  deaconesses   take  no 
vows,  wear  no  crucifixes,  and  are  distinguished  by 
a  simple  and  distinctive,  but  not  necessarily  uni- 
form,   dress.     The    internal    organization    of    the 
houses  comprises  as  a  rule  a  cleigyman  as  rector 
and  chaplain,  assisted  by  a  woman  superior,  of 
whom  the  former  exercises  general  administrative 
control,  while  the  more  intimate  details  of  domestic 
economy  are  in  the  hands  of  the  sister  superior.     In 
a  few  institutions  the  influence  of  Roman  Catholic 
models  may  be  discerned  in  that  the  clergyman 
acts  only  in  the  capacity  of  spiritual  adviser  to 
the  sisterhood.     The  Kaiserswerth  institutions  lay 
stress  upon  their  form  of  organization.    The  time 
of  training  lasts  from  two  to  six  years  according  to 
the  attainments  of  the  women   on  entering  the 
Institute    and   according  to   their    aptness.    The 
instruction   includes   a  thorough  cotu^e  of  train- 
ing in  Biblical   knowledge.     At   the  close  of  the 
term  of  preparation  the  deaconesses    are  conse- 
crated by  a  fitting  ritual  and  with  the  layidg  on 


377 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Deaoonesa 


of    hands,  and  promise  obedience  and  fidelity  in 
I  lieir  work.* 

The    Kaiserswerth  Institute  supplies   not   only 
many  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  other  establish- 
ments in  Germany  with  deaconesses,  but  has  under 
its  control  hospitals  in  foreign  lands,  e.g.,  in  Jeru- 
salem (founded  1851),  Constantinople 
3.  Other    (1852),    Smyrna    (1853),    Alexandria 
IxiBtlta-     (1857),  Florence  (1860),  Cairo,  etc.   In 
tions.       1861 ,  at  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of 
the  Kaiserswerth  Institute,  the  number 
of  daughter  institutions  in  Germany,  Austria,  Bohe- 
mia, Hungary,  Holland,  France,  England,  Scandi- 

^More  detailed  information  is  given  in  the  article  Dia- 
kantnr-  und  DiakoniuMmihikuBer  by  Theodor  Sch&fer  in  the 
Hauck-Heriog  RB  as  follows: 

The  conditions  for  admission  are  the  same  to  the  minu- 
test degree  for  all  establishments,  and  an  extract  from  those 
of  the  house  at  Altona  may  serve  as  an  example.  The 
future  deaconess  must  be  of  unblemished  reputation,  and 
ia  required  to  offer  evidence  of  the  facts  of  her  life  and  her 
relations  to  family,  employers,  and  all  others  under  whose 
authority  or  influence  she  may  have  come.  Sound  health 
is  a  requirement,  but  it  is  recognised  that  women  of  slight 
phsrsical  constitution  have  shown  themselves  capable  of 
excellent  service  in  charitable  work.  Eighteen  and  thirty- 
six  are  set  as  the  age-limits,  but  the  rule  may  be  waived 
in  exceptional  cases.  Candidates  are  supposed  to  possess 
a  common  school  education,  and  it  is  desirable  that  they 
shall  have  had  some  experience  in  housework.  The  docu- 
naents  to  be  submitted  in  applying  for  admission  comprise 
a  short  autobiography  of  some  minuteness,  evidence  of  per- 
mission granted  by  parents  or  guardians,  a  testimonial  of 
moral  character  supplied  by  the  applicant's  pastor,  medical, 
baptismal,  and  confirmation  certificates.  Statistics  have 
shown  that  the  great  bulk  of  candidates  come  from  the 
peasant  and  artisan  classes  and  the  class  of  small  officials, 
but  large  numbers,  too,  are  the  children  of  clergymen,  pro- 
fessors and  teachers,  merchants,  and  landed  proprietors. 

Successful  applicants  are  retained  conditionally  for  a  few 
weeks,  after  which  they  enter  upon  a  year  of  actual  pro- 
bation. During  this  year  the  neophyte  is  brought  to  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  conditions  confronting  her 
in  her  future  calling,  the  chief  object  being  to  discern  the 
existence  of  inclination  and  adaptability  for  the  work.  In 
most  houses  the  hospital  is  the  first  and  most  important 
school  of  practise.  Parallel  with  practise  in  the  hospital 
runs  theoretical  instruction  under  the  direction  of  the  head 
physician.  Where  necessary,  instruction  is  given  also  in 
elemeatary  subjects.  The  religious  side  is  not  neglected; 
in  many  institutions  a  few  hours  are  devoted  every  week 
to  religious  instruction  in  which  as  many  of  the  younger 
sisters  as  can  be  spared  from  their  daily  work  participate. 
Under  the  head  of  religious  instruction  is  included  instruc- 
tion in  the  theory  and  history  of  charitable  work,  while  the 
religious  factor  proper  is  supplied  by  a  study  of  Bible  his- 
tory and  geography,  ohivch  history,  the  eateehism,  and  the 
liturgy. 

After  the  completion  of  the  probationary  year  the  can- 
didate is  admitted  to  the  novitiate,  and  after  a  further 
training,  ranging  from  two  to  six  years,  there  follows  the 
dedication.  In  this  the  deaconess  promises  obedienoe.  faith- 
fulness, and  devotion  in  her  chosen  calling  and  to  remain 
in  it  so  long  as  it  shall  please  the  Lord  to  allow  her.  This 
is  not  a  vow  such  as  is  taken  in  the  Roman  Catholic  orders. 
From  the  day  of  her  dedication  the  neophyte  has  full  rights 
of  membership  in  the  sisterhood.  She  has  become  the 
daughter  of  the  house  which  is  to  be  her  actual  home  through 
life,  her  guide,  and  her  provider  in  sickness  and  in  old  age. 
Long  before  her  dedication,  the  future  deaconess  may  be 
despatched  on  service  to  any  post  which  the  authorities  of 
her  house  may  select;  and  such  service  is  in  fact  a  part  of 
her  preparation.  She  is  never  assigned  to  any  permanent 
position,  but  is  subject  to  whatever  arrangements  the  sis- 
terhood may  make  for  her  services.  Marriage  is  not  al- 
lowed for  practical  reasons  purely.  The  list  of  institutions 
wherein  the  deaconesses  have  been  active  includes  hospitals, 
poorhouses,  orphan  asylums,  elementary  schools,  industrial 
schools,  rescue-homes,  homes  for  fallen  women,  and  prisons. 


navia,  Italy,  and  the  United  States  was  twenty- 
seven.  Among  the  earlier  ones  were  the  home  in 
Paris  (1841),  St.  Loup  near  Lausanne  (1841),  Stras- 
burg  (1842),  Dresden  and  Utrecht  (1844),  Bern, 
and  Bethany  in  Berlin  (1845),  Stockhohn  (1849), 
Riehen  near  Basel  (1852),  Stuttgart  (1854),  St. 
Petersburg  (1859),  Copenhagen  (1863).  In  1904 
there  were  in  Germany  forty-six  institutions  con- 
nected with  the  Kaiserswerth  mother  house.  The 
yearly  expenditiu*e  of  the  mother  house  averages 
700,000  marks.  A  triennial  conference  of  homes 
has  been  instituted.  Many  institutions  have  be- 
come members  of  the  association  which  are  not  the 
direct  daughters  of  the  Fliedner  mother  house,  for 
example  the  Milwaukee  Lutheran  Deaconesses' 
home.  In  1905  the  conference  included  seventy- 
five  institutions  with  14,501  deaconesses. 

Independent  deaconesses'  institutions  have  also 
been  founded  in  different  cities  of  Germany  which 
have  adopted  the  Kaiserswerth  idea,  e.g.,  the  Eliza- 
beth hospital  and  Deaconesses'  home  in  Berlin 
founded  by  Gossner  in  1840;  Sarepta  in  Bielefeld 
(1869),  where  the  eminent  philanthropist  Friedrich 
von  Bodelschwingh  assumed  the  superintendency 
in  1872;  in  Neuendettelsau  by  the  philanthropist 
Wilhehn  L6he  (1854);  Stuttgart  (1865);  Altona 
(1867);  etc.  The  Moravians  established  one  at 
Niesky  in  1842.  The  Methodists  of  Germany  agi- 
tated the  matter  in  the  sixties  and  in  1876  opened 
their  first  house  at  Frankfort  and  then  in  Berlin 
(1883),  Hamburg  (1886),  Magdeburg,  Munich, 
Vienna,  Strasburg,  Zurich,  and  other  cities.  They 
also  have  a  home  in  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  founded 
1900.  The  Evangelical  Association  in  Germany  has 
homes  at  Berlin  (1887),  Hambuiig  (1888),  Stras- 
burg (1889),  Elberfeld  (1890),  Stuttgart  (1896),  and 
Carlsnihe  (1900).  The  German  Baptists  have  the 
deaconesses'  home,  Bethel,  in  Berlin  (1887). 

&.  Bnffland:  The  influence  of  Kaiserswerth 
upon  the  Protestant  Churches  of  England  and  Scot- 
land resulted  in  a  general  discussion  of  the  subject 
of  deaconesses  and  in  the  establishment  of  deacon- 
esses' institutions.  With  Elizabeth  Fiy  and  Flor- 
ence Nightingale  (qq.v.)  the  permanent  efforts  at 
organization  may  be  said  to  have  begun,  and  they 
came  under  the  immediate  influence  of  Pastor 
Fliedner  and  the  Kaiserswerth  work.  Miss  Night- 
ingale went  through  a  thorough  coiu^e  of  training 
at  Kaiserswerth  before  taking  charge  of  the  female 
sanitarium  in  London,  and  Mrs.  Fry,  after  a  visit 
to  the  German  town,  established  the  first  English 
institution  for  the  training  of  nurses  in  London  in 
1840.  In  1846  Fliedner  brought  fotir  deaconesses 
to  the  German  hospital  in  London. 

A  new  development  was  furnished  in  the  sister- 
hoods established  within  the  pale  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  These  were  due  in  some  measure  to  the 
Anglo-Catholic  movement  led  by  Pusey  and  the 
Tractarians,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  with  the 
high  reverence  which  this  party  had  for  Roman 
Catholic  institutions  they  would  have 

1.  Sister-  established  sisterhoods  even  if  the 
hoods,  deaconess  movement  had  not  gone  be- 
fore. The  first  Protestant  sisterhood 
was  established  or  consecrated  by  Dr.  Pusey  in  1847 
in   Park   Village  near  London.    The  same  year 


DaaoonesB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


378 


Priscilla  Lydia  Sellon  oi^ganized  the  Sisterhood  of 
Mercy  at  Devonport,  binding  herself  with  three 
other  ladies  to  an  association  for  the  relief  of  the 
sufferings  of  the  poor.  They  adopted  a  uniform 
dress,  the  use  of  the  cross,  etc.  They  founded  at 
Devonport  a  house  of  destitute  children,  a  *'  House 
of  Peace  "  for  older  girls,  and  an  industrial  school. 
Miss  Sellon  was  addressed  as  mother  superior. 
Since  then  many  sisterhoods  with  various  names 
have  been  founded  in  the  Church  of  England,  e.g., 
the  Sisterhcxxl  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  at  Clewer, 
founded  in  1849,  which  devoted  itself  more  espe- 
cially to  the  reformation  of  fallen  women.  The 
difference  between  the  sisterhoods  of  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  order  of  deaconesses  consists  in 
this,  that  the  sisterhood  leans  in  its  organization  to 
the  convent  as  its  model.  The  sisters  take  vows, 
live  strictly  in  commimities,  acknowledge  a  mother 
superior,  and  often  find  refuge  in  the  sisterhood  for 
the  sake  of  pious  devotion  more  than  for  philan- 
thropic activity. 

The  deaconess  idea  as  carried  out  at  Kaiserswerth 
was  formally  commended  by  Dr.  Tait,  then  bishop 
of  London,  in  his  charge  May  2, 1850.  From  1858 
to  1871  woman's  work  was  the  subject  of  animated 
discussion  in  the  convocation  of  Canterbury.  In 
1861  Bishop  Tait  invested  Elizabeth  Catherine 
Ferard  (d.  1883)  with  the  office  of  deaconess,  and  it 
was  generally  regarded  as  a  revival  of  the  apos- 
tolic office.  Miss  Ferard  had  been  trained  at 
Kaiserswerth  and  with  the  aid  of  Dean  Champneys 
and  others  opened  the  deaconesses'  institution  of 
North  London,  a  diocesan  institution  founded  on 
the  Kaiserswerth  model.     In  1871  rules  were  laid 

down  for  diocesan  deaconesses'  homes 

2.  Deacon-  j^^j  g^^  jjy  the  archbishop  of  Can- 

InTthB       terbuiy  and  eighteen  bishops.    The 

Ohuroh  of   ^^P^^cipl®  sets  forth ''that  adeacon- 

Bnffland.   ess  is  a  woman  set  apart  by  the  bishop 

under  that  title  for  service  in  the 
Church.  She  is  at  liberty  to  resign  her  commission 
as  deaconess  or  may  be  deprived  of  it  by  the 
bishop."  She  was  to  be  an  auxiliary  to  the 
pastorate,  and  not  a  conventual.  Dean  How- 
son  contended  for  this  idea  and  he  saw  it 
prevail.  The  institution  was  taken  up  as  a  dioc- 
esan matter  and  in  1904  there  were  deaconesses' 
homes  in  the  dioceses  of  Canterbury,  Chester,  Ely, 
London,  Salisbury,  Winchester,  lituidaff,  Exeter, 
and  Rochester.  There  are  also  deaconesses'  insti- 
tutions in  Lichfield,  Durham,  and  Worcester.  The 
Mildmay  institutions  with  the  deaconesses'  home 
as  the  center  were  due  to  the  zeal  and  organiang 
power  of  William  Pennefather,  an  English  clergy- 
man. The  beginning  was  made  at  Bamet  in  1860, 
and  the  institutions  moved  to  Mildmay  in  1864. 
The  deaconesses'  department  has  three  branches, 
medical  work,  parish  work,  and  foreign  mission 
work.  The  Institution  has  stations  in  Malta, 
Jamaica,  and  Hebron.  While  the  Mildmay  in- 
stitutions were  founded  by  Anglicans,  they  are  not 
intended  to  be  strictly  denominational.  The  only 
mother  house  in  England  belonging  to  the  Kaisers- 
werth group  is  Tottenham,  North  London,  founded 
in  1877  by  Dr.  Michael  Laseron,  a  converted  Jew, 
and  his  wife,  and  aided  by  Samuel  Morley  with  a 


gift  of  £7,000.  Dr.  Laseron  was  very  successful  in 
training  deaconesses.  The  institution  supplies  a 
number  of  hospitals,  including  one  in  Sierra  Leone. 

The  Wesleyans  of  England  have  been  active  in 
promoting  the  work  of  the  deaconess.  In  1888  the 
Rev.  Hugh  Price  Hughes  (q.v.)  formed  an  organiza- 
tion called  "  The  Sisters  of  the  People  "  with  a 
home  near  the  British  Museum,  named  Catherine 
House  after  his  wife;  in  1891  it  was  removed  to 
larger  quarters  in  Viceroy  Street.  The  sisters  do 
all  kinds  of  mission  work,  visit  the 
8.  Wesley-  poor,  conduct  midnight  missions,  teach 
aaDea-  in  kindergartens,  etc.  The  Wesleyan 
conesses.  Deaconesses'  Institution  was  founded 
m  1890  by  the  Rev.  T.  B.  Stevenson, 
and  has  two  training-schools,  Newbum  House, 
London,  N.  E.,  and  Calvert  House,  at  Leicester. 
The  deaconesses  are  stationed  in  all  parts  of  Eng> 
land  and  are  employed  chiefly  in  parish  woi^. 
The  institution  has  stations  in  New  ZeieJand,  South 
Africa,  and  Ceylon.  There  are  three  departments  of 
work  contemplated  by  the  training :  the  teaching 
and  care  of  children,  nursing  the  sick,  and  home  and 
foreign  mission  work.  The  training  includes  Bibli- 
cal and  medical  instruction,  and  lasts  a  year.  The 
Institution  was  formally  adopted  by  the  Wesleyan 
Conference  in  1902.  The  following  extract  from 
an  official  report  gives  an  idea  of  the  Wesleyan 
conception  of  the  deaconess  and  her  work: 

What  ia  a  Wesleyan  deaooneas?  One  who  bekmgs  Co 
the  Order  ao-oalled,  governed  by  the  Council,  and  eano- 
tioned  by  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Chureh.  But  her 
work  is  not  sectarian,  and  she  may  by  arrangement  serve 
other  than  Methodist  churches.  .  .  .  The  work  of  the  dea- 
coness is  anything  that  the  cause  of  Christ  and  the  poor  de- 
mand. She  is  nurse,  teacher,  visitor,  even  preacher  when 
necessary.  She  is  a  helper  in  sorrow  and  a  rescuer  from  all 
sin.     Her  work  varies  in  every  locality. 

c,  Sootlaad:  Fliedner  visited  Scotland  in  1846 
and  met  Chalmers.  In  1886  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land took  the  matter  of  deaconesses'  work  seriously 
in  hand,  and  in  1887  the  Assembly  commended  the 
establishment  of  deaconesses'  training-schools  and 
more  esi)ecially  the  Edinburgh  House,  a  home  for 
deaconesses  established  the  same  year.  Dr.  Archi- 
bald H.  Charteris  was  the  most  influential  person 
in  bringing  about  this  consummation.  St.  Ninian's 
Hospital  is  connected  with  the  home.  The  first 
deaconess  was  installed  in  office  Dec.  9,  1888.  The 
work  is  incorporated  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Established  Church,  which  not  only  commended 
the  training  of  deaconesses ,  but  established  rules 
for  their  admission,  garb,  etc. 

d.  America:  Practically  all  denominations  in 
the  United  States  have  adopted  in  one  form  or 
another  the  si)ecial  training  of  women  for  Christian 
work.  Some  have  made  the  work  of  the  deaconess 
a  part  of  their  constitution,  or  have  officially  recog^ 
nized  the  deaconess  as  a  local  church  official  or 
functionary  appointed  by  the  local  church.  The 
fathers  of  the  deaconess  movement  in  the  United 
States  were  the  Rev.  W.  A.  Passavant  and  the  Rev. 
W.  A.  Muhlenberg  (qq.v.),  the  former  a  Lutheran, 
the  latter  an  Episcopalian  of  Lutheran  birth.  The 
Lutheran  Church  first  recognized  the  Kaiserswerth 
movement.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four  Dr.  Passa- 
vant was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the  meeting  in  Lon- 


879 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DMMonMa 


don  in  1846  which  resulted  m  the  foundation  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance,  and  he  afterward  visited  Kai- 
eerswerth.     In  his  annual  report  of  Jan.  1,  1847, 

Fliedner  said,  *'  We  have  been  urgently 

1.  The      requested  to  send  deaconesses  from 

liiitheranB.  here  to  North  America."     In  1849  he 

accompanied  four  deaconesses  to  Pitts- 
burg, where  they  were  stationed  in  a  hospital 
already  opened  by  Dr.  Passavant  and  dedicated 
July  17,  1849,  Fliedner  being  present.  On  May 
28,  1850,  the  first  American  deaconess,  Katherine 
Louisa  Marthens,  trained  under  Dr.  Passavant, 
was  consecrated  (cf.  Sp&th,  p.  25).  Dr.  Passavant 
was  not  successful  in  building  up  a  permanent 
deaconesses'  home  in  Pittsburg,  and  the  enterprise 
was  given  up  because  women  did  not  come  forward 
for  the  work  and  for  other  reasons.  The  Passavant 
hospital  in  Pittsburg  still  employs  deaconesses,  as 
do  the  affiliated  institutions  for  epileptics  in  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  and  for  orphans  at  Zelienople,  Pa. 
The  hospital  at  Jacksonville,  111.,  formerly  em- 
ployed them.  The  Mary  J.  Drexel  Home  in  Phila- 
delphia, opened  in  1888,  is  a  Lutheran  institution 
and  occupies  the  finest  building  consecrated  to 
deaconesses'  work  in  America.  It  was  founded  by 
Dr.  Lankenau  as  a  memorial  to  his  wife,  and  asso- 
ciated with  the  German  Lutheran  hospital  of 
Philadelphia,  of  which  Dr.  Lankenau  wsa  treas- 
urer. This  deaconesses'  home  was  started  in  1884. 
In  1894  it  was  brought  into  organic  relation  with 
the  Lutheran  Church  and  joined  the  group  of  the 
Kaiserswerth  institutions.  The  deaconesses  labor 
in  kindergartens  and  hospitals  and  in  parish  work. 
The  Milwaukee  Deaconesses'  Home  was  established 
in  1891,  Dr.  Passavant  having  founded  a  hospital 
in  that  city  in  1863,  of  which  his  son,  the  Rev.  R.  W. 
Passavant,  was  made  director  in  1900,  but  lived  less 
than  a  year  to  administer  the  office.  There  are 
other  Lutheran  deaconesses'  homes  connected  with 
the  various  branches  of  American  Lutheranism: — 
in  Baltimore  (founded  1895),  Omaha  (Swedish, 
1887),  Brooklyn  (founded  by  Mrs.  Boers,  wife  of 
the  Norwegian  consul,  1883),  Minneapolis  (Noi^ 
wegian,  1888),  Chicago  (1900),  Buffalo,  and  St. 
Paul.  In  most  cases,  if  not  in  all,  these  institutions 
were  organized  with  the  aid  of  one  or  more  deacon- 
esses from  Germany  or  Scandinavia.  In  1905  the 
Mary  J.  Drexel,  Milwaukee,  and  Omaha  houses  had 
respectively  47,  19,  and  22  deaconesses,  and  25,  13, 
and  15  probationers.  The  sixth  annual  conference 
of  the  **  Evangelical  Lutheran  Deaconesses'  Mother- 
houses  in  the  United  States  "  wsa  held  in  Milwaukee 
in  1905. 

The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  followed  the 
Lutherans  in  the  deaconesses'  work  in  America.  In 
1843  Rev.W.  A.  Muhlenberg,  then  rector  of  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Communion,  New  York  city,  organized  a 
sisterhood,  which,  however,  was  not  formally  consti- 
tuted till  1852,  when  a  house  was  erected  adjoining 
the  church.  A  dispensary  was  started  and  developed 
into  St.  Luke's  Hospital.  The  second  organiza- 
tion was  the  Sisterhood  of  the  Good  Shepherd  in 
Baltimore,  formed  into  a  community  in  1863,  but 
its  history  dates  back  to  1855,  when,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  the  Rev.  Horace 
Stringfellow  of  St.  Andrew's  Church  inaugurated 


the  movement.  A  sister  superior  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  community.  The  Sisterhood  of  St. 
Mary  in  New  York  was  founded  in  1865,  five  sisters 
being  consecrated  to  their  work  Feb. 
8.  The  ^'  ^y  ^^^  bishop  of  the  diocese  in  St. 
Protestant  Michael's  Church.  The  sisters  take 
Bpiscopal  vows  and  none  but  members  of  the 
Church.  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  are  admit- 
ted to  these  bodies.  The  Sisterhood 
of  St.  Mary  is  probably  the  most  influential  in 
the  Episcopal  Church.  It  carries  on  an  extensive 
work  in  New  York  and  beyond.  The  Sisterhood 
of  St.  John  was  established  in  Washington  in  1867. 
The  Sisterhood  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  (New  York, 
1881)  is  a  branch  of  the  similar  body  in  England. 
The  Sisterhood  of  All  Saints  was  transferred  from 
London  to  Baltimore  in  1891,  and  the  Sisterhood 
of  St.  Margaret  from  East  Grinstead,  Eng.,  in  1873 
to  Boston.  The  Sisterhood  of  the  Holy  Childhood 
of  Jesus  was  established  by  the  Rev.  C.  C.  Grafton 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1882.  The  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  has  not  officially  approved  the 
sisterhoods,  but  it  has  given  approval  to  the  dea- 
conesses' organizations  and  the  office  of  deaconess. 
In  1864  a  diocesan  deaconesses'  institution  was 
formed  in  Mobile,  Ala.  On  Feb.  11,  1872,  Bishop 
Littlejohn  of  Long  Island  consecrated  six  to  the 
office  of  deaconess  in  St.  Mary's  Church,  Brooklyn. 
The  General  Convention  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
had  before  it  for  a  number  of  years  the  subject  of 
woman's  work  and  the  question  of  reviving  the 
primitive  order  of  deaconess.  In  1889  action  was 
taken  by  the  Triennial  Convention  and  a  "  Training 
School  for  Deaconesses  "  was  opened  by  Bishop 
Potter  in  New  York  in  1890  and  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Rev.  W.  R.  Huntington  and 
Grace  Church.  It  provides  a  course  of  training 
covering  two  years.  Matriculants  must  be  of  the 
age  of  eighteen.  After  the  course  they  are  at 
liberty  to  labor  under  the  direction  of  a  bishop  or  to 
join  an  association  of  deaconesses  or  a  sisterhood. 
Similar  institutions  have  been  begun  in  Phila- 
delphia and  in  Toronto,  Canada.  The  deaconess 
idea  has  also  found  incorporation  in  the  English 
colonies  imder  the  chai^  of  the  Anglican  episco- 
pate (cf.  Golder,  pp.  464  sqq.). 

The  Methodists  of  the  United  States  have  done 
more  than  any  other  American  denomination  to 
utilize  the  movement  started  by  Pastor  Fliedner 
and  to  modify  it  according  to  their  needs.  By 
action  of  the  General  Conference  in  1888,  due  espe- 
cially to  Rev.  J.  M.  Thobum,  afterward  bishop  of 
India,  the  deaconess  is  recognized  as  an  official  of 
the  Church  (cf.  Wheeler,  pp.  269  sqq.).  She  takes 
no  vows;  "  her  duties  are  to  minister  to  the  poor, 
visit  the  sick,  pray  with  the  dying,  care  for  the 
orphan,  seek  the  wandering,  comfort  the  sorrowing, 
save  the  sinning,  and,  relinquishing  wholly  other 
pursuits,  to  devote  herself  in  a  general  way  to  such 
forma  of  Christian  labor  as  may  be  suited  to  her 
abilities."  Each  annual  conference  through  a 
board,  composed  partly  of  women,  exercises  over- 
sight over  the  work  and  issues  diaconal  certificates 
to  women  properly  accredited.  In  1900  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  perfected  the  law  of  the  Church  on 
this  subject.    Tlie  bishops  are  now  a  general  dea* 


Death 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


380 


coneaNB'  bocird,  having  general  Bupervision  over  all 
deaconesBes'  work  throughout  the  Church.  One 
of  its  duties  is  to  authorise  new  dea- 
8.  The  oonesses'  homes.  The  committee  of 
Uethodists.  the  annual  conferences  is  continued 
as  established  by  the  conference 
of  1888.  Deaconesses  are  licensed  and  conse- 
crated to  their  office  after  two  years  of  continuous 
probationary  service  and  an  examination.  They 
must  be  twenty-three  years  of  age  and  unmarried. 
The  work  of  the  deaconess  is  thus  an  integral  part 
of  the  discipline  of  the  Methodist  Church.  There 
is  also  in  the  Methodist  Church  "  The  Deaconesses' 
Bureau  of  the  Woman's  Home  Missionary  Soci- 
ety "  and  "  The  Methodist  Deaconesses'  Society/' 
with  headquarters  in  Chicago.  The  "Chicago 
Training  School  for  City  Home  and  Foreign  Mis- 
sions "  was  established  as  early  as  1885  by  Mrs. 
Lucy  Rider  Meyer.  In  1890  the  first  deaconesses' 
home,  under  that  distinctive  name,  was  opened  in 
Detroit  by  Mrs.  Jane  Bancroft  Robinson,  who  was 
instrumental  in  opening  similar  homes  in  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  Buffalo,  Pittsburg,  Los  Ange- 
les, and  other  cities.  The  "Elizabeth  Gamble 
Deaconesses'  Home  and  Christ's  Hospital"  was 
founded  in  1888  in  Cincinnati  The  "  Lucy  Webb 
Hayes  Deaconesses'  Home  and  National  Training 
School"  was  founded  in  Washington  in  1889  and 
has  associated  with  it  the  Sibley  Hospital  (1894). 
The  same  year  a  training-school  was  founded  in 
New  York.  One  of  the  largest  houses  in  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  and  in  the  United  States  is 
the  "  Rebecca  Deaconesses'  Home  and  Asbury 
Hospitsl"  in  Minneapolis,  founded  in  1891.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  over  one  hundred  deacon- 
esses' homes  and  training-schools  in  the  United 
States  under  the  care  of  the  Methodist  Church. 
It  has  also  deaconesses'  homes  in  Madras,  Calcutta, 
Lucknow,  and  other  cities  of  India.  In  1902  the 
value  of  their  properties  was  12,402,000. 

The  German  Reformed  Church  has  a  home  in 
Cleveland,  founded  1892.  The  Evangelical  Asso- 
ciation has  one  in  St.  Louis  (1890).  The  German 
Methodists  have  homes  in  Cincinnati  (Bethesda, 
1891),  St.  Paul  (the  "  Elizabeth  Haas  Deaconess 
Home,"  1891),  Chicago  (the  "German  Deacon- 
esses' Institute,"  1892),  Louisville  (1895),  Kansas 
City  (1897),  and  elsewhere.  The  United  Brethren 
incorporated  the  deaconess  office  and  idea  into  their 
discipline  in  1891.  The  Congregationalists  of  Illi- 
nois secured  a  charter  for  "  the  American  Congre- 
gational Deaconesses'  Association  "  in 
4.  Other  1901  and  established  a  training-school 
Denoxnina-  in  Chicago.  The  first  organization  in 
tions.  the  Baptist  Church  was  the  "  Baptist 
Deaconesses'  Society  of  the  City  of 
New  York,"  organized  1895.  The  first  deaconess 
was  ordained  after  a  full  course  of  study  in  1897. 
The  deaconesses  wear  a  special  garb  and  are  called 
sisters.  The  Christian  Church  under  the  lead  of 
Rev.  A.  M.  Harvuot  established  a  "  Training  School 
for  Pastoral  Helpers  "  in  Cincinnati  in  1899,  now 
removed  to  Des  Moines  and  connected  with  Drake 
University.  The  Presbyterian  Church,  North,  in 
1899  refused  to  recognize  the  special  office  of  the 
congregational  deaconess,  but  several  churches  have 


elected  and  set  apart  deaconesses  by  a  special  f  c»m 
of  consecration.  In  accordance  with  action  of  the 
Cieneral  Assembly  in  1892,  which  commended  the 
establishment  of  institutions  and  training  homes 
for  the  instruction  of  godly  women  duly  recom- 
mended by  sessions  and  presbyteries  for  practical 
Christian  work,  a  training-school  for  deaconeises 
was  opened  in  connection  with  the  First  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Baltimore  in  1903.  The  Presby- 
terian Church,  South,  in  1879  provided  for  the  recog- 
nition of  godly  women  in  church  work  by  the  sessions, 
and  in  1906  the  synod  of  the  United  Presbyte- 
rian Church  sanctioned  congregational  deaconesses 
Lastly,  a  class  of  interdenominational  deaconesses' 
homes  may  be  mentioned,  such  as  the  "  €rerman 
Deaconesses'  Home  "  in  Cincinnati  founded  in  l&SS; 
the  "Protestant  Deaconesses'  Home"  in  Indian- 
apolis (1894);  and  the  "German  Deaconesses' 
Home  "  in  Buffalo  (1895).  For  a  further  presenta- 
tion of  the  work  of  women  in  the  Church  see  the 
article  Woman's  Work.  D.  S.  Schaff. 

Bibuoorapht:  On  I.  and  II.:  Bingham,  OH^tfies.  books 
i..  ii.,  IT.;  L.  Thoznaasin,  VetuM  ei  nova  ecdenm  diadpUna. 
I.  iii.,  chaps.  47-50,  Pmria,  1728;  A.  J.  C.  Pankowski. 
D0  diaconiaaiB  eommmUalio,  BesenabuiiE,  1866;  T.  Zahc. 
Iffnatiua  von  Antioehien,  pp.  580-587.  Gotha,  1873;  G. 
Uhlhom,  Die  ekriaaidu  LubeaOi/liigkeii,  3  Tola.,  Stntteart, 
1881-Oa  vol.  i.  In  dtr  alien  Kirehe,  1881,  Eng.  tran^l, 
ChneUan  Charity  in  the  Early  Church,  New  York,  18». 
rot  u.  Im  MiUelaler,  1884,  vol.  iii.  SeU  der  Rfsfarmatum, 
1890;  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Apoetolic  Faihere,  iL  322-324,  913 
■qq.,  London,  1885;  J.  J.  I.  DdUinger.  BeUrOae  *vr  Set- 
tenifeeekidUe  dee  MiUelaUere,  Munich.  1890;  the  OomxneD- 
taries  on  Romans,  especially  Lange's,  New  York,  1869, 
and  by  Sanday  and  Headlam,  in  IwternaUonal  CriHoal  Camr 
fiMntary,  New  York,  1895;  works  on  the  Apostolic  Age. 
such  as  Schaff,  ChriMlian  Church,  L  499.  cf .  iiL  25IK262; 
DCA,  L  532-635. 

III.:  The  classiral  work  on  Deaoonesaes  in  the  modern 
Church  is  T.  SchAfer,  OeeehidUe  der  leeiblieken  Diaieame, 
3  vols..  Stuttgart.  1887-94.  Consult:  Florence  NightL**- 
gsle,  The  InetituHan  of  Deaeoneeeee,  London,  1851;  Mrs. 
Jameson,  Sietere  of  Charity,  ib.  1855;  P.  Sehaff,  Otrmany. 
He  Univereitiee,  Theology  and  Reliffion,  chap.  xutviiL. 
Philadelphia.  1857;  J.  S.  Howaon,  Ddoomassea,  London. 
1862;  idem,  7*^  Diaeonate  of  Women  in  Ae  Anifiican 
Churdi,  ib.  1S86;  J.  M.  Ludlow,  Woman'e  Work  in  the 
Church,  ib.  1865;  H.  C.  Potter.  Sielerhoade  and  Dea- 
eoneeaee.  New  York,  1873;  A.  Spftth,  Phabe  the  Deaameu, 
Philadelphia,  1886;  H.  Wheeler.  Deaooneeeea  Andenl 
and  Modem,  New  York.  1889;  Jane  M.  Bancroft.  i>aa- 
eoneeeee  in  Europe,  ib.  1889;  L.  R.  Meyer,  Deamnnmt, 
ib.  1889;  H.  J.  Cooke.  MilAiiav,  the  Firet  Deaeoneee  In- 
etiiutum,  London,  1892;  J.  M.  Thobum,  The  Deaconem 
and  Her  Vocation,  New  York.  1893;  G.  M.  Maynard, 
Pieturee  of  MUdmay,  London.  1895;  C.  Robinaon,  Th» 
MiniMtry  of  Deaooneeeee,  ib.  1898;  C.  Colder,  HieL  ef 
Ms  Deaeoneee  Movement  in  the  Chrietian  ChurA,  New 
York,  1903;  Q.  H.  Gerberding.  Life  and  Lettere  of  W.  A. 
Paeeavant,  Greenville,  Pa.,  1906;  Livinia  L.  Dock  sod 
Mary  A.  Nutting.  A  Hietory  of  Nureino,  2  vols..  New  York 
and  London,  1908;  the  Repceie  of  the  Conferences  of  tbe 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Mother-houses  in  the  United  Ststei 
A  concise  review  of  the  modem  movement  is  given  in  tbe 
Addrtuea,  Reporte,  Statemente  .  .  .  of  the  National  Covt- 
cil  of  Conoreoational  Chur^ee  of  the  United  Statee,  1907, 
pp.  292-308.  Boston,  1907. 

DEAD  SEA.    See  Palestine. 

DEAN:  A  word  which  comes  from  the  Latm 
decanus,  originally  a  militaiy  term,  designating  the 
leader  of  a  decanta  or  body  of  ten  soldiers.  It  early 
acquired  the  general  meaning  of  overseer  of  a  snull 
number  of  inferiors,  and  was  used  in  households 
for  the  overseers  of  slaves,  subsequently  in  Con- 
stantinople  for  police   officials.     In   eodesiastical 


381 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DaaooBass 
Death 


isage  there  are:  (1)  Monastic  deans,  whose  authority 
extended  over  ten  novices  (Augustine,  De  manbus 
^cclesicp,  i.  31).     (2)  Deans  (also  called  archpres- 
byters)  appointed  by  a  bishop  to  visit  and  oversee 
Ek  part  of  his  diocese,  having  supervision  of  the 
official   and  private  conduct  of  the  priests,  pre- 
siding  (from  the  ninth  century  on)  at  their  dis- 
trict conventions,  etc.    A  dean  of  this  sort  was 
dependent  upon  the  archdeacon  (Friedberg,  Kir- 
chenrecht,  188-189;    see  Archdeacon  and  Arch- 
pribbt).     (3)  Deans  of  cathedrals  are  recognized 
cathedral  officers  as  early  as  the  eighth  century. 
In  the  Church  of  England  the  dean  is  the  next 
ecclesiastic  to  the  bishop.     Deaneries  of  the  "  old 
foundation "  (those  older  than  the  Reformation) 
are    elective;     those    of   the    "  new   foundation " 
(created  by  Henry  VIII.)  are  appointed  by  the 
crown.     The  jurisdiction  of  the  dean  is  supreme  in 
his  cathedral  in  all  matters  except  those  which 
affect  doctrine.     The  deans  of  Westminster  and 
Windsor  are  independent  of  all  superior  ecclesias- 
tical authority.     (4)  The  rural  deans  of  England 
are  clergymen  appointed  by  the  bishop  ''  to  execute 
the  bishop's  processes  and  inspect  the  lives  and 
manners  of  the  clergy  and  people  within  their 
jurisdiction "     (Phillimore,     Ecclesiastical     Law). 
**  The  dean  and  chapter  "  is  the  name  given  in 
England  to  the  body  electing  a  bishop.     (5)  In 
the  Lutheran  Churches  the  title  dean  is  for  the 
most  part  synonymous  with  superintendent  (q.v.), 
but  sometimes  signifies  a  subordinate  official.     In 
the  Reformed  Churches  a  dean  is  an  overseer  of 
clcr^  or  the  head  of  a  classis  in  France.     The  oldest 
cardinal  is  usually  the  dean  of  the  Sacred  College, 
presides  in  the  consistory  in  the  pope's  absence, 
confers  upon  a  newly  elected  pope  the  orders  he 
may  not  have  received,  and  presides  at  the  pope's 
coronation.  D.  S.  Schaff. 

Diblioorapbt:  J.  G.  Hofmmnn,  De  deeania  et  deeanittia^ 
Wittenberg,  1739;  P.  Baldauf.  Dm  .  .  .  Deeanatamt,  6 
vols..  Oras.  1836;  P.  Hergenrdther,  Rtimitchea  Kirchen^ 
rechl,  Freiburg.  1905:  KL,  iii.  1430-32;  DCA,  L  637- 
539;  BinghAm,  Oriffinea,  booka  i.,  iv.,  v.,  yi.,  viii. 

DEATH. 

Various  Representations  ({  1). 

Three  Kinds  of  Death  Mentioned  in  Scripture  (f  2). 

The  Origin  of  Death  ({3). 

The  Abolition  of  Death  ({  4). 

The  Condition  of  Death  (f  5). 

Among  the   Greeks,    TharuUoa,   or   death,    was 

represented  as  a  god,   and    the   twin-brother    of 

sleep  (Hesiod  and  Homer).    They  en- 

I.  Various  deavored  to  exclude  all  that  is  revolting 

Represen-   from  the  idea.     The  representation  of 

tations.     it,  however,  at  a  later  period,  under 

the  figure  of  a  priest  in  sable  garments, 

cutting  the  hair  from  the  heads  of  the  dying  to 

offer  it  to  the  gods  of  the  underworld,  betrays  the 

natural  dread  of  death  common  to  the  race.     The 

Romans  brought  forward  prominently  the  awful 

features,  describing  death  as  a  pitiless  divinity, 

pale,  and  haggard  of  aspect,  furnished  with  black 

winjrs,  etc.    The  mythologies  of  northern  nations 

fin  sented  him  under  the  figures  of  a  fowler  spread- 

I'.'.z  Ills  net,  or  a  reaper  with  sickle  in  hand,  or  a 

skeleton.     In  the  Scriptures  also  death  is  person- 


ified, and  described  as  intelligent  (Job  xxviii.  22), 
as  sitting  on  a  pale  horse  (Rev.  vi.  8),  or  cast  with 
hell  into  the  lake  of  fire  (Rev.  xx.  14).  Scripture 
expresses  a  universal  sentiment  of  mankind  when 
it  calls  death  the  king  of  ^terrors  (Job  xviii.  14), 
and  an  occasion  of  siiffering  and  fear  (Ps.  iv.  4; 
Heb.  ii.  15).  But  it  also  speaks  of  it  as  a  release 
from  pain  (Job  iiL  17),  the  passage  to  a  better  life 
(II  Cor.  V.  4),  as  ''  being  gathered  to  one's  people  " 
(Gen.  XXV.  8),  a  taking-down  of  the  pilgrim's  tem- 
porary tent  (II  Cor.  v.  1),  a  sleeping  with  the 
fathers  (I  Kings  ii.  10),  or  with  Christ  (I  Cor.  xv. 
18;  I  Thess.  iv.  13-15),  a  departure  (Phil.  i.  23; 
II  Tim.  iv.  6),  a  dissolution  of  the  earthly  house 
(II  Cor.  V.  1),  and  a  rest  (Rev.  xiv.  13). 

There  are  three  kinds  of  death  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures — physical  death,  spiritual  death,  and 
the  second  or  eternal  death.  Physical  death  is  the 
dissolution  of  the  body  into  its  component  parts. 
The  spirit  takes  its  flight  (Eccles.  xii. 
2,  Three  7),  and  the  body  passes  back  into  the 
KlndB  of  dust  from  which  it  was  taken  (Gen. 
Death  Men-  iii.  19;  Eccles.  iii.  20).  The  time  of 
tioned  in  this  dissolution  is  known  to  God  only 
Scripture.  (Ps.  xxxi.  15;  Matt.  xxv.  13).  It 
must  be  regarded  as  a  benignity  for 
the  righteous  man  (Nuol  xxiii.  10;  Rom.  vii.  24), 
but  as  a  dread  calamity  to  the  impenitent,  whom 
it  ushers  to  his  own  place  (Acts  i.  25),  and  for  all  as 
"  the  night  in  which  no  man  can  work  "  (John 
ix.  4).  Spiritual  death  is  a  state  of  sin  and  darkness, 
in  which  man  is  alienated  from  God,  the  fountain 
of  life  and  light  (I  John  i.  5),  and  consequently 
destitute  of  true  spiritual  life.  The  whole  world,  at 
the  coming  of  Christ,  was  sitting  in  the  shadow  of 
this  death  (Luke  i.  79).  All  men,  without  excep- 
tion, are  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins  (Eph.  ii.  1, 
5;  Col.  ii.  13;  cf.  Luke  xv.  32).  Our  Lord  became 
subject  unto  the  death  of  the  body,  but  was  always 
in  communion  with  the  Father,  and  free  from  sin. 
The  entrance  upon  a  life  of  faith  is  called  arising 
from  the  dead  (Eph.  v.  14),  or  becoming  alive  unto 
God  (Rom.  vi.  11).  Spiritual  death  is  not  a  stag- 
nant condition,  but  a  progressive  state,  the  heart 
becoming  more  hardened,  the  eyes  more  blind 
(John  xii.  49;  Rom.  i.  21),  the  conscience  seared 
as  with  a  hot  iron  (I  Tim.  iv.  2),  and  the  pleasure 
in  lust  and  hatred  of  God  increased  (Rom.  i.  26-31). 
The  second  or  eternal  death  (Rev.  IL  11;  xx.  6,  14; 
xxi.  8)  signifies  the  final  loss  of  the  power  and  op- 
portunity to  repent  and  turn  to  God.  The  per- 
sonality is  not  destroyed;  but  God's  image  is 
wholly  defaced,  and  heavenly  blessedness  forfeited. 
This  terrible  doom  of  the  second  death  is  described 
under  the  figure  of  an  exclusion  from  what  is  good 
(Rev.  xxii.  15;  cf.  Matt.  xxv.  30),  and  of  a  lake 
burning  with  fire  and  brimstone,  into  which  the 
finally  impenitent  are  cast  (Rev.  xx.  14,  xxi.  8). 
Those  who  overcome  (Rev.  iL  11),  and  are  partakers 
of  the  "  first  resurrection  "  (regeneration,  cf.  Eph. 
V.  14,  etc.),  shall  in  no  wise  be  hurt  of  it  (Rev.  xx.  6). 
The  same  idea  is  expressed  by  the  words  "per- 
ishing" (John  iii.  15),  "  eternal  punishment"  (Matt. 
xxv.  46),  "  destruction"  (Phil.  iii.  19),  "  everlasting 
destruction  "  (II  Theas.  i.  9),  and  "  corruption  " 
(Gal.  vL  8). 


Deoaloirue 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


382 


Sin  and  death  are  indiasolubly  associated  in  the 

Old  and  New  Testaments.     Death  is  not  merely 

the  natural  fruit  of  sin  (Jas.  L  15),  but 

3*  The      its  just  punishment  or  wages  (Gen.  ii. 

Origin  of  17;  Rom.  vi.  23),  and  expression  of 
Death,  the  divine  wrath  (Ps.  xc.  7-10;  Rom. 
ii.  5-8).  We  are  subject  to  it  because 
we  are  subject  to  the  law  of  sin,  and  in  virtue  of  our 
union  with  Adam  (Rom.  v.  17;  I  Cor.  xv.  22).  It 
has  been  denied  by  Pelagius  and  the  Socinians  that 
physical  death  was  included  in  this  penalty.  The 
body  is  regarded  as  having  been  mortal  before  the 
fall.  This  view  is  in  contradiction  to  what  seems 
to  be  the  plain  meaning  of  the  words,  "  In  the  day 
thou  eatest  thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die ''  (i.e., 
begin  to  die,  or  become  mortal — Gen.  ii.  17),  when 
read  in  the  light  of  the  curse  in  Gen.  iii.  19,  **  Unto 
dust  thou  shalt  return."  Although  our  first  parents 
did  not  actually  return  to  dust  the  very  day  they 
Binned,  nevertheless,  the  principle  of  death  then 
began  to  work  in  them  (Augustine,  De  pecccUorum 
meritia,  i.  21). 

Christ  has  abolished  death  (II  Tim.  i.  10).    This 

has  been  accomplished  by  the  defeat  of  him  who 

had  the  power  of  death  (Heb.  ii.  14), 

4.  The  and  the  spoliation  of  the  kingdom  of 
Abolition  darkness  (Eph.  iv.  8;  Col.  ii.  15). 
of  Death.    Christ  could  not  be  holden  of  death 

(Acts  ii.  24),  and  triumphantly  rose 
from  the  grave.  The  dead  were  raised  by  his  word 
of  power  (Mark  v.  41;  Luke  vii.  15;  John  xi.  44). 
He  quickens  with  new  spiritual  life  whom  he  will 
(John  V.  21 ;  Eph.  ii.  5),  so  that  moral  death  has  no 
more  dominion  over  us  (Rom.  vi.  9).  He  that 
belie veth  is  *'  passed  from  death  unto  life ''  (John 
V.  24).  The  death  of  the  body  becomes,  for  those 
thus  spiritually  revived,  a  sleep  (I  Thess.  iv.  14) 
and  a  rest  from  labor  (Rev.  xiv.  13),  from  which 
they  shall  be  raised  to  an  estate  of  eternal  blessed- 
ness (II  Cor.  XV.  21,  22;  1  Thess.  iv.  13-16).  The 
sea  then  (Rev.  xx.  13),  aa  well  aa  all  earthly  graves, 
shall  give  up  their  dead.  And  so  effective  is  this 
quickening  power  of  Christ  that  they  who  are 
raised  by  him  can  nevermore  die  (Luke  xx.  36); 
and  so  perfect  is  the  life  in  heaven  that  there  is 
no  death  there  (Rev.  xxi.  4). 

The  states  following  the  moment  when  the  bodily 

organs  cease  to  perform  their  functions  are  treated 

in  other  articles  (see Gehenna;  Hades; 

5.  The      Heaven;  Purgatory;  Resurrection 
Condition   of  the  Dead;    etc.).    The  body  of 
of  Death.    Jesus  saw  no  corruption.     It  is  a  pi- 
ous belief  held  in  the  Roman  Catholic 

Church  that  this  was  true  also  of  the  body  of  Mary. 
The  belief  was  stated  at  an  early  period,  and  in  its 
most  popular  form  comes  through  Juvenal,  bishop 
of  Jenisalem,  who  told  it  to  the  emperor  Marcian 
at  Chaicedon,  451.  Whether  the  soul  sleeps  at 
the  death  of  the  body  until  the  general  resurrec- 
tion was  answered  negatively  by  Calvin  in  his 
tract  Psychopannychia  (written  at  Orleans  1534 
against  some  of  the  Anabaptists  who  held  to  that 
opinion).  John  XX 11.  denied  the  doctrine  of  Uie 
immediate  l)eatific  vision  of  the  blessed  dead.  His 
successor  declared  this  view  heresy.  The  West- 
minster Shorter  Catechism  (question  xxxvii.)  states 


the  doctrine  that  the  bodies  of  the  dead  rest  in 
their  graves  till  the  resurrection,  but  that  their 
souls  do  immediately  pass  into  gloiy.  This  was 
the  view  of  the  Reformers.  D.  S.  Schaff. 

Bibuoorapht:  For  the  Biblical  side:  F.  Delitasch,  Sy*' 
tern  dtT  InbliMckin  Pav^^oloQie,  Leipaio,  1861,  £ns.  traitsL, 
Edinbuish,  1865;  J.  T.  Beck,  Umri»$  der  kiUimehen  See- 
lenlekre,  8tutt«art,  1871;  H.  Schults,  AUieaiawunllicht 
Theoloifie^  2  vols.,  GAttingen,  1896,  Ens.  transL,  Los- 
don,  1892;  W.  Bey»chlaff.  NetUeaiamenaUhe  Tkeoioffie, 
2  vols..  Halle,  1895,  Eng.  tranal..  Edinbursh,  1896.  On 
the  general  aspect  consult:  F.  Splittgerfoer.  Tod^  Fori- 
Uben  und  Aufentehung.  Halle,  1869;  J.  J.  G.  Wilkinmc 
Orioin»  and  lamiea  of  Lif€  and  Deaths  ib.  1885;  A.  Scbb- 
penhauer,  Ueber  den  Tod  und  eein  Verhnilnin  gur  Uk- 
aontorbarkeit,  Leipsic.  1886;  J.  G.  BeUett.  The  Doad  in 
Ckrut,  London,  1887;  A.  Sabatier,  Bamii  mtr  la  vie  etia 
mart,  Paris,  1892;  H.  M.  Alden,  A  Study  of  Death,  Loo- 
don,  1895;  L.  Bordeau.  L«  ProbUmo  de  la  mart.  Fans. 
1900;  C.  du  Prel.  Der  Tod,  daa  Jeneeite,  Jensi,  1901.  For 
the  literary  treatment  consult:  P.  Bomstein,  Der  Tod  »• 
der  modemen  LAUeratur^  Leipsic,  1900. 

DEATH,  DANCE  OF:  A  famous  subject  of  ait, 
especially  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Death,  in  the 
figure  of  a  skeleton,  is  depicted  in  the  company  of 
representatives  of  eveiy  class  of  society.  The  fdl 
enemy  is  represented  in  the  most  various  attitudes; 
now  harshly  tugging  at  the  victim,  and  now  gently 
leading  him;  now  walking  arm  in  arm,  and  now 
beating  him.  An  hour-glass  is  usually  found  some- 
where in  the  pictures.  The  Dance  of  Death  was 
painted  on  the  walls  and  windows  of  churches,  on 
house-fronts,  in  illuminated  books,  and  on  bridges. 
Among  the  oldest  representations  are  those  of  Mio- 
den  (1383),  Dijon  (1436),  and  Basel  (1441);  the 
principal  ones  are  those  of  Basel,  Bern,  and  Erfurt. 
The  subject  was  also  frequently  represented  in 
England,  as  at  Croydon,  Salisbuiy  Cathedral, 
Stratford-on-Avon,  and  elsewhere.  Moral  and 
descriptive  verses  were  frequently  printed  belov 
the  pictures,  and  usually  closed  with  such  a  sen- 
tence as,  "  Death  awaits  all."  Hans  Holbein  is  the 
only  painter  of  fame  associated  with  these  curious 
works  of  art,  who,  however,  never  went  farther 
than  to  make  sketches.  These  were  engraved  on 
wood  by  LUtzelburger,  and  appeared  at  Lyons 
(1538).  As  might  be  expected,  they  were  charac- 
terized by  humor  and  poetic  imagination.  The 
Dance  of  Death  was  also  represented  on  the  stage; 
at  least  two  cases  are  well  attested,  one  before 
Philip  the  Good  of  Buigundy  at  Bruges  in  1449 
(called  a  certain  jeu,  higtaire  d  moraUU  sttr  le  fait 
de  la  danse  macabre),  and  one  at  Besan^on  in  1453. 

D.  S.  Schaff. 

Biblioorapbt:  A  very  full  list  of  books  is  given  under 
"  Danoe  of  Desth  "  in  the  BrMah  Mueeum  CaUdogm. 
Consult:  G.  Peignot,  Recherdtee  eur  lee  Daneee  dee  Mortg, 
Paris,  1826;  F.  Douoe.  The  Dance  of  Deatk,  London, 
1833;  G.  Kastner,  Lee  Daneee  dee  MorU,  Paris.  1852; 
Danoe  of  Death  by  Bane  Bolbein,  with  introductory  Sok 
by  A.  Dobeon,  London,  1872;  W.  Sulmmann,  Die  Tote*- 
tAnee  dee  MiUdaJUer;  Nordlingen,  1892:  [J.  J.  Bertlueri 
La  plue  Aneienne  Danee  Macabre  au  KlingenAal  b  Bale. 
Pftris,  1896:  A.  Gdtte,  Bolbeine  Totentane  und  eeine  Vor- 
bilder,  StrasburK.  1897;  E.  K.  Ghambera.  The  Medi<rvei 
Stage,  2  vols..  Oxford.  1903;  W.  Combe,  The  EngUA 
Dance  of  Death;  from  the  Deeigne  of  T.  Ra/miaMAeon  h$ 
the  author  of  "  Doctor  Syntax,"  new  ed.,  2  voU..  New  Yori. 
1903. 

DEBORAH,  deb'o-ra  or  d^bo'rd  C'Bee"):    Tbe 
name  of  two  women  of  the  Bible. 


383 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Death 
Deoaloffua 


1 .  The  nurse  of  Rebekah  who  accompanied  her 
from  Mesopotamia  to  Canaan  when  she  married 
Isaac. 

2.  Prophetess  and  Judge:  She  belonged  to  one 
of  the  uorthem  tribes  and  was  the  wife  of  a  cer- 
tain  Lappidoth.    While  the  Canaanites   occupied 
the  open  country,  she  acted  as  prophetess  and  judge 
on   Mount  Ephraim.    When  for  twenty  years  the 
country  had  been  oppressed  by  the  enemy  Deborah 
proclaimed  a  war  of  liberation.     She  ordered  Barak 
of  Kedesh  in  Naphtali  with  10,000  men  from  the 
tribes  of  Zebulon  and  Naphtali,  who,  according  to 
Judges  V.  were  joined  by  others,  to  encamp  on 
Mount  Tabor  and  to  attack  the  hostile  general  who 
was  about  to  gather  his  forces  in  the  valley  of 
Kishon.     Barak  consented  only  when  Deborah  de- 
clared her  readiness  to  go  with  him;  she  predicted, 
however,  that  on  account  of  this  timidity,  he  would 
yield  the  prize  of  victoiy  to  a  woman.     Of  the  sub- 
sequent battle  there  are  two  independent  records, 
each    distinguished    by    peculiar    details,    which 
supplement  each  other:    the  prosaic  narrative  in 
Judiges  iv.  and  Deborah's  song  of  victory,  chap.  v. 
From  the  two  it  appears  that,  by  the  attack  of  the 
Israelitic  infantry,  the    army  of    the  enemy  was 
completely  beaten  at  Taanach  and  Megiddo.    A 
thunder-storm  threw  the  Canaanitic  chariots  into 
confusion,  and  the  violent  downpour  caused  the 
overflow  of  the  river  Kishon,  which  became  the 
grave  of  the  heavily  equipped,   disorderly   mass 
(Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9).     This  may  have  happened  in  the 
narrow  pass  of  Haritieh.     Sisera  fled  on  foot  over 
the  northern  mountain,  and  came  to  the  tent  of 
Jael,  who  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  Kenites  tent- 
ing near  Kedesh  in  Naphtali  (cf.  Josh.  xix.  37). 
The  unhappy  general  arrived  exhausted  and  found 
a  hospitable  reception  in  the  tent  of  Jael,  but  also  a 
disgraceful  death  at  the  hand  of  his  hostess.     Thus, 
in  accordance  with  the  utterance  of  the  seer,  Jael 
anticipated  the  pursuing  Barak.     The  assertion  of 
Wellhausen  that  the  prose  narrative  in  chap.  iv.  is 
only  a  version  of  the  song  is  refuted  by  the  fact  that 
the  narrative  mentions   many  details  wanting  in 
the  song,  and  makes  no  use  of  many  things  peculiar 
to  the  latter.     The  contradictions  which  some  have 
thought  they  discovered  between  chaps,  iv.  and  v. 
are  doubtful.    The  i)06ition   of   Jabin,  "king  of 
Canaan,"  at  Hazor  in  the  narrative  might  give  rise 
to  objection,  since  no  reference  is  made  to  him  in  the 
song,  whereas    Sisera,  his    general  (according  to 
iv.  2),  seems  in  the  song  to  have  the  household  of  a 
prince.    On  this  account  many  suppose  that  Jabin 
did  not  originally  belong  to  the  narrative,  but  was 
incorporated  from  Josh.  xi.  1.     But  the  song  (v.  19) 
speaks  of  kings  of  Canaan  who  took  part  in  the 
battle,  and  it  is  conceivable  that  the  king  of  Hazor 
was  their  head,  whereas  another  of  these  "  kings," 
Sisera,  commanded  in  the  field.    Other  alleged  con- 
tradictions between  chaps,  iv.  and   v.  are  of  no 
importance.    The  song  of  triumph  which  Deborah 
sang  after  this  decisive  victory  bears  so  much  the 
stamp  of  originality  that  the  critics  almost  unani- 
mously recognize  in  it  an  authentic  testimony, 
language  and  style  are  peculiar  and  ancient.     The 
narrative  betrays  the  cutting  wit  as  well  as  the  holy 
seriousness  which  was  peculiar  to  the  new  nation. 


Alongside  of  the  stormy  savageness  of  the  time,  there 
appears  in  Deborah  a  tender,   genuinely  female 
sense,  which  comes  out  in  the  singer  and  the  "  moth- 
er in  Israel."     For  the  critical   treatment  of  the 
history  of  Israel  this  ancient  song  is  of  great  im- 
portance. C.  VON  Orelli. 
Biblioqrapht:  Of  the  highest  import&noe  is  G.  F.  Moore, 
Commentary  on  JtuigeB,   New  York,   1895.     Consult:  O. 
A.  Cooke.  Hi»t.  and  Song  of  Deborah,  London,  1892;  H. 
Winckler,   AUorientali$cKe  Forachungen,  ii.   192,  iii.   291, 
Leipsic,  1894;  K.  Budde,  Actea  du  dixihne  congrk»  d'orien- 
talUtes,  ii  (1896).  20  sqq.;  J.  Marquart,  Fundamente  israeli- 
Hacher  und  jUdiacKer  OeachicJUe,  pp.  1-10,  Odttinfsen.  1896; 
D.  H.  MtUler,  Aetea  du  dixihne  congr^M  d'orientaliatea,  iv 
(1898).  261  sqq.;   DB.  i.  678-679;   EB,  i.  1047-48;  JB, 
iv.  490. 

DECALOGUE. 

Names  and  Character  ({  1). 
Divisions  and  Original  Form  ({  2). 
Variations  in  Expressions  ($3). 
Mosaic  Origin  ((  4). 

The  decalogue  is  the  fimdamental  moral  law  of 
Jews  and  Christians.  The  words  which,  according 
to  Ex.  XX.  1;  Deut.  iv.  12,  13,  v.  4,  19-23,  God 
spoke  at  Sinai  to  the  assembled  Israelites,  given  Ex. 
XX.  2-17  and,  in  slightly  dififerent  form,  Deut.  v. 
6-78,  are  called  the  decalogue.  These,  according 
to  the  plain  statement  of  Deut.  iv.  13,  v.  19,  ix. 
10,  11,  X.  4,  and  the  implication  of 
z.  Names  Ex.  xxiv.  12,  xxxL  18,  and  other 
and  Char-  passages,  God  had  written  upon  the 
acter.  two  tables  of  stone  which  became 
part  of  the  contents  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant.  The  name  generally  given  to  this  code 
is  "  the  ten  commandments  ";  the  Old  Testament 
calls  them  the  "  ten  words"  (Ex.  xxxiv.  28;  Deut. 
iv.  13,  X.  4;  cf.  Ex.  xxiv.  3),  because  they  pos- 
sessed a  preeminent  excellence,  spoken  as  they  were 
to  the  people  by  their  God.  They  alone  were  written 
on  the  two  tables,  which  received  the  name  "  tables 
of  the  covenant,''  while  the  box  in  which  they  were 
deposited  was  called  the  **  ark  of  the  covenant," 
since  they  were  the  "  witness  **  of  the  covenant 
(see  Covenant)  made  on  Mount  Sinai.  The  deca- 
logue is  an  independent  and  complete  code,  express- 
ing the  relations  existing  between  the  Creator  and 
created  man.  The  mass  of  laws  which  make  up 
the  codes  of  Israel  may  be  considered  the  unfolding 
of  the  ethical-religious  idea  expressed  in  the  ten 
words.  The  prohibition  to  worship  other  gods  and 
to  make  images  have  a  place  only  in  antiquity,- 
and  the  commandment  concerning  Sabbath-observ- 
ance steps  outside  the  purely  ethical  sphere  and 
demands  a  cult  which  in  Deuteronomy  is  applied 
to  Israel.  Again  the  ten  commandments  have 
reference  to  external  acts  only,  the  prohibitions 
outnumber  the  precepts,  the  threats  and  promises 
are  limited  to  this  life;. nevertheless,  the  form  is 
such  as  to  be  able  to  receive  the  whole  content  of 
the  New  Testament  concepts  of  the  divine  will. 
As  the  Christian  sees  in  the  Yahweh  of  the  Old 
Testament  the  God  who  in  Jesus  revealed  himself 
as  Father,  so  he  finds  stated  in  the  decalogue  the 
fact  that  God  is  the  only  good  to  be  desired,  that 
the  material  must  be  kept  apart  from  the  spiritual, 
and  that  there  is  a  Sabbath  after  life's  week  of  toil 
and  travail.  While  it  is  the  people  as  a  whole  who 
are  addressed  by  the  code,  the  commands  come 


8a!i2P« 


>tion  of  Indulffonoe 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


884 


also  to  the  individual;  so  Christiaiifl,  to  whom  this 
tribal  law  haa  become  the  law  of  humanity,  refer 
it  to  eveiy  individual  within  the  range  of  its  voice. 
About  the  division  of  the  decalogue  churches 
differ:  the  Jews  count  Exod.  xx.  2  as  the  first 
commandment,  3-6  as  the  second,  and  17  is  con- 
sequently the  tenth;  the  Greek  and  Reformed 
churches  make  3  the  finst,  4-6  the  second,  and  17 
the  tenth;  the  Roman  and  Lutheran  churches  see  in 
3-6  one  commandment  and  in  17  two  conmiand- 
ments.  The  oldest  witness  favors  the  second  view, 
held  by  JosepKus  and  Philo,  and  this  is  undoubtedly 
the  correct  one;  there  is  no  reason  for  seeing  in  17 
two  commandments,  moreover,  the  text  forbids 
division;  verse  2,  though  a  highly  important  state- 
ment, is  not  a  commandment,  and 
a.  Divisions  4-5  may  well  on  internal  grounds  be 
and  Orig-  taken  as  independent  of  verse  3.  The 
inalFonn.  Samaritans  have  after  Exod.  xx.  17 
and  Deut.  v.  18  another  command- 
ment, borrowed  from  Deut.  xxvii.  2-7  and  xi.  30, 
and  wrongly  affirm  that  the  Jews  have  only  nine 
commandments.  The  .decalogue  is  divided  in  Exo- 
dus generally  into  nine,  and  in  Deuteronomy  al- 
ways into  ten  sections.  While  the  division  into  nine 
sections  is  certainly  as  old  as  the  other,  it  has  no 
necessaiy  connection  with  that  into  ten  "  words." 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  prohibition  to  covet  is 
nowhere  divided  into  two  verses.  That  there  were 
two  tables  is  witnessed  by  all  the  sources  except' 
E.  It  may  be  surmised  that  each  contained  five 
"  words,"  and  putting  the  fifth  (Ex.  xx.  12)  on  the 
first  table  gives  excellent  balance,  the  first  table 
containing  the  commandments  of  piety,  the  second 
those  of  probity.  Less  attractive  is.  the  arrange- 
ment of  Augustine  and  Calvin,  who  place  the  fifth 
conunandment  on  the  second  table  as  enjoining 
performance  of  duties  toward  fellow  men.  The  dif- 
ference in  length  in  the  commandments  is  remark- 
able; and  since  this  seems  due  to  the  addition  of 
explanations,  threats,  or  promises,  the  conviction 
is  forced  that  originally  the  decalogue  contained 
ten  short  sentences  about  as  follows,  which  alone 
the  designation  "  ten  words  "  truly  fits:  (1)  Thou 
shalt  have  no  other  gods  besides  me,  (2)  Thou  shalt 
not  make  unto  thee  any  image,  (3)  Thou  shalt  not 
take  the  name  of  Yahweh  thy  God  in  vain,  (4)  Re- 
member the  Sabbath  day  to  keep  it  holy,  (5)  Honor 
thy  father  and  thy  mother,  (6)  Thou  shalt  not  kill, 
(7)  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery,  (8)  Thou  shalt 
not  steal,  (9)  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness 
against  thy  neighbor,  (10)  Thou  shalt  not  covet 
thy  neighbor's  house.  In  this  form  the  decalogue 
may  easily  have  been  written  on  two  stone  tables. 
Among  the  additions  certain  expressions  occur 
frequently,  or  only,  in  Deuteronomy,  but  this  does 
not  involve  that  these  additions  have  been  imported 
into  Exodus  from  Deuteronomy.  For,  to  the 
additions  which  the  two  statements  have  in  com- 
mon, Deuteronomy  has  others  which 
3.  Varia-  mark  it  as  the  younger,  and  has  be- 
tions  in  Ez- sides  a  different  vocabulaiy  in  the 
pressions.  fourth,  ninth,  and  tenth  command- 
ments. Changes  arc  evidently  not  wil- 
ful; they  are  due  rather  to  the  fact  that  at  the  time 
of  the  Deuteronomist  the  text  was  still  fluctuating. 


In  common  with  other  peoples  of  antiquity,  Israel 
cared  veiy  little  for  verbal  correctness,  and  thus  it 
need  not  cause  surprise  that  they  did  not  end  these 
discrepancies  by  consulting  the  original  tables,  since 
they  were  difficult  of  access.  Notable  in  this  con- 
nection is  the  conmiandment  concerning  Sabbath- 
observance.  E  bases  it  on  the  creation  week,  D 
on  the  exodus  from  Egypt;  it  is  difficult  to  belie^-e 
that  D  would  have  dropped  the  former,  had  it  stoo  J 
in  his  copy.  However,  the  conclusion  that  the  refer- 
ence to  creation  was  incorporated  into  the  decalosrue 
later  is  by  no  means  certain;  while  the  common  view 
now  is  that  it  is  a  postexiLic  enlargement  on  the 
basis  of  GetL  iL  l-4a,  the  expressions  in  the  decalogue 
do  not  agree  with  those  in  Genesis  (cf.  W.  Lotz, 
Qu<BStiane8dehi8U)r%a8abbati,  Leipsic,  1883,  94-100). 
The  Mosaic  origin  of  the  decalogue,  at  least  in  the 
shorter  form,  is  admitted  by  Delitzsch,  Dillmann, 
Lemme,  Kdnig,  Kittel,  Driver,  and  others.  But 
Ndldeke  as  early  as  1869  declared  that  view  extreme- 
ly doubtful,  and  Utely  Wellhausen,  Stade,  Comill 
have  rejected  it,  while  Smend  and  H.  Schulz  have 
lost  faith  in  it.    The  main  argument  has  always 

been  that  the  prohibition  to  nrn^lHng 

4.  Mosaic  images  could  not  date  back  to  Moses, 

Origin,      since  the  worship  of  Yahweh  under 

the  form  of  images  persisted  in  the 
northern  kingdom,  and  in  Judah  was  found  at  least 
until  Solomon.     But  it  is  pure  assumption   that, 
while  the  image-worship  existed,  it  was  not  dis- 
pleasing.    As  far  as  is  known,  the  true  champions 
of  the  Yahweh-religion  always  stood  for  imageless 
worship,  and  where  the  ark  stood,  at  Shiloh  and 
at  Jerusalem,  there  was  no  image  (on  the  ephod, 
I  Sam.  xxi.  9;    see  Ephod).    But  that  the  mere 
existence  of  the  prohibition  would   make  image- 
worship  impossible  and  would  cause  Jeroboam  to 
refrain  from  introducing  calf-worship  no  one  would 
affirm  who  considers  what  even  to-day  is  possible 
in   the   Christian   Church.    The   other    argument 
against  the  Mosaic  origin  is  that  the  fourth  com- 
mandment   presupposes    settlement    in    Canaan. 
While  the  Sabbath  rest  has  less  meaning  when 
applied  to  nomads  than  when  related  to  agricul- 
tural conditions,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
Israel  at  Moses's  time  was  not  wholly  nomadic. 
Again,  it  is  urged  that  the  mode  of  thou^t  is  that 
of  the  prophets,  and  is  not  met  in  preprophet-ic 
time.     But  it  is  not  certain  that  the  prophets  in- 
vented the  ethical  standard;  and,  inasmuch  as  their 
teachings  in  complicated  and  developed  form  far 
surpass  what  in  the  decalogue  is  given  in  the  most 
simple  and  fundamental  precepts,  the  latter  can 
not  be  the  mere  precipitate  of  the  former.    It 
is  the  narrative  of  E  in  which  the  decalogue  in 
Exodus  is  found.    That  the  writings  of  P  contained 
it  is  denied  by  no  one,  though  the  doubtful  opinion 
IB  advanced  by  Wellhausen,  jQlicher,  Budde,  and 
others,  that  J  had  a  different  Sinaitic  decalogue, 
namely  Ex.  xxxiv.   14-26.    But  while  it  is  pos- 
sible on  good  grounds  to  have  the  conviction  that 
the  decalogue  as  an  inheritance  of  the  Mosaic  time 
has  stood  in  all  Pentateuch  sources,  others,  such  bs 
Meissner,    Steuernagel,  and   Staerk,    on    religious- 
historical   and   philological   grounds    have   denied 
that  even  £  contained  it.  (W.  Lotz.} 


386 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DACftlOiTUO 

Deolaration  of  Indiil8«noe 


Bibuoorapht:  The  subjeet  is  treated  in  most  of  the  crit- 
ical worka  on  the  history  of  Israel  and  the  introduction 
to  the  O.  T.  Consult:  A.  Kuenen,  Origin  and  CompoH- 
iion  of  the  Hexateueh,  London.  1886;  R.  Kittel.  Oe^chichU 
der  Hebmer,  2  vols..  Gotha.  1888-92.  Eng.  transl.,  Lon- 
don. 1805-96;  B.  B&ntsch.  Dae  Bundeabueh,  Halle,  1892; 
H.  Schults.  AUlealamenaiche  Theologie,  2  vols..  Gdt- 
tingen.  1896,  Eng.  transl..  London,  1892;  E.  K6nig.  Ein- 
Uituno  in  daa  A.  T.,  Bonn,  1893;  A.  Dillmann,  Atttesto- 
menUichi  Theologie,  Leipeic.  1895;  W.  H.  Green,  Higher 
Criliciem  of  the  Pentateuch,  New  York,  1895;  C.  A.  Briggs, 
Higher  Criticiem  of  the  Pentateuch,  pp.  242  sqq.,  New 
York,  1897;  C.  H.  Comill,  Einleitung  in  da*  A.  T.,  TQ- 
bingen,  1905,  Eng.  transl..  Lond..  1907;  H.  L.  Strack,  Ein- 
leitung in  da*  A.  T.,  Munich.  1898;  C.  Caverno,  The  Ten 
Word*.  Boston.  1899;  R.  Smend.  AUteatamenUiche  Re- 
ligionege9chichte,  Freiburg,  1899;  J.  Wellhausen.  Compo- 
eition  de*  Hexaieuche,  Berlin.  1899;  J.  £.  Carpenter  and 
G.  Harford-Battersby.  The  Hexateuch,  2  vols..  London, 
1900;  S.  A.  Cook,  in  The  Guardian,  Dec.  17,  1902  (on  a 
new  papyrus  with  early  text);  DB,  i.  580-582;  EB,  i. 
1049-51;  JE,  iv.  492-498.  Earlier  homiletical  litera- 
ture is  given  in  J.  F.  Hurst.  Literature  of  Theology^  pp. 
149.  164.  392.  528.  New  York.  1896.  Consult  also  L. 
Lemme,  Die  religiontgeadiichUiche  Bedtutung  de*  DekOf 
lege,  Breslau.  1880. 

DECIXJS,  di'shi-TTs,  CAIUS  MESSIUS  QUnTTUS 
TRA JANUS:  Roman  emperor  249-251;  b.  near 
Sirmium  about  200,  of  a  Roman  or  Romanized 
family;  d.  in  the  marshes  of  Dobnidja,  Rumania, 
in  the  summer  or  autumn  of  251.  He  began  his 
career  in  the  army,  became  governor  of  Dacia  and 
Mocsia  under  Philippus  Arabs,  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  forces  sent  to  crush  the  Gothic 
invasion.  Discouraged  by  its  defeats,  the  Danubian 
army  proclaimed  him  Augustus  in  249,  and  his 
victory  at  Verona,  in  which  the  emperor  Philippus 
fell,  won  him  the  throne  in  the  same  year.  Decius 
was  essentially  a  soldier,  also  eager  to  revive  and 
strengthen  the  moral  and  religious  forces  which 
still  existed,  but  he  lacked  political  insight,  and 
was  unable  to  secure  permanent  results  during  his 
brief  reign.  A  new  inroad  of  the  Goths  soon  re- 
called him  from  Italy  and  Rome  to  the  Danubian 
countries,  where  he  fell  after  a  series  of  disastrous 
battles. 

In  the  course  of  his  turbulent  reign  Decius  began  a 
persecution  of  the  Christians,  which  endangered  the 
Church  more  than  any  which  had  preceded  it.  The 
religious  policy  of  Philippus,  who  had  favored  the 
Christians,  may  have  made  the  new  emperor  regard 
them  as  his  opponents,  but  a  stronger  motive  was 
his  personal  anti-Christian  bias,  based  on  his  adhei^ 
ence  to  the  ancient  faith,  and  directed  primarily 
against  the  clergy.  It  is  also  probable  that  the 
censor  Valerian,  who  later  became  emperor,  and 
was  in  high  favor  with  Decius,  was  active  in  this 
persecution,  and  as  chief  civil  magistrate  was 
required  to  carry  it  through.  It  is  with  justice, 
therefore,  that  Christian  tradition  combines  the 
name  of  the  emperor  with  that  of  his  chief  officer. 
It  is  even  possible  that  Valerian  was  the  real  leader. 
The  repression,  which  seems  to  have  begun  about 
the  end  of  249,  and  which  lasted,  at  least  in  part,  un- 
til Decius  fell,  was  premeditated  from  the  very  first, 
while  the  uniformity  of  its  execution  is  shown  by 
the  reports  from  North  Africa,  Rome,  Egypt,  and 
Asia  Minor.  All,  without  exception,  were  com- 
manded to  offer  sacrifice.  In  case  of  refusal,  how- 
over,  further  proceedings  were  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  judge,  and  the  penalties  which  were  inflicted 
III.— 25 


ranged  from  light  punishment  to  death,  sometimes 
in  such  cruel  forms  as  starvation,  burning,  and 
stoning.  The  only  uniformity  observed  was  the 
desire  to  kill  the  chief  clergy,  and  many  bishops, 
as  at  Rome,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom, while  others  saved  themselves  by  flight. 
The  attitude  of  the  laity  was,  on  the  whole,  a  feeble 
one.  Origen  was  tortured,  and  the  general  picture 
of  devastation  is  described  by  the  Roman  presbyters 
with  the  words  (Cyprian,  EpisL,  xxx.  5):  "Look 
upon  almost  the  whole  world  devastated,  and  ob- 
serve that  the  remains  and  the  ruins  of  the  fallen 
are  lying  about  on  every  side."  These  conditions 
gave  rise  to  the  difficult  problem  of  the  attitude  of 
the  Church  toward  the  lapsed,  among  whom  the 
so-called  Itbellatici  now  appeared  for  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  the  persecution  of  the  Christians 
(see  Lapsed);  yet  beside  those  who  wavered  the 
Church  could  also  point  to  many  courageous,  stead- 
fast souls. 

In  view  of  its  destructive  effect  the  Decian  perse- 
cution has  always  been  regarded  as  one  of  extraor- 
dinaiy  severity.  Nevertheless,  this  persecution 
was  not  general  in  scope,  although  it  was  intended 
to  be  so.  In  many  places  the  imperial  edicts  were 
disregarded,  and  in  others  executed  only  formally. 
The  turbulent  political  conditions  of  the  period 
forbade  strenuous  and  uniform  action,  and  the 
Decian  persecution  was,  consequently,  merely 
transitoiy.  Victor  Schultze. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  aouroes  are.  from  the  Roman  side, 
Pro9opographia  imperii  romani  *ac.  i.Hii.,  part  ii.,  ed. 
H.  Desaau,  p.  368,  Berlin,  1897;  from  the  Christian  side. 
Cyprian.  De  lapei*,  Eng.  transl..  in  ANF,  v.  437-447; 
and  Eusebius.  Hi*L  ecd.,  vi.  40-42.  Eng.  transl..  in  NPNF, 
2d  series,  i.  281-286.  Consult:  L.  S.  le  N.  de  Tillemont. 
Mimoire*  .  .  .  ecdfeiaetique*,  iii.  2,  pp.  123  sqq..  Brus- 
sels, 1696;  E.  G.  Hardy,  Chrittianitv  and  the  Rotnan 
Government,  London,  1894;  H.  Schiller,  GeschidUe  der 
rOmiechen  Kaiaereeit,  i.  2,  pp.  804  sqq.,  Gotha,  1883: 
J.  A.  F.  Gre«:s.  The  Decian  PeraecuHon,  Edinburgh,  1897; 
L.  Pullan,  Church  of  the  Father*,  pp.  156  sqq..  New  York, 
1905;  Neander.  ChrieHan  Church,  i.  130-136;  Schaff. 
Chrietian  Churdi,  ii.  60-63;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  ii. 
113-114. 

DECIUS,  inKOLAUS:  According  to  P.  J.  Reiit- 
meyer — Kirchengeschichte  der  Stadt  Braunschweig 
(5  vols.,  Brunswick,  1707-15),  iii.  19 — translator  or 
adapter  of  the  Gloria  in  excelsisj  the  Sanctu8f  and 
the  Agnus  into  Low  German  verse;  d.  Mar.  21, 
1641  (?).  About  1519  he  was  provost  in  Stetei^ 
burg,  near  Wolfenbtittel ;  after  his  conversion  to 
Lutheranism,  1522,  teacher  in  Brunswick;  and  fi- 
nally preacher  in  Stettin.  Attempts  to  identify 
him  with  a  Nicolaus  a  Curia  who  was  preacher  in 
Stettin  about  1523  and  with  others  are  not  con- 
vincing. (Ferdinand  Cohrs.) 

DECLARATION  OF  mDULGBNCE:  An  act  of 
Charles  II.  of  England,  whereby  he  suspended  all 
penal  laws  against  both  Roman  Catholics  and  dis- 
senters. Mar.  15,  1672.  A  royal  proclamation  of 
the  same  king,  issued  ten  years  earlier,  promising 
modification  of  the  severity  of  the  Act  of  Uniform- 
ity (q.v.),  is  sometimes  called  the  First  Declaration 
of  Indulgence.  The  king's  motive  in  both  cases 
was  believed  to  be  a  desire  to  favor  Roman  Catho- 
lics and  revive  the  royal  prerogative  of  dispensing 
with  the  execution  of  laws,  and  opposition  arose 


D^lement  and  Purifloation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOti 


386 


even  among  Protestant  dissenters.     Strong  antago- 
nism developed  in  parliament,  the  legality  of  the 
king's  action  was  questioned,  and  the  declaration 
was  recalled  Mar.  8,  1673.     Another  declaration  of 
indulgence  was  issued  by  James  II.,  Apr.  4,  1687, 
granting  full  religious  liberty  to  all  his  subjects. 
The  same  opposition  developed,  and  the  king  failed 
to   obtain   parliamentary   sanction   even   from   a 
packed  parliament.     The  king  reissued  the   dec- 
laration Apr.  22,  1688,  and  ordered  all  clergy  to 
read  the  declaration  in  their  pulpits.     But  the  order 
was  generally  disobeyed  and  called  forth  a  protest 
written  by  Archbishop  Sancroft  (q.v.)  and  signed  by 
himself  and  six  other  bishops,  for  which  they  were 
committed  to  the  Tower  (June  8) ;  they  were  acquitted 
by  jury  when  brought  to  trial  at  the  end  of  the  month. 
On  the  same  day  tne  invitation  was  despatched  to 
William  of  Orange  to  become  king  of  England. 
Bxblioobapht:  The  Declaration  of  James  II.  is  reproduced 
in  Gee  and  Hardy,  DocumenU,   pp.  641-644.     Consult: 
T.  B.   Howell.   Complete  Collection  of  State   TriaU,  vol. 
3di.,  London.  1809-28;  O.  D'Oyly,  Life  of  WiUiam  San- 
arofi,  ib.  1840;  W.  H.  Hutton,  The  Bnglieh  Church,  1626- 
1711,  pp.  184-227.  ib.  1903;  Rx>binBon.  European  Hietory, 
iL  266-259. 

DECREE,  DECRETAL:    In  the  canonical  sense 
the  latter  is  an  authoritative  rescript  of  a  pope  in 


reply  to  some  question.  The  original  name  was 
decretaU  constittUum  or  decretalU  ejnsUda;  aftei^ 
ward  decretalU.  A  decree  is  a  papal  ordinaDce 
enacted  with  the  advice  of  the  cardinals,  but  not 
aa  response  to  an  inquiry. 

DECRETUM  GRATIAIIL    See  Canon  Law. 

DEFEITDER  OF  THE  FAITH  (Dejensor  fidei): 
A  title  borne  by  English  sovereigns.  It  was  first 
conferred  by  Leo  X.  on  Henry  VIIL,  as  a  rewajxl  for 
his  Aaaeriio  aeptem  acuramerUarumf  in  the  bull  Ei 
supema  dispoeitionis  (Oct.  11 » 1521),  and  confirmed 
by  Clement  VII.  on  Mar.  5,  1523.  After  the  breach 
with  Rome  it  was  recognized  by  Parliament  in 
"  An  Act  for  the  Ratification  of  the  King's  Majesty *s 
Stile,"  35  Henr.  VIII.  (A.  Hauck.) 

DEFEITDER  OF  THE  MARRIAGE-TES  (Defefuar 
matrimonii):  An  official  in  eveiy  diocese  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  deputed,  according  to  the 
bull  Dei  mieeratione  of  Benedict  XIV.  (Nov.  3, 
1741),  to  prevent  by  all  proper  means  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  marriage-tie  where  proceedings  to  that 
end  have  been  begun.  The  office  was  instituted  m 
America  by  the  Third  Plenaiy  Council  of  BaltimOTe 
in  1884. 


DEFILEMENT  AND  PURIFICATION,  CEREMONIAL. 


1.  Defilement. 

Impurity   not    Simply  Physical 

1.  The    Region    of  Polluting 

Exist- 

(«2). 

to  Death  (ft  2). 

enoee. 

But  Religioufl-Ethical-Eathetic  ({  3). 

II 

Purification. 

AnimalB  (f  1). 

3.  Antiquity  and  Development  of  the 

1 

Women  in  Childbirth  (f  2). 

Idea  in  Israel. 

Women  in  Childbirth  (f  1). 

Leprosy  (§  3). 

Evidence  in  the  Prophetic  Writings 

Bodily  Secretions  ((  4). 

(«1). 

Desth  (S  5). 

4.  Ethnic  Analogies. 

Dead  Things  (f  4). 

Booty  (J  6). 

6.  Origin  of  the  Old  Testament  Do<>- 

Booty  (f  6). 

2.  The  Character  of  this  Impurity. 

trine  of  Uncleannesa. 

2 

Underlying  Conceptions. 

The  Hebrew  fame  (§  1). 

Unsatisfactory  Explanations  (§1). 

III 

1.  Ani- 


L  Defilement:  In  order  to  define  what  Old 
Testament  pm'ification  covers,  it  is  necessary  first 
to  describe  what  is  there  declared  to  defile  or  make 
impure. 

1.  The  Beffion  of  Pollutinff  Bxistenoes :  Certain 
animals  polluted  if  they  were  eaten  (see  Dietary 
Laws  of  the  Hebrews).  Unclean  animals  might 
be  brought  to  God  neither  as  free-will 
offerings  (Gen.  viii.  20)  nor  as  first- 
lings (Num.  xviii.  15)  nor  as  tithes 
(Lev.  xxvii.  32),  but  contact  with  living  unclean 
animals  is  not  forbidden. 

In  the  case  of  women  in  childbirth  (Lev.  xii.) 
the  cause  of  uncleanness  is  not  the  fact  of  giving 
birth,  but  the  condition  resulting  which  resembles 
that  of  the  menses.  The  duration  of  the  unclean- 
ness is  seven  or  fourteen  days  followed 
by  thirty-three  or  sixty-six  days,  ac- 
cording as  the  child  is  male  or  fe- 
male, during  the  whole  of  which  period 
(forty  or  eighty  days)  the  woman  is 
barred  from  approach  to  things  holy.  The  period 
of  seven  or  fourteen  days  involves  a  completer  or 
more  '*  contagious  **  impurity  than  that  of  the 
remaining  thirty-three  or  sixty-six  days.  The 
manner  of  purification  of  person  and  clothing  by 
washing  is  as  in  the  menses  (cf.  Lev.  xv.  11,  16-18, 
21,  27). 


2.  Wom- 
en in 
Child- 
birth. 


Leprosy   (not  always  the  real  leprosy;     cf.   P. 
Haupt,  Babylonian  Elements  of  the  Levitic  Ritual, 

3  Leoroav  PP*  ^^^^»  ^^^^'  during  its  contin- 
op  y-  uaji^^  defiled  the  person  or  thing  with 
which  it  came  into  contact.  "  House-leproey  "  de- 
filed any  who  entered  the  house  pronounced  leprous 
by  the  priest. 

Certain  secretions  of  the  human  body  (Lev.  xv.), 
such  as  unhealthy  secretions  from  the  male  organ 
(vv.  1-12),  defiled  by  contact  with  the  person 
afflicted.  The  case  in  w.  16-18  is  peculiar;  noc- 
turnal enussions  polluted  things 
4.  Bodily  ^hi^jj  ^i^gy  touched  (verse  17);  the 
man  who  had  the  emission  polluted 
persons  whom  he  touched,  e.g.,  the 
wife  by  his  side.  Lev.  xix.  20  reprehends  the  lying 
together  of  persons  of  different  stations  in  life  (a 
freeman  and  a  bondmaiden).  In  the  earlier  in- 
stance (Lev.  XV.  18)  sexual  intercourse  is  not  in- 
volved by  the  phrase  "  lie  with  "  (cf.  Lev.  xv.  24 
with  XX.  18;  in  the  former  passage  the  phrase  cairies 
only  the  meaning  "  being  in  the  same  bed,"  while 
the  latter  passage  makes  sexual  intercourse  under 
the  circumstances  named  a  capital  offense).  The 
section  Lev.  xv.  16-18  deals  with  involuntary 
emission  and  does  not  involve  defilement  through 
sexual  intercourse.  This  (correct)  interpretation 
was  the  view  of  the  Masoretes  and  of  Luther  (the 


Seore- 
tiona. 


387 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Decree 

Defilement  and  Purifloation 


latter  translates  **  the  woman  near  whom  such  a 
one  lies  ");  but  another  view,  that  verse  18  made 
sexual  intercourse  a  defilement  became  conunon 
among  the  Jews.  The  Old  Testament  makes  the 
sexual  act  only  relatively  polluting;  for  example, 
before  performing  a  religious  act  or  touching  a 
sacred  object  (cf.  Ex.  xix.  15;  I  Sam.  xxi.  5-6;  I  Cor. 
vii.  5),  just  as  drinking  of  wine  was  not  absolutely 
and  always  forbidden  to  the  priests,  but  only  when 
sacred  functions  were  to  be  performed.  A  woman's 
menses  (Lev.  xix.  19-24)  rendered  her  unclean  for 
seven  days,  anything  that  she  touched  till  the  eve- 
ning, and  the  husband  who  occupied  the  bed  with 
her  while  she  was  in  that  condition  for  seven  days. 
Any  other  issue  of  the  kind  carried  the  same  dis- 
ability. 

Death  rendered  unclean.  The  dead  body  of 
unclean  beasts  made  him  that  touched  them  un- 
clean for  one  day  (Lev.  xi.  8,  24-25,  28).  Lev.  xi. 
29-38  names  eight  varieties  of  creeping  animals 
the  dead  bodies  of  which  defiled  things  and  persons, 

except  fountains,  cisterns,  and  seed, 
'  **  ■  unless  the  last  were  soaking  in 
water.  These  animals  were  generally  found  near 
human  habitations.  The  body  of  a  clean  beast 
which  had  died,  i.e.,  was  not  slaughtered  in  the 
legal  way,  defiled  for  the  day  him  that  touched 
or  ate  it  (Lev.  xi.  39-40;  cf.  Ex.  xxii.  31;  Lev. 
xxii.  8).  A  corpse  rendered  unclean  for  seven  days 
him  who  touched  it,  defiled  the  tent  and  any  who  en- 
tered it,  as  well  as  any  uncovered  vessel  which  was 
in  the  tent  (Num.  xix.  11-14).  Contact  with  a 
corpse  in  the  open,  with  a  human  bone  or  a  grave, 
defiled  for  seven  days ;  and  whoever  engaged  in  the 
purification  of  such  a  defiled  person  was  himself 
unclean  till  the  evening  (Num.  xix.  7-8,  10,  21-22). 
Booty  taken  from  Gentiles  rendered  unclean  for 
seven  days  (Num.  xxxL  23-24).  This  impurity  of 
^^  booty  differed  from  that  of  heathen 
^'  lands  (Amos  vii.  17),  which  was 
rather  unholiness  and  did  not  render  unclean  the 
Hebrew  who  dwelt  there. 

2,  The  Oharaoter  of  this  Imparity:  This  depends 
on  the  meaning  of  the  Heb.  to'"^*  **  unclean," 
which  is  connected  with  the  ideas  "  submerged," 
"  besmirched,"  "  concentrated,"  hence  "  dark," 
"gloomy."    The    usage    involves    both    external 

impurity  and  that  of  the  spirit  (Is, 

H  b  *  ^'  ^'  ^^^'  ^^^"^^^'  ^'f  Num.  V.  13;  Lev. 
^jj^*^  xviii.  19).  The  actions  described  in 
these  passages  are  "  abominations," 
as  was  the  Mbloch  cult.  The  word  is  used 
of  inmiorality  and  irreligion,  and  takes  in  both 
express  abominations  and  such  unsanctity  as  that 
of  a  heathen  land  (cf.  II  Kings  v.  17-19)  and 
its  population.  The  synonyms  of  fame,  give  various 
consonant  meanings,  such  as  "  degraded,"  ''  soiled," 
"  smirched,"  applicable  in  both  the  physical  and 
the  moral  spheres,  just  as  the  antonym  Ifodheah 
refers  to  both  physical  and  moral  states. 

Considerations  which  decide  the  character  of 
uncleanness  are  the  following.  Impurity  was  not 
simply  physical,  since  the  usual  sources  of  the  evil 
did  not  belong  to  the  region  of  this  impurity.  Yet 
defilement  of  a  bed  might  be  wrought  by  a  corpse 
or  by  excrement,  and  ablutions  were  a  partial  means 


to  holiness.  The  ultimate  thought  was  relation  to 
the  deity.     In  the  case  of  childbirth  the  distinction 

^   _.  between  absolute  and  relative  impurity 

purity  ^^^  based  on  the  flow  of  blood,  and 
not  Simply^  the  menses  stoppage  of  the  flow 

Physical.  ^P^^  f^*^  restored  purity  so  far  as  the 
basis  was  physical.  Even  then  im- 
purity had  for  Israelite  a  moral-religious  signifi- 
cance, since  for  the  reestablishment  of  purity  a 
religious  rite  was  performed  (e.g.,  Lev.  xii.  6-8). 
That  a  spring  or  cistern  or  seed  for  sowing  was  not 
contaminated  by  a  dead  unclean  beast  proceeded 
from  the  thought  that  the  spring  and  the  seed 
renewed  themselves,  while  the  body  of  water  in  the 
cistern  was  relatively  large.  Against  the  merely 
physical  character  of  uncleanness  can  be  alleged 
the  fact  that  through  eating  of  creeping  things  the 
soul  was  thought  to  be  defiled  (Lev.  xi.  43),  and 
the  fact  that  the  impurity  of  a  woman  is  regarded 
as  more  absolute  than  that  of  a  man.  This  appears 
in  the  doubling  of  the  period  of  impurity  after  the 
birth  of  a  girl  as  compared  with  that  following  the 
birth  of  a  boy,  and  in  the  circumstance  that  issue 
from  a  woman  defiles  for  seven  days,  from  a  man 
only  one  (Lev.  xv.  18,  24).  Yet  washing  or  asper- 
sion with  water  and  searing  with  fire  point  to  the 
external  character  of  the  impurity.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Old  Testament  teaches  that  animals  and 
things  inanimate  suffer  under  man's  culpability. 

Impurity  had  then  the  significance  of  a  religious- 
ethical  abnormality.  But  this  was  not  all,  since 
it  was  not  always  mere  psychological  immorality. 
Impurity  is  sometimes  called  baseness 
8.  But  or  sin,  which,  however,  did  not  com- 
Beliff-      municate  itself  as  contagion  nor  was 

BtMeal-    *^  Purged  exactly  through  sacrifice. 

Bethetio.  ^^  ^  noteworthy  that  the  person  who 
came  into  contact  with  the  sin-offering 
of  the  Day  of  Atonement  was  not  called  unclean 
(Lev.  xvi.  24,  26,  28),  as  was  he  who  touched  the 
ashes  which  purified  from  contact  with  the  dead 
(Num.  xix.  7,  8,  10).  If  then  impurity  has  an 
ethical-religious  character,  it  has  also  an  external 
character  as  a  secondary  factor.  It  is  best  to 
gather  these  qualities  in  one  phrase,  and  to  speak 
of  impurity  as  religious-ethical-esthetic. 

8.  Antiqnity  and  Development  of  the  Idea  in 
Israel:  From  those  prophetical  writings  the  date 
of  which  is  certain  the  following  is  gathered,  those 
passages  where  unclean  is  taken  in  a  mere  religio- 
ethic£d  sense,  and  as  not  inunediately  belonging 
here,  being  put  in  brackets:  [Amos:  unclean  is  the 
land  outside  of  Palestine  (vii.  17).]  Hosea:  Israel 
shall  eat  unclean  things  in  Assyria  (ix.  3-4); 
[Israel  is  defiled  on  account  of  irreligion  and  im- 
morality (3).]  [Micah:  uncleanness  (i.e.,  abomina- 
tion) causes  destruction  (ii.  13).  Isaiah:  the  Israel 
of  the  time  of  salvation  will  defile  his  former  idols 
(xxx.  22).]  Jeremiah:  the  houses  of  Jerusalem 
shall  be  defiled  as  the  place  of  Tophet  (xix.  13). 
This  defilement  was  brought  about  by  Josiah 
(II  Kings  xxiii.  10),  since  he  defiled  the  high  places 
in  the  cities  of  Judah,  not  by  physical  defilement 
(as  II  Kings  x.  27),  but  as,  in  the  case  of  the  altar 
at  Bethel  (II  Kings  xxiii.  15-16),  by  bones  out  of 
the   sepulchers.    [Israel   has  polluted   himself   by 


Defilement  and  Purifioation 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


388 


idolatiy  (Jer.  ii.  23),  and  his  land  (ii.  7,  vii.  30, 
xxxii.  34).  Lamentations:  polluted  with  blood  (iv. 
14-15).]  In  Ezekiel  are  parallels  to  I.  1:  food 
baked  with  dung  of  man  is  imclean 
1.  Bvi-  (jy  12-13);  the  menstruating  woman 
^the  ^  mentioned  (xxii.  10);  the  defiled 
Prophetic  ^^^  ^  compared  to  her  uncleanness 
Wrltinffs.  (^<^3«vi.  17);  that  which  dieth  of  itself, 
or  is  torn  in  pieces,  is  imclean  (iv.  14)]; 
Yahweh's  house  is  defiled  by  bones  out  of  the  sepul- 
chers  (ix.  7,  xliii.  7);  priests  may  defile  themselves 
only  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  father,  mother, 
son,  daughter,  brother,  or  unmarried  sister  (xliv. 
25);  [the  sanctuary  and  Jerusalem  are  defiled  by 
idols  (v.  11,  xiv.  11,  xxii.  3,  15,  and  often);  ancient 
Jerusalem  is  defiled  by  blood  (xxiv.  9, 11);  imclean- 
ness  and  apostasy  together  (xxxix.  24);  the  neigh- 
bor's wife  is  defiled  by  adultery  (xviii.  6,  11,  15, 
xxii.  11);  God  pronounces  Israel  unclean  because 
of  sin  (xj(.  26);  but  will  cleanse  Israel  (xxxvi.  25,  29, 
xxxvii.  23);  finally  the  soul  becomes  polluted  by 
uncleanness  (iv.  14)].  Ezekiel  laments  over  the 
priests  who  made  no  difference  between  the  unclean 
and  the  clean  (xxii  26),  and  makes  it  a  special  duty 
of  the  priests  to  teach  this  difference  (xliv.  23). 
Deutero-Isaiah:  The  uncircumcised  and  unclean 
shall  come  no  more  into  Jerusalem  (Isa.  lii.  1); 
''  touch  no  unclean  thing  "  (11);  the  unclean  shall 
not  be  in  the  land  in  the  Messianic  time  (xxxv.  8). 
Haggai:  A  dead  body  defiles  (ii.  13).  Since  the 
oldest  literary  monuments  of  Israel  contain  essen- 
tially the  same  laws  of  imcleanness  as  are  contained 
in  Lev.  xi.-xv.,  Num.  xix.,  there  can  be  no  question 
that  Israel's  views  concerning  purifications  are, 
for  the  most  part,  very  old. 

4.  Ethnic  Analoffiee:  Among  the  Aryans  the 
impurities  described  in  the  Hindu  Manu-shastra 
have  an  esthetic,  not  a  religious-esthetic,  character. 
Greeks  and  Romans  used  lustrations  after  contact 
with  the  dead  (Vergil,  ^neidf  vi.  229),  and  reckoned 
hair,  wool,  and  nail-parings  as  impurities.  Spiegel, 
Justi,  and  Tiele  regard  Persian  conceptions  as  dif- 
fering in  starting-point  and  area  from  the  Hebrews', 
though  Hitzig  ascribes  to  Persian  thought  a  con- 
siderable influence  upon  Old  Testament  religion. 
That  Babylonians  made  a  distinction  between  clean 
and  unclean  is  proved,  and  on  specified  days  cer- 
tain kinds  of  meat  were  unlawful.  Regulations 
existed  also  concerning  contact  with  the  dead  and 
resulting  disability,  also  concerning  sexual  relations. 
The  Sabeans  and  Arameans,  according  to  Chwolson, 
prohibited  as  food  the  flesh  of  the  camel  and  of 
animals  which  had  incisors  in  both  jaws,  also  of 
swine,  dog,  and  ass,  except  in  the  yearly  swine- 
sacrifice.  They  refused  also  doves,  birds  of  prey, 
and  certain  vegetables.  Those  afflicted  with  cer- 
tain diseases  were  considered  unclean.  Emission 
and  the  menses  received  attention  from  them,  and 
contact  with  a  corpse  necessitated  purification. 
Ftayer  was  forbidden  those  in  an  impure  state. 
Among  the  northern  Mand««n»  distinctions  were 
made  as  to  clean  and  unclean  animals,  the  woman 
who  had  given  birth  to  a  child  was  isolated,  con- 
tagious diseases  were  defiling,  and  the  results  of 
nocturnal  emissions  and  the  menses  were  similar 
to   those   among  the   Hebrews.    Of   the   Syrians 


Lucian  reports  (De  dea  Syria,  liv.)  that  swine  were 
neither  eaten  nor  sacrific^.  Fish  they  eschewed, 
since  Derceto  had  the  form  of  a  fish,  and  doves, 
because  Semiramis  had  been  transformed  into  a 
dove.  Uncleanness  for  a  day  resulted  from  the 
breach  of  some  of  these  tab(X)6.  Phenicians  also 
had  distinctions  as  to  kinds  of  animalw  fit  for  food, 
but  in  respect  to  birds  their  distinctions  were  not 
those  of  the  Hebrews.  In  the  mystic  sacrifice  they 
offered  men,  dogs,  and  swine  (Smith,  ReLofSem.,  220k 
221).  In  northwestern  Arabian  inscriptions  direc- 
tions with  respect  to  sexual  relations,  contact  with 
a  corpse  and  a  menstruating  woman  are  found. 
Egyptians  feared  to  eat  doves,  ascribed  unclean- 
ness to  certain  plants,  and  in  general  had  the  dis- 
tinction between  clean  and  unclean. 

The  result  of  this  inquiry  is,  therefore,  that,  while 
the  Hebrews  inherited  a  stock  of  notions  upon  the  sub- 
ject, comparison  shows  that  in  their  religion  tbey  de- 
veloped these  notions  along  lines  of  their  own  choosing. 
5.  Origin  of  the  Old  Testament  Doctrine  of  TTn- 
oleanneee:   The  idea  of  the  Old  Testament  is  that 
in  the  specified  objects  actual  uncleanness  inheres, 
but   not   that  the   result   is   absolute  and  neces- 
sary psychological  irreligiousness  and  immorality. 
T^'hile  symbolical  interpretations  have  from  time 
to  time  been  offered  (e.g.,  Barnabas,  Epistle,  x.; 
Philo,  De  agricuUura  Nocb,  xxv.-xxxi.;   Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Pcedagogus,  iii. ;  Kurtz,  Op/erkuUus,  pp. 
7-8,  Mitau,  1862),  such  an  interpretation  is  not 
indicated    in    the    Old    Testament     and    is    not 
consistently  applicable.    The  view  has  been  ad- 
vanced that  the  object  was  to  protect  the  dwelling 
of  God  from  approach  by  a  man  in  a 
i' t^ta^  condition  unbecoming  a  worshiper,  or 
Bzpla^  that  Israel  was  by  the  laws  concein- 
nations.    ^  purity  separated  and  differentiated 
from  other  peoples.    But  these  replies 
simply  put  the  question  a  stage  farther  back.     The 
explanation  has  been  given  that  the  regulations 
arose  from  fear  of  contagion,  from  disgust  or  natural 
abhorrence  or  instinctive  revulsion.    But  these  ex* 
planations  do  not  cover  all  the  facts,  particulariy 
the  omissions  (for  example,  of  a  contagious  disease 
like  the  plague).     Physiological  motives  are  in- 
sufficient.   Riehm  and  Schlottmann  have  brought 
the  subject  into  relation  with  sin;    but  the  rela- 
tionship of  sin  to  uncleanness  is  a  late  notion, 
coming  out  in  Ezekiel.     As  Giesebrecht  remarks 
(GrundzUge  deriaraditischenGeachichte,  p.  Ill,  Leip- 
sic,  1903),  "the  conceptions  clean  and  undean  have 
nothing   inmiediately    to   do   with   the   ethical." 
Others  have  brought  in  the  two  factors  of  final 
being,  birth  and   death,  procreation  and    corrup- 
tion, origin  and  end,  with  the  idea  that  the  ethkral 
opposition  to  absolute  holiness  inherent  in  these 
relegates  them  to  the  sphere  of  the 
8.  The     sinful  and  impure  (e.g.,  G.  F.  Oehler, 
Principal    AUteatamenaiche  Thedogie,  %\  123-124, 
th  **SL     TQbingen.  1873-74).     But  this  theory 
latl^^     is  met  by  the  objection  that  the  new- 
ship  to     ^"^  ^^^^^  ^^  never  regarded  by  the 
Death.     Hebrews  as  unclean.     The   principal 
idea  in  the  Old  Testament  conception 
of   uncleanness  was  the  relation  to  death  appar- 
ent   in    the    given    phenomena.    The    oppositioD 


889 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Defilement  and  Purlfloation 


in 
Child- 
birth. 


between  the  holy  living  God  and  the  death  which 
results  from  a  sickness  is  thoroughgoing,  and  in  in- 
sensate and  finite  things  that  corruption  was  con- 
sidered inherent  which  is  the  opposite  of  God.  In 
particular  it  may  be  remarked  that  since  the  disgust 
at  blood,  the  seat  of  the  life,  was  an  old  inheritance, 
it  follows  that  those  animals  were  not  regarded  as 
fit  for  food  which  devoured  other  animals  in  their 
blood;  and  a  similar  line  of  reasoning  applies  to 
the  unclean  birds  of  prey  or  carrion.  The  loss  of 
blood  at  childbirth  seemingly  puts  the  mother 
into  connection  with  death-phenomena — the  issue 
of  the  vital  fluid.  The  delimitation  of  the  areas 
of  cleanness  and  uncleanness  through  the  action  of 
instinctive  repulsion  and  disgust  reveals  the  basis 
of  uncleanness  in  a  religious-ethical-esthetic  rela- 
tionship. An  unpleasant  odor  (like  that  of  the 
camel)  or  repugnant  habits  or  appearance  may 
have  helped  to  put  some  animals  in  the  class  of  un- 
clean. The  derivation  of  the  Old  Testament  pres- 
entations about  imdean  beasts  from  religious- 
historical,  demonistic,  and  totemistic  origins,  which 
derivation  is  approved  by  Stade,  Benzinger,  Frey,  and 
Matthes,  simply  refers  the  matter  to  an  earlier  stage. 
XL  Purification. — 1.  The  Bemoval  of  XTnolean- 
nees :  For  imdean  beasts  there  is  no  purification. 
The  woman  in  childbirth. — For  seven  or  fourteen 
days  respectively  (i.e.,  after  the  birth 
1.  Women  ^f  3^  jj^y  qj.  ^  gj^i)  i\^q  woman  is  as 

thoroughly  unclean  as  in  the  time  of 
her  menstruation;  and,  after  washing 
herself  and  her  clothes,  she  is  clean 
from  positive  impurity,  but  not  from  negative 
impurity  (i.e.,  keeping  aloof  from  holy  things  and 
from  the  sanctuary),  which  can  be  removed  only 
by  presenting  a  lamb  one  year  old  as  a  burnt-offer- 
ing, and  a  young  pigeon  or  turtle-dove  as  a  sin-offer- 
ing; but,  if  she  be  poor,  a  pigeon  or  a  turtle-dove 
suffices  for  the  burnt-offering  also  (Lev.  vii.  6-8). 

In  cases  of  leprosy,  he  who  has  shown  a  doubt- 
ful symptom  of  leprosy  on  his  body  has  only  to 
wash  his  garments;  garments  affected  with  leprosy 
must  be  burned;  garments  or  stuffs  which  showed 
only  doubtful  signs  of  leprosy  are  to 
a.  l-eprosy.  ^  cashed  (Lev.  xiu.  6,  34,  62,  64, 
66,  67-68).  At  the  purification  of  the  leper,  one 
of  the  two  clean  Uve  birds  is  to  be  kill^  over  a 
vessel  containing  spring  water;  the  other  is  to  be 
dipped  in  the  mixed  blood  and  water,  together 
with  cedar-wood,  hyssop,  and  a  crimson  thread  or 
band.  The  fluid  is  then  sprinkled  upon  the  con- 
valescent seven  times,  and  the  living  bird  is  allowed 
to  fly  away.  The  convalescent  then  washes  his 
garments,  shaves  his  hair,  and  bathes,  as  he  is  to  do 
again  on  the  seventh  day.  Of  the  blood  of  the 
lamb  killed  as  trespass-offering  the  priest  sprinkles 
upon  the  top  of  his  right  ear,  upon  the  thumb  of 
his  right  hand,  and  upon  the  great  toe  of  his  right 
foot;  then  some  of  the  oil  is  sprinkled  seven  times 
toward  the  holy  place.  Next  the  ewe-lamb  is  pre- 
sented as  a  sin-offering,  and  the  second  he-lamb  as 
a  burnt-offering,  accompanied  by  the  usual  blood- 
less oblation  of  the  flour.  In  case  of  poverty,  for 
the  sin-offering  and  burnt-offering  two  turtle-doves 
or  two  young  pigeons  are  accepted  (Lev.  xiv.  4-32). 
A  leprous  house  is  to  be  broken  down,  and  he  who 


slept  or  ate  in  it  must  wash  his  garments.  But, 
if  the  house  is  declared  clean,  its  purification  is 
effected  as  described  above  (Lev.  xiv.  4-7,  46-63). 

A  man  with  a  discharge,  after  recovering  is  to 
wash  his  garments,  and  bathe  in  running  water; 
he  presents  two  turtle-doves  or  two  young  pigeons, 
one  for  a  sin-offering  and  the  other  for  a  burnt- 
offering.  Persons  defiled  directly  or  indirectly  by 
such  a  person  have  only  to  wash  their  garments, 
and  bathe  their  bodies.  Earthen  vessels  touched 
by  the  patient  must  be  broken;  wooden  ones 
rinsed  with  water.  Nocturnal  acci- 
*™ie-  (jgj^^  render  the  persons  unclean  till 
**^*'  the  evening,  when  they  must  bathe, 
while  all  stained  garments  require  washing  (Lev. 
XV.  6-18).  For  the  menstruating  woman  no  puri- 
fication is  indicated;  but  the  persons  indirectly 
defiled  by  her  must  wash  garments  and  person 
(Lev.  XV.  21-22).  Since,  however,  the  irregular 
issue  of  blood  on  the  part  of  the  woman  is  r^arded 
only  as  temporary,  different  from  the  regular  issue, 
having  the  same  defiling  qualifications,  it  may  be 
taken  for  granted  that  the  lawgiver  intended  the 
same  purificatory  laws  for  the  menstruating  woman 
as  for  the  one  afflicted  with  an  irregular  issue  of 
blood  (Lev.  xv.  25-28,  2^-30). 

Whoever  carries  the  carcass  of  unclean  animals 
must  wash  his  garments;  the  objects  upon  which  a 
carcass  accidentally  falls,  such  as  utensils  of  wood, 
garments,  or  skins,  require  cleansing  by  being  left 
in  water  till  the  evening;  earthen  vessels,  ovens, 
and  stoves  must  be  broken.  Carrying  the  carcass 
of  a  clean  animal  requires  washing  of  garments 
(Lev.  XL  25,  28,  32,  33,  35,  40).  Defilement 
from  a  corpse  requires  a   red  heifer 

Thinffs  without  spot,  and  upon  which  never 
came  yoke.  The  ashes  of  the  burned 
heifer  are  put  into  running  water,  which  be- 
comes the  water  of  abomination,  i.e.,  the  water 
appointed  for  the  purification  of  uncleanness  (in 
this  sense  the  word  may  niddaht  Num.  xix.  9,  is  to 
be  taken).  With  this  water,  those  who  have  become 
defiled  directly  or  indirectly  for  a  dead  person,  as 
well  as  the  house  of  the  dead  and  its  vessels,  are 
to  be  sprinkled,  by  means  of  hyssop,  on  the  third 
and  seventh  day  after  the  defilement;  and  on  the 
seventh  day  the  person  shall  purify  himself,  and 
wash  his  dothes.  The  latter  must  also  be  done 
by  him  who  prepares,  keeps,  and  uses  the  ashes. 
The  officiating  priest,  as  well  as  the  man  who  burned 
the  red  heifer,  have,  besides,  to  bathe  their  flesh  in 
water  (Num.  xix.  1-8,  10,  12-13,  17-21).  The 
Nazirite  who  became  defiled  by  a  sudden  death 
was  to  shave  his  head  on  the  seventh  day,  offer 
two  doves  or  young  pigeons,  one  as  a  sin-offering, 
the  other  as  a  burnt-offering,  and  a  lamb  as  a 
trespass-offering,  and  lose  the  time  passed  in 
Naziritic  separation  before  his  defilement  (Num. 
vi.  9-12). 

Of  the  booty  taken  from  heathen  nations  every 
thing  that  may  abide  the  fire  is  to  go  through  it, 
BAAtv  *^^  must  be  purified  with  the  water 
^'  of  separation;  all  that  abideth  not 
the  fire  is  to  go  through  the  water;  and  a  per- 
son touching  such  booty  must  wash  his  clothes  on 
the  seventh  day  (Num.  xxxi.  23). 


X>efil«ment  and  Purliloation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


390 


2.  XTnderlyiiiff  Oonoeptions:  The  destruction  of 
unclean  things,  in  whatever  form  or  manner,  needs 
no  explanation.  Going  through  fire  is  easily  under- 
stood, since  fire  is  often  mentioned  as  a  purifying 
means  (Ps.  xii.  6).  That  water  should  be  used  for 
removing  the  ethico-enthetic  impurity  is  a  matter  of 
course;  and  it  is  possible  that  "  living  "  water  is 
meant,  even  where  it  is  not  expressly  stated.  The 
sin  and  burnt  sacrifices  required  of  the  woman 
after  childbirth,  the  leper,  the  man  having  a  running 
issue,  and  the  woman  having  an  issue  of  blood, 
have  their  usual  signification.  In  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  leper  all  materials  and  actions  show 
the  great  step  which  the  person  to  be  purified  took 
from  the  awful  nearness  of  death  to  the  gladsome 
communion  of  untroubled  life.  In  removing  the 
impurity  caused  by  the  touch  of  a  dead  person 
the  red  color  of  the  cow,  as  symbol  of  the  soiure  of 
life,  being  in  the  blood,  must  be  considered.  As 
a  yoke  had  never  come  upon  her,  she  was  the 
emblem  of  virgin  energy.  Cedar-wood,  crimson 
thread,  and  hyssop,  which  were  also  used,  represent 
emblems  of  incorruptibility,  medicine  against  im- 
purity, and  symbol  of  life. 

nL  Postcanonical  Development:  When,  in  the 
time  of  Ezra,  Israel  undertook  to  observe  even 
the  Uws  concerning  clean  and  unclean  according 
to  the  Pentateuch,  the  scribes  assumed  clearly 
to  define,  not  only  the  laws  in  the  canon, 
but  also  inferences  deduced  from  them.  These 
rules  and  regulations  are  found  in  the  treatises 
JJuUin,  Niddah,  Tebul  Yarn,  OhalU,  *Abodah  Zarah 
Oi.  6),  Mikwa*oif  Yadayim  (see  Talmud).  Evi- 
dent among  the  restrictions  were  those  against 
entering  the  house  of  a  Gentile  (cf.  John  xviii.  28; 
Acts  X.  28),  which  resulted  in  defilement  like  that 
caused  by  contact  with  the  dead,  accounted  for  on 
the  supposition  of  the  burial  of  abortions  in  the 
house.  The  idea  of  a  heathen  land's  conveying  a 
like  impurity  finds  support  in  Amos  vii.  17,  cf. 
Num.  xxxL  23.  Water  was  used,  as  well  as  fire, 
in'  purifications;  but  the  hand-washing,  of  which 
much  appears  in  the  New  Testament,  is  not  an 
Old  Testament  phenomenon.  But  not  all  Israelites 
took  part  in  these  rigorous  purificatory  efforts. 
Religious  indifference  led  to  laxness  (Tobit  i.  10-1 1 ), 
while  overscrupulo\2sness  led  to  the  formation  of 
special  societies,  the  most  rigorous  of  which  was 
that  of  the  Chasidim  (q.v.). 

That  the  Old  Testament  ideas  of  impurities  and 
purifications  existed  before  and  after  the  time  of 
Christ  is  seen  from  I  Mace.  i.  62-63;  II  Mace.  vi. 
18,  vii.  1-2,  xi.  31;  Tacitus,  Hist.,  v.  4-6.  The 
sixth  part  of  the  Mishnah  (compiled  about  180 
A.D.)  shows  a  development  of  the  Old  Testament 
purificatory  laws.  But  partly  in  consequence  of 
the  declarations  of  Christ — ^though  he  did  not 
abolish  the  ideas  of  his  times  concerning  clean  and 
unclean  (Matt.  viii.  4;  Luke  xvii.  14)  when  deal- 
ing with  unconverted  persons — concerning  the 
spirituality  of  the  Old  Testament  religion  and 
morals  (Matt.  v.  17,  21  sqq.,  vii.  12,  xL  30, 
ziL  8,  XV.  11);  partly  in  consequence  of  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  reminded  the  dis- 
ciples of  the  new  spiritual  foundation  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  (John  xiv.  26),  and  showed  to  Peter  in 


a  vision  that  the  difference  of  food  has  lost  it£ 
authority  in  the  Christian  eon  of  salvatiozi  (Acts 
X.  15),  Jewish  Christians  were  at  a  very  early 
period  converted  to  eat  with  Gentile  ChiistiaDs, 
by  receiving  Christ  as  the  new  living  lawgiver 
(Gal.  ii.  12-20).  The  departure  of  this  Jewish- 
Christian  part  of  the  first  Christians  from  Jerusalem, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  became,  at  least 
to  the  less  rigorous  among  them,  a  guide  to  r^^ard 
the  lex  eeremonialis  of  the  Old  Testament  (cf .  Heb. 
ix.  1)  as  perfected,  Le.,  spiritualized,  in  ChrisH 
tianity.  The  Church  of  Christ  knows,  it  is  true, 
that  death  is  the  wages  of  sin  (Rom.  vL  23),  and 
groans  to  be  relieved  from  the  body  of  this  death 
(vii.  24);  but  she  does  not  regard  the  death  of  the 
body  as  the  evil  most  to  be  avoided,  but  the  spiritual 
and  everlasting  death  (Matt.  viii.  22;  Luke  ix.  60). 
"  Let  the  dead  bury  their  dead:  but  go  thou  and 
preach  the  kingdom  of  God."  See  for  ethnic  paral- 
lels COMPARATIVB  RbUGION,  VI.,1,C.   _    _ 

£.  KOnio. 
Bibuoorapbt:  From  the  oompantive  side  the  beet  three 
books  mn:  J.  Q.  Fraser,  OoUUn  Bough,  especially  L  323- 
325.  ii.  204-233.  304-309,  London,  1900;  E.  B.  Tyior. 
PrimiHv  Culture,  espedaUy  ii.  26-27,  431-133.  ib.  1S91; 
F.  B.  Jevotts,  IfUrodueHon  to  tho  HiUory  of  R^igion,  pp. 
67-58,  75-78,  102,  116-127,  ib.  1806.  For  the  Semitie 
world  consult:  Smith,  RoL.  of  jSem.,  122.  324  sqq..  447- 
448;    idem,    Kintkip,    ebap.    viii.,    304-311    et    passim; 

D.  Nielsen,  Die  ottorabiscAs  MondrtUgion,  pp.  204-206. 
StrasbuiVt  1004;  M.  J.  Lagrange,  6tudeo  our  lea  reiiffion* 
ahnitiquM,  pp.  140  sqq.,  161,  237.  305  sqq..  Paris,  1906. 
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2  Tola.,  Bonn,  1841-66;  D.  A.  Chwolson,  Die  Soabier,  i. 
146  sqq..  St.  Fetersbofg,  1856;  L.  Krehl,  Rotigion  der 
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Spiegel,  Eraniediie  AUertumekunde,  iL  144-145,  ib.  1873: 
F.  Justi.  OeediiehUe  dee  dUen  Pereiene,  pp.  144-145.  ib. 
1870;  P.  E.   Lucius,  Der  Beeeniemua,  Strasburg,    1881; 

E.  Westermarok,  Hvetory  of  Human  Marriaoe,  chaps. 
xiT.-xv..  London,  1804;  A.  Wiedemann,  Die  Toien  und 
ihre  Reiche  im  Olauben  der  aUen  Aeovpier,  pp.  25  sqq.. 
Leipsic.  1900;  Wellhausen,  Heidentum,  pp.  113  sqq. 

On  the  custom  of  the  Hebrews  consult:  H.    Ewald. 
AUertOmer  dee   Voikee  lerad,   pp.    192  sqq.,   Gdttingen. 
1866.  Eng.  transl..  pp.  142  sqq..  Boston.  1876;  W.  Bau- 
dissin.  Studien  eur  eemiHedum  RHioionaffeeekidUe,   ii.   20 
sqq.,  00  sqq.,  Leipsic.  1878  (important  discussion);  Ben> 
singer,  ArdtOologie,   {   72;  Nowack,   ArckAolooie,   ii.  287 
sqq.;   J.  Frey,   Tod,  Seelenolaube  und  SeelerdtuU  im  aUen 
lerael,  pp.  127.  137  sqq..  Leipsic,  1808;  Matthes.  in  TkT, 
1899.    pp.    293    sqq.;  V.    Zapletal,    Totemiemue   und  die 
Urrelioion  leraele,  pp.  81  sqq.,  Freiburg,  1901;  W.  Bous- 
set,  Relioion  dee  Judentume,  pp.  202  sqq.,  Berlin,  1903; 
K.  Marti.  Geeehickte  der  itraeUHechen  Religion,  Stuttgart. 
1903;  the  commentaries  on  EZxodus.  Leviticus,  and  Deu- 
teronomy; and  the  works  on  O.  T.  theology. 
DEFHirrOR:    An   official    of    religious    orders 
who,  according  to  the  reformed  constitutions  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  stood  at  the  head  of  a  district  {defi.- 
niiio).     The  orders  consisted  of  congregations,  which 
were  divided  into  definitumea,  each  including  a  oe> 
tain  number  of  monasteries.    The  heads  of  the 
houses  were  subject  to  the  definitor,  the  latter  to 
the  provincial,  and  the  provincial  to  the  genersL 

DEGRADATION:  A  severe  penalty  inflicted 
upon  delinquent  clerics  by  the  ancient  ecclesiasti- 
cal discipline  (see  JuRisnicriON,  Ecclbbiastical). 
By  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cent\iry  the  doctrine  of 
the  indelible  character  of  holy  orders  had  been 
generally  accepted;  and  in  connection  with  it  and 
with  the  struggle  of  the  Church  for  clerical  im- 
munities the  earlier  penalty  of  deposition  was 
divided  into  what  was  now  called  deposition  (the 


391 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Defilttment  and  Puiifioatlon 
I>6inn 


removal  of  a  cleric  from  his  office  and  benefice  with 
the  prohibition  of  the  exercise  of  his  orders)  and 
clcsgradation,  which,  in  addition,  withdrew  from 
him  all  the  privileges  of  the  clerical  state.  The 
degradatio  verbalis  involved  the  pronoimoement  of 
the  former  penalties,  and  was  performed  by  the 
bishop  with  the  assent  of  the  chapter  in  the  case  of 
the  minor  orders,  of  three  bishops  in  that  of  deacons, 
and  of  six  bishops,  mitered  abbots,  or  other  digni- 
taries in  that  of  priests.  The  solemn  degradatio 
cuUuali9  went  further  and  involved  the  observance 
of  special  formalities — ^the  stripping  of  the  culprit 
of  his  vestments,  the  shaving  of  the  head  to  oblit- 
erate the  tonsure,  and  the  scraping  of  the  thumbs 
and  fingers  as  if  to  remove  the  unction  bestowed 
at  ordination.  These  ceremonies  were  supposed 
to  take  place  in  the  presence  of  the  secular  authority, 
to  whose  jurisdiction  the  delinquent,  as  now  no 
more  than  a  mere  layman,  was  then  handed  over. 

DE  £L£RETICO  COMBUREITDO:  A  writ  for 
the  burning  of  heretics  by  the  secular  power  after 
they  had  been  condemned  by  the  ecclesiastical 
power.  It  was  issued  in  Ekigland  under  Henry  IV. 
in  1401;  expanded  under  Henry  V.  in  1415;  re- 
pealed in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Henry  VIII. 
(1534),  and  again  in  the  first  year  of  Edward  VI. 
(1547);  revived  in  the  first  year  of  Mary  (1553); 
repealed  in  the  first  year  of  Elizabeth  (1559),  and 
finally  in  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  Charles  II. 
( 1678).  In  its  original  form  it  was  directed  against 
the  Lollards,  and  was  the  earliest  step  taken  by 
Parliament  in  their  suppression,  but  was  afterward 
used  against  Protestants  in  general.  It  solemnly 
abjures  them  to  abstain  entirely  from  preaching 
or  otherwise  circulating  their  "  new  doctrines  and 
wicked,  heretical,  and  erroneous  opinions  ";  orders 
them  to  give  up  the  books  which  advocate  the  same; 
threatens  them  with  imprisonment  for  disobedience 
if  they  refuse;  and  on  their  condemnation  by  the 
eccledastical  authorities  lays  it  upon  the  secular 
authorities  to  biun  them. 
Bibuoorapht:  The  full  text  of  the  writ  is  given  in  Gee  and 

Hardy,   DoeutiunU,  pp.  133-137.     Consult:  J.  Gairdner, 

Th0  Bngluh  Chyreh  in  Ms  16.  Century,  pp.  146,  231,  249. 

346,  362.  London.  1903;  J.  H.  Oyerton,  The  Churdi  in 

En^nd,  L  300,  418.  ii.  19.  ib.  1897. 

DEISM. 

I.  England.  Shaftesbury,  Bfandeville, 

Lord  Herbert  of  Cher-  Dodwell.  Bolingbroke 

bury  (I  1).  (I  8). 

Hobbes  and  Others  (|  2).  Hume's  Influence  (|  9). 

Charles  Blount  (f  3).  II.  France. 

John  Locke  (f  4).  Voltaire  (f  1). 

Toland,     Collins,      and  The  Encyclopedists  ($2). 

Others  (f  6).  Holbach  and  the  Ideo- 

Matthew  Tindal  (|  6).  logical  School  (f  3). 

Morgan.  Annet.  and  Mid-  Rousseau  (f  4). 
I  (I  7). 


The  term  "  Deism  "  properly  denotes  a  belief  in 
deity  that  is  rational  and  universal,  in  contrast  to 
Atheism  and  Pantheism  (qq.v.),  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  uncritical  Theism  (q.v.),  on  the  other. 
Deism,  which  originated  in  En^nd,  represented 
an  effort  to  find  a  standard  of  religious  truth  by 
which  the  conflicting  claims  of  individual  creeds 
and  the  pretensions  of  supernatural  revelation 
might  be  tested,  and  which  should  harmonise  with 
the  metaphysical  results  of  the  new  sciences.    It 


is  in  this  sense  that  "  natural  religion  "  and  the 
term  **  natural  "  itself  are  so  intimately  bound  up 
with  the  history  of  Deism  (see  Natural  The- 
oloot).  Since  the  habit  was  to  regard  religion  as 
a  system  of  metaphysics,  the  desired  standard  of 
truth  was  sought  in  a  metaphysics  that  should  be 
universally  cognizable  and  whose  validity  might  be 
tested  by  the  facts  of  experience.  The  develop- 
ment of  Deism  in  consequence  is  closely  bound  up 
with  the  development  of  sensualism  and  mech- 
anism, and  with  the  struggle  between  the  a  priori 
philosophy  and  empiricism,  as  well  as  with  the 
development  of  the  theory  of  morals  which  at  the 
same  time  had  succeeded  in  emancipating  itself 
from  the  sway  of  theology  and  sought  to  lay  its 
foundations  upon  epistemology  and  psychology  (see 
Ethics).  Since  the  entire  conception  of  natural 
religion  is  nothing  but  a  restatement  of  the  Stoic  lex 
naturoB  (see  Natural  Law),  Deism  may  be  taken  as 
the  point  of  departure  for  the  employment  of  the 
epistemological  and  psychological  methods  in  the 
philosophy  of  religion.  At  the  same  time,  in  the 
attempt  to  decide  between  the  conflicting  claims 
of  particular  revelations.  Deism  made  its  chief 
problem  the  study  of  the  historical  connection 
between  natural  religion  and  revelation,  and 
became  a  philosophy  of  the  history  of  religion  in 
which  the  relation  of  elemental  truth,  as  detei^ 
mined  by  the  mind,  to  Christian  revelation  and  to 
pagan  truth  was  fixed  on  purely  rational  lines. 
Criticism  of  historic  Christianity  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  relative  truth  contained  in  other 
creeds  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  system  of  the 
philosophy  of  history  at  first  adopted  and  made 
way  for  the  modem  principles  of  the  philosophy  of 
religion. 

As  a  contributoiy  force,  with  Puritan  radicalism, 
to  the  opposition  with  which  the  Anglican  Church 
was  confronted,  Deism  was  naturally  at  odds  with 
respectable  conservatism  in  the  State,  the  Church, 
and  the  world  of  literature  and  learning.  Not  till 
Hume  and  Gibbon  took  them  up  did  the  problems 
of  Deism  attain  full  scientific  treatment  in  lasting 
and  really  literary  form.  Far  more  profound  was 
the  influence  it  exercised  on  French  literature. 
The  real  tendency  of  Deism  is  best  expressed 
in  the  name  ''  freethinkers,"  which  its  advocates 
adopted;  by  their  opponents  they  were  designated 
as  Naturalists  on  account  of  their  opposition  to 
supernatural  revelation. 

L  England:  The  beginnings  of  Deism  appear 
in  the  seventeenth  centuiy.  Its  main  principles 
are  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury  (d.  1648),  one  of  the  most  original  thinkers 
of  his  century,  who  devoted  the  calm  evening  of  a 
life  spent  in  a  military  and  diplomatic  career  to  a 
search  for  a  st-andard  and  a  guide  in  the  conflicts 
of  creeds  and  systems.  He  was  a  friend  of  Grotius, 
Casaubon,  and  Gassendi,  and  during  a  long  sojourn 
in  France  made  himself  acquainted 

1.  Lord    Yiiih.  the   thought   of   Montaigne,  of 

Herbert    Bodin,  and  especially  of  Charron.    His 

Oh^bury.  ^^^^  ^^'  ^*  VeritaU  (Paris,  1624); 

DereligioneOentiliumerTorunuiueapud 

eo8  causia  (London,  1645);  and  two  minor  treatises, 

De  causis  errorum  and  De  religume  laicL    The  first 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


work  advances  a  theory  of  knowledge  based  upon 
the  recognition  of  innate  universal  characteristics 
on  the  object  perceived,  and  rigidly  opposed  to 
knowledge  supernatural  in  its  origin  and  deter- 
minable only  by  strife  and  conflict.  The  second 
work  lays  down  the  common  marks  by  which  relig- 
ious truth  is  recognixed.  These  are  a  belief  in  the 
existence  of  the  Deity,  the  obligation  to  reverence 
such  a  power,  the  identification  of  worship  with 
practical  morality,  the  obligation  to  repent  of  sin 
and  to  abandon  it,  and,  finally,  divine  recompense 
in  this  world  and  the  next.  These  five  essentials 
(the  so-called  "Five  Articles"  of  the  English 
Deists)  constitute  the  nucleus  of  all  religions  and 
of  Christianity  in  its  primitive,  uncorrupted  form. 
The  variations  between  positive  religions  are  ex- 
plained as  due  partly  to  the  allegorization  of  nature, 
partly  to  self-deception,  the  workings  of  imagina- 
tion, and  priestly  guile. 

