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Full text of "The new Schaff-Herzog encyclopedia of religious knowledge : embracing Biblical, doctrinal, and practical theology and Biblical, theological, and eclesiastical biography from the earliest times to the present day, based on the 3d ed. of the Realencyklopädie"

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siMFORD  -wmasiiY-  umum 


THE    NEW 

SCHAFF-HERZOG  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Of 

RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 


KDITCD  BY 


SAMUEL  MAOAULEY  JACKSON,  D J).,  LL.D. 


CHARLES  COLEBROOE  SHERMAN 

AHD 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  GILMORE,  M.A. 

(AsBociaie  Editors) 

AND  TNK  rOLLOWINa  DKPARTMKNT  KDITORB 


CLARENCE  AUGUSTINE  BECKWITH,  DJ). 

{Department  of  SyMemaiio  Theology) 

HENRY  KING  CARROLL,  LL.D. 

{Depoftment  of  Minor  DenominaiUmi) 

JAMES  FRANCIS  DRISCOLL,  DJ). 

{DepartmerU  of  LUurffia  and  Religiatu  Orden) 


JAMES  FREDERIC  HcCURDT,  PH.D.,  LLD. 

IDepartmerU  of  the  (Hd  TetUxmeni^ 

HENRT  SYLVESTER  NASH,  DJ). 

(Department  of  the  New  Tedament) 

ALBERT  HENRY  NEWltAN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(Department  <f  OwTfSh  Hidory) 


FRANK  HORACE  YIZETELLY,  FJ3.A. 
{Dqxxrtment  of  FronundaiUm  and  J^fpography) 


Complete  in  ^Twelve  IDolumes 


FUNK  AND  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 


543 

V,  2 


COPTSIGHT,   1906,   BT 

FUNK   A   WAGNALLS   COMPANY 


BcgtatoTMl  at  SUdonera*  Hall,  London,  Ing land 


[PrinUd  in  the  UniUd  StattB  of  America} 
PubliaKed  Deeemher,  1908 


117109 


EDITORS 


(Editor-in -CmiLF. ) 
Frofeoor  of  Cliurcb  UfatoiTt  New  York  UDlrersttj. 

ASSOCL\TE   EDITORS 


CKABI^S  OOLEBBOOS  SHEBMAN 

In  Biblical  CrIUclflm  and  TIieoLo^  on  ''Tbe  New  Inter* 
natlQiiAl  Cncjclopedla.'^  New  York. 


aEOBOK  WILLIAM  QII.MOBE,  H.A. 

New  York*  Fcanni^rly  Proreaaor  cif  Biblical  History  anil  Li^iurer 
on  Comparative  K«ltffJoa,  Baomor  Ttieologloal  Semlniiry. 


DEPARTMENT  EDITORS,  VOLUME  II. 


CIA&ENOE  AUGUSTUTE  BECKWTTH,  BD, 

{Dep&rtfjunt  of  SynUmtUic  TliMingit.} 

rrnfcwmr  of    STiiemaUo  TtieoloKy,  Chicago    Tbeologlcol 

8emliwrT» 

HBITBT  KING  CABBOLX.,  I.L.D. 
iDttpartment  »f  Minor  DenomiiuUiofu^) 
Om  or  tbm  CorretpoadlDf  Becretarles  of  lb«  Eoord  of  Foreign 
I  of  tbe  M^thodlfft  Episoopal  Oitircb,  New  York. 


FBANOIB  BBIBOOLL,  D.B. 
CDiqMrtiMfie  of  LUurgicft  and  BeiigUme  Ordtnj 
tof  St  Jt«»pp!i'8  S«mlnaiT,  Vookera,  N,  Y. 


HtTBEBT  ETANS,   Pli.D. 

(0^€  KdiUfT.) 
f  of  tbe  EdftorUl  Staff  of  (be  *'  Ctinrc1op«»di«  Brltan- 
nlea''  OompMiy,  N«w  York  atj. 


JAMES  FBEDEBICK  McCITBDY,  Ph.D., 
LIi.D. 

ilkpartmcrU  of  the  fJ.d  Tr»(ament.) 
Professor Df  Orlentul  Larig^iajrf^,  University  College,  Ttiruotu. 

HENBT  STLVESTEB  NASH,  B.D. 

(Department  of  th^  I^ew  Ti-mament.) 
Frotemmtf  of  tlie  Uteratura  and  lnt<»rpn^tatlon  uf  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Episcopal  Tbeologlr*!  8<.b<K>l,  Caiiibrid«»%  Moms. 

ALBEBT  HENBT  NEWMAN,  D,D.,  I-L.B. 

{Depart mtnt  <i/  4  hurch  HMorji.) 

Profeasor   of    Chuirh  Hiflt^ry.    Baylor  Tlieologlca]  Semlnarr 

(Baylor  UnlveraUy),   Waco,  Tex, 

EBANB  HOBACE  TIZETELLY,  F.S.A. 

{Department,  of  Pronuncialinn  and  Tvptiuraithn.) 

AsBodtte  EUltor  of  ilje  STANDARD  iiiCTiONiay,  em^ 

Now  York  City. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AKD  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  II. 


BBirST  CHBISTIAN  AGHELIS, 

fh.D., 
Vr^tmnr  of  Pnciknl  TlM?olt»ffy,  ITnlverslty  of  Marburff. 

SAMUEL  JAME8  ANDBEWS  (f ),  B.B., 
Liie  Pastor  of  tli«  Cmtbollc  Apostolic  Cburch,  Hartford,  Coon. 

CABL  FBANBLIN  ABNOLB,  Ph.B.,  Th.B., 

rat  Cburrh  HtsloiT,  ErmDffeltcal  Tbeolofflc&l  Faulty, 
L'nlTenllf  of  Breslau. 

FEBENGZ  B4L0GH, 
r  of  ObUftli  History.  Eel onned  TbeoloBloal  Aeaiilsm7» 
DebrecclQ«  HungiuT. 

XmrA&B  BABBE  (f), 
Iflis  ProfOMT  of  New  Testament  Exeg-esls,  St^bool  of  Tlieoiogy, 
1^^  Geoeva. 

■  HXBMANN  BABGE,  Ph.D., 

^H  Gymnacial  Professor  Id  L^lpelc. 

^        iAMXTEL  JUNE  BABBOWS,  B.B., 

'     E  Secretary  of  tbe  Prison  AssoclatloB  of  New  York. 

JOHANNES  BELBHEIM, 

P4«lor  lEOcrltut  fn  Cbrlstlanlit.  Norway. 


I~ 


EABL  BENBATH,  Ph.B.,  Th,B,, 

Proft^«»or  of  Clmrcli  History »  University  of  K6nlgiberg* 

IMMANtTEL  GtTS^AF  ABOLP  BEHZIN- 
GEB,  Ph.B.>  Th.Lic, 

Formerly  Privat-dooeiu  tn  Old  Testament  Theoloi^T^  rnlvefstly 
of  Berlin,  Member  of  tbe  EiecutlTe  Commlltee  of  Vm 
German  Society  for  ibe  ExploraUoo  of 
PaleatJne,  Jerusalem. 

SAMUEL  BBBGEB  (f),  B.B,, 
Lmte  Librarian  to  tbe  Faculty  of  Pmt<*jit#tit  Tb(*olo|fy,  Purl*. 

OABL  ALBBECHT  BEBXOULLI,  ThXic, 

PnjfL^sK^r  In  Berlin. 
OABL  BEBTHEAU,  Th.B., 

PreMldent  of  tbe  Society  for   Jnnere  Miitidittt,  and  Pasteur  of 
St.  MlebavrB  CburcbN  Hinithurg. 

^ysaiiLIBALB  BEYSCHLAG(t),  Th.B., 

Late  Prof<?«»or  of  Tbeology.  University  of  Halle* 

AMY   GASTON   BONET-MAUBY,  B.B.* 
LL.B., 

ProfeMor  of  Cburcb  Hlvtory;  1p dependent  ithooi  of  Dtrlnltr, 
Pan*. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  IL 


GOTTLIEB  NATHANAEL  BONWETSCH, 
Th.D., 

ProfeaBor  of  Cburcb  History,  Unlveraity  of  GOttingen. 

FBIEDBIOH  BOSSE,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic., 

Sxtraordlnary  Professor  of  Theology,  Uni?eraity  of  Grelfswald. 

GUSTAF  BOSSEBT,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Pastor  Emeritus,  Stuttgart. 

JOHANNES    FEIEDBICH   THEODOB 
BBIEGEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  UnlTerslty  of  Leiiwic 

CHABLES  AUGUSTUS  BBIGGS,  D.D., 
Litt.D., 

Professor  of  Theological  Encyclopedia  and  Symbolics,  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  Tork. 

FBANTS  PEDEB  WHiUAK  BUHL,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  Uniferrity  of  Copenhagen. 

KABL  BUBGEB  (f),  Th.D., 

Late  Supreme  Gonslstorial  Councilor,  Munich. 

WALTEB  CASPABI,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic, 

Professor  of  Practical  Theology,  Pedagogics,  and  Didactics,  and 
University  Preacher,  Univerrity  of  Erlangen. 

JAOaUES  EUGfiNE  CHOISY,  Th.D., 

Pastor  in  Genera,  Switzerland. 

FEBDINAND  COHBS,  Th.Lic, 

Conaistorial  Councilor,  Ilfeld,  Hanover. 

ALEXIS  IBfiN]fcE  DU  PONT  COLEUAN, 
M.A., 

Instructor  in  English^  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

GUSTAF  HEBMAN  DALMAN,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Leipslo, 

and  President  of  the  German  Evangelical  Archeo- 

logical  Institute,  Jerusalem. 

SAMX7EL  MABTIN  DEUTSCH,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Berlin. 

FBANZ  WILHELM  DIBELIUS,Ph.D.,Th.D., 

Supreme  Consistorial  Councilor,  City  Superintendent,  and  Pas- 
tor of  the  JCrouzUrohe,  Dresden. 

JAKES  FBANCIS  DBISOOLL,  D.D., 

President  of  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Tonkers,  N.  T. 

HENBY  OTIS  DWIGHT,  LL.D., 

Beoording  Secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  Coeditor 
of  the  ^'  Encyclopedia  of  Missions."  New  Tork. 

EHIL  EGLI,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Zurich. 

DAVID  EBDKANN  (t),  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Churoh  History,  Evangelical  Theological 

Faculty,  University  of  Breslau. 

ALFBED  EBICHSON  (t),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Theology,  University  of  Strasbuig. 

CABL  FEY,  Ph.D., 

Pastor  at  COsseln,  near  Halle. 

JOHN  FOX,  D.D., 

Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  New 
York. 

EMIL  ALBEBT  FBIEDBEBG,  Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  Ecclesiastical,  Public,  and  German  Law,  Dniverrity 
ofJiCipsic. 


THEODOB  GEBOLD,  Th.D., 

President  of  the  Consistory,  Stiasburg. 

GEOBGE  WILLIAM  GILMOBE,  M.A., 

Formerly  Lecturer  on  Comparative  Religion,  Bangor  Theolog- 
ical  Seminary,  Associate  Editor  of  the  ScuArr- 

UIRZOO  El«CTCLOPKDlA. 

WILHELM  GLAMANN, 

Pastor  at  Siebenelchen,  near  LOwenberg,  Prussia. 

WILHELM  GOETZ,  Ph.D., 

Honorary  Professor  of  Geography,  Technische  Hochschule,  and 
Professor,  Military  Academy,  Munich. 

CASPAB  BEN]fc  GBEGOBY,  Ph.D.,  Dr.Jur., 
Th.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Leipaic 

PAUL  GBUENBEBG,  Th.Lic, 

Pastor  in  Strasburg. 

GEOBG  GBUETZMACHEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.Lic, 

Extraordinary  Professor  of  Church  History  and  of  the  New 
Testament,  University  of  Heidelberg. 

BEINHOLD  GBUNDEMANN,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Pastor  at  MOrz,  near  Belxig,  Prussia. 

HEBMANN  GUTHE,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Leipsic 

ADOLF  HABNACK,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  Berlin,  and  General 
Director  of  the  Boyal  Library,  Berlin. 

ALBEBT  HAUOK,  Ph.D.,  Dr.Jur.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Churoh  History,  University  of  Leipsic  Editor-in- 
Chief  of  the  Hauck-Hmzog  Rxalknctklopaoie. 

HEBMAN  HAUPT,  Ph.D., 

Profenor  and  Director  of  the  University  Library,  Giessen. 

JOHANNES  HAUSSLEITEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  the  New  Testament,  University  of  Grelfswald. 

CABL   FBIEDBIOH   GEOBG  HEINBICL 
Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  University  of  Leipsic 

EDGAB  HENNECKE,  Th.Lic, 

Pastor  at  Betheln,  Hanover. 

HEBMANN  HEBING,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Practical  Theology,  University  of  Halle. 

MAX  HEBOLD,  Th.D., 

Dean,  Neustadt^n-der-Aisch,  Bavaria,  Editor  of  Siona. 

JOHANN  JAKOB  HEBZOG  (f),  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Lato  Professor  of  Reformed  Theology,  University  of  Erlangen, 
Founder  of  the  Hauck-Hkrzog  RkalxncyklopXdix. 

ALFBED  HEGLEB  (f),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Lato  Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  TQbingen. 

JOHANNES  HESSE, 

Former  Editor  of  the  Evanffeliaehes  MissUms-Magazin  and 
President  of  the  Publishhig  Society  at  Calw,  WQrttemberg. 

PAUL  HINSCHIUS  (f),  LL.D., 
Late  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  Law,  University  of  Berlin. 

HEBMANN  WILHELM  HEINBICH  HOEL- 
SOHEB,  Th.D., 

Pastor  of  the  Nikolaikirchc  Leipsic  Editor  of  the  AUgemeine 

EvanoelUeh-Lutheriache  Kirehenzeitung  and  of 

the  IheotogUches  LiUraturbUUL 


KAAL  HOLL,  Ph,I>.,  Th.D., 

Profe«or  of  Churcli  UlJitory*  rnJvenjlty  ol  Bertln. 

AI^FBEB   TER^ISIAB^  Ph.D.,  TkXic, 

PaMor  of  tiie  Lutherklrcln*,  l^ipKlc. 

tTIN  KAEKLEB,  Tk*D«» 

I  and  New  Tuatameat  £i:«se>tB,  UniTer- 
Miiy  of  Eialle. 

ADOLF  HLAJffPHAirSEir,  Th.D., 

evor  of  Old  Tesiami-at  £xegeifil5,  Ucilv^rsJty  of  Bono. 

FSTEB  GUSTAF  KAWEBAtJ,  Th.l>.^ 

OODSktorUU  Oouncilor,  Profeasor  of  Pnictlittl  Theology,   and 
CniTenitjr  Preaclier,  Unlveraltj  of  Brealftu^ 

BtTDOLF  KITTEI,,  Ph.D,, 

FiDftnmr  of  Ottl  Tt«tAm*'ut  Kxt'«*^8v  Unlventlty  of  I^lpslc* 

FRIEDRICH  HEBMANN  THEODOR 

>£OLI>E,  Ph.D.,  T11.D., 
ProftiMorof  Churcb  HUtoiy,  Unlrerilty  of  Eflangea. 

HEB31AKK  GUSTAF  EDUABD  KBUEGEB, 
Ph.©,,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  CHureli  Hbtory*  Ual?erstty  nf  (iies&en. 

JOHAITNES  Wn-HELM  KUITZE,  Ph.D., 

Trofemarot  System&tle  And  Practical  Tbeology,  Uulversity  of 

Grelfswald, 


li.  A*  VAN  LANGEBAAD,  Ph.D., 

]>ekkerkerk,  II u I  land. 


^^V  liUDWIG  LEMME,  Tb.D.i 

^V^^udEBorof  Systematic  Theology,  Onlverslty  of  Heldelberff. 

H  EDUABD  I^ltPP,  Ph.D., 

^m       Saperlntendeui  of  tbe  Uoyul  OrphaD  Asylunu  Btuttgut. 

I  AUGUST  LESKIEN,  Ph.D., 

^P      ProfoKtr  of  Slavoalc  LantnuK;e^  Utilyerslty  of  Lelpstc. 

FBIEDRIOH  ABION  X<ODFS,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

PT\»f«Borof  Clmr^^li  Hbtory,  rniverslty  of  Ralle. 

AKDEBS  HERMAN  LUNDBTROM,  Th.D., 

FrataBor  of  Cburcli   Blstorj,   Royal  UaJ?eraity  of  UpeaUk 
Sweden. 

JAMES    FREDERICK  McCURDT,  Ph.D., 

L1.,D., 

ri'iHiitf  of  Orieotttl  LaotniM^^  University  CoUegie,  Toronto. 

PHILTFP  MEYEE,  Th.D., 
WnpNsmt  OooBlitorlAl  Coundlor  %ni1  Member  of  ttte  Boyml 

^^  CoQfllsLory,  Hanover, 

H  CARL  THEODOR  MIRBT,  Th.D., 

Prcifcieor  of  Cburch  HLslory,  LTtilveniity  of  Marburg, 

XBH8T  FRIEDRICH  KARL  MITELLER, 

Th.D., 
PnUCBor  of  BefbnnMl  Tboology,  UalTeriEttT  of  Erlangen. 

LGEORG  MUELLER,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 
Councilor  for  Schfx>ls,  LoH^^lc. 
JOSEF  MUELLER,  Th.D., 
l^tor  In  EbenKinTf*  Ri^uits. 

iriKOLAUS  MUELLER,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

BtUwintliuuT  Protenor  of  ChrUiian  AnMieolojry.  irnivt»rstty  of 

BtTliij. 

OHBISTOF  EBERHARD  NESTLE,  Ph.D., 

Th.D., 

floftMiii  Jn  Ui«  Tbeologrtcal  SemlntrT  «l  MaulbnonD,  WtiTttem- 


KARL  JOHANNES  NEUMANN,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  tbe  History  of  Art,  CJiiIv«ralty  of  Kiel. 

ALBERT  HENRT  NEWMAN,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Pmteiior  of  Chun^b  HUttory^  Baylor  Theological  Sejaloarj  (Baj< 
lor  University)  f  Waco,  Tex. 

JULIUS  NET»  Th.D., 
Supreme  Conslslorlal  Councilor  ]n  Bpeyer,  Bararta. 

FREDERIK  OHRISTIAN   NIELSEN  (t)^ 

Th.D.» 

iMia  Bishop  of  AalborfTi  Denmark. 

FRLEDRICH    AUGUST    NITZSCH    (f), 
Ph.D., 

I^le  Professor  of  Tbooloffy,  llnlverHlty  of  KleL 

HANS    CONRAD   TON   ORELLI,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Pioleflsor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  nod  HUtory  of  IU.4lRloti, 
University  of  Ba«el. 

MARGARET  BLOODQOOD  PEEKE, 

Iiii(p4M,*tres^'General  of  Uie  Marti  nisi  Order  for  America. 

CHARLES    PFENDER, 

Pastor  of  tbe  Evangelical  Lutberan  Churcb,  Paris. 

BERNHARD  PICK,  Ph.D.,  D.D., 

Pa^ftor  of  tbe  First  0«rmati    £/angellcal  Lutbonm  Cbiirdi, 
Newark,  N,  J. 

FREDERICK  DUNGLISON  POWER,  LL.D., 

Pastor  of  tiie  Garfield  ajernorlal  Cburcli,  Waaliin^ton,  D.  0. 

WILLIAM  PRICE, 

nmnerly  iDitnictorlii  Preneh.  Tale  Colleg«5  and  SbefBeld  8den< 
tUlo  Sctuiolt  New  Haven,  Conn. 

FRANZ  PEAETORIUS,  Ph.D.. 

Professor  of  Oriental  Latiguages,  Utilverslty  of  HaUe. 

GEORG  CHRISTIAN    BIETSCHEL,  Th.D,» 

PrtifOMor  of  Practical  Ttieokigy  and  University  Preacbefi  Unl- 
vtralty  of  Lelpslc. 

SIEGFRIED  BIETSCHEL,  Dr.Jur., 

Prtjfessttr  of  G<?rman  Law,  University  of  TttblageiL 

HENDRIK  CORNELIUS  ROGGE(t),  Th.D., 

l^te  Professor  of  History,  University  of  Amsterdam. 

EUGEN  SAOHSSE,  Th.D., 

University  Preacber  and  Professor  of  Practical  Tlieoloffy  In  tbo 
Evangelical  Tbeologlcal  Faculty,  University  of  Bonn. 

DAVID  SCHLET  SCHAFF,D«D., 

Profi^sorof  Cburcb  History,  Western  Tbeolojirlcal  3€iDlllai7« 
AHeffbeny,  Pa. 

PHILIP  SCHAFF  (f),  D.D,,  LL.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Chnrcb  Hlstrjry,  Union  Tbeolofflcal  Seminary* 
New  York,  Founder  of  tbe  BcHArr-HiKZOG  Encvclopbdia. 

BEINHOLD  6CHMID,  Th.Lic, 

Pastor  at  Oberbolzbelm,  Wilrttembenr, 

BICHABD  KARL  BERNHARD  SCHMIDT, 
Dr. Jut., 

Prof esaor  of  JnrlsprudeDce  and  Ctvll  and  Criminal  Prooedoret 
University  of  Frelburff. 

JOHANN  SCHNEIDER, 

Pastor  at  Neckar-Steluacb,  Hesse 

THEODOR  SCHOTT  <f  >,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Ubnu-lan  and  Professor  of  Tbeolo^.  University  of  Stmt- 

SftTt. 


▼Ul 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  IL 


JOHAKN   7BIEDSI0H  BITTSB  YON 
BOKULTE,  Dr^ur., 

ProteMoraf  Geromn  Boeleiiistlcal  Law  and  of  OieHliloryoC 
Law,  Unlveraltj  of  Bonn. 

VIOTOB  SCHULTZS,  Tli.D.y 

Profenor  of  Ghurdi  Hlitory  and  CtartaUan  Arcbeology,  UnlTer- 
•ityoC  OraifswakL 

HANS  S0HX7LZ,  FhJ)., 

Gymnuilal  Prof enor  at  Stefrllti,  near  Berlin. 

LUDWIG  SOHXTLZE,  Th.'D.y  Tli.D.y 

Prolenor  of  SyBtemado  Theology,  Unlferatty  of  Boitock. 

OTTO  SBSBA8S,  PI1.D., 

Educator  In  Lelpiic,  Germany. 

&EINHOLD   SEEBBRGy  TI1.D.9 

Prafe«or  of  Syitematlo  Theology,  Unlvenlty  of  Beirtln. 

EMIL  SEHLINO9  Dr.Jur., 

Prafenorof  Booleilaftloal  and  Commerolal  Law,  UnlTemty  of 
Xrlangen. 

FBIEDEICH  AirrON  ElOL  SIEFFEBT, 
Ph.D.,  TI1.D., 

Profenor  of  Dogmatics  and  New  Teitament  Bzegeiii,  Unlver- 
•Ity  of  Bonn. 

EMIL  ELIAB  STEINMETEE,  Ph.D., 

Profenor  of  German  Language  and  Literature,  Unlvenlty  of 
Xrlangen. 

GEOEG  EDUABD  STEITZ  (f),  TI1.D., 
LatePaator4n  Frankfort-on-the-Maln. 

ALFRED  STOEOKIUS,  Ph.D., 

Afltor  Library,  New  Tork. 

HEEKAKN  LEBEBECHT  STEACK,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

BztnMHiUnary  Profetior  of  Old  Testament  Ezegesia  and  Semitic 
Languages,  Unlrenlty  of  Berlin. 


PAT7L  T80HA0KBBT,  PhJ>.,  ThJ>., 

iProCesBor  of  Chnreh  History,  Unlfenlty  of  OMtlngen. 

JOHAHH  GEBHABD  UHLHOBV  (f),  ThJ>.» 
Late  Oonsistortal  Oooiicllor,  Haoorer. 

MABYDT  BICHABDSOir  VIMOKBIT,  D.D., 

Prof eswr  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and  Grttldsm,  Unioii 
Theological  Seminary,  New  Yorfe. 

WILHELM  YOGT  (f),  PI1.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Old  TWtament  Exegesis,  UnlTenlty  of  Ros- 
tock 

STAOY  BEUBEV  WAEBUBTOV, 

Assistant  Editor  of  The  BapClit  MimUmary  Magtutne,  Boston. 

BEN  JAMnr  BBEOKHrEIDGE  WABFIELB, 
D.D.y  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Dldaodo  and  Polemical  Theology,  Princeton  Tlieo* 
logical  Seminary. 

AUGUST  WILHEUf  WEBNEB,  TI1.D.9 

Psstor  Primarius,  Guben,  Prussia. 


PBANCIS  XETHEBALL  WHITLOOX, 

Pistorof  the  Bethlehem  Congregational  Church,  dereland,  O. 

BICHABD  PAX7L  WXTELKEB,  PhA., 

Professor  of  English,  UnlTerslty  of  Leipslo. 

AUGUST  WUEKSCHE,  PhJ>.,  ThJ)., 

Titular  Professor  in  Dresden. 

THEODOB  ZAHK,  Th.D.,  Litt.D., 

Protossor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and  Introduction,  Uni- 
▼enilty  of  Erlangen. 

HEINBIOH  ZnCMEB,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Celtic  Philology,  Unlferaity  of  BerUn. 

OTTO  ZOECBXEB  (f ),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Church  History,  Unlrenlty  of  Grettswald. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX-VOLS. 


The  following  list  of  books  Is  aupplementary  to  the  bibliographiefl  given  at  the  end  of  the  articles 
contained  in  volumes  I  and  11,  and  brings  the  literature  down  to  Novembeti  1908.  In  this  list  each 
title  entry  is  printed  in  capital  letters. 


Abraham:  F.  Wilke,  War  Abraham  eine  kiitori^cke 
Pers^ichkeii  f  Leipsic,  1907. 

Afiin^ARAJ :  Bar  HebraeuSp  Buck  der  Strahten,  Die 
grimsere  Grammatik  des  Barh^raeus.  Ueber^ 
9€Uung  naeh  einem  kntuck  berichti^en  Tejde 
wtii  textkriiiKhem  Ap^tarai  und  mnem  An- 
hgang:  Zwr  Terminotogie,  by  A.  Moberg.  Einr 
leiiung  and  voL  ii.,  Leipsic,  1907  (the  Erst 
pert  has  not  yet  appeared). 

Atwca:  J.  D.  Mullens,  The  Wonderful  Story  af 
Uganda,  London,  1908. 

A,  H.  Bavnes,  South  Africa,  London,  1908. 
IL  H.  MiUigan,  The  Jungle  Folk  of  Africa,  New 

York,  1908. 
Agnosticism:  H,  C,  Sheldon,  Unbelief  in  the  Nine- 

Uenih  Century^  New  York,  1907. 
Aobatha:  C.  R.  Gregory,  Das  Freer- Logion^  Leip* 

sic,  1908  (on  the  Logia- fragments  possessed 

by  C.  L.  Freer,  of  Detroit), 

B.  Pick.  Paralipomena:  Reiruiijm  of  GmpeU  and 
Sa^ngs  of  Chrisi,  Chicago,  1908. 

AtiBXANDER  IV.:    F.  Tenckhoff,   PapH  AUrander 

IV,,  Paderbom,  1907. 
Ai^KXAXDER  OF  Hai*E8:  K.  Helm,  Das  Wesen  der 
Onade  und  ihr  Verhdltnis  tu  den  naiurlichen 
Punkiionien    des    Menachen    hei    Alexander 
HdUrwiSf  Leipsic,  1907. 
AtiTAA:  R>  Kittel,  Studien  zur  hebr&ischen  Archaol- 

ogie,  i.l  18-158,  Leipsic,  1908. 
AMBRoaG,  Saint,   of  Milan:  J.  E,   Niederhuber, 
Die    Eaehatologie    des    keiligen    AmbrositjLSf 
M  Paderbom,  1907. 

^m  P,  de  Labriolle^  S.  Ambroise,  Paris,  1908. 

^"     Akosus:  R.  W.  Britton,  Angela,  their  Nature  and 
Service,  London,  1908. 

IArocRTPHA;  L.  Couard,  Die  religidaen  und  sitUichen 
Anaekauungen   der   aliteaiamentlichen    Apok- 
rypken  und  Paeudepigraphen,  GQtersloh,  1907. 
A,    FucbSi    TejikrUiscne    Unlersuchungen   zum 
htibviSitchm  EkkUmastikua,  Freiburg,  1907. 
R.  Smend,  GrieehiJich-sjp^'sch-h^rdischer  Index 
wur  Weiaheit  des  Jesus  Sirach,  Berlin,  1907. 
_       F.  St'Cinmetzer,  Neue  U ntersuchungen  iiber  die 
■  GeschiehiUchheit  der  Judiihermhlung,  Leipsic, 

■  1907. 

J.  Mailer^  Beitrdge  zur  Erkldrung  und  Kritik 
€fos  Bucket  Tobii,  Giessen,  1908. 
APOUXiCTtca:  W.  H.  Turton,  The  Truth  of  Chris^ 
Hamty:    a  Manual  of  Chriatian  Evidencea^ 
London,  1908. 
£.  F.  Scott,  The  Apologetic  of  the  New  Testa- 

menl.  New  York,  1908. 
H.    Ejgerton,    The    Liberal    Theology    and    the 
OfWAnd  of  Faith;  being  Essays  towards  a  con^ 
mnfoHtfe  Re»taiement  of  Apologetic^  London, 


Apostolic  Constitutions:   F.  X.  Funk,  Didascalia 

et  constittdioneaapostoloruml.-IJ.f  Paderbom, 

1906. 
Arabia:  R.  Duasiaud,  Les  Ardbes  enSyrie  aixini 

llslam,  Paris,  1907. 
Archeology,  Biblical:    I.  Benzinger,  H^rdische 

Archdohgic,  Tubingen,  1907. 
Architecture;    A,  K,  Porter,  Medieval  Architeo 

ture.  New  York,  1908. 
Arianism:  S.  Rogala,  Die  AnfUnge  des  arianiachen 

Streites,  Paderbom,  1907. 
Art:  S.  F.  H.  Robinson,  CeUic  lUuminatim  Art  in 

the  Gospt'l  Books  of  Durrou\  Lindi^farne  and 

Ketis,  London,  1908. 
J.  R.  /Vllen,  Cellic  Art  in  Pagan  and  Christian 

Times,  Philadelphia,  1998. 
Margaret   E.  Tabor,   The  Saints  in  Art,  New 

York,  1908. 
Asceticism:  BibliMkejca  FrnndscJina  asceiica  medii 

aem,  vol.  iv.^  Quarrachi,  1907, 
Asherah:  F.  Lundgreen,  EHe  Beniitzung  der  Pfian- 

zenweU    in    aer    oittestaTnentlichen    Religion, 

Giessen,  1908, 
Asia    Minor:  F.    StAhelin,    Geschiehte    der  klein" 

asiaiischen  Gahler,  2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1907. 
Assyria:  A.  T.  Olmatejid,  Western  Asia  in  tJte  Dava 

ofSargon  ofAsm/ria,  B,C.  7Sii-706,  New  York, 

1908. 
AuGSBUHo,  Bishopric  of:  A.  Steicble,  Das  Bist^ 

hum    Augsburg,    hialorisch     und    statistisch 

besehri^ten,  vol.  vii.,  Augsburg,  1906  sqq. 
Augsburg    Confession    and    its   Apology:  Ada 

comiciorum  A  ugustae  ex  litieris  Philippi  Jonae 

et  aliorum  ad  M.  Lidher^  ed.  G.  Berbtg,  Leip- 
sic, 1907. 
Augustine,  Saint,  of  Hippo:  B.  Dorabart,   Zur 

Tertgeschi-chte  der  CiintoM  Dei  Augustina  aeii 

dem  Eniatehen  der  ersten  Drucke^  Leipaic,  1 907. 
0.  Blanks  Die  Lehre  des  keiligen  Augustinus  ix»m 

Sakramente  der  Eucharistie,  Paderbom,  1906. 
F.  X.  Eggersdorfer,  Der  heUige  Aug^tstinwi  als 

Pddagoge  und  seine  Bedeidung  fur  die  G^ 

Bchicfde  der  Bildung^  Freiburg,  1907. 
P.  Friedrich,  Die  Mariologie  des  heUigen  AugiiS" 

iinu^,  Ckilogne,  1907. 
0.  Zenker,   Der  Primal  des   Willens   vor  de«i 

tnleUeci  bei  Augustin,  Gateraloh,  1907. 
Scripta  contra  Donaliatas,  part  i.,  ed.  Petschenig^ 

Leipsic,  1908. 
Saint  Aiigustine  of  Hippo,  mith  fntradudion  by 

the  Bishop  oj  Souihampton  (The  L^rary  of 

the  Soul},  London.  1908. 
H.  Becker,  Augustin.     Studien  ru  seiner  gei»' 

tigen  EntwicJcelung,  Leipsic,  1908. 
Augu8T|NIA3<8:  Codex    diphmaticus    Ord.     E.    S» 

Auguatini,  vol.  iii.,  P&piae  (Rome),  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX— VOLUMES  I  AND  H 


Babtlonia:  M.  Jastrow,  Die  ReUgt4m  Babylomena 
und  A89\/rien8y  Giessen,  1907. 
Eariy  Sumerian  Pmilms;   Texia  in  Tranditera- 
Hon  wiih  Transl.,  Critical  Commentary  and 
Introduction,  Leipeic,  1908. 
O.  A.  TofTteen,   Researches  in  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  Geography,  part  1,  Chicago,  1908. 
H.  Radau,  Bd,  the  Christ  of  Ancient  Times, 
Chicago,  1908. 

Bach,  J.  8.:  H.  Perry,  Life  of  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach,  New  York,  1908. 

Bamberg,  Bishopric  of:  H.  T.  von  Kohlhasen, 
Das  Domkapitd  des  alien  Bisthum  Barnoerg 
und  seine  Canoniker,  Bamberg,  1907. 
J.  KOrber,  Ijose  Bldtter  aus  meines  Bruders 
Leben  und  Skrivten.  Ein  StOck  Bamberger 
Geschichte  als  Scherflein  zum  9,  BisthumS" 
centenar,  Bamberg,  1907. 
J.  Looshom,  Die  Geschichie  des  Bisthums  Ban^ 
berg.  Nach  den  QueUen  bearbeitet,  vol.  vii., 
Das  Bisthum  Barnberg  1729-1808,  Bamberg, 
1907  sqq. 

Banks,  L.  A.:  aermons  which  have  Won  Souls,  New 
York,  1908. 

Baptism:  J.  T.  Christian,  The  Form  of  Baptism  in 
Sculpture  and  Art,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1907. 
J.  M.  Lupton,  De  baptismo,  Cambridge,  1908. 

Baptists:  J.  S.  Flory,  Literary  Activity  of  the 
German  Baptist  Brethren  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  Elgin,  111.,  1908. 
E.  Y.  Mullens,  T?ie  Axioms  of  Edition;  a  New 
Interpretation  of  the  Baptist  Faith,  Philadel- 
phia, 1908. 

Barlaam  and  Josophat:  Gui  von  Cambrai  und 
Josophas,  nach  dem  Handschriften  von  Paris 
und  Monte  Cassino,  ed.  Carl  Appel,  HaUe, 
1907. 

Barnabas:  ''  Epistle,"  ed.  Jos.  Vizzini,  Rome, 
1907. 

Bbechbr,  H.  W.:  S.  M.  Griswold,  Sixty  Years  with 
Plymouth  CAurc^,  New  York,  1907. 

Beechbr,  W.  J.:  The  Dated  Events  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament: being  a  Presentation  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Chronology,  Philadelphia,  1908. 

Beet,  J.  A.:    The  Church,  the  Churches,  and  the 
Sacraments,  London,  1907. 
A  Shorter  Manual  of  Theology,  London,  1908. 

Behaism:  Les  Lemons  de  SairJrJeanrd*Acre  d'Ad- 
Oul-Biha,  recueiUi^s  par  Laura  Clifford 
Barney,  traduit  du  person  par  Hippolyte 
Dreyfus,  Paris,  1908. 
Abdu*T  Baha.  Some  answered  Questions:  Col- 
lected and  Translated  from  the  Persian  by 
Laura  Clifford,  Philadelphia,  1908. 

Benedict  of  Nursia:  L.  Delisle,  Le  Livre  de  Jean 
de  Stavdot  sur  S,  BenoU,  Paris,  1908. 
Studien  und  Mitteilungen  aus  dem  Benedictiner- 
und   dem   Cistercienser-Orden,  28  Jahrgang, 
Raken,  1907. 
Die  Segd  des  heUigen  Benedicts  erkldrt  in 
ihrem  geschichtlichen  Zusammenhang  und  mil 
besonderer  Rucksicht  auf  das  geisUiche  Leben, 
Freiburg,  1907. 
G.  Meier,  Der  heUige  Benedikt  und  sein  Orden, 
Regensbuin^,  1907. 

Benediction:  WT  H.  Dolbeer,  The  Benediction, 
Philadelphia,  1908. 

Bennetf,  W.  H.:    The  Rdigion  of  the  Pod-Exilic 
Prophets,  Edinbuigh,  1907. 
The  Life  of  Chrid  according  to  St,  Mark,  Lon- 
don, 1907. 

Bentley,  Richard:  A.  T.  Bartholomew,  Richard 
Bentley,  a  Bibliography  of  his  Works,  London, 
1908. 


Berkeley,  G.  :  The  Principle  of  Human  Knowledge, 
new  ed.,  London,  1907. 
The  Querid;  containing  Several  Queries  pro- 
posed to  the  Consideration  of  the  Public,  parts 
1-3,  Dublin,  1735-37,  reprinted  Baltimore, 
1908. 

Bernard,  Saint,  of  Clair  vaux:  On  Consideration, 
Translated  by  George  Lewis,  London,  1908. 

Bbsant.  a.  :  London  Lectures  of  1907,  London,  1907. 

Bbza,  T.  :  A  Tragedie  of  Abraham's  Saanfice,  transL 
bv  Arthur  Golding,  ed.  M.  w.  Wallace, 
Toronto,  1906. 

Bible  Societies:  J.  Fox,  Round  the  World  for  the 
American  Bible  Society,  New  York,  1908. 

Bible  Versions,  A,  III.:    F.   C.  Burkitt.  Early 
Eastern  Christianity,  lect.  2,  New  York,  1904. 
The  Four  Gospels  from  the  Codex  Corbeiensis 
London,  1908. 

Bible  Versions,  B,  IV.:  A.  F.  Gasquet,  The  Old 
English  Bible,  and  Other  Essays,  New  York, 
1908. 
M.  B.  Riddle,  The  Story  of  the  Revised  New 

Testament,  Philadelphia,  1908. 
J.  I.  Mombert,  Handbook,  2d  ed.  London,  1907. 
M.  W.  Jacobus,  ed.,  Roman  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant Bibles  Compared:  the  Gould  Prize  Essays, 
2d  ed..  New  York^  1908. 
F.  Viffouroux,  Dictumnaire  de  la  Bible,  fasc. 
xxviii.  cols.  1549-51,  Paris,  1906. 

Bibucal  Criticism:  J.  R.  Cohn,  The  Old  Testament 
in  the  Light  of  Modem  Research,  London, 
1908. 

Bibucal  Introduction:  A.  Schuh,  BibHsche 
Studien,  ed.  O.  Bardenhewer,  vol.  xii.,  part  1, 
Doppe^berichte  im  Pentateuch,  Ein  Beitrag 
gur  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament,  Frei- 
burg, 1908. 
C.  Rdsch,  Die  heUigen  Schriften  des  Alten  Tes- 
taments; ausfuhrliche  InhaUsObersicht  mit 
kurzgefasster  spezidler  Einleitung,  Minister, 
1908. 
F.  Barth.  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament, 

GQtersloh,  1908. 
C.  F.  G.  Heinrici,  Der  litterarische  Charakter 
der  neutestamenUichen  Schrifteri,  Leipsic,  1908. 

Bibucal  Theologt:  R.  S.  Franks,  The  New  Testa- 
ment Doctrines  of  Man,  Sin,  and  Salvation, 
London,  1908. 

Black,  H.:  Chrid* s  Service  of  Love  [Communion 
sermons  and  meditations].  New  York,  1907. 

Blavatskt,  H.  v.:  F.  S.  Hoflfman,  The  Sphere  of 
Rdigion,  New  York,  1908. 

Buss,  £.  M.:  The  Missionary  Enterprise,  New  York, 
1908. 

BoEHME,  J.:  The  Supersensual  Life,  or  the  Life 
which  is  above  Sense,  Eng.  transl.  by  W.  Law, 
new  ed.,  London,  1907. 

BoETHins:  In  Isagogen  Porphyrii  commenta,  ed. 
S.  Brandt,  Vienna  and  Leipsic,  1906. 

Bonet-Maury,  G.:  France,  chridianisme  d  civi- 
lization, Paris,  1907. 

Booth,  W.:  The  Seven  Spirits:  or.  What  I  teach 
my  Officers,  London,  1907. 

Borromeo,  C:  Die  Nuntiatur  von  Giovanni  Fran- 
cesco Bonhomini  1579-1681.  Documente  vol. 
L.  Die  Nuntiaturberichte  Bonhomini  und  seine 
Cforrespondenz  mit  Carlo  Borromeo  aus  dem 
Jahre  1579,  Solothum,  1906. 

Boston,  T.:  A  General  Account  of  my  Life,  ed. 
G.  D.  Low,  London,  1908. 

BonssET,  W.:    What  is  Rdigion  f  London,  1907. 

Botd,  a.  K.  H.:  Sermons  and  Stray  Papers.  With 
Biographical  Sketch  by  Rev.  W.  W.  TuUoch, 
London,  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX— VOLUMES  I  AND  H 


xi 


Brahmanism:  J.  C.  Oman,  The  Brahmina,  TheiHa, 

and  Muslims  of  India^  London,  1907. 
L.  D.  Bamett,  BrahmonKnowledge,  an  OuUine 

of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Vedanta,  set  forth  by 

the   Upanishads  and  by  Sankara,  London, 

1907. 
M.  Bloomfield.  The  Religion  of  the  Veda,  the 

Ancient  Rehgion  of  India,  New  York,  1908. 
Brent,  C.  H.:    Leadership:    The  William  Bdden 

Noble  Lectures  ,  .  .  at  .  .  .  Harvard,    New 

York,  1908. 
Breslau,  Bishopric  of:   Oeschichte  des  Breslauer 

Domss  und  Seine  Wiederherstellung,  Breslau, 

1907. 
VerdffenUichungen  aus   dem  /Qr^bischoflichen 

Didzesan-Archiv  zu  Breslau,  Breslau,   1905 

sqq. 
Breviart:  a.  Schulte,  Die  Psalmen  des  Breviers 

nebst  den  Cantica  zum  praktischen  Gebrauche, 

Paderbom,  1907. 
Bridget,   Saint,   of  Kildarb:    J.   A.   Knowles, 

St,  Brigid,  Patroness  of  Ireland,  London,  1907. 
Bridget,  Saint,  of  Sweden:   K.  &rogh-Tonning, 

Die  heUige  Birgitta  in  Schvoeden,  Kempten, 

1907. 
Brooke,  S.  A.:  The  Sea  Charm  of  Venice,  London, 

1907. 
Studies  in  Poetry,  London,  1907. 
Brown,  A.  J. :  The  Foreian  Missionary,  An  Incarna- 
tion of  a  World  Movement,  New  York,  1907. 
Browne,  R.:   C.  Burrage,  The  **  Retractation"  of 

Robert  Browne,  Father  of  Congregationalism, 

London,  1907. 
Browne,  Sir  Thomas:  Works,  ed.  C.  Sayle,  3  vols., 

Edinburgh,  1907. 
Buddhism:  Jataka,  by  E.  B.  Cowell,  vol.  vi..  New 

York,  1907. 
P.  L.  Narasu,  The  Essence  of  Buddhism,  Lon- 
don, 1907. 
D.  T.  Suzuki,  Outlines  of  Mahayana  Buddhism, 

London,  1907  (Japanese). 
Soyen  Shaku,  Sermons  of  a  Buddhist  Abbot, 

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Taba  Kanai,   The  Praises  of  Amida.     Seven 

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Campbell,  R.  J.:  Christianity  and  the  Social  Order, 
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Canon  of  Scripture:  J.  Leipoldt,  Oeschichte  des 
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Canonesses:  K.  H.  Schafer,  Die  Kanonissenstifter 
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Capito,  W.:  P.  Kalkofif,  W.  Carrito  im  DiensU 
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Capuchins:  Verdffentlichungen  aus  dem  Archiv  der 
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Carlstadt,  a.  R.  B.  von:  K.  M tiller,  Luther  und 
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Carmeutes:  Monumenta  historica  Carmelitana,  vol. 
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A  J  p.,. 

AJT.,, 
AKS,, 

ALKO, 

Am... 
AMA., 

ANF,.. 


I 


jnn  iAUffemnne  (UuUche  Bioffraphie,    Leipaic, 

•*^"** **-l      1875  •qq.,  vol.  53.  1007 

Ad*. ,adv«r9u»,  "  ftgainit  " 

1  American    Journal    of    PhiMoQUt    Baiti* 
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IBSSaqq. 
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Apoe .Apocrypha,  apoerypbat 

Apoi,, ,,,ApoU>gui,  Apology 

Arab. * . .  .Arabic 

Aram . .    Ajminaip 

•rt.,-.._ ...... ...article 

Art.  Sdmiftl. Schmalkald  A  rtieles 

*  an  i  Atia  mirurtorum,  ed.  J.  BoLLand  and  olheini, 

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Ajnrr.  ♦......,. . . AMryhan 

A.  T *AUm  TtHameni,  '*  Old  Testament  " 

All|a>  Gob .** AussburK  Confesaion 

A*  y. * AuthoH led  Version  (of  the  Engrlish  Bible) 

AM**,  - .  ♦ AiiffriUHpin*  Zritun^.  Ans^^hung,  TrtbinKen* 

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1      2d  ed..  Fr«jbtu-g«  imi 
[L.    Bertholdt.    HiMkiriMch-Kritischm    Ein- 
leitung  .  .  .  d««  Alten  undf  Neuen  T«- 
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BFB8 Briti«h  and  Forei|rn  Bible  Stirir*ty 

'  '.    Bingham^    Ongine»    f(ftena9lica^     10 
voIj*..      I^ndon.      1708-22;      dcw     ed.» 
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(  Archibald    Bower,    Hi*tnry   of   She    Poptm 
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I     3  vob.,   Philadelphia.   1845  47 
jlQB  jBatdUt   Quttrtffrty    Review,    PUladetphia, 

BRO BeeJftirA 

GfeAt, .  ^ (kntictee*  Sons  of  Sblomou 

eap .eapuf,  **  chapter  " 

r*^tu..      d ^t^^^^m  I  ft*  Ceiliier,  ni*ioir€  d*9  auttur»  aactH  ef 
G^IU^  Aalnira }      *crf«««M<ig»««.    i^   voU    in    17,    Pari*, 

C*r»*. ,Cktom€OH,  '*  Ctinmicle  " 

I  Gbroci... I  Cbroniclei 

1 J  Chran* .,.,....,,  II  Chroniclefl 

r*iri  )  C^xTta  tn4CTtpfk>num  Ormcmum^   Berlin. 

^'^     ' --^        1825  «Qq,   , 

Corpus  inacripHonum  Latinarum,  Berlin, 
1863  eqq. 


Baldwin. 
DieHimary 

Beniiafer. 

ArekAoioin* 
Berlholdt, 


Orm\ 


r 

I 

in«a I 


C/Z.. 


CW     .,.#.*  Corpui  in#cripCionwii»  S#wilw«ruin»  P&riB, 


GbL 


.!> 


A«f9 

codex  T^ecMJotiatittt 
Epittif  to  the  Coloniaiu 
eoluron.  culumntf 
,  ,Confr*nttneM,    "  ConfeMioni  '" 

Oor.  ...** .First  Epiatle  to  the  Corinthiaaa 


II  Cor. 
COT, . . 

CQR  . . 


CR. 


Creichton, 
Papacy-  - 


CSBL, . 
CSHB. 


Currier.  i}«lv*ov#  { 
Orders.... ) 

D 

DACL I 

Daa... 


DB  .. 
DCA. 
JHJB. 
DCQ. 


Deut ... 

Btvir.m 

De  Wette-  t 

Scbrader,  fiii*-^ 

DQQ,   ..... 

DNB, ..... 


.SeoQtid  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 
,.Se«  Bchrader 
\  Tht  Church  Quarttrly   Hwvitw,     Londoa, 

1875  ■qo. 
I  Carpum    reformatorum,    begun    at    Halle, 
{      1834,  vol.  Ixjuux..  Berlin  and  Leipsic, 
I      1005  soq. 

{""M.   Creijihton,   A    Hiatary  of  tht  Papacy 
from   ih€  Grtat  Schutm   ta   the  Sack  of 
Romt,  new  ed.*  6  vols.,  New  York  aaa 
,      London.  1807 
JCorpu*   tcriptorum   €cclt*ia9ticorum   Lati' 
norttm,  Vieniuk  1867  tQt^. 
}Corpu»    tcripiorum    hiatonm    ByMantinmj, 
40  vob.,  Bonn,  1828-78 
C.  W.  Currier,  liiBtoryof  RtHgio'UM  OrdfTW^ 

New  York,  1806 
Deuteronumist 
V.  Cabrol,  IHcHonnaire  d'&rdif<thgi€  chri* 

tiennett  de  iiturgie,  Paris,  1003  sqq. 
,I>aniel 

J.  Haiitingii,    Dictionary    of   the    B^U,    4 
vols,  and  extra  vol.,    EdinbiAiifh   and 
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W.   Smith   amd    H.   Wac«,   Dictionarjf  of 
Chriatian   Biography.   4   vols.,    Boston, 
1877-87 
J.  Hastingfl,  J.  A.  8etbie.  and   J.  C,  Lam- 
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pr^r.EMtn burgh  and  New  York,  lOOiSaoq. 
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.  De  viriM  iiiustribu* 

W.    M.    L.   de   Wette,    Uhrhuch  dtr  hU- 
ioritch-kritixche-n      Einleitunff     in      dit 
Bibti  ed.  E.  Schrader.  Berlin,  1860 
See  Wflttenbftch 


Driver,  Iniroduc-j 
tion I 

E 


EB., 
Eed. 


Eocles 

Ecclus 

ed. 

Eph 

Epi^t 

Er»eh  and  GrU'  1 
ber,  Encyido-i 
P(kii9 f 

E.vTT............ 

Ex .....*. 

Eiek 

/fl«....- 

Friedrich.  KD..\ 

FritfBche,  Ext- 
artischea  Hand-- 
oi«A - 

Gal 

Gee  and  Hardy,  f 
Docu9n*nta. .  . .  | 

Gen , 

Germ 

QGA. ] 


iL.   Stephen    and   S.    Lee,    Diciiotiary   of 
National     Biography,     63     ^'oIm.     and 
aupplement  3  vols,,  London,  1885-1901 
8.  R,  Driver,  Introduction  io  the  Literature 
of   the   Old    Teeiamsnt,    5th   ed.,    New 
York.    1804 
Elohiat 
T.  K.  Cheyn«  »nd  J.  8.  Black,   Encyclo- 

Sadia    BiMita^    4    vola.,    London    and 
ew  York,  1800^1003 
.BoaUaia,  "  Churcli  ";    eedaaiaiUicua,  "  e«K 
eleeiafftieal  '' 


EoeJefliaalJ  eua 

edition;  «lulit;' edited  by  " 

EpiHtle  to  the  Ephesians 

Eputola,  Epiatola,  "  Epistle,"*'  Epistles  " 

J.  B.  Er»ch  aad  J.  G.  G  ruber,  AllgmnHne 

Encykhp&dft    der    WiaaenKkaftin    und 

KQntte.  1.,4'ipflic.  1818  Rqa. 
EigtliBh  versions  (of  the  Bible) 
Exodus 
Esekiel 
/osciruius 
J.    Friedrich,    Kirch^ngetchirhie    Dtvta^^ 

tande,  2  vols..  Bamberg.  1867H50 
O,   F.   Fritssebe  and  C.   L.  W.  (jrimm, 

iCurs0e/a««le«     exegetiachta      Uandbu^ 

tu   den  Apoeryphen   dea   Altm    Testa^ 

menia,  6  parts.  Zurich,  1851-60 
Epistle  to  toe  Galatiano 
H.  Gee    and    W.    J.     Hardy,    Document* 

fUiutroHv*  of  Engliah  Chur<A  Hiatory, 

London,  1606 
Genesis 
German 
O^ttingiache  geUhria  Anaeigan^  GOttingeti, 

1824  sqq. 


xiv 


UST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


Gibbon.  Dtdine 
oniFaU 


E.  Gibbon,  Hutory  of  Ike  DeeUne  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ed.  J.  B. 
Bury,  7  vols..  London,  1896-1900 

Gk Greek.  Greoiied 

Grapory,  (  C.  R.  Gregory,  TextkriHk  dee  Neuen  Teeta- 

TexIkrUik I     mento.  2  vo is..  Lei  psie.  1901-02 

i  C.  Gross,  The  Sourcee  and  Lileraiure  of 
Gross,  Sourcee. .  <     EnoUeh  Hielory  .  .  .  fo  I486,  London, 
(     1900 

Hab Hubakkuk 

A.  W,  Hjiddan  and  W*  StuhbB.  Couneile 
ami  i^rcie*ia«firai  Docvmentf  ReUiUno 
Va  Grrai  Briiiun  and  frfiand^  8  vols., 
Oxford.  l&ett-7*l 
fief  era  tci  patri^ticr  worka  cm  hefssies  or 
h«rptici<',  lertulLian'fl  De  pf^taripUone, 
IrenoDUS,    the 


Haddanand 
Stubbs,  Coun- 
die 


Har. 


Hag 

Harduin,  Con- 
cilia  

Hamaok,  Doffma 

Hamack,  Littera- 
iur 

Hauok,  KD. 


Hauok-Hersog, 
RB 


the     Prot    hairv^iiM    of    JremoUS, 
Panarii^n  of  Epiphamufl,  etc, 

I  J.    Harduin*    Ctmeiliarufn   eoUeeHo   regia 

marirrm,  12  vok.,  ParU,  1715 
A.  fUirriAck^  Hiskfry  &f  Difgma  ,  .  .  from 

thjB  Sii  (jtnmiffi  ecfiHon^  7  voU.*  Boston, 

1895-1900 
A,     HiLftiack,     Chechirhi*    dm-    altdirie^ 

lichen    LUffT^tur   Mf  Bue^Aut,  2  vols. 

in  'A.  L<?ip«ic>  1803- IQOI 
,  A,     Hauek.     KirrMttoe^chichte    Deuledt' 

iande^  voL    i.,   LeipEuc^    10O4;  vol.   ii., 

leOO;   vol,  iii,,  1906;  vol.  iv.,  L903 
Ri^enctfkktft^if  fitr  proiettaniiM'Ae  TkO' 

oiifffie   utid   Kirch^t    four^deil    by   J.    J. 

HerttiR.  3d  4S<1.  by  A,  Hituck,  Leipsic 

Heb Epi^T  ]c  to  the  Hehrewi 

Hebr * .  Elebrei 


i' 


' 


HeieXe^Coneilien- 


e.eie,cancu»e,^/\j„.i:;>?  S*'*]?'  SfJ^^i^S!^^'^^' 
nmm^ij^u  S     tiuued    by   J.    Hergenrotner,   9   vols., 

^•^***" \     Freiburg.  1883-93 

M .  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  und  Kongre- 
gationen    der    kalholiecKon    JCtrcAs,    2 


Heimbucher.  Or- 
den und  Kon- 
greooHonen. . 

Helyot.  Orrfret 
monaeHquee. 


vols.,  Paderbom,  1896-97 
(P.  Helyot.  HieUnre  dee  a 
<      Hquee,  reliffieux  ei  mililairee. 


■HieUnre  dee   ordree   monae- 
8  vols.. 


Paris.  1714-19;   new  ed..  1839-42 
Henderson,  Doc-  j  E.  F.  Henderson,  Select  Hietorical  Doeu- 

umente I     mente  of  Ihs  Middle  Agee,  London,  1892 

Hist History,  hietoire,  hietoria 

uimt   ^^1  J  Hietona  eceUeiaeiicat  ecdeeia,   **  Church 

"*^'  •"^ 1     History" 

Hom Homilia,  Komiliai,   **  homily,   homilies  " 

Hos Hosea 

Isa Isaiah 

Ital Italian 


JA 

JeS^^BRQ 


Jafftf, 


. .  Jahvist  (Yahwist) 
.  .Journal  AeiaHque,  Paris,  1822  sqq. 
P.    Jaff^,    BiblioOieoa    rerum    Germani- 

carum,  6  vols.,  Berlin.  1864-73 
P.  Jaffd,  iiegeeta  ponHfieum  Romanorum 
.  ,  ,  ad    annum    U»8,  Berlin,     1851; 
2d  ed.,  Uipsic  1881-^ 


JE. 
JE. 


J  Ana  /  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society, 

•'^^^ (     New  Haven,  1849  sqq. 

Journal  of  BiUieal  Litaraiure  and  Bxege- 
eie,   first  appeared  as  Journal  of  the 

JBL -j     Society  of  Btblieal  Literature  and  Bxe- 

geeie,  Middletown,  1882-^,  then  Bos- 
ton, 1890  sqq. 
The  Jewieh  Bneydopedia,  12  vols.,  New 

York,  1901-06 
The  combined  narrative  of  the  Jahvist 
(Yahwist)  and  Elohist 

Jer Jeremiah 

Josephus.  An*...]  *'>5;j;^„-^«»P^«^   "  AntiquiUes   of   the 

Josephus.  Afion.. .  Flavins  Josephua,  **  Against  Apion  " 

Josephus,  Ltfe Life  of  Flavins  Josephus 

Josephus,  YFor..... Flavins  Josephus,  "  The  Jewish  War" 
Josh Joshua 

rpm  \JahThilcher  far  proteetantieehe   Thedogie, 

•'^' 1      Leipsic^  1876  sqq. 

rni>  J  7*^   Jemeh  Quarterly   Review,    London, 

•'^« i      1888  sqa. 

jjfg  \Joitmal  of  Theological  Studiee,  London, 

I      1899  sqq. 
Julian.  Hym-        J  J.   Julian,   A    Dictionary  of  Hymnology, 
nokigy j     revised  edition.  London,  1907 

rTWT,p  j  Jaarboeken  voor  Weienechappeliike  Theo- 

''^^ 1     logie,  Utrecht.  1845  sqq. 

KAT See  Schrader 

KB See  Schrader 

KD See  Friedrich.  Hauck.  Rettberg 

'  Wetter   und    Welte'e   Kirdienlejikon,    2d 


KL. 


KrOgv,    Hielory ' 


ed..  by  J.  HergenrOther  and  F.  Kaulen. 
12  vols..  Freiburg.  1882-1903 
G.   Krtkger.   Hietoryof  Early  Chrietian 
Literature  in  the  riret  Three  Ceniuriee, 
New  York.  1897 


Krumbaehn', 
GeeehiehU... 


Lam. 


K.    Krumbacher.    Geeckichte   der    byaan- 
Hniechen    Litteratur,   2d    ed.,    Munich, 
.      1897 

jP.    Labbe.    Sacrorum    conciliorunt    nova 
Concilia<     et  amplieeima  colledio,  31  vols.,  Flor- 
(     ence  and  Venice,  1759-98 

Lamentations 

T^^niffAn  J?Mt        t  ^'  L*nis»n.     Ecdeeiaetieal     Hietory     of 
hS^  j     j^^^  to  the  ISth  CenturyTTWolm', 

"**^ I     DubUn.  1829 

Lat Latin,  Latinised 

Leg Legee,  Legum 

Lev Leviticus 

|F.  Lichtenberger,   Bneydopidie  dee  set- 

•fiess  rdigieueee,  18  vols.,  Paris,  1877- 

1882 

O.   Lorena.   Deutechlande    OeechidUaguel^ 

len imMittelalter,  Sd.  ed.,  BeriiDri887 


eol- 


Lichtenberger, 
BSR 

Lorena,  DOQ  . . . 

LXX .The  Septuaipnt 

I  Mace I  Maccabees 

II  Mace II  Maccabees 

Mai.    Nova    col-\A.    Mai.    Seriptorum   veterum    nova 

lectio 1     lectio.  10  vols.,  Rome,  1825-^38 

Mai Mfjft4}hi 

Mann.  Potmm        \  ^-P*.  M*nn.  I^vee  of  the  Popee  in  tiU 
Mann,  fopee... .  <     g^^  j^^^^^  ^         London,  1902  sqq. 

(G.     D.     Mansi,    Banttorum    eondUorum 
Mansi,  Coneiiia, .  <     eoUecHo  nova,  31  vols.,  Fkurenoe  and 
(     Venice,  1728 

Matt Matthew 

J.  McClintook  and  J.  Strong,  Cydopeedia 
of  BiUical,  TheologioaL  and  EeeUei- 
aetieal  Literature,  10  vols,  and  suppl»- 
.  ment  2  vols..  New  York,  1869-87 
Monumenta  Oermania  hietoriea,  ed.  G.  H. 
Psrti  and  others,  Hanover  and  Ber- 
lin, 1826  sqq.  The  following  abbrevia- 
tions are  used  for  the  sections  and  sub- 
sections of  this  work:  Ant,  Antiuui' 
tatee,  '*  Antiquities  ";  AucL  ant.,  Auc- 
toree  anti^tuieeimi,  **  Oldest  Writers  "• 
Chron.  mtn..  Chroniea  minora,  ' 


MoClintock  and 
Strong,  Cydo-' 
pmiia 


MOH. 


Mio. 


Chronicles '';  Dip.,  Diplomata,  "  Di- 
plomas. Documents ";  Bpiet.,  Bpie- 
talte,  '^Letters";  (Test  poni.  Rom., 
Oeeta  ponHfieum  Romanorum,  **  Deeds 
of  the  Popes  of  Rome  ";  Leg.,  Legee, 
**  Laws  ";  Lib.  de  lite,  LOMi  de  lite 
inter  regnum  et  eaeerdoHum  eceeulorum 
xi  et  xi%  conecripti,  *'  Books  concerning 
the  Strife  between  the  Civil  and  Eccle- 
siastical Authorities  in  the  ElevenUft 
and  Twelfth  Centuries":  ^ee.,  ^•- 
crologia  GermanitB,  **  Necrology  of 
Germany";  Poet.  Lai.  cevi  Car., 
Poeta  LaHni  avi  Carolini,  **  Latin 
Poets  of  the  Caroline  Time";  PoeL 
LaL  med.  avi,  Poeta  Latini  medii  avi, 
"Latin  Poets  of  the  Middle  A<ee  "; 
Script,  Scriptoree,  **  Writers  ":  SaripL 
rer.  Germ.,  Scriptoree  rerum  Germani- 
earum.  **  Writers  on  German  Sub- 
jects ";  Scrivt.  rer.  Langob.,  Seriptorem 
rerum  Langohardicarum  et  llalieantm, 
**  Writers  on  Lombard  and  Italian 
Subjects  ";  Script,  rer.  Merov.^crijk' 
toree  rerum  Merovingiearum,  **  Writers 
on  Merovingian  Subjects  " 


H.  H.  Milman,  Hietory  of  LaHn  Chrie- 
tianitu,  Indwlinq  that  of  the  Popee  to 
.  .  .  Nicholae  v.,  8  vols.,  Ix>ndon, 
1860-61 
C.  Mirbt.  QueOen  wur  Geechichte  dee  Papal- 
tumeunadee  rOmiechen  Katholieiemua. 
Tflbtngsn,  1901 
W.    Moeller,    Hietory    of    the    Chrietian 

,     Churdi,  3  vols.,  London,  1892-1900 

wp/3  j  J.  P.  Migne,  Patrologia  cureue  completue, 

^'^ j^  MTiM^tfcOj  162  vojs.,  Paris,  1857-66 

MPL. 


Mihnan,  Lalin 
Ckri^Hamty. 


Miibt,QueBen.. 

Moeller.CiU^ 
tian  Church. 


eeriee  Qraca,  162  vols.,  Paris, 

j  J.  P.  Migne.  Patrologia  e%ireue  eompletue, 
'  1     smss  LaHna,  221  vols..  Paris,  1844-64 


MS.,  MSS .Manuscript,  Manuscripts 


Muratori,  Scrip- 


NA. 
Nah. 


L.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum  Italiearum  scrip- 
fores,  28  vols.,  1723-51 
^sties  Ardiiv  der  GeeeUeduxft  fpr  dUerm 
deuteche     GeediiehtAunde,     Hanover. 
1876  sqq. 

.Nahum 

n.d no  date  of  publication 

w«*n«l«f     rh*4M.  \  A.  Neander.  General  Hietory  of  the  Ckrie- 
^«rkJy*      1     <«»'*  ftrft(Kon  and  ChurX,  6  vols,  and 
Uan  Lhurdi. . .  j     j^^j^  Boston,  1872-81 

Neh Nehemiah 

R.  P.  Nioeron,  M^motres  pour  eervir  h 
Vhietoire  dee  homenee  iUunree  .  .  .  ,  43 
vols.,  Paris,  1729-45 
i^siie  kirdMdye  Zeiiedirift,  Leipsie,   1890 

■oq. 


Niceron, 
moires... 

NKZ 


M^ 


LIST    OP  ABBREVIATIONS 


%v 


Kofraclc.    AfthA- 


NPSF 


QLBT.. 


o.aa. 

0,T... 

FMA,... 

PBF 

IPiit 

Pli&y.    HiM,    not 
PotthMt.      ir*ff- 


PSJM * 

#Eir   , 

«^/     - 


Rettbats,  JCi>. 


BBOr. 


IT,  COT.  . 


iSSL 


9*   S»     •49»w  »#«».. 

fjfii  *... 


\      Ar,-h'U>l>Hj\r,  2  vols..  Frriburg,  1894 
-.no  ttlrtcr"  ••(  (Mihlimtinn 

I  TA*  Sicttu'  oHfti  Fo*t-NireHf  Fufhern,  1st 
-       fen*-*,  14  vola.,  New  Vi^rk.  1887  92;    2.1 

I      i»crie«,   14  vt»li»..  New  York.   1890-1900 

)Ne»'    Tefftainont,     jVovum     /"MtoffMrnfum. 
iVintveau    Tttiament^   Seue*   T^Mlarruint 
..Nuroberi 
..Obftdiah 

1  J.  Worilaworth,  H,  J.  White,  and  otherv, 
4      Otd-Laiin  BUdical  TesU,   Oxiord,    1S83 

\Ordo    mncti    Benedidi^    "Order    of    St. 
f      Betkeilict " 
..Old  Twtjuueot 
.,SeA  Smith 
. .  Priestly  document 
L.  Puftor,  The  History  of  thf  Pttp€9  from 
th€  Chm  of  the  MiddU  Ages,   fl  vuLs., 
London.  1891    }W2 
PalreM  eccUnr  r,  c?<:l.  J,  A.  Gilea^ 

34  vt.ls,  L-  m 

Paleatine  Exi^  i  and 

Fir*t  l^pi$tle  *4  i\ur 
Second  Kpiatle  of  Pet>cr 
.  *  Pliny,  Historia  naturalia 
A.    Poilh&tit,    Bihliotheca  htMioruM   mtdii 
mpL     W«0imMer  durch  dU  OtKhicht*- 
I     ««rJt«.  B«rUn,  189^ 
...Proverbs 
.PnOtnfl 

jprocmdintf*    of    Ae    Socirtv    of    Biblical 
t     Ar<ck4iiyU>ov>  London.  ISSOtKiq. 
.  .quod  iqimi)  vide,  "  which  see  ■' 
,  .Redactor 

{L.    von    Ranke,    HisUyrv    of    ths    Ptipet, 
3  volflu,  London.  18&6 
.  .Rnme  de»  cfoux  mondtfj,  Paris,  1831  eqq. 
-  See  Uauck-HenKig 

)  K.  Umch  Stled  DoeumenU  lUuMtratina  Me- 
.  )  diirval  and  Modtrn  Hinioriu  London.  i9CNL» 
.  ,R^U9  dm  ^tudea  Juivea,  Paha.  IBBO  sqq. 
I  F,  W.  Rettberg.  Kirch$nO9»d%idii0  Benbtck- 
I  tamU.  2  vole.,  Gottingen.  ia46-48 
.  Book  of  Revelation 
Rtvus  de    l*hiMloire  det   religiontt   Pwia, 

1860  m. 
A.  L.  Eichier,  LArhueh  det  kaOtoliu-hen 
Mnd    gvanoeUiuAen    Kirchenrethls,    8th 
«d.  by  W.  KAhl*  Leipeic.  1886 

E.  Robinsoo,  BiUieal  JUma-tha  in 
PaittHr^,  Boaton,  IS41.  and  Later 
Bibtieal  R^tmrchea  in  Pateatine,  3d  «d. 
of  the  whole.  3  vols.,  ISflJ 

J.  B.  Robin«on«  R(badingt  in  Butoptan 
Uittary,  2  vols,,  Boston,  IQlM-Ofl 

.  Epintle  to  the  RomiuiA 
vRtimm   dtsa  tdencea  iteeUtiOMHgiUM,  Airai, 
I      1860-74.  Amionii.  187fi  tqq. 
\Revu0    d«    thtotoi^e    el    d«    philoBophie, 
1      L^UMume,  1873 

. .  Eevieed  Veraoa  (of  the  Eiigliah  Btbk) 
.  .itantlttnn.  **  oentury  ^' 

I  Samuel 

II  Samuel 
Sittutii/alterichte  der   Berlingr    Akademie, 

Berhn,  1882  sqq. 

F,  Max  Mailer  and  otheni^  Th*  Sacred 
B<>ok9  of  the  Eatt,  Oxford,  1879  aqq.. 
vol.  Ttlviii.,  1904 

Sacrtd  Boftka  of  the  Old  Tmtament  ("  Rain- 
bow Bible  ),  LeipaiCt  London,  and 
Baltimore.  1894  sqq^ 

P.  Seh^O^.  Hiatory  of  the  Chriatian  Church, 
vola.  i.-iv.,  vi.,  vii..  New  York,  1882-92, 
vol,  v„  part  1,  by  D.  S.  SchalT.  1907 

P.  Sohaflf.  Th*  CrtMa  of  ChrUttndom, 
Z  vote.  New  York.  1877-64 

E.  Sebrader,  Cuneiform  InMcripHona  and 
ftt  Oid  Taiament,  2  yob.,  Loudon^ 
1885^^8 

E.  Schrad«r,  Dis  Ktiiinachriften  und  daa 
AUe  Taulamtmt,  2  vols..  Berlin,  1902-03 

£.  Schrader,  KeiHn^chrifUiche  Bibliothek, 
^voU,  BerUn.  1889-1901 

E.  Sehttrer,  OeachichU  de»  iHdiachen 
Itdkta  im  Zeiialter  Jeau  ChHati,  3  vols.. 
Leipwc  1898-1901;  En«.  transJ.,  6 
,     vnh  .  Npw  York.  1891 

.Srr-  ^vritera** 

tr    I  rner,  introdwHon  ta  Sew  Tat- 

cim,  4ih  ed..  London,  1894 
,,8ff.:'  S«nt«noet  '* 

,Soit.' !.■.■'<  J 4  An,  ■"  Society  of  Jeeua '' 
T'A*- /  "/r-f.  Ar  Stwiien  ttnd  KHtiken,  Ham-- 

bun*.   lH.'«i  fiqq. 

SUtunitaiimrhU  drr  ,\fQnch€nir  Aka^ 
-*— "  Muuicb,  1860  sqq. 


Snsith.  Kinship. . 
Stinih,OTJC\    , 

Smith.  PrtrphtU,. 

Smith.     RH. 
jSrm. ...... 

S.  P.  C.  K... 
S,  P.  0 


!  W.   U,  Smith.  Kinahip  and  Marriaa^  in 
\       Earlu  Arabia.  l>nmUin.  1903 
iW.    R.  Smith.    The  Old   Tealammt  in  the 
)      Jfwiah  Church,  Liiiidan,   1892 

W.    IL  Smith.  Prt>phfU  of  Inrml  ,   .  .  ia 
{      the  Etiihth  Centuru.  l^ndun.  1895 

o/jW.    K.    Smith.    Religion   of   the   SemOu, 

, ,  i       London.  1894 

I  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Chrietiaa 

•  *  >       Knowledge 
J  Sodift^  for  the  Propagalion  of  Ibe  CkMp«l 

•  *  J      in  Forei(cn  Parts 
sq .,  sqq ...........  and  fullowi  nx 

Strom Stromata^  "  MiseclUiniesi  ** 

ii.v itub  voce,  or  sub  verbo 

Swete.  Iniraduc-  )  H.  fi.  Swete,  Introdiu-tion  to  the  Old  Tea- 

tion.. .... (      tameni  in  Ortiekt  London.  1900 

5vr ..,,....  Syriao 

TB9 Trinitarian  Bible  Society 

Thatcher  and         10.   J.    Thatcher  and    K.    H.    McNeal,    .4^ 

McNca],Seuree<      Sowca     Book     for    Mcditival     Hiatoryft 

Book (      New  York.  1905 

I  Tbef* First  Epistle  to  the  ThesfialonianB 

II  Then .Second  Epiittle  to  the  Theniiakitjians 

mjL  71  ]  Theoloffiache  Tijdachrift,  Amsterdam  and 

^ '*'    -  -  I      Leyden.  1867  sqq. 

jLgM  4  L,   8.   le   Nain    de   Tillemont,    Mt'minrea 
<      «  .  .  tcd^naatiqitea    dea    wit    premiera 
(     HtcUt,  Ifi  vois.,  ParU,  1693-1712 

I  Tim. First  Epistle  to  Timothy 

II  Tim Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 

Throiitin*fhiT  Jahreabtmdit,  Leipsic,  1882- 

1H87.  FreihuTK,  1888,  Bmuswick,  1889- 
1897.  Berhn,  1898  i)qq. 
Thooloffitchaa   Litteraturbtatt.    Bonn.    1806 


Titlemont, 


TJB. 


TLB. 


TheoMffiache 


^^^ ••    \      187tfsqq 

Tob.. ...Tohit 

TkmlogiaehM 


lAtteraturteituno,      Leipaic, 


QuartaUekrift,      Tilbincen, 
1819  «q, 
J.     A.     liobinson,     Texta    and    tStudiea, 

CumbiidKe,  1891  aqq. 
TratiMattiotut   of    (he    Society    of    Biblieal 

Archa^tloyy,  Londun.  1S72  sqq. 
Theidiiffvtche  Studien  und  Krihken,  Ham- 
burs,  1823  sqq. 
Texta  und  Vnlerauekunoen  xur  Geathirhie 
J      dor  alichriatlichen  Litieratur,  ed.  O.  von 
Gebhardt    and    A.    Uaruack,    Leipeic^ 
,     1882  sqq. 

Tuhinoer    Zeilachrift   fUr    Theologie,    Ttl- 
1      binsen.  1838-40 
UgQlini,    Thetaur-  \  B.      URolinus,      Theaaurua     anluiuitatum 

rua I      MKTorum.  34  vob..  Veniee,   1744-69 

P.  r, Vefut  Taatamefdum,  V'ieux  Taatamant,  ''Okl 

Testament  " 
w-**-«K«h  i  W.  Wattenbach.  Deutachlanda  Geachichta' 

Wattenlwich,         I      mUllen,  5th  ed.,  2  vols,,  Berlin,  1886; 
-^^v      "  Ath  #wl      IRfl.1-0-* 


TQ..,, 
TS.,... 
T8BA. 
TSK... 


TU. 


TZT. 


Wetlhauwn,  J 

Heidentum, . . .  ( 

Wellhausen. 
Prtfteoomena, . 

ZA, 

Zahn,  Einlei^ 
tuno 

Zahn.  Kanon,.. 


6th  ed.,  1893-94 
J.  WeOhaij.**en»  Reate  arabiachcn  Heiden* 
,       turn*,  lierlin.  1887 

1J.  WelJ,hatj-*en.  Proieffomena  rur  OeackichtM 
iaraela,  6th  ed..  Berhn,  1906,  £nj{. 
traOAl.,  EdinbuTKb.  1885 
Zeitachrift  /t^r  Aaayriohgia^  Leipste, 
1886-88,  Berhn*  1889  sqq. 
I  T.  Zahn.  Binkitunff  in  daa  Neua  TealO' 
I      mefO,  3d  ed..  Let pste,  1907 

^T.    Zahn,    Geachichte    dea    neulestoinetU- 
lichen  Kanona,  2  vob.,  Leipoic,  1888-92 
9  ATW  i  Zeitachrift   filr   die   alttt^tamenUiche   Wia^ 

^^  '  ^'^ '  *  * I      aenaehaft,  Giessun.  1881  sqq. 

ZDAL S  EeitaehriftfUrdmUachea  Altrrthumunddeut* 

1     #cA«L*lirnaltir  Berhn,  1876  *aq. 
7  n  Mn  J  ZvAtchrifi  der  deutMchen  marffom&ndiaeken 

^^^^ 1      Oaaellathedt.  Leipsie,  1847  eqq. 

7rin  iZeOat^rift  fUr  deutiche  PhildoSie,  Halle^ 

^^^*   O      1869  sqq. 

ZDPV ...  J  ZHtachrift    dtm    deuiaAen   PaUuHm^Vm^ 

I      rirw,  Leipflie,  1878  sqq. 

!Sech Zechariab 

Zepb .Zcphaniah 

'  Zeiiachrrfi    fikr   die    hiattfriat^    T%«D2d0M, 

Subbabed     sucoeeaively     at     L«ip«iar 
[ambuTK.  and  Gotha,  1832-75 
Ztitaeftrift  fOr  Kirehenife$thiehle^   GoihAt 

1876  sqq. 
Zeiiachrift  fUr  Kirehenrechl,    Berhn,  TO- 
binMn,  Freiburg,  1861  sqq. 
^tCT*  IZeOwaftrifl  fiir  katholiMehe  Thechffie,  Inn*- 

^^^ 1     bnidt,  1877  «9q. 

«  j^wwr  J  Zeiiackrift  fQr  ktrdiHehe  Wiaaenaehafi  und 

^^^ \      kir^Jichea  Uhen,  Uipsic.  1880-89 

^j3tr  iZeilarh  ri  ft  fitr  Proteata  ntiamua  und  Kirchtt 

^'^'^  '"- 1      Erlftngen.  1838-76 

^ZeiUchrift  far  vnatentekafUiche  Theoioffit, 
Jena,  l8iS-9Kk  Halla.  1861-«7.  Ldpa% 
186Sflqq, 


ZUT. 


ZKO 
ZKR  , 


^Muai 


SYSTEM  OF  TRANSLITERATION 


The  following  ByBtem  of  transliteration  has  been  used  for  Hebrew: 

K  =  '  or  omitted  at  the 

beginning  of  a  word. 

a  =  b 


3  =  bh  or  b 

l  =  g 

:i  =  gh  or  g 

^l  =  d 

n  =  dh  or  d 

n  =  h 

l  =  w 


2)  =  k 

3  =  kh  or  k 

D  =  m 

D  =  B 


D  =  ph  or  p 
1  =  r 

fcf=B 

r^  =  8h 

n  =  t 

n  =  th  or  t 


The  vowelB  are  transcribed  by  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  without  attempt  to  indicate  quantity  or  quality.  Arabic 
and  other  Semitic  languages  are  transliterated  according  to  the  same  system  as  Hebrew.  Greek  is 
written  with  Roman  characters,  the  common  equivalents  being  used. 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


When  the  pronunciation  is  self-evident  the  titles  are  not  respelled ;  when  by  mere  division  and  accen- 
tuation it  can  be  shown  sufficiently  clearly  the  titles  have  been  divided  into  syllables,  and  the  accented 
sylUbles  indicated. 


a  as  in  sofa 


arm 


"  "  at 

"  "  fare 
tt  it 


e  "  ••  pen* 

6  "  "  fate 

i  "  "  tin 

1  "  "  machine 

o  "  "  obey 

6  "  "  no 


0 

as 

m 

not 

9 

u 

a 

nor 

u 

it 

a 

fiiU« 

a 

a 

It 

rule 

u 

n 

tt 

but 

tr 

a 

a 

bum 

oi 

m 

M 

pine 

ou 

M 

It 

out 

ei 

H 

II 

oil 

ia 

ii 

It 

few 

iu        as  in  duration 

c  =  k    "    "    cat 

ch         "    "   church 

cw  =  qu  as  in  ^een 

dh  (th)    "  "  the 

f  "  "  /anqy 

g  (hard)  "  "  ^o 

H  "  "  loch  (Scotch) 

hw  (u*)  "  "  tt*y 


In  meoentod  lyllmbles  only ;  in  un»ooent«d  syllables  it  mpproxifnates  the  sound  of  e  in  over.    Silent  n  (as  in  French 
'  is  rendered  n. 
n  German  and  French  names  Q  approximates  the  sound  of  u  in  dune. 


wordsf  is  rendered  n 
»Ii    " 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 


k 


BASILICA:  1.  Legal  codes.  Since  the  great 
ccKiification  of  the  Roman  law  by  Justinian,  the 
Corpua  juris  civilis,  was  wTitten  in  Latin,  it  could 
not  meet  the  needs  of  the  East,  and  required  Greek 
tr&nalationfi.  To  do  away  with  the  uncertainty 
which  had  arisen  from  such  versions,  in  878  the 
emperor  Basil  the  Macedonian  had  a  handbook 
put  together,  covering  forty  titles,  and  put  out  a 
reviflioD  m  885.  A  further  revimon  and  codifica- 
tion of  the  older  laws,  editetl  once  more  under  Leo 
the  Wise  (886),  bears  the  dreek  name  of  ta  basilika. 
It  is  ]Q  sixty  books,  based  on  Ju.stinian'a  compila- 
tion from  the  older  version «  and  commentaries, 
with  extracts  from  his  later  constitutions  known 
as  the  NuvelliJt,  and  from  Basils  handbook  men- 
tioned above.  (E,  Fkibdberg.) 

9.  Early  form  of  Christian  churches.  See  Arc&i- 
TXCTURE,  Ecclesiastical. 

BtBUoaRArnr:  C,  E.  ZftchAria,  Hisktritt  juns  Grmeo-Romani 
d^immtio,  pp.  35-30,  HeidclberR,  1839;  Mortreuil,  Hit- 
imn  du  drmt  Byiftniin,  purt  ii,  pp.  I  »q{i.,  part  iii,  pp.  230 
•qq..    Pam.    1843-46;   Kruinbacber,   Qe*ehichU,   pp.  171, 

3S7-2sa.  606,  mr,  000.  eio,  077. 

BASILIDES,  bas-i-lm'd!«,  AM)  THE  BASILID- 
lAJIS:  Basil  ides,  a  famous  Gnostic,  was  a  pupil 
of  an  alleged  interpreter  of  St.  Peter,  Glaucias  by 
nmme,  and  taught  at  Alexandria  during  the  reign  of 
Hadrian  (117-138),  He  may  have  been  previously 
ft  d^iple  of  Menander  at  x\ntioeh,  together  with 
Sftiumitus,  The  *4c/a  Archelui  state  that  for  a  time 
he  taught  among  the  Persians.  He  eomjMif^ed 
twenty- four  books  on  the  Gospel,  which,  according 
to  Clement  of  Alexandria  {Siramata,  iv,  12),  were 
entitleil  "  Exegetics/*  Fragments  of  xiii  and  xxiii, 
preserved  by  Clement  and  in  the  Avta  Archelai^ 
supplement  the  knowledge  of  Basilitles  furnished 
by  his  opfMDnents.     On  gen  is  certainly  wrong  in 

ascribing  to  him  a  Gospel.  The  oldest 
Batilides.    refutation  of  the  teachings  of   Basili- 

des,  by  Agrippa  Castor  (q.v.),  is  lost, 
anil  we  are  dependent  ujjon  the  later  accounts  of 
IreiuruSf  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Hippolytus. 
The  latter,  in  his  Philosopkumena,  gives  a  presen- 
tation entitvly  different  from  the  other  sources. 
It  either  rests  on  comipt  accounts,  or,  more  prob- 
ably, on  those  of  a  later,  past-Basilidian  phase 
0i  tlie  system.  Hippolytus  describes  a  monistic 
mUsxi,  in  which  Ilellonic,  or  rather  Stoie,  concpp- 
tsOlli  stand  in  the  foreground,  whereas  the  genuine 
IL'-l 


Basils des  is  an  Oriental  through  and  through,  who 
stands  in  closer  relationship  to  Zoroaster  than  to 
Aristotle* 

The  fundamental  theme  of  the  BasilSdian  specu- 
lation is  the  question  concerning  the  origin  of  evil 
and  how  to  overcome  it.  The  answ^er  is  given 
entirely  in  the  fonns  of  Oriental  gnosis,  evidently 
influenced  by  Parseeism.  There  are  two  principles, 
uncrcattMJ  and  self-existent,  hght  and  darkness, 
originally  separatiHl  and  without  knowledge  of 
each  other.     At  the  head  of  the  "  kingdom  of  light  '* 

stands  "  the  uncreated,  unnamable 
His  System*  God.'*     From  him  divine  life  unfolds 

in  successive  steps.  Seven  such  reve- 
lations form  the  first  ogdoad,  from  which  issued  the 
rest  of  the  spirit-w^irld.  till  thn^e  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  spirit-realms  had  originated.  These  are  com- 
prised under  the  mystic  name  Abrasax  (q.v.),  whose 
numerical  value  answers  to  the  number  of  the 
heavens  and  days.  Being  seized  with  a  longing 
for  light,  darkness  now  interferes.  A  struggle  of  the 
principles  commences,  in  which  originated  our 
Hysteni  of  the  world  as  copy  of  the  last  stage  of  the 
spirit-world,  liaving  an  archon  and  angel  at  its 
head.  The  earthly  life  is  only  a  moment  of  the 
general  purification-process  which  now  takes  plat^ 
to  deliver  the  world  of  light  froo>  darkness.  Hence 
everything  which  is  bad  and  evil  in  this  system 
of  the  world  becomes  intelligible  when  regarded  in 
it«  projx^r  relations.  Gradually  the  rays  of  light 
find  their  way  through  the  mineral  kingdom, 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  animal  kingdom.  Man 
has  two  souls  in  his  breast,  of  which  the  rational 
soul  tries  to  master  the  material  or  animal.  For 
the  consummation  of  the  process  an  intervention 
from  above  is  necessary,  however.  The  Christian 
idea  of  the  manifestation  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ 
is  the  historical  fact  which  Basilides  subjects  to  his 
general  thoughts.  God's  **  mind  ^'  (Gk.  nous) 
descended  upon  Jesus  as  dove  at  the  Jordan,  and  he 
proclaimed  salvation  to  the  Jews,  the  chosen  people 
of  the  archon.  The  suffering  of  Jesus,  Basilides 
admitted  as  a  historical  fact,  but  he  did  not  under- 
stand how  to  utilize  it  religiously.  The  Spirit  of 
GcnI  is  the  redet^mer,  not  the  crucified  one.  Jesixs 
HufTered  as  man,  whose  light-nature  was  alMi  con- 
taminated through  the  matter  of  evil.  But  the 
htdii»f  in  the  redemption  w^hich  came  from  above 
lifts  man  beyond  himself  to  a  higher  degree  of  exist- 


Basnaffe 
Bathinff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


enoe.  How  far  the  individual  can  attain  it 
depends  on  the  degree  of  pure  entanglement  in 
former  degrees  of  the  spirit-world.  In  the  per- 
fected spirit-world  the  place  will  be  assigned  to 
each  which  belongs  to  him  according  to  the  degree 
of  his  faith. 

Among  the  Basilidians,  Basilides'  son,  Isidore, 
occupies  a  prominent  place.  Of  his  writings  ("  On 
the  Excrescent  Soul,'*  "  Exegetics,"  '*  Ethics  '*) 
some  fragments  are  extant.    The  sect  does  not  seem 

to  have  spread  beyond  Lower  Egypt. 

The  Basi-     In  opposition  to  the  rigid  ethics  of 

lidians.       their    master,    the    Basilidians    seem 

often  to  have  advocated  libertinism. 
According  to  Clement  of  Alexandria  they  cele- 
brated the  sixth  or  the  tenth  of  January  as  the  day 
of  the  baptism  of  Jesus.  On  the  importance  of 
this  fact  for  the  origin  of  the  ecclesiastical  festival 
of  the  Epiphany,  cf.  H.  Usener,  Religionsgeachicht' 
liche  UrUersuchungent  i  (Bonn,  1889). 

G.  KrCoer. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  fragments  of  Baailides  are  collected  in 
J.  E.  Grabe.  SpieiUoium  SS.  Patrum,  ii.  35-43.  Oxford, 
1600;  in  A.  Stieren's  edition  of  Irenasus,  i.  901-903.  907- 
009,  Leipsio,  1863;  and  in  A.  Hilgenfeld.  KetieroeMchictUe 
dn  Urchrutentuma,  pp.  207-217.  Leipnic.  1884.  The 
•ouroes  are  Irenseus  (Hoar.,  I,  xxiv.  1;  cf.  ii,  16  et  paseiro), 
Clement  of  Alexandria  {Strom.,  ii.  8;  iii.  1;  iv.  12.  24.  26; 
V.  1),  Origen  (Horn,  i  on  Luke;  com.  on  Romans,  v),  Eu- 
aebius  {Chron.,  an.  133;  Hiat.  eccL,  IV.  vii.  7),  the  Acta 
AreKelai  (Iv),  Epiphanius  {Har.,  xxiii,  1;  xxiv;  xxxii.  3), 
and  HippolytUB  {Philoaophumena,  vii.  2-15).  Consult  A. 
Neander,  OenetUche  Entwickluno  der  vornehmaten  gnoati- 
•cKtn  Syatema,  Berlin,  1818  (the  most  exliaustive  treat- 
ment); F.  C.  Baur,  Die  chrUUiche  Gnona,  Tubingen.  1835; 
J.  L.  Jacobi,  BaHlidia  j^Uoaophi  gnostiei  aenientiaa  ex  Hip- 
polyii  libri,  Berlin.  1852  (valuable):  G.  Uklhom,  Dae 
batilidianieche  8y»tem,  Gdttingen,  1855;  H.  L.  Mansel, 
OnoHie  Hereeiee,  London,  1875  (has  able  lecture  on  Bas- 
ilides);  Hort,  in  DCB,  i.  268-281  (very  thorough); 
A.  Hilgenfeld.  in  ZWT,  xxi  (1878).  228-250;  idem.  Die 
KetMergeachichU  dee  Urchriatentume,  pp.  207-218.  Leipsic, 
1884;  G.  Salmon,  The  Croaa-referencea  in  the  Philoaophou^ 
mena,  in  Hermathena,  xi  (1885),  389-402;  H.  Stfthelin.  Die 
gnoatiachen  QuelUn  Hippolyta,  in  TU,  vi,  3.  Leipsic.  1890; 
Sohaff,  Chriatian  Church,  ii.  466-472;  Hamack.  Lit- 
teratur,  i,  157-161;  u.  1,  289-297-  Krttger,  Hiatory.  pp. 
70-71;  UoeXl^T,  Chriatian  Church,  i,  141-144;  J.  Kennedy,  in 
the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Aaiatic  Society,  1902,  pp.  377-415. 

BASNA6E,  ba^'nOzh':  The  name  of  a  family  of 
Normandy  which  has  produced  several  men  prom- 
inent in  the  history  of  French  Protestantism. 

1.  Benjamin  Basnage  was  for  fifty-one  years 
pastor  at  Sainte-M^re-£glise,  near  Carentan  (27 
m.  s.e.  of  Cherbourg),  where  he  was  bom  in  1580 
and  died  in  1652.  During  the  religious  wars  he 
was  repeatedly  chosen  by  his  coreligionists,  on 
account  of  the  constancy  of  his  character  and  his 
great  learning,  to  represent  them  in  political  and 
ecclesiastical  assemblies.  He  was  president  of  the 
general  synod  at  Alengon  in  1637,  and  as  deputy 
at  Charenton  in  1644  he  did  much  to  defend  the 
rights  of  the  Protestants  and  to  reconcile  the  theo- 
logians. In  the  year  of  his  death  he  was  ennobled 
by  the  government  of  Louis  XIV.  Of  the  many 
polemical  tractates  which  he  >vrote,  the  best  known 
is  De  Vftat  visible  et  invisible  de  V6glise  et  de  la 
parfaite  satisfaction  de  Jisus  Christ,  centre  la  fable 
du  purgatoire  (La  Rochelle,  1612). 

2.  Henri  Basnage,  younger  son  of  Benjamin, 
was  bom  at  Sainte-Mdre-£glise  Oct.  16,  1615;  d. 


at  Rouen  Oct.  20,  1695.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
eloquent  advocates  in  the  parliament  of  Rouen 
and  one  of  the  most  famous  jiuists  of  his  time. 
He  defended  the  cause  of  the  Reformed  Church 
courageously,  and  his  reputation  was  such  that  after 
the  revocation  of  the  Ekiict  of  Nantes  he  was  almost 
the  only  Protestant  who  could  follow  the  profession 
of  law  in  Rouen. 

3.  Samuel   Basnage,  son   of   Antoine,    younger 
son  of  Benjamin,  was  bom  at  Bayeux  1638;    d.  at 
Ziltphen  1721.     He  was  first  pastor  at  Vauxcelles, 
then  at  Bayeux  till  1685.     He  went  with  his  father^- 
to  the  Netherlands  and  became *pastor  there  of  the^ 
Walloon  congregation  at  ZOtphen.     Of  his  theo- 
logical writings  the  most  important  are:  Morales 
OUologique  et  politique  sur  les  vertus  et  les  vices  dea^ 
hommes  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1703);  and    lnimfriMi 
politico-ecclesiastici  (3  vols.,  Rotterdam,   1706). 

4.  Jacques  Basnage  (de  Beauval),  son  of  Henri « 
was  bom  at  Rouen  Aug.  8,  1653;  d.  at  The  Hague 
Dec.  22,  1723.  He  first  studied  the  classical  lan> 
guages  at  Saumur  under  Tanneguy,  father  of  the 
famous  Mme.  Dacier,  afterward  theology  at  Geneva 
under  Turretin  and  Tronchin,  finally  at  S6dan 
under  Jurieu.  In  1676  he  was  chosen  pastor  at 
Rouen;  after  the  suppression  of  the  church  at 
Rouen  in  1685,  Louis  XIV  granted  him  permission 
to  retire  to  Holland.  In  1691  he  was  made  pastor 
of  the  Walloon  congregation  at  Rotterdam,  and  in 
1709  of  the  French  congregation  at  The  Hague. 
The  prime  minister  Hcinsius  respected  him  highly 
and  employed  him  in  different  diplomatic  missions. 
The  fame  of  his  diplomatic  ability  reached  the 
court  at  Versailles,  and  when,  in  1716,  the  Abb^ 
Dubois  was  sent  to  The  Hague  by  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  then  regent,  in  behalf  of  the  triple  alliance, 
he  was  instructed  to  associate  with  Basnage. 
When  an  insurrection  of  the  Camisards  in  the 
C^vennes  was  feared,  the  regent  applied  to  Basnage. 
He  supported  energetically  the  zealous  Antoine 
Court,  then  twenty  years  old,  in  restoring  the 
Protestant  Church  in  Southern  France,  but,  partial 
to  the  principles  of  passive  obedience,  as  preached 
by  Calvin,  he  severely  condemned  the  insurrection 
of  the  Camisards  and  even  blamed  the  first  preachers 
in  the  Desert.  About  this  time  the  States  General 
of  the  Netherlands  appointed  him  historiographer. 
His  numerous  works  are  partly  dogmatic  or  polemic, 
partly  historical.  The  former  include  especially 
his  writings  against  Bossuct:  Examen  des  mithodes 
proposies  par  Messieurs  de  VassembUe  du  clerg^  de 
France,  en  1682,  pour  la  reunion  des  Protestants  4 
Viglise  romaine  (Cologne,  1682);  R&ponse  h  M, 
Vdvique  de  Meaux  sur  la  lettre  pastorale  (1686). 
His  historical  works  are:  Histoire  de  la  religion 
des  6glises  r^fomUes  (2  vols.,  Rotterdam,  1690; 
1725);  Histoire  de  r^glise  depuis  Jfsus  Christ 
jusqu'a  present  (1699);  Histoires  du  Vieux  et  du 
Nouveau  Testament,  representees  par  des  figures 
gravies  en  taille-douce  par  R.  de  Hooge  (Amsterdam, 
1704);  Histoire  des  Juifs  depuis  Jisus  Christ 
jusqu'h  prisent  (1706).  G.  Bonet-Maury. 
Biblioorapht:  J.  Aymon,  Toua  lea  aynodea  nationauz  dee 

Sgliaea  riformHa,  The  Hague.  1710;  P.  Bayle.  Dietum- 
naire  hiatorique  et  critique,  AmBterdam.  1740;  D.  Houard. 
DicHonnaire  de  la  eoutume  de  Nonnandie,  Rouen,  1780; 
Lamory,  £loffe  de  Baanage,  in  BuUeHn  d'hiatoire  du  protM' 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Basnaffe 
Bathinff 


tarUimts  fran^aia,  vol.  x,  p.  42;  xiii.  pp.  41-48;  E.  and  £. 
Haag,  La  France  proteatanU,  2d  ed.  by  M.  Bordier.  5  vols., 
Paris,  1877-86;  F.  Puaux,  Lm  Pricuraeurt  fran^aU  de  la 
toUrancB.  ib.  1881;  J.  Bianquis,  La  RivooaHon  tU  VMit 
<U  Nanif,  Rouen.  1885. 

BASSERMANN,  HEINRICH  GUSTAV:  German 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  July  12, 
1849.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Jena, 
Zurich,  and  Heidelberg  in  186^73,  but  interrupted 
his  studies  to  serve  in  the  campaign  of  1870-71 
in  the  First  Baden  Dragoons.  He  was  assistant 
pastor  at  Arolsen,  Waldeck,  from  1873  to  1876, 
when  he  became  privat-docent  of  New  Testament 
exegesis  at  the  University  of  Jena.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  prac- 
tical theology  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  was  made 
full  professor  and  university  preacher  in  1880.  He 
has  written:  Dreissig  christliche  Predigten  (Leipsic, 
1875);  De  loco  Matthai  v,  17-^0  (Jena,  1876); 
Hcmdbuch  der  geistlichen  Beredsamkeii  (Stuttgart, 
1885);  Akademische  Predigten  (1886);  System  der 
IMurgik  (1888);  Geschichie  der  badischen  GoUes- 
dienstordnung  (1891);  Sine  ira  et  studio  (Tubingen, 
1894);  Der  badische  Katechismus  erkUirt  (1896-97); 
Richard  Rathe  als  praktischer  Theolog  (1899);  Zur 
Frage  des  Unionskalechismus  (1901);  Ueber  Reform 
des  Abendmahls  (1904);  Wie  studiert  man  evange- 
lische  Theologie  t  (Stuttgart,  1905);  and  Gott : 
Fanf  Predigten  (Gottingen,  1905).  Since  1879 
he  has  also  edited  the  Zeitschrift  fiXr  praktische 
Theologie  in  collaboration  with  Rudolf  Ehlers. 

BASTHOLM,  CHRISTIAN:  Danish  court  preach- 
er, and  an  influential  representative  of  the  prev- 
alent rationalism  of  his  time;  b.  at  Copenhagen 
Nov.  2,  1740;  d.  there  Jan.  25,  1819.  He  had  a 
varied  education,  and  was  specially  attracted  to 
philosophy  and  natural  science,  but  was  persuaded 
by  his  father  to  embrace  a  clerical  career  without 
any  real  love  for  Christian  doctrine  or  the  Church. 
He  was  preacher  to  the  German  congregation  at 
Smyrna  from  1768  to  1771.  His  renown  as  a  great 
orator  won  him  in  1778  the  position  of  court 
preacher,  to  which  other  court  oflices  were  subse- 
quently added.  Full  of  the  ideas  of  the  "  Enlight- 
enment," he  felt  called  upon  to  be  a  missionary 
in  their  cause  to  his  countrymen,  and  published 
a  number  of  works  in  popular  religious  philosophy 
and  history  which  have  long  since  fallen  into  obliv- 
ion. His  greatest  success  was  his  text-book  of 
sacred  oratory  (1775),  which  so  impressed  Joseph  II 
that  he  introduced  it  into  all  the  higher  educational 
institutions  of  the  empire,  though  its  recommenda- 
tions seem  laughable  to-day.  He  published  a  history 
of  the  Jews  (1777-82),  attempting  to  "  rationalize  " 
it  after  Michaelis,  and  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  with  notes  (1780).  A  small  treatise 
on  improvements  in  the  liturgy  (1785)  aroused  a 
storm  of  controversy;  his  idea  was  to  make  the 
service  "  interesting  and  diversified,"  after  the 
model  of  baUs  and  concerts;  to  exclude  from 
hymnody  not  only  everything  dogmatic  but  all 
that  was  not  joyous;  and  to  eliminate  from  the 
sacramental  rites  whatever  was  contrary  to  sound 
reason.  In  the  days  of  the  French  Revolution, 
he  offered  so  many  concessions  to  the  antireligious 
spirit  that  he  made  himself  ridiculous  even  in  the 


eyes  of  freethinkers;  and  his  book  on  "  Wisdom 
and  Happiness "  (1794)  taught  a  Stoicism  only 
colored  by  Christianity.  In  1795  he  lost  his  Ubrary 
by  fire,  and  with  the  new  century  withdrew  from 
public  life  and  authorship  to  live  quietly  with  his 
son,  a  pastor  at  Slagelse,  absorbed  in  the  study  of 
philosophy  and  science.  (F.  Nielsen.) 

BATES,  WILLIAM:  English  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
London  Nov.,  1625;  d.  at  Hackney  July  14,  1699. 
He  was  graduated  at  Cambridge  1647,  and  was 
vicar  of  St.  Dunstan's-in-the-West,  London,  until 
1662,  when  he  lost  the  benefice  for  non-conformity; 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  the  Savoy  Con- 
ference (q.v.)  in  1661  and  represented  the  non- 
conformists on  other  occasions  in  negotiations 
with  the  Churchmen;  was  chaplain  to  Charles  II 
and  had  influence  in  high  places  both  under  Charles 
and  his  successors.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
polished  preacher  and  a  sound  scholar.  Perhaps 
the  best  known  of  his  works  is  The  Harmony  of 
the  Divine  AttribtUes  in  the  Contrivance  and  Accom- 
plishment of  Man's  Redemption  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1675).  A  collected  edition  of  his  works,  with 
memoir  by  W.  Farmer,  was  published  in  four  vol- 
umes at  London  in  1815. 

BATHHTG:  The  bath  in  the  East,  because  of 
the  heat  and  the  dust,  is  constantly  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  health,  and  to  prevent  skin- 
diseases.  The  bathing  of  the  newly  bom  is  men- 
tioned in  Ezek.  xvi,  4;  bathing  as  part  of  the 
toilet  in  Ruth  iii,  3;  II  Sam.  xii,  20;  Ezek.  xxiii, 
40,  and  elsewhere.  As  the  Law  attached  great 
religious  value  to  the  purity  of  the  body,  it  pre- 
scribed bathing  and  ablutions  for  cases  in  which  it 
was  apparently  impaired  (see  Defilement  and 
Purification,  Ceremonla.l).  Ablution  was  re- 
quired when  one  approached  the  deity  (cf.  Gen. 
XXXV,  2;  Exod.  xix,  10;  Lev.  xvi,  4,  for  the  high 
priest  on  the  Day  of  Atonement).  Bathing  in 
"  living"  (i.e.,  running)  water  was  regarded  as  most 
effective  in  every  respect  (Exod.  ii,  5;  II  Kings  v, 
10;  Lev.  xv,  13).  More  accessible  and  convenient 
were  the  baths  arranged  in  the  houses.  To  a  well- 
furnished  house  belonged  a  courtyard,  in  which  was 
a  bath — ^according  to  II  Sam.  xi,  2,  an  open  basin. 
Susannah  (verses  15  sqq.)  bathes  in  a  hedged  garden 
and  uses  oil  and  some  kind  of  soap;  the  Hebrew 
women  used  bran  in  the  bath,  or  to. dry  themselves 
(Mishnah  Pesafpim  ii,  7).  The  feet,  being  pro- 
tected by  sandals  only,  were  exposed  to  dust  and 
dirt,  and  no  attentive  host  omitted  to  give  to  his 
guests  water  for  their  feet  before  he  entertained 
them  (Gen.  xviii,  4;  xix,  2;  I  Sam.  xxv,  41;  cf. 
Luke  vii,  44;  John  xiii,  1-10).  The  washing  of 
hands  before  meals  was  customary  for  obvious 
reasons;  but  it  is  not  expressly  attested  before 
New  Testament  time,  and  then  as  a  religious  enact- 
ment which  the  Pharisees  rigidly  observed  (Matt. 
XV,  2;  Luke  xi,  38);  so  in  general  with  reference 
to  washings  and  bathings  the  punctilious  were  at 
that  time  more  exacting.  The  efficacy  of  wann 
springs  was  recognized  at  a  very  early  period  (cf. 
Gen.  xxxvi,  24,  R.  V.,  and  the  name  Hammath, 
Josh,  xix,  35;  xxi,  32).  They  were  found  near 
Tiberias     (Josephus,     TTar,    II,     xxi,     6;     Ant., 


Bath  Kol 
Baum 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


XVHI,  ii,  3;  Life,  xvi;  Pliny,  v,  16),  Gadam,  the 
capital  of  Perse^a,  and  CaUirrhoSj  east  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (Joflcphufl,  War,  J,  xiudii,  5;  Pliny,  v,  16). 
Public  baths  atie  mentioned  in  Jonephuit,  Ant.f 
XIXi  vilf  5,  but  their  ejdstence  m  Palestine  can 
not  be  proved  before  the  Greco-Romao  time. 

Abuses  connected  with  the  public  baths  in  early 
Cbnatian  times  called  forth  protests  from  many 
of  the  heathen  and  led  eome  of  the  emperors 
to  attempt  restrictive  precautions.  The  Church 
Fathers  also  raised  their  voices,  but  it  m  noteworthy 
that  though  there  was  public  censure  (e«g.,  of  women , 
particularly  of  virgins  who  were  immodest  in  the 
bath),  there  was  no  formal,  ccclcBtastical  prohibition 
of  the  public  batlis.  The  use  of  the  bath  was  re- 
mitted during  public  calami ti^^,  penance,  Lent, 
and  for  the  firat  week  after  baptism.  From  the 
time  of  Constantine  it  waa  usual  to  build  baths 
near  the  bastlicaB,  partly  for  the  use  of  the  clergy, 
and  partly  for  other  ecclesiastical  purpoaeii. 

BtBi^iooAArar:    For  Hebn  mtitcim  oonpuH  DB,  i,  2fi7-25S. 

On  the  Chrietimn,  I>CA,  i.  1S2-1S3;  Ihe  KztJde  '"BhIcmi" 
inKLA,^  S43-*6,  eovera  both  ■ubj^'eta, 

BATH  KOL:  Literally ''daughter  of  the  voice," 
an  expression  which  signtfieB  in  itself  nothing 
more  than  a  call  or  echo,  for  which  it  is  also 
used.  When  the  term  is  applied  to  a  divine 
manifestation,  it  implies  that  it  was  audible  to  the 
human  hearing  without  a  personal  theophany. 
In  the  Old  Testameitt  the  notion  is  found  in  Dan, 
iv,  28  (A.  V.  31 ),  "  a  voice  fell  from  heaven/'  In 
the  New  Testament  similar  ideas  are  the  heavenly 
voice  at  the  baptism  of  Jesus  (Matt,  iii,  17;  Bilark 
i,  11;  Luke  iii,  22),  at  his  trans  figuration  (Matt. 
xvii,  5;  Mark  iXj  7;  Luke  ix,  33),  before  liis  passion 
(John  xii,  28),  and  the  voices  from  heaven  heard 
by  Paul  and  Peter  (Acts  iar,  4;  cf*  xxii,  7  and  xxvi, 
14;  X,  13,  15)*  A  voice  from  the  sanctuary  is 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (Ant^^  XIII,  x,  3;  cf,  Bab. 
So^ah  3^;  Jema.  Sofah  24b},  and  was  caUed  bath  kol 
by  the  rabbis,  who  were  of  opinion  that  such  heji\'- 
enly  voicMss  were  heard  during  all  the  time  of  Israers 
history,  even  in  their  own  time»  According  to 
Bab.  So{ah  4Hh;  Yomah  9a,  this  "  voice '^  wa£  the 
only  divine  means  of  revelation  after  the  extinction 
of  prophecy.  They  narrate  legendary  stories  of 
mich  divine  voicea  which  settled  religious  di0icultie». 
Different  frtjm  ttie  haih  kol  proper  is  the  idea  that 
naturaJ  sounds  or  words  heard  by  accident 
are  significant  heavenly  voices.  This  superstition 
W£u9  not  uncommon,  as  Jcrua.  Shabbat  8c  shows. 
Kabbi  Joshua  wd^  oi  the  opinion  that  such  things 
must  not  influence  any  legal  decision  {Bab. 
Baba  Mt^*a  59b;  Berakot  51  b),  Eabbi  Johanan 
lays  down  as  general  rule  that  that  which  was 
heard  in  the  city  must  be  the  voice  of  a  man,  in  the 
desert  that  of  a  woman,  and  that  either  a  twofold 
"  Yea  "  or  twofold  "  Nay"  is  heard  (Bab.  MegiUah 
S2a).  (G,  DauaanO 

BtBuoanApnT:  F.  Weber,  Syiktem  d«r  alUj/na^0Qal«H  paldtli- 
nUcken  Thtohffie,  pp.  187^  104,  Leipdc,  1880;  W.  Bftcht^r. 
Aifoda  dtr  TanmiiUM,  I  8A,  tiOU  3.  6tr»flbure.  1S&4;  idem, 
Agdda  4er  paiAMiniai^s^n  Afnomer,  i,  35 1^  not^  3»  ji,  26, 
ib.  1S92-M:  E,  Louia,  AncietU  Traditi4mM  of  Supematurai 
Vmett:  BtxtK  K&i,  ia  TBBA,  ix,  18;  JE,  ii.  &S8'-S92. 


BATIFFOL,  FIIRIIE  HEina:  French  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Toulouse  Jan.  27,  1861,  He  was 
educated  at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpicej  Paris 
(I87S-S2),  and  the  University  of  Paria  (18*12-86; 
Docteur  ts  leltrcs,  1^2),  and  since  1S98  haa  been 
rector  of  the  Institut  Catholique  at  Toulouse. 
He  wai  created  a  domeBtie  prelate  to  the  Pope 
in  1899,  and  in  theology  is  an  orthodox  Homaii 
Catholic,  inclining  towaj^  the  critical  school  in 
mattera  of  hiitory.  Since  1896  he  has  been  the 
editor  of  the  BMioihkqtte  de  Venseignemcnt  de  Phia- 
toire  €ccUmasii(iue^  founded  by  him  in  that  year, 
and  since  1899  has  also  edited  the  monthly  Butleiin 
de  lUi^ait£re  eccUmoitique.  He  has  written  L'Ab^ 
bay€  de  Boesano^  contribuiion  h  Vhi$laire  de  la  Vaii- 
cane  (Paris  ^  1892);  HUtmre  du  brevUre  ramain 
(1893);  Six  k^om  but  ies  ^tmnffUe^i  (1807);  Trac- 
talUA  Oripenis  in  libroa  aandarum  $cHpturarufm 
(1900);  Etude*  d'hi^Unre  et  dc  thMogie  posiiim 
(1902);  and  V Enaeignemtnt  de  Jimm  (1905). 

BATTEff,  LORIKG  WOA&T:  Pn^testant  £pia> 
copahan  j  b,  in  Gloucester  County^  N.  J,,  Nov. 
V2f  1859.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, the  Philadelphia  Divinity  School^  and 
the  Univereity  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  ordered 
deacon  in  1883  and  ordained  pnesl  in  the  following 
year,  and  waa  intitructor  and  profensor  of  the  Old 
Ttstament  in  the  Philadelphia  Divinity  School  from 
1888  to  1899,  when  he  became  rector  of  8t.  Mark's, 
New  York  City*  He  ia  also  lectuner  on  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  Geneml  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  City.  In  addition  to  numerous  briefer 
studies,  he  has  written  The  Old  Te^tamerd  from 
(he  Modem  Point  of  View  (New  York,  1889)  and 
The  Hebrew  Prophet  (London,  1905), 

BATTERSOK,  HERMOIf  GRBWOLD:  Prot^ 
eatant  Episcopalian;  b.  at  Marbledale,  Conn.» 
May    27,    1827;    d,    in    New   York   City   Mar.    9, 

1903.  He  wan  educated  privately,  was  rector  at 
San  Antonio,  Texaa,  1860-61,  and  at  Wabasha, 
Minn,,  IStVi-dO.  In  1866  he  removed  to  Philadelphia 
and  was  n^ctor  of  St.  Oement's  Church  there  1S69-- 
1872,  of  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation  1880-39; 
became  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Redeemer, 
New  York,  1891,  but  soon  Tctired.  He  published 
The  MissimiaTy  Tune  Book  (Philadelphia,  1867); 
The  Churchffmn'B  Hymn  Bmk  (1870);  A  Sketch 
Book  of  the  Ameriean  Ejmeopoie  (1878;  3d  ed., 
enlarged,  1891);  Chrifttmas  Carols  and  Other  l'*€r«eji 
(1877);  Gf«gmian  Musie,  a  manual  of  piain  $ong 
for  the  offiees  of  the  American  Churdi  (New  York, 
1884;  7th  ed.,  1890);  Vesper  BelU  mid  Other  Verses 
(1895). 

BAUDISSm,  WOLF  WILHELM,  GKkJ^  VOM: 
German  Protestant;  b.  at  Sopliienhofi  near  Edel^ 
Germany,  Sept.  26,  IS47.  He  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Erlangen,  Berlin,  Leipsic  (Ph,D.f 
1870),  and  Kiel  from  1866  to  1872,  and  was  privat- 
docent  at  Leipsic  in  1874-76,  when  he  accepted 
a  call  to  the  LTniverBity  of  Strasburg  aa  associate 
professor  of  theology.  Four  years  later  he  waa 
promoted  to  fuU  professor,  but  in  the  following 
year  went  to  Marburg;  aa  profeeaor  of  Old  Testanieiit 
exegesis.     He    remained    at    Mariiurg,    wherie    ho 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bath  KdI 


I 


UW1IB4 


» 


was  rector  in  1893-94,  unt3  1900,  when  he  went  to 
Berlin  as  professor  of  OM  Te*?t/iment  exegesis,  a 
chair  which  he  still  hokis.  In  theology  he  ia  an 
adherent  of  the  historical  school  of  investigation, 
and  seeks  to  elucidate  the  relii^on  of  the  Old  Teftta- 
ment  by  other  Semitic  faiths.  Hi*  has  written: 
TransUuionix  aniiquce  arobi^^iF  libri  Jobi  qu(F  auper- 
MWfU  nunc  primum  etlUa  (Leipsic,  1870);  Eulogius 
und  Ah^Tf  tin  AbschniU  spani^cher  Kirchenge- 
schichU  au9  der  Zeit  der  MQure7iherT.^ehaft  (187*2); 
Jahve  H  Moioch,  s\ve  dc  rat  (one  inter  deum  hraeli- 
tarum  ti  Molochum  intercidente  (1874);  Studien 
tur  semitischen  Reiigion^grschirhte  (2  vols.,  1876- 
1878);  Die  Geachichte  des  alttestamentlichcn  Priester- 
ihum9  ufUenudU  (1889);  August  DiUmann  (1895); 
Bijdniung  in  die  Bticher  des  Alien  Tesiaments 
(1901);  and  Esmun-Askkpios  (G lessen ♦  19t)6). 

BAU'ER,  BRUHO:  A  mfidem  Biblical  critic, 
of  the  most  extreme  radicalism;  b.  at  EiBenlwrg 
(35  m.  8.  of  Halle),  in  the  duchy  of  Altenburg:,  Sept. 
6,  1809;  d.  at  RLxdorf,  near  Berlin,  Apr.  15,  1882. 
He  was  educate  in  Eterlin  precisely  in  Hegel'iJ 
moet  brilliant  period*  He  took  Ids  place  at  first 
in  the  conserv^ative  wing  of  the  Hegehan  school, 
of  which  his  teacher  Marheineke  was  the  leader* 
and  reviewed  the  Leben  Jcjiu  of  L^avid  Friedrich 
Strauss,  who  had  been  his  fellow  Btudent,  unfavor- 
ably, accusing  Strauss  of  "  entire  ignorance  of  what 
critjcimn  means."  He  undertook  also  to  defend 
Marbeineke's  position  by  issuing  (lSS6-«i8)  the 
Zeit*rhnft  fur  spekuhHve  Theoiogie.  In  1838 
h#  published  the  Kritik  der  GeschicfUe  der  Offen- 
boti^ng  (2  volfi.j  Berlin).  A  year  later  Altenstein, 
minister  of  public  worship  and  instruction,  ap- 
pointed bini  to  a  position  in  the  !■  ruversity  of  Bonn, 
and  hiA  prospects  seemed  promising.  But  he  wa^i 
alt^eady  in  a  fair  way  to  break  ^ith  his  past,  as 
iborily  appeared  in  his  KrUik  dtr  rrungeiiscken 
OmckichU d$9  Johannes  (Bremen ,  1 840)  and  K  riHk  der 
mmmpdiBehtn  Ge^chtchte  der  Synnptihr  (3  vols.,  Leip- 
■ic,  1841 ),  which  went  beyond  Strauss,  and,  adopting 
the  theory  of  Wilke  that  Mark  is  the  original  gun- 
pel,  derived  the  whole  storj^  not,  with  8trauss, 
from  the  imagination  of  the  primitive  Christian 
conuBunity,  but  from  that  of  a  single  mind.  This 
extreme  carrying  out  of  Hegelian  principles  nat- 
urally aroused  wide-spamd  excitement.  Eichhorn, 
who  had  succeeded  .\ltenstein  as  minister,  put  tht* 
qtiection  to  the  Prussian  universities  whether  the 
bolder  of  such  views  could  Ik*  allowed  t o  teach .  Tl le 
aoffwera  were  not  unanimous;  but  Bauer  injured 
lua  own  cause  by  a  still  more  amazing  and  reckless 
onataught  on  traditional  theology  (Tfteoi^ischr 
StKamiotrigke'Uenf  in  the  Halluche  Jahrbiicher  fitr 
deyiBche  WissentchafU  Nov.,  1841),  and  was  de- 
pm'cd  of  hifi  acadeinic  poet  in  March,  1842. 
literary  activity  continued  incessant.  Living 
liifi  small  estate  at  Rixdorf,  he  poured  forth  a 
of  volumes  on  the  history  of  the  eight- 
eenth aad  nineteenth  centuries  l>ctween  1843  and 
1849.  In  1^30  he  came  back  to  his  old  field,  and 
In  the  next  three  }*eara  had  renewed  his  attack  on 
Ibe  goepels  and  included  the  Acts  and  the  Pauline 
epitUes,  considering  even  the  four  ailmitted  by  the 
Tilbingen  achool  a**  second-century  Wcateru  prod- 


ucts. In  the  place  of  Christ  and  Paul»  to  him 
Philo,  Seneca,  and  the  Gnostics  appea.r(^l  the  real 
creative  forces  in  the  evolution  of  Christian  concep- 
tions. He  continued  his  attempts  to  prove  the 
connection  between  Gn^co-Roman  philosophy  and 
Christianity  in  ChriMus  und  die  Cd^aren  (Berlin, 
1877).  Here  he  places  the  genesis  of  the  Christian 
religion  practically  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aureliua,  and  the  original  gospel  in  that  of  Hadrian, 
after  which  **  clever  men  ^'  were  busy  for  some  forty 
years  in  the  composition  of  the  Pauline  epistles. 
Only  the  framework  of  the  new  religion  was  Jewish; 
its  spirit  came  from  further  west;  Christianify 
is  really  "  Stoicism  becoming  dominant  in  a  Jewish 
metamorphosis."  Bauer  left  practically  no  fol- 
lowers in  (iennany  for  such  remarkable  theories. 
His  fantastic  hypercriticism  found  a  home  for  a 
time  in  Holland  with  .A Hard  Pierson,  Naber,  and 
Loman;  and  still  later  it  made  some  attempts 
to  gain  a  foothold  in  Switzerland  with  Steck's 
assault  upon  Galatians.  (J.  Hausslejter.) 

BtBLia<3iiArnY:  Hnltximuin,  in  Prote«tafUi«ch€  KircM^nMeit- 
ung,  1882,  pp,  540-645;  F.  C.  B&m,  Kircheno99chi€hlg  dea 
ntuntehnlrn  J<ihrhundrrtM,  Letpvie,  1862;  O.  Pffleiderer,  Dis 
Entwickiung  dtr  protettanliscksn  Theotoifie  in  DeuisdUand 
ffii  Kant.  pp.  206- 2B7.  Freiburg.  1891,  On  the  teaeliinc 
of  Bauer  and  the  oppo.«ition  it  nroufteil  ponntuU  E.  B»uer, 
Bruno  Bauer  und  »eine  Geffnrr,  Berlin.  1842;  O,  F.  Gruppe, 
Bruno  Hauer  iit\d  die  aktuiemiMche  L^hrfrciheit,  ib.  1842. 

BAUER,  WALTER  FELDC:  German  Protestant; 
h.  at  Konigsberg  Aug.  8,  1877,  From  1895  to 
1900  he  studied  at  the  universities  of  Marburg, 
Berlin,  and  Strasburg,  and  since  1903  has  been 
privat-<locpnt  for  church  history  at  the  University 
of  Marburg.  He  has  written  Mimdige  und  Unrntin- 
dige  bei  dem  Apmfel  Pauius  (Marburg,  1902)  and 
Drr  Apofitnlos  der  Syrcr  in  der  Zeii  von  der  MHie 
des  viericn  Jahrhundcris  6wr  zur  Spaliung  der  syri- 
achen  Kircke  (Giesaen,  1903)» 

BAUM,  baum,  HENRY  MASON:  Proti»stant 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  East  Schuyler,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  24, 
1848.  He  wan  educated  at  the  Hudson  River 
Institute,  Clave  rack,  N.  Y.*  but  did  not  attend  a 
college.  He  received  his  theological  training  at 
De  Lancey  Divinity  School,  Geneva,  N.  Y,.  and 
was  ordained  to  the  prii»sthood  in  1870.  He  was 
successively  rector  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  East 
Bloom  held,  N.  Y.  (1870-71),  missionary  to  Allen's 
Hill.  Victor,  Lima,  and  Honeoye  Falls.  N.  Y.  (1871- 
1872),  rector  of  St.  Matthew's  Church,  Laramie  City, 
Wyo.  (1872-73),  in  charge  of  St.  James's  Church, 
Paulsborough,  N.  J.  (187:^-74),  rector  of  St.  Mat- 
thew's Church,  Lambertville,  N.  J.  (1875-76), 
and  rect4)r  of  Trinity  Church,  Easton,  Pa.  (1876-80). 
From  18,80  to  1892  he  was  editor  of  The  Church 
Reinewt  and  in  1901  fomided  the  Records  of  the 
Fast,  w^hich  he  edited  until  1905.  He  has  taken  a 
keen  interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  antiquities 
of  the  United  States,  and  was  the  author  of  the  act 
passed  by  the  Senate  in  1904  for  the  protection  of 
these  nrcheological  renudns.  In  tliat  year  he  also 
founded  the  Institute  of  Historical  Research  at 
Washington,  and  has  since  been  its  president. 
In  theology  he  is  a  finn  believer  in  the  historical 
accuracy  of  the  Bible.  He  has  written  Rights  and 
Duties  of  Rectors,  Church  Wardetis,  and  Vestrymen  in 


Baum 
Baur 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


the  Amcrimn  Church  (Phikdelplua,  IS79)  and  The 
Law  of  ih$  Church  in  the  Uniiid  Staim  (New  Yorkj 

iSS6). 

fiAUU,  JOHANIT  WILRELM:  Protestant  Ger- 
man tbeoloipan;  b.  ttt  Flonheim  (1?  m.  bji.w. 
of  Main*)  Dec,  7,  1809;  d.  at  Straflburg  Nov.  28, 
1S7S.  When  he  was  thirteen  ^ears  of  age,  be  was 
Bent  to  Strasbtirg  to  the  bouae  of  his  uncle,  where 
he  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry.  Having  com- 
pleted hm  stndiei,  he  waa  made  teacher  at  the  tbeO" 
logjeal  semmary  at  Straaburg  in  1835.  This  posi- 
tion he  resigned  in  IMA  and  accepted  the  poaition 
of  vicar  of  St.  Thomas 'a  in  that  city,  whose  first 
preactier  he  became  in  1847.  At  the  cloe©  of  the 
Franco- Prussian  war*  the  German  government 
appointed  Jiim  professor  in  the  University  of  Stras- 
bui^.  He  belonged  to  the  hberal  Frot4?f[tant 
party  of  his  country,  and  made  him^If  knomi  by 
his  writing  on  the  history  of  the  Reformation^  aa 
well  aa  that  of  his  ovm.  time,  including  Fraru 
Lambert  von  Avigntm  {Straaburg  and  Paria,  1840); 
Theodor  Btta  nach  handschrifiitchen  Q^^eUen  darge- 
gteUi  (2  vols.f  Leip&iCr  1843—45);  Johann  Georg 
Shibefj  der  Vorg&nger  Oberliiu  im  Suinthak  jmd 
VorkSmpfer  ^ner  neuen  Zeil  in  Siromburg  (Straa- 
burg, 1K46);  Die  Memoiren  d*Aybign^*8  des  Huge- 
n&Uen  ron  altem  Schratt  und  Ktfm  (I-ieipsic,  1854); 
Capito  und  B%dzer,  Siramburga  Ee/ormalorert  (Elber- 
feld^  1800),  being  the  third  part  of  Leben  imd 
autgewdhlU  Schriften  dtr  VtUrr  und  Begrunder 
der  reformirten  Kivthe,  Besides  these  works 
written  in  Cjerman,  he  published  in  French  Les 
&glU^^  riforfmeB  de  France  moum  l&  crmjc  (Btrasburg, 
1869):  Lc*  Mimoiim  de  P.  Cnrrikre  dU  Corfm 
(Straaburg,  1871);  Le  Frocks  de  Baudichon  d€  la 
Muktm-Ntuv^  (Geneva,  187^)*  For  a  number 
of  yeaiB  Baum  assisted  his  colleagues  lieusa  and 
Cimitz  in  the  edition  of  Calvin  s  works  published  in 
the  Corpm  reformaioruin. 
BiaLiouRAPffT:  Zur  Erinntrung  an  J.    W,    Baum^   Rfdtn, 

Ctarakttrbiid  au9  dtm  Eimmw,  Bremen,  18S0. 

BAUMGARTEN,  MICHAEL:  German  theolo- 
gian and  active  promoter  of  free  church  Kfe; 
b*  at  HaBeldorf,  near  Hamburg,  Mar.  25,  1812; 
d,  at  Rostock  July  21,  1889.  lie  wa^  educated  at 
Altona,  Kiel,  and  Berlin,  becoming  in  the  last-named 
place  an  outs|K>ken  adhentmt  of  Hengstenberg. 
But  tlia  study  of  Domer  during  a  period  of  seven 
years  (1839-46)  spent  at  Kiel  a^  a  teacher  con- 
vinced him  that  the  traditional  orthodox  view 
of  the  person  of  Cluist  was  inadequate  to  explain 
the  mystery  of  redemption;  he  passed  from  Heng- 
stenberg  to  Schleiermacher,  with  his  principle  that 
Christianity  is  not  a  doctrine  but  a  life,  and  then  to 
Hofmann^  in  whose  Wtiseagi^ng  und  Er/uUung 
he  saw  a  theology  that  conld  lead  him  further  on 
his  road*  In  his  treatise  LHurgie  und  Prtdigt 
(Kiel,  1843)  he  lays  dow^n  his  programme,  to  which 
aa  an  old  man  he  was  stlU  proud  of  having  adhered. 
Here  he  classes  as  atumbling-blocks  in  the  Church's 
way  a  variety  of  ancient  institutions,  laws,  and 
cuatomi,  viz.:  the  misleading  notion  of  a  '^  Chris- 
tian State"  J  the  use  of  compulsion  in  the  Church 
(as  in  the  caae  of  baptism);  the  power  of  civil 


ruliTsi  within  the  Church,  in  allowing  which  the 
Reformers  had  brought  back  a  ByKantine  system: 
the  diveraity  of  teaching  among  FroteataDte;  and 
the  failure  to  recognbe  the  menace  of  the  Roman 
errors*  About  the  same  time  (1843-44)  appeared 
his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  to  which 
Delitssch  appealed  when  in  1850  he  reeonunended 
his  friend  to  succeed  him  in  the  Rostock  professor- 
ship, but  which  none  the  leas  he  sharply  criticued 
in  some  points.  In  the  eventful  yeara  1846-50 
he  was  pastor  of  St.  Michael's  church  at  Skswick, 
and  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  clergy  of  Sleswick- 
Holstein  in  their  struggle  for  the  German  Hght 
to  the  duchies.  Alter  the  battle  of  IdMedt,  he 
was  obliged  to  escape  from  Sicswick  with  his 
family  to  Holstein,  where  his  call  to  Rostock  foimd 
him.  Here  he  was  expected  to  take  part  in  the 
upbuilding  of  the  Church  of  the  duchy^  which  was 
under  Khcfoth's  leadership:  but  two  men  more 
diametrically  op|)osed  in  their  whole  way  of  looking 
at  things  could  scarcely  have  been  found,  Baum- 
garten  frankly  exprcused  his  own  view  of  the  earliest 
history  of  the  Church  in  his  Aposiel^^^hichl^  (2 
vols.,  Halle,  1852)^  and  of  it»  modem  needs  in  bia 
NaehtgeMcMe  Sacharjoii  (Brunswick,  1854).  It 
was  not  difhcult  to  make  a  collection  of  heretical 
propositions  from  the  waitings  of  a  man  who  caied 
so  little  to  e^reBs  himjclf  in  time-honored  formulas, 
and  who  was  wrestling  with  such  modem  problems; 
and  the  attempt  was  soon  made-  Tlie  Grand  Dtike 
dismi^ed  him  from  the  theological  commission  in 
1S56;  the  consistory  examined  his  worka^  it  must 
l^  admitted  witliout  strict  adherence  to  conatitu- 
ttonal  rules  or  t<)  the  principles  of  fairness,  found 
a  whole  scHes  of  departuros  from  the  received 
doctrine,  and  deprived  him  of  his  pom t ion.  He 
dechned  an  invitation  to  go  to  India  as  a  nussioQary; 
preferring  to  remain  and  carry  on  the  strug^e  for 
a  complete  reconstruction  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
in  Germany,  With  this  aim  he  was  for  thirteen 
yearn  a  zealous  member  of  the  Protestant  Union 
from  1S63  to  1870,  but  left  it  when  it  showed 
intolerance  in  the  Heidelberg  case.  His  life  p^w 
more  and  more  lonely,  though  he  could  always  c^unt 
on  a  few  faithful  friends,  like  Studt,  Ziegler,  and 
Pestalozfi.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Reiehf^tag 
from  1874  to  18S1,  in  which  he  showed  lumself  a 
detercmned  opponent  of  Bt^ker  and  of  the  Jeeuita, 
and  stood  for  his  principles  of  religious  liberty 
and  complete  separation  of  Church  and  State. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  natural  endowment,  fitted 
for  useful  const  nictive  work  in  theology,  if  the  un- 
fortunate circvrnisiances  in  his  career  had  not  forced 
him  to  expend  his  energy  in  the  combat  to  which 
most  of  his  numerous  later  writings  liave  inference. 

(J,  Hausaleitee.) 

BlBLifKiiuPHT:   Hiii   AtUubJQcra,|ihy    wmut    MiUitd    und    pub- 
liabfrd  pcHrthimioujtIy  by  K.  n.  Studt,  2  iralt..  Ki«L,  L891. 

EAUMGARTEIT,    OTTO:      German  Protestant; 

b.  at  Munich  Jan.  29.  1858.  He  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Strasburg,  Gdttingen,  Zurich, 
and  Heidelberg,  and  from  1882  to  1SS7  was  paator 
at  Baden -Haden  and  Wa!dkin.'li,  while  from  ISgg 
to  1890  he  was  chaplain  to  tlje  orplian  asylum  at 
Berlin-Hummelsburg,      In  1890  he  became  privat'^ 


BELIGIOITS 


>PEDTA 


Bsum 
Bftur 


I 


doccnt  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  called  to  Jena  aa  associate  professor  of 
pmctical  theology,  where  he  remained  until  lft94, 
when  he  went  to  Kiel  as  fiiU  profeBsor  of  the  same 
subject.  He  is  also  university  p^reacher  and  chap- 
lain of  the  academic  sanitarium  at  the  same  institu- 
tion of  learning.  He  ha«  written :  Volhutchut^  und 
Kircke  (Leipsic,  1890);  Der  Secktorger  utiserer 
Tage  (1S91);  Fredigtm  aus  tkr  GegenwaH  (TU- 
biagen  (1902);  Neue  Bahnen  :  Der  Religions- Vnter- 
richl  vom  Standpunkte  der  modemen  Theotogie  ans 
(1903);  Prtdigt'Problcme,  Hauptfragen  der  moder- 
nen  Et>angetiums-VcThindi^umjfJt  (191)3);  and  LHe 
VorauM9eisunQ8losigkeil  der  prolaiiantucheti  Thm- 
h^  (Kid«  1903). 

BAUMGAHTEIf,  SIEGBTCmi)  JAKOB  i    t;cmian 
theologian;  b.  at  Wolhnirsladt  (8  m.  n.  of  Magde- 
burg),  Saxony,   ^lar.   14,   17lJ<i;  d.    at    Halle  July 
4,  1757.     He  studied  at  the  Halle  Ori>han  .\.sy1um. 
of  which  his  fatlier  had  been   first  insj>ector,  and 
at  the  University  of  Halle,     He  became  ins|>ector 
of  the  Halle  Latin  School  in  1726,  assistant  preacher 
to  tlie  youngvr  G.  A,  Franke  in  1728,  associate  on 
the  theological  faculty  in  1730,  and  ordinary  pro- 
fefisor  in   1743.     He  was  a  gfMDil  teacher  and  his 
lectures  were  usually  attended  by  from  300  to  400 
^     heaTters.     His  learning   was   vaHt   and   he  was   an 
H     indiiStrious   writer,   piiblishing   voluminous   works 
™      on  ex^:efiis.  hermeneutics,  morals,  do^^atics,  and 
history,  auch  as  Aussug  der  KirchengeAchickte   (4 

■  voU.i  Halle«  1743-62);  Ef^angeti&che  GlatilM^mlehre 
(3  vols.,  1759-60);  Ge^chuhte  der  ReJigionsparteien 
(1760):  Nachrichi  von  merkwilrdigen  Buchem  (12 
vols.,  1752-57);  and  the  first  sixteen  volumes  in 
the  AUgemeine  H'elthistorie  (1744  sqq,).  By  adopt- 
ing the  formal  scheme  of  the  philostijjhy  of  Wolff 
and  applying  it  to  the  theological  ideas  in  which 
he  was  educated,  Baumgarten  came  to  fonn  a 
tranntion  from  the  Pietism  of  Spener  and  Fran  eke 
to  the  modem  rationalism.  His  enthusiiistic  dis- 
ciple. J.  S.  Semler,  \^ho  was  culled  from  Altdorf 
to  R&Ile  on  his  recommendation,  edited  many  of 
^_  his  works  and  wrote  his  biography  (Halle,  1758). 
■  (F.  Bo^£.) 

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSras,  HJBWIG  FRIED- 
RICH  OTTO:  German  theologian:  h.  at  Mersehurg 
(56  m.  B.s.e,  of  Magdeburg),  Prussian  Saxony, 
July  31 .1788;  d.  at  Jena  May  31 ,  1  .H4:l  He  studied 
Ibeology  and  philology  at  Lei[)8ic  and  became 
tnihpfntty  preacher  there  in  1810;  in  1812  extraor- 
liltiaiy  profe68or  of  theology  at  Jen:^,  ordinary 
proifeMor,  1817.  He  gave  lectures  on  all  branches 
^m  of  KMsalled  theoretic  theology  except  cluirch  his- 
^B  tofy,  especially  New  Testament  exegesis,  Biblical 
theology,  dogmatics,  ethics,  and  history  of  doctrine. 
GcoUe  and  sympathetic,  and  shrinking  from 
theological  strife,  he  was  misunderstood  in  liis  time. 
Hie  exegesis  was  painstaking,  free  from  prejudicr% 
and  acute;  as  historian  of  dognui  he  understood 
the  origin  and  development  of  religious  ideas  and 
doctrinei  as  few  othere  have  done;  and  as  K>^stem- 
siir  theologian  he  was  profound  and  truly  evangel- 
tesi*  His  principal  works  were:  Einleitung  in  daa 
SHMfm  der  DogmaHk  (Leipsic,  1820);  Lehrhtwh 
dgr    dlriflHehen    Dogmtngeschichie     (Jena,     1832); 


Cormp^ndium  der  chn'^tJichen  Dogmenge^ch'rhte  (Leip* 
sic,  1840),  completed  by  K.  A.  Hase  (1846);  Theolo- 
giscke  Austeg^mg  der  johanneischen  Schriften  (2  vols., 
Jena,  1843-45).  (F.  Bobsk,) 

DtBUooRAPsr:  H,  C.  A.  EJekstftdt,  Memoria  L.  F.  O.  Boum^ 
ffarUnii-Crustii ,  Jena,  1843;  K,  A,  Haj^i*'*"  prrface  to  hia 
com  pie  I  ton  of  Ihr  Komprndium  der  DoffrruengescAichte, 
LeipMic,  1846;   ADB,  ii,  161  »qQ, 

BAUR.     FERDINAND    CHRISTIAH,    AND    THE 

LATER  TUBIHGEN  SCHOOL. 

I,  Tbp  Period  of  tKe  History  of  Dogma. 
Batir'a  Early  Life  and  Activity  (5  1). 
Baiir'B  Relation  to  8ch!ciermacher  and  Hecel  (|  2). 
[r.  Thp  Peno4  of  Biblical  Cntiriflm, 

Hlttorico-Critica)  Study  of  the  New  Test&meDt  (|  I). 
Applied  to  the  Writings  of  Paul  (|  2). 
Th«  FundaiTtentjU  ABsumption  of  tha  School  (f  3). 
Applied  to  the  Goflpela  ($4). 
Developeci  by  Schwegler  (f  51 
IIL  The  Period  of  Chiircb  History. 
Political  CoinpUcatioim  (|  1). 
Baur'n  Works  on  Ohurch  History  (|  2). 
His  Theories  and  Conrlusionn  (5  3). 
Their  Weaknesfl  and  Decline  (I  4). 

The  treatment  of  both  Ferdinand  Christian 
Baur  and  the  I/ater  Tubingen  School  in  the  same 
article  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the  period  of 
distinctive  theological  and  philosophical  views 
which  characterized  the  school  in  its  palmy  days 
really  ceased  with  the  death  of  its  founder,  or  at 
least  lost  the  former  local  identification.  Con- 
sidering the  Tiibingt'U  Scliool  in  this  strictly  limited 
sense,  its  history,  together  with  that  of  Baur  him- 
self,  may  be  divided  into  tliree  periods — that  of 
preparation,  or  of  the  history  of  dogma,  before  1835; 
that  of  pros|)crity.  or  of  BibUcal  criticism,  183S- 
1S48;  and  that  of  disintegration,  or  of  church  hia- 
tory,  after  the  latter  date. 

L  The  Period  of  the  History  of  Dogma:  Baur 
was  bom  at  Schmiden,  near  Cannstatt  (4  m.  n.e. 
of  Stuttgart),  June  2l/  1792;  he  died  at  Tubingen 
Dee*  2,  1850.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Wiirttemberg 
pastor  and  was  educated  first  at  Blaubeuren  and 
then  (lHOO-14)  at  Tubingen.  Here,  besides  fol- 
lowing the  usual  thoroU|K;h  course  in  philology,  he 
was  strongly  attracted  by  the  Htudy  of  philoRophy* 
Fichte  and  8ehelling  wers  then  at  the  height  of  their 
influence;  but  that  it  did  not  draw  the  young 
student  away  from  the  Ftandpoint  of  the  older 
Tubingen  School  (q.v.),  in  which  he  had  been 
brought  up,  may  be  seen  from  his  first  published 
writing,  a  nnicw  of  Kaiser's  BiUische  The&logie 
in  1817,  wliieh  condemned  rationalistic 

I.  Baur*s  caprice  in  the  treatment  of  the 
Early  Life    Old   Testament.     After   a   short    em- 

Aud  Ac-  ploj7nent  as  tutor  in  the  Tiibingen 
tivity.  seminary  during  the  same  year,  he 
was  ntuned  professor  in  the  lower 
seminary  which  had  grown  out  of  his  old  school  at 
Blaubeuren,  The  nine  yeara  of  his  stay  here  were 
active  and  happy  ones.  Thougl*  his  work  was  mainly 
philological  and  historical,  he  showed  his  interest 
in  the  philosophical  and  theological  nuivements 
of  the  time.  The  doctrines  of  Schleiermacher 
receivetl  hta  attention,  and  found  an  echo  in  Ma 
three-volume  work  Sytnbolik  und  Mythohygie  (Stutt- 
gart»  1824-25).  In  this  book,  remarkable  for  its 
time,  he  indicated  his  future  course  in  the  phrase, 


Baur 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


8 


"  Without  philosophy,  history  seems  to  me  dumb 
and  dead."  The  attention  it  attracted  won  Baur 
a  place  in  the  theological  faculty  of  Tilbingen  on 
its  reorganization  (1826)  after  the  death  of  his  old 
teacher  Bengel.  His  impressive  and  inspiring 
personaUty  at  once  drew  the  young  men  to  him, 
and  his  influence  in  tho  faculty  was  contested  only 
by  Dr.  Steudel,  the  solo  survivor  of  the  old  school 
body. 

The  fact  that  in  the  course  of  his  further  intel- 
lectual development  Baur  gradually  came  into 
conflict  with  the  theology  of  Schleier- 

2.  Baur's  macher  may  be  partly  explained  by 
Relation  to  the  difference  in  the  mental  constitu- 

Schleier-  tions  of  the  two  men.  There  was 
macher  and  no  trace  in  Baur's  method  of  the  fusion 
Hegd.  of  sentiment  and  reason  which  char- 
acterized the  other;  only  the  intel- 
lectual side  was  allowed  to  be  heard.  His 
strong  point  was  his  faculty  of  conceiving 
historical  phenomena  objectively,  amid  the  sur- 
roundings and  from  the  standpoint  of  their 
age.  His  relation  to  the  philosophy  of  Hegel  is 
somewhat  difl^cult  to  determine  exactly;  but  it 
may  be  safely  asserted  that  his  fundamental  views 
on  the  essence  of  religion  and  the  course  of  history 
were  taken  from  the  Hegelian  system.  The  transi- 
tion from  Schleiermacher  to  Hegel  was  a  gradual 
process  which  took  place  between  1826  and  1835, 
in  the  nine  yean  which  have  been  called  the  period 
of  preparation.  It  is  probable  that  at  first  Baur 
was  unconscious  of  its  extent,  and  it  was  not  until 
he  applied  the  Hegelian  principles  to  the  canon 
that  they  brought  him  into  sharp  conflict  with 
traditional  orthodoxy.  His  Symbolik  was  logically 
followed  by  his  works  on  Manicheanism  and 
Gnosticism  (Tabmgen,  1831  and  1832)— phe- 
nomena lying  on  the  border  between  theology  and 
philosophy,  between  Christianity  and  paganism. 
In  his  tractate  on  the  opposition  between  Roman 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  in  answer  to  Mdhler 
(Tubingen,  1834),  Hegelian  terminology  begins  to 
appear  distinctly,  though  the  foundation  still  rests 
on  Schleiermacher.  The  influence  of  the  Hegelian 
system  on  Baur  was  a  very  fructifying  one.  No 
department  of  history  had  suffered  more  from  the 
leveling  tendency  of  rationalism  than  the  history 
of  dogma.  Since  Hegel  had  taught  the  application 
of  the  iron  rule  of  development  to  the  phenomena 
of  the  intellectual  life  as  well  as  to  other  phenomena, 
he  pointed  the  way  to  a  profounder  understanding 
of  the  beliefs  which  appeared  frequently  so  hap- 
hazard and  sb  arbitrary,  to  a  knowledge  of  laws 
which  prevailed  over  individual  will.  Thus,  when 
Baur  went  on  from  the  philosophy  of  religion  to 
CHiristian  dogma,  and  in  that  to  the  most  important 
parts  (the  Atonement,  Ttlbingen,  1838,  the  Trinity 
and  the  Incarnation,  1841-43),  he  became  a  pioneer 
of  the  history  of  dogma  in  the  modem  sense.  Even 
though  the  Hegelian  categories  proved  a  bed  of  Pro- 
crustes for  Christian  dogmas,  and  though  the  under- 
standing of  these  suffered  from  the  defects  of  the 
Hegelian  conception  of  religion,  the  impulse  had 
none  the  less  been  given  to  a  profounder  study. 
More  recent  historians  of  dogma  have  felt  them- 
selves entitled  to  correct  Baur's  views,  as  set  forth 


in  the  above-mentioned  works,  in  almost  every 
point;  but  these  views  had  won  him,  by  the  end 
of  this  first  period,  a  prominent  place  in  the  ranks 
of  those  who  were  iTyiag  to  strike  out  new  lines  in 
the  study  of  Christian  history;  and  when  Schleier- 
macher's  chair  at  Berlin  was  vacant  in  1834,  the 
Prussian  minister  Altenstein  thought  for  a  time 
of  appointing  Baur  to  it. 

XL  The  Period  of  Biblical  Criticism:  The  second 
period,  however,  is  the  one  which  comes  to  mind 
when  the  Tubingen  School  is  mentioned.  Though 
certain  books  already  named  are  of  later  date,  tbe 
period  may  be  properly  begun  with  1835,  in  which 
year  Strauss's  2>6m  Jesu  drew  general  attention  to 
the  questions  to  which  Baur  was  already  inclined  to 
turn.  The  application  to  the  canon  of  Scripture 
of  the  Hegelian  laws  of  historical  development 
was  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  place  in  which 
Baur  carried  on  his  work,  since  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  older  Tubingen  School  had  been  a 
Biblical  supematuraUsm,  for  which  dogma  was 
nothing  more  than  the  teachings  of  Scriptiu«, 
arrived  at  by  means  of  exegesis.  He  felt  himsdf 
driven  to  a  consideration  of  this  question  by  the 
need  of  a  settlement  with  the  school  from  which 
he  had  sprung  and  with  his  own  past;  by  his  studies 
in  the  history  of  dogma,  since  the  source  of  dogma, 
in  the  last  resort,  unless  it  is  a  mere  collection  of 
irresponsible  opinions,  is  the  Bible;  and  by  his 
investigation  of  Gnosticism,  which  could  not  fail 
to  raise  the  question  of  the  canon. 

In  1835  appeared  (at  Stuttgart  and  Tubingen) 
Baur's  work  on  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  According 
to  his  own  account  of  this  and  of  his  article  on  the 
Corinthian  parties  (TZT^  1831),  it  was  his  lectures  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  which  first  opened  up 
the  vista  of  more  far-reaching  historico-critical 
investigation  into  the  controversies  of  the  apostolic 
age,  and  led  him  to  follow  out,  by  means  of  New 
Testament  and  patristic  studies,  his  independent 
conception  of  the  clash  of  heterogeneous  elements 
in  the  apostolic  and  subapostolic  days,  their 
parties  and  tendencies,  their  conflicts  and  com- 
promises— to  demonstrate  the  growth  of  a  catholic 
Church  as  nothing  but  the  result  of  a  previous 
historical  process.    Dealing  with  Schleiermacher's 

treatment  of  I  Timothy,  he  considered 

I.  Historico-  the  three  pastoral  epistles  from   the 

Critical     same  historical  standpoint,  and  defined 

Study  of  the  the  task  of  New  Testament  criticism 

New  Testa-  by  asserting  that  the  origin  of  such 

ment        writings    (as   to   the  authenticity   of 

which  more  evidence  was  needed 
than  the  accepted  name  of  an  author  on  their  face 
and  a  vague,  uncertain,  and  late  tradition)  could 
only  be  explained  by  a  complete  view  of  the  whole 
range  of  historical  circumstances  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  definite  data,  they  were  to  be  placed.  With 
this  character  of  historic  objectivity,  the  new 
criticism,  which  naturally  could  not  but  seem 
merely  negative  and  destructive  in  contrast  with 
the  unfounded  assumptions  that  it  controverted, 
intended  to  meet  the  arbitrary  subjectivity  of  the 
hypotheses  which  had,  up  to  that  time,  played 
so  large  a  part  in  New  Testament  criticism.  The 
above    statement,    substantially    in    Baur's    own 


r 


words,  expresses  fully  the  lE^viiding  principle  of  the 
TQbingen  School.  In  the  name  of  fidehty  to  fact, 
Baur  was  conducting  a  reg^ular  siege  of  the  forti- 
fications which  had  been  thro^ii  up  by  liis  own 
predecessore  around  the  Christian  doctrines,  when 
StimuflS'fi  aasault  upon  the  central  ba^'^tion  attracted 
general  aitenilon.  It  was  not  \^it  hout  value  lo  him 
afl  a  di^^ersioD,  under  cover  of  which  he  was  able 
to  pursue  undisturbed  for  a  while  lon^r  his  critical 
work.  During  the  next  decade  the  Ttibingen  School 
acquired  an  importance  which  seemed  to  threaten 
tlie  foundations  of  dogma  from  a  new  quarter, 
relentlessly  contrasting  the  accepted  image  of  Christ, 
as  drawn  according  to  the  Rubjective  Christian  mind 
by  Schleiermacher,  with  the  results  of  objective 
historical  criticism.  The  main  part,  of  the  task 
seetned  to  be  left  to  Baur  himself;  he  was  not  ro 
fortunate  as  the  leaders  of  the  old  Tubingen  School, 
who  had  their  allies  in  the  other  theological  chairs. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  had  with  him  a  large  number 
of  young  and  enthusiastic  disciples,  such  as  the  tal- 
ented Ekiuard  Zeller,  lat^r  his  son-in-law,  the  still 
bolder  and  braver  Bchwegler.  Krtstlin  and  Planck, 
Ritecbl  and  Hilgenfeld,  the  last  two  the  most  prom- 
inent allies  who  came  from  outside  of  Wiirttemberg. 
Baur  had  begun  his  critical  work  with  Paul, 
and  the  same  apof^tle  engaged  the  attention  of  the 
school  in  its  later  publications.  Searching  inves- 
ti^tions  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  appeared  in 
the  TZT  in  1836,  and  aroused  alarm  and  opposition. 
These,  together  with  considerable  ma- 
2.  Applied  to  terial  which  he  had  publifthed  in  the 
the  Writings  Theologische  Juhrbucher,  begun  in  1842 
of  PauL  by  Zeller  and  edited  from  1847  to 
1857  by  himself  and  Zt41er  jointly, 
which  became  the  organ  of  the  new  school,  he  put 
together  in  1845  (Stuttgart)  into  a  monograph  on 
Paul,  The  result  reached  by  this  part  of  his  work 
was  the  denial  of  the  authenticity  of  all  the  letters 
passing  under  the  apostle's  name,  except  Galatians, 
I  and  II  CorintliiauB,  and  Romans*  of  wliich  loat 
fliM>  the  two  concluding  chapters  were  cjueiitioned. 
Tonally,  in  agreement  with  Sclmecken burger  but 
stitl  more  radically^  the  postapoMtolic  origin  of  the 
Acts  WBB  aenerted.  It  wajs  not  difficult  to  conjec- 
ture what  would  happen  to  the  Gospels  when  they 
were  thrown  into  the  same  crucible. 

The  theory  of  the  "  objective  criticism,"  as  it 
developed,  was  that  the  older  apostles,  with  their 
inal  body  of  disciples,  were  dtfferetitiated  from 
other  Jews  only  by  their  belief  that  the  cruci- 
flfed  Jesus  was  the  Messiah.  All  the  elements  of  a 
rcligioQ  contained  in  his  life  atid  teaching  were 
forgotten,  or  lay  undeveloped  in  the 
apostlea'  memory,  though  a  Stephen 
attempted  to  enforce  them  and  siviled 
his  testimony  by  his  death.  When 
Paul,  by  a  wonderfid  divination,  by 
a  train  of  reasoning  from  the  cross 
and  the  resurrection,  rediscovered 
ihem  elements  of  universahty  and  freedom^  the 
Obarch  stood  suspiciously  aloof.  The  older  apos- 
tlea*  ttiile^,  with  a  liberality  difBcult  to  under- 
■l4Ad  ui  the  premises,  accepted  Paul  as  an  equal 
fellow  laborer  and  admitted  his  right  to  the  mission 
to  tbe  GcntOeB.     But  a  section  of  the  Church  re- 


S,  The  Fun- 

dameotal 

AMttmptioii 

of  Che 

SchooL 


mained  obstinately  hostile.  Paul  appears,  there- 
fore, constantly  prepared  for  combat,  and  ivhen  aji 
epistle  presents  him  in  any  other  mood,  it  ik  ipso 
facto  unauthentic.  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  became 
all  the  more  necessary  for  the  next  age  to  emphasize 
the  unity  of  the  Church;  when,  accordingly,  there 
is  perceived  a  conciliatory  tone  in  an  epistle,  when 
it  speaks  much  of  the  Church  and  its  unity  of  belief, 
no  further  mark  of  a  postapostohc  origin  is  needed. 
The  school  believed  itself  able  to  prove  from  the 
Apocalypse,  considered  as  a  product  not  merely 
of  Judaic  narrowness  but  of  positive  opposition  to 
PaulinisTO,  and  still  more  from  the  pseudo-Clem- 
eotine  homilies^  that  no  accommodation  took  place 
in  the  apostles'  lifetime* 

These  views,  for  all  their  possible  usefulness  as 
against  an  exaggerated  notion  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, still  left  one  question  unanswered — what 
really  was  tbe  Christianity  of  Christ  ?  This  led 
inevitably  to  the  question,  burning  since  Strauss, 
of  the  status  of  the  Gospels;  but  it  waa  nearly 
ten  years  before  Baur  brought  tiis  disciples  to  that. 
In  the  Jahrburh  for  1S44  Ixe  attemptetl  to  use  his 
critical  principles  to  disprove  the  authenticity  of 
the  Gospel  of  John.  This  treatment  he  supple- 
mented by  further  investigations  on  the  canonical 
gospels,  and  published  the  whole  result  in  sub- 
stantive fonn  in  J 84 7  (Ttibingen). 
4.  Applied  In  a  certain  sense  it  waa  favorable 
to  the  to  the  traditional  view.  Tlie  order 
Gospels,  of  the  canon  waa  approxiniately 
that  of  their  composition.  Matthew, 
in  whom  the  Judaic  tendency  is  strongeJit,  would 
then  be  nearest  to  the  source;  Mark  would  show  a 
tendency  to  accommodation  and  minimizing  of 
differences;  and  this  would  show  all  the  more 
clearly  the  Pauline  tendency  of  Luke.  The  fourth 
Gosjm:-!,  finally,  was  supposed  to  display  in  every 
feature  the  tendency  to  sink  thepe  differences  in  a 
higher  unity,  and  to  take  a  stand  for  the  conflicts 
<if  the  second  century^  Gnosticism,  Montanism, 
and  the  niiscent  Trinitarian  controversy.  This 
work  of  Baur^s  marks  the  close  of  the  great  period 
of  tlie  school.  His  disciples  were  now  ready  to 
come  to  his  aid.  Schwegler's  book  on  Montanism 
(Tiibingen,  1841 ),  Ritscld's  on  Luke  and  the  Gospel 
of  Marcion  (Tubingen.  1846)  and  on  the  origin  of 
the  primitive  cathohc  Church  (Bonn,  1850), 
K^atlin's  on  the  Johannine  system  (Berlin,  1843), 
were  all  important;  but  the  most  significant  was 
Schwcgler's  on  the  subapostohc  age  (Tilbingen, 
1846),  which  attempted  constructive  reasoning, 
using  the  writings  which  had  lHH?n  declared  unau- 
thentic as  memorials  of  the  development  of  Judaism 
and  Pauliniam  into  what  came  later* 

Acconling  to  Sehwcgler^  Judaism  had  no  need  of 
further  development  J  the  impulse  came  from  Paulin- 
iam, in  such  a  way  that  the  Judaic  party 
S-  Devcl-    decided,  in  order  lo  preserve  the  unity 
oped  by     of  the  Church  (Gk .  monarchiaX  to  make 
Schwcgler*  some   concessions,    requiring  things  of 
similar  import  with  those  demxmded  by 
the    pseudadelphoi    of    the    New    Testament,    but 
more  easily  fulfilled  by  the  Gentiles.      If  circum- 
cision   had   to   be   abandoned,  so   much   the   more 
weight  was  laid   upon    baptism   as   the  Christian 


Baor 
Banslin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


10 


equivalent;  if  the  works  of  the  Law  were 
dropped,  works  were  still  required;  Israers  pri- 
macy vanished,  but  a  general  aristocratic  tend- 
ency could  be  maintained  in  the  episcopate; 
Paul  could  not  be  cast  out,  but  he  could  be  sub- 
ordinated to  Peter.  Schwegler  then  watches  this 
development  and  compromise  in  two  places,  Rome 
and  Asia  Minor.  In  Rome  he  traces  the  succession 
of  writings  of  Judaistic  origin  thus:  first  the 
Shepherd  of  Hermas  and  Hegesippus;  then  Justin, 
the  Clementine  Homilies,  and  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions; then  James,  the  Second  Epistle  of  Clem- 
ent, Mark,  the  Clementine  Recognitions,  and  l\ 
Peter.  On  the  Pauline  side  he  finds  the  concilia- 
tory writings  to  begin  under  Trajan  with  I  Peter; 
then  follow  Luke  and  Acts;  then  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  and  the  letters  of  Ignatius.  Montanism 
being  in  his  view  only  an  offshoot  of  Judaism,  the 
Pauline  victory  falls  in  the  pontificate  of  Victor 
(189-199),  under  whom  Montanism  was  condemned 
at  Rome.  The  Pauline  party,  indeed,  had  already 
made  no  slight  concessions,  in  order  to  ward  off 
Gnosticism — though  the  Gnostics  and  especially  the 
Maroionites  ultimately  were  of  great  service  to  Paul- 
inism  in  securing  the  universality  of  Christianity. 

He  sees  the  process  as  somewhat  different  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  the  opponents  of  Paul  rallied, 
not  as  in  Rome  around  Peter,  but  around  John; 
here  the  solution  was  the  formation  of  a  body  of 
Christian  dogma,  while  in  Rome  it  had  been  a 
unity  of  organization  with  a  Roman  primacy. 
While  at  Rome  the  supposed  Ebionite  works  are 
more  numerous  than  the  Pauline,  it  is  the  contrary 
in  Asia  Minor;  the  Apocalypse  is  here  the  single 
Ebionite  memorial,  while  on  the  other  side  Gala- 
tians,  Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  the  Johannine 
Gospel  form  an  imposing  series  of  steps  in  the 
development.  Bold,  however,  and  fascinating  as 
are  the  combinations  set  forth  in  this  work,  and 
brilliant  as  is  its  execution,  it  may  be  pointed  out 
(though  space  does  not  permit  of  illustration)  that 
there  is  scarcely  a  theologian  to-day  who  is  disposed 
to  accept  this  train  of  reasoning  as  even  an  approxi- 
mately satisfactory  solution  of  the  problems  sug- 
gested. And  even  in  those  days,  the  starting-point 
of  the  whole  process  of  development  still  remained 
to  be  discussed.  It  was  already  obvious  that  with- 
out tracing  it  back  to  the  person  and  teaching  of 
Christ,  the  question  of  how  the  primitive  catholic 
Chureh  came  into  existence  was  insoluble.  At- 
tempts in  the  direction  of  establishing  the  entire 
critical  position  by  showing  a  genetic  development 
of  the  earliest  organization  and  dogma  out  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ  himself  marked  a  third  period  in 
the  history  of  the  Tiibingen  School. 

nL  The  Period  of  Church  History:  The  political 
upheaval  of  1848  had  its  influence  on  the  future  of 
the  school.  The  attempts  made  here  and  there  to 
introduce  its  conclusions,  under  cover  of  the  polit- 
ical movements  of  the  time,  into  the  general  life 
of  the  Chureh  could  not  fail  to  bring  up  the  question 
whether  ecclesiastical  activity  was  possible  for 
adherents  of  the  school.  It  was  answered  in  the 
negative  not  only  by  opponents;  some  of  Baur's 
own  disciples  felt  that  they  must  either  modify 
the    scientific  conclusions  they  had  learned  from 


him,  or  seek  a  secular  calling,  as  M&rklin,  whose 
life   was   written   by  Strauss,  had  done   in   1840. 
It  was  not  surprising,  then,  that  the 
X.  Political  German  governments  thought  twice  be- 
CompUca-   fore  appointing  to  academic  positions 
tions.      men  whose  influence  was  so  disturb- 
ing, and  that  the  younger  generation 
hesitated  to  follow  Baur  further,  after  his  most 
important  disciple,  Zeller,  was  obliged  in  1849  to 
exchange  a  theological  chair  for  that  of  philosophy 
at  Marburg.     Baur  felt  the  isolation  in  which  he 
thus  began  to  find  himself;  but  his  temperament 
allowed  him  to  hold  fast  longer  than  others  to  the 
illusion  of  the  identity  of  chureh  teaching  and 
Hegelian  speculation.     He  relaxed  nothing  of  his 
zeal  for  the  solution  of  the  important  problem  which 
still    remained,    the   establishment   on    a   critical 
foundation  of  a  positive  story  of  the  development  of 
Christianity    from    its   origin    down    through   the 
centurita. 

In  1852  Baur  published  a  book  (Leipsic)  on  the 
epochs  of  chureh  history  as  a  preliminary,  con- 
taining  brilliant   and   frequently   sharp   criticism 
of  earlier  historians.     His  own  efforts  in  this  direc- 
tion began  with  the  work  Das  Christenthum  und 
die  chriatliche  Kirche  der  drei  enten 
3.  Baur'B    Jahrhunderie  (Leipsic,  1853),  and  was 
Works  on    continued    in    Die   christliche    Kirche 
Church     vom  An  fang  des  A.  bis  Ausgang  dee  6, 
History.     Jahrhunderts    (Leipsic,    1859).     After 
his    death    appeared    (Leipsic,    1861) 
the  third  part,  completed  by  himself.  Die  christ- 
liche Kirche  des  MiUelalters  in  den  Hauptmomenten 
ihrer  Entwicklung  ;  and  two  further  volumes  were 
published    from    his    carefully    prepared    lecture- 
notes — Kirchengeschichte  des  19.  Jahrkunderts,  ed- 
ited   by    Zeller    (Leipsic,   1862),  and    Kirchenge- 
schichte  der  neueren  Zeit  von  der  ReformaHan  bis 
zum  Ende  des  18.  Jahrhunderts^  edited  by  his  son 
Ferdinand    (Leipsic,    1863),    thus   completing  th^ 
entire  survey. 

If  there  is  sought  in  these  books  an  answer  to  tb.^ 
question  as  to  the  real  primitive  Christianity  whic'%3 
lay  back  of  Paul  and  back  of  Ebionitism,  as  to  tt:^< 
person  of  Christ  himself,  it  may  be  put,  once  mo-^r-t 
substantially  in  Baur's  own  words  (from  the  vrmn- 
portant  controversial  pamphlet  against  Uhlhomn, 
Die  Tubingen  Schule  und  ihre  Stellung  zur  Gegc^wt- 
xoartf  Leipsic,  1859),  as  follows:    The  real  inward- 
ness of  Christianity,  it^  essential  center  point,  ULsay 
be  found  in  what  belongs  to  the  strictly  ethic^^ 
content  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  in  the  Senii.oii 
on  the  Mount,  the  parables,  and  similar  utteranc^ss; 
in  his  doctrine  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  the  con- 
ditions of  membership   in   it,   designed  to  plaice 
men  in  the  right  ethical  relation     tc 
3.  HisTheo-  God.    This  is  the  really  divine,  t>h* 
riesand     universally  human  element  in  it,  'tb* 
Conclusions,  part  of  its  content  which  is  eternal  anc/ 
absolute.    What    raises    Christianity 
above  all  other  religions  is  nothing  but  the  purely* 
ethical  character  of  its  acts,  teachings,  and  requiit?- 
ments.     If  this  is  the  essential  content  of  the  cozi' 
sciousness  of  Jesus,  it  is  one  of  the  two  factors  whicfi 
comp>ose  his  personality;  it  must    have   a  corr©* 
sponding  form,  in  order  to  enter,  in  the  way  ot 


11 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Banr 
Baaslin 


historical  development,  into  the  general  conscious- 
ness of  humanity;  and  this  form  is  the  Jewish 
conception  of  the  Messiah,  the  point  of  contact 
between  the  mind  of  Jeeus  and  the  world  that  was 
to  believe  in  him,  the  basis  on  which  alone  a  relig- 
ious community  destined  to  broaden  into  a  Church 
could  be  built.  We  can,  therefore,  have  no  clear 
and  definite  conception  of  the  personality  of  Jesus 
if  we  do  not  distinguish  these  two  sides  of  it  and 
consider  them,  so  to  speak,  under  the  aspect  of  an 
antinomy,  of  a  process  which  develops  itself  grad- 
ually. 

If  we  try  to  get  at  the  heart  of  Baur's  whole 
view  of  the  subject,  stripping  his  presentation  of 
its  somewliat  pathetic  enthusiasm,  it  will  app>ear 
not  so  very  different  from  Kant's  expression,  that 
the  faith  of  pure  reason  came  in  with  Christ,  indeed, 
but  was  so  overlaid  in  the  subsequent  history  that 
if  the  question  were  asked  which  was  the  best  period 
in  the  entire  course  of  church  history,  it  might  be 
unhesitatingly  answered  by  the  choice  of  the  pres- 
ent, in  which  a  nearer  approach  than  ever  before  \a 
made  to  pure  religious  doctrine.  As  long  as  Baur 
had  gone  no  further  into  the  really  primitive  essen- 
tial import  of  Christianity  than  to  consider  the 
Pauline  dogmatics  as  representing  it,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Chiutjh  could  perfectly  well  seem  to 
him  to  have  proceeded  in  a  wholly  rational  manner. 
The  dogmatic  and  ecclesiastical  decisions  of  the 
early  ages  could,  in  their  context,  appear  "  reason- 
able,'' and  Baur  himself,  in  contrast 
4.  Their  with  a  writer  like  Gottfried  Arnold 
Weakness  or  with  the  unhistoric  rationalism, 
and  Decline,  almost  an  orthodox  historian,  always 
in  harmony  with  the  course  of  events 
as  it  proceeded.  Not  only  Athanasius  and  Augus- 
tine, but  Gregory  VII  and  Innocent  III  had  full 
justice  at  his  hands.  But  this  involved  an  equally 
tolerant  acknowledgment  of  the  claims  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  If  the  himianitarianism  of  Goethe 
and  Schiller  seemed  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
educated  men  in  this  age  than  the  Church  in  its 
older  form,  here  also  the  living  must  take  prece- 
dence; and  suddenly  the  place  of  the  old  Church 
was  taken  by  a  broad  "  communion  "  in  which  all 
the  heroes  of  the  intellect,  even  the  most  modem, 
took  their  place  as  saints.  But  when  the  question 
came  to  be  asked  what  this  prevalent  humanism 
had  in  common  with  ancient  Christianity,  it  became 
apparent  that  the  whole  long  process  of  devel- 
opment was  really  a  totaUy  unnecessary  ddour^ 
whose  purpose  it  was  difficult  to  discover.  It 
could  scarcely  be  denied  that  a  historical  method 
which  saw  the  essence  of  Christianity  in  ethics 
exclusively,  which  knew  nothing  of  the  need  of 
redemption,  and  which  was  imable  to  give  any 
positive  accoimt  of  the  person  of  Christ,  was  one 
in  which  the  Hegelian  conception  of  development 
practically  disappeared.  Yet  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  school  of  Baur  had  been  the  application 
of  this  very  conception  to  Christian  history,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  primitive  age — the  attempt  to 
show  the  course  of  history  as  rational  and  necessary; 
and  thus,  in  the  person  of  its  head,  the  Tubingen 
School  deserted  the  fundamental  principle  which 
in  its  palmy  days  it  had  sought  to  enforce.     It 


was,  then,  not  Burprising  that  uncertainty  showed 
itself  among  the  members  of  the  school  on  the 
question  of  the  Gospels.  The  less  a  definite  tend- 
ency could  be  proved  in  the  ejmoptic*,  the  more 
they  were  shown  to  offer  at  least  a  substratimi  of 
purely  historical  matter,  so  much  the  more  pressing 
became  the  question  how  the  sehoors  view  of  hia^ 
tory  could  be  reconciled  with  the  actual  course  of 
events.  When  the  attempt  to  construct  the  latter 
a  pn^iri  failed,  an  advantage  was  given  to  the 
**  literary-hifltorical  "  method  with  which  Hilgen- 
feld  undertook  to  replace  the  criticism  of  tendency. 
In  hia  HwioHsch-krUi'Sche  Einleitung  in  das  neite 
Teatameni  (Leipsic,  1875)  the  Tubingen  views  were 
modified  in  a  large  number  of  points.  Thus  the 
results  supposed  to  have  been  attained  by  the 
"  objective  criticiam  "  of  Baur  were  called  in  ques- 
tion by  his  own  fellow  workers;  and  when  he  died, 
it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  his  school,  at  least 
in  the  narrower  aensc,  died  with  Mm. 

(J.  HAtrsSLEITKBO 

BmLtoamAPar:  Two  of  Ferdinand  Chrjfttiaji  Baur'a  bookf 
iLTD  ««c»#iub]e  in  Eoj^hs^h  trutii^latian:  PauL  the  Apo*tU  of 
JesutChritt.  2  volfl.,  Landon,  1873-75;  The  Church  HatoTTt 
of  the  Firut  Thraa  Cfniwita,  2  voln.,  ib.  1S7B-7II, 
ConiuU;  A.  B*  BruoQ^  F,  C.  Bow  and  Aw  Theory  &f 
the  Griffin  cf  ChrUtianily,  New  York,  1885;  Wartm  der 
SHnnerunoan  F^erdinand  Chri»iian  Baur,  Tabinsen.  IS61; 
H.  Bcokh,  Die  Tubir^wr  higtorinchM  Scf^uU,  kfitiach  he- 
leuch^ik  in  ZFK,  iJviii  ilSMh  1-B7,  fift-OS;  C.  W*i*5atkpr. 
Ferdinand  Ckriatian  von  Baur,  Rede  tur  akademitch^n  Fder 
Bcine»  lot).  G«&ure«£a^e«.  StuitgarL  1392;  O.  FQeiderer, 
Zu  F,  C.  Baw*M  OvdAchtAtMa,  in  Protestantiache  Kirchdfn- 
»ifun^.  1862.  No,  2S:  R.  W.  Mackay.  The  Tuhinffcn 
Sck&at^  and  tCt  Anieemdcnta^  London,  1S63;  8,  Beiltpr^  F. 
C.  Baur,  Let  Or^ne*  d«  I'^le  de  Tuhingua  ti  te*  priftcipe*, 
Straeburgp  1867;  C.  H.  Toy*  This  Tubin^an  Hiatoricat 
Sdiool  in  BQR,  iii  <1860X  ^10  oqq,  Workj  on  N.  T.  In^ 
troduetion  U9i;uilly  diRDum  the  Tdbingen  School  M  do 
thosm  on  the  ohurob  history  of  the  nineteenth  c«niujy. 

BAim,  GUSTAV  ADOLF  LUDWIG:  Lutheran; 
b.  at  Hammelbaeh  (17  m.  n.e.  of  Heidelberg),  in 
the  Odenwald*  June  14.  1S16;  d.  at  Leipsic  May 
22t  1S39,  He  studied  at  Giessen*  where  he  became 
dotsent  in  1841,  profestior  extraordinary,  1847, 
ordinary,  IS49;  he  became  pastor  at  Hamburg, 
1861,  and  professor  of  practical  theology  at  Leipsic, 
1870.  He  was  a  member  of  the  commission  for 
revifling  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible.  Besides 
numerous  sermons  he  Imur'd  Erktdrung  des  Propheten 
AmQ»  (Giesaen,  1847);  Grumhtige  der  Homikhk 
(1848);  Ge&chichU  der  altt4iJskim£nUii:hen  Wewsagung 
(first  part,  1861);  Boriim  und  Dante  (Leipsic, 
1874);  Grundztige  der  Erziehungsiehre  (4th  ed„ 
Gi^^sen,  1887);  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of  the 
first  volume  of  Schmidts  Gf^chichie  dsr  Erziehung  " 
(Stuttgart,  1884),  and  Die  ehriiiUidie  Erziehung 
in  ihrem  V erhilllnisse  ^um  Judenthmn  und  eut 
antiken  Weli  (2  vok.,  18U2). 

BiBiJonn^PHT:  G.  A.  Baur.  7>(iu<r/«ur  bet  dem  Beor&bniMn 
Q.  A.  L.  Bavn,  Leipaie,  tSS9. 

BAUSLIN,  DAVtD  HBITRY:  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Winchester,  Vfu.  Jan.  21,  18M,  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg  C«Ik^ge  (B.A,,  1S76)  and  Theologieal 
Seminary,  Spring  held,  O.  (1878),  and  held  pastor- 
ates at  Tippecanoe  Gity,  O.  (187&-S1),  Bucyrus, 
O.  (1881-88),  Second  Lutheran  Church,  Spring- 
field, O.  (1888-93),  and  Trinity  Churah,  Canton, 
O.  (1893-96).     In  1896  he  was  appointed  prof^aor 


Bailsman 
BaTarians 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


of  historical  and  pr^^tical  theology  m  the  Witten- 
berg TheologicaJ  Seminary,  He  has  been  for  several 
years  a  member  of  the  "  common  service  "  com- 
mittee for  the  General  Synod  of  the  Lutheran 
Churchy  and  was  president  of  the  General  Synod 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United 
States  190M37.  He  has  written  h  the  Miniptjy 
on  AUractim  Vocaium  f  (Philadelphia^  1901),  and 
has    been    editor    of   The   LtUheran    W^rld    mnce 

BAUSHAIT,  BEnjAHHf:  Eeformed  (German); 
b.  at  Lancaster^  Pa*,  Jan*  28,  1824.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Marshall  CoUege  (B.A.,  1S51)  and  the 
Theological  8eminary,  Mercersburg,  Pa.  (1852), 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Rcfonmed  ministry  in  1853, 
and  held  succeBsive  pastorates  at  Lewisburg,  Pa, 
(1853^1),  Chamber^burg,  Pa.  {1861-^3),  First 
Reformed  Church,  Reading,  Pa.  (1863-73),  and 
St.  Paul's  Reformed  Church,  Reading,  which  be 
founded  in  IS73*  He  waa  president  of  the  General 
Synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Baltimore  in 
1884,  He  was  editor  of  The  Reformed  MesBenger 
in  18158  and  of  The  Guardmn  from  1867  to  1882. 
In  the  yea.r  1807  he  founded  Ekr  reformierte 
HauAfreundf  of  wliich  he  i^  still  the  editor.  He 
has  written  Sinai  and  Zum  (Philadelpliia,  1860); 
Watfside  GieaniTx^  in  Europe  {Reading,  1878); 
Bi&te  Charaders  (1893);  and  Precfpi  and  Pradice 
(Philadelphia,  1901);  in  addition  to  editing  Har- 
baugb'fl  HaTfCf  a  collection  of  poems  in  Pennsyl- 
vania Dutch  (Reading,  1870). 

BAUSSET,  b(y'BA^  LOtnS  FRANCOIS  DE:  Car- 
dinal; b.  at  Pondicheny  iJec,  *14,  1748;  d.  at 
Paris  June  21,  1824.  He  studietl  in  the  Seminary 
of  St.  Sulpice;  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Alaia, 
1784;  emigrated  in  1791,  but  returned  in  1792 
to  Paris,  and  supiwrted  himself,  after  a  short 
imprisonment,  by  literary  labor.  In  1806  he  was 
made  canon  of  St.  Denys,  and  in  1815,  after  the 
aecond  return  of  Louis  XVIII,  director  of  the 
council  of  the  University  of  Paris,  peer  of  France, 
and  cardinal  1817,  He  wrote  the  Huttmrt  de 
Finthn  (3  vols,,  Paris,  1S08)  and  HisUnre  de 
BosBt^  (4  vols,,  Versailles,  1814). 

BAUTAIH,  b6"tan',  LOUIS  EUGEITE  MARIE: 
French  philosopher;  b,  at  Paris  Feb,  17,  1796; 
d.  at  Viroflay,  near  Versailles,  Oct,  15,  1867,  He 
became  profeeeor  of  philoaophy  at  Straaburg  in 
1819.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cousin  and  a  student  of 
Gcnnnn  phitosophy,  and,  his  teaching  not  being 
acceptable  to  the  church  authorities,  he  was  buh- 
pended  in  1822,  He  modified  his  vi&ws  and  took 
holy  orders  in  1828^  and  resumed  teaching*  In 
1834  he  again  fell  into  difficulty  with  the  Bishop 
of  Strasburg  because  of  bis  teachings  concerning 
the  relatioo  of  rea^n  and  faith;  in  1838  he  went 
to  Rome  and  sought  in  vain  to  have  tiis  views 
approved  there.  In  1840  he  submitted,  became 
vicar-general  of  Paris  in  1849,  and  professor  at 
the  Sorbonne  in  1853,  He  held  that  the  human 
xeaaon  can  not  prove  such  facts  as  the  eidstence  of 
God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  that  the 
truths  of  religion  are  communicated  purely  by 
divine    revelation.     His    most    important    works 


were:  Phiioxophie  du  ChHstianiMTne  (2  vols.,  E 
burg,     1835);  Fsychologie    exp&rimeni^iU    (2 
1839;  new   cd.,    with    title   Esprii   humain    t 
focuUia,  Paris,  1859);  Phiios&phie  morale  (2 
Par^,    1842);  Ijx   morale    de    V^vangile    com 
aux  dii^enmjet^ime^de  morale  (1855).     He  had 
reput*  as  an  orator  and  published  an  ^hid 
Part  de  parkr  en  pablie  (IS56;  Eng,  transl.j 
AH  of  Extempore  Speakmg,  London,  1858). 

Btbuographt^  E.  de  E%ny.  L'AbbS  Bauiain,  P»«s, 

BAUTZ,  JOSEF:  Roman  Catholic;  b.atKi 
(near  Cleves)  Nov.  11,  1843,  He  was  educat 
Mtinster,  where  he  became  privat-docent  of  s 
getica  and  dogmatics  in  1877,  being  promot 
the  rank  of  associate  professor  in  1892,  Hi 
written  Die  Lehre  vom  Aufersiehungaleibe  (F 
bom,  1877);  Der  //imme/,  spekuhiiv  darg 
(Maim:,  1881);  Die  HdUe,  im  An»chluee  m 
SchaUmik  (1882);  Das  Fegftmr,  Im  Atm 
an  die  Scholastik  (1883);  WeUgericM  und  Wwl 
Im  Amchlues  an  die  Schotastik  (1886);  Orun 
der  chTisUichen  Apologetik  (1887);  and  Grun 
der  katholiidmn  Dognmlik  (4  vols,,  1888-93). 

BAVARIA:  A  kingdom  in  the  Bouthem 
of  the  Cicmian  Empire,  and,  next  to  Prusaif 
larg^t  of  the  st^itos  of  the  Empire;  area,  2 
square  miles;  population  (1900),  6,176,05' 
whom  4,357,133  (70.6  \yet  cent,)  are  It 
Catholics;  1,749,206  (28.3  per  cent.)  Protest 
6,430  Old  CathoUcs;  3,170  Mennonites;  a 
{M  per  cent.)  Jews;  and  4,142  of  various  faitl 

The  division  of  the  chief  confessions  is  bas 
great  part  on  the  hijjtorie  conditions  prevj 
in  1624  and  1648,  si  though  the  development  o 
cities  has  been  the  cause  of  many  ch^iges 
proportion  of  Protestants  having  increase 
Munich  and  that  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Nt 
berg.  The  old  Bavarian  circles  of  Upper 
Lower  Bavaria,  as  weU  as  the  Upper  Psdati 
have  always  been  essentially  Ri 
Protestant-  Catholic.     Upper  Bavaria  receivi 

lam  in      first  Protestant  citizens  in  the 

BavariA.  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
in  consequence  of  the  rapid  gi 
of  Munich  in  recent  years  the  Protestanta  of 
city  alone  numbered  78,000  in  1900,  Six  pi 
ates  and  six  immovable  vicAriatefl  are  also  cont 
in  the  district,  and  seven  small  chnrchea  have 
built  in  market- towns  and  villages.  Since  tb 
teenth  centttiy  Lower  Bavaria  has  poaseasec 
Protestant  enclave  of  Ortenbnrg  with  Cf 
neighboring  places,  while  more  recently  coi 
nities  have  been  established  in  the  larger  < 
especially  Passau.  The  Upper  Palatinate  wa 
completely  converts  to  Roman  Catholicisi 
1622-28,  since  the  duchy  of  Bukhach  and  th 
perial  city  of  Eegensburg  retained  congrega 
of  both  confessions,  who  used  the  same  cbui 
but  with  the  increase  in  population  the  propc 
of  Protestants  steadily  declined.  The  di 
now  has  four  deaneries  with  forty-eight  pasto 
In  the  three  old  Bavarian  districts  pro  vis! 
made  for  the  Protestant  Diaspont  by  itin 
preachers,  four  of  whom  work  in  Upper  Bi 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bavarians 


Mid  two  in  Lower  Bavaria  and  the  Upper  Palatinate 
Gombined*  Since  1805  Swabia  has  belonged  in 
great  part  to  Bavaria.  It  consisted  ori^nally  of  a 
group  of  territories  belonging  to  free  cities^  the 
clergy,  and  knighU  of  the  empire.  Only  the  first 
cate^ry  was  predomLnantly  ProteBtant,  and  even 
here  Roman  Catholicism  has  gained  Hteadity. 
Swafava  eontjuns  the  following  F^roiestant  dean- 
eries: Augsburg,  Ebermergen,  KenipH-n  (including 
LindAU  ajnd  Kaufbeuren),  Leipheim,  Memmingen^ 
K5rdlingeii,  and  Oettingen. 

Fnmkish  North  Bavaria  is  composed,  on  the  one 
handf  of  the  epiflcopal  territories  of  the  bis^hoprica 
ot  EjcliBtatt,  Bamberg,  WQraburg,  and  a  portion  of 
the  dectorate  of  Mainz,  and,  on  the  othe^r,  of  the 
Protestant    principalities    of     Anebach    and    Bai- 
reuth,    Nuremberg,    Rot  hen  burg,    and    other    free 
dtie«,  and  encla vee  of  t  he  orders .    T h is  en  t ire  region 
w  ftmngly  Roman  Cathoh'c,  although  l>ovver  Fran- 
coma  has   a   cxjnsiderable   number   of    Prote-^tant 
communities  (116  pastorates,  exclusive  of  Wurx- 
burg,  Schweinfurt,    and   AachaffeDburg).     In   the 
Wger  section  of  Bavaria  the  historical  divisions 
bet^-een  Proteetant  and  Roman  Catholic,  at  least 
in  the  smaller  towns,  are  still  maintained,  but  in 
thf  minor  portion,  the  Rhine  Palatinate,  there  are 
few  politick  communities  which  do  not   have  a 
eoDBidefable  minority  of  adhere ots  of  one  or  the 
oiber  cueed.     InSpeyer  the  proportions  are  almost 
cquil,  Roman   Catholics   numbering   about   9,000 
ind  the  Protestants  8,000. 