Herbert's  influence  disappeared  in  the  storms  of 
the  Puritan  Revolution,  and  Deism  found  the  most 
important  impetus  supplied  to  its  progress  in  eccle- 
siastical circles.  The  learning  of  the  Renaissance 
had  served  to  incline  the  clergy  of  the  Establish- 
ment to  a  moderate  rational  theology,  and  in  the 
conflict  between  Puritans  and  Anglicans,  and  be- 
tween Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants,  it  be- 
came common  to  invoke  Reason  as  arbiter.  Later 
Deists  could  appeal  to  the  arguments  of  leading 
theologians,  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  Cambridge 
Platonists  (q.v.),  who,  in  their  conflict  against  the 
sensualism  of  Hobbes,  exalted  the  authority  of 
moral  intuitions.  The  Revolution  served  to  inten- 
sify the  growing  feeling  against  what  was  arbitrary 
in  religion,  and  emphasized  the  demand  for  sub- 
jective independence  in  the  field  of  reason  and  the 
need  of  unity  in  the  realm  of  practical  morality. 

Antagonism  to  theological  supematuralism  stands 
out  as  the  most  conspicuous  characteristic  in  the 
system  of  Hobbes  (d.  1679;  see  Hobbes,  Thomas), 
inspired  by  the  teachings  of  the  new  mathematical 
and  natural  sciences.  The  different  religions  are 
explained  as  the  product  of  human  fear  inter- 
fi  H  bbA  P*^^"*?  natural  phenomena  in  anthro- 
aAd  *  pomorphic  form,  or,  in  their  higher 
Others.  Aspects,  as  the  outcome  of  reflection 
on  causal  relation  in  the  universe. 
Miracles  and  revelations  are  in  themselves  improb- 
able, and  may  be  most  easily  explained  as  the  im- 
aginings of  the  ignorant.  Positive  religion  is  the 
creation  of  the  State,  and  the  sovereign  justly 
possesses  unconditional  power  to  enforce  its  pre- 
scriptions, for  only  in  this  way  can  religious  strife 
be  avoided.  Between  religion  thus  naturally  ex- 
plained and  a  prophetic  and  Christian  revelation 
Hobbes,  nevertheless,  attempted  to  mediate;  he 
mentions  as  the  means  that  might  lead  to  such  a 
reconciliation  the  rational  interpretation  of  mir- 
acles, the  differentiation  between  the  inner  moral 
Bense  of  Scripture  and  mere  figurative  expression, 
and  the  historical  criticisms  of  Biblical  sources. 
The  entire  apparatus  of  Rationalism  is  here  to  be 
found,  limited  only  in  its  application.  Further, 
Spinoza's  Tractatus  theologica'politicua  (1670)  and 
Bayle's  Dictionnaire  (1695-97)  were  effective  in 
shaping  the  character  of  Deism.     Of  no  small  im- 


portance, also,  was  the  rise  of  a  literature  of  com- 
parative religion  and  the  publication  of  ethno- 
graphical studies  and  works  of  travel.  China, 
Arabia,  Egypt,  Persia,  India,  savage  nations  even, 
were  brought  within  the  horizon  of  religious  inves- 
tigation. Philosophy,  beginning  with  Locke's  theory 
of  knowledge^  and  natural  science,  with  Newton's 
theory  of  gravitation,  contributed  to  the  opposi- 
tion with  which  dogma  was  confronted.  Yet  their 
attitude  was  not  one  of  hostility  to  religion,  which 
they  sought  rather  to  utilize  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  the  desired  imiversal  standard  of  truth. 
Newton  and  Boyle  succeeded  in  reconciling  the 
creed  of  the  Church  with  their  mechanical  meta- 
physics; and  this  union  remained  characteristic  of 
England,  so  that  even  men  like  Priestley  and  Hartley 
did  not  shrink  from  supporting  their  materialistic 
theories  by  theological  arguments.  We  have  here 
the  blending  of  a  sensualistic  epistemology,  a 
mechanical-teleological  metaphysics,  a  historical 
criticism,  and  an  aprioristic  ethics  whose  product 
in  the  shape  of  natural  religion  was  destined  first 
to  undermine  Christianity,  then  to  compete  with  it, 
and  finally  to  supplant  it. 

These  various  tendencies  could  not  show  them- 
selves fully  under  the  ecclesiastical  restraint  of  the 
Restoration,  yet  they  appear  clearly  enough  in 
the  writings  of  Charles  Blount  (d.  1693),  usually 
«  ^^  -  placed  second  to  Herbert  in  the  lists 
Bloant.  °^  Deists.  like  his  predecessor,  Blount 
dwells  on  the  conflict  between  rival 
religions,  and  finds  a  standard  of  adjustment 
in  a  fusion  of  Herbert's  theory  of  universal  char^ 
acteristics  with  Hobbes's  prescription  by  the  State. 
Like  Hobbes  and  Spinoza,  he  touches  serious  prob- 
lems of  Biblical  criticism  at  this  early  date.  Free- 
dom from  prejudice  is  his  boast;  he  asserts  the 
supernatural  character  of  Christianity  on  the  basis 
of  its  miracles,  after  he  has  already  rendered  them 
dubious  by  parallels  with  non-Christian  miracles. 
His  works  were:  Anima  mundi  (London,  1679), 
Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  (1680),  and  The 
Two  First  Books  of  Philostratus  concerning  the  Life 
of  ApolUmius  Tyaneus,  published  in  English  with 
notes  (1680). 

The  Revolution  of  1688,  the  establishment  of  the 
freedom  of  the  press  in  1694,  the  political  favor 
that  was  bestowed  on  the  new  tendencies  in 
theology,  in  opposition  to  the  stricter  Anglican- 
ism which  was  tainted  with  Stuart 
partizanship,  were  conditions  favor- 
able to  the  development  of  the  seed 
that  had  already  been  planted.  Parallel  with  the 
liberalization  of  orthodox  dogma,  there  ran  a  more 
radical  development  aiming  at  the  attainment  of 
a  standard  for  the  testing  of  the  contents  of  reve- 
lation. Of  surpassing  importance  in  this  direction 
was  the  influence  and  work  of  John  Locke  (d.  1704), 
who,  in  the  field  of  theology,  found  his  starting- 
point,  like  most  prominent  thinkers  of  the  age,  in 
the  conflict  of  systems,  doctrines,  and  practises. 
Out  of  his  reflections  on  the  data  of  experience  he 
developed  a  mechanical-teleological  metaphysics 
and  an  empirical-utilitarian  ethics,  the  latter  agree- 
ing with  the  old  idea  of  lex  naturoe  in  that  ethical 
experience  merely  confirms  the  connection  estab- 


4.  John 
I«ooke. 


3d3 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DeUm 


lished  by  a  teleological  government  of  the  universe 
between  certain  acts  and  their  consequences.  In 
Bpit«  of  his  supematuralist  tendencies,  Locke  nev- 
ertheless maintained,  in  his  Letters  on  Toleration 
(168d-92),  that  only  rational  demonstration,  and 
not  compulsion  or  mere  assertion,  can  establish 
the  validity  of  revelation.  In  the  Essay  concerning 
Human  Understanding  (1690)  he  had  investigated 
the  conception  of  revelation  from  the  epistemolog- 
ical  standpoint,  and  laid  down  the  criteria  by 
which  the  true  revelation  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
other  doctrines  which  claim  such  authority.  Strict 
proof  of  the  formal  character  of  revelation  must  be 
adduced;  the  tradition  which  communicates  it  to 
us  must  be  fully  accredited  by  both  external  and 
internal  evidence;  and  its  content  must  be  shown 
to  correspond  with  rational  metaphysics  and  ethics. 
Revelation  is  revelation;  but,  after  it  is  once  given, 
it  may  be  shown  a  posteriori  to  be  rational,  i.e., 
capable  of  being  deduced  from  the  premises  of  our 
reason.  Only  where  this  is  possible  is  there  a  pre- 
sumption in  favor  of  the  purely  mysterious  parts  of 
revelation.  Where  these  criteria  are  disregarded 
the  way  is  open  to  the  excesses  of  sects  and  priest- 
hoods by  which  religion,  the  differentia  of  reasoning 
man,  has  often  made  him  appear  less  rational  than 
the  beasts.  Locke  advances  therefore  the  remark- 
able conception  of  a  revelation  that  reveals  only 
the  reasonable  and  the  universally  cognizable.  The 
practical  consequences  of  the  thesis  are  deduced  in 
his  Reasonableness  of  Christianity  as  Delivered  in  the 
Scriptures  (1695),  which  aims  at  the  termination  of 
religious  strife  through  the  recovery  of  the  truths  of 
primitive,  rational  Christianity.  From  the  Gospels 
and  the  Acts,  as  distinguished  from  the  Epistles, 
he  elicits  as  the  fundamental  Christian  verities  the 
doctrine  of  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  and  that  of  the 
kingdom  of  God.  Inseparably  connected  with  these 
are  the  recognition  of  Jesus  as  ruler  of  this  kingdom, 
forgiveness  of  sins,  and  subjection  to  the  moral  law 
of  the  kingdom.  This  law  is  identical  with  the 
ethical  portion  of  the  law  of  Moses,  which  in  its 
turn  corresponds  to  the  lex  natures  or  rationis. 
The  Gospel  is  but  the  divine  sunmiary  and  expo- 
sition of  the  law  of  nature,  and  it  is  the  advantage 
of  Christianity  over  pagan  creeds  and  philosophies 
that  it  offers  this  law  of  nature  intelligibly,  with 
divine  authority,  and  free  from  merely  ceremonial 
sacerdotalism.  To  do  this  it  requires  the  aid  of  a 
supernatural  revelation,  whose  message  is  attain- 
able through  reason  also,  but  only  in  an  imperfect 
way. 

Deducing  the  full  consequences  of  Locke's  theory, 
John  Toland  (q.v.;  d.  1722),  in  his  Christianity  not 
Mysterious  (1696),  maintained  that 
^^n^ii"**'  the  content  of  revdation  must  neither 
*  contradict  nor  transcend  the  dictates 
of  reason.  Revelation  is  not  the  ba- 
sis of  truth,  but  only  a  "  means  of  in- 
formation "  by  which  man  may  arrive  at  knowl- 
edge, the  sanction  for  which  must  be  found  in 
reason.  Primitive  Christianity  knew  nothing  of 
mystery,  whose  sources  are  Judaic  and  Greek,  and 
the  original  Christian  use  of  the  word  mysterium 
conveyed  no  idea  of  that  which  transcended  reason. 
The  basis  is  thus  laid  for  the  critical  study  of  early 


Others. 


Christianity.  Further  problems  of  Biblical  criti- 
cism and  the  distinction  between  the  diverse  parties 
in  primitive  Christianity  are  advanced  in  Toland's 
Amyntor  (1699)  and  Nazarenus ;  or  Jewish,  Gen- 
tile and  Mahometan  Christianity  (1718).  In  like 
manner,  Anthony  Collins  (q.v.;  d.  1729),  in  his 
Discourse  of  Freethinking  (1713),  developed  the 
consequences  of  Locke's  propositions.  Revela- 
tion depends  for  its  sanction  upon  its  agreement 
with  reason,  and  what  is  contrary  to  reason  is  not 
revelation.  Practical  morality  is  independent  of 
dogma,  which,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  the  cause  of 
much  evil  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Christ  and 
the  Apostles,  the  prototypes  of  the  freethinkers, 
never  made  use  of  supernatural  authority,  but  con- 
fined themselves  to  simple,  rational  demonstration. 
Collins's  work  elicited  numerous  replies;  but  none 
really  made  answer  to  his  main  thesis.  After  re- 
maining silent  for  eleven  years,  Collins  renewed  the 
contest  with  a  contribution  on  prophecy  and  mir- 
acles. Setting  out  from  Locke's  proposition  that 
revelation  was  truth  sanctioned  by  reason,  he  found 
it  a  simple  step  to  reject  prophecy  and  miracles  as 
non-«ssential  characteristics  of  religion,  amounting  at 
most  to  mere  didactic  devices.  The  mathematician 
William  Whiston  (q.v.;  d.  1752)  gave  a  new  im- 
pulse to  the  controversy  by  the  publication  of  The 
True  Text  (1722),  in  which  the  lack  of  real  con- 
cordance between  the  New  Testament  interpreta- 
tion of  Old  Testament  prophecies  is  pointed  out, 
and  the  prevailing  allegorical  method  of  reconciling 
such  differences  sununarily  rejected.  The  present 
form  of  the  Old  Testament  is  characterized  as  a 
forgery  perpetrated  by  the  Jews,  and  an  attempt 
is  made  by  Whiston  to  restore  the  original  text. 
Collins,  in  his  Discourse  on  the  Grounds  and  Reasons 
of  the  Christian  Religion  (1724),  agreed  with  Whiston 
as  to  the  discrepancies  between  the  two  Testaments, 
but  defended  the  allegorical  method  of  interpre- 
tation. Thomas  Woolston  (q.v.;  d.  1733)  came 
to  the  support  of  Collins  in  this  controversy  over 
the  Biblical  prophecies;  and  when  his  opponents 
shifted  their  appeal  from  the  prophecies  to  the 
miraculous  acts  of  Jesus  he  applied  his  destructive 
allegorical  method  to  those  aJso,  in  his  Discourses 
on  the  Miracles  of  our  Saviour  (1727-30). 

Matthew  Tindal  (q.v.;  d.  1733),  in  his  dialogue 
Christianity  as  Old  as  the  Creation,  or  the  Gospel  a 
Republication  of  the  Religion  of  Nature  (1730),  pro- 
duced the  standard  text-book  of  Deism.  Proceed- 
ing from  Locke's  proposition  of  the  identity  of  the 

truths   of   revelation   with   those    of 

lr?*f"     reason,  he  adduces   a   new  array  of 

Tindal.     ftiiS^unents  in  support  of  that  position. 

The  goodness  of  God,  the  vast  extent 
of  the  earth,  the  long  duration  of  human  life  on 
earth  render  it  improbable  that  only  to  Jews  and 
Christians  was  vouchsafed  the  favor  of  perceiving 
truth.  We  now  have  brought  in  the  classic  ex- 
ample of  the  three  hundred  million  Chinese  who 
surely  could  not  all  be  excluded  from  the  truth, 
and  Confucianism  begins  to  be  extolled  against 
much  that  is  repugnant  and  harsh  in  the  Mosaic 
law.  Christianity,  to  be  the  truth,  must  find  itc 
substance  in  all  religions;  it  must  be  an  old  as 
creation.    The  doctrines  of  the  fall  and  of  original 


.Deifliii 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


394 


sin  can  not  stand,  since  it  is  irrational  to  believe 
in  the  exclusion  from  the  truth  of  the  vast  majority 
of  himianity.  Tindal's  position  is  orthodox  to  the 
extent  that  Judaism  and  Christianity  are  acknowl- 
edged as  revelations,  though  revelations  only  of  the 
lex  natwrcB,  which  is  identified  with  natural  religion, 
the  prinutive,  uncorrupted  faith,  consisting  in  "  the 
practise  of  morality  in  obedience  to  the  will  of 
God."  An  echo  of  the  teachings  of  Tindal  is  found 
in  Thomas  Chubb  (q.v.;  d.  1747),  whose  True  Gos- 
pel of  Jesus  Christ  (1738)  attempts  to  prove  that 
what  Jesus  sought  to  teach  his  followers  was  but 
natural  morality,  or  the  law  of  nature. 

Thomas  Morgan  (q.v.;  d.  1743)  continued  Tin- 
daPs  argument  on  its  historical  side  in  The  Moral 
PhUoBopfier  (17S7-A0),  displajringmuch 
''*  J^'J?'^'  originality  in  tracing  the  development 
^^  •  of  heathen  religions,  as  well  as  of 
Mlddleton.  Judaism  and  Christianity.  Abandon- 
ing the  old  method  of  deriving  specific 
religions  from  priestly  deception,  he  explains  their 
rise  through  the  gradual  supplanting  of  the  one 
(}od  of  the  law  of  nature  by  a  crowd  of  divinities 
connected  with  definite  natural  phenomena.  The 
legislation  of  Moses,  under  Egyptian  influences, 
imposed  a  rigid  and  nationally  restricted  form  upon 
the  lex  fuUtarcBf  and  the  Jewish  ritual  and  ceremonial 
is  in  essence  a  purely  political  institution.  Full 
revelation  of  the  law  of  nature  came  with  Christ, 
who  gave  to  the  world  in  concentrated  form  the 
truth  that  had  already  been  revealed  to  Confucius, 
Zoroaster,  Socrates,  and  Plato.  The  protagonist 
of  this  divinely  revealed  truth  after  Christ  was  Paul, 
who,  in  his  form  of  expression,  indeed,  was  com- 
pelled to  make  concessions  to  the  influence  of 
Judaism,  and  in  whom,  therefore,  much  is  to  be 
taken  figuratively.  Peter,  on  the  other  hand,  and 
the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  misunderstood  the 
import  of  the  revelation  of  Christ  and  corrupted 
it  in  the  spirit  of  Messianic  Judaism.  Persecution 
forced  the  two  tendencies  into  union  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  the  Reformation  has  only  partially 
succeeded  in  separating  them.  Morgan's  argu- 
ment results,  therefore,  in  the  rejection  of  the 
formerly  assumed  identity  between  the  law  of 
Moses  and  the  lex  naturoB,  and  the  restriction  of  the 
latter,  in  the  fulness  of  revelation,  to  Christianity. 
His  conclusions  were  denied  by  William  Warburton 
(q.v.)  in  The  Divine  Legation  of  Moaes  (1738-41). 
When  the  Christian  apologists  substituted  for  the 
argument  from  miracles  the  argument  from  pei^ 
sonal  witness  and  the  credibility  of  Biblical  evi- 
dence, Peter  Annet  (d.  1769),  in  hb  Resurrection  of 
Jesus  (1744),  assailed  the  validity  of  such  evidence, 
and  first  advanced  the  hypothesis  of  the  illusory 
death  of  Jesus,  suggesting  also  that  possibly  Paul 
should  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  a  new  religion. 
In  Supernaiurals  Examined  (1747)  Annet  roundly 
denies  the  possibility  of  miracles.  Conyers  Middle- 
ton  (q.v.;  d.  1750)  in  his  later  writings  sought  to 
bridge  over  the  gulf  between  sacred  and  profane 
history,  and  to  test  them  equally  by  the  same 
method.  His  Inquiry  into  the  Miraculous  Powers 
(1748)  demonstrates  that  the  belief  in  miracles 
is  common  to  primitive  Christianity  and  heathen 
creeds,  and  that  it  developed  to  great  proportions 


in  the  later  life  of  the  Church,  so  that  one  is  there 
confronted  with  an  endless  succession  of  miracles 
to  which  belongs  the  same  degree  of  credibility 
that  the  apologists  attributed  to  the  miracles  of  the 
Bible.  Though  special  reference  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  omitted,  Middleton  propounded  a  ques- 
tion to  answer  which  no  serious  attempt  was  made 
when  he  asked  why  credence  should  be  granted  to 
one  faith  that  is  denied  to  another. 

The  Deistic  controversy  died  out  in  England  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  Deistic 
literature  had  exhausted  its  stock  of  materials,  while 
its  tenets  had  never  obtained  a  strong  hold  on  the 
people.  The  cold,  inflexible,  rational  supematunJ- 
ism  of  Paley  (q.v.;  d.  1805)  was  considered  as  the 
final  settlement  of  these  long  conflicts.  From  the 
beginning,  however,  there  had  been  a  class  of  critics, 
representatives  of  the  old  Renaissance  spirit,  and 
inimical,  therefore,  to  the  Stoic  and  Christian  eth- 
ics, who  had  only  partially  shared  the  views  of 
the  Deists,  and  in  some  ways  had  advanced  to  a  po- 
sition far  beyond  them.  Shaftesbury  (q.v.;  d.  1713), 
in  opposition  to  the  utilitarian  and  supematuralist 
ethics  of  Locke  and  Clarke,  developed  the  concep- 
tion of  a  strictly  autonomous  moral  code  having  its 
basis  in  a  moral  instinct  in  man  whose 
8.  Shaftes-  ©^1  jg  to  bring  individual  and  society 

.^'"J*       to    harmonious   self-perfection.     Ber- . 

^^*®"     nard  MandeviDe  (1733)  adopted  the 
Dodweil     Epicureanism  of  Hobbes  and  Gassendi, 

Bolinff-     studied  moral  problems  in  the  skep- 

broke.  ^^'^  spirit  of  Montaigne  and  La 
Rochefoucauld,  gave  the  preference 
to  Bayle  over  the  Deists,  and  developed  empir- 
icism into  a  sort  of  Agnosticism.  He  criticised 
the  prevailing  morality  as  a  mere  conventional 
lie.  Christianity — ^which  the  Deists  had  wished, 
while  reforming,  to  maintain — ^he  declared  im- 
possible, not  only  as  a  religion,  but  as  a  system  of 
morality.  His  Free  Thought  on  Religion  (1720) 
has  caused  him  to  be  included  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Deists;  but  his  real  position  is  brought  out  in  the 
Fable  of  the  Bees  (1714).  Henry  Dodweil  (q.v.;  d. 
1711),  in  Christianity  not  Founded  on  Argument 
(1742),  attempted  to  demonstrate  the  invalidity 
of  the  rationalistic  basis  for  Christian  truth  con- 
structed by  the  Deists,  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
religious  impulse,  which,  being  opposed  to  rational 
argumentation,  calls  for  the  support  of  tradition 
and  mystery,  and  finds  fascination  in  the  attitude 
of  credo  quia  absurdum.  The  only  proof  proceeds 
from  a  mystic  inner  enlightenment;  logical  dem- 
onstrations like  those  of  Clarke  or  the  Boyle  lec- 
tures are  only  destructive  of  religion.  Bolingbroke 
(d.  1751)  voices  the  French  influence  in  a  capricious 
and  dilettante  manner.  Despising  all  religions  as 
the  product  of  enthusiasm,  fraud,  and  superstition, 
he  nevertheless  concedes  to  real  Christianity  the 
possession  of  moral  and  rational  truth;  an  advo- 
cate of  freedom  of  thought,  he  supports  an  estab- 
lished church  in  the  interest  of  the  State  and  of 
public  morals  {Letters  on  the  Study  and  Use  of  His- 
tory, 1752;  Essays,  1753). 

Far  greater  is  the  influence  of  David  Hume  (q.v.; 
d.  1776),  who  summarized  the  Deistic  criticism  and 
raised  it  to  the  level  of  modem  scientific  method 


395 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Deiam 


by  emancipating  it  from  the  conception  of  a  deity 
conceived  through  the  reason  and  by  abandoning 

its  characteristic  interpretation  of  his- 

®-  ^2™*'*  ^^y-     ^®  separates  Locke's  theory  of 

"^  knowledge   from  its  connection  with 

a  scheme  of  mechanical  teleology, 
and  confines  the  human  mind  within  the  realm  of 
sense  perception.  Beginning  then  with  the  crudest 
factors  of  experience  and  not  with  a  religious  and 
ethical  norm,  he  traces  the  development  of  systems 
of  religion,  ethics,  and  philosophy  in  an  ascending 
course  through  the  ages.  He  thus  overthrew  the 
I>eistic  philosophy  of  religion  while  he  developed 
their  critical  method  to  the  extent  of  making  it 
the  starting-point  for  the  English  positivist  phi- 
losophy of  religion.  Distinguishing  between  the 
metaphysical  problem  of  the  idea  of  God  and  the 
historical  problem  of  the  rise  of  religions,  he  denied 
the  possibility  of  attaining  a  knowledge  of  deity 
through  the  reason,  and  explained  religion  as  ari- 
sing from  the  misconception  or  arbitrary  misintei^ 
pretation  of  experience  {Dtalogttea  Concerning  Nat- 
ural Religion,  written  in  1751,  but  not  published 
till  1779;  Natural  History  of  Religion,  1767). 
Against  the  justification  of  religion  by  other  means 
than  rational  Hume  directs  his  celebrated  critique 
of  miracles,  in  which  to  the  possibility  of  miraculous 
occurrences  he  opposes  the  possibility  of  error  on 
the  part  of  the  observer  or  historian.  Human  ex- 
perience, affected  by  ignorance,  fancy,  and  the 
imaginings  of  fear  and  hope,  explains  sufficiently 
the  growth  of  religion.  Hume's  contemporaries 
failed  to  recognize  the  portentous  transformation 
which  he  had  effected  in  the  character  of  Deism. 
The  Scottish  "  common-sense  school  "saved  for  a 
time  the  old  natural  theology  and  the  theological 
argument  from  miracles  to  revelation;  but  in 
reality  Hume's  skeptical  method,  continued  by 
Hamilton  and  united  to  French  Positivism  by  Mill 
and  Browne,  became,  in  connection  with  modem 
ethnology  and  anthropology,  the  basis  of  a  psy- 
chological philosophy  of  religion  in  which  the  data 
of  outward  experience  are  the  main  factors  (Evo- 
lutionism, Positivism,  Agnosticism — Tylor,  Spencer, 
Lubbock,  Andrew  Lang,  etc.).  In  so  far  as  Hume's 
influence  prevailed  among  his  contemporaries,  it 
may  be  said  to  have  amalgamated  with  that  of 
Voltaire;  the  "  infidels,"  as  they  were  now  called, 
were  Voltairians.  Most  prominent  among  them 
was  Gibbon  (d.  1794),  whose  Decline  and  Fall  offers 
the  first  dignified  pragmatic  treatment  of  the  rise  of 
Christianity.  The  fundamental  principles  of  Deism 
became  tinged  in  the  nineteenth  century  with 
skepticism,  pessimism,  or  pantheism,  but  the  con- 
ceptions of  natural  religion  retained  largely  their 
old  character. 

EL  France:  With  other  Ehiglish  influences  De- 
ism entered  France,  where,  however,  only  its  mate- 
rialistic and  revolutionary  phases  were  seized  upon, 
to  the  exclusion  of  that  religiosity  which  had  never 
been  lost  in  England.  French  Deism  stood  out- 
side of  theology.  The  English  writers  who  came 
to  exercise  the  greatest  influence  were  Hobbes, 
Locke,  Shaftesbury,  Pope,  Bolingbroke,  and  Hume. 
Of  the  true  Deists  only  Collins,  the  most  critical 
and  the  least  theological,  became  prominent. 


Voltaire  (q.v.;  d.  1778)  embraced  the  concep- 
tion of  natural  religion  with  ardor,  and  entered 
1  V  itaiTA   "^^  ^  polemic  against  intolerance  in 
^  '  Church  and  State  as  well  as  against 

the  philosophy  of  the  Church  and  the  prevail- 
ing religious  Cartesianism  {Easai  sur  lea  mcmra 
et  Veaprii  dea  naiiona,  1754-58;  Dictionnaire  phUo- 
aophique,  1764).  He  derived  his  natural  phi- 
losophy from  Newton  and  Clarke,  his  theory  of 
knowledge  and  his  ideas  on  toleration  from  Locke, 
the  main  principles  of  his  ethics  from  Shaftesbury, 
his  critical  method  and  the  conception  of  natural 
religion  from  the  Deists.  All  phenomena  are  ex- 
plained historically  by  the  interaction  between 
man  and  his  environment,  and  all  things  are  gov- 
erned by  God  acting  only  in  accordance  with 
natural  laws.  Natural  morality  and  religion  are 
not  entirely  innate  ideas,  but  rather  simple  and  uni- 
versally prevalent  conditions  standing  in  need  of 
development  and  following  a  course  that  leads 
through  errors  arising  from  ignorance  and  fear  to  an 
ultimate  standard  truth  which  is  characterized  as 
the  "  fruit  of  the  cultivated  reason."  Deism  is 
thereby  emptied  of  all  religious  content  and  re- 
stricted to  the  field  of  morals  and  rational  meta- 
physics. All  that  is  essentially  characteristic  of 
human  nature  is  the  same  everywhere;  all  that 
depends  on  custom  varies.  The  chief  influences 
for  changes  in  the  human  mind  are  climate,  gov- 
ernment, religion,  and  in  opposition  to  these  one 
should  seek  to  arrive  at  the  underlying,  undiversi- 
fied  unity.  "  Dogma  leads  to  fanaticism  and  strife; 
morality  everywhere  inspires  harmony."  The  rise 
of  positive  religions  may  be  studied  psychologically 
in  children  and  savages.  Fear  and  ignorance  of  the 
law  of  nature  are  the  primary  causes;  the  parallel 
growth  of  social  groups  and  the  need  of  authority 
cooperate.  In  China  alone  natural  religion  has 
escaped  this  pernicious  development.  India  be- 
came the  home  of  theological  speculation,  and  influ- 
enced the  religions  of  the  West,  of  which  the  most 
important  was  Judaism  as  the  parent  of  Christi- 
anity and  Mohammedanism.  Moses  was  a  shrewd 
politician;  the  prophets  were  enthusiasts  like  the 
dervishes,  or  else  epileptics;  Jesus  was  a  visionary 
like  the  founder  of  the  Quakers,  and  his  religion 
received  life  only  through  its  union  with  Platonism. 
Voltaire's  conception  of  the  evolution  of  history 
entered  deep  into  European  thought. 

By  the  side  of  the  party  of  the  juate  milieu  and  of 
''  good  sense,"  of  which  Voltaire  is  the  most  prom- 
inent representative,  there  arose  a  school  which 
carried  the  doctrines  of  mechanism  and  sensualism 
to   their   furthest   consequences   and 

*!  ^^®      evolved  a  philosophy  of  materialism. 

oIomT      They  removed  from  Deism  the  great 

diata.  factor  of  natural  religion,  retaining 
only  its  critical  method  aa  applied  to 
the  history  of  religion.  The  head  of  this  school 
was  Denis  Diderot  (q.v.;  d.  1784),  and  its  great 
organ  of  expression  was  the  EncydopMie  (see 
Enctclopedists).  The  state  censorship,  however, 
compelled  the  projectors  to  call  to  their  aid  a  num- 
ber of  contributors  of  conservative  views  and  to 
bring  their  skeptical  method  to  the  task  of  defend- 
ing the  compromise  between  reason  and  revelation. 


Deism 
DeUtzsoh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


d9e 


In  this  spirit  the  main  religious  topics  were  treated, 
but  by  a  subtle  infusion  of  the  spirit  of  Bayle  and 
the  expedient  of  cross-references  from  these  articles 
to  topics  which  might  be  handled  with  greater 
freedom,  Diderot  succeeded  in  supplying  the  de- 
sired corrective. 

It  was  the  circle  of  Holbach  (q.v.;  d.  1789)  that 
dared  to  apply  the  most  extreme  consequences 
of  materialism  to  religious  questions.  Helv^tius 
(q.v.;  d.  1771)  prepared  the  way  with  his  De 
V esprit  (1758),  in  which  he  expounded  a  material- 
istic psychology  and  ethics.  Their  moral  theories, 
deriving  though  they  did  from  Hobbes  and  Hume, 
lost  all  connection  with  the  position  of  Deism,  which 
became  for  them  a  mere  armory  of  weapons  for  the 
destruction  of  all  religion  with  its  consequences, 
intolerance  and  moral  corruption.  Holbach  is  un- 
doubtedly the  author  of  the  Systbme  de  la  nature, 
which  appeared  in  1770  as  the  work  of  Mirabaud. 
The  Systhne  is  not  original  in  ascribing  the  begin- 
nings of  religion  to  human  hope  and  fear  and  to 
ignorance  of  the  laws  of  nature.  Fraud,  ambition, 
and  unhealthy  enthusiasm  have  made  use  of  it  as 
a  means  of  political  and  social  influence  and  have 
succeeded  in  crystallizing  its  primitive  emotions 
into  positive  creeds,  within  which  animistic  tend- 
encies have  been  developed  and  subtilized  into 
syst-ems  of  metaphysics  and  theology — ^the  sources 
of  irrational  intolerance.  Christianity 
*•  ^J^^^J^  w  but  Galilean  doctrines  translated 
and  the  ^^^^  Platonic  metaphysics,  and  its 
loffioia  ^beology  *o  *be  present  day  hovers 
Sohool.  l>etween  the  extremest  anthropomor- 
phism and  the  most  abstract  specu- 
lation. The  natural  religion  of  the  Deists  dif- 
fers from  the  concrete  religions  only  in  that  it 
proceeds  not  from  fear  and  ignorance  but  from 
an  optimistic  interpretation  of  life;  however,  in  at- 
tempting to  prove  by  natural  science  the  good- 
ness of  God  and  man  and  the  adaptation  of  the 
world  to  the  purpose  of  creation,  it  is  but  a  half- 
matured  critical  method  vainly  endeavoring  to 
reconcile  the  old  irrationalism  with  the  spirit  of 
the  new  sciences.  It  is  guilty  of  clinging  to  the 
naive  view  which  regards  the  world  as  anthro- 
pocentric  instead  of  recognizing  the  existence  of 
laws  to  which  man  is  indifTerent — ^the  purely  causal, 
not  teleological  force  of  matter.  Further,  the  whole 
scheme  of  identifying  morality  with  religion — ^the 
psychological  support  of  the  Deistic  position — is 
repudiated  by  Holbach,  who  defines  morality  as 
based  solely  on  the  natural  law  of  self-preservation 
and  self-perpetuation.  Step  by  step  Deism  is  thus 
stripped  of  its  connection  with  revelation,  with 
metaphysics,  and  finally  with  morality,  and  nothing 
is  retained  but  its  method  of  interpreting  religion 
and  its  criticism  of  the  facts  of  Christianity.  From 
Holbach  and  his  circle,  and  from  the  cognate  group 
of  the  Encyclopedists,  proceeded  the  so-called 
ideological  school,  who  held  the  main  problem  of 
philosophy  to  be  the  analysis  of  the  mental  con- 
ceptions aroused  by  sensations  from  the  material 
world  ((^ndorcet,  Siey^s,  Naigeon,  Garat,  Volney, 
Dupuis,  Saint-Lambert,  Laplace,  Cabanis,  De  Tracy, 
J.  B.  Say,  Benjamin  Constant,  Bichat,  Lamarck, 
Saint-Simon,    Thurot,    Stendhal).    Out    of    this 


4.  Bous- 


school,  in  turn,  developed  the  positivism  of  Comto. 
J.  J.  Rousseau  (q.v.;  d.  1778)  gave  quite  a  dif- 
ferent tendency  to  Deism.  Accepting  in  the  main 
the  sensualism  of  Locke  and  the  metaphysics  of 
Clarke  and  Newton,  he  maintains  after  the  manner 
of  Shaftesbxury  and  Diderot  a  belief  in  inborn  moral 
instincts  which  he  distinguishes  as  "  sentiments  " 
from  mere  acquired  ideas;  he  is  true 
to  the  position  of  Deism  in  connecting 
this  moral  "  sentiment "  with  a  belief  in 
God,  and  he  protests  against  the  separation  between 
the  two  which  the  skepticism  of  Diderot  had 
brought  about.  He  was  influenced  by  Richard- 
son, as  well  as  by  Locke.  "  Sentiment  "  becomes 
the  basis  of  a  metaphysical  system  built  up  out  of 
the  data  of  experience  under  the  influence  of  the 
Deistic  philosophy,  but  redeemed  from  formalism 
by  constant  reference  to  sentimentality  and  emotion 
as  the  primary  sources  of  religion.  The  nature  of 
religion  is  not  dogmatic  but  moralistic,  practical, 
emotional.  Rousseau,  therefore,  finds  the  essence 
of  religion,  not  (like  Voltaire)  in  the  cultivated 
intellect,  but  in  the  naive  and  disinterested  undei^ 
standing  of  the  uncultured.  Conscious,  rational 
progress  in  civilization,  no  less  than  supematuralism 
in  Church  and  State,  is  an  outcome  of  the  fall,  when 
the  will  chose  intellectual  progress  in  preference  to 
simple  felicity.  With  Rousseau  natiutd  religion 
takes  on  a  new  meaning;  "  nature  "  is  no  longer 
universality  or  rationality  in  the  cosmic  order,  in 
contrast  to  special  supernatural  and  positive  phe- 
nomena, but  primitive  simplicity  and  sincerity,  in 
contrast  to  artificiality  and  studied  reflection.  In 
his  scheme  of  the  rise  of  religions  he  sets  out  from 
the  common  standpoint  of  the  discrepancies  and 
contradictions  prevailing  among  historic  creeds. 
Yet  positive  religion  to  him  is  not  so  much  the 
product  of  ignorance  and  fear  as  the  corruption  of 
the  original  instinct  through  the  selfishness  of  man, 
who  has  erected  rigid  creeds  that  he  might  arrogate 
to  himself  unwarranted  privilege  or  escape  the 
obligations  of  natural  morality.  Something  of  the 
true  religion  is  to  be  found  in  every  faith,  and  of  all 
creeds  Christianity  has  retained  the  greatest  meas- 
ure of  the  original  truth,  and  the  purest  morality. 
So  sublime  and  yet  so  simple  does  Rousseau  find 
the  Gospel  that  he  can  scarcely  believe  it  the  work 
of  men.  Its  irrational  elements  he  attributes  to 
misconception  on  the  part  of  the  followers  of  Christ 
and  especially  of  Paul,  who  had  no  personal  intei^ 
course  with  him.  It  was  natural  that  between  the 
advocate  of  such  views  and  the  party  of  the  ma- 
terialists strife  should  arise,  and  in  fact  Rousseau's 
religious  influence  in  France  was  slight.  On  the 
rising  German  idealism,  however,  he  exercised  a 
mighty  influence.  (E.  Troeltbch.) 

Bxblioorapht:  On  the  preparation  for  Deimn  in  the  Avf- 
kldrung  ("  enlightenment ")  consult:  H.  Henke,  Oe- 
•chickte  der  chriaUichen  Kirdie,  vols,  iv.-vi.,  Brunswick, 
1804;  K.  Erdmann,  Die  AufklOrung,  Hambuis.  1845; 
H.  von  Busche,  Die  freie  relioi^ee  AufkUkrung,  Darmstadt, 
1846;  F.  C.  Schlosser,  Oeedwhte  dee  18.  JakrhunderU,  7 
vols.,  Heidelberg,  1853-57;  E.  Henke,  Neuere  Kirehen- 
geechuMe,  vol.  ii.,  Halle,  1878;  O.  Pfleiderer,  Reiigume' 
PhUoeophie,  Berlin,  1896,  Eng.  transl.,  PhUoeophy  of  Re- 
lioion,  4  vols,  London,  1886-88. 

Books  which  treat  of  Deism  in  general  are:  J.  F.  Hurst, 
Hietory  of  R€Uionaliem,  New  York,  1902;  L.  Noack,  Die 


397 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Deism 
Delitzfloh 


Freidenker  in  der  Religion^  3  vols.,  Bern,  1853-65;  A. 
S.  Farrar,  CriHcal  Hiatory  of  Free  ThaugfU^  Lectures  iv.- 
viii.,  London,  1863;  C.  J.  Abbey  and  J.  H.  Overton,  Bno- 
Church  in  the  18th  Century,  chap,  iv.,  London,  1878  ("  an 
admirable  summary  ");  J.  H.  Overton  and  F.  Relton, 
The  Enolith  Church  {ITlJhlSOO),  chaiM.  iii.-iv.,  London, 
1006. 

On  Engliah  Deiam  the  claoaio  ia  J.  Leland,  DeitHoal 
IFrOert,  5th  (best)  ed.  with  Appendix  by  W.  L.  Brown, 
continuation  by  C.  R.  Edmonds,  London,  1837.  Con- 
sult: J.  Hunt,  Religioue  Thought  in  England,  vols.  ii.-iii., 
London,  1870;  J.  Cairns,  Unbelief  in  the  18th  Century,  ib. 
1881;  L.  Stephen,  UieL  of  Eng.  Thought  in  the  18th  Cen- 
tury, ib.  1881;  £.  Sayous,  Lee  DHetea  anglaie,  Paris,  1882; 
W.  Arthur,  God  triUumt  Religion;  Deiem  and  Sir  Jatnea 
Stephen,  ib.  1887;  W.  E.  H.  Leoky,  Hiet.  of  .  .  .  Ration^ 
aliem  in  Europe,  2  vols.,  ib.  1800. 

On  Deism  in  France  consult:  C.  Bartholmtes,  Hietoire 
critique  dee  doetrinee  rdigieueee  modemee,  StrasburKt  1855; 
H.  Taine.  Lee  PhUoeophee  franqaie  du  19.  eiicle,  ib.  1867; 
F.  Ravaisson,  La  Philoeophie  franqaiee  au  19.  eiicle,  ib. 
1868;  F.  Picavet,  Lee  IdMoguee,  ib.  1801;  J.  Texte, 
RouaeeoM  et  lee  originee  du  eoetnopolitieme  littSraire,  ib. 
1805. 

On  the  German  phase  consult:  K.  R.  Hagenbaoh,  Oer- 
man  Rattonaliem,  Edinburgh,  1865;  G.  C.  B.  Ptknjer,  Oe- 
ediichte  der  durieUiehen  Religionephiloeophie,  2  vols., 
Brunswick,  1880-^,  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1887;  F. 
A.  Lange,  Gesc&kAte  dee  Materialiemue,  Leipsic  1887, 
Eng.  trans!.,  3  vols.,  London,  1877-^1. 

DEISSMAIT,  dais'mOn,  GUSTAV  ADOLF:  Ger- 
man Lutheran;  b.  at  Langenscheid-an-der-Lahn, 
Nasaau,  Nov.  7,  1866.  He  studied  at  Tubingen 
(1885-88)  and  Berlin  (1888),  and  the  theological 
seminaries  at  Herbom  (1889-00)  and  Marburg 
(1891-92).  He  became  privat-docent  at  Marburg 
1892;  tutor  in  the  Herbom  theological  eeminary 
1895;  professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis  at 
Heidelberg,  1897,  and  at  Berlin,  1908.  In  1906 
he  made  an  archeological  tour  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece.  His  publications  include  a  translation  of 
IV  Maccabees  in  E.  Kautzsch's  -Apokryphen  und 
Pseudepigraphen  dea  Alien  TestamenU  (TQbingen, 
1900);  Die  neuUstameniliche  Formel  ''in  Christo 
Jesu  "  (Marburg,  1892);  Johann  Kepler  und  die 
Bibel:  Bin  Bevtrag  zur  Oeschichte  der  AutarUot 
(1894);  BUbelstvdien :  Beitrdge,  zumeist  aue  den 
Papyri  und  Inechrifien,  zur  Geechichte  der  Sprache, 
dee  SchrifUums,  und  der  Religion  dea  hellenietiechen 
Judentums  und  des  Urchrietentuma  (1895;  Eng. 
transl.  by  A.  Griere,  Edinburgh,  1901);  Neue 
Bibeletudien:  SprachgeschichUiche  Beitrdge,  tumeist 
aua  den  Papyri  und  Inschriften,  zur  Erkldrung 
dea  Neuen  Teatamenia  (1897);  Brief e  einea  Herbomer 
Claaaicua  aua  den  Jakren  1606  und  1606  (Herbom, 
1898);  Die  apraMiche  Erforachung  der  griechir 
achen  Bibel,  ihr  gegenwdrtiger  Stand  und  ikre  Auf" 
gaben  (Giessen,  1898);  Bin  Original-Dokument  aua 
der  diokletianiachen  Ckriatenverfolgung :  Papyrua 
713  dea  Briiiah  Muaeum  (TObingen,  1902;  Eng. 
transl.,  "  The  Epistle  of  Psenosirls,"  London,  1902); 
Evangelium  und  Urckriatentum :  Daa  Neue  Teator 
ment  im  Lichie  der  hiaioriachen  Forachung  (Munich, 
1905);  Die  Septuaginta-Papyri  und  andere  aUchriat- 
liche  Texte  der  Heidelberger  Papyrua-Sammlung 
(Heidelberg,  1905);  and  New  Light  an  the  New  Tea- 
iament,  from  Recorda  of  the  Grceco-Roman  Periodf 
Tranal.  from  the  Author'a  MS.  by  R.  M.  Strachan, 
Edinburgh,  1907. 

DELAITT,  WILLIAM:  Irish  Roman  Catholic 
and  president  of  University  College,  Dublin;  b.  at 


Leighlinbridge  (12  m.  n.e.  of  Kilkenny),  County 
Carlow,  Ireland,  June  4,  1835.  He  was  educated 
at  Carlow  College  (1851-53),  Maynooth  College 
(1853-56),  and  the  Gregorian  University,  Rome 
(1865-68),  and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1856,  being  ordained  priest  at  Rome  in  1866.  He 
was  professor  in  Clongowes-Wood  College  1858-60 
and  in  St.  Stanislaus's  (Allege,  Tullamore,  1860-65. 
In  1868-70  he  was  vice-president  of  the  latter  in- 
stitution and  its  rector  1870-80;  rector  of  St.  Igna- 
tius's  College,  Dublin,  1881-83;  president  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Dublin,  1883-88,  and  since  1897. 
He  was  on  the  staff  of  the  Gardiner  Street  Jesuit 
Church,  Dublin,  1888-97.  He  has  written  Lec- 
turea  on  Christian  Reunion  (Dublin,  1896)  and  Iriah 
Univeraity  Education  (1904). 

DELITZSCH,  ddOich,  FRANZ:  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Leipsic  Feb.  23,  1813;  d.  there  Mar.  4,  1890.  He 
came  of  Hebrew  parentage;  studied  at  Leipsic,  and 
became  privat-docent  1842;  was  caUed  as  ordinary 
professor  to  Rostock  1846;  thence  to  Erlangcn 
1850;  and  back  to  Leipsic  in  1867.  In  early  lire 
he  was  an  adherent  of  the  theology  represented  by 
Hofmann  of  Erlangen,  but  his  Biblical  criticism 
was  freer  than  Hofmann's  hyperconservative  posi- 
tion would  allow.  He  was  as  rich  in  spirit  as  in 
learning,  though  his  theology  was  not  free  from 
theosophic  influences,  as  is  shown  by  his  Syatem 
der  bibliachen  Paychologie  (Leipsic,  1855;  Eng. 
transl.  Edinburgh,  1867).  He  especially  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  exegete.  At  Rostock  he  wrote 
De  Habacuci  propheta  vita  (Leipsic,  1842),  but  his 
exegetical  activity  really  commenced  at  Erlangen, 
where  he  prepared  independently  and  in  con- 
nection with  Keil  some  of  the  best  commentaries 
on  the  Old  Testament  which  had  been  produced  in 
Germany.  These  were  soon  translated  into  Eng- 
lish and  published  at  Ekiinburgh  (Job,  Ps.,  Prov., 
Cant.,  Ecd.,  Isa.).  In  their  earlier  editions  they 
show  the  influence  of  Hofmann,  but  his  "  Commen- 
tary on  Hebrews  "  (Leipsic,  1857;  Eng.  transl.,  2 
vols.,  Edinburgh,  1870)  was  written  in  defense  of 
the  old  Protestant  doctrine  of  atonement,  as  op- 
posed to  Hofmann's  position.  In  spite  of  his  con- 
fessional attitude,  Delitzsch  opposed  the  idea  "  of 
fencing  theology  off  with  the  letter  of  the  Formula 
of  Concord,"  and  when  his  colleague  Kahnis  was 
attacked,  he  published  a  defense  of  him  (1863). 
He  published  in  1869  his  Syatem  der  chriatlichen 
Apologetik,  which  was  followed  by  a  Hebrew 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  (1877;  11th  ed. 
1890),  and,  in  connection  with  S.  Baer,  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  text,  except  Exodus- 
Deuteronomy  (Leipsic,  1861-97). 

The  effect  caused  by  the  investigations  of  Well- 
hausen  on  his  followers  induced  Delitzsch  con- 
scientiously to  examine  his  own  position  with  re- 
gard to  the  critical  questions  raised,  and  to  give  up 
whatever  was  not  tenable.  He  published  in  Lu- 
thardt's  Zeitachrift,  1880  and  1882,  a  series  of  articles 
on  the  Pentateuch  which  prepared  the  way  for  the 
fifth  edition  of  his  Genesis  (1887),  which  he  justly 
regarded  as  a  new  work.  In  the  Introduction  he 
made  it  clear  that  his  position  in  relation  to  Old- 
Testament  problems  was  in  the  main  what  it  had 


Demon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


3&S 


beetii  and  tliat  th<?  Bible,  as  the  literature  of  a 
divine  revelation,  can  not  be  j>ennitted  to  be 
charged  with  a  lack  of  veracity  or  to  be  robbed  of 
Its  hifltoric  basis.  In  the  fourth  edition  of  his 
laaiflh  (Leipsic,  1SS9,  dedicated  to  Driver  and 
CfSfOyne  of  Oxford;  Eng.  transL,  1890),  and  in  his 
M§wiani9che  Weis^agrmgen  (Leipsie,  1890;  Eng, 
tranBl.f  Edinburgh*  1S91),  the  preface  of  which  is 
dated  five  days  before  his  deaths  a  modification  of 
his  views  also  appeared.  For  those  who  took  of- 
fense at  his  concession  to  the  modern  critical  school 
he  wrote  Der  tieje  Graben  ztviachen  alter  und  n^der- 
ner  Theologie,  Bin  B^kenrUniaa  (Leipsie,  1888;  2d 
ed,|  1890).  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
he  wrote:  Zur  OeschichU  der  jQdischen  PocMe 
(Leipsie,  1836);  Wisscnschaft,  Kunfitf  Judcntum 
(Grimma,  1838);  Anekdota  zur  Gc&chickte  der  mitiel- 
alUfUchen  Scholastik  unter  Juden  und  Mostemen 
(Leipfiic,  1841);  Philemon  oder  das  Buck  von  der 
FreundscMft  in  ChriMo  (Dresden,  1842);  Wer  sind 
die  MyHiker  t  (Leipsie,  1842);  Das  Sakrament  des 
wahren  Leibes  und  Blutes  Jesu  Christi  (Dreeden, 
1844;  7thed.,  1886);  Die  biUisch-prophaitche  Tkeo- 
logie  (Leipsie,  1845);  SynthijltT  ad  psalmos  Uliut- 
trando  isagngkfp  (1846);  Vier  Bucher.von  der  Kirchs 
(Dresden,  1847);  Vom  Hame  QoUea  oder  der  Kirehe 
(18491;  Kompiutensische  VarianUn  turn  atUeUament- 
lirhen  Tejrie  ( Leipaic,  1878) ;  Fortgesctzte  Studien  zur 
Bnistehungsge^chichte  der  komplutensischen  Poly- 
gloUe  (1886);  Iris.  Farhenstutiien  und  Blumemducke 
(1888).  He  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  conversion 
of  the  Jew8»  for  whose  benefit  he  translated  the  New 
Testament  into  Hebrew,  and  pul>lished  works  like 
/«!«  nnd  Hillel  (Erlangen,  1,%7;  3d  ed.,  1871)  and 
Handwerkerleben  zur  Zeit  Jesu  (Erlangen,  1S6S; 
3d  ed,,  1878;  Eng.  transl.,  New  York,  1883).  He 
also  defended  them  against  anti-Semitic  attacks  and 
wrote  Ermfte  Fragcn  an  die  Gebildrien  jiidischer 
Religion  (Leipsie,  1888;  2d  ed.,  181)0),  and  Sind  die 
Juden  mirklich  das  auserwuhlte  Volk  f  (Leipsie, 
1889)  against  Jewish  pretensions  and  invectives. 
In  1886  he  founded  at  Leipsie  a  seminary  in  which 
candidates  of  theology  are  prepared  for  missionary 
work  among  the  Jews,  and  which  in  memory  of  him 
18  now  called  Instilutum  Judaicvm  DelUzschianum. 

Bi»LioaaA?HT:  B.  I.  CutUm,  F.  DeliincK  Ixmdon,  1891; 
H.  V.  HUpmcht,  in  Old  TeMtam«nt  Studint,  vi.  209  sqq.; 
T.  K.  Cheyu*,  in  Aeademu,  xxxvii  (ISflOX  1«.  and  .4^- 
naum,  ISOO,  i.  308;  W.  Baudinsin,  Id  ExpoHtm;  1890,  pp, 
465  iiqq.i  A.  K5hl«r.  in  Neuvkirchlich^  ZeUtchrift.  i.  234  «qq. 

DELITZSCH,  FRIEDRICHi  German  Assyriolo- 
giat;  b.  at  Erlangen  Sept.  3,  ISMl  He  studied  at 
leipeic,  where  he  became  associate  professor  of 
Semitic  languages  and  Assyriobgy  in  1877.  In 
1893  he  was  called  to  Brealau  aa  full  professor  of  the 
same  subjects,  and  since  1899  has  held  a  similar 
position  in  Berlin,  in  addition  to  being  director  of 
I  he  Asiatic  section  in  the  Royal  Museum.  He  has 
written  As^yrische  LeseMtlcJce  (Leipsie,  1876);  Wo 
/";7  das  Parodies  f  (1881);    The  Hebrew  Language 

lewed  m  the  Lighi  of  Assyrian  Research  (London, 
IH83);    Die  Sprache  der  Koss&er  (Leipsie,    1884); 


mata:  (18S0;    Eng.  transl  by  A-  R.  S,  Kemwjy, 
London,   1889);    GtsckkfUe  BabyUmkm  md  Amf 
riens  iCalw,  1891);    BeitrOge  zur  Erdzifjemn/i  wi 
Erkl&rung  der  kappadakUckm  KtHschrifUafdn  (Lap- 
sic,    1893);     Die  Enlstehung  des  dUaim  Sdf^t^ 
systems   oder  der   Ursprung  der  KeiUckriltieirhn 
(1896);    Das  Buck  Hiob  neu  ubersetd  tmtf  er: 
{19U2);      B<^i    und    Bibel    (2    parts,    im 
Eng,  transl  by  C.  H,  W.  Johns,  London,  !:> 
which  was  based  on  lectures  delivered  befort 
Emperor  of  Germany  and  roused  vehement  o[ 
sition   in  certain  conservative  circles;  Die  fra' 
nf«rA^  Chronik  (1906);  and  Mihr  LicAf  (1907). 
collaborates  with   Paul  Haupt  in  editing  tht 
si/riologische    Bibliotkek    (Leipsie,   1881  sqq,} 
Beiir&ge  zur  Assyriologii  wid  semUis^  Sft 
wissensehaft  (1889  sqq.)* 

DELLA  VOLPE,  FRAHCESCO  SALESIO:  ' 
dinal;    b,  at  Ravenna,  Italy,  Dec,  24,  IW4 
studied  at  the  eeininary  of  Bertinovo,  thr 
no  Pio,  Home,   and  the  Pontificia  Acca  i 
Nobili  Ecclesiastici,     At  the  ag^  of  thirty  k 
came  a  pri\'y  chamberlain  of  Pope  Pius  IX , 
five  years  later  was  appointed  seer* 
grcgation  of  Indulgences*    He  hecLi 
Camera  in  laSO  and  Majordomo  in  m'2 
created   cardinal   in   petto  in   1S99,  alth  ^ 
appointment    was   not   publicly  annouDcd  unui 
1901,  when  he  received  the  title  of  cardinal  prie*t 
of  Santa  Maria  in  Aquiro.    Since  1003  he  baa  bieD 
prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda, 

PEL0GK     See  Noah, 

DEMAREST.  WILLIAM  HETfRY  STEELE:  R^ 
formed  (Dutch);  b.  at  Hmison,  N,  Y,,  May  p. 
1863,  He  studied  at  Rutgers  College  iBX,  1^ 
and  was  graduated  at  the  New  Brunswick  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1 8S8.  In  the  sanie  year  he  wai 
ordained  to  the  ministry,  and  held  paatorato  »l 
Walden,  N.  Y.  (1888^7),  and  C&tukiU,  NJ^ 
(1897-1901 ).  From  1901  to  1906  he  ww  ?«»«?' 
of  ecclesiastical  history  and  church  govemiiipnnj 
New  BrunKwick  Theological  Seminary,  and  w  m 
waa  elected  president  of  Rutgers  OiH^^ge,  ^m 
already  been  acting  president  in  !9()5-im.  mm 
written  History  of  the  Church  &I  Wnldtn  {^^0!^ 
Ifm);  Outline  of  Church  Government  {"Se^^^ 
wick,  N.  J.,  1903);  and  Otdline  oj  Chmk  Um 
(1904). 

DE  MENT,  BYRON  HOOVER:  Baptist;  t« 
Silver  Spring.,  Tenn.,  May  17. 1863.  He  i^ptfj 
uated  at  the  University  of  Nashvilte  in  IW  "« 
studied  at  the  Uaiversity  of  Virginia  ^^^^^ 
and  Southern  Baptbt  Theological  Sennnaiy.  "'^ 
ville,  Kv.  (181)6-1900).  He  waa  pflf<»«^fJf? 
and  Latin  in  Doyle  College.  Doyle, T^eJ^.]^ 
and  from  1893  to  1896  wii8  pastor  at  ^^^l^ 
In  I9(>0-03  he  was  pastor  of  the  TweiityHseOTm. 
Walnut  Street  BaptLst  Church,  I^uisville,  n^y^ 
of  the  First  Baptist  Church,  Waco,  Tex.,  i^ 
In  1903-1)!  he  v^-m  profesaor  of  Hebr««^^^ 
tical  theology   in  BayJor  U">v^?^y;,Ji!tJfjiofll 


399 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


I>eUtz80h 
Demon 


DEMETRIUS  OF  ALEXAIVDRIA.    See  Orioen, 

^•'  *  ^'  DEMON,  DEMONISM. 

Background  of  Demonology  (§1). 

Nature  of  Demons  (§  2). 

The  Se'irim  and  Shedhim  (|  3). 

Other  Hebrew  Demonic  Conceptions  (§  4). 

The  Greek  daimon  (diminutive,  daimanion),  the 
origiiial  of  the  English  "  demon/'  did  not  connote 
necessarily  the  idea  of  evil.  It  was  rather  neutral, 
and  might  even  be  used  as  a  synonym  of  theoSf 
"  god  ";  it  was  also  generally  employed  to  desig- 
nate a  tutelary  genius  (Lat.  lar,  lemur,  genius),  and 
came  to  be  applied  to  any  departed  soul.  In  the 
Septuagint  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  in  Christian  usage  the  connotation  is 
sinister  and  always  involves  an  evil 
X.  Back-  spirit.  The  origin  of  the  idea  of  de- 
ground  of  mons  lies  far  back  in  the  empirical 
Demon-  dualism  of  mui's  animistic  concept 
ology.  tions,  according  to  which  all  nature  is 
peopled  with  spirits  which  are  believed 
constantly  to  affect  or  control  human  acts  and  des- 
tiny (see  CoMPARATivB  Religion,  VI.,  1,  a,  §  4). 
Man's  efforts  may  turn  out  to  his  satisfaction  or 
to  his  disappointment,  and  he  attributes  the  re- 
sults to  the  assistance  or  hindrance  of  spirits  whom 
he  regards  as  good  or  bad  according  as  they  seem 
to  assist  or  to  thwart  his  efforts.  This  primitive 
bipartition  of  the  spirit-world  into  good  spirits 
(which  may  become  angels)  and  bad  (which  be- 
come demons)  persists  through  many  stages  of  un- 
folding In  civilLEation  and  in  religion,  and  remains 
as  a  belief  even  in  the  period  of  enlightenment. 
Traces  of  animistic  belief  have  not  been  wholly 
eradicated  from  the  Old  Testament;  cf.,  e.g.,  the 
serpent  of  Gen.  iii.  which  has  speech,  mentality, 
and  evil  purpose,  and  also  the  anointing  by  Jacob 
of  the  stone  to  which  he  attributed  his  wonderful 
dream  (Gen.  xxviii.  18).  The  narrative  in  Num. 
xxii.  22-34  presupposes  a  belief  in  the  vocal  power 
of  animals,  though  the  impression  given  by  the 
narration  is  rather  that  of  miraculous  impartation 
of  speech  to  an  otherwise  mute  animal.  The  en- 
tire religious  provenience  out  of  which  the  Hebrew 
religion  sprang  is  full  of  demonism  (see  Assyria, 
VII.,  §  8;  Babylonia,  VII.,  1,  §§  4-6).  The  Baby- 
lonian religion  divided  its  spirits  into  good  and  bad. 
These  were  again  classified  and  grouped,  and  to  the 
classes  and  groups  names  were  given,  though  in 
general  the  individual  demons  did  not  receive 
names.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the  general  law 
that  only  in  the  more  developed  stages  do  the 
spirits  become  so  individualized  as  to  be  named. 
This  appears  in  the  Hebrew  representation,  where 
in  the  earlier  writings  individual  spirits  are  merely 
referred  without  individualization  to  classes  (cf. 
the  unnamed  "  evil  spirit  "  which  tormented  Saul, 
I  Sam.  xvi.  14-15,  and  the  "  evil  spirit  "  which  by 
divine  commission  came  between  Abimelech  and 
the  Shechemites,  Judges  ix.  23),  while  Satan,  not 
at  first  as  devil,  but  as  one  belonging  to  God's  com- 
pany, or  at  least  admitted  to  his  presence  (Job  i. 
6  sqq.;  Zech.  iii.  1  sqq.),  Azazel,  and  Asmodeus 
(see  below)  emerge  as  personal  spirits  possessing 
names  only  in  the  late  (postexilic)  literature.  A 
wealth  of  demonic  conceptions  quite  equal  to  the 


Babylonian  is  foimd  also  in  the  Arabic  religion, 
according  to  which  demons  swarm  in  the  regions  of 
air,  earth,  and  water,  lying  in  wait  for  the  imwaiy. 
The  magic  and  incantations  of  Arabic  folk-lore  are 
hardly  less  prominent  and  numerous  than  those  of 
Babylonia,  and  where  these  exist  belief  in  demon- 
ology is  sure  to  be  found  (see  Divination;  and 
Magic). 

The  characteristics  of  the  demons  in  the  Semitic 
sphere  are  like  those  of  demons  among  other  peo- 
ples. These  beings,  whose  power  is  greatest  dur- 
ing the  hours  of  darkness,  are  responsible  for  ills  of 
the  flesh,  of  the  mentality,  and  of  the  spiritual  life. 
They  cause  disease,  aberration  of  mind,  and  per- 

verseness  toward  the  gods;  they  con- 
2.  Nature  trol  the  atmosphere  and  bring  storms; 
of  Demons,  by  their  mastery  of  the  waters  they 

bring  floods  and  destruction;  they 
enter  the  bodies  of  human  beings,  are  especially 
dangerous  to  women  and  children,  and  at  the  crit- 
ical periods  of  life  are  alert  to  work  them  harm. 
They  may  be  warded  off  by  attention  to  the  proper 
ritual,  by  the  use  of  drugs  and  herbs,  and  by  the 
potency  of  incantations  and  charms  (the  later  Jews 
regarded  the  ehema,  "  Hear,  O  Israel,"  of  Deut. 
vi.  4  as  a  protection).  Yet  they  may  be  welcomed 
by  the  individual  and  become  so  at  home  in  his 
person  that  he  becomes  virtually  one  of  their  num- 
ber. In  accordance  with  their  perverse  nature,  the 
demons  have  their  dwelling-places jn  spots  shimned 
by  mortals — ^in  the  deserts,  among  ruins  and  in 
cities  which  have  been  destroyed  by  the  enemy, 
among  graves,  in  miasmatic  morasses,  and  in  like 
places.  The  demonology  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  New  exhibits  many  of  these  traces.  Yet  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  not  even  in  its  monotheism 
does  the  religion  of  Israel  show  a  loftier  elevation 
above  the  faiths  of  the  surroimding  peoples  than 
in  its  demonology.  The  most  numerous  traces 
appear  in  the  period  of  depression  when  national 
disaster  had  enforced  contact  with  the  pregnant 
demonism  of  Babylonians,  Persians,  and  the  in- 
vading Arabs.  As  a  matter  of  course,  the  nature  of 
demons  is  ever  vaguely  treated,  and  the  exact  no- 
tions about  them  are  difficult  to  determine.  De- 
mons were  regarded  as  not  of  flesh  and  blood  (cf. 
Eph.  vi.  12),  yet  they  ate  and  drank,  reproduced 
their  kind,  and  might  be  woimded  and  killed. 
They  were  pictured  with  the  passions  and  even  the 
lusts  of  mankind  (cf.  Tobit  vi.  14).  They  were 
above  the  laws  of  nature,  and  could  transform 
themselves  into  various  shapes,  even  into  those  of 
angels  of  light  (cf.  II  Cor.  xi.  14).  In  Judaism  they 
were  regarded  as  especially  the  opponents  of  the 
Messiah  (see  Demoniac).  Their  origin  is  seldom 
accounted  for  in  popular  belief.  They  come  down 
as  elemental  spirits  in  the  common  belief  of  the 
people,  and  their  number  is  added  to  as  the  souls 
of  the  departed  become  regarded  as  malignant. 
When  an  angeloiogy  develops,  the  angels  are  re- 
garded as  falling  from  their  high  estate  and  adding 
to  the  number  of  the  demons.  So  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  Hebrew  religion  demons  are  not  ac- 
counted for;  but  in  late  Jewish  works,  especially  in 
the  Book  of  Enoch  (see  Pbeudepiorapha),  the  de- 
mons are  largely  derived  from  the  episode  narrated 


Demon 
Oemoniao 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


400 


in  Gen.  vi.  1-4  or  from  the  conceptions  of  the  fall 
of  the  angels  who  thereby  became  demons.  In  the 
same  region  demonology  developed  pari  passu 
with  angelology,  and  a  demonarchy  with  Satan 
and  archdemons  at  the  head  were  opposed  to  the 
hierarchy  of  God  and  the  archangels  and  angels 
which  left  its  traces  in  all  Western  and  some  East- 
ern literatures. 

The  word  daimon  was  introduced  into  the  Bib- 
lical sphere  through  the  Septuagint  as  a  translation 
of  the  two  Hebrew  words  «o*tr  (pi.  seHrim)  and 
shedk  (pi.  shedhim;  cf.  Assyr.  shedUj 
3.  The      like  the  Gk.  daimon  j  originally  a  word 

Hebrew  of  neutral  signification,  found  also  in 
Se'irim  and  Phenician  inscriptions,   and   possibly 

Shedhim.  etymologically  connected  with  Shad- 
dai,  one  of  the  patriarchal  names  for 
God,  e.g.,  Gen.  xvii.  1,  R.  V.,  margin,  and  also  with 
the  Arabic  sa*id,  sayyid,  *'  lord  ").  The  former  oc- 
curs Lev.  xvii.  7  (A.  V.  "  devils,"  R.  V.  "  he-goats," 
margin  "  satyrs  ");  Isa.  xiii.  21,  xxxiv.  14  (A.  V. 
and  R.  V.  "satyrs,"  R.  V.  margin  "he-goats"); 
and  II  Chron.  xi.  15  (A.  V.  "  devils,"  R.  V.  "  he- 
goats,"  margin  "  satyrs  ").  Shedh  (shedhim)  oc- 
curs in  Deut.  xxxii.  17  and  Ps.  cvi.  37  (A.  V. 
"  devils,"  R.  V.  "  demons  ").  In  Isa.  xiii.  21,  re- 
garded as  exilic  or  later,  the  reference  is  to  the 
desolate  site  of  Babylon  where  repulsive  creatures 
and  dancing  seHrim  are  to  abide.  The  conception 
is  evidently  that  of  hairy  goat-like  creatures,  not 
unlike  the  satyr  or  Pan  of  Greek  myth;  some  va- 
rieties of  the  Arabic  jinn  are  also  represented  as 
having  somewhat  of  the  same  form  (WcUhausen, 
HeiderUum,  pp.  151-152).  This  representation  is 
in  fuU  accord  with  that  of  Isa.  xxxiv.  14,  also  exilic 
or  postexilic,  in  which  the  sa'tr  cries  "  to  his  fel- 
low "  in  Edom,  which  has  become  a  waste  inhabited 
by  wolves  and  by  the  night  monster  (Heb.  lilUh, 
R.  V.  "  night-hag,"  see  below).  Further,  light  is 
cast  on  the  subject  by  the  passage  Lev.  xvii.  7, 
which  forbids  sacrifice  to  the  seHrimf  here  men- 
tioned as  the  objects  of  worship.  This  worship 
may  have  been  simply  avertive,  after  the  primitive 
fashion  of  bringing  offerings  to  beings  whose  ill  will 
it  was  desired  to  avoid.  It  is  significant  that  the 
purpose  of  the  entire  passage  is  to  proscribe  sacri- 
fice in  "  the  open  field  " — i.e.,  apart  from  the  dwell- 
ing-place— which  may  mean  the  desert,  the  assumed 
home  of  evil  spirits.  Similar  in  purport  is  Deut. 
xxxii.  17,  where  the  fathers  are  said  to  have  sacri- 
ficed to  shedhim f  and  Ps.  cvi.  37,  in  which  case 
sons  and  daughters  were  the  offerings  presented. 
It  is  questionable  whether  these  two  cases  are  mere 
invidious  comparison  of  false  gods  to  demons  (W. 
von  Baudissin,  in  Hauck-Herzog,  RE,  vi.  4),  since 
this  comparison  is  not  met  again  for  several  cen- 
turies, possibly  not  till  apostolic  times.  The  entire 
provenience  of  the  passages  and  the  ideas  con- 
nected are  best  suited  by  the  supposition  that  offer- 
ings of  an  avertive  character  are  here  referred  to, 
and  that  not  the  heathen  deities,  but  actual  demons 
were  conceived  as  objects  of  worship.  The  possible 
renascence  of  totemistic  practises  (probably  under 
the  influence  of  Arabic  immigration)  suggested  by 
E^zek.  viii.  10  and  Isa.  ixvi.  17  is  in  favor  of  this 
conclusion. 


Mention  of  lUUh  (Isa.  xxxiv.  14,  A.  V.  "  screech- 
owl,"  margin  and  R.  V.  "  night  monster,"  R.  V. 
margin  "  Lilith  ")  has  already  been  made.     There 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  Babylonian  origin  of  thi.^ 
w^ord.    The  god  of  Nippur  was  known  as  £ln-lil 
"  lord  of  spirits  "  (see  Babylonia,  VII.,  2,  §  2),  and 
the    Assyrian    lUu,    liltdu    had    the    signification 
"  sprites."    The  Semitic  liUUu,  "  night,"  may  be 
compared,  and  the  fem.  Lilith  is  named  in  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions  as  an  attendant  c: 
4.  Other    Nam  tar,  the    deity    of    plagues   (ia.«e 
Hebrew     Babylonia,  VII.,  2,  §  8).     In  late  nh- 
Demonic    binic  literature  lilin  means  female  de- 
Conceptions,  mons,  and  Lilith  herself  bears  no  slight 
part  in  legend  and  was  conceived  a» 
living  in  the  desert  w^hence  she  emerged  to  moke 
her  attacks.    A  kindred  conception  is  that  of  Prov. 
XXX.  15  (Heb.  'alukah,  A.  V.  "  horaeleech,"  R.  V. 
margin  "  vampire,"  described  as  having  daughters 
ever  crying  "  give,  give  "),  to  which  what  is  at 
least  a  parallel,  if  not  a  cognate  conception,  is 
found  in  the  Arabic  *aluk.    The  circumstances  of 
the  reference  suit  much  better  the  conception  of 
a  demon  than  that  of  a  horseleech,  especially  the 
circumstance  of  the  insatiable  daughters.     AzxLzt-i 
(Lev.  xvi.  8  sqq.)  is  the  name  of  a  demon  wh(>^« 
home  is  in  the  desert,  whose  character  and  aims  are 
opposed  to  those  of  Yahweh.    The  name  has  ni>t 
yet  yielded  to  investigations  on  the  side  of  Hebrew 
philology,  and  is  unique  as  being  the  one  element 
of  this  character  entering  into  the  ritual  of  the 
Hebrews.    Asmodeus,  mentioned  in  Tobit,  is  either 
derived  from  Persian  sources  or  is  a  literary  imita- 
tion of  a  Persian  conception.    Hey  lei  (Isa.  xiv.  12!. 
the  '*  day  star,  fallen  from  heaven,"  is  interest inc 
as  an  early  instance  of  what,  especially  in  pspui- 
epigraphic  literature,  became  a  dominant  conceji- 
tion,  that  of  fallen  angels.     The  Septuagint  tran>- 
lates  by  daimonia  the  elUim  of  Ps.  xcv.  5  (A.  V. 
and  R.   V.  "  idols,"   R.    V.    margin    "  things  of 
naught "),  probably  rendering  aright  the  concep- 
tion of  the  author  of  this  late  psalm.      It  is  not  im- 
probable that  behind  the  **  pestilence  "  and  '*  de- 
struction "  of  Ps.  xci.  6  are  animistic  conceptions 
of  mischief-working  demons,  and  that  they  are  not 
mere   personifications.    A   belief   closely   akin   to 
that  in  demons  is  referred  to  in  the  06^,  "  familiar 
spirit,"  of  I  Sam.  xxviii.  7  sqq.     In  direct  line  with 
this  and  connecting  the  belief  of  the  early  Hebrews 
with  that  of  surrounding  nations  are  the  teraphim 
(q.v.),  the  best  explanation  of  which  relates  them 
to  ancestral  spirits   that  are   sought  among  the 
graves  (cf.  Isa.  Ixv.  4;   cf.  Deut.  xxvi.  14;   Ps.  cvi. 
28).     Etymologically  connected  with  teraphim  is 
the  word  rephaim,  **  giants,"  and  this  again  con- 
nects the  Hebrews  with  the  beliefs  of  other  peoples 
who  speak  of  earlier  inhabitants  of  their  land  as 
still  remaining,  though  in  the  shape  of  elves,  dwaifss 
and  fairies.     In  the  Assyrian  tongue  the  words 
viukku  and  ukimmu  designated  both  a  class  of  de^ 
mons  and  also  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  and  they  are 
compared    with    zaJkHfUy    "  wind,"    recalling    the 
"  spirits "   mentioned   above   as    unclassified   (cf. 
Heb.  rtuxi^).    The  idea  which  underlies  that  of  re- 
phaim  is  unsubstantiality,  and   ruhim  becomes  a 
late  Jewish  word  for  demons.    The  Hebrew  popu- 


401 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Demon 
Demoniao 


lar  belief  in  demons  is  attested  further  by  the  many 
injunctions  against  sorcery  which  appear  in  the 
legislative  and  prophetic  utterances.  In  ethnic 
custom  one  of  the  universally  employed  means  of 
averting  the  harmful  action  of  demons  is  the  use 
of  the  magic  word  or  act.  The  fact  that  the  peo- 
ple needed  this  admonition  so  constantly  speaks 
more  strongly  for  the  abiding  belief  in  demons  than 
the  few  specific  references  which  are  found.  For 
the  New  Testament  doctrine  and  for  later  Jewish 
belief  in  demons  see  Demoniac,  §§  1-4. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibljoorapht:  A.  Kohut,  Anoeloloffie  und  DUmonologie  in 
ihrer  AbfUtnffUfkeit  vom  ParaUmut,  in  Ahhandlungen  fUr 
die  Kunde  dea  Morgenlaiidea,  iv.,  1866;  W.  Baudissin, 
Studien  zwr  Mmt<i«cA«n  Ae2H7u>n«0e«cA«cftte,  i.  110-146, 
Leipdo,  1876;  P.  Seholtc,  OdtMendienat  und  Zaubenveaen, 
pp.  133-137,  Regenaburg,  1877;  J.  T.  de  Viaser,  De  Dae- 
monologie  van  het  O.  T.,  pp.  80-83,  Utrecht,  1880;  H. 
Schults.  O.  T.  Theology,  Loildon,  1892;  R.  Stube.  Jit- 
diachrbabyloniache  ZauberUxU,  Halle,  1895;  W.  R.  New- 
bold.  Demon  Poeaeaeion  and  Allied  Themea,  in  New  World, 
Sept..  1897;  £.  Stave,  Ueber  den  Einfluaa  dea  Paraiamua 
auf  daa  Judentum,  pp.  235-280,  Haarlem.  1898;  Smith, 
Rel.  of  Sem.,  pp.  119-120;  DB,  i.  590-594;  EB,  i.  1069- 
1074;  JE,  iv.  514-521.  On  LiUth  consult:  J.  A.  Eiisen- 
menger,  Entdeckiea  JtuHenhan,  ii.  41^3  sqq.,  Frankfort, 
1700;  W.  GeaeniuB.  Jeaaia,  i.  916-920.  Leipsic,  1821. 
On  ethnic  demonology  cozuult:  F.  Lenormant,  La  Magie 
chez  lea  CKakUena,  Paris,  1874;  J.  Wellhausen,  Heiden- 
tum,  pp.  151  sqq.;  J.  L.  Nevins,  Demon  Poaaeaaion  and 
AUied  Themea,  New  York,  1895;  £.  B.  Tylor,  PrimUive 
CiUtiire,  London,  1903.  Consult  also  the  literature  under 
Demoniac. 

DEMONIAC. 

Jewish  and  New  Testament  Demonology  (I  1). 

New  Testament  Ideas  Concerning  Demoniacs  (§  2). 

S3rmptoms  of  Possession  (f  3). 

Exorcism  by  Jesus  (f  4). 

Exorcism  in  the  Early  Church  (§  5). 

Exorcism  by  Jews  (16). 

Modem  Explanations  (§  7). 

A  demoniac  is  one  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  a 
demon  or  evil  spirit  or  by  several  demons.  The 
name  ''  demon "  originated  in  Greek  mythology 
and  was  introduced  into  the  Bible  and  Christianity 
through  the  Septuagint  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
seHrim  and  shedhim  (see  the  article  Demon  for  the 
Old  Testament  demonology).  In  postexilic  Juda- 
ism demonology  gained  ground,  either  through  for- 
eign influence  or  by  a  recrudescence  of  primitive 
Semitic  or  Israelitic  folk-lore.  The  New  Testa- 
ment reflects  the  current  beliefs  of  its  time.  The 
demonic  powers  are  represented  as  spirits,  not  flesh 
and  blood  (Eph.  vi.  12);  they  can  assume  any  form, 
even  appearing  as  angels  of  light  (II  Cor.  xi.  14); 
they  dwell  in  ruins  (Rev.  xviii.  2),  in  tombs  (Mark 
v.  1  sqq.),  and  especially  in  the  desert  (Matt.  iv. 
1  sqq.,  xii.  43).  In  the  Talmud  their  generic  name 
is  mcLzzikin  ("injurers")-  They  lead  men  to 
sin  (Enoch  Ixix.  4,  6),  and  return  more  readily 
to  the    sinner  than  to  the  righteous 

X.  Jewish    (Testament  of    Naphtali   8);    yet  it 

and  New  is  possible  to  resist  the  devil  (Eph. 
Testament  vi.  12;    James  iv.   7;   I  Pet.  v.   8), 

Demon-    and   even    to  stop   the  way  of  the 

ology.      evil  spirits  by  opposing  them  (Matt. 

xii.  43  sqq.).    One  who  transgresses 

the   commandments  falls  an  easy  victim  to  the 

demons    (Debarim   rabb<ih    4),     although    he     is 

protected  by  the  recitation  of  the  Shema,  or  by 

III.— 26 


the  strict  observance  of  other  commandments 
{Berako  5»;  Peniia  1870.  The  devil  and  his 
hosts  are  the  special  foes  of  the  Messianic  kingdom 
(Rev.  xii.  10).  The  mission  of  Jesus  was  the  con- 
quest of  the  "  strong  man "  (Matt.  xii.  29),  al- 
though, according  to  Luke  xxii.  3,  I  Cor.  ii.  8,  he 
apparently  fell  a  victim  to  the  evil  one;  yet,  as  he 
had  expressed  the  conviction  that  he  had  cast  out 
the  kingdom  of  Satan  by  the  spirit  of  God  (Matt. 
xii.  26,  28),  he  inspired  his  disciples  and  all  early 
Christianity  with  the  consciousness  of  victory  over 
the  demons  (Luke  x.  17  sqq.).  They,  on  the  other 
hand,  recognized  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  (Mark  i.  24, 
and  frequently).  According  to  Rev.  xii.,  which  is 
confirmed  by  allusions  in  the  Pauline  writings,  the 
devil,  having  been  cast  down  from  heaven,  is  come 
to  earth  to  work  evil  during  the  little  time  which 
still  remained  to  him,  and  must  be  resisted  con- 
tinually, although  he  can  win  no  real  victory.  The 
Pauline  concept  of  the  "  rudiments  of  the  world  " 
(Col.  ii.  20;  cf.  ii.  16;  Rom.  viii.  38;  Eph.  vi.  12) 
refers  not  only  to  the  sovereigns  of  the  Jews  and 
the  Gentiles  (Gal.  iii.  19;  iv.  1-4,  8-«;  Enoch 
Ixxxix.  59--60),  but  also  to  the  gods  of  the  nations 
and  of  idolatrous  Israel  (Deut.  xxxii.  17;  Ps.  xcv. 
5,  cvi.  37).  This  comparison  of  the  pagan  deities 
to  shedhim  recurs  in  postexilic  Judaism  (Enoch 
xix.  1;  Rev.  ix.  20),  in  the  writings  of  Paul,  and 
throughout  ecclesiastical  antiquity.  Though  Paul 
denied  the  existence  of  idols  (I  Cor.  viii.  4  sqq.), 
declaring  them  dead  (I  Thess.  i.  9)  and  no  gods  by 
nature  (Gal.  iv.  8),  he  expressly  stated  that  the 
sacrifices  offered  to  pagan  deities  were  really  given 
to  devils  (I  Cor.  x.  19  sqq.;  cf.  Justin,  i.  5,  10,  12, 
23,  ii.  1,  12,  13;  Tatian,  Oratio  ad  Grcscos ;  Ter- 
tullian,  Apol.,  xxii.,  xxiii.,  et  passim ;  Origen,  Conr 
tra  Celsum). 

The  principal  source  for  the  Biblical  view  of 
demoniacs  is  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. According  to  the  general  concept  of  the 
various  passages,  the  demon  enters  into  man  as  a 
second  personality  (Luke  viii.  30),  dwelling  in  him 
as  in  a  house  (Matt.  xii.  44;  Luke  xi.  24),  so  that 
evil  spirits  dread  to  be  banished  into 
2.  New  Tes-  the  abyss  (Luke  viii.  31),  or  (Mark  v. 

tament  10)  to  be  expelled  from  a  lajid  they 
Ideas  Con-  love,  preferring  to  inhabit  the  bodies 

ceming  of  swine.  The  demon  tortures  man 
Demoniacs.  (Matt.  xv.  22),  driving  him  whither 
he  would  not  go  (Luke  viii.  29). 
The  demoniac  is  often  so  thoroughly  possessed  by 
the  evil  spirit  that  he  lives  insepulchers  and  other 
lonely  places,  a  danger  to  passers-by  (Matt.  viii. 
28)  and  unable  to  be  boimd  by  even  the  strongest 
fetters  (Mark  v.  3-6);  he  even  speaks  as  though  he 
were  himself  the  demon,  using  the  plural  when 
possessed  by  many  evil  spirits  (Matt.  viii.  29; 
Mark  i.  24,  v.  9;  Luke  iv.  34,  viii.  28). 

The  manifestations  of  demoniac  possession  are 
extremely  varied.  The  boy  at  the  foot  of  the  Mount 
of  Transfiguration  (Mark  ix.  14-27)  is  represented 
as  seized  with  convulsions,  writhing  on  the  ground, 
and  foaming  at  the  mouth.  At  the  first  attack  the 
boy  wallowed  dumb  upon  the  ground,  nor  did  he 
cry  out  until  the  demon  had  been  expelled,  al- 
though the  account  of  Luke  (ix.  39)  states  that 


DamonUo 
Dempster 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


402 


the  child  Bcreamed  at  every  attack,  and  that  the  evil 
spirit  "  bruising  him,  hardly  departeth  from  him." 
Both  Mark  and  Luke  record  symp- 
3.  Symp-  toms  of  epilepsy;  the  account  in  Mat- 
toms  of  thew  not  only  omits  all  these  details, 
Poeseisioa.  but  especially  characterizes  the  disease 
as  lunacy  (xvii.  15),  thus  giving  a  pref- 
erable explanation  of  the  falling  of  the  boy  into 
fire  and  water,  which  has  no  specific  cause  in  Mark, 
and  is  altogether  lacking  in  Luke.  The  passage  in 
Matthew  is  the  more  interesting  since  in  iv.  24  he 
distinguishes  ''those  which  were  possessed  with 
devils,  and  those  which  were  lunatic,  and  those 
that  had  the  palsy."  The  demoniac  met  by  Jesus 
in  the  synagogue  at  Capernaum  (Mark  i.  23-28) 
does  not  exhibit  the  characteristic  foam  of  epilepsy, 
but  shows  symptoms  of  epileptic  hysteria,  especially 
as  Luke  iv.  35  notes  that  the  fit  did  him  no  harm. 
It  is  evident,  from  a  summary  of  the  cases  in  Mat- 
thew and  Mark,  that  such  attacks  were  regarded 
as  demoniac  in  origin,  and  to  the  same  agency 
are  ascribed  the  superhuman  strength,  the  self- 
injury,  the  dwelling  among  tombs,  the  threatening 
gestures,  and  the  nakedness  of  the  demoniac  of 
Gadara  (Mark  v.  2-6;  Luke  viii.  27-29).  Other 
complaints  of  a  less  serious  nature,  however,  are 
also  referred  to  the  agency  of  demons,  such  as 
dumbness  (Matt.  ix.  32;  Luke  xi.  14),  or  blindness 
and  dumbness  (Matt.  xii.  22),  although  no  mention 
is  made  of  the  expulsion  of  demons  in  the  accounts 
of  the  healing  of  the  dumb  and  the  blind  in  Matt, 
ix.  27-31;  Mark  vii.  32,  37,  viu.  22-26,  x.  46-52. 
In  like  manner,  Luke  iv.  40-41  (cf.  vi.  17-18,  vii.  21) 
regards  the  curing  of  demoniacs  as  a  special  phase 
of  healing,  and  in  Acts  viii.  7  demoniacs  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  paralytic  and  the  lame.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  woman  bowed  with  "  a  spirit 
of  infirmity  eighteen  years "  was  "  bound  by 
Satan  "  (Luke  xiv.  11-16),  and  the  fever  of  Peter's 
mother-in-law  seems  to  have  been  believed  to  be 
demoniac  (Luke  iv.  38-39).  The  healings  at 
Capernaum  (Matt.  viii.  16)  were  in  the  main  exor- 
cisms of  demons,  and  these  formed  a  large  part  of 
the  activity  both  of  Jesus  (Mark  i.  39)  and  of  the 
Twelve  (Mark  iii.  14-15,  vi.  7,  13;  Matt.  x.  8). 

The  gloom  and  asceticism  of  John  the  Baptist 
gained  him  the  reputation  of  a  demoniac  (Matt.  xi. 
18;  Luke  vii.  33),  and  this  chaige  was  brought 
against  Jesus  himself  (Matt.  ix.  34,  xii.  24;  Mark 
iii.  22,  30;  Luke  xi.  15;  John  vii.  20,  viii.  48, 
x.  20).  Nor  was  it  an  easy  matter  to  distinguish 
between  spirits  of  evU  and  spirits  of  God  (Matt. 
xxiv.  11, 24;  I  John  iv.  1-3),  so  that  the  "  discerning 
of  spirits  "  was  regarded  as  a  special  grace  (I  Cor. 
xii.  10,  xiv.  29).  Even  a  storm  (Mark  iv.  37-41; 
cf.  Rev.  viL  1;  Enoch  Ix.  11  sqq.;  Jubilees  ii.)  was 
considered  the  work  of  demons.  It  is  surprising, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  moral  defects  and  delin- 
quencies are  seldom  represented  as  demoniac 
either  by  popular  belief  or  by  Jesus  himself.  Neither 
Matt.  xi.  18;  John  vii.  20,  viii.  48,  52,  nor  Luke  xi. 
24-26  admits  ot  such  an  interpretation,  the  only 
passages  really  entering  into  consideration  being 
Luke  xxH.  3,  31  and  the  account  of  the  temptation, 
where,  however,  Satan  is  rather  the  avowed  oppo- 
nent of  all  Messianic  work  than  the  principle  of  evil. 


In  the  exordsma  of  Jesus  the  defnoninfw  are 
agitated  at  his  i^proach  (Marie  L  23,  iii  11,  v.  6, 
ix.  20),  while  the  evil  spirits,  recognizing  him  as  the 
Son  of  God,  implore  him  not  to  torment  them  before 
their  time  (Matt.  viii.  29).  Such  recognition, 
although  rebuked  by  Jesus  (Mark  L 

4.  Exor-    25,    iii.  12),  receives  its    explanation 
cism'  by     in   the   supernatural    power    of    per- 

Jesns.      oeption  possessed  by  Uie  evil  spirits, 
since   by   means   of   his    Spirit    God 
wrought  through  Jesus  all  his  miracles,  wonders, 
and  signs.    The  rebuke  of  Jesus  is  sufficient  in 
most  cases  to  exorcise  evil  spirits  (Matt.  viiL  16: 
Mark  i.  25,  ix.  25),  even  at  a  distance  (Mark  viL 
29,  30).    The  successful  exorcism  of  the  demon  is 
recognised  by  the  quiet  and  repose  of  the  patient 
(Mark  v.  15,   viL  30),  or  by  a  loud  cry  from  the 
person  possessed  (Mark  i.  26),  while  the  transfer  d 
the  demon  from  the  man  of  Gadara  to  the  swine  ia 
Mark  v.  2-13  finds  its  probable  explanation  in  the 
fright  of  the  animals  at  the  final   paroxysm  of 
the  maniac.    The   historicity  of  Jesus'    successful 
treatment  of  demoniacs  is  admitted  in  principle 
even  by  adherents  of  the  critical  school.     Elxor^ 
cisms  were  the  order  of  the  day  and  were  expected 
from  a  Messianic  prophet,  and  the  chief  proof  for 
their  historicity  lies  in  statements  of  Jesus  whidi 
represent   their  importance   for   himself   and   \a» 
activity  as  the  Messiah  (Matt,  xi  5;   Luke  vii.  22). 
It  becomes  clear  from  Matt.  xii.  25-32  and  Luke 
xi.  17-23  that  Jesus  believed  not  only  in  the  exist- 
ence of  demons  (cf.  Matt.  xii.  43-45;    Luke  xi.  24- 
26),  but,  like  his  contemporaries,  in  exorcism  (Matt, 
xii.  27;    Luke  xi.  19).     The  expulsion  of  demons 
implied  the  debilitation  and  the  destruction  of  the 
"  kingdom  of  Satan  '*  (Matt.  xii.  26;   Luke  xi.  1$\ 
thus  representing  victories  over  the  principle  of 
evil  in  the  dawn  of  the  Messianic  age  (cf.  Assump- 
tion of  Moses  X.).     It  is  clear,  from  the  allusion  to 
the  "  strong  man  "  in  Matt.  xii.  29,  and  Luke  xi 
21-22,  that  Jesus  deduced  his  victory  over  the 
demons  from  his  previous  conquest  of  Satan,  their 
lord,  in  his  temptation  (cf.  Luke  x.  18-20). 

The  accounts  of  the  (iospels  receive  their  full  ex- 
planation, however,  only  in  the  light  of  the  histoiy 
of  religion,  which  shows  that  the  belief  in  demoniac 
possession  was  not  restricted  to  the  time  of  Jesus 
or   to    his    surroimdings.      Elxorcism 

5.  Exor-    continued  to  be  practised  in  the  eariy 
cism  in  the  Christian  Church  (Acts  v.  16,   viii.  7). 

Early  Of  particular  interest  is  the  account 
Church,  of  the  ''  spirit  of  divination,"  in  Acts 
xvi.  16-18.  The  narrative  in  Acts  xix. 
13-19,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  no  exorcism  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  but  merely  shows  the  | 
power  of  the  name  of  Jesus  over  those  possessed 
with  demons  (cf.  Mark  ix.  38-39;  Luke  ix.  49'. 
Jesus  himself  admitted  the  success  of  other  exorcUt^ 
and  sanctioned  them  as  helping  to  destroy  the  kio^ 
dom  of  Satan,  so  that  the  failure  of  the  Jewuh 
exorcists  (Acts  xix.  13-16)  is  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule.  Although  the  epistles  contain  no 
direct  statements  concerning  demoniacs  and  exor 
cisms,  such  beliefs  must  be  attributed  to  Paul  when 
he  mentions  among  charismata  the  ability  to  dis- 
cern between  spirits  (I  Cor.   xii.   10).    The  coc- 


408 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


viction  that  ''  the  Son  of  God  was  manifefited  that 
he  might  destroy  the  works  of  the  devil "  (I  John 
iii.  8)  continued  active  in  the  early  Church.  Thus 
Irenseus  (11.  xlix.  3)  asserts  that  certain  exorcisms 
"  mightily  and  truly  expel  demons " ;  while  Ter- 
tullian  put  the  belief  in  the  form  of  a  challenge 
(Apol.f  xxiii.;  of.  De  corona,  xi;  De  idolis,  xi.; 
Minucius  Felix,  xxvii.;  Origen,  Contra  Celswn, 
vii.  4,  viU.  68,  etc.).  While  in  the  earliest  period 
many  Christians  expelled  evil  spirits,  exorcists  are 
definitely  mentioned  as  special  officials  of  the . 
Church  as  early  as  Cyprian  (Episi.,  xvi.;  cf.  the 
tenth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Antioch  and  the 
twenty-sixth  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions),  i 
[The  energumens  (Gk.  energoumenoi,  "  worked 
upon,"  "influenced,"  i.e.,  by  an  evil  spirit)  con- 
stituted a  special  class.  They  were  not  permitted 
to  enter  the  church  if  they  were  violent,  but  were 
commanded  to  stand  in  the  porch,  so  that  they 
could  hear  the  singing  and  prayers;  and  with  them 
might  be  found  lepers  and  persons  of  offensive 
lives  (cf.  the  seventeenth  canon  of  the  Synod  of 
Ancjrra,  314;  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  i.  236- 
237);  after  the  prayers  they  came  in  to  receive  the 
blessing  of  the  bishop.  If  they  were  quiet,  they 
were  allowed  in  the  church,  yet  separated  from  the 
catechumens,  and  listened  to  the  sermon.  They 
were  also  called  cheimazomenoi  ("  storm-tossed  *'). 
The  exorcists  daily  brought  them  food,  laid  their 
hands  upon  them,  and  prayed  for  them.  After 
their  recovery  they  kept  a  twenty  to  forty  days' 
fast,  then  partook  of  the  sacrament;  a  particular 
prayer  was  made  for  them  by  the  priest,  and  their 
names  were  entered  upon  the  church-records,  with 
especial  mention  of  their  recovery.]  The  belief  in 
demoniac  possession  and  the  power  of  exorcism 
has  continued  in  the  Church  down  to  modem  times,  j 
See  Benediction;  Sacramentaijb. 

This  phenomenon  loses  its  singularity  in  view  of 
its  ethnic  distribution.  In  the  Old  Testament  a 
special  instance  is  the  evil  spirit  which  troubled 
Saul  after  the  spirit  of  God  had  departed  from  him, 
mentioned  by  Josephus  {Ant,,  VI.  viii.  2,  xi.  2)  as 
a  case  of  demoniac  possession,  and  the  lying  spirit 
of  I  Kings  xxii.  20-23.  The  cases  of  Judges  ix.  23; 
II  Kings  xix.  7;  Isa.  xxix.  10  are  more  doubtful, 
but  the  underlying  concept  is  clearly  that  of  pos- 
session by  evil  spirits.  Josephus  expressed  a  firm 
belief  in  possession.  According  to  him,  in  a  case 
which  he  observed,  the  exorcist  held 
6.  Exor-  to  the  patient's  nose  a  ring  containing 
dsm  by  under  its  seal  one  of  the  roots  which 
Jews.  Solomon  had  endowed  with  healing 
power,  thus  drawing  the  demon  from 
the  nostrils  of  the  person  possessed.  The  patient 
then  fell  down,  and  the  exorcist  conjured  the  demon 
not  to  return,  commemorating  Solomon,  and  pro- 
nouncing the  incantations  which  he  had  composed. 
Jewish  exorcists  are  mentioned  by  Jesus  (Matt.  xii. 
27)  as  well  as  in  Acts  xix.'  13-20,  while  Origen 
{Contra  Celsum,  I.  xxviii.,  xxxviii.)  declared  exor- 
cism an  art  which  the  Jews  had  learned  from  the 
Egyptians.  Lucian  {Philopaeudea,  xviL)  describes 
exorcists  in  terms  which  resemble  those  of  the  New 
Testament,  mentioning  particularly  a  Palestinian 
and  an  Arab  conjurer.     Especially  famous  were 


the  exorcisms  of  ApoUonius  of  lyana  (q.v.),  al- 
though there  is  no  foundation  for  Baur's  view  that 
tl^y  were  imitations  of  the  Gospel  narratives. 

Strong  evidence  for  the  wide-spread  extent  of  the 
ancient  belief  in  demoniac  possession  are  the  counlr 
less  incantations  still  preserved,  and  the  mass  of 
magic  papyri  recently  discovered.  A  distinct 
category  is  formed  by  the  "  Ephesian  letters,"  a 
mixture  of  foreign  and  unintelligible  names,  in- 
cluding many  Hebrew  words  and  even  verses  from 
the  Bible.  In  these  formulas  the  Hebrew  name  of 
God  and  the  name  of  Jesus  recur  with  great  fre- 
quency, both  being  r^arded  as  especially  potent. 

In  spite  of  the  progress  of  modem  thought  and 
of  the  natural  sciences,  the  primitive  conception  of 
all  these  things  as  supernatural  has  by  no  means 
been  eliminated.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
orthodox  Protestant  churches  it  finds  a  strong 
support  in  the  Scriptural  narratives  and  in  the 
general  supernatural  standpoint  from 
7.  Modem  which  their  exposition  is  approached. 

Explana-  The  natural  view  of  these  phenomena 
tions.  was  first  taken  by  the  rationalist 
school,  especially  by  Semler,  and  is  to- 
day fully  recognized  in  historical  theology.  Theo- 
logians are  now  willing  to  adimt  their  need  of  infor- 
mation on  the  underlying  psychological  facts  at  the 
hands  of  specialists,  especially  the  medical  men 
who  in  recent  years  have  made  careful  study  of 
phenomena  of  this  class.  The  labors  of  Charcot, 
Richer,  Snell,  and  others  have  led  to  a  prevalence 
of  the  view  that  cases  of  so-called  possession  are 
usually  to  be  regarded  as  acute  hysteria,  and  the 
cures,  the  accomplishment  of  which  is  still  possible, 
as  the  work  of  suggestion.  This  would  have  been 
all  the  more  likely  to  operate  effectively  in  the 
early  days  of  Christianity,  when  powerful  religious 
excitement  and  extreme  submissiveness  of  faith 
would  have  offered  the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  its  exercise.  (Johannes  Weiss.) 

Bibliookapht:  On  Biblical  prMentationa  consult:  F.  C. 
Gonybeare.  in  JQR,  180(V-07T  W.  Baudissin,  Skidim^  part 
1,  Leipflio,  1876;  G.  Hafner,  Dis  D&moni»€hM  det  N.  T„ 
Frankfort.  1894;  H.  Laehr.  Dis  DAmoniBchm  dea  N.  T., 
Leipoio,  1804;  R.  Stube,  JUdudirbabyloniadis  Zauber- 
Uxte,  Halle,  1895;  W.  M.  Alexander.  Demoniac  Pottea^ 
Hon  in  the  New  Teetament,  Edinburgh,  1002;  DB,  i. 
590-504;  811-813;  EB,  i.  1060-74,  ii.  1451-53;  JB,  v. 
305-306.  On  the  relationship  of  Christ  to  the  subject 
consult:  F.  Nippold,  Die  pei/chiairiacKe  UeiUhOtiokeU  Jeeu, 
Bern.  1880;  idem,  Engele-  und  Satanaidee  Jeeu,  ib.  1801; 
Schwartskopff,  in  Zeitachrift  fitr  Theologie  und  Ktrcke, 
1807.  For  beliefs  and  practises  of  the  Middle  Ages  of. 
Scha£F.  ChriaUan  Church,  v.  1,  pp.  878  sqq. 

On  ethnic  belief  consult,  besides  the  literature  under 
Comparative  Rkligion:  A.  Hamack,  Afediainiaehea  aua 
der  alien  Ktrchengeachichie,  in  TU,  viii.  4  (1802),  111  sqq.; 
J.  L.  Nevius,  Demon  Poaaeaaion,  Chicago,  1805  (Chinese 
phenomena);  W.  R.  Newbold,  Demon  Poaaeaaion,  in  New 
World,  1807,  pp.  400  sqq.;  W.  M.  Townnend.  Solan  and 
Demona,  Cincinnati,  1002.  The  medical  side  may  be 
consulted  in  J.  M.  (Charcot,  Lea  Maladiea  du  ayathne  ner- 
veux,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1886-87.  Consult  J.  M.  Charcot  and 
P.  Richer,  Lea  Dhnoniaquea  dana  Vart,  Paris,  1887. 

DEMPSTER,  THOMAS:  Scotch  scholar;  b. 
(according  to  his  own  not  altogether  trustworthy 
account)  at  Gliftbog,  near  Muiresk  (32  m.  n.w.  oi 
Aberdeen),  Aberdeenshire,  Aug.  23,  1579;  d.  at 
Bologna  Sept.  6,  1625.  He  led  an  adventurous  life 
as  student  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  at  Paris, 


X>enlo 
Denmark 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


404 


Louvaiiiy  Rome,  and  Douai;  and  aa  teacher  at 
Tournai,  Paris,  Toulouse,  Nlmes,  Pisa,  and  Bologna. 
He  poflsessed  a  remarkable  memory,  and  accumu- 
lated a  great  store  of  learning;  was  impetuous, 
contentious,  and  ill-mannered,  and  his  personal 
character  is  not  free  from  reproach.  The  best 
known  of  his  writings  (all  in  barbarous  Latin)  is 
the  Histaria  eedenasHca  gerUis  Seoiorum  (Bologna, 
1627;  ed.  David  Irving  for  the  Bannatyne  Club, 
2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1829),  a  biographical  dictionary 
of  Scotchmen,  remarkable  for  its  fictions  rather 
than  its  facts.  He  wrote  also  upon  Roman  an- 
tiquities, Etruria,  etc.,  and  edited  and  annotated 
Braedetto  Aceolti's  De  heOo  a  Christianis  (xmtra 
barbaroB  getto  (Florence,  1623). 

DEHIOy  FRANCIS  BRIGHAM :  Congregational- 
ist;  b.  at  Enosburg,  Vt.,  May  4,  1848.  He  was 
graduated  at  Middlebury  College,  Middlebury,  Vt., 
in  1871  and  Andover  TlMSological  Seminary  in  1879, 
and  was  ordained  in  1881.  He  was  instructor  in 
New  Testament  Greek  in  Bangor  Theological  Sem- 
inary 1879-82,  and  has  been  professor  of  Old  Tes- 
tament language  and  literature  since  1882.  His 
theological  position  is  moderate.  His  has  written 
Ouilines  of  Old  TettatnerU  Theclogy  (Bangor,  Me., 
1897)  and  Supreme  Leader;  Study  of  the  Nature  and 
Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Boston,  1900). 

DERIS  (DIOHTSmS),  SAIRT:  First  bishop  of 
P^ris  and  patron  saint  of  France;  d.  a  martyr  at 
Paris  either  under  Valerian  (253-260)  or  Maximian 
(285-905).  He  is  said  to  have  gone  to  Gaul  about 
250,  established  himself  on  the  island  in  the  Seine 
now  known  as  La  CiU  in  Paris,  and,  with  miracles 
attesting  the  divine  favor,  to  have  built  a  chureh 
there  and  ordered  the  diureh  life.  Persecution 
broke  out,  Denis  was  arrested  with  Rusticus,  a 
priest,  and  Eleutherius,  a  deacon,  and  after  cruel 
tortures  the  three  were  beheaded.  They  were 
buried  where  they  fell  on  the  heights  of  Montmartre 
(Afons  martyrum  according  to  tradition,  though  the 
original  name  was  more  Mkely  Mons  Martie).  The 
place  became  a  great  resort  of  pilgrims,  and  won- 
ders were  wrought  there.  Thence  in  the  seventh 
century  the  relics  were  transferred  to  the  famous 
Abbey  of  St.  Denis  founded  by  Dagobert  I. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century  Hilduin, 
abbot  of  St.  Denis  (q.v.),  at  the  request  of  Louis  the 
Pious,  wrote  a  life  of  the  saint  (MPL,  cvi.  23-50); 
and  here,  for  the  first  time,  St.  Denis  is  identified 
with  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  All  the  great  ac- 
tivity which  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis  developed  in 
the  field  of  French  history  from  the  ninth  to  the 
fourteenth  century  is  centered  in  the  idea  that 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite  (q.v.)  is  the  patron  saint 
of  France.  Abelard  (q.v.)  had  his  doubts;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury that  Launoy  (De  Areopagilicie  HilduinXf  Paris, 
1641,  and  De  ducbua  Dumyeixe,  Paris,  1640)  and 
Sirmond  (Diesertatio  in  qua  osienditur  discrimen 
Dionyeii  Parisieneis  et  Dionyeii  Areopagita,  Paris, 
1641)  succeeded  in  exploding  the  audacious  hy- 
pothesis. The  shrine  of  St.  Denis  grew  immensely 
rich,  and  the  abbey  became  a  storehouse  packed 
with  valuable  historical  memorials  (cf.  M.  F^libien, 
Histaire  de  I'Abbaye  de  Saint  Denya,  Paris,  1706). 


During  the  Revolution  it  was  plundered  (Nov.  12. 
1793)  by  a  mob  led  by  one  of  its  own  priests;  and 
its  relics,  jewelry,  etc,  were  carried  on  six  cart^ 
into  the  Convention,  where  they  disappeared 
Denis  is  one  of  the  Fourteen  Helpers  in  Need  (q.v). 
His  day  is  Oct.  9. 

Bibucmskapht:  The  early  docamenta  are  printed  in  ASB, 
Oct.,  iv.  925-051;  also,  in  part.  ed.  B.  KmBcfa.  MGH. 
AueL  ant,  W..  part  2  (1885).  101-106.  Consult:  J.  £. 
Damw.  S.  Denya  VAr^opaaUe,  Paris.  1863;  EL  Taxlkr, 
ApottoUU  de  8.  Dem  datu  let  Gauiee  e»  tSO,  Amiezi.^ 
1868;  F.  ArbeUot.  Etudea  nw  1m  originea  dirHiama  de 
la  OauU,  part  1.  Funa,  1881;  A.  Vidieu,  S.  Demya  r.4r/.> 
pcvitef  Pauifl.  1884  (richly  illustrated,  but  not  hisioricalj. 

DEmSOH,  GEORGE  AHTHOHT:  Chureh  of 
England;  b.  at  Ossington  (6  m.  n.  of  Newark), 
Nottinghamshire,  Dec.  11,  1805;  d.  at  East  BreDt 
(14  m.  w.  of  Wells),  Scmierset,  Mar.  21,  1896.  He 
studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1826),  sad 
was  ordered  deacon  and  ordained  priest  in  18.32. 
Until  1838  he  was  curate  to  the  bishop  of  Oxford, 
and  then  resigned  his  fellowship  and  became  vicar 
of  Broad winsor,  Dorset,  and  so  renudned  until  184-5. 
when  he  became  vicar  of  East  Brent,  and  also  exam- 
ining chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  who 
in  1851  made  him  archdeacon  of  Taunton.  In  the- 
ology he  was  a  High-churchman,  and  from  1S54  to 
1858  was  unsuccenfuUy  prosecuted  for  maintaic- 
ing  the  doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence.  From  18.39 
to  1870  he  was  prominent  as  a  Church  champion 
in  the  school  controversy  between  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  civil  power,  which  resulted  in  the 
Elementary  Education  Act,  the  final  and  decisi^-e 
victory  of  the  civil  power.  He  wrote  Proceeding$ 
against  the  Archdeaocm  of  Taunton  (London,  1S54): 
Defenceo/the  Archdeacon  of  Taunton  (1856);  Church 
Rate  a  National  Trust  (1861);  Notes  cf  my  Li/V. 
1806-78  (1878);  and  Mr.  Gladstone  (1885).  He 
also  translated  Hadrianus  Saravia  On  the  Holy 
Eucharist  (1855). 

DEHK  (DEirCK)y  HAHS:  Anabaptist;  b.  at 
Heybach  (Habach;  30  m.  s.w.  of  Munich)  c.  1495: 
d.  at  Basel  Nov.,  1527.  He  studied  at  Ingolstadt, 
and  in  1520  is  found  at  Augsbuiig  among  the  Hu- 
manists. Thence  as  a  Protestant  he  went  to  Ba^. 
was  proof-reader  and  befriended  by  CEoolampadius, 
who  secured  for  him  the  rectorship  of  St.  Sebaldus' 
school  in  Nuremberg  in  the  autiunn  of  1523.  There 
he  mingled  with  those  who  were  dissatisfied  with 
the  dominant  theology,  and  on  the  charge  of  her- 
esy he  was  expelled  from  the  city  Jan.  21,  1525l 
Thenceforth  he  was  a  wanderer.  He  allied  himself 
with  the  Anabaptists  and  his  learning  made  him  s 
valuable  acquisition.  He  was  expelled  from  Aiigs- 
burg  in  Oct.,  and  from  Strasburg  in  Dec.,  1526. 
from  Worms  in  Aug.,  1527.  He  is  heard  from  as  a 
leader  of  the  Anabaptists  in  Augsburg,  Nuremberg, 
and  Ulm  in  1527;  but,  weary  of  continued  persecu- 
tion and  his  enforced  wanderings,  he  went  to  Basel 
in  the  fall  of  that  year,  threw  himself  upon  the  pro- 
tection of  (Ecolampadfus,  who  again  befriended  bim 
and  tried  in  vain  to  convert  him  to  the  establisbed 
Protestant  theology.  The  plague  soon  after  r^ 
leased  him  from  his  troubles.  By  the  Anabaptists 
he  was  highly  honored;  and  even  his  detractors 
conceded  his  ability,  personal  high  character,  aoJ 
scholarship.    His   translation   of    the   prophetical 


405 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Denio 
X>«iuiuurk 


books  of  the  Old  Testament  with  L.  Haetzer  (Worms, 
L527)  is  still  esteemed.  His  tracts  are  now  ex- 
tremely rare  (cf.  Mennoniiische  BldUer^  xxx.  56). 
One  is  in  the  British  Museum,  Was  geredi  ««i/n,  das 
die  Schriffl  sagt,  GoU  (hue  und  mache  guts  und  bdaes 
(1526).  His  principal  works  were  reprinted  in 
Geisiliches  Blumengdrtlein  (Amsterdam,  1680);  his 
Von  der  vxihren  Lithe  was  republished  by  the  Men- 
nonite  publishing  house,  Elkhart,  Ind. 

Biblioorapht:  L.  Keller,  Ein  Apo9tel  der  WiedertAufer, 
Leipsic,  1882  (best);  cf.  idem*  Die  Reformation  und  die 
aUeren  Reformparteien,  ib.  1885;  idem,  J.  von  Staupite 
und  die  AnfUnoe  der  Reformation,  ib.  18i38.  Consult  also: 
Q.  E.  Roehrich,  La  Vie  .  .  .  de  ,  .  ,  Jean  Denek,  Stras- 
burg,  1853;  C.  Beard.  The  Reformation  of  the  ISth  CenL, 
London,  1886;  A.  Baur,  Zwinolie  Theoloffie,  iL  175  sqq., 
Halle,  1889;  H.  LQdemann,  Reformation  und  TAufertum, 
pp.  53  sqq.,  Bern,  1896;  A.  H.  Newman,  Hiet,  of  Anlin 
PedobapOem,  pp.  163,  242  sqq.,  Philadelphia.  1897. 

DENMARK:  A  kingdom  of  northwestern  Europe. 
The  country  proper  covers  an  area  of  15,289  square 
miles,  with  a  population  (1906)  of  2,588,919.  The 
Danish  colonies  comprise  Iceland  (q.v.)>  P&rt  of 
Greenland,  the  Faroe  islands,  and  the  islands  of 
St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  and  St.  Jan  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  Since  1863  the  Lutheran  faith  has  been  the 
established  religion  of  Denmark,  and  the  only  one 
receiving  the  support  of  the  State.  The  king  must 
belong  to  this  Church.  Other  denominations,  how- 
ever, are  allowed  full  religious  liberty,  with  no  dis- 
abilities whatever.  The  census  of  1901  shows  the 
following  distribution  of  the  population  according 
to  creeds:  Lutherans,  2,436,084;  Roman  Catholics, 
5,373;  Greek  Catholics,  106;  and  Jews,  3,476. 
There  are,  besides,  a  small  number  each  of  Re- 
formed, Protestant  Episcopalians,  Methodists, 
Catholic  Apostolics  (Irvingites),  Baptists,  and 
Mormons. 

The  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  Denmark  com- 
prise seven  stiftery  or  bishoprics,  as  follows:  (1) 
Zealand,  (2)  Funen  (with  the  neighboring  islands 
of  Aero,  Langeland,  etc.),  (3)  Laaland  and  Falster, 
(4)  Aalborg,  (5)  Viborg,  (6)  Aarhus,  and  (7)  Ribe. 
Iceland  constitutes  a  separate  stift.  The  bishops, 
like  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  are  appointed  by  the 
king;  and  upon  them  it  devolves  to  ordain  minis- 
ters and  to  inspect  churches  and  schools.  Under 
the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  and  Ecclesias- 
tical Affairs  the  bishops  constitute  the  highest  eccle- 
siastical authority,  officiating  in  some  cases  inde- 
pendently, in  other  cases  in  association  with  the 
secular  head  g(  the  stift  (the  stiftsanUmand,  or  gov- 
ernor). Each  stift  is  divided  into  provstier  ("  pro- 
vostries ''),  Zealand  having  18,  Funen 

EcclesiaB-   11,  Laaland  and  Falster  4,  Aalborg 

tical  Divi-  10,  Viborg  9,  Aarhus  13,  and  Ribe  8: 

sion  of      total    73.     Each    provati    is    superin- 

Cotmtry.  tended  by  a  provost,  who  officiates  as 
preacher  also.  He  has  to  look  after 
all  ecclesiastical  affairs  within  his  precinct,  and, 
together  with  the  local  amtmand  and  a  member 
appointed  by  the  School  Commission,  he  super- 
vises the  parochial  schools  of  his  provostry  (the 
eighteen  secular  divisions  of  Denmark  are  called 
amis — '*  counties  " — each  amt  being  governed  by 
an  amimand).  The  amts  within  each  stift  are  again 
ruled  by  a  sti/tsanUmand,    Each  provostry  is  divi- 


ded into  sognekald,  the  total  number  of  which  is 
about  1,070,  each  comprising  one  or  two  (rarely 
more)  sogns,  or  parishes.  Sognekalds  of  ordinary 
dimensions  have  each  a  minister  who  preaches  al- 
ternately in  the  different  parish  churches.  Large 
sognekalds,  however,  may  have  two  officiating 
clergymen.  The  minister  is  also  a  school  commis- 
sioner. The  parish  is  thus  the  unit  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical oi*gani2ation  of  Denmark.  By  royal  resolu- 
tion of  1883-  an  ecclesiastical  council  was  established, 
and  the  clergymen  who  are  members  of  this  body 
frequently  assemble  to  discuss  religious  matters 
and  questions  pertaining  to  the  affairs  of  the 
Chureh.  The  minister  of  each  parish  is,  as  already 
stated,  a  member  of  the  school  committee,  and  in 
this  way  the  Church  exereises  a  direct  supervision 
over  the  parochial  schools,  of  which  there  are 
nearly  3,000.  The  religious  instruction  given  in  the 
communal  schools  is  based  either  upon  Luther's 
smaller  catechism  or  upon  Balslev's  version  of  the 
same. 

The  Danish  clergy  receive  their  education  at  the 
University  of  Copenhagen,  which  has  a  theological 
faculty  consisting  of  five  ordinary  professors.    The 
curriculum  includes  Old  and  New  Tes- 
Education-  tament    exegesis,    dogmatics,   ethics, 
al  Institu-  and  church  history.    There  is  also  a 
tions.       theological   seminary,    in   which   two 
resident   clergymen   lecture  on  hom- 
iletics  and  catechetics,  while  a  member  of  the  jurid- 
ical faculty  expoimds  canon  law.     The  Icelandic 
clergymen  are  mostly  educated  at  the  theological 
seminary  in  Reikiavik,  although  many  frequent  the 
University  of  Copenhagen.    Several  stipends  are 
awarded  by  the  Danish  State  for  the  promotion  of 
theological  studies. 

While  it  was  originally  compulsory  upon  a  Danish 
resident  to  frequent  the  chureh  in  his  own  parish, 
and  to  pay  tithes  and  feast-offerings  to  the  local 
clergyman,  important  laws  modifying  these  obliga- 
tions were  enacted  on  Apr.  4,  1855,  and  Mar.  25, 
1872.  By  the  former  legislation  every  citisen  was 
granted  the  right  to  identify  himself  with  any 
chureh  according  to  his  own  choice,  being  obliged 
only  to  notify  the  local  provost  of  the  desired  change. 
He  would  thenceforth  have  to  pay  to  the  minister 
of  his  home  parish  only  the  stipulated  levies  on 
real  estate,  produce,  etc.,  while  the  feast-o£fering8 
were  to  go  to  the  clergyman  of  his  choice.  The 
law  of  1872  extended  this  grant  so  that  a  dtisen 
may  now  have  his  chureh  ceremonies  (baptisms, 
funerals,  weddings)  conducted  by  an  outside  clergy- 
man in  the  church  of  his  own  parish,  provided,  of 
course,  that  the  church  is  not  occupied  for  other 
purposes. 

A  Danish  Society  for   the  Inner   Mission   was 
founded  in  1853,  and  has  exerted  a  highly  meri- 
torious   influence    among    the    lower 
Inner       classes.    Its  activity  received  special 
Mission,     impetus  when  Wilhelm  Beck,  minister 
of  the  parish  of  Oerslev  on  Zealand, 
became  its  head.     Under  his  leadership  the  society 
was  completely  reorganized,  and  has  since  main- 
tained a  staff  of  about  120  missionaries,  who  con- 
duct religious  meetings  especially  for  young  men 
and    women.    The   society   has    upward    of    250 


Danmark 
D&rviah 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


406 


meeting-houaes  and  a  valuable  free  library.  The 
Izmer  Mission  is  not  merely  an  activity,  but  a 
religious  trend;  and  if  it  should  come  to  a  breach 
between  this  society  and  the  established  Church,  a 
sect  would  be  created  which  might  well  be  com- 
pared with  the  English  Methodists.  A  local  So- 
ciety for  the  Inner  Mission  in  Copenhagen  (founded 
by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Frimodt  in  1865)  has  a  beauti- 
ful prayer-house,  the  Bethesda,  where  popular 
meetings  are  regularly  held.  The  p^rty  founded 
by  N.  F.  S.  Grundtvig  (q.v.)  has  been  especially 
active  in  establishing  the  so-called  FotkehGjakoUr 
("people's  high  schools ")>  which  have  won  great 
and  well-deserved  recognition  as  educational 
mediums. 

The  Danish  Society  for  Foreign  Missions  was 
foimded  in  1821.  It  has  stations  among  the 
Tamils  in  India  (established  1864;  ten  mission- 
aries), in  Dagusan  and  Port  Arthur,  China  (1892; 
five  missionaries),  and  in  Syria  (three  missionaries). 
In  western  Greenland  Christianity  is  so  firmly 
established  that  one  may  speak  of  a  Greenlandic 
Church  there;  but  in  the  eastern  parts  the  Danish 
State  had  no  missionary  until  1894,  when  a  station 
was  established  at  Angmagsalik.  Among  other 
societies  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  Danish 
Bible  Society  (founded  1814);  the  Society  for 
Missions  among  Seamen  (stations  in  Hamburg, 
London,  Hull,  and  Newcastle);  and  the  Society 
for  Danish-American  Missions,  which  supplies  the 
Danish  congregations  of  North  America  with 
preachers.  (F.  Nieusen.) 

Bibuoorapht:  F.  Nielaen,  StaUkirke  og  Frikirke,  Copen- 
hagen, 1883;  H.  G.  Saabye,  Om  Sekteme  %  Danmark,  ib. 
1884;  H.  L.  B.  P.  Kooh  and  H.  F.  RArdam,  Danmarks 
Kirk^Uttorie,  1617-1848,  2  vols.,  ib.  1889;  T.  J.  A.  Elm- 
quifli,  Kirken  og  dena  hMioe  HandHnger,  Odenoe,  1892; 
£.  A.  F.  Jeasen,  Die  HawpMrCmunoen  dea  rdigidaen  Lebena 
...  in  D&nemark,  GQtenloh,  1805;  T.  Loegstnip,  Nordi- 
tkg  Miamonaerer,  Copenhagen,  1807;  F.  8.  O.  A.  Nygard, 
KriMUnUv  i  Danmark  .  .  .  1741-1840,  ib.  1807;  A.  V.  C. 
Kjdlhede.  Haandbog  for  den  danake  Folkekirke,  ib.  1800; 
Shidier  og  Aktatykker  vedkommende  de  danake  Oaliftera 
Hiatorie,  ib.  1800;  A.  T.  Jdrgenaen,  Den  danake  FoUee- 
kirkea  BekendeUeaakrifter,  ib.  1000. 

DENNET,  JAMES:  United  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land; b.  at  Paisley  Feb.  5,  1856.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Glasgow  University  (M.A.,  1879)  and  Free 
Church  College,  Glasgow  (B.D.,  1883).  He  was 
minister  of  East  Free  Church,  Broughty  Ferry, 
Fifeshire,  from  1886  to  1897,  and  since  1897  has 
been  professor  of  New  Testament  language,  litera- 
ture, and  theology  in  the  United  Free  Church  Col- 
lege, Glasgow.  He  has  edited  for  The  Expositor'a 
Bible  Thessalonians  (London,  1892)  and  II  Corin- 
thians (1894),  and  Romans  for  The  Expositor* a 
Greek  TeeUxmerU  (1900).  He  has  also  written 
Studiee  in  Theology  (London,  1895);  Ooapel  Quea- 
tiona  and  Anawera  (1896);  The  Death  of  Christ 
(1902);  and  The  Atonement  and  the  Modem  Mind 
(1903);  and  has  collaborated  in  Questions  of  Faith; 
Lectures  on  the  Creed  (1904). 

DENNIS,  JAMES  SHEPARD:  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Dec.  15,  1842.  He  studied  at 
Princeton  (B.A.,  1863),  the  Harvard  Law  School 
(1863-64),  and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
(B.D.,  1867),  and  went  as  a  missionary  to  Syria  in 
1868,  studied  at  Sidon  till  1872,  and  then  made  a 


brief  visit  to  the  United  States.  From  1873  to 
1891  he  was  principal  and  professor  of  systematic 
theology  at  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Beirut.  He 
returned  definitely  to  the  United  States  in  1891,  and 
has  since  devoted  himself  to  the  promotion  of  foreign 
missionary  work  by  the  preparation  of  missionary 
literature  and  lecturing.  He  was  Students'  Lec- 
turer on  missions  at  Princeton  in  1893  and  1896, 
and  in  1900  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
statistics  of  the  Eksumenical  Conference  on  Foreign 
Missions  in  New  York  City.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions.  He  is  the 
author  of  Arabic  theological  treatises  on  the  evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  on  the  science  of  Biblical 
interpretation,  and  on  systematic  theology,  chiefly 
based  on  the  works  of  Charles  and  Archibald 
Alexander  Hodge.  In  English  he  has  written 
Foreign  Missions  after  a  Century  (diicago  and  New 
York,  1893);  Christian  Missions  and  Social  Prog- 
ress\s  vols.,  1897-1906);  CerUenmalSurvey  of  For- 
eign Missions  (1902);  and  New  Horoscope  of  Mis- 
sions (1908). 

DENS,  PETER:  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Boom 
(8  m.  s.  of  Antwerp),  Belgium,  Sept.  12,  1690;  d. 
at  Mechlin,  as  archpriest  of  St.  Rombold's  cathedral. 
Feb.  15,  1775.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Theologia 
moralis  et  dogmatical  which  was  often  reprinted  (e.g., 
8  vols.,  Dublin,  1832),  and  much  used  as  a  text- 
book  in  Roman  Catholic  seminaries.  Various  books 
of  extracts  from  this  work  exposing  its  alleged  er- 
rors and  immoralities  have  appeared  from  anony- 
mous compilers  (Dublin,  1836,  1851;  Philadelphia, 
1847;  Boston,  1855).  The  best  known  of  such  pub- 
lications is  by  J.  F.  Berg,  Synopsis  of  the  Theology 
f^POer  Dens  (Philadelphia,  1840;  4th  ed.,  1869). 

DENUNCIATION:  Properly,  a  making  known, 
especially  by  public  proclamation;  hence,  some- 
times used  of  the  publication  of  banns  of  marriage; 
commonly  the  word  signifies  in  church  usage  a 
complaint  before  authority  to  initiate  action  by  the 
latter.  The  denunciatio  evangelica  is  the  course 
recommended  in  Matt,  xviii.  15-17,  and  is  approved 
by  the  Church  where  applicable.  When  it  fails  the 
denunciatio  judicialis  follows  and  brings  the  case 
before  the  ecclesiastical  courts;  its  form  and  pro- 
cedure are  regulated  by  the  canon  law  (cf.  book  v., 
title  1 ,  and  conmientators) .  The  denunciatio  canonica 
is  the  obligatory  announcement  of  obstacles  to  a 
proposed  promotion,  ordination,  or  marriage.  See 
Jurisdiction,  Ecclesiastical. 

DEPOSITION:  A  severe  penalty  inflicted  upon 
delinquent  clerics  by  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline (see  JuRiBDicTiON,  Ecclesiastical),  orig- 
inally equivalent  in  practise  to  Degradation  (q.v.), 
but  now  denoting  the  deprivation  of  the  delin- 
quent's office  and  benefice  with  the  prohibition  of 
the  exercise  of  his  orders.  Unlike  degradation,  it 
may  be  removed,  restoring  the  penitent  offender  to 
the  exercise  of  his  functions  by  a  mere  act  of  juris- 
diction, without  reordination.  It  does  not  remove 
the  general  clerical  privileges  of  the  delinquent  nor 
absolve  him  from  general  clerical  obligations;  and 
the  canon  law  assumes  that  he  will  be  confined  for 
the  purpose  of  amendment  in  a  monastery  or  house 
of  correction.    In  the  Protestant  Churches  geo- 


407 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Denmark 
Dervioh 


orally,  in  acoordanoe  with  their  view  of  the  nature 
of  orders,  the  only  sentence  of  this  kind  is  the 
deprivation  of  a  specific  office.  In  the  Church  of 
England  ''  deprivation  "  is  the  term  commonly  used 
whether  for  the  taking  away  of  a  benefice  (depri- 
vation a  beneficio)  or  the  withdrawal  of  the  right  to 
exercise  clerical  functions  (deprivation  ab  officio). 
In  the  American  Episcopal  Church  the  term  ''  depo- 
sition *'  is  used  for  the  latter;  it  is  pronounced  by 
the  bishop  to  whom  the  cleric  is  subject,  and  may  be 
at  his  own  request,  for  causes  not  affecting  his  moral 
character,  or  after  trial  for  certain  grave  offenses. 

DEPRIVATIOlf.  See  Deoradation;  Deposi- 
tion. 

DEPUTATUS:  The  title  of  an  office  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches.  According 
to  Codinus,  the  third  in  the  ninth  pentad  of  of- 
ficials of  the  megali  ekkUna  was  termed  depotatoa, 
while  the  other  lists  name  several  depotatoi  in  ad- 
dition to  the  one  official  of  this  name,  who  was  the 
first  and  drew  double  pay.  The  first  depotatos  ac- 
companied the  bishop  on  the  street  to  make  room 
for  him,  and  in  the  service  the  depotatoi  escorted 
him  to  the  pulpit  and  to  the  Holy  Table,  bearing  the 
mantles  and  the  candles.  The  depotatos  was  allowed 
to  marry  a  second  time,  since  he  was  ineligible  for 
any  higher  order.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  office 
still  exists,  since  Chrysanthos  (about  1700)  seems  to 
depend  for  his  statements  on  books  rather  than  on 
actual  usage. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  depuiati  act  in 
certain  districts  as  the  administrators  of  the  regi- 
unculcBf  or  subdivisions  of  large  deaneries.  They 
are  usually  subject  to  the  dean  and  often  act  as 
his  representatives,  but  occasionally  they  receive 
their  orders  inmiediately  from  the  bishop,  in  which 
case  the  dean  becomes  merely  first  among  his  peers. 

(Philipp  Meyer.) 

DE  PUT,  WILLIAM  HARRISON:  Methodist; 
b.  at  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,  1821;  d.  at  Canaan, 
Conn.,  Sept.  4,  1901.  He  was  educated  at  Genesee 
College,  Union  University,  and  Mount  Union  Col- 
lege, and  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  in  Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary  1851- 
1855.  He  was  associate  editor  of  The  Christian 
Advocate  1865-84,  and  editor  of  The  Methodist 
Year  Book  1866-89.  He  also  edited  The  People's 
Cyclopedia  of  Universal  Knowledge  (3  vols..  New 
York,  1882) ;  The  People's  Atlas  of  the  World  (1886) ; 
and  University  of  Literature  (1896),  and  wrote 
Threescore  Years  and  Beyond:  or.  Experiences  of 
the  Aged  (New  York,  1872);  Home  and  Health  and 
Home  Economics  (1880);  and  The  Methodist  Cen- 
tennial Year  Book,  1784-1884.  (1884). 

DERESER,  de-r6'ser,  THADDJEU8  ANTOV: 
German  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Fahr,  in  Franconia, 
Feb.  9,  1757;  d.  at  Breslau  July  16,  1827.  He 
studied  at  WQrzbuig  and  Heidelberg,  became  priest 
at  Mains  (1780),  and  was  made  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  and  Biblical  interpretation  at  Bonn  in 
1783.  He  moved  to  Strasbui^  in  1791,  returned  to 
Heidelberg  in  1797,  and  went  to  Freiburg  in  1807. 
In  1810  he  was  made  priest  at  Carlsruhe,  but  was 
dismissed  the  following  year  because  of  a  funeral 
lermon  over  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden.    He  then 


became  professor  and  head  of  the  episcopal 
inary  at  Lucerne,  but  was  removed  in  1814,  and  in 
1815  became  professor  in  Breslau.  He  belonged  to 
the  liberal  wing  of  his  Church,  and  his  Commentatio 
biblica  in  effata  Christi:  Tu  es  Petrus  (Bonn,  1789) 
was  put  on  the  Index.  He  wrote  Biblical  commen- 
taries, continued  the  Bible  translation  begun  by 
Brentano  (see  Bible  Versions,  B,  VII.,  §  5),  and 
published  a  Hebrew  grammar  (Freiburg,  1812),  a 
German  breviary,  and  a  prayer-book. 

DE  ROSSI,  GIOVANNI  BALLISTA.    See  Rossi. 

DERVISH. 

Origins  and  Objects  of  the  Institution  (§  1). 
Charaoter  and  Membership  of  the  Orders  (§  2). 
Number  and  Insignia  of  the  Orders  (§  3). 
Namee  and  Exercises  of  the  Orders  (|  4). 

A  dervish  is  a  member  of  one  of  the  orders  which 
in  Mohammedanism  have  some  correspondence  to 
the  monasticism  of  Buddhism  and  Christianity. 
The  name  is  Persian,  but  its  derivation  is  disputed. 
The  first  syllable  -means  "  door,''  and  the  last  is 
taken  to  mean  either  "sill"  or  "to  beg."  The 
sense  derived  in  either  case  is  "  to  be  destitute  "  or 
"  to  be  dependent  (upon  God)."  The  Arabic /oihr, 
"  poor,"  "  ascetic,"  is  the  equivalent  in  general  use. 
The  word  is  often  popularly  misused  to  mean  the 
tribes  still  in  a  nomadicstate;  it  is  also  misapplied 
to  beggars,  jugglers,  and  to  impostors. 

The  existence  of  the  orders  is  due  to  the  union  of 

two  general  characteristics  of  religion,  the  ascetic 

and  the  mystic.     Their  formation  was  stimulated 

in  early  times  by  the  example  of  the 

X.  Origins  Christian  monastics  who  were  nu- 
and  Objects  merous  in  the  lands  conquered  by  the 
of  the  In-  Moslems.     They  began   by  gathering 

stitution.  about  an  individual  whose  mode  of 
hfe  had  gained  him  repute  for  piety; 
a  shelter  was  built  for  winter  quarters,  and  devel- 
oped into  a  monastery.  The  continuance  of  the 
institution  is  decided  by  several  considerations, 
such  as  the  prestige,  religious  and  political,  which 
the  orders  enjoy,  a  sincere  devotional  spirit  which 
the  exercises  satisfy,  the  food  for  vanity  furnished 
the  individual  members  by  a  reputation  for  sanc- 
tity, and  by  the  value  placed  upon  the  ecstatic  con- 
dition sometimes  induced  by  the  exercises.  The 
theology  is  usually  mystical  and  pantheistic,  and 
therefore  heretical,  and  the  orders  are  sometimes 
considered  a  protest  against  the  scholasticism  of 
orthodox  Islam. 

Mohammedan  monasticism,  however,  differs 
much  from  Christian.  The  vows  are  relative,  not 
absolute.  They  do  not  usually  involve  celibacy  or 
poverty,  obedience  to  the  sheikh,  or  head  of  the 
house,  being  the  essence  of  the  vow.  Even  this 
may  be  retracted,  and  the  dervish  may  withdraw 
from  the  order.  The  members  are 
2.  Charac-  not  required  to  reside  at  the  monas- 
ter and     tery.     Full    membership    involves    a 

Member-    novitiate  which  may  run  from  a  year 

ship  of  the  to  four  or  five  years,  varying  with  the 

Orders,     assumed    fitness    of    the    candidate. 

During  his  novitiate  the  candidate  is 

under  instruction,  and  learns  the  rules  and  ritual 

of  the  order.     Very  many  do  not  pass  beyond  the 


l>ervlsh 
Deacartes 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


408 


novitiate.  Most  of  the  orders  have  what  corre- 
sponds to  a  lay  membership.  Certain  of  the  orders 
are  in  favor  with  certain  professions  or  trades. 
Thus  the  fishermen  of  Egypt  are  nearly  all  mem- 
bers of  the  Kadariyah,  and  join  in  the  religious 
processions,  carrying  colored  fish-nets  as  banners. 
With  some  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  orders  it  is 
common  for  influential  classes  to  become  associated, 
doubtless  that  they  may  share  in  the  prestige  of 
those  orders.  Theoretically  there  is  no  distinction 
of  rank  within  the  orders  except  that  of  sheikh 
and  members  and  novitiates.  Practically  indi- 
viduals are  differentiated;  those  supposed  to  be 
miraculously  endowed  are  called  walls:  the  begging 
friars  go  by  the  name  of  fakirs.  The  office  of 
sheikh  is  in  some  orders  hereditary;  thus  the  rule 
of  the  Mawlawiyah  has  remained  for  neariy  eight 
centuries  in  the  family  of  the  founder. 

The  number  of  orders  is  usually  given  as  thirty- 
six,  but  this  number  is  rather  ideal  than  founded 
upon  actual  count.     Some  of  the  orders  are  divided 
into  sects,  and  these  are  confounded  with  the  orders. 
Each  sect  has  its  distinguishing  insignia  of  cap  or 
turban,  girdle,  cloak,  rosary,  and  banner,  its  own 
color  and  method  of  wearing  it.    Some- 
3.  Number  times    the    orders    are    distinguished 
and  Insig-  simply  by  the  number  of  gores  in  the 
nia  of  the  cap.    Theoretically  the  orders  trace 
Orders,     their  origin  to  Ali,  except  three  which 
claim  to  go  back  to  Abu  Bekr,  and 
thence  to  Mohammed.    The  time  of  actual  forma- 
tion is  unknown,  but  there  is  great  probability  that 
the  first  monastery  was  founded  at  Damascus  about 
772.     The  bloom  of  Mohammedan  monasticism  is 
to  be  placed  in  the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, when  most  of  the  orders  now  in  existence  were 
founded.     But  the  formation  of  orders  has  gone  on 
continuously,  one  of  the  most  influential  being  that 
of  the  Sanussites  founded  by  Mohammed  ibn  Ali 
al-Sanussi  in  1837,  which  has  spread  throughout 
the  Mohammedan  world,  with  heioxlquarterB  in  the 
desert  between  Egypt  and  Tripoli. 

A  number  of  these  orders  are  noted  both  inside 
and  outside  the  circle  of  Mohanmiedanism.    The 
Mawlawiyah  (founded  by  Jalal  al-Din  al-Rumi  c. 
1290)  are  known  to  travelers  as  the  whirling  or 
dancing  dervishes  from  that  part  of  their  exercises 
which  consists  of  the  **  mystic  dance,"  a  spinning 
movement  continued  often  till  unconsciousness  or 
ecstasy  supervenes.     It  is  the  order  most  popular 
among  the  Turks,  many  of  the  upper  classes  of 
whom  are  affiliated  with  it,  and  is  the  best  endowed 
of    all    the    orders.     The    Rufaiyah 
4.  Names   (founded  by  Ahmad  al-Rufa'a  c.  1190) 
and  Ezer-  are   the   '*  howling  dervishes,"   espe- 
cises  of  the  cially   popular  in  Egypt,   a  part  of 
Orders,      whose  exercise  consists  of  a  chant  or 
shout  which  generally  consists  of  the 
Mohammedan  formula  "  There  is  no  God  but  Allah," 
sung  while  a  swinging  motion  of  the  body  is  main- 
tained.   This  exercise  is  also  often  continued  till 
exhaustion    and    catalepsy    result.     The    Kalan- 
dariyah  (the  '*  Calendars  "  of  the  Arabian  Nights, 
founded   c.    1350)   are  the   wandering   dervishes, 
really  bound  by  a  vow  of  poverty.    The  Naksh- 
bendiyah   (founded  c.   1360)  are  influential,  and 


their  exercise  is  mainly  that  of  contemplative  de- 
votion upon  the  names  of  Allah  and  the  precepts 
of  the  order.  The  Baktashiyah  (founded  c.  1380  j 
are  celebrated  because  of  the  connection  with  them 
of  the  Janizaries.  It  is  a  military  order,  corre- 
sponding somewhat  with  the  crusading  Knights 
of  the  Temple  or  of  St.  John.  The  Kadiriyah 
(founded  c.  1160),  the  Badawiyah  (c.  1280).  and 
the  Ahmadiyah  are  most  numerous  in  Egypt. 

The  exercises,  varying  with  each  order,  are  in- 
tended to  be  devotional.  Some  of  them  are  repul- 
sive in  their  effects  and  methods,  and  include  self- 
mutilation  with  broken  glass  or  sharp  instruments, 
handling  and  even  eating  of  serpents  and  scorpions. 
That  they  often  produce  a  cataleptic  condition 
makes  them  the  more  highly  esteemed,  since  that 
condition  is  regarded  as  one  of  communion  with 
higher  powers,  from  which  enlarged  capacities  and 
increased  sanctity  are  supposed  to  result. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 
Biblioorapht:  J.  P.  Brown,  The  Dervuhea,  PhilAdelphia, 
1868  (contains  much  material,  but  undigested);  D.  Ohs- 
Bon,  Tableau  g6n6ral  de  Vempire  Ottoman,  vol.  iL,  Paris. 
1700  (gives  a  list  of  thirty-two  orders  with  the  dates  of 
their  founding,  but  is  unreliable);  J.  Malcolm,  HiH.  of 
Perna,  London.  1829;  £.  W.  Lane.  Modem  EgypHans, 
2  vols.,  ib.  1871;  T.  P.  Hughes,  DicHonanf  of  lOam, 
'  articles  Faqir,  Zikr,  ib.  1885;  M.  Ansiaux,  Lea  Con- 
fririea  mueulmanea,  Paris,  1801;  O.  Deport  and  X.  Cop- 
polani.  Lea  ConfrSriea  relioieuaea  mttaulmanea,  ib.  1897; 
Pfere  Petit,  Confririea  mtmUmanea,  ib.  1899;  S.  M.  Zwemer, 
Arabia,  the  Cradle  of  lalam.  New  York.  1900. 

DESCARTES,  d^'cdrt',  RElfE. 
As  Student  and  Soldier  (§1). 
Seclusion  in  Holland  (f  2). 
Publications.     Controversies  (f  3). 
Death  in  Stockholm.     Works  Proscribed  (|  4). 
His  Skepticism.     The  Self  and  God  (f  5). 
His  Dualism.     Ethics  (§  6). 
Estimate  of  His  Work  (§  7). 

Ren^  Descartes  (Renalua  Carteaius),  French  phi- 
losopher and  mathematician,  was  bom  at  La  Haye 
(106  m.  s.w.  of  Orleans)  Mar.  31, 1596;  d.  at  Stock- 
holm, Sweden,  Feb.  1 1 ,  1650.     From  1604  to  1612  he 
attended  the  College  of  Jesuits  at  La 
I.  As  Stu-  Fldche,  which  had  just  been  estab- 
dent  and    lished  (1604)  by  Henry  IV.,  and  in 
Soldier.      1610  he  was  one  of  the  twenty-four 
gentilahommea  sent   forth   from   that 
institution  to  receive  the  heart  of  the  murdered 
king.     From   1613  to   1617  he  resided  in   Paris, 
devoting  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics.    The  next  four  years  he  spent  as  a  volun- 
teer, serving  successively  under  Prince  Maurice  of 
Nassau,  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  and  Count  Bouc- 
quoi.    After  a  further  period  of  travel  and  study 
he  settled  in  Paris  in  1625.     He  was  now  recognized 
as  one  of  the  leading  mathematicians  of  the  day. 
Late  in  1628,  after  having  taken  part  in  the  siege 
of  La  Rochelle,  he  left  Paris  and  settled  in  Amster- 
dam the  following  spring.     For  the 
a.  Seclusion  next  twenty  years  he  lived  almost  ex- 
in  clusively  in  Holland,  developing  and 

Holland,  defending  his  philosophical  theories, 
carrying  on  scientific  investigations, 
and  writing  the  works  that  have  made  him 
famous.  His  interests  were  varied,  and  in  his 
correspondence  not  even  phonetic  spelling  escapes 
his   attention.     During  this   period  his   place   of 


409 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dervish 
Deaoartes 


abode,  which  he  changed  more  than  twenty  times, 
was  a  secret  known  only  to  a  few  friends,  particu- 
larly Marin  Mersenne,  his  Paris  correspondent. 
Descartes  claimed  that  he  was  only  seeking  the 
quiet  and  seclusion  necessary  for  study,  but  he  was 
probably  hiding  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Professedly  an  orthodox  Catholic,  he  did  not  wish 
to  offend  the  Church  with  a  theory  of  matter  out  of 
harmony  with  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation, 
or  with  his  equally  objectionable  theory  of  the 
earth's  motion.  Indeed,  he  was  long  deterred 
from  publishing  his  work  by  the  experience  of 
Galileo  (q.v.). 

In   Holland   Descartes   had   made   enthusiastic 

disciples;  and  under  the  leadership  of  Henri  Reneri, 

and  his  successor  at  the  University  of  Utrecht, 

Henri  Le  Roy  (Regius),  the  new  phi- 

3.  Publica-  losophy   was   triumphant.     However, 
tions.  Con- soon    after    the    publication    of    the 

troveraies.  Discaura  de  la  miihode  (Leyden,  1637) 
he  began  to  experience  opposition; 
and  on  the  appearance  of  his  Meditationes  de  prima 
philoaophia  (Paris,  164 1),  which  was  followed  by 
his  Principia  philoaophia  (Amsterdam,  1644),  he 
found  himself  the  center  of  the  most  bitter  theo- 
logical controversies.  He  was  attacked  by  Protes- 
tants and  Catholics  alike.  Gisbertus  Voetius  (q.v.), 
who  had  become  rector  of  the  University  of  Utrecht 
in  1641,  led  the  Calvinist  opposition.  He  stopped 
the  teaching  of  Descartes's  doctrine,  induced  the 
city  magistrates  to  take  action  against  Descartes, 
and  all  but  succeeded  in  having  his  works  burned 
by  the  public  hangman.  Descartes  finally  had  to 
appeal  to  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  end  the  persecu- 
tion to  which  he  was  being  subjected  by  the  Voetians. 
In  a  measure  he  escaped  these  troubles  by  two 
visits  to  France,  where,  in  1644,  he  conciliated  his 
old  teacher,  Father  Bourdin,  who  had  led  the 
Jesuit  opposition  against  him,  and  in  1647  received 
a  pension  of  3,000  livres  from  the  ("rench  king. 

On  the  occasion  of  his  last  visit  to  France  (1648), 

the  lukewarm  reception  accorded  him  at  the  court, 

due   to   the    disorders    of   the   time, 

4.  Death  in  caused  him  to  abandon  the  intention 
Stockholm,  he  had  formed  of  settling  in  Paris, 

Works  and  in  Sept.,  1649,  on  the  invitation  of 
Proflcribed.  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  he  set  out 
for  Stockholm  to  teach  his  philosophy 
to  that  eccentric  sovereign.  Less  than  four  months 
after  his  arrival  in  Stockholm  he  succumbed  to 
pneumonia.  He  died  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith 
and  was  buried  in  the  Catholic  cemetery  in  Stock- 
holm. In  1667  his  remains  were  reinterred  with 
imposing  ceremonies  in  St.  Genevieve  du  Mont  (the 
modem  Panthdon),  Paris,  though  the  funeral  ora- 
tion prepared  for  the  occasion  was  suppressed  by 
the  court.  In  1819  his  remains  were  removed 
to  St.  Germain-des-Pr^,  where  they  now  rest. 
Despite  the  efforts  of  Descartes  during  his  lifetime, 
and  those  of  his  friends  after  his  death,  to  convince 
the  Church  of  his  orthodoxy,  his  works  were  placed 
on  the  Index  at  Rome  in  1663,  and  in  1671  the 
teaching  of  Cartesianism  at  the  University  of  Paris 
was  prohibited  by  royal  order.  However,  Cai^ 
tesianism,  which  had  now  become  an  intellectual 
fad,  remained  the  only  philosophy  of  the  day  and 


continued  to  be  taught  in  numerous  private  acad- 
emies in  Paris,  and  also  in  the  Dutch  universities. 
The  philosophical  views  of  Descartes  will  be 
found  in  the  three  works  mentioned  above.  In 
reflecting  over  his  scholastic  studies  at  La  Fldche, 
he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  all 
5.  His  Skep- generally  accepted  knowledge  is  open 
ticism.  The  to  doubt.  From  this  sweeping  in- 
Self  and  dictment  he  reserved  morals  and 
God.  religion;  but  it  was  inevitable  that, 
once  enunciated,  skepticism,  as  a 
method,  would  be  extended  to  these  fields.  Both 
Father  Bourdin  and  Voetius  foresaw  this.  Thus, 
rejecting  all  supposed  knowledge,  Descartes  set 
about  to  build  up  a  philosophical  system  de  novo. 
He  begins  by  establishing  the  reality  of  the  self. 
In  questioning  the  truth  of  everything  he  finds  at 
least  one  fact  that  he  can  not  doubt;  viz.,  the  very 
fact  of  doubting  itself.  This  doubt,  of  course,  is  a 
form  of  thought;  but  before  there  can  be  any  thought 
there  must  be  a  subject  that  thinks.  Hence,  his 
famous  coffito,  ergo  aum,  a  modification  of  Augus- 
tine's fdUoTf  ergo  aum.  From  the  reality  of  the 
self  he  then  develops  his  proof  of  the  existence  of 
God.  Ainong  other  innate  ideas  he  finds  the  idea 
God,  a  perfect  being,  omniscient,  omnipotent,  in- 
finite. Since  an  effect  can  not  be  greater  than  its 
cause,  we  ourselves,  as  finite  beings,  could  not  have 
produced  this  idea.  In  fact,  only  a  perfect  being 
could  have  produced  it;  but,  since  existence  is  an 
attribute  of  a  perfect  being,  this  being  must  neces- 
sarily exist — a  form  of  Anselm's  ontological  argu- 
ment, which  was  demolished  by  Kant  (q.v.).  In 
searching  for  the  groimd  of  the  certainty  of  his 
knowledge  regarding  his  own  existence  and  that  of 
God,  Descartes  finds  that  it  lies  in  the  clearness  and 
distinctness  of  the  idea.  He  then  lays  down  the 
obscure  and  highly  questionable  rule  that  whatever 
is  perceived  clearly  and  distinctly  must  be  true. 
Since  he  has  already  demonstrated  that  there  is 
a  God,  God's  veracity  (another  attribute  of  pei^ 
fection)  becomes  the  guaranty  of  our  knowledge. 
Hobbes  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  this  argu- 
ment moves  in  a  circle. 

In  addition  to  an  infinite  substance,  or  God, 
Descartes,  retaining  the  dualism  of  the  schoolmen, 
finds  in  existence  two  created  substances,  mind  (tea 
cogitana)  and  matter  (res  extenad).    These  are  abso- 
lutely heterogeneous  and  not  further 
6.  His      reducible     the    one   into   the    other. 
Dualism.    While  the  essence  of  the  one  is  think- 
Ethics,      ing,  the  only  quality  of  the  other  is 
extension,  such  supposed  qualities  as 
color,  odor,  etc.,  being  merely  subjective.    The  dif- 
ficulty in  conceiving  of  any  causal  relation  between 
these  two  incompatible  kinds  of  being  does  not 
seem  to  have  presented  itself  to  Descartes.    Since 
in  the  case  of  man  there  is  apparently  such  a  relation 
there  must  be  some  point  of  contact  between  the 
spatial  body  and  the  non-spatial  soul.    This  point 
Descartes  locates  in  the  pineal  gland.    The  body 
itself  he  regards  as  an  automatic  mechanism,  so 
far  as  the  functions  of  digestion,  circulation,  and 
the  affections  of  love,  hate,  etc.,  are  concerned; 
though  the  immaterial  soul,  which  God  has  fused 
into  the  body,   directs  all  conscious  movements. 


Descartes 

Deaoent  of  Ohrist  into  Hell 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


410 


AnimalB  he  regards  as  soulless,  mechanical  automata 
which  are  moved  by  vital  springs  after  the  analogy 
of  a  watch.  He  denies  that  death  is  due  to  the  de- 
parture of  the  soul  from  the  body,  holding,  on  the 
contrary,  that  the  soul  departs  because  the  machine 
that  we  call  the  body  has  run  down.  In  conformity 
to  this  mechanical  view  of  animal  life,  Descartes 
and  his  followers  practised  vivisection  freely,  inter- 
preting the  cries  of  their  victims  as  the  creakings 
of  breaking  machinery.  For  Descartes  the  whole 
sensible  world  was  a  mechanism  whose  essential 
qualities  were  extension  and  mobility.  Given  these, 
he  was  ready  to  reconstruct  a  priori,  and  with  mathe- 
matical exactness,  the  whole  universe.  The  idea 
of  necessity  was  so  strong  in  him  that  in  an  un- 
guarded moment  he  even  identified  God  with  the 
order  of  nature.  He  did  not  attempt  a  systematic 
treatment  of  ethics;  but  when  he  touches  the  sub- 
ject, in  his  letters  to  Queen  Christina  and  Princess 
Elizabeth  and  in  Les  Passiona  de  Vdme  (Paris, 
1649),  he  follows  Greek  rather  than  Christian  ideals. 
He  counsels  humility  from  practical  considerations, 
and  usually  interprets  mond  obligation  in  a  eude- 
monistic  sense. 

Descartes  is  properly  called  the  father  of  modem 
philosophy,  for  it  was  through  him  that  the  sway 
of  scholasticism  was  finally  broken 
7.  Estimate  and  a  new  method  and  content  given 
of  His  to  philosophy.  He  stands  at  the  head 
Work.  of  the  modem  rationalistic  develop- 
ment, both  in  philosophy  and  the- 
ology; and  in  his  insistence  on  the  importance  of 
experiment  he  rivals  Bacon  as  one  of  the  founders 
of  English  empiricism.  The  rationalistic  school  that 
he  established  was  practically  dominant  till  the  time 
of  Kant;  and,  indeed,  most  speculation  since  Des- 
cartes has  been  an  attempt  to  overcome  the  intel- 
lectual difficulties  of  his  extreme  dualism.  If  mind 
and  matter  are  absolutely  opposed  to  each  other, 
how  can  they  react  on  each  other  ?  This  was  the 
problem  of  Descartes'  successors.  Geulincx  and 
Malebranche  solved  it  with  the  theory  of  occa- 
sional causes  (occasionalism),  Leibnitz  with  his 
preestablished  harmony,  Spinoza  with  his  unica 
substantia,  or  pantheism,  others  with  materialism. 
Kant  showed  that  the  spatial,  as  well  as  the  tem- 
poral, aspect  of  our  experience  is  only  a  form  of 
sense-perception.  His  German  successors  then 
took  the  further  step  to  absolute  idealism. 

In  the  history  of  mathematics  Descartes  is  fa- 
mous as  the  founder  of  analytic  geometry.  He 
also  systematized  the.  use  of  exponents,  and  gave 
new  significance  to  negative  quantities.  He  was  the 
first  to  hit  upon  the  undulatory  theory  of  light, 
afterward  developed  by  his  pupil  Christian  Huy- 
ghens;  and  in  his  view  that  the  world  was  evolved 
from  a  chaotic  state  by  vortical  motions  he  antici- 
pated the  nebular  hypothesis  of  Kant  and  Laplace. 
The  most  important  Latin  and  French  editions  of 
Descartes's  works  are.  Opera  omnia  (8  vols.,  Am- 
sterdam, 1670-83;  9  vols.,  1692-1701);  (Euvres 
(13  vols.,  Paris,  1724-29;  ed.  Victor  Cousin,  11 
vols.,  1824-26).  The  best  English  translations  of 
the  philosophical  works  are:  The  Method,  Medita- 
tions, and  Selections  from  the  Principles  of  Des- 
cartes, by  J.  Veitch  (London  and  Edinburgh;  1850- 


1853;  new  ed..  New  York,  1899);  The  Philosophy  of 
Descartes  in  Extracts  from  his  WrUings,  by  H.  A-  P. 
Torrey  (New  York,  1892).  A  monumental  edition 
of  his  works  is  now  in  preparation  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  French  Academy  (10  vols.,  Paris,  1897 
sqq.).  See  Matbriaubm,  §  5;  and  Elizabeth, 
Albertine.  Hubert  Evans. 

Bxbuooiupht:  On  the  life  conflult:  A.  Baillet,  La  Vit  da 
M.  De»  CartM,  2  voIb.,  Paru,  1091;  A.  Pi^voet,  (Euvm 
.  ,  .  de  De$oarte9t  pricidSee  d'une  notice  eur  «a  vie,  ib. 
1866;  J.  Millet.  Deaeartee,  2  vols.,  ib.  1867-70;  W.  Enut. 
Deeeartee,  Leipa,  1860;  G.  J.  Jeannel,  Dteeartee  et  la  prin- 
eecM  Palatine,  Paria.  1860;  J.  P.  Mahaflfy.  DeaearUe, 
Edinburgh,  1881;  K.  Fischer.  OeedtidUe  der  neueren  Phi- 
loeophie,  vol.  1.  Heidelbers.  1807.  Eng.  transl..  New  York. 
1887;  Elisabeth  S.  Haldane.  Deecartee,  London,  1005 
On  his  philosophy  consult:  V.  Cousin,  in  the  (Evvrea  of 
Descartes,  i.  1-80,  Paris,  1824;  J.  B.  Bordas-DemouliD, 
Le  CarUaianiame,  2  vols.,  ib.  1843;  F.  X.  Schmid,  Reni 
Deaeartea  und  aeina  Reform  der  Philoaophie,  N6rdlincen, 
1850;  F.  Bouillier,  HiaL  de  la  philoaophie  eartiaienne. 
Paris.  1868;  C.  Waddington,  Deaeartea  at  le  apiritualiame, 
ib.  1868;  W.  Cunningham,  The  Influence  of  Deaeartea  on 
Metaphyaical  Speculation  in  England,  London,  1876;  F. 
Bowen,  Modem  Philoaophy,  pp.  22-37,  New  York,  1877; 
R.  A.  Meincke.  Deaeartea'  Beweiae  vom  Daaein  Ootta, 
Heidelberg,  1883;  A.  Barthel,  Deaeartea*  Leben  und  MHa- 
fhyaik,  Erlangen,  1886;  G.  Monchamp,  HiaL  du  oartena- 
nieme  en  Beloique,  iBruasels.  |1887;  E.  Oaird,  Eaaaue  on 
Literature  and  Philoaophy,  Glasgow,  1802;  G.  F.  Hertling. 
Deaeartea*  Besiehung  aur  Scholaatik,  Munich,  1899;  J. 
Iverach.  Deaeartea,  Sjnnoaa,  the  New  PhUoaopky,  Edin- 
bui^h,  1004. 

DESCENT  OF  CHRIST  INTO  HELL. 

New  Testament  Data  (i  1). 
The  Older  Church  Doctrine  ((  2). 
The  Protestant  Doctrine  (§  3). 
Conclusion  (§  4). 

The  sentence  "  He  descended  into  hell "  (Lat. 
descendU  ad  infema  or  ad  inferos),  ezpreasing  a 
christological  fact  following  the  death  and  burial 
of  JesuSf  is  found  in  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the 
Athanasian  Creed,  but  is  lacking  in  the  Niceno- 
Constantinopolitan  Creed  and  the  Old  Roman 
Symbol.  Its  fifst  official  statement,  as  far  as  a 
date  can  be  assigned,  was  formulated  in  359  and 
360  at  synods  at  Sirmium  in  Pannonia,  Nice  in 
Thrace,  and  Constantinople,  held  under  homoiou- 
sian  influence.  A  few  decades  later  it  formed, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  Rufinus  {ExposiHo 
sjfmboli  Aquileiensis,  xviii.),  a  part  of  the  confession 
of  the  Church  of  Aquileia  (see  Aquileian  Crsed). 
But  it  was  taught  much  earlier  by  the  most  various 
writers  of  the  Church.  The  older  assertion  that 
it  was  received  into  the  confession  to  combat  the 
Apollinarian  heresy  has  long  been  refuted.  It  is 
simply  the  crystallization  of  an  old  unassailed 
Christian  tradition. 

The  New  Testament  tells  only  that  the  soul  of 

Jesus  was  for  a  time  subject  to  the  realm  of  the 

dead  like  that  of  any  other  man.    According  to 

Acts  ii.  27,  31,  the  characteristic  feature  is  not  that 

he  descended  into  Hades,  but  that  be 

X.  New  Tes-  soon  returned  from  it  by  his  resurrec- 

tament  tion.  Paul  also  assumes  probably,  in 
Data.  Rom.  x.  7,  Christ's  real  presence  in 
the  intermediate  place  of  the  deceased 
since  he  speaks  of  the  ''  deep  "  (Gk.  abyssos)  in  con- 
nection with  the  awakening  of  Christ.  In  Luke 
xxiii.  43  Christ  assures  the  thief  on  the  cross  that 
he   shall  be   with  him  in  paradise,  thus  adding, 


Ill 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


D«aoent  of  Christ  into  HUl 


according  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  paradeiaos 
in  the  current  usage  of  the  Jews,  a  further  testimony 
that  the  soul  of  Jesus  was  in  the  reahn  of  the  dead, 
more  particularly  in  that  part  of  it  which  was  des- 
tined for  the  just.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  in 
these  passages  a  descent  into  hell  is  not  expressly 
taught,  but  is  presupposed  as  something  which 
naturally  follows  death. 

Concerning  the  activity  of  Christ  in  Hades,  the 
First  Epistle  of  Peter  (iii.  18  sqq.  and  iv.  6)  has  oc- 
casioned great  dispute.    According  as  the  "  spirits '' 
(Gk.  pTieumata)  have  been  understood  to  be  the 
souls  of  deceased  men  or  real  spirits  (i.e.,  fallen 
angels),  and  according  as  Christ,  who  descended 
to  them,  has  been  thought  of  as  incarnate  or  pre- 
existing, this  passage  has  been  interpreted  in  four 
different  ways:   (1)  Christ  preached  after  his  death 
to  the  departed  souls  of  the  unbelieving  contem- 
poraries of  Noah.     Origen,  Bengel,  KOnig,  Gtlder, 
XTsteri,  and  others  assumed  that  the  purpose  of 
Christ's  preaching  in  Hades  was  of  a  redeeming 
nature,  while   since  Flacius    and  Calovius  many 
Lutheran    interpreters    and    dogmaticians    have 
looked  upon  it  as  a  damnatory  manifestation  of 
judgment  against  the  rejected,  in  the  evident  effort 
to  adopt  the  text  of  the  Bible  to  the  churchly  con- 
ception of  the  descent  as  a  triumph  of  Christ  over 
the   power  of  Satan.     (2)   Following  Augustine, 
Thomas  Aquinas,  Beza,  and  many  Reformed  theolo- 
gians after  him,  especially  A.  Schweizer,  interpreted 
the  passage  as  a  sermon  of  Christ  before  his  incar- 
nation, which  proceeded  either  from  the  mouth  of 
Noah,  the  "  preacher  of  righteousness  "  (II  Pet. 
ii.  5),  or  coincides  with  the  "  long  suffering  of  God  " 
expressed  in  iii.  20.     (3)  Spitta  tried  to  solve  the 
problem  by  assuming  that  the  Messiah  before  his 
incarnation,  in  the  time  before  the  flood,  preached 
to  the  fallen  angels,  who,  according  to  Gen.  vi.  1 
sqq.,  Enoch  vi.-viii.,  united  with  the  daughters  of 
men  and  corrupted  mankind.     His  words,  accord- 
ing to  Spitta,  were  identical  with  the  announcement 
of  punishment  with  which  Enoch  was  entrusted 
according  to  the  book  bearing  his  name  (xii.  seq.), 
since  in  pre-Christian  Judaism  the  representations 
of  Enoch  and  the  Messiah  were  frequently  confused. 
(4)  F.  C.  Baur  shares  the  view  of  Spitta  that  Christ 
announced  condemnation  to  the  fallen  angels,  but 
not  until  after  his  awakening  from  the  death  on  the 
cross.    The  fruit  of  the  innocent  suffering  of  Christ 
consists  in  the  victory  over  these  corrupting  beings 
by  which  man  is  brought  to  God  (I  Pet.  iii.  18). 

It  may,  however,  be  proved  from  history  that  the 
passage  I  Pet.  iiL  18  sqq.  has  not  formed  the  basis 
for   the  development  of    the  church 
a.  The      doctrine   of   the   saving   activity    of 
Older      Christ  in  Hades.    Among  early  Chris- 
Church     tian  writers  it  is  cited  only  by  Origen, 
Doctrine,    and,  in  very  incidental  manner,  by 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  while  other  Old  and 
New  Testament  passages  are  brought  forward  in 
great  number.     It  is  evident  from  Matt,  xxvii.  62- 
53  that,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  Jesus  and 
his  descent  into  Hades  which  followed  as  a  natural 
consequence,  many  departed  saints  were  delivered 
from  the  bonds  of  death.    There  was  a  general 
belief  in  the  old  Church  that  the  salvation  accom- 


plished by  Christ  was  made  available  for  the  prophets 
and  the  pious  men  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
time  between  Christ's  death  and  his  resurrection. 
Since  the  soul  of  Jesus  with  its  inseparable  divinity 
appeared  in  Hades,  Satan  was  deprived  of  the  sover- 
eignty which  he  had  exercised  hitherto  in  an  un- 
limited way  in  the  nether  world.  There  was  a  dif- 
ference between  the  Occidentals  and  Orientals  in 
regard  to  the  question  to  whom  the  announcement 
of  salvation  referred.  The  Occidental  Church  con- 
fined it  strictly  to  the  patriarchs,  prophets,  and 
other  believers  of  the  Old  Testament,  while  in  the 
Oriental  Church  a  more  universalistic  tendency 
made  itself  felt.  The  scholastics  of  the  Middle 
Ages  emphasized  again  and  again  that  the  salva- 
tion which  Christ  brought  to  Hades  referred  simply 
to  the  limbii8  patrum,  and  not  to  any  persons  who 
had  died  without  faith  or  to  the  limbua  infarUium, 
According  to  the  Catechiamua  Romanua,  the  soul  of 
Christ  descended  into  Hades  whDe  his  body  lay  in 
the  grave,  not  because  he  was  subject  to  the  law 
of  man,  as  the  older  Church  taught,  but  of  his  own 
will,  in  order  to  conquer  the  demons. 

The  Protestants  rejected,  with  purgatory,  also  the 

IAmh%L8  (q.v.),  and  retained  only  two  conditions  after 

death;    hence  originated  the  tendency  to  identify 

Hades  with  hell;  i.e.,  the  place  or  condi- 

3.  The  Prot-  tion  of  condenmation.    The  Lutheran 

estant      Church  adopted  the  thought  of  Lu- 

Doctrine.  ther,  contained  in  his  Torgau  ser- 
mon (1533),  according  to  which  Christ 
in  his  whole  personality,  God  and  man,  body  and 
soul,  really  and  truly  descended  into  the  hell  of  the 
damned  and  conquered  the  devil.  The  Formula 
of  Concord  stood  on  the  same  ground.  Christ 
descended  on  the  early  morning  of  the  resurrection, 
just  before  his  appearance  as  the  risen  one  on  the 
earth.  The  interval  between  the  crucifixion  and 
the  descent  he  had  spent  in  paradise.  The  descent 
of  Christ  is  considered  the  first  stage  in  his  exalta- 
tion (see  Jesus  Christ,  Twofold  State  of),  since 
then  for  the  first  time  he  made  an  unlimited  use  of 
his  divine  idiamata  by  triumphing  over  the  power 
of  Satan. 

The  Reformed  theologians  regarded  the  descent 
into  hell  as  a  figurative  expression  for  the  unutter- 
able sufferings  of  Christ's  human  soul,  which  he 
endured  in  the  last  moments  of  his  vicarious  dying 
(Calvin,'*  Institutes,"  bk.  ii.,  chap,  xvi.,  §§  8-21).  It 
was  a  part  of  his  humiliation,  not,  as  in  the  Lutheran 
view,  the  first  stage  of  his  exalted  state.  Beside 
this  view,  others  have  been  held  concerning  the 
meaning  of  the  clause.  It  was  only  another  way 
of  saying  that  Christ  was  buried  (Beza,  Drusius, 
and  others)  or  denoted  the  state  of  death  regarded 
as  an  ignominious  one  for  the  Prince  of  Life  (Pisca- 
tor,  Arminius,  and  others). 

It  was  only  in  the  period  of  the  Enlightenment 
that  the  text  in  I  Peter  iii.  attracted  new  attention 
in  an  exegetical  respect.  It  was  held  that  it  im- 
plied a  sermon  of  glad  tidings  to  persons  who  had 
died  without  salvation.  The  rationalists  looked 
upon  it  as  well  as  upon  the  descent  into  Hades  as  a 
passing  Jewish  conception,  while  dogmaticians 
like  De  Wette,  Marheineke,  and  Hase  diflcovered 
in  it  as  in  a  myth  a  permanent  Christian  idea. 


peaoent  of  Ohrist  into  Hell 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


4U 


PresuppoBing  the  actuality  of  an  intermediate 
state,  a  great  number  of  theologians  have  pro- 
claimed this  sermon  of  salvation  on  the  part  of 
Christ  as  an  essential  factor  by  means  of  which  the 
universality  of  Christianity  is  realized.  But  in 
recent  times  the  descent  into  Hades  is  treated  with 
great  reservation,  if  not  entirely  passed  over. 

In  looking  back  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  descent, 
we  find  that  from  the  standpoint  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  well  as  from  that  of  the  his- 
4.  Condu-  tory  of  dogma,  two  distinct  features 
Bton.  stand  in  the  foreground — ^the  sojourn 
of  Christ  in  Hades  and  the  triumph 
over  the  powers  of  hell.  The  sentence  of  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed,  descendU  ad  inferos,  relates  primarily 
only  to  the  former.  If  it  is  desired  to  connect  a 
certain  activity  with  Christ's  sojourn,  one  may  be- 
lieve with  the  old  Church  that  he  carried  life  and 
salvation  to  the  believers  in  Hades.  But  in  so  far 
as  Hades,  from  which  the  patriarchs  were  to  be 
delivered,  was  under  the  dominion  of  Satan,  the 
prince  of  darkness  was  to  be  conquered,  and  this 
idea  came  to  the  foreground,  since  the  interest  in 
the  fate  of  the  patriarchs  and  pious  men  of  pre- 
Christian  times  gradually  dinoinished  and  the 
expression  inferi  became  in  the  course  of  time  in 
popular  as  well  bs  theological  representation  the 
place  of  the  danmed  and  evil  spirits.  Finally,  in- 
asmuch as  the  assumption  of  a  sermon  of  salvation 
to  all  deceased  persons  in  the  intermediate  state  is 
based  upon  the  very  questionable  interpretation 
of  a  single  Bible  text  and  can  hardly  be  harmonized 
with  other  passages  (II  Cor.  v.  10;  Gal.  vi.  8;  Rom. 
ii.  6;  etc.),  it  is  unjustly  considered  indispensable 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  principle  of  divine 
justice  and  love;  for  the  belief  that  God  gives  all 
men  somehow  an  opportimity  to  obtain  full  sal- 
vation in  Christ  is  independent  of  the  definite  way 
in  which  some  think  it  is  realized. 

(M.  Lauterburo.) 
Biblioobapht:  J.  A.  Dietelmayer,  Hiaioria  doomatioa  d€ 
deacetiMu  ChriMH  ad  infero;  Nurembeng,  1741;  E.  QQder, 
lAhre  von  der  ErBcheinung  ChriaH  urUer  den  Todten^  Bern, 
1852;  A.  Schweiaer.  Hinaboefahren  cur  HdUe,  aU  Mj/Aut, 
Zurich.  1868;  C.  Hodge.  TKeoloov,  ii.  616-621,  New  York, 
1871;  F.  Huidekoper.  The  Belief  of  <Ae  Fim  Three  Cen- 
turiee  Concerning  ChrieVe  Mieeion  to  the  Underworld,  ib. 
1876;  E.  H.  Plumptre.  The  Spiritt  in  Prieon,  ib.  1885; 
C.  H.  H.  Wright.  Biblioal  Eeeay:  SL  Peler'e  Spiriie  in 
Priaon,  Edinburgh,  1886;  J.  M.  Ueteri,  Hinabaefahren 
tuT  HdUe,  Zurich,  1886;  F.  Spitta,  ChriaH  Predigt  an  die 
Oeiater,  Gdttingen,  1800;  Briney,  in  ChriaHan  Qtutrterly 
Review,  1897;  C.  Bnistow,  La  Deaeente  du  Chriet  aux  en- 
fera,  Paria.  1897;  A.  G.  MoGiflFert,  The  Apoatlea'  creed,  pp. 
193  aqq.,  1902;  SchaflF.  Creeda,  i.  14-23;  the  commen- 
taries on  I  Pet.  iii.  19-22  and  W,  6;  RufinuB,  Commen- 
tariua  in  Stfinbolufn  Apoatolorum,  Later  text  with  notes  by 
C.  Whitaker,  3d  ed.,  London,  1906;  and  the  Uteratuie 
under  Apostles'  Creed. 

DESERT,  CHURCH  OF  THE.  See  Caiosards; 
Court,  Antoinb;  Huouenotb;  Rabaut,  Paul. 

DES  MARETS,  dd  m(l"T^'  (MARESIUS),  SAMUEL : 
Representative  of  the  Reformed  polemic  ortho- 
doxy; b.  at  Oisemont  (75  m.  n.zi.w.  of  Paris), 
Picardy,  Aug.  9,  1699;  d.  at  Groningen  May  18, 
1673.  He  studied  in  Paris,  in  Saumur  under 
Gomarus,  and  in  Geneva  at  the  time  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort.  He  was  ordained  in  1620,  and  preached 
at  Laon  until  a  controversy  with  Roman  Catholic 


missionaries,  which  led  to  an  attack  on  his  L 
(1624),  forced  him  to  leave.  He  became  p- 
fessor  at  S^dan  (1625),  pastor  at  Maestricht  ili^ 
pastor  and  professor  at  Bois-ie-Duc  (1636),  s 
at  Groningen  (1643),  where  he  won  a  reputatL: 
that  led  to  calls  to  Saumur,  Marburg,  Lausanur, 
and  Leyden.  He  wrote  more  than  one  hur-dn*. 
works,  including  a  Systhema  theologice  (Groningf^ 
1645;  4th  and  best  ed.,  1673,  with  an  append.- 
giving  a  list  of  his  writings),  worked  out  in  scholari 
fashion,  which  was  much  used  as  a  text-book.  Be: 
his  literary  activity  was  chiefly  polemical — against 
Roman  Catholics,  Socinians,  Arminians,  Amyrali- 
ism  as  represented  by  Dallsus,  Chiliasm,  etc. 

(S.  D.  VAN  Veen] 

DESSERVANT.    See  Chaplain. 

DEJSUBAS,  d6"8Q"ba'.    See  Matal,  Mathjet. 

DETERMINISM:  The  conunon  name  for  aJi 
theories  of  the  human  will  which  represent  it  & 
absolutely  determined  by  motives  which  lie  es- 
tirely  outside  of  it,  thereby  reducing  its  free»:ic- 
to  a  mere  delusion.  There  is  a  dogmatic  det«^ 
mimsm,  which,  in  order  to  glorify  the  majesty  -il 
God,  excludes  all  other  causality  from  hunas 
action  but  God  himself  (Luther,  De  servo  arbitn.' 
and  there  is  a  philosophical  determinism,  wfaic: 
explains  all  human  actions  as  results  of  surrouoti- 
ing  cireumstances  (La  Mettrie;  many  modem  s> 
called  ''social  reformers")-  There  is  a  fatalisti. 
determinism,  which  places  God  himself  in  the  gn.i 
of  an  iron  necessity  (the  ancient  idea  of  NemesU 
Islam);  and  there  is  a  pantheistic  determinisLi, 
which  makes  even  the  faintest  gleam  of  hum^ 
freedom  vanish  into  the  darkness  of  a  natuni 
process  (the  Hindus,  Stoicism,  Spinoza).  One  d 
the  most  interesting  forms  under  which  determinL^m 
has  appeared  in  theology  is  that  which  it  reoeivK 
from  Schleiermacher  and  his  schooL     See  Will 

DEUSDEDIT,  d6''us-d^dit:  The  name  of  three 
men  who  figure  in  church  history. 

1.  Pope  615-^18.  He  was  a  Roman,  chosen 
pope  after  the  death  of  Boniface  IV.,  615,  and 
consecrated  Oct.  19.  He  died  Nov.  8,  618.  Noth- 
ing is  known  of  his  activity;  miracles  and  spurious 
decretals  are  attributed  to  him,  and  he  is  honored 
as  a  saint  on  Nov.  8. 

Biblioorapht:  Liber  pontifieaUa,  ed.  Dueheaxie,  i..  pp.oelvi. 
319.  Paris,  1886;  ed.  Mommaen.  in  MOH,  GeaL  po< 
Rom.,  i.  166-167,  Berlin.  1808. 

2.  Sixth  arohbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  fiist 
of  English  origin;  d.  at  Canterbury  July  14,  6W. 
He  was  a  West  Saxon  whose  native  name  vis 
Frithona,  and  succeeded  Honorius  as  archbishop 
after  an  interval  of  a  jrear  and  a  half,  being  coo- 
secrated  by  Ithamar,  bishop  of  Rochester,  Mar.  26, 
655.  The  insignificance  of  Canterbury  in  his  tiioe 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  consecrated  only  ooe 
English  bishop  (Damian,  successor  of  Ithaoiar  at 
Rochester);  all  others  were  consecrated  abroad  or 
by  Celtic  bishops.  He  was  not  present  at  the 
Synod  of  Whitby,  and  no  mention  is  made  of  any 
one  to  represent  him  there.  After  his  death  tk 
see  remained  vacant  for  some  time. 


kl3 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


a«oent  of  Christ  into  Hell 


Sibliographt:  The  Vita  by  Qoialin  is  given  in  part  in 
A  SB,  July.  iv.  48-50.  Conault:  Bede.  Uiat.  ecd.,  iii.  20. 
20.  iv.  1;  Haddan  and  Stubbs.  C<mneilM,  iii.  09-113; 
DNB,  xiv.  422. 

3.  Cardinal;  d.  about  1099.  Of  his  earlier  life 
t  is  related  merely  that  he  was  once  a  monk  la 
Todi.  At  the  Roman  November  synod  of  1078  he 
:>clonged  to  the  clerics  in  the  circle  of  Gregory 
VII.  who  agreed  with  Berengar  of  Tours.  He  is 
i^aid  to  have  been  in  Spain  as  legate  of  this  pope; 
he  was  certainly  in  Germany,  perhaps  in  the  same 
[•apacity.  It  was  probably  also  under  Gregory 
VII.  that  he  became  a  cardinal.  The  significance 
of  Deusdedit  lies  primarily  in  his  literary  achieve- 
ments on  behalf  of  the  Gregorian  party.  His 
lAber  canonum,  doubtless  suggested  by  Gregory 
VII.,  was  completed  in  1087  (ed.  P.  Martinucci, 
Venice,  1869,  and  recently  republished  with  de- 
tailed investigations  by  V.  W.  von  Glanvell,  Die 
KanonensamnUung  des  KardinaU  Deusdedit,  Pader- 
bom,  1905).  Deusdedit  participated  in  the  pub- 
lic questions  of  his  time  by  composing  in  1097  the 
Libellus  contra  invasores  el  symaniacos  (MGH, 
Libelli  de  liU,  ii.,  1892,  300  ff.),  important  for  its 
treatment  of  simony,  investiture,  and  the  value 
of  sacraments  administered  by  simoniac  priests. 
Probably  he  is  the  author  also  of  the  so-called 
Didatus  papa  Gregarii  VIL  (Gregarii  VIL  Reg., 
II.  55a).  [Mann,  Popes,  i.  304,  calls  him  **  the  b^t 
of  the  "eleventh-century  canonists."] 

Carl  Mirbt. 
Bxbuoorapht:  W.  von  Gieeebreeht.  MUndisner  Hi§ioriMcKes 
Jahrbuch,  1866;  E.  Sackur,  Neuet  Ardtiv  iUr  die  Alten 
d€uUehe  OeaehicKtakunde,  xvi..  xviii.;  C.  Mirbt.  Die  Pu6- 
liziatik  im  ZeUaUer  Oreoore  VII.,  Leipeic.  1894;  W.  Mar- 
tens. Oreifor  VIL,  ib.  1894;  G.  Buschbell.  Die  profeeeionee 
fidei  der  P&pete,  MOnster.  1896. 

DEUTERONOMY.    See  Hexateuch. 

DEUTSCH,  doich,  SAMUEL  MARTIN:  German 
Protestant;  b.  at  Warsaw,  Poland,  Feb.  19,  1837. 
lie  studied  at  Erlangen  and  Rostock  (Ph.D., 
1S57),  and,  after  being  for  many  years  instructor 
in  a  gymnasium  in  Berlin,  was  appointed  in  1885 
associate  professor  of  church  history  in  the  imiver- 
sity  of  the  same  city.  He  has  written  Die  Lehre 
des  Ambrosius  von  Sunde  und  SUndentilgung  (Ber- 
lin, 1867);  Drei  Akienstucke  zur  Geschichte  des 
Donaiismus  (1875);  Der  Synode  von  Sens  {ttJ^l) 
und  die  Verurteilung  Ahdlards  (1880);  and  Peter 
Aba  lard,  ein  kritischer  Theolog  des  zwol/ien  Jahr- 
hunderts  (Leipsic,  1883).  He  edited  K.  R.  Hagen- 
harh's  Leit/aden  zum  Religionsunterricht  from  the 
8i\th  to  the  ninth  edition  (Leipsic,  1881-1905). 

DEUTSCHMANN,  JOHANN:  Lutheran  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Juterbogk  (27  m.  s.  of  Potsdam) 
Aug.  10,  1625;  d.  at  Wittenberg  Aug.  12,  1706. 
In  1657  he  became  extraordinary  professor,  and  in 
1662  ordinary  professor  at  Wittenberg.  During 
the  syncretistic  and  pietistic  controversies  he  rep- 
resented the  extreme  orthodox  Lutheranism;  and 
opposed  especially  the  younger  Calixtus  and  the 
theology  of  the  pietists.  Against  Spener,  the 
leader  of  the  pietists,  he  charged  no  less  than  263 
heresies.  Being  the  son-in-law  of  the  orthodox 
professor  Calovius,  he  used  the  weak  man  as  a 
blind  tool  in  his  hand.    To  his  scientific  fancies 


belonged  the  development  of  the  so-called  TKeo- 
logia  paradisiaca,  i.e.,  that  Adam,  the  patriarchs, 
and  the  whole  Old  Testament  agreed  with  the 
Augsburg  Confession  and  Formulas  of  Concord. 
To  prove  this,  he  published  an  Antiquisstma  theo- 
logia  positiva  primi  theologi  Adami,  a  Symbolum 
apostolicum  Adami;  and  Der  ehrisUutherischen 
Kirche  Prediger — Bei4M  und  Beichtstuhl  von  dem 
grossen  JehovorElohim  im  Paradiese  gestiftet, 

Paul  Tbchackert. 
Bibuogbapht:  M.  RanflFt,  Leben  der  diureOeheieehen  OoU' 
teegelehrten,  i.  243,  Leipdo,  1742;  ADB,  v.  93. 

DEVAT,  MATYAS  BXRO  :  Hungarian  Reformer; 
b.  about  1500  at  Deva  (140  m.  n.e.  of  Bel- 
grade), Transylvania;  d.  perhaps  1545  in  Debreczin. 
Where  he  received  his  earlier  education  is  un- 
known; some  Hungarian  authors  call  him  a  pu- 
pil of  Grynffius  at  Ofen.  Hungarian  students  of 
Transylvania  at  this  time  usuaUy  visited  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cracow,  and  D^vay  with  his  fellow  Re- 
former Kilmincsehi  is  matriculated  there  for  the 
winter  semester  of  1523.  On  his  return  from  Cra- 
cow two  years  later,  he  joined  a  monastic  order, 
and  is  found  in  1527  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  on  the  estate  of  Stephan  Tomory.  By  this 
time  the  Reformation  had  made  great  progress  in 
Hungary.  D^vay  was  won  over  and  went  to  Wit- 
tenberg to  arm  himself  for  its  defense  and  propa- 
gation, and  studied  at  the  university  for  a  year 
and  a  half,  during  which  time  he  had  free  board 
and  lodging  with  Luther.  Returning  well  recom- 
mended by  the  great  Reformers,  he  appears  in  the 
spring  of  1531  in  Ofen-Buda  as  minister  of  its 
Hungarian  congregation,  spreading  the  Reforma- 
tion. He  then  wrote  his  De  sanctorum  dormitione, 
against  the  invocation  of  the  saints,  and  fifty-two 
propositions  in  defense  of  the  Reformation.  As 
Hungary  had  no  printing-press,  the-  tracts  circu- 
lated only  in  manuscript,  and  their  contents  are 
known  only  through  his  polemic  works  published 
later  in  other  countries.  Before  the  end  of  the 
same  year  he  was  called  to  Kaschau  (Kassa)  as 
preacher.  Here  his  zeal  for  the  Reformation  aroused 
the  wrath  of  the  Roman  clergy,  and  Thomas 
Szalahilzy,  bishop  of  Erlau,  arrested  him  on  higher 
orders,  Nov.  6,  1531.  Though  the  citizens  re- 
sisted his  arrest,  he  was  imprisoned,  first  in  Likava, 
then  in  Presburg,  finally  in  Vienna.  Here  he 
suffered  much,  and  was  several  times  examined 
before  the  bitterest  enemy  of  the  Reformation, 
Bishop  Faber.  Released,  he  went  again  to  Ofen, 
then  under  Ferdinand's  rival  John  Zdpolya,  but 
his  zeal  led  him  into  captivity,  1534-35.  From 
Ofen  he  went  under  the  protection  of  Count  N4- 
dasdy,  a  rich  Hungarian  magnate  and  an  open  and 
active  Reformer,  to  Sarvar,  where  he  used  the 
count's  splendid  library  in  the  composition  of  his 
Latin  polemic  treatises.  Gregory  Szegedy,  pro- 
vincial of  the  Franciscans  in  Himgary,  a  chief 
persecutor  of  Protestants,  finally  fulfilled  his 
threat  and  replied  to  D^vay's  tracts,  already  men- 
tioned, under  the  title  CenaurcB  Fratris  Gregarii 
Zegedini,  O.  F.,  in  propositiones  erroneas  Matthice 
D&vay  .  .  .  (Vienna,  1535).  D^vay  at  once  set 
himself  to  reply  and  toward  the  end  of  1536  went 
to   Germany  to  see   to  the   publication   of   bis 


BSg' 


lom&snt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


414 


rejoinder.  In  the  spring  he  was  at  Wittenberg, 
enjojring  the  friendship  of  Melanchthon.  Before 
fall  hls^book  was  published  in  Nuremberg,  with  the 
title  D%9putalio  de  statu  in  quo  aint  beatorum  animcd 
post  banc  vUam,  ante  tUHmi  fudicii  diem.  Item  de 
proBcipuie  articulis  ChristiancB  dodrincBf  and  an  in- 
troduction perhaps  by  Melanchthon  or  Grynisus. 
Returning  soon  after  to  Hungary,  he  joined  Count 
Thomas  NiUiasdy  and  John  Sylvester  (Erddsi)  in 
the  endeavor  to  strengthen  the  Reformation  by 
means  of  schools  and  a  national  literature.  He 
wrote  his  Orthographia  Ungarica  (the  first  book 
printed  in  Hungary  in  the  Hungarian  language),  in 
which  he  incorporated  the  fundamentals  of  Prot- 
estantism and  the  children's  prayers  from  Luther's 
Shorter  Catechism.  During  this  time  D^vay  wrote 
a  '*  Handbook  of  Religion  "  in  Hungarian  (2d  fac- 
simile ed.,  Budapest,  1897).  Meanwhile  the  Turk 
had  invaded  Hungary  in  aid  of  Ferdinand's  rival, 
whose  party  was  hostile  to  the  Reformation.  D^vay 
and  his  comrades  were  forced  to  flee,  and  are  found 
in  Dec,  1541,  in  Wittenberg.  D^vay  took  the  op- 
portunity of  visiting  Switzerland,  and  became  a 
decided  adherent  to  the  Swiss  doctrines,  which  at 
first  surprised  and  later  angered  Luther.  After 
about  a  year  and  a  half  he  returned  to  Hungary 
and  labored  for  a  while  in  Miskolcz  in  Upper  Hun- 
gary, then  in  Debreczin.  (K.  Rbv^bz.) 
Bibuooiupht:  Q.    Bauhofer.   {Tmc^msM*  der  evangeliadtgn 

Kirdie  in  Unoam,   Berlin,   1854;  F.   Balogh,   QMchichU 

der   ungariBch-proteetanHadien   Kirdis^    Debreoiin,    1882; 

P.  Bod.  HUt.  Hungarorum  eoel.^  ed.  Rauwenhoff,  3  vols., 

Leyden.  188(MK). 

DEVELOPMENT,  THEOLOGICAL  AND  HIS- 
TORICAL: The  Evangelical  Protestant  theory 
maintains  that  Christianity  objectively  considered 
is  perfect  in  Christ  and  the  New  Testament,  but 
that  its  understanding  and  application  is  gradual, 
and  progressing  from  age  to  age.  The  rationalistic 
theory  holds  that  Christianity  itself  is  imperfect, 
and  will  ultimately  be  superseded  by  philosophy 
or  a  humanitarian  religion,  or  that  reason  will  take 
the  place  of  the  Bible  as  a  rule  of  faith  and  action. 
The  theory  advocated  by  Cardinal  Newman,  in  his 
Development  of  Ckristian  Doctrine  (London,  1845), 
written  just  before  he  went  over  to  Rome,  but 
never  indorsed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  is 
that  the  New  Testament  contained  the  germs  of 
certain  doctrines,  i.e.,  those  distinctive  to  the  Roman 
and  Greek  Catholic  Churches,  which,  under  divine 
care,  have  been  developed  into  their  present  shape. 
The  reply  to  Newman's  position  is  that,  while  de- 
scent from  earlier  formulas  may  be  traced  for  many 
later  doctrines,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  develop- 
ment was  always  along  legitimate  lines.  The  Prot- 
estant criticism  of  Roman  Catholic  development  is 
that  the  latter  is  often  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  the  Gospel.    See  Doctrines,  History 

OF. 

Biblioobapht:  Philip  Schaff.  What  %m  CKurA  Hiatoryf  A 
Vindication  of  the  Idea  of  Hietorical  Development^  Phila- 
delphia, 1846;  W.  A.  Butler,  LeUere  on  the  Development 
ol  ChrMan  Doctrine  xn  Reply  to  Mr.  Newman'e  Eaaay, 
Dublin.  1850;  O.  Pfleiderer.  Philosophy  of  Reltgion,  4  vols., 
London,  1886-88;  A.  V  G.  Allen.  Continuiiy  of  Chrie- 
Han  Thouifht,  Boston.  1887;  J.  Kaftan,  Truth  of  the 
Chriehan  Reltgion,  2  vols.,  Edinbuzsb,  1894;  J.  Orr, 
Proffreea  of  Dogma,  New  York,  1901. 


DEVtt. 

I.  The   Old  Testament  III.  The  Church  ToM^iixv. 

Teaohinc.  The  Fathers  (§1). 

II.  The  New  Testament  The      Middle     Agei 

Teaohinc.  (i  2). 

Namee  and  Description  Popular  Notions  (§3-. 

(i  1).  Luther  (§  4). 

The  BeUef  of  Jesus  ((  2).  Modem  Views  (15). 

L  The  Old  Testament  Teaching:  The  Old  Testa- 
ment does  not  contain  the  fully  developed  doctrinf 
of  Satan  (Heb.  Satan,  "  adversary  ")  found  in  tfar 
New  Testament.  It  does  not  portray  him  as  ar 
the  head  of  a  kingdom,  ruling  over  kindred  nature 
and  an  apostate  from  the  family  of  God.  The  be- 
lief in  evil  spirits  is  distinctly  alluded  to  (see  Df- 
mon).  In  the  older  books  God  is  described  as  tb^ 
source  from  which  come  influences  noxious  to  nun 
(Ex.  viii.  Bqq.f  xii.  29);  but  there  are  not  wanting 
references  to  evil  spirits  as  evil  agencies  (I  Sam.  xvi 
14;  I  Kings  xxii.  20  sqq.).  In  this  connection  the 
parallel  statements  of  II  Sam.  xxiv.  1  and  I  Chrtm 
xxi.  1  should  be  compared;  it  will  be  found  that 
the  same  event  is  attributed  in  the  first  passage  to 
God  as  its  author,  and  in  the  second  to  Satan  (cf. 
Luke  xii.  5  and  Heb.  ii.  14). 

The  term  **  Satan  "  is  used  in  the  general  sense 
of  adversary  (Ps.  cix.  6  etc.),  but  more  particu- 
larly also  as  the  spirit  of  evil,  who  comes  into  col- 
lision with  the  plans  of  God,  and  plots  the  hurt  c^ 
man.  It  is  not  definitely  stated  in  the  account  of 
the  fall  that  the  serpent  who  tempted  Eve  was  the 
devil,  or  his  agent.  The  first  identification  of  the 
two  is  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (ii.  23-24;  cf.  II  Cor. 
xi.  3;  Rev.  xii.  9),  and  it  is  taken  for  granted  in 
the  expression  **  that  old  serpent  called  the  devil " 
(Rev.  xii.  9;  cf.  John  viii.  44).  This  inference  is 
justified  by  the  words  which  the  serpent  used,  and 
agrees  with  the  portrait  of  the  devil  as  the  tempter. 
Lev.  xvi.  8  has  been  thougltt  4e  contain  a  reference 
i^  Satan  (see  Azazel;  Demon).  In  the  Book  of 
Job  he  is  brought  out  as  a  distinct  personality. 
He  presents  himself  before  Yahweh  with  the  sods 
of  God  (i.  6),  and,  after  questioning  the  motives  of 
the  patriarch,  secures  permission  to  tempt  and 
torment  him,  but  not  to  kill  him  (i.  12).  In  ZecL 
iii.  1  he  is  portrayed  as  standing  at  the  side  d 
Joshua  the  high  priest  to  '*  resist  "  him  (A.  V ; 
A.  V.  marg.  and  R.  V.,  "  to  be  his  adversary  **). 
In  the  Book  of  Enoch  and  the  Hebrew  Apocrypha 
and  Pseudepigrapha  the  doctrine  of  the  personality 
of  the  devil  is  developed  and  grotesque  features  are 
introduced. 

n.  The   New  Testament  Teachmg:    The  New 

Testament  is  full  of  allusions  to  the  personality  and 

agency  of  the  devil  (Gk.  diaboloe,  "  calunmiator  ^')- 

He  bears  the  titles  of  "  tempter  "  (I  Thess.  iii.  5). 

the  "  wicked  "  or  "  evil  one  "  (Matt.  xiii.  19  etc; 

cf.  vi.  13),  "  Beelaebub  "  and  "  prince  of  devils  " 

(Gk.  daimones;  Matt.  xii.  24),  '*  the  prince  of  this 

world"  (John  xii.    31,   xiv.    30,   xvi.    11),   "the 

god  of  this  world  "   (II    Cor.   iv.  4). 

I.  Names  "  prince   of  the   power   of    the  air " 

and  De-     (Eph.  ii.  2),  the  ''  dragon,"  and  the 

scription.   ''serpent"  (Rev.  xii.  9,  xx.  2).    He 

has  a  kingdom  (Matt.  xii.  26),  which 

is  hostile  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  (Acts  xxvi.  18), 

and  dominates  a  realm  of  demons  (Matt.  iz.  34). 


415 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


X>evttIopiii«it 


Created  one  of  the  angels,  be  became  an  apos- 
tate (John  viii.  44),  and  fell  from  heaven  (Luke 
X.  18;  Jude  6).  He  is  the  indefatigable  adversary 
of  the  kingdom  of  good,  but  will  ultimately  be 
overthrown,  and  cast  into  everlasting  fire  (Matt. 
XXV.  41).  No  hope  is  set  forth  in  the  Scriptures  of 
his  redemption.  He  endeavored  to  seduce  Christ 
himself  (Matt.  iv.  1),  worked  among  the  apostles 
(John  xiii.  2),  and  worketh  in  the  children  of  dis- 
obedience (Eph.  ii.  2).  Conversion  is  the  passage 
and  deliverance  from  his  kingdom  of  darkness  to 
the  kingdom  of  light  (Col.  i.  13).  He  is  restlessly 
sowing  seeds  of  error  and  doubt  in  the  Church 
(Matt.  xiii.  39),  blinding  the  eyes  of  them  that  be- 
lieve not  (II  Cor.  iv.  4),  goes  about  as  a  roaring 
lion  (I  Pet.  V.  8),  and  has  the  power  of  death 
(Heb.  ii.  14).  Christ  has  given  a  more  definite 
description  of  him  (John  viii.  44)  as  a  "  murderer 
and  liar."  His  chief  characteristics  are  power  and 
craft.  He  is  as  a  ''  strong  man  "  (Matt.  xii.  29), 
and  his  subtlety  (cf.  Gen.  iii.  1)  is  exhibited  in 
treacherous  snares  (II  Tim.  ii.  26),  wiles  (Eph.  vi. 
11),  and  devices  (II  Cor.  ii.  11),  and  the  delusive 
shift  of  transforming  himself  into  an  angel  of  light 
(II  Cor.  xi.  14).  The  Book  of  Revelation  is  a  sub- 
lime drama  in  which  Satan  is  one  of  the  chief 
figures. 

It  was  to  undo  the  desolation,  and  destroy  the 
works  of  Satan  that  the  Son  of  God  was  mani- 
fested (I  John  iii.  8).  It  has  been  attempted  to 
make  him  out  to  be  a  mere  personification  of  evil, 
and  to  show  that  evil  exists  only  as  it  is  found  in 
the  human  heart.  Schleiermacher  thinks  that 
Jesus  accommodated  himself  to  the  ideas  and 
language  that  then  prevailed  in  Judea,  but  did 
not  himself  regard  Satan  as  a  real  and  living  per- 
son. Objection  is  made  to  this  view  that,  if  he 
were  not  a  distinct  personality,  Christ 
2.  The      would  hardly  use  so  strong  language 

Belief  of  in  speaking  of  him  and  would  not  bid 
Jesns.  the  disciples  beware  of  his  craft  and 
power.  In  the  exposition  of  the  par- 
able of  the  tares  Christ  makes  the  didactic  state- 
ment that  the  enemy  who  sowed  them  was  the 
devil.  Another  view  adopted  by  advocates  of  a 
humanitarian  christology  is  that  Jesus  shared  the 
ignorance  of  his  age  in  ascribing  certain  maladies 
to  demoniac  influence  and  asserting  the  personality 
of  the  devil.  A  remark  of  Bernard  Weiss  is  here 
apposite  (Die  Religion  dea  Neuen  Testaments,  p. 
121,  Stuttgart,  1903):  ''  The  deeper  thesenseof  sin 
is  the  more  confidently  is  the  supernatural  power 
of  sin,  by  which  man  is  deceived  and  dominated, 
ascribed  to  a  superhimian  adversary  of  God,  for 
Bin  can  not  be  traced  back  to  God.  The  Scrip- 
tures and  Jesus  take  this  fact  for  granted  and  give 
it  the  weight  of  their  authority." 

m.  The  Church  Teaching:  The  Fathers  agreed 
in  representing  Satan  as  an  apostate  angel.  Ac- 
cording to  Origen  the  fallen  angels,  who  sinned  less 
grievously,  are  of  most  subtle  constitution.  The 
stars  belong  to  them.  The  devil  and  the  demons, 
who  sinned  most  grievously,  inhabit  the  air  (F. 
Loofs,  LeUfaden  zum  Siudium  der  Dogmengeschichle, 
p.  127,  Halle,  1893).  At  last  even  the  devil  will 
return  to  God  and  thus  the  **  restoration  of  all 


things  "  (Gk.  apokaiastasis  pantOn,  Acts  iii.  21;  see 
Apocatastasis)  be  accomplished.    The  fall,  how- 
ever, may  be  repeated  again  in  the 

1.  The      course  of  the  eons.     In  the  develop- 
Fathers.     nlent  of  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement 

(q.v.)  from  Irenseus  on  (cf.  Schaff, 
Christian  Church,  ii.  585  sqq.)  the  satisfaction  of 
Christ  was  regarded  as  a  payment  made  not  to 
God,  but  to  the  devil,  who  through  the  disobedi- 
ence of  our  first  parents  acquired  a  right  to  us. 
Origen  says  sinful  man  is  the  devil's  property 
(Loofs,  p.  129).  John  of  Damascus  expressly  re- 
jected this  theory  (Loofs,  p.  186).  The.  second  part 
of  his  system  of  theology  devotes  much  space  to 
the  devil,  and  is  in  this  respect  a  precursor  of  the 
medieval  systems.  In  the  West  Augustine  repre- 
sented Christ's  work  as  a  redemption  from  the  devil 
rather  than  as  a  reconciliation  to  God  (Loofs,  p. 
220),  but  he  gave  the  impulse  to  the  later  doctrine 
enunciated  by  Anselm.  He  pronounced  the  pagan 
gods  demons  (De  civitate  Dei,  v.  12,  xviii.  18).  Like 
the  good  angels,  the  bad  spirits  have  bodies  and 
by  God's  permission  have  power  to  stir  up  storms 
and  blast  harvests,  and  they  cohabit  with  men 
and  women.  They  have  no  power  to  create  new 
substances,  but  they  have  power  to  accelerate  the 
growth  of  seeds  and  germs,  and  the  development 
of  potencies  hidden  to  men,  but  known  to  their 
own  shrewd  senses.  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604) 
went  even  to  greater  lengths  than  Augustine  in 
giving  experiences  of  demonic  and  diabolic  influ- 
ence. Hamack  (Dogmengeschichte,  iii.  235)  has 
called  him  the  **  Doctor  of  angels  and  the  devU." 
The  popular  belief  in  the  devil  and  his  inomediate 
influence  in  antagonizing  holy  aspirations  and 
practises  had  a  copious  illustration  in  the  weird 
experiences  of  the  hermits  of  the  Thebaid  and 
Chalcis.  St.  Anthony  and  other  ascetics  thought 
they  had  frequent  encounters  with  him,  and  their 
cells  were  often  turned  into  pandemonium  by  the 
shrieks  and  howls  of  the  demons  whom  they  im- 
agined Satan  called  forth  to  torment  them  in  their 
lonely  solitude  (cf.  Schaff,  Christian  Church,  iii. 
147  sqq.;  Charles  Kingsley,  The  Hermits^  London, 
1868). 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  devil  and  demonology 
were  among  the  subjects  which  received  most 
elaborate  treatment.  The  leading  schoolmen  de- 
vote long  sections  filled,  with  Scriptural  quotation 
and  argumentative  reasoning  to  show  the  origin, 
the  mode  of  existence,  and  the  influence  of  the 
devil  and  the  evil  spirits.  To  these  disquisitions 
of  the  study  are  added  the  popular  stories  which 
fill  the  pages  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  tale- 
writers  of  all  times.  To  schoolmen  and  compilers 
must  be  added  another  class  of  writers, 

2.  The      men  of  liberal  culture  like  Walter  Mapes 
Middle      and  John  of  Salisbury  and  £tienne  de 

Ages.  Bourbon  of  France  (ed.  A.  Lecoy  de  la 
Marche,  Paris,  1877).  Mapes  treats 
Ceres,  Bacchus,  Pan,  the  satyrs,  and  the  fauns  and 
dryads  as  fallen  spirits,  and  represents  the  devil  as 
himself  bearing  witness  to  the  truth  of  this  view 
{De  nugis  curialium,  ed.  T.  Wright,  ii.  14,  London, 
1850).  John  of  Salisbury  has  no  doubt  about  the 
fell  alliance  of  demons  with  men  and  women  and 


D9TU 

Devotion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


416 


their  power  over  the  weather  {Polycraiicus,  chaps. 
viiL-xiii.). 

According  to  the  medieval  theology  the  devil  is 
at  the  head  of  a  realm  of  demons  divided  into 
prelacies  and  demonarchies.  Pride  was  the  cause  of 
Lucifer's  fall.  The  reg:ion  where  the  devil  was 
cast  down  is  the  tenebrous  air,  where,  in  pits  of 
darkness,  he  and  his  followers  are  reserved  till  the 
day  of  filnal  judgment,  and  not  till  then  will  their 
full  degree  of  torment  be  meted  out  to  them  (Peter 
Lombard,  ii.  6).  Albertus  Magnus,  of  all  the 
schoolmen,  speaks  with  most  precision  upon  the 
locality.  There  are  three  zones  or  interstices  in 
the  air,  and  it  is  the  middle  sone  which  is  inhabited 
by  the  devil  and  his  angels  ("  Sentences,"  II.  vi. 
5,  ed.  Borgnet,  xxvii.  152).  There  the  tempests 
are  bred  and  the  hail  and  the  snow  are  generated. 
There  the  demons  start  the  clouds  on  fell  missions 
and  send  forth  the  thunders  and  other  natural 
terrors  to  frighten  and  hurt  men.  For  until  the 
time  of  their  final  torment  they  have  power  to 
trouble  men  (Thomas  Aquinas,  Summa,  I.  Ixiv.  4; 
Peter  Lombard,  II.  vii.  6).  As  for  their  mental 
power,  the  devil  and  his  angels  are  more  acute 
than  men,  and  their  long  experience  enables  them 
to  foretell  the  future.  Albertus  Magnus  says  they 
are  far  more  shrewd  in  watching  the  stars  and  pre- 
dicting future  events  than  are  the  astronomers. 
The  miracles  they  perform  are  for  the  most  part 
legerdemain  and  juggleries  by  which  they  deceive 
and  outwit.  •  But,  as  Thomas  Aquinas  asserts 
{Summa,  I.  cxiv.  4),  quoting  Augustine,  they  have 
also  supernatural  power  and  cause  sickness  and 
death,  blast  the  crops,  produce  all  sorts  of  freaks 
upon  the  progeny  of  men,  and  make  women  sterile. 
About  1250  the  witchcraft  craze  began  to  sweep 
through  Europe.  From  the  time  when  Gregory 
IX.  issued  his  bull  on  the  subject  in  1233  the  pun- 
ishment for  such  Satanic  influence  and  heresy  went 
side  by  side,  for  heresy  also  was  considered  the 
work  of  the  devil  (see  Inquisition).  Thomas 
Aquinas  gave  full  doctrinal  statement  to  the  popu- 
lar view,  declaring  that  all  practisers  of  witchcraft 
and  sorcery  were  in  league  with  the  devil,  and  ad- 
vocated the  penalty  of  death.  From  that  time 
pope  after  pope  issued  orders  not  to  spare  those 
who  were  under  the  direct  agency  of  the  devil  (see 

WrrCHCRAFT). 

The  popular  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Csesarius 
of  Heisterbach  {Dialogus),  Thomas  Cantimpra- 
tensis  {Bonum  universale  de  apibus),  and  Jacobus 
de  Voragine  in  his  "  Golden  Legend,"  are  full  of 
the  most  marvelous  postures  and  feats  of  the  evil 
one  and  his  minions.  They* saw  them  with  their 
eyes.  Usually  they  were  clad  in  black.  Some- 
times they  had  the  face  of  a  woman  and  were 

veiled.    The  devil   himself  appeared 

3.  Popular  in  meetings  of  witches  and  other  per- 

Notions.    sons  as  a  great  black  tom-cat  but  also 

as  a  dog,  a  Moor,  and  in  other  shapes. 
Sometimes  the  demons  had  the  forms  of  children 
with  faces  of  iron.  In  convents  the  devil  was  a 
frequent  visitor.  Sometimes  poor  monks  lost  their 
minds  through  the  devil's  influence.  Sometimes 
he  imparted  to  them  an  unusual  gift  of  preaching. 
The  most  gruesome  of  all  these  tales  are  those 


which  represent  the  devil  as  tormenting  the  nak«d 
soul  after  death  and  driving  his  sharp  claws  into 
it  (Csesarius  of  Heisterbach,  i.  32,  v.  10,  etc.\ 
These  stories  were  fully  believed,  and  all  these  ex- 
periences are  in  accord  with  the  principles  laii 
down  by  the  great  schoolmen,  Peter  Lombard, 
Bonaventura,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Albertiii 
Magnus.  The  schoolmen,  following  Anselin  (wh> 
wrote  a  special  treatise,  De  casu  diaboli)  in  his  Cur 
deu8  homOf  set  aside  the  old  view  that  Christ's 
death  and  sufferings  were  a  payment  made  to 
Satan.  Thomas  Aquinas  {Summa,  III.  xl\'iii.  3) 
says,  "Christ  offered  his  blood,  which  is  the  price 
of  our  redemption,  not  to  the  devil,  but  to  God." 

The  Reformation  brought  only  partial  relief 
from  these  harrowing  medieval  notions.  In  Prot- 
estant lands  persecution  went  on  for  those  who 
were  supposed  to  be  under  the  special  influence  of 
Satan.  Luther  threw  his  inkstand  at  the  dexil, 
and  on  one  occasion  when  he  was  awakened  by  a 
noise  from  sleep  he  finally  composed  himself  by 
saying,  **  1  heard  one  walking  on  tltt 

4.  Luther,  floor  above  my  head,  but,  as  I  knew 
it  to  be  only  the  devil,  I  went  quietly 
to  sleep."  He  said,  **  Let  a  Christian  know  this, 
that  he  is  sitting  in  the  midst  of  devils,  and  that 
the  devil  is  closer  to  him  than  his  coat  or  shirt  or 
even  his  very  skin."  Nevertheless,  in  the  domain 
of  theology  Luther  made  an  advance  when  he  de- 
nied to  the  devil  all  right  to  us  and  power  over  us 
C'  Recht  und  Macht ").  Christ's  death  was  not  a 
payment  to  him,  but  to  the  wrath  of  God  (cf.  R. 
Seeberg,  Lehrbuck  der  Dagmengeachtchte,  u.,  Leip- 
sic,  1898,  p.  252). 

In  more  modem  times  there  have  been  theo- 
logians who  have  denied  wholly  the  personality  <rf 
the  devil;  for  example,  the  German   rationalists, 
beginning    with    the    eighteenth    century.     Even 
Schleiermacher  combated  the  view  of  a  personal 
Satan  (see  above,  II.,  §  2).     Later  theologians  Uke 
Martensen,  Nitzsch,  Twesten,  Julius  Midler,  Dor- 
ner,   and  others  hold   firmly  to  his   personality. 
Martensen  says  he  was  "Christ's  younger  brother, 
and  became  God's  adversary  because  he  was  not 
content  to  be  second,  but  wanted  to  be  first;  be- 
cause he  was  unwilling  to  bear  the  light  of  another, 
and  wanted  to  be  the  light  itself."    Jakob  Bdhme 
says:  ''  Lucifer  envied  the  Son  his  glory;   his  own 
beauty  deceived  him,  and  he  wanted  to  place  him- 
self on  the  throne  of  the  Son."    An  attempt  has 
even  been  made  to  fix  the  date  of  his  apKistasy. 
Lange  thought  it  occurred  on  one  of  the  days  of 
the  creative  week;  while  Kurtz  and  others  held 
that  the  formless  and  void  chaos  of  the  worid  (Gen. 
i.  2)  was  the  result  of  Satan's  fall.    Whatever  may 
be  said  of  these  theories,  evangelical 
5.  Modem  theologians  agree  in  three  points:  (1) 
Views.      The  possibility  of  Satan's  apostasy  is 
as  conceivable  as  the  fall  of  man;  (2) 
The  inveterate  hostility  of  Satan  to  the  kingdom 
of  Christ  makes  the  denial  of  eternal  punishment  on 
the  ground  of  the  divine  compassion  untenable; 
(3)  In  proportion  as  the  Christian  consciousness  of 
sin  is  deep  does  the  belief  in  the  personal  agency  of 
Satan  prevail.     In  the  New  Testament  the  apos- 
tles feel  that  they  are  participants  in  the  struggle 


417 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DevU 
DoTotion 


between  the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  the  kingdom 

of  Satan,  and  this  conviction  draws  forth  the  vivid 

exhortations  to  fight  manfully  and  with  the  armor 

of  God,  and  to  resist  by  prayer  and  vigilance.     It 

xxiay  be  said  with  Domer  that  the  conviction  of  a 

great  struggle  going  on  between  the  two  kingdoms 

of  darkness  and  light,  a  struggle  in  which  we  all 

may  take  part,  is  adapted  to  produce  an  earnest 

conception  of  evil,  and  develop  watchfulness  and 

tension  of  the  moral  energies.  D.  S.  Schaff. 

Biblxoorapht:  Lista  of  literature  (very  partial)  are  found 

in  M.  Osbom,  Die  TeufeUlUeraiur  dea  xvi.  JahrhunderU, 

Berlin,  1893;  Btbliotheca  diabolica:  A   SeUetion  of  Booka 

rtUUing  to  ths  DevU,  New  York,  1874. 

On  Biblical  ideas  consult  the  works  on  Biblical  the- 
ology, particularly:  H.  Schults.  O.  T.  Theology,  London, 
1892;  A.  B.  Davidson.  Thoologv  of  O.  T.,  pp.  300-355, 
Edinburgh,  1904;  W.  Beysohlag.  N.  T.  TKoolooy,  Edin- 
burgh. 1896;  DB.  iv.  407-412;  EB,  iv.  429&-4300;  JS, 
».  68-71. 

On  the  Christian  conception  the  works  on  dogmatics, 
eopeoialiy  those  by  J.  P.  Lange.  ii.  669  sqq..  Heidelberg. 
1852;  H.  L.  Martensen,  pp.  213-231,  Copenhagen,  1850, 
Eng.  transl..  Edinbuigh,  1865;  J.  J.  van  Oostersee,  ii. 
413-422.  Utrecht.  1872.  Eng.  transl..  New  York.  1874; 
J.  A.  Dorner,  ii.  188-217.  Berlin.  1881.  Eng.  transl.. 
Edinbuigh,  1880-82.  Also  Hamaclc.  Dogma,  passim,  con- 
sult Index.  Special  treatment  in:  R.  Gilpin,  Demonologia 
•aero,  London,  1877;  A.  D.  White.  Warfare  of  Science 
and  Religion,  2  vols..  New  York.  1898;  J.  Hansen.  Zau' 
berglaube,  Inquieition  und  Hexenproeeee  im  MiUdaUer, 
Munich.  1900;  idem,  QtuiUBn  und  Unterauchungen  dee 
Hexenwahne  und  Hexenverfolgung,  Leipsic.  1901;  Graf 
von  Hoensbroech.  Dae  Papettum  in  eeiner  kuUureUen 
Wirkeamkeii,  i.  207-380.  ib.  1901. 

On  the  general  subject:  G.  RoskoflF.  Oeediiehte  dee 
TeufeU,  L  175-186.  Leipsic.  1869;  M.  D.  Conway,  De- 
monology  and  Devil-lore,  London.  1871;  F.  T.  Hall.  Pedi- 
gree of  the  Devil,  ib.  1883;  E.  H.  Jewett.  Diabolotogy'' 
The  Pereon  and  Kingdom  of  Satan,  New  York.  1890;  P. 
Cams,  Hiet  of  ths  Devil,  Chicago.  1900  (disappointing); 
Faivre.  La  PereonaliU  du  StUan,  Montauban,  1900;  and 
the  works  cited  under  Deicon;  and  DciiONiAC. 

DEVOLUTION,  LAW  OF :  A  law  which  provides 
for  the  filling  of  ecclesiastical  offices  in  an  extraor- 
dinaxy  manner  when  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  fill 
a  vacancy  fail  illegally  to  observe  the  proper  time 
or  violate  the  canonical  rules.  The  earlier  canon 
law  knows  of  no  devolution  right.  It  arose  with 
the  development  of  a  time  limit  for  the  filling  of 
vacancies  in  ecclesiastical  offices.  At  the  Lateran 
council  held  under  Alexander  III.  in  1179  (capitula 
3,  8)  it  was  enacted  that  all  lower  livings  shall  be 
filled  within  six  months  from  the  time  they  be- 
came vacant,  and  in  case  either  the  bishop  or 
chapter  are  negligent,  the  one  must  act  for  the 
other;  in  case  both  are  negligent,  the  metropoli- 
tan must  fill  the  vacancy.  Innocent  III.  extended 
this  law  at  the  Lateran  Council  of  1215,  and  in  the 
collections  of  decretals  and  by  doctrine  and  prac- 
tise the  institution  was  further  developed.  The 
present  law  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  this: 
tn  case  the  authority  having  the  right  of  collation 
illegally  fails  to  fill  a  vacancy  within  the  prescribed 
time,  or  culpably  transfers  the  office  to  an  un- 
worthy person,  or  violates  the  rules  to  be  observed 
on  such  occasions,  the  next  ecclesiastical  superior 
has  the  collation  ipso  jure ,  he  can  resign  his  privi- 
lege and  allow  an  appointment  by  another  in  due 
order;  but  in  case  he  makes  use  of  his  right,  the 
same  rules  apply  to  him  as  to  the  original  collator, 
the  difference  being  only  in  the  person  making  the 
appointment.  E.  Sehlino. 

III.— 27 


DEVOTION:  The  response  of  man  to  God's 
revelation  of  himself.  The  impression  of  his  real- 
ity is  so  strong  upon  us  that  we  gaze  in  awestruck 
silence  upon  his  incomparable  majesty;  and  de- 
votion is  based  on  this  conviction.  Its  object,  the 
living  and  eternal  God,  is  beyond  and  above  this 
world;  and  hence  this  spirit  has  a  tendency  to 
shun  the  world,  which  may  easily  be  exaggerated. 
We  can  not  escape  from  the  world,  which  is  the 
product  of  our  own  hving  consciousness.  When 
man  tries,  as  in  what  is  called  mysticism,  to  grasp 
the  idea  of  God  without  relation  to  this  world, 
he  attempts  the  impossible.  This  transcendental 
God  can  only  be  found  of  men  when  he  draws  near 
to  them  by  revealing  himself  to  them;  and  their 
devotion  to  him  can  only  be  their  willingness  to 
listen  when  he  speaks.  God  reveals  himself  in  the 
world  about  us,  to  each  man  in  the  mode  of  his 
own  existence,  and  thus  to  each  in  a  different  way. 
Knowledge  of  God  is  a  personal  conviction  to  be 
gained  by  each  soul  for  itself.  This  will  not  re- 
move us  from  the  world,  or  free  us  from  the  claims 
of  environment.  We  are  rather  to  find  in  the 
latter  the  source  of  the  strength  which  is  to  enable 
us  to  realize  the  invisible  and  prepare  us  for  the 
life  beyond. 

It  has  been  said,  as  a  reproach  against  religion, 
that  it  is  much  easier  to  be  "  devout "  than  to  live 
a  moral  life.  But  this  reproach  is  based  upon  a 
false  conception  of  devotion,  which  is  wholly  dif- 
ferent from  mere  idle  dreaming  or  emotional  en- 
thusiasm. Devotion,  while  it  brings  with  it  the 
most  entrancing  delight,  is  a  call  to  the  greatest 
exertion  of  spiritual  energy.  The  way  to  it  is 
through  the  conscience.  A  man  must  know  what 
he  is  to  do  and  be.  This  condition  once  fulfilled, 
all  about  him  perceive  a  power  from  above  in  him. 
He  is  conscious  himself  of  the  force  of  the  right. 
His  moments  of  realization  testify  for  him  to  the 
presence  of  an  invisible  agent,  and  lead  his  thoughts 
to  God. 

To  abide  in  the  God  who  has  thus  revealed  him- 
self to  us,  in  what  for  us  are  such  undeniable  facts, 
is  devotion.  The  words  in  which  others  who 
stand  in  his  presence  tell  of  what  they  have  real- 
ized are  valuable  means  to  it;  they  may  kindle 
the  fire — ^but  they  are  not  the  flame  itself.  And 
so  likewise  the  purpose  of  devotion  is  not  fulfilled 
until  it  is  tramdated  into  activity.  It  means  the 
decision  of  the  will  in  favor  of  good:  and  this 
brings  light  and  order  into  man's  ideas  of  his  actual 
existence,  of  the  significance  of  his  individual 
position  in  the  world.  The  realization  of  duty 
forces  action.  Where  devotion  does  not  issue 
in  the  activity  proper  to  one's  vocation  the  emo- 
tions felt  fail  of  their  effect.  This  is  the  case  with 
some  forms  of  Roman  Catholic  piety,  in  which  de- 
votion grows  not  out  of  a  revelation  made  to  the 
individual,  but  of  the  contemplation  of  traditional 
conceptions;  in  which  intercourse  with  one's  fel- 
lows and  labor  in  the  world  are  considered  an  in- 
terruption of  intercourse  with  God.  The  Church 
is  bound  to  proclaim  that  for  the  individual  the 
divine  revelation  consists  of  the  facts  which  he 
himself  recognizes  as  indubitable  parts  of  his  own 
existence ,  such  revelation  does    not  necessarily 


# 

Be  Wette 
Dickinaon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


418 


come  to  him  in  the  first  place  as  facts  formally 
orthodox.  If  it  is  given  to  us  to  see  as  such  facts 
the  person  and  office  of  Je^us  Christ;  then  and 
then  only  may  we  become  Christians  and  find  in 
the  devotion  of  Christians  the  beginning  of  a  life 
of  blessedness.  (W.  Herrmann.) 

DE  WETTE.  See  Wette,  Wilhelm  Martin 
Leberecht  de. 

DE  WITT,  JOHN:  The  name  of  two  American 
clergymen.  1.  Reformed  (Dutch);  b.  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  Nov.  29,  1821;  d.  at  Irvington,  N.  Y.,  Oct. 
19,  1906.  He  was  educated  at  Rutgers  College 
(B.A.,  1838)  and  the  New  Brunswick  Theological 
Seminary,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1842. 
He  was  then  pastor  successively  at  Ridgeway,  Mich. 
(1842-44),  Ghent,  N.  Y.  (1844-49),  Canajoharie, 
N.  Y.  (1849-60),  and  Millstone,  N.  J.  (1850-63). 
From  1863  to  1884  he  was  professor  of  Oriental  lit- 
erature at  Rutgers  College,  and  from  the  latter  year 
until  his  retirement  in  1892  was  professor  of  Hellen- 
istic Greek  and  New  Testament  exegesis  in  the  same 
institution.  He  was  one  of  the  American  Old  Testa- 
ment Revision  Company  from  its  foundation,  and 
wrote  The  Sure  Foundation,  and  how  to  build  on  it 
(New  York,  1848)  and  The  Praise  Songs  of  Israel,  a 
new  Rendering  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  (1884). 

2.  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Oct.  10, 
1842.  He  studied  at  Princeton  (B.A.,  1861),  studied 
law  for  a  year,  and  then  theology  at  Princeton  and 
Union  seminaries,  graduating  in  1865.  He  held  pas- 
torates at  Irvington-on-Hudson,  N.  Y.  (1865-69), 
Central  Congregational  Church,  Boston  (1869-76), 
and  Tenth  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia  (1876- 
1882);  was  professor  of  church  history  in  Lane  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Cincinnati,  O.  (1882-88);  professor 
of  Christian  apologetics  at  McCormick  Theological 
Seminary,  Chicago  (1888-92),  and  since  1892  has 
been  professor  of  church  history  in  Princeton  The- 
ological Seminary.  In  theology  he  adheres  to  the 
Reformed  confessions.  He  has  written:  Sermons 
on  the  Christian  Life  (New  York,  1885);  What  is 
Inspiration  f  (1893);  and  History  of  Princeton 
University  (in  Princeton  Sesquicentennial  Volume, 
1896). 

DEXTER,  HENRY  MARTYN:  American  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Plympton,  Mass.,  Aug.  13, 
1821;  d.  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  Nov.  13,  1890. 
He  was  of  both  Pilgrim  and  Puritan  descent.  He 
entered  Brown  University  in  1836,  but  went  to 
Yale  in  1838,  and  was  graduated  there  in  1840. 
After  teaching  a  year  in  Rochester,  Mass.,  he  was 
graduated  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1844.  He  was  ordained  first  pastor  of  the  Frank- 
lin St.  Congregational  Church,  Manchester,  N.  H., 
Nov.  6,  1844,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Pine  St.  Church 
(now  Berkeley  Temple),  Boston,  1849-67.  He 
joined  the  staff  of  the  Congregationalist  in  1851, 
and  was  editor-in-chief,  excepting  during  1866, 
from  1856  until  his  death.  In  1854  he  drew  up 
the  memorable  antislavery  Nebraska  Protest  to 
Congress  against  the  Missouri  Compromise.  In 
1858  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Quarterly,  In  1880  he  was  moderator  of  the 
National  Congregational  Council  at  Oberlin  and, 
later,  one  of  its  Creed  Commission.     In  1884,  with 


Dr.  G.  E.  Day,  he  represented  the  American  Ho:i^ 
Missionaxy  Society  to  the  Independent  ChurrL-j 
of  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  in  18S9  he  was  j:- 
vited  to  preach  the  opening  sermon  before  the  fir^: 
International  Congregational  Council,  at  Loiti>i 
in  1890,  but  died  before  the  appointed  date  arrival 

Dr.  Dexter  wrote  many  articles  and  voliuc« 
and  was  an  expert  on  Congregationalism  azti 
American  Colonial  history.  His  chief  books  are: 
Congregationalism  :  What  it  is.  Whence  it  is.  Ho.: 
it  Works,  Why  it  is  better  than  any  other  form  'i 
Church  Government,  and  its  Consequent  Dtma^^i 
(Boston,  1865);  and  The  Congregationalism  of  the 
Last  Three  Hundred  Years  as  Seen  in  its  Liieraiu't 
(New  York,  1880),  the  latter  embodying  his  Soutb- 
worth  Lectures  at  Andover  in  1877  and  contai-j- 
ing  a  valuable  bibliography  of  7,200  titles.  He 
traveled  extensively  and  made  special  studi--: 
abroad  of  the  Pilgrim  movement.  His  unfinishel 
manuscript  on  this  subject  was  edited  and  rewrii- 
ten  by  his  son  Morton  Dexter,  and  published  as 
The  England  and  Holland  of  the  Pilgrims  (BosUsl 
1905).  Morton  Dexteh. 

Biblioorapht:  A  sketch  of  Dr.  Dexter's  life  is  in  the  Pr*- 

ceedinffs  of  the  Maasaohusette  Historical  Society  for  1^1. 

consult  also  W.  Walker.  Bitt.  of  CongnotUional  Chxa-dm, 

pp.  386-388,  New  York,  1894. 

DEXTER,  MORTON:  Congregationalist;  b.  at 
Manchester,  N.  H.,  July  12,  1846.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  1867  and  Andover  TheologicJ 
Seminary  in  1870.  He  was  pastor  of  Union  Con- 
gregational Church,  Taunton,  Mass.,  from  1873  ;o 
1878,  and  was  then  associate  editor  of  the  Cong-" 
gationalist,  Boston,  until  1901.  He  was  secretarj 
and  treasurer  of  the  committee  of  the  Congrega- 
tional National  Council  which  erected  and  devii- 
cated  the  memorial  tablet  to  John  Robinson  oc 
St.  Peter's  Cathedral,  Leyden,  Holland,  in  18M!. 
and  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  International 
Congregational  Council  held  at  London  in  t^^ 
same  year,  and  to  the  second  at  Boston  eight  years 
later.  In  theology  he  may  be  described  as  a  Broa>i- 
church  evangelical.  He  has  written  The  Story  oj 
the  Pilgrims  (Boston,  1894)  and  The  England  and 
Holland  of  the  Pilgrims  (1905). 

DIACOmCOn,  dai'lordl"]a-c©n'i-cen:  A  Greek 
word  which  denotes  the  semicircular  extension  on 
the  southern  side  of  the  bima  in  the  Greek  churches, 
corresponding  to  one  on  the  north  side  which  is 
known  as  prothesis.  It  is  the  place  occupied  by 
the  deacons,  and  is  used  also  for  the  custody  of 
various  things  used  in  divine  service.  This  use 
of  the  term  was  definitely  established  at  least  as 
early  as  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  word  is 
abo  applied  to  a  selection  from  the  great  Eucholo- 
gion  of  the  Greek  Church  which  contains  all  the 
liturgical  functions  of  deacons  (officially  called 
Hierodiafymikon),  and  to  certain  prayers  in  the 
Greek  liturgy  recited  by  the  deacon. 

(Phiupp  Meter.) 

DIAL06US  DE  RECTA  IN  DEUM  FIDE:  A 
dialogue  directed  against  the  errors  of  the  Mar- 
cionites,  Bardesanites,  and  Valentinians.  From 
the  use  of  the  name  Adamantius  for  the  speaker 
who  maintains  the  orthodox  position,  it  has  passed 
under  his  name — a  proof  that  the  real  author  was 


419 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BS  Wette 
Dioklnaon 


unknown.  The  fact  that  Origen  bore  this  name 
led  Basil  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  to  attribute  the 
dialogue  to  him,  and  this  view  was  wide-spread  in 
the  Middle  Ages;  but  on  both  internal  and  ex- 
ternal evidence  it  is  untenable.  The  work  was 
composed  (according  to  i.  21)  in  a  time  of  perse- 
cution; but  the  text  was  altered  later  (probably 
between  330  and  337)  to  suit  changed  circum- 
stances. In  the  first  of  the  five  parts  the  discus- 
sion turns  on  the  theory  proposed  by  the  Mar- 
cionite  Megethius  of  three  principles — the  good 
God,  the  demiurge,  and  the  evil  principle.  Mege- 
thius attempts  in  a  large  number  of  antitheses  to 
show  a  distinction  between  the  Old  Testament 
Creator  and  the  good  God  of  the  New.  These  the 
author  probably  took  from  an  anti-Marcionite 
treatise,  probably  that  used  by  Ireno^s  and  Ter- 
tuUian  and  identified  with  good  reason  with  a  lost 
treatise  of  Theophilus  of  Antioch.  For  the  sec- 
ond dialogue,  in  which  the  Marcionite  Marcus  de- 
velops his  extreme  theory  of  a  good  God  and  an 
evil  demiurge,  the  author  had  probably  looked 
into  Marcion's  New  Testament.  In  the  third 
part,  the  Bardesanite  Maximus  brings  up  the 
questions  of  the  origin  of  evil,  the  incarnation  of 
the  Word,  and  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  For 
the  first  of  these,  which  extends  through  the  third 
and  fourth  dialogues,  considerable  parts  are  taken 
literally  from  the  dialogue  of  Methodius  of  Olym- 
pus (q.v.)  on  the  freedom  of  the  will,  unless  both 
Methodius  and  this  author  borrowed  alike  from  a 
treatise  on  matter  purporting  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  Maximus.  The  fifth  dialogue  deals  with 
the  resurrection,  and  here  again  borrows  from  the 
Aglaophon  of  Methodius.  The  work  was  probably 
written  in  Syria,  most  likely  at  Antioch.  It  dis- 
plays no  great  literary  art. 

(Erwin  Preuschen.) 

Biblioobapht:  The  editio  prinoeps,  by  J.  R.  Wetstein, 
Basel,  1674,  ia  also  in  G.  E.  LommatBsch,  Orioenit  .  .  . 
Opem,  xn.  254  aqq.,  Berlin.  1844,  and  MPO,  x.  The 
latest  ed.  is  by  Van  de  S.  Bakhuyaen,  Berlin,  1001.  The 
Lat.  transl.  by  Rufinus  is  edited  by  C.  P.  Gaspari,  Kir- 
ehenhi»tori8dte  Anecdota^  pp.  1  sqq.,  cf.  pp.  iii.-v.,  Chris- 
tiania.  1883.  Consult:  T.  Zahn,  in  ZKQ,  ix  (1888).  pp. 
193-239;  idem,  G^tchichU  det  neuUstamentlidten  Kanons, 
II.  ii.  409-426.  Leipdc,  1891;  KrOger,  HUtory,  PP.  245- 
247;  DCB,  i.  39-41. 

DIASPORA  (Gk.  ''a  scattering,  dispersion  "): 
A  term  used  in  the  New  Testament  and  other  lit- 
erature about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era 
to  denote  the  Jews  living  outside  of  Palestine  after 
the  Captivity  (see  Israel);  also  applied  to  the 
Christians  as  the  spiritual  Israel  among  those  of 
other  faiths  (Jas.  i.  1;  I  Pet.  i.  1;  cf.  Schtirer,  Ge- 
schichte,  Eng.  transl.,  II.  ii.  31).  The  Moravians 
used  the  word  to  signify  their  friends  living  apart 
from  them  and  in  spiritual  union  with  them,  but 
not  officially  and  constitutionally  belonging  to 
them.  In  modem  German  usage  the  term  sig- 
nifies any  people  living  scattere<i  among  those  of 
another  faith,  and  more  particularly  a  Protestant 
minority  in  a  Roman  Catholic  region. 

Special  conferences  have  been  instituted  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  the  Diaspora  pastor;  e.g., 
the  Conference  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  founded  in 
1858;  the  Conference  of  Posen,  1860;  that  of  the 


Middle  Rhine,  1868;  of  Westphalia,  1871;  and  of 
Upper  Swabia,  1882.  See  Gotteskabten,  Lu- 
theribcher;  and  Gustav-Adglf-Verein. 

(Theodor  SchXfbr.) 

DIATESSARON,  doi"[or  di'^Ja-tes'a-ren.  See 
Tatian;  and  Harmony  of  the  Gobpei^. 

DIAZ,  JUAN.     See  Spain,  The  Reformation  in. 

DIB£LIUS,di-b6'li-us,  FRANZ  WILHELM:  Gcr^ 
man  Lutheran;  b.  at  Prenzlau  (58  m.  n.e.  of  Ber- 
lin) Jan.  6,  1847.  He  studied  in  Berlin,  was  as- 
sistant pastor  at  the  Berlin  cathedral  and  inspector 
of  the  institute  for  the  training  of  canons  1871-74, 
and  pastor  of  the  Annenkirche,  Dresden,  1874-84. 
Since  1884  he  has  been  city  superintendent  and 
first  pastor  of  the  Kreuzkirche  in  Dresden,  and  is 
also  a  councilor  of  the  high  consistory.  His  wri- 
tings include:  Gottfried  Arnold  (Berlin,  1873);  Die 
Einfuhrung  der  Reformation  in  Dresden  (Dresden, 
1889);  Die  Kreuzkirche  in  Dresden  (1900);  and 
Vom  keiligen  Kreuz  (1903).  He  has  edited  Beiirdge 
zur  sdchsischen  Kirchengeschichte  since  1882. 

DICK,  THOMAS:  Scotch  Secession  Church;  b. 
at  Dundee  Nov.  24,  1774;  d.  at  Broughty  Ferry 
(5  m.  e.  of  Dundee)  July  29,  1857.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  and  preached  as  a  probationer  for  two 
years  (1803-05);  taught  school  for  twenty  years 
at  Methven  and  Perth,  and  after  1827  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  literature.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  scientific,  philosophical,  and  religious  works  in 
popular  style,  which  had  a  large  sale.  Perhaps 
the  best  known  were:  The  Christian  Philosopher ,  or 
the  Connection  of  Science  and  Philosophy  with  Re- 
ligion (London,  1823);  The  Philosophy  of  a  Future 
State  (1828);  Celestial  Scenery^  or  the  Wonders  oj 
the  Heavens  Displayed  (1838);  The  Sidereal  Heavens 
(1840);  The  Solar  System  (1840);  and  The  Practical 
Astronomer  (1846). 

DICKEY,  SAMUEL:  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Ox- 
ford, Pa.,  Nov.  27,  1872.  He  studied  at  Prince- 
ton (B.A.,  1894),  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
(1897),  and  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Marburg, 
Erlangen  (1897-99),  Athens  (1901),  and  Jena 
(1904).  He  was  professor  of  classical  and  Hel- 
lenistic Greek  at  Lincoln  University,  Pa.,  1899- 
1903.  Since  1903  he  has  been  adjunct  professor 
of  New  Testament  literature  and  exegesis  at  Mc- 
Cormick  Theological  Seminary,  Chicago. 

DICKINSON,  JONATHAN:  Presbjrterian;  b.  at 
Hatfield,  Mass.,  Apr.  22,  1688;  d.  at  Elizabeth, 
N.  J.,  Oct.  7,  1747.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1700,  and  in  1709  settled  at  Elizabeth  (then 
called  Elizabethtown).  He  covered  an  extensive 
field  as  preacher,  serving  regularly  six  or  seven 
congregations.  He  was  a  man  of  general  culture 
and  read  and  practised  medicine,  in  addition  to 
his  pastoral  work.  As  a  scholar  and  wise  leader 
he  was  not  excelled  in  the  American  Presbyterian 
Church  in  his  time,  and  his  name  stands  out  in 
the  early  Presbyterian  history  of  the  middle  colo- 
nies much  as  that  of  Jonathan  Edwards  does  in 
New  England.  A  strong  Calvinist,  be  opposed  a 
tigid  subscription  to  the  Westminster  standards  as 
a  test  of  ordination.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
adoption  of  the  so-called  Adopting  Act  of  1729 


IMokiBMm 
IHdAoha 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


420 


paaaed  by  the  Synod  of  Phfladelphia.  It  declined 
to  make  a  literal  subscription  to  the  Westminster 
standards  a  condition  of  ordination,  as  the  Pres- 
bytery of  New  Castle  had  asked  should  be  done, 
and  demanded  that  the  candidate  accept  and  ap- 
prove of  them  "  as  being  in  all  essential  and  neces- 
sary articles  good  forms  of  sound  words  and  sys- 
tems of  Christian  doctrine.'*  In  case  he  had  any 
scruples  he  had  a  right  to  state  them,  and  the  synod 
or  presbytery  was  to  judge  whether  they  concerned 
**  articles  not  essential  and  necessary  in  doctrine, 
worship,  and  government."  In  the  course  of  the 
discussion,  Dickinson  wrote  in  a  letter  that  he  re- 
garded it  "  as  the  most  glorious  contradiction  to 
subscribe  chap.  xx.  of  the  Confession  which  caUs 
'  God  alone  the  Lord  of  Conscience '  and  then 
impose  the  rest  of  the  chapters."  He  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  measures  which  led  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  synod  of  New  York  (1745),  the 
second  synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Chureh  in  the 
United  States.  David  Brainerd  and  Indian  misskms 
found  in  him  a  warm  friend.  He  also  took  a  deep 
interest  in  education,  and  was  the  most  promi- 
nent among  the  founders  of  the  College  of  New  Jer^ 
sey  (Princeton  University).  Under  his  counsel  a 
charter  was  received  for  the  institution  in  Oct., 
1746.  His  election  as  the  first  president  was  an- 
nounced Apr.  27,  1747,  and  in  Ifay  the  college  was 
opened  in  his  house.  He  died  the  following  au- 
timm.  He  took  the  side  of  the  Tennents  and  Ed- 
wards in  favoring  the  evangelistic  movement  led 
by  WhitefiekL 

Mr.  Dickinson's  defense  of  the  Five  Points  of 
Calvinism  in  his  True  Scripture  Doctrine  concern- 
ing some  Important  Pointa  of  Christian  Faith,  par- 
ticuiarly  Eternal  Election,  Original  Sin,  Orace  in 
Conversion,  Justification  by  Faith,  and  the  Saints' 
Preservation,  represented  and  applied  in  five  die- 
courses  (Philadelphia,  1741;  Elizabethtown,  1793) 
is  one  of  the  soundest  expositions  of  Calvinism 
which  America  has  produced.  His  other  works 
are  Four  Sermons  on  the  Reasonableness  of  Chris- 
tianity (Boston,  1732);  A  Display  of  Ood's  Special 
Grace  (1742);  Familiar  Letters  upon  Subjects  in 
Religion  (1745);  Vindication  of  God*a  Saving  Free 
Orace  (1748).  A  complete  edition  of  his  Sermons 
and  Tracts  appeared  at  Edinburgh,  1793. 

D.  S.  SCHAFF. 

Bibuoobapht:  W.  B.  Sprague,  AnnaU  of  the  Amsriean 
Pulpit,  iii.  14-18,  New  York,  1868;  the  historiee  of  the 
Praebyterian  Chureh  by  C.  Hodge.  Pbilmdelphia.  1830- 
1840;  E.  H.  Gillett,  ib.  1873;  J.  H.  Patton.  ib.  1887;  R.  E. 
Thompeonu  ib.  1806.  Abo  J.  Madean.  HiiL  of  «^  Cot- 
leffe  of  New  Jerwey,  Philadelphia,  1877;  John  De  Witt,  in 
iiemcrial  Book  of  the  SetquieerUemnal  CtUbratUm  of  At 
Founding  of  the  CoUsoe  of  New  Jereey'pp,  348-362,  New 
York.  1808. 

DICKSON  (DICK),  DAVID:  Scotch  commen- 
tator; b.  in  Glasgow  about  1583;  d.  1663.  He 
studied  at  Glasgow  and  taught  philosophy  there 
till  1618,  when  he  was  ordained  minister  of  Irvine, 
Ayrshire;  was  deprived  in  1622  for  testifying 
against  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth,  but  was  per- 
mitted to  return  the  next  year;  became  professor 
of  divinity  at  Glasgow  1640,  in  Edinburgh  1650; 
was  ejected  in  1662  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath 
of  supremacy.    He  was  moderator  of  the  General 


Assembly  at  Edinbuigh  in  1639.  His  conmieih 
taries  include  Explications  upon  the  Psalms  3 
vols.,  London,  1653-55),  an  Exposition  of  Matthev 
(1651),  an  Explanation  of  H^rews  (Aberdeen, 
1635),  and  an  Exposition  of  all  the  epistles  (Latin, 
Glasgow,  1645;  English,  London,  1659).  He  also 
published  Therapeutica  sacra,  seu  de  curandis  casi- 
hue  eonsdentuB  circa  regenerationem  per  fadeniir, 
divinorum  applicationem  (London,  1656;  Eng. 
transl.,  1695)  and  True  Christian  Lave  (Edinbuifrh, 
1655),  a  collection  of  short  poems  "  to  be  sung  with 
any  of  the  common  tunes  of  the  Psalms,"  which 
includes  the  familiar  O  mother  dear,  Jerusalem. 

Bibuookapht:  Hia  life  by  R.  Wodrow  waa  prefixed  to 
Truth*9  Victory  over  Error,  Glaegow,  1752,  and  was  re- 
printed by  the  Wodrow  Society  in  Seieet  Bioffrapkisa, 
ToL  iL.  E<^burEh,  1847;  a  Tohime  of  bia  SeLeet  Prae- 
Heal  WriHnoe  also  contains  a  life  by  T.  Thompaon.  Edia- 
buDih.  1845;  DNB,  zv.  41-42;  Julian,  Hymmoioffy,  203. 58a 

DICKSON,  WILUAH  PITRDIE:  CSiurch  of  Scot- 
land; b.  at  Pettinain  (26  m.  s.e.  of  Glasgow) 
Oct.  22,  1823;  d.  at  Glasgow  BCar.  9,  1901.  He 
studied  at  St.  Andrews  (ILA.,  1851),  and  after 
being  minister  of  the  parish  of  Csmeron,  Fife 
(1851-63),  was  professor  of  Biblical  criticism 
(1863-73)  and  of  divinity  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  He  was  convener  of  the  Education 
(Committee  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  from  1874, 
and  in  that  capacity  had  charge  of  the  training 
colleges  in  Edinbui^,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen, 
while  after  1866  he  was  curator  of  the  University 
of  Glasgow  library  and  superintended  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  catalogue.  He  wrote  SL  Paul's  Use 
of  the  Terms  Flesh  and  Spirit  (Baird  lecture  for 
1883;  Gbisgow,  1883)  and  translated  T.  Momm- 
sen's  History  of  Rome  (4  vols.,  London,  1862-66) 
and  six  volumes  of  H.  A.  W.  Meyer's  Commeniary 
on  the  New  Testament  and  revised  the  translation 
often  (Edinbuii^,  1873-80). 

DIDACHE,  doi'dak-t  or  d!dak-«. 
I.  Contenta  and    Arrange-  Tbe    Author    not  aa 

ment.  Ebionite  ((  1). 

II.  Title.  Addreea.  and  Pa^  Was  He  a  Jewish  Chris- 

port,  tianr  (i  2). 

III.  Transmission  and  Integ-     VII.  Time    and     Flaee    of 

rity.  Composition. 

IV.  Language  and  Voeabu-  limits      70-160     ▲.d. 

Unr.  (S  1). 

V.  Souroes.  Not    Befora    130  a^. 

BibUeal  Writings  (MX  (S  2). 

Barnabas  ((  2).  VIII.  History  of  tbe  Doco- 

Hermas      and      Jewish  ment. 

Writings  (§  3).  IX.  The  Witnesses. 

VI.  The   Author's      Stand-  X.  Importanoe     of      tbe 

point.  Work. 

In  a  manuscript  (written  in  1056  by  a  notaiy, 
named  Leon),  discovered  by  Bryennios  (q.v.)  in  the 
Jerusalem  (Convent  at  Constantinople,  from  which  he 
edited  in  1875  the  complete  epistles  of  Clement, 
there  is  found  between  the  epistles  of  Clement  and 
Ignatius  a  work  of  the  sise  of  the  epistle  to  tbe 
Galatians  entitled  Didache  ton  dodeka  Apostolon^ 
which  the  discoverer  published  in  1883,  showing  at 
the  same  time  that  the  work  belongs  to  the  first 
half  of  the  second  century  and  is  identical  with 
the  "  Teaching  of  the  Apostles,"  which  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Eusebius,  Athanasius,  and  other  Fathers 
knew. 

L  Contents  and  Arrangement:   The  woric  is  di- 


421 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dlokinaon 
Didaohe 


vided  into  two,  or  perhaps  three  parts.  The  first 
contaiiiB  precepts  of  Christian  morality,  and  brief 
instructions  for  the  specific  ecclesiastical  acts  which 
gave  Christian  character  to  the  Church  (i -x.);  the 
second,  directions  for  churchly  intercourse  and  life 
(xi.-xv.);  the  closing  chapter  (xvi.)  is  an  exhorta- 
tion to  be  ready  for  the  coming  of  the  Lord.  The 
first  part,  again,  contains,  i.-vi.,  under  the  form  of 
a  description  of  the  "  Two  Ways,"  the  way  of  life 
and  the  way  of  death,  the  laws  of  Christian  moral- 
ity; while  vii.  deals  with  baptism;  viii.  with  fast- 
ing and  daily  prayer;  and  ix.-x,  with  eucharistic 
prayers.  In  regard  to  specific  points:  baptism 
should  be  preceded  by  fasting;  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
given  in  the  words  of  Matthew  with  slight  altera- 
tions and  with  the  doxology,  should  be  said  three 
times  every  day.  The  Lord's  Supper  should  be 
partaken  of  only  by  the  baptized;  and  the  "  proph- 
ets "  were  at  liberty  to  use,  instead  of  the  eucha- 
ristic prayers  given,  such  thanksgiving  as  they 
would.  The  second  part  lays  down  rules  for  the 
treatment  of  the  teachers  of  the  Divine  Word  and 
of  the  peripatetic  brethren,  and  gives  distinguish- 
ing tests  of  their  character  (xi.-xlii.),  and  also  the 
usages  each  congregation  should  observe  (xiv.-xv.). 

n.  Title,  Address,  and  Purport:  The  manuscript 
has  two  titles:  "  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles "  and  "  Teaching  of  the  Lord  through  the 
Twelve  Apostles  to  the  Gentiles."  By  "  the  Gen- 
tiles "  were  meant  the  Christians  who  had  come 
from  heathenism,  just  as  the  epistle  "  to  the  He- 
brews "  was  addressed  to  Christians  who  had  come 
from  Judaism.  The  document,  consequently,  is 
not  addressed  to  catechumens — ^for  it  is  not  adapted 
to  lead  persons  to  Christianity,  but  to  those  al- 
ready Christians,  that  they  might  learn  from  it  how 
to  conduct  their  lives  upon  Gospel  principles,  and 
what  they  were  to  impress  on  the  newly  won 
brethren  [cf.  Schaff's  edition,  pp.  16  sqq.  The  docu- 
ment is  commonly  quoted  and  referred  to  simply 
as  the  "Didache,"  which  means  the  "Teach- 
ing"]. 

m.  Transmission  and  Integrity:  The  present 
text  has  comparatively  few  errors,  yet  the  appear- 
ance of  the  document  in  later  recensions  has  raised 
suspicions  whether  it  is  so  free  from  interpolations 
as  it  seems  to  be.  Suspicions  are  caused  only 
through  derived  works  cited  in  patristic  sources. 

IV.  Language  and  Vocabulary:  The  idiom  is 
Hellenistic,  more  exactly  the  idiom  of  the  Septua- 
gint  of  the  poetical  books  and  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Apocrypha.  There  are  numerous  Hebra- 
isms, but  the  Greek  is  better  than  that  of  Hermas. 
The  style  is  simple,  popular,  and  concise,  while 
being  somewhat  rhythmical  and  liturgical.  The 
document  contains  2,190  words  (about  10,700  let- 
ters), and  552  different  words.  Of  these  504  are 
found  also  in  the  New  Testament;  38  of  the  re- 
maining 48,  in  the  Septuagint,  Barnabas,  or  other 
older  Greek  writers  (cf.^haff,  ut  sup.,  pp.  95-113). 

V.  Sources:  There  is  no  known  primitive  Chris- 
tian writing  which,  with  originality  in  arrangement 
and  form,  so  combines  dependence  upon  older 
writings.  The  author  avows  his  dependence,  for 
he  seeks  merely  to  set  forth  the  teaching  of  the 
Lord  through  the  twelve  apostles,   and  finds  no 


room  for  his  own  ideas.  There  are  eight  express 
quotations:  two  (xiv.  3,  xvi.  7)  are  from  the  Old 
Testament  (Mai.  i.  11,  14;  Zech.  xiv.  5);  five  from 
the  Gospels,  introduced  by  certain  formulas  (viii. 
2,  ix.  5,  xi.  3,  XV.  3,  4),  and  one  (i.  6)  from  some 
unknown  "  Sacred  Scripture."    The  Old  Testament 

is,  moreover,  frequently  drawn  upon 
X.  Biblical  in  the  first  five  chapters,  the  decalogue 
Writings,    and    the   Wisdom   literature    (Prov., 

Eccles.,  Tobit)  being  used.  The  Old 
Testament  alone  is  "  Sacred  Scripture  ";  of  a  New 
Testament  Canon  there  is  no  trace.  The  author 
in  the  five  cited  passages  does  not  draw  from  the 
written  Gospel  alone;  throughout  he  weaves  into 
his  writing  references  and  longer  or  shorter  cita- 
tions, twenty-three  in  all,  from  what  he  calls  "  the 
Gospel,"  which  he  presupposes  his  readers  know. 
Seventeen  of  the  twenty-three  citations  must  be 
referred  to  Matthew;  but  other  citations  are  plainly 
combinations  of  the  text  of  Matthew  and  Luke, 
strikingly  like  the  text  of  Tatian's  DiaUssaron.  In 
the  citations  there  is  no  trace  of  John's  Gospel; 
but  the  eucharistic  service  is  conceived  on  the  lines 
of  John  vi.  and  xvii.,  without,  however,  directly 
borrowing  anything.  The  Pauline  Epistles  are 
not  cited,  yet  traces  of  acquaintance  with  them 
appear.  More  important  are  certain  resemblances 
to  Jude  and  II  Peter.  There  is  no  trace  of  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Pastoral  Epistles. 

The  much-disputed  question,  as  to  the  relation 
of  the  '*  Teaching  "  to  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  is  thus  to  be  answered:  it 
is  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  Barnabas  is 
prior  to  the  "  Teaching  ";  i.  1-2,  ii.  2-7,  iii.  7- 
vi.  2  of  the  "  Teaching  "  agree  substantially,  if  not 
verbally,  with  Barnabas  xviii.-xx.;  but  the  order  of 
the  phrases  is  different,  and  while  that  in  Barnabas 

is  confused,  that  in  the  "  Teaching  " 

2.  Barnabas,  is  clear.     In  the  description  of  the 

"  Two  Ways,"  the  "  Teaching  "  offers 
further  (a)  in  L  2-5  a  series  of  evangelical  sayings: 
(b)  in  i.  6  a  fragment  from  an  unknown  other  wri- 
ting; (c)  in  iii.  1-6  a  section  imitated  from  the 
Old  Testament  proverbial  literature;  (d)  in  ii.  2- 

3,  5,  6,  iii.  8,  iv.  2,  8,  14  a  series  of  additions  to 
the  sections  common  to  it  and  to  Barnabas.  Bar- 
nabas, on  the  other  hand,  offers  in  the  chapters  in 
question  only  a  couple  of  phrases  (xix.  2,  3,  8),  an 
unintelligible  sentence  (xix.  4),  and  some  further 
words  in  xix.  10.  Further,  xvi.  1,  3-8  of  the 
*'  Teaching "  are  confessedly  a  compilation  of 
evangelical  passages  and  Zech.  xiv.  5,  together 
with  a  tradition  concerning  Antichrist.  Verse  2, 
however,  is  not  so  derived,  but  has  in  Barnabas 
IV.  X.  9  an  almost  verbally  exact  parallel.  Now, 
were  Barnabas  later,  he  would  have  appropriated 
the  only  verse  in  this  passage  of  the  '*  Teaching  " 
which  is  peculiar.  Hence  it  is  probable  that, 
since  all  the  other  verses  of  xvi.  are  borrowed,  this 
verse  (xvi.  2)  is  also  borrowed.  Moreover  (and 
this  appears  still  more  decisive  of  the  priority  of 
Barnabas),  the  author  of  Barnabas  is  convinced 
that  the  last  times  have  already  come  (iv.  3,  9); 
the  author  of  the  "  Teaching,"  on  the  other  hand, 
does  not  so  hold.  The  decision  therefore  must  be 
that  the  "  Teaching  "  as  it  now  is  given  in  the  Con- 


IMdaohe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


422 


atantiDopolitan  manuscript  is  secondary  to  Barna- 
bas, and  is  either  dependent  upon  it  or  upon  ma- 
terials already  used  by  Barnabas;  and  the  possi- 
bUity  is  excluded  that  Barnabas  copied  from  the 
"  Teaching  "  as  it  exists  in  the  Constantinopolitan 
manuscript.  [The  priority  of  Barnabas  is  advo- 
cated also  by  BiyennioSy  Hilgenfeld,  and  Krawutzky 
in  KL,  whereas  the  priority  of  the  Didache  is 
strongly  advocated  by  Zahn,  Funk,  Langen,  Farrar, 
nearly  all  English  and  American  writers  on  the 
subject.  A  third  opinion  is  held  by  lightfoot, 
Holtzmann,  Massebieau,  Lipsius,  Warfield,  Mc- 
Giffert,  that  both  Barnabas  and  the  writer  of  the 
Didache  drew  from  a  common  source  which  is  lost.] 
The  relation  between  the  **  Teaching "  and 
Hennas  is  more  uncertain.  There  are  only  two 
parallels,  "  Teaching,"  i.  5;  cf.  Mand,,  ii.  4--6,  and 
the  very  doubtful  one  "  Teaching,"  v. ;  cf.  Mand., 
viii.  4-5.  That  the  "  Teaching  "  had  Hennas  as 
a  source  may  not  be  safely  affirmed  in  view  of 
the  variations  in  these  passages  in  different  recen- 
sions; but  the  opposite  is  certainly  excluded. 
[Schaff  holds  that  the  Didache  is  older  than  the 

Shepherd  of  Hermas;  for  in  its  brief 
3.  Hermas  parallel  sections  Hermas   is   likewise 
and        an  enlargement  of  the  simpler  state- 
Jewish      ments  of  the  Didache ;  Schaff,  pp.  121 
Writings,    sqq.]    lately,  American,  English,  and 

French  scholars  have  brought  forward 
numerous  paraUels  to  i.-v.  from  PhUo,  Pseudo- 
Phokylides,  the  Sibylline  books,  and  from  the  Tal- 
mud and  Midrash.  If,  from  these  chapters,  i.  3-6 
be  omitted,  the  remainder  has  almost  nothing 
specifically  Christian  about  it,  and  the  little  it 
has  can  be  shown  by  the  use  of  other  original  doc- 
uments to  be  additions.  Therefore  it  is  an  ex- 
tremely probable  conjecture  that  the  "  Two  Ways  " 
is  a  Jewish  production,  intended  for  proselytes,  de- 
rived from  the  decalogue  and  an  amplification  of 
its  commands,  which  along  with  the  Old  Testament 
has  come  over  into  the  Christian  Church. 

VL  The  Author's  Standpoint:  This  much-dis- 
cussed point  is  not  settled.  The  **  Teaching  "  has 
been  regarded  as  a  Jewish  anti-Pauline  Christian 
(Sabatier),  as  Jewish  Christian,  but  not  Ebionitic 
(Schaff),  as  anti-Pauline  and  Sadducean,  heretical 
and  anti-Christian  (Churton),  as  Ebionitic,  semi- 
Ebionitic,  or  anti-Ebionitic  (of.  Krawutzky,  XL, 
iii.,  1869  sqq.),  as  Hellenistic-Christian,  as  anti- 
Montanistic  and  anti-Gnostic  (Bryennios),  as  Mon- 
tanistic  (Hilgenfeld  and  Bonet-Mauiy),  etc.  To 
refute  these  different  views  is  not  necessary,  but  it 
is  necessary  to  oppose  the  notion  that  the  author 
of  the  "  Teaching  "  was  a  Jewish  Christian  who  be- 
longed to  a  circle  detached  from  Gentile  Christians, 
and  attached  in  some  way  to  the  Jews  as  a  nation. 

The  facts  are  these:  The  author  main- 

I.  The     tains  silence  upon  circumcision  and  all 

Author     other  Jewish  rites;  in  the  two  places 

not  an      where  he  mentions  them  he  calls  the 

Ebionite.    Jews   "  hjrpocrites ";  not   a  word    is 

said  of  observing  the  Mosaic  law;  in 
the  long  eschatological  section  (xvi.),  derived  from 
Matthew,  the  passages  referring  to  Jerusalem,  the 
Jewish  people,  and  the  Temple  are  wanting,  nor  is 
there  any  mention  of  a  glorious  kingdom  in  Pales- 


tine, although  the  author  presupposes  a  visible 
kingdom  of  Christ,  as  his  belief  in  a  double  resur- 
rection proves  (cf.  G.  v.  Lechler,  Aposlolisches  und 
nachapoetolisches  ZeitaUer,  p.  592,  Carlsruhe,  1885) ; 
Matthew  and  Luke,  or  a  recension  of  them,  and  not 
the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  was  used,  perhaps  also 
the  Pauline  Epistles;  Jesiis  is  not  called  the  Son, 
but  the  God,  of  David;  the  book  passed  over  into 
the  use  of  the  Catholic  Church.  These  considerations 
exonerate  the  author  from  Ebionism.  But  some  as- 
sert the  Jewish-Christian  but  not  anti-Pauline  char- 
acter of  the  author.  Schaff  (pp.  125  sqq.)  has  col- 
lected arguments  as  follows:  only  the  Twelve,  but 
not  the  Apostle  Paul  are  named;  but  in  this  respect 
the  author  does  not  differ  from  many  ordinary 
Christian  authors  before  the  closing  of  the  New 
Testament  Canon.  The  style  and  phraseology  are 
Hebraistic;  but  that  is  not  remarkable  in  view  of 
the  Jewish  origin  of  Christianity  and  the  use  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  Septuagint.  The  author 
calls  the  prophets  "  high  priests,"  but  this  was  the 
rule  among  GentUe  Christians.  He  demands  the 
first-fruits  for  the  prophets;  but  so  do  Paul  and 
the  Gentile  (IHiristian  Church  of  the  earliest  times, 
especially  after  Justin's  day.  He  warns  against 
fasting  with  the  Jews  on  Monday  and  Thursday, 
enjoins  fasts  on  Wednesday  and  Friday,  and  names 
Friday  paraakeiaf  "  preparation."  But  even  if 
the  author  had  set  the  fasts  upon  the  Jewish  fast- 
days,  this  would  have  been  no  more  a  ogn  of  Jew- 
ish Christianity  than  was  the  practise  of  the  Quar- 
todecimans.  The  author's  discussion  of  the  week 
in  a  religious  sense  explains  the  use  of  the  Jewish 
names  for  the  days,  and  he  is  entirely  silent  re- 
specting the  Sabbath.  The  injunction  three  times 
daily  to  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  plainly  adopted 
from  Jewish  custom.    Besides  what  has  been  said 

above,  it  should  be  remarked  that  it 

2.  Was  He  is  not  known  what  hours  for  prayer 

a  Jewish    were  in  the  author's  mind,  and  that, 

Christian?  even  if  he  had  enjoined  the  Jewish 

hours,  that  would  not  tiave  been  spe- 
cifically Jewish-Christian.  The  author  conceives 
of  Christianity  substantially  as  the  highest  moral- 
ity ;  he  is  a  moralist  in  the  better  sense  of  the  word, 
like  James  and  Matthew.  Consequently  he  must 
have  been  a  Jewish  Christian.  To  answer  this  ar- 
gument would  take  too  much  space.  The  author 
does  not  attack  the  Jewish  religion,  as  does  Barna- 
bas; but  as  a  rule  he  attacks  nobody.  He  not  only 
lays  stress  upon  the  (Jewish-Christian)  prohibition 
of  meat  offered  to  idob,  but  sets  forth  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Jewish  dietary  laws  as  the  summit  of 
Christian  perfection.  The  prohibition  of  eating 
meat  offered  to  idols  was  universal  in  the  congr^a- 
tions  in  the  empire  from  the  end  of  the  first  cen- 
tury (cf.  C.  T.  Keim,  Atis  dem  Urchristenthum, 
pp.  88  sqq.,  Zurich,  1878);  and,  as  for  the  second 
point,  no  one  ever  made  such  a  claim,  for  by 
brosiSf  "  food  "  (vi.  3),  is  most  certainly  meant, 
not  the  Jewish  dietary .  regulation,  but  an  ascetic 
restriction  in  the  use  of  meat,  as  SchQrer  abo 
maintains.  The  view-point  of  the  author  is  that 
of  common  Gentile  Christianity.  His  standpoint 
is  very  close  to  that  of  the  author  of  the  second 
epistle  of  (Element;  he  is  not  a  Jewish  Christian, 


428 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Didaohe 


not;  a  follower  of  Paul,  but  a  universalist,  knowing 
no    distinction  between  peoples;  in  his  prayers  ac- 
Icnowledging  God,  the  creator  of  all  things  and 
ITcLther  of  all  men,  who  provides  them  with  food 
cknd  drink;  he  acknowledges  Jesus,  the  son  of  God, 
t'he  God  of  David,  the  vine  of  David,  and  the  Lord 
^^Ho  spoke  by  the  prophets,  and  he  awaits  his  com- 
in^;  he  also  acknowledges  the  Holy  Ghost,  who 
l\a.8  prepared  those  whom  God  called.    He  believes 
izi.    the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  Gospel;  he  ac- 
knowledges baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  as  im- 
portant acts;  one  becomes  a  Christian  by  baptism 
a.nd  remains  a  Christian  by  partaking  of  the  eucha- 
ristic  celebration. 