The  legal  position  of  the  Protestant  Church  in 
Bavaiuis  regjulated  by  an  edict  of  Sept.  8, 18l>9,  while 
iu  foreign  relations  are  governed  by  the  constitution 
of  1811  Both  Proteetantigm  and  Roman  Catholi- 
<»  ire  officially  recognized,  and  conlrfjversies 
■Worn  ariae  between  the  two,  excepit  in  regard  to 
*he  creed  in  which  children  shall  he  brought  up, 
*n«Uiod8  of  conversion,  particularly  in  the  Kvan- 
^^  I^ftspora,  and  the  use  of  burial-groundii  in 
fi«min  Catholic  communities*  In  1824  the  official 
^MputioQ  of  the  Protestants  was  declared  to  be 
"Pfotfrtant  Church." 

Reformed  Church  in  the  Palatinate  first 
official  recognition  togetlier  with  the 
at  the  general  consistory  at  Worms  in 
1815,  and  the  Bavarian  govenuner^t  created  a  con- 
•^  at  Speyer  on  Dec.  15, 1818,  for  the  *'  Prot- 
■twt  Cburchea  of  the  Palatinate,"  a  pre.sbyterial 
"ftd  ijmodical  constitution  being  introduced  at  the 
:  •»!  time.  In  1848  the  Protestant  Church  of 
w  Palatinate  and  the  consiston^  of  Spej-^er  were 
r  P'*<*<i  directly  under  the  juris<hction  of  t  he  ministry 
^m  ^  it*te,  The  attempt  to  create  a  more  definite 
■  ttoltMioiiiJ  8tatu»  led,  in  the  sixth  decade  of  the 
^  ■■^«lot»iry,  to  a  victorious  agitation  on  the  part 
jf  tne  Khend  element.  8ince  I87iJ  the  pre^sbytericH 
™^  bad  the  riglit  to  propose  candidates  for  vacant 
P'^ofites,  In  Bavaria  proi)er  diocesan  synods 
"^Md  annually,  and  general  synods  every  four 

^^  are  few  Protestants  in  Bavaria,  except 
thine  wbo  belong  to  the  Evangelical  Lutheriin 
urniieb,  nor  are  the  professed  adherents  of  sects 
**iiioiii,  A  distinct  organization  was  granted 
"^  Reformed  in  Bavaria  proper  in  1853,  althougli 


they  are  still  under  the  control  of  the  Supreme 
Consistory.  The  Greek  Church  wiis  recognized 
in  1826,  but  the  /Vnghcan  Cliurch  lii  officially  ignored 
like  the  Meiuionites.  The  laist-nanveHl  have  six 
communities  ui  the  Palatinate  and  four  in  Bavaria 
proper.  ITntU  IS87  the  Old  Catholics  were  reckoned 
as  Ron^an  Catholics,  but  are  now  decliired  to  be  a 
separate  body,  though  full  recognition  has  not  been 
granted  them. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria  is  highly 
organized  and  extremely  active,  while  its  wealth 
and  political  influence  are  constantly 
Roman  increasing.  The  kingdom  is  divided 
Catholicism  into  tw^o  archdioceses  with  eight 
in  Bavaria,  dioceses.  The  archdiocese  of  Munich- 
Freising  comprises  the  suffragan  dio- 
ceses of  Augsburg,  Passau,  and  Regensburg;  and 
the  archdioces<!  of  Bamberg  includes  the  dioceses 
of  Eichstatt ,  Wurzburg,  and  Speyer.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  clergy,  in  agreement  with  the  concordat 
of  1817,  is  entnisted  to  the  bishops.  The  develop- 
ment of  orders  has  bi'en  very  rapiii,  ei*pecialiy  in 
the  sisterhoods  for  the  education  and  the  care  of 
the  sick.  The  number  of  cloisters  has  abo  increased 
rapidly,  with  a  corresponding  gain  in  real  estate, 
and  this  development  is  aided  by  the  generous 
gifts  and  foundations  of  the  Roman  CathoUc  popu- 
lation, the  property  of  the  8,600  institutions  being 
valued  at  more  than  150,0(K}.000  marks;  while 
that  of  the  1,8CX)  Protestant  institutions  is  worth 
only  1^,6(XJ,000  marks.  The  Roman  Catholic 
clergy  in  Bavaria  number  some  4,000,  or  a  pro- 
portion of  one  to  816  of  the  laity,  while  the  Protes- 
tantfi  have  but  about  1,300  clergymen,  or  one  to 
1,200  laymen.  Wilhelai  Goetz. 

BiDLiooRAPiiY:  V.  A.  Winter.  Getchichit  der  Schick$ak  der 
r^fatiiftliMchen  J^hrr  in  und  dutch  Bayem,  2  voUi.,  Munich, 
1809-10,  E.  F.  H.  MedicuB.  Geschi^hts  der  msanoelinhen 
KiTche  im  Kimigreich  Bauern,  Erl&nffen,  18AII;  J.  M. 
Mayer,  Gt4tckichte  Basferns,  Ral^^bon,  1874;  J,  Heri«n< 
rothcr.  Handhuch  drr  Kirchen^»chiekte,  3  vols.,  Ffeibruu, 
187U-S0  (literature  of  thi*  Hubject  la  given,  iii.  183); 
S.  Riexler.  Gmchichle  Bayema,  4  vols*..  Gotlui,  1878-99; 
Wand,  Handhuch  der  Vtrfa*»un{i  und  Vrru'<altnno  d«r  pro- 
tf»tarUiMch-ei\-thnMtJichefi  Kircfuf  der  Pf^iz,  1880;  Bti- 
irage  :ur  Statitiik  de»  Kdniifl-eicha  Bayern,  Munich,  1892: 
Sta(i4tiMche  MiUeitunffen  auM  den  dmdschfn  ex>angeliMchen 
Landeskirchen,  .Stuilgart,  1880-96. 

BAVARIANS,  CORVERSIOIf  OF  THE:  The 
origin  of  the  race  later  known  as  the  Bavarians 
is  uncertain.  The  older  hy|K> thesis  that  they  came 
of  Celtic  stock  is  now  generally  abandoned.  For 
a  time  it  was  tliought  that  they  were  a  conglomerate 
of  the  remains  of  several  tribes  belonging  to  the 
Gothic  family;  but  the  view  put  forward  by  Zeuss 
(Di'C  Herkunft  der  Bayern,  Munich,  1857)  that  they 
are  to  be  identified  with  the  Marcomanni  iw  now 
almost  universally  accepted,  and  lias  strong  sup- 
port in  the  facts. 

The  Marcomanni  are  first  mentionetl  by  Caesar 
{Bet.  Gal.y  i,  51).  In  liis  time  they  Uved  on  the 
upper  Main.  Tacitus  knows  of  them  as  inhabiting 
what  is  now  Bohemia  {Germ.^  xhi;  cf.  Annat., 
ii,  26  sqq.).  Here  they  maintained  their  position 
for  centuries,  and  here  they  took  the  name  of 
Ftaiowarii  or  Bainarii.  During  tliis  periwi,  Chris- 
tianity found  an  entrance  among  them.  Paulinus, 
in   his  life  of   Ambrose   (xxx\'i),  tells  of  a  queen 


L 


Hh 


Bavarians 
Baxter 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


of  the  Marcomanni  named  Fritigil  who  was  con- 
verted by  a  wandering  Italian  Christian,  and  asked 
Ambrose  for  written  instructions  in 
First  Ac-    the   faith,  which   he  gave  in  modum 
quaintance  catechismi.    The  account  goes  on  to 
with  Chris-  say  that  she  thereupon  came  to  Milan, 
tianity.     but  foimd  the  bishop  dead.     As  Am- 
brose   died    Apr.    4,    397,  she    must 
have  crossed  the  Alps  in  the  summer  of  that  year. 
If  the  queen  was  a  Christian,  it  is  hardly  likely 
that  her  religion  would  have  been  unknown  to  her 
people.    That  Arianism  also  reached  the  Marco- 
manni through  Gothic  influences  is  not  improbable. 
However  that  may  be,  the  bulk  of  the  people  were 
pagan  when  they  settled  in  488  on  the  strip  of 
territory  granted  them  by  the  Romans  between 
the  Lech  and  the  Enns. 

The  name  of  Bavarians  is  first  applied  in  the 
Frankish  list  of  tribes  belonging  to  the  first  quarter 
of  the  sixth  century.  The  territory  which  they 
occupied  was  no  desolate  wilderness.  In  the  val- 
leys and  around  the  lakes  there  was  a  thin  agri- 
cultural population  which  held  to  the  Latin  tongue 
and  doubtless  also  to  the  Christian  faith.  Not 
all  the  cities  were  destroyed;  Juvavum  and  Lau- 
riacum  lay  in  ruins;  but  neither  Castra  Batava 
nor  Castra  Regina  was  without  inhabitants,  and 
here  also  Christianity  undoubtedly  held  its  own 
with  the  Romanic  population.  Christians  and 
heathens  thus  living  as  neighbors,  a  starting-point 
was  afforded  for  missionary  efforts.  The  ecclesias- 
tical organization  had,  it  is  true,  been  broken  up; 
only  in  southern  Bavaria  a  bishopric  founded  in 
Roman  times  maintained  its  existence  at  Seben, 
and  the  diocese  of  Augsburg  stretched  over  a  part 
of  the  Bavarian  territory.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  fact  was  of  decisive  importance  that 
the  Bavarians  no  sooner  occupied  their  new  home 
than  they  came  into  a  position  of  dependence  on 
the  Frankish  kingdom.  The  first  ducal  family, 
that  of  the  Agilulfings,  was  of  Frankish  origin  and 
professed  Christianity,  and  the  first 
Labors  outsiders  who  labored  for  the  spread 
of  Mis-  of  the  faith  in  Bavaria  came  from  the 
sionaries.  Frankish  kingdom.  Eustasius  of  Lux- 
euil  (q.v.),  the  successor  of  Columban, 
worked  there,  and  left  missionaries  trained  by 
him  when  he  returned  to  Burgundy.  Later, 
Rupert,  bishop  of  Worms,  found  a  wide  field  here 
for  his  activity;  Enuneram  and  Corbinian  (qq.v.) 
were  Franks.  Side  by  side  with  them  there  seem 
to  have  been  at  a  very  early  period  some  Scoto- 
Irish  monks,  but  there  is  no  record  of  their  labors. 
The  result  of  the  combined  operation  of  these 
imperfectly  known  factors  was  the  acceptance  of 
Christianity  by  the  Bavarian  race  as  a  whole, 
which  was  completed  in  the  course  of  the  seventh 
century.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  it  was  not 
accompanied  by  the  organization  of  a  local  epis- 
copate; as  far  as  can  be  told  the  direction  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs  was  in  the  hands  of  the  dukes; 
it  is  Theodo  who  invites  Rupert  thither,  and  who 
treats  with  the  pope  in  regard  to  church  institutions. 
From  this  fact  it  would  appear  that  the  Christian 
profession  of  the  dukes  played  a  decisive  part  in 
the  conversion  of  the  people  at  large.    The  exist- 


ence of  the  Church  without  diocesan  bisho] 
made  possible  by  the  fact  that  the  war 
monks  and  missionaries  were  frequently  in  ep 
orders,  and  could  thus  perform  the  strictly  ep: 
functions. 

The  above-mentioned  Duke  Theodo,  acl 
concert  with  the  pope,  endeavored  to  int 
a  more  regular  organization.  With  this  < 
view,  he  visited  Rome  in  716,  and  had  an 
ment  with  Pope  Gregory  II  as  to  the  measi 
be  taken.  At  least  four  dioceses  were  to  be  f c 
corresponding  to  the  divisions  of  the  seculai 
diction.     The    bishop    of    the 

Organiza-    important   place   was   to   be    i 
tion  of      metropolitan    at    the    head    c 

Bishoprics.  Bavarian  Church,  the  pope  res 

the  right  to  consecrate  him, 
necessaiy  to  name  an  Itahan.  Order  was 
brought  into  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  by  a  ( 
visitation;  the  Roman  use  was  to  be  taken 
model  in  hturgical  matters.  But  these 
were  never  carried  into  execution,  apparen 
reason  of  the  death  of  Theodo.  The  organ! 
of  the  Bavarian  bishoprics,  involving  the  te 
tion  of  the  missionary  period,  was  only  accom] 
by  Boniface  (q.v.),  who  paid  a  short  visit 
country  in  719,  and  returned  in  735  or  736  t< 
a  formal  visitation  by  virtue  of  what  was  prac 
a  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  the  wh 
Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  full 
mation  as  to  the  prevailing  conditions 
definite  organizing  work  is  introduced  by  ] 
(738  or  739)  from  Gregory  III  to  the  bish 
Bavaria  and  Alemannia,  enjoining  them  to  ] 
Boniface  with  fitting  honors  as  his  represen 
and  to  attend  a  synod  to  be  held  by  him. 
Boniface  undertook  the  settlement  of  di 
boundaries  and  institutions,  and  provided 
of  the  four  bishoprics  of  Bavaria  with  b 
consecrated  by  himself — Erembrecht,  brotl 
(Jorbinian,  at  Freising,  Gavibald  at  Regen 
and  John,  a  newcomer  from  England,  at  Salzl 
while  Vivilo,  who  had  been  consecrated  by  the 
remained  at  Passau.  Gregory  III  confirmee 
arrangements  on  Oct.  29,  and  the  subor 
divisions  of  archdeaconries  and  parishes 
soon  organized.  The  decisions  of  the  Syr 
Reisbach  (799)  show  the  parochial  system 
operation.  (A.  Hau 

Bibuographt:  Hauck,   KD,  vol.  i;  S.   Riesler,  Ot 

Bayenu,    vol.    i,    Gotha,    1873;  Hettberg.   KD,    5 

Friedrich,  KD,  2  vols. 

BAVINCK,  HERMAN:  Dutch  Refonne 
at  Hoogeveen  (35  m.  s.  of  Groningen),  H< 
Dec.  13,  1854.  He  was  educated  at  the  gynu 
of  Zwolle,  the  theological  seminary  of  the  Ref 
Church  at  Kampcn,  and  the  University  of  I 
(D.D.,  1880);  he  was  then  pastor  at  Fra 
Friesland  (1881-82),  and  professor  of  do| 
theology  in  the  theological  seminary  at  K; 
(1882-1903).  Since  1903  he  has  been  pn 
of  dogmatics  and  apologetics  at  the  Fre< 
versity,  Amsterdam.  In  theology  he  adheres 
principles  of  the  Heidelberg  Confession  ai 
canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  He  has  i 
De  Ethiek  van  H,   Ztvingli  (Kampen,    188 


RELIGIOUS  ENC 


>IA 


Baxter 


Weteruchap  der  fmiige  Godgekerdheid   (1883);  De 

Theologie  usn  Prof.  Dr.  D.  Chantepk  de  la  Saussaye 

(LeydcD,    18S4);  De  Katftoticiteit  van  Christendom 

«i    Kerk   (Kampen,    1888);  De  algetneene  Genade 

(18W);  Gereformeerde   Dogmatick    (4    vols.,    1895- 

1901);  Begirutelen  dcr   Psyckiylogie   (1897);  De  Of- 

ferandc  <fc#  Lofs  (Tbe  Hague,  1901);  De  Lehenheid 

4€M  Gcloofs  (Kampen,  1901);  Hedendaagsche  Moraal 

(1902);    Roeping   en    WedcrgebGtfrie    (1902);  Gods- 

dienxt     tn     Godgdttirdheid     (Wagcningcii,      1902); 

ChriMdiike    Weienschap    (Kampcn,     1904);  Chris- 

^ijijkt  Wereidbe^houiting  (1904);  Ptrdagogiavhe  Be- 

Wb^tlen    (1904);  and    Bilderdifk    als    Denker    en 

^>khUr  (1906). 

m.  BAXTER,  RICHARD:  One  of  the  greatest  of 
^biglish  theolo;?ians;  b.  at  Rowton  (42  m.  n.e. 
Bbl  Shrewsburj'),  Shropsliire,  Nov.  12,  1615;  d,  in 
■  London  Dec.  8,  1G9L  Though  without  a  uiiivorwity 
"  edtkc&tion,  and  always  aickly^  he  acquired  great 
IcMniag.    In   1633  he  had  a  brief  experience  of 

Ieourt  Ufe  at  Whiteliall  (Londou),  but  tunied  from 
the  eourt  in   disgust   and   studied   theology.     In 
163S  h£  was  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  Worcester 
tnd  preached  m  various  places  til!  1641.  when  he 
began  hia  ministry  at  Kiddenninster 
BCmstry     (18    m.    s.w.    of    Birmingham  )^    a** 
it  Kidder-   "teacher."     There    he    labored    with 
niinster.     wonderful  success  so  that   the  place 
was  utterly  transformetL    When  the 
Civil  Waj  broke  out  (1642)  he  retired  temporarily 
to  Oloncestcr  and   then  to  Coventrj"  because   he 
sidfd  with  tfie  parUaraent*  while  all  in  and  about 
Kidileroiia^ter    sided    with    the    king.     He    wajj, 
faowi»vcr,  no  blind  partizaa  and  l>ol(lly  ftpoke  nut 
I       fot  tDoderstion  and  fairness.     After  acting  as  im 
I      'noy  cbapkin  he  separated  from  the  amiy,  pnrtiy 
I,      nn  ftcoount  of  illness,   and   returned   to   Kiiidi^r- 
tninster. 

Id  the  spring  of  1660  he  left  Kidderminster  and 
'wt  lo  Liindon.     He  preached  before  the  Houije 
I"' Commons  at  St.  Margaret'^**  WcstnuTiHter,  Apr. 
^>  IfitiO,  and  before  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen 
*^  iit  i\iiW  May  10,  and  wa5  among  those  to  give 
t^uirtea    n    welcome    to    his    kingdom.     Charlc*.'^ 
"^^  turn  one  of  his  chaplains  and  offered  liim 
the  bishopric  of  Hereford,  which  he 
"  LondOQi  declined.    He  was  a  leader  on  tlie  Non- 
conformist   side    in    the   Savoy   Con- 
-  (1661)   and   prcjitented   a   nevimon  of   tlie 
"*3^"book  which  could    be   used   by   the  Nan- 
^fonnista.     He     also     preached     frequently     in 
ji^m*nt  puJpits.     Seeing  how  things  were  going. 
^  dttflpftfj  permission  to  return  to  Kiddennini^ter 
but   was  refused.     On   May    16,   1662. 
day*  before  the  Act  of  i^nifonnity  wan  passed, 
"*too)t  (r^ntiHl  farewell  of  the  Church  of  England 
*jw  irtirril  to  Acton,  a  we^t  suburb  of  London. 
'Mfti  ttiii  time  on  he  liad  no  regular  charge  and 
kyi^  the  acct^on  of  William  and  Marj^  in  1688 
like  other   NoD'Conformist   preachers, 
.     -  -^p,^^^i\e  laws  often  rigorously  and  hanishly 
I  J^OwkI.    On  Sept,  10,  1662^  he  married  Margaret, 
^J|**|hi«f  of  Francis  Charlton,  of  Shropshire,  twenty- 
l'**'*  ynn  \m  junior,  who  possessed  wealth  and 
•**^ ponitiont  and  made  him  a  devoted  helpmeet. 


cheerfully  going  with  hint  into  exile  and  prison  and 
epending  her  money  lavishly  in  the  relief  of  lljeir 
less  fortunate  fellow  sufferers.  She  died  June  14, 
16S1,  and  Baxter  has  perpetnuted  her  memory  in  a 
eingtilarly  artle.si^  but  engaging  memoir  (lyondon, 
1681). 

During  all  these  years  on  the  vergi*  of  trouble 
because  he  persisted  in  preaching,  he  was  actually 
imprisoned  only  twice,  once  for  a  short  period, 
and  again  from  Feb.  28,  1685,  to  Nov,  24,  lti86. 
The  judge  who  contiemned   kim  the  second  time 

was  George  Jeffreys,  who  treated  him 

Imprison-   with    characteristic     brutality.       The 

ment       charge    was   that    in    his   Paraphrase 

oj  the  New  Testnment  (1685)  Baxter 
had  libele<l  the  Church  of  England.  Bnt  insult, 
hea\'y  and  indeed  ruinoufl  fineH,  enforced  wander- 
ings, anxiety  as  to  personal  safety,  and  imprison- 
ment had  no  power  to  daunt  Baxter*8  spirit.  He 
preached  constantly  to  great  multitudes,  and  ad' 
drc!ssed  through  liis  writings  a  etill  vaster  throng. 
The  Toleration  Act  of  1688  ended  his  sufferings 
and  he  died  in  peace. 

Baxter  was  one  of  the  most  voluminous  of  Eng- 
lish  authors,  and  one  of  the  best.  But  there  is  no 
complete  edition  of  his  108  treatises,  only  of  liis  prac- 
tical works.  A  few  of  Iti.n  works  are  in  verse  (Poet- 
ical Fragments,  reprinted,  London,  1821),  though 
he  has  snmU  claim  to  be  called  a  poet,  and  one 
familiar  hymn  ("  Lord,  it  belongs  not  to  my  care  ") 
has  been  manufactured  out  of  a  longer  one  of  his. 
The  after-world  kno\\s    him  by  reputation  as  the 

autfior  of  Tlie  Reformed  PaMtw  (1636), 
Writings,     a   treatise  on  pastoral   theology  stiil 

UKable;  .4  Call  to  the  Unconverted  to 
turn  and  live  and  aceept  of  mercy  while  mercy  may 
he  had,  as  eiTti  thfy  would  fimi  mercy  in  the  dxiy  of 
their  extremity  ;  from  the  Living  God  (1657),  uttered 
as  a  dying  ttmn  to  dying  men  and  impressive  to-day; 
but  chiefly  because  of  The  Saints*  Kverlasiing  Rest  : 
or  a  treatijte  of  the  blessed  state  of  the  Sainta  in  their 
enjoyment  of  Gml  in  glory.  Wherein  is  shni'ed  iU 
excellency  and  certainty  ;  the  miitery  of  thitae  thai 
lose  a,  the  way  to  ottain  il,  and  aj^surance  of  ii  ;  and 
houy  to  live  in  the  continual  dehghtful  foretatste  of  it, 
hy  the  help  of  meditati^m,  Writien  %  the  author 
fur  hts  own  use,  in  the  time  of  his  languishing,  when 
God  took  him  off  from  all  putdike  imjd^yment :  and 
afteripards  preached  in  hU  u^eckly  lecture  {ISSOI. 
The*'  Saints*  Rest"  gained  a  rt^putaiion  it  has  never 
li>st,  but  the  648  pages  of  the  original  edition  hav*-' 
pmved  too  numy  for  posterity  and  the  work  is 
read  nauadays,  if  at  all,  only  in  an  abridgment 
of  an  abridgment.  The  best  brief  characterization 
of  tliis  faithful,  fearless,  and  gifted  rehgious  teacher 
is  on  his  monument  at  Kiddenninster,  erected  by 
Churchmen  and  Non-conformist  a,  and  unveiled 
July  28,  1875:  ''  Between  the  years  1641  and  1660 
this  town  wns  the  scent*  of  the  labours  of  Richard 
Baxter,  renowned  equally  for  his  Christian  learning 
and  his  pastoral  fidelity.  In  a  ntormy  and  divided 
age  he  advocated  unity  and  comprehension,  point- 
ing the  way  to  everla'^ting  rest/'  In  many  re- 
Hpectj*  Baxter  was  a  modem  man. 

Baxter's  theology  waj«  set  forth  most  elaborately 
in  Ids  Latin  Metitodus  theologia  Christians  (London, 


Baxter 
Beaoh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


16 


1681);  the  Christian  Directory  (1673)  contains 
the  practical  part  of  his  system;  and  Catholic 
Theology  (1675)  is  an  English  expo- 
His  sition.  His  theology  made  Baxter 
Theology,  very  impopiilar  among  his  contempo- 
raries and  caused  a  split  among  the  Dis- 
senters of  the  eighteenth  century.  As  sununarized 
by  Thomas  W.  Jenkyn,it  differed  from  the  Calvinism 
of  Baxter's  ds^y  on  four  points:  (1)  The  atonement 
of  Christ  did  not  consist  in  his  suffering  the  identical 
but  the  equivalent  punishment  (i.e.,  one  which  would 
have  the  same  effect  in  moral  government)  as  that 
deserved  by  mankind  because  of  offended  law. 
Christ  died  for  sins,  not  persons.  While  the  bene- 
fits of  substitutionary  atonement  are  accessible 
and  available  to  all  men  for  their  salvation,  they 
have  in  the  divine  appointment  a  special  reference 
to  the  subjects  of  personal  election.  (2)  The  elect 
were  a  certain  fixed  number  determined  by  the 
decree  without  any  reference  to  their  faith  as  the 
ground  of  their  election;  which  decree  contemplates 
no  reprobation  but  rather  the  redemption  of  all 
who  will  accept  Christ  as  their  Savior.  (3)  What 
is  imputed  to  the  sinner  in  the  work  of  justification 
is  not  the  righteousness  of  Christ  but  the  faith  of 
the  sinner  himself  in  the  righteousness  of  Christ. 
(4)  Every  sinner  has  a  distinct  agency  of  his  own 
to  exert  in  the  process  of  his  conversion.  The  Bax- 
terian  theory,  with  modifications,  was  adopted  by 
many  later  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists 
in  England,  Scotland,  and  America  (Isaac  Watts, 
Philip  Doddridge,  and  many  others). 

Bxbuookapbt:  Baxter's  Practieal  fTorAu  were  collected  by  W. 
Orme  and  published  in  23  vols.,  London,  1830;  vol.  i  con- 
tains Orme's  Life  and  Times  of  Richard  Baxter,  published 
separately  in  2  vols.,  the  same  year;  a  table  of  the  con- 
tents of  this  edition  of  Baxter's  works  is  found  in  Darling's 
Cyelopadia  Bibliooraphica,  pp.  205-208,  London,  1854; 
the  Pradical  Works  appeared  also  in  4  vols.,  ib.  1847; 
and  Select  Practical  Writings,  ed.  L.  Bacon,  2  vols..  New 
Haven,  1844.  An  Annotated  List  of  the  Writings  of  R. 
Baxter  is  appended  to  the  ed.  of  What  Must  we  do  to  be 
Saved  t  by  A.  B.  Grosart,  London,  1868.  The  chief  source 
for  a  life  is  the  autobiographical  material  left  to  M.  Syl- 
vester, who  published  it  as  Reliquice  Baxteriance,  London, 
1006,  abridged  by  £.  Calamy,  1702,  this  enlarged  and  re- 
published in  2  vols.,  1713.  A  notable  paper  on  Baxter 
by  Sir  James  Stephen,  originally  published  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Review,  is  to  be  foimd  in  his  Essays,  vol.  ii,  Lon- 
don, 1860.  Among  the  bic^raphies  may  be  mentioned 
A.  B.  Grosart,  Representative  Nonconformists,  II,  Richard 
Baxter,  ib.  1879;  G.  D.  Boyle,  Men  Worth  Remembering, 
Richard  Baxter,  ib.  1883;  J.  Stalker,  Richard  Baxter,  Edin- 
burgh, 1883;  DNB,  iii,  429-437;  J.  H.  Davies,  Life 
of  Richard  Baxter,  London,  1887.  The  accoimt  of  his  trial 
is  given  by  Macaulay  in  his  History  of  England,  vol.  ii. 
Consult  also  Baxter's  Making  Light  of  Christ,  tpUh  an 
Essay  on  his  Life,  Ministry  and  Theology,  by  T.  W.  Jen- 
kyn,  London,  1846. 

BAYLE,  bdl,  PIERRE:  French  Protestant;  b. 
at  Carla  (11  m.  w.  of  Pamiers),  department  of 
Aridge,  Nov.  18,  1647;  d.  at  Rotterdam  Dec.  28, 
1706.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Calvinist  clergyman, 
and,  in  1666,  began  his  studies  at  the  Protestant 
Academy  at  Puylaurens,  whence  he  went  to  the 
University  of  Toulouse  in  1669.  Not  satisfied 
with  the  objections  of  the  Reformed  against  the 
dogma  of  a  divinely  appointed  judge  in  matters  of 
faith,  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  spent 
eighteen  months  at  the  Jesuits'  Collef^e  in  Toulouse, 


and  then  returned  to  Protestantism  and  went  to 
Geneva  (1670),  where,  living  as  a  tutor  in  private 
families,  he  studied  theology  as  well  as  the  Car- 
tesian philosophy.  His  friendship  with  Jacques 
Basnage  and  Alinutoli  began  there.  Later  he  accom- 
panied pupils  to  Rouen  and  in  1675  to  Paris.  Then 
he  spent  several  years  as  a  lecturer  on  philosophy 
at  S^dan;  when  that  academy  was  closed  by  order 
of  the  king  (1681),  he  accepted  an  appointment 
as  lecturer  on  philosophy  at  the  "  £cole  illustre  " 
of  Rotterdam.  In  this  refuge  of  liberty,  Bayle 
wrote  most  of  his  works.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  raised  his  indignation,  and  several  of  the 
best  Protestant  works  called  forth  by  that  disgraceful 
piece  of  policy  proceeded  from  the  pen  of  Bayle. 
The  conclusion  at  which  he  arrives  by  his  close 
reasoning  is:  that  matters  of  belief  should  be 
outside  the  sphere  of  the  State  as  such — a  dan- 
gerous principle  for  Catholicism,  and  the  book  was 
at  once  put  on  the  Index.  Even  among  Protes- 
tants Bayle  had  adversaries.  Jurieu,  his  jealous 
and  violent  opponent  at  Rotterdam,  considered 
toleration  equal  to  indifference,  and  reproached 
Bayle  with  dangerous  skepticism,  which  made  his 
position  very  difficult.  He  tried  for  an  appoint- 
ment in  Berlin.  But  the  realization  of  this  wish 
was  prevented  by  the  death  of  the  great  Elector 
Frederick  William.  Jurieu  continued  his  attacks 
and  even  went  so  far  as  to  represent  Bayle  as  the 
head  of  a  party  working  into  the  hands  of  Louis 
XIV  by  aiming  at  a  spUt  between  the  princes  allied 
against  France.  William  III  gave  credence  to  this 
and  influenced  the  magistrate  of  Rotterdam  to 
remove  Bayle  from  his  position  (1693).  From 
that  time  he  lived  for  his  literary  work,  chiefly 
bearing  on  philosophy  and  the  history  of  literature. 
His  Dictionnaire  historique  et  critique  [(2  vols,  in 
three  parts  Rotterdam,  1697;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1702; 
llthed.,  16  vols.,  Paris.  1820-24;  Eng.  transl.,  5 
vols.,  London,  1734-38)]  was  most  favorably  re- 
ceived by  all  the  learned  men  of  Europe,  though 
it  brought  on  him  a  revival  of  the  reproach  of 
skepticism,  of  want  of  respect  for  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, even  of  Manicheism.  Called  to  j ustify  himsdf 
before  a  conunission  appointed  by  the  presbyteiy 
of  Rotterdam,  he  was  treated  with  great  mod- 
eration, and  consented  to  change  some  of  the  offen- 
sive articles,  which  appeared  in  their  new  form  in 
the  second  edition  of  his  Dictionnavre.  Aocuastions 
against  him  came  up  again  from  time  to  time, 
and  he  tried  to  refute  them  in  minor  philosophical 
works.  Besides  the  Dictionnaire  his  works  include: 
Lettres  A  M,  L.  D,  A.  C,  docteur  en  Sorbanne,  ot^iZ 
est  prouv4  que  les  comHes  ne  sont  point  le  prisags 
d'aucun  malheur  (Cologne,  1682);  Critique  g^n&aU 
de  VHistoire  du  Calvinisme  de  M,  Maimbourg 
(Amsterdam,  1682);  Recueil  de  qudques  piices  con- 
cemant  la  philosophic  de  M,  Descartes  (Amsterdam, 
1684);  Nouvelles  de  la  R&publique  des  Jsttres  (1684- 
1687);  Ce  que  c'est  que  la  France  toute  catholiqtie  sous 
le  rkgne  de  Louis4e-Grand  (St.  Omer,  1685);  Com- 
mentaire  philosophique  sur  ces  paroles  de  J.  C: 
*Vontrains4esd*entrer  "  (Amsterdam,  1686) ;  Riponse 
de  Vauteur  des  Nouvelles  de  la  R&pMique  dee  lettrst 
en  faveur  du  P.  Malebranche  sur  les  pknsirs  des 
sens  (Rotterdam,  1686);  Avis  important  aux  rifu' 


17 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baxter 
Baaoh 


gU^  9ur  leur  prochain  reUmr  en  France  (Amsterdam, 
1690;  1709) ;  Letirea  chaiaiea  avec  des  remarquu  (Rot- 
terdam, 1714);  NouvellealeUres  (The  Hague,  1739). 

G.  Bonbp-Maury. 

Bibuoorapht:  B.  de  la  Monnoye  (paeudonym  for  Du  Re- 
vest), Hiatoirt  du  Mr.  Bayle  et  tec  ouvraota^  Amsterdam, 
1716;  P.  des  Maiseaux,  Vi«  de  P.  Bayle,  The  Hague.  1730,  re- 
printed from  the  3d  ed.  of  the  DtdTumnaire, Amsterdam,  1 730, 
reproduced  in  the Eng.  transl.  of  the  *'  Dictionary," ut  sup.; 
K  and  £.  Haag,  La  France  proteetarUe,  ii,  60-63,  9  vols., 
Paris.  1846-69;  L.  Feuerbach.  P.  Bayle,  ein  BeUrag  eur 
Oeeehichte  der  PhUoaophie  urid  der  Meneehheit,  Leipsio, 
1848;  J.  P.  Damiron,  Mhnoire  eur  Bayle  et  aee  docirineet 
Paris.  1850;  C.  A.  St.  Beuve.  in  LundU,  vol.  ix,  ib.  1852; 
F.  Bouillier,  Hietoire  de  la  j^iloaophie  cartieienne^U,  476, 
ib.  1854;  C.  Lenient,  £tude  eur  Bayle,  ib.  1855;  £.  Jean- 
maire.  Eeeai  eur  la  critique  religieuee  de  Bayle,  Stras- 
burg.  1862;  Voltaire,  SiicU  de  Louie  XIV,  chap.  36; 
A.  Deschamps,  La  QenUe  du  acepliciame  inidit  ches 
Bayle,  Brussels,  1879;  J.  Denis,  Bayle  et  Jurieu,  Caen, 
1886;  P.  Janet,  Hietoire  de  la  ecience  politiqtte  dane  eee 
rapporte  avec  la  morale,  Paris,  1887. 

BAYL£Y»  JAMES  ROOSEVELT:  Roman  Cath- 
olic archbishop  of  Baltimore;  b.  at  Rye,  N.  Y.,  Aug. 
23,  1814;  d.  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Oct.  3.  1877.  He 
was  a  nephew  of  Elizabeth  (Bayley)  Seton  ("  Mother 
Seton  ")»  founder  of  the  order  of  Sisters  of  Charity 
in  America;  was  graduated  at  Washington  (Trinity) 
College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1836;  rector  of  St. 
Peter's  church,  Harlem,  New  York,  1840-41; 
received  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  at  Rome, 
1S42;  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  New  York,  1843;  was  professor  in  St. 
John's  Ck>llege,  Fordham,  New  York,  and  its  acting 
president,  1845-46;  became  secretary  to  Bishop 
Hughes  of  New  York,  1846,  bishop  of  Newark, 
1853,  archbishop  of  Baltimore  and  primate  of 
America,  1872.  He  published  a  volume  of  pas- 
toral letters;  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  on  the  Island  of  New  York  (New  York,  1853) ; 
Memoirs  of  Simon  Gabriel  BruUj  First  Bishop  of 
Vincennes  (1861). 

BAYLY,  LEWIS:  Anglican  bishop;  b.  perhaps 
at  Carmarthen,  Wales,  perhaps  at  Lamington  (6 
m.  s.w.  of  Biggar),  Scotland,  year  unknown;  d. 
at  Bangor,  Wales,  Oct.  26,  1631.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford;  became  vicar  of  Evesham,  Worcester- 
shire, and  in  1604,  probably,  rector  of  St.  Matthew's, 
Friday  street,  London;  was  then  chaplain  to  Henry 
Prince  of  Wales  (d.  1612),  later  chaplain  to  King 
James  I,  who,  in  1616,  appointed  him  bishop  of 
Bangor.  He  was  an  ardent  Puritan.  His  fame 
rests  on  The  Practice  of  Piety ^  directing  a  Christian 
how  to  tDolk  that  he  may  please  God  (date  of  first 
ed.  unknown;  3d  ed.,  London,  1613).  It  reached 
its  74th  edition  in  1821  and  has  been  translated 
into  French,  German,  Italian,  Polish,  Romansch, 
Welsh,  and  into  the  language  of  the  Massachusetts 
Indians.  It  was  one  of  the  two  books  which  John 
Bunyan's  wife  brought  with  her — the  other  one 
being  Arthur  Dent's  Plain  Man's  Pathway  to 
Heaven — and  it  was  by  reading  it  that  Bimyan 
was  first  spiritually  awakened. 

BnuoomAPHT:  A  biographical  preface  by  Grace  Webster 
is  prefixed  to  the  Practice  of  Piety,  London,  1842;  con- 
sult also  A.  k  Wood,  Athena  Oxonieneee,  ed.  P.  Bliss,  ii, 
525-631,  4  vols.,  ib.  1813-20. 
II.— 2 


BAY  PSALM  BOOK:  A  metrical  translation 
of  the  Psalms,  published  by  Stephen  Daye  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  in  1640  and  the  first  book  printed 
in  America.  The  work  of  translation  was  begun 
in  1636,  the  principal  collaborators  being  Thomas 
Welde,  Richard  Mather,  and  John  Eliot,  the  mis- 
sionary to  the  Indians.  The  rendering,  as  the 
translators  themselves  recognized  in  their  quaint 
preface  to  the  book,  was  a  crude  specimen  of  Eng- 
lish, and  carrying  to  the  extreme  their  belief  in 
the  inspiration  of  the  Bible,  they  tortured  their 
version  into  what  they  conceived  to  be  fidelity  to 
the  original.  The  meter,  moreover,  is  irregular, 
and  the  rimes  are  frequently  ludicrous.  The 
general  spirit  and  form  of  the  translation  may 
be  represented  by  the  following  rendering  of  Ps. 
xviii,  6-9; 

6.  "  I  in  my  streights,  caPd  on  the  Lord, 

and  to  my  God  cry'd:  he  did  heare 
from  his  temple  my  voyce,  my  crye, 
before  him  came,  imto  his  eare. 

7.  *'  Then  th'  earth  shooke,  A  quak't,  A  moQtaines 

roots  mov'd,  A  were  stird  at  his  ire, 

8.  **  Vp  from  his  nostrils  went  a  smoak, 

and  from  his  mouth  devouring  fire; 
By  it  the  coales  inkindled  were. 

9.  **  Likewise  the  heavens  he  downe-bow'd. 

And  he  descended,  A  there  was 
imder  his  feet  a  gloomy  cloud." 

Of  the  first  edition  of  the  Bay  Psalm  Book  only 
eleven  copies  are  known  to  exist.  In  1647  a  second 
edition,  better  printed  and  with  the  spelling  and 
punctuation  corrected,  was  published  either  by 
Stephen  Daye  or  possibly  by  Matthew  Daye  or 
even  in  England,  and  this  edition  long  remained 
in  general  use  among  the  Puritans  of  New  England. 
A  reprint  of  the  first  edition  (71  copies)  was  issued 
privately  at  Cambridge  in  1862. 

BrBLiOQRAPirr:   R.  F.  Roden,  The  Cambridge  Preee,  New 
York,  1906. 

BDELLIUM,  deKi-mn  (Hebr.  bedholaJ^):  One 
of  the  products  of  the  land  of  Havilah,  mentioned 
with  gold  and  the  s^^am-stone  (E.  V.  "  onjrx  ") 
in  Gen.  ii,  11-12.  In  Num.  xi,  7,  manna  is  said 
to  have  resembled  it.  It  was,  therefore,  some- 
thing well  known  to  the  Hebrews,  but  the 
exact  meaning  is  uncertain.  Some  have  thought 
that  it  was  a  precious  stone,  perhaps  the  pearl; 
others  identify  it  with  myrrh  or  with  musk.  The 
most  probable  and  generally  accepted  explanation 
is  that  it  was  the  gum  of  a  tree,  much  prized  in 
antiquity  and  used  in  religious  ceremonies.  Pliny 
(Hist,  nat.f  xii,  35)  describes  it  as  transparent, 
waxy,  fragrant,  oily  to  the  touch,  and  bitter;  the 
tree  was  black,  of  the  size  of  the  olive,  with  leaves 
like  the  ilex,  and  fruit  like  the  wild  fig;  he  desig- 
nates Bactria  as  its  home,  but  states  that  it  grew 
also  in  Arabia,  India,  Media,  and  Babylonia.  It 
probably  belonged  to  the  balsamodendra  and  was 
allied  to  the  myrrh.  I.  Benzinger. 

BEACH,  HARLAN  PAGE:  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  Apr.  4,  1854.    He  was 


Beard 
Bebb 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


18 


educated  at  Yale  College  (B.A.,  1878)  and  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary  (1883).  He  was 
instructor  in  Phillips  Andover  Academy  1878-80, 
and  was  ordained  in  1883.  He  was  missionary 
in  China  for  seven  years,  and  from  1892  to  1895 
was  instructor  and  later  superintendent  of  the 
School  for  Christian  Workers,  Springfield,  Mass. 
He  was  appointed  educational  secretary  of  tlie 
Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign  Missions 
in  1895,  and  held  this  position  until  1906,  when  he 
was  chosen  professor  of  the  theory  and  practise  of 
missions  in  the  Yale  Divinity  Scliool.  He  has  been  a 
corporate  member  of  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions  since  1895  and  of 
the  cooperating  committee  of  the  same  organi- 
zation since  1906,  as  well  as  chairman  of  the  ex- 
hibit committee  and  executive  committee  of  the 
Ecumenical  Conference  in  1900,  member  of  the 
Bureau  of  Missions  Trustees  since  1901,  member 
of  the  executive  committee  of  the  Yale  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  since  1903,  member  of  the  advi- 
sory board  of  Canton  Christian  College  and  trustee 
of  the  Hartford  School  of  Religious  Pedagogy  since 
1905.  In  theology  he  is  a  moderate  conservative. 
He  has  written  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 
(New  York,  1895);  Knights  of  the  Labarum  (1896); 
New  Testament  Studies  in  Missions  (1898);  Dawn 
on  the  Hills  of  T'ang  :  or^  Missions  in  China  (1898); 
Protestant  Missions  in  South  America  (1900); 
Geography  and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions  (2  vols., 
1901-03);  Two  Hundred  Years  of  Christian  Activity 
in  Yale  (New  Haven,  1902);  Princely  Men  of  the 
Heavenly  Kingdom  (New  York,  1903);  and  India 
and  Christian  Opportunity  (1904). 

BEARD,  CHARLES:  English  Unitarian;  b.  at 
Higher  Broughton,  Manchester,  July  27,  1827, 
son  of  John  Relly  Beard,  also  a  well-known  Ilni- 
tarian  minister  and  edudator  (b.  1800;  d.  1876); 
d.  at  Liverpool  Apr.  9,  1888.  He  studied  at  Man- 
chester New  College  1843-48,  was  graduated  B.A. 
at  London  University  1847,  and  continued  his 
studies  at  Berhn  1848-49;  became  assistant  min- 
ister at  Hyde  Chapel,  Gee  Cross,  Cheshire,  1850, 
minister  1854,  minister  at  Renshaw  Street  Chapel, 
Liverpool,  1867.  From  1864  to  1879  he  edited  The 
Theological  Review.  Besides  sermons,  addresses, 
etc.,  he  published.  Port  Royal,  a  Contribution  to 
the  History  of  Religion  and  Literature  in  France 
(2  vols.,  London,  1861);  The  Reformation  in  its 
Relation  to  Modem  Thought  (Hibbert  lectures  for 
1883);  and  Martin  Luther  and  the  Reformation  in 
Germany  until  the  Close  of  the  Diet  of  Worms 
(ed.  J.  F.  Smith,  1889). 

BEARD,  RICHARD:  Cumberland  Presbyterian; 
b.  in  Sumner  County,  Tenn.,  Nov.  27,  1799;  d.  at 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  Nov.  6,  1880.  He  was  hcensed 
in  1820;  graduated  at  Cumberland  College,  Prince- 
ton, Ky.,  1832,  and  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
there  1832-38,  and  in  Sharon  College,  Sharon,  Miss., 
1838-43;  president  of  Cumberiand  College  1843-54; 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  Cumberland 
I^niversity,  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  after  1854.  He  pub- 
lished the  following  books.  Why  am  I  a  Cumberland 
Presbyterian?  (Nashville,  1872);  Lectures  on  The- 


ology (3  vols.,  1873-75);  Brief  Biographical  Sketches 
of  Some  of  the  Early  Ministers  of  ike  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  (1874). 

BEARDSLEE,  CLARK  SMITH:  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Coventry,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  1,  1850.  He 
was  educated  at  Amherst  College  (B.A.,  1876), 
Hartford  Theological  Seminary  (1879),  and  the 
University  of  Berlin.  He  was  instructor  in  He- 
brew at  Hartford  Theological  Seminarj-  from  1878 
to  1881,  and  then  held  successive  pastorates  at  Le 
Mars,  la.  (1882-85),  Prescott,  Ariz.  (1885-^), 
and  West  Springfield,  Mass.  (1886-88).  In  1888 
he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  systematic 
theology  at  Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  and 
four  years  later  was  made  professor  of  Bibhcal 
dogmatics  and  ethics,  a  position  which  he  still 
holds.  In  theology  he  is  a  Biblical  Evangelical. 
He  is  the  author  of  Christ's  Estimate  of  Himself 
(Hartford,  1899);  Teacher-Training  with  the  Master 
Teacher  (Philadelphia,  1903);  and  Jeeus  the  King 
of  Truth  (Hartford,  1905). 

BEATIFICATION:  An  intermediate  stage  in 
the  process  of  canonization.  It  is  in  modem  usage 
itself  the  result  of  a  lengthy  course  of  inquiry  into 
the  life  of  the  person  under  consideration,  and  is 
solemnly  declared  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  By 
it  the  title  of  "  Blessed  "  is  attributed  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  a  Hmited  and  partial  cultus  of  him  per- 
mitted, as  in  a  certain  coimtiy  or  order.  See 
Canonization. 

BEATIFIC  VISION:  The  direct  and  unhindered 
vision  of  God,  which  is  part  of  the  reserved  blessed- 
ness of  the  redeemed  (I  Cor.  xiii,  12;  I  John  iii,  2; 
Rev.  xxii,  3,  4 ).  The  conception  of  its  nature 
must  necessarily  be  very  vague,  but  beUef  in  its 
existence  is  said  to  be  founded  upon  Scripture  and 
reason.  The  only  question  concerns  its  time. 
This  has  been  much  disputed.  The  Greek  Chureh 
and  many  Protestants,  especially  Lutherans  and 
Calvinists,  put  the  vision  after  the  judgment  day 
(so  Dr.  Hodge,  Systematic  Theology y  iii,  860).  Ac- 
cording to  the  view  prevalent  among  Roman  Catho- 
lic theologians,  the  vision,  though  essentially  com- 
plete before  the  resurrection,  is  not  integrally  so 
until  the  soul  is  reunited  to  the  glorified  body  (con- 
sult H.  Hurter,  Theologice  dogmaticce  compendium^ 
vol.  iii,  De  Deo  consummatore,  chap,  v,  10th  ed., 
Innsbruck,  1900). 

BEATON,  bi'ten  (BETHUNE),  be-thOn'  or 
be-tUn',  DAVID:  Cardinal-archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews;  b.  1494;  assassinated  at  St.  Andrews 
May  29, 1546.  He  was  the  third  son  of  John  Beaton 
of  Auchmuty,  Fifeshire;  studied  at  the  universities 
of  St.  Andrews  and  Glasgow,  and  at  the  age  of 
fifteen  went  to  Paris  and  studied  law;  became  abbot 
of  Arbroath  in  1523;  bishop  of  Mirepoix  in  Langue- 
doc  1537;  cardinal  Dec.,  1538.  He  was  made 
lord  privy  seal  in  1528;  succeeded  his  uncle,  James 
Beaton,  as  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  in  1539; 
was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Glasgow  at  Rome  in 
1552;  became  chancellor  and  prothonotary  apos- 
tolic and  legate  a  latere  in  1543.  He  served  his 
country  in  many  imp>ortant  diplomatic  missions. 


10 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beard 
Bebb 


In  the  bitter  political  contests  of  the  time  between 
the  French  and  English  parties  he  sided  with  the 
former,  and  fought  with  energy  and  courage  for 
the  independence  of  Scotland  against  the  plans  of 
Henry  VIII.  In  the  religious  contests  between 
Romanists  and  Reformers  he  took  as  decidedly  the 
part  of  the  hierarchy  and  did  not  scruple  to  use 
intrigue  and  force  when  argument  and  persuasion 
failed.  His  memory  has  been  darkened  by  his 
severity  against  heretics  and  his  immoral  life. 
The  case  of  George  Wishart  (q.v.)  is  adduced  as  a 
particularly  flagrant  piece  of  religious  persecution; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  lived  in  a  rude 
country  in  turbulent  times,  and  the  Reformers  were 
implicated  in  political  intrigues  and  treasonable 
plots.  The  execution  of  Wishart  was  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  a  conspiracy  to  put  Beaton  out  of 
the  way,  and  certain  members  of  the  Reform 
party  murdered  him  in  his  bedchamber. 

Bibuoqrapht:  R.  Chambers,  Lives  of  lUuatriouB  Scotchmen, 
ed.  T.  ThomaoD.  5  vols..  Edinburgh.  1835;  C.  R.  Rogers. 
Life  of  George  WiaKart,  ib.  1876;  DNB,  iv.  17-18;  J.  Herk- 
lem.  Cardinal  Beaton,  Priest  and  Politician,  London,  1891. 

BEATTIE,  FRANCIS  ROBERT:  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Guelph,  Ont.,  Mar.  31,1848;  d.  at  Louisville, 
Ky.,  Sept.  4,  1906.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Toronto  (B.A.,  1875),  Knox  Theo- 
logical College,  Toronto  (1878),  Illmois  Wesleyan 
University  (Ph.D.,  1884),  and  Presbyterian  Theo- 
logical Ck>llege,  Montreal  (D.D.,  1887).  He  was 
tutor  in  Knox  CJollege  in  187G-78,  and  held  Cana- 
dian pastorates  at  Baltimore  and  Coldsprings 
(1878-82)  and  Brantford  (1882-88),  in  addition 
to  being  examiner  to  Toronto  University  in  1884- 
1  £8S.  In  the  latter  year  he  entered  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  South,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
apologetics  in  Columbia  Seminary,  Columbia,  S.  C, 
remaining  there  until  1893,  when  he  became 
prof  esse  4*  of  apologetics  and  systematic  theology  in 
the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  of  Ken- 
tucky at  Louisville.  He  published  UtUUarian 
Theory  of  Morals  (Brantford,  Ont.,  1884);  Methods 
of  Theism  (1887);  Radical  Criticism  (Chicago,  1894); 
Presbyterian  Standards  (Richmond,  Va.,  1896);  and 
Apologetics  (vol.  i,  1903)'.  He  also  edited  the  Me- 
morial Volume  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  Cdebrar 
Hon  at  ChartotUy  N.  C,  (Riclmiond,  Va.,  1897),  and 
was  associate  editor  of  the  Christian  Observer 
from  1893  and  of  The  Presbyterian  Quarterly  from 
1895. 

BEATTIE,  JAMES:  Scotch  poet;  b.  at  Laurence- 
kirk (70  m.  n.n.e.  of  Edinburgh),  Kincardineshire, 
Oct.  25,  1735;  d.  at  Aberdeen  Aug.  18,  1803.  He 
studied  at  the  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen  (M.A., 
1753),  and,  after  seven  years  as  a  school-teacher, 
became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  logic 
at  that  institution  in  1760.  In  reply  to  Hume  he 
wrote  An  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Immutability 
of  Truth  (London,  1770),  which  was  popular  and 
successful,  but  has  little  value  as  a  philosophical 
work.  Other  works  of  his  were:  Dissertations, 
Moral  and  Critical  ( 1783);  Evidences  of  the  Christian 
Religion  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1786);  and  Elements 
of  Moral  Science  (2  vols.,  1790-93).  His  poems, 
of  which  the  chief  is  The  Minstrel  (books  i-ii,  1771- 


1774),  are  much  better  than  his  philosophical  wri- 
tings; and  it  is  for  them  that  he  is  remembered. 

Bibuoorapht:  Sir  William  Forbes,  An  Account  of  the  Life 
and  WrUinoa  of  Jamee  Beattie,  Edinburgh,  1800;  DNB, 
iv.  22-26. 

BEAUSOBRE,  b0"s6'br,  ISAAC  DE:  One  of 
the  most  distinguished  preachers  of  the  French 
Protestant  Church;  b.  at  Niort  (220  m.  s.w.  of 
Paris),  in  the  present  department  of  Deux-Sftvres, 
Mar.  8,  1659;  d.  in  Berlin  June  5,  1738.  He  was 
descended  from  a  Protestant  family  of  Gascogne, 
whose  head  took  refuge  in  Geneva  in  1578.  He 
began  his  theological  studies  at  the  celebrated 
academy  of  Saumur,  was  ordained  at  the  last 
synod  of  Loudun,  and  was  called  to  be  minister 
of  the  church  at  Chatillon,  department  of  Indre, 
1683.  During  the  religious  persecution,  he  fled 
in  Nov.,  1685,  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  was  wel- 
comed at  the  house  of  the  princess  of  Orange  and, 
through  her,  was  appointed  chaplain  to  her  daughter, 
princess  of  Anhalt-Dessau.  In  1 694  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick 
III,  and  was  called  to  Berlin  as  minister  of  the 
French  Church.  He  stayed  there  for  thirty-six 
years,  preaching  with  much  success,  and  was 
loaded  with  favors  by  King  Frederick  II.  Among 
other  honorable  missions,  he  was  sent  in  1704  to 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and,  in  1713,  to  the 
commissioners  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  to  ask  for 
the  exchange  of  Huguenot  galley-slaves  for  French 
prisoners.  He  was  privy  councilor  of  the  king 
of  Prussia,  director  of  the  French  House  and  of 
the  French  schools,  and  superintendent  of  all  the 
French  churches  in  Berlin. 

His  works  are:  Defense  de  la  doctrine  des  Ri- 
fomUs  sur  la  Providence,  la  pridestination,  la  grdce^ 
et  VEucharistie  (Magdeburg,  1693);  Les  Psaumes 
de  David  mis  en  rime  frangaise  (Berlin,  1701);  Le 
Nouvcau-Testament  de  J.  C.  traduit  eri  frangais 
sur  Voriginal  grec,  avec  des  notes  litt^ales  (Amster- 
dam, 1718);  Histoire  critique  de  Manich^e  et  du 
ManichHsme  (1739);  Sermons  (4  vols.,  Lausanne, 
1755);  Histoire  de  la  Reformation  ou  origine  et  pro- 
gr^s  du  Luthiranisme  dans  V  Empire  de  1617  ^  1636 
(4  vols.,  Berlin,  178^-86).        G.  Bonet-Maury. 

Biblioorapbt:  A  life  ia  prefixed  by  A.  B.  de  la  Chapelle 
to  BeauBobre's  Remarquee  .  .  .  eur  le  Nouveau  Teetament, 
2  vols..  The  Hague,  1742.  Consult  J.  H.  S.  Formey.  £loge 
dee  acadhniciene  de  Berlin,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1757;  E.  and 
tl.  Haag,  La  France  proteetante,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier.  ii,  1 27, 
Paris.  1877;  C.  J.  G.  Bartholmess,  Le  Grand  Beaueabre, 
in  BvUetin  de  la  eociiti  d*hietoire  du  proteetantiame  frangaie, 
ib.  1876. 

BEBB,  LLEWELLYN  JOHN  MONTFORT: 
Chureh  of  England;  b.  at  Cape  Town  Feb.  16,  1862. 
He  was  educated  at  New  College,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1885),  and  was  fellow  (1885-98),  tutor  (1889-98), 
and  librarian  (1892-98)  of  Brasenose  College. 
He  was  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury from  1893  to  1898,  and  to  the  bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  from  1898  to  1902,  and  was  also  curator  of 
the  botanical  garden,  Oxford,  in  189^98  and  Grin- 
feld  lecturer  on  the  Septuagint  in  the  University 
of  Oxford  in  1897-1901.  From  1892  to  1896  he 
was  vice-principal  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford, 
and  since  1898  has  been  principal  of  St.  David's 
College,  Lampeter,  Wales.    He  was  select  preacher 


Bebenborr 
BMket 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


80 


at  Cambridge  in  1904,  and  has  ^Titten  Eindmce 
of  the  Early  VetBiona  and  PotrUtic  Q-imU^ionA  on 
the  Text  of  the  New  Testament,  in  Sttidia  Biblira, 
n  (Oxford,  1890),  and  has  edited  SerTnona  Preached 
before  the  Unii^$Uy  of  Oxford  (1901)  and  U,  Z. 
Rule's  Graduated  Leuons  from  the  Old  Testament 
(1902), 

BEBEliBUItG,  LUPOID  VON:  Bishop  of 
Bamberg,  best  known  for  his  writings  on  eccle- 
Biastico-palitical  subjects^  d.  1363,  He  came  of 
a  knightly  Frankif?h  family,  and  studied  canoo 
law  at  Bologna.  From  1^38  to  1352  he  was  a 
member  of  the  ehapters  of  Wurabnrg  and  Mainz 
&nd  dean  of  St.  Severus  at  Erfurt.  In  1353  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Bamberg,  and  remained  there 
till  his  death.  In  the  struggle  between  Loui^  the 
Bavarian  and  Popes  John  XXIlj  Benedict  XII, 
and  Clement  VI,  he  was  among  the  jurists  who 
took  the  emperor's  side.  His  treatise  De  juribiia 
regni  et  imperii  Romanorum  (ed*  J.  Wimpfehrtg, 
Strasbnrg,  1508;  S,  Scbard,  in  De  juH^dictione, 
aiictorUatej  el  prtseminentia  imperiali  ac  potentate 
tcckaimtic^  rani*  auctoribus  scripia,  Ba.*»eU  1566, 
and  often),  dedicated  to  Louis'  supporter,  the 
elector  Baldwin  of  Treves,  deak  \em  with  abstraet 
ideas  and  Aristotelian  politics  tlian  with  historical 
consi derations »  Two  minor  works  of  his  have  also 
been  preserved,  one  in  praiete  of  the  devotion  of  the 
old  German  princes  to  the  Church  (in  Seliard,  ut 
BUpO*  the  other  a  lament  over  the  condition  of  the 
Hol^  Roman  Empire  (ed.  Peter,  Wtirzburg,  1S42). 

(E,  FniEDBEfUl.) 

BnfLiooBArvr:  J*  hoonhom.  Die  Gitehithts  de«  Bisthuttu 
Bamberg,  iji.  246-306,  BiMdittf  LujhM  HI  lan  B^brnbHrg, 
Munich,  1S91;  A,  Uuerniatia,  Epi*citpatut  Bamhtrgtnjki*, 
pp.  17S-1S0,  S&n  Dion.  1802;  B.  Hip^ler,  Die  lUtrarUchen 
Wid€rg<^htr  dtr  P&pMte.  pp.  107-114.  180-19'i.  LeipBic, 
J 874;  F,  Jimh  LujXfkt  III  von  Bebenbure,  vul.  i,  Sein  L€htn^ 
Ha1I«,  1891  (the  reauU  of  dLlig)ent  rescATch). 

BEG,  ABBEY  OF:  Benedictine  abbey  of  Nor* 
mandy,  situatcni  at  the  present  village  of  Le  Bee- 
Hellouin  (7  m.  s.w,  of  Rouen).  It  was  founded 
about  1034  by  Herluinj  a  noble  Norman,  who  was 
first  abbot.  Mainly  because  of  iti  great  teachers, 
Lanfranc  (who  came  to  the  abbey  about  1042 
and  was  prior  1045  or  104Cj-66)  and  Anselm  (en- 
tered the  abbey  1060; prior  lOeS-^TS;  abbot  1078-93; 
see  Anselm,  SAtNT,  or  Canterbort),  it  became 
a  famous  eenter  of  learning  for  Normandy  and,  after 
the  Cbnqueat,  for  England.  Among  those  who 
studied  there  were:  Anselm  of  Lucca,  afterward 
Pope  Alexander  II;  Anselm  of  Laon;  Gilbert 
Crispin,  abbot  of  Westminster,  author  of  the  life 
of  Heriuin;  Milo  Crispin^  biographer  of  Lanfranc 
and  certain  of  the  early  abbots;  Amulf  and  Gun- 
dulf,  bishops  of  Rochester;  Ivo  of  Oiartres;  Gut* 
mund|  arehbishop  of  A  versa;  and  William,  arch- 
bishop of  Rouen.  Its  fifth  abbot,  Theobald, 
became  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1139);  mid  the 
■eventh  abbot  was  Vacarius,  who  about  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century  introduced  the  study  of  the 
Roman  law  into  England*  The  abbey  was  des- 
troyed during  the  French  Revolution 

filSLxoaRJL^KT:  The  Ckronicim  Beeatntit  o&balicv.  with  the 
liTes  b  j  the  Crispin*  *bovo  referred  to.  *«  in  D^Achery's 
vdition  d|  (be  wcirki  of  L&nfrfttic,  Puis,  1&4S;  reprtuted 


ID  MPL,  cl;  E.nd  the  Getta  of  seven  Abbots  of  B««,  by 
Peter  ibe  Monk,  written  1150,  are  in  MPL,  clxzxL 

BEGAN  (VERBEECK,  VAN  DER  BEECK), 
MAATIN:  Jesuit;  b.  at  Hilvarenbeeek  (35m.  n.e.  of 
Antwerp),  in  Brabant,  Jan.  6,  1563;  d.  in  Vienna 
Jan.  24,  1624.  He  joined  the  Jesuits  in  1583; 
taught  philosophy  and  theology  at  schools  of  the 
order  in  (Cologne,  Warzbui^g^  Main^^  and  Vienna; 
and  became  confessor  to  the  emperor  Ferdinand  11. 
in  1 52t).  He  engaged  in  controversy  with  Lutherans, 
Calvinists  and  Anabaptists,  and  in  particular  at- 
tacked the  Church  of  England,  In  his  Contro- 
versia  Anglimna  de  poletsiate  poniifieia  et  regis  (Main*, 
1613)  he  defended  the  morality  of  assassinating  a 
heretic  king;  and  in  QuwstioTiea  de  Jide  hceretim 
servanda  (1609)  he  declared  that  no  promise  or 
oath  given  to  a  heretic  was  binding.  The  former 
work  was  condemned  at  Rome.  His  collected 
works  were  published  in  two  volumes  at  MaJoSj 
1630-31, 

BECK,  JOHANN  TOBIAS:  German  theologian; 
b.  at  Balmgen  (40  m.  s.s.w.  of  Stuttgart),  WOrt- 
temberg,  Feb.  22,  1804;  d.  at  Tiibingen  Dec.  28, 
1878.  He  studied  at  Tilbingen  1S22-26,  was  pastor 
at  Waldthann  and  Mergentbeim^  went  to  Basel  ss 
extraordinary  professor  in  1S36,  and  in  1S43  to 
Tdbingen,  where  he  remained  as  professor  and 
morning  preacher  till  his  death.  He  has  been  char- 
acterised as  the  moat  important  representative  of 
the  strictly  BibUcal  school  of  theology  in  the  nine^ 
teenth  century.  He  aimed  to  base  all  doctrine  oa 
the  Bible,  and  allowed  value  to  Church  tea^hinp 
only  as  interpretations  of  the  Bible,  He  held  an 
extreme  view  of  revelation  and  inspiration,  and 
hardly  entered  into  critico-historical  questions. 
His  life  was  plain  and  simple,  and  his  kind  heart 
won  general  affection.  He  published,  besides 
several  collections  of  sermons,  the  following  works: 
Einieiiung  in  das  System  der  christlichen  Lthre 
(Stuttgart,  1S38,  2d  ed.,  1870);  Dw Geburt  d^ ehrist- 
lichen  Lebens^  xein  Wesen  und  sfi'n  Geseis  (Basely 
1839);  Z>ie  chriattiche  Lehrwinaenschafi  nock  den 
bitliachen  Urhunden,  i,  Logik  (Stuttgart,  1S41^  2d 
ed.,  1875);  Die  ehristliche  Af  enachenlii^f  daa  Wort 
und  die  Getrmnde  Chriati  (Basd,  1842);  Umriaa  det 
bihiischen  Seelenlehre  (Stuttgart,  1843,  3d  ed., 
1873;  Eng.  transL,  Biblical  Psychology,  Edinburgh, 
1877);  JMtfaden  der  chriatlickan  Glavbeiialehre  fUr 
Kirche,  Schnte  und  Ham  (Stuttgart,  1S62,  2d  ed., 
1869) ;  Gedank^i  aua  und  narh  der  Schrift  fikr  ehriat- 
lichea  Leben  und  geiatlichea  Ami  (Frankfort,  1859; 
2d  ed.,  1878).  After  his  death  were  published 
commentarie*^  on  the  epistles  to  Timothy  (Giitersloh, 
1879)  and  the  Romans  (2  vols.,  1884),  and  on  Rev. 
i-xii  (1883);  PastaraUehren  des  Neuen  Testaments 
(1880;  Eng.  transL,  Pastoral  Theology,  Edinburgh, 
1882);  Vorkaungen  iUfer  ehrktOche  Ethik  (3  vols,, 
1882^83) ;  Briefe  und  Kemu>oTie  ( 1 885) ;  VorUsungen 
ikber  christiiche  Glattben^khre  (2  vols.,  1886-87); 
Volkndung  dea  Rci^hea  Gottea  (1887).  (A.  Hauck.) 

BtBUWiHAPaT:  For  hia  life  cfOnsultj  Worts  dtr  Erinntrun^, 
Tilbinsen,  1870  (the  part  by  Weiisftfiker  is  eipeci&lLr  v*l< 
liable):  B.  J.  RiEireubach,  T.  Beck,  ein  SdtriftifeiekrUr 
fum  Himmeifiich,  Da.^1,  18SS.  On  hi«  tlieo)oinr  consult; 
F,  Li«betrut,  J.  T.  Beck  vnd  nin4  SUtlung  tw    Kirdm^ 


SI 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bebenbnrff 
Beoket 


B«rlizi«  1868;  C.  Sturhahn.  Die  RecfUfertiffunoalehre  nach 
Bmck  mii  BerUekMidUigurio  von  Ebrard*a  Sola,  Leipsic,  1800. 
On  his  work  ma  a  preacher:  A.  Brdmel,  HomiletUdie  Charak- 
ferbOdet,  2  vols.,  ib.  1874;  A.  Nebe.  Qwchichie  der  PrtdigU 
▼oL  iii.  Wiesbaden.  1879. 

BECKET,  THOMAS  (commonly  called  Thomas 
a  Becket) :  Archbishop  of  Canterbuxy  1162-70. 
the  most  determmed  English  champion  of  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  Church  in  his  day; 
b.  in  London  between  1110  and  1120;  assassinated 
at  Canterbury  Dec.  29,  1170.  His  parents  were  of 
the  middle  class.  He  received  an  excellent  edu- 
cation, which  he  completed  at  the  University  of 
Paris.  Returning  to  England,  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  Theobald, '  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
who  entrusted  him  with  several  important  missions 
to  Rome,  and  finally  made  him  archdeacon  of 
Canterbury  and  provost  of  Beverley.  He  so  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  zeal  and  efficiency  that 
Theobald  commended  him  to  King  Henry  II  when 
the  important  office  of  chancellor  was  vacant. 
Henry,  like  all  the  Norman  kings,  desired  to  be 
absolute  master  of  his  dominions,  in  both  Church 
and  State,  and  could  well  appeal  to  the  traditions 
of  his  house  when  he  planned  to  do 
Life  before  away  with  the  special  privileges  of 
his  Conse-  the  English  clergy,  which  he  regarded 
cration.  as  so  many  fetters  on  his  authority. 
Becket  struck  him  as  an  instrument 
well  adapted  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  designs; 
the  yoimg  man  showed  himself  an  accomplished 
courtier,  a  cheerful  companion  in  the  king's  pleas- 
ures, and  devoted  to  his  master's  interests  with 
such  a  firm  and  yet  diplomatic  thoroughness  that 
scarcely  any  one,  unless  perhaps  it  was  John  of 
Salisbury,  could  have  doubted  that  he  had  gone 
over  completely  to  the  royal  side.  Archbishop 
Theobald  died  Apr.  18,  1161,  and  the  chapter 
learned  with  some  indignation  that  the  king  ex- 
pected them  to  choose  Thomas  his  successor. 
The  election  was,  however,  consummated  in  May, 
and  Thomas  was  consecrated  on  June  3,  1162. 

At  once  there  took  place  before  the  eyes  of  the 
astonished  king  and  country  an  unexpected  trans- 
formation in  the  character  of  the  new  primate. 
Inatead  of  a  gay,  pleasure-loving  courtier,  he  stood 
forth  an  ascetic  prelate  in  simple  monastic  garb, 
ready  to  contend  to  the  uttermost  for  the  cause 
of  the  hierarchy.  In  the  schism  which  at  that  time 
divided  the  Church,  he  declared  for 
Archbishop,  Alexander  III  (q.v.),  a  man  whose 
zz62.  devotion  to  the  same  strict  hierarch- 
ical principles  appealed  to  him;  and 
from  Alexander  he  received  the  palliimi  at  the 
Council  of  Tours.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
proceeded  at  once  to  put  into  execution  the  project 
he  had  formed  for  the  liberation  of  the  Church  of 
England  from  the  very  limitations  which  he  had 
formerly  helped  to  enforce.  His  aim  was  twofold: 
the  complete  exemption  of  the  Church  from  all 
civil  jurisdiction,  with  undivided  control  of  the 
clergy,  freedom  of  appeal,  etc.,  and  the  acquisition 
and  security  of  an  independent  fund  of  church 
property.  The  king  was  not  slow  to  perceive  the 
inevitable  outcome  of  the  archbishop's  attitude, 
and  called  a  meeting  of  the  clergy  at  Westminster 


(Oct.  1,  1163)  at  which  he  demanded  that  they 
should  renounce  all  claim  to  exemption  from  civil 
jurisdiction  and  acknowledge  the  equality  of  all 
subjects  before  the  law.  The  others  were  inclined 
to  yield,  but  the  archbishop  stood  firm.  Heniy  was 
not  ready  for  an  open  breach,  and  o£fered  to  be 
content  with  a  more  general  acknowledgment  and 
recognition  of  the  ''  customs  of  his  ancestors." 
Thomas  was  willing  to  agree  to  this,  with  the  sig- 
nificant reservation  "  saving  the  rights  of  the 
Church."  But  this  involved  the  whole  question 
at  issue,  and  Henry  left  London  in  anger. 

Henry  called  another  assembly  at  Clarendon  for 
Jan.  30,  1164,  at  which  he  presented  his  demands 
in  sixteen  constitutions.    What  he  asked  involved 

the  abandonment  of  the  clergy's  in- 
The  Con-    dependence  and  of  their  direct  con- 
stitutions of  nection  with  Rome;  he  employed  all  his 
Clarendon,    arts  to  induce  their  consent,  and  was 

apparently  successful  with  all  but  the 
primate.  Finally  even  Becket  expressed  his  will- 
ingness to  agree  to  the  constitutions;  but  when  it 
came  to  the  actual  signature  he  definitely  refused. 
This  meant  war  between  the  two  powers.  Henry 
endeavored  to  rid  himself  of  his  antagonist  by  ju- 
dicial process  and  summoned  him  to  appear  before 
a  great  council  at  Northampton  on  Oct.  8,  1164,  to 
answer  charges  of  contempt  of  royal  authority  and 
maladministration  of  the  chancellor's  office. 

Becket  denied  the  right  of  the  assembly  to 
judge  him,  appealed  to  the  pope,  and,  feeling  that 
his  life  was  too  valuable  to  the  Church  to  be  risked, 
went  into  voluntary  exile  on  Nov.  2,  embarking  in 
a  fishing-boat  which  landed  him  in  France.  He 
went  to  Sens,  where  Pope  Alexander  was,  while 
envoys  from  the  king  hastened  to  work  against 

him,  requesting  that  a  legate  should 
Becket      be  sent  to  England  with  plenary  au- 
Leaves      thority  to  settle  the  dispute.     Alex- 
England,    ander  declined,   and  when,  the  next 

day,  Becket  arrived  and  gave  him  a 
full  account  of  the  proceedings,  he  was  still  more 
confirmed  in  his  aversion  to  the  king.  Henry 
pursued  the  fugitive  archbishop  with  a  series  of 
edicts,  aimed  at  all  his  friends  and  supporters  as 
well  as  himself;  but  Louis  VII  of  France  received 
him  with  respect  and  o£fered  him  protection.  He 
spent  nearly  two  years  in  the  Cistercian  abbey  of 
Pontigny,  imtil  Henry's  threats  against  the  order 
obliged  him  to  move  to  Sens  again.  He  regarded 
himself  as  in  full  possession  of  all  his  prerogatives, 
and  desired  to  see  his  position  enforced  by  the 
weapons  of  excommunication  and  interdict.  But 
Alexander,  though  sympathizing  with  him  in  theory, 
was  for  a  milder  and  more  diplomatic  way  of  reach- 
ing his  ends.  Differences  thus  arose  between  pope 
and  archbishop,  which  were  all  the  more  embit- 
tered when  legates  were  sent  in  1167  with  authority 
to  act  as  arbitrators.  Disregarding  this  limita- 
tion of  his  jurisdiction,  and  steadfast  in  his  prin- 
ciples, Thomas  treated  with  the  legates  at  great 
length,  still  conditioning  his  obedience  to  the  king 
by  the  rights  of  his  order.  His  firmness  seemed 
about  to  meet  with  its  reward  when  at  last  (1170) 
the  pope  was  on  the  point  of  fulfilling  his  threats 
and  excommunicating  the  king,  and  Henry,  alarmed 


Beoket 
Beeoher 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


22 


by  the  prospect,  held  out  hopes  of  an  agreement 
which  should  allow  Thomas  to  return  to  England 
and  resume  his  place.  But  both  parties  were 
really  still  holding  to  their  former  ground,  and  the 
desire  for  a  reconciliation  was  only  apparent. 
Both,  however,  seem  for  the  moment  to  have  be- 
lieved in  its  possibility;  and  the  contrast  was  uU 
the  sharper  when  it  became  evident  that  the  old 
irreconcilable  opposition  was  still  there.  Henry, 
incited  by  his  partizans,  refused  to  restore  the  ec- 
clesiastical property  which  he  had  seized,  and 
Thomas  prepared  to  issue  the  pope's  sentence 
against  the  despoilers  of  the  Church  and  the  bishops 
who  had  abetted  them.  It  had  been  already  sent 
to  England  for  promulgation  when  he  himself 
landed  at  Sandwich  on  Dec.  3,  1170,  and  two  days 
later  entered  Canterbury. 

The  tension  was  now  too  great  to  be  endured, 
and  the  catastrophe  which  reUeved  it  was  not  long 
in  coming.  A  passionate  word  of  the  angry  king 
was  taken  as  authority  by  four  knights,  who  imme- 
diately plotted  the  murder  of  the  archbishop,  and 

accomplished  it  in  his  own  cathedral 
Becket  As-  on  Dec.  29.  The  crime  brought  its 
sassinated.  own  revenge.     Becket  was  revered  by 

the  faithful  throughout  Europe  as  a 
martyr,  and  canonized  by  Alexander  in  1173;  while 
on  July  12  of  the  following  year  Henry  humbled 
himself  to  do  public  penance  at  the  tomb  of  his 
enemy,  which  remained  one  of  the  most  popular 
places  of  pilgrimage  in  England  until  it  was  des- 
troyed at  the  Reformation  (see  Canterbury). 

(Carl  Mirbt.) 

Biblioqrapht:  The  souroea  for  a  life  were  collected  by  J. 
C.  Robertaon  in  Materialt  fur  the  HUl.  of  Thomat  Becket, 
8  vols.,  in  RoiU  SerieM,  London,  1875-85  (contains  all  the 
known  oontemix>rary  lives,  others  of  later  date,  the  Epia- 
UeM,  and  other  material);  of.  the  Vila,  epiatolce  et  reliquia, 
ed.  J.  A.  Giles  in  PEA,  8  vols..  Oxford.  1845-46.  and 
J.  A.  Giles,  lAfe  and  I^tterw  of  Thomat  b,  Becket,  2  voIa.. 
London.  1846.  For  later  discussions  and  lives  consult: 
M.  Coumier,  VArchev6que  de  CarUorbh^,  2  vols.,  Paris. 
1845;  J.  C.  Robertson.  Becket,  London.  1859;  W.  F. 
Uook,  Livf  of  the  ArchbUhope  of  Canterbury,  ii,  354-507. 
ib.  1862;  E.  A.  Freeman,  in  Historical  Eaaaya,  series  2, 
ib.  1880;  idem,  in  Contempontry  Review,  Mar.-Apr.,  1878; 
J.  A.  Froude,  Life  and  Times  of  Becket,  in  Short  Studies, 
vol.  iv,  ib.  1883;  idem,  in  Nineteenth  Century,  ii  (1877), 
15-27,  217-229,  389-410,  669-691;  C.  P.  Stanley,  Histor- 
ical Memorials  of  Canterbury,  pp.  59-126, 189-302,  London. 
1883;  W.  H.  Huttoh.  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  ib.  1889 
(from  contemporary  lives);  J.  Morris,  Life  and  Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Thomas  Becket,  ib.  1891  (Roman  Catholic,  deals 
with  monasteries  and  churches  associated  with  Becket); 
M.  Schmiti,  Die  politischen  Ideen  des  Thomas  Becket,  Cre- 
feld.  1893;  E.  A.  Abbott.  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury:  his 
Death  and  Miracles,  2  vols.,  London,  1898  (traverws  the 
earlier  accounts  in  a  critical  examination);  DNB,  Ivi. 
165-173. 

BECKWITH,       CHARLES       BflNNIGERODE: 

Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of  Alabama;  b.  in 
Prince  George  Co.,  Va.,  June  3,  1851.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Greorgia  (B.A.,  1873),  was  mas- 
ter of  the  Sewanee  Grammar  Scliool,  University  of 
the  South  (Sewanee,  Tenn.),  1873-79,  and  was 
graduated  from  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  in  1881.  He  was  ordered  deacon  and 
advanced  to  the  priesthood  in  the  same  year,  and 
was  rector  of  St.  Luke's,  Atlanta,  Ga.  (1881-86), 
Christ    Churoh,    Houston,    Tex.    (1886-92),    and 


Trinity,  Galveston,  Tex.  (1892-1902).  Jn  1902  he 
was  consecrated  fourth  bishop  of  Alabama.  He 
has  written  The  Trinity  Course  of  Church  Instruc- 
tion (New  York,  1898)  and  The  Teacher's  Com- 
panum  to  the  Trinity  Course  (1901). 


BECKWITH,  CLARENCE  AUGUSTIirE:  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Charlemont,  Mass.,  July 
21,  1849.  He  studied  at  Olivet  College,  Olivet. 
Mich.  (B.A.,  1874),  Yale  Divinity  School  (1874-76), 
and  Bangor  Theological  Seminary,  from  which 
he  was  graduated  in  1877.  He  became  pastor  of 
the  First  Congregational  Church,  Brewer,  Me.,  in 
1877,  of  the  South  Evangelical  Congregational 
Church,  West  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1882,  professor 
of  Christian  theology  at  Bangor  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1892,  and  professor  of  systematic  theolo|Q' 
at  Chicago  Theological  Seminary  in  1905.  He 
holds  that  "  the  realities  of  the  Christian  religion 
and  the  facts  of  Christian  experience  which  we 
share  with  Christians  of  all  ages  are  to  be  inter- 
preted by  us  in  terms  of  modem  thought."  He 
has  written  Realities  of  Christian  Theology  (New 
York,  1906). 

BECKX,  PIERP^  JEAN:  General  of  the  Jcsuit.s; 
b.  at  Sichem  (33  m.  s.e.  of  Antwerp)  Feb.  8,  1795; 
d.  at  Rome  Mar.  4,  1887.  He  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  at  Hildesheim  in  1819,  and  was  professed 
in  1830.  He  was  active  as  a  pastor  at  Hamburg, 
Hildesheim,  and  Brunswick,  and  in  1826  was  sta- 
tioned at  K6then  as  the  confessor  of  the  newly  con- 
verted duke  and  duchess  of  Anhalt-K6then.  From 
1830  to  1848  he  was  in  Vienna,  where  he  exercised 
much  influence,  especially  over  Mettemich,  and 
was  made  procurator  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  that 
country  in  1847;  when  his  Order  was  expelled 
from  Austria  in  1848,  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
the  University  of  Ix)uvain.  Four  years  later,  how- 
ever, the  Jesuits  wore  readmitted  to  Austria,  largely 
through  his  unceiusing  activity,  and  in  1852  he  re- 
turned to  Vienna  as  provincial  of  the  Society.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  elected  general,  and  held 
this  office  until  1883.  when,  on  account  of  his  ad- 
vancing years,  the  vicar-general  Antoine  M.  Ander- 
ledy  was  appointed  to  assist  him.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  Beckx  resigned  the  generalship  in  favor  of 
Anderledy.  The  successful  fortunes  of  the  Jesuits 
during  the  attacks  upon  them  both  in  Austria  and 
Germany  were  due  in  great  part  to  his  ability  and 
tact,  and  in  his  administration  the  numbers  of  the 
Society  were  almost  doubled.  He  was  the  founder 
and  editor  of  the  famous  CitrUta  Cattolica,  and  also 
wrote  the  anonymous  Der  Monat  Marid  (Vienna, 
1838;  Eng.  transl.  by  Mrs.  Edward  Hazeland, 
London,  1884). 

Bibliooraphy:  A.  M.  Verstraeten,  J.,even  van  den  hoogeer- 
uaarden  Pater  Petrus  Beckx,  Antwerp,  1889. 

BEDE  or  BJEDA  (called  "  the  Venerable "): 
The  first  great  English  scholar;  b.  in  Northumbria 
(according  to  tradition,  at  Monkton,  Durham,  5 
m.  e.  of  Newcastle)  672  or  673;  d.  at  the  monas- 
tery of  Jarrow  (6  m.  e.  of  Newcastle)  May  25,  735. 
Almost  all  that  is  known  of  his  life  is  contained  in 
a  notice  added  by  himself  to  his  Hisioria  ecclesiastica 
(v,  24),  which  states  that  he  was  placed  in  the  monas- 
tery at  AWarmouth  at  the  age  of  seven,  that  he  became 


28 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beoket 
Beeoher 


deacon  in  his  nineteenth  year,  and  priest  in  his 
thirtieth.  He  was  trained  by  the  abbots  Benedict 
Bi^op  and  Ceolfrid  (qq.v.),  and  probably  accom- 
panied the  latter  to  J  arrow  in  6^2.  There  he  spent 
his  Ufei  finding  his  chief  pleasure  in  being  always 
CKSJUpied  in  learning*  teaching,  or  writing,  and  zeal- 
ous in  the  performance  of  monastic  duties.  Hi» 
works  show  that  he  had  at  his  command  all  the 
learning  of  his  time.  He  was  proficient  in  patris- 
tic literature,  and  quotes  from  Fliny  the  Younger^ 
Vergilr  Lucretius,  Ovid,  Horace,  and  other  classical 
writers,  but  with  fiome  disapprovaU  He  knew 
Greek  and  a  little  Hebrew,  His  Latin  ia  clear  and 
mthout  affectation,  and  he  is  a  skilful  fltory-teUer. 
Like  all  men  of  hifi  time  he  was  devoted  to  the  alle- 
^rical  method  of  interpretation,  and  was  credu- 
loui  concerning  the  miraculous;  but  in  most  tilings 
his  good  sense  h  cons|jtcuous,  and  his  kindly  and 
broad  iynipathies,  his  love  of  truth  and  faim^s, 
his  unfeigned  piety,  and  his  devotion  to  the  service 
of  others  combine  to  make  him  an  exceedingly 
attractive  character.  His  works  were  so  widely 
spread  throughout  Europe  and  bo  much  est^med 
that  he  won  the  name  of  "  the  teacher  of  the  Middle 
Ages." 

fiede's  writings  are  classed  as  scientific,  historical, 
and  theological.  The  scientific  include  treatises 
on  grammar  (written  for  his  pupils),  a  work  on 
natural  phenomena  (De  rerum  natuTa)^  and  two 
on  chronology  {De  temporibta  and  De  tefnpomm 
ratione).  The  most  important  and  best  known 
of  his  works  is  the  Hwtorm  ccd^^iuBtiea  geniis 
Angtorum,  giving  in  five  books  the  history  of 
Englandt  ecdepiaiitical  and  political,  from  the  time 
of  C^eaar  to  the  date  of  completion  (731),  The 
first  twenty-one  chapters,  treating  of  the  perioci 
before  the  mission  of  Augustine,  are  compiled 
from  earlier  writers  such  ba  OrosiuSi  Gildas,  Prosper 
of  Aquitaine,  and  others,  with  the  insertion  of 
legend  and  traditicn.  After  596,  documentary 
soureeSi  which  Bede  took  pains  to  obtain,  are  used^ 
and  oral  testimony,  which  he  employed  not  without 
critical  consideration  of  its  value.  His  other  his- 
torical w^orks  were  lives  of  the  abbots  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow,  and  lives  in  verse  and  prose  of 
St.  Cuthbert.,  The  moet  numerous  of  his  writings 
mre  theological,  and  consist  of  commentarie«  on 
the  book^  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  homi- 
lies, and  treatises  on  detached  portions  of  Scripture. 
His  last  work,  completed  on  his  death-bed,  was 
A  translation  into  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  Gospel  of 
John. 

BiDUOOK^par:  The  eotlee^  ediiioiu  of  B«d£'i  work^ 
(]fuch  a»  hy  J.  A.  Gitcm,  with  Eng.  tranul,  of  the  hbtoricsl 
wturbi  iMid  lif^  FaitM  tBcdenw  Angiicanm^  12  vol*.,  Lou- 
doa.  1S43H4;  in  MPL,  ic-xov)  tiRave  much  to  be  deiwreil. 
GoocI  f^ditionfl  of  the  historical  works,  particularly  of  tho 
HUtm-ia  eccletiavtica,  have  been  uwued  by  J.  Smith,  Cam- 
bridge,  1722:  J.  Steireii*on,  HuL  «el.,  London,  1838. 
Ojm^  histarica  miwra,  1S4U  G.  U.  Moberly,  Oxford. 
lSfi#;  J  E.  B.  Mayor  afid  J.  R.  Lumby.  HimL  ecd,,  bookji 
ill  uid  i^.  Cambridge.  ISSl^  A,  Holder,  Freiburg,  1S90: 
C.  PluiDKi«r,  2  Tola.,  Oxford,  tS©6;  £«/.  HUk,  tmn»L, 
introdiietion,  Hfc,  and  aDtesi,  by  A.  M.  Sellar,  Londorr, 
J  S07,  The  tTfo  works  on  chronology  hare  been  edit«d  by 
T.  MommMa  in  MGH.  Chton,  min.Aa  {18©8>.  There 
are  English  Tertiona  of  the  ErcUMtaaiical  History  by  Bur 
T*n**.  1723»  fevifled  by  J.  A,  GUm,  London.  1S40;  J. 
Stcvffflaon,  ib,  18fi3i  aiill  L.  Gridlor,  Oxiofd,  187a     The 


aid  Eng.  vendon  of  the  Hist.  ecd„  inth  tranel.  and  in- 
troduction. WM  ed.  by  T.  Miller,  in  4  parts,  ib.  1S70, 
For  Bede^ft  life  coniiutt  the  introductions  and  aotes  to  the 
ediljonji  mentioned,  particularly  thoEe  of  Sleventoa  and 
Plummer;  G.  F.  Brown*.  Th4  V0ni!rabU  Btdt,  m  The 
FatJkerm  fur  EnfftUh  Beadm-B,  London,  187».  NewYotk,  1891; 
K.  Werner,  Btda  dtr  Ehrwilrdi{tt  and  wing  Zeit,  V'ienDa» 
1881;  J.  B,  Light  foot,  in  Uadera  of  the  Northern  Chureh. 
London,  lS90  (biugrraphif^l  gernionA};  F.  PhilUp^,  in 
Fathers  trf  the  EnglUh  Churchy  irol  i^  London,  1891  (sim- 
ple, scholarly,  fair);  W.  Bright,  Eoriu  Enoli»h  Chvteh 
HUfary,  pp^  3fl7-37l  et  paaaiDi,  Oxford,  1807. 

BEBELL,  WILLIAM:  Irish  biahopj  b.  at  Black 
Notley,  near  Braintree  (50  m,  n.e,  of  LoDdou), 
EsseXj  England,  on  or  near  Christmas  day,  1571; 
d.  at  Drum  Corr,  near  Kilmore.  Cbunty  Cavan^ 
Ireland,  Feb*  7,  1642.  He  studied  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A,,  1588;  M-A.,  1592;  B.D., 
1599),  wa«  ordained  priest  Jan.  10, 1597,  and  settled 
at  Buiy  St,  Edmunds,  Suffolk,  in  1602.  In  1607 
he  went  to  Venice  as  chaplain  to  Sir  Henry  Wot  ton, 
British  anibaasador  at  that  city,  and  there  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  a  nimiber  of  noteworthy  men, 
including  Marco  Antonio  de  Dominia  and  Fathet 
Paolo  Sarpi,  author  of  the  Hwiory  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  the  laat  two  books  of  which,  as  well  as 
Sarpi'js  History  of  the  Venetian  Inierdiet,  be  after- 
ward translate  into  Latin.  He  returned  to  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  in  1610^  and  removed  to  HorningB- 
heath^  a  neighboring  parish,  in  1616*  In  1627 
he  was  appointed  provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dubh'nj 
in  1629  be  became  biahop  of  the  united  dio- 
ceaes  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh  (County  Longford); 
in  1633  he  rejigued  the  ktter  see  owing  to  con- 
Bcientioiis  objections  to  pluralities,  and  the  belief 
that  the  proper  administration  of  the  diocese  re- 
quired a  se parate  bishop .  His  posi tion  waa  difficult ; 
the  dioceses  were  in  wretched  condition,  and  hLs 
earnest  efforts  to  effect  improvement  stirred  up 
opposition.  Nevertheless  he  reformed  many  abuses 
and  enjoyed  great  esteem  among  the  people.  He 
wTote  a  short  summary  of  Christian  doctrine  in 
English  and  Iri^h  (published,  DubUn,  1631),  and 
a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Irish  was 
made  under  his  supervision  (published,  London, 
1685),  When  the  rebeUion  of  1641  broke  out,  he 
refused  to  leave  his  diocese,  and,  after  aiuffering 
many  hardships,  died  of  fever  brought  on  by  the 
privations  which  he  had  undergone.  His  Life 
with  ihe  Leilers  belic>een  Wmi(ks:worih  and  BedeU 
wajs  pubhshed  by  Biwhop  Burnet  (London,  1685), 
and  has  been  rewritten  several  times.  The  best 
biography  is  one  by  his  son  (ed,  for  the  Camden 
Society  T.  W.  Jones,  London,  1872). 

BEECHER,  CHARLES;  Congregationalist,  fifth 
son  of  Lyman  Beceher;  b,  at  Litchfield,  Conn,, 
Oct*  7,  1815  j  d.  at  Georgetown,  Mass.,  Apr.  21, 
1900.  He  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1834 
and  at  Lane  Theological  Seminary  IK^;  b^^ame 
pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church,  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  1844;  of  the  First  Congregational 
Church,  Newark,  N.  J.,  1851;  of  the  First  Church, 
Georgetown,  Manss.,  1S57,  He  hved  in  Florida  1870- 
1877,  and  for  two  yeans  was  State  superintendent 
of  schools.  He  published:  The  Incarnation  (New 
York,  1849) ;  A  Remew  of  the  Spiritual  Manifestor 
(wm*(1853);  David  and  his  Throne  {XH^B);  Hedeemer 


Beeoher  ^ 
Beelzebub 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


M 


and  Redeemed  (Boatoo,  1864);  Bnd  SpirUuai  Mani- 
fesialum*  (1879).  With  John  Zundel  he  edited  the 
musiG  for  The  Plynmidh  CtMeciwu  of  Hymns  and 
TuTies  (New  York,  1855),  and,  alone,  the  Auio- 
biography.  Correspondence,  etc,  of  his  father  (2  vols*, 
1865). 

BEECHER,  EDWARD:  Congregation alittt,  sec- 
ond son  of  Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at  East  Hampton, 
K  I.,  Aug.  27,  1803;  d.  in  Bmoklyn  July  28,  lSfl5. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  1822;  began  his  theo- 
logical fitudies  at  Andover  and  continued  them 
while  acting  as  tutor  at  Yale  1825-20;  was  pastor 
of  the  Park  Strtiet  Church,  Boston,  1826-30; 
president  of  Illinois  College,  Jackjsonville,  IlL, 
1830-44 ;  pastor  of  the  Satei  Street  Church.  Boston, 
1844-55,  and  editor  of  The  Congretjaiionatist  1849- 
1853 J  pastor  at  Galeaburg,  111.,  1855-71;  after  1871 
refflded  in  Brooklyn.  He  was  lecturer  on  church 
inatitutiona  at  the  Chicago  Theological  Beminaiy 
(Congregational)  1859-^66.  In  1837  he  defended 
the  freedom  of  the  press  in  the  case  of  Elijah  P. 
I^vejoy,  an  antislaveiy  agitator  at  Alton,  111. 
When  Lovejoy's  pfeasea  were  destroyed  by  the 
mob,  Beecher  helped  to  obtain  and  secrete  a  new 
one,  and  was  with  Lovejoy  and  his  brother,  Ow*ei>, 
the  night  before  the  former  was  killed  (Nov,  7, 
1837).  To  resist  the  mob  spirit  he  aided  in  found- 
ing the  Illinois  State  AntiHlavery  Society,  drew 
up  tts  const! tut joEi.  and  issued  a  Statement  of  Anti- 
alotJery  Frineijdes,  and  Address  to  the  People  of 
lUinoie.  He  published  a  Nurralim  of  RUds  at 
A  lion  (Cincinnati,  183S).  Hia  views  as  to  the  nature 
and  cause  of  mn  and  on  the  atonement  were  set 
forth  in  two  works,  The  ConfiM  of  Ages,  or  the 
Great  Ddmte  on  the  Moral  Heioiians  of  Gad  and  Man 
(BostoD,  1853)  and  The  Caneord  of  Ages,  or  the 
Individual  and  Organic  Harmony  of  Ood  and  Man 
(New  York  J  1860),  in  which  he  expressed  the  belief 
that  the  present  life  is  a  continuation  of  a  preceding 
existence  as  well  as  a  preparation  for  a  future  one; 
that  the  material  eyitem  is  adapted  to  regenerat^^ 
men,  who  have  made  themselves  sinful  in  the  pre- 
vioua  state;  and  that  ultimately  the  c^jnflict  be- 
tween good  atid  evil  will  disappear,  and  hamiony 
be  established.  The  doctrine  of  divine  suffering 
he  held  to  present  the  character  of  God  in  its  most 
affecting  and  powerful  as|>ects,  and  to  be  essential 
to  a  true  view  of  the  atonement.  He  also  published* 
On  the  Kingdom  of  God  (Boston,  1827);  Baptism 
%^h  Reference  to  its  Import  and  Modes  (New  York, 
1849) ;  The  Papal  Conspiraey  Exposed  and  Protes- 
tantism Defended  in  the  lAgU  of  Reman,  History, 
ond  Scripture  (New  York,  1855);  History  of  Opinions 
en  the  Scriptural  Dodrine  of  Retribution  (1878), 

BEECHER,  HEIiRY  WARD:  Congregation- 
alist,  fourth  son  of  Lyman  Beecher;  b,  at  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  June  24,  1S13;  d.  in  Brooklyn  Mar» 
S,  1887.  He  was  graduated  at  Amherst  1^34, 
and  at  Lane  Theological  Seminary  1837;  became 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Lawrenceburg, 
Ind.,  1837,  at  Indianapolis  1839,  and  of  Plymouth 
Ch^irch  (Congregational),  Brooklyn,  1847.  The 
congregation  was  newly  fonned  at  that  time,  but 
soon  became  famed  for  its  numbers  and  ita  influence, 
while  Beecher  attained  to  the  position  of  the  most 


popular  and  widely  known  preacher  in  America, 
As  a  public  lecturer  he  was  no  leas  successful. 
In  Ms  sermons  he  disregarded  conventionalities 
both  in  subject  and  manner.  His  wit  and  humor 
appeared  in  bis  preaching,  which,  nevertheless, 
was  earnest  and  edifying,  and  revealed  a  great 
character,  sincere  and  reverent;  his  public  prayers 
in  particular  were  truly  devotional  (cf.  Prtofen 
from  Plymouth  Pulpit,  New  York,  1867).  No 
slight  dramatio  power,  robust  health  and  physicd 
strength,  and  a  striking  personal  appearance  added 
to  the  effect  of  his  eloquence.  Personally  he  was 
a  most  estimable  and  attractive  man,  of  gcneroui 
instincts,  of  rare  humanity,  and  catholic  sympsr 
thica.  He  was  active  in  the  antislavery  contest, 
but  deprecated  revolutionary  measures.  In  1863 
he  publicly  advocated  the  Union  cause  in  a  series 
of  aiddresses  in  the  cities  of  England  at  a  time  when 
the  sympathies  of  the  people  of  England  were 
strongly  with  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  his 
success  at  this  time  before  bitterly  hostile  audiencei 
is  one  of  the  greatest  feats  of  intellectual  and  ora- 
torical achievement  (these  addresses  were  published 
as  The  American  Hebelli&n  :  Report  of  the  Speech^ 
delimred  in  Manchester,  etc.,  Manchoster,  1S64, 
and  are  reprinted  in  Patriotie  Addresses  frmn  J850 
to  J8S5  by  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  edited,  unih  a 
review  of  Mr.  Beecher^ a  personality  and  influence 
in  puhlic  affairs,  by  John  R.  Howard,  New  Yorit, 
1889). 

In  later  life  the  development  of  Beecher^a  mind 
led  him  to  desire  a  freedom  which  he  thought  could 
not  be  attained  within  strictly  denominational 
lines,  and,  actuated  also  by  the  wish  not  to  cjoti- 
promise  his  brethren  by  alleged  heresiee,  in  1882, 
with  his  chureh,  he  withdrew  from  the  Congregsr 
tional  Association  to  which  he  belonged.  The 
chief  points  of  his  divergence  from  the  orthodox 
position  of  the  time  related  to  the  person  of  Christ, 
whom  he  considered  to  be  the  Divine  Spirit  under 
the  limitations  of  time,  space,  and  flesh;  to  miracles, 
wliich  he  considered  divine  uses  of  natural  laws; 
and  to  future  punishment,  the  endlessness  of  which 
he  denied,  inclining  to  a  modiScation  of  the  anni- 
hilation  theoiy. 

Beecher  was  a  regular  contributor  to  The  Inde- 
pendent from  its  foundation  in  1848  to  1870,  and 
its  editor  for  not  quite  two  years  (1861-63).  He 
was  editor  of  The  Christian  Union  (since  1893  known 
as  The  Outlook),  1870--81,  and  made  it  the  pioneer 
non-denominational  religious  paper.  He  also 
wrote  much  for  The  New  York  Ledger,  Hia  sei^ 
raons  were  published  weekly  after  1859  (under  the 
title  The  Plymouth  Puipit),  and  have  appeared  in 
book-form  in  numerous  volumes.  Sermjons  .  ,  • 
selected  from  published  and  unpvbli$hed  discaurMS 
and  retriscd  by  their  author,  etiited  by  Lyman  Abbott 
(2  vols..  New  York,  1868),  is  a  representative  col- 
lection. His  addreases,  lectures,  and  articles  were 
also  gathered  into  many  books,  such  as  L^ures 
to  Young  Men  (Indianapohs,  1844;  rev.  eds,,  New 
York,  Boston,  1850  and  1873);  the  Stcr  Papers, 
or  experiences  of  art  and  nature  (selections  from 
The  Independent ;  so  called  from  his  si^atiire,  *; 
2  vols..  New  York,  1855-58);  Eyes  and  Ears  (re- 
printed from  The  New  York  Ledger,  Boston,  1862); 


m 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beelzebub 


U(jt%Mr^Room  Talks  (New  York,  1870);  A  Sumnttr 
foTMA  (1875);  EvoliUi&n  and  Reli^^m  (1885). 
His  booka  of  most  permanent  value  were  7' he  Life 
of  Jesus  Ihe  Chriift  (i,  New  York,  1871;  ii,  left  incom- 
plete »t  his  de^iih  and  supplemented  by  extnicts 
Iwm  hi&  sermons,  1891),  and  the  Vale  Lecturer  on 
Preachrng  (layman  Beecher  lectures  liefore  t!ie 
Y*lc  Divinity  School,  1872-74;  3  vols,,  al»o  col- 
lected edition  in  one  vokmie,  New  York,  1881), 
He  compiled  The  Flt/moidh  CoUcction  of  Hymnn 
md  Tune*  (1855),  and  >\Tote  Norvpood,  m-  Village 
lift  m  Ntw  England ^  a  novel  (1867). 

Bflt^lOomjLPHT:  Lyman  Abbott  and  S.  B,  Hftlliday.  Henru 
W*tfd  Beecher,  ll&rtforfl.  1887;  the  BioffrapHy  by  bis  snn 
Willi»fii  C.  Ek-e-ch^T  and  SajnueJ  Scoville,  amiitt«d  by  bis 
wHv,  ISaS;  John  Henry  Barruwe.  Henri/  Ward  Beecher, 
IM  Sh^kmpmrw  of  Ihm  P^pik  New  York,  lg^3:  the  Aui^>- 
hia^rttfphiaU  Remif^itotnce*  edited  by  T.  i.  ElUnwoDd^  bi^ 
pHv»1U&  tteooKraphrr  for  fbirty  ycary,  IS98;  Lynmn 
Jibbatt,  Hwnn/  Ward  Beecher,  Boston,  1»03;  N.  L,  Thomp- 
■on.    The  HxMtary  of  Plymouth  Church,   New  York,  1873. 

BEECHER,    LYMAN:    Presbytenan;    b.  at  New 

Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  12,  1775;  d.  at  Brooklyn  Jan. 

lO,   1863.    He    was    graduated     at     Yale     1797; 

studied  theology  umler  President  Dwight  ihe  fol- 

kywiiig  year,  and,  after  preaching  on  probation  for 

ft  year  at  East  Hampton,  L.  L,  was  ordained  as 

paitor  there,  1799;  in  1810  he  removed  to  Liteh- 

fidd.  Conn.,  and  in  1826  to  Boston,  as  pastor  of 

the  Hanover   Street  Church  (Congregational).     In 

1832  he  beeattie    president  and   profeKHor  of   tlie- 

oiofy  at  the  newly  fonned  Ltiue  Theological  Semi- 

nwy,  (^nciimati,    where    for  the   finrt   ten   ye-ars 

l»  il»  served  as  pastor  of  the  Second   Presby- 

terian  Church.     In   1851    he   returned   to  Boston, 

*nd  after  18515  lived  in  Brooklyn.     He  was  a  pro- 

foitod  ftudent  of  theology,  but  eminently  practical 

ia  his  |in»ohing,  which  was  marked  by  an  uncom- 

OKtt  mm  of  imagination,  fervor,  and  iojafic.     His 

•OBvictioitf  were   strong,    his   counigc   great,    and 

"*>ctfd  with  an  impulsive  energy  which  generally 

•*6eiftlBd  in  accompliwhing  what  he  thought  should 

twdoeie.    Tlie  death  of  Alexander  Hamilton  called 

^^tii  a  tcrmon  on  dueling  (preaclied    Ik* fore  the 

2*^yter>*  of   L*ong   Island,    Ai>r.    Hi,    18CK3;  pub- 

■"iPti  in  sevenil    editions)    which    did    much    to 

***k*n  tlje   p<ipular   con.wi^^^nce   mi    the    subject. 

^*  Litchfield  he  took  a  decided  ^tand  in  favor  of 

n'foimation  of  public   morals,   and    in 

IcuJar  against  the  convivial  habilti  of  the  time. 

Boston  pastorate  he  was  a  leader  on 

irative  side  in  the  Unitarian  controversy. 

ati  hard  feelings  evoked  by  the  anti- 

*J**«iy  eont<«t,   and  certain   problems  inevitable 

'*'>*%  thft  formative  period  of  the  seminary  and 

'^  *  new  iiociety.  made  Ids  career  a  fitonny  one; 

°^  he  worked    with    aharact4?ristic    energy    and 

l^iTrd  with  honor.     During  the  earlier  stages  of 

'  ■  !i  led  to  the  tUsniption  of  the 

I  in  1837  he  was  charged  with 

ri  the  atonetnent,  and  was 

^  ch  presbyterj-^  and  synod  in 

]{  tu<*  entire  contest  he  was  one  of 


It 


leaders.     His  seven  sons  all  became 


J*ffgrfnrn  umi  his  daughters,  Catherine  t>ther 
J*iw,  Harriet  Beecher  Slowe,  and  Isabella 
"••*fc»  Hooker^  became  well  known  for  literary 


ajid  philanthropic  work.  During  his  second  resi- 
dence in  Boston  Lyman  Bw*rhtrr  prepared  a  col- 
lecttHl  edition  of  hif^  Works  (i,  Lcciurat  on  Poliiiecd 
AOieism  and  Kindred  StibjerU ;  Six  Lectures  on 
Intemperance,  Baston,  1852;  ii,  Sermons^  1852; 
iii,  Views  of  Theology  an  Developed  in  Three  Ser^ 
monj?  and  on  his  TruiLs,  1853). 

E)iBt.icK3icAPaT:  His  Autobiography,  Corre*ponde7%c0,  titc* 
w»a  edited  by  hia  son  Charlefl  Becober,  nev.  <^d.,  2  vols., 
New  York,  1J^6^;  consult  x\m>  D.  H.  Allen,  The  Life  and 
Serrice*  of  Lyman  Beecher,  a  Commemorative  Diacourtx, 
Cincintiati,  1863;  J.  C.  Wbite,  Per»onal  ReminiacenceM  of 
Lvman  Beecher,  Now  York,  1882;  E.F,  Haywood^  Lyman 
Belcher,  Boston,  1904. 

BEECHER,  THOMAS  KINHICUTT;  Congn> 
gatitmalist,  tiixth  son  nf  Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at 
Litchfield,  t^nn.,  Feb.  10,  1824;  d.  at  Elmira,  N.  Y., 
Mar.  14,  1900.  He  was  graduated  at  Hlinoia 
College,  Jacksonville,  III.,  IH43;  lieeame  school 
principal  at  Philadelphia,  1846,  at  Hartford,  Conn,, 
1848;  pastor  at  Williamsburg  (Brooklyn),  L,  L, 
1 852,  of  the  Independent  Church  (afterward 
called  the  Park  Church),  Elmira,  1854,  where  he 
served  a  long  pastorate  and  became  widely  known 
for  his  eccentricities,  but  stQI  more  esteemed  for 
his  charities  and  respected  for  the  practical  good 
sense  of  many  of  his  plans  and  ideas.  He  developed 
one  of  the  first  '*  institutional  "  churches,  and  his 
Sunday-school  was  a  model  one.  His  chief  publica- 
tion was  Our  Set'en  Churehi-s  (New  York,  1870), 
a  volume  of  discourses  upon  the  diflerent  denomi- 
nations in  Elmira.  In  Titne  mih  the  Star»,  a  book 
of  children's  stories,  appeared  posthumously  (1902), 

BEECHER^  WILLIS  JUDSOW;  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Hampden,  O.,  Apr,  29.  is:i8.  He  studied  at 
Hamilton  College  fB..\.,  1 858)  and  .4ubum  Theo- 
logical !S<»miuary  (185-1),  and  was  ordained  to  the 
ministry  in  1864.  After  a  pastorate  at  Ovid,  N.  Y,, 
lSIH-65,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
science  and  belles-lcM  res  in  Knox  College,  Gales- 
burg,  III,  In  18^)9  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Church  of  Chritit  in  the  same  city.  Two  years 
later  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Hebrew 
language  and  literatuic  in  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary.  In  1902  he  delivered  the  Stone  Lec- 
tures at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He  w^as 
a  member  of  the  .Issembly's  Committee  on  the  Re- 
vision of  the  Confesvsion  of  Faith  (1890-92),  and 
in  theology  is  a  progressive  consen.'ative.  Besides 
preparing  the  Old  Testament  Sunday-school  lessons 
for  the  Sunday  Schml  Times  since  1893>  he  has 
wTitten  Farmer  Tompkins  and  his  Bibles  (Philadel- 
phia, 1874);  Genera!  Catalogue  of  Anbum  TheO' 
hygical  Seminary  (Auburn,  1883);  DriU  Lessons  in 
Hebrew  (1883);  Indei:  of  Presbyterian  Ministers^ 
I7m^l88t  (Philadelphia,  1883;  in  collaboration 
with  his  sister  Mary  A.  Beecher);  The  Prophets  and 
the  Promise  (New  York,  1905);  and  The  Teaching 
of  Jesus  eoneeming  the  Future  Life  (1906). 

BEELZEBUB,  bc>*rBe-bub  (properly,  in  all  the 
New  Testament  pasiiages — Matt,  x,  25;  xii,  24^ 
27;  Mark  iii,  22;  Luke  xi,  15,  18,  l^^Beeheboul): 
The  name  of  the  prince  of  the  demons;  i.e.,  of 
Satan,  The  reading  Becheboul  has  also  this  in  ita 
favor  that  the  Greek  oikodrjtpoi^Sf  **  master  of  the 


Beelzebub 
Beffharda 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


86 


house  "  (Matt,  x,  25) ^  seemfi  to  play  upon  he'd  Ecbul 
Q)e*el  being  the  Arai^iiic  form  for  the  Hebrew  ba'al). 
Nothing  more  than  a  play  ypon  the  word  is  to  be 
sought  in  oikodespotejij  which  i»  not  a  tran.'^lation 
of  the  Aramaic;  "  master  of  the  (Satanic)  king- 
dom "  would  be  a  mfianinglcBs  deaigtiation  of  the 
prince  of  hell.  In  spite  of  the  correctness  of  the 
reading  Beelzebotil,  it  i^  justifiable  to  trace  this  name 
to  the  much  older  namti  Baiil-zebub,  which  Is  found 
in  the  Old  Testament  aa  that  of  an  idol. 

Baal-zebub  was  honored  in  Ekron^  where  he  had 
a  temple  and  an  oracle,  which  waa  consulted  by 
Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel  (11  Kings  i,  2,  3,  16).  The 
name  as  it  stands  means  *^  lord  of  flies  ";  the  Sep- 
tuagint  calls  the  god  directly  **  fly  ";  so  also  Jot^e- 
phus  (Ant,t  IX,  ii,  1).  In  classical  mythology,  tht^ro 
was  a  god  who  protected  from  flies.  It  is  related 
that  Hercules  baniBhed  the  flicj*  from  Olympia  by 
erecting  a  shrine  to  Zeus  Aponiuios  {"  averter  of 
flies  ");  and  the  Romans  called  Hercules  .A.pomuio?*, 
A  similar  deity  is  mentioned  aa  acting  and  honori^l 
in  different  places^  the  excuse  for  such  worship 
being  the  plague  which  flies  cauise  in  those  wann 
countries.  Both  the  sending  of  flies  and  the  dri- 
ving them  away  were  referred  to  the  same  di\'inity. 
As  may  be  inferred  from  the  name  Baal,  the  Baal- 
zebub  of  the  Philistmes  was  essentially  identical 
with  the  principal  god  or  g^ds  of  the  Phenicians. 
He  may  have  been  lord  of  flies  as  sun-god,  because 
flies  are  most  numerous  in  midsummer,  when  the 
sun  is  hottest.  And  that  he  had  an  oracle  is  to  be 
explained  by  a  substitution  cf  effect  for  cause. 
Flies  come  obedient  to  certain  atmospheric  condi- 
tionaj  hence  the  god  was  considered  to  liave  caused 
these  conditions,  and  so  at  length  his  control  waa 
extended  to  other  events^  and  accordingly  he  was 
consulted  (see  Baal). 

Beelzebul  was  early  identified  with  Baal-zebub, 
and,  as  was  so  often  the  case,  was  t  umed  into  a  bad 
demon,  in  accordance  with  later  Jewish  ideas. 
Since  Lightfoot  (HorfE  Heb.,  s.v.),  it  Ims  been  com- 
mon to  say  that  the  name  of  the  demon  Beelzebul 
was  purposely  made  out  of  Beel-zehub,  in  order  to 
express  contempt  and  horror;  i.e.,  "  lorti  of  dung/' 
instead  of  "  lord  of  flies/'  But,  hiasmuch  as  such 
a  name  for  Satan  does  not  occur  outride  of  the  New 
Testament,  it  is  bettrr  to  ne^k  its  derivation  in  the 
old  Ekronic  worship,  which  might,  in  New  Testa- 
ment times,  have  still  existed.  Beelzebul  may 
therefore  be  looked  upon  as  the  same  name  as 
Beel-zebub,  and  therefore  as  having  the  same 
meaning. 

Biblioorapht:  E.  C.  A.  Rjebm.  Handw&rkrbiKh  d«  fr^- 
blUchen  Alterthumt,  s.v..  Bielefeld,  lS§3-94  (reirlvea  the 
theory  that  the  Syriac  fonii  may  have  meaut  eimply  "  an 
enemy,"  cf.  KAT.  p.  4fU)^  J.  ts^ldeti,  De  dU  Syria,  Lon- 
don, 1617;  J.  Lightfoot,  fiurtr  hebmitm  on  Mutt.  3di.  24, 
and  Luke  xi,  15.  ib.  IIjTo:  F.  C.  Uov^jh.  Bis  PhSniriwr 
i,  260-261,  Bonn.  1841;  uwrn,  lii  J  A,  IB7S,  pp.  220-225; 
P.  Schols,  GOUendieuM  iirui  ZtiuhfriD€Kn  bti  dtn  aUen 
Hebrdem,  pp.  170-173,  Uegensbura,  1877;  Nowac>k*'Ar~ 
ch&ologie.  ii,  304-305:  EB,  L  514-1*15;  J£,  ii,  629-630. 

BEER,  b^T,  GEORG:  German  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Schweidnitz  (31  m.  s.w.  of  Bre«lau)  Nov.  12,  IS65. 
He  studied  in  Berlin  and  Leipsie  (Ph.D.,  1SS7>, 
taught  in  Erbach  1889-91,  and  bi:^ame  privat-docent 
at  Brcslau  in  1892.    Two  yearss  later  he  went  in  the 


Bame  capaetty  to  Halle,  and  in  1900  to  Strasburg 
as  associate  professor  of  the  Old  Testament.  He 
has  WTitten  Al^azzdWa  MaJjpdsid  aJ^faldsifat,  i,  die 
Lo^k  (Leyden,  1888);  Individtud-  und  Gemeinde- 
psalmcn  (Mnrburg,  1894);  and  Der  Textdes  Bucket 
Hiob  unt^sucht  (1897);  besides  preparing  the 
translation  of  the  Martyrdom  of  Isaiah  and  of  the 
Book  of  Enoch  for  E.  Kautzsch's  Apokryphen  tmd 
P^evdeptgraphm  des  AUen  Testaments  C^^^bingen, 
1900). 

BEER,  RUDOLF:  German  Protestant;  b.  at 
Bielita  (40  m.  w^.w.  of  Cracow)  Dec.  5,  1863. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Vienna  and 
Bonn,  and  since  1893  has  been  reader  in  Spanish 
at  the  latter  university,  as  well  as  a  custodian  at  the 
Ijuperial  and  Royal  Library  at  Vienna  since  1888. 
He  is  a  collaborator  on  the  Vienna  Corpus 
patrum  ecdesiasticorum  latinorum.  In  theology 
he  advocates  "  the  scientific  investigation  of  Chris- 
tian revdation."  Among  his  works  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  his  Die  Anecdota  Borderiana 
AvfrusHneischer  Sermonen  (Vienna,  1887);  Heilige 
Huhcn  der  Griechen  und  Romer  (1891);  Die  Quel- 
Icn  fUr  den  liber  diumus  concilii  Baeiliensis  des 
FetTus  ErunHi  (1891);  and  Urkundliche  Beitr6ge 
xu  Johannes  de  Segovia  (1896);  in  addition  to 
f>ditioBs  of  WycHf's  De  compositione  fiominis 
(London,  1887);  and  De  ente  prcBdicamentaH 
q^orMionvs  tredecim  (1891),  and  of  the  Month 
ffienta  concUiorum  generalium  (3  vols.,  \^enna, 
1892-90). 

BEET»  bit,  JOSEPH  AGAR:  EngUsh  Wesleyan; 
h.  at  ShetTieia  Sept.  27,  1840.  He  attended  Wesley 
College,  8hel!ield  (1851-56),  and  took  up  mining 
criffineiTing,  hut  afterward  studied  theology  at  the 
Wciileyun  <^Jllege,  Richmond  (1862-64).  He  was 
pastor  18(j  i-S5  and  professor  of  systematic  the- 
ologj^  in  Wei^leyan  College,  Richmond,  1885-1905. 
lie  wa«  (dim  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  theology 
in  the  University  of  London  1901-05.  He  de- 
livered the  Femley  Lecture  on  The  Credentials  of 
the  Oospek  ui  1889,  and  lectured  in  America  in  1896. 
Though  long  recognized  as  one  of  the  ablest  theo- 
logians and  exegetes  of  his  denomination,  his 
sympathy  with  the  modem  critical  school  of  inter- 
pretation atul  particularly  his  \aews  on  eschatology 
have  occai^ioned  much  criticism.  In  The  Last 
Thingn  (London,  1897;  2d  ed.,  1905)  he  opposed 
the  belief  thai  the  essential  and  endless  permanence 
of  the  soul  is  taught  in  the  Bible  and  denied  that 
eternal  pumshment  necessarily  means  endless  tor^ 
ment,  holding  that  tlie  sinner  may  suffer  a  relative 
annihilation  of  his  mental  and  moral  faculties  and 
sink  into  a  dehumanized  state.  He  reiterated  these 
views  in  The  Immortality  ot  the  Soul  (1901 ).  Charges 
of  heresy  were  brought  against  him  at  the  Confei^ 
enee  of  19fJ2,  but  he  was  reelected  to  his  professor- 
ship on  con<Ution  that  he  refrain  from  expressing 
his  opinions^  on  immortaUty  and  future  punish- 
ment. To  n  t^ain  liberty  of  speech  in  1004  he  gave 
notice  that  h^  would  retire  from  his  chair  in  twelve 
months.  Wm  other  works  are;  Commentary  on 
Homunn  (London,  1877);  Holiness  as  Understood 
hll  the  Criitt,^  of  the  Bible  (1880);  Commentary  on 
Corinthium     (1881);     Commentary    on     Galatians 


27 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beelzebub 
B«ff hards 


(1883);  Commentary  on  Epheaiana,  Philippians,  Co- 
losHans,  and  Philemon  (1890);  Through  Christ  to 
God  (1892);  The  Firm  Foundation  of  the  Christian 
Faith  (1892);  The  New  Life  in  Christ  (1895); 
Nature  and  Christ  (New  York,  1896);  Key  to  Un- 
lock  the  Bible  (1901);  Transfiguration  of  Jesus 
(1905);   and  Manual  of  Theology  (1906). 

BEETS,  b^tz,  HENRY:  Christian  Reformed;  b. 
at  Koedijk  (a  village  near  Alkmaar,  20  m.  n.w. 
of  Amsterdam),  Holland,  Jan.  5,  1869.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  at  an  early  age,  and  studied 
at  John  Calvin  College  and  Theological  Seminary 
of  the  Christian  Reformed  Church,  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.  After  graduation  in  1895,  he  was  pastor  at 
Sioux  Center,  la.,  until  1899,  and  since  the  latter 
year  has  been  pastor  of  the  Lagrave  Street  Chris- 
tian Reformed  Church,  Grand  Rapids.  He  has 
been  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Heathen  Missions 
of  his  Church  since  1900,  stated  clerk  of  its  synod 
since  1902,  and  a  member  of  the  joint  commit- 
tee of  American  and  Canadian  Churches  for  the 
revision  of  the  Psalms  in  meter  since  1902.  In 
theology  he  is  a  firm  Calvinist,  ailhering  strictly 
to  the  creeds  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  and  the  West- 
minster Standards.  He  has  been  associate  editor 
of  De  Gereformeerde  Amerikaanf  a  monthly,  since 
1898  and  editor-in-chief  of  The  Banner,  a  weekly, 
since  1904.  He  has  written  Het  Levcn  van  Pres. 
McKinley  (Holland,  Mich.,  1901);  Sacred  History  for 
Juniors  (Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  1901);  Sacred  His- 
tory for  Seniors  (1902);  Compendium  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion  (1903);  Primer  of  Bible  ^Truths 
(1903;  in  collaboration  with  M.  J.  Bosma);  and 
Kerkenorde  der  Christelijke  Gereformeerde  Kerk 
(1905;  in  collaboration  with  W.  Heyns  and  G. 
K.  Hemkes). 

BEGG,  JAMES:  Mmister  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  New  Monkland,  near  Airdrie 
(10  m.  e.  of  Glasgow),  Lanarkshire,  Oct.  31,  1808; 
d.  in  Edinburgh  Sept.  29,  1883.  He  studied  at 
Glasgow  and  Edinburgh;  was  ordained  minister 
at  Maxwelltown,  Dumfries,  May,  1830;  became 
colleague  at  Lady  Glenorchy's  Chapel,  Edinburgh. 
Dec.,  1830,  minister  in  Paisley  1831,  at  Liberton, 
near  Edinburgh,  1835,  and,  after  the  Disruption  in 
1843,  at  Newington,  a  suburb  of  Edinburgh.  In 
1865  he  was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  Free  Church.  He  began  his  career  as  an 
ardent  supporter  of  evangelical  viewa  and  a  decided 
opponent  of  the  "  moderate  "  party  in  the  Church. 
He  was  strongly  opposed  to  lay  patronage  and  to 
voluntaiyism.  He  strenuously  resisted  the  aggres- 
sions of  the  civil  courts  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Church  and  was  disposed  to  continue  the  fight 
within  the  Establishment;  but  in  May,  1843,  he 
left  with  his  brethren.  (See  the  section  on  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  in  the  article  Presby- 
TERiAMB.)  In  the  Free  Church  he  became  the 
leader  of  a  minority  opposed  to  all  change  and 
when  he  was  charged  with  standing  in  the  way  of 
progress  he  gloried  in  his  steadfast  adherence  to  the 
ideas  of  his  youth;  his  followers  were  most  numer- 
ous in  the  Highlands.  He  was  an  advocate  and 
supporter  of  popular  education  and  was  interested 


in  a  movement  to  secure  better  homes  for  the 
working  classes.  He  wrote  much  for  periodicals 
and  edited  several  journals  at  different  times  (The 
Bvlwarkf  for  the  maintenance  of  Protestantism; 
The  Watchword,  against  the  imion  with  the  United 
Presbyterians;  The  Signal,  against  instrumental 
music  in  worship).  Among  his  larger  publica- 
tions were  A  Handbook  of  Popery  (Edinburgh, 
1852);  Happy  Homes  for  Workingmen  and  How  to 
Get  Them  (London,  1866);  Free  Church  Principles 
(Edinburgh,  1869),  and  The  Principles,  Posi- 
tion, and  Prospects  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
(1875). 

BiBuoaRAPHT:  T.  Smith,  Memoira  of  JanuB  Beoo,  2  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1885-88;  DNB,  iv,  127-128. 

BEGHARDS,  BEGUINES. 

Origin  (§1). 

The  Early  Communities  (|  2). 

Extension  during  tho  Twelfth  Century  (§3). 

Relation  to  the  Mendicant  Orders  (S  4). 

The  Male  Conununities  (|  5). 

Persecution  as  Heretics  (|  6).    . 

Surviying  Beguinages  in  the  Netherlands  (|  7). 

Beghards  and  Beguines  are  the  names  applied 
to  certain  religious  communities  which  flourished 
especially  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Beguines  were 
women  and  earlier  in  origin  than  the  male  associa- 
tions, the  Beghards  (also  called  in  France  Biguins). 
As  early  as  the  thirteenth  century  the  authentic  tra- 
dition as  to  the  origin  of  the  Beguines  had  been 
lost,  so  that  it  was  possible  in  the  fifteenth  for  the 
belief  to  gain  acceptance  that  they  had  been  founded 
by  Begga,  the  canonized  daughter  of  Pepin  of  Lan- 
den  and  mother  of  Pepin  of  Heristal. 

I.  Origin.  This  belief  was  supported  by  several 
scholars  in  the  early  seventeenth 
century,  and  approved  at  Mechlin  and  at  Rome. 
In  1630  Puteanus  (van  Putte),  a  Louvain  professor, 
produced  three  documents  supposed  to  date  from 
1065,  1129,  and  1151,  relating  to  a  convent  of  Beg- 
uines at  Vilvorde,  near  Brussels.  The  view  as  to 
the  date  of  their  origin  which  these  documents 
supported  was  prevalent  for  two  centuries,  and  is 
presupposed  in  the  modem  works  of  Mosheim  and 
of  Lea;  but  the  researches  of  Kallmann  proved 
finally  in  1843  that  Puteanus's  documents  were 
forgeries,  probably  belonging  to  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  The  origin  of  these  com- 
munities is  now,  accordingly,  almost  universally 
placed  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  attributed  to  a 
priest  of  Li6ge,  Lambert  le  Bdgue  (q.v.). 

The  scarcity  of  information  about  the  earliest 
period  has  caused  the  significance  of  the  move- 
ment to  be  underestimated  or  misconceived.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  career  of  Lambert  has  many 
points  of  affinity  with  those  of  his  younger  con- 
temporaries Peter  Waldo  and  Francis  of  Assisi. 
Like  them,  he  renounced  his  property,  to  endow 
with  it  the  hospital  of  St.  Christopher  at  Li^ge 
and  the  new  convent  of  Beg:uines  there.  He  felt 
his  special  mission  to  be  the  preaching  of  repentance, 
which  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  ecclesias- 
tical authorities  when  he  attacked  the  vices  of  the 
clergy,  but  had  an  enduring  influence  especially 
on  the  women  of  Li6ge.    By  1210  there  is  con- 


Beffbards 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


98 


temporary  testimony  to  the  existence  there  of 
"  whole  troops  of  holy  maidens  ";  the  ascetic  spirit 
took  hold  also  of  the  married  women, 
a.  The  Early  who  frequently  made  vows  of  conti- 
Communi-  nence.  Religious  excitement  did  not 
ties.  fail  to  produce  pathological  phenom- 
ena; stories  are  told  of  visions,  proph- 
edeSy  convulsions,  incessant  tears,  loss  of  speech, 
and  the  like.  Probably  between  1170  and  1180 
some  of  Lambert's  followers,  to  whom  his  opponents 
gave  the  name  of  Beguines  in  mockery,  had  formed 
a  sort  of  conventual  association  on  a  suburban 
estate  belonging  to  him.  By  the  analogy  of  the 
later  Beguinages,  they  probably  inhabited  a  num- 
ber of  small  houses  grouped  about  the  church  and 
hospital  of  St.  Christopher,  and  shut  off  by  a  wall 
from  the  outer  world.  The  first  inmates  were 
mostly  women  of  position,  who  renounced  their 
property  and  supported  themselves  by  their  own 
labors. 

The  religious  impulse  given  by  Lambert  contin- 
ued active  after  his  death  (probably  1187),  and 
familiarized  the  people  of  the  Netherlands  with 
the  idea  of  ascetic  following  of  Christ  long  before 
the  advent  of  the  mendicant  orders.  Throughout 
the  next  century,  the  need  of  founding  similar  in- 
stitutions for  the  large  nimibcrs  of 
3.  Extension  Beguines  was  felt,  first  in  Flanders 
during  the  and  then  in  the  neighboring  French 

Twelfth     and  German  districts.     In  France  St. 

Century.  Louis  showed  them  special  favor,  and 
erected  a  large  Beguinage  in  Paris, 
modeled  after  the  FlcmiBh,  in  1264;  others  sprang 
up,  large  or  small,  in  all  parts  of  France  during  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  system  in  the  other  Latin  countries  was 
probably  considerable,  but  exact  data  are  wanting. 
In  Germany  only  a  few  towns  on  the  lower  Rhine, 
such  as  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Wescl,  had  Beguinages 
in  the  strict  sense.  Here  the  usual  rule  was  for 
women  who  wished  to  renounce  the  world  at  first 
to  live  separately  in  their  own  houses  or  in  solitary 
places;  as  time  went  on,  they  came  together  in 
larger  or  smaller  houses  put  at  their  disposal  by 
pious  gifts,  and  formed  communities  of  a  monastic 
type.  The  growth  of  these  convents  waa  remark- 
able, and  continued  from  the  first  third  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  to  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth, 
by  which  time  the  majority  of  German  towns  had 
their  convents  of  Beguines.  The  statutes  varied 
much  in  the  different  houses;  the  number  of  inmates 
was  between  ten  and  twenty  on  an  average.  There 
was  no  uniform  dress,  but  most  of  the  members  wore 
hoods  and  scapulars  resembling  a  religious  habit. 
Sometimes  those  who  had  property  retained  full 
control  of  it;  in  other  cases  a  portion  fell  to  the 
convent  when  they  died  or  left.  Celibacy  was  re- 
quired as  long  as  they  stayed,  but  they  were  always 
free  to  leave  and  marry. 

The  name  of  "  voluntary  poor,"  which  many 
convents  bore,  and  the  regulations  of  such  houses, 
show  the  continuance  of  Lambert's  influence  in 
favor  of  desertion  of  the  world  and  penitential  as- 
ceticism; but  the  Franciscan  ideas,  very  similar  in 
their  tendency,  which  were  widely  spread  not  long 
after,  found  here  a  fruitful  soil.    As  early  as  the 


thirteenth  century  a  large  proportion  of  the  Beg- 
hards  or  Beguines  of  France,  Germany,  and  north- 
ern Italy  were  under  the  direction  of  Frandscans 
or  Dominicans,  and  so  closely  related 
4.  Relation  with  the  penitential  oonfratemitki 
to  the  Men-  attached  to  both  these  orders  that  thB 

dicant  Or-  members  of  these  (tertiaries)  were 
ders.  commonly  known  in  the  Latin  ooan- 
tries  as  beguini  and  beffutna — a  fact 
which  has  caused  much  confusion  in  the  study  of 
the  history  of  the  real  Beguines.  The  disapprovsl 
of  these  latter  by  the  papal  authorities  brought 
about,  when  it  came,  a  still  closer  identification 
with  the  tertiaries;  many  joined  these  for  pro- 
tection, and  in  the  fifteenth  century  numerous 
Beguinages  were  transferred  to  the  Augustiniaa 
order.  While  the  original  Beguines  abstained  from 
begging,  it  became  more  common  among  them  in 
France  and  Germany  by  the  beginning  of  the  thii^ 
teenth  century.  As  in  the  Latin  countries  the  Bq^ 
nines  are  found  among  the  extreme  defenders  oif 
the  Franciscan  ideal  of  poverty,  so  we  find  frs- 
quently  among  those  of  Germany  the  belief  that 
their  strict  poverty  designated  them  as  the  true 
followers  of  Christ.  In  accordance  with  this  view, 
they  were  apt  to  withdraw  themselves  from  the 
teaching  of  the  clergy  and  listen  rather  to  the  ex- 
citing exhortations  of  their  "  mistresses  "  or  of 
wandering  preachers  in  sympathy  with  their  be- 
liefs. They  developed  a  system  of  extreme  cor- 
poral austerity,  and  lost  themselves  in  mystie 
speculations  which  increased  their  tendency  to  see 
visions  and  to  condenm  the  ordinary  means  of 
grace;  even  the  moral  law  seems  at  times  to  have 
been  regarded  as  not  binding  upon  them.  The 
impulse  of  apocalyptic  enthusiasm,  given  by  Joa- 
chim of  Fiore  (q.v.)  and  spread  by  the  "  spiritual " 
Franciscans  among  the  laity,  as  well  as  the  'qiuetis- 
tic  mysticism  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit 
(q.v.),  found  an  entrance  into  their  houses  before 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Early  in  the 
next  century,  the  influx  of  women  of  high  social 
position  declined  more  and  more,  and  the  new 
foundations  took  on  more  of  the  modem  character 
of  benevolent  institutions.  By  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  in  Germany  at  least,  they  had 
almost  completely  lost  their  first  religious  fervor 
and  had  forfeited  much  of  the  popular  respect  they 
had  formerly  enjoyed. 

As  to  the  Beghards  or  male  communiUes,  tiie 
question  whether  the  first  associations  known  hy 
this  name  can  be  directly  connected  with  Lambert 
le  B^gue,  or  sprang  up  after  his  death  in  imitation 
of  the  Flemish  Beguinages,  can  not  be  decided  with 
our  present  knowledge.  They  are  first  met  with 
in  Louvain  (c.  1220)  and  Antwerp  (1228).  The 
names  beguin  and  begard  (Flemish  usually  bogard; 
Middle  High  German  begehart  and  biegger)  were  given 
in  mockery  and  are  of  Walloon  origin;  other  names 
are  Lollards  (probably  from  the  Ifid- 
5.  The  die  Dutch  IdUen,  to  miirmur;  see 
Male  Com-    Lollards),    '*  voluntary   poor,"   6oitt 

munities.     pueriy  boni  vaLetiy  etc.    In  the  course 
of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies they  spread  throughout  Germany,  into  Po- 
land and  the  Alpine  districts,  and  even  into  the 


89 


lOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bog'h&rda 


\ 


Utin  countries;  but  their  numbers  were  much 
MiDiUer  tban  those  of  the  Bei^uines.  As.  early  as 
ibe  thiftuenth  century  a  number  of  their  houses, 
too,  ooanected  themselves  wit!i  the  tertiaries  of 
the  two  great  mendicant  orders.  Like  the  Beg- 
uines,  namy  of  them  were  partizans  of  tlio  viewH  of 
the'^Kpm^^"  Franciscans  and  Frati cell i.  They 
practiced  begging  OBientatiousiy;  frequently  had  no 
filed tbode^  and  wandered  about  ii)  small  groups, 
begging  and  winning  adhc^renls  for  their  cause. 
They  did  not  abandon  this  mode  of  hfe  even  after 
papal  prohibitions  were  directed  against  them,  but 
itttii£[tbeoed  tbemselve.H  by  the  adheftion  of  sym- 
pathjjere  who  were  expelled  from  the  convents, 
and  remained  in  close  relatioriH  with  the  Begiiines, 
by  whom  they  weiv  regarded  as  martyrs  to  the 
Franciscan  ideal  of  poverty  and  channels  of  mys- 
tical revelationf!.  In  the  Netherlands  the  fifteenth- 
oentuiy  Beghards  appear  for  the  moat  part  as  reg- 
ular Franciscan  iertiaries,  organized  from  1443  as 
a  aepamte  Congregatio  Zepprren^ijs  brghantorum 
(ertitf  rr^ir  5,  Francisci^  with  the  convent  of  Zep- 
peim,  near  Hasdelt^  a«  their  mother  bouse.  In- 
teiMJ diBBensions  later  sj)lit  them  into  two  branehea. 
In  titt  seventeenth  century  they  were  united  with 
tbe  Lombard  congregiition  of  regular  tertiaries^ 
and  did  not  survive  the  Revolution.  The  internal 
organiuition  of  their  houses  corresponded  genendly 
to  that  of  the  Beguines.  The  earliest  Dutch  Beg- 
luwds  wert'  mostly  weavers*  who  continued  to  fol- 
low their  trade;  later  they  frequently  copied  and 
«td  manoscript^.  The  CJennan  Beghards  followed 
>  variety  of  occupations;  but  at  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages  begging  was  their  main  source  of 
wrtttue,  A  special  inner  group  was  that  of  the 
**  VoJuntAfy  Poor  ■'  (also  called  Poor  Brotliers,  Cel- 
litea,  Alexiana;  in  the  Netherlands  Lollards,  Mate- 
•WM,  CtUehroeders ;  see  Alexianb),  who  required 
the  entire  abandonment  of  property  by  their  mem- 
bwa  and  bound  them  by  permanent  vows.  Their 
*lrict  organiiation,  their  enthuHiasm  for  poverty, 
Ibarteabus  devotion  to  charitable  dutiee^,  all  point 
to  a  Iradition  reaching  back  to  the  beginning  of  the 
B^ghanJ  Bystem.  They  are  further  contrasted  with 
the  ordinary  Beghards  by  the  fact  that  they  held 
"Ocrf  for  the  most  part  from  the  Franciscan  afhlia- 
*WW  which  have  been  seen  to  be  so  common.  In 
»»  Effet^th  century  they  aissociated  themselves 
with  the  Augustinians.  Public  opinion,  by  the  end 
<«  tk  Middle  Agea,  was  even  more  imfavorable  to 
^w  Bftgliards  than  to  the  Beguines;  popular  sat- 
}W*4Hd  preachers  alike  speak  of  them  as  hy|)ocrit- 
^  ^5gar8  with  a  tendency  to  deceit  and  immo- 
^7*  tod  the  Reformation  swept  away  the  last 
'**ttW*ti  of  them,  in  Germany  ut  leaiit. 

"^ppwecution  of  Beghards  and  Beguines  as  a 
■•^icaj  fipct  began  in  the  second  half  of  the  thir- 
••rtk  century,  probably  as  a  consequence  of  their  re- 
•woto  the  "  spiritual  "  Franciscans  {see  Francis, 

SmWt  Of  AB81SI ,  AN  D  THE  FhaNC f SC  AN  O  R  UE  R ) .     By 

1^  the  name  beguinua  was  commonly  used  in  the 
Wft  rountries  a*  the  aecepteil  designation  for  the 
mtieal  "  spiritual  '*  party  and  Fraticelli,  which 
Ulwally  prejudiced  the  general  opinion  of  the  ortho- 
<^  convents  of  Beghards  and  Beguines.  Still  more 
^^m^ing  waa  the  fact  that  the   German  bmhops, 


about  the  same  time,  assumed  that  the  panthe- 
istic heresy  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  (q.v*) 
found  its  cliief  support  in  their  houses.     Though, 

as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  was  probably 

6.  PerBccu-  true  only  of  a  small  s<'ction,  the  name 

tion  as      of  Beghards  was  commonly  adopted 

Heretics,     in  Germany  for  the  adherents  of  that 

heresy.  Dijring  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  belief  spread  that  in  some  convents  of 
Beghartk  and  Beguines  there  existed  an  inner  circle 
of  ''  the  perfect  ^*  who  were  alien  from  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  and  the  laws  of  morality,  to 
which  the  younger  members  were  admitted  only 
after  years  of  probation.  Whether  or  not  these 
accusations  were  true,  wliich  it  is  now  next  to  im- 
possible to  dctemiine,  the  bitter  hostility  shown 
against  the  Beghards  and  Brguines  probably  finds 
its  simplest  ex|)lanation  in  the  conflicts  which  arose 
at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  between  the 
episcopate  and  the  secular  clergy,  on  tlie  one  hand, 
and  the  mendicant  orders,  especially  the  Francis- 
cans, on  the  other»  since  these  latter  gained  their 
lay  foLlouing  largely  through  the  numeroua  houBes 
of  Begliards  mid  Beguines.  Several  German  pro- 
vincial councils  (Cologne  131)6,  Main^  1310,  Treves 
LilO)  passed  strong  tneasures  against  them,  and 
the  Council  of  Vtenne  (1311)  struck  at  them  even 
harder,  undertaking  to  suppress  them  entirely  on 
the  charge  of  spreading  heretical  doctrines  under  a 
cloak  of  piety.  The  execution  of  these  decrees  of 
suppression,  which  took  place  under  John  XXI L 
cause<l  great  confusion  in  the  Church  of  Germany, 
the  mendicants  and  somt^timea  the  magistrates  at* 
tempting  to  defend  the  Beguines,  Since  their  total 
suppression  appeared  impracticable,  John  XXII 
compromised  by  making  a  distinction  and  granting 
toleration  to  the  orthodox  Beguines.  Persecution 
did  not,  however^  ceiise;  and  with  the  powerful 
support  of  the  Emperor  Charles  IV,  it  was  taken 
up  once  more  by  Urban  V  and  Gregory  XL  With- 
out regard  to  the  varying  senses  of  the  names,  all 
Begheirds  and  Beguines  aUke  were  condemned  an 
heretics,  excommunicated^  and  outlawed.  Their 
property  was  to  serve  for  pious  purposes,  for  the 
support  of  the  inquisitors,  or  for  repairing  city 
walls  and  roads.  Between  1366  and  I37S  remorse- 
less persecution  raged  against  them  throughout 
Germany;  but  even  then  they  found  advocates, 
especially  among  the  secular  magistrates,  and  Greg- 
ory XI  was  finally  prevailed  upon  to  repeat  the 
<listinction  between  orthodox  and  heretical  Beg- 
uines and  Beghards,  and  to  tolerate  the  former* 
About  1400  another  stonn  broke  out,  aroused  by 
tiie  attacks  which  the  clergy  of  Basel,  especially 
the  Dominican  Johannes  Mulberg  made  upon  the 
Beguines  of  that  city.  By  1410  the  Beguines  in  the 
ditjceses  of  Constance,  Basel,  and  Strasburg  were 
driven  from  their  convents.  At  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  (1414-18),  wliich  showed 
itself  well  disposed  toward  them,  they  won  a  vic- 
tory of  some  importance  when  they  secured  the 
condemnation  as  heretical  of  a  treatise  directed 
both  against  them  and  against  the  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life  by  the  Dominican  Mattliffius  Grabo. 
Attacks  were  stiH  made  upon  them,  none  the  leaa, 
and  t  hat  a  general  feeling  Luapired  such  attacks  is 


I 


Beff hards 


iSf 


THE   NEW   SCHAFF-HKHZOO 


30 


shown  by  the  fact  that  the  name  "  Beghard  "  con- 
tmued  through  the  filteenth  century  to  be  applied 
to  the  most  various  heretics,  until  it  adhered  per- 
manently to  the  Bohemian  Brethren  or  Picards. 

In  what  is  now  Belgium  and  Holland,  the  ex- 
ample of  Lambert's  first  followers  was  widely  fol- 
lowed, as  has  been  seen;  here  the  Beguines  flour- 
ished most,  and  here  they  have  maintained  their 
existence  to  the  present  day.    A  long  series  of 

accounts  of  mystical  visions,  hysterico- 

7.  Surviving  ecstatic     phenomena,     and     extreme 

Beguinages  austerities    shows    that    the    strong 

in  the       religious    impulse    of    the   beginning 

Netherlands,  remained    operative    until    after    the 

Reformation.  Heretical  mysticism 
was  not  without  its  adherents:  in  1310  Margareta 
Porete,  a  Beguine  of  Hainault  and  the  author  of  a 
book  of  apparently  pantheistic  libertinism,  was 
executed  in  Paris,  and  the  mystic  Hadewich  Blom- 
maerdine  (q.v.)  of  Brussels  (d.  1336)  found  adherents 
among  the  Beguines  of  Brabant  and  Zeeland. 
The  bishops  and  princes,  however,  protected  the 
communities  in  times  of  persecution.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  contemplative  life  was  largely 
given  up  in  favor  of  diligent  work  for  the  sick  and 
poor,  and  later  for  the  education  of  girls.  The 
French  Revolution  deprived  these  institutions  of 
their  religious  character,  which  they  regained  in 
1814.  At  present  there  are  fifteen  Beguinages  in 
Belgium,  only  two  of  which  are  of  any  size,  both  at 
Ghent,  numbering  869  inmates  m  1896.  The 
larger  one,  transferred  in  1874  to  St.  Amandsberg 
just  outside  the  city,  is  a  complete  model  of  a  small 
town,  with  walls,  gates,  streets,  and  gardens.  The 
total  number  of  Beguines  in  Belgium  was  1,790 
in  1825,  1,480  in  1866,  and  about  1,230  in  1896. 
In  Holland  two  houses  have  survived,  one  at  Am- 
sterdam with  thirteen  inmates  and  one  at  Breda 
with  forty-six.  (Herman  Haupt.) 

Biblioorapbt:  E.  Hallmann,  Die  Oe»chichte  det  Uraprunoa 
dtr  hdoiacKen  Beghinen,  Herlin,  1843  (perhaps  the  best 
book  on  the  subject);  J.  L.  von  Mo.sheim,  De  Beghardis 
9t  BeguinibuB,  LeipMC,  1790;  F.  von  Biedenfeld.  Ur- 
tprung  .  .  .  9ikmUicher  M6ncK»-  und  Kloaterfrauen-Orden, 
Weimar,  1837;  Q.  Uhlhorn.  Die  chrittliche  LiebeethOtig- 
UUimMiUelalter,  Stuttgart.  1884;  H.  Haupt.  BeitrAge  xur 
Oeeehichte  der  Sekte  von  freiem  Oeieie  und  dee  Begharden- 
fufiM,  in  ZeiUehrift  fmr  Kirchengeachichte,  vii  (1884),  603 
sqq.;  H.  C.  Lea,  Hietary  of  the  Inquieition,  ii,  350-517, 
Philadelphia,  1888;  P.  Fr^d^rioq,  Let  Documents  de  GUugow 
eeneemani  Lambert  de  Begue,  in  BuUeiine  de  Vacadimie  de 
Bdgigue,  third  series,  xxix  (1895).  148-165.  990-1006; 
Heimbucher,  Orden  und Kongregationen,  i,  501,  ii.  422-425; 
A.  Neander,  Christian  Church,  iv.  pasj<im.  v,  passim; 
W.  lioeUer,  Christian  Church,  ii,  475-478. 

BEGIN,  b^^gah',  LOUIS  NAZAIRE:  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop  of  Quebec;  b.  at  I^vis.  Quebec, 
Jan.  10,  1840.  He  was  educated  at  tlie  Seminary 
of  Quebec  (1857-62)  and  Laval  University  (B.A., 
1863).  He  then  began  the  study  of  theology  at 
the  Grand  Seminary  of  Quebec,  but  was  chosen 
to  fill  a  chair  in  the  newly  established  faculty  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Laval,  and  was 
sent  to  Rome  to  study.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1865,  and  returned  to  Quebec  in 
1868,  where  he  taught  dogmatic  theology  and 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Laval  University  until 
1884,  in  addition  to  being  prefect  of  the   Little 


Seminary  and  having  charge  of  the  pupils  of  the 
University  during  the  last  few  years  of  this  period. 
In  1884  he  accompanied  the  archbishop  of  Quebec 
to  Rome  to  defend  the  rights  of  Laval  University, 
and  on  his  return  was  appointed  principal  of  the 
Normal  School,  remaining  there  imtil  1888.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Chi- 
coutimi,  and  three  years  later  was  appointed 
coadjutor,  i^ith  the  title  of  archbishop  of  Cyrene, 
to  Cardinal  Taschereau.  On  the  death  of  the 
Cardinal  in  1898,  he  became  archbishop  of  Quebec 
He  has  written  La  Primaul^  et  VinfailUbiliU  de% 
souveraina  pontifes  (Quebec,  1873);  La  SainU 
Venture  et  la  regie  de  la  foi  (1874;  English  trans- 
lation by  G.  M.  Ward,  London,  1875);  Le  Cuke 
catholique  (1875);  Aide-memoire,  au  chronologie 
de  Vhistoire  du  Canada  (1886);  and  CaUchigme  de 
controvtrse  (1902). 

BEHAISM:  A  development  of  Babism  (q.v.). 
The  Bab  had  taught  that  the  greatest  and  last  of 
all  manifestations  of  divinity  was  to  appear  and, 
through  his  teachings,  wipe  out  all  distinctions  of 
sects.  In  1802,  twelve  years  after  the  Bab's  exe- 
cution, Beha  Lllah,  a  high-bom  Persian  and  Babite 
leader,  claimed  to  be  the  fulfilment  of  this  teaching. 
He  was  imprisoned  and  exiled  and  died  in  Acre, 
Syria,  in  1892.  His  son,  Abdul  Beha  Abbas,  then 
became  the  leader  and  "  Center  of  the  Covenant." 
From  his  residence  in  Acre,  where  he  lives  under 
government  sur\'eillance,  a  fai^reaching  propaganda 
has  gone  forth  and  pilgrims  find  their  way  thither 
even  from  distant  America 

Behaist  missionaries  are  not  allowed  to  accept 
money,  though  they  may  be  entertained  by  con- 
verts or  others  interested.  Their  message  consists 
in  a  recital  of  the  history  of  their  religion  and  the 
lives  of  the  Bab  and  Beha  Ulhih.  The  Old  and 
New  Testament  prophecies  and  the  sacred  books  of 
ethnic  religions  are  studied  in  the  belief  that  they 
establish  the  Behaist  doctrines.  Their  sacred  wri- 
tings are  the  works  of  Beha  Ullah,  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  Book  of  Ighan.  They  are  mostly 
short  sentences  called  "  communes,"  consisting  of 
prayers  or  truths  for  the  guidance  of  life.  The 
explanation  of  the  Book  of  Ighan  and  the  "  Hidden 
Words  "  in  Arabic  and  Persian  is  a  part  of  the 
regular  preaching.  The  beauty  of  service  to  the 
poor  and  suffering  is  a  cardinal  precept.  Sim- 
plicity in  food  and  dress  is  another,  and  herein 
Abdul  Beha  is  an  example  to  his  followers.  Polyg- 
amy is  not  allowed  and  all  goods  are  held  in  com- 
mon. It  is  believed  that  God  has  manifested  him- 
self at  different  times  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  race,  the  chief  manifestations  having  been 
three  in  number;  viz.,  Jesus — whose  life  and  teach- 
ings are  commended, — ^the  Bab,  and  Beha  Ullah, 
who  is  the  greatest  and  last;  after  him  there  will  be 
no  other  manifestation,  and  whosoever  does  not 
believe  on  him  after  having  heard  his  words  will 
not  have  another  chance  to  enter  the  kingdom. 
Certain  feasts  are  observed  commemorating  events 
in  the  life  of  Beha  Ullah,  and  one  which  was  in- 
stituted by  the  Bab  consists  in  a  simple  repast 
such  as  fruits,  nuts,  and  cool  water,  held  at  the 
home  of  a  believer  every  nineteen  days;   a  vacant 


the  head  of  the  table  for  the  absent 
paasagps  from  the  "  Hidilerx  WordtJ '' 
na  the  food  is  parsed. 
^congre^tioiia  are  known  as  "  assemblies.*' 
in  Aiuerica  was  eslablishcHi  in  Cliicagri  by 
Aimhim  KheiraUah,  in  1H94-  There  are 
wfive  in  America,  each  indei:>endent  of 
Fand  o^-nin^  no  authority  but  that  of 
»h&.      It  is  claimed  tliat  tiie   mission  of 

r  unify  the  worid  and  bring  all  religions 
Margaret  B.  Pkeke, 

Iftrr:  Consult  the  lit«niture  iriTen  under  Babism; 
M«^  Balti^m,  in  Great  Relioion*  af  the  TrorW,  Lon- 
I:  MirtA  Huk«ain  Ali,  Le  LtiT«  df  la  certitude  .  .  , 
,  .  par  U,  fh-ej/fug,  Paris*.  1904;  A*  fin/an  aralt€, 
\it4  du  BaUrftrmf,  tmnsL  by  A,  Nicolas^  rrtria,  1005; 
mh,  /-«t  Prtifj^K  du  Bihai»me.'  let  orn«rten(# — 
It  du  paradi*^  ti^  tptefuleura,  U*  rrvelation*^  transL 
rtyfu*  »m1  V,  C^hin%»i.  Pitris,  1000. 

EN»  JACOB.      See  Boehme. 


SL,  JOHN   CONRAD. 


See     COMMUNLSM. 


S,  STEPHAN:  Gennan  Je.suit;  b.  iii 
Ipr,  21,  lS4i.  He  wd:^  t'diicntud  at  the 
iBiof  Bonn  and  MikisttT  and  at  the  aemi- 
Tobgne.  He  was  ordained  to  the  pries t- 
1871  and  lived  two  years  in  hVance,  three 
ui,  fifteen  in  Holland,  and  fonr  ju  Kiixem- 

Fl  the  remainder  of  hm  time  iit  Aachen 
L  He  has  viTitt^jn  Haiigfschkfde  tier 
hntigen  Viktor  zu  Xanten  (Freiburg, 
Mwert  und  Arbeilslohn  im  MiUelaUer 
'trthrung  dtr  Ileiligen  in  Deutachiand  bU 
inn  des  dreUeJinten  Jahrkunderts  (1885); 
"  Hand^chrift  dm  KaiserH  Otto  im  ^f^iniiUr 
n  (Aftclwm^  1SS6);  Geachichte  der  AussUit- 
Kirthe  de%  htUigcn  Viktor  zu  Xanten  (Frtii- 
(7);  Geschichie  drr  (rierschen  Kirchen  und 
liquirn  (2  part«.  Treves.  1889);  Emnge- 
<tet  heiligtn  Bemward  von  Hilde4theitn 
am,  1891);  Vtrehrung  der  ileiligen  und 
quien  in  DeutRchhnd  unihrend  der  zwciten 
I  MiUclaUers  (Freiburg,  1K93);  Vaiikani- 
miaiuren  (1893);  Der  fieilige  BemttKird 
u)mm  aU  Knmilcr  (Bildesheim,  1S95); 
anm  Angtlieo  da  Fieatde,  »cin  Ld>en  und 
«rfee  (Freiburg,  1895);  Die  Verthrung 
Uc6en  Frau  in  Deutschland  wtihrend  den 
(1895);  Biidtr  aux  der  GeJichichte  der 
Kunst  und  IJturgie  in  Itatien  (1899); 
ft*u  Christie  gettchildert  auf  den  Ftuytin 
'  r»  tu  Kalkar  (in  collaboration  with 
}ladbach,  1900):  Das  t'vangeii^nlmch 
tmd  die  Dome  tu  Goslar  in  der  BibHo- 
(Dusseldorf,  1900);  Die  Aach^n- 
yi);  Betraektungnpunkte  fiir  alle  Tage  de^ 
\hrt$  (10  voU,,  1904-05);  and  Genehi/^hte  der 
nbu^her  in  dtr  er»len  Iliilfte  des  Miitel- 
■gburg.  1906);  in  addition  to  two  vol- 
He  Zur  Ken^nini^  und  Wurdigung  der 
^hen  Altdre  DeuUchlcnuk  ( Frankfort  ♦ 
5)  begun  by  E.  F,  A.  MUnzenberger. 

Ert  may  be  ncldt-BBssed  to  Mr.  John 
Buililioe,  Wuiihiagton,  D.  C, 


BEKKER,  BALTHASAR:  Dutch  precursor  of 
rationalism;  b.  at  Melwlawier  (4  m.  n.e.  of  Dok- 
kum)  Mar.  30,  1634;  d.  in  Friesland  June  11,  1698. 
He  studied  at  CVroningcn  under  J.  Alting  and  in 
Franeker,  where  he  wut*  rector  of  the  Latin  school, 
was  made  doctor  of  the^JlogJ^  and  i)reach«r  in  1666. 
Being  an  enthuma.stic  follower  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy,  he  publiMhed  at  Wejsel  in  Hj6S  an 
Admmntio  Hijxcera  et  candifia  de  phiio$ophia  Car" 
tcmana,  and  gave  greater  offense  by  his  catechisms 
in  1(i68  and  1670,  H^^  was  accused  of  Socinianism, 
although  AUing  and  other  the<:ilogiaiia  pronounced 
him  to  be  ortiiodox.  After  many  controversies, 
lie  accepted  a  call  a**  preacher  to  Weewp,  and,  in 
1079,  to  Ami^terdam.  The  appearance  of  a  large 
eomet  in  1680  induced  him  to  issue  a  work  against 
pojjular  Huperstition,  which  stirred  up  more  com- 
motion; and,  in  1691,  m  De  betoverde  Wereld, 
published  at  Lt^euwarden,  he  denied  the  existence 
of  sorcery,  magic,  poBnessionH  by  tlie  devil,  and  of 
the  devil  liimself.  The  consi^itorj^  of  Amsterdam 
instituted  a  formal  process  against  him.  and  he  waa 
ileposcd  July  30,  1692.  He  went  to  Friesland, 
where  he  edited  the  last  two  books  of  his  work, 

H.C,  ROGOEf. 

ttifiuooiiAPaT:  A  coinpl(?l«  lint  of  Elekker's  wriiiiifa  nad 
of  the  oppoi^ing  works  culind  out  it*  K\v<i*n  m  A.  vftn  d«r 
Lifideu,  B.  Bekker,  BibiittaTaphi^.  The  Hague.  1860.  For 
biM  lifc»  connult  J.  G.  Walcli,  EinltxtunQ  if%  dit  Ueligitmagttw^ 
tiukeiten  Qu*»erhaib  der  luthtriaci^n  Kirche,  vol.  iii,  part  3, 
499  e(m„  Jt>na,  1734;  M.  Schwa^pr,  Beitrag  xur  GtMchichtt 
der  Intitkram,  oder  Leben,  .  .  .  fl.  Bekktr*,  tnit  tiner  Vor- 
rede  Seml^;  l^elpsic.  1780:  J.  M-  8chr6ckh,  Kireh^nQ^ 
tchicAte  text  drr  fieft/rrmitUfn,  viii.  713-722,  ib.  1808;  D. 
Lorgiofi,  &,  Bckker  in  Franeker,  The  Hague,   1848;  idem, 

B.  Bfkkrr  in  Amttierdam,  2  vola.,  Oromngen,  1S50;  W.  P. 

C.  Knutt4?i  Bamasar  Bekker,  The  Ha«m\  1906. 

BEKKOS,  JOHANNES.     See  John    {Johannes) 

BEL :  A  great  Babylonian  god,  whose  namej 
like  the  equivalent  Hebrew  Bu^ol^  origuially  and 
all  ihroiigb  the  history  of  the  language  woa  also 
used  in  the  sense  of  *'  lord  "  or  "  owner  "  (see  Baal). 
Tlie  iisiige  of  t!ie  two  words  as  names  of  deities 
ako  ran  through  parallel  courses;  for  Bel  at  one 
time  in  Babylonia  waa  a  local  deity  like  each  of  the 
Baab  of  tlie  Canaanitea.  He  was  the  patron 
deity  of  the  city  of  Nippur  in  central  Babylonia 
(the  modern  NufTar).  where  hb  temple,  of  great 
antiquity^  has  been  uneartlied  by  the  Pennsyl- 
vania  expedition*  The  reason  why  there  were  not 
many  Bels  in  Babylonia  was  that  political  union 
on  a  largi*  scale  was  very  early  effected  in  that 
eountrj',  while  it  was  always  impossible  among  the 
Canaanite.?;  and  Nippur  was  the  et'nter  of  an 
cxtt^mive  community  in  very  remote  times. 

When,  under  priestly  influence,  Babylonian  the- 
ology was  syBtemalized,  to  this  great  gwi  Bel  wa« 
assigTjed  sovereignty  of  the  earth,  while  Anu  ruled 
in  the  hifihest  heaven,  and  Ea  over  the  deep.  These 
formed  the  chief  trinity  with  primary  and  uni* 
versal  dominion. 

But  it  \b  not  the  Bel  of  Nippur  whose  name  apj- 
pears  in  the  Bil:>le  and  Apocrj^'pha.  On  account  of 
the  rise  and  sujiremacy  of  the  city  of  Babylon  under 
Hammurabi  (225tl  B.C.),  Marduk  (Merodach),  the 
god  of  that  city,  waa  invested  with  the  prerogatives 


Bel 
Bellamy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


38 


and  even  with  the  name  of  Bel,  so  that  in  the  com- 
paratively modem  Old  Testament  times  "Bel" 
stands  for  "  Merodach  *'  and  for  him  only  (so  in  Isa. 
xlvi,  1;  Jer.  li,  44;  in  Jer.  1,  2  both  names  occur 
together,  meaning  practically  "  Bel-Merodach  ")• 

The  Babylonian  Bel  was  not  only  adopted  by  the 
Assyrians  as  one  of  their  chief  gods  (of  course  lower 
than  Asshur),  but  like  Ishtar  (see  Ashtoreth), 
Sin,  and  Nebo,  he  seems  to  have  obtained  wor- 
shipers in  the  West-land.  Such,  at  least,  is  an 
inference  which  has  been  drawn  from  the  proper 
names  Bildad  ("Bel  loves"),  Ashbel  ("man  of 
Bel "),  and  Balaam.  Moreover, "  Bel "  is  found  as  an 
element  in  several  Phenician  and  Palmyrene  names. 
See  Babylonia,  VII.  J.  F.  McCurdy. 

BiBLXooRAPHT :  A.  H.  Sayce,  Reliffionof  ths  Ancient  Baby- 
lonians, London,  1887:  idem,  Rdioion  of  Ancient  Egypt 
and  Babylonia,  Edinburgh,  1002;  M.  JMtrow,  ReHgion  of 
Babylonia,  Boston,  1808;  idem,  in  DB,  extra  vol.,  pp. 
638-530,  645;  Schrader,  KAT,  pp.  364-358. 

BEL  AND  THE  DRAGON.  See  Apocrypha,  A, 
IV,  3. 

BELGIC  CONFESSION:  A  statement  of  belief 
written  in  French  in  1561  by  Guy  de  Br^s  (q.v.) 
aided  by  H.  Sara  via  (professor  of  theology  in 
Leyden,  afterward  in  Cambridge,  where  he  died 
1618),  H.  Modetus  (for  some  time  chaplain  of 
William  of  Orange),  and  G.  Wingen.  It  was 
revised  by  Francis  Junius  of  Bourges  (1545-1602), 
a  student  of  Calvin,  pastor  of  a  Walloon  congre- 
gation at  Antwerp,  and  afterward  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden,  who  abridged  the  sixteenth 
article  and  sent  a  copy  to  Geneva  and  other 
churches  for  approval.  It  was  probably  printed 
in  1562,  or  at  all  events  in  1566,  and  afterward 
translated  into  Dutch,  German,  and  Latin.  It 
was  presented  to  Philip  II  in  1562,  with  the  vain 
hope  of  securing  toleration.  It  was  formally 
adopted  by  synods  at  Antwerp  (1566),  Wescl 
(1568),  Emden  (1571),  Dort  (1574),  Middleburg 
(1581),  and  again  by  the  great  Synod  of  Dort,  April 
29,  1619.  Inasmuch  as  the  Arminians  had  de- 
manded partial  changes,  and  the  text  had  become 
corrupt,  the  Synod  of  Dort  submitted  the  French, 
Latin,  and  Dutch  texts  to  a  careful  revision.  Since 
that  time  the  Betgic  Confession,  together  with  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  has  been  the  recognized 
symbol  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  Holland  and 
Belgium,  and  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in 
America. 

The  Confession  contains  thirty-seven  articles, 
and  follows  the  order  of  the  Gallican  Confession, 
but  is  less  polemical,  full,  and  elaborate,  especially 
on  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  the  Church,  and 
the  Sacraments.  It  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  best 
symbolical  statement  of  the  Calvinistic  system 
of  doctrine,  with  the  exception  of  the  Westminster 
Confession. 

The  French  text  must  be  considered  as  the 
original.  Of  the  first  edition  of  1561  or  1562  no 
copies  are  known.  The  Synod  of  Antwerp,  in 
8q)tember,  1580,  ordered  a  precise  parchment 
copy  of  the  revised  text  of  Junius  to  be  made  for 
its  archives,  which  copy  had  to  be  signed  by  every 


new  minister.  This  manuscript  has  always  been 
regarded  in  the  Belgic  churches  as  the  authentic 
document.  The  first  Latin  translation  was  made 
from  Junius's  text  by  Beza,  or  under  his  direcUon, 
for  the  Harmonia  ConfesHonum  (Cveneva,  1581). 
The  same  passed  into  the  first  edition  of  the  Carpui 
et  Syntagma  Canfessianum  (Geneva,  1612).  A 
second  Latin  translation  was  prepared  by  Festus 
Honmiius  for  the  Synod  of  Dort,  1618,  revised  and 
approved  1619;  and  from  it  was  made  the  Knglish 
translation  in  use  in  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
in  America.  It  appeared  in  Greek  1623,  1653,  and 
1660,  at  Utrecht. 

Bibliographt:  An  excellent  deseription  and  short  hiatofy 
is  given  by  SchAff  in  Creeda,  i.  602-508,  with  the  teict  m 
iii,  383-436,  where  the  literature  is  given. 

BELGIUM :  A  kingdom  of  northwestern  Europe; 
area,  11,373  square  miles;  population,  6,800,000. 
After  a  revolt  from  Holland  in  1830,  Belgium  was 
recognized  with  its  present  boimdaries  by  the 
Powers  in  1839,  when  it  was  declared  to  be  neutnl 
territory.  The  population  belongs  to  two  nation- 
alities, the  northern  portion,  which  is  the  laiger, 
being  Flemish  (Low  German),  and  the  southern 
Walloon  (French);  the  vernacular  of  forty-one 
per  cent,  is  French.  The  boundary  between  these 
two  components  may  be  defined  as  running 
from  Maestricht  west  to  the  French  department 
Nord. 

The  prevailing  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  since 
the  Dutch  Protestants,  who  were  nimierous  from 
1815  to  1830  have,  for  the  most  part,  emigrated. 
[The  Protestants  constitute  less  than  one-half 
of  one  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population.]  The 
Evangelical  confessions  are  represented  in  many 
cities,  however,  by  imimigrants  from  Germany  in 
recent  decades,  as  well  as  by  Anglicans  and  Meth- 
o<lists  and  converts  to  Protestantism.  The  most 
numerous  of  these  Protestant  communions  is  the 
Union  des  Sgliaes  ^vangHiques  Proteatantea  de  la 
Belgique,  which  was  founded  in  1839  and  consists 
of  French,  Dutch,  and  German  congregations, 
being  represented  in  Li6ge,  Verviers,  Seraing, 
Brussels,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  La  Bouverie,  Dour, 
Paturages,  Jolimont,  and  Toumai. 
Protestants.  The  permanent  bond  of  the  Union 
is  a  board  of  directors,  chosen  at  the 
annual  synod  of  the  congregations  interested. 
Recognition  by  the  State  as  a  legal  ecclesiastical 
body  assures  state  aid  to  its  clergy,  the  usual  salaiy 
being  2,220  francs,  although  it  occasionally  runs 
as  high  as  4,000  and  6,000.  An  "  evangelixation 
committee  "  of  the  Union  cares  for  scattered  mem- 
bers, and  especially  for  the  religious  education 
of  children  by  "  evangelists "  where  Protestant 
schools  do  not  exist.  The  Union  has  between 
16,000  and  18,000  members.  The  SociiU  J^van- 
gdique  or  ^glise  ChrUienne  Miasionnaire  Beige  is 
a  free  church  consisting  of  converts  from  Roman 
Catholicism  or  their  children.  It  is  strongest  in 
the  Walloon  districts  and  has  numerous  places  ci 
worship,  imited  into  three  districts,  whose  repre- 
sentatives (Conseils  Sectionnaires)  meet  four  times 
annually.  Over  these  three  coimcils,  to  which 
each  oongregatiou  sends  a  pastor  and  a  layman. 


RELIGIOITS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bel 
fiallMsy 


ii  the  synotl*  of  which  the  permanent  executive  body 
li  the  Comity  AdminisiraUur^  The  clergy  are 
trmsd  chiefly  in  Switaerland  and  are  subordinate 
to  the  synod.  This  Church  possesses  few  sclioola 
of  iU  owHf  but  in  public  schools  of  one  class  with 
twenty  Protestant  children  and  in  those?  of  several 
elattei  with  forty  children  it  is  entitled  to  give 
relipous  instruction  through  its  own  clergy.  It 
bM  DOW  about  11,000  members.  There  are  Eng- 
M  churches  at  Antwerp,  Bruges,  Brussels,  and 
Ortend,  and  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels  there  are 
Pmbyterian  congregations;  in  the  first-named  city 
10  a^t  of  the  Americ4in  Seamen's  Friend  Society 
ii  alio  active.  The  Dutch  Reformed  and  the 
Sirediah  Lutherans  have  small  congregations  in 
BmsttU  and  Antwerp  respectively. 

The  Roman   CathoUc  Church  of   Belgium   was 
orpniied   in    1561,    when    the    authority   of    the 
M^  bishops  was  abrogated,  and  in   1839  the 
i^itcm  W3B  readjusted  to  harmonize  with  the  new 
botindanea.    The  mo«st  of  the  clergy  receive  their 
tainiof  at  the  episcopal  seminaries  luid  a  small 
proportion   at    tlie    University   of    Louvain.     Tlie 
Slat«  has  no    control   over   the   appointment   of 
pnests,  who   are   subject   only   to    their   binhops. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  however. 
Romin      receives     from    the    State    an    annual 
Cathotic     «tlpt^nd  of  more  tlian  4,8CX),m>0  francs, 
CharcL      although  it  does  not  enjoy  any  eccle- 
siastical    prerogative.     Its     influence 
« the  life  of  the  pctiple  is  exerted  chiefly  through 
|be  monasteries,  of  which  there  are  more  tlian  220 
wkB,  with  some  5.000  members,  and  about 
mtfiDeries,    with   over   27,000   sisters.    The 
employc?d  in  large  numbers  in  the  pub- 
•cbools,  the   right  being  given  the  communities 
the  law  of  1884  to  *'  adopt  "  private  schools, 
lebooU  conducted  by  the  religious  organizations, 
ttttrober  of  intermediate  school  a  are  also  undtT 
icaJ  control  ♦  as  well  as  the  Univeniity  of 
Academic  training  is  also  provided  for 
the  ttate  univei^itics  of  Ghent  and  Liege^  and 
the  fuse  university  of  Brussels. 
h  its  hierarchic  organijsation,  Belgium   consti- 
the  province   of   Mechlin,   and   its   dioceses 
divided  according  to  the  politica!  boundarii'a 
tbe  owmtry.     The  archdiocese  of  Mechlin  on  the 
created  by  a  papal  enactnuMit  ui  1559, 
it  came  into  full  opt^ration  in   1561.     It 
ftfty-five  parishes  aiid  ovtT  600  chapela 
^t§min  the*  province.^  of  Brabant  and  Antwuri^. 
*W  wffragan    bishoprics    are    those    of    Bruges, 
'JhttJt,    Li^%    Namur,    and    Toumai    (I>ooniik). 
Brq^  fuundiMl  in   1559,  has  forty  pari«hes  and 
M  ehftpeU   of   case;  Ghent,   established    in    the 
sitme    year,    abo    lias    forty    parishes 
IHoeeMn    and  310  cha}x*l«  of  ease;  Li^ge,  dating 
OrfE&izA-    from  the  fourth  century,  hiis  an  equal 
tioiL         number  of  parishes  and  570  chapela 
of     cai*e;  Namur,     created     in     15.50 
(tMl)t  hjis  the  same  number  of  parishes  and  7IKJ 
of  &usc;  and  Doomik.  the  seat  of  a  bisliop 
U46,  contfoU  thiny-thrt?e  parif^hes  and  44.S 
of  ems*,  its  see  comprising  the  Henneg^iU, 
with  the  rjcccptjoti  of  five  parishes  belonging  to 
kt  Hrvneh  ciic^cese  of  Cambrai. 


The  Jews  of  Belgium,  who  number  mbout  5,000, 
are  divided  into  twelve  rabbinical  districts. 

WlUHELM  GOETE. 

BisuooRAfinr:  Bnlftn*  Hittaire  ccni^mporaine  da  la  Bel- 
Ci^\ui^  L>'0[Ui,  ISO  I;  Arehivet  B^lQiBt^  rew*  critiqu*  d*hia- 
torioQraphie  nationale,  Liltticrh.  1809  eqq  ;  La  Betffique  «l 
U  VaHean.  Document*  et  traraux  iSgiJttatifM,  3  voti.^  Bru«- 
«ela,  ISSO-81;  G,  Ver^pcyen,  L«  Parti  Mthotigut  Utot, 
Gb<?iit,  1803;  J.  Hoy  ok,  La  Patitique  eatholiqut  *fi  Bel- 
ffique  d€puia  ISI4,  ]x>uvaiiv,  1895:  O.  Coppin^  V Union 
mtctrdotale,  aon  hiaioire,  ton  eMprii  «t  ien  c^nMtituticna, 
Namur,  1896;  D.  Berll^re^  MomMhVon  Mife,  vol.  i*  Pari*, 
1897;  La  Btlff^i  AceUticMfi^iM  (&n  aonioal). 

BELIAL,  bJli-al  ("worthlessneas**):  A  word  which 
occurs  once  in  the  New  Testament  (II  Cor.  vi, 
15;  better  reatling  Beliar)  as  the  name  of  Satan, 
hardly  as  that  of  Antichrist;  the  Pcshito  has  "  Sa- 
tan." In  the  Old  Teiitaineiit  Uihji/n'td  is  not  used 
as  a  designation  of  Satan^  or  of  a  batl  angel;  it  is 
an  nppeUation,  **  worthlessness  "  or  ''wickedness** 
in  an  ethical  sense,  and  is  almost  always  found 
in  connection  with  a  word  denoting  the  person  or 
thing  whose  worthlessness  or  wickedness  in  spoken 
of;  as.  **  man  of  Belial,**  "  Hon  of  Belial/'  '*  daugh- 
ter of  Belial,"  '*  thoughts  of  Belial/'  etc.  In  a  few 
instances  bdiyi/a*al  denotes  physical  destruction;  so 
probably  Pa.  xviii,  4  (II  Sam.  xxii,  5)»  "  floods  of 
destruction"  (A.  V.  "ungodly  men  *' ;  R.  V*  "un- 
g(Klliness'*).  To  understand  this  passage  to 
refer  to  the  prince  of  hell  is  against  Ohl  Testa- 
ment usage.  Occasionally  the  adjunct  is  omit- 
ted, as  in  II  Sam,  xxiii,  6;  Job  xxxiv,  IS; 
Nahum  i,  15,  where  the  word  means  the  "  bad/'  the 
"  destroyer/'  the  "  wicked."  Although  thus  orig- 
inally not  a  proper  name,  but  an  appellation,  in 
the  later  Jewish  and  Christian  literature  it  passed 
over  into  a  name  for  Satan,  not  as  the  "  wortliless/' 
but  as  the  **  destroyer/'  It  is  so  used  in  II  Cor. 
vi,  15,  where  Paul  asks;  **  What  harmony  is  there 
between  Christ  and  Belial?"  **  Belial  'stands  for 
'Satan"  also  in  Jewish  epigrapha  and  apocalyptic 
\*Ti tings,  such  as  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  the  Book  of  Jubilees,  and  the  Jewish  in- 
terpolations in  the  Sibylline  Oracles.  In  the  Syriac, 
b€iiyya*al  is  translated  by  "  lord  of  the  air/'  as 
though  the  word  were  composed  of  M  and  the 
Syriac  0'ar  (*-Gk.  air;  cf.  Eph,  ii,  2). 

BiBLiooRAPtir:  J.  llamborK^r,  b.v.,  in  Real-EncvklopHdit 
far  B\Ul  und  Tatrnwl,  vol,  i.  I^ipsic,  1891;  W.  Bouwet, 
l^er  AnlichriMU  pp.  86-87.  99-101,  GoltioKuti,  1896;  T.  ML 
Cbeyno.  in  KrpoMik/r,  1895.  pp,  435-439;  F,  Hommet  in 
Brpo^tUifry  Timet,  viii,  472;   EB,  i,  526-527. 

BELLAMY,  JOSEPH:  Congregationalist;  b.  at 
New  Cheshire,  Conn.,  Feb.  20,  1719;  d.  at  Bethle- 
hem, Conn.,  Mur.  6,  iTtH).  lie  was  graduated  at 
Yale,  1735,  and  wa*?  licenced  to  preach  at  the  age 
of  eighti'cn;  waa  ordained  pa^stor  of  the  church  at 
Fiethlehem  Apr.  2,  1740.  During  the  Great  Awa- 
kening he  preached  withmuch  seal aa an  itinerating 
evangeUst;  later  he  establiahed  a  divinity  school 
in  bin  house,  where  many  prominent  New  England 
clergymen  were  trained,  aa  well  aa  some  not  in- 
tended for  the  mini  St  r}'^  (among  them  Aaron  Burr)* 
lie  wan  a  disciple  and  personal  friend  of  Jonatltaii 
Edwards,  and  the  most  gifted  preacher  among  hirf 
followfTs,  being  thought  by  some  to  be  ec|ual  to 
White  field,     hi  his  Tnte  Helicon  Dtlineated  (Boa- 


Bellarmine 
BeUs 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


84 


ton,  1750)  he  sets  forth  in  spirited  style  the  plan  of 
salvation  and  of  the  Christian  life  after  the  Ed- 
wardean  conception,  and  he  explicitly  advocates 
the  doctrine  of  a  general  atonement.  In  the  Wis- 
dam  of  God  in  the  Permission  of  Sin  (1758)  he  argues 
that,  while  sin  is  a  terrible  evil,  God  pennits  it  as  a 
necessary  means  of  the  best  good,  and  the  universe 
is  "  more  holy  and  happy  than  if  sin  and  misery 
had  never  entered."  God  could  have  prevented 
sin  without  violating  free  will.  On  the  whole  his 
work  was  more  general  than  specific,  modifying 
the  prevalent  conceptions  in  the  direction  of  greater 
simplicity  and  reasonableness.  He  sometimes  ap- 
proaches quite  near  subsequent  forms  of  expres- 
sion. A  collected  edition  of  his  w^orks  appeared  at 
New  York  (3  vols.,  1811),  and  another  (and  better) 
at  Boston,  with  memoir  by  Tryon  Edwards  (2  vols., 
1850). 

BELLARMINE,  bel"lar-min'. 

In  Louvain  (|  I).    In  Rome.     The  Disputationea  (|  2). 
New  Duties  after  15S9.     Controvcraial  Writings  (J  3). 

Roberto  Francesco  Romolo  Bellarmino,  the  fa- 
mous Roman  Catholic  controversialist,  was  bom 
at  Montepulciano  (26  m.  s.w.  of  Arezzo),  in  Tus- 
cany, Oct.  4,  1542;  d.  in  Home  Sept.  17,  1621.  He 
was  a  nephew  of  Pope  Marcellus  II,  and  came  of 
a  noble  though  impoverished  family.  His  abilities 
showed  themselves  early;  as  a  boy  he  knew  Vergil 
by  heart,  and  composed  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian  and  Latin;  one  of  his  hymns,  on  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, is  included  in  the  Roman  breviary.  His 
father  destined  him  for  a  political  career,  hoping 
that  he  might  restoi-c  the  fallen  glories  of  the  house; 
but  his  mother  wished  him  to  enter  the  Jesuit  order, 
and  her  influence  prevailed.  He  entered  the  Ro- 
man novitiate  in  1560,  remained  in  Rome  three 
years,  and  then  went  to  a  Jesuit  house  at  Mondovi 
in  Piedmont.  Here  he  learned  Greek,  and  taught 
it  as  fast  as  he  learned  it.  His  systematic  study 
of  theology  began  at  Padua  in  1567  and  1568,  where 
his  teachers  w^ere  Thomists,  the  Jesuits  not  yet  hav- 
ing had  time  to  develop  a  theology  of  their  owti. 

After  a  visit  to  Venice,  where  he  increaseti  his 
renown  as  a  public  speaker,  Bellarmine  was  sent  by 
the  general,  Francis  Borgia,  in  1569,  to  Ix>uvain, 
then  the  most  famous  Roman  Catholic  university. 
He  was  ordained-  priest  at  Ghent  on  Palm  Sunday, 
1570,  by  the  elder  Jansenius.  A  strict  Augustin- 
ian  theology  prevailed  among  the  teachers  at  Lou- 
vain, represented  by  Bajus,  the  precursor  of  Jan- 
senism (see  Bajus,  Michkl).  Bellarmine  had  not 
enough  deep  knowledge  of  his  ow^n  nature  or  Chris- 
tian experience  to  be  able  to  appreciate  the  Augus- 
tinian  doctrines  of  the  corruption  of  man  and  the 
necessity  of  divine  grace  to  any  good  movement 
of  the  will.  He  contended  accordingly  against 
the  propositions  of  Bajus,  though 
X.  In        his    own  views    and   expressions    in 

Louvam.  the  great  controversy  on  grace  were 
always  a  little  uncertain.  He  was 
the  first  Jesuit  to  teach  at  the  university,  where 
the  subject  of  his  course  was  the  Summa  of  St. 
Thomas;  he  also  made  extensive  studies  in  the 
Fathers  and  medieval  theologians,  which  gave  him 
the  material  for  his  book  De  scriptoribus  eccUsias- 


ticis  (Rome,  1613),  which  was  later  revised  and  en- 
larged by  Sirmond,  Labbeus,  and  Oudin.  In  the 
Netherlands  he  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  great 
controversy  with  the  Protestants  which  he  could 
hardly  have  got  in  Italy,  though  he  seema  never  to 
have  come  into  personal  contact  with  the  evang^ 
ical  leaders.  Finally  he  learned  Hebrew,  and  wrote 
his  often  reprinted  grammar.  His  genius  for  teach- 
ing, clearness  of  thought,  and  adroitness  in  contro- 
versy were  indisputable. 

Bellarmine 's  residence  in  Louvain  lasted  seven 
years.  His  health  was  undermined  by  study  and 
asceticism,  and  in  1576  he  made  a  journey  to  Italy 
to  restore  it.  Here  he  was  detained  by  the  com- 
mission given  him  by  Gregory  XIII  to  lecture  on 
polemical  theology  in  the  new  Roman  College. 
He  devoted  eleven  years  to  this  work,  out  of  whose 
activities  grew  his  celebrated  DisjnUatianes  de 
eontroversiis    christiancB    fidei,    first    published    at 

Ingolstadt,  4  vols.,  1581-03.  It  occu- 
2.  In  Rome,  pics  in  the  field  of  dogmatics  the  same 
The^Dis-  place  as  the  Annates  of  Ba]X>niu8  in 
putationes."  the  field  of  history.    Both  were  the 

fruits  of  the  great  revival  in  religioD 
and  learning  which  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
had  witnessed  since  1540.  Both  bear  the  stamp 
of  their  period;  the  effort  for  literary  elegance, 
which  was  considered  the  principal  thing  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  had  given  place 
to  a  desire  to  pile  up  as  much  material  as  possible, 
to  embrace  the  whole  field  of  hiunan  knowledge, 
and  incorporate  it  into  theology.  Bellarmine's 
exposition  of  the  views  and  arguments  of  the  Prot- 
estants is  surprisingly  full  and  accurate,  so  much 
so  that  the  circulation  of  the  book  in  Italy  was 
for  a  time  not  encouraged.  He  fails,  like  most  of 
his  contemporaries,  in  understanding  the  principle 
of  historical  development,  and  his  belief  in  authoi^ 
ity,  pressed  to  an  extreme,  injured  his  sense  of 
truth  and  allowed  him  to  handle  both  the  Bible 
and  history  in  an  arbitrary  manner.  The  first 
volume  treats  of  the  Word  of  God,  of  Christ,  and 
of  the  pope;  the  second  of  the  authority  of  councils, 
and  of  the  Church,  whether  militant,  expectant, 
or  triumphant;  the  third  of  the  sacraments;  and 
the  fourth  of  grace,  free  will,  justification,  and  good 
works.  The  most  important  part  of  the  work 
is  contained  in  the  five  books  on  the  Roman  pontiff. 
In  these,  after  a  speculative  introduction  on  fonns 
of  government  in  general,  holding  monarchy  to 
be  relatively  the  best,  he  says  that  a  monarchical 
government  is  necessary  for  the  Church,  to  preserve 
unity  and  order  in  it.  Such  power  he  oonsidera  to 
have  been  established  by  the  commission  of  Christ 
to  Peter.  He  then  proceeds  to  demonstrate  that 
this  power  haff  been  transmitted  to  the  sucoeason 
of  Peter,  admitting  that  a  heretical  pope  maj 
be  freely  judged  and  deposed  by  the  Chuit^  since 
by  the  very  fact  of  his  heresy  he  would  cease  to  be 
pope,  or  even  a  member  of  the  Chiurch;  this  ii 
almost  like  an  echo  of  the  great  councils  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  third  section  discuani 
Antichrist;  Bellarmine  gives  in  full  the  theoiy 
set  forth  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers,  of  a 
personal  Antichrist  to  come  just  before  the  end  of 
the  world  and  to  be  accepted  by  the  Jews  wod 


mttiToned  in  the  temple  at  Jemsalem— thus  en- 
dcavoriDg  to  dispose  of  the  Protestant  exposition 
whtcii  MW  Antichrist  in  the  poi>e.  The  fourth 
section  Beta  forth  the  |)ope  as  the  nupremc  judge 
inmatteisof  faith  and  morals*  though  making  the 
conoefisionB  (confirmed  indeed  by  the  Vatic;ui 
Council)  that  the  pope  may  err  ifi  questions  of  fact 
which  may  be  known  by  ordinary  human  knowl- 
edge, and  bIso  when  he  ppeaks  as  a  mere  unofficial 
theologian,  doctor  privatus.  His  assertions  are  much 
more  unbounded  in  the  last  part,  which  treats  of 
the  pope^«  power  in  secular  matters.  While  he 
•»>'«  tiiat  the  pope  has  no  direct  jiiriKdiction  in 
MCb  things,  he  yet  stoutly  contends  for  the  power 
of  deposing  kings,  absolving  subjects  from  their 
■IIeipiliC&^  and  altering  cixil  laws»  when  these  aetiouM 
ifi  QioeBsary  for  the  good  of  the  souk  committed 
to  the  charge  of  the  chief  pastor. 

t'atil  1589  Bellarmine  was  occupied  altogether 
«  prufeesor  of  theologj%  but  that  date  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  new  ef>och  in  hk  life  anil  of  new 
diguitipd,  After  the  murider  of  Henry  III  of  France 
Sxtus  V  sent  Gaet^no  a«  legnte  to  Paris  to  nego- 
tiate with  the  League,  and  chose  Bellarmine  to 
wttJtnpany  liini  as  theologian;  he  was  in  the  city 
during  its  eicge  by  Henry  of  Navarre.  The  next 
popr,  Clement  VTIl  n591-l6{>5),  set  great  store 
by  [m.  He  wrote  the  preface  to  the  new  edition 
of  the  Vidgate,  and  w  4fl  made  rector  of  tfie  Roman 
College  in  1592,  examiner  of  bisliopa 
J.  HewDu-  in  1598,  cardinal  in  lami,  and  in  J6D2 
tiei  after  archbiishop  of  Capua.  He  had  written 
'S8^  Con-  Ftrongly  against  pluralism  and  non- 
tro?mial  residence,  and  he  set  a  good  example 
Writinp.  himself  by  leaving  within  four  days 
for  hi«  diocese,  where  he  tlevoted 
^^Jfisdt  jealously  to  his  episcopal  diitie«,  and  firndy 
«ii*eut4>d  the  reforming  decrees  of  the  C'Oimcil  of 
Tf«nt.  Under  Paul  V  (I50o-2l)  aro.se  the  great 
^wiflirt  between  Venice  and  tlie  papacy,  in  which 
f^'*  Paolo  Siupi  was  the  spokesman  of  the  Republic, 
l^i<*ling  aguiriKt  the  papal  interdict,  rcatwerting 
lofprindplcfl  of  Constance  and  Ba»el,  ami  denying 
^  pope's  authority  in  matters  secular,  Bellar- 
^^  MTale  three  rejoinders  to  the  Venetian  theo- 
'J'ptta,  abd  at  the  same  time  possibly  naved  Sarpl^s 
^  bj  giving  him  warning  of  an  impending  mur- 
^''f'Wto  attack.  He  aoon  ha*i  occiision  to  cross 
**wtl>  with  n  more  prominent  antagoniHt,  Jame?*  I 
•"  uigiand,  who  prided  himself  on  his  theological 
''luQaiisntfi.  Bcliannine  had  written  a  letter  to 
*  ■  ^  '  "h  iirchpriest  Blackwell,  reproaching  him 
/  tiiken  the  oath  of  allegiance  in  apparent 

%■^r^i  of  hi»  duty  to  the  pope.     James  attacked 

ill  1608  in  a  Latin  treatise,  which  the  scholarly 
<Ted  at  once,  making  merry  with 
over  the  defect**  of  the  royal  Latinity. 
^'  plH.'d  with  a  sectind  attack  in  more  cait'ful 
•tylr,  tiftdicated  to  the  Emperor  Rudolpli  II  and 
aU  the  nionarcbs  of  Christendom,  in  which  he  poised 
«  th^  defender  of  primitive  and  truly  Catholic 
**  ty.     BellannLne's  answer  to  tliis  covers 

or  \cm  the  whole  controversy.     In  reply  t-o 
'Ittitlmmoua   trt*atiKe  of   William    Barclay,    the 
fvtebmted  Scottish  jurist,  he  wrote  another  Tmr- 

de  poit*taU  nummi  pontifici^i  in   Tehus  tern- 


p&ralibus^  which  reiterated  his  strong  ass^^rtions 
on  the  Bubject,  and  was  therefore  prohibited  in 
France,  where  it  agreed  with  the  sentiments  of 
neither  the  king  nor  the  biahojjs.  He  was  among 
the  theologians  Cjonsulted  on  the  teacliing  of  Galileo 
when  it  first  made  a  stir  at  Rome,  In  his  old  age 
he  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  old  home,  Monte- 
pulciano,  as  it.H  bishop  for  four  years^  after  which 
he  retired  t^  the  Jesuit  college  of  St.  Andrew  in 
Rome.  He  received  some  votes  in  the  (Xinclavea 
which  elected  Leo  XI,  Paul  V,  and  Gregorj^  XV, 
but  only  in  the  second  ca.se  had  he  any  prospect 
of  election.  Hince  hia  death  the  members  of  his 
order  have  more  than  onee  attempted  to  procure 
his  canonijfiation.  but  without  success.  The  be«st 
of  the  older  editions  of  his  works  is  that  in  se^'en 
vtdfl.,  Ck»logne,  1617;  recent  ones  are  those  of  Paris, 
187L1-74,   and   Naples,    1872.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibi^kighapmt:  A  list  of  ihe  works  of  BellAriuine  is  fsiven 
in  H.  Hurter,  f^omenclator  Uterariua,  i,  273  i!«qq  ^  Inas- 
bnick,  lfi©2.  Hia  autobioerftphy,  written  in  lfil3,  wiwi 
issued  in  Lat.  at  Rome,  1675,  at  IvOuvaiD,  175.1.  And  in 
Lat.  and  Germ.,  «l,  J,  J,  I,  von  Dollinger  and  F.  H, 
Heuii^h,  Bonn,  18S7;  it  was  uned  in  MS.  by  J.  Fuli«atti. 
Vita  dfl  Cardinak  R.  Beiktfmino,  Romp.  1624.  The 
lives  by  D,  Bartoli,  Rome,  1677,  N.  Fristoo,  Nantea,  1708, 
and  F.  Heii»e.  Pudcrbcjru,  1868»  are  mere  eulogied  and 
add  notliing  of  value;  indeed!  it  ui  said  that  the  auto- 
biography and  the  works  founded  upon  it  havo  done 
much  t«  prevent  B«;llurroiiDe'a  eanonixutiou.  Consult 
Niceron,  AfHnttirtn,  xjucj.  1  fttiq,;  J,  B,  Coud<prc,  Ls  V6- 
nrrabte  t'ardinai  Beltarmin,  2  vol*.,  Paris^  1S&3. 

BELLOWS,  HENRY  WHITNEY:  American 
Unitarian;  b.  in  Boston  June  II,  !8I4;  d.  in  New 
York  Jan.  30,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
1832,  and  at  the  Cambndge  Divinity  School  1837; 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational 
Society  (Unitarian),  Chambers  Htreet,  New  York, 
Jan.  2,  18.'^8,  and  r«?mained  there  till  death;  during 
his  pastorate  the  church  wa-*^  twice  moved*  to 
Broadway  between  Spring  and  Prince  Streets  and 
the  name  changed  to  the  Church  of  the  Divine 
Unity,  and  again  to  4th  Avenue  and  20th  Street, 
where  it  took  the  name  of  All  Stmls'  Church.  Dr. 
Bellowa  waB  the  organiser,  president,  and  cliief  ad* 
niiaistrator  of  the  United  Staten  Sanitary  Com- 
mission (1862-78),  and  during  the  Civil  War  he 
Biifierin tended  with  rare  efficiency  the  distribution 
of  supplies  valued  at  S15,000,0(»  and  f5,f.)OO,0tK) 
in  nwney;  at  a  later  period  he  was  president  of 
the  first  civil  eervice  reform  association  organiied 
in  the  country.  He  wius  president  of  the  Na^ 
tional  Unitarian  C^rnference  1865-79.  He  wrote 
much  for  the  periodicals  of  hia  denomination  and 
wa>i  tlie  cliief  originator  of  The  Chrigtian  In- 
quirer (New  York,  1846)  and  for  five  years  its 
principal  contributor.  He  also  published  a  number 
of  books,  of  merely  personal  and  txiinijient  interest. 

BELLS:  The  use  of  bells  as  adjuncts  to  Chris- 
tian wonship  was  not  without  precedent  in  pre- 
Chriatian  times.  Among  the  Jews  the  vestment 
of  the  high  priest  was  adorned  with  little  bells 
(Ex.  xxviii,  33);  and  among  the  pagans  the 
prieats  of  Proserpine  announced  the  beginning  of 
the  sacrifice  by  ringing  bells.  There  is  no  evidence 
of  early  Christian  use  of  them  to  summon  people 
to  prayer;  this  seems  to  have  been  lione  by  word 
of  naouth,  even  aia  late  as  Tertulliaii  and  Jerome. 


BeUa 
Bembo 


THE  NEW  9CHAFF-HERZ0G 


86 


In  the  Eg3rptian  monasteries  the  Old  Testament 
use  of  trumpets  still  survived,  and  the  sound  made 
by  knocking  pieces  of  wood  together  served  the 
same  purpose;  this  custom  is  still  sometimes  used 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on  the  last  three 
days  of  Holy  Week,  when  the  ringing  of  bells  is 

forbidden     [and     survives     in     some 
Early  Use.  places  in  the  East].    The  first  positive 

evidence  of  the  use  of  bells  in  con- 
nection with  Christian  worship  is  found  in  Gregory 
of  Tours  (d.  595),  who  speaks  of  them  as  being 
rung  at  the  beginning  of  the  liturgy  and  the  canon- 
ical homi9.  From  the  seventh  century  on,  bells 
are  often  mentioned  in  the  inventories  of  Western 
churches,  and  by  800  they  were  so  common  as  to  be 
found  even  in  village  churches.  A  capitulary  of 
Charlemagne  (801)  prescribes  that  priests  shall 
ring  their  bells  at  the  accustomed  hours  of  the  day 
and  night.  In  the  ninth  century  some  Eastern 
instances  occur;  thus  Orso  I,  Doge  of  Venice,  pre- 
sented twelve  bells  to  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
who  placed  them  in  a  tower  near  St.  Sophia.  But 
outside  of  Russia  they  never  attained  the  same 
importance  as  in  the  West.  The  Mohammedans 
usually  removed  them  in  the  countries  they  con- 
quered; and  Zwingli  attempted  to  abolish  their 
use  in  Switzerland,  though  most  of  the  Reformers 
only  protested  against  superstition  in  the  use  of 
them,  especially  their  consecration. 

Walafrid  Strabo  distinguishes  two  classes  of 
bells  in  his  time,  vaaa  produdilia  and  fusiliaj 
wrought  and  cast.  Of  the  now  rare  examples  of 
the  former  class  the  best  known  is  the  "  Saufang  " 

at    Cologne,    so    called    because    the 

Material     legend  ran  that  it  had  been  dug  up 

and  Form,  by  pigs  about  613;  it  is  made  of  three 

plates  of  iron  fastened  together  with 
copper  nails.  Similar  and  perhaps  older  examples 
are  in  the  Edinburgh  Museum.  For  the  casting 
of  bells  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin  was  employed 
in  the  Middle  Ages;  afterward  lead,  zinc,  iron, 
and  antimony  were  used  with  copper.  At  present 
the  best  bell-metal  is  supposed  to  be  a  mixture  of  77 
to  80  per  cent,  of  good  copper  with  20  to  23  per  cent, 
of  pure  tin.  The  earliest  cast  bells  resemble  cow-bells 
in  form,  though  there  are  some  shaped  more  like 
a  beehive  or  a  pear.  Their  dimensions  are  small. 
As  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  extant  examples, 
the  custom  of  putting  inscriptions  on  bells  does 
not  go  further  back  than  the  twelfth  century,  and  is 
by  no  means  general  even  then.  On  cast  bells 
the  inscriptions  are  rarely  incised;  where  this 
occurs,  it  is  a  sign  of  antiquity.  Later  they  are 
more  commonly  raised,  and  in  either  Roman  or 

Gothic  capitals  down  to  the  end  of 
Inscriptions,  the    fourteenth    century;  then    small 

letters  were  used  until  about  1550, 
and  since  then  more  modem  types  of  letters  have 
been  usual,  except  in  recent  deliberate  imitations 
of  the  old  style.  Until  well  into  the  fourteenth 
century  Latin  was  the  regular  language;  then  the 
vernacular  came  into  use.  The  earliest  inscriptions 
were  short;  from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
much  longer  ones  became  usual,  frequently  almost 
filling  the  surface  of  the  bell.  They  are  mostly 
pious  dedications  or  prayers,  or  declarations  of  the 


purpose  of  the  bell,  such  as  Funera  plango, 
julgura  frangOy  aabbata  pango;  excito  UnicfS, 
dissipo  ventos,  paco  cruentos.  Besides  inscriptions, 
the  sides  of  bells  were  adorned  with  pictures, 
coats  of  arms,  seals,  and  various  symbols,  among 
the  oldest  being,  besides  the  cross,  the  dove  with 
the  olive-branch,  and  the  Agnus  Dei, 

As  early  as  the  Frankish  sacramentaries  and  the 
Pontifical  of  Egbert  special  formulas  for  the  bene- 
diction of  bells  are  mentioned.  This  practise  was 
connected  in  those  days  with  superstitious  notions, 
so  that  Charlemagne  was  obliged  to  regulate  it  in 
789.  But  the  formulas  of  benediction  themselves 
attributed  a  quasimagical  effect  to 
Bene-       the  bells  thus  consecrated.    Accord- 

diction,  ing  to  present  Roman  Catholic  usage, 
the  blessing  of  bells  is  an  episcopal 
prerogative,  though  priests  may  exercise  it  in  case 
of  necessity  with  the  pope's  permission.  The  cere- 
monies somewhat  resemble  those  of  baptism, 
which  has  given  rise  to  the  practise  of  naming  bells, 
and  in  the  Middle  Ages  of  appointing  sponsors 
for  them,  from  whom  rich  christening  gifts  were 
expected.  The  Schmalkald  Articles  declared  bit- 
terly agsdnst  these  practises  as  "  popish  juggleTy  " 
and  "  a  mockery  of  holy  baptism." 

The  main  use  of  beUs  has  always  been  to  an- 
nounce the  time  of  public  worship.  It  is  also  a 
common  Roman  Catholic  practise  to  ring  the  church 
bell  at  the  consecration  in  the  mass,  as  in  some 
Protestant  localities  at  the  Lord's  Prayer  after  the 
sermon,  that  those  who  are  absent  may  \mite 
themselves  in  spirit  with  the  congregation.  During 
the  mass,  moreover,  a  small  bell  (called  the  "  Sanc- 
tus  "  or  "  sacring  "  bell)  is  rung  at 

Present  the  specially  solemn  parts — ^the  Sane- 
Use.  tu8y  the  beginning  of  the  canon,  the 
consecration,  and  the  Domine,  non 
sum  dignus.  Bells  have  been  rung  also  at  certain 
regular  times  to  call  to  mind  some  mystery,  as 
the  passion  and  death  or  the  incarnation  of  Christ 
(see  Anoelus),  or  to  bid  to  prayer  for  sinners,  for 
the  faithful  departed,  or  for  peace.  The  ringing 
of  joyous  peals  at  marriages,  and  the  announcement 
of  a  death  by  solemn  tolling  (originally  intended  to 
move  the  hearers  to  prayer  for  the  soul,  either 
before  or  after  death)  are  ancient  practises;  the 
latter  existed,  at  least  in  the  monasteries,  in  the 
time  of  Bede.  Li  some  parts  of  England  a  special 
bell  was  tolled  with  a  similar  intention  before  the 
execution  of  a  criminal.      (Nikolaub  MClleb.) 

BiBLxoaRAPHT:  Literature  on  the  subject  \b  given  in  H.  T. 
Ellaoombe,  Pnctical  Remark§  on  Belfries  and  Rinotn, 
with  an  Appendix  on  Chimino,  London,  1850-60;  H.  Otte. 
Olocksnkunde,  pp.  1-6.  Leipsio,  1884;  and  F.  W.  Sefau- 
bart,  Dis  Olocken  im  Henogtkum  AnKaU,  pp.  xiv-xrii, 
Dessau.  1896.  H.  T.  Ellaoombe  has  a  series  of  works 
treating  of  English  bells,  among  which  are:  Sundry  Werde 
About BelU,  Exeter.  1864;  Church  BeUeof  Devon,  ib.  1872; 
Churth  BeUa  of  Somereet,  1875;  Church  BeUa  of  OUntcMkr- 
ehire,  1881.  Consult  also:  Joseph  Anderson.  Scotland  in 
Early  Timea,  1st  series,  pp.  167-215.  Edinburgh.  1881; 
F.  W.  Warren.  Lituryy  and  Ritual  of  the  Celtie  Churtk,  p. 
02.  Oxford.  1881;  Margaret  Stokes.  Early  Christian  AH 
in  Ireland,  pp.  50  sqq..  Ix)ndon.  1887;  J.  T.  Fowler. 
Adamnani  Vita  S.  Columbtr,  pp.  xliii-xliv,  Oxford.  1894; 
K.  H.  Bergner,  Zur  Olockenlcunde  ThOringena,  Jena.  1896; 
Eneyeloptedia  Britannica,  h.v..  contains  interestins  i 
rial  not  easily  found  elsewhere;  DCA,  i,  184-186w 


n 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


■      BELSHAM.    THOBiAS:      English  Umtarifin;  b, 
at  Bedford  Apr.  26,  1750;  d.  at  Hampstead  Nov. 

JU,  1829.     He  fiiiished  his  studies  at  the  Disaenting 
Kcademy  of  Daventry  and  in  1770  became  teacher 
there;  in  1778  he  b<? came  minister  of  an  indepeiid- 
•mtcbapel  at  Worcester,  but  n- turned  to  Daventry 
11  teacher  and  preacher  in  1781,     Having  adopted 
Vnitarian   views   he   resigned   in    1789,    and   was 
profevor  of  divinity  at  the  college  of  Hackney 
tmiil  it  ceased  to  exist  in  1 796 .     I  n  1 7  94  he  su  cceeded 
Dr.  Priestley  as  minister  of  the  Gravel  Pit  Unitarian 
CLapel  at  Hackney,  and  in  18(J5  became  minister 
of  the  Efisex  Street  Chapel,  London.     He  published 
mueii.  ecrmons,  controversial  writings,  and  general 
tiieoiogic8l   works,  including  ElementM  of  the  Ph\- 
io^aphy  of  the  Mind  arid  of  Moral  Fkilosophy  (Lun- 
rfon.    1801);  Lett  as   io  iht   Bishop  of  London   in 
^tl^indicGtion    of    Unitarians    (1815);  The    Eptjstles 
^■^    St.    PatU    Tran^latedt  tDith   an    Exposition  and 
^HTo/es    (2  vols,^    1822):  he  was  principal  editor  of 
HrAe  A^etc  Testament  in  an  Improved  Vemion  upon 
ike  BcuiB  of  Archbishop  Newconu^s  Xew  Translation  ; 
jffiih  a  critical  tejt  and  notes  critical  and  exp!<tnntorjf 
ISOtS).    American  Unitarian  ism  (1th  e<l.,  Boston, 
Il5)    is  extraet«fd  from  his  Menwirs  of  the  Revd. 
^T.  Li^uiity  (London.  1812). 

BiBL^ckomAPRT:  J.  Williams,  Meinoira  of  Thomaa  Bdaham. 
LotiUoQ.  IS33;  DSB,  iv,  202-203. 

BJEXSHAZ2AR.     See    Babtlonia,    VI.    7.    §  3; 

BSXSHEIM,  JOHANWESr  Norwegian  Protes- 
tant;  b.  at  Valders  (about  100  m.  n.w.  of  Cbris- 
^uu^ia.)  Jao.  21,   1829.     He   received  only  an  ele- 

»n»cnt^ry  education  in  his  early  years,  and  from 
18^1  was  a  teacher  in  village  schools  until  1858, 
when  he  was  enabled  to  enter  the  L^niversily  o! 
Ckristiania.  from  which  he  was  graduated  three 
?«•*«  later.  He  was  tutor  at  a  teachers'  seminar}^ 
u»  ^86S-64,  and  was  then  appointed  pastor  of  a 
«ftall  parish  in  Finraarken  near  the  Russian  fron- 
tier. Six  years  later  he  was  called  to  a  larger 
»  Parish  in  Bjelland,  in  the  extreme  south  of  Nor- 
▼*y,  but  resigned  his  pastorate  in  1875  and  settled 
»i  Cliristiania,  where  he  was  enabled  to  continue 
\oiB  Btudies  by  his  pension  and  a  small  additional 
•ttpcnd,  while  a  government  subvention  later  ren- 
^re<i  ii  possible  for  liim  to  visit  foreign  libraries. 
He  hw  written  Om  Bibelen,  dens  Opbevaring,  Over- 
•■tteW,  og  U(&tredeUe  (3d  ed.,  Christiania,  18-84); 
^^  Pmnar  for  nogle  orntvistcde  Steder  i  dd  Xye 
'^•itaBUPile  (1876);  Vtiledning  i  Bibetens  Htstairie, 
•■a  ttdfdrligere  Oplysninger  om  det  Nye  Testamentes 
^^  (Christiania,  1880);  Den  evangdiJike  His- 
J*^  Tfowrrdightd  og  de  Nytestamentliye  Skn'fters 
Ppf'wdWif  (1891);  De  GammeUestamentUge  Skrif- 
^^Tmardighed  og  OprindeUc  (1892);  Om  Mose- 
■^(•''if  og  nogle  andre  GammeltestamentUge  Skrif- 
^■j:t  fndl^g  imod  den  modcrne  Kritik  (1896). 
"'  Uted  Codcj:  aureus,  sive  quatuor  Evan- 

i^  p/urpureo  aurcoque  in  BibU<>iheca  Re- 

|M  UaliTiCJisri  asservaia  (Christiania,  1879);  Die 
Af^iidgeKhiehle  und  die  Ofjenbarung  Johannes  aiis 
Urn  Oigas  lAbmrum  auf  der  ktfnigtichen  Bibliothek 
n  Skickhclm  (1879);  Das  BvangeUum  des  Mat- 
lkmutmd§m  laUinischim  Cod.  ff  I  CoHnensis  auf  der 


katserlichen  Bibliothek  ^u  St.  Peteraburg,  nebH  dem 
Briefe  Jacobi  (1881);  Der  Brief  des  Jacobus  in  alter 
taleinischer  Ueberaeizung  nach  dem  Cod,  ff  t  Corbien- 
sis  in  St.  Petersburg  (1884);  Palimpsestus  Vindobo- 
nensis  :  Antiquissima  Veteris  Testamenti  fragmenta 
(1885);  Episiulce  Paulina;  e  Cod.  Sangermanicnse 
Petropolitano  (1885);  Evangelium  des  MarctiS  nach 
dem  griechucfmn  Codex  Theodorce  purpureus  Petro- 
politanus  (1885);  Codex  V indoboncnsis  purpureus 
antiquissimns  :  Evangeliorum  Lucm  et  Marci  trans- 
lolLonis  Latin w  fragmenta  (Leipsic,  1885);  Frag- 
menta Vimlobonensia  :  Bruchstilcke  der  Apostelge- 
schirhiet  des  Briefes  Jacobi  und  erHten  Briefes  Petri 
nach  eincm  Palimjtsest  auf  der  kaiserlichen  Hofbib^ 
liothek  zu  Wien  (Christiania,  1886);  Codex  ff  2  Cor- 
biensia,  sij>e  quatuor  Evangeiia  ,  .  ,  hatina  trans- 
latio  e  codice  in  Bibliotheca  Nalionaii  Parisiensi 
asserDota  { 1 887 ) ;  ^4  ppendix  epistularu m  Faulin arum 
e  codice  Gennanensi  (1887);  Codex  Colbertinus 
Parisiensis  :  Quatuor  Evangeiia  .  .  .  Latina  trans' 
latio  post  ediiioncm  Petri  Sahatarii  cum  iato  codice 
coUata  {1888);  Evangelium  secundum  Matthwum 
,  .  ,  Latina  translalio  e  cmiice  olim  Claramontano, 
nunc  Vaticano  (1892);  Libri  Tobit,  Judil,  Ester  .  .  . 
Latina  translations  codice  olim  Freisijigensi,  nunc 
Monachensi  (Trondhjem.  1893);  Ada  Aposiolorum. 
,  .  ,  Lalina  translaiio  e  codice  Latino-Graco  LaU' 
diano  Oxonicnsi  (Christiania,  1893);  Codex  VerceU 
lensis :  Quatuor  Evangdia  ex  rcliquiis  codicis  Ver- 
cetlerisis  .  .  ,  et  ex  ediliojie  Juliana  principi  (1894); 
Evangelium  P^rlatinujn :  Reliqui<E  quatuor  Evan* 
gcliorum  cum  iM^tina  transhtione  e  codice  purpurea 
Vindobonensi  ct  ex  ediiione  Tischendorfiana  (1896); 
Fragmer^a  Novi  Teslamenti  in  Iranslatione  Latina 
ex  libro  qui  vocatur  Sftcculum,  (1899);  and  Codex 
Veronensis  :  Quatuor  Evangeiia  e  codice  in  biblio^ 
theca  episcnptdi  Verortcnsi  asservat^  el  ex  editions 
Blanckini  (Prague,  1904).  Of  these  the  first,  sec- 
ond, fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh, 
and  fourteenth  are  ediliones  principes.  Of  his 
nuraerotis  translations,  special  nu^nlion  may  be 
made  of  versions  of  the  catechism  of  Cyril 
(CUriatiania,  1882)  and  the  De  Imitatione  Chrisii 
of  Thomas  h  Kempis  (1890). 

BEMA:  In  classical  literature  a  semicircular 
platform  at  the  end  of  a  basilica,  which  supported 
the  official  seat  of  the  judge.  When  the  basil ican 
style  was  adapted  to  Christian  use  (see  Auchitec- 
TUKE,  Ecclesiastical),  the  apse,  or  similar  semi- 
circular tcnnination  of  tlie  building,  was  resented 
for  the  seats  of  the  bishop  and  clergy,  and  the  same 
name  waa  sometimes  applied  to  it*  In  a  more  re- 
stricted fif^nse  it  isignifies  any  elevated  place  in  the 
church,  such  as  that  from  which  the  ga-^pel  was 
read,  and  is  thus  synonytnous  with  anibo  (q.v.). 

BEBIBO,  PIETRO:  CartUnal  and  humanist; 
b.  in  Venice  May  20,  1470;  d.  in  Rome  Jan.  18, 
1547*  He  was  the  son  of  a  senator,  and  studie<i  at 
Padua  and  Ferrara,  in  the  latter  place  attracting 
the  attention  of  Alfonso  d'Ej^te  and  his  witr.  Lu- 
cresia  Borgia.  He  spent  six  years  at  the  co«trt  of 
Urbino,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  RaflaeL 
He  then  went  to  Rome,  where  Leo  X  recognized 
his  ability  as  a  Latinist  by  making  him  hi>  .secre- 
tary.    As  he  held  this  office  to  the  death  uf  the 


Benaiah 
Benadiot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


pope  (1521),  the  sixteen  bookf!  of  I^tin  letters  of 
L^  X  are  practically ^  as  to  tlieir  form,  of  Bembo's 
eomposition.  Returning  to  Padua,  Berobo  made 
his  house  the  meeting-pljiee  of  humanist  rircles. 
In  1530  he  was  commiseioned  by  the  Venetian  sen* 
ate  to  complete  the  biBtoiy  of  the  republic  begun 
by  Marcant<inIo  Sabellico.  Hia  part  of  the  work, 
covering  the  years  1487-1513,  has  been  juatly  criti* 
cized  as  to  historic  accuracy  by  Justus  Lipsius 
iPoliiica,  h  Uyden,  ISSO,  9,  note).  On  the  other 
band,  not  only  in  the  Rimet  but  also  in  his  letters, 
there  is  a  regrettable  tendency  to  a  loose  f riv oh ty 
strongly  bordering  on  pa|^n  morals.  This  tend- 
ency, shown  also  in  his  manner  of  life— he  was 
the  father  of  several  illegitimate  children— was  no 
obstacle  to  his  being  made  a  cardinal  (1539).  From 
that  time  on  (he  was  now  mxty-nine),  he  is  said  to 
have  chajiged  his  life.  He  held  two  bishoprics, 
Gubbio  and  Bergamo,  but  he  lived  in  Rome  till  his 
death.  His  Opera  were  published  in  three  vols,  at 
Basel,  1567;  Strasburg,  1611-52;  four  vols.,  Venice, 
1729*  His  Rime  (Venice,  1530)  have  often  been  re- 
printed; as  haji  hin  €U  Asoiani  (150a),  a  dialogue 
on  the  nature  of  love,  K,  Bekrath. 

BiiiLicKiAAFar:  Tbd  fint  Vita  wu  isnucd  by  Giuvhtitii  r]e11& 
Oftfl»  &t  Florence.  1G67*  a  wcdod  b  found  iii  th«  Vei^ic^ 
edition  of  bin  workii,  ut  tup.,  while  «  third  was  piibli»h«d 
bj  L,  BvetAidtili  in  Monum^i  di  rctria  htt^fotura,  vol.  i, 
Boloffnm«  17&&,  and  aUo  by  W.  P.  GrMwdl,  M^mmrt  of 
.  .  ,  Pmtt-M  BtmbiM.  Mmncheater,  1801.  ConeuLi  aim*  V. 
^^Ba,  Un  D*mnnio  dfllA-eiiadi  M.  P.  Bembo,  1 62 1  SI, 
TiuiD,  18»5;  J.  P.  Niwron.  Mhnoirti,  xi.  35S.  tlx.  32.  45 
vols.,  Paria,  1729-45:  W,  W,  West^ott,  Tainda  Bemhina; 
The  I  viae  TtibUtuf  Cardinal  Bwrnbo*  U*  liUtorv  and  Si^nifi- 
cAnc€,  Bath.  t8S7. 

BElf AIAH  ("  whom  Yahweh  built  '*):  The  name 
of  seven* I  LHraelitea.  The  most  important  of  them 
is  the  valorous  son  of  JehoiaUa  of  Kabscel.  a  city  in 
the  south  of  Juduh  (Josh,  xv,  21).  He  is  honorably 
mentioned  (IiSam.xxiii,  20  ff.;  cf.IOvron.xi,22fT.) 
among  the  mighty  men  of  David » to  whom  he  always 
faithfully  adhcrc^d.  Tlirec  heroic  exploits  of  hia 
are  mentioned  in  juatificalion  of  his  rank:  he  stew 
the  two  sons  of  Ariel  (according  to  the  LXX),  either 
a  distrnguished  Moabite(so  Josephus^  Ant,,  VII,  xu, 
4)  or  the  king  of  Moab,  in  the  war  with  that  people 
{II  Sam,  viiij  2);  he  killed  a  lion  w^luch  had  fallen 
into  a  pit  in  time  of  snow;  and,  finally »  he  overcame 
an  Egyptian  giant ^  who  canit'd  a  spear  so  large 
that  it  seemed  like  a  tree  thrown  across  a  ravine 
(aoeording  to  an  addition  of  the  LXX),  or  like  a 
weaver's  beam  (according  to  I  Chron.  xi,  23); 
Benaiah  di^rmed  hia  opponent  and  killed  him 
with  hii  own  weapon.  Being  prominent  among 
David^e  '*  thirty  heroes,"  Benaiah  was  set  over 
the  Cherethitea  and  Felethites,  David's  body- 
guard (II  Sam.  viii,  18;  xx,  23).  In  the  beginning 
of  £k>lomon'»  reign,  to  whom  he  became  devoted 
at  onoti  (I  Kings  i,  8),  Benaiah  still  lield  this  of^ee 
and  executed  the  judgment  of  the  king  upon 
Adonijah  and  Joab  (I  Kingis  ii,  25 ^  30 <  34),  and 
beoame  Joab's  aueeessor  as  commander-in-chief 
(I  Kings  ii,  35),  When,  under  David,  the  army 
waa  organised,  besides  bis  regular  office  he  bad 
eommand  over  one  of  the  twelve  divieioaa  of  24,000 
men  (I  Chron.  xxvii,  5, 6,  where  his  father,  Jeholada, 
fltrange  to  aay,  ia  called  "  the  priest,"  which  ia  no 


doubt    a  miataken  gloss  founded    upon    I  CI 
xiit  27).  C.  VON  Okeu 

BEJTBER,  WILEELH  (FRIEDRICH):  Gts 
Protectant;  b.  at M^necnberg ( 10  m. s^e.of  Gie«i 
Hesfie,  Jan,  15.  lS45j  d.  at  Bonn  Apr,  8,  190L 
studied  at  Gdttingen  and  Gieeaen,  1863-66, 
at  the  theological  seminary  at  Friedberg,  1866 
became  teacher  of  religion  and  nssjjjtant  prei 
at  Worms.  186S;  ordinary  professor  of  theci 
at  Bonn,  1876^  was  transferred  to  the  philoeopj 
faculty,  18S8,  He  belonged  to  the  extreme  iUl 
lian  echooU  and  published  Der  WundeH^e 
dtB  Neum  Testtstmenis  (Frankfort.  1871);  Schl 
macher$  The^toffit  fnii  ihren  phih^atphi^chen  (M 
la^en  (2  vols,,  NdrdUngen,  1876-78);  Frwd 
Schlekrmacher  ttnd  die  Fragt  nach  dem  We»en 
Religion  (Ik)nn,  1877);  Johann  Konrnd  Di} 
Dcr  Freigeisl  aus  dem  Pictismua  (]S8*J);  iSli 
mGiian  und  Kirchenihum,  eine  akademische  J 
rede  rur  Feier  d**  vltThundertjdhrigen  G^ 
tags  Martin  Luihers  (1883),  which  caused  a  | 
stir  and  many  prote«ta  against  Bender;  Dm  W 
der  Reiigi&n  und  <f  u  Grutuige*eUe  der  Kirckenhik 
(1886);  DfT  Kampf  urn  die  SeligkcU  (1888);  Mi 
logic  und  M^laphysik,  Grundlinien  einer  Gtm^ 
der  Weltanschauungen  (Stuttgart,  I  $99), 

BENEDICITE:  The  name  given,  from  iti 
word  in  the  Latin,  to  the  canticle  which  stam 
the  Anglican  Prayer-book  as  an  altematlv 
the  Te  Deum,  commonly  uaed  in  Advent  and  1 
and  in  the  Roman  bre\'iary  as  a  part  of  the  pri 
thanksgiving  after  celebrating  mass.  It  is  t 
from  the  apocryphal  fragment  of  the  Song  od 
Three  Holy  Children  (verses  35-65),  which  su; 
ments  the  narrative  of  Dan.  iii,  and  seems  to 
been  uaed  in  public  worship  in  the  postt 
Jewish  Church,  and  in  the  Christian  at  least 
the  fourth  «*ntury* 

BEZTEDICT:    The  name  of  fourteen  popei 

one  antipope. 

Benedict  I :  Pope  574-57S,  He  was  a  Ri 
by  birth,  the  son  of  Boniface,  and  aueoi 
John  III,  who  died  July  13,  573,  but  was  m 
to  be  consecrated  before  June  3,  574,  bee&iwi 
Lombafds  had  cut  off  communication  with 
stantinople  and  the  imperial  confirmation  < 
not  be  obtained.  Owing  to  the  troubli^  d 
barbarian  invasion  and  a  great  famine,  i 
occupied  his  mind,  the  Ltber  ponHficaiii  (ed. 
chesne,  i,  Paris,  1886,  308)  finds  scarcely  any! 
to  say  of  his  acts.  He  died  July  30  or  31  r 
during  the  siege  of  Homo  by  the  first  Lcffia' 
Duke  of  Spoleto.  (A,  Hacci 

ElBLioanAPHT:  Faului  DiA(H>tiil?i,  HiMtoria  Lanffebsrii 
ii,  to,  ill.  111  in  MOM.  Script,  rer.  Langoh.,  pp.  13 
*d.  W*iti,  Hanovter,  187S;  Jnff^,  Reeett^  i.  137^  B 

Rom,  il  IQ-m,  Btuttgrnrt,  1876.  Eng,  truul.,  La 
1805:  L.  M,  HartDULmi,  OMchichia  /tolitfw,  ii,  IS, 
Gotho,  1003, 

Benedict  H:  Pope  GSS-^eSS.  He  waa  eli 
after  the  death  of  Leo  II,  which  took  place  on 
3,  6H3,  though  the  imperial  confirmation  wa« 
layed  for  almost  a  year.   The  L^er  pontifieolii 


89 


BELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benaiah 
Benedlot 


uatJOGHj 

I    mrut   A 


Duchfifflie,  i,  Paris,  1886,  363)  asserts  that  the  em- 
peror Canstantine  Pogonatus  conceded   the   right 
tp  proceed  at  once  to  consecration  for  the  future; 
^Ukgi  this  '\&  very  doubtful,  as  it  would  amount  to 
B^floljil  renunciation  of  the  right  of  eonfirniation, 
r    iml  it  is  certain  that  several  Buccessors  of  Benedict 
waited  lo  obtain  it  either  from  the  emperor  himw  If 
or  his  n^presentative,    the    Exarch    of    Ravenna. 
During  tbe  inter^-al  inten-eniiiK  before  hin  con.^e- 
rnlton,  Benedict  signi^d   himself  with   the  ticMg- 
nation  pnsinjttr  ct    in   Dei  namine   electua   nanda^ 
Hdu  aposiolutr.     Like  his  predecessor,  he  had  at 
hewt  rhe  complete   recognition   by   the  Wc^stem 
Chuifh  of  ihe  sixth  ecumenical  council  (Third  Con- 
Btanimople,  680),     With  this  end  in  view,  Leo  II 
hsui  sent  the  notary  Peter  to  Spain,  and  imme- 
^tdy  after  bis  election  Benedict  wrote  to  Peter 
to  cany  out  bis  commission.     His  wish  was  grati- 
fied by  the  condemnation  of  monotliehtism  in  the 
foiirteenrh  Council  of  Toledo   (Nov.,  6.S4).     Even 
b^ore  \m  con^secration^   which   finally   took  place 
June  26.  t>S4.  he  espoused  the  cause  of  Wilfrid  of 
^^^^  (Qv.)  and  wrote  in  recognition  of  Ids  innocence 
*nd  his  rigbU.     Benedict  dicnl  May  8,  685. 

(A.  Ha  re  K,  I 

»GHAf»HT:  Tlie  Vita  in  in  ASB,  7th  Ma>%  ii.  197-198. 

■Uli  Vtia  Wilfridi,  chap,  xlii  Mqq.,  in  T.  Gate,  Hi»- 
••^  A*%iftiean(r  tcriplf/re*  quirujue,  i.  74  sqq.,  Oxford, 
1601;  Miinn,  Poptn.  vol.  »,  part  2,  pp.  54-63,  lx.nd.,  1902: 
im94,  Rrurxfa,  i,  241;  J.  L&n£«a.  GeschidiU  der  romUchen 
K*'  /  biti  NikoLaua  /,  p.  579.  Bonn,  1885;  Hefelc, 

(''"'  ihte,   iii.  3L»2.   Eng.  tmoAL.  v.  215;   Bower. 

^'^i  i,  I  :  489;  L.  M.  H&rtnuwQ.  GtBchiehUltalUns,  ii, 
2'2ti3,  Gotha,  1903, 

ledictni:     Pope   85i>-S.'>8.     He    w^as   chosen 

ijemediately  after  the  death  of  Leo  IV  by  the  ch'rgy 

md  people  of  Rome,  but  owing  to  tlie  setting  up 

ol  *n  antipope,  Anuj^tasius,  by  the  em]KTnr  Lothair 

ind  bis  son  Louis  II,  was  not  consecrated  for  more 

^kaa  two  months  (Sept,  29),     Soon  afterward  the 

Sixon  king,  Ethel wulf.  and  his  son  Alfred,  visited 

R^iftie  and  made  liberal  gifts  to  the  Church.     In 

iiis  relations  with   secular  powers  and   important 

ptt'lat^g,  Benedict  displayed   the  same  unbending 

pniiciptc  wliich  was    carried  out   by   his   fiunons 

'wcceastjf  Nicholas  I  (q,v.  ^  already  a  person  of  much 

*Dnijcnc^,    He  confirmed  tbf  powerful   Hincmar, 

'^lihiubop  of    Reims,    in    bis    primacy,    oidy  on 

J*»<iittt)n  that  the  rights  of  the  apofitolic  see  should 

^  •k^ci^Uftrded.     In  J'^ngland  be  protested  against 

*^''  ^  II  of  bishops  by  tyrannous  lay  nobles. 

\  with  tbe  Easteni  Church  in   which 

*^  "iiii  i^  ^vits  invoh^ed  had  its  origin  in  Benedict's 

J"J*^»hficiite,  arising  out  of  tbe  ca.se  of  the  arch- 

*'****op  of  Syracuse,  who  was  deposed  by  the  patri- 

'^  wf  Constantinople,   Ignatius   (q.v,).   aiul   ap- 

*  to  Leo  IV  and  after  his  death  to  Benedict. 

***  Ignsitius  was  expelle«l  by  a  faction  .ind  re- 

*d   by    the    famous    Photius,    Benedict    died 

fV-  7,  858).  (A,  HAtJCK.) 

^[*^Q«4^HT:  Libtr  poniifirolit,  ed.  DticliMDC^  ii.  140» 
J"J^  I8ft2;  BpiMtoiit  Nictdai  /,  in  MutiHi,  Concilia,  vol.  xv; 
2J^  *ni«to,  I.  339-340.  J,  Hergenrothcr.  Photitis,  i. 
^  "i^q..  R«iien»burK.  \m7,  R  Haxmaiin,  Die  PoHuk 
g  '■ttfrtt  inm  Grtifor  f   hi*  <m/  (irtmrr   Vtl,  i.  355  tu:\f^., 

imiitu  S'ikolauM  t,  p,  aS4,  Bonn,  1885;   Hefele,  Con- 
iv,  201.  Uow«r,  Pope*,  ii.  227-229. 


Benedict  IV:  Pope  g0(>-t>03,  Owitig  to  the 
scantiness  of  the  sources  for  the  history  of  the  papacy 
at  this  period,  the  chronology  is  very  uncertain; 
the  exact  date  of  Benedict's  elevation  can  not  be 
determined,  though  it  is  probably  xMay,  not  later 
than  June,  \KK\.  Like  his  predt^essor,  John  IX,  he 
recognized  Forniosus(qA\),  by  whom  he  was  himself 
ordained  priest,  as  a  lawful  pope  at  a  Roman 
synod  in  August.  When  Lf>uis  of  Burgundy 
(Louis  III)  made  bia  victorious  descent  into  Italy 
and  wre»ted  it  from  Berengart  Benedict  crowned 
him  as  emperor  uj  Feb.,  901.  He  dicil  in  July  or 
Aug.,  903.  (A.  H.^ut'K.) 

BmLioomAPiiir:  Jsiher  jtonU^eaiiu,  ad.  Duchesne,  ii,  233, 
PariN,  1892;  JafT^t  B^ftMltx^  u  443;  ilefflle,  CoTieUiBntfe' 
•cAuAte,  iv,  570-571;  Boww,  PopcM,  iu  3O*-305, 

Benedict  V  (calle<l  Grammaticus):  Pope  964. 
At  tlie  end  of  9(i:i,  the  emperor  Otto  I  deposed  the 
dissolute  John  XI I  in  a  synod  at  Home  and  caused 
a  prominent  Ronmn  layman  to  he  put  in  bi.s  place 
as  Leo  VTll,  taking  an  oath  of  the  people  that  they 
wonld  thenceforth  choose  no  pope  without  his 
consent  and  that  of  his  son.  Ht^  had  scarcely  left 
the  city  when  John  XI 1  returned  and  drove  out 
and  anathematized  Leo.  The  emperor  came 
back  to  chastise  this  rebellion,  but  before  he  arrived 
John  XII  died  (May  14,  0f}4).  A  deputation  met 
Otto  and  begged  him  not  to  replace  Leo,  but  to 
pennit  a  new  election.  In  spile  of  his  refusal, 
the  Romans  chose  the  cardinal  deacon  Benedict, 
a  man  of  blameleH.s  life  and  great  learning  who  Imd 
been  one  of  the  opponents  of  John's  unworthy  rule. 
He  had  pledged  fidelity  both  to  Otto  and  to  Leo, 
but  the  fear  of  imperial  domination  of  the  Church 
bad  brought  tiira  to  support  John  on  the  latter's 
return.  The  people  were  finn  in  tbeir  intention 
to  defend  Benedict  against  the  emperor;  but  the 
pressure  of  famme  forcetl  them  to  give  him  up 
(June  23,  954).  He  was  brought  to  trial  before  a. 
synod.  After  a^iking  the  pardon  of  Otto  and  of  Leo, 
and  surrendering  tbe  insignia  of  bis  office  to  the 
latter,  he  was  deprived  of  bis  episcopal  and  priestly 
functions,  though  allowed  to  retain  those  of  deacon. 
To  avoid  any  possibility  of  his  changing  bis  mind, 
he  was  sent  to  Germany,  where  he  remained  prac- 
tically a  prisoner,  in  the  charge  of  the  archbishop 
of  Hamburg,  until  his  death,  which  occurred  not 
earlier  than  July  4,  9fi6.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBLiOGBAPnY:  LihtT  pontiftcalis.  cti.  Duchesine,  ii.  151, 
Paris.  1892;  JafT^*,  HeocKla,  i,  4G9;  J.  M.  Wattench, 
Bamanorum  pontificufn  .  .  .  vittr,  i,  45»  Lcipnic,  1862; 
A.  von  Keutnoat,  GescMchte  der  St/idt  Rom,  ii.  289,  Berlin, 
1868;  W.  von  Gieiscbrecht,  GenchichU:  der  d^Uchen 
Kai*erzext,  I  4G8,  Brunifwiclc.  1873;  F.  Gregoroviuw,  Ge- 
tchichle  dcr  Stadt  Horn,  iii,  364,  Stuttgart.  1876;  Bower, 
Fapea.  ii,  320-321;  Hefele,  CQncilienouchickU.  iV,  619, 
626;  Httuclt.  A'/J,  lii,  235-238. 

Benedict  VI :  Pope  972^974.  He  was  elected 
immediately  after  the  death  of  John  XIII  (Sept, 
6,  972),  but  was  not  consecrated  until  the  1 9th  of 
the  following  January,  apparently  waiting  for  the 
emperor  Otto's  confirmation.  After  the  death  of 
Otto  I.  the  affairs  of  the  empire  fell  into  di.sorder. 
CVescentiuB,  the  son  of  Theodora,  conspired  with 
the  deacon  Boniface  to  overthrow  Benedict »  who 


Bcnedlot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


was  imprisoned  and,  after  Boniface  had  assumed 
the  paiMd  authority,  was  strangled  in  July,  974. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuookafht:  Liber  ponlificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii,  255, 
PAris.  1802;  Jftfftf.  ReffeMta,  i,  477;  J.  M.  Watterich.  Fon^ 
tificum  Romanarum  .  .  .  vita,  i,  65-66,  LcipKic,  1862; 
Neander,  ChriaHan  Church,  iii,  330-331  (reference  to 
a  letter  of  Benedict,  given  Manni,  Concilia,  xix,  53); 
Hefele,  C<mcUiinife9chic/Ue,  iv,  632;  Bower,  Pope;  ii,  324. 

Benedict  VII:  Pope  974-983.  He  was  a  Roman 
by  birth,  said  to  have  been  a  kinsman  of  the  powerful 
Roman  prince  and  senator  Alberic.  He  was  bishop 
of  Sutri  when,  on  the  flight  of  Boniface  VII,  he 
was  called  to  the  papal  throne,  and  confirmed  by 
the  emperor  Otto  II.  As  far  as  we  know,  his  first 
act  was  to  condemn  Boniface  in  a  synod  at  Rome. 
He  displayed  a  great  desire  to  maintain  friendly 
relations  with  the  German  prelates;  Archbishop 
Willigis  of  Mainz  was  appointed  papal  legate  for 
Germany  and  Gaul,  with  the  right  of  crowning  the 
German  kings.  Benedict  showed  his  subservi- 
ency to  the  emperor  by  agreeing  to  the  suppression 
of  the  bishopric  of  Merseburg  in  a  synod  at  Rome 
(Sept.  10,  981),  without  regard  to  the  arguments 
brought  against  such  a  proceeding.  He  was  a  de- 
voted friend  of  monasticism,  as  is  shown  not  only 
by  the  nimierous  privileges  bestowed  upon  monas- 
teries, but  by  the  restoration  of  that  of  Saints  Boni- 
face and  Alexius  on  the  Aventine  and  the  building 
of  the  monastic  church  of  Subiaco.  Ho  supported 
the  reforming  movement,  condemning  simony  at 
B  synod  in  March,  981.  That  he  upheld  the  claim 
of  the  papacy  to  imiversal  jurisdiction  may  bo  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  he  sought  to  establish  re- 
lations with  places  as  distant  as  Carthage  and  Da- 
mascus, giving  an  archbishop  once  more  to  the 
North  African  Church,  and  appointing  the  metro- 
politan of  Damascus,  who  had  been  driven  out  by 
the  Arabs,  abbot  of  St.  Boniface.  He  died  in  Oct., 
983.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBLXOORAPnY:  Liber  pontificalia,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii,  258, 
Parin,  1892;  Jaff^.  Regeata,  i.  479;  J.  M.  Watterich. 
Romanorum  pontificum  .  .  .  vita,  i,  66,  686,  Leipsic, 
1862;  A.  von  Reumont,  GeachichU  der  Stadt  Rom,  ii.  294, 
Berlin,  1868;  F.  Gregorovius,  Geaehiehta  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii, 
372.  Stuttgart.  1876;  Bower.  Popea,  ii,  325;  Hefele,  Conr 
eilienoeachichte,  iv,  633;  Hauck,  KD,  iii,  passim. 

Benedict  Vm  (Theophylact) :  Pope  1012-24. 
He  was  the  son  of  Count  Gregory  of  Tusculum, 
chosen  by  Ids  brothers'  influence,  after  they  had 
defeated,  by  force  of  arms,  the  Crescentian  party, 
who  set  up  another  Gregory  as  antipope  (see 
Gregory  VI,  antipope).  Benedict  was  conse- 
crated Apr.  20,  1012,  and  Gregory  fled  to  the 
court  of  Henry  II,  who,  however,  recognised 
Benedict,  and  was  rewarded  by  a  promise  of 
coronation  in  St.  Peter's.  He  descended  into  Italy 
toward  the  end  of  1013,  and  was  crowned,  with  his 
wife  Cunigunde,  in  the  following  February.  Soon  aft- 
erward a  synod  was  held  in  his  presence,  at  which, 
it  is  said  at  his  suggestion,  the  Constantinopolitan 
Creed  was  made  a  part  of  the  Roman  liturgy;  after 
this  he  left  Pope  Benedict  to  contend  with  his  nu- 
merous enemies — ^the  Crescentian  faction,  the  Arabs, 
and  the  Greeks.  The  first  he  suppressed;  the 
Mohammedan  invaders,  who  threatened  Italy  from 


Sardinia,  were  defeated  and  driven  out  of  the  isbi 
in  June,  1016,  by  the  aid  of  the  Pisans  and  Genoo 
he  supported  those  who  were  attempting  to  fi 
southern  Italy  from  the  Byzantine  rule,  and  gsin 
them  the  help  of  a  body  of  Norman  knights,  w 
conquered  the  Greeks,  though  only  temporarily.  ] 
accepted  Henry's  invitation  to  meet  him  in  1020 
Bamberg,  where  the  emperor  renewed  the  "  Oti 
nian  privilege  "  to  the  Church,  and  gave  up  Bs; 
berg  to  ecclesiastical  rule.  In  the  following  ji 
Henry  crossed  the  Alps  for  the  third  time;  Ba 
diet  met  him  at  Benevento  in  1022,  and  was  pr 
ent  when  he  conquered  the  Greek  fortress  of  Tn 
and  broke  the  power  of  Pandulf  IV  of  Capua, 
ally  of  the  Byzantines.  These  successes,  agi 
temporary,  are  less  important  than  the  synod  b 
by  the  pope  and  emperor  jointly  at  Pavia  Aug. 
1022.  Here  Henry's  reforming  plans  were  < 
tended  to  Italy.  After  a  strong  exhortation  fr 
the  pope,  the  synod  renewed  the  condemnation 
clerical  marriage  and  took  measures  to  prevent  * 
alienation  of  church  property.  Henry  wished 
carry  his  reforms  into  France  also,  and  with  t 
purpose  met  King  Robert  at  Ivois  in  Aug.,  10 
Another  s3mod  at  Pavia  was  projected,  but  bef« 
it  could  be  held  both  Benedict  and  Henry  had  di 
the  former  Apr.  9,  1024.  (A.  Hauck. 

Bibuoobapbt:  Liber  pontificalia,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii, 
Paris,  1892;  Jafftf,  Reoeata,  i,  506;  J.  M.  Wattei 
Romanorum  pontificum  .  .  .  vUa,  i,  69,  700,  Lei] 
1862;  A.  von  Reumont,  Geachichte  der  Stadt  Rom 
329.  Berlin,  1868;  W.  von  Qieeebrecht.  OeachidUm 
deuUekan  Kaiaeraeit,  ii,  122  eqq.,  Brunswick,  L 
P.  F.  Sadee,  Die  StOlung  Heinricha  II  aw  Kireha,  J 
1877;  Hefele,  ConeUienoeaehiehte,  iv,  670;  Bower.  Pc 
ii,  836-337;  Hartmann,  in  MittheUunaen  dea  InaUtuia 
delerreidiiaehe  Geachichte,  xv  (1894).  482  sqq.;  Em 
KD,  in,  618  sqq.;  P.  Q.  Wappler.  Papat  Benedikt  V4 
Leipsic  1897. 

Benedict  IX  (Theophylact):  Pope  1033-48.  J 
was  the  son  of  Coimt  Alberic  of  Tusculum,  ai 
nephew  of  Benedict  VIII  and  John  XIX,  the  M 
of  whom  he  succeeded  by  his  father's  intrigues  ai 
violence,  though  he  was  only  ten  years  old.  £ 
life  was  incredibly  scandalous,  and  the  strife  of  ft 
tions  continued.  A  murderous  assault  upon  hi 
and  his  expulsion  from  Rome  followed  (the  di 
can  not  be  determined).  He  owed  his  restorati 
to  the  emperor  Conrad  II,  who  came  into  Italy 
the  winter  of  1036.  Benedict  met  him  obseqi 
ously  at  Cremona  in  the  following  June,  taking : 
notice  of  the  fact  that  he  had  broken  the  Churd 
laws  by  imprisoning  Aribert,  archbishop  of  Ifib 
and  expelling  the  bishops  of  Piacensa,  Cremoi 
and  VcrcelU  from  their  sees;  in  fact,  in  Mar.,  10! 
he  went  so  far  as  to  excommunicate  Aribert.  1 
similar  complaisances  he  won  the  favor  of  Conr» 
successor,  Henry  III,  for  whom,  in  1041,  he  ck 
gingly  excommunicated  the  Hungarian  nobles,  w 
had  (h*iven  out  their  king,  Peter.  The  Romans  b" 
with  these  conditions  until  the  end  of  1044,  wl 
they  rose  and  drove  Benedict  out,  afterward  elc 
ing  John,  bishop  of  Sabina,  in  his  stead,  under 
title  of  Sylvester  III.  Benedict  succeeded  in  se 
ing  John  back  to  Sabina  inside  of  two  months;  ft 
doubting  his  own  ability  to  maintain  his  posits 
he  decided  to  abdicate,  adding  one  more  shame 


Kt  o(  eimony  by  selling  the  papacy  (May  1, 1045)  to 
the  archprieet  John  riratian  (who  called  himself  Greg- 
0fyVI,q.v,)forthe8Tjm  of  a  thousand  pounds  of  si\- 
verimd  the  continued  enjoyment  of  the  Peter^s  pence 
iTOm  England.  Henry  III  came  to  Italy  m  the 
auUimn  of  1046,  and  decided  to  remove  Gregory. 
He  convened  a  synod  at  Sutri,  which  deposed  Syl- 
vatereven  from  the  priesthood  and  induced  Greg- 
Oiy  to  resign  his  claims  (Dec.  20,  1046);  a  few  day  a 
later,  another  synod  in  Rtime  dcfKJscd  Benc<Uct 
*l*o,  and  Suidger  of  Bamberg  succeeded  to  an  un- 
tJisputed  papacy  as  Clement  II.  When  he  died, 
iiowpv^er,  nine  months  later,  Benedict  made  an  at* 
tempt  to  recover  his  see.  He  was  soon  put  down 
by  the  imperial  authority,  and  retired  to  Tusculum. 
I  Wbm  and  where  he  died  is  not  known. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

zmAFHT:  JftiT^,  !Uff«Mta,  i,  510:  J.  M,  Wottcmh. 
um  pontiflcitm  *  .  ,  tita,  i,  71,  711.  Lcipwc. 
1M2 1.  A.  von  R«umcmt,  Oe^eKi^hU  der  Statit  Rom.  ii. 
i08l>  S«rliiu  1S68;  O.  Loren*.  PapMtumhl  und  KaUtrtum, 
p.  ao,  Eeiiio,  IS74;  F,  QregoroYius.  GetchichU  d^r  i^tadt 
Reim,  !▼,  39,  Btutt«»rt.  1877;  Bower.  Popet.  ii.  riiO-lUn, 
Nf*c&<ier,  Ckrittian   ChurrA.  iii.  375-377.    400,    UTt,   44H; 

»M^Uf,  CtmcUitniteachichte,  ir,  7O*^-707,  714;  llntick,  KD, 
BwacdictX  (Johannes    Mincjus):    Pope  1058^69. 
flc  '^ras  bishop  of  Vclletri  before,  unwillingly^  he 

»ii^  ^ected  ftnd  enthroned  in  the  night  between 
Ayr.  3  und  4.  1058»  by  the  noble  factions  which  had 
io  long  dominatxid  the  papacy  antl  wore  soon  to 
[  ]m  their  power,  Peter  Damian  and  the  other 
Tcftmning  cardinals  fled;  but  before  they  left  Rome 
tbcy  pronounceil  an  anathema  upon  the  new  pope. 
Uea&ttme  Hildebrand  was  on  hia  way  back  from 
GBTnuuiy.  At  Florence  he  heard  the  news,  and 
ifter  eonfernng  with  the  empress  Agnes,  regent 
^Wxm  Henry  IV,  arranged  for  the  election  of 
i  pope  acceptable  to  the  titrict  churchmen.  At 
Binoain  December  Gerard,  bishop  of  Florence^  was 
<4»oiefn  and  took  the  title  of  Nicholas  II.  In  Jan- 
'SMy  he  held  a  synod  at  Sutri  which  pronounced 
ih*  (lepoaitioD  and  excommunication  of  Benedict 
X.  The  Utter  was  driven  from  Rome  by  the 
»'*Pci»  Bet  in  motion  by  Hildebrand,  and  finally 
lound  it  expedient  to  abdicate^  which  he  did  for- 
^  'ly  at  a  synod  in  the  Lateran,  .A.pr.,  I0i34).  He 
to  have  lived  twenty  years  longer  as  a 
icr  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Agnes.  Gregory 
^l  in  whose  reign  he  died,  pennitted  him  to  be 
b^erl  irith  the  obsequies  of  a  rightful  pope,  us 
*^'ch,  iiideedt  he  was  reckoned  until  the  fourteenth 
<^\^,  (A,  Hauck.) 

"*jJ*«0»4riiT:  Liber  poiUifiadi*^  ©d.  Durhr^'nc,  ii,  279, 
«rt«L  1892;  Jaff^,  Rtge^la.  i,  556;  J.  M.  Wiitt*rich,  Ro^ 
y*«>m  ponli/tcum  .  .  .  vitte,  i,  203.  738,  Leipsic.  tS«2; 
*  Woo  OuBMibrecht,  O^tcHichte  der  dcutachen  KaiBeT- 
2^  ttii  34,  Brunswick,  1876;  F.  Grc^orovius,  GetthicJktr 
^^aiit  tt4rm.  iv,  107,  Stuttgart,  1877;  J.  Lftngen,  Gt- 

U*-  p.  wo.  Bonn.  1892;  Bower.  Popr*.  li.  340-343; 
rjf*^*  Christian  Churrh,  iii.  387;  Hcfele,  Condiitngf- 
■•*«*•§.  i»,  TU8,  828:  Hauck,  A'D.  iii,  67fi-fl81. 

J JJ^^dict  XI  (Niecolo  Bocastni):  Pope  1303- 
Jy^'  He  was  t>om  in  1210  at  Treviso,  entered  the 
,  *J!j^ieim  order  in  1254,  and  sjient  fourteen  years 
iVJl^^fp^tttudy,  which  enabled  him  to  write  several 
^^'l**^  rommentaries.     He   became    prior  of    his 


house,  provincial  of  Lombardy,  and  in  J 296  general 
of  the  order.  Boniface  VIII  made  him  a  cardinal 
priori t  in  1298,  and  soon  after  cardinal  bishop  of 
Ostia  and  Velletri»  In  1302  he  went  to  Hungary 
as  papal  legate.  He  remained  true  to  FJonifaoe 
Vni,  and  on  his  death  was  elected  (Oct.  22,  13(33) 
to  succeed  him.  He  found  himself  at  once  in  dif- 
ficulties as  the  heir  to  the  pulicy  and  the  enemies 
of  Boniface  (»ee  BoNiyACE  VII I),  but  by  a  concilia- 
tory prudence  he  found  his  way  out  of  them.  First 
he  won  back  the  powerful  Colonna  family,  restor- 
ing to  them  their  dignities  and  poaaesaiona  nnder 
certain  limitations  which  marked  his  sense  of  their 
misconduct.  Fretlerick  of  Sicily  was  brouglit  to  a 
sense  of  his  ft?udal  obligations  toward  the  papacy, 
which  he  had  thought  to  escape.  To  Tuscany, 
Benedict  sent  Nicholais  of  Prato,  his  snceessor  as 
cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia,  to  make  peace  between 
the  Bianchi  and  Neri  factions  in  Florenee.  Thia 
mission  was  not  very  successful,  but  Benedict  had 
better  fortune  with  the  most  dillieult  ta.sk  left  to  iiim 
by  his  predecessor,  the  effecting  of  a  i-econciliatioa 
with  France.  Philip  the  Fair  was  ready  for  peace, 
but  apparently  n^ade  the  condition  that  a  general 
council  should  be  called  to  pa^a  a  post-mortetn  con- 
dtmmation  on  Boniface.  Benedict  met  him  half  way, 
and  on  Mar,  2,5,  1304,  released  him  froni  his  excom^ 
munication;  then  he  annulled  a  number  of  other 
measures  of  his  predecessor  wliich  had  been  specially 
felt  aa  grievances  in  France,  and  on  May  13  withdrew 
the  eentences  passed  against  Philip  and  his  counsel- 
ors, even  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  outrage 
of  Anagni,  with  the  exception  of  tlie  ringleader 
William  of  Nogaret.  He,  together  with  all  tlie  Ital- 
ians who  haii  taken  part  in  the  violence  offered  t<j 
Boniface,  w^as  exconimunicivtetl  on  June  7,  and 
summoned  to  appear  before  Benedict  to  receive 
sentence.  A  few  weeks  later,  however  (,luly  7), 
Benedict  died  in  Pemgia,  whither  he  had  retired 
on  account  of  turbulence  in  Rome.  The  rumor 
immediately  spread  that  he  had  been  poisoned,  at 
the  instigation,  it  was  variously  asserted,  of  Philip 
the  Fair,  of  the  Colonna,  of  the  Franciscans  (w^ho 
were  jealous  of  the  favor  shown  to  the?  Dominicans), 
of  the  opposition  cardinals,  or  of  Williajn  of  No- 
garet, who  had  most  to  gain  by  a  change,  and  who, 
in  fact,  received  his  absolution  from  Benedict's 
successor.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BtBLlooiiAFHT:  PtolemtEiM  of  Lueca,  Viim  poniifit^um 
R&manoTum,  in  Muratori,  Scripturtu,  xi.  1224:  B.  Gui- 
doma,  Vitm  poniificum  Romanorum,  ib.  iii.  072;  W. 
DrumAnn.  OcMtkichie  BonifaciuM  VI II,  ii,  147.  K6iii«sbent. 
1&&2;  L.  Gautier,  Btnott  XI,  itwU  »ur  ta  papauU  au  coTn- 
m^n^ment  du  xiv,  Hi'cU,  Paris,  1863;  C.  Graodjean,  Benoit 
XI.  Fariji,  1863;  idem.  Lb  Regi»tre  de  Benail  Xt,  neueitde 
bidUt.  Parii.  lS84-eS;  P.  Funki*.  Pap«t  Ben^iikl  XI. 
MUn3t4!r,  1891;  Bower.  Pope*,  iii.  50^58;  Neandef.CArifhaft 
Church,  V,  19;  Hefele,  Conciliengt^chichle,  vi,  375-300. 

Benedict  XH  (,Tac<iueg  Foumicr):  Pope  1334- 
1342.  He  was  a  native  of  Langnedoc,  of  humble 
origin,  and  as  a  boy  entereti  the  Cistercian  monas- 
tery of  Bolbonnc  in  the  diocese  of  Mirepoix,  mi- 
grating later  to  that  of  Fontfroide  in  the  dioceee  of 
Narbonne,  of  which  his  uncle  was  abbot.  The 
latter  sent  him  to  the  University  of  Paris.  Pope 
John  XXII  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Pamicrs  and 
later  of  Mirepoix,  and  matle  him  cardlnat  in  13*J7* 


*«vk44|/ki 


THf:   Sh:W  Sr:HAFF-HERZOG 


48 


l/C'^i.  %ri/J  y^te^u  \^h<  n-iffn  with  n-forrnint;  rrioafl- 
t*f«:^.  7>i'-.  h.-cK/ffM  ftri'l  ah^Kft.i*  wh/»  lirif^'Tf;'!  at  the 
^rtfl  'A  A  /i//i/ff»  WT'-.  w-fit  h'irfi#:,  tli*!  Myst^'m  of 
f^.t>ti/»ri4  77W  f'sjiihit'-'I.  ari'l  ffir*^  wa>«  takMi  to  «f;- 
kz-t  w/,ffhy  rii'ii  f'»r  vA/^;mt  lH'riffiri;H.  M«?riMlirrt 
\A%tift*t\  t/^  n-tUtt*'.  i\tp.  Ktrif^t  fliK/'iplirif?  of  thf;  licne- 
fVitlxtti-A  jifi/l  f^i-;t^-r'-i(irm,  ft«  wll  iim  of  tlur  mon- 
/Ii/'ifit  t,r'\ttt*,  nfi/l  #'iit.in'ly  itvoidrfl  tin-  n'proanh 
of  ff' ff'fti'-rri  rVKffi  fJi^-r  Mm  rlfvritiori,  tlu^  lioiiiaiis 
ft'tfyj'i  hifo  t/»  r'tiirri  t/»  MiMri,  ;iri<l  hv  jirorniM'd  to 
/|/»  «',,  hut.  wim  jif#'v«-ril-#'*|  |»y  till*  I'rvufU  m.'ijority 
in  Ml"  hU*tii\  CiiWiyo.  l.ttU-r  h*'  tliniiKiit  of  n;- 
r/fO'in(/  ht  l'tolo|/riu.  hut  fiiiiilly  FM-tflfil  down  in 
A'/ifOiori  nhf\  \ftitnii  t)i««  tiiiil'iiiif'.  (if  ti  iii.'iKiiifici'iit 
|i.'ilii««-  fh>«  iitfitiulf  fiiWiinl  t)iiMil(i|;iciil  mid  rrcle- 
MifiMfiml  f ofitrrivrr<:ir^  wiim  ii  |iiH'i(ir  tun*.  Iht  rnii- 
di>rriri<d  IIm'  fi|iiiiMifi  no  Ntnuii'.ly  held  liy  liiH  pn*do- 
r-f:Mfir,  llnit  Mif«  mhiIh  fif  tlif  jml  dn  nut  ciijny  tlu) 
flMilifir  ViMJfin  until  nftrr  tlif  liisi  jiid^'.ninit.  N(*- 
Ktitnitinrm  tnnk  pliifi*  wttli  llir  DiiMtrni  (Miurrh 
Iniikinir  tiiwiiid  rr>iMii(in,  in  IMMU  llio  «>ni|N'n>r  All- 
droiiifiiM  ci«>iit  iiniliii'K'iHliiiM  \i\  A vi^'jioii,  rr.'illy  with 
N  vit'W  til  KMiiiiiiK  Ml  Mi  I  my  md  iirjiinHt  thr  TiirkM, 
Iml  hdlthnu  MMt  |iiii>i|irrtri  n|  iM'flr'UtiMt iriil  iir(*i>m- 
inndiilliiii,  which,  hiiwi>vi«r.  rmnr  tn  hllh*.  Mr  wtin 
A  iiititid  tihini|ih  in  M|imn  liy  inihtrnu'.  Alf(inN<»  \I 
tif  tSialih*  to  IniMik  iilT  hin  ndnHi'MMin  nmnrotidn 
with  MiMHiniit  ih>  (hMiiiiin.  itiid  iiMidiMfd  nn  slight 
Mfi\ici«  til  thi*  dni'timi  nnftn  in  I  ho  |irninNiil;i  liy 
Mt'ililnu  |H>Mi*i«  lii'twiMMi  t'li'Hih*  mid  riMliii:iil.  :iiid 
IhiH  i'IimIiUiik  thi*  t'hii*<tiitn  loivp'i  to  iiiiitr  ;ii;:iiiist 
Ihr  MiH*iiihntin4  mid  \\\  dofiMtt  thiMii  <*iiiiitth*lrly  at 
I'liiil't  rh«*  nioMt  dilhtMilt  |iii«MiMU  wtt^  tho  (iv:tt- 
Mtnil  id  I  iMiKi  ii|   niiMnif)      UiMifdirt  Nhowrd  him- 

««*U  ininMh-itnl  V.  !Hld  1  iMII'i  NiMil  :itl  fnilvis>Y  (O 
\u»»nfn  ^^.*.l.••^  ImiI  Philip  W  jh'.  •ni-.t  >\ho'.o  in- 
(iM^-<t-i  till-*  ivi'*MirilrUu«ii  w.Mild  h:i\i'  l»ivn.  piv- 
Vvldrd  It  tlini  :ind  ;i  M«*t^iiid  linn*  in  th%'  .uit\iniu 
of    \\\v    t»«lli«\Mnji    \*ll  rin-.    »\  IM'    \\w    :ilh:UI*V    of 

I  ,%in4  |i«  rd\*  »^^l  MI  ol  riii'.l  ind  u*.  imst  t'nu»v 
Vhi'  rh'rloi  d  piM^Nw  tin  \\\\  :i^-xMod  t!u  ii  lu:!'.!^  oi\ 
J«l\  \  ^  I.'*  *^  <'^*'V  ^«**»v  ti»  do'ond  \\w  »nsttv\\x  .v.\»l 
|dvin«>N%*<  ih»MMnpnv  und  lo  pivxvui  rw  n^ttv-.^^ 
nn-nt  »*l   th»*'»   Wo^Iim  d  pivt\*»; ^t n %v  \\w  \w\\   >\\y 

J»V  fJu'»M  .*l\S*d  ^'\  »N*  n*N^^  **'  r»'^»'  iNV'.i.  .: ;;  .vi 
iiiu{  nx'un,>i  ^s•♦<»^v,^  »»'  i*  i' '.  »•. •.  ;  -'»'  V'-  ;  o 
divt  h»'td  ''^  rti'-V.v:  ,\..C  *i  'ii^^  1--  -  ^»'  « 
^\vM  m-mS,-^    »-»".x-  'K   *■^^    »N^-  -^Ni  -^  •  XiW.N  •   ■.  ■,» 

♦ii!>-  «•!  ,— tv'^•*■    *;  ••    x"  «-*•■•*-•  '    "**  *''^         •i  •    ' 

^.Ii   %M,xtV. N-^-'.M  .V>-  W.;       N'^  '■  :    '    --^ 

in   ??•»•   •.'•^•^■•*.i  ^V-^~  '*^"    "'^^*^^"''^^'    "-'^^^  ■.^^-«     > 

and  it^  ?N*'^^T  ■-*  *•■■"   "'   "y^       '    \'* 
hw  «i"\    Ivr.-*.  -i-r-^-'   ••     •-*. -^ 


\  . 


VII  in  the 

Great 

Schism. 


OI0I  mirr  up»  '^" 


n>i< 


iti  anllow^r^^  *a  v-o-  X-.'  -•'  V  •^•^ 


•^  * .  ^k,-^-  ,v  *  .*; 


10.   la*^.  »tt  *r»«  -'*    *^   jty.;>^-innwv:  .•*.  avs*.«^ 


guinity  in  the  third  degree  between  the  couple,  had 
the  marriage  performeti.  Bonelict  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  paa-s  judgment  upon  these  acts,  as  he  died 
on  Apr.  2o  of  the  same  year.  {\.  H.\rcK.) 

BinjOORAPiir:  Litter  pontificaliM.  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  4S6,  527, 
P*ri«.  IfiiiJ.  eight  arcounts  of  hi^  life  are  enllected  in  E. 
lialiixe.  Vita  paparum  Arenonennum.  i,  197-244.  Pari?, 
ia«;  .Muratori.  ScriptoreM,  iii,  527  sqq.:  J.  M.  Wattench! 
Romanfirum  pontificum  ri/<F.  i.  203-204.  Leipnc.  1S62: 
A.  richl^r.  (Jenchichte  tier  kirehlichen  Trennung  nrwhn 
dem  Orient  urui  Occident,  i,  .3.>S.  Munich.  1864:  C.  MflUer 
/Vr  Knmpf  Ludwiga  .  .  .  mit  der  r*mi»ehen  Curie,  vol.  ii! 
Tiibinfftfn.  1880;  A.  Kohrmann.  Die  Procuratnrien  L-nd- 
wiun  de»  Baiern,  GottinRcn.  1882;  Bower.  Fopee  iii.  88- 
U2;  Pastor.  Popes,  i,  84^6;  Benoil  XII.  Ltttne  cUan. 
paUntee  et  cwrialee  Be  rapportant  a  la  France,  etl.  G.  Dau- 
met.  PariH,  1899;  Uefele.  ConcilienffeaehieKte,  vi.  636-653. 

Benedict  XIII:  1.  The  title  was  first  borne  by 
Pedro  (ie  Luna  from  1394  to  1417.  in  the  Great 
WoHteni  Schism.  He  came  of  a  noble  family  in 
Arapon.  stinlicd  in  France,  taught  canon  law  at  the 
Univrrsity  »if  Montix^llier,  and  was  m:ide  cardinal  by 
(Jn^gory  XI.  When  the  schism  broke  out  between 
the  part  izans  of  Urban  VI  and  Clement  VII,  he  took 
tho  la tt it's  side,  and  went  to  Spain  and  Portugal  as 
riomcnt's  representative  in  1379.  In 
Sides  with  1.S93,  again,  he  appeared  at  a  meeting 
Clement  of  Knglish  and  French  dignitaries,  in 
the  hope  of  winning  EIngland  away 
fn^n  the  party  of  Boniface  IX.  the 
|»«>jK»  elected  in  Rome  to  succeed  Ur- 
ban VI.  When  the  University  of  Pariji 
in  13«H  sui:gi*stiMi  three  ways  to  end  the  schism— 
tho  rt^siiinaiion  of  lx>th  claimants,  the  submission  of 
Inuh  to  tho  liooision  of  a  tribunal  agreed  upon  be- 
twivn  thotn.  or  tho  calling  of  a  general  council— 
Clonuni  s<»ni  him  to  Paris  to  prevent  the  choice  of 
I  ho  fir^r.  but  in  fact  he  declared  in  favor  of  it,  poi«- 
^'.My  \x .:  1;  an  oye  to  his  own  cliances.   Oement  died 

\\%\ 

c!:v\^v'v.  Tvvv  >:.o::'.d  do  al!  in  his  power  to  end  the 
>v-''.  ^*v.    ox  or.   by  aiviioating  if  necessarj-;  and  no 
xoA-  \x.,>  *.--,;.ii'r  in  t::L<  agreement  than  Pedro  de 
1   ;•  ■  ^      ;ti-  w..*  ur..\nin».ous!y  chosen  on  Sept.  28, 
«>* vxN-rA^*:  a:-..:  cr.wr.-.-.i  Oct.  11.     He  reiterated 
l. ^  «      -'.c-i'sei  :o  :.^  ,-j-.j-:::i2ic  for  peace:  but  when 
t   »  :*.'\:  xv,\r  .<Lr.  i:r.r.*»y  repnftjenting  the  king  of 
Wi-.v    A  v.:  ."./.  s>T..yi.  and  the  rniversity  of 
r.    <   .^vv.Vs%,-   ■:•■.   Mr.:  :o    urse  tho  abdication  of 
N-      .v.v>    r:    .i.-.-"..rv.:.  recvvmmeaiing  rather  a 
•jx  >4'        -^a:...:  .:  S:"»h  to  diaruas  the  question, 
v.-     .     -      -i     ■  .;  ;-«:^-;    in    sptte    of    the   opposite 
X  .  -»    .•     *^     :.  >    .~ir.-..nil5   but   coe   and   of  the 
•A  >4*.-s.    .■-:-.?.:;■?   ;■:  :!•>*  dukes  of  Berry.  Biu^ 
•L      ■.'^     v       Z*^  .'.-.f.     Cr-iTvi*  M  beid  a  second 
•  s    .^    .- :.    .'.:  ??L-.*    iCii  :•:  A*^..  1396».  and 
.. , .     -  ^,,  -    ...  <:„-.-»■.—  :«:  :bf  E'lrroeaa  fo^ierrigns 
*  ^    -^  ■  •       *.r.  ."  --•:     :.=5iT.  iii*  Amhassadon  of 
^  >.    V    -"'.r-fc:  '.   ir  -  CssZ'Iyf  rcwjRfti  ihe  necesatr 
^.s  .-.    ■ir    ..Tx-.T.    ^aeort.   wbi>   deriined  for 
*      <       *      .    "r.v-r:jDi£o±2c  n  »c»  Booifsce  K. 

."*■ '."-  "^  «.••"  "w  .-■T'^'s^iia?.  kmc  of  tiie  ] 

-:  -^  :  o>  :»2*?:i.-c  oc  0»2BbnL 
-  -  •:    ^  ■:•.-:  •ijsiri  n.  IUt,  UBS,' 


>,\:\\c  AutMrnn,  and  the  canlinals  of  his  party 
>  ;•,;;  Acrot\i  that  wliicheverof  them  might  be 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 


assent  aad  was  promulgated  (July  27),  all  the 

cirdioaU  but  three   forsook   Benedict,   and   open 

warfife  broke  out.     Benedict,  practically  a  priBooor 

ID  his  paliMX^  yielded  so  far  (Apr.p  1399)  as  to  sign 

a  lolemn  undertaking  to  abdicate  whenever  his 

livil  would  do  the  same  or  should  tiie  or  be  expelled 

from  Rome;  but   he  secretly   protested   that   his 

promise  was  null  and  void,  as  having  been  given 

I      \ms\vT  compulsion.     France   Wiis   now    practically 

^MHbout  a  pope;  and  the  longer  this  anomalous 

^^  condition  continued,  the  more  uneaai- 

^^'Conrieof   ness  it  cause*!.     Leading  cliurchmen, 

I        Eventiio   such  as  Gerson  and  Nicholas  de  C16- 

Fnnct.     manges,  began  to  write  in  Tavor  of  a 

return     to    Benedict     XHL     Finally 

Charles  called  a  meeting  of  bishopvS  and  nobles 

(May*  1403),  to  reconsider  the  question.     Before 

tbey  met  Benedict  bad  contrive<l  to  escape  from 

Avignon,  and  the  city  hati  declared  for  him,  once 

be  WM  fiTc.     It  18  not  surprising,  therefore,  tliat 

the  i«cmbled  magnates  dcclftred  for  a  restoration 

of  France  to  his  obedience,  though  on  condition  that 

henhuuld  renew  bis  promise  in  regard  to  abdication, 

ted  undertake  to  submit  the  question  how  to  end 

tbe  scliism    to  a    general  council  within  a   year. 

Kft  left  things  much  as  they  had  been  in  1394  anti 
5.  Boniface  IX  died  soon  aft^r  (Oct.  I,  1404); 
his  successor.  Innocent  VII,  showed  just  as 
!  little  indination  to  abandon  his  claims.  Benedict, 
^^^  attaches!  to  his  own  plan  of  a  personal  confcr- 
^^■ici;,  undertook  a  journey  to  Genoa*  without  any 
^^kult  except  to  produtse  fresh  irritation  in  France, 
^Bbivie  clergy  were  taxed  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
^^*|:»cnnient.  Another  national  council  (1405)  de- 
fUmi  in  favor  of  withdrawing  hia  right  to  present 
*i»  biahopriM  and  benefices;  but  the  Duke  of  Or- 
l^  itood  out  for  complete  obedience  and  hin- 
"^  tlie  execution  of  this  decision.  New  hopes 
*«^  amiwed,  on  the  death  of  Innocent  VII,  by 
»l»e choice  (Nov.  30,  1406)  of  Gregor>^  Xfl.  who  at 
oi&ce  declared  himjself  willing  to  take  any  measures, 
•'withatof  abdication,  to  end  the  schism.  A  meet- 
^ww planned  between  the  rivals  for  the  autumn  of 
'W7,  but  it  fell  through.  In  November  Benedict 
^  a  powerful  friend  by  the  murder  of  the  Duke 
**'  Orleans ^  and  was  so  unwise  in  1 408  as  to  attempt 
to  wiforct  the  ob«er\*ance  of  the  French  obedience 
ty  Ihrftate  of  cxeomnumtcatlon.  In  May  Charles 
P'''<toie<I  France  absolutely  neutral  in  the  con- 
Be&odictf  fearing  for  Iiiis  safety^  fled  to  Iiis 
Amgon, 

c&itlinals  of  both  factiona  deserted   their 

ive  popes  and  in  Jime  took  counsel  together 

vii»w  to  calling  a  general  coimciL     This  met 

JfJ'^MPisa,  Bummoneil  both  claimants  before  it» 

to  hear  t^tiraony  when  they  did  not 

appear,  and  on  June  ,>  declared  both, 

CoQQ-  BA    heretics,    schism  at  ies,     and    per- 

J^  of     jurers,  not  only  deposed  but  excom- 

/**  tod    munlcated.      Benedict    still    asscrtctl 

^^"■**oce.  his  claims^  and  Spain,  Portugal,  and 

Scotland  adhered  to  him.     New  nego- 

Jt*^^  with  him  were  undertaken  by  the  Comicil 

Jj^'Waivcc  in  1414,  but  he  stubbornly  refused  to 

JJ^s^wttn  to    the    persuasions   of    the    eniiMTor 

"©■OitiDd,    Finally  the  patience  of  his  own  sup- 


porters ill  Spain  and  Scotland  was  worn  out,  and 
they  renounced  him  in  tht;  Concordat  of  Narbonne 
(Dec,  1415).  He  entrenched  himself  in  the  moun- 
tain fastness  of  Peiliscola,  near  Valencia,  which  | 
belonged  to  his  family,  and  proutlly  told  the  envoys  | 
of  the  council  that  the  true  Church  was  there  only. 
On  July  26,  1417,  the  Council  of  Constance  once 
more  deposed  and  excommunicated  liim;  and  he 
remained  in  his  castle,  with  a  court  of  but  four 
cardinals,  until  his  death  at  the  age  of  nearly  ninety 
in  Nov.,  1424.  (A.  liwcK,) 

2.  Benedict  XIII  was  also  the  name  borne  by 
Pietro  Francesco  d'OrHini-Gnivina,  pope  1724-;30* 
He  was  born  Feb.  2,  1649,  at  G  ravin  a  in  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  and  in  R*67,  renouncing  his  rights  of 
succession  to  the  ducal  estates,  entered  tbe  Domini- 
can  order  at  Venice,  taking  the  name  of  VinceuKo 
Maria.  Ho  studied  theology  at  Venice  and  Bologna, 
philosophy  at  Naples.  In  1672  he  was  made  a 
cardinal  by  Clement  X,  and  archbishop  of  Bene- 
vent4>  in  ]6S6»  After  administering  hia  diocese 
admirably  for  thirty-eight  years,  and  spending 
his  leisure  in  the  composition  of  theological  works, 
he  was  almost  unanimously  elected  pope  (May 
29,  1724),  after  the  death  of  Innocent  XIII.  At 
first  he  took  the  name  of  Benedict  XIV,  but  changed 
it  to  Benedict  XIII  in  the  eon\nction  that  Pedro 
de  Luna  was  a  schismatic  and  not  a  legitimate  po{>e. 
His  pontificate  began  with  an  attempt  to  restrain 
the  pomp  and  luxury  of  the  cardinals,  which  was 
as  vain  as  his  similar  attempts  to  reform  the  rest  of 
the  clergy.  Tliough  the  prescriptions  of  the  Lateran 
council  of  172;>  in  this  direction  were  not  mucli 
heeded,  it  is  memorable  because  in  it  Benedict  con- 
firmed the  ct^nstitution  llnigenittis,  and  thus 
aided  the  Jesuits.  He  had  the  satisfaction  of 
receiving  in  1728  the  unconditional  suhmiMsion  of 
De  Noailles,  archbishop  of  Paris,  the  head  of  the 
G  alii  can  op{x>sition.  Weakness  w:ia  the  principal 
characteristic  of  his  dealings  with  the  secular  powers 
of  Euroi>e.  He  left  such  matters  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  his  favorite  Cardinal  Coscia,  whose 
interest  it  was  to  keep  on  good  tenns  with  the 
powers.  Thus  the  emiK^ror  Charles  VI  obtained 
the  privileges  which  he  claimed  in  Sicily  as  the  suc- 
ccsfit:>r  of  the  older  rulers,  who  had  been  legaii  nati 
of  the  Holy  See.  Thus  also  the  king  of  Sardinia 
got  the  best  of  a  long  c<mtest  with  Rome;  and 
only  one  state  found  the  curia  stubborn.  The 
king  of  Purtugah  John  V,  reque.^^tiMJ  the  red  hat 
for  Bichi,  the  papal  nuncio  at  Linbon,  and  when 
it  was  refused  showed  great  hostility  to  the  pope, 
even  threatening  in  1728  to  break  off  all  relations 
between  the  Church  of  Portugal  and  Rome.  Bene- 
diet  was  unpopular  in  Rome,  owing  to  the  mis- 
government  of  Coscia,  who,  when  the  fjope  died 
(Feb.  21.  1730),  was  obliged  to  flee  in  dinguise, 
and  lat-er  was  imprisoned  for  t«n  years  by  Clem- 
eat  XIL  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bt  1114013 RATRT^  1.  Pe^dro  dp  LuBs:  A  Vita  ia  found  in  E. 
Baluie,  Filar  paparum  Ai^nonifnJtium.  i,  &61-5fl8.  Puis, 
16&3;  the  Eng.  trftnal.  of  sRveral  orismml  do«um«ntA 
which  &r«  pertinent  in  fiven  in  Thatcber  »nd  MeNeal, 
Source  Book,  pp.  32^-329;  Theodortc  of  Nieheim,  De 
SchitmaU.  ed.  G.  Erler,  ii,  33  eqq.,  L«ipM«,  1 800;  Char- 
tuiarium    UniPertiiatiM    ParU,    ed.    H.    Denifl«,    uL    552 


Benedict 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


44 


iiqq.,  Paris,  18©4;  Kehrmann,  Frankreicha  innere  Kirchen- 
jwlUik,  Jena,  1890;  Bower.  Pope;  iii.  146-149,  152.  162- 
163.  206;  Neander,  Christian  Church,  v,  66,  62-77,  84. 
105-107;  Hefele.  ConciliengeschichU,  vi,  827-1031;  Pan- 
tor.  Popes,  i,  165-201;  N.  Valois,  La  France  et  le  grand 
achitiM  d'occident,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1896;  Creighton,  Papacy, 
i,  146-316,  374.  2.  Pietro  Francesco:  His  works  were 
issued  in  3  vols.,  Ravenna,  1728,  and  the  bulls  are  in  the 
BuUarium  Romanum,  vol.  xxii,  Turin,  1871.  For  his 
life  consult  A.  Borgia.  Benedicti  XIII  into.  Rome,  1752;  A. 
von  Reumont,  Oeechiehte  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii,  652-663,  Ber- 
lin. 1868;  Bower.  Popee,  iii,  339;  J.  Chantrel,  Le  Pape 
Benoit  A'///,  1724-30,  Paris,  1874;  M.  Brosch.  GenchichU 
det  KirehenataaU,  ii,  61  sqq.,  Gotha,  1882;  Ranke,  Popee, 
vol.  iii,  No.  158. 

Benedict  XIV  (Prosporo  T.orenzo  Lambertini) : 
Pope  1740-68.  He  was  bom  [Mar.  31]  1675  at 
Bologna;  at  thirteen  he  entered  the  Collegium  Clem- 
entinum  at  Rome,  and  after  studies  in  theoloficy  Jind 
philosophy,  took  up  the  law,  practising  as  advocate 
of  the  consistory,  and  as  pramotor  JUlei,  in  which 
ofhce  he  laid  the  foundations  of  his  famous  work 
on  beatification  and  canonization.  Clement  XI 
and  Innocent  XIII  gave  him  several  Roman  dig- 
nities; Benedict  XIII  made  him  archbishop  of 
Ancona  (1727)  and  cardinal  (1728);  in  1731  Clement 
XII  transferred  him  to  the  more  important  see  of 
Bologna,  where  he  found  time  to  write  his  works 
on  the  mass,  on  the  festivals,  and  Qucrstiones 
cananicoB,  After  the  death  of  Clement  XII  the 
conclave  was  at  a  deadlock  for  six  months  between 
the  French,  Austrian,  and  Spanish  factions,  and 
finally  agreed  on  Lambertini  as  a  compromise 
candidate  (Aug.  17,  1740). 

Benedict  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  piety, 
and  did  much  for  the  welfare  of  the  Pontifical  States, 
by  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and 
manufactures  and  by  a  decrease  in  taxation.  His 
expressed  principle  that  in  him  "  the  pope  must 
take  precedence  of  the  temporal  ruler  "  was  carried 
out  both  in  the  strenuous  efforts  which  he  made 
to  raise  the  tone  of  the  clergy  and  in  his  efforts 
to  remove  all  the  misunderstandings  which  had 
existed  between  the  curia  and  the  European 
powers,  even  at  the  cost  of  considerable  concessions. 
He  was  not  able  entirely  to  remove  the  antagonism 
between  the  eighteenth-century  spirit 

Friendly     and  religion,  but  he  composed  more 

Relations  than  one  difference  temporarily.  Thus 
with  Other  he  appeased  John  V  of  Portugal  by  the 

Rulers.  privilege  of  enjoying  the  revenues  of 
vacant  bishoprics  and  abbeys  in  his 
kingdom,  as  well  as  by  the  title  of  Rex  fidclissimy-s. 
In  a  concordat  with  Naples  (1741)  he  went  even 
beyond  the  concessions  which  Benedict  XIII  had 
made,  and  concluded  another  with  the  king  of 
Sardinia  which  was  still  less  favorable  to  the  ex- 
treme claims  of  the  Church.  Still  another  was 
made  with  Spain  in  1753,  which  went  so  far  as  to 
allow  King  Ferdinand  VI  the  right  of  nomination 
to  all  the  ecclesiastical  benefices  in  his  kingdom 
except  fifty-two.  Friendly  relations  were  also 
maintained  with  the  empire,  and  strict  neutrality 
observed  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 
although  the  contending  armies  not  seldom  crossed 
the  boimdaries  of  the  Papal  States.  When  Albert 
of  Bavaria  was  elected  emperor  as  Charles  VII 
aid  applied  to  Bejiedict  for  confirmation,  he  gave 


him  his  hearty  good  wishes,  but  refused  at  first 
to  recognize  his  successor,  Francis  I,  who  had 
neglected  to  observe  this  formality.  He  aban- 
doned his  opposition,  however,  and  became  an 
active  ally  of  Austria  in  the  contest  with  Venice 
over  Aquileia.  As  a  compromise  measure,  he  finally 
divided  the  patriarchate  into  two  dioceses,  that  of 
Gdrz.  which  was  to  be  Austrian,  and  that  of  Udine, 
Venetian.  Though  he  refused  to  confirm  the  guaran- 
ties which  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  on  be- 
coming a  Roman  Catholic,  was  obliged  to  give  for 
the  preservation  of  the  rights  of  his  evangelical 
subjects,  Benedict  showed  none  of  the  temper  of 
a  persecutor,  and  had  friendly  personal  relations 
with  many  Protestants.  lie  was  the  first  pope  to 
concede  the  title  of  king  of  Prussia  to  the  ruler 
whom  the  curia  had  previously  styled  margrave 
of  Brandenburg;  and  he  yielded  to  Frederick  the 
Great's  wishes  so  far  as  to  allow  the  bishop  of  Bres- 
lau  to  decide  all  Catholic  causes  in  Prussia,  appeals 
to  the  pope  being  forbidden.  In  the  Galilean  con- 
troversy he  took  a  wise  and  tolerant  part,  reversing 
a  decision  of  De  Beaimiont,  the  archbishop  of 
Paris,  which  made  formal  assent  to  the  constitution 
Unigenitus  a  condition  for  receiving  the  sacra- 
ments; in  an  encyclical  of  Oct.  16,  1756,  he  laid 
down  the  rule  that  the  ministrations  of  the  Churdi 
should  be  refused  only  to  those  who  had  publicly 
contemned  the  bull. 

Benedict's  conciliatory  temper  made  him  little 
likely  to  sympathize  with  the  Jesuits,  with  whom 
he  dealt  at  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  in  a  way 
that  did  not  please  them,  deciding  against  them, 
in  the  controversy  over  the  "  Chinese  rites,"  the 

question  how  far  the  principles  of 
The  Jesuits.  Christianity  might  be  accommodated 

for  the  purpose  of  making  more  speedy 
conversions  among  the  heathen,  in  two  bulls — 
the  Ex  quo  singulari  of  1742,  and  the  Omnium 
soUicitudinum  of  1744  (see  Accommodation,  §  9). 
Though  he  was  no  partizan  of  the  Jesuits,  it  was 
not  until  shortly  before  his  death  that  he  under- 
took (1758)  the  long-planned  reform  of  the  order, 
at  least  in  Portugal,  entrusting  its  execution  to  Sal- 
danha,  the  patriarch  of  Lisbon. 

In  1750  Benedict  celebrated  a  jubilee  with  great 
pomp,  and  invited  the  Protestants  also  to  attend — 
naturally  with  no  other  result  than  to  call  out  a 
number  of  polemical  replies.  To  the  end  of  his 
life  he  found  his  cliief  diversion  in  the  company 
of  learned  men,  of  whom  a  circle  assembled  round 
him  once  a  week.  During  his  pontificate  he  com- 
posed his  most  important  work,  De  synodo  dia- 
ccsana.  He  had  a  catalogue  of  the  Vatican  library 
drawn  up  by  the  learned  Assemani,  founded 
societies  for  the  study  of  Roman  and  Christian 
antiquities  and  of  church  history,  and  cooperated 
in  the  foundation  of  the  archeological  academy 
with  Winckelmann,  who  came  to  Rome  in  1755. 
He  died  as  he  had  lived,  with  cheerful,  good- 
humored  words  upon  his  lips,  May  3,  1758. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Diiii.iographt:  His  works  were  collected  by  Atevedo  in  12 
vol.'.,  Rome,  1747-61,  more  completely,  15  vols.,  Venice, 
17C7.  ami  iu  17  vols..  Prato.  1839-46;  voK  15-17  of  the 
Prato  <m1.  contain  the  bulls;   Briefe  Benedict*  XIV  an  Pitr 


45 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 


Ptggi  A  Boieana,   173^-58,  cd.   F.  X.   Kraua, 

fi^mtyuxg.  1$88:  Op$ra  intdita,  ed.  F.  Heiner,  St.  Louis, 
I90A-  Oiastilt;  R,  de  Martinis.  Ada  Benedicti  XIV,  2 
,ot^-«  NaplM,  lSa4-«5:  A.  Borci*,  Km  dm  Btnaii  XIV. 
f%jr^^  1763;   H.   Formby,   Lift  nnd  MiraeU*  of  Benedict 

%i  V,  London.    1SI»8;    A.  von  Arti«tb.  QtMchichle  A/ana 

jlb«r^fta«.  it,  178,  iv,  54  aqq.,  Vienim.  1S64,  1870:  M.  Bmfieh. 

Of^rAid^  ii#«  KirehenMlaaU,  ii.  68*  Gottm,  1&$2;   R&nke, 

p<»^#i.  Li.  439-443,  iu.  No.  1^. 

BEIfEDICT  OF  AIIIAITE :  The  reformer  of  the 
^ctkedictine  order  in  the  Frankish  empire.  lie 
VIS  born  about  750  in  his  father's  county  of  Ma^e- 
\aut  in  L&Dgruedoc;  d.  at  Tnden  (13  m.  n.e.  of 
Mx-U^hapelle)  Feb.  11.  82K  His  youth  was 
■pent  At  the  court  of  Pepin  and  of  Charlemagne, 
vbmei  as  &  p^^i  he  had  opportunity  to  Uistin- 
fuiih  him»elf  in  feata  of  arms.  During  Charles's 
fint  Lombard  canipuijj^u,  Benedict  rescued  his 
brother  from  drown itig  ui  the  risk  of  his  own  Life, 
Aiui  the  shock  brouj^ht  to  a  head  the  reaolve  which 
bd  bnsj  slowly  forming  in  him,  to  renounce  the 
wotW  and  give  hiinself  to  the  service  of  God  in  the 
DODutic  life.  This  he  entered  in  773  at  Sciint- 
8^e  in  the  diocese  of  Langrea,  Returning  liorae 
10  779.  be  built  a  smalt  monastery  on  his  own  land 
near  the  little  river  Aniane  (where  the  town  of 
Aakoe.  16  m,  w.n.w.  of  Montpc41ier,  later  grew 
up),  which  was  replaced  by  a  larger  one  lower 
down  when  tlie  number  of  liis  disciples  increased, 
iod  bjf  a  third  still  larger  about  792,  This  became 
tfi«  center  of  Benedict's  efforts  for  the  reformation  of 
th*  monadic  life  in  the  south  and  southwest  of 
France.  King  Louis  of  Aquitaine.  who  had  favored 
l^ttom  the  outset,  entrusted  liim  with  the  over- 
«gbt  of  all  the  monasteries  within  his  territory, 
UKi  the  ireAtest  churchmen,  such  as  Alciiin  and 
txidrid  q/[  Lyons,  sought  his  counsel.  He  had  a 
•wle  bkowMgis  of  patristic  literature,  and  for- 
*iHed  the  cause  of  education  with  aeal.  He  stood 
out  u  a  champion  of  the  orthodox  faith  against 
Adopiiottiain  (q.v.),  and  wrote  two  treatises  against 
»f  tbe  fint  of  which  is  specially  interesting  as  show- 
«|  bow  cloae  was  the  practical  connection  between 
A'iopiiotiism  and  Arianism.  His  influence  became 
"till  wider  with  the  accession  of  Louis  the  Pious, 
*bo  firet  brought  him  up  to  the  Alsatian  abbey 
^  MaunDQnster,  and  then,  to  have  him  nearer 
^  Uiui,  founded  another  for  him  at  In  den,  giving 
^  the  general  oversight  of  all  the  monasteries 
^  U»e  empire.  He  could  now  hope  to  accc»m- 
P^  luB  great  purpose  of  restoring  the  primitive 
"'Wiitti  of  the  monastic  observance  wherever 
^  ^  been  relaxed  or  exchanged  for  the  le^.^ 
**clmg  canonical  life.  This  purpose  was  clearly 
•••  in  the  capitularies  drawn  up  by  an  asaem- 
°*y  of  abbota  and  monks  at  Aix-la-Chnpelle  in 
*n,  104  enforced  by  Louis's  order  throughout  the 

"•eiiict'a  chief  works  are  compilations  of  tlie 
j|^  licetic  literature.  The  first  of  them  is  calUd 
^"■biographer,  Ardo,  Liber  ex  re^ulis  divermrum 
^***  teiJkeius  :  an  enlarged  edition  of  this  was 
''•liind  by  Lucas  Holaten  (published  at  Rome 
^  *ftef  Holsten's  death,  in  1661 .  with  the  title 
*^  nf^darum)^  The  other  work,  called  Con- 
^Hk  nguhrum  by  Benedict  himself,  is  based  on 


the  first;  in  it  the  sections  of  the  Benedictine  rule 
(except  ix-xvi)  are  given  in  their  order,  with  paral- 
lel passages  from  the  other  rules  included  in  the 
Lvber  regtdarum^  so  as  to  show  the  agreenient  of 
principles  and  thus  to  enhance  the  respect  due  to 
the  Benedictine.  The  Concordia  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1638  by  IL  .Menard  of  the  Congregation 
of  St.  Maur,  with  valuable  notes  (reprinted  in  MPL, 
ciii).  A  third  collection  of  homilies,  to  be  read 
daily  in  the  monasteries,  has  not  been  definitely 
identified.  Benedict's  place  is  in  the  second  rank 
of  the  men  who  made  the  reigns  of  Charles  and 
Louis  glorious.  He  had  not  the  breadth  of  view 
possessed  by  Charlemagne  himself  or  by  Adalhard, 
nor  the  lofty  endeavor  for  a  futiion  of  i^riihir  and 
spiritual  leaniing  of  Paulus*  Diaconua  and  Aleuin. 
He  was  primarily  an  ecclesifistic,  who  ztalously 
placed  his  not  LnconBiderablc  theological  learning 
at  the  service  of  orthodoxy,  but  gave  the  best  thing 
he  had,  the  loving  fervor  of  an  upright  Christian 
»oid,  to  the  cause  of  Benedictine  monasticisnu 

{Otto  Sekbabh.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Th«  VikM  by  Ardo  Sm&raffdiu,  hij  mcoftaaor 
M  abbot,  with  pref»oe  by  Henachen,  is  ia  ASB^  12  Feb., 
ii,  £M>6-620.  in  MPL,  dii,  and  in  eiiiU^d  by  Wait*  io  .UGH, 
Script,  XV.  lDg'220,  Hanover.  188:.  There  is  a  Fr. 
trensl,  MontpeJlier,  1876.  P.  A.  J.  Paulinier.  St  BtfvoU 
d'Aniane  ei  la  fondati4>n  du  mona§t^Ti»  d«  ct  nom^  Mont* 
pelli«r,  1871;  P.  J.  Nioolai.  Der  heUxo*  Btntdict,  Orander 
t*oti  Aniant.  Vologiut,  18^;  H.  Fom,  Benmdiktvtm  Aniane, 
Berlin.  1884;  O.  8eebft««.  in  ZKO,  xr  (1806),  244-260; 
Hftuck.  KD.  li.  528-646. 

BENEDICT  BISCOP:  First  abbot  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  J  arrow;  b.  of  noble  family  about  628; 
d.  at  Weamiouth  (on  the  north  side  of  the  Wear, 
opposite  Sunderland,  Durhamshire)  Jan.  12,  689  or 
690.  Biscop  was  his  Saxcm  name,  his  ecclesiastical 
name  was  Benedict,  and  he  was  also  called  Baduc- 
ing  as  a  patronymic.  He  was  a  thane  and  favorite 
of  Oswy,  king  of  Northumbria  (q.v.)»  but  in  653 
decided  to  abandon  the  world  and  went  to  Rome* 
He  became  a  monk  at  the  monastery  of  Lerina 
about  fiOi),  and  was  appointed  by  Pope  Vitaliafi  to 
conduct  Theodore  of  Tarsus  (i.|;v.)  to  Canterbury 
in  6t>8,  In  674  be  began  to  build  the  monastery 
of  St.  Peter  at  Wearmouth  on  land  given  by  Eg- 
frid,  king  of  Northumbria.  In  681  or  682  he 
founded  the  sister  house,  dedicated  to  St.  Paul,  at 
Jarrow  (5  m.  farther  norths  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Tyne).  He  made  six  visits  to  Rome,  learned 
the  Roman  ecelesiastical  usages  and  tlie  rules  of 
monastic  Hfe,  and  strove  faithfully  to  introduce 
them  in  England;  he  also  brought  back  a  rich  store 
of  books,  vestments,  pictures,  and  the  like.  He 
induced  John,  the  arehchanter  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome,  to  accompany  him  to  England  and  instruct 
his  monks;  and  he  brought  skilled  workmen  frtim 
Gaul  to  build  his  monasteries,  including  the  first 
glass-makers  in  England. 

BlBUioaptAPaY:  The  *ourc*  for  a  bio«r»pby  i»  the  liff  by 
hi*  great  echo^laf  lietle.  Vita  beatorum  altbaium,  chap*.  1  - 
14.  best  and  most  ftc«eMibl«  in  the  ed.  of  G.  Plumrnrr,  i. 
364-37y.  with  not«*,  ii.  36fi-365.  Oxford.  1896,  Im»«. 
tT«.n*l.  by  P.  Witoock.  Sunderland,  1818;  of.  aim?  B<*de. 
H%*t,  ecd..  IT,  18,  T.  19;  Mom  .  x^x.  ConnMit  also  C.  F. 
MontAlemb^rt,  L«t  Af&inct  d«  Tocddent  tv.  450-487.  Parii, 
18081  DSB,  iv,  214-210. 


Benediot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


46 


BENEDICT  OF  NURSIA  AND  THE  BENEDICTINE  ORDER. 


I.  The  Life  of  Benedict. 

The  Life  of  Benedict  by  Gr^ory 
the  Great  (i  1).  III. 

Early  Life  (i  2). 

Monte  Casnno  (i  3). 
II.  The  Rule  of  Benedict. 

General  Characteristics  (f  1). 

Moderation  (f  2).  IV. 


OrKanisation  and  Direction  of  the 
Monastic  Life  (i  3). 

The  Earlier  History  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Order. 

Period  of  Growth  to  the  Time  of 
Charlemagne  (i  1). 

Period  of  Decline  (f  2). 

The  History  of  the  Order  since  the 
Ninth  Century. 


S21-1200.     Eeumememl  Actirity. 

New  Consracations  (|  1). 
1200-1563.     Deoay  and  Attempto 

at  Reform  (|  2). 
1663-1800.     Tridentine   RefonB. 

New  ConsrecAtiona  (|  3). 
The  Nineteenth  Gentury  (f  4X 


L  The  Life  of  Benedict:  The  only  early  authority 
on  the  life  of  Benedict,  since  the  VUaPlacidi  has  been 
admitted  to  be  untrustworthy  ever  since  Mabillon, 
and  the  worthlessness  of  the  Vita  aandi  Mauri  has 
been  recently  demonstrated  by  Malnory,  is  prac- 
tically the  single  biography  written  by  Gregory  the 
Great.  But  the  expectations  aroused  by  a  life 
written  only  fifty  years  after  Benedict's  death  by 
80  distinguished  an  author  are  disappointed  when 
he  is  found,  in  the  spirit  of  his  time, 
1.  The  lilfe  ^^^^S  ^^^  greatness  of  his  hero  by 
of  Benediot  the  number  and  importance  of  his 
byGreffory  miracles.  This  tendency  has  gone  so 
the  Qreat.  far  that  GrUtzmacher  is  inclined  to  see 
nothing  actually  historical  in  all  this 
mass  of  legendary  details  except  the  names  of  the 
places  where  Benedict  lived  and  worked,  and  the 
names  of  his  disciples.  But  this  is  going  some- 
what too  far;  Gregory  expressly  names  four  abbot^si, 
themselves  among  these  disciples  and  one  of  them 
(Honoratus)  still  living  at  Subiaco,  as  witnesses  to 
the  truth  of  his  story;  and  the  tradition  must  have 
been  still  full  and  clear  among  the  monks  who  had 
migrated  from  Monte  Cassino  to  the  Lateran  when 
he  wrote. 

According,  then,  to  what  is  left  of  Gregory's 
accoimt  after  removal  of  the  legendary  halo  around 
the  saint's  head,  Benedict  came  of  a  considerable 
family  in  the  "  province  of  Nursia,"  in  the  Um- 
brian  Apennines,  and  was  bom  toward  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century.  He  received  at  Rome  the  edu- 
cation of  his  day,  which,  however,  did  not  mean 
much  acquaintance  with  the  Roman  classical 
authors,  and  seems  to  have  included  no  Greek. 
Shoeked  by  the  immorahty  around  him,  he  left 
both  the  school  and  his  father's  house  for  a  life  of 
solitary  mortification.    His  first  pcr- 

2.  Early  manent  abode  was  a  cave  by  the  Anio, 
liife.  not  far  from  Subiaco,  where  a  monk, 
Romanus,  provided  him  with  the 
rough  monastic  garb  and  with  scanty  nourishment. 
Here  Benedict  spent  three  years  of  stubborn  con- 
flict with  his  lower  nature,  until  the  spreading  of 
his  fame  by  shepherds  brought  his  solitude  to  an 
end.  The  monks  of  a  neighboring  monastery  (per- 
haps at  Vicovaro),  whose  head  had  just  died, 
begged  him  to  come  and  rule  them.  He  accepted 
with  reluctance,  probably  foreseeing  what  actually 
happened  when  he  attempted  strictly  to  enforce 
their  rule.  When  their  insubordination  went  as 
far  as  an  attempt  to  poison  him,  he  discovered  the 
plot  and  gently  rebuked  them,  then  retired  to  his 
beloved  cave.  Here,  as  new  disciples  came  around 
him,  he  established  twelve  small  commimities,  each 
with  twelve  inmates  and  a  "  father  "  at  their  head. 

Gxegoiy  does  not  say  how  long  Benedict  re- 


mained in  the  neighborhood  of  Subiaco  as  director 
of  these  pious  groups;  but  the  tradition  of  Monte 
Cassino  ascribes  his  migration  thither  to  the  ap- 
position of  a  jealous  derio  named  Florentius,  and 
places  it  in  529.  The  new  place  was  about  half- 
way between  Rome  and  Naples,  the  CaHrum  Caai- 
num  of  the  Romans,  who  had  had  a  military  colony 
there.  On  the  simunit  of  the  moimtain  (now 
Monte  San  Gennano),  which  had  been 
8.  Monte  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Apdlo  bj 
Oaaslno.  a  population  still  largely  pagan,  Bene- 
dict built  two  chapels,  under  the  in- 
vocation of  St.  John  Baptist  and  St.  Martin,  and 
then  laid  the  foundations  of  the  monastery  which 
was  to  have  such  a  long  and  renowned  histoiy. 
Though  Gregory  does  not  say  so  definitely,  thetraifi- 
tional  view  may  be  accepted  that  he  soon  drew  up 
his  rule,  the  matiune  outcome  of  his  experience  in 
guiding  and  governing  aspirants  to  the  monaatie 
life  of  perfection.  The  disturbances  of  the  time, 
the  wars  between  the  Goths  and  the  Bysantine  em- 
pire from  534,  probably  helped  to  increase  the 
numbers  of  those  who  sought  a  peaceful  shelter  at 
Monte  (Cassino;  and  a  daughter  house  was  estab- 
lished at  Terracina.  In  the  summer  of  542,  Totila, 
king  of  the  Goths,  on  his  way  through  Campania, 
desired  to  see  the  famous  abbot.  Gregory  relates 
that,  to  test  his  prophetic  powers,  the  king  sent  one 
of  his  officers  in  royal  array  to  Benedict,  who  per- 
ceived the  deception  instantly,  and,  when  the  young 
king  knelt  before  him,  told  him  that  he  should  enter 
Rome,  cross  the  seas,  and  reign  nine  years — ^wfaieh 
came  to  pass.  Gregory  mentions  Benedict's  sis- 
ter, Scholastica,  in  connection  with  the  last  meeting 
between  the  two  in  a  house  near  the  monastery; 
she  had  been  dedicated  to  the  service  of  Qod  from 
her  earliest  youth.  The  date  of  Benedict's  death 
can  not  be  determined  from  any  of  the  authorities. 
His  body  was  buried  near  Scholastica's  in  the 
chapel  of  St.  John  Baptist,  and,  according  to 
Paulus  Diaconus,  was  translated  about  a  oentuiy 
later  to  the  monastery  of  Fleury  on  the  Loire. 

n.  The  Rule  of  Benedict:  Especially  since  the 
celebration  of  the  fourteen-hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  Benedict's  birth  in  1880,  his  rule  has  bea 
made  the  subject  of  thoroughgoing  studies,  and 
it  is  everywhere  recognized  as  a  code  which  oo^ 
responded  admirably  to  its  purpose  of  regulating 
the  common  life  of  the  western  monks.  In  the 
concluding  passage  of  the  prologue,  probably  added 
later  by  Benedict,  occur  the  words  "  Conttihtmia 
eat  ergo  a  nobia  daminiei  achola  aerviiii"  Under 
the  later  empire,  the  word  achola  was  oommoDlf 
employed  to  designate  the  body  of  guards  in  the 
imperial  palace  imder  the  tnagiater  officii;  thence 
the  name  passed  to  the  garrisons  of  provucial 


47 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 


towns,  and  was  used   sometimes  for  other  bodies 
or  associations  existing  in  them.     As  these  mili- 
tary organizations  would  have  a  defi- 

1.  General  nite  code   of   regulations,  so    it  was 
Oharaoter-  natural   for  Benedict  (called  "  magis- 

ietios.  ter  "  in  the  first  line  of  the  prologue) 
to  lay  down  a  rule  that  should  serve 
for  all  who  were  enlisted  in  the  spiritual  army  ("  set- 
vitium  dominicum  ") — priests  or  laymen,  rich  or 
poor.  It  separated  the  monks  more  absolutely  from 
the  world  tlmn  Basil  or  Cassian  had  done.  Besides 
the  requirements  of  poverty,  silence,  and  chastity, 
others  appear  for  the  first  time;  that  of  "  stabil- 
ity "  or  a  permanent  residence  in  one  monastery 
as  opposed  to  the  wandering  life  of  the  earlier 
monkA,  and  a  specially  designated  habit.  The  aim 
of  this  life  is  complete  siurender  to  the  will  of  God, 
accomplished  through  entire  obedience  to  the  ab- 
bot and  the  rule.  The  abbot  thus  appears  as  an 
absolute  ruler,  responsible  to  God  alone.  It  is  true 
that  in  weighty  matters  he  is  to  seek  the  counsel 
of  the  brethr^,  but  the  ultimate  decision  rests 
with  him.  Benedict  seems  to  have  hesitated  in 
placing  a  prapositus  or  prior  next  to  him  as  assist- 
ant and,  if  need  were,  representative. 

In  laying  down  the  system  of  daily  prayer,  Bene- 
dict departed  somewhat  from  the  earlier  practise 
by  instituting  the  office  of  compline  as  the  seventh 
of  the  canonical  hours.  The  longest  and  fullest  of 
all  the  offices  was  the  noduma  vigilia  (matins),  re- 
cited at  two  o'clock.  The  day  hours  were  much 
shorter — lauds  at  daybreak,  not  long  after  matins; 
prime;  terce,  with  which  at  least  on  Sundays  and 
festivals  the  Eucharist  was  connected;  sext;  none; 
vespers;  and  compline.  One  of  the  principles  on 
which  the  system  of  devotion  was  laid  out  was  the 
weekly  recitation  of  the  entire  Psalter.  When  this 
is  compared  with,  the  requirement  by  Columban  of 
the  recitation  of  thew  hole  150  Psalms  in  the  night 
office  of  Saturday  and  Sunday,  a  second  principle 
is  perceived  which  governed  Benedict  not  merely 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  devotional  exercises 
but  in  all  his  rule — a  wise  moderation 

2.  Modera-   and  gentleness.     It  appears  especially 

tion.  in  the  regulations  for  meals,  of  which 
he  allows  two  daily,  except  at  times 
of  fasting;  it  comes  out  in  the  rules  for  labor,  which 
show  consideration  for  the  weaker  brethren,  and 
also  in  the  system  of  punishment.  Small  offenses, 
as  unpunctuality  at  meals  or  office,  are  to  be  pun- 
ished without  harshness;  more  serious  ones  call  for 
two  private  warnings  and  one  in  public,  after  which 
the  offender  is  cut  off  from  the  society  of  the  breth- 
ren at  meals  and  prayers.  If  he  is  still  obstinate, 
corporal  punishment  is  the  next  step,  and  finally, 
if  the  prayers  of  the  brethren  have  no  effect,  he  is 
to  be  expelled  from  the  monastery.  Penitents  may 
be  twice  taken  back,  but  on  a  third  lapse  there  is 
no  further  possibility  of  restoration. 

The  fact  that,  in  his  provision  for  the  clothing 
of  the  monks,  Benedict  took  account  of  the  condi- 
tions of  more  than  one  province  has  been  made  a 
groimd  for  disputing  the  authenticity  of  the  rule; 
but  the  climatic  difference  between  the  hill-country 
of  his  first  settlement  and  the  Campanian  plain  on 
the  banks  of  the  Lihs  is  sufficiently  notable  to  find 


some  reflection  in  the  rule.  Benedict  had  lived  as 
an  anchorite  and  as  a  cenobite,  in  convents  of  vary- 
ing size  and  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  at  the  head 
of  a  single  small  house  and  of  a  whole  group  of 
houses.  When,  therefore,  with  this  manifold  ex- 
perience of  what  suited  the  monastic  life  of  his 
time,  he  drew  up  a  rule  for  every 
8.  Or^ani-  p^j.^  ^f  [^^  j^  g^jj^  g^  definite  legislative 
^tion  and  gj^i^p^  ^g  none  of  his  predecessors — 
the  Monae- ^^^^'    Cassian,    Pachomius,    Jerome, 

tic  liife.  Augustine — had  given  their  prescrip- 
tions, we  may  well  believe  that  he 
was  acting  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  conscious- 
ness that  he  was  giving  to  Italian  monasticism  a 
new  form,  stronger  and  more  consistent  than  had 
been  known  before.  This  is  the  special  importance 
of  Benedict's  work,  both  for  the  Church  and  for 
the  world  at  large.  About  the  time  when  the 
Roman  See,  vindicating  and  even  increasing  its 
independence  of  Arian  kings  and  Byzantine  em- 
perors, was  preparing  to  erect  its  universal  empire 
on  the  ruins  of  the  old,  the  monk  appeared  who 
knew  how  to  apply  the  old  Roman  talents  of  legis- 
lation and  organization  to  the  growing  but  as  yet 
incoherent  monasticism.  Thus  he  became  the 
founder  of  the  great  Benedictine  Order  which  for 
centuries  concentrated  in  itself  the  extraordinary 
spiritual  force  of  the  technically  "  religious  "  life, 
and  contributed  in  so  marked  a  degree  to  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Western  Church.  The  striking  in- 
fluence of  the  order  would,  however,  be  inexplicable 
if  it  had  not  early  become  the  guardian  of  learning 
and  literature.  The  rule  required  the  brothers,  in 
addition  to  their  manual  labor,  to  devote  one  or 
two  hours  daily  to  reading;  it  provided  for  a  con- 
vent library  from  which  the  monks  were  to  take 
certain  books  for  study  at  appointed  times;  each 
brother  was  to  have  his  tablet  and  stylus;  Bene- 
dict himself  undertook  the  education  of  the  chil- 
dren of  prominent  Romans;  and  in  at  least  one 
passage  of  the  rule  those  who  can  not  read  are 
spoken  of  as  an  inferior  class.  All  these  things 
speak  of  learned  and  literary  interests  as  belong- 
ing to  the  original  foundation.  Cassiodorus  even 
goes  further  than  Benedict,  in  whose  lifetime  prob- 
ably he  founded  the  double  convent  of  Squillace, 
providing  expressly  for  the  study  of  classical  litera- 
ture— though  it  is  impossible  to  determine  how  far 
this  influenced  the  Benedictine  Order  after  the  in- 
fusion with  it  of  Cassiodorus's  monasteries. 

m.  The  Earlier  History  of  the  Benedictine  Order: 
The  history  of  the  early  extension  of  Benedict's 
society  is  only  scantily  told.  According  to  the 
traditions  of  Monte  Cassino,  the  third  abbot,  Sim- 
plicius,  achieved  great  success  in  this  work.  Under 
the  fifth,  Bonitus,  the  mother  house  was  destroyed 
in  589  by  the  Lombards,  the  monks  fleeing  to  Rome 
(the  universal  refuge  of  those  days),  carrying  with 
them  the  copy  of  the  rule  written  by 
o^^^t^'  Benedict's  own  hand.  There  was 
twrimeof  P'^^^^^y  already  a  monastery  there 

Oharle-       which  followed  this  rule — that  of  St. 

maffne.  Andrew,  founded  by  the  future  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  in  575;  but  Greg- 
ory's attachment  to  the  order  was  presumably  in- 
creased by  the  coming  of  the  fugitives,  who  settled 


Benedict 
Benediction 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HEKZOG 


in  a  place  given  them  at  the  Lateran  by  Pope 
Pelagius.  The  mission  of  Augustine  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  in 
506  (see  Akglo-Saxons,  Conversion  of  the) 
opened  a  new  field  to  the  order.  The  Latin 
rules  of  the  Spanish  bishops  Isidore  of  Seville 
(d,  636)  and  Fructuosus  of  Bragara  show  distinct 
traces  of  an  acquaintance  with  that  of  Benedict. 
But  more  important  was  its  introduction  into  the 
Prankish  kingdom  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh 
century,  since  the  attempt  was  there  made  to  sub- 
mit to  it  the  entire  monastic  body.  However  it  was 
introduced,  it  soon  become  predominant,  and  took 
the  place  of  the  rules  of  Columban  and  Cesarius. 
At  a  Burgundian  synod  of  670  it  was  designated,  with 
the  canons,  as  the  only  standard  for  monasteries; 
and  similarly  in  the  synods  held  imder  the  auspices 
of  Carloman  and  Boniface  in  742  and  743  it  is  called 
the  norm  for  convents  both  of  monks  and  of 
nuns.  The  language  of  the  capitularies  of  811, 
implying  that  only  obscure  traces  of  the  prior 
existence  of  other  rules  remained,  shows  how 
completely  it  had  occupied  the  field  by  the  time  of 
Charlemagne. 

In  spite,  however,  of  this  supremacy,  and  of  the 
glory  reflected  on  the  order  by  such  men  as  AUl- 
helm  and  Bede,  Alcuin  and  Paulus  Diaconus,  an 
acute  observer  could  alreatly  perceive  traces  of  de- 
cay. In  some  places  the  abbots  abused  the  power 
given  them  by  the  rule;  in  others  laxity  had  begun 
to  creep  in.     There  was  thus  room  for 

2.  Period  the  reforming  activity  of  Benedict  of 
of  Deoline.  Aniane  (q.v.),  who  attempted  not 
only  to  restore  the  pristine  strictness, 
but  to  supplement  the  rule  by  special  ordinances 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  unifonnity  in  the  daily 
life  of  the  Prankish  monasteries.  His  success, 
powerfully  seconded  as  he  was  by  the  emperor 
Louis  the  Pious,  was  not  lasting.  The  ninth  cen- 
tury saw  a  considerable  number  of  new  founda- 
tions, especially  in  Saxony,  and  the  literary  activ- 
ity promoted  by  Charlemagne  continual;  but 
there  wero  many  complaints  not  only  of  the  giving 
of  monasteries  to  laymen  but  of  decay  in  morality 
and  strict  monastic  discipline.  In  addition  to 
these  things,  grievous  havoc  was  wrought  in  many 
different  quarters  by  the  irruptions  of  the  barba- 
rians— in  England  by  the  Danes,  in  northern  Ger- 
many and  France  by  the  Normans,  in  the  south  of 
Germany  and  the  north  of  Italy  by  the  Huns,  and 
on  the  Mediterranean  coast  by  the  Saracens. 

(Otto  Seebass.) 

IV.  The  History  of  the  Order  since  the  Ninth 
Century:  The  palmy  days  of  the  order,  from  Bene- 
dict of  Aniane  to  Innocent  III  (821-1200)  may  be 
designated  as  the  time  of  ecumenical  activity. 
The  family  of  monks  which  proceeded  from  Monte 
Cassino  controlled  with  its  influence  the  civilization 
of  the  entire  Christian  West.  ,The  Basilian  monas- 
teries of  South  Italy  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  the  monks 
and  hermits  of  the  tJeltic  Church  in  the  British 
isles,  were  able  only  for  a  time  to  maintain  the 
independence  of  their  institutions.  Patronized 
and  at  the  same  time  monopolized  by  Rome,  the 
Benedictine  monastic  character  made  itself  the 
standard  of  monasticism  throughout  Latin  Christen- 


dom. True,  from  the  ninth  century  on  there  were 
marked  departures  from  the  founder's  ideal,  in 
consequence  of  which,  even  after  the  lefonn  by 
Benedict  of  Aniane  (q.v.)»  &  number  of  similtf 
efforts  at  reform  became  necessary;  but  the  call 
to  return  to  the  original  vigor  of  the  rule  ever  proved 
its  purifying  power,  and  the  total  influence  of  the 
order  was  rather  enhanced  than 
I200^fi^  decreased  by  the  growing  number  of 
mentoa?"    *^®*®  ^^^^^"^  <»°P^eg*^io°««   The  most 

Activity,     "important   of  them   after  the  tenth 

New  ConI    century  was  the  reform  of  Cluny  (from 
vreffatione.  ^^^)f  ^th  which  were  gradually  blend- 
ed more  or  lees  the  smaller  refonoB  of 
a   like    tendency    originating    almost    simultane- 
ously    in     Flanders     under    Gerard    of    Brogne 
(d.   959),  in   Lorraine   imder   John  of   Gone  (d. 
974),    in    England    imder  Ehmstan    of  Glaston- 
bury (d.  988),  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Benignu 
at  Dijon  (c.  990)  under  WiUiam  of  Volpiano  (d. 
1031)  and   in  southern  Italy  by  Alferius  of  Cava 
(d.  1050)  (see  Clunt,   Abbey  and  CoNGRsoAnoH 
of;  John  ofGobzb;  Gerard,  Saint,  1;  Dumbtak). 
More  independent  of  the  Benedictine  institutions, 
though  proceeding  from  the  order,  were  somerefonn- 
ing  movements  of  the  eleventh  century.  Among  thoe 
were  the  famous  congregation  of  Hirschau  (q.v.)> 
c.  1060,  which  was  distinguished  by  the  rigor  of  its 
discipUne;    that  of  Vallombroea  (see  Gualberto, 
Giovanni),    1038,    which,   like   Hirschau,    devel- 
oped with  especial  care  the  institution  of  lay  brothers 
(Jratres  eonver9i\  thus  setting  an  important  ex- 
ample for  later  orders  (see  Monasticism);  thoae 
of  Camaldoli,  1000;  Grammont,  1076;  Font^vraud, 
c.  11(X);    (see  Camaldolites  ;  Grammont,  Order 
op;  FoNTfevRAUD,  Order  of);  and  finally  that  of 
Citeaux,  1098.    The  last  of  these  reforms,  the  ripest 
and  noblest  fruit  of  the  older  Benedictine  ideal,  grew 
so  rapidly,  and,  especially  imder  the  influence  d  St« 
Bernard,  showed  such  power  in  the  field  of  missioD^ 
ary  and  civilizing  effort  that  it  was  obliged  to  leav^ 
the  Benedictine  family  and  form,  not  a  new  congr^^ 
gation  but  a  new  order,  in  spite  of  its  adheroio^ 
to  the  fundamental  form  of  monastic  discipliiB^ 
as    delineated  in  the  Regula  BenedicH  (see 
TERCiANs).     By  this  separation  of  the  you 
daughter  from  the  mother,  the  latter  ceased  to  I 
regarded   as  the  only   normal   t3rpe  for  wester^^ 
monasticism.    The    ecumenical    period    of   Ben^^* 
dictine  history  ends  with  the  last  decades  of  tlP^ 
twelfth  century.     It  must  thenceforth  be  traccp^ 
as  the  history  of  one  order  among  several  in  the  li^'^ 
of  western  civilisation. 

The  period  from  Innocent  III  to  the  CounC^B 

of  Trent  (1200-1563)  is  a  time  of  increasing  imv^ 

decay  and  of  futile  efforts  at  reform.    The  fir^^ 

attempt  to  restore  discipline  in  the  monastefL^^i 

of  the  order,  which  had  become  ve^^ 

2.  1200-    worldly,   was   made  in  1215  by  tto« 
^'^fnd^LT^  Fourth  Lateran  Council  under  Inr»^ 

tempts  at   ^®"*'  ^^^'     ^*  ordered  that  eveiy  th^«* 

Befonn.     yea™    a   general  chapter  should     t^^ 

held,    and    that   the  visitatiocs  pn9- 

scribed  by  this  chapter  should  be  made  by  OsVBt*' 

cian  abbot43.   Under  this  regulation  the  archbiehiOpi' 

rtf  Canterbury  and  York  introduced  tho  tricnfil^^ 


RELIGIOUS    EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 
Benediction 


tht*  B(?t>€tiictine  momusteries  of 
enforced  them  in  repefttetl  proviii- 
For  the  rnoi^a^teries  of  the  I'ontiiient, 
ortanco  attached  to  the  edict  of 
II,  himself  a  Cistercian,  who,  after 
p  Mricter  discipline  into  his  own 
i  issu'ti  in  the  following  year  an 
ning  the  Bonethctines,  This  corifiti- 
p  as  Summa  Mafftstri  or  Com^tituiio 
ecrees  tliaf.  in  each  monastery  a. 
is  to  be  held  aimnally.  For  each 
bix  provinces  into  whieh  the  order  is 
triennial  pro%'incial  chapters  are 
lut  in  spite  of  this  meiisure,  which 
rily  beneficial  effect,  Rpirituality 
flined.  The  reforms  iiitroduced  after- 
Council  of  t^ooHtance  (1415),  by  a 
apter  of  the  Mainz  province  of  the  order 
rshau^en  (1417),  by  the  conj^rcgation 
(q.v.)  organized  for  the  Nortli-German 
the  order,  as  well  as  by  many  Spanish 
5  (e*g,,  the  Obser\'ance  of  Valladolid 
D&nd  the  Catholic,  14&3),  brought 
^  temporary  improvement  in  the  con- 

utine  reforming  period  (1 563-1  S<K]) 
led  by  the  decree  De  reguiaribus  et 
is9ed  in  the  twenty-fifth  session  of  the 
rent  {Dec.  3,  15&3),  which  opposes  the 
excess  of  exemptions  (q-v,),  puts  the 
bQts  of  the  order  uithout  exception 
lie  members  for  the  most  part 
pervision  of  the  bishops,  and  insiata 
obser\*ance  of  the  older  regulations 
concerning  the  holding  of  general 
chapters,  visitations,  etc.  Several  new 
Benedictine  congregationa  sprang  up 
under  the  influence  of  the  Tridenline 
decrees;  in    South   Germany   one   for 

Cibia  (1564),  one  at  Stni^iburg  (1601 ), 
at  Saliburg  (1641 )»  one  for 
)|);  in  Flanders  the  congregation  of 
PMT  Arras,   founded   alwrnt    1590i  in 

Sof  St.  Vanne  and  St.  Hydulph, 
Didier  de  la  Cour  founded  in  I6(K> 
ment  VIII  confirmed  in  16U4.  An 
he  latter  was  the  congregation  of  St. 
»d  in  161 S  under  the  din^ction  of  the 
Didier,  which  sjiread  all  over  France^ 
number  of  180  monasteries,  and 
of  the  order  in  the  direction  of 
prosperity  which  it  never  had  before 
Congregation  of).  But  after 
Irst  the  forcible  secularixation  under 
[id  then  the  storra  of  the  Revolution 
Ithe  neighboring  countries  to  the  south 
the  ruin  of  the  order, 
restoration,  which  coincides  with 
century,  has  been  able  to  save 
aly  about  500  houses  (^^ith  about 
300  monks),  out  of  the  37,tX>0  houses 
bbeys  or  priories)  which  the  order 
timbered  before  the  catastrophes  of 
f  eighteenth  century.  Yet  in  some 
ations  there  i^  at  presi»nt  a  healthy 
Ife  as  far  as  the  morak  and  discipline 


are  concerned  and  also  as  to  achievements  in 
theological  learning  and  Christian  art  (painting, 
sculjiture,  etc.).  In  the  latter  respect  the  Smith* 
German  congregation  of  Beuron  is  especially  dis- 
tinguished. The  two  other  South-CJerman  con- 
gregations (the  Llavarian  and  the  Swabian)  and 
those  of  northern  France  antl  Jkl;;ium  (especially 
in  the  monfksteries  of  Solesmes  and  Marcdsous) 
have  recently  produced  some  able  scholars  and 
theologians.  The  Benedictines  of  the*  molher 
house  of  the  order  at  Monte  Cassino  (q.v,)  and  the 
American  congregationa  connected  witli  it  Inue 
also  rendered  conuiderable  services  in  the  same 
lines.  O.  ZdCRLERf. 

BiBLiOGRAPHTt  The  somewhiat  voluminoita  early  lit<?raturi? 
on  ncftediot  in  the  shape  of  po4!aii!t  and  livc«  muy  bf  louiid 
in  part  in  MGU,  PoeL  LaL  fned,  ami.i,  3(1-42.  Bi>rlin.  18SI 
(the  Carmina  of  Paul  the  Deacon);  MGII,  Script,  vol,  xv, 
parll,  pp.  480-482,  674,  Hanovfir,  1887  {Ez  adrrniu  cor- 
porit  S.  Btnedicti  in  a^p^im.  FUtTiacenMmx)^  four  works  on 
the  Mimcles  are  publi^ihed  in  MOH,  Script,  vol.  XT,  p«rt 
1.  pp.  474-500,  part  2  (1888\  863,  SG6,  ix  (1851),  374r- 
376,  The  ViUr  by  Gre(t«ry  anci  other  writer*  as  weU 
aa  the  poems  and  relatiuna  of  miracles  may  b^  found 
in  ASM,  Msc.  I  pjj.  28.29-35.  and  scpc.  ii.pp,  80. 353-358, 
369-304;  io  ASB,  Mar,,  iii,  276.  288-2B7.  302^57; and  in 
M PL,  Ixxx,  xcv,  cxxiv.  cxxri,  cxxxiii,  cxxidv.  clx.  Con- 
sult: P.  K,  Bmndfi^.  Leben  de*  heiligen  Benedikt,  Eixme- 
deln,  1858;  P,  Lt-ehner.  Lehen  de»  heitifjvn  Benrdict,  Re- 
gc^flHbu^JI;,  1859;  V.  de  Montalembert,  Lea  Moines  d'Occi- 
dfni,  ii,  3-92  <on  St.  Benedict).  7  vols.,  Parin,  1860-77. 
Enjr.  transl.*  7  vola.^  London,  18iU-7W.  new  ed,,  with  in- 
troduction by  Dom  GoAqiiet  on  the  Ruhr,  0  vols,,  2806; 
P.  HUgti.  Der  heUifte  Bemxlikt,  in  iitudien  und  MittheUun^ 
fftn  auM  dem  Bmedict.-OTden,  year  VI,  vol.  iU885),  141- 
102;  J.  H.  Newrnan,  Misaion  of  St  Benedict  in  I tiatorieal 
Sketchea,  vol.  ii,  London^  1S85;  F,  C.  Doyle,  Ttaching  of 
St  Benedict  Ixandon,  1887;  H  Orfltimacher.  Die  Bedeu- 
tung  Benedikta  .  .  .  und  aeiner  Hrftel,  Berlin,  1892;  L, 
To«ti,  (St  Benedict'  Historical  Diacourse  on  kit  Lift,  transl. 
from  the  Jtal.,  London,  1S06,  cf.  SL  Benedict  and  GrottO' 
terra,  E*aaya  <>n  ToMi'a  Life  of  St  Btnedvri,  ib.  1896. 

On  the  order:  Bibtiographiedea  Bt-nedictifiade  France, So- 
leitmes,  188&;  ihe  fundauicntAl  work  ii^J.  Mabillon.  ^  nna^r^ 
ordiniaS.  Benedicti,^  vols.,  Paris,  1703-31):  Mont&lembert,  ut 
flip.;  Sir  Jaj»,  Btephens,  The  FrencA  Benedictinea,  in  Eaaaua 
in  Ecdeaiaaiical  Biography,  Londjon,  1867;  S.  Branner»  Ein 
BenedUctinerbuch^  WarsEburR,  1880;  Scriptoreat  ordinia  S, 
BenedicH  in  imperio  Auatriaeo^Hungftrico,  Vienna.  1881; 
B,  Weldon,  Chronicle  of  Engliah  Benedictine  Monkm,  Lon- 
don, 1882  (csovers  the  period  from  Mary  to  James  II); 
H.  C.  Lea.  ni*U)ru  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacu,  Philadelphia, 
1884.  and  cf.  his  Hiatory  of  the  fnquisiti&n,  new  ed..  New 
York,  1906;  J,  H.  Newman,  Benedictine  SchfioU,  in  Hi*' 
tofrical  SketcAea.  ut  sup,:  F.  M.  Ranbek,  SainU  of  due  Order 
of  St  Benedict,  Loodon,  1890;  E.  L.  Taunton.  Enoliah 
Black  Mofika  of  SL  Benedict,  2  vols.,  ib.  1897:  Heim- 
bucher,  Orden  und  Kongretftititynen,  i,  92-263.  Of  the  Ruts 
among  old  editions  the  Iwst  ia  by  L.  HolBteniuifi,  Codex 
reguiarum -monaaticarum,  i,  111-133,  AuK^burg,  1750;  an- 
other 15  by  E.  Martt-nc  in  hi*  Ciy^nrnentariua  in  regulam 
S.  Benedicts  Pari-*,  1600.  The  bent  etlition  b  byK  Woelif- 
lia.  Benedicii  regula  monachftrum,  Leipaic,  1895;  mrw- 
iceabk  are  E.  Schmidt,  Di«  Regel  dea  heiiigen  Benedict, 
RegensbuTff.  1891,  anil  P,  K,  Bmndeii,  L^ten  und  Regei  dea 
,  .  .  BenediH,  vob,  ii,  iii,  Eiaaiedeln,  1858-63.  The 
Ijotin  and  Anglo-Saxon  fnterlinear  Tranalation  waa  edited 
by  H.  Logeman,  Ixmdon,  1888,  The  Rule  was  published 
in  Eng.  traiwl..  Ixjndon.  1886.  ib.  1896,  in  Thatcher  and 
McNeal,  Source  Book,  pp.  432-485,  in  HendprPtm,  Donf 
nienta,  pp,  274-313:  and  by  D.  O.  H,  Hlair.  Lundon, 
1906.  A  bibUo^raphy  of  comrocntarie?  ii  in  KL,  ii, 
324-325. 

BENEDICTINES.     See  Benedict  of  Ntjrsia. 

BENEDICTION r  In  the  Roman  rjitholif  Church 
a  part  of  every-^  litur^icsil  act,  belonging  to  the  clasa 
of     BftcramentaU    (q.v.) — i.e.,    thiiigfl   which   were 


i 


Benediction 
Benefice 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


50 


instituted,  not  by  Christ  but  by  the  hierarchic 
Church  with  divine  authority,  and  which  are  sup- 
posed, in  their  application  to  persons  and  things, 
to  communicate  quasi  ex  opere  operato  through  or- 
dained priests  the  grace  of  God  consisting  in  purifi- 
cation, supernatural  revivification,  and  sanctifi- 
cation.  The  higher  the  hierarchical  position  of 
him  who  bestows  the  blessing,  the  more  power- 
ful it  is.  Benediction  and  exorcism  are  always 
connected;  the  latter  breaks  demoniac  influences 
and  drives  away  the  demons,  while  the  former 
communicates  divine  powers,  not  only  positively, 
but  also  negatively  in  the  way  of  purification, 
by  blotting  out  sins  of  omission  and  the  tem- 
poral punishment  of  sins,  and  removing  satanic 
influences,  thus  having  itself  a  sort  of  exorcism 
though  not  explicit.  Where  exorcism  alone  takes 
place,  it  is  in  an  imperative  manner,  whereas  the 
benediction  is  precative,  yet  with  an  effective  di- 
vine povfer  quasi  ex  opere  operato  by  means  of  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  The  personal  benediction  effects 
either  a  lasting  habitus  (e.g.,  anointing  at  baptism), 
or  a  forma  gratia  actualis  for  a  passing  object  and 
condition  (e.g.,  benediction  for  travelers,  and  the 
sick);  both  kinds  work  cither  in  the  main  negatively 
by  the  removal  of  satanic  influences  or  positively 
in  illumination  and  bestowal  of  supernatural 
strength  in  body  and  soul.  Benedictions  of  things 
are  jdways  primarily  negative,  and  positive  only 
in  the  second  place,  that  the  use  and  enjoyment 
of  the  objects  may  conduce  to  the  welfare  of  man's 
body  and  soul.  The  supernatural  powers  are 
attached  to  the  things  by  means  of  the  benediction, 
and  in  their  effect  they  are  independent  of  the  con- 
duct of  man;  either  they  make  the  things  perma- 
nently res  sacroPf  affecting  men  in  a  purifying  and 
sanctifying  manner  (baptismal  water,  holy  water, 
rosaries,  etc.),  or  they  are  of  transient  effect  as 
conveying  God's  grace  and  protection.  Some- 
times they  are  also  connected  with  indulgences. 
If  anointing  is  applied,  the  benediction  becomes 
a  consecration,  whereby  the  thing  is  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  God  (e.g.,  monstrances,  crosses, 
pictures,  flags,  organs,  etc.). 

As  to  the  Evangelical  conception  of  the  bene- 
dictions, the  words  of  Johann  Gerhard  give  the 
proper  point  of  view:  "  The  priests  [in  the  Old 
Testament]  blessed  by  praying  for  good  things; 
God  blessed  by  bestowing  the  good  things.  Their 
blessing  was  votive,  his  effective.  God  promises 
to  confirm  this  sacerdotal  blessing  on  condition 
that  it  is  given  according  to  his  word  and  will." 
Thus  it  is  only  God  who  effectively  blesses;  that  is, 
communicates  divine  powers  of  his  grace  and  his 
spirit;  all  human  blessing  is  only  intercession  with 
God  for  his  blessing.  [According  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  view,  the  objective  difference  between 
liturgical  and  extraliturgical,  ecclesiastical  and 
private  benediction  is  that  in  the  former  the  efficacy 
emanates  from  the  Church  as  a  body  by  whose 
authority  the  rite  was  instituted  and  in  whose  name 
it  is  conferred  and,  in  consequence,  is  supposed  to 
be  greater  than  in  the  latter  where  the  effect  de- 
pends on  the  intercession  of  an  individual.]  Accord- 
ing to  the  Evangelical  idea,  there  exists  no  objective 
difference  between  liturgical    and  extraliturgical, 


ecclesiastical  and  private  benediction;  it  is  only 
in  a  psychological  way  that  the  former  may  be 
more  efficacious  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  subjective 
conditions  of  the  hearing  of  prayer.  Again,  only 
persons,  not  things,  can  be  blessed  with  God's 
spirit  and  grace.  If  things  are  nevertheless  blessed, 
it  means  that  they  are  set  apart  for  ritual  use;  and 
so  long  as  they  are  thus  employed,  they  will  be 
sacred,  while  they  are  desecrated  when  used  lightiy 
apart  from  ritual  piuposes.  The  benediction  oif 
things  takes  place  only  by  metonymy;  the  things 
are  mentioned,  but  the  persons  are  meant  who 
use  them.  Thus,  e.g.,  a  cemetery  is  dedicated  to 
its  special  use  and  handed  over  to  the  reverential 
protection  of  the  living;  a  church  edifice  is  dedicated 
by  its  being  used  and  offered  to  the  living  congre- 
gation as  a  valuable  religious  possession  because  of 
its  use.  But  the  Roman  Catholic  traditions  still 
in  many  ways  influence  the  ideas  held  even  among 
Protestants  on  the  subject  of  benediction. 

E.  C.  ACHELIB. 

Biblioqrapht:  G.  Gretier,  De  benediciionibtia,  IngobUdt, 
1615;  J.  Gerhard,  De  henedicHone  eccUtiaMtica,  pp.  1252- 
1290,  Jena.  1655;  E.  Mart^ne.  De  antiquia  eccUtia  ritUiM, 
vol.  iii,  Rouen,  1700;  J.  C.  W.  Augusti.  DenkwHrdUiktUa 
aua  der  ehrUUichen  ArchOologie,  iii,  392-393,  x,  165  iqq, 
1 2  vols. ,  Lei  psic.  1 8 1 7-3 1 ;  A.  J.  Binterim.  5e0en  und  Fludk.  in 
Denkwiirdigkeiten,  vol.  vii,  part  2,  Blains,  1841;  L.  Cote- 
man,  Apoatolical  and  Primitive  Church,  chap.  xiv.  Lim- 
don.  1844;  V.  Thalhofer,  Handbuch  der  katholiMehen  Ia- 
turgik,  ii.  523-524,  Freiburg,  1890;  Bingham,  Origifm. 
XIV,  iv.  16,  XV.  iii.  29;  DC  A,  i.  193-200  (elaborate). 

BENEFICE. 

Meaning  of  the  Term  (f  1).  Appointment  to   a  Benefice 
Remuneration  of  Clergy  (f  2).        (f  4). 

Provisions    Affecting    Bene-  Rights  of  a  Benefice  (f  5). 

hces  (§  3.)  Tenure  (i  6). 

Benefice  (beneficium  ecclesiasticum)  is  a  tern 
which  includes  two  meanings:  the  spiritual,  reUting 
to  the  ecclesiastical  duties  attached  to  it;  and  the 
temporal,  relating  to  the  income  and  other  woiMy 
advantages  of  the  oflSce.  The  latter  is  more  strict- 
ly the  meaning  of  the  word,  though  the  connectioD 
of  the  two  was  early  recognized  in  the  phnse 
beneficium  datur  propter  officium.  Indeed,  the  tem 
benefi^um  is  not  generally  used  where  there  is  only 
the  temporal  side,  with  no  cone- 
I.  Meaning  sponding  duties.  Such  a  case  may  be 
of  the  Term,  a  commencta,  whose  holder  has  a  right 
to  the  revenues  of  a  church  without 
any  responsibilities;  or  a  prcestimonium,  which  ii 
a  charge  for  support  on  the  revenues  of  the  church; 
or  a  pensio,  the  use  of  a  part  of  the  revenuei. 
These  relations,  however,  when  they  are  pennar 
nent  fall  under  the  general  rules  applicable  to 
benefices.  The  benefice  proper  is  ordhiarily  pe^ 
manent,  though  sometimes  founded  for  a  spedfini 
time. 

Historically  in  the  primitive  Church  all  the 
property  of  a  diqcese  formed  one  whole,  admin- 
istered by  the  bishop;  its  purpose  was  primarily 
the  support  of  the  poor — bishop  and  clergy  Irred 
as  belonging  to  that  class,  and  were  supposed,  if 
they  had  no  private  means,  to  support  themadTOi 
by  their  own  labors.  Those  who  had  no  other 
means  of  support  received  a  monthly  stipend  from 


I 


Ill 


RETJGIOUS  BNCTCLOPEDIA 


Bflfnedlction 

Benefice 


ftlw  giEiieral  fund.    With  the  recognition  of  the 
Cbttrcb  under   Const-ant  me,    and    the   consequent 
acceission     of    considenibie     property 
1.  Remu-  and    state    subventionSp    the    system 
nerttiooof  changed.     But   in   law   the  episcopal 
Getfy.     church  was  still  the  unit  in  any  con- 
sideration of  diocesan  proiierty,  and 
the  bi«^liop    etill    its    exclusive    custodian.     This 
wnained   the    case    when    church    pn>pt*rty    was 
divkkd  into  three  or  into  four  parts  (see  Church 
Bnu>c«o»  Taxation  for)  and  one  part,  destined 
for  th^  support  of  the  cle^g;>^     While,   however* 
it  uTia  long  before  the  theorj^  changed,  in  practise 
libenewafia  tendency  to  decentralization,  and  the 
I  iDiiividual   parishes    beg;an    to    be    recognized    as 
I  Kptnte  uait5.     This  arose  largely  from  dona  Huns 
I  tod  endowments  destined  by  the  donor  for  a  par- 
tkular  church,  whose  clergy  were  to  be  supported 
out  of  their  returns.     After  the   fifth  century  it 
becMtie  ciutomary  for  the  bishops,  instead  of  pay- 
ing their  clergy  out  of  a  central  fund,  to  a^iifj^ 
piece* of  land  for  their  support  and  that  of  the  poor 
ttidof  puhhc  worship.     These  assignments  l>ecarne 
gnduiliy  irrevocable^  and  thus  finally  the  diocesan 
unity  was  dissolved,   and   the  separate  churches 
ctme  into  permanent  posst*ssion  of  these  properties. 
The  intimate  connection   between  officttim   and 
baufidum  ts  shown  by  a  review  of  the  provisions 
tffecling  benefices.     Ttiey  ntv  dividetl  into  regular 
ifid  lecular,  according  as  they  are  ser\'ed  by  mon- 
Mtic  or  lecular  clergy;  into  benefiHa  cnrata,  those 
to  which  the  cure  of  souls  is  attached,  and  non 
cuTCUa,    such   as    those   of    chaplains, 
J^  Ptt>?iiioDs  canons   of   cathedrals,    and    the   like. 
Afectiag    Tlie  Council  of  Trent  forbade  changing 
Benefices,   a    benefielum    curalum    into    a    non 
curoium    or    simplex.      The    erection 
orooDJttttution  of  a  benefice,  the  permanent  attach- 
I  nient  of  certain   revenues  to   the   performance  of 
•srtim  duties,  was  held  to  be  reserved  to  the  ecele- 
■■•tiad  authorities.     The  foundation  of  bishoprics 
^^^  ori^jaaUy   a    function    of    provincial    synods, 
but  Utcr  came  to  the  pope,  who  also  hail  power 
*«>•  to  found  collegiate  churches.     The  bishop 
"■•powfy  to  found  other  beneficea  within  his  dio- 
^■f* wid  his  ofhcials  decide  whether  the  endowment 
■  wfficieut  and  whether  the  proposed  foimdation 
^  be  useful   and   not   injure  any  other   party. 
!  ^  'Ounder  has  certain  rights  of  imposing  eon» 
L<fitaoni  ftjf  the  tenure  of  bis  benefice,  which,  once 
[©Mjjnnwl,  are  [)erpetual. 

•^^p^iointment  to  a  benefice  (provi$io,  inntitutio 
""^WBj  includes  the  choice  of  the  person  (design 
•^i  and  the  conferring  of  the  benefice  {coUalio, 

^^'•^"•'Ot  imitUutw  in   the  narrower  sense).    The 
designation   to   the   greater   benefices 
<■  Appoint-  (bifiliuprics  and  the  like)  is  sometimes 
*^to  A   by  election,  sometimes  by  nomination 
•■••itee.    of    the   sovereign;  to    the   lesser,    by 
the  choice  of  the  bishop,   frequently 
**  U^  nomination  of  a  patron.     The  collation  ia 
I  Sl***  ^^  ccclesiBsticttl  suijeriors — of  the  pope  to 
[J]J^>riC8  {canfirmaiio),  of  the  bishop  to  the  lesser 

"^  eoodttiofis  of  a  proper  canonical  appoint- 
j^mx  to  %  benefice  are  several:     (1)  A  vacancy 


must  exist,  and  that  a  real  one,  not  such  as  would 
be  caused  by  the  forcible  expulsion  of  the  incum- 
bent. Thus  cjcpectancies  (q.v.)  arc  forbidden; 
but  the  election  of  a  coadjutor-bishop  cum  jure 
ruccessionis  is  allowed.  (2)  The  person  appointed 
must  be  a  pemfmii  regu!aris  and  idmiea,  i.e.,  properly 
qualifietl  to  bold  the  benefice.  Under  this  head 
comes  the  possession  of  the  qualifications  necessary 
for  ordination  Cq.v.),  though,  where  it  ia  required, 
a  delay  of  a  year  or  other  specified  time  may  be 
granted.  Intellectual  qualifications  are  included, 
to  be  determined,  according  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
by  examination;  and  the  law  has  sometimes  re- 
quired native  birth  alwo,  other  things  being  equal. 
(3)  The  appointment  niunt  be  made  within  the 
legal  time,  the  rule  being  that  no  benefice  sliall 
remain  vacant  more  than  six  months;  otherwise 
the  right  of  presentation  is  lost  {see  Devolution, 
Law  of).  (4)  There  must  be  no  simony  involved. 
(5)  What  are  called  subreption  and  obrt^ption  are 
also  forbidden;  tliis  affects  especially  cases  where 
a  person  obtains  a  benefice  without  letting  it  be 
known  that  he  already  holds  another.  The  cliurch 
law  forbids  plurality  of  tienefices,  except,  for  ex- 
ample, in  cases  where  a  benrficium  mmplex  is  held 
concurrently  mth  a  benefmum  curat um,  these 
being  held  to  be  compatible.  This  rule  was  often 
violated  by  papal  dis^>ensation,  which  caused  great 
dissatisfaction,  (fi)  The  proper  forms,  both  in  the 
designation  and  in  the  collation,  must  be  observed 
(see  Bishop;  Investitfre;  etc.). 

The  rights  and  duties  coimecte<l  with  a  benefice 
arc  partly  matters  of  universal  law,  partly  spK^cial 
to  the  particular  case.  The  incumbent  has  a  right 
to  tlie  usufnict  of  any  property  belonging  to  the 

benefice,    tithes,   fees,   oblations,   etc. 

S.  Rights    All    this    is    his    absolutely;  but    the 

of  a        view  that   he  ought  only  to  use  so 

Benefice,     much  of  it  as  will  suflice  for  his  supH 

port,  devoting  the  rest  to  ecclesiastical 
purposes  and  especially  to  the  poor,  influenced 
legislation  very  early,  so  that  what  came  from  the 
Church  was  siipjMjsi^d  to  revert  to  the  Church,  if 
it  had  not  been  used,  at  the  cleric^s  death.  This 
rule,  which  at  one  time  was  positive,  has  been  very 
much  relaxed,  within  certain  limits.  Of  course 
the  incumbent's  power  over  church  pro|Terty  is 
limited  by  the  rights  of  liis  succejist>r^  and  no  ar- 
rangements can  Ik*  made  lasting  beyond  his  life- 
time, unless  by  the  concurrence  of  the  proper 
authorities. 

A  benefice  is  supposed  to  be  conferred  for  life, 
and  ia  normally  vacated  only  by  the  death  of  (he 
incumbent,  but  it  may  be  vacated  earlier  by  resign 
nation,  either  express  or  tacit.  Resignation  can 
not  be  arbitrary  with  the  tncumbent,  as  he  has  by 
his  acceptance  of  it  incurred  certain  obligations 
from  whieh  he  must  be  released — bishops  by  the 
pope^   the  lower  clergy  by  their  bi.-^hops.     There 

must  also  be  a  valid  ground  for  it. 
6*  Tenure.  Tacit    n^signation    may    come    about 

through  any  act  which  ifjsfo  jacto  dis- 
solves the  relationship:  the  taking  monastic  vows 
by  the  !iolder  of  a  betiefttium  satcidare,  the  accept* 
ance  of  a  secular  office,  marriage  (see  Cbubacy). 
the  acceptance  of  another  incompatible  benefice, 


Beneficiuxn 
Bennett 


THE  NEW  SC'HAFF-HERZOG 


52 


chaiige  of  faith,  etc.  Vacation  aa  a  penalty  may 
occur  ttirough  deprivation  or  remotion;  tints  m- 
ciutlee  the  transfer  of  a  priest,  bb  a  dificiplinary 
measuie,  to  a  smaller  charge. 

[The  technical  use  of  the  word  benefice  in  Protea* 
taut  Churclves  is  larfK'ly  confined  to  the  Church  of 
England,  where  a  gr^at  part  of  the  prescript  ions 
given  above  is  still  in  force.  In  the  statute  law 
of  England  the  term  is  practically  restricted  to 
&  benefice  mth  cure  of  kouIs,  as  distinct  from 
calhedral  prcfemitiiL'  In  the  State  Churches  of 
Germany  also  the  distinction  between  benefiHum 
Aod  offidum  is  fltill  maintained,  and  the  erection 
and  alt*?ration  of  benefices  is  a  matter  concerning 
jointly  the  ecclesia^ntical  and  secular  authorities. 
Here  the  ordinary  collator  to  a  benefice  is  the 
consistory.  The  tendency  of  the  most  modem 
legislation  is  toward  giving  the  congregation  a 
voice  in  the  selection  of  the  paRtor. 

(E,  FuiEnBEiio.) 

UinLiDaRA.PHT:  Binfhiim,  Orifin^Ji,  book  v^  L,  ThomaH^in, 
Vetui  et  nova  ecd&titx  diaeiptina.  U.  iii.  13.  £  &,  FarL»,  l&iU; 
l\  Groiia,  Da§  RteM  an  der  l^frUnde,  tin**,  1887;  (Jalanti?, 
d  b^nr^o  i^cct^aiaittim,  Milan.  180.^;  U,  Stuti,  Getchichtt 
den  kirchiiehen  BcnffiiialmrMrnM  n-un  9fintn  Anfting^m  bit 
av/  dU  Zmt  Ak^nd^*  llty  Berlin.  1S95. 

BEHEFICIUM  COMPETEIffTI^ ;  The  privilege 
by  which  a  eondeitmed  tlc4)tnr  is  allowed  to  retain 
It  I  much  of  his  income  as  is  absolutely  m^cessary  to 
his  maintenance.  Such  a  privilege  exists  in  many 
places,  in  the  interest  of  the  ptibhc  service,  for 
officials  and  alao  for  clerics.  For  the  latter  the 
custom  is  usually  referred  to  the  decree  of  Gregory 
IX  (1271-76)  lit  mdutimnbm  (iii,  23).  This  pas- 
sage, howe%'^er,  only  ej^tablishes  the  principle  that 
an  unbeneficed  clerical  debtor  can  not  be  forced 
to  pay  by  spiritual  penalties,  and  that  the  creditors 
are  to  be  content  with  sufficient  security  for  pay- 
ment  when  the  d(*btor*s  circumstances  improve. 
The  gloasesj  and  comtiion  practise  following  thern, 
base  the  privilege  upon  the  rlceriH'%  and  statute  law 
has  confirmed  it.  restrictrng  any  levy  upon  the  salary 
or  other  income  of  such  a  elerir  so  that  a  certain 
sum  ia  left  to  I  dm  as  congrtm  ianMtntatio).  This 
privilege  can  not  be  pleaded  in  the  case  of  debts 
arising  from  unlawful  transactions  or  of  public 
taxes*  (K.  FmEnBEno.) 

BIHEFIT  OF  CLERGY;  A  privilege  claimed 
by  the  medieval  Church,'  as  part  of  its  general 
plea  of  immunity  from  secular  interference*  ft 
allowed  members  of  the  clergy  to  have  their  trial 
for  offenses  with  which  they  were  cliarged.  not 
before  any  secular  tribunal,  but  in  the  bishop's 
court.  In  England  thia  covered  practically  all 
cases  of  felotiy  except  treason  against  the  king^ 
and  by  the  reign  of  Henry  II  it  liad  given  rise  to 
great  abuisea.  In  many  cases  grossly  criminal 
acts  of  clerics  escaped  unpunished,  and  other 
criminals  eluded  the  penalty  of  their  acts  by  deciar- 
ing  themselves  clerics.  The  question  was  one  of 
those  on  which  the  quarrel  between  the  king  and 
Becket  reached  its  acute  stage;  and  by  the  Con- 
ititutions  of  Clarendon  (1 164;  see  Becket,  Thomas) 
Henry  attempted  to  deal  with  it  by  decreeing 
that  clerics  accused  of  crime  were  to  be  first 
arraigned  in  the  king's  courts  wluch  might  at  its  dis- 


cretion send  them  to  an  ecclesiastical  court.  0 
convicted  here  and  degraded  (see  Deobaoatiox), 
the  clerk  was  to  lose  his  benefit  of  clergj*'  and  be 
amenable  to  lay  justice.  Etlward  III  extended  the 
privilege  in  ISIJO  to  include  all  persons  who  coiM 
read  (see  Clerk);  and  it  was  not  until  the  fifteenth 
century  that  any  very  definite  regulation  of  this 
dangerous  latitude  was  arrived  at.  Later  statutes 
guarded  ag&inst  the  evasion  of  their  piovkiona  by 
expressly  declaring  that  their  operation  waa  "  ultb* 
out  benefit  of  clergy/'  and  the  privilege  was  finally 
abolished  in  1827.  There  are  a  few  early  cases  of 
its  use  in  the  American  colonies,  especially  tlie 
Carolmas  and  Virginia;  but  an  Act  of  C<>ngr«a 
put  an  end  to  it  here  in  1790. 

BENEZET,  ben'V^et:,  AHTHOIfY:  Quaker 
philantlu^pist;  b.  at  St.  Quentin,  France,  Jan.  31, 
1714;  d.  at  Philadelphia  May  3, 1 784 .  He  belonged 
to  a  Huguenot  family  which  settled  in  England  in 
1715f  joined  the  Quakers  there,  and  came  to  Phila- 
delphia in  1731.  He  was  a  cooper  by  trade,  but 
gave  his  life  after  coming  to  America  to  teaehiJig 
and  to  philantlu'opie  efforts,  against  slavery  and 
war,  in  belialf  of  the  American  Indians,  and  the 
total  abstinence  cause.  In  1742  he  became  Eng- 
lish master  In  the  Friends'  School  at  Pbiladelphit 
and  in  1755  established  a  giris'  school  there,  ho 
1750  he  undertook  an  evening  school  for  slaves. 
He  wrote  many  tracts  against  the  slave  trad* 
and  printed  and  distribut-ed  them  at  his  own  «- 
pcnse;  he  also  published  A  Short  Atxmini  o/  th§ 
People  CdUd  Qmk^H  (Philadelphia,  1780);  Th 
Flainness  tmd  Innoeent  SimplicUy  of  the  ChrisHta 
Edigi^m  (1782);  S9me  Obsennxti^ms  on  the  Siht'oHm, 
i^isposUityn,  and  Charaeter  of  the  Indian  XaHtet 
of  ihis  Continent  (1784). 

BitiLJOnitAi'ifT:  Eh  V9.mL>  Mnrntir  of  Anthifnu  BvnetH.  Pliii*' 
d<!|phia,  1817,  m  vised  by  W.  Armifitead,  Lcitidoti,  1S50. 

BEITGEL,  JOHANlf  ALBRECHT;  German  Lu- 
theran; b.  at  Winnenden  (12  m.  n.e,  of  Stutt- 
gart), Wvirttemberg,  June  24,  1687;  d.  at  Stuttgart 
Nov,  2,  1752.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  and  de- 
voted himself  especially  to  the  sacred  text;  he  was 
also  intent  upon  philosophy,  paying  particular  at- 
tention to  Spinoza,  After  a  year  in  the  miniatiy 
as  vicar  at  Metzingen,  he  became  theological  repe- 
tent  at  Tubingen  in  1708;  and  in  1713  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  the  cloist^r-achool  at  Denken- 
dorf,  a  seminary  for  the  early  training  of  candidates 
for  the  ministry.  During  this  year  he  traveled 
through  Germany,  visiting  the  achools,  indudiag 
those  of  the  Jesuits,  to  learn  their  methods.  At 
Denkendorf  he  published  in  1719  his  first  work,  aa 
edition  of  the  Epislohe  Ciceronis  ad  familiareSf  with 
notes;  then  Gregorii  pan^gyricus  gracm  e£  t4Uiru 
(1722) J  and  Chrysosi^mi  iibri  tn  de  nmcetd^io  (172S), 
to  which  he  added  Frodromua  Norn  Te^tamtnti  rede 
cauiegue  ordinandL  Hb  chief  work,  however,  was 
upon  the  New  Testament,  Wliile  a  student^  he 
was  much  perplexed  by  the  various  readings  in  the 
text,  and  with  characteristic  energy  and  p^^e- 
verance  he  immediately  be^an  to  investigate  the 
subject.  He  procured  all  the  editions,  manuscripts, 
and  translations  possible,  and  in  1734  published 
hia  text  and  an  Apparatus  critienSt  which  became 


BELIGIOUS  EiNCYCLOPEDIA 


Beneflcium 
Bennett 


the  ftArting'point  for  modem  text-criticism  of  the 
New  Testament.  His  famous  canon  was:  '*  Tlie 
more  difficult  reading  is  to  be  preferred."  This 
critical  work  was  followed  by  an  exegetical  one^ 
Onomm  N&in  Tc&tainenti  (Tobingen,  1742),  which 
hts  often  been  reprinted  in  Latin,  and  was  trans- 
latai  into  German  by  C.  F.  Werner  (1853,  3d  ed., 
1876)  and  into  English  in  Clark's  Library  {5  vols,, 
Edinburgh,  1S37-58)  and  in  an  imt> roved  edition 
by  Lewis  and  Vincent  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1860- 
1^1).  A*  a  brief  and  suggestive  commentary  on 
the  New  Testament,  the  Gnomon  is  still  of  use. 

Bengera  chief  principle  of  interpretation,  briefly 
stAtcd,isto  re^id  nothing  into  t  he  Script  urei?,  but  draw 
enerjthing  from  them,  and  suffer  nothing  to  remain 
hidden  that  b  really  in  them*     His  Gnomon  exerted 
cofisidcrablc  influence  on  exegesis  in  Clennany,  and 
John  Wesley   translated  most  of  its  notes  and  in- 
CDTpomtctl  them  into  his  Annotaton/  Xatcs  upon  the 
Srv  Ttntamcnt  (London,  1755).     In  1740  appeared 
Bengd's  ErkUirie  Ojfenbarung  Johannis,  often  re- 
printed (Eng.  transl.  by  Jo!in  Roberts^on,  London, 
1757);  in  1741  his  Chdo  tempitrum,  and  in   1745  his 
I  Cjfdut  nve  de  anno  magna  cxtnsideralio.     In  the^se 
chiCDological  works  he  endeavored  to  fix  the  *^  niun- 
ber  of  the  beast  *' and    the  date   of   the   "  millen* 
aium/'  which  be  placed  in  the  year  1836.     In  1741 
I  be  wu  miule  prelate  of   Herbrerhtingen;  in  1749 
I  niember  of  consistory  and  prelate  of   Alpirspacii^ 
I  ^th  residence  at   Stuttgart;  and   two  years  later 
I  Tabiugen  honored  him  with  tlie  doctorate* 
I  (A,  Hauck.) 

■M|^MT:  The  bcHt  life  is  by  O.  Wilchlcr,  J,  .1,  BtngfL 
HHpHbf*  Stutt^ifcrt.  t&O^:  cf.  idem,  Bengtt  untt  Otin- 
"f^  'OftKnIob,  1883;  a  life  was  wrilt«n  by  hi?  non  and 
JAfludH  ill  the  IrtiratliK^^tion  to  the  Gnomon,  where  it  i» 
^****lly  found;  in  more  complete  frtnn  by  his  great -grand - 
•>»  J  C  F  Burk.  7.  A.  BtnaeU  Uben  und  Wirksn,  Stutt- 
^.  m\,  Ena,  truml,  by  Walktr.  London,  1837;  E. 
"•^Ip.  Brixgrl  nlM  Getehrter,  Tabingen,  1893. 

BQHAM,  WILLIAM:  Church  of  England;  b. 
%i  Wcittncon  (10  m.  n.e.  of  Soutliartipton),  Hants, 
^w^  15,  1S3L  He  was  educated  at  St.  iMark's 
^^1^,  C*helsea^  and  King's  CoUege«  London 
^"*^loipcal  Asaociate,  1857),  and  was  a  village 
•^'^wlmaster  from  1849  to  1852,  and  a  private 
*«^  ffwn  1S53  to  1856.  He  was  ordered  deacon 
'"'!^7  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following  year*  and 
*'^  aciiQn;  *^*  tutor  in  St.  Mark's  College  from 
J^to  1S64,  WHS  editorial  secretar>^  of  the  Society 

LJJf  tbe  Pm  mot  ion  of  Clirintian  Ivnowledge  from 
1  lo  1867,  and  professor  of  tnodcrn  history  in 

Wto'»  College,  London,  from  1864  to  1871.  He 
***  micceMsively  curate  of  St ,  Lawrence,  Jewrj,', 
j^^iidon  (1865-67),  vicar  of  Addington  (1867-73^ 
^  Johii  the  Baptist,  Margate  (I87:i-S0).  and  Meir- 
^*  Krnt   (lS.St^82),  as  well  a.s  Six-Preacher  of 

,  J^W^rbnry  Cathedml  from  1S72  to  1888,  and  Btiyle 
Jj*tttref  iti  1897.  Since  LS82  he  has  been  rtTtor 
^^t  Edmund's,   Lombard  Street,  and  has  also 

^J*n  bononiry  canon  of  Canterbury  since  1885. 
yii  b'kewise  been  rural  dean  of  ICast  City  siua^ 

-J  in  theology  he  is  a  Broad-church  disciple 
••f.  D.  Maurire,  lie  has  pubti.shed  the  following 
*Qtb:  FAe  Govpel  of  St.  Matthew,  with  Notes  ajui  a 
^^^^^mtary  (London,  1862);  English  Ballads,  with 


Infrndurtion  and  Xotcjt  (1S63);  The  Epistles  for  the 
Chri^Hftn  Year,  with  Xotcfi  and  Comnwnfarif  (1864); 
The  Church  of  the  Patriarchs  (1867);  Comjmrtion 
to  the  Lcctionary  (1872);  A  Xcw  TranJilntifm  of 
Thttmns  a  Kcm-pia*  **  ImiiaHo  Christi  "  (1874); 
Readings  on  the  Life  of  our  L(*rd  and  His  Ap(i&tle8 
(1880);  How  to  Teach  the  Old  Testament  (1881); 
Annals  of  the  />iV>cc«t  of  Wincheiiter  (1884);  A  Short 
Hi^ftory  of  the  Episcoptd  Church  in  Ami-Hca  (1884); 
The  bictimary  of  Rchfjinn  (18.87);  and  (M  8L 
Paurs  Cathrdral  (1902).  He  collaboruttd  ^vjth 
R.  P.  Davidwn  and  with  C.Welsh  in  Media  vnl 
Londcm  (1901);  and  cdihvl  the  Life  of  Archhi^hnp 
Taii  (London,  1891);  The  Writings  of  St.  John,  in 
the  Tcmpl4r  Bible  (1902),  and  the  Ancient  and  .\fod' 
em  Library  of  Tfwological  Literature, 

BENJAMIlf  OF  TUBELA  (a  town  of  Navarre, 
on  the  Ebro.  ICfO  miles  n.e.  of  Madrid);  Properly 
Benjamin  ben  Jnnah,  a  Spanish  rabbi,  who  in  1160 
(or  1165;  cf.  Griitz,  Geschichte  dcr  Judtn,  vi,  note 
10)  left  home  and  travelt'd  thmugli  ('alalonia, 
southern  France,  Italy,  Grt^ece,  the  inlands  of  the 
Le\'ant,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Mesopohimia  to  Bag- 
dad; thence  he  proceeded  to  Eg>iJt  by  way  of 
Khuzistan,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Yemen;  and 
finally  returned  to  Spain  in  1173.  The  informa- 
tion which  he  gathered  with  great  diligence  not 
only  concerning  the  places  viKited,  but  als<i  of  ad* 
joining  lands,  was  written  down  in  a  Ileljrew  work 
(Massa*oth  sh^l  rabbi  Bimjitmin,  **  Itinerary  of  the 
Rabbi  Benjamin  "),  which  is  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous of  early  books  of  travel.  Denjanun  was  credu- 
lous, perhaps  deficient  in  geneml  infonnation,  and 
interested  primarily  in  tilings  Jewish;  his  book 
abounds  in  errors  and  ab.surdities,  but  it  does  not 
justify  the  cliarge  of  deliberate  fzdsification,  and  it 
contains  much  that  is  true  and  v:duahle  not  only 
concerning  the  numbers,  status,  and  dispersion  of 
the  Jews  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  also  concern- 
ing general  histor>%  political  conditions,  trade,  de- 
scriptions of  places,  and  the  like. 

Bibliography:  The  "  Itinerary  "  was  first  publiethed  u% 
Constnntmoplv-  in  1543;  then  Ferrara.  155(5;  Freiburg, 
1683;  and  timny  timcfl  Pubj^cqiicntly.  A.riaa  Moritaiiua 
nnd  C.  rEniptireur  iHSUed  the  tc!Xt  with  &  Latin  tran.Hl»^ 
tion,  the  former  at  Antw€?rp,  1575;  the  latter  at  Ley- 
den,  1633.  An  Engliah  translation  (from  the  Latin  of 
Arias  Montanufi)  wa»  publishe<l  in  PurrAa«*«  PilorimM, 
London,  1625,  and  ia  given  in  t3ohn>  iCarly  Travcl§  in 
PaUwtirie,  London,  1848.  Others  (with  text)  are  by  A. 
Aiber,  2  voU,,  London.  1840-41,  and  M.  N.  AdU^r,  l*t»n^ 
don,  1907,  the  latter  b&ned  on  a  British  MmmUira  M»S,  which 
differs  con.iid^rably  from  other  copies.  A  Germ,  iranel., 
with  ie%%,  notes,  etc.,  by  L,  Grtinhut  ami  M,  N.  Adhr,  iva» 
publinhed  at  Frankfort,  2  vol*.,  1903-04.  Consult  also  M. 
N.  Adier,  in  the  Palestine  Eicplorstioa  Fund  Quarttrlv 
Statement,  Oct.,  1894. 

BEPTlfETT,  JAMES:  Congregational ist ;  b.  in 
London  May  22,  1774;  d.  there  Dec.  4,  1862.  He 
studied  for  the  ministry  at  Goaport  under  the  Rev. 
David  Bogue;  was  orcJained  at  Homsey»  Ilarn- 
shire,  1797,  and  was  minister  there  till  1813,  when  he 
became  thet:>logical  tutor  of  the  Rotherham  Inde- 
pentlent  College,  and  miiiister  of  the  church  there; 
p.istor  of  the  church  in  Silver  Str*?et  (afterward  re- 
moved to  Falcon  Scjuare),  London^  1828-^0.  He 
was  an  associate  of  the  Haldanos  in  some  of  their 
toura,  waa  a  Bccretary  of  the  I^ndon  Missionary 


Bennett 
Bentley 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


54 


Society r  was  chaimian  of  the  Congregatioijal  Union 
1840,  and  attracted  much  attention  by  his  defense 
of  Christianity  against  the  unbelief  of  his  time. 
His  publications  include  The  History  of  EHssmierx 
from  the  RewduHon  to  1 808,  in  collaboration  with 
Dr.  Bogus  (4  vols.,  London,  1808-12;  2d  ed.,  2 
vols*,  1833),  Gonttnued  in  TheHtJttory  of  Dissenten 
during  the  Last  ThiHy  Years  (1839);  Th^  Star  of 
the  West,  being  mdmoirM  of  R.  DarraeoU  (1813); 
Lectures  on  the  HisUtry  of  Jestis  Christ  (3  vols., 
1S25;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1828),  supplemented  by  Lec- 
tures on  the  Preaching  of  Christ  (1836);  Memoirs  of 
the  Life  of  Datfid  Bogue  (1827)*  An  Antidote  to  Jn- 
fideiUyf  lectures  delivered  in  1831,  and  A  Second 
Antidote  to  Infidelity  (1831);  Justification  gs  Re- 
vealed m  Scripture  in  Opposition  to  the  CountU  of 
Trent  and  Mr.Kevmian's  Lectures  (1840);  The  The- 
ology of  the  Early  Christian  Church  Exhibited  in 
QuotaiionA  from  the  Writers  of  the  First  Three  Cen- 
turies, Congregational  lecture,  1841  j  Lectures  <m 
the  Acts  of  the  Ajmstke  (1846). 

BiBLiOQRAPifT:  Afnnorioii  of  the  f^^itis  JamtM  Bennett^  DM.. 
iTidwiinff  Swmon*  Prrarhrd  tm  tkt  Ocauwn  of  Ait  Dmth^ 
Loudoo.  lSfl3;  DNB,  vw,  242-24:!. 

BEHHETT,  WILLIAM  HIHRY:  English  Congre- 

gationaliat;  b.  at  London  B4ay  22, 1S55.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Lancashire  Independent  CoUege  (1873-82) 
and  Owens  College,  Mtinche^^ter,  London  Umver- 
Bity  (B. A.,  1875),  and  St,  John's  College,  Cambridge 
(B^.,  1882),  and  was  professor  in  Rotherham  Col- 
lege from  1884  to  1888  and  lecturer  in  Hebrew  in 
Firth  CoUege,  Sheffield,  in  1887-88.  He  has  been 
professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  in  Hackney 
Collegep  London,  since  1888  and  in  New  College, 
London f  since  189L  lie  was  also  firat  secretary 
to  the  Board  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Lon- 
don in  1901^3,  and  has  been  examiner  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  the  Univeraity  of  Wales  since  1904,  as 
well  as  a  recognized  teacher  in  the  Bame  inKtitu- 
tion  since  1901.  He  has  edited  Chronicles  and  Jere- 
miah in  The  Exposilor's  Bible  (London,  1894-95); 
Joshua  in  T}^  Sacred  Books  of  the  QU  Testament 
(1895)  and  in  The  Polychrome  Bible  (New  York,  1899) ; 
General  EpiMles  and  Genesis  in  The  Century  Bible 
(London,  1901,  1903);  and  JoshxiM  m  The  Temple 
Bible  (1904).  He  has  also  written  Theology  of  the 
Old  Tesianient  (l^ondon,  1896);  Primer  of  the  Bible 
(1897);  and  Biblical  Introduction  (1899;  in  collab- 
oration with  W,  F,  Adeney), 

BEllIfO;  Bishop  of  Meissen;  b.  at  Hildesheim 
or  Goslar  101 0;  d.  at  Meissen  June  16,  1106,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditional  account^s.  The  first  cer- 
tain fact  in  his  life  is  that  he  was  a  canon  of  Gos- 
lar.  He  was  made  bishop  of  Meissen  in  1066,  and 
appears  as  a  supporter  of  the  Sa^con  insurrection  of 
1073,  though  Lambert  of  Hersfeld  and  other  con- 
temporary authorities  attribute  little  weight  to  his 
share  in  it.  Heniy  IV  imprisoned  him,  however, 
but  released  htm  in  1076  on  his  taking  an  oath  of 
fidelity,  which  he  did  not  keep.  He  appeared 
again  in  the  ranks  of  tbe  king's  enemies,  and  was 
accordingly  deprived  of  his  biahopric  by  the  Synod 
of  Mains  in  lOSS.  Benno  betook  himself  to  Gui- 
bert,  the  antipope  supported  by  Henry  as  Clement 
in,  aad  by  a  penitent  acknowledgment  of  his 


offenses  obtained  from  him  both  abeolutton  and  a 
ktter  of  commendation  to  Henry,  on  tbe  basit  of 
which  he  was  restored  to  his  see.  He  promised, 
apparently,  to  use  his  influence  for  peace  with  tht 
Saxons,  but  again  failed  to  keep  hia  promiee,  te- 
tuming  in  1097  to  the  papal  party  and  recogm&iii 
Urban  H  as  the  rightful  pope.  With  this  he  dis- 
appears from  authentic  history;  there  in  no  evi- 
dence to  support  the  later  stories  of  his  mifaJonaty 
activity  and  seal  for  church-building  and  for 
ecclesiastical  music.  His  elevation  to  the  fame 
of  sainthood  seems  to  have  been  due  partly 
to  the  need  of  funds  to  complete  tbe  catbednl 
of  Meissen,  and  partly  to  the  wish  to  have  s 
local  or  diocesan  saint.  He  waa  ofBcially  cao- 
oniied  by  Adrian  VI  in  1523,  as  a  demoustTatioo 
apdnst  the  Lutheran  movement,  which  Lutber 
acknowledged  by  &  fierce  polemical  treatise.  Ev 
relic«  were  solemnly  dug  up  and  venerated  in  152i; 
but  as  the  Reformation  progressed  they  wete  no 
longer  appreciated  in  Meissen,  and  Albert  V  ol 
Bavaria  obtained  permission  to  remove  them  ia 
1576  to  Munich,  of  which  city  Betmo  is  considered 
the  patron  saints  (A.  Haugic,) 

BiBLioaaAPHr:  BovemI  ew?y  AceoimU  in  i>nMe  sod  th» 
of  B«mii}'a  lif«  uid  miracles  w«re  collected  in  ASA, 
June,  iii,  14S-231,  CoimuU:  O.  Linger,  Bitehof  Bmm 
VQn  MH*$€n^  in  M itiheiiutiQen  det  Verrin*  fUr  Q^tdodit 
der  Stadt  Meitten,  i,  3  (188*)*  pp.  70-96.  i,  5  ClSM);  pit 
l-3fi.  ii^  2  (1S88K  Pp.  90-144;  E,  Mubatschek,  Gtaekuim 
dcr  BiMckefe  dca  Hochttiftet  JIf cittm,  pp.  65-64.  Dttidea. 
1884;  R,  Docbn«r.  Aktenat^cke  tur  de«cAidkte  dtr  Tik 
BtnmmiM,  in  Neuea  Archiv  f-QT  tOehMUche  (?««cAuAlr,  tb, 
iai-144.  Dreailfln,  1886;  K,  P,  Will,  Sana  Bmu»^  Biidiat 
Ptfft  MeU4en.  Dreadisii,  lfiS7. 

BEHOIST  (BEirOIT),  be-nwfl',  ELIE:  Frendi 
Protestant ;  b.  at  Paris  Jan,  20, 1640;  d,  at  DeHt  Kor. 
15^  1 72S.  His  parents  were  servants  of  the  Ptntir 
tant  family  La  Tremoille.  He  early  diipbjcd 
fondness  for  the  classics^  studied  at  Montaig^ 
College  and  at  La  Marc  he  (Paris),  and  taught  pri- 
vately in  divinity  at  Montauban.  In  1664  he  wm 
ordained,  and  tbe  following  year  was  called  to 
Alenijon,  where  he  served  for  twenty  3rearB  as  Prtt- 
estant  minister,  with  as  much  prudence  as  c&psc^ 
ity .  H  e  met  wi  th  much  opposition  from  the  EomiD 
Catholics,  especiaUy  from  the  Jesuit  De  k  Rue. 
who  attacked  him  and  even  incited  a  riot  apinit 
him.  After  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nan£«t, 
Benoiet  went  to  Holland,  and  ^^as  called  as  miaiB* 
ter  to  the  church  of  Delft,  near  Tbe  Hague^  vbm 
he  stayed  thirty  years.  He  wrote  Lettre  d'vs 
pasteur  banni  de  son  pays  d  une  ^glise  qui  n'a  pa 
fait  son  deimr  dam  la  demicre  persecution  (Golpp»e. 
1666);  Histoire  et  apohgie  de  la  reiraite  des  pmievn 
d  cause  de  la  persecution  de  France  (Frankfort,  1687); 
Htsioire  de  V&dU  de  Nantes  (5  parts,  Delft,  169^^; 
Eng,  tranal.,  London,  1694). 

G,  BoKKT^M^uin'' 


BiBLfoaaApni't  P*  Pmc«1»  £lie  B^n^Ut  *t  I'fgil**  .^ — 
d'Atmi^on,  Fart.^,  1B92:  E,  and  E.H^mi,!^  f miwiynlP- 
tantt.  ii,  280  eqq,*  2d  vd.  by  Bordier.  IWia,  lg77  «Vi; 
ButUtin  de  la  sariiti  d'hiatmte  du  prQlcttanUtme  frmi^ 
1876^  p.  259,  18S4,  pp.  113,  162. 