Vn.  Time  and  Place  of  Composition:    It  has 
been  placed  in  every  decade  from  50.a.d^  to  190 
A..r>.,  and  even  as  late  as  the  fourth  century.    Gen- 
erally the  three  generations  70-100,  100-130,  130- 
160  A.D.  are  the  most  favored.     Internal  evidence 
eaji  not  decide  the  time,  because  the  "  Teaching  " 
is  avowedly  a  compilation,  and  some  of  its  sources 
are   very  old.     External  evidence  proves  that  it 
must  be  before  165  a.d.,  for  Clement  of  Alexandria 
knew  it  as  **  Scripture."    A  number  of  negative 
facts  taken  together  show  that  it  is  earlier  than 
160  A.D.;  it  shows  no  traces  of  a  New  Testament 
Canon  or  of  the  authority  of  the  Pauline  Epistles; 
or  of  a  regula  fidei  or  of  regular  doctrinal  instruc- 
tion; or  of  a  monarchical  episcopate — prophets  were 
the  chief  teachers  and  were  not  yet 
I.  Limits    superseded  by  bishops;  or  of  an  or- 
70-160  A.D.  dered    church    service,    like    that    to 
which  Justin  testifies;  or  of  a  regular 
administrator  of  baptism,  while  it  gives  the  con- 
gregation authority  to  depose  bbhops  and  deacons; 
or  of  symbolical  ceremonies  accompanying  bap- 
tism; or  of  a  yearly  Easter  festival;  or  of  prohibi- 
tion  of  blood  and  things  strangled;  or  of  Monta- 
nism  and  the  characterization  of  heretics.     Other 
marks  seem  to  fit  better  into  the  time  80-120  a.d. 
than  120-160  A.D.,  e.g.,  its  treatment  of  apostles, 
prophets,  and  teachers.     But  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  give  definite  dates  to  documents  of  primi- 
tive Christianity,  for  not  all  the  steps  are  known 
of  the  development  of  Christianity  during  the  em- 
pire till  Catholic  Christianity  in  most  of  the  prov- 
inces, and  in  no  province  is  the  development  fully 
known.     Having  set  the  limits  for  the  "  Teaching  " 
between  70  and   160  a.d.,  the  question  may  be 
asked  whether  there  is  anything  to  prove  that  it 
must  have  been  written  after  some  Christian  gen- 
erations had  passed.    With  the  greatest  probabil- 
ity an  affirmative  answer  may  be  given,  as  follows: 
Apostles   and    prophets   no   longer   occupy   their 
primitive    unapproachable    position,     hence    the 
strongest  conservative  measures  are  enjoined;  re- 
spect for  the  prophets  is  declining,  hence  the  ex- 
orbitant demand  on  the  church  and  the  severest 
menaces;  mistrust  of  the  "old  prophets,''  who  be- 
long to  a  past  generation.     These  are  not  the  Old 
Testament  but  older  Christian  prophets;  the  pres- 
ent text  shows  in  the  "  Two  Ways  "  of  i.  certain 
diminution  of  evangeh'cal  demands,  and  in  the  ap- 
pendix to  the  same,  in  vi.,  a  contrast  between  a 
higher  and  a  lower  Christian  morality;  the  injunc- 
tions about  first-fruits,  fixed  prayers,  and  fasts, 


which  in  a  Gentile  Christian  land  is  the  indication 
of  a  later  time;  the  injunction  that  since  bi^ops 
and  deacons  minister  to  the  congregations  "  the 
ministry  of  the  prophets  and  teachers,"  therefore 
despise  them  not,  can  not  apply  to  the 
2.  Not  primitive  state  of  things;  the  regu- 
Before  lation  of  fasting  before  baptism,  and 
120  A.D.  permission  to  pour;  the  eschatological 
closing  section  has  not  the  glo:^  which 
the  prayers  transmitted  to  the  author  have,  and 
lacks  the  description  of  the  glorious  kingdom  of 
Christ  upon  the  earth.  These  observations  are 
strengthened  by  noticing  the  author's  use  of  Mat- 
thew, and  perhaps  also  Luke,  in  a  comparatively 
late  form;  and  the  relation  of  the  "  Teaching  "  to 
Barnabas,  which  probably  belongs  to  Hadrianio 
time  (before  Bar  Kokba).  All  these  considerations 
show  that  the  writing  can  not  with  certainty  be  set 
earlier  than  120  a.d.  or  earlier  than  100  a.d.  with 
any  probability,  but  that  the  probable  limits  are 
120  and  160  a.d.,  and  within  these  limits  the  earlier 
dates  are  in  most  cases  freer  from  difficulty  than 
the  later.  Taken  all  in  all,  the  ''  time  of  Hadrian  " 
has  the  most  probability  in  its  favor.  The  place 
of  composition  was  probably  Egypt,  as  the  exter- 
nal testimonies  and  the  source  seem  to  prove.  The 
arguments  for  Syria,  derived  from  mention  of  the 
bread  "  upon  the  hills  "  (ix.  4),  and  from  the  adop- 
tion of  the  ''Teaching"  with  the  ''Apostolic^ 
Constitutions,"  are  not  decisive;  for  the  mention 
occurs  in  a  prayer  most  probably  copied  by  the 
author,  and  the  Syrian  forger  had  the  library  of 
Eusebius  at  his  command. 

VIII.  History  of  the  Document:  A  book  called 
"  The  Two  Ways"  was  composed  by  Jews  in  the  first 
century  or  perhaps  earlier  for  the  instruction  of  prose- 
lytes. It  comprised  what  is  found  in  the  "  Teach- 
ing," i.  1-3,  ii.  2-v.  2,  which  passed  over  into  the 
Christian  Church,  and  was  used  as  an  address  at 
baptism.  The  author  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas 
incorporated  this  writing  into  his,  without,  how- 
ever, knowing  it  as  a  "  teaching  of  the  Apostles." 
Another  unknown  Christian  made  the  Jewish  in- 
struction a  "  teaching  of  the  (twelve)  apostles,"  and 
added  vii.-xvi.  This  edition  is  now  lost.  The 
present  one,  the  Didache  of  the  Constantinopolitan 
manuscript,  contains,  in  order  to  give  evangelical 
coloring  to  the  Jewish  original,  chap.  i.  3-ii.  1,  by 
which  the  tone  of  the  "  Two  Ways  "  was  wholly 
changed.  This  passage  being  an  interpolation,  the 
original  form  of  the  Christian  "  Teaching  "  may  be 
put  considerably  earlier  than  the  present  recension. 

IX.  The  Witnesses:  Before  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria no  direct  use  of  the  "  Teaching  "  can  be 
proved.  On  the  other  hand,  Clement  employs  it 
in  several  places,  and  in  one  {Stromata^  i.  20  = 
"  Teaching,"  iii.  6)  calls  it  "  Scripture,"  counting 
it  among  the  holy  writings.  Evidences  of  its  use 
have  been  found  inOrigen  (Horn,  vi.  in  lib.  Jud. ;  De 
principiiSf  iii.  2,  7),  who  also  called  it  "  Holy  Scrip- 
ture," but  the  quotation  may  have  been  taken  from 
the  Epistle  of  Barnabas.  Eusebius  (Hist,  ecd.,  III. 
XX  v.)  is  the  first  to  mention  the  book  byname,  ''the 
so-called  Teachings  t>f  the  Apostles,"  and  puts  it 
among  the  anHlegomena.  Athanasius  (Epitstola 
festalis,  xxxix.,   of   the   year  367)   mentions   the 


Didaohe 
Bidyxnus 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


424 


"Teaching,  so  called,  of  the  Apostles"  among  the 
books  which  are  not  canonical  but  useful  for  the 
instruction  of  catechumens.  Rufinus  repeats  this 
statement  of  Athanasius  (Comment,  in  Symb.  AposL, 
xxxvi.-xxxviii.),  but  in  place  of  "  Teaching,  so  called, 
of  the  Apostles,"  he  puts  "  The  Two  Ways,"  or 
"  The  Juc^ent  of  Peter,"  or  "According  to  Peter," 
for  the  "  Teaching  of  the  Apostles.''  Jerome  {De 
vir.iU.,i.)  likewise  mentions  "Peter's  Judgment" 
among  five  apocryphal  books  ascribed  to  that 
Apostle.  The  last  mention  of  the  "  Teaching  of 
the  Apostles,"  so  far  as  present  knowledge  goes, 
was  made  in  the  ninth  century  by  Nicephorus,  who 
speaks  of  such  a  book  as  among  the  Apocrypha  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  as  consisting  of  200  lines. 
The  manuscript  discovered  by  Bryennios  numbers 
203  lines. 

X.  Importance  of  the  Work :  From  vii.  to  the 
end  each  section  of  the  "  Teaching  "  is  a  source  of 
the  first  rank  for  the  points  it  covers,  baptism, 
fasts,  prayers,  the  eucharist,  apostles,  prophets, 
teachers,  Sunday,  the  episcopate  and  diaconate. 
But  its  greatest  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
affords  so  much  better  an  understanding  of  the 
organization  of  the  earliest  Christian  churches, 
where  the  interest  of  early  Christianity  lay,  and 
how  it  became  in  literary  matters  the  heir  of 
Judaism.  (Adolf  Harnagk.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  literature  on  the  Didache  has  become 
enormotiB.  A  list  down  to  1887  is  given  in  ANF,  Index 
vol.,  pp.  83-86;  down  to  1888  in  P.  Schaff,  The  Teaching 
of  Vie  Twelve  ApoeUee,  pp.  306-320.  3d  ed..  New  York. 
1890;  and  by  B&mner.  in  lAterariseker  Handiveiaer  fUr 
doe  katholiache  DeuUchiand,  zxvii  (1888).  393-398.  425- 
430;  and  to  1900  by  A.  Ehrhard.  Die  altebrieaiehe  Lit- 
teratur  und  ihre  Erforeehung,  i.  37-68.  Freibung.  1900. 
The  editio  prinoepe  is  by  P.  Bryennios,  Constantinople. 
1883;  the  best  edition,  at  least  in  Eng.,  is  by  Schaff,  ut 
sup.,  giving  Greek  text.  Eng.  transl.,  introduction,  and 
discussions.  Other  good  editions  are  by  A.  Hamaok. 
Leipsio.  1884;  R.  D.  Hitchcock  and  F.  Brown,  New  York, 
1885;  P.  Sabatier,  Paris,  1885;  H.  D.  M.  Spenoe.  Lon- 
don. 1885;  F.  X.  Funk.  Tfibingen,  1887;  J.  R.  Harris, 
Baltimore.  1887;  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  in  Apoetolic  FatKere, 
London.  1893;  J.  Schlecht,  Freiburg.  1900.  Most  of  the 
forgoing  contain  translations  in  the  tongue  of  the  editor, 
besides  notes,  introduction,  and  discussions.  Eng.  transl. 
exists  also  in  ANF,  viii.  377-382.  and  in  G.  C.  Allen.  The 
Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apoetlea,  London,  1903.  Many  of 
the  most  important  discussions  are  in  periodicals,  espe- 
cially those  of  1884-87.  Discussions  of  especial  worth 
are:  J.  R.  Harris,  The  Teaching  of  the  ApoatUa  and  the 
Sibylline  Booke,  Cambridge.  1885;  A.  Hamack.  Die 
Apoetellehre  und  die  jQdiachen  beiden  Wege,  Leipsio,  1886; 
C.  Taylor.  The  Teaching  of  the  IB  Apoatlee  wiVi  lUuetrar 
tione  from  the  Talmud,  Cambridge,  1886;  B.  B.  War  field, 
in  BiblioiKeca  Sacra,  1886.  pp.  100-161;  J.  Heron.  The 
Church  of  the  Sub-Apoetolic  Age  .  .  .  in  ffie  Light  of  ths 
Teaching  of  the  le  Apoetlea,  London,  1888;  G.  Wohlen- 
berg.  Die  Lehre  der  IB  Apoetel  in  ihrem  VerhAliniea  zum 
neuiestamentlichen  Schrifttum,  Erlangen,  1888;  P.  Batif- 
fol,  in  Studia  patrietioa,  ii.  117-160,  Paris.  1890;  G. 
Salmon,  Introduction  to  .  .  .  N.  T.,  pp.  551-566,  London, 
1892;  DCS,  iv.  806-815;  C.  H.  Hole,  The  Didache, 
London,  1894;  L.  E.  Iselin,  in  TU,  xiu.  1,  1895;  J. 
Schlecht,  Die  Lehre  der  IB  Apoetel  xn  der  Liturgie,  Frei- 
burg, 1901 ;  T.  Schermann.  Eine  Elfapoetelmoral,  Munich, 
1903;  KrOger.  Hietory,  pp.  63-67. 

DIDASCALIA.  See  Apostolic  CoNBTrruTioNs 
AND  Canons. 

DIDEROT,  did"rO',  DEIOS:  The  most  promi- 
nent of  the  Encyclopedists  (q.v.);  b.  at  Langres 
(150  m.  s.e.  of  Paris)  in  Champagne  Oct.  5,  1713, 
d.  at  Paris  July  31,  1784.    He  was  educated  by 


the  Jesuits,  and,  refusing  to  enter  one  of  the  leameiJ 
professions,  was  turned  adrift  by  his  father  and 
came  to  Paris,  where  he  lived  from  hand  to  mouth 
for  a  time.  Gradually,  however,  he  became  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  most  powerful  writers  of  thp 
day.  His  first  independent  work  was  the  Essai 
8ur  le  m^rUe  et  la  vertu  (1745).  As  one  of  the  edi- 
tors of  the  Dictionnaire  de  midecine  (6  vols.,  Paris, 
1746),  he  gained  valuable  experience  in  encyclo- 
pedic system.  His  Pensdes  philosophiques  (The 
Hague,  1746),  in  which  he  attacked  both  atheism 
and  the  received  Christianity,  was  burned  by  order 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  In  the  circle  of  the 
leaders  of  the  **  Enlightenment"  Diderot's  name  be- 
came known  especially  by  his  Lettre  sur  les  ax^euglci 
(liondon,  1749),  which  supported  Locke's  theory 
of  knowledge.  He  attacked  the  conventional 
morality  of  the  day,  with  the  resiilt  (to  which  pos- 
sibly an  allusion  to  the  mistress  of  a  minister  con- 
tributed) that  he  was  imprisoned  at  Vincennes  for 
three  months.  He  was  released  by  the  influence 
of  Voltaire's  friend  Mme.  du  ChAtelet,  and  thence- 
forth was  in  close  relation  with  the  leaders  of  revo- 
lutionary thought.  He  had  made  very  little  pe- 
cuniary profit  out  of  the  EncycUyp^die,  and  Grimm 
appealed  on  his  behalf  to  Catherine  of  Russia,  who 
in  1765  bought  his  libraiy,  allowing  him  the  use 
of  the  books  as  long  as  he  lived,  and  assigning  him 
a  yearly  salary  which  a  little  later  she  paid  him 
for  fifty  years  in  advance.  In  1773  she  summoned 
him  to  St.  Petersburg  with  Grimm  to  converse 
with  him  in  person.  On  his  return  he  lived  until 
his  death  in  a  house  provided  by  her,  in  com- 
parative retirement  but  in  unceasing  labor  on 
the  undertakings  of  his  party,  writing  (accord- 
ing to  Grimm)  two-thirds  of  Raynal's  famous 
Hittoire  philosophique,  and  contributing  some  of 
the  most  rhetorical  pages  to  Helv^tius's  De  Tes- 
prU  and  Holbach's  Systhne  de  la  nature,  Systhne 
social,  and  Morale  univeraelle.  His  numerous  wri- 
tings include  the  most  varied  forms  of  literary 
effort,  from  inept  licentious  tales  and  comedies 
which  pointed  away  from  the  stiff  classical  style 
of  the  French  drama  and  strongly  influenced 
Leesing,  to  the  most  daring  ethical  and  metaph}*^ 
ical  speculations.  like  his  famous  contemporary 
Samuel  Johnson,  he  is  said  to  have  been  more 
effective  as  a  talker  than  as  a  writer;  and  his 
mental  qualifications  were  rather  those  of  a  stimu- 
lating force  than  of  a  reasoned  philosopher.  His 
own  position  gradually  changed  from  theism  to 
deism,  then  to  materialism,  and  finally  rested  in 
a  pantheistic  sensualism  (see  Deism,  II.,  §  2). 
In  Sainte-Beuve's  phrase,  he  was  "  the  first  great 
writer  who  belonged  wholly  and  undividedly  to 
modem  democratic  society,"  and  his  attacks  on 
the  political  system  of  France  were  among  the 
most  potent  causes  of  the  Revolution. 
BiBLiooRAPHr:  (Euvrea  compUtea,  20  vols.,  Paria,  1875-77; 
(Euvrea  ehoiaiea,  1884;  A.  ColliiKnon,  Diderot,  ca  vie,  am 
ceuvrea,  aa  correapondance,  Paris,  1895;  J.  A.  Naigeon. 
Mhnoirea  .  .  .  tur  .  .  .  Denia  Diderot,  ib.  1821;  E.  Sal- 
verte.  £loge  de  Diderot,  ib.  1847;  £.  Beraot.  ^tudea  sur 
Diderot,  ib.  1855;  L.  Asseline.  Diderot,  ib.  1866;  P.  Du* 
prat.  Lea  EnegelopMiatea,  Brussels,  1866;  K.  Rosenkrant. 
Diderofa  LAen  und  Werke,  Leipsic.  1866;  J.  Morley. 
Diderot  and  the  Bncydopadiata,  2  vols.,  London.  1879:  E. 
Scherer,  Diderot,  itude,  Paris,  1880;   F.  Picavet,  Lea  Idiv- 


4^6 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


JMdache 
Didymus 


logues,  ib.  1891;  L  Ducros,  Diderot,  Vhomme  et  Vicrivain, 
ib.  1894;  J.  Reinach.  Diderot,  ib.  1894;  M.  Touraeux. 
Diderot  et  Cathenne  II.,  ib.  1899;   KL,  iii.  1704-13. 

DIDON,  dS"d6h',  HENRI:  Dominican;  b.  at 
Touvet  (16  m.  n.e.  of  Grenoble)  Mar.  17,  1840;  d. 
at  Toulouse  Mar.  13,  1900.  In  1856  he  entered 
the  Dominican  Order,  and  in  1861  went  to  Rome 
to  complete  his  education.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  in  various  Dominican  monasteries,  and 
in  1866  was  Lenten  preacher  in  London.  In 
1868-69  he  was  stationed  at  Nancy.  He  took 
part  in  the  conferences  at  Marseilles  in  1871-76, 
but  his  views  favoring  divorce  resulted  in  his  con- 
finement for  a  year  and  a  half  in  the  convent  of 
Corbara,  Corsica.  From  1890  until  his  death  he  was 
the  director  of  the  College  Albert-le-Grand  in  Arcueil. 
He  was  famous  for  his  pulpit  eloquence.  His 
writings  include  L*Enseignement  supirieur  et  lea 
universiiiscatholiquee  (Paris,  1876);  La  Science  sane 
Dieu  (1878;  Eng.  transl.  by  R,  Corder,  London, 
1882);  IndiaeolvbiliU  et  divorce  (1880);  Lee  AUe- 
mande  (1884;  Eng.  transl.  by  R.  L.  de  Beaufort, 
London,  1884);  Vie  de  J^sue-Ckrist  (2  vok., 
1891;  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1891);  La  Fai  en  la 
diviniti  de  Jistia-Chriet  (1894;  Eng.  transl.,  London, 
1894);  Deitx  probUmee  religieux :  Confirences  de 
Nancy,  1868-69  (1896);  UilducaHon  pr^senU 
(1898);  and  the  posthumous  Lettrea  d  MUe,  Th,  V, 
(1900)  and  Letiree  d  un  ami  (1902). 
BiBXJoaRAPHT:   Roib^re,    Un  Maine  modeme,  Pwia,  1900; 

A.  de  Coulanges,  Le  Ptre  Didon^  ib.  1900;  P.  Qaffre,  Le 

Ph-e  Didon,  ib.  1902;  J.  de  Romano,  Henri  Didan,  ib.  1903; 

and  St.  Raynaud,  L«  Pire  Didon,  ea  vie  et  eon  auvre, 

ib.  1904. 

DIDYMUS,  THE  BLIND,  OF  ALEXANDRU: 
One  of  the  last  teachers  and  masters  of  the  Alex- 
andrian catechetical  school  (see  Alexandria, 
School  of)  and  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
his  time;  b.  probably  313;  A  probably  398  (Palla- 
dius.  Hist,  Latu.,  iv.;  Jerome,  De  vir,  ill,,  cix.).  He 
lost  his  sight  when  a  child,  but  his  excellent  mem- 
ory and  great  gifts  enabled  him  to  obtain  much 
secular  and  religious  learning  (Rufinus,  Hist,  eccl., 
ii.  7).  For  more  than  fifty  years  he  labored  in 
the  catechetical  school,  and  among  his  pupils  were 
Jerome  and  Rufinus.  Thoroughly  orthodox  on 
the  trinitarian  question,  he  had  the  misfortune  of 
being  suspected  of  Origenism.  That  he  was  con- 
demned by  the  Fifth  General  Council  (Second  Con- 
stantinople, 553)  for  heresy  is  indeed  not  proved 
(cf.  Hefele,  ii.  859  sqq.;  Eng.  transl.,  iv.  294  sqq.), 
but  the  sixth  and  seventh  councils  (Third  Constanti- 
nople and  Second  Nicsea,  680  and  787)  rejected 
his  supposed  heresies.  Of  his  dogmatic  and  exe- 
getical  writings  the  following  are  extant  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  in  the  original  or  in  translation: 
(1)  "  On  the  Trinity,"  3  books  composed  in  379 
or  later;  (2)  a  "  Book  on  the  Holy  Spirit,"  extant 
in  Jerome's  translation  (printed  among  Jerome's 
works,  MPL,  xxiii.  101-154),  considered  one  of 
the  best  works  of  the  ancient  Church  on  the  sub- 
ject; (3)  "  Against  the  Manicheans,"  incomplete 
in  the  original,  a  refutation  of  Manicheism  on 
logical  and  metaphysical  grounds;  (4)  exegetical 
works,  fragments  of  expositions  of  Genesis,  Exo- 
dus, Samuel,  Kings,  Psalms,  John,  Acts,  II  Corin- 
thians, and  an  exposition  of  the  Catholic  epistles 


extant  in  the  translation  of  Epiphanius  Scholasticus 
(q.v.).  The  genuineness  of  this  translation  has 
been  questioned  by  E.  Klostermann  {TU,  new 
series,  xiii.  2,  Leipsic,  1905)  on  the  basis  of  the 
Greek  fragments  printed  by  J.  A.  Cramer  in  Ca- 
tencB  in  epiatolas  caiholicae  (Oxford,  1840).  Of  the 
lost  writings  the  most  noteworthy  is  the  ''Notes  on 
Origen's  'Principles.'"  Didymus  was  probably 
also  the  author  of  the  last  two  books  of  the  work 
against  Eunomius  ascribed  to  Basil  the  Great  (cf. 
F.  X.  Funk,  Kirchengeschichtliche  Abhandlungenf 
ii.,  Paderborn,  1899,  291-329).  Recently  K. 
HoU  (ZKG,  XXV.,  1904,  380-398)  has  claimed  for 
Didymus  the  treatise  Advereua  Arium  et  Sabellium, 
ascribed  to  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (in  MPG,  xlv.  1281 
sqq.).  G.  KbCoer. 

Biblxoorapht:  The  works  of  Didymus  are  in  MPQ,  xxzix. 
Consult :  J.  A.  Mingarelli,  De  Didymi  commentariia, 
Bologna,  1709,  reprinted  MPG,  xxxix.  139-216;  H.  £. 
F.  Guericke,  De  9chola  qua  Alexandria  floruit,  i.  02-^7, 
ii.  83-^,  332-378,  Halle,  1824-25;  Q.  C.  F.  Luecke, 
QuaeHonee  ae  vindicia  Didymiana,  Qcttingen,  1829-32; 
O.  Bardenhewer,  Patrologie,  pp.  290-293,  Freibuig,  1804; 
T.  Leipoldt,  Didymue  der  Blinde  von  Alexandria,  Leipsic, 
1905;  DCB,  i.  827-829. 

DIDTMUS,  GABRIEL:  German  Reformer;  b.  at 
Annaberg  (in  Saxony,  18  m.  s.  of  Chemnitz)  c.  1487; 
d.  at  Torgau  (in  Prussian  Saxony,  70  m.  s.s.w. 
of  Berlin)  May  1,  1558.  His  family  name  was 
ZwiUing,  translated  Didymus.  According  to  a 
doubtful  tradition  he  studied  first  at  Prague,  but 
from  the  year  1502  pursued  his  studies  at  Witten- 
berg, where  he  joined  the  Augustinians.  When 
in  1512  he  matriculated  in  the  University  he  had 
already  joined  the  order  and  was  an  associate  of 
Luther  in  the  monastery.  On  gaining  his  bache- 
lor's degree,  Oct.  14,  1516,  he  was  sent  by  Luther 
to  Erfurt  to  continue  his  studies  there  (T.  Kolde, 
J  oh,  V,  StaupUz  und  die  deutsche  Augustinerhmr 
ffregation,  Gotha,  1879,  p.  267;  Luther's  letter  to 
Joh.  Long,  Mar.  1,  1517,  De  Wette,  Luthere  Brief e, 
Berlin,  1825-28,  i.  52),  but  the  following  winter 
he  returned  to  Wittenberg  and  took  his  master's 
degree  Feb.  14,  1518.  Nothing  more  is  heard  of 
him  until  he  took  the  leadership  among  the  inno- 
vators in  the  Augustinian  monastery  in  the  stormy 
days  of  1521.  He  entered  the  pulpit,  manifesting 
a  spirit  like  Carlstadt's;  a  great  sensation  was 
made  by  his  sermon  of  Oct.  6,  in  which  for  hours 
he  inveighed  against  the  worship  and  sacrifice  of  the 
host  and  the  private  mass,  demanded  that  the 
Eucharist  be  served  in  both  kinds,  and  declared 
that  he  would  never  read  another  mass  (CR,  i. 
460;  ZKO,  iv.  325  sqq.).  The  "little  insignifi- 
cant one-eyed  man  "  could  hold  his  hearers,  who 
saw  in  him  another  Luther;  even  Melanchthon 
was  fascinated  by  him  (TSK,  1885,  134).  His  ap- 
peal was  successful,  for  the  next  Sunday  the  mass 
ceased  to  exist  in  the  monastery — and  the  exodus 
of  the  monks  followed.  About  Christmas  Didy- 
mus began  to  preach  the  Reformation  at  Witten- 
berg. He  went  to  Eilenburg,  where  in  layman's 
garb  he  preached  against  the  old  worship,  cele- 
brated the  Lord's  Supper  in  German,  putting  cup 
and  bread  into  the  hands  of  the  communicants 
(ZKG,  v.,  1882,  327).  On  Friday,  Jan.  10,  1522, 
he  preached  in  Wittenberg  against  images  (ZKG, 


Dieckholf 

Dietary  I«aws  of  the  Hebrews 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


426 


V.  331  sqq.))  and  dared  even  to  denounce  from  the 
pulpit  Justus  Jonas  and  Amsdorf.  He  was  the 
associate  of  Carlstadt,  but  was  also  the  first  to 
submit  to  Luther's  leadership  on  the  latter's  re- 
turn (Luther's  letter  to  W.  Link,  Mar.  19,  1522, 
De  Wette,  Luthers  Briefe,  ii  156).  Called  to  Al- 
tenbui^   on    Luther's   recommendation   Apr.    17, 

1522  (De  Wette,  Luthers  Briefe,  ii.  183  sqq.),  he 
was  compelled  to  leave,  after  a  few  months'  use- 
ful service,  on  account  of  the  Eilenburg  events, 
when  he  returned  to  Dttben.     In  the  spring  of 

1523  he  went  to  Torgau,  where  he  thenceforth 
labored,  respected  and  defended  by  Luther  (De 
Wette,  Luthers  Brief e,  iv.  581;  v.  76,  492,  756). 
In  the  mean  time  he  had  come  into  conflict  with 
the  secular  authorities,  was  deposed  in  1549,  but 
continued  to  live  privately  in  Torgau  and  remained 
chaplain  to  the  mother  and  wife  of  the  Elector 
Moritz  until  his  death.  (T.  Kolde.) 

Biblioorapht:  J.  G.  Terne,  Vermuh  twr  tufficieTUen  Nath- 
rickt  von  de»  Oabriel  Didymut  .  .  .  Leben,  Leipsic,  1737; 
C.  Knabe,  Die  Torgauer  Viniali4maordnuno  von  1629, 
Torgau,  1881;  H.  BBigfi,  Andnaa Boden»tein  von  Karl»tadt, 
2  voIr..  Leipdc,  1906,  ii.  645-549  (reprints  the  complaint 
of  the  AuffUfltinian  monkB  in  Wittenberg  againat  his  ser- 
mon of  Oct.  6,  1621;  of.  i.  313,  and  for  other  references 
passim.     Barge  csJls  him  Zwilling). 

DIECKHOFF,    AUGUST    WILHELM:    German 
Lutheran  theologian;  b.  at  Gottingen  Feb.  5, 1823; 
d.  at    Rostock  Sept.    12,  1894.     In    1847   he  be- 
came lecturer  in  the  theological  faculty  in  Got- 
tingen, in  1850  was  inaugurated  lecturer  there;  in 
1854  became  extraordinary  professor  of  systematic 
and  historical  theology,  in  1860  professor  of  his- 
torical theology  in  Rostock,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.     In  the  years  1860- 
z.  Life  and  1864  he  edited,  with  Kliefoth,  the  Theo- 
Character.  loffiache  Zeitschrift.    Beside  his    aca- 
demical duties,  in  the  performance  of 
which  his   lectures  on  the  history  of  evangelical 
doctrine  during  the  Reformation  left  a  lasting  im- 
pression, he  developed  a  great  literary  activity  in 
the  interest  of  a  historic  presentation  of  the  genesis 
of  the  Lutheran  doctrinal  reform. 

This  began  with  his  De  Carolostadio  Lutherance 
de  servo  arbitrio  doctrince  contra  Echium  defensors 
(Gottingen,  1850).     In  his  first  extensive  work,  on 
Die  Waldenser  im  MitUlalter  (Gdttingen,  1857),  he 
showed  that  the  Evangelicalism  of  the  Waldensian 
manuscript  literature  is  a  forgery  of 
a.  Theolog-  the  seventeenth  century  and  that  in 
ical        doctrine  they  stood  on  the  ground  of 
Writings,    medieval    Catholicism,    and    that    it 
was  the  Lutheran  Reformation  which 
first  broke  radically  with  the  false  medieval  doc- 
trinal development.     Next  appeared  vol.  i.  of  his 
largest  work.  Die  evangelische  Abendmahlslekre  im 
ReformationszeitaUer    (GOttingen,    1854),    a    work 
which  unfortunately  he  never  completed;  in  this 
he  treated  of   the  doctrine  as  stated    by  Luther 
during  the  years  1517-23,  by  Carlstadt,  Zwingli, 
(Ecolampadius,    and    the    Swabian    Syngramma. 
The  work  is  of  lasting  value,  for  it  treats  with  de- 
cisive clearness  the  evolution  of  Luther's  doctrines, 
setting  forth  both  their  merits  and  their  defects. 
That  Dieckhoff  did  not  continue  this  study  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  the  fact  that  his  interest  centered 


in  the  beginnings  of  the  Reformation.  Then  too 
he  was  drawn  into  theological  controversies. 
Against  Hofmann  he  postulated  that  (1)  faith 
attains  certainty  only  in  union  with  Scripture, 
(2)  the  content  of  the  system  of  theological  thought 
is  given  in  the  Word  of  God.  Later  he  again  at- 
tacked Hofmann  and  his  school.  In  these  other- 
wise valuable  contributions  his  polemics  is  at 
times  misleading  and  his  dogmatic  position  con- 
fused. 

The  ecclesiastical-political  questions  of  his  time 
he  studied  with  zealous  attention.  After  the  Vat- 
ican Council  he  published  Schrift  und  Tradition 
.  .  .  (1870),  a  clear  and  convincing  refutation  of 
Catholic  objections  to  the  evangelical  doctrine  of 
Scripture  as  they  appeared  in  the  work  of  Von  Ket- 
teler,  the  bishop  of  Maine,  entitled  Das  aUgemeine 
Konzil  und  seine  Bedeutung  fur  unsere  Zeit  (Mainz, 
1869).  Then  came  questions  nearer  home — school 
supervision  by  the  state,  treated  in  his  StcuU  und 
Kirche  (Leipsic,  1872);  civil  marriage,  which  he  at- 
tacked in  Die  kirchliche  Trauung  (Rostock,  1878)  and 
in  Civilehe  und  kirchliche  Trauung  (1880).  In  the  last 
decade  of  his  life  he  was  drawn  into  the  contro- 
versy raised  in  Germany  by  the  ultra-Lutheran 
Missouri-Synod.  In  1884,  on  account  of  a  deci- 
sion in  favor  of  the  Wisconsin-Synod, 
3.  Ecclesi-  he  was  attacked  by  the  Missourians, 
astical  to  whom  he  replied  in  Der  missouri' 
Writings,  sche  PrddesHnaHonismus  und  die  Con- 
cordienformel  (1885)  and  Zur  Lehre 
von  der  Bekekrung  und  die  PrddesHnatian  (1886). 
These  essays  are  of  lasting  importance  since  they 
give  a  clear  view  not  only  of  Luther's  predestina- 
tionism,  but  also  of  the  teaching  of  the  almost 
forgotten  Lutheran  theologian  Laterman.  On  the 
other  hand,  his  Inspiration,  und  Irrthumslosigkeit 
der  heiligen  Schrift  (Leipsic,  1891),  directed  against 
the  Missouri  extreme,  brought  him  judicial  cen- 
sure. While  in  all  these  works  he  labored  in  his 
especial  field,  tracing  the  doctrines  back  to  Luther's 
teaching,  he  wrote  also  a  number  of  essays  prepar- 
atory to  these  subjects.  Worthy  of  mention  are 
Augustine  und  Luthers  Lehre  von  der  Gnade  (in 
TZf  i.),  Luthers  Lehre  von  der  kirchlichen  GewaU 
(Berlm,  1865),  and  especially  Der  Ablasstreit 
(1866),  wherein  he  showed  how  much  Luther  and 
the  Reformation  profited  by  the  discussion  about 
the  sale  of  indulgences.  Finally  mention  must  be 
made  of  the  work  Justin,  Augustin,  Bemhard  und 
Luther  (Leipsic,  1882),  developed  from  lectures  in 
which  he  traced  in  masterly  fashion  the  evolution 
of  the  Christian  conception  of  the  truth.  He  re- 
ceived a  new  inspiration  from  the  rediscovery  in 
1876  of  Luther's  "  Lectures  on  the  Psalms."  Here 
followed  Luthers  SteUung  tur  Kirche  vor  1517 
(Rostock,  1883)  and  Luthers  Lehre  in  ihrer  ersten 
Gestalt  (1887),  the  ripest  fruit  of  all  his  investiga- 
tion, expounding  Luther's  conception  of  "  Faith." 

(K.  Schmidt.) 
DIEKAMP,  FRANZ:  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at 
Geldem  (65  m.  s.w.  of  Manster)  Nov.  8,  1864.  He 
studied  at  MUnster,  Eichstfttt,  and  Munich  from 
1882  to  1887;  became  chaplam  at  Camp,  1888; 
lecturer  in  the  theological  seminaiy  at  MOnster, 
1889;  student  at  Munich,  1896;  privat-docent  for 


127 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dieokhoff 

IMetary  Ijaws  of  the  Hebrews 


>atrology  and  the  history  of  dogmatics  at  Munich, 
1898;  associate  professor,  1902,  and  full  professor, 
L904.  He  has  written  Die  GoUesUkre  dea  heiligen 
sregor  von  Nysaa  (Munster,  1896);  Hippolytoa  von 
Fheben  (1898);  and  Die  origeniatischen  StreiHg- 
'ceiten  im  aechsten  Jahrhundert  und  das  fiinfte  all- 
femeine  Condi  (1899),  and  has  edited  the  Theo- 
^ogische  Revue  since  1902. 

DIEPElfBROCK,  MELCHIOR  VON:  Cardinal; 
b.  at  Bocholt  (44  m.  w.  of  Mtlnster)  Jan.  6,  1798; 
d.  at  the  castle  of  Johannesberg  at  Jauemig  (52 
m.  n.w.  of  Troppau)  Jan.  20,  1853.  In  1810  he 
was  sent  to  the  military  academy  of  Bonn,  but 
was  soon  expelled  for  insubordination.  Per- 
meated with  the  rising  spirit  of  nationalism  which 
inspired  the  Grermany  of  the  period,  he  became  a 
lieutenant  of  militia  and  later  entered  a  regiment 
of  the  line,  serving  in  France  and  also  in  garrison- 
duty.  Resigning  on  the  advice  of  his  superiors, 
he  returned  to  his  home,  and  was  there  converted 
by  Michael  Sailer,  who  was  then  professor  at  Lands- 
hut.  He  then  studied  at  Landshut,  and  in  1819 
decided  to  enter  the  priesthood,  and  studied  at 
Mainz,  Mtknster,  and  Regensbui^,  where  Sailer 
had  been  a  canon  since  1821.  On  Dec.  27,  1823, 
Diepenbrock  was  ordained  priest,  and  then  en- 
tered on  his  duties  as  Sailer's  secretary,  devoting 
himself  especially  to  the  mysticism  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  result  being  his  Heinrich  Sti808  Leben  und 
Schriften  (Regensbui^  1829)  and  the  OeiaUicher 
Bluthenstrauaa  (Sulzbach,  1829).  When  Sailer 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Regensburg  in  1829, 
Diepenbrock,  after  long  hesitation,  accepted  a 
canonry,  and  under  Bishop  Valentine  rose  to  be 
vicar-general.  He  soon  resigned,  however,  and  in 
a  brief  period  of  retirement  prepared  a  translation 
from  Hendrik  Conscience  under  the  title  of  VIA- 
misches  StUUben  (Regensburg,  1845).  He  was  con- 
secrated prince  bishop  of  Breslau  on  July  27,  1845. 
Within  a  year  he  found  himself  obliged  to  excom- 
municate all  the  **  German  Catholics  "  to  check 
the  disturbances  which  this  movement  caused  in 
the  diocese  of  Breslau,  while  in  the  revolution  of 
1S48  he  urged  obedience  to  the  government.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  firmly  advocated  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Church  as  regards  the  State,  and  pro- 
tested against  the  oath  to  support  the  constitution 
which  was  required  of  the  clergy  who  held  official 
positions.  Only  the  conciliatoiy  attitude  of  the 
Slate  prevented  serious  controversies.  A  papal 
brief  of  Oct.  24,  1849,  appointed  him  vicar  apos- 
tolic for  the  Pnissian  Army.  As  prince  bishop  of 
Breslau  Diepenbrock  furthered  the  cause  of  mon- 
asteries, and  encouraged  Redemptorist  and  Jesuit 
missions  among  the  laity.  He  was  created  car- 
dinal by  Pius  IX.  in  1850,  and  in  this  capacity  be- 
came involved  in  a  controversy  with  the  Protestant 
general  superintendent  of  Silesia,  who  complained 
of  the  missionary  propaganda  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, only  to  receive  a  sharp  rebuff  from  Diepen- 
brock. (HEmRicH  Schmidt.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Lives  are  by  H.  FCrater,  Regenflbuis,  1878; 
J.  H.  Reinkena,  Leipmc.  1881;  M.  Rdttscher,  Frankfort, 
1886;  B.  Boeniseh,  Oppeln,  1808;  H.  Finke,  Zur  Erin- 
neruno  of>  Kardinal  MeUhior  von  Ditpenbroek,  liOnster, 
1898. 


DIES  IRS.    See  Thomas  op  Celano. 

DIESTEL,  dts'tel,  LUDWIG:  Theologian  and 
church  historian;  b.  at  Konigsberg  Sept.  28,  1825; 
d.  at  Tubingen  May  15,  1879.  He  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Konigsberg  in  1844  to  prepare  himself 
for  the  clerical  calling,  and  in  Oct.,  1847,  went  to 
Berlin;  in  1848  he  migrated  to  Bonn,  where  he  be- 
came privat-docent  in  1851,  and  there,  during  a 
residence  of  seven  years,  lived  in  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Ritschl.  He  was  made  extraordinary 
professor  in  1858,  and  in  1862  went  to  Greifswald, 
where  he  held  the  chair  of  Old  Testament  exegesis. 
In  1867  he  became  professor  at  Jena,  and  in  1872 
at  Tubingen.  After  1871  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Halle  committee  for  the  revision  of  the  Luther 
Bible.  DiesteFs  work  on  the  Old  Testament  was 
that  of  the  theologian  rather  than  of  the  philolo- 
gist or  textual  critic.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
his  Oeachichte  dea  Alien  Testaments  in  der  chriat- 
lichen  Kirche  (Jena,  1869),  a  valuable  storehouse 
of  information  on  Old  Testament  exegesis  and 
hermeneutics.  The  work  may  be  characterised 
as  a  history  of  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  Christian  Church  rather  than  as  a  his- 
tory of  the  Bible  in  itself.  Of  especial  impor- 
tance is  the  division  of  the  guiding  principles  in 
the  correct  method  of  investigation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  national,  historical,  and  religious. 
Diestel's  only  independent  works,  in  addition  to 
the  one  already  mentioned,  were  Der  Segen  Jar 
kobs  in  Oenesia  XLIX  historiseh  erldutert  (Bruns- 
wick, 1853);  Ueber  die  Theokratie  Israels  (Greifs- 
wald,  1864);  and  a  revision  of  the  fourth  edition 
of  August  Knobel's  commentary  on  Isaiah  (Leip- 
sic,  1872).  (E.  Kautzbgh.) 

DIETARY  LAWS  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

Animals  Allowed  and  Prohibited  m  Food  (|  1). 

Oriffin  and  Significance  of  the  Distinction  (|  2). 

Contributory  Factors  (|  3). 

The  Prohibition  of  Blood  (|  4). 

The  Prohibition  of  Fat  (|  5). 

Two  Additional  Restrictions  (|  6). 

The  Christian  Usage  and  Attitude  (I  7). 

As  with  the  symbolically  elaborated  religions  of 
antiquity  in  general,  the  sacred  laws  of  the  Old 
Testament  include  prescriptions  restricting  the 
choice  of  meats  and  rules  for  preparing  the  same. 

Many  animals  are  described  as  unclean,  neither 

to  be  sacrificed  nor  eaten  by  man,  nor  to  be  touched 

as  carcasses;  whereas,  of  those  designated  as  clean 

for  food,  not  all  are  allowed  in  sacri- 

I.  Animals  fice  (Lev.  xi.;  Deut.  xiv.  ^21).  Ani- 

Allowed    mals  appear  to  be  grouped,  in  this 

and  Pro-  connection,  according  to  the  primi- 

hiblted  aa  tive  Hebrew  arrangement,  in  four  or 

Food.       five  classes;  and  in  several  classes  the 

enumeration  of  particular  species  is 

precluded  by  the  expedient  of  general  marks  of 

distinction.    Among    quadrupeds,    for    instance, 

those  are  accounted  clean  which,  in  the  first  place, 

"  part  the  hoof,"  and,  in  the  second  place,  chew 

the  cud.    There  are  thus  mentioned  as  edible  in 

Deut.  xiv.  4-6,  the  ox,  sheep,  goat,  hart,  gazel, 

roebuck,  and  certain  species  of  antelope.    On  the 

other  hand,  those  which  lack  one  or  both  of  these 


XMstaryl^awa  of  the  Hebrews       THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


distinguishing  marks  are  unclean;  such  as  the 
camel,  rock-badger,  hare,  swine,  together  with 
"  whatsoever  goeth  upon  its  paws  "  (Lev.  xi.  27). 
Among  aquatic  animals,  those  are  edible  which 
have  fins  and  scales;  not  those,  however,  which 
(like  the  eel)  resemble  the  reptile  family  and  ex- 
hibit no  marked  fish  type  at  all.  Among  birds 
about  nineteen  to  twenty-one  species  are  prohibited 
as  food;  for  the  most  part,  birds  of  prey,  such  as 
the  eagle,  vulture,  raven,  owl,  etc.,  which  feed  on 
carrion  and  filthy  substances;  marsh  birds  and 
water-fowls  also,  such  as  the  stork,  heron,  pelican, 
and  others,  are  prohibited;  likewise  the  ostrich,  or 
"  desert  bird."  The  bat  is  classed  with  birds,  as 
the  Arabs  still  class  it.  There  is  an  additional 
prescription  with  reference  to  "winged  creeping 
things  "  (insects),  which  are  summarily  prohibited 
with  but  one  general  exception  (stated  only  in 
Lev.);  namely,  those  are  permitted  as  food  ''  which 
have  legs  above  their  feet,  to  leap  withal";  so 
that  grasshoppers  are  thus  allowed,  together  with 
three  similar  species  (Lev.  xi.  22).  Among  the 
"  creeping  things  "  which  are  unclean  according 
to  Lev.  xi.  41,  42  special  mention  is  made  of  the 
mole,  mouse,  lizard,  and  some  similar  but  not  cer- 
tainly definable  animals;  together  with  the  cha- 
meleon (Lev.  xi.  29-30).  It  is  also  observed  of 
these,  in  Lev.  xi.  32-33,  that  they  defile  vessels, 
raiment,  etc.,  as  well  as  food,  by  contact  when 
dead.  Among  "  creeping  things "  which  are  an 
''abomination"  mention  is  made  (verse  42)  of 
"  whatsoever  goeth  upon  the  belly  ";  that  is  to 
say,  snakes  and  worms.  Mere  touching  of  live 
"  unclean  "  animals  does  not  defile,  but  only  to 
eat  of  them  defiles;  as  is  also  true  of  touching  or 
carrying  their  carcass;  while,  finally  (on  the  ground 
adduced  below),  there  is  defilement  in  touching 
the  dead  body  of  clean  creatures  (see  Defilement 
AND  Purification,  Ceremonial,  L,  1,  §  5),  and 
in  eating  or  carrying  such  creatures  when  fallen 
dead  without  being  slaughtered  (Lev.  xi.  39). 
The  consequences  of  transgressing  these  prescrip- 
tions and  the  necessary  purifications  are  simple 
and  not  unduly  oppressive.  Whoever  touches  the 
carcass  of  unclean  or  clean  beasts  shall  be  un- 
clean till  evening;  whoever  carries  such  dead 
body,  or  even  eats  of  it,  and  this  of  edible,  or  clean 
beasts  as  well,  must  furthermore  wash  his  clothes 
(Lev.  xi.  24-25,  28,  31,  39-40).  With  reference  to 
polluted  objects  cf.  Lev.  xi.  32-33. 

The  fact  that  the  distinction  between  clean  and 

unclean  beasts  extends  as  far  back  as  the  memories 

of  the  Hebrews  is  attested    by    the 

a.  Origin  Jehovistic  passages,  wherein  the  dis- 
and  Signifi-  tinction  is  traced  to  the  deluge 
cance  of  the  (Gen.  vii.  2,  viii.  20).  The  distinction 
Distinction,  was  not  first  introduced  by  the  Mosaic 
legislation,  but  was  already  at  hand 
in  popular  usage;  which,  like  all  tribal  customs, 
had  religious  authority.  Moses  simply  imparted  a 
more  definite  l^al  form  to  this  usage,  and  brought  it 
into  relation  with  the  worship  of  Yahweh.  The 
dominating  motive  herein  was  not  so  much  mere 
expediency,  well  adapted  though  these  prescrip- 
tions were  to  exert  a  wholesome  physical  effect,  as 
the  feeling  that  a  natural  imcleanneBs  pervaded  the 


prohibited  animals,  from  which  the  members  o: 
Yahweh's  consecrated  people  should  be  kept  cl^s 
(cf.  Lev.  xi.  44-46;  Deut.  xiv.  2-^).  The  peojAed 
the  covenant  are  to  keep  themselves  clean  bodSv, 
out  of  regard  to  the  God  who  dwells  in  their  midst, 
unto  whom  everything  imclean  is  abhorrent,  h 
the  matter  of  practical  determination  of  what  wa^ 
clean  or  unclean  the  law  adjusted  itself  to  the 
sentiment  already  operative  among  the  peopk*. 
It  took  account  first  of  all  of  the  natural  aversion 
among  them  toward  certain  kinds  of  food  and  d 
the  disgust  for  certain  animals.  This  factor  is 
more  primitive  than  the  superstition  attached  to  it 
Totemism  and  taboo  have  been  advanced  as  hy- 
potheses to  explain  the  origin  of  this  distinctioo 
(W.  Robertson  Smith).  But  totemism  would  lead 
merely  to  prohibition  of  some  particular  animal  or 
animals,  but  by  no  means  explain  the  separatioii 
of  the  animal  world  into  two  classes,  of  which  the 
greater  is  accounted  unclean.  Moreover,  the  dietaiy 
regulation  of  the  Israelites  is  very  different  from 
ethnic  taboo  regulations,  whereby  certain  foods, 
animals,  and  fruits,  consecrated  to  some  divinity, 
are  forbidden  either  entirely  or  at  stated  times  to 
specified  persons  or  classes.  With  the  Israelites 
the  distinction  is  easy  to  understand,  because 
objectively  grounded,  in  the  light  of  the  commim 
human  desire  for  cleanliness  (see  Defileuent  and 
Purification,  Ceremonial,  I.,  5). 

Nor  was  the  popular  intuition,   prompted  by 
sound  natural  sentiment,  unworthy  to  be  adopted 

by  the  Mosaic  religion,  to  be  more 

3.  Contrib-  definitely  regulated  and  made    serv- 

utoiy       iceable  to  the   same.    What  at    first 

Factors,     glance  appear  to  be  surprising  marks 

of  distinction  for  the   mammals   are 
to   be   explained   as   follows:     those   quadrupeds 
which,   being    herbivorous,    furnish    the    cleanest 
and  most  savory  meat   (hence  meat  appropriate 
for  sacrifice  as  well,  such  as  beef  animals,  sheep,  etc. ) 
have  also  supplied,  as  cust(xnaiy  slaughter  animals, 
the  distinguishing  marks  for  discrimination  of  doubt- 
ful animals  (for  example,  game).     So  the  real  sig- 
nificance of  the  distinction  is  not  to  be  sought  in 
the  marks,  hut  in  the  qualities,  just  mentioned, 
which  are  associated  therewith.     Beasts  "  that  zo 
on  their  paws,''  however,  are  carnivorous,  hang 
chiefly  beasts  of  prey  and  such  as  live  on  carrion, 
for  which  reasons  they  are  much  more  liable  to  be 
characterized  by  offensiveness  of  every  description 
than  the  standard  animals;    and  they  must  have 
seemed  especially  unclean  to  the  Israelites,  to  whom 
it   was   extremely   offensive   to   swallow   carrion, 
lacerated  or  strangled  flesh,  and  the  like.     Neither 
is  the  motive  to  be  disregarded  that  what  is  edible 
shall  belong  to  some  pronounced  species  of  animal. 
This  becomes  apparent  in  the  distinguishing  marks 
of  fishes;  perhaps  also  in  case  of  the  bat,  which, 
furthermore,  makes  its  haunt  in  filthy  holes;   and 
in  case  of  the  ostrich,  whose  peculiar  characteristics 
are  enhanced  by  its  singular  mode  of   life.    But 
Philo  and  other  Jews  of  an  allegorical  bent,  and 
after  them  the  Church  Fathers,  sought  some  im- 
mediate moral  basis  or  symbolic  significance  in  all 
these  prescriptions  with  an  all  too  mystical  refine- 
ment. 


V20 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dietary  Iaws  of  the  Hebrews 


Essentially  different  in  principle  is  the  prohibi- 

ion  against  consuming  the  blood  and  the  fat  of 

(clean  or  edible)  animals.    The  blood 

4.  The  Pro-  is  not  unclean  in  itself;  on  the  con- 
bibition  of  trary,  it  is  the  precious  vital   fluid, 

Blood,  which  is  offered  to  God  as  the  worthiest 
portion  of  the  animal  creature.  life 
1  from  God  and  belongs  to  God.  On  account  of 
ta  intimate  relation  to  life,  men  shall  not  swallow 
he  blood,  but  shall  consecrate  it  to  God.  By  this 
ery  property,  too,  blood  is  also  the  appropriate 
deans  of  atonement,  can  intercede  for  men,  can 
«  offered  to  God  in  their  place — "  For  the  life 
f  the  flesh  is  in  the  blood:  and  I  have  given  it  to 
'ou  upon  the  altar  to  make  atonement  for  your 
ouls  "  (Lev.  xviL  11).  For  this  reason  care  must 
le  observed  in  the  slaying  that  the  blood  may 
scape.  Nothing  lacerated  or  smothered  is  allowed 
o  be  eaten,  because  in  that  case  the  blood  has  not 
properly  escaped.  This  practise  of  avoiding  to 
partake  of  blood  is  veiy  ancient  (Gen.  ix.  4).  It 
9  sharply  accentuated  in  various  repetitions  and 
tortious  of  the  Law  (Lev.  iii.  17,  viL  26-27,  xvii. 
O,  xix.  26;  Deut.  xii.  16,  23-24,  xv.  23;  cf.  Ezek. 
:xxiii.  25;  I  Sam.  xiv.  32-33).  Even  the  stranger 
irho  had  settled  in  Canaan  was  forbidden  to  eat  the 
»lood  (Lev.  xvii.  10,  15),  whereas  in  Deut.  xiv.  21 
he  stranger  is  at  least  allowed  the  cattle  "that 
lieth  of  itself."  Whoever  transgressed  the  com- 
aandment  had  to  undergo  the  same  course  of 
txpiation  as  in  the  case  of  the  defilements  noted 
kbove  (Lev.  xvii.  10,  15),  or  expect  extermination 
>y  the  hand  of  God  (Lev.  xvii.  16,  viL  27).  The 
Jood  of  sacrificial  beasts  was  brought  to  the  altar; 
Q  other  cases  it  was  simply  poured  on  the  ground 
>T  covered  with  "  dust."  The  avoidance  of  par- 
aking  of  blood  has  become  so  natural  to  the  Jews 
hat  the  practise  continues.  The  proviso  that  the 
>lood  of  animals  must  properly  escape  in  the 
laughtering  led  to  a  complicated  ceremonial, 
inder  rabbinical  Judaism,  with  reference  to  the 
laughter  (purporting  to  follow  the  tradition  men- 
ioned  in  Deut.  xii.  21).  The  slaying  is  to  be  des- 
patched by  a  "  Schfichter  "  (Jewish  butcher)  who 
horoughly  understands  the  Talmudic  regulations 
cf .  the  Mishna  tract  J3uUin  and  the  penal  laws 
Q  connection  with  partiddng  of  blood,  KerUot,  K,  5; 
Jso  Maimonides,  Yad  harHazakaht  Hilkot  ShehMoh  ; 
}hulhan  'Aruk,  Yore  De*ah  ;  and  on  Jewish  butcher- 
ag,  I.  Hamburger,  ReaUnq^klopddie  fUr  Bibel  und 
""almud,  iL  1099  sqq.;  JE,  xi.  253  sqq.). 

Like  the  blood,  the  fat  of  sacrificial  beasts  is 

orbidden  to  be  eaten   (Lev.  iii.  17.  vii.  25).     Not 

the   outer   fat,   which   grows  united 

5.  The  Pro-  with  the  flesh,  is  meant,  but  that 
hibition  deposited  about  the  entrails,  and 
of  Fat      especially  about  the  kidneys,  including 

in  case  of  sheep  the  "  fat  tail "  (Lev. 
ii.  9-10).  But,  far  from  being  unclean,  the  fat  is, 
n  a  certain  sense,  the  "  quintessence "  of  the 
)ody,  and  therefore  the  choicest  portion,  reserved 
)y  Yahweh  for  himself.  Here,  too,  the  standpoint 
9  theocratic,  not  hygienic  or  sanitary.  Moreover, 
>euteronomy  says  naught  of  this  prohibition. 

There  are  two  additional  precepts  in  respect  to 
ood:   (1)  Gen.  xxxii.  32,  which,  to  be  sure,  is  not 


a  prescriptive  rule,  but  states  as  a  generally  recog- 
nized usage  in  Israel  that  the  hip  sinew  {nenm» 
Uchiadicua)    of    slaughtered    animals 
6.  Two  Ad-  was   never  eaten.     (2)   The   express 

ditional     command  not  to  **  seethe  a  kid  in  its 

Restric-  mother's  milk  "  is  found  in  the  Book 
tions.  of  the  Covenant  (Ex.  xxiii.  19)  and 
repeated  Ex.  xxxiv.  26  and  Deut. 
xiv.  21.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that  the 
intent  here  was  to  do  away  with  some  heathen 
sacrificial  practise  (Maimonides,  Roskoff)  or  some 
other  custom  of  superstitious  intent  (magical  craft, 
Stade).  It  is  more  probable  that  this  prohibition, 
like  Lev.  xxii.  28,  Deut.  xxii.  6-7  (cf.,  too,  the 
Sabbath  rest  for  beasts),  enjoins  a  certain  sparing 
of  nature  even  in  the  animal  world.  In  later  times 
this  prohibition  was  so  far  amplified  by  the  Tar- 
gum  and  rabbinical  writers  that  meat  might  not 
be  cooked  in  milk  or  butter  at  all;  and  this  led  to 
a  punctilious  classification  of  kitchen  utensils,  and 
to  similar  pedantries  in  vogue  among  modem 
orthodox  Jews.  The  original  significance  of  the 
matter  is  more  correctly  recognized  by  the  Samari- 
tans, who  even  now  procure  meat  and  milk  from 
different  districts. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  primitive  Christian 
congregation  is  found  for  the  most  part  loyal  to 
the  traditional  precepts  of  Moses.    But  the  dis- 
tinction between  clean  and  unclean 

7.  The  animals,  like  other  purificatory  pre- 
Christian  scriptions  that  hedged  Israel  in,  had 
Usage  and  to  fall  away  if  any  closer  touch  was 
Attitude,  to  ensue  with  the  heathen  world. 
The  lesson  was  imparted  to  Peter 
(Acts  X.  9  sqq.).  Such  abolition  of  barrier  pre- 
cepts, indeed,  is  intrinsically  supported  by  the 
revelation  fulfilled  through  Christ,  which,  by 
removing  from  the  sinner  his  once  burdening  ban 
of  uncleanness,  purifies  and  sanctifies  the  whole 
creature.  In  this  light  the  external  distinction 
of  clean  and  unclean  loses  its  proper  warrant  of 
being.  Especially  to  be  noted  is  the  canon  of 
Matt.  XV.  11,  17-20;  Mark  vii.  15,  whereby  dietaiy 
laws  are  already  repealed  in  principle.  In  the 
primitive  Christian  Church  the  prohibition  against 
partaking  of  blood  was  longest  and  most  strictly 
maintained  in  force;  and  this,  indeed,  with  ref- 
erence to  Gentile  Christians  as  well  as  Jewish  (Acts 
XV.  20,  29,  xxi.  25),  not  as  a  distmctively  Israelitic 
prohibition,  but  one  reaching  back  even  to  Noah. 
In  Tertullian's  time  the  Church  deemed  itself  still 
generally  bound  by  that  restriction  (Tertullian, 
ApoL,  ix.;  De  monoffamia,  v.;  De  idoUUria,  xxiv.; 
Eusebius,  Hist  eccl,  v.  1).  The  Greek  Church 
adhered  to  the  same  constantly  (Second  TruUan 
Council,  canon  Ixvii.;  Suicerus,  Thesawrua  eccU- 
siaalicus,  i.  113).  In  principle,  however,  this  pro- 
hibition was  done  away  with  by  the  word  of  the 
Lord,  Matt.  xv.  11,  aa  well  as  through  the  evangelic 
liberty  proclaimed  by  the  apostles,  Paul  especially 
(I  Tim.  iv.  3-4),  as  belonging  to  the  "  elements  of 
the  world  "  (Gal.  iv.  3),  which  could  serve  only  by 
way  of  preparatory  instruction  to  the  congregation 
of  the  faithful,  who  are  told  "  all  things  are  yours, 
and  ye  are  Christ's." 

C.  VON  Orelu. 


ZMnrle 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


430 


Bduoobapht:  A.  WMner,  Die  jUdtMchen  SjmteoMttM, 
Bnslau,  1806;  J.  D.  MiehaelU,  MommcAm  Rechl,  W.  126- 
126,  BMhl.  1777;  H.  Ewald.  Die  AUerthUm^  dee  Volkee 
Itnel,  pp.  102-212,  Odttimcen,  1866,  Kng.  transL.  pp. 
144-166,  Boston,  1876;  W.  M.  Thomson,  The  Land  and 
the  Book,  3  vols..  New  York,  1881^86;  H.  L.  Straek, 
Dae  BltU  im  Gtauben  und  Aherglavben,  BerUn.  1000;  Z>B. 
u.  27-43;  EB,  u.  1538  sqq.;  JB,  v.  431-433;  and  the 
literature  under  Dbiilbicbnt  and  Pubuication,  Cbrb- 

MONIAL- 

DIETENBERGERy  JOHANITES:  German  Ro- 
man Catholic  Bible  translator;  b.  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main  c.  1475;  d.  at  Mainz  Sept.  4,  1537.  He 
entered  in  early  life  the  Dominican  order,  and  in 
1510  became  prior  of  the  Frankfort  monastery. 
This  office  he  held  till  1524.  In  1526  he  became 
prior  in  Coblenz.  He  was  among  the  theologians 
chosen  to  refute  the  Augsbixrg  Confession  in  1530. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  Dominican  inquisitors,  and 
as  such  had  a  part  in  the  Reuchlin  investigation. 
From  1533  till  his  death  he  was  professor  of  the- 
ology at  the  University  of  Mains.  He  is  spoken 
of  by  his  contemporaries,  both  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  as  one  of  the  foremost  men  of  his  time, 
but  he  has  been  so  much  forgotten  that  the  de- 
tails of  his  life  are  not  known,  and  the  way  in  which 
the  outline  that  is  known  has  been  stated  is  usu- 
ally erroneous.  He  was  a  prolific  author.  Most  nu- 
merous are  his  ascetic  and  polemical  writings,  but 
of  greater  permanent  value  are  his  translation  of 
the  entire  Bible,  for  which  his  scholarship  in 
Hebrew  and  Greek  qualified  him,  but  which  was 
fiercely  attacked  by  the  Protestants  as  nothing 
more  than  a  transcript  of  Luther's  translation,  and 
particulariy  his  catechism  which  was  one  of  the 
earliest  of  the  kind  known.  The  Bible  version 
(Mains,  1534)  is  of  course  from  the  Vulgate.  It 
passed  through  forty  editions.  His  catechism 
(Mainz,  1537)  was  also  very  popular  and  received 
the  indorsement  of  numerous  church  bodies. 
Bibuoobaprt:  H.  Wedewer,  Jahannee  Dietenberger,  Frei- 
burg. 1888;  C.  Moufang,  Die  Maimer  Katediiamen  .  .  . 
hie  eum  Ende  dee  18.  Jahrhunderte,  Mains,  1878. 

DIETRICH,  dt'triH.  OF  APOLDA:  Author  of  a 
life  of  St.  Elizabeth  of  Thuringia  and  another  of  St. 
Dominic.  He  is  undoubtedly  identical  with  Die- 
trich of  Thuringia,  but  of  his  life  is  known  only 
what  may  be  gathered  from  the  prologues  to  his 
works — ^that  he  was  bom  probably  about  1228  in 
Apolda,  and  became  a  Dominican  in  the  monastery 
at  Erfurt  in  1247;  he  most  likely  died  there  after 
1296.  His  two  biographies  are  written  not  with- 
out skill,  and  display  painstaking  search  after  oral 
and  written  sources.  The  VUa  S.  EliaabethcB  was 
written  1289  and  printed  in  Canisius,  Lectumes 
anHqtMF,  ed.  Basnage,  iv  (Amsterdam,  1725), 
116-152;  it  adds  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
saint's  life,  and  the  same  is  true  of  his  Vila  S. 
Dominici  (latest  ed.  by  A.  Cur6,  Paris,  1887). 
Begun  at  the  request  of  Munione  da  Zamorra, 
general  of  the  order,  Dietrich  finished  it  under 
Nicholas  Bocassinus,  general  1296-98.  He  has 
incorporated  oral  tradition  from  Sister  Concilia  in 
Rome,  and  the  German  provincial  Gerard,  and  has 
used  the  older  biographies  of  the  saint  by  Jordanus, 
Constantine,  Humbert,  Gerhard  of  Frachet,  and 
the  acts  of  the  canonization. 

(G.  GrOtzmacher.) 


Bibuoobaprt:  J.  Qu^Stif  and  J.  ^ohard,  Scriptoree  orf!«j 
prcedieatorum,    i.    413    sqq..    453    aqq.*    Pkrie,    1719 
Boerner.  in  NA,  ziii  (1888).  pp.  472-491    (pp.  «l-6: 
eontain  an  edition  of  the  Viia). 

DIETRICH  OF  NIEHEIM  (RIEH):  Romsn 
Cathoiic  Reformatory  writer  at  the  time  of  th- 
great  Western  schism  (see  Schism);  b.  in  thedb- 
cese  of  Paderbom  in  Westphalia,  probably  &'. 
Nieheim  (18  m.  e.n.e.  of  Paderbom)  between  \Xy^  I 
and  1348;  d.  at  Maestricht  Mar.,  1418.  A  vfry  | 
industrious  man,  he  labored  for  the  removal  of  tl  r  | 
schism  and,  like  Pierre  d' Ailly  and  Gerson  in  FrsntH , 
lifted  up  his  voice  in  Germany  in  favor  of  a  thorou?!:  I 
reformation  of  the  Church.  At  the  time  of  iik 
Council  at  Constance  he  was  the  greatest  ecrK  ' 
siastico-political  publicist  using  the  German  ton^it. 
All  his  life  he  is  designated  as  a  cleric  of  the  dio^^ 
of  Paderbom.  He  was  not  of  noble  birth,  wis 
educated  outside  of  his  native  land,  and  traveW 
through  Italy.  Having  studied  jurisprudence,  l^ 
obtained  a  position  in  the  curia.  In  1370  he  wi< 
an  officer  in  the  papal  court  at  Avignon,  and  in  1377. 
as  notarins  aacri  palatii  went  with  the  curia  to  RoiDe. 
Under  Urban  VI.  he  obtained  the  important  aii 
lucrative  offices  of  abbreviator  and  scriptor  in  th'^ 
chancery.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  schism  b 
1378  he  shared  the  vicissitudes  of  Urban  VI..  bu*. 
he  obtained  rich  livings,  and  under  the  next  pop*:, 
Boniface  IX.  (1389-1404),  he  was  appointed  to  lb 
episcopal  see  of  Verden  on  the  Aller,  in  his  nativ 
Lower  Saxony.  He  occupied  the  sec  from  IS".*? 
to  1390,  when  he  had  to  resign.  In  1403  he  w^ 
again  in  Rome  and  interested  in  the  newly  founded 
German  Hospital  dell'  Anima.  He  took  no  part  in 
the  Council  at  Pisa  (1409),  as  certain  business 
took  him  to  Germany.  But  he  remained  in  the 
service  of  the  curia  till  the  flight  of  John  XX  III 
from  the  Council  at  Constance  in  1415  induced  hin 
to  sever  his  connection  with  the  pope.  At  the 
Council  of  Constance  he  played  officially  no  vr- 
portant  part,  but  exercised  considerable  influence 
by  his  writings.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted  thai 
he  composed  at  Constance  the  passionate  hbfi 
which  its  first  editor  entitled  Invectiva  in  dijjT*' 
gientem  .  .  .  Johannem  xxitu  In  this  he  holds 
before  the  pope  a  fearful  list  of  sins  committeii 
and  destroys  his  moral  character  irretrievably 
In  his  official  position  Dietrich  had  the  chance  (^ 
observing  the  doings  of  the  curia  from  1377  to 
1415,  and,  as  he  was  well  educated  and  strove  to 
be  honest,  his  records  have  almost  the  value  d  a 
source.  There  is  at  present  no  agreement  conceni- 
ing  the  genuineness  of  the  writings  attributed  to 
him.  The  most  important  may  be:  (1)  Nemus 
unionis  (first  printed  Basel,  1566,  as  bk.  iv.  of 
the  following  work),  treating  of  the  union  of  the 
church;  (2)  De  sdiismaU  (Nuremberg,  1536),  a 
history  of  the  schism  to  1410;  (3)  HtsUria  de  rite 
Johannis  xxiii.  (Frankfort,  1420),  also  a  bistoiy 
of  the  Council  of  Constance  and  Dietrich's  daT- 
book  to  1416;  (4)  PriviUgia  et  jitra  imi>rr:i 
(Basel,  1566\  a  history  of  the  Holy  Roman  empinp, 
after  the  fashion  of  Dante's  political  dreams.  Ac- 
cording to  Erler,  Dietrich  did  not  write  the  works 
De  neceMttaU  reformationia  eccUsia,  De  modis  uni- 
endi  ac  reformandi  eccUsiatn,  and  Ds  difficuUeU 


431 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dietenber^r 
DiiTffle 


reformationU  in  concQio  univeraali,  all  of  which 
belong  to  the  time  of  the' great  Western  schlBm. 

Paul  T^chackxrt. 
Bibuoobaprt:  For  a  full  list  of  editions  of  the  works  of 
Dietrich  and  of  literature  on  him  consult:  Potthast.  W§0' 
toMMT,  pp.  1051-66  (indispensable  as  an  aid  to  special 
study).  The  best  review  of  his  life  and  writings  is  Q. 
Erler,  Dietrich  von  Nuheinit  Leipsic.  1887.  Consult 
further:  J.  B.  Schwab,  JoKannea  Oenon,  WQrsburg.  1858; 
H.  V.  Sauerland,  Dot  Ltben  de»  Dietrich  von  Nieheim, 
Odttingen.  1875:  P.  Tschackert.  Peter  von  Ailli,  Qotha. 
1877;  A.  Frits.  Zur  QuelUnkritik  der  Sehriften  Dietriche 
von  NUm,  Paderbom,  1886;  O.  Lorens,  Deutechlande 
CfeKhidUaquOUn,  ii.  162,  313-323.  371-374.  413-414, 
Berlin.  1887;  H.  Finke,  Acta  concUiiCon9tantimei»t  vol.  i., 
Monster,  1806;  KL,  iii.  1747-40. 

DIETRICH,  VEIT:  German  Reformer;  b.  in 
Nuremberg  Dec.  8,  1506;  d.  there  Mar.  25,  1549. 
Though  only  a  shoemaker's  son,  he  went  in  1522 
to  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he  soon 
gained  the  affection  of  Melanchthon.  Later  he 
came  in  dose  touch  with  Luther,  who  advised  him 
to  forsake  medicine  for  theology;  he  shared 
Luther's  house  and  board,  and  became  his  aman- 
uensis and  secretary.  As  such  he  accompanied 
Luther  to  the  debate  at  Marburg  in  1529,  in  the 
following  year  he  went  with  Luther  to  Coburg  on 
the  way  to  the  Diet  at  Augsburg.  In  1533  he  ap- 
pears as  dean  of  the  faculty  of  arts  in  Wittenberg. 
On  Dec.  14, 1535,  he  became  minister  at  St.  Sebald's 
in  Nuremberg,  and  shortly  after  married  a  lady  of 
Nuremberg.  He  was  Melanchthon's  lifelong  friend, 
and  had  his  confidence,  knew  his  thoughts,  and 
shared  his  cares  as  no  other  did  except  Camerarius; 
while  more  anti-Roman  than  Melanchthon,  he  was 
his  disciple  rather  than  Luther's.  He  edited  and 
translated  into  German  a  number  of  Luther's  and 
Melanchthon's  minor  writings;  it  is  charged  that 
he  proceeded  very  arbitrarily  in  editing,  sometimes 
suppressing  Luther's  views  or  changing  them  com- 
pletely. Of  his  own  works  (which  were  very  numer- 
ous) the  most  popular  was  the  Summaria  fiber  das 
AUe  Testament  (Wittenberg,  1541),  an  attempt 
to  give  briefly  "  what  it  is  most  necessary  and  useful 
that  the  young  people  and  the  common  man  should 
know  of  each  chapter."  In  1544,  with  Melanch- 
thon's help,  he  rendered  a  like  service  for  the  New 
Testament  (reprinted  by  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Synod  of  Missouri  and  Ohio,  St.  Loub,  1857). 

(T.  KOLDE.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Q.  T.  Strobel,  Naehrieht  von  dem  Lthen  und 
don  Schrifton  Veit  Diotridie,  Nuremberg.  1772;  J.  Voigt, 
Brieftoecheel  dor  horUhmieeten  Oelehrton  .  .  .  der  Refor- 
mation, pp.  171-216.  Kdnigflberg.  1841;  H.  E.  J&oobs. 
Martin  Luther,  New  York.  1898;  J.  W.  Richard,  Philip 
M^ndUhon,  ib.  1808.  Very  numerous  are  the  references 
to  Dietrich  in  J.  Kfistlin,  Martin  Luther,  Berlin.  1003. 

DIEU,  dy©,  LUDOVICUS  (LODEWIJK)  DE: 
Dutch  Orientalist;  b.  at  Flushing,  Holland,  Apr. 
7,  1590;  d.  at  Leyden  Nov.  13,  1642.  He  studied 
in  Leyden,  where,  under  J.  Scaliger,  Oriental  studies 
had  thriven.  The  Library  of  the  "Athens  of 
Holland  "  was  rich  in  Oriental  manuscripts,  and 
Thomas  Erpenius,  who  was  with  Daniel  Colonius 
(van  Ceulen)  the  teacher  who  most  impressed 
him,  saw  to  it  that  these  treasures  were  well  used. 
After  completing  his  studies,  in  1613  Dieu  became 
pastor  at  Middelburg,  in  1615  he  removed  to  Flush- 
ing, and  in  1617  took  charge  of  the  Low  German 


congregation  at  Leyden,  and  served  also  as  regent 
of  the  Walloon  College  until  his  death.  He  refused 
a  call  to  the  newly  founded  University  of  Utrecht, 
and  also  many  other  offers.  He  was  a  plain, 
reliable,  and  dear-eyed  scholar,  as  a  commentator 
he  was  highly  esteemed,  and  was  always  active  in 
the  public  weaL  Because  of  the  character  of  his 
studies  and  of  his  taste  for  linguistics  he  became 
an  exegete,  and  employed  in  a  new  way,  in  the 
service  of  Biblical  science,  the  translations  from 
Oriental  languages,  especially  those  from  the  Syriac, 
the  Arabic,  and  the  Ethiopic,  aa  well  as  his  knowl- 
edge of  Jewish  literature.  The  study  of  Tremel- 
lius's  Latm  translation  of  the  Syriac  New  Testament 
and  the  use  of  a  translation  into  Hebrew  of  a  part 
of  the  New  Testament  by  Mercerus  and  Milnster 
gave  his  zeal  new  impetus  in  the  same  direction. 
Further  to  equip  himself  he  dived  into  the  trans- 
lations of  Oriental  literature  furnished  by  his  friend 
Heinsius,  librarian  in  Leyden.  The  fruits  of  his 
labors  he  gathered  partly  in  writings  on  linguistics, 
partly  in  notes  on  difficult  Biblical  passages.  The 
exegetical  works  completed  in  this  period  are 
collected  under  the  title  Critica  sacra  sive  animad- 
versiones  in  loca  quadam  difficiliora  Veteris  et  Novi 
Testamenti  (Amsterdam,  1884),  edited  with  good 
indexes. 

In  still  another  field  Dieu's  scientific  work  bore 

good  fruit.     Through  a  traveler  to  the  Orient  he 

got  possession  of  some  missionary  tracts  put  into 

Persian  by  the  Jesuit  Jerome  Xavier,  and  of  a  Life 

of  Jesus  and  a  Life  of  Peter,  which  were  intended 

to  bring  to  the  "  Mongols  "  the  true  word  of  God. 

He  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Persian  in  order  to 

examine  the  missionary  methods  of  the  Jesuits,  and 

expressed  disgust  at  the  way  in  which  they  palmed 

off  legends  and  falsehoods  as  truth.     He  proceeded 

to  edit  their  works,  added  a  Latin  translation  and 

valuable  notes,  and  affixed  a  Persian  grammar,  that 

any  one  might  investigate  and  see  that  he,  a  priest 

of  science,  fought   with  clean  weapons.     It  is  a 

missionary's  duty,  he  t>aught,  to  learn  the  language, 

so  as  not  to  hinder  the  progress  of  the  Gospel 

among  the  heathen.  (G.  Heinrici.) 

Bibliooraphy:  As  an  early  souroe  oonsult  R.  Simon,  HiO' 

toire  critique  du  V.  T.,  pp.  440  sqq.,  Amsterdam.  1678; 

idem,  Hietoire  critique  dee  .  .  .  eommentateure  du  N.  T., 

pp.  787  sqq.;   Rotterdam,   1603.     Ck>nsult  also  Niotfron, 

Mhnovree,  xv.  85  sqq.;  A.  J.  van  der  Aa,  Btographieeh 

Woordenboek  der  Nederlanden,  iv.  53,  Haarlem,  1859. 

DI66LE,  JOHN  WILLIAM:  Anglican  bishop  of 
Carlisle;  b.  at  Pendleton  (a  suburb  of  Manchester) 
Mar.  2, 1847.  He  studied  at  Merton  College,  Oxford 
(B.A.,  1870),  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1872.  He 
was  curate  at  Whalley  Range,  Lancashire  (1871- 
1872),  AU  Saints',  Liverpool  (1872-74),  St.  John's, 
Walton,  Liverpool  (1874-75),  and  vicar  ofMossley 
Hill,  Liverpool  (1876-96).  He  was  canon  of  Car- 
lisle and  archdeacon  of  Westmorland  (1896-1901), 
and  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Carlisle 
(1892-1901).  He  was  rector  of  St.  Martin's, 
Birmingham,  in  1901-04,  and  archdeacon  of 
Birmingham  and  rural  dean  in  1903-05.  He  was 
rural  dean  of  Child  wall  in  1882-96,  honorary  canon 
of  Liverpool  in  1889-96,  president  of  the  Liverpool 
Council  of  Education  in  1891,  select  preacher  to 
the  University  of  Oxford  in  1898,  and  examining 


Dike 

Diocletian 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


432 


chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Worcester  in  1902-05. 
In  1906  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Carlisle. 
He  has  edited  Bishop  James  Eraser's  University 
and  Parochial  Sermons  (London,  1887)  and  Lan- 
cashire Life  (1889);  and  has  written  Godliness  and 
ManUness  (London,  1886);  True  Religion  (1887); 
Sermons  for  Daily  Life  (1891);  Religious  Doubt 
(1895);  and  Short  Studies  in  Holiness  (1900). 

DIKE,  SAMUEL  WARREN:  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  Thompson,  Conn..  Feb.  13,  1839.  He  studied 
at  Williams  College  (B.A.,  1863),  Hartford  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1863-^5),  and  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (B.D.,  1866).  He  was  pastor  at 
West  Randolph,  Vt.  (1866-77),  and  Royalton,  Vt. 
(1879-82),  and  since  1881  has  been  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  National  League  for  the  Protection 
of  the  Family,  which  was  foimded  in  that  year 
under  the  name  of  the  Divorce  Reform  League, 
largely  as  the  result  of  his  writings.  He  has  lec- 
tured in  many  higher  institutions  of  learning,  and 
originated  the  home  department  of  the  Sunday- 
school.  He  sympathizes  with  the  use  of  scientific 
methods  in  theology  and  polity.  He  is  the  author 
of  numerous  articles  on  divorce,  the  family,  and 
country  towns. 

DILLER  (DILHERR),  MICHAEL:  Reformer  of 
Speyer;  b.,  probably  in  the  diocese  of  Speyer,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century;  d.  at 
Heidelberg  1570.  He  matriculated  at  Witten- 
berg in  1523,  and  shortly  after  1529  was  prior  of 
the  Augustinian  monastery  at  Speyer,  and  preached 
there  frequently.  Being  a  pupil  of  Wittenberg, 
he  preached  justification  from  a  strictly  evangelical 
point  of  view,  although  he  avoided  polemics.  He 
soon  gained  the  confidence  of  the  citizens  of  Speyer, 
and  in  1538  the  municipal  council,  recognizing  the 
necessity  of  providing  for  regular  evangelical 
preaching  to  prevent  the  people,  who  neglected  the 
Roman  Catholic  service,  from  '*  sinking  into  deprav- 
ity," requested  Diller  to  hold  regular  services  in  his 
church.  In  1540  the  bishop  became  aware  of  this 
course,  and  commanded  him  to  cease  immediately, 
although  he  was  obliged  to  acquiesce  in  the  refusal 
of  Diller,  who  was  protected  by  the  council.  In 
Jan.,  1541,  the  emperor  Charles  V.  visited  Speyer 
and  forbade  the  council  to  permit  Diller  to  deliver 
his  sermons,  since  he  **  preached  of  justification 
and  good  works  after  the  new  fashion."  Diller, 
who  had  left  the  city  before  the  arrival  of  Charles, 
pleaded  his  cause  before  the  council  and  continued 
his  activity  after  the  emperor's  departure.  Thus 
far  Diller  had  mode  no  changes  in  the  form  of  the 
service,  but  previous  to  Easter  of  1543  he  preached 
against  the  mass  and  demanded  that  the  cup  be 
given  to  the  laity.  The  bishop  in  vain  asked  the 
council  to  interfere,  and  it  would  seem  that  Diller 
now  actually  administered  the  Holy  Sacrament  in 
both  kinds.  During  the  emperor's  attendance  at 
the  Diet  of  Speyer  (Jan.-June,  1544)  Diller  was 
absent  from  the  city,  but  he  resumed  his  activity 
with  fresh  ardor  after  the  adjournment  of  the  diet. 
The  councfl,  encouraged  by  the  course  of  events 
at  the  diet,  not  only  protected  him,  but  also  decided 
to  give  him  an  assistant. 

The  success  of  the  emperor  in  the  Schmalkald 


War  ended  Diller's  work  and  evangelical  preaching 
in  Speyer.  Charles  V.  again  visited  the  city,  azKl 
Diller  was  obliged  to  leave.  He  went  to  Basel, 
and  in  1553  accepted  a  call  to  Neubur^  as  court 
preacher  to  the  palgrave  Ottheinrich.  There,  in 
1554,  he  cooperated  in  the  introduction  of  the 
church-order.  When  Ottheinrich  became  elector 
of  the  Palatinate  in  1556  Diller  followed  him  to 
Heidelberg,  and  collaborated  with  Marbach  and 
Stolo  in  the  preparation  of  a  church-order,  Lutheran 
in  type,  which  was  adopted  Apr.  4,  1556.  He  also 
assisted  in  the  Baden  church-order  of  1556,  took 
part  in  the  same  year  in  the  ecclesiastical  visitations 
in  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  in  the  margravate  of 
Baden,  and  was  one  of  the  most  influential  members 
of  the  council  appointed  to  direct  the  Palatinate 
Church.  The  elector  Frederick  III.,  who  succeeded 
Ottheinrich  in  1559,  likewise  reposed  full  confidence 
in  Diller.  Throughout  the  doctrinal  controversiefl 
of  the  period  he  labored  for  peace.  Repelled  by 
Hesshusen  and  his  S3rmpathizer8,  he  sided  more  and 
more  with  the  Reformed,  especially  at  the  Confer^ 
ence  of  Maulbronn  in  1564,  although  henceforth 
he  rarely  appeared  in  public.  He  does  not  seem  to 
have  engaged  in  literary  activity.    Juuus  Net. 

DILLMAim,  (CHRISTIAN  FRIEDRICH)  AU- 
GUST: German  Lutheran  theologian;  b.  at  II- 
lingen  (17  m.  n.w.  of  Stuttgart),  Wdrttember^ 
Apr.  25,  1823;  d.  in  Berlin  July  4,  1894.  He 
studied  in  the  seminary  at  SchOnthal,  1836-40;  at 
Tubingen,  1840-45;  was  assistant  pastor  at  Sers- 
helm,  WOrttemberg,  1845-46;  traveled  and 
studied,  especially  Ethiopic,  at  Paris,  London,  and 
Oxford,  1846-48;  becaone  repetent  (Le.,  tutor 
for  three  years)  at  Tubingen,  1848;  privat- 
docent  for  Old  Testament  exegesis  in  the  theological 
faculty,  1852;  professor  extraordinary  of  theology, 
1853;  professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the  phil- 
osophical faculty  at  Kiel,  1854;  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Giessen,  1864;  and  at  Berlin,  1869.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  cultivation  of  the  neg- 
lected field  of  Ethiopic  language  and  literature. 
As  a  critic  he  stood  in  opposition  to  the  tra- 
ditional  treatment  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  was 
always  guided  by  his  perception  of  the  histor- 
ical principle.  He  received  on  this  account  the 
thanks  of  the  late  Dr.  Delitssch  on  the  occasion  of 
an  address  which  was  an  answer  to  the  latter's 
treatment  of  Old  Testament  theology,  and  replied 
in  a  spirit  of  warm  cordiality  and  appreciation. 

His  publications  embrace  Catahgus  codieum 
orientalium  MSS.  qui  in  Museo  Britannieo  asser" 
vantur.  P.  III.  Codices  JElhuypicos  amplectens 
(London,  1847);  Catalogue  codieum  manuscrip' 
torum  Bibliotheca  BodleiancB  Oxoniensie.  P.  Vll. 
Codices  /Ethiopici,  digessit  A,  Dillmann  (Oxford, 
1848);  Liber  Henoch,  JEthiopice  (Leipsic,  1851); 
Das  Buck  Henoch  iiberseUl  u.  erkl&rt  (1853);  Das 
chrisdiche  Adambuch  des  Morgenlandes,  aus  dtm 
Aethiopischen  Hbersetzt  (reprinted  from  Ewald's 
Jahrbiicher,  1853);  BibUa  Veteris  Testamenti  jEthi- 
opica,  Tomus  I.  OcUUeuchus.  Fasc.  1,  Genesin, 
Exodum,  Leviticum  (1853).  Fasc.  2,  Numeros  ei 
Deuteronomium  (1854).  Fasc.  3,  Joeua^  JwHcum 
et  Ruih  (1855).    Tomus  IL  Fasc.  1  et  2,  Libn 


438 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bike 
IMooletian 


Regum  (1861  and  1871),  vol.  v.  containing  the 
Apocrypha  (1894,  but  the  missing  vols.  iii.  and  iv. 
will  not  appear);  Grammatik  der  dthiopischen 
Sprache  (1857,  2d  ed..  by  C.  Bezold,  1899;  Eng. 
transl.,  1907);  Liber  JitbilcBorumf  ^thiopice  (1S59); 
Lexicon  lingucB  ^thiopicas  (1865);  Chrestomathia 
jEthiopica  cum  gloasario  (1866);  Liber  Jvbilaorum 
(  Kiel,  1859);  for  the  Kurzgefasstee  exegetiaches  Hand- 
buck  he  edited  Hiob  (1869,  1891);  Genesis  (1882, 
1886,  1892,  Eng.  trunsl.,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1897); 
Exodus  and  Leviticus  (1880);  Numeri,  DetUerono- 
mium  und  Josua  (1886);  Jesaia  (1890);  and  pos- 
thumously, HandbuchderalUestammtlichen  Theologie 
(Leipsic,  1895).  He  contributed  also  to  Schenkel's 
Bibel  or  Lexikon,  to  Brockhaus'  Conversatums* 
Lexikon,  and  was  associate  editor  of  the  JahrbUcher 
ftir  deutscke  Theologie, 

BiBiiXOOBAPRT:  W.  Baudiflsin,  Auifuti  DiUmann,  Leipsie, 
1895;  Zur  Erinnerung  an  .  .  .  DiUmann,  Stuttgart, 
1900. 

DILTH£Y,WILH£LM:  German  philosopher;  b. 
at  Biebrich  (3  m.  s.  of  Wiesbaden)  Nov.  10,  1833. 
He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  was  privat- 
dooent  in  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Basel  in  1866.  In  1868  he  was 
called  in  the  same  capacity  to  Kiel,  and  in  1871  to 
Breslau.  Since  1882  he  has  been  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin.  His  writings  include  Leben 
SchUnermachers  (Berlin,  1870);  Einleitung  in  die 
Geistesunssenschaften  (Leipsic,  1883);  and  Das 
ErUbnis  und  die  Dichtung  (1906). 

DIMOERTTES:  According  to  Epiphanius  {Hcer., 
IxxviL),  a  name  given  to  the  followers  of  Apol- 
linaris  of  Laodicea  (q.v.),  because,  according  to 
them,  Christ  had  assumed  only  two  of  the  three 
elements  of  the  perfect  human  form,  the  soma 
and  the  psychB  alogoSf  whereas  the  divine  Logos 
himself  took  in  him  the  place  of  the  nous,  the 
psychi  hgiki.  G.  KrOoer. 

DINTER,  GUSTAV  FRIEDRICH:  CSerman  edu- 
cator and  theologian;  b.  at  Boma  (16  m.  s.s.e.  of 
Leipsic)  Feb.  29,  1760;  d.  in  KOnigsberg  May  29, 
1831.  In  1773  he  entered  the  FUrstenschule  at 
Grimma,  in  1779  the  University  of  Leipsic.  After 
serving  as  tutor  he  entered  the  ministry  in  1787 
as  substitute  at  Kitscher,  where  his  pastoral  work, 
especially  his  untiring  zeal  for  the  education  of  the 
youth,  made  him  greatly  beloved.  His  success  in 
training  teachers  for  the  lower  schools  led  to  his 
appointment  as  director  of  the  normal  school  at 
Dresden  in  1797.  Because  of  ill  health  he  returned 
to  the  ministry  in  1807  at  Gdmitz,  where  he  found- 
ed a  progymnasium,  which  became  famous  as  a 
training-school  for  the  practical  pursuits  of  life. 
He  became  member  of  the  consistory  and  board  of 
education  in  Kdnigsberg,  1816;  professor  of  the- 
ology, 1817.  His  SchuUehrerbibel  (9  vols.,  Neu- 
Btadt,  1826-30)  made  a  sensation.  Starting  with 
Semler's  distinction  between  theology  and  religion, 
he  sought  in  the  Bible  only  that  which,  in  his  view, 
immediately  belongs  to  religion;  in  this  sphere, 
but  not  in  science,  the  Bible  should  be  the  authority. 
'•  To  religion  belong  worthy  conceptions  of  God, 
of  Jesus  and  his  work,  of  the  sacrcdness  of  the 
moral  law,  of  the  worth  and  destiny  of  man,  of  the 
III.-28 


love  of  God  even  to  the  erring,  of  forgiveness  of 
sins,  of  the  help  God  renders  us  to  be  good,"  ete. 
Dinter  repudiated  strongly  the  charge  that  this  is 
rationalism,  and  considered  himself  orthodox.  In 
his  method  he  was  akin  to  Bahrdt,  trying  to  rein- 
terpret the  language  of  the  Bible  in  the  spirit  of 
his  time,  and  believing  that  herein  he  followed 
Paul  and  Luther.  His  autobiography  (Neustadt, 
1829)  gives  the  best  key  to  his  theology;  it  shows 
a  vigorous,  plain,  jovial,  practical,  and  sympathetic 
character.  A  complete  edition  of  his  writings 
was  edited  by  J.  C.  B.  Wilhelm  (43  vols.,  Neustadt, 
1840-51).  (Sander.) 

DIOCLETIAN  (Caius  Valerius  Diocletianus) :  Ro- 
man emperor  284-305;  b.  near  Salona  (3  m.  n.n.e. 
of  Spalato),  Dalmatia,  o.  225;  d.  there  Dec.  3,  316. 
He  was  probably  a  slave  by  birth,  but  entered  the 
army  and  rose  to  high  rank,  becoming  consul  and 
commander  of  the  body-guards.  After  the  death 
of  Numesian  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
legions  near  Chalcedon  on  Nov.  17,  284,  and  the 
assassination  of  Carinus  in  the  following  year  left 
him  sole  emperor.  He  soon  appointed  his  junior 
comrade  Maximian  Csesar,  and  later  made  him  co- 
regent,  assigning  him  the  Western  half  of  the  empire. 
A  second  division  of  the  empire  took  place  Mar.  1, 
793,  when  two  Csesars  were  created,  Caius  Galeriua 
Valerius  Maximianus,  who  married  Valeria,  Dio- 
cletian's daughter,  and  Marcus  Flavins  Valerius  Con- 
stantius.  The  reins  of  government  remained  in  the 
hands  of  Diocletian,  who  was  a  bom  ruler,  firmly 
convinced  of  the  divinity  of  the  imperial  dignity. 
He  possessed  an  interest  in  higher  culture  and  was 
filled  with  a  strong  passion  for  building,  though 
his  refinement  was  but  superficial  and  was  fre- 
quently overborne  by  the  savagery  of  his  Illyrian 
blood. 

In  the  lattor  part  of  the  third  century  the  Church 
was  flourishing  in  consequence  of  its  long  peace, 
and  many  Christians  were  found  in  aristocratic 
society,  in  influential  public  positions,  in  the  army, 
and  even  in  the  imperial  household.  Diocletian's 
wife,  Prisca,  and  his  daughter  Valeria 

The  Die-  were  at  least  catechumens.  Shortly 
cletian  Per-  after  his  accession,  however,  Diocle- 

secution.  tian  left  no  doubt  88  to  his  attitude 
toward  Christianity  by  an  anti- 
Manichean  decree  issued  in  Egypt  and  usually 
assigned  to  287,  forbidding  all  religious  innovation 
under  heavy  penalty.  The  purging  of  the  army 
by  weeding  out  those  who  refused  to  sacrifice  was 
the  first  measure  directly  planned  to  render  the 
troops  reliable.  An  ill-timed  religious  zeal  offended 
the  emperor  and  helped  the  anti-Christian  party, 
headed  by  Galerius,  who  urged  him  on,  despite  his 
hesitation  in  fear  of  consequences.  In  the  winter  of 
302-303  tedious  conferences  were  held  at  Nicomedia, 
but  it  was  only  after  the  Milesian  Apollo  had  been 
consulted  that  Diocletian  yielded,  though  he  in- 
sisted that  no  blood  be  shed.  Galerius,  however, 
overcame  all  his  politic  considerations  and  finally 
molded  his  religious  policy.  On  Feb.  23,  303,  the 
first  edict  was  issued  at  Nicomedia.  Christian 
freedmen  were  to  be  removed  from  public  offices 
and  were  to  lose  their  civic  rights,  whQe  slaves  were 


BiooletUa 
I>lodoras 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


434 


deprived  of  the  possibility  of  emancipation.  The 
churches  were  to  be  demolished,  the  Scriptures 
were  to  be  surrendered  and  burned,  and  religious 
meetings  were  prohibited.  On  the  same  day  the 
destruction  of  the  basilica  of  Nicomedia  was  begun 
and  the  Scriptures  were  publicly  burned.  Before 
the  movement  became  general,  however,  a  Nico- 
median  official  scornfully  tore  the  edict  down,  and 
the  palace  was  twice  set  on  fire,  the  incendiary, 
according  to  the  Christians,  being  Galerius,  who 
hoped  thus  to  impel  the  emperor  to  more  drastic 
measures.  Rebellions  broke  out  in  Armenia  and 
Syria,  and  were  naturally  laid  to  the  charge  of  the 
Christians.  That  the  latter  resolved  upon  active 
resistance  and  rebellion  lacks  justification,  al- 
though it  is  not  impossible  that  individuals,  either 
secretly  or  openly,  aided  the  usurpers  in  the  East. 
The  effect,  however,  could  not  but  be  imfavorable 
upon  Diocletian's  mind.  A  second  edict  was  issued, 
similar  to  that  of  Decius,  decreeing  the  imprison- 
ment of  all  the  clergy.  Diocletian's  original  in- 
junction forbidding  the  effusion  of  blood  livas  soon 
forgotten  in  the  general  tumult.  The  multitude  of 
prisoners  caused  no  little  trouble,  and  a  new  decree 
enacted  that  the  sacrifice  required  by  the  second 
edict  should  be  exacted  by  all  means.  In  304 
another  edict  universalized  the  decree  concerning 
sacrifice  and  abolished  the  distinction  between 
clergy  and  laity,  aiming  primarily  to  detach  the 
latter,  who  were  far  inferior  to  the  clei^gy  in  zeal  for 
the  Church.  Patient  persuasion  was  also  employed, 
and  steadfast  refusal  led  to  punishment,  torture,  and 
execution.  In  many  cases  the  decree  was  only 
superficially  enforced.  The  leading  spirit  in  all 
these  events  was  Galerius;  Maximian  was  a  minor 
figure;  and  Constantius,  already  in  sympathy  with 
the  Christians,  was  as  conservative  as  possible,  con- 
tenting himself  with  the  demolition  of  buildings. 

On  May  1,  305,  Diocletian  abdicated  and  forced 
Maximian  to  do  the  same.  Their  places  were 
filled  by  the  Augusti,  Galerius  and  Constantius, 
the  new  Ceesars  being  Maximinus  Daza,  a  nephew 
of  Galerius,  who  received  Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Egypt,  and  Severus,  an  uneducated  officer  of  low 
birth,  who  received  Italy,  Africa,  and 

The  End  Pannonia.  The  West  remained  peace- 
of  the  Per-  ful,  but  in  the  East  the  persecution 

secution.  was  rendered  still  more  severe  by  the 
measures  of  Maximinus.  Constantius 
died  July  25,  306,  and  the  army  proclaimed  his  son 
Constantine  Augustus.  The  ultimate  outcome  of 
rebellions  and  wars  was  the  victory  of  Constantine 
at  the  Milvian  Bridge,  Oct.  28,  312,  and  soon  after- 
ward the  so-called  religious  decree  of  Milan  brought 
peace  to  the  Church  in  the  West  (see  Constantine 
THE  Great).  Meanwhile  the  situation  had  changed 
in  the  East;  circumstances  compelled  Galerius  to 
cease  from  persecuting,  and  toward  the  end  of  Apr., 
311,  he  and  his  coregent  issued  an  edict  in  which 
they  admitted  the  inefficiency  of  their  efforts  to 
restore  religious  uniformity.  This  was  the  first 
decree  which  officially  recognized  the  Christian 
religion  in  the  Roman  empire,  although  the  vague- 
ness of  the  clause,  "  yet  so  as  that  they  offend  not 
against  good  order,''  left  a  loophole  for  the  State. 
In  the  autumn,  however,  when  scarcely  six  months 


had  elapsed,  Maximinus,  now  being  the  oldest 
Augustus,  renewed  the  persecution.  Christians 
were  inhumanly  mutilated  and  executed.  The 
customary  funeral  services  in  the  cemeteries  were 
forbidden,  possibly  on  the  pretext  that  they  were 
a  cloak  for  immorality;  religious  meetings  and  the 
building  of  churches  were  prohibited;  and  dele- 
gates of  the  cities  petitioned  for  the  exclusion  of 
the  Christians.  The  defeat  and  death  of  Maxen- 
tius,  the  insignificant  but  ambitious  son  of  Maxi- 
mian, who  had  overthrown  Severus,  suddenly 
changed  the  situation,  and  the  victorious  Constan- 
tine  advised  Maximinus  to  cease  oppressing  the 
Christians.  The  result  was  a  circular  letter  ad- 
dressed by  Maximinus  in  the  latter  part  of  312, 
prohibiting  the  use  of  violence  against  Christians. 
On  Apr.  30, 313,  Maximinus  was  defeated  in  Thrace 
by  licinianus  Licinius  and  forced  to  retire  to 
Nicomedia.  There,  where  the  persecutions  had 
been  begun,  an  edict  of  toleration  was  issued  on 
June  13,  proclaiming  the  principle  of  religious  lib- 
erty with  special  regard  to  the  Christians.  Every 
invidious  distinction  which  still  existed  was  abolished, 
and  all  property,  including  the  confiscated  places  of 
assembly,  was  to  be  restored  at  once  to  the  Church 
as  a  legal  person.  Licinius  assisted  in  rebuilding 
churches,  while  Maximinus  retired  beyond  the 
Taurus  and  issued  a  new  edict  emphasizing  his  later 
measures.  Soon  afterward  he  died,  imploring  the 
help  of  Christ  in  his  agony  and  despair.  All  me- 
morials of  him  were  destroyed  by  the  victor,  and 
his  wife  and  children,  together  with  the  wife  and 
daughter  of  Diocletian  and  other  relatives  and 
adherents  of  the  fallen  dynasty,  were  murdered 
with  shameful  barbarity.  Thus  ended  the  ten 
years  of  the  Diocletian  persecution. 

In  his  retirement  Diocletian  witnessed  all  these 
events,  but  eveiy  effort  to  induce  him  to  leave 
Salona  for  public  life  was  in  vain.  After  a  long  and 
painful  illness  he  died,  perhaps  by  his  own  hand, 
and  was  buried  in  the  splendid  mausoleum  of  his 
palace.  The  bitter  hostility  of  Christian  writers 
toward  him  is  readily  intelligible.     He  was  the 

cause   of  the  longest   and   bloodiest 
Its        persecution    which    the    Church    ex- 
Results,    perienced,  and  its  continuation  by  his 

successors  was  regarded  as  his  legacy. 
In  a  rapid  series  of  edicts  of  increasing  severity 
this  persecution  oppressed  the  congregations  and 
resulted  in  a  refinement  of  cruelty  which  surpassed 
all  that  had  gone  before.  The  effect  of  the  first 
decree,  which  interfered  so  deeply  with  civic  life, 
was  tremendous.  The  reaction,  both  contemporary 
and  subsequent,  against  apostasy  produced  Dona- 
tism  in  Africa  and  Meletianism  in  Egypt,  besides 
causing  schisms  of  more  or  less  importance  in  many 
other  p\suc*^.  Flight  was  not  considered  apostasy 
by  the  Church,  and  it  frequently  afforded  a  means 
of  safety,  though  there  were  many  who  endured 
torture,  imprisonment,  reproach,  and  death.  The 
enthusiasm  for  martyrdom  induced  some  to  antici- 
pate their  trial  by  a  self-chosen  death,  and  women 
and  virgins  preferred  suicide  to  dishonor.  Self- 
accusation  and  violent  denunciation  of  heathenism 
also  took  place,  while  life  itself  was  considered  less 
valuable  than  the  safety  of  the  Scriptures.    The 


436 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biooletlan 
ZModoma 


clergy  of  all  ranks  fell  by  scores,  though  the  Roman 

bishop  Marcellinus  made  an  ofifering  of  incense. 

The  rich  growth  of  martyrological  literature  in 

prose  and  poetry  and  the  cult  of  martyrs,  which 

soon   became   both   wide-spread   and   important, 

were  but  expressions  of  the  feeling  with  which 

Christendom  looked  back  upon  its  **  soldiers  of  the 

faith."  Victor  Schultze. 

Bibuoobapht:  Sources    most    productive    are    EuaebiuB, 

Hitt.  eed.,  books  viii.-iz.;  Lactantius,  De  mortibuB  per- 

aeciUorum,     The  best  monograph    is  A.  J.  Mason,   The 

PeneeuUon  of  Diocletian,  Cambridge,  1876.     Consult:  T. 

Bernhardt,  Diokletian  in  eeinem  VertuUtniee  gu  den  Chri*' 

ten,  Bonn,  1862;  O.  Hunsiger,  Zur  Regierung  und  Chrie- 

ienverfolffung  .  .  .  S03-S15,  Leipsio,  1868;  B.  Aub^,  Hie- 

toire  dee  pereieuiione  de  V^liee,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1875-78; 

Q.  Uhlhorn,  D^  Katnpf  dee  Ckrietenthume  mii  dem  Heir 

dewtum,  Stuttgart,  1889,  Eng.  transl..  New  York,  1880; 

V.    Schultae,    OeechichU  dee    Untergange   dee   grieehiechr- 

rumiechen  Heidentume,  2  Yols..  Jena,  1887-02;  P.  Allard, 

La  PereSatHon  de  DioeUHen  et  le  triomphe  de  l'6glieet  2 

vols.,  Paris,   1800;  idem,  Lee  Dtmikree  PereSeutione  du 

5.  sOcb.   ib.   1897;  E.  Le  Blant,   Lee  Pereieuleure  .  .  . 

aux  premiere  eiicUe,  Paris,  1803;  O.  Seeek,  Oeeehiekie  dee 

Untergange  der  aniiken  Welt,  vol.  i.,  Berlin,  1807;   G.  Bois- 

sier.  La  Fin  du  paganieme,  2  vols.,  ib.  1001;  L.  Pullan, 

Chvrdi  of  the  Fathere,  chap,  xvi.,  New  York,  1006;  Nean- 

der,  Chrietian  Church,  i.   147-156  et  passim,  ii.  passim; 

Schaff,   Chrietian  CAureA,  ii.  64-74;  Gibbon,  DecUne  and 

FaU,  chape,  xiii.-xvi.;  DCB,  i.  833-836. 

DIODATI,  dl"o-da'ti,  GIOVANin:  Genevan  Re- 
former; b.  at  Lucca  June  6,  1576;  d.  at  Geneva 
Oct.  3, 1649.  His  family  was  compelled  by  religious 
persecution  to  flee  from  Italy.  He  was  a  rigid 
Cal vinist,  and  while  still  a  young  man  was  appointed 
to  teach  Hebrew  in  the  Academy  of  Geneva  (1597), 
and  later  became  professor  of  dogmatics.  As  one 
of  the  Genevan  deputies  to  the  Synod  of  Dort  in 
1618,  he  took  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  canons 
of  that  body.  He  translated  the  Bible  into  Italian 
(Geneva,  1607),  his  version  meeting  with  a  success 
comparable  with  that  of  Luther's  German  render- 
ing. He  also  prepared  a  revision  of  the  French 
translation  which  had  been  made  by  the  pastors 
and  professors  of  Geneva  in  1588,  enriching  his 
work  by  valuable  notes  and  elucidations  (Eng. 
transl.,  Piou8  Annotations  upon  the  Holy  Bible, 
London,  1643).  He  translated  into  French  Sarpi's 
Hietona  dd  concilio  tridentino  (1621)  and  Sir  Edwin 
Sandys's  Relation  of  the  StaU  of  Religion  (1626). 
Diodati  was  a  remarkable  preacher  and  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  defenders  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  while  the  ambition  of  his  life  was  the  con- 
version of  his  native  land,  and  especially  the  repub- 
lic of  Venice,  to  his  own  creed. 

Euo^NB  Choist. 
Bibuoobapht:  E.  de  Budd,  Vie  de  Jean  Diodati,  CScneva, 
1860;  O.  D.  J.  Schotel,  Jean  DiodaH,  The  Hague,  1844; 
P.  Plan,  Letiree  trouviee,  pagee  hietoriquee  eur  un  ipieode 
delaviede  Jean  Diodati,  ib.  1864;  Maria  Betta,  Life  of 
Oiovanni  Diodati,  Oeneveee  Theologian,  London,  1905. 

DIC'DO'RUS:  Presbyter  in  Antioch,  after  378 
bishop  of  Tarsus;  d.  before  394.  He  was  a  native 
of  Antioch,  one  of  the  most  prominent  theologians 
of  the  school  of  Antioch  (q.v.),  and  on  the  dog- 
matic side  its  founder.  After  a  general  education 
at  Athens  he  equipped  himself  as  a  theologian  and 
orator  by  studying  the  writings  of,  and  by  personal 
intercourse  with  Eusebius  of  Emesa.  His  aim  was 
twofold:  to  attain  the  fulnt*ss  of  ascetic  perfection, 
and  to  be  a  champion  of  the  Church's  faith.     He 


strove  with  all  his  energy  to  fulfil  the  monastic 
ideal,  and  the  emperor  Julian  pointed  to  his  wasted 
body  as  a  proof  of  the  displeasure  of  the  gods.  The 
state  of  the  Church  in  Antioch  called 
Life  and  forth  all  his  zeal  as  a  presbyter.  Not 
Literary  only  had  Julian,  who  made  his  winter 
Activity,  quarters  there  after  his  return  from 
the  Persian  campaign,  restored  the 
temple  of  Apollo  and  used  all  his  influence  to  win 
the  population  back  to  paganism,  but  most  of  the 
heretical  sects  were  strong  there.  It  was  the  center 
of  Arianism,  and  the  Meletian  schism  had  rent  the 
Church  in  two.  Diodonis  was  the  leading  defender 
of  the  Nicene  faith.  Naturally,  therefore,  his 
writings,  of  which  the  later  Syrian  Church  still 
knew  over  sixty,  were  mainly  controversial  They 
were  directed  against  all  the  principal  enemies  of 
the  Church,  pagan,  Jewish,  and  heretic.  Of  the 
philosophers  he  especially  combated  Plato,  Aris- 
totle, and  Porphyry;  among  heretics  the  Man- 
icheans,  Eimomians,  and  Apollinariaus,  Sabel- 
lius,  Marcellus,  and  Photinus.  He  employed,  too, 
a  very  practical  churchly  activity  against  both 
pagans  and  Arians;  and  his  success,  while  it  raised 
up  bitter  enemies  for  him,  made  his  name  honored 
throughout  the  Eastern  Church.  Even  as  a  lay- 
man, under  Constantius,  when  the  Arian  Leontius 
occupied  the  episcopal  chair  of  Antioch,  with  his 
friend  Flavian,  Diodonis  had  assembled  the  faithful 
by  night  for  worship.  When  the  gentle  Meletius 
became  bishop  in  360  Diodonis  supported  him 
vigorously  and  watched  over  the  welfare  of  the 
flock  when  the  bishop  was  obliged  by  Arian  enmity 
to  flee,  and  went  from  house  to  house  strengthening 
the  devotion  of  the  oppressed  faithful.  In  372  he 
was  forced  to  join  the  banished  Meletius  in  Armenia. 
Here  he  made  friends  with  Basil  the  Great,  and  the 
orthodoxy  of  Cappadocia  and  of  Antioch  joined 
hands  to  insure  the  triumph  of  the  Nicene  faith. 
Six  years  later  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Tarsus 
by  Meletius  (378).  In  this  capacity  he  took  part 
in  the  Coimcil  of  Constantinople  (381),  and  is  said 
to  have  brought  about  the  choice  of  Nectarius  as 
patriarch.  The  council  gave  him  metropolitan 
jurisdiction  over  Cilicia.  An  imperial  edict  of  381 
names  him  among  the  bishops  who  were  to  de- 
cide the  question  of  Nioene  orthodoxy  and  conse- 
quently of  membership  in  the  Catholic  Church. 

By  a  curious  turn  of  fate,  he  who  had  been  hon- 
ored as  a  pillar  of  the  true  faith  by  his  contem- 
poraries fell  under  suspicion  of  heresy  not  forty 
years  after  his  death,  as  a  result  of  the  Nestorian 
controversy.     In  his  anxiety  to  vindicate  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  human  element  in  the  person  of 
Christ  and  in  the  Scriptures,  threatened  by  an 
overstrained  idealism,  in  controversy  with  Apol- 
iinaris  Diodonis  had  put  forth  a  theory  of  the 
relation  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ 
Theological  which   seemed   to   dissolve   the   one 
Opinions,    divine-human  Person  into  two.    Ac- 
cording to  the   fragments   still   pre- 
served of  the  works  called  in  question  {'*  Against 
the  Synusiasts  "  and  ''  On  the  Holy  Spirit  ")>  ^^ 
apparently  distinguished  between  the  Logos  and 
the  Son  of  David,  one  the  Son  of  God  by  nature, 
the  other  by  grace.    Mary's  son  was  not  the  Logoe, 


Diodonis 

Dionyslas  of  Alozaadria 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


436 


but  the  man  begotten  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Since 
the  Logos  is  essentially  perfect,  what  is  read  in 
Scripture  (Luke  ii.  52)  of  a  development  in  the 
Savior  can  only  relate  to  his  humanity.  The  mys- 
teiy  of  the  Incarnation  consists  in  the  assump- 
tion of  a  perfect  man  by  the  Logos,  and  the  rela- 
tion of  the  two  natures  is  that  of  the  indwelling 
of  the  Logos  in  the  man  Jesus  as  in  a  temple.  In 
consequence  of  this  connection,  the  son  of  David 
may  be  called  the  Son  of  God,  but  only  in  a  derived 
sense;  adoration  is  due  to  the  humanity  of  Christ, 
but  only  so  long  as  the  distinction  of  nature  is  borne 
in  mind.  The  spirit  of  God  dwelt  also  in  the 
prophets,  but  only  temporarily  and  in  a  smaller 
meastire;  in  Christ  he  dwelt  permanently  and 
without  measiue.  This  ethic-dynamic  view,  based 
on  the  teaching  of  Paul  of  Samosata  and  Lucian, 
did  not,  of  course,  content  Greek  piety  and  ortho- 
doxy. When  partizan  zeal  drove  out  Nestorian- 
ism  as  heresy  the  blow  could  not  but  react  on  the 
Christology  of  the  older  Antiochian  theologians. 
Thus  Cyril  of  Alexandria  in  several  treatises 
demanded  the  condemnation  of  Diodorus  and 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia;  but  the  whole  Syrian 
Church  rose  up  to  vindicate  its  revered  teacher, 
and  an  imperial  edict  put  an  end  to  the  dangerous 
business. 

It  was  not  till  499  that  Bishop  Flavian  of  Antioch, 
hard  pressed  by  the  Monophysites,  ventured  to 
pronounce  an  anathema  on  the  writings  of  Diodorus 
and  Theodore.  No  such  condemnation,  however, 
is  found  in  the  acts  of  the  fifth  general  council 
(Second  Constantinople,  553).  But  the  suspicion 
of  heresy  clung  to  Diodorus,  and  most  of  his  works 
perished.  The  Nestorians  alone  kept  alive  the 
memoiy  of  the  man  and  the  theologian  as  long  as 
their  own  existence  lasted.  He  must  have  been 
of  considerable  force  in  exegesis,  following  out  the 
grammatico-historical  principles  of  his  school  in 
a  commentary  covering  nearly  the  whole  Bible, 
which  was  marked  by  philological  learning,  inde- 
pendence of  dogmatic  prejudice,  careful  distinction 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  stages  of  revelation, 
clearness,  and  sobriety.  Only  a  few  fragments  are 
scattered  through  the  catens;  most  of  what  re- 
mains is  in  MPO,  xxxiii.,  but  needs  sifting. 
Diodorus's  mind  was  not  creative,  but  one  that 
combined  extensive  learning  with  strongly  marked 
dialectic  individuality.  Even  his  opponents  re- 
spected his  zeal  for  the  truth,  and  his  life  was  with- 
out reproach.  He  has  a  special  historical  impor- 
tance from  the  fact  that  he  trained  for  the  Church 
more  than  one  of  its  prominent  teachers.  In  his 
school  were  matured  the  two  great  Greek  Fathers 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  in  whom  the  theology  of 
Antioch  reached  its  completest  form,  and  John 
Chrysostom.  (A.  Harnack.) 

Bibuooraprt:  Sources  are  Jerome,  De  vir.  ill.,  chap,  cxix.; 
Chryaofltom,  Laua  Diodori;  Socrates,  Hi»L  ecd.,  vi.  3; 
Sosomen,  Hut  ecd.,  viii.  2  (the  two  last-named  in  NPNF, 
2d  series,  vol.  ii.);  and  Theodoret,  Hi$L  ecd.,  iv.  22-24 
(in  NPNF,  vol.  .iu.).  Consult:  KL,  iii.  1765-68;  DCB, 
L  836-840. 

DIOGNETUS,  EPISTLE  TO:  An  early  Christian 
work,  formerly  preserved  in  a  manuscript  in  the  Stras- 
burg  Library,  where  it  was  included  in  a  collection 
of  the  writings  of  Justin  Martyr,  with  the  heading 


"His  [Epistle]  to  Diognetus."  The  manuscript 
perished  in  the  siege  of  Strasburg  in  1870.  A  late 
copy  of  it  still  exists  at  Leyden,  from  which  Ste- 
phanus  published  it  in  1592,  and  Sylbuiig  in  1593. 
According  to  Otto,  the  manuscript  belonged  to  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century,  and  bad  a  good 
original,  though  the  copy  was  somewhat  carelessly 
made.  What  seems  to  be  a  considerable  hiatus  is 
observed  in  the  seventh  chapter,  and  the  present 
conclusion  is  probably  not  the  original  one. 

The  letter  is  addressed  to  one  Diognetus,  in 
answer  to  his  question  how  Christianity  may  be 
distinguished  from  paganism  and  Judaion,  why  it 
came  so  late  into  the  world,  and  whence  its  dis- 
ciples draw  their  courage  and  contempt  of  the  world. 
In  answer  to  the  first  question,  the  author  considers 
paganism  as  mere  crude  idolatry,  admitting  that 
the  Jews  have  the  advantage  of  a  pure  knowledge 
of  God,  though  their  material  sacrifices  and  trivial 
ceremonial  law  are  as  foolish  as  the  heathen  system. 
In  the  second  part  he  describes  the  Christian  worship 
and  ethics,  and  in  the  third  explains  the  late  arn%'al 
of  this  revelation  by  God's  will,  to  let  the  worid  see 
how  helpless  mere  human  powers  were  to  win  the 
heavenly  crown.  When  the  measure  of  their  sins 
was  ftdl  he  revealed  himself  by  the  Incarnation  of 
his  son,  who,  though  sinless,  paid  the  penalty  of  sin, 
so  that  men,  now  justified,  might  trust  in  the  father- 
ly goodness  of  God.  Hence  springs  the  love  which 
raises  Christians  so  far  above  worldly  rewards  or 
penalties,  and  the  fraternal  devotion  which  makes 
their  life  on  earth  a  foretaste  of  heaven. 

There  is  no  mention  of  the  letter  in  any  ancient 
writer,  though  here  and  there,  as  in  TertuUian's 
ApologeticuB,  some  scholars  have  thought  they  saw 
allusions  to  passages  of  it.  No  one  seems  to  have 
known  of  it  until  the  edition  of  Stephanus,  nor  does 
the  epistle  contain  any  indications  from  which  a 
satisfactory  conjecture  as  to  its  date  or  authorship 
can  be  made.  Its  attribution  to  Justin  was  ori^ 
inally  accepted,  but  Semisch  has  demonstrated  that 
it  can  not  be  his.  The  language  and  literary  style 
are  too  correct;  the  attitude  of  the  letter  toward 
both  Judaism  and  paganism  is  not  at  aU  Justin's; 
and  in  its  cosmology  there  is  no  trace  of  his  favorite 
thought  of  the  operation  of  the  "  spermatic  logos  " 
in  the  non-Christian  world. 

There  is  less  certainty,  however,  about  the  date 
of  composition.  While  Semisch,  Bunsen,  and  others 
adhered  to  Justin's  period,  attempts  were  made  to 
throw  it  still  farther  back,  with  Ewald  into  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  or  with  Hefele  into  that  of  Trajan, 
or  even  into  the  first  century.  Hilgenfeld  and 
Keim  assign  it  to  the  second,  and  ^hn  puts  it 
between  250  and  310.  A  new  stage  of  the  m\t9- 
tigation  opened  with  the  discovery  of  the  "  Apol- 
ogy "  of  Aristides,  to  which  the  letter  stands  in  a 
secondary  or  derived  relation,  though  not  close 
enough  for  Aristides  to  have  been  the  author,  as 
Krttger  thought.  This  relation  helps  to  clear  the 
ground  for  a  decision  as  to  the  date,  placing  it 
between  that  of  the  "  Apology  "  (from  138  to  161, 
probably  147)  and  that  of  Constantine.  Seeberg  is 
probably  right  when  he  supposes  some  time  to  have 
elapsed  between  the  two  works ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  author  of  the  Epistle  does  not  seem  to 


437 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


2>iodonifl 

Dionyaius  of  Aleyandrto 


have  been  through  a  general  persecution.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  then,  will  be  a 
safe  date.  The  importance  of  the  Epistle  has  been 
much  overestimated  in  the  past.  Its  rhetorical 
force  and  smoothness  have  possibly  helped  to  evoke 
this  enthusiasm,  which,  however,  has  in  large 
measure  disappeared;  and  it  contributes  scarcely 
anything  to  our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  dogma. 

(G.  UHLHORNt.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Good  editiona  are  by  C.  Otto,  Leipde,  1852; 
O.  von  *Gebb*rdt  and  A.  Hamaek,  Patrum  apoBtoH- 
eorum  opera,  I.  ii.  164-164.  Leipaie,  1878;  B.  L.  Gild- 
eraleeva,  in  Apology  of  JuMtin  Martyr,  pp.  83-04,  New 
York,  1877;  F.  X.  Funk,  in  Opera  patrum  apoetoli- 
corum,  i.  310-333,  TObingen,  1881.  Bag.  tranal.  may  be 
found  in  B.  Cooper,  Free  Church  of  Ancient  Chrutendom, 
London,  1852,  and  in  ANF,  i.  25-30.  A  liat  of  literature 
is  given  in  ANF,  Index  vol.,  pp.  5-7.  Consult:  C.  G. 
Semisch,  JueHn  Martyr,  i.  172  sqq.,  Breslau.  1840,  Eng. 
transl.,  i.  84-103,  Edinburgh.  1832;  C.  K.  J.  Bunsen. 
Hippolytue,  i.  138  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1852,  Eng.  transl.,  Lon- 
don, 1852;  G.  H.  H.  Ewald,  GeedtidUe  dee  Volkee  lerael, 
vii.  250  sqq.,  Gdttingen,  1808;  F.  Overbeok,  Ueber  den 
peettdo-juetinianiecKen  Brief  an  Diognet,  Basel,  1872; 
A.  Hilgenfeld,  ZWT,  xvi  (1873),  270-286;  T.  Keim,  in 
Froteetantiedie  Kirdteneeituno,  1873,  pp.  285-280,  300- 
314;  T.  Zahn,  OOA,  1873,  pp.  106-116;  H.  Kihn,  Der  Ur- 
eprung  dee  Briefe  an  Diognet,  Freiburg,  1882;  J.  A.  Rob- 
inson, in  TS,  i.  1  (1801),  05-07;  KrOger,  Uietory,  pp.  135- 
137;  idem,  in  ZWT,  zxxvii  (1804).  206-223;  KL,  iu. 
1774-78;  DCS,  u.  16^167. 

DIONYSIUS,  dai''o-nish'i-us :  Pope  259-268. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Stephen  (254-257)  he 
took  part  in  the  controversy  about  heretical  bap- 
tism, with  his  fellow  presbyter  Philemon  address- 
ing a  letter  to  Dionysius  of  Alexandria.  Elected 
bishop  on  July  22,  259,  the  edict  of  toleration  of 
Gallienus  soon  enabled  him  to  bring  the  Roman 
Church  into  order.  He  had  a  share  in  dogmatic 
development  through  his  further  dealings  with  his 
namesake  of  Alexandria,  who  had  already  been  in 
communication  with  Sixtus  IL  concerning  Sabel- 
lianism,  and  had  been  led  by  his  zeal  against  this 
heresy  to  use  expressions  which  seemed  to  reduce 
Christ  to  the  position  of  a  creature.  Some  Egyptian 
clergy  brought  the  matter  before  Dionysius  of 
Rome,  who  dealt  with  it  in  a  synod  and  gave  out  a 
dogmatic  pronouncement,  of  which  a  large  section 
is  preserved  by  Athanasius  ("  On  the  Council  of 
Nicsea/'  xxvi.).  It  was  no  doubt  addressed  to 
Egyptian  or  Libyan  bishops,  and  attacked  the 
Sabellian  teaching  on  one  side,  while  on  the  other 
it  rebuked  anti-Sabellian  extremes.  At  the  same 
time  he  wrote  to  his  namesake  asking  him  to  clear 
himself  of  the  charges  made  against  him,  which 
resulted  in  the  well-known  "Retractations"  of 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (q. v.).  Dionysius  of  Rome 
also  wrote  a  letter  of  condolence  to  the  Church  of 
Cffisarea  in  Cappadocia  when  it  was  attacked  by 
the  Goths  about  264,  and  sent  representatives  to 
ransom  captive  Christians.  His  name  appears  with 
that  of  Maximus  of  Alexandria,  the  successor  of 
Dionysius,  at  the  head  of  the  bishops  to  whom  the 
last  council  held  in  Antioch  against  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata  addressed  its  synodical  epistle  (Eusebius, 
Hist  eccl,  VII.  XXX.).  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  Liber  pontifiealU,  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  157, 
Paris.  1886,  ed.  Mommsen,  in  MOH,  GeeL  ponL  Rom,, 
i  (1808),  36;  R.  A.  Lipaiua,  Chronologie  der  rOmiechen 
BiechOfe,  Kiel,  1860;  J.  Langen,  Geedtiehte  der  r&mieehen 


Kireke,  pp.  353,  Bonn,  1881;  Bower,  Popee,  L  35-37; 
Blilman,  Latin  ChrieHanity,  i.  01;  Neander,  CkrieHan 
Church,  i.  606H)10.  u.  404;  Sohaff,  ChrieUan  Ckurdi,  ii. 
570^71. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  ALEXANDRIA  (called  the  Great) : 
Bishop  of  Alexandria;  d.  264.  A  pupil  of  Origen, 
though  but  little  younger  than  his  teacher,  he 
succeeded  Heraclas  in  231  or  232  as  head  of  the 
catechetical  school  of  Alexandria,  and  became 
bishop  in  247  or  248.  The  Decian  persecution 
soon  fell  upon  him  (250).  Attempting  to  escape, 
he  was  arrested,  but  was  imexpectedly  set  at 
liberty.  He  next  appears  writing  to  Novatian  in 
the  hope  of  restraining  him,  and  his  inclination 
toward  mildness  in  discipline  comes  out  in  other 
letters.  He  took  a  similar  conciliatory  position  in 
the  controversy  on  heretic  baptism;  his  own  prin- 
ciples placed  him  on  the  Roman  side,  but  he  re- 
spected the  views  of  his  opponents  and  was  un- 
willing to  break  off  conmiunion  with  them.  In  the 
persecution  under  Valerian  (257)  he  was  banished, 
first  to  Kephron  in  Libya  and  then  to  Kolluthion  in 
the  Mareotis  district,  and  returned  to  Alexandria 
only  after  the  edict  of  Gallienus  (260),  to  suffer 
further  trials  from  revolt,  plague,  and  famine,  of 
which  he  has  left  a  vivid  picture  (in  Eusebius, 
Hist,  eccl,,  vii.  22).  In  the  spirit  of  the  Alexan- 
drian school,  he  assisted  in  the  overthrow  of  Mil- 
lenarianism.  In  the  Trinitarian  controversy  he 
endeavored  to  uphold  the  Origenistic  position  as 
far  as  possible,  but  was  carried  beyond  it  by  the 
course  of  the  controversy  and  his  own  logic.  His 
letters  against  Sabellianism  contained  expressions 
which  were  thought  to  decide  in  a  contrary  direction, 
and  gave  rise  to  accusations  brought  against  him 
before  Dionysius  of  Rome,  to  whom  he  justified 
himself  in  four  books,  partly  explaining  away  or 
retracting  the  expressions  complained  of,  and 
partly  taking  refuge  in  vague  language.  Before 
his  death  he  took  a  decided  stand  against  Paul  of 
Samosata  by  letter,  since  his  age  and  infirmity  pre- 
vented him  from  attending  the  synod  at  Antioch. 
He  was  the  most  important  of  the  disciples  of 
Origen,  and  a  worthy  representative  of  the  older 
Alexandrian  school,  though  not  enough  of  an  inde- 
pendent thinker  to  understand  and  guide  the  doc- 
trinal tendencies  of  his  time.  His  importance  in 
exegesis,  after  the  manner  of  Origen,  is  shown  by 
his  short  critical  comparison  of  the  Gospel  and 
Revelation  of  John,  undertaken  with  the  purpose  of 
demonstrating  a  diversity  of  authorship,  and  con- 
sidered by  some  modem  writers  a  still  unsurpassed 
treatment  of  the  question.  The  most  important 
remains  of  his  literary  activity  are  his  letters,  which 
include  at  least  six  on  the  treatment  of  the  Lapsed 
(q.  V.) ,  at  least  eight  on  the  schism  of  Novatian,  at  least 
eight  on  heretic  baptism,  at  least  four  on  Sabellian- 
ism, a  long  series  of  annual  Easter  letters,  and  a 
number  to  individuals.  Only  fragments  of  certain 
letters  are  preserved,  although  Dionysius  was  the 
chief  source  used  by  Eusebius  for  the  middle  of  the 
third  century.  (A.  Harnack.) 

Biblioobaprt:  The  FragmenU  of  Dionyuua  are  eoUeeted 
in  M.  J.  Routh.  Reliquim  Sacra,  iii.  219-250,  iv.  383-437, 
Oxford,  1846,  and  in  MPG,  x.  Also,  Lettere  and  Remaine 
of  Dionyeiue  of  Alexandria,  ed.  C.  L.  Feltoe,  Gambridse, 
1904.     Eng.  trand.  is  in  ANF,  vi.  81-120     Literature  it 


BionyBina  the  Areopadta 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


438 


gnren  in  ANF,  Bibliosraphy.  pp.  66-68.  Sources  are: 
Jerome,  De  vir.  iU„  chap,  bdx.;  Atbanamus,  JOe  aententiiM 
Dionuni;  Eiuebius,  HiaL  eed.,  vi.  40  aqq.  (cf.  espe- 
cially NPNF,  2d  series,  i.  281,  note).  Consult:  F.  Ditt- 
rich,  Di(my9iua  der  OroBte,  Freiburg.  1867;  T.  Fdrster, 
De  doetrina  et  9enlentiiM  Dionyni,  Berlin.  1866;  KrOger, 
Hittary,  pp.  205-215:  Hamack,  Litteratur,  i.  409-427. 
II.  ii.  57-66  et  passim;  Neander,  Chri$Han  Church,  ▼ols. 
i.-ii.  passim;  Schaff.  Christian  Church,  u.  800^803;  DCB, 
L  850-862;  KL,  iii.  1780-80. 

DIOHYSiUS  THE  AREOPAGITE. 

Writings  Ascribed  to  Dionysius  (|  1). 

Proofs  of  Lata  Origin  (f  2). 

Doctrine  of  the  Soul  (f  3). 

Doctrine  of  First  Person  of  Trinity  (|  4). 

Doctrine  of  the  Universe  (|  5). 

Doctrine  of  the  Son  (f  6). 

Doctrine  of  the  Church  (f  7). 

DionysiuB  the  Aieopagite  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  the  sermon  of  Paul  at  Athens 
(Acts  xvii.  34).  According  to  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl., 
iii.  4,  iv.  23)  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (vii.  46), 
he  was  the  first  bishop  of  Athens;  a  later  tradition 
affirms  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  there.  His 
importance  in  church  history  depends  upon  the 
ascription  to  him  of  a  series  of  remarkable  writings 
in  Greek,  probably  belonging  to  the  fifth  or  sixth 

century,  entitled  "  On  the  Heavenly 
X.  WritingB  Hierarchy,"  "  On  the  Ecclesiastical 
Ascribed  to  Hierarchy,"  "  On  the  Names  of  God," 
Dionysius.  and   "  On   Mystical   Theology,"   and 

ten  letters,  all  evidently  belonging  to 
the  same  author.  At  the  conference  held  in  Con- 
stantinople (533),  at  the  instance  of  Justinian, 
between  the  orthodox  and  the  Severians,  the  latter 
quoted,  among  other  ecclesiastical  authorities, 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite  against  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon;  and  when  the  orthodox  objected  that 
Athanasius  and  Cyril  certainly  would  have  used 
such  an  authority  against  Nestorius,  if  he  had 
existed  and  been  known  to  them,  the  Severians 
asserted  that  Cyril  had  actually  quoted  the  works 
of  Dionysius  in  his  books  against  Diodorus  of 
Tarsus  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  as  might  be 
seen  from  the  copies  of  those  books  in  the  libraries 
of  Alexandria.  This  is  the  first  certain  citation  of 
the  works  supposed  to  be  written  by  Dionysius, 
but  after  that  time  they  are  frequently  mentioned. 
Severus  himself,  Monophysite  patriarch  of  Antioch 
512-518,  often  quotes  them,  as  does  Ephraem, 
orthodox  patriarch  of  Antioch  527-645.  Com- 
mentaries upon  them  were  written  by  John  of 
Scythopolis  about  530,  Sergius  of  Itesaina  (d.  536) 
translated  them  into  Syriac,  and  Leontius  of 
Byzantium  cited  Dionysius.  In  the  Western 
Church  Gregory  the  Great  is  the  first  who  refers 
to  these  writings  {Horn.,  xxxiv.);  but  when  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Michael  the  Stammerer  sent 
a  copy  of  them  to  Louis  the  Pious  in  827  they  soon 
became  better  known;  and  after  the  invention  of 
Abbot  Hilduin,  combining  Dionysius  the  Areopa- 
gite and  St.  Denis,  the  patron  saint  of  the  Franks, 
in  one  person  (see  Denis,  Saint),  they  became 
quite  celebrated.  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena  trans- 
lated them  into  Latin  at  the  instance  of  Charles 
the  Bald,  and  was  himself  deeply  influenced  by 
them.  In  the  Western  Church,  among  the  school- 
men, the  Areopagite  became  a  guide  to  mysticism 


and  mjrstical  theology.  Hugo  of  St.  Victor, 
Albertus  Magnus,  Dionysius  the  Carthusian,  and 
others  drew  their  inspiration  from  him.  Corderius 
has  shown  how  much,  for  instance,  Thomas  Aquinas 
owes  to  the  Areopagite.  The  Platonists  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance  also  appreciated  him  hi^y, 
as  did  other  humanists,  like  John  Colet. 