BEIfOlST    (BEirOIT),  REUE:    Boman  (^tha& 

theologian;  b.  at  Savem^reij  near  Angers,  in  152!; 
d.  at  Paris  Mar.  7,  160S*    He  accompanied  HaiT 


89 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDI 


Bennatt 
Bentley 


g(ti;ftrt  to  Scotlaad  as  her  confessor  in  1561;  after 
liis  return  to  France  was  appoint-ed  pastor  of    the 
cjiuj-th  of  St.  Eustache  in  Park  in  1569,  and  played 
^    eoQspicuous   part  In   the   controversies   of    the 
l^0tM  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  oppoartion  to 
tl^e    Guises  and  the  Ultramontancs*     Id   1655  he 
mjl>lished  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  which,  however, 
^rma  little  more  than  a  reprint  of  the  Geneva  trans- 
\aj^OD;  it  has  been  said  that  he  knew  little  of  either 
Eebrew  or  Greek.     The  translation  wats  condemned 
by    the  theological   faculty  of   the   University  of 
Pamin  1567  and  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII  in  1575, 
iod  Benoist  was  expelled  from  tlie  Sorbonne  in  1 572. 
He  WAS  reinstated  by  Heary  IV  and,  to  reenter  the 
laculty,  flubscribed    his   own    condemnation.     He 
exaspenited  the  Ul tramontanes  still  more  by  main- 
taining that  the  king  did  not  forfeit  hiis  right  to  the 
thfoae  by   professing    the    Protestant    faith.     He 
had  influence  in  bringing  about  Henry's  change  of 
f&tth,  mid  the  latter  made  him  his  confessor  and 
ippobted  him   bishop  of  Troya?,   but   the   pope 
refused  ooiiSrmation^  and  in  1604  he  had  to  renounce 
tbe  office.    He  was  a  voluminous  writer. 

BnucNaAntT:  J.  0.  P.  Hwfer,  Bioaraphi^  QhtiraU,  y,  305, 
pdkiontm,  a,  i,  392-393.  533 -534.  3  vols.,  PurL*.  1728-39. 

BEKRATH^  KAIU.:  German  Protestant  theo- 
bgiati;  b.  at  Diiren  (22  m,  s.w,  of  Cologne)  Aug* 
16,  1845.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn,  Berlin,  and  Heidelberg  (1864-67),  and  taught 
in  his  native  city  until  1871.  From  1871  to  1875 
bt studied  in  Italy,  chiefly  in  Rome.  In  1876  he 
beeame  ptivat-doccnt  at  Bonn  and  associate  pro- 
Umarm  1879.  In  189<>  he  was  called  to  Kdnigs- 
lwiS  as  professor  of  church  history.  He  ha^  written 
Bernordino  Ochitio  von  Siena  (Leipsir,  1875);  Die 
(Mtm  tUr  italienischen  Refomtalionsgeschicftie 
(B<«in,  1876);  Geschtchie  der  Rejormatmn  in  Venedtg 
(Hille.  mS7);  and  Julia  Ganzaga  (19<>0).  He  has 
^  edited  DU  Summa  der  heiligen  Schrift,  ein 
***if*i«  aus  dem  Zeiialter  der  Relormation  (LeipsiCi 
'^)l  tAOher'M  Schrift  an  den  chrutUrken  Add 
*tt«icfcer  iVo^ion  (Halle,  1S84);  and  K,  R.  Hagen- 
*'**^*i  Lchrbtich  der  Dogmenge^ckichte  (6th  ed*, 
I^c»  1&89). 

B21ISLT,  ROBERT  LUBBOCK:  Orientalist; 
b.  U  Eaton  (2  m.  s.w.  of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  Eag- 
{wd.  Aug,  24,  la^l ;  d.  at  Cambridge  Apr.  23,  1893. 
"*  Wjtf  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
f^vill©  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge;  studied 
^  Germany ;  was  appointed  ret%dur  in  flebrcw 
JJ*Gonvillc  and  Caius  College  1803;  elected  fellow 
y^i  became  lectiuer  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac  in 
rflege;  was  made  professor  of  Arabic  1 887; 
-r.  — Wncr  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
*"  ^ht  tJniversity  of  London;  waa  a  member  of 
**  Old  Testament  Revision  Company;  accom- 
PjJ^'cd  Mre.  Lewis  and  Mrs.  Gibson  on  the  trip  to 
**^  on  which  the  palimpsest  of  the  Syriac  Gospels 
J**  ditoovered  (see  Bible  Versions,  A,  III,  I,  j  2). 
2*  Hu  edited  The  MUmng  Fragment  of  the  Latin 
"'"*'i«laiion  of  the  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra,  discovered 
^  J^  HM  wUh  an  Introduction  and  Notes  (Cam- 
1™''^,  1875);  contributed  The  liarklean  Version 
•I  ^#5.  rtj  £8-xiiij  26  to   the  Proceedings  of    (he 


Confp'es*  of  Orientalists  of  1889;  assisted  in  the 
editing  of  the  Sinai  tic  palimpsest;  edited  IV  Mac- 
cabees (to  which  he  devoted  twenty-seven  years 
of  labor),  published  posthumously  (Cambridge, 
1895);  wrote  Our  Journeij  to  Sinai,  Visit  to  the 
Convent  of  St.  Catarinn,  with  a  chapter  on  the  Sinai 
Palimpsest  (London,  1896);  edited  St,  Clement's 
Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  in  S^ac  (London,  1899), 

BiBLiooitAPiiT:  H.  T.  Francis,  In  Memoriam  B.  L.  BenMly, 
Cambridge?,  1893;  DNB\  Supplement,  voi  i,  171. 

BEHSON>  EDWARD  WHITE:  Archbishop  of 
Canterbur>^  b.  at  Birmingham  July  H,  1820; 
d.  at  Hawarden  (Q  m,  e.  of  Chester)  Oct.  11,  1896, 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (B*A., 
1852);  became  master  at  Rugby  1852;  was  or- 
dained priest  1857;  in  185 9  was  appointed  first 
head  master  of  Wellington  College  (on  the  border 
of  Windsor  forest,  near  Wokingham ,  Berkshire); 
was  appointed  examining  chaplain  by  the  bishop 
of  Lincoln  (Christopher  Wordsworth)  in  1868, 
prebendary  of  Lincoln  1869,  and  chancellor  and 
residentiary  canon  1872,  w^hen  he  resigned  his 
mastership  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Lincoln. 
In  1877  he  was  consecratcil  first  bishop  of  Truro 
(Cormvall);  and  was  translated  to  Canterbury  in 
1883.  He  was  a  man  of  great  energy*,  deter- 
mined, and  self-reliant.  His  industry  was  unremit- 
ting, and  he  found  time  for  reading  and  study,  the 
fruits  of  which  appearetl  in  the  fweihumous  publi* 
cations  Cyprianj  his  Life,  his  Times^  his  Work 
(London,  1897)  anil  The  Apocatypse  (1899).  His 
atlministrative  ability  was  shown  in  tfie  develop- 
ment of  Wellington  College,  which  was  practically 
his  creation,  and  the  thorough  and  eflicient  organi- 
sation of  the  new  diocese  of  Truro,  where  lie  formed 
a  divinity  school  to  train  candidates  for  holy  orders, 
began  the  erection  of  a  cathedral,  and  founded 
and  strengthened  school s»  He  was  the  first  bishop 
to  appoint  a  canon  missioner.  As  archbishop  he 
strove  for  legislation  effecting  reforms  in  church 
patronage  and  discipline;  opposed  and  prevented 
the  disestablishment  of  the  Church  of  Wales; 
created,  in  1886,  a  body  of  laymen  to  act  in  an  ad- 
visory capacity  with  the  convocation  of  his  prov- 
ince; cultivated  cordial  relationB  with  the  Nes- 
torians  and  other  Eastern  Christians,  but  repelled 
what  may  have  been  intended  as  an  advance  to  his 
own  Church  from  Rome.  He  sat  as  judge  in  the 
trial  of  Bishop  King  of  Linc^.^ln,  charged  with  cer- 
tain ritual  offenses  (1889-90),  and  in  the  judgment 
which  he  delivered  product^d  a  mivsterly  exiwsition 
of  the  law  of  the  prayer-book,  based  upon  the  entire 
history  of  the  English  ChurcJi.  Besides  the  works 
already  mentioned,  a  volume  of  Fraijers,  Public 
and  Private  appeared  posthumously  (1899),  and 
be  publisheil  during  his  lifetime  several  volumes 
of  sermons  and  addresses. 

Bibliooraphy;  A.  C.  lienson.  Life  oj  B,  W,  B«i»*Jt»,  2  vols,, 
Loiiiluu,  1899,  abridifpcod  ed,,  tl)Ol  (by  his  eldest  iwn); 
J.  U.  Bernard,  ArchhU)u>p  Benwon  in  Ireland,  Londoo, 
1896;  DaVB,  SuppJemcnt,  vol.  i.  171-179. 

BENTLEY,  RICHARD:  English  theologian  and 
scholar;  b.  at  Qui  ton,  near  Wakefield  (25  m.  s.w, 
of  York),  Yorkshire,  Jan.  27,  ll>62;  d.  at  Cam- 
bridge July  11,  1742,     He  was  the  son  of  a  black- 


Bentley 
Beren^ar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


66 


imith,  was  grounded  in  Latin  by  his  mother* 
itudied  at  the  grammar-Echool  at  Wakefield,  and 
waa  admitted  at  the  age  of  fourteen  (the  usual 
ftge  of  matriculation  waa  seventeen  or  eighteen)  to 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  took  his  first 
degree  in  1680  with  honor  in  lo^c,  ethics,  natural 
science,  and  mathematics,  and  became  schoolmaster 
at  Spalding  in  Lincolnshire.  But  Stillingfieet,  the 
wealthy  and  learned  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  soon  called 
him  to  London  to  superintend  his  son's  etudiea. 
He  took  his  pupil  in  later  years  to  Oxford  and 
reveled  there  among  the  manuscripts  in  pursuance 
of  his  researches  in  profane  and  especially  Biblical 
literature,  entering  on  his  life's  work  of  treating  and 
publishing  texts.  He  had  taken  his  M.A.  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1§S4  and  received  the  same  degree  from 
Oxford  probably  in  1689.  Before  his  twenty-fourth 
year  he  had  (started  for  himself  a  hexapla  dictionary; 
in  the  first  column  stood  every  Hebrew  word  in 
the  Bible  and  in  the  other  five  all  the  different 
translations  of  these  words  in  Chaldee,  Syriae, 
Latin,  and  Greek  (both  the  Septuagint  and  Aquila). 
His  Latin  letter  of  ninety-eight  pages  to  John  Mill 
api>eared  in  1691  as  an  appendix  to  an  edition  of 
the  chronicle  of  Malalaa  and  presented  a  mass  of 
critical  research,  including  much  drawn  from 
manuscripts-  he  moved  over  the  field  of  elassieal 
literature  as  if  it  were  his  Ubrary  of  which  he  knew 
every  inch,  and  showed  himself  a  master  tn  criti- 
cizing the  origin  of  books,  in  following  up  etymo- 
logical rules,  in  explaining  their  ut^,  and  in  dealing 
with  meter.  In  this,  his  virgin  effort,  he  gave 
explanations  and  corrections  for  some  sixty  Greek 
and  LatiQ  authors.  He  wrote  like  an  authority, 
and  in  the  happiest  manner.  He  published  CaUi- 
machus  (1693),  PhalarU  (1699;  the  debate  is  Btill 
interesting),  Memmder  and  PhUemon  (1710), 
Horace  (1711),  Terence  (1726),  and  ManUim 
(1739);  his  edition  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lmt 
appeared  in  1732. 

Ordained  1690,  probably  at  once  Stillingfieet's 
house-chaplain,  he  became  canon  of  Worcester  in 
1692,  librarian  to  the  king  in  1694,  chaplain  in 
ordinary  to  the  king  in  1695,  D,D.  from  Cambridge 
and  Master  of  Trinity  in  1699,  vice-chancellor  of 
the  University  1700,  archdeacon  of  Ely  1701. 
His  intrigue  secured  his  election  as  regiua 
professor  of  theology  in  1717.  His  apparent  love 
of  power  led  the  academic  seaate,  Oct.  17,  1718| 
to  deprive  him,  illegally,  of  his  academic  degrees, 
which  a  decree  of  court  restored  to  him  in  1724. 
He  was  almost  always  in  hot  water  either  in  litera- 
ture, in  his  college,  or  in  politics.  Legally  deprived 
of  his  mastership  in  1734,  he  kept  it,  simply  because 
the  man  who  should  oust  him  did  not  choose  to 
move. 

He  delivered  the  firat  Boyle  lectures  (see  Botlb, 
Robjsht)  in  1692,  Ms  intimate  friend  Una-c  Newton 
helping  him*  He  wrote  against  the  freethinker 
(^ollina  in  1713.  Steme  quoted  in  Triniram  Shandy 
his  sermon  on  papistiy,  1715,  In  1691  he  wrote 
to  John  Mill  about  the  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  1713  he  discussed  the  readings,  and  in  1720  he 
published  his  proposals  for  a  new  edition*  At  least 
from  1716  on,  and  apparently  as  late  as  1732,  he 
caused  collations  to  be  made  ia  the  Ubranes  from 


London  to  Rome.  But  he  did  not  pubUsh  an  editloo, 
probably  because  he  found  it  impossible  to  give 
what  he  wished  to  give.  His  collations  are  in  tbe 
library  of  Trinity  College. 

Caspar  Hen^  Geeoobt. 

BiBLioGHArtiT:  Tbv  bwt  life  ie  by  IL  C,  JebU  m  Eni/^ 
Men  of  Lett/trt,  Londoo,  lSft7,  Coimull  aldo  J.  H.  Honk. 
Life  of  RirJwtrd  Bentlejf  .  .  .  tw*fc  on  Atcmtni  o/  Hv  It'ri- 
tinffa,  2d  parret^bed  ed.,  ib.  1S33;  A.  A.  Elli!i,  fi^iiHeii  tt^a 
tacra,  Cambridge,  1802;  DNB,  iv,  306^314. 

BEKTOIT,  AWGELO  AMES:  Piot^tant Episcfr 
palian;  b,  at  Canea  (Khania),  on  the  island  of 
Crete,  July  3,  1837.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Hartford,  Conn.  (B.A.,  1856)  and  the 
General  Theological  Seminary »  New  York  cily 
(1860).  He  held  various  parishes  in  North  Cattn 
lina  from  1860  to  1883,  when  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematies  and  modem  language 
at  Delaware  College,  Newark,  Delaware,  being 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  twe 
years  later.  In  18S7  be  accepted  a  call  to  tfae 
University  of  the  South  «,b  professor  of  dogmatic 
th^logy,  where  he  remained  until  1894,  being  like- 
wise rector  of  the  Otey  Memonal  Church ,  Sewanjee, 
from  1 893  to  1 805 ,  He  was  then  rector  at  Albion ,  111., 
in  1895-1904,  this  being  interrupted  by  a  temporary 
charge  at  Tarentum,  Pa,  Since  1905  ho  has  held 
a  temporary  charge  at  Foxburg,  Pa.  His  chief 
literary  work  has  been  the  editing  of  the  Chwdk 
Encyclopedia  (Philadelphia,  1884). 

BEITZIKGER,  IMMAinJEL   (GUSTAV  ADOLF): 

German  Orientalist;  b.  at  Stuttgart  Feb.  21,  1865* 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  TQbingea 
(Ph.a,  18fi8;  licentiate  of  theology,  1894),  and 
after  a  pastorate  at  Neuensladt,  Wflrttemberg, 
from  1894  to  1898,  was  privat-doeent  for  Old  Tes- 
tament theology  at  the  University  of  Berlin  until 
1901,  when  he  retired,  and  has  since  resided  in 
Palestine.  In  theology  he  belongs  to  the  bislorieo- 
critical  achooU  He  has  baen  a  member  of  the 
Deutucher  PaldMinaverein  since  1888,  editing  its 
journal  in  1897-1902^  and  has  also  been  on  the 
executive  eoramittee  of  the  Deulscher  Va^n  iur 
Er}orschung  PaMatinaa  stnce  1897.  He  has  written 
HebrdUcke  ArcMoiogie  (Freiburg,  1894,  2d  ed.  1907); 
CffmrnenUir  zn  den  K6Higsibu€hern  (1899)  and  Com- 
meniar  zu  der  Uhronik  (1901),  both  in  the  Kurttf 
Hand-Kommentar  zum  AUen  Testameni;  and  Gt- 
schkhie  dc^  Volken  Isroei^  (Leipsic,  1904).  He  like- 
wise eollaborated  with  R.J,  Hartmann  in  Patd^im 
(Stuttgart,  1899) J  and  with  Frohnmeyer  in  BUder- 
atlas  zur  Bihftkunde  (1905),  and  has  edited  fiaede- 
ker'a  Paldstina  und  Stfrien  since  the  third  edition 
(1889). 

BEJffZO:  Bishop  of  Alba,  a  zealous  partizan  of 
Henry  IV;  b.  about  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century;  d.  not  earlier  tlmn  1085  or  1086.  Little 
that  is  definitely  attested  can  be  related  of  his 
life;  but  it  may  be  reasonably  conjectured  that 
he  came  originally  from  southern  Italy,  that  be 
gained  some  sort  of  a  position  at  the  German  Coiirt, 
possibly  as  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Henry  III,  and 
that  before  1059  he  was  raised  to  the  biahoprie  of 
Alba  by  H enry ' ainfluence.  He  was  one  o f  the  most 
devoted  upholders  of    the  ItaUan    claima  of  the 


67 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bentley 
Berenffas 


German  kings,  and  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Hilde- 
brandine  party.  His  most  prosperous  days  fell 
in  the  period  of  the  schism  between  Honorius  II 
and  Alexander  II,  when  he  went  to  Rome  (at  the 
end  of  1061)  charged  by  the  empress  Agnes  with  the 
mission  of  supporting  the  former,  the  imperial 
candidate  for  the  papacy,  to  whom  he  remained 
faithful  even  after  Alexander's  supremacy  was 
assured.  Later,  he  was  a  victim  of  the  Patarene 
movement  (see  Patabenes),  when  in  1076  or  1077 
popular  disturbances  drove  him  from  his  see.  Ill 
luck  followed  him  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  Though 
he  may  have  taken  part  in  Henry  IV's  first  ex- 
pedition to  Rome,  we  never  again  find  him  in  an 
important  political  position;  and  the  latest  indi- 
cations to  be  gathered  from  his  writings  leave 
the  picture  of  a  man  broken  by  poverty  and  illness, 
and  still  waiting  for  the  emperor  to  reward  him  for 
long  and  faithful  services.  His  Libri  vii  ad  Henri- 
cum  IV  do  not  make  up  a  single  work,  but  are  a 
collection  of  separate  writings  in  both  prose  and 
verse  which  he  put  together  into  a  sort  of  mosaic 
shortly  before  his  death.  Their  special  interest 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  give  an  admirable 
insight  into  the  views  of  the  extreme  imperialists, 
who  were  carried  away  by  boundless  hatred  of 
Gregory  VII.  Benzo  puts  forth  original  views 
on  the  constitution  of  the  State  and  on  ecclesiastical 
politics  from  the  standpoint  of  a  convinced  sup- 
porter of  the  empire.  His  PanegyricuSy  since  the 
time  and  manner  of  the  composition  of  its  several 
books  have  been  definitely  determined,  is  now  more 
highly  regarded  as  an  authority  on  the  period  of 
the  schism.  Carl  Mirbt. 

Bxbuoqrapht:  Benso's  Ad  Henrieum  IV  imperatorem  libri 
aeptem,  ed.  K.  Perts,  is  in  MOH,  Script,  xi,  591-681, 
HAOorer,  1854.  On  oIb  life  and  work  consult:  W.  von 
Giesebrccht.  Annalu  AUaherues,  pp.  123.  213-227,  Ber- 
lin, 1841;  idem,  Oe9ehtehU  der  Kaiteraeit,  ii,  535.  Bruns- 
wick. 1875  (in  oppoeition  to  the  work  of  K.  J.  Will,  next 
mentioned);  K.  J.  Will,  Beruot  Paneayriku*,  Marburg, 
1857;  H.  LehmgrQbner,  Bemo  von  Alba,  .  .  .  aein  Leben 
und  .  .  .  **  Paneffyricua,"  Berlin,  1897;  idem,  Benzo  von 
AVba,  .  .  .  ei«M  QueUenuntertuehuno,  ib.  1886;  T.  Lind- 
ner, BensoB  Panegvricua  auf  Heinrich  IV,  pp.  497-526, 
Gattingen,  1866;  O.  Delarc,  in  Revue  dee  queatione  hieto- 
riquee,  xliii  (1888),  5-60;  £.  Steindorff,  in  GdttingerQeLehrier 
Anteioer,  No.  16,  1888,  pp.593  sqq.;  Wattenbach.  DGQ,  ii 
(1886).  202.  ii  (1894).  328-329;  C.  Mirbt,  Die  PiMizietik 
im  ZeUaUerOregorB  Vll.,  Leipsic,  1894;  Hauck,  KD,  vol  ui. 

BERENGAR  OF  POITIERS:  A  younger  contem- 
porary and  zealous  adherent  of  Abelard  (q.v.) .  Prac- 
tically nothing  is  known  of  his  life  except  what  may 
be  learned  from  his  few  brief  writings.  These, 
however,  are  not  without  interest,  partly  because 
0n  spite  of  their  being  by  no  means  completely 
trustworthy)  they  are  among  the  authorities  for 
the  history  of  the  Ck)uncil  of  Sens  in  1141,  and 
partly  for  the  light  which  they  throw  on  the  mental 
attitude  and  literary  tone  which  prevailed  among 
the  disciplee  of  Abelard  and  opponents  of  Bernard 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  There 
are  three  of  them  extant:  an  Apologeticus  against 
Bernard,  an  EpUtola  contra  Carthusxensea^  and  an 
Epistola  ad  episcopum  MimaJtensemy  the  bishop  of 
Mende.  The  first  was  written  not  long  after  the 
Council  of  Sens,  but  not  imtil  the  sentence  of  In- 
nooent  II  against  Abelard  was  known.    Toward 


the  end  of  it  Berengar  points  out  that  other  teach- 
ers, such  as  Jerome  and  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  had 
made  mistakes  without  being  deposed;  but  a  large 
part  of  the  tractate  is  a  personal  attack  on  Ber- 
nard, accusing  him  of  having  made  frivolous  songs 
in  his  youth,  taught  the  prcexistence  of  the  soul, 
and  made  up  his  conmientary  on  the  Canticles  of 
a  lot  of  heterogeneous  material,  partly  borrowed 
from  Ambrose.  Especially  bitter  are  his  accusa- 
tions of  duplicity  and  unfairness  in  connection  with 
the  (Council  of  Sens.  The  shorter  but  equally  mar- 
hcious  letter  against  the  Carthusians,  who  had 
taken  a  stand  against  Abelard,  accuses  them  of 
breaking  their  vow  of  silence  to  speak  calumny, 
and,  while  abstaining  from  the  flesh  of  beasts,  de- 
vouring their  fellow  men.  The  third  letter  is  written 
in  a  different  tone.  Berengar's  boldness  had  appar- 
ently stirred  up  so  much  hostility  that  he  feared 
for  his  safety,  left  home,  and  sought  an  asylum  in 
the  C^vennes,  whence  he  wrote  to  beg  the  bishop's 
protection,  not  exactly  as  a  penitent,  though  he  im- 
plies that  he  has  approached  more  nearly  to  Ber- 
nard's standpoint.  Whether  he  succeeded  in  set- 
ting himself  right  can  not  be  told,  as  nothing  is 
known  of  his  later  life.  (F.  NiTZscHf.) 

Bibliooraphy:  Berengar's  works  are  usually  printed  among 
Abelard 's,  e.g.,  in  Counin's  ed.,  ii,  771  sqq.,  2  vols..  Paris, 
1849-59;  also  in  MPL,  clxxviii.  Consult  also  Hiatoire 
lUUraire  de  la  France,,  xii,  254  sqq.,  Paris,  1763;  Hefele. 
ConcUiengeachichte,  v,  427-428;  S.  'M.  Deutsch,  Die  Synode 
von  Sena,  1141,  und  die  Verurteilung  Ab&larda,  pp.  37-40, 
Berlin,  1880. 

BERENGAR  OF  TOURS. 

Early  Life  (f  1). 

Controversy  over  the  Eucharist  ($2). 
Berengar  Submits  at  Rome  (13). 
Reasserts  his  Views  in  France  (§  4). 
Berengar's  Significance  (f  5). 

Berengar  of  Tours  was  bom  perhaps  at  Tours,  prob- 
ably in  the  early  years  of  the  eleventh  century;  d. 
in  the  neighboring  island  of  St.  Cosme  Jan.  6,  1088. 
He  laid  the  foundations  of  his  education  in  the 
school  of  Bishop  Fulbert  of  Chartres,  who  repre- 
sented the  traditional  theology  of  the  early  Middle 
Ages,  but  did  not  succeed  in  imposing  it  upon  his 
pupil.  He  was  less  attracted  by  pure  theology 
than  by  secular  learning,  and  brought  away  a 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  classics,  dialectical  clever- 
ness, freedom  of  method,  and  a  general  culture  sur- 
prising for  his  age.     Later  he  paid  more  attention 

to  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers,  espe- 

I.  Early     cially  Gregory  and  Augustine;  and  it 

Life.        is  significant  that  he  came  to  formal 

theology  after  such  preparation.  Re- 
turning to  Tours,  he  became  a  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral and  about  1040  head  of  its  school,  which  he 
soon  raised  to  a  high  point  of  efficiency,  bringing 
students  from  far  and  near.  The  fame  which  he 
acquired  sprang  as  much  from  his  blameless  and 
ascetic  life  as  from  the  success  of  his  teaching.  So 
great  was  his  reputation  that  a  number  of  monks 
requested  him  to  write  a  book  that  should  kindle 
their  zeal;  and  his  letter  to  Joscelin,  later  arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux,  who  had  asked  him  to  decide 
a  dispute  between  Bishop  Isembert  of  Poitiers  and 
his  chapter,  is  evidence  of  the  authority  attributed 
to  his  judgment.     He  became  archdeacon  of  An- 


Berenffar 
Berffier 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


58 


gers,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  not  a  few  bishops 
and  of  the  powerful  Count  Geoffrey  of  Anjou. 

Amid  this  chorus  of  laudation,  however,  a  dis- 
cordant voice  began  to  be  heard;  it  was  asserted 
that  Berengar  held  heretical  views  on  the  Eucha- 
rist. In  fact,  he  was  disposed  to  reject  the  teach- 
ing of  Paschasius  Radbertus,  which  dominated  his 
contemporaries.  The  first  to  take  formal  notice 
of  this  was  his  former  fellow  student  Adelmann 
(q.v.),  then  a  teacher  at  Li^ge,  who 
2.  Contro-  wrote  to  question  him,  and,  receiving 
Tersy  over  no  answer,  wrote  again  to  beseech  him 
the  £u-  to  abandon  his  opposition  to  the 
charist  Church's  teaching.  Probably  in  the 
early  part  of  1050,  Berengar  ad- 
dressed a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  then  prior  of  Bee, 
in  which  he  expressed  his  regret  that  Lanfranc 
adhered  to  the  eucharistic  teaching  of  Pas- 
chasius and  considered  the  treatise  of  Ratram- 
nus  (q.v.)  on  the  subject  (which  Berengar  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  by  Scotus  Erigena)  to 
be  heretical.  He  declared  his  own  agreement  with 
the  supposed  Scotus,  and  believed  himself  to  be 
supported  by  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine,  and 
other  authorities.  This  letter  found  Lanfranc  in 
Rome,  after  it  had  been  read  by  several  other  peo- 
ple; and  as  Berengar  was  not  well  thought  of  there, 
Lanfranc  feared  his  association  with  him  might  be 
prejudicial  to  his  own  interests,  and  laid  the  matter 
before  the  pope.  The  latter  excommunicated 
Berengar  at  a  synod  after  Easter,  1050,  and  sum- 
moned him  to  appear  personally  at  another  to  be 
held  at  Vercelli  in  September.  Though  disputing 
the  legality  of  his  condemnation,  he  prop>osed  to  go, 
first  passing  through  Paris  to  obtain  permission 
from  King  Henry  I,  as  nominal  abbot  of  St.  Martin 
at  Tours.  Instead  of  granting  it,  however,  the 
king  threw  him  into  prison,  where  Berengar  occu- 
pied himself  with  the  study  of  the  Gospel  of  John, 
with  a  view  to  confirming  his  views.  The  synod 
was  held  at  Vercelli  without  him;  two  of  his  friends, 
who  attempted  to  defend  him,  were  shouted  down 
and  barely  escaped  personal  violence;  Ratramnus's 
book  waa  destroyed;  and  Berengar  was  again  con- 
demned. He  obtained  his  release  from  prison, 
probably  by  the  influence  of  Geoffrey  of  Anjou; 
but  the  king  still  pursued  him,  and  called  a  synod 
to  meet  in  Paris  Oct.,  1051.  Berengar,  fearing 
that  its  purpose  was  his  destruction,  avoided  ap- 
pearing, and  the  king's  threats  after  its  session  had 
no  effect,  since  Berengar  was  sheltered  by  Geoffrey 
and  by  Bishop  Eusebius  Bruno  of  Angers,  and  found 
numerous  partizans  among  less  prominent  people. 

In  1054  Hildebrand  came  to  France  as  papal 

legate.    At   first   he  showed   himself   friendly  to 

Berengar,  and  talked  of  taking  him  back  to  Rome 

to  get  Pope  Leo's  authority  with  which  to  silence 

his  foes.    But  when  he  found  that  the  latter  could 

do  more  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the 

3.  Beren-    Church   than  Berengar's   friends,    he 

gar  Sub-     drew     back.    Under     these     circum- 

mits  at      stances  Berengar  decided  to  concede 

Rome.       as  much  as  he  could,  and  the  French 

bishops  showed  that  they  wished  a 

speedy  settlement  of  the  controversy,  when  the 

Synod  of  Tours  declared  itself  satisfied  by  Beren- 


gar's  written  declaration  that  the  bread  and  wine 
after  consecration  were  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ.  The  same  desire  for  peace  and  the  death 
of  Pope  Leo  were  reasons  why  Hildebrand  did  not 
press  for  Berengar 's  going  to  Rome  at  once;  lat^ 
he  did  so,  confident  of  the  power  of  hia  influence 
there,  and  accordingly  Berengar  presented  him- 
self in  Rome  in  1059,  fortified  by  a  letter  of  com- 
mendation from  Count  Geoffrey  to  Hildebrand. 
At  a  council  held  in  the  Lateran,  he  could  get  no 
hearing,  and  a  formula  representing  what  seemed 
to  him  the  most  carnal  view  of  the  sacrament  was 
offered  for  his  acceptance.  Overwhelmed  by  the 
forces  against  him,  he  took  this  document  in  his 
hand  and  threw  himself  on  the  ground  in  the  sOenoe 
of  apparent  submission. 

Berengar  returned  to  France  full  of  remorse  for 
this  desertion  of  his  faith  and  of  bitterness  against 
the  pope  and  his  opponents;  his  friends  were  grow- 
ing fewer — Geoffrey  was  dead  and  his  successor  boe- 
tile.  Eusebius  Bruno  was  gradually 
4.  Reas-  withdrawing  from  him.  Rome,  how- 
serts  his  ever,  was  disposed  to  give  him  a  chance; 
Views  in  Alexander  II  wrote  him  an  encour- 
France.  aging  letter,  at  the  same  time  warning 
him  to  give  no  further  offense.  He 
was  still  firm  in  his  convictions,  and  about  1060 
published  a  treatise  in  which  he  gave  vent  to  his 
resentment  against  Nicholas  II  and  his  antagonists 
in  the  Roman  council.  Lanfranc  answered  it, 
and  Berengar  rejoined.  Bishop  Raynard  Hugo 
of  Langres  also  wrote  a  treatise  De  corpore  d 
sanguine  ChrisH  against  Berengar.  But  the  feel- 
ing against  him  in  France  was  growing  so  hos- 
tile that  it  almost  came  to  open  violence  at  the 
Synod  of  Poitiers  in  1076.  Hildebrand  as  pope 
tried  yet  to  save  him;  he  sunmioned  him  once  more 
to  Rome  (1078),  and  undertook  to  silence  his  ene- 
mies by  getting  him  to  assent  to  a  vague  formula, 
something  Hke  the  one  which  he  had  signed  at 
Tours.  But  his  enemies  were  not  satisfied,  and 
three  months  later  at  another  synod  they  forced 
on  him  a  formula  which  could  mean  nothing  but 
transubstantiation  except  by  utterly  indefensible 
sophistry.  He  was  indiscreet  enough  to  claim  the 
sympathy  of  Gregory  VII,  who  commanded  him 
to  acknowledge  his  errors  and  to  pursue  them  no 
further.  Berengar 's  courage  failed  him;  he  con- 
fessed that  he  had  erred,  and  was  sent  home  with 
a  protecting  letter  from  the  pope,  but  with  rage  in 
his  heart.  Once  back  in  France,  he  recovered  his 
boldness  and  published  his  own  account  of  the  pro- 
ceedings in  Rome,  retracting  his  recantation.  The 
consequence  was  another  trial  before  a  synod  at 
Bordeaux  (1080),  and  another  forced  submission. 
After  this  he  kept  silence,  retiring  to  the  island  of 
Saint-Cosme  near  Tours  to  live  in  ascetic  solitude. 
Apparently  his  convictions  were  unchanged  at  his 
death,  and  he  trusted  in  the  mercy  of  God  under 
what  he  considered  the  unjust  persecutions  to  which 
he  had  been  subjected. 

Berengar 's  real  significance  for  the  development 
of  medieval  theology  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  as- 
serted the  rights  of  dialectic  in  theology  more  defi- 
nitely than  most  of  his  contemporaries.  There 
are  propositions  in  his  writings  which  can  be  under- 


w 


RELIGIOUS  ENXYCLOPEDIA 


Berengmr 
Bergler 


I 


itood  in  &  purel)^  rationalifitic  senae.  But  it  would 
be  gptos  quite  too  far  to  sec  in  ratioDaliam  Bemn- 
gar's  main  standpoint,  to  attribute  to 
J.  Bcreo-  him  the  deliberate  design  of  subvert- 
jir's  Sig'  ing  all  religioua  authority — Scripture, 
nifictDce.  the  Fathers,  p^^I^^s*  o-f^*!  co  unci  Is,  This 
would  be  to  ascribe  to  a  man  of  the 
deveiLtfa  centuiy  views  of  which  his  age  knew  noth- 
iag,  which  it  even  had  no  temwi  to  eicpress.  Hie 
tofitrsfit  which  he  sets  forth  is  not  between  reason 
»od  revelation^  but  between  rational  and  irrational 
wiys  of  understanding  revelation.  He  did  not 
recogmie  the  right  of  the  prevailing  theology  to 
diim  Ilia  assent,  because  it  made  irrational  aaser* 
tioDn;  the  authorities  to  which  he  refused  to  sub- 
mit wcf?,  in  hie  judgment,  only  human  authorities. 
He  spoke  bitterly  and  unjiLstly  of  fiopes  and  coun- 
dls,  imable  to  forgive  them  for  making  him  untrue 
U)  himself;  but  this  meant  no  rejection  of  the 
Catholic  conception  of  the  Church.  His  opposi- 
tion WW  limited  to  the  eucharistic  doctrine  of  his 
timf,  aod  he  controvert'Cd  the  theory  of  Ptisc basins 
not  Jcast  because  he  believed  it  was  contrary  to 
S<Tipture  and  the  Fathers,  and  destructive  of  the 
^wy  nature  of  a  sacrament.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiiuoQjtjLpnT'  An  edition  of  BereiicraT''0  works  was  begun 
by  A.  P.  Aod  F.  T  Vischef,  voJ.  i  onty  waa  pubJiished 
<<HiUiikinc  ^  ^  «<ura  cmna,  Berlin,  lS34t  cf.  MtuiAi, 
CdikeAw,  xja;  701  «qq.;  the  works  are  ulao  in  Boucjuet. 
*"c«ii,  »▼.  2SM-300.  A  eoUeclion  of  letters  reUting  to 
^  <one  of  his  own)  wm  publiibed  by  E,  Bishop  in  Hi»- 
*f>f-i»dkta  Jahrbuch  der  OotrMhQ^a^UthafU  i,  272-280, 
Mfitiater,  1880,  For  his  life  consult  H.  E.  Lehmatin. 
^*^^*QCuii  Turonenvi*  vUa  ex  fonHhus  haiUfloft  p&rt  i ,  Ho»- 
***dt,  1870  (no  more  published);  J.  S«hmjtscr,  Btrtngar 
•«»*  T*ovrf,  cetn  L«&*n  und  tieifm  Lehtt,  Mitintch,  1890. 
Odofuli  the  worka  of  Bernold  of  Sao  Blaa.  in  l^bbe.  Cori- 
<•*»*.  iat,  1060,  in  Bouquet.  Rectieii,  xiv,  34-37*  and  in 
"^ts  rxltiii;  B.  Haurdau,  Hi»toire  de  la  philo^ophie 
•*^«^*K,  I,  225  »Qq,,  Parif,  1872;  Hefele,  Concilienoe- 
**»<*«•,  Tola,  ir,  v:  KL.  li,  391-4D4;  Neander,  ChrUtian 
<WM,  iii,  502-521,  iv.  84,  80.  92,  335,  337.  355, 

BIRENGOZ :  Abbot  of  St,  Maximin's  at  Treves 
m  IW  twelfth  century:  d.  about  1125.  In  the 
W)tdR  of  the  abbey  he  is  first  mentioned  as  abbot 
in  il07,  and  for  the  laat  time  in  1 1 25,  The  register 
of  deaths  contains  his  name  against  the  date  of 
*Pt-  24,  without  naming  the  year;  but  as  his  auc- 
***»r.  Gerhard,  was  installed  in  1127,  he  must 
*»WB  died  either  in  1125  or  1126.  He  rendered 
•"■i^tenblc  »er\ices  to  the  monastery  by  procur- 
■^filiin  Henry  V  the  restitution  of  a  number  of 
^JJ*^  fiefSf  aiid^  besides  five  eennons  for  Baints* 
^*f»f  wrote  two  larger  works:  three  books  De  iaude 
^f^fUume  sanctoe  cniti^,  and  a  series  of  discourses 
^  "lyjimo  li^ni  dominiH  et  de  luce  vitsihili  €t  in- 
"***?*  per  quam  antuiui  patres  oUm  merueruni  tV/tM- 
^^-  In  the  former  he  treats  of  the  legend  of  the 
"■'*»vpry  of  the  croBs  of  Christ  by  Ht'lena,  the 
^^^f  of  Constantine  the  Great,  adducing  a  large 
Jjwiber  of  Old  Testament  typi»s  of  the  cross.  The 
**|*r  deftb  with  Christ  under  the  aspect  of  the 
^y^  of  the  world,  shining  from  the  beginning  of 
^  Wrtory.  Whether  the  commentary  on  the 
W»lypw  which  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur 
Jfinted  MS  on  appendix  to  tlie  second  volume  of 
'"Cifftiitjon  of  St.  Ambrose,  ascribing  it  to  a  cer- 
*^  bereagaudua,  is  his  or  not  must  remain  un- 
**f**in.  (A.  Hauck,) 


BiBuoaaAPHT:  Berensox's  worlu  ware  edited  by  Chruto- 
phonui^  Ootogne,  1555.  and  appe&r  in  M.  de  la  Bigne, 
M^ffita  ^iMiciOieca,  vol,  vii  ib.  1618,  aim  in  MPL,  clx. 
Consult  J.  M&rx,  G«9ehicht«  de»  Ert*i\fU  Trier,  ii,  96.  Tri«r, 
ISflO;  H  V.  SauorUod,  Trierer  GMMchichUqutlUn,  Tri«r. 
18&0;  HftQck,  KD.  iii.  071-972. 

BERGEN  FORMULA  {Das  bergisdw  Buck), 
See  Formula  of  Concord* 

BERGER,  DANIEL  t  One  of  the  United  Brethren 
in  Christ;  b.  near  Reading,  Pa.,  Feb.  14,  1832.  He 
studied  privately  at  Springfield,  O.,  taught  school 
1852-58,  and  served  as  pastor  185-H-64.  From 
lt%4  till  1897  he  was  editor  in  the  publishing  house 
of  the  United  Brethren  in  Chriet  at  Dayton.  O., 
having  cliarge  of  the  denominational  Sunday- 
school  literature  1869-9''3,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  International  Sunday-School  Lesson  Coiiunittee 
from  1884  to  1896.  In  theology  he  is  an  Arminian, 
He  wrote  the  HiM&nj  of  the  Church  o/  the  Untied 
Brethren  in  ChriM  for  the  Amerimn  Church  Hwtor^ 
Serws  (New  York,  1894),  and  a  larger  work  with 
the  same  title  (Dayton,  1897),  which  is  the  olfifiid 
historj^  of  the  denomination. 

BERGER,  bar"zhe',  SAMUEL:  French  Lutheran ; 
b.  at  Beaucourt  (!0  m.  fi.s.e.  of  Belfort),  France, 
May  2,  1843;  d.  in  Paris  July  13,  1900.  He  studied 
at  St  nu3  burg  and  Til  bin  Ren;  in  18(37  became  assistant 
preacher  in  the  Lutheran  Chtirch  in  Paris;  in  1877, 
librarian  to  the  Paris  faculty  of  Protefitant  theology* 
He  was  the  author  of  F.  C.  Baur,  les  on-gines  de 
Vicoh  fie  Tubingnt  et  scs  princlpea  (Paris,  1867); 
La  Bible  au  seizu^me  sitcle,  tHnde  sur  les  originee 
de  la  critique  (1879);  De  glossariis  et  compendiie 
bibiieis  quibusdam  medii  cevi  (1879);  Du  nUe  de  la 
dogmntique  dans  la  pridkMwn  (1881);Irfi  Bible  fran- 
ffliae  au  moyen  dge  (1884);  De  I'histoire  de  la  Vul- 
gate en  France  (1887);  he  Palimpseste  de  Fleury 
(1889);  Quam  notitiam  lingutE  Hebraicce  habuerint 
Chriatiani  medii  trvi  temporibus  in  Gallia  (1893); 
L'HiMoire  de  la  Vulgate  pendant  lee  premiern  sikelee 
du  rrmyen  ^ge  (1893);  iWotice  sur  quelques  textee 
latins  inidiis  de  VAnden  Testament  (1893);  Un 
Ancien  Texte  latin  des  Adee  dee  Apt  ires  (1895);  Vne 
Bible  copii'e  it  Porrentrufj  {Etudes  de  Thiol&gie  ei 
d'HiMoire,  1901,  21:1-219);  and  Lee  Prefaces  joinUe 
av^  livree  de  la  Bible  dans  lee  numuecrite  de  lu 
VulgaiCf  mhnoirc  posthume  (1902). 

BERGIER,  bar"zhy^',  NICOLAS  SYLVESTRE: 
French  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Darnay  (18  m,  s.e. 
of  Mirecourt),  Lorraine,  Dee.  31,  1718;  d.  at  Paris 
Apr.  !9,  1790.  He  gained  repute  while  a  teacher 
at  the  college  at  Besan^on  by  essays  in  philology 
and  mythologj';  abandoned  this  line  of  study  to 
devote  himself  to  Christian  apologetics,  and  polem- 
ics  against  the  Encyclopedists.  In  1765-68  he 
published  at  Pari«  Le  DHeme  refute  par  lui-nUme 
{2  vols.)  and  in  1768  the  Certitude  dee  preuvea  du 
ehrietianisme  (2  vols.),  which  achieved  a  great  suc- 
cess and  called  forth  replies  from  Voltaire  ajid 
Anacharsis  Ooots.  In  1769  followed  Apohgie  de  la 
religion  chrHienne  (2  vols.)  against  Holbach,  in  1771 
Exarnen  du  matHiaHeme  (2  vols.),  and  in  1780  Train 
historique  et  dogmatujue  de  la  vraie  religion  avec  la 
refutation  des  erreurs  qui  lui  ont  iU  oppoeies  dans  lea 
diffirene  eibcles  (12  vols.).     He  also  wrote  a  Diction^ 


BergiTia     ^^  ^ 
Bernard  of  Botone 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


60 


noire  Mologique  (3  vols.,  1789),  which  formed  part 
of  the  Encydop^die,  but  has  several  times  been  sepa- 
rately edited  (latest  by  Le  Noir,  12  vols.,  1876). 
As  a  reward  for  his  services  he  was  made  canon  of 
Notre  Dame  in  Paris  and  confessor  to  the  aunts  of 
the  king,  with  a  pension  of  2,000  livres. 

Bxblioobapht:  Bioffraphie  nouvelle  dea  contemporain*,  ii, 
378,  Paris,  1821;  Biographie  gSrUraU,  v,  14. 

BERGIUS,  JOHAIfNES:  Reformed  theologian; 
b.  at  Stettin  Feb.  24,  1587;  d.  at  Berlin  Dec.  19,' 
1658.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Strasburg; 
in  1615  became  professor  at  Frankfort-on-t  he-Oder, 
where  the  theological  faculty  represented  the  Re- 
formed faith;  1623  court  preacher  at  Berlin.  He 
was  present  at  the  Colloquy  of  Leipsic  (1631)  and 
the  Thorn  Conference  (1645),  but  declined  to  at- 
tend the  Synod  of  Dort  (1618),  as  he  wished  for 
union  rather  than  the  establishment  of  Calvinism. 
He  was  emphatically  a  mediator,  and  showed  him- 
self temperate  and  dignified  in  controversy.  He 
published  many  sermons. 

Bibuoobapht:  D.  H.  Hering,  Bei^&ge  zur  Geachichte  der 
evangelUch-^eformirten  Kirche  in  den  preuanach-branden- 
burgiachen  L&ndem,  i,  16  eqq.,  ii,  82,  Breslau.  1784-86; 
H.  Landwehr,  Die  Kirchenpolitik  Friedrich  Wilhelma  dea 
Groaaen  KtirfUraten,  pp.  150  sqq.,  Berlin,  1894. 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE:  Bishop  of  Cloyne  (in 
County  Cork,  about  15  m.  e.s.e.  of  the  city  of  (3ork); 
b.  probably  at  Dysert  Castle,  near  Thomastown 
(90  m.  s.w.  of  Dublin),  County  Kilkenny,  Ireland, 
Mar.  12,  1685;  d.  at  Oxford  Jan.  14,  1753.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  Cbllege,  Dublin  (B.A.,  1704; 
M.A.  and  fellow,  1707;  B.D.  and  D.D.,  1721),  and 
filled  various  college  offices  from  tutor  (1707)  to  ju- 
nior dean  (1710)  and  jimior  Greek  lecturer  (1712). 
He  lived  there  in  an  atmosphere  "  charged  with  the 
elements  of  reaction  against  traditional  scholasti- 
cism in  physics  and  metaphysics."  His  Common.' 
Place  Book  (first  printed  in  the  Oxford  ed.  of  his 
works,  1871,  iv,  419-502)  shows  how  the  stimulus 
worked  upon  a  mind  naturally  inclined  to  inde- 
pendent investigation.     Very  early  he  adopted  the 

idea  that  no  existence  is  conceivable, 
Berkeley's  and  therefore  none  is  possible,  which 
Philosophy,  is  not  either  conscious  spirit  or  the 

ideas  (i.e.,  objects)  of  which  such 
spirit  is  conscious.  Locke  had  affirmed  secondary 
and  primary  qualities  of  the  material  world;  the 
secondary  qualities,  such  as  color  and  taste,  do 
not  exist  apart  from  sensations;  primary  qualities 
exist  irrespective  of  our  knowledge.  Berkeley  de- 
nied this  distinction,  and  held  that  external  ob- 
jects exist  only  as  they  are  perceived  by  a  subject. 
Thus  the  mind  produces  ideas,  and  these  ideas  are 
things.  There  are,  however,  two  classes  of  ideas: 
the  less  regular  and  coherent,  arising  in  the  imagi- 
nation; the  more  vivid  and  j)ermanent,  learned 
by  experience,  "  imprinted  on  the  senses  by  the 
Author  of  nature  "  which  are  the  real  things — a 
proof  for  the  existence  of  God.  According  to 
Berkeley  matter  is  not  an  objective  reality  but  a 
composition  of  sensible  qualities  existing  in  the 
mind.  *'  No  object  exists  apart  from  the  mind; 
mind  is  therefore  the  deepest  reality;  it  is  the 
priiiSf  both  in  thought  and  existence,  if  for  a  mo- 
ment we  assimie  the  popular  distinction  between 


the  two."  Berkeley  appeared  ilb  an  author  with 
this  theory  already  developed,  and  from  it  he  never 
wavered.  In  1709  he  published  an  Essay  toward 
a  New  Theory  of  Vision,  an  examination  of  visual 
consciousness  to  prove  that  it  affords  no  ground 
for  belief  in  the  reality  of  the  objects  apparently 
seen.  In  1710  appeared  a  Treatise  concerning  the 
Principles  of  Human  Knowledge,  in  which  his 
theory  received  complete  exposition. 

Meanwhile  Berkeley  had  taken  orders,  and,  in 
1713,  he  left  Dublin,  went  to  London,  formed  many 
desirable  acquaintances,  and  gained  an  enviable 
reputation  for 'learning,  humility,  and  piety.  The 
same  year  he  published  Three  Dialogues  Between 
Hylas  and  Philonous  (ed.  in  Religion  of  Sdena 
Library,  No.  29,  Chicago,  1901 ),  "  the  finest  specimen 
in  our  language  of  the  conduct  of  argument  by  dia- 
logue." He  visited  the  0>ntinent  in  1713-14  and 
again  in  1716-20.  In  1721  he  returned  to  Ireland, 
again  filled  college  offices  at  Dublin  (divinity  lec- 
turer and  senior  lecturer,  1721;  Hebrew  lecturer, 
1722;  proctor,  1722),  and  was  appointed  dean  of 
Dromore  (1722)  and  dean  of  Deny,  "  the  best  pre- 
ferment in  Ireland  "  (1724). 

Berkeley  now  became  devoted  to  a  plan  of  es- 
tablishing a  college  in  the  Bermuda  Islands,  went 
to  London  to  further  the  project  in  1724,  and  in 
1725  published  A  Proposed  for  the  Better  Supply- 
ing of  Churches  in  our  Foreign  Plantations,  and  for 
converting  the  savage  Americans  to  Christianity  by 
a  college  to  be  erected  in  the  Summer  Islands,  other- 
unse  called  the  Isles  of  Bermuda.  By  his  enthusiasm 
and  persuasive  powers  he  won  many 
Berkeley's  expressions  of  sympathy,  and  came  to 

American   believe  that   the  government  would 

Scheme,  support  the  plan.  In  Sept.,  1728,  be 
sailed  for  America  and  landed  at  New- 
port, R.  I.,  Jan.,  1729.  Three  years  of  waiting  con- 
vinced him  that  his  hopes  were  futile,  and  in  Feb., 
1732,  he  returned  to  London.  He  published  im- 
mediately Alciphron  or  the  Minute  Philosopher,  the 
result  of  his  studies  in  America  and  probably  the 
most  famous  of  his  works.  It  is  a  powerful  refuta- 
tion of  the  freethinking  then  popular  and  fashion- 
able. In  1734  he  was  made  bishop  of  Cloyne,  and 
there  he  lived,  happy  in  his  family  and  beloved  for 
his  goodness  and  benevolence,  till  1752,  when  he 
went  to  Oxford  to  end  his  days  with  his  son,  a  senior 
student  at  Christ  Church.  He  kept  up  his  studies 
after  his  appointment  as  bishop  and  published  a 
number  of  books,  including  the  curious  Philosoph- 
ical Reflections,  and  Inquiries  concerning  the  Virtuei 
of  Tar-water  (1744;  three  eds.  the  same  year,  the 
second  called  Siris,  a  Chain  of  Philosophical  Re- 
flections, etc.),  in  which  he  set  forth  a  revision  of 
his  philosophy,  and  expressed  his  faith  in  tar-water 
as  a  universal  medicine,  good  for  man  and  beast; 
it  was  the  most  popular  of  his  works. 

On  first  coming  to  America  Berkeley  bought  a 
farm  near  Newport  and  built  there  a  house,  still 
standing,  which  he  called  "  Whitehall "  after  the 
English  palace.  The  shore  is  about  a  mile  from 
the  house,  and  a  cleft  in  the  rocks  is  still  pointed  out 
as  a  retreat  whither  he  was  wont  to  go  and  where 
he  wrote  much  of  Alciphron.  This  book  is  indeed 
a  permanent  record  of  his  life  at  Newport,  and  not 


61 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bergius' 
Bernard  of  Botone 


l^i  little  of  its  cbarm  is  due  to  ttus  fact.  He  helped 
a  pJiilofiophical  society  at  Newport  and 
h(^\  there  in  Trinity  Church,  a  fine  old  wooden 
linieture,  wtuch  is  still  standing*  He  made  at 
least  ooc  convert,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Johrkson  (q.v.), 
episcopal  missionary  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  and  after- 
ward 6rst  president  of  Columbia  College,  New 
York.  Attempts  to  show  thnt  he  directly  influ- 
enced the  early  idealistic  thuught  of  Jonathan 
Edwards  have  not  proved  succesijifuh  His  Arueri- 
(IB  plBm  And  dreams  inspired  the  poem,  written 
at  UDccrtain  date,  which  ends  ^nth  the  stanjea: 

Wastvaitl  the  eourtm  of  etnpire  takea  ita  w*y; 

Tbo  four  first  acta  frtrNMly  post, 
A  Bfth  ahall  close  the  drama  with  Ibe  day; 

Tirae'»  noblest  off^priaff  ia  the  last. 

BiauoeniLysT:  Th«  stasdard   edition  of  Berkeley's  com- 

Pkit  work*  »  by  A.  a  Friwer.  4  vob.,  Oxford.  1871.  re- 

*tlOtd  1901,  of  which  vol.  iv  includes  1im  Life  arul  Letter » 

W  vln  At>€iaiunl  of  hit  Philowophy,     Prof,  Frau-»r  bfts  itbo 

*^t6d.   a  illume  of  SeUction*   from   Berkeley.    5th    ed,, 

wadqm,  1800,  and  oontributed   Berketeu  ti>  the   Philo- 

^Uoal  CIttMitieM  flcriea,   EdinbiinEb.    Ig^L     Tliero   la  ad 

•ilion  ©f  r^  Work*  of  G forge  Uerktley.  by  G.  Sampson, 

«il^  biocraphical  introduction  by  A.  J.  Balfour,  \n  liohn  s 

^^Utmmjikital    Litraru.    3    vok,,    London.    1807-98.     An 

4aiericui  edition  of  the   PrincipUni,   by  C,    P,    Kraut h. 

ndtt^letphia,  1874,  preaenta  a  valuable  epitome  of  upin- 

•ooa    c«)acenunK  Berkeley .     The  sources  for  a  biograpby 

*•*  *  Lift  by  bi,4bop  Stock  firait.  pubLiahed  1776,  reprinted 

**^^«  Bvfgmpkua  Britannica,  vol.  ii,   1780,  and  prefixed 

to  tike  first  adiiion  of  Berkeley 'i»  Coltrcted   Works,    1784, 

tha  <lc(ailii  beine  obtained  from  BL«hap  Berkeley's  brother, 

[  m,    li/ibert  Berkeley:   S.  A-  Alhbone  jjivcs  interesting  de- 

■    of  tierkeky's  re**idpn€?e  at  Newport  in  Critical  Dic^ 

«rv  mf  En^liMK   LiUrxihiXt,   u    174-177,    Philfldclphja. 

ISSI  t ;  QSB,  iv.  34&-356  adds  a  liKt  of  ihe  works  rhranti- 

tociemUy  arranged.      Coojiult  further  D.  Su*wart.  Fh\h*- 

t»P^i4iit  Ewkifa.   Edinburffh.    1810;  voL  v  of  hia  CollecUd 

W*rriu.  11    vols.,  lb.    lS54-(iO  (on   the  ideaUKtn  of  Derke- 

l»r>:    '^    "    '    ■    .1  Review  of  BerktUu'*  Theory  of  Vition. 

WW*^  tl verse  in  it*  pronouncement);  J.  B,   Mill, 

I^*»*'  i  Di«^it*inon*,  ii,  1»>1!-197  and  cf.   vol.  iv, 

Btt«lv«j^  i&<jv.  F,  Frederichs.  Der  phenomtnale  ldeali*mu* 

^^k^'%und  Kani't,    Berlin,    1871;   W.  Graham.   Idtal- 

♦•!•»•    ««  Evnv,    Loudon,    1872    (connects   Berkeley  and 

"^B>al);   C.  Spieker,   Kant,    flume  und   BerkeUih    Berlin, 

i^y^'  ^*  P«Aion«  Allude  Mur  la  vie  et  tur   U*  arut-reM  phi- 

~    GtPtge  BtrkeUy,  Vtxris,    187S;  J.  Jamt»cb, 

%0f9BmM^,  Stro^burg,  1870;  T.  Loewy. 

—  —    » ■—wwf W  Btf^Mt^*,    in  drn   Gnindtagen  untfr»^ickt, 

Jiwtai,  18»t;  T.  H.  Huxley,  ColUeted  EB*ayn,   vi,    241- 

»^,  Krw  York,   1894:    M.  C.   TyW.  George   Berkeleu  and 


Thr^  Men  of  Utter*,  ib-  1805. 


BEltLEBgRG  BIBLE. 
H3 


See  Bibles,  /VprnoTATun, 


.  ®^IIH.  DISPUTATION  OF:  The  deeiaive  point 
JJ  ^^ie  contest  which  definitely  established  the 
.???*pkioii  at  Item*  At  first  the  movement 
F  prugpess  there,  as  both  the  character  of 
,  lWo|Dfc  And  their  manner  of  life  rendered  them 
|iHWRusccpti\ile  to  new  ideas;  even  after  a  reform- 
•^JJMty  arose,  for  several  yezirs  things  continued 
^  *n  undr*ciiled  and  vacillating  condition.  The 
•JJ^fi*liat  vii)lent  and  domineorinj?  manner  in 
*wtcb  the  Roman  Catholic  authoritie^H  attempted 
**  Uiift  their  victory  at  the  Conference  of  Baden 
f^53S;  see  Badek.  Conpehence  or)  brought  on 
loifti  which,  after  the  fashion  of  the  time,  it  \vaa 
itt€m|ited  to  met^t  by  means  of  a  disputation. 
Son*  of  the  Reformers  invited  to  participate 
AeKwd*  ha  vine:  Ln  mind  the  result  at  Baden,  and 
tbf  Roman    Catholic    di^iitaries    and    celebrities 


generally  refused  to  attend.  But  a  great  nmnber 
of  delegates  and  clergy  appeared!  from  Switzerland 
and  the  Bouth  German  states,  including  Zwingii, 
CEcolainpadius,  Butzer,  Capito^  Ambrose  Blaurer, 
and  others.  The  opening  session  was  held  on 
Jan.  6,  1528,  and  the  discussiona  lasted  from  the 
following  day  till  Jan,  26.  They  were  based  on 
ten  these^s  carefully  prepared  by  Bert  hold  Haller 
and  Franz  Kolb  and  revised  by  ZvvingH,  The  out- 
come was  tliat  th©  ten  theses  were  subscribed  to 
by  most  of  the  clergy  of  Bern,  the  mass  was  done 
away  with,  the  images  were  quietly  removed  from 
the  churches,  and  on  Feb.  7  the  Reformation  edict 
was  issued,  wluch  gave  the  theses  force  of  law, 
annulled  the  powder  of  the  bishops^  and  made  the 
necessary  regulations  concerning  the  clergy,  public 
worship,  church  property,  etc.  The  majority  of 
the  country  congregations  soon  gave  in  their  ad- 
herence. The  influence  of  the  disputation  was  fdt 
even  in  France,  the  Netherlan(is,  and  England, 

BiBLiOQRAraT:  The  acta  of  the  diBpntatioa  were  publinhed 
at  Zurich.  1528,  and  a«ain  in  1608  and  1701;  the  Ten 
Thescn  axe  given  in  Eckgliiib  in  SchaJl,  Creeds^  i,  364-3C6, 
and  ChrUtian  Cfiurdk,  vii,  104-106,  in  German  and  Latin, 
CreedM,  iii,  208-210.  Consult  B.  Fi»cher,  QeaddckU  der 
[Hapulalion  und  EeformoH^n  in  Bern,  Bern.  1828;  8.  M. 
JaokBon.  Huldreieh  Zwingli,  pp.  280-283,  New  York.  1903. 

BERU,  SYNOD  OF:  The  name  given  to  the 
first  Reforme<l  synod  at  Bern  (1532).  The  Reforma- 
tion was  established  at  Liem  by  the  Disputation 
and  the  edict  of  Feb.  7,  152S  {see  Bern,  Dibpo- 
TATioN  of),  but  much  remained  to  be  done  in  the 
w^ay  of  consolidation  and  to  finish  the  building 
of  the  new  Church.  This  task  was  entrusted  to  a 
general  synod,  to  which  all  the  clergy  of  the  land. 
220  in  number,  were  invited*  It  met  on  Jan.  9-14; 
Capito  from  Strasburg  was  the  principal  figure, 
and  he  collected  the  results  of  the  discussion  with 
much  care  and  labor.  They  form  a  church  direc- 
tory and  pastor's  manual  which  i^  noteworthy, 
even  among  the  monuments  of  the  Reformation 
time,  for  ita  apostohc  force  and  unction,  its  warmth 
atid  sincerity  I  its  homely  simpUcity  and  practical 
wisdom , 

Biblioorafhy:  The  acts  of  the  S3mod  were  offleially  printed 
at  Basel,  1532,  aeain  in  1728  and  1778.  Both  the  orig- 
inal and  a  modernised  text  were  iraued  by  Lauener,  Biu«l, 
1830,  Consult  M.  Kircbbofer.  Berthold  Haller,  pp.  169 
BQCi.,  Zurich.  1S28;  Billeter.  in  the  Berner  Bi;%triige,  ed. 
F.  Kipjifild,  Bern,  1884  teape^ial  y  uwful);  E  Bloencb, 
Gesthirhte  der  tchfjeeizeritcfi-reformierten  Kirchen,  i,  74-81, 
Bern.  1898. 

BERNARD  OF  BOTOHE:  Canonist  of  the 
thirteenth  eenturj'-;  b.  in  Panna  c.  1200;  d.  at 
Bologna  May,  1263.  He  studied  law  at  Bologna, 
where  he  became  professor  and  canon;  then  spent 
scime  time  in  Rome  in  an  important  official  position 
at  the  papal  court,  but  toward  the  end  of  his  life 
returned  to  Bologna  to  lecture,  especially  on  the 
decretals.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  or  com- 
piler of  the  Gttissa  ordinaria  (see  Glosses  and 
GuiftSAToas  OP  Cakon  I^w)  on  the  decretala  of 
Gregory  IX.,  but  wrote  also  Casus  tongi  uind  a5wm- 
ma  super  tituti»  dtcretatium  (cf.  J.  F.  von  Bchulte, 
Die  Grschkhte  drr  Quelltn  dta*  kanonischen  RechtSf 
ii,  Stuttgart,  1877,  pp*  114  sqq. 

(E.  Frieubiro,) 


Bernard  of  Clalrvaux 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


62 


BERNARD  OF  CLAIRVAUX. 


Life  and  Far-reaching  Ac-     II. 

tivity. 
Bernard's      Importance 

(§1). 
Early  Career.     Abbot  of 

Clairvaux  (f  2). 
Activity  for  Innocent  II 

and  against  Anacletus 

11  (I  3). 
The      Second      Crusade    III, 

(§4).  IV.  Hymns. 


Ecclesiastical  and  Theo- 
logical Significance. 

Asceticism  (f  I). 

Study  of  the  Bible  (f  2). 

Grace  and  Works  ({3). 

Bernard's  My8ticism({4). 

Doctrine  of  the  Church 
(16). 

Monasticism  (f  6). 

Writings. 


I.  Life  and  Far-reaching  Activity:  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux  (Bemardus  ClarcBvcUlis)  is  one  of  the  most 
prominent  personalities  of  the  twelfth  century, 
of  the  entire  Middle  Ages,  and  of  church  history 
in  general.  He  gave  a  new  impulse  to  monastic 
life,  influenced  ecclesiastical  affairs  outside  of 
monasticism  in  the  most  effective  manner,  and 
contributed  not  a  little  toward  awakening  an 
inner  piety  in  large  circles.     As  he 

1.  Bernard's  knew  how  to  inspire  the  masses  by  his 
Importance,  powerful  preaching,  so  also  he  under- 
stood  how   to   lead   individual   souls 

by  his  quiet  conversation,  to  ease  the  mind,  and 
to  dominate  the  will.  It  was  said  in  his  time  that 
the  Church  had  had  no  preacher  like  him  since 
Gregory  the  Great;  and  that  this  was  no  exag- 
geration is  proved  by  Bernard's  orations,  which 
in  copiousness  of  thought  and  beauty  of  exposition 
have  few  equals.  Revered  by  his  contemporaries 
as  saint  and  prophet,  his  writings,  which  belong 
to  the  noblest  productions  of  ecclesiastical  litera- 
ture, have  secured  him  also  a  far-reaching  influence 
upon  posterity.  Praised  by  Luther  and  Calvin, 
Bernard's  name  has  retained  a  good  repute  among 
Protestants,  though  he  represented  many  things 
which  the  Reformation  had  to  oppose. 

Bernard  was  bom  at  Fontaines  (20  m.  n.e.  of 
Dijon),  France,  1090;  d.  at  Clairvaux  (in  the 
valley  of  the  Aube,  120  m.  B.e.  of  Paris)  Aug.  20, 
1153.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the  knight  Tecelin 
and  Aleth,  a  very  pious  lady,  whose  influence 
decided  his  future.  While  yet  a  boy  he  lost  his 
mother,  and,  not  being  qualified  for  military  serv- 
ice, he  was  destined  for  a  learned  career.  He  was 
educated  at  Chatillon  and  for  a  time  seemed 
to  be  influenced  by  the  world  (cf.  AfPL,  clxxviii, 
1857;  VUa,  I,  iii,  6).  But  this  period  can  not 
have  been  of  long  duration;  the  memory  of  his 
mother  and  the  impressions  of  a  solitary  journey 
called  him  back,  and  he  resolved  quickly  and  firmly 
to  break  entirely  with  the  world.  He  induced  some  of 
his  brothers,  relatives,  and  friends  to  follow  him,  and, 
after  spending  half  a  year  together  at  Chatillon, 
they  entered  the  "  new  monastery  "  at  Citeaux 
( see  Cistercians)  .    In  1 11 5  a  daughter 

2.  Early  Ca-  monastery  was  founded  at  Clairvaux 
reer.  Abbot  and  Bernard  became  abbot.  He  gave 
of  Clairvaux.  all  his  energies  to  the  foundation  of 

the  monastery,  and  spent  himself  in 
ascetic  practises,  which  the  famous  William  of 
Champeaux,  then  bishop  of  Chalons,  checked  from 
time  to  time  (VitOf  I,  vii,  31-32).  Bernard  soon 
became  the  spiritual  adviser  not  only  of  his  monks 
but  of  many  who  sought  his  advice  and  always  left 
Clairvaux  impressed  by  the  spirit  of  solemnity  and 


peace  which  seemed  to  be  spread  over  the  |Jaoe 
(Vita,  I,  vii,  3^-34).  His  sermons  also  began  to 
exercise  a  powerful  influence,  which  was  increased 
by  his  reputation  as  prophet  and  worker  of  min- 
cles  (Fito,  I,  X,  46).  According  to  the  constitution 
which  the  new  order  adopted,  Clairvaux  became 
the  mother  monastery  of  one  of  the  five  principal 
divisions  into  which  the  Cistercian  community  was 
organized,  and  Bernard  soon  became  the  most  in- 
fluential and  famous  personality  of  the  entire  order. 
As  early  as  the  pontificate  of  Honorius  II  (1124-30) 
he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  of  tiie 
Church  in  France;  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the 
papal  chancellor  Haimeric  (Epiat.,  xv),  commu- 
nicated with  papal  legates  (Epist.,  xvi-xix,  xxi), 
and  was  consulted  on  important  ecclesiastical 
matters.  At  the  Synod  of  Troyes  (1128),  to  which 
he  was  called  by  Cardinal  Matthew  of  Albano,  he 
spoke  in  favor  of  the  Templars,  secured  their  recog- 
nition, and  is  said  to  have  outlined  the  first  ruk 
of  the  order  (M.  Bouquet,  Historiens  des  Gaykt 
et  de  la  France,  xiv,  Paris,  1806,  232).  In  the 
controversy  which  originated  in  the  same  year  with 
King  Louis  VI,  who  was  not  antagonistic  to  the 
Church  but  jealously  guarded  his  own  rights,  Ber- 
nard and  his  friars  defended  the  bishop  before  the 
king  (Epist.f  xlv),  afterward  also  before  the  pope 
(Epist.f  xlvi,  cf .  xlvii),  though  at  first  unsucoessfuOy. 

With  the  schism  of  1130  Bernard  enters  into  the 
first  rank  of  the  influential  men  of  his  time  by 
espousing  from  the  very  beginning  the  cause  of 
Iimocent  II  against  Anacletus  II.  This  parti- 
sanship of  Bernard  and  others  was  no  doubt  in- 
duced by  the  fear  that  Anacletus  would  allow  him- 
self to  be  influenced  by  family  interests.  On  this 
account  they  overlooked  the  illegal  procedure  in 
the  election  of  Innocent,  regarding  it  as  a  mere 
violation  of  formalities,  defending  it  with  reasons 
of  doubtful  value,  and  emphasizing  the  personal 
worth  of  that  pope.  At  the  conference  which  the 
king  held  at  Etampes  with  spiritual  and  secular 
grandees  concerning  the  affair,  Ber- 
3.  Activity  nard  seems  to  have  taken  the  part  of 
for  Innocent  reporter.  He  also  worked  for  the 
II  and  pope  by  personal  negotiations  and 
against  Ana-  by     wanting     (Epiat.,   cxxiv,     cxxv). 

cletus  U.  When  Innocent  was  imable  to  main- 
tain his  ground  at  Rome  and  went 
to  France,  Bernard  was  usually  at  his  side.  Later, 
probably  in  the  beginning  of  1132,  he  was  in  Aqui- 
taine,  endeavoring  to  counteract  the  influence  of 
Gerhard  of  Angouldme  upon  0)unt  William  of 
Poitou,  who  sided  with  Anacletus  (Vita,  II,  vi,  36). 
His  success  here  was  only  temporary  (Epist.,  cxxvii, 
cxxviii),  and  not  until  1135  did  Bernard  succeed, 
by  resorting  to  stratagem,  in  changing  the  mind  of 
the  count  (Vita,  II,  vi,  37-38).  When  in  1133 
Lothair  undertook  his  first  campaign  against  Rome, 
Bernard  accompanied  the  pope  from  his  temporary 
residence  in  Pisa  to  Rome,  and  prevented  the  re- 
opening of  the  proceedings  concerning  the  ri^ts 
of  the  opposing  popes  {Epiat.,  cxxvi,  8  sqq.).  He 
had  previously  visited  Genoa,  animated  the  people 
by  his  addresses,  and  inclined  them  to  an  agreement 
with  the  Pisans,  as  the  pope  needed  the  support  of 
both  cities  (cf.  Epist.,  cxxix,  cxxx).    It  was  also 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDL\ 


Bem&rd  of  Clair VRUX 


> 


I 


Semurd  who  in  the  spring  of  1135  induced  Fred- 
frick  of  Staufen  to  submit  to  the  emperor  (ViVa, 
rV,  iii,  14,  Otto  of  Freiaing,  Chron.,  vii,  19).  He 
ihcn  ft'eot  to  It^y,  where  in  the  bej^nning  of  June 
the  Council  of  Pisa  wa^  held;  according  to  the  VUn 
(II,  it.  S),  e\'er}'body  sunx) untied  him  here^  so  that 
it  kjoke«l  as  if  he  were  not  in  parte  sollwUtuIiniSf 
but  in  plmihidine  ptjtiestaiu,  Ne vert ht*l ess,  rcso- 
ltitiori5  were  pas^^ed  at  that  time  rej;i:anling  appeals 
to  tlie  papal  see,  which  could  hardly  have  been 
to  the  liking  of  Bernard.  After  the  couiieil  he 
«)ecot?ded  in  inducing  Milan  and  other  cities  of 
Upper  Italy  to  submit  to  the  pope  and  emperor 
(ipuf,,  cxxix-cxxxiii,  cxxxvii,  cxl).  In  Milan  they 
attempted  to  elevate  him  almo.nt  with  force  to  the 
Me  of  St.  Ambrose  {Vita,  II,  ii-v).  During  the 
list  campaign  of  Lothair  against  Rome,  Bernard 
mntto  Ualy  for  the  third  time,  in  1137;  he  worked 
them  swcccif^^fully  against  Anacktus,  and  after  the 
IVciettMrt  of  1138  he  finally  brought  about  the 
wbrniflsioii  of  his  successor  to  innocent  and  thus 
ended  the  ficliiam  {Episi.,  cccxvii).  After  this  he 
left  Rome.  How  great  Bernard's  influence  in 
Rotne  was  at  this  time  may  be  seen  from  bis  auc- 
e«fiil  opposition  to  Abelard  (q.v.). 

The  ecclesiastico-political  affairs  of  France  fioon 
made  &  new  claim  upon  Bernanl*.**  attention.  The 
yoifflg  king,  Louia  VII,  by  making  reckless  use  of 
his  royal  prerogatives,  caused  friction,  aa  when  he 
ftluaed  to  invest  Peter  of  Laehfitre,  whom  the 
*hipter  of  Bourges  had  elected  arehbiBhop.  The 
pop*  consecrated  him,  nevertheless,  anfl  thim  pro- 
vokcti  a  conllict  which  wai*  enhanced  by  the  parti- 
»«wJup  of  Count  Theobald  of  Champagne.  After 
iwhil*  Bernard  was  asked  to  mediate;  be  faithfully 
pwfonned  this  difficult  task  and  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  the  king  to  the  end  of  his  life  (cf.  Epist., 
<Wv^  ttfhereas  his  relations  to  the  pope  appear 
to  hnvc  been  troubled  towanJ  the  end  {Epi^t., 
*^^ii:  ccxxxi,  3). 
A  very  unexpected  event  waa  the  election  of 
Abbot  of  AqujB  Silvias  near  Rome,  for- 
iiik  in  Clair\aux,  as  Pope  Eugenius  ill 
Bernard  write-s  a  little  later  {Epist., 
f^Mx)  that  all  who  had  a  cause  now  came  to 
i  thf)*  said  that  he,  not  Eugenius,  was  pope, 
it  i*  tnie  that  he  exercti^ed  a  rtnnarkable  influ- 
b  iWne  especially  at  first,  but  Eugtniius  did 
**"*  always  follow  his  coun.selH  and  views;  he  had 
^  toiuj<]er  the  cardinals  who  were  envious  of 
^t^UU^l.  Al>oiit  this  time  Bernard,  at  the  request 
°'^4irdinal  AU)ene  of  Ostia,  undertook  a  journey 
*<»  U&(cuedoc,  where  heresy  had  advanced  greatly 
JJjd  Henry  of  Lau^sanne  (q.w)  htid  a  large  following. 
***''>Md'»  prnsence  there,  especially  at  Toulouse, 
**  ttot  without  effect,  but  to  win  permanent 
'^^^  continual  preaching  w^as  required.  A 
JJ^  important  conmiisj^ion  wa^^  given  to  him  in 
**'*  following  year  by  the  pope  tiimiself,  to  preach 
the  crusade.  At  Vejselay,  where  the 
king  and  queen  of  France  took  the 
cross,  Mar.  21,  1146,  Bernard's  address 
was  nioftt  effective*  He  then  trav- 
ersed the  north  of  France  and  Flanders, 
1-he  officious  doings  of  the  mimk  Radulf  induceti 
into  the  regions  of  the  Rhine;  he  suc- 


ceeded in  checking  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews  at 
Mainz,  which  Radulf  had  occasioned.  His  journey 
along  the  Rliine  wa-s  accompanied  by  numerous 
curea,  of  winch  the  Vita  (vi)  contains  notices  in  the 
form  of  a  diary.  But  he  regarde<l  it  as  the  wonder 
of  wonders  that  he, succeeded  on  Cluistmasday,  1 146, 
in  influencing  King  Conratl  in  favor  of  the  crusade, 
in  the  face  of  all  pohticiU  considerationH.  During 
the  crusade  Eugenius  sought  a  refuge  in  France. 
Bernard  accompanied  him,  and  was  present  at 
the  great  council  in  Reims,  1148;  m  the  debatea 
against  Gilbert  of  Poitiers  (see  Gilbeht  de  u-k 
PomiiE)  following  the  council,  Bernard  appeared 
as  his  main  opponent;  but  the  jealousy  of  the  car- 
dinals brought  it  about  that  Gilbert  escaped  unhurt 
(Vita,  III,  V,  15;  Otto  of  Freising,  De  geHis  Frid.t 
It  55-57;  Hint,  pont.,  viii,  MGH,  Scrip.,  xx,  522  sqq.). 
About  this  time  the  first  tmfavorable  news  of  the 
cnisade  became  known,  and  tidings  of  its  complete 
failure  followed.  No  one  felt  the  blow  more  keenly 
than  Bernard,  who  with  prophetical  authority  to 
spe^  had  predicted  a  favorable  issue  {De  comid.f 
ii,  1).  Jn  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  had  to  ex- 
perience many  things  which  caused  him  sadness. 
Men  with  whom  he  had  had  a  lifelong  connection 
died;  his  relations  with  Eugenius  III  were  some- 
times troubled  {Epijit.,  eccvi);  the  frailty  and  the 
pains  of  his  body  increased.  But  his  mental  vitality 
remained  active;  his  last  w^ork,  De  amaideTatione, 
betrays  freshness  and  unimjj aired  force  of  mind. 

IL  Ecclesiastical  and  Theological  Significance: 
Bernard's  entire  hfe  was  dominated  by  the  resolu- 
tion he  made  while  a  youth.  To  work  out  the 
salvation  of  liin  soul,  and^wluch  meant  the 
Kame  thing  to  him — to  dedicate  him- 

I.  Asccti-  self  to  the  service  of  God,  was  thence- 
cism.  forth  the  sum  of  his  Hfe.  To  serve 
God  demanded  above  all  a  struggle 
against  nature,  atid  in  this  struggle  Bernard  was 
in  earnest.  Senaua!  temptations  he  seems  to  have 
overcome  early  and  completely  {Vita,  I,  iti,  6) 
and  an  almost  virginal  purity  distinguished  bim» 
To  suppress  sensuality  In  the  wider  sense  of  the 
word,  he  underwent  the  hardest  castigations,  but 
their  excess,  w^hich  underminuil  Ins  health,  he  after- 
wani  checked  in  others  |cf.  Vita,  I.  xii,  60).  He 
always  remained  devoted  to  a  very  strict  asceticism 
(JLpis^.cccxlv;  Cant,  XXX,  10-12;  Vita,  1,  xii.  Oil), 
but  castigation  was  to  him  only  a  means  of  gotiiitiess 
not  godliness  itself,  which  demands  of  man  still 
other  things.  The  new^  life  comes  only  from  the 
grace  of  God,  but  it  requires  the  mo6t  serious  work 
of  one's  own  naturit\  How  much  importance 
Bernard  attached  to  this  work,  whose  preliminary 
condition  is  a  quiet  collection  of  the  mind,  may  be 
learned  from  the  admonitions  which  he  gives  on 

I  thai  point  to  Eugenius.  That  he  prefers  the  con- 
templative life  to  the  active  is  notliing  peculiar 
in  him;  and  he  doubtless  had  the  desire  to  devote 
himself  entirely  to  it.  He  may  have  believed  that 
only  duty  and  love  impelled  him  to  act.  And  yet, 
as  he  was  eminently  fitted  for  action,  such  work 
was  probably  also  in  harmony  with  his  incUna- 
tions.  From  his  ou'n  experience  he  received  the 
strength  to  work,  the  thorough  education  of  the 
personality,  by  which  he  exerciaed  an  almost  fas- 


\ 


Bernard  of  Clalrvaux 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


64 


cinating  power  over  others;  on  the  other  hand,  his 
practical  activity  excited  in  him  a  stronger  desire 
for  contemplation  and  made  it  the  more  fruitful 
for  him  {De  du^eraiSf  aermo  iii,  3-5). 

Of  Bernard's  quiet  hours,  in  spite  of  the  many 
pressing  claims  on  him,  one  part  was  devoted 
to  study,  and  his  favorite  study  was  the  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. His  knowledge  of  the  Bible 
2.  Study  of  was  remarkable;  not  only  does  he 
the  Bible,  often  quote  Bible-passages,  but  all 
his  orations  are  impregnated  with 
Bibhcal  references,  allusions,  and  phrases,  to  pay 
regard  to  which  is  often  essential  for  the  correct 
understanding.  It  is  true  that  bis  exegesis  did 
not  go  beyond  the  average  of  his  time,  yet  he  allows 
the  great  fundamental  thoughts  and  vital  forms 
of  the  Holy  Scripture  to  influence  him  the  more. 
As  he  was  nourished  by  them  he  also  knew  in  a 
masterly  manner  how  to  bring  them  near  to  others. 
All  qualities  of  the  great  preacher  were  united  in 
him;  besides  being  vitally  seized  by  the  grace  of 
God,  he  had  a  hearty  desire  to  serve  his  hearers, 
an  impressive  knowledge  of  the  human  heart,  and 
a  weidth  of  thoughts  and  fascinating  exposition, 
which  was  indeed  not  free  from  mannerism.  What 
is  missing  in  his  sermons  is  reference  to  the  variety 
of  the  relations  of  life,  and  this  is  intelligible, 
because  he  had  monks  as  his  hearers. 

Religious  geniality  is  the  most  distinguishing 
quality  in  the  whole  disposition  of  Bernard;  his 
other  rich  gifts  serve  it,  to  it  is  due  the  impres- 
sion which  he  made  upon  his  time,  and  the  im- 
portance which  he  obtained  in  the  history  of  the 
Church.  At  the  same  time,  Bernard  is  also  a  child 
of  his  time;  above  all,  of  the  Church  of  his  time,  in 
which  his  religious  life  could  develop  without  con- 
flict. In  this  respect  Bernard  is  related  not  to 
Luther,  but  to  Augustine,  and  between  Augustine 
and  him  stand  Leo  I,  Nicholas  I,  and  Gregory  VII. 
Thus  elements  are  found  in  Bernard  which  point  to 
future  developments  combined  with  those  which 
belong  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  consciousness  of 
the  time.  Bernard  is  most  deeply  permeated  by 
the  feeling  of  owing  everything  to  the  grace  of 
God,  that  on  the  working  of  God  rests  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  state  of  salvation,  and  that  we  are 
to  trust  only  in  his  grace,  not  in  our 
3.  Grace  and  works  and  merits.  From  the  for- 
Works.  giveness  of  sin  proceeds  the  Christian 
life  (De  diversis,  aermo  iii,  1).  Faith 
is  the  means  by  which  we  lay  hold  of  the  grace  of 
God  (In  vigil,  naiiv.  domini,  v,  5;  In  Cant.,  sermo 
xxii,  8;  cf.  also  In  Cant.,  Ixvii,  10;  In  vigil,  not. 
dom.f  sermo  ii,  4).  Man  can  never  be  sure  of  salva- 
tion by  resting  his  hope  upon  his  own  righteousness, 
for  all  our  works  always  remain  imperfect.  On 
the  other  hand,  Bernard  does  not  deny  that  man 
can  and  should  have  merits,  but  they  are  only 
possible  through  the  preceding  and  continually 
working  grace  of  God;  they  are  gifts  of  God,  which 
again  have  rewards  in  the  world  t^  come  as  their 
fruit,  but  without  becoming  a  cause  of  self-glor>'. 
Before  God  there  is  no  legal  claim,  but  an  acqui- 
sition for  eternity  through  the  work  of  the  pious, 
made  possible  and  directed  by  God's  grace. 

A    characteristic    contrast    to    these    thoughts, 


which  lead  man  again  and  again  to  humility,  is 
the  excessive  glorification  which  Bernard  devotes  to 
the  saints,  above  all  to  the  Virgin  Bfary.  Though 
he  opposes  (Epist.,  clxxiv)  the  new  doctrine  of  her 
immaculate  conception,  he  nevertheless  uses  ezpiei- 
sions  concerning  the  mother  of  Jesus  which  go  voy 
far  (e.g..  In  naiiv.  Beat,  Virg.  Maria,  y,  7;  h 
auumpt.  Beat.  Virg.  Maria,  i,  4;  In  adv.  dom.,  ii, 
5).  The  same  concerns  also  other  saints  (e.g..  In 
vigil.  Petri  et  Pauli,  S  S  2,  4,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
second  oration  In  transitu  B.  Malachia).  Bui 
the  importance  of  such  expression  which  a  Protes- 
tant consciousness  will  never  be  able  to  adopt  is 
restricted  by  this,  that  they  are  only  used  on  special 
occasions,  such  as  a  feast  of  the  saints.  Otherwiae 
the  saints  stand  in  the  background,  Christ  aboe 
stands  in  the  foregroimd. 

Bernard  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  main 
representative  of  Christian  mysticism,  and  his  wri- 
tings have  been  much  used  by  later  mystics  and  wen 
the  main  source  for  the  Imiiatio  Christi.  But  just 
here  becomes  evident  how  different  the  phenonusia 
are  which  are  comprised  imder  the  name  of  mysti- 
cism. With  the  Neoplatonic-Dionysian  mysti- 
cism that  of  Bernard  has  some  points  of  oontaet, 
but  it  differs  from  it  as  to  its  religious  character. 
It  is  known  how  depreciatingly  Luther  speab  of 
the  Areopagite,  but  this  animadversion  does  not 
concern  Bernard's  mysticism.  It  is  not  man  who 
soars  to  divine  height,  but  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ, 
which  first  pardons  the  sin  and  then  lifts  up  to  itsdf 
the  pardoned  sinner.  On  thisaooouiit 
4.  Bernard's  the  whole  mysticism  of  BerDaid 
Mystidsni.  centers  about  Christ,  the  humbled 
and  exalted  one;  it  likes  to  dwell 
upon  his  earthly  appearance,  his  suffering  and  death, 
for  it  is  the  "  work  of  redemption  "  which  more 
than  anything  else  is  fit  to  excite  love  in  the 
redeemed  (In  Cant.,  xx,  2;  De  grad.  kum.  in  its 
first  chapters).  At  the  same  time  Bernard  pe^ 
ceives  that  a  sensual  devotion,  as  it  were,  to  the 
suffering  of  Christ  is  not  the  goal  with  which  one 
must  be  satisfied;  the  thing  necessary  is  rather  to 
be  filled  with  the  spirit  of  Christ  and  througlh  it 
to  become  like  Christ.  By  Christ's  work  of  redemp- 
tion the  Church  has  become  his  bride.  To  it,  i^f 
to  the  totality  of  the  redeemed,  belongs  this  name 
first  and  in  a  proper  sense,  to  the  individual  soul 
only  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  part  of  the  Church  (M 
Cant.,  xxvii,  6,  7;  Ixvii;  Ixviii,  4,  11).  What  it 
receives  from  him  is  in  the  first  place  mercy  and 
forgiveness  of  sins,  then  grace  and  blessing.  The 
cUmax  of  grace  is  the  perfect  union,  but  in  the 
earthly  life  this  is  experienced  by  the  pious  at  the 
utmost  in  single  moments  (De  eonsid.,  V,  ii,  1;  I^ 
grad.  hum.,  viii;  De  dilig.  Deo,  x).  When  Bernard 
speaks  of  becoming  one  with  Christ  and  with  God, 
his  thought  is  clothed  with  Biblical  expressioDr, 
but  that  Bernard  in  point  of  fact  does  not  intend 
to  go  beyond  the  meaning  of  these  words  can  be 
seen  by  reading  the  explanations  (In  Cant.,  hen,  7 
sqq.),  where  the  union  with  God,  to  which  the  pioai 
soul  attains,  is  most  keenly  distinguished  from  a 
consubstantiality,  as  it  exists  between  Father  and 
Son  in  the  Trinity.  Bernard  is  entirely  free  from 
pantheistic  thoughts,  and  that  mysticism  does  not 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bernard  of  Olairvauz 


in  opposition  to  tlie  Church  his  entire 
sX  attitude  ehou-s. 

ipch  3»  organized,  with  its  hierarchy, 
lead  stands  the  Roman  bishop  as  buc- 
'eter  and  vicar  of  CIm«t,  is  to  Bernard 
ion  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth* 
loount  it  raust  enjoy  perfect  autonomy, 
right  of  supemeion  over  everything  in 
m,  even  over  princes  and  states.  It 
right  over  the  woridly  sword  (/)f  comsid.^ 
EpUt.,  cchn,  1)*  Neverthf*le89  Bernard 
,  adherent  of  the  viewa  of  (Jregorj^  VIL 

In  the   first  place   Bernard  demands 
e  a  perfect  separation  between  secular 

and   spiritual    affairs;  the    secular   ob 

t eh  is  to  be  left  to  the  secular  govern- 
snt,  and  only  for  spiritual  purfmses 
pffntual  sense  is  the  pope  to  have  super- 

eonsid,,  i,  6).  But  Bernard  is  also  an 
I  the  absolute  papal  power  in  the  Church, 
ly  BS  he  recognizes  the  papal  authority 
lest  in  the  Church,  ho  decidedly  does  he 
B  efi'ort  to  make  it  the  only  one.  Even 
i  and  lower  ranks  of  the  Church  have 

t>erore  God*  To  withdraw  the  bishops 
►uthority  of  the  arehbishops,  the  abbots 
iuthority  of  the  bishops,  that  all  may 
ipcndent  on  the  curia,  means  to  make 
\  a  monster  {De  eonsid.,  iii,  8). 
standing  Bemard'H  many-aided  activity^ 
id  remained  above  all  things  a  monk* 
I  not  excliange  his  monachism  either 
lir  of  St.  Ambrose  or  for  the  primacy  of 
bnachiBm  is  to  him  the  ideal  of  Chri fi- 
le acknowledges  indeed  that  true  Chris- 
aiso  possible  while  hving  in  the  world 
^l  In  Cant.,  Ixvi.  3;  De  div.j  ix,  3)»  but 
Hptnpared  with  monastic  life  seems  to 
Hiim  a  lower,  and  in  spiritual  relation^ 
^n  dangerous  position  {Ih  div.,  xxvli^ 
|b)*  a  partition  of  the  soul  between 
the  eauthly  and  heavenly.  Monasti- 
he  regards  in  an  ideal  manner;  it  appeals 
>  not  so  much  from  the  point  of  view  of 
vm  thiit  of  the  safest  way  to  salvation, 
e  whole  order  of  the  monastery  is  sub- 
dde  from  this  it  is  of  no  value.  Besides^ 
iid  relations  \*ath  the  different  monas- 
monkiflh  associations  and  was  in  le  related 
(.  with  regard  to  the  Premonstratensians 
p4;  Ivi;  and  especially  ccliii;  concerning 
iar  canons,  Epist.,  lii;  xxxix,  1;  Ixxxvii- 
acwhere).  In  his  many  relations  with 
kceosians,  frictions  were  not  wanting 
t  i;  cbdv;  cclxxxiii;  etc.,  and  especially 
»a  ad  GuiUlmum),  for  the  rise  of  the  new 

place  partly  at  the  expense  of  the  old. 
m  Bernard  was  highly  esteemed  by  the 
tana^  and  cloee  friendship  a^^sociated 
beir  head,  the  noble  Peter  the  Venerable. 
8  not  interrupted  is  mainly  due  to  Pester, 
bow  to  bear  occa^^ionai  lack  of  eonsidera- 
greatfnend  (cf.  £pia/.,clxv^i,  1;  clxviu,  1) 
esentment  {Epi^t.,  ccxxix,  5).  There 
mutual  true  affection  and  admiration; 
kich  they  exchanged  with  each  other 


are  an  honorable  monument  for  both  meni  and  with- 
out regard  to  differences  of  times  and  confesdons 
modern  readers  can  appreciate  them. 

in.  Writings:  The  works  of  Bernard  in- 
clude a  large  collection  of  letters;  a  number  of 
treatisee,  dogmatic  and  polemic,  ascetic  and 
mystical,  on  monasticism,  and  on  church  govern- 
ment; a  biography  of  St.  Malachy,  the  Irish  areh- 
bisliop;  and  stirmons.  Hymns  are  also  ascribed 
to  him  (see  below).  The  most  important  are  the 
letters,  which  con.stitute  one  of  the  most  v:iluable 
collections  of  church  history;  and  the  sermons,  of 
which  thoi4e  on  the  Song  of  Songs  furnish  the  chief 
source  of  knowledge  of  Bernard's  mysticism. 
The  ftrst  and  fifth  books  of  his  De  considcratione 
are  also  of  a  mystic  character^  whereju*  ii,  iii,  and  iv 
contain  a  critique  of  church  afTaira  of  his  time 
from  Bernard  *s  point  of  view  and  lay  down  a  pro- 
gramme for  papal  conduct  which  a  contetnporary 
pope  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  follow. 

S.  M.  Deutsch* 

IV.  Hymns:  Five  hymns  are  a«*cribed  to  Bei^ 
nard,  viz,^  (1)  the  so-called  Hhythmiis  de  con- 
temptu  mundu  "  O  miranda  ranitQJi  /  0  divitu 
arum  !  "  (2)  the  Rhythmiea  orolw  wi  unum  qiwdUbet 
membrorum  Christi  palierUiSf  a  series  of  salves  ad- 
dressed to  the  feet^  knees,  etc.  of  the  Crucified;  (3) 
the  Oratio  devoia ad Dominum  Jesum  el  Btaiam  Ma- 
riam  matrem.  ejus,  **  Summe  8ummi  tti  patn-a  unicf  '*; 
(4)  a  Christmas  hymn,  "  LtHdliundua  exuket  fiddis 
chorus**:  (5)  the  Jubihis  rhythmirus  de  nomine 
Jesu,  **  Jesu  duki^  memoria,^*  on  the  lilessi'dness 
of  the  soul  vmiti*d  with  Christ,  All  these  poetical 
productions*  besides  being  beautiful  in  form  and 
composition,  are  distinguished  by  a  tender  and 
living  feeling  and  a  mystic  fer\^or  and  holy  love. 
If  they  are  really  Bernard's,  he  deser>'es  the  title 
of  Z>rtdor  nielli fluun  dcvotuaque.  An  adtLition  to 
the  Scdve  regina,  closing  with  tiie  words,  "  O 
clemcns,  O  pia,  0  dukiii  inrgOt  Marin,"  is  also 
ascribed  to  him,  Mabillon  denies  Bernard's  author- 
ship of  all  thcj5e  hymns  in  spite  of  the  ancient  and 
prevalent  tradition.  But  one  is  inclined  to  accept 
the  tradition,  especiaUy  since  the  scholastic  Bereti- 
gar,  in  his  Apologia  Abdardi  contra  S.  Bcmardu7?j, 
fitates  that  Bernard  was  devoted  to  poetry  from 
his  youth,  (ierman  adaptations  of  the  last  section 
of  (2)  by  Paul  Gerhard  (1659),  "O  Haupt  voll 
Blut  und  Wunden/*  and  of  (5),  '*  O  Jesu  sikm, 
wer  dein  gedenkt,"  are  in  common  usej  there  are 
several  English  versions — as  by  J.  W.  Alexander^ 
"^  O  SacrtMl  Head,  now  wounded  **  and  **  Jesus, 
how  sweet  thy  memory  is,"  and  Ray  Palmer's 
"Jesus,  the  very  thought  of  tliee/' 

M.  Herou3. 

BiDUOoEAFnT:  A  very  ibecur&te  List  of  the  literature  (2,761 
cntriea,  &rnui^d  obronologically)  U  giveu  by  L.  J&aau- 
»chek,  iQ  Biblioorapkia  Bemardina^  Vioann,  1891.  The 
best  edition  of  the  woikat  of  BemArd  is  by  J.  M.  Hon- 
tium..  reviaed  ikad  eolarged  by  J.  Mabillon^  PmriA,  1667» 
corrected  and  entiuiced  1600  and  171  &,  reprintfld  in 
MFL,  clwcxii-clxxxv,  of  which  the  hwt  vol.  root&ins  th* 
old  Vita,  and  some  valuable  additionB  not  fouad  in  Ma* 
billon.  A  new  critical  ed.  of  ttie  Sermon€»  de  tempore,  d* 
mnctU,  and  de  diveritut  hma  be«n  published  by  B.  G«»tl 
and  L.  Jaiia^jachek  ia  vol.  i  of  Xenia  Berrvtrdina,  Viennn, 
1891.  An  Eur.  transl.  by  S.  J,  Halea  of  the  Life  and 
Worktof  isL  Bernardof  Ctairvaus  from  th<ped.ol  Mabillon, 
4    vols,    only    completed,     London.     1888-07,    coutaina 


Bernard  of  Clalrvaux 
Bernard,  Claude 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


66 


the  preface  of  Mabillon  to  his  second  edition  of  the  Opera, 
a  Bemardine  Chronology,  List  and  Order  of  the  l^ttert. 
and  transl.  of  the  Letters,  Sermons,  and  Cantica  Cantu 
eorunt.  Of  the  early  biographies  the  most  important  is 
the  Vita  prima,  MPL,  clxxxv,  225-4C6,  the  fir«t  book  of 
which,  by  William  of  Thierry,  was  written  during  Ber- 
nard's lifetime,  the  second,  by  Ernald.  abbot  of  Bona 
Vallis,  the  other  books  by  Gaufrid  of  Clairvaux,  cf.  G. 
H  Offer,  Vorstudien  zu  .  .  .  Bemhard  von  Clairvaux, 
Monster.  1886.  Of  later  literature  note  J.  Pinio.  Com- 
mentarius  de  S.  Bernardo,  in  ASB,  Aug.,  iv,  101  sqq.,  and 
in  MPL,  clxxxv,  643-944  (still  very  useful);  and  Ma- 
billon's  JPrcefatio  (translated  in  Eales,  ut  sup. ).  Of  modem 
lives  the  following  deserve  mention:  A.  Neandor.  Der 
heilioe  Bernhard  und  sein  Zeitalter,  Berlin.  1813,  ed.  S.  M. 
Deutsch,  in  Bibliothek  theologischer  Klassiker,  vols,  xxii  - 
xxiii,  Gotha,  1889,  Eng.  transl.  of  Ist  ed..  Life  of  SL 
Bernard,  London,  1843;  J.  C.  Morrison.  Life  and  Times 
of  St.  Bernard,  London,  1877;  F.  BGhringer,  Bemhard 
von  Clairvaux,  No.  xiii.  in  Die  Kirche  Christi  und  ihre 
ZeuQen,  Leipsic,  1878;  S.  J.  Eales,  St.  Bernard,  in  7"^^ 
Fathers  for  English  Readers,  London,  1890  (Roman  Cath- 
olic); A.  C.  Benson  and  H.  F.  W  Tatham,  in  Men  of 
Might,  ib.  1892;  R.  8.  Storrs,  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  the 
Times,  the  Man,  and  his  Work,  New  York,  1892:  W.  J. 
Sparrow-Simpson,  Lectures  on  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux, 
London,  1895  (Roman  Catholic);  E.  Vacandard.  Vie  de 
Saint  Bernard,  Paris,  1895  (displays  knowledge  of  the 
subject  and  good  taste  and  judgment  no  far  a.s  the  ultra- 
montane point  of  view  of  the  author  allows).  Ck)nsult 
further:  W.  von  Giesebrecht,  Qeschirhte  der  deutschen 
Kaiserteit,  vol.  iv.  Brunswick.  1874;  W.  Bcrnhardi,  Jahr- 
bUcher  des  deutschen  Reichs  unter  Lothair  von  Supplin- 
berg,  Leipsic,  1879,  and  unter  Konrad  HI,  ib.  1883;  B. 
Kugler,  Analekten  tur  Oeschichte  des  sweiten  Kreuzzuges, 
TObingen,  1879;  idem,  Neue  Analekten,  ib.  1883;  K.  F. 
Neumann,  Bernhard  von  Clairvaux  und  die  AnfUnge  des 
Mweiten  Kreuzzuges,  Heidelberg.  1882;  G.  HtifTer,  Die 
Anf&nge  des  ztoeiten  Kreuzzuges,  in  llistorisches  Jahrbuch 
der  O&rres-Gesellschaft,  vol.  viii,  Bonn.  1887.  On  Ber- 
nard's relation  to  Abelard:  8.  M.  Deutach.  Die  Synode  zu 
Sens  It  14  und  die  Verurteilung  Ab&lards,  Berlin,  1880; 
E.  Vacandard.  Ab6lard,  sa  lutte  avec  S.  Bernard,  Paris, 
1881.  On  Bernard  as  a  preacher:  A.  Brdmel,  Homile- 
Hsche  CharakterbiUer,  pp.  63-96.  Berlin.  1869;  E.  Va- 
candard. S.  Bernard,  orateur,  Rouen.  1877;  R.  Rothe, 
OeschichU  der  Predigt,  pp.  216  sqq.,  Bremen,  1881;  A. 
Nebe,  Zur  Oeschichte  der  Predigt,  i,  250  sqq.,  Wiesbaden, 
1879;  E.  C.  Dargan,  Hist,  of  Preaching,  pp.  208  sqq., 
New  York,  1905.  On  Bernard's  teaching:  A.  Ritschl, 
Die  Christliehe  Lehre  von  der  Rechtfertigung  und  Versohn- 
tirig,  i,  §  17.  Bonn,  1870;  idem,  Le^efruchte  aus  dem 
heiligen  Bernhard.  in  TSK,  1879,  pp.  317-335;  IL  Renter, 
in  ZKO,  vol.  i,  1876;  G.  ThomaHius,  Dogmengeschichte.oil. 
Seeberg.  ii,  129  sqq..  Leipsic.  1889;  A.  Harnack,  Dogmen- 
geschichte,  vol.  iii,  Freiburg,  1898.  On  Bernard  as  n  hym- 
nist:  R.  C.  Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  pp.  136-141.  Lon- 
don, 1864;  S.  W.  Duffield.  English  Hymns,  pp.  299.  300. 
317,  430,  600,  New  York.  1886;  idem.  Latin  Hymn- 
Writers,  passim,  especially  pp.  186-193,  ib.  1889;  Julian. 
Bymnology.pp.  136-137;  P.  Schaff,  Literature  and  Poetry, 
ib.  1890.  Discussions  of  St.  Bernard  from  various  points 
of  view  will  be  found  in  the  Church  Histories  dealing  with 
his  period  and  also  in  works  on  the  History  of  Philos- 
ophy. 

For  Bernard's  hymns:  H.  A.  Daniel,  Thesaurus  hym- 
nologiciis,  5  vols.,  Halle,  1841-56;  C.  J.  iSimrock,  Lauda 
Sion,  Cologne,  1850;  J.  F.  IL  Schlosser.  Die  Kirche  in 
ihren  Liedem  dureh  alle  Jahrhunderte.  Freiburg,  1863;  P. 
Schaff,  Christ  in  Song,  New  York,  1868;  J.  Pauly,  Hymni 
breviarii  Romani,  3  vols..  Aachen,  1868-70;  F.  A.  March. 
Latin  Hymns  with  English  Notett.  pp.  114-125,  276-279. 
New  York.  1874;  W.  A.  Merrill.  Latin  Hymns  Selected 
and  Annotated,  Boston,  1904. 

BERNARD  OF  CLUNY  (Bernardus  Aforlanensis, 
often  called  Bernard  of  Morlaix,  Morlanensis  being 
improperly  rendered  Morlaix  instead  of  Morlas): 
Monk  of  Cluny;  b.  probably  at  Morlas  (5  m.  n.e.  of 
Pau,  and  then  the  capital  of  the  province  of  B^arn); 
d.  at  Cluny  probably  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century.    Nothing  more  is  known  of  him,  except  that 


he  wrote  a  satirical  poem  of  2,991  lines,  divided  into 
three  books,  and  entitled  De  contemptu  mvndiy 
dedicating  it  to  Peter  the  Venerable.  The  theme 
is  a  monastic  and  ascetic  commonplace,  but  its 
handling  reveals  vigor  and  satirical  power.  The 
meter  is  a  medieval  adaptation  of  the  dactylic 
hexameter,  so  difficult  that  Bernard  believed  be 
had  divine  assistance  in  keeping  it  up  for  so  many 
lines;  each  pair  of  lines  rimes  and  the  first  third 
of  each  line  rimes  with  the  second,  thus  (lines 
1-2): 

"  Hora  novimima,  tempora  peKuma  sunt,  vicilemos. 
Ecoe  minaciter  imminet  arbiter  ille  supremus." 

As  to  contents  the  poem  is  a  satirical  arraignnoent 
of  the  twelfth  century  for  its  vices  in  Church  and 
society,  sparing  not  even  monks  and  nuns,  but  so 
exaggerated  that  it  can  not  be  accepted  as  history. 
The  opening  of  the  first  book  and  the  concluding 
part  of  the  third  are  on  spiritual  themes  of  uncom- 
mon beauty.  The  poem  exists  in  at  least  nine 
contemporary  manuscripts  and  so  must  have  been 
p>opular  in  its  day.  But  it  wfis  forgotten  until 
Mattliias  Flacius  Illyricus  discovered  it  and,  with 
a  view  of  showing  that  the  evils  of  medieval  Roman- 
ism of  which  the  Protestants  compLuned  were 
already  pilloried  by  Rome's  faithful  sons,  printed 
a  few  lines  from  its  third  book  in  his  Catalogs 
testium  veritcUis  qui  ante  noatram  OBtatem  reclamanail 
papas  (Basel,  1556),  and  the  next  year  the  entire 
poem  in  the  collection  of  similar  poems  which  he 
entitled  Varia  dodorum  piorumque  virorum  de 
corrupto  Ecclesias  statu  poemata  ante  nostrtan  cetatem 
conscTxpta.  This  collection  was  reprinted  in  1754, 
probably  at  Frankfort.  The  first  to  bring  Ber- 
nard's poem  out  separately  was  Nathan  Chytneus 
(Bremen,  1597),  and  he  was  followed  by  Eilhard 
Lubin  (Rostock,  1610),  Petrus  Lucius  (Rinteb, 
1626),  and  Johann  and  Heinrich  Stem  (Lune- 
burg,  1640),  Finally  Thomas  Wright  reprinted  it 
in  his  Anglo-Latin  Satirical  Poets  of  the  Twelfth  Cen- 
tury (London,  1872,  Rolls  Series,  No.  59).  The 
first  complete  translation,  in  prose,  was  published 
by  Henry  Preble  (AJT,  Jan.-July,  1906).  In  1849 
Trench  published  in  his  Sacred  Latin  Poetry  (Lon- 
don) ninety-six  lines  from  its  first  book,  and 
these  attracted  the  delighted  attention  of  John 
Mason  Neale,  who  translated  them  in  his  Medi- 
cBval  Hymns  and  Sequences  (London,  1851).  Hii 
translation  from  Bernard  leaped  into  wonderful 
popularity  and  was  separately  printed  along  with 
other  lines  not  in  Trench,  as  The  Rhythm  of 
Bernard  de  Morlaix^  Monk  of  Cluny ,  on  the  Celettiii 
Country  (Tx)ndon,  1859;  often  reprinted).  One  of 
the  hymns  made  by  division  out  of  this  translation, 
*'  Jerusalem  the  golden,"  is  found  in  all  hymn- 
books.  Other  piec€»s  in  prose  and  poetry  are  also 
attributed  to  Bernard. 

Bibliography:  S.  M.  Jackaon,  The  Sourer  of  **  Jerusalm 
the  Golden "  and  Other  Pieces  Attributed  to  Bernard  of 
Cluny,  Chicago,  1909  (contains  Preble's  translation  of  the 
De  contemptu  mundi,  and  an  elaborate  introduction  and 
bibliography). 

BERNARD  OF  CONSTAWCE:  German  teacher 
and  author  of  the  eleventh  century;  d.  at  Corvey 
10S8.  He  was  a  Saxon  by  birth,  and  about  the 
middle  of  the  century  presided  with  notable  siw- 


RELIGXOUS  EXCYCLOPEDTA 


B«m&rd  of  OlftirvRuz 

Bernard,  Claud© 


ovw  the  8chcK)l  at  Constance,  which  he  k*ft 

loaeh    li    Hildesbeim,     Durinj^    his    residence 

i  lie  WAS  Afiked  by  his  teacher  Adalbert  and  his 

HpU  Bemold    (q.v.)    to    virite   on    the   questions 

1  ntJwi  by  thr  Roman  synod  of  1076,  mid  answered 

fin  a  Imgthy   treatise   against    the   opponents   of 

GrettoTy    \1l-     His   Ktandpoint    conies    out    even 

Qion!  clearly  in  his  Liber  cananum  contra  Henricum 

IV,  vhich  on   its    first   publication    (^I,   Sdraiek, 

$Slrtii«thHffm  AUmanrts  von  Fassau  und  Wezilos 

Maim,    Paderbom,    1890)    was    erroneoualy 

nertbf^  to  Bishop   Altmann   of   Passau,     It   was 

wnttrft  aftor  the  Synod  of  Quedlinburg  at  Easter, 

1085,  when  the  Gregorian  jrarty  wuh  in  great  difh- 

cultita,  and  is  an   uncompromiMing  declaration  of 

^Idliilit)^  to  the  papal  cause.     Bernard  was,  in  short, 

^  U»  pupil  Bemold  de-scribes  him,   not  only  **  a 

I  learned  man  "  but  also  **  most  fen^ent  in  tlie 

fof  St.  Peter/'  Carl  Mirbt, 


BiiuixRiAfiiT:  The  two  worku  mentioned  abov«  have  bppti 
•dited  by  F,  Thwier  in  MOff,  Lib,  dt  lit*,  ii  (1892).  29- 
4T,  »i>,i  1  iimi),  472   V  I  tv<"ly.     O^iwult  C.  Mirbt. 

Dm  FitNitiMhk  tm  2.  «  17/,  Leipaio.  1894;    t\ 

TVioer  Zn  gwn   Sir' r  'if  IL    JahrhunderUt,  in 

540;  H»««k.  KD,  vol.  lii. 

BESUfARD  OF  MERTHON:  Founder  of  the 
boBJpicwoo  the  Great  and  Little  St.  Bernard,  Little 
ii  knowa  of  his  Ufe,  as  modem  criticism  !ms  hardly 
touched  it,  and  the  older  biographieu  are  untnist- 
wortbjr  and  legendary,  Accorthng  to  them  he 
^*w  bom  at  Mcntlion,  near  Anneey  (25  m.  a.  of 
Gcwi'a),  Savny,  in  923,  and  studied  the  hberal 
Uw,  and    theologj%     To   avoid   a   marriage 

by  his  parenta,  he  fled  to  Aosta,  where  he 
*w  ordained  and  later  became  archdeacon.  In 
addition  to  the  most  faithful  pcrfornmnce  of  his 
ptiady  dutiesw  he  founded  the  two  hospices  and 
IJii««ed  tlicni  in  charge  of  canons  regular,  finally 
<iybg  at  Novara  in  ltX)7.  A  sequence  preser\'ed 
*D  the  Ada  Sanctorum,  and  dating  probably  from 
iwfnd  of  tlie  eleventh  or  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
fwitury,  speaks  of  a  meeting  between  him  and 
Reiify  IV^  which  may  possibly  have  occurred. 
It  ia  known  that  in  the  ninth  century  there  w;is  a 
^icft  vaider  chmcal  au^q>ice8  on  the  Mons  Jovis, 
tl^pn^(*cnt  threat  St.  Ticrnard,  which  may  later  Ijave 
<aU«'II  into  dwiiy.  First  in  1125.  and  often  after 
thai  d»te,  we  find  mention  of  the  church  of  St. 
^(ehojbl»  on  the  Mons  Jovis;  in  H45  of  the  hoA- 
P^,  nrhifh  in  1177  \s  calletl  domtat  hmpitalis  SS^ 
Siealfsi  ef  Bmiardi  Monti*  Jovi«.  It  is  thus  not 
'''^pTrikijible  that  Bernard  restored  the  older  foun- 
<Utirjii;  t),it  it  is  more  likely  that  tliis  took  place 
•*  Jbr  ttpginning  of  the  twelfth  than  at  the  end  of 
iHrdevrnth  century.  The  date  of  1081  for  Per- 
'«^*'«  ^ir-ait h  if*  no  better  attested  than  that  of  1007. 
lw»Oft-ut  XI  canonizcil  him  in  IC8L  The  larger 
•w^ptco,  on  which  till  1752  the  smaller  depended, 
*3*  frfomied  during  the  Council  of  Basel,  receiving 
*  'ty  original  con^titutioti  in  143S,  Napoleon, 
P**^  by  hi«  reception  there,  placed  tlve  hospice 
•^•'Duiad  by  him  on  the  Simplon  pass  under  the  care 
wttMBttme  community,  and  endowed  the  foimda- 
w,  which  had  Itni  a  great  part  of  the  rich  pos- 

formcriy  h©ld  by  it  in  fourteen  dioceses. 


It  is  now  supported  by  voluntary  offerinp  from 
all  the  Swiss  cantons.  A  statue  of  Bernard  was 
crccted  near  the  hospice  in  1905.     (A,  Kapck.) 

Biblio<3rai'»y:  Tlv  olrt  livps  are  in  ASB,  15  June,  ii,  1071- 
1089;  Altmn  [hitler,  Lives  of  the  Father*,  June  15,  3  vols., 
London,  1&57-60;  an  old  text  Le  Mu^tir*  d»  :St  Bernard 
de  MMtrUhon  wbk  publiiih^  by  A.  L.  d«  I*  MArcbe,  Paha, 
1889.  Cori»ult  L.  BurReoer,  D*r  heUi(fe  Bemkard  von 
Mmthan,  Lucerne,  1870;  \f  ^moires  ei  docufnent*  pvMiit 
par  la  »oHeU  d'hi«toirf  de  ta  Suitte^  vot  xxix.  Lausanne, 
1875;  A.  Luf4iJf.  Urber  da*  wahre  Zritaltrr  deM  keiiioen 
Bernard  ton  Mrnthon  {&9&-108tl  in  TQ,  Ixi  0879),  170- 
207;  J.  A.  X>u<^,  in  Mi»c^anea  di  »toria  Itaiiana,  xxxi, 
343-388.  Turia.  1804;  Watt«nbach,  DGQ,  u  (1886).  214. 
ii  (181M),  24t. 

BERHARI>  OF  MORLAIX.  See  Bernard  of 
Cluvy, 

BERNARD  OF  TOLEDO:  Archbishop  of  To- 
ledo 10S»>  1125;  b.  at  Agen  (73  m.  s.e.  of  Bor- 
deaux), France,  c.  1050;  d.  in  Spain  1125.  His 
significance  in  the  Iiiatory  of  Spain  Ues  in  the  fact 
that  from  him  dates  the  emergence  of  the  Spanish 
Church  frtim  Itn  isolation  and  its  dependence  on 
Rome.  He  l>ecame  a  monk  in  the  monast<*ry  of 
Ouny,  whence  he  was  sent  to  Spain  with  others 
to  assist  ttie  cause  of  the  reforms  of  Gregory'  VI L 
Here  he  was  maiie  (1080)  abbot  of  St.  Facundua 
at  Sahagun  in  the  dioct»se  of  Leon,  and  finally 
named  by  Alfonso  VI  for  the  archbishopric  of 
Toledo,  Gregory's  plans  for  Spain  inchided  (be- 
sides a  general  crusade  against  clerical  marriage, 
simony,  and  lay  investiture)  the  substitution  of  the 
Roman  liturg>'  for  the  Moxanibic  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  obligutions  of  tribute  from  the  Spanish 
Church.  The  former  point  l:tad  been  practically 
gained  before  his  death,  in  spite  of  slri'nuous  oppo- 
mtion.  Urban  IL  by  raising  Beniard's  s*!e  to 
primatial  dignity,  gave  him  the  power  necessary 
to  prosecute  the  work  of  Romanizing.  His  co- 
operation made  possible  Urban 's  intervention  at 
the  Synod  of  Leon  (1091)  and  ignoring  of  the  royal 
right  of  investiture  when  Alfonso  attcmp<e<l  to 
Bpi>oint  a  Spaniard  to  the  see  of  St.  Jago,  apparently 
in  ocilcr  to  counterbalance  the  influence  of  the 
French  Benedictines  'svith  whom  the  primate  w*as 
filling  the  episcopal  sees.  His  care  r  was  through- 
out that  of  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  papacy. 
Some  n^miniscences  of  Ids  youthful  days  aa  a  knigbt 
appear  in  his  forcible  seixure  of  the  Mohammedan 
mosique  at  Toledo  in  his  first  year  as  archbiahop 
and  in  his  plans  for  a  cruaade  against  the  Saraoena 
of  the  East,  which  both  Urban  II  and  Paachal  II 
forbaiJe,  in  view  of  the  tasks  which  Spanish  Christian 
chivalry  had  at  home.  Four  of  his  sermons^  on 
the  Salve  Hegina,  are  included  among  those  of  the 
great  Bernard,  Carl  Mirbt. 

BlsuOGRAPiir:  J.  A.*chbftch.  GeJtrhicht^f  Spanitna  und  Par- 
tttoals  rtjr  Zeit  drr  Ufrrackaft  drr  Almc*raviden  und  AlfiUh- 
haden,  i.  129  wiq.,  339,  358  wiq,  Frankfort.  1833;  //i«- 
torio  CitmpotUfliana:  Etpa^a  taorttda,  ed.  H.  Floret,  xz. 
1-598.  615.  Madrid,  1791;  A.  F.  Gfrflrt?r.  F^aptt  Grtgonus 
VII  utui  9tin  Zeitalter.  iv.  484,  500-501,  8cliairhaitt«m 
1854:  Hef0|«,  CoficilienffescMchU.  v.  200,  251,  325-^27: 
idem,  D^  Kardinal  Ximene^i,  pp,  150  aQQ..  Amheim*  1853, 

BERNARD,  CLAUDE:  Called  the  "poor  priest  '* 
and  •'  Father  Bernard  ";  b.  in  Dijon  Dec.  23»  1588j 
d.  at  Paris  Mar.  23,  1641.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
jurist,  studied  law  himself,  and  for  a  time  led  a  life 


Ul. 


Bernard 
Berquln 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


68 


of  pleamire,  but  was  converted  by  what  ha  believed 
was  a  vision  of  his  departed  father.  He  became 
a  priest  and  made  Paris  his  residence ^  where  he 
«pent  his  time  preaching  and  visiting  the  poor  and 
eickf  not  shrinking  from  the  most  disgusting  dis- 
eases. He  gave  away  all  that  he  bad^  including 
an  inheritance  of  400,000  franca, 

BERNARD,  JOHH  HENRY:  Chyrf h  of  iT^lamf, 
dean  of  St*  Patrick's  Cathcdrali  Dublin;  b.  at 
Baniganj,  Bardwan  (126  m.  n.w.  of  Calcutta)* 
India,  July  27,  1S60.  He  was  edueati^d  at  Trinity 
CoUcgCi  Dublin  (B.A.,  1880),  where  he  was  elected 
fellow  and  tutor  in  1884,  retaining  liis  fellowsliip 
until  1902.  In  18S5  he  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  was  chaplain  to  the  lx>rd  Lieutenant  of 
Ireland  from  1887  to  1902.  Since  1S88  he  has 
been  Archbishop  King's  lecturer  in  divinity  in  the 
University  of  Ireland,  and  ha^  bec^n  dean  of  St* 
Patriek^s  since  1902,  where  he  had  already  been 
treasurer  from  1807  to  1902.  He  was  examining 
chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Down  in  1889,  and  w^aa 
■elect  preacher  to  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1893- 
1895  and  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1898, 
1901,  and  19IM.  He  has  repeatt^rily  been  exam- 
iner in  mental  and  moral  philoHojjliy  for  the  India 
Civil  Service,  and  lias  been  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  the  University  of  Dublin  since  1892,  as  wpU  as 
a  commissioner  of  national  education  for  Ireland 
from  1897  to  1903.  He  was  hkewiae  a  member 
of  the  General  Spiod  of  the  Chureh  of  Ireland  in 
1S94,  and  of  the  Representative  Chureh  Body  in 
1897,  while  in  1902  he  became  a  warden  of  Alex- 
andra College,  Dublin,  a  commiiwioner  of  charitable 
donations  and  bequests!  for  Inland  in  190'!,  and 
a  visitor  of  Queen's  College,  Gal  way,  in  1905, 
He  has  written  or  edited  the  following  works : 
Kant's  Critiml  Phtloxophy  for  English  Readera 
(2  vols,,  London,  18^9;  in  collaboration  with  J. 
P,  Mahaffy);  Kant's  Crin'cism  of  Judgment  (1892); 
From  Faith  Ut  Faith  (univtrsity  sermons,  1895); 
ATchbUhop  Benson  in  Ireland  (1896);  Via  Domini 
(cathedral  mnnom,  1898);  The  [ri&h  Liber  Hym^ 
nigrum  (1898;  in  collaboration  with  it.  Atkinson); 
The  Pmtoral  Epi»tlt^,  in  The  Cambridge  B^te, 
(Cambridge,  1890);  Th^  Work^  of  Bishop  Bnlter 
(2  vols.,  London,  1900);  The  Second  Eidsile  to  the 
Corinthiamf,  in  The  Ej:poi^iior'»  Bible  (1903);  SL 
Patrick*^  Caihedrai (1904);  The  Prager  of  the  King- 
dom (1904);  and  has  translated  and  edited  The 
PUgrimage  of  St.  Silvia  (1890)  and  otlier  publi- 
cations of  The  Palestine  Pilgrims'  Text  Socittty. 

BERNARD,  THOMAS  DEHAFY:  Chureh  of 
England;  h.  at  Clifton  (a  suburb  of  Bristol), 
Gloueestershire,  Nov.  11,  1815;  d.  at  Wimbome 
(21  m.  n.e.  of  Dorchester),  Dorsetshire.  Dec.  7, 
1904.  He  was  cdueated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford 
(B,A,,  1838),  was  ordered  deacon  in  lS40and  prieM 
in  the  following  year,  and  was  suecesBively  eurata 
and  vicar  of  Great  Baddow,  Essex  (1S40-1S), 
vicar  of  Terling,  Essex  (1848),  and  rector  of  Wal- 
cot,  Somerset  (1863-86).  He  waa  pn^bendary  of 
Haselbcre  and  canon  resident  of  Wells  Cathedral 
from  1808  to  1901,  and  chancellor  of  the  same 
eathedral  after  1879,  while  from  1880  to  1895 
he  was  proctor  for  the  dean  and  chapter  of  Wells. 


He  waa  also  select  preacher  at  Oxford  in  1855, 
1862,  and  1SS2,  and  was  Bampton  Lecturer  in  1864. 
He  wrote  The  WUne^  of  God  (utiivereity  eermosi, 
London,  1862);  Progre$s  of  Dodrine  in  the  Nm 
Tmtamad  (Bampton  lectures,  1864,  4th  ed*,  1S78); 
The  Central  Teaching  of  JesuM  ChrUt  (1B92);  tod 
The  Songi  of  the  Holy  Nativity  (1895), 

BERNARDDf  OF  SIENNA:  Fmnctscan,- b.  of 
noble  parents  at  Massa  (33  m.  s.w,  of  Sienai) 
Sept.  8,  13.80;  d.  at  Aquila  (58  m.  n.e.  of  Rome) 
May  20,  1444.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  order 
1402;  became  its  vicar-general  1437,  and  effected 
many  reforms  in  discipline  and  government.  He 
waa  the  most  famous  preacher  of  his  time  and  spob 
to  great  crowds  in  all  paris  of  Italy  with  wonderful 
effect.  Three  times  he  refused  the  offer  of  a  bishop 
ric.  He  was  canonized  by  Nicholas  V  in  1450  and 
his  day  is  May  20.  His  wti tings  were  first  printed 
at  Lyons  (1501),  afterward  at  Paris  (4  voK,  1636; 
5  vols,,  1660)  and  at  Venice  (4  vols.,  1745).  The 
first  volume  contains  his  life  by  his  scholar,  St. 
John  of  Capifltrano,  Bemardin's  writings  are  for 
the  most  part  traclatux  sen  sermoneSj  which  Ml 
not  so  much  sermons  according  to  the  modem  view 
as  formal  treatises  upon  morals,  asceticifiD],  and 
mysticism. 

BiBLioonAPiiT:  The  older  Koooimin  of  Mb  Ufa  mrm  o»tk#trd 
ia  AHB,  K)  May,  Yip  2fl2-3i».  Coti*u|t:  P.  Thu«»u  Dw 
Kia,  Un  PrMimteur  populaire  .  .  .  SL  Bernardim  de 
Sienne  (tSSO-SU4}.  PwK  1896,  Eii*.  tniai.,  Loucba, 
1000;  Rcrihflumier,  HUtmre  de  S.  Btrrmrdin  «ir  Simiti, 
Pmris.  1802:  J.  P*  Touamijit,  I^htn  dtt  hriligm  Btmordim, 
R«eettMburK,  ISTS;  F.  Ap<jlHnMr«,  />a  n*  €t  !#*  trm-nt  de 
S.  Bm-fua-din.  Poitierfl,  1882;  K,  C  Da^rgun,  liimL  of /¥««*■ 
t«tf,  pp.  317  »qfi..  New  York,  1005. 

BERHARDINES.    See  Gi»terciakb. 

BERKICB,  ber-nai's^  or  ber'nis  (for  BERE- 
NICE)! Eldest  daughter  of  Herod  Aprippa  1. 
See  Herod  and  bib  FamiiiT. 

BERHO  (BERU,  BERJfARD)  OF  REICHENA0: 

Abbot  of  liriehcnau  (Benedictine  abbey  on  an 
island  in  the  Untersee  of  Lake  Constance,  4  m.  w.n.w, 
of  Constance)  1008  till  his  death,  June  7,  1048. 
He  was  monk  in  a  monastery  at  Prtim  near  Treves 
when  appoint^jd  abbot;  under  his  rule  Reicheaau 
regained  its  prosperity,  which  had  been  lost  under 
his  predecessor,  the  abbot  Immo;  the  library  WM 
enriched,  scholars  were  attracted  to  the  scbooi, 
and  the  ehureh  of  St,  Mark  was  rebuilt.  He  was 
renowned  personally  aa  scholar,  as  poet,  and,  above 
all,  as  musician  J  he  accompanied  the  emperor, 
Henry  II,  to  Rome  in  1014  for  his  coronation  and 
after  his  return  introduced  reforma  in  German 
church  music.  Besidi^  lives  of  saints  and  theolog- 
ical and  liturgical  treatises  he  left  a  number  of 
letters  and  works  upon  music  ^  which  are  published 
in  Gerbert,  Scripiarss  eeelcsifisHci  de  mtmco  Mcra, 
ii  (St,  Blaise,  1784 ) .    His  writings  are  in  M  PL,  cxBii. 

(A.  Hatjck.) 

BERNOLD:  German  ecclesiastical  author;  b. 
probably  in  southern  Swabia  c,  1054;  d.  at  Sehaff- 
hausen  Sep.  16,  1100.  He  was  educated  at  Con- 
Btance  under  Bernard  (q.v.),  with  whom  he  con- 
tin  uetl  in  close  relations.  He  began  writing  ^rly, 
and  waa  present  in  Rome  at  the  greftt  i^od  d 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bernard 

Berquln 


1079  when  Beretig^r  was  c^ondeiimed.  The  next 
oertAia  date  Is  hiB  ordination  by  the  canllnal-le^ate 
Otto  of  Ostia  at  Constance  in  1084.  Fnnn  1086  to 
1091  he  WBS  certainly  an  inmate  of  the  monasti^ry 
of  St.  Blaise  in  the  Black  Forest;  in  the  latter 
ytMT  be  migrated  to  Schaffhausen,  where  he  n> 
mamed  (though  not  without  interruption,  as  his 
pfCKtice  at  the  battle  of  Ptcichfeld  shows)  until 
toi  death.  He  was  a  versatile  author.  Flis 
Chmiem  (cd.  G.  Wait*,  in  MOU.  Script.,  v,  1844. 
385-467)  is  a  valuable  source  for  tiis  own  life- 
tune,  though  colored  by  his  partisan  support  of 
QnfOfy  VI L  His  treatise  Dt  Berengurii  Aarresi- 
9r(A«  damnotione  multipliei  is  interesting  for  the 
li^i  which  it  throws  on  the  attitude  of  German 
ibealoigr  before  the  beginning  of  the  atnctly 
icboUstie  period.  Moat  of  his  extant  work*t.  liow- 
im,  are  of  a  practical  nature,  doahng  with  tlie 
vexed  questions  of  the  church  life  of  his  time. 
ItuNigh  a  sealous  upholder  of  the  reforming  pa- 
{liey,  he  was  not  a  fanatic. 

Carl  Mi  ret. 

fitBuooaAiHT:  C.  Mirbi,  Dw  PvblitiMtik  im  ZHialUr  Ore- 
^«  (7/,  Leipttic,  180^;  A.  UflsermAnn,  Germanim  iocrcv 
r«4r«B«,  ii,  432-137.  Freiburg.  1792;  E.  Strelciu.  Ltben 
iM  Wtrktdt»M&nchst  Brmold  von  St  Btainm,  Jvnit,  1889: 
0*  Utfvr  TOO  Knonau,  Jahrhiicher  den  d*utJirArn  Reiths 
••i^fliinTMA  iV  und  Meinrwh  V,  Leipeic.  1890-1904. 

BSUfWARD;  Bishop  of  Hildesheim  99^-1022. 
fie  caiuf  of  a  noble  Saxon  family,  being  the  grand- 
wn  of  the  count  palatine  Adalbero  and  the  nephew 
of  Bithop  Folkmar  of  ITtrecht.  He  was  educatetl 
»*  the  cathedral  school  of  Hildesheim  by  Thang- 
^  later  his  biographer,  and  ordainnd  by  Willigis 
of  }Ami.  In  9S7  he  became  chaplain  at  t!ie  im- 
P«i*l  court  and  tutor  to  the  young  Otto  IH.  On 
*•»'  15,  993,  he  was  consecrated  bbliop  of  Hilde^' 
""in  He  protecrted  his  diocese  vigorously  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Normans,  and  only  once  took  a 
'^  Biep  as  a  temporal  magnate — when,  at  the 
■^^''■•OD  of  Henry  II,  he  took  the  side  of  Margrave 
«kehart^  whose  death,  however,  saved  liim  from 
*he  eonaequences  of  his  miRtake.  He  rendt-red 
P**t  lervices  to  literature  and  art.  lie  died  Nov. 
*0i  1022,  a  few  weeks  after  the  consecration  of  the 
"Jpuficent  church  of  St.  Michael  which  he  had 
™.  Celestine  III  canonized  him  in  1193. 

(A.  Hadck.) 

***J««ArBT;  The  ViJia  by  Thuiffm&r  ii  in  MGH.  Scnpi. 
JJ"  W-TML  th«  Mmtnda.  ib.  pp.  782-786.  Hanover,  1841; 
J*»«ttlui^tioti  of  the  Vita  by  Wolfli^rios.  ib,  xi  KSS- 
^^.  lB5i  Coaftult:  A.  Schultt.  Der  heiliffe  Bemunrd 
jjl'^***^  V«ni»*n»t<.  L^jpfiic,  1879;  W.  A.  Neumann. 
J^*i*rf«B»i  HUdetkeim  und  tine  Zeii,  m  M iUheilungen 

g^W-IOI.  124  =  130.  141^162,  168-173.  Vienna.  1800; 
^^WifK  Der  h^liQt  Btrmeard^  in  Studien  und  Mii- 
JjJj'HP*  «m»  Htm  BenedxH*  und  dem  Ciaitrt.-Orden,  xiv 
jJJlX  IB8^20;  Watlcnbach,  DQQ,  i  (1893).  318.  346- 
2^  i  IK,  36a  fill:  a  B*iiM«l,  Itgr  heUigt  Bemxeard  wm 
""^■Mh,  HikleBbeim,  1896. 

.teHCEAlfS  OR  BARCLAYITES.    See  BARCUiy, 

BERQum^  b&r"kaA',  LOmS  DE:  French  Re- 
'*^;  b.at  Paaiy-Paris  J\ine,  1490;  d,  at  Paris 
JP  17,  1S29.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of 
*'*<>«  md  WB0  lord  of  the  estate  of  Berquin,  near 


Abbeville.  In  1512  he  came  to  Paris  to  finish  his 
Btudiei*,  became  acquainted  with  Lef^vre  d 'Staples 
and  the  publisher  Josse  Badius.  and  was  introduced 
to  Marguerite  of  Valois,  sister  of  Francis  I,  through 
whom  he  gained  ttie  king's  favor.  He  belonged 
to  that  group  of  godly  humanists  who  wished  a 
reformation  of  the  Church,  but  without  a  nipturc 
with  Rome.  He  bated  equally  the  ignorance  of  the 
monks  and  the  coarseness  of  Luther.  Erasmus 
seemed  to  him  the  true  Reform erj  with  liim  there* 
fore  he  opene*!  correspondence  and  translated  sev- 
eral of  his  tracts^  as  well  as  Luther^a  De  voHm 
monojuiiris.  The  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  de- 
nounced him  as  a  heretic  and  on  May  13,  1523, 
the  trial  was  held  before  the  Parhament.  Seven 
of  Benpjin's  writings  and  one  of  liia  translations 
from  Luther  and  Melanclithon  were  condemned 
by  the  theological  faculty  and  by  the  ParUament. 
On  Aug.  L,  he  was  made  prisoner,  but  was  set 
free  by  order  of  the  king,  Aug.  8.  The  Parliament 
had  already  burned  his  papers  and  books.  The 
siege  of  Pavia  and  the  captivity  of  the  king  (Feb., 
1525)  increa*«ed  the  Parliament's  power,  and  the 
queen  regent,  Louise  de  Savoie,  established  (Mi^y 
20)  an  exti^ordinary  court  to  judge  the  heretica. 
On  the  same  day  three  of  Erasmus's  treatises  were 
censured,  Berquin  would  have  been  permitted 
to  retire  and  live  on  his  estates  if  he  had  coofieoted 
to  keep  silence.  But  he  could  not  help  speaking 
the  truth  and  (Jan.  8,  1526),  being  denounced  by 
the  bisliop  of  Amiens,  he  was  again  imprisoned. 
His  books  w^re  again  judged  and  forty  of  his 
propositions  were  declared  heretical.  He  defended 
himsc4f  by  saying  tlmt  his  propositions  were  taken 
from  Erasmus  and  nobody  adjudged  the  latter 
a  heretic.  His  books  were  nevertheless  condemned 
and  be  would  have  been  burned  with  them  if  Mar- 
guerite of  Valois  had  not  invoked  the  clemency  of 
her  brother.  Aug.  17  Francis  sent  a  letter  to  the 
Parliament  commanding  them  to  take  no  definite 
steps  without  his  advice.  Although  Erasmus  ad- 
vised silence,  Berquin^  confident  of  the  king^s  favor, 
resumed  the  stru^e  and  quoted  from  Nu^l  Beda^s 
writinga  against  Erasmus,  against  the  Sorbonne, 
and  Lef^vre  d'Etaples,  twelve  propositions  as  false 
and  heretical,  and  asked  the  kiog  to  allow  the 
Parliament  to  give  judgment.  From  July,  1528, 
until  March,  1529,  Berquin  lived  in  security.  He 
was  then  again  imprisoned  and  Parliament  con- 
demned him  *'  to  have  his  tongue  branded  with  a 
red-hot  iron  and  to  remain  a  prisoner  for  the  rest 
of  his  life."  Apr.  16  Berquin  appeak^d  to  the  king, 
and  the  next  day  Parliament,  taking  advantage 
of  the  king's  abtwrnce  at  Blois,  ordered  Berquin  to 
be  bumeii  at  the  Place  de  G  r^ve.  He  was  the  first 
Protestant  martyr  of  France.  Thtodore  Besa 
said  of  him:  '*  If  Francis  had  upheld  him  to  the 
last,  he  would  have  been  the  Luther  of  France.'' 
Berquin *i^  original  work?*  are  al!  lost,  only  a 
few  of  his  translations  being  left;  Enchiridion  du 
ckevalieT  chrestitn  (Antwerp,  1529);  Le  way  mo^en 
de  bUn  ei  caiholiquement  «e  con f ester ,  par  ^rasme 
(Lyons,  1542);  Paraphrases  sur  U  No^viou  Tu- 
tament,  and  Le  symhok  des  apikres  (both  from 
Erasmus,  n.p.,  n.d.). 

G.  Bonet^Maitbt. 


1 


Bermyer 
Berthold 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


70 


Bibuoorapht:  Sources  for  a  biography  are  in  T.  Beza, 
HUtoire  ecclitiastique  de»  ^l\M»  riformfes  de  France,  i.  7, 
Paris.  1882;  A.  L.  Herminjard,  Correspondance  deM  R^ 
farmateura,  vol.  ii  and  viii.  espedally  vol.  ii,  containing 
letters  by  Erasmus  to  Bcrquln,  ii,  166-167,  169-160,  and 
the  letter  of  Erasmus  to  C.  Utenhovius,  ii.  1893,  193.  ib. 
1878.  1893;  a  brief  but  lucid  account  of  Berquin's  life  is 
contained  in  A.  Chevillier,  L'Origine  de  I'imprimerie  de 
Paria,  ib.  1694.  Consult:  HUtoire  du  proteetantiame  fran- 
gaia,  xi.  129,  ib.  1846;  Journal  d'un  boiirgeoia  de  Paria, 
ed.  L.  Lalanne,  ib.  1894;  Haurdau,  in  Revue  dea  deux 
mondea,  Jan.  16, 1869;  H.  M.  Baird,  Riae  of  the  Huguenota, 
i.  128-168,  London,  1880. 

BERRUYER,  bar"ra"yd',  JOSEPH  ISAAC: 
French  Jesuit;  b.  at  Rouen  Nov.  7,  1681;  d.  at 
Paris  Feb.  18,  1758.  He  served  as  teacher  of  his 
order  for  many  years  and  won  notoriety  from  an 
attempt  to  rewrite  the  Bible  in  French  in  the  form 
of  a  romance  fitted  to  the  taste  of  his  time;  in 
carrying  out  the  idea,  however,  he  introduced 
much  that  was  unfitting,  heretical,  and  even  blas- 
phemous and  obscene.  He  published  the  first 
part,  Histoire  du  peupU  de  Dieu  depuis  son  origine 
jusqu^d,  la  venue  du  Messie,  in  seven  volumes  at 
Paris,  1728.  It  called  forth  numerous  protests 
from  both  clergy  and  laity  and  was  put  on  the  Index 
in  1734;  certain  of  the  Jesuits  induced  the  general 
to  provide  a  new  and  expurgated  edition  (8  vols., 
1733-34).  In  1753  Berruyer  published  the  second 
part,  including  the  Gospels,  in  four  volumes,  osten- 
sibly at  The  Hague,  but  really  at  Paris;  only  a 
few  copies  bore  the  author's  name;  it  was  emphat- 
ically condemned  by  the  French  clergy  and  was 
put  on  the  Index  in  1755.  Nevertheless  Berruyer 
issued  the  third  part,  the  Epistles,  at  Lyons  (Paris) 
in  two  volumes,  1757;  it  was  condemned  by  the 
pope  the  next  year.  The  work  was  translated  into 
Italian,  Spanish,  Polish,  and  German,  and  was 
reissued  (expurgated)  in  ten  volumes  at  Bcsangon 
in  1851. 

Biblioqraphy:  E.  H.  Landon,  Eccleaiaatical  Dictionary,  ii, 
204,  London,  1853;  A.  de  Backer,  Bihliothi'que  dea  fcri- 
vaina  de  la  compagnie  de  Jiaua,  iv,  340,  7  vols.,  Paris,  1853- 
1861;  F.  H.  Reu8ch,  Dcr  Index  der  verbotenen  Biicher,  ii, 
804,  Bonn,  1885. 

BERSIER,  bar"sy6',  EUGENE  ARTUR  FRAN- 
(^OIS:  French  Reformed;  b.  at  Morgcs  (7  m.  w. 
of  Lausanne),  Switzerland,  Feb.  5,  1831;  d.  at 
Paris  Nov.  19,  1889.  He  came  of  Huguenot 
parentage,  took  elementary  studies  at  Geneva  and 
Paris;  visited  America,  1848-50;  studied  theology 
at  Geneva,  G6ttingen,  and  Halle;  became  pastor 
in  Paris  1855 — in  the  Free  Church  until  1877 
(until  1861  over  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine  Church; 
until  1874,  assistant  of  Prcssensd  in  the  Taitbout 
Church;  until  1877,  over  the  fitoile  Church),  when 
he  and  his  congregation  joined  the  Reformed 
(established)  Church  of  France.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  popular  volumes  of  sermons, 
some  of  which  have  been  translated  into  English: 
in  the  Protestant  Pulpit  series  (2  vols.,  London, 
1869);  Oneness  of  the  Race  in  its  Fall  and  its  Future 
(translated  by  Annie  Harwood,  London,  1871); 
Sermons,  with  Sketch  of  the  Author  (London,  1881; 
2d  series,  1885);  St,  PauVs  Vision  (translated  by 
Marie  Stewart,  New  York,  1881;  new  ed.  1890); 
The  Gospel  in  Paris ;  Sermons^  with  Personal 
Sketch  of  the  Author  by  Rev.  Frederick  Hastings 


(London,  1884).  There  are  translationa  also  into 
German,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Russian.  He  wrote 
also  SolidariU  (Paris,  1869);  Histoire  du  Sjfnodi 
de  1872  (2  vols.,  1872);  Liturgie  (now  used  in  the 
Reformed  Church  of  France,  1874);  Mes  acta 
et  mes  principes  (1878);  Vlmmutabiliti  de  Jisut 
Christ  (1880);  RoyauU  de  Jesus  Christ  (1881); 
Coligny  avant  les  guerres  de  religion  (1884;  3d  ed., 
1885;  Eng.  transl.,  Coligny :  the  Earlier  Lift 
of  the  Great  Huguenot,  London,  1885);  La  Rtw- 
cation,  discours  .  .  .  sur  VldU  de  r&oocation  (1886); 
Les  R^fugies  frangais  et  leur  industries  (1886); 
Projet  de  revision  de  la  liturgie  des  £jglises  Rtformkt 
en  France  (1888);  Quelques  pages  d'histoire  des  Hu- 
guenots (1890). 

Biblioqrapht:  E.  Stapfer,  La  PridicaUon  d'Eughie  Beraier, 
Paris.  1893;  J.  F.  B.  Tinling,  Beraier* a  Ptdpit:  Anali/au 
of  Public  Sermona  of  .  .  .  Eughie  Beraier,  London.  1900; 
W.  C.  Wilkinson.  Modern  Maatera  of  Pulpit  Discourae,  p^ 
251-281,  New  York.  1905  '.highly  laudatory). 

BERTHEAU,  bar"t6',  CARL:  German  Lutheran; 
b.  at  Hamburg  July  6,  1836.  He  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Gftttingen  (1855-57,  1858-69) 
and  Halle  (1857-58),  and  after  teaching  in  the 
schools  of  his  native  city  became  pastor  of  St. 
Michael's  Church  there  in  1867.  Since  1897  he 
has  been  president  of  the  Hamburg  Verein  fUr 
innere  Mission.  In  theology  he  belongs  to  the 
positive  evangelical  school.  He  prepared  the 
third  volume  of  K.  Hirsche's  Prolegomena  zu 
Thomas  d  Kempis  (Berlin,  1894)  and  edited  Lu- 
ther's catechisms  (Hamburg,  1896). 

BERTHEAU,  ERNST:  German  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Hamburg  Nov.  23,  1812;  d.  at  GOttingen  May  17, 
1888.  He  studied  in  Berlin  and  Gdttingen  (Ph.D., 
1836)  and  became  repetent  at  GOttingen  1836 
extraordinary  professor  of  Oriental  languages  and 
OKI  Testament  exegesis  1842,  ordinary  professor 
1843.  From  1870  he  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission to  revise  Luther's  Bible.  His  publications 
include:  Carminis  Ephraemi  Syri  textus  Syriacus 
secundum  codiccm  bibliothecce  AngeliccB  denuo  edi- 
tus  ac  versione  et  brevi  annotatione  instrvdus 
(G6ttingcn,  1837);  Die  sieben  Gruppen  mosaischer 
Gesetze  in  den  drei  mittleren  Buchem  des  Penta- 
teuchs  (1840);  Zur  Geschichte  der  Israeliten,  zwei 
Abhandlungen  (1842);  an  edition  of  the  Syriac 
grammar  of  Bar  HebrsBUS  (1843);  and  commen- 
taries upon  Judges  and  Ruth  (1845;  2d  ed.,  1883), 
Chronicles  (1854;  2d  ed.,  1873),  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
and  Esther  (1862),  and  Proverbs  (1847;  2d  ed., 
1883),  in  the  Kurzgefasstes  exegetisches  Handbuch 
zum  Alten  Testament.  (Carl  Bertheau.) 

BERTHIER,  bar"ty^',  GUILLAUME  FRAH- 
COIS:  French  Jesuit;  b.  at  Issoudun  (130  m. 
s.  of  Paris),  department  of  Indre,  Apr.  7,  1704; 
d.  at  Bourges  Dec.  15,  1782.  He  joined  the  Jesuits 
in  1722.  He  added  six  volumes  (Paris,  1749)  to 
the  twelve  already  completed  by  Longueval, 
Fontenay,  and  Brumoy  of  the  Histoire  de  Vtglise 
gallicane,  bringing  the  narrative  down  to  1529; 
from  1745  to  1762  he  edited  the  M ^moires  de  Tri- 
voux  and  displayed  much  moderation  as  well  as 
learning  under  attacks  from  the  EncyclopedL<!ts 
and   Voltaire.     Aft^r  the  expulsion  of  his  order 


RELIGIOITS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Berruyer 
Berthold 


(foin  France  in  1762  he  was  appointed  tutor  to 
the  princes  afterward  Louis  XVI  and  Louis  XVIIi, 
but  liad  to  leave  the  country  in  1764;  after  an  ab- 
Ktiee  of  ten  years  he  returned  to  Bourges.  He 
tranilated  the  Psalms  (8  vols.,  1785)  and  the  Book 
of  Isaiah  (5  vols,,  1788-89)  into  French  with  notea. 
Hb  (EuvTfs  BpirUuclles  were  published  at  Paris 
in  five  volumes  in  1811. 

BcRUoGKArBiT:  A,  de  Bft^ikfiir,  Bihtiothinfu*  d€M  i/rrivain»  de  la 
ftmjfognu  d%  J^ub,  b,v  ,  7  vols,,  P»na^  18i>3-0l. 

BERTHOLD  OF  CHIEMSEE.     See  PDrstinocr, 

BERTHOLD  OF  LIVONIA:  Early  missionary 
tnd  second  bishop  among  the  Livonians.  He  was 
abbot  of  the  Gstercitm  monaster>^  in  Lokkuni,  and 
lUOOOMcrated  bishop  to  succeed  Meinhard  flL»out 
llflBbyHartwig  II,  bishop  of  Bremen.  After  he 
bid  failed  to  win  the  heathen  by  miki  means  wit  1; 
peril  of  his  hfe.  he  went  to  Saxony  and  returned 
witb  A  body-guard  in  1198.  Tht*  Livonians  gath- 
end  And  were  defeated  in  battle,  but  the  bishop  was 
lUin  Joiy  24,  1 198.  Hia  succesaor  was  Albert  of 
Riga  (q.v.). 

BERTHOLD  OF  REGErrSBURG:  Franciscan 
tew,  the  greatest  popular  preacher  of  the  Middle 
A^  in  Gemaany;  b.  at  Regensburg  probably 
wriicr  than  the  traditional  date  of  1220;  d.  there 
D«.  14,  1272.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Fran- 
ciican  fommunity  founded  at  RegenHbiirg  in  1226. 
HiB  tiovitiate  was  passed  \mder  tlie  guidance  of 
Divid  of  Augsburg;  and  by  1246  he  is  found  in  a 
iwitiofl  of  responsibility*  By  1250  at  the  latest, 
bp  bid  bc^n  his  career  a^s  an  itinerant  preacher, 
fiat  in  Bavaria,  where  he  endeavored  to  bring 
Dub  Otto  II  back  to  obedience  to  the  Church; 
w»  b«  ftpprars  farther  westward,  at  Speyer  in 
I2i>4  and  125.S,  then  passing  through  Alsace  into 
8«itwrland,  In  the  following  years  the  cantons 
<rf  Aarpkii,  Tburgau,  Constance,  and  Grisons,  with 
tbevip|>er  Rhine  eountr>',  were  the  prinfipal  scenes 
of  li»  ictivity.  In  12ijO  he  went  farther  afit^ld, 
titvening^  after  that  date  Austria,  Moravia,  Hun- 
fVy,  Silesia,  Thuringia,  and  possibly  Bohemia, 
f^^bing  his  Slavonic  autiiences  through  an  inter- 
W^*  Some  of  his  journeys  in  the  East  were 
PWbihIy  in  the  interest  of  the  crusade,  tfie  preach- 
JS  of  which  was  specially  entrusted  to  him  by 
«Vl*rhaa  IV  in  1263. 

The  German  historians,  from  Bert  hold's  con- 
JO^)omry,  Abbot  Hermann  of  Nicdcmaltaich, 
**Bto  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centurj%  speak 
■  we  most  glowing  terms  of  the  force  of  his  per- 
toftility  ijij  ihe  effect  of  his  preaching,  which  is 
**d  to  have  attracted  almost  incre<liblc  numbers, 
^  that  the  churches  could  not  hold  them,  and  he 
**«fo«5cd  to  speak  from  a  pktfonn  or  a  tree  in  the 
^^  »ir«  The  gifts  of  prophecy  and  miracles 
••I*  lOQiQ  attributed  to  him,  and  his  fame  spread 
™  Italy  to  Elngland.  He  must  have  been  a 
Pj^chfr  of  great  talents  and  success.  Although 
•"jaKiuacript  report,^  of  his  sermons,  wliich  began 
toeiituljil^  very  early,  are  by  no  means  to  be  trusted 
^■JHeiikl  productions,  we  can  still  form  from  thero 
Al^knhty  accurate  idea  of  the  matter  and  oianner   j 


of  hie  preaching.  It  wae  always  of  a  missionary 
character,  ba^ed  formally  on  the  Scripturoii  for  the 
day,  but  soon  departing  from  them  to  apply  th« 
special  theme  which  Bert  hold  wished  to  enforce. 
This  generally  finds  its  point  in  the  insistent  call 
to  true  sorrow  for  Kin,  sincere  confession,  and 
perfect  penance;  penance  without  contrition  has 
no  value  in  (Jod's  sight,  and  neither  a  crusatle  nor 
a  pilgriiTiage  has  any  good  result  iiidtiss  there  is  a 
finn  purpose  to  renounce  sin.  From  this  stand- 
point Berthold  criticizes  the  new  preachers  of 
indiilgencefs.  The  extremely  mixed  character  of 
hia  audiences  led  him  to  make  liis  appeal  as  wide 
and  general  as  possible.  He  avoids  subtle  theo- 
logical questions,  and  advises  the  laity  not  to  pry 
into  the  divine  mysteries,  but  to  leave  them  to  the 
clergy,  and  content  themselves  with  the  credo. 
The  weighty  political  occurrences  of  the  time  are 
also  left  untouched-  But  everj^tliing  that  affects 
the  average  man — his  joys  and  his  Borrows^  hia 
superstitions  and  his  prejudices — is  handled  with 
intimate  kno\^ledge  and  with  a  careful  clearness 
of  arrangement  easy  for  the  most  ignorant  to 
follow-  While  exhorting  all  to  be  content  with 
their  station  in  life,  he  denounces  oppressive  taxed, 
unjust  judges,  usury,  and  dishonest  trade.  Jews 
and  heretics  are  to  be  abhorred,  and  players  who 
draw  people's  minds  away  to  worldly  pleasure; 
dances  and  totimaincnts  are  also  condemned^  and 
he  has  a  word  of  blame  for  the  women's  vanity  and 
proneness  to  gossip.  He  is  never  dry,  always  vivid 
and  graphic,  mingling  with  his  exhortations  a 
variety  of  anecdotes,  jests,  and  the  wild  etjrmologies 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  making  extensive  use  of  the 
allegorical  inteq^relation  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  of  hia  strong  fetding  for  nature. 

(E.  Steinmeteh,) 

BifiLtcKiiLAPaY:  The  iwrraonii  in  Gerrnan  of  BerthoJd  were 
ediU'd  or  given  in  abstract  by  C  F.  KIihk,  lieriin.  1824. 
oa  which  rf.  J.  Grimm  in  IVifntr  Jahrbitcher  der  Literalur^ 
xxjcii  (1$25),  194-257,  and  the  Kleiturc  Schriften  by  J. 
Qricnni,  Vienna,  18fl9.  A  completis  edit  ion  of  hi»  Prediif- 
ten,  ed.  F.  PfeifTer,  appeared  vol.  i,  Vienna.  1862  <cf.  IL 
fichmidt  in  TSK,  xxxvii,  1864,  pp.  7-S2),  vol.  ii,  «d.  J. 
Strobl,  A  lenna,  1880  {cf.  A,  Schdnbach,  io  Anzngir  fUr 
deuUchea  Altcrtum,  vil  IlSSl],  337-38^).  On  the  Latin 
sermons  conMiH  H.  Leyaer,  DeuUche  FredigUnn  Hbm  IS.  und 
J4,  Jahrhumlerti,  Leipsic.  1838;  G>  JjL€{»b.  Dve  kUeiniackt 
Reden  dea  telioen  Berthotd  von  Regenaburg,  RegeoBburif. 
1S80;  ficrmoTiM  ad  r^ijgwtot  viffinli,  ed.  P.  de  a.  Hootsel. 
Munich,  1882.  On  hia  life  and  work  oonflult:  K.  Hoff- 
mann, SitsunQ«berit:hie  der  Munckentr  Akadcmie.  ii  (ISflT)^ 
374  *qq..  ii  (1868).  101;  L.  RocltinKW.  Berlhoid  tton 
Regen»buTQ  und  Haimund  von  Peniaf&rU  in  Abhandlungen 
der  Miinchener  Akademir,  hinloriiiche  Clasat,  xiii,  3  (1877), 
165  0qq.;  K.  Unkel,  Herthold  von  RrQensburff,  Cologne, 
18B2.  For  h'la  preaching  consult:  W.  WaokernajjeK  AU- 
deuUtche  Fredigtttn,  Baswl,  1876;  R.  Cruel.  GeacJtichit  d«r 
dfuUchen  Frfdiijtrn  im  Mitteiatier,  pp.  3t>6-322,  Dotraold. 
18701  A.  Liaseniimy«r,  OtBchichte  der  Predigt  inDeutMch- 
lafid,  pp.  3.-13-354.  Munich,  188fl;  E.  C.  DarBan»  A  HiMtary 
vf  Pmching,  New  York,  1905. 

BERTHOLD  OF  HORBACH:  Heretical  mystic; 
d.  1356.  He  appears  first  in  Wurzburg,  where  he 
was  tried  on  a  chtirge  of  teaching  heresy,  but  saved 
himself  by  recantation  of  the  doctrines  attributed 
to  him.  He  wm?  again  brought  to  trial  at  Speyer 
in  1356,  but  this  time  refused  to  recant  and  wm 
burned.  The  accounts  of  his  teaching  show  him 
as  aa  adherent  of  the  quietistic  mysticism  of  the 


Berthoia 
Bestmann 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


72 


Brothers  of  the  Free  Spirit,  sharing  their  dis- 
belief in  the  mcntoriouencBs  of  prayer  and  aeceti- 
ciflm;  those  who  are  "  enlightened  by  God^^'  lay- 
men as  well  as  priestfl,  may  preach  the  Gospel  and 
cliange  bread  and  w\ug  into  the  divine  subataiice. 
The  strange  and  shocking  viewa  attributed  to  him 
on  the  pasKioti  of  Christ  can  scarcely  be  reconciled 
with  hia  other  teachings,  and  have  probably  come 
down  in  a  distorted  form.  {Herman  Haupt.) 
fiiBLioaRAPHY:  A.  Juudt.  Hiato^  du  panthHtme  populaire 

du  moyen  il$e\  |>.  105,  Paria,  1875;   H>  Hnup^  Di*  r^ligi^ntn 

StktMn  in  Franktn,  p.  B,  Wflriburgp  18S2. 

BERTHOLD     THE     CARMELITE.       See  Car^ 

MELITES. 

BERTHOLDT,  LEOITHARD;  Professor  at  Er- 
langjen;  b.  at  Emskirchen  (14  in.  w.n.w.  of  Nu- 
remberg), Bavaria,  JIny  8,  1774;  d-  at  Eriangen 
Mar.  22,  1822.  He  studied  at  Eriangen  anti  became 
pTof^Qor  e^raorthnary  on  the  philosophical  faculty 
1S05;  full  professor  of  theology  1810,  In  recog- 
nition of  his  work  upon  Daniel  (2  vols.,  Eriangen ^ 
I806-OS),  His  principal  work  was  the  Htsiori^ek- 
kritiacke  Einleihmg  in  dis  sidmmtlkhen  kunfmuchen 
und  cpokryphischcn  Sckriften  ftes  Allen  and  Neum 
TesiamerUs  (6  vols,,  181*2).  Of  less  interest  is  bis 
EinleUung  in  dif  theotogitscJien  WuHenschaften 
(2  vols.,  1821-22);  and  of  still  less,  his  Ilandbuch 
der  Dogmengeschichte  (2  vols*,  1S22-23)-  As  a 
teacher,  however,  and  as  editor  of  the  Kriiinches 
Journal  d^  neuestcn  thcohghchen  Litieratur,  one  of 
the  principal  organs  of  the  rationalistic  party, 
hie  activity  was  stimulating  in  many  ways. 

BERTHOLET,  bar^'td^le',  ALFRED;  Swiss 
Proteatant;  b.  at  Basel  Nov,  9,  1868,  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  his  native  city, 
Strasburg,  and  Berlin,  and,  after  being  Franco- 
German  pastor  at  I^ghom,  in  1892--93,  became 
privat-docent  for  Old  Testament  cxegms  in  the 
university  of  his  native  city  in  1SD6.  In  1899  he 
was  appointed  associate  professor  of  the  same 
subject,  and  in  1905  was  promoted  to  his  present 
position  of  full  professor.  He  was  general  secre- 
tary of  the  Second  International  Congress  for  the 
History  of  Religion  held  at  Basel  in  1904,  and 
has  prepared  the  commentaries  on  Leviticus,  Deu* 
teronomy,  Ruth,  Ezra,  Nehcmiah,  and  Ezekicl  in 
K.  Marti 'a  Kurxer  Handkommeniar  zum  Alien 
Testament  (5  vols.,  Freiburg  and  TQbingen,  1897- 
1902),  and  has  written  Der  Verfa^^Hungsges^lzent- 
wurf  des  Heaekiel  in  seiner  Teligiowigeschichtlichen 
Bedetdung  (Freibtirg,  1S96);  Die  SteMung  der 
Israeliien  utid  der  Juden  im  den  Fremden  (1S96); 
Zu  Je^aja  5S  (1S99);  Die  israelUischen  VorsteUungen 
vom  Zustand  nock  dem  Tode  (Tubingen,  1899); 
Buddhi&mu&  und  Chri^tenium  (1902);  Die  Gcfilde 
der  Scligen  (1903);  Seelenumiderung  (Halle,  1904); 
Der  Buddhismus  und  seine  Bcdcidung  fur  unser 
Geisiesieben  (Ttibtngen,  1904);  and  the  section  on 
the  Apocfypha  and  PBeudepigrapha  in  K*  Budde's 
Gesckiclde  der  aUkebrdischen  Lii^otur  (Leipeic,  1906). 

BERTRAM:  The  name  by  which  Ratranmus 
(q.v,)  was  formerly  sometimes  quoted. 

BERTRAM,  ROBERT  AITKIlf:  EngUsh  Con- 
^Teg^tionahst;  b.  at  Hanley  (147  m.  n.w.  of  Lon- 


don), Staffordshire,  Nov.  8,  1836;  d.  in  London 
Nov.  14,  1886.  He  ended  his  studies  at  Oweai 
College  (Victoria  University),  Manchester,  1S58; 
was  pastor  at  Lynun,  Cheshire,  at  Opraishiw 
(Manchester),  and  at  Barnstaple,  Devonshire; 
edited  The  ChHsii^n  Age,  1880-83.  He  compikd 
The  Cavendish  Hymnal  (Manchester,  1864),  and 
pubhshed  Parable  or  Divine  Fofisy,  lUustraHom 
in  Theology  and  Morals  Selected  from  Great  Divina 
and  Systemtdically  Arranged  (London,  1866);  A 
Dictionary  of  Poetieal  lUualrations  (1877);  A 
Homiletical  Encyclopedia  of  lUu^trotions  in  The- 
ology and  Morakt  a  Handbook  of  Pradical  DimAity 
and  a  Commentary  on  Hidy  Scripture  (1878);  A 
Homiletical  Commentary  on  the  Prophecies  of  /«atd& 
(i,  1884;  ii,  jointly,  with  Alfred  Tucker,  1888). 

BERULLE,   PIERRE  DE,     See  Neri,   Paiur, 
BERYLLUS      OF      BOSTRA.    See   Monabchi- 

BESANT,  bes'ont,  AlfNIE  (WOOD):  Theosophist; 
b.  at  London  Oct.  1,  1847.  She  was  educated  by 
private  ttitors  at  Oe^irmouth,  Dorsetshire,  London, 
Bonn,  and  Paris,  and  later  pasaed  B.Sc.  and  M.B. 
at  London  University.  Originally  a  member  of  tha 
Church  of  England,  she  married  Rev.  Frank  Besant, 
vicar  of  Sibsey,  Lincolnshire,  in  1867,  but  was 
divorced  from  him  six  years  later  and  renounced 
Christianity  altogether.  She  then  joined  the  Na- 
tional Secular  Society,  and  an  a  scientific  material- 
ist worked  with  Charles  Bradlaugh,  with  whom 
she  edited  the  Natimiai  Reformer,  She  w^as  al^ 
prominent  in  socialistic  and  labor  roov^nents,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Fabian  Society  and  the  Social 
Democratic  Federation.  In  1887-90  she  was  a 
member  of  the  Ixindon  School  Board  for  Tower 
Hamlets,  but  decHned  reelection.  Meanwhile,  her 
views  had  undergone  further  change  as  a  result 
of  psychological  study,  and  in  1SS9  she  joined  the 
Theosophical  Society,  of  which  she  has  since  been 
a  distinguiiihed  member,  and  its  president  in  1907. 
She  has  made  extensive  journeys  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  in  the  interests  of  theosophy,  but  has  of  late 
years  resided  chiefly  in  India.  In  1S9S  she  founded 
the  Central  Hindu  College,  Benares,  and  is  still 
the  president  of  its  c^juncil,  while  in  1904  she  estab- 
lished the  Central  Hindu  Girls'  School  in  the  same 
city.  In  addition  to  a  large  number  of  briefer 
articlas  and  pamphlets,  she  baa  writte^n  Naturd 
Religion  Versus  Revealed  Religion  (London,  1874); 
History  of  (he  Greal  P'rench  Revolitium  (1876);  The 
Law  of  Population  :  Its  Consequences  and  its  Bearing 
upon  Humun  Conduct  and  Morals  (1877);  The 
Gospel  of  ChristianUy  and  the  Goepel  of  Free  Thought 
(1877);  Heai,  Ligfd,  and  Soumi  (I SSI);  Legends 
and  Tale^  (1885);  The  Sim  of  the  Church  (1886); 
Reineamatum  (1892);  Seven  Principles  of  Man 
(1892);  Autobiography  (1893);  Det^h  and  After 
(1893);  Building  of  the  Cosmos  (1894);  In  Uie 
Chiter  CouH  (1895);  Karma  (1895);  The  Self  and 
its  Sheaths  (1895);  The  Path  of  Discipleship  (1896); 
Man  and  his  Bodies  (1896);  Four  Great  Reiigiont 
(1897);  The  Ancient  Wisdmn  (1897);  Evolutim 
of  Life  and  Form  (1899);  Dharma  (1899);  Story 
of  ihe  Great  JVar  :  Lessons  from  the  MoMbhdrata 
(1899)j  Avataras  (1900);  Ancimi  Ideals  in  Modem 


li/e  (1901);  Esoteric  ChriatianHy  (l&Ol);  Thought 
pmpfr:lt8  Control  and  Ciditvotum  (1901);  The 
Sdi^iaui  ProbUm  in  Indta  (Madraa,  1902);  The 
fdvgrte  (*f  Man  (Benares,  1903);  Stiuiy  in  Con- 
femtnea  (London,  1904);  and  Theoaophy  and 
iVfip  Psifchoiogy  (1904).  She  has  also  translated 
1  iiuml)er  of  free-thought  works  as  well  as  the 
Bhagatadgitd  (London,  1895),  and  has  edited 
Our  Comer  (London,  1883-88),  and,  in  coUabora- 
im  with  G.  R.  S,  Mead,  The  Themaphical  Review. 

BESS,  BERHHARD:  German  librarian  and 
Mstorian;  b.  at  Nenterahauflen  (near  Ca^sel)  May 
19,  1863.  He  was  educated  at  the  universi- 
ties o(  Marburg  and  Gottingen,  and,  after  being 
priv»t-doocnt  at  the  former  university  for  several 
JMIB,  WiB  appointed  to  his  present  position  of  li- 
hnnxR  of  the  University  of  Halle  in  1895.  In  1902- 
19<J3  he  was  also  entrusted  with  the  organization  of 
the  library  of  the  Pru^ian  Historical  Institute  at 
tl»>[ne.  Fie  has  written  Frankreicha  Kirchen- 
pUiixk  [ind  der  Prozess  des  Jean  Petit  (Marburg, 
1891).  and  Luther  und  das  lande^herrliche  Kirchen- 
ngimnt  (1894).  Since  1891  he  has  been  the 
riitor  of  the  ZeU9ehrifi  fur  Kirchengeschichte. 

BESSAfiJON,  be»-A^'ri-en,  JOHANWES  or  BASIL- 
roSr  Cardinal;  b.  at  TrebizomJ  1395;  d.  at  Ra- 
VfniukNov,  19,  1472.  He  studied  at  Const  ant  ino pie 
»nd  at  Misithra  in  the  Peloponnesus  under  GemiBtoa 
^  "  :  entered  the  BasiJian  order;  became  arch- 
of  Niciea  in  1437.  As  such  he  labored  at 
and  Florence,  1438-39,  for  the  union  of 
the  Qfwk  and  Roman  Churches  (sec  Ferraka- 
FujRBNCE,  CotTNciL  of).  Having  been  ma^^le  a  car- 
<linal,  he  re-mained  in  Italy,  by  voice  and  pen  work- 
'ng  for  the  union*  His  house  at  Rome  became  the 
center  not  only  for  his  fugitive  countrymen,  but  also 
iBftbf  cultivation  of  Greek  literature  in  the  West; 
lUiluring  his  activity  as  legate  in  Bologna,  1451-55, 
fe  worked  in  the  same  interest  at  that  ancient 
f^muiwn  iUustre,  At  the  papal  election  in  1455 
^  Urkwi  only  a  few  votes  of  being  chosen  pope, 
wd  im  influence  in  the  curia  may  be  seen  frtjm  the 
^'^i^DertHii  diplomattc  missions  with  which  he  was 
®*rtiit«d.  Whil©  returning  from  a  missionary 
^  to  France*  which  he  had  undertaken  for  the 
•^  of  rwonciiing  Louis  XI  and  the  duke  of  Bur- 
CN^r,  be  died  at  Ravenna. 

E.  Benrath. 

"**w»»4«iTt  On  the  WDfki  of  B««afiofi  consult:  Fabii- 
««»-liirK  Bibf toClMn  OriBm,  x,  491,  xi,  480,  Hamburg. 
{JD^:  MPO,  clxi.  On  hu  life  and  aciivjtiei  contiult; 
fJj*»,P«pi«,  ToL  iv,  pmmim  (well  worth  uaiug);  Crcigh* 
*^  ''vpacy,  voIbl  ii-v,  passim  (siven  an  excellent  tr^ai- 
■•**  of  tlk*  •ubjeet);  G,  Voigt.  Die  W itderbrUbuna  dea 
''■■MM  AUerihi^m*,  B«rlia.  Ig50:  J.  Burchardt.  Kut- 
^J^  Btmtimance  in  ttalien.  Ba»i»l,  1860.  En^.  transK,  2 
2J^>  UMidoa^  1S78;  H.  Viui,  L«  Carrliruil  Betuanon. 
^^  1S7S;  R.  Rcwhon,  Bm§aru>n,  Lcipnic,  l{>04. 


GOTTFRIED:  Abbot  of  Geittweig, 
^  Vienoa;  b,  at  Buchhain,  near  Mainst,  Sept.  5, 
^*Js^4  at  G6ttweig  Jan.  20,  1749.  He  studied  at 
^**^H»r|,  entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1693, 
*^  otdftined  priest  1696,  and  was  employed  in 
J'^oqa  diplonmttc  negotiations  by  the  elector  of 
^^'  In  1707  he  converted  the  princess  Eliza- 
^  Chrbtine  of  Brunswick  to  the  Roman  Catholic 


faithy  and,  in  1710,  her  grandfather,  the  duke 
Anton  Ulrich,  at  which  time  he  published  Quirt- 
quaginta  Romanocathoiicam  fidem  omnibus  aliig 
proeferendi  motiva  (Mainz^  17D8).  In  1714  he  be- 
came abbot  of  G6ttweig.  He  prepared  a  chronicle 
of  the  monastery^  of  which  only  the  first  part, 
Prodromia,  has  been  published  (2  vols.,  TegemseOi 
1732), 

BESSER,  WILHELM  FRIEDRICH:  German 
preacher  and  theological  writer;  b,  at  Wamstedt, 
in  the  Hari:,  Sept.  27»  1816;  d.  near  Dresden  Sept, 
26,  1884.  He  studied  at  Halle  under  Geeenius 
and  Tholuck  (1837),  then  went  to  Berlin,  where 
he  was  influenced  by  Neander  and  Twesten,  but 
still  more  by  Hrngstenberg,  Otto  von  Gerlach, 
and  others.  He  returned  to  Halie  in  1838  as  sec- 
retary to  Tholuck,  but  a  year  later  went  as  private 
tutor  to  the  house  of  Major  von  Schenkendorf 
at  Wulkow  near  Puppin.  This  had  a  decisive 
influence  on  hia  life,  through  his  intercourse  there 
with  a  persecuted  Lutheran  pastor,  a  guest  in  the 
house,  who  bad  such  an  effect  on  him  that,  at  his 
ordination  in  1841  as  pastor  at  Wulkow,  he  refused 
to  sign  the  Union  formula  except  with  the  reser- 
vation that  the  Union  related  to  common  ecclesias- 
tical organization  without  prejudice  to  the  authority 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  in  1845  be  withdrew 
his  subscription,  and  after  long  negotiations  was 
deprived  of  his  office  in  1847.  C^onnecting  himself 
with  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Prussia,  he  became 
pastor  of  Seefeld  in  Pomerania,  and  zealously 
supporle<l  the  movement  to  obtain  equal  rights 
for  the  Lutherans  with  the  Union.  In  1853  he  was 
called  to  assist  Graul  in  the  direction  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  mission-hou.se;  but  the  strain  of 
continuous  teaching  was  not  suited  to  his  vivacious 
and  impulsive  nature,  and  sharp  controversies 
broke  out  over  the  then  burning  question  of  the 
Indian  castes,  so  that  he  returned  willingly  to  pas- 
toral life  in  1857,  becoming  minister  of  Waldenburg 
in  Silesia  and  also  (1864)  a  member  of  the  Lutheran 
superior  council  of  Breslau.  Failing  health  com- 
peUe<l  him  to  resign  his  offices  at  Easter,  1884.  Hii 
Bibdstunden,  which  he  began  to  wTite  in  1843  and 
continued  at  intervals  till  he  liad  covered  most  of 
the  New  Testament,  have  had  a  salutary  influence 
far  beyond  Germany.  The  list  of  his  minor  writings 
is  a  long  one,  and  includes  a  number  of  controversial 
tractates  agaiuxSt  what  he  thought  a  hollow  and 
deceiving  compromiw?,  popular  biographies,  devo- 
tional works,  and  sermons.  (H.  HousciiER.) 


BiBLiooaAPHr:  A  ^kctoli  of  B«Mer'«  life  ai>pi»ar!i  in  liis  jPra- 
digUn  und  PrtdigtautMfkQt^  Brealau,  18S5.  Hw  autobiog- 
raphy (uncompletred)  wa»  continued  to  the  year  ISfiO 
by  Grave.  ^u«  B**Ji«r*  L*hen.  in  (Jotthold,  year  20.  1804- 
1895,  »Dd  compMiou  ia  prouuMKl;  cf.  ALKO,  LB84,  pp. 
1030-30. 

BESTMAIIN,    besfman',    HUGO    JOHAimiS: 

German  Lutheran;  b.  at  Delve,  Holstein,  Feb.  21, 
1854.  He  studied  in  Lcipsic,  Tiibingen,  Kiel, 
Berlin,  and  Eriangen  (lie.  theoL,  1877),  and  was 
privat'docent  in  thi^logy  at  Eriangen  1877-83. 
He  was  then  instructor  in  the  gymnasium  of  the 
oqihan  asylum  at  Halle  1883-84  and  at  the 
Missionary  Seminary  in  Leipsic  1884-86.  Since 
the    latter   year    he  has    been    pastor    in    Molln 


B«th 
Bethnne-Baker 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


74 


(Lauenburg).  He  baa  been  a  m^nber  of  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Molln  conference  for  theolo^cal 
Btudiea  since  18M,  and  baa  written  Qua  raiione 
Augusiinus  notimiea  phihsophiw  grcBcw  ad  dogmata 
anthropologka  describenda  adhihuerU  {Erkngen, 
1877);  Geschichte  dcr  ckTi^tlichen  SiUe  (2  vols., 
NfircUingen,  1 880-85  )■  Die  theohgisehe  WtsBenachaft 
und  did  Riischi*$che  Schtik  (I SSI);  Die  Anfdnge 
des  kaiholischen  €hri$ientums  und  dcs  hlams  (18S4); 
i>er  ProUstanlismtts  und  die  theologi^chen  Fakul- 
mum  (Kiel,  1891);  and  Gc^chicfd£  dev  Raichs  GoUe^ 
im  AUen  und  Neuen  Bunde  (2  vols.,  Leipaic.  1896- 
1900).  He  edited  ali^o  J.  C.  K.  von  Hofmann*s 
Theohgi^che  Encyclopddi^  (Nsrdlingen,  1S79)  and 
Der  ckrisilu:he  Herold  (Hamburg  and  M5lla,  1S98- 
11 


BETH,  KARL:  German  Protestant;  b.  at  F6r- 
derat&dt  (15  m.  a.  of  Magdeburg)  Feb,  12,  1S72. 
He  studied  in  Tabingen  and  Berlin  (Ph.D.,  1898), 
and  was  privat-docent  in  Berlin  190W)6.  Since 
1906  be  ha^  been  professor  of  systematic  and  eym- 
bolic  theology  at  tbe  Univeraity  of  Vienna.  He  has 
written  Die  Grundanschauungen  SchJeiermachera 
(n  smnem  enttsn  Entwurf  der  philosopkhehen  Siiten-^ 
lehre  (Berlin,  1898);  Die  orltmialische  Kircke  der 
MiUelmetrrldnder,  Rei^eBtudien  zur  StaiiMik  und 
Sjpnbolik  dcr  grie^hischefij  armeni4ichen  und  kopti- 
Mchen  Kirche  (1902);  Dm  We&tm  dea  CkrUtienlurm 
und  die  modeme  kistorische  Denkweise  (1904);  and 
Die  Wunder  Jesu  (1905). 

BETHLEHEM:  A  to^n  in  wAithcm  I'aleatine,  in 
the  territory  of  Judab,  often  called  BethJehem 
Judab  (e.g.^  Judges  xvii,  7,  8;  cf.  Matt,  ii,  1,  5). 
Its  mgnificance  for  the  Judah  of  Davidic  times  or 
earlier  is  as  the  home  of  Jesse  (I  Sam.  xvi,  1),  of 
Joab,  Abifihai,  and  Asahel  (II  Sam,  ii,  32),  of  El- 
hanan  (II  Sam.  Kxi,  19),  and  as  a  place  of  sacrihoe 
(I  Sam.  %vi,  3,  6).  It  was  occupied  by  the  Phili*- 
tiiies  in  their  war  with  Daind  (II  Bam.  xxiii,  14), 
Rehoboam  made  of  it  a  city  of  defense 
Old  Testa-  (II   Chjon.   %i,   6),  as  it  commanded 

ment  His-  the  roods  south  and  west.  Though  in 
tory<  early  limes  it  was  a  place  of  impor- 
tance because  of  its  situation  on  cara- 
van routes,  it  became  overshadowed  by  the  growth 
of  the  capital.  After  the  exile  it  was  reckoned  to 
the  Jewish  community  (Ezra  ii,  21),  and  was 
inhabited  by  Calebites  who  were  driven  north  by 
the  Edomitea  pressing  up  from  the  south.  This 
possession  is  explained  by  the  Clironicler  on  genea- 
logical grounds,  regarding  the  town  as  founded  by 
Sahna,  a  son  of  Caleb,  The  district  of  Ephratah, 
which  extended  from  Kirjath-jearim  to  Bethlehem, 
became  a  possession  of  the  Calebites  and  gave 
occasion  for  the  name  Bctldchem  Ephratah,  used 
Micah  Vf  2.  The  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, vitieulture,  and  cattle^raising. 

For  the  Hebrews  its  fame  rests  upon  its  lacing 
the  home  of  David  (Luke  ii,  4,  11);  to  Christians 
everywhere  its  name  is  familiar  as  the  birthplace 
of  Jesus*  according  to  the  accounts  in  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Luke.  It  has  retained  its  name 
unchanged  to  the  present.  Bail-taltm  Ues  five  and 
a  half  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  a  little  east  of  the 
central  watcrahed,  at  a  level  above  the  sea  of  about 


2,500  feet.    The  slopes  above  it  have  been  terraced 
from  early  times,  and  their  fertility  rewards  richly 

the  labor  of  the  inhabitants  in  pro- 
Present     ducing  olives,  almonds,  figs,  and  grapes. 
Condition*  The  numerous  tre^  of  the  terraces 

give  the  place  a  refreshing  appea.ranee, 
especially  to  the  traveler  from  the  bare  heights  of 
Jerusalem.  There  is  a  spring  some  fifteen  minutes 
eastward  from  the  iovrHf  and  water  is  taken  from 
the  aqueduct  on  the  south  leading  into  Jerusalem, 
For  the  rest  of  the  water-supply,  dependence  is  had 
upon  cisterns.  The  population  hi  about  8,000; 
3,827  are  Roman  Catholics,  3,662  Greeks,  260 
Mohammedans,  185  Armenians;  the  rest  are  Copta, 
Syrians,  and  Protestants.  Two-thirds  are  engaged 
ID  various  handicrafts,  the  rest  in  husbandryp 
and  all  arc  oppressed  by  burdensome  ta^xes.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  at  various  times  to  connect 
particular  parts  of  the  town  with  David,  naming 
for  him  a  house,  a  tower,  and  a  well,  but  the  tra- 
ditions are  insecurely  founded.  The  *'  Well  of 
David"  is  the  name  given  since  the  filteenth  oem- 
tury  to  three  large  cisterns  in  the  northeaBt, 

More  secure  is  the  tradition  about  tlie  birthplace 
of  Jesus*  covered  by  the  celebrated  Church  of  St. 
Mary,  a  basilica  mentioned  as  early  as  334  as  built 
by  Constan tineas  order.  Eusebios  ("  Life  of  Con- 
stantine  ^')  confirms  this  report,;  Socrates  and  Soz- 
omen  ascribe  its  erection  to  the  empress  Helena; 
and  Eutycliius  to  Justinian,  Dc  Vogiid  support* 
the  first  hypothesis  on  the  ground  of  the  unity 

of  plan,  conformity  of  e^^tent  of  choir 
The  Church  and  grotto,  and  ab^nee  of  ajichitec- 
of  St.  Mary*  tural  marks  of  the  Justinian  period. 

In  this  opinion  he  is  supported  by 
the  architect  T.  San  del,  who  made  a  new  examina- 
tion in  18S0,  This  may  well  be  the  oldest  church  in 
the  world.  It  was  thoroughly  restored  by  the 
emperor  Manuel  Comnenus,  who  adorned  it  with 
mosaies,  of  wliich  work  but  httle  remains,  though 
a  description  by  F.  Quaresmio  (1616-2iG)  l^^tb  what 
is  left  suffices  to  give  a  good  idea  of  the  whole.  In 
1478  (or  1482)  the  roof  was  repaired  by  Philip  of 
Burgundy  and  Edward  IV  of  England,  and  re- 
newed in  1672  by  the  Greek  patriarch  Dositheos. 
in  the  latter  year  the  Greeks  obtained  possession, 
which  the  Latins  had  had  since  the  crusades.  In 
1852  Napoleon  brought  it  about  that  the  Latins 
were  given  a  share  in  holding  it.  The  church,  now 
in  decay,  can  not  be  restored  for  fear  of  renewing 
outbreaks  among  Latins,  Greeks,  and  Armenians. 
From  the  southeast  the  church  rises  prominently 
like  a  fortress:  the  north,  east,  and  south  aide« 
are  Jess  pleasing  to  one  approaching  from  those 
directions  because  of  the  cells  of  the  monks  of  th^ 
different  communions.  It  has  a  nave  and  double 
aisles,  and  its  floor  space  is  about  ninety-eight  feet 
by  eighty-seven  between  the  cross  aisles.  The 
transept  and  apse  are  unfortunately  concealed  by 
a  wall  built  by  the  Greeks  in  the  seventeenth  or 
eighteenth  century.  The  entire  length  of  the  pres- 
ent church,  including  the  entrance  hall,  is  about 
230  feet.  Two  flights  of  steps  to  the  north  and 
south  lead  from  the  choir  to  the  chapel  of  the 
nativity,  the  walls  of  wliich  are  marble^lined  and 
hung  ^ith  tapestries.    The  place  of  birth  is  marked 


76 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beth 
Bethune-Baker 


by  a  diver  atar  in  the  floor  of  &  niche.  Opposite 
is  the  place,  a  marbled  hollow,  of  the  old  "  genuine  " 
manger*  A  passage  westward  leads  to  the  tomb 
and  chapel  of  Jerome. 

Thifl  BubterraDean  room,  according  to  tradition 

continUDUA  eince  Constantme,  is  accepi^  as  the 

place   of  Jesus *8   birth.     A    tradition 

The  Tradl-  can  be  traced  back  to  Justin  Martyr 

tional  Place  that  Jesus  was  bom  in  a  cave,  sinoe 

of  Jestis'a  Joseph  could  find  no  accommodation 
Birth.  in  the  village.  But  it  baa  been  difi- 
proved  that  the  present  chapel  is  a 
[nfttural]  cave,  while  it  must  be  noted  that  as  early 
as  728  it  was  reported  that  the  form  of  the  cave 
was  changed  and  an  oblong  room  hewn  out.  The 
use  of  cavea  as  adjimcts  to  inns  or  "  shelters  " 
i&  in  Palestine  a  peculiarity  of  the  country. 

Five  minutes  southeast  from  the  church  of  St, 
Mary  is  the  so-called  '*Milk  Grotto  *'  of  the  Latins, 
in  which  Joeephi  Mary,  and  the  child  are  said  to 
have  concealed  themselves  from  Herod's  fury  before 
the  flight  into  Egypt.  The  white  of  the  limestone 
is  attributed  to  the  fall  of  a  drop  of  milk  from  Mary's 
breast.  Ten  minutes  northeast  from  Beth  Sahur 
(itself  fifteen  minutes  east  from  Betldehem)  is 
ahown  the  "Grotto  of  the  Shepherds,"  in  which  the 
angelft  are  said  to  have  annotmced  to  the  shephenk 
the  birth  of  the  Holy  Child,  The  underground 
chapel  b  reached  by  a  passa^  between  two  ancient 
oUve-traeB, 

One  of  the  fniita  of  modem  missions  is  the  honor- 
ing of  Jesus  in  his  birthplace,  not  by  sanctuanes 
in  stone,  but  by  provision  for  the  education  of  the 
young.  Since  1860  there  have  been  a  number  of 
Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  schools  and  estab- 
lishments, the  founding  of  which  baa  sjjurred  the 
Greeks  and  Armenians  to  accomplish  something 
for  the  instruction  of  children  belonging  to  their 
conununities.  (H,  Gutke.) 