The  development,  however,  of  literary  criticism 
(imder  Laurentius  Valla.,  Erasmus,  and  others) 
inevitably  destroyed,  first,  the  invention  of  Hilduin 
(the  identification  of  Dionysius  and  St.  Denis), 
and,  second,  the  assumption  of  authorship  in  apos- 
tolic times.  The  internal  evidences  of  a  later  date, 
besides  the  total  absence  of  mention  or  quotation 
till  the  conference  of  Constantinople  (533),  were 
conclusive.  The  most  decisive  inter- 
a.  Proofs  of  nal  evidences  are:  the  difTerence  be- 
Late        tween  the  pompous  and  inflated  style 

Origin,  of  the  writings  and  the  simplicity  of 
the  apostolic  age;  the  use  of  theological 
terms  which  were  not  formed  until  the  fourth  cen- 
tury; references  to  an  elaborately  developed  church 
ritual  and  chiux;h  government;  allusions  to  later 
persons  and  events,  as,  for  instance,  to  the  martyr- 
dom of  Ignatius  and  to  *'  Clement  the  Philoso- 
pher "  (Clement  of  Alexandria);  and  appeals  to 
"ancient  traditions."  The  defense  of  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  and  the  attempted  vindication 
of  the  authorship  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  were 
demolished  by  Daill^  and  Le  Nourry. 

The  question  then  arose.  By  whom  and  at  what 
time  were  these  works  written?  A  number  of 
hypotheses  were  proffered,  differing  as  widely  as 
that  of  Baumgarten-Crusius,  placing  the  author  at 
Alexandria  in  the  third  century,  and  that  of  West- 
cott,  placing  him  at  Edessa  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century.  The  general  outcome  of  critical 
inquiry  is  that  the  philosophical,  and  more  espe- 
cially the  mystical,  ideas  expounded  in  these  books 
presuppose  the  later  development  of  Neoplatonism 
which  was  due  to  Procliis;  and,  as  Proclus  died 
485,  the  date  of  the  books  seems  to  coincide  nearly 
with  the  date  of  their  first  notice. 

Dionysius  distinguishes  between  a  cataphatic 
(affirmative  or  positive)  theology,  in  which  truth 
is  presented  under  the  garb  of  a  symbol  of  history, 
or  of  the  traditionary  teaching  of  the  Church,  and 
an  apophatic  (negative)  theology,  which  dispenses 
with  such  media,  in  which  also  the  initiated  rises 
by  contemplation  or  in  the  ecstatic 
3.  Doctrine  state  to  an  immediate  view  of  things 
of  the  Soul,  divine.  He  distinguishes  a  direct 
movement  of  the  soul,  when  its  knowl- 
edge is  conditioned  by  the  various  things  outside  of 
it;  a  spiral  movement,  when  it  aspires  to  penetrate 
divine  knowledge  by  discursive  thinking;  and  a 
circular  movement,  when  it  guides  its  imited  power 
to  the  Deity  ("  Names  of  God,"  iv.  9).  Under  the 
influence  of  deity  it  surrenders  its  own  thinking  and 
arrives  at  a  condition  of  Ecstasy  (q.v.)  and  the  mys- 
tic view  of  God.  There  is  here  a  strong  resemblance 
to  the  teachings  of  Philo  and  the  Neoplatonists. 

Dionysius  believes  in  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity, 
but  his  chief  interest  centers  in  the  Father.  The 
Father  is  for  him  the  sole  source  of  transcendent 
divinity;    Jesus  and  the  Holy  Spirit  are  the  off- 


43d 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bionyelns  the  Areopavlte 


spring,  bloom,  and  transcendent  light  ("  Names  of 
God,"  ii.  6,  7).  The  bemg  of  God  per  sc,  hia  real 
essence,  can  not  be  expressed,  since  it  transcends  all 
qualities.  The  Deity  includes  every  perfection;  it 
is  the  cause  and  essence  of  all  being, 

4.  Doctrine  and  yet  it  is  above  all  being;    it  is 
of  First     without    quality,  yet   transcends  the 

Person  of  highest  conception  of  goodness;  with- 
Trinity.     out  a  name,  yet  including  every  name. 

The  highest  principle  is  neither  sen- 
suous nor  spiritual,  has  or  is  neither  representation 
nor  understanding  nor  reason,  is  neither  One,  deity, 
nor  goodness,  and  yet  is  neither  without  essence  nor 
without  life,  understanding  or  reason,  since  the 
negations  also  have  to  be  denied.  Just  as  apophatic 
theology,  proceeding  from  the  broad  variety  of 
things,  by  negation  ascends  to  the  highest  cause 
and  to  mystic  imity  with  the  unspeakable,  so  cata- 
phatio  theology  proceeds  from  above  and  descends 
to  the  variety  of  creatures.  Accordingly  God  be- 
comes sun,  star,  fire,  water,  and  all  being;  as  the 
all-comprehensive  cause  he  is  all  in  all  because 
the  cause  has  anticipated  everything  in  itself.  He 
is  all  in  all,  and  yet  not  anything  in  any  one  thing. 
But  not  everything  may  be  affirmed  or  denied  of 
him  in  an  equal  degree.  He  is  life  and  goodness  in 
a  more  pregnant  sense  than  light  or  star,  and  such 
affections  as  intoxication  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  65,  LXX.)  or 
fits  of  anger  are  to  be  denied  of  him  in  a  higher 
degree  than  the  statements  that  he  can  be  expressed 
or  cognized. 

But  all  being  has  proceeded  from  the  nature  of 
God.  All  emanation  of  being  has  its  original  ex- 
emplar in  the  development  of  the  divine  first  cause 
into  the  h3rpostases  of  the  Trinity;  all  fatherhood 
and  sonship  of  godlike  spirits  and  even  of  human 
beings  proceeds  from  the  original  fatherhood  and 
original  sonship.     The  participation  of  all  things 

in  being  is  at  the  same  time  a  partici- 

5.  Doctrine  pation  in  the  good  and  the  beautiful 
of  the      which   is  one  with  true   being;    the 

Universe,  transcendent  good  and  beautiful  is  the 
cause  of  all  goodness  and  beauty  and 
of  all  participation  in  the  good  and  the  beautiful 
("Names  of  God,"  iv.  1  sqq.);  but  between  cause 
and  effect  there  is  not  the  relation  of  entire  equality. 
Here  DionysiuB  shares  Proclus's  view  concerning 
evil  according  to  which  all  existing  things  have  no 
real  being,  but  are  only  privation,  want,  diminution 
of  the  good,  since  all  being  as  such  is  good.  If 
therefore  the  universe  appears  on  the  one  hand  as 
the  product  of  the  good,  it  is  on  the  other  hand  also 
the  product  of  the  differentiating  negation  which 
penetrates  the  unity  of  the  absolute.  But  this 
negation  does  not  exist  for  God  because  in  him  all 
differences  are  done  away  with.  God  knows  evil 
as  good,  and  before  him  the  causes  of  evil  are  powers 
working  for  the  good  ("  Names  of  God,"  iv.  20). 
Correspondingly,  the  universe  is  placed  under  the 
view-point  of  existence  in  God  as  first  cause;  and 
also,  as  being  finite  and  separate,  under  the  view- 
point of  striving  toward  God  as  the  basis  and  aim  of 
all  creatures  ("  Names  of  God,"  i.  5,  cf.  "  Heavenly 
Hierarehy,"  iv.  1).  These  two  points  of  view  find 
their  expression  especially  in  the  doctrine  concern- 
ing the   hierarchy  of  being.     Dionysius  assumes 


descending  derivation  of  the  chain  of  beings,  and  a 
mediation  for  the  ascension  of  all  creatures  toward 
unity  with  God.  The  highest  spiritual  beings,  the 
angels,  are  in  the  antechamber,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
transcendent  Trinity,  and  have  from  it  and  in  it 
their  existence  and  likeness  to  God  ('*  Names  of 
God,"  v.  8).  They  are  good  and  communicate 
their  goodness  to  those  below  them.(iv.  1).  The 
hierarchy  of  angels  contains  three  divisions:  (1) 
seraphim,  cherubim,  thrones;  (2)  dominions,  powers, 
forces;  (3)  principalities,  archangels,  angeb. 

The  system  of  the  heavenly  hierarchy  is  followed 
by  that  of  the  earthly  or  rather  ecclesiastical  hier- 
archy. Here  Dionysius  has  interwoven  with  his 
doctrine  conceminc:  the  hierarchies  the  idea  of 
redemption  as  a  historical  fact.  God  is  salvation 
and  redemption  in  so  far  as  he  not  only  guards  the 
existing  things  from  falling  into  nothingness,  but 
also  in  so  far  as  he  redeems  that  which  has  departed 
from  the  right  and  suffered  a  diminution  of  good- 
ness by  an  abuse  of  freedom  of  the  will  (ib.  iv.  18). 
Dionysius  looks  upon  the  institutions  of  the  Church 
as  mysteries,  "  Jesus  "  is  the  cause  of  everything; 
he  is  the  transcendent  cause  of  the  superheavenly 
beings  ('*  Heavenly  Hierarchy,"  iv.  4);  in  regard  to 
his  activity  in  the  world,  he  is  the  transcendent  One, 
the  Logos,  the  principle  of  all  hierarchy  and  theurgy. 
But  the  influence  of  Jesus  upon  the  lower  spheres 
is  not  like  that  of  the  angels.    He 

6.  Doctrine  became  man;   he  subsisted  among  us 
of  the  Son.  perfect  and  without  change  C*  Names 

of  God,"  ii.  3).  By  stepping  into 
earthly  reality,  the  transcendent  was  not  abolished 
or  subjected  to  any  change.  The  nature  of  Jesus 
became  really  and  truly  human,  and  he  participated 
in  all  human  conditions;  but  in  physical  conditions 
lie  was  superphysical  and  under  the  conditions  of 
being  he  was  above  being  by  possessing  all  hu- 
man qualities,  yet  in  a  transcendent  manner.  Thus 
Dionysius  depicts  him  as  walking  upon  the  sea 
because  he  was  not  subject  to  the  laws  of  gravity. 
It  is  evident  from  the  above  that  the  incarnation  of 
Jesus  was  not  reduced  to  a  mere  semblance;  but 
the  divine  in  Christ  assumes  such  a  human  real- 
ity that  the  human  is  elevated  above  itself  and 
deified. 

The  Gospel  is  the  annotmcement  that  God  accord- 
ing to  his  goodness  has  descended  to  us  and  makes 
us  like  himself  by  uniting  us  with  himself.  Men 
had  departed  from  true  life  and  surrendered  to  evil- 
minded  demons.  According  to  secret  (oral)  tra- 
dition, Christ  has  broken  the  power  of  the  demons 
over  us,  not  by  an  act  of  might,  but  by  a  forensic 
negotiation  with  the  devil,  the  head  of  the  demons. 
But  every  effect  of  salvation  is  conditioned  for 
each  one  by  submitting  to  the  sanctions  of  eccle- 
siastical hierarchy  which,  like  the  heavenly  hier- 
archy, proceeds  from  the  divine  Nous  as  the  principle 
of  all  hierarchy  and  divine  efficacy,  whose  aim  is 

love  to  God  and  to  the  divine,  knowl- 

7.  Doctrine  edge    of    being,    vision,    union,   and 
of  the      deification.    While   the   sanctions  of 

Church,     material  spirits  secure   pure  and  im- 
mediate knowledge  of  God,  man  needs 
symbolic  veilings.    The  hierarchy  of  Old  Testa- 
ment law  educated  by  means  of  obscure  pictures 


Sionysitui  the  AroopAglte 
Dionysius  Badcuus 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


440 


and  riddles  for  the  Bpiritual  service  of  God,  and 
found  its  fulfilment  in  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  which 
stands  midway  between  the  heavenly  and  the  legal 
and  is  based  chiefly  upon  Scripture  and  tradition. 
The  apostles  were  bound  to  communicate  the  super- 
sensuous  in  sensuous  pictures  because  man  needs 
sensuous  mediation.  In  every  hierarchic  trans- 
action there  are  to  be  distinguished  (1)  the  holy 
consecrations,  (2)  officiants,  (3)  candidates  for  con- 
secration. The  consecrating  acts  are  (a)  baptism, 
the  symbol  of  regeneration  which  consists  in  cleanin 
ing  and  illumination;  (b)  communion,  the  symbol 
of  the  fact  that  Jesus  unites  us  in  his  original  divine 
unity,  for  illumination  leads  to  union;  (c)  unction 
as  completing  communion.  The  estate  of  the 
officiants  consists  of  three  grades:  (a)  hierarch 
(i.e.,  bishop),  (b)  hiereus  (priest-presbyter),  (c) 
liturgist  (i.e.,  deacon);  the  last  performs  the 
purifying  acts  of  the  hierarchy,  the  second  the  illu- 
minating acts,  and  the  first  the  completing  acts. 
In  the  order  of  the  consecrated  there  are  distin- 
guished (a)  the  lowest  who  imder  the  supervision 
of  the  liturgist  are  first  to  be  purified;  (b)  those 
that  are  illuminated,  Christian  laymen,  guided  by 
the  priests;  (c)  the  therapeutai,  i.e.,  monks  who 
by  the  hierarchy  are  guided  to  perfection  and  lead 
a  life  solely  devoted  to  the  One. 

Dionysius  was  of  decisive  importance  in  the 
change  of  the  Anatolian  Church  into  a  cult  of 
mysteries  in  that  he  created  its  systematic  basis. 
It  was  he  who  first  expressed  coherently  those 
thoughts  which  afterward  shaped  the  Christianity 
of  that  Church,  the  characteristic  features  of  which 
were  desire  for  learning  and  especially  participa- 
tion in  the  mysteries.  (N.  Bonwetsch.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  editio  prinoeps  was  issued  in  Florence, 
1616;  the  whole  works,  with  the  Scholia  of  Maximus  and 
PachymeruB  are  in  MPQ,  iii.-iY.  The  "  Mystical  The- 
ology," best  edition  by  B.  Corderius,  with  notes,  Antwerp, 
1634,  reissued  with  enlarged  notes,  2  vols.,  Venice,  1755- 
1756.  The  edition  by  John  Colet  of  "  The  Heavenly  Hier- 
archy "  and  "  The  Ecd.  Hierarchy  "  with  Colet's  treatises 
was  reissued  and  translated  by  J.  H.  Lupton,  London, 
1809;  the  Worlf  were  translated  by  J.  Parker,  ib.  1897. 
The  fabulous  Ada  aancH  Dionyaii  AreopagitcB,  with  com- 
mentary, are  in  ASB,  Oct.,  iv.  696-797. 

Consult:  J.  G.  V.  Engelhardt,  De  origine  tcriptorum 
ArtopoffUcB,  Erlangen,  1823;  idem,  Z>s  origine  tcriptorum 
Dionuaii,  ib.  1823;  E.  von  Muralt,  BeitrAge  tur  aUen  Litr- 
teratur,  DionyaiuB  Areopagita,  St.  Petersburg,  1844;  F. 
Hipler,  Dionuaiua  der  Areopaifiter,  Regensburg,  1861  (an 
epoch-making  work);  J.  Niemeyer,  DionyHua  Areopagita, 
Halle,  1869;  J.  Fowler,  The  Worke  of  Dionyeiue  eepecicUly 
in  Reference  to  Chrietian  Art^  London,  1872;  J.  Dr&seke, 
in  ZWT,  1882.  pp.  300  sqq.;  G.  M.  Schneider.  Areopagi- 
fica,  Regensburg,  1884  (defends  authenticity);  A.  L. 
FrotidngYkum^  Stephenbar SudaUi.  The  Syrian Myaiic  and 
the  Book  of  Hierotheoa,  Leyden,  1886;  R.  Foss,  U^ter  den 
Aht  Hilduin  von  St.  Denya  und  Dumyaiiu  Areopagita, 
Berlin,  1886;  H.  Koch,  in  TQ,  1895.  pp.  353  sqq.;  N. 
Nilles,  in  ZJC7,  1896;  Neander,  ChriaHan  Church,  vols. 
ii.-iv.  passim;  Hamack,  Dogma,  vols,  i.,  iii.-vi.  passim, 
see  Index;  DCB,  i.  841-848  (a  noteworthy  article);  KL, 
in.  1789-96. 

DIONTSinS  THE  CARTHUSIAN  (Dionysius  van 
Leeuwen  or  Leuwis):  Monk,  ascetic,  and  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Rickel  (40  m.  e.  of  Brussels),  Limburg, 
Belgium,  1402  or  1403;  d.  at  Roermonde  (45  m. 
n.w.  of  Cologne),  Limbuig,  Holland,  Mar.  21,  1471. 
Before  he  was  twenty-one  he  obtained  the  dignity 
of  magister  at  Cologne,  and  entered  the  Carthusian 


monastery  of  Roermonde.  Complying  with  the 
strictest  rules  of  his  order  or  rather  surpassin*; 
them,  he  continued  his  studies  with  indefatigable 
zeal  and  was  highly  honored  by  his  contemporaries. 
Cardinal  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  when  traveling  through 
Germany  as  legate  took  him  in  1451  as  his  com- 
panion (cf .  F.  A.  Scharpff ,  Der  Kardinal  und  Bischof 
Nicolaua  von  Cusa,  p.  176,  Mainz,  1843;  J.  M.  Dux, 
Der  deutache  Cardinal  Nicolaus  von  Ctuia,  iL  2S, 
Regensburg,  1848).  In  1459  Dionysius  succeeded 
in  bringing  about  a  reconciliation  between  Duke 
Arnold  of  Gelderland  and  his  rebellious  son  Add- 
phus.  With  great  difficulties  he  founded  the 
Carthusian  monastery  at  Herzogenbusch  between 
1466  and  1469.  The  last  years  of  his  life  he  spent 
at  Roermonde. 

Dionysius  is  one  of  the  most  serious  representa- 
tives of  the  Reformation  of  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical conditions  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Heart  and 
soul  a  monk,  he  practised  asceticism  and  foimd  his 
highest  enjoyment  in  the  ecstatic  state.  He  was  also 
one  of  the  most  learned  theologians  of  his  time,  had 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and 
was  an  author  of  much  versatility  and  productive- 
ness. The  list  of  his  works  {Opera,  i.,  l.-lxx.)  shows 
187  titles,  and  the  complete  edition,  it  is  estimated, 
will  fill  thirty  volumes  without  the  supplements. 
But  he  had  no  creative  mind.  His  scientific  labors 
are  mostly  rich  collections  of  what  others  said  before 
him  with  criticisms.  His  style  is  clear  and  simple. 
Of  least  importance  are  his  voluminous  ex^etical 
works,  which  comprise  the  entire  Scriptures.  Of 
greater  importance  is  his  commentary  on  Peter 
Lombard,  though  here  too  the  collection  and 
criticism  of  different  opinions  is  the  main  object. 
Without  being  a  Thomist,  Dionysius  often  gives 
preference  to  Thomas  Aquinas,  but  he  often 
differs  from  him  where  he  follows  Aristotle 
in  favor  of  Neoplatonic-Dionysian  conception, 
and  shows  in  general  an  inclination  toward 
mysticism.  An  independent  exhibition  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  is  contained  in  the  two  books  De 
lumine  ChristiancB  theorias.  Other  dogmatic  and 
apologetic  writings  are  mentioned  by  Zackler, 
648  sqq.  Ethics  Dionysius  treated  not  only  in  a 
Summa  de  virtuHbus  et  vUiis,  but  also  in  a  series 
of  writings  on  the  different  states.  What  is  here 
treated  separately  he  collects  with  special  reference 
to  its  application  in  preaching,  in  the  two  books 
De  reguli8  vita  christianorum.  The  many  orations 
which  are  extant  from  him  show  that  he  was  also 
actively  engaged  in  preaching.  Some  of  his  wri- 
tings are  especially  given  to  the  devotion  to 
Mary,  in  which  he  is  as  enthusiastic  as  Thomas 
a  Kempis  and  others  of  his  contemporaries.  His 
mysticism  produced  an  extensive  commentary  on 
Dionysius  Areopagita  and  Johannes  Climacus, 
besides  some  independent  works,  as  Inflammatarium 
divini  amoria,  De  medUatione,  and  others.  Not  a 
few  of  his  writings  are  devoted  to  ecclesiastic 
reformatory  efforts,  as  (besides  the  lost  De  de- 
formatUme  et  reformaHone  ecclestce)  De  reformatiane 
daustraliuin  ;  De  audoritate  ffeneralium  ooncUiorum ; 
De  doctrina  echolarium,  etc.  His  reformatory  ideas 
are  on  the  whole  the  same  as  those  of  Gerson, 
whom  he  highly  esteems.    He  is  far  removed  from 


441 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bionysiiis  the  Areopa^ite 
Dlonysius  Bxisuus 


the  thought  that  anything  should  be  changed  in 
the  doctrine  or  general  cultus  and  regulations  of 
the  Church,  but  for  outwardly  conspicuous  defects, 
like  frivolity,  religious  indifference,  immorality  in 
general,  neglect  of  duty,  ignorance  and  worldliness, 
especially  of  the  priests,  he  has  not  only  an  open 
eye,  but  also  a  just  appreciation.  From  the  co- 
operation of  the  pope  and  an  ecumenical  council 
he  expects  the  remedy.  He  assumes  that  the  council 
in  its  proper  duties,  viz.,  of  deciding  controversial 
points  of  doctrine,  of  proceeding  against  a  heretical 
pope  or  against  one  who  gives  too  much  offense, 
certainly  stands  above  the  latter;  on  the  other 
hand,  he  yields  to  the  pope  a  regular  right  of  supei^ 
vision  over  the  Church  as  a  whole,  and  says  that 
in  the  things  "  wherein  the  papal  rule  and  office  is 
supreme  the  pope  stands  above  a  council  and  above 
all  the  Church  "  (Z)c  auct,  gen.  concil.,  i.  27).  Con- 
sidering the  ecclesiastical  position  of  Dionysius  and 
the  character  of  his  writings,  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  in  the  sixteenth  century  they  were  appre- 
ciated as  very  timely  and  promotive  of  a  conserva- 
tive reform  in  opposition  to  the  Reformation.  On 
this  account  most  of  them  were  published  at  that 
time  at  Cologne  by  Loer  and  Blomevenna,  and 
were  often  reprinted.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  commenced  at  Montreuil  in  1896  under 
the  title,  Dodoria  ecstatici  Dionysii  Cartusiani  opera 
omnia  in  unum  digesta  ad  fidem  editumum  Colo- 
niensium  cura  et  labore  monachorum  S,  Ordinia  Car- 
ttisiensis,  30  vols.,  1896-1905,  of  which  all  but  vols, 
xxv.-xxvi.  have  appeared.  S.  M.  Deutsch. 

Biblxoobapht:  The  chief  aouroe  ia  the  biography  by  Die- 
trich von  Loer,  Cologne,  1530,  reprinted  with  notes  in 
ASB,  March,  ii.  245-255.  Modem  lives  are  by:  Welters, 
Roermonde,  1882;  D.  A.  Mougel,  Montreuil,  1896.  Con- 
sult also:  W.  Moll,  Johanne*  Brugmann^  i.  70-81,  Azn- 
sterdium,  1854;  K.  Werner,  Die  SdioloMtik  des  epdUren 
MittelaUen,  IV.  i.  134-137,  200-262,  Vienna,  1887;  O. 
Zdckler,  in  T8K,  Iviii.  (1881),  648  sqq.;   /CL,  iii.  1801-07. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  CORINTH:  Greek  bishop.  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  Soter  of  Rome  (165-173  or 
167-175),  and  was  the  author  of  epistles  to  various 
congregations.  Among  these  letters  Eusebius 
(Ht8t  ecd.,  iv.  23)  mentions  the  following:  (1)  to 
the  Lacedsemonians,  with  exhortations  to  peace 
and  imity;  (2)  to  the  Athenians,  urging  them  to 
hold  fast  to  the  faith  and  to  live  according  to  the 
Gospel;  (3)  to  the  Nicomedians,  with  polemics 
against  the  Marcionite  heresy;  (4)  to  the  congre- 
gation at  Gortyna  and  the  other  Cretan  churches, 
with  a  eulogy  of  piety  and  steadfastness;  (5)  to  the 
congregation  of  Amastris  and  the  other  churches  in 
Pontus;  (6)  to  the  Cnossians  with  admonitions 
against  extreme  asceticism;  (7)  to  the  Romans, 
with  thanks  for  gifts  and  an  admonition;  (8)  to 
Chiysophora.  Four  fragments  of  the  epistle  to  the 
Romans  have  been  preserved  by  Eusebius  (ii.  21, 
iv.  23),  and  their  contents  bear  eloquent  testimony 
to  the  authority  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  admo- 
nition mentioned  in  (7)  is  identified  by  Harnack 
with  the  second  epistle  of  Clement. 

G.  KrCger. 
Bibliography:  The  fragments  of  Dionysius's  works  are 
collected  in  M.  J.  Routb,  ReliquicB  Sacra,  i.  175-201,  Ox- 
ford, 1846,  and  translated  in  ANF,  viii.  765  sqq.  For 
his  life  consult:  Eusebius,  HitL  ecd.,  iv.  22  sqq.  (in  NPNF, 
2d  series,  i.  200  sqq.,  note  1);   B.  F.  Westoott,  HUL  of 


Canon  of  N.  7.,  pp.  185-100,  London,  1855;  [W.  R. 
Cassels],  Supernatural  Religion,  i.  218.  296.  ii.  163-171, 
London,  1874-75;  Neander,  Chriatian  Church,  iii.  467, 
iv.  382;  Hamaok,  OeeehidUe,  i.  235-236,  II.  i.  313; 
KrOger.  Hietory,  pp.  156-157;  DCB,  i.  849-850;  KL,  iii. 
1798-1800. 

DlOmrSIUS  EXIGUUS  ("  Dionysius  the  Little  " ) : 
One  of  the  most  conspicuous  men  of  the  Latin 
Church  in  the  sixth  century;  d.  in  Rome  before 
544.  He  was  a  Scythian  by  birth,  came  to  Rome 
toward  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  and  became  a 
monk  there.  Later  authors  call  him  an  abbot. 
From  the  description  given  by  his  friend  Cassiodo- 
rus  ilnatituHoneSf  i.  23)  he  must  have  been  a  master 
in  all  monastic  virtues,  as  his  self-chosen  surname 
indicates.  He  had  also  the  polish  of  a  man  of  the 
world,  took  great  interest  in  learning,  and  was  a 
famous  teacher.  He  was  in  conflict  with  the  popes 
of  his  time  and  was  received  into  the  peace  of  the 
Church  only  after  his  death.  Probably  he  had 
associations  with  the  "  Scythian  monks  "  who  in 
519  or  520  brought  to  Rome  the  so-called  theo- 
paschitic  formula  (see  Thbopabchitbs).  His  chief 
importance  rests  on  the  fact  that  by  translations 
he  acquainted  the  West  with  Greek  learning.  Both 
his  Greek  birth  and  his  position  in  Rome  fitted 
him  for  that  service.  His  works  are:  (1)  A  col- 
lection of  canons  in  two  recensions,  containing  the 
fifty  apostolic  canons,  the  canons  of  Nicsea,  Ancyra, 
Neo^ssarea,  Gangra,  Antioch,  Laodicea,  and 
Constantinople,  the  twenty-seven  canons  of  Chal- 
cedon  (xxviii.-xxx.  are  wanting),  the  twenty-one 
canons  of  Sardica,  and  the  decisions  of  Carthage 
of  419.  The  two  recensions  differ  by  different 
positions  of  the  canons  of  Chalcedon  and  a  more 
complete  version  of  the  acts  of  Carthage  in  the 
second  redaction.  Cassiodorus  testifies  to  the  use 
of  the  collection  in  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  first 
recension  was  edited  by  C.  H.  Turner  in  Ecdence 
occidentalia  monumenta,  i.  (Oxford,  1899);  the 
second  is  in  MPL,  Ixvil.  (see  Canon  Law,  II.,  3, 
§  3).  (2)  A  collection  of  decretals  containmg  an 
epistle  of  Siricius,  twenty-one  epistles  of  Innocent 
I.,  one  by  Zozimus,  four  belonging  to  the  time  of 
Boniface  I.,  three  by  Celestine  I.,  seven  by  Leo  I., 
one  by  Gelasius,  and  one  by  Anastasius  I.  This 
collection  ako  was  soon  made  use  of  by  the  popes, 
and  is  first  referred  to  in  634.  (3)  The  "  Eastei^ 
Table,"  a  continuation  of  the  ninety-five-year 
Easter-table  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  which  ended 
with  531.  Dionysius  took  up  the  work  in  525, 
repeated  the  last  nineteen-year  cycle  of  Cyril  and 
added  five  others  from  532.  Hereby  he  introduced 
into  the  Latin  Church  the  Alexandrian  Easter  com- 
putation, which  had  been  customary  in  the  East 
since  the  Coimcil  of  Nicsea,  while  the  West  had  till 
then  followed  the  cycle  of  Victor,  and  thus  he 
promoted  not  a  little  the  unity  of  the  Church.  He 
won  popularity  by  numbering  the  years  not  from 
the  era  of  Diocletian,  the  impious  persecutor  of  the 
Christians,  but ''  from  the  Incarnation  of  the  Lord." 
He  placed  the  birth  of  Christ  on  Dec.  25,  754  a.u.c., 
and  Mar.  25  of  the  same  year  he  took  as  the  day  of 
the  Incarnation  (see  Era).  His  Easter-cycle  was  soon 
adopted  by  Rome,  gradually  also  in  other  parts  of 
Italy.  Toward  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  it  was  used 
in  Gaul,  and  by  the  eighth  century  had  come  into 


DloMunui 
DUolplM  of  Ohrist 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


442 


general  use  in  the  British  Church.     Dionysius  also 
translated   letters   and   writings   of    Proterius   of 
Alexandria,  Proclus  of  Constantinople,  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  Marcellus  of  Emesa,  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
the  Vita  of  Pachomius,  and  perhaps  other  works  to 
which  he  was  attracted  by  learned  or  ascetic  inter- 
ests.  His  works  are  in  MPL,  Ixvii.     H.  Achelis. 
Biblxogbapht:  L.   Ideler,   Handbuch  der  .  ,  .  Chronoloifie, 
vol.  ii..  Berlin,  1826;  F.  Maaaaeo.  OMthichiU  der  QuelUn 
und  der  Litteratur  dM  kanoniadien  Rechta,  i.  130  sqq.,  422 
sqq.,   Orms,   1870;  F.   Rflhl,  Chronologie,    pp.   129    sqq., 
BerUn,  1897;  DCS.  i.  863^864  (noteworthy). 

DIOSCURUS :    Antipope  530.    See  Boniface  II. 
DIOSCURUS  OF  ALEXAIIDRIA.    See  Euttch- 

EANIBM. 

DI  PIETRO,  di  pt-«'tr6,  AHGELO:  Cardinal; 
b.  at  Vivaro  (near  Tivoli),  Italy,  May  26,  1828. 
He  studied  at  Rome,  became  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese  of  Tivoli,  and  was  consecrated  titular  bishop 
of  Nyssa  in  1866  and  appointed  bishop  coadjutor 
of  Ostia  and  Velletri.  In  1877  he  was  made 
titular  archbishop  of  Nazianzum  and  appointed 
apostolic  delegate  to  the  Argentine  Republic.  He 
was  then  internuncio  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1879-82) 
and  nuncio  at  Munich  (1882-87)  and  Madrid  (1887- 
1893).  He  was  created  cardinal  priest  of  Santi 
Alessio  e  Bonifacio  in  1893,  and  shortly  afterward 
was  appointed  prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Council,  while  in  1902  he  became  prefect  of  the 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  and  pro- 
datarius  five  months  later. 

DIPPEL,  JOHAim  KONRAD  (DemocrUua  Ckria- 
iianus):  German  Pietist  and  alchemist;  b.  at 
Frankenstein  (5  m.  s.  of  Darmstadt)  Aug.  10, 1673; 
d.  at  the  castle  of  Wittgenstein  (24  m.  n.w.  of 
Marbuig)  Apr.  25,  1734.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  entered  the  University  of  Giessen  and  there 
rapidly  gained  note  as  an  acute  and  fervid  cham- 
pion of  orthodoxy  against  the  rising  influence  of 
the  Pietists,  actuated  in  his  course,  however,  more 
by  the  honor  which  the  orthodox  then  enjoyed 
than  by  conviction.  In  after-days  he  ascribed  to 
all  adherents  of  the  orthodox  system  the  same  in- 
sincerity of  which  he  had  been  guilty.  In  1693  he 
took  his  master's  degree  and  for  a  time  lived  as  a 
tutor  in  the  Odenwald,  continuing  his  polemic  against 
the  Pietists  and  hoping  for  a  professorship  at  Giessen. 
Meeting  with  the  coldest  treatment  from  the  au- 
thorities there,  however,  he  went  to  Wittenberg, 
where  his  fortunes  proved  no  better.  At  Stras- 
burg  his  views  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  es- 
tablish any  connection  with  the  university,  but  he 
passed  some  time  there  lecturing  on  astrology  and 
palmistry,  preaching  frequently  in  a  spirit  that 
showed  the  growing  influence  of  Pietism,  and  lead- 
ing a  life  which  ultimately  sent  him  back  to  his 
native  place,  a  fugitive  from  his  creditors.  Now 
openly  professing  the  tenets  of  Pietism,  though 
with  mercenary  motives,  he  preached  repeatedly 
before  the  court  at  Darmstadt,  and  in  1697  pub- 
lished at  Giessen  his  satirical  Orthodoxia  orthodoxo- 
rum.  At  this  time,  however,  occurred  his  sincere 
conversion  to  Pietism  through  the  instrumentality 
of  Gottfried  Arnold  (q.v.),  whom  he  met  at  Gies- 
sen, and  it  is  a  testimonial  to  his  final  sincerity 
that  he  did  not  hesitate  to  sacrifice  his  chances  for 


a  professorship  at  the  univerrity  by  the  publica- 
tion of  the  work  just  mentioned. 

With  characteristic  energy  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  service  of  his  new  faith  and,  taking  the  de- 
struction of  orthodoxy  as  his  mission,  entered  upon 
a  fierce  polemic  that  speedily  made  him  fanaous. 
In  1698  appeared  his  Papismus  Protesiantium  ra- 
pulans  and  this  was  followed  in  the  course  of  the 
next  two  years  by  no  less  than  fourteen  oontrovei^ 
sial  writings  in  which,  with  skilful  variation,  he 
expounded  the  same  theme  of  morals  versus  dog- 
ma, Christianity  versus  ecclesiasticism,  and  ortho- 
praxy   versus    orthodoxy.     Embracing    Arnold's 
views  of  church  history,  Dippel  carried  them  to  an 
extreme,  and  his  pamphlets  were  naturally  more 
popular  than  Arnold's  heavy  tomes.     His  views 
subjected  him  to  persecution  from  the  deiigy  and 
even  from  the  mob,  by  whom  his  life  was  threat- 
ened.    In  1702  the  Consistory  forbade  him  to  pub- 
lish any  writings  of  a  theological  nature.     After 
1704  he  lived  in  Berlin,  devoted  to  researches  in 
alchemy  and  deluded  at  one  time  by  the  conviction 
that  he  had  solved  the  problem  of  transmutation. 
The  discovery  of  Prussian  blue  was  the  accidental 
result  of  his  studies.     He  was  driven  from  Berlin 
through  the  machinations  of  J.  F.  Mayer,  an  in- 
veterate enemy  of  the  Pietists,  and  fled  to  K6st- 
ritz,  which  the  princes  of  the  line  of  Reuss  had 
made  a  refuge  for  adherents  of  the  new  movement. 
Thence  he  went  to  Holland,  lived  for  some  time 
near  Amsterdam,  and  after  1711  practised  medi- 
cine at  Leyden,  bringing  into  therapeutic  use  the 
oil  known  by  his  name.     His  theological  interests, 
however,  were  not  neglected.     He  wrote  the  Fatum 
fatuum  (Amsterdam,  1710)  in  defense  of  the  free- 
dom of  the  will  against  the  teachings  of  the  Car- 
tesians, and  in  1714  published  at  Amsterdam  the 
Alea  hem  Musebnannici,     In  the  same  year  he  re- 
moved to  Altona,  in  Sleswick-Holstein,  where  he 
lived  until  1717  in  honored  peace.     By  an  impru- 
dent incursion  into  politics  he  aroused  the  hatred 
of  high  officials  at  court,  and  in  1719  was  con- 
denmed  to  perpetual  imprisonment.    The  full  rigor 
of  the  sentence  was  not  carried  out,  though  for 
seven  years  he  lived  in   semiconfinement  on  the 
island  of  Bomholm  engaged  in  the  practise  of  medi- 
cine.    Released    in    1726,    he    went    to    Sweden, 
plunged  into  politics,  and  was  utilized  by  the  nobles 
as  an  effective  instrument  against  the  hierarchy. 
He  finally  became  physician  to  King  Frederick  1. 
In  this  position  he  did  not  neglect  to  promu]^t« 
his    religious   views,  which,    represented    in    final 
form  in  his  Vera  demanstraiio  evangeUca  (Frank- 
fort, 1729)  and  making  rapid  progress  in  the  coun- 
try,  aroused  the  cleigy  and   brought  about  his 
banishment.     Returning  to  Germany,  he  took  up 
his  residence  at  Liebenberg,  near  Godar,  and  con- 
tinued his  studies  in  alchemy.     Though  he  ab- 
stained entirely  from  theological  controversy,  the 
clergy  compelled  him  to  flee,  and  he  found  rehi^ 
with  the  count  of  Wittgenstein-Berlebuig.     His  last 
years  were  lai^ly  taken  up  by  a  violent  contro- 
versy with  Zinzendorf  over  the  nature  of  the  Atone- 
ment. (F.  BossE.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  one  book  is  W.  Bender,  Johann  Kon- 
rod  Dippel,  Bonn,  1882. 


443 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BiosouruB 
Dlsoiples  of  Cnurist 


DIPTYCHS.    See  Libeb  Vitjb. 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST. 


Orig^i  (i  1). 


Doctrinal  Teaching  (§  2). 
Statistics  (S3). 


The  Disciples  of  Christ,  or  Christians,  are  a  body 
of  believers  which  dates  as  a  distinct  oi^ganization 
from  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  teachers  arose 
simultaneously  among  the  religious  denominations 
who  pleaded  for  the  Bible  alone  without  human 
addition  in  the  form  of  creeds  or  formulas  of  faith, 
and  for  the  union  of  Christians  of  every  name  upon 
the  basis  of  the  apostles'  teaching.  James  O'Kelly 
(q.v.)  and  others  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
Barton  W.  Stone  (q.v.)  and  his  coadjutors  in  Ken- 
tucky, Walter  Scott  in  Ohio,  the  Campbells  in 
West  Virginia  (see  Campbell,  Alexander) — ^min- 
isters of  different  denominations,  unknown  to  each 
other,  lifted  up  their  voices  against  divisions  in  the 

body  of  Christ.  In  Aug.,  1809,  Thomas 
I.  Origin.  Campbell,  a  Presbyterian  minister  in 

Washington  County,  Pa.,  formed 
''  The  Christian  Association  of  Washington,"  and 
in  September  of  the  same  year  issued  a  remark- 
able Declaration  and  Address,  deploring  the  tend- 
encies of  party  spirit  among  Christians  and  the 
enforcement  of  hiunan  interpretations  of  God's 
Word  in  place  of  the  pure  doctrine  of  Christ.  Com- 
mencing with  the  admitted  truth  that  the  Gospel 
was  designed  to  reconcile  and  \mite  men  to  God 
and  to  each  other,  the  address  proceeded  to  con- 
sider the  sad  divisions  that  existed,  and  their  bale- 
ful effects  in  the  angry  contentions,  enmities,  ex- 
communications, and  persecutions  which  they  en- 
gendered; it  set  forth  the  object  of  the  association 
"  to  come  firmly  and  fairly  to  original  ground  and 
take  up  things  just  as  the  dposUes  left  them"  that, 
"  disentangled  from  the  accruing  enibarrassments  of 
intervening  ages,"  they  might  "  stand  upon  the 
same  ground  on  which  die  Church  stood  at  the  begin- 
ning." 

The  principles  of  this  address  were  cordially  in- 
dorsed by  Alexander  Campbell,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  (1810)  he  began  publicly  to  urge  them. 
The  first  organization  was  formed  May  4,  1811,  at 
Brush  Run,  Pa.,  with  twenty-nine  members;  in 
1813  this  church  united  with  the  Redstone,  and 
ten  years  after  with  the  Mahoning  Baptist  Associ- 
ation. In  1823  Mr.  Campbell  began  publishing 
the  Christian  Baptist,  and  his  teachings  began 
to  attract  universal  attention.  Opposition  was 
aroused  and  his  views  were  denounced  as  hetero- 
dox, but  large  numbers  accepted  them.  Many 
new  churches  were  organized  under  his  labors  and 
those  of  Walter  Scott,  and  the  Baptists  began  to 
declare  non-fellowship  with  those  who  pleaded  for 
the  Bible  alone,  thus  forcing  these  brethren  to 
organize  themselves  into  separate  commimities. 
This  was  in  1827,  and  from  this  time  may  be  dated 
the  rise  of  the  people  known  as  Disciples  of  Christ. 
In  1831  the  followers  of  Barton  W.  Stone  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  of  Alexander  Campbell  in  Virginia  and 
Pennsylvania,  united  (see  Christians,  2);  for  the 
next  thirty-five  years  Mr.  Campbell  is  the  foremost 
figure  in  the  movement. 


In  substantial  agreement  with  all  evangelical 
Christians,  Disciples  of  Christ  accept  the  divine 
inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments;  the  all-sufficiency  of  the  Bible 
as  a  revelation  of  God's  will  and  a  rule  of  faith  and 
life;  the  revelation  of  God  in  threefold  personality 
of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  as  set  forth  by  the 
apostles;  the  divine  glory  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
Son  of  God,  his  incarnation,  doctrine,  miracles, 
death  as  a  sin-offering,  resurrection,  ascension,  and 
coronation;  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  his  divine  mission  to  convince  the  world  of 
sin,  righteousness,  and  judgment  to  come,  and  to 
comfort  and  sanctify  the  people  of  God;  the  aliena- 
tion of  man  from  his  maker,  and  the 
2.  Doctrinal  necessity   of   faith,    repentance,    and 

Teaching,  obedience  in  order  to  salvation;  the 
obligation  of  the  divine  ordinances  of 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper;  the  duty  of  ob- 
serving the  Lord's  Day  in  memory  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  Lord  Jesus;  the  necessity  of  holiness 
on  the  part  of  believers;  the  divine  appointment 
of  the  Church  of  Christ,  composed  of  all  who  by 
faith  and  obedience  confess  his  name,  with  its 
ministries  and  services  for  the  edification  of  the 
body  of  Christ  and  the  conversion  of  the  world; 
the  fulness  and  freeness  of  the  salvation  that  is 
in  Christ  to  all  who  will  accept  it  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament conditions;  the  final  judgment,  with  the 
reward  of  the  righteous  and  punishment  of  the 
wicked. 

The  Disciples  of  Christ,  however,  have  their  dis- 
tinctive position:  (1)  In  their  plea  for  restoration. 
Others  have  sought  to  reform  the  Church.  The 
Campbells  and  their  coworkers  aimed  to  restore 
in  faith,  spirit,  and  practise  the  Christianity  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles  as  found  in  the  pages  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  need  was  not  to  recast 
any  existing  creed,  or  reform  any  existing  religious 
body,  but  to  go  back  of  all  creeds  and  councils,  all 
sects  and  schools  since  the  days  of  the  apostles, 
and  to  take  up  the  work  as  left  by  inspired  men. 
To  believe  and  to  do  none  other  things  than  those 
enjoined  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  they  felt 
must  be  infallibly  safe,  and  for  this  to-day  the 
Disciples  continue  to  stand — ^the  word  of  Christ 
and  the  body  of  Christ  as  in  the  beginning.  (2)  In 
the  rejection  of  human  creeds.  They  claim  to 
stand  strictly  upon  the  original  Protestant  prin- 
ciple— ^the  Bible,  the  whole  Bible,  and  nothing  but 
the  Bible,  the  religion  of  Protestants.  They  af- 
firm that  the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  given  by  God 
answer  all  purposes  as  a  rule  of  faith  and  practise 
and  a  law  for  the  government  of  the  Church;  and 
that  human  creeds  and  confessions  spring  out  of 
controversy  and  tend  to  division  and  strife.  (3)  In 
their  emphasis  upon  the  divine  Sonship  of  Jesus. 
In  place  of  all  human  confessions  they  would  exalt 
that  of  Peter:  "  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
the  Living  God."  "  What  think  you  of  Christ  ?  " 
is  the  great  question.  '*  Thou  art  the  Messiah,  the 
Son  of  the  Living  God,"  is  the  great  answer.  "  On 
this  rock  I  will  build  my  Church  "  is  the  great  oracle. 
(4)  In  their  division  of 'the  Word.  They  believe 
that  of  old,  "  Holy  men  of  God  spake  as  they  were 
moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit,"  yet  do  not  regard  the 


XMsoiples  of  Christ 

DiMaaes  and  the  Healinir  Art 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


444 


Old  and  New  Testaments  as  of  equally  binding 
authority  upon  Christians.  ''God,  who  at  sun- 
dry times  and  in  divers  manners  spake  in  time 
past  unto  the  fathers  by  the  prophets,  hath  in 
these  last  days  spoken  unto  us  by  his  Son."  A 
clear  distinction  is  made  between  the  Law  and  the 
Gospel,  the  old  covenant  and  the  new,  and  the 
New  Testament,  it  is  claimed,  is  as  perfect  a  con- 
stitution for  the  worship,  government,  and  disci- 
pline of  the  New  Testament  Church  as  the  Old 
was  for  the  Old  Testament  Church.  (5)  In  the 
plea  for  New  Testament  names  for  the  Church  and 
followers  of  Christ.  As  the  Bride  of  Christ,  the 
Church  should  wear  the  name  of  the  Bridegroom. 
Party  names  perpetuate  party  strife.  "  For  while 
one  saith,  I  am  of  Paul;  and  another,  I  am  of 
Apollos;  are  ye  not  carnal?"  Disciples  do  not 
deny  that  others  are  Christians,  or  that  other 
churches  are  churches  of  Christ.  They  do  not 
claim  to  be  the  Church  of  Christ  or  even  a  Church 
of  Christ.  They  simply  desire  to  be  Christians 
only,  and  their  churches  to  be  only  churches  of 
Christ.  Hence  they  repudiate  the  name  "  Camp- 
bellites."  (6)  As  to  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
in  conversion.  Accepting  the  divine  personality 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  holding  that  in  every  case 
regeneration  is  begun,  carried  on,  and  perfected 
through  his  gracious  agency,  the  Disciples  claim 
the  Divine  Word  is  his  instrument,  the  sinner  is  in 
no  sense  passive,  regeneration  is  not  a  miracle,  the 
Gospel  is  God's  power  imto  salvation  to  every  one 
that  believeth,  and  men  must  hear,  believe,  repent, 
and  obey  the  Gospel  to  be  saved.  (7)  As  to  Chris- 
tian baptism.  Recognizing  Christ  alone  as  King, 
his  Word  only  as  authoritative  and  binding  upon 
the  conscience,  and  finding,  as  they  would  return 
to  the  order  instituted  by  our  Lord  and  his  apo»- 
ties,  baptism  commanded  in  order  to  the  remission 
of  sins  and  administered  by  a  burial  with  Christ, 
they  take  it  up  as  one  of  the  items  of  the  priginal 
divine  system  against  all  human  systems.  Bap- 
tismal regeneration  they  have  never  taught.  They 
simply  insist  upon  the  purpose  of  baptism  as  set 
forth  in  the  divine  testimonies:  Mark  xvi  16;  Acts 
ii.  38;  Acts  xxii.  16.  They  would  give  the  in- 
spired answers  to  the  question,  "  Men  and  brethren, 
what  shall  we  do  ?  "  They  would  demand  no  other 
prerequisite  to  baptism  than  the  confession  of  the 
whole  heart  in  the  personal  living  Christ.  They 
would  teach  the  believing  penitent  to  seek  through 
obedience  the  divine  assurance  of  forgiveness;  and 
in  Scriptural  surrender  to  the  authority  of  Christ, 
and  not  in  sensation,  or  vision,  or  special  revela- 
tions, to  find  evidence  of  acceptance  with  God. 
(8)  As  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  Disciples  hold 
first  to  the  weekly  observance  of  this  holy  ordi- 
nance in  all  their  assemblies.  Of  the  Church  in 
Troas  we  read:  "On  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
when  the  disciples  came  together  to  break  bread, 
Paul  preached  unto  them,"  and  following  this  apos- 
tolic model.  Disciples  teach  that  the  Lord's  Supper 
should  be  celebrated  by  the  Lord's  people  on  every 
Lord's  Day;  and,  secondly,  they  emphasise  and 


exalt  this  institution,  not  as  a  sacrament,  but  as  a 
memorial  feast — an  act  of  worship  in  which  al. 
Christians  may  unite,  and  from  which  they  have 
no  right  to  exclude  any  sincere  follower  of  our  coni- 
mon  Lord.  (9)  As  to  the  Lord's  Day.  With  the 
Disciples  this  is  not  the  Sabbath,  but  a  New  Ter 
tament  institution,  consecrated  by  apostolic  ex- 
ample, and  to  be  observed  in  joyous  and  loving 
remembrance  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord  Jesus. 
(10)  As  to  the  Church.  The  Disciples  believe  that 
the  institution  built  by  Christ,  set  forth  by  the 
apostles  on  Pentecost  under  the  special  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  established  upon  the  foundation 
of  apostles  and  prophets,  Jesus  Christ  himself  be- 
ing the  Chief  Comeivstone — ^the  Church  of  Christ- 
is  a  divine  institution;  that  sects  as  branches  of 
the  Church  are  imscriptural  and  unapostolic; 
and  that  the  sect  name  and  sect  spirit  and 
sect  life  should  in  every  case  give  place  to  the 
unity  of  the  spirit  and  the  union  and  coopera- 
tion that  distinguished  the  Church  of  the  New 
Testament. 

The  Disciples  rank  sixth  among  the  religious 
bodies  of  America,  and  in  the  decade  1890-1900 
increased  eighty-four  per  cent.  They  have  11,000 
churches  and  one  and  a  quarter  millions  communi- 
cants. In  Christian  Endeavor  Societies  they  rank 
third.  They  have  a  Home  Missionary  Society 
working  in  thirty-seven  States,  and  their  Foreij^ 

Missionary  Society  sustains  466  work- 
3.  Statistics,  ers,  40  colleges  and  schools,  and  18 

hospitals  in  twelve  different  foreign 
lands.  Their  Christian  Woman's  Board  of  Mis- 
sions does  a  large  work  in  both  home  and  foreign 
fields,  and  they  have  both  a  National  Education 
Society  and  a  National  Benevolent  Association. 
They  publish  fifty-five  journals  and  support  thirty- 
four  colleges  and  seminaries  of  high  grade,  among 
which  are  Bethany  College,  Bethajiy,  W.  Va., 
founded  by  Alexander  Campbell  in  1840,  and 
Hiram  College,  Hiram,  O. 

F,  D.  Power. 

Bxbuoobapbt:  The  souroes  first  in  importanoe  are  the  vri- 
tingB  of  A.  Campbell,  partly  oolleeted  in  his  Workt,  6 
vols.,  Cincinnati,  n.d.,  to  be  supplemented  by  the  Debak 
wUh  N.  L.  Rice,  ib.  1844,  his  Popular  Lectures  and  Air 
dreaeee,  Philadelphia,  1863,  and  The  Christian  Baptui,  :^ 
newspaper  nearly  the  whole  of  which  was  written  by 
Campbell.  Valuable  also  is  R.  Richardson,  Memoin  of 
Alexander  CamjibeU,  Cincinnati,  1888.  Consult  farther: 
J.  A.  Williams.  Life  of  John  Smith,  Cincinnati.  1870:  W. 
Baxter.  Life  of  Walter  SooU,  ib.  1874;  J.  S.  Lamar,  Lih 
of  I.  Errett,  2  vols.,  ib.  1804;  B.  B.  Tyler,  American  Chvrtk 
Hut.  Series,  vol.  xu..  New  York.  1804;  F.  D.  Power.  Skttdta 
ef  our  Pioneers,  St.  Louis,  1890.  On  the  doctrines  of 
the  Disciples  consult:  B.  Franklin.  The  Gospel  Preacher. 
Cincinnati,  1868;  I.  Errett,  Walks  about  Jerusalem,  ib. 
1872;  J.  H.  Garrison,  Old  Faith  Reetated,  St.  Louis,  1891; 
8.  Lamar.  First  Principles  and  Ooing  on  to  Perfection, 
Cincinnati,  1891;  F.  D.  Power,  Bible  Doebwe  for  Young 
Disciples,  St.  Louis,   1890. 

DISCRETION,  TEAR  OF:  In  ecclesiastical 
usage,  the  age  at  which  a  change  of  confession  may 
be  made.  In  countries  which  legislate  on  the  sub- 
ject (as  the  German  Btates)  it  varies  from  fourteen 
to  twenty-one. 


445 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BlMiples  of  Ohrlst 

Diseases  and  the  Healing  Art 


DISEASES  AND  THE  HEALING  ART,  HEBREW. 


I 

II. 
Ill 

IV. 


General  GoDditionsin  Palestine. 
Iteligioue  Ideas  of  Disease. 
Healing  and  Healers. 
Separate  Diseases. 
Oiseaaes  of  the  Skin  (}  1). 
The  Malady  of  Job  (ft  2). 

I.  General  Conditions  in  Palestine:  The  general 
hygienic  conditions  of  the  environment  of  the 
Israelites  were  good,  and  they  appear  to  have  been 
a  healthy  people  (Ex.  i.  10  sqq.,  18  sqq.).'  Pales- 
tine is  a  country  conducive  to  health,  since  the 
characteristics  of  the  climate  give  to  the  human 
body  a  high  degree  of  elasticity  and  firmness.  The 
principal  climatic  disease  is  fever;  the  low-lying 
land,  the  mountain  valleys,  and  the  marshes  are 
dreaded  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  malaria 
(tertian  typhus).  Inflammation  of  the  eyes  pre- 
vails as  in  Egypt,  owing  to  the  heat,  which  causes 
hyperemia  of  the  brain,  the  nightly  dews,  and  the 
sand-storms  (cf.  Lev.  xix.  14;  Deut.  xxvii.  18; 
Matt.  ix.  27,  xii.  22,  etc.).  All  these  diseases, 
however,  seem  to  have  been  kept  within  reasonable 
bounds. 

n.  Religious  Ideas  of  Disease:  The  whole  an- 
cient Orient  shared  in  the  belief  that  disease  was 
sent  by  the  Deity.     Among  the    ancient  Babylo- 
nians   disease  signified   that  an    evil  spirit   pos- 
sessed the  sick  man  and  held  him  in  its  power. 
These   evil  spirits  were  numerous,  different  classes 
causing   diseases  of  the  head,  fevers,  the  plague, 
etc.    Healing  was    almost   exclusively  by   means 
of    exorcisms;  it  was   necessary  to  gain  the  pro- 
tection   of    some   powerful   divinity  that  by  his 
help    the   evil   spirits   might   be  driven  out.     In 
Israel    also    this   belief    persisted,   and   Josephus 
as8(^rts   that   in   his    time     people   employed  va- 
rious superstitious  remedies  (Ant.,  VIII.  ii.  6).  The 
prevalence  of  this  custom  in  more  ancient  times  is 
proved  by  the  many  animadversions  in  the  Old 
Testament  against  sorcery,  which  was  used  either 
for  protection  against  disease  or  for  its  cure  (see 
Dress  and  Ornament,  Hebrew,  §  7,  for  ornaments 
used  as  amulets).     Yahwism  also  shares  this  view 
of  the  supernatural  origin  of  disease,  but  it  always 
puts  Yahweh  in  the  place  of  the  many  gods  and 
evil  spirits.    The  angel  of  Yahweh  smites  the  peo- 
ple with  the  plague  (II  Sam.  xxiv.  16;  II  idngs 
xix.  35);  leprosy  (q.v.)  is  a  "smiting"  (^ra*cUh) 
from  God.     Indeed,  the  Israelites,  explaining  dis- 
ease  in  this  manner,  made  it  unnecessary  to  look  for 
natural  causes.    Still  the  conviction  persisted  that  in 
certain  maladies,  such  as  mental  derangement,  epi- 
lepsy, and  hysteria,  evil  spirits  possessed  the  patient 
and  tortured  him.  Even  in  the  modem  East  no  fun- 
damental distinction  is  made  between  insanity  and 
inspiration  (I  Kings  xxii.  19  sqq.;  II  Kings  iii.  15 
sqq.).      Saul  was    tormented    by    one    of    Yah- 
weh's    evil  spirits  (I   Sam.  xvi.  14),  and  the  in- 
spired prophets  behaved  like  madmen  (I  Sam.  xix. 
18  sqq.,  xxi.  13  sqq.;  II  Kings  ix.  11;  cf.  also  the  de- 
moniacs of  the  New  Testament  and  see  Demoniac). 
m.  Healing  and  Healers:    In  spite  of  the  views 
concerning  the  origin  and  nature  of  disease  just 
noticed,  the  art  of  healing  was  practised  at  an 
fMirly  period.     The  Code  of  Hammurabi  (see  Ham- 
Muit\fii  AND   His  Code)  contains  rules  applying 


of 


Pestilence  (ft  3). 

The  Bubonic  Plague  (ft  4). 

Symptoms   and  Characteristics 

the  Placue  (ft  5). 
Diseases  of  the  Sexual  Orsans  (ft  6). 
Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  (ft  7), 

to  the 


Special  Gases  (ft  8). 

Epilepsy  (ft  9). 

Mental  DiBeases  (ft  10). 

Diseases  of  the  Abdomen,  Bones, 

and  Eyes  (ft  11). 
Fevers  and  Sunstroke  (ft  12). 

physician.  In  ancient  Egypt  also  the 
art  of  healing  had  attained  a  high  standard; 
there  were  specialists  for  diseases  of  the  eye,  of 
the  teeth,  etc.  (Herodotus,  ii.  84;  cf.  A.  Erman, 
Aegypten  und  ciegyptischea  JAben,  Tubingen,  1887, 
pp.  477  sqq.,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1894).  Ex. 
xxi.  19  implies  that  there  were  physicians  in  Israel. 
As  the  sanctuaries  were  the  centers  of  all  knowl- 
edge, the  priest  was  at  the  same  time  the  physi- 
cian. This  is  easily  imderstood  from  the  supposed 
origin  of  disease  (ut  sup.),  according  to  which  only 
the  priests  could  effect  a  cure.  In  agreement 
with  this  the  law  (Lev.  xiii.)  gives  a  prescription 
that  where  leprosy  was  suspected  the  priest  was 
to  determine  the  character  of  the  disease,  a  fact 
which  implies  that  he  was  believed  to  be  possessed 
of  medical  knowledge.  How  early  there  were  pro- 
fessional healers  outside  of  the  priesthood  is  not 
known.  In  process  of  time,  naturally,  recourse  to 
physicians  became  more  general.  Jeremiah  (viii. 
22)  complains  that  the  hurts  of  the  nation  could 
not  be  healed  by  a  physician  as  could  the  wounds 
of  men,  and  the  Chronicler  blames  Asa  for  trusting 
too  much  in  his  physicians  (II  Chron.  xvi.  12). 
Sirach  praises  in  high  terms  the  art  of  healing 
(Ecclus.  xxxviii.  1  sqq.),  and  several  recipes  are 
preserved  from  this  later  period  (cf.  J.  Ughtfoot, 
HorcB  hebraiccB  et  Talmtuiica  on  .  .  .  Mark  v.  26, 
Cambridge,  1 663) ,  while  the  baths  of  Tiberias  and  Cal- 
lirho^  were  used  (Josephus,  Ant.,  XVII.  vi.  5;  War, 
I.  xxxiii.  5).  According  to  the  Talmud  {SheJcalim 
V.  1-2)  a  physician  was  attached  to  the  temple  to 
treat  abdominal  diseases,  because  the  priests,  who 
went  barefooted  and  were  required  to  use  frequent 
cold  ablutions,  were  especially  subject  to  such 
troubles,  while  Sanhedrin  17^  recommends  that 
there  be  a  physician  and  a  surgeon  in  every  com- 
munity. In  the  interest  of  science  it  was  allow- 
able to  become  unclean  by  touching  a  corpse. 
Several  Talmudic  teachers  bore  the  title  of  doctor. 

IV.  Separate  Diseases:  Definite  directions  for 
ascertaining  the  character  of  diseases  are  given 
only  in  such  cases  as  were  considered  ceremonially 
unclean.  In  all  other  cases  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  determine  the  disease  from  the  popular  nomen- 
clature because  of  the  lack  of  complete  and  specific 
statement  of  the  symptoms.  Therefore  only  an 
unsystematic  list  of  the  diseases  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  can  be  given. 

The  name  leprosy  (q.v.),  ^ara^ath,  includes  not 
only  leprosy  proper  (Lepra  Arabum),  but  also  other 
maladies  with  like  symptoms  (Lev.  xiii.  1  sqq.;  cf. 
xiv.  56).  Four  forms  of  disease  are 
X.  Diseases  enumerated  which  in  their  incipient 
of  the  Skin,  stages  might  be  taken  for  leprosy: 
seth,  mppahaih,  bahereth,  nethek  (Lev. 
xiii.  2  sqq.).  For  the  diagnosis  only  certain  nega- 
tive signs  are  mentioned.  If  the  hair  on  the  skin 
at  the  places  affected  does  not  become  white,  if 
the  affected  parts  of  the  skin  do  not  appear  de- 


Blaaaaea  and  the  Healing  Art 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


446 


pressed,  and  if  the  affected  area  does  not  spread, 
then  the  disease  is  not  unclean  (verses  6,  39).  In 
the  laws  for  the  priests  three  other  skin-diseases  are 
mentioned,  garabhf  yaUepheth,  and  heres,  which  ren- 
der the  victims  ineligible  for  the  priesthood.  The 
Biblical  description  of  this  malady  is  insufficient 
for  identification.  Of  all  these  names  only  seth 
can  be  explained  as  "  rising,"  and  implies  a  swell- 
ing of  the  skin  in  contradistinction  to  a  depression 
of  the  affected  skin,  the  characteristic  sign  of  lep- 
rosy. Sappahath  seems  (Isa.  iii.  17)  to  attack  es- 
pecially the  head.  Bahereth  is  with  some  proba- 
bility connected  with  bcJiar  ("  to  shine  ")  and  is 
supposed  to  refer  to  light  spots  and  bald  places  on 
the  dark  skin  (cf.  Lev.  xiii.  4).  This  suggests  vit- 
iligo, a  skin-disease  in  which  the  pigment  disap- 
pears from  i)arts  of  the  epidermis.  These  erup- 
tions may  appear  over  the  whole  body  without 
any  previous  injury  to  the  skin  (Lev.  xiii.  2),  or 
where  there  has  been  a  boil  (verse  18)  or  a  bum 
(verse  24).  Nethe^  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  mild 
disease  (Lev.  xiii  31-34),  and  at  others  considered 
to  be  the  same  as  the  i^ara^ath  of  the  head  and 
beard  (Lev.  xiii.  30).  Garabh  (LXX.  psora  agria, 
Vulg.,  scabies)  and  yaUspketh  (LXX.  Uiehin,  Vulg., 
impetigo)  seem  to  indicate  an  incurable  disease,  as 
they  exclude  the  patients  from  the  priesthood 
(Lev.  xxi.  20).  They  are  generally  considered  to 
be  the  itch  or  herpes,  ^eres  (LXX.  knSphi,  Vulg., 
prurigo)  was  also  regarded  an  incurable  disease,  as 
were  the  plague  and  Egyptian  boils  (Deut.  xxviii.  27). 
In  connection  with  these  skin-diseases  Job's 
malady  may  be  mentioned.  This  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  have  been  real  leprosy.  Some  think  of 
lepra  Arabum  or  elephantiasis  GreBcorum,  others 
of  elephantiasis  Arabum ^  or  pachydermia,  a  disease 

of  the  lymphatics  and  blood-vessels, 

a.  The      especially   of  the   lower  extremities. 

Iftalady  of  If,  however,  the  account  of  Job's  suf- 

Job.        ferings  might  lead  to  the  belief  that 

he  was  afEhcted  with  several  distinct 
maladies,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  recital 
is  not  the  clinical  history  of  a  disease,  but  a  poet's 
description.  However,  the  people  of  Israel  were 
threatened  with  this  very  malady,  the  same  name 
being  employed  {shehin  ra%  Job  iL  7)  as  for  one  of 
the  most  severe  pestilences  (Deut.  xxviii.  27,  35), 
and  this  passage  may  have  been  present  to  the 
mind  of  the  poet  when  describing  Job's  sufferings. 
For  the  various  symptoms  of  Job's  malady  as  given 
by  the  author  of  the  book  cf.  Job  ii.  7,  vii.  3-5,  xvi. 
8,  13,  16,  xvii.  7,  xix.  17-20,  xxx.  17,  27,  30. 

Pestileiioe  {debher)  is  regarded  in  the  Elast  as  the 
most  destructive  of  all  diseases  (Lev.  xxvi.  25; 
Deut.  xxviii.  21;  II  Sam.  xxiv.  13,  15;  I  Kings 
viiL  37;  Jer.  xiv.  12;  Hos.  xiii.  14).    The  name  in 

itself  signifies  simply  "  destruction  "; 

3.  Pesti-    the  same  may  be  said  of  the  name 

leace.       Ife^h  (Deut.  xxxii.  24;  Ps.  xcL  6;  Hos. 

xiii.  14).  A  still  more  common  designa- 
tion is  maweUi,  "  death  "  (Job  xxvii.  15;  Jer.  xv.  2; 
Thanaios  in  LXX.  of  Deut.  xxviii.  21;  Rev.  vi.  8, 
xviii.  8;  cf.  the  medieval  expression,  the  Black 
Death).  The  names  correspond  with  the  defini- 
tion of  the  plague  given  by  Galen:  **  If  many  peo- 
ple in  a  place  are  attacked  by  the  same  inalady, 


then  it  is  an  epidemic;  if,  however,  many  peopk 
die  of  that  malady,  it  is  the  plague  "  {**  Commentanr 
on  Book  iii.  of  Hippocrates's  Epidemics  "). 

The  foremost  place  must  be  given  to  the  bu- 
bonic plague,  which  was  known  in  the  Orient  from 
the  earliest  times  (cf.  PUny,  HisL  naturaiis,  ilL  4; 
Cyprian,    De    mortalitate).     The    de- 
4.  The      tails  given  in  the  Old  Testament  ac- 

Bubonic     cord  with  the  symptoms  of  this  dis- 

Plague.  ease.  In  the  description  of  the 
malady  of  the  Philistines,  'ophalim, 
"  boils,"  are  mentioned  as  characteristic  (I  Sana. 
V.  6-12),  hence  five  golden  images  of  boils  were 
given  as  votive  offerings  (I  Sam.  vi.  4-5).  Among 
the  severe  pestilences  with  which  the  people  of 
Israel  are  threatened  (Deut.  xxviii.  27)  the  bu- 
bonic plague  is  mentioned.  The  pestilence  which 
befell  the  Israelites  as  a  result  of  David's  census  is 
not  particularly  described,  but  was  evidently  the 
plague.  The  conception  of  the  angel  of  Yaiiweh 
who  smites  the  people  (II  SaoL  xxiv.  16)  is  re- 
peated in  the  account  of  the  destruction  wrought 
in  the  camp  of  Sennacherib  (II  Kings  xix.  35; 
Isa.  xxxviL  36).  The  recital  of  Herodotus  has 
long  been  regarded  as  of  similar  origin  with  the 
Old  Testament  account.  He  narrates  that  a  mul- 
titude of  field-mice  gnawed  the  quivers,  shield- 
straps,  and  bowstrings  of  the  Assyrians,  and  the 
disarmed  warriors  were  forced  to  seek  safety  in 
flight.  That  mice  are  symbols  of  the  plague  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  the  Philistines  offered,  be- 
sides the  five  golden  images  of  boils,  five  golden 
mice,  as  symbols  of  the  plague  (I  Sam.  vL  4). 

The  bubonic  plague  has  its  name  from  the  usual 
location  of  the  boils  which  characterixe  it,  appear- 
ing generally  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  groin, 
rarely  in  the  armpits,  at  the  nape  of 

5.  Symp-    the  neck,  or  behind  the  ear,  and  ta- 

toms  and  king  the  form  of  roimd  swellings,  some- 
Character-  times  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg.  Death 
istics  of  the  often  occurs  very  quickly,  even  be- 

Plague.  fore  these  external  signs  of  the  disease 
have  developed.  The  bacillus  of  the 
plague  has  been  discovered  only  very  recently. 
Pliny  {Hist,  naturaiis,  iii.  4)  connects  its  appear- 
ance with  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  when  this 
and  heavy  rains  are  followed  quickly  by  hot 
weather.  In  severe  epidemics  as  much  as  ninety 
per  cent  of  the  cases  result  fatally;  with  the  course 
of  the  epidemic,  however,  the  percentage  of  mor- 
tality decreases.  So  far  no  effectual  remedy  has 
been  found;  the  best  precautionary  measures 
against  the  disease  are  the  ordinary  regulations  of 
sanitation,  by  means  of  which  the  spread  of  the 
plague  has  been  greatly  restricted  even  in  Egypt, 
where  it  is  endemic.  Such  precautionary  meas- 
ures were  unknown  to  the  Israelites;  the  crema- 
tion of  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  of  the  plague 
(Amos  vi.  10)  has  nothing  to  do  with  regulations 
of  this  kind.  The  "  murrain  "  which  swept  away 
the  beasts  has  no  connection  with  the  bubonic 
plague  (Ex.  ix.  3;  cf.  Ps.  IxxviiL  50;  Ezek.  xiv. 
21),  which  is  a  disease  of  men;  animals  seem  to  be 
immune,  with  the  exception  of  rats,  which  play  an 
important  part  in  the  spread  of  the  plague.  Hez- 
ekiah's  illness  is  also  considered  by  many  to  have 


447 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DlmasM  and  the  Heallnff  Art 


been  the  plague  (II  Kings  xx.  7;  Isa.  xxxviii.  21, 
8h£htn),  being  brought  into  causal  connection  with 
the  above  mentioned  Assyrian  plague.  But  any 
chronological  connection  is  rendered  impossible  by 
the  fact  that  Hezekiah's  iUness  took  place  at  the 
time  of  Merodach-baladan's  embassy. 

As  diseases  of  the  sexual  oigans  caused  cere- 
monial uncleanness,  the  law  offers  more  abundant 
details  regarding  them  (Lev.  xv.;  cf.  Num.  v.  2;  II 
Sam.  iii.  29).     The  prescriptions  con- 

6.  Diseases  cem  the  issues  of  men  and  women  and 
of  the  Sex-  the  menstruation  of  women.  A  par- 
ual  Organs,  ticularly   severe    case   of   the   latter 

which  Jesus  cured  is  mentioned  in  the 
synoptics  (Matt.  ix.  20;  Mark  v.  25;  Luke  viii. 
43).  Syphilis  has  been  identified  by  some  among 
the  maladies  described  in  Lev.  xv.,  and  also  in  the 
illness  of  Abimelech  (Gen.  xx.  17;  cf.  F.  Buret, 
Syphilis  in  Ancient  and  Prehistoric  Times,  London, 
1892).  It  can  not,  however,  be  proved  that  the 
Hebrews  knew  this  disease.  The  description  of 
the  malady  of  Herod  the  Great,  in  Josephus  (Ant. , 
XVII.  vi.  5;  War,  I.  xxxiii.  6),  suggests  syphilis, 
but  in  this  case  there  may  have  been  cancerous  or 
other  sores. 

Lameness  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.   The  word  pisse^  is  always  used  in  reference 
to  the  legs  (cf.  II  Sam.  iv.  4;  Job  xxix.  15;  Prov. 
xxvi.  7;  Isa.  xxxv.  6);  only  in  I  Kings 

7.  Diseases  xiii.  4  sqq.  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
of  the       arm.     Next  to  the  blind,   the  lame 

Hervous    are  considered  the  most  miserable  of 

System,  beings  (II  Sam.  v.  6;  Isa.  xxxiii.  23; 
Jer.  xxxi.  8).  The  lame  were  ineli- 
gible for  the  priesthood  (Lev.  xxi.  18).  The  New 
Testament  alludes  often  to  palsy  and  lameness 
(paralytikai,  paralysis,  choloi).  Among  those  whose 
affliction  was  considered  humanly  incurable  and 
who  came  to  Jesus  and  the  apostles  in  search  of  a 
cure  the  palsied  occupied  a  foremost  place  (Matt. 
iv.  24;  Mark  ii.  3;  Luke  v.  18;  John  v.  5  sqq.; 
Acts  viii.  7).  Their  cure  was  one  of  the  signs  of 
the  Messianic  kingdom  (Luke  vii.  22).  A  case  of 
hip-disease  is  mentioned  Luke  xiii.  11.  Naturally 
nothing  is  said  of  the  cause  of  paralysis;  it  is  in- 
cidentally mentioned  that  Mephibosheth's  lame- 
ness resulted  from  a  fall  when  he  was  five  years 
old  (II  Sam.  iv.  4  sqq.).  The  Greek  parolytikos 
includes  every  disease  in  which  the  patient  loses 
freedom  of  movement  in  any  part  of  his  body  by 
reason  of  relaxation  or  contraction  of  the  muscles. 
This  may  result  from  gout  or  apoplexy  or  from 
spinal  disease.  Still,  in  Acts  viii.  7,  the  chSloi  are 
differentiated  from  the  parolytikoi.  Atrophy  of 
the  limb  affected  frequently  accompanied  this 
paralysis  (cf.  I  Kings  xiii.  4;  Zech.  xi.  17;  the  cheir 
ksira,  "  withered  h^nd,"  of  Matt.  xiL  10;  Luke  vi. 
8  and  the  "  withered  "  of  John  v.  3). 

Recently  the  illness  of  Antiochus  (II  Mace.  ix. 

5,  9)  has  been  explained  as  spinal  paralysis.     After 

he  had  suffered  from  abdominal  dis- 

8.  Special  ease  (verses  5  sqq.)  accompanied  by 
Cases.  excruciating  pains,  he  fell  from  his 
chariot  and  sustained  a  fracture  of 
the  spine.  In  consequence  paralysis  set  in,  in- 
flammation developed  in  the  paralyzed  parts,  and 


worms  were  produced  from  the  dead  flesh;  but 
this  account  contains  unreliable  material.  A  case 
of  apoplexy,  a  disease  not  rare  in  the  East,  is  sug- 
gested in  the  account  of  Nabal's  death,  ascribed 
to  a  sudden  fright  while  in  a  state  of  intoxication. 
But  it  is  useless  to  seek  by  special  researches  to  fix 
the  medical  status  of  such  a  ^*  stroke  of  God  "  as 
that  of  Nabal,  that  of  Uzzah  (II  Sam.  vi.  7),  or 
that  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  (Acts  v.).  In  the 
stroke  which  befell  Alkimos  some  have  supposed 
a  case  of  tetanus,  and  the  same  holds  good  of 
"  sick  of  the  palsy,  grievously  tormented  "  of  Matt. 
viii.  6  (cf.  Luke  vii.  2). 

Epilepsy,  while  not  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  often  alluded  to  in  the  New.  The  Greek 
designation  seleniazamerun  (literally  "  moonstruck  "; 
A.  v.,  "lunatic";  R.  V.,  "epileptic";  Matt.  iv.  24, 
xvii.  16;  cf.  Mark  i.  23  sqq.,  ix.  17-18;  Luke  ix. 
38  sqq.)  owes  its  origin  to  the  idea 
9.  Epilepsy,  that  the  disease  was  due  to  the  moon. 
In  the  New  Testament  period  this  ill- 
ness was  attributed  to  demoniac  possession  (Mark 
ix.  18),  though  Matthew  usually  distinguishes  be- 
tween the  possessed  and  the  lunatics  (iv.  24,  see 
Demoniac).  The  symptoms  described  in  Mark 
ix.  17;  Luke  ix.  38  sqq.  are  those  which  charac- 
terize epileptic  fits;  violent  spasms  shake  the  pa- 
tient, he  falls  to  the  groimd,  froths  at  the  mouth, 
gnashes  his  teeth,  howls,  he  often  casts  himself 
into  the  water  or  into  the  fire,  and  generally  he 
becomes  emaciated.  The  great  number  of  cases 
of  demoniac  possession  described  in  the  New 
Testament  are  explained  by  modem  medical  sci- 
ence as  caused  by  autosuggestion,  the  sufferers 
being  under  the  delusion  that  they  were  the  prey 
of  evil  spirits. 

At  no  time  was  a  fundamental  distinction  made 

in  the  East  between  inspired  prophets  and  men 

suffering  from  mental  derangement.     Insanity  was 

rarer  in  the  Orient  than  in  modem 

ID.  Mental  civilization;    nevertheless,  it   is  quite 

Diseases,  often  mentioned,  and  the  actions  and 
appearance  of  the  insane  were  well 
known  (Deut.  xxviii.  28-34;  cf.  I  Sam.  xxi.  14; 
II  Kings  ix.  20;  Prov.  xxvi.  18;  Zech.  xii.  4). 
Two  cases  are  described  very  minutely,  that  of 
Saul  and  that  of  Nebuchadrezzar.  Saul's  malady 
suggests  melancholia  (I  Sam.  xvi.  14  sqq.,  xviii.  10 
sqq.,  xix.  9  sqq.)  alternating  with  madness.  But 
the  very  meager  information  given  in  the  Old  Tefr- 
tament  does  not  reveal  in  Saul's  case  the  symp- 
toms which  modem  psychiatry  requires  in  deter- 
mining a  case  of  melancholia,  even  putting  aside 
all  the  legendary  features  of  the  recital.  To  the 
hallucination  of  Nebuchadrezzar  (Dan.  iv.  29  sqq.) 
that  he  was  an  animal  many  parallels  exist  in  the 
so-called  lycanthropy.  But  there  is  no  real  proof 
that  Nebuchadrezzar  ever  led  a  life  like  a  beast's; 
these  details  are  mere  adornment  of  the  account  (but 
see  Daniel,  Book  of,  VI.).  Medical  men  of  sober 
judgment  diagnose  Nebuchadrezzar's  malady  as  a 
form  of  megalomania  accompanied  by  visions,  de- 
lusions of  the  senses,  and  a  morbid  fear  of  perse- 
cution, this  phase  of  excitement  being  followed  by 
a  phase  of  extreme  depression,  physical  as  well  as 
mental.     But  the  Biblical  historian  knows  nothing 


DiMaMS  and  the  HeftUnc  Art 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


448 


o(  thiSy  and,  as  the  event  is  not  historical,  to  seek 
for  the  true  medical  definition  of  this  malady  is 
saperfluous. 

The  onity  case  of  disease  of  the  abdominal  or- 
gans mentioned  is  that  of  Joram  (II  Chron.  xzL 
15,  18  sqq.).     His  malady  is  explained  by  the  med- 
ical authorities  as    diarrhea,  or  as  a 

11.  DisaaMS  rupture  of  the  intestines  with  its  vari- 
of  the  Ab-  ous   complications.    The   account   in 

domen,     the  Old  Testament  is  much  too  gen- 
Bones,  and  eralized  as  to  details  for  the  formation 
Eyes.       of  any  positive  opinion  in  the  case. 

Oaries  (Heb.  rakabh)  is  often  men- 
tioned, but  only  as  a  sjrmbol  of  destruction  (Prov. 
xii.  4;  Hos.  v.  12;  Hab.  iii.  16).  Rickets  is,  ac- 
cording to  present  medical  science,  the  chief  pre- 
disposing cause  of  spinal  curvature  and  is  assumed 
in  every  case  of  hunchback,  except  such  as  result 
from  spinal  disease  caused  by  a  tuberculous  con- 
dition. Gout  may  have  been  the  disease  of  some 
of  the  paralytics  of  the  New  Testament.  The  ill- 
ness of  Asa  (I  EingB  xv.  23;  II  Chron.  xvL  12)  is 
also  explained  as  gout,  and  great  age  and  the  dura- 
tion of  his  illness  make  this  seem  probable;  the 
details,  however,  are  so  indefinite  that  nothing 
more  than  a  conjecture  may  be  hazarded.  The 
commonness  of  blindness  in  the  East  has  already 
been  noticed.  The  causes  are  the  lack  of  cleanli- 
ness, the  prevailing  dust,  the  intense  brightness  of 
the  sunlight,  the  flies  and  other  insects,  and  the 
failure  to  treat  properly  the  eyes  when  disease  has 
once  developed.  The  law  takes  the  blind  under 
its  special  protection  (Lev.  xix.  14;  Deut.  xxvii 
18),  although  they  were  excluded  from  the  priest- 
hood (Lev.  xxi.  18).  There  is  frequent  mention 
of  miraculous  infliction  and  removal  of  blindness 
((3en.  xix.  11;  II  Kings  vi.  18-19;  Zech.  xii.  4, 
etc).  Cure  by  medical  treatment  was  regarded 
as  impossible;  and  as  the  healing  of  Tobit  (Tob. 
ii.  10,  xi.  2  sqq.)  is  given  as  a  miracle,  it  is 
unnecessaxy  to  discuss  the  curative  properties 
ofgaH 

A  great  number  of  Hebrew  words  designate  a 
disease  by  the  "  burning  "  which  accompanies  it 
(kaddahathf  Lev.  xxvL  16;  dallekeih,  Deut.  xxviii. 
2i2;  harhyr,  Deut.  xxviii.  22;  reaheph,  Deut.  xxxii. 
24).   It  can  not  be  determined  whether  these  names 

refer  to  as  many  different  kinds  of 

12.  Fevers  fevers;  in  any  case,  climatic  fevers  are 
and  Sun-    included  among  them.     It  is  as  dif- 

stroke.  ficult  to  determine  the  character  of 
the  "  great  fever  "  of  Peter's  mother- 
in-law  (Luke  iv.  38)  and  the  fever  of  the  noble- 
man's son,  John  iv.  46.  According  to  Josephus 
{Ant.,  XIII.  XV.  5),  Alexander  Jannieus  suffered  for 
three  years  from  intermittent  fever.  The  "  con- 
sumption "  mentioned  in  connection  with  fevers 
{shahepheih,  Lev.  xxvi.  16;  Deut.  xxviii.  22)  sig- 
nifies great  debility  and  emaciation.  Sunstroke 
{makkath  ahemesh)  is  often  mentioned  (II  Kings 
iv.  19;  Ps.  cxxi.  6;  Jonah  iv.  8;  Judith  viii.  3),  and 
is  even  to-day  much  dreaded  in  the  plains  of  the 
Jordan.  It  is  difficult  to  discriminate  in  individ- 
ual cases  between  genuine  sunstroke  and  heat- 
prostration  caused  by  the  overheating  of  the  body, 

I.  Benzinq£R. 


Bibuookapht:  The  litermtun  of  the  siibieet  is  siren  to 
W.  Ebstein  (see  below);  A  Pa«ly.  BibUogmflue  de§  ed- 
eneat  mSdicalsB,  Fmiia,  1874;  and  J.  Pacel,  HittanKk^ 
maiwiiMidke  Biblicaravkie,  Berlin.  1808.  Conault:  i.  R. 
Bennett,  The  Dimaan  of  Ae  Bible,  London.  1887;  T. 
Shapter,  Mediea  mera;  or  a  Short  Bzpoaiiion  of  Ifce  More 
important  Diaeaaeo  MenOonod  in  Oe  Sacrod  Writinoe,  ab. 
1834;  J.  P.  TVaaen.  DarwteUung  der  bibliaeken  Krankhei- 
ten,  Poaen.  1843;  J.  B.  Friedreich.  Zur  BiJbeL'  naturhu- 
torieehe,  antkropolaffiaehe  und  medieimeehe  FragmtnU^  2 
▼ole..  Nurembeis,  1848;  G.  Bdttser.  Die  AmeikunMi 
Ui  den  aiten  Htbrtkem,  Dresden,  1853;  J.  D.  Tholozan. 
Une  ipidSmie  de  poete  en  Mieopotamie  en  1887,  PteriN 
1860;  idem,  Hiat.  de  la  peate  hubonique  en  Mieopotamie, 
ib.  1874;  idsm,  HieL  de  la  peete  hubonique  au  Caneaae,  en 
Armime  et  en  Anatoiie,  ib.  1876;  idem.  La  Peate  en  Tvr- 
«ttt«,  ib.  1880;  L.  Kotefannnn,  Die  Oeburtehitfe  bei  den 
aiten  HebrOem,  ICvburs,  1876;  Oppler,  in  Deutaekee 
Arehiv  fUr  die  GeetMehte  der  Mediein,  1881,  pp.  62  sqq.; 
H.  Plosa.  Dae  WeSb  in  der  Naiur-  und  VdOberkunde,  Lap- 
sic,  1885;  C.  C.  Bombaugfa,  The  Plaauee  and  Peatileneea 
of  Ihe  Old  Teatament,  in  Johne  Hopkine  Hoepital  BuOetin, 
iv  (1803),  64  sqq.;  J.  Preuas,  in  Virchow's  Arehiv,  cxzxviii 
(1804),  261  sqq.;  idem,  in  Wiener  mediainieehe  WocAen- 
eehrift,  1808.  pp.  670  sqq.;  U.  Pasaigli,  Un'  anOea  paoina 
d*ioiene  aUmentare,  Florence,  1807;  idem,  L'Attattamento: 
eaogio  di  pediatria  bibliea,  Bologna,  1808;  ident.  La  Proa- 
tiiuaione  e  le  peieopaHe  eeaauaU  preaao  git  Ehrei  aW  epoea 
biblica,  Milan,  1808;  idem.  Le  Cogniaioni  oetetieo^neoo- 
logU^  degU  antidii  Ebrei,  Bologna,  1808;  W.  Ebstein,  Die 
Mediain  im  A.  T.,  Stuttgart,  1001;  idem.  Die  Mediain 
im  N.  T.  und  im  Tahnud,  ib.  1003;  DB,  iii.  321-333; 
BB,  L  60&-507.  1104-06.  iii.  2833-34,  300&-00,  3675- 
3677.  Interesting  side-U|^ts  are  east  by  Mary  Hamilton, 
IneubaHon  or  the  Cure  of  Dieeaee  in  Pagan  Teaapiee  and 
Chriatian  Churdiee,  London.  1006. 

DISIBOD,  SAUfT:  Founder  of  the  monastery  of 
Disibodenberg,  in  the  diocese  of  Mains,  in  Bavaria, 
near  the  border  of  Rhenish  Prussia  (10  m.  s.w.  of 
Kreuznach).  All  that  is  certainly  known  concern- 
ing him  is  that  he  was  an  Irishman;  he  died  most 
probably  in  674.  His  "  life  "  by  the  Abbess  Hilde- 
garde  of  Bingen  (d.  1179)  is  too  rhapsodical  and 
fantastic  to  be  considered  a  historical  document. 
It  states  that  when  he  was  a  young  man  at  home 
"  great  scandals  "  prevailed  in  Ireland;  some  re- 
jected Christianity,  others  adopted  heresies  or  Ju- 
daism; some  relapsed  into  paganism,  others  de- 
sired to  live  "  like  beasts,  rather  than  men."  For 
many  years  Disibod  struggled  against  these  evils; 
at  last,  tiring  of  the  thankless  toil,  he  left  home, 
and,  after  long  wanderings,  with  a  few  compan- 
ions settled  on  the  hill  by  the  Glan  in  Alemannia; 
when  he  had  learned  the  language  he  preached  to 
the  people,  and  he  lived  there  for  thirty  years  in 
high  esteem.  The  monasteiy  was  abandoned  and 
the  church  in  ruins  when  Willigis  became  arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  in  975.  He  renewed  the  founda- 
tion as  a  canoniy,  and  Archbishop  Ruthard  brought 
back  the  monks  in  1108.  In  1269  the  monastery 
passed  under  the  control  of  the  Cistercians.  In 
1569  it  was  finally  abandoned.  Extensive  ruins 
still  mark  the  site. 

Bibuographt:  A8B,  July,  iL  681-600,  and  MPL,  oxcriL 
Consult:  Lanigan,  Bed.  HiaL,  iii.  113-115;  Falk,  in  Der 
Katholik,  Ix  (1880).  i.  641-647.  For  the  monastery  con- 
sult: F.  X.  Remling.  Oeeehidite  der  Abteian  und  Kl6eter  in 
Rheinbayem,  i.  14-61,  Neustadt,  1836;  Rettbeis.  KD, 
i.  687-680. 

DISPENSATION:  In  the  practise  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  the  suspension  in  a  particular  case 
of  a  rule  of  the  canon  law,  or  the  exemption  from  tho 
consequences  usually    following  the  transgressioo 


449 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Diseaoes  and  the  Healing  Art 
Dlttrloh 


of  an  establiBhed  rule.  As  early  as  the  fifth  cen- 
tury the  bishops  of  Rome  assumed  the  right  of  de- 
viating from  the  decrees  formulated  by  the  ecu- 
menical councils  where  such  departures  involved 
a  mere  abandonment  of  detail  without  injuiy  to 
the  essence  of  canonical  prescription,  or  were  found 
necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  spirit  of  the 
law.  Similar  powers  were  exercised  by  the  pro- 
vincial synods  and  bishops;  but  from  the  middle  of 
the  eleventh  century  the  reference  of  applications 
for  exemption  (q.v.)  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  became 
general,  and  once  the  supreme  legislative  power  of 
the  pope  had  been  established  the  highest  power 
of  dispensation  was  deduced  therefrom.  In  theory 
the  exercise  of  this  function  was  justified,  only  by 
the  welfare  or  necessities  of  the  Church,  but  in 
practise  the  papal  discretion  became  absolute. 
After  the  fourteenth  century  the  practise  became 
a  source  of  papal  revenue;  for  though  theoretically 
the  grant  of  exemption  was  not  purchasable,  yet 
the  charges  connected  with  the  administration  of 
this  department  fell  upon  the  applicant  and  were 
made  heavy  for  the  express  purpose  of  discoura- 
ging frequent  recourse  to  this  mode  of  evading  the 
law.  The  Council  of  Trent  confirmed  the  pope  in 
possession  of  his  absolute  power,  unlimited  even 
by  the  decrees  of  a  general  council,  and  sanctioned 
the  exercise  of  the  dispensatory  power  by  others 
than  the  pope,  but  only  in  cases  of  extreme  neces- 
sity or  where  the  aim  is  some  benefit  for  the  Church 
admitting  of  no  delay. 

Upon  the  principle  that  the  power  of  dispensa- 
tion follows  from  that  of  legislation,  the  pope  alone 
may  grant  exemption  from  a  universal  law  or  a 
law  of  limited  application  emanating  from  the  pope 
or  a  general  council.  Dispensations  in  foro  externa 
are  issued  through  the  office  of  the  Dataria,  and 
those  in  foro  intemo  by  the  Pcenitentiaria;  the  for- 
mer requiring  in  every  case  the  papal  decision,  the 
latter  only  in  certain  exceptional  cases.  The  formal 
modes  of  granting  dispensation  are  in /onrnx  commie- 
saria,  whereby  a  mandate  is  addressed  to  the  territo- 
rial bishop  authorizing  him  after  due  investigation 
to  act  in  the  name  of  the  pope ;  or  in  forma  graJtioea, 
wherein  the  act  of  concession  is  addressed  directly 
to  the  petitioner,  a  favor  extended,  however,  only 
in  such  exceptional  cases  as  that  of  sovereigns  or 
bishops.  The  acceptance  of  the  grant  of  dispen- 
sation by  the  petitioner  is  not  necessary  to  render 
it  efficacious. 

The  independent  exercise  of  the  power  by  the 
bishops  is  restricted  to  cases  specified  in  the  Cor- 
pus juris  and  established  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
outside  of  which  the  papal  authorization  is  neces- 
sary. Such  authorization  {JacuUaUs ;  see  Facul- 
ties) is  conferred  for  a  regular  number  of  years 
and  within  a  prescribed  sphere  of  action.  The 
doctrine  that  bishops  may  make  use  of  the  power 
of  dispensation  in  emergencies  where  communica- 
tion with  Rome  is  impossible  or  hazardous  finds 
its  sanction  in  a  constructive  papal  authorization. 
Bishops  and  provincial  and  diocesan  synods  possess 
tlie  independent  power  of  dispensation  in  the  mat- 
ter of  rules  and  regulations  of  local  validity;  here 
too,  however,  the  papal  authority  may  intervene. 

(P.  HlNSCHIUSf.) 

III.-29 


Biblioorapbt:  M.  A.  Stiegler,  in  Archiv  fUr  kalKoU9ehm 
Kirchenncht,  Mains.  IS97-9S;  H.  Brwidhuber  von  Etaoh- 
feld,  Ueber  DiBpentaHon  und  D%ajmi»aHonaredU,  Vienna, 
1888;  £.  Friedbeis,  Dae  tftlUnde  VerfoMungMreeht  dtr 
evangAiMchen  Landeakirdi0n,  Leipaio,  1888.  Consult  also 
J.  H.  Blunt,  DieHonary  of  Doetrinal  and  HiBtorieal  7%a- 
ologv,  pp.  205-206,  London.  1870. 

DISSELHOFF,  JULIUS  AUGUST  GOTTFRIED: 
Successor  of  Fliodner  at  the  head  of  the  Kaisers- 
werth  home  for  deaconesses  (see  Fuednsr,  Theo- 
dor;  and  Deaconess,  III.,  2,  a,  §§2-3);  b.  in  Soest, 
Westphalia,  Oct.  24,  1827;  d.  near  Simmem  (26  m. 
s.w.  of  C}oblenz)  July  14, 1806.  He  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle  in  1846.  In  the  national  student 
movement  of  1848  he  represented  the  royalistic  old 
Prussian  side,  and  was  Halle's  delegate  to  the  par- 
liament at  Eisenach.  In  1850  he  became  Flied- 
ner's  assistant  in  Kaiserswerth;  in  1853  pastor  at 
Schermbeck,  near  Wesel,  where  he  established  a 
basket  factory  for  the  unemployed  in  his  own  par- 
sonage, and  showed  great  talent  as  an  organizer. 
On  the  call  of  Fliedner,  in  1855  he  returned  to 
Kaiserswerth,  thenceforth  his  field  of  labor.  His 
careful  study  Gegenwdrtige  Lage  der  Kretinen,  Bldd- 
sinnigen  und  Idioten  (Bonn,  1857)  led  to  the  found- 
ing of  several  asylums  for  the  insane.  In  1859 
appeared  his  collections  of  sermons  {Geschichte  dee 
K&nigs  SavJs.  David,  Ruth,  Paulus)  and  his  epic 
poem  K&nig  Alfred;  in  1860,  Neue  Weisen — the 
last  two  works  under  the  pseudonym  Julius  von 
Soest.  He  traveled  much  in  the  interest  of  Kaisers- 
werth, visiting  the  Orient  five  times,  and  foimded 
the  orphanage  "  Zoar  "  in  Beirut  in  1861.  During 
the  wars  of  1864,  1866,  and  1870-71  he  led  the 
Kaiserswerth  deaconesses  in  the  field  and  organ- 
ized their  work.  After  Fliedner's  death  (1865)  he 
became  the  head  of  the  latter's  institutions.  With 
the  publication  of  his  Wegtoeiser  eu  J.  (?.  Hamann 
in  1871  he  bade  farewell  to  his  favorite  literary 
studies  and  devoted  himself  henceforth  for  thirty 
years  to  his  allotted  work.  When  he  entered  the 
field  he  found  115  stations  and  327  sisters;  he  left 
double  the  number  of  stations  and  953  sisters. 

(DiODAT  DiSSELHOFF.) 

Bxbxjoohapht:  The  KaittrtvMrther  Kalendar  for  1808  oon- 
tatns  a  brief  aketeh  of  hia  life.  Consult:  J.  DiBselboff, 
P<ulor  Juliua  DianXKotf,  turn  GeddefcfniM.  Kaiaenwerth. 
1806. 

DITTRICH,  FRANZ:  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at 
Thegsten  (near  Heilsberg,  41  m.  s.e.  of  Kdnigs- 
berg)  Jan.  26,  1839.  He  studied  at  Braunsberg, 
Rome,  and  Munich,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood in  1863.  In  1866  he  became  privat-docent 
at  Braunsberg,  where  he  was  appointed  associate 
professor  of  theology.  In  1873  he  was  promoted 
full  professor,  and  since  1903  has  also  been  provost 
of  the  cathedral  of  Ermland.  He  is  a  member  of 
the  Prussian  house  of  deputies.  He  was  editor  of 
the  Mtttheilungen  des  ernUdndisehen  Kunstvereins 
(Braunsberg,  1870-75),  and  has  written  Dionysius 
der  Grosse  von  Alexandrien  (Freiburg,  1867);  06- 
servationes  quondam  de  ordine  naturalt  et  morali 
(Braunsberg,  1869);  Regesten  und  Brief e  des  Car- 
diruds  Gasparo  Coniarini  (1881);  Gasparo  Con- 
tarini,  eine  Monographie  (1885),  Abriss  einer  Lehre 
der  Unterziehung  und  des  Unterrichts  (1890); 
Nunciahtrberichte  Oiavarmi  Morones  vom  detUschen 


Divination 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


450 


Konigshofe  (Paderbom,  1892);  and  Oeschichte  dea 
Kaiholigismua  in  AUpretissen  van  1525  bis  ssum 
AtugoTige  des  achteehnten  Jahrhvnderts  (2  vols., 
Braunsberg,  1901-03). 


DIVINATION. 

I.  In  Ethoio  Religion.  II.  In  the  Bible. 

Animiatio  Bans  (}  1).  III.  Under  Chriatianitj. 

Names  and  MethodB  (§  2). 

Divination  is  the  supposed  art  of  discovering 
the  will  of  the  gods,  of  forecasting  the  future  from 
indications  ascribed  to  them,  or  of  deciding  from 
phenomena  supposedly  supernatural  the  correct 
course  of  action  to  be  followed.  Three  principles 
lie  at  the  root  of  divination:  (1)  belief  that  Deity 
is  willing  to  reveal  to  his  worshipers  both  his  own 
will  and  directions  for  a  correct  method  of  pro- 
cedure for  their  advantage;  (2)  persistent  longing 
to  read  the  future;  (3)  belief  that  natural  events 
have  a  significance  for  man  akin  to  the  principles 
of  magic  (see  IkUoic;  and  Comparative  Religion, 
VI.,  1,  §  5).  The  art  is  confined  to  no  one  stage  of 
civilization.  It  exists  in  primitive  and  tribal  re- 
ligion, is  always  a  part  of  the  official  cults  of  devel- 
oped faiths,  and  persists  as  a  superstition  imder 
Christianity,  even  receiving  churchly  sanction. 

L  In  Ethnic  Religion:  In  the  stage  when  man 
imagined  that  volition  and  power  resided  in  things 
now  held  to  be  only  material  he  worshiped  them 
as  superhuman,  not  only  in  power,  but  also  in  knowl- 
edge. As  a  characteristic  of  early  re- 
X.  Animis-  ligion  is  to  expect  from  the  objects  of 

tic  Basis,  its  worship  a  quid  pro  quo  in  the  di- 
rection of  man's  wants  (cf.  Gen.  zxviii. 
20-22),  the  belief  obtained  that,  from  objects  con- 
ceived to  possess  wisdom  greater  than  man's, 
knowledge  of  the  future  could  be  gained  if  the 
right  methods  were  pursued.  Hiunan  perceptions 
were  early  sufficiently  keen  and  human  reasoning 
was  sufficiently  logical  to  look  for  indications  of 
the  future  or  for  directions  as  to  conduct  in  methods 
suited  to  the  observed  character  of  the  object  con- 
sulted. Hence  men  fancied  they  heard  answers 
to  queries  or  indications  of  divine  will  in  the  leaves 
of  a  sacred  tree,  in  the  waters  of  a  sacred  stream, 
in  the  surf  on  the  shore,  etc.  Individuals  claimed 
superior  ability  in  reading  these  omens,  and  divi- 
ners developed  as  a  class.  Inventive  genius  came 
into  play,  and  methods  of  consulting  superhuman 
powers  were  devised.  Observed  sequences  were 
read  as  cause  and  effect,  and  a  repetition  of  the 
first  or  its  artificial  production  was  believed  to  in- 
sure repetition  of  the  other.  Thus  a  pseudo-sci- 
ence or  fictitious  art  developed  with  its  established 
canons.  Along  with  other  consequences  of  ani- 
mistic belief  there  was  unfolded  the  idea  of 
exchange  of  souls,  the  doctrine  of  possession  or 
obsession  of  human  bodies  by  spirits  to  impart  in- 
formation (cf.  the  phrase  "  familiar  spirits  "),  the 
ability  of  the  dead  (enlarged  in  knowledge  by 
parsing  the  gates  of  death)  to  share  this  knowledge 
with  the  living,  and  also  the  power  of  the  human 
spirit  to  wander  from  the  body  in  search  of  wisdom. 
Moreover,  persons  in  abnormal  states  of  mind  (see 
Ecstasy),  or  with  minds  diseased  ("  demoniacs  "; 
see  Demoniac)  or  defective  (idiots),  or  with  unu- 


sual physical  characteristics  (as  albinos),  were 
considered  channels  of  divine  communication  and 
were  employed  in  divinatory  art.  Where  obser- 
vation had  shown  that  a  certain  environment  pro- 
duced abnormal  states  of  mind,  that  environment 
was  sought,  or  a  person  inhabited  a  particular 
place  to  act  as  the  medium  between  the  oracle  god 
and  the  inquirers,  and  the  utterances  were  accepted 
as  inspired.  Such  utterances  proceeded  from  the 
Cunuean  and  Delphic  oracles,  at  the  shrines  of 
which  mephitic  gases  produced  ecstatic  effects. 
This  condition,  expressed  by  the  Greek  mania, 
*'  prophetic  frenzy,"  developed  the  technical  term 
mantiki  or  mantiki  techni.  The  dream  was  also 
believed  to  be  of  superhuman  sending  and  to  have 
significance  as  an  index  of  divine  will.  Hence 
dreams  were  induced  by  the  drinking  of  decoctioDs 
brewed  by  the  knowing,  or  by  sleeping  on  a  spot 
haunted  by  divinity  or  in  a  temple.  The  art  of 
reading  dreams  grew,  and  persistently  survived  in 
advanced  stages.  Instruments  for  use  in  divination 
were  taken  from  sacred  objects  and  employed  in  all 
the  ways  which  the  ingenuity  of  man  could  devise. 

How  various  were  the  methods  employed  is  only 
suggested  by  the  following  (incomplete)  list  of 
names  applied  to  some  of  the  methods.  Hydro- 
mancy  is  divination  by  water  (e.g.,  the  roar  of  the 
waves,  the  flow  of  an  intermittent  spring,  or  the 
movement  of  water  poured  into  a  cup,  the  latter 
also  called  culicomancy);  xylomancy, 

2.  Names  rhabdomancy,  and  belomancy  used 
and        sacred  trees  or  parts  of  them,  or  ar- 

Methods.  rows  made  from  them  (compare  the 
modem  "  dowsing "  with  a  forked 
twig  of  hazel);  empyromancy  employed  fire;  geo- 
mancy  used  soil  from  a  sacred  spot  or  supposed 
motions  of  the  earth;  asteromancy  employed'  the 
motions  of  stars  and  planets  or  meteors;  caj^no- 
mancy  drew  its  conclusions  from  the  appearai^ 
or  motions  of  clouds  (cf.  I  Kings  xviii.  44);  clero- 
mancy  or  sortilegium  was  the  casting  of  lots  by 
stones,  dice,  or  other  objects;  omithomancy  used  the 
flight  or  voices  of  birds;  ichthyomancy  observed 
the  movements  of  fishes;  oneiromancy  interpreted 
dreams;  necromancy  professed  to  use  the  dead  or 
ancestral  images;  logomancy  depended  upon  the 
chance  utterance  of  a  word  (cf.  I  Sam.  xiv.  8-10); 
axinomancy  employed  an  ax;  coscinomancy  used  the 
oscillations  of  a  suspended  sieve,  and  dactylomancy 
employed  a  ring  in  the  same  manner;  cheiromancy 
has  survived  in  almost  its  old  form  of  reading 
the  lines  on  the  hand;  scapulomancy  or  omo- 
platoscopy  read  the  fissures  caused  on  the  shoulder- 
blade  of  a  sacrificial  animal  by  exposing  it  to  fire; 
haruspication  used  many  methods,  including  the 
inspection  of  the  liver  or  entrails  of  slain  victims 
(hepatomancy  or  hepatoscopy  and  splanchnomancy ). 
Among  the  Romans  arose  the  VergiliawB  sortes, 
in  which  the  ^neid  was  opened  and  a  passage 
selected  by  chance  was  interpreted  with  refer- 
ence tc  the  point  at  issue.  Later  the  Bible  took 
the  place  of  the  JEneid  for  this  purpose  (biblio- 
mancy ).  Especially  noteworthy  is  the  Ordeal  (q.  v. ) 
to  decide  innocence  or  guilt.  Such  methods  have 
been  employed  among  all  peoples,  the  articles  de- 
pending upon  the  environment;  e.g.,  the  Tongans 


451 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BIylnatioB 


and  Samoans  use  coconuts  as  the  sieve  and  ring 
are  used  elsewhere.  The  employment  of  the  lot  is 
universal,  and  many  nations  have  deities  who  pre- 
side over  the  cast. 

In  all  the  foregoing  two  characteristics  appear: 
(1)  Divination  is  in  general  imder  the  patronage 
of  religion.  On  the  other  hand,  among  many  peo- 
ples there  exists  a  distinction  between  legitimate 
and  forbidden.  Thus  necromancy,  or  commerce 
with  the  dead,  is  often  forbidden.  (2)  All  methods 
are  regarded  by  science  as  marked  by  a  total  in- 
consequence of  data  and  results.  Thus  the  lack 
of  connection  between  the  aspect  of  the  planet 
Mars  simply  from  its  color  and  peace  and  war  is 
sufficiently  obvious,  and  is  asserted  to  exist  be- 
tween all  the  methods  of  divination  and  the  sup- 
posed results. 

XL  In  the  Bible:  The  Pentateuch  legislates  in 
all  the  codes  against  divination  as  practised  among 
the  surrounding  peoples.  The  earliest  code  permits 
no  sorceress  in  Israel  (Ex.  xxii.  18);  the  Deu- 
teronomist  (xviii.  10-11)  forbids  the  people  to 
suffer  among  them  diviners,  enchanters,  necroman- 
cers, charmers,  wizards,  and  those  who  have  famil- 
iar spirits;  the  Levitical  Code  (Lev.  xix.  31)  forbids 
approach  to  those  who  have  familiar  spirits  and  to 
wizards.  An  indication  earlier  than  the  codes  of 
prohibition  of  these  means  is  found  in  I  Sam.  xxviii. 
3.  Yet  the  assumption  in  early  Old  Testament 
books  is  not  that  these  means  were  not  successful, 
but  that  they  were  not  permissible  to  Israel  (e.g., 
the  magicians  of  Egypt  wrought  duplicates  of 
some  of  the  signs  and  plagues,  Ex.  vii.  11,  22,  viii. 
7,  18,  etc.).  That  diviners  wrought  actively  in  the 
surrounding  nations  is  assiuned  (e.g.,  ut  sup.  and 
in  I  Sam.  vi.  2,  Ezek.  xxi.  21,  etc.),  just  as  it  is 
assumed  in  the  Balaam  passages  and  II  ICings  i. 
-  -a-8^that  prophecy  and  the  utterance  of  oracles 
existed  outside  Israel.  The  means  legitimated  in 
the  Old  Testament  are:  the  dream,  coming  to  He- 
brew and  to  heathen  alike,  to  Joseph  and  to  Pha- 
raoh and  his  servants  (Gen.  xx.  3,6,  xxviii.  12  sqq., 
xxxi.  24,  etc.;  Judges  vii.  13  sqq.;  I  Kings  iii.  5 
sqq.;  Job  xxxiu.  14-16;  Dan.  vii.  sqq.,  and  fre- 
quently); the  lot  (Josh.  XV.  sqq.;  I  Sam.  xiv.  41; 
>  see  LoTB,  Hebrew  Use  of);  Urim  and  Thum- 
\  mim  (q.v.);  the  ephod  (q.v.;  I  Sam.  xxx.  7);  and 
the  living  voice  of  the  prophets.  I  Sam.  xiv.  8 
gives  a  case  of  logomancy.  But  there  are  indica- 
tions that,  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Judges,  at  least 
sacred  trees  were  employed  as  oracles  (Judges  iv. 
5,  a  very  clear  case  in  the  light  of  ethnic  usage;  cf. 
verse  10).  The  dream  is  emphasized  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  the  Pentateuchal  narrator  E  has 
great  fondness  for  it;  the  interpretation  of  the 
dream  was  a  divine  gift  among  the  Hebrews  as 
among  many  other  nations  (Gen.  xli.  16,  38;  Dan. 
ii.  28,  47,  iv.  18).  That  in  prophetic  times  in  Israel 
there  was  either  persistence  of  old  methods  or  else 
adoption  of  them  from  the  surrounding  peoples  is 
indicated  by  Hos.  iv.  12,  where  rhabdomancy  or 
xylomancy  is  referred  to,  and  probably  by  several 
passages  in  Ezekiel.  In  the  New  Testament  indi- 
cations are  given  by  the  dream  (Matt.  i.  20,  ii.  12 
sqq.,  XX vii.  19;  Acts  x.  9-16,  xi.  4-10)  and  the 
sacred  lot  (Acts  L  23-26). 


IIL  Under  Christianity:  Divination  entered  the 
Christian  Chureh  from  two  soim;es:  (1)  with  the 
membership  which,  recruited  from  paganism, 
brought  with  it  practises  customary  under  heathen- 
ism; (2)  forms  of  decision  sanctioned  by  the 
Scriptures  tended  to  continue  so  far  as  they  were 
avaOable,  together  with  those  which  non-canonical 
Judaism  had  practised.  In  particular,  use  of  div- 
ination for  the  detection  of  criminals  was  espe- 
cially persistent  and  continued  till  modem  times. 
A  strong  tendency  toward  the  continued  use  of 
divination  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  chureh  synods 
found  it  necessary  to  legislate  against  it.  Thus 
canon  Ixii.  of  the  Synod  of  Elvira  (30&-306)  re- 
quires that  augurs  who  have  become  Christians 
renounce  their  calling  before  being  admitted  to 
membership  in  the  Chureh;  the  Synod  of  Ancyra 
(314)  condemns  the  manteuomenoi,  "  those  who 
employ  the  mantic  art,"  to  five  years'  penance; 
the  Fourth  Synod  of  Carthage  (398)  excommuni- 
cates those  who  practise  divination.  The  legisla- 
tion of  the  period  grows  increasingly  severe  up  to 
and  including  the  Theodosian  Code  (ix.  tit.  16, 
leg.  4).  The  Synod  of  Vannes  denounces  the  use  of 
the  lot.  But,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  the  theory 
and  the  practise  of  the  Church  were  at  variance. 
To  the  common  mind  the  fact  that  things  were 
sacred  (such  as  the  wafer  of  the  Eucharist,  the  em- 
blem of  the  cross,  and  the  Scriptures)  seems  to 
have  justified  their  use  in  this  manner,  and  this 
tendency  spread  upward  from  the  common  people 
to  the  clergy.  The  employment  of  the  lot  as  based 
upon  both  Old  Testament  and  New  Testament 
usage  and  the  application  by  Jews  of  the  method 
of  the  VergiliaruB  aortes  to  the  Old  Testament  were 
carried  over  into  the  Christian  Chureh  as  early  as 
the  fifth  century.  In  parts  of  the  West  the  lot 
entered  into  Christian  codes  (Ripuarian  Code,  xxxi. 
5)  and  was  sanctioned  by  early  Irish  synods  {Ex' 
cerptiones,  ascribed  to  Egbert  of  York,  ed.  Thorpe, 
ii.  108).  In  France  a  dispute  among  the  bishops 
of  Poitiers,  Arras,  and  Autun  over  the  possession 
of  the  relics  of  St.  Liguaire  was  decided  at  the  altar 
by  the  lot  in  favor  of  Poitiers.  The  use  of  the  Bible 
as  in  the  VergiliaiUB  sartes  to  divine  by  was  con- 
denmed  by  Augustine,  though  he  regarded  it  as  a 
less  evil  than  consulting  demons  (Epist.,  Iv.,  ad 
Januarium,  xxxvii.,  NPNF,  let  ser.,  i.  315).  The 
synods  in  Gaul  in  the  fifth  century  found  it  neces- 
sary to  threaten  the  clergy  with  penalties  for  re- 
sort to  divination;  yet  Gregory  of  Tours  {Hist, 
reg.  Franc,  iv.  16)  relates  that  in  the  presence  of 
a  concourse  of  bishops  and  priests  at  a  celebration 
of  the  mass  at  Dijon  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  were 
solemnly  consulted  regarding  the  fortunes  of  a  son 
of  Lothair  I.  Especially  did  the  Ordeal  (q.v.)  as 
an  appeal  to  God  to  indicate  the  guilty  receive  the 
practical  sanction  of  the  Chureh  by  the  presence 
and  often  the  participation  of  Church  dignitaries 
and  officials.  The  use  of  the  Bible  and  the  key 
(another  form  of  bibliomancy)  was  particularly 
persistent.  A  key  was  loosely  fastened  to  the 
Bible  at  Ps.  1.  18,  the  Bible  made  to  revolve,  while 
names  of  suspects  were  mentioned,  and  he  at  whose 
name  the  book  fell  was  regarded  as  guilty.  The  latest 
case  known  of  use  of  this  method  oocuned  at  a 


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THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


452 


trial  in  1867  in  London.  The  weighing  of  a  person 
against  the  Bible  to  determine  his  guilt  or  inno- 
cence is  known  to  have  occurred  as  late  as  1759  at 
Aylesbury,  En^nd.  Gbo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Biblioobapbt:  Claane*!  works  mra  Cioero,  De  divinoHane: 
LueuHi,  De  a»trolog%a;  CorneliuB  Agripp*,  !>•  ocniUa  pfti- 
lo»ophia.  For  the  ethnio  aide  oonsult:  E.  B.  Tylor,  Prim- 
iHv  CuUun,  i.  78-81.  117-133.  u.  155.  Boeton.  1874;  F. 
B.  Jevons.  itUrodueHon  to  HiH,  of  Beliaioih  London.  1806; 
J.  O.  Fraier.  Oolden  Boutfii,  ii.  355,  iii.  342.  London.  1900; 
Mary  Hamilton.  InaAation,  London.  1906.  For  the 
Biblicftl  Bide  oonsult:  C.  A.  Brisgs.  MeMianic  Projihoctf, 
ift  4-8.  New  York.  1902;  H.  Sohulti,  Old  Tsttofnenl  Tho- 
oloffv,  ii  322.  London.  1892;  8.  R.  Driver.  ComnmUcav 
on  Deuteronomy  (on  Deut.  zviii.  10).  New  York.  1895; 
Smith.  ReL  of  Sem.,  pp.  194.  246.  407.  427.  For  divina- 
tion under  Christianity  consult:  H.  C.  Lea.  SupereHHon 
and  Force,  pp.  93-370.  Philadelphia.  1878;  8.  Baring- 
Gould.  Curioue  Mythe  of  Ois  Middle  Aoee,  pp.  65  sqq.. 
London.  1884;  H.  C.  Bolton,  The  CounHn^-out  Rhymee 
of  Children,  London.  1888.  A  quite  full  list  of  the 
"  manoy's  "  from  Bolton  is  given  in  The  New  intematiimal 
Bncydopiedia,  "  Superstition/'  zvi.  347,  New  York,  1904. 

DIVORCE. 

I.  History  of  Divoroe  Law  and  Custom. 
Among  Existing  Backward  Ptoplee  (}  1). 
Earlier  Christian  Doctrine  (i  2). 
The  Canon  Law.    Theory  and  Practise  (i  3). 
Protestant  Doctrine.    The  Rise  of  Civil  Divorce  (i  4). 
Civil  Divoroe  and  New  England  Puritanism  (}  5). 
II.  European  Divoroe  Legislation. 

III.  Divorce  Legislation  in  the  United  States. 
Statutory  Qrounds  of  Divoroe  (ft  1). 
Remarriage  After  Divoroe  (ft  2). 
Residence  and  Notices  (ft  3). 
American  Statistics  (ft  4). 

American  Legislative  Reform.  1887-1907  (ft  5). 

IV.  Nature  of  the  Divorce  Problem. 

L  History  of  Divorce  Law  and  Custom:  Recent 
research  has  disclosed  among  rude  peoples  elab- 
orate systems  of  unwritten  law  covering,  often  in 
an  orderly  way,  most  of  the  divisions  commonly 
associated  with  "  civilized  "  jurisprudence.  This 
is  especially  true  of  divorce.  Among  barbarous, 
even  savage,  races  appears  a  careful  attention  to 
detail,  a  stability,  and  a  respect  for  equity  in  the 
social  rules  relating  to  the  dissolution  of  marriage, 
which  Western  prejudice  is  hardly  prepared  to  find; 
while  other  races  commonly  looked  upon  as  civi- 
lized, but  hitherto  relatively  non-progressive,  such 
as  the  Chinese,  are  quite  capable  of  teaching  us 
valuable  lessons  in  this  regard. 

As  to  the  right  or  freedom  of  divorce,  five  classes 

of  peoples  may  be  differentiated:   (1)  The  marriage 

bond  is  lax  and  readily  dissolved  at 

I.  Among  the  pleasure  of  either  the  man  or  the 

Existing  woman.  Such  is  the  case  among  a 
Backward  large  number  of  American,  African, 

Peoples.  Asiatic,  and  Oceanic  tribes;  e.g., 
among  the  Makassars  and  Buginese, 
the  Alfurese  of  Minehasa,  and  the  Point  Barrow 
Eskimo.  (2)  At  the  other  extreme  are  peoples 
with  whom  wedlock  is  absolutely  indissoluble;  for 
the  sacramental  nature  of  marriage  is  affirmed,  not 
exclusively  in  Christian  lands,  but  among  races 
standing  on  a  very  low  plane  of  culture;  e.g.,  with 
certain  Papuans  of  New  Guinea,  the  Veddahs  of 
Ceylon,  and  the  Niassers  of  Batu  death  alone  is 
sufficient  to  dissolve  the  nuptial  tie.  (3)  Some- 
times the  only  method  is  mutual  agreement  except 
in  case  of  life-assault,  as  among  the  Karo-Karo  of 
Sumatra;   or  the  husband  may  put  away  the  wife 


for  serious  misconduct,  as  in  West  Victoria,  but 
then  only  when  she  has  no  children  and  the  tribal 
chiefs  give  their  consent.  (4)  Very  commonly  the 
man  alone  has  absolute  right  of  divorce,  putting 
away  the  woman  when  he  likes,  without  assigninf 
any  reason,  or  on  the  most  frivolous  gromids. 
Theoretically  this  is  true  of  some  parts  of  China: 
but  practically  with  the  more  advanced  Chinese, 
as  among  the  ancient  Aztecs,  the  wife,  under  the 
influence  of  Confucius,  enjoys  the  privilege  of 
separation  in  several  important  oontingi^icies; 
while  under  the  existing  law  of  Islam  she  has  a 
quite  limited  right  of  divorce  through  purchase  or 
by  judicial  decree.  (5)  Finally,  among  many  rude 
races  the  woman  has  great  liberty  of  divorce, 
leaving  the  man  at  pleasure  or  on  the  slightest 
pretext.  The  lot  of  the  married  woman  among 
barbarous  or  even  savage  tribes  is  not  always  so 
dark  as  it  is  frequently  painted  (cf.  the  usages  of 
the  American  Indians  and  others).  In  general, 
divorce  among  backward  peoples,  even  where  great 
liberty  is  allowed,  is  far  less  frequent  than  is  popu- 
lariy  believed.  Their  conservatism  is  remarkable. 
Very  commonly  custom  frowns  upon  divorce  after 
children  are  bom.  The  iisages  regarding  the  legal 
effects  of  divorce  are  particulariy  enlight^iing. 
One  is  almost  as  often  surprised  by  the  reasoa- 
ableness  and  stability  of  early  institutions  as  he  is 
shocked  at  their  harshness  or  injustice.  In  the 
disposal  of  the  children  or  the  division  of  the  prop- 
erty after  the  marriage  is  dissolved  principles  of 
natural  equity  and  justice  are  frequently  observed 
which  constitute  a  rebuke  to  the  laws  sanctioned 
by  some  modem  Christian  societies.  It  appears 
to  be  practically  a  imiversal  rule  among  uncivili2ed 
races  that  the  repudiated  wife  or  the  woman  who 
legally  puts  away  her  husband  shall  return  to  her 
own  family  or  clan,  whose  duty  it  is  to  receive  her. 
According  to  the  spirit  of  the  earliest  Christian 
teaching,  divorce,  properly  so  called,  is  strong 
condemned,  though  by  a  strict  inter- 
a.  Earlier  pretation  of  its  letter  it  may  not  be 
Christian  wholly  forbidden.  Between  the  6rA 
Doctrine,  assertion  of  the  new  doctrine  and  the 
final  triiunph  of  the  canonical  theory 
of  absolute  indissolubility  of  the  marriage  bo&d 
intervenes  a  stmggle  of  twelve  hundred  yean. 
The  various  utterances  of  the  New  Testament 
relating  to  the  subject  are  disjointed  and  confusing 
in  their  details  (for  Hebrew  and  Jewish  customs 
see  Family  and  Marriage  Relations,  Hebrew, 
§  7).  Many  vital  questions  are  either  oompletely 
ignored  or  else  left  in  such  obscurity  as  to  op^a  the 
way  for  wide  divergence  of  doctrine  and  the  bitter 
controversies  of  the  Reformation  period.  For  four 
centuries  the  Bible  passages  were  debated  by  the 
Fathers  and  the  coimcils.  Nearly  all  were  agreed 
that  divorce  is  forbidden  except  for  the  one  cause 
mentioned  by  Matthew  (v.  32);  but  not  aU  con- 
ceded the  equal  right  of  the  sexes  in  this  regard. 
There  was  a  like  want  of  harmony  touching  the 
lawfulness  of  remarriage  after  divorce.  Finally 
Augustine's  interpretation  prevailed — ^that  adul- 
tery is  the  only  Scriptural  ground  of  separation; 
but  even  this  does  not  dissolve  the  nuptial  tie. 
Moreover,  he  reproaches  those  who,  following  the 


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RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


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letter  of  Matthew's  text,  for  this  offense  would 
allow  the  man,  but  not  the  woman,  the  right  of 
repudiation,  with  violating  the  great  principles  of 
Christian  teaching  by  disregarding  the  equality  of 
the  wedded  pair. 

These   views   were   adopted   by   the   Eleventh 

Synod  of  Carthage  in  407   (canon  viii.;    Hefele, 

ConcUiengeschichte,  ii.  101),  which  thus  anticipated 

the  final  settlement  of  the  canon  law. 

3.  The  Before  that  settlement,  however,  cen- 
Canon  Law.  tunes     of     compromise     intervened. 

Theory  From  Constantine  to  Justinian  the 
and  divorce  legislation  of  the  Christian 
Practise,  emperors  was  practically  untouched 
by  the  essential  doctrines  of  the 
Church;  while  in  dealing  with  the  newly  converted 
Teutonic  peoples  the  rigid  Augustinian  rules  were 
relaxed  in  diverse  ways.  In  England  and  in  Gaul, 
as  proved  in  the  most  convincing  way  by  the  peni- 
tentials,  full  divorce  with  remarriage  was  allowed 
on  various  groimds.  Authority  had  to  yield  per- 
force to  social  expediency.  Not  until  1164,  in  the 
fourth  book  of  Peter  Lombard's  "  Sentences,"  is 
found  the  first  clear  recognition  of  the  "  seven 
sacraments,"  including  that  of  marriage.  The 
theory  of  the  sacramental  nature  of  wedlock  had 
two  consequences  which  involved  the  whole  medie- 
val problem  of  separation  and  divorce.  First 
was  the  dogma  of  the  indissolubility  of  the  marriage 
bond,  and,  second,  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the 
Church  in  matrimonal  causes.  Accordingly,  in 
theory,  divorce  proper  is  entirely  eliminated  from 
the  mature  law  of  the  Western  Church.  Inconsist- 
ently, however,  in  the  canons  the  word  "  divorce  " 
is  used  in  two  senses,  neither  of  which  harmonizes 
with  its  ancient  and  right  meaning  as  a  complete 
dissolution  of  the  bond  of  true  wedlock.  First 
the  term  divortium  a  mensa  et  thoro  means  a  sep- 
aration of  husband  and  wife  which  does  not  touch 
the  marriage  tie.  Secondly,  the  term  divortium  a 
vinctdo  matrimonii  is  commonly  employed  to  des- 
ignate, not  the  dissolution  of  a  valid  union,  but 
the  judicial  declaration  of  nullity  of  a  spurious 
marriage  which  on  account  of  some  impediment  is 
void,  or  at  least  voidable,  from  the  beginning. 
There  was  another  inconsistency  far  more  important 
in  its  consequences.  In  effect  absolute  divorce 
was  tolerated  by  the  canon  law,  as  that  law  existed 
on  the  eve  of  the  Reformation.  Theological 
subtlety  had  devised  two  exceptions  to  the  rule 
that  a  genuine  marriage  can  not  be  dissolved. 
First  is  the  casus  apoatoli  or  privilegium  Pavlinum, 
by  which  the  Christian  convert,  if  abandoned  by 
his  infidel  spouse,  is  permitted  to  contract  a  new 
marriage.  By  the  second  exception,  the  Church 
violated  the  theory,  sanctioned  since  Peter  Lom- 
bard, that  a  contract  de  praaentif  or  in  words  of  the 
present  tense,  constitutes  a  valid  marriage  whether 
followed  by  actual  wedded  life  or  not;  for  the 
mature  doctrine  of  the  canon  law,  still  obeyed  by 
the  Roman  Church,  allows  the  unconsummate 
marriage  de  proBsenti  to  be  dissolved  through  papal 
dispensation  or  ipso  fado  by  taking  holy  orders. 

Thus,  accepting  the  Church's  own  definition  of 
marriage,  divorce  a  vinculo  did  not  quite  disappear 
from  the  canon  law;  and  in  effect  there  was  a  far 


more  prolific  source  of  full  divorce.  In  reality, 
when  rationally  considered,  the  decree  of  nullity 
was  a  divorce  proper.  By  this  means  a  wide 
liberty  of  divorce  existed  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
although  it  existed  mainly  for  those  who  were  able 
to  pay  the  ecclesiastical  lawyers  and  courts  for 
fincling  a  way  through  the  tortuous  maze  of 
forbidden  degrees  and  other  impediments.  Abim- 
dant  opportimity  for  this  was  afforded  in  a  charac- 
teristic way  by  theological  refinement.  By  per- 
sistently sustaining  the  validity,  though  not  the 
legality,  of  clandestine  precontracts  de  prceserUi — 
contracts  formed  without  witnesses,  parental  con- 
sent, official  celebrant,  or  record — the  Church 
invited  social  anarchy.  In  a  divorce  procedure 
masquerading  imder  the  guise  of  an  action  to 
nullify  spurious  marriages  lurked  the  germs  of 
perjury  and  fraud.  Before  the  Reformation  the 
voidance  of  alleged  false  wedlock  on  the  ground 
of  precontract  or  forbidden  degrees  of  affinity, 
spiritual  relationship,  consanguinity,  or  some  other 
canonical  pretext  had  become  an  intolerable 
scandal  in  Christendom. 

By  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation  the  mother 
Church  was  accused  of  fostering  vice  by  professing 
a  doctrine  too  severe;  and  at  the  same 
4.  Prot-  time  she  was  bitterly  reproached  with 
ettant  a  scandalous  abuse  of  her  jurisdiction 
Doctrine,  through  which  in  effect  the  forbidden 
The  Rise  degrees  had  become  an  open  door  to 
of  Civil  divorce  for  the  use  of  the  rich  and 
Divorce,  powerful.  With  the  rejection  of  the 
sacramental  theory  of  marriage  it 
was  inevitable  that  a  more  liberal  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptural  precepts  should  be  accepted; 
while  ultimately  the  rise  of  civil  divorce  was  as- 
sured. A  great  impulse  was  then  given  to  the 
development  of  social  control  through  the  State. 
The  Protestant  doctrine  of  divorce,  like  the  Prot- 
estant conception  of  the  form  and  nature  of  wed- 
lock, was  shaped  mainly  by  the  thought  of  Martin 
Luther.  In  his  dictimi,  *'  marriage  is  a  worldly 
thing,"  lay  the  germs  of  future  civil  marriage  and 
of  its  counterpart,  civil  divorce.  Liberty  of  divorce 
is  the  fruit  of  the  Reformation;  and  from  the  start 
it  has  been  especially  favored  by  the  more  extreme 
sects.  While  Luther  and  some  other  Reformers 
sanctioned  temporary  separations,  there  was  a 
strong  tendency  at  first  entirely  to  reject  perpetual 
divorce  a  mensa  et  thoro  as  being  a  "  modem  inven- 
tion "  unknown  to  the  primitive  Church;  but  even- 
tually this  was  allowed.  On  the  other  hand,  two 
causes  of  full  divorce — adultery  and  malicious 
desertion — were  admitted  by  Luther  and  his 
immediate  followers.  Rather  than  further  mul- 
tiply the  nimiber  of  permissible  grounds  of  abso- 
lute dissolution  of  wedlock,  an  effort  was  made  by 
hard  logic  to  broaden  the  definition  of  desertion 
so  as  to  give  to  it  a  wide  range  without  seeming  to 
transgress  the  letter  of  the  Scriptural  authority. 
In  this  way,  for  instance,  sctvitia,  or  cruelty,  was 
included;  as  also  was  "  refusal  of  conjugal  duty," 
thus  eventually  giving  rise  to  the  doctrine  of 
*'  quasidesertion."  More  extreme  theologians,  like 
Lambert  of  Avignon  and  Martin  Butzer,  Mil- 
ton's teacher,  went  almost  as  far  as  the  modem 


D1TOV06 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


454 


statute-maker  in  multiplying  the  penniasible 
grounds  of  divorce.  Ye^  even  the  most  radical 
thinkers  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies to  a  large  extent  still  appealed  to  authority 
rather  than  to  reason  and  experience  in  their 
attempts  to  solve  a  great  social  problem.  Only 
gradually,  after  three  centuries  of  struggle,  has 
civil  divorce,  on  rational  grounds  sanctioned  and 
regulated  by  the  State,  been  almost  universally 
established  throughout  the  civilized  world.  In 
En^and — more  conservative  than  Protestant  Ger- 
many— ^no  immediate  change  in  the  canon  law  of 
divorce  was  effected  by  the  Reformation;  for  the 
liberal  provisions  of  the  commission  of  Edward  VI. 
failed  of  adoption.  Except  by  parliament,  full 
divorce  was  not  granted.  Until  1857  the  sole 
relief  obtainable  in  the  courts  was  the  ecclesiastical 
decree  of  separation  from  bed  and  board;  and  this 
was  allowed  only  for  two  causes,  adultery  and 
cruelty. 

Among  the  Independents  and  Puritans  advanced 
Protestantism  bore  its  legitimate  fruit.  By  these 
sects  in  the  new  world  civil  marriage, 
5.  Civil  and  therefore  civil  divorce,  were  insti- 
Divorce  tuted.  The  American  type  of  liberal 
and  New  divorce  legislation  had  its  birth  in  the 
England  New  England  colonies.  Before  the 
Puritanism.  Revolution  in  the  five  Southern  prov- 
inces not  a  single  instance  of  either 
full  or  partial  divorce  has  been  discovered.  Coiuls 
with  competent  jurisdiction  were  not  created; 
and  there  were  no  statutes  on  the  subject.  The 
only  relief  from  bad  marriages  was  through  informal 
or  parol  separation;  and,  contrary  to  the  English 
practise,  separate  alimony  without  divorce  was 
sometimes  granted,  even  by  the  county  comts. 
The  case  is  somewhat  different  for  the  middle 
colonies.  A  few  marriages  were  dissolved  by  the 
legislating  in  Pennsylvania.  Civil  divorce  through 
arbitration  or  judicial  decree  existed  in  New  Nether- 
lands under  the  Dutch  regime.  For  some  years  after 
the  English  took  possession  there  is  evidence  of  the 
survival  of  arbitration  in  cases  of  separation,  and 
of  marital  reconciliation  managed  and  recorded  by 
the  courts.  With  the  exception  of  this  practise, 
judicial  divorce  a  vinculo  ceased  in  New  York  with 
the  English  conquest,  and  it  was  not  revived  until 
the  act  of  1787.  Subsequent  to  the  meeting  of  the 
first  assembly  in  1683  there  is  no  clear  evidence  of 
legislative  divorce.  On  the  other  hand,  Cadwal- 
lader  Golden  declares  that  previous  to  1689  the 
"  governors  of  New  York  took  on  them  the  power 
of  granting  divorces "  ;  and  this  seems  to  be  an 
entirely  unique  instance  of  executive  decree. 

A  far  more  liberal  policy  prevailed  in  the  Northern 
colonies.  In  most  respects  throughout  New  Eng- 
land from  the  outset  the  broad  modem  doctrines 
of  the  Reformatio  legum  of  the  commission  of 
Edward  VI.,  though  even  now  not  wholly  accepted 
in  the  mother  country,  were  put  in  force  by  Puritan 
and  Separatist  aUke.  The  most  advanced  ideals 
of  Protestantism  were  realized.  The  American 
conception  of  divorce  as  belonging  not  to  the 
criminal,  but  exclusively  to  the  civil,  jurisdiction 
had  its  birth  in  the  seventeenth  centiuy.  For 
more  than  100  years  in  the  New  England  colonies 


the  canonical  decree  of  separation  from  bed  and 
board — which  the  early  Rieformers  were  inclined 
to  reject — ^waa  practically,  though  not  wholly, 
abandoned;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  dissolution 
of  the  bond  of  matrimony,  with  right  of  remarriage, 
was  freely  granted  for  adultery,  desertion,  and  even 
on  other  grounds.  For  Massachusetts  the  records 
are  but  partially  preserved.  Between  1639  and 
1692  forty  actions  for  divorce  or  annulment  have 
been  discovered;  while  between  1739  and  1776  at 
least  107  such  suits  were  tried  by  the  courts.  The 
complete  record,  doubtless,  would  disclose  many 
more.  From  1650  onward  Rhode  Island  author- 
ized divorce  a  vinculo.  This  colony  was  much 
afflicted  by  the  evil  of  legislative  divorce.  During 
nearly  the  entire  provincial  period  the  assembly, 
side  by  side  with  the  courts,  acted  on  divorce 
petitions.  The  divorce  legislation  of  Connecticut 
gained  surprisingly  early  maturity.  In  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  no  society  in  the  world, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  Holland,  possessed 
a  system  so  modem  in  character.  Separation 
from  bed  and  board  was  rejected.  Reasonable 
grounds  for  absolute  divorce  were  sanctioned. 
Husband  and  wife  were  treated  with  even  justice; 
and,  although  legislative  divorce  was  permitted 
and  liable  to  abuse,  the  greater  part  of  the  litigation 
seems  always  to  have  been  entrusted  to  the  regular 
courts. 

XL  European  Divorce  Legislation:  During  the 
seventeenth  century,  almost  simultaneously  in 
Holland  and  America,  the  foundation  of  modem 
divorce  law  was  laid.  In  its  original  form  the  law 
of  1792,  instituting  civil  divorce  in  France,  prac- 
tically sanctioned  free  dissolution  of  wedlock  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  parties.  The  natural  result 
was  a  vast  number  of  decrees.  Accordingly,  in 
1803  the  Code  NapoUon  substituted  a  more  con- 
servative provision,  allowing  absolute  divorce  for 
five  causes.  The  law  of  1803  was  abrogated  in 
1816,  and  civil  divorce  was  restored  only  in  1884; 
but  the  liberal  policy  of  France,  as  expressed  in  the 
Code  NapoUon,  undoubtedly  has  had  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  extension  of  civil  marriage  and 
divorce  throughout  Europe.  The  act  of  1884 
sanctions  absolute  divorce,  on  the  petition  of  either 
spouse,  for  adultery,  cruelty,  and  condemnation  to 
infamous  penalty,  if  at  the  same  time  the  penalty 
be  corporal;  while  separation  from  bed  and  board 
is  still  permitted. 

Previous  to  1900  the  laws  of  divorce  in  Gennan 
lands  were  complex,  obscure,  and  well-nigh  past 
finding  out.  The  conditions  were  probably  as  un- 
satisfactory as  they  are  in  the  United  States.  By 
the  imperial  code  of  1900  absolute  divorce  is  sanc- 
tioned for  five  causes:  (1)  adultery;  (2)  attempt 
on  the  life  of  either  spouse  by  the  other;  (3)  mali- 
cious desertion;  (4)  "  when  either  spouse  has  been 
guilty  of  grave  violation  of  the  obligations  based 
on  the  marriage  or  of  so  deeply  disturbing  the 
marital  relation  through  dishonorable  or  immoral 
behavior  that  the  continuance  of  the  marriage  can 
not  be  expected  from  the  other;  "  and  (5)  insanity 
(fleiateskrankheit)  of  three  years'  standing.  It 
may  reasonably  be  doubted  whether  any  "  omnibus 
clause  "  in  the  laws  of  American  States  gives  wider 


455 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Divorce 


discretion  to  the  court  than  does  the  fourth  of  these 
grounds.  The  law,  however,  appears  to  be  con- 
servatively administered;  for  the  number  of  di- 
vorces is  rapidly  decreasing.  In  1899  9,563  decrees 
"were  granted;  while  in  1901,  under  the  new  code, 
the  niunber  had  sunk  to  8,037. 

By  the  present  law  of  England  three  forms  of 
separation  are  recognized;  and  jurisdiction  is 
vested  wholly  in  the  civil  courts.  Full  divorce 
may  be  granted  for  the  adultery  of  either  spouse; 
but  the  woman  is  treated  with  grave  injustice. 
For  while  the  husband  may  secure  an  absolute 
divorce  on  account  of  the  simple  adultery  of  the 
^wife,  the  wife  is  imable  to  free  herself  from  an  un- 
faithful husband  unless  his  infidelity  has  been 
coupled  with  such  cruelty  as  "  would  have  entitled 
her  to  a  divorce  a  mensa  et  thoro  " ;  or  "  with 
desertion,  without  reasonable  cause,  for  two  years 
and  upward " ;  or  with  certain  other  aggravating 
offenses.  Since  1860  the  decree  nisi  has  been  in 
force,  with  the  right  of  the  king's  proctor  to  inter- 
vene. Secondly,  the  law  allows  a  decree  for  ''  ju- 
dicial separation  "  with  the  same  force  and  the 
same  consequences  as  the  former  ecclesiastical 
sentence  a  mensa  et  thoro,  which  was  abolished  in 
1857.  In  the  third  place,  the  existing  law  pro- 
vides for  what  is  commonly  called  "  magisterial 
separation,"  through  which,  by  the  issue  of  **  pro- 
tection," "  maintenance,"  and  "  separation  "  or- 
ders, the  court  is  able  to  secure  to  a  deserted  wife 
the  enjoyment  of  her  own  property,  with  a  just 
share  in  the  delinquent  partner's  goods;  and  to 
protect  the  woman  against  a  brutal  husband's 
violence.  In  England,  as  in  European  countries 
generally,  few  divorces  are  granted  as  compared 
with  the  United  States;  but  the  divorce  rate  is 
rising.  The  nimiber  mounted  from  127  in  1860  to 
390  in  1887.  In  France,  for  each  1,000  marriages 
celebrated,  fourteen  divorces  were  decreed  in  1885 
and  twenty-four  in  1891,  the  population  showing 
a  very  sinall  increase.  A  similar  movement  is 
shown  by  the  statistics  for  Holland  and  Sweden, 
and  even  for  Roman  Catholic  states  like  Belgium 
and  Bavaria. 

m.  Divorce  Legislation  in  the  United  States: 
Under  the  Federal  Constitution  the  States  within 
their  respective  borders  have  exclusive  control  of 
matrimonial  and  divorce  legislation.  Congress  has 
conferred  the  same  power  upon  the  organized 
Territories;  but  it  legislates  directly  for  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  and  Alaska.  Therefore  at  present 
( 1907),  including  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii,  there  are 
in  force  fifty-two  distinct  divorce  codes  whose 
provisions  are  often  conflicting,  although  in  many 
of  their  vital  features  they  are  slowly  approaching 
a  common  type.  Jurisdiction  belongs  to  the  civil 
courts.  Formerly  the  granting  of  divorces  by  the 
legislatures  was  a  wide-spread  evil.  In  nearly  all 
the  States,  directly  or  indirectly,  it  is  now  pro- 
hibited by  constitutional  enactment;  and  since 
1886  Congress  has  put  a  stop  to  it  in  the  Territories. 

Except  between  1872  and  1878,  divorce  has  never 
been  provided  for  by  statute  in  South  Carolina. 
In  the  other  fifty-one  States — ^using  "  States  "  to 
include  the  districts,  Territories,  and  insular  pos- 
sessions— ^full  divorce  is  permitted,  while  in  twenty- 


three   States  separation  from  bed  and  board  is 
likewise    allowed.     Moreover,    in    seven    jurisdic- 
tions the    courts    are   authorized   to 

1.  Stat-     decree  separate  maintenance,  which  is 
utory       virtually  the  same  as  separation  from 

Grounds  bed  and  board.  The  number  of  legal 
of  Divorce,  causes  of  divorce  a  vinculo  varies 
from  one  (adultery)  in  New  York, 
District  of  Columbia,  and  (practically)  in  North 
Carolina  (1905),  to  fourteen  in  New  Hampshire. 
Several  of  these  grounds  reveal  the  tendency  to 
abandon  authority  and  to  treat  divorce  purely  as  a 
social  problem.  Thus  forty-two  States  have  admit- 
ted drunkenness  (intoxication,  intemperance)  as  a 
proper  cause  for  dissolving  the  marriage  tie.  Fail- 
ure to  provide  for  wife  or  family  is  recognized  by 
twenty-one  codes.  Vagrancy  of  the  husband  is  a 
cause  in  Missouri  and  Wyoming.  By  the  statute 
of  Rhode  Island  a  marriage  may  be  dissolved  when 
either  spouse  is  guilty  of  "  habitual,  excessive,  and 
intemperate  use  of  opium,  morphine,  or  chloral " ; 
and  a  similar  law  exists  in  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
Mississippi,  and  Porto  Rico. 

In  eighteen  States  no  restraint  is  placed  on  the 

immediate  remarriage  of  either  party  with  another. 

Elsewhere  restrictions  are  put  upon 

2.  Re-      one  or  both  of  the  persons  either  as  a 
marriage    penalty  or  to  allow  time  for  proceed- 
After       ings  in  error  or  on  appeal.    Thus,  in 

Divorce,  case  of  adultery,  marriage  with  the 
accomplice  during  the  life  of  the  former 
spouse  is  forbidden  in  Louisiana,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Tennessee;  while  such  a  union  is  absolutely 
prohibited  in  Delaware.  In  South  Dakota  and 
New  York  the  defendant  guilty  of  adultery  may  not 
marry  any  person  during  the  life  of  the  aggrieved; 
although  in  New  York,  on  certain  conditions,  the 
court  may  remove  the  restraint.  By  the  criminal 
code  of  Florida,  the  guilty  defendant  may  not  rewed. 
Under  the  act  of  1901,  in  the  District  of  Columbia 
the  defendant  is  absolutely  prohibited  from  re- 
marriage, unless  with  the  former  spouse.  In 
several  States  the  placing  of  a  temporary  or  per- 
petual restriction  on  further  wedlock  is  left  to  the 
court's  discretion.  Such  is  the  case  in  Michigan, 
Mississippi,  Virginia,  and  Alabama;  while  in  Georgia 
the  question  is  left  to  the  jury,  subject  to  the  court's 
revision.  Three  of  the  New  England  States  dis- 
criminate against  the  defendant.  Since  1878,  in 
Vermont,  the  libelee  may  not  marry  any  person 
other  than  the  libelant  for  three  years,  unless  the 
latter  dies.  Since  1883  the  statute  of  Maine  for- 
bids the  party  obtaining  the  decree  to  rewed  in 
two  years  without  the  court's  permission;  while 
during  that  period  the  adverse  party  is  absolutely 
restrained;  nor  at  any  later  time  may  he  remarry 
without  the  court's  consent.  In  Msssachusetts 
since  1881  the  offending  person,  without  petition 
to  the  court,  may  remarry  only  after  two  yean. 
Moreover,  Massachusetts,  following  the  English 
precedent,  has  adopted  the  decree  nisi;  and  in 
principle  her  example  has  already  been  followed 
by  Maine  (1883),  Oklahoma  (1893),  Rhode  Island 
(1902),  New  York  (1902),  and  CaUfomia  (1903). 
Nine  commonwealths  of  the  West,  foregoing  any 
attempt  to  impose  a  penalty,  are  content  to  fix  a 


Divorce 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


456 


period  within  which  neither  person  may  marry 
again;  and  usually,  if  proceedings  in  error  or  on 
appeal  be  instituted,  the  restraint  is  extended  to 
final  judgment,  or  to  thirty  days  beyond  it,  as  in 
Kansas  and  Oklahoma.  This  term  of  delay  varies 
from  three  months  in  North  Dakota  to  one  year 
in  Colorado  and  Wisconsin.  On  the  other  hand, 
two  Western  States  are  more  stringent,  discrimina- 
ting against  the  guilty  person.  Thus  Illinois  (1005) 
requires  such  a  person  to  wait  two  years,  and  Mon- 
tana (1905)  three  years;  while  in  those  common- 
wealths one  year  and  two  years  respectively  are  the 
period  for  the  aggrieved.  An  anomalous  condition 
of  the  law  should  be  noted.  Owing  to  the  want  of 
precision  and  uniformity  in  the  legislation  of  the 
States  the  restraints  placed  on  the  marriage  of 
divorced  persons  are  practically  futile.  In  1829 
the  supreme  court  of  Massachusetts  (in  Putnam  v. 
Putnam,  8  Pick.,  433-435)  decided  that  if  a  man, 
"  being  a  resident  in  this  State,  for  the  sake  of 
evading  the  law  goes  into  a  neighboring  State  where 
such  a  marriage  is  valid,  and  is  there  married  and 
immediately  returns  and  continues  to  reside  here, 
the  marriage  is  valid  here,  and  after  his  death  his 
widow  is  entitled  to  dower  in  his  estate."  This 
precedent  was  followed  by  New  York  in  1881  (Van 
Voorhis  v.  Brintnall,  86  N.  Y.,  18),  Washington  in 
1900  (Willey  v.  WiUey,  22  Wash.,  115-121),  and 
California  in  1903  (Estate  of  Wood,  137  Cal.,  129). 
The  prevailing  doctrine  of  the  courts  appears  to  be 
that  a  marriage  good  where  it  is  contracted  is  good 
everywhere;   but  there  are  opposing  decisions. 

Bad   laws   relating  to  residence  and  notice  are 
the  chief   source    of  clandestine  divorce    in    the 
United  States.   Notice  to  the  defendant 
3.  Res-      through  publication  in  the  newspapers, 
idence      still  quite  generally  permitted,  is  espe- 
and        cially  capable  of  abuse;  but  in  recent 
Notices,     years  a  nimiber  of  States  have  enacted 
rigorous    statutes    governing    notice 
when  personal  service  can  not  be  had.     The  pro- 
visions regarding  residence  are  conflicting,  lax,  and 
wanting  in  precision.    They  invite  migration  for 
divorce.     At  present  the  term  of  previous  residence 
for  the  plaintiff,  or  at  least  for  one  of  the  parties, 
varies  from  six  months  to  five  years;  but  the  pre- 
vailing period  is  one  year,  at  least  twenty-eight 
commonwealths,  under  various  conditions,  having 
that  requirement.    Massachusetts,  in  particular,  has 
a  very  stringent  and  carefully  drawn  statute  which 
in  principle  may  serve  as  a  model  for  other  States. 
The   government   report,    compiled   under   the 
direction  of   Hon.   Carroll   D.  Wright  and  pub- 
lished in   1889,  contains  fairly  com- 
4.  Amer-    plete  statistics,  drawn  from  a  careful 
lean        analysis    of    the    manuscript    court 
Statistics,    records  in  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories for  the  twenty  years,  1867-86, 
inclusive.     In  the  entire  country  during  this  time 
328,716  petitions  for  full  or  partial  divorce  were 
granted.    From  9,937  decrees  in  1867  the  number 
rose  to  11,586  in  1871,  14,800  in  1876,  20,762  in 
1881,  and  25,535  in  1886;    thus,  comparing  the 
last  year  with  the  first,  showing  an  increase  of  157 
per  cent,  while  the  population  grew  but  sixty  per 
cent  during  the  same  two  decades. 


Again — ^to  express  the  result  in  terms  of  the 
divorce  rate — ^in  1867,  it  is  estimated,  there  were 
173  divorces  to  100,000  married  couples,  while  in 
1886  the  number  had  risen  to  250.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  in  the  last-named  year  the  average  divorce 
rate  in  the  United  States  was  higher  than  for  any 
other  country  collecting  statistics,  except  Japan. 
Of  the  whole  number  of  divorces  during  the  period 
112,540  were  granted  to  the  husband,  and  216,176  to 
the  wife.  Among  the  principal  causes,  at  each 
stage  of  the  wedded  Ufe,  only  for  adultery  were 
more  decrees  granted  on  the  husband's  petition 
than  on  that  of  the  wife.  But  the  relative  num- 
ber granted  on  the  wife's  petition  varies  greatly; 
from  39.3  per  cent  in  North  Carolina  to  77.9  in 
Nevada.  These  figures  are  one  indication  of  the 
relative  significance  of  the  divorce  problem  to 
women. 

Important  generalizations  may  be  drawn  from 
the  available  divorce  statistics.  In  the  United 
States,  as  in  Europe,  the  divorce  rate  is  higher  in 
the  city  than  in  the  country.  WiUcox  (A  Study 
of  Vital  Statistics,  in  the  Political  Science  Qtuxrierly, 
viii.,  1893,  pp.  76,  77)  has  demonstrated  that  the 
average  divorce  rate  for  the  whole  country,  like  the 
marriage  rate  everywhere,  sinks  in  hard  times  and 
rises  on  the  restoration  of  business.  The  report  of 
1889  shows  that  the  evil  of  migration  for  easy 
divorce,  due  to  the  lack  of  uniformity  of  State  laws, 
is  greatly  exaggerated  by  popular  opinion.  It 
seems  probable  that  not  more  than  two  or  three 
per  cent  of  all  divorces  are  secured  by  persons 
migrating  to  other  jurisdictions  for  the  purpose. 
As  early  as  1889,  the  Rev.  Samuel  W.  Dike,  of 
Aubumdale,  Mass.,  secretary  of  the  National 
League  for  the  Protection  of  the  Family,  to  whom 
especially  is  due  the  inception  of  the  great  govern- 
ment report,  declared  that  "  the  establishment  of 
uniform  laws  is  not  the  central  point "  of  the  di- 
vorce problem.  Moreover,  since  1900  the  action  of 
the  Federal  and  certain  State  courts  is  significant. 
In  a  number  of  cases  arising  in  various  States  they 
have  declared  null  and  void  decrees  secured  in 
jurisdictions  where  the  plaintiffs  were  not  bona 
fide  residents,  even  when  they  had  dwelt  in  such 
jurisdictions  for  the  statutory  term  prescribed  as  a 
condition  for  obtaining  a  divorce.  Thus  both  the 
statutes  and  the  courts  are  distinctly  discouraging 
the  "  divorce  colony."  In  certain  places,  however, 
the  evil  of  migration  for  divorce  has  been  very 
pronounced.  Previous  to  the  reform  legislation 
of  1899,  probably  the  most  flourishing  divorce 
colonies  in  the  world  were  those  at  Fargo  and 
Mandan,  N.  D.  In  1899,  in  Morton  Cbunty, 
containing  Mandan,  there  was  one  divorce  to  1.11 
marriages  (ci.  J.  L.  Coulter,  Marriage  and  Divorce 
in  North  Dakota,  in  the  American  Journal  of  So- 
ciology, xii.,  Nov.,  1906,  p.  412). 

It  appears,  likewise,  that  to  some  extent  the  evil 
of  lax  administration  of  divorce  laws  is  exaggerated 
by  popular  opinion.  The  report  shows  that  in 
seventy  counties  scattered  over  twelve  States  about 
thirty  per  cent  of  all  petitions  for  divorce  were 
rejected.  But  here  also  there  are  extreme  or  ex- 
ceptional cases.  In  North  Dakota,  between  1900 
and  1903,  87.4  per  cent  of  all  actions  were  success- 


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Divoroo 


ful.  There  is  a  prevailing  notion  that  a  large 
number  of  persons  who  seek  divorce  do  so  in  order 
at  once  to  contract  new  marriages.  Unfortunately 
there  are  no  collected  statistics  adequate  to  settle 
ttus  question.  Such  foreign  statistics  as  are  avail- 
able show  that  restriction  upon  the  remarriage  of 
divorced  persons  would  not  in  a  large  degree  affect 
the  divorce  rate.  They  indicate  that  within  the 
first  two  or  three  years  after  dissolution  of  marriage 
divorced  men  are  not  much  more  inclined  to  re- 
marry than  are  widowers,  while  during  the  same 
X>eriod  a  greater  number  of  divorced  women  than 
^widows  renew  the  nuptial  ties.  Whether  the 
number  of  divorces  is  greatly  influenced  by  legis- 
lation is  a  question  which  has  given  rise  to  decided 
differences  of  opinion.  In  1883  Bertillon  took  the 
position  that  statutes  extending  the  causes  of 
divorce  or  relaxing  the  procedure  in  divorce  suits 
have  little  influence  "  upon  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  decrees."  For  the  United  States,  at 
any  rate,  this  view  can  not  be  entirely  sustained. 
The  divorce  movement  is  indeed  mainly  dependent 
upon  social  forces  which  lie  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  legislator.  Yet  it  seems  almost  certain  that 
there  is  a  margin,  very  important  though  narrow, 
within  which  he  may  wisely  exert  a  restraining 
influence.  He  can  create  a  legal  environment 
favorable  to  reform.  Good  divorce  laws — laws 
which  are  clear,  certain,  and  simple,  laws  which 
can  not  be  evaded,  which  are  not  a  "  dead  letter," 
laws  which  express  the  best  results  of  social  ex- 
perience— constitute  such  an  environment,  and 
they  may  even  greatly  lower  the  divorce  rate,  as 
conclusively  proved  by  the  experience  of  North 
Dakota.  They  may  check  hasty  impulse  and 
force  individuals  to  take  time  for  reflection.  They 
may  also  by  securing  publicity  prevent  manifold 
injustice  in  the  granting  of  decrees. 

In  Europe  the  divorce  rate  is  rising,  while  the 

marriage  rate  is  falling.    The  same  is  doubtless 

true  of  the  United  States.     It  is  by 

5.  Amer-  no  means  creditable  to  the  American 
lean       people  that  with  eleven  exceptions — 

Legiala-     the  six  New  England  commonwealths, 

tive  Re-  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  California 
form,  (1905),  and  Iowa  (1906)---the  States 
1887-1907.  are  making  no  effective  provision  for 
the  collection  or  publication  of  divorce 
statistics.  At  present  there  is  no  means  of  deter- 
mining the  average  rate  for  the  whole  country; 
but  every  practical  reformer  and  student  of  social 
ethics  wUl  rejoice  that  Congress  has  already  pro- 
vided for  a  second  report  on  marriage  and  divorce, 
covering  the  period  since  1886.  The  report,  doubt- 
less, will  show  substantial  progress.  Indeed,  there 
is  much  hasty  and  misdirected  criticism  of  American 
divorce  laws  that  ignores  the  remedial  legislation 
of  the  last  twenty  years.  Within  this  period  the 
foundation  of  what  some  time  may  become  a  com- 
mon and  effective  divorce  code  for  the  whole  Union 
has  slowly  been  laid.  More  and  more  in  their 
essential  features  the  divorce  laws  of  the  States  are 
duplicating  one  another,  and  they  are  becoming 
better.  Little  by  little,  as  a  detailed  examination 
of  the  whole  body  of  enactments  reveals,  more  strin- 
gent provisions  for  notice  to  the  defendant  have 


been  made,  longer  terms  of  previous  residence  for 
the  parties  required,  and  more  satisfactory  con- 
ditions of  remarriage  after  the  decree  prescribed; 
while  the  more  dangerous  "  omnibus  clauses  "  in 
the  list  of  statutory  grounds  have  been  repealed. 
At  least  eight  States  now  severely  punish  the  solic- 
iting of  divorce  business.  Moreover,  saner  opinions 
regarding  the  true  nature  and  the  real  sources  of 
the  divorce  evil  are  beginning  to  prevail. 

IV.  Nature  of  the  Divorce  Problem :  The  divorce 
movement,  an  almost  universal  incident  of  modem 
civilisation,  signifies  underlying  social  evils  vast 
and  perilous.  To  the  student  of  history  it  is 
perfectly  clear  that  this  is  but  a  part  of  the  mighty 
movement  for  social  liberation  which  has  been 
gaining  in  volimie  and  strength  ever  since  the 
Reformation.  According  to  the  sixteenth-century 
Reformer,  divorce  is  the  "  medicine  "  for  the  disease 
of  marriage.  It  is  so  to-day  in  a  sense  more  real 
than  Adam  Smith  or  Heinrich  Bullinger  (q.v.)  ever 
dreamed  of.  Certain  it  is  that  a  detailed  study  of 
American  legislation  produces  the  conviction  that, 
faulty  as  are  our  divorce  laws,  our  marriage  laws 
are  far  worse;  while  our  apathy,  our  carelessness 
and  levity  touching  the  safeguards  of  the  matri- 
monial  institution  are  well-nigh  incredible. 

Nowhere  in  the  field  of  social  ethics,  perhaps,  is 
there  more  confusion  of  thought  than  in  dealing 
with  the  divorce  question.  Some  people  look  upon 
divorce  as  an  evil  in  itself;  others  regard  it  as  a 
"  remedy  "  for,  or  a  "  symptom  "  of,  social  disease. 
To  the  Roman  Catholic  and  to  those  who  believe 
with  him  divorce  is  a  sin,  the  sanction  of  **  suc- 
cessive polygamy,"  of  "polygamy  on  the  instal- 
ment plan."  At  the  other  extreme  are  those  who, 
like  Milton  and  Humboldt,  would  allow  marriage 
to  be  dissolved  freely  by  mutual  consent,  or  even 
at  the  desire  of  either  spouse.  According  to  the 
prevailing  opinion,  however,  as  expressed  in  mod- 
em legislation,  divorce  should  be  allowed,  with 
more  or  less  freedom,  only  under  careful  state 
regulation.  Yet  divorce  is  sanctioned  by  the  State 
as  an  individual  right;  and  there  may  be  occasions 
when  the  exercise  of  that  right  becomes  a  social 
duty.  The  right,  of  course,  is  capable  of  abuse. 
Loose  divorce  laws  may  even  invite  crime.  Never- 
theless, it  is  fallacious  to  represent  the  institution  of 
divorce  as  in  itself  a  menace  to  social  morality. 
It  is  a  result,  and  not  a  cause;  a  remedy,  and  not 
the  disease. 

This  is  the  principle  upon  which  rests  the  whole 
modem  theory  of  social  control.  In  the  Western 
world  the  extension  of  the  sphere  of  secular  legis- 
lation practically  to  the  whole  province — the  whole 
outward  or  legal  province — of  marriage  and  divorce 
is  a  fact  of  transcendent  interest.  In  this  regard 
the  Reformation  marks  the  beginning  of  a  social 
revolution.  Luther's  dictum  that  **  marriage  is 
a  worldly  thing  "  contained  within  it  the  germ  of 
more  history  than  its  author  ever  imagined.  The 
real  trend  of  evolution  has  not  at  all  times  been 
clearly  seen  or  frankly  admitted;  but  from  the 
dasrs  of  Luther,  however  concealed  in  theological 
garb  or  forced  under  theological  sanctions,  however 
opposed  by  reactionary  dogma,  public  opinion  has 
more  and  more  decidedly  recognized  the  right  of 


Divoroe 
DobsohnetB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


458 


the  temporal  lawmaker  in  this  field  As  a  result, 
in  the  United  States,  not  less  clearly  than  else- 
where in  countries  of  Western  civilization,  marriage, 
divorce,  and  all  the  institutions  of  the  family  are 
emerging  as  purely  social  institutions,  to  be  dealt 
with  according  to  human  needs.  Definitively  the 
State  seems  to  have  gained  control  of  matrimonial 
administration.  Yet  it  must  be  conceded  that  the 
influence  of  legislation  in  curing  social  disease  is 
very  restricted.  Apparently  if  there  is  to  be  sal- 
vation, it  must  come  through  the  vitalizing,  regen- 
erative power  of  a  more  efficient  moral,  physical, 
and  social  training  of  the  yoimg.  The  fundamen- 
tal causes  of  divorce  lie  far  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
statute-maker.  They  are  rooted  deeply  in  the 
imperfections  of  human  nature  and  the  social 
system,  particularly  in  false  sentiments  regarding 
marriage  and  the  family.  Beyond  question,  the 
chief  cause  of  divorce  is  bad  marriage  laws  and  bad 
marriages.  The  conviction  is  deepening  that  for 
the  wise  reformer,  who  would  elevate  and  protect 
the  family,  the  center  of  the  problem  is  marriage 
and  not  cUvorce. 

The  remedial  influence  of  good  statutes  may  be 
relatively  small,  still  the  legislator  has  a  very  im- 
portant task  to  perform.  In  particular  it  seems 
worth  while  to  strive  for  more  uniform  laws  in  the 
States.  Ideally  a  common  code  embracing  the 
entire  body  of  matrimonial  laws  is  desirable,  if  it 
may  be  gained  without  too  great  a  sacrifice  of 
local  control;  for  it  would  conduce  in  many  ways 
to  social  order.  The  earlier  movement  to  secure 
a  Federal  statute  imder  an  amendment  to  the  na- 
tional constitution  has  been  abandoned  by  practical 
reformers.  Instead,  it  has  been  thought  best  to 
strive  for  the  adoption  of  a  model  statute  by  the 
separate  States.  Such  a  statute,  relating  mainly 
to  procedure,  with  a  view  to  checking  clandestine 
divorce,  was  adopted  in  1899-1900  by  the  Confer- 
ence of  State  Commissions  on  Uniform  Legislation. 
But  a  more  comprehensive  effort  than  that  was 
started  by  the  "  National  Congress  on  Uniform 
Divorce  Laws."  At  its  Washington  session,  Feb. 
19-22,  1906,  after  an  enlightening  discussion,  this 
body,  composed  of  delegates  from  forty  States, 
adopted  a  series  of  seventeen  resolutions  upon  which 
is  based  **  an  act  regulating  annulment  of  marriage 
and  divorce  "  agreed  upon  by  the  Congress  at  its 
Philadelphia  session  in  November  of  the  same  year. 
The  act  contains  careful  provisions  for  residence 
and  notice.  The  decree  nisi  is  provided  for.  Both 
partial  divorce  and  absolute  divorce  are  sanctioned. 
Divorce  a  vinculo  is  permitted,  on  the  suit  of  the 
aggrieved  spouse,  for  (1)  adulteiy;  (2)  bigamy; 
(3)  conviction  and  sentence  for  crime,  "followed 
by  a  continuous  imprisonment  for  at  least  two  years 
or,  in  the  case  of  indeterminate  sentence,  for  at 
least  one  year";  (4)  extreme  cruelty;  (5)  wilful 
desertion  for  two  years;  (6)  habitual  drunkenness 
for  two  years.  Divorce  from  bed  and  board  is 
authorized  for  the  same  six  causes  and  abo  for 
'*  hopeless  insanity  of  the  husband."  Draft-acts 
providing  respectively  for  the  *'  return  of  statistics 
relating  to  divorce  proceedings  "  and  for  the  "  re- 
turn of  marriage  statistics  "  were  also  submitted 
by  the  Congress.    In  its  first  resolution  the  Con- 


gress declares  that  "  no  federal  divorce  law  is  fea- 
sible. "  Moreover,  it  is  significant  of  its  right  under- 
standing of  the  problem  that  the  body  urges  a 
like  effort  to  secure  a  imiform  marriage  Iaw.  See 
Marriage. 

Biblioobapht:  For  the  history  of  diToroe  among  back- 
ward peoples  oonsult:  A.  U.  Post,  Afrikani»cke  Jwri*- 
prudtru,  Oldenburg.  1887;  idem,  BfUtfficklungsgeaekie^ 
d€9  FamiiienrediU,  ib.  1890;  T.  Araki.  JaparMchem  Ehe- 
addieatungtndU,  Gdttingeo.  1893;  E.  Weetermarck,  HimL 
of  Human  Marriage,  London,  1894;  P.  G.  von  MdllenddrC 
DoM  diinenache  Familienrw^  Shanghai,  1895;  E.  Ala^ 
baster,  Notea  artd  CommerUariM  on  Chineae  Criminal  Las, 
London.  1899;  G.  E.  Howard,  HiU.  of  Mab-imonial  In- 
HiiutionB^  yol.  i..  ohap.  v.,  Chicago,  1904  (where  the  aa- 
thorities  are  cited  in  full). 

On  divorce  under  the  canon  law  oonsult:  H.  Geffcken. 
Eheadieiduno  vor  Oratian,  Leipsic,  1894;  A.  1g»wiwt«.  Le 
Mariaoe  en  droit  canonique,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1891;  J.  Frei- 
sen,  Oeeehu^iU  dee  oanoniedun  Ehereehta^  Prndegham, 
1893;  Howard,  ut  sup.,  vol.  ii.,  chap.  xi.  (where  the  ao- 
thorities  are  cited).  Compare  H.  Beneeke,  Die  atraf- 
rechtliche  Lehre  vom  EhAnuh,  Marburg,  1884;  the  stand- 
ard Catholic  treatises  of  A.  Cigoi.  Die  Unaufidebarkeit  da^ 
ehrisAichen  Ehe,  Paderbom,  1895;  and  especially  J.  P&- 
ronne,  De  matrimonio,  Paris,  1861.  For  England  consult: 
F.  Pollock  and  F.  W.  Maitland,  Hietory  of  En4f&ek  Lav, 
vol.  ii.,  Cambridge,  1895. 

For  the  Reformation  period  oonsult:  A.  L.  Riehtcr, 
BeitrAoe  aur  GeechicKte  dee  EKeadiaidunoareehta  in  der 
evangeliachen  Kirehe,  Berlin,  1858;  and  Richter's  editioo 
of  the  Kirchenordnunifen  dee  aedtaaehnten  JahrkunderU, 
2  vols.,  Weimar,  1846  (the  legislation  of  the  evangelicsi 
churches  on  marriage  and  divorce).  These  ordinances 
are  analysed  by  O.  CSoeschen,  Doeirina  de  matrimoma, 
Halle,  1848;  and  by  H.  C.  Dietrich,  EvanoeUaehea  Ehe- 
aduidunoaredU,  1892.  Luther's  utterances  are  compiled 
by  H.  L.  von  Strampff,  Dr.  Martin  LuJther:  Veber  die  Eke, 
Berlin,  1867. 

For  England,  very  convenient  handbooks  are:  W. 
Ernst,  Treatiae  on  Marriage  and  Divorce,  London.  18S0: 
N.  (Seary,  Law  of  Marriage  and  Family  ReltUiona^  ib. 
1892.  The  modem  French  law  is  treated  by  E.  Kelly. 
The  French  Law  of  Marriage,  Marriage  ConiraeU,  and 
Divorce,  ib.  1895. 

For  the  United  States  and  for  divorce  problems  in  gen- 
eral consult:  C.  D.  Wright,  Report  on  Marriage  and  Di- 
vorce in  the  United  Statea,  1867-86,  Washington,  1S89. 
reprinted,  1897;  idem,  in  The  CkriaHan  Regiaier,  Ixx 
(1891).  655-658;  S.  W.  Dike,  ReporU  of  the  NaUonalDivoree 
Reform  League,  and  Reporta  of  the  National  League  for  Uu 
Protection  of  the  Family,  1886-1906;  idem,  in  PalitiBal 
Science  Quarterly,  iv  (1889),  206-214;  idem,  in  Century 
Magaaine,  zxxix  (1890),  385-395;  idem,  in  FtMieaHona 
of  the  American  StatieHcal  AaaodaUon,  i  (1889),  206-214; 
idem,  in  Andover  Review,  Dec,  1893;  idem,  in  Congrae 
of  Arte  and  Science,  vii.  707-720;  T.  D.  Woolsey.  Divora 
and  Divorce  LegiaUUion,  New  York,  1881;  J.  Bertilkm, 
£tude  dimographique,  Paris,  1883;  idem,  in  Journal  of 
the  Statiatical  Society,  xlvii  (1884).  519-526;  A.  P.  Lloyd. 
Law  of  Divorce,  Baltimore,  1887;  D.  Converse  Marriaef 
and  Divorce  in  the  United  Statea,  Philadelphia,  1889;  W. 
L.  Snyder,  Geography  of  Marriage,  New  York,  1889;  F. 
Adler.  in  The  Ethical  Record,  u  (1889).  200-209.  iii  (1890). 
1-7;  J.  P.  Bishop.  New  Commentariea  on  Marriage^  Di- 
vorce and  Separation,  2  vols.,  Chicago.  1891;  £.  Janet, 
in  New  Englander  and  Yale  Review,  1891.  pp.  305-402: 
C.  H.  Pearson.  National  Life  and  Character,  diap.  v., 
New  York.  1894,  answered  by  J.  H.  Muirhead,  in  Inter- 
national Journal  of  Ethica,  vii  (1896).  33-35;  H.  C  Whit- 
ney, Marriage  and  Divorce,  Boston.  1894;  J.  C.  Richbeis. 
in  Publicationa  of  the  Midtigan  Political  Science  Aaaoda- 
fion.  i..  no.  4.  1895;  W.  F.  Willooz.  in  Political  Saena 
Quarterly,  viii  (1893).  69-96;  idem^  The  Divorve  Prvb- 
lem.  New  York,  1897;  J.  Bryce.  Studiea  in  HiaL  and 
Juriaprudence,  London.  1901;  H.  Hirsh,  Talmlaied  Di- 
geat  of  Divorce  Lawa,  New  York,  1901;  W.  B.  Bailer* 
Modem  Social  Conditiona,  ib.  1906;  and  especiaUy  Pro- 
ceedinga  of  the  Natiorud  Congreaa  on  Uniform  Divona 
Lawa,  Harrisburg.  1906,  and  the  pamphlet  '^"tMnint  ^ 
model  statutes  since  published  by  the  Congress. 

In  this  article,  through  the  geoeroua  penniaakm  of  the 


459 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Divorce 
DobsohuetE 


publiflfaen,  some  xNuaages  have  been  freely  taken  by  the 
author  from  the  followins  writings:  Marriage  and  Dt- 
voroe,  in  the  Encyclopedia  Americana,  x.;  Social  Control 
and  the  Function  of  the  Family,  in  Congreee  of  Aria  and 
Science,  vii.  697-706;  The  Problem  of  Uniform  Divorce 
Law  in  the  United  States,  in  The  American  Lawyer,  xiv 
(1906).  16-17;  Divorce,  in  Bliss's  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Re- 
form (new  ed..  1908):  and  Hiatory  of  Matrimonial  Inati- 
tutione  (3  yols..  Ghicaco,  1904).  where  a  systematic  bib- 
liography for  every  phase  of  the  subject  may  be  found. 

Geobob  Elliott  Howard. 

DIX,  MORGAN:  Protestant  Episcopalian;  b.  m 
New  York  City  Nov.  1,  1827;  d.  there  Apr.  29, 
1908.  He  was  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1848,  and  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in 
1852.  He  was  ordered  deacon  in  1852,  ordained 
priest  in  1853,  was  assistant  rector  of  St.  Mark's, 
Philadelphia  (1853-55),  then  curate  of  Trinity 
Church,  New  York  City,  until  1859,  when  he  be- 
came assistant  rector,  and  rector  in  1862.  He 
has  been  president  of  the  Standing  Committee  of 
the  Diocese  of  New  York,  a  trustee  of  many  in- 
stitutions, and  a  member  of  numerous  important 
committees.  He  has  written  Maniud  of  the  Chris- 
tian Life  (New  York,  1857);  Commentary  on  Ro- 
mans (1864);  Commentary  on  Galaiixma  and  Co- 
lossiana  (1866);  Lectures  on  the  Pantheistic  Idea  of 
an  Impersonal-Stibstance  Deity  ca  Contrasted  with 
the  Christian  Faith  Concerning  Almighty  God  (1865); 
Book  of  Hours  (1865);  Lectures  on  Two  Estates— 
Wedded  in  the  Lord^  Single  for  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven's  Sake  (1872);  Historical  Lectures  on  the 
First  Prayer  Book  of  King  Edward  VL  (1881); 
Lectures  on  the  Calling  of  a  Christian  Woman  (1883); 
Memoir  of  John  A.  Dix  (2  vols.,  1883);  The  Gospel 
and  Philosophy  (1886);  The  Seven  Deadly  Sins 
(Lenten  sermons;  1888);  Lectures  on  the  Authority 
of  the  Church  (1891);  Three  Guardians  of  Super- 
natural Religion  (Paddock  lectures;  1891);  The 
Sacramental  System  Considered  as  the  Extension  of 
the  Incarnation  (Paddock  lectures;  1893);  Harriet 
Starr  Cannon^  First  Mother  Superior  of  the  Sisterhood 
of  St.  Mary  (1896);  Good  Friday  Addresses  (1898); 
and  History  of  the  Parish  of  Trinity  Church  (4  vols., 
1898-1906). 

DIXON,  AMZI  CLARENCE:  Baptist;  b.  a 
Shelby,  N.  C,  July  6,  1854.  He  studied  at  Wake 
Forest  College,  Wake  Forest,  N.  C.  (B.A.,  1874), 
and  held  pastorates  at  Warsaw,  N.  C.  (1875-76), 
Chapel  Hill,  N.  C.  (1878-81),  AsheviUe,  N.  C.  (1881- 
1884),  Immanuel  Baptist  Church,  Baltimore,  Md. 
(1884-91),  Hanson  Place  Baptist  Church,  Brook- 
lyn (1891-1901),  Ruggles  Street  Baptist  Church, 
Boston  (1901-07),  and  Moody  Church,  Chicago 
(since  1907).  In  theology  he  is  orthodox.  He  has 
written  The  True  and  the  False  (Baltimore,  Md., 
1890);  Milk  and  Meat  (sermons,  New  York,  1893); 
Lights  and  Shadows  of  American  Life  (Chicago, 
1898);  Present  Day  Life  and  Religion  (Cleveland, 
O.,  1905);  Evangelism  Old  and  New  (New  York, 
1905);  and  Tfie  Young  Convert's  Problems  and  their 
Sdution  (1906). 

DIXON,  RICHARD  WATSON:  Church  of  Eng- 
land; b.  at  Islington,  London,  May  5,  1833;  d.  at 
Wark worth  (26  m.  n.  of  Newcastle),  Northumber- 
landshire,  Jan.  23,  1901.  He  studied  at  Pembroke 
College,   Oxford    (B.A.,    1857),   and  was  ordered 


deacon  in  1858  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following 
year.  After  being  curate  at  St.  Mary-the-Less, 
Lambeth  (1858-61),  and  of  St.  Mary's,  Newington- 
Butts  (1861-63),  he  was  second  master  of  Carlisle 
High  School  (1863-68)  and  minor  canon  and  honor- 
ary librarian  of  Carlisle  Cathedral  (1868-75).  He 
became  vicar  of  Hayton-cum-Talkin,  Cumberland- 
shire,  in  1875,  and  of  Warkworth  in  1883.  In  1874 
he  became  an  honorary  canon  of  Carlisle  and  from 
1879  to  1883  was  rural  dean  of  Brampton,  while 
from  1885  until  his  death  he  was  rural  dean  of 
Alnwick  and  after  1891  was  also  examining  chap- 
lain to  the  bishop  of  Newcastle.  While  at  Oxford 
he  was  associated  with  William  Morris  and  Edward 
Bume-Jones  in  editing  The  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge Magazine t  advocating  the  Preraffaelite  move- 
ment, and  also  wrote  besides  several  volumes  of 
verse:  Second  Peak  Prize  Essay  on  the  Maintenance 
of  the  Church  of  England  as  an  Established  Church 
(1873);  Life  of  James  Dixon,  Wesleyan  Minister 
(1874;  a  biography  of  his  father);  his  most  im- 
portant work,  however,  was  his  History  of  the 
Church  of  England  from  the  Abolition  of  the  Roman 
Jurisdiction  (6  vols.,  1877-1902).  This  work  takes 
high  rank  by  reason  of  its  learning,  research,  and 
attractive  style.  It  extends  from  1530  to  1570. 
The  last  two  volumes  were  posthumous  and  edited 
by  Henry  Gee,  who  has  prefaced  them  by  a  bio- 
graphical sketch.  In  the  last  year  of  his  life  he 
was  made  b>'  his  university  a  doctor  of  divinity, 
and  by  his  college  an  honorary  fellow. 
Bxblioqbapbt:  Besides  the  sketch  by  Gee,  ut  sup.,  oonsult 
DNB,  supplement,  u.  139-140. 

DOANE,  WILLIAM  CROSWELL:  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  Albany;  b.  at  Boston,  Mass., 
Mar.  2,  1832.  He  studied  at  Burlington  College, 
Burlington,  N.  J.  (B.A.,  1850),  where  he  was  a 
professor  1850-63.  He  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood in  1856,  and  was  rector  of  St.  Biary's,  Burling- 
ton (1859-63),  St.  John's,  Hartford,  Conn.  (1863- 
1867),  and  St.  Peter's,  Albany,  N.  Y.  (1867-69).  In 
1869  he  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  Albany. 
He  has  been  instrumental  in  building  the  Cathe- 
dral of  All  Saints,  Albany,  and  established  in  the 
same  city  St.  Agnes'  School  for  Girls,  the  Child's 
Hospital,  and  St.  Biargaret's  House  for  Babies, 
the  St.  Christina  Home  (for  training  servants)  at 
Saratoga,  and  the  Orphan  House  of  the  Holy  Savior 
at  Cooperstown,  founding  the  Sisterhood  of  the 
Holy  Child  Jesus  to  take  charge  of  these  institutions. 
In  theology  he  is  a  conservative  High-churchman. 
He  has  written  a  life  of  his  father,  Bishop  G.  W. 
Doane  of  New  Jersey  (6  vols..  New  York,  1860); 
Mosaics,  Being  Comments  on  the  Collects,  Epistles, 
and  Gospels  of  the  Christian  Year  (1882);  Sun- 
shine and  Play-Time  (poems;  1893);  The  Mani- 
festatiorui  of  the  Risen  Jesus  (Oxford,  1898);  and 
Rhymes  from  Time  to  Time  (Albany,  1901). 

DOBSCHUETZ,  dob''shat«',  ERNST  (ADOLF 
ALFRED  OSKAR  ADALBERT)  VON:  German 
Protestant;  b.  at  Halle  Oct.  9,  1870.  He  studied 
at  Lelpsic,  Halle,  and  Berlin  (Ph.D.,  1893),  and  in 
1893  became  privat-docent  for  New  Testament 
theology  at  Jena,  where  he  was  appointed  asso- 
ciate professor  in  1899.    Since  1904  he  has  been 


DooetlBin 

Dootxina 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


4&0 


professor  of  the  same  subject  at  Strasburg.  He 
has  written  Stvdtm  tur  TextkrUik  der  Vtdgaia 
(Leipflic,  1894);  Die  urchristlichen  Gemeinden 
(1902;  Eng.  transl.  by  G.  Bremner,  London,  1904); 
Ostem  und  PfingHen,  eine  kriiische  Studie  zu  I  Kor. 
XV,  (Leipsic,  1903);  Pruhleme  des  apaatolUchen 
ZeitaUera  (1904);  and  Das  apoatoliache  ZeiiaUer 
(HaUe,  1905). 

DOCETISM,  do-st'tizm:  A  heresy  which  appears 
in  the  most  varied  forms  and  aspects,  but  may 
be  generally  defined  as  the  theory  which  would 
merge  the  truth  and  reality  of  Christ's  human 
nature  in  a  mere  fantom.  The  Docetse,  as  a  dis- 
tinct sect,  are  mentioned  by  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Strom,  f  iii.  13;  vii.  17),  who  names  as  the  founder 
Julius  Cassianus  (see  Encratftes);  by  Serapion  of 
Antioch  (Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.,  vi.  12);  and  by 
Hippolytus  (Philosophoumenat  viii.  8-11;  cf.  x.  16). 
The  latter  has  preserved  a  detailed  record  of  these 
sectaries,  which  on  the  whole  may  be  trustworthy, 
but  can  not  be  considered  entirely  reliable.  Their 
fundamental  idea  is  that  current  in  the  Gnostic 
systems.  The  aim  is  to  describe  the  divine  process 
of  development,  the  history  of  the  spirit  of  God,  who, 
himself  forever  the  same,  suffered  himself  to  be 
limited  by  a  material  existence  in  order  to  withdraw 
himself  from  it  as  fruit.  From  the  first  archi, 
which  appears  here  under  the  image  of  the  seed  of 
the  fig,  out  of  which  develops  the  world-tree, 
emanate  at  first  three,  finally  thirty  eons.  They 
form  the  intelligible  nature  (hi  noUl  physis),  pure 
light,  comprising  in  itself  the  primitive  forms  {tas 
apeirous  ideas)  of  all  living.  Its  light  shines  into 
the  chaos,  and  becomes  the  cause  of  everything 
created  because  it  impresses  the  everlasting  ideas 
upon  that  which  has  been  formed.  To  separate 
darkness  from  light,  the  third  of  the  primeval  eons 
created  the  firmament,  the  stereGma  (Gen.  i.  5). 
It  separated  itself  as  living  fire,  and  became  the 
great  archon,  the  god  of  fire,  who  spoke  out  of  the 
bush,  the  lord  over  the  ideas  who  had  confined 
them  in  the  bodies  and  made  them  wander  as  souls 
when  they  grew  cold  therein.  To  redeem  these 
and  to  end  their  wandering,  the  "  only  begotten 
son,"  produced  by  the  thirty  eons,  came  upon  this 
earth.  He  took  upon  himself  the  extremest  dark- 
ness, the  flesh,  and  was  bom  of  Mary.  In  the  water 
of  the  Jordan  this  Jesus  received  the  seal  of  the 
body  bom  of  the  virgin,  so  that,  after  putting  off  the 
body  created  by  the  archon  and  being  nailed  to  the 
cross,  his  soul  may  not  be  found  naked ,  but  be  enabled 
to  put  on  the  soma  anii  t?s  sarkos  ekeinls  (cf .  John  iii. 
6,  6),  imprinted  in  the  water  of  baptism.  The 
human  souls,  all  somehow  related  to  Jesus,  exert 
themselves  for  him  in  different  ways.  So  the  dif- 
ferent sects  can  know  their  own  Jesus  only  in  part; 
the  Docetffi  alone  know  the  whole  Jesus. 

G.  KrOoer. 

Bibuoorapht:  G.  Salmon,  in  Hermafhgna,  zi  (1885).  380- 
402;  idem,  in  IX^B,  i.  866-870  (valuable);  E.  W.  M6ller. 
Qetthichie  der  Kotmologie,  pp.  323-335.  Halle,  I860:  A. 
Hilgenfeld,  KeUergeaihichU  <2m  Urehriaientunu,  pp.  546- 
550.  Leipsic.  1884;  H.  Staehelin.  in  TU,  vi.  3.  1891;  L. 
Pullan,  The  Church  of  the  FaiherB,  pp.  46.  51,  New  York. 
1905;  Harnaok,  Dogma,  i.  256-250.  ii.  276  sqq..  370.  iii. 
16,  iv.  138  sqq.  et  paasim.  Cooault  alw  the  literature 
under  Hippolttds. 


DOCTOR:  The  Latin  word  for  "teacher,"  em- 
ployed in  various  ways  in  academic  and  ecclesia.^ 
tical  usage.  The  Doctors  of  the  Church  (Dodorf.^ 
ecclesice)  are  certain  of  the  Church  Fathers  (q.v. 
who  bear  the  title  by  "  express  declaration  of  the 
Church  "  (i.e.,  conferred  by  the  pope  or  by  a  gen- 
eral council)  because  of  their  "  orthodox  teachiiiiL 
holiness  of  life,  and  eminent  erudition."  As  earlv 
as  1298  the  following  had  thus  been  pronoimc^J 
Doctors  of  the  Church:  of  the  Greek  Fathen^, 
Athanasius,  Basil  the  Great,  Gregory  Nazianzeo, 
Chrysostom,  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria;  of  the  Latins, 
Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine,  and  Gr^oiy  the 
Great.  Since  1298  the  names  have  been  added  of 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Petrus  Chiysologus,  Leo  the 
Great,  Isidore  of  Seville,  Peter  Damian,  Anselm  of 
Canterbury,  Bernard  of  CUirvaux,  Thomas  Aquinas 
Bonaventura,  Francis  of  Sales,  and  Alfonao  de' 
Liguori. 

The  title  '*  doctor  "  with  a  descriptive  adjectrre  or  eqiar- 
alent  expreonon  was  also  popularly  given  to  many  8^<^vs 
or  churchmen  of  the  Middle  Ages,  including  some  who  filkd 
no  profeeaorial  poaitiona.  Some  of  the  oommoner  of  these 
titles  with  the  name  of  the  bearer  are  as  foUowBi  DotAjr 
admirahiliMt  Roger  Bacon;  doctor  anffdieu»,  communis^  tf 
diertiMcus.  Thomas  Aquinas;  doctor  beaiut  et  fundaHaeimMi^ 
iEgidlus  de  Columna;  doctor  dtriatianieaimiu,  Jean  Genoa; 
doctor  dirietianu*,  Nicholas  of  Cuaa;  dodor  doctorttm,  Anada 
of  Laon;  doctor  evangdieus,  John  Wydif ;  dodor  tUuminofetj; 
Raymond  Lully;  doctor  iUuminatue  el  suMtmic,  Jobanoes 
Tauler;  doctor  intfincibilU  et  sin^uloru,  William  of  Occam; 
doctor  irrefraoabili*,  Alexander  of  Hales;  doctor  mariamu, 
Anselm  of  Canterbury  and  Duns  Scotus;  doctor  meUifitau, 
Bernard  of  Glairvaux;  doctor  planue  et  uiUit,  Nicholas  &f 
Lyra;  doctor  reaolutieeimue,  William  Durand;  doctor  sdbtv- 
losticus,  Abelard,  Peter  Lombard,  and  others;  doctor  eerajAi- 
eus,  Bonarentura;  doctor  «u6filM,  Duns  Scotus;  doctor  ttm- 
verealia,  Albertus  M»gnii«  For  more  complete  list  cf.  the 
KL,  iii.  1867-69. 

DOCTRINAIRES,  dec^'tri^'nArz.  See  Christum 
Doctrine,  Socibtt  of. 

DOCTRINE,  mSTORT  OF. 

Early  Attempts  at  Doctrine  History  (fi  1). 

Four  Groups  of  Histories.     The  MOnseher  Group  (}  2). 

The  Hegelian  Group  (§  3). 

Engelhardt  and  Gieseler  (§  4). 

The  Confessional  Lutheran  Group  (§  6). 

Nitssch  and  Hamack  (§  6). 

The  Idea  and  Task  of  Doctrine  History  (fi  7). 

Method  and  Scope  (§  8). 

The  history  of  Christuin  doctrines  as  a  depan- 
ment  of  theological  study  was  inaugurated  by 
S.  G.  Lange  of  Jena  in  his  Ausfuhrliche  Gesekicke 
der  Dogmen  (Leipsic,  1796),  which  came  down  to 
Iremeus.  This  was  followed  by  W.  Mtinschers 
Handbuch  der  christlichen  Dogmengesehichte  (4  vok. 
Marburg,  1797-1809),  extending  to  Gregory  the 
Great,  and  J.  C.  W.  Augusti's  Lehrbuch  der  chris^- 
lichen  Dogmengeschichie  (Leipsic,  1805).  Of  course, 
much'  had  been  written  previously  r^arding  the 
history  of  particular  dogmas  and  controversies. 
The  present  article  deals  with  the  rise  and  develop- 
ment of  the  history  of  doctrines  and  the  lessons 
taught  by  a  centuiy  of  work  in  this  department 
respecting  its  idea,  task,  method,  and  scope. 

As  early  as  the  time  of  Irensus  (by  way  of  oppo- 
sition to  Gnostic  innovations)  stress  was  laid  upon 
the  continuity  of  the  doctrinal  teachings  of  the 
elders  from  the  apostolic  age.  Athanasius  coo- 
stantly  appealed  to  the  Fathers  in  support  of  his 


461 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dooetism 

Dootrine 


positions  in  conflict  with  Arfus  and  othere.  Vin- 
cent of  Lerins  (d.  450)  declared  that  "  the  an- 
cient consensus  of  opinion  of  the  holy 

X.  Early  fathers  ought  to  be  most  diligently 
Attempts  at  sought  out  and  followed  "  (Commont- 

Doctrine    toriumf  i.  28).    Naturally  non-catholic 

History,  parties  also  sought  and  found  support 
for  their  views  in  earlier  Christian 
literature.  Abelard  (d.  1142),  in  his  Sic  et  non, 
by  arraying  authority  against  authority  on  all  im- 
portant doctrines  demonstrated  the  necessity  of 
freely  applying  the  mind  to  the  solution  of  theo- 
logical problems.  The  harmonizing  of  patristic 
authorities  was  one  of  the  tasks  of  scholasticism. 
The  Renaissance  brought  with  it  disparagement  of 
Authority  and  recognition  of  the  possibility  of  prog- 
ress in  the  apprehension  of  truth.  The  Refor- 
mation interrupted  for  the  Evangelicals  the  conti- 
nuity of  doctrinal  tradition.  The  adoption  of  the 
Scriptures  as  the  sole  authority  gave  free  course  to 
investigation  in  the  history  of  doctrine.  Melanch- 
thon  could  say  in  his  Loci  (1521):  "  Immediately 
after  the  founding  of  the  Church,  Christian  doctrine 
was  ruined  by  the  Platonic  philosophy."  Yet 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  alike,  alarmed  by  the 
undesirable  consequences  of  too  rigorous  an  in- 
sistence on  Scripture  authority  by  Anabaptists, 
felt  it  necessary  to  defend  the  doctrinal  definitions 
of  the  first  four  general  councils  as  authoritative 
interpretations  of  Scripture  and  necessary  infer- 
ences therefrom.  The  Magdeburg  Centuriators 
(1559-74)  assumed  that  from  the  fifth  century 
(in  part  from  the  second)  there  was  a  progressive 
obscuration  of  evangelical  truth,  not  seriously  hin- 
dered by  isolated  "  witnesses  "  who  appeared  from 
time  to  time.  The  stimulus  given  by  the  Refor- 
mation to  historical  research  and  the  vast  amount 
of  material  thus  brought  to  light  made  possible 
such  works  as  that  of  the  Jesuit  Petavius,  De  theo- 
logicis  dogmatUms  (Paris,  1644-50),  and  the  In- 
8tructione8  hiatorico-theologico!  de  doctrina  Chria- 
liana  (Amsterdam,  1645)  by  the  Scotch  theologian 
John  Forbes  of  Corse.  Early  Lutheran  theologians 
did  little  more  in  the  history  of  doctrine  than  to 
gather  rich  patristic  materials  for  polemical  pur- 
poses on  the  various  loci  of  their  dogmatic  systems. 
Examples  of  this  kind  of  work  are  Gerhard's  Loci 
(Jena,  1610-25)  and  Quenstedt's  Theologia  Didac- 
tico-polemica  (Wittenberg,  1685).  It  was  not  until 
Pietism  and  the  Enlightenment  (q.  v.)  had  shattered 
faith  in  the  absolute  correctness  of  Lutheran  ortho- 
doxy that  "  heretical "  systems  began  to  be  studied 
on  their  merits  and  that  doctrine  history  could 
become  a  distinct  department  of  study.  Gottfried 
Arnold's  Kirch-  und  KeUer-Historte  (1st  ed.,  1699- 
1700;  most  complete  ed.,  3  vols.,  SchafThausen, 
1740-42)  brought  to  light  and  treated  sympa- 
theticaUy  a  vast  amount  of  authentic  material 
regarding  dissenting  parties  from  the  first  century 
to  his  own  time.  His  disposition  to  give  to  "  here- 
tics "  their  due  was  to  some  extent  shared  by  Mos- 
hcim  and  C.  W.  F.  Walch.  Walch,  Emesti,  Semler, 
and  Planck  have  been  regarded,  along  with  Lange 
and  Manscher,  as  the  fathers  of  doctrine  history. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  Roman  Catholic 
works,  which  (with  the  exception  of  those  of  Bach 


and  Schwane)  are  based  upon  the  dogmatic  assimip- 
tion  of  the  identity  of  dogma  during  all  the  cen- 
turies, four  groups  of  works  from  Milnscher  to  F. 
Nitzsch  (Grundrisa  der  ckristlichen  Doffmengeschichte, 
vol.  i.,  Berlin,  1870)  and  Hamack  (Lekrbuch  derDog^ 
mengeachichte,  3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1885-90;  fkig. 
transl.,  7  vols.,  Boston,  1895-1900)  may  be  ad- 
vantageously   distinguished.     Works 

2.  Four  of  the  Milnscher  type  which  conceive 
Groups  of  of  the  history  of  doctrines  as  the 
Histories,  history  of  the  multiform  changes  which 
The  Miin-  Christianity  (as  doctrine  or  dogma) 

Bcher  has  undergone  up  to  the  present 
Group,  time  constitute  the  first  group.  Mttn- 
scher,  though  learned  and  accurate, 
failed  completely  to  understand  the  reasons  and 
significance  of  changes  and  had  no  proper  ap- 
preciation of  times  and  persons.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  Lentz  and  Bertholdt.  This  method  may 
be  designated  the  rationalistic-pragmatic.  The 
supematuralistic  modification  of  this  method 
(Mtinter,  Augusti)  avoided  the  offensive  extrava- 
gances of  pragmatism  and  recognized  as  legitimate 
for  their  time  a  mass  of  opinions  no  longer  accept- 
able, but  made  little  advance  in  method.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  romanticism  and  religious 
earnestness  of  the  awakening  (Schleiermacher)  the 
vision  for  the  abiding  and  common  in  all  the  diver- 
sified forms  of  doctrine  was  sharpened  (Neander 
and  his  school).  Dpep  appreciation  of  all  Christian 
character  as  the  embodiment  of  the  new  life  intro- 
duced by  Christ  is  what  gives  coherence  to  Nean- 
der's  work.  This  is  true  in  a  measure  of  Hagenbach, 
and  in  a  larger  measure  of  Baumgarten-Crusius, 
whom  Hase  called  the  "  historian  of  the  religious 
spirit."  These  historians  agree  in  distinguishing 
between  "general"  and  "special"  history  of 
doctrines,  in  discarding  the  distinction  between 
"  dogmas  "  (authoritatively  formulated  doctrines) 
and  opinions  on  doctrine  set  forth  by  any  one 
whomsoever  in  any  way  whatever  (their  aim  hav- 
ing been  in  many  cases  to  discredit  dogma  by 
demonstrating  its  instability),  and  in  ignoring 
Roman  Catholic  doctrinal  development  since  1517. 
Niedner's  work  is  peculiar  in  its  combination  of  the 
history  of  philosophy  and  that  of  theology,  and  in 
its  discrimination  between  the  doctrines  of  the 
schools  and  those  of  the  Churches,  yet  it  undeniably 
belongs  to  this  group. 

The  second  group,  introduced  by  Baur's  mono- 
graph on  the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  (1838), 
is  characterized  by  the  dominance  of  the  Hegelian 
philosophy.    Baur,  like  his  predeces- 

3.  The  sors,  was  concerned  about  the  whole 
Hegelian    mass  of  changes  in  doctrinal  teaching 

Group,  that  have  occurred  from  the  apostolic 
time  to  the  present.  He  saw  in  the 
manifold  changes  the  logical  development  accord- 
ing to  inner  laws  of  a  substantially  unchanged 
whole.  Every  doctrine  is  to  him  a  development 
of  the  C^Siristian  idea,  inevitable  in  its  time. 
The  history  of  dogmas  has  to  do  as  well  with 
the  multiplicity  of  dogmas  as  with  the  unity 
of  the  dogma.  He  followed  his  predecessors  in 
distinguishing  between  a  general  and  a  special 
histoiy  of  doctrines,  and  in  taking  little  account  of 


Ilootrina 
PortiMiiin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


462 


the  development  of  Roman  Catholic  dogma  since 
1517.  Marheineke  appUed  the  Hegelian  method 
in  producing  an  orthodox  counterpart  to  Baur's 
work,  abandoned  the  distinction  between  general 
and  special  history  of  doctrines,  limited  the  scope 
of  dogma  to  public  definitions,  identified  the  sub- 
stantial contents  of  the  Christian  religion  with  the 
teachings  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  and  limited 
doctrine  history  to  the  time  between  the  apostolic 
age  and  the  completion  of  the  formation  of  the 
ecclesiastical  symbols.  To  the  Hegelian  school 
likewise  belonged  Meier  and  Noack. 

To  a  third  group,   in  which  doctrine  history 
is  conceived  as  a  historic-genetic  representation 
of  the  coming  into  existence  of  the 
4«  Engel-    doctrinal  ideas  of  the  various  Christian 
hardt       Churches,    belong   Engelhardt's   Dog- 
and   Gie-   mengeschichU    (1839)    and    Gieseler's 
seler.       lectures.    Both  were  free  from  Hege- 
lian influence.     Engelhardt  had  much 
in  coDunon  with  the  group  next  treated,  Gieseler 
with  the  MOnscher  type.    Engelhardt's  peculiar- 
ity appears  in  his  comparative  treatment  of  the 
Lutheran,  Roman  Catholic,  and  Reformed  dogmas, 
and  his  brief  survey  of  the  doctrinal  movements  in 
the  various  Churches  since  the   definition  of  doc- 
trines in  the  great  symbols.    Gieseler's  definition 
of  dogma  is  noteworthy:  "  Christian  dogma  is  not 
doctrinal  opinion,  not  the  pronouncement  of  any 
teacher,  but  doctrinal  statute.    The  dogmas  of  a 
church  are  those   doctrinal  propositions  which  it 
declares  to  be  the  most  essential  contents  of  Chris- 
tianity."   While  he  held  that  a  complete  doctrine 
history  embraces  the  development  of  dogmas  in 
all  Cluistian  Churches,  he  paid  Uttle  attention  to 
the  development  of  doctrines  in  the  Greek  Church 
after  its  separation  from  the  Roman,  or  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  after  the  Protestant  revolt. 
The  last  group  of  the  older  writers  on  the  history 
of  doctrines  is  the  confessional  Lutheran,  whose 
aim  was  to  show  the  complete  doc- 
5.  The      trinal  agreement  of  the  Book  of  Con- 
Confes-     cord  with  divine  revelation.     Engel- 
donal       hardt   and   Marheineke  prepared  the 
Lutheran    way  for  this  type  of  doctrine  history. 
Group.      Kliefoth,  deeply  immersed  in   Hege- 
lianism,    marked    out    its    program. 
TTi^hnia  embodied  this  idea  in  his  Kirchenglaube, 
Schmid's  brief  treatise   (1860)  was  of  the  same 
character.    The    most    important    work    of    this 
group  is  that  of  Thomasius  (1874-76).    The  second 
edition  of  Thomasius  by  Eionwetsch  and  Sceberg 
belongs  rather  to  the  preceding  group. 

Side  by  side  with  these  four  groups  stands  the 
uncompleted  work  of  Nitzsch,  who,  though  he  had 
a  narrow  conception  of  dogma,  yet  aimed  to  make 
intelligible  the  present  position  of  Christian  the- 
ology,   including     the     influence     of 
6.  Nitzsch  Schleiermacher.    The  one-sidedness  of 
and        the  Hegelian  construction  of  history 
Hamack.    is    eliminated    by    sound    historical 
realism,  and  the  separation  of  general 
and   special   dogmatics   is   abandoned.     Nitzsch's 
work  is  the  mature  resultant  of  the  older  develop- 
ment of  doctrine  history.     But  Hamack's  famous 
text-book  bc^gins  a  new  section  of  the  history  of  the 


discipline.  While  building  on  the  foundations 
laid  by  Nitzsch,  Thomasius,  and  Ritschl,  he  has 
created  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  the  history  of 
doctrines  by  materially  increasing  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  by  his  living  grasp  of  the  object& 
of  investigation,  and  by  his  brflliant  and  highly 
interesting  literary  presentation .  His  abandonmeDt 
of  any  schematic  arrangement  of  the  materials  and 
his  sole  regard  to  genetic  coimections,  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  "  tenacity  "  of  dogma  and  the  inner 
logic  of  its  development,  and  his  effort  to  understand 
individual  dogmas  as  parts  of  the  conception  of 
Christianity  as  a  whole  may  be  regarded  as  con- 
tributions of  abiding  value.  The  more  recent 
text-books  of  the  writer  [F.  Loof s]  and  of  R.  Seeberg 
(2d  ed.,  vol.  i.,  1907,  vols,  ii.-iii.  in  preparation  ■, 
though  dependent  on  Hamack 's,  are  not  without 
distinctive  features.* 

The  question  as  to  the  Ught  thrown  on  the  idea. 

task,  method,  and  scope  of  doctrine  history  by  a 

century  of  study  can  only  be  answere*] 

7.  The  Idea  personally   and    briefly.    The    writer 

and  Task  regards  Hamack's  conception  of  doc- 
of  Doctrine  trine  history  as  only  individually  justi- 

History.  fled.  Dogma  is  for  Hamack  not  a 
generic  idea,  but  the  particular  doc- 
trinal ideas  that  have  formed  themselves  on  the 
basis  of  the  ancient  world.  Ancient  dogma,  wit  h  its 
objectivity  formally  independent  of  the  faith  of  the 
individual,  is  of  a  wholly  different  kind  from  any 
modem  evangelical  system,  while  Roman  Cathohc 
dogma  still  bears  this  purely  objective  character. 
It  is  therefore  instmctive  to  discover  the  rise  of 
ancient  dogma  and  to  trace  its  further  development 
until  it  is  dissolved  in  heterogeneous  new  formations 
or  has  found  a  homogeneous  continuation  to  the 
present.  As  there  is  no  dogma  on  the  idea  of  dogma. 
Hamack  can  not  be  fairly  reproached  for  publishing 
his  doctrine  history  of  the  ancient  Church  under 
the  title  Dogmengeschichte.  Another  question  is 
whether  the  interest  that  theology  has  in  doctrine 
history  inheres  in  this  special  idea  of  dogma  or  in 
the  generic  idea.  Is  the  term  dogma  to  be  used  to 
designate  the  entire  body  of  doctrines  commonly 
held  by  a  church,  or  is  it  to  be  limited  to  state*- 
ments  of  doctrine  made  in  earlier  times  by  eccle- 
siastical authority,  to  which  adherence  is  obli- 
gatory? Stange,  without  sufficient  ground,  charges 
Hamack,  Kaftan,  and  Loofs  with  innovation  in 
using  the  term  in  the  generic  sense;  for  most  of 
the  older  writers  (Hollatz,  Marheineke,  Gieseler, 
Rothe,  Biedermann,  Nitzsch,  etc.)  allow  the  legiti- 
macy of  this  usage.  Seebei^g  and  Heinrici  agree 
with  Loofs  in  defining  the  history  of  dogmas  as 
the  history  of  the  rise,  development,  and  eventual 
change  of  church  conceptions  of  doctrine  in  Christi- 
anity as  a  whole  or  in  its  various  denominations. 

On  the  method  of  this  discipline  two  views  have 
recently  been  set  forth,  that  of  Bemouilli  and  othei?. 
who  insist  that  doctrine  history  can  attain  to  the 


*  The  editor  of  this  article  may  be  allowed  to  express  the 
highest  admiration  of  Loofs's  Leitfaden  as  a  masterpiece  of 
condensed  wisdom  on  the  subject.  But  the  4th  cd.  (1906^ 
has  1.002  pages.  It  contains  an  amount  of  pertinent  qaota- 
tion  from  the  Bouroes  greater  than  is  to  be  found  in  many 
laxier  works.  A.  H.  N. 


468 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Doctrine 
Dodanim 


highest  results  only  by  dealing  with  the  matter  from 
the  religio-historical  point  of  view,  and  that  of 
Stange  (following  Baur),  who  thinks 
8.  Method  that  it  should  be  treated  purely  as  a 
and  Scope,  history  of  ideas,  praise  and  blame  being 
completely  eliminated,  and  every  phase 
of  doctrine  being  regarded  as  part  of  a  process. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  every  historian  has  some  sort 
of  standpoint,  and  pure  objectivity  la  out  of  the 
question.  Still,  it  is  no  clisqualification  in  the 
historian  of  dogmas  to  be  imbued  with  Evangelical 
principles  and  to  be  a  master  of  dogmatics.  The 
better  he  understands  current  dogmas  the  better 
should  he  be  able  to  understand  the  process  by 
which  they  have  been  reached.  As  regards  the 
starting-point  and  the  closing-point  of  the  history 
of  dogmas,  the  question  at  issue  is  whether  it 
should  begin  with  the  teachings  of  Christ  and  the 
apostles  and  end  with  the  present,  or  begin  with  the 
earliest  ecclesiastical  formulations  and  end  with 
the  latest.  Against  making  the  teachings  of  Christ 
and  the  apostles  the  starting-point  is  the  fact  that 
New  Testament  theology  is  in  itself  so  large  and 
complicated  a  subject  and  contains  so  many  ele- 
ments of  controversy  as  to  require  separate  treat- 
ment. The  historian  of  dogmas  must  base  himself 
upon  the  most  assured  results  of  New  Testament 
criticism,  exegesis,  and  theology,  rather  than  at- 
tempt to  make  New  Testament  theology  a  part  of 
his  field.  Certainly,  the  history  of  dogmas  does  not 
end  with  the  Formula  of  Concord,  the  Westminster 
Confession,  or  any  other  symbol;  but  is  it  possible 
to  discern  surely  between  modem  dogmatics  and 
dogmas?  Therefore  the  histoiy  of  dogmas  may 
stop  with  the  latest  ecclesiastical  formulations  of 
dogmas. 

The  relation  of  the  histoiy  of  doctrines  to  other 
theological  disciplines,  especially  to  symbolics  and 
church  history,  can  not  be  adequately  treated  here. 
The  former  can  be  more  advantageously  treated 
in  the  article  Symbolics.  The  history  of  dogmas 
is  undoubtedly  a  part  of  church  history,  and  the 
question  is  how  far  the  former  should  be  eliminated 
from  lectures  and  text-books  on  church  history 
and  reserved  for  separate  treatment.    (F.  Loofs.) 

Biblioorapht:  On  the  oonoeption  of  hutory  of  doctrine 
consult:  K.  Daub,  in  ZeiUehrift  far  speculative  Theologie, 
i.  1  (1836),  1-W,  i.  2,  pp.  63-132,  ii.  1  (1837).  88-161;  T. 
F.  D.  Kliefoth,  EinUUung  in  die  Doomengeachichte,  Par- 
chim,  1839;  G.  F.  KUng.  in  TSK,  xiii  (1840),  1061-1162. 
xiv  (1841),  749-852,  xvi  (1843),  217-269;  J.  E.  Kuhn. 
in  TQ,  1850,  pp.  249-253;  F.  Niedner.  >in  ZHT,  xxi 
(1851),  579-^78;  F.  C.  Baur.  Die  Epochen  der  kirchlichen 
GeschichiaedureibunOf  TQbingen,  1863;  G.  Fronunel,  Inr- 
trodiiction  ft  Vhiet.  dee  dogmee,  D61e,  1896;  G.  KrOger, 
Was  heieet  und  zu  wdckem  Ende  etudiert  man  Dogmenge- 
eehichtef  Freiburg,  1896;  C.  A.  Bemouilli,  Die  wieeen- 
eehafUiche  und  die  kirchlidhe  MetKode  in  der  Theolooie,  ib. 
1897;  G.  Stange,  Dae  Dogma  und  eeine  Beurteilung  in  der 
neueren  DogmengeadiidUe,  Berlin,  1898. 

The  workfl  on  the  history  of  doctrine  earlier  than  the 
nineteenth  century  are  given  in  Hauck-Hersog.  RE,  iv. 
752.  Later  works,  in  addition  to  those  indicated  in  the 
body  of  the  article,  are  as  follows:  L.  Berthold,  Hand- 
hudt  der  Dogmengeeehidite,  2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1822-23; 
F.  O.  Baumgarten-Cnisius,  Kompendium  der  diriatlichen 
Dogmengeachichte,  2  vols..  Leipsic,  1840-46;  C.  G.  H. 
Lents,  Geeehichte  der  chriatlichen  Dogmen  in  pragmatiecker 
EnJtwiekeluno,  2  vols.,  Helmstedt.  1834-35;  J.  C.  W. 
Augusti.  lAhrbudt  der  ckrieUidken  DogmengeechidUe, 
Leipsic  1835;  H.  Klee,  Ldirbudi  der  DogmengeedtidUe, 


2  vols..  Mains,  1837-38;  D.  F.  Strauss.  Die  chrietHche 
OlaubeneUhre  in  Vwer  geeehichtlidten  Entuickelung,  2  vols., 
Tabingen,  1840-41;  P.  Marheineke.  Ckrietliehe  Dogmen- 
geeehiehte,  Berlin,  1849;  J.  M.  A.  Ginoulhias,  Hiet.  du 
dogme  oatholique,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1862-62;  L.  Noack,  Di$ 
dhrieUidie  Dogmengeaehichte  nach  ihrem  organiechen  Enl- 
widUungegange,  Erlangen,  1853;  J.  C.  L.  Gieseler,  Dog- 
mengeediidUe^  Bonn.  1855;  A.  Neander,  ChriaUidie  Dog- 
mengeedtidUet  Berlin,  1857;  E.  Haag,  HieL  dee  dogmee 
direHene,  2  vols..  Paris,  1862;  J.  Schwane,  Dogmenge- 
adiidUe,  4  vols.,  Milnster.  1862-90;  K.  Beck,  Chriettidis 
Dogmengeeehidite,  Tabingen.  1864;  K.  F.  A.  Kahnis,  Der 
Kirdienglaube  hietoriedHfenetiadt  dargeeteUt,  Leipsic,  1864; 
J.  Zobl,  DogmengeediidUe  der  katholiedien  Kirdie,  Inns- 
bruck, 1866;  F.  C.  Baur,  Lehrbudi  der  DogmengeechidUe, 
Tabingen,  1867;  J.  Bach.  Dogmengeediidite  dee  Mittel- 
aUere,  2  vols.,  Vienna,  1873-76;  T.  C.  Crippen,  Popular 
Introduction  to  the  Hiet.  of  Chriatian  Doctrine,  Edinburgh. 
1883;  A.  V.  G.  Allen,  The  Continuity  of  Christian  Thought, 
Boston.  1884;  W.  G.  T.  Shedd.  Hiet.  of  Chriatian  Doc- 
trine, New  York.  1884;  H.  C.  Sheldon.  Hiet.  of  Chriatian 
Doctrine,  ib.  1886;  G.  Thomasius,  Die  chriatliehe  Dog- 
mengeachichU,  2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1886-89;  H.  Schmid, 
Lehrbudi  der  Dogmengeaehichte,  Ndrdlingen.  1887;  K.  R. 
Hagenbach,  Lehrbudi  der  Dogmengeaehichte,  Leipsic.  1888, 
Eng.  transl.  of  4th  ed..  2  vols..  New  York.  1861-62;  C. 
H.  Tuthill.  Origin  and  Development  of  Chriatian  Dogma, 
London,  1888;  F.  Bonifas,  Hiat.  dee  dogmea  de  Vdgliae 
chrftienne,  2  vols.,  Paris.  1889;  A.  Hamaok,  Grundriaa 
der  Dogmengeaehichte,  2  parts.  Freiburg,  1889-91,  Eng. 
transl.,  Outlinea  of  a  History  of  Dogma,  London,  1803; 
R  Seeberg,  Lehrbuch  der  DogmengeediidUe,  2  vols.,  Erlang- 
en, 1895-98,  2d  ed.,  1907  sqq.;  idem.  Orundriaa  der  Dog- 
mengeaehichte, Leipsic,  1905;  G.  P.  Fisher.  Hiat.  of  Chria- 
tian Doctrine,  New  York,  1896;  J.  Orr,  Progreaa  of  Dogma, 
London,  1901;  J.  Turmel,  Hiat,  de  la  thSologie  poaitive, 
Paris,  1904. 

DODANIM:  According  to  Gen.  x.  4,  one  of  the 
four  sons  of  Javan  (q.v.).  The  question  of  identi- 
fication is  complicated  by  the  question  of  the  correct 
reading  in  this  passage  and  in  the  parallel  (I  Chron. 
i.  7).  In  Genesis  the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  the 
Targums,  Vulgate,  and  Peshito  read  Dodanim; 
the  Samaritan,  Septuagint,  and  Lucian  read  Ro- 
danim  (Rodioi),  thus  agreeing  with  most  of  the 
Hebrew  manuscripts  of  I  Chron.  i.  7  (where,  how- 
ever, Lucian  and  Ben  Asher  read  Dodanim).  Com- 
pare the  R.  V.  with  the  A.  V.  F.  Brown  (Hebrew 
and  English  Lexicon,  p.  187,  New  York,  1906)  reads 
Rodanim,  To  explain  the  two  forms  which  the 
manuscripts  thus  attest,  the  conjecture  has  been 
made  that  the  author  of  Gen.  x.  obtained  his  in- 
formation concerning  Greek  peoples  from  Pheni- 
cian  travelers,  that  he  possibly  wrote  Dardanim 
(cf.  Gk.  Dardanoi,  "  Trojans  "),  and  that  the  "  r  " 
was  subsequently  misread  as  "  w  "  (o),  the  word 
thus  appearing  as  Dodanim,  Later  writers  (this 
theory  proceeds),  composing  after  the  name  Dar- 
danoi  had  disappeared  from  use,  would  naturally 
use  "  Rhodians,''  which  was  the  form  the  (late) 
Chronicler  employed  as  attested  by  the  manu- 
scripts. If,  however,  Rodanim  be  the  correct  read- 
ing in  Genesis,  this  explanation  is  unnecessary. 
Against  this  reading  are  the  early  authorities  as 
cited  above;  in  favor  of  it  are  the  later  date  of 
Gen.  X.  and  the  far  greater  probability  of  mention 
of  Rhodians  than  of  Dardanians  in  that  period. 
If  Dodanim  be  the  original  reading,  it  is  impossible 
to  say  what  part  of  the  Greek  people  the  author 
had  in  mind.  The  reading  Rodanim  gives  a  simple 
and  direct  solution,  referring  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Rhodes.  Geo.  W.  Gilmore. 

Bibuoorapht:    B.  Stade,  De  populo  Javan  parergon,  Qiea- 

sen,  1880;  and  the  Bible  dictionaries  on  the  word. 


Doddrldc* 
Doadas 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


464 


DODDRIDGE,  PHILIP:  English  non-conformiBt; 
b.  in  London  June  26,  1702;  d.  at  Lisbon  Oct.  26, 
1751.  As  early  as  1716  he  began  to  think  of  adopt- 
ing the  ministry  as  a  profession,  but  declined  an 
offer  of  a  university  education  and  subsequent 
provision  in  the  Established  Church,  preferring  the 
freedom  of  non-conformity.  His  theological  educa- 
tion was  directed  by  Samuel  Clarke  (q.v.)  and  the 
Independent  John  Jennings.  He  became  minister 
at  Kibworth,  Leicestershire,  in  1723,  without  ordi- 
nation or  profession  of  faith;  two  years  later  he 
removed  to  the  neighboring  town  of  Market  Har- 
borough  and  entered  into  a  joint  pastorate  with 
David  Some;  and  he  refused  several  offers  which 
seemed  likely  to  limit  the  theological  liberty  to 
which  he  clung  so  ardently.  In  some  sense  taking 
up  the  work  of  the  deceased  Jennings,  he  became  the 
first  head  of  a  new  academy  at  Market  Harborough, 
and,  on  accepting  a  call  to  a  pastorate  at  North- 
ampton six  months  later,  removed  his  school 
thither,  being  ordained  by  eight  mimsters  in  the 
following  March.  In  the  same  year  appeared  his 
first  publication,  Free  ThoughU  on  the  Most  Prob- 
able Means  of  Reviving  the  Dissenting  Interest 
This  expressed  his  ideal  of  unity  in  essentials  and 
freedom  in  non-essentials,  with  a  view  to  bringing 
all  non-conformists  together  on  a  common  ground. 
He  was  an  inspiring,  if  not  a  very  systematic 
teacher,  and  was  busy  in  many  good  works,  inclu- 
ding a  scheme  which  has  been  described  as  the  first 
non-conformist  project  of  foreign  missions  (1741). 
His  multifarious  works  were  collected  in  ten  volumes 
(Leeds,  1802-05).  The  best-known  of  them  with  the 
exception  of  his  hymns  are  The  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Religion  in  the  Sotd  (London,  1745)  and  The 
Family  Expositor,  or  a  Paraphrase  and  Version  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  Notes  (6  vols.,  1739-66). 
His  hymns  (370  in  number)  were  publbhed  by  his 
friend  Job  Orton  at  Salop,  1755,  and  were  re- 
edited,  with  a  collation  of  Doddridge's  manuscripts, 
by  his  great-grandson,  J.  D.  Humphreys  (Scrip- 
twral  Hymns f  London,  1839).  Among  the  best- 
known  are  "  Awake,  my  soul,  stretch  every  nerve," 
"  Grace,  'tis  a  charming  sound,"  and  '*  O  happy 
day,  that  fixed  my  choice." 

Biblioobapht:  The  Work*  (ut  sup.)  contain  the  JIf ammrc, 
by  Job  Orton,  expanded  greatly  in  Biographia  Briiannica, 
ed.,  Kippifl.  1793.  The  beat  source  is  the  Carre9pond- 
•not  and  Diary  of  PhUip  Doddridoe,  ed.  J.  Doddridge 
Humphreys  (his  great-grandson),  6  vob.,  London,  1829- 
1831.  The  best  life  is  by  C.  Stanford.  London,  1881.  Ck>n- 
suit  the  lives  by  J.  Stoughton,  London,  1851:  J.  R.  Boyd. 
New  York.  1860;  D.  A.  Harsba,  Albany,  1865;  and  the 
notices  in  DNB,  xv.  168-164;  S.  W.  DufBeld.  EnglUh 
Hymng,  pp.  364-366,  New  York«  1886;  and  Julian. 
Hymnolooy,  pp.  306-306. 

DODS,  MARCUS:  United  Free  Chureh  of  Scot- 
land; b.  at  Belford  (44  m.  n.w.  of  Newcastle), 
Northumberland,  Eni^and,  Apr.  11,  1834.  He 
studied  at  Edinburgh  (M.A.,  1854)  and  New  College, 
Ekiinburgh  (1854-58),  and  was  ordained  to  the 
ministry  in  1864.  He  was  pastor  of  Ren  field  Free 
Church,  Glasgow,  until  1889,  when  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  New  Testament  theology  in  New  Col- 
lege, Edinburgh,  of  which  he  was  principal  in  1907 
and  1908.  He  has  written  The  Prayer  that  Teaches 
to  Pray  (Edinburgh,  1863),  The  Epistles  to  the 
Seven  Churches  (London,  1665);    Irmel's  Iron  Age 


(1874);  Mohammed,  Buddha,  and  Christ  (1877); 
Handbook  on  Haggai,  Zecharia,  and  Malachi  (Edin-  i 
burgh,  1879);  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Joseph  (London, 
1880);  Handbook  on  Genesis  (Edinburgh,  1882); 
Commentary  on  Thessalonians  (1882);  The  Par<^ 
Ides  of  Our  Lord  (2  vols.,  London,  1884-85);  The 
First  Epistle  to  the  Connthians  (1889);  Introduc- 
tion to  the  New  Testament  (1889);  Erasmus,  and 
Other  Essays  (1891);  Why  be  a  Christian  f  (1896); 
How  to  become  like  Christ  (1897);  The  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  St,  John  (in  The  Expositor's  Greek  Testa- 
ment; 1897);  Genesis,  John,  and  I  Corinthians,  in 
The  Expositor's  Bible  (1888-91);  Forerunners  of 
DarUe  (Edinburgh,  1903);  and  The  Bible,  its  Origin 
and  Nature  (Bross  lectures;  1905).  He  has  also 
translated  the  "  Apology  "  of  Justin  Martyr  and 
the  three  books  of  Theophilus  of  Antioch  to  Auto- 
lycus,  in  Clark's  Ante-Nieene  Christian  Library 
(Edinburgh,  1865),  and  has  edited  the  English  ver- 
sion of  J.  P.  Lange's  Life  of  Christ  (6  vob.,  1864),  and 
the  writings  of  St.  Augustine  (16  vols.,  1872-76). 

DODWELL,  HENRY:  English  theologian;  b.  at 
Dublin  Oct.,  1641;  d.  at  Shottesbrooke,  Maidcoihead 
(26  m.  w.  of  London),  June  7, 171 1.  He  was  a  fellow 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  but  was  obliged  to  resign 
because  he  was  not  prepared  to  take  orders  (1666), 
and  settled  in  London  (1674).  He  wrote  in  defense 
of  the  Anglican  Church,  and  made  such  a  reputation 
that  he  was  appointed  Camden  professor  of  histoo'' 
at  Oxford  in  1688,  but  lost  the  position  in  1691,  by 
refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William 
and  Mary.  He  defended  the  nonjuring  bishops, 
declaring  those  "  schismatics  "  who  submitted,  and 
himself  left  the  Anglican  communion,  but  in  1710, 
on  the  extinction  of  the  nonjuring  line  of  bishops, 
returned  to  it.  His  works  were  numerous,  par- 
ticularly in  the  various  departments  of  classical 
literature,  and  attest  great  industry  and  learning, 
but  little  judgment.  He  is  remembered  for  his 
assertion,  in  his  Dissertationes  in  Irencmm  (Oxford, 
1689),  that  the  New  Testament  demoniacs  were 
epileptics,  and  for  his  Epistolary  Discourse  con- 
cerning the  Soul*s  Immortality  (London,  1706),  in 
which  he  connected  immortality  with  Baptism. 
Biblioorapht:  The  Life  by  F.  Brokesby.  London.  1715: 
J.  Darling.  Cvdopadia  bibliograpkioa,  pp.  038-939.  Lon- 
don. 1854;  S.  A.  Allibone.  Critieal  Dictionary  of  Eng. 
Lit9ratw^,  Philadelphia,  1801;  DNB,  xv.  179-181. 

DOEDERLEIN,  do'der-lain:  The  family-name 
of  several  German  theologians. 

1.  Johann  Alexander  Dbderlein :  B.  at  Weissen- 
burg  (27  m.  8.e.  of  Anspach)  Feb.  11,  1675;  d. 
there  Oct.  23,  1745.  His  most  important  woik  was 
AntiquUates  gentilismi  Nordgaviensis  (Nuremberg 
1734). 

2.  Christian  Albert  Dbderlein:  B.  at  Seyringen 
(40  m.  S.W.  of  Nuremberg)  Dec.  11,  1714;  d.  at 
Btttzow  (18  m.  S.W.  of  Rostock)  Nov.  4,  1789.  He 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock  and  Biitzow, 
and  published  De  Thaletis  et  Pythagoree  theologica 
ratione  (Gdttingen,  1750);  Vermischte  Abhandlungen 
aus  alien  Theilen  der  Gelehrsamkeil  (Halle,  1755); 
Von  dem  rechten  Gebrav^h  und  Misbrauch  der 
menschlichen  Vemunft  in  gdttliehen  Dingen  (Butsow, 
1760);  Commenlatio  de  Ebionosis  e  numero  hostium 
divinitatis  Christi  eximendia  (1769);   Ueber  ToUram 


465 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Doddridff* 
Doedas 


und  Gewissensfreikeii  (Wismar,  1776);  Theolo- 
gische  Abhandlungen  uber  den  gamen  Umfang  der 
Religion  (4  vols.,  1777-89);  U eberzeugender  Beioeis 
von  der  wahren  GoUheit  des  Sohnes  Gottes  (1789). 

3.  Johann  Christoph  Ddderlein:  B.atWindsheim 
(30  m.  n.w.  of  Nuremberg)  Jan.  20,  1745;  d.  at 
Jena  Dec.  2,  1792.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Altorf,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  became 
deacon  in  Windsheim.  Gaining  recognition  by  his 
CurcB  crUicce  et  exegeticce  (Altorf,  1770),  he  received 
in  1772  a  professorship  at  Altorf,  and  ten  years 
later  was  called  to  Jena.  His  chief  exegetical 
works  were  his  Esaiaa  (Altorf,  1775)  and  his  trans- 
lation of  Proverbs  (1778).  His  most  important 
book  was  his  InatUrdio  theologies  ChristianoB  (1780), 
which  marks  a  transition  to  the  modem  critical 
method,  since,  as  he  himself  said,  he  took  into  con- 
sideration new  interpretations  and  the  results  of 
individual  systems  of  thought  with  special  regard 
to  the  requirements  of  the  time,  though  he  did  not 
feel  justified  in  going  beyond  the  Bible  or  in  invent- 
ing new  doctrines.  He  likewise  urged  caution  in 
the  choice  of  arguments,  and  emphasized  the  need 
of  quality  rather  than  of  quantity  in  their  selection. 
The  same  principles  were  advocated  in  the  Tfieo- 
logische  Bibliothek,  which  he  edited  at  Leipsic  from 
1780  until  his  death.         (K.  R.  HAGENBACHtO 

DOEDES,  do-«'d6s,  JACOBUS  ISAAK:  Dutch 
theologian;  b.  at  Langerak,  a  village  in  the  province 
of  South  Holland,  Nov.  20,  1817;  d.  at  Utrecht 
Dec.  17,  1897.  In  the  year  1830  he  entered  the 
Latin  school  at  Amsterdam,  and  in  1834  the  Uni- 
versity of  Utrecht,  where  he  founded  the  lifelong 
friendship  with  his  fellow  student  J.J.  van  Oostei^ 
zee.  On  June  16, 1841,  he  attained  the  doctorate,  and 
his  thesis,  Disseriatio  Theologica  de  Jesu  in  Vitam 
reditu  (Utrecht,  1841),  appeared  also  in  Dutch  under 
the  title  De  Opstanding  van  omen  Heer  Jezus 
Christus,  in  hare  zekerheid  en  belangrijkheid  voor- 
gesUld  (Utrecht,  1844).  In  1841  he  passed  his 
ministerial  examination,  and  while  waiting  for  a 
charge  he  wrote  the  prize  essay  Verhandeling  over 
de  Tekstkniiek  dee  Nieuwen  Verbonda  (Haarlem, 
1844).  In  1843  he  was  installed  pastor  at  Hall, 
in  the  province  of  Gelderland,  and  soon  after  be- 
came an  editor  of  the  Jaarboeken  voor  weten- 
schappelijke  Theclogie,  10  vols.,  1845-54,  A  study 
of  the  subject  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
led  to  the  writing  of  De  leer  van  den  Doop  en  het 
Avondmaal  op  nieuw  onderzocht.  I.  stuk,  Het 
Avondmaal  (Utrecht,  1847).  About  this  time  came 
his  encounter  with  C.  W.  Opzoomer,  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Utrecht,  who  had  taken  the 
field  against  van  Oosterzee  in  behalf  of  the  "  in- 
fidel philosophy,''  contending  that  *'  scientific 
infidelity "  must  make  war  upon  the  ''  miracu- 
lous history  of  Christ  and  the  dogmas  founded 
upon  it."  That  miracles  are  impossible  is  assimied 
88  the  starting-point  for  all  investigation.  Against 
such  an  assiunption  Doedes  contended  in  Hei  recht 
des  Christendoms  tegenover  de  vnjsbegeerte  gehand- 
haafd  (Utrecht,  1847),  a  work  the  sober,  historic 
tone  of  which  gained  the  admiration  even  of  his 
opponent,  who  spoke  highly  of  his  "  clear,  intelli- 
gent, and  true  language." 
m.-30 


This  apology  was  partly  the  cause  of  his  call  as 
pastor  to  Rotterdam  in  1847,  where  he  labored  for 
twelve  years  with  such  zeal  and  sucoess  that 
he  is  still  gratefully  remembered.  In  con- 
nection with  his  pastorate  he  issued  cate- 
chetical manuals  on  the  doctrine  of  salvation 
and  Biblical  history  which  have  gone  through 
many  large  editions  and  have  been  translated  into 
the  Malayan  and  the  Javanese.  Though  much 
occupied  in  Rotterdam  with  pastoral  work,  he  yet 
found  time  for  the  sciences,  as  the  Jcuxrboeken  voor 
wetensch.  Theologie  bears  ample  witness.  Prof,  van 
Hengel  in  Leyden  attacked  in  1847  his  doctrine  of 
the  Eucharist,  to  whom  Doedes  replied  in  his 
Aphorismen  over  de  leer  des  AvondmaaU  {JWT, 
1848,  vi.  1).  His  Exegetische  Studien  over  I  Pet.  Hi. 
IS-^v.  6  (JWT,  1848,  vi.  2),  a  contribution  to  the 
Petrine  conception  of  the  Lord's  death,  resurrection, 
and  preaching  to  the  imprisoned  spirits,  is  still 
worth  reading.  In  1853,  in  collaboration  with  N. 
Beets  and  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  he  edited  the 
periodical  Ernst  en  Vrede.  In  the  period  1849- 
1855  he  published  at  Utrecht  his  Evangeliehode  in 
seven  volumes.  Besides  this  he  put  forth  several 
collections  of  sermons.  As  a  true  Protestant  he 
was  drawn  into  the  so-called  "  April  disturbance  " 
of  1852;  the  tone  of  Pius  IX.  in  his  allocution  of 
March  7,  1853,  led  him  to  write  De  AUocutie  van 
PaiLS  Pius  IX.  ter  aankondiging  van  het  herstd  der 
Bisschoppelijke  hierarchie  in  de  Nederlanden,  met 
eene  historische  toelichting  (Utrecht,  1853). 

In  1859  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  theology 
at  Utrecht.  His  inaugural  address,  Oratvo  de  critica 
studiose  a  theologis  exercenda  (Utrecht,  1859),  was 
bitterly  attacked  and  ridiculed  by  A.  Pierson  and 
the  poet  P.  A.  de  G^nestet,  to  whom  Doedes  only 
sparingly  replied  one  and  two  years  after  in  the 
opening  addresses  Modem  of  Apostolisch  Christen^ 
dom  t  (Utrecht,  1860)  and  De  zoogenaamde  Modeme 
Theologie  eenigszins  toegelicht  (Utrecht,  1861). 
He  characterized  the  liberty  of  teaching  in  the 
Church  as  an  ecclesiastical  absurdity  which 
would  lead  only  to  the  enslaving  of  the  (Jhurch. 
Against  his  colleague  C.  W.  Opzoomer  he  defended 
the  position  that  choice  must  be  made  between  a 
consistent  naturalistic  philosophy  and  the  Gospel, 
and  that  choice  of  the  first  leads  to  an  irrecon- 
cilable warfare  with  the  latter  (Ovd  en  Nieto  !  De 
leus  der  Christelijk-orthodoxe  Theologie,  Utrecht, 
1865).  The  best  commentary  to  his  work  as  a 
professor  is  found  in  the  presence  of  his  pupils  in 
chairs  of  New  Testament  exegesis — van  Manen  in 
Leyden,  Baljon  in  Utrecht,  van  Rhijn  in  Groningen, 
and  Brandt  in  Amsterdam.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
handbooks  for  academic  use:  Hermeneutiek  voor  de 
Schriften  des  N.  Verbonds  (Utrecht,  1866;  trans- 
lated into  English  from  the  2d  ed.  by  G.  W.  Steg- 
mann,  Jr.,  Edinburgh,  1867);  Inleiding  tot  de  L^ 
van  God  (Utrecht,  1870;  2d  ed.,  1880);  De  Leer  van 
God  (Utrecht,  1871);  Enofdopedie  der  ChrieUlijke 
Theologie  (Utrecht,  1876;  2d  ed.,  1883).  His  stand- 
ard work,  written  with  much  sagacity  and  fairness, 
is  De  NederL  Geloofsbelydenis  en  de  Heidelbergsche 
KatechismttSy  als  belydenisschriften  der  Ned.  Hero, 
Kerk  in  de  19'  Eeuw,  getoetst  en  heoordeeld  (2  vols., 
Utrecht,  1880-81).    This  work  brought  him  into 


Doeff 

Doeuinffer 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


466 


conflict  with  Dr.  A.  Eujrper.  Of  surpassing  interest 
are  the  recollections  of  a  rich  and  favored  long 
life  which  he  gives  in  his  184S-189S  Biografische 
Herinneringen  (Utrecht,  1894). 

(S.  D.  VAN  Veen.) 
Biblioobapht:  Berides  the  autobiography,  ut  sup.,  valu- 
able material  may  be  found  in  A.  W.  Bronsfeld,  Een  the- 
oloifiaeh  Klaverhlad,   Rotterdam,   1897:  J.  M.  S.  Baljon, 
in  Stemmen  voor  Waarheid  en  Vrede,  Feb..  1808. 

DOnSG:  An  Edomitic  servant  of  Saul,  who  wit- 
nessed David's  interview  with  Ahimelech  (I  Sam. 
xxi.  7),  and  later  betrayed  the  priest  (I  Sam.  xxii. 
9-10).  The  infuriated  king  sent  for  the  accused 
and  his  fellow  priests  and  ordered  their  slaughter. 
As  Saul's  body-guard  hesitated,  Doeg,  at  the  king's 
order,  murdered  the  eighty-five  priests  (Septuagint, 
"  306  ";  Josephus,  Ant.,  VI.  xii.  6,  "  385  ").  Saul 
(or  Doeg)  then  annihilated  the  priestly  city  Nob, 
Abiathar  alone  escaping  to  David  (I  Sam.  xxii. 
11-23).  That  Doeg,  though  an  Edomite,  is  found 
among  Saul's  servants  has  numerous  analogies  in 
histoiy  (II  Sam.  xi.  3,  xxiii.  37;  I  Chron.  xi.  46, 
xxvii.  30-31).  According  to  I  Sam.  xxi.  7,  Doeg 
was  at  Nob,  "  detained  before  Yahweh  ";  of  the 
surmises  aiming  to  explain  his  detention — ^for 
the  keeping  of  a  vow,  for  concealment  (contra- 
dicted by  xxii.  22),  as  a  recent  proselyte,  or  for 
levitical  undeanness — Hitzig's  {Begriff  der  Kritik, 
Heidelberg,  1831,  82)  is  best,  viz.,  that  Doeg  had 
been  quarantined  for  suspected  leprosy  (cf .  Lev.  xiii. 
1  sqq.).  In  I  Sam.  xxi.  7  Doeg  is  called  "  the 
chief  est  of  Saul's  herdsmen  ";  as  this  expression  in 
the  Hebrew  is  very  strange,  and  the  Septuagint 
seems  to  follow  a  dilTerent  text  (also  in  xxii.  9), 
Graetz's  proposal  may  be  right — to  read  "  run- 
ners "  (haragim)  for  "  herdsmen "  (haroHm ;  cf. 
Wellhausen,  Text  der  Bucher  SamtteliSf  GOttingen, 
1871, 125).  Psalm  lii.  refers  to  the  betrayal  of  Doeg, 
according  to  the  superscription;  but  it  is  not  cer- 
tain that  the  superscriptions  rest  on  old  tradition; 
they  are  now  generally  regarded  as  an  accommo- 
dation to  the  text  of  Samuel.      (E.  Kautzsch.) 

DOELLmCER,  JOHANN  JOSEF  IGNAZ  VON. 

Youth  and  Education  (§  1). 

Early  Labors  as  a  Professor  (§  2). 

Activities  as  Catholic  Apologist  (§  3). 

Beginninss  of  Break  with  Rome  (§4). 

Position  upon  the  Temporal  Power  (§  5). 

Widening  of  Breach  with  Rome  (§  6). 

The  Vatican  Ck>uncil.     His  Excommunication  (§  7). 

Relations  with  Old  Catholics  (§  8). 

Gradual  Retirement  (§  9). 

Final  View  of  Reformation  (§  10). 

Johann  Josef  Ignaz  von  Dollinger,  church  histo- 
rian and  leader  of  the  Old  Catholic  movement,  was 
bom  at  Bamberg  Feb.  28,  1799;  d.  at  Munich  Jan. 
10,  1890.     He  entered  the  University  of  Wtirzburg 
in  1816  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  his- 
tory, philology,  and  the  natural  sciences,  chiefly 
botany,   mineralogy,    and    entomology;    the  last- 
named  science  he  followed  in  exbaust- 
I.  Youth   ive   fashion    for    quite   thirty  years, 
and         In  1817  he  chose  the  priesthood  as  a 
Education,  profession,  influenced  by  the  converts 
Eckhart,  Werner,  Schlegel,   Stolberg, 
and  Winkelman.     In  the  summer  of  1818  he  con- 
tinued his  studies  under  the  theological  faculty  of 


WUrzburg.  Out  of  deference  to  his  father's  wishes 
he  took  up  the  study  of  law  at  Wttrzbuig  in  1819, 
but  he  resumed  his  theological  studies  at  Bam- 
berg in  the  autumn  of  1820  and  continued  there 
until  Easter,  1822.  On  Mar.  22,  1822,  he  was  or- 
dained priest.  His  ideal  of  life  at  this  time  was 
not  a  professorship,  but  a  rural  pastorate  with  suf- 
ficient income  for  the  formation  of  a  library  and 
with  opportunity  for  study.  Accordingly,  in  No- 
vember he  went  as  chaplain  to  Marktscheinfeld  in 
Mittelfranken. 

In  Nov.,  1823,  he  was  chosen  professor  of  church 

histoiy  and  ecclesiastical  law  in  the  lyceum  of 

Aschaffenburg.     Here    originated    his 

2.  Early  first  work,  Die  Eucharietie  in  den  drei 
Labors  eraten  Jahrhtinderten  (Mainz,  1826), 
as  a  still  considered  a  model  treatise.  On 
Professor,  account  of  it  he  was  honored  with  a 
doctorate  of  theology  by  the  faculty 
at  LAudshut.  In  the  autumn  of  1826  he  was 
called  to  a  professorship  of  church  histoiy  and 
ecclesiastical  law  at  the  newly  opened  University 
of  Munich.  Here  he  became  intimate  with  Franz 
von  Baader,  and  in  1827  made  also  the  acquaint- 
ance of  GOrres.  Both  Baader  and  Gdrres  be- 
lieving that  a  publication  for  the  promotion  of 
Roman  Catholic  interests  was  a  necessity,  DoUinger 
was  drawn  into  journalistic  activity.  A  little 
later,  he  devoted  himself  again  to  his  church  his- 
tory, portions  of  which  appeared  from  1833  to 
1838  (Eng.  transL,  A  Hiatory  of  the  Church,  4 
vols.,  London,  1840-42).  In  1836  he  viated  Eng- 
land. His  relations  with  that  country,  for  which 
he  had  the  greatest  sympathy,  never  ceased.  Year 
after  year  he  had  a  colony  of  young  En^ish  stu- 
dents under  his  own  roof.  In  1837  he  became 
chief  librarian  of  the  University,  and  in  1838,  as 
newly  installed  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, he  delivered  the  opening  address  on  Mu- 
hammed^a  Religion  (published  at  Hegensbuig, 
1838).  Abont  this  time  be  began  to  gather  mate- 
rial for  a  history  of  the  heresies  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
for  which  he  inade  journeys  to  Holland,  Belgiimi, 
and  France. 

When  in  1838  King  Ludwig  I.  ordered  all  soldiers 

to  kneel  before  the  host  the   Protestants  sought 

exemption  for  themselves  on  conscientious  grounds. 

The  king,  however,  stood  firm,  maintaining  that 

the  bending  of  the  knee  was  merely  a  militaiy  act. 

DdUinger   published    articles   on  the 

3.  Activities  question,  at  first  anonymously,  which 

as         <»lled    forth  sharp   replies   from  the 

Catholic  Protestants  and  were  not  altogether  ae- 
Apologist  ceptable  to  the  Roman  Catholicd  (see 
Kneeling  Controverst  in  Bavaria). 
His  work  on  the  Reformation  {Die  Reformation,  the 
innere  EntwiMung  und  ihre  Wirkungen,  3  vols., 
Regensburg,  1846-48)  received  little  attention  in 
the  stormy  years  of  1847-48.  In  1853  he  pub- 
lished at  Regensburg  Hippolytua  itnd  KaUiaiiis 
(Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1876).  DdUinger  was 
considered  in  these  years  an  Ultramontane,  but  he 
himself  expressed  himself  publicly  against  such  a 
characterization.  And,  indeed,  he  was  ri^t,  if 
one  understands  by  Ultramontaniam  the  Jesuitical 
system.    That  i^stem  he  never  learned. 


467 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BoeUinffor 


In  1843  Harless  gave  expression  to  his  views  on 
the  controversy  concerning  the  immaculate  con- 
ception of  the  virgin,  and  Ddllinger 

4.  Begin-    answered  that  the  Church  permits  a 

ningg  of  difference  of  opinion  regarding  a  sub- 
Break  ordinate  question  concerning  which 
with  Rome,  there  is  no  tradition  and  nothing  is 
revealed.  His  hearers,  in  1847,  pre- 
sented him  with  an  address  on  his  birthday,  and  in 
acknowledging  his  thanks  he  spoke  upon  the  sig- 
nificance of  a  German  Catholic,  or  national  church, 
and  pointed  out  as  its  special  mission  the  con- 
servation of  theological  learning.  As  they  con- 
ceived it,  the  principal  mission  of  himself  and  his 
friends  was,  not  only  to  maintain  freedom  of  faith 
and  conscience,  but  also  the  independence  of  Church 
and  State,  with  a  similar  basis  for  all  religious  so- 
cieties. The  opposition  to  him,  which  began  in 
1849,  because  of  his  national  church  tendencies 
never  waned.  The  archbishop  of  Munich,  Count 
Reisach,  a  Jesuit  scholar,  denounced  him,  and,  on 
the  whole,  he  was  regarded  at  Rome  with  the 
greatest  mistrust. 

Meantime  Ddllinger  had  projected  a  comprehen- 
sive church  history,  and  in  connection  therewith 
had  collected  material  for  a  history  of 
5.  Position  the  popes.     In  1857  there  appeared 

upon  the    at  Regensburg  as  part   thereof  Hei- 

Temporal  denthum  und  Jtuienthum,  Vorhalle  zur 
Power.  Geschichte  dea  CkriMerUhuma  (Eng. 
transL,  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew  in  the 
Courts  of  the  Temple  of  Christ,  2  vols.,  London,  1862 
reprint),  and  in  1860  Christenthum  und  Kirche  in 
der  Zeit  der  Grundlegung  (Eng.  transl.,  The  First 
Age  of  Christianity  and  the  Church,  2  vols.,  1866). 
Besides  this  he  busied  himself  with  a  history  of  the 
heresies  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  upon  many  jour- 
neys to  Italy  drew  from  wide  soiuces.  In  1857  he 
finally  made  his  often  planned  journey  to  Rome. 
The  attempts  of  the  Italians  for  a  United  Italy  ap- 
peared to  him  to  have  miscarried.  Even  Napoleon 
III.  seemed  to  be  weakening.  Without  an  eccle- 
siastical state  the  control  of  the  Church  was  be- 
lieved impossible;  and  the  Jesuits  insisted  upon 
the  necessity  of  such  a  state  as  a  part  of  the  Catho- 
lic faith.  At  Easter  of  1861  certain  ladies  of  the 
nobility  requested  him  to  say  something  regarding 
the  situation.  In  response  he  gave  his  Odeon  lec- 
tures, in  which  he  considered  the  possibility  of  the 
fall  of  the  Papal  State.  The  nuncio  left  the  hall  in 
the  middle  of  the  discourse,  and  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic world  was  thrown  into  great  excitement.  Na- 
poleon had  the  substance  of  the  lectures  trans- 
mitted to  him  by  telegraph.  Ddllinger  published 
the  lectures  with  an  explanatory  introduction  in 
Kirche  und  Kirchen,  Papstthum  und  Kirchenstaat 
(Munich,  1861,  Eng.  transl.,  The  Church  and  the 
Churches,  or  the  Papacy  and  the  Temporal  Power, 
London,  1862),  and  even  Pius  IX.  was  appeased  by 
the  flattering  picture  of  himself  which  it  contained. 
Meanwhile  a  severe  conflict  broke  out  between 
the  Jesuits  and  the  German  theologians.  No  un- 
scholastic  theologian  or  philosopher  was  accepted 
as  trustworthy,  no  theological  faculty  as  Catholic, 
which  was  not  held  by  the  Jesuits. 

Many   German   theologians   considered   that    a 


conference  of  scholars  was  necessary,  and  Ddllinger 
was  induced  to  issue  the  call.    It  cost,  however,  end- 
less trouble  to  bring  it  about.     But 

6.  Widen-  on  Sept.  28,   1863,  Ddllinger  opened 
ing  of      the    conference   with    his    celebrated 

Breach  address.  Die  Vergangenheit  und  Oegen- 
with  Rome,  wart  der  katholischen  Theologie.  This 
was  the  signal  for  a  stormy  outbreak  on 
the  part  of  the  Jesuits  against  Ddllinger,  and,  in- 
deed, it  was  clearly  evident  that  a  reconcihation  be- 
tween them  and  the  German  theology  was  now  im- 
possible. The  breach  widened  rapidly  and  a  most 
vigorous  fight  on  paper  took  place,  in  which  the 
Jesuits'  organ  at  Rome  participated.  In  the  sylla- 
bus of  1864  the  lectures  of  Ddllinger  were  put  under 
the  ban.  No  less  objectionable  was  his  Papstfabeln 
des  MitUlalters  (Munich,  1863;  Eng.  transl..  Fables 
respecting  the  Popes  in  the  Middle  Ages,  London, 
1871;  New  York,  1872),  in  which  he  criticized 
the  Donation  of  Constantino  and  elaborated  on  the 
heresy  of  Pope  Honorius  I.  This  was  regarded  as 
directed  inunediately  against  papal  infallibility. 
In  Aug.,  1866,  Ddllinger's  friend  Bishop  Weis  of 
Speyer  wrote  to  Rome  that  there  had  lately  ap- 
peared in  Munich  a  school  of  theologians  who 
strove  to  lower  the  authority  and  rule  of  the  apos- 
tolic chair,  and  especially  to  oppose  the  doctrine  of 
the  infallibility  of  the  pope.  Archbishop  Manning 
in  London  on  Feb.  25,  1866,  wrote  to  Rome  that 
Ddllinger  was  writing  against  the  prerogatives  of 
the  holy  chair.  Archbishop  Scherr  of  Munich  con- 
sidered it  to  be  the  best  solution  of  all  the  difficul- 
ties, if  Ddllinger  should  die  of  the  attack  of  pneu- 
monia from  which  he  was  then  suffering. 

Nothing  definite  concerning  the  purpose  of  the 

approaching  Vatican  Council   (q.v.)   was  known 

until   the   CiviUh   Cattolica   in   Feb., 

7.  The      1869,  raised  the  curtain  through  the 

Vatican     correspondence  of  Cardinal  Antonelli. 

CouncU,  Thereupon  Ddllinger  again  took  up 
his  Ezcom-  his  pen  and  published  in  the  Augsburg 
munication.  AUgemeine  Zeitung  a  series  of  articles, 
collected  in  August  into  a  book,  Der 
Papst  und  das  KomU,  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Janus  (Eng.  transl.,  The  Pope  and  the  Council, 
London,  1869).  He  opposed  pope  and  council, 
and  the  work  displayed  such  knowledge  of  papal 
history  that  it  was  inmiediately  suspected  that 
the  author  could  be  none  other  than  Ddllinger. 
At  the  same  time  he  issued  the  so-called  Hohen- 
lohen  Theses,  and  followed  shortly  with  his  anony- 
mous Erwdgungen  fur  die  Bischofe  des  Koneils 
vber  die  Frage  der  Unfehlbarkeit,  at  once  trans- 
lated into  French  and  sent  to  the  bishops.  Both 
writings,  however,  gave  the  sources  insufficiently, 
and  therefore  were  quite  useless  for  ignorant  or 
poorly  instructed  bishops.  Cardinal  Schwarzen- 
berg  urged  upon  Ddllinger  that,  at  least  as  a 
private  individual,  he  should  attend  the  Council ; 
but  he  preferred  to  remain  in  Munich,  where  he 
published  regularly  in  the  AUgemeine  ZeUung 
Briefe  vom  Komil,  based  upon  material  fumishe<l 
him  from  Rome,  each  of  which  fell  as  a  bomb  in 
Rome.  Einige  Worte  uber  die  Unfdhbarkeits- 
addresse  and  Die  neue  Oeschdftsordnung  im  Komil 
were  articles  which  still  more  militated  against 


Doellinffw 
Dogma 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


468 


him  in  Rome,  so  that  already  he  was  called  a  here- 
tic. Bishop  Ketteler  of  Mainz,  and  other  bishops 
of  the  minority,  in  an  open  letter  addressed  to  him 
begged  of  him  to  keep  silent.  He  complied  and 
on  July  18,  1870,  the  personal  infallibility  of  the 
pope  and  his  universal  episcopacy  were  declared  an 
article  of  faith.  DOllinger  declined  to  give  up 
what  he  had  hitherto  taught,  and  on  Apr.  18,  1871, 
Archbishop  Scherr,  himself  an  opponent  in  the 
Council  of  infallibility,  caused  his  excommunication 
to  be  declared  from  the  Chancel.  DOllinger  ac- 
knowledged the  fact  of  excommunication,  but  pro- 
nounced it  unrighteous  and  therefore  futile.  He 
considered  himself  and  his  associates  as  still  Roman 
Catholics.  He  opposed  the  organisation  of  a  sep- 
arate church,  but  soon  threw  in  his  lot  with  the 
Old  Catholics  (q.v.). 

It  now  became  clear  to  DOllinger  that  the  Roman 

Church  could  not  possibly  be  the  Catholic  one  as 

conceived  by  Christ  and  described  by 

8.  Relations  St.  Paul.    The  very  highest  aim  of 
with  Old    Christlike  development  was  to  unite 
Catholics,  the   now   divided   Christian   commu- 
nions.    These  thoughts  had  been  long 

harbored  by  Ddllinger,  and  he  had  already  given 
public  expression  to  them.  With  some  of  his  Old 
Catholic  friends  he  now  elaborated  them  in  seven 
lectures  upon  the  Wiedervereinigttng  der  chrisUir' 
ehen  Kirche  (published  in  English,  Lectures  on 
the  Reunion  of  the  Churches,  London,  1872;  Ger- 
man, Mimich,  1888).  He  attended  the  second  Old 
Catholic  congress  at  Cologne  in  the  autumn  of 
1872,  where  union  conferences  were  arranged  to 
be  held  in  1874  and  1875,  at  Bonn,  under  DOllinger's 
direction.  Meantime  he  waited  to  see  what  atti- 
tude the  church  authorities  would  take.  But  he 
soon  found,  as  he  asLys,  "  indolence  and  political 
considerations  do  not  permit  the  church  author- 
ities to  do  anything."  However,  he  comforted 
himself  with  the  thought  that  he  had  at  least 
raised  anew  the  idea  of  a  union  of  all  Christian 
oommimions.  He  took  part  in  all  difficult  and 
weighty  questions  of  the  sessions  of  the  Munich 
Old  Catholics  Committee. 

His  position  at  the  head  of  the  university,  where, 

at  the  celebration  of  its  400th  anniversary  (1872), 

he  was  a  shining  figure,  together  with  his  duties  in 

connection  with  the  Academy  of  Sci- 

9.  Gradual  ences  made  unusual    demands  upon 
Retirement  him,  so  that,  gradually,  his  age  began 

to  make  itself  felt.  In  1873  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  academy.  He  deliv- 
ered his  academical  lectures,  speaking  even  two 
months  before  his  death,  at  the  age  of  ninety,  with 
his  accustomed  intellectual  and  physical  vigor  con- 
cerning the  downfall  of  the  temporal  power.  But 
finally  he  began  to  retire  from  activities.  With 
the  help  of  Professor  Reusch  he  published  (Bonn, 
1887)  an  edition  of  Bellarmine's  autobiography, 
which  he  had  long  had  in  hand,  and  his  Jesuitica 
under  the  title,  Geechichte  der  Moralstreitigkeiten  in 
der  rOmiach-katholischen  Kirche  sett  dem  sechszehn- 
ten  Jahrhundert  mU  BeUr&gen  zur  Geschichte  und 
Charakteristik  des  Jesuitenordens  (2  vols.,  Ndrdling- 
eo,  1889);  shortly  before  his  death  appeared  Bei- 


trdge  zur  Seklengeschichie  dea  MUtelaliers  (2  vols., 
Munich,  1890).  His  Akademische  Vortr6qe  were  pub- 
lished in  3  vols.,  NdidUngen,  1888-91  (Eng.  transl., 
Studies  in  European  History :  being  Academical  Ad- 
dresses, London,  1890;  Addresses  on  Historical  and 
Literary  Subjects,  1894;  and  his  Kleinere  Sckrifien 
were  edited  by  Professor  Reusch,  Stuttgart,  1890). 
At  last  DOllinger  understood  better  how  to  ap- 
preciate Luther,  "  that  titan  of  the  spiritual  world." 
When,  in  1851 ,  he  wrote  his  sketch  of 
10.  Final    Luther  he  had  read  only  a  few  of  his 
View  of     writings.     Later  he  studied  them  all, 
Reforma-    and  then  he  modified  greatly  his  for- 
tion.        mer  judgments.    The  events  of  1870 
enabled  him  to  take  a  still  deeper  view. 
In  an  academical  lecture  (1882)  on  the  Reforma- 
tion he  makes  this  confession:  "  I  must  admit  that, 
for  a  greater  portion  of  my  life,  what  occurred  in 
Germany  from  1517  to  1552  was  an  impenetrable 
riddle,  and,  moreover,  a  subject  of  sorrow  and  pain. 
I  saw  only  the  fact  of  the  separation,  the  two 
halves  of  the  nation,  divided  as  by  the  sharp  blows 
of  a  sword,  standing  inimical  to  each  other.    Since 
I  have  examined  more  closely  the  histoiy  of  Rome 
and  of  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  since  the 
experiences  of  these  later  years  have  so  illumined 
the  subjects  of  my  research,  I  now  believe  that  I 
understand  what  was  so  enigmatical  and  I  adore 
the  ways  of  Providence,  in  whose  almighty  hand 
the   German    nation    became    an    instrument — a 
vessel  in  the  house  of  God,  and  not  one  unto  dis- 
honor." (J.  Friedmch.) 

Bibuoobapbt:  Livm  are  by  J.  Friedrich,  3  toIs..  Munich. 
1899-1001:  £.  Melaer.  Dansig.  1889;  Louise  von  Kobeli, 
Munich,  1891;  idem,  Eng.  trensl.,  DdUinger'a  €anvcnaium$. 
London,  1892;  £.  Michael,  Innsbruck,  1894.  Consult  alK> 
the  literature  dted  under  Old  Catholics  and  Vatican 
Council. 

DOERHOLT,  BERNHARD:  Roman  Catholic: 
b.  at  Bockum  Jan.  23,  1S51.  He  studied  at  Inns> 
bruck  (1871-72),  MUnster  (1872-76),  and  Rome 
(1876-79),  and  in  1892  became  privat-docent  for 
dogmatic  theology  at  Manster.  Smce  1899  he 
has  been  associate  professor  of  the  same  subject, 
and  has  written  Lehre  von  der  Genugtuung  Chrisii 
(Paderbom,  1891);  Entvneklung  des  Dogmas  und 
der  FortschriU  in  der  Theologie  (Manster,  1892): 
and  Das  Tau/symbolum  der  alten  KvrcJie  na(^ 
Ursprung  und  Eniwiddung  (Paderbom,    1898). 

DOGGETT,  LAURENCE  LOCKE:  Ck)ngrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Manchester,  la.,  Dec.  22,  1864.  He 
studied  at  Oberlin  College  (B.A.,  1886),  Oberiin 
Theological  Seminary  (B.D.,  1890),  and  the  uni- 
versities of  Berlin  (1893-94)  and  Leipsic  (1895). 
He  entered  Y.  M.  CI.  A.  work,  and  was  assistant 
State  secretary  for  Ohio  1890-93  and  State  secretary 
1895-96.  Since  1896  he  has  been  president  of  the 
International  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
Training  School  at  Springfield,  Mass.  He  has  writ- 
ten History  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation (vol.  i..  New  York,  1896);  History  of  the 
Boston  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  (Boston, 
1891);  and  Life  of  Robert  R,  McBumey  (aeveland, 
O.,  1902). 


469 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DoelUnser 
Doffxna 


I.  Meaning  and  Scope. 

Meaning   and   Uae   of     "  Dogma " 

(§1). 
A   Dogma  an    Established   Truth 

(§2). 
Basis  of  the  Certainty  of  Dogmas 

(§3). 
Dogmatics,  Definition  and  Content 

(§4). 
The  Individual   Element  in  Dog- 
matics (§  5). 
Dogmas  Essential  to  Christianity 

(§6). 
Sources  and  Norms  of  Dogma  (§  7). 
Fundamental  Questions  ($8). 
Ilelation  of  Scripture  to  the  Inner 

Life  (S  9). 
Conclusions  (S  10). 


DOGMA,  DOGMATICS. 

Relation  to  Philosophy  (f  11). 
II.  History  of  Protestant  Dogmatics. 
1.  In  Germany. 

The  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth  Cen- 
turies (§  1). 

Influence  of  Pietism  (§  2). 

Influence  of  Leibnits,   Wolff,  and 
Kant  (§  3). 

Behleiermacher  and  his  Contempo- 
raries (§  4). 

Biblical  Tendency  of  Beck  and  H. 
Schmidt  (S  5). 

Ritschl  (S  6). 

Conservative  School  of  Modem  Dog- 
matioians  ($7). 

The  More  Radical  School  of  Modem 
Dogmaticians  (§  8). 

Troeltsch  (S  0). 


2.  The  Reformed  Churches. 
Zwingii  and  Calvin  (§1). 
Calvin's  Successors  (§  2). 
The  Netherlands  (§  3). 
Switserland  (§  4). 

3.  England. 

To  the  Revival  of  the  Eighteenth 

Century  (SI). 
The   Eighteenth   and    Nineteenth 

Centuries  (§  2). 

4.  Scotland. 
6.  America. 

The    Early    Calvinistic    Theology 

(fil). 
Universalism.     Unitarianism,    and 

Later  Types  (§  2). 
Presbjrterians  and  Baptists.     Late 

Works  (ft  3). 


1.  Meaning  and  Scope:  The  explanation  of  the 
word  "  dogma  "  goes  back  to  an  old  usage  of  good 
G  reeky  in  which  dokei  mot  and  dedoktai  mean  not  only 
*•  it  seems  to  me  "  or  "  it  pleases  me,"  but  also  "  I 
have  definitely  determined  something  so  that  it  is 
for  me  an  established  fact."  Hence  dogma  has  the 
significance  of  a  firm,  and  especially  a  public  reso- 
lution, decretum.  Thus  the  words  are  found  in  the 
Septuagint  and  in  the  New  Testament 

1.  Mean-    to  designate  firm  enactments  in  the 

in?  and    sphere  of  practical  conduct;    govem- 

TJso  of     mental  decrees  (Eisther  iii.  9;  Dan.  ii. 