BiBLtoaaAinrr:  EobtnBon,  Remarchet.  v^r.  ii:  T.  Tob]er. 
B^fil^iem  in  PaXdrfinn,  Bern,  li49:  Vh  Gu^rln,  Bt^Mrription 
de  la  PaUsHne.  Jud^,  i.  120  aqq..  PotIa,  1$69;  Surv€y  e/ 
W^iem  Faie»tin«,  Memov-M,  Vol  iii,  ibnt  strii.  L«ndoQ» 
ISSl;  P.  Palmer,  Dq»  jetriat  Bethlehem,  in  ZDPV,  xvii 
(1894),  89  »qq,;  Btodckcft  Palatini  otwf  5|/H«,  pp,  119- 
127,  New  York,  ISflS;  DB.  i.  231;  EB.  i.  560-562.  Oti  tho 
cbuTch  coapult  Mr  de  Vo^ii^,  L*«  ^gliaea  de  ta  terre  9ainie, 
Pans,  1S60:  Quaresmi  us,  Elucidatio  temr  tanct^,  ii,  643 
*qq**  Antwerp,  1639.  rebaued  Venice,  1880-82;  O.  Ebera 
■ad  H.  Guthfi,  FalOMtina  iit  BUd  und  Wori,  2  vols.,  I^p. 
ne,  18^-^. 

BEIBLEHEMITES :  The  name  of  thr^  neligiouii 
ordeia.  (1)  An  association  of  BeihkemHeBf  known 
only  from  Matthew  Paris  {Hist,  maj.,  S39),  who 
itates  that  tbey  existed  at  Cambridge^  England, 
about  1257  and  wore  the  Dominican  habit,  with  a 
red  sear,  referring  to  Matt,  ii,  9-10-  (2)  The 
Knighlfl  and  Hoapitalera  of  the  Blessed  Msury  of 
Bethlebem  {Rel%gu>  mililar%%  ac  hospiialit  bealw 
MaricB  BUhlemitante),  founded  by  Pius  II  in  1459 
to  fight  against  the  Turks,  Tbey  woi^  a  white 
babit  with  a  red  cross,  were  given  the  islfuid  of 
Lemnoe  as  their  seat,  and  did  not  survive  the  cap- 
ture of  the  island  by  the  Turk/i  in  the  year  of  their 
foundation.  (3)  More  important  are  the  Bethlehem 
Brothers  (Frolrea  Bdhkmiim ;  Spanish,  Orden  de 
BekmitmB)  of  Guatemala  (Central  America}^  founded 


there  about  1650  by  Pierre  de  Bethencourt  and  after 
his  death  (1667)  under  the  leaderahip  of  the  brotbere 
Rodrigo  and  Antonio  de  la  Cruz*  Originally  en- 
trusted only  with  the  care  of  the  hospital  of  Maiy 
of  Bethlehem  in  Guatemala,  the  order  was  con- 
firmed by  Innocent  XI  in  1687  and  given  a  con- 
stitution and  dress  like  that  of  the  Capuchins. 
Clement  XI  in  1707  granted  them  the  privileges  of 
the  mendicant  orderp,  A  society  of  Sisters  of  Bethle^ 
hem  waa  founded  in  Guatemala  by  Anna  Maria 
del  Galdo  in  1668,  and  both  the  male  and  femala 
branch^  spread  in  Mexico,  Peru,  and  elsewhere. 
A  secularization^decree  of  the  Spanish  Cortes  in 
1820  Huppreesed  both  branches. 

O.  Z5CKLEilt< 
Bibmoorapiit:  Heimbudbicr,  thrkn  und  Kifn^reffatumen^  I, 
497-^98;  O,  Voigt,  En^  Eyhio  .  .  .  ala  Paptt  Piua,  li, 
IjS2.  Berlin,  1863;  Kurl  vqm  heiligcn  Aloye,  Die  katha^ 
iiachr  Kirch^  m  ihrrr  QtQwnw&riigtn  AxiJ^tiiuTig^  pp.  610- 
611,  Ileg:enflbiirE,  1S85:  Helyot.  OrtinH  mofUK^wtutt,  iii,  347- 
3ST,  viii.  305  iqq.;  KL,  ii,  040-544  (eontAinn  list  of  Utaiv 
ftture  in  Spnaiib}, 

BETHPHAirSf :  A  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
festival  more  commonly  known  as  the  Epiphany. 
It  is  a  barbarous  invention  of  the  schoolmen,  from 
the  Hebrew  hUK  **  hoiise,"  and  the  Greek  -phaneta, 
"  manifestation,"  which  forms  the  latter  part  of 
the  word  Epiphany;  and  was  intended  to  empha^ 
size  the  miracle  (in  the  house)  at  Cana  in  Galilee, 
which  is  the  third  event  commemorated  by  the 
festival  of  the  Epjpliany  (q,v.}. 

BETHSAIDA.     See  GAULANiTTi*. 

BETHOTE,  bc-than',  GEORGE  WASHIHGTON: 

Reformed  (Dutch)  clergyman j  b.  in  Greenwich, 
now  a  part  of  New  York  City,  Mar.  IS,  1805;  d.  at 
Florence,  Italy,  Apr.  27,  1862.  He  was  graduated 
at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1S23;  studied 
at  Princeton  Seminary  1823-25;  served  for  a  year 
as  missionary  among  the  negroes  and  sailors  at 
Savannah,  Ga.;  \vas  ordained  Nov.,  IS27,  and  was 
pastor  of  Reformed  (Dtitch)  churchea  at  Rhinebeck 
(1827-30)  and  Utica  (1830-34),  N.  Y.,  PMladelpJiia 
(Fif^t  Church,  1834^37;  Third  Church,  1837^9), 
and  Brooklyn  (1851-59);  was  associate  minister 
at  the  Twenty-first  Street  Church,  New  York, 
1859-61.  He  waa  famed  ai  a  preacher  and  oratoti 
as  a  poet,  and  as  a  wit.  Of  his  numerous  pubUca^ 
tions,  perhaps  tliat  of  most  permanent  value  waa 
his  edition  of  Walton^s  CompkU  Angler  (New 
York,  1847;   new  ed.,  2  vols.,  1S80). 

BrBUooRAFBT:  A.  R.  Van  Ncot,  AfCTifltrt  of  Rn.  Otorse  W\ 
Bethvn€,2roh.,  Now  York.  1S80. 

BEXmrNE^BAKER,  JAMES  FRAlfKLIN:  Church 
of  England;  b.  at  Birmingham  Aug,  23^  18(51.  He 
was  educated  at  Pembroke  CollegCt Cambridge  (B.  A,, 
1884)p  and  wm  head  master's  assistant  at  King 
Edward's  School,  Birmingham^  and  assistant  curate 
of  St.  George's,  Edgbaston,  from  1888  to  1890.  In 
the  following  ycsar  he  was  elected  fellow  and  dean 
of  Pembroke  College,  and  since  1905  haa  also  been 
examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Rochester. 
He  has  been  the  editor  of  the  Joumoi  of  Theological 
Studies  since  1903,  and  ban  ^vritten  Tfte  Inftuenee 
of  Chtiaiianiiy  on  War  (Cambridge,  1^88);  The 
Siemmw  of  ChriH's  Teaching  (1889);  The  Meaning 


Betklus 
BeyaohlAfl: 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


76 


tf/  Homoou&ios  in  the  Constanlinop&litQn  Creed  (1901); 
An  Introduction  to  the  Early  Hhtory  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (Londot:,  1903);  and  ChTistian  Doctrinet 
aiui  their  Ethical  Signifkarice  (1905), 

BETKroS,  bet'ki-Os  (BETKE),  JOACHIM: 
Lutheran  preacher  and  forerunner  of  the  Pietistic 
movement;  b.  at  Berlin  Oct.  8,  1601;  d.  at  Lmum, 
ne^r  Fchrbellin  (33  in,  n.w.  of  Berlin).  Dec.  12, 
1663.  After  finishing  hia  courae  at  Wittenberg, 
he  became  associate  rector  at  Ruppin,  then  was  for 
more  than  thirty  years  paator  at  Li  num.  He  wrote 
several  theological  and  devotional  works^  by  the 
leading  of  which  Spener  said  he  had  profited* 
They  contain  edifying  exhortations  against  for- 
getting the  need  of  sanctification  in  addition  to 
justification,  but  are  marred  by  intemperate  fanati- 
cism; Betkiua  holds  the  clergy  responsible  for  all 
the  anti-Christian  phenomena  of  his  time,  and  for 
the  divine  judgments  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 

(F.  W.  DlBEUUS.) 

BETRAYAL      OF     PH^ATE.     See   Apocrypha, 

New  Testament*  B,  I,  7. 

BEURLm,  bGi"er-ltn.  JAKOB:  German  Lu- 
theran theologian;  b.  at  Domatetten  (35  m.  b.w.  of 
Stuttgart)  1520;  d,  at  Paris  Oct.  28,  156L  In 
Nov.,  1533,  he  enteretl  the  imivereity  of  Ttibingen. 
When  the  Reformation  was  introduced  in  1534, 
he  remained  faithful  to  Catholicism,  but  dili- 
gently studied  philosophy  and  the  writings  of  the 
Church  Fathera,  fio  that  hia  transition  to  the  new 
doctrine  took  place  quietly.  In  1541  he  was  made 
governor  of  the  Martinianum,  and  at  the  same  time 
lectured  on  philosophy.  Li  1549  he  accepted  the 
pastorate  of  Derendingen  near  Tiibingen,  and  in 
1551  he  was  called  as  professor  to  Tubingen.  On 
June  2,  1557,  he  examined  and  signed,  together 
with  other  theologians,  the  Confessio  Wiriember- 
gicaj  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  Council  of 
Trent,  and  in  the  month  of  August,  together  with 
Brent's  friend  Johann  leenmann  (q.v.),  he  went  to 
liangensatza  and  afterward  to  Saxony  to  come  to 
an  understanding  with  the  theologians  and  coun- 
cilots  of  the  elector  Maurice  concerning  the  Wiirt- 
temberg  Confession  a@  compared  with  the  Saxon, 
which  Imd  also  been  prepared  for  the  Council  of 
Trent.  In  Nov.,  1551,  in  company  with  Luther's 
former  steward,  Jodocus  Neuhelleri  paator  at  Ent- 
ringen,  he  was  sent  as  theological  adviser  of  the 
WUrttemberg  delegates  to  Trent,  where  they  took 
Dot-es  of  the  disputations.  On  Jan*  13,  1552, 
both  returned  home,  but  on  Mar.  7,  Beurlin, 
Brens,  Heerbrand,  and  Vanaius  again  started  for 
Trent  to  oppose  the  erroneous  decisions  of  the 
council,  and  to  defend  the  ConJcMio  Wirtembcrgica 
before  it;  but  the  council  would  not  hear  them  in  a 
public  seflflion,  and  they  returned  home.  Beurlin 
now  devoted  all  his  time  to  his  academic  duties. 
He  lectured  on  Melanchthon's  Loci,  the  Gospel  and 
First  Epistle  of  John,  and  the  Epistles  to  the  Ro- 
mans and  Hebrews,  and  drilled  the  young  theologians 
in  admirably  conducted  disputationa.  In  May, 
1654,  the  duke  sent  him  to  Prussia  to  pacify  those 
who  had  been  stirred  up  by  Osiander's  teacliing. 
He  was  unsuccessful,  however,  and,  disgusted  with 
the  behavior  of  the  factions,  he  dedined  the  bishop- 


ric offered  to  him  by  Duke  Albert,  and  retumed 
home*  In  the  interest  of  his  academic  office  he 
now  retired  in  favor  of  Jakob  Andrea,  who  was  a 
more  willing  interpreter  of  the  theology  and  ec* 
clcsiaatical  policy  of  Brenz  (q.v.)*  In  Oct,, 
15r)7,  Beurlin  and  his  father-in-law,  Matlha&us 
Alber*  went  to  the  religious  conference  at  Worms 
in  pliiT-G  of  the  Thuringian  theologians.  At  the 
Stuttgnrt  synod  Beurlin  also  remained  in  the 
backgroimd,  but  he  assisted  Brenx  in  the  de- 
fense of  the  Ccmfea^io  Wirtembergica  against  Peter 
a  Soto,  and  his  attack  upon  the  central  point 
of  the  Roman  system  is  still  worthy  of  consider- 
ation. Vice-chancellor  of  the  university  after 
1557,  Beurlin  was  the  leader  of  the  Bwabians 
at  the  Erfurt  Cbnferen^,  Apr,,  1561,  and  waa 
still  more  prominent  on  his  last  journey  made 
in  the  service  of  the  Evangelical  Church.  King 
Antony  of  Navarre  sought  both  at  Stuttgart  and 
Heidelberg  for  a  theologian  to  advise  him  in 
the  controversy  wliich  arose  in  Sept.,  1557,  at  the 
religious  conference  in  Poissy  between  the  cardinal 
of  Guiso  and  Beza  concerning  the  relation  of  the 
French  Protestants  to  the  Augsburg  CbnfeMion. 
Duke  Christopher  sent  three  thwlogiana,  Jakob 
Beurlin,  Jakob  Andrei,  and  Balthazar  Bidembach. 
Before  leaving,  Beurlin  waa  made  chancellor  of 
the  university  and  provost  of  the  Cx>UegiateChiirch 
(Sept.  29).  The  theologians  left  Oct.  3,  and  arrived 
at  Paris  Oct.  19.  Meai^while  the  conference  at 
Poissy  had  been  broken  off,  and  the  theolo^ans 
had  to  wait  till  the  king  called  them.  On  Oct.  24 
Beurlin  fell  ill  with  the  plague  and  died  in  Paris. 

G.  BoasERT. 

BiBLtOdRApnr:  The  souroea  fcrei  T.  Sctmepffitii,  J.  firtfrlinw* 
reditivut  et  iffimaftality  Ttlbtngefi,  t6l3;  J.  V.  Andrei, 
Fama  Andreurm.  Strnsburg,  1530,  Consult  G.  C.  F, 
FLftchlui,  Mttiwria  (he^htfarum  V  iUeberffennum  rewuMettoia, 
I  82-«7.  V\o\,  1710;  C.  ¥.  i^attler,  (Jemtkichtt  run  Wt^tUm^ 
h&o  unler  der  Reoitrung  der  Hertoge,  tJIm,  1771;  H.  F. 
EiBeubach.  Sejcftrei^ncF  ufid  GeaeMchte  drr  Si^i  umi  Um^ 
vvTfitili  Tiihinsen,  pp.  108-112.  Tdbiiigen,  1822;  H.  L.  J. 
Hepp«.  Getchichte  det  dfutnchfn  Pratg^tantivmus^  Vol.  i. 
Mmrburg.  lSS2-5ft:  C.  von  Wcii&ftcker^  /^tw'  und  Unitr- 
rieJU  an  dtr  fivanffetiach-thtoloffiat^n  FakulfM  .  .  .  Ti^ 
binfftn,  Tttbingen,  IS 77;  C.  A.  Haee,  Ha-goff  Albreehi  von 
Prmt9tKn  und  *Hn  HcffprrdiotT,  Lvjpsie,  1879;  G.  Boa^ert, 
Die  ReiM  dtrr  wtirttcmbcrffitfhen  Thedoffen  nock  Pen* 
tS&I,  in  W^ttembetviK!he  Viertdiohfihefte,  IS9&,  pp. 
387^12, 

BEVAN,  bev'an,  AHTHONY   ASHtlY:    Chureh 

of  England  layman;  b.  at  Trent  Park,  Bamet  (11 
m.  n.n.w,  of  London),  Herts,  May  19,  1859.  Ho 
was  educated  at  the  Gymnase  litt^raire,  Lausanne 
(1877-79)  and  the  University  of  Strasburg  flSSl- 
1883),  and  in  18S4  became  a  member  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  elected  fellow  in 
1890.  Since  1S93  he  has  been  Lord  Almoner's 
reader  in  Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
In  addition  to  minor  studies,  he  has  written  A 
Short  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Daniel  (Cambridge, 
1892)  and  the  Hymn  of  the  Soul  Contain^  in  the 
Syriac  A  d^  of  St.  Thomas ^  Reedited  %mik  an  English 
TramU^ion,  in  Cambridge  TexU  and  Studiex, 
V  (1897). 

BEVAN,  LLEWELYK  DAVID:  CongregatiOTi- 
alist;  b,  at  Llanelly  (15  to*  w.e,  of  Carmarthen), 
CarmarthenBhire,    Wales,    Sept.    11,    1842,      H« 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beysclnlacr 


I 


^ 


ftudied  at  New  College,  London  (B*A.^  University 
of  London,  1S61 1  LL,B.,  1866),  ami  after  being 
aoiuftaiit  mimFter  to  Thomas  Binney  (q,v.)  ut  the 
King's  Weigh-HoUBe  Chapel,  London  (1863-69), 
held  pastorates  at  Tott^nhara-f'ourt  Road  Chapel, 
Umdon  (1869-76),  the  Brick  Presbytenan  Cliurch, 
New  York  City  (1876-82).  and  Highbury  Quail- 
Taut  Church,  London  (1882-86).  8mce\l886  he 
h»M  been  pastor  of  the  Collins  Strwt  Congrega- 
tional Church,  Melbourne,  Victoria.  While  in 
EngUmij  he  was  associated  with  F.  D.  Maurice 
(q,v.)  in  the  Workingmen's  College,  London,  and 
was  for  several  years  a  professor  in  New  College. 

BEVERmOE,  WILLIAM:    Bishop  of  St.  .4saph: 
b.  at  Barrow  (S  m.  n.  of  Leicester),  and  baptized 
then  Feb.  21.   1637;  d.  m  London  Mar,  3,  1708. 
He  wii«  educated   at   Cambridge;  w^    rector  of 
Esihng,  a   we^^t    suburb   of    London,    1661-72;  of 
St,  Pcter'a.  Comhill,  London,  1672-1704,  when  he 
becvne  bishop.     In  his  tluy  he  was  styled  '*  the 
grat  reviver   and    re.*3torer    of    priiniti%'e   piety " 
because  in  his  much  aduiired  fiermonK  and  other 
wriliap  be  dwelt  so  affectionately  upon  the  Church 
<rf  the  early  centurieis.     His  collected  works  (in- 
complete)   are    in    the    Library   of    Anglo-Catholie 
rw»yyin  IJ  vols.  (Oxford,  1842-48)  and  embrace 
axvolumesof  ^«rmoDs;  The  Dodrine  of  the  Church 
^  ingbmd  Ctfusonanl  to  Scripture^  Rm^on,  and  the 
Paikfft:  A   CornpleU  System  of  IMtnniiy  (2  vols.); 
Cwfer  mnonum    ecclcsits    primiiivm    inndkaius   ac 
iilmtabt$t   with    the    appendices,    I.  Prolegomena 
in  Ii««dui6v,  ^ioe  pande4::tQ3  canonum  ;  and  II.  PrtE- 
1^   ad     QttttoUjiionen     in     canones     apostoiicos 
12  tola.);  and  the  still  read   Private  Thoughts  on 
iW»^,  and    Church   Catechism    Explained.     His 
i^iHtiitumum  chrorwlofficarum  libri  dtio,  una  cum 
^^idm  ttnthmetic€s  chronoiogvcds  libellis    (London, 
M)  wig  oDce  an  admired  treatise  on  chronology. 

^■«8«Af1lT:  T.  H.  Home,  Mrm^tir  of  (he  Lift  and  Wri- 
^•t  W.  Bevgridge,  London.  1824,  also  prefixed  to  hts 
*orki  til  ttw*  lAhrtny  of  Angio-Cathotic  Theology^  ut  sup.; 
^HB,  iv.  i47-H8, 

WKR|  boi'er,  HARTMAim:  Reformation 
P'^^cberolf  Frankfort,  where  he  wajs  bom  Sept.  30, 
JJ^^iftd  died  Aug.  11,  1577.  In  1534  he  went  to 
'^'tNbiig  aa  student  of  philosophy  and  theology, 
j^  Itoeived  the  master's  degree  there  in  L539  and 
***IM  private  teacher  of  mathematics.  He  re- 
Jjtt«d  to  his  native  city  as  preacher  in  1546. 
*^  Heformation,  introduced  in  Frankfort  in  1522 
yf  HArtmann  Ibach,  had  been  earned  on  in  the 
^*'*ier  ycare  by  compulsion  and  raah  steal  on  tlie 
^of  itfl  adherenta,  and  in  later  time  was  marked 
"7  doekrinal  oontroverHiea  between  the  Lutheran 
•^  Befofmed  tendencies.  Beyer  came  wilh  the 
•••nimiation  to  win  the  victory  for  Lutheranism, 
^  to  his  activity  was  it  due  that  by  1554  a  eom- 
^  Lutheran  congregation  stood  opposed  to  all 
•■•ttUfctioiiii  of  Calvinism,  while  the  earlier  demo- 
te ud  radical  tejndencies  had  been  suppressed. 
1ft  Um  year  named,  three  congregations  of  Protes- 
*^  from  the  Netherlands,  who  had  first  taken 
^'^  in  England  but  fled  that  country  after  the 
"^'^•ioo  of  Mary,  came  to  Frankfort  under  the 
^  flf  Velctandus  Polanua  and  Johannes  a  Laaco 


(qq.vOj  bringing  with  them  a  Reformed  creed  and 
Reformed  practises.  Beyer  was  the  soul  of  an 
opposition  which  induced  the  city  council  to  de- 
prive them  of  the  church  they  had  used  for  worship 
in  1.551.  In  1596  even  the  right  of  holding  services 
privately  wjis  forbidden. 

The  success  of  the  emperor  in  the  Scbmalkald  w*ar 
and  the  promulgation  of  the  Augsburg  Interim 
(May,  1548)  brought  the  Fninkfort  Reformers  face 
to  face  with  dangers  wluch  for  the  time  quieted 
doctrinal  disputea.  The  council  accepted  the 
interim  cautiqusly.  but  its  attempts  to  forbid 
preaching  against  the  new  law  and  against  Roman 
teachings  and  practises,  to  reestablish  church 
fcfitival.?,  to  prohibit  the  eating  of  meat  on  fast- 
days,  and  like  measures  met  with  determined  and 
courageous  rcj^istance  fnim  Beyer  and  his  col- 
leagues. The  former  repeatedly  expressed  his  con- 
viction that  church  ordinances  could  be  established 
only  with  the  consent  of  the  congregation.  The 
struggle  went  on  till  1577,  but  the  preachers 
gained  the  victory. 

Beyer  issued  two  pseudonymous  writings  against 
the  Roman  Catholics  in  1551  and  while  in  Witten- 
berg prepared  a  treatise  on  mathematics.  His 
sermons  are  preserved  in  forty-nine  volumes  in 
manuscript  in  Frankfort.  They  are  marked  by  a 
beauty  and  force  of  language  which  make  them 
powerful  even  to-day.  (G.  E.  SteitzI.) 

BiBLioonAPHT:  G,    E.    Steit>,    Der    lutheriMche    Pr^ikanl, 
Hwtmann  Beyer,  Frankfort.  1852, 

BEYSCHLAG,  boi'shmH,  WILLIBALD:  Ger- 
man Protestant;  b.  at  Frankfort  Sept.  5,  1823; 
d.  at  Halle  Nov.  26,  190O.  He  studied  at  Bonn  and 
Berlin  1840-44;  became  vicar  at  Coblenx  1849; 
assistant  pastor  and  religious  teacher  at  Treves 
1850;  court  preacher  at  Carlsruhe  1856;  ordinary 
professor  of  theology  at  Halle  I860;  and  after  1876 
editor  of  the  DcidJiche  Evangdi^tche  Blatter^  an  organ 
of  the  Bo-called  MiUelpartei,  whose  leader  he  waa 
till  the  end  of  \m  life.  To  oppose  the  ultramontane 
aggressions  in  Germany,  he  founded  in  1886  the 
Evangclischer  Bund  (see  BuNn,  Evanoelischjih). 
Of  his  very  numerous  writings,  besides  sermons, 
the  follow^ing  are  worthy  of  mention:  Die  CArw- 
iologie  des  Neuen  Te^^iiamenis  (Berlin,  1866) ;/>tcpau- 
tiniache  Theodicee  Ri>m.  ix-xi  (Berlin,  1868,  2d 
ed.,  1895);  Die  chrisHiche  Gemeindeverfassung  im 
Zeitalter  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Haarlem,  1874); 
Zur  Jofianneischen  Frage  (Ck»tha,  1876);  the  biog- 
raphies of  his  brother,  F.  W.  T.  Beyschlag  {Au9 
deni  Leben  eincs  FruhvoUendetcn,  2  parts,  Berlin, 
1858-59,  Cth^id.,  1880),  of  Carl  Ullmann  (Gotha, 
1867),  of  Carl  Immanuel  Nitssch  (lialle,  1872, 
2d  ed.,  1882),  and  of  Albrecht  Wolters  (1880); 
Zur  deutichchristlichen  Biidung  (1880,  2d  ed.,  1899); 
Dm  Leben  Jesu  (2  vols,,  Halle,  1885-86,  4tb  ©d,, 
1902);  Der  FriedemnchluaM  twischen  DeutsMand 
und  Rom  (Ilalle,  1887);  Reden  in  der  Erfurter  Vcr- 
Conferenz  des  evang«(ischen  Bundes  (1888);  Grodo- 
/rcd,  cm  Mdrchen  fiirs  de\itsche  IJaus  (1888); 
Luther*  s  Hausstand  in  seiner  reformatorischen 
Bedetdttng  (Barmen,  1888);  Die  Reformation  in 
halien  (1888);  Die  rdmisck-katholischen  AnsprUchfi 
an  die  preussische  Volkaschule  (1889);  Zur  Verstdn- 


I 


Beza 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


78 


digung  uber  den  christlichen  Voraehungaglavben 
(Halle,  1889);  Erkenntnisspfade  zu  Christo  (1889); 
Die  evangelische  Kirche  als  Bundesgenossin  wider 
die  Sodaldemokratie  (Berlin,  1890);  Neutestament- 
liche  Theologie  (2  vols.,  1891-92,  2d  ed.,  1896; 
Eng.  transl.,  New  Testament  Theology ^  2  vols.,  Ed- 
inburgh, 1895,  2d  ed.,  1896);  Christenlehre  (Halle, 
3d  ed.,  1903). 

Diblioorapht:  Consult  hia  autobiography,  Au«  meinem 
Leben,  2  vols.,  Halle,  1896-98;  K.  H.  Pahncke,  WiUibald 
Beychlag,  ein  Gedenkblatt,  Tabingen,  1905. 

BEZA,    bi'za,    THEODORE. 

Early  Life  (§1). 

Teacher  at  LaiLsanne  ($  2). 

Journeys  in  behalf  of  the  Protestants  ($3). 

Settles  in  Geneva  ($4). 

Events  of  1660-63  (J  6). 

Calvin's  Successor  (§  6). 

Course  of  Events  after  1564  (§  7). 

The  Colloquy  of  Mtimpelgart  (5  8). 

Last  Days  (§  9). 

Humanistic  and  Historical  Writings  ({  10). 

Theological  Works  (§11). 

Beza's  Greek  New  Testament  (§  12). 

Theodore  Beza  (Theodore  de  Bdze  or  de  Besze), 
Genevan  Reformer,  was  bom  at  V^zelay  (8  m.  w.s.w. 
of  Avallon),  in  Burgundy,  June  24,  1519;  d.  at  Ge- 
neva Oct.  13, 1605.  His  father,  Pierre  de  B^ze,  royal 
governor  of  V6zelay,  descended  from  a  Burgundian 
family  of  distinction;  his  mother,  Marie  Bourdclot, 
was  known  for  her  generosity.  Theodore's  father 
had  two  brothers;  one,  Nicholas,  was  member  of 
Parliament  at  Paris;  the  other,  Claude,  was  abbot 
of  the  Cistercian  monastery  Froimont  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Beauvais.    Nicholas,  who  was 

I.  Early  unmarried,  on  a  visit  to  V^zelay  was 
Life.  so  pleased  with  Theodore  that,  with 
the  permission  of  the  parents,  he  took 
him  to  Paris  to  educate  him  there.  From  Paris 
Theodore  was  sent  to  Orl6ans  (Dec,  1528)  to  enjoy 
the  instruction  of  the  famous  German  teacher 
Melchior  Wolmar.  He  was  received  into  Wolmar's 
house,  and  the  day  on  which  this  took  place 
was  afterward  celebrated  as  a  second  birthday. 
Young  Beza  soon  followed  his  teacher  to  Bourges, 
whither  the  latter  was  called  by  the  duchess  Mar- 
garet of  Angoul6me,  sister  of  Francis  I.  Bourges 
was  one  of  the  places  in  France  in  which  the  heart 
of  the  Reformation  beat  the  strongest.  When,  in 
1534,  Francis  I  issued  his  edict  against  ecclesias- 
tical innovations,  Wolmar  returned  to  Germany, 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  his  father, 
Beza  went  back  to  Orleans  to  study  law,  and  spent 
four  years  there  (1535-39).  This  pursuit  had  little 
attraction  for  him;  he  enjoyed  more  the  reading  of 
the  ancient  classics,  especially  Ovid,  Catullus,  and 
Tibullus.  He  received  the  degree  of  licentiate  in 
law  Aug.  11,  1539,  and,  as  his  father  desired,  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  began  practise.  His  relatives 
had  obtained  for  him  two  benefices,  the  proceeds 
of  which  amounted  to  700  golden  crowns  a  year;  and 
his  uncle  had  promised  to  make  him  his  successor. 

Beza  spent  two  happy  years  at  Paris  and  soon 
gained  a  prominent  position  in  literary  circles.  To 
escape  the  many  temptations  to  which  he  was 
exposed,  with  the  knowledge  of  two  friends,  he 
became  engaged  in  the  year  1544  to  a  young  girl 
of  humble  descent,  Claudine  Denosse,  promising  to 


make  this  engagement  public  as  soon  as  his  circum- 
stances would  allow  it.  He  published  a  collection 
of  Latin  poems,  Juveniliaf  which  made  him  famous, 
and  he  was  everywhere  considered  one  of  the  best 
Latin  poets  of  his  time.  But  he  fell  ill  and  his 
distress  of  body  revealed  to  him  his  spiritual  needs. 
Gradually  he  came  to  the  knowledge  of  salvation  in 
Christ,  which  he  apprehended  with  a  joyous  faith. 
He  then  resolved  to  sever  his  connections  of  the 
time,  and  went  to  Geneva,  the  French  city  of 
refuge  for  the  Evangelicals,  where  he  arrived  with 
aaudine  Oct.  23,  1548. 

He  was  heartily  received  by  Calvin,  who  had 
met  him  already  in  Wolmar's  house,  and  was  at 
once  publicly  and  solemnly  married  in  the  church. 
Beza  was  at  a  loss  for  immediate  occupation,  so 
he  went  to  Tiibingen  to  see  his  former  teacher 
Wolmar.  On  his  way  home  he  visited  Viret 
at   Lausanne,  who  at   once    detained 

2.  Teacher  him  and  brought  about  his  appoint- 
at  Lausanne,  ment    as   professor  of  Greek  at  the 

academy  there  (Nov.,  1549).  In  spite 
of  the  arduous  work  which  fell  to  his  lot,  Beza 
found  time  to  write  a  Biblical  drama,  Abraham 
Sacrifiant  (published  at  Geneva,  1550;  Eng. 
transl.  by  Arthur  Golding,  London,  1577,  ed., 
with  introduction,  notes,  and  the  French  text  of 
the  original,  M.  W.  Wallace,  Toronto,  1906),  in 
which  he  contrasted  Catholicism  with  Protes- 
tantism, and  the  work  was  well  received.  In  June, 
1551,  he  added  a  few  psalms  to  the  French  version 
of  the  Psalms  begun  by  Marot,  which  was  also  very 
successful.  About  the  same  time  he  published  his 
Pasaavantius,  a  satire  directed  against  Pierre  Lizet  of 
ill  repute,  formerly  president  of  the  Parliament  of 
Paris,  and  principal  originator  of  the  "  fiery  cham- 
ber "  (chambre  ardente)^  who,  being  at  the  time 
(1551)  abbot  of  St.  Victor  near  Paris,  was  eager 
to  acquire  the  fame  of  a  subduer  of  heresy  by  pub- 
lishing a  number  of  polemical  writings.  Of  a  more 
serious  character  were  two  controversies  in  which 
Beza  was  involved  at  this  time.  The  first  con- 
cerned the  doctrine  of  predestination  and  the  con- 
troversy of  Calvin  with  Bolsec  (see  Calvin,  John; 
BoLSEc,  J£r6me  HERMts).  The  second  referred 
to  the  burning  of  Michael  Servetus  (q.v.)  at 
Geneva  Oct.  27,  1553.  In  defense  of  Calvin  and 
the  Genevan  magistrates,  Beza  published  in  1554 
the  work  De  hareticia  a  civili  magistraiu  pttniendis 
(translated  into  French  in  1560). 

In  1557  Beza  took  a  special  interest  in  the  Wal- 
densians  of  Piedmont,  who  were  harassed  by  the 
French  government,  and  in  their  behalf  went  with 
Farel  to  Bern,  Zurich,  Basel,  Schafifhausen,  thence  to 
Strasburg,  MOmpelgart,  Baden,  and  Gdppingen.  In 
Baden  and  G6ppingen,  Beza  and  Farel  had  to  declare 

themselves     concerning     their      own 

3.  Journeys  and  the  Waldensians'  views  on  the 
in  behalf  of  sacrament,  and  on  May  14,  1557,  they 
the  Protes-  presented    a    written    declaration    in 

tants.  which  they  clearly  stated  their  posi- 
tion. This  declaration  was  well  received 
by  the  Lutheran  theologians,  but  was  stron^y 
disapproved  in  Bern  and  Zurich.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1557  Beza  undertook  a  second  journey 
with  Farel  to  Worms  by  way  of  Strasbiurg  to  bring 


7Q 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


B«2a 


ftbout  ao  intercesBion  of  the  Evangelical  prince;) 
of  the  empire  m  favor  of  tlie  per^culed  brethren 
at  P&ria.  With  Melanchthon  and  other  theologians 
tbeo  assembled  at  Worms,  Beza  ronsiderpcl  a  union 
1  Protestant  Christians,  but  thi*?  projKisal  was 
ily  negative<l  by  Zurich  and  Bern.  False 
having  reached  tlie  Cemian  priiirei*  that 
the  hostilitife  against  the  Hu^niiot^H  in  France  hud 
ceased,  no  embassy  waa  sent  to  the  court  i>f  France, 
Aod  Bcia  undertook  another  journey  in  the  interest 
of  the  Huguenots,  going  with  Farvl,  Juhannes  Bud- 
[kus,  irnii  Gaspard  Camiel  toStrasburp  and  Frank- 
fortj  where  the  sending  of  an  emba««y  to  F'aris  was 
rwolvd  upon. 

Upon  his  return  to  Lausanne,  Besa  was  greatly 
dirtorbed.  In  union  with  many  ministers  and 
profeffiora  in  city  and  country,  Viret  at  last  thouglit 
of  establishing  a  consistory  and  of  introducing  a 
church  discipline  which  should  inflict  excommu- 
DicatioQ  especially  at  the  celebration  of  the  cora- 
aainion.  But  the  Beme^^e  would  have  no  Oal- 
viftigtic  church   government.     This   cimsed   many 

difficulties,  and  Beza  thought  it  best 

4.  Settles  in  (1558)    to    settle    at    tVcneva.      Here 

Geneva,      he    occupied    at    firBt    the     chair    of 

Greek  in  the  newly  establislied  acad- 
emy» wad  after  Cal\in's  death  alVithat  of  rlieology; 
fawdtt  tbtB  he  was  obliged  to  preach.  He  com- 
pteked  the  reviaion  of  Olivetan's  translation  of  the 
Kew  Testament,  begun  some  years  before.  In  lii59 
beuadertook  another  journey  in  the  interest  of 
the  Huguenots,  tliistime  to  Heidelberg;  abtiut  the 
wnetlme  he  had  to  defend  Calvin  against  Joachim 
Wntphal  in  Hamburg  and  Tileman  Ilesshuaen 
(^*l  v.).  More  important  than  this  polemical  activ- 
ity was  Be*a*B  statement  of  his  own  confe&sion.  It 
*M  originally  prepared  for  his  father  in  justifica- 
w»  of  hia  course  and  published  in  re\'i.sed  form 
*o  piroroote  Evangelical  know^ledge  among  Bcza'n 
flOimirymen.  It  was  printed  in  Latin  in  1560  with 
>  dedication  to  Wolmar.  An  English  translation 
*M  published  at  London  1563,  1572.  and  1585. 
Tr«uJ«|jojig    into    German,    Dutch,    and    Italian 

u>  the  mean  time  things  took  such  shape  in 
Fwftoe  that  the  happiest  future  for  Protestantism 
f«nid  poasible.  King  .AJitony  of  Navarre,  yidd- 
•**§  U>  the  urgent  requests  of  Evangelical  noblemen, 
*»edwB(J  Jii^  willingnei^  to  Usten  to  a  prominent 
*^»dief  of  the  Church,  Bcza,  a  French  nobleman 
^oeid  of  the  academy  in  the  metropolis  of  French 
'**^t<»tAntism,  waa  invited  to  Castle  N<^rac.  but  he 
jo^duot  plant  the  seed  of  Evangelical  faith  in  the 
J^  ol  the  king.  In  the  year  following  (1561) 
^**  Wpreiiented  the  Evangelicals  at  the  Colloq\iy 
wPoMty  (q.v.),  and  in  an  eloquent  manner  defended 
the  prineiples  of  the  Evangelical  faith, 
5*  Ervnts  erf  The  colloquy  was  without  result, 
^S^Mij,  but  Bega  as  the  head  and  advocate  of 
all  Reformed  congregations  of  France 
*■*  Wtwed  and  hated  at  the  same  time.  The 
limonted  upon  another  colloquy,  which  was 
I  at  St.  Germain  Jan,  28,  15ii2,  eleven  days 
f  the  proclamation  of  the  famous  Januarj'  edict 
^»ch  graat45d  import-ant  pri\nlegcs  to  those  of  the 
***Onnod  luith.     But  the  colloquy  was  broken  off 


when  it  became  evident  that  the  Catholic  party 
was  preparing  (after  the  massacre  of  Vassy,  Mar,  I) 
to  overthrow  Protestantism,  Beaa  hastily  issued  a 
circular  letter  (Mar.  25)  to  all  Reformed  congrega- 
tions of  the  empire^  and  with  Cond^  and  his  troops 
went  to  Origans.  It  was  necessary  k)  proceed 
quickly  and  energetically.  But  there  were  neither 
soldiers  nor  money.  At  the  request  of  Cond^,  Beza 
visited  all  Huguenot  cities  to  obtain  hotli.  He  also 
wrot-e  a  manifesto  in  which  he  showed  the  justice  of 
the  Reformed  cause.  As  one  of  the  messengers  to 
esollect  soldiers  and  money  lunong  his  coreligionists, 
Bexa  was  appointi'^l  to  visit  Engiand,  Gennany, 
and  Switzerland.  He  went  to  Strasburg  and  Basel, 
but  met  with  failure.  He  then  returnetl  to  Geneva, 
which  lie  readied  8ept.  4.  He  had  hardly  been 
there  fourteen  days  when  he  was  called  once  more 
to  Orl('^rm.H  by  D'Andelot-  The  campaign  was  be- 
coming more  successful:  but  the  publication  of  the 
vmfortimnte  edict  of  pacification  which  Condfi 
accepted  tMar.  12J.563)  filled  Beza  and  all  Protest 
tant  France  with  horror. 

Tar  twenty-two  months  Beza  had  been  absent 
from  Geneva,  aJid  the  interests  of  school  and  Church 
there  and  especially  the  condition  of  Calvin  made 
it  necessary  for  him  to  return.  For  there  was  no 
one  to  take  the  place  of  Calvin,  who  wa,s  sick  and 
unable  longer  to  bear  the  burtlen  resting  on  him. 
Calvin  and  Beza  arranged  to  i-ierform  their  duties 
jointly  in  alternate  weeks,  but  the  death  of  Calvin 

occurred  soon  afterward  (May  27, 
6.  Calvin's  1564).  As  a  matter  of  course  Beza  was 
Successor,    his  successor.    Until   1580  Beza  was 

not  only  modtrateur  de  la  compagni^ 
des  pasteurs^  but  also  the  real  soul  of  the  great 
institution  of  learning  at  Geneva  which  Calvin  had 
foimdcd  in  1559,  consisting  of  a  gymniisium  and 
an  academy.  As  long  as  he  lived,  Beza  vvits  inter- 
ested in  higher  education.  The  Protestant  youth 
for  nearly  forty  years  thronged  his  lecture-room  to 
hear  his  theological  lectures,  in  which  he  expounded 
the  purest  Calvinistic  orthodoxy.  As  a  counselor 
he  was  listened  to  by  both  mngistnites  and  pastors. 
Geneva  is  indebted  to  liim  for  the  founding  of  a 
law  school  in  wliich  Frangois  Hotman,  Jules  Pacius, 
and  Denyd  Godefroy.  the  most  eminent  jurists  of 
the  century,  lectured  in  turn  (ef,  Charles  Borgeaud, 
UAcmltmie  de  Catinn,  Geneva,  1900). 

As  Caivin's  successor,  Beza  was  very  sucoeasful, 
not  only  in  carrying  on  his  work  but  also  in  giving 
peace  to  the  Church  at  Geneva.  The  magistrates 
had  fully  appropriated  the  ideas  of  Calvin,  and  the 
direction  of  spiritual  affairs,  the  organs  of  which 
were  the  "  ministers  of  the  word  "  and  "  the  con- 
sistory'," was  fonnded  on  a  solid  basis.  No  doctrinal 
controversy  arose  after  15(14.  The  discussions 
concerned  questions  of  a  practical,  social,  or  ecde- 
8iastic^d  nature,  such  as  the  supremacy  of  the 
magistrates  over  the  pastors,  freedom  in  prcachingi 

and  the  obligation  of  the  pastors  to  sub- 

7.  Course  of  mit  to  the  majority  of   the  compagnie 

Events  after  de.t  pasteurs.     Be»a  obtruded  his  will  in 

1564.        no  way  upon  his  associates,  and  took 

no  harsh  mea^Buros  against  injudicious 
or  hot-headed  colleagues,  though  aometimee  he  took 
their  cases  in  hand  and  acted  as  mediator;  and  yet  he 


Bianohini 


THE  NEW   SCUAFF-HERZOG 


80 


often  experienced  an  opposition  so  extreme  that 
he  threatened  to  resign.  Although  he  was  in- 
clined to  take  the  part  of  the  magistrates,  he 
knew  how  to  defend  the  rights  and  independ- 
ence of  the  spiritual  power  when  occasion  arose, 
without,  however,  conceding  to  it  such  a  pre- 
ponderating influence  as  did  Calvin.  His  ac- 
tivity was  great.  He  mediated  between  the  com- 
pagnie  and  the  magistracy;  the  latter  continually 
asked  his  advice  even  in  political  questions.  He 
corresponded  with  all  the  leaders  of  the  Reformed 
party  in  Europe.  After  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew (1572),  he  used  his  influence  to  give  to  the 
refugees  a  hospitable  reception  at  Geneva.  About 
this  time  he  wrote  his  De  jure  magistratuum,  in 
which  he  emphatically  protested  against  tyranny 
in  religious  matters,  and  affirmed  that  it  is  legiti- 
mate for  a  people  to  oppose  an  unworthy  magis- 
tracy in  a  practical  manner  and  if  necessary  to  use 
weapons  and  depose  them.  To  sum  up:  Without  be- 
ing a  great  dogmatician  like  his  master,  nor  a  crea- 
tive genius  in  the  ecclesiastical  realm,  Beza  had  quali- 
ties which  made  him  famous  as  humanist,  exegete, 
orator,  and  leader  in  religious  and  politick  affairs, 
and  qualified  him  to  be  the  guide  of  the  Calvinists 
in  all  Europe.  In  the  various  controversies  into 
which  he  was  drawn,  Beza  often  showed  an  excess 
of  irritation  and  intolerance,  from  which  Bernar- 
dino Ochino,  pastor  of  the  Italian  congregation  at 
Zurich  (on  account  of  a  treatise  which  contained 
some  objectionable  points  on  polygamy),  and 
Sebastian  Castellio  at  Basel  (on  account  of  his 
Latin  and  French  translations  of  the  Bible)  had 
especially  to  suffer.  With  Reformed  France  Beza 
continued  to  maintain  the  closest  relations.  He 
was  the  moderator  of  the  general  synod  which 
met  in  April,  1571,  at  La  Rochelle  and  decided 
not  to  abolish  church  discipline  or  to  acknowledge 
the  civil  government  as  head  of  the  Church,  as  the 
Paris  minister  Jean  Morel  and  the  philosopher 
Pierre  Ramus  demanded;  it  also  decided  to  con- 
firm anew  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  (by  the  expression:  "substance  of  the 
body  of  Christ ")  against  Zwinglianism,  which 
caused  a  very  unpleasant  discussion  between  Beza 
and  Ramus  and  Bullinger.  In  the  following  year 
(May,  1572)  he  took  an  important  part  in  the  na- 
tional sjmod  at  Nimes.  He  was  also  interested  in 
the  controversies  which  concerned  the  Augsburg 
Confession  in  Germany,  especially  after  1564,  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  jxirson  of  Christ  and  the  sacra- 
ment, and  published  several  works  against  West- 
phal,  Hesshusen,  Selnecker,  Johann  Brenz,  and 
Jakob  Andrea.  This  made  him,  especially  after 
1571,  hated  by  all  those  who  adhered  to  Luther- 
anism  in  opposition  to  Melanchthon. 

The  last  polemical  conflict  of  importance  Beza 
encoimtered  from  the  exclusive  Lutherans  was  at 
the  O)lloquy  of  Miimpelgart  (q.v.),  Mar.  14-27, 
1586,  to  which  he  had  been  invited  by  the  Lutheran 
Count  Frederick  of  Wtirttemberg  at  the  wish  of  the 
French  noblemen  who  had  fled  to  Miimpelgart. 
As  a  matter  of  course  the  intended  union  which 
was  the  purpose  of  the  colloquy  was  not  brought 
about;  nevertheless  it  called  forth  serious  develoi>- 
ments  within  the  Reformed    Church.     When  the 


edition  of  the  acts  of  the  colloquy,  as  prepared 
by  J.   Andre&,  was  published,  Samuel  Ruber,  of 

Burg  near  Bern,  who  belonged  to  the 

8.  The  Col-  Lutheranizing    ifaction   of  the  Swin 

loquy  of    clergy,  took  so  great  offense  at  the 

Miimpd-    supralapsarian  doctrine    of    predesti- 

gart        nation   propounded    at    MOmpelgart 

by  Beza  and  Musculus  that  he  felt 
it  to  be  his  duty  to  denounce  Musculus  to  the 
magistrates  of  Bern  as  an  innovator  in  doctrine. 
To  adjust  the  matter,  the  magistrates  arranged  a 
colloquy  between  Huber  and  Musculus  (Sept.  2, 
1587),  in  which  the  former  represented  the  imi- 
versalism,  the  latter  the  particularism,  of  grace. 
As  the  colloquy  was  resultiess,  a  debate  was  a^ 
ranged  at  Bern,  Apr.  15-18,  1588,  at  which  the 
defense  of  the  accepted  system  of  doctrine  was 
at  the  start  put  into  Beza's  hands.  The  three 
delegates  of  the  Helvetic  cantons  who  presided  at 
the  debate  declared  in  the  end  that  Beza  had 
substantiated  the  teaching  propounded  at  MOm- 
pelgart as  the  orthodox  one,  and  Huber  was  dia- 
missed  from  his  oflice. 

After  that  time  Beza's  activity  was  confined 
more  and  more  to  the  affairs  of  his  home.  His 
faithful  wife  Claudme  had  died  childless  in  1588, 
a  few  days  before  he  went  to  the  Bern  Disputation. 

Forty  years  they  had  lived  hapiwly 

9.  Last      together.    He  contracted,  on  the  ad* 

Dajrs.       vice  of  his  friends,  a  second  marriage 

with  Catharina  del  Piano,  a  Cienoese 
widow,  in  order  to  have  a  helpmate  in  his  declining 
years.  Up  to  his  sixty-fifth  year  he  enjoyed  ex- 
cellent health,  but  after  that  a  gradual  sinking 
of  his  vitality  became  perceptible.  He  was  active 
in  teaching  till  Jan.,  1597.  The  saddest  experience 
in  his  old  days  was  the  conversion  ol  King  Henry  IV 
to  Roman  Catholicism,  in  spite  of  his  most  earnest 
exhortations  (1593).  Strange  to  say,  in  1596  the 
report  was  spread  by  the  Jesuits  in  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  Italy  that  Beza  and  the 
Church  of  Geneva  had  returned  into  the  bosom  of 
Rome,  and  Beza  replied  in  a  satire  that  revealed 
the  possession  still  of  his  old  fire  of  thought  and 
vigor  of  expression.  He  was  not  buried,  like 
Calvin,  in  the  general  cemetery,  Plain-Palais  (for 
the  Savoyards  had  threatened  to  abduct  his  body 
to  Rome),  but  at  the  direction  of  the  oiagistrateBt 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Pierre. 

In  Beza's  literary  activity  as  well  as  in  his  life, 
distinction  must  be  made  between  the  period  of  the 
humanist  (which  ended  with  the  publication  of  his 
Juvenilia)  and  that  of  the  ecdesiastic.    But  later 

productions  like  the  humanistic,  biting, 

10.  Human-  satirical   Passavantius  and  his  Coin^ 

istic  and     plairUe  de  Me^sire  Pierre  Lizet  .  .  . 

Historical    prove  that  in  later  years  he  occasioii- 

Writings.    ally  went  back  to  his  first  love.    In 

his  old  age  he  published  his  Cato 
cenaorius  (1591),  and  revised  his  Poemaia,  from 
which  he  purged  juvenile  eccentricities.  Of  his 
historiographical  works,  aside  from  his  Icones  (1580), 
which  have  only  an  ioonographical  value,  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  famous  Histaire  ecd^masHqve 
dea  6glise8  r^forrrUee  au  Royaume  de  France  (1580), 
and  his  biography  of  Calvin,  with  which  must  be 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bi&nohlm 


is  ediiioti  of  Calvin's  Bpi»ioim  ei  re^ponsa 

U  these  humamstic  and  historical  atudies 
ed  by  hk  theologicai  productions  (con- 
i  Tractaiumen  thealogictE),     In  these  Beza 

appc^ars  the  perfect  pupil  or  the  alter 
10-  ego  of  Calvin*  His  view  of  life  Is 
il     deterministic    and    the    basis    of    hiB 

religiouB  thinking  is  the  predestinate 

recogmtion  of  the  necessity  of  all  t^^ni- 
dsteoce  as  an  effect  of  the  ab.^lute, 
and  immutable  will  of  God,  so  that  even 
of  the  human  race  appc*ars  to  him  essential 
[liviDe  plan  of  the  world.  In  most  luciil 
fieia  shows  in  tabular  form  the  connection 
wligious  views  which  emanated  from  thin 
btal  supra)  apsari  an  mode  of  thought. 
added  to  his  highly  instructive  treatise 
toUuB  ChriHtianisnii, 

lett  importaace  are  the  contributions  of 
Biblical  science.  In  1565  he  issued  an 
bI  the  Greek  New  Testament,  accompanied 
el  oolumnfi  by  the  text  of  the  Vulgate  and  a 
of  his  own  (already  published  as  early 
)*  Annotation-^  were  added,  also  previ- 
iblished,  but  now  he  greatly  enriched   and 

enlarged  them.  In  the  preparation  of 
mH  this  edition  of  the  Greek  text,  but  much 
tow  more  in  the  preparation  of  the  second 
nt  edition  which  he  brought  out  in  \5fi2, 

Besa  may  have  availed  himaelf  of  the 
two  very  valuable  manuscripts.  One  is 
IS  the  Codex  Baa:  or  Cantabrkjcn^U,  antl 
r  tireeented  by  Beza  to  the  University  of 
^;  the  fiecond  is  the  Codex  Ciaromontanuitf 
leta  had  foimd  in  Clermont  (now  in  the 
[  Library  at  Paris).  It  was  not,  however. 
sources  that  Bexa  was  chiefly  indebted, 
ler  to  the  previous  edition  of  the  eminent 
itepbena  (1550),  itself  based  in  great  meas- 
n  one  of  the  later  editions  of  Erasmus. 
iaborv  in  this  direction  were  exceetlingly 
to  those  who  came  after.  The  same  thing 
unerted  with  equal  truth  of  hin  Latin 
ind  of  the  copious  notes  with  which  it  was 
i&ied.  The  former  is  said  to  have  been 
d  over  a  hundretl  times.  It  is  Uy  be  re- 
that  the  author's  view  of  the  dfictrine  of 
nation  exercised  upon  the  interpretation 
plure  too  preponderating  an  influence. 
I,  there  is  no  question  that  Beza  nddeti 
I  A  dear  understanding  of  the  New  Testa- 

EUGfeNE  Cm)I8Y. 

AttT,  J.  W.  BftUta,  T.  Beta  nach  hand»chriftiithen 
^mgimtiaiiliif*^  QutUtn.  Lejp^ic.  1843-&2  (miu^ 
nil  •acbtiKla  only  to  1663)^  hJJi  life  by  Hepp«  in  m 
of  Lti^  uwi  OMagmfii^ilU  Sdknfttn  dtr  VHter  der 
Hm  Kit^*,  Elbf!rf«M»  1861  (complete  itnd  exceU 
ilbriorofUy  to  Bftum);  A.  d«  Ia  Faye.    £>*»  mta  et 

fi«f«.  GenftVB.  1600  (by  a  fftvorite  pupil  of  Be  mi); 

B6b&t^  iiiffotry  dt  ta  vi^,  tntturt,  dodrirut  mt  dS* 
Mil  4b  T.  dr  Bit*,  PftrtA.  1582.  republished  Geneva, 
taMi  CallioUe,  a  teurrilouii  and  mali^aot  libel): 
llhluiMtf,  L#6#«i   dn    Thtodar    Btan    ^nd  dr»  Pttrr 

Kfmnalt*  HaidelbefE.  1809;  E.  and  E  Hoae.  La 
WvM^ntK  2(1  «d.  by  Bordier^  u,  520-640.  Parii^. 
L  It  lleOaekeci,  tAv^  of  Iht  Uttder*  of  Our  Church 
wL  flroai  the  Oann.  of  F.  Piper,  pp,  352-3(^2, 
y^km,  1S79;  Sohaff,  Ckriatian  Church,  vol.  vii,  pas- 


flim,  especially  ehap.  zix;  Moeller.  CkriMtian  Chutek,  .o1. 
til,  pAMitn;  C.  v.  Prooadjj.  7".  Beza  mtdear(*t\ter  en  opvol- 
oer  van  Caimjn,  Leydca.  1S05;  H,  M,  Baird,  Theitdttrfi 
Beza,  the  Counaeltor  of  the  French  Rtfarmation,  New  York, 
t  s<>i>  I  the  one  book  in  Engliah,  and  a  worthy  treatment 
>>f  Lher  subject),  cf,  his  Rise  of  the  HuouenoU,  p«judm, 
lb.  1870;  A,  Bemiui*  T.  dt  Bkt£  a  Lautanne^  Lausanna. 
1900;  E.  Choisy,  L'^tai  ekriiitn  calvtmtU  ik  Omiv€  au 
temp*  de  T.  de  B^m,  CJeneva,  1002;  Cambridge  Modvn 
ffiatorif,  vol.  ii.  The  Heformalifm^  passim,  vol.  iii,  London. 
1904;  ;t  Thiod^e  de  Bhee  U $06-1 90S}.  Qeitcva.  10OG. 

BEZOLD.  b&"«i'il.r.  CARL  ERNST  CHRISTIAlf: 

German  Orientaligt ;  b.  at  Doiiauvv<jrth  (25  ni.  n,n,w. 
of  Augsburf^).  Bavariap  May  \H,  1859.  He  wa« 
educated  at  tlie  utiivemities  of  Munich  (1876-79), 
Leipsic  (1870-80;  Ph.D.,  1881),  atid  Stra^bur^ 
(1881),  and  became  privat-docent  at  Munich  in 
1883.  He  continued  his  studies  at  Rome  in  the 
spring  of  1884  and  at  London  in  the  summer  of 
1882  and  1887.  wliile  fmm  !888  to  1894  be  waa 
employ  eti  in  the  British  Museum*  Si  nee  the  latter 
year  he  has  been  professor  of  Oriental  philologj' 
and  director  of  the  Oriental  seminar  at  the  Vm- 
versity  of  Heidelberg.  In  1884  he  founded,  at 
Leipsie,  the  Zcitachrift  fur  Keilsrhriftforschumf, 
which  was  continui^j  in  tlie  following  year  as  the 
Zeiinchri/t  fur  Aasifriolitgie,  ami  which  he  Urns  eihted 
to  the  preaent  time.  He  likewise  edited  the  second 
echtion  of  C.  F.  A,  DiMmann*fl  Grammotik  dcr 
dihiopUchen  Sprache  (Leipsic.  1899) and  the  Orienla- 
lische  Studien  in  honor  of  the  sei^entieth  birthduy 
of  T.  N5ldeke  (2  vols,,  Gieaaen»  mm),  and  was 
the  founder  and  editor  of  the  Setn{ii»li^cke  Siudien 
(Berlin,  1894  sqq.).  In  !9U4  he  became  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Archiv  fur  Rdigionjnms$en*cha/t. 
Ho  has  also  written  Die  grosse  Dariusinschrijt  am 
Fehenvon  Behiahm  (Leipsic,  1881);  Die  Achimcni^ 
deniTiHchnfien  (1882);  Die  SchoizhdhU,  syrisch  und 
deutJich  (2  vols,,  1883-88);  The  Ordinary  Canon  of 
Ute  Mass  accJirding  to  the  Uac  of  the  Coptic  Church, 
in  C.  A.  Swainson's  Greek  IJturg^les  (Tx>ndon,  1884); 
Kurzgefassier  UeheTbiick  liber  di^  bf^ylonisch-oB^ 
stfrische  Literatur  (Leipsic,  1886);  Catalogue  of  the 
Cuneiform  TaMcU  in  the  KouifiAnjik  Colketion  of 
the  Brili^h  Mmeujn  (5  vols.,  London,  1889-99); 
The  Teti-ei-Ajnama  Tablets  in  the  British  Museum 
(1892);  Oriental  Diplomacy  (1893);  Ninive  und 
Babylon  (Bielefeld,  191)3) ;  Die  babyhnisch-assyrischen 
Keilinschriften  und  ihre  Bedeuiung  fiirdas  Alte  Tesia- 
m^af  (Tabingen,  19(34);  Babyioni^ch-Asayrisehe  Texte 
ulwrsclzt  :  t.  Die  Schopfungslcgende  (Bonn,  1904);  and 
Kebra  Nagast,  die  Herrlkhkeit  der  Konige  (Ethiopic 
text  and  Gerniiin  translation ^  Munich,  1905). 

BLAlfCHINT,  brMn^kl'ni  (BLAJVCHBfUS),  GFU- 
SEPPE:  Italian  BibUcal  scholar;  b.  at  Verona 
Sept.  9,  1704;  d.  after  1760,  He  wao  a  memlK-r 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory,  and  the  author 
of  two  works  bearing  on  the  hintory  of  the  Itiila; 
Psalterium  duplex  juxta  aniiquam  ilafiram  ver- 
sionem  (Rome,  1740)  and  Evangeliarium  qua- 
druplex  Ixdinw  ver»ionis  antiqum  9eu  veteris  Italiece 
(2  vols.,  1749).  The  detailed  statements  in  the 
first  volume  are  valuable,  but  the  text  is  inferior 
to  Sabatier's  Bibliorum  aacrorum  Ledinm  versionis 
antitpid  (ReiniH,  1739  sqqj.  The  second,  con- 
taining some  older  codices,  KuppJement.^  Sabatier. 

K.  Bl^irBATH. 


Bible 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


82 


BIBLE. 

The  Bible  in  the  Early  Church  (§  1). 

In  the  Middle  Ages  and  Reformation  Period  (§2). 

Modem  Views  and  Criticism  (§3). 

Wherein  the  Bible  is  Unique  (§  4). 

The  word  "  Bible  "  (from  Gk.  hiblia,  "  books  ") 
or  "  Holy  Scripture "  is  the  customary  term  in 
Church  and  theology  for  the  ecclesiastically  ac- 
knowledged collection  of  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament  writings.  As  the  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament  canon  are  indicated  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment by  the  term  "The  Scriptures"  or  "The 
Scripture/'  so  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  whole  was 
designated  by  "  The  Books."  By  a  misunder- 
standing of  the  Greek  form,  the  word  was  received 
into  the  modem  languages  as  a  singular  of  feminine 
gender. 

The  separation  of  these  writings  from  all  other 
literature  as  "  the  Book  of  Books  "  is  derived  from 
the  practise  of  Jesus,  who,  with  his  contem- 
poraries, acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Old 
Testament  literature  (M.  Kaehler,  Jesus  und  das 
AUe  Testament,  Leipsic,  1895).  The  Old  Testa- 
ment was  conveyed,  in  the  Greek  translation  of  the 
Septuagint,  as  the  Word  of  God,  to  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians by  the  followers  of  Jesus.  At  the  latest  in  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century,  the  New 
I.  The  Bible  Testament  canon  was  added  to  the  Old 
in  the  Early  Testament,  as  is  witnessed  by  the  Syr- 
Church,  iac  version  (see  Canon  of  Scripture). 
And  from  that  time  the  bipartite  col- 
lection was  always  treated  as  a  whole,  although  the 
uncertainty  about  some  books  (the  so-called  ArUi- 
legomena)  was  not  forgotten  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  recognized  by  Luther  and  other  Reformers, 
and  was  treated  from  a  dogmatic  standpoint 
by  Martin  Chemnitz  (Examen  concUii  Tridentini, 
Frankfort,  1596).  The  controversy  about  the  Old 
Testament  Apocrypha  has  never  been  settled. 
What  esteem  the  Bible  enjoyed  in  the  ancient 
catholic  Church  is  seen  from  its  controlling  position 
in  divine  service,  in  the  reading  of  Scripture,  and  in 
the  delivery  of  sermons  founded  on  it,  but  especially 
from  the  labor  spent  in  translating  it  (see  Bible 
Versions,  A). 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  Middle  Ages 
did  not  rightly  appreciate  the  Bible.     It  is  necessary 
to  take  into  account  the  great  difficulties  which 
confronted  the  Church  at  that  time  in  forming  an 
ecclesiastical  language,   and  even  a  hterary  lan- 
guage, for  the  Germanic  and  Slavic  nations.     In 
the  absence  of  modem  philology  the  efforts  made 
are  worthy  of  acknowledgment.     The 
a.  In  the     hierarchical  development  of  the  Church 
Middle      tended   to   paralyze   it   by   enforcing 
Ages  and     uniformity  in  use  of  the  church-lan- 
Reforma-    guage  at  the  expense  of  intelligibility, 
tion  Period,  and  in  the  interest  of  an  easier  man- 
agement put   the   "  heretical   book  " 
into  the  keeping  of  the  ecclesiastical  magistracy. 
But  the  Reformation  introduced  a  new  epoch  of 
wide  propagation  and  appreciation  of  the  Bible. 
The  efforts  of  the  Reformers  to  make  tliis  book 
accessible  to  all  Christians  were  taken  up  by  Pietism 
under  Spener;  the  foimding  of  the  Canstein  Bible 
Institute  (see  Bible  Societies,  II,  1;  Canstein, 


Karl  Hildebrand,  Baron  of)  and  the  sending  out 
of  the  first  missionaries  opened  the  double  way  by 
which  the  Bible,  especially  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, has  obtained  its  commanding  position  in  the 
world;  knowledge  of  the  Bible  has  been  spread  by 
the  Bible  Societies  (q.v.)  through  hundreds  of  new 
translations  (a  work  in  which  En^ishmen  and 
Scotchmen,  well  read  in  the  Scriptures,  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves).  The  Bible  has  become 
in  the  fullest  sense  the  people's  book  in  all  Prot- 
estant countries  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  same 
process  is  being  repeated  among  the  non-Christian 
nations,  to  which  missionary  cooperation  gives 
the  Bible  and  with  it  often  also  an  alphabet  and 
a  Uterary  language. 

This  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  Bible  has 
its  root  in  the  unique  im jk)rtance  which  the  theology 
of  the  Reformation  ascribes  to  it.  In  opposition 
to  the  ecclesiastical  position  of  Rome,  the  Evan- 
gelicals developed  their  doctrine  of  the  "  norma- 
tive or  decisive  authority  of  Scripture"  on  the  basis 
of  the  uncontroverted  character  of  the  Scripture 
as  revelation.  This  high  regard  has  as  its  founda- 
tion the  doctrine  of  "  verbal  inspiration "  (see 
Inspiration),  which  ascribes  to  the  Bible  all 
requisite  qualities,  such  as  "  perfection  "  in  com- 
municating the  "  knowledge  necessary  for  salva- 
tion," "  transparency,"  and  the  "  power  of  inter- 
preting itself  by  itself."  Unobserved,  the  body  of 
pure  doctrine,  by  the  help  of  which  the  renewal 
of  evangelical  activity  had  been  accomplished, 
became  transformed  into  a  set  of  doctrines  which 
were  mechanically  combined,  regardless  of  their 
historical  origin.  In  opposition  to  the  adulterated 
tradition  of  Rome,  Protestantism 
3.  Modem  could  happily  refer  to  the  bulwark 
Views  and  of  Scripture,  in  which  Roman  Catho- 
Criticism.  lies  also  acknowledged  divine  reve- 
lation. But  evangelical  theology  first 
succumbed  to  the  attack  which  the  "  Enlighten- 
ment "  (Aufkldrung),  about  the  middle  of  theeightr 
eenth  century,  made  upon  all  history  and  tradi- 
tion and  especially  upon  historical  revelation.  In 
vain  the  effort  was  made  to  prove  dogmatically 
the  immediate  divine  origin  of  the  Bible-letter, 
while  proof  was  also  given  in  an  eveivcogent  man- 
ner that  the  Bible  is  a  production  of  human 
authorship  and  tradition.  This  crisis  was  gradu- 
ally overcome  by  the  victory  gained  for  the 
"  historico-critical  "  method  of  treating  the  Bible, 
but  the  right  of  historical  fevelation  was  estab- 
lished over  against  "  natural  morah'ty  and  re- 
ligion." As  in  earlier  times  historical  development 
within  the  Bible  was  now  and  then  perceived 
(e.g.,  by  Cocceius  and  Bengel),  so  now  students 
see  in  its  writings  documents  of  divine  revelation 
which  entered  into  the  human  world  as  historical 
facts  (so  the  Erlangen  School).  Only  one  group 
of  theologians  of  the  nineteenth  century  (e.g., 
Hengstenberg  and  Rudelbach)  went  back  again  to 
the  old  doctrine  of  verbal  inspiration;  most  investi- 
gators assumed  a  new  attitude  toward  Scripture. 
Documents  to  have  value  must  be  shown  to  be  an- 
cient and  to  be  derived  from  a  time  near  the  events 
they  relate;  there  must  be  testimony  to  their  genu- 
ineness and  credibiUty.    But  such  merely  faiiBtor- 


\ 


kti  conridenition  of  the  Bible  proved  insufficient 
«od  dmgefous  in  the  next  pericKl.     ''  Liberal  the- 
okg;^,  endowed  with  technical  skill/'  showed  error 
in  Bihlieal  tradition  from  a  critical  point  of  view, 
atiii  in  place  of  the  Biblical   evidences   it   substi- 
tutd  c^jDJectiirally  the  details  of  a  natural  history 
of  religion^  which  it  compostxl  after   the  Hegelian 
formula  Ut  the  effect  that  in  the  **  historical  revela- 
tioii"  there   is   to  be   seen   the    development    of 
A  n^ioua  idea,  an  act  in  the  drama  of  the  natural 
devtlopment   of    humanity    (»o    F,    C.    Baur,    E. 
RiMB,  and  Wellhausen).     The  results  of  this  mod- 
era  eriticiam  were  propagated  among  the  people 
llmMigb  the  press  and   by  pamphtetfi  in   a  wild 
OQiifttfbo  along  with  the  older,  would-be  enlight* 
cncnf  defamatioOB  of  the  Bible  (so  by  Reimarus, 
VeQiurini,  and  Bahrdt).     Over  against  this  sprang 
up«  ooroprehenaive  Uteraturc  which  sought  to  gain 
thoie  who  were  estninged  from  the  Bible  and  to 
Rumufe  disquieted  readers.     It  was  baaed  on  an 
Mktiairledgment  of  the  part  the  revelation  of  God 
hm  played  in  the  education  of  the  race,  and  in  a 
identific  manner   diaearvled   the   unjustified   con- 
diaioQS  of   the   so-called    constructive    criticism, 
il  kast  u  far  as  the  New  Testament  is  concerned. 
In  this  intellectual  battle  it  became  evident  that 
the  Mtimate  of  the  Bible  stands  in  an  indissolubly 
ndprocal  relation   to  the  position  taken  toward 
positive  Christianity  in  general. 

It  is  therefore  absolutely  necessary  (especially 
fw  the  Hunistry  and  for  ecclesiastical  mstniction) 
to  have  a  dear  insight  into  that  which  makes  our 
Bible  the  unique  "  Book  of  Books."  Thia  is  ob- 
tkiM  by  obe^rving  what  it  is  that  has  given  the 
Hbleit^  hi«torical  position.  Throughout  the  whole 
(DQiai  of  its  working  in  the  human  race  the  Bible 
ipplUB  only  io  clo«e  connection  with  the  Church, 
thi  awMtn^iil  activity  of  which,  according  to  the 
AogAiurg  Coafeasion  (vii),  is  the  preaching  of  **  the 
W<iitl/'  The  common  object  of  both  is  to  convey 
th«  ffvelation  of  the  living  Goti.  Whoever  has 
^'ftBDiiie  m  believer  in  the  Gospel  and  recalla  his 
ttptticnce  perceives  also  that  the  service  of  the 
Wth  by  which  he  waa  led  to  it  was  inepiretl  by 
*he  Bible,  and  further  observation  of  life  and  history 
^tliChei  that  the  efHcacy  of  the  work  of  the  Church 
^  ^epoidetit  OD  the  u:^  it  makes  of  the  Bible. 
Forootyin  the  Scripture  is  found  the  unchangeable 
and  therefore  authoritative  form  of 
♦•Wbetin  preaching  which  first  intluced  faith 
^*  Bible  is  in  Chri/*t  and  contmue^i  so  to  do.  On 
tTniquc*  the  other  hand,  the  Christian  also 
riKogniEes  that  his  personal  relation 
*o  ib«  Bible  ia  due  to  the  **  hving  voice  of  the  Gos- 
N"  and  that  through  the  Church  he  comes  into 
fs^oiUkl  ndation  with  the  Bible.  He  undfrstJinds 
*^  that  the  Bible  is  the  book  of  the  Church  (so 
Uihetl  but  not  a  text^-book  or  devotional  book 
^ydl  in  all  its  parts  is  immediately  useful  to  the 
^vidual  Clmstian.  In  it  are  found  productions 
•bich  am  f%r  remote  from  odo  another  in  date, 
*hich  odgifl&lly  were  intended  for  entirely  different 
Me»  with  quite  peculiar  wanti?.  On  this  accoimt 
Off  tb»  ooopemtion  of  different  gifts  and  the  dili- 
|Vee  of  get»er&tJonfl  working  on  a  scienti^e  ba^in 
eyi  fafiog  out  its  f uU  oontetit*     Under  the  assump- 


tion of  this  service  of  the  Church  each  living  Chris- 
tian has  the  possibility  of  coming  th\i.s  through  his 
Bible  into  immediate  touch  with  the  historical 
revelation  of  his  God  from  the  promise  of  tlie  cove- 
nant to  the  beginning  of  the  mi^Hion  to  the  Gentiles. 
While  liistorical  inquiry  establishes  the  historical 
continuation,  and  divides  the  whole  Bible  into 
single  historical  accounts  and  documents,  the  view 
of  most  Bible-readers  is  directed  only  to  the  Bible 
as  a  whole,  and  seeks  in  every  fragment  a  word  of 
God  applicable  to  immediate  questions  and  wants. 
These  divergent  interests  must  be  united  by  observ- 
ing that  the  individual  parts,  by  being  compre- 
hended as  *'  the  Bible,'*  receive  a  new  worthy  aiid 
that  in  this  very  form  they  obtain  an  imperishable, 
effective  continuity,  instead  of  being  merely  indi- 
vidual monuments  of  pant  times.  The  collection 
is  not  an  accidental  one,  but  transcribes  in  char- 
acteristic features  the  life  of  the  human  race  as 
it  developed  under  the  influence  of  the  history 
of  revelation.  To  bira  therefore  who  sees  in 
reliance  on  God  the  stay  of  human  life,  the  Bible 
will  also  be  the  book  of  the  human  race.  For 
Christian  belief  the  Bible  appears  thus  as  the  great 
fact  in  which  God  has  inst-'parably  interwoven  the 
faith-awakening  knowledge  of  liis  revelation  with 
the  history  of  the  human  race,  and  in  it  is  discerned 
the  clear  testimony  to  the  goal  of  the  human  race 
and  the  conquering  offer  of  God's  grace.  On  tliis 
account  it  remains  the  historical  and  at  the  same 
time  the  unchjuigeable  form  of  the  indispensable 
means  of  grace.  M,  Kaghlsr. 

BtauoGikAPfir:  M.  Amotdu  IMeraturt  and  Dofftna^  laiofit  ed., 
New  York.  1002  (a  rich  book,  but  on  r&tionmliiiie  baals; 
it  caJJed  forth  many  repliea  which  were  unswered  in  Ood 
and  Oie  BibU,  1SS4);  J.  H.  rruokcr,  The  Nrw  BibU  and 
itM  jVeto  Uw9  {Unitftriaix,  ultnLr&tionalistic);  G.  J,  Metft* 
ger.  Der  aUe  Bihelgtanhe  und  der  moderne  V ernunfUftaube^ 
SluttgBrt,  1893  («van««hciLn;  J.  T.  Jgunderl*nd.  Tht 
Bible  .  .  .  itM  Place  amang  the  Sarr^  Book*  of  the  World, 
New  York,  18»3  (Unitariiui);  J.  Demiey,  StudUs  in  TA*- 
otosfv,  LondoD.  1R05  {hy  a  leader  io  Eni;li4h  evan^lical 
thought);  A.  M.  FairlmJm.  Place  of  ChrUt  in  Modtm 
Theoloov*  London,  1890  (moderata  in  its  theolt>gic»iJ  p€m- 
tioo);  P,  Mitltor.  Freinnn  und  BibelglatUie,  HamburB* 
1896;  W.  8an<iay,  /nxjnroHan,  London.  18W  {«dviini!«i 
in  the  0.  T.  part,  cotiBprvjitive  in  tr(>atini{  the  N,  T/)j 
R,  L.  Ottl*y.  AttptxU  of  ti^e  Old  TeatanutnL  London.  ISftS; 
T.  Z&hn,  Die  tHeib^nfie  Bedgutung  de*  ntutetUimentlirhen 
Kanont  fOr  die  Kirehe.  Lcipflic,  1898;  S.  Dernfold.  Da* 
Buch  der  BOchm',  U«?rUn,  1690;  C.  A.  BricBA«  O^neral  tn- 
troditcHon  to  tht  Stwiy  of  Hotu  Scripture.  New  York,  1899 
(comprt-henstve  and  ncholnrly);  R,  S,  MacArthur,  Bil>U 
Difficulhiifii  and  their  Allevialive  I nterjrretationn:^  Bus(4ju, 
1898;  idem,  The  Old  Book  and  thf  Old  Patth.  ib.  1899  (de- 
cidedly conservative);  L,  W.  t)aU(<n.  The  Old  Tf^tament 
from  the  .Vfodern  Point  of  Vieu;  New  York,  IWl .  It.  O. 
Moulturt.  Short  fntrodiictmn  to  the  Literature  af  the  BibU, 
Wofi-tan,  !90i;  R  Ciftrdn<?r.  Historic  Viem  of  the  Nett 
TcHiametit,  London,  1904  ( from  a  iscipiitific  standpoint  V; 
F  BHiex,  Die  BU>«1  Gotte*  Wtyrt.  3d  ed..  Stuttimrt.  1903. 
En«,  tmnsL.  Cincinnati,  1904;  J,  E.  Carpenler,  Th*  Bibh 
in  tiie  Nineteenth  Century,  London,  1903  Ucholarly  and 
nrcnnt,  but  on  adeiitificbanis);  J,  Haunali'iter.  £»w  Auto- 
rit/U  der  BQjel,  Uumch  (19041.  1905;  M.  DodA.  The  BibU, 
Om  Origin  and  Nature.  N<^w  York,  1906  (Dr.  tkida  is  well 
known  ns  a  conwfrvfttivo  critic);  J.  M.  Mi?Mulli)ii,  Th* 
Supremacy  of  the  Bible,  ib.  1906;  W,  Bwry;  The  TradUitm 
0f  Scripture,  iU  OHgin,  Autharity,  and  t  nterpretiUion,  Lon- 
don, 1906;  C.  F.  Kent.  Origin  and  Permanent  Value  of  tha 
O,  r..  New  York,  1906;  A.  T.  Pienw^n.  The  Bible  and 
Spiritual  Criticiem,  ib.  1900;  O.  F.  Wright.  Srien^fie 
Conjirmalitmt  of  O,  T,  //wrtory,  ib  IWOO;  W.  C.  S^^llwOt. 
New  Apprrriatitm  uf  the  Bible.  Chicj^cr*.  1907;  H,  F,  Wa^ 
rinji,  Chri#tinnity  arid  He  Bible,  ib.  1907. 


Bible  Christians 
Bible  Beading 


THE  NEW   SCHAl-F-HERZOG 


84 


BIBLE  CHRISTIANS  (BRYANTTES). 

William  O 'Bryan  (§1). 

Early  Organization  and  Growth  (§  2). 

DiBFension  (§3). 

Exti^nsion  to  America  and  Australia  (§  4). 

Union  with  the  Methodists  in  Canada  (§  5). 

Union  in  Australia  and  England  (§  6). 

Bible  Christians  or  Bryanites  are  popular  names 
of  a  body  of  Christians  officially  known  as 
the  Bible  Christian  Connection.  The  designation 
"  Bryanites "  is  from  their  founder,  William 
O'Bryan;  that  of  "  Bible  Christians  "  was  due  to 
the  persistent  use  of  the  Bible  in  private  devotions 
and  public  services  by  a  peasantry  in  general  but 
scantily  provided  with  the  book,  and  to  the  consistent 
practise  of  its  precepts  by  their  early  ministry. 
The  sect  has  usually  been  classed  with  the  Method- 
ists and  is  now  united  with  them. 

William    O'Bryan,    the    founder,    was    bom    in 

Gunwen  (near  Lostwithiel,  23  m.  w.  of  Plymouth), 

Cornwall,  England,  Feb.  6,  1778.     He  was  the  son 

of  a  yeoman,  was  possessed  of  a  vigorous  mind  and 

retentive  memory,  and,  having  a  good  elementary 

education,    was,    intellectually,    con- 

I.  William    siderably  above  his  class.     His  home 

O'Bryan.      influences    were    devoutly    religious 

and    resulted    in    his    conversion    at 

eighteen,  when  he  began  at  once  to  exhort.     He 

was  licensed  shortly  after  as  a  "  local  preacher  " 

with  the  hope  of  entering  the  Wesleyan  itinerancy; 

meanwhile  he  engaged  in  business. 

Serious  illness  (1804)  reawakened  in  him  a  pro- 
found conviction  of  his  call,  which  delay  and  oppo- 
sition had  weakened  for  a  time.  For  five  years 
more  he  was  content  to  work  on  the  Bodmin  circuit 
as  a  local  preacher  of  the  Wesleyans,  while  still 
in  business.  His  fine  presence,  courteous  manner, 
great  magnetism,  and  above  all  his  fervent  godli- 
ness gave  him  much  popularity  as  a  preacher. 
In  his  keen  hunting  for  souls,  he  grew  restive  under 
restraint,  overstepped  the  boundary  of  the  circuit 
and  plunged  into  the  "  wild  wastes  of  Cornwall  and 
North  Devon,"  where  the  voice  of  Methodism  had 
never  been  heard. 

This  in  the  mind  of  the  Wesleyan  authorities  was 
a  "  dangerous  irregularity  '*  of  method,  against 
which  Mr.  O'Bryan  had  been  cautioned,  and,  when 
he  appeared  at  the  district  meeting  as  a  candidate 
for  the  itinerancy,  caused  his  "  first "  rejection; 
the  financial  responsibility  which  would  be  incurred 
by  accepting  a  married  man,  as  he  now  was,  was 
named  as  the  "  second  "  cause  for  his  "  final  " 
rejection.  He  at  once  entered  unoccupied  fields 
in  a  new  campaign.  His  unquestioned  moral 
uprightness,  indefatigable  labors,  and  unsparing 
self-sacrifice  made  his  evangelical  message  remark- 
ably successful;  and  the  generosity  which  prompted 
him  to  urge  all  his  converts  to  enter  the  Church 
that  had  rejected  him  from  its  highest  office  of 
ministry  compels  admiration.  A  tendency  to 
despotic  rule,  to  which  by  nature  and  force  of 
circumstances  he  was  inclined  (see  below,  §  3),  led 
to  a  separation  in  1829  from  the  Connection  which 
he  had  founded,  and  in  1835  to  his  emigration  to 
the  United  States  with  residence  in  New  York  City. 
He  revisited  his  spiritual  children  more  than  once 


and  was  heartily  welcomed.  A  generous  pension 
was  provided  for  his  support  by  the  body.  He 
died  in  Brooklyn,  Jan.  8,  1868,  and  was  buried  in 
Greenwood  Cemetery. 

The  germ  of  the  Bible  Christian  denomination 
consisted  of  twenty-two  persons,  converts  of  Mr. 
O'Bryan,  who  were  organized  into  a  society  on 
Oct.  9, 1815,  in  the  house  of  John  Thome,  Shebbear. 
Devonshire,  England.     Within  a  year  this  number 
became   eighteen   ministers   and    1,500   members; 
and  at  the  sixth  year  seventy-eight  ministers  and 
6,200  members.    To. carry  forward  a  work  ext^id- 
ing  so  rapidly,  Mr.  O'Biyan  adopted 
2.  Early      John  Wesley's  plan  and  **  chose  and 
Organiza-    appointed  '  •  both  men  and  women  as 
tion  and     itinerants.    The  proportion  of  women 
Growth,      was  large  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Church,  and  their  work  was  eminently 
successful;    yet    their    niunber    steadily  declined 
and  ultimately  none  remained  in  the  itinerancy. 
With  this  working  force  evangelism  was  extended 
into  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  the  Scilly  and  Chan- 
nel Islands,  and  later  by  emigration  (1820-^)  to 
America. 

Organization  into  societies  and  circuits  required 
meeting-places  and  chapels — at  first  preaching  was 
mostly  in  the  field,  the  village  green,  in  hired  halls, 
and  in  houses — and  all  property  acquired  for  such 
purpose  was  held  in  Mr.  O'Bryan's  name.  He  also 
presided  over  the  conference,  the  first  being  held 
at  Launceston  (1819),  and  composed  of  ministers 
only.  To  all  this  absolutism,  there 
3.  Dis-  was  serious  objection,  and  an  effort 
sension.  to  secure  an  amended  deed  by  which 
all  property  should  be  held  in  trust 
for  the  Connection  was  begun  in  1826.  A  crisis 
was  reached  at  the  eleventh  conference  (1829), 
when  opposition  to  Mr.  O'Bryan's  expressed  inten- 
tion '*  that  if  all  the  conference  were  opposed  to  his 
views,  his  single  vote  was  to  determine  every  case," 
resulted  in  his  adjourning  the  conference,  and  with- 
drawing with  comparatively  few  sympathizers. 
The  conference  refused  to  recognize  his  authority, 
elected  Andrew  Cory  president  in  his  stead,  and 
proceeded  with  business.  It  was  resolved  **  that 
the  conference  be  the  organ  of  government;  its 
membership,  ministers  and  laymen;  and  its  next 
place  of  meeting  annually  fix«d."  The  conference 
thus  declared  against  an  episcopacy,  as  it  also  de- 
cided against  ecclesiasticism  by  admitting  lajmien 
to  church  government  in  equal  numbers  with 
clerical  members.  Eight  years  later  these  separa- 
tists negotiated  terms  of  reunion,  but  Mr.  CBiyan 
never  again  united. 

Many  members  of  the  infant  Chureh  emigrated 

to  the  colonies  and  the  United  States.     In  1831 

the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Bible  Christians  in 

England  sent  John  Glass  and  Francis 

4.  Exten-     Metherall  as  missionaries  to  Canada 

sion  to       West    and     Prince    Eklward     Island 

America     respectively.     They    also     organised 

and  Aus-    missions  (1846)  in  the  States  of  Wib- 

tralia.        consin,  Ohio,  and  Michigan.     In  1850 

James  Way  and  James  Rowe  were 

sent  out  to  Australia,  and  later  work  was  begun  in 

New  Zealand.     For  the  next  quarter  of  a  oentuiy 


^ 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Chrlfltiaas 
Bible  Beading 


(be  Cbupch  enjoyed  undisturbed  prosperity,  estab- 
^jAuiag  three  pubLishmg    botusea,  and    a    dcnoiiii- 
luitiocLAt  eoHege  at  Sbebbear,  Devonshire,  England, 
In  1882,  300  ministerB  and  34,000  roonibers  were  re- 
ported. Tbis  was  the  higli-water  mark  numerically, 
Tbcsie  years  of  extension  had  awakened,  in  a 
EDUCb  divided  Methodism,  a  eense  of  the  advisa- 
bility of  "  union/'  io  both  England  and  the  cfilo- 
^Dies.    The  center  of  diii^ussicjn  was  Canada,  where 
■five  Mctliodial  sects  wasted  their  energy  in  vigorous, 
■if  not  miBeemly,   rivalry.     As  early  im   IH64>  the 
Bibb  Christians  and   Methodist    New    Connection 
approached     the     Methodist     Protes- 
5*  Uoion      tants  of  the  United  States  upon  the 
with  the      question  of  union,  but  the    overture 
Methodists    ended    in    friendly   expreasiona   on!y. 
in  Cinada.  In  1870  the  Mcthodifft  New  Connection 
made  overtures  to   the   Bible  Chria- 
tiaos,  md  in    1874   the   former  were  absorbed    by 
the  Wesieyan   Methodists  of  Canm:la.     The  Bible 

^Chri»tiloa  announced  as  their  |)olicy~ a  policy 
oonsitcntly  beld  aince  organization — *'  That  any 
U<i«aF  union  to  be  acceptable  to  this  Conference 
mui*  ucure  io  the  laity  their  full  ahare  o/  privileges 
in  the  government  of  the  Church."  In  I8S2  & 
tOOUEuttee  was  appointed  by  the  Bible  Christians 

IU)  meet  with  three  other  committees,  refTewenting 
IheWedeyim  Methodists*  the  Primitive  Methodista, 
ind  the  Metbodkt  Episcopal  Churcti  of  Canada. 
Thii  oommittee  waa  explicitly  instructed  to  reaffirm 
"Ihii&o  union  would  be  possible  for  thfir  Church 
Ibit  did  not  pro\ide  for  a  representation  of  the 
^^  k  all  church  courts."  A  basis  of  union  was 
provided  acceptable  to  all  parties,  votetl  upon  by 
wity  iociety,  and  in  18S4  union  was  fully  imd 
h|lUj  perfected.  The  uniting  churches  chose  aa 
»a«ne  '*  The  MethocUst  Church  of  Canada."  The 
Plittit  body  graciously  consenteil  to  tlie  separa- 
tion, which  affected  the  work  in  Canada  and  the 
rnitedStatwonly, 

"Hie  energy  and  resources  of  the  English  and 

^Wfllian  conferences  were  now  devoted   to  an 

cinlargement    of    home    missions    and 

^'  Union  in    the  establishment  of  a  foreign  mission 

Aintialia    in  China,  which  has  been  succesaful. 

•od  E^g-    A  union  of  the  Australian  conference 

lial       with   other   MethotUst   Bcctu   in    that 

colony  left  but  the  parent  body  bear- 

••l  thft  name;    and    in    Aug,,  1906,   this   Church 

Jted  unanimously  to   unite   with   the  Methodist 

W  Connection  and  the  Unite<l   Methodists,  the 

•"W  to  be  formaily  and  legally  consumniatetl   in 

JSOT,   The  name  of  *'  United  Methodist  Church  " 

*^thM«i  for  the  new  organization.     At  the  time 

^  tpproring  the  union  the  Bible  Christiana  had 

^fillifieb,  202  mini-sters,  and  30,000  members. 

Francis  MrmERALL  Wbitlock* 


'***Mi4mi!  J.  Thome,  A  Jubilee  Memorial  of  the  iJite 
'■'  JStfrtM  of  th0  Bihh  Chritttan  Connexion,  London, 
>«tt;  J.  O,  HAyman.  A  Hut,  of  the  Mmthodiit  Revival  of 
^^C^nhuy  im  RMaiiim  to  North Dmon.  ib.  1885;  IJohn 
J«*9tJ,  Jamm  Thenm  H  SHthhmar,  a  Memoir  .  .  .  fr&m 
*JJ  Oianr  (Mfl  t«lliri,  ^  AU  Son,  ib.  1873;  F.  W.  Bourne. 
f*»Cmlrmttv  Ltfm  of  Jamm*  Thjrm,  ib.  18SMS:  Brief  B*l*- 
l^u»r  SkmtchM  of  BxhU  ChriMtmnB,  Jersey,  1905;  Th« 
^  «f  iHteipUnm  for  liU  P«op^  Known  a»  BihU  Chrx*- 
Aim.  LoMloa.  Ite  Bibb  Chriittaii  Book  Room. 


BIBLE   READIKG    BY   THE    LATIT,   RESTiaC- 
TIOKS  ON. 

L  Th«  Ancient  Church. 
II,  The  Middle  Agcia. 

III.  Tbe  lloman  C&thoLio  Chureb  «&i3e  the  Ilefonii»tioD. 
Actiou  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (i  1). 

Rulea  of  Various  Popes  <f  2). 

Rules  »nd  Prmcti«c  io  Different  C-ouiilricii  (j  3). 

IV.  The  Qnwk  Cburch, 

V.  Tbe  EviuiicelicaJ  Cburchos. 

L  The  Ancient  Church :  It  i»  indiBpy table  that 
in  Apostolic  times  the  Old  Te«tament  was  txjm- 
moniy  read  (John  v,  47;  Acts  viii,  28;  xvii,  11; 
II  Tim.  iii,  15).  Roman  Catholics  admit  that  thia 
reading  was  not  restricted  in  the  first  centuries, 
in  spite  of  its  abuse  by  Gnostics  and  other  heretics. 
On  the  contrary,  the  reading  of  Scripture  was  urged 
(Justin  Martyr,  xliv,  ANF,  i,  177-178;  Jerome, 
Adv.  libros  Rufini,  i,  9,  A'FA' F,  2d  ser.,  iii,  487); 
and  Pamphilus,  the  friend  of  Eusebiua,  kept  copies 
of  Scripture  to  furnish  to  those  who  desired  them, 
Chrysofltom  attached  considerable  importance  to 
the  reading  of  Scripture  on  tlie  part  of  the  laity 
and  di^nounced  the  error  that  it  was  to  be 
permitted  only  to  monks  and  priesta  {De  Lataro 
concio, iii,  MPtJ,  xlviii,  992;  Hom.ii  in  MaU.p  AfPG, 
Wil,  30,  NFNF,  2d  ser.,  x,  13).  He  insisted  upon 
access  being  given  to  the  entire  Bible,  or  at  least  to 
the  New  Testament  {Horn,  ix  in  Col,^  MPG,  Ixii, 
361,  NPXF,  xiii,  301 ).  The  women  also,  who  were 
always  at  home,  were  fill i gently  to  read  the  Bible 
{Hom,  XXXV  on  Gen.  xiif  MPG,  liii,  323).  Jerome 
recommended  the  reading  and  studying  of  Scrip- 
ture on  the  part  of  the  women  (j^pis^.,  cxxviii,  3, 
MPL,  xxii,  1098,  iVF.VF,  2d  ser..  vi,  259;  EpisL, 
Ixxix,  9,  A/ PC?,  xxii.  730-731,  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  vi, 
167).  Tlie  translations  of  the  Bible,  Augustine 
considered  a  blessed  means  of  propagating  the 
Word  of  God  among  the  nations  {IM  doctr,  cfiriM,, 
ii.5,  NFNF,  Ist  aer.,  ii,  536);  Gregory  I  recom- 
mended the  reading  of  the  Bible  without  placing 
any   limitations  on  it  {Horn,  iii   in   Euk.,  MPL, 

ixxvi,  mni 

n.  The  Middle  Ages;  Owing  to  lack  of  culture 
among  the  Germanic  and  Romanic  peoples,  there 
was  for  a  long  time  no  thought  of  restricting  access 
to  tbe  Bible  there.  Translations  of  Biblical  books 
into  German  began  only  in  the  Carol ingian  period 
and  were  not  originally  intended  for  the  laity. 
Nevertheless  the  people  were  anxio«s  to  have  the 
divine  service  and  the  Scripture  lessons  read  in 
the  vcniacular.  John  VI 11  in  880  permitted,  aft-cr 
the  reaxling  of  the  Latin  gospel,  a  translation  into 
Slavonic;  but  Gregory  VII,  in  a  letter  to  Duke 
Vratislav  of  Bohemia  in  1080  characterized  the 
custom  as  unwise,  bold,  imd  forbidden  {EpiM.t  vii, 
II:  P.  Jaff6,  ERG,  ii,  392  sciq.).  Tliis  was  a  fomial 
prohibition,  not  of  Bible  reading  in  general,  but  of 
divine  service  in  the  vernacular. 

With  the  appearance,  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses, 
who  appealed  to  the  Bible  in  all  their  dispute*  with 
the  Church,  the  hierarchy  was  furnished  with  a 
reason  for  shutting  up  the  Word  of  God.  The 
Synod  of  Toulouse  in  1229  forbade  the  laity  to  have 
in  their  poBaeeaion  any  copy  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament  except  the  Psalter  and 


Bible  Beadlnff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


86 


such  other  portions  as  are  contained  in  the  Breviary 
or  the  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Mary.  "  We  most 
strictly  forbid  these  works  in  the  vulgar  tongue  " 
(Harduin,  Concilia,  xii,  178;  Mansi,  Concilia,  xxiii, 
ld4).  The  Synod  of  Tarragona  (1234)  ordered  all 
vernacular  versions  to  be  brought  to  the  bishop  to 
be  burned.  James  I  renewed  this  decision  of  the 
Tarragona  synod  in  1276.  The  synod  held  there  in 
1317  under  Archbishop  Ximenes  prohibited  to 
Beghards,  Beguines,  and  tertiaries  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans the  possession  of  theological  books  in  the 
vernacular  (Mansi,  Concilia,  xxv,  627).  The  order 
of  James  I  was  renewed  by  later  kings  and  con- 
firmed by  Paul  II  (1464-71).  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  (1474-1516)  prohibited  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  the  vernacular  or  the  possession  of 
such  translations  (F.  H.  Reusch,  Index  der  ver- 
botenen  Bucher,  i,  Bonn,  1883,  44). 

In  England  Wyclif's  Bible-translation  caused 
the  resolution  passed  by  the  third  Synod  of 
Oxford  (1408):  "  No  one  shall  henceforth  of  his 
own  authority  translate  any  text  of  Scripture  into 
English;  and  no  part  of  any  such  book  or  treatise 
composed  in  the  time  of  John  Wycliffe  or  later  shall 
be  read  in  public  or  private,  under  pain  of  excom- 
munication "  (Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  vi,  984). 
But  Sir  Thomas  More  states  that  he  had  himself 
seen  old  Bibles  which  were  examined  by  the  bishop 
and  left  in  the  hands  of  good  Catholic  la3rmen 
(Blunt,  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England,  4th 
ed.,  London,  1878,  i,  605).  In  Germany,  Charles 
IV  issued  in  1369  an  edict  to  four  inquisitors  against 
the  translating  and  the  reading  of  Scripture  in  the 
German  language.  This  edict  was  caused  by  the 
operations  of  Beghards  and  Beguines.  In  1485 
and  1486,  Berthold,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  issued  an 
edict  against  the  printing  of  religious  books  in 
German,  giving  among  other  reasons  the  singular 
one  that  the  German  language  was  unadapted  to 
convey  correctly  religious  ideas,  and  therefore  they 
would  be  profaned.  Berthold's  edict  had  some 
influence,  but  could  not  prevent  the  dissemination 
and  publication  of  new  editions  of  the  Bible. 
Leaders  in  the  Church  sometimes  recommended 
to  the  laity  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  the  Church 
kept  silence  officially  as  long  as  these  efforts  were 
not  abused. 

in.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  since  the  Ref- 
ormation: Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible  and 
its  propagation  could  not  but  influence  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Humanism,  through  such  men  as 
Erasmus,  advocated  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and 
the  necessity  of  making  it  accessible  by  translations; 
but  it  was  felt  that  Luther's  translation  must  be 
offset  by  one  prepared  in  the  interest  of  the  Church. 
Such  editions  were  Emser's  of  1527,  and  the  Die  ten- 
berg  Bible  of  1534.  The  Church  of  Rome  silently 
tolerated  these  translations. 

At  last  the  Council  of  Trent  took  the  matter  in 
hand,  and  in  its  fourth  session  (Apr.  18,  1546) 
adopted  the  Decretum  de  editione  et  usu  librorum 
aacrorum,  which  enacted  the  following:  "  This 
synod  ordains  and  decrees  that  henceforth  sacred 
Scripture,  and  esp>ecially  the  aforesaid  old  and  vul- 
gate  edition,  be  printed  in  the  most  correct  manner 
possible;  and  that  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  one 


to  print,  or  cause  to  be  printed,  any  books  what- 
ever on  sacred  matters  without  the  name  of  the 

author;   or   in  future   to    sell   them, 

I.  Action    or  even  to  possess  them,  unless  they 

by  the  Coun-  shall  have  been  first  examined  and  ap- 

cil  of  Trent  proved  of  by  the  ordinary."      When 

the  question  of  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  vernacular  came  up,  Bishop  Acqui  of 
Piedmont  and  Cardinal  Pacheco  advocated  its  pro- 
hibition. This  was  strongly  opposed  by  Cardinal 
Madruzzi,  who  claimed  that  **  not  the  translations 
but  the  professors  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  are  the 
cause  of  the  confusion  in  Germany;  a  prohibition 
would  produce  the  worst  impression  in  Germany." 
As  no  agreement  could  be  had,  the  council  ap- 
pointed an  index-commission  to  report  to  the  pope, 
who  was  to  give  an  authoritative  decision. 

The  first  index  published  by  a  pope  (Paul  IV), 
in  1559,  prohibited  under  the  title  of  Biblia  pro- 
hibita  a  number  of  Latin  editions  as  well  as  the 
publication  and  possession  of  translations  of  the 
Bible  in  German,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Eng- 
lish, or  Dutch,  without  the  permission  of  the 
sacred  office  of  the  Roman  Inquisition  (Reusch, 
ut  sup.,  i.  264).  In  1564  Pius  IV  published  the 
index  prepared  by  the  conunission  mentioned 
above.  Herein  ten  rules  are  laid  down,  of  which 
the  fourth  reads  thus:  ''Inasmuch  as  it  is  man- 
ifest   from    experience    that   if    the    Holy    Bible, 

translated    into    the    vulgar    tongue, 

2.  Rules  of    be  indiscriminately  allowed  to  every 

Various       one,  the  rashness  of  men  will  cause 

Popes.        more   evil  than  good  to  arise    from 

it,  it  is,  on  this  point,  referred  to  the 
judgment  of  the  bishops  or  inquisitors,  who  may, 
by  the  advice  of  the  priest  or  confessor,  permit 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  translated  into  the  vulgar 
tongue  by  Catholic  authors,  to  those  persons  whose 
faith  and  piety  they  apprehend  will  be  augmented 
and  not  injured  by  it;  and  this  permission  must  be 
had  in  writing.  But  if  any  shall  have  the  presump- 
tion to  read  or  possess  it  without  such  permission, 
he  shall  not  receive  absolution  until  he  have  first 
delivered  up  such  Bible  to  the  ordinary."  R^u- 
lations  for  booksellers  follow,  and  then:  "  Regulars 
shall  neither  read  nor  purchase  such  Bibles  without 
special  license  from  their  superiors."  Sixtus  V 
substituted  in  1590  twenty-two  new  rules  for  the 
ten  of  Pius  IV.  Clement  VIII  abolished  in  1596 
the  rules  of  Sixtus,  but  added  a  "  remark  "  to  the 
fourth  rule  given  above,  which  particularly  restores 
the  enactment  of  Paul  IV.  The  right  of  the  bishops, 
which  the  fourth  rule  implies,  is  abolished  by  the 
"  remark,"  and  the  bishop  may  grant  a  dispensa- 
tion only  when  especially  authorized  by  the  pope 
and  the  Inquisition  (Reusch,  ut  sup.,  i,  333). 
Benedict  XIV  enlarged,  in  1757,  the  fourth  rule 
thus:  "  If  such  Bible- versions  in  the  vernacular  are 
approved  by  the  apostolic  see  or  are  edited  with 
annotations  derived  from  the  holy  fathers  of  the 
Church  or  from  learned  and  Catholic  men,  they  are 
permitted."  This  modification  of  the  fourth  rule 
was  abolished  by  Gregory  XVI  in  pursuance  of  an 
admonition  of  the  index-congregation,  Jan.  7,  1836. 
"  wliich  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  according 
to  the  decree  of  1757  only  such  versions  in  the  ver- 


87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Beadinir 


nacular  are  to  be  pennitted  as  have  been  approved 
by  the  apostolic  see  or  are  edited  with  annotations/' 
but  insistence  is  placed  on  all  those  particulars 
oijoined  by  the  fourth  rule  of  the  index  and  after- 
ward by  Clement  Vni  (Reusch,  ut  sup.,  ii,  852). 
In  England  the  reading  of  the  Bible  was  made 
by  Henry  VIII  (1530)  to  depend  upon  the  per- 
mission of  the  superiors.  Tyndale's  version, 
printed  before  1535,  was  prohibited.  In  1534  the 
Canterbury  convocation  passed  a  resolution  asking 
the  king  to  have  the  Bible  translated  and  to  permit 
its  reading.  A  folio  copy  of  Coverdale's  trans- 
lation was  put  into  eveiy  church  for  the  benefit 
of  the  faithful,  and  fastened  with  a  chain.  In 
Spain  the  Inquisitor-General  de  Valdes  published 
in  1551  the  index  of  Louvain  of  1550,  which  pro- 
hibits "  Bibles  (New  and  Old  Testaments)  in  the 
Spanish  or  other  vernacular  "  (Reusch,  ut  sup.,  i, 
133).  This  prohibition  was  abolished  in  1778.  The 
Lisbon  index  of  1624  in  Portugal  prohibited  quo- 
ting in  the  vernacular  in  any  book  passages  from 
the  Bible.  In  Italy  the  members  of  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits  were  in  1596  permitted  to 
3.  Rules  and  use  a  Catholic  Italian  translation  of 
Practise  in  the  Gospel-lessons.  In  France  the 
Different  Sorbonne  declared,  Aug.  26, 1525,  that 
Countries,  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible  or  of 
single  books  must  be  regarded  as 
dangerous  under  conditions  then  present;  extant 
versions  were  better  suppressed  than  tolerated.  In 
the  following  year,  1526,  it  prohibited  the  trans- 
lation of  the  entire  Bible,  but  permitted  the  trans- 
lation of  single  books  with  proper  annotations. 
The  indexes  of  the  Sorbonne,  which  by  royal  edict 
were  binding,  after  1544  contained  the  statement: 
"  How  dangerous  it  is  to  allow  the  reading  of  the 
Bible  in  the  vernacular  to  unlearned  people  and 
those  not  piously  or  hiunbly  disposed  (of  whom 
there  are  many  in  our  times)  may  be  seen  from 
the  Waldensians,  Albigenses,  and  Poor  Men  of 
Lyons,  who  have  thereby  lapsed  into  error  and 
have  led  many  into  the  same  condition.  Con- 
sidering the  nature  of  men,  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  vernacular  must  in  the  present  be 
regarded  therefore  as  dangerous  and  pernicious  ** 
(Reusch,  ut  sup.,  i,  151).  The  rise  of  Jansenism  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  especially  the  appear- 
ance, under  its  encouragement,  of  QuesnePs  New 
Testament  with  moral  reflections  under  each  verse 
(Le  Nauveau  Testament  en  fran^ois  avec  des  reflexions 
morales  sur  chaque  vers,  Paris,  1699),  which  was 
expressly  intended  to  popularize  the  reading  of  the 
Bible,  caused  the  renewal,  with  increased  stringency, 
of  the  rules  already  quoted.  The  Jesuits  prevailed 
upon  Clement  XI  to  publish  the  famous  bull  Uni- 
genituSy  Sept.  8,  1713,  in  which  he  condemned 
seven  propositions  in  Quesners  work  which  advo- 
cated tiie  reading  of  the  Bible  by  the  laity  (cf .  H.  J. 
D.  Denzinger,  Enchiridum,  WQrzburg,  1854,  287). 
In  the  Netheriands,  Neercassel,  bishop  of  Emmerich, 
published  in  1677  (in  Latin)  and  1680  (in  French) 
a  treatise  in  which  he  dealt  with  the  fourth  rule 
of  the  Tridentine  index  as  obsolete,  and  urged  the 
diligent  reading  of  the  Bible.  In  Belgiiun  in  1570 
the  unlicensed  sale  of  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular 
was  strictly  prohibited;  but  the  use  of  the  Ant- 


werp Bible  continued.  In  Poland  the  Bible  wm 
translated  and  often  published.  In  Germany 
papal  decrees  could  not  very  well  be  carried  out 
and  the  reading  of  the  Bible  was  not  only  not  pro- 
hibited, but  was  approved  and  praised.  Billuart 
about  1750,  as  quoted  by  Van  Ess,  states,  "In 
France,  Germany,  and  Holland  the  Bible  is  read 
by  all  without  distinction."  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  clergy  took  great  interest  in  the  work 
of  Bible  Societies.  Thus  Leander  van  Ess  (q.v.) 
acted  as  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  for  Catholic  Germany,  and  the  society 
published  the  New  Testament  of  Van  Ess, 
which  was  placed  on  the  Index  in  1821.  The 
prince-bishop  of  Breslau,  Sedlnitzki,  who  after- 
ward joined  the  Evangelical  Church,  was  also 
interested  in  circulating  the  Bible.  As  the  Bible 
Societies  generally  circulated  the  translations  of 
heretics,  the  popes — Leo  XII  (May  5,  1824);  Pius 
VIII  (May  25,  1829);  Gregory  XVI  (Aug.  15,  1840; 
May  8, 1844);  Pius  IX  (Nov.  9,  1846;  Dec.  8, 1849)— 
issued  encyclicals  against  the  Bible  Societies.  In 
the  syllabus  of  1864  "  socialism,  communism,  se- 
cret societies,  .  .  .  and  Bible  Societies  "  are  placed 
in  the  same  category.  As  to  the  effect  of  the  papal 
decrees  there  is  a  difference  cf  opinion  within  the 
Catholic  Church.  In  theory  the  admonition  of 
Gregory  XVI  no  doubt  exists,  but  practise  often 
ignores  it. 

IV.  The  Greek  Church  knowi  of  no  such  restric- 
tion of  use  of  the  Bible  as  that  of  the  Roman 
Church.  Nevertheless  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem  of 
1672  answered  the  first  of  the  four  questions: 
"  Whether  the  Holy  Scripture  can  be  read  by  all 
Christians,"  in  the  negative.  Nicholas  I  of  Russia 
abolished  in  1826  the  Bible  Society  founded  by 
Alexander  I  for  the  propagation  of  the  Bible  in 
the  Russian  vernacular. 

V.  The  Evangelical  Churches:  Luther  strove 
to  open  the  Bible  to  all,  and  his  version  served 
that  purpose.  The  principle  that  every  Evangelical 
Christian  is  at  liberty  to  read  the  Bible  remained 
uncontro verted,  though  Semlcr  (De  aniiquo  ecclesias 
statu  cominentatio,  37,  60,  68)  makes  the  assertion 
that  the  sacred  writings,  especially  the  apostolic 
epistles,  were  not  intended  for  the  use  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  congregations;  that  in  the  ancient 
Church  no  universal  use  of  the  Bible  existed,  and 
that  the  catechumens  especially  were  prohibited 
from  using  the  Bible.  Bible-compendiums  for 
special  purposes  and  separate  circles  also  came  into 
use  in  the  Evangelical  Church.  Veit  Dietrich 
published  in  1541  his  Summarium  of  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testament;  Cromwell's  soldiers  had 
The  Soldier's  Pocket  Bible  of  1643  (facsimile  edition, 
Cromwell's  Soldier's  Bible,  London,  1895).  The 
restriction  upon  Bible-reading  in  the  Evangelical 
Church  became  of  practical  importance  only  in 
the  schools.  For  didactic  purposes  Amos  Comenius 
recommended  compendiums  and  special  manuals 
of  Scripture,  which  the  scholar  was  to  use 
till  he  could  read  the  Gospel  in  the  original. 
The  didactic  needs  were  gradually  satisfied  by 
the  introduction  of  text-books  of  "  Biblical 
history,"  the  Catechism,  and  collections  of 
Bible   sentences.     From  time   to   time  the  ques- 


Bible  SooieUM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


88 


tion  has  been  agitated  whether  the  whole  Bible 
or  so-called  school  Bibles  should  be  used  in  the 
schools.  The  principal  reason  adduced  in  favor 
of  the  latter  is  that  certain  passages  are  objection- 
able because  they  deal  with  sexual  relations.  But 
these  reasons  are  not  well  founded,  since  reading  of 
the  Bible  has  never  been  a  cause  of  demoralization. 
The  moral  earnestness  which  without  veiling  calls 
things  by  their  right  names  is  to  be  preferred  to 
a  careful  paraphrasing  and  veiling  of  the  sense 
which  only  the  more  excite  impure  desires. 

(Georq  Ribtbchel.) 

Buuoobapht:  T.  G.  Hegelmaier.  Oeachic/Ue  det  Bibdver- 
bote,  Ulxn,  1783;  N.  Le  Maire.  Sanetuarium  profanis  ocdu- 
tmm  »iv0  de  MncCorum  hibliorum  in  lingua  vulgari  «eu  ver- 


naaOa  tndaiua,  WOrsburg.  1602  (from  the  Fr.  of  1651). 
ihiB  waa  reproduced  in  subatanoe  in  Die  Bibel  ftein  Leae- 
hueh  fUr  Jedermann,  MQnetor,  1846;  A.  Arnauld,  De  la 
Uctun  de  Vieriiure  aainte.  Pane  (o.  1690);  C.  W.  F.  Waleb. 
KriUBchs  UnUnuehunoen  vom  Oebratuk  der  knlio^n  Sckrift 
tmter  den  aiUn  Chritten  in  den  enten  dni  JaMrkMnderten, 
Leipeio.  1779;  F.  von  Ebb.  Der  heUio^  Chryoeiomue  odtr 
die  SHmmederkatkoUeehen  Kirche  Hber  doe  nUtMiidU,  heiir 
•ante  und  erhaulidte  BibeUeeen^  Dannstadt,  1824;  J.  fi. 
Malon,  La  Lecture  de  la  aainie  Bible  en  lanffue  vulffairt,  2 
Yole.,  Louvain,  1846;  Vom  Leeen  der  heUioen  SckrifU 
Mains.  1846;  F.  H.  Reusch.  Die  Indieee  Ubrorum  prohibir 
torum  dee  §eeh$Mehnten  Jahrhunderte,  TQbincen.  1886; 
W.  Walther.  Die  deutache  BibelQbereeteung  dee  MiUelaUer; 
Braunechweig.  1889;  J.  H.  Kurta.  Church  Hi  fory,  ff 
106.  3;  186.  1.  New  York.  1890;  the  text  of  th«  buU  Uni- 
OenUue  may  be  found  in  Reich,  Doeumenie,  pp.  386-389. 
and  the  authoritative  ntatement  of  the  Gzeco-Rueiian 
Church  in  Sohaff.  Creede^  iii,  433-434. 


I.  British  Bible  Societies. 

1.  Precursors  of  the  British  and  For- 

eign Bible  Society. 

2.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 

ciety. 
Origin  and  Constitution  (f  1). 
Present  Organisation  (f  2). 
Foreign  Work  (S3). 
Dissensions.     Seceding     Societies 

(§4). 

3.  The  National  Bible  Society  of  Scut- 

land. 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 

4.  The  Hibernian  Bible  Society. 
6.  The  Trinitarian  Bible  Society. 
6.  The  Bible  TrauHlation  Society. 
II.  Bible  Societies  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe. 

1.  Germany. 

2.  France. 

3.  The  Netherlands. 

4.  Scandinavia. 
6.  Russia. 

6.  Switserland. 


in.  Bible  Societies  in  America. 

1.  The  American  Bible  Society. 
Organisation  (f  1). 
Constitution  and  Management  (S  l') 
Summary  of  Work  (f  3). 
Foreign  Work  (f  4). 
Controversies  (f  6). 

2.  The  American  and  Foreign  Bible 

Society  and  the  American  Bible 
Union. 

3.  The  Bible  Association  of  Friends  in 

America. 


Bible  societies  are  benevolent  associations  formed 
to  increase  the  circulation  of  the  Bible  and  making 
special  efiforts  to  supply  the  Scriptures  to  those  who 
from  poverty  or  other  causes  are  destitute  of  them. 
Printing  the  Bible  or  New  Testament  in  suitable 
styles,  translation  into  all  important  languages 
and  even  into  the  less  important  dialects,  and  some 
effective  system  of  distribution  in  all  accessible 
places  are  commonly  regarded  as  essential  features 
of  the  work  of  such  societies.  In  some  cases  the 
books  are  given  without  price;  but  it  is  not  usual  to 
give  away  a  large  proportion.  The  cost  of  manu- 
facture and  of  distribution,  however,  has  to  be 
provided  by  voluntary  contributions. 

The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian 
Knowledge  (q.v.),  founded  in  London  in  1698,  was 
the  first  to  undertake  to  provide  the  conmion  people 
with  the  Bible.  It  continues  this  beneficent  work 
as  one  branch  of  its  publication  enterprise,  and  has 
been  the  means  of  providing  fairly  good  translations 
of  the  Scriptures  in  many  obscure  languages  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Pacific  Islands.  The  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  (q.v.),  founded 
in  1701,  has  also  done  and  is  still  doing  a  good  work 
in  circulating  the  Scriptures  in  connection  with 
its  extensive  missions.  The  Scottish  Society  for 
Propagating  Christian  Knowledge,  founded  in  1709, 
added  the  work  of  circulating  the  Bible  to  its 
missionary  enterprises  in  Scotland  and  in  America. 
The  first  society  formed  for  the  exclusive  purpose 
of  publishing  the  Bible  at  a  low  price  seems  to 
have  been  the  Canstein  Bible  Institute,  established 
in  1710  at  Halle  in  Germany  by  Baron  Canstein 
(see  below,  II,  1). 

L  British  Bible  Societies.— 1.  Preonrsors  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society :  In  the  last  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  several  societies  sprang 
up  in  Great  Britain  which  had  Bible  distribution  as 


part  of  their  programme;  such  as  the  Book  Society 
for  Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among  the 
Poor  (1750),  the  Bible  Society,  later  known  as  the 
Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society  (1780),  the  Society 
for  the  Support  and  Elnoouragement  of  Sunday 
Schools  (1785),  the  Association  for  Discounte- 
nancing Vice  and  Promoting  the  Knowledge  and 
Practise  of  the  Christian  Religion  (established  in 
Dublin,  1792),  the  French  Bible  Society  (established 
in  London  for  printing  the  Bible  in  France,  1792), 
and  the  Religious  Tract  Society  (London,  1799; 
see  Tract  Societies). 

2.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Sooiety :  These 
enterprises,   however,   did  not  supply   the   need. 
The  Rev.  Thomas  Charles  (q.v.)  of  Bala  in  Wales 
became  much  impressed  with  the  need  of  the  com- 
mon folk  about  him,  who  could  not  obtain  the  Bible 
except  by  persevering  effort  and  much  self-denial; 
the    Bible  was  not  only  scarce  but  costly.     Mr. 
Charles  finally  devoted  himself  to  find- 
aiidO^   ing  some  effective  means  of  supplying 
■titution'    ^  people  with  the  Scriptures.     At 
a    meeting    of    the   Religious     Tract 
Society   in    London    in    1802,    he    aroused   great 
interest    by    his    vigorous    presentation    of    the 
need  of  the  people  of  Wales.    The  Rev.  Joseph 
Hughes,  secretary  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
exdaimed,   ''  Surely  a  society  might  be   formed 
to  provide  Bibles  for  Wales;  and  if  for  Wales,  why 
not  for  the  world  7  "    This  remark  contained  the 
germ  from  which  grew  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society. 

The  idea  of  a  Bible  Society  for  the  world  led  to 
discussion  and  to  study  of  the  destitution  of  the 
people.  The  Rev.  C.  F.  A.  Steinkopf,  pastor  of 
the  German  Lutheran  Church  in  London,  gave 
effective  information  of  the  situation  in  European 
ooimtries.    Members  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 


89 


HELIGTOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bil7le  So^letle 


altlwughihey  iid  iiut  pubUdy  apptar.  had  much  to 
do  viiik  the  preparatory  work.  On  Mar.  7,  1804^  a 
puljlic  naeeting  was  held  at  the  London  Tavern , 
cm  tbe  call  of  Mr.  Hughes.  Thfiee  himdrcd  perKoriH 
mlt<iided  the  meeting.  It  waa  quickJy  evident  that 
&  oodety  for  increasing  the  circulation  of  the  Bible 
pr^eKDted  common  ground,  upon  which  all  mvis 
mJOjd  p&riies  could  stand.  Diissenters  met  church- 
ixftcn,  And  in  their  interest  in  the  needs  of  the  masses, 
they  forgot  for  a  time  their  divergent  interpre- 
t^lioQs  of  the  sanie  book.  The  sole  cotit^'tion 
necoHary  to  union  of  action  was  tdat  a  text  ac- 
cepted by  ail  should  be  issued  without  nota  or 
ocudment. 

At  this  meeting  a  bastity  drawn  up  set  of  by-laws 
^aa  adopted.  An  executive  committee  of  thirty- 
stjc  laymen  was  chosen ,  fifteen  from  the  Church  of 
England,  fifU^en  from  the  Dissenting  bodies,  and 
«ix  foreigners  resitting  in  London.  The  Rev. 
Joseph  Hughes  (Baptist)  and  the  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt 
(Church  of  England)  were  elcct-ed  serrL^taries. 
Seven  hundred  pound*  were  Bubscribetl  for  the 
'•roHk  of  the  society,  and  the  Bishop  of  Londtm, 

■  I>r.  Porteus,  was  electetl  President. 
Tbe  constitution  of  the  society  was  soon  after- 
yr^rd  prepared;  the  Rev.  John  Owen,  of  t!ie  Church 
of  Hngland,  was  added  to  the  tstaff  of  the  society 
BM  a  third  secretary,  and  on  nomination  of  Lortl 
Tcignmouth,  a  fonner  governor-general  in  India, 
the  Rev.  C.  F.  A,  Steinkopf  wa«  appointed  secre- 
twy  for  foreign  lands.  Be«ides  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
dont  the  Bishops  of  Durham,  Exeter,  and  St. 
Davidfli  and  many  other  influential  piirsons,  among 
vhom  were  William  Wilberforce  and  Granville 
Shafp,  long  know*n  as  ant isla very  leaders,  joined 
thit  movement, 

Ab  at  preoent  organized,    the   business   of   the 

•ocicty  in   directed  by  a  committee  made  up   as 

ittdieated  above.     Every  subscriber  of  five  guineas 

•llntt*lly  ia  a  governor,  and  every  subscriber  of 

lilt  guiiiea  annually  is  a  member  of  the  society. 

Every  governor,  and   every  minister 

2»  Prsseiit  who  is    a  member,    has  the  privilege 

Ofwilaa-  of  attending  and  voting  at  all  meetings 

**o*^       of    the    committee.     The    president, 

the    vice-presidents  (numbering  more 

*kana  himdred),  and  the  treasurer  are  con.sidered 

**  ^ifdo  members  of  the  commit  tee »    There  are 

^  iecretaries  and  three  superintendent*  charged 

^ih  different  departments   of  the   work   besides 

•'llil    assistant    secretariea.    To    excite    wider 

J*«n«t  and  to  facilitate  the  distribution  of  tlie 

«We,  auxitiary  and  branch  societies   are  formed, 

•W»pay  their  coUectiona  into  a  common  fund  and 

tvxtn  back    a    certain    proportion    of    the    sum 

^B^Wtwi  in   Bibles  for  distribution.     There  were 

^  iW6  more  than  5,800  of  the  auxiliary  and  branch 

'ooietiee  and  associations  in  Engliuid  and  Wales 

Tbe  society  began  its  career  by  first  meeting 
tllf  wants  of  Wales.  Twenty  thousand  Welsh 
fliWii  and  five  thousand  Testaments  were  printetl. 
ftovidcntially  but  a  short  time  before  this,  the  art 
c^ Utrtotyping  Imd  been  invented.  When  in  18t>6 
the  fint  wagpn-loml  of  Bibles  came  into  Wales,  it 
»ai  fBcdvct]  like  the  ark  of  the  covenant;  and  the 


people  with  shout^s  of  joy  dragged  it  into  the  city* 
Tbe  society  also  distributc'd  the  Bible  in  an  improved 
Gaelic  translation  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
ami  turned  its  att-ention  to  the  Irish;  in  short,  it 
unilertotik  to  supply  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
with  Bibles. 

But  the  society  did  not  forget  that  it  is  a  foreign 
as  well  as  a  British  Bible  Society.  When  it  began 
operations  Europe  was  convoilsed  with  war  and 
not  s<j  much  was  done  as  would  otherwise  have  been 
accomplished  in  tlie  way  of  sup|>Iying  the  destitute 
in  European  countries.  Mr.  Bteinkopf  antl  Robert 
Pinkert^n  made  extensive  tours  through  Germany, 
Switzerland*   and    Russia,   and   everywhere    local 

Bible  societies  sprang  into  existence 

3.  Foreign  in  their  wake.    Many  of  these  societies, 

Work.       fonned  in   1812  and  later,  have  done 

good  work,  being  aided  with  funds 
and  with  grants  of  Bibles  by  the  British  Society 
About  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  British 
Society  two  St^tchmen,  Julin  Paterson  and  Ebcn- 
ezer  Henderson,  went  to  Oij^nhagen,  intending  to 
go  out  as  misdiunaries  to  India  undnr  the  Dam'sh- 
Halle  mission  at  Tranquebar.  Their  plan  fell 
through,  but  they  met  an  Icelander,  Thorkelin, 
in  Copenhagen,  who  t^jid  them  of  the  destitution  of 
his  countrymen.  There  were  said  to  be  only  fifty 
Bibles  in  Iceland  for  a  popuhition  of  fifty  thousand. 
The  two  Scotchmen  laitl  the  matter  before  tlic  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  which  promised  to 
pay  liulf  of  the  expense  of  printing  five  thuuKand 
Testaments  in  Icelandic.  The  printing  wius  stopped 
by  the  outbreak  of  war.  But  in  ISlli  Mr,  Ilrnder- 
aon  received  permission  to  reuKiin  in  Cop  en  hn  gen 
to  complete  the  printing  of  the  whole  Bible  in  Ice- 
landic, and,  notwitlistanthng  the  war,  to  correspond 
with  the  Bible  society  in  England  regarding  this 
work-  The  confidence  thus  shown  in  the  motives 
of  the  society  was  certainly  remarkable  at  that 
epoch;  and  it  had  much  to  do  with  the  founding 
of  the  Danish  Bible  Society  in  1814. 

The  British  Society  extended  its  work  gradually 
to  the  British  colonies,  where  it  works  through 
auxiliary  societies.  In  Canada,  the  Canadian  Bible 
Society,  which  has  united  a  large  number  of  local 
auxiliaries  in  one,  is  a  society  auxiliary  to  the 
British  Society,  and  has  a  secretary  appointed  by 
the  parent  society  in  Ix>ndon.  In  Australia  the 
society  has  fifty-two  auxiliaries  with  nearly  500 
branches.  In  India,  with  the  exception  of  Burma, 
the  society  carries  on  its  work  through  six  strong 
auxiliary  societies.  In  Cape  Colony  t!ie  South- 
African  auxiliary  has  for  its  field  the  whole  terri- 
tory south  of  the  Orange  River.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  auxiliaries  and  branch  societies  affiliated 
with  the  British  Society  outside  of  the  United  King- 
dom exceeds  1\-(XK  Tli»!  whole  number  of  these 
local  societies,  in  Great  Britain  and  abroad,  which 
the  British  and  Foreign  Society  aids  and  from 
which  it  receives  donations,  is  over  SJCiO.  Besides 
these  auxiliary  societies  the  parent  society  makes 
use  of  agencies,  each  in  charge  of  a  special  agent, 
devoted  to  the  increase  of  the  circulation  of  the 
Bible  in  hiaown  field.  These  agencies  cover  tlie  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  Turkey,  Siberia.  China.  Korea, 
and  Japan  in  Asia.    In  the  tlirce  last-named  coun- 


Bible  BooieUM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


90 


tries  special  arrangements  with  the  American  Bible 
Society  and  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland 
prevent  clashing  and  secure  combination  for  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures.  Agencies  of  the 
British  society  also  promote  the  distribution  of  the 
Bible  in  Egypt  and  North  Africa  and  in  nearly  all 
of  the  colonies  of  East  and  West  Africa.  Where 
neither  auxiliary  nor  agency  has  been  established 
the  society  works  through  the  missions  which  are 
in  occupation  of  the  ground  in  any  part  of  the 
world. 

This  wide-spread  work  has  not  been  brought  to 
its  present  extension  without  hindrances  and  diffi- 
culties. The  High-church  party  in  the  Church  of 
England  has  at  times  opposed  the  Bible  Society, 
preferring  to  work  through  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge,  which  takes 
care  to  have  the  Bible  supplemented  by  the  Book 
of  Conmion  Prayer.  Others  have  insisted  that 
the  Bible  is  a  dangerous  book  to  put  in  the  hands 
of  ignorant  men  without  note  or  comment,  and 
for  this  reason  have  opposed  the  Bible  Society. 
In  1825  dissension  arose  within  the  Bible  Society, 
which  continued  during  two  years,  over  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Apocrypha.  It  was  formally  resolved 
in  1827  that  the  fundamental  law  of  the  society 
forbids  its  circulating  the  Apocrypha,  and  that 
therefore  no  persons  or  societies  that  circulate 
the  Apocrypha  can  receive  aid  from 
4.  DiMen-  ^j^g  society.  This  decision  led  to  the 
dSi    a  ^*' sep^ation  of  a  considerable  number 

cieties  '  ^^  European  societies  from  the  British 
society  which  had  founded  them. 
The  discussion  also  resulted  in  the  secession  of  the 
Scottish  societies  which  originated  the  agitation 
against  the  publication  of  the  Apocrypha  (eee  below, 
3).  In  1831  another  agitation  was  raised  against 
the  presence  of  Unitarians  on  the  Board  of  Man- 
agers. The  society  having  refused  to  alter  its 
constitution  so  as  to  exclude  non-Trinitarians, 
a  separate  society  called  the  Trinitarian  Bible 
Society  was  formed  (see  below,  5).  With  the 
growth  of  foreign  missions,  a  question  as  to  trans^ 
lation  of  the  words  relating  to  baptism  became 
acute;  and  the  controversy  finally  led  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  Bible  Translation  Society,  which 
was  supported  by  Baptists  who  preferred  to  trans- 
late "  immerse  "  rather  than  to  transfer  the  Greek 
word  baptizein  (see  below,  6). 

But  there  has  been  a  continuous  and  remarkable 
growth  of  the  society  in  spite  of  all  obstacles  and 
opposition.  In  1904  the  centenary  of  the  society 
was  celebrated  in  almost  all  countries  of  the  Chris- 
tian and  non-Christian  world.  "  Bible  Day  "  in 
Mar.,  1904,  will  long  be  remembered  not  only  as  a 
day  of  an  immense  popular  declaration  of  faith 
in  the  Bible  as  the  revelation  of  God's  will  to  men, 
but  as  a  time  for  expressing  the  warmest  love  and 
Bjmipathy,  and  gratitude  withal,  to  the  society 
which  then  completed  a  hundred  years  of  self- 
sacrificing  service  of  the  nations.  Not  only  were 
special  gifts  sent  into  the  treasury  for  the  general 
work  of  the  society,  but  a  special  centenary  fund 
of  $1,250,000  was  raised  in  that  and  the  following 
year  to  be  used  as  a  reserve  for  more  firmly  planting 
the  outposts  of  the  society.    The  total  issues  of  the 


British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  the  year 
ending  Mar.  31,  1906,  amounted  to  5,416,569  copies 
of  the  Bible  or  its  parts.  The  total  issues  of  the 
society  from  it*  organization  to  Mar.  31,  1907, 
amount  to  203,931,768  copies,  of  which  more  than 
80,(XX),000  copies  were  in  the  English  language. 
The  president  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  is  the  Marquis  of  Northampton.  lU 
headquarters  are  at  146  Queen  Victoria  St.,  London. 
E.  C;  its  periodicals  are  The  Bible  in  the  World 
and  The  Bible  Society  Oleanings. 

8.  The  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland:  In 
1809  the  Edinburgh  Bible  Society  was  formed,  in 
1812  the  Glasgow  Bible  Society,  and  in  1821  the 
Glasgow  Auxiliary  Bible  Society.  As  mentioned 
above,  these  societies  seceded  from  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  in  consequence  of  the  con- 
troversy about  circulating  editions  of  the  Bible 
containing  the  Apocrypha.  In  1859  the  National 
Bible  Society  was  formed,  and  in  1861  all  these 
Scottish  societies  combined  to  form  a  new  organiza- 
tion which  was  incorporated  as  the  National  Bible 
Society  of  Scotland.  The  fields  of  this  society  are 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  One-fifth  of  its  issues  in  1906- 
1907  were  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  and  about 
one-half  in  China.  Its  issues  in  the  year  ending 
Mar.,  1907,  amounted  to  1,671,900  copies. 

4.  The  Hibernian  Bible  Society:  This  society 
was  organized  in  1806  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  It  is  now  independent, 
and  devotes  its  attention  mainly  to  the  needs  of 
Ireland.  In  the  year  ending  Mar.,  1907,  it  cir- 
culated 37,258  copies,  which  were  purchased  by 
the   society.     The  headquarters  are  in  Dublin. 

6.  The  Trinitarian  Bible  Society:  Formed  in 
1831  as  a  protest  against  Unitarianism,  this  society 
issued  in  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1907,  89,214 
copies  of  the  Bible  or  its  parts.  The  headquarters 
of  the  society  are  at  7  Bury  St.,  London,  W.  C. 

e^  The  Bible  Translation  Society:  This  society 
organized  in  1843  to  serve  the  special  interests 
the  British  Baptist  missions.  It  is  now  a  part 
f  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  making  no  sep- 
arate publication  of  its  issues,  and  having  its  head- 
quarters at  the  Mission  House,  19  Fumival  St., 
Ix)ndon. 

II.  Bible  Societies  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 
—I.  Germany:  The  first  German  Bible  Society 
was  the  Canstein  Bible  Institute,  founded  in  Halle 
in  1710  by  Karl  Hildebrand,  Baron  Canstein  (q.v.), 
with  the  definite  purpose  of  placing  the  Bible 
within  reach  of  the  poor.  The  Institute  has  issued 
up  to  the  beginning  of  1907,  over  7,000,000  copies 
of  the  Bible  and  its  parts.  The  issues  for  1907 
were  38,696  copies.  The  (first)  Nureml>erff  Bible 
Society  was  formed  in  1804,  and  received  aid  from 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  In  1806 
it  was  removed  to  Basel  in  Switzerland  and  took 
the  name  of  the  Basel  Bible  Society.  Its  issues 
during  the  year  1906  amounted  to  32,708  copies. 
The  Berlin  Bible  Society  was  formed  in  1806  as  a 
result  of  the  energy  of  Father  J&nicke,  a  Moravian 
pastor,  and  was  aided  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  in  its  early  years.  In  1814  it  was 
converted  into  the  Prussian  Bible  Society.  It 
now  has  many  branches  and  devotes  its  attention 


I,  6. 

0      #tl 

-jm  ti 


9t 


RELIGIOITS  ENCTTLOPEDIA 


Bible  Socletid* 


I 


I 


oiaiiily  to  the  circulation  of  Ihe  Bible  in  Germany. 
In  the  ye&r  1906  its  issues  amounted  to  212,911 
Biblcfi  and  Testaments.  The  headquarters  of  the 
society  are  Klostenstrasse  71,  Berlin  C.  The 
WwHemberv  Bible  Institute  was  formed  in  1813 
luider  the  influence  of  Messrs.  Steinkopf  and  Pink- 
crton,  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
Its  mim  reported  in  1906  were  334,9fj3  copies.  The 
beadquarters  are  at  Christophstra.s8e  6,  Stuttgart. 
The  Bery  Bible  Society  waa  formed  at  Elberfeld  in 
the  old  Duchy  of  Berg  in  1814.  It  furnishes  Srnp- 
tUTPS  for  use  abroad  in  some  small  quantities. 
The  total  of  its  issuer  in  UHIf>  wjis  151,5&8  copies ^ 
lad  tbe  total  of  its  issueB  in  the  93  years  of  itB 
txisteocQ  are  2,228,353  copies.  The  headquarters 
of  the  society  are  at  Marienstrasse  28,  ElberfeUL 
The  Bazon  Bible  Society  was  formed  in  the  year 

^1814.  It  has  forty-two  branches,  and  besides  its 
puWitations  in  German,  it  has  publishetl  an  edition 
.9I  the  New  Testament  in  the  Chagga  language, 
ipoleti  in  the  northern  part,  of  German  East  Africa. 
Itelotilifisueain  1906  amounted  to  48,065  copies.  The 
bnulquarteri  are  at  Zinzendorfstrasse  17,  Dresden, 
TbeBaTariaaProteBtant  Bible  Society  was  fom^ked 
in  1823.  It  is  alao  called  tlie  Central  Bible  Society. 
lU  mm  in  1906  were  12,030  ctjpics.  The  head- 
f|Uftrt€iB  of  the  society  are  at  Nuremberg.  There 
art  ileo  many  local  and  stat«  societies,  of  which 
thorn  of  Hamburg,  Sleswick,  and  Strasburg  print 
aa  well  as  tUstribute  Bible8,  A  Roman  Catholic 
Bible  Society,  the  Be^eneburg  Bible  Institute,  waif 
org»niied  in  1805  by  G.  M.  Wittraann,  head  of 
tbe  wminary  at  Regensburg,  with  tbe  assistance  of 
some  bishops  and  many  la>Tiicn.  .4  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  was  prepared  mul  60,(XH> 

§«o|H«s  were  distributed  in  ten  yeai-s,  but  in  1 8] 7 
tb*  iMtitute  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Pius  \TL 
1b  1815  another  Roman  Catholic  Bible  Society  was 
tadied  at  Heiligenstadt,  which  connected  itself 
»itb  the  Prussian  society  and  organisttd  auxil- 
'*ri«,  Lettnder  van  Ess  (q.v.)  at  Marburg  was 
ttpeeially  interested  and  his  translation  of  the 
W  Testament  was  widely  disseminated.  He  also 
founded  the  Ohriatian  Brotherhood  for  Dlasemi. 
oatliit  the  Holy  Scriptures  with  the  support  uf  the 
Bhtiah  and  Foreign  Bible  Society-  Tlie  Heiligen- 
"Mt  «ociety  flourished  till  1830  and  maintained 
»tt  ejtistcncie  till  1864,  but  received  its  support 
^flj  from    Protestants   aft^^r   tlie   former  date. 

tlae  translation  of  the  New  Testament  madt?  by 
J'  E,  Qoasner  (q.v.)  was  also  circulated  by  the 
EiigHuh  society. 

i*  Ftince:  The  French  Bible  Society  (London) 
'^^ftrreii  to  above  began  the  Bible  movement  in 
J^fance,  htJt  the  outbreak  of  tlie  Revolution  pre- 
*^t<Hi  tilt*  circulation  of  French  Bibles  print^'d 
*'itb  Etiglkh  money.  The  Protestant  Bible  Society 
o'Pwis  waa  fonned  m  I  SIS,  and  rt'ceived  aid  from 
^  BntiKh  and  Foreign  Bible  Soeiely  for  a  time. 
The  subsidy  was  withdrawn  after  a  few  years 
bicmic  the  Paris  Society  included  the  Apocrypha 
tt  iti  Bibles.  Tlie  issues  of  this  society  in  'l906 
"tt*  S,061  copies.  A  sharp  controversy  among 
^  French  Prof ^'S tan t**  r**si>ecting  the  French 
^^tm  led  in  1864  to  the  formation  of  the  Bible 
•wisly  of  Fnuioe/     This    society    exclyded    the 


Apocrypha  from  its  Bibl^  and  held  to  the  version 
of  J.  F.  OsterwaJd  (q.v.)  of  which  it  is  now  pub- 
lishing a  new  rmision.  It  ha^  received  aitl  from 
the  American  Bible  Society,  and  it  circulates  the 
Bible  in  the  French  colonies  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
Its  issues  in  I90(j  were  34,55(i  copies. 

3.  The  Netherlands:  The  Netherlands  Bible 
Society  was  fonned  in  1S14.  Its  issues  in  the  year 
1904  amounted  to  93,977  c^opicn,  of  which  57,573 
copies  were  sent  abroad  to  the  Dutclj  Eawl  Indies, 
Dutch  Guiana,  and  Stiul 1 1  Africfi.  The  headquarteni 
of  the  society  are  at  Heereijgracht  366,  Amsterdam. 

4.  Scandinavia:  The  Daxiish  Bible  Society  wa.« 
organized  in  1 8 1 4 .  I  t.'i  ci  re  ul  at  ion  i  a  1 9<  M3  im  10  un  tei  I 
to  45,289  copies.  Tlie  Norwegian  Bible  Society 
was  formed  in  1816  under  the  influence  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Its  issues  in 
1904  were  63,300  copies,  of  which  75!  copies  were 
sent  to  Denmark,  iind  11,041  copius  to  the  United 
States  of  America,  Its  t^jttd  issues  in  eighty-eight 
years  ending  l>{^c.  31.  B*D4,  were  1,153,260  copies. 
The  headquarters  of  the  society  are  at  Christiania* 
The  Swedish  Bible  Society  was  orgmiiKed  in  1814. 
Its  circulation  in  I90G  was  12,414  copies  and  it« 
total  circulation  from  the  begin  nine.  1,242.5 15  copies, 
of  which  666  were  in  the  Lapp  language. 

5*  Russia:  The  BuaHian  Bible  Society  with 
Imperial  Sanction  was  formed  in  1863.  It  circu- 
lates the  Bible  in  RusHjim  and  other  languages  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Holy  Synod,  Its  reports 
show  the  contributions  of  the  czar  and  czarina 
and  the  grand  dukes,  but  do  not  specify  clearly 
the  circulation.  It  makes  use  of  colporteu-^  and 
seems  to  do  serious  work.  A  Russian  Bible  Society 
fonned  in  1812  ilid  an  impiortant  work  in  Bible 
translation,  but  vA'as  suj>pressed  by  imperial  ukjise 
in  1826.  The  Russian  Evangelical  Bible  Society 
was  organiz^ed  in  1831  for  the  pur[^>ose  of  circulatirg 
the  Bible  among  Lutherans  and  in  the  German 
language.  Its  circulation  in  1904  was  22,219 
copies.  The  Finnish  Bible  Society  was  formed  i«i 
1812  and  its  issues  in  KW)3  were  about  30,000  copien. 

6.  Switzerland :  The  Basel  Bible  Sooietyi  tran^ 
fcrretl  to  Basel  from  NurembLvrg,  has  been  men 
tinned  atxive  (II,  1).  Local  Bible  societies  exiaf 
in  many  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland.  Thej 
seem,  liowever,  to  be  merely  agt'nts  of  distribution 
receiving  Bibles  from  other  societies,  notably  from 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Theit 
circulation  is  therefore  included  in  that  of  the  othei 
societies.  Henry  Otis  Dwioht. 

nip  Bible  Societies  in  America. — 1.  The  Americaii 
Bible  Society;  The  Revolutionary  War  produced 
a  great  scarcity  of  Bibles  in  the  Ignited  States. 
One  year  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
Congress  was  memorialiited  to  authorize  the  print- 
ing of  an  edition  of  the  Bible.  This  memorial  was 
referred  to  a  committee,  who  found  the  difficulties, 
especially  of  procuring  proper  material,  type,  and 
paper,  to  be  so  great  that  Ck>ngress  onlenHJ  the 
imp4>rtation  at  its  own  expense  of  20,0*X>  English 
Bibles  from  Holland,  England,  or  elsewhere.  The 
scarcity  still  continmng,  in  1782  Congress  reoom- 
menclett  to  the  pi'0|ile  of  the  United  States  an  edition 
of  the  Bible  printed  by  Thomas  Aitken,  of  Phila- 
delphia, '*  being  satisfied  of  the  care  and  accuracy 


Bible  Societies 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


98 


of  the  execution  of  the  work."  It  was  not  until 
1808  that  the  first  Bible  Society  was  organized  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1809  societies  were  organized 
in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  New 
Jersey  in  the  order  named  and  by  1816  there  were 
128  such  societies. 

The  idea  of  uniting  these  societies  in  one  organi- 
zation was  a  natural  one  and  was  much  discussed. 
The  missionary  travels  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  J.  Mills 
(q.v.)  in  the  West  and  South,  reported  in  religious 
periodicals,  increased  the  desire  for  a  national 
organization,  which  he  strongly  advocated.  On 
Jan.  1, 1816,  Elias  Boudinot  (q.v.),  the  president  of 
the  New  Jersey  Bible  Society,  made  a  public  com- 
munication on  the  subject,  and  on  Jan.  17  he  issued 
a  circular  letter  appointing  Wednes- 

1.  OrBran-  day.  May  8,  1816,  as  the  time  for 
isation.  holding  a  convention  for  this  pur- 
pose in  New  York.  Sixty  delegates 
representing  twenty-eight  Bible  societies  (besides 
several  other  persons  admitted  to  seats  in  the 
convention)  met  on  the  day  named  in  the  Garden 
Street  Collegiate  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  rep- 
resenting the  Presbyterian,  Congregational,  Meth- 
odist, Episcopal,  Dutch  Reformed,  and  Baptist 
Churches,  and  the  Society  of  Friends.  The  con- 
vention was  in  session  for  two  days,  adopted  a  con- 
stitution and  in  accordance  therewith  elected  mana- 
gers, who  met  in  the  City  Hall,  May  1 1,  and  elected 
officers,  Elias  Boudinot  being  made  president. 

Under  this  constitution  "  the  sole  object  shall 

be  to  encourage  a  wider  circulation  of  the  Holy 

Scriptures   without  note   or   comment'*    (art.   i). 

The  board  of  managers  is  composed  of  thirty-six 

laymen,   one-fourth  of   whom    go   out   of    office 

every   year,  but  are    eligible   for  re- 

8.  Oonetl-  eig^,^jojj        Every  clergyman  who  is  a 

tutionand  ...  ,  T^     j       ^       vlu 

Manage.  member  may  meet  and  vote  with 

ment.  *'^®  board  of  managers,  provided  he 
receives  no  salary  or  compensation  for 
services  from  the  society.  The  managers  meet 
regularly  every  month,  consider  and  act  on  all 
matters  presented  by  ten  standing  committees 
besides  other  matters  originating  in  the  board 
itself  and  report  all  their  proceedings  to  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  members  of  the  society  held  on  the 
second  Thursday  of  May  and  usually  in  New  York. 

The  society  was  incorporated  in  1841.  The 
societies  which  already  existed  became  for  the  most 
part  auxiliary  to  the  national  organization  and  in 
addition  many  other  auxiliary  societies  were 
organized  under  its  direction,  the  number  at  one 
time  reaching  2,200.  Many  of  these,  however, 
have  ceased  to  exist,  the  number  now  being  541. 
The  "  Bible  House,"  Astor  Place,  N.  Y.,  the  society's 
headquarters,  was  erected  in  1852  and  was  paid 
for  by  funds  contributed  for  the  special  purpose 
and  not  from  current  receipts  for  benevolent  work. 

The  ninety-first  annual   report  of  the  board  of 

managers    was     presented     May     9,     1907.     The 

total   cash   receipts  were  $575,820.94. 

8.  Sum-     rj^^  ^^^   issues   of    that  year  were 

"wSk        1,910.853,   of    which    1,010,777   were 

issued  from  the  Bible  House  in  New 

York,    and   900,076   from    the   society's   agencies 

abroad,  being  printed  on  mission  presses  in  China, 


Japan,  Siam,  Syria,  and  Turkey.  The  total  issues 
of  the  society  in  Bibles,  Testaments,  and  portions 
amoimt  to  80,420,382  copies,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: Bibles  20,293,636  Testaments  and  poriions 
58,215,889. 

The  efforts  of  the  society  were  at  first  directed 
mainly  to  meeting  the  needs  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  but  from  the  very  first  it  was  in 
spirit  and  intention  a  foreign  as  well  as  a  borne 
mission  society.  Bibles  at  the  very  beginning 
were  supplied  to  the  North-American  Indians. 
The  third  annual  report  shows  that  steps  were 
already  taken  for  sending  Spanish  Bibles  to  Buenos 
Ayres  and  the  next  year  the  society  was  reaching 
out  to  West  Africa.  In  1836  the  first  foreign 
agency  was  instituted  in  Constantinople,  and  in  1864 
the  agency  for  the  La  Plata  region  in  South  America. 
During  the  past  thirty  years  this 
4.  Foreign  work  has  largely  increased  and  regular 
Work.  agencies  have  been  established  in 
Japan,  China,  Brazil,  Mexico,  Korea, 
Cuba,  Siam  and  Laos,  Central  America,  Porto  Rioo 
and  the  Philippines,  besides  Venezuela  and  Colom- 
bia, where  the  agencies  have  been  temporarily 
discontinued.  These  agencies  have  distributed  a 
total  of  9,453,918  Bibles,  Testaments,  and  portions 
in  China  alone.  Besides  this  the  society  has  con- 
tinually cooperated  with  missions  and  missionaries 
in  countries  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  It  has 
stimulated  Bible  translation,  initiating  it  in  some 
cases,  cooperating  with  others  more  frequently 
and  securing  needed  revisions  under  its  patronage 
and  partly  or  wholly  at  its  expense.  It  has  been 
thus  interested  in  about  100  translations  and 
revisions  in  all. 

The  labors  of  the  society  have  been  broken  twice 
by  serious  differences  among  its  friends  and  sup- 
porters. In  1835  missionaries  in  Burma  published 
at  the  expense  of  the  society  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  which  rendered  the  Greek  word 
baptizein  and  its  cognate  terms  by  the  English 
"  immerse "  or  an  equivalent.  After  much  dis- 
cussion the  managers  resolved  that  they  felt  at 
liberty  *'  to  encourage  only  such  versions  as  con- 
form in  the  principle  of  their  translation  to  the 
common  English  Version — at  least 
6.  Oontro-   so  far  as  that  all  the  religious  denom- 

versies.  inations  represented  in  this  society 
can  consistently  use  and  circulate 
such  versions  in  their  several  schools  and  commu- 
nities,'' and  missionary  boards  were  requested  in 
asking  aid  to  state  that  the  versions  they  proposed 
to  circulate  were  in  accordance  with  this  resolution. 
The  Baptists  took  offense  and  a  controversy  ensued, 
the  consequence  of  which  was  the  formation  of  the 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (see  below,  2). 

In  1847  the  committee  on  versions  was  instructed 
to  undertake  a  careful  collation  of  different  editions 
of  the  English  Bible  with  a  view  to  perfecting  its 
text  in  minutiae.  Their  final  report,  made  May  1, 
1851,  stated  that  in  collating  five  standard  copies 
of  English  and  American  imprint  with  the  original 
edition  of  1611  nearly  24,000  variations  were  found 
solely  in  the  text  and  punctuation,  not  one  of  which 
marred  the  integrity  of  the  text  or  affected  any 
doctrine  or  precept  of  the  Bible.    A  standard  then 


98 


REMOTOlTg   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Societies 


HkUrmined  upon  with  the  tmanimoua  approval 
of  tht?  board  of  managers  w;is  accept eil  generally 
by  the  public  and  for  several  years  Bibles  printed 
accordingly  circulated  without  the  slightest  objec- 
tiba*  Bui  in  1856,  and  more  decidedly  in  1857, 
tbe  ri^bt  of  the  society  to  circulate  such  an  edition 
wms  eharply  challenged.  Cfmsiderable  public  ex- 
citenient  followed;  the  matter  w&s  debated  in 
religious  and  even  eecular  journaKs  a«  well  as  in 
eodenastical  bodies,  and  the  bourd  of  managers 
after  long  oooaideration,  and  debate  finally  took 
ftdioQ,  Jan.  28,  1858,  as  followii: 

BcadlTed.  that  ttiiii  ■octety*a  present  titamlard  KngliAh 
I  be  ivf«rre>d  to  the  BtmtidinK  M^mmittee  on  v«rsJofiji  for 
ifttioD;  and  in  atl  auma  where  the  «&me  diScn  in  the 
i  or  its  acqcworiei  from  the  Bibles  previnunly  publiflhed 
hf  tbe  todety,  the  oormnittee  are  ctireoted  to  correct  the 
■tfM  by  oonfonnixis  it  to  previoui  edttions  printed  by  this 
KMirty.  or  by  tbe  authorised  Britiah  preset,  nifereaee  hein^ 
•hotukd  to  the  oiicuial  edition  of  tbe  iranjilatori  printed 
ia  1411;  and  to  report  ituoh  eoirectioiu  to  this  boards  to  the 
tsd  litfet  a  tkew  edition,  thuii  perfectcKt,  m&y  be  adopted  an 
tiw  ftiadard  edition  of  the  society. 

The  committee  reported  in  1859  and  1860;  and 
Erom  thin  "standard  edition"  all  the  societys 
E^gbftk  Bibles  are  dow  piinted. 

Tht  oonstitution  of  tbe  society  originally  re- 
itrieled  it  to  circulating  only  **  the  version  now 
t&  tocnmon  ti^/'  in  the  English  language.  In 
19W  ftt  the  annual  meeting  of  the  society  on  the 
neommmdation  of  the  board  of  managers  the 
ttiiititution  wuiS  amended  so  as  to  permit  the 
pobtication  of  the  Revised  Version  of  the  English 
BSUe,  either  in  its  British  «r  American  fonn,  and 
under  this  permisaion  8omc  editions  of  the  Anier- 
Mm  Standard  Revised  Version  are  now  published 
by  the  society  under  an  arrangement  with  the 
{nibliibers.  Junx  I' ox. 

1  ¥li«  Amftrioan  &zid  Foreign  Bible  Society  and 
the  Ai&arlcan  Bible  tfnlon:  The  American  and 
Fomga  Bible  Society  was  organiaed  at  Philadel- 
pJu4  in  April,  1836,  by  Baptists  who  felt  aggrieved 
*t  the  itction  of  the  American  Bible  Society  con- 
9mia^  the  translation  of  the  Greek  baptizftn, 
wfewd  to  above  (see  III,  1,  J  5).  Rev,  S.  11. 
Ooine  was  made  p resident »  The  society  vvtm  de- 
«iw«d  to  be  *'  founded  upon  the  principle  that  the 
ortpji^Is  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  are  the  only 
iUtbteDtic  standards  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and 
*fcil*idfor  the  translating,  printing,  or  dij^tributing 
of  tlion  in  foreign  languages  should  be  afTorded 
to  lucb  versions  only  as  are  conformed  as  neoHy 
lipOBible  to  the  original  text;  it  being  miderstood 
thtt  no  wonis  are  to  be  transjerred  wliich  are  sus- 
MpCibk  of  being  literally  translated*^  The  con- 
*t«ttitiaD  adopted  declared  (art.  n)  **  that  in  the 
'liitribution  of  the  *Scriptures  in  the  English  lan- 
|lU|e,  the  oommonly  received  version  shall  be  u^d 
•Bill  otherwise  din?cted  by  the  society."  Dis- 
•iSrftCtion  with  this  policy  led  to  the  secession  of 
Mtiii  members  and  the  fonnatiou  in  KH50  of  the 
AaeriGin  Bible  Union,  which  demanded  that  the 
|iiQoi[^e  of  circulating  '*  such  versions  only  as  are 
wmaad  a«  nearly  as  possible  to  the  original  text  ** 
ikmid  be  applied  to  the  English  version,  and 
its  object  '*  to  procure  and  circulate 
.  fftitbful  versions  of  tbe  Sacred  Scriptures 


in  all  languages  throughout  the  world."  The  Union 
secured  the  services  of  a  number  of  Baptist  and  other 
Biblical  scholars,  especially  the  Rev.  Drs.  H-  B, 
Hackett,  A.  C.  Kendrick,  and  T;  J.  C^nant.  The 
entire  New  Testament  and  portions  of  the  Old 
were  revised  and  published.  Italian,  Spanish, 
Chineae  (Ningpo  colloquial),  Siamese,  and  Sgau- 
Karen  New  Testaments  were  also  prepareti*  Tho 
Union  ultimately  reunited  with  the  American 
and  I"'orieign  Bible  Society,  and  in  1882  the  latter 
passed  over  its  work  and  good-will  to  the  American 
Baptist  Publication  Society  (Pliiladelphia),  which 
since  then  has  performed  the  duties  of  the  Bible 
Society,  antl  is  carrying  on  the  work  of  revision 
inaugurated  by  the  earlier  societies.  The  revi- 
sion has  now  (19<)7)  reached  the  Book  of  Ezra, 
and  will  be  completed,  it  is  hop<*d,  by  the  end  of 
1908. 

3.  The  Bible  Aflsoclati on  of  Friends  in  America 
was  orgimi^wl  in  1830.  It  has  been,  in  tho  main, 
a  tiistributing  agency,  circulating  the  Scriptures 
printed  by  others,  but  in  19()5-(M1  printed  an  edition 
of  2,925  Testament.^  an<l  Psalms,  In  1906  it  re- 
ported total  receipts  of  S;i,9t'i0.59  and  payments  of 
$2,412.06.  Its  distribution  in  that  year  was  6,534 
volumes,  of  which  2,030  wer<.^  Bibles,  The  head- 
quarters are  at  207  Walnut  Place,  Philadelphia, 
Pa, 

DiBLioonAPHY;  On  the  genera)  queition  Gonsult:  Abrw  dmr 
OeschieJite  dtm  UrMprunoM  und  Wofhtlhum*  drr  Bihekf^sidlF' 
tckaft^n.  Barmen,  1870;  Summary  Notice  conc*min4f  Btti* 
8ocieti4M  in  General  and  Thuw  of  France  in  Fartindar^ 
from  the  Fr.,  Northampton.  1827;  W.  H.  Wy<?koff.  A 
Sketch  pf  CA«  Origin^  lliMioru  ,  ,  .  of  BUtU  Socieiiet,  New 
York  1848. 

On  the  BFBS  consult:  W.  Canton.  HiMt,  of  ths  BFBS, 
2  vols.,  London,  1004;  idem,  Stofy  of  the  Bible  SocUiy,  ib. 
1904:  J.  Owen.  HiJtL  of  the  Origin  and  Firat  Ten  YearM  of 
the  BFBS,  2  vojii.,  lb.  1816;  PaperB  Occasioned  bu  the  AU 
temptt  to  Ffjrm  Auxiliary  Bible  Societiee  in  Varitme  Fartt 
of  the  Kingdom,  ib.  1812;  Jubilee  Afemoriat  of  the  BFBS, 
ib.  1854;  G,  Browne,  Hi»L  of  the  BFBS,  2  vols.,  ib.  1858i 
La  Sociit^^  bibliijue  britannique  et  ^tranifh-e,  1804S9.  Ni>- 
tice  au  p*nnt  de  vue  hiMtariquet  "phUoeophique^  tl  ndigieuXt 
Nanieji,  1880;  H.  Morria.  Foundtra  and  Freeidents  of  the 
Bible  Sitciety.  London,  1806;  Bible  Hou»t  Paper* ,  ib.  1899 
eqq.  (in  proffreBB);  Behold  a  Sower.  Popular  .  .  ,  Re- 
port at  BFBS  for  1 900-01,  ib,  1902;  T  H,  DafJow  and 
H,  F,  Moulc,  CaUiloQxte  of  the  Printed  Etlitionn  of  Hnlv 
Scripture  in  the  Libraru  of  the  BFBS.  2  vols,,  ib.  1904; 
T  H.  Darkjw,  T herds  a  River,  ib.  1900;  Bible  Aaeoeia- 
tion  Reptrrta.     By  Helen  Plumptre,  Workoop,  1843, 

The  orgtLnA  of  tho  aociety  are  the  Manthtv  Reporter  of 
the  BFBS.  London.  lS58-«8,  Bucc««ded  by  the  Bible  So- 
ciett/  Atonthly  Reporter^  1889  sqq.  The  other  British 
Societies  ituiue  various  publications,  such  as  Annual  Re^ 
port!,  Quarterly  Record*,  and  Occaaiamid  Paper §,  in  which 
their  history  may  be  traced. 

Fnr  the  foreign  sodeties  there  ure  abo  available  their 
reports,  bei^iden  whirh  the  following  may  be  consulted: 
C,  F.  Hesekie},  aem:hichte  der  CanMeinechen  Bibel  Aneialt, 
ed.  A.  IL  Niemeyer,  Halle.  1827;  0.  Bertram,  Oe*chi4^tt 
der  Canjiteineehen  Bibeianatalt.  ib.  18«3:  W.  Thilo.  G#- 
achichte  der  preunUehtn  Haupt-BibeiaeeelUehaftmt^  1814- 
tSS4,  Berlin,  1864;  E.  Breeat,  Die  Enbeickdune  d»  preuM- 
aiachen  Htiupt'BibelitemUedmfiitn,  1864-01,  ib.  1891. 

For  (he  American  Bible  Society  eonpult:  The  Ammi- 
can  Bible  Sacvetj/'t  Manual,  containinif  a  Brief  Sketch  of 
the  Society,  New  York,  1805.  revised  ed..  1887;  W.  P. 
Hthckiaud.  tiiat,  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  tb,  1840; 
American  Bible  Society'*  Report*,  18KK71,  4  vol*.,  ib.  n.d. 
{tl  reprint);  American  Bible  Society.  Reptyrt  of  the  Trane- 
ference  of  the  Lityrary  of  the  Society  to  the  New  York  Pub-^ 
lie  Library,  ib.  1897.  The  organ  is  tho  Bible  Society  Re^ 
<mi  ta  ronnthlyj. 


Bible  Text. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


94 


I.  The  Old  Testament. 

1.  The  Premasoretie  Period. 
The  Maaoretic  Text  (f  1). 
The  Earlier  Text  (§  2). 
Change  in  Style  of  Writing  (§3). 
Attempt*  to  Fix  the  Text  (|  4). 
The  Pronimciation  Fixed,  but  the 

Text  Still  Unvocaliaed  (|  6). 
Word-Division  (§  6). 
Division  into  Verses  (§7). 
Division  into  Sections  (f  8). 

2.  The  Masoretic  Period. 
TheMaaoretes  (§1). 
Their  Work  (|  2). 
Codioes  (f  3). 

3.  The  Postmasoretic  Period. 
The  Chapter-Division  (§1). 

Old  Testament  Manuscripts  (S  2). 
The  Printed  Text  (|  3). 
Critical  Works  and  Commentaries 
(§4). 


BIBLE  TEXT. 

n.  The  New  Testament 

1.  History  of  the  Written  Text. 

The  Autographs  of  the  New  Testar 
ment  Books  (f  1). 

The  Manuscripts  (f  2). 

Their  Material  and  Form  (§  2). 

The  Ammonian  Sections  (S  4). 

Early  Divisions  of  the  Text  (f  5). 

Divisions  for  Liturgical  Reading 
(§6). 

Early  Corruption  of  the  Text 
(§7). 

Varieties  of  Text  Produced  by  Early 
Criticism  (§  8). 

The  Uncial  Manuscripts  ((  9). 

The  Cursive  Manuscripts,  Evangel- 
istaries, etc.  (§10). 

2.  History  of  the  Printed  Text. 
Complutensian  and  Eraainian  edi- 
tions (I  1). 

Editions  of  Stephens  and  Besa  (f  2) 


Editions  between   1657  and  1830 

(§3). 
Griesbaoh  and  his  Followers  ({4) 
Lachmann  ((  5). 
Tischendorf  (f  6). 
Tregelles  (f  7). 
Westcott  and  Hort  (f  8). 
Other  Critics  of  the  Text  (f  9). 
More  Recent  Tendencies  (f  10). 

3.  Principles  of  Textual  Criticism. 
The  Basal  Rule  (f  1). 

Other  Canons  (f  2). 

4.  Results  of  the  Textual  Criticism  of 

the  New  Testament. 
III.  Chapter  and  Verse  Divisiona. 
Chapter  Divisions  (f  1). 
Verse    Divisions,    Old    Testament 

(§2). 
Verse   Divisions,    New   Testament 

(§3). 


Maeoretio 
Text. 


I.  The  Old  Testament. —  1.  Tho  Fremaooretio 
Period:  The  extant  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment text  is  commonly  called  the  Masoretic,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  text  of  the  ancient  versions 
as  well  as  from  the  Hebrew  text  of  former  ages. 
This  Masoretic  text  docs  not  present  the  original 
form  but  a  text  which  within  a  certain  period  was 
fixed  by  Jewish  scholars  as  the  correct  and  only 
authoritative  one.  When  and  how  this  official 
Masoretic  text  was  fixed  was  formerly  a  matter 
of  controversy,  especially  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  One  party  headed  by  the  Buxtorfs 
(father  and  son),  in  the  interest  of  the  view  of 
inspiration  then  prevalent,  held  to  the  absolute 
completeness  and  infallibility,  and 
1.  The  hence  the  exclusive  value,  of  the 
Masoretic  text.  They  attributed  it  to 
Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue, who,  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  were  supposed  to  have  purified  the  text 
from  all  accumulated  error;  added  the  vowel- 
points,  the  accents,  and  other  punctuation-marks 
(thus  settling  the  reading  and  pronunciation); 
fixed  the  canon ;  made  the  right  division  into  verses, 
paragraphs,  and  books;  and,  finally,  by  the  provi- 
dence of  God  and  the  care  of  the  Jews,  the  text  thus 
made  was  believed  to  have  been  kept  from  all 
error,  and  to  present  the  veritable  Word  of  God. 
Tliis  view  of  the  text  prevailed  especially  when 
Protestant  scholasticism  was  at  its  height,  and  may 
be  designated  as  the  orthodox  Protestant  posi- 
tion. It  was  opposed  by  another  party  headed 
by  Jean  Morin  and  Louis  Cappel,  who,  in  the 
interest  of  pure  historicity  or  in  Antiprotestant 
polemics,  combated  these  opinions,  maintained 
the  later  age  of  the  Masoretic  text,  and  sought 
to  vindicate  value  and  usefulness  for  the  old 
versions  and  other  critical  helps.  They  fell  into 
many  errors  in  respect  to  the  details  of  the  history 
of  the  text  and  overrated  the  value  of  Extra- 
masoretic  critical  helps;  but  their  general  view  was 
supported  by  irresistible  arguments  and  is  now 
imiversally  adopted.  This  view,  instead  of  deriving 
the  existing  text  from  a  gathering  of  inspired 
men  in  Ezra's  time,  assigns  it  to  a  much  later  date 
and  quite  different  men,  and,  instead  of  absolute 
completeness,  claims   for  it   only   a    relative   one 


with  a  higher  value  than  other  forms  of  the  text. 
A  glance  at  the  history  of  the  text  will  show  how 
this  agreement  has  been  brought  about. 

Concerning  the  oldest  history  of  the  text  of  the 
Old  Testament  writings  there  exists  almost  no  posi- 
tive information.     The  books  were  written  proh- 

ably  upon  skins,  perhaps  also  on  linen; 

^^^®       as  paper  was  used   from  very  early 

Text         times  in  Egypt,   it   is   possible  that 

it  was  employed;  parchment  appears 
to  have  been  used  later.  The  roll  seems  to  have 
been  the  usual  form  (Ps.  xl,  8;  Jer.  xxxvi,  14  sqq.; 
Ezek.  ii,  9;  Zech.  v,  1);  the  pen  was  a  pointed  reed 
(Jer.viii,  8;  Ps.  xlv,  1);  the  character  waa  the  Old 
Hebrew,  which  was  almost  identical  with  the 
Phenician  and  Moabitic  (on  the  Moabite  Stone,  q.v.). 
Specimens  of  this  writing  are  also  preserved  in 
the  Siloam  inscription  (c.  700  B.C.),  on  gems  (of 
the  eighth  or  seventh  century),  on  coins  of  the 
Hasmoneans  and  those  belonging  to  the  time  of 
the  Jewish-Roman  war,  and,  in  somewhat  different 
form,  in  Samaritan  writings.  Like  the  Phenicians 
and  Moabites,  the  Hebrews  separated  the  words 
by  a  point  or  stroke,  but  these  signs  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  used  regularly,  since  the  Septuagint 
often  makes  word-divisions  different  from  those 
of  the  Masoretic  text.  Jewish  tradition  mentions 
several  passages  in  which  the  separation  of  words 
was  regarded  as  doubtful. 

The  difference  between  ancient  and  modem 
texts  consisted  in  this,  that  the  former  were  written 
without  vowels  and  accents.  The  Hebrew  writing, 
like  Semitic  writing  in  general,  was  essentially 
consonantal;  vowels  were  not  written.  While  the 
language  lived,  this  occasioned  no  difficulty  to  the 
speakers  or  readers.  No  details  are  at  hand  con- 
cerning the  way  in  which  the  text  was  multiplied 
and  preserved;  but  inasmuch  as  the  writings  did 
not  then  have  in  popular  estimation  the  character 
they  came  later  to  possess,  it  is  likely  that  they  were 
less  carefully  handled,  and  that  the  same  amount 
of  pains  was  not  taken  in  copying  them.  This 
statement  rests  upon  the  fact  that  those  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament  which  we  possess  in  double  forms 
vary  in  ways  that  indicate  a  corruption  of  the  text 
reacliing  back  to  precanonicai  times  when  copies 
were  neither  made  nor  corrected  so  laboriously. 


RELIGIOITS  ENCTCLOPEDIA 


MDleTezt 


A  Dew    epoch    commenced    after    tlie    Exib, 
when  the  holy  writings  were  raised  to  canotiicul 
dignity  and  iw  holy  writings  were  venerated  and 
handled  with  evei^increasing  care  and  conscinntious- 
neas.   This  veneration  was  not  accorded  to  all  Bib- 
lical writinp  at  once,  but  only  to  that  part  of  the 
cannon  called  the  law.     The  epoch  begina  with  Exra, 
andertends  to  the  close  of  the  Talrtimi,  c.  500  a,u. 
Ouriiigthis  period  not  only  wi're  the  form  of  writing 
a.nd  the  text  fixed,  but  aUo  the  prontmciation  and 
rii vision;  in  short,  the  major  part  of  the  present 
Maaorali  was  collected  in  verbal  fortn.    A  e!iange  of 
ACi  external  kincl  wns  the  develop  men  t  of  a  sacred 
"nrritiag.  under  the  influence  of  the  Aramaic  char- 
meter,    the    so-called    "square"    or    '' Aiisyrian  " 
c^xamcter.     Jewish    tradition    ascribes    the    intro- 
duction of  the  square  character  to  Ezra,  and  calls 
it   expnsasly  an  Aramaic  writing    that   the    Jewn 
iMlopted  in  place  of  their  Hebrew,  which  they  left 
to  the  Samaritana.     A  study  of  Assyrian,  Persian, 
and  Cilician  seals  and  coins,  of  the  Ammnit!  inoim- 
menu  from  the  third  to  the  first  century  n.c,  and 
of  the  Pftlmyrene  inscriptions  from  the  tir^t  to  the 
J  p.  third  century  A.r>.  haa  pennitt<^l  the 

Utt^t^'^'"^   "f    *'>'^'    '''-;vv^^«'P>"ent    of    tl.e 
WrltiiuT.    t>*^^'^^    Hebrew   al|)nabet   tiirough    a 
1  thousand   years ♦   back    to   the  eighth 

century.  E«ra,  therefore,  may  have  influenced 
thf  UM*  of  the  Aramaic  alpliabet,  but  the 
iqmre  character  wai*  not  developed  in  hi8  day, 
aof  for  centu rie«  afterw^ard;  nor  was  the  Aramaic 
ilphalnrt  then  used  outside  of  the  narrow  circle 
trf  the  scribes.  For  not  only  chd  the  Samaritans 
ftUm  the  ancient  script  for  their  Pentateiicli,  but 
iiBOng  the  Jews  aliio  it  mtji?t  have  been  used  fur 
*  long  time,  since  it  is  found  on  coins  down  to  the 
^nue  of  Bar  Kokba,  Matt,  v,  18  proves  that 
(he  Aramaic  writing  had  become  poj>uhu-  by  the 
tinie  that  Gospel  waa  written,  since  in  the  ancient 
BibiCTT  the  lett-er  *'  fjodh  '^  wit^s  by  no  means  the 
■naUest.  Taking  all  in  all,  it  may  be  assumed 
*ith  certainty  that  the  use  of  the  new  alphabet 
*fi  Bible-mnnuscripta  of  the  la^^t  PrechriKtian 
I  «tttufies  waa  genend,  a  result  which  is  also  con- 

I  Snoad  by  a  careful  examination  of  the  Septuagint 

k     *ith  reference   to   the   manuscripts   used   by   the 

■  tnuuUtofti  (especially  must  this  have  been  the  case 
^^    *itb  the  Tctragrammaton  retained  in  many  copies 

^  the  Greek  translation,  which  was  no  doubt 
1^  »Tittftft  in  the  Aramaic  script*  since  it  waa  read 
^B  CQtxieoualy  by  the  Christiana),  Considering  tfiis 
H     ™^ciipnient  it  may  be  assumed   that  the   Latest 

■  ^TesiUiment  writings  were  written,  not  in   the 
^     *Qeieiit  Hebrew  but  in  Aramaic,  by  the  authors 

^'^■'ttielveg.  After  the  Aramaic  writing  was  onci*  in 
^ifoong  the  Jews,  it  soon  took  the  fonn  in  which 
**  OOw  have  it-  The  descriptions  which  Jerome 
•■^il  the  Tahnud  give  of  the  different  letters  fully 
I  '•^'aiaiuje  with  the  form  which  is  still  found  in 
L  ^uscripta.  The  minute  rules  laid  down  by  the 
H  tiiniud  fed  to  calligraphy  and  orthography  made 
^P  'urtlier  dt^velopment  of  tlie  square  writing  im- 
H  twttiblp.  and  therefore  tlie  writing  of  the  manu- 
W  •'npt*  varie**  scarcely  at  all  through  centuries 
I  ^'iit^ptiiig  perhaps   that   the  German   and    Polish 

Jf»i  have  the  so-called  Tam  script,  which  is  some- 


what angular,  whereas  the  Spanish  Jews  have  the 
Wehh  or  more  rounded  script). 

The  veneration  shown  for  the  canonical  writings 
during  this  puriod  naturally  led  to  a  greater  cjire 
in  treatment  of  them  and  above  all  to  perception 
of  the  necessity  of  criticidly  fixing  the  t«xt.  As 
soon  as  the  ancient  writings  obtained  canonical 
authority,  were  used  in  divine  service^  and  became 
the  standard  of  doctrine  and  life,  the  neceaaity  of 
having  one  wtaadarcJ  text  naturally  asm*rt€H3  itjself. 
The  preparation  of  such  a  text  began  with  the  lawj 
the  other  two  divisions  (the  prophets  and  the 
hagiographa)  became  authoritative  only  in  the 
cuiirsc  of  centuries  (see  Canon  of  ScRiprtmE,  I), 
and  naturally  their  text  did  not  receive  atten- 
tion in  the  earlier  period.  However*  criticism  dur- 
ing that  period  was  of  little  value.  There  ia 
no  doubt  that  faithful  and  correct  copies  ex- 
isted, especially  of  such  books  as  were 
4.  Attempt*  ^^y^,^  read,  but  tliis  could  not 
to  Fix  the  ^  i  i  .^   i  j- 

Text         prevent    errors    and    mistakes    from 

creeping  into  copies  which  were 
generally  circulated.  When  Josephus  (Contra 
Apion,  I,  viii)  ami  Fhilo  (cf.  Eusebius,  PrwparcUia 
ri^angelicaf  YIII,  vi,  7)  speak  of  the  great  care 
bestowed  by  the  Jews  upon  their  8«^icreJ  writings^ 
tliis  can  not  bo  referred  to  earlier  centuries,  and 
coneems  more  the  contents  than  the  linguistic 
minutiiP  of  the  text.  In  the  oldest  critical  docu- 
ments— the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint—there  is  evidence  (about  500-100  bx,) 
to  show  that  the  manuscripts  most  approved  and 
most  widely  diffused  contained  many  verbal  dif- 
ferences. And  these  variations  are  not  to  be 
charged,  a.^  was  formerly  done,  to  carelessness  or 
wilfulness  on  the  part  of  the  IlHlenistic  Jews  and 
Samaritans,  but  are  explained  by  the  lesser  im* 
portance  attached  to  exact  uniformity  of  text  and 
to  the  existence  of  inistidtcs  in  the  current  copies. 
And  when  the  Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  agree  in  good  readings,  and  still  oftener 
in  bad  ones,  aj^ainst  the  Masoretic  text,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  these  readings  were  spread  by 
many  copies  currtnit  among  the  Palestinian  Jews, 
and  are  therefore  not  to  be  regardetJ  as  offensive. 
But  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem .  when 
Judaism  was  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  rab- 
bis, it  became  possible  to  prepare  a  uniform  stand- 
ard text,  althougli  this  idea  was  not  realized  until 
many  generations  had  worked  upon  it.  The  Greek 
versions  of  tlie  second  century  had  alrejidy  fewer 
variations  from  the  Masoretic  text.  Still  nearer 
the  latter  t^xt  h  the  Hebrew  text  of  Origen  and 
Jerome.  The  Talmud  itself  bears  witness,  by  the 
agreement  of  its  Biblical  quotations  with  the 
Masoretic  text,  that  the  consonantal  text  was 
practically  fininhctl  before  the  Talmutlic  era  closed. 
It  i&  not  possible  to  say  ujKjn  what  prineiplea  the 
text  was  treated;  but  the  way  in  which  the  cus- 
todians presented  the  individuality  of  the  several 
authors,  books,  and  periods  is  remarkable,  and 
proves  that  intentional  and  arbitrary  chang!e«  of 
the  text  were  not  made  by  these  critics.  That 
they  changed  passages  for  dogmatic,  especially  for 
Antichrist! an,  reasons,  as  has  sometimes  been  as- 
serted, has  long  ago  been   acknowledged  to  be  a 


L 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


96 


baseless  accusation.  Where  they  mention  changes, 
they  make  clear  that  they  followed  the  testimony 
of  manuscripts,  the  number  of  which  was  probably 
not  very  great.  The  fact  that  in  the  first  cen- 
turies after  Christ  the  text  approximates  our 
present  Masoretic  reading  shows  that  a  certain 
recension  became  authoritative  which  was  possible 
only  after  a  certain  manuscript  had  been  taken 
as  the  norm.  Of  such  a  standard  oodex,  copies 
could  easily  be  made,  or  one  could  correct  his 
own  copies  in  accordance  with  it.  Scholars 
like  Olshausen  and  Lagarde  speak  therefore 
of  some  such  archetype,  which  was  slavishly  fol- 
lowed in  every  respect.  The  critical  apparatus 
of  the  time  is  concealed  in  dissociated  fragments 
in  the  later  Masorah,  but  can  not  be  separated  from 
the  other  matter.  The  Talmud  and  the  older 
midrashim  allow  a  little  insight  into  the  critical 
efforts  of  the  time.  Thus  mention  is  made  of  the 
"  corrections  of  the  scribes,"  of  the  "  removals 
of  the  scribes"  (meaning  that  in  five  passages  a 
falsely  introduced  "  and  "  was  removed),  and  of  the 
points  in  the  Hebrew  text  over  certain  words  to 
show  that  these  words  were  critically  suspected, 
such  as  the  inverted  '*nun,'*  Num.  x,  35,  and  the 
three  kinds  of  reading  {keri ;  see  Keri  and  Ke- 
thibh),  viz.,  "  read  but  not  written,"  "  written 
but  not  read,"  and  "  read  [one  way]  but  written 
[another]."  The  three  kinds  of  reading  have,  it  is 
true,  for  the  most  part  only  exegetical  value;  e.g., 
th^y  give  the  usual  instead  of  the  unusual  grammat- 
ical forms,  show  where  one  must  understand  or  omit 
a  word,  or  where  the  reader  should  use  a  euphe- 
mistic expression  for  the  coarse  one  in  the  text; 
they  are  therefore  scholia  upon  the  text.  It  is 
possible  that  these  "  readings  "  are  also  fragments 
of  the  critical  apparatus.  However  this  may  be, 
it  is  evident  that  at  that  period  the  text  was  fixed 
and  that  the  matter  in  question  concerned  only 
subordinate  details  of  the  text. 

The  development  of  the  pronunciation  or  of  the 
vocalization  and  the  division  of  words,  verses,  and 
sections  kept  pace  with  the  settlement  of  the  text. 
That  the  ancient  writing  had  no  vowel-points  has 
already  been  stated;  but  even  during  this  entire 
period  to  the  close  of  the  Talmud  the  sacred  text 
was  without  vowels  and  other  points.  The  old 
versions,  particularly,  the  Greek,  and  Josephus 
depart  so  widely  from  the  Masoretic  text  that  they 
could  not  possibly  have  used  the  present  pointed 
text.  The  expedient  which  charges  the  translators 
with  these  differences  is  of  no  avail,  since  it  is  not 
any  one  version  which  alone  shows  such  differences; 
they  all  differ.  Origen,  too,  published  a  Hebrew 
text  in  the  Hexapla  which  differed  from  the  Maso- 
retic. Jerome  knew  nothing  about  vowel-points, 
not  even  the  diacritical  point  making 
the  difference  between  "s"  and  ''sh." 
The  Talmud  and  the  modem  ecclesias- 
tical or  ritual  manuscripts  of  the  Jews 
present  an  unpointed  text.  There  is 
no  doubt  that,  as  Elias  Levita 
stated,  the  Masoretic  system  of  punc- 
tuation is  of  later  origin,  and  that 
during  this  entire  period  the  sacred  text  was 
without  points.    But   this   does  not  mean   that 


6.  The 
Pronun- 
oiation 
Vlxed,  but 
the  Text 
Still  T7n. 
▼ooalized. 


during  the  same  period  the  reading  of  the  un- 
voweled  text  was  still  unsettled  among  the  Jews; 
it  must  rather  be  assimied  that  with  the  official 
fixing  of  the  text  there  was  developed  also  a  certain 
mode  of  understanding  and  reading  it.  Of  course 
time  was  required  to  bring  it  into  vogue;  but  before 
the  end  of  the  period  it  was  so  firmly  established 
that  Jerome's  pronunciation  differed  very  little 
from  the  Masoretic,  and  he  was  so  sure  of  its  cor- 
rectness that  he  appeals  to  it  against  the  text  of 
the  versions;  and  the  Talmud  gives  it  throughout 
correctly.  Before  the  Masoretes  the  pronunciation 
was  fixed,  not  yet  written,  but  handed  down  by 
word  of  mouth,  although  some  scholars  may  have 
used  signs  in  their  books  to  assist  their  memory. 

Closely  connected  and  mutually  dependent  were 
pronunciation  and  the  division  of  words.  The 
latter  must  have  been  finally  settled  at  this  period. 

Q  __  ,  The  sign  of  division  was  the  small 
Division'  ®P^^  between  words.  Thfe  final  let- 
ters, being  limited  in  number,  can  not 
be  regarded  as  word-separating  signs.  Jerome 
used  a  text  with  a  division  of  words  and  knew 
the  final  letters;  in  the  Talmud,  Menahot  30a 
states  how  large  must  be  the  space  between 
the  words;  the  synagogue-scrolls,  though  still  with- 
out vowels,  have  nevertheless  the  division  by 
spaces,  following  the  custom  of  the  ancient  manu- 
scripts from  Talmudic  time;  and  the  fact  that  a 
number  of  *'  readings "  correct  the  traditional 
division  of  words  speaks  again  in  favor  of  the  high 
antiquity  of  the  division  of  words  in  the  present 
texts. 

The    division    into    verses    is    by    no     means 

contemporary    in    origin   with    the   vocalisation, 

but    much    earlier.    The   verse-divi- 

7.  Divi-  gJQyj  depends  in  poetry  upon  the  paral- 
lelism, in  prose  upon  the  division 
of  sentences  and  clauses.  That  the  lat- 
ter were  not  marked  in  oldest  times  is  certain;  in  poet- 
ical texts  the  members  may  have  been  distinguished 
either  by  space  or  by  breaks  of  the  line.  This  mode  of 
writing  poetical  texts  was  formerly  general,  and  is 
found  in  the  older  Hebrew  manuscripts;  for  the 
poetical  texts,  Ex.  xv;  Deut.  xxxii;  Judges  v;  and 
II  Sam.  xxii,  it  is  even  prescribed  (Shabbat  103b; 
Sopherim  xii),  and  is  therefore  still  customary. 
With  the  introduction  of  the  Masoretic  accents, 
poetry  was  written  close,  like  prose.  This  verse- 
division  was  taught  in  the  schools;  but  no  rules 
are  given  for  its  writing,  nor  did  any  punctuation- 
marks  indicate  it  in  this  period. 

EarUer  than  the  division  into  verses  is  that  into 
larger  or  smaller  sections ;  these  were  more  necessary 
for  the  understanding  of  the  Scriptures  and  for  their 
reading  in  divine  worship.  Perhaps  some  of  them 
were  in  the  original  text.  The  sections  of  the  law 
were  at  least  Pretalmudic;   for  they 

into  Sm^"  are  mentioned  in  the  Mishnah  and 
tione. '  frequently  in  the  Gemara;  in  the 
latter  they  are  traced  to  Mosaic 
origin;  in  Shabbat  103b,  Menahot  30  care  is 
enjoined  as  to  the  sections  in  copying  the  law, 
and  therefore  they  occur  also  in  synagogue- 
rolls.  They  are  indicated  by  spacing;  the  larger 
sections  by  leaving  the  remainder  of  the  line  at 


■ion  into 
Verses. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Toxt 


(lifitrcioae  unfilled,  the  next  great  section  beginning 

ifjtij  ft  new  line,  on  which  account  they  were  cidled 

*'  €pea  '*;  the  smaUer  sections  were  separat^^l  from 

I  dch  other  by  only  a  flmall  space,  muI  were  there- 

I lore  called  "dosed*'  or  "  connecteij/*     Thus  not 

the  law  but  also  the  other  two  part«  of  the 

>  were  divided.     For  the  division  of  the  whole 

and   the  arrangement  of   the   books,   aee 

Ca»ON   of   SCKlPTtTRE,  I. 