"Dofirma."  ^3^  ^j  g^^Q;  Luke  ii.  1);  apostolic 
regulations  (Acts  xvi.  4);  and  the 
Mosaic  ordinances  (Col.  ii.  14;  Eph.  ii.  15).  Hence 
also  the  use  of  the  word  by  philosophers,  especially 
the  Stoics,  to  denote  established  declarations  of 
truth  and  doctrinal  formulation  which  by  virtue  of 
their  firm  validity  serve  in  turn  as  the  basis  and 
norm  both  for  further  concrete  scientific  investiga- 
tions and  conclusions  and  for  concrete  precepts 
pertaining  to  practical  conduct.  Accordingly  the 
term  may  be  applied  both  to  such  sentences  as 
contain  ethical  principles  and  to  such  as  refer  to 
objective  existences,  to  God  and  the  world.  The 
name  "  dogma  "  was  then  transferred  to  propo- 
sitions in  which  the  basal  truths  of  ethics  and 
religion  are  established  and  which  are  derived  from 
a  divine  revelation.  Josephus  designates  the  con- 
tent of  the  sacred  books  of  Judaism  as  "  dogmas  of 
God  "  {Apion,  i.  8).  Ignatius  likewise  (Ad  Magnea, 
xiii.)  speajcs  of  "  the  dogmas  of  the  Lord  and  of  the 
apostles,"  the  context  referring  especially  to  ethical 
norms  and  commandments.  According  to  Origen 
(De  principiis,  iv.  156),  Christ  is  "  the  interpreter 
of  the  saving  dogmas  of  Christianity."  These  very 
propositions  then  came  to  be  called,  with  reference 
to  the  validity  which  they  have  for  the  Church, 
ecclesiastica  dogmata,  (On  this  use  of  the  word 
among  the  ancients  cf.  especially  W.  Schmidt, 
ChrisUiche  Dogmatik,  i.,  Prolegomena,  Bonn,  1895.) 
According  to  this  usage  and  in  the  light  of 
recent  discussions  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
word  "  dogma  "  and  therefore  also  of 
^*     S^r^  "  dogmatics  "  (cf .  the  doctrinal  works 

^'iiahed  ^^  ^*^°'  ^-  '^'  Nitzsch,  Schenkel, 
^2^^^  A.  Schweizer,  Biedermann,  Kahnis, 
and  Nitzsch's  Dogmengeschichte),  it 
should  be  definitely  borne  in  mind  that,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  ancient  Christians,  as  in  that  of  the 


8.  Basia 

of  the 
Gertainty 

of 
Bogmaa. 


philosophers,  "  dogma  "  never  denotes  a  view  or 
doctrine  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere  opinion, 
but  always  one  that  is  to  be  regarded  as  estab- 
lished— at  least  for  those  who  support  it.  The 
same  is  true  (e.g.,  in  Origen)  of  the  heretical  dog- 
mas, just  in  so  far  as  they  are  held  as  firm  con- 
victions. When,  therefore,  an  ecclesiastical  writer 
speaks  with  precision  of  dogmas,  he  means,  even 
without  the  express  addition  of  eccUaiaatica,  those 
statements  of  doctrine  which  for  the  body  of  Chris- 
tians to  which  he  belongs  are  established  as  unim- 
peachable truths. 

The  term  "  dogma "  itself  gives  no  information 
either  as  to  the  reason  why  the  truths  expressed  in 
the  dogma  have  such  certainty  and  stability  or  as  to 
the  authority  upon  which  their  validity 
is  supposed  to  rest.  That  church 
dogmas  rest  upon  the  authority  of 
divine  revelation  is  hinted  at  in  the 
designation  '*  dogmas  of  God  "  or  "  of 
Christ  ";  and  all  the  deliverances  of 
the  Church  have  this  implication.  Then,  just  be- 
cause the  Church  truly  and  correctly  derived  its 
dogmas  from  the  revelation  contained  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, it  leaned  for  support  upon  the  authority  that 
belonged  to  its  very  self,  but  it  did  not  call  the 
propositions  dogmas  on  the  ground  that  it  estab- 
lished them  by  its  own  authority,  but  only  because 
of  the  firm  validity  which  they  must  have  as 
"  dogmas  of  God."  It  is  a  mistdce  to  define  dog- 
ma in  general  as  a  judgment  resting  essentially 
"  upon  personal  authority  "  (Kahnis),  nor  does  it 
belong  to  the  conception  of  dogma  that  it  should 
have  an  "  authority  binding  in  the  sphere  of  civil 
law  "  (Schenkel).  Too  much  significance  has  also 
been  given  by  some  recent  theologians  (including 
Lobstein,  who  is  opposed  by  W.  Schmidt)  to  a 
sentence  of  Basil  (De  epiritu  aando,  xxvii.)  accord- 
ing to  which  **  the  dogma  is  observed  in  silence, 
but  the  kerygmata  are  proclaimed  to  all  the  world." 
[For  a  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  dog- 
ma "  and  an  example  of  the  Ritschlian  view  of  the 
basis  of  its  authority  see  P.  Lobstein,  EirUeUvng 
in  die  evangelieche  Dogmaiik  (Freiburg,  1897;  Eng. 
transl.,  Chicago,  1903).] 

Starting  therefore  from  the  sense  which  the  word 
"  dogma "  acquired  in  ecclesiastical  and  theo- 
logical usage,  dogmatics  may  be  defined  as  the 
scientific  exhibition  of  the  established  religious 
truth  which  the  Christian  community  acknowledges 


I>Qffina 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


470 


and  confesses  to  have  been  derived  from  divine 
revelation.  Its  content,  accordingly,  embraces  all 
Christian  truth  so  far  as  it  exists  in 
4.  Doff-  the  Church  in  the  form  of  doctrine;  or 
°J?^»'  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  life  in  God, 
nition  ^  i*  is  mediated  by  Christ — of  the  re- 
^r%^  lation  in  general  in  which  we  and  all 
Oontent.  ^^^  world  about  us  stand  to  God; 
of  the  relation  which  subsists  be- 
tween him  and  us  by  virtue  of  sin;  of  redemption 
and  real  communion  with  God  effected  by  Christ, 
and  of  the  nature  of  this  God  who  determines  us 
for  his  fellowship;  of  the  person  and  efficacy  of  the 
Redeemer,  Christ,  and  of  the  future  acts  of  God 
which  are  to  bring  about  the  perfection  of  that  life 
for  humanity  and  the  world.  To  this  content, 
however,  belong  also  the  basal  declarations  con- 
cerning the  aims  and  tasks  which  are  set  for  us  by 
virtue  of  the  vocation  given  by  God,  concerning  the 
ethical  attitude  of  soul  that  God  demands  of  us  and 
that  fits  those  living  in  God — ^in  general,  the  truths 
concerning  the  ethical  and  the  ethically  good.  To 
this  discipline,  therefore,  belongs,  as  a  subject  for 
scientific  treatment,  that  whole  domain  which  the 
catechism  treats  in  a  non-«cientific  fashion.  It  is, 
however,  usual  in  present  terminology  to  make  a 
fundamental  distinction  between  dogmatics  and 
ethics;  the  former  pertains  to  God  and  the  relation 
in  which  he  places  himself  toward  us,  to  the  re- 
demptive facts  and  the  ordo  aaltUis  i^pointed  by 
him,  and  to  the  future  completion  promised  by  him; 
wheresfl  ethics  pertains  to  one's  own  personal  rela- 
tion, that  is  to  say,  the  relation  of  one's  will  to  God 
and  his  requirements  of  us.  The  name  iheologica 
dogmatica,  or  "  dogmatics,"  arose  only  after  this 
division  of  the  sciences  had  begun — after  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  and  especially  after  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century — in  harmony  with  the 
more  definite  sense  that  then  prevailed  of  the 
distinction  between  the  science  of  dogmas  and 
that  of  ethics  or  morals.  Schldermacher  gave 
his  influence  in  behalf  of  the  term  Glaubena- 
lehre.  [The  term  Glavbenalehre,  however,  implies 
that  the  basis  of  authority  has  been  changed  from 
an  objective  to  a  subjective  source,  i.e.,  the  Chris- 
tian consciousness,  the  characteristic  of  which  is 
faith.] 

But  the  conception  and  task  of  dogmatics  must 

be  still  more  precisely  fixed  in  an  essential  particular 

in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  usage  of  the  term. 

If  it  is  the  tsflk  of  the  dogmatist  to  set  forth  that 

which  according  to   the  conviction  of  a  reUgious 

body  constitutes  religious  truth  and  is  recognized 

as  such  by  it,  it  might  still  be  possible  to  leave  out 

of  accoimt  the  dogmatist's  personal 

6.  The      faith  or  conception  of  truth.     But  the 

J?J^"       Christian   Church   demands   that   its 

Slraient    ^^K^a^^J^ts  shall  give  only  such  repre- 

in  Doff-     mentations  of  its  faith  as  can  serve  for 

matics.     ^^^  further  proclamation  of  Christian 

truth.    Such  a  task,  however,  can  be 

performed  only  by  one  who  agrees  with  the  faith  of 

the    congregation    and    shares    its    religious    life. 

*'  Christian  dogmatics,"  therefore,  commonly  means 

specifically  such  a  treatment  as  purports  to  set 

forth  what  is  religious  truth  not  only  for  a  Church, 


but  also  for  the  writer.  Accordingly,  it  can  not 
properly  be  subsumed  under  "historical  theology" 
(as  is  the  case  in  Schleiermacher,  although  in 
Der  ChrisUicke  Glaube  he  aimed  not  only  at 
"  a  historical,  but  at  the  same  time  at  an  apolo- 
getic "  treatment).  But  taking  the  term  in  the 
stricter  sense,  the  question  may  still  be  raised, 
whether  the  dogmatist,  while  standing  with  con- 
viction  for  the  doctrinal  views  of  his  Church,  may 
not  and  should  not  at  the  same  time  labor  for  a 
development  and  purification  of  the  church  doc- 
trine. The  answer  will  depend  upon  the  double 
question,  how  far  a  Christian  Church  can  find  itself 
justified  in  the  opinion  that  it  has  already  com- 
pletely appropriated  and  developed  the  truth,  and 
how  far  its  individual  members  are  bound  to  ascer- 
tain and  express  the  truth  of  religion  independently; 
or,  as  Roman  Catholicism  requires,  to  submit  to  the 
authority  of  the  Church.  Thus  it  is  possible  for  a 
dogmatist,  besides  reproducing  the  doctrines  of  his 
Church's  symbols,  to  exhibit  that  which  actually 
constitutes  at  a  given  time  the  content  of  the 
Church's  faith.  [For  an  able  and  satisfactory  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject,  setting  forth  the  Christian 
Church  as  the  "  subject  "  of  dogmatics,  but  not  the 
faith  of  the  Chim;h  as  the  "  object  "  of  dogmatics, 
see  A.  Kuyper,  Encydopcsdia  of  Sacred  Theology 
(Eng.  transl.,  by  J.  H.  de  Vries,  London,  1898).] 
Again,  the  question  may  be  asked  at  the  outset, 
whether  dogmatics  in  the  sense  of  declarations  of 
doctrinal  truths  belongs  to  Christi- 
6.  I>off-  anity  at  all;  and,  in  particular,  whether 
"**l?f"  they  can,  and  must  be  still  maintained, 
"^hris-  ^^  *^®  answer  be  negative,  dogmatics 
tianity.  continues  to  have  justification  only  as 
a  historic  science;  that  is,  no  longer 
as  an  exhibition  of  the  actual  faith  of  the  Church, 
but  only  as  the  exhibition  of  that  which  Christian 
Churches  once  upon  a  time  established  and  think 
they  must  to  a  large  extent  still  maintain.  The 
question  has  become  a  pressing  one  only  in  recent 
years.  It  is  indisputable  that  the  words  of  Jesus 
and  his  apostles  aimed  to  present  with  special  em- 
phasis objective  truths  concerning  God,  the  Re- 
deemer, the  way  of  salvation,  etc.;  to  have  them 
apprehended  by  the  religious  subjects  by  reason  of 
the  influence  upon  the  inner  life;  and  upon  the 
basis  of  this  apprehension  to  build  up  a  Church  and 
plant  new  life.  What  a  summary  of  such  truth  is 
to  be  found  even  in  the  simple  testimony  that  Jesus 
is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God,  and  that  in 
his  name  there  is  salvation  and  life.  The  Roman 
Catholic  and  old  Protestant  orthodoxy  had  no 
doubt  about  the  right  and  obligation  to  formulate 
what  it  recognized  as  the  content  of  divine  revela- 
tion into  declarations  and  confessions  of  faith  and 
doctrinal  propositions,  and  claimed  for  them  uncon- 
ditional validity.  The  old  rationalism  demanded 
the  right  of  freely  criticizing  at  all  times  the  doc- 
trinal deliverances  the  Church  had  sanctioned,  and 
challenged  also  the  supernatural  character  of  the 
Biblical  revelation.  But  it,  too,  admitted  that  the 
perception  and  recognition  of  objective  truths  be- 
longs to  the  very  essence  of  religion,  and  of  Chris- 
tianity in  particular;  that  at  least  certain  basal 
truths  concerning  God,  man,  and  the  world  must, 


471 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Doffma 


precisely  on  rational  grounds,  be  continually  taught 
in  the  Church. 

If,  however,  religion  be  considered  as  essentiaUy 
a  matter  of  feeUng  (Schleiennacher),  it  is  not  enough 
to  say  that  certain  conceptions  as  to  the  source  of 
the  feeling,  as  to  the  feeling  subject,  and  the  factors 
producing  the  feeling  must  be  combined,  and  that 
the  religious  life  of  a  conmiunity  always  and  neces- 
sarily produces  a  certain  uniformity  in  such  con- 
ceptions. For  one  might  simply  ignore  the  question 
whether  those  conceptions  have  objective  truth  or 
reality  back  of  them.  But  the  case  is  different, 
not  only  when  religion  and  Christianity  are  made 
to  consist  essentially  in  perceptions  and  knowledge 
— which  even  the  old  orthodoxy  did  not  assert — ^but 
also  when  true  religious  experience,  no  matter  how 
essential  feeling  may  be,  realizes  itself,  after  all, 
only  in  a  definite  inner  practical  attitude.  It  is  a 
question  of  being  able  to  come  to  the  enjoyment  of 
communion  with  God  and  life  in  him,  of  losing  this 
ability  through  sin,  and  of  having  it  restored  in  a 
definite  attitude  on  our  part  to  actual  deeds  and 
ordinances  of  God.  For  the  fellowship  of  the  re- 
ligious life,  moreover,  not  only  mutual  incitement 
and  harmony  of  subjective  feelings  are  necessary, 
but  common  devotion  to  God  and  the  Redeemer, 
and  mutual  encouragement  and  help  in  that  whole 
relation;  and  this  is  possible  only  when  there  is 
agreement  as  to  those  basal  truthia,  and  when  the 
leaders  of  the  common  worship  and  edification  have 
fixed  confessional  formulas  of  doctrine.  To  re- 
noimce  such  fundamental  dogmas  would  be  to  sign 
the  Church's  death  warrant,  to  seal  the  ruin  of 
Protestantism. 

But  the  most  important  question  is  that  con- 
oeming  the  sources  out  of  which,  and  the  norms 
according  to  which  dogmas  are  to  be 
7.  Sooroes  fonned.  It  is  precisely  by  those 
and  norms  that  the  dogmatist  must  test 
of  I^snoa.  *^®  dogmatic  material  lying  before 
him  in  the  Church,  imless,  indeed, 
he  simply  confines  himself  to  the  historical  task  of 
setting  forth  a  given  stage  of  doctrinal  development. 
Even  the  Roman  Catholic  dogmatists  have  never 
confined  themselves  merely  to  the  ecclesiastical 
formulations  of  doctrine,  but  have  alwa3rs  had  re- 
course to  the  testimony  of  Scripture  and  tradition. 
We  are  here  dealing  with  that  basal  question  of 
dogmatics,  about  which  there  are  now  the  most 
serious  disputes  within  the  Protestant  theology. 
Roman  Catholic  dogmatists,  going  back  to  Scrip- 
ture and  tradition,  must  none  the  less  bind  them- 
selves to  the  Fathers  and  tradition,  and  give  the 
actually  existing  Church,  as  she  is  represented  in 
the  totality  of  her  bishops  (indeed,  according  to 
the  Vatican  decree,  in  the  one  infallible  pope),  the 
infallible  decision  as  to  what  is  really  the  content 
and  sense  of  Scripture  and  tradition.  Evangelical 
Protestant  dogmatists  find  nowhere  a  tenable 
ground  for  the  authority  of  such  ecclesiasticism. 
Against  this  they  place  the  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, which  are  deemed  sufficiently  perspicuous 
for  believers.  Luther,  to  be  sure,  had  exercised  a 
free  criticism  as  to  the  constituent  parts  of  the 
traditional  documents  of  revelation;  but  the  old 
orthodoxy  lacked  a  clear  consciousness  as  to  the 


principles  of  dogmatic  procedure.  Moreover,  the 
old  dogmatists  distinguished  between  articuli  puri, 
which  are  to  be  derived  exclusively  from  special 
revelation,  and  articuli  mixH,  which  as  to  content, 
indeed,  must  likewise  be  taken  from  the  Scriptures, 
but  which  may  find  confirmation  in  the  universal 
religious  consciousness  supported  by  general  reve- 
lation. The  Bible  is  therefore  not  merely  the  high- 
est and  only  norm  by  which  all  doctrinal  state- 
ments must  be  tested,  but  the  revelation  it  contains 
is,  in  an  absolute  sense,  the  very  principle  of  theo- 
logical knowledge.  None  the  less,  in  spite  of  the 
Reformation,  tradition  in  the  form  of  a  scholastic 
philosophizing  continued  to  exert  a  far-reaching 
influence.  Rationalism  and  supranaturalism,  ac- 
cordingly, subjected  the  dogma  to  a  new  testing 
and  purifjring.  At  the  same  time  the  doctrine  of 
inspiration  is  so  transformed  that  an  unconditional 
infallibility  can  no  longer  be  claimed  in  behalf  of 
all  statements  contained  in  Scripture. 

But  even  under  the  most  radical  criticism  Scrip- 
ture retains  a  certain  unique  normative  authority. 
The  views  differ  greatly,  however,  on  the  question 
as  to  what  gives  Scripture  its  peculiar  documentary 
value  and  how  far  this  value  extends.     It  is  by  no 

means  enough  to  say  that  we  here 

8.  Funda-   find  the  Christian  truth  in  its  original 

^®'^**       form  and  that  we  must  accept  it  thus. 

tioDju       ^°'  *^®  question  is  whether  this  first 

form  was  not  the  lowest  stage  in  a 
process  of  development,  or  whether  Schleiermacher's 
dictum  (cf.  his  DarateUung  des  theologischen  Stu- 
diums,  Berlin,  1830,  p.  83)  is  here  valid,  that  the 
earliest  conditions  of  a  historical  development, 
before  there  has  been  any  chance  of  collision  with 
adverse  forces,  most  purely  represent  its  peculiar 
spiritual  essence.  Another  question  must  be  raised 
as  to  the  date  of  the  New  Testament  books;  namely, 
whether  they  belong  to  the  origin  of  Christianity  or 
are  themselves  the  product  of  a  development  that 
extended,  as  Baur  claimed,  to  the  end  of  the  second 
century.  Furthermore,  does  the  power  of  the 
Scriptures  differ  only  in  degree  or  also  in  kind  from 
that  of  other  writings?  Finally,  there  \b  the  main 
question,  whether  in  any  event  the  sum  and  sub- 
stance of  the  truth  recorded  in  the  Bible,  namely, 
Jesus  the  Son  of  God,  is  so  represented  in  these 
books  as  the  perfect  revelation  of  God  and  as  the 
Redeemer  that  we  can  recognize  him  as  such  and 
that  we  must  acknowledge  him  as  such  in  obedience 
to  the  demands  of  our  inmost  nature  when  once  it  is 
brought  under  the  power  of  this  representation. 

We  thus  come  to  the  relation  of  Scripture  to  the 
inner  life.     It  is  only  through  a  personai  experience 

of  the  influence  of  the  Christ  here  por- 

9.  Bela-    trayed  that  the  right  conception  of 

*^^  ®'     the  aim  and  core  of  that  revelation  is 

to  the'*   obtained.    The  right  conviction  as  to 

Imj0,       the  higher  character  of  those  writings 

jAfe,       c^w  be  obtained  only  when  their  very 

content  in  this  manner  attests  itself 
to  the  heart,  when  their  spirit  with  its  peculiar 
originality,  sublimity,  power,  freshness,  and  sim- 
plicity makes  itself  known  in  experience,  and  when 
at  the  same  time  this  their  spiritual  peculiarity  is 
understood  in  the  light  of  the  external  and  mtemal 


I>OgllUl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


472 


historical  connection  in  which  they  stand  to  the 
original  revelation  of  Christ  and  the  life  that  has 
proceeded  from  him.  In  order,  therefore,  to  estab- 
lish the  content  of  the  faith,  the  dogmatist  must 
also  deal  with  those  processes  of  the  inner  life  by 
which  faith  b  produced  in  the  first  instance;  just 
as  moral  philosophy  or  ethical  theology  must  deal 
with  such  subjective  considerations  without  being 
able  by  external  authorities  or  historical  proof  or 
logical  deduction  to  establish  the  matter  for  those 
who  deny  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  corre- 
sponding subjective  processes.  Much,  too,  will 
depend  upon  the  answer  to  the  question,  whether 
the  value  of  Scripture  differs  only  in  degree  from 
that  of  other  products  of  the  genuinely  Christian 
spirit,  and  whether  the  effect  of  the  Spirit  upon  the 
Biblical  writers  pertains  only  to  the  sphere  of  morals 
and  religion,  and  thus  leaves  room  for  the  influences, 
defects,  and  progressive  character  of  general  human 
culture.  Upon  all  such  topics  dogmatists  differ 
greatly.  Frank,  e.g.,  in  his  System  der  chriatlichen 
Gewissheit  (2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1870-73),  seeks  to 
deduce  from  the  inner  experience  of  the  regenerate 
man  itself  all  the  principal  elements  of  Christian 
truth  revealed  in  the  Bible  and  recognized  in  the 
Church  confession;  whereas  Cremer  and  Beck 
derive  the  truth  only  from  the  revelation  of  Scrip- 
ture approving  itself  to  the  conscience. 

Thus  then  the  dogmatist  must  objectively  repro- 
duce  the   ecclesiastical   confession   and   forms   of 
doctrine  as  they  appear  above  all  in  the  official 
symbols;    he  must  establish  any  de- 

10.  Con-    partures    therefrom    which    he    may 
BionB.      choose  to  make,  and  at  the  same  time 

show  with  what  right  he  can  as  a 
dogmatist  still  regard  himself  as  belonging  to  his 
particular  body.  At  the  same  time  he  is  bound  to 
try  to  advance  Christian  truth  by  working  at  the 
original  sources  with  the  highest  degree  of  inde- 
pendence. The  very  spirit  of  loyalty  will  make  it 
his  duty  to  purify  the  Church  and  her  doctrine. 
The  scientific  character  of  dogmatics,  moreover, 
necessitat<?s  a  sharply  methodicaJ  mode  of  thought, 
an  analysis  into  its  constituent  elements,  and  the 
establishment  of  every  individual  element  of  doc- 
trine in  its  relations  to  the  whole.  Reason  itself 
will  here  have  to  admit,  however,  that  in  the 
attempt  to  ascend  from  the  finite  limitations  in 
which  man  moves  there  are  no  perfectly  adequate 
categories  for  God  and  his  relation  to  man.  Instead 
of  trying  to  overcome  this  fact,  it  is  far  more  ex- 
pedient freely  to  use  anthropomorphisms  in  dog- 
matics. 

But  while  doctrinal  theology  as  such  draws  from 
the  divine  revelation,  the  scientific  dogmatist  will 

also  deal  with  the  independent  phil- 

11.  Bela-    osophic  attempts  that  have  been  made 
^^^        to  know  God  in  his  relations  to  us, 

loBophy  whether  by  way  of  cosmological  or 
moral  philosophizing  or  by  the  proc- 
esses of  thought  itself  (Hegel).  But  that  which 
thus  proceeds  from  a  conscience  and  a  self-con- 
sciousness that  is  not  yet  specifically  Christian  can 
be  truly  and  correctly  interpreted  only  by  the 
Christian  revelation  and  experience;  and  so  far 
the  old  orthodox  dogmatists  and  also  Kaftan  rightly 


afRrm  that  reason  in  dogmatics  has  only  u.^u.< 
joTmalis.  At  the  same  time  the  actual  influence  of 
philosophy  and  particular  philosophies  even  uf>on 
dogmatists  who  deny  the  fact  is  perifectly  clear;  e.g., 
in  Schleiermacher  maybe  seen  the  mighty  influence 
of  Schelling's  philosophy  of  identity  and  of  Spinoza's 
attempts  to  express  the  thoughts  of  the  pious  con- 
sciousness concerning  God. 

II.  History  of  Protestant  Dogmatics. — l.  In  Ger- 
many: The  Evangelical  Protestant  Reformation 
was  bound  by  virtue  of  its  original  spirit  to  lead 
to  all  these  problems  and  questions.  But  only 
gradually,  through  the  strife  of  opposing  tenden- 
cies did  the  real  task  of  Evangelicsd  Christian  dog- 
matics reveal  itself.  The  new  doctrine  of  the 
Reformation  pertained  in  the  first 
instance  to  the   very  heart   of  dog- 


1.  The 
Fifteenth 


j^^  maticB  and  ethics,  to  the  essence  xjf 
Sixteenth  ^^^^  salvation  that  has  appeared  in 
Centuries.  Christ,  and  in  particular  to  the  mode 

of  appropriating  it.  The  dogmas  of 
the  Trinity  and  the  person  of  Christ  were  accepted 
without  criticism  in  the  traditional  form  (Melanch- 
thon's  Loct,  1521).  The  next  generations  gave  the 
new  Christian  dogmatics  more  and  more  of  a 
scholastic  character:  e.g.,  Chemnitz,  in  his  Lon, 
published  in  1691;  Hutter.  Compendium  loconim 
theologicorum,  1610;  Calovius,  Systema  locorum  thef^- 
logicorum,  1655-77;  and  Quensteclt,  Theologia  didac- 
tico-polemica,  1685;  Johann  Gerhard,  in  his  Loci 
of  1610-21,  the  most  valuable  production  of  the 
Lutheran  orthodoxy,  revealed  a  far  more  energetic 
religious  spirit,  and  HoUatz,  the  last  important  rep- 
resentative of  the  old  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  in  his 
Examen  theologicum  etcroamaticum,  1707,  showed 
Pietistic  influences.  In  the  Reformed  Church  the 
development  of  dogmatics  proceeds  essentially 
from  Calvin's  InstiliUio  Christiana  religionis  (1536; 
final  edition  1559).  The  development  here,  too, 
leads  to  a  period  which  may  be  characterized  as  scho- 
lastic, but  the  process  is  not  shut  up  within  itself  as 
was  Lutheramsm.  Arminianism  is  a  departure. 
Cocceius  takes  the  content  of  faith  from  Scripture. 
See  below,  2. 

The  deep  and  powerful  practical  religious  move- 
ment of  Pietism  reacted  against  those  learned  theol- 
ogies which  asserted  the  divine  authority  of  Scrip- 
ture indeed,  but  treated  its  content  in  the  way  of 

barren  and  dead  forms  of  conception. 

"    To  stimulate  and  establish  a  living 

^^         and  true  faith,  Spener  and  his  followers 

PietiBm.    pointed  to  the  inner  assurance  of  the 

Biblical  truth  through  the  Holy  Spirit 
for  every  one  who  would  open  his  heart  to  its  in- 
fluence. But  there  was  here  no  endeavor  to  make 
this  tnith,  its  validity  for  faith,  and  ita  relation  to 
knowledge  of  the  world  the  object  of  a  strictly 
scientific  treatment.  Dogmatists  influenced  by 
Pietism,  such  as  Breithaupt  (InstitiUianes  theo- 
logicB  dogmcUiccPf  1723),  Anton,  Freylinghausen,  and 
Rombach,  sought,  by  going  back  to  Scripture,  to 
simplify  the  ecclesiastical  doctrines  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  practical  religious  tendency.  And  more 
strictly  scientific  theologians,  like  Buddeus  {In- 
stiiutiones  ^eologia  dogmaticoF,  1723)  and  Pfaff 
ilnstUutiones  theologia  dogmatica  et  maralis,  1723), 


478 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Doffma 


who  made  more  of  the  historical  development, 
show  the  new  warmth  and  simplicity.  The  Biblical 
tendency  fostered  by  Pietism  won  a  peculiar  power 
and  independence  in  Wurttemberg,  exempHfied  in 
Bengel  (d.  1752),  M.  F.  Roos  (Die  christliche 
Glaubenslehre,  1774;  new  ed.  by  J.  T.  Beck,  1845), 
and  Beck  himself,  the  most  important  and  influ- 
ential of  these  dogmatists. 

The  next  great  turn  in  the  histoiy  of  Protestant 

dogmatics  came  from  a  quarter  opposed  to  Pietism; 

the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  and  WolfiF, 

8.  Influ-    and  later  of  Kant.     Wolff's  first  and 

I^bnitl.  ™^^  influential  disciple  among  the 
Wolir  and  <^og™^t^8^  was  S.  J.  Baumgarten, 
jr^n%,  who  went  out  from  Pietism  (d.  1757; 
his  Evangelische  Glavbenslehre  was 
published  by  Semler  in  1759-60).  Wolff's  influ- 
ence was  at  first  apparent  only  in  the  method  of 
rational  demonstration,  then  in  the  preference 
given  to  those  truths  which  can  be  apprehended 
by  the  natural  reason,  and  in  the  slighting  and 
weakening  of  the  other  dogmas.  Then  Semler 
em  pi  yed  an  important  Biblical  and  historical 
criticism  against  the  ecclesiastical  dogmas.  Still 
using  the  Bible  as  a  recognized  higher  source  of 
truth,  rationalism  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  difficult 
propositions.  Then,  when  the  Wolffian  and  at  the 
same  time  the  English  and  French  philosophy  and 
the  "  Enlightenment"  (q.v.)  threatened  to  issue  in 
downright  rationalism  with  no  strictly  ethical  spirit, 
Kant,  asserting  the  absolute  character  of  the  cate- 
gorical imperative  and  its  assurance  aa  to  the  e:jist- 
ence  of  God,  gave  this  rationalism  a  most  powerful 
etliical  impulse.  None  the  less,  the  rationalists 
themselves  learned  little  from  Kant  and  continued 
to  put  all  trust  in  their  God-given  reason.  But 
also  the  supranaturalism  gave  a  wrong  treatment  of 
Christian  truth  and  of  religious  truth  in  general. 
It  hoped  by  dialectic  processes  to  establish  not  only 
the  existence  of  God,  but  also  a  higher  source  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  thence  the  reality  of  the 
miracles  there  recorded  (which,  however,  are  ad- 
mitted to  be  incomprehensible),  and  also  the  truth- 
fulness of  the  Biblical  statements  (likewise  tran- 
scending reason)  concerning  God,  the  essence  of 
Christ,  the  Trinity,  etc.;  at  the  same  time,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  former  orthodoxy,  it  sought  as  much  as 
possible  to  confine  itself  in  its  dogmatics  to  the 
actual  statements  of  Scripture.  The  most  serious 
lack  in  the  case  of  this  rationalism  and  this  supra- 
naturalism  is  that — in  F.  Nitzsch's  phrase  (Lehr- 
buck  der  evangelischen  Dogmatik,  Freiburg,  1889, 
p.  31)— of  a  "  sense  of  immediacy  ";  that  is,  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  significance  of  inmiediate  per- 
ception and  experience  for  faith  and  its  certitude. 
Here  belong,  on  the  one  hand,  the  systematic 
works  of  Tollner  (1775);  D6derlin  (1780);  then, 
revealing  Kantian  influences,  Tief trunk  (1791); 
H.  P.  K.  Henke  (1793);  Eckermann  (1800); 
Wegscheider  (1817;  8th  ed.,  1844);  and  Ammon 
(1803;  4th  ed.,  1830);  on  the  other  hand,  Reinhard 
(1801),  Storr  (after  1793;  a  representative  of  the 
Wurttemberg  Biblicism),  Knapp  (1826),  A.  Hahn 
(1827),  and  Steudel  (1835). 

A  powerful  awakening  of  the  sense  for  the  imme- 
diate, which  became  the  most  important  factor 


for  a  new  period  in  the  history  of  dogmatics,  was 
introduced  by  the  transition  from  the  eighteenth 
to  the  nineteenth  century  with  the  great  political 
agitations  which  deeply  reacted  upon  thought  and 
feeling.  Schleiermacher,  proceeding 
4.  Schlel-  from  Moravianism  and  well  schooled 
^"''^hi^'  in  philosophy,  sought,  in  opposition 
Gontem-  *^  ^^®  intellectualism  of  the  rationai- 
porarieB!  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  supranaturalistic  move- 
ments, to  make  the  pious  self-con- 
sciousness of  the  Church  the  basis  of  the  system  of 
doctrine.  Like  the  original  Pietism,  his  movement 
opposed  a  learned  orthodoxy  and  at  the  same  time 
strengthened  the  confessional  church  spirit.  In  the 
philosophy  of  that  day,  though  Kant  was  willing 
to  give  validity  to  the  content  of  religious  faith 
only  in  the  postulates  of  the  practical  reason, 
Jacobi  at  least  taught  a  direct  knowledge,  accord- 
ing to  the  feelings,  of  the  supersensuous  and  the 
divine  through  a  believing  reason  just  as  the  ob- 
jects of  sense  perception  are  recognized  by  the 
senses.  From  Jacobi  Fries  adopted  the  view  that 
reason  as  the  faculty  of  ideas  grasps  these  by  way 
of  feeling  or  presentiment.  De  Wette  (Ueber  Re- 
ligion und  Theologie,  1817)  followed  him.  Never- 
theless, at  that  time  the  Schelling-Hegel  philosophy 
of  the  speculative  reason  gained  the  ascendency, 
and  it  was  in  the  forms  of  this  thinking  that  Daub 
and  Marheineke  thought  they  could  state  the  true 
content  of  the  Christian  faith  (Daub,  Theologumena, 
1806;  Einleitung  in  das  Studium  der  Dogmaiik, 
1810;  Marheineke,  Grandlehren  der  chrisilichen 
Dogmatikf  1819  and  1827;  System  der  chrisilichen 
Dogmatik,  after  his  death,  1847).  Among  the 
learned  theologians  Schleiermacher  was  most  influ- 
ential in  remolding  dogmatics  by  reason  of  his  de- 
termination to  make  the  system  express  the  pious 
feelings  or  the  pious  self-consciousness  (Der  christ- 
liche Glaube,  1821;  Reden  Hber  die  Religion,  1799). 
He  also  influenced  dogmatists  who  in  opposition  to 
him  made  it  the  task  of  dogmatics  to  represent  the 
divine  realities  attested  by  the  feelings  as  objec- 
tively true,  and  to  ground  them  in  reason;  and  he 
cooperated  with  those  who  had  a  different  under- 
standing from  his  of  the  inner  processes  of  the  soul 
and.  who  found  in  these  the  workings  of  God  and 
of  the  divine  revelation  in  Christ  and  in  the  Biblical 
testimonies. 

In  more  recent  dogmatics  must  be  noted  first  of 
all  a  simple  Biblical  tendency  now  more  effective 
in  scientific  theology  than  before.     A  chief  repre- 
sentative is  the  above-named  Beck, 
5.  Biblioal  ^Jjq  jg  unique  not  only  in  that  with 
T^denoy  pg^fect    trust    in    the    self-evidencing 
andH.      character  of  Scripture  he  sought   to 
Sohmldt.    ^^^  ^^^  content  of  faith  purely  from 
this  source,  but  also  in  that  he  would, 
on  principle,  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  views  of 
Schleiermacher,  church  orthodoxy,  philosophy,  or 
Biblical  criticism.    This  new  ecclesiastical  and  con- 
fessional interest  is  to  be  seen  also  in  H.  Schmidt's 
Dogmatik  der  evangelisch4tUheri8chen  Kirche  (1843). 
which  had  the  merit  of  once  more  systematically 
presenting  the  actual  content  and   the   veritable 
treasures  of  the  old  and  forgotten  orthodoxy. 
While  Rothe,   Lange,   Martensen,   Domer,   and 


Doffma 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


474 


others  continued  in  the  steps  of  Daub  and  Mar- 
heineke,  the  Hegelian  left  threatened  in  Strauss 
(Christliche  Glavbenslehre,  1840)  to  dissolve  the 
Christian  views,  but  the  Hegelians  Biedermann  and 
Pfleiderer  opposed  him.  Kant  influenced  anew 
Lipsius  and,  above  all,  A.  Ritschl. 
6.  Bitschl.  Kaftan,  a  follower  of  Ritschl  (cf .  his 
Wesen  der  christUchen  Religumf  1881), 
was  also  attracted  by  the  positivism  of  Comte. 
Ritschl  has  been  since  Schleiermacher  the  most 
effective  factor  in  the  development  of  dogmatics. 
His  basal  characteristic  is  his  emphasis  upon  the 
ethical,  upon  the  will,  as  against  the  metaphysical. 
At  the  same  time  Christianity  as  the  only  true 
religion  is  expressly  derived  from  revelation,  from 
the  objective  manifestation  of  God  and  his  will  in 
the  person  of  Christ.  All "  mysticism  "  is  abhorred. 
It  can  not  be  known  in  what  inner  relation  of  life 
and  essence  Christ  stood  to  God,  though  by  virtue 
of  his  work  as  revealer  he  may  also  be  called  "  God." 
The  conception  of  the  kingdom  of  God  reminds  of 
Kant,  as  iJso  the  peculiar  dogmatic  juxtaposition 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  and  redemption  as  two  foci 
of  an  ellipse.  Ritschl  never  built  his  dogmatic 
ideas  into  a  complete  and  homogeneous  system. 
Among  his  pupils  the  chief  progress  was  made  in 
the  direction  of  a  decided  recognition  of  the  inmie- 
diacy  of  the  Christian  experience;  especially  in 
Herrmann  who,  though  in  a  lesser  measure  than 
Kaftan,  makes  room  for  mysticism.  The  school 
has  developed  opposing  parties  (cf.  G.  Ecke's  Die 
theologiache  SchtUe  A,  Ritschla,  Berlin,  1897). 

With  reference  to  their  attitude  to  the  Biblico- 
ecclesiastical  body  of  doctrines  modem  dogmatists 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  more  conserv- 
ative and  the  more  radically  critical,  though  the 
line  of  division  can  not  be  sharply  drawn.     Promi- 
nent  among  the   former   are   K.    F. 
7.  Con-     Nitzsch  (System  der  christUchen  Lehre, 
■ervativ©    i829,    which    also    embraces    ethics); 
School      j^ii^  j^jyjgy  (though  he  pubUshed  no 
M(klem     dogmatics);    H.  Voigt  (Fundamental' 
Doffzoa-     dogmxXtikj   1874);    Rothe,  more  spec- 
UoianB.     Illative,  though  not  basing  the  con- 
victions   of    faith    upon    speculation 
{Zur  Dogmatik,  1863,  which  makes  the  scienae  a 
historical  critical  discipline);    J.  P.  Lange  (Christ- 
liche Dogmalik,  1849-52,  more  suggestive  and  fan- 
tastic than  strictly  philosophic);  Martensen  (Christ- 
liche  Dogmatikf    1850,   mystical,   more   attractive 
than  acute);   I.  A.  Domer  (System  der  christUchen 
Glaubenslehre,  1879,  1886,  among  other  peculiari- 
ties a  basing  of  the  certitude  of  faith  upon  an  inner 
immediate    perception);     Rimze    (Grundriss    der 
evangelischen    Glavbens-    und    SUtenlehre,    1883); 
and  H.  Plitt  (Evangelische  Dogmatik  nach  Schrift 
und  Erfahrung,    1863).     In  connection  with   the 
Biblicist  Beck  already  mentioned  stand  his  fellow 
countrymen    Reiff    (Christliche    Glaubenslehre   ala 
Grundlage  der  christUchen  Weltanschauung,   1873- 
1876)  and  W.  Gess  (Christi  Person  und  Werk,  1870- 
1887).   In  North  Germany  this  tendency  is  best  seen 
in  Cremer  (Dogmatische  Primipienlehre,  in  Zdckler's 
Handbuch    der    theologischen    Wissenschaften,   iii., 
N6rdlingen,   1885)    and   Zdckler,  whose  academic 
labors,  however,  pertain  more  to  history  than  dog- 


matics (System  der  Glaubenslehre,  in  the  same 
volume,  a  scientific  reproduction  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Lutheran  Church).  Here,  too,  belong  M. 
Kaehler  (Wissenschaft  der  christUchen  Lehre,  1883, 
1893,  a  concise  systematic  treatment  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrines  as  the  content  of  the  self-evidencing 
Biblical  revelation),  W.  Schmidt  (Christliche  Doff- 
matik,  1895-98),  and  F.  A.  B.  Nitzsch  (Lehrbueh  der 
evangelischen  Dogmjotik,  1892, 1896;  critical  yet  con- 
servative). Of  all  these  only  Lainge  belonged  to 
the  Reformed  Church.  To  this  same  confession 
belonged  Ebrard  (Christliche  Dogmatik,  1852),  who, 
however,  took  an  independent  attitude  toward 
confessional  differences.  This  is  even  more  the 
case  with  Bohl  (Dogmaiik  auf  reformiert  kirchlicher 
Grundlage,  1887).  Specifically  Lutheran  and  spe- 
cifically polemic  against  the  Reformed  theology 
and  against  the  Union  are  Philippi  (Kirchliche 
Glaubenslehre,  1854  sqq.),  Vilmar,  Thomasius  (Christi 
Person  und  Werk,  DarsteUung  der  evangeUsch" 
lutherisdien  Dogmatik,  1852  sqq.),  Luthardt  (Kom- 
pendium,  1865),  Kahnis  (Die  luiherische  Dogmatik 
historisch-genetisch  dargestellt,  1861-68;  1874),  F. 
H.  R.  Frank  (System  der  christUchen  Gewissheit, 
1872;  System  der  christUchen  Wahrheit,  1878-81, 
1885).  At  the  same  time  Thomasius  and  the  rest 
of  this  gh)up  have  no  hesitation  in  departing  from 
the  Lutheran  orthodoxy;  Gess,  e.g.,  in  respect  to 
kenosis,  Kahnis  in  trinitarian  subordinationism 
and  in  an  approximately  Reformed  view  of  the 
Lord's  Supper;  and  least  of  all  does  A.  von  Oet- 
lingien  in  his  Primipienlehfe  (1897)  reproduce  Lu- 
theranism  in  the  sense  of  the  old  orthodoxy. 

In  the  other  more  critical  group — though  its 
members  are  not  to  be  charged  offhand  with  the 
guilt    of    a    "  negative    criticism " — 
8-  The     stands  the    Reformed  theologian   A. 
^JJ?'®       Schweizer     (ChrisUiche    Glaubenslehre 
g  .      ?*  -  nach      protestantischen      Grundsdtzen, 
McSwn     1863-72,    1877,   to   be   distinguished 
Boffxna-     from  his  Glaubenslehre  der  evangelisch- 
ticians.     reformierten  Kirche,  1844-47).    Schen- 
kel  in  his  Christliche  Dogmatik  vom 
Standpunkte  des  Geunssens  aus  dargestellt   (1859) 
does  not  clearly  show  the  difference  between  his 
''  conscience  "  and  Schleiermacher's  pious  "  self- 
consciousness.''    His    Grundlekren    des    Christen- 
turns   (1877)   is  more  rationalistic.    Close  to  De 
Wette  stands   Hase,   more  eminent  in  historical 
theology   than   in   dogmatics    (Evangelische   Dog- 
matik,  1826,   1870).    Against  Strauss  and  in  be- 
half  of   Hegelianism   labored   Biedermann    (Dog- 
matik, 1869)  and  Pfleiderer  (Grundriss,  1880,  1886), 
although  the  former  abandoned  Hegel's  attempt 
to  deduce  the  content  of  truth  from  thought  itself. 
Lipsius  (Lehrbueh  der  evangelischen  protestantisdten 
Dogmatik,  1876,  1893)  rejects  the  Hegelian  claim 
of  a  dialectic  knowledge  of  the  absolute,  and  also 
the  validity  of  the  church  doctrines;  but  as  against 
Ritschl's  protest  against  metaphysics  he  regards 
some  declarations  about  God  and  supramundane 
realities  as  possible  and  necessary,  and  goes  back 
to  self-consciousness  and  the   immediacy   of  the 
mystic  elements  in  religion  and  faith.     At  first 
sight,  indeed,  the  content  of  the  faith  of  the  Church 
thus  seems  seriously  threatened;  .but  he  shows  an 


476 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Boffma 


unmistakable  endeavor  to  establish  the  self-evi- 
dencing truth  of  the  inner  experience,  and  to  guard 
against  a  false  distinction  between  the  person  of 
Christ  and  the  "  principle  "  of  theological  knowl- 
edge. Ritschl  greatly  influenced  Hermann  Schultz 
(Grundrias  der  evangelischen  Dogmatik,  1890)  and 
Kaftan  (Dogmatik,  1897,  and  Zur  Dogmalik,  1904). 
who  more  than  Ritschl  seeks  to  accept  the  full 
content  of  the  faith  that  is  based  upon  the  his- 
torical revelation  of  God.  He  also  gives  a  pro- 
portionate treatment  to  factors  which  Ritschl  put 
into  the  background;  he  discusses  the  relation  of 
Christ's  essence  to  God  as  a  ''  fact  of  nature/'  and 
puts  a  due  estimate  upon  the  inner  working  of  God 
in  the  believer.  The  Ritschlian  left  has  as  yet 
produced  no  important  works  of  a  truly  dogmatic 
content  and  character.  (J.  KSsTLiNf.) 

Ernst  Troeltsch,  professor  of  systematic  theol- 
ogy at  Heidelberg,  has  as  yet  published  no  com- 
prehensive work  on  dogmatics,  but  by  his  mono- 
graphs (Die  AbaoliUheit  des  Chriatentuma  und  dU 
Religionsgeschichte,  Tubingen,  1902;  Das  Histori- 
sche  in  Kan^s  Religumaphiloaophie,  Berlin,  1904; 
Politische  Ethik  und  Christentum,  G6ttingen,  1904; 
etc.)  has  attracted  attention  and  provoked  criti- 
cism. He  maintains  the  absoluteness 
Q.Troeltaoh.  of  Christianity  as  resting  on  divine 
revelation,  yet  insists  that,  having 
been  drawn  by  modem  historical  science  into  the 
stream  of  religious  evolution,  its  relativity  and 
limitation  must  be  recognized.  As  sustaining  his- 
torical relations  Christianity  is  a  relative  phenom- 
enon; for  one  who  has  had  personal  experience  of 
communion  with  God  in  Christ  it  is  the  absolute 
religion.  But  the  study  of  comparative  religion 
leads  to  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  devotees 
of  other  religions  may  have  a  similar  experience 
and  an  equal  right  to  consider  their  religions  ab- 
solute. (Cf.  critique  of  Troeltsch's  AbsoltUheit  by 
Hermann,  in  TLZ,  1902,  364  sqq.,  and  sununary 
of  Troeltsch's  views  by  G.  B.  Foster,  in  his  Finality 
of  the  Christian  Religion,  Chicago,  1906,  pp.  42-46.) 

2.  The  Beformed  Ohurohes:  Reformed  dogma 
owes  its  content  and  form  to  Calvin.  Zwingli's 
dogmatic  views  were  most  systematically  presented 
in  his  Uslegen  und  Grand  of  his  sixty-seven  arti- 
cles (1523).  In  his  exposition  of  art.  vi.  he  seeks 
to  prove  from  Scripture  that  God's 

1.  Zwln-  promises  of  salvation  in  Christ  were 
^^        made  to  the  whole  human  race,  the 

Oalvin.  ^^^  condition  being  'personal  accept- 
ance. Calvin's  fundamental  dogma 
was  that  of  the  absoluteness  of  the  divine  predes- 
tination, involving  the  certainty  of  the  salvation 
of  the  elect  and  the  inevitableness  of  the  eternal 
destruction  of  the  non-elect.  The  first  edition  of 
the  "  Institutes  "  (1536)  was  really  an  apology  for 
Protestantism  and  by  no  means  a  systematic  trea- 
tise on  theology.  In  the  final  edition  of  1559  it 
was  expanded  and  divided  into  four  books — 
Knowledge  of  God  the  Creator,  Knowledge  of 
God  the  Redeemer,  the  Law,  the  External  Means 
for  Salvation.  The  Scriptures  alone  are  regarded 
as  absolutely  authoritative.  Calvin's  doctrine  be- 
came dogma  in  various  confessions  of  faith,  cate- 
chisms, and  the  like. 


Calvin's  predestination  dogma  was  assailed  with 
vigor  by  Bolsec,  Pighius,  Castellio,  and  others. 
Socinianism  may  be  regarded  as  in  part  a  reaction 
against  Calvinism.  Several  of  Calvin's  followers 
^  (Beza,  Gomarus,  Piscator,  Chamier, 
g  ^^'"  and  others)  went  far  beyond  Calvin 
oeBBorB  ^^  making  God  directly  and  absolutely 
the  author  of  sin  (supralapsarianism). 
Their  views  gained  considerable  acceptance  and, 
with  Socinianism  and  other  influences,  called  forth 
Arminianism  by  way  of  reaction.  The  position  of 
Arminius  was  clearly  expressed  in  the  remonstrance 
of  1610  and  in  the  works  of  Episcopius,  Uitenbo- 
gaert,  and,  later  and  more  moderately,  by  Lim- 
borch.  The  Synod  of  Dort  (1618-19)  reaflarmed 
in  strong  language  the  dogmatic  teachings  of  Cal- 
vin, while  carefully  avoiding  supralapsarianism. 
Piscator  reacted  to  Arminianism.  The  Scotch 
theologian  John  Cameron  (d.  1625)  originated  in 
the  Saumur  school  (1618  onward)  a  mode  of  theo- 
logical thought  involving  important  modifications 
of  the  Calvinistic  system.  He  maintained  that, 
notwithstanding  the  fall  and  hereditary  sin,  there 
remains  in  man,  after  his  understanding  has  been 
enlightened  by  divine  revelation,  enough  of  good 
to  enable  him  to  lay  hold  upon  salvation.  Among 
the  most  noted  of  Cameron's  disciples  were  Joshua 
Placeus  (d.  1665),  MoXse  Amyraut  (d.  1664),  and 
Louis  Cappel  (d.  1658).  Opposed  to  the  Saumur 
school  was  that  of  S4dan,  where  Daniel  Chamier 
(d.  1621)  and  his  disciples  maintained  polemically 
a  rigorous  Calvinism. 

In  the  Netherlands,  Gisbertus  Voetius  (q.v.;  d. 
1676)  upheld  Calvinism  after  the  Synod  of  Dort 
(Selecta  disputationea  theologicw,  5  vols.,  Utrecht, 
1648).  Johannes  Cocceius  (q.v.;  d. 
1669)  became  important  for  dogmatics 
through  his  application  of  the  historical 
method  to  it  and  the  resultant  scheme 
of  divine  covenants  (the  federal  theology).  F.  A. 
Lampe  (d.  1729),  professor  in  Utrecht,  brought  the 
influence  of  German  Pietism  powerfully  to  bear 
upon  Dutch  theological  thought.  As  a  means  of 
settling  controversies  that  had  arisen,  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  in  each  university  the  professor  of 
systematic  theology  should  be  a  Voetian,  that  of 
exegetical  theology  a  Cocceian,  and  that  of  practi- 
cal theology  a  Lampean.  This  placing  of  three 
types  of  Reformed  theological  thought  on  a  basis 
of  equality,  together  with  the  wide  influence  ex- 
erted by  such  learned  Arminian  (Remonstrant) 
teachers  as  Peter  Limborch  (d.  1712)  and  Johannes 
Clericus  (d.  1736),  meant  a  complete  breakdown 
of  rigorous  Calvinism  as  the  authoritative  form  of 
Christiam'ty  in  the  Protestant  Netherlands.  It 
enjoyed  a  revival  in  the  nineteenth  oentuiy  under 
the  leadership  of  Isaak  da  Costa  (d.  1860),  Abra- 
ham Capadose  (d.  1874),  G.  Groen  van  Prinsterer 
(d.  1876),  and  others,  and  has  been  extended  and 
perpetuated  by  A.  Kuyper,  G.  J.  Vos,  and  others. 
A  Platonizing,  mystical  type  of  Reformed  theology, 
influenced  by  Schleiermacher,  led  by  P.  W.  van 
Heusde  (d.  1839)  and  including  J.  F.  van  Oordt, 
Hofstede  de  Groot,  and  others,  had  its  center  at 
Groningen  (see  Groninoen  School).  J.  J.  van 
Oosterzee  (d.  1882)  represents  a  position  interme- 


8.  The 
Nether- 
lands. 


I>Qffina 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


476 


diate  between  the  rationalistic  mysticism  of  the 
Groningen  school  and  the  somewhat  rigorous  Cal- 
vinism of  Kuyper  and  the  separatists.  Extreme 
rationalism  of  the  German  type  had  become  so  far 
dominant  in  Holland  by  1876  that  the  theological 
faculties  of  the  universities  were  transformed  into 
faculties  of  religions,  the  aim  being  to  place  Chris- 
tianity upon  the  same  basis  as  other  religions  and 
to  encourage  freedom  in  dealing  with  religious 
problems.  Among  the  eminent  leaders  of  liberal- 
ism in  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  may  be  men- 
tioned A.  Kuenen  (d.  1891),  C.  P.  Tiele,  and  P.  D. 
Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  who  have  worked  chiefly 
in  the  fields  of  Biblical  criticism,  comparative  re- 
ligion, and  the  philosophy  of  religion. 

In  Switzerland,  Beza's  influence  withstood  for 
some  time  the  inroads  of  more  liberal  types  of 
thought.  The  Helvetic  Consensus,  embodying  un- 
compromising Calvinism,  was  adopted 

4.  Swlt-     (1675)   by  the  Swiss  churches  as  a 

serland.  protest  and  defense  against  the  Sau- 
mur  and  Cocceian  types  of  thought. 
The  Consensus  proved  too  rigorous  for  the  time  and 
was  abandoned  by  Zurich  (1685),  Geneva  (1708), 
and  Bern  (1722).  Francois  Turretin,  one  of  its 
authors,  had  to  contend  with  his  own  more  liberal 
colleagues,  Jean  Mestrezat  and  Louis  Tronchin,  in 
Geneva.  He  was  fighting  a  losing  battle,  but  he 
succeeded  in  putting  the  Calvinistic  theology  as 
interpreted  and  applied  by  the  Synod  of  Dort, 
with  elaborate  refutation  of  earlier  and  later  more 
liberal  forms  of  thought  and  sharp  antagonizing 
of  Roman  Catholicism  and  Lutheranism,  in  a  thor- 
oughly and  minutely  wrought  out  scholastic  form, 
worthy  of  the  great  dialecticians  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
His  InstUutio  theologice  elencticce  (Geneva,  1679-86)  is 
still  the  most  complete  exposition  of  fully  developed 
Calvinism  and  has  exerted  a  wide-spread  influence 
on  later  Reformed  dogmatics.  His  son,  J.  A. 
Turretin  (d.  1737),  led  in  the  abolition  of  the  Hel- 
vetic Consensus  and,  under  the  influence  of  Cam- 
eron and  the  Saumur  school  and  of  English  latitu- 
dinarianism,  labored  for  a  imion  of  the  Reformed 
and  Lutheran  Churches.  He  insisted  that  only 
fundamentals  should  be  made  terms  of  conmiunion, 
and  that  only  doctrines  necessary  to  salvation 
should  be  regarded  as  fundamental.  Like-minded 
and  similarly  influenced  by  English  and  German 
thought  was  Benedict  Pictet  (d.  1724).  Calvinism 
vanished  from  Geneva,  which  soon  became  a  cen- 
ter of  French  rationalism  (Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and 
others).  A  temporary  revival  of  Calvinism  (from 
1817  onward;  see  Haldane)  found  its  chief  repre- 
sentative in  Alexandre  Vinet,  but  his  writings  were 
practical  rather  than  dogmatic.  Pietism  made  its 
influence  felt  in  Basel  during  the  late  eighteenth 
and  early  nineteenth  centuries.  Zurich,  where  De 
Wette  labored  (1822  onward),  was  swayed  by  Ger- 
man rationalism. 

8.  BnglaTid;  The  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the 
Church  of  England  represent  moderate  Calvinism, 
or,  perhaps  more  correctly,  the  type  of  thought 
developed  by  Melanchthon.  English  Puritans 
maintained  a  rigorous  type  of  Calvinism,  some 
even  of  the  conforming  Puritans  being  hyper- 
Calvinistic    (supralapsarian)    in     their   teachings. 


In    the    reaction    against    Puritanism     Romani- 
zing   theologians  like  Archbishop   Laud  (d.  1644 

and     Richard     Montagu     (d.     1641 

1.  To  the     developed  a  type  of  doctrine  cUxsely 

Bevlval  of  approximating   the  Semi-Pelagiaiiifim 

eenth  Oen-  (Semi-Augustinianism)  of  the  Council 

^Yy.    "  ^^  Trent,   commonly  designated   Ar- 

minianism.  Both  Arminianism  and 
Socinianism  greatly  influenced  English  thougtit 
during  the  revolutionary  period  (1641-60).  John 
Milton  (De  doctrina  Christiana,  ed.  and  transl.  by  C. 
R.  Sumner,  Cambridge,  1825)  taught  Arian  Chris- 
tology  and  Arminian  anthropology.  John  Hales 
(d.  1656)  had  been  converted  to  Arminianism  at 
the  Synod  of  Dort.  William  ChiUingworth  (d. 
1644)  became  imbued  with  Pelagianism  through 
consorting  with  the  Jesuists.  At  Cambridge  there 
grew  up  during  the  Cromwellian  period  the  so- 
called  Cambridge  Platonists  (q.v.),  whose  mysti- 
cism was  baaed  on  the  Jewish  cabala  and  Neopla- 
tonic  writings.  Their  Christology  was  essentially 
Sabellian.  The  latitudinarianism  of  the  time  of 
WiUiam  and  Mary  (John  Tillotson,  d.  1694;  GQ- 
bert  Burnet,  d.  1715)  was  due  in  part  to  ArminiaD 
and  Socinian  influence  and  in  part  to  the  S3^cre- 
tism  that  prevailed  so  widely  on  the  Continent 
among  Lutherans  and  Reformed  alike,  or,  more 
correctly,  to  the  changed  philosophical  conceptions 
and  modes. of  thought  of  which  all  alike  were  ex- 
pressions. By  way  of  reaction  against  dominant 
latitudinarianism  High-church  dissidents  (non- 
jurors) developed  an  ascetical,  mystical  type  of 
thought  and  life,  and  a  Romanizing  dogmatics 
and  apologetics,  resembling  Jansenism  without  its 
rigorous  Augustinianism  (Charles  Leslie's  Short  and 
Easy  Method  vriih  the  Deists,  London,  1698;  Will- 
iam Law's  Serious  Call  to  a  DevotU  and  Holy  Lift, 
London,  1724).  Deism  (q.v.)  may  be  regarded  as 
a  revival  and  adaptation  of  Stoicism,  which  idea- 
tified  God  with  the  nature  of  things  and  eouf^t  a 
purely  natural  basis  for  religion  and  morality. 
Against  Deists  and  Arminfans  High-churchmen  Uke 
Joseph  Butler  (d.  1752),  Daniel  Waterland  (d. 
1740),  and  William  Warburton  (d.  1779)  ably  de- 
fended revealed  religion  and  the  supernatural  in 
Judaism  and  Christianity. 

The  evangelical  revival  brought  about  fresh  com- 
binations of  dogmatic  thought.  John  Wesley  with 
a    substratum    of    High-church  Semi-Pelagianism 

became  imbued  with  the  old  evangd- 

2.  The      ical   Semi-Augustinianism,   or  Armin- 

^*'^"     ianism.    George  Whitefield  preached 

an^Nlne.  *   thoroughgoing   type  of  Clalvinism. 

^^^jj^jj      Moderate   Calvinism,    with   little  at- 

Oenturies.  tempt  at  philosophical  representation, 

became  the  theology  of  the  Low- 
church  or  evangelical  party  in  the  (]!hurch  of  Eng- 
land. The  philosophy  of  Kant  and  Hegel  va^ 
brought  to  bear  upon  En^sh  theological  thought 
by  S.  T.  Coleridge,  father  of  the  Broad-church 
movement.  £2ng)ish  Broad-churchmen  have  fd- 
lowed  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  German  radical 
thought;  but  few  have  devoted  their  attention  to 
dogmatics  proper.  Their  favorite  field  is  Biblira. 
and  historical  criticism.  An  intensely  Roinnri 
zing  mode  of  thought  and  life,  with  deep  aver^i.- 


477 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Doffxna 


to  Protestantism  and  to  Calvinism  in  particular 
and  a  strong  tendency  toward  Semi-Pelagianism 
and  Jesuitical  methods  of  thought  and  of  work, 
appeared,  by  way  of  reaction  against  aggressive  lib- 
eralism and  evangelicalism,  in  the  Oxford  or  Trac- 
tarian  movement  (see  Tractarianism).  The  The- 
ological InstittUea  of  Richard  Watson  (6  parts, 
London,  1823-29)  has  been  much  used  by  Method- 
ists in  both  England  and  America.  It  presents 
evangelical  Arminianism  in  a  popular  and  effective 
way.  W.  B.  Pope's  Compendium  of  Theology  (3 
vols.,  London,  1875)  is  a  more  scholarly  exposition 
of  Christian  doctrine  from  the  Methodist  point  of 
view.  The  more  recent  works  of  J.  S.  Banks  (Tfie 
Development  of  Doctrine  from  the  Early  Middle  Ages 
to  the  Reformation,  London,  1901)  and  J.  A.  Beet 
(Manual  of  Theology,  London,  1906)  show  the  in- 
fluence of  liberal  thought.  John  .Gill  (A  Body  of 
Doctrinal  and  Practical  Divinity,  London,  1769) 
w^as  the  first  Baptist  to  attempt  a  comprehensive 
exposition  of  Christian  doctrines — with  the  possi- 
ble exception  of  the  General  Baptist  Thomas 
Grantham,  whose  Chrietianiemus  primitivus  (Lon- 
don, 1688)  partook  of  the  nature  of  a  dogmatic 
work.  Gill  taught  a. rigorous  (supralapsarian)  Cal- 
vinism, which  was  assailed  by  Andrew  Fuller  (d. 
1815)  in  several  works.  Fuller  was  influenced  by 
Jonathan  Edwards,  and  his  type  of  thought  be- 
came well-nigh  normative  for  Baptists  in  both 
England  and  America. 

4.  Scotland :  The  early  Scottish  symbols  pre- 
pared by  John  Knox  and  his  associates  were 
strictly  Calvinistic,  as  were  the  writings  of  all  in- 
fluential Scottish  Pre8b3rterians  for  more  than  a 
century  after  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation 
(Henderson,  Rutherford,  Gillespie,  and  others). 
After  the  Revolution  (1688)  "  Moderatism  **  and 
"  Evangelicalism  "  were  arrayed  against  each  other. 
The  Moderates  were  affected  by  Socinian  modes  of 
thought  and  had  much  in  conmion  with  English 
latitudinarians.  They  produced  no  great  theo- 
logical works  and  were  for  the  most  part  wanting 
in  initiative.  Thomas  Erskine,  of  Linlathen,  a 
layman  (d.  1870),  rebelled  against  Calvinistic  dog- 
ma as  inmioral  and  inculcating  unworthy  concep- 
tions of  God,  and  taught  an  evangelical  mysticism 
with  gr^t  earnestness  and  zeal  {Internal  Evidence, 
Edinburgh,  1820;  Unconditional  Freeness  of  the 
Gospel,  1828;  The  Brazen  Serpent,  1831;  Spiritual 
Order,  1871).  Erskine  was  no  doubt  influenced 
by  Coleridge,  and  in  turn  greatly  influenced  J. 
McLeod  Campbell,  who  in  1831  was  deposed  from 
the  ministry  for  teaching  general  redemption  and 
related  doctrines  {The  Nature  of  the  Atonement,  and 
Its  Relation  to  the  Remission  of  Sins  and  Eternal 
Life,  Cambridge,  1856).  The  distinctive  feature 
of  his  view  is  that  not  the  bearing  of  penalty,  but 
adequate  repentance  is  requisite  to  divine  forgive- 
ness, and  that  Christ  on  behalf  of  humanity  ade- 
quately repented  of  sin.  Thomas  Chalmers,  the 
greatest  Scottish  religious  leader  since  Knox,  de- 
voted more  attention  to  practical  problems  than 
to  matters  of  doctrine.  His  Institutes  of  Theology 
(Edinburgh,  1849)  represents  moderate  Calvin- 
ism vitalized  by  a  profound  sense  of  the  obliga- 
tion of  world-wide  evangelization  and  social  reform. 


Thomas  Carlyle  did  much  to  popularize  German 
advanced  thought  in  Scotland.  The  higher  criti- 
cism has  secured  general  recognition.  Names  that 
may  be  mentioned  of  the  past  and  the  present  gen- 
eration are  A.  B.  Davidson,  A.  B.  Bruce,  Robert 
Flint,  James  Denney,  Robert  Rainy,  George  Adam 
Smith,  H.  R.  Macintosh,  W.  P.  Patterson,  T.  M. 
Lindsay,  James  Lindsay,  W.  R.  Smith,  Marcus 
Dods,  and  S.  D.  F.  Sahnond. 

5.  America:  Early  New  England  theology  was 
strictly  Calvinistic.  A  Socinianized  Arminianism 
had  become  widely  prevalent  by  1733,  to  the  des- 
truction of  evangelistic  zeal  (cf.  J.  White,  New 
England's  Lamentations  .  .  .  the  Decay  of  the 
Power  of  Godliness ;  the  Danger  of  Arminian 
Principles,  etc.,  Boston,  1734,  and  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards, Thoughts  on  the  Revival  in  New  England, 
^  ^^  1742).  Jonathan  Edwards  (d.  1758) 
Sarlv  ^^  *^®  ^"*  American  theologian  to 
Oalvinlstio  ^^^  important  contributions  to  dog- 
Theology,  matics  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  theologian  that  Amer- 
ica has  produced.  He  presented  Calvinistic  doc- 
trine in  all  its  rigor  in  opposition  to  the  current 
Arminianism.  His  application  of  Locke's  philos- 
ophy, which  hitherto  had  seemed  to  minister  to 
deism,  to  the  refutation  of  the  Arminian  doctrine 
of  free  will  {An  Essay  on  the  Freedom  of  the  Will, 
Boston,  1754)  awakened  great  interest  in  Europe 
as  well  aa  in  America.  Joseph  Bellamy  (d.  1790) 
in  the  spirit  of  Edwards  defended  Calvinism  against 
antinomianism  and  Arminianism  {True  Religion 
Delineated,  Boston,  1750).  Samuel  Hopkins  (d. 
1803)  propagated  a  harsher  form  of  Edwardsian 
Calvinism  {A  System  of  Doctrines  Contained  in  Di- 
vine Revelation,  Boston,  1793).  Nathanael  Em- 
mons (d.  1840)  presented  the  doctrine  of  divine 
sovereignty  in  still  harsher  form  than  Hopkins. 
See  New  England  Theoloqt. 

Universalism  was  taught  in  New  England  by 

John  Murray  (from  1770)  on  the  basis  of  the  then 

generally  accepted  thesis  that  Christ  died  for  all. 

The  Socinianized  Arminianism  which 

2.  XJni-  called  forth  the  modified  Calvinism 
7?5*^^"P»  of  Edwards  and  his  disciples  was  car- 

XJnitarl-  ^^^  ^y  QppQQi(,|on  to  the  Great  Awa- 
and  La^r  ^^^^'^S  (see  Revivais  of  Religion)  to 
Types.  Unitarianism  (Chauncy,  Ware,  Buck- 
minster,  Channing,  and  others).  Na- 
thanael W.  Taylor  (d.  1858)  sought  to  eliminate 
from  the  theology  of  Edwards  and  Hopkins  the 
features  which  were  especially  objectionable  to 
Unitarians.  His  theology  had  much  in  common 
with  original  Arminianism  and  more  perhaps  with 
Amyraldism.  C.  G.  Finney  (d.  1875)  taught  the 
sinner's  plenary  ability  to  repent,  made  regenera- 
tion an  act  of  the  will  rather  than  a  special  work 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  insisted  upon  the  perfecti- 
bility of  regenerate  human  nature  in  the  present 
life.  Horace  Bushnell  (d.  1876)  popularized  in 
America  the  views  of  Schleiermacher  and  Coleridge 
and  presented  in  a  fresh  form  the  moral  influence 
theory  of  the  atonement. 

The  influence  of  New  England  theology  on  Amer- 
ican Presbytertanism,  resulting  in  the  formation 
of  the  '*  New  School ''  party  and  in  disruption,  ap- 


Dogma 
Dominio 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


478 


pears  in  H.  B.  Smith  (d.  1877).  Next  to  Ed- 
wards he  was  probably  tlie  profoundest  theologian 

that  America  has  produced.     He  com- 

*•  ^""^y- bined  the  theology  of  Edwards  and 

^^[•^•J^J^*  Taylor  with  that  of  Schleicrmacher, 

p^^s.    .pj^Qjmjij^  ^j^^  Neander,  and  was  as 

Works,     much  interested  in  church  history  as 

in  dogmatics.  What  is  known  as 
the  Princeton  School,  whose  most  eminent  repre- 
sentatives have  been  Charles  Hodge  (d.  1878),  A. 
A.  Hodge  (d.  1886),  and  B.  B.  Warfield,  as  the 
*'Old  ^hool"  party,  has  consistently  defended 
historical  Calvinism  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  and  the 
Westminster  type  against  all  competing  types  of 
thought.  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  New 
York  City  is  the  most  prominent  representative  of 
the  more  liberal  Presbyterianism.  The  following 
works  are  by  Baptists:  J.  L.  Dagg,  A  Manual  of 
Theology  (Charleston,  1867;  thoroughly  Calvinis- 
tic);  A.  Hovey,  Manual  of  SusUmaHe  Theology  and 
ChrisHan  Ethics  (Boston,  1877;  Phib&delphia,  1880; 
moderately  Calvinistic,  influenced  by  New  Eng- 
land theology  and  to  some  extent  by  German 
thought);  A.  H.  Strong,  Systematic  Theology  (Roch- 
ester, 1886;  new  and  enlarged  edition,  1907;  char- 
acterised by  Neoplatonic  modes  of  thought  de- 
rived from  Lutheran  sources;  no  longer  maintains 
the  inerrancy  of  Scripture,  accepts  the  evolution 
philosophy,  and  seeks  a  via  media  on  the  will  be- 
tween Calvinism  and  Arminianism);  J.  P.  Boyce, 
Abetract  of  SyetemaHc  Theology  (Louisville,  1887; 
presents  the  Princeton  theology);  W.  N.  Clarke, 
An  Outline  of  Christian  Theology  (Boston,  1894; 
liberal,  expressing  as  a  Baptist  the  type  of  teaching 
of  Schleicrmacher,  Coleridge,  and  the  "  New  The- 
ology ' ).  C.  A.  Beckwith,  .iSea^OtM  of  Christian 
Theology  (Boston,  1906),  and  William  Adams 
Brown,  An  Outline  of  Christian  Theology  (New 
York,  1906),  represent  liberal  and  modem  views  by 
a  Congregationalist  and  Presbyterian  respectively. 

See  FUNDAMBNTAL  DOCTRINES  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

A.  H.  Newman. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  important  works  are  nearly  all  men- 
tioned in  the  body  of  the  article,  while  the  literature  of 
another  branch  of  the  subject  is  represented  in  Doctrine, 
Hbtort  or.  q  v.  For  methods  and  contents  consult*. 
C.  Lasrange,  Le  ChriaUaniame  et  la  mHKode  expirimerUale, 
Lausanne,  1883;  H.  B.  Smith.  IntrodueHon  to  ChrigHan 
Thtotogy,  New  York,  1883;  J.  Drummond,  Introduction 
to  tka  Study  of  Theolomf,  London,  1884;  R.  KQbel,  Ueber 
das  Weaen  und  dis  Aufgabe  einer  bibdglitiibiffen  Theologies 
Stuttcart,  1889;  W.  L.  P.  Cox.  The  Scientific  Study  of 
Theologv,  London,  1803;  H.  Wendt,  Die  Aufgabe  der 
ayalemcMaehen  Theologie^  Gdttinsen,  1894:  A.  Care,  In- 
ttodueHon  to  Theology  and  lie  Literature^  pp.  493  sqq.. 
Edinburgh,  1896;  G.  Wobbermin.  Die  Orundprobleme 
der  eyetematiechen  Theologie.  Berlin.  1899;  idem,  Theolo- 
gi§  und  Melaphyeik,  ib.  1901;  F.  Buisson  and  C.  Wagner, 
lAbrt  peneie  et  proUatantieme  liberal,  Paris,  1903;  L. 
Emery,  Introduc^n  h  Vftude  de  la  thSologie  protaatante, 
pp  162-184.  Lausanne,  1904 

To  be  added  to  works  in  the  text  are:  W  G.  T.  Shedd. 
Dogmatic  Theology,  3  vols..  New  York,  1888-94;  J.  Miley. 
Syatemalie  Theology,  2  vols.,  ib  1892-94;  E.  V.  Gerhart, 
Inatitutea  of  the  Chrialian  Religion,  ib.  1893;  J.  Orr,  Ckria- 
tian  View  of  God  and  the  World,  Edinburgh.  1893;  L.  F 
Steams.  Present  Day  Theology.  New  York,  1893;  W  DeW 
Hyde,  OuUinea  of  Social  Theology,  ib  1895;  J.  Caird, 
Fundamental  Ideaa  of  Christianity,  Glasfcow,  1899;  A 
Bouvier.  Dogmatique  chrHienne,  2  vols..  Paris.  1903;  H. 
C.  Sheldon,  System  of  Christian  Doctrine,  New  York.  I9a3: 
H.  L.  Marten.-wn,  Den  chriMelige  Dogmatik,  Copenhagen. 
1904;     H.    E    Jacobs.    A  Summary  of  Christian  Faith, 


New  York,  1905;  O.  A.  Cuxtta,  The  ChriaHan  FaUk  .  .  .  tn 
a  System  of  Chriatian  Doetine,  ib.  1906;  A.  Darner.  Z>^ 
Entatehung  der  ehriatliehen  Glaubenalekren,  Mnnicfa.  19(X: 
P.  Geiermann,  A  Manual  of  Theology  far  Aa  Laity,  N>t 
York,  1906  (Roman  Catholic);  J.  A.  Moeller.  SymboUtK; 
or,  Expoaitum  of  tlie  Doctrinal  Differeneea  beta)ean  Catho- 
lies  and  Proteatanta  aa  evidanead  by  titeir  fFriCMma,  London. 
1906;  J.  Wilhelm  and  T.  A.  Scannell,  A  Mammal  of  Cadw 
lie  Theology,  vol.  L,  ib.  1906;  M.  Valentine.  CkriatiaM 
Theology,  2  vols..  Philadelphia.  1907;  G.  L.  Yoong.  Fw- 
damental  Chriatology,  Boston.  1907;  M.  3.  Tarrj,  BiUtad 
Dogmatics,  New  York,  1907. 

DOGS:  Dogs  are  only  exceptionally  domestic 
animalH  in  P^estine,  but  are  lueful  as  scavengers 
(Ex.  xxii.  31).  For  this  reason  they  are  protected 
and  valued,  although  regarded  as  nwHAA^n  They 
are  extremdy  noigy,  particulariy  at  night  (Ex.  xL 
7;  Judith  xL  19),  but  do  not  bite  unless  molested 
(Prov.  xxvL  17).  Rabies  is  rare.  The  streetrdog 
has  always  been  a  type  of  everything  low  (Prov. 
xxvi.  11),  and  is  placed  in  the  same  category 
with  swine  (Isa.  Ixvi  3;  Matt.  viL  6;  II  Pet.  ii.  22: 
cf.  Horace,  Epist.,  I.  iL  26;  II.  iL  75).  It  is  a  mark 
of  humility  to  call  oneself  a  dog  in  the  presence  of 
a  superior  (I  Sam.  xxiv.  14;  II  Sam.  ix.  8;  II 
Kings  viiL  13 — in  the  first  two  passages  read  tiune', 
''unclean/'  instead  of  meth,  "dead"),  and  the 
greatest  insult  to  call  another  a  dog  (I  Sam.  xviL 
43;  II  Sam.  xvL  9).  A  supreme  misfortune  was 
to  be  devoured  by  dogs  in  the  field  after  death 
(I  Kings  xiv.  11,  xvL  4;  and  often).  On  account 
of  his  wantonness  the  name  of  "  dog  "  became  a 
designation  for  men  addicted  to  unnatural  vices 
and  for  the  male  Ijpedheshim  (Deut.  xxiiL  18;  the 
Gk.  kunaidoSf  cf.  kynes,  *'  dogs,"  Rev.  xxiL  15). 
With  the  Jews  of  later  times  "  dogs  "  was  a  favor- 
ite name  for  the  heathen  (Niddah  77a;  Baba  Kazn- 
ma  49a;  Matt.  xv.  26;  Mark  viL  27).  The  un- 
cleanness  of  the  dog  among  the  Hebrews,  in  its 
ritual  aspect,  is  connected  with  the  fact  that  by 
other  Semitic  peoples  he  was  regarded  as  a  sacred 
or  at  least  a  sacrificial  animal  (cf .  Smith,  Rel.  of 
Sem.,  291  sqq.).  The  Hebrews  made  a  liooited  use 
of  the  dog,  e.g.,  as  a  sheep-dog  (Job  xxx.  1;  Isa. 
Ivi.  10);  whether  in  hunting  is  doubtful  (Prov.  xxx. 
31;  cf.  the  commentaries).  Dogs  are  mentioned  as 
companions  only  in  later  times  (Tobit  v.  16,  xL  4; 
Matt.  XV.  26-27).  I.  BEaruNGER. 

Bibltoorapht:  8,  Bochart,  Hiaroaoieon,  i.  760  sqot.  Leipac, 

1793;    DB,  i.    615-616;    EB,    L   1124-28;  JE,    it.  630- 

632;  V.  Zapletal,  DerTotemiamua  und  die  Bdigion  ImaeU, 

p.  38,  Freiburg,  1901. 

DOLCmO,  del-chl'no:  A  leader  of  the  Apostolic 
Brethren;  b.  in  the  diocese  of  No  vara  in  the  thir- 
teenth century;  burned  at  the  stake  at  Veroelli 
June  1,  1307.  He  joined  the  Apostolic  Brethren 
(q.v.)  in  1291  [and  in  1300,  after  the  execution  of 
Segarelli,  became  their  head.  His  denunciations 
of  the  Church  brought  him  into  frequent  conflict 
with  the  Inquisition,  but  he  invariably  escaped 
condemnation.  He  sought  refuge  in  Dalmatia, 
and  remained  there  until  1304,  when  he  emergc'v! 
from  concealment,  and]  at  the  head  of  a  hurge 
army  waged  a  guerrilla  warfare  for  several  yesrs 
against  the  troops  which  opposed  him  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  Novara  and  Vercelli.  After  man>  vicis- 
situdes, he  was  finally  defeated  by  the  bishop  of 
Vercelli  on  Mar.  23,  1307,  and  was  excnitea  with 
his  *'  spiritual  sister,"  Maigareta. 


479 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Doffxna 
Dominio 


Dolcino  sent  three  letters  from  Dalmatia  to  his 
followers  and  to  all  Christians,  of  two  of  which  long 
extracts  are  preserved.  The  first  was  written  in 
Aug.,  1300,  shortly  after  the  death  of  Segarelli. 
It  opens  with  declaration  of  the  spiritual  and  apos- 
tolic character  of  Dolcino's  community,  and  as- 
serts that  he,  as  its  head,  had  received  revelations 
from  God.  He  then  recounts  the  persecutions 
which  had  driven  him  to  take  refuge  in  flight,  and 
describes  four  stages  of  the  development  of  the 
lives  of  the  saints  on  earth,  each  good  in  the  be- 
ginning, and  each  degenerate  at  the  close  and  there- 
fore superseded  by  a  new  and  better  regime.  These 
epochs  were  the  period  from  the  patriarchs  of  the 
Old  Testament  to  Christ;  when  marriage  was  nec- 
essary to  replenish  the  earth;  from  Christ  to  Pope 
Silvester  and  the  emperor  Constantine,  when  celi- 
bacy was  better  than  wedlock  and  poverty  prefer- 
able to  wealth;  from  Silvester  and  Constantine  to 
the  time  of  Dolcino,  when  papal  power  and  wealth 
had  been  requisite  rather  than  apostolic  poverty, 
although  love  for  God  and  for  one's  fellow  man 
had  so  far  cooled  that  even  the  rules  of  Benedict 
and  the  still  more  rigid  regulations  of  Francis  and 
Dominic  had  proved  unavailing  to  check  the  in- 
creasing degeneracy;  from  Dolcino  to  the  end  of 
the  world,  when  the  apostolic  ordinances  of  life 
were  to  be  renewed,  and  all  things  were  to  be  in 
common.  Dolcino  then  declares  that  he  and  his 
followers  should  be  considered  liars  if  the  events 
which  he  foretold  did  not  take  place  within  three 
years.  King  Frederick  of  Sicily  would  be  elected 
emperor,  would  set  up  new  kings,  and  sweep  Pope 
Boniface  and  all  his  creatures  from  the  face  of  the 
earth,  while  peace  would  rule  among  all  Christians. 
A  new  pope  would  be  sent  by  God  and  would  rule 
over  the  Apostolic  Brethren,  and  all  priests  and 
monks  who  had  divinely  escaped  the  sword 
would  now  join  them.  Like  the  apostles  of  the 
early  Church,  they  would  receive  the  gift  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  would  spread  throughout  the 
world,  while  the  emperor  Frederick,  the  pope,  and 
the  new  kings  would  remain  until  a  time  known  to 
Dolcino,  when  Antichrist  would  appear  and  rule. 

Three  years  elapsed  without  the  fulfilment  of 
the  prophecies,  and  in  Dec.,  1303,  two  months  after 
the  death  of  Boniface  VIII.,  Dolcino  issued  the 
second  letter,  in  which  he  practically  repeated  his 
assertions.  Within  three  years,  according  to  Isa. 
xvi.  14,  the  wicked  would  be  rooted  out,  the  pope 
and  his  cardinals  would  be  destroyed  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  (1304),  and  in  the  next  all  priests, 
monks,  and  nuns  who  persisted  in  their  iniquity 
would  disappear,  after  which,  under  the  rule  of 
Frederick  and  the  pope  chosen  of  God,  the  Apos- 
tolic Brethren  would  be  free  from  all  oppression, 
would  be  joined  by  all  who  were  truly  spiritual, 
would  receive  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  regenerate  the 
Church.    See  Apostolic  Brethren. 

(Hugo  Sachsbe.) 

Biblioorapht:  Muratori,  ScripiareB,  ix.  425  sqq.,  25  vols., 
Milan,  1723-51;  F.  C.  Schlosser.  Abalard  und  Dulcin, 
Ctotha,  1807;  J.  Krone,  Frii  Dolciru)  und  die  Patarener, 
Leip«ic,  1844;  L.  Mariotti,  Frii  Dolcino  and  Hi»  Timea, 
London.  1853;  G.S.A.S.,  Frd  Dolcino,  Milan.  1880. 

DOLE,  CHARLES  FLETCHER:  Unitarian;  b. 
ai'  Brewer,  Me.,  May  17,  1846.    He  was  graduated 


at  Harvard  in  1868,  and  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1872.  After  being  professor  of  Greek  at 
the  University  of  Vermont  1873-74,  he  was  pastor 
of  Plymouth  Church,  Portland,  Me.,  1874-76,  and 
since  1876  has  been  minister  of  the  First  Congrega- 
tional (Unitarian)  Society  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Bos- 
ton. In  theology  he  designates  himself  a  "  min- 
ister of  the  religion  that  is  behind  and  beneath  all 
the  names.''  He  has  written  The  Citizen  and  the 
Neighbor  (Boston,  1884);  Early  Hebrew  Stories 
(1886);  Jesus  and  the  Men  About  Him  (1888);  The 
American  Citizen  (1891);  The  Golden  Rule  in  Busi- 
ness (New  York,  1895);  A  Catechism  of  Liberal 
Faith  (Boston,  1895);  The  Coming  People  (New 
York,  1897);  Luxury  and  Sacrifice  (1898);  The 
Young  Citizen  (Boston,  1899);  The  Theology  of 
Civilization  (New  York,  1899);  The  Problem  of 
Duty  (1900);  The  Religion  of  a  Gentleman  (1900); 
Noble  Womanhood  (Boston,  1900);  The  Smoke  and 
the  Flame  (1901);  From  Agnosticism  to  Theism 
(1903);  and  The  Spirit  of  Democracy  (New  York, 
1906). 

DOMICELLUS :  A  canon  who  had  not  a  seat  and 
a  voice  in  chapter,  but  enjoyed  certain  incomes. 
See  Canon;  and  Chapter. 

DOMINIC,  SAINT,  AND  THE  DOMINICAN  ORDER. 

St.  Dominio  (S  1).  Aohievements    and    Contro- 

HiB  New  Order  (S  2).  yersies  (S  5). 

Its  Constitution  (S  3).  Present  Condition  (S  6). 

Its  Development  (S  4).  The  Sisters  (S  7). 

Dominic  was  bom  at  Calaroga,  a  village  of  Old 
Castile  in  the  diocese  of  Osma,  1170;  d.  at  Bologna 
Aug.  6,  1221.  That  his  father  belonged  to  the 
noble  family  of  Guzman,  as  many  Dominican  wri- 
ters assert,  can  not  be  proved.  At  seven  he  was 
sent  to  his  uncle,  archpriest  of  Gumiel  d'Izan,  to 
be  educated,  and  at  fourteen  went  to  study  phi- 
losophy and  theology  at  Palencia,  where  celebrated 
teachers  were  already  lecturing,  though  the  imi- 

versity  was  not  founded  until  1209. 

z.  St.       He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his 

Dominic,    progress  in  study  and  by  his  devotion 

and  charity,  selling  his  books  to  help 
the  poor.  Between  1194  and  1199  he  became  a 
canon  and  later  subprior  in  the  cathedral  chapter 
of  Osma,  which  had  been  reformed  under  the  Au- 
gustinian  rule.  In  1203  he  was  taken  by  his  bishop, 
Diego  de  Azevedo,  as  companion  on  a  journey, 
probably  to  the  court  of  Guy  of  Lusignan  in  south- 
em  France,  on  the  commission  of  Alfonso  VIII., 
to  ask  for  a  wife  for  his  son  Ferdinand.  The  em- 
bassy went  again  to  receive  the  princess  and  con- 
duct her  to  Spain;  but  she  died  before  their  arrival. 
Diego  took  Dominic  with  him  to  Rome,  where  the 
latter  requested  Innocent  III.  to  relieve  him  of  his 
bishopric  that  he  might  go  as  a  missionary  to  the 
Saracens.  The  pope  refused;  and  on  a  third  jour- 
ney through  southern  France  Diego  and  Dominic 
met  at  Montpellier  (1204)  the  Cistercian  abbots, 
Arnold  of  Ctteaux,  Peter  of  Castelnau,  and  Raoul, 
who  had  been  entrusted  by  Innocent  with  the  mis- 
sion to  the  Albigenses.  Diego  urged  that  the 
heretics  should  be  converted  by  the  preaching  of 
poor  apostolic  men,  who  should  renounce  all  pomp 
and  luxury.    This  method,  so  different  from  the 


Dominio 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


480 


one  in  vogue,  was  approved  by  the  legates.  Diego 
and  Dominic,  and  others,  went  out  two  by  two, 
barefoot,  without  retinue,  to  preach  and  dispute 
in  the  nobles'  castles,  in  the  effort  to  win  back  the 
Cathari  and  Albigenses  to  the  Church.  But  heresy 
was  too  wide-spread  and  deep-rooted  in  the  south 
of  France  for  much  impression  to  be  made  by  these 
few  laborers  in  the  Montpellier  district  alone.  To 
have  a  base  for  the  work,  Diego  founded  a  convent 
of  nuns  at  Prouille,  in  the  diocese  of  Toulouse,  into 
which  in  1206  eleven  high-bom  ladies  were  re- 
ceived, nine  of  them  converts. 

After  Diego  had  returned  to  his  diocese,  where 
he  died  in  1207,  Dominic  carried  on  the  work  with 
zeal  and  energy.  He  introduced  the  rule  of  Au- 
gustine and  strict  observances  into  the  convent  of 
Prouille.  In  1208  Peter  of  Castelnau  was  mur- 
dered, and  Innocent  III.  proclaimed  a  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses  (see  New  Manicheanb,  II.). 
Dominic  apparently  took  no  part  in  this,  but  con- 
tinued his  work  in  the  old  spirit,  supported  by  the 
higher  clergy.  He  declined  several  bishoprics  of- 
fered to  him,  to  remain  true  to  his  mission,  feel- 
ing called  to  devote  his  whole  life  to  showing  that 
the  Church  had  a  heart  still  for  the  poor  misled 
folk  who  were  alienated  from  its  fold.  In  1215 
Bishop  Fulco  of  Toulouse  assigned  one-sixth  of  the 
diocesan  tithes  to  the  support  of  his  work,  and 
took  Dominic  to  Rome  to  the  Lateran  Council, 
there  to  seek  confirmation  from  the  pope  for  the 
foundation  of  a  new  order.  The  council  had  just 
ruled  against  the  multiplication  of  orders,  and  In- 
nocent, while  taking  the  convent  of  Prouille  under 
his  protection,  advised  Dominic  to  choose  some 
established  rule  for  his  associates.  After  his  re- 
turn they  talked  the  matter  over  and  chose  the 
Augustinian  rule  with  the  institutions  of  the  Pre- 
monstratensians;  the  new  brotherhood  would  thus 
be  a  society  not  of  monks,  but  of  canons  regular, 
with  the  special  purpose  of  defending  the  faith  and 
combating  heresy  by  preaching  (whence  the  official 
name,  ordo  prcedi^atorum,  "  order  of  preachers  ")• 
Dominic  recognized  the  necessity  of  learning  for 
this  end,  and  sent  his  six  companions,  who  had  no 
technical  training,  to  the  theological  school  at 
Toulouse. 

He  was  in  Rome  from  Sept.,  1216,  to  Easter, 
1217,  and  obtained  from  Honorius  III.  the  confir- 
mation of  his  new  order.  According  to  the  bulls, 
it  was  not  originally  a  mendicant  order,  but  ad- 
hered to  the  older  conception  of  the  vow  of  pov- 
erty, as  forbidding  only  the  possession 
a.  His  New  of  property  by  the  individual,  not  by 
Order.  the  community.  Nor  was  it  at  first  dis- 
tinguished from  the  old  canons  regular 
by  assuming  a  universal  character;  it  was  several 
years  before  papal  briefs  instructed  archbishops, 
bishops,  and  other  prelates  to  allow  the  brothers 
to  preach  in  their  dioceses,  assume  the  cure  of 
souls,  and  hear  confessions.  At  the  feast  of  the 
Assumption,  1217,  Dominic  sent  out  his  associates 
in  all  directions.  He  fixed  his  eyes  especially  on 
the  three  centers  of  intellectual  life,  Paris,  Rome, 
and  Bologna.  Matthew  of  Paris  with  seven  broth- 
ers went  to  the  first-named,  where  they  occupied 
the  monastery  of  Saint  Jacques  in  1218  (hence  the 


popular  French  name  for  the  order,  Jacobins}. 
Dominic  went  to  Rome  with  some  of  his  younger 
disciples,  and  sent  two  brothers  thence  to  Bologna 
in  1218.  Two  more  were  left  behind  at  Prouille 
and  two  at  Toulouse;  four  went  to  Spain,  where 
they  had  little  success — it  was  not  until  the  founder 
hiniself  visited  Spain  (1218)  that  two  houses,  one 
for  men  at  Seville  and  one  for  women  at  Madrid, 
came  into  existence.  On  a  visit  to  Paris  in  12  lU 
he  found  thirty  brothers ;  five  years  later  the  num- 
ber was  120.  Toward  the  end  of  that  year  he  wa.s 
again  in  Rome,  where  the  pope  gave  him  the  dif- 
ficult commission  of  assembling  in  a  convent  all 
the  scattered  nuns  who  were  living  uncloistered  in 
Rome.  Supported  by  Cardinal  Hugo  of  Ostia,  the 
later  Gregory  IX.,  he  succeeded  in  his  task,  and 
foimded  the  convent  of  San  Sisto  for  them,  while 
he  and  his  brothers  occupied  the  monastery  of 
Santa  Sabina  near  the  pope's  palace.  This  prox- 
imity led  to  his  noticing  the  careless  lives  of  the 
papal  retainers,  who  spent  their  time  in  drinking 
and  dicing;  he  got  them  together  and  gave  them 
regular  spiritual  conferences.  From  this  fact  grew 
the  story  that  the  pope  appointed  him  moffisUr 
sacri  palaHi — an  office  the  existence  of  which  is 
first  demonstrable  under  Gregory  IX.,  though  later 
it  was  regularly  conferred  on  a  Dominican;  it  ac- 
quired great  importance  in  the  time  of  Leo  X., 
when  its  holder  was  made  the  official  censor  of 
books. 

The  first  general  chapter  of  the  order  was  held  at 
Bologna  in  1220,  when  it  became  a  mendicant  order 
by  the  decision  to  renounce  all  property  and  fixed  in- 
comes. Although  its  founder  died  solemnly  curshig 
those  who  should  bring  temporal  possessions  into 
his  order,  the  vow  of  poverty  was  never  pushed  to 
its  extreme  limit  among  them,  and  they  thus  es- 
caped the  dissensions  which  rent  the  Franciscan 
order  over  this  question.  No  objection  was  ever 
raised  against  the  possession  of  churches  and  con- 
vents, though  the  oldest  constitutions  (1228)  pre- 
scribe that  these  shall  be  small  and  plain.  A  laxer 
conception  of  poverty  was  not  long  in  making  its 
way;  though  the  later  constitutions  still  formally 
ruled  out  possessiones  et  reditu^ f  the  prohibition 
was  not  observed,  and  Martin  V.  abrogated  it  in 
1425  for  certain  houses,  and  Sixtus  IV.  in  1475  and 
1477  for  the  whole  order. 

After  a  journey  through  northern  Italy,  Dom- 
inic returned  to  Bologna,  where  he  won  for  the 
order  Master  Conrad,  the  first  provincial  of  Ger- 
many (see  CoNRAn  of  Marburg).  His  last  so- 
journ in  Rome  was  in  the  winter  of  1220-21.  The 
second  general  chapter  met  in  Bologna  May,  122 1» 
and  decided  that  future  meetings  should  take  place 
yearly,  alternately  in  Bologna  and  Paris,  a  pro- 
vision which  fell  into  disuse.  At  this  chapter, 
if  not  before,  the  constitution  was  completed. 
It  distinguishes  the  order  sharply 
3.  Its  Con-  from  the  older  ones.     It  is  organized 

stitution.  from  the  top,  where  stands  a  master- 
general,  of  far  more  power  than  the 
abbots-general  of  earlier  organizations.  In  con- 
formity with  the  universal  character  of  its  mission, 
the  vow  of  stabilUas  loci  is  omitted,  and  that  of 
obedience  is  made  immediately  to  the  general.    lie 


481 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dominio 


16  chosen  for  life  by  the  general  chapter,  and  se- 
lects his  own  8ocii,  or  counselors.  Each  province 
is  governed  by  a  prior-provincial  chosen  for  four 
years  by  the  provincial  chapter,  which  also  names 
four  definitors  to  assist  him,  as  representatives  of 
the  whole  body.  Each  house  chooses  its  own 
head,  called  prior.  The  decisions  of  the  general 
chapter  have  the  force  of  law  when  they  have 
been  passed  at  two  successive  chapters.  After  the 
chapter  of  1221  Dominic  undertook  one  more 
journey  through  northern  Italy,  got  as  far  as  Ven- 
ice, and  returned  to  Bologna  to  die  on  Aug.  6,  1221. 
At  this  time  the  order  numbered  sixty  houses,  di- 
vided into  eight  provinces — ^Toulouse,  Provence, 
France,  Rome,  Lombardy,  Spain,  England,  and 
Germany.  Dominic  was  buried  in  the  church  of 
St.  Nicholas  at  Bologna,  in  the  presence  of  Car- 
dinal Hugo  of  Ostia,  who  afterward,  as  Pope  Greg- 
ory IX.,  canonized  him  (1234).  His  tomb  was 
afterward  beautified  by  Niccold  Pisaflo  and  Mirhpl- 
angelo. 

It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  a  satisfactoiy  charac- 
terization of  the  man.  He  has  left  no  written 
works,  and  his  biographies,  while  veiy  full  on  his 
miracles,  make  no  attempt  to  reproduce  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  his  personality.  He  was  un- 
doubtedly a  noble  character.  Sincere  piety  and 
equally  sincere  belief  in  the  truth  of  the  Church's 
teaching  and  claims,  gentle  sympathy  for  all,  here- 
tics as  well  as  orthodox,  strictness  in  self-discipline, 
and  wonderful  energy  are  traits  which  stand  out 
clearly  in  his  life. 

After  Dominic's  death  his  order  spread  with  re- 
markable rapidity.  At  the  general  chapter  of  1228 
four  new  provinces  arose — Greece,  Poland,  Den- 
mark, and  Palestine.  The  four  earliest  successors 
of  the  founder  were  skilful  organizers  who  knew 
how  to  develop  and  adapt  to  new  con- 

4.  Its  De-  ditions  the  principles  given  to  them. 

velopment  Jordanus,  a  Saxon  (1222-37),  codified 
the  constitutions  for  the  first  time  in 
1228;  he  traveled  widely  through  all  the  provinces 
of  the  order,  and  met  his  death  by  shipwreck  after 
a  visit  to  Palestine.  The  third  general  was  the 
distinguished  canonist  Raymond  of  Pefiaforte,  of 
a  noble  Spanish  family;  he  resigned  his  office  in 
1240,  after  revising  and  completing  the  constitu- 
tions. The  fourth  was  a  North  German,  John  of 
Wildeshausen  (1241-52),  and  the  fifth  a  French- 
man, Humbert  of  Romans  (1254-64),  who  ren- 
dered great  services  to  the  educational  system  of 
the  order.  The  purpose  of  its  very  existence  be- 
ing the  combating  of  heresy  and  strengthening  of 
faith  by  means  of  preaching,  study  was  insisted  on 
as  a  primary  requisite.  The  Dominican  order  was 
the  first  which  required  study  as  an  essential  means 
to  the  attainment  of  its  special  end,  and  regulated 
it  minutely  by  rule.  This,  of  course,  was  confined 
to  the  priests,  who  found  it  possible  to  devote 
themselves  wholly  to  their  ministry  since  the  lay 
brothers  relieved  them  of  household  tasks.  Eight 
years  were  spent  in  this  study  after  the  completion 
of  the  novitiate;  its  system  followed  that  of  the 
University  of  Paris.  After  1248  each  province  had 
its  own  sivdium  generale,  or  university.  Theology 
had  naturally  the  first  place,  but  the  liberal  arts 
IU.-31 


soon  began  to  be  taught;  Raymond  of  Pefiaforte 
paid  special  attention  to  the  teaching  of  Greek,  and 
erected  schools  in  the  Spanish  and  North  African 
houses  for  the  study  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  The- 
ology was  first  taught  from  the  "  Sentences  "  of 
Peter  Lombard,  but  by  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  Summa  of  Thomas  Aquinas  was  ta- 
king their  place,  and  the  general  chapter  of  1315, 
by  requiring  his  works  to  be  found  in  every  monas- 
tery, marked  his  final  triumph. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  order  was  due  not  alone 
to  its  qualities,  but  also  to  the  protection  of  power- 
ful friends  among  the  kings  and  nobles,  and  to  the 
lavish  privileges  which  the  popes  coniferred  upon 
both  them  and  the  Franciscans.  The  Dominicans 
had  the  advantage,  however,  in  being  preferred,  if 
not  exclusively  chosen,  as  inquisitors  hoareticcB 
pravitatis.  When  Gregory  IX.  began,  in  1232,  to 
replace  the  episcopal  inquisition  by  officials  ap- 
pointed directly  by  the  pope,  he  usually  chose  the 
Preaching  Friars,  on  account  of  their  theological 
learning.  When  the  secular  arm  was  placed  at  the 
disposition  of  the  Church,  Frederick  II.  offered  his 
protection  in  1239  to  the  Dominicans  as  inquisitors, 
and  in  1255,  at  the  request  of  Louis  IX.,  Alex- 
ander IV.  named  the  Dominican  provincial  and 
the  Franciscan  guardian  as  inquisitors-general  for 
France.     (See  iNQUismoN.) 

The  growth  and  privileges  of  the  order  aroused 
enmity  in  more  than  one  quarter.  From  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century  many  of  the  cities  in 
which  the  mendicants,  unlike  the  older  orders, 
built  their  houses,  began  to  show  hostility.  Some 
of  the  older  orders,  especially  the  Cistercians  and 
Carthusians,  displayed  a  spirit  that  was  anything 
but  brotherly  toward  them,  and  the  higher  secular 
clergy  resented  their  intrusion  into 
5.  Achieve-  the  organized  cure  of  souls,  so  that 
ments  and  Innocent  IV.  was  obliged  in  1254  to 
Contro-  limit  their  privileges,  allowing  them 
▼ersies.  to  preach  and  hear  confessions  only 
with  the  assent  of  the  parish  priest. 
The  universities  were  at  first  unfriendly,  and  tried 
to  bar  out  the  Preaching  Friars.  The  famous  con- 
test in  Paris  was  terminated  in  favor  of  the  Domin- 
icans in  1259,  and  it  was  not  long  before  they  occu- 
pied the  theological  chairs  in  Bologna,  Padua, 
Vienna,  Cologne,  Prague,  Oxford,  and  Salamanca. 
The  greatest  of  the  scholastics,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  his  many-sided  teacher,  Albertus  Magnus,  are 
but  two  out  of  many  distinguished  theologians 
produced  by  the  order  in  the  later  Middle  Ages. 
It  did  not  confine  itself  to  the  cultivation  of  learn- 
ing, but  did  much  for  the  religious  training  of  the 
common  people.  One  of  the  most  popular  preach- 
ers of  a  little  later  day  was  the  Spanish  Dominican 
Vincent  Ferrer  (q.v.).  They  were  active  in  the 
missionary  field,  appearing  at  the  court  of  Kubla 
Khan  in  1272,  and  accomplishing  much  in  the  still 
heathen  parts  of  Europe;  the  conversion  of  the  Lith- 
uanians, completed  in  1386,  was  their  work.  Their 
services  to  art  were  very  considerable.  Two  of 
them  designed  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella 
in  Florence,  the  purest  and  most  beautiful  exam- 
ple of  Tuscan  Gothic.  Here,  at  San  Marco,  and  at 
Santa  Caterina  in  Pisa  pamting  was  cultivated 


Bomlnio 
Domlziis 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


482 


with  great  suocefls  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries;  the  last  flowering,  under  mystical  illu- 
mination, of  the  school  of  Giotto  was  seen  in  the 
work  of  Giovanni  da  Fiesole,  better  known  as  Fra 
Angeiico  (d  1455). 

The  mendicant  orders  had  at  first  stood  together 
against  the  monks,  the  secular  clergy,  and  the  uni- 
versities; but  before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury jealousy  brought  discord.  The  partizans  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  on  one  side  and  Duns  Scotus  on 
the  other  made  the  controversy  between  Thomists 
and  Scotists  traditional  (see  Immaculatb  Concep- 
tion). The  Dominicans  themselves  were  divided  in 
the  great  Western  Schism  (see  Schibm),  and  only 
reunited  by  Martin  V.  in  1418.  Worldliness  made 
its  inroads,  and  theological  subtlety  was  pushed 
to  absurd  extremes  The  conflict  of  the  humanist 
Reuchlin  with  the  Cologjie  inquisitor  Jakob  von 
Hoogstraten  and  the  EpistoUe  obscurarum  virorum 
(q  .V.)  show  how  the  order  had  declined  from  its  early 
zeal  for  learning  by  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
oentury.  The  Counterreformation  owed  its  re- 
sults not  to  the  Preaching  Friars,  but  to  the  new 
order  of  the  Jesuits,  whom  the  Dominicans  stead- 
ily opposed  on  several  questions  of  internal  policy 
and  belief.  In  the  great  controversy  about  grace 
(1588-1611)  they  stood  for  a  moderate  Augustin- 
ianism  against  the  Semi-Pelagianism  of  the  Jesuit 
Molina.  In  the  moral  controversy  the  two  orders 
became  theological  parties,  the  Jesuits  at  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  and  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
centuries  almost  always  defending  Probabilism 
(q.v.),  while  the  Dominicans  adopted  probabilior- 
ism  as  their  view.  The  most  violent  conflict,  how- 
ever, arose  in  the  mission- field.  The  Jesuits  had 
had  it  almost  to  themselves  in  the  era  of  the  Goun- 
terreformation,  except  in  America,  where  the 
Preaching  Friars  had  been  active,  and  one  of  the 
noblest  of  missionaries.  Las  Casas  (d.  1566),  had 
not  only  sought  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  of 
Mexico,  but  protected  them  from  the  greed  and 
cruelty  of  the  Spaniards.  They  came  to  China 
after  the  Jesuits  had  already  occupied  the  field; 
they  opposed  and  soon  denounced  at  Rome  the 
"  acconunodation  "  (q.v.)  of  the  rival  order,  and 
after  a  long  struggle  won  the  victory  in  1782 — 
though  the  downfall  of  Christianity  in  China  fol- 
lowed almost  inunediately. 

The  secularizing  policy  of  Joseph  II.  (d.  1790) 
diminished  still  further  the  number  of  convents 
which  the  Reformation  had  spared;  the  same  thing 
took  place  in  Germany,  and  the  Revolution  sup- 
pressed the  order  in  France,  until  it  was  restored 
by  the  eloquent  advocacy  of  Lacordaire  in  1840. 
Great  progress  was  made  under  the  generalship  of 
Alexander  Vincent  Jandel,  a  Frenchman  (d.  1872), 
who  published  a  revised  constitution  in  1872,  the 
most  important  change  being  the 
6.  Present  limitation  of  the  general's  term,  which 
Condition.  Pius  VII.  in  1804  fixed  at  six  years 
and  Pius  IX.  in  1862  at  twelve.  The 
general  has  resided  since  1272  at  Santa  Maria  sopra 
Minerva  in  Rome.  Fifty-two  provinces  are  named 
in  the  new  constitutions,  but  several  of  these  are 
merely  nominal.  There  are  about  300  houses, 
with  some  3,000  members.     Under  Pope  Leo  XIII., 


a  great  admirer  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  order  once 
more  assumed  importance  by  its  influence  on  theo- 
logical learning.  There  have  been  four  Dominican 
popes:  Innocent  V.  (d.  1276),  Benedict  XI.  (d. 
1304),  St.  Pius  V.  (d.  1572),  and  the  learned  Bene- 
dict XIII.  (d.  1730). 

Two  houses  of  the  female  branch  of  the  order, 
that  of  Prouille  and  San  Sisto  at  Rome,  arose  in 
the  founder's  lifetime.  Their  rule  prescribed  con- 
finement to  the  cloister,  ascetic  practises,  the  con- 
templative life,  and  employment  of  time  as  far  as 
possible  analogous  to  that  of  the  brothers;  the  ob- 
ligation of  poverty  was  for  obvious 
7.  The  reasons  not  as  strictly  imposed  on 
Sisten.  them.  New  houses  were  at  first 
founded  wherever  the  order  spread, 
and  were  under  the  direction  of  the  provincial.  As 
their  number  grew,  this  produced  difficulties  and 
interfered  with  the  work  of  the  friars,  who  got 
themselves  released  from  this  charge  in  1252, 
though  they  were  obh'ged  to  reassume  it  two  years 
later,  as  the  female  houses  were  suffering  from  the 
separation.  Only  a  few  remained  under  episcopal 
care.  They  followed  in  the  main  the  fortunes  of 
the  friars.  At  first  wholly  contemplative,  they 
devoted  themselves  later  to  the  education  of  girls; 
and  their  rule  was  correspondin^y  mitigated.  At 
present  there  are  about  ninety  houses  of  the  "  sec- 
ond order,"  with  some  1,500  inmates.  For  the 
"  third  order,"  composed  of  confraternities  of 
people  living  in  the  world,  see  Tertiaiubs;  Ook- 

FRATERNITIBS,  RSUQIOUS.  (G.  GrOTEMACH£R.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Eariy  lives  of  Dominie  are  ooUected  in 
ASB,  Aug.,  i.  358-668;  aome  of  tbe  aune,  with  otherj 
not  included,  are  in  J.  Qu<$tif,  Scriplorea  ordinia  pradi- 
catorum,  ed.  J.  Echard,  i.  1-56,  Paris,  1719.  The  Vita, 
by  Dietrich  of  Apolda  (c.  1296  a.d.).  ed.  A.  Car6.  Paris, 
1887.  Consult :  E.  Garo.  SL  Dominique  et  les  Dontini- 
caifu,  Paris.  1853;  J.  B.  H.  Lacordaire,  Vie  de  S.  Domi- 
nique, ib.  1882.  Eng.  transl..  London,  1883;  A.  T.  Drane, 
Hiet.  of  St.  Dominie,  ib.  1891;  J.  J.  Berthier,  Le  Tertt- 
ment  de  3.  Dominique,  Freiburg.  1892;  M.  J.  Rouaaet. 
Der  heiliife  Dominicue,  Freiburg,  1899;  T.  Alemany.  Lift 
of  SL  Dominic  wOh  Sketch  of  the  Domimioan  Order,  Nev 
York,  n.d. 

On  the  order,  for  souroes  eonault:  Momumenia  ardinia 
frairum  pradieatorum  kietariea,  now  in  oourae  of  pub- 
lication at  Rome,  1896  sqq.;  Ada  oapitularum  .  .  .  pr«- 
dieatorum,  ed.  G.  Douais,  Toulouse,  1894.  Further:  W. 
Q.  D.  Fletcher.  Black  Friare  of  Oxford,  Oxford,  1^2; 
G.  F.  K.  Palmer,  NoUeea  of  the  Friar  Preaehere  of  the  Eng. 
Province,  London,  1884;  Friar  Preaehere  of  Leiceater. 
I^eicest^r.  1884;  A.  T.  Drane,  Hiel.  of  Catherine  of  Sitna 
and  her  Companione,  London,  1887;  idem.  Spirit  of  tU 
Dominiean  Order,  ib.  1896;  B.  M.  Reichert.  in  Hiaioriecht 
JahrbQcher,  1897.  ii.  363-374;  B.  A.  A.  WUberfortse.  />- 
minioan  Miaaiona  and  Martyra  in  Japan,  London,  1897: 
M.  D.  Chapottn.  Hiatoire  dea  Dominieaina  de  .  .  .  France^ 
Rouen.  1898;  Fransisca  Raphael,  Der  Geiat  dea  Domtni- 
eaner  Ordena,  Dulmen.  1901;  J.  Uerkleas.  Franeaa  and 
Dominie  and  the  Mendicant  Ordera,  New  York.  1901; 
E.  Q.  Gardner.  Saint  Catherine  of  Siena,  London.  1907; 
Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Konoreoatitmen,  i.  540  sqq.;  Cur- 
rier, Relioioua  Ordera,  pp.  271-283;  Neaader.  CkriaHan 
Churdi,  yoL  iv.  passim  (valuable);  Schaff,  ChriaHe* 
Church,  y.  1.,  pp.  519  aqq. 

DOMINICALE,  do-min'^i-k^ai:  A  white  linen 
cloth  used  by  women  when  receiving  the  Loni's 
Supper;  either  a  napkin,  upon  which  the  bread 
was  laid  instead  of  upon  the  bare  hand,  or  the  veil 
which  women  generally  wore  in  the  house  of  God. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER:  A  letter  used  to  indi- 
cate Sunday  in  ancient  calendars,  which  marked 


483 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dominie 
DomizLifl 


the  first  seven  days  of  the  year  by  the  letters  A-G 
and  repeated  them  for  every  succeeding  week. 
The  same  letter  thus  designated  Sunday  throughout 
the  year  except  in  leap-years,  when  the  dominical 
letter  changed  from  A  to  G,  B  to  A,  etc.,  after  Feb. 
28  (in  some  calendars  after  Feb.  24).  It  is  used  in 
finding  the  date  of  Easter  of  any  given  year.  See 
Calendar,  The  Christian,  §  4;  EIabter,  I.,  3. 

DOHINIS,  MARCO  ANTONIO  DE:  Archbishop 
of  Spalato  (on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia,  160  m.  s.e. 
of  Triest);  b.  of  a  noble  Venetian  family  on  the 
island  of  Arbe  (80  m.  s.e.  of  Triest),  off  the  Dalma- 
tian coast,  1560;  d.  at  Rome  Sept.  8,  1624.  He 
was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Verona,  Padua, 
and  Brescia,  and  was  appointed  bishop  of  Zengg 
(on  the  coast  of  Croatia,  10  m.  n.  of  his  native 
island)  in  1596,  and  two  years  later  archbishop  of 
Spalato  and  primate  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia. 
Ills  position  was  a  difficult  one  owing  to  the 
conflict  between  the  curia  and  the  republic  of 
Venice;  and  the  complications  in  which  he  was 
Involved  led  him  to  thorough  canonical,  his- 
torical, and  dogmatic  studies  which  later  bore 
fruit  in  the  publication  of  the  De  republica  ecdeai- 
astica.  The  incompatibility  between  a  strong  tend- 
ency toward  an  episcopal  system  and  the  auto- 
cratic rule  of  the  pope  induced  him  to  resign  his 
office,  to  withdraw  from  the  Roman  Church,  and 
to  separate  himself  from  his  friends  and  country. 
In  the  Consilium  profectionis,  which  he  published 
(London,  1616;  also  in  part  i.  of  the  De  republica 
ecclesiastica)  to  explain  his  conduct,  he  expresses 
his  dissatisfaction  with  the  position  of  the  bishops 
under  the  pope,  declares  that  the  Roman  Church 
in  doctrine  and  polity  has  fallen  from  the  purity 
of  Christian  antiquity,  professes  to  be  actuated  by 
the  love  of  Christ  and  the  truth,  and  says  that  he 
hopes  to  promote  the  reunion  of  Christendom 
(chaps,  xii.,  xiii.,  xx.).  By  way  of  Venice,  Switzer- 
land, and  Heidelberg  he  went  to  England,  arriving 
Dec.  16,  1616.  At  St.  Paul's  in  London  he  joined 
the  Anglican  Church,  and  in  1618  was  made  master 
of  the  Savoy  and  dean  of  Windsor.  The  same  year 
he  published  in  London  The  Rocks  of  Christian 
Shi-pwreckt  a  book  of  popular  character,  previously 
published  at  Heidelberg  in  Italian  (Scogli  del  nau- 
fragio  christiano).  It  was  a  polemic  intended  to 
warn  and  admonish  his  countrymen,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  keen  Biblical  and  patristic  critique  of 
the  chief  Roman  doctrines  and  institutions.  Mean- 
while he  had  completed  his  chief  work,  the  De  re- 
publica ecclesiastica  libri  ( 3  parts,  i.,  London,  1617; 
ii.,  1620;  iii.,  Frankfort,  1658;  books  viii.  and  xx. 
were  never  printed).  With  much  learning  he  treats 
of  the  hierarchical  order,  the  power  of  the  Church, 
the  rights  of  the  laity,  the  decision  of  questions  of 
faith,  jurisdiction,  church  property  and  liberties; 
the  difference  between  priests  and  bishops  he 
makes  not  one  of  ecclesiastical  functions,  but  of 
jurisdiction  and  relation  to  the  Church  in  general, 
from  which,  rather  than  from  the  pope,  the  episcopal 
power  is  derived  and  by  which  it  is  conferred 
through  the  election  by  the  Christian  congregation. 
To  the  early  part  of  his  stay  in  England  belongs 
also  the  Papatus  Romanus  seu  de  oriffine,  progressn 


atque  extinctione  ejus  (London,  1617),  which  was 
inspired,  according  to  the  preface,  by  King  James 
I.  He  carried  on  correspondence  with  such  men 
as  Hugo  Grotius  and  Paolo  Sarpi,  and  published 
the  latter's  Historia  del  concilio  Tridentino  (the 
manuscript  of  which  he  had  brought  with  him 
from  Venice),  with  additions,  in  1619,  dedicated  to 
James  I. 

After  the  good  reception  accorded  to  De  Dom- 
inis  in  England  and  the  polemical  activity  he  had 
displayed,  great  surprise  was  occasioned  in  [Jan.] 
1622,  by  the  news  that  he  intended  to  return  to 
Italy.  The  reasons  he  gave  in  a  letter  to  the  king 
— advancing  age,  the  raw  air  of  England,  etc. — 
were  evidently  only  pretexts.  He  was  warned  ot 
danger  to  himself  in  his  purpose;  but  nevertheless 
he  went  back,  trusting  to  the  protection  of  his  for- 
mer friend,  Pope  Gregory  XV.  He  received  ab- 
solution only  after  a  threefold  recantation,  inclu- 
ding an  appearance  in  public  in  St.  Peter's  with 
a  rope  about  his  neck  and  in  penitential  garb. 
His  literary  activity  naturally  took  a  new  direc- 
tion. As  an  offset  to  the  Consilium  profectionis 
he  published  Reditus  ex  Anglia  consilium  (Rome, 
1623;  Eng.  transl.,  Li^,  1623;  London,  1827),  in 
which  he  explains  his  apostasy  as  due  to  a  twofold 
disorder,  brought  on  by  his  own  conceit  and  vin- 
dictiveness  toward  his  superiors,  and  condemns 
all  his  polemical  writings  of  the  earlier  period. 
His  retractation  made  no  impression,  however,  and 
the  book  scarcely  attempts  to  refute  the  material 
brought  together  previously  in  so  great  abundance. 
Gregory  XV.  died  July,  1623,  and  the  case  of  De 
Dominis  was  reopened.  Before  it  was  decided, 
however,  he  died  in  prison.  On  Dec.  20,  1624,  his 
body  was  carried  to  the  Church  of  Santa  Mari» 
sopra  Minerva,  his  picture  and  a  sack  containing 
his  books  were  placed  beside  it,  and  a  conclave  de- 
prived him  of  all  ecclesiastical  honors,  confiscated 
his  property,  and  handed  him  over  to  the  civil  au- 
thorities for  execution  of  sentence;  his  body  was 
publicly  burned  on  the  next  day.  His  books  were 
naturally  already  on  the  Index.  It  has  been  as- 
serted that  he  was  sent  to  England  by  Paul  V.  to 
convert  the  king  and  bishops  and  was  ill  treated 
when  he  returned  to  Rome  because  he  did  not  suc- 
ceed (cf.  J.  W.  Jaeger,  Historia  ecclesiastica  sobcuU 
decimi  septimi,  L,  Hamburg,  1709,  p.  382,  dec.  iii., 
lib.  ii.,  cap.  xv.).  His  works  not  already  men- 
tioned include  A  Sermon  Preached  in  the  Mercers' 
Chapel,  London  (London,  1617)  and  a  Tractatus  de 
radiis  visus  et  lucis  in  perspectivis  et  iride  (Venice, 
1611),  in  which  he  came  near  giving  the  true  sci- 
entific explanation  of  the  rainbow.  Opinions  con- 
cerning De  Dominis  differ.  His  ability  and  learn- 
ing are  unquestioned;  but  his  honesty  has  been 
seriously  impugned  by  Protestants  as  well  as  Roman 
Catholics.  It  is  said  that  he  obtained  the  copy  of 
Sarpi's  Concilio  Tridentino  surreptitiously,  pub- 
lished it  without  the  author's  consent,  and  made 
unjustifiable  alterations  and  additions.  His  con- 
duct in  England  is  said  to  have  been  shamelessly 
avaricious.  K.  Benbath. 

Biblioorapht:  Trajano  Boeealini  lettera  al  Sgr,  MuUo,  in 
La  bUancia  politioa  di  tuUe  le  opere  di  Ttx^ano  Boeealini, 
iii.  7-40,  Castellana,  1678;  R.  Neile,  Mono  Antonio  d« 


Dominns 

Donation  of  Constantino 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


484 


DowUwU,  Am  Shiftinot  in  JMioion,  London,  1624;  L. 
Veitb,  De  vita  .  .  .  d§  Daminia,  appendod  to  hit  Bdm. 
BUMri  Bwtema,  Meehlin.  1826;  F.  A.  Rauooh.  Der  In- 
dt»  der  Mr6otoiwn  BUektr,  ii.  401-404.  Bonn.  1885;  H. 
Newland,  The  Life  and  ConiemporaneoueiChurch  Hittcry 
of  Ankmio  de  Dominie,  Oxford,  1860;  KL,  iii  1040-60. 

DOMmUS.    See  Don  us. 

DOmriAWy  do-miflh'i-an  (TITUS  FLAVIUS  DO- 
miAIinS):  Roman  emperor  81-06;  b.  at  Rome 
Oct.  25,  61;  d.  there  Sept.  18,  06.  The  son  of  the 
emperor  Vespasian  and  Flavia  Domitilla,  he  succeed- 
ed his  father  Sept.  13,  81.  He  ruled  at  first  in  an 
autocratic,  but  zealous  and  intelligent  manner,  and 
strengthened  the  life  and  the  ordinances  of  religion. 
Aristocratic  opposition,  however,  especially  of  the 
senatorial  body,  awakened  in  him  a  distrust  which 
was  fostered  by  informers  and  quickly  led  to  bloody 
executions,  particularly  in  05-06.  The  result  was 
a  reaction,  culminating  in  a  conspiracy  to  which 
the  emperor  fell  a  victim. 

In  06  Domitian  instituted  repressive  measures 
against  the  Christians,  and  though  his  policy  was 
both  brief  and  of  limited  extent,  its  execution  was 
severe  and  cruel.  The  distress  of  the  Roman  con- 
gregation was  increased  by  the  quick  and  unex- 
pected character  of  the  blow.  One  of  its  most 
prominent  members,  Flavia  Domitilla  (q.v.)»  was 
banished,  and  her  husband,  the  consular  Flavius 
Clemens,  was  put  to  death.  It  is  not  impossible  that 
the  ex-consul  Manius  Acilius  Glabrio  (q.v.)  also  suf- 
fered as  a  Christian.  The  causes  which  led  to  the 
stringent  measures  against  the  Christians  are  un- 
known, but  they  were  probably  connected  with 
the  contemporary  political  executions;  the  em- 
peror's distrust  extended  to  the  firmly  organised 
congregation  which  stood  aloof  from  public  life, 
yet  had  members  in  the  higher  social  circles  and 
even  the  hostile  aristocracy  which  surrounded  him. 
His  self-deification,  which  resulted  in  such  official 
and  unofficial  designations  as  theoa,  DeuM,  Domintu 
et  Deus,  ZeuM  eleutheros,  and  Jupiter,  as  well  as  his 
systematic  attempts  to  regenerate  the  ancient 
cults,  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  Since 
there  is  no  reliable  tradition  to  show  that  the  perse- 
cution extended  beyond  Rome,  and  since  Tertullian 
knows  only  of  a  brief  period  of  oppression  {Apol.,  v. ), 
the  numerous  martyrdoms  mentioned  by  the  his- 
torian Bruttius  and  the  banishments  to  which 
Tertullian  alludes  were  doubtless  limited  to  Rome.* 
The  measures  taken  by  Domitian,  according  to 
Hegesippus,  against  the  relatives  of  Jesus,  who 
were  denounced,  imprisoned,  and  carried  to  Rome 
as  members  of  the  royal  house  of  David,  were  in- 
spired, on  the  other  hand,  simply  by  political  con- 
siderations connected  with  the  relations  between 
the  government  and  the  Jews.  The  emperor  ques- 
tioned the  prisoners  solely  regarding  their  political 
affiliations  and  finally  dismissed  them  as  politically 
harmless.  It  is  incorrect  to  assume,  with  Hegesip- 
pus, that  this  affair  caused  a  cessation  of  the  perse- 

*  If ,  aa  ia  commonly  admitted,  the  ApocalsrpM  waa  writ- 
ten during  the  reign  of  Domitian,  and  the  reigning  emperor 
waa  aaaociated  by  the  writer  with  Nero  (Rev.  vi.  9  sqq.. 
xrii.  5,  8.  11,  etc.).  it  would  Mem  reasonable  to  infer. that 
the  peraecution  extended  beyond  Rome,  or  at  least  that  a 
wideHipread  persecution  seemed  imminent.  A.  H.  N. 


cution  of  the  Church,  for  there  was  no  persecution 
of  the  Church  per  ee.  Victor  Schultze. 

Bxbuoobapbt:  J.  B.  lightfoot,  Apoeiolie  Patkere,  i.  104 
aqq..  London.  1890  (coUeeta  the  aouroes);  H.  Schiller. 
OeeehidUe  der  rOmieehen  Kaieerteii,  i.  620  aqq.,  Gotha. 
1883;  F.  Piehemayr,  T.  Flavine  DomiHanve,  Amberg. 
1889;  W.  M.  Ramaay,  Chitrdi  in  the  Roman  Empire,  pp. 
259-283,  London.  1893;  E.  O.  Hardy,  ChrieHttniiy  and 
the  Roman  Ooeemm^ent,  pp.  86  aqq.,  ib.  1894;  L.  Pullan« 
Chvreh  of  the  Fathere,  New  York,  1905;  Sehaff.  Chriatiam 
Church,  i.  427-428.  For  the  life  of  Domitaan  eonsolt 
SuetoniuB,  Eng.  traaal.  by  A.  Thompacm,  reriaed  by  T. 
Forester,  pp.  479-^506,  London.  1896. 

DOMITILLA,  FLAVIA:  According  to  Dio  Cassius 
(ixvii.  14;  cf.  Suetonius,  Domitian,  xv.),  a  niece  of 
the  emperor  Domitian,  married  to  her  cousin,  the 
consul  Flavius  Clemens;  both  were  condemned  for 
"  atheism  "  (or  "  Judaizing  ")  in  96  a.d.,  Clement 
was  beheaded,  and  Domitilla  was  banished  to  the 
island  of  Pandateria  (in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea;  the 
modem  Ventotene,  about  half-way  between  Ponza 
and  Ischia).  The  acts  of  Nereus  and  Achilleus, 
and  Eusebius,  who  quotes  from  a  heathen  writer 
Bruttius  {HisL  ecd.,  iiL  18;  Chron.,  in  MPG,  viil 
605),  represent  Domitilla  as  a  niece  of  Flavius 
Clemens  and  the  place  of  her  banishment  as  Pontia 
(Ponse;  so  also  Jerome,  Epist.,  lxxxvL-[cviii.]  ad 
Euatochium,  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  vi.  197).  Some  have 
thought  that  there  were  two  DomitiUas,  but  it  is 
more  natural  to  suppose  that  the  two  accounts, 
though  discrepant,  refer  to  the  same  person.  One 
of  the  oldest  catacombs,  on  the  Ardeatine  Way, 
near  Terracina,  is  called  CcBmeteritan  DomiUUcB  or 
CcBmeterium  Nerei  ei  AckiUei,  See  Cleicent  or 
Rome,  {  2. 

Bxblioorapht:  Monoouen,  in  CIL,  vi.  172;  F.  X.  Kraoi, 
Roma  eoUerranea,  p.  43,  Freibuxg.  1872;  O.  B.  de  Roe^l 
BuUettino  di  areheologia  crieHana,  2d  aer.,  ▼■  (1875).  61^ 
71;  J.  8.  Northcote,  Roma  eotterranea,  pp.  09-70,  ib.  1S79. 


DONALDSON,  JAMES,  SIR:  Church  of  Scotland: 
b.  at  Aberdeen  Apr.  26,  1831.  He  studied  at  Aber- 
deen (B.A.,  1849),  New  College,  London  (1849-51). 
and  the  University  of  Berlin  (1851).  He  was  tutor 
of  Greek  in  Edinburgh  University  1852-^,  rector 
of  the  high  school  at  Stirling  1854-56,  classical 
master  and  rector  of  the  Edinburgh  High  School 
1856--81,  professor  of  humanity  in  Aberdeen  Uni- 
versity 1881-86,  and  is  now  principal  and  vice- 
chancellor  of  St.  Andrews  University  and  prindpal 
of  the  United  College  of  St.  Salvator  and  St.  Leon- 
ard. He  was  knighted  in  1907.  His  books  in- 
clude: A  Critical  History  of  Chrietian  Literature  and 
Doctrine  from  the  death  of  the  Apostles  to  the  Nictne 
CouncU  (3  vols.,  London,  1864-66);  and  The  Wett- 
minster  Confession  of  Faith  and  the  Thirty-Nine 
Articles  of  the  Church  of  England:  Tfie  Legale  Moral, 
and  Religious  Aspects  of  Subscription  to  Them  (1905). 
With  Alexander  Roberts  he  edited  The  Ante-Nicene 
Christian  Library  (24  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1867-72). 

DONATION  OF  CONSTANTINS. 

GoDtenta  oi  the  Doeument  (SI). 

Ittf  History  (S  2). 

Origin  (S  3). 

PreMot  SUte  of  the  Diecttawm  (|  4). 

The  *'  Donation  of  Constantinc  "  is  the  name 
traditionally  applied,  since  the  later  Middle  Ages. 
to  a  document  purporting  to  have  been  ad<lr(.>sseiJ 
by  Const antine  the  Great  to  Pope  Sylvester  U 


485 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Domlnns 

Donation  of  Oonstentine 


which  IB  found  first  in  a  Parisian  manuscript  {Codex 
lot.  2777)  of  probably  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century.  Since  the  eleventh  century  it  has  been 
used  as  a  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  the  papal 
claims,  and  consequently  since  the  twelfth  it  has 
been  the  subject  of  a  vigorous  controversy.  At 
the  same  time,  by  rendering  it  possible  to  regard 
the  papacy  as  a  middle  term  between  the  original 
and  the  medieval  Roman  Empire,  and  thus  to  form 
a  theoretical  basis  of  continuity  for  the  reception  of 
the  Roman  law  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  has  had  no 
small  influence  upon  secular  history. 

After  a  remarkable  introduction  (chap,  i.),  the 
emperor   promises   a    "  clear   narration "    of   the 
marvels  which  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  have 
wrought  through  the  "supreme  pontiff  and  uni- 
versal   pope "    Sylvester    (ii.);     but 

I.  Contents  before  proceeding    to    this   he  gives 
of  the      (iii.-iv.)  the  confession  of  faith  which 

Document  Sylvester  has  taught  him,  and  ad- 
monishes all  nations  to  accept  it  and 
adore  the  Christ  whom  "  our  universal  father " 
Sylvester  preaches.  He  goes  on  (vi.-x.)  to  give 
the  history  of  his  conversion,  baptism,  and  deliver- 
ance from  leprosy  by  Sylvester,  in  terms  which 
agree  substantially  with  the  Sylvester  legend  (see 
Sylvester  I.,  Pope),  and  asserts  his  desire  to  show 
his  gratitude  for  the  benefits  of  Peter.  Accord- 
ingly, in  agreement  with  his  **  satraps,"  the  senate, 
and  the  Roman  people,  he  recognizes  the  primacy 
of  the  vicar  of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  and  in- 
tends to  raise  his  see  above  all  earthly  thrones  (xi.). 
Accordingly  he  sanctions  (xii.)  the  precedence  of 
the  "  see  of  Peter  "  over  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Con- 
stantinople, and  Jerusalem,  and  decrees  (xiii.) 
that  the  church  foimded  by  himself  near  the  Lat- 
eran  palace  shall  be  honored  as  the  **  head  and 
summit  of  all  the  churches  in  the  whole  world," 
stating  at  the  same  time  that  he  has  built  churches 
to  Peter  and  Paul,  and  endowed  them  with  his 
possessions  in  Judea,  Greece,  Asia  [Minor],  Thrace, 
Africa,  and  Italy.  He  hands  over  (xiv.)  the  Lat- 
eran  palace  to  the  pope,  and  allows  him  to  use  the 
imperial  diadem  and  the  other  insignia  of  empire. 
The  Roman  clergy  (xv.)  are  also  distinguished  by 
senatorial  rank  and  eligibility  to  the  patriciate  and 
consulate;  he  gives  the  pope  the  exclusive  right  to 
confer  holy  orders  upon  senators.  He  asserts 
(xvi.)  that  Sylvester  has  refused  to  wear  the  im- 
perial diadem  over  the  tonsure,  and  therefore  he 
himself  has  set  the  white  miter  with  his  own  hand 
upon  the  pope's  holy  brow.  In  order  (xvii.)  that 
the  papal  throne  may  not  be  of  low  esteem,  he 
leaves  to  the  pope  the  power  and  jurisdiction,  "  in 
imitation  of  our  sovereignty,"  over  the  city  of  Rome 
and  **  all  provinces,  places,  and  cities  of  Italy  or  of 
the  western  regions,"  confining  his  own  sovereignty 
to  the  East,  where  he  intends  to  build  up  a  capital 
for  himself  at  Byzantium.  He  lays  (xix.)  a  solemn 
obligation  upon  his  successors,  "satraps,"  the 
senate,  and  all  peoples  of  the  earth  to  leave  these 
provisions  intact,  and  invokes  an  eternal  curse 
upon  those  who  violate  them.  He  proclaims  (xx,) 
that  he  has  signed  the  decree  with  his  own  hand 
and  laid  it  upon  the  body  of  St.  Peter,  closing  with 
the  imperial  signature  and  the  date. 