Wrom  what  has  been  said,  it  follows  that  the 

fea^iing  of  the  text»  the  vocaliziition,  the  diviiaion 

oa^^  vords,  verses,  and  sectiona  depend  upon  the 

^"^fcdual  settlement   by   the  scribtiii ;  their  reading 

ouo  daim  neither  infallibility  nor  any  absolutely 

^MMitdmg  power;  and  though  their  labor  betrays  a 

tt^fccjfDUigh  and   correct  understanding  of   the  text, 

t^^^*^ neoBBsity  may  yet  arise  when  the  exegcte  must 

"^^'^Tate  from  tratlition.     Extraordinary  pains  were 

*-^Aen  to  perpetuate  in   its  purity  the  text  thus 

•^i^dod  and  vocidized,     Sign.s  of  tliis  care,  such  as 

^*^<rule»  for  calligraphy  and  for  writing  the  extraor- 

■-"«afy  points^  have  alrcatly  been  mentioned.     The 

^^'^Oiittalmudic  treatiises  Mnn&rkei  aopherim  and  Man- 

tepker  toroh  contain  full  detaib  for  copying. 

I^viertheless  fluctuations  are  met  with  in  the  Ma»o- 

!  period, and  it  must  therefore  be  aN^urned  that 

aed  Labor  had  not  yet  covered  all   details  or 

*^«iicic  final  settlement. 

3^  Th«  Kasoretic  Period:  The  third  period  of  the 

^^xLual  history  U  usually  reckoned  a,s  extending 

**X>Qj  the  sixth  until  the  eleventh  Chri.stian  century 

C'^lusn  Jewish  learning  was  transferre<.l  from   ttie 

^Si^Bt  to  North  Africa  and  Spain);  it  embraces  the 

^*#?&  of  the  Masoretes  proper,  and  has  for  the  Bible 

^^x.t  in  general  the  same  importance  as  the  Tal- 

■*M4clic  period  had  for  the  law.     The  efforts  of  the 

^^iiclan  to  fix  the  reading  and  understanding  of 

^tl«  ■Sicred  text  were  ovemhatiowed  somewhat  by 

^^^^  «tudy  of  the  Talmud.     After  the  close  of  the 

*X*mlinud  the  work  was  resumed  and  cultivated  in 

Babylonm  and  Palestine  (at  Tit»erias). 

In  both  -School*  the  work  of  former 

generations    was    continued;  but  the 

Palestinians,    who    acted    more  inde- 

than   the   more   Talmudically    inclined 

I^AbyioEii«na,    finally    got    the    victory    over    the 

i^Mfiybnian   school.     In   both   schools    they   were 

**•*  brifer  aatiafied  with  a  mere  oral  tranamiHsion 

oC   rules  and  regulations,  but  committetl   them  to 

^^'^tiog*    There  b  do  continuous  history  of  the  men 

^^  Uif  Maaorah  and  of  the  progreas  of  their  work 

^*'^»fcrved;  but  the  marginal  notes  in  ancient  RilUe- 

*^^*5Hiicript«    and    the  fragments    of    other  works 

T^^^   that    the    oldest  Masoretes   can    be    traced 

5JU*s|t  to  the  eighth  century.     The  main  effort  of 

?^|j*  period  (as  the  name  Mfisorah,   **  tradition/' 

^?|^e»teg;  see  Masokah)  was  to  collect  and  to  write 

3^*^^ti  the  ex^etico-critical  material  of  the  former 

^^■iod*  ttzid  t&s  makes  sufficiently  clear  the  one 

y^^*^  of  their  work.     But  the  Masoretcs  also  added 

^^t**^  new  matter.    Anxiously  following  the  foot- 

Z^^pe  ol  the  older  critics  in  their  effort  to  fix  and 

^^^Igiwrd  the  traditional  text,  they  laid  down  more 

^^*^wte  rules  of  a  lin;;uistic  and  grammatical  char- 

^'        and  tn  this  rwpect  a  great  part  of  the  con- 

I  of  the  Masorah  is  indeed  new. 


l.tbe 


pcsstdmtly 


They  took  the  consonantal  textus  recepfus  just 
as  it  stood,  and  finally  settled  it  in  the  mirmtest 
detailSp  aa  is  seen  from  the  variants  which  became 

S  Th  i  ^  matter  of  controversy  between  the 
^^j.^^  East  and  the  West,  the  Babylonians  and 
the  Palestinians,  which  to  the  ntmiber 
of  21 G  Jacob  ben  Haj-y^im  published  for  the 
first  time  in  the  second  edition  or  the  Bom  berg 
Rabbinic  Bible;  these  have  reference  mostly  to 
the  vowel-points.  This  list  of  vfiriants»  aa  is 
now  known,  in  by  no  means  complete.  They  also 
appendeil  criticnl  notes  to  the  text,  in  part  derived 
from  the  Talmudic  period,  in  part  new  (esperially  the 
'*  grammatical  conjecture's  ")^  showing  that  where, 
according  to  the  grammar  and  tlie  genius  of  the 
language,  one  should  exj>eet  another  reading, 
nevertheless  the  text  must  stand.  Finally  the 
great  majority  of  the  alternative  **  readings  " 
date  from  the  MiLSfjretcs. 

The  Ma«oretes  fixetl  the  reading  of  the  text  by 
the  introduction  of  the  vowel-signs,  the  accents, 
and  the  signs  which  affect  the  reading  of  the  con- 
Bonimts  {daghcsh,  rrutppiJc,  rapfiCf  and  the  dia- 
critical point  to  distinguish  Ix'tween  the  letters 
*'  xm  *'  and  "shin  ").  The  pronunciation  tliey  thus 
brought  about  was  no  invention,  but  embodied 
the  current  tradition.  Nevertheless,  one  cim  not 
accept  every  Maaoretic  reading  as  infallible  and 
imchangeabie,  especially  when  one  considers  that 
the  tradition  no  doubt  often  fluctuated  and  that 
with  such  fluctuation  the  less  corrt?ct  reading  may 
often  have  come  into  the  text.  Besides  the  system 
found  in  the  majority  of  manuscripts,  there 
exists  another  which  has  only  recently  become 
known  called  the  '*  aupcrlinear  "  system,  because 
the  vowel-signs  are  placed  above  the  letters;  thia  is 
found  in  some  Babylonian  and  South  Arabian 
manuscripts.  The  same  la  also  the  case  with  the 
accents. 

The  division  of  the  text  int^  verses,  introduced 
by  the  Masoretes,  was  neither  Babylonian  nor 
Palestinian,  but  one  which  the  Masoret(*s  them- 
selves seem  to  have  established.  At  the  (>eginning 
of  this  period  the  end  of  the  verses  was  marked  by 
soph  jmnulf,  and.  when  the  accents  were  introduced, 
by  siUuk  besidea.  The  old  sections  were  retained, 
though  not  recognised  as  entirely  correct,  and 
the  old  traditional  sign  for  the  section*  the  smaller 
spacing  (the  little  D  in  printctl  texts),  was  respected. 
The  closet!  sections  were  marked  in  manuscripts 
and  prints  by  a  Ot  the  open  oncj*  by  a  Q  in  the 
empty  space  before  the  initial  word.  In  addition 
there  were  introduced  the  Babylonian  division  into 
sections  or  parashiyoth  (in  the  law)  and  haph-^ 
itsroth  (in  the  prophets),  for  Sabbath  public  read- 
ing. As  these  sections  generally  agree  with  t\m 
beginning  and  the  end  of  an  open  or  clo8e<l  eeC" 
tion,  they  were  marked  by  a  threefold  D  [i.e.,  D  D  D] 
or  D  [D  D  D]  in  the  empty  space  before  the 
beginning. 

But  even  these  efforts  could  not  entirely  remove 
variations.  Hence,  before  the  end  of  this  period, 
the  learneii  either  attempted  to  find  out  by  an 
elaborate  comparison  the  correct  punctuation  and 
to  fix  it,  or  njarked  the  important  variations  in  the 
punctuation,  or  added  a  caution  to  each  apparently 


Bible  Text 


THE     NEAV     SCHAFF-HERZOG 


91 


Btrange  and  yet  correct  punctuation.  The  greater 
mass  of  notes  which  the  Masoretes  added  to  the  text 
relate  to  these  matters.  Besides  some 
8.  Oodioee.  other  Masoretic  manuscripts  of  the 
Bible  which  are  quoted  in  the  Maso- 
retic notes  of  the  codices  or  in  the  writings  of  the 
rabbis  as  authoritative,  such  as  the  codex  HiUeli, 
the  Jericho-Pdhtateuch,  and  others,  two  codices 
were  especially  famous  as  model  codices  of  the  Old 
Testament,  the  codex  of  Naphtali  (Moses  ben  David 
ben  Naphtali)  and  the  codex  of  Asher  (Aaron 
ben  Moses  ben  Asher),  both  from  the  first  half  of 
the  tenth  century.  (Aaron  lived  at  Tiberias,  Moses 
in  Babylon;  but  the  latter  can  not  be  regarded  as 
a  representative  of  the  "  Babylonian "  text-tra- 
dition.) They  were  once  much  examined  by  schol- 
ars; many  of  their  variants  are  noted  in  the  Maso- 
retic Bible-manuscripts;  a  list  of  864  (better  867) 
variants,  which  refer  almost  exclusively  to  vowels 
and  accents,  has  been  published  after  Jacob  ben 
Hayyim  in  Bomberg's  and  the  other  Rabbinic 
Bibles,  as  well  as  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  London 
Polyglot;  but  these  variants  are  neither  correct 
nor  complete.  On  the  codex  of  Asher  finally  rests 
the  whole  Masoretic  text  of  the  Occidentals;  of  the 
variant  readings  comparatively  few  were  receiveii 
into  it. 

As  the  older  scribes  had  already  shown  extraor- 
dinary solicitude  for  the  preservation  of  the  text 
and  its  correct  reading  by  counting  its  sections, 
verses,  words,  letters,  and  by  noting  where  and  how 
often  and  when  certain  words,  letters,  or  anomalies 
occur  in  the  Bible,  which  verse  is  the  longest  and 
which  the  shortest,  and  like  minutise,  the  Masoretes 
of  course  continued  this  work,  wrote  it  down,  and 
preserved  it  in  manuscripts. 

The  punctuation  of  the  text  as  developed  by  the 
Masoretes  proved  itself  so  useful  and  met  so  well  an 
essential  need  of  those  later  times  that  it  soon  went 
over  into  manuscripts  and,  with  the  exception  of 
synagogue-manuscripts,  almost  none  were  written 
which  did  not  contain  either  the  pointed  text  alone 
or  the  pointed  beside  the  unpointed.  The  other 
Masoretic  material  was  written  either  beside  and 
below  the  text  of  the  Biblical  books  on  the  margins 
and  at  the  close  of  the  same,  or  in  separate  masorah- 
oollections  (see  Masorah). 

8.  The  Postxnasoretio  Period:  After  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Masoretic  textual  work  and  the 
collection  of  the  notes  having  reference  to  it,  no 
essential  change  was  made  in  the  text;  conse- 
quently this  period  is  the  time  of  the  faithful 
preservation,  multiplication,  and  circulation  of  the 
Masoretic  text.  An  essential  innovation  was  the 
introduction  of  the  now  customary  division  into 
chapters,   which     was     invented     by 

Ohapt^-    Stephen  Langton  at  the  beginning  of 

Division.  *^®  thirteenth  century,  and  applied 
to  the  Vulgate.  Isaac  ben  Nathan 
adopted  it  for  his  Hebrew  concordance  (1437-38, 
published  1623),  on  which  occasion  the  verses  of 
the  chapters  were  also  numbered.  The  chapter- 
division  was  first  applied  to  the  Hebrew  in  the 
second  edition  of  Bomberg's  Bible,  1521 ;  the  num- 
bering of  verses  was  first  adopted  for  the  Sabi- 
onetta   Pentateuch,    1557,  and   that  of  the  whole 


Bible  in  Athias's  edition  of  1661  (see  below,  HT 
§§  1-2). 

Another  feature  of  this  period  is  that  a  suffidec 
number  of  manuscripts  is  preserved  to  give  ■ 
immediate  knowledge  of  the  text.  The  Hebrer 
Bible-manuscripts  may  be  divided  into  tw 
classes,  the  public  or  sacred  and  the  prival 
or  common.  The  first  were  synagogue-roll 
and  have  been  prepared  so  carefuO 
2.  Old  Tee-  ^^^j  watched  so  closely  that  tl 
wnent  intrusion  of  variants  and  mistab 
ecrlpte  ^*^  hardly  possible.  But  they  ooi 
tain  only  the  Pentateuch  or  the  Pa 
tateuch  with  the  five  Megilloth  or  "Rolls"  (i.€ 
Song  of  Solomon,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecdei 
astes,  Esther),  and  the  haphtaroth  (see  above, 
§  1)  in  the  text  of  the  Masoretes  without  the 
additions.  These  manuscripts  are,  for  the  mc 
part,  of  recent  origin,  although  antique  in  form,  h 
ing  written  on  leather  or  parchment.  The  pc 
vate  manuscripts  are  written  on  the  same  mateni 
and  also  upon  paper  in  book  form,  with  the  Ma. 
retic  additions  more  or  less  complete.  It  is  of^ 
difficult,  indeed  impossible,  to  determine  the  d. 
and  country  of  these  manuscripts.  But  nones 
those  now  known  are  really  very  old.  The  ol<3 
authentic  date  is  916  a.d.  for  the  codex  contaizs 
the  prophets  with  Babylonian  punctuation,  .a 
1009  A.D.  for  an  entire  Hebrew  Bible,  both  of  wfca 
belong  to  the  Firkowitsch  collection  in  the  Impe£] 
Library  at  St.  Petersburg.  According  to  the  m 
recent  investigation  the  MS.  orient.  4445  in  1 
British  Museum  (containing  Gen.  xxv,  20-Deixt 
33)  may  be  a  little  older.  As  a  rule  the  oldn 
manuscripts  are  the  more  accurate.  The  nuiol 
of  errors  that  crept  in,  especially  in  private  maa 
scripts,  which  were  prepaied  without  any  oflSc 
oversight,  awakened  solicitude  and  led  to  we 
directed  efforts  to  get  a  pure  text  by  means 
collating  good  Masorah-manuscripts  (cf.  B.  Ke 
nioott,  Disaertatio  generalis,  Oxford,  1780,  H"* 
J.  G.  Eichhom,  Einleitung,  Leipsic,  1803,  136b 
In  this  line  the  labors  of  Meir  ha-Levi  of  ToM 
(d.  1244)  in  his  work  on  the  Pentateuch  call^ 
"The  Masorah,  the  Hedge  of  the  Law"  (Florence 
1750;  Berlin,  1761)  are  celebrated. 

The  art  of  printing  opened  a  way  of  esc^^  inm 

copyists'  errors,  and  it  was  taken  very  eariy.    TS 

PBalter  was  printed  first,  at  Bologna  in  1477  [m 

the  earlier  prints,  cf.  B.  Pick,  History  of  the  Prxn^ 

EdiHom  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  Hebraica,  ix  {ISSC 

1893),  47-116],  the  first  complete  Bible  at  Sond* 

8  Th        ^°  1488;  Gerson's  edition  (the  editii* 

Printed     ^^^^  Luther  used  for  his  translation 

Text.       followed    (Brescia,    1494).     Substtf 

tially  the  same  text  is  contained 

the  first    edition   of    Bomberg's    Rabbinic    BM 

(1517;  see  Bibles,  Rabbinic),  also  in  theeditic: 

of  Robert  Stephens  (1539  sqq.)  and  of  SebastS 

Milnster.    The  second  independent  edition  deriiB9 

from    manuscripts  is  that  in  the  Complutenat^ 

Polyglot  (1514-17;  see  Bibles,  Polyglot,  I).    X 

text  has  vowels  but  no  accents.    The  third  imp^ 

tant  recension  is  contained  in  the  Biblia  /2a6&tr»f 

Bombergiana,  ed,  11.,  cura  R,  Jacob  ben  Chafi 

(Venice,  1525-26);  it  is  edited  according  to   tl 


99 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


Masorah,  which  the  editor  first  revised,  and  con- 
tains the  entire  Mascretic  and  Rabbinic  apparatus. 
It  is  more  or  less  reproduced  in  prints  published 
during  the  sixteenth  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
•eventeenth  centuries.  Besides  these  original  rc- 
eennons,  editions  were  published  having  a  mixed 
text;  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot 
(1569-72),  which  is  followed  by  the  small  editions 
of  Plantin,  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots,  and  the 
editions  of  Reineccius,  is  based  upon  that  of  the 
Cbmplutensian  and  Bomberg.  Another  recension 
ii  represented  in  the  editions  of  Ellas  Hutter  (1587), 
Buxtorf,  and  Josep)i  Athlas  with  preface  by  J. 
Leusden  (1661  sqq.),  for  which  some  very  ancient 
manuscripts  were  collated.  Athias's  edition  be- 
eame  also  the  basis  of  later  editions  like  that  of 
Jablonski  (1699),  Van  der  Hooght  (1705),  Opitz 
(1709),  J.  H.  Michaelis  (1720),  Hahn  (1832),  and 
Thefle  (1849). 

None  of  these  editions  presents  the  Masoretic 
text  in  its  original  form.  The  large  collections  of 
variants  by  B.  Kennicott,  Vetus  TestamerUum 
Eebraicum  cum  variis  Uctionibus  (2  vols.,  Oxford, 
1776-80),  more  especially  by  De  Rossi,  Varia 
ketiones  Veteris  Testamenii  (4  vols.,  Parma,  1784- 
88)  tudSupplementa  ad  variaa  sacri  textua  lectiones 
(1798),  are  valuable  for  some  Extramasoretic  read- 
ings which  they  offer,  but  they  are  less  valuable 
for  critical  purposes.  More  important  for  text- 
critical  purposes  are  (besides  the  work  of  Meir  ha- 
Levi,  ut  sup.)  the  "  Light  of  the  Law  "  of  Mena- 
hem  de  Lonzano  (Venice,  1618)  and 
*.  Critical  particularly  the  critical  commentary 
^^^^on  the  Old  Testament  by  Solomon 
iigl^'  Mlnorzl  (Mantua,  1742-44;  Vienna, 
1813),  the  works  of  Wolf  ben  Samson 
Heidenheim,  and  especially  the  thorough  work  on 
^  Masorah  by  S.  Frensdorff  (Massora  magna^ 
part  I,  Hanover,  1876,  and  Oklah  we-Oklah,  1864). 
^  great  service  were  the  publication  of  the  works 
of  the  oldest  Jewish  granmiarians  and  lexicog- 
raphers and  the  discovery  of  fragments  and  publi- 
^atbn  of  codices  like  that  on  the  prophets  of  the 
yew  916  (published  by  Strack,  Prophetarum  pos- 
'^"wruTO  codex  BabyUmicua  PetropolitanuSf  St.  Pe- 
**^burg,  1876).  The  fruits  of  these  preliminary 
works  are  contained  in  the  correct  editions  of  the 
^^retic  text  by  Baer  and  Ginsburg.  Baer,  who 
^as  assisted  by  Delitzsch,  published  the  Old  Testa- 
"*nt  with  the  exception  of  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
"JDnbers,  and  Deuteronomy  [both  editors  died 
^thout  completing  their  work].  Qinsburg's  edi- 
^  is  entitled  The  New  Massoretico-CrUiccU  Text 
^1  the  Hebrew  Bible  [2  vols.,  London,  1894.  It 
a^uld  be  studied  with  the  same  author's  indis- 
pensable Introduction  to  the  Massoretico-criticcU 
EdiHan  of  the  Hebrew  BibU  (London,  1897)]. 

Valuable  as  such  correct  editions  of  the  Masoretic 

text  are,  they  represent  only  a  single  recension, 

whose  Bouroe  is  the  textus  receptua  mentioned  above, 

which  was  fixed  in  the  first  Christian  centuries. 

With  this  recension  the  text-critical  and  exegetical 

treatment  of  the  Old  Testament  can  not  be  satisfied. 

Before  the  received  text  was  made  canonical  there 

existed  different  forms  of  the  text,  which  in  many 

stood    nearer    to    the    original  than  that 


sanctioned  by  the  Jews.  The  main  witness  here 
is  the  Septuagint,  a  correct  edition  of  which  is 
an  absolutely  necessary  though  extremely  difficult 
task.  But  Old  Testament  textual  criticism  can 
not  be  satisfied  with  a  comparison  even  with  this 
older  form  of  the  text.  In  many  cases  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  text  is  so  old  that  only  a  criticism 
both  cautious  and  bold  can  approximate  to  the 
genuine  text.  In  modem  times  some  very  impor- 
tant contributions  have  been  made,  such  as  J. 
Olshausen,  Emendationen  zum  Alien  Testament 
(Kiel,  1826);  idem,  Beitrdge  zur  Kritik  dee  iiberlie' 
ferten  Textes  im  Buche  Genesis  (1870);  J.  Well- 
hausen.  Text  der  Bucher  Samuelis  (G&ttingen, 
1871);  F.  Baethgen,  Zu  den  Psalmen,  in  JPT 
(1882);  C.  H.  Comill,  Das  Buck  des  Propheten  Eze- 
chiel  (Leipsic,  1886);  S.  R.  Driver,  Notes  on  the 
Hebrew  Text  of  the  Books  of  Samuel  (London, 
1890);  A.  Klostermann,  Die  Bucher  Samuelis  und 
der  Kdnige  (Munich,  1887),  idem,  Deutero-Jesaia 
(Mimlch,  1893);  G.  Beer,  Der  Text  des  Buches 
Hiob  (part  i,  Marburg,  1895);  and  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament  (the  so-called  Poly- 
chrome or  Rainbow  Bible),  ed.  P.  Haupt  (Balti- 
more, London,  and  Leipsic,  1894  sqq.). 

(F.  Buhl.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Besides  the  introductions  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (especially  of  J.  G.  Eichhom,  4th  ed.,  Gottingen, 
1823-25;  W.  M.  L.  de  Wette.  8th  ed.  by  E.  Schrader.  pp. 
111-156,  Berlin,  1869;  C.  H.  Comill.  f§  49-63.  Freiburg. 
1905;  F.  £.  Kdnig.  §f  3-30.  92.  Bonn.  1893;  G.  H.  H. 
Wright,  London,  1891,  and  W.  H.  Bennett,  ib.  1900)  and 
the  works  mentioned  in  the  text  consult:  J.  Morinus,  Ex- 
ereUaiionum  bibliearum  de  Hebrcn  Qrcedque  textua  nn- 
eeritate  libri  duo,  Paris,  1669;  L.  Gapellus,  Crilica  aacra, 
Paris,  1650.  new  edition  with  notes  by  Vogel  and  Schar- 
fenberg.  Halle,  1775-86;  H.  Hody.  De  hibliarum  textibua 
originalibue,  Oxford,  1705;  H.  Hupfeld,  in  TSK,  1830, 
1837;  A.  Geiger,  Urachrift  und  Ueberaetzungen  der  Bibel, 
Breslau,  1857;  L.  Loew.  Beitr&ge  tur  jUdiaetien  AUerthuma' 
kunde,  Leipsic.  1870  (deals  with  materials  and  products 
of  writing);  H.  L.  Strack,  ProUgomena  critica  in  Vetua 
Teatamentum  Hebraicum,  Leipsic,  1873  (very  full  upon  ex- 
tant and  lost  MSS.,  and  on  the  testimony  of  the  Talmud  to 
the  text);  A.  Kuenen,  Lea  Originea  du  texte  maaorilique 
(from  the  Dutch).  Paris.  1875:  Palceographical  Society, 
Oriental  Seriea,  Facaimilea  of  MSS.  and  Inacripliona,  Lon- 
don. 1875-83  (deals  with  many  important  codices  of  the 
O.  T.);  A.  Harkavy.  Neuaufgefundene  h^trdiache  Bibel- 
handachriften,  St.  Petersburg.  1884  (characterises  fifty-one 
Hebrew  MSS.  and  fragments);  V.  Ryssel,  Unterauchun- 
gen  Hber  die  Textgeatalt  und  die  Echtheil  dea  Buchea  Micha, 
Leipsic.  1887  (198  pages  concern  the  text);  G.  C.  Work- 
man, The  Text  of  Jeremiah,  a  Critical  Inveatigation  of  the 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  Edinburgh.  1889:  T.  K.  Abbott.  Eaaaya 
ehiefly  on  the  Original  Texta  of  the  Old  and  New  Teatamenta, 
London,  1891  (on  Masoretic  and  Premasoretic  text);  F. 
Buhl,  Kanon  und  Text  dea  Alten  Teatamenta,  Leipsic.  1891. 
Eng.  transl..  Edinburgh.  1892  (useful  for  beginners);  A. 
Loisy,  Hiatoire  critique  du  texte  el  dea  veraiona  de  la  Bible, 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1892-95;  F.  G.  Kenyon.  Our  Bible  and  the 
Ancient  MSS.,  Being  a  Hiatory  of  the  Text  and  ita  Trana- 
lationa,  London,  1896;  W.  A.  Ck>pingcr.  The  BibU  and  ita 
Tranamiaaion,  .  .  .  View  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Texta, 
London.  1897;  E.  Kautzsch.  Abriaa  der  GeachichU  dea 
altteatamentlichen  Schrifttuma,  in  appendix  to  his  edition 
of  Die  heUige  Schrift,  Freiburg,  1896,  Eng.  transl.  as  a 
separate  work.  New  York,  1899;  T.  H.  Weir,  A  Short 
Hiatory  of  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Teatament,  London, 
1899;  R.  Kittel.  Ueber  die  Nottpendigkeit  und  Mdglichkeit 
einer  neuen  Auagabe  der  hdn-Aiachen  Bibel,  Leipsic,  1902; 
P.  Kahle,  Der  maaoretiaehe  Text  dea  alten  Teatamenta  nach 
der  Ueberlieferung  der  babyloniachcn  Juden,  Leipsic,  1902; 
T.  K.  Cheyne.  Critica  bibliea,  parts  1-5,  London,  1903- 
1906:  F.  W.  Mosley,  Paalter  of  the  Church;  Septuagint  Paalma 
Compared  ivith  the  Hebrew,  ib.  1905.  On  the  ancient  He- 
brew and  square  writing   consult:  D.  von   Muralt,  Bei- 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


100 


triioe  nor  fiebr&ischen  Pal&ographis  und  zur  Oetchichte  der 
Punktuation,  in  TSK,  1874;  S.  R.  Driver,  Notea  on  ths 
HArew  Text  of  the  Books  of  Samud,  pp.  xi-xxxv,  London, 
1890;  VoUers.  in  ZATW,  1883.  pp.  229  sqq.;  L.  Blau, 
Zur  EinUitung  in  die  fieilige  Schrift,  pp.  48-80,  Straaburg, 
1894:  R.  Butin,  The  Ten  Nequdoth  of  the  Torah;  or  the 
Meaning  and  Purpose  of  the  Extraordinary  PoinU  of  the 
Pentateuch,  Baltimore,  1906  (an  important  and  scientific 
discussion  of  textual  critical  value).  On  the  Masoretio 
material  in  the  Talmud  and  Midrash  consult:  H.  L.  Strack, 
Prolegomena  critica  in  Vetua  Testamentum^  ut  sup.;  L. 
Blau,  Maeoreiiache  Untereuchungen,  Straaburg,  1891 ;  idem, 
Zur  Einleitung  in  die  heUige  Sdirift,  100  sqq..  ut  sup.  On 
the  vowels  and  accents  (especially  on  the  superlincar 
system)  cf.  Strack's  edition  of  the  Babylonian  codex  of 
the  prophets,  p.  vii,  ut  sup.;  idem.  Zeitachrift  fiir  die  ge- 
aammte  lutheriache  Theologie  und  Kirche,  1877,  pp.  17-52; 
idem,  in  Wiaaenachaftliche  Jahreaberichte  Uber  die  mor- 
genlAndiachen  Studien,  1879,  p.  124;  J.  Derenbourg,  in  Re- 
vue critique,  1879,  pp.  453  sqq.;  W.  Wickes,  A  Treatiae 
on  the  Accentuation  of  the  Three  Poetical  Booka,  1881;  A 
Treatiae  on  the  Accentuation  of  the  tieenty-one  ao-caUed 
Proae-Booka,  pp.  142  sqq.,  London,  1887;  G.  F.  Moore,  in 
Proceedinga  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  1888;  D.  S. 
Margoliouth,  The  Superlinear  Punctuation,  in  PSBA,  1893, 
pp.  164-205;  A.  BQchler.  Unterauchungen  zur  Entatehung 
und  Entufiekelung  der  hebraiachen  Accente,  Vienna,  1892. 
On  the  division  into  sections,  chapters,  etc.,  cf.  REJ,  iii, 
282  sqq..  vi,  122  sqq.,  260  sqq..  vii,  146  sqq.;  Theodor, 
in  Monataachrift  fUr  Geachichte  und  Wiaaenachaft  dea  Juden- 
thuma,  1885.  1886.  1887;  O.  Schmid.  Ueber  verachiedene 
Einteilungen  der  heiligen  Schrift,  Graz.  1891.  The  cata- 
logues of  Hebrew  MSS.  are  mentioned  in  H.  L.  Strack. 
Prolegomena,  pp.  29-33,  119-121.  ut  sup.;  idem,  in  Ein- 
leitung in  daa  A.  7.,  p.  182.  Munich.  1898;  and  with  special 
fulness  in  Ginsburg,  Introduction,  ut  sup. 

n.  The  New  Testament— 1.  History  of  the  Writ- 
ten Text:  The  autographs  of  the  New  Testament 
very  early  disappeared,  owing  to  the  constant  use 
of  the  perishable  papyrus;  for  this  appears  to  havfe 
been  the  material  (II  John  12).  If  they  were 
really  not  in  the  handwriting  of  the  apostles,  but 
in  that  of  their  amanuenses,  as  Paul's  Epistles 
generally  were  (Rom.  xvi,  22;  II  Thess.  iii,  17), 
it  is  easier  to  account  for  the  phenomenon.  The 
papyrus  rolls  preserved  to  the  present  day  were 
never  much  used;  indeed,  the  most  of  them  have 
been  found  in  sarcophagi,  and  so,  of  course,  were 
never  used  at  all.  The  ink  was  lampblack  mixed 
with  gum  dissolved  in  water,  copperas 
1.  The  Au-  (sulphate  of  iron)  being  sometimes 
*^^^*®' added.  The  pen  was  of  reed  (cala- 
Testanl^t  ^^^'  ^^^  writing  was  entirely  in 
Books.  uncials  (capitals),  with  no  separation 
of  the  words  (except  rarely  to  indicate 
the  beginning  of  a  new  paragraph),  no  breathings, 
accents,  or  distinction  of  initial  letters,  and  few,  if 
any,  marks  of  punctuation.  The  evangelists  may 
have  denominated  their  compositions  "  Gospels," 
although  Justin  regularly  speaks  of  the  "  Memoirs 
of  the  Apostles  ";  but  all  addition  to  the  name  is 
later,  and  presupposes  a  collection  of  the  Gospels. 
In  the  case  of  the  Epistles  the  brief  address,  e.g., 
"  To  the  Romans,"  was  probably  added  by  the 
original  sender,  and  other  marks  of  genuineness 
given  (cf.  II  Thess.  iii,  17).  The  Muratorian  Canon 
(second  half  of  the  second  century;  see  Mura- 
torian Canon)  calls  Acts  and  the  Apocalypse  by 
these  names,  and  so  proves  the  early  use  of  these 
designations.  The  designation  "  Catholic  (i.e.,  Gen- 
eral) Epistle  "  is  first  met  with  at  the  close  of  the  sec- 
ond century  (ApoUonius,  in  Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.y  V, 
xviii,  5,  where  the  First  Epistle  of  John  is  probably 


meant).  The  application  and  limiting  of  the  tenn 
to  the  whole  of  the  present  collection  is  of  later 
date;  for  even  in  the  third  and  fourth  century  it 
was  customary  to  give  this  term  to  epistles,  like 
that  of  Barnabas  or  those  of  Dionysius  of  Corinth, 
which  were  not  specially  addressed. 

The  external  history  of  the  New  Testament 
text  for  a  thousand  years  prior  to  the  invention 
of  printing  can  be  traced  by  means  of  manuscripts. 
Before  the  formal  close  of  the  canon  (end  of  fourth 
century)  there  were  probably  few  single  manu- 
scripts of  the  entire  New  Testament. 
2.  The  Q£  ^j^g  three  thousand  known  manu- 
■ci^ts  scripts  of  the  New  Testament,  only 
about  thirty  include  all  the  books. 
Some  of  those  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  century  now 
preserved  contain  not  only  the  Greek  Old  Testa- 
ment (K,  A,  B,  C),  but  also  writings  which,  though 
not  canonical,  were  read  in  churches  and  studied 
by  catechumens.  Thus,  attached  to  the  Codex 
Sinaiiicus  (K)  were  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and 
the  Shepherd  of  Hennas;  to  the  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus  (A),  two  "  epistles  "  ascribed  to  Clement  of 
Rome  (q.v.)  and  the  so-called  Paalterium  Sato- 
monis.  The  four  Gospels  were  most  frequently 
copied,  the  Pauline  Epistles  oftener  than  the 
Catholic  Epistles  or  the  Acts,  least  often  the  Apoc- 
alypse. The  Gospels  were  usually  arranged  in  the 
present  order,  then  came  the  Pauline  Epistles,  the 
Acts,  and  the  Catholic  Epistles;  the  Apocalypse 
always  last.  The  arrangement  of  the  Epistles 
differed;  indeed,  there  was  no  model.  (On  the 
various  arrangements  cf.  C.  A.  Credner,  Geschichie 
dea  neutestamentlichen  K  arums ,  ed.  G.  Volkmar, 
Berlin,  1860;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Prolegomena,  Leipsic, 
1884,  pp.  131  sqq.;  T.  Zahn,  Geschichte  des  neutesta- 
menllichen  Kanona,  Erlangen,  1883,  ii,  343  sqq.) 

After  papyrus  had  gone  out  of  use,  parchment 
or  vellum  came  in  and  was  used  from  the  fourth 
to  the  eleventh  century;  then  came  in  cotton  paper, 
and  afterward  linen  paper  (cf.  W.  Watt«nbach,  Daa 
Schriftwesen  im  Mittelalter,  Leipsic,  1896,  pp.  139 
sqq.).  The  growing  scarcity  of  parchment  leii 
to  the  reuse  of  the  old  skins,  the  former  writing 
being  erased  or  washed  off;  and  unfortunately  it 
oftener  happened  that  it  was  a  Biblical  manuscript 
which  was  thus  turned  into  a  patristic  one  than  the 
reverse.  Such  manuscripts  are  termed  Codices 
pcdimpaesti  (palimpsests)'  or  reecripti. 

3.  Their    By   the   use   of   chemicals   the  origi- 

Material  nal  text  has  often  been  recovered  in 
and  Form,  modem  times.  The  most  famous 
New  Testament  palimpsest  is  the 
Codex  Ephraemi  (C),  of  the  fifth  century,  rewritten 
upon  in  the  twelfth.  As  papyrus  disappeared 
from  use,  the  book  form  was  generally  substituted 
for  the  rolls,  in  manuscripts  written  on  parchment 
or  paper.  The  books  were  mostly  made  up  of 
quaternions,  i.e.,  quires  of  four  sheets,  doubled  so 
as  to  make  sixteen  pages,  less  frequently  of  five, 
though  later  quires  of  six  sheets  were  common. 
The  division  of  the  page  into  columns  was  at  first 
retained,  two  being  the  usual  number  (e.g..  Cod. 
Alex.);  but  in  many  manuscripts  (e.g..  Cod. 
Ephraemi)  the  lines  ran  across  the  page.  [Excep- 
tionally, K  has  four  colunms,  B  three.]    From  the 


101 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Test 


Sections. 


seventh  sod  eighth  centuries  the  present  accents 
were  more  or  less  used,  but  very  urbitrarily  and 
irrvfiilarly.  The  uncials  gradually  changed  their 
earlier  simple  round  or  square  forms,  and  from  the 
ienth  ceutury  yielded  to  the  cursiveJi.  The  earlie^st 
pODCtuatioQ  was  by  means  of  a  blank  space  and  a 
■ioiphs  point.  Eutliahus,  a  deacon  In  Alexandria, 
intbeycar  45S  published  an  edition  of  the  Epit>tlc9 
of  Pnul,  and  soon  after  of  the  Acts  and  Catholic 
KpiBtlfs,  written  stichometricaHy,  i.e.,  in  single 
Una  OQHtaining  only  so  many  words  as  could  be 
rcid,  coDsisteDtly  with  the  sense,  at  a  f^ingle  inspira- 
taoil.  This  mode  of  writing  was  used  lo«g  before 
ineopyiag  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
It  involved,  however,  a  great  wa^te  of  parchment, 
io  (hit.  in  manuscripts  of  the  New  TL'^tanient,  it 
viintpcneded  after  a  few  centuries  by  punctuation- 
nurb, 

DiTiiions  of  the  text  were  early  made  for  vari- 
oui  purposes.     In   the   tliird    century   AmmoniuB 
d  AleiaD<iria  (q.v.)  prepared   a   Harmony  of   the 
GoipcU,  takitig  the  text  of  Matthew  as  the  basis. 
Eusebius    of     Ca'sarea,    in  the    early 
4'ThtAm-  pgj^   Qf  i\^^    fourth    century,  availing 
himself  of   the  work   of     Ammonius, 
divided  the  text  of  each  Coapcl  into 
i^ctiong,  the    length  of    which,    varj-ing    greatly 
I  in  John  xix,  6  there  are  three,   and    in    twenty- 
four  other  instances  two,   in   a  single   verse),  was 
dctcrmiiied  solely  by  their  relation  of  parallelism 
or   similarity    to    passages    in    one     or   more   of 
the  other  Ciospels,  or  by  their  haiing  no  parallel. 
TbttM    sections    (often    erroneously    liscribetl    to 
AlBBioiiiuft)    were    then    numberei.1    consecutively 
in  tht  margin  of  the  Gosi>el  in  black  ink;  Matthew 
having  355,  Mark  233  (not  23ti),  Luke  342,  aiid 
Win  '232,    Tliey    were    tlistributed    by    Eusebius 
■llo  («Q  tables  or  canons  prefixed  to  the  Gospels, 
lod  comtaining  the  sections  corresponding  in- — 

1.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  71. 
IL  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  IIL 
Hi  Matthew,  Luke,  John,  22, 
IV.  Matthew,  Mark,  John,  26. 
V.  Matthew,  Luke,  82. 
VI  Mutthew,  Mark,  47. 
^%  Matthew,  John,  7. 
Vni.  Luke,  Mark,  14. 
IX  Luke,  John,  21. 

X.  Sections  peculiar  to  Matthew  62,  Mark 
21,  Luke  71,  John  97. 

^n%  the  number  of  each  section  in  the  mar- 
<j  of  the  several  Gf>spels  was  written  in  red  ink 
J|*iltimber  of  the  canon  or  table  to  which  it  be- 
''*N.  On  turning  to  it^i  place  in  this  table,  the 
^^'^'f^  of  the  corresponding  section  or  sections 
2 Mother  Gospels  stands  with  it,  so  that  the  paral- 
'J' pMitgcs  may  readily  be  found.  For  example, 
^  fint  v«r«e  of  Matt,  iv  forms  the  fifteenth 
^Mibii  section;  the  number  two  under  this 
'J'wto  the  second  canon  or  table,  where  it  appears 
jJUiection  fifteen  in  Matthew  corresponds  to  six  in 
jMt,  iftd  fifteen  in  Luke;  i.e.,  to  Mark  i,  12,  and 
I*keiv,  I,  In  some  manuscripts  the  parallel  eec- 
^  V9  indiisated  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  They 
**'*fiorreipoii)d  toour  marginal  references.  Cf.  Euse- 


bius, Epist.  ad  Carpiunum ;  J.  Burgon,  The  Last 
Tiixlve  Verses ofS. Mark  (London,  1 87 ] ),  pp.  295  sqq. 
Wholly  different  in  character  and  purpose  from 
the  Eusebian  sections,  and  probably  older,  is  a 
division  of  the  Gospels  into  sections  called  iUloi, 
also  kepkaktia  nuijora  (in  Latin  manuscripts, 
breves),  found  in  most  manuscripts  from  the  Alex- 
andrine and  the  Ephraem  (A,  C)  of  the  fifth  century 
onward.  Of  these  sections  Mattliew 
&.  Early  contains  68,  Mark  48,  Luke  83,  John 
Divisiona  jg  .^he  numbers  by  which  they  are 
designated  in  the  margin  of  manu- 
scripts refer  to  the  titles  describing  their  con- 
tents at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  page,  or  in 
a  list  prefixes!  to  each  Gospel,  or  often  in  both 
places.  A  certain  portion  at  the  beginning  of 
each  Gospel  is  not  numbered;  for  example,  the 
firat  chapter  in  Matthew  corresponds  with  our 
chap,  ii,  1-15,  and  is  entitled  peri  ton  mag§n,  **  Con- 
eeming  the  Majati."  There  is  a  similar  division 
in  the  Acts  and  Epistles^  to  which  Euthalius  (about 
458  A.D.),  though  not  it.s  inventor,  gave  wide  cur- 
rency by  his  stichomctric  edition  of  these  books. 
The  ApocaJypse  was  divided  by  Andrew,  bishop  of 
Ca>8area  in  Cappadocia  (about  500  a,i>J,  into 
twenty- four  logoi,  or  chapters,  and  each  of  these 
chapters  into  three  kephtiiaia,  or  sections,  the 
former  number  answering  to  the  twenty-four  elders 
spoken  of  in  the  book  (Rev.  iv,  4);  the  latter 
suggested  by  the  threefold  division  of  human  nature 
into  body,  soul,  and  spirit  (comp.  I  Thcss.  v,  23), 
as  the  author  himst'lf  declares.  In  the  Vatican 
manuscript  (B),  there  is  a  division  of  the  Gospels 
into  much  shorter  chapters  (Matt.  170,  Mark  62, 
Luke  152,  John  80),  very  judiciously  made.  This 
has  been  found  in  only  one  otlier  manuscript,  the 
Codex  Zacifnthius  (H),  In  the  Acts  and  Epi^ 
ties  the  Vatican  manuscript  has  a  twofold  divi- 
sion into  chapters.— one  very  ancient,  the  other 
later,  but  both  difTerent  from  the  Enthalian.  In 
the  older  division,  the  Pauline  Epistles  are  treated 
as  one  book.  (For  further  details  see  Tischendorf, 
Novum  Testatnenlum  Vaiuanurnt  Leipsic,  1867,  p. 
xxx;  Scrivener, /ri/rcwiudwrt,  i,  London,  1894^  pp.  56 
sqq.)  Other  ancient  divisions  of  the  New  Testament 
into  chapters  were  more  or  less  widely  current, 
especially  in  Latin  and  Syriac  manttscripts. 

The  superscriptions,  "  Epistle  of  Paul,"  **  Catho- 
lic Epistles,"  etc.,  can  not  be  earlier  than  the  fourth 
century,  since  they  imply  a  canonical  collection. 
The  subscriptions  at  the  end  of  the  Pauline  Epistles 
in  many  manuscripts  are  generally  ascribed  to 
Euthalius.  At  least  six  of  tliese  are  untrustworthy 
(I  C^r.,  Gal-,  I  and  II  Thesa.,  1  Tim.,  Tit,).  For 
the  modem  divisions  of  the  Bible  into  cliapters 
and   verses   sec   III    below. 

An  ancient  division  of  the  text  is  the  les- 
sons, or  lections,  from  the  Gosp)els  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Acts  and  Epistles  on 
the  other,  read  in  the  public  services 
of  the  Church.  The  history  of  these 
is  obscure,  and  they  varied  much  at 
different  periods  and  in  difl'erent 
regions.  The  lessons  for  the  Sundays 
and  chief  festivals  of  the  yejir  seem  to  have  been 
the  earliest;  next  were  added  lessons  for  the  Sat- 


6.  Divl- 
•lone  for 
Litursio  - 
al  Bead- 
Ins* 


^m 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


102 


urdays,  and  finally  for  every  day  in  the  week, 
with  special  commemoration  of  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs. Euthalius  marked,  in  the  Acts,  16  of  these 
"lessons";  in  the  Catholic  Epistles,  10;  in  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  31;  in  all,  57.  He  was  prob- 
ably not,  as  many  have  supposed,  their  inventor. 
The  system  of  lessons  which  ultimately  prevailed 
in  the  Greek  Church  appears  in  our  evangelista- 
ries and  lectionaries  (more  properly  praxapostoli), 
containing  the  lessons  from  the  Gospels  and  the 
Acts  and  Epistles  respectively.  The  ordinary 
manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Testament  were  often 
adapted  for  church  service  by  marking  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  each  lesson,  with  a  note  in  the 
margin  of  the  time  or  occasion  for  reading  it,  and 
by  prefixing  to  them  a  Synaxarion,  or  table  of  the 
lessons  in  their  order;  sometimes  also  a  Afeno- 
loffiorij  or  calendar  of  the  immovable  festivals  and 
the  saints'  days,  with  their  appropriate  lessons. 

Turning  to  the  internal  history  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment text,  it  is  evident  that  its  original  purity 
was  early  lost.  The  quotations  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  second  century  contain  readings  which  agree 
with  later  texts,  but  are  not  apostolic.  Irenseus 
alludes  (Hcer.,  V,  xxx,  1)  to  the  difference  between 
the  copies;  and  Origen,  early  in  the  third  century, 
expressly  declares  that  matters  were  growing  worse 
(in  Matt,,  xix,  19,  vol.  iii,  p.  671,  ed.  De  la  Rue, 
Paris,  1733-59),  as  is  proved  by  the  quotations 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries. 
From  this  time  onward  we  have  the  manuscript 
text  of  each  century,  the  writings  of  the  Fathers, 
and  the  various  Oriental  and  Occidental  versions,  all 
testifying  to  varieties  of  reading  for  almost  every 
verse,  which  imdoubtedly  occasioned  many  more 
or  less  important  departures  from  the 
7.  Early  sense  of  the  original  text.  How  came 
tioTof"  *^  ^  ^^^  ^^^^y  Church  did  not  know 
the  Text,  anything  of  that  anxious  clinging 
to  the  letter  which  characterizes  the 
scientific  rigor  and  the  piety  of  modern  times, 
and  therefore  was  not  so  bent  upon  pre- 
serving the  exact  words.  Moreover,  the  first 
copies  were  made  rather  for  private  than  for  pub- 
lic use;  copyists  were  careless,  often  wrote  from 
dictation,  and  were  liable  to  misunderstand. 
Attempted  improvements  of  the  text  in  grammar 
and  style;  proposed  corrections  in  history  and 
geography;  efforts  to  harmonize  the  quotations 
in  the  New  Testament  with  the  Greek  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  but  especially  to  harmonize  the  Gospels; 
the  writing  out  of  abbreviations;  incorporation 
of  marginal  notes  in  the  text;  the  embellishing 
of  the  Gospel  narratives  with  stories  drawn  from 
non-apostolic  though  trustworthy  sources,  e.g., 
John  vii,  53  to  viii,  11,  and  Mark  xvi,  9  to  end, — 
it  is  to  these  causes  that  we  must  attribute  the  very 
numerous  "  readings,"  or  textual  variations.  It 
is  true  that  the  copyists  were  sometimes  learned 
men;  but  their  zeal  in  making  corrections  may 
have  obscured  the  true  text  as  much  as  the  igno- 
rance of  the  imleamed.  The  copies,  indeed,  came 
under  the  eye  of  an  official  reviser;  but  he  may 
have  sometimes  exceeded  his  fimctions,  and  done 
more  harm  than  good  by  his  changes. 
Attempts  were  made  by  learned  Fathers  to  get 


the  original  text;  and  three  men  of  the  third  cea- 
tury — Origen,  the  Egyptian  Bishop  Hesychius, 
and  the  Presbyter  Lucian  of  Antioch — deserve 
mention  for  their  devotion  to  this  object.  The  last 
two  undertook  a  sort  of  recension  of  the  New 
Testament  (cf.  Jerome,  Epist.  ad  Damamim);  but 
it  is  not  known  exactly  what  they  did,  and  their 
influence  was  small.  In  regard  to  Origen,  while 
he  did  not  make  a  formal  recension  of  the  New 
Testament  text,  his  critical  work  was  of  the 
highest  importance.  Notwithstanding  these  diver- 
sities, there  were,  as  early  as  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries,  affinities  between  manuscripts  prepared 
in  the  same  district,  which  seem  to  betray  certain 
tendencies,  as  is  proved  by  the  Fathers,  the  ver- 
sions, and  the  Greek  manuscripts  themselves. 
Thus  critics  are  justified  in  speaking  of  an  Oriental 
and  Occidental,  or,  more  correctly,  an  Alexandrian 
or  Egyptian,  and  a  Latin,  as  also  of  an  Asiatic  or 
Greek,  and  a  Byzantine  or  Constantinopolitan 
text.  According  to  this  theory,  the  Alexandrian 
was  used  by  those  Jewish  Christians  of  the  East 
who  already  used  the  Septuagint;  particularly  was 

this  text  preserved  and  spread  by  the 

8.  Varie-   learned    Alexandrian    school.        The 

*^®"f '      Latin  text  characterizes  not  only  the 

du^ed  by   "manuscripts  prepared  by  Latins,  but 

Early      the    Greek    manuscripts    they    used. 

Critic  ism.  The   Asiatic   manuscripts    were   used 

chiefly  by  native  Greeks  in  Greece, 
or  in  the  Asiatic  provinces  having  intenx)urse  with 
Greece.  The  Byzantine  manuscripts  belonged  to 
the  Church  of  that  empire.  The  latter  alone  had  a 
certain  oflficial  uniformity,  and  were,  in  the  latter 
centuries,  almost  the  only  manuscripts  circulated 
in  the  empire.  This  class  of  manuscripts  is  also 
the  only  one  perfectly  represented  in  existing 
documents,  and  is  the  result  of  the  gradual  mix- 
ture of  older  recensions  under  the  predominance 
of  the  Asiatic  or  Greek.  Each  of  these  recensions 
is  more  or  less  altered  and  corrupted;  so  that  it  is 
often  more  difiOicult  to  assign  a  particular  reading  to 
its  proper  class  than  to  find  out  the  original.  Finely, 
the  differences  and  relationships  are  by  far  most 
strongly  marked  in  the  Gospels,  least  so  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse, and  again  are  more  distinct  in  the  Pauline 
Epistles  and  the  Acts  than  in  the  Catholic  Epistles. 
(Cf.  C.  Tischendorf,  Novum  Testamentum  GrcBce, 
editio  academica  viiiy  Leipsic,  1875,  pp.  xxiv  sqq.) 

The  number  of  uncial  manuscripts  of  the  New 
Testament,  ranging  in  date  from  the  fourth  to  the 
tenth  century,  is  114.     This  does  not  include  eight 

psalters   containing   the   text   of   the 

^ial^M^Sr  ^y^^   "^   L^^®  i'   46-55,   68-79,   ii, 

scripts.  '  29-32,     designated     by     Tischendorf 

O  •■'>,  nor  the  lectionaries,  evan- 
gelistaries, and  praxapostoli.  About  half  of  these 
114  are  mere  fragments,  containing  but  a  few 
verses  or  at  most  a  few  chapters.  They  may 
be  arranged  as  follows  with  reference  to  their 
probable  date: 

Cent.  IV,  2:  k  with  the  whole  New  Testament;  B,  Go»- 
pels,  Acts.  Catholic,  and  Pauline  Epistles  (mutilated). 

Cent.  V,  15:  A  0  I»  «  >  I^  Q,  Q,  T*?  T''^'  3,  "^^  ••  »«. 

Cent.  VI.  24:  D,  D,  E,  H,  I*.»  N,  N,  O,  O*,  P,  R,  T'****' 
Xeeefg  2  ♦111. 


103 


RELIGIOUS  ENCTk^CLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


Obi  VH,  17:  F*  G,  I'**  R4T*''"f'i  w"""'  »*•*  ^'*. 

C^  Vm,  1»:  B»  El  Li  S,  T^°-^*  W***^  Y  e<  3  ♦  n  "*  *. 

Onl.  K.  31:  E,  F,  ,  G,  G«*  H,  K, ,  I^j  M, ,  N,  O,  P,  T^^ 

OntXC:  G|  H,  S,  U  X  3,. 

Of  these  only  one,  K,  has  the  New  Testament 
endft.  And  only  four  othera,  ABC^,  the  greater 
pui  of  It,  The  remainder  are  distributed,  aceord- 
'u%  to  the  principal  divisions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, AB  follows: 


\.$l:  Complel*  or  neArly  so.  12:  D  E  K  L  M  S  U  \'  r 
A  HO;  coDiAmins  conKid^mble  portions,  14;  I'U  H  N  Pi^  IL 
XtASlf  3;  contiuniiiK   At  moat  ft  few  chaptens  ur  veruca, 

A«l4  13;  Complete  or  nearly   bo.  5:  DEL  PS;  the   rfsat 

ifOiJtfiwlHi  Of  smaller  tM»ftionji  iG  G^  F»  I*  *  *  3), 

GbtboU«  Epwil«Hi,   5:  Complete  or   neiirly  so,  4:  KLPS. 

La4ihllEICDkeDt  3. 

*"  "  ii^lles.  20:  Complete  or  nearly  »o.  7:  l>  E  F  G  K  L 

s^larserorsm&llerfniicments^  13:  F*  H  I^  M  N  O 

ApoalypM;:  boeidea  MAC,  B^  contains  the  complete  text; 
P  \m  moot  small  gaps. 

In  reference  to  the  character  of  their  text,  Tisch- 
CBdorf  dMBifics  the  uneial^  as  follows:  in  the  Qq8- 
Vfk  the  oldest  form  of  the  text,  predominantly 
UcuDdrine  in  it-a  coloring,  ia  fomid,  though  with 
miny  differences,  in  K  A  B  C  D  I  PL  P  Q  R  T*^*^  X 
ZAO't  E;  next  to  these  j^tand  F*  N  O  W*''*  Y  6*'"'. 
A  later  forni  of  the  text,  in  which  the  Asiatic  col- 
<Minf  pre%'ails*  is  presented  by  R  V  G  H  K  M  S  U 
^  V  r  A  H  e^',  among  which  E  K  M  F  A  11  0*^  incline 
*  toward  the  first  cla;>s.  For  the  Acta  and 
lie  Epistles,  K  A  B  C  give  the  oldejifc  text, 
to  which,  in  the  Act*^,  D  1  approach,  and,  less 
doKily,  EG;  also,  in  the  Catholic  Epistles  (except 
I  Pet).  P;  while  in  the  Actg,  11  L  P,  and,  m 
tlw)  Catholic  Epistles,  K  L,  come  nearet<t  t-o  the 
Itlir  form  of  the  text.  In  the  Pauline  Epis- 
tles  the  oldest  text  Is  repre^setitcd  by  K  A  B  C 
fllOQ,  with  the  (ireco-Latin  manuscripts  D  F  G; 
M  P  approach  this;  while  K  L  N  stand  nearest  to 
liwmore  recent  text.  The  text  of  the  Apocalypse 
*ppcan  in  its  olde^^t  form  in  K  A  C.  to  which  P 
*>in«l  tiearer  than  B  (cf.  (ircgory,  Prolajamena, 
fp'  185  Bqq*).  Tregelle^  exhibits  the  *'  genealogy 
^  the  text "  aJid  aflfinities  of  the  manuscripts  in 
1      theOoipela  in  the  following  form: 

B      Wmkrn  Alejcandrine 

I     ^ 

■  CL  51.33 

■  P  Q  T  R  I  N 

■  X  J69 

HRtm 

'      felt  rlilf M*  t4 


Byzantine 


A 

KM/7 

E  F  G  8  U,  etc. 


aod  Hort  attach  a  supcrlativD  value 
IMiendorf  to  x^  The  same  manuscript 
JJ^f  differ  in  character  in  different  parts  of  the  New 
*«tiiacnt:  thua,  A  is  not  so  excellent  in  the  Gos- 
P^toeliwwherc;  ^  is  cHpeciiilly  goo<l  in  the  Go8- 
N  of  Mark;  K  and  D  agree  most  cloudy  in  the 
^**pel  of  John;  the  cursive  1  is  rt^markahly  vaU 
JjWt  in  the  Gospels,  but  not  bo  in  the  rest  of  the 

I  Th«  following    is  a  complete  list    of    the    114 

I      lUkiil  Qaauioripts: 


I*:  Codex  Sinaitkui,  found  by  Tiechendorf  (1844  and 
1850)  in  the  Convent  of  St.  Catharine  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Sinai,  now  preeerved  in  St.  Petcrsbiiirg.  Forty- three  leaver 
of  the  Old  Testament  porijon  of  the  manuscript,  known 
as  the  Codex  Friderico-AugujttanuA^  are  in  the  library  of 
Leip«ic  University.  Besides  twciaty-flix  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  of  which  five  form  the  Codex  Friderico-Au«u»- 
laiiUB,  the  manuscript  contains  the  entire  New  Testament 
without  the  lettflt  break,  the  Epistle  of  Bamubaj,  and  the 
first  third  of  the  Shepherd  of  Herman,  The  Alexandrian 
copyist  has  frie<iuently  shown  hi*  imperfect  kiiDwIed^e  of 
tJreek,  and  bis  ha^te.  The  Uoenjio  in  handhn^  the  text, 
eommon  in  the  firat  three  oeuturieii,  ia  grejLter  thai)  in  BAG, 
I  hough  amch  leHs  than  in  D.  Ncvertbeieaa,  the  superiority  of 
I  he  Codex  Sinaitioua  to  all  other  New  Testament  inanu- 
f*(^ripl«.  with  the  nnicle  exception  of  B,  is  fully  proved  by 
the  numerous  places  in  which  its  n^idin^  has  the  nupport 
of  the  oldest  quotations  or  the  most  ancient  versions.  The 
text  ifl  in  four  columns,  which  la  a  unique  arrange ment.  The 
Paaline  EpiAtle^,  amonR  which  in  Hebrews  after  11  Thetua- 
loniaiiit,  come  directly  after  the  Gospel««;  the  Acts  and  the 
Catholie  Epistles,  then  the  Apocalypae,  follow.  The  date  of 
the  codex  is  the  fourth  century.  It  has  a  special  value 
from  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  corrections  it  received  in 
the  sixth  and  ^venth  oenturie«  and  later,  its  pafien  repr**- 
aent,  after  a  fashion,  the  history  of  the  changes  in  the  New 
Tewtament  text.  The  codex  was  published  (1862)  in  fac- 
simile Ij-pe  from  the  Leipnic  prc^,  in  four  folio  vohime«,  at 
the  expense  of  the  emperor  of  RysMia,  Alexander  11.  The 
edition  waa  limited  to  three  hundred  copies.  The  New 
Testament  part  was  published  separately  in  a  critical  edi- 
tiuii  by  Tiisehendorf,  Novum  Testamentum  Sinaiticum  cum 
cpiAktiu  BarnnbiT  rt  fragmenti*  PoJiUirUi  etc.,  Leipsic»  1863. 
and  in  a  more  popular  form,  Novum  Trxtamentum  Greece  ts 
Sitiaitico  codice  omnium  antiqui»timo^  Leipaic,  1865  (cf.  C 
Tischendorf,  Dir  SinaibiM.  fhre  Entdeckung,  HerauBgabe, 
und  Erwerbung,  Leipsic,  187!;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Prot^ffomena, 
pp.  16-17;  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener.  A  Ftdl  Collation,  of  the  Codex 
SinaiticuM,  Cambridge,  18tV7K 

A:  Codex  Atexandrinus,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  pre- 
sented in  1028  by  Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
to  Charles  I.  The  New  Testament  beginfl  with  Matt,  xxv, 
6.  and  contains  the  whole  extiept  John  vi,  50-viii,  52>  and 
II  Cor.  iv,  13'Xii,  6,  with  the  First  Epistle  of  Clement  and 
part  of  the  eecond.  It  was  printed  in  fac-timile  by  C.  G. 
Woide,  London,  I78^i,  in  ortlinary  iyjiv;  Vjy  H,  H,  Cowper^ 
ib,  18iX>,  who  eorreeted  some  mistake;]  of  Woide,  aod  in 
photographic  facsimile  by  the  trustees  of  the  Britiah  Mu- 
seum, ed.  E.  M.  Thompson  (4  vols.,  London,  1870-S3>, 
Tischendorf  places  it  about  the  middle  of  the  tifth  century; 
Scrivener  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  very  htlle  lat«r. 

B^:  Codex  Vatic^nus,  no.  1200,  in  the  Variean  Library. 
The  manuscript  contains,  bessides  the  Old  T<?stament,  the 
entire  New  Testament.  vi4th  the  exception  of  Heb,  ix,  14  to 
end  and  II  Timothy,  Tilus,  Philemon,  and  Revelation* 
Juan  Bepulveda,  writinR  to  Erasmus  about  1533,  men* 
tiuns  it.  The  first  f?ollation  of  the  manuscript,  mad4»  in 
ItifiS;  by  Bartolnrci,  then  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  exiaU 
only  in  manuscript  in  the  Paris  library.  Another  was  made 
by  Birch,  1 788- 1  SOL  The  collation  made  for  R.  Bentley 
by  an  Itahan  named  Mico  waa  published  by  Ford,  J790. 
J,  L.  Ilug  wrote  a  learned  CammenUitio  de  antiijuiiatf  endicia 
Vatimni  (Freibun?.  1810),  The  manuscript  was  then  in 
Paris,  but  it  was  later  restoTed  to  Rome,  when  it  fa««ame 
practically  inAcce»%iblo.  An  inaccurate  and  critically  worth- 
le.'w  edition  of  the  whole  manuscript  was  issued  by  Caniinal 
Mai  (5  vola..  Rome,  18J8-38>,  C,  %'ercellone,  J.  CoE«a,  and 
G,  Sergio  published  an  edition  of  the  entire  codex  in  6  vols. 
(New  Testament  is  vol.  v)  in  Rome,  1868-81,  and  a  phot4>- 
KTaphic  reproduction  was  published  by  the  Vatican  {1889). 
The  age  of  the  mannscript  i.^  about  the  «ame  as  that  of  the 
Siinaitic,  and  praiwibly  corrections  are  by  the  same  first  hand 
in  both,  and  in  the  Vatican  by  a  second  hand  contempo- 
rary with  the  first. 

B,:  C^idex  Vaticanus  2066  (eighth  century),  formerly 
Ba^ilLan  C^idex  105.  contains  Revelation,  was  first  imper- 
fi'rtly  edited  by  Tischendorf  in  Monuwwnto  sacra  intdiia 
(I^ipsic,  1846),  and  more  completely  in  Appendix  Novi 
Trutamenti  VcHcani  (ib.  180&).  By  Tregelle*  the  maau- 
ncript  waa  designated  Q. 

C:  Codex  Ephraemi  ( fifth  century),  now  no.  9  in  the  Na- 
tional Library  at  Paris;  its  text  was  altered  in  the  sixth 
century  and  ag&tn  in  the  ninth.  In  the  twelfth  century  the 
orifrinal!  writing  was  washed  off  to  otakc  room  for  the  Qfvek 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


104 


text  of  seyeral  asoetio  works  of  Ephraem  Synu  (d.  373). 
Pierre  Allix,  at  about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
noticed  the  traces  of  the  old  writing  under  the  later  charac- 
ters. Wetstein  in  1716  collated  the  New  Testament  part  so 
far  as  it  was  legible.  In  1834  and  1835  the  librarian  Carl 
Hase  revived  the  original  writing  by  the  application  of  the 
Giobertine  tincture  (prussiate  of  potash).  Tischendorf,  after 
great  labor,  brought  out  in  1843  an  edition  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament part  of  the  manuscript,  and  in  1845,  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament fragments,  representing  the  manuscript  line  for  line, 
in  facsimile.  The  codex  contains  portions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment on  sixty-four  leaves,  and  five-eighths  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

Di :  Codex  Bess  (about  550  A.D.),  from  the  monastery  of 
St.  Irenceus  in  Lyons,  now  in  the  University  Library  at 
Cambridge,  a  present  in  1581  from  Theodore  Beza.  It  con- 
tains, with  few  lacims,  the  Greek  and  Latin  text  of  the 
Gospels  and  Acts  and  III  John  11-15,  stichometrically  writ- 
ten, perhaps  in  Gaul.  Edited  by  Kipling  in  1703,  but  in  a 
far  better  manner  by  Scrivener  (Bezos  Codex  CarUabrigienna) 
in  1864.  No  known  manuscript  has  so  many  and  so  remark- 
able interpolations.  Much  study  has  been  given  to  it,  e.g., 
J.  R.  Harris,  Codex  Beza  (Cambridge,  1801). 

Da:  Codex  Claromontanus  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  inclu- 
ding Hebrews  (second  half  of  sixth  century).  Beia  found  it 
in  the  Monastery  of  Clermont,  hence  the  name;  now  in  the 
Paris  Library.  Ck)ntains  the  Greek  and  Latin  text  written 
stichometrically.  It  was  retouched  at  different  times,  and 
exhibits  especially  two  periods  of  the  text.  The  Latin  text 
represents  the  oldest  version, — that  of  the  second  century. 
It  was  collated  by  Tregelles  in  1840  and  1850.  and  edited 
by  Tischendorf  in  1852  in  facsimile. 

Ei:  Codex  Basiliensis  A.  N.  Ill,  12  (750  a.d.),  in  Basel, 
a  nearly  complete  manuscript  of  the  four  Cxospels,  collated 
by  Tregelles  (1846),  also  by  Tischendorf  and  J.  C.  MQller 
(1843). 

Ea*.  Oxiex  Laudianus  (end  of  sixth  century),  in  the  Bod- 
leian Library  at  Oxford,  a  present  from  Archbishop  Laud 
in  1636;  was  brought  to  England  in  668;  Bede  (d-  735) 
used  it  when  writing  his  Expoeitio  retractata  of  the  Acts. 
It  contains  an  almost  complete  Greco-Latin  text  of  the  Acts; 
edited  in  1715  by  Heame.  and  in  1870  by  Tischendorf  in 
AlonumerUa  aacra  inedita,  nova  coUectio,  vol.  ix. 

Ei:  Codex  Sangermanensis,  a  Greco-Latin  manuscript  of 
the  Pauline  Epistles  (end  of  ninth  century),  now  in  St. 
Petersburg,  the  Greek  text  being  a  clumsy  copy  of  the  Codex 
Claromontanus.  Of  no  critical  value  except  for  the  Latin 
text.  Sabatier  published  it  in  the  third  part  of  his  Bibliorum 
aacrorum  Latina  vereio  (1740). 

Fit  Ckxiex  Boreeli  (ninth  century),  now  in  Utrecht  Uni- 
versity, contains  the  four  Ciospels,  but  with  many  lacunic. 
Full  description  is  given  in  J.  Heringa,  DUputatio  de  codice 
Boreeliano,  ed.  H.  E.  Vinke  (Utrecht,  1843). 

Fs:  Codex  Augiensis  (ninth  century),  contains  Pauline 
Epistles  in  Greek  and  Latin,  Hebrews  only  in  Latin,  and 
the  Latin  is  not  an  exact  translation  of  the  Greek.  Richard 
Bentley  bought  it  at  Heidelberg  and  his  nephew  presented 
it  to  Trinity  College.  Cambridge.  It  was  collated  by  Tisch- 
endorf (1842),  Tregelles  (1845),  and  edited  by  Scrivener 
(1850). 

Fk  Designates  those  passages  from  the  Gospels,  Acts, 
and  Pauline  Epistles  written  on  the  margin  of  the  Coislin 
Octateuch  in  Paris  early  in  the  seventh  century.  It  was 
edited    by  Tischendorf  in  Monumenta  aacra  inedita  (1846). 

Gj:  Ck>dex  Harleianus  (tenth  century),  contains  the  Gos- 
pels, defective,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  brought  by 
A.  Seidel  from  the  East  in  the  seventeenth  century.  It 
was  collated  by  J.  C.  Wolf  (1723),  Griesbach,  Tischendorf, 
and  Tregelles. 

Ga:  A  seventh  century  fragment  of  the  Acts  (ii,  45-iii,  7), 
brought  by  Tischendorf  from  the  East  in  1850  (see  La). 

G^:  Six  leaves  of  a  ninth  century  manuscript  now  in  the 
Vatican,  five  leaves  edited  by  Cosza  in  Sacrorum  bibliorum 
vetuatiaaima  fragmenta,  iii  (Rome,  1877).  The  sixth  leaf  was 
discovered  by  C.  R.  Gregory  in  1886. 

Ga:  Oxiex  Boemerianus  (ninth  century),  contains  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  is  now  in  the  Dresden  Royal  Library,  is 
in  Greek  and  Latin.  The  Greek  text  agrees  closely  with 
that  of  F,.  It  was  edited  by  Matthsei  in  1702.  partly  collated 
by  Tregelles  and  others  (see  under  A). 

Hi:  Ckxiex  Seidelii  (tenth  century),  contains  the  Cxospels, 
but  defectively,  now  in  the  Hamburg  Public  Library,  was 
collated  by  Tregelles. 

Ht:  Ck)dex   Mutinanmw    (ninth   century),    contains   Acts 


except  about  seven  chapters,  now  at  Modena,  collated  by 
Tischendorf  (1843)  and  Tregelles  (1845). 

Ha:  Fragments  of  a  sixth  century  manuscript  of  the 
Pauline  Epistles  in  the  edition  of  Euthalius,  of  which  forty- 
one  leaves  have  been  found;  twenty-two  are  in  the  Na- 
tional Library  at  Paris,  eight  in  the  Laura  Monaatery  on 
Mt.  Athoe,  two  in  the  Synodal  Library  at  Moscow,  one  in 
the  Rimijansew  Museum  there,  three  in  the  Imperial  Libraiy 
at  St.  Petersburg,  three  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Academy  at 
Kief,  and  two  in  the  University  Library  at  Turin.  (Cf.  H. 
Omont,  Notice  aur  un  trha  anden  manuacrit  grec,  Paris,  18i80.^ 

I>-':  Codex  Tischendorfianus  II,  twenty-«ight  palimpocet 
leaves  from  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  centuries,  under  t^bie 
(Georgian  huiguage,  in  a  text  related  to  that  of  ^Jkl3G. 
Seven  leaves  contain  parts  of  Matthew;  two,  parts  of  Mskrk; 
five,  parts  of  Luke;  eight,  parts  of  John;  four,  of  A^cts; 
two.  of  Pauline  letters.  They  were  discovered  by  Tischen- 
dorf in  the  Elast,  and  by  him  published  in  the  Motuunmnia 
aacra  inedita,  nov.  col.,  vol.  i  (1855). 

I>>  (formerly    Nb):  Four   palimpeest   leaves    (early     fiftJ> 
century),   containing  sixteen   verses  from  Johia   ■"",   xvi« 
now  in  the  British  Museum;  deciphered  by  Tischendorf  ma<i 
Tregelles,  published  by  the  former  in  Monumenta  aacra  ita^ 
edita,  nov.  col.,  vol.  ii  (1857). 

K^:  Oxiex  Cyprius  of  the  Gospels,  complete  (middle  or 
end  of  ninth  century);  now  in  the  National  Library  in  Paris. 
Ck)llated  by  Tischendorf  (1842)  and  Tregelles  (1840  and  1850). 

Ka:  Codex  Mosquensis  of  the  Catholic  and  Pauline  Epift- 
tles  (ninth  century);  brought  from  Mount  Athos  to  Moscow. 
Lacks  a  part  of  Romans  and  I  (Corinthians.  (Collated  by 
Matthsi. 

Li:  0)dex  Regius  of  the  CU>spels  (eighth  century),  now  in 
the  National  Library  in  Paris,  almost  complete.  (Cloeely 
related  to  K  and  B  and  the  text  of  Origen.  Published  by 
Tischendorf  in  MonumetUa  aacra  inedita  (1846),  in  facsimile. 

La:  Ck)dex  Angelicus  of  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles 
(formerly  G),  and  of  the  Pauline  (formerly  I)  (ninth  century), 
now  in  the  AngeUca  Library  of  the  Augustinian  monks  at 
Rome.  Ck)ntains  Acts  viii,  10,  to  Heb  xiii,  10.  Collated 
by  Tischendorf  (1843)  and  Tregelles  (1845). 

Mi:  Ck)dex  Campianus  of  the  Gospels,  complete  (end  of 
ninth  century),  now  in  the  National  Library  in  Paris. 
(Copied  and  used  by  Tischendorf  (1840). 

Ma:  Codex  Ruber  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  (ninth  century). 
Two  folio  leaves  at  Hamburg  (Heb.  i,  1-iv,  3,  xii,  20-xiii, 
25),  and  two  at  London  (I  Cor.  xv,  52-11  Cor.  i,  15;  II  Cor. 
x,  13-xii,  5).  Written  in  red,  hence  its  name.  Edited  by 
Tischendorf  in  Anecdota  aacra  et  prof  ana  (1855,  corrected, 
1861). 

Ni:  (Codex  Purpureus  (late  sixth  century),  a  manuscript 
of  the  Gospels  on  purple  parchment  in  silver  lettere.  Forty- 
five  leaves  were  early  known:  thirty-three  are  in  the  Monastery 
of  St.  John  at  Patmos,  six  in  the  Vatican,  four  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  two  in  the  Im()erial  Library  at  Vienna.  One 
hundred  and  eighty-four  leaves  more  were  discovered  in  a 
village  near  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia  and  bought  by  M.  NeU- 
dow,  Russian  ambassador  at  Constantinople  (cf.  C.  R.  Greg- 
ory, in  TLZ,  1806,  pp.  393-394).  The  Vienna,  London,  and 
Vatican  leaves  were  edited  by  Tischendorf  in  his  Monu- 
menta aacra  inedita  (1846),  who  used  the  leaves  from  Pat- 
mos (as  collated  by  John  Sakkelion)  in  his  Novum  Teata- 
mcTitum,  ed.  viii,  critica  major.  These  last  were  also  edited 
by  Duchesne  in  Archivea  dea  miaaiona  acientifiquea  (3  aeries, 
iii,  386  sqq.). 

N*:  Two  fragments  of  a  manuscript  very  much  like  N,, 
seen  by  Tischendorf  in  the  collection  of  Bishop  Porfiri  of 
St.  Petersburg;  they  contain  a  portion  of  Mark  ix,  and  came 
from  the  library  of  the  Alexandrian  patriarch  in  (Cairo. 

Na:  Two  leaves  (ninth  century),  containing  Gal.  v,  12-vi, 
4,  and  Heb.  v,  8-vi.  10,  brought  by  Tischendorf  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

Oi:  Eight  leaves  (ninth  century)  containing  a  part  of 
John  i  and  xx,  with  scholia.  Now  in  Moscow  (S.  Syn.  29. 
formerly  120).  Edited  by  Matthiei  (1785),  and,  after  him. 
by  Tregelles,  with  (Codex  Zacinthius  (see  below,  B),  Appen- 
dix (1861). 

Oa:  Two  leaves  (sixth  century)  containing  II  Cor.  i,  20- 
ii.  12.  Brought  from  the  East  to  St.  Petersburg  by  Tischen- 
dorf in  1859. 

O*^:  Fragments  (sixth  century  to  ninth)  containing  the 
hymns  from  Luke  i,  46  sqq.,  68  sqq.,  ii.  20  sqq.,  now  (O*) 
in  WolfenbQttel.  (O^)  Oxford,  (O)  Verona,  (OJ)  Zurich,  (O) 
St.  Gall,  (Of)  Moscow.  (Of)  Turin,  and  (0»>)  Paris.  O* 
was  edited  by  Tischendorf  in  Aneedola  aatra  sC  prafana  (1855), 


105 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


cud  O*  in  .\f  fmummla  mura  inedita,  nmf.  col,  vol  iv  {1869)» 
aiKl  or  !  (1740). 

O*:  Ti  "ji,  s  eingle  leaf  («xth    oentury),  cou- 

f^tt*  pftii  u%  i.(^tj.  iv.  I'lS,  ooUnted  by  Tiflchenidorf  at  Hq9- 

p,:  Cod«x  Guelphiorbytaaus  T  <Bixth  eentttry),  a  fx^limp- 
■e«t  ^t  WutfcabOttel,  oontfitnft  a  part  of  all  of  the  GospelB, 
«ra»  •dited  by  Tisctwndorf  in  Afonum^nfa  mcra  incdilo,  tu»v. 
ppl.,  toLti  il^m), 

p^:  Codei  Porphyriamu  (ninth  century )»  a  paJimpwst, 
eootaian  ArU,  Catholic  and  Paulino  Epi«tkii,  and  If^veJa- 
tiotw  tmt  with  lacvLDis;  the  text  of  the  Api>calyp;ie  is  enpe- 
«BftUj  lood.  It  was  brought  to  i^t.  Pet-ersburK  by  the 
Itw  iwin  bidbop  Porfin,  and  edited  by  TL»chcndurf  in 
Jf^OTuatala  focra  inoifito,  **«».  eoL,  vols,  r-vi  (18^5-69), 

Qii  Codex  QualpherbytanuA  II  {filth  eentury),  a  palimp- 
ae04  eoDtaiiiiQie  fragments  of  Luke  and  John,  now  at  Wolfcn- 
battol;  mt  edited  by  TUcbcndorf  in  Alvnumenta  tacra  in- 
mdita^ml  iii. 

Qf!  Pip>TUfi  fraementu  (fifth  century)  of  I  Oir.  i^  vj,  vii, 
IB  Uitt  eoUeciion  of  Biahop    Porfiri,  collated  by  Ti.ichendorf 

ID   imi 

Rt^  Codex  Nitriensi*  tsixth  ocntury)^  a  paliinpaest  con- 
tektftioc  part«  f>f  Luke,  came  from  a  mona»t«ry  in  (ho  Nit- 
nmoi  limji,  oow  in  the  Hriti-ih  Mufleum,  oollatetl  by  Cureron, 
tlMn  by  Tn«eile«  (1854)  and  Tij^chendorf  <1855),  atid  i^lited 
by  tbeJwt  in  Mimumenta  •acra  in*y/iln.  r»*>r.  o>L,  vol.  ii  ( 1H57), 

H^:  Codiix  CryptofciTttt4;n«i*  ilatc  seventh  C5enlury),  a 
f**^t<fnptoit  fn^mefit  oontainintt  II  Cor.  xi,  9-19,  pnbhjibed 
"3^    Coma  in  Sa<rorufn  tnbliomm   vetutlUnma  fragmenta,  ii 

^i  Oodex  Vaiicanus  354  {&4Q  a.d.>,  containing  the  GmA- 

»  eoiQplete,  collated  by  Tijchendorf  for  hi*  «f.  viii. 
S|"  Codex  Athou*  Laura?  (eishth  or  ninth  c>entury)t  eon- 
•**«iag  Act««  Catholic  Epi»tle«.  and  Rom.,  I  Cor.  i.  1-v.  B, 
*^  *-»vi.  24.  II  Cor,  i,  l-xi,  23.  Eph.  iv,  20- vi.  20.  in  the 
I  d««f|^  liUtaafltery  on  Bit.  Atho«,  examined  by  Gregory  in  1886. 
*I^*t  Codex  Bori^ianus  I  (fifth  centarj'),  fra^nnents  con- 
I  "^inuMf  Luke  xxii,  20-xxiu.  20,  and  John  vi.  2Sr-67,  vii,  6^ 
-  -  the  College  oF  the  Propasranda  at  Rome,  the 
y  H.  Alford  (ISfltV),  the  second  by  Tiseben- 
liod  by  Giorgi  11789). 

iU  k«ixth  century)  of  John  (i,  25-42,  ii,  9- 
rtow  at  St.  Pcternburg- 

-■Tiiilar  to  T*,  cautainiag  Matt,  xiv,   19- 

,'venth    century)    of    a     Greco-Coptic 

f^***4Cflfc»tary   Ulntl.    xvi,    13-20,   Mark   i,   3^,   xii,  35-37, 
■^^  JUL  23-27,  30C.  30-31)  diMcovefod  by  Tiuchendorf  in 
[  •**•  Boiiiati  Library  at  Rome. 

T*:  A  lnic<a«tit  (sixth  century)  containing  MatU  iii,  13- 
*^  ftmad  io  Upper  Egypt,  now  in  the  Utiiverstity  Library 
~  '^  Oimbridce.  England,  iiaed  by  Hort,  and  copied  by  Greg- 

«*r  inisea. 

T*:  Anctlusr  fracnuint  (ninth  century)*  al«o  from  Up  per 
^Kypt»  of  a  Greco-Coptic  cvangcUstary,  ooQtaining  Matt. 
^-  3*-lL  oopied  by  Gregory  in  1883,  now  in  the  Bodleian 
*-ft>fvy  at  Oxford. 

_  T«;  Two  fragments  (fourth  to  aixth  oentury)  contain- 
■*>«  1  Tun.  iii.  15-16,  and  vi.  2.  now  in  the  Egyptian  Museum 
«*  tha  Louvre;  publiahod  by  T.  Zahn  in  FortchunQen,  iii,  277 
■«•«*,  (LetpAC  18S4>. 

^T^:  Viam  lwv««  («ixth  or  seventh  csontury)  containing 
.  a,  3-32.  xxii.  4-1  ft,  found  in  Cairo  by  A.  Papadu- 


TV:  fitgggiimtm  (seventh  to  tenth  century)  of  aix  Greco- 
^^■P4itiBdtlii«B  Greek  manuscripts,  contaiiiirig  part;}  of  tho 
^^^••k  foiiitd  in  tbe  Schnudt  Monastery  near  Aklimini, 
^Kypt,  ncm  in  the  National  Library  at  Paria,  published  by 
Ip-  Afflijicieta  in  KoticeM  et  ertraits,  vol.  xxxiv,  part  ii  (Paria, 
^*M^)..a«3  H|q.  Tbe  text  in  related  to  that  of  T«, 
^  f*-  Tm^  leave*  (eighth  to  tenth  century),  also  from  the 
^^^•(ti  lioiia«tery«  containing  I  Cor.  i.  22-29, 

y*^:  Hitm  leaves  (fifth  century)  with  Greco-Coptic  text 
^Mikiiii,  l6-xiii,  32,  John  viii,  33-42.  fonmerly  owned  by 
'J'j^  now  m  the  library  of  the  Clarendon  PresH  at  Oxford, 
•*«Hid  by  Ford.  1799, 

g^y-  Codex  Nenianiu  (ninth  or  tenth  century )<  oontaiua 
I^Qp^poh.  now  in  the  Library  of  Bt.  Mark,  Venice^  col- 
^f*  fcy  'nsolivndorf  and  Tregellea. 

tiL^'  Godtx  ifcptir]u«n^>'*  (f'igbth  or  ninth  centtiry)«  contains 
j?5?^*«MptU  twarly  comptet*  io  John  vii.  49,  written  at  Ml. 
^2^eQlkl#d  by  MatthtKt  (17115). 

^^  T^  letfBP    (eighth   eentury)    containing    paria    of 


Luke  ix-x.  now  In  the  National  Library  at  Paris,  edited  by 
Tischendorf  in  Monumenta  tacra  itiediia  (184(}). 

\W:  A  pahmpse^t,  probably  originally  belonging  with  W«, 
of  fourteen  loavei*.  containing  fragment4  of  Matt..  Mark^ 
and  Lykc,  found  by  Tiachendorf  at  Nipleo  and  by  him  de- 
ciphered in  1866. 

W*:  Three  fragmonta  (ninth  centiary)  of  a  Greco-Latin 
maauscript  of  the  GoapeLs  from  Mark  ii  and  Luke  i,  now  at 
BU  GftlL  edited  by  Tiachendorf  in  Monumenta  fmcra  itiedUih 
not^.  eat.,  vol  iii  (1860). 

Wi^:  Fragmente  of  four  leaves  (ninth  century)  con  taint- 
ing parta  of  Mark  vii,  viii,  ix,  now  in  the  library  of  Trinity 
Ck>Ilege,  Cambridget  puibliHbed  by  Bcrivencr,  Advertaria 
eritica  aacra  (C4im bridge,  1893),  pp.  xi  «qq. 

W**:  Tmelve  leaves  (ninth  eentury)  containing  parts  of 
John  ii-iv,  seven  leaves  in  the  monaeiery  of  8t,  Dionysiui 
on  Mt.  Athoa  (collated  by  Puaey  for  Alford),  three  in  the 
library  of  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford  (examined  by  Ti.tch- 
endorf),  and  two  in  the  National  Library  at  A I  bens  (dii*- 
covered  by  Gregnry  in  18S6). 

W:  A  palimpsest  (ninth  century)  containing  part  of 
Mark  v,  in  the  library  of  Christ  Church  College  at  C^xford. 

Wk:  Tliirty-aix  leaveaof  apaUmpaeat  (ninth  century)  ctm* 
tainingpartof  thefour  Go»peU,  nowin  thoBriitiish  Museum, 

W':  Two  leaves  of  a  pahmpae*t  f ninth  century)  contain- 
ing partfl  of  Mark  iii,  discovered  by  Gregory  in  IRKL 

W't  Two  leaves  (seventh  or  eighth  century)  with  parts  of 
Luke  iv,  copied  by  Gregory  in  Parij»  in  18S4. 

Wk:  Two  leaves  (eighth  or  ninth  century)  with  parts  of 
Luke  XX  and  xxiii,  alao  copied  by  Gregory  in   Pari8,  1884. 

Wi:  Two  Icavea  of  a  palimpsest  (seventh  century)  con- 
taining Mark  xiii,  34-xiv,  29,  discovered  by  Gregory  in  the 
National  Library  at  Paria,  18S5. 

W*":  Four  leaves  of  a  palimpsest  (seventh  or  eighth  oen> 
tur>')  containing  part«  of  Mark,  in  the  National  Library  at 
Parifl,  diflcovered  by  Gregory,  1885. 

W»:  Four  leaves  (seventb  century)  oontaiaing  John  vi, 
71-vii,  40,  in  Vienna. 

W":  Sixteen  leaves  of  a  palimps«e«t  (ninth  century)  cofi^ 
iainitig  part?  of  the  Hynoptic  GoepelSf  in  tbe  Annbroeiaa 
Library  at  Milan. 

X:  Ctnlex  Munaceu.-^ij^  (ninth  or  tenth  century)  contain- 
ing numerous  frtigmenta  *jf  tbe  GoHpcls  and  a  eommentaryg 
in  the  University  Library  at  Munich.  C4}llated  by  Schols. 
Ti«Mchcndorf ,  and  Trugelles. 

XI':  Fourteen  leaves  (ninth  or  tentli  century)  containing 
Luke  i,  l-ii,  40,  incomplete,  in  the  Court  and  State  Library 
at  Municli. 

Y:  C^Klex  Barberini  225  (eighth  century),  mix  leaves  con- 
taining parts  of  John,  publiahod  by  Ti*chendorf  in  Monu- 
menta Macra  inetlita  (tH46). 

Z:  Codex  DubUneniiia  reacriptus  (sixth  eentury )«  an  im- 
portant palimpsest  with  numerous  fragments  of  Matthew, 
in  Trinity  C<jllegc,  Dublin.  Published  in  facsimile  by  Bai^ 
rctt  tlSOl ),  accuratery  decipbered  by  Tregelles  (1863),  newly 
edited  by  T.  K.  Abbott  (Dublin.  1880). 

F:  Cwlex  TiAehendorhaniia  IV  (ninth  century)  oontaint 
large  parts  of  Matthew  and  Mark,  Luke  and  John  are  com-^ 
plete.  It  wa«  found  by  Tischendorf  in  the  lijwt,  part  of  it 
i.H  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  and  tbe  larger  part 
at  St.  Petersburg.     It  strongly  rcntembles  Kj. 

A:  Codex  ^angallensiH  (ninth  century),  a  nearly  complete 
copy  of  the  Gospels  (one  leaf  lacking)  with  interlitiear  Latin 
traiuilation  approximating  tbe  Vulgate  text.  It  is  in  St, 
Tiall.  poiSAibly  copied  there,  and  is  poesibly  the  same  (fc»' 
tbe  Goepeli*)  manuscript  tks  G,  (Pauhne  Epi^tlea).  (Cf,  J. 
R.  Harris,  Coder  i\anoaiknsin,  Cambridge.  1891,) 

<9»:  Codex  Tincbendorfianiw  I  (Rcventh  century),  four 
leaves  with  part«  of  Matt,  xii-xv,  found  by  Tiscbcndorf  in 
tbn  East  in  1S44  and  1853,  now  in  the  bbrary  of  tbe  Cni- 
vi^rsity  of  I^ipf*ic,  edited  by  Tiscbcndorf  in  Monumenta 
tacra  inedita,  nov.  col.,  vol  ii  (l8/»7>. 

«•';  Six  leaves  (seventh  century)  containing  fragments 
of  Mult,  xxii-xxiii  and  Mark  iv-v,  brought  by  Tischendorf 
to  Ht.  PetersburnE  in  1859. 

€K:  Two  folio  leaves  (sixth  century)  containing  Matt,  xxi, 
19-24  and  John  xviii,  29-36*  brought  by  Tischendorf  and 
Itiiihop  Porfiri  to  St.  Petersburg. 

^'>:  A  fragment  (eighth  century)  containing  Luke  zi,  37- 
46,  brought  by  Tiscbeodorf  to  St,  Petersburg, 

^<*:  A  fragment  (sixth  century)  containing  Matt*  xxvi, 
2-7,  9. 

«':  Four  leaves  (nxth  oDntury)  containing  parti  of  Mfti- 
thew  and  Mark. 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


106 


8»:  A  fragment  (sixth  century)  containing  John  vi,  13- 
24,  ttinilar  to  O,. 

eh:  Three fragmentfl  (ninth  century)  of aGreoo-Arabio  man- 
uscript of  the  Gospels.  e«-i>  are  all  in  the  collection  of  Bishop 
Porfiri  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  were  collated  by  Tischendorf. 

A:  Codex  Tischendorfianus  III  (ninth  century)  contain- 
ing Luke  and  John  complete,  with  occasional  scholia  in  un- 
cials on  the  margin,  partly  of  a  critical  kind.  Now  in  the 
Bodleian  Library,  Oxford;  collated  by  Tischendorf  (who 
brought  it  from  the  East)  and  Tregelles. 

B:  Ckxlex  Zacynthius  (eighth  century),  a  palimpsest  con- 
taining Luke  i,  1-xi,  33.  with  some  gaps;  brought  from  the 
Island  of  Zante.  and  presented  in  1821  to  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  London;  deciphered  and  published 
by  Tregelles  in  1861.  The  text,  which  is  very  valuable,  is 
surrounded  by  a  commentary. 

11:  Codex  Petropolitanus  (ninth  century)  of  the  Gospels 
complete,  excepting  seventy-seven  verses.  Brought  to  St. 
Petersburg  by  Tischendorf  from  Smyrna. 

2:  Codex  Rossanensis  (sixth  century),  containing  Matt, 
i,  1-Mark  xvi,  14.  and  belonging  to  the  chapter  of  the  Cathe- 
dral Church  at  Rossano,  written  on  very  fine  purple  vel- 
limi  in  silver  letters,  with  the  three  first  lines  in  both  coliunns 
at  the  beginning  of  each  Gospel  in  gold.  It  is  adorned  with 
eighteen  remarkable  pictures  in  water-colors,  representing 
scenes  in  the  Gospel  history,  with  forty  figures  of  the  proph- 
ets of  the  Old  Testament.  Its  miniatures  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  celebrated  Vienna  purple  manu- 
script of  Cienesis.  It  nimibers  a  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
leaves,  some  of  which  have  been  much  injured  by  dampness. 
It  originally  contained  the  four  Gospels.  The  text,  as  well 
as  the  writing,  resembles  that  of  Codex  Ni  of  the  Gospels. 
It  was  discovered  in  the  spring  of  1879,  at  Rossano  in  (Cala- 
bria (Southern  Italy),  by  Dr.  Gebhardt  of  G6ttingen  and 
Professor  Hamack  of  Giessen,  who  have  published  a  full  de- 
scription of  it,  with  two  facsimiles  of  the  writing  and  outline 
sketches  of  the  miniatures,  in  an  elegant  quarto  entitled 
Evangeliorum  codex  Qtocum  Purpureiu  RoatanetiMxa  (Leip- 
sie,  1880).  The  illuminations  are  reproduced  in  exact  fac- 
simile by  Antonio  Muuos  (Rome,  1907).  The  text  seems  to 
hold  a  position  about  midway  between  that  of  the  older 
imcials  and  those  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  agreeing 
most  remarkably  with  N],  often  with  AAII.  or  with  D  and 
the  Old  Latin,  against  the  mass  of  later  manuscripts. 

*:  Codex  Beratinus  (probably  sixth  century),  contain- 
ing Matt.  vi.  3-Mark  xiv,  62.  with  some  lacuns,  on  purple 
vellum  and  in  possession  of  the  Church  of  St.  George  at 
Berat,  Albania,  made  generally  known  by  P.  BatifTol  in  1885. 

*:  Codex  Athous  Laur»  (eighth  or  ninth  century),  con- 
taining the  New  Testament  except  Matthew.  Mark  i,  1-ix. 
4,  Heb.  viii,  11-ix,  19,  and  Revelation,  is  in  the  Laura 
Monastery  on  Mt.  Athos,  was  examined  by  Gregory  in  1886. 

O:  Ck)dex  Athous  Dionysii  (eighth  or  ninth  century), 
containing  the  four  Gospels,  is  in  the  Monastery  of  St.  Dio- 
nysius  on  Mt.  Athos.  was  examined  by  Gregory  in  1886. 

3i:  Ck)dex  Athous  Andrese  (ninth  or  tenth  century),  con- 
taining the  four  Gospels  but  with  lacuns.  is  in  the  Monas- 
tery of  St.  Andrew  on  Mt.  Athos.  was  examined  by  Gregory 
in  1886. 

39:  Ck)dex  Patiriensis  (fifth  century),  twenty-one  palimp- 
sest leaves  containing  fragments  of  Acts  and  of  the  Catholic 
and  the  Pauline  Epistles,  now  in  the  Vatican  Library,  was  de- 
scribed by  Batififol  (1891),  partly  read  by  W,  Sanday  (1896). 

J:  The  sign  attached  by  Gregory  to  a  fragment  of  N] 
before  he  knew  its  relationship. 

^«.i«.  14;  Small  fragments  (fifth  to  ninth  century)  of  the 
Ssmoptics  and  I  Corinthians  in  the  convent  of  St.  Catharine 
on  Mt.  Sinai,  discovered  by  J.  R.  Harris  and  published  in 
Biblical  FragmenU  from  Mt.  Sinai  (London,  1890). 

Besides  the  uncials,   there  are  known    for  the 
Gospels  over  1,2(K)  cursives  designated  by  Arabic 
numerals,  over  950  evangelist  anes  of 
lO.  The     which  about  100  are  in  uncial    wri- 
Cursive     ^jj^g  varying  in  date  from  the  tenth  to 
scripts      ^^^    twelfth  century.     For   the  Acts 
Evan^elis-  *^^    ^^^  Catholic   Epistles  there   are 
taries,  etc.  over    400  cursives,   for    the    Pauline 
Epistles  about  500,  and  for  the  Apoc- 
alypse 180.    Of  lectionarics  there  are  known  over 
260,  only  a  very  few  of  which  antedate  the  tenth 


century.  The  following  are  noteworthy,  either 
because  of  the  value  of  their  readings  or  for  the 
influence  they  have  had  on  the  text: 

1  (jospels.  Acts,  Catholic  and  Pauline  Epistles:  Codex 
Basil  iensis  (tenth  or  twelfth  century),  especially  valuable 
for  the  text  of  the  Crospels,  contains  the  apparatus  of  Eo- 
thalius  on  the  Acts  and  Epistles.  Kindred  to  it  in  the  Gospeb 
are  209.  118,  131. 

1  Apocalypse:  Codex  Reuchlini  (twelfth  century),  used 
by  Erasmus  (1516).  in  the  University  Library  at  Basel. 

13  Gospels:  Codex  Parisiensis  (thirteenth  century),  has 
some  lacuns,  was  collated  by  Wetstein,  Griesbach,  and  W. 
H.  Ferrar.  and  is  closely  related  to  60.  124.  and  346,  while 
643.  788,  and  826  belong  to  the  same  group. 

13  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles.  17  Pauline  Epistles,  and 
33  Gospels  are  all  parts  of  the  same  manuscript  (ninth, 
tenth,  or  eleventh  century),  and  the  text  agrees  often  with 
that  of  the  best  uncials;  collated  by  Griesbach.  and  Tre> 
gelles  (1850). 

14  Apocalypse,  31  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  37  Pauline 
Epistles  and  60  Giospels  are  parts  of  the  same  manuscript 
(Leicester  Ck)dex.  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century),  collated 
by  Tregelles,  Scrivener,  and  Abbott  (cf.  13  supra). 

34  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  40  Pauline  Epistles,  61 
(jospels.  and  02  Apocalypse  are  parts  of  the  same  manu- 
script (Codex  Montfortianus,  sixteenth  century),  at  Trinity 
College.  Dublin,  collated  by  O.  T.  Dobbin  (1854). 

47  Pauline  Epistles  (eleventh  or  twelfth  century),  in  the 
Bodleian  Library,  collated  by  Tregelles. 

05  Apocalypse  (Codex  Parham,  eleventh  or  twelfth  eea- 
txiry).  belongs  among  the  best  witnesses  to  Revelation,  col- 
lated by  Scrivener. 

565  Gos()el8  (ninth  or  tenth  century)  in  letters  of  gold  on 
purple  parchment,  with  especially  ancient  readings  in  Mark; 
designated  81  by  Westcott  and  Hort,  now  in  St.  Petersburg. 

2.  History  of  the  Printed  Text:  For  more  than 
half  a  century  after  the  invention  of  printing,  the 
original  text  of  the  New  Testament  remained  un- 
published. The  credit  of  first  printing  it  belongs 
to  Cardinal  Ximenes  de  Cisneros,  archbishop  of 
Toledo,  who  made  it  vol.  v  of  his  Poly^ot  Bible 
(see  Bibles.  Polyglot,  I).  The  manuscripts  de- 
pended  upon  were  comparatively  mod- 
t  ^"^^  d  ®"^  ^^^  °^  inferior  value.  Though 
Erasmian  ^^®  volume  is  dated  June  10,  1514,  the 
Editions.  ^^^  Testament  was  not  published  be- 
fore 1521  or  1522,  and  thus  was  pre- 
ceded by  the  Greco-Latin  New  Testament  of  1516, 
published  by  Froben  of  Basel,  and  edited  by  Eras- 
mus, who  used  as  the  basis  of  his  text,  in  the  Gos- 
pels, an  inferior  Basel  manuscript  of  the  fifteenth 
century  (cod.  2),  and  one  of  the  thirteenth  or  four- 
teenth century  in  the  Acts  and  Epistles  (cod.  2). 
With  these  he  collated  more  or  less  carefully  one 
more  manuscript  of  the  Gospels  (cod.  1),  two  in  the 
Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles  (codd.  1  and  4),  and 
three  in  the  Pauline  Epistles  (codd.  1,  4,  7).  The 
oldest  of  these  (cod.  1,  tenth  century)  has  a  good 
text  in  the  Gospels ;  but  Erasmus  made  very  little 
use  of  it;  the  others  are  comparatively  modem,  and 
poor.  For  the  Apocalypse  he  had  only  a  single 
manuscript  of  the  twelfth  century,  wanting  the 
last  six  verses,  which  he  translated  into  Greek 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  In  various  other  places 
in  the  Apocalypse  he  followed  the  readings  of  the 
Vulgate  in  opposition  to  the  Greek,  as  he  did  in 
a  few  cases  elsewhere.  The  first  edition  of  Eras- 
mus was  sped  through  the  press  with  headlong 
haste  {prcBcipitntum  fuit  verius  quam  ofifi/m,  as 
Erasmus  himself  says)  in  order  that  the  pub- 
lisher, Froben,  might  get  the  start  of  the  Com- 
plutensian.    It  consequently  swarms  with  errors. 


107 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


^  more  oorrect  edition  was  issued  in  1519:  Mill 
obierved  about  four  hundred  changes  in  tlie  text. 
For  to  nnd  later  editions,  one  additional  manii- 
icnpt  (cod.  3)  was  used  in  the  Gospels,  Act^*,  and 
In  tlie  third  edition  (1522)  the  changes 

much  fewer;  but  it  is  noted  for  the  intro- 
dtetion  of  I  Jolin  v,  1,  from  the  Codex  Mont- 
forliaiiu*  iaixteenth  century).  In  the  fourth 
tdition  (1527)  the  text  wiy?  altered  and  improved 
kQ  miny  plact*s,  particularly  in  Revelation,  from 
iIm  CoDijiluteriiiian  Polyglot,  That  of  the  fifth 
(1535)  wid  last  «, Erasmus  died  in  1.536)  hardly  dif- 
\m  from  the  fourth. 

The  next  editions  which  call  for  notice  are  those 
of  ihe  great  printer  anil  scholar  Robert  Stephens 
^Estieime,  Stephanus;  see  S^tepmkns),  three  pub- 
Iwhd  at  Paris  (1546,  1519,  and  1550;  the  first  two, 
in  nnall  r2mo,  are  known  as  the  0  miriftcam  cdi- 
tioQi,  from  the  opening  wonis  of  the  preface,  which 
tf  ibe  «ime  in  bothj  the  la^st,  a  magnificent  folio, 
it  called  the  ediito  regia),  and  one  at  Geneva  (IGmo, 
1551),  ifi  which  the  present  di  via  ion  into  versuj^  was 
first  introduced  into  the  Greek  text  (see  below.  III, 
i^l  The  edition  of  1550,  notwithstanding  it^ 
varioui  reading?  in  the  margin  from  fifteen  manu- 
fi  iM«  scripts  anii   the  C^mplutensian  Poly- 

ofSt^Bh*"**  ^^*^*'  ^'^  mainly  founded  on  the  fourth  or 
iad  Bflo^  ^^^^  edition  of  Erasmus.  Scrivener  has 
noted  a  hundred  and  ninet-een  places 
^  which  it  differs  from  all  of  the  manuscripts  used, 
"nietext  of  the  edition  of  1551  varies  but  slightly 
framthatof  1560,  The  four  folio  editions  of  Theo<J  ore 
Btt«  (tieneva.  I.S65, 1582, 158,S  or  1589,  and  15aS), 
l^ellashis  6ve8voeihtions  (1565,  1507, 1580, 1590, 

)  follow,  for  the  mobt  part,  StepheuM^s  editions 
<ir  1530 or  1551,  with  changes  here  am!  there,  many 
t'f  which  are  not  improvements.  Stephens's  edition 
^^f  1551  iH  commonly  spoken  of  in  England  as  the 
^^  receptug ;  but   on    the    Cwitinent    the    first 

r  edition,  printitj  at  I^^yden  in  UV24,  has 
lly  received  that  designation.  The  expres- 
^'on  L^  borrowed  from  the  preface  to  the  second 
*3*pvir  edition  (1633),  in  whicli  occur  the  wordis, 
itititm  mjfi  hobcs,  nunc  ah  omnibus  receptum.  The 
*«Kl  of  the  seven  Elzevir  editions  t!624,  16:33,  1641, 

"  ti;    1056,    1662,     1670,    107S,   Amstcnbm), 

g  which  there  are  a  few  slight  differences,  is 
'^^di?  up  almost  wholly  from  Bcxa's  smaller  edi- 
iJ?^»  of  1565   and    15S<:i;  its  edit^ir   i.s  unknown. 


Tl, 


ttJtuit  rtn^^ptus,  slavishly  followeil,  with  slight 


*wver»jtj^jg^  in  hundreds  of  editions,  and  substan- 
I  '*»*y  rrpreaented  in  all  the  principal  modern  Prot- 
■JJJjftl  translations  prior  i^  the  nineteenth  eenturj', 
[ffceolves  itiself  essentially  into  that  of  the  last 
of  Erasmus,  framed  from  a  few  modern 
itifmor  manuscripts  and  the  C-omplutensjan 
-  ^'gk>t,  in  the  infancy  of  Biblical  criticism.  In 
1 11^*^  ^han  twenty  places  its  reading  is  supported  by 
^*,3.H^thority  of  no  known  Greek  manuscript. 

'btionii  from  1657  to  1830,  with  the  excep- 
ti  of  Griesbach  (see  below,  §  3),  are  im- 
HI,  a;!  nsgarda  the  text,  mainly  for  their 
iS2?'*^*^°"  of  critical  materids.  In  Walton's 
|f^ty|^  (London,  1657,  see  Bibles,  Polyolot, 
^}l  8t»phens*s  Greek  text  of  1550  was  acoom- 
"by  ihc  Vulgate,    Pcshito-Syriac,  Ethiopic, 


3.  Editions 

between 

1667  and 

1630. 


Arabic,  and,  in  parts  of  the  New  Testament ^ 
otlier  ancient  versions,  with  a  critical  apparatus  in- 
cluding the  readings  of  Codd.  A,  Du  Dj,  Stephens*a 
margin,  and  eleven  ciu*sive  manuscripts  collated 
by  or  for  Archbishop  Ussher.  In  Bishop  Fell's 
edition  (Oxford,  1675),  which  reproduces  substan- 
tially the  Elzevir  text,  other  authorities,  inclu- 
ding readings  of  the  Coptic  and  Gothic  %Trsions, 
are  given  in  the  notes,  though  the  title  page  {ex 
phis  10(J  MSS.  eoiUcibus),  is  very  misleading. 
The  edition  of  John  Mill  (Oxford,  1707,  fob;  im- 
proved and  enlarged  by  Ludolph  Kuster,  Amster- 
dam, Leipsic,  and  llotterdam,  1710),  the  work 
of  thirty  years,  marks  an  epoch  m  the  liist^>ry  of 
textual  criticism  by  its  vast  additions  to  the  store 
of  critical  material  tlirough  the  col- 
lation of  the  new  »iarius<"ripts,  the 
collection  of  readings  from  the  ancient 
versions,  and  especially  from  the 
quotations  found  in  the  writings  of 
the  Christian  Fathers,  and  by  its  very  le:irned  and 
valuable  prolegomena.  Mill  gave  his  judgment 
on  many  readings  in  his  notes  and  prolegrjmena, 
but  did  not  venture  to  fonn  a  text  of  his  own, 
reprinting  Stephens's  text  of  1550  without  inten- 
tional variation.  The  projected  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  and  Latin  Vulgate  in  parallel 
columns,  by  the  illustrious  critic  Richard  Bentley 
(q.v.)  deserves  a  brief  notice.  Proposals  for  printing 
were  issued  in  1720,  and  a  large  amount  of  materials 
was  collected  at  great  expense,  including  a  collation 
of  cod.  B  (published  by  Ford  in  1799):  but  the 
work  waj^  never  completed.  It  was  to  have  been 
founded  on  the  oldest  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts 
compared  with  the  principal  ancient  versions  and 
the  quotations  in  the  Fathers  of  the  first  five  cen* 
turiea.  (Cf*  A,  A.  Ellis,  Bentleii  criiica  sacral 
Cambridge,  1862;  R.  C.  Jebb.  fientlrj/,  London, 
1S82.)  The  edition  of  Johann  Alb rechtBengel  [q.v.; 
Tubingen,  1734,  4to),  while  it  had  the  advantage 
of  some  new  man  user!  [its,  was  specially  valuable 
for  its  discussions  and  illustrations  of  the  principles 
of  criticism,  and  its  classification  of  manuscripts; 
but,  except  in  the  Apocal>'7>se,  Bengel  did  not 
venture  to  introduce  any  reading,  even  though 
he  believed  it  unquestionably  genuine,  which  had 
not  previously  appeiu-ed  in  some  printed  edition. 
His  judgment  of  the  value  of  difTerent  readings 
was,  however,  given  in  tlie  margin  (cf.  E.  Nestle, 
Bengel  ah  Gekhrter,  Tubingen,  1893,  pp.  39  sqq.). 
The  magtiificent  edition  of  Joliann  Jakob  Wetstein 
(q.v.;  2  vols,  foh,  Amsterdam,  175!-52)»  the  work 
of  forty  years,  greatly  eidarged  the  st^^re  of 
critical  materia!  by  extensive  collation  of  manu- 
flcripta  and  researches  into  the  quotations  of  the 
Fathers,  and  by  his  description  of  this  material  in 
%'ery  vahmble  and  copious  pruh'goniena  (reprinted, 
with  additions  by  Semler,  Halle,  1764).  lie  gives 
also  the  readings  of  the  cliief  printed  editions  wliich 
preceded  him,  and  describes  them  fully.  He  in- 
trtjduced  the  present  method  of  denoting  the 
uncial  manuscripts  by  Roman  capitals,  and  the 
cursives  and  lectionariea  by  Arabic  figures.  Besides 
the  critical  matter,  Wetstt'in's  edition  is  a  the- 
saurus of  quotations  from  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Rabbinical  authors,  illustrating  the  phraseology  of 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


108 


the  New  Testament,  or  oontainlng  passages  more 
or  less  parallel  in  sentiment.  His  publisher  insisted 
on  his  reprinting  the  texttu  receptus  (substantially 
that  of  the  Elzevirs);  but  he  gives  his  critical 
judgment  in  the  margin  and  the  notes.  Other 
editions  to  be  briefly  mentioned  are  those  of  F.  C. 
Alter  (Vienna,  1786-87),  giving  the  readings  of 
twenty-two  Vienna  manuscripts  and  of  four  manu- 
scripts of  the  Slavonic  version;  of  Andrew  Birch 
(Quatuor  Evangelia  Grace,  Copenhagen,  1788,  4to, 
and  Vca-icB  lectiones,  1798,  1800,  1801),  exhibiting 
the  readings  of  many  manuscripts  collated  in  the 
libraries  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany,  by  himself 
and  others;  and  of  C.  F.  Matthaei  {iVavum  Testa- 
mentum  GrcBce  etLcUine  [the  Vulgate],  12  vols.,  8vo, 
Riga,  1782-88;  also  Novum  Testamentum  Greece,  3 
vols.,  8vo,  Wittenberg,  etc.,  1803-07),  for  which 
over  a  hundred  manuscripts  were  used,  mostly  from 
the  library  of  the  Holy  Synod  at  Moscow.  Mat- 
thai  was  a  careful  collator,  but  a  very  poor  critic; 
and  his  manuscripts  generally  were  of  inferior 
quality. 

The  first  edition  of  Johann  Jacob  Griesbach  (q.v.) 
was  published  in  1774-75  (the  first  three  Gospels 
in  synopsis);  but  it  was  only  in  the  second  edition 
(2  vols.,  8vo,  Halle,  1796-1806)  that  he  first  made 
really  good  use  of  the  materials  gathered  by  his  pred- 
ecessors, and  augmented  by  his  own  collections. 
A  manual  edition  was  issued  at  Leipsic  in  1805, 
the  text  of  which,  differing  somewhat  from  that 
of  the  larger  edition,  expresses  his 
later     critical     judgment.     Following 


4.  Gries- 
baohand 


hisFol-  *^  ^^^  track  of  Bengel  and  Semlcr, 
lowers."  Griesbach  sought  to  simplify  the  proc- 
ess of  criticism  by  classifying  his 
manuscripts  and  other  authorities.  He  made 
three  classes  or  recensions — the  Alexandrian,  the 
Western,  and  the  Constantinopolitan  or  Byzantine 
— to  the  latter  of  which  the  mass  of  later  and  in- 
ferior manuscripts  belongs.  Though  his  system  is 
not  now  accepted  in  its  details,  much  truth  lay 
at  the  bottom  of  it.  His  principles  of  criticism 
were  sound;  and  in  his  application  of  them  he  dis- 
played rare  tact  and  skill.  In  1827  a  third  edition 
of  the  first  volume  of  his  Greek  Testament  was 
published,  with  important  additions,  under  the 
editorship  of  Dr.  David  Schulz.  Griesbach's 
SymbolfB  critira;  (Halle,  1785-93),  and  Commen- 
tariuH  crUicuH  on  Matthew  and  Mark,  parts  i,  ii, 
with  MeletenuUa  critlca  prefixed  to  part  ii,  Jena, 
1798,  181 1,  are  still  valuable.  A  number  of  manual 
editions  foundcwl  on  that  of  Griesbach,  but  inclining 
more  to  the  textus  receptus,  as  those  of  H.  A. 
H<!hott  a^^ipsic,  1805, 1813,  1825, 1839),  with  a  good 
Latin  translation;  G.  C.  Knapp  (Halle,  1797, 
IHVsi,  1824,  1829,  1840),  with  a  useful  Commentatio 
iMfiiftfffim,  nr  introduction,  and  carefully  punctuated 
anddivirM;  J.  A.  II.  Tittmann  (ster.,  Leipsic, 
\H2(),  1828,  l«mo;  1824,  1831,  8vo);  A.  Hahn 
(iM\mk,  IH40,  18-tl,  revised  ed.  1861;  reprinted 
hi  N<tw  Vork,  1842,  by  Edward  Robinson); 
H.  O,  W.  TlM'ile  (Hter.,  Leipsic,  1844,  11th 
tui,  \H7tf,  \ty  ().  von  (Jebhardt),  with  the  vari- 
i$iUfttn  of  tlin  t'.hU'f  modern  editors,  parallel  passages, 
«M< ;  ttU;  H.  T.  Hl(K)mfield'8  Greek  Testament 
wtlh  KnQUnh  NoUb  (Undon,  1832,  9th  ed.,  1855, 


2  vols.,  8vo),  mark  no  progresB  in  critidflm  beyond      \ 
Griesbach,    but   rather   a   retrograde   movemeat.      1 
The  same  is  true  of  the  large  edition  of  the  Catholic      -, 
scholar  J.  M.  A.  SchoU  (2  vols.,  4to,  Ldpdc,  1830- 
1836),  whose  extensive  travels  and  researches  in       i 
libraries  enabled  him  to  add  a  very  large  numbex 
of  new  manuscripts  (according  to  Scrivener,  616)       t 
to  the  list  of  those  previously  known.     But  of  these      \ 
only  thirteen  were  collated  entire;  a  few  others  in       | 
the  greater  part;  many  in  only  a  few  chapters;       ! 
many  more  simply  inspected,  or  only  enrolled  in 
the  list.    SchoU  was  a  poor  critic,  and  as  an  editor 
and  collator  incredibly  careless.     He  divided  hii 
manuscripts  into  two  classes  or    reoensioiifl — the 
Alexandrian   and   the  Constantinopolitan,   giving 
the  preference  to  the  latter.    But  in  implying  his 
system,  he  was  happily  inconsistent,  parUculariy 
in  his  second  volume,  and  at  a  later  period  of  bifl 
life  (1845)  abandoned  it.    His  edition  met  with 
no  favor  from  intelligent  scholars;  but  in   Bug- 
land,  where  Biblical   criticism  was  at  its  lowest 
ebb,  it  was  welcomed  and  praised  by  many,  ^xA 
its  text  reprinted. 

A  new  period  in  the  history  of  textual  criticiism 
was  inaugurated  by  the  appearance  (Berlin,  1831) 
of  a  small  edition  of  the  Greek  Testamoit  by  '^he 
distinguished    classical    scholar    Cari    TinrhnrifM^" 
(q.v.),   followed   by    a    larger   edition,   in    wla^cli 
the  authorities  for  the  Greek  text  were  8uppl-><^ 
by  Philipp  Buttmann,  with  the  Latin  Vulgate  in 
the  lower   margin,    critically   edited   from    oc^^<i* 
Fuldensis,     Amiatinus,     and    other     manuscrm.'ptB 
(2  vols.,  8vo,  Berlin,  1842-50).     Lachmann's    ^^ 
in  these  editions  was  not  to  reproduce  the  ori^^Liial 

text  according  to   his  best  judgcc^^^ 

6.  Lach-    (for  this  he  deemed   conjectural    c^i^ti- 

mann.      cism  to  be  necessary  in  some  ca-^^*^)* 

but  to  present  as  far  as  possible        ^^ 
purely   documentary   evidence    the    text    cur"""^'^^ 
in   the   Eastern    churches  in   the   fourth    cex»"^fc^ 
as  a  basis  for  criticism.    He   paid   no   atter^  "^^ 
to  the  textus  recepttut,  and  used  no  cursive  irm^^ap^' 
scripts,  but  founded  his  text  wholly  on  ax^^^^^^^^ 
authorities;  viz..  codd.  ABCDPQTZ  oC         the 
Gospels,  A  B  C  D  E  in  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epm^^^®^» 
A  B  C  D  G  in  the  PauUne  Epistles,  and  A  B  C  i^^^^® 
Apocalypse,  with  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and     ^— — ^"* 
a  (Vercellensis,  fourth  century),  6  ( Veronenaig  y         "^^ 
century),   and   c   (Colbertinus,   eleventh   cecB-*^^^^^ 
of  the  Old  Latin,  for  the  Gospels,  besides  the 
versions  of  the   Greco-Latin  manuscripts  ii 
above  list;  of  the  Fathers  he  used  Irenaeus,  Qy^^^^^^f^ 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  and, 
Apocalypse,  Primasius.     His  attempted  tasl^^^ 
not  fully  accomplished,  partly  because  the 
some  of  the  most  important  manuscripts  whS  ^ 
used  (B  C  P  Q,  and  the  Latin  Codex  Amia^'*--^^^.    , 
had  been  but  very  imperfectly  collated  or  ^^::=^*^' 
partly  because  the  range  of  his  authoritiet^^^^^  ^^ 
too  narrow,  and  partly  because  he  was  som^'*^-*^'"!^' 
apparently  at  least,  inconsistent  in  the  applm  ^>^---f^"^° 
of  his  principles.     But  he  was  the  first  to     :^i   omd 
a  text  wholly  on  ancient  evidence  (Griesbacs-V — ^  "**■ 
regarded  what  he  deemed  unimportant  varm^^^f^ 
from  the  received  text);  and  his  editions,  to      m0WDicb 
his  eminent  reputation  as  a  critic  gave  wid^^  cur- 


109 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


reocy,  especially  in  Germany,  did  much  toward 
breaking  down  the  superstitious  reverence  for  the 
teztiu  reeeptus  which  had  long  prevailed. 

Next  to  be  noted  are  the  editions  of  Tischendorf 
and  Tregelles.  Through  their  combined  labors 
we  have  a  solid  basis  for  a  completely  critical 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  in  the  accurate 
knowledge,  not  possessed  before,  of  all  manu- 
scripts of  the  oldest  class  (not  including  lection- 
aries),  comprising  many  newly  dis- 
6.  Tlsohen-  covered,  among  them  the  Sinaitic  of 
dorf.  the  fourth  century.  Lobegott  Fried- 
rich  Constantin  Tischendorf  (q.v.) 
qpent  about  eight  years  of  his  life  in  travels  in 
search  of  manuscripts  (for  which  he  visited  the 
East  three  times— in  1844, 1853,  and  1859),  or 
in  collating  with  extreme  care  or  transcribing 
and  preparing  for  publication  the  most  im- 
portant of  those  in  the  various  libraries  of 
Europe  which  were  before  known,  but  had  not 
been  published  or  thoroughly  examined.  The 
following  uncial  Greek  manuscripts  (see  the  list 
above)  were  discovered  by  Tischendorf:  K  Ga  I 
N,  O,  T**  r  e*^  A  n;  first  used  by  him:  F*  I»>  N, 
O"^' 0\  P,  Q,  R,.,  T*«  W^  e-i*;  published:  K  B, , 
C  D,  E,  F«  I  I*»  L,  M,  N,  O*  Pi.,  Qi  R,  W*«=  Y  9' 
(cf.  C.  R.  Gregory's  Prolegomena  to  Tischendorf 's 
Novum  Testamentum  Grcecef  ed,  viii,  i,  Leipsic, 
1884,  p.  31).  His  editions  of  the  texts  of 
Biblical  manuscripts  (including  some  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint)  comprise  no  less  than  seventeen  large 
quarto  and  five  folio  volimies,  not  including  the 
Anecdota  sacra  et  prof  ana  (1855,  new  ed.  1861), 
or  the  NotUia  edUionia  Codicia  Sinaitici  (1860),  two 
quarto  volumes  containing  descriptions  or  col- 
lations of  many  new  manuscripts;  and  many 
of  his  collations,  or  copies  of  manuscripts,  remain 
unpublished. 

The  titles  of  Tischendorf's  various  writings, 
most  of  them  relating  to  Biblical  criticism,  fill 
pages  7-22  of  Gregory's  Prolegomena.  His  first 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  (Leipsic,  1841)  was 
promising  as  a  first  essay,  but  of  no  special  im- 
portance except  for  the  refutation,  in  the  prole- 
gomena, of  Scholz's  theory  of  recensions.  In  the 
Editio  Lipsiana  secunda  (1849)  the  critical  appa^ 
ratus  was  much  enlarged,  and  the  text  settled  on 
the  basis  of  ancient  authority,  generally  with  good 
judgment.  In  1859  appeared  the  Editio  septima 
crUica  maior  (2  vols.),  in  which  very  large 
additions  were  made  to  the  critical  apparatus,  not 
only  from  manuscripts,  Greek  and  Latin,  but 
from  the  quotations  in  the  writings  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  and  the  evidence  was  for  the 
first  time  fully  stated,  both  for  and  against  the 
readings  adopted.  In  the  first  volume,  Tisch- 
Gidorf,  influenced  perhaps  by  Scrivener,  showed 
a  tendency  to  allow  greater  weight  to  the  later 
uncials  and  ciUBives  than  he  had  done  in  his  edition 
of  1849;  but  he  soon  found  that  he  was  on  the  wrong 
track;  and  on  the  whole,  if  orthographical  changes 
are  included,  his  edition  of  1859  differs  more  widely 
from  the  textus  reeeptus  than  that  of  1849.  Its 
publication  was  immediately  followed  by  Tischen- 
dorfs  third  journey  to  the  East,  and  the  discovery 
of  the  great  Sinaitic  manuscript,  together  with  the 


acquisition  of  much  other  new  critical  material. 
After  the  publication  of  the  Oxlex  Sinaiticus  in 
1862,  in  a  magnificent  edition  of  four  volumes 
folio,  in  facsimile  type,  with  twenty-one  plates  of 
actual  facsimiles,  at  the  expense  of  the  Russian 
Government,  the  edition  being  limited  to  three 
hundred  copies,  he  issued  in  1863,  in  4to,  his 
Novum  Testamentum  Sinaiticumy  in  ordinary  type, 
but  representing  the  manuscript  line  for  line, 
with  full  prolegomena;  and  his  Novum  Testamen- 
tum Greece  ex  Sinaitico  Codice,  Vaticana  itemque 
Elzeviriana  lectione  notata,  in  1865,  8vo,  with  a 
supplement  of  additions  and  corrections  in  1870. 
After  some  other  publications,  particularly  the 
second  edition  of  his  Synopsis  evangelica  in  1864, 
in  which  the  Sinaitic  manuscript  was  first  used,  he 
undertook  his  last  great  critical  edition  of  the  Greek 
New  Testament,  Novum  Testamentum  Greece,  editio 
octava  crilica  maior  (issued  in  eleven  parts,  i,  Leipsic, 
Oct.,  1864,  xi,  at  the  end  of  1872;  collected  into  two 
volumes,  8vo,  1869-72).  This  edition . far  surpassed 
all  that  had  preceded  it  in  the  richness  of  its  critical 
apparatus,  and,  as  compared  with  that  of  1859, 
rests  much  more  on  the  authority  of  the  oldest 
manuscripts,  particularly  the  Sinaitic.  The  prep- 
aration of  the  prolegomena  by  Tischendorf  himself 
was  prevented  by  his  sudden  illness  and  subse- 
quent death,  and  was  entrusted  to  an  American 
scholar  residing  in  Leipsic,  Caspar  Ren6  Gregory 
(q.v.),  who  had  also  the  valuable  assistance  of  Ezra 
Abbot  (q.v.).  In  the  interest  of  the  work  Dr. 
Gregory  made  special  journeys  through  Eiu-ope  and 
into  the  Orient,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  give 
first-hand  descriptions  and  collations  of  many 
manuscripts.  It  was  published  in  three  parts 
at  Leipsic,  1884-94.  Besides  the  works  mentioned, 
the  most  important  publications  of  Tischendorf 
pertaining  to  the  textual  criticism  of  the  New 
Testament  are :  Codex  Ephraemi  Syri  rescrip- 
tus  (1843,  4to;  Old  Testament  part,  1845);  Monu- 
menta  sacra  inedita  (1846,  4to);  Evangelium 
ineditum  (1847,  4to);  Codex  Amiatinus  (Vulgate; 
1850,  new  ed.  1854);  Codex  ClaromorUanus  (1852, 4to) ; 
Monumenta  sacra  inedita,  nova  coUectio,  vols,  i-vi, 
ix  (1855-70,  4to);  Novum  Testamentum  Vaticanum 
and  Appendix  Novi  Testamenti  Vaticani  (1867-69, 
4to) ;  cf .  Responsa  ad  calumnias  Romanas  (1870, 8vo), 
also  Appendix  codicum  celeberrimorum,  Sinaitici, 
Vaticani,  Alexandrini  (1867,  4to);  Die  Sinaibibel, 
ihre  Entdeckung,  Herausgabe,  und  Erwerhung  (1871, 
large  8vo).  His  Novum  Testamentum  triglottum, 
Greece,  Latine,  Germanice  (Leipsic,  1854,  2d  ed., 
1865)  is  a  convenient  book,  the  three  parts  of  which 
were  also  issued  separately,  and  in  various  com- 
binations. The  Greek  is  his  own  text,  with  the 
variations  of  the  texttts  reeeptus ;  the  Latin,  the 
Vulgate  critically  revised  from  the  oldest  manu- 
scripts, with  the  variations  of  the  Clementine 
edition;  the  German  the  genuine  text  of  Luther, 
though  in  modem  orthography.  Tischendorf  also 
issued  many  manual  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, the  three  latest  in  his  lifetime  being  pub- 
lished in  1875  by  Tauchnitz,  Brockhaus  (to  match 
his  edition  of  the  Septuagint),  and  Mendelssohn 
{Editio  academica  septima),  respectively.  His  large 
editions  of  1859  and  1869-72  were  issued  with  the 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


110 


] 


7.  Tre- 
ffelles. 


critical  apparatus  greatly  abridged,  but  giving 
the  chief  authorities  for  all  the  important  various 
readings,  with  the  titles  Editio  septima  critica  minor 
(1859)  and  Editio  ociava  critica  minor  (1872-77). 

Samuel  Prideaux  Tregelles  (q.v.)  ranks  next  to 
Tischendorf  in  the  importance  of  his  critical  labors, 
and  in  single-hearted  devotion  to  his  chosen  task. 
In  1848  he  issued  a  Prospectus  for  a  critical 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  the  text  of  which 
was  to  be  founded  solely  on  the  authority  of  the 
oldest  Greek  manuscripts,  the  ancient  versions 
to  the  seventh  century,  and  the  citations  of  early 
writers,  including  Eusebius.  No  ac- 
count was  made  of  the  "  received 
text,"  or  of  the  great  mass  of  cursive 
manuscripts.  Completeness  and  accuracy  in  the  ex- 
hibition of  the  evidence  of  the  witnesses  used  were 
especially  aimed  at.  Like  Tischendorf,  Tregelles 
visited  (in  1845-46,  1849-50,  and  1862)  the  prin- 
cipal libraries  in  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  collating 
manuscripts  the  text  of  which  had  not  before  been 
published.  These  were  the  uncials  Bj  D,  E,  Fj  Gj 
H,.2  V  K,  La  M, ,  R,  U  X  Z  r  A,  the  cursives 
1,  13,  17,  31,  37,  47,  61,  69,  and  also  Codex  Zacyn- 
thius  (H).  In  many  cases  Tregelles  compared 
his  collations  with  those  of  Tischendorf,  and  settled 
the  differences  by  a  reexamination  of  the  manu- 
script. In  1861  he  edited  the  Codex  Zacynthius 
(H),  republishing  in  an  appendix  the  fragments 
of  O.  His  edition  of  The  Greek  New  Testament^ 
Edited  from  Ancient  Authorities,  with  their  Various 
Readings  in  Full,  and  the  Latin  Version  of  Jerome, 
was  issued  in  London  in  seven  successive  parts: 
i,  Matthew,  Mark,  1857;  ii,  Luke,  John,  1861; 
iii,  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  1865;  iv,  Romans  to 
II  Thessalonians  (iii,  3),  1869;  v,  Hebrews  (with 
IIThess.  iii,  3-18)  to  Philemon,  1870;  vi.  Revelation, 
1872.  Part  vii,  Prolegomena  and  Addenda  and  Cor- 
rigenda, appeared  in  1879,  four  years  after  his  death, 
edited  by  Dr.  Hort  and  A.  W.  Streane.  Though  Tre- 
gelles added  far  less  than  Tischendorf  to  our  store  of 
critical  material,  he  did  more  to  establish  correct  prin- 
ciples of  criticism,  and  his  various  writings  had  a 
wide  and  most  beneficial  influence  in  England. 
He  also  published,  in  1854,  .4m  Account  of  the 
Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  with 
Remarks  on  its  Revision  upon  Critical  Principles, 
and,  in  1856,  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criticism 
of  the  New  Testament,  forming  part  of  vol.  iv  of 
the  tenth  and  later  editions  of  Home's  Introduc- 
tion, This  volume  was  also  issued  separately, 
and  in  the  eleventh  edition  of  Home's  Introduction 
(1861)  appeared  with  "  Additions  "  and  a  '*  Post- 
script." 

In  1881  appeared  The  New  Testament  in  the 
Original  Greek.  The  Text  Revised  by  Brooke  Foss 
Westcott  .  .  .  and  Fenton  John  Anthony  Hort 
(Cambridge  and  London).  The  American  edition 
(New  York)  has  a  valuable  introduction  by  Philip 
Schaff,  with  the  cooperation  of  Ezra  Abbot.  Dr. 
Schaff  also  prepared  a  compact  man- 
ual of  New  Testament  criticism,  A 
Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament  and 
the  English  Version  (New  York,  1883), 
which  embodies  the  substance  of  this  introduction, 
thoroughly  revised.    The    text  of    Westcott  and 


8.  West- 

oottand 
Hort. 


Hort    is    accompanied    by    an  Introdudion  and 
Appendix  (1882)  in  which  the  authors  diacuas  the 
neeid    of     criticism     for   the    text    of    the    New 
Testament,  the  methods  of  textual  criticism,  the 
application  of  its  principles  to  the  text,  the  nature 
and  details  of  their  edition,  and  add  notes  on  se- 
lect readings  and  orthography,  with  orthographicaL 
alternative  readings,  and  quotations  from  the  Old. 
Testament.    In  1895  the  text  appeared  in  laigec^ 
form,  and,  in  1896,  the  Introduction  in  finally  revised^ 
form.    This  edition  is  not  accompanied  with  aQ^^- 
critical   apparatus;    it  rather    was  the  object  o^^ 
the  authors,  by  a  careful  study  of  the  materiiil  m^ 
fiumshed  by  their  predecessors,  augmented  some^ — 
what,    however,    by     their    own     researches,   t^^o 
trace  the  history  of  the  text  aa  far   as   posmblc^^s; 
to  distinguish  its  different    tjrpes,  and  determin  — « 

their    relations    and     their     comparative    value s; 

to  investigate  the  special  characteristics  c^^^ 
the  most  important  docimients  and  groups  c^^^^ 
docimients;  and,  finally,  to  apply  the  principles  o*^*^ 

criticism  which  result  from  these  studies  to  th -^ 

determination  of  the  original  text.  Their  vicb-  "^ 
of  the  genealogical  relations  of  the  chief  andcn  ^t 
texts  excited  strong  opposition  in  certain  quarteiu     "^t 

but  their  work  was  recognized  as  the  most  importao ^ 

contribution  to  the  scientific  criticism  of  the  Ne^^^ 
Testament  text  which  had  yet  been  made.    Th**"-'     y 
distinguish  four  principal  types  of  text:  the  We8^^=^ 
em,  characterized  by  a  tendency  to  paraphrau-    ^^ 
or  to  modify  the  form  of  expression,  and  also 
interpolate  from  parallel  passages  or  from 
neous  sources,   represented  especially  by  D  an^c:^^ 
the  Old  Latin  veraiona,  alao  in  part  by  the  Cure^ — ' 
tonian  Syriac;  the  neutral,  represented  by  B  amcr^^ 
largely  by  K.  preserving  best   the  original  fonxB.    » 
the  Alexandrian,  much  purer  than  the  Westemv-  * 
but  betraying  a  tendency  to  polish  the  languages   » 
and  the  Syrian,  the  latest  form,  a  mixed  textn^  ^ 
borrowing  from  all,  and  aiming  to  be  easy,  smootl^  ^ 
and  complete.    They  regard  B  as  preeminent  abov  ^^ 
all  other  manuscripts  for  the  purity  of  its  text^    ^ 
the  readings  of  K  and  B  combined  as  generall^^' 
deserving  acceptance  as  genuine,  their  anoestric^  ^^ 
having  "  diverged  from  a  point  near  the  autc^^    ' 
grapha " ;  and  they  attach  great  weight  to  aver     ^T 
combination   of  B   with   another  primary   Gpe^"^^ 
manuBcript,  asLCTDHAZ33,  and,  in  Mark,  ^^  - 
Westcott  and  Hort  (see  Westcott,  Brooke  Fos^^  ^ 
Hort,  Fenton  John  Anthony)  began  their  wok— ^1^ 
in  1853.    Their  method  of  cooperation  was  fir:s^*^ 
independent  study,   then   comparison.    The  /n/r-^^^— 
duction  is  chiefly  the  work  of  Dr.    Hort,  who^^*^^ 
name  is  one  of  the  greatest  in  the  history  of  tejc:  *-^ 
criticism.    He  carried  into  the  study  of  the  text       ^ 
large  knowledge  of  church  history  and  patrist^^^ 
theology,  and  it  was   this   breadth  of    hiatoric?^>^ 
knowledge  which  made  the  Introduction  the  gre^^* 
work  it    is.    The  genealogical    theory,    suggest^^ 
by  Bengel   and  elaborated  by  later  scholars,  w»^ 
here  worked  into  a  truly    monumental    form.      A 
thorough  acquaintance  with  thia  book  ia  neoeaaarT 
to  the  student  if  he  would  have  a  clear  insight  of 
the  deepest  tendencies  in  the  text  studies  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  or  an  under- 
standing of  the  course  taken  by  text-study  in  the 


Ill 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


e.  other 
OriticB  of 
^lio  Text, 

mjTfl    work. 


piieseiit.  Con  scions  agreement  with  it  or  conscious 
disapeement  and  qualification  mark  all  work  m 
tiiu  field  since  ISSl, 

O/  the  many  other  scholars  whose  labors  have 
aj<iM)  in  the  eatabliahment  of  the  text  of  the  Greek 
N'ew  Testament,  the    Anglican   scholar  Frederick 
Henry  Ambrose    Scrivener    (q.v.)   dest^rY(\«*    meii- 
tion    er$peciat!y  for  his  editionis  and    colbtion  of 
manujscripts.     His   Plain  Introdudwn 
to  the  Crittci^^m  of  the  New   Te^^tamcnt 
(Cambridge,  1861;  4th  ed.,  by  E.  Mil- 
ler, 2  vols.,  London,  LSlllj  is  a  stand- 
Serivencr  was     an     able  defender   of 
ttic  Inter  manuscripts  aa  witnesses  to  the   original 
t^-Xt     against    Tischendorf^    Tregelles,    and   West^ 
taott.    and   Hort.      In   this    contention   he   had  the 
<lou^hty     support     of      John      William      Burgon 
Cq.v,)    in    The   Hemswn   Revised    (London.    1883). 
-i%Jnong     Americana,      Ezra      Abbot    and     Joseph 
Xienry    Thayer;     among   Hollanders,   W.  C.    Van 
^T&nen,     J.    Cramer,    ami  J.     .1.      Prins*    among 
Frecchmen,    P.    BatiffoL   J.  P.  K  Martin,  and    R. 
.Ajn^Jineau;   among    Itah'ans,    Angelo    Mai,    Carlo 
"V^crcellone,  and  J.  Cozia;  and  among  Germans,   F. 
^E^tii^s.   E.   Nestle,   B.  Weiss,   E.   Riggcnbach,    and 
C>-  von  Gebbai-dt  have  made  important    contribu- 
^t^Lons  to  textual  criticism. 

'^'ben  Weatoott  and  Hort  published  their  text 

in    1881  and  when,  in  1882,  Hurt's  masterpiece  on 

i^KkfJ^uctioQ  followed,   there  wur  a   disposition  in 

oofxne  quarters    to    believe    that    New   Testament 

«dioUrship   had   eome   somewhere   near   a  critical 

t^actut  receptus.      The    genealogical    theory     first 

t»roached  by  Bengel  seemed,  after  a  century  and  a 

IxAlCof  toil,  to  have  led  the  student  into  a  definite 

path  which  would  surely  lead  to  a  final  goal.     But 

^Snificant  changes,    in   feeling  if   not   in   opinion, 

•**  beginning  to   manifest   themselves.     Westcott 

and  Hort  mark  a  main  epoch  in  text* 

^   More   study.     More  clearly  than  their  pred- 

X^^r«.    ecessors,  they  showed   that   the  study 

«*••.        of  the  text  was  inseparable  from  the 

.  study   of   church    history.      But    the 

^3^pothesis  which  Hort  so  powerfully  worked  out 

^7**  to  sotne  extent  wrought  Oa  own  undoing.     The 

"^•^  of  study  that  it  suggested  have  brought  to  light 

»■      1»any  new  fact^  and  so  many  serious  problems 

^^^*    the  tone  of  certitude  at  one  time  in  fashion 

22J*   paased   away.     To  8criveiier*s  description  of 

^      ^fctcott  and  Ilort'a  text  as  a  spfcndidum  pcccatum 

1^^^  WiU   assent.     Yet,   beyond  question,   the  sit- 

^S^l^on    htus   materially   changed.     The    '*  Western 

"^fc^^  *^*  or,  to  call  it  by  a  safer  name,  the  '*  Syro- 

^    ^^iem  Text,*'    which   Westcfjtt    and   Hort.   took 

^~^be  a  fairly  well  delineated  fact,  has  become  an 

^^^tkeiious  problem.     The  genealogical   theory  has 

^^^fillod    the    chief    function    of    a    good    working 

^^^PX*othc«i«  by  introducing  order  into   chaos  and 

ting  to  the  promising  lines  of  attack  upon  tlie 

body   of   data   awaiting   tlie   student.     But 

ieal     certitude    has    declined.     With     its 

has  oome  a  growing  disposition  to  concede 

^"^^  cxfgesis  a  ecrtain  right  against  the  overweening 

^*itliority  of  any  group  of  manuscripts,  however 

^*«ip««ing-    The  |px)d  text-critic  should  also  be  an 

^^«)otnplifihed  exegcte.     In  Johannes  Weiss  the  two 


qualities  are  in  a  measure  blended.  Hence,  at  a 
critical  point  like  Rom*  v,  1,  the  exegete  in  him 
goes  against  the  authority  of  A  B  C  D  E  K  L, 
Vuigate,  Peshito,  etc.,  and  adopts  Ixofuv   mstead 

of    f  ^-W^FV. 

Monumental  work  is  not  at  present  the  order 
of  the  day.  The  searching  invcistigations  of  the 
versions,  the  detailed  and  comprehensive  study 
of  patristic  quotations,  larger  and  clearer  knowl- 
edge of  the  menta!  conditions  under  which  an  entire 
group  of  texts  are  likely  to  have  undergone  per- 
ceptible^ even  if  inconsiderable,  ohanges— in  a 
word,  a  vast  amount  of  labor  lies  ahead.  The 
doing  of  it  will  require  a  very  considerable  time. 
Meanwhile  the  confidence  and  finality  of  a  quartei- 
oentury  ago  are  to  be  replaced  by  a  restrained 
flkepticisiD* 

3.  Principles  of  Textual  Criticism:  It  is  im- 
possible, within  the  limits  licre  allowed,  to  state 
and  illustrate  the  principles  of  criticism  applica- 
ble to  the  text  of  the  Greek  Testament.  A  few 
hints  may,  however,  be  given.  The  object,  of 
course,  is  to  ascertain  which,  among  two  or  more 
variations  of  the  text  presented  by  our  manu* 
scripts  or  other  authorities,  is  the  original.  No 
kind  of  evidence,  externa!  or  internal,  is  to  be 
neglected.  The  problem  is  to  be 
^  '^^^^  sol  veil  by  a  process  of  reasoning 
Bule,  upon  probabilities;  and  what  has 
to  be  considered,  in  every  case,  is 
which  hypothesis  will  beat  explain  all  the  phe- 
nomena. This  fact  is  sometimes  partially  stated 
under  the  form  of  the  rule  that  that  reading 
is  to  be  accepted  aa  genuine  which  iJtrill  bevt  explain 
the  origin  of  the  other  variotions.  Tliis  is  an  impor- 
tant rule;  but  there  must  be  taken  into  account 
not  merely  the  nature  of  the  variations,  but  the 
number,  independence,  and  character  of  the  wit- 
nesses that  support  them.  The  process  of  criti- 
cism is  not  a  mechanical  one.  Authorities  must  be 
weighefl,  not  counted.  One  good,  %'ery  early 
manuscript  may  be  worth  more  than  a  thousand 
copies  derived  from  a  late  and  corrupted  arche- 
type. Again,  though  the  presumption  is  in  favor 
of  the  oldest  manuscripts,  mere  antiquity  does  not 
prove  the  excellence  of  a  copy. 

One  of  the  essential  prerequisites  to  intelligent 
criticism  is  a  tliorough  study  of  the  occasions 
of  error  in  manuseripU.  This  involves  a  knowl- 
edge of  paleography  and  of  the  history  of  pro- 
nunciation. The  similarity  of  certain  letters  or 
abbreviations  in  their  older  fonns  gave  occasion 
to  errors  which  can  be  only  thus  explained; 
and  in  the  corruption  of  the  Greek  language, 
vowels  and  diphthongs  originally  distinct  in  sound 
^  were   pronounced  alike    (itacism).     A 

Canons  study  of  the  tendencies  and  habits  of 
transcribers  is  also  involved.  Many 
manuscripts,  in  the  alterations  they  have  re- 
ceived from  later  hands,  ilkwtrate  the  manner 
in  which  the  text  wiis  corrupted.  Among  the 
maxims  resulting  from  such  a  study,  in  connection 
with  the  consideration  of  external  testimony,  are 
these:  (I)  The  mare  difficult  reading  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred (Bcngel's  great  rule).  This  applies  to  those 
variations   which    are    to   be   ascribed    to   design. 


Bible  Taxi 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


TranBcribera  would  not  intentionally  substitute  a 
harsh,  ungrammatical,  unusual,  Hebraistic  ex- 
pression, one  that  caused  a  difficulty  of  any  kind, 
for  an  easier  one.  (2)  The  shorter  reading  ie  to  be 
preferred  (Person's  "surest  canon  of  criticism"). 
The  tendency  of  scribes  was  almost  always  to  add, 
rather  than  to  omit.  They  did  not  like  to  have 
their  copies  regarded  as  incomplete.  It  was  com- 
mon to  insert  in  the  margin  of  manuscripts,  or 
between  the  lines,  glosses,  or  explanations  of 
unusual  or  difficult  expressions,  also  words  or 
clauses  which  vserved  to  kipplement  the  language 
of  one  Gospel  from  the  parallel  or  similar  passages 
in  another,  or  to  complete  abridged  quotations 
of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  fuller  text  of  the 
Septuagint.  Words  accidentally  omitted  were  also 
placed  in  the  margin,  or  between  the  lines.  A  tran- 
scriber might  thus  easily  mistake  these  glosses,  or 
supplements,  of  his  predecessor  for  accidental 
omissions  and  transfer  them  to  his  text.  This 
rule  does  not  apply  to  cases  where  an  omission  can 
be  satisfactorily  explained  by  homcBoteleuton;  that 
is,  cases  where  two  successive  sentences  or  parts  of 
sentences  have  a  like  ending.  The  scribe  copies 
the  first  of  these,  then  his  eye  glances  to  the  like 
ending  of  the  second,  and  he  thinks  that  that  is 
what  he  has  just  copied,  and  omits  unconsciously 
the  intervening  words.  Another  prerequisite  to  suc- 
cessful criticism  is  a  careful  study  of  the  principal 
documents  and  groups  or  classes  of  documents, 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  text,  so  far 
as  it  can  be  traced,  in  order  to  determine  by  a 
process  of  comparative  criticism  their  peculiar 
characteristics,  their  weak  points  and  their  strong 
points,  and  the  relative  antiquity  and  value  of 
their  texts.  This  process  includes  the  ancient 
versions  and  the  quotations  in  the  writings  of 
the  principal  Christian  Fathers.  It  can  not  be 
here  detailed.  Griesbach  did  good  work  in  this 
direction,  and  it  has  been  the  special  study  of 
Westcott  and  Hort.  It  is  thus  possible  to  weigh 
the  external  evidence  in  particular  cases  with  some 
approach  to  accuracy. 

4.  Results  of  the  Textual  Crltlclem  of  the  New 
Testament:  The  host  of  ''various  readings" 
which  an  examination  of  ancient  manuscripts, 
versions,  and  quotations,  has  brought  to  light, 
perhaps  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  in  num- 
ber, alarms  some  simple-minded  people.  Anal- 
ysis at  once  dispels  the  alarm.  It  is  seen  that  a 
very  large  proportion  of  these  readings,  say  nine- 
teen-twentieths,  are  of  no  authority,  no  one  can 
suppose  them  to  be  genuine;  and  nineteen-twen- 
tieths  of  the  remainder  are  of  no  importance  as 
affecting  the  sense.  Of  how  much,  or  rather,  of 
how  little,  importance,  for  the  most  part,  the 
remainder  are,  can  readily  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  Revised  Version  of  the  New  Testament  (with 
its  marginal  notes)  with  the  text  of  the  Authorized 
Version,  or  by  an  examination  of  the  various  read- 
ings of  the  chief  modem  editors  in  Scrivener's 
Novum  TestamerUum  textua  Stephanici  A.D.  1660 
.  .  .  accedwnt  varUs  lectiones  (8th  ed.,  Cambridge. 
1877).  The  great  number  of  various  readings  is 
simply  the  result  of  the  extraordinary  richness  of 
critical   resources.     Westcott   and   Hort   remark, 


with  entire  truth,  that  "  in  the  variety  and 
of  the  evidence  on  which  it  rests,  the  text 
New  Testament  stands  absolutely  and  una]: 
ably  alone  among  ancient  prose-writings." 

Bibuoorapbt:  On  the  paleography  of  the  N.  ' 
Trecellefl,  An  Aeeount  of  the  Prints  Text  of  i 
Now  Tettamoni;  with  Remarka  on  ita  Rovioion  upc 
PrincipUa,  togothor  wUh  a  CoUaHon  of  tho  CriHei^ 
Orieabackt  SthoU,  Lachmann^  and  Tiaehendorft  ivi 
Common  Ute,  London.  1854;  E.  A.  Bond  and  £.  M 
son.  FacoimiloB  of  AneUnt  M88,  ib.  1873-82; 
tenbach,  Anltttung  Mur  griechuthen  PaltBOffraphu 
1877;  idem.  Sckrifttafeln  tur  OuchiehU  dor  gr\ 
Sehrift,  2  parts.  Berlin.  1876-77;  idem  and  F 
Welsen,  Exompla  eodieum  OrcBcorum  liUoriM  m 
Bcriptorumt  Heidelberg.  1878;  idem.  Sariptyn 
•pecimina,  Berlin.  1883;  N.  Gardthausen,  O 
Palaographio,  Leipsic.  1879;  J.  R.  Harris.  N* 
mont  Autographt,  in  supplement  to  AJP,  no. 
idem.  Stichomotry,  New  York.  1893;  T.  W.  AIli 
on  AbbroviationM  in  Greek  MSS,  with  Faeeumleo 
1889;  F.  Blass.  Palaographie,  in  Handbuch  dt 
•dken  AlterthumevDieeenackaft,  vol.  i,  Munich.  1 
A.  Copinger.  The  Bible  and  Ue  Trantmieeion, 
1897;  F.  Q.  Kenyon.  Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient . 
1897;  idem.  Bible  Manitecripte  in  the  Britiah 
Faceimilee,  ib.  1901;  C.  F.  Sitterly.  Praxis  in  Gn 
of  the  N,  T.  The  me«Jianical  and  literary  PnM 
vclved  in  timr  Writing  and  Preeervationt  New  Yo 
R.  Proctor,  The  Printing  of  Greek  in  the  Fiftm 
twry,  no.  8  of  llluetrated  Monographer  issued  by 
liographical  Society.  London.  1900;  DB,  iv,  944- 

For  the  old  printers  consult — on  Christopher 
M.  Rooses.  Chrietopher  PlanUny  imprimeur  A 
Antwerp.  1884;  idem.  Chrietopher  Plantin,  C 
dance,  Ghent.  1886;  T.  L.  de  Vinne,  Chrietophm 
and  the  PlanHn-Moretue  Mueeum  at  Antwerp,  N( 
1885;  L.  Degeorge.  La  Maieon  Plantin  h  Anvm 
1886.  On  the  Stephens:  G.  A.  Crapelet.  Robert 
imprimeur  royal,  Paris.  1839;  A.  A.  Renouard. 
de  Vimprimerie  dee  BeOenne,  ib.  1843;  L.  Feug% 
eur  la  vie  et  lee  ouvragee  de  Henri  Eatienne,  ib.  II 
the  Elsevirs:  C.  Pieters.  Annalee  de  Vimprimeri 
rienne,  Ghent.  1860;  A  Willems.  Lea  SUMer:  I 
annalea  typographiquea,  Brussels,  1880. 

Late  critical  editions  are*  C.  Tischendorf,  No^ 
tamentum  Graace,  ed.  8.  criOca  major,  Leipeie, 
Prolegomena,  by  C.  R.  Gregory,  ib.  1884-94.  em 
text  of  8.  ed..  with  selections  of  readings,  ib.  18? 
A.  Scrirener  and  E.  Palmer,  The  Greek  Teetam 
the  Readinga  adopted  by  the  Reviaera  of  the  Autha 
aion,  Oxford,  1882;  B.  F.  Westcott  and  F.  J. 
N.  T.  in  the  Original  Greek,  Am.  ed.  with  introdi 
P.  Schaff.  3d  ed..  New  York,  1883;  W.  Sandaj 
ed.  of  Mill'a  Text  with  Parallel  Refereneea,  Euaebia 
.  .  .  and  three  Appendicea  (published  separately, 
ing  variants  of  Westcott  and  Hort,  and  a  selecti 
portant  readings  with  authorities,  together  with 
from  Oriental  versions,  Memphitic,  Armenian,  m 
opic).  Oxford.  1889;  O.  von  Gebhardt.  Novum  2 
turn  (with  variants  of  Tregelles  and  Westcott  ax 
6th  ed..  Leipsic  1894;  B.  Weiss.  Daa  Neue  7 
Textkrikache  Unteraudiungen  und  Textheratelluno, 
1900;  F.  Blass,  Acta  Apoatolorum  aive  Lucce  ad 
lum  liber  alter  aecundum  formam  quce  videtur  R 
ib.  1896;  idem,  Evangelium  aecundam  Ltuxtm  a 
ad  Theophilum  libo"  prior  aecundum  formam  qu 
Rowumam,  ib.  1897;  E.  Nestle.  Teaiamenium 
Grace  cum  apparatu  critioo,  Stuttgart,  1898  (tl 
editions  with  the  liS.  variants  will  still  be  r 
Novum  Teatamentum  Greecum,  ediHo  Stutgardiana 
(based  on  collation  of  Tischendorf,  Westcott  a 
Weymouth,  and  Weiss;  contains  for  the  Qos 
Acts  a  selection  of  MS.  readings,  chiefly  from  Cod 

Treatises  on  various  phases  of  the  history  of  f 
tual  criticism  are:  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener,  A  FuU  a 
Collation  of  about  twenty  Greek  MSS  of  the  Hol\ 
{hitherto  unexamined)  ,  .  .  in  the  Britiah  Mua 
Archiepiacopal  Library  at  Lambeth,  .  .  .  with  a  or 
troduction,  Cambridge.  1853;  idem.  A  Plain  Int 
to  the  Criticiam  of  the  New  Teatament,  4th  ed.,  by  1 
London,  1894  (conservative);  O.  T.  Dobbin,  T 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


fl).  1864:  F,  W.  A.  BAthnen,  Drr  griethi- 

Cvr€ton'9*ih€n  Si/rert,  LoipMc.  18R5:    J.   K- 

Oriffin  of  the  Lrietaier  Codtx  of  th*  N,    T.. 

ST;  U,  J.  M.  Bt»bb,  Ei^uience  of  the  Etsrly  Vfr- 

fa*r\9Hc  QiiotationM  on  the  Tfzt  of  .  ,   .  the  .V.  T., 

ttbticu^  il  OxXord.  1890;   H.  C.  Hoskier,  A  Full 

Ctiilatuitn  of  the  Greek  CurHvr  Coda  Etanfj^ 

1890  (contains  in   Appendix  C,  .4   full  ami 

on  of  the  Ehetnr  Edition*  of  WBi  and  Id.im: 

The  Material  for  the  Cnticiem  of  the  Pe*h- 

Stwiitt  BibliM,    iii  47-104,   Oxford.   18^)1; 

f  Svriac  Element  in  the  Text  of  Codex 

Mr».  A.  S.  Lewia.  The  Four  Go*peU 

Syriae  PalimpaeMl,    ib.    1894;   IL    a 

and  F,  C,  Burkitt.  The  Four  Ooa- 

!-  fmntxribed  from  ^  Syriae  Palimpaest,  Cam- 

G,  S.  Bonw^iAch  and  H.  Arhcslia*  Die  chrUt- 

i  Sekrifteteller  vor  Eutebiug,  Berlin.  1897; 

t  State  of  the  Tertiml  Controversy  rt- 

Holy  Qo9pel»,   London.    1899  fconscrvAtive); 

f  C<fntrin'efy  and  the  Tu-tmticth  Cetitury, 

I  Balmon,  Some  ThouohUi  on  the  Textual  Criti^ 

fN.  T.,  ib-  1897:   M.  R  Vinofnt.  A  Ht»t,  of  the 

\0ftheN.  r.  New  York,  IRIH};   K.  Lake, 

the  N.    T.,    London.    IVHXJ;   F.    G.    Kenyon, 

l^gUunl  CntuHem  of^eN.  T.,  ib.  1001 :   idem. 

~\  Papyri  un^  Refford  to  Textutil  Criticmrm, 

^  tiw  l^viMTs'  text  eoiuult  W.  M.  Sanday 

ir.  issL 

pie*   of   texttiAl    criticiam    are   diacU9!ie<:J    at 

^Bart's   Inimdueiion    to   Wi!«t<M>tt    and    Hort's 

•nt,  London.  1881,  whi*re  aUo  i»  found  th« 

p»t«  diacruwon  of  the  Sinaitic  and  Vatican  MS3. 

kitie  MB.  coo.itiJt  abo  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener,  Cot- 

Voii€xSina\iirua, 3d «?d., London.  1807;  C, Ti»ch- 

AnfetJitunffen   dmr   Sinaibibel,  Leipaic,  1863; 

[  Binaitnhel^   ihrM   Buidedcung,   lieraxttgahe  und 

[_jb.  1871;  idem.  Waff  en  der  FineierrkiM  wider 

ib.    1863.     Convenient    manualii   ara;  E. 

in  flbu   griechieche  Neue    Testament, 

A  valuable  coUection  of  cHJHions  of  th6 

ent,  mostly  amassed  by  the  late  Dr,  Umic 

^in  the  library  of  Union  Theological  Seminary, 

lavt  three  years  conAidemble  di»cu5flion  ban 
on  the  flubjeci  of  the  text,  to  which  the 
the  most  important  contributionri: 
J.  M.  Bebb.  in  £>B,  iv.  S48-855,  8^0-804; 
_^  livm  eeeuruium  Johannem  cum  varice  Ur- 
laipsie;  F.  C,  Burkitt,  Tht  Date  vf  Codex 
▼ol-  iii;  F,  C  Conybeare,  Thrte  Early  Dttc- 
lificaUant  of  the  Text  of  the  GoepeU,  in  Hibbert 
CH}-113;  M.  D.  Gibson,  Four  remarkabU  Sinai 
'rpoaitary  Timtt,  xiu.  500-511;  S.  K.  Gifford, 
^ot  qua  forma  Isgerit  Joannea  ChryaottomuM, 
I.  Qoodtfpeed,  77^4  HoMkeU  Goapele,  in  JBL,  xxl 
I  R.  Greffory.  Textkritik  dtn  N.  T„  vnl  ii. 
E.  Haaunond,  Outline*  of  Textual  Crtti.ri.',tn 
U  S.  T,,  Oxford;  J.  IL  Harria,  A  curious  He- 
iff  rindieated,  in  Erpoeitpr.  pp.  189-105;  idem, 
t»f  Bmendaiion  in  the  Text  of  St  Ptter,  ib..  pp, 
7*^  Hi*tary  of  a  Conjectural  Emendation 
ft-3901;  A.  Hjelt,  Die  altayriMche  EvanoelienuUer- 
i  Tahan*  Dtateetaron,  in  T.  Zahn's  Fortchunotn, 
tp-tr,  IC  Lake.  Codex  I  of  the  GoepeU  and  ita 
mbndfE*!;  ideni,  Tert*  from  Mount  Atha*^  in 
ihea^  voK  t.  part  2,  pp.  89-185.  Ixindon;  A.  S, 
■^tn^iififa  Xt,  Apocryjtha  Syriaca^  Lon- 
L  6,  Mead,  The  OoepeU  and  the  GoapeL  Study 
mt  R*&ult»  of  lower  and  higher  Criiici^m,  London: 
'He  wier  kanoniachen  EvangeUen  nach  iArem  Altea- 
tten  Texle.  Urberaetzuna  und  Erl&uUrunif  der 
m  StnatJiLotter  gefundenen  Palimpaeathandachrif- 
3:  ErlAuterunoen,  I  at  half:  MaithAua,  Berlin; 
The  Greek  Teatam^nt^  Ufith  Introduction  and 
<m  vr«autor  Verba,  by  R.  E.  Weidner.  Now 
m,  in  Da,  iv.  645-652,  732-741;  H.  von  Stwlen, 
ten  dee  N,  T.  in  ikrer  Alteaten  erreichbaren  Text- 
L  i,  part  I,  BeHin;  B,  Wei«».  Dae  S'eue  Teeta- 
.k,  Uip«icr;  H.  J.  White,  in  DB,  iv,  873-890. 
3:  l»  l^^ftUj  Urb^  den  Binflwm  dea  althrfyriiiachen 
If  muj  lit*  (Jriiifirtale  und  ouf  die  alteaten  ffand- 
ter  CXX,  d04  N.  T.  und  der  tfe^mpla,  Berlin; 
liitL  Gn  Cvde^  ClaromtpnlanuM,  in  JTS,  iv,  567- 


588:  idem.  The  Syriae  InterpretatUm  of  Jfihn  xiii,  4,  in 
JTS.  iv,  436-438;  idem,  in  EB,  iv,  4081-5012;  idem, 
Further  Notea  on  Codex  fe,  in  JTS.  v,  1 00-107;  W.  EL 
Crum,  Coptic  Oetraka  from  the  Collection  of  the  E§ypt  Ex- 
ploration Fund,  the  Cairo  Muaeum,  and  oihera,  London; 
M.  D.  Gibson,  Four  Remarkable  Sinai  Manuecripta,  in 
Expoaitory  Txme*.  xiii,  500-611;  J.  E.  Gilmore,  A/anu- 
acripi  Portiona  of  three  Coptic  Lectionariea,  in  PSBA.  xxiv, 
186-101;  G.  H.  GariUiAm.  The  Affe  of  the  Bodleian  Syriae 
Codex  Dawkine  S,  in  JTS,  iii,  452  aq.;  idem,  Place  of  the 
Peahitio  Veraion  in  the  Apparatue  criticuM  of  the  Greek  N, 
T,,  in  Studia  Biblica,  v,  3,  pp.  187-237:  K.  Lake.  Dr. 
Weiaa*  Text  c/  the  Goapela.  in  AJT,  vii,  249-258;  A. 
Bchmidtke,  Die  EvangeUen  finer  alien  Unxialcodei,  Leip- 
nic;  W.  n.  Smith,  The  Pauline  Manuacripte  F  and  G,  in 
AJT,  vii,  462-485.  602-688;  C  Taylor,  The  Fericope  of  the 
AduUereee.  in  JTS,  iv,  129-130;  B.  Wei«i.  Die  Perikope 
ton  drr  Ehebrechrrin,  in  ZWT,  xlvi,  141-158;  A.  Wright, 
A  Syncpeia  of  the  Goepele  in  Greek,  2d  ed.,  London;  O. 
Z6ckler,  The  Textual  Queation  in  Acie,  tranaL  by  A.  Steimle, 
New  Rochollo. 

For  1904:  F.  Blaai,  Ueber  die  Textkritik  im  N.  T„  Loip- 
sic;  F.  C,  Burkitt,  EvanQelion  Da~Mepharre^u.  The 
Curetimian  Vmrawn  of  the  four  Goapela,  with  the  Headinga 
of  the  Sinni  Palimpaeet  and  the  early  Syriae  patristic  Evi- 
dence, 2  vol*.,  Cambridge;  Codex  Verortenaie  .  .  ,  denuo 
rd.  J,  BclKhrim,  Pragtie;  IL  D*Om»ton,  The  Patriatie 
Goapela.  An  Engtiah  Veraion  of  the  Holy  GoapeU  aa  theu 
exiated  in  the  aecond  Century,  London;  J.  T.  Mamhall,  Re>- 
markable  Readinga  in  the  Epiatiea  found  in  the  Palestinian 
Syriae  Lectionary,  in  JTS,  v,  437-445;  J.  B,  Mayor. 
Notea  on  the  Text  of  ft  Peter,  in  Brpoaitor.  pp.  284-203; 
idem,  Notea  on  the  Text  of  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  ib..  pp.  450- 
460;  J.  O.  F.  Murray,  Textual  Criticiem,  in  DB,  extra 
vol..  pp,  208-236;  W.  Sanday.  The  Preaent  Greek  Te9- 
lamenla  of  the  Clarendon  Prete,  in  JTS,  v.  270-280;  A 
New  Greek  Teetament,  prepared  by  E.  Nestle.  Text  with 
Critical  Apparatus,  London;  Novum  Testamentum  ,  .  . 
Lattn«  aecuftdum  editionem  eancti  Hieronymi  .  .  .  recen^ 
euit  J.  Wordiworth— H.  J.  Whjt«,  part,  ii,  fasc  2.  Actu$ 
Apoatotorum,  Oxford;  C.  IL  Turner,  A  Re-CoUatum  of 
Codex  k  of  the  Old  Latin  Goapela,  in  JTS,  v,  88-100, 

1005:  R.  F.  Weymouth,  The  Resultant  Greek  Text,  with 
readinga  of  Stephens  (1550),  Lachmann,  Treitellea,  Light- 
foot,  and  (for  the  Pauline  Epij!itle«)  Ellicott,  also  of  Al- 
ford  and  Weiao  for  Matthew,  the  linjwt  cd.,  Weatcott  and 
Hort  and  Eovisers,  London,  1802,  3d  ed.,  10O5. 

1908:  F.  IL  A.  Scrivener,  Novum  Teatamentum,  Textus 
Stephanici,  Varim  Lectionee  of  Beaa,  tt^e  Elxevira,  Lachmann, 
Tiachendorf,  TrtffeUes^  Westeott  and  Hort,  and  the  Hevi" 
sera,  London.  1887.  ed.  E,  Neetle.  1906;  A.  Deisamatin, 
The  New  Biblical  Papyri  at  Heidelberg,  m  Erpoeitory  Times, 
pp,  248-254. 

The  Uteratuns  of  the  work  which  is  being  done  may  be 
found  year  by  year  in  the  Bibliographis  der  theoloffischsn 
Literatur  and  in  AJT^ 

in.  Chapter  and  Verse  Divisions:  The  purpose 
of  the  present  division  into  chapters  and  versea 
waa  to  facilitate  reference.  These  divnsioos  some- 
times, but  not  generally*  ignore  logical  and  natu- 
ral divisions,  Dirnnion  opinion  concerning  chapter 
diviaiona  attributes  them  to  Cardinal  Hugo  of  Saint 
Cher  (q.v,)  for  u«e  in  his  concordiinee  to  tlie  Latin 
Vulgate  (r.  r240,  first  printed,  with  minlifieation, 
at  Bologna,  1479).  This  opinion  resU^  on  the  direct 
teatimony  of  Gilbert  Gcnebrard  (d.  1597).  that 
'*  the  scholastics  who  with  Cardinal 
\%i^^i^*^^'^  Hugo  were  authors  of  the  concord- 
Divi«iaaa.  ^^^  ,,     ^^^^^    ^^^    division.     Qu^tif 

and  Echard,  a  century  and  a  hfdf  later  than 
Genebrard,  ascribe  to  Hugo  only  the  subdivision 
of  the  chapters  presently  to  be  mentioned.  The 
better  opinion  is,  that  Btephen  Laiigton.  arch- 
bishop  of  Canterbury  (tl.  1228),  made  the  chapter 
division  to  facilitate  citation.  Before  the  invention 
of  printing  it  had  already  passed  from  Latin  manu- 
ftcripta  to  thoso  of  other  tongues^  and  after  the 


Bible  Text 
Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


114 


invention  of  printing  it  became  general.  It  has 
undergone  slight  variations  from  the  beginning 
to  the  present  day.  Many  early  printed  Bibles, 
especially  Greek  Testaments,  besides  these  chapters 
retain  also  the  old  breves  or  tiUoi  noted  in  the  mar- 
gin (see  above,  II,  1,  S  5).  The  chapters  were  at 
first  subdivided  into  seven  portions  (not  para- 
graphs), marked  in  the  margin  by  the  letters  A,  B, 
C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  reference  being  made  by  the  chapter- 
number  and  the  letter  under  which  the  passage 
occurred.  In  the  shorter  Psalms,  however,  the 
division  did  not  always  extend  to  seven.  In  Ps. 
cxix  it  seems  not  to  have  been  used  at  all.  This 
division  (except  in  the  Psalms)  was  modified  by 
Ck>nrad  of  Halberstadt  (c.  1290),  who  reduced  the 
divisions  of  the  shorter  chapters  from  seven  to 
four;  so  that  the  letters  were  always  either  A-G  or 
A-D.  This  subdivision  continued  long  after  the 
introduction  of  the  present  verses,  but  in  the 
seventeenth  century  was  much  modified,  some 
chapters  having  more  than  four,  and  less  than 
seven,  subdivisions. 

The  present  verses  differ  in  origin  for  the  Old 

Testament,  New  Testament,  and  Apocrypha.     In 

the  canonical  Testament  they  appear 

2.  Verse     \j^    ^j^g    oldest    known     manuscripts 
Divlrions,    ^^  ^^^^^   J    1^  5  7,  2,  5  2),  though 

Testa-  ^^®y  yf^re  not  used  for  citation  by 
ment"  ^^^  Jews  till  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  earlier  printed  Hebrew  Bibles 
marked  each  fifth  verse  only  with  its  Hebrew  nu- 
meral. Arabic  numerals  were  first  added  for  the 
intervening  verses  by  Joseph  Athias,  at  Amsterdam, 
1661,  at  the  suggestion  of  Jan  Leusden.  The  first 
portion  of  the  Bible  printed  with  the  Masoretic 
verses  numbered  was  the  Psalterium  Quincuplex 
of  Faber  Stapulensis,  printed  at  Paris  by  Henry 
Stephens  in  1509.  In  1528  Sanctes  Pagninus 
published  at  Lyons  a  new  Latin  version  of  the 
whole  Bible  with  the  Masoretic  verses  marked  and 
numbered.  He  also  divided  the  Apocrypha  and  New 
Testament  into  numbered  verses;  but  these  were 
three  or  four  times  as  long  as  the  present  ones. 

The  present  New  Testament  verses  were  intro- 
duced   by    Robert    Stephens   in    his    Greco-Latin 
Testament    of     1551     (see    above,    II,    2,    §   2). 
Stephens  says  in  his  preface  that  the 

3.  Verse     division  is  made    to   follow  the  most 
^^!!f^"'    ancient  Greek  and  Latin  copies.   But 

it  will  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  find  any  Greek  or  Latin  manu- 
scripts whose  divisions  coincide  very 
nearly  with  Stephens's  verses.  Doubtless  he 
made  this  division  with  reference  to  his  concord- 
ance to  the  Vulgate,  then  preparing,  published  in 
1555.  This  Latin  concordance,  like  former  ones, 
contains  references  to  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D, 
E,  F,  G,  and  also  to  the  numbers  of  the  verses 
of  each  chapter  "  after  the  Hebrew  method " 
of  division.  This  latter,  the  preface  states,  has 
special  reference  to  an  operi  pulcherrimo  et  prce- 
darissimo  which  he  is  now  printing,  which  must 
mean  his  splendid  Bible  of  1556-57,  3  vols.,  con- 
taining the  Vulgate,  Pagninus,  and  the  first  edition 
of  Beza's  Latin  New  Testament.  Meanwhile,  for 
present  convenience,  he  is  issuing  a  more  modest 


New 
Testa- 
ment. 


Bible  (Vulgate),  with  the  verses  marked  and  num- 
bered. This  latter  was  his  Vulgate  of  1555  (Ge- 
neva)— the  first  whole  Bible  divided  into  the 
present  verses,  and  the  first  in  which  they  were 
introduced  into  the  Apocrypha.  The  text  is  con- 
tinuous, not  having  the  verses  in  separate  para- 
graphs, like  the  New  Testament  of  1551,  but 
separated  by  a  Y  and  the  verse-number.  The 
verse-division  differs  in  only  a  very  few  places  from 
that  of  1551;  and  a  comparison  shows  that  the 
concordance  agrees  rather  with  the  division  of 
1551  than  with  that  of  1555.  The  statement  so 
often  made  that  the  division  was  made  "  on  horse- 
back **  while  on  a  journey  from  Paris  to  Lyons  must 
be  quaUfied.  His  son  asserts  that  the  work  was  done 
while  on  the  journey,  but  the  inference  most  natural 
and  best  supported  is  that  the  task  was  accom- 
plished while  resting  at  the  inns  along  the  road. 

In  other  languages  the  division  appeared  first  u 
follows:  French,   New  Testament,   Geneva,  1552, 
Bible,  Geneva,  1553  (both  R.  Stephens);  Italian, 
New  Testament,  L.    Paschale    (Geneva?),    1555; 
Dutch,  New  Testament,  Gellius  Ctematius  (GiUis 
van  der  Erven),  Embden,   1556,  Bible,  Nikolaus     i 
Biestkens    van    Diest,    Embden,     1560;  Eng^,     { 
Genevan  New  Testament,   1557,  Genevan  Bible,     j 
1560;  German,  Luther's  Bible,  perhaps  Heidelberg, 
1568,  but  certainly  Frankfort,  1582. 

In  Beza's  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament 
(1565-1604)  sundry  variations  were  introduced, 
which  were  followed  by  later  editors,  notably  the 
Elzevirs  (1633,  etc.);  and  many  minor  changes 
have  been  made,  quite  down  to  the  present  day. 

A  very  convenient  and  illuminating  "  table  of 
ancient  and  modem  divisions  of  the  New  Testar 
ment,''  giving  the  divisions  in  the  Vatican  manu- 
script, the  tiiloif  the  Anunonian  kephalaia,  the 
stichoif  rSmaia,  and  the  modem  chapters  and  verses, 
is  given  in  Scrivener,  IntrodtuHorif  i,  68.  The  tUhij 
kephcdaia,  and  tables  of  the  Eusebian  canons  are 
available  in  such  editions  as  Stephens's  Greek  Teata- 
ment  of  1550,  and  Mill's  of  1707,  1710.  The  Greek 
Testament  by  Lloyd  (Oxford,  1827)  and  by  Mffl 
(1859)  give  the  Eusebian  canons.  For  a  synopew 
of  variations  in  manuscripts  consult  J.  M.  A.  Schds, 
Novum  Testamentum  GrcBce,  i,  Frankfort,  1830, 
pp.  xxviii-xxix. 

The  Stephanie  verses  have  met  with  bitter  criti- 
cism because  of  the  fact  that  they  break  the  text 
into  fragments,  the  division  often  coming  in  the 
middle  of  the  sentence,  instead  of  forming  it  into 
convenient  and  logical  paragraphs,  an  arrange- 
ment which  has  seldom  found  favor.  But  their 
utility  for  reference  outweighs  their  disadvantage. 
They  should  never  be  printed  in  separate  para- 
graphs (as  in  the  English  Authorized  Version), 
but  the  text  should  be  continuous  and  the  num- 
bers inserted  in  the  margin  (as  in  the  Revised  Ve^ 
sion). 

Bibuoorapht:  C.  R,  Gregory,  FroUoomena,  i,  140-182,  Uip- 
flic  1894;  the  IntroducHona  of  Tregellea  and  Scrivener, 
ut  8up.  under  II;  B.  F.  Weatoott  and  F.  J  A.  Hort,  S.f- 
Introduction  and  Appendix,  pp.  318  aqq.,  of  Am.  editioo. 
New  York,  1882;  I.  H.  Hall,  in  Sunday  8du>ol  TitnM,  Apr. 
2,  1881.  Consult  also  W.  Wright,  in  Kitto's  Cydopeiit 
of  Biblical  Literature,  "  Verse,"  London.  1846  (the  ed.  ol 
1870  is  not  so  good);  DC  A,  ii,  963-067. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 
Bible  Versions 


L  Gmk  VonioEkS, 
K  The  Sept  uftgiat. 

Orniftli  1). 

Printed  fxiilioiw  <|  2>. 

Eftrly    Corruptioa    of    the     Text 
(13). 

Tbe  H«K»pU  of  Oricen  (t  4>. 

Luetft&aml  H&eychiuB  (f  5). 

V^oiui  Made  from  the  SeptuaciDt 
(i  «). 

UumthpiB  a  7), 
1  Uter  Greek  Tmnalaiiooa. 

Aquibtll). 

ajmuDMhiBCf  2\ 

l^iodotioa  (f  3). 
n  Utio  V«niotiiL 
1-  TKi  LAtm  Bible  befote  Jerome. 


I.  Araf>i<'  Vondou. 

The  E4rU««t  Vereioiu  (f  1)« 

IVndAln  (f  3V 

CbVftrtUle,     Other  Bditiotw  (f  4). 

TWDouiki  Bibk  (f  6X 

The  Au!hori*etl  Versiou  (S  ^). 

The  ti«vi«ea  Version  (f  7). 

iliwtf  Venuaiw  tl  8). 

(Ura  vkI  Cuhoiu  Editlotu  (|  9K 
V.  fttouib  toil  LA|>pifth  VersionB. 
VI.  fhoeh  Veratons. 

TWEvtmr  Veniotu  (f  1). 

Oqnnl  dm  Moulio*  (f  2K 

PbtafUat  Vcmons  (§3). 

I  CWthoUc  Vereiooa  ({  4). 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 

A<  Ancient  Versions  J 
The  Old  Latin   Bible.     The   llala. 

M&nu8criptft  and  Editions  (f  2). 
Quot<&tioiis  in  Latin  Writers  (.13), 

2.  The  Bible  of  Jerome  (the  Viil|£ate). 
Jerotne'B   Work.     The  New  Testa- 
ment (f  1). 

The  Old  Testament  <|  2). 

Ulatory  to  the  Invention  of  Print- 
ing (fi  3). 

E«riier  Priiited  EditianH  <f  4). 

The  Sijctiap-flemontLjie  Edition 
(*  5). 

Later  Work.     Ptobleoia  (i  6). 

3.  Later  Latin  Traaal*tic»xui« 
in.  Syriao  Versions. 

1.  The  Pcahit^. 

B.  Modem    VerEions* 

VII.  German  Verwiona, 

OJcl  Ucrman  Frasroenta  (|  I). 
Printed    Biblea    Before    Luther 

(ft  2). 
Luther's  Bible  (}  3), 
HeviBion    of    Lutber'ft    Vernon 

(J  4). 
Other  Vcnaiona  {|  5). 
Vni.  Greek  Versions,  Modem. 
IX.  Hebrew  TranBtBtioas  of  the  New 

Tedtameot. 
X.  Hunffftrian  (Magyar)  Versionfl. 
The  First  Versionji  (|  1). 
The  KomAromi  Bible  (|  2). 
Modern  Vert*ion9  (|  3). 
XI.  Italian  Vemons, 
XII.  Lithuanian     and     Lettish    Ver- 
sions. 
XIII.  Persian  Versionn. 


2. 
IV. 
V. 


VL 


Origin  and  Name  (ft). 

The  Old  Testament  (ft  2). 

The  New  Te»tao»ent  (|  3). 

Later  Versions. 

Tbe  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

Aramaic  Versiona  (the  Targam«). 

Origin  and  Lanipiaee  (f  1). 

Targuin  Onkeloe  (1  2). 

Targum  Jonathan  CS  3). 

Other  Targurns  of  the  Law  and 

Prophets  tl  4). 
The  Ilajfiographa  (}  5). 
The  Armenian  Vermion, 
V I L  Egyp  ti  an  Copti  e  Versiona. 
VltJ.  The  Ethiopia  Version.   - 
IX,  The  Georgiaia  (Iberian)  Veraioa. 
X.  The  Gothic  Version  of  Ulfilaa. 


XIV.  PortusueaeVerdoiiB. 
XV.  Bcandirtavian  Versions. 

Before  the  Reformation  (ft  1). 
Si  nee  the  Refdrmatioti  (ft  2). 
XVL  Slavonic  Veniona. 

The   Old   Church  Slavonic  Ver- 
sion (I  1). 
Russian  Verftions  (f  2). 
Bulgarian  and  Servian  Venuons 

(S  3). 
Blovenian  aod  Croatian  Versioiu 

{|4J. 
Bohemian  Versions  1 1  5), 
Wendiah     or     Sorbic    Vernoue 

(le). 

Polish  Vemions  (|  7). 
XVIL  Spanish  Versions. 
XVIII.  Bible    Vcntioiu^  in  the   Misdion 
Field. 


BIbJe  vemons,  or  translations  of  the  original 
Bebror  tmd  Greek  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
8»«to,  may  be  treated  in  an  encyclopedia  from 
^/fertnt  points  of  v^iew :  0)  from  the  critical^  a-"* 
uwiiifljcnts  with  which  to  reconstruct  the  original 
^;  \2)  from  the  cxegetical,  as  nhowing  how  the 
Ipe  was  understood  in  different  times  and 
(3)  from  the  historical*  as  documents  for 
tisc  extent  of  ttie  Bible  and  of  its  props- 
S^n  amotig  the  nations  of  the  earth;  (4)  from  a 
'(tcfiij  oad  plulological  standpoint^  since  the 
^lUe  versions  arc  often  the  earliest  monuments  of 
^^ilWipoctive  languages. 

VffiioDs  are  either  primary  and  direct,  aa  the 
^^pta«|iDl»  or  secontlary  and  indirect,  derived  ver- 
•«MMi  the  Old  Liitin.  [Tliey  now  exist,  either 
viiie  entire  Bible  or  a  part,  in  more  than  five 
koklnd  laogiiage^'  During  I9(X>  eleven  new  ver- 
•■UTierw  added  and  translation  or  revision  Is  in 
PSfrtw  in  o%*er  one  hundred  tonnes.  Scriptures 
^ the  blind  are  issued  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
tejfr  Society  In  fifteen  languages.]  Matxife»lly 
'"Ijr »  ■election  of  the  more  important  versioius  can 
^ttttted  here. 


I^  prineiple  of  arrangement  adopted  in  this  series  of 
ki  that  of  ace«  not  simply,  however,  on  account  of 
preeedeaoe.  but  beeauee  neoMBarily  the  earli- 

,  mtm,  generally  «p«akioc,  the  mo«t  important 

^  fcill  ■iUUnI  pti»pOM».  Two  main  divinionfl  are  thus 
^Ht:  A,  Aneiaal  Vernions;  and  B,  Modern  Versions, 
^flvmnM  tnaiad  tinder  A  are  arranged  approximately 
^  oniir  4f  t«ict-«riiical  value;  under  B,  alphabetically. 


Of  the  complete  Bible  in  the  original  languages 
there  is  as  yet  but  one  edition  in  existence:  Biblia 
Sacra  lam  Veifrisquatn  Nori  Testanienticum  Apocry- 
phis  secundum  fonk^  Hebrfcos  el  Gr<rco»,  ed.  C*  B. 
Michaelis  (2  vols.,  Ztlllichau,  17411-41;  cf.  the  cor- 
respondence on  tliis  jK*int  in  the  Sunday  School 
Times,  Sept.  and  Oct.,  1899,  raised  by  a  statement 
in  the  TLZ,  1899,  no.  14).  E.  Nestle. 

Biblioorapbt:  Among  older  works  the  follawiog  are  indis* 
pensable:  J.  U.  Uottickger^  Diaaertationum  thmttoffic^ 
phiMofficarum  /oaciVufut,  Heidelberg,  1660  (deals  with 
Jewiah  and  Chjiatian  tramilatioua);  Richard  Simon,  His- 
Uiire  eritiqum  du  Vitus  Te9tament,  Amsterdam.  1680,  Eng. 
transt.  London,  1682;  idenx,  Hiatsnn  critiqtie  de«  f*€r»ion$ 
du  Nouveau  Testament,  Rotterdam*  IfiflO*  Eug.  transl.. 
I^ndan,  l'B&2;  idem*  HUtoira  crilique  du  leste  du  Souveau 
Teittam^fd,  llotterdam,  1689,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  16S9; 
idem,  NfmvdleM  obaervcHofu  »ur  Its  iexU  et  lee  ver«ian«  du 
Ni^fuvtitu  Tettam^rU,  Paris,  1605  (on  Simon  consult  H. 
Margival,  in  Revue  d'hUtoire  tt  de  liUfrature  relwUuwt, 
Jan.,  Feb.,  IBM  J. 

Bibliograpliic^l  information  is  to  be  aought  in  the  fol- 
lowing: J,  Lc  Long*  Bibliatheca  Sacra,  em^ndala  ,  *  ,  ah 
A.  G.  MoMch,  2  parti*  in  5  vob.,  Halle.  1778-90  (part  1 
deals  witli  editions  of  the  original  tex%»,  part  2*  in  4  vols,» 
deals  with  venuona);  Article  Bihd  in  J.  8.  Krsch  and  J. 
G.  Gruber*  AUe^mein^  En€vklopOdit>  reprinted  as  a  sepa- 
rate volume,  Leip^iic,  1823;  Ths  BikUt  in  the  Caxton  Ex 
hibitmn,  London,  1878;  BritiMh  Af  uarum  Cataloffue,  entry 
"Bible,'* 4  parts,  including .4 ppentfix,  London,  18^2-90 (th* 
fullest  list  printed  of  editions  of  the  Bible  and  of  ita  parte): 
T.  H.  Darlow  and  F.  H.  Moule*  Historical  Calo^oirue  of  <** 
PrinUd  EdUionM  of  Holy  Scriphtre  in  the  Library  of  Iht 
British  and  Fareian  Biblr  Society,  voL  i*  Enalieh^  London^ 
1903,  vol  ii  not  yet  issued.  Of  specific  interest  are:  L* 
Hain,  Repertorium  biblioffraphicum^  5  Voln.,  Btuttgai% 
1826^  01,  Supptemeni  by  W.  A,  Oopinger<  3  vol*.,  Londoi^ 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


116 


1801-1902.  AppendiceM  by  D.  Reichling.  Munich.  1905-06; 
W.  T.  Lowndes,  Biblioffrapher'»  Manual,  4  voli.,  Lon- 
don, 1857-64;  J.  C.  Brunei,  Afanuei  du  Libraire,  7  vols., 
Paris,  1860-78.  Consult  also  the  works  of  Loisy,  Copin- 
cer.  and  Kenyon  given  under  Bible  Text,  I;  the  table 
of  Bible  Tranalationa  in  J.  S.  Dennis.  Centennial  Survey  of 
Foreign  Miaeione,  New  York.  1904;  T.  H&ring.  Dae  Ver- 
et&ndniee  der  Bibel  in  der  Entwieklung  der  Meneehheit,  Tu- 
bingen. 1905.  and  DB,  iv,  848-855,  extra  volume,  236- 
271,  402-420. 

A.  Ancient  Versions. 

L  Greek  Versions. — 1.  The  Septua^int:  The  Bi- 
ble version  most  important  in  every  respect  is  the 
Alexandrian  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  so-called  Septuagint.  "  Custom  now  holds 
to  the  version  which  is  called  the  Septuagint," 
writes  Augustine  {De  dvUate  Dei^  xviii,  42).  The 
term  "  Septuagint "  is  an  abbreviation  of  secundum 
septuAgirUa  interpretes ;  the  subscription  of  Genesis 
in  the  Codex  Valicanus  is  *'  According 

1.  Oriffin.  to  the  Seventy  ";  CJodex  A  has  before 
Isaiah,  "the  Edition  of  the  Seventy  "; 
this  is  based  on  the  story  that  King  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  by  the  advice  of  his  librarian  Deme- 
trius Phalereus,  asked  from  the  high  priest  Eleazar 
of  Jerusalem  seventy-two  scholars,  who  translated 
for  him  in  seventy-two  days  the  law,  and,  after  a 
later  form  of  the  legend,  in  seventy-two  (or  thirty- 
six)  cells,  the  seventy-two  or  thirty-six  copies 
being  found  without  any  variation  when  brought 
together  and  compared.  The  story  is  first  told  in 
the  so-called  "Letter  of  Aristeas"  (see  Aristeas), 
who  pretends  to  be  one  of  the  oflScers  sent  by 
Philadelphus  to  Jerusalem,  and  is  wholly  unhis- 
torical. 

As  the  date  of  the  version  ancient  chronicles 
mention  the  2d,  7th,  17th,  18th,  19th,  or  20th 
year  of  Philadelphus,  the  year  1734,  35,  36,  or  37 
of  Abraham;  as  its  day  the  8th  of  Tcbcth,  a  day  of 
darkness  like  that  on  which  the  golden  calf  was 
made  (cf .  Margoliouth,  in  the  Expositor ^  Nov.,  1900, 
348-349).  Philo  relates,  on  the  contrary,  that  the 
Jews  of  Alexandria  kept  in  his  time  an  annual 
festival "  in  commemoration  of  the  time  when 
the  interpretation  first  shone  out,  and  they  praised 
God  for  his  works  in  times  new  and  old."  He  knows 
that  the  interpreters  asked  God's  blessing  on  this 
undertaking;  "  for  he  answered  their  prayers 
that  more  and  more  the  whole  race  of  men  might 
be  assisted  to  correctness  of  life  in  thought  and 
deed."  This  aspiration  was  fulfilled  when  the 
version  became  one  of  the  chief  instruments  for 
the  preparation  and  propagation  of  Christianity 
(on  this  aspect  of  the  version  cf.  E.  W.  Grin  field. 
Apology  for  the  Septuagint,  London,  1850;  W.  R. 
Churton,  The  Influence  of  the  Septuagint  on  the 
Progress  of  Christianity,  London,  1861;  A.  Deiss- 
mann,  Die  Hellenisierung  des  semilischen  Mono- 
theismus,  Leipsic,  1903).  It  is  not  yet  certain 
whether  the  translation  is  due,  as  the  legend  pur- 
ports, to  the  literary  interest  of  a  king  who  was  a 
bibliophile;  or,  as  is  the  common  view  at  present, 
to  the  religious  wants  of  the  Jewish  community 
of  Alexandria;  or  to  the  needs  of  an  intended 
Jewish  propaganda.  For  the  latter  view  the  pro- 
logue of  Ecclesiasticus  may  be  mentioned,  which 
if,  at  the  same  time,  the  first  witness  to  speak 


of  all  three  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  as  already 
extant  in  Greek;  Aristeas,  Philo,  and  Josephus 
speak  only  of  the  law.  Of  the  several  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  only  Esther  has  a  state- 
ment about  the  translation  of  the  book,  which  is 
referred  generally  to  Soter  II  (114  b.c.),  but  by  E 
WilWch  (Judaica,  Gdttingen,  1900)  to  Ptolemy  XIV 
(48  B.C.).  At  the  end  of  Job  is  the  strange  notice: 
"  This  is  interpreted  from  the  Syrian  book." 

The  first  part  of  the  Septuagint  to  be  multiplied 
by  the  printing-press  was  the  Psalms  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Psalter  of  Bonacursius  (Milan,  Sept  20, 
1481;  in  Greek  alone,  Venice,  1486,  and  again  by 
Aldus  Manuthis  about  1497).  The  complete  edi- 
tions fall  into  four  classes  according  as  they  are  de- 
rived from  one  or  another  of  four  original  editions, 
of  which  the  first  (designated  as  c)  is 
EdiU^M/  *^®  Complutensian  Polyglot  of  Ct^ 
dinal  Ximenes,  printed  1514-17  but 
not  published  imtil  1521  (see  Bibles,  Polt- 
QLOT,  I;  cf.  Franz  Delitzsch,  Studien  zur  Eni- 
stehungsgeschichte  der  Polyghttenbibel  des  Cardinait 
Ximenes,  Leipsic,  1871,  supplemented  1878-86; 
T.  H.  Darlow  and  F.  H.  Moule,  Historical  Caiaiogve 
.  .  ,  of  the  BFBS,  ii,  London,  1908,  1  sqq.).  Of 
the  manuscripts  used  for  the  Greek  Old  Testament 
we  know  with  certainty  Vat.  Gr.  330  and  346,  and 
Venet.  5  (=Hohnes-Parsons  108,  248,  and  68). 
The  second  (a)  is  the  Aldine  Bible  published  by 
Andreas  Asulanus,  father-in-law  of  the  elder  Aldus 
(Venice,  1518).  Among  the  manuscripts  used 
were  Hohnes-Parsons  29,  68,  121,  all  of  Venice. 
The  third  and  most  important  is  the  Editio  SixtiM 
(6),  published  by  Pope  Sixtus  V  (Rome,  1586 
[1587])  on  the  basis  of  Codex  Vat.  Or.  1209  (-B, 
in  the  article  Bible  Text,  II,  1,  §  9).  Besides  c 
and  a,  the  manuscripts  Holmes-Parsons  16,  19,  23, 
51  seem  to  have  been  used,  especially  for  the  scholia, 
which  were  collected  chiefly  by  Petrus  Morinus  and 
enlarged  by  Flaminius  Nobilius  in  the  Latin  transla- 
tion published  1588.  The  fourth  edition  (4  vols, 
folio  and  8  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1707-20)  was  be- 
gim  by  Johannes  Ernst  Grabe  (q.v.),  who  pub- 
lished vols,  i  and  iv  (1707,  1709),  and  after  his 
death  (1711)  was  completed  by  Francis  Lee  (voL 
ii,  1719)  and  George  Wigan  (vol.  iii,  1720).  It  is 
based  on  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  (A;  see  Bible 
Text,  II,  1,  §  9)  with  use  of  other  sources,  espe- 
cially Origen's  Hexapla,  has  useful  prolegomena, 
and  possesses  a  merit  of  its  own. 

These  editions  have  been  often  reproduced— the 
Sixtine  edition  most  frequently — ^with  more  or  less 
of  editorial  labor  (for  list  of  reprints,  etc.;  also 
mention  of  the  more  important  editions  of  single 
books  of  the  Greek  Old  Testament,  cf.  the  Hauck- 
Herzog  RE,  iii,  4-9  and  Swete,  Introdtutian,  171- 
194).  But  no  existing  edition  of  the  Septuagint 
satisfies  present  wants,  for  none  gives  an  exact  re- 
production of  the  manuscript  or  manuscripts  which 
it  follows,  nor  does  any  provide  a  full  apparatus 
criticus.  The  first  attempt  to  satisfy  the  latter 
want  was  made  in  the  great  work  begun  by  Rob- 
ert Holmes  (q.v.)  and  completed  after  his  death 
(1805)  by  James  Parsons,  Vetus  Testamentum 
Gr  cecum  cum  variis  lectionibus  (5  vols.,  Oxford, 
1798-1827;  cf.  Swete,  Introduction,  184-187;  Church 


117 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Vtrslona 


Quarterly    Rrtnew,     Apr,,    1899,     102     sqq.,     and 

K  the  EanuaJ  account**  publiehed  during  the  progress 

Hc»{  the  work  from  1789  to  1806).     The  text  is  that 

Hof  h.    Not  less  than  154  volumes    of   manuscript 

H-eolbtionfi  prepared  for  this  work  are  still  in  the 

^PBotiiclan  Library.     All  manuscripts,  versions,  and 

Rnuflititions  were  put  nndor  contribution.     Despite 

flome  drawbacks  in  the  plan  and  still  more  in  the 

execution*  ttie  work  deserv'c-s  atlmiration;  it  k  still 

indispdiBable    to    all    who   wish    full    information 

ftlxut  the  Old  Testament  iji  CJreek.     The  advance 

Bittde  in  the  course  of  the   nineteenth  century  i.s 

due,  im  the  one  hand,  to  the  discovery  of  new  rna- 

^  leriab  (e.g.  the  Codex  Sinaitieti:!  ;  see  Bible  Text, 

^m  11,1,  \  9);  on  the  other,  to  greater  exactness  in 

^H  haofiling   witnesses      Both   these   a4lvantages    are 

H  evuient  in  the  work  of  C.  Tinchentlorf,  P.  de  La- 

\       fiarde,  and  H.  B.  Swete.     Tischendorf  {VftuH  Tcs- 

fomm/um    Grctrc    jyjrta  LXX   int^prete^,   2   vols., 

LripfflC,  1850;  7tb  ed.,  IS87)  repeJite<l  the  text  of 

b  Kid  enriched  it  with  variants  from  the  Ojdex 

Ahandrinus,    Ephraemi    ReAcriptn^f    tmd     (after 

I        1889)  the   Sirmilicuttt    adding    rich    prolegomena, 

t        Uigirde's  work,  though  left  incomplete,  was  mon- 

I        UDentid  (for  li^t  of  his  publications,  see  Lacjarde, 

Paul   Anton    dk).     Swetc    reproduced     in     his 

edition  (The  Old   Testament  in  Gretk  accmdmg  to 

^   ^  Sqftnagint,  3    vols,,  Cambridge,   18-S7-94;    2d 

■   «1,.  1895-99;  3d    ed.,  inni-07)  for  the  first  time 

^    not  the  printe^i  text  of  b,  hut  the  Vatican  manu- 

rript  itself,    in    the    first    edition    accortlin^    to 

the  fncfiimile  impress  ion  of  Fabiani-Cozza  (Rome, 

I8fl0-Sl),  which  for  the  (second  has   been    revised 

(by E Nestle)  after  the  photographic  reproduction. 

Where  the    manuscript   is  deficient   the  text  has 

heoi  taken  from  the  oldest  manuscript  accessible 

in  a  trust  wort  by  fonn,  while  under  the  text  variants 

l»»ve  been  given    from  some  of  the  oldest  rannit- 

•fiipta,  as  Sinaiticus,  Akxandrinus,  and  AmbroM- 

^m     o«ntf.    The  merit  of  this  edition  is  that  it  gives 

H    tlie  materials  with  greatest   accuracy;   it^  defect, 

^^    thit  It  does  not  make  any  attempt  to  coiMruct 

^  text   aceonling  to   the   principles  of   textual 

fnticisRi^  but  follows  the  leAtling  manuscript  even 

"1  tt«  moat   glaring  faults.     An<l   in   some    book-s 

I         *t  Icifit  (e.g.  in   E^elesia^sticus),  the  oldest   manu- 

I         *riptii  are    far   from    being    the    best.     But  tliis 

•^ficiency  i«  fully  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 

^iit»'>ti  i9  attended  to  Lie  but  the  lias  is  of  a  great 

^*ical  eilition   now  in   courtM*  of   preparation,  of 

**^li  the   first   part    has  already   appeared,   The 

tw  TtgiamtTU    in    Greek,    according    to    the    Text 

•/  ^i»dfz  VtdkanuH  Sytpplemcnted  from  Other  Un- 

^  ManiLkcript'X^  with  a  Critical  Apparatus  Con- 

^wiy  the  Variants  of  (lie  Chief  Ancient  Authorities 

^  T^Bi  «/  the.  Sepiuagint,  ed.   A.    E.   Brooke 

"""  "        ,  vol,  I,  The  Oetateuch,  pari  i,  Gcn- 

[g!B,  1906;    cf.  JTS,  iii,  t^Ol-^'Jl,  and 

^*  Ncitle,   iJie  grngne  Cambridger  Sepltiaginta,  in 

l^nndlimffen  des  XUL  Intemationalen  OrientalU- 

,1902;    idem.  Sept uagintastudien,  voL 

IWearetwo  English  translations:  The  Septua- 
^  9^  Vtrtion  of  the  Old  Teatafnenl  according  to  the 
^M  '^tfifon  Text,  trannlated  into  English,  Ufith  the  prin- 
^m  npa(  tarimu^   rtadingu    of    the    Alexandrine  copy. 


and  a  table  of  comparative  ehronohgy,  by  Sir  Lan- 
celot Clmrles  Leo  Brenton  (2  vols.,  London,  1844; 
has  aliso  the  Greek  text);  the  other  by  Charles 
Thomson  (Philadelphia,  180S;  new  ed.,  The  Old 
Coiwmml,  cotnmoniif  coUed  the  Old  Teaiamenl^  by  S. 
F.  PelU,  2  vols.,  London,  1904). 

Tliat  there  is  yet  not  a  satisfactory  edition  of  the 
Septuiigint  is  not  because  of  want  of  nmterials  for 
its  preparation^ — thcrtJ  is  on  the  contrary  an  em- 
barras  de  richcise — but  of  its  complicated   history. 

The  histury  of  a  translation  will  always 

3-  Early    b^*    more    complicated    than    that    of 

off^th©  ^  an  original  tcxtt  but  in  this  case  it 

Text.       IS  the  more  so  as  the  Septuagint    is 

a  work  of  Jewi.sh  origin^  taken  over 
into  the  Christian  Church.  Of  the  pre-Chriatiim 
period  of  it^  histfjry  next  to  no  tiling  is  known. 
There  are  some  Hellenistie  writers  w4io  used  the 
Septuagint,  as  Demetrius,  Eupolemus,  Aristeas 
(the  historian),  Exekieh  tind  Aristobulujs;  but  the 
preaer%'ed  fragments  of  their  writings  are  too  few 
and  incomplete  to  establish  more  than  the  mere 
fact  that  they  used  the  Septuagint.  Philo  made 
extensive  use  of  the  law,  but  his  quotations  from 
the  rei?t  of  the  Old  Testtunent  are  very  few,  and 
from  Ruth,  Esther,  Ecclesia.stes,  Canticles,  Lam- 
entations, Ezekiel,  and  Daniel  he  doe:*  not  <[Uote 
at  all.  Besides,  his  writings  can  be  traced  back  only 
to  the  library  of  Origen,  and  have  been  tranhimitted 
to  us  probably  exclusively  through  Christian  copy- 
ists. For  Joaeplius  we  must  be  content  to  know 
that  for  iiis  description  of  the  restoration  he  used 
what  is  now  called  1  Estlnia;  but  about  hia  relation 
to  the  chief  mfmuscripts  there  is  uncertainty. 
Even  the  quotations  in  the  New  Testament  do 
not  justify  very  definite  statements,  except  that 
they  prove  that  alrea<ly  in  those  times  the  copies 
were  not  free  from  textual  corruption  (cf,  Heb.  iii, 
9,  xii,  5).  A  little  later  the  situntion  is  described 
by  Origen — speakingf  it  is  truc>*  chiefly  of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament,  but  what  he 
.says  holds  good  also  of  those  of  the  Old  Testament: 
'*  Now  it  is  clear  that  there  haj*  come  a  great 
difl"erence  in  copies,  either  through  the  laziness  of 
scribes  or  fmm  the  audacity  of  tho.se  who  intro- 
dueed  corruptions  ns  amendments,  or  of  othens 
who  took  away  from  or  added  to  their  new  text 
auch  things  as  seemed  good  to  them." 

If  the  ,sit nation  was  already  bad,  since  any  copyist 
or  reader  who  was  acquainted  with  the  original 
might  change  single  passages  on  comparison  with 
the  Ilebrtnv.  it  beciune  worse  when  new  translations 

ap|>eared*  especially  those  of  Aquila, 
,  Tneaex-  Syramachus.  and  Theodotion  (see  be- 

Oriiren  ^"^^^^  ^^'  ^^  ^^^^  ^  systematic  com- 
parison of  the  Septuagint  with  the 
Hebrew  and  these  versions  was  carried  out  by  Ori- 
gen in  the  llexapla  (see  Ohio  en),  and  what  ap- 
fieared  to  hini  a  safeguard  against  the  calamity 
that  threatened  the  text  turned  out — not  by  his 
fault ,  but  through  later  ignorance  and  canOensness — 
the  worst  aggravation  of  it.  In  continuation  of  the 
passage  just  quoted,  he  goes  on  to  say  that  through 
the  guidfuice  of  God  he  found  a  way  to  correct 
the  tlissonancc  in  the  copies^  Using  the  Hebrew 
as  a  criterion,  and  adopting  the  text  of  the  Septua* 


Bible  Vendozui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


118 


gint  which  confirmed  the  Hebrew,  he  made  the  two 
the  ground  text,  and  marked  changes  by  diacritical 
signs.  It  is  pardonable  that  he  took  his  Hebrew  text 
— whence  he  got  it  is  not  known — as  the  original  text; 
but  it  was  contrary  to  sound  criticism  to  take 
those  readings  of  the  Septuagint  which  agreed  with 
the  Hebrew  for  the  true  ones,  instead  of  those 
which  differed  from  it  (cf.  the  third  axiom  of  La- 
garde  for  the  restoration  of  the  Septuagint,  Mitthei- 
lungen,  i,  21).  Nevertheless  we  should  be  extremely 
thankful  if  the  work  of  Origen  had  been  preserved. 
Until  1896  it  was  known  only  from  the  descrip- 
tions of  Eusebius,  Jerome,  Epiphanius,  and  some 
later  writers,  and  by  specimens  preserved  in  scholia 
of  Biblical  manuscripts,  a  great  part  also  by  a  literal 
Syriac  translation  (see  below,  §  6).  In  1896  Gio- 
vanni Mercati  discovered  in  a  palimpsest  of  the 
Ambrosian  Library  of  Milan  the  first  continuous 
fragments  of  a  copy  of  the  Hexapla,  and  in  1900 
another  and  much  older  piece  was  found  by  C.  Taylor 
among  the  Greek  palimpsests  from  the  Cairo  geni- 
zah  in  the  Taylor  and  Schechter  collection.  These 
fragments  show  that  Origen  put  generally  only 
one  Hebrew  word,  or  at  the  most  two,  in  one  line; 
the  extent  of  the  work,  therefore,  must  have  been 
much  greater  than  was  previously  supposed. 
The  later  fate  of  the  original  is  unknown.  Jerome 
saw  and  used  it  in  the  library  at  Ceesarea;  it  may 
have  been  destroyed  there  during  the  invasion  of 
the  Arabs. 

Origen  arranged  liis  work  in  six  columns,  the 
first  containing  the  Hebrew  text  in  Hebrew  let- 
ters, the  second  the  same  in  a  Greek  transcription, 
the  third  the  translation  of  Aquila,  the  fourth  that 
of  Symmachus,  the  fifth  the  Septuagint,  the  sixth 
the  translation  of  Theodotion.  For  some  books,  es- 
pecially the  Psalms,  Origen  had  a  fifth,  sixth,  and 
even  a  seventh  translation  at  his  disposal  (see  below, 
2,  §  3).  In  the  Septuagint  column  he  used  the 
system  of  diacritical  marks  which  was  in  use 
with  the  Alexandrian  critics  of  Homer,  especially 
Aristarchus,  marking  with  an  obelus — under  dif- 
ferent forms,  as  -7  ,  called  lemniscus,  and  —  ,  called 
hypolemniscus — those  passages  of  the  Septuagint 
which  had  nothing  to  correspond  in  Hebrew,  and 
inserting,  chiefly  from  Theodotion  imder  an  aster- 
isk (*),  those  which  were  missing  in  the  Septua- 
gint; in  both  cases  a  metobelus  (})  marked 
the  end  of  the  notation.  This  column  was  copied 
afterward  with  additional  excerpts  from  the 
other  versions  on  the  margins;  and,  if  it  had 
been  copied  with  all  its  critical  marks,  it  would 
have  been  well,  but  later  copyists  neglected  these 
completely  and  produced  what  we  may  call  krypto- 
hexaplaric  manuscripts,  completely  spoiling  by 
this  carelessness  the  value  of  the  Septuagint  for 
critical  purposes.  Such  a  copy,  for  instance,  is, 
for  Kings,  the  Codex  Alexandrinits ;  and  it  is  but 
a  poor  defense  of  these  copyists  that  the  same 
process  has  been  repeated  in  the  nineteenth  century 
by  the  Moscow  and  Athens  reprints  of  Grabe's 
edition  of  that  codex. 

After  Origen,  Eusebius  and  his  friend  Pamphilus 
were  careful  to  continue  or  disseminate  his  exegctical 
labors.  Copies  of  the  Pentateuch  are  known 
which  were  compared  with  the  Samaritan   text 


(cf.  S.  Kohn,  SamareUikan  and  SeptuoffirUa,  in 
Monataachrift  fUr  WiaaeMchaft  des  Judenikwm^ 
new  series,  i,  1894,  pp.  1-7,  4^-67;  ZDMG,  1893. 
p.  650).    Jerome  mentions  besides  Eusebius  and 

_  _  .  Pamphilus,  Lucian  and  Hesychius,  the 
^^^  text  of  the  former  being  used  from 
Hesyohins.  Constantinople  to  Antioch,  that  of 
'  the  latter  in  Alexandria  and  Egjrpt) 
while  the  provinces  between,  especially  Palestine, 
kept  to  the  copies  of  Origen  as  published  by 
Eusebius  and  Pamphilus  (Prafatio  in  parcdipo- 
mena ;  Adv.  Rufinunit  ii,  27).  About  neither  the 
work  nor  the  person  of  Hesychius  (see  Hestchius, 
1)  is  there  complete  certainty.  He  may  have 
been  the  martyr  bishop  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
(HisL  eccl,,  viii,  13)  together  with  Phileas  of 
Thmuis.  The  result  of  his  labors  is  sought 
now  for  the  Octateuch  in  the  manuscripts  44, 
74,  76,  84,  106,  134;  for  the  prophets,  especially 
Isaiah  and  the  Twelve,  in  the  Codex  Marchaliam 
and  its  supporters  26,  106,  198, 306  (cf .  N.  McLean, 
in  JTS,  ii,  1901,  p.  306,  and  A.  Ceriani,  De  Codia 
Marchaliano,  Rome,  1890,  pp.  48  sqq.,  105  sqq.). 
Lucian  was  a  deacon  of  Antioch,  who  died  a 
martyr  at  Nioomedia  312  (see  Lucian  the  Mar- 
tyr). He  must  have  known  a  Hebrew  text  which 
showed  many  peculiarities,  especially  in  the  his- 
torical books,  and  perhaps  used  for  his  pur- 
poses the  Syriac  version.  The  first  part  of  his 
work  has  been  edited  by  Lagarde  in  Lt&rorum 
Veteris  Teatamenti  canonicarum^  para  pnor,  grccu 
(G6ttmgen,  1883;  cf.  his  MUtheUungen,  ii,  171). 
But  this  revision  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  original  Septuagint  any  more  than  the  Eng- 
lish Revised  with  the  Authorized  Version.  Since 
the  fourth  century  very  little  has  been  done  in 
the  Greek  Church  for  its  Bible.  Emperors  di- 
rected beautiful  copies  of  it  to  be  written — e.g., 
Constantine  ordered  fifty  copies  through  Eusebius 
for  the  new  churches  of  his  capital,  -and  for  Gon- 
8 tans  Athanasius  procured  "  copies  of  the  divine 
writings,''  one  of  which  is  perhaps  preserved  in 
the  famous  Codex  Vaiicanua.  Other  royal  persons 
wrote  them  with  their  own  hands. 

Latin  was  probably  the  first  language  into 
which  the  Septuagint  was  translated.  (On  the 
Latin  version,  or  rather  versions,  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint see  below,  II,  1.  It  is  a  pity  that 
so  little  of  these  labors  has  been  preserved, 
and  that  these  few  remnants  are  so  diffi- 
cult of  access.)  After  the  Latin  versions  came 
6  Ver  i  n  ^^^  Egyptian  (see  VII).  Here  the 
Made       dJ^^JCulty    of     the      language     makes 

from  the  ^^^^  helps  for  restoration  of  the 
Septuaffint.  Septuagint  accessible  to  few.  Similar 
is  the  case  with  the  most  neglected 
branch  of  the  Semitic  languages,  the  Ethiopic 
(see  Vni).  The  Arabic  versions  (see  B,  I)  are 
for  a  great  part  too  late  to  have  much  weight 
for  the  critic  of  the  Septuagint.  The  Gothic 
version  (see  X)  is  an  outcome  of  the  Ludanic  re- 
cension, for  which  it  would  have  great  importance, 
both  for  age  and  literalness,  but  very  little  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  preserved  in  Gothic.  The  Luci- 
anic  recension  is  also  the  basis  of  a  Slavonic  version 
(see  B,  XVI)  and  through  it  of  the  Georgian  (see  I X). 


RELIGIOUS  EJ^CYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Terilxiss 


The  Amienizin  version  (see  VI)  is  a|;ain  of  great  ira- 
pofUnee,  also  the  so-called  Syro-Hexaplar  ver- 
aoD  made  in  the  year  61&^6I7  by  Piiul,  bishop  of 
TdiA  (CoiuitaDtioe  in  Mesopotamia),  in  a  cloister 
oetr  Alexandria  with  the  utmost  fidelity  from 
muiuAcriptA  which  went  back  by  few  intervening 
links  to  the  very  copies  of  the  Hexapla  and  Teirapla 
of  Origen.  The  greater  is  the  pity,  therefore,  that 
OfjJy  fragments  have  been  preservt^d,  and  that 
especiaUy  the  oodex  which  Andre  du  ^taes  (MaaiuB, 
d.  1573)  bad  in  hin  hands,  containing  the  historical 
booicB  (including  part  of  Deuteronomy  mid  Tobit) , 
baa  been  lost,  and  that  only  a  part  of  thia  Bible 
(poetical  and  prophetic  books)  m  still  preserved 
in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Mihuu  tience  called 

»;Ccicle£  SyrfHhexaplarU  Ambrasutnwi  (jiublished  in 
\m  photolithographic  facsimile  edition  by  A.  Ceriani 
«a  YoL  vii  of  the  Montimenta  mtra  et  pro f ana  ^ 
Milan,  1874).  The  fragments  of  Qenesie,  Exodus, 
NitfobeiB,  Joshua,  Judges,  and  I  and  II  Kings  have 
been  most  carefully  edited  in  the  last  work  of  Paul 
dd  |j[|Mde,  BihUoikecu  Syriacm  a  Paulo  de  Lagarde 
colkdm  qu<B  ad  philologiam  $acmm  pertinent  (Got- 
tin|[en«  1892).  For  earlier  works  on  this  version 
ef.  E.  Nc5tlc,  Litteratura  Sijriaca  (reprinted  from 
hia  .Syriitrht  GrammMik,  Berlin,  1888),  29--30;  cf. 
ilfK>T.  S.  Rordam,  Libri  Judicum  et  Ruth  (Copen- 
lui^cn,  185(M51),  and  F.  Field,  Otium  Xormcenae,  i 
fOxfoftI,  18G4),  and  his  edition  of  the  Ilexapla  (Ox- 
fofti,  1875).  There  are  also  fragments  in  the 
ap«eiil  dialect  called  SyTo-Paleatinian,  on  which 
^  cf.  Strete>   Introduction,,   114,  and    F.  C.   Burkilt, 

■  iti/r6\ii.  174  sqq, 

^■^  Vp  to  the  present  day  in  several  Churches  these 
^v'v^eiiiQili  baaed  on  the  Septuagint  have  been  re* 
^V  '•^ioed  and  even  in  those  where  they  have  been 

■  '^aced  by  translations*  from  the  original,  as  in 
^  Wie  Latin  West  through  Jerome  or  in  modem  Europe 

*«l»Ough  the  Reformation,  the  influence  of  the 
^cpt^ia^t  is  still  very  marked;  note,  for  inatance, 
^*^  names  of  the  Biblical  books  in  the  latest  ol 
***8Be  revisions,  the  English  Revised  Version. 

The  versions  just  mentioned  are  one  of  the  tliree 

**^*ttrt>Bi  which  exist  for  the  recovery  of  the  true 

^^^  of   the    Septuagint,  the  first  class  being,  of 

y    Mmn       ^^^^^^f  ^tie    Greek    manuscripts    still 

tteriptfl  '    "*  existence,  the  tliird  the  quotations 

of  ancient  writers,     A  list  of  the  more 

**»aent  manusortpts  of  the  Septuagint  was  given  in 

^^  Ctghtcenth  century  by  Stroth  in  Eichhom's  Re- 

J^tornwn    (Leipsic,    1777  sqq.),    vols,   v  sqq,^    the 

""^Ort  eofnplete  list  was  formerly  that  in  the  pref- 

**^Ls  of   Holm es- Parsons  i    then  in   the  prolegom- 

^fc*  of  Tischendorf    and     in     Lagarde's    Genesis 

^«et ;  but  reference  may  now  be  made  to  Swete. 

"^*<Jfrodiirfum,  pp,  122-170.     A  few  remarks  on  some 

^  them  may  be  offered. 

The  four  great  uncials,  K  or  8,  A,  B,  and  C,  are 
^hm  chid  manuscripts  also  for  the  New  Testament 
^•w  BmLt  Text,  II,  1,  §  9).  For  K  there  is 
'^•ftdwi  a  photographic  reprotluction  or  a  com- 
P^  new  collation.  The  notations  from  A  in 
8wrU«*i  Septuagint  need  revision,  at  all  events 
^  the  first  %'olume.  Of  B  a  new  photographic 
'■fpPDduction  is  in  preparation;  on  the  suggestion 
of  R^f«  that  B  is  dependent  on  Athanasius,  cf . 


E.  Nestle,  Introduction  to  the  Tejitual  Criticism  of 
the  Greek  New  TeMamerii  (London,  1901).  62,  181, 
where  (note  1 )  read  Cbnstantius  instead  of  Constans. 
Ctjnoeming  the  famous  Illuminated  Codex  Coitonia- 
niLs  (D),  which  was  badly  injured  by  fire  in  1731, 
nothing  new  has  come  to  light  since  Swete  wrote; 
it  is  well  to  mention  the  name  of  Martin  Folkfls 
as  editor,  by  whom  were  issucfl  the  facsimiles  in 
the  Vetuista  vwmimenta  of  1747,  On  the  pur- 
ple illuminated  Genesis  of  Vienna  (L),  there  is 
a  dissertation  by  W.  Liidtke  (Gmfswald,  1897), 
who  is  inclined  to  awcribe  this  oldest  Biblical 
history  with  illuminations  to  the  second  part 
of  the  fifth  century.  To  the  eighteen  uncial 
manuscripts  enumerated  by  Swete  (Introduction, 
pp.  146-148)  aa  not  yet  used  for  any  edition 
of  the  Septungint  and  remaining  without  a  sym- 
bolical letter  or  number,  may  be  added:  fragments 
of  Genesis  at  Vienna  (cf.  Phihlogischer  Ameiger, 
xiv,  18S4,  415);  a  Hebrew-Greek  palimpsest  con- 
taining fragments  of  Ps.  cxliji,  cxliv;  and  parts  of 
tour  leaves  from  a  papyrus  codex  of  Genesis,  of  the 
lat«  iccond  or  early  third  century  (OxyrhynchuH 
papyri  no.  656)*  On  the  minuscules  scarcely  any- 
tliing  has  been  done  lately,  except  tliat  some  will  be 
used  in  the  Cambridge  edition  nuntioned  above 
{§  2).  For  facsimiles,  cf.  F»  G.  Ken  yon,  Fao 
similes  of  Bib!  (cat  Manuscripts  in  the  BrUish  Jf  u- 
neum  (London,  1901). 

The  question,  in  wb'ch  set  of  manuscripts  the 
purest  text  is  to  be  found,  is  not  yt-t  st'ttkiL 
It  is  the  more  complicated  since  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  a  collection  of  books  which  in  one 
and  the  same  manuscript  may  have  had  a  very 
different  pcdigrci';  for  whole  Bibles  (pandedes,  such 
as  manuscripts  «,  A,  and  B)  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  produced  much  before  the  time  of  Eusebius 
or  Origcn. 

2.  I#»ter  Qreek  Translations :  The  rupture  be- 
tween Church  and  Synagogue  led  to  new  transla- 
tions. The  authors  of  at  least  three  of  them  are 
known  by  naine»  Aquila,  Symmachua,  and  Theo- 
dotion. 

Of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  Iremeus  is  the  first 
who  mentions  Aquila  of  Pont  us  i\s  a  translator  of 
the  Bible.  Epiphanius  calls  him  a  "  Greek "  and 
a  relation  of  Hadrian,  and  tells  that 
1.  Aauila.  he  was  placed  by  Trajan  in  chiu-ge  of 
the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  that  he 
became  a  Christian  but  returned  to  the  Jewish 
faith-  Epiphanius  places  his  translation  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  lladrijui,  430  years,  four  months,  less 
nine  days  after  the  Sejituagint,  Jewish  sources 
mention  a  proselyte  Aquila ^  a  contemporary  of 
Rabbis  Eliezer,  Joshun,  aud  Akiba,  who  met  Ha- 
drian and  is  railed  his  nephew,  and  is  praised  as 
translator  of  the  Bible  in  the  words  of  Ps.  xlv, 
''thou  art  fairer  than  the  children  of  men";  some 
passages  of  his  translation  are  quoted. 

It  is  not  clear  as  yet,  whether  or  how  the  dates  of 
Epiphanius  and  the  statements  of  the  F^udo- 
Clementine  writings  about  Aquila,  the  disciple  of 
Simon  Magus,  are  to  be  combined.  That  Aquila 
the  translatnT  of  tlie  Bible  is  the  well-knowTi  hus- 
band of  Priscilla  in  the  New  Testament  is  a  fancy  of 
Hauadorff.     His  translation,  the  use  of  wliich  was 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


120 


permitted  in  the  synagogue  by  Justinian,  is  the 
most  literal  ever  produced,  and  enough  has  been 
preserved  to  judge  of  its  value  and  character. 
Up  to  1897  all  known  of  it  went  back  to  the 
Hexapla  of  Origen  (cf.  F.  Field,  Origenis  Hexa- 
plorum  qua  supersuntf  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1867-75, 
and,  on  Field,  J.  H.  Bum,  Expository  TimeSf 
Jan.,  1897).  In  1897  for  the  first  time  a  contin- 
uous portion  of  his  translation  came  to  light  in 
a  palimpsest  of  the  Cairo  Synagogue,  showing  the 
tetragrammaton  written  in  Old  Hebrew  letters. 
The  statement  of  Jerome  that  Aquila  made  two 
versions,  "  a  second  edition,  which  the  Hebrews 
call  '  the  accurate  one,* "  seems  to  be  correct. 
Some  new  fragments  to  be  added  to  Field  are 
in  J.  B.  Pitra,  Analecta  sacra  (Paris,  1876);  E. 
Klostermann,  Analekta  zur  Septuagxnta  (Leipsic, 
1895);  Jerome,  in  Anecdota  Maredsolanaj  iii,  1. 

According  to  Epiphanius,  Symmachus  was  a 
Samaritan,  and  lived  not  under  Severus,  but  under 
"  Verus "  (i.e.,  Marcus  Aurelius;  cf.  Lagarde, 
Symmictaf  ii,  Gdttingen,  1880).  Geiger  identified 
the  translator  with  Symmachus  ben  Joseph,  dis- 

ciple    of  Rabbi  Meir  (Jiidische  Zeit- 
"T™^     schrift  fiir  Wissenschaft  und  Leben,  i, 

1862,  pp.  62-64).  Origen  got  the 
manuscript  of  his  translation  from  a  certain  Juliana 
of  Cffisarea,  who  had  received  it  with  other  works 
of  Symmachus  from  Symmachus  himself.  Whether 
the  CfiBsarea  where  she  lived  was  that  of  Palestine 
or  Cappadocia  is  in  doubt.  In  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury Symmachus's  works  were  still  in  existence  at 
liodosto  near  Constantinople  (cf.  R.  Fdrster,  De 
arUiqwUatibua  et  libris  manuscriptis  Constantino- 
politanis,  Rostock,  1877;  T.  Zahn,  TLB,  1893,  p. 
43).  Symmachus  wrote  the  most  elegant  Greek 
of  all  these  translators.  Jerome  quotes  in  three 
passages  a  second  translation. 

Theodotion,  according  to  Irenasus,  was  from 
Ephesus;   according  to  Epiphanius,  from  Pontus; 

he    went    over    from    Gnosticism    to 
tion  °'  Ju^^^s™-     His  work  is  a  revision  of 

the  Septuagint  and  has  therefore 
been  placed  by  Origen  in  his  Hexapla  next  to 
the  column  of  the  Septuagint.  For  the  same 
reason  Origen  made  use  chiefly  of  Theodotion 
to  supply  such  passages  as  were  missing  in  the 
Septuagint  (cf.  I  Sam.  xvii,  12  sqq.;  Jer. 
xxxiii,  14-26;  xxxix,  4-13).  For  the  Book  of 
Daniel  his  version  came  into  general  use  in  the 
Church,  while  the  older  Greek  version  has  been 
preserved  only  in  the  one  codex  (Chisianus)  dis- 
covered 1772.  Readings  similar  to  those  of  Theo- 
dotion are  found  before  his  time  (on  this  question 
cf.  E.  Konig,  Einleitungy  ii,  108;  TLB,  1897,  51; 
St&rk,  ZWT,  1895,  288).  Howorth  ofifers  some 
unconventional  views  (PSBA,  1891-92)  on  the  ques- 
tion whether  Chronicles  and  Ezra-Nehemiah  in  our 
editions  of  the  Septuagint  are  from  Theodotion. 
That  his  name  has  the  same  meaning  as  that  of 
the  Targumist  Jonathan  seems  accidental. 

Besides  these  versions,  which  covered  the  whole 
Old  Testament — ^note,  however,  that  for  Samuel  we 
have  no  quotations  from  Aquila — Origen  succeeded 
in  finding,  at  least  for  certain  parts,  more  transla- 
tions: the  one  which  he  numbered  five,  in  Nicopo- 


lis  near  Actimn;  the  sixth  with  other  Hebrew  and 
Greek  books  in  a  clay  jar  near  Jericho  in  the 
time  of  Antoninus,  the  son  of  Severus. 

Deserving  of  brief  mention  is  a  Greek  trans- 
lation which  is  1,000  years  yoimger  than  the  pre- 
ceding, the    GrcBcus   Venetus,  which  first  became 
known  in  1740  through  the  catalogue  of  the  library 
of  San  Marco.    The  complete  and  final  edition  is 
due  to  O.  von  Gebhardt  (Gtobcus  Venetus,  PetUa- 
teuchi,    Proverbiorum,    Ruth,    Cantici,    Ecclesiasta, 
Threnorum,  Danielis  grceca  versio,  with  preface  by 
F.  Delitzsch,  Leipsic,  1875).    Delitzsch  is  inclined 
to  see  in  the  translation  the  work  of  aJeWjEliaseus, 
who  lived  at  the  court  of  Murad  I  in  Pnisa  and 
Adrianople;  von  Gebhardt,  that   of    a  proselyte. 
The  rendering  of  "  Yahweh"  by  ontourgos,  ousi^ 
and  the  use  of  the  Doric  dialect  for  the  Aramaic 
portions  of  Daniel  are  interesting.       E.  Nestle. 

Biblioorapht:  The  following  is  only  a  selection  oat  of  the 
vast  body  of  literature  available.     The  critical  Introdu^ 
tions  and  Ck>mmentarie8  on  the  Old  Testament  asd  on 
separate  parts  deal  more  or  less  fully  with  the  subject 
For  the  literature  on  Polyglots  see  Bibles,  Poltoujt; 
for  that  on  Aristeas  see  Aribteab;  and  on  printed  edi- 
tions of  the  Septuagint  cf.  H.  B.  Swete,  Inirodtuition,  pp. 
171-194.  London.   1Q02.     On  the  Septuagint  in  genenl 
consult  besides  the  works  mentioned  in  the  text:  J.  H. 
Hottinger,   Exercitationea  Anti-Morinianaf,  Zurich,  IM4; 
idem.   Diaaertationum  .  .  .  ftuciculuat   Heidelberg,  IMO; 
A.    Calovius,  CriticiM    9acer,  Leipsic,  1646;  L.  Cappelhu, 
Critica  aacra,    Paris,    1650;  J.    Buxtorf,    Antieriika,  ie» 
vindicioe  veriUUia  Hebraica,   Basel,   1653;  J.   Uasher,  Ik 
GroBca  aeptuaginta  interpretum  veraione  ayrUagma,  London, 
1655;  J.    Morinus.  ExerciUUionea    ecdeaiaaHecB  d  biUka, 
Paris,  1669;  H.  Hody,  De  biUiorum  textibua  ori4/itialitM, 
Oxford,  1706;  J.  E.  Grabe,  Epiatola  ad  J,  AfiZttuin,  Ox- 
ford,  1705;  idem,   De  viUia  aeptuaginta  inierpretwn,  ib. 
1710;    E.    Leigh.  Critioa   aacra,    6th  ed.,  London,  1706; 
A.    Trommius.    ConcordarUice  Grceca  veraionia,    Anster- 
dam,    1718;    W.    Whiston,    Eaaay    toward    Reatorinfi  (M 
True    Text   of    the   Old    .  .  .    Teatament,  London,  1722, 
and   Supplement    (to    the    same),    1723;    J.  G.  Carpiov, 
Critica    aacra,    Leipsic.    1728;  W.  Wall   The   Uae  of  A« 
Septuagint     Tranalation,    in     his    Brief    Critical    Notn, 
London,   1730;  C.    F.  Houbigant,  Prolegomfina  in  acri^ 
turam    aacram,    Paris,    1746;    B.    Kennioott,    The  Stak 
of  the  Pnnted  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Teatament,  Oxford, 
1753;  idem,  a  second  Diaaertation  on  the  same  subject 
1759;  J.  D.  Michaclis,  Programma  .  .  .  uber  die  70  DoUr 
mOtacher,   Gdttingen,    1767;  H.   Owen,   Enquiry  into  (ka 
Preaent  State  of  the  Septuagint  Veraion,  London,   1769; 
idem.  Critica  aacra,  1774;  idem.  A  Brief  Account  .  .  .  of 
the  Septuagint  Veraion,  1787;  J.  C.  Biel,  Novua  theaauna 
philologicua,  The  Hague.  1779-80;  J.  F.  Schleusner,  Lexid 
in  interpretea  graun  Veteria  Teatamenti,  Leipsic.  1784-86;  C. 
A.  Wahl.  Clavia  librorum  Veteria  Teatamenti,  Leipsic,  1853; 
G.  Bickell,  De  indole  ac  ratione  veraionu  Alexandrina  .  .  . 
Jobi,  Marburg.  1862;  F.  Delitrsch.  Siudien  .  .  .  der  oom- 
pliUenaiachen  Polyglotte,  Leipsic.  1886;  A.  Scholx,  Maaore- 
thiacher   Text  und   die  LXX-Ueberaetzung  dea  .  .  .  Jere- 
miaa,  Regcnsburg,  1875;  idem.  Die  alexandriniache  Ueber- 
aeUung   dea  .  .  .  Jeaaiaa,    WQrsburg.    1880;  £.    Flecker, 
Scripture  Onomatology  .  .  .  Critical  Notea  on  the  Sej^ua- 
gint,    London.    1883;    W.    J.    Deane,   in    The  Expoaitar, 
1884,    pp.    139-157,   223-237;  E.   Nestle,   Septuagintaatu- 
dien,  vols,   i-v,  Ulm,  1886-1907,  Maulbronn,  189^-1903; 
J.   G.   Carleton.    The  Bible  of  our  Lord  and   hia  Apoa- 
tlea,    London.    1888;    E.  Hatch,  Eaaaya  in  Biblical  Gredt, 
London.  1889  (cf.  criticism   by  Hort,  in    The   Expoaitor, 
Feb.,    1897);    A.  Schulte,    De  reatitutione   .  .  .  veraionia 
GrctccB  .  .  .  Judicum,   Leipsic,    1889;     G.    C.   Workman. 
Text  of    Jeremiah]  .  .  .  Greek    and   Hebrew,    Eklinburgh. 
1889;    P.     de    Lagarde,    Stichometrie,    in  Mittheilungen, 
iv.   205,   Gdttingen,   1891;  F.  C.   Conybeare,   on  Philo'a 
Text,  in  The  Expoaitor,  Dec,   1891,  pp.  45&-466:  H.  B 
Swete.  on  Gr&tz'a  Theory,  in  Expoaitory  Timea,  June,  1801 . 
J.  Taylor,  Maaaoretic  Text  and  .  .  .  Veraiona  of  .  .  .  Micah, 
London,  1891;  TranaacHona  of  the  Congrtaa  of  Orientaliata 


m 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Ver«lonB 


n  Undon,  Lobdoti.  1$94;  E.  Hateh  and  H>  A.  Redpath, 
Cnturdtn^  to  the  SeptnaQlnt,  London,  1892-1900;  F.  C. 
QMiyiiam^  PkiUmmMn  Ttit,  in  JQR,  Jan..  181>3,  pp.  246- 
m,  (M,.  18ft5.  pp.  88-122:  H.  A,  Ecdpath,  in  The  Arad- 
tmif.  Oct  22»  1893;  G.  Morin,  Une  rtn-i9ion  dv>  p^auHcr,  in 
Rtrw binididtme,  1S93,  part  6,  pp.  193-197;  H>  H.  Ho- 
wnrih.  ill  Tht  Academv,  1893,  July  22.  Sept.  16.  Oct.  7. 
IW.  ItJ,  1«W.  Feb.  17.  May  5.  June  9  (cf.  W.  A.  Wright. 
ik  1894.  Nov.  3.  and  T.  K.  Cheyne.  1894,  Nov.  10);  V. 
KounBBQO.  La  Bitdiothhute  dea  PtoU-mie*.  Aleitandria. 
1^;  S.  Silberetein,  Codex  AlexnndrinuA  und  Vaticanus 
d^<fntfm  KiinioMimcht*,  in  ZATW,  1893-94;  G.  A.  Dei«s- 
man,  BAdatkidi^n^  Marburg,  1895^6,  Ens.  tran^I,^  Edin- 
hfurifh.  1901:  H.  A.  Kcniiwiy.  Source*  of  Neu*  Teitament 
Greek,  EDdinhurgh^  1895;  E.  Klu^t«nnann.  AfiaUtta  xur 
Stptwi(nnfa,  Leipaic,  1895;  Max  Lohr.  Vorarbcilen  tu 
Dtiiml.ia  ZATW,  inr  (1895).  75-103.  193-225:  E.  Nestle. 
iwm  Coikx  A^iamb^nuM,  in  ZATW,  xv  (1895).  261-262; 
ikaOr  Zvr  Hexapla  de»  Oriffenea,  in  ZWT,  xxxvm^  231; 
H.  E.  Ryle,  PhUo  and  Holy  Scripture,  London.  IS95; 
F,  Johnson,  QuotaHanM  of  ike  Nrte  TeMlitm^nt,  London, 
18ft6j  A.  F.  Kirkt>aLnck,  The  SeptuoffitU,  in  The  Erptm- 
tar,  April,  1896,  213-257;  E.  Klostermann.  Diif  Mailftn- 
d«f  Ffivmeaif.  in  ZATW,  1896,  pp.  334-^37;  J.  Filmi.  in 
SmUk  Stwduts  in  Memory  of  A.  Kohui,  Berlin,  1897; 
&  KMtlB,  Einfi^irufiQ  in  daB  gritchiftche  Neus  Tettament^ 
Ornktun,  1897,  Eng.  transh,  London,  1901;  J.  H,  Mcml- 
Im.  A  GromnttB-of  Ntw  Ttstamrnt  Greek.  voL  i,  Profeffd'm- 
f^is,  pp.  1^1,  E^iinbxirgh,  1906;  A.  Ment,  Dtr  Wtrth  dcr 
Stplmicinti  for  die  Testkritik  dea  A.  T.,  in  J  FT,  ix,  65; 
JL  Rahlfa,  Septuacinta^tudien,  ports  i-ii,  O^ttineeo. 
lBOI-07 

Ot  Aquila,  Sytmnaehut,  and  Theodotion,  beftidea  the 
nirnnem  in  Ir«nicu«,  Origin!,  Euwbius,  Jerome,  and 
£piplkaiuui.  consult:  C.  A.  Thiprae'.  Pro  puriiate  Sym- 
mofki,  Lbifmc.  1755;  R.  Anger.  De  Onkeio  Chaldaico,  ib. 
IM5;  F.  FieUd,  OriifeniM  Hexaplorum  qua  »u]jer»unt,  i,  pp. 
*n  "Kl,  Oxford.  1867;  G.  Mcrcati.  L'Bt^  di  Simmaco 
^filtrprtk.  Modcna,  1892;  L.  HausdorfT.  Zur  Geachichlt  drr 
Torfitntim  nach  talmudiMt^en  Quellen^  m  MonatM«chnft  fur 
Ottthi(hii  und  Wiaaentchaft  dm*  Jufientuma,  xxxvm  (1893), 
^7;  t.  Blao,  Zur  Einieitung  in  di€  heilioe  JSchrift,  Buda- 
9^'  1^.  M.  Friedmanii,  Onkeloa  und  Akylaa^  Vienna. 
WW;  8,  Krauft-Budapest,  in  Fmatachrifi  9um  achMgat^n 
wiMilBOii  jAf.  SUintchneidert,  Lcipsio,  1806;  F.  C.  Bur- 
"tl-  Fn^nenlM  of  the  Book*  of  Kings  .  ,  *  ,  Cambridire, 
1N97;  bCB,  I  150-151.  ii.  14-23  (vaJuable);  DB,  iv, 
^f^^-m,  EB,  IV,  5017-19. 

D*  Latia  Versions:   The  origin   of    the  earliest 

i^tin  vtrrsioDB  is  unknown.     This  fact  is  efusily  e.\- 

plamoil  if  the  case  was  stated  correcily  by  Angus- 

|j^'  ''  Those  who  translated  tlie  Scriptures  from 

J*fl>n?w  into  Greek  can  be  enumerated;  but  the 

y*'ifl  translators  by  no  means.     For  in  the  early 

*^ys  of  the  faith  when  any  one  received  a  Greek 

''^ftniacript  into  his  hands  and  seempt!  t^o  have  ever 

f^jittJe  faeility  in  hxnguage,  he  dared  t<i  translate 

5*^    ilk  doilrina  ChriJitiana,  u,  11),     Again  (ii,  14) 

T*   su^ntions   **  the    abundance    of    int^^rjireters," 

y^Minc  is    probably   right   in    the  ^fupposition 

Jf|^t  Latin  versions  did  not  exist  in  pre-Christian 

1  events  there  are  no  trac»es  of  Jewish 

^In  this  direction.     The  history  of  the 

— «  vcmjns  is  di^-idetl  into   two  unequal  parts 

^  the  work  of  Jerome  and  closes  with  an  account 

^'  U(ef  versions  independent  of  Jerome,  particu- 

**^y  those  made  by  Protestants. 

I.  The Ia tin  Bible  before  Jerome:  The  statement 

L**'    Augiistine    about  the  great  variety  of    Latin 

~~     Ations  is  corroborated    by    the    documents, 

lipte,  and    quotations    preser\^ed,    for    the 

r  Ttstamcnt  of  course  much  more  than  for  the 

J^'^-     liut  even  for  the  latter  one  may  cite,  e.g. 

l^  Dnit.  xxxi,  17.  at  least  eight  variant  readings; 

^  in  the  New  Testament   for   Luke  xxiv»  4,  5, 

bkift  twctity-60vcn  variant   readings.    In  other 


words,    as  Jerome  saySi   "  as  many  readings   as 

copies";  and    tliese   readings   are  not  merely  dif- 

ferent  n*ntlerings  of  an  identical  Greek 

T   17^  t.?*!*     ^^^tf  but  correspond  to  various  Greek 
Latla  Bible.  ,.  e     Z      i.-  i  m.       i 

The  Itala  '^^"'"gs,  a  fact  wmcn  seerae  w  de- 
monstrate the  more  clearly  the  exist- 
ence of  different  transhitions.  Nevertheless  Je- 
rome speaks  frequently  as  if  there  was  but  one 
ancient  translation,  wliich  he  opposes  as  **  the  com- 
mon edition "  and  an  " old  translation"  to  hia  own 
undertaking.  Some  variations  at  least  arose  in 
the  way  sketched  by  Jerome — "  by  stupid  inter- 
preters badly  tnmslated,  by  presumptuous  but 
unskilled  men  perversely  amended,  by  sleepy 
copyists  either  adtled  to  or  changed  about."  Never- 
theless it  is  impoasible  to  reduce  all  these  variations 
to  consecutive  stages  of  one  original  tnmslation 
and  therefore  scholars  use  the  tenn  **  Old  Latin 
versions"  (in  the  plural)  and  avoid  especially  the 
name  formerly  used;  viz.,  **  Itida/'  This  designation 
went  back  to  a  single  passage  of  Augustine  (De 
doctrina  Chnfititina^  ii,  ^t,  15):  after  he  had  fixed 
the  principle  *'  that  the  uncorrect4*d  texts  shoidd 
give  way  to  the  corrected  ones  at  least  when  they 
are  copies  of  the  same  translation,"  he  goes  on  to 
say:  "  Among  translations  themselves  the  Itala 
is  to  be  preferred  to  the  others,  for  it  keeps  closer 
to  the  words,  without  preju<lice  to  clearness  of 
expression/'  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  puts 
here  one  translation,  wluch  he  prefers,  in  o[>i>osition 
to  several  other  translations;  therefore  it  was  not 
well  done  to  comprehend  all  that  is  k^ft  of  the  Latin 
Bibles  from  the  time  before  Jerome  under  this  name 
Itala.  Some  have  tried  to  change  tlie  text,  but 
Jtnla  is  the  correct  re  ailing.  Augustine  mu?<t  mean 
a  version  used  in  r.r  having  come  from  Italy,  prob- 
ably the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula.  Isidore 
of  Seville  (£7i/m/>%//«r,  vi.  4)  in  the  seventh  century 
clearly  understmid  by  "  Itala  "  the  work  of  Jerome. 
This  view  was  restated  in  1824  by  C,  A.  Breyther, 
was  considered  poasible  by  E.  Reuss,  and  well- 
founded  by  F.  C.  Burkitt  {Tfie  Old  Latin  and  the 
Itala,  in  TS,  iv,  3),  with  the  limitation  that  Augus- 
tine had  not  yet  in  view  the  whole  of  Jerome's 
labor,  but  only  it-s  beginning — the  revision  of  the 
Gospels.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  avoid  com- 
pletely the  name  **  Itala"  and  to  use  "Old  Latin*' 
for  the  Bible  before  Jerome.  The  home  of  this 
Bible  is  not  to  be  sought  in  Rome,  where  Greek  was 
the  language  of  the  infant  Church  and  its  literature, 
but  most  pTObably  in  Africa.  It  is  true,  many  of 
the  linguistic  peculiarities  ascribed  to  Africa  are 
shared  by  the  Itngun  rustica  in  other  parts  of  the 
Latin  world,  and  it  has  become  customary  to  distin- 
guish an  African  anil  a  European  branch  of  the 
Latin  Bible;  nevertheless  the  origin  of  this  whole 
literature  seems  to  have  been  in  Africa.  Trans* 
lations  of  certain  liooks  which  in  early  times 
were  of  almost  canonical  standing — such  as  the 
EpLstle  of  Barnabas,  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas»  ai^d 
the  First  Epistle  of  Clement^are  closely  con- 
nected with  these  versions  (cf.  Hamack,  LittrTtUMt, 
i,  883;  O.  Bardenhewer,  Gcschuhte  ikr  aUkirch- 
iichen  Littcratur,  \,  Freiburg,  IflOSV 

Because  the  Old  Latin  versions  have  been  re- 
placed in  the  use  of  the  Church  by  tlie  version  of 


Bible  Veraiona 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


129 


Jei^me,  only  a  few  manuscripts  of  th@  Old  Latin 
have  survived  and  these  as  fragmeDts  and  palimp- 
lests  onijf  but  of  high  antiquity.  It  ia  a  great  pity 
that  they  are  not  yet  collected  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  their  use  easy,  es- 


33-  KiiQv- 

ftorlptB  aud 


Editions  P^caalJy  for  the  Old  Testament^  since 
they  are  all  important  for  the  criticisra 
of  the  Septua^t.  This  was  recognized  by  the 
Roman  coranussioa  which  prepared  tho  Editio 
Sixiina  of  the  Septuagint.  They  collected  with 
great  care  the  Biblical  quotations  from  the  Latin 
ecclesiastical  writers,  Petrus  Morinua,  Antonius 
Agelliua,  and  Lielius  Malwerda  were  the  members 
of  the  commission  to  whom  this  part  of  the  task 
was  entrusted.  Their  labors  were  used  in  the  scholia 
of  the  Greek  edition  of  15S6  [1S87],  but  still  more 
freely  ifi  its  Latin  translation^  published  by 
Flammiuts  Nobilius  (Home,  1588;  reprinted  with 
the  Greek  text  at  Paris,  1624;  without  it,  Venice, 
1609,  1628;  Antwerp,  1616),  But  the  chief 
work  IB  B^liorum  Sticrorum  LaiiniE  tfernones 
antiques  ,  ,  .  opera  et  »tvdio  Petri  So^atier^  O.  S,  B., 
e  eoTigregaiwne  S^  Mauri  (S  vols.,  Reims,  1 7319—49, 
with  new  title,  Paris,  Didot,  1761).  Before  Saba- 
tier,  are  to  be  mentioned  J.  M.  Cams  (Cardinal 
Tommasi),  Sacrorum  Bibti^orum  iwsia  ediiionem  sew 
LXX  Interpretum  neu  B.  Hieronytni  veisres  iiiuli, 
etc,  (2  vols.»  Rome,  1688;  2d  ed,  in  Thofrmaii  Opera, 
ed.  Veiaosl,  i,  Rome,  1747);  and  Ee^^iastt*  er 
verifione  I  lata  cum  nMh  BomueU  (Paris,  1593), 
For  full  list  of  manuscripts  and  editions,  cf.  the 
Hauck-Heraog  RE,  iii,  2S-33.  The  manuscripts  of 
the  Ni^w  Testament  are  enumerated  also  in  Scriv- 
ener^ h  ftWoduction,  ii  (London,  1S94),  45^54  (re- 
vised by  H.  J.  White);  m  Gregory *s  Froleoonwnn 
to  TiscJjendorfi  New  Ti^tament^  iii,  952-971,  and 
Tej^tkritik  dea  Neuen  TeHlaments  (Leipsic,  1900), 
598-613;  and  in  the  prefaces  of  Jerome^fi  New 
Testament  e<iited  by  J,  Words wori:h  and  H.  J. 
White  {N^ovum  Tesiamenium  Dommi  nostri  Jexu 
ChruH  Laiine  stcundum  tditiitmm  S.  Hieronymi  ad 
radicum  manuscriptorum  ftdem  recensuU  J  oka  tines 
WfiTdswarih.  In  operis  sociekitcm  adsumpttt  Hen- 
rico Juiiano  WhiU,  part  i,  the  four  Gospels,  Ox- 
ford, l.S89'98;  part  ii,  section  i,  Acts,  1905).  In 
the  critical  apparatus  of  the  New  Testament  they 
are  designated  by  the  small  letters  of  the  Latin 
alphabet. 

Ther  followiiiff  fi.ddiUaELn  may  be  m&de  to  wbat  ie  gqh^ 
tamH  in  th«  HB  (ut  sup): 

Old  Tcst&ment:  P.  Sabatipr,  Bibliarum  Sa/ctarum  Lntin^ 
ivr^onev  an^i^cr.  i  Cfteim-i.  1744),  004  [for  a  frogrnvni  of 
Job:  cf.  E.  Wer^t,  Ilittain  d^i  la  Vulgate,  Parisf,  iS^p  My, 
C.  M.  Biadchiiru,  VimUciacanommrumMaipturarum  iRom^, 
1740;  Fnuilran  from  tho  CcK^ej  VrronenaiH);  F,  Moni!,  LaUi- 
ntKhe  und  €rif€hiKhe  M*9sen  (Frankfort.  1850),  40  (for  fraff- 
m«[iti  of  Psaluift  from  a  pAlimp^sit  in  CoLrlsrtthe);  P.  de 
Lm^rde,  Probe  itintr  ntrntn  Atm^atus  der  tatfinijtchen  Ueher- 
Mtiun^  dta  Alten  TeaiamtnU  (GdttitigieEi,  1SS5;  for  Pj(&]rii)); 
H.  Ehr^nflbergcfp  Paailerium  twfut  (TauherbiachofDhcim, 
1BS7);  HfptatimeJii  partiM  poaterioria  v^raia  LattTta  ajtti- 
quianma  e  codice  Laiftluntnai  (Lyoai,  ISOO;  cf.  F.  Vieou- 
roux,  in  Hevus  da  gventwuM  hi9bwviv.&it  Jan,- Apr.,  1902>; 
P.  de  Logarde,  S&ptuaffintagtudien^  ii  COfiiCtirLefn.  1892; 
for  HI  Esdra*):  J.  Bebheim.  /,+frH  Tobit.  Judit,  Eairr  ,  ,  . 
LaHnt%  iranalaMiQ  d  titdk:^  ,  .  .  Mmmdientti  {Trondhjeni. 
1803);  V.  Schultte,  Die  Qwdtinburgcf  itala-\finiaturrn 
•  ,  ,  in  Berlin  {Munich.  1808;  he  ref^r*  tbrrn  to  the  fourtK 
century^;  P.  Corfls^n.  Zw^ei  nrutt  Frofffnente  der  Wainfffir- 
mne'   rrapheUnhtinikehrilt,    ntbai  eingr    Unii?tauehunff  abet 


4a*  y^h^Um9  d^  Wtingortener  vnd  WOftburg^  Propkikfi- 
handaehnft^  tBarlln,  1390);  F,  Thielmann,  Btricht  «far 
da9  ffeaammaUe  handa^mJUii^  Material  su  nnm-  kriimAB 
Au90abe  der  totnmccAfn  Utb^aetsunifffn  &iAft«cA«r  BUdlr 
d6t  Alien  TitatamentM^  JQ  SitMungdttHch^  dtr  k&m^tidiin 
Baueritchen  Akod^mia  der  Wvuenach^fUn.  ISOO,  ii.  2;  0. 
Hober^,  Die  df£»la  lateinitt^  Uebertetzunff  de*  Budw 
Bartwh  (Freiburg,  1002)^  A.  M.  AnieUi,  De  libH  Batud 
vntuatUMtma  iMtina  vertione  .  ,  .  epUtola  (MonteeuBUU, 
1902)^  W.  O.  E.  O^terky,  Old  Latin  TaU  af  ike  Mivr 
PrttphetMjn  JTS.  v  {1904},  76,  242,  37S,  67a  H  fl7,  Sl7. 
The  Paalma  from  tbp  Moiftr*ibie  Litiirgy  ara  in  MPL,  haxf. 

New  TflstameDt:  Gospels:  The  FmjBmeni&  Ctffieim^  fa) 
are  edited  in  OLBT,  ii  (London,  1SS8);  for  Cod&  Svt^ 
iianua  (jl.  cf.  G,  AnielU,  Un.  anlidiijmnu^  eodim  bibii&  taUm 
jmrpurea  (Montecaimmci,  1803);  Acts:  Codex  Demidimaim 
idem),  probably  of  the  thirteenth  eentury^  now  lort^  i 
mixed  teirt,  was  edited  by  C.  F.  ^IntthiEi  (NovHrn  Tmtmtta- 
ti*ei,  Hi«a.  1782):  for  the  Corfer  LawMnmie  (e).  mt  Biiii 
Text,  II,  t.  §9;  it  w&»  reri»d  by  White  for  Wordawwit- 
Wbitei  on  the  Codtx  PtrpimdinM*  (p),  thirtve^th  tea- 
tiiry,  A  miied  teait,  collated  by  White,  cf.  8.  Betjeer.  Um 
,4neieii  Tsrie  latin  dot  Actea  dot  ApStrta^m  N'oUca  ti  Si^ 
iraU*  dee  manuirrH^.  XX3£V  tParifl.  1896);  cf.  further  Uv 
comictta  aitr  ljertionariu&  fni«cr  ?uo  Toleiana  tedtaia  aftUi^ 
fwi  MCC  ulebidur,  ed.  G.  Morin  {Aneed^la  Af onelMfaM. i 
Mutedwjtis,  1803)*  Pauline  Epi^tlee;  for  the  tnaanKripW 
if.  e.  t  ffp  cf.  B.  RAneeh,  jn  ZWT.  1S82,  p.  83,  Apoealypi: 
cf.  H.  Linke.  Studien  xur  Itata  {Breeiau,  18«0),  The  Cad«f 
Cm^mmuia  Iff^},  with  fragmenu  af  Ihe  Catholic  EpistK 
Acta,  and  the  Apocalypse  from  the  Fleury  palimpe^t  (^aria, 
6400  0),  have  been  lately  edited  by  E.  S,  Budtansa  (Oi- 
ford,  1907.  in  OLBT,  v). 

Oo  the  relation  of  the  diffeneiit  text«,  cf.  fisF  the  New 
Te«(AizieDt  Hort's  Iwiitodtu^n  (L«ndonp  1881)  and  Wfin^ 
worth-White;  for  the  Old  Tef»toment  Kennedy  in  DB,  ^ 
40  Jiqq^  On  the  toLZijcmiA?,  cf,  H,  R^nnch,  I  tola  itnd  ViiK 
pi  to  (Marburg.  1860).  oo  which  work  cf.  J.  N,  Ott,iji  NtM 
JoJtnbflcAfl-  far  Pkil^logia,  cix,  1S7*^  pp.  778»  833, 

Of  the  highest  importance  for  the  reatoratifli 

of  the  Old  Latin  Bible  are  the  qtiotations  of  ^ 

older  Latin  writetB.    Their  countries  are    knoTra 

and  thus  the  home  of  the  BibUcat  texts  is  located. 

Yet  many  questions  are  stiU  unsettled; 

3,  auota-   e,g.,  did   Tcrtullian  know  and  use  i 

iiillati&    ^^^^^  translation  or  are  his  quotation! 

Writer*,    taken  by  him  from  the  Greek  and  trana- 

iat<?d    into    Latin?    Heinrich    Hoppe 

{Syntax  und  Stil  dea  TrrtvlHan,  Leipaic,  1903)  de- 

niea  that  TertulUan  knew  a  Latin  version  of  the 

Old  Testament.   T,  Zahn  makes  the  same  asaertioo 

for  the  New  Testament, 

QuotiLtinnii  ftigm  shnoflt  at!  book*  are  found  in  the  lAbtr 
de  dirinia  airiptuHa  aivs  apeculum  (deaifnaled  «e  mX  anh 
friljfcJ  tQ  Ati^uiatitie,  pubUehfid  by  A.  Mm  Id  Spicileffium 
Homanum,  ix,  2  (Rome,  184S),  1-S8,  and  in  iVovq  pafriiin 
biiditfthem,  i.  2  (1852).  1-117r  better  by  F.  Waihxieh.  ia 
CSEL,  xji  (cf.  Weihrieh^i  diMeKation,  Div  Bib^-Esctarpta 
de  difiTia  aciiptum.  Vienna.  1803).  gcTcral  fra^nenta  &re 
alw)  in  C.  Vercellonct  Diasertationi  aec<ademiche  <  Runv!, 
1804).  On  the  quotaticme  in  ffcueral,  cf.  H.  Ronach,  in 
ZHT,  3t.  !&&7,  606-634.  18TO.  433^70,  1870,  01-160, 
1871.  631,  IS75.  86;  L.  J.  Bebb,  in  ^tudia  Biblm,  ii  (Loa- 
dotL,  1800),  105  BQC].;  ScriTener':!  /nb^eduelitm  (London, 
iSM\  167-174;  Gregory's  Proltmmena,  Hi  (Ldpeic,  1894), 
1131-1246;  and  Kennedy,  in  DB,  £2-63. 

The  wTitem  that  &fB  of  primary  importance  are:  AlciniQi 
Avitiui,  archbishop  of  Vienne  c.  450-517;  Amhtoee,  bjiibep 
of  Milan  374-397;  Arobroeia^teir,  the  name  ciTen  to  »  mmit 
important  (fimtnentator  on  tbe  thirteen  Epkatlea  of  St.  Pmul 
(cf.  T.  Zahn.  in  NKZ,  xin,  pp,  410  aqej..  and  A,  Soutet. 
TS*  vil,  4,  Cambridire,  1905);  Arnqibiu*,  preahyter  in  Africa, 
fourth  century;  ExhortatiifTijea  da  pani^ntia.  ascribed  to 
Cypri&n:  Liber  de  ataatorihua  (aceordinc  to  Bam»ck  ai  early 
as  Cyprian);  Librr  da  paacJm  tomputue  (written  in  Aftica  c. 
243);  Liber  de  pr^miaai^nibua  (ascribed  to  Prosper  of  Aqui- 
lain^");  LUbfrenllaiioniilefrumMoeaicarximttRomiinoTitm  \ed. 
P.  KrIlKcf  and  T.  Mommseo  in  Caliecti^f  librorum  jurie  aii- 
kfuaiifiiani,   iii,  Berlin,  1801)1  Au^nfiOise,  bishop  of  Hippo 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Teralons 


(from  thi*  author  alone  Lft^artle  collected  13.276 
Quotitioikt  of  th*  Otd  Testameni  and  29,540  oE  the  New 
T«sutneQt};  Cikpr«olus>  biihop  of  Carthase  o.  431;  Casaian, 
at  MarMilln  (d.  about  435);  Commodiaii  (perhaps 
of  third  century);  Cyptian^  bishop  of  Cartbace  (d. 
cf.8aaday,  in  OLBT,  ii;  Lagardc,  Symmict€i,  i,  74;  Mit- 
M;  P.  CbrsMQ,  Ihr  cyprianinhe  Text  der  Acta 
Berlm,  1802);  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles; 
ma.  buhop  of  Bre«cia  (o,  380;  ed.  Marx,  in  CSEL. 
i);  FulfieDtius,  bbhop  of  Ruape  Cc.  468-533);  Gildaa 
Euchehua;  Hiiariiui^  biahop  of  Foitieni  {d,  380; 
in  Kteine  phihlotjwche  Abkandtungen,  InmHbruck, 
Kua,  btahop  of  Lyons  {c.  180,  Novum  Te«tain*n- 
lo  be  pubhahed  in  OLBT  by  Prof.  Banday); 
(in  the  time  of  Jerome):  Lactantius  (iD  Africa  c. 
);  Lucifer*  bishop  of  CAgtiari  (d.  371;  cf.  Dombart, 
Pkilotogiaehe  WoehenMcArift,  1860.  no.  6):  Juliufl 
Matemua  (c,  346):  Maxirain  (cf.  TLZ,  1900,  17): 
(at  Rame  e.  252;  cf.  Maraack.  in  TU,  xiii.  4); 
iLatin  translation;  c,  251):  Optatus.  bishop  of  Mileve 
e.  368;  Primastua^  bishop  of  Adrumetum,  aixlb 
Bausaleiter,  inZahn,  ForBckunfftn  gur  Geschichte 
Kawm,iv,  Berlin.  1900,  1-224);  Pe- 
f  Ireland;  Priaeillian,  bishop  of  Avila  in  8pain.  fourth 
■ry  (cf.  CSEL,  xriii):  Balvianus  of  Marseillesi.  c.  450  (cf. 
eh.  D*  Scdriani  tcripiurm  aacr<E  vernonihws^  Neiiatadt, 
i);  TeriuUian  of  Carthage,  c.  150-240  (cL  E6nach,  Das 
t  Tmkimtnt  T€rt\dluin»,  Leipsic.  1871«  and  J.  N.  Ott.  in 
t  Jalifbiichgr  ftir  Philolo^,  1874,  p.  856):  Tyconiuit,  in 
e.  340  (ef.  F,  C.  Burkitt.in  TS,  iii.  I,  1894):  Verecnn- 
a  (ef.  Lk^arde,  SepiuaginloMtudien.  t);  Victoriniii«,  bishop 
Tittau  in  Pannonia.  c  300  (cf.  HauMleiter,  in  ZWT,  vii, 
^257);  ViffilJitt,  biihop  of  Thapeiu,  e,  484. 


parts  of  the  Old  Latin  Bible  are  still  in 

use  and  even  in  the  works  of  Luther 

flc    has    shown    readings    from    this    source. 

same  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  translations 

the  vernacular   dialects  of   medieval    Europe, 

Lch  HA    the    Anglo-Saxon    (cf.    for  instance  R. 

A&dke,   Ueber  da$  VerhdUnu  der  weslMchsischen 

Svim^ienub€r$€iiunff    turn    UUeinUchen    Original^ 

Hmlle,  1896;  A.   S.   Cook,    Bihiiml  Quoialiom   in 

CHdEngluh  Prote  Writers,  New  York,  ISm;  Max 

FOfiier,  in  Engliache  Siuditn,  Leipsic,  1900,  p.  480). 

%,  The  Bible  of  Jeromo  (the  Vulffate):    Toward 

the   cad    of     the    fourth    century    the    inconve- 

oieooB  from    which    the  Western  Church    euflercd 

because  there  was  no  single  authorized  Latin  ver- 

w»  of  the  Bible  must  have  been  seriously  felt, 

lod  Dunasus,  bishop  of  Rome  (d.  384),  commis- 

^wd  Jeiome  (q.v.)  to  prepare  an  authoritative 

re^nsion,    probably  in   the    year   382. 

l*  Jwome**  Xhe  letter  with   which   Jerome  dedi- 

U ^ -i^ J^  cated  the  first  part   (the  Gospels)  to 

iBcat,       ^'he   pope    gives    the    only    authentic 

reconl    of   the    work   and    itH    scope 

W  *VRYF,  2d  ser.,  vi,  487-488).     Jerome  accepts 

^ftiili  IabIc  Mt  him  by  Damasus,  notes  its    extreme 

^^HB^tj  and  the  resulting  peril  to  himself,  antici- 

^^■tei  Ihe  harshest  criticism  of  hitnflclf  and  of  the 

^PBwti  of  hia  labor,  and  states  that  bia   emenda- 

«^  have  been  as  conservative  as  pyoasible.     Not- 

***^t«jding    Jerome's    modesty   concerning    his 

'^flt.  it  has  had   an  unparalleled   history^   inas* 

^^^^  M    it    became    the    Bible    of    the    whole 

Ocddcftt. 

To  estimate  Jerome's  work  properly,  it  would 
"*  nwesBary  (I)  to  know  what  were  the  Latin 
**^  which  he  had  to  re^nse;  (2)  what  were  the 
^Ic  t«zU  which  he  chose  aa  standard;  (3)  to 
WT^hii  work  in  its  original  fonn.  The  last  is  now 
''^wecl,  at  least  for  the  first  part  of  the  New  Tes- 


tament* since  the  monumental  edition  of  Words- 
worth-White.   The    Greek   manuscript    or    manu- 
scripts used  by  Jerome  must  have  been  of  the  type 
of   the   Codices    Vaticanu^    and   Sinaiticua:    there 
are,  however,  some  readings  not  attested   by  any 
Greek maniiBcript  (cf .,  for  instance,  John  x,  16,  umtm 
Qvile ;  xvi,  13,  docebit :  and  on  this  question  cf.  the 
letter  of  Wordsworth  and  White  in  The  Academy ^ 
Jan,  27,  1894;  Wmi  EpUQguc,  057-672;   E.  Mange- 
not,   in  RSE,  Jan.,  1900),     About  Jerome's  Latin 
texts  there  is  still  less  information.     Wordsworth 
and  White  printed  under  Jerome's  text  that  of  the 
Codex  Briimnus  {/)  as  most  nearly  related  to   it; 
but  according   to    Burkitt   and    Katjfmann    it  is 
rather  a  text  of   Jerome  him«elf  adsipted  to  the 
Gothic  version.    Jerome's  statement  in  his  prefa- 
tory letter  that  he  changed  as  little  as  possible  is 
probably  true;  for  the  language  indicates  that  the 
Gospels  came  from  different  translators.     Identical 
expressiona  in  Greek  are  quit*  differently  rendered 
into   Latin  (cf.  the  history  of   the    Passion  in  the 
different  Gospels,  and  notice  for  instance  lagenam 
aquce    baiulans  =  amphoram    mjum  •portan.s,   or  the 
rendering  of    "  high  priest  ^^  in  Mattliew  by  prin- 
cep9   sacerdotunij  in   Mark  by  summus  sacerdoSj  in 
John  by  pontilex).     It  is.  therefore,  quite  wrong  to 
treat  the  Vulgate  of  the  Gospels  as  a  harmonious 
work,  and  it  is  clear  that  the  value  of  it  for  tex- 
tual criticism   is   greatly   enhanced,   since    it   pre- 
server the  text  of  the  time  when  the  (IJospels  were 
not  yet  united  into  one  collection.     Whether  alao 
in  the  second  part  of  the  New  Testament  such 
differences  can  be  detected  hiis  not  yet  been  in- 
vestigated.    It  is  not  even  quite  certain   how  far 
Jerome  revised  the  second  part  of  the  New   Testa- 
ment.    Only   the  Gospels    have  his  prefaces,    and 
Augustine  writes  to  him  only  of  the  Gospel:  "  We 
give  no  small   thanks  to  God  for  your  work   in 
whieh  you  have  interpreted   the  Gospel  from   the 
Greek*"     Jerome,    however,  answers:  "If,  as  you 
say,  you  suspect  me  of  emending  the  New    Testa- 
ment "\  and  in  398  he  wrote  to  Lucinius  Beticus» 
to  whom  he  sent  the  first  copy  ready  (EpLst,,  Ixxi, 
5,  NPNF,  2d  series,  vi,  154)':  "The  New  Testa- 
ment I  have  restoreti  to  the  authoritative  form  of 
the    G^€^ek."      In  his   De   vtr,  iU,  he  says:    "  The 
New  Testament  1  have  restored  to  the  true  Greek 
form,  the  Old  I  have  rendered  from  the  Hebrew." 
Jerome's  work  on  the  Old  Testament  was  more 
thorough-     First  he  revised  the  Psalter   [from  the 
Septuagint]  in  383  in  Rome.     This  revision  was  in- 
troduced by  Damasus  into  the  liturj^y  and  is  hence 
called  the  Psaiterium  Romanum  in  distinction  from 
the    Pmltcrium    vetm  or  the  unre vised  Old  Latin. 
It  was  in  use  in  Italy  till  Pius  V  (1566-72). and  it  is 
still  used  in  St.  Peter's  in   Rome  and  in   Milan ^ 
partly  in  the  Roman  Missal  and  in  one  place  in  the 
Breviary,  in  the  hortatory  Psalm  xcv  (xciv).     About 
four  years  later   in  Palestine  Jerome 
revised   the    Psalms    a    second   time,, 
making  use  of   the  critical    marks  of 
Origen,  the  obelus  and  asterisk.     This 
revision  is  known  as  the  G  alii  can  Psalter,  as  it  was 
first  used  chiefly  in  Gaul  (it  seems  through  Gregory 
of  Tours),  but  finally  it  became  the  current  version 
in  the  Latin  Church   (through  Pius  V),  of  course 


2.  The 
Old  Testa- 
ment. 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


124 


without  the  critical  marks.  At  last  Jerome  trans- 
lated the  Psalms  from  the  Hebrew  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Sophronius  about  392  (not  405,  as  Lagarde 
has  it);  but  this  remained  a  private  labor  and  is  not 
found  in  many  manuscripts.  The  best  edition  of 
this  version  is  Lagarde's  PsaUerium  juxta  Hebrceoa 
Hteronymi  (Leipsic,  1874). 

About  the  same  time  with  his  second  revision  of 
the  Psalter  Jerome  revised  the  translation  of  Job 
(preserved  in  a  few  manuscripts,  especially  at  Ox- 
ford and  St.  Gall;  edited  by  Lagarde,  MiUheilungen, 
ii,  189  sqq.;  cf.  Caspari,  in  Actes  du  huititme  con- 
grbs  des  OrieTUalisteSf  i,  Leyden,  1893,  37-51)  and 
most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament;  but  he  lost 
the  work  "  by  the  deceit  of  somebody."  There- 
fore he  undertook  the  greater  labor  of  translating 
the  Old  Testament  afresh  direct  from  the  Hebrew. 
He  began  in  390  with  Samuel  and  Kings  and  pub- 
lished them  with  his  Prologus  galeatus  (q.v.);  then 
followed  Job,  the  Prophets,  and  Psalms.  About  the 
chronological  order  of  the  rest  absolute  certainty 
is  not  reached.*  He  left  Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus, 
Maccabees,  and  Baruch  without  revision.  Accord- 
ing to  his  own  statement  he  translated  the  three 
Solomonic  writings  in  three  days,  Tobit  in  one  day, 
Judith  in  one  night;  for  the  latter  two  his  Jewish 
teacher  translated  to  him  the  Aramaic  into  He- 
brew and  he  dictated  the  Latin  to  a  copyist  (cf. 
G.  Griitzmacher,  Hieronymus,  i,  Leipsic,  1901, 
73-77.  On  Jerome's  method,  cf.  G.  Hoberg,  De 
S.  Hteronymi  ratione  interpretandi,  Bonn,  1886;  M. 
Rahmer,  Die  hebrdischen  Traditionen  in  den  Wer- 
ken  des  HieronymuSy  Brcslau.  1861). 

At  first  Jerome's  work  was  not  well  received,  es- 
pecially because  he  had  dared  to  part  with  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  even  Augustine  believed  to  be 
equally  inspired  with  the  original  Hebrew.  An 
African  bishop  on  finding  hedera 
8-Hi8twry  ("ivy")  in  the  Book  of  Jonah  in 
ventionof  ^^®  "^^  version  instead  of  the  accus- 

Printin^.  tomed  cncurbila  ("gourd")  raised  a 
tumult  in  his  Church.  Jerome's  former 
friend  Rufinus  wrote  expressly  against  the  new 
work.  "  So  great  is  the  force  of  established  usage," 
says  Jerome,  "  that  even  acknowledged  corrup- 
tions [of  text]  please  the  greater  part,  for  they 
prefer  to  have  their  copies  pretty  rather  than 
correct."  On  the  other  hand  he  knows  "  that 
they  attack  it  in  public  and  read  it  in  secret." 
At  the  time  of  his  death  (420)  the  attacks  and  criti- 
cism of  his  opponent's  had  ceased. 

We  are  not  informed  where  and  when  complete 
Bibles  of  Jerome's  version  were  first  produced  and 
introduced  into  the  use  of  the  Church.  In  Spain  it 
seems  to  have  been  at  a  pretty  early  time.  Cassiod- 
orus  (d.  about  570)  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not 
the  very  first,  who  took  care  to  produce  correct 
copies.  From  his  copies  are  derived  the  introduc- 
tory pieces  in  the  Codex  Amiutinus  (cf.  H.  J.  Whjte, 
in  Studia  Biblica,  ii,  Oxford,  1890,  273;  P.  Corssen, 
Die   Bibeln   des   Cassiodorius,   JPT,    1883,    1891). 

»  White  gives  the  following  table:  394  Esdras;  396  Chron- 
idee;  398  I^overbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Solomon;  401? 
GenesiB,  followed  by  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuter- 
onomy; 405  Joshua.  Judges.  Ruth,  Esther,  Tobit,  Judith, 
and  the  apocryphal  parts  of  Daniel  and  Esther. 


Pope  Gregory  the  Great  wrote  at  the  end  oE: —  ^^ 
sixth  century:  "  I  indeed  circulate  the  new  t^a_,^^^ 
lation;  but  when  the  course  of  argument  Hftm      j^^ 
it,  I  use  now  the  new  and  now  the  old  by  w^^^y  ^/ 
proof;  and   this  because   the  Apostolic   See,         over 
which  under  God  I  preside,  uses  both  and  b^^  i^^ 
study  of  both  my  toil  is  hghtened."     By  that      tune 
the  nameVidgata  ("common,"  "ordinary 'O^^^'Aich 
before  had  meant  the  Septuagint  and  its  Latin  t^:ran0- 
lation,  had  gone  over  to  the  work  of  Jerome.    Roger 
Bacon  sajrs  of  it  "that  [version]  which  is  diSvsed 
among  the  Latins  is  that  which  the  Church  recei  v«s 
in  these  days."     But  even  in  the  printed  editioi^ 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  this  narsae 
is  not   yet   as    invariable  as  we  are   inclined       ^ 
suppose;    and    despite    the   warning   of  WalaT*^^ 
Strabo,  "  let  none  desire  to  amend  one  from  fc^^ 
other,"  mixing  in  all  degrees  of  the  old  and  the  n-^^' 
texts  took  place  and  survives  up  to  the  pres^^^' 
not  only  in  manuscripts,  but  even  in  the  prinfc-^^^ 
text,  as  when  in  II  Kings  i,  18,  the  first  part  is  fit-^^™ 
the  Old  Latin,  and  the  second  from  Jerome. 

Charlemagne  found  several  recensions  in  use  in  fcr::*^ 
dominions.     In  a  capitulary  of  789  he  ordered  th»-  -*^ 
there  should  be  "  in  each  monastery  and  parish  gp^r"^ 
copies  of  the  catholic  books,  and  the  boys  must  not"^^^ 
permitted  to  deface  them  either  in  reading  the — ^ 
or  by  writing  on  them;  and  if  there  be  necessL    ^y 
for  writing  [copying]  a  Gospel,  Psalter,  or  Mihh  -^aiU 
men  of  maturity  are  to  do  it,  using  all  care."  In  7^  "^"^ 
he  committed  to  Alcuin  (q.v.)  the  "  emendation         of 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testament ";  and  the  copy         oi 
the  BibUcal  books,  "  bound  together  in  the  sanct^Kt*^ 
of  one  most  glorious  body,"   which  Alcuin  offers — e<l 

to  him  on  Christmas  801,  must  have  been  the  fi *  st 

copy  of  this  revision,  of  which  the  Codex  VaUi^^=^>^^ 
lanus  at  Rome  is  the  best  representative  in  ex 
ence.     As  Alcuin  was  himself  of  Northumbria, 
probably  had  his  text  brought   from  there, 
fortimately  just  there  the  purest  text  seems  to  1 
survived    fcf.    Bergcr^s  Histoire  and  Wordswoi 
White).  At  the  same  time  Bishop  Theodulf  of  Orife:  - 
(787-821)  worked  at  a  revision,  but  on  very  diffec 
lines.     Being  a  Visigoth,  he  took  Spanish  ma  ^ 

scripts  as  the  basis,  but  incorporated  in  the  mar;^^^^*^ 
various  readings;  fortunately  his  work  found.  ^^ 

large  circulation.     It  is  still   represented  by  8-^3^^°* 
fine  manuscripts  (cf.  Berger,  145-184,  and  Dei^i-^^le, 
in  BihlioihtqtLe  de  VjScoIe  des  Charles,  vol.  xl,  I^^^fc-^«TS» 
1879).     About  the  labors  of  Lanfranc  of  CaCB-'^^r- 
bury    (q.v.)    precise   information    is    not    oh^^^-^^io- 
able;  but  the  normal  copy  produced  with  the     '^r^^lp 
of  Jewish  scholars  by  Stephen  Harding,  third  a.1:^I)ot 
of  Citeaux,  for  the  members  of  his  order  is  stiH    'pre- 
served at  Dijon  (cf .  J.  P.  Martin,  in  RSE,  L  ^^S7). 
Later  on,  critical  observations  on  the  true  res^^^LLngs 
of  certain  passages  were  collected  in  the  8o-<!^£Ll/ecf 
Correctoria  Biblica.    The  principal  Corrector€^M'    are 
(1)    the   Correctorium   Parisiensej  prepared    ^kyoui 
1236,  also  called  iSenoncrwc,  sneered  at  by  Rogor  Ba- 
con,  who  in  1267  called  the  Parisian  text,  in  &  letter 
to  Pope  Clement  IV,  "horribly   corrupt";      ''the 
correctors,"   he   says,   are   "  corruptors,   for      any 
reader  whatsoever  in  the  lower  oniers  correct*  as 
he  pleases,  in  like  manner  also  the  preachers,  an<^         \ 
similarly  the  students  change  as  they  like  what  they        I 


125 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


do  not  understand";  (2)  the  Carrectorium  Sor- 
bonicum,  a  sort  of  epitome  of  the  larger  Correc- 
iaria;  (3)  the  Correctarium  of  the  Dominicans, 
prepared  imder  the  auspices  of  Hugo  of  St.  Cher, 
which  sometimes  went  back  of  the  Latin  text  to 
Greek  and  Hebrew  manuscripts;  (4)  the  Correc- 
i€ritmi  Vaticanumt  the  work  of  the  Franciscans, 
perhaps  especially  of  Willermus  de  Mara.  (Cf.  on 
the  Carredoria,  besides  S.  Berger,  in  RTP,  xvi,  41, 
eq>ecially  Denifle,  in  Archiv  fiir  Litteratur-  und 
KiTchengeschichte,  iv,  Berlin,  1883,  263,  471.)  By 
the  influence  of  the  University  of  Paris  the  text 
used  there  was  the  one  which  was  most  current  in 
the  Middle  Ages  and  consequently  that  which 
found  its  way  into  the  first  printed  editions,  and 
gained  thereby  still  more  in-fluence. 

To  enumerate  even  the  more  important  of  the  manu- 
■eripts  of  the  Vulgate  is  here  impossible.  There  are  lists 
in- J.  Le  Long,  Bxbliotheca  mura  (i,  Paris,  1723.  234  sqq.). 
and  in  C.  Vercellone,  Varice  lectiones  vvigata  Ixitina  BU>- 
Uorum  ediUoniM  (i,  Rome,  1860,  Ixxxii  sqq..  ii,  1864,  xvii 
■qq.).  Scriyener's  Introduction  (ii,  London,  1804.  67-90) 
has  a  select  list  of  181  manuscripts,  chiefly  of  the  New 
Testament,  by  H.  J.  White;  Berger's  HUtoire  (Paris,  1893, 
S74-422)  one  of  253;  Gr^ory's  Prolegomena  (iii.  Leipsic, 
1894.  983-1106)  notes  some  2,270,  and  his  Textkritik  (2 
tkAb,,  Leipsic,  1900-02)  2,369,  reserving  some  for  an  ap- 
pendix. H.  J.  White  (DB,  iv,  886-889)  classifies  them 
under  the  following  headings:  (1)  Early  Italian  texts; 
(2)  Early  Spanish  texts;  (3)  Italian  texts  transcribed  in 
Britain;  (4)  Continental  manuscripts  written  by  Irish  or 
Saxon  scribes  and  showing  a  mixture  of  the  two  types  of 
text;  (5)  Type  of  text  ciurent  in  Languedoc;  (6)  Other 
French  texts;  (7)  Swiss  nuinuscripts,  especially  of  St. 
Gall;  (8)  Alcuinian  recension;  (9)  Theodulfian  recension; 
(10)  Medieval  texts. 

Naturally  Bibles  and  parts  of  the  Bible  were 
among  the  earliest.of  printed  books,  and  as  a  matter 
of  course  the  text  presented  was  the  Vulgate. 
The  Mazarin  Bible,  so  called,  because  a  copy  in 
the  library  of  Cardinal  Mazarin  first  attracted  the 
attention  of  bibliographers — i.e.,  the  Bible  in  forty- 
two  lines,  not  that  in  thirty-six — is  now  proved 
to  be  the  first  Bible  printed  by  Gutenberg.    His 

Psalter  of  1457  is  the  first  book  with 
4.  Earlier 


Printed 


a  printed  date,  while  the  Psalter  of 

Bditiona  ^^^^  ^  ^^®  ^^  ^  most  costly  of  books. 
A  Bible  printed  at  Mainz  1462  is  the 
first  dated  Bible.  The  first  Bible  printed  at  Rome 
18  of  1471,  by  Sweinheim  and  Pannartz,  printed  in 
250  copies.  Of  ninety-two  editions  of  the  fifteenth 
century  which  can  be  localized,  thirty-six  belong  to 
Germany  (to  Nuremberg  13,  Strasburg  8,  Cologne  7, 
Mains  3,  Spesrer  2,  Bamberg  1 ,  and  Ulm  1 ,  the  latter 
of  1480  being  the  first  Bible  with  summaries); 
twenty-nine  belong  to  Italy,  twenty-four  of  them 
to  Venice.  In  England  in  the  whole  period  none 
IB  known.  The  first  quarto  Bible  is  believed  to 
have  been  printed  at  Hacenza  1475,  and  the  first 
octavo  at  Basel  1491  (because  of  its  small  size 
called  the  first  ''poor  man's  Bible").  An  undated 
Bible,  probably  of  1478,  has  for  the  first  time 
the  verses: 

FontibuB  ex  grBecis  hebrsorum  quoque  libris 

Emendata  satis  et  decorata  simul 
Biblia  sum  prcaens,  superos  ego  testor  et  astra. 

Copinger  mentions  124  editions  of  the  Latin  Bible 
pdor  to  1500,  of  the  sixteenth  century  he  knows 
438  editions,  of  the  seventeenth  262,  of  the  eight- 


eenth 192,  of  the  nineteenth  (till  1892)  133,  in  all 
1,149.  These  figures  show  that,  under  the  influence 
of  the  religious  and  intellectual  awakening,  the  six- 
teenth century  was  the  time  of  the  Latin  Bible. 

The  bad  state  of  the  text  soon  became  evident 
and  attempts  were  made  to  improve  it  from  the 
original  texts,  as  by  the  editors  of  the  Compluten- 
sian  Polyglot  (see  Bibles,  Polyglot,  I),  and, 
among  Protestants,  first  by  Andreas  Osiander  (Nu- 
remberg, 1522)  and  at  Wittenberg,  in  an  edition  of 
the  Pentateuch,  Joshua-Kings,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment, ascribed  to  Luther  and  Melanchthon  (1529), 
then  by  Lukas  Osiander  at  Tubingen  (9  vols.,  1573- 
1586),  with  an  "exposition."  Of  greater  impor- 
tance are  the  attempts  to  correct  the  text  from  the 
Latin  manuscripts,  to  which  Lorenzo  della  Valle  had 
called  attention  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Erasmus 
published  his  In  Laiinam  Novi  Teatamenti  interpre- 
talionem  ex  collatione  grcecorum  exemplarium  annota- 
tiones  appnme  utiles  at  Paris  in  1505.  The  French 
printer  Robert  Stephens  (q.v.)  in  particular  cor- 
rected the  text  from  manuscripts  and  put  variant 
readings  on  the  margins  (cf .  Wordsworth,  in  OLBT, 
i,  1883,  47-54).  For  his  edition  of  1528  he  used 
three  good  manuscripts,  for  the  larger  of  1540  not 
less  than  seventeen;  his  impression  of  1555  is  the 
first  complete  Bible  with  the  modem  verse  division, 
and  his  text  became  the  basis  of  the  official  Roman 
text  through  the  mediation  of  the  edition  imder- 
taken  by  the  theological  faculty  of  Louvain  under 
the  guidance  of  Johannes  Hentenius  after  compari- 
son of  some  thirty  manuscripts  (Louvain,  1547). 

All  these  editions  were  private  undertakings. 
In  its  fourth  session  (Apr.  8,  1546),  the  Council  of 
Trent  decreed  that  "of  all  Latin  editions  the  old 
and  vulgate  (vidgata)  edition  be  held  as  authorita- 
tive in  public  lectures,  disputations,  sermons,  and 
expositions;  and  that  no  one  is  to 
6.  The       j^j^  Qj.  pregunie  under  any  pretext 

Slxtlne-      ,  .K.  ,,     mi  -i  j  j    i. 

Clementine        reject  it.       The  councu  decreed  at 

Bditlon.  ^^®  same  time  that  "  this  same  old 
and  vulgate  edition  be  printed  in 
as  correct  form  as  possible."  It  does  not  appear 
that  steps  were  taken  to  entrust  a  special  person  or 
body  with  the  latter  task.  The  edition  of  Hentenius 
was  used  for  a  long  time  as  the  best  available. 
At  last  several  popes  took  the  matter  in  hand,  and 
after  various  attempts  of  Pius  IV  and  Pius  V,  at 
last  Sixtus  V  carried  the  work  to  completion 
through  a  committee,  with  Cardinal  Antonio  Caraffa 
at  its  head,  and  published  the  Biblia  Sacra  Vul- 
gatcB  Editionis  tribus  tomis  diatincta,  Romas :  ex 
Typoffraphia  Apostolica  Vaticana  M.D.XC  (on  a 
second  title-page:  Biblia  Sacra  VtUgatce  Editionis 
ad  concilii  Tridentini  prcescriptum  emendata  et  a 
Sixto  V.  P.  ilf.  recognita  et  approbata).  In  the 
constitution  ^Etemus  ille  (Mar.  1,  1589;  not  included 
in  the  BvUarium  Romanum ;  printed  in  Thomas 
James,  BeUum  papale^  London,  1600,  and  L.  van 
Ess,  GeschichU  der  Vulgata,  Ttibingen,  1821,  269) 
Sixtus  had  declared  the  edition  *'  true,  lawful,  au- 
thentic, and  not  to  be  questioned  in  disputations, 
either  public  or  private."  No  future  edition  was 
to  be  published  without  the  express  permission  of 
the  Holy  See,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  it  was 
forbidden  to  reprint  it  in  any  place  except  the  Vati- 


Bible  Veraloxui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


126 


can;  all  future  editions  were  to  be  carefully  collated 
with  it,  "  that  no  smallest  port  be  changed,  added 
to,  or  taken  away,"  and  they  were  to  be  accom- 
panied with  the  official  attestation  of  the  inquisitor 
of  the  province  or  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  no 
variant  readings,  scholia,  or  glosses  being  allowed 
on  the  margins.  In  August  of  1590  Sixtus  V  died, 
and  was  followed  by  several  short-lived  popes;  in 
1592  Clement  VIII  called  in  all  copies  of  the 
edition  which  were  within  reach — copies  are,  there- 
fore, of  extreme  rarity — and  replaced  it  imder  the 
direction  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine  with  a  new  Btblia 
Sacra  VtdgcUa  EdiHanU,  RomcB :  Ex  Typographia 
Apostolica  Vaticana  M.D.XCII  (on  the  second  title- 
page:  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgat<B  EdUionis  SixH  QuirUt 
Pant.  Max.  Jussu  recogniia  atque  edita).  The  ac- 
companying bull  decreed:  "  From  the  form  of  this 
copy  let  not  even  the  least  particle  be  changed, 
added  to,  or  taken  away,  unless  it  happens  that 
some  fault  is  unmistakably  due  to  typographical 
carelessness — let  this  be  inviolably  observed." 
The  reasons  for  this  whole  proceeding  are  not 
quite  clear.  That  the  printing  of  the  first  edition 
was  not  correct  enough  is  not  true;  as  a  matter 
of  fact  the  Sixtine  edition  is  typographically  more 
correct  than  the  Clementine,  but  the  text  of  the 
Clementine  is  an  improvement  on  that  of  the 
Sixtine.  Sixtus  was  personally  interested  in  the 
work  and  changed  the  text  frequently  to  accord 
with  that  of  Stephens,  while  the  editors  of  the 
Clementine  edition  followed  more  often  that  of  Hcn- 
tcnius.  There  are  some  3,000  differences  between  the 
two  editions.  Nevertheless  the  names  of  both  popes 
were  placed  on  the  title-pages  of  the  later  reprints, 
first,  it  seems,  at  Lyons,  1604,  then  at  Mainz,  1609, 
the  official  title  being  now:  Sixti  V.  et  Clementis 
VIII,  Pantt,  Maxx.  jussu  recogniia  atque  edita.  A 
quarto  edition  was  issued  in  1593  with  ''marginal 
references,  explanations  of  Hebrew  names,  and 
an  index  of  subjects,"  and  a  small  quarto  edition 
in  1598  with  a  correctorium.  All  four  editions 
(1590,  1592,  1593,  1598)  are  compared  by  Leander 
van  Ess  in  his  edition  of  the  Vulgate  (3  parts, 
TObingen,  1822-24).  Of  editions  by  other  editors, 
those  of  C.  Vercellone  (Rome,  1861)  and  particu- 
larly M.  Hetzenauer  (Innsbruck,  1906)  may  be  men- 
tioned; the  latter  has  useful  appendices. 

Since    the    editioA   of    1592   scarcely    any  at- 
tempt has  been   made  in  the   Roman   Church   to 
apply  to  its  Bible  the  most  necessary  emendation. 
D.  Vallarsi  printed  an  emended   text 
Ww-k.'    (Verona,  1734),  under  the  title  Divina 
Problems.  bibliothecOf  in  his  edition  of  the  works 
'  of  Jerome.  [A  Biblical  commission  was 
appointed  late  in  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII,  and 
Pius  X  has  lately  commissioned  members  of   the 
Benedictine  Order    to  revise   the  Vulgate.    It  is 
intended  to  restore,  so  far  as  possible,   the  exact 
text   of    Jerome.]     Among    Protestants,    Richard 
Bentley  contemplated  a  new  edition  of  the  Latin 
New    Testament    together   with    the    Greek    (see 
Bible  Text,  II,  2,  §  3);  about  the  same  time  J.  A. 
Bcngel  (q.v.)  did  much  for  it;  in  the  nineteenth 
century   S.    Berger   in    France  should   have    the 
greatest  credit  for  clearing  up   the  history  of  the 
Latin    Bible;    at    last     Wordsworth-White    have 


issued  what  must  be  called  the  first  critical 
edition  of  the  Latin  New  Testament;  and  in 
Bavaria  P.  Thielmann  is  engaged  in  publiBhing 
those  books  of  the  Old  Testament  whidi  were 
not  translated  by  Jerome  himself. 

It  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  a  task  soeasy  and 
interesting  as  the  criticism  of  the  Latin  Bible  has 
received  so  little  attention.  Berger  knew  more  than 
8,000  manuscripts  of  the  Latin  Bible;  few  of  them 
have  been  properly  investigated.  What  kind  of 
surprises  they  may  offer  is  shown  by  the  recent 
discovery  of  two  different  translations  of  the  Third 
Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  in  two  manu- 
scripts of  the  tenth  and  thirteenth  centuries  at 
Milan  and  Laon.  The  order  of  the  Biblical  books 
in  the  manuscripts;  the  prefaces  and  summaries 
(cf .  on  this  point  Les  Prefaces  jointes  aux  livres  de 
la  Bible  dans  les  manuscrits  de  la  Vulgate;  mimoire 
posthume  de  M.  Samuel  Berger ^  in  the  Mimoires  4t 
rAcadimie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres,  ser.  i. 
vol.  xi,  part  2,  1902);  the  capitulation  and  di- 
visions; the  illumination  and  miniatures  (many  of 
the  manuscripts  belong  to  the  most  beautiful  pro- 
ductions of  Christian  art);  ecclesiastical  or  private 
notes;  connection  with  the  vernacular  versions, 
influence  upon  the  dialects  of  Europe;  lists  of  the 
passages  in  literature  which  mention  manuscripts 
of  the  Latin  Bible;  and  many  other  points  may 
be  named  as  those  which  await  investigation. 

8.  Later  Latin  Translationa:  That  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate was  not  sufficient  was  asserted  in  the  Bliddle 
Ages  by  scholars  like  Nicolaus  de  Lyra  and  Ray- 
mond Martini.  The  English  Benedictine  Adam 
Easton  (d.  1397)  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
flrst  to  think  of  a  new  translation.  It  was  Eras- 
mus, however,  who  vindicated  the  right  to  place 
new  I^tin  translations  by  the  side  of  the  Vulgate 
through  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
(Basel,  1516,  1519,  1522.  1527,  1536,  and  more 
than  200  times  since  the  death  of  Erasmus;  see 
Bible  Text,  II,  2,  §  1;  Erasmus,  Desiderius). 
He  has  had  many  followers  who  have  translated 
into  Latin  either  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament  or 
both,  as  well  as  separate  books  of  the  Bible,  even 
as  late  as  the  nineteenth  century.  But  the  time 
has  passed  when  Latin  versions  were  necessary  or 
helpful;  since  the  Reformation  translations  into 
the  vernacular  languages  have  taken  their  place. 

The  more  important  new  translations  of  the  whole  Bible 
are  those  of  the  Dominican  Sanetea  Pasninus  (Lyons,  1528; 
revised  and  annotated  by  Michael  Servetus,  Lyons,  1542), 
of  Arias  Montanus  in  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  (1572),  and 
one  prepared  under  the  direction  of  (Cardinal  Gaj«tan  (1530 
sqq.;  see  Cajetan,  Thomas). 

The  Old  Testament  was  newly  translated  by  the  He- 
braist Sebastian  MQnster  (Basel,  1534-35  and  often);  by 
Leo  Jud  and  (after  Jud's  death)  T.  Bibliander,  C.  Pellican, 
P.  Cholinus,  and  R.  Qualtherus  (Zurich,  1543);  by  Sebas- 
tian Castellio  (complete  ed.,  Basel,  1551,  with  a  dedication 
to  King  Edward  VI  of  England);  by  Immanuel  Tremel- 
lius,  a  Jew  of  Ferrara,  and  his  son-in-law,  Frandscus  Junius 
(du  Jon;  5  parts,  Frankfort,  1575-79;  best  ed.,  with  full 
index,  by  P.  Tossanus,  Hanau,  1624.  TremfeUius's  work 
was  well  received);  by  J.  Piscator(24  parts,  Herbom,  1601- 
1616;  really  a  revision  of  Tremellius);  by  Thomas  Malvenda. 
a  Spanish  Dominican  (left  incomplete  at  Malvenda *s  death 
in  1628  and  first  published  with  his  CommerUarii,  5  vols., 
Lyons,  1650);  by  J.  Cocoeius  (published  with  his  commen- 
taries. Opera,  vols,  i-vi,  Amsterdam,  1701;  incomplete; 
contains  also  most  of  the  New  Testament);  by  Sebastian 


id7 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versloiu 


Selimid,  a  Strasbuzs  Lutheran,  who  worked  forty  shears  on 
the  tranalation  (Strasburg,  1006;  photographic  facsimile, 
with  mantucript  note*  by  Swedenborg.  ed.  R.  L.  Tafel, 
Stockhobn,  1872);  by  Jean  Le  Clerc  (Clericus;  Amster- 
dam«  1003-1731);  by  C.  F.  Houbigant  (4  vols.,  Paris, 
1753);  by  J.  A.  Oathe  (Halle.  1773-80);  and  by  H.  A. 
Bchott  and  J.  F.  Winser  (Leipeio,  1816). 

Forty  years  after  the  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
of  Erasmus,  Beta's  Latin  New  Testament  appeared  (Ge- 
nera, 1&56,  1566,  1582,  1588,  1508.  and  more  than  100  sub- 
■equent  editions;  by  the  BFBS,  1806).  A  translation  by 
H.  A.  Schott  was  published  at  Leipsic  in  1805.  The  latest 
works  of  the  kind  are  by  F.  A.  A.  N&be  (Leipsic.  1831)  and 
A.  Gdschen  (Leipsic.  1832). 

For  other  translations,  including  those  of  separate  books 
of  the  Bible,  cf.  the  Hauck-Hersog  RE,  ili,  40-58.  On 
translations  of  the  Psalms  into  Latin  verse,  cf.  Hugues 
Vaganay.  Let  TraducHona  du  PaauHer  en  vert  latin  au 
aeixiime  eUde,  in  CompU  rendu  du  quatrihne  ConarU  inier^ 
aolumai  dea  CtUholiquta  (Freiburg,  1808).  part  vi,  Sciences 
pkilologiquea.  E.  NesTLE. 

Bibuoorapht:  On  the  Latin  Bible  before  Jerome  consult; 
H.  RSnsch.  Ikda  und  Vuloata,  Marburg.  1875;  idem. 
in  ZWT,  1875,  pp.  76.  81.  426,  1876,  pp.  397.  1881, 
p.  108;  Desjaoques,  in  ^tudee,  relioieueea,  phUoaophiqiMa, 
Aisfori^uet  el  lHUrairee  de  la  compagnie  de  Jieue,  1878. 
pp.  721-724;  L.  Ziegler.  Die  laieiniachen  Ueberaeteungen 
var  Hieronymue  und  die  I  tola  dee  Auguatinua,  Mimich, 
1870;  O.  Koffmane.  Oeaehichte  dee  Kirchenlateirte  bit  auf 
Auffu*tin**»-Hieronvmua,  Breslau,  1870-81;  P.  Ck>r88en, 
Die  vermeinUiche  "  Itala "  und  die  BibelUheraetzuno  dee 
Hienmymue,  in  JPT,  1881,  pp.  507-519;  F.  Zimmer,  in 
TSK,  1880;  F.  C.  Burkitt.  The  Old  Latin  and  the  Itala,  in 
T8,  iv.  3.  Cambridge,  1806;  E.  Ehrlich.  Beitr&ge  tur 
LatinitiU  der  Itala,  Rochlitx.  1895;  idem.  Quce  eit  Italoi 
qtim  dicitur  verborum  tenacilae,  Leipsic.  1889;  P.  Mon- 
eeaux.  Lee  Afrieaine.  Stude  eur  la  liti^aiure  Latine 
dTAfrique  and  La  Bible  Latine  en  Afrique,  in  RE  J,  1901; 
DB,  iii,  47-64;  EB,  iv,  6022-24. 

On  the  Vulgate  consult:  8.  Berger.  Histoire  de  la  Vul- 
oaie,  Paris.  1803  (this  work  was  crowned  by  the  Academy, 
pp.  xx-xxiv  contain  a  full  list  of  earlier  literature);  G. 
Rjegler.  Krititche  Oeedtichte  der  Vxdgata,  Sulxbach,  1820; 
L.  Van  Ess.  Praamatieche  Oeechiehte  der  Vulifata,  Ttibing- 
en.  1824;  A.  Schmitter.  Kurte  Oeechiehte  der  hierony- 
tmaaisefcen  BibelUbereetxuno,  Freysing,  1842;  F.  Kaulen. 
Omeehidtte  der  Vxdgata,  Mains.  1868;  O.  Rothmanner,  in 
Hialariach-politieche  BUUter,  cziv,  31-38.  101-108;  DB, 
iv.  87^-800. 

On  the  grammar  and  the  language  consult:  W.  Nowack, 
Die  Bedeuiung  dee  Hieronymue  fUr  die  altteetamentliche 
TextkriHk,  Gdttingen,  1875;  J.  A.  Hagen.  Sprachliche 
Br^rterunoen  tur  Vulgata,  Freiburg.  1863;  J.  B.  Heiss, 
Zwr  Orammatik  der  Vulgata,  Munich.  1864;  V.  Loch, 
Maierialien  tu  einer  lateiniedien  Orammatik  der  Vidgata, 
Bamberg,  1870;  P.  Hake,  Sprachliche  Bemerkungen  tu 
dem  PmdmenlexU  der  Vulgata,  Amsberg,  1872;  H.  Golser, 
£tude  .  .  .  de  la  laHniU  de  SL  Jirbme,  Paris,  1884;  P. 
Thielmann,  in  Philoiogut,  xlii,  310,  370;  G.  A.  Saalfeld, 
Dm  bUbliorum  tacrorum  Vulgatce  ediHonit  graecUate,  Qued- 
linburg,  1801;  W.  M.  C.  Wilroy,  The  Participle  in  the 
VulgaU  N.  T„  Baltimore,  1802;  L.  B.  Andergassen,  Ud>er 
den  Gebrauch  dee  Infinitivt  in  der  Vulgata,  1801;  P.  Thiel- 
mann,  Beitriige  tur  TextkriHk  der  Vulgata,  Speier.  1883; 
8.  Berger,  in  Revue  de  thSologie  et  de  philotophie,  xvi  (1883), 
Al  eqq.;  idem,  in  Mhnoiret  de  la  tociiU  dee  antiquairet 
ds  France,  Iii,  144;  P.  Martin,  in  Le  Mutfon,  vi>  (1888). 
88-107. 160-106.  viii  (1880).  444;  H.  P.  Smith,  in  Pretbyte- 
rian  and  Reformed  Review,  April,  1801;  E  .von  Dobschfitx, 
Stttdien  tur  Textkritik  der  Vulgata,  Leipsic.  1804  (cf.  on 
it  H.  J.  White,  in  Critical  Review,  1896.  pp.  243-246); 
J.  Ecker,  Porta  Siont,  Lexikon  zum  lateinitchen  Ptalter, 
Tiii«  234,  1.0a^6  coliunns.  Trier.  1004;  F.  Kaulen,  Sprach- 
Uthe»  Handbuek  tur  biblitchen  Vulgata,  Freiburg.  1004 
(cf.  on  it  Jdlicher.  in  TLZ,  1005,  no.  6). 

On  the  printed  text  consult:  W.  A.  Copinger,  Incuna- 
hula  bSbUea,  ete.,  London,  1802;  cf.  L.  Delisle,  in  Jour- 
nal dee  tenant,  1803,  pp.  202-218.  where  Copinger's  124 
editions  prior  to  1500  are  reduced  to  ninety-nine, 
and  W.  Mailer,  in  Dxiatxko's  Bibliothekttnttenachaftliche 
Arbeiten,  no.  6.  1804.  pp.  84-05);  L.  Hain,  Repertorium 
bibliographieum,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1826-38,  Index  volume, 
Leipsic,  1801,  Supplement  by  W.  A.  CVapinger.  3  vols.. 


London.  1805-1002.  Appendieet  by  D.  Reichling.  fascic- 
ulus 1.  Munich.  1005  (gives  ninety-seven  editions  prior 
to  1500).  On  the  first  printed  Bible  consult  K.  Dziatxko, 
Outenbergt  frUheete  Druckerpraxie  auf  Orund  einer  Ver» 
gleuhung  der  4£teiligen  und  SSteiligen  Bibel,  Leipsic,  1891; 
L.  Delisle.  in  Journal  dee  tavant,  1894.  pp.  401-413;  BrO- 
ith  Muteum  Catalogue,  entry  BiMe. 

HL  Syriac  Versions. — 1.  The  Feshito:  According 
to  some  Syrians  certain  of  the  Biblical  books 
(enumerated  by  Ishodad,  bishop  of  Haditha,  c.  862) 
were  translated  into  Syriac  under  Solomon  at  the 
request  of  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre.  Another  tradition 
refers  this  work  to  a  priest  Asa  or  Ezra,  who  was 
sent  by  the  king  of  Assyria  to  Samaria,  and  the 
rest  of  the  Old  Testament  with  the  New  to  the 
days  of  King  Abgar  V  of  Edessa  and 

1.  Origin  ^j^g  apostle  Addai  (i.e.,  Thaddseus;  see 
Name.  Abqar.  Cf.  II  Kings  xvii,  24,  I 
Chron.  xv,  18,  in  the  editions  of  Lee 
and  Ceriani;  J.  P.  N.  Land,  Anecdota  Syriaca,  iii. 
Ley  den,  1870,  11;  Bar  Hebrsus  on  Ps.  x;  JA, 
1872,  458).  Bar  Hebrsus  makes  the  strange 
statement  that,  according  to  Eusebius  (cf.  Hist, 
eccl.,  VI,  xvi,  4,  and  VI,  xvii),  Origen  found  the 
Syriac  version  in  the  keeping  of  a  widow  at  Jeri- 
cho; and  equally  curious  is  the  tradition  which  re- 
fers the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  to 
Mark.  Some  manuscripts  of  the  Psalms  state  that 
they  were  translated  from  Palestinian  into  Hebrew, 
from  Hebrew  into  Greek,  from  Greek  into  Syriac. 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (commentary  on  Zeph. 
i,  6)  rightly  says:  "  These  books  were  translated 
into  Syriac  by  some  one,  but  who  he  was  no  one 
knows  to  this  day."  Some  scholars  have  thought 
to  discover,  at  least  for  the  New  Testament,  the 
influence  of  the  Latin  Vulgate;  more  probable  is 
the  supposition  that  at  least  some  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  pre-Christian  or  certainly  Jew- 
ish; and  the  home  of  the  translation  is  not  Jeru- 
salem and  Palestine  {J A,  1872, 458)  or  Antioch,  but 
Edessa  and  its  neighborhood. 

The  name  which  is  commonly  given  to  the  old- 
est and  most  important  Syriac  version,  "  Peshito  " 
("  Peshitto"),  is  first  found  with  Moses  bar  Kepha 
(d.  913)  and  in  Masoretic  manuscripts  of  the  m'nth 
and  tenth  centuries  (cf.  N.  P.  S.  Wiseman,  Horcs 
Syriaca,  Rome,  1828,  p.  223;  J.  P.  P.  Martin, 
Introduction  d.  la  critique  textuelle  du  Nouveau 
Testament,  Paris,  1883,  p.  101;  ZDMO,  xxxii,  589). 
It  means  "  the  simple "  in  contradistinction  to 
the  more  elaborate  versions,  such  as  that  made 
from  the  Greek  by  Paul  of  Telia  (see  below,  2;  on 
the  name,  cf.  K.  W.  M.  Montijn  and  J.  P.  N. 
Land,  in  Godgeleerde  Bijdragen,  1882;  F.  Field, 
Origenis  Hexapla,  i,  Oxford,  1875,  p.  ix;  ZDMO, 
xlvii,  157,  316;  A.  Mez,  Die  Bibel  des  Josephus, 
Basel,  1895,  4;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Early  Eastern  Chris- 
tianity, London,  1904,  chap.  ii). 

The  Syriac  Old  Testament  is  practically  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Palestinian  Jews.  Chronicles, 
however,  was  missing  in  the  Nestorian  canon  and, 
as  it  seems,  also  in  that  of  the  Jacobites;  at  least 
it  is  not  treated  in  their  Masoretic 
t'  ^^mi^^t  nianuscripts,  but  it  is  found  in  very 

es  en  .  ^j^  manuscripts.  Ezra-Nehemiah  too 
are  not  treated  in  the  Masoretic  manuscripts  nor 
Esther  by  the  Nestorians,  while  in  Jacobite  manu- 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


128 


scripts  this  book  together  with  Judith,  Ruth,  Su- 
sanna, and  Thecla  forms  the  *'  Book  of  Women  " 
(cf.  A.  Baumstark,  in  Oriens  ChristianiLS,  iii,  Leip- 
sic,  1901,  353).  After  the  Law  there  follows  as 
the  second  part  the  "  Book  of  Sessions,"  i.e.,  Job, 
Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Proverbs,  Eccle- 
siasticus,  Ecclesiastes,  Ruth,  Song  of  Solomon. 
Among  the  prophets,  Isaiah  (sometimes  divided  at 
XXV,  2)  is  followed  by  the  minor  prophets,  then 
Jeremiah  (with  a  division  at  xxxii,  6)  with  Baruch 
i-ii  and  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  then  Ezekiel  and 
Daniel. 

Manuscripts  with  the  Apocrypha  are  called 
"catholic"  or  "pandects";  they  do  not  contain 
I  Esdras,  Tobit,  or  the  Prayer  of  Manasses,  but 
have  an  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  IV  Eisdras,  and 
even  the  story  of  Shamuna  and  Josephus,  War, 
V,  as  IV  and  V  Maccabees.  Tobit,  as  far  as  chap, 
vii,  11,  is  preserved  only  in  the  translation  of  Paul 
of  Telia,  but  from  that  point  on  there  is  a  still 
later  text.  Accurate  manuscripts  give  stichomct- 
rical  lists  (cf.  Martin,  Introduction ^  677;  J.  R.  Har- 
ris, On  the  Origin  of  the  F error  Group,  London, 
1893,  10,  26;  DB,  iv,  650). 

The  character  of  the  translation  is  different  in 
various  books;  it  is  very  literal  in  the  Law,  influ- 
enced by  the  Septuagint  in  Isaiah  and  the  minor 
prophets,  probably  also  in  the  Psalms.  Ruth  is 
paraphrastic.  Chronicles  resembles  a  Jewish  tar- 
gum,  while  the  Syriac  Proverbs  has  been  used 
in  the  Targum.  Ecclesiasticus  is  taken  from  the 
Hebrew. 

Up  to  1858  only  one  old  version  of  the  New 
Testament  in  Syriac  was  known  in  Europe;  viz., 
that  published  for  the  first  time  by  J.  A.  Wid- 
manstadt  (Vienna,  1555).  Textual  critics  con- 
sidered it  "the  queen  of  the  Bible  translations." 
In  1858  W.  Cureton  published  in 
T  ta*  t^  London,  from  manuscripts  which  had 
come  into  the  British  Museum  in 
1842,  Remains  of  a  very  Antient  Recension  of 
the  Four  Gospels  in  Syriac  hitherto  Unknown  in 
Europe.  The  great  value  of  this  recension  was 
soon  recognized,  and  was  greatly  enhanced 
when,  in  1892,  a  second  manuscript  of  it  was 
discovered  in  a  palimpsest  on  Moimt  Sinai  by  Mrs. 
A.  S.  Lewis  and  her  sister,  Mrs.  M.  D.  Gibson, 
which  was  published  under  the  title.  The  Four 
Gospels  in  Syriac  Transcribed  from  the  Sinaiiic 
Palimpsest  by  the  Late  R.  L.  Bensly  ,  .  .  J .  R, 
Harris  .  ,  .and  F.  C.  BurkiU.  WUh  an  Intro- 
duction by  Agnes  Smith  Lewis  (Cambridge,  1894). 
Mrs.  Lewis  published  Some  Pages  of  the  Four 
Gospels  Retranscribed  from  the  Syriac  Palimpsest 
with  a  Translation  of  the  Whole  Text  (London,  1894). 
F.  C.  Burkitt  published  Evangelion  da-Mephar- 
reshe:  The  Curetoniun  Version  of  the  Four 
Gospels,  with  the  Readings  of  the  Sinai  Palimpsest 
and  the  Early  Syriac  Patristic  Evidence  Edited, 
Collected,  and  Arranged  (vol.  i,  texj  and  transla- 
tion, vol.  ii,  introduction  and  notes,  Cambridge, 
1904).  Burkitt's  title  is  taken  from  the  head- 
ing or  subscription  of  the  two  manuscripts  and 
means  "  the  Gospel  of  the  Separated "  (i.e., 
"the  Separated  Gospels"),  used  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian,  which  was  called 


among  the  Syrians  "  the  Gospel  of  the  Com- 
bined "  ("  the  Combined  Gospels  ").  Herein  is  in- 
dicated the  first  problem  in  the  history  of  the 
Syriac  New  Testament.  It  is  well  known  that 
a  harmony  of  the  Gospels  was  used  in  the  Syriac 
Church  till  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century, 
when  Theodoret  removed  the  copies  in  his  dio- 
cese, and  RabbulajB  of  E^essa  ordered  that  the 
"  Gospel  of  the  Separated "  should  be  read  in 
church.  The  great  question  concerns  the  rela- 
tionship of  the  Peshito,  the  Mepharreahe,  and 
Tatian.  It  seems  certain  that  the  three  are  in- 
terrelated. It  seems  further  to  have  been 
proved  by  Buckitt  that  the  Peshito  is  the 
latest,  and  is  in  all  probability  the  revision 
which  Rabbulas  of  Edessa  (d.  435)  is  said  to 
have  imdertaken.  The  decision  of  the  other 
question,  whether  the  Mepharreshe  or  Tatian  is 
the  earlier,  is  made  difficult  by  the  fact  that 
Tatian's  work  is  not  preserved  in  its  original  form, 
and  further  by  the  fact  that  the  two  representatives 
of  the  Mepharreshe,  the  manuscripts  of  Cureton  and 
Lewis,  differ  greatly.  But  on  the  whole  it  seems 
most  probable  that  Tatian  was  the  first  to  bring 
the  Gospel  to  the  Syrians  in  the  form  of  his  Dia- 
tessaron, and  that  then  on  the  basis  of  his  harmony 
the  version  of  the  separate  Gospels  originated. 
Burkitt  is  inclined  to  believe  that  this  was  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  second  century,  perhaps  under 
the  influence  of  the  Church  of  Antioch,  through 
Paid  of  Edessa.  The  opposite  view,  that  the  Meph- 
arreshe is  earlier  than  Tatian,  is  taken  by  Hjelt, 
who  believed  he  was  able  to  show  that  the  Gospels 
in  the  Mepharreshe  were  translated  by  different 
hands,  and  that  the  first  Gospel  especially  betrays 
a  Jewish  character.  Without  the  discovery  of  new 
evidence  the  question  will  be  very  difiicult  to 
decide. 

No  manuscript  of  an  early  Syriac  version  of  the 
Acts  and  the  Pauline  Epistles  is  known.  But 
that  there  was  an  older  version  can  be  proved 
from  the  quotations  of  such  early  writers  as  Aphra- 
ates  and  Ephraem,  and  perhaps  also  from 
readings  in  the  Armenian  version.  In  early  times 
the  apocryphal  correspondence  with  the  Corin- 
thians was  placed  with  the  Epistles  of  Paul. 
The  Catholic  Epistles  were  at  first  totally  un- 
known, as  is  expressly  stated  by  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia  and  Theodore  bar  Koni  (cf.  A.  Baimi- 
stark,  in  Oriens  Christianus,  i,  176,  iii,  555).  In 
the  Peshito  as  we  have  it  the  three  greater  of  them 
are  foimd,  in  accordance  with  the  use  of  the  Church 
of  Antioch.  Still  later  the  four  others  were 
added.  It  is  strange  that  the  Nestorian  inscrip- 
tion of  Singan-fu  (see  Nestorians)  speaks  of 
twenty-seven  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
Revelation  never  formed  part  of  the  canon 
among  the  Syrians  (cf.  on  the  Syriac  canon, 
T.  Zahn,  Grundriss  der  Geschichle  des  nevtestor 
mentlichen  Kanons,  Leipsic,  1904,  §  6;  J.  A.  Bewer, 
The  History  of  the  New  Testament  Canon  in  the 
Syrian  Church,  Chicago,  1900;  W.  Bauer,  Der 
Apostolos  der  Syrer,  Giessen,  1903),  and  whether 
the  Pauline  collection  included  Philemon  can  not 
be  decided. 
2.  Later  Versions:    The    Nestorian    patriarch 


RELIGIOUS  ENC 


Blt)le  Terflionft 


l'552)  is  said  by  Bar  Hebrasue,  Ebed 
to  have  tratii«lated  and  explained 
w  Testainenta  from  tbe  Greek;  but 
known  about  it. 

!EiU8  of  Mabug  with  the  help  of  \m 
translated  at  least  sonie  parte 
ut  and  yndert«:»ok  a  new  ver- 
iest.    Parts  of  Isaiah  pre- 
pt  of  the  British  Museum  may 
ion  (ed.  A.  Ceriani,  Monumenta 
V,  6,  Milan,  1S73,  1^0).     Accord- 
lein,   the  Gospela   are   contained    in 
of  the  Angelican  library  at  Rome. 
I    published    a    Syriac   Manuscript 
pre^Harklensian  Version,  Acts  and 
PethiUo  Version,  Written  {probMy) 
}d  900  A.D^     Presented  to  the  Syrwn 
1^  [Beinjt]    (PhUadelphia,    1884). 
^^K  first  published  by  E.  Pococke 
BH^  often  found  in  editions  of  the 
ptaineTitf  are  very  likely  part  of  thia 
is  the  version  of  Revelation  dis- 
Gwynn  and  published  by  him  (Dub- 

tundred  years  later  the  work  of  trans- 
med,  for  the  Oltl  Testament,  by 
[the  so-called  Syro-Hexaplar  version; 
ki  i  6),  and^  for  the  New  Testament, 
Henclea  (Harkel  in  Meaopotamta). 
publbhed  by  J.  WTiite  under  the 
title,  Versio  Philoxeniana  (Oxford, 
lacuna  in  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
ld m  by  E.  L,  Benaly  {Harkkan  Ver- 
0  the  Hebrews  xi,  S8-xiiit  25, 
W.  Deane  b^an  a  new  edition 
ited  from  finisbing  it.  Its  comple- 
for  the  Acts,  is  much  to  be  desired. 
inal  notes,  Thomas  made  use  of  a 
jeely  related  to  tbe  Greek  codex  D 
l^jr  abenilidndische  Text  der  Apoetelge^ 
ic,  190(1,  and  Hilgenfeld,  in  ZWT, 
a).  The  Syrittc  text  of  Revelation 
Dieu  (Ley den,  1627)  and  now  in 
lyriac  New  Testaments  belongs  to 
J*  Gwynn,  in  Hermathena,  1898, 

Ion  of  the  Old  Teatament  undertaken 
Sdeesa  in  704-705,  cf.  Kamphausen, 
753,  and  A.  Ceriani,  Monumenta 
V,  1  (Milan,  1871), 
also  be  made  of  the  Palestinian 
hy  tbe  MeLchite  Cliurch  ui  Palestine 
Of  tbe  Old  Teatament,  only  frag- 
,  The  New  Testament  has  been 
I  evangeliariuTO  at  Rome  sinoe  1789 
F.  Miniscalchi-Erizjto,  Verona,  1861- 
igarde,  Bibliotheca  Syriaca,  Gdttingen, 
time  many  new  texts  have  been 
jiapecially  through  Mrs.  L«wis, 
in  the  Lexicon  sifropalfeMinitm 
(BeHin,  1903),  pp.  vii-xvi.  F.  C. 
U,  183)  gives  reasons  for  believing 
pture  may  have  a  connection  with 
Juilinian  in  the  ^fth  century  to 
itans,  and  of  Ilenicliua  early 
ituiy  to  harass  the  Jews*    This 


peculiar  dialect    ia  important  lexically,   as   being 
closely  akin  to  the  language  spoken  in  Galilee. 

E.  Nestle. 

BiDLioanAPHY:  Tbe  first  parta  of  the  Bible  printed  in  Syriao 
are  in  AinbTosiiLa  Theseus,  Jntroductio  in  CHaidaicam  tin* 
guam,  Syriacam  atque  Armenicam,  Pa  via,  1539  (of.  ZDMO^ 
Iviii,  1904,  eOl ).  The  Old  Teatament  apti«ar«d  tirat  in 
the  Paris  Polyglot,  vo\s.  vi-ix^  1632-45,  then  in  Ihe 
London  Polyglot,  vols,  i-iv,  1654-57.  reprinted  by  B. 
Lee  for  the  BF8S,  London,  IS23  (other  eopion,  1824;  on 
their  differeDcea — one  set  cuntaioB  F».  cli,  the  other  not 
— «f,  ZDMO,  tix,  19Q5.  31),  and  lit  Urumiah  (with  mod- 
ern Syriae  added),  IS52.  Tbe  text  ia  very  had,  resting 
on  a  sinjslfl  [ate  manuflcript  at  Paris  adapted  by  Gabriel 
Bionita,  editor  of  the  Paris  Polyglot,  fmm  which  the 
London  Polyglot  and  I.<6e  took  it  with  scarcely  any  cor- 
rection^  the  Urumiah  edition*  at  lea«t  in  pome  part«,  with 
but  few  correotiona  (tt  W.  E.  Bames.  A  n  A pparatii*  criticuM 
to  ChronicUw  in  the  Pgthitia  Ver»ion,  CarabridiEe,  1S97; 
G.  DiettHch.  Ein  Apparatu»  crilieu*  sur  P^iito  Mum 
Propheten  JeMia,  Giewen,  1905).  Bernstein  and  Rah  If  a 
Lave  publishml  emendations,  the  former  in  ZDMG^  iii, 
1849,  387-^9«,  the  hitter  in  ZATW,  ix,  IS89,  161-210. 
A.  M.  Ceriani  published  n  photofsraphic  reproduction  of 
the  Codes  AmhroHanua.  Milan,  1870-^.  The  Apocry- 
pha was  published  by  Lasarde,  I^ipjiie,  1861.  The  first 
critical  edition  of  the  Go^pelA  wa«  by  P.  E.  Puaey  and 
G.  H.  GwilUam,  Oxford,  1901;  for  the  rest  of  the  New 
Testaoient  there  are  the  editions  of  the  American  mia- 
non  at  Urumiah,  lS4fl,  New  York,  1846,  etc.  The  edi- 
tion moet  UBed  in  textual  oitidam  liitherto  has  been 
that  of  J.  Leiiinden  and  C.  Schaaf,  Ley  don,  1709  and 
1717*  reprinted  by  Jane«,  Oxford,  1805  (cf.  Tisehendorf 
on  Matt.  X,  8,  with  the  note  of  Puiey-Gwilltam).  The 
entire  Bible  wa?  printed  by  the  Dominicans  at  Mohu]« 
1887-91.  A  hat  of  edilionji  to  1888  in  oontajned  in  Ne»- 
tle,  Litieratura  Suriain  (reprinted  from  Syri^che  Gmmr- 
rnaUk,  Berlin,  1888)*  17-30.  Consult  further;  Beck,  £di- 
Hoji£»  prtncijwj  Novi  Ttiiamenti  Si/riad,  Bajiel.  1771 J 
J.  Le  Loag,  Bibliotheca  Mirra,  emendafa  .  .  ,  ab  A.  O. 
MoMch,  i,  part  4,  pp.  64-102.  5  vob..  Halle,  177^-90; 
A.  U.  Geriaoi,  Le  Bditiom  e  i  manaarriUi  del  vernone  Siri- 
ache  dd  vecchio  Teatamento^  lidlan.  1869;  Printsd  edition* 
of  the  Svriac  New  TeetUfMnt,  in  Church  Qwirttrly  /7rrt«ir, 
July,  1868,  255-297;  Syriac  New  Tettament  traneJated 
into  Eng.  by  /.  Murdoch,  with  a  biblioffraphicat  Appendix^ 
by  L  H.  Hall,  6th  ed.,  Boston,  1893;  G.  H.  Gwilham.  The 
Antmonian  Section*,  Euednan  Canone  and  Harmonixino 
Tc^lee  in  the  Sifri^€  TetraeuanaeUum,  in  Studia  Bibli&t  et 
EKie*ia*(ica,  ii,  Oxford,  1890;  idem,  Maleriale  for  the 
Criticism  of  the  PeshiOa.  tb.  iii,  1891;  Scrivener,  Introdue- 
Hon,  ii,  6-40;  F,  C.  Burkitt,  Evangtlion  da^Afepharre*he, 
Intrtfduction.  vol  I  London,  10O5,  On  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  Peshito  oonnult:  J.  Praiser,  De  feteriM  teetamenti 
verriifne  St/riaca  quam  Peechitlho.  Got  tinge  n,  1875;  J. 
PerlcB,  MeleUmata  Peechithoniana,  Breslau,  1860;  J.  M. 
8eh6iif elder.  Ofikdo*  und  Peechittho,  Munich.  1869.  On 
parte  of  the  Old  TcBtament:  L,  Hiriel,  De  Pentattuchi 
vereione  Svriuca,  Leipsic,  1815;  9.  D.  Lu««atto,  Phiio- 
x«ntu  eive  de  OnkeUmi  Chaliaica  Pentateuchi  verttone, 
Vienna*  1830;  F.  Tuch.  De  Lipeienei  codice  Pentateuchi 
Syrmco,  Leipdc,  1849;  E.  Schwarti.  Die  ti/rteche  Ueber- 
iteUunQ  dee  I.  SamueliMf  Berlin,  1897;  J.  Berhncr,  Die 
Peathitta  rum  I  Buch  der  K&nioe,  Berlin.  1807:  B.  Frikukel, 
in  JPT,  1870,  pp.  508,  720  (on  Chronicles);  A.  Oliver,  A 
TroneL  of  \he  Syriac  Pet^ito  Vereion  of  the  PmoIthm,  Bos^ 
ton,  1861;  F.  BMhffen,  Unteraxtchunoen  Qber  die  Pealmen 
noih  drr  Peeehito,  Kiel,  1878;  idem,  in  JPT,  viii  (1882), 
405,  593;  F,  Dietrich.  Commeniatio  de  peailerio  .  ,  ,  in 
ecdeaia  Syriaca,  Marburg.  1862;  B.  Oppenheim,  Die 
9vri»che  UdteirBeUuno  .  ,  .  der  Pea/men,  Leipaic.  1891; 
J.  F.  Berg.  Influence  of  Ote  SepHtagini  upon  the  PeehiUa 
Pealier.  New  York,  1805;  Techen,  Oheear,  in  ZATW, 
xvii  (1S97).  129,  280  (on  F^alnu);  Baun&ann  (on  Job),  in 
ZATW,  xviii-EC  (1898-1900);  J.  A.  Dathe,  De  rtUione 
otyneeneuM  .  *  .  Sj/riaco!  Procerbiorum.  LeipMie,  1764;  A* 
8.  Karaenetiky  (on  Ecdeiiaetes),  in  ZATW,  lutiT  (1904); 
G.  Dietrich,  Z>t«  Maeeorak  der  OetHeKen  und  tMfltuAflA 
Syrer:  London.  1899;  idem,  Textkntiedm  Apparal  190fi 
(Isaiah);  C.  H.  CornilL  Dae  Buch  de»  Propheten  Etechiel^ 
pp.  137-150,  Leip«ie.  1880);  C.  A.  Credner*  De  prophrtorum 
minorum  vereionie  Si/riaea  ,  ,  ,  indole^  GOttin^D,  1827; 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


IdO 


wwalf  Propheten.  BreBl&u.  1837;  V.  Rysfloi,  UnterMuchuno- 
rn  mw  dif  Te^tffimtiilt  ,  ,  ,  d^i  ^ucAei  Micha^  Leipnic 
1SS7;  J.  J.  KneuelL«r,  Da*  Buck  Barutk,  pp.  |»0-19$, 
LeipHic,  1869;  T.  Noldekfl^  Die  Ttzte  da  ButJisM  Tobii,  in 
MonatabericAie  d^r  Berliaer  Akad^mU,  IBT9,  pp,  45 -€^0. 

On  tba  New  Teat&ment:  The  PeMhUo  Wnofw  af  IA« 
Odtpelf.  fid.  G.  W.  Gwilli&m.  Londoa,  1901.  Oa  the  Cura- 
toiiiui:  C.  H«rmuufliit  ^  eodim  #i«an^itiTtim  ^i/niocop 
Cop«tiliA««ti,  iSdOf  La  Hit,  ^htdr  tur  iin«  ancimnn*  rer- 
mm  #uriei9U«  ilfii  evanff^t,  Fmns,  1S50;  G.  Wildfbcer,  Be 
waoitdii  der  tyrittche  evanGvlient  door  Curelon  on^iekt,  Ijty- 
dBD,  1330;  Ft.  B&th£«n,  £«an{j«ii«Tt/ra0inenlir,  Leipaic^ 
1SS5;  U.  liu-ioanH  Curfb»n  Fraofnena,  la  JBL,  lg85, 
Jimfl-IlBC.,  pp.  28-48. 

On  the  MephjuTSiihe,  J.  E-  Orowfoot^  FYaffmeitta  Ev^n- 
fftiHoOt  London*  1870;  ]d«m»  Citilalion  in  Gr^k  of  Cttr*- 
ion' 9  Sjfriac  Fragmenta^  ib.  IE72.  On  the  Sitiui  Palimp- 
tm»U  M,  D-  GibuoDf  Haw  the  Vodex  wot  found,  C^suubriiJ^ 
1893;  Un.  R.  L.  Bcnftly,  Ow  Jotiritey  ki  ^iiuai  .  .  .  viA 
0  CJUfi^rr  on  £h«  Hifvti  Palimpmtt^  Londrm.  1S06:  K. 
fiolihey.  DiT  nmier^d«ekM  Codtx  SiflruM  SinaUieuM^  Dlunicli, 
180>Q;  A.  Boniu,  Cviiatia  codieu  Lmoinani  ,  >  .  cum  eo- 
cfu»  Ctfrelontawi,  Oicford*  iSfl^.  For  Iwrther  accounti  of 
tbe  Ijewia  eodex  cocu^uU  the  RIe»  of  the  ^4  lA^fiiTUffi,  j4aid!- 
cffitr,  C<rnJ[pmpcv£niir  ^n^ietPi  ii'xpowitorv  TinK^H  Guardian, 
Ckurdt  Quafterlif  Hetfifw*  TLZ,  uid  AiEiul&r  juumkb  for 
the  years  1393-fiC. 

On  tbe  F«HbitD  in  texttuil  critieiBfa  (sansuK;  The  Ox- 
fvrd  DrimU  on  The  Ttxtwil  CriHHvm  af  the  New  TutiamtTit^ 
London,  1S97;  T.  W.  Ktheriilge,  Itarof  Aramaicm.  With 
a  Tran^l.  *?/...  SL  Matthew  a/«f  .  .  Hdyrew*  from 
1^  «  ,  ,  Puhito^  Londoa,  1843;  Idem,  The  AjHrntoliml 
A€i$;  Tramsi.  from  the  Petkiio  and  a  later  Text,  London, 
1840;  W,  Norton,  A  TraneL  .  .  .  of  ths  Se^entern  f^Siert 
...ofthe  Pi)Mhiti>  Sifriac.  l^ondgn,  1800;  J.  Gwyon,  Older 
Sjffvae  Verwion  of  the  four  Minor  C€iiholic  EpUtUe,  In  Her- 
matfuna,  1800.  On  Tfttl&ii:  A.  H}ett.  in  T.  Z&hn,  Fi^r-^ 
■fihunjhPRt  ru,  I  (I&03):  Mn.  L^^wi^,  in  ErpomXor,  Aug.* 
1SI»7,  June,  1890- 

nr.  The  Sanuiritui  Pentateuch:  This  mujat  not 
be  confounded  with  tbe  Hebrew  text  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch in  Samaritan  characters  or  with  the 
Arabic  vemion  used  by  the  Samaritans.  AH  three 
are  contained  in  the  famous  triglot  mnnuacript 
in  the  Barbetini  Library  at  Home  of  the  year 
1227  (for  Facsimile  cf»  G*  M,  Bianchini*a  Evan- 
gelmrium  quadrupkXjRome,  17  49  f  or  J  on  a  reduced 
Acale,  F.  G.  Kenyon,  Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient 
Manuscripts f  London,  1896,  pi,  v).  The  question 
of  the  age  of  this  targuni  depends  on  the  de* 
cimon  of  the  question  whence  the  reading!  are 
taken  which  arc  found  under  the  rubne  io  Sama- 
Tailikon  in  some  fifty  marginal  noteft  of  Origen's 
Hexapla  (to  the  passages  collected  by  Field  add 
Lev.  3CV,  8 J  Deut*  viii,  22,  xxxiv,  1-3,  from  the 
margins  of  Lagardo'i  Bihlioiheea  Syriaea),  The 
most  probable  view  seems  to  be  that  not  Origen  but 
Kusebius  took  these  notes  from  the  Hebrew  Penta- 
teuch a»  used  among  the  Samaritans.  On  a 
Samaritan  inscription  found  at  Amwajs  (Emmaus) 
cf.  Revue  BibUque,  1896,  p.  433.  E.  Nkstle. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  essentially  the 
aam^e  as  the  Hebrew.  The  variations^  aside  from 
those  of  a  linguistic  character,  are  the  following; 
the  narrative  of  action  or  declaration  by  Moses 
is  often  preceded  by  the  statement  that  he  acted 
orspoko  by  divine  direction;  Gen.  ii,  2a,  "  seventh  " 
ifl  changed  to  *'  sixth ";  anthropomorphiams  are 
i^moved,  and  in  Gen.  xx,  13,  xxxi,  63 ^  xupcv,  7,  Ex, 
%xii^  Bf  the  plural  predicate  after  Elohim  is 
changed  to  the  singular  to  avoid  a  polytheistic 
implication;  "  Ebal  **  (Dent,  xxvii,  4)  was  di^ 
placed   by  Geri^im    for    national    reasons..     The 


Samaritan  PentaU^uch  is  proved  by  theae  changea 
to  be  a  revision  of  the  Jewisht  but  a  revision  made  in 
early  times  (possibly  pre-Christian),  though  thfi 
modem  tendency  is  to  ascribe  the  text  now 
extant  to  the  second  Ohristisn  century , 

BiBLiooHAPSt:  The  teicl  w»ji  first  printed  in  tbe  Vmrim  PoJjr- 
gUiU  1^43,  then  in  Walton'^  Polyglot,  1557.  Oiher  edi- 
tionn  of  the  whole  or  of  parts  tue:  A,  BrCLlL  Da*  *amari» 
tanische  Targum  vum  Pentateuch,  Fnuikfort,  l873-75r  with 
two  ■pp^ndie^t  wliich  Appetkred  1575-76;  H.  PeienmLnit 
&nd  C.  Volleni.  Penlaieudiu*  Sam&ritanus  .  .  .^  i,  GenaM;, 
Berlin.  1872,  ii.  BxoduM,  1S92.  iii,  LeviUcuM,  1883.  it, 
Nvmeri,  im&,  t,  Deuteronomium.  l!^9l;  J.  W.  Nutt.  Fra^^ 
menia  of  a  Samaritan  Targum,  London,  1874;  F.  Field 
Oriffenis  itesaplarum,  i,  p.  litudi-lucxiv,  Oxiord,  187^ 
8.  Kohn«  in  Monateechrift  f^  Oeed^ickte  wtd  fFtMn- 
«ftd/l  <iu /ud^iOitnu,  18»4,  PP.  1-T.  40-67. 

On  -vmrioui  ph»Ms«  of  the  rel&tiun  to  text-^ritieiun  a»> 
suit:  J.  Morinuii,  Eierditatiatiiai  in  lUntm^fiM  Samariii^ 
noif^m  Ftnia^lewrhum.  P»>ri9^  1631;  idem,  in  tbe  Pnimm  dI 
bin  edition  of  the  Septua^nt.  IG28;  W.  GsMnium  Dt 
Penm^ucki  &undrt^itdr  imiole,  .  .  .  HiULe.  %8l&l  G.  B. 
Winer,  IH  verevini*  Pentateuchi  SafAoritanm  indoie^  Leip* 
luc*  1817;  8.  Kohn,  De  FmntateudUt  Samariiano  .  .  .  ,  ib. 
I&65;  idem,  Eamontanisehe  Studien^  Brailftii.  1868;  idem, 
Zw  Sprax^,  Ltlerolfur  und  JDfoifma&k  do"  SamarUantr, 
Leip«ie,  1876;  idem,  in  ZDMQ,  xxxiz  (1885^  165~2»l 
A.  Cowley^  in  JQR,  viii  <18M),  562  aqq.,  end  in  JB^ 
M.,  667;  idem,  A  Suppowmd  Earlyi  Copy  of  iKw  Samaritan 
FeniatmcA.  In  PEF,  Quarterly  Statement,  Oct..  1901^  P. 
Kahle.  TeitkriHerhe  utid  leHkalUche  Bemerkuntffen  tvm 
tamariianitchen  PerUateutJiiargum,  Leip&dc«  18^;  J.  Skin* 
ner,  NotM  on  a  newly  acquired  Samariian  MS^  in  JQRr 
xiv  (1001).  26-36;  W.  E.  Biu^n,  The  Samantan  Pmta- 
tewh,  ID  Bibliotheoi  M£m,  H  (iwa>;  R.  Gottheil,  in  JBL, 
xxv,  part  1,  leOf);  J.  A.  Montcomery.  Tht  Samaitan*, 
Phihidelphia,  1907. 

V.  Aramaic  Versions  (The  Targums) :  Thpse  are 
Aramaic  paraphra^s  of  the  Old  Testament  (tar- 
gum  —  "  interpratatton»  translation/'  from  iargemt 
**  to  explain,  translate  ";  cf.  Eiraiv,  7) 
rill"  prepared  for  use  in  the  syn^ogue, 
and  took  their  rise  from  the  custom  of 
repeating  and  explaining  the  Hebrew 
aaered  text  in  the  Aramaic  tongue »  which  after 
the  exile  became  tbe  vernacular  of  the  Jews  in 
Palestine  and  ebe where.  At  finit  the  targum  was  a 
free  oral  exposition;  then  it  gpraduaUy  acquired 
fixed  form,  and  at  last  was  reduced  to  writing. 
It  is  frequently  found  in  manuscripts  following 
tbe  Hebrew  text  verse  by  verae.  When  the 
Law  was  read,  the  paraphrase  was  given  after 
every  veise;  with  the  Propbets  three  verai^ 
were  allowed  to  be  taken  together. 

The  Language  of  the  Tar^gums  used  to  be  called 
Chaldee,  because  Jerome  so  named  the  Aramaie 
portions  of  tbe  Hebrew  Bible,  which  are  written 
in  a  dialect  very  akin  to  that  of  the  Tai^uma, 
In  reality,  these  have  preserved  the  Jewish  form  of 
the  Aramaic,  tbe  next  <^gnatc  dialect  being 
Syriac,  the  form  of  tbe  Aramaic  used  by  the 
Christians  of  Edessat  while  etill  other  cognate 
dialects  are  those  of  tbe  Palmyrene  tnscriptionj 
and  of  the  Samaritans  (see  Semitic  LANOtJAOEs). 
The  grammatical  and  lexicographical  use  of  the 
Targums  is  hampered  by  the  fact  that  no  edition 
hfis  Bs  yet  appeared  that  takes  account  of  all 
the  materials  now  available.  Mereier  vocal- 
ized the  texta  after  the  Syriac,  Buxtorf  after 
the  Biblical  Aramaic;  the  edition  printed  by 
Foa    (Sabbiouetta,    1357)    seems    to    reat    on    a 


and 


181 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Teralont 


mviuscnpt  in  which  the  mipralineiir  syBtcm  of 
vociliuLtion  had  been  changed  into  that  of  TiberiJis, 
l»ut  with  many  faults  aiid  mconsistencies.  The 
limi  original  system  of  vocal  ixatioii  is  thiit  pre- 
icf\*ed  in  nianuHcripta  from  Yemen,  on  which  cf. 
Iht  works  of  Menc,  Berliner,  Landauer,  KAutEsch, 
ibtfgoUouth {The Superlincar  Puficiuatmn , ia  PSBA , 
txul  164-2»J5).  and  Bamstein  {The  Targum  of 
ihkdos  to  Gene&iAf  London,  1896),  and  the  editions 
of  PAtorius  (/oiAua,  Berlin,  1899;  Judges,  1900). 

For  the  greater  part  of  tlie  Old  Testament  there 

u  tnuR'  than  one  Targum,    One  on  the  Pentateuch 

i»itinbuted  in  some  passages   of  the  Talmud  to 

a.  Tuwu     ^^^  helpers  of  Ezra.     According  to  the 

*^~^^     Babylonian  Talmud  {Megiilot  3  a),  On- 

keloa   delivered    it    orally     in    Pales*- 

t«e:  but   tbi^  is   the  result  of  confusing  Onkeloa 

with  Aquila»   who    translated  the  Old    Testament 

into  Greek  (see  al>ove,  L    2,   5    1),   and  "Judaic 

FentAleuch-'Targum "    is    a     better    name     than 

^Tarpim  of  Onkelos,"    which    has    been  in    use 

■mce  Romberg's   Rabbinic   Bible  of   1517.    In   the 

llil^J  century  its  text    seems   to    have  been    con- 

kicknHl  &xed.     and    manuscripts     are    mentioned 

srvcraJ  times,  but  Origen  and   Jerome   apparently 

did  not  know     a    Targum^   and   hence    we    may 

rciQciudc  that  it  did  not   find   official   recognition 

btfore  the  fifth   century.      Its  language  is   dififer* 

eot  from    that    of     both     Talmudfi,    and   aeems 

to  render  the  original   into  the    language   of   the 

pUoe  and  time  of  its  origin   (Paledtiiie)  aa    faith- 

M\y  as  a  translation   which   ia    somewhat   para- 

plinitie^can    do.      The    Hebrew    text   on    which 

if  retts    IB    practically    our    Masoretic    text,  and 

it  is  of   interest   oa    representing    the    excgetical 

bidition  of  the  Jews.     It  is  quite  litcraL  gives  a 

mcwiiiinr  interpretation  of  Gen.  xlix,  10,  and  Num. 

xjQY,  17«  additions  to  Gen.  xlix^  Num.  xxiv,  Deut. 

lEOui,  33,  and  avoids  all  anthropomort>hi8m8.    Like 

Bkie  Hebrew  text,  it  has  been  the  subject  of  Maso- 

^Ktic  studies,  which  have  been  edited  by  Berliner 

^KNt  JlfcMAoroA  rum  Targum  Onkelos,  Leipsic,  1S77). 

^r Hw  Tori^um  of  the  Prophets  has  been  ascribed 

lo  Jonatfaan  ben  Uzziel,  Hiilere  greatest  disciple; 

olliecs  gjve  as  its  redactor  Joseph  ben  Hiyyaof  Baby- 

Ion  (d.  about  333) ;  but  it  did  not  receive 

5*  ''^S^  ^**  ^^^  written  form  before  the  fifth 

j0tiAtn»«.  century.  It  is  more  paraphrastic  tlian 

tilt  Targum  of  the  Law,  which  induced  Comill  to 

that   it  ifl   older.    Eichhom   and    Bertholdt 

it    tbey    recognized    different   hands.     The 

t  g;reatiy   influenced    by  the  book  of 

Ua.    liii   is   understood  of    the  Messiah, 

suffering  atones  for  IsraeL    Great  enmity  is 

9,gfasm%  Rome. 

Tht  two  Targums  just   described   represent  the 

Judaie   Ajumaic;   of    a   mixed   character    is    the 

iBMaa^  of  Targums  Yerushalmi  I  and   II  on  the 

Law.  Some  verses  are  missing  from  the 

4*  Otb#r    former*  and  the  latter  is  preserv^ed  only 

**'^^*'^    in  fragments.    Certain  other  fragments 

_f^ ^^    found  in  various  manuscripts  and  edi- 

P^j^l^^^  tions  of  the  Pentateuch  are  designated 

by  Dalman  (Grammtiiik,  §  6,  3)  asYer^ 

II L    There  are  similar  f  ragmen  ta  of  a  Tar- 

ODtba  Pmpheti)  published  by  Lagarde  from  the 


margins  of  Re  uchlin*s  codex  (on  which  cf,  Bacherjn 
ZDMG,  xxviii).  Bassfreund  {DoJi  Fragmententargum 
zum  Pcntaleuckf  Brcslau,  1896)  anil  similarly  Dal- 
man  {Grammalikj  §  5,  4)  see  in  Onkelos  the  oldest 
Palestinian  Targum  and  in  Yeruwhalmi  I  and  II 
a  later  development*  M.  Giasburger,  on  the 
contrary  {Pseudo- Jonathan,  Berlin,  1903,  preface), 
and  Bacher  find  in  them  traces  of  a  very  old 
Palaatinian  Targum,  which  has  been  worked  over 
by  Onkeloa.  The  comment  in  these  pieces  is 
sometimes  very  fantiistic. 

The  Targums  of  the  Hagiographa  are  not 
translations,  but  commentaries;  the  Targum  of 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  for  instance,  is  a  pane- 
gyric of  the  Jewish  nation  with 
foolLsh  anachronisms,  the   Targum  of 


5.   The 


ranha  '  ^^*^  Psalms  is  in  some  parts  litenil,  in 
others  explanatory.  The  Targum  of 
Proverbs  is  a  working  over  of  the  Syriac  translation 
(cf.  Pinkuss,  in  ZATW,  xiv,  65.  161).  As  the 
Hagiograplia  were  not  read  in  the  Synagogue  as 
regularly  as  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  (cf*  Lk*  iv, 
16;  Acts  xiii,  15;  xv,  21),  their  Targums  are  to 
some  extent  private  literary  works  of  diflfering 
character.  For  Ezra^Nehemiah  and  Daniel  no 
Targum  is  known,  unless  the  Aramaic  parts  of 
Daniel  are  fragments  of  a  Targum.  For  Esther 
there  are  two  Targums.  E.  Nestle. 

BiBLiooHAfHY:  The  best  Knuntaar  n  O.  Dalmaa,  Qram^ 
maiik  dt*  jiiditch-palAaHniMchen  AnamdiMcK  Leipmc,  1894^ 
Ausoabe  mii  Dwirkiprohen,  1806,  2d  ed.,  1905  (eivea  vitU 
Uftble  compeud  of  Utemture).  The  lirst  sperial  diolioii' 
nry  for  the  Tai^um  ia  the  Mettirgeman  of  EUa^  LevitAt 
liny,  1541;  quite  cx^mplete  hut  uD^atiafactory  UnguiH- 
tically  in  J,  Levy.  Chald&iMchei  W&rferbuch  Qb^r  die  Tar- 
gwrnitn^  2  vob.,  Leip&ic,  1S67HS8*  The  whole  rmnsa  of 
Aminaic  hterature  14  Ireated  in  Nathan  bar  Jechiel, 
Sepher  he-aruk  {o.  11CX>  a,d.),  first  priotod  without  phi«e 
and  date,  but  before  14S^  a.d..  new  ed.^  by  A.  Kohut* 
Vieona.  1878-92  (cf.  JE,  ix.  180-182).  Others  are:  G, 
F.  Boderianu^  tl&73),  printed  in  the  .Vntwerp  Poly- 
glot; J.  Buixtorf,  Ltiimn  duUdaicum,  1640.  new  ed,«  B. 
Fischer.  Lei  PHI  c.  1809-75;  M.  Ja«itrow»  Dictiofmrif  of  Ike 
Tarffumim^  the  Talmud  BoMi  and  JtrrwduUmi  and  the  Mid- 
rathic  Literature,  2  vola,.  New  York,  1903  (the  mo!«t  a«- 
eessible);  G.  Dalman^  AramaUch-neithebraische*  WorUer' 
buch  mil  Lexikon  der  Abbreviaturen^  von  G.  ltiLudler« 
Frankfort.  1897-1901. 

The  Targum  of  Ookelos  was  first  printed  Bi^loKiia.  1483; 
with  Hebr.  t«xt  and  Rufihi's  commenlary;  beat  ediiiun 
by  Foa,  at  Sabbioneita^  I&57,  republished  by  A.  lierliner 
at  Bertin,  1884  (ef.  Lagarde,  M iUhtUunaen,  ii.  163-18:2); 
lat««t  edition  in  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch  Sefer  keUir  tora 
at  Jerusalem,  1 894-1 90 L  Part«  are  in  A.  Mcrx«  Chret- 
tomathia  Taroumica.  Berlin,  1883;  in  E.  Kautssch,  Vthm' 
eine  atte  Handaehrift  daa  Targum  Onk^kM,  Ualle.  1893; 
and  G.  Dalman,  Aramai»che  Diakktprobm,  L(?ipaic,  189A. 
Translations  arc  that  in  Eng.  by  J,  W.  EthcridKe,  inclu- 
ding Oetkeloi^.  Jonathan,  and  the  Jcrusftlem  frEmmentji,  2 
vole..  London,  1802,  and  the  Latin  tranel.  by  P.  Fa^iuji, 
BiraKburg,  1546.  On  the  text-critical  value  and  other 
relations  consult:  3,  Landauer,  Die  Ma^orah  turn  OnktioM, 
Leipflic.  1877;  H.  Barn^tein.  Targum  of  Onkelo*  to  Gev^»iM, 
Loudon^  1890;  G.  DJettrich,  iSrammatiMthe  BeobachtungeH, 
m  ZATM\  XX  (1900).  148-159;  E.  Brederck,  in  TSK,  \xidr 
ami),  351-377;  A.  Merx,  Dit  VokaliMition  der  Tatgumt, 
in  Veriuindlun^  des  Sten  orientatischim  CongrtM,  ii.  part  I, 
pp.  142-188.  On  the  person  of  Onkelos  conftult.  D* 
Luiiatto.  PhUozenui,  Cracow,  189S;  M,  Friedmann,  Onht- 
lo*  und  Akyla;  Vienna,  1896;  JE,  ii,  36-38,  ix,  406. 
jcii,  68-59, 

The  editions  of  the  Tarfln^nu  of  Jonathan  are:  For  the 
"Former  Prophets-'  l»t  edition,  Lciria^  1494»  for  the 
whole,  in  the  fir»t  Rabbinic  Bible,  Venice,  1517;  by  La- 
garde  after  Reuchlin'a  MS.,  1872  (cf.  A*  Klo»t«rmann, 
in  TSK,  3dvi.  1873,  731'767);  Joahua  and  Judges  by  Fm- 


Bible  Version* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFP-EEERZOG 


18fl 


toriuB  from  South  Arabian  MSS..  Berlin,  1809-1000;  Jonah 
and  Micah  by  Merx,  in  his  Cknatomathiat  ut  sup.;  Nahum 
by  Adier,  in  JQR,  vii  (1806).  63(>-d67;  Jer.  i-xii  by  Wolf- 
flohn,  1003;  Exekiel,  i-x  by  Silbermann.  1002;  the  Haf- 
taroth  in  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch  Sefer  keter  iorah,  ut  sup. 
Consult  also:  C.  W.  H.  Pauli,  The  CKaldee  ParajOiram  on 
A«  Prophet  Imiah,  London*  1871;  Z.  Frankel.  Zu  dem 
Targwn  der  Propheten^  Breslau,  1872;  W.  Baoher,  in 
ZDMO,  xxviii  (1874).  1-72.  167.  810;  H.  S.  Levy, 
Targum  on  /aaioA,  with  Commentaryt  London,  1880. 

YeniBhalmi  I  and  II  were  first  published  in  Bombeis's 
Rabbinic  Bible,  Venice.  1617.  The  best  editions  of  both 
are  by  M.  Qinsburser.  Pteudo-Jonathan,  Berlin.  1003. 
and  Dos  Fmomententhargum,  1800  (of.  Bamstein.  in  JQR, 
xiu,  1800.  167;  ZDMO,  Iviii.  1004.  874-378).  On  both 
Targums.  of.  Dalman,  Orammaiik,  f  6,  1-2;  on  an  im- 
portant manuscript  of  Yerushalmi  II  at  Nuremberg,  cf. 
Lagarde,  MittheUungen,  iii,  Qdttingen.  1880,  87. 

The  Targum  of  the  Hagiographa:  The  first  edition  of 
Job,  Ps.,  Prov.,  and  the  Rolls  was  in  the  Rabbinic  Bible* 
Venice,  1617,  which  books  were  reprinted  by  Lagarde  in 
1873;  the  best  edition  of  the  Targum  on  Esther  is  by  M. 
David,  Berlin,  1808  (cf.  Posner.  Daa  Targum  Riechon  tu 
Etiher,  Breelau.  1806);  Eoclesiastes,  from  South  Arabian 
MSS.,  by  A.  Levy,  ib.  1006.  Ck>nsult  E.  Brederek,  Kon- 
kordanM  Mum  Targum  Onkdoe,  Giessen,  1006;  H.  L.  Strack, 
Eifdeitung  in  das  A.  7.,  §  84,  Munich,  1006. 

VL  The  Annenian  VeiBion:  The  Armenian  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  rests  on  the  Greek, 
though  it  shows  in  certain  passages  and  books  traces 
of  revision  either  from  the  Syriac  or  from  the 
Hebrew.  The  Greek  text  used  seems  to  have  been 
dependent  on  Origen,  for  in  some  Armenian  manu- 
scripts hexaplaric  marks  are  found.  In  the  manu- 
scripts (not  in  the  printed  editions)  various  pseudepi- 
graphic  books  appear.  The  Armenian  Psalter 
printed  for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
at  Venice,  1850,  was  rejected  in  consequence  of 
these  additions.  Ecclesiasticus  has  been  trans- 
lated twice,  first  in  the  fifth  century,  this 
version  being  printed  in  the  Venice  Bible,  1860; 
again  probably  in  the  eighth  century,  found  in 
Zohrab's  edition  of  the  Armenian  Bible  of  1805. 
On  the  statements  of  Koriun,  Lazar  of  Parpi. 
and  Moses  of  Chorene,  that  the  Scriptures  were 
translated  by  Mesrob,  Sahag,  Eznik,  and  others 
between  396  and  430  from  manuscripts  brought 
from  Edessa,  Constantinople,  and  Alexandria, 
cf.  Conybeare,  Z)B,  i,  152  (see  Armenia,  II,  §§ 
2-3).  A  collation  of  the  Armenian  version  was 
made  for  Holmes-Parsons  (see  above,  I,  1,  §  2), 
and  is  being  made  afresh  for  the  forthcoming 
Cambridge  Septuagint  by  McLean  (cf.  Swete, 
Introduction f  London,  1900,  p.  118).  Theodoret 
states  that  in  his  time  the  language  of  the  Hebrews 
was  translated  into  that  of  the  Armenians, 
Scythians,  and  Sauromatians.  A  concordance  to 
the  Armenian  Bible  has  been  printed  in  the  cloister 
of  San  Giacomo  at  Jerusalem  (1895).  The  un- 
canonical  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  found  in 
Armenian  manuscripts  in  the  library  of  San 
Lazzaro  were  translated  into  English  by  J. 
Issaverdens  (Venice,  1901);  on  Ter  Moosesjan's 
History  of  the  Translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arme- 
nian, cf .  H.  Goussen,  in  Nouvelle  Revue  de  Thiologie, 
1904,  p.  9. 

For  the  New  Testament  Mill  used  some  notes  on 
the  Armenian  version  by  W.  Guise  and  L.  Piques. 
For  Tregelles  C.  Rieu  collated  Zohrab's  edition 
of  1805.  His  notes  were  used  by  Tischendorf 
in  the  eighth  edition  of  his  New  Testament;  Gregory 


catalogued  sixty-four  manuscripts  in  Europe  (outside 
of  Russia)  and  America.  At  Moscow  is  a  copy  of  the 
Gospels  dated  887,  at  Echmiadzin  is  the  msnu- 
script  222  written  in  989,  but  with  an  hoif 
binding  which  is  much  older.  Conybeare  <&- 
covered  in  this  manuscript,  after  Ifaik  xvi,  8, 
the  words  Ariston  eritsou  ("of  the  presbyter 
Arist[i]on"),  which  probably  preserve  the  name 
of  the  author  of  the  dose  of  the  second  Cios- 
pel.  The  Gospels  have  invariably  the  so-caDed 
Anmionian  sections;  the  Acts  and  Epistles  of  Panl,  ' 
the  Euthalian  additions  (see  AiniONiUB  or  Alix- 
andria;  Euthauxtb);  at  their  end  is  found  the 
apocryphal  correspondence  of  Paul  with  the  Corin- 
thians. After  John  follows  sometimes  the  apooy- 
phal  *^  Rest  of  John."  The  Apocalypse  is  said  to 
be  a  recension  made  by  Nerses  Lambron  in  the 
twelfth  century;  a  much  older  version  is  indicated 
by  H.  Goussen  (cf .  Gregory,  Textkritik,  Leipsic,  1902, 
p.  568).  The  inclusion  of  the  apocryphal  corre- 
spondence of  Paul  with  the  Corinthians  and  other 
characteristics  of  this  version  and  the  whole  histoiy 
of  the  Armenian  Church  confirm  the  view  that 
the  Armenian  version  was  first  based  on  the 
Syriac  Bible  and  afterward  revised  from  the 
Greek;  cf.  on  this  question  Conybeare  and 
Burkitt.  E.  Nebtlb. 

Bibuoqbapbt:  The  Annenian  Bible  was  firat  printei 
Amsterdam,  1666,  from  a  single  MS.;  of  this  the  editios 
by  Meohitar,  Venice,  1738,  was  in  the  main  a  reprint; 
the  first  oritioal  edition  was  by  Zohrab,  Venioe,  1806. 
Consult  Scrivener,  Introduction,  u,  148-154;  Qregory, 
TextkriHk,  i,  665-573;  F.  G.  Oonybeare,  in  DB,  i,  161- 
154,  and  in  The  Expoeiior,  1893,  pp.  242  SQq..  sod 
Dec,  1895:  F.  C.  Burkitt,  in  EB,  iv,  6011,  6028;  A 
Abeghian,  Vorfragen  gwr  Ent$UhungageadnidUe  der  attar- 
meniechen  Bihdiiber§etsungen,  Marburg,  1906;  idem.  Zur 
Ent9tehung»geeehiehte  der  altarmeniechen  BibeUibermiM^ 
gen,  Tdbingen,  1907. 

VIL  Egyptian  Coptic  Versions:  According  to 
Zosimus  Panopolitanus,  the  Hebrew  Bible  was 
translated  into  Eg3rptian  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Septuagint  (see  above,  I,  1,  §  6);  according  to  the 
life  of  St.  Anthony,  he  heard  the  Goq[>el  read  in 
church  in  the  Egjrptian  language.  But  the  latter 
statement  is  not  certain  enough  to  justify  the 
supposition  that  the  Eg3rptian  version  of  the  New 
Testament  goes  back  to  the  middle  of  the  third 
century.  At  that  time  Christianity  in  Egypt 
seems  to  have  been  restricted  to  the  Greeknspeak- 
ing  towns.  Modem  scholars  distinguish  linguis- 
tically as  many  as  five  or  six  Coptic  dialects;  for 
the  textual  critic  the  Coptic  versions  fall  into 
three  divisions,  although  a  former  generation 
knew  only  one  and  called  it  the  Coptic,  i.e.,  tbe 
Egyptian,  version.  These  divisions  are:  (1)  The 
Saidic  or  the  version  of  Upper  Egjrpt,  sometimes 
called  the  Thebaic;  (2)  the  Fayyumio  (formerly 
called  the  Bashmuric),  with  which  text  tbe 
fragments  in  the  Middle-Egjrptian  dialect  agree; 
(3)  the  version  now  in  ecclesiastical  use  among  all 
Copts  or  Egjrptian  Christians,  called  Bohairie. 
The  Bohairah  ("  Lake  ")  is  a  district  near  Alex- 
andria and  Lake  Mareotis,  the  modem  Beherah. 
There  is  a  fourth  dialect  called  Akhmimic;  but  the 
version  of  the  Catholic  Epistles  in  this  dialect,  pre- 
served in  a  very  ancient  manuscript,  is  properiy 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  TersioELS 


ciiffed  with    the  Saidic  version,     Bashmuric  had 
ilready  died  out  in  the  time  of  Athaziof^iun. 

The  Bohairic  version  was  for  a  long  time  the 
iK^  one  known  to  European  scholars,  and  is 
ftdl  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  earliest  %'er£3ion 
ID  Boy  Egyptian  dialect;  but  with  better  reason 
others  see  in  it  a  lat«  recension,  characterized  by 
faithfulneBB  to  the  Greek,  the  bajsal  Greek 
test  bang  best  represented  by  the  Greek  Oxiex 
L  sod,  among  the  Fathers^  not  by  Oement  and 
Origeo^  but  by  Cyril.  Of  the  Saidic  manuscripts 
aocoe  of  the  more  ancient  are  bilingtial,  the 
Gwek  occupying  the  page  on  the  left  hand  of 
the  open  book;  the  Bohairic  manuscripts,  on 
the  coDtnuy,  are  often  accompanied  by  an 
Aiabic  translation,  but  there  is  no  instance  of 
A  Greco- Bohairic  manuscript.  When  written  in 
two  columns  the  Greco-Saidic  manuscripts  ha%'^e 
both  Greek  columns  on  the  left  and  both  Saidic 
OD  the  right,  and  occasionally  the  two  pages 
d  the  codex  give  different  readings.  The  text 
o(  tkii  vereion  generally  supports  that  represented 
hf  Codex  B,  but  it  has  some  strange  "Weatem" 
•iiguUrities;  for  instance,  to  Luke  xxiii,  53,  it  is 
idded  that  Joseph  placed  a  stone  at  the  door  of 
tht  Mpulcher,  which  twenty  men  were  scarcely 
ilik  to  move,  and  in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man 
lod  Lutfua  the  name  of  the  former  is  given  as 
*Kii»feh/'  Revelation  seems  t^  have  been  eon- 
i^ered  imcanonical,  for  it  is  not  found  with  the 
i*t  (rf  the  New  Testament,  E,  Nestle. 

BttU(ni4PHT:  ErschiUKl  Gniber,  Aliffemeine  Encutiop^ie, 
fcelioq  2,  rol.  xxxix,  12-36;  /,  P,  MArtin,  in  Poiyhihiwn^ 
L  ISWi  P»rw,  1886;  A.  Schulte.  Die  kopHache  UdterHteuno 
^  net  groMtfn  PropKettn,  MQtiiiter,  1803;  Scrivoncr* 
Imiitttiom,  ii.  91-144;  H,  Hyvemnt.  iftude  «wr  ie«  vfr- 
mnCoplmde  la  BibU,  in  R^ue  Biblujut,  v  (1806).  3. 
C7-43a,  540-560,  vi  (1897).  1.  48-74.'  Gregory,  Tertkriiik, 
i.  S28-*53:  DB,  i.  668-673;  £B,  iv,  5006-11,  6027;  W. 
1.  Onim  ii  aoetistomed  to  not«  new  Biblic&I  t«Ttit  in  the 
■oanal  ArcAtPolo^uul  Report  of  the  Egypt  EjtplornHon 
r«iKl(ef.  that  for  1005-06,  pp.  66  aqq.). 

Od  the  Bohairic  vernioQ  of  the  Old  Testament,  eKpedally 
lbiflB(at*iwli«  cf.  A.  E.  Brooke,  in  JTS,  iii.  258-278.  For 
^BollAirie  Hew  Teitament  there  i»  now  the  fine  edition 
flttteClanuMkin  Press  by  G.  Homer,  The  Coptic  Vtraion  of 
Ihf  N.  T  in  tkf  Norikem  DialetU  othwrviM  eathd  the  Mem- 
Jll^  ««^  Bohairic,  %/fith  Introduction,  eriHad  ApparattUf 
«»diikral  Eng.  tramti,  vols,  i-ii,  Gospels,  1898,  vols,  iii- 
JT,  Aeu  aod  Epistles.  1905. 

TbtSatdie  New  Testament  is  edited  by  P.  J.  Balestri  in 
Atmsum  bibtiorryan  froffmmnta  coptosahidica  Musei  Bor- 
ViimL  vol.  iii,  Home,  1904;  the  Berlin  manuscript  of  the 
^Uttr.byA  lUhlfs,  GQA,  iv,  4, 1901 ;  cf.  also  J.  O.  Prinoe. 
^*»  »W»(<mj  €?/  th«  Coptic  PmUter,  in  JBL,  xxi.  92-99; 
^O.WituHedt, Sahidic Biblical  Fraomenta  in  ih«f Hodldan 
^^^,is  PSBA,  rxvii,  2;  and  C,  Wessely,  Sahidiadi- 
PWJkMf  PmUmeHtrasmtnit,  Vienna,  1907,  For  parts  of 
^  Oid  T«stAmeiit  cf.  Lanrardc's  Ptntateudi,  Leipsic,  1867, 
^^•ilsnii  MTcitf  JftfffipAifutt,  Gdttineen,  1875,  and  {for  Wis- 
WBeeleaas««s«and  Psalms)  his  Mgyptvnca,  1883;  vols. 
I  iBdli  of  the  Borsi an  Fragments,  byCiasca.  1886-^;  on 
^importaneecvf  ibe  Egyptian  version  of  Job,  cf.  Lagarde, 
06ttiQgen,  1884,  i,  203. 


Vm,  The  Ethiopic  Version:  In  Ethiopie  there 
^^  a  tnuuslation  of  the  Bible  which  has  continued 
^  out  j  one  authorised  among  Abyssinian  Chris- 
**>•,  and  even  amonfr  the  Jewish  Falashas;  and  it 
J»flnuuntains  it«  ancient  authority,  although  the 
^tWopic  long  ago  ceased  to  be  spoken .  There  in 
**  liable  information  aa  to  the  exact  time  or  man- 
^o(  it»  ofigin;  but  it  ia  certain  that  it  was  made 


from  the  Septuagint  in  the  early  days  of  Abyssin- 
lan  Christianity,  between  the  fourth  and  the  eixth 
century.  It  ia  very  faithful,  being,  for  the  most 
part,  a  verbal  rendering  of  the  Greek,  readable  and 
fluent,  and  in  the  Old  Testament  often  renders 
closely  the  ideas  and  the  words  of  the  Hebrew. 

Dillmann  projected  an  edition  of  the  Ethiopic 
Old  Testament  in  five  volumes,  of  which  he  lived 
to  publish  vols,  i,  Gen.-Ruth  (1853),  ii,  Ham.-Kinga 
(1861-71),  and  v,  the  Apocrypha  (1894).  Hear- 
rftnged  the  manuscripts  in  three  groups:  (1)  those 
which  contain  the  original  translation  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint uncomipted;  (2)  those  the  text  of  w4ueh  has 
been  revised  and  completed  from  the  Greek;  (3)  those 
which  Imvc  been  corrected  from  the  Hebrew.  From 
the  circumstance  that  the  Ethiopic  Church  was  de- 
pendent on  that  in  Egypt,  it  is  probable  that  the 
particular  recension  of  the  Septuagint  from  which 
the  Ethiopic  translation  was  made  was  the  He»- 
ychian  (see  above,  I,  1,  §  5).  But  the  early  Aramaic- 
speaking  missionaries  influenced  the  translation, 
as  is  shown  by  the  numerous  Aramaic  words 
wliich  are  employed  to  convey  Christian  ideaa. 
Possibly  the  Bible  ivaa  translated,  at  least  in  part, 
by  these  nus^HjonHrie^  or  their  pupils. 

The  division  into  chapters  wiiij  introduced  at  a 
later  day  into  Abyssinia,  under  European  in  flu- 
ences.  The  Ethiopic  Bible  includes  the  Apocrypha, 
except  the  books  of  Maccabees,  which  were  either 
not  translated  or  very  early  lost^  and  several 
pseuilcpigrapha,  and  put^  them  upon  perfect 
equality  with  the  canonica!  writings;  and  in  this 
way  the  number  of  books  is  given  as  eighty-one, 
forty-six  for  the  Old  Testament^  thirty- live  for 
the  New.    (See  AByssimA  and   the   Anys^iNiAN 

ChuRCHO  (F.  PlL\TORlUS.) 

BiatiooltAPEiT:  For  lists  of  Ethiopic  MSS.  avail abie  con- 
sult the  CaUUfiQutt  by  A.  T.  d'Abbadie,  Paris,  1850  (a  gen- 
eral list),  by  0,  F,  A.  Djllmann  (for  BritHh  Museum ),  Loa- 
don,  1847  (for  Bodleiau  Library),  Oxford,  1848,  and  (tor 
Berlin)  Berlin,  1878,  by  W.  Wright  (for  Britiah  Miuieum). 
London,  1877,  and  by  H.  Zot«nberg  (for  fiibliolhtque 
NfttionAle).  Pwi*;  ZDMQ,  v.  164  saQ-  (for  those  in  Tli- 
bingen),  ZDMG,  xvi  (for  Vienna),  Bulletin  McienHilqu& 
publii  par  i'AcatUmie  dta  Sciences,  ij,  a02.  iii,  14^  eqq. 
(for  tho««  ia  8t.  Petenburg),  and  a  ureneral  lint  in  C.  R, 
Gregory,  pTvl«g<mena,  iii,  000-912,  leipsic.  18&4.  On  the 
version  consult:  C.  ¥.  A-  Dillmann.  in  Jahrbachtr  dcr  bih- 
liachcn  W ieeeneehaft,  v  {lSfi3>,  144-161;  llcckon<lorf.  in 
ZATW,  vii  (1887),  61-90;  P.  J,  Bachmann,  £Jod«Jbopre- 
phfton  mthiopum,  part  1,  Olxidiah,  Halle,  1892,  put  2. 
MaleadiL  18M.  Die  KlaotHeder,  1893,  Je^ia,  1803;  L. 
Goldnchmidt,  Bibliotheca  O'thiopiea,  Leipfie,  1803;  Hack- 
wpill.  ia  ZA,  xi  (1807).  150-151,  The  subject  ia  treated 
also  in  C.  R,  Gregory,  Proleoomena^  iii.  894  000.  ut  sup,; 
in  the  EinUntun^  of  Kflni^,  1893.  p.  113.  of  JOlich(^r.  1894. 
p^  388,  and  of  Comill,  1896,  p.  338,  and  the  Introdudion 
of  Scrivener,  ii,  154-155, 

Th«  beat  ed,  of  the  Old  Testament  ia  that  of  Dillmana 
(ut  flupj.  The  New  Testamont  was  firiit  printed  at  Rocae 
in  1548-49  by  theAbyjiainian  Tanfa-^ion  or,  as  he  ii  aim 
called^  Fetor  the  Ethioptan,  rerprinte<]  in.  the  London  Poly- 
glot.  Aned.  wa»  issued  by  T,  P.  Piatt  fur  the  BFBS  in 
1826-30,  reprinted  at  Leipsic,  1899. 

DC  The  Georgian  (Iberian)  Version:  The  earliest 
translations  of  parte  of  the  Bible  in  the  language  of  the 
Iberianfl  belong  to  tlio  fifth  century,  and  seem  to  be- 
tray ttic  influence  of  the  Syrhic  version,  David  and 
Stephen  in  the  eight  c<jntnry  are  the  first  names 
known  of  men  engaged  in  revision  of  the  Fberian 
Bibk.    A  papyrus  Psalter  ia  asaignod  to  the  seventb 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


184 


or  eighth  century,  and  a  copy  of  the  Gospels  is 
dated  a  century  later  (facsimile  in  Tsagareli).  The 
edition  printed  at  Moscow,  1743,  has  been  retouched 
fxx)m  the  Slavonic.  S.  C.  Malan  in  1862  used  this 
version  for  his  edition  of  the  Gospel  of  John.  On 
the  Georgian  manuscripts  of  the  library  at  Paris 
there  is  a  recent  paper  by  A.  Khakhanov. 

E.  Nestle. 

Bibuooraphy:  Scrivener,  Introduction^  ii,  166;  A.  A. 
Tsagareli,  "  Information  about  the  Monuments  of  Georgian 
Literature  "  (Russian),  parts  i-iii,  St.  Petersburg,  1886-04; 
C.  R.  Gregory,  Prolegomena,  iii.  922-023.  Leipsio,  1804; 
idem,  Textkritik,  i,  573;  J.  M.  Bebb.  in  DB,  iv.  861;  A. 
Palmieri,  Le  Veraione  Georgiane  della  Bibbiat  in  Besaa- 
rione,  2  ser.,  vol.  v.  250-268,  322-327.  vi.  72-77.  180- 
104,  Rome.  1001-02.  On  the  people  consult:  A.  Leist, 
Dob  georgiBche  Volk,  Dresden,  1003. 

X.  The  Gothic  Version  of  Ulfilas:  Ulfilas  (q.v.), 
the  Moses  of  the  Goths,  as  Constantino  styled  him 
(cf.  TSKy  1893,  273),  was  made  bishop  probably  in 
341  at  Antioch  and  died  in  381  or  383.  He  gave 
to  his  people  the  alphabet  and  the  Bible,  but,  ac- 
cording to  Philostorgius  (Hist,  eccL,  ii,  5),  omitted 
to  translate  the  books  of  Kings  because  he  thought 
they  contained  too  much  about  war  for  the  good  of 
his  fierce  countrymen.  Of  the  Old  Testament  very 
few  fragments  are  left;  viz.,  Gen.  v,  3-30;  Ps.  Iii, 
2-3;  Ezra  xv  (i.e.  Neh.  v),  13-16,  xvi,  14-xvii, 
3,  xvii,  13-45.  The  translation  follows  the  recen- 
sion of  Lucian  (see  above,  I,  1,  §  5).  The  Gothic 
priests  Sunnias  and  Fretela,  who  were  in  corre- 
spondence with  Jerome  about  the  true  readings  of 
certain  passages  in  the  Psalter  some  twenty  years 
after  the  death  of  Ul  filas  (cf .  Jerome,  Epiat.,  cvi) ,  were 
perhaps  engaged  in  a  revision  of  the  Gothic  P.salms. 
That  the  Psalms  were  sung  in  Gothic  at  CJonstan- 
tinople  is  testified  by  Chrysostom  (cf.  the  disserta- 
tion of  J.  Miihlau,  Zur  Frage  nach  der  gotischen 
Psalmeniibersetzung,  Kiel,  1904).  On  the  frag- 
ments of  Ezra  (Nehemiah),  cf.  E.  Langner,  Die  goti- 
schen Nehemia^fragmente  (Sprottau,  1903). 