It  is  a  controverted  question  whether  Adrian  I., 
in  his  letter  of  May,  778,  to  Charlemagne  {JaS6, 
Regeata,  2423)  refers  to  this  document.  The  pas- 
sage (line  9)  in  which  he  alludes  to  Constantine  and 
Sylvester  seems  to  imply  a  knowledge 
a.  Its       of  it,  but  lines  18  sqq.  more  easily  bear 

History,  the  opposite  construction.  The  Codex 
Parieintu,  however,  is  positive  evi- 
dence that  it  was  known  at  Saint  Denis  early  in  the 
ninth  century,  perhaps  before  793.  The  next  old- 
est testimonies  to  it  also  belong  to  the  Prankish 
kingdom — ^the  pseudo-Isidore,  Ado  of  Vienne,  and 
Hincmar  of  Reims.  On  the  other  hand,  no  Roman 
references  to  it  during  the  ninth  or  tenth  century 
are  met.  Two  Prankish  popes,  Gregory  V.  and 
Sylvester  II.,  are  the  first  to  base  certain  territorial 
claims  upon  it.  These  excited  such  vigorous  im- 
perial opposition  that  the  chancellor  of  Otto  III., 
Leo  of  Vercelli,  boldly  asserts  that  the  document 
is  a  Roman  forgery.  Another  Prankish  pope,  Leo 
IX.,  brought  it  up  half  a  century  later,  using  it  in 
a  controversy  with  Byzantium  so  energetically 
that  it  was  not  again  forgot£en.  Peter  Damian 
cites  it  against  the  antipope  Cadalus  of  Parma,  and 
Gregory  VII.  alludes  to  it  in  the  oath  which  he 
tenders  to  Herman  of  Salm,  a  claimant  of  the 
empire  (1081).  Anselm  of  Lucca  and  Cardinal 
Deusdedit  include  it  in  their  collections  of  canons. 
The  publicists  of  the  early  twelfth  century  use  it  aa 
the  basis  for  far-reaching  conclusions;  in  a  word, 
by  this  period  it  is  known  everywhere  and  em- 
ployed as  a  valuable  weapon  in  the  strife  with  the 
civU  power,  whose  representatives  were  forced  to 
take  it  into  account.  As  a  rule,  they  contented 
themselves  with  denying,  not  its  authenticity,  but 
the  conclusions  drawn  from  it.  This  line  of  argu- 
ment was  inconclusive.  The  first  to  attack  the 
validity  of  the  document  itself  was  the  republican 
party  in  Rome,  under  Arnold  of  Brescia's  influence; 
one  of  his  adherents,  a  jurist,  maintained  in  1151, 
in  a  disputation  with  Gerhoh  of  Reichersberg,  that 
it  was  invalid  because  Constantine  was  baptized 
or  rebaptized  in  the  Arian  heresy,  and  a  year  later 
they  went  further,  declaring  the  whole  thing  a  lie 
and  a  heretical  fable,  and  supporting  their  conten- 
tion by  historical  arguments,  as  that  Constantine, 
according  to  the  pseudo-Isidore,  had  already  been 
baptized  before  he  came  to  Rome.  But  these 
utterances  made  little  impression.  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa  and  his  partisans  did  not  attack  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  document;  and  the  popes  of  the  later 
twelfth  and  the  thirteenth  centuries  appealed 
with  increasing  confidence  to  it.  The  Waldenses, 
Cathari,  and  Apostolic  Brethren,  on  the  other  hand, 
stoutly  maintained  that  the  Donation  had  marked 
a  step  away  from  the  original  purity  of  the  Church, 
in  the  direction  of  Antichrist,  with  whom  some  of 
them  even  identified  Sylvester.  At  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  lawyers  of  Philip  the  Fair 
took  up  once  more  the  Amoldist  line,  and  denied  its 
legal  validity.  Their  theory  found  considerable 
approbation  in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  soon 
spread  throughout  Western  Europe.  Their  argu- 
ments, however,  were  of  a  scholastic  type,  and  the 
possibility  of  the  document  being  a  mere  forgery  is 
not  mentioned  until  the  rise  of  historical  criticism 


Donation  of  Oonstftntine 
DonatUm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


in  the  fifteenth  century.  Nicholas  of  Cusa  came 
(1432-33)  to  the  conclusion  that  Constantine  never 
made  any  such  donation;  Lauren tius  Valla  gave  a 
brilliant  demonstration  of  its  spuriousness  in  1440, 
and  Reginald  Pecock  came  independently  to  the 
same  conclusion  in  1450.  For  a  century  longer, 
however,  in  spite  of  their  arguments,  the  general 
belief  in  its  authenticity  continued  to  prevail  among 
the  great  body  both  of  ecclesiastics  and  lawyers,  so 
that  it  is  not  surprising  that  Luther  first  learned 
of  its  spuriousness  from  Hut  ten's  edition  of  Valla's 
treatise.  The  defense  of  the  authenticity  ceased  on 
the  Roman  Catholic  side  when  Baronius  aban- 
doned it,  as  far  as  the  external  form  went,  in  1592 — 
though  he  and  his  successors  attempted,  up  to  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to  maintain 
the  accuracy  of  its  substance. 

Since  the  admission  of  the  spuriousness  of  the 

document,  the  most  diverse  views  have  prevailed 

as  to  its  real  origin.    The  Roman  Catholic  writers 

thought  it  Greek  (Baronius)  or  Frank- 

3.  Origin,    ish  (Thomassin,  Zaccaria,  Cenni);   the 

Protestants  (Freher,  SchrOckh)  be- 
lieved that  it  originated  in  Rome.  The  dates 
assigned  to  its  composition  ranged  from  the  pon- 
tificate of  Stephen  II.  (757-767)  to  c.  963.  In  the 
first  edition  of  his  Papstfabeln  des  MiltekUtera 
(Munich,  1863)  D5llinger  demonstrated  conclu- 
sively that  it  was  not  Greek,  but  Western.  Between 
1882  and  1884  Grauert  subjected  the  structure  and 
vocabulary  to  a  more  searching  examination  than 
it  had  ever  received,  concluding  that  it  originated 
on  Frankish  soil  soon  after  840.  In  the  course  of 
the  vigorous  discussion  aroused  by  this  theory 
Friedrich  propounded  a  new  view  in  1889,  that  the 
document  consists  of  an  older  part,  written  before 
653,  and  a  later,  added  by  Paul  I.  not  later  than  754. 
The  net  result  of  all  these  modem  examinations, 
including  that  of  Loening  in  1890  and  of  Martens 
still  more  recently,  gives  a  substantial  agreement 
on    certain     propositions :     (1 )    The 

4.  Present  Donation  is  a  forgery.  (2)  It  is  the 
State  of  the  work  of  one  man  or  period.  (3)  The 
Discussion,  forger    has,    however,    made    use   of 

older  material,  including,  for  chaps, 
vi.-x.,  a  version  of  the  Sylvester  legend  not  now 
extant,  but  current  in  Rome  in  the  eighth  century; 
for  iii.-iv.y  an  ancient  confession  of  faith;  and  for 
the  opening  and  closing  chapters,  genuine  Byzan- 
tine imperial  documents.  (4)  The  forgery  orig- 
inated in  Rome,  between  752  and  778;  whether 
under  Paul  I.,  Stephen  II.,  or  Adrian  I.  is  still 
disputed.  As  to  the  purpose  of  its  composition, 
Scheffer-Boichorst  believes  it  to  have  been  the 
exaltation  of  St.  Sylvester;  but  for  this  a  new 
legend,  not  a  legal  document,  would  have  been 
the  natural  means  to  employ.  The  form  adopted 
shows  that  the  forger  had  in  mind  to  confirm  or 
make  possible  certain  legal  claims  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  recognition  of  the  pope  as  a  poten- 
tate equal  in  rank  to  the  emperor,  the  attribution 
of  senatorial  rank  to  the  Roman  clergy,  dominion 
over  all  the  provinces  of  Italy  or  of  ''  the  occidental 
regions  " — these  were  not  things  seriously  claimed 
or  contended  for  by  the  Roman  Church  of  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries.    The  probability  is  that  the 


forger,  as  happened  in  other  cases,  not  venturing 
clearly  to  designate  the  object  aimed  at,  enveloped 
it  in  sufficiently  vague  circumlocution.  In  this 
case  it  would  seem  obvious  that  the  tendency  of 
the  forgery  is  visible  in  the  seventeenth  and  follow- 
ing chapters,  relating  to  the  donation  of  territory. 
But  since  the  popes  of  that  period  made  no  pre- 
tensions to  sovereignty  over  the  whole  of  Italy,  the 
special  design  would  have  been  to  provide  a  finn 
basis  for  their  claims  to  the  part  which  they  did 
desire,  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  It  is  accordingly 
probable  that  the  document  was  meant  to  serve  as 
a  weapon  in  their  conflict  for  the  possession  of  this, 
and  specifically  to  be  laid  before  the  Frankish  court. 
Reasoning  from  this,  the  simplest  solution  of  the 
date  problem  is  the  view  that  it  was  composed 
shortly  before  Stephen  II. 's  departure  from  Rome 
on  Oct.  14,  753.  This  date  offers  the  least  difficulty 
in  regard  to  both  external  and  internal  evidence, 
and  is  consonant  with  the  history  of  the  document, 
which  makes  its  first  appearance  in  the  abbey  of 
Saint  Denis,  where  Stephen  spent  the  winter  of  754, 
and  is  found  there  between  two  letters  (whose 
authenticity  is,  indeed,  questioned)  from  Zacharias, 
Stephen's  predecessor,  and  Stephen  himself. 

(H.  BdHMER.) 

BiBLioGRApirr:  Tlie  beat  t«xt  ia  given  by  K.  Zeomer,  in 
Featoabe  fDr  Rudolf  von  OneUi,  Berlin,  1888;  a  tranal.  is 
given  in  Henderaon,  DoeumerUt,  pp.  310-329.  Consult: 
J.  J.  I.  von  Dollinger.  Die  PapstfaUln  dee  Mittelal- 
tere,  pp.  72-125.  2d  ed..  Stuttgart.  1890.  Eng.  tnin:^.. 
Fablee  Reepecting  the  Popee  of  the  Middle  Agee,  London, 
1871;  R.  Pecock.  The  Repreeeor  of  over  mtiek  BUtmino  of 
the  Ctergy,  ed.  C.  Babington.  Rolls  Seriee,  No.  19.  voL  ii.. 
pp.  351-300;  A.  Bonneau.  La  Donation  de  Conatantin, 
Liaieux.  1879;  Gmelin.  Dae  Sckenkungevenpredun  ufu< 
die  Sehenkung  Pippine,  pp.  36-37,  Vienna.  1880;  J. 
Friedrich,  Die  eonatantiniedie  Sdienkung,  Ndrdlingen, 
1889;  W.  Martena.  Die  faleche  GeneraUumaeeeion  Kon- 
elanline,  Munich.  1889;  idem.  BeleuefUung  der  neueaten 
Koniroveraen  ilber  die  rdmiadie  Frage  imler  Pippin  und 
Karl  dem  Oroaeen,  iii.  151  aqq.,  ib.  1898;  F.  Qregoro- 
▼ius.  Rome  in  the  Middle  Agea,  ii.  359-362.  London.  1894; 
T.  Hodgkin.  Italy  and  her  Jnvadera^  vii.  135  aqq.*  Oxford. 
1899. 

DONATISM. 

Origin  (H)- 

The  Actual  Breach  (ft  2). 

Repreaaive  Meaaurea  against  Donatiats  (|  3). 

Decay  of  the  Sect  (M). 

Opposition  of  Auguatine  (S  5). 

Doctrinal  Position  of  the  Two  Partiea  (ft  6). 

Donatism,  a  schismatic  movement  which  orig- 
inated in  the  African  Church  early  in  the  fourth 
century,  was  an  outcome  of  the  Diocletian  perse- 
cution, as  the  persecutions  of  Decius  and  Va- 
lerian had  given  birth  to  Novatianism.  In  the 
former  persecution  the  demand  for  the  delivery  of 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Christians  made  the  ques- 
tion of  their  duty  a  complicated  one;  a  compromise 

with  the  government  might  both  in- 
I.  Origin,    sure  the  bishop's  personal  safety  and 

protect  his  flock,  but  it  was  very 
like  apostasy.  The  conduct  of  Bilensurius,  bishop 
of  Carthage,  is  told  in  his  correspondence  with 
Secundus  of  Tigisis,  the  primate  of  Numidia. 
He  adopted  the  expedient  of  leaving  heretical 
writings  to  the  persecutors  in  the  churches,  which 
satisfied  the  proconsul;  and  he  censured  those 
who  courted  martyrdom  by  declaring  themselves 


4:87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Donation  of  Constantind 
Donatism 


in  possession  of  sacred  books  and  refusing  to  sur- 
render them.  Secundus,  on  the  other  hand,  ex- 
tolled the  latter  class  as  martyrs,  and  refused  his 
approval  to  any  concession.  Light  is  thrown  upon 
t  he  words  of  Mensiuius  by  the  accusations  brought 
against  him  and  his  archdeacon  CsBcilianus  in  the 
Acts  of  Satuminus  and  his  companions,  which  are 
Uonatist  at  least  in  their  present  form.  Men- 
surius  had  evidently  taken  pains  to  check  anything 
'which  could  call  forth  a  more  acute  persecution, 
and  opposed  the  extravagant  reverence  shown  to 
confessors.  Though  it  is  uncertain  how  far  the 
accusations  against  Caecilianus,  showing  passionate 
hatred  of  him,  are  true,  he  had  clearly  been  impru- 
dent. The  latent  fundamental  opposition  in  the 
Carthaginian  Church  was  thus  tinged  with  per- 
sonal bitterness,  which  broke  out  severely  on  the 
death  of  Mensiuius.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  circumstances  under  which  the  actual 
breach  came  to  pass.  The  moderate  party  seems 
to  have  at  once  elected  Csecilianus  to  succeed  Men- 
surius  and  to  have  taken  order  for  his  consecration 
without  waiting  for  the  primate,  probably  thinking 
to  gain  the  advantage  of  a  fail  accompli  and  insure 
his  recognition  outside  of  Africa;  but  the  manner 
of  the  proceeding  gave  occasion  for  forcible  objec- 
tions on  the  part  of  the  faction  hostile  to  Csecil- 
ianus  and  of  the  Numidian  bishops.  The  latter 
Bent  to  Carthage  as  interverUor  (administrator  of  the 
see)  Bishop  Donatus  of  Casse  Nigrae,  who  was  the 
real  founder  of  the  schism.  According  to  the  most 
reliable  authorities,  he  was  sent  before  Csecilianus's 
consecration,  to  intervene  in  the  factional  strife  in 
the  name  of  the  Numidian  bishops,  and  perhaps  to 
put  off  decisive  action  until  their  arrival.  His 
openly  declared  hostility  to  Csecilianus  only  made 
the  latter's  party  more  active  and  determined. 
Donatus  consecrated  Majorinus  as  bishop,  and 
seventy  of  the  Nmnidian  bishops,  assembled  at  a 
council  in  Carthage,  summoned  Csecilianus  before 
them,  refusing  to  acknowledge  him  even  when  he 
expressed  his  readiness  to  undergo  a  second  con- 
secration. 

Though    personal   differences    were  the    active 
causes  of  the  Donatist  schism,  its  extent  and  dura- 
tion show  that  there  were  deeper  groimds.    The 
opposition  between  the  rigorist  and  the  moderate 
attitudes  had  been  widely  at  work  and  the  spread 
of  this  purely  local  schism  into  one  which  had 
destructive  consequences   for  the  whole   African 
Church  was  also  due  largely  to  the  new  relations 
between  Church  and  State  which  began  at  this  time. 
In  313  the  emperor  Constantine  gave  a 
a.  The      subsidy  (equivalent  to  over  $80,000) 
Actual      to  Csecilianus  and  his  party;  he  called 
Breach,     the  attention  of  his  representatives  in 
Africa  to  the  schism,  and  directed  that 
exemption  from  taxation  should  apply  only  to  the 
clergy    of    Csecilianus's    party.     These    measures 
forced  the  Donatists  to  appeal  formally  to  Constan- 
tine, and  he  referred  the  matter  to  Melchiades, 
bishop  of  Rome.    Ten  bishops  of  each  party  were 
to  appear  with  Csecilianus  in  Rome;    three  Gallic 
and  fifteen  Italian  bishops  were  to  act  with  Mel- 
chiades as  assessors.     As  the  Roman  bishop  had 
from  the  first  maintained  friendly  relations  with 


Csecilianus,  who  had  priority  of  consecration  also 
in  his  favor,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  award 
recognized  him  as  the  lawful  bishop.  Donatus 
was  treated  as  the  real  defendant,  and  excommu- 
nicated on  a  charge  of  having  rebaptized  lay  peo- 
ple and  reconsecrated  bishops  who  had  lapsed  in 
the  persecution.  The  way  of  reconciliation  was 
smoothed  for  the  bishops  of  Majorinus's  party  by 
permission  to  retain  their  sees;  where  there  were 
two  bishops  in  one  see,  the  senior  was  to  hold  it  and 
a  diocese  to  be  found  elsewhere  for  the  other.  The 
letters  of  0>nstantine  to  iElafius  (called  also  A  blabius 
or  Ahlaviu8)t  vicar  of  Africa,  and  to  Chrestus,  bishop 
of  Syracuse,  show  that  the  Donatists  complained  they 
had  not  had  a  full  and  fair  hearing  in  Rome.  The  em- 
peror ordered  a  new  hearing  at  Aries  in  316,  of  which 
an  account  is  given  in  the  report  made  by  the 
bishops  there  assembled  to  Sylvester  of  Rome,  and 
in  the  canons  passed  by  the  synod.  The  African 
practise  of  rebaptizing  schismatics,  applied  by  the 
Donatists  to  the  adherents  of  Csecilianus,  was  dis- 
allowed, and  tlie  Roman  custom  of  mere  laying 
on  of  hands  sanctioned.  The  Donatist  accusation 
that  Felix  of  Aptunga,  the  consecrator  of  Csecil- 
ianus, had  been  a  traditar  (one  who  gave  up  the 
sacred  books  to  the  heathen;  see  Lapsed),  which 
had  been  only  incidentally  considered,  took  a 
prominent  place  here;  but  the  synod  decided  that 
only  those  against  whom  traditio  could  be  proved 
by  official  documents  should  be  considered  guilty, 
and  that  even  in  those  cases  orders  conferred  by 
them  were  valid.  A  section  of  the  Donatists 
yielded  to  these  decisions;  but  the  remsunder 
appesJed  once  more  to  the  emperor,  and  he  sum- 
moned the  principal  witnesses  suid  representatives 
of  both  parties  to  him  at  Rome.  When  Csecilianus 
did  not  appear  Constantine  thought  of  sending 
delegates  to  try  the  case  in  Africa,  or  even  of  going 
thither  himself,  but  finally  transferred  the  hearing 
to  Milan.  Here  both  Csecilianus  and  his  opponent 
Donatus  (called  "  the  Great  "  by  his  adherents  to 
distinguish  him  from  Donatus  of  Casse  Nigrse),  who 
had  succeeded  Majorinus  as  claimant  of  the  see  of 
Carthage,  were  present.  The  decision  was  once 
more  in  favor  of  Csecilianus;  but  the  emperor  for- 
bade both  contestants  to  return  to  Africa,  sending 
two  bishops  as  delegates  in  the  hope  of  restoring 
peace. 

When  these  efforts  proved  fruitless  he  took  up  in 
earnest  the  repressive  measures  which  he  had  al- 
ready threatened.     Orders  were  sent  out  to  take 
their  churches  away  from  the  Donatists,   which 
meant  the  use  of  force,  as  they  were  unlikely  to 
surrender  them   peaceably.    Blood   was   shed   in 
taking  possession  of  a  church  in  Cai^ 
3.  Repres-  thage,   and  persecution,  regarded  as 
sive  Heas-  a  mark  of  the  true  Church,  only  in- 
ures against  creased  the  fanaticism  of  the  Donatists. 
Donatists.  They  assured  the  emperor  that  they 
would   never   hold   communion   with 
"  the  rogue  "  Ca^cilianus,  and  he  was  so  far  im- 
pressed that  he  revoked  his  order  and  allowed  the 
banished  bishops  to  return.     The  schismatic  party 
msuie  the  most  of  this  reprieve,  and  a  council  of  270 
of  their  bishops  sat  for  two  months  imdisturbed  in 
Carthage   (before   340).    Still,   their  organization 


DonatUm 
Donne 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


was  practically  confined  to  Africa,  though  they  had 
one  community  in  Spain  and  another  in  Rome 
iUelf. 

The  situation  changed  on  Constantine's  death. 
Constans,  to  whom  Africa  fell,  adopted  severe 
measures  to  restore  the  unity  of  the  Church,  after 
offers  of  money  had  been  scornfully  rejected  by 
Donatus's  orders.  But  this  time  the  schismatics 
met  force  with  force.  Another  Donatus,  bishop  of 
Bags,  enlisted  the  dangerous  fanatics  known  as 
Circumcelliones  (q.v.)  in  support  of  their  cause. 
The  date  of  this  persecution  has  not  been  deter- 
mined; it  must  have  been  between  the  Synod  of 
Sardica,  which  attempted  to  enter  into  some  kind 
of  relations  with  Donatus,  and  the  death  of  Con- 
stans — possibly  in  342.  The  schismatic  bishops, 
including  Donatus  himself,  were  once  more  ban- 
ished, and  their  churches  given  over  to  the  followers 
of  Csecilianus.  His  successor,  Gratus,  in  a  council 
at  Carthage,  gave  thanks  for  the  restoration  of  imity 
as  a  work  well  pleasing  to  God,  and  lauded  the 
servants  of  God,  Paul  and  Siacarius,  through  whom 
it  had  been  brought  about.  The  rebaptism  of  those 
who  had  received  the  sacrament  according  to  the 
orthodox  formula  was  forbidden,  and  all  veneration 
of  Donatist  martyrs  strictly  prohibited. 

Under  Constantius  the  Donatists  fared  no  better. 
Donatus  died  in  exile,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
Spaniard  Parmenianus.  But  when  Julian  per- 
mitted the  return  of  Athanasius  and  other  bishops 
who  had  been  expelled  by  the  semi-Arian  court 
party,  the  Donatists  demanded  the  same  treat- 
ment, which  they  gained,  as  well  as  the  restoration 
of  the  churches;  the  latter  only  after  armed  con- 
flict with  the  catholics  in  some  cases.  Whole 
communities  were  won  for  the  schism  during  this 
period  of  toleration;  but  with  Julian's  death  began 
a  new  epoch  of  imperial  repression.  Valentinian 
forbade  rebaptism;  Gratian,  soon  after  his  acces- 
sion, and  still  more  definitely  in  378,  prohibited  all 
gatherings  of  heretics — ^in  379  specifically  of  the 
rebaptizers,  i.e.,  the  Donatists.  These  regulations 
could  not  at  first  be  enforced  in  Numidia,  and  Dona- 
tism,  maintained  for  a  while  an  unbroken  outward 
front. 

The  inner  decay  of  the  sect  had,  however,  already 
begun.  It  undoubtedly  owed  its  long  existence  in 
Africa  not  only  to  its  more  or  less  nationalist  posi- 
tion, but  to  the  wise  leadership  for  seventy- five 
years  of  Donatus  the  Great  and  Par- 

4*  Decay  menianus.  The  qualities  of  Donatus 
of  the  were  recognized  even  by  his  opponents; 
Sect  he  was  a  man  of  deep  learning,  of 
eloquence,  and  of  undaunted  courage. 
His  work  was  well  continued  by  Parmenianus, 
against  whose  writings  the  work  of  Optatus  (q.v.) 
is  specially  directed.  Tychonius,  however,  who 
was  one  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  sect 
and  has  left  a  lasting  name  in  the  history  of  exe- 
gesis, rejected  the  extreme  views  which  had  pre- 
vailed and  pronounced  against  rebaptism.  Par- 
menianus addressed  a  warning  to  him,  and  on  his 
contumacy  he  was  excommunicated  by  a  Donatist 
synod.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  formed  any  dis- 
tinct party;  when  that  of  the  Rogatists,  who  held 
similar  moderate  views,  was  formed  is  not  clear, 


though  they  were  persecuted  by  the  pagan  king 
Firmus  in  372  or  373  through  Donatist  influence 
Of  much  more  significance  was  the  spUt  caused  by 
the  Maximianists  soon  after  Primianus  had  suc- 
ceeded Parmenianus  in  392.  He  belonged  to  the 
moderate  side,  and  was  accused  by  the  deacon 
Maximianus,  a  relative  of  Donatus,  of  surrender- 
ing the  old  principles  of  the  sect.  The  extremists 
called  a  synod  at  Cabarsussi  in  393,  deposed  him, 
and  elected  Maximianus  in  his  place,  while  an  oppo- 
sition synod  at  Bags,  three  times  as  large,  adhered 
to  Primianus  and  excommunicated  Maximianus. 
By  secular  aid  the  churches  of  the  Maximianists 
were  taken  from  them,  but  some  of  them  still  ex- 
isted at  the  time  of  the  conference  of  Carthage  in 
411. 

Whatever  the  effect  of  these  dissensions  may 
have  been,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  influence 
exerted  by  the  most  powerful  and  determined 
enemy  of  Donatism,  Augustine  (q.v.),  who  for 
almost  twenty  years  devoted  himself  to  the  recov- 
ery of  its  members.  In  his  see  city  of  Hippo  they 
were  the  majority,  and  displayed  bitter  hostility 
to  the  Church,   which  suffered  from 

5.  Opposi-  the  violence  of  the  Circumcelliones. 
tion  of     By  personal  conference  and  by  literary 

Augustine,  activity  he  tried  to  win  back  the 
schismatics;  but  when  conciliatory 
measures,  such  as  those  of  the  Synod  of  Carthage 
in  401  and  403,  seemed  to  have  Uttle  effect  an 
appeal  was  made  to  the  secular  power  in  404. 
Strict  laws  brought  a  number  of  Donatist  com- 
munities, with  their  bishops,  into  the  Church;  but 
after  the  relaxation  of  this  severity  in  409  they 
began  to  relapse.  A  deputation  of  catholic  bishops 
obtained  an  imperial  order  for  a  conference  at 
Carthage  which  the  Donatists  were  required  to 
attend,  though  they  could  have  but  little  doubt  of 
its  issue  in  the  temper  of  the  government.  It  took 
place  in  May,  411,  between  286  catholic  and  279 
Donatist  bishops,  Augustine  and  Petilianus  being 
the  chief  speakers  on  the  two  sides.  After  a  three 
days'  debate  the  imperial  representative,  Mar- 
cellinus,  decided  against  the  Donatists,  and  the 
laws  were  once  more  strictly  enforced  against  them. 
In  414  and  415  attendance  at  their  meetings  was 
forbidden  on  pain  of  death,  all  civil  ri^ts  were 
taken  from  them,  and  special  commissioners  were 
charged  with  the  execution  of  these  measures. 
The  writings  which  Augustine  controverted  show 
clearly  enough  how  far  this  system  of  making  peace 
was  from  really  attaining  its  object.  But  the  com- 
mon danger  from  the  Vandals  probably  brought 
Donatists  and  catholics  nearer  together,  and  the 
gradual  influence  of  Augustine's  teaching  doubtless 
contributed  much  to  the  weakening  of  the  schism. 
The  remnants  of  the  sect  which  were  found  as  late 
as  well  into  the  Byzantine  period  finally  yielded  to 
fresh  repressive  measures  on  the  part  of  the  gov- 
errunent. 

The  fundamental  question  discussed  in  the  debate 
just  referred  to  concerned  the  holiness  of  the  Church 
as  conditioned  by  the  moral  state  of  its  members. 
Novatianism  had  reduced  its  original  stipulations 
to  the  demand  that  the  lapsed  should  not  be  re- 
stored;   Donatism  had  gone  a  step  farther  and 


480 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Donatlam 
Donne 


limited  its  requirements  to  the  quality  of  the  bishops. 
Both  sides  appealed  to  Cyprian,  who  had  declared 
lapsed  bishops  incapable  of  performing  their  func- 
tions and  had  favored  rebaptism,  indeed,  but 
whose  whole  conception  of  the  Churoh  had  regarded 

its  holiness  as  resting  on  its  provision 

6.  Doctrinal  with  the  means  of  grace.    The  schis- 

Positions    matics  laid  down  the  principle  that  no 

of  the  Two  one  could  give  what  he  had  not — 

Parties,     sanctification,  the  Holy  Spirit.    They 

regarded  persecution  as  stamping 
them  with  the  note  of  the  true  Chureh,  and  the 
friendship  of  earthly  rulers  as  proving  the  oppo- 
site of  the  catholics;  their  community,  requiring 
holiness  of  its  bishops  and  members,  was  alone  the 
true  bride  of  Christ. .  The  catholics,  on  their  side, 
distinguished  between  heretics  and  schismatics, 
though  they  accused  the  Donatists  of  teaching 
some  heretical  doctrines.  Thus  they  still  desig- 
nated their  opponents  brethren,  and  acknowl- 
edged their  baptism;  but  Optatus  calls  their  organi- 
zation only  a  quasichureh,  because  it  is  not  the 
catholic.  True  catholicity  is  lacking  to  them  be- 
cause they  are  confined  to  one  region,  not  spread 
throughout  the  world;  apostolicity  is  lacking 
because  they  have  cut  themselves  o£f  from  the 
apostles'  fellowship.  Augustine  strongly  empha- 
sizes the  unity  of  the  Church  in  the  spirit  of  love. 
He  does  not  insist  so  much  on  subordination  to  the 
episcopate  as  does  Cyprian;  but  he  considers  the 
Donatists  to  show  their  lack  of  essential  Christian 
love,  of  the  Spirit,  by  the  very  fact  of  their  sep- 
aration from  the  one  Churoh.  Though,  as  an 
ethical  teacher,  he  demands  personal  holiness  from 
the  Chiiroh's  officers  not  less  urgently  than  the 
Donatists,  he  calls  it  holy  because  it  possesses  and 
communicates  the  spirit  of  love,  even  though  all 
its  members  do  not  walk  perfectly  in  that  spirit. 
His  belief  in  that  inseparable  connection  between 
the  catholic  Churoh  and  the  means  of  grace  led 
him  into  his  conviction  that  brotherly  duty  toward 
those  without  required  him  to  **  compel  them  to 
come  in  "  (Luke  xiv.  23).  (N.  Bonwbtsch.) 

[The  failure  of  all  efforts  to  allay  the  Donatist 
controversy  was  due  in  large  measure  to  the  abso- 
lutely uncompromising  spirit  of  the  Donatists  and 
to  the  impracticability  of  their  demands.  They 
would  have  no  fellowship  with  any  individual  or 
body  of  Christians  who  would  not  join  with  them 
alike  in  the  charges  that  they  made  against  Men- 
surius,  Csecilianus,  Felix  of  Aptunga,  etc.,  and  in 
the  condemnation  of  the  alleged  acts.  Further, 
they  disfellowshiped  all  who  would  not  disfellow- 
ship  Cscilianus,  Felix,  and  their  direct  supporters. 
Most  of  them  refused  to  recognize  the  vahdity  of 
baptism  received  at  the  hands  of  any  bishop  or 
presbyter  outside  of  the  Donatist  communion,  and 
insisted  on  the  rebaptism  of  all  who  came  into  their 
fellowship  from  without.  Catholics  could  harmo- 
nize with  them  only  by  making  a  complete  surren- 
der, repudiating  their  baptism  and  ordination,  and 
disfellowshiping  all  other  catholics.  A.  H.  N.] 

Bibuoobapht:  Sources  are:  Euaebius.  HUL  eeel.,  x.  6-7 
(the  notes  of  McGiffert  to  the  Eng.  transl.  in  NPNF, 
2d  series,  i.  380  sqq..  are  noteworthy):  Auffustine.  the 
anti-Donatistio  writinsa*   brought    together  and    trans- 


Uted  in.  NPNF,  Ist  series,  iv.  36(MS51;  Optatus  Mele- 
vitanus,  De  scAtsmole  DanaUaUxrum,  ed.  Du  Pin,  with 
rich  illustrative  material,  Paris,  1700,  printed  in  MPL, 
xi.  (cf.  vol.  viii.).  a  good  edition  also  in  CSEL,  vol.  xxvi.; 
early  notes  on  the  schism  are  collected  in  M.  J.  Routh, 
Rdiquia  aacra,  iv.  275  sqq.,  5  vols.,  Oxford,  1846-48. 
Consult:  C.  W.  F.  Waloh,  Hiatorie  der  Kettereien,  vol.  iv., 
Leipsie,  1768;  F.  Ribbeck,  Donatua  und  Auguttinua, 
Elberfeld,  1858;  0.  Bindermann,  Der  heilige  AuguaHnua, 
ii.  366  sqq.,  iii.  178  sqq.,  Qreifswald,  1869;  8.  M.  Deutsch, 
Drei  AktenatOcka  sur  GeaehiefUe  dea  Donatiamua,  Berlin, 
1875;  D.  Vdlter,  Der  Uraprung  dea  Donatiamua,  Frei- 
burg. 1883;  O.  Seeck,  in  ZKO,  x  (1889),  505;  K.  MQller. 
KirdiangeaehiehU,  i.  176-179.  Freiburg,  1892;  W.  Thflm- 
mel,  Zur  BetaiheUung  dea  Donatiamua,  Halle.  1893;  T. 
Hahn,  TycKonitu  Studien,  in  Studian  sur  Oeaehidita  der 
Theologia  und  Kireha,  vol.  vi.,  part  2,  Leipsie,  1900;  J. 
McCabe,  8t.  Auguatina  and  kia  Age,  chap,  xi..  New  York, 
1903;  L.  Pullan,  Church  of  the  Father;  ib.  1905;  Sehaff, 
Chriatian  Church,  iii.  360-370;  Neander,  Chriatian  Church, 
ii.  182  sqq.;  KL,  iii.  1969-79;  DCB,  i.  881-896;  Har- 
naok.  Litleratur,  i.  744  sqq.,  II.  i.  453-458;  idem.  Dogma, 
iii.  iMtssim,  v.  3S  sqq.,  140  sqq.,  162. 

DONATUS,  do-n6'tus,  VESONTIENSIS:  Bishop 
of  BesanQon;  b.  about  594;  d.  after  657.  He  was 
the  son  of  the  Prankish  duke  Waldelenus,  and  was 
educated  in  the  monastery  of  Luxeuil.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Besangon  about  625  and  was  a 
zealous  promoter  of  the  monastic  life,  founding  the 
cloister  of  Palatium  (later  St.  Paul)  before  the 
walls  of  the  city,  while  his  brother  Namelenus 
established  a  second  monastery  and  his  mother, 
Flavia,  the  nunnery  of  Jussanum  (Joussan-Moutier). 
For  the  latter  Donatus  drew  up  a  special  rule  which 
is  of  interest  since  it  served  as  the  model,  together 
with  the  rule  of  St.  Columban,  for  the  rules  of 
Csesarius  and  Benedict  of  Nursia.  Donatus  took 
part  in  the  synods  of  Clichy,  626  or  627,  Reims  (?), 
between  627  and  630;  and  ChAlons-sur-S&one, 
between  639  and  654.  His  name  appears  for  the 
last  time  on  a  document  of  657.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblxograprt:  ASB,  Aug..  ii.  197-200;  E.  LOning.  Deutadiaa 
Kirchenrecht,  ii.  433.  Strasburg,  1878;  F.  O.  Seebass.  Co- 
lumbaa  von  Lexuail  Kloaterragel,  pp.  37-38,  Di«wlen.  1883. 

DONNE,  JOHN:  Clergyman  and  poet,  dean  of 
St.  Paul's;  b.  in  London  1573;  d.  there  Mar. 
31,  1631.  He  studied  at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford  (M.A. 
by  convocation,  1610),  and  in  1592  was  admitted 
to  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  immediately  became  an  in- 
timate of  the  intellectual  leaders  of  the  time  and 
had  soon  won  for  himself  a  great  reputation  as  a  wit 
and  poet.  In  1596  he  took  part  in  the  expedition 
to  Cadiz,  under  the  Earl  of  Essex,  and  on  his  return 
was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal.  About  1600  he  lost  this  position  through  a 
clandestine  marriage  with  a  niece  of  the  lord  keeper. 
As  early  as  1592  he  had  renounced  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  and  in  1610  he  published  in  Lon- 
don Pseudo-Martyr f  a  treatise  against  Catholicism. 
He  wrote  the  book  at  the  suggestion  of  James  I., 
and  it  is  probable  that  he  was  well  paid  for  it. 
This  was  followed  (1610  or  1611)  by  Conclave 
Ignatii .  sive  ejus  in  nuperia  infemi  comitiia  inthro- 
nizatio  and  an  English  Ignaliua  his  Conclave ,  or 
his  Inthronization  in  a  Late  Election  in  Hell  (1611). 
Both  works  were  republished  later  with  titles 
changed.  The  original  Latin  is  now  extremely 
rare.  As  his  sovereign  was  unable  to  do  anything 
for  him  immediately  in  the  way  of  political  pre- 
ferment, Donne  continued  in  civil  pursuits  till  1615, 


Boniie 
I>orohMit«r 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


490 


when  he  took  orders.  He  was  urged  to  do  this  by 
James,  who  immediately  made  him  royal  chaplain. 
On  the  insistence  of  the  king  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge reluctantly  conferred  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  divinity  on  Donne  in  March  of  the  same  year. 
Many  livings  were  offered  him  throughout  the 
country,  but  he  preferred  to  remain  in  London. 
However,  in  1616  he  accepted  the  rectory  of  Key- 
ston,  in  Huntingdonshire,  and  later  in  the  same 
year  that  of  Sevenoaks.  He  never  resided  in  either 
parish,  remaining  in  London,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed divinity  reader  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  During 
the  next  few  years  he  came  to  be  recognized  as  one 
of  the  first  preachers  of  his  time,  and  in  1621  he 
was  appointed  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  He  was  chosen 
prolocutor  of  the  convocation  in  1623,  and  again  in 
1624.  In  the  spring  of  the  latter  year  he  was  given 
the  rectory  of  Blunham,  in  Bedfordshire,  and  the 
vicarage  of  St.  Dunstan's-in-the-West,  London. 
Donne's  ability  as  a  preacher  continued  to  increase, 
and  his  popularity  grew  in  proportion.  He  sur- 
passed all  others;  and,  indeed,  the  editor  of  his 
last  sermon  claims  that  Donne  finally  surpassed 
even  himself.  This  sermon,  called  by  Donne 
**  Death's  Duel,"  was  preached  just  five  weeks 
before  his  death.     He  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's. 

At  present  Donne's  reputation  rests  on  his  poetry. 
He  wrote  much  verse,  but  it  was  usually  handed 
around  in  manuscript,  little  of  it  being  published  in 
his  lifetime,  though  his  poems  were  greatly  ad- 
mired by  his  contemporaries.  A  collection  of  his 
poetry  was  published  in  1633.  It  contains  satires, 
elegies,  epigram^i,  letters,  etc.  He  is  usually  classi- 
fied as  a  "  metaphysical  poet,"  and  occupies  an 
important  place  in  English  literature.  He  set  a 
style  in  Eziglish  poetry  that  continued  dominant 
till  the  time  of  Dryden;  and  even  in  Browning's 
ruggednesB  and  obscurity  may  be  detected  the 
influence  of  Donne.  His  sermons  were  published 
in  various  forms,  including  three  volumes  edited 
by  his  son,  John  Donne  the  Younger  (London, 
1640, 1649, 1660).  As  many  as  180  are  now  known. 
They  are  marked  by  poetic,  imaginary,  and  philo- 
sophic insight,  and  with  Donne*s  other  literary 
works  constitute  a  memorial  of  great  industry 
and  rare  talents. 

Bibliography:  A  very  full  list  of  hia  works  is  given  after 
the  extended  sketch  of  his  life  in  DNB,  xv.  223  sqq. 
Besides  the  volume  of  eighty  sermons,  mentioned  below, 
two  others,  one  containing  fifty  and  the  other  *  six-and- 
twenty  "  (really  only  twenty- four),  were  issued  by  his  son, 
London,  1640-60;  an  edition  of  his  Poem*  was  also  issued 
by  his  son,  ib.  1650  and  often,  who  published  also  Etsayn 
in  IHvinUy,  ib.  1651,  and  a  collection  of  Letter;  ib.  1651 
The  best  edition  of  the  Poema  is  by  Grosart  in  2  vols.,  ib. 
1872  The  Works,  ed.  H.  Alford.  6  vols.,  Oxford.  1830. 
are  poorly  put  together.  His  Life,  by  Isaak  Walton,  was 
issued  first  in  the  LXXX.  Sermons  of  Donne,  published 
by  his  son,  London.  1640,  and  the  best  edition,  contain- 
ing **  careful  and  learned  notes,"  is  by  H.  K.  Causton, 
1855. 

DONNELL,  ROBERT:  Cumberland  Presbyte- 
rian; b.  in  Guilford  County,  N.  C,  Apr..  1784; 
d.  at  Athens,  Ala.,  May  24,  1854.  His  parents  early 
moved  to  Tennessee.  He  offered  himself  in  1806 
to  the  so-called  **  Council "  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbytery,  who  encouraged  him  to  exercise  his 
gifts  as  a  catechist  and  exhorter.  He  preached 
independently  of  ecclesiastical  connection,  and  for 


the  most  part  in  Alabama,  until  1811,  when  he 
placed  himself  under  the  care  of  the  newly  organ- 
ized Cumberland  Presbytery.  From  that  time  on 
he  labored  incessantly,  in  Tennessee,  Alabama,  and 
western  Pennsylvania,  organizing  many  churches, 
and  winning  the  position  of  a  leader  in  his  denomi- 
nation. He  was  a  member  of  the  conunittee  ih>- 
pointed  in  1813  to  draw  up  a  confession  of  faith 
and  discipline  for  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Chureh.  He  was  the  author  of  Thoughts  on  Various 
SubjecU  (Nashville,  1852). 

Bibliogbapht:  Lowry.  Life  of  Rev.  Robert  DonndL,  Nash- 
ville, 1867;  R.  Beard.  BioQrapkiaU  Skelchm  of  Some  </ 
(Ke  Early  Minietere  of  ike  Cumberland  Preabyterian  Chyrek, 
2  vols..  Nashville.  1867. 

DONNBLLAN  (DONHELAN)  LECTURES:  A  lec- 
tureship named  after  *'  Mrs.  Anne  Donnelan,  of 
the  parish  of  St.  George,  Hanover  Square,  in  the 
County  of  Middlesex,  Spinster,"  who  bequeathed 
to  Dublin  University  £1,243  "  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  religion,  learning  and  good  manners,  the 
particular  mode  of  application  being  entrusted  to 
the  Provost  and  Senior  Fellows."  T^be  income  was 
appropriated  as  salary  of  a  lecturer  in  divinity,  to 
be  chosen  annually  on  Nov.  20th  from  among  the 
Fellows,  at  which  time  the  subject  was  determined. 
The  lectures  in  each  series  are  not  less  than  six  in 
number,  and  one-half  of  the  salary  is  paid  on 
delivery  of  the  lectures,  the  rest  ^en  at  least  four 
are  published.  During  a  number  of  years  no  ap- 
pointments have  been  made,  some  of  those  made 
have  been  declined,  and  many  of  the  lecturers  have 
failed  to  publish.  The  following  is  believed  to  be 
a  complete  list  of  those  which  have  appeared  in 
print: 

1704.  T.  Ebington,  The  Proof  of  Chrietianiiy  .  .  .  from 
the  Miradee  recorded  in  the  New  TetAamenl,  DuUin.  1796. 

1797.  1801.  R.  Graves.  The  Divine  Origin  of  the  Jewish 
ReHoion  proved  from  the  .  .  .  Laat  Four  Booke  e/f  tt«  Petk- 
'oteiie^  2  vols..  London.  1807. 

1816-16.  F.  Sadleir.  The  Varioua  Degreee  of  AeZi^vm* 
information  Vouchsafed  to  Mankind,  in  his  Sermons  ami 
£ee<uret.  3  vols..  Dublin,  1821-24. 

1818.  W.  Phelan.  Christianity  provides  .  .  .  Correctives 
for  ,  .  .  Tendencies  to  Polytkeiem  and  tdolairw,  in  his 
Remains,  ed.  J.  Jebb,  London.  1832. 

1821.  1824.  J.  Kennedy.  The  Researehea  of  Modem 
Sdenes  .  .  demonstrate  the  Inspiraiion  e/f  .  .  .  Scripters, 
2  vols.,  ib.  1826-27. 

1823.  F.  Sadleir.  The  Formulas  of  the  Churth  of  Englaad 
Conformable  to  the  Scriptures,  Dublin.  1824. 

1838.  J.  H.  Todd.  The  Prophecies  RetaUno  to  AnHtkrist 
in  .  ,  ,  Daniel  and  SL  Paid,  ib   1840. 

1839.  J.  H.  Todd.  The  Prophecies  RelaHno  to  Antiekriat 
in  the  Apocalypse  of  SL  John,  ib.  1846. 

1851.  M.  O'SiUUvan,  The  Howr  of  (he  Redeemer,  ib  1853. 
1852  W.   Lee.   Inspiraiion  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  ih 
1854  (often  republished) 

1853.  W.  do  Burgh.  The  Early  Prophecies  of  a  Redeems, 
ib.  1854. 

1854.  G  P.  Reichel.  The  Nature  and  Omoes  of  the  Chunk, 
London.  1856. 

1855.  J.  Byrne.  Naturalism  and  SpirituaUees^  Dablio. 
1856. 

1855-56,  1859.  J.  BCacIvor.  RelUfious  ProoreeSy  London, 
1871. 

1857.  J.  G.  BfaoDonnell.  The  Doctrine  of  Ae  Atonement 
deduced  from  Scripture,  ib.  1858 

1858.  J.  Wills.  The  Antecedent  Probability  of  A«  Chris- 
tian Religipn,  Dublin,  1860. 

1860.  W.  Atkins,  Pastoral  Duties,  London,  1861 

1861.  W.  P.  Walsh.  Christian  Missions,  Dublin,  1862 

1862.  W.  de  Burgh*  Messianic  Propkecies  ef  isaitJi, 
ib.  1863. 


491 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Donne 
2>oroli6Stor 


1863.  A.  O.  Ryder,  Scriptural  Doctrine   of   Acceptance 
with  Ood,  ib.  1865. 

1869.  A.  Daunt.  Peraon  and  Officet  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
ib.  1874. 

1871-72.  J.  Leech.  The  EpietU  to  the  Hebrewe,  ib.  1874. 

1876-76.  F.   F.  C^rmichael,  Jeaue  Chriet,  ib.  1876. 

1877.  J.  H.  Jellett,  The  Efficacy  of  Prayer,  London.  1878. 

1877-78.  J.  Quarry.  Religioue  Belief,  Dublin.  1880. 

1878-79.    Q.  A.  Chadwiek.  Chriet   Bearing  Witneae  to 
Himaetf,  London,  n.d. 

1879-80.  T.  Jordan.  The  Stoic  Moraliate  and  the  Chria- 
Hana,  Dublin,  1880. 

1880-81.  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  The  Book  of  Koheleth,  Lon- 
don, 1883. 

1882-83.  H.  Jellett.  Thoughta  on  the  Christian  Life,  ib. 
1884. 

1883-84.  J.  W.  Murray.  Chriatian  Vitality,  DubUn.  1884. 

1884-85.  R.  T.   Smith.   Man'a  Knowledge  of  Man  and 
of  Qod,  London.  1886. 

1887-88.  W.  Lefroy.  The  Chriatian  Miniairy,  ib.  1890. 

1888-89.  J.  H.  Kennedy,  Natural  Theology  and  Modem 
Thought,  ib.  1891. 

1889-90.  T.  S.  Berry,  Chriatianity  and  Buddhiam,  ib. 
1891. 

1891-92.  T.  L.  Soott,  The  Viaiona  of  the  Apocalypae,  ib. 
1893. 

1892-93.  W.  M.  Foley.  Chriatin  the  World,  DubUn.  1894. 
1897-98.  C.  F.  Daroy,  Idealiamand  Theology,  London.  1899. 

1898-99.  E.  J.  Hardy.  Doubt  and  Faith,  ib.  1899. 

1899-1900.   M.     Kaufmann.  Social  Development  under 
Chriatian  Influence,  Dublin,  1900. 

1900-01.  O.   R.  Wynne,  The  Church  in  Greater  Britain, 
London.  1901. 

1901-02.  J.  O.  Hannay,  The  Spirit  and  Origin  of  Chria- 
tian Monaaticiam,  ib.  IWH. 

1902-03.  L.  A.  H.  T.  Pooler,  Studiea  in  the  Religion  of 
larael,  ib.  1904. 

1903-04.  F.  W.   Biaoran,   Engliah  Apologetic  Theology, 
ib.  1906. 

1906-07.  H.  J.  Dukinfield  Astley,  Prehietarie  Archeaologv 
and  the  O.  T.,  Edinburgh.  1908. 

DONOSO  CORTl^,  JUAN  FRANCISCO  MANUEL 
MARIA  D£  LA  SALUD :  Marquis  de  Valdegamas, 
Spanish  author  and  statesman;  b.  at  Valle  de  la 
Serena  (near  Castuera,  135  m.  s.w.  of  Madrid),  in 
Estremadura,  May  9, 1809;  d.  in  Paris  May  3, 1853. 
He  studied  law  in  Salamanca  and  Seville  and  settled 
in  Madrid,  where  he  engaged  in  literature  and 
politics.  In  the  revolution  of  1832  he  took  the  part 
of  Isabella  against  Don  Carlos.  He  entered  the 
Cortes  in  1835.  About  this  time  he  established 
a  newspaper,  the  Avenir,  in  which  he  published 
many  articles  of  political  and  historical  charac- 
ter. He  continued  to  give  his  enthusiastic  sup- 
port to  Isabella  and  accompanied  her  on  her 
flight  to  England  in  1840.  On  her  return  to  Spain 
in  1843  he  was  appointed  secretary  and  tutor  for 
the  young  queen.  In  1848  he  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  Berlin,  but  returned  to  Madrid  in  the 
same  year.  He  immediately  reentered  the  Cortes, 
where,  in  Jan.,  1848,  he  startled  his  party  and  his 
country  with  a  bitter  denunciation  of  all  liberal 
principles  and  the  demand  for  a  dictatorship.  In 
1851  he  proclaimed  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  his  Ensayo  sombre  d 
ccUolicismOt  d  liberalUmo  y  el  eocialismo.  This  es- 
say, an  eloquent  and  brilliant  plea  for  the  ideas 
of  Gregory  VII.  and  Innocent  III.  against  modem 
tendencies,  was  immediately  translated  into  French 
and  German,  and,  a  few  years  later,  into  English. 
Essity  on  Catholicism,  Liberalism  and  Socialism,  in 
Their  Fundamental  Principles,  Philadelphia,  1862; 
another  transL,  Dublin,  1874.  At  the  close  of  his 
career,  he  was  ambassador  at  Paris  for  two  yean. 


A  collected  edition  of  his  works  in  five  volumes, 
including  a  biography  by  Tejado,  was  published  at 
Madrid  in  1855.  A  French  edition  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1858. 

Bibliographt:  Berides  the  biography  by  G.  Tejado.  men- 
tioned above,  there  is  a  sketch  from  the  Italian  of  G.  E. 
de  Castro  in  the  Philadelphia  translation  and  an  excellent 
sketch  in  KL,  iii.  1982-85. 

DOlfUS  (DOMNUS):  Pope  Aug.,  676- Apr.,  678. 
All  that  is  known  of  him  is  that  he  was  a  Roman 
by  birth,  that  he  adorned  certain  churches  in  Rome, 
and  that  he  banished  the  Syrian  monks  from  Rome. 
The  Donus  n.  assigned  by  some  lists  to  974  did  not 
exist,  but  is  due  to  a  misreading  of  the  title  Domnus 
(dominits)  papa  as  a  proper  name. 
Bxbliooraprt:  lAber  pontifiealia,  ed.   L.  Duchesne,  i.  348, 

Paris,  1886,  ed.  T.  Mommsen,  in  MOH,  Oeat.  ponL  Rom., 

i  (1808).  192;  Mann,  Popea,  I.  ii.  20-22. 

DOOLITTLE,  THOMAS:  Non-conformist;  b.  at 
Kidderminster  (15  m.  n.  of  Worcester)  1631  or 
1632;  d.  in  London  May  24,  1707.  As  a  boy  he 
was  converted  under  the  preaching  of  Richard 
Baxter.  He  studied  for  the  ministry  at  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge,  and  in  1653  became  pastor  of 
the  parish  of  St.  Alphage,  London  Wall,  London. 
He  received  Presbyterian  ordination  and  soon  be- 
came popular  as  a  preacher.  When  the  Uniform- 
ity Act  was  passed  in  1662  he  declared  himself 
a  non-conformist  and  opened  a  boarding-school 
which  he  maintained  in  different  localities  till 
1687,  and  after  this  time  he  continued  privately  to 
prepare  pupils  for  the  ministry. 

After  the  great  fire  in  London  in  1666  Doolittle 
was  one  of  the  non-conformist  preachers  who  de- 
fied the  law  by  erecting  meeting-houses  in  the 
ruins.  For  a  while  he  was  not  disturbed;  but, 
when  he  insisted  on  preaching,  his  meeting-house 
was  seized  and  he  fled  to  escape  arrest.  On  the 
indulgence  of  Mar.  15,  1672,  he  took  out  a  license 
for  his  meeting-house;  but  this  was  revoked  the 
next  year,  and  it  was  not  till  the  Toleration  Act 
of  1689  that  he  was  allowed  to  resume  services  at 
his  old  church.  While  popular  as  a  preacher,  and 
influential  as  a  tutor,  Doolittle  was  neither  a 
scholar  nor  an  original  thinker.  Among  the  most 
popular  of  his  works  were:  A  Treatise  concerning 
the  Lord's  Supper,  London,  1665;  A  Call  to  De- 
laying Sinners,  1683;  and  A  Complete  Body  of 
Practical  Divinity,  1723,  folio. 
Biblioorapht:  The  Memoira  were  prefixed  to  the  Body  of 

Practical  Divinity,  ut  sup.;  DNB,  zy.  236-238. 

DOORKEEPER.    See  Obtiariub. 
DORA,     SISTER.      See     Pattison,     Dorotht 
Wyndlow. 

DORCHESTER,  DAIQEL:  Methodist;  b.  at  Dux- 
bury,  Mass.,  Mar.  11,  1827;  d.  at  West  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  Mar.  13,  1907.  He  studied  at  Wes- 
leyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.  (1848* 
1851),  and  held  pastorates  in  Connecticut  1847-55, 
and  in  Massachusetts  1858-89.  He  was  presiding 
elder  of  the  districts  of  Worcester  1865-68,  Lynn 
1874-77,  and  North  Boston  1882-85.  In  1864  he 
was  elected  to  the  State  Senate  of  Connecticut,  and 
in  1855  was  appointed  chairman  of  a  committee 
to  investigate  the  condition  of  the  feeble-minded. 
In  1882  he  was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  Leg- 


DomnvM 
Dorothea 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


402 


islature  for  Natick,  and  from  1889  to  1893  was 
superintendent  of  Indian  Schools  of  the  United 
States.  After  1893  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Mel- 
rose and  West  Roxbury,  Mass.  He  wrote  The  Con- 
cewiona  of  Ldberalists  to  Orthodoxy  (Boston,  1878); 
The  Problem  of  Religious  Progress  (New  York,  1881); 
fVhyof  Methodism  (1887);  Christianity  in  the  United 
SttUes  (1888);  Romanism  verstts  the  Public  School 
SysUm  (1888);  and  Christianity  Vindicated  by  its 
Enemies  (1896). 

DOREHUS,  SARAH  PLATT  (HAINES):  Re- 
formed (Dutch)  phiianthropist;  b.  in  New  York 
Aug.  3,  1802;  d.  there  Jan.  29,  1877.  In  1821  she 
married  Thomas  C.  Doremus,  a  wealthy  merchant 
of  New  York,  and  seven  years  later  began  philan- 
thropic work  for  Greek  women  during  the  Greco- 
Turkish  war.  In  1835  she  took  an  active  interest 
in  the  Canadian  Grande  Ligne  mission,  later  be- 
coming president  of  a  society  for  the  furtherance 
of  this  work.  In  1840  she  commenced  to  hold 
Sunday  services  in  the  female  wards  of  the  Tombs 
in  New  York,  and  on  the  formation  of  the  Woman's 
Prison  Association,  two  years  later,  she  became 
one  of  its  managers  and  was  its  president  after 
1863.  In  1841  she  became  a  manager  of  the  New 
York  City  and  Tract  Mission,  and  nine  years  later 
aided  in  the  foundation  of  the  House  and  School 
of  Industry,  of  which  she  was  elected  president  in 
1867.  She  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Nursery  and  Child's  Hospital  in  1854,  and  in  1855 
was  one  of  the  prime  xnovers  in  the  establishment 
of  the  Woman's  Hospital  in  New  York,  the  first  of 
its  kind  in  the  world,  of  which  she  became  presi- 
dent in  1864.  In  1860  she  aided  materially  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Woman's  Union  Missionary 
Society;  in  1866  she  helped  to  organize  the  Pres- 
byterian Home  for  Aged  Women,  and  in  1876  she 
was  one  of  the  committee  to  form  the  Gould 
Memorial  in  behalf  of  Italo-American  schools.  But 
it  was  as  the  friend  of  every  American  Protestant 
foreign  missionary  and  one  who  kept  open  house 
for  them  so  long  as  her  husband's  means  allowed 
that  her  memory  will  be  longest  preserved. 

Bibliograpbt:  In  Mmnoriam  of  Mr:  Donmut,  Edinbuxgh, 
1877. 

DORNER,  AUGUST  JOHAKNES:  German  Prot- 
estant, son  of  Isaak  August  Domer  (q.v.);  b.  at 
SchUtach  (30  m.  n.e.  of  Freiburg)  May  13,  1846. 
He  studied  in  Gdttingen,  TObingen,  and  Berlin 
(Ph.D.,  1867),  and,  after  being  Vikar  to  the-Ger- 
man  congregation  in  Lyons  and  Marseilles  (1869) 
and  traveling  in  the  Orient  (1870),  was  lecturer 
at  G&ttingen  1870-73.  He  then  visited  the  United 
States,  and  on  his  return  was  professor  and  co- 
director  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Witten- 
berg 1874-89.  Since  1889  he  has  been  professor 
of  systematic  theology  at  K5nigsberg.  He  has 
edited  his  father's  System  der  christltchen  SiUen' 
lehre  (Berlin,  1885)  and  Briefwechsel  ewischen  H. 
L.  Martensen  und  I.  A.  Domer  (2  vols.,  1888),  and 
has  written  De  Baconis  philosophia  (Berlin,  1867); 
Augusttnus,  seine  iheologische  und  seine  religions* 
philosophische  Ansehautaig  (1873);  Ueber  die  Prin- 
zipien  der  Kanischen  Ethik  (Halle,  1875);  Pre- 
digUn  vom   Rciche   Gottes    (Berlin,    1880);  Kirche 


und  Reich  Gottes  (Gotha,  1883);  Das  mensehHeht 
Erkennen  (Berlin,  1887);  Das  menschliche  Han- 
deln  (1895);  Grundriss  der  Dogmengeschichte  (1899); 
Grundriss  der  EncyfclopOdie  der  Theologie  (1901); 
Zur  Geschichte  des  sitUicfien  Denkens  und  Lebens 
(Hamburg,  1901);  Grundriss  der  Religionspkitoso- 
phie  (Leipsic.  1903);  Grundprobleme  der  Religions' 
philosophie  (Berlin,  1903);  Individuelle  und  soziale 
Ethik  (Leipsic,  1906);  and  Die  EntMehung  der 
christlichen  Glaubenslehren  (Munich,  1906). 

DORNER,  ISAAK  AUGUST. 

Early  Life.     Profeasorahip  at  Tflbiocen  (S  1). 

Profeasor  at  Kiel  (t  2). 

Later  Life.     In  Berlin  (S  3). 

Doraer's  Theology      His  Personality  (|  4). 

HU  Works  (I  6). 

One  of  the  foremost  German  theologians  of  the 
nineteenth  century;  b.  at  Neuhausen  ob  Eck.  (60 
m.  S.S.W.  of  Stuttgart),  WUrttembei^,  June  20, 
1809;  d.  at  Wiesbaden  July  8,  1884.  His  father 
was  pastor  at  Neuhausen.  He  studied  in  the 
Latin  school  at  Tuttlingen,  the  collegiate  semi- 
nary at  Maulbronn,  and  the  University  of  Tu- 
bingen (1827-32).  For  two  years  he  assisted  hh 
father  as  pastor,  then  became  rep)etent  in  theology 
(1834)  and  professor  extraordinary  (1838)  at  Tu- 
bingen. In  1835  his  colleague  David  Friedrich 
Strauss  (q.v.)  published  his  Leben  Jesu,  and  Domer 
was  induced  in  1839  to  issue  his  Entwukehaigs- 
geschichte  der  Lehre  von  der  Person  Christi,  a  work 

of  directly  opposite  tendency,  in  which 

I.  Early     the  historical  Christ  of  the  Gospels  is 

Life.        traced  through  the  ages  of  the  Church 

Professor-    as    the    greatest    fact    in    Christian 

ship  at  »   thought  and  experience.    This  work 

Tubingen,    determined    Domer's    place    among 

theologians  and  doctrinal  historians, 
and  was  a  most  effectual  answer  to  Strauss  and 
his  mythical  theory.  The  work  was  afterward 
greatly  enlarged  and  improved  by  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  sources  from  the  Apostolic  Age  down 
to  the  kenosis  controversy  (see  Chrestologt; 
Kenosib),  and  appeared  in  a  second  edition  as 
Die  Lehre  von  der  Person  Chrieti  (4  vols.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1846-56;  Eng.  transl.,  History  of  the  Develop- 
ment of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  5  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1861-63). 

From  1839  to  1843  Domer  was  professor  in  KieL 
His  principal  writing  during  this  period  was  the 
dogmatic  treatise  dedicated  to  Glaus  Harms  (q.v.). 
Das  Princip  unserer  Kirche  nach  dem  innem  Ver- 
h&ltniss  seiner  zwei  Seiten  betrachtet  (Kiel,  1841). 

In  this  work  he  maintained  that  the 

a.  Profes-   so-called  material  and  formal  princi- 

sor  at       pies  of  the  Reformation — i.e.,  justifi- 

EieL        cation    by   faith,    and    the   supreme 

authority  of  Scripture — were  to  be 
considered  as  two  pillars  inseparably  joined,  so  that 
each  stands  with  and  through  the  other.  This 
was  his  word  of  comfort  to  those  distressed  by 
Strauss.  No  criticism  can  alter  the  fact  that  the 
primitive  Church  did  record  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, by  means  of  the  Spirit  proceeding  from 
Christ,  its  impressions  and  experiences  of  Christ's 
salvation.  On  the  other  hand,  faith  holds  fast 
to  the  written  word.    For  the  Christ  whom  faith 


498 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Doremna 
Dorothea 


experiences  is  the  Christ  of  Scripture,  which  alone 
enables  the  Christian  to  understand  and  assert 
faith  and  the  mystery  of  his  new  personality. 
Justification,  he  used  to  say,  is  the  only  completed 
fact  in  the  Christian;  everything  else  is  growth. 

In  1843  Domer  became  professor  at  Konlgsberg, 
in  1847  at  Bonn,  in  1853  at  Gdttingen,  and  finally 
in    1862    at    Berlin    as    successor    of 
3-  Later    Nitzsch.     Here  he  was  also  superior 
Life.  In    consistorial      councUor     {Oberkirchen- 
Berlin,      rath),  and  for  twenty-two  years  he 
exerted   a   mighty   influence   on    the 
Evangelical  Church  of  Prussia,  and  on  students 
from  all  parts  of  the  worid.     He  visited  America 
in  1873  as  delegate  to  the  conference  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Alliance  in  New  York.     His  last  years  were 
clouded  by  a  painful  cancerous  affection  of  the 
face  and  by  the  incurable  illness  of  a  son.     Never- 
theless, he  worked  on  his  Christliche  Sittenlehre  till 
the  last  weeks  of  his  life,  which  were  spent  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  view  of  the  Luther  house. 

Dr.  Domer  was  one  of  the  profoundest  and 
most  learned  theologians  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  ranks  with  Schleiermacher,  Neander, 
Nitzsch,  Julius  Miiller,  and  Richard  Rothe.  He 
mastered  the  theology  of  Schleiermacher  and  the 
philosophy  of  Hegel,  appropriated  the  best  ele- 
ments of  both,  and  infused  into  them  a  positive 
Evangelical  faith  and  a  historical  spirit.  The  cen- 
tral idea  of  his  system  was  the  divine-human  per- 
sonality of  Christ,  as  the  highest  rev- 
4.  Domer'8  elation  of  God,  the  perfect  ideal  of 
Theology,  humanity,  and  the  Savior  from  sin 
His  Per-  and  death.  The  primary  postulate 
sonality.  of  faith  in  regard  to  the  Redeemer  is 
that  he  was  free  from  sin  and  not 
himself  in  need  of  redemption.  From  this,  faith 
proceeds  to  the  supernatural  origin  of  his  person. 
Christ  is  the  center  of  humanity,  and  not  merely 
an  individual.  God's  indwelling  in  him  was  not 
merely  a  dynamic  divine  immanence,  but  a  pei^ 
sonal  self-communication  of  God.  In  him  the  di- 
vine and  human  natures  were  united.  This  union 
involved  no  diminution  of  the  Logos.  The  keno- 
sis  of  the  Logos  is  to  be  thought  of  as  a  self-hu- 
miliation in  love  to  meet  the  needs  of  mankind. 
Domer's  theology  is  preeminently  Christological, 
and  his  monumental  history  of  Christology  is  a 
rich  mine  of  accurate  and  extensive  scholarship 
and  Christian  experience.  He  lectured  on  exe- 
gesis, on  New  Testament  theology,  on  symbolics, 
but  more  especially  on  dogmatics  and  ethics,  in 
which  he  excelled  all  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
one  of  the  revisers  of  Luther's  Bible,  and  proposed 
a  correspondence  with  the  Anglo-American  revi- 
sion committee,  while  in  New  York,  1873,  which 
was  carried  on  for  a  short  time.  He  was  alive  to 
all  practical  church  questions,  and  labored  as 
Oberkirchenrath  for  synodical  church  government, 
and  the  development  of  the  lay  agency  and  the 
voluntary  principle.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in 
the  work  of  the  Innere  Mission  (q.v.)  and  was  one 
of  its  directors.  With  Wichem  and  Von  Bethmann- 
HoUweg,  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Church 
Diet  (q.v.)  in  the  revolutionary  year  1848,  and 
one  of  the  leading  speakers  and  managers  at  its 


annual  sessions.  He  was  a  most  devoted  and  con- 
scientious teacher,  and  a  favorite  among  students. 
The  Johanneum  and  the  Melanchthon  House  in 
Berlin  are  memorials  of  his  active  interest  in  in- 
digent students.  The  leading  traits  in  his  per- 
sonal character  were  purity,  simplicity,  courtesy, 
gentleness,  humility,  and  love. 

Domer's  more  important  publications  not  al- 
ready mentioned  were  as  follows:  Der  Pietiamus, 
insbesondere  in  Wurttemberg  .  .  .  mil  besonderer 
Beziehung  auf  das  VerhdUnisa  des  Pietismus  zur 
Kirche  (Hamburg,  1840);  Das  Verhdllniss  zwischen 
Kirche  und  Stoat  (inaugural  address  at  Berlin, 
Bonn,  1847);  Sendschreiben  aber  Reform  der  evart" 
geliscken  Landeskirchen  im  Zusammenhang  mil 
der  Herstellung  einer  evangelischrdeul' 

5.  His       schen    Nationalkirche    (Bonn,     1848); 

Works.  Ueber  Jesu  sundlose  VoUkommenheU 
(Gotha,  1862;  Eng.  transl..  by  Henry 
B.  Smith,  in  the  American  Presbyterian  Re- 
view, 1863):  Geschichte  der  protestantischen  Theologie 
(Munich,  1867;  Eng.  transl..  History  of  Protestant 
Theology,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1871);  System  der 
chrisdichen  Glaubenslehre  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1879-81; 
2d  ed.,  1886-i87;  Eng.  transl.,  A  System  of  Christian 
Doctrine,  4  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1880-82;  the  eschato- 
logical  portion,  advocating  the  doctrine  of  a  fu- 
ture probation,  was  edited,  with  introduction  and 
notes,  by  Newman  Smyth  under  the  title  Domer 
on  the  Future  State,  New  York,  1883);  GesammeUe 
Schriften  auf  dem  Gebiet  der  systematisehen  Theo- 
logie,  Exegese  und  Geschichte  (Berlin,  1883;  con- 
tains valuable  metaphysical  essays  on  the  un- 
changeability  of  God,  and  criticism  of  the  kenosis 
theory  of  the  incarnation);  System  der  christlichen 
Sittenlehre  (Berlin,  1885,  edited  by  his  son,  A.  J. 
Domer;  Eng.  transl.,  System  of  Christian  Ethics, 
Edinburgh,  1887).  A  collection  of  letters  between 
Domer  and  his  lifelong  friend,  Bishop  H.  L.  Mar- 
tensen,  appeared  alter  his  death  (2  vols.,  Berlin, 
1888).  With  K.  T.  A.  Liebner  he  founded  and 
edited  the  JahrbUcher  fUr  deutsche  Theologie  (Stutt- 
gart and  Gotha,  1856-78). 

(Philip  ScHAFFf)  D.  S.  Schapf. 

Biblioorapht:  P.  Schaff,  Oermany:  tte  UniverntieB,  The- 
oloov,  and  Rdigion,  pp.  376-380,  PhiUtdelphis,  1857; 
Dekan  Jfiger  and  Diakoniia  Knapp,  Ztir  Erinnerung  an 
Dr.  IfMk  August  Domer,  Tuttlingen,  1884  (fuDeral  ad- 
dresses); P.  Kleinert,  Zum  Oed&chtniM  /.  A.  Domert, 
Berlin,  1884  (a  eulogy  delivered  at  Berlin);  Andover  Re- 
view, ii  (1884),  176;  J.  Bobertag.  /.  A.  Domer,  tein  Leben 
und  Meine  Lehre,  GQtersloh,  1006.  A  good  account  of  liis 
theological  system  is  given  by  his  son,  A.  J.  Dorner,  i>«iii 
Andenken  von  Dr.  I.  A.  Domer,  in  TSK,  1886. 

DOROTHEA:  1.  St  Dorothea  is  said  to  have 
been  a  virgin  of  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia,  and  to 
have  suffered  martyrdom  during  the  persecutions 
of  Diocletian.  She  is  mentioned  in  the  various 
recensions  of  the  so-called  Martyrologium  Hiero" 
nymianum,  the  Codex  Wissenbergensis  giving  the 
day  of  her  death  as  Feb.  6.  But  she  is  unknown 
to  the  Orient,  and  accordingly  seems  to  be  merely 
legendary.  A  Dorothea  who  was  "  a  virgin  con- 
secrated to  God  "  is  also  mentioned  by  Rulinus 
{Hist,  eccl.,  viii.  17),  who  states  that  she  escaped 
by  flight  from  the  persecutions  of  Maximinus. 

(A.  Haock.) 


Dort 
Dosker 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


494 


Biblioorapht:  A8B,  Feb..  i.  771-776;  Aldhelm,  Z>«  laudi- 
biM  vvrginUatu,  ed.  J.  A.  Giles,  pp.  62-63,  Oxford,  1843; 
Dom  Fea.  Breve  vito  di  8.  Dorotea,  Turio,  1880. 

2.  Dorothea  the  Recluse  was  bom  at  Montau, 
near  Marienwerder  (45  m.  B.8.e.  of  Danzig),  1347; 
d.  at  Marienwerder  1394.  She  lived  in  Danzig 
with  her  husband  until  she  was  forty-four,  and 
had  nine  children.  Then  she  devoted  herself  to 
a  solitary  ascetic  life,  inhabiting  a  cell  adjoining 
the  cathedral  of  Marienwerder  in  1393  and  1394, 
and  following  a  rule  which  she  said  was  divinely 
revealed  to  her.  Miracles  occurring  at  her  grave 
and  the  universal  veneration  induced  the  grand 
master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  and  the  clergy  of 
the  neighborhood  to  begin  proceedings  for  her 
canonization;  but  these  were  stopped  when  it 
came  out  in  1404  that  she  had  sharply  criticized 
the  Order  and  predicted  its  downfaU.  The  peo- 
ple, however,  continued  to  revere  her  and  regarded 
her  as  the  patron  saint  of  Prussia. 

(J.  J.  HERZOOf.) 
Biblioobapht:  Early   ViUe  by  different  authors  are  col- 
lected in  ASB,  Oct..  xiii.  493-575.     Consult   F.  Hipler, 
Meiater  J.  Marienwerder  und  die  Klauenerin  Dorothea  von 
MoniaUt  Leipaic,  1865. 

DORT,  SYNOD  OF:  The  largest  and,  next  to 
the  Westminster  Assembly,  the  most  imposing  of 
all  synods  of  the  Reformed  Churches,  convened 
by  the  States  General  of  the  Netherlands  at  the 
instance  of  the  Calvinists  to  try  to  settle  the  dis- 
putes between  the  latter  and  the  ''  Remonstrants/' 
or  followers  of  Jacobus  Arminius  (see  Arminius; 
Remonstrants).  It  met  at  Dort  (Dordrecht,  on 
an  island  in  the  Meuse,  10  m.  s.e.  of  Rotterdam) 
Nov.  13,  1618,  and  adjourned  May  9, 
Constitution  1619.    The    Dutch   churches   of   the 

and  Or-  provinces  sent  thirty-five  clergymen 
ganization.  and  a  certain  number  of  elders;  the 
States  General  were  represented  by 
six  deputies;  the  academies  by  Gomarus  and 
Polyander  of  Leyden,  Thysius  of  Harderwyk,  Lub- 
bertus  of  Franeker,  and  Walseus  of  Middcdburg. 
Foreign  countries  had  been  invited  to  participate, 
and  twenty-seven  delegates  were  present  from  the 
Palatinate  (Abraham  Scultetus  and  others),  Nas- 
sau, Hesse  (Georg  Cruciger),  East  Friesland,  Swit- 
zerland (J.  J.  Breitinger  and  Jean  Diodati),  Eng- 
land, and  Scotland.  [The  English  representatives 
appointed  by  King  James  I.  were  George  Carle- 
ton,  bishop  of  Llandaff  (afterward  of  Chichester) ; 
John  Davenant,  bishop  of  Salisbury;  Samuel 
Ward,  professor  at  Cambridge;  Joseph  Hall,  after- 
ward bishop  of  Exeter  and  Norwich  (who  left  dur- 
ing the  sessions  and  was  replaced  by  Thomas 
Goad);  and  Walter  Balcanquall,  a  Scotchman  and 
chapbun  of  the  king.]  Anhalt  was  not  invited, 
Brandenburg  declined  to  be  represented,  and 
four  delegates  chosen  by  the  National  Synod  of 
France  were  forbidden  to  leave  the  country  by 
Louis  XIII.  Jan  Bogerman,  pastor  at  Leeu war- 
den, was  elected  president,  H.  Faukelius  and  J. 
Rolandus  were  appointed  assessors,  and  F.  Hom- 
mius  and  S.  Daomian  secretaries.  The  Remon- 
strants had  chosen  sixteen  clergymen  and  the 
Leyden  professor  Simon  Episcopiu  to  represent 
them.     As  they  were  late  in  arriving  the  first  ses- 


sions were  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  and  it  was  agreed  that  three 
members  should  undertake  the  Old  Testament,  and 
three  others  the  New;  it  was  then  declared  that 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  should  be  expounded  in 
sermons  in  all  the  churches. 

Not  until  Dec.  6  and  the  twenty-second  session 
was  the  main  business  of  the  gathering  reached. 
The  Remonstrants  were  told  that  they  could 
merely  express  their  opinions  and  the  Synod  would 
pronounce  judgment.  Against  this  they  imme- 
diately protested.  Episcopius  in  an  eloquent 
speech  said  that  they  had  all  come  of  their  own 
accord,  and  that  they  should  not  be  accused  of 
heterodoxy;  while  they  were  ready 
Proceed-  to  discuss  the  dogmas  in  question, 
ings,  and  they  would  not  submit  to  any  human 
Expulsion  power  or  belief,  but  only  to  the  word 
of  the  Re-  of  God  in  the  Holy  Scripture.  Their 
monstrants.  status  in  the  Synod  was  discussed  for 
many  days,  but  finally  the  delegates 
of  the  States  General  decided  that  they  had  noth- 
ing to  do  but  to  defend  their  beliefs;  the  Synod 
must  decide  at  the  end.  The  Remonstrants  then 
submitted  successively  written  statements  in  de- 
fense of  each  of  the  Five  Articles  (see  Remon- 
strants). They  were  asked  to  put  in  writing 
their  objections  to  the  Confession,  at  first  refused 
to  do  so,  but  finally  complied.  The  members  of 
the  Synod  and  of  the  States  General  sometimes 
addressed  them  very  bruskly.  Matters  grew 
worse  when  the  question  arose  whether  the  Re- 
monstrants could  speak  against  the  convictions 
of  their  opponents.  They  unanimously  refused 
to  go  on  if  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  do  so, 
and  it  was  decided  to  submit  the  question  to  the 
States  General;  in  the  mean  time  the  Remon- 
strants must  remain  in  Dort.  Thus  ended  the 
year  1618.  On  Jan.  3,  1619,  the  Remonstrants 
were  informed  of  the  decision,  which  sustained 
the  majority  of  the  Synod,  and  they  again  declared 
that  they  could  not  accept  it.  It  was  decided  to 
proceed  without  them.  They  tried  to  bring  about 
a  reconciliation  by  offering  to  answer  any  ques- 
tion submitted  to  them  in  writing,  but  the  presi- 
dent rejected  their  proposal.  On  Jan.  18  (the 
fifty-seventh  session)  they  were  finally  asked  if 
they  would  submit,  and  answered  decidedly  "  no." 
Bogerman  delivered  a  passionate  speech,  exclaim- 
ing, "  You  have  begun  with  lies  and  you  end  with 
lies,"  and  concluding  " DimiUiminif  tte.  He"  The 
net  result  of  six  weeks'  time  was  that  the  Remon- 
strants were  expelled,  while  they  were  conmianded 
not  to  leave  Dort. 

The  Synod  now  divided  in  groups  which  met  in 
the  morning  to  formulate  their  opinions  about  the 
doctrines  of  the  Remonstrants,  while  they  met  in 
the  afternoon  for  discussion.     In  the  125th  session 
it  was  voted  that  the  Five  Articles  of 
Decision    the  Remonstrants  were    contrary  to 
of  the      the  doctrine  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
Synod,      and  that  their  objections  to  the  Con- 
fession and  the  Catechism  were  not 
supported  by  the  authority  of  Scripture.     A  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  express  the  final  decision 
in  the  form  of  canons,  which  were  adopted  and 


495 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Dort 
Doaker 


signed  by  all  at  the  136th  aession  (Apr.  23).  The 
doctrine  of  absolute  predestination  was  main- 
tained, though  not  acceptable  to  the  supralapsa- 
rians.  It  was  now  decided  at  Bogerman's  sug- 
gestion to  depose  the  Remonstrants  from  their 
positions,  and  the  provincial  synods,  the  classes, 
and  presbyteries  were  directed  to  execute  the 
sentence.  The  Confession  and  Catechism  were 
considered  in  presence  of  the  foreign  delegates  and 
were  found  to  agree  in  every  respect  with  Scrip- 
ture. Finally  Conrad  Vorstius  (q.v.)  was  de- 
clared unworthy  of  his  position  as  professor  of 
theology  on  account  of  his  heretical  writings. 

On  Ifay  6  the  members  of  the  Synod  marched 
in  procession  to  the  cathedral  of  Dort,  where 
Bogennan  delivered  a  Latin  address  and  the  secre- 
taries read  the  canons  against  the  Remonstrants. 
Three  days  later  they  met  for  a  formal  farewell  to 
the  foreign  delegates  at  a  banquet  tendered  by 
the  city  authorities  of  Dort.  The  Dutch  delegates 
met  again  from  May  13  to  May  29  to  consider 
certain  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

For  two  centuries  the  decision  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort  was  the  basis  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
Holland,  and  the  Carumes  Dordracenses  gave  it  a 
peculiar  character;  for  what  they  stated  concern- 
ing predestination  differed  as  much  from  Calvin's 
InattttUionea  as  from  the  Helvetian  Confession  and 
the  Conaennu  Genevensia,  H.  C.  RoooEt. 

Bibuoobapht:  For  the  original  reoorda  oonault:  Ada 
9ynodi  .  .  .  DardrtdUi,  Dort,  1620;  Ada  et  aeripla  ayno- 
dalia  Dordraeena  miniMirarum  remoTUtranUum  Herdenvici, 
ib.  1620;  Cananea  Syriodi  Dordraeena,  cum  nolU  D.  Ti- 
lenit  Phria,  1622.  Ck>KiBult:  J.  Halesius,  HisL  caneilii 
Dordraoeni,  Hamburg,  1724;  M.  Qraf,  BeytrOo^  mr  KenrU' 
ni$M  der  Oetdiiehte  der  Synode  von  Dordrecht,  Baael,  1725; 
B.  Glaaius,  Oeechiedenia  der  .  .  .  Synode  .  .  .  te  Dord- 
recht, 2  vols.,  Leyden.  1860-61;  Sohaff.  Creedt,  i.  512- 
523  (history),  iii.  550-597  (the  canons,  in  Lat.  and  Eng.); 
Moe\\er,Chnetian  Church,  iii.  410-415  (ludd).  The  Can- 
ons of  the  Synod  of  Dort  are  part  of  the  symbolical 
books  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  America,  and 
are  officially  published  by  that  denomination  (New  York). 

DOSITHEOS,  dO-^'th^^,  OF  JERUSALEM: 
Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  1699-1707,  and  one  of  the 
most  important  figures  of  the  modem  Greek  Church. 
He  reformed  the  cloisters  by  a  strict  insiBtcnce  on 
their  communal  life,  erected  churches,  took  great 
interest  in  the  Holy  Sepuicher,  and  defended  the 
holy  places  against  the  claims  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics and  the  Armenians.  He  extirpated  the  Prot- 
estant tendency  which  had  entered  the  Church 
through  Cyril  Lucar  (q.v.),  and  opposed  in  hb  "  Man- 
ual "  (Bucharest,  1690)  Johannes  Karyophyllis, 
the  logothete  of  Constantinople,  who  taught  a 
Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  He 
assailed  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  both  in  prac- 
tise and  by  the  publication  of  such  controversial 
works  as  the  "  Book  of  Absolution  "  (Jassy,  1692), 
the  "  Book  of  Love  "  (1699),  and  the  "  Book  of 
Grace  "  (1705).  His  chief  objects  of  attack  were 
the  union,  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Gliost,  and 
the  light  of  Mount  Tabor.  His  chief  work  was  his 
posthumous  "  History  of  the  Patriarchs  in  Jeru- 
salem "  (Bucharest,  1715),  in  which  he  gave  the 
entire  history  of  the  Greek  Church  and  dogma, 
together  with  savage  polemics  against  other 
Churches.     Despite  its  lack  of  criticism,  the  book 


is  valuable  for  its  material  where  Dositheos  drew 
from  sources  accessible  to  him  alone,  and  it  thus 
forms  a  Greek  counterpart  to  the  Annals  of  Baro- 
nius  and  the  Magdeburg  Centuries. 

(PHIL.IPP  Meter.) 

BiB]:jooaA.PBT:  E.  Lcsrand,  Bibliographie  heUinique,  4 
vols.,  Paris,  1804r-98,  and  the  works  cited  under  Jsau- 
BALEif,  Synod  of. 

DOSITHEIJS,   d5-sith'e-ns,    THE   SAMARITAN: 

A  false  Messiah  among  the  Samaritans,  and  founder 
of  a  religious  sect.  Very  httle  is  known  of  him; 
and  the  uncertainty  of  the  reports  is  increased  by 
his  being  confounded  with  an  older  Dositheus.  the 
teacher  of  Zadok,  who  founded  the  sect  of  the 
Sadducees.  He  was  probably  a  contemporary  of 
Jesus,  or  perhaps  a  little  later.  In  those  days  of 
great  religious  excitement  he  presented  himself  to 
the  Samaritans  as  the  prophet  promised  in  Deut. 
xviii.  18  (which  passage,  according  to  Samaritan 
doctrine,  is  the  only  true  Messianic  prophecy  ever 
given)  and  as  the  Son  of  God  (Origen,  Contra  Cel- 
sum,  L  67,  vi.  11;  ANF,  iv.  421,  578).  His  doc- 
trines can  not  be  definitely  determined.  He 
seems  to  have  laid  stress  upon  the  precepts  of  the 
law  (Epiphanius,  Har.f  i.  13)  and  gave  to  the 
words  concerning  the  Sabbath  in  Ex.  xvi.  29  a 
ridiculously  literal  interpretation  (Origen,  De  prin- 
cipiis,  IV.  i.  17:  ''  Each  one  must  remain  until  the 
evening  in  the  posture,  place,  or  position  in  which 
he  found  himself  on  the  Sabbath-day;  i.e.,  if  found 
sitting,  he  is  to  sit  the  whole  day,  or  if  reclining, 
he  is  to  recline  the  whole  day,"  ANF,  iv.  366). 
The  number  of  his  followers  was  probably  never 
great,  but  they  lasted  into  the  sixth  century.  The- 
ophilus,  a  Persian,  wrote  against  them  in  the  fourth 
century  (Assemani,  BCbl.  Orient.,  i.  42),  and  in  588 
Dositheans  and  Samaritans  disputed  in  Egypt  over 
Deut.  xviii.  18  (cf.  Photius,  Bibl  cod.,  230). 

(G.  UHLHORNf.) 
Bibuoorapht:  J.  L.  von  Mosheim,  InetUutionea  hialoricB 
ChrieHancB,  i.  376-380.  Hehnatadt,  1730  (the  fullest  ao- 
oount,  cf.  Eng.  transl.,  ed.  W.  Stubbs,  i.  86,  London, 
1863);  C.  W.  F.  Walch.  Hidorie  der  Ketzereien,  i.  182 
Bqq.,  Leipsic,  1762;  A.  Hilgenfeld,  Die  KdseroiBtdiichte 
dea  UrchrieienthumB,  pp.  155  aqq.,  Leipsie,  1884;  Hamack, 
Litteraiur,  i.  162  eqq.;  DCB,  i.  002-004. 

DOSKER,  HENRY  ELIES:  Presbyterian  (South- 
em  Branch);  b.  at  Bunschoten  (25  m.  s.e.  of 
Amsterdam),  Holland,  Feb.  5,  1855.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  Latin  school,  Harlingen,  Holland,  the 
gymnasium  of  Zwolle,  Holland,  Hope  College, 
Holland,  Mich.  (B.A.,  1876),  New  Brunswick  The- 
ological Seminary,  and  McCormick  Theological 
Seminary,  Chicago  (B.D.,  1879).  After  pastor- 
ates at  Ebenezer  (1879-82)  and  Grand  Haven, 
Mich.  (1882-86),  he  was  lector  of  historic  theology 
in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Holland, 
Mich.,  imtil  1888,  and  then  pastor  in  the  same  city 
till  1894.  He  was  then  appointed  professor  of 
church  history  in  Western  Theological  Semmary, 
and  since  1903  has  been  professor  of  the  same  sub- 
ject in  the  Presbyterian  Seminary  of  Kentucky, 
Louisville,  Ky.  He  edited  Hope,  the  magazine  of 
Hope  College,  1894-1903,  and  was  associate  editor 
of  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Review  1898- 
1902.  Since  1903  he  has  been  an  editorial  con- 
tributor to  the  Christian  Observer,  Louisville,  Ky. 


Dooai 
Dowden 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


496 


In  theology  he  is  a  firm  Calvinkt  of  the  type  of 
the  Dutch  Fi-oe  University  of  Amsterdam.  He 
has  written  De  Zandagachool  (Kampen,  Holland, 
1882);  Dr.  A.  C.  Van  RaaUe  (1893);  and  OuUines 
of  EcdeaiasHcal  History  (Holland,  Mich.,  1901). 

DOUAI,  diX"^ :  A  town  of  France,  department  of 
Nord,  20  m.  s.  of  Lille  and  110  m.  n.n.e.  of  Paris. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  it  belonged  to  Spain,  and 
a  university  was  founded  there  by  Philip  II.  in 
1562.  In  1568  Cardinal  WUliam  Allen  (q.v.) 
opened  in  connection  with  the  university  a  college 
or  seminary  for  English  Roman  Catholics,  which, 
during  the  first  five  years  of  its  existence,  sent 
more  than  one  hundred  missioners  into  England. 
In  later  years  many  of  the  Catholic  gentry  of  Eng- 
land were  educated  there,  and  the  college  produced 
about  one  hundred  doctors  of  divinity  and  160 
martyrs.  In  consequence  of  the  political  and  re- 
ligious disturbances  in  the  Low  Countries  it  was 
removed  to  Reims  in  1578,  but  returned  to  Douai 
in  1593.  The  college  was  supported  by  private 
subscription  at  first,  received  a  monthly  pension 
of  100  gold  crowns  from  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in 
1575,  and  an  annual  appropriation  of  2,000  ducats 
from  Philip  II.  after  its  removal  to  Reims.  Allen 
continued  at  its  head  till  1588,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Richard  Barrett.  Douai  became  French 
territory  in  1667,  and  both  university  and  college 
were  suppressed  during  the  French  Revolution 
(1793). 

Biblioobapht:  The  *'  Records  bf  the  EugUsh  GathoUos." 
edited  by  fathers  of  the  Ck>Dsregstion  of  the  London 
Oratory,  vol.  i..  The  Firti  and  Second  Diariea  of  the  Eno- 
Hah  ColUoe,  Douay,  London,  1878;  voL  ii.,  Lettere  and 
MemoriaU  of  William  Cardinal  Alien,  1882;  A.  BeIIe»- 
heim,  Wilhelm  Cardinal  Allen  und  die  engliadien  Semi- 
nare  auf  dem  Featiande,  Mains,  1885;  \Aon  Legrand, 
L'UniveraiU  de  Douai,  1630-1790,  Douai.  1888;  G.  Car- 
don,  La  Fondation  de  I'univeraiU  de  Douai,  Paris,  1892. 
For  the  Douai  Bible  see  Bible  Versions,  Enoubh. 

DOIJCHOBORS.    See  Dukhobors. 

DOUEH,  EMMANUEL -OREIITIN:  French  Prot- 
estant; b.  at  Templeux-le-Gudrard  (Somme)  June 
2,  1830;  d.  at  Paris  July  9,  1896.  His  par- 
ents in  1833  removed  to  Lem6  (Aisne),  and  there 
his  education  was  begun.  Later  he  studied  at 
Saint-Quentin,  from  1846  to  1849  at  Lille,  and  the 
next  four  years  at  the  University  of  Strasburg, 
where  he  particularly  distinguished  himself  in  He- 
brew. From  1853  to  1861  .he  was  pastor  of  the 
Protestant  church  of  Quincy-S^gy  ( --'i  ine-et-Came). 
A  disease  of  the  larynx  compelled  him  to  give  up 
preaching,  and  he  accepted  the  position  of  agent 
of  the  Protestant  Bible  Society  of  Paris.  He  was 
a  prolific  author,  but  only  the  titles  of  those  books 
which  are  likely  to  have  interest  for  a  later  genera- 
tion will  here  be  given  (for  a  full  list  down  to  1882 
see  ESR,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  62);  CUment  Marot  et  le 
PsaiUier  huguenot  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1878-79),  a  work 
published  at  the  exj^nse  of  the  State;  Lea  premiers 
pasteura  du  D^-sert  (2  vols.,  1879),  decreed  a  prize 
by  the  French  Academy;  £tienne  Dolet  (1881); 
La  Revocation  de  VMU  de  Nantes  tk  Paris,  d'aprhs 
des  documents  inMits  (3  vols.,  1894). 

DOUGLAS,  GEORGE  CUlflNGHAM  MOK- 
TEATH:     United  Free  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at 


Kilbarchan  (8  m.  s.  of  Dumbarton),  Renfrewshire, 
Mar.  2,  1826;  d.  at  Bridge  of  Allan  (2  m.  n.  of 
Stirling),  Stirlingshire,  May  24,  1904.  He  studied 
at  Glasgow  and  New  College,  Edinburgh,  and  after 
being  pastor  at  Bridge  of  Weir,  Renfrewshire 
(1852-57),  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Old  Tes- 
tament exegesis  at  the  Free  Church  College,  Glas- 
gow, until  1892.  From  1875  until  1892  he  was 
also  principal  of  the  same  institution.  He  was 
one  of  the  Old  Testament  revisers  from  1870  to 
1884.  He  translated  J.  C.  F.  Keil's  Lehrbuch  dcr 
histarischrkritischen  Einleiiung  in  die  Schriften  du 
Alten  Testaments  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1869-70), 
prepared  the  notes  to  Judges,  Joshua,  and  the 
six  intermediate  minor  prophets  in  Handbook  for 
Bible  Classes  (3  vols.,  1881-90),  and  wrote  Why  I 
stiU  believe  th4it  Moses  wrote  Deuteronomy  (Edin- 
burgh, 1878);  A  ShoH  Analysis  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment by  Means  of  Headings  to  the  Chapters  (Pais- 
ley, 1889);  Isaiah  One  and  his  Book  One  (London, 
1895);  and  Samuel  and  His  Age  (1901). 

DOUMBRGUE,  EMILE :  French  Reformed;  b. 
at  Nimes  (30  m.  n.  of  Montpellier)  Nov.  25,  1844. 
After  the  completion  of  his  education  he  was  editor 
of  Le  Christianisme  au  dv^neuvihne  teihde  (1872- 
1880),  and  was  also  assistant  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
church  at  Paris  and  chaplain  of  the  mimicipal  high 
schools  in  the  same  city  (1878-80).  Since  the 
latter  year  he  has  been  professor  of  church  history 
at  Montauban.  He  has  written  L'UniU  de  VSglise 
R^fomUe  de  France  (Paris,  1875):  La  VeiUe  de  la 
loi  de  Van  X  {176S-1802)  (Paris,  1879);  La  Cre- 
ation et  V Evolution  (1883);  Essai  sur  I'histoire  du 
cuUe  riformif  principalement  au  seitihne  et  au  dix- 
neuvihne  sibcle  (1890) ;  L'Autoriti  en  matitre  de  joi 
et  la  nouveUe  ^cole  (Lausanne,  1892);  Le  R^U 
national  (Montauban,  1894);  Jean  Calvin :  Lts 
Hommes  et  les  choses  de  son  temps  (Lausanne,  vol. 
i.,  1899,  vol.  ii.,  1902,  vol.  iii.,  190S— more  to  follow, 
a  monumental  work,  intended  to  be  exhaustive); 
Une  Poignee  de  faux  :  La  Mori  de  Calvin  et  le% 
J^suites  (1900);  and  Lausanne  au  temps  de  la 
Reformation  (1903). 

DOVES:  Many  species  of  wild  doves  are  found 
in  Palestine.  The  rock-dove  {columba  liria  and 
columba  Schimperi)  builds  its  nest  in  the  clefts  of 
the  rocks  and  cliffs  (Jer.  xlviii.  28;  Esek.  vii.  16; 
Cant.  ii.  14).  In  wooded  regions  dwell  ring-doves 
{columba  palumbus),  which  build  their  nests  in 
the  trees;  many  of  them  winter  in  Palestine  and  fly 
north  in  the  spring.  Thestock-<love,  or  wood-pigeon, 
is  rarer.  Of  turtle-doves  the  most  common  is 
the  ordinary  turtle-dove  {turlur  auritua),  a  migra- 
tory bird  (Jer.  viii.  7),  which  appears  in  April  in 
great  numbers  (Cant.  iL  11  sqq.).  More  rare  is 
the  laughing-dove  {turtur  risarius),  which  frequents 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Dead  Sea;  and  the  smaller 
turtur  senegalensis,  which  prefers  to  build  in  the 
palm-trees.  By  the  ancient  Israelites  (Lev.  v.  7) 
and  also  by  the  pre-Israelitic  inhabitants  of 
Palestine  not  only  the  common  house-dove,  but 
also  more  choice  varieties  were  domesticated  (ci. 
Ps.  btviii.  13,  the  description  of  a  rarer  variety  i 
Dove-cotes  are  mentioned  Isa.  Ix.  8,  and  Josephus 
{War,  V.  iv.  4)  speaks  of  a  number  of  small  towen 


497 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


DOXLMI 


for  tame  doyes  which  stood  in  the  garden  of  Herod's 
palace.  In  the  account  of  the  deluge  the  dove 
appears  as  a  domesticated  bird.  The  figurative 
language  of  Old  Testament  poetry  often  speaks  of 
the  dove,  mentioning  its  simplicity  (Hos.  vii.  11), 
its  swiftness  (Ps.  Iv.  6;  Hos.  xi.  11),  and  its  plain- 
tive cooing  (Isa.  xxxviii.  14,  lix.  11;  Exek.  vii. 
16;  Nahum  ii.  7);  in  Canticles  the  dove  is  used 
as  a  type  of  the  loved  one  (ii.  14,  y.  3,  vi.  9). 
The  comparisons  are  easily  understood,  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  dove  was  sacred 
to  Astarte  and  was,  therefore,  anciently  the  ob- 
ject of  great  honor  and  care.  The  dove  was  fre- 
quently offered  as  a  sacrifice;  it  was,  indeed,  the 
legal  offering  for  purification  (Lev.  xii.  6  sqq.,  zv. 
14-15;  Num.  vi  10),  and,  among  the  poor,  often 
took  the  place  of  a  greater  sacrifice  (Lev.  v.  7, 
xii.  8,  xiv.  22  sqq.).  For  the  symbolical  use  of 
the  dove  in  Christian  art  see  Stmbousm. 

I.  Benzinger. 
Biblioobapht:  Ludan,  Dea  Syria,  liv.;  H.  B.  Tristram, 
Natural  Hiat  of  the  BibU,  pp.  211-220,  London.  1867; 
B.  Lorenti,  Die  Tavbe  im  AlUrthume,  Leipaie,  1886;  DB, 
i.  610-620;  BB,  i.  1120-30;  /£,  iv.  644-646:  DCG,  i. 
402.  On  the  dove  aa  a  Bymbol  oonault:  DC  A,  i.  676- 
676  and  referenoeB  there;  New  Intemaiumal  Cudopadiat 
▼i.  26^256. 

DOW,  LOREKZO:  Methodist;  b.  at  Coventry, 
Conn.,  Oct.  16,  1777;  d.  at  Georgetown,  D.  C, 
Feb.  2,  1834.  He  received  only  the  most  elemen- 
tary education,  but  determined  to  become  a  Meth- 
odist preacher,  and  after  being  rejected  by  the 
Connecticut  Conference  in  1796  was  finally  ap- 
pointed, three  years  later,  to  the  Cambridge  Cir- 
cuit, N.  Y.  Within  the  year  he  was  transferred  to 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  Essex,  Vt.,  but  had  no  offi- 
cial relations  with  his  sect  after  1799,  although  he 
continued  to  preach  its  characteristic  tenets 
throughout  his  life.  Believing  that  he  had  a 
special  message  for  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Ire- 
land, he  visited  Great  Britain  in  1799  and  1805, 
where  the  violence  of  his  harangues  exposed  him 
to  personal  danger.  During  this  time  he  intro- 
duced camp-meetings  into  England,  thus  begin- 
ning a  controversy  which  resulted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Primitive  Methodists  (see  Mbthodibtb). 
In  1802  he  preached  in  the  Albany  district,  N.  Y., 
and  in  180^04  delivered  the  first  Protestant  ser^ 
mons  in  Alabama.  In  1807  he  was  in  Louisiana. 
The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to  fanat- 
ical attacks  on  the  Jesuits.  He  was  well  known 
as  "  Crasy  Dow,"  on  account  of  his  long  hair  and 
beard,  peculiar  clothing,  and  habit  of  swaying  as 
he  preached,  but  his  addresses  were  characterized 
by  a  sarcasm,  wit,  and  fearless  courage  which 
gained  him  throngs  of  hearers.  Among  his  nu- 
merous writings,  many  of  which  were  issued  under 
the  pseudonyms  of  "  Cosmopolite  "  and  "  Loren- 
zo," mention  may  be  made  of  his  Polemical  Works 
(New  York,  1814);  The  Stranger  in  CharUstovm, 
or  the  Trial  and  Confeasum  of  Lorenzo  Dow  (Phila- 
delphia, 1822);  A  Short  Account  of  a  Long  Travel, 
with  Beauties  of  Wesley  (1823);  and  the  posthu- 
mous Journal  and  Miscellaneous  Writings  (ed.  J. 
Dowling,  New  York,  1836)  and  History  of  a  Cos- 
mopolite, or  the  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Lorenzo  Dow, 
containing  his  Experience  and  Travels  in  Europe 


and  America  up  to  near  his  Fiftieth  Year  (Cincin- 
nati, 1851). 

Biblioobapht:  The  Dealinoe  of  Ood,  Man,  and  the  DevO, 
ae  Exemplified  in  the  Life,  Experience,  and  Travele  of 
L.  Dow,  together  with  hie  WriHnoe  eomjMe,  2  vol*.,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1876. 

DOW,  NEAL:  Temperance  worker;  b.  at  Port- 
land, Me.,  Mar.  20,  1804;  d.  there  Oct.  2,  1897. 
He  studied  at  the  Friends'  Academy,  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass.,  and  engaged  in  mercantile  and  manu- 
facturing pursuits.  He  early  became  an  advocate 
of  rigid  restriction  of  the  liquor  traflSc,  and  entered 
political  life  in  1839  as  chief  engineer  of  the  Port- 
land fire  department.  He  was  elected  mayor  of 
Portland  in  1851  and  1854,  and  during  his  first 
term  drafted  a  bill  "  for  the  suppression  of  drink- 
ing-houses  and  tippling-ehops,"  which  was  pre- 
sented to  the  legislature  on  the  day  before  its 
adjournment  and  carried  without  change  on  the 
following  day  (May  31,  1851).  This  law  is  still  in 
force  in  its  original  form.-  Dow  was  a  member  of 
the  Maine  legislature  1858-59,  and  in  1861  was 
commissioned  colonel  of  the  13th  Maine  Volun- 
teers and  assigned  to  the  department  of  the  Gulf. 
A  few  months  later  he  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier-general and  placed  in  conmiand  of  the  forts 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  subsequently 
of  the  district  of  Florida.  He  was  severely  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Port  Hudson  in  1863,  and  was  cap-' 
tured  the  same  night  and  confined  for  eight  months, 
in  libby  Prison  and  Mobile  before  being  exchanged 
for  Fitz  Henry  Lee.  He  visited  England  in  1857, 
1866,  and  1874  at  the  invitation  of  the  Tempei^ 
anoe  Alliance  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  devoted 
himself  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  the  further- 
ance of  the  total  abstinen:;e  movement,  traveling 
extensively  and  contributing  frequently  to  maga- 
zines and  new&papers  in  support  of  his  principles. 
He  was  the  Prohibition  candidate  for  President  of 
the  United  States  in  1880,  but  received  only  10,305 
votes.  Four  years  later  he  was  instrumental  in 
adding  an  amendment  to  the  Maine  constitution 
forever  prohibiting  the  manufacture,  sale,  or  keep- 
ing for  sale  of  intoxicating  beverages,  and  direct- 
ing the  legislature  to  compel  a  rigid  enforcement 
of  the  amendment. 
Biblioobapht:    Reminieeeneee  of  Neal  Dow;    ReeoUeetione 

of  80  Yeare,  Portland.  1808. 

DOWDEll,  JOHN:  Anglican  bishop  of  Edin- 
burgh; b.  at  Cork,  Ireland,  June  29,  1840.  He 
studied  at  Queen's  College,  Cork,  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin  (B.A.,  1861),  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  1865.  He  was  curate  of  St.  John's,  Sligo  (1864- 
1867),  incumbent  of  Calry,  Sligo  (1867-71),  chap- 
lain to  the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  (1870-74), 
and  assistant  at  St.  Stephen's  Chapel  of  Ease, 
Dublin  (1871-74).  He  was  Pantonian  professor 
of  theology  (1874-87)  and  canon  of  St.  Mary's 
Cathedral,  Edinburgh  (1880-86),  and  in  1886  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  Donel- 
lan  lecturer  at  Dublin  in  1884,  and  select  preacher 
at  the  same  university  in  1886,  1894,  and  1895. 
He  has  written  The  Celtic  Church  in  Scotland 
(London,  1894);  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the  The- 
ological Literature  of  the  Church  of  England  from 
I  the  Reformalian  to  the  close  of  the  EightemUh  Cen- 


Dowto 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-BERZ0G 


498 


hirp  (1897);  Hdpt  from  RiaUrm  to  the  True  Senae 
of  the  MiTuUory  Clausea  of  the  Athanasian  Creed 
(1897);  and  The  WorkmanMp  of  the  Prayer  Book 
(1899);  and  has  edited  The  Annotated  ScoUUh 
Commtaiion  Office  (London,  1884);  The  Corre- 
epondence  of  the  Lauderdale  Family  with  Arehbiehop 
Sharp,  leeo^itfr?  (Edinburgh,  1893);  and  The 
Chartulary  of  the  Abbey  of  Undorea  (1903). 

DOWIS,  JOHN  ALEXAHDER:  Founder  of  the 
Chmtian  Catholic  Apoetolic  Church  in  Zion  (q.v  ); 
b.  at  Edmburgh,  Scotland,  Ifay  25,  1847;  d.  at 
Zion  C^ity,  DL,  Mar.  9,  1907.  He  was  educated 
in  the  schools  of  ius  native  city,  and  from  1860  to 
1868  was  engaged  in  business  in  Adelaide,  Austra- 
lia. Returning  to  Scotland,  he  studied  for  two 
years  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1870 
was  ordained  to  the  Congregational  ministry  in 
South  Australia.  He  held  successive  charges  at 
Afana  and  Sydney,  but  in  1878  retired  from  the 
Congregational  body.  Meanwhile  he  had  become 
convinced  that  he  possessed  the  gift  oi  divine 
healing,  and  in  1882  removed  to  Melbourne,  where 
he  built  a  "  tabernacle "  and  established  the 
International  Divine  Healing  Association.  After 
working  in  Australia  for  six  years,  during  which 
time  ha  conducted  a  laige  number  ol  missions,  be 
went  to  the  United  States,  where  he  labored  for 
two  years  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  In  1890  he  re- 
moved to  Evanston,  III.,  and  in  1893  transferred 
his  headquarters  to  Chicaga  In  1896  he  estab- 
lished the  Christian  Catholic  Church  in  Zion,  of 
which  he  made  himself  "general  overaeer/'  re- 
peatedly antagooiaing  various  Protestant  denom^- 
inations,  and  in  1901  founded  Zion  City  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  42  m.  n.  of  Chicago,  in 
which  he  sou^t  to  prove  the  practicability  of  his 
teachings.  There  he  gained  immense  power  and 
influence,  announced  himself  as  "  Elijah  the  Re- 
storer," became  the  idol  of  Us  followers,  and  in 
1004  he  appointed  himself  "  first  apostle."  Out- 
side Zion  City,  however,  his  success  was  less.  An 
attempt  to  introduce  his  views  in  New  York  in 
1904  ended  in  failure,  and  visits  to  London  in  1903 
and  1904  were  equally  unproductive.  Beneath 
his  apparent  supremacy  opposition  began  to  de- 
velop, criticism  being  leveled  particularly  against 
his  financial  administration  of  Zion  City.  CfaArges 
were  also  made  that  he  held  views  conducive  to 
immorality,  and  during  his  absence,  on  account 
of  ill  health,  in  Mexico  in  1906  he  was  deposed 
from  his  office  at  Zion  City.  He  thereupon  re- 
turned to  Zion  City  and  vigorously  opposed  his 
deposition,  finally  securing  at  least  a  partial  vin- 
dication by  a  court  order,  which  also  made  provi- 
sion for  his  support. 

Biblioobapbt:  R.  Hsrlao*  John  Alemmdar  Oovic  mmd  A« 
ChriatuM  CaihoKc  ApotioUe  Chitreh  in  Zion,  EvaasviJle, 
WiA..190e. 

DOWLDIG,  JOHH:  Baptist;  b.  in  Pevensey 
(13  m.  B.W.  of  Hastings),  Sussex,  England,  May 
12,  1807;  d.  in  Middletown,  N.  Y.,  July  4,  1878. 
He  taoght  school  in  England  till  1832.  when  he 
came  to  America.  For  many  years  be  was  pas- 
tor in  New  York  City,  and  he  also  preached  in 
Providence,  Philadelphia»   and   Newaric    He   be- 


came widely  known  by  his  Hielerp  of 
(New  York»  1846,  and  later  edttk>ns). 

D0Z0L06Y.    See  LniTRoiCAL  FoRifULAa. 

D*OTLYf  GEORGE:  Church  of  En^^d;  b.  at 
London  Oct.  31,  1778;  d.  there  Jan.  8,  1846.  He 
studied  at  Cbrpus  Christ!  College,  Cambridge  (BJL, 
1800),  and  was  elected  fellow  in  1801.  He  was 
ordered  deacon  in  1802  and  ordained  priest  in  the 
following  year,  and  after  being  curate  to  his  father 
for  a  few  months  became  curate  of  Wrotham, 
Kent,  in  1804.  FVom  1806  to  1809  he  was  mod- 
erator in  the  University  of  Cambridge*  and  in 
1811  was  appointed  Hulsean  (Christian  advocate. 
In  1813  he  became  domestic  chaplain  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  in  1815  was  presented 
to  the  vicarage  of  Hemhill.  Kent.  Before  he  could 
take  up  his  residence  there,  however,  he  was  made 
the  successor  of  his  father  at  Buxted,  Sussex. 
From  1820  until  his  death  he  held  the  rectories  of 
Lambeth,  Surrey,  and  Sundridge,  Kent.  He  was 
treasurer  of  the  Society  for  {^moling  Christian 
Knowledge,  a  member  of  the  London  conunittee 
of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Giospel, 
one  of  the  main  agents  in  the  establishment  of 
King's  College,  London,  and  select  preadier  at 
Cambridge  in  1809,  1810,  and  181L  He  pub- 
lished TtDO  Dtscoweee  preadied  before  the  Untcet- 
eiiy  of  Cambridge  on  the  Doctrine  of  a  Particular 
Providence  and  on  Modem  UHUtarianiem  ((Tarn- 
bridge,  1811);  Lettere  to  Sir  W.  Drummond  ReUf 
ting  lo  hie  Obeervatione  on  Parte  of  the  Old  TeeUaneet 
m  hie  "  (Edipue  Judaicue  **  (London,  1812);  Be- 
marke  on  Sir  W.  Drummand^e  **  (Edipue  Judai- 
cue "  (1813);  An  Eeaay  en  the  Doctrine  of  Assur- 
ance, ae  Maintained  by  Some  Modem  Sects  of 
Christians  (1814);  Life  of  William  Sanaoft,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  (2  vdl&y  1821);  Sermons 
(1827);  end  the  posthumous  Sermons  (edited,  with 
a  memoir,  by  his  son,  C.  J.  D'Oyly,  1847).  He 
is  best  known,  however,  for  the  annotated  BiUe 
(3  vols.,  London,  1814)  prepared  in  collaboration 
with  Rkshard  Mant  (q.v.). 

DRABIK»  dra^bik,  MIKUli&  Q^ieelaus  Dnbir 
cius) ;  Moravian  mystic  and  pro|iihet;  b  at  Stras- 
nits  (13  m.  saw.  of  HradMi)  Dee.  5»  1588;  d. 
at  Presburg  (34  m.  e.s.e.  of  Vienna)  July  17,  1671. 
He  was  educated  in  his  native  town,  and  in  1616 
was  ordained  by  the  Bohemian  Brethren  and  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Drahotusch.  When  the  non- 
Catholics  were  exiled  in  1627  he  left  Mocavia  with 
them  and  found  a  refuge  in  Lednits.  His  addic- 
tion to  liquor  and  has  diaobedienee  of  the  regular 
tions  of  the  Brethren  lesnlted  in  his  depositioD 
from  the  deigy.  Theieupon  be  devoted  hunself 
to  the  study  of  the  proplwts  of  the  (Hd  Teetaosttt 
and,  in  1643,  set  himself  up  as  a  prophet  His 
revc^tions  were  based  on  dreams  and  on  oonver- 
sations  with  a  divine  voice,  and  are  charaeteriaed 
by  a  bitter  hatred  of  the  house  of  Austria  rather 
than  by  religious  apocalypties.  In  1650  he  re- 
ceived fresh  inspiration  when  Comeniiis  was  sent 
by  the  Bohemian  exiles  in  Poland  to  their  Monr 
vian  brethrsn.  The  aesession  of  Charlea  X.  ef 
Sweden  again  inspired  Drabik  with  new  ho|MB^  and 
he  went  to  Holland,  where  (JoiMniua  publUbadyi 


400 


REUGIOnS  ENCYaX)PEI»A 


Dowle 
Dntoonitaa 


Imx  in  imuihriB  (ii.p.,  1057).  To  the  very  last  hk 
prophecies  foretdd  the  speedy  downfall  of  Austria 
and  the  retiira  of  the  foethren.  In  1671  he  was 
seued,  together  with  the  leaders  of  the  conspiracy 
of  Wesseleny,  with  which  he  had  had  nothing  to 
do,  and  was  executed  on  a  charge  of  lese-majestg. 

(P.  Elbinbrt.) 
BiBUoeBAFBr:  [A.  Cbmeniuak  Hiaioria  rwvetatUmum^  Am- 
BterdAHu  \9Sf^  Q.  Arnold,  Kirdtan^  und  KalaerhUtone,  iii. 
353  sqq..  4  Yoli.,  Fnuikfort,  1700-15;  P.  F.  QrOiMnberg, 
D«  Ni€»kk»  DrabiHB  tmoprfyphttkBL^  Altorf,  1721;  P.  Klei- 
nert,  in  T8K^  1808;  and  tha  Kianitufe  dted  under  Coiob- 

NTOB. 

DRACHKAH,  BERNARD:  Jewish  rabbi;  b.  in 
New  York  City  June  27,  1861.  He  studied  at 
Columbia  CcHege  (B.A.,  1882),  the  universities  of 
BresUu  and  Heidelberg  (Ph.D.,  1884),  and  the 
Jewish  theological  seminaiy  at  Breslau.  He  re- 
ceived the  rabbinical  dif^oma  at  Bresbu  in  1885, 
and  has  been  rabbi  of  the  Congregation  Oheb  Sho- 
lom,  Newark,  N.  J.  (1885-^7),  the  Congregation 
Beth  Israel  Bikkur  Cholim,  New  York  City  (1887- 
1889),  and  the  Congregation  Zichron  Ephraim  in  the 
latter  dty  siooe  1880*  In  1886  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Jewi^  Thecdogical  Seminary  of 
New  York,  in  which  he  was  professes  of  Biblical 
exegesis,  Hebrew  grammar,  and  Jewish  philosophy 
1887-1902,  and  dean  1889-1902.  On  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary  of 
America  in  1902  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
Bible  and  rabbinical  codes.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  Jewish  Endeavor  Society.  In  theology  he 
is  an  adherent  of  Orthodox  Judaism.  He  has 
written  Die  SUUung  und  BedetUung  des  Jehuda 
Hajjug  in  der  Oeschichie  der  hebr&iaehen  Orammatik 
(Breslau,  1885)  and  From  the  Heart  of  Israel  (New 
York,  1905);  and  has  translated  The  Nineteen 
Letters  of  Ben  Utiel,  from  the  German  of  Samean 
RafOiael  Hiraeh  (New  York,  1899). 

MtACOHITES,  dra-c6-ni't6i,  JOHAVHES  (Johann 
Dradi,  Tracfa;  abo  Carlstadt,  from  his  native 
town):  German  Reformer  and  Biblical  scholar; 
b.  at  Carlstadt  (14  m.  n.w.  of  Wttrzburg)  1494; 
d.  at  Wittenberg  Apr.  18,  1566.  He  entered  the 
University  of  Erfurt  in  1509,  and  after  taking  his 
master's  degree  in  1514  lived  there  as  a  prominent 
member  of  the  circle  of  young  poets  and  enthusi- 
asts led  by  Eobanus  Hessus.  Erasmus  was  the 
object  of  their  admiration,  and  in  1520  Draconites 
traveled  to  the  Netherlands  to  mak»  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  great  scholar.  With  the  advent  of 
Luther,  however,  he  found  a  new  leader,  his  de- 
votion dating  particularly  from  the  Reformer's 
visit  to  Erfurt  in  Apr.,  1521.  In  June  of  the  same 
year  he  was  expelled  from  his  office  of  canon  of 
the  cathedral  church  because  of  his  open  adher^ 

ence  to  Luther's  teachings,  but  vio- 

Baxiy  Life  lent  demonstrations  by  the  populace 

to  1534-    and  students  led  to  lus  reinstatement. 

To  him  was  ascribed  the  instigation 
of  the  antisacerdotal  riots  of  June,  1521,  which 
led  to  a  definite  cleavage  between  the  Reformed 
and  Roman  Catholic  elements.  An  outbreak  of 
the  plague  drove  him  to  Wittenberg  in  the  same 
month,  and  there  he  pursued  the  study  of  Hebrew, 
but  the  following  year  he  accepted  the  pastorate 


oi  Miltenbecg  on  the  BCain.  In  dogma  and  prac- 
tise he  approached  dosely  to  the  Wittenberg 
model,  and  thus  gained  ibd  omiity  of  the  local 
Roman  Catholics,  though  the  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants were  on  hb  side.  Cited  to  appear  be- 
fore the  commissary  of  the  archbishop  of  Mains, 
he  refused  to  ob^y,  and  was  excommunicated.  At 
the  urgent  entreaty  of  his  parishioners,  he  fled 
from  threatening  danger  in  Sept.,  1523,  and  lived 
at  Werthehn,  Nurembeig,  Erfurt,  and  Wittenberg, 
whence  he  addressed  ejustles  of  consolation  to  the 
inhabitants  of  MUtenberg,  where  the  old  system 
had  been  reestablished  by  force.  In  1525  Dra- 
conites became  pastor  at  Walterahausen  near 
Gotha,  and  in  the  following  year  was  made  in- 
spector for  the  district  of  Tenneberg.  Owing  to 
the  frequent  conflicts  in  which  the  performance  of 
his  duties  involved  him,  he  resigned  in  1528  and 
retired  to  private  life  at  Eisenach,  actuated  partly 
by  the  desdre  to  devote  himself  to  the  preparation 
of  a  polyglot  Bible.  His  retirement  was  regarded 
with  suspicion  by  his  friends,  and  the  charge  of 
heresy  was  brought  against  him,  but  Le  held  to  the 
Reformed  faith  in  spite  of  efforts  to  win  him  away, 
and  in  his  defense  published  Bekenntnia  dee  Ohtur 
bens  und  der  Lehre  (Erfurt,  1532). 

In  1534  Draconites  became  pastor  and  profes- 
sor at  Iftarburg,  and  labored  with  seal  in  both 
fields.  His  publications  during  this  period  include 
Biblical  commentaries,  sermons,  and  devotional 
works.  He  renewed  his  friendship  with  Eobanus 
Hessus,  and  in  1540  pronounced  the  funeral  ora- 
tion over  his  friend,  and  later  edited  his  letters 
{EpistolcB  famUiares  Eabani  Hessi^  Marburg,  1543). 
A  noteworthy  feature  of  his  activity 
His  Pro-  was  his  successful  missionary  labor 
feasorial  among  the  Jews  He  was  present  at 
Career,  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  in  1536,  signed 
the  Schmalkald  articles  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  in  1541  attended  the  negotiations  at 
tl»B  Interim  of  Regensburg.  A  letter  addressed  to 
the  authorities  of  that  town  exhorting  them  to 
adopt  Lutheranism  attracted  the  dangerous  at- 
tention of  Granvella,  whom,  however,  he  eluded. 
At  this  time  he  came  into  conflict  with  Thamer,  a 
member  of  the  University  of  Marburg,  on  the  rela- 
tion of  faith  and  penitence.  Thamer  enjoyed  the 
protection  of  the  young  landgrave,  and  after  a 
pastorate  of  fourteen  years  Draconites  left  Mar- 
burg in  Oct.,  1547.  For  a  whOe  he  lectured  at 
Labeck  on  the  prophets,  and  in  1549-50  published 
there  a  long-contemplated  work  on  Messianic 
prophecy  under  the  title  OoUes  Verheissungen  von 
Christo  Jesu,  His  reputation  as  a  Hebrew  scholar 
brought  him  a  call  to  a  chair  in  the  University  of 
Rostock,  where  at  different  times  he  held  the  rec- 
torate.  In  1557  he  was  made  superintendent  of 
Rostock,  and  as  such  was  phmged  into  the  bitter 
controversy  between  the  civic  authorities  and  the 
cleigy,  whose  champions  were  Hesshusen  and 
Eggerdes.  His  liberal  interpretation  of  the  laws 
of  the  Sabbath  again  brought  upon  him  the  charge 
of  antinomianism,  and  in  1560  he  was  glad  to 
abandon  the  conflict  on  receiving  from  Duke  Al- 
bert of  Prussia  the  offer  of  the  presidency  of  the 
see  of  Pomerania,  while  he  also  welcomed  the  new 


Ormeontiiw 
Jhttcndorf 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


600 


pontioii  as  ao  opportunity  for  bringing  to  com* 
pletion  his  contemplated  fM^yglot  Bible. 

Under  leave  of  absence  he  proceeded  to  Witten- 
berg and  there  remained  to  the  end  of  his  life,  en- 
jc^ying  the  revenues  of  his  Prussian 
His  life  at  ofllee  until  removed  by  the  duke  in 
Wittenberg.  1664.  His  Biblia  Pentapla  began  to 
i^pear  at  Wittenberg  in  1563,  and  by 
lfi66  he  had  published  Gen.  i.~v.,  Psalms,  Prov- 
erbs, Isaiah,  Malachi,  Joel,  Zechariah,  and  Hicah. 
The  Hebrew  text  was  presented  in  very  laige 
type,  and  beneath  each  word  appeared  the  transla- 
tion in  Aramaic,  Greek,  Latin,  and  German,  while 
passages  which  he  regarded  as  Messianic  were 
print^  in  red.  Tlxe  value  of  the  work  is  small, 
however,  because  of  the  radical  changes  which  ho 
made  in  the  text  of  his  versions,  and  its  com- 
pletion was  found  impracticable. 

(G.  Kawerau.) 
Bibuoobapht:  The  older  Htemtm  b  indieated  and  worked 
over  by  J.  Holler.  Ctmbria  KUmraia,  tt.  187-173.  Copen- 
haCBn.  1744.  Of  sreat  Mnriee  is  G.  T.  Strobe!.  Neus 
BeiirAoB  '^  LUIeratur,  hr.  1,  pp.  1-136,  Nuzembers.  1703. 
A  short  biography  by  O.  Kawerau  is  in  BeiirAoB  no-  bay- 
rUeken  KvdisnaeBekiehU,  iiL  247  aqq..  Erlangen,  1807. 
For  hie  life  in  Erfurt  eoneuJt:  C.  Krauee.  Helius  Bobanut 
Hmuum,  vol.  L.  Gotha.  1879;  in  Miltenbeis.  O.  Albreeht. 
Dm  «iWfi0«lMdb«  OwmmfkU  Mitienberg  und  ihr  ertter  Pre- 
dioer,  Halle,  1806;  in  WaltershauMn.  C.  Pobusk.  J.  Dradk, 
in  ZeiUdtrift  d»B  Vereitu  fOr  IhHrvHfUeke  OeBduehie,  rii 
(1800).  211  iqq.;  in  Maiburs,  K.  W.  H.  Hochhuth. 
T.  Thamer  und  Landgrof  PhUipp,  in  ZHT,  1861.  pp.  166 
■qq.;  in  Roetoek.  O.  Krabbe,  Dm  UniveniiiU  R6§iock,  p. 
601,  Roetoek,  1864;  for  the  later  portion  of  hie  Ufe.  J. 
Voigt.  Brie/e  dtr  berilAmletfea  OtUkrien  mU  Henog  Al- 
ftrtdkl,  pp.  216-234,  K6nig8beis,  1841;  for  hie  work  on  the 
Bible.  L.  Dieatel.  OeBchiehU  dM  A.  T,  in  der  t^riattieken 
Kirdia,  Jena.  1860. 

DRACONTIUS,  dra-cen'shi-us,  BLOSSIUS  JBMI- 
LIUS:  Christian  poet;  b.  in  Africa;  flourished  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century.  His  poem 
in  honor  of  a  foreign  ruler  (possibly  the  emperor 
of  the  East)  aroused  the  anger  of  the  Gothic  king 
Gunthamund  (484-496),  who  confiscated  his  prop- 
erty and  imprisoned  him.  He  vainly  endeavored 
to  regain  the  royal  favor  by  his  elegy  SoHsf actio; 
his  De  laudibw  Dei  was  iJso  written  in  prison. 
The  latter  poem  is  devoted  to  the  divine  creation 
and  preservation  and  redemption  of  the  world, 
and  to  man's  love  for  God.  In  his  youth,  or  at 
least  before  his  imprisonment,  Dracontius  wrote 
brief  secular  poems,  epics  based  on  Hellenic  legends 
(HyUUf  Medea,  Bapttts  Helenas,  and  OresHa  Tra^ 
gadia),  two  epithalamia,  and  rhetorical  themes 
{Verba  Herculie,  Deliberativa  AckiUia,  and  Contro- 
vereia  de  staiua  viri  fortis).  The  two  Christian 
poems,  which  breathe  a  devotional  spirit,  evince 
linguistic  and  metrical  skill,  and  show  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  Bible  and  of  profane  literature. 
Only  the  first  part  of  the  Laudes  Dei,  the  Hexai- 
meron  ereationia  mundi,  was  known  to  Isidore  of 


Seville  {De  mr.  UL^  xxiv.),  and  this  portion  was  fint 
edited  (pooriy)  by  Bishop  Eugenius  II.  of  Toleda 
At  the  wish  of  the  Visigothic  king  Chindas?rinth 
(642-649),  Eugenius  also  prepared  a  wretched  edi- 
tion of  the  Satief actio.  The  true  Dracontius  fint 
became  known  through  Arevalo. 

K  LBIMBACHf. 
Bibliookapht:  The  beet  edition  of  the  Coraiiiia  atwors  n 
by  F.  de  Duhn.  Leipeic.  1873;  of  the  Canmma,  indodiiic 
the  SoUafaetio,  by  F.  Arevak>,  Room.  1791.  The  tfem- 
iMMToiw  ed.  J.  B.  Garpeov,  appeared  Hefanstadt.  1794; 
the  Rapbu  Hdanm  ie  in  the  ^ppendir  ad  opera  Ma,  bjr 
A.  Mai,  Rome.  1871;  the  Orarim  Traoadia,  ed.  R.  IViper, 
Wratialar,  1875.  Consult :  C.  Roasbeis,  in  Draamin 
eanmna  minora,  Stade,  1878;  idem,  MaieHaUen  n  nnem 
Commantar  Hber  dia  OroUi§  tragmHa,  Hildesheim,  1888- 
1880:  W  S.  Teuffel,  OatchidUt  dtr  r&mioeken  Litteralur.  ed. 
L.  Sehwabe.  pp.  1220-24,  Freibiiis,  1886;  J.  B.  Fitfa. 
Analoda  aaera  el  dauica,  i.  176-180.  Ferie.  1888;  W. 
Meyer,  in  Sitaunatberiehia  der  Berliner  Akademit,  18BQ, 
pp.  257-296;  DCB,  i.  906-907 

DRAEHDORFy  drte'dorf,  JOHAHHES:  Geraian 
Reformer;  b.  at  Schlieben  (30  m.  s.e.  of  Witten- 
berg) 1390;  burned  at  the  stake  at  Heidelberg 
Feb.  17,  1426.  He  was  of  noble  descent,  and  was 
educated  at  Dresden  by  the  magistri  Peter  and 
Frederick.  He  completed  his  studies  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Prague  and  Leipsic,  and  in  1417  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  Bohemia.  He  trav- 
ersed middle  and  southern  Germany  as  an  itiner- 
ant preacher  subsequent  to  1421,  and  at  Speyer 
ooUaborated  with  the  school-director  Peter  Tur- 
now  of  Tolkemit  on  a  manifesto  in  which  he  ve- 
hemently assailed  the  abuse  of  excommunication 
and  the  temporal  power  of  the  clergy.  In  1424, 
when  the  imperial  city  of  Weinsberg  was  put  under 
ban  and  interdict,  Dr&ndorf  endeavored  to  incite 
the  city  and  its  allies  to  open  rebellion  against 
ecclesiastical  control.  The  municipal  council  in- 
vited him  to  visit  the  city,  but  he  was  arrested 
by  the  elector  palatine  Louis  III.,  and  in  Feb., 
1426,  was  brought  before  the  Inquisition  at  Heidel- 
bei:g.  He  frankly  acknowledged  that  he  held  to 
the  Utraquistic  doctrine  of  the  oonrniunion  in- 
dulgences, and  that  he  was  opposed  to  the  taking 
of  oaths,  to  the  mass,  the  doctrine  of  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  councils,  the  temporal  jurisdiction  and 
power  of  the  clergy,  papal  primacy,  the  mendicant 
orders,  excommunication,  and  the  like.  His  relig- 
ious system  seems  to  have  been  the  result  of  a 
combination  of  Waldensian,  Wyclifite,  and  Tabor- 
istic  elements. 

Hebman  Hadpt. 
Bibuoobapbt:  J.  E.  Kapp,  Kieine  NacMeeB  .  .  ,  xvr  Er- 
Utuieruno  der  Reformaiumt-Geaehitkie  niUdidier  I/Hhm- 
den,  Ui.  1-60,  Leipsio,  1790;  KnimmeU  in  TSK,  xlii 
(1869).  130-144:  H.  Haupt.  HuaeHiaehe  PrvpaooMia  t« 
DeuUehlani,  in  Hiatorieehea  TaechenbucK  wries  6,  m 
26a-266;  idem.  Wakteneerthum  und  /nguuifMrn  tm  SSd- 
6eUidien  Deutaddand,  pp.  68-71,  Freiburs.  1890;  idem. 
in  Zeitadirift  fUr  die  OeaAidUa  dea  Oberrheine,  new  feriei, 
XT.  479  sqq. 


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