More  of  the  New  Testament  is  preserved,  thanks 
to  the  Codex  Argenteus  now  in  Upsala,  also  by  a 
palimpsest  from  Weissenburg  discovered  in  Wol- 
fenbiittel  in  1756,  and  fragments  at  Turin  discov- 
ered by  Angelo  Mai  in  1817  and  by  Reifferscheid 
in  1866.  The  Codez  Argenteua  must  have  had  a 
very  near  relationship  to  Codex  /.  of  the  Latin  Bible 
(cf.  M.  Haupt,  Die  Vorrede  der  gotischen  Bibeliiber- 
setzung,  in  his  Opuscula,  vol.  iii,  Leipsic,  1876; 
Burkitt,  JTS,  i,  129;  Kauffmann,  ZDP,  xxxii,  305- 
335;  Draseke,  ZWT,  1907).  It  was  perhaps  part 
of  a  Greek,  Gothic,  and  Latin  Testament.  The 
version  is  very  faithful,  following  the  text  used  by 
Chrysostom.  More  than  100  Greek  and  Latin 
words  were  retained  by  Ulfilas  (cf.  C.  Elis,  Ud)er 
die  Fremdwf'rrter  und  fremden  Eigennamen  in  der 
gotischen  BibelObersetzung,  Gottingen,  1903). 

E.  Nestle. 

Bxblioorapht:  E.  Bernhardt,  Kritiache  Uniertnichungen 
HJber  die  gothiache  Bibelaberaetzung,  Meiningen.  1867;  K. 
Weinhold.  Die  gothiache  Sprache  im  Dienate  dea  ChHaten- 
thuma,  Halle.  1870;  A.  Kisch,  Der  Septuaginta-Codex  dea 
Ulphilaa,  in  Monataachrift  far  Geachichte  und  Wiaaenachaft 
dea  Judenthuma,  xxii  (1873),  42^6.  85-80.  216-210;  O. 
Ohrloflf.  Die  Bruchatucke  .  .  .  der  gothiachen  BibelOber- 
aeUung.  Halle,  1873;  idem,  in  ZDP,  vii  (1876),  251-205; 
A.  Schaubaoh,  Ueber  daa  VerhaUnia  der  gothiachen  BibeU 
Hberaetxuno  ,  .  .  tu   der   Lutheriachen  .  .  .  «    Meiningen, 


1870;  Q.  Kaufmann,  in  Zeiiaehrift  fUr  deuiadm  AUk^ 
thum,  xxvii  (1883);  K.  Harold.  Kntiaeh»  UniermtdM»m 
liber  den  Einfluaa  dea  Lateina  auf  die  Qoihiaeha  BibdSAm- 
aetxung,  Kdnigsbeis,  1881;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Prolegomem, 
iii«  1106.  Leipsic,  1804;  F.  Kauffaiaim,  in  ZDP,  xxix 
(1806).  306-337;  W.  Bangert.  Der  Binflum  UUeiniadm 
Quellen  auf  die  gothiache  BibelUberaetMung,  Rudolitidt^ 
1880;  W.  Luft  and  F.  Yogt,  in  Zeiiaehrift  fUr  deuiadm 
Alterthum,  xlii  (1808);  J.  Mahlau«  Zur  Frao^  *mhA  dar 
gotiachen  PaalmenHberaetaung,  Kiel,  1004.  On  the  lu- 
giiage  consult:  Q.  H.  Balg.  Comparative  Qloaaary  of  Ik 
Gothic  Language,  8  parU.  New  York.  1887-00;  J.  Wxight. 
A  Primer  of  the  Gothic  Language,  London,  1800;  on  the 
Gothic  alphabet,  W.  Luft,  Studien  n  den  dttetteii  ^oim- 
niachen  Alphabeten,  GQtersloh,  1808. 

The  Codex  Argenteua  was  first  published  by  Frandaeai 
Junius  (du  Jon),  Dort,  1665;  with  the  other  tngmeaU^ 
glossary,  etc..  by  H.  C.  de  Gabelents  and  J.  Loebe,  Lapse. 
1836  and  1846;  in' facsimile  by  A.  Uppetr5m,  Upnda,  18H 
supplemented  in  1857  by  ten  leaves  which  had  becnstobii 
but  afterward  recovered.  The  edition  most  used  in  GennaDj 
is  by  F.  L.  Stamm,  Paderbom,  1858, 0th  ed.,  with  dietioti* 
ary  by  M.  Heyne  and  grammar  by  F.  Wrede,  1806.  An- 
other ed.  with  apparatus  is  by  E.  Bernhardt,' Halle,  1875 
(text  ed.,  1884).  There  is  an  American  edition  byG.H. 
Balg.  The  Firat  Germanic  Bible,  Milwaukee,:  1801.  Pkrtial 
eds.  are  J.  Bosworth,  The  Gothic  and  AngUhSaxon  Ooapda 
.  .  .  with  .  .  .  Wycliffe  and  Tyndale^  London,  1865,  new 
ed..  1007,  and  W.  W.  Skeat.  Mark,  London,  1882. 

B.  Modem  Versions. 

L  Arabic  Versions:  ''There  are  more  Aiabie 
versions  of  the  Gospels  than  can  be  welcome  to 
theology,  with  its  press  of  work/'  wrote  Lagarde 
in  the  preface  of  his  edition  of  the  four  Gospels 
in  Arabic  (Leipsic,  1864).  There  are  translations 
made  from  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Coptic,  Latin, 
Syriac,  and  Greek.  There  was  not,  as  it  seems,  a 
translation  into  Arabic  before  Mohammed  (cf.  M. 
J.  de  Goeje  and  M.  Schreiner,  in  Semitic  Studies  in 
Memory  of  Alexander  Kohut,  Beiiin,  1897,  p.  495). 
John  of  Seville  is  said  to  have  produced  an  Arabic 
Bible  about  737;  the  chronicle  of  Michael  Synis 
mentions  an  Arabic  translation  of  the  Gospds  made 
under  direction  of  John,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  at 
the  command  of  the  emir  Amru.  The  "Indians" 
mentioned  by  Chrysostom  between  Egyptians  and 
Persians  as  in  possession  of  the  Scriptures  in  their 
mother  tongue  may  be  South-Arabians,  but  there 
is  no  additional  information  about  this  version. 

Of  translations  from  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament,  by  Car 
the  most  important  is  the  work  of  Saadia  ben  Joepph.  the 
Gaon,  from  the  Fasryum  (d.  042;  see  Saadia).  On  Saadia 
and  his  translation,  cf.  H.  Ewald  and  L.  Dukes,  BeitrUge  mr 
Geachichte  der  Alteaten  Aualegung  und  SpracherkHkrung  dm 
alten  Teatamenta,  ii  (Stuttgart,  1844);  S.  Munk,  in  La  Bible, 
traduction  nouveUe  .  .  .  par  S.  Cafien,  ix  (Paris,  1838),  73- 
150;  M.  Steinschneider,  Die  arabiadte  Literatur  der  Juden 
(Frankfort,  1002),  66  sqq.;  and  especially  the  edition  of 
his  collected  works  by  J.  H.  Derenbourg,  vol.  i,  the  Penta- 
teuch (Paris,  1803);  iii,  Isaiah  (1806);  iv,  Proverbe  (1800);  v. 
Job  (ed.  Bacher,  1800).  On  the  question  of  the  text,  cf. 
P.  Kahle,  Die  arabiachen  BibdHberaetaungen  .  .  .  (Leipsic, 
1004),  no.  viii,  and  against  him  Bacher,  in  TLZ,  1005,  no.  8. 
Saadia's  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  was  printed  first  in 
Hebrew  letters  with  the  Hebrew  text,  Targum  and  a  Per- 
sian tranHlation  at  Ckinstantinople,  1546,  then  in  the  Paris 
and  London  Polyglots  (see  Bibles,  Poltglot,  III,  IV). 
For  (jenosiis  and  Exodus,  cf.  Lagarde.  in  his  MateriaUen  tur 
Kritik  (Leipsic.  1867).  Kahle  used  for  his  specimen  a  manu- 
script of  Florence  and  WolfenbQttel,  not  used  by  Deren- 
bourg. On  Isaiah,  cf.  Derenbourg,  in  ZA  TW,  1800,  pp.  1- 
84.  Of  Job  there  is  an  edition  by  J.  Cohn  (Berlin,  1880). 
On  the  Pnalms,  cf.  the  dissertations  of  Haneberg.  in  AM  A, 
1841,  iii,  2;  J.  Cohn.  in  Magaain  fUr  die  Wiaaenachaft  dea 
Judentuma,  1881.  On  Canticles,  cif.  A.  Merx,  Die  Saadia- 
niache  Ueheraettung  dea  Hohen  IMea  ir%a  Arabiache  (Heidel- 
berg,   1882).    On   Proyerbs,    of.    a  dissertation  ol   Jonas 


L85 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  VersiDna 


Tbare  : 


(HaIIc,  18^).  On  «Saadt&'9  fi:i^Btem  of  tmnal^ting, 
ir«  EnceilitieJiiper,  D0  Saadio!  GaonU  viia^  biblwrum  vtr* 
£,  htrm*nmi*ica  (Munster«  1807). 

!  Are  other  Arabic  traii«Iationa  made  (rom  the  He- 

by  Jewi  »uch  an  the  Arabs  Erpenti,  n  trarw*lation  of 

PeotAt«ueh  moide  by  an  African  Jew  in  tbe  thirteenth 

Mitury  (published  by  Erpemiud.  Leyden,  1022)^  and  a  Inms- 

alioo  of  tha  Pftalmei  made  by  the  Karaite  Jap  he  t  ben  Eli 

J.  J.  L.  Bargf-fi,  Pans,  1S71);  a  upwidaien  of  hi»  ooai- 

itary  oq  GeDoaia  u  in  Kahle,  viii;  bi»  conunontary  on 

euterDOomy  was  eibted  by  S.   MargDlioutb,  in  An*^oia 

,  Semiiio  wmnv^,  yoI.  i,  part  3»  1899.      Ho8ca  aiul 

I  from  *ti  Oxford  manuscript  were  edited  by  fichrOter,  in 

'  Artidw    far  tnt9ey»KhafUuJi>e   Erfortchut^f  dn   Aiteti    TesUt- 

vteniM,    i   and   ii    (1869-70),      A    Fraffment  einer  arobitthen 

PmwkiUftichiibertetxung  waa  pubLiBhed  by  J,  Hinich.  Leip«ii?, 

IIKKX 

The  first  pperimem  of  an  Arabic  (ranivlatlon  of  the  Samnr- 

^^  itAn  l#xt  wa.«t  publinhe<l  by  A.  C,  Hwiid  (Kome*  1780)  from 

^^L  the  fata'»tis  trigtot  in  the  Barberini  library*  theti  by  Paulus, 

^Hl7$9  and  1791;  better  by  de  Sacy.  in  Memdrew  de  VAcadimie 

^H Jm /fUcripliofM,  xlix,    1-109;  3.  Kohn,  in  Ahhandlun^tn  fUr 

^Brfw  KuntU  det  Moro€vdand€M,  vol.  v>  part  4  (l^ip!*ic.  1875), 

^^'1-^400;  J.     Bliocli,     Die    wamarHanUch-arabixche  Pentalewrh- 

^^^96er^tttung  [BerVm,  1901);  and  KahJe,  ut  sup.,  no,  vi.     The 

SaiDAritaos   fcem    to  have  uned  at  hrst  the  tranalation  of 

Saisdift;  aoon  after  1000  they  made  a  translation  of  their 

o«rm   which   was   revised  in   the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 

century  by  Abu  Said:  Genesit*.  Exoduji,  and  Leviticiis  of 

tbia  Tcnioo  were  edited  by  Kuenen.  1851-54  (cf.  A.  Cowley. 

ia  JK,  at,  677). 

Many  Cbptio  manuscripti  have  an  Arabic  translation  by 
the  aide  of  tsbe  Coptic  text;  in  other  manuscripts  contain- 
IQK  only  >n  Arabic  version ,  thiA  b  derived  from  the  Coptic 
fcf.  Afuh.  3  in  the  Greek  Pentateuch  of  IJolmei^Paraonii; 
■e*  abcnna,  I,  1,  'A  2);  for  Job  sufh  a  translatinn  han  been 
edited  by  Lat^rde,  Pwatterium,  Job^  Proverbia  arabice  (Got- 
Cinsen.  1876);  on  Psalms,  ef,  Paalterium  Coptics,  ed.  M.  G. 
Sdnrartu  (Leip«iio,  1^43);  v. 

From  the  Latin*  either  made  from  it  or  corrected  by  it^ 
•re  the  Roman  editiona  auch  a»  that  of  Sergiuit  Ri«i  (Arabic 
And  l^tia,  3  voIb.,  liome,  1671),  the  Gospela  (L&91),  and 
Paalms  afwJ  Prophet*  (1014),  A  new  reoen^ion  by  Kafael 
Tuld  eontams  only  Genesiff-Nehemiah  and  Tobit  (2  voln.i 
1762).  The  edition  of  1671  without  the  Apocrypha  haA 
been  frequently  reprinted  by  iho  BFBS  sinoe  1822  aft«:r  it 
bad  reprinted  the  Arabic  portion  of  the  London  Polyglot 
unideT  the  soperrision  of  J.  D.  Carlyle  (Newcaitle,  1811). 
In  1858  the  GoopdIb.  jn  1860  the  New  Testament,  in  I86fi 
tbe  Old  Testament  appeared  in  the  new  translation  besnm 
by  the  American  missionary  Eli  Hmith  (q^v.)  and  finished 
by  C  V.  A.  Van  Dyck  at  Beinit,  with  the  help  of  tiative 
eeholafB.  It  has  been  frequently  reprinted  in  Beirut,  Ox- 
ford, Xxuulan,  and  New  York.  In  competition  with  thsf* 
inmlatlon  are  two  from  Roman  Catholics,  the  one  tm- 
dbrtaken  by  the  Dominicans  of  Mosul  under  the  direction 
of  Joseph  David  (4  vols.,  1875-78),  the  other  by  the  Je#uita 
I  Bairut  (3  vols.,  1876^2;  reproduced  by  phototithoKraphy 
1  vol.,  1897;  ef,  on  theee  editions  KaUe,  iii  sqq.;  A>  G. 
lEtlia^  CalaloffU€  of  Art^nc  Booka  in  the  Sritiah  Muaeum,  Lon- 
Mon,  1894  aqq.;  the  Bible  Catalojgtie  of  the  same  library; 
'  Bad  Oarlow-Ikloule,  Hittariad  Catalotn^  *>f  the  ColUnrtum  of 
I  BFBS,  ii,  London,  1908).  Independent  tramtlationfl  of 
|tbe  New  Testament  are  those  of  Salomo  MIeKri  (London, 
tl727)  and  of  Nathanael  Sabat  (Calcutta.  1816).  There  is 
>  an  edition  of  the  Pmalnui  by  Negri  (London,  1725;  cf. 
O.  A.  Freylimthauaen,  Mewioria  Negriana,  Halle.  1764). 

From  the  ^yriac  Bible  ie  the  text  of  Judges.  Ruth,  Sam- 
uel. I  KinKB  i'Xi,   II   King3H  ii>   17  to  the  end,  Chronicle«^ 
N«h-  ix,  28  to  end,  and  Job  in  tlie  Paris  and  Lontlon  Poly- 
slota.     The  first  four  books  are,  according  to  EiWliger,  by 
tbe  aame  author,   the  rest  by  diflerent  authors.     F^alms, 
Pmrerba,    and     Job     have     been     reiosued     by    Lagarde 
iPrndterium,    etc.,    ut    sup.)   and    the    whole    with    few  al- 
terationa    by  the    BFBS  (181 L    ut    eup.).     A    Pj$alter    in 
|^_  Syriac    and    Arabic    in   Syriac   lettf^m    (the  so-called    Kar- 
^Hahunic    Mxipt;     i.e.,    Ger»om'a    mamier     of    writing)     was 
^V  printed    by  Maronite  monks  of    Mount    Lebanon    at    Koji- 
^^  dhaya.   1610    (perhaps    as    early    tkj^    1585),  and    reprinted 
in    Arabic    type    by    Lacarde.     Leviticus,    Numbers,    and 
Deuteronomy  in  the  Muteriali»tt  of  i.oicarde  iteem  to  have 
been    derived    from    the   Byriac    Bible.     A    translation    of 
the  Syriae  Hexapla  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Wisdom  i^  the 
work  of  Hareth  ben  Senan  ben  Babat  (rf   Nestle,  in  ZD.ifG, 
1878,   p.  468;  Ho|nies-Fan»oti0,   Prirfalui  ad  Peniateunhumt 


and  Kahte,  ut  »up*,  ix).  The  fragmentii  of  Job  were  edited 
by  Bauchssin,  1870. 

From  the  Greek  are  translated  the  prophete  and  the 
poetical  bookfr  (except  Job)  in  the  Polyglots,  perhaps  also 
the  Psalms  an  cdite<l  by  Athaiiojt^iuK,  patriareh  of  Antioch 
(Aleppo,  170li).  reprinted  by  Lagarde  with  a  tranAlation  of 
the  tenth  century  by  Abu  al-Fath  Abdallah  ben  FadhL 

Gregory  (Textkritik,  Ijeipsic,  1902)  menticsns  137  Arable 
maetuscripts  for  the  New  Te»tanient,  On  no,  136,  cf. 
Btcnij,  Die  aiiaraidsche  UeherseUun^  dtr  Briefs  an  die  H»- 
hr&€r^  an  die  Rumcr  und  an  die  KurintJuir  (Helsingfors, 
1901).  For  the  maou*cripta  on  Mount  Sinai,  cf.  the  cata- 
logue of  Mrs,  M.  D.  Gibfon,  in  Studia  Sinaitica,  iii  (Cam- 
bridge,  1894),.  and  her  publication  of  a  part  of  an  Arable 
tramtlatiun  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  in  no.  ii  (1893)  of 
the  same  collection;  also  in  no.  vii  (1899).  an  Arabic  trana- 
lation  of  Act.i  and  of  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles  from  an 
eighth  or  ninth  century  maourtcript.  On  the  reviaion  of 
the  Arabic  msxrie  about  250  at  Alexandria  by  Hi  bath  Allah 
ibn  al-A»!ialy  with  various  readings  from  the  Greek,  the 
SyriaCt  and  the  Coptic,  cf.  D.  B.  Macdonnhl,in  the  Hartford 
SrTninarjf  Reatrd,  Apr.,  1893.  Finally,  the  Arahie  version 
of  Tatian's  Diatcaaamn  (ed«  Ciasca,  Rome,  1888)  must  not 
be  forgotten,  £,   NesTLE, 

Btbliograput:  On  the  MSB.  the  one  indiapenjable  book  ia 
L  Guidi.  L^  tmdiudoni  degii  eimnocUi  in  araiw  .  .  .  , 
Rome,  1888;  and  valuable  10  also  C.  R.  Gregory,  Prole- 
gomena, iii,  928-^47,  I^ipeac.  1894.  On  the  version  and 
editions  consult;  Walton's  Polttghl,  Prolegomena,  chap. 
14,  London,  1652;  C.  F,  Schnurrer,  Bibliotfuca  arodico, 
de  Pentateucho  arables)  ....  Thbingen,  1780;  H.  E,  G. 
Faulus,  Commefitatio  critica,  Jena,  1789;  R.  Holniea, 
Vetua  Ttfatnmentum  Grctce,  the  Preface  to  the  Pentateuch, 
Oxford,  1798;  J.  Roediger,  CommentaH^  .  ,  .  dt  inter- 
jjr€tatione  Arabica  ,  .  .  ,  Halle*  1824;  idem,  De  oriffirm 
.  .  .  Arabica  .  .  .  interprdkiHonii,  ib.  lKl.»9;  J.  Gilde- 
meister,  Dt  eiwrufeiiia  in  Arabicum  >  »  ^  tranalatia,  Bonn, 
1S65;  Gregory,  Textkritik:  Scrivener,  /nfrtidw^tton.  ii,  181- 
164;  F.  C.  Barkitt,  in  DB,  i,  136-138  (a  lucid  presenta- 
tion). 

IL  Celtic  Versions:  No  version  of  the  Btble 
or  of  single  Biblical  books  in  any  of  the  Celtic  dia- 
lects has  come  down  from  the  pre- Reformat! on 
period^  though  a  few  Biblical  extracU  in  Old 
Irish  (8th-llth  trenturies)  are  extant  in  homihen. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  English  Church 
in  1560  as  the  8tate  Church,  Biahop  Nicholas 
Walsh  of  Ossory  and  others  ma  tie  an  effort 
toward  giving  the  Bible  to  the;  Irish  people, 
and  the  New  Testament,  tranalat^l  by  William 
O'DonnelU  archbishop  of  Tuam.  waa  published 
at  Dublin  m  1603  in  Irish  characters.  This  edition 
was  republished  at  London  m  1&81,  and  in  1B85 
the  Old  Testument,  translated  by  Bishop  W^ill- 
iam  Bedell  of  Ivilmore  and  others,  was  issued. 
This  ec!ition  was  often  reprinted,  especially  in  a 
revisctl  fonn  by  the  British  and  ForeigJi  Bible 
Society  in  1827.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  the  mociem  dialect  of  Munst^r  by  Dt.  H. 
O'Kane  appeared  at  Dttblin,  1858.  Of  the  Roman 
Cathnlic  translation  prepared  by  Archbishop  John 
MacHale  of  Tuam  from  the  Vulgate,  the  first  volume 
only  (Get»e«iH-Jo«hua)  hiis  appeared  (Tuam,  1861), 
Gaelic,  Tvliich  is  spoken  in  the  Highlands  and  west- 
ern isles  of  Scotland,  is  related  to  Irish;  conse- 
quently the  Scottish  minister  Rol>ert  Kirke,  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  Prote.stant  High- 
landers, had  0*DonnelFs  Irish  tran.slatiou  of  the 
New  Testament  print^^d  in  Roman  letters  and 
supplied  with  an  Irish-Gaelic  glossary  (London, 
1690).  To  pro\ide  the  Gaelic-speaking  Highlandera 
with  a  Bible  of  their  own,  the  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Christian  Knowledge  published  in  1767 
the  New  Testament  translated  by  James  8tuiirt  ol 


Bible  Vanioiiis 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


18f 


Killin,  and  in  1783-1801  a  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  prepared  by  John  Stuart,  Jr.,  and 
John  Smith.  At  the  instance  of  the  same  so- 
ciety, Dr.  Mark  Hildesley,  bishop  of  Man,  dis- 
tributed different  parts  of  the  Bible  among 
the  Manx-speaking  clergy  of  the  Isle  of  Man, 
with  the  view  of  having  a  translation  prepared 
into  this  tongue.  The  whole  was  revised  by 
P.  Moore  and  his  pupil  John  Kelly.  In  1770-72 
the  Bible  in  Manx  was  printed  for  the  above  so- 
ciety at  Whitehaven  under  the  supervision  of 
J.  Kelly,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  later  editions. 

Before  the  Reformation  hardly  any  parts  of  the 
Bible  were  translated  into  Cymric.  In  1562  the 
House  of  Commons  resolved  to  have  the  Bible  and 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  translated  into  Cymric 
within  four  years,  and  made  the  bishops  of  Bangor, 
St.  Asaph,  Hereford,  liandaff,  and  St.  Davids 
responsible  for  its  execution.  The  New  Testament 
was  published  in  London  in  1567,  and  in  1588  the 
whole  Bible  (revised  by  Bishop  Richard  Pany,  1620). 
All  later  issues  follow  Parly's  revised  text.  The 
Bible  has  never  been  translated  into  Cornish.  A 
manuscript  belonging  to  the  first  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  contains  a  translation  of  Gen.  i,  iii; 
Matt,  iv,  vi,  9-13,  vii;  and  the  ten  commandments. 
Before  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
only  short  passages  of  the  Bible  had  appeared 
in  the  Breton.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  published  at  Angoul^me  in  1827  the  New 
Testament  translated  by  the  Breton  scholar  Le 
Gonidec  into  the  dialect  of  L4on.  The  translation 
was  made  from  the  Vulgate,  and  was  for  other 
reasons  unsuitable.  A  new  translation  by  the 
Baptist  missionary  John  Jenkins  was  printed  at 
Brest  in  1847.  Le  Gonidec's  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  revised  by  Troude  and  Milin,  and 
published  at  Saint-Brieuc  in  1866.  In  1883  the  Trin- 
itarian Bible  Society  published  a  New  Testament 
in  the  dialect  of  Tr^guier,  prepared  by  the  Breton 
Protestant  G.  Ar  C'hoat,  and  in  1889  the  whole 
Bible.  A  Roman  Catholic  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  was  published  in  Guingamp  in  1853,  and 
an  edition  of  the  Psalms  at  Paris  in  1873.  For  lin- 
guistic purposes  C.  Terrien  translated  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew  into  the  dialect  of  Vannes  (Lundayn, 
1857)  at  the  instance  of  Lucien  Bonaparte. 

(H.  ZiMMER.) 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  Reid;  Bibliotheea  Scoto-CeUica,  Glasgow, 
1832;  the  8coUi$h^eltic  Rwiew,  Nov.,  1881.  pp.  150  sqq.; 
T.  Llewelyn,  An  HUtoriaU  Account  of  the  Britiah  or  WeUh 
Verwiont  and  Editiont  of  tfu  BibU,  London,  1768;  W. 
Rowland,  Uvfrj/ddiaeth  of  Cymry,  pp.  10-21,  41-50.  93-07. 
Llandloes,  1860;  Revue  CelHque,  vi,  382,  xi,  180-100,  368; 
Bible  of  Every  Land,  pp.  151-173.  London,  1861;  I.  Bal- 
linger,  The  Bible  in  Walee,  London,  1906. 

m.  Dutch  Versions:  The  first  printed  Dutch 
version  (Delft,  1477),  was  made,  apparently  by  a 
layman,  probably  about  1300  from  the  Latin.  Some 
parts,  which  the  translator  was  imwilling  to  popu- 
Isirise,  as  Deut.  xxii,  13-21,  are  passed  over  with 
a  reference  to  the  Latin  text.  Difficult  passages 
have  explanations  mostly  from  the  Historia  scholas- 
tica  of  Peter  Comestor.  The  printed  edition  omits 
Psalms  and  the  New  Testament,  though  both  are 
contained  in  a  good  manuscript  of  this  version  at 
Vienna.    A  very  good  translation  of  the  Psalms  is 


found  in  several  incunabula.  About  1,300 
tions  of  the  New  Testament,  or  at  least  of  tin 
church  lessons  or  of  the  life  of  Christ,  bogan  to 
be  made.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  of 
Erasmus  i^peared  at  Delft  in  1524,  and  two  yean 
before  at  Antwerp  a  translation  of  Luther's  ymkm 
was  printed  by  Hans  van  Roemundt  (repeated  at 
Basel,  1525  and  1526,  also,  a  little  altmd,  at  Am- 
sterdam,  1526) .  The  Old  Testament  with  the  IVn- 
tateuch  and  Psalms  translated  from  Luther,  the 
rest  the  text  of  the  Delft  edition  revised,  wai 
printed,  also  by  Roemundt,  in  1525  in  four  onall 
vols.;  and  the  first  complete  Dutch  Bible  was 
printed  at  Antwerp  in  1526  by  Jacob  van  Liesvddt 
It  was  reprinted  and  corrected  several  times  until 
1546,  when  Charles  V  prohibited  the  edition. 

Roman  Catholic  editions  of  the  New  Testament  fol- 
lowed in  1527,  1530,  and  1533,  in  Dutch  and  Latin 
in  1539.  The  whole  Bible  did  not  appear  until  after 
the  meeting  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  at  Cologne  in 
1548  by  Alexander  Blanckart,  and  at  Louvain  in 
the  same  year  by  Nicolaus  van  Winghe  with  a  diarp 
preface  against  the  Protestant  editions.  In  1599  it 
was  revised  after  the  official  Vulgate  of  1592,  again 
in  1717  by  iEgidius  Wit  of  Ghent.  After  1820  the 
Roman  Catholics  were  allowed  to  use  editions 
without  notes,  and  such  an  edition  of  1599,  called 
the  MOrentorf  Bible  (from  its  publisher),  was  cir- 
culated by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

The  division  of  Dutch  Protestantiam  into  various 
parties,  Lutherans,  Mennonites,  and  Reformed, 
caused  the  production  of  various  vernons.  The 
Lutherans  received  a  version  in  1558  after  Bugen- 
hagen's  edition  in  Low  German;  it  has  been  several 
times  revised  and  reprinted  up  to  1851.  The  Men- 
nonites used  a  version  printed  by  Nicolaes  Biestkens 
at  Emden  in  1560,  the  first  Dutch  edition  with  verse 
divisions.  The  Reformed  received  anot-her  in  1556, 
based  on  the  Zurich  Bible  of  1548-49  (see  bdow, 
VII,  §  5);  but  in  1562  they  adopted  a  version 
based  on  Luther's,  called  the  Deux  Aes  or  Eulen- 
spiegel  Bible  (from  the  marginal  notes  at  Neh.  ii, 
5  and  Ecclus.  xix,  5).  The  Remonstrants  used 
at  first  the  Staatenbibel  (see  below)  but  received 
a  New  Testament  of  their  own  from  Hartsoeker 
in  1680. 

After  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  necessity  of  improving  the  Dutch  versions  was 
felt  and  was  shown  especially  by  W.  Baudartius  of 
Zutphen,  who  published  in  1614  an  emended  transla- 
tion. As  early  as  1594  the  States  General  deter- 
mined on  undertaking  a  revision.  The  result  ib 
the  Staatenbibel.  At  first  Philips  van  Mamix  (q.v.) 
was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  a  new  translation; 
in  1596  Johannes  Drusius  (q.v.)  was  appointed  his 
assistant.  The  Synod  of  Dort  discussed  the  ques- 
tion in  eight  sessions  in  Nov.,  1618,  and  Ifay, 
1619.  The  work  of  translation  was  completed  in 
1632,  the  revision  of  the  Old  Testament  Sq>t., 
1634,  that  of  the  New  Testament,  Oct.  10,  1635. 
The  first  edition  was  printed,  with  and  without 
notes,  in  1636,  but  not  published  before  July  29, 
1637.  An  official  list  of  misprints  followed  in 
1655  and  in  1711  for  the  first  time  an  edition  was 
stereotyped.  An  edition  of  500  copies  of  the  New 
Testament  was  printed  for  Peter  the  Great  in  1717, 


-187 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


and  of  the  Old  Testament  In  five  parts  in  1721,  in 
two  columns,  one  being  left  blank  in  order  to  re- 
edve  in  St.  Petersburg  tiie  Russian  text.  Language 
and  orthogn^hy  raised  difficult  questions  in  a  re- 
vision of  1762,  and  another  by  Hemy  Cats  and 
W.  A.  van  Hengel  in  1834.  The  first  impressfon 
for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was  made 
in  1812. 

About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  members 
of  the  theological  faculty  of  Leyden  b^an  a  new 
revision;  the  New  Testament  was  finished  in  1866; 
work  on  the  Old  Testament  was  interrupted  for  a 
time,  but  was  resumed  in  1884  by  A.  Kuenen  and 
his  pupils,  H.  Oort,  W.  H.  Kosters,  and  J.  Hooykas. 
The  first  instalment  appeared  at  Leyden  in  1897, 
the  first  part  (Gen.-Esther)  in  1900,  the  second  part 
(Job-Malachi)  in  1901. 

Of  other  translations  that  by  J.  H.  van  der  Palm 
(1825  and  often)  ia  worthy  of  mention.  The  New 
Testament  has  been  translated  by  G.  Vissering, 
a  Mennonite  (1854),  by  S.  P.  Lipman,  a  Roman 
Catholic  (1861),  and  by  G.  J.  Voe  of  the  Reformed 
Church  (1895).  E.  Nestle. 

BnuooRAPmr:  The  really  important  work  is  Isaac  Le  Long, 
B^t-Zaal  der  nederduiiecha  BybeU,  Amsterdani,  1732,  2d 
ed.,  1764.  Oonsiilt  also  BibU  of  Every  Land,  pp.  181-186, 
London,  1861;  H.  van  Druten,  Oeachiedenie  der  Neder- 
landedu  BvMvertalino.  2  vols.,  Leyden.  1896-07;  Q.  N. 
De  Vooys,  ThT,  March,  1903;  J.  M.  Bebb,  in  DB,  extra 
vol..  pp.  414-415. 

On  the  StatUenbibei  consult  N.  Hinlopen,  Hietorie  van 
de  NederUmdeche  OverwetHnoe  dee  BybeU,  Leyden,  1777; 
P.  Ifeyee,  Jacobue  Reviue,  Amsterdam,  1895;  J.  Hein- 
■ius»  Klank-en  Buiffing9leer  van  de  tool  dee  eUUenbiibele. 
Amsterdam,  1897. 

IV.  English  Versions:  Setting  aside  the  Biblical 
poetry  that  is  in  the  main  wrongly  ascribed  to  the 
An^o-Saxon  Csedmon  (q.v.),  and  the  translation 
of  John's  Gospel  which  Bede  finished  on  his  death- 
bed, but  of  which  nothing  further  is  known,  the 
Psalms  seem  to  have  been  the  first  part  of  the 
Bible  to  be  translated  into  English.  An  Anglo- 
Saxon  paraphrase  is  extant  containing 
^-^*  the  first  fifty  Psalms  in  prose,  the 
Veraions.  ^^^  ^  verse  (ed.  B.  Thorpe,  Oxford, 
1835),  which  has  been  incorrectly  at- 
tributed to  Aldhelm  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Sherborne, 
who  died  in  709,  and  to  King  Alfred;  the  name 
of  the  translator  is  not  known,  but  he  did 
his  work  after  778  and  used  the  Latin,  not 
the  Greek  text,  as  did  all  the  others  down  to  and 
induding  Wyclif .  A  translation  of  the  four  Gospels 
was  made  probably  in  the  ninth  centiuy  (ed.  Mat- 
thew Parker,  1571;  T.  Marshall,  16^;  B.  Thorpe, 
Tha  halgan  Godapel  on  Engliac,  The  Anglo-Saxon 
Venion  of  the  Holy  OospeU,  London,  1842;  Joseph 
Bosworth  and  George  Waring,  The  Oothic  and 
Anglo-^Saxon  Oospele,  London,  1865;  new  ed., 
1907),  and  interlinear  glosses  for  the  Psalms  and 
the  Gospds  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries 
{PtaUerium  DavidU  LatinoSaxonicum  veins,  Lon- 
don, 1640).  The  so-called  Vespasian  Gospels  prob- 
ably belong  to  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century 
(cf.  J.  Stevenson,  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  English 
PsaUer,  2  vols.,  London,  1843-47;  H.  Sweet,  The 
Oldest  English  Texts,  Early  English  Text  Society, 
vol.  83,  London,  1885,  pp.  183-420;  E.  Wende, 
Ueberliefentng  und  Sprache  der  tniUeUnglischen  Ver- 


sion des  Psalters  und  ihr  VerhaUnis  zwr  laieinischen 
Vorlage,  Breslau,  1884).  There  are  other  similar 
glosises  to  the  Psalter  in  the  libraries  of  Cambridge 
University  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  the 
British  Museum,  in  the  Bodleian  at  Oxford,  in 
Laxnbeth  Palace,  and  Salisbury  Cathedral.  For  other 
Gospel  versions,  cf .  G.  Stevenson  and  G.  Waring,  The 
Lindisfame  and  Rushworth  Oospels  (4  vols.,  Dm'ham 
and  London,  1854-65);  K.  W.  Bouterwek,  Die 
vier  Evangdien  in  aUnorthumbrischer  Sprache 
(GQtersloh,  1857) ;  W.  W.  Skeat,  The  Oospel  according 
to  Matthew,  etc.  (Cambridge,  1887,— Afarib,  1871; 
Luke,  1871;  John,  1878);  A.  S.  Cook,  A  Glossary  of 
the  Old  Northumbrian  Gospels  (Halle,  1894).  Alfric 
(q.v.)  translated  the  Pentateuch  and  Joshua  in 
997-998.  The  following  may  also  be  mentioned: 
homilies  on  the  lessons  by  the  Augustinian  monk 
Ormin  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  (the 
so-called  Ormulum);  the  translation  of  the 
Psalms  by  William  de  Shorham,  vicar  of  Chart- 
Sutton,  near  Leeds  in  County  Kent,  about  1325 
(the  manuscript  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  owned 
by  John  Hyde  and  perhaps  written  by  him, 
may  be  a  revision  of  this  translation);  and  the 
commentary  with  a  translation  of  the  Psalms  by 
Richard  Rolle  of  Hampole  near  Doncaster,  York- 
shire, written  about  1330  (cf.  H.  R.  Bramley,  The 
PsaUer  .  ,  ,  by  Richard  Rolle  .  .  .  Edited  from 
Manuscripts,  Oxford,  1884;  Heinrich  Middendorff, 
Studien  aber  Richard  RoUe  von  Hampole,  Magde- 
burg, 1888). 

The  language  developed  and  the  thoughts  of 
men  strode  onward.  John  Wyclif  (q.v.)  entered 
the  lists  to  war  for  the  pure  truth,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  give  the  people  the  Bible.  With  the  help 
of  his  pupil  Nicholas  of  Hereford  (q.v.)  he  seems  to 
have  translated  the  whole  Bible,  and  when  he  was 
charged  with  heresy  and  driven  from 
2.  Wyclif.  Oxford  in  1382,  he  withdrew  to  Lutter- 
worth and  revised  the  whole  very 
carefully.  His  pupil  John  Purvey  (q.v.)  appears 
also  to  have  revised  some  things  in  the  Old 
Testament;  he  did  all  he  could  to  spread  the 
translation  abroad  after  Wyclif's  death  (cf .  The 
New  Testament  in  English,  Translated  by  John 
Wydtffe  circa  1380,  now  first  printed  from  a  contem- 
porary manuscript,  .  .  .  Printed  at  Chistoick  by 
Charles  WhUtingham  for  William  Pickering,  Lon- 
don, 1848;  Josiah  Forshall  and  Frederic  Madden, 
The  Holy  Bible  .  .  .  in  the  Earliest  English  Ver- 
sions Made  ...  62/  John  Wydiffe  and  his  Follow- 
ers, 4  vols.,  Oxford,  1850,  with  a  list  of  170 
manuscripts;  J.  ten  Brink,  Geschichie  der  englischen 
lAtteratur,  vol.  ii,  by  Alois  Brandl,  Strasburg, 
1893,  pp.  5-32,  especially  pp.  27;  A.  Richter,  Das 
Wydiffesche  Evangelium  Johannis  im  600,  Bde, 
der  Tauchnitzer  Collection  of  British  Authors,  die 
Wydiffesche  BibdObersetzung,  und  das  Verhdltnis 
des  ersteren  zu  der  letzteren,  programme  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Wesel,  Aug.  30,  1862).  The  first 
English  Bible,  the  first  Bible  at  all  in  a  modem 
tongue,  was  well  received  by  the  people,  but  for 
a  century  and  a  half  was  the  object  of  attack  by 
priests  and  nobility.  Even  long  after  the  dis- 
covery of  printing  no  one  could  think  of  publish- 
ing this  translation.     It  finally  came  out  as    a 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZOG 


m 


literary  necessity  in  1731,  edited  by  J.  Lewis 
(reprinted  by  H.  H.  Baber,  London,  1810, 
and  by  Bagster,  London,  1841;  the  edition  of 
1848  is  named  above).  For  another  version  of 
this  period  consult  the  work  of  a  Swedish  lady, 
Anna  C.  Panes,  A  Fourteenth  Century  English 
Biblical  Version  (Cambridge,  1904). 

The  first  to  translate  the  New  Testament 
in  English  from  the  original  Greek  was  William 
T^ndale   (q.v.).    He   printed  Biatthew  and  Mark 

first,  somewhere  on  the  Continent,  in 
8.  Tyndalo.  1524  and  1525,  and  then  the  whole  New 

Testament  in  quarto,  partly  at  Cologne 
at  Peter  Quentel's  before  1526,  partly,  it  seems, 
at  Worms  (at  Peter  SchOffer's?)  in  3,000  copies, 
and  in  octavo  at  Cologne  at  SchOffer's  in 
3,000  copies.  Both  editions  were  in  En^and 
l^  about  Bfarch,  1526  (cf.  The  First  Printed 
English  New  Testament  Translated  by  WiUiam 
Tyndale.  Photolithographed.  .  .  .  Edited  by  E.Arber, 
London,  1871;  The  First  New  Testament  Printed 
in  the  English  Language  .  .  ,  by  William  Tyndale. 
Reproduced  in  facsimile  .  ,  ,  by  F.  Fry,  Bristol, 
1862;  James  Loring  Cheney,  The  Sources  of  Tyn- 
daises  New  Testament^  Halle,  1883,  especially  pp. 
39,  40;  W.  Sopp,  Orthographic  und  Ausspradte 
der  ersten  neuenglischen  Bibeliibersetzung  von  William 
Tyndale,  Marburg,  1889).  The  hierarchy  attacked 
Tyndale's  work  violently.  The  first  public  burning 
of  the  volume  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  the 
autumn  of  1526.  William  Warham  (q.v.),  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  thought  in  May,  1527,  that 
his  agents  had  bought  up  all  the  copies  of  all 
three  editions.  In  1528  the  readers  of  the  New 
Testament  had  to  take  their  turn  at  being  burned. 
Tyndale  published  the  Pentateuch  Jan.  17,  1530,  at 
Marburg,  Joshua  in  1531. 

William  Roye,  George  Joye  (afterward  a  bitter 
enemy),  Miles  Coverdale  (q.v.),  John  Rogers  (q.v.), 
and  John  Frith  (q.v.)  were  among  the  friends  who 
from  time  to  time  worked  with  Tyndale.  Cov- 
erdale completed  at  Antwerp,  Oct.  4,  1535.  the 
printing   of   his   translation   of   the   whole   Bible 

"  out  of  Douche  and  Latyn  "  (i.e.  the 

4.  Cover-  German  of  Luther  and  the  Zurich  Bible 

^l^      of    1524-20— see   below,   VII,   §   6— 

Bditions.    Aiid  the  Vulgate),  using  also  Tyndale's 

work.  This  was  the  first  complete 
Bible  in  English;  in  it  the  non-canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  in  an  appendix  by 
themselves,  named  "  Hagiographa."  In  1537 
the  ''Matthew"  Bible  came  out,  a  speculation 
on  the  part  of  the  king's  printer,  although  most 
of  it  was  perhaps  printed  in  Antwerp;  it 
was  a  combination  of  Tyndale  and  Coverdale, 
made  by  John  Rogers  (alias  Matthew)  in 
Antwerp.  In  1539  appeared  the  "Tavemer" 
Bible,  a  revision  of  the  Matthew  Bible  by 
Richard  Tavemer  (q.v.).  The  "Great"  Bible 
was  brought  out  by  Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex, 
Thomas  Cranmer  (q.v.),  and  Thomas  More  (q.v.), 
and  a  committee  of  prelates  and  scholars,  and 
was  printed  under  Coverdale's  supervision,  partly 
at  Paris,  tfll  the  Inquisitor-General  attacked  it  Dec. 
17,  1538,  and  then  in  London,  where  the  volume 
was  finished  in  Apr.,  1539;  the  second  edition("  Oan- 


mer's  "  Bible,  1540)  was  "  apoynted  to  the  vee  of 
the  churches  " ;  the  Psalter  from  this  Bible  still  scaods 
in  the  prayer-boc^  of  the  English  Church.   Ii  15S7 
William  Whittingham  published  at  Geneva  as  Ekig. 
lish  New  Testament  with  Stephens's  verse-diviskm 
of  1551  (see  Biblb  Text,  III,  §§  2-3)  and  withmany 
corrections  of  the  translation.    In  1558  Covodale 
began  in  Geneva  a  new  Bible,  but  returned  to      I 
Eng^d    in   1559,  while  Whittingham,  Anthony 
GUby,  and  Thomas  Sampson  finished  the  print- 
ing of    the    handsome    edition    known   as  the 
"Geneva"    Bible    in    Apr.,    1560.      Ardibisbop 
Parker  (q.v.)  with  deven  bbhops  and  four  minor 
prelates  began  in  1563  a  revision  of  the  edition  ot 
1539,  which  was  completed  Oct.  5,   1568,  as  tbe 
"  Bishops'  "  Bible;  but  it  was  not  especially  likeci; 
in  the  churches  they  used  chiefly  the  Bible  of  1530 
and   at  home  the   Geneva    Bible.     See    Bible^> 
Annotated,  and  Bible  Suiocarieb,  II,  {{  1-2. 

The  Roman  Catholic  fugitives  on  the  Continec^-^ 
now  prepared  an  En^h  version  and  pubUshes^^^ 
the  New  Testament  at  Reims  in  1582;  the  01-^^ 
Testament  followed  in  two  volumes  at  Dou^^f 
(q.v.)  in  1609-10  (the  first  edition  of  the  "Douai'^' 

Bible;  cf.  Gregory  Martin,  A  Dv^^ 
^^*  eoverie  of  the  Manifold  Corruption*  o^^ 
iSblo.  ^  ^^^  Scriptures  by  the  Heretikes  o'^ 
our  Daies,  etc.,  Rehns,  1582;  Wilk^ 
iam  Fulke,  A  Defence  of  the  Sincere  and  True  Trans-'^ 
lations  of  the  Holie  Scriptures  .  .  .  against  .  . 
Oregorie  Martin,  London,  1583,  ed.  C.  H.  Harts^ 
home  for  the  Parker  Society,  Cambridge,  1843)^^ 
[Both  works  profess  to  be  "faithfully  translatec^^ 
out  of  the  authentical  Latin,  diligently  conferre^^^ 
with  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  other  editions  in  di^E 
vers  languages,"  and  are  provided  with  argument.=:^ 
of  books  and  chapters,  annotations,  and  "  othe — c: 
helps  for  the  better  understanding  of  the  text,  an-  - 
specially  for  the  discovery  of  the  corruptions  €===■ 
divers  late  translations,  and  for  clearing  the  coir= 
troversies  in  religion  of  these  days."  The  Ne-"^ 
Testament  was  reprinted  at  Antwerp  in  1600;  tbaM 
two  Testaments  were  united  by  Richard  Cluu  <- 
loner  (q.v.)  in  a  five  volmne  edition  published  m — 
London,  1749-50.  The  version  was  promoted  b^^ 
Cardinal  William  Allen  (q.v.)  and  the  translation* 
was  by  Gregory  Martin,  a  former  fellow  of  S— • 
John's  College,  Oxford,  revised  by  Allen,  Richa^^ 
Bristow,  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford, 
probably  others.  The  annotations,  tables, 
for  the  Old  Testament  were  by  Thomas  Worthin^  g 
ton,  a  graduate  of  Oxford  (Brasenose  College)  ar= 
president  of  Douai  College  1599-1613.    The  loc== 

interval  between  the  publication  of  the  two  Test 

ments  was  due  to  lack  of  means  as  the  translatic== 
of  both  was  completed  before  1582.  The  En^i^«* 
of  the  translation  is  faulty  owing  to  too  close  fc::^ 

lowing  of  the  Vulgate,  and  from  the  critical  stan 

point  it   possesses    the    advantages    and    defe<^^ 
inherent  in  that  Latin  version.     An  elaborate  pr^^ 
ace  of  more  than  twenty  pages  explains  and  jus"^ 
fies  the  translation.    The  notes  are  characteris 
by  the  controversial  spirit  of  the  time  in  whi — 
they  were  produced.    The  Douai  version  becair^^ 
the  standard  Bible  of  the  English  Roman  Catb=^ 
lies  and,  with  extensive  changes  in  language  sl^    ■  ■ 


139 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  VerBloiiB 


I 
I 

I 


orthogmphy  introduced  in  Challoner*a  various 
tditiotts  (see  Challoner,  Richard),  atill  remains 
inch,  American  editions  were  published  in  New 
Vork  in  1854  and  1861.  Consult  Plenry  Cotton, 
Rhemt^  and  Doway  (Oxford,  1855);  F.  K  C.  Gigot 
(Romim  OBitholic),  GenercU  Introduction  by  the  Study 
Pf  tAe  ScHpture*  (New  York,  1900),  pp.  345  sqq.] 

Puritan  dissatisfaction  with  existing  versions,  or 
perhapii  with  the  existence  of  another  version  than 
ihe  one  ueed  and  approved  by  them&elves,   was 
tti^god  by  John  Reynolds   (q.v,),  head  of    Corpus 
Chfisti  College,    Oxford,  at   the  Hampton    Court 
Confercoce  (q,v,)  in  Jan.,   1604.     The  idea  of  a 
Dei»  Bible  translation,  i^  be  made  ostensibly  at 
hiis  instance  and  under  his  direction,  was  congenial 
to  James  L     By  the  summer  of   1604    the  prelimi- 
naries were  completed.    A  comnaLssion  of  six  **  com- 
panies,"  each  of  nine  scholars  (two 
^ih^^J^'  companies  each  in  Westminster,  Ox- 
Te«ioii.     ^^^*  ^^'-^  Cambridge;  actually  forty- 
seven  members  took  part;  for  names 
of  tbe  translators,  the  divi«ion  of  the  w^ork,  and 
mueh  other  information  about  the  Authorized  Ver- 
mcm  ia  convenient  form,  cf*  Mombert's  Hand  Book, 
chap,  xiii;  Schaff's  Companion,  chap,  vii),  was  ap- 
pcsioted  by  James  and  very  strict  niles  were  laid 
duotm  for  the  work.     After  years  of  labor  (although 
•ome  «y  that  the  work  really  began  only  in  1607 
sad  lasted  but  two  years  and  a  half),  during  which 
wwif  pasiages  were  wrought  over  fourteen  or  even 
•ennteen  times,  the  version  appeared  in  1611  in 
tiro  folio  editions,  set  up  and  printed  at  the  same 
time  60  oa  to  have  a  large  number  of  copies  very 
qufcldy;  in   the   same  year  a   duodecimo  edition 
*^*n»e  out,  of  which  only  one  copy  (in  the  Lenox 
library*  New  York  City)  is  said  to  be  known,  and 
^  1613  what   is   called   the  second   folio  edition. 
^W  translation  waja  then  called  **  The  Authorized 
'^'Cfsian  **  (although  it  does  not  appear  ever  to  have 
»*«e«j  **  authorized  ^')  or  "  I^ng  James's  Version/' 
**i<i  the    title   read   **  Appointed    to   be   read   in 
Clltiltbos/*    The  translation  was  good,  clear,  dig- 
'^iied,  idiomatic,   and   suited   to  the  people.     Of 
^^Ursie,  like  ever>''tliing  new,  it  was  at  first  and  for 
*  Icmg  time*  sharjily  attacked,  but  little  by  little  it 
^'^^^r  it*  way,  and  in  1661   the  Epistles  and  Go«^ 
P^l*  in  the   English  prayer-book  were  changed   to 
'Him  tnin&lntjon.     F.  H.  A.   Scrivener  published  a 
tied  edition  of  this  version:  Thr  Camitridgc  Para- 
BMt  of  the  Aidhyrhcd  Englhh  Version^  etc* 
tbridgi%  1873),  in  which  he  compared  many  of 
ftprints,  as  well   lus   th©   revisions  of  Dr.  Paris 
17ft2,  Dr.  Blaj'ney  in  1769^  and  of  the  American 
ftifefc  Society  in  1867;  unfortunately  Scrivener  does 
»o<  five  the  exact  text  of  1611  or  of  1613. 

<Hi  Feb.  10»  1870,  on  motion  of  Samuel  WjU 
^J^flopee  (q.v.)»  bishop  of  Winchester,  the  Con- 
"^^p^^WQ  of  Canterbury  determined  upon  a  re- 
^^^'^  of  the  Authorized  Version  (cf.  Mombert, 
^md  Book,  chap-  xiv;  Schaff,  Companion,  chap. 
«  viii).     About     thirty-seven    scholars 

^«tilon.    tament,  and   about   twenty-nine    the 

New  Testament,  although  the  number 

2^Py  working  at   any   time  was   less.     At  least 

^'^    riU|jbiis     bodies    besides     the    Church     of 


England  shared  in  the  work.  In  like  manner 
two  groups  of  scholars  from  nine  different  relig- 
ious bodies  took  up  the  work  in  America  and 
tlie  results  of  the  deUberationa  were  exchanged 
across  the  sea.  The  Greek  text  of  the  New 
Testament  (cf.  The  Greek  Testament  with  the  Read- 
ingji  Adapted  by  the  Rcin^en^  of  the  Aulhoriied 
Version,  Oxford,  1881)  was  thoroughly  worked 
over  and  the  translation  made  on  the  basis  of 
the  result  compared  with  the  translation  of  1611, 
and  in  every  detail  filed  and  poIisheiL  The  re- 
vised New  Testament  was  published  in  England 
May  17,  ISSl,  and  in  America,  May  21%  18S1; 
the  Old  Testament  appeared  May  19,  18a5.  Three 
million  copies  of  the  New  Testament  were  sold 
witliin  a  year.  The  reception,  especially  in 
England,  was  at  first,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
not  very  friendly.  A  very  few  indeed  were  dift- 
satisfied  because  too  few  alterations  had  been 
made.  The  great  mass  struggled  against  the 
change  of  old  ffimiliar  words  and  found  support  in 
one  scholar  or  another.  Some  oonservative  scholars 
condemned  the  English  dress  while  they  approved 
the  changes  made  in  the  original  text,  and  others 
took  offense  at  the  new  readings  in  the  original 
text,  because  they  considered  the  common  readings 
sacred.  America  had  a  peculiar  reason  for  com- 
plaint, seeing  tliat  many  an  expression  which  Amer- 
ican scholars  had  preferred  was  to  be  found  only 
in  the  appendix,  and  they  were  bound  not  to  i6«ue  a 
new  edition  witliin  fourteen  years.  That  time  was 
up  in  1896,  and  the  American  eilition,  a  moilel  of 
exact  work,  appeared  in  New  York  in  190L  As 
tlie  years  pass  the  revision  gains  friends,  and  gains 
them  more  rapidly  tlian  did  the  revision  of  161 L 
Caspar  Rene  Greqort. 

The  foilowinir  in  a  list  (incomplete)  of  trartRlations  of  the 
Ribia  or  parts  of  it  into  En^lifth  or  Att«rtipt.{!s  at  roviaion  of 
the  AuiLuhaed  Veraioa  by  iudividuab  previous  to  the  r»- 
viffiun  of  1881-85  (ace  also  Bmuta,  Anncjtatkjj,  ani*  Bible 
SrwuARiKii,  II).  DmnJei  Mace,  a  Proi«byterian  clersynum, 
N.  T,  (2  wjb.,  London.  1729;  Ck,  text  willi  a  Bcbolarly 
but  ccwntrio  tnuwL);  Antbony  Purver,  a  Quaker,  A  JVmo 
and  Literal  Trarui,  of  AH  the  Book*  of  the  O.  and  AT.  T.  (2 
vob.,  London,  1764;  has  noton);  Edward  Harwood*  A 
Liberal  Tranat,  of  the  AT.  T.  (2  voh.,  Lotidon, 
8.  Minor  1768;  dej*cribed  aa  an  attempt  to  translate 
Version*,  the  sacred  writinga  with  tho  "  frpe«iocii« 
ppirit.  and  cleg^anco  "  of  other  tranatationt 
frorn  the  Greek;  haa  antea  and  includeji  the  First  Eptatl* 
of  Clement);  Henry  Southwell,  <»iitire  Bible  (London,  1782; 
the  A.  V.  with  noiro,  "  wherein  the  rointraiislalions  are  car^ 
rected  ");  George  Campbell.  profea«or  in  Aberd*i«n,  Th« 
F<iitr  Gottpela  (2  vol».,  London.  1789;  has  disiwrtatiutiA  and 
noteii);  Gilbert  Wakcfiflld,  a  UnJtArian,  N.  T.  (3  vols,. 
I^ndon,  1791);  Jame^  Mackmght,  AU  the  Apmioiical  Epi»- 
tlfJt  (4  vola.,  Edinburgh,  1796;  baa  oommentary.  notea,  and 
life  of  Paul);  William  Newoome,  archbifthop  of  Armagh, 
N,  T.  (2  voh..  Dublin,  1T96;  from  Griesbaeb'n  text;  a  Um- 
iarian  version  ba«cd  on  Newoome'a  work  w»»  iMtied  by 
Thomna  Belaham  in  2  vols.,  London^  1808;  Newoome  alao 
publinbed  '•  attempt*  "  at  improved  vorsionji  of  the  Minor 
Prophcta,  1785,  and  Biuki©!,  1788;  bia  manuscript  mate- 
riab  lor  a  revised  O.  T.  are  in  I,*ambeth  FaUioe);  Nathanio! 
Scarlett*  aucoeaaively  a  Methodiat,  Universalist,  and  Bap- 
tist, N,  T.  (London,  1798;  with  not4M);  David  Macrae,  A 
Mei'iMd  Tranat.  and  Inter pretatian  of  the  Sarred  SrripiureM, 
after  the  Eastern  manner,  from  roncurreTii  outhoritif*  of  the 
eritifs,  interpretert,  and  commentators'  copies  and  f^aiona, 
ahowinif  that  the  inepired  \tfriUnffM  contain  the  aeeii*  of  the 
vfdjtahh  ecUnces,  etc.  (2  part*,  London.  1 798 -99  >;  Charlea 
Thomeon,  entire  Bibk.  the  O.  T.  from  thti  SeptUttRint  (4 
vols.,    Philadelphia.   1S08);  John  Bellamy.   O,   T,   through 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


140 


Song  of  Sol.  (London,  1818  sqq.;  has  notes);  Alexander 
Campbell,  founder  of  the  Diadplee  of  Christ.  N.  T.  (1826; 
■ee  Campbbll,  Alexander);  Rodolphus  Diokinaon.  an 
American  Episcopalian.  N.  T.  (Boston.  1833;  has  notes); 
Noah  Webster,  the  lexicofcrapher,  the  Bible  "with  amend- 
ments of  the  language  "  (New  Haven.  1833;  the  amend- 
ments were  the  removal  of  obsolete  words  or  "  those  deemed 
below  the  dignity  and  solemnity  of  the  subject,  the  oorree- 
tion  of  errors  in  gnunmar,  and  the  insertion  of  euphe- 
misms, words,  and  phrases  which  are  not  very  offensive  to 
delicacy ");  Nathan  Hale.  N.  T.  (Boston.  1836;  from 
Griesbach's  text);  Granville  Penn.  N.  T.  (London,  1836); 
C.  Wellbeloved.  a  Unitarian.  Pentateuch  and  Job-Song  of 
Sol.  (2  vols..  London,  1838;  "  a  new  transl."  with  notes); 
Samuel  Sharpo.  the  Eflyptologist,  N.  T.  (London,  1840; 
from  Griesbach's  text)  and  O.  T.  (3  vols..  1865;  there  were 
eight  eds.  of  the  former  and  four  of  the  latter  during  the 
author's  life;  Sharpe's  revision  is  conmiended  for  skilful 
removal  of  the  archaisms  of  the  A.  V.);  Edgar  Taylor, 
N.  T.  (London.  1840;  from  Griesbach's  text;  a  meritorious 
version);  Joshua  V.  Himes.  the  "  Millerite."  N.  T.  (Boston, 
1840);  James  Murdock.  N.  T.  from  the  Peehito  (New  York, 
1851):  Andrews  Norton.  <3ospels  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1855); 
Gospel  of  John  (London.  1857)  and  Pauline  Epistles  (1861) 
by  Henry  Alford.  <3eorge  Moberly.  W.  G.  Humphry,  C.  J. 
Ellicott.  and  John  Barrow;  L.  A.  Ambrose.  N.  T.  (Boston, 
1858;  with  chronological  arrangement  and  **  improved " 
chapter  and  verse  divisions);  L.  A.  Sawyer,  N.  T.  (Boston. 
1858),  entire  Bible  (New  York.  1879  sqq.);  Robert  Young, 
author  of  the  concordance,  entire  Bible  (Edinburgh.  1863; 
very  literal);  T.  S.  Green.  The  Ttoofold  N.  T.  (London, 
1864;  Gk.  text  and  new  transl.  in  parallel  columns);  Henry 
Alford,  N.  T.  (London.  1869);  G.  R.  Noyes.  professor  in 
Harvard.  N.  T.  (Boston.  1869;  from  TisehendorTs  text; 
Prof.  Noyes  also  published  translations  of  Job.  1827.  Psalms, 
1831.  the  Prophets.  1833.  and  Proverbs.  Ecolesiastes.  and 
CanUdes,  1846);  J.  N.  Darby,  N.  T.  (2d  ed..  London, 
1872):  J.  B.  Rotherham.  N.  T.  (London.  1872;  from  text 
of  Tregelles.  with  introduction  and  notes);  Samuel  David- 
son. N.  T.  (London.  1875;  from  Tischendorf's  text,  with 
introduction):  J.  B.  McClellan.  Gospels  (London,  1875; 
based  on  A.  V.  with  a  "  critically  revised  "  text);  Julia  E. 
Smith,  entire  Bible  (Hartford,  1876);  The  Revised  EngliBh 
BibU  (O.  T.  by  F.  W.  Goteh  and  Benjamin  Daviee,  N.  T. 
by  G.  A.  Jacob  and  S.  G.  Green,  London.  1877;  with  notes, 
tables,  and  maps);  The  Sunday  School  Centenary  Bible,  by 
T.  K.  Cheyne,  R.  L.  Clarke,  8.  R.  Driver,  A.  (Joodwin.  and 
W.  Sanday  (London,  1880;  republished,  1882,  as  The  Vari- 
orum Teacher'e  BibU).  The  American  Bible  Union,  formed 
in  1850  (see  Bible  Societies,  III,  2),  undertook  an  Eng- 
lish version  which  should  reflect  Baptist  views  in  the  lan- 
guage used,  and  published  the  N.  T.  (2d  revision.  New  York 
and  London,  1869)  and  certain  books  of  the  O.  T.  Since 
1882  the  work  has  been  continued  by  the  American  Bap- 
tist Publication  Society  of  Philadelphia  and  is  now  nearing 
completion.  Among  the  scholars  who  have  collaborated 
in  this  version  are  John  A.  Broadus.  T.  J.  0>nant,  H.  B. 
Hackett,  William  R.  Harper,  Alvah  Hovey,  A.  C.  Kendrick. 
Ira  M.  Price,  J.  R.  Sampey,  and  B.  C.  Taylor.  A  present 
day  tendency  is  represented  by  The  Bible  in  Modem  Eng- 
litk,  translated  direct  from  the  original  languages  by  Ferrar 
Fenton,  with  critical  introduction  and  notes  (St.  Paul's 
cqistles,  London.  1894;  N.  T.  complete,  1895;  O.  T.,  1903). 
The  following  are  by  Roman  Catholics:  John  C^ryll,  a 
layman,  secretary  to  the  queen  of  James  II  and  intimately 
associated  with  the  family  of  James,  the  Psalms  (St.  Cier- 
mains,  1700;  a  prose  version  from  the  Vulgate  taking  Bel- 
larmine  as  a  guide);  Ck)rnelius  Nary,  parish  priest  of  St. 
Bfichan's,  Dublin,  The  N.  T.  .  .  .  newly  Translated  out  of 
the  Latin  Vuigate  (Dublin.  1718;  has  annotations  and  notes); 
Robert  Witham,  president  at  Douai,  Annotatione  on  the 
N.  T.  (2  vols.,  Douai,  1730;  explains  the  "  literal  sense," 
*'  examines  and  disproves  "  false  interpretations,  and  gives 
'*  an  account  of  the  chief  differences  betwixt  the  text  of 
the  andent  Latin  version  and  the  Greek ");  "  Troy's 
Bible"  (Dublin,  1791;  ed.  the  Rev.  Bernard  MacMahon. 
who  had  already  edited  three  annotated  editions  of  the 
Reims  N.  T.;  this  Bible  is  annotated  and  the  text  of  the 
N.  T.  differs  considerably  from  Challoner;  the  name  comes 
from  J.  T.  Troy,  titular  archbishop  of  Dublin,  who  ap- 
proved the  work);  Alexander  Geddes,  Genesis-II  Chron- 
icles and  the  Prayer  of  Manasses  (2  vols.,  London,  1792- 
1797)  and  Psalms  i-cviii  (1807;  see  Geddes,  Alexander); 
the  **  Newcastle  N.  T."  (1812;  differs  from  every  other 


known  edition  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts);  John  Lingaid,  A 
New  VereioH  of  tiU  Four  GoepeU  (London,  1836;  for  ths 
most  part  from  the  Greek;  has  notes);  F.  P.  Ksorick. 
bishop  of  Philadelphia,  later  archbishop  of  Battimoce.  N.  T. 
(2  vols..  New  York,  1840-61;  **  a  revision  of  the  RheoiA 
translation  with  notes  ");  F.  A.  Speneer,  O.  P..  N.  T.  (Ktw 
York,  1898  sqq.;  from  the  Greek).  The  work  of  Biriiop 
Challoner  has  been  referred  to  above  (f  6). 

The  following  are  certain  rare  and  onrioiu  editions  of  tie 
English  Bible  with  the  passage  or  faet  which  gives  to  esck 
its  name.  The  Breedaee  Bible:  the  Geneva  Bible  of  15M; 
Gen.  iii.  7  reads  *'  They  sewed  fig  leaves  together  and  msds 
themselves  breeehes  "  (also  in  Wyolif);  the  B«a  BibU:  sa 
edition  of  the  Matthew  Bible  in  1551;  Pi 

9.  Bare      xd,  6  reads  *'  So  that  thou  shalt  not  nsdi 
and  to  be  afraid  for  any  buggea  [i.e.,  bogis^  by 

Ourione      night"  (also  in  Coverdale   and   Taverasr); 

Bditlone.  the  Caxton  Memorial  BibU:  Oxford,  1877; 
printed  and  bound  in  1(X)  oopies  in  twehrc 
hours;  the  Dieeharffe  BibU:  London,  1802;  I  Tim.  v,  21, 
"  I  discharge  [for  charge]  thee  before  God";  the  Ban  k 
Bar  BibU:  Oxford.  1807;  Matt,  xiii,  43.  **  Who  hath  sen 
to  ear  "  (also  has  **  good  works  "  for  **  deed  works  "  ia 
Heb.  ix,  14);  the  Oooee  BibU:  Dort  editions  of  the  Qsosfa 
Bible,  because  the  Dort  press  had  a  gooeo  as  ita  emblaa; 
the  He  and  She  BibUe:  the  first  and  the  Moond  fotio  edi- 
tions of  the  version  of  1611;  in  Ruth  iii,  15,  the  fonnv 
reads  **  He  measured  six  measures  of  barley  and  laid  it  oe 
her:  and  he  went  into  the  dty  ";  the  latter  **  and  she  wnt 
into  the  dty  ";  both  issues  were  used  by  printers  as  eopf 
until  in  and  ajfter  1614  all  have  **  she  "  (of.  the  Beriisd 
Version,  text  and  margin);  the  Leila  BibU:  the  first  Biab- 
ops'  Bible  (1668);  it  used  a  series  of  initial  letters  prepared 
for  Ovid's  Metamorphoeee  and  that  for  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  represented  Leda  and  the  swan  (also  ealled  ths 
Treacle  Bible,  see  below);  the  Murderert'  BibU:  has  "  mu^ 
derers  "  for  "  murmurers  "  in  Jude  16,  also  other  misprints; 
the  Placemakere*  BxbU:  the  second  edition  of  the  Geners 
Bible  (1662);  has  **  plaoemakers  "  for  *'  peeoemakers  "  in 
Matt.  V.  9;  the  Rebekah  BibU:  London.  1823;  Gen.  xxiv. 
61,  '*  And  Rebekah  arose  and  her  camels  "  (for  '*  damsels  *'); 
the  Roein  BibU:  the  first  Douai  Bible  (160IK10):  Jer. 
viU.  22.  "  Is  there  no  rodn  in  GileadT"  (A.  V.  "bafan"); 
the  Standing  Fiehee  BibU:  London,  1806;  Esek.  xlvii,  la 
*'  The  fishes  [for  fishers]  shall  stand  upon  it  " ;  (the  error 
was  repeated  in  editions  of  1813  and  1823);  the  Thmmb 
BibU:  Aberdeen,  1670;  it  is  about  one  inch  squars  and 
half  an  inch  thick;  the  To  Remain  BibU:  Ounbridge.  1805; 
Gal.  iv,  29,  "  Persecuted  him  that  was  bom  after  the  Spirit 
to  remain  even  so  it  is  now  "  (the  words  "  to  remain  "  had 
been  written  on  the  proof  in  answer  to  a  query  whether  or 
not  a  oonmia  should  be  deleted;  the  error  was  retained  is 
an  edition  printed  for  the  Bible  Sodety  in  1805-06  and  is 
an  edition  of  1819);  the  Treade  BibU:  the  first  Bishops' 
Bible  (1568;  also  called  the  Leda  Bible,  see  above);  Jer. 
viii,  22,  *'  Is  there  no  tryade  in  Gilead  "  (cf.  the  Rosin 
Bible);  the  Vineoar  BibU:  Oxford,  1716-17;  has  "  vine- 
gar "  for  "  vine3rard  "  as  the  heading  to  Luke  xx  (it  wss 
printed  by  J.  Baskett,  and  though  the  most  sumptuous  of 
the  Oxford  Bibles,  soon  came  to  be  styled  "  a  basketful  of 
printer's  errors");  the  Wicked  BibU:  London.  1631;  the 
negative  was  left  out  of  the  seventh  conunandment  (it  was 
printed  by  the  king's  printer  and  there  were  four  editions 
in  the  same  year;  all  were  suppressed  and  the  printer  ms 
fined  £300);  another  Wicked  Bible  (London,  1653)  makes 
Paul  ask,  I  0>r.  vi.  9,  *'  Know  ye  not  that  the  unrighteous 
shall  inherit  the  kingdom  of  (jod?  "  the  Wife-HaUr  BibU: 
Oxford,  1810;  Luke  xiv,  26,  "  If  any  man  eome  to  me  and 
hate  not  his  father  .  .  .  yea.  and  his  own  wife  [for  life] 
also,  he  can  not  be  my  disdple."  The  list  of  misfwints 
might  be  greatly  extended.  A  Gambridge  Bible  of  1629. 
printed  and  proof-read  with  great  care,  introduced  "  thy 
doctrine  "  for  "  the  doctrine  "  in  I  Tim.  iv,  16,  and  the 
error  reappeared  for  many  years.  An  Edinburgh  octavo 
of  1637  has,  Jer.  iv,  17,  "  because  she  hath  been  religious 
[rebellious]  against  me."  Perhaps  the  finest  Bible  ever 
printed  at  Cambridge  (1638)  has  a  famous  error  in  Acts 
vi,  3,  which  is  said  to  have  cost  Cromwell  £1,000  as  a  bribe 
— "  whom  ye  [for  we]  may  appoint."  Cotton  Mather  re- 
lates that  a  Bible  printed  before  1702  made  David  complain 
in  Ps.  cxix,  161,  "  Printers  [princes]  have  persecuted  me 
without  a  cause."  The  "  wicked  "  Bible  of  1631  does  not 
furnish  the  only  instanoe  of  an  infelidtous  omisdon  of  a 
negative;  an  Edinburgh  Bible  of  1760  reads,  Heb.  ii,  16. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblo  Version! 


*  H«  toitk  on  him  the  naitire  of  ftn^elN  "  (correct  rearling 
"bt  l«ok   ool  *');  »nothcr    (EdiiibiurKii.    1810)    ha«,    Luko 
rt,  29,  "  Forbid  {aot)  to  lake  thy  coat  aJM>  ";   and  n  Loodon 
Mb  of  lSt7  neacU,  John  xvii,  25,  ''  O  ri«ht«ouit  Father, 
Ibi  •orW  h»th  [not]  known  thcc/'     On  the  other  haoti  au 
EdinbvilJi   edition  of    1761    coakes   the    Pnalmjjrt'^i   prayer 
lenx,  35)  "  Hftke  me  not  to  go  in  thd  path  of  thy  com- 
Bttodotratik"     The  errorv  of  an  Oxford   Bible  of  1S04  in- 
dodk  NuQL,  xzxv,  18«  **  The  murderer  jihall  iiirely  be  put 
iQCethar"  (for  "  to  death  "),  I  Kings  viii,  19,  "  out  of  thy 
fiouPotJu]."  &t]d«  Gat,  V,  17,  "  For  the  fleah  luHteth  after 
(i^iiift]  tl»e  Spirit."     A  Cambridffe  Bible  ol  1810  readfl  in 
UmI  it,  2,  ■*  whall  the  poo  [nunl  of  rigb  teo wneaa  arise  .  .  . 
•od  than  [for  ye  ihall]  go  forth."     An  Oxford  Bible  of  1820 
kBA,  Im.  Ijcvj,  fl.  "  Shall  I  bring  to  the  birtb  and  not  eeuie 
'  feaov)  to  brinc^  forthf  "     A  Cambridge  Bible  of  1826  hai 
**  hewl  "  for  "  hart  "  in  P».  xlii,  I*  and  the  error  wm  re- 
>qat«d  in  an  edition  of  1830.     A  Bible  printed  at  Utica. 
I U.  Y.,  in  1S29  hegina  Jaa.  v,  17,  '*  Eliaa  waji  a  man  poseible 
Kke  luito  in  "  ("eubject  to  like  ptMeiona  aa  we  ure  ").  One 
|(tl  itiVMr  Hmrding's  early  edttioiui,  publiabed  at  Philadel- 
i-pbia,  haa  to  I  Kings  i,  21,  "  The  king    flhall    rlaggcr  njeep 
miik  hifl  fathers  **  (the  oopy  read  "  The  kini^ahaJL  f  Bleep 
mith  b»  r«thery>  '*).     A  Bible  published  at  Hartford  in  1837 
It  Tim,  iii,  16,  read,  **  AU  aoripture  ia  given  by  in- 
of   Ood,    and   is    profitable  .  .  ,  for   deatruciion 
i]  in  rtghteouaneaa."     An  edition  printed  for  the 
Bihle  Society  in  1865  haa  in  Mark  v,  3,  ''  Who 
dwetling  among  the  lambe  [tomb*}/'     The  Great 
in  1599  introduced   the  miatranatation  **  fold  "   for 
•*toik"  in  John  %^  16,  and  it  wai  not  oorrected  till  the 
^  lUvtiid  Vernon.     Some  of  the  renderinga  in  the  early  ver- 
•«e«iAfe  extretnely  quaint.    In  Gen.  xxjcix,  2,  Tyntlnle  ban, 
**  And  the  Lord  was  with  Joseph  and  he  wa«  a  lucky  fel- 
low/'tad  in  Mati.  vi,  7,  "  When  ye  pray,  babble  not  much."' 
Omrttk  nadtn  Judges  ky,  9,  "  Then  God  opened  a  gome 
Iculh  ia  thm  cheke  bone  so  the  water  went  out,"  and  I 
luBp  xai,  34,   "  Shott  the  King  of  Israel  between  ibe 
«n»w»  and  the  lunges/' 

£itNlii>h-apaaking  Jews  have  used  freely  the  Authorized 

V^naottt  alsQi,  iiiioe  its  appearanee  in  1S85,  the  reviwd  Old 

IWtiiiignL     Tht  Jtwiah  Sdioot  and  Family  BibU  (4  parts, 

Uttdon,  1851-61)  has  a  new  translation  by  A.  Benisch, 

■Mi  T**  JmpiMh  Family  Bible  (London,  1884)  haa  a  revi- 

ioQ  of  the   Authoriied   Version   by   M.   Friedlinder;  the 

ktt«r  was  sanctioned   by  the  chief  rabbi   of  the   British 

kmt.    \ammc  Leeaer,  a  pioneer  Jewish  rabbi  and  founder 

■tfi|iN  Jswiflh  preaa  in  America,  publiahecl  a  tranatation  of 

^H^plM«  Old  Tflvtaoient  at  Phikdelphia  in  1854,  giv- 

HRpMliflaUy  new  versiona  of  the  ProphetK.  P«i&ima,  and 

^    It^  snd  following  the  Authorised  Version  in  other  parts. 

la  IIMB  the  Jewish  Publication  Society  of  Ainerica  {Phila- 

'  '  '  \)  look  in  hand  the  preparation  of  a  complete  revi- 

^  trith  IL  Ja«trow.  8r.»  as  editor-in-chief  and  K.  Kohler 

mij.  d«  Bala  Mendea  ae  anociate  editors.     In  1005  Dr. 

tmalatioti  of  the  Psahoa  was  iaaued  (of,  the  JE, 

rwn  The  moat  oompleie  view  of  the  Uteratun*  on 
,s«l  ia  ^ven  tn  8.  G.  Ayres  and  C,  F.  Sitterly,  Tkg 
wMvyof  IW  Knff.  BibU,  New  York.  1898  (a  bibbography 
■boat  tzhausCiTe,  arranged  in  rubrics ).  The  moat  com- 
PM*  AlocKUit  up  to  the  time  of  it*  publication  is  J.  Eadle, 
n«  S%f.  BihU,  an  Ezttnud  and  CrUkat  Hist  of  .  , 
^  TmmtiaHan*,  2  ▼ota.,  London,  1876.  The  moat  re- 
«w^  sad  worthy  of  eonfidenoe.  is  H.  W.  Hoore.  Epotu^ 
■«  «f  IW  Bnoli*h  BibU  .  .  .  1B8M-1886,  London,  1902 
tflBaidkQgly    handy).     Consult    further:  T.    J.    Couant, 


f>Nar  Hiaiory  of  tha  Tranatafian  of  tha  Holy  ScHpturt* 
**  *•  Bfig,  Tongue,  New  York,  n.d.;  The  EnffliMk  Hex^ 
^9m,  pfobliahed  by  Bagster,  London,  n.d.,  haa  a  Taluable 
f*^  TW  BibU  of  Every  Land,  pp.  18&-205,  ib.  1861 
jj*"*iiiii  tpecimen  paragraphs  from  sereral  vemiona); 
^  fndawon.  AnnaU  of  Ow  BnQ.  Bible,  new  ed.  by  H. 
J'w'Wu,  lb,  1862:  Anglo- American  Hihie  Revition,  by 
*JJ*in  Qf  |jy>  Amerunn  Revieion  Committee,  New  York. 
jJ7»:  I  Sionjhton,  Out  EnQ,  BibU,  its  Trantlationt  and 
JJjMfatoTf,  London,  187»:  B.  Gondii,  Hi*L  of  the  Eng, 
^  Ktw  York,  1882;  W.  F.  Moulton.  HUL  of  tht  EnQ, 
^  I<«doa.  1882;  B.  F.  Weeteoti  and  F.  J,  A.  Hort. 
Jwlftii  Tmlammnt  in  the  Orioinal  Greek,  vol.  ii.  Intntdvu:- 
^^  Appendix,  London.  1881.  New  York,  1882;  J.  I. 


.    ,    ,  -  lf«*Mftoo*  of  the  Eng,   Vereiana,  London.  1907 

i2i^b«»h  A.  8.  Cook,  The  BibU  and  Eng,  Prom  SiyU, 

•  1802;  idem,  Bibliaal  QuoiaHom  in  Old  Bng,  Fnm 


ITrtlart  ,  .  .  Introduction  on  Old  Eng,  Vernont,  New 
York,  1004  (the  work  of  a  master,  minute  and  exact); 
J.  Wright.  Early  Bible*  of  America^  ib.  1892  (on  printed 
editions);  It.  Lovett,  Printed  Eng,  BibUe  i6S6-18S6,  ib. 
1894;  T.  H.  Pattiwn,  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  BibU,  ib.  1894; 
G.  Milligan,  The  Eng.  BibU,  a  Sketch  of  iU  m§L,  Edin- 
burgh, 1895;  P.  Sohaff,  Companion  U>  the  Qttmk  Teetameni 
and  the  Enff,  Verwion,  4th  ed.,  New  York,  1806  (deala  with 
the  A.  V.  and  IL  V.);  J.  W.  BeardeJee,  Bible  among  the 
l^atiane:  Study  &f  the  great  Tranelatffre,  ib.  1899;  G.  L. 
Owen,  Note*  on  the  Hist,  and  Text  of  our  Early  Eng.  Bible, 
London,  190t;  E.  H.  Foley.  The  Language  of  the  Nurth- 
umbrian  GIom  I&  the  Goepel  of  St.  Matthew,  New  York, 
1903;  R.  Demana,  W.  TindaU:  A  Biography.  Being  a 
Ctmiribution  to  the  Early  History  of  the  English  BibU, 
London,  1004;  Anna  C.  Pauea,  i^ourfeentA  Century  Eng. 
Vereion  A.  Prologue  and  Part*  of  the  N.  T.  noic  firet  edited 
from  the  MSS.,  London,  1904;  B.  F.  Weptoott,  General 
Viw  of  the  Hist,  of  the  Eng.  BibU,  ib.  1905  (the  latest 
ed.  of  Bi«hop  Weatcott'a  acboJarly  work);  J.  R.  SUiter, 
The  Sources  of  TyndaU^s  Version  of  the  Pentateuch,  Chicago, 
1906;  8.  Hemphill.  Hist,  of  the  H.  V\  of  the  I^.  T.  Lon- 
don, 1906:  L  M.  Price,  Ancestry  of  our  Eng.  BibU,  Phila- 
delphia, 1907.  The  GoepeU  in  West  Saicn,  ed.  J.  W. 
Bright,  are  appearing  in  Bontoct.  iKfatifuw,  1904,  Mark, 
1905,  Luke,  1906,  of.  The  GospeU.  Gothic.  Anglo-Saxon, 
W]/cliffe,  and  Tyndaie  Versions,  London,  1907. 

V.  Finnish  and  Lappish  Versions:  Although  Swe- 
dish was  fonmerly  the  principal  language  of  Finland, 
which  remained  a  Swedish  province  till  the  year 
1809,  during  the  period  of  the  Reftirniation  the  land 
acquired  a  Finnbh  ecclesiastical  language.  A  young 
Finn,  Michael  Agricola  (see  Finland,  5  2)  became 
acquainted  with  Luther  at  Wittenberg.  Having 
returned  to  hiB  native  land  in  1539,  he  began  to 
tranalate  religious  booka  into  Finnish.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  was  publish e<l  first 
in  1548;  the  Psalma  and  st^me  of  the  Prophetical 
books  in  1551-52.  In  1642  the  entire  Bible  in  Fin- 
nish by  E.  Petrous,  M.  Stadius,  H.  Hofman,  and  G, 
Favorin  wai*  published  in  Stockholm,  Finland  hav- 
ing at  that  time  no  printing  establishment.  There 
were  new  editions  in  1683-85  by  H.  Florinus,  and 
in  1758  by  A.  Litzeliua;  a  new  tranBtation  by  A.  V* 
Ingman  appeared  in  1859. 

The  Lappish  and  Finnish  languages  are  cognates, 
the  former  having  several  dialects.  The  Lapf>s 
{q,v,)  were  nominally  Christians  early  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  but  had  little  real  knowledge  of  Chria- 
tianity.  Thomas  von  Westen  (q.v*)  did  much  for 
Christian  inutruction  among  them  during  the  years 
1714-23.  Some  Christian  worka  were  published  in 
Lappish;  parts  of  the  Bible  were  transtated  and 
sent  to  Coi>enhagen,  where  they  were  destroyed  by 
a  fire.  Ttie  Norwegian  Bible  Society  having  re- 
solved in  1821  to  publish  a  Lappish  translation  of 
the  Bible,  Provost  Kildahl  olTered  his  service*  in 
1822  in  eonjimction  with  a  teacher  named  Gunder- 
sen.  Kildahl  died  the  same  year,  but  the  work  was 
continued  by  Gundersen  and  later  by  Niels  Stock- 
fleth.  The  first  two  Gospels  were  printed  in  1838, 
and  the  complete  New  Testament  in  1840  (new 
eds.  1850  and,  revised ,  1 874 ) .  Stock fleth  translated 
also  ports  of  the  Pentateuch  (1840),  and  the  Psalms 
{1854).  A  Lapp,  Lars  Hiltta,  translateil  the  whole 
Old  Testament,  which,  after  being  revisetl  by  Prof. 
J.  A.  Friis  and  Seminary-Director  Quigstad  in 
Tromsfl,  was  printed  in  1875,  All  these  are  in  the 
Norwegian-Lapp  dialect. 

In  the  8wedish-Lapp  dialect  a  handbook  contain- 
ing the  Icasonafrom  the  Gospels  and  the  Epietiea  for 


BiUe  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


143 


the  church-year,  the  Psahns,  Proverbs,  and  Ecde- 
siasticuB  was  published  by  J.  J.  Tom&us  at  Stock- 
hohn  in  1648.  The  New  Testament  was  translated 
by  Per  FjellstrCm  and  published  in  1755;  a  new 
edition  and  also  the  entire  Bible  was  issued  at 
HemOsand  in  1811.  J.  Beiahedc. 

Bxblxoobafht:  Bible  of  Every  Land^  pp.  81(^^24,  London, 
1861. 

VI.  French  Versions:  The  beginnings  of  a  French 

Bible  may  be  traced  at  least  to  the  early  twelfth 

century.    In  all  probability  pupils  of  Lanfranc  (d. 

1089)  translated  the  Psalter  for  the  first  time  into 

the  French-Norman  vernacular.     At 

BarluT      *^*  *^®  there  was  scarcely  any  dif- 

Versione.  ^^r^i^ce  between  the  Norman  and  the 
.  French  (i.e.  the  dialect  used  in  the 

Be-de-France,  a  province  having  Paris  as  its  capi- 
tal). The  Psalter,  together  with  the  canticles  used 
in  the  Church,  was  offered  to  the  French-speaking 
people  in  a  double  form;  vis.,  (1)  after  the  Paalte- 
rium  Hebraicum,  i.e.  the  Psalter  translated  by 
Jerome  directly  from  the  Hebrew  (cf .  Le  Livre  des 
PMumeSf  ed.  from  Cambridge  and  Paris  manuscripts, 
F.  Michel,  Paris,  1876);  (2)  after  the  Psaltenum 
GaUicanum,  i.e.  according  to  the  Psalter  carefully 
revised  by  Jerome  from  the  Septuagint  (cf.  Libri 
Paalmorum  versio  arUiqua  GaUica,  cd.  F.  Michel, 
Oxford,  1860;  see  above  A,  II,  2,  §  2).  These 
translations  were  made  word  for  word,  and  are 
interlinear,  the  Latin  text  standing  between  the 
lines  of  the  French.  The  translations  from  the 
Galilean  Psalter  were  so  well  received  that  down  to 
the  Reformation  no  one  ventured  on  a  new  rendering. 
The  manuscripts  of  the  French  Psalter  which  are 
still  extant,  more  than  100  in  nimiber,  without  an 
exception  go  back  to  the  old  Norman  Psalter. 

About  fifty  years  later  Revelation  was  translated 
into  French  in  the  Norman  provinces;  also  Samuel 
and  Kings  (cf.  Les  Quatre  Livres  des  RaiSf  jfublUs 
par  le  Roux  de  Lincy,  Paris,  1842).  In  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  numerous  translations 
originated  (cf.  G.  Paris,  La  LiU&ature  fran^ise 
au  moyen  dge,  Paris,  1890,  §  136;  J.  Bonnard, 
Les  Traductions  de  la  Bible  en  vera  frangaia,  Paris, 
1884).  Toward  1170  Peter  Waldo,  the  head  of  the 
Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  better  known  later  as  the 
Waldenses  (q.v.),  brought  out  translations  of  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular,  which 
had  been  made  by  Lyonnaise  priests  at  his  ex- 
pense, and  Pope  Innocent  III  did  not  rest  till  these 
suspicious  writings  were  everywhere  suppressed  by 
the  Inquisition.  Nevertheless  some  remnants  of 
this  old  Waldensian  literature  have  been  saved  from 
the  hands  of  the  inquisitors  at  Metz  and  Li^. 

Of  the  versions  which  have  been  printed,  and  of 
which  it  is  possible  to  give  some  account,  mention 
may  be  made  of  that  of  Guyard  des  Moulins,  canon 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Aire  in  Artois,  on  the  borders 
of  Flanders.  Taking  the  Historia  schalaetica 
of  Peter  Comestor  (q.v.),  composed  in 
2.  GKiyard  hjq  a^j  containing  a  digest  of  the 

ICoulkie.    ^ible  history  with    grosses,  he   made 

a  free  translation  of  it  between  1291 

and    1295;    added    a   sketch   of    the    history    of 

Job,   Proverbs,   and   probably   the  other  books 


ascribed  to  Solomon;  substituted  for  Comestoi's 
history  of  the  Maccabees  a  translation  of  Mac«ar 
bees  from  the  Vulgate;  and  in  general  made    tibe 
whole  conform  more  closely  to  the  text  of  the  '^^lil- 
gate    than    Comestor    had    done.     Psalms,         tbe 
Prophets,  and  the  Epistles  and  Revelation  were      not 
in  the  work  as  first  issued,  and  it  is  unoei-^^ 
whether  Acts  was  not  also  omitted;  they  wi  ■ere 
added,    however,    in    later   issues.    These   p^smrts, 
brought    together,    received    the    name    Bib^'-ium 
hietariale  (Bible  hieioriale;  see  Bibles,  Hibtorics  ^, 
and  it  was  printed  and  reprinted  in  great  numb — -^^ 
An  edition  completed  by  different  hands  and        ma- 
king thus  the  first  complete  Bible,  was  issuec^  by 
order  of  Charies  VIII  about  1487,  edited  by        the 
king's  confessor,   Jean  de  Rely,  and  printed^      by 
V^rard  in  Paris.     Twelve  editions  of  this  app^ssu^ 
between  1487  and  1545.    This  is  called  La  Gr^^auidi 
Bible  to  distinguish  it  from  a  work  entiUeA    La 
Bible  pour  les  simples  gens,  a  summary  of  th&     bis. 
tory  of  the  Old  Testament,  of  which  five  editmcos, 
four  undated,  one  dated   1535,  have  been  eacam- 
ined.    Previous  to  the  edition  of  1487,  an  editiozi  of 
the  New  Testament  of  the  same  translation  as  that 
found  in  the  supplemented  work  of  Guyard,    but 
not  by  Guyard  himself,  was  printed  at  Lyons  by 
Bartolom^    Buyer,   edited   by   two   Augustinian 
monks,  Julien  Macho  and   Pierre   Farget.    It  is 
undated,  but  is  referred  to  the  year  1477,    and 
justly  claims  to  be  the  editio  princeps  of  the  French 
Scriptures. 

In  the  year  1523  there  appeared  at  Paris,  froxn 
the  press  of  Simon  de  Colines,  an  anonymo^is 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  (often  reprinted), 
to  which  was  added  in  the  same  year  the  Psalt^^ 
and,  in  1528,  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament,  iasi^^ 
at  Antwerp    in    consequence  of    ^^^ 
^'  Sat**'  ^^^P*^   ®°   ^^®  P*'^  ®^  ^^®  Frerm.«h 
Versions,   clergy  to  suppress  the  book.    Th-^s^e 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  well-kno"^"* 
humanist  Jacques  Lefdvre  d'£taples   (see  Fa^^^ 
Stapulensis)    was    the  author    of    this  ver8L^3n- 
The    complete    work    appeared    in    one    voli»-^^® 
at  Antwerp,  1530.     It  was  placed  on  the  p^-V^ 
Index  in  1546;    but  in   1550  it  was  reissued        ^^ 
Louvain,  edited  by  two  priests,  Nicolas  de  L^^***® 
and  Francois  van  Larben,  who  revised  the  wc^*^* 
striking  out  all  that  savored  of  heresy.    T^e  ^^^ 
Protestant  version  was  prepared  by  Pierre  Rofc^^ 
Olivetan  (q.v.)  within  the  space  of  one  year,    ^B^d 
printed  in  1535  by  Pierre  de  Wingje  at  Serri^^^^ 
near  NeuchAtel,  in  Switzerland,  at  the  expens^^  °^ 
the  Waldensians.    It  was  reprinted  several  ti*-^^®*» 
in  one  case  with  a  few  emendations  from  the  P^-^J?, 
Calvin,  in  1545.    The  Roman  critics  had  denour:^'  **? 
Olivetan's  work  as  of  little  value  because  of     "^ 
supposed   ignorance   of   the   languages.    Butr       he 
really  knew  and  used  the  Hebrew  to  advant>^g6, 
and  the  Old  Testament  was  quite  well  done;       hut 
either  through  press  of  time  or  less  accurate  kix^^^^' 
edge  of  Greek,  the  New  Testament  was  inf^-^^^*"' 
To  remedy  the  defects  of  Olivetan's  version,      ^^ 
"  venerable    company "    of    pastors   of    Gec**"^ 
undertook  a  revision  of  the  work  and  was  assisted 
by  Beza,  Simon  Croulart,  Antoine  Fay,  and  otf^*^**- 
TTie  editor  was  Bonaventure  Comeille  Bert«"^»™i 


fCLOPI 


Bible  Verwionm 


acooimt  of  his  work  in  the  Lucubra- 
nki^Uennc-s  (in  Pearson's  Criiiid  Sucri, 
This  revisctl  edition  appeared  in  1688. 
11  as  in  the  following  editions  the  di^dne 
iireli  was  tranalated  by  i'^lernd  and 
tDg  \s  retained  to  thta  day  in  the  Protea* 
of  France. 

ie  seventeenth  century  this  revision  of 
^rsion,  known  as  the  *'  Geneva  Bible/' 
levised  by  different  ministers;  the  edi- 
Diodati  (Geneva,  1644),  Samuel  Dea 
jnosterdam,  1669),  and  David  Martin 
ument,  Utrecht,  1696;  whole  Bible, 
first  of  Buch  reviflions.  Martin'a 
by  the  Ba«el  minister  Pierre 
^  and  is  to  this  day  difiseniinated  by 
lies  along  with  other  ethtions.  Twenty 
kt  Iloques  published  Martin's  reviised 
Osterwald  (q.v.),  a  pastor  at  NeucMtel, 

rcw  the  Geneva  Bible  in  1724,  and 
revised  edition  in  1744,  in  which  he 
he  results  of  the  exegetical  science  of 
As  Oaterwald's  translation  became  the 
Srsion,  it  was  adopted  by  the  British 
p  Bible  Society  and  issued  from  time 
thomughly  revised  version  prepared 
vd  and  other  French  pa-^tors  was  pub- 
B  French  Bible  Society  in  1887,  and 
text  was  then  adopted  by  the  British 
Bible  Society. 

iC  919  oth^r  Prote«tant  versioiu:  3.  Omlih 
I).  <ompl«t«  Bible  (2  voU..  Baael.  1555);  J. 
lictts),  N.  T.  (AnwtcrdBtn.  1703);  L  d«  Be&u- 
%jttdmtitf  N.  T.  (Arurttcnl&m,  1718;  oft«D  r«^ 
y  and  Swit«crland);  Chiulea  I^  Cifcne, 
1741);  H.  A.  PBrfet-Getitil.  proTeanor  at 
T-  (Neuch&t«l.  1847  «q<iO:  EL  Artmud,  N,  T. 
);  A.  Rillicl,  N.  T.  (Geneva,  1850);  M.  J.  H. 
T.  (Geaevft,  1872);  lx>uia  Segond,  O.  T. 
|)«  N.  T.  (1879),  whose  Wfjrk  h&n  been  prtnted 
Unjveraity  prew:  £.  SUpfer.  N.  T.   (Pari«, 

ms  by  Roman  Catholics,  the  most  im- 

a  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
lionymously  (Tr^voux.  1702),  but  as- 
correctness  to  Richard  Smion  (q.v,),  and 
a  series  of  versions  which  proceeded 
from  Port  Royal  and  the  Janaeiiista. 
As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century^  An  to  in  e  Godeau 
ihed  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  at  ^st 
as  a  whole.  In  1667  the  New  Tes- 
pwed,  printed  by  the  Elzevirs  at  Am- 
a  bookseller  of  Moub,  whence  it  is 
the  Mods  Testament.  The  transla- 
^Anioine  and  Louis  Isaac  Lenmi»tre 
Lemaistre  de  Sacy,  Lottis  Isaac), 
litoine  Amauld,  Pierre  Nicole,  Claude 
krtlic.  and  Thomas  du  Foss^.  The  Old 
translated  by  Louis  Isaac  Lemaistrc 
Ided  later  (1671),  and  the  New 
juier  Quesnel  (q.v.)  appeared  in 
tlations  exercised  great  influence, 
count  of  the  elegance  of  the  language, 
unt  of  tlie  notes,  which  served  do* 
Their  method  is  not  a  literal 
it  is  paraphrastic.    The  translation  of 


the  New  Testament  generally  known  as  that  of 
De  Sacy  was  often  republished,  and  is  still  widely 
used  in  France,  being  circulated  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society, 

Ren<^  Benoiat  (r]:v.>  ptibliihect  0,  traimlation  of  the  Bible 
in  1566.  J&cque^  Corbin,  an  ftdvocatc  of  Paris,  prt*»euted 
the  Vulgate  in  a  trajiAlAtiuii  more  Latin  than  Frencb  in 
1643,  The  Latin  New  T^satauient  of  Eraaxnuf^  wa«  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Michel  de  Marollea,  abb^  of  Villeloin 
(164&),  who  alfio  published  a  version  of  the  PwtniH  (1644). 
Deuya  Ametote,  a  prieat  of  the  Oratoi^,  (ranaJated  tbe 
New  Teatamcnt  Vutgat*  into  very  good  French  (1666). 
Dominictuo  Bouhoun*,  a  Jcrnuit,  also  isnued  a  French  New 
Testament  {1697).  In  the  eiichteenth  century  C.  Hur^ 
(1 702 J,  Au4?Uistiii  Calnaet  (1707),  N,  Le  Gro»  117:19),  and 
others  made  veptionB,  all  more  or  leas  dependent  on  the 
Viilxmie^  In  more  reeent  limes  ibe  Peutlmia  and  Job  have 
b«en  often  tranAUted.  The  entire  Bible  by  E.  Genoude 
(Parie,  1821  aqQ.)  had  great  iuc«esa.  Th«  Go«pela  by 
Lainennaia  (Pari a,  1S46)  are  a  model  of  atylis,  but  becaiue 
of  tbe  notefl  are  really  a  aociuliBtic  polemic^  [Other  names 
and  workii  which  may  be  mentionivl  are:  M.  Oraini,  La 
Bible  dttt  families  taihotiqufS  (Pads,  1851  >;  H.  F,  Delaunay« 
who  tran«lat«<]  the  annotated  Bible  of  J.  F.  AlhoU  (q.v,) 
into  French  (5  vqI«.,  Pari  a,  1856);  J,  A.  Gaume.  Le  Nourtau 
TeBiameJii  (2  vol§..  Paris,  1863);  M,  A,  Bayle,  who  fur- 
nished the  tran!«lation  for  Paul  Drach'jt  annotated  Bible 
(Paris,  1869  aqq):  F,  GigueL  who  translate*!  the  Septum- 
gint  (4  voLa.,  Pftria,  1S72);  H.  Laaserre.  Lea  Saint*  Etmn- 
OileM  (Paris,  18R7):  the  Abbd  Boisaon  iFa.r\»,  1001);  the 
Abb^  Claire,  who  furniabed  the  French  tranjilation  for  the 
polyglot  Bible  of  F.  Vigouronx  (Pari;),  1S08  aqq.);  and  Iba 
Abb^  Crampon.  La  Sainte  Bihir.  rfliri^eci  by  tbe  Jeauit  falhera 
with  the  oolLaboration  of  the  profeeaoraof  St*  Sulpioe  (Paria, 
1907).! 

Translations  of  the  Old  Testament  by  Jews  are 
found  in  B.  Cahen'fl  annotated  Bible  (18%^oU.,  Paris, 
1831-51)  [and  in  the  Old  Testament  tranBlated 
imtier  the  direction  of  Zmloc  Kahn,  chief  rabbi  of 
France  (1901  sqq,)],  (S.  BERGERt) 

Biblidgrapht:  The  moal  important  oontributionii  nn  the 
auhject  have  been  produisml  by  S.  Ilorger,  as  fnllowa: 
La  Bible  frunf^aiae  au  moiwn  id^e,  Pariii,  1884;  Le.1  Bibiet 
proven^alU  et  raudloiuM,  in  Romania,  xviii  (1889);  4V01*- 
veUes  rechtreJie*  »ur  let  biblet  proven^aUs  et  cutaianet,  ib. 
xix  (IS9<]),  cf.  P.  Meyer,  in  Romania,  xvii  (1888),  i2l,  and 
H.  Suchier,  in  ZeiUehrift  far  romani»tht  Philoloffie,  iii 
(187fl),  412.  For  enumerarion  of  French  Bibles  oannult 
JBritish2\tu*eumCataktffue,eniry"Bihiem.  French."  175-188, 
and  the  A ppetMftx,  "  Bibles.  French,"  18:  O.  iJouen,  Cola- 
loffue  dt  la  aociiti  b^Hqus  de  ParU,  1862:  Bible  of  Ex^ery 
Land,  pp.  254-260,  2S1-283.  Londoo,  I8S1  (iuootoplet«. 
but  clear  ao  far  a;a  it  goea).  Consult  al*o  J.  Le  Lon«, 
BiMiotheea  tacra,  toL  i,  Paria,  1723;  E.  Reus«,  FragmentM 
liUtrairna  et  eritiquM  relatifa  it  Vhislttire  (le  la  Bible  fran^ 
^9e,  in  Revw  de  ihSolooie  ei  philaaophie,  ii^  iv-vit  xiv.  new 
aeriea,  iii-v  (ISA! -67.  exoeedinisly  important);  idem,  Oe- 
aehiehts  rfer  knligen  Schriften  de*  Neuen  Teetamente,  pp. 
4eS  aqq.,  Brtituiwir,k,  1887;  E.  Pdtavel-OllifT,  La  Bible  en 
France^  &u  Us  tradiiciions  fran^ieea  de*  eairde*  ^crituretM, 
PariK,  1864;  £.  Cadiot^  Eetai  atir  U*  condiiiofut  d'une  tror 
dtiriion  popiJaire  de  la  bible  en  tangue  fran^aiee,  Straa- 
burs.  1868;  G,  StrUinpeLl.  Die  €r*tfn  BibeiUberaeUunofn 
dfT  Framoeeft  tlOO-tSOO,  Brunswick,  1872;  A.  Matter, 
Note  fur  ta  rH'ieion  de  la  bible  d'Oetertpald,  PariB,  1882; 
J.  E}otina,rd.  Lee  fraducH&nM  de  ta  biblt  en  vere  fron^aM 
au  m&yen  dge,  Paris,  1884;  P.  Quierreux,  La  Traduttion 
du  N  T,  de  Lwftvre  d'itapl«9,  Paria,  1804;  P.  Meyer, 
Notify  du  MS.  BibliotK^gue  Natvmale  F  6447,  Piuis.  Ig07; 
A.  Lttune.  La  Trad%tcHan  de  TA.  T^de  l^fHre  d'Etaptea, 
Paris,  1895;  Revue  de  Vhietoire  dee  Reliffwne,  xxxii,  M; 
nii,  extra  vol.,  pp.  402-400. 

Vn.  German   Versions:    After  the  Gothic  vei^ 

gion  of  Ulfilaa  (see  above,  A,  X),  the  oldest  frag- 
ment of  the  Bible  in  a  German ie  tongue  is  prol>ably 
tbe  Matthew  of  Mon,s«»e,  of  t!ie  yoar  7ri8  (twenty^ 
two  leaves  are  in  Vienna,  two  in  Hanover;   on  the 


Bible  Version* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-£[ERZOQ 


144 


left  page  is  the  Latin,  on  the  right  German),  a 
Bavarian  working  over  of  a  Prankish  or  Alsacian 
original.  The  best  edition  is  A.  Hench,  The  Monsee 
Fragments  newly  Collated^  with  Text, 
1.  Old  Ger-  Introduction,  Notes,  Grammatical  Treor 
P^^  tise,  and  Exhaustive  Glossary  and 
mrata.  Facsimile  (Strasburg,  1890).  The 
"  German  Tatian,"  of  which  the  chief 
manuscript  is  at  St.  Gall  (second  half  of  the  ninth 
century,  in  two  columns,  left  in  Latin,  right  in 
German),  originated  about  830  in  Fulda.  The 
Latin  rests  upon  a  manuscript  written  about  540 
for  Bishop  Victor  of  Capua  (q.v.),  which  is 
still  preserved  in  Fulda,  and  the  Crerman  follows 
the  Latin  very  closely  (best  edition  by  E.  Sievers, 
Tatianus,  Lateinisch  und  Altdeutsch,  Paderbom, 
1874,  2d  ed.,  1892).  Heccard,  coimt  of  Biu^undy, 
in  876  gave  as  a  present  an  Evangdium  Theu- 
discum  with  other  books  (cf.  P.  Lejay,  in  Revue 
des  Biblioth^ques,  July-Sept.,  1896).  Walton,  in  his 
Polyglot  (Prolegomena,  p.  34a),  asserts  that 
"  Rhenanus  testifies  that  Waldo,  bishop  of  Frei- 
smg  [884-906]  about  the  year  800  [sicQ  translated 
the  Gospels  into  German  "  (cf.  Hauck,  KD,  ii,  620, 
704,  712).  Detached  fragments  of  the  Gospels 
have  been  published  by  F.  Keinz  (SMA,  1869, 
p.  546)  and  J.  Haupt  (Germania,  xiv,  1869,  p.  440), 
which  are  in  a  handwriting  of  the  twelfth  century, 
but  show  the  accents  used  earlier  in  the  school  of 
Notker  Balbulus  (see  Notker,  1;  cf.  W.  Walther, 
Die  deutsche  Bibelubersetzung  des  Mittelalters,  3 
vols.,  Brunswick,  1889-91,  455-465).  For  the 
Heliand  and  Otfrid's  Liber  Evangeliorum  or  Krist, 
see  Heliand,  the,  and  the  Old-Saxon  Genesis; 
Otfrid  op  Weissenburo). 

The  first  translator  alter  Ulfilas  known  with 
certainty  is  Notker  Labeo  of  St.  Gall  (d.  June  29, 
1022;  see  Notker,  4).  His  Job  is  lost,  but  his 
translation  of  the  Psalms  can  be  almost  completely 
reconstructed  from  his  German  and  Latin  commen- 
tary on  them  (best  ed.  in  P.  Piper's  Schriften  Mot- 
hers und  seiner  Schule,  3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1883-84; 
facsimile  in  Vogt  and  Koch,  Deutsche  lAtteratur- 
geschichte,  Leipsic,  1904,  and  Walther,  ut  sup., 
663).  Williram,  after  1048  abbot  of  Ebereberg  in 
Bavaria  (see  Williram),  made  a  translation  of  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  which  found  so  much  favor  that 
nineteen  manuscripts  are  still  known,  one  written  as 
late  as  1528  (cf.  Walther,  523-536,  with  facsimile, 
and  J.  Seemtiller,  Die  Handschriften  und  Quellen 
von  WUlirams  Paraphrase,  Strasburg,  1877,  and 
Willirams  Paraphrase,  1878;  Hauck,  KD,  iii,  968). 
An  interlinear  version  of  the  Psalms  from  the 
cloister  of  Windberg,  written  1187,  was  published 
by  E.  G.  Grafif,  Deutsche  Interlinearversionen  der 
Psalmen  (Quedlinburg,  1839;  cf.  Walther,  566; 
also  A.  E.  SchOnbach,  Bruchstucke  einer  fr&nkischen 
Psalmenversion,  in  ZDAL,  xxiv,  2,  pp.  177-186). 
Other  manuscripts  of  this  kind  are  mentioned  by 
Walther,  568.  Some  twenty  manuscripts  and  two 
impressions  (the  one  probably  by  Knubloezer  in 
Strasburg  about  1477,  the  other  by  Peter  Drach  in 
Worms  1504)  have  preserved  the  conmientary  of 
Nicolaus  de  Lyra  (see  Lyra,  Nicolaus  de),  con- 
taining translations  into  German  by  Heinrich  von 
MOgeln,  who  was  for  a  time  with  the  emperor 


Charles  IV  at  Prague  and  seems  to  have  left  him 
on  account  of  his  edict  of  1469  against  the  German 
books  on  Holy  Scripture  (cf.  Helm,  in  Sieven'i 
Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Sprathc,  xxi, 
1897,  p.  240,  xxii,  1898,  p.  135). 

Especially  interesting  is  Walther's  eighth  group 
of  translations  of  the  Psalms  (which  inclu^  tD 
Latin-German  Psalters  printed  in  the  Middle  Agei 
and  two  or  three  manuscripts)  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  the  German  text  does  not  go  back  to  the 
Latin  Vulgate  in  common  use,  but  to  Jerome's  ver- 
sion from  the  Hebrew  (see  above,  A,  II,  2,  {  2). 
To  Walther's  ninth  group  belongs  the  splendid 
Psalter  of  St.  Florian  in  three  languages,  Latin, 
Polish,  and  German,  which  was  made  either  for  the 
Polish  queen  Marguerite,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Charles  IV,  or  for  Mary,  sister  of  the  Polish  queen 
Hedwig  of  Anjou.  Another  translation  is  due  to 
Henry  of  Hesse,  rector  of  the  University  of  Heidel- 
berg, who  died  1427,  a  Carthusian.  On  Uie  eve  of 
the  Reformation  Duke  Eberhard  I  of  WOrttemberg 
was  careful  to  have  translations  made  for  him 
(cf.  TLZ,  iv,  473;  671). 

Besides  202   (203)   manuscripts,   Walther  enu- 
merates between  1466  and  1521  eighteen  impres- 
sions   of    complete    German    Bibles, 
2.  Printed  twenty-two   of   Psalters,   and  twdvt 
Bibles  be-  of  other  parts.     Of  the  eighteen  com- 
fore        plete   Bibles,   fourteen   are  in  High 

Luther.  German.  They  differ  from  the  com- 
mon Latin  Bible  by  containing  the 
Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans  and  by  placing  Acts 
after  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The  prayer  of 
Manasses  is  miawing  in  the  first  two  and  placed 
after  Chronicles  in  the  rest.  Their  correct  chrono- 
logical order  is: 

(1)  Strasburg.  Mentel,  e.  14M  (H«m.  Reperionum  M- 
lioQraphicum,  no.  8180).  (2)  Strmsbuzs,  Eggertein,  e.  1470 
(Hain,  3129).  (3)  Augsburg,  Pflansmann.  o.  1473  (Hsin. 
3131).  (4)  Augsburg.  G.  Zainer.  o.  1473.  a  thorough  re?i- 
nonof2(Ham.3133).  (5) Swiss,  1474  (Hain. 3132).  (6aad7) 
Augsburg.  G.  Zainer.  and  A.  Soig.  1477  (Hain,  8134^135). 
(8)  Augsburg,  A.  Sorg.  1480,  a  repetition  of  Zainer't 
impression  of  1477  (Hain,  8136).  (9)  Nuremberg.  A. 
Koburger.  1483  (Hain,  8137).  (10)  Strasburg,  GrOningflr. 
1485  (Hain.  3138).  (11-14)  All  printed  in  Augsburg,  by  H. 
SohOnspeiger.  1487. 1490  (Hain,  8139-40),  H.  Otmar,  Ifffl, 
and  Silvanus  Otmar,  1518. 

All  these  editions  give  in  the  main  one  and  the  same 
version,  but  Zainer  (4  above)  undertook  a  thorough 
revision,  which  had  much  influence.  Kobui^ 
(9  above)  also  made  changes.  The  version  was 
already  more  than  100  years  old  when  first  printed. 
Its  home  is  not  yet  ascertained,  but  there  are  traces 
which  indicate  Bohemia.  The  Latin  text  under- 
lying this  version  is  interesting  especially  in  Acts, 
where  it  has  preserved  many  Old  Latin  readings. 
Led  by  an  entry  in  a  manuscript  of  Nurembeiig, 
F.  Jostes  tried  to  prove  that  a  certain  Johannes 
Rellach  of  ResOm  (7)  in  the  diocese  of  Constance, 
who  he  thinks  was  a  Dominican,  was  the  author  of 
this  version  about  1460  (cf.  his  Meisier  Johannes 
Rellach,  ein  Bibdiibersetzer  des  15.  Jahrhunderts,  in 
Historisches  Jahrbuch,  Munich,  1897,  133-145). 
Kiurelmeyer  {Die  deutsche  Bibd,  Tubingen,  1904 
sqq.)  seems  to  think  the  version  older  thaii  this 
Rellach,  who  may  have  undertaken  a  revision  of  it, 
and  he  has  not  pronounced  upon  the  alleged  Walden- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Tersloiii 


I 


1  origin  of  the  ^-ereion;  the  manuscript  of  Tepl 
my  bave  l)cvn  in  WiiKlenKiati  hands,  but  this  docs 
Dot  prove  a  WaUlotisuin  orij2:in.  There  are  certain 
pffulkr  ppadings  in  wliich  the  version  agrees  with 
the  Provencal  translation. 

A  different  traxmhition  containing  only  the  Old 
T«6tAment  is  represented  by  the  **  Wenzel  "  Bible 
ftt  Vienna,  translated  from  the  Latin  at  the  com- 
Duind  of  the  emperor  WenceBlaus  by  Martin  Rotlev 
bier  than  1389  (facsimile  in  Vogt  and  Koch,  ut 
wp,),  A  "  Bible  for  the  PcKir  "  at  Maihingen  of 
lilTp^'es  a  German  working  over  of  the  212  hex- 
WMters  in  whieh  Alexander  VOladeus  summarisEed 
all  tbe  chapters  of  the  Bible  (e.g.  Gen.  i-vii:  sex, 
d,  pfecant,  Abel^  Enoch ^  ardm  fit,  intrant) 
iod  oounta  seven ty-ebc  books^  fifty-eight  proioguesj 
1,467  chapters,  aod  1,606  vereea  in  the  Paalter, 
To  the  same  group  belongs  a  manuscript  now  at 
Miilungeii  (1472),  beautifully  illustrated  by  Furt- 
ineyprfor  Albert  IV  of  Bavaria,  which  has  between 
Deuteronomy  and  Job  Matt,  i-v^  44,  like  a  mami- 
icript  in  the  British  Museum  written  by  the  same 
eopyist  in  1465  (cL  the  Atkenttum  for  May  31,  1884, 
ind  R.  Priebsch,  Deutsche  Handschriften  in  Ejigiand, 
i,  Erlangen,  1896).     For  other  versions,  cf.  Walther. 

The  Low  German  Bibles  include  the  Old  Testa* 
ment  of  Delft  U477),  without  Pealms,  and  the 
famous  Picture  Bible  of  Cologne  (about  1478;  cf. 
IL  Kautisch,  Die  HoUachnitU  dtr  K  diner  Bihel  von 
U79^  in  Stud  ten  lur  deuUchen  Kunstgeackichtef  vii, 
lSW,Mid  G.  Gerlach,  in  Dziat^ko*a  Arbetten^  ii,  13, 
UipMT,  1896).  The  Song  of  Solomon  in  this  Bible 
k  not  translated  but  is  given  in  Latin.  The  Bible 
of  LObeck  of  1494  gives,  up  to  11  Kings  vii,  an 
original  translation;  from  that  chapter  onward 
text  ttid  pietures  of  the  Cologne  Bible.  The  edition 
of  Ludwig  Truteb\il  (Hall>erstadt,  1522)  is  very 
•ftrtjc.  On  the  Psalters  cf.  Walther,  682-703,  and 
Kuntlmeyer,  ut  sup. 

Od  thfi  "  Wenul  "  Bible,  cf.  AJP,  xxi,  62-76,  aad  F. 
itkuk,  Dit  Sprach€  der  Wrmelbibtl,  GOri,  18»8-W.  On 
1^  pe-Lutb«mo  Bib)e^  cf.  A.  E.  Sch^nbaoh.  Mitctllen  aua 
f^f^t^  ITomlidbn/tfffi,  »i.  Reihe,  D^uUchr  Ueber*eUunoen 
^i^iiitlm'  Sekrifltn^  Ormi,  1800;  idem,  Uehtr  tin  mittel- 
^nttAm  B^n09limttmk  <tu»  St,  Paul  Vieumi,  1897,  &&d 
I  i.  H  Bebb.  in  DB,  extra  vol.,  4U-413. 

Contemporaneously  with  Luther  others  were 
Wipgwi  in  translating  parts  of  the  Bible  Into  mod- 
era  ficnnan,  e.g.,  Bftscbenatein,  Lange,  Krumpach, 
Amman,  Nuchtgal,  Capito,  and  Frohlich;  but  their 
'^otb  are  forgotten  (see  also  below,  §  5).  Not  con- 
UsmtilAlLog  at  first  the  entire  Bible,  Luther 
^ .  began    writh    the     penitential  Psalms 

lS»U*'**  CMar.,  1517,  improved  1525)  and  fol- 
lowed with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
«**■  C3C  iu  1518,  the  Prayer  of  Manasses  with 
*^»U.  xvi,  13-20,  in  1519,  and  other  pieces.  At 
^«nd  of  1521  he  began  with  the  New  Testament. 
K*  writes  on  Dec.  18,  1521:  '*  Meanwhile  I  am 
ptliering  note«,  being  on  the  point  of  trajiwlating 
«x  New  Testament  into  the  vernacular;  "  two 
**y*  later:  **  Now  1  am  laboring  on  annotating 
^tf^Qal&ting  the  Bible  into  the  common  sfK*ech;  " 
«»^Mi.  13,  1522,  to  Amfldorff:  *'  Meanwhile  I  am 
^''"whiting  the  Bible,  though  I  have  undertaken  a 
^•ik  b*»yond  my  strength.  The  Old  Testament  I 
O'^Boitcuch  unlejssyou  lend  your  aid  "  (cf,  G,  Boa- 


scrt,  in  TSK,  1897,  pp.  324,  340,  366).  The  New 
Teiitament  was  in  type  Sept.,  1522;  it  was  pub- 
lished with  wtKxlcut^  at  Wittenberg  without  name 
of  printer  or  of  translator  {Duit  Neive  Testament 
Deuizmh)  and  was  sold  for  one  and  ont^-half  florins. 
In  Deceml>er  a  second  edition  followed  (cf.  R. 
Kuhrs,  Verhdiinis  der  Decemberbibel  tur  September' 
bibeL  KrUischer  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Bihel' 
Bprache  M,  JLiUhers.  Mit  einem  Anhang  uber  J  oh. 
Langt^s  MnithiiusabersHzung^  Greifswald,  1901). 
Of  the  Old  Testament,  part  i  (the  five  booka  of 
Mose-fl)  was  ready  in  1523;  parts  ii  and  iii  (the  his- 
torical and  poetical  books)  in  1524;  the  prophets 
did  not  follow  until  1532;  and  the  Apocrypha  as  a 
whole  not  until  the  first  complete  Bible  in  1534. 
Eleven  editions  were  published  during  Luther's 
lifetime,  besides  numerous  reprinta.  For  the  Old 
Testament  he  used  the  edition  of  Brescia,  1494 
(the  copy  is  now  at  Berlin);  for  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  second  edition  of  Erasmus  (1519),  but 
he  consulted  the  Vulgate,  and  for  the  Old  Testa- 
ment had  the  assistance  of  his  friends  Melanchthon, 
Bugenhagen,  Aurogallu«,  and  all  available  helps. 
In  the  preface  to  Sirach  he  mentions  the  earlier 
German  translation,  but  he  seems  on  the  whole 
independent  of  it.  The  influence  of  Luther's 
work  was  great  even  outside  of  Germany,  It 
fonned  the  basis  of  the  Danish  translation  of  1524, 
of  the  Swedish  and  Dutch  of  1526,  of  the  Icelandic 
of  LVKl,  and,  through  the  mediation  of  Tyndale, 
influenced  the  English  Authorized  Version  of 
161L 

Largfii  iNurif  of  Luthor'a  autograph  primtifr'a  copy  are 
presurved,  and  the  firut  part  n  in  print  in  D^  Martin  Luthtr't 
Deutsrhe  Bibel,  Weim&r,  lOO^S.  A  catalogue  of  the  original 
editiotiA  of  Luiher*a  Bible  wua  publiflhed  by  H,  K,  Bindjieil 
(VersricAni**  der  Oriffinai-Ausoabrnf  etc..  UaJle,  1840),  who 
ttlao.  in  ctinaboratinn  with  H.  A,  Niemeyer,  iasu*^!  a  critical 
reprint  of  the  edition  of  1545  with  a  collation  at  the 
earlier  impre3»ioiui  (7  Tots.^  Halle«  1845-55).  J,  C  Hnge- 
mann^  NacHricht  von  denen  filmehm^ten  UebcratfUun{jen  der 
hrili'gen  Schrifi  (Brunswick,  1750),  fcives  a  li»t  of  editiotia 
to  1749.  In  the  Hauck-Hcr»o«  RE,  Hi.  74-75.  about 
ninety  placeii  are  naint*d  in  whicli  Luther's  Bible  has  beea 
printtni,  with  the  <iate  of  the  first  edition  in  each  place. 
It  includes  the  foDowini;  townB  in  America:  Gerraantown. 
Fenn,,  1743  {the  firflt  Bible  in  a  Euroi)ejin  latigua^e 
printed  in  Ameriim:  bc©  Soweii,  CiiRiSTOPUEit)  and  1763 
(cL  Batl^  BiMbiite,  ISm,  52 V;  New  York,  1S54  (N.  T,) 
and  1857  (complete  Bible);  PhilfuJolphia.  184fl.  Readiii|[. 
Penn.,  1813,  and  I jin carter.  Peiin..  1810,  may  b«  added, 
A  chronotuKieal  list  would  nhow  tke  infli£i>noe  of  Pietiam. 
The  first  Eeriir*  erlition  (1699),  for  example,  wa»  due  to 
Spenur,  The  first  Low  German  Bible,  by  J.  Hoddcnwn, 
wa«  printed  by  L.  Dieti  at  Ldbeck  in  1533;  the  last  waa 
that  of  LUnebarjE,  1621. 

By    the    middle    of     the    nineteenth    century 
six  or  seven  dilTerent  recensions  of  Luther'fi  ver- 
sion were  in    use    in    Prot£?stant    Germany  (cf.  G. 
Monckeberg»  Tabellarische  Uebersicht  der  wichtigsten 
Varianten  der    bedeutendsten    gangbaren    Bibetaus- 
galien.   New  Testament,   Ilalle,   1865, 
4.  BeviBlonoid  Testament,  4  vols.,  1870-71).     In 
°*^  ,      1863    a    committee    Mas    luuned    by 
V  *  ion     ^^^^  Eisenach  Ctinferenco   {see  Eisen- 
ach   CoKFERENtT*:)    to    tindcrtake    a 
final  revision.     As  the  result  of  the  labors  of  this 
committee   the  revised   New  Testament  appeared 
in    1807    and    again    in    1870|    Genesis   in    1873, 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


146 


the  Psalms  in  1876,  the  whole  Bible  (the  so-called 
Probebibel)  in  1883.  At  last,  in  Jan.,  1890,  the  whole 
work  was  finished  and  the  first  impression  was  pub- 
lished at  Halle  in  1892.  The  revised  edition  was 
adopted  in  most  parts  of  Germany,  though  in 
Meddenburg  it  is  still  opposed.  A  comparison  with 
the  En^ish  revision  shows  that  the  German  was 
much  too  timid  (cf.,  on  the  one  side,  P.  de 
Lagarde,  Die  revidierte  Luiherhibel  des  Halleschen 
Waisenhauses,  G6ttingen,  1885,  also  in  MiUheil- 
ungen,  iii;  on  the  other,  E.  V.  Kohlschtttter,  Die 
Revision  der  Lutherachen  Bibeliiberaetzungf  1887, 
and  A.  Kamphausen,  Die  berichtigte  LiUherbibel, 
Berlin.  1894;  also  TJB,  1886,  where  twelve 
pamphlets  for  and  against  the  revision  are  named; 
O.  H.  T.  Willkomm,  Was  verliert  unser  Volk  durch 
die  Bibelrevision  f    Zwickau,  1901). 

Luther's  work  was  criticised  early,  especially  by  his 
Roman  Catholic  opponents — e.g.,  by  Ilieronymus  Emser, 
to  whom  Urbanus  Rhegius  replied  in  1524  (see  Em- 
ber, HiERONTMUs;  Rhkuius,  Urbanus;  cf.  G.  Kawerau's 
Hieronymtu  Emser,  Halle,  1898;  for  criticism  from  the 
modem  point  of  view,  cf.  P.  de  Lagarde,  Die  refidierU 
Luiherhibel,  ut  sup.).  The  Wittenberg  edition  of  1572  in- 
troduced the  summaries  of  Veit  Dietrich.  A.  Calovius 
added  in  1661  a  "  Biblical  Calendar  "  by  which  it  was  pos- 
sible to  read  the  Psalraa  four  times  every  year.  Proverbs 
twice,  and  the  rest  of  the  Bible  with  Luther's  prefaces  once. 
The  Wittenberg  faculty  added  a  new  preface  in  1669.  The 
verse  of  the  *'  three  witnewses  "  (I  John  v,  7)  was  first  in- 
troduced into  a  Frankfort  edition  of  1575,  into  a  Witten- 
berg impression  in  1596.  Dietrich's  summaries  were 
replaced  by  those  of  I.<eonliard  Hutter  in  1624;  in  this  edi- 
tion a  Roman  Catholic  compositor  changed  "  everlasting 
gospel  "  in  Rev.  xiv,  6,  to  "  new  gospel,"  the  verse  being 
often  applied  to  Luther,  and  subsequent  eilitions  were 
printed  from  the  sheet  as  copy.  Several  e<iitions  gave 
great  offense  because  of  changes  in  the  text  or  additions 
— e.g.,  an  edition  by  N.  Funk  (Altona.  1815)  was  asserted 
to  teach  a  "  now  faith  '*  because  of  changes  in  the  indexes 
and  notes.  The  Bible  Inntitute  founded  at  Hallo  by  Karl 
Hildebrand,  Baron  Canstein  (q.v.)  came  to  have  great  in- 
fluence; after  1717  standing  type  or  stereotyped  plates 
were  used  and  millions  of  copies  of  the  Halle  text  were  cir- 
culated (see  Bible  Socii-rriEft,  II,  1). 

The  Anabaptists  Hans  Denk  and  Ludwig  H&tzer  (qq.v.) 

translated  the  Prophets  before  the  completion  of  Luther's 

version  (published  by  Peter  Schoffer,  Worms,  1527;  many 

later    editions);  their    work    was    used    by 

6.  Other     other  translators  and  has  been  praised  for 

Versions,  scholarship  and  style  (cf.  J.  J.  I.  D(')IIinger, 
Die  Reformation,  i,  Rogensburg,  1846,  199; 
Heberle,  in  TSK,  xxviii,  1855,  832;  L.  Keller,  Ein  ApoMtel 
der  Wiedertaufer,  I^eipsic,  1882,  210  sqq.).  The  preachers 
of  Zurich  published  a  complete  Bible  in  six  parts  (1525- 
1529).  using  Luther's  work  so  far  as  available  and  adding 
the  Prophets  (part  iv) .  themselves  and  the  Apocrypha 
(part  V,  including  III  and  IV  Esdras  and  III  Maccabees 
but  not  the  Prayer  of  Azariah,  the  8ong  of  the  Three  Chil- 
dren, the  Prayer  of  Manasscs,  or  the  Additions  to  Esther) 
by  Leo  Jud  (q.v.).  The  complete  Bible  was  printed  in 
1530,  without  prefaces  and  gloK«es,  the  Apocrypha  at  the 
en<l.  The  edition  of  1531  (2  vols.)  has  a  short  admonition 
and  introduction  for  "  the  Christian  reader  of  these  Bib- 
lical Books  "  probably  by  Zwingli;  also  summaries,  paral- 
lel references,  woodcuts,  and  a  new  translation  of  the  poet- 
ical books.  The  edition  of  1548  (2  vols.)  professes  to  have 
been  compared  word  for  word  with  the  Hebrew,  but  really 
does  not  differ  from  editions  of  1542  and  1545;  it  became 
the  basis  of  later  editions.  The  verse  division  was  first 
introduced  in  1589.  A  revision  of  the  Zurich  New  Testa- 
ment was  undertaken  by  J.  J.  Breitiuger  in  1629,  by 
a  ceUegium  biblicum  in  1817,  1860,  1868,  and  1882,  and 
a  new  revision  of  the  New  Testament  and  Psalms  appeared 
in  1893  (cf.  E.  Riggenbach,  Die  echtpeizerische  rei^uiierte 
Ueberaetgung  dea  Neuen  Teatamenta  und  der  PacUmen,  Basel, 
1895). 

Besides  the  Zurich  Bible  three  other  "  composite " 
Bibles  (i.e.,  Luther's  translation  so  far  as  it  had  appeared 


with  the  missing  parts  supplied  from  other  traoslatioiu) 
were  published  before  1534:  (1)  WonnB.  Peter  Schfiffer. 
1529,  the  so-called  "  Baptist  "  Bible,  having  H&tier  snd 
Denk's  version  of  the  Prophets;  it  was  the  first  Protertaat 
Bible  to  use  the  word  Biblia  in  the  title,  retained  in  Lather'i 
Bible  till  the  eighteenth  century;  (2)  Btrasburg,  Wdff 
Kdpphl,  1530,  Prophets  by  H&tser  and  Denk,  Apoerypbs 
by  Jud;  (3)  Frankfort,  O.  Egenolph.  1534,  in  whidioo^a 
4>art  of  the  Apocrypha  was  not  Luther'a.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Laodiceans  was  included  in  these  editions. 

About  one  hundred  years  after  Luther  new  veisious  !»• 
gan  to  appear.  The  first  complete  Bible  waa  that  of  J. 
Piscator  (Herbom,  1602),  called  the  "  Straf  mich  Ciott" 
Bible  because  the  translator  added  in  smaller  type  to  Mark 
viii,  12,  Wann  diaem  oeachlecht  ein  taidten  teirdt  0fO*b« 
werden,  so  atraffe  mich  Gott  ("If  a  sign  be  given  to  thii 
generation,  so  strike  me  Ckxi ;  "  cf.  R.  Steck,  Die  /Haca- 
torbibel,  Bern,  1897).  The  Berleburg  Bible  (8  vob..  1726- 
1742)  and  the  Wertheim  Bible  (1735)  were  prepared  inUa 
interest  of  mysticism  and  rationalism  respectively  (are 
Bibles,  Annotated,  and  Bible  Summaries.  I,  f  i  3,  4). 
Later  versions  are  by  J.  D.  Michaelis  (O.  T..  13  vols.,  GM- 
tingen,  1769  sqq.;  N.  T.,  2  vols.,  1790);  J.  H.  D.  MoliieB- 
hauer  (O.  T.,  10  vols.,  Quedlinburg,  1774  sqq.;  N.  T.,  2 
vols.,  1787-88);  Simon  Gryn«us  (5  vols.,  Baqel,  177ft-77: 
a  paraphrase  in  modem  style,  the  historical  books  of  tk 
O.  T.  abridged,  the  Gospels  harmonised);  and  G.  F.  Grio- 
inger  (Stuttgart,  1824).  Better  than  these  is  the  Tsraioo 
of  W.  L.  M.  de  Wette  and  J.  C.  W.  Augusti  (6  vols..  Hei- 
delberg, 1809-14;  later  editions  by  De  Wette  alone).  Bim- 
sen's  annotated  Bible  (9  vols..  Leipsic,  1858-70)  has  t 
translation  of  the  Hagiographa  by  A.  Kamphausen,  of  the 
Apocrypha  emd  N.  T.  by  H.  J.  Holtimann,  other  portiom 
by  Bunscn. 

Translations  of  the  New  Testament  alone  indode:  J. 
Crell,  J.  Stegman  the  elder,  and  others,  the  Sodnian  N.  T. 
(Rakow,  1630);  J.  Felbinger.  also  a  Sodnian  (Amsterdsm, 
1660);  J.  H.  Reits,  Reformed  (Offenbach.  1703);  C.  E. 
Triller  (Amsterdam.  1703);  Count  Zinaendorf  (Ebersdorf, 
1727);  Timotheus  Philadelphus  (i.e.,  J.  Kayser,  a  Stutt- 
gart physidan,  1733);  C.  A.  Heumann  (Hanover,  1748);  J.  A. 
Bengel  (Stuttgart,  1753);  C.  T.  Damm  (3  vols.,  Berlin, 
1765);  C.  F.  Bahrdt  ("  the  latest  revelations  of  God."  4 
vols.,  Riga,  1773-74);  J.  C.  F.  Schuls  (vol.  i.  the  Gospel*, 
1774);  P.  M.  Hahn  (Winterthur,  1777);  G.  W.  RuUmann 
(3  vols.,  Lemgo.  1790-91);  J.  A.  Bolten  (8  vols..  Altona, 
1792-1806);  J.  O.  Theiss,  Gospels  and  Acts  (4  vob.,  Ham- 
burg, 1794-1800);  J.  J.  Stoli  (2  vols.,  Zurich,  1795;  a  sec- 
ond ed.  of  a  version  by  Stole,  J.  L.  Viigeli,  and  C.  H&feli, 
2  vols..  1781-82);  G.  F.  Seiler  (2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1806): 
J.  C.  R.  Eckermann  (3  vols.,  Kiel,  1806-08);  J.  W.  F. 
Hetzel  (Dorpat,  1809);  C.  F.  Preiss  (2  vols.,  Stettin,  1811); 
L.  Schuhkrafft  (Stuttgart);  J.  Gossner  (Munich,  1815); 
H.  A.  W.  Meyer  (Gdttingen,  1829);  E.  G.  A.  Bockd  (Al- 
tona, 1832);  J.  K.  W.  Alt  (4  parts,  Ixsipsic,  1837-39): 
K.  von  der  Heydt  (Elberfeld,  1852;  used  by  the  Plymouth 
Brethren);  F.  Rengsdorf  (Hamburg.  1860);  O.  Weiss&cker 
(Tubingen,  1875;  9th  ed.,'1900);  C.  Reinhardt  (I^hr,  1878); 
£.  Zittel  (3  vols.,  Carlsruhe,  1880-85);  C.  Stage  (Redam, 
I/cipsic,  1896;  '*  in  present-day  speech  ");  H.  Wiese  (Ber- 
Un,  1905). 

Roman  Catholic  versions  have  been  numerous.  Hiero- 
nymus  Emscr's  New  Testament  (Dresden,  1527;  see  Em- 
BKR,  Hikronymdb)  wbs  merely  a  slight  revision  of  Luther 
after  the  Vulgate.  J.  Dietenberger,  a  Dominican,  pub- 
lished the  entire  Bible  at  Mains  in  1534  (cf.  F.  Schneider, 
Juhann  Dietenberger^ a  Bibeldruek,  Mains.  1901).  In  the 
New  Testament  he  followed  Emser  chiefly,  in  the  Apocry- 
pha JjCO  Jud.  in  the  Old  Testament  he  took  much  from 
Luther.  C.  Ulenberg  revised  this  version  in  1630.  and  the 
cler(;y  of  Mains  in  1662;  thenceforth  it  was  commonly 
called  tlie  "  Catholic  "  Bible.  Later  Roman  Catholic  ver- 
sions are:  T.  A.  Erhard  (2  vols.,  Augsburg,  1722);  the 
Benedictines  of  the  cloister  of  Ettenheimmilnster  «3on- 
staucc,  1751);  I.  Weitenauer  (14  vols.,  Augsburg,  1777-81); 
F.  Rosalino  (3  vols..  Vienna,  1781);  K.  H.  Seibt  (Prague, 
1781):  H.  Braun  (13  vols.,  Augsburg.  1788-1805;  worked 
over  by  J.  F.  Allioli,  6  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1830-32);  D.  von 
Brentano,  T.  A.  Derescr,  and  J.  M.  A.  Schola  (N.  T.  by 
Brfntaiio,  3  vols.,  Kempten,  1790-91;  revised  and  O.  T. 
adde<l  by  Dereser  and  Scholx,  15  vols.,  Frankfort,  1797- 
18.33);  K.  and  L.  van  Eas  (3  vols.,  Sulsbach,  1807-22);  H. 
J.  Jack  lI^ip.^ic.  1847).  Translations  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment alone  arc*:  C.  Fischer  (Prague,  1784);  B.  B.  M.  Schnap- 
pinger    (3    vols.,    Mannheim,    1787-99);  8.    MutacheUe   (2 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Terslcms 


toli,  Mimicb.  I7m-90y.  B.  Wfyl  (Main*.  1780);  J.  G. 
Hnth  (2  vol«,.  Frwbunr*  1790);  (*.  S<ihw!irttpl  (fl  voh., 
IHui.  1&02-O51;  M.  WUtuiJinn  (Hcnenftburj?.  1809);  i,  M. 
thller  (Cirat,  IS22>:  J.  H.  Kistc maker  (Mtjiiifb,  1825; 
ttrrtilftterj  hy  ilie  Brili»h  and  Fori'iun  BibU'  Socipty,  which 
B0«r  *i*o  circufjitc*  Allioli'a  translnrion);  B.  Wcinhart 
(Fraiburr.  1000>;  A.  Amdl.  S,  j;  (Heseoaburg.  1003);  B. 
GraicU  I  Augsbure,  1903). 

FinaUy,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  scholarly 
tnUttlatioQ  of  the  canonical  Old  Testament,  edited 
by  K  Kautzsch  in  collabomt  ion  with  F.  Baethgen, 
H.  Gutbe,  A.  Ivamphausen,  R.  Kitte!,  K.  Marti, 
W.  Rothstein,  R,  Rufitschi,  V.  Ry^sel,  K.  Siegfried, 
ind  A.  fkmn  (Frt?ihurg,  1804;  2d  ed.,  1896).  In 
iki  mjpplementary  translation  of  the  Apocrypha 
ijid  Pseudepigrapha  Prof,  Kaiitzseh  had  the 
iMJstAnce  of  G.  Beer,  F.  Blass,  C.  Clemen,  A.  Deiiss- 
moa,  C.  Fuchs»  H,  Gunkel,  H.  GutlH\  A.  Kamp- 
haatea,  R.  Kittel,  E.  Littmann,  M.  L6hr,  \\.  Roth- 
gUdn,  V,  Ryssel,  F.  Schnapp,  K.  Siegfried,  and 
P,  Weadland.  Since  1899  cheap  editions  called 
TaAikl,  both  with  and  without  Weizsiicker^s  New 
TeatatneDt,  have  been  circulated. 
German  ldraelite<s  have  translations  of  the  Old 
Di  prepared  under  the  direction  of  L,  Zunz 

jlS37)andby  S,   Bernfi4d   (Berlin,    1D02). 

'•re   aliio    versions    in    the    Jewish-German 
fifidiBh).  E.  Nestlk. 

Antr:  The   ooe   work   on   e&rly   Gertn&n   tr&tipl&- 

I  tiofti  tt  W.   Wftlthcr,    Dii  deui»rhs    BihtluhtraeUuno   des 

'  M^Udaikn,  3  voh,.  Bnioswick,  ISS^-dl;   cf.  Bible  of  ail 

U^  Pp.  178-187,  LoiuloQ,  1861,  and  DB.  extra  yoI., 

pp.  411-414. 

Theiubject  of  tb«  printed  G«nnaii  Bible  before  Lutker 

hm  b«»a  much  elucidated  by  W.  Kunnchneyer  ot  Balti- 

fuoit^  «t>o  h«J9  prepared  an  edition  from  a  coUatiou  of 

«U imppMncma  and  manaiicrtptB;  vols,  i  and  it,  the  N,  T., 

^n  littady  appeared  an  Dotr.  234  and  238  of  (lie  Bihli- 

HUtwij»ehen    Vereirut    in    StuUifari,  Tdhinnen, 

1*04  uul  l^OS;  vol*,  iii-iv  of  the  O.  T..  no*.  243.  246.  ih. 

^  1W7.   F.  Jostei  « Roman  Catholic)  has  long  had  a  history 

pvpantjno,     Coneultr    L.     Hain,     Reperturium    bihli- 

^*  vol,  !.  FariR.   1820;  L.  Keller.  Die  Reforma- 

.     Imddie  alterrn  ftrfprmparieien,  Leipsic,   1885;  idem, 

**w  WddenMer   und  di*  deutschen   Bibthlbertettungen,    v, 

1^.  ib    IB80;  F.   Jmt«.    Z?*«    WaUefwr  und  di>  vorhi- 

f^^ritshtn  dmtUchen    Bih^UherteUunoen,    p,    44.    Miinj^tcf, 

^^  idMn,  Di0  TrpUr  BibelUberttsung,   Manster,    1884^; 

•4na,  ••  ^    Watdfn^^bibeln  *'    und  ,  .  .  JoKannet   Hel- 

«<  \m  BhOffrw^B   Jahrbuch.    %y    (1894),    77    sqq.;   H. 

'iwipt.    Di$    dmulath*    Bihrluhtr^ttung    drr    miUelalterli- 

«*«»  WMmmr  .   ,   .  .    WUnburif,    1885;  idem,    in   Cm- 

r  JJiM  /ftr  BiUi0th€kmim»en,    18S5,   pp,   287-290;  idera, 

L^  i»irff»wi*f^    Urtprung   <fef    Codex    TepientiB  .  .   .   , 

"ftiil  M.  Rachel.  Die  Freiltertfrr  Bihtiiiberttets- 

1  '\    8,  B«rc«»r,  La  Quention  dn  ccn/fj  Tep- 

\*^\  K,  Ikhetllfcora.   Uihtr  da»  Vwrhdltnit   der    Frtiherger 

ty^t  £tn  aii0»b£acA«r  BibeltibtrtUer  de»  MitUlalUrn,  in 
^«i»  *»F«Wr c*#  ZtitMckrifU  viii,  3  (1896),  194-207;  Schaff, 

iC^iirc^,  Ti,  351  •qq. 
^0«l  Lather*!  Bible  conaull:  J.  G.  Palra,  HUtaritf  der 
j^iMM  BiMidtertiMuno  Dr.  M.  Lutheri,  t6t7-SA,  ed, 
^*  M.  QAm.  Halle,  1772;  G.  W.  Pani«r.  Enimai  einer 
y'^l^HltJi  (TcaeftkAto  d«r  d«ut«cAtfn  BibtlUbertftxunff  M. 
^^  UnSl,  Nuremberg.  1791;  J.  Janasen-Pastor, 
55*i«*«i  dm  d9uUch4n  Volken,  vii.  631-575,  FreibuTK, 
*•«;  Befaaff.  Chriatian  CAuwA.  vi,  340-368;  Mueller. 
^^HUfiwi  CJkvnA,  iii.  34-35. 

^  On  tiki  huicua<ce  of  Luther's  Bible  conautt:  II.  von 
2*«»?r.  E\^\£<rkuna  df  Chri§ientum»,  Stuttgart,  1845; 
^  P>' !  '^irr  uftd  di*  kochdeuUche  Sthrift^prache, 

^JiN,  Burdach,    Dit   Einigung  drr  tifuhoch- 

^J*-*  ratkt,  llalh,  1884;   B.  Lindmeyrr,  Der 

^^t  i^#.  Em*fr*  und  Eeks  Uehtrtttxung  det 

^^tiWpktisarr    df«    n-t.    /oArAunderlt,    Darmstadt,    1898; 


Rdhmi*,  Zur  Ge»chicht»  der  unchtinchen  Kttn£lti*prarhMt 
Rfiicbonbach*  1899;  W,  W.  Florer,  Subntantir fiexion  bH 
Martin  Lvther,  Ann  Arbor,  189i>;  H.  By  land,  Der  Wort- 
iichatt  deM  ZUricker  A,  T  '»  von  1526  und  1631  .  .  .  ,  Ber* 
Un.  1903. 

On  tr&nal&iiona  after  Luther  conflult:  J.  Meegor,  G#- 
Mchichtt  der  BibetUberaetzungen  in  der  tchuj^iseriacfi-refor- 
mierUn  Kirche.  Baael.  1876:  A.  Kappler,  Die  icAwjtfuieri- 
9che  Bibtlnbertetzung^  Zurich,  1898;  idem.  Die  neue  R«- 
viMion  dtr  ZUridier  Bibet,  in  /Veu«  Zaricher  Zeitung,  Nov. 
2  and  27.  1»04. 

On  RotnaQ  Catholic  versions  consult :  G.  W.  Panaer, 
Getchichte  der  rSmi^ch-katfuflitthen  BiM&bertetiung.  Nu- 
remberg, 1781;  J,  Janaaen- Pastor,  ut  ««p.;  G.  Keferstein, 
Der  Lautitand  in  den  BUxli^beraetMUiHfen  von  Emur  und 
Eck,  Jena,  1888. 

Yin.  Greek  Versions^  Modem :  Parts  of  the  Old 
Test  Eimc  lit  were  t  ran  slated   by  .lews  into  modem 
Greek  as  early  as  the  end   of  the   Midtllc   Ages, 
A  version  of  the  Pentateuch  made  in  1547  haa  been  ^ 
edited  by  C.   Ilesseling  (Leipsie,    1897).     On  the  | 
whole  the  Greek  Church  has  bcpn  atuxiou^  to  make  \ 
the  people  acquainted  with  the  Bible^  a  fact  evinced 
especially  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  the  efforts 
of  Damaaceniis  the  Studit^  (q.v.).     But  when,  at 
the  instance  of  Cyril  Lucar,  Maxima^  KalliupoUtea  i 
published  in  1638  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
in  the  original  Greek  with  a  modern  Greek  version, 
the  Church    as   a  ivhole  did    not  favor  it,  though 
the  patriarch  Parthenios  permitted  its  circulation. 
This  text  was  reprinted  in  London  in  1703  by  the 
monk  Seraphim,  ako  in    1710  at   Halle,  and  by 
C.   Reineccius  in  his  polyglot  Bible  of  1713  (see 
Bibles,  Polyglot,  V).     in  the  East,  Seraphim's 
edition  was  expressly  prohibited  by  the  patriarch 
Gabriel  of  Constantinople  (17tl2-b4). 

A  new  period  began  when  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  took  the  matter  in  hand.     As  early 
as  181l>  it  published  the  text  of  Maximos,  and  Eng- 
lish influence  induced  the  patriarchs  Cyril  VI  and 
Gregory  V  to  permit  its  circulation.    Other  issues 
followed    in     1814,    1819,    and    1824,      The   defi- 
ciencies of  the  old  text  having  been  long  known,  it 
was  dtKuded  t«  bring  out  a  new  trafmlrition,  which] 
should  approach  more  nearly  the  ancient  Greek. 
For  th!3  work  the  monk  Hilarion  wa^  employed 
under  the  direction  of  the  learned  Archbishop  Con- 
stantiua  of  Sinai,  afterward  patriarch.     But  when, 
in  consequence  of  a  controversy  over  the  Apocrypha 
(1825-27),   the  eoeicty  introiluced   bibles  without 
the  Apocrypha,  the  Greek  Church  would  not  cir- 
culate them.     Moreover,  after  the  war  of  liberation  | 
the  desire  to  be  entirely  independent  of  Occidental 
aid  greatly  increased  and  orthodox  reaction  set  in 
anew.     The    version    of    suieh    learned    Greeks 
Typaldos,    Bambas,    and    others    found    no   morel 
favorable    reception.     This    disposition    has    con-^ 
tinned.     The  latest  version  of  the  New  Testament 
by  A.  Pallis  (Liverpool,  1U02),  written  in  common 
Grtjek,    has    not    been    approved.     The    patriarch  I 
Joachim  III  has  renewed  the  prohibition  of  Bible' 
translation,  Phiupp  Meyer. 

BiDLiooaAPST^  Koral»,  in  AtakUi,  vol.  iii  (18vK»;  J.  Wenger, 
Beitrdgt  tur  Kenntnie  der  grxechiechen  Kirche,  Berlin,  1839; 
BitAe  of  Every  Land,  pp.  241-244,  London,  1801;  E.  Lo- 
Crand,  Biblii>grapMe  HeU/hiiijut,  S  vols,,  Parijt,  1 885-1908  ^ 
(for    15lh  and   16th  centuriea);   idem,   Biblioffraphi^  Hm 
Ihxiqiie,  5  vols.,  ib.  1804-1903  (for  the  17th  century);  A.  D,.J 
Kynako^,  Oeschichte  drrorientaiiechen  Kirchen^  1463-2889^^ 
Leip^ic,  1002;  Bible  Socisiy  Reporter,  Jan.  and  May,  IBOflS  J 
DB.  extra  vol,  p.  420. 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


148 


IX.  Hebrew  Translations  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment: The  anciently  attested  Hebrew  original  of 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew  and  the  Gospel  according  to 
the  Hebrews  are  not  to  be  included  in  this  treat- 
ment (see  Matthew,  II;  Apocrypha,  B,  I,  19). 
Of  existing  Hebrew  versions  of  the  New  Testament, 
the  more  important  are  the  following: 

1.  Versions  by  Jews:  (1)  The  Evangelium  Mat- 
then  in  lingua  Hebraica  cum  versione  Latina,  by 
Sebastian  Mttnster,  appeared  at  Basel,  1537  (2d  ed., 
Paris,  1541;  3d  ed.,  with  Hebrews  in  Hebrew  and 
Latin,  Basel,  1557).  (2)  The  Evangelium  hebraica 
Matthan.  recens  e  Judceorum  peneiralibus  erutumf 
with  Latin  translation,  edited  by  Jean  du  Tillet 
and  Jean  Mercier  (Paris,  1555)  is  part  of  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Gospels  by  Schemtob  Schaprut  (1385), 
which  may  be  preserved  in  a  Vatican  manuscript.  (3) 
A  complete  translation  of  the  New  Testament  was 
made  by  Ezekiel  Rachbi  (d.  1772),  and  an  assist- 
ant from  Germany. 

2.  Versions  by  Christians:  (I)  Elias  Hutter 
made  a  Hebrew  translation  of  the  complete  New 
Testament  for  his  polyglot  editions  (Nuremberg, 
1599,  1602;  see  Bibles,  Polyglot,  V);  a  better 
edition  of  this  version  was  issued  by  B.  Robertson 
(London,  1661),  and  the  first  part  of  the  same  by 
R.  Caddick  (London,  1798).  (2)  Johannes  Baptista 
Jona  translated  the  four  Gospels  (Rome,  1668). 
(3)  A  translation  of  Matthew  by  Johannes  Kemper 
(d.  1714),  with  Latin  rendering  by  A.  Borelius, 
is  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Upsala.  (4)  The  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, translated  by  F.  A.  Christiani,  appeared  in 
Leipsic,  1676,  and  Luke  i,  1-xxii,  14,  by  I.  From- 
man  at  Halle,  1735.  (5)  The  translation  of  the 
whole  New  Testament  prepared  for  the  London 
Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews 
appeared  in  1821,  and  in  revised  form  in  1840  and 
1866.  (6)  The  edition  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  begun  in  1864,  was  made  by  Franz 
Delitzsch  (Loipsic,  1877;  stereotyped  ed..  1881; 
revised  ed.,  1885;  again  revised  by  Delitzsch  and 
edited  by  G.  Dalman,  1892).  (7)  The  translation 
of  the  Trinitarian  Bible  Society,  begun  by  Isaac 
Salkinson  and  completed  by  C.  Ginsburg,  was 
issued  in  London,   1885.  (G.  Dalman.) 

Biblxoobapht:  On  1:  A.  Herbst,  Die  von  Sebastian  MUn- 
Bier  .  .  .  VhertUunotn  dee  Evangeliuma  McMhAi,  G6t- 
tinffen.  1879;  F.  DelitMoh.  Brief  an  die  R6mer,  pp.  22. 
106.  103-100.  Leipsic.  1870;  8.  Sche«hter.  in  JQR,  vi. 
144-145.  On  2:  F.  Delitisoh.  ut  sup.,  pp.  21-38;  Theo- 
looiechee  LiteraturblaU,  1889-1800;  G.  Dalman,  in  He- 
braica, ix.  22&-231  and  Theohgiaehee  lAteraiwrblatt,  1801. 
pp.  289  sqq.;  J.  Dunlop,  Memoriee  of  Ooepel  TriutnpKe, 
pp.  378-386.  London.  1894. 

X.  Hungarian   (Magyar)    Versions:    Jdnos   Er- 
dOsi  (or  Sylvester;    b.  1504;    died  c.  1560)  made 
the  first  Hungarian  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament.     After    studying   in    Cracow    and    Wit- 
tenberg   (1526-29),    he    returned    to 

^i^^t  ^  native  land  and  worked  at  Sdrvdr 
Versions,  under  the  patronage  of  the  magnate 
T.  Nddasdi,  who  erected  the  first 
Hungarian  printing-press  in  Uj-Sziget  (Neanesis). 
There  Erd6ii's  translation  was  printed  in  1541. 
Erddsl  was  afterward  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
Vienna  (1542-52);    driven  out  by  the  Jesuits,  he 


went  to  Debreczin  and,  in  1557,  to  Ldcse  (Leut- 
schau)  as  teacher  and  preacher.  A  little  later,  G. 
Heltai,  pastor  at  Kolosvdr  (Klausenburg),  and  his 
three  colleagues  translated  the  New  Testament, 
with  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament  (Kolosv<r, 
1 552-6 1 ).  P^ter  Juhisz  (Melius),  pastor  and  8upe^ 
intendent  at  Debreczin  (1558-72),  rendered  into 
Hungarian  the  books  of  Job  and  King?  (D^recan, 
1565),  and  the  New  Testament  (Szegedin,  1567); 
of  the  latter  work  no  copy  is  known.  T.  F^ 
gyhdzi,  professor  and  pastor  at  Debrecziii,  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  at  Deb- 
reczin in  1586.  Caspar  K4roli  (d.  1591),  a  pupil  of 
Melanchthon,  pastor  at  G6nc  (not  far  from  Kassa), 
translated  the  entire  Bible  with  the  Apocrypha  and 
published  it  at  Visoly,  1590.  This  is  styled  the 
Visoly  Bible,  and  it  has  remained  in  use  to  the 
present.  It  has  passed  through  many  editions 
with  some  slight  corrections. 

During  the  religious  wars  (1604-45)  against  the 
Austrian  monarchs  the  Hungarian  nation  heroically 
fought  for  political  and  religious  liberty;    to  the 
great  Protestant  princes  of  Transylvania,  Bocskai, 
Bethlen,   and  George    (GyOrgy)  Ri- 
8.  The      k6czi  the  Protestant  Church  is  much 
Kom^Cromi  indebted,  for  without  them  it  would 
Bible.      have  suffered  the  fate  of  the  Bohe- 
mian   Church.    The    victorious   lU- 
k6czi  family  caused  10,000  copies  of  the  Bible  to  be 
published  at  Virad  in  1657.     The  years  1660  to 
1781  were  a  dark  period  for  Hungarian  Protestants, 
during   which    the    Austrian   government,   under 
Jesuitical   influences,   took  control   of  the  entire 
kingdom,  and  the  freedom  gained  in  the  Refo^ 
mation  was  lost.    The  crisis  came  in  1671-81,  the 
so-called   "  decade  of  mourning."    This  grievous 
situation  explains  the  fact  that  Hungarian  bibles 
had    to    be    printed    in    foreign    countries.    The 
learned   Reformed   pastor   of   Debreczin,   Gy6rgy 
Csipk^s  Komdromi,  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar, 
in  order  to  meet  the  common  wish  and  to  make  the 
Bible  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  language, 
made  a  new  translation  which  was  approved  by  the 
synods  in  1681.     The  city  of  Debreczin  at  enormous 
cost  had  an  edition  of  4,000  copies  printed  at  Ley- 
den  in  1718.     When  the  edition  reached  the  frontier 
it  was  seized  by  the  Jesuits  (who  had  secured  from 
the  king  an  order  to  that  effect)  and  carried  to  their 
house  at  Kassa.     The  agitated  citizens  and  council 
of  Debreczin  used  all  means  available  to  recover 
the  books  and  at  length  secured  a  royal  edict  from 
King  Charles  III  (June  29,  1723)  granting  them  a 
free  Bible  (P.  Bod,  Hiataria  Hungarorum  eccUsi- 
astica,  iii,  89).     So  great  was  the  power  of  the 
Jesuits,  however,  that  they  frustrated  the  royal 
edict,  and  the  bishop  of  Eger,  Count  F.  Bark6czy, 
carried   the  Komdromi  bibles  to  his  palace  and 
threw  them  all  into  damp  cellars,  where  they  re- 
mained till  1754,  when  on  Nov.  1  he  burned  them 
in  the  court  of  his  palace  before  a  large  gathering 
(cf.  The  Bible  Society  Monthly  Reporter,  Mar.,  1904, 
p.  69).     A  few  copies  retained  in  Varsd,  hidden  in 
the  Prussian  ambassador's  house,  were  brought  to 
Debreczin  in  1789. 

The  Roman  Catholics,  on  their  part,  had  the 
Bible  translated  by  a  Jesuit  scholar  Gydrgy  K^di, 


149 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


and  this  translatioii  appeared  at  Vienna,  1626  (see 
KAI4D1,  Gt6rgt).  In  the  nineteenth  century 
Baron  A.  Bartakovics,  archbishop  of  Eger,  ordered 
a  new  translation,  which  was  made  by  his  secretary, 
the  learned  TdrkiUiyi  (d.  1886);  this  "  Eger  Bible  " 
was  published  at  the  cost  of  the  archbishop  in  1862, 
and  again  in  1892. 

Samuel  KAmori,  professor  in  the  Lutheran  theo- 
logical academy  at  Pozsony  (Pressburg),  attempted 
a  new  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  with  the 
Apocrypha  (Budapest,  1870).  Because  of  the 
translator's  modem  style  and  his 
8.  Xodem  inadequate  knowledge  of  the  Magyar 
Versions,  tongue,  notwithstanding  its  fidelity  to 
the  original,  this  version  can  not  be 
used  by  the  people.  A  revision  of  the  old  Kdroli 
text  was  proposed  as  early  as  1840,  and  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  assumed  the  task.  The 
first  revision  of  the  New  Testament  was  accom- 
plished by  J.  Menyh^rt,  professor  of  exegesis  in 
Debreczin  College,  and  by  W.  Gy6ri,  Lutheran 
pastor  of  Budapest.  It  was  issued  at  Budapest  in 
1878  and,  being  sharply  criticized,  did  not  gain 
acceptance.  The  work  of  revision  began  more 
seriously  in  1886,  when  T.  Duka,  a  native  of  Hun- 
gary and  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the  Bible 
society  in  London,  secured  the  aid  of  that  great 
organization.  Competent  men  were  chosen  from 
among  the  professors  and  pastors  of  both  Churches. 
After  many  years'  labor,  the  revised  Old  Testament 
left  the  press  at  Budapest  in  1898.  This  noble 
work  needs  further  revision,  and  the  Hungarian 
Church  awaits  the  moment  when  the  second  revision, 
soon  to  appear,  will  be  ready.  Work  on  the  revi- 
sion of  the  New  Testament  is  progressing. 

After  the  great  revolution  of  1848  and  between 
1851  and  1861,  the  constitution  of  Hungary  was 
suspended  by  the  Austrian  government  and  the 
circulation  of  the  Bible  was  prohibited.  The  Bible 
depot,  the  property  of  the  British  Society,  was 
ordered  to  be  removed,  and  was  located  at  Berlin; 
since  the  coronation  of  Francis  Joseph  I  all 
hindrances  have  been  removed,  and  under  the 
Hungarian  state  government  circulation  of  the 
Bible  is  free.  F.  Balogh. 

Bibuoosapht:  Bible  of  Every  Land,  pp.  325-327,  London, 
1861;  F.  Veneghi,  DieeerttUio  de  veraume  Hunoarica  acrip- 
tura  eaercB,  Budapest.  1822;  T.  Duka,  in  Bible  Society'e 
MonOdy,  London.  1892;  KL,  n,  770-771;  Hauck-Hersog. 
JUS,  pp.  115-118  (gives  the  literature  in  Hungarian); 
BD,  extra  toI.,  p.  417. 

XI.  Italian  VersionB:  Legend  has  it  that  Jacob 
of  Varazie  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Genoa,  made  an 
Italian  translation  of  the  Bible.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  one  was  prepared  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  earliest  printed  Italian 
Bible  is  that  of  Nicold  di  Malherbi,  an  abbot  of 
the  Csmaldolites,  based  on  the  Vulgate  and 
published  Venice,  1471.  In  1530  Antonio  Bruc- 
doli  published  at  Venice  his  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  and  in  1532  the  entire  Bible.  In  the 
same  year  the  New  Testament  by  the  Dominican 
Zaccaria  was  published  at  Venice,  and  in  1551  that 
of  Domenico  Gi^io.  After  this  time  Geneva  be- 
came the  home  of  the  Italian  Bible.  A  congre- 
gation of  refugees  settled  there  about  the  middle 


of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  for  their  benefit 
Massimo  Teofilo,  a  former  Benedictine  of  Florence, 
translated  the  New  Testament  from  the  Greek 
(Lyons,  1551).  For  the  Old  Testament  Bruccioli's 
version  was  revised  and  thus  in  1562  the  first 
Protestant  Bible  in  the  Italian  language  appeared 
(at  Geneva).  It  was  entirely  superseded  in  1607 
by  the  translation  of  G.  Diodati  (q.v.)  of  Lucca. 
This  version,  made  directly  from  the  original  texts, 
stands  in  high  esteem  for  fidelity  and  has  been 
repeatedly  reprinted  by  different  Bible  societies. 
A  version  affecting  great  elegance,  but  by  no 
means  as  faithful  because  made  from  the  Vulgate, 
is  that  of  Antonio  Martini,  archbishop  of  Florence 
(Turin,  1776).  This  version  has  also  been  repeat- 
edly reprinted  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  in  1889  sqq.  an  illustrated  edition  was 
published  by  the  Catholic  publisher  Sonzogno  at 
Milan.  [A  version  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  in  mod- 
em Italian  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  St. 
Jerome  Society  of  Rome  by  Giuseppe  Clementi,  a 
secular  priest  and  professor  of  Italian  literature, 
with  brief  notes  by  Giovanni  Genocchi  of  the  Mis- 
sion of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  preface  by  Giovanni 
Semeria  of  the  Order  of  St.  Paul  (Bamabites),  was 
printed  at  the  Vatican  Press  with  the  approbation 
of  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  1902.  The  work  was  well 
received  by  the  public  and  by  scholars,  and  was 
approved  and  circulated  by  many  dignitaries  of 
the  Roman  Church,  although  some  feared  its  influ- 
ence. The  completion  of  the  New  Testament  and 
translation  of  the  Old,  which  was  contemplated  by 
the  Society,  has  been  postponed,  as  it  seemed  inad- 
visable to  Pope  Pius  X  to  give  the  Italian  people 
the  epistles  of  St.  Paul  at  the  present  time.  The 
volume  published  is  sold  at  a  nominal  price,  and 
about  500,000  copies,  it  is  claimed,  have  been  dis- 
tributed. See  Jerome,  Saint,  Orders  and  Socie- 
ties OF.]  (S.  BERGERf.) 

Bxbuoobapht:  S.  Berger,  La  Bible  Italienne  au  moyen  dge, 
in  Romania,  xxiii  (1894),  358  sqq.  (contains  bibliog" 
raphy  and  list  of  MSS.):  Bible  of  Every  Land,  pp.  277- 
279.  London.  1861;  J.  D.  Hales.  The  Bible  or  the  Bible 
Society  t  The  Corruption  of  Qod'e  Word  in  the  Italian 
Vereion  of  Martini,  London.  1861;  J.  Carini  Le  Vereione 
della  Biblia  in  volQori  iUdiano,  S.  Pier  d' Arena,  1894; 
8.  Minocd,  Vereione  Italiennee  de  la  Bible,  in  Visouroux« 
DicHonnaire  de  la  Bible;  KL,  ii,  741-742;  DB,  extra  vol., 
406-408. 

Xn.  Lithuanian  and  Lettish  Versions:  A  fore- 
runner of  the  Bible  translation  for  Protestant 
Lithuanians  was  the  rendering  of  the  Scripture 
lessons  from  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  by  B.  Willent 
(K5nigsberg,  1579)  from  Luther's  text  (edited  by 
E.  Bechtel,  in  Bezzenberger's  Litauische  und  lettische 
Drucke  des  16,  Jahrhunderts,  part  3,  G5ttingen, 
1882).  The  first  translator  of  the  Bible  in  a  fuller 
sense  was  Jan  Bretkun  (Bretkunas),  minister  at 
Labiau  and  KSnigsberg  (d.  1602  or  1603).  He 
translated  the  whole  Bible,  1579-90.  The  manu- 
script, preserved  in  the  university  library  at 
K5nigsberg,  is  described  by  A.  Bezzenberger, 
Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  lUauischen  Sprache 
(G6ttmgen,  1877),  pp.  vi-vii.  Only  the  Psalms 
were  published  (Kdnigsberg,  1625)  and  the  editor, 
J.  Rhesa,  introduced  many  chang-js. 

The  Reformed  Lithuanians,  anxious  for  a  Bible, 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


160 


in  1657  <:oinmiisioned  Sajnuel  Bogualaw  Chyliiuski 
to  go  to  England  and  have  the  Bible  prints  tliere 
(cf.  H.  Reinhold,  in  MUtheilungen  der  liiauisck- 
lUieraruchm  Geselhc^iafi,  vol  iv,  part  2,  p.  105). 
The  Old  Testament  as  far  aa  the  Psalms  was  pre- 
Bented  to  the  synofl  at  Wilna  in  print  in  16G3,  oth(*r 
partB  in  manuflcript.  Of  this  Bible  impression 
only  three  eopiea,  all  imperfect,  are  known  to  exiit. 
ChyUnski  was  the  translator. 

The  New  Testament,  translated  by  Samuel  Byth- 
ner,  was  published  at  Ktinigsberg^  1701,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Lutherans  (new  cd.^  Berlin,  1S66), 
A  New  Testament  translated  by  different  ministera 
was  published  at  Ktinigsberg  in  1727.  The  Old 
Testament  was  prepared  in  the  same  way  and  the 
whole  Bible  was  published  at  K5nigHberg,  1735. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
need  of  a  new  edition  of  the  Bible  was  felt,  and  the 
work  was  undertaken,  with  the  help  of  the  Britbh 
and  Foreign  Bible  Boctety,  by  a  numljer  of  eler^- 
men  and  especially  by  L.  J.  Hhesa.  It  was  based 
on  Luther's  version ,  with  comparison  of  the  He- 
brew and  Greek  originals,  and  was  publiBhed  at 
Tilsit,  1824. 

For  the  Roman  Catholic  Lithuanians,  Joseph  Ar- 
nulf  Giedraitis  (Polish,  Giedrojd),  bishop  of  Samo- 
gitia,  tranjslated  the  New  Testament  from  the 
Vulgate  (Wilna,  1816), 

The  oldest  specimen  of  Lettish  printing,  the 
Enthiridion  (K^mgiiberg,  1586-87;  called  in  lat«r 
editions  Vadcmecnm  and  "  Iland-Book  "),  con* 
tains  among  other  writings  for  ecclesiastical  use 
the  Scripture  ieesona  for  Sunday r  antl  festivals  for 
the  EvangehcaJ  Letts  (in  later  editions  enlarged  by 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament),  The  first  Lettish 
Bible,  tramlated  by  E,  GlQck  and  C.  B.  WitU'n, 
was  published  at  Riga,  168S-S9.  In  1S77  A.  Bielcn- 
etc  in  published  at  Mitau  a  thoroughly  revised 
e<lition,  ^A.  Leskien.) 

BmiJoatiAFnT:  L.  J.  Rheaa,  Oetchichie  der  litauiteJien  Bibfl. 
K5m|^»bers,  18^6;  H,  Heinhnldt  Die  tagenannts  Cky- 
tintkiachf  BUtvlQhrrattiuntf^  io  MiUhfiluTi^fen  da-  litauiMfh- 
littentritthtti  fJ^tellfchcft.  val.  iv,  purt  2,  p.  105;  Napier- 
iky<  ChTOTiQloffUcher  ConMpett  d^r  frtiiufh-litierariMrfien 
GestlUchafi.  vol.  Jii.  1S31;  Bible  of  Every  I^nd,  pp.  310- 
313*  London,  1851;  Hieletistcin,  Zum  SOOiOhrigcn  Jubi- 
l&um  der  htii§chen  LiUraiur,  RyEA<  18S0.  Coiiiull  also  the 
Annual  BtparU  i^f  tlie  BFU3. 

Zm.  Persian  Versions:  Chrysoatom  mentions 
Peraianfi  aa  well  as  Syrians,  Egypt lana,  Ethiopians, 
and  other  nations  as  being  in  possession  of  the 
Gospel;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  there  was 
at  that  time  &  version  of  Scripture  in  the  Per- 
sian tongue,  since  Syrian  influence  predominated 
in  the  Persian  Empire.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
Chosroes  II  had  the  Scriptures  brought  from 
Edessa  (cf,  TLZ,  1896,  432,  and  Theodoret,  HUL 
ec€l.t  i*  5).  All  that  was  known  in  Europe  till  1700 
of  Biblical  and  other  texts  is  found  in  Laganie, 
PersUche  Studim  {Gottingen,  1884),  3-8. 

A  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  by  the  Persian 
Jew  Jacob  ben  Joseph  Tawus,  printed  in  Hebrew 
characters,  is  contained  in  a  polyglot  Pentateuch  of 
Contstantinople  (1546),  and  was  transcribed  into 
Persian  characters  with  a  Latin  translation  by  T. 
Hyde  in  voL  iv  of  Walton's  Polyglots  The  Gob- 
pdA,  trattBlated   from  the  Greek,  we^  edited  by 


Abraham  Wheelocke  and,  after  his  death,  by 
Pier^n  (London ^  1657),  and  another  tranalAtioo 
from  the  Syriac  waa  printed  in  voL  v  of  W&ltoaV 
Polyglot,  and  used  by  Tiscbendorf  after  tk 
edition  of  C.  A.  Bode  (Helmstadt,  17W-51).  In 
Paris  are  parts  of  two  different  translation  of 
the  Old  Teatament,  the  one  made  from  the  HebTew, 
the  other  from  the  Aramaic  (cf ,  Zotenberg,  Cata- 
logue dM  mantiscriU  Hebreux,  etc.,  Paris,  1866 
sqq.,  and  Lagardej  PeraT>cA<r  Siudien,  i,  G9rSiul 
ii,  and  hia  Symmiciaf  u,  G6ttingeii,  1879,  14-17). 
On  Jewish  reports  about  the  Bible  in  the  Eid> 
guage  of  Elam  and  Media  cf.  L.  Blau^  Evildtm$ 
in  die  heQige  Schrift  (Budapest,    1894),  SO-M. 

E.  NBffnx 

For  partial  tranelationa  of  the  Bible,  partku- 
lariy   of  the   Pentateuch,   the   Psalms,   Proveibii 
Eecleaiaate^,  Canticlei,  the  Minor  Prophets,  EstheTi 
Daniel,    Tobit,    Judith,    Job,    and    Lamentation^ 
preserved  in  manuscript,  cf.  JEf  iii,  190,   vii,  318- 
319,     The  oldest  fragments  of  this  character  m 
probably   those   found    in   the    Pahlavi   Skikmi- 
gUmanfg  Vijikrf  which  dates  from  the  latter  part  of 
the  ninth  pentury  (ed.  Jamasp'Asana  and  E.  W. 
West,  Bombay,  1887;  transL  by  E.  W.  West,  $B£, 
%xiv,  1!7  sqqj,     Theae  fragments  are  Gen.  i,  2-3, 
ii,  16-17,  iii,  9,  11-16,  18-19,  vi,  6;    Ex.  xx,  S; 
Dent,  xxix,  4,  xxxii,  35;    Pe,  xcv,  10;    Isa.  ixx, 
27'2S,  xliii,  1%;   Matt,  i,  20,  v,  17,  vii,  17-18,  arii, 
34,  XV,  13,  xviii,  32 j    Luke  v,  31-32,  vi,  44,  iv,  4; 
John  i,  11,  14,  viii,  23,  viii,  37-38,  42-45,  47;  sad 
Rom.    vii,    19-20.     Tliey   were    quoted   for   anti- 
Christian  polemics,  and  from  the  forma  of  the  proper 
names  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  a  SyriiC 
original,  though  traces  of  the  Targum  of  the  pseudo- 
Jonathan  (see  above,  A,  V,  5  3)  may  be  discovered 
in  the  renderings  of  Ex.  xx,  5  and  especially  of  Gen. 
iii,  14  (cf.  L.  IL  Gray,  in  Acie^  du  XI  V\  t&ngrk 
international  des  orientali^tiis,  i,  Paris,  1905, 182-186). 
Equally  interesting  are  the  fragments  of  the  New 
Testament  in  Ej^trangelo  script  but  in  an  Iranian 
dialect     (probably    Bogdhian,    thus      constituting 
almost  the  only  known  remains  of  this  dialect), 
disco vered  in  Turian,  Eastern  Turkestan,  in  1903. 
These  citations  are  Manic hean  in  origin,  and  the 
following  passages  are  thus  far  known;    Matt,  x, 
14  sqq. ;  Luke  i,  63^80;  John  xx,  19  sqq.;   Gat.  iii, 
25  iqq.,  and  a  number  of  smaller  fragments  which 
are    adaptations    and    compilationa    rather    than 
translatioaB  (cf.  F.  W.  K.  MQller,   in  appendix  to 
the    Abhandtungen  der   Berliner  Akademie^    1904, 
pp.  34-^:^7,  and  Sit^itngRberichte  der  Berliner  Aka- 
dcmiet  1907,  pp.  260-270).     Mention  may  also  be 
made  of  a  Persian  version  of  Gen,  i-vi,  6,  by  Abhi- 
chand,  a  Hindu  converted  to  a  mixture  of  Judaism 
and  Mohammedanism  by  the  Jsideo-Persian   poet 
Sarmad  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  pre- 
served in  the  Dabfislan,     This  version  differa  ma- 
terially from  the  translation  of  Jacob  Tawus. 

BiBLiODBAFHr;  WflJtou'a  Potyght,  Prolegomenft,  16,  ftnd 
E.  CLericufl  in  vol.  tv;  S.  Munk,  tjne  Hrntin  permine  MS. 
di  la  Bihliom^fw  HovaU,  Pflds.  1838;  BihU  of  Evtry 
Land,  pp.  04-7  i«  Londoii.  166  U  A.  Kohut,  B^xa^khkng 
dtr  peT#i>di#Ti  PrntolevcAtiderwIzun^.  Heidelbfrs,  1871; 
T.  N5Ldek$.  ia  ZDMO,  [i  {im^\  B4B;  H^m,  Amm  iSaiie- 
niachfn  B^lu^thektn,  in  ZDMQ.  U  (18S3);  Scriveoer,  In- 


L51 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


XIV.  Portuguese  Versions:  Portuguese  versions 
Kgin  with  that  by  Joad  Ferreira  d' Almeida,  a 
former  Roman  Catholic  priest  (New  Testament, 
lUnsterdam,  1681;  Old  Testament,  revised  and  con- 
tinued by  Danish  missionaries,  Tranquebar,  1719- 
L751).  A  Roman  Catholic  version,  with  annotations, 
by  Antonio  Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  was  published  in 
Lisbon^  1778  sqq.  (23  vols.;  revised  ed.,  greatly 
improved,  1794t-1819). 

A  version  based  on  Almeida's  translation  was 
made  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Boys,  and  published  by 
the  Trinitarian  Bible  Society  (London,  1843-47). 
The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  often 
printed  revised  editions  of  both  Almeida's  and 
Pereira's  versions.  The  need  of  a  better  and  more 
accurate  translation  of  the  Bible  in  the  Portu- 
guese language  is  generally  recognized  by  Protes- 
tant missionaries  and  liJ[>orer8  in  Portugal  and 
Brazil.  (S.  BEROERt.) 

Bibuographt:  BibU  of  Every  Land,  p.  271-276,  London, 
1861;  S.  Berger.  in  Romania,  zxviii  (1899),  643  sqq. 
(siTes  a  full  acoount  of  the  literature);  DB,  extra  vol., 
pp.  410-411. 

XV.  Scandinavian  Versions:  Of  the  Scandi- 
DBvian  countries,  Norway  and  its  colony,  Iceland, 

had  at  a  very  early  period  a  national 
1.  Before  literature  in  the  Old  Norwegian 
the  Bef-  tongue  (incorrectly  called  Old  Norse). 
ormation.  Jq  i^^e  earliest  period  of  Bible  trans- 
lation belongs  the  Stjom  ("  Dispen- 
sation/' sc,  of  God),  which  includes  Gen.-II 
Kings.  This  is  not  a  translation  but  a  para- 
phrase of  these  books  on  the  basis  of  the  Vul- 
gate, with  explanatory  remarks  from  different 
authors — Josephus,  Augustine,  Peter  Comestor, 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  and  others.  The  preface 
states  that  it  was  prepared  under  the  patronage 
of  King  Haakon  V  (129^1319),  and  from  a 
note  in  one  of  the  manuscripts  it  appears  that 
Brand  Jonson,  bishop  of  Hole  in  Iceland  (d.  1264), 
made  the  translation.  If  this  note  is  correct, 
Jonson  probably  translated  the  middle  and  most 
ancient  part  (Ex.  xix-Deut.  xxxiv).  The  Stjom 
was  edited  by  Prof.  C.  R.  Unger  (Christiania,  1862). 
In  the  Old  Norwegian  literature  there  exist  many 
homilies,  legends  of  the  saints,  and  apocryphal  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  which  contain  many  Bible  texts; 
these  were  put  together  and  published  by  J.  Bels- 
heim  under  the  title  Af  Bibelen  i  Norge  og  paa 
Island  i  Middelaideren  (Christiania,  18S4). 

The  earliest  traces  of  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Old  Swedish  appear  in  the  time  of  St.  Bridget.  In 
her  "  Revelations "  as  well  as  in  accoimts  of  her 
life  it  is  said  that  she  had  a  copy  of  the  Bible 
made  in  Swedish.  This  was  undoubtedly  only  an 
exposition  of  the  Pentateuch  composed  by  her 
father  confessor  Matthias  in  Linkdping  (d.  1350; 
see  Bridget,  Saint,  of  Sweden).  Joshua  and 
Judges  were  translated  later  by  Nils  Ragnvaldson 
(d.  1514),  while  Judith,  Esther,  Ruth,  and  Maccabees 
were  translated  by  Jens  Budde  of  the  N&dendal 
monastery.  There  is  also  extant  a  translation  of 
the  Apocaljrpse,  made  prior  to  1520.  All  these 
Biblical  workis,  based  on  the  Vulgate,  were  edited  by 
G.  E.  Klemming,  in  Svenska  Medeltidena  Bibdar- 
heUn  (2  vols.,  Stockholm,  184^-55). 


An  old  Danish  version  based  on  the  Vulgate, 
containing  the  first  twelve  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  contained  in  a  manuscript  of  the  Mariager 
monastery  in  Jutland,  antedating  1480.  The 
first  eight  books  were  edited  by  Prof.  C.  Mol- 
bech  (Copenhagen,  1828).  A  translation  of  the 
Psalms  of  the  same  period  is  extant  in  different 
manuscripts.  Some  of  them  were  edited  by  C.  J. 
Brandt,  in  Gamle  danskelAaebog  (Copenhagen,  1857). 
In  both  Denmark  and  Sweden  the  entire 
Bible  was  first  translated  in  the  period  of  the 
Reformation.  Norway  was  united  with  Denmark 
from  1380  to  1814  and  the  Danish 
2.  Since  language,  being  cognate  with  the  Nor- 
ths Bef-  wegian,  became  the  common  literary 
ormation.  language  in  the  two  coimtries.  The 
New  Testament  was  first  rendered 
into  Danish  by  Hans  Mikkelsen,  formerly  bur- 
gomaster of  Malm5,  who  followed  Christian  II 
into  exile  in  the  Netherlands  in  1523.  This  New 
Testament  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1524.  Being  a 
mixture  of  Danish  and  German,  the  language 
was  uncouth.  A  better  translation  was  made 
by  Christen  Pedersen  (d.  1554),  the  first  editor  of 
the  history  of  Denmark  by  Saxo  Grammaticus  and 
of  other  older  works.  Pedersen's  New  Testament 
was  printed  at  Antwerp  1529  and  again  in  1531, 
and  in  the  latter  year  his  translation  of  the 
Psalms  appeared.  Previous  to  this  (1528)  a 
translation  of  the  Psalms  made  by  Frans  Wormord- 
sen,  a  Dutchman  by  buth,  was  published  at  Ros- 
tock. All  these  followed  the  ViUgate  closely,  but 
were  influenced  by  Luther  and  Erasmus.  The 
Danish  Reformer  Hans  Tausen  (d.  1561,  as  bishop 
of  Ribe  [Ripen])  translated  the  Pentateuch  from 
Luther's  version  (Magdeburg,  1535).  Peder  Tide- 
mand  translated  Judges  (Copenhagen,  1539),  and 
Wisdom  and  Ecclesiasticus  (Magdeburg,  1541). 
The  first  complete  Bible  in  Danish  was  published 
at  Copenhagen  in  1550,  following,  according  to  the 
instructions  of  Christian  III,  as  much  as  possible 
Luther's  version.  The  greater  part  of  the  work  was 
done  by  Christen  Pedersen,  assisted  by  a  number  of 
professors.  A  new  edition  followed,  1589,  reprinted 
1633.  A  translation  from  the  original  languages, 
prepared  by  Hans  Paulsen  Resen  (d.  1638),  ap- 
peared in  1607,  and,  revised  by  Bishop  Hans 
Svane  or  Svaning  (the  so-called  Svaning  Bible), 
again  in  1647  and  was  used  till  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1819  Bishop 
F.  C.  K.  H.  Mtlnter  (q.v.)  with  others  undertook  a 
revision  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the  whole 
Bible,  revised  by  C.  Rothe,  C.  Hermansen,  and  C. 
Kalkar  under  the  presidency  of  Bishop  H.  L.  Mar- 
tensen  (q.v.)  was  published  in  1872.  There  are 
translations  made  by  other  scholars,  such  as  C. 
Basthohn  (New  Testament,  1780),  O.  H.  Guld- 
berg  (New  Testament,  1794),  the  whole  Bible  by 
J.  C.  Lindberg  (1837-56)  and  C.  Kalkar  (1847), 
the  four  Gospels  by  K.  F.  Viborg  (1863),  and 
the  New  Testament  by  Bishop  T.  S.  ROrdam 
(1886;  2d  ed.,  1894-95).  A  Roman  Catholic 
version  of  the  New  Testament  aft^r  the  Vulgate 
was  published  by  J.  L.  V.  Hansen  in  1893. 

After  the  separation  of  Norway  from  Denmark 
in   1814,  three  revisions  of  the  New  Testament 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


188 


were  made  (1819,  1830,  and  1873),  the  most 
important  being  by  Prof.  Hersleb  in  1830.  A  new 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  undertaken  by 
Adjunct  Thistedahl  and  Profs.  Kaurin,  Holmboe, 
Caspari,  and  Nissen  was  published  in  parts  (1857- 
1869;  revised  ed.  completed  1890),  and  of  the  New 
Testament  by  Bishops  F.  W.  Bugge,  A.  C.  Bang, 
and  others  was  published  in  1904. 

The  New  Testament  was  rendered  into  the  Nor- 
wegian vernacular,  which  much  resembles  the  Old 
Norwegian,  by  Prof.  E.  Blix,  I.  Aasen,  M.  Skard, 
and  J.  Belsheim,  and  published  in  1889  (new  ed., 
1899).  A  translation  of  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  in  preparation  and  the  Book  of  Psalms 
was  printed  in  1904,  Genesis  in  1905.  A  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  for  the  use 
of  Roman  Catholics  has  also  been  published. 
During  the  Reformation  period  Iceland  also  re- 
ceived the  Bible  in  its  old  Norwegian-Icelandic 
tongue.  An  Icelander,  Odd  Gottskalkson,  of  Nor- 
wegian descent,  translated  the  New  Testament, 
which  was  published  at  Roskilde,  1540.  The 
whole  Bible  translated  after  Luther's  version  by 
Bishop  Gudbrand  Thorlakson  appeared  in  1584 
(revised  1644).  A  new  translation  by  Bishop  Stein 
Jonson  was  issued  in  1728,  but  the  rendering  was 
not  smooth,  so  the  older  version  of  Thorlakson 
was  reprinted  at  Copenhagen  in  1747,  and  the  New 
Testament  again  in  1750  and  1807,  followed  in  1813 
by  a  reprint  of  the  whole  Bible.  In  1827  a  new 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  published, 
followed  by  a  revised  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  in 
1841,  and  by  a  revised  edition.  Oxford,  1863. 

When  Gustavus  Vasa  became  king  of  Sweden 
in  1523,  wishing  for  a  Swedish  translation,  he 
applied  to  Archbishop  Johannes  Magni  of  Upsala, 
requesting  him  with  the  help  of  the  clergy  to  pre- 
pare a  translation  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
archbishop  devised  a  plan  which,  however,  was 
opposed  by  some  of  the  ministers.  Bishop 
Hans  Brask  of  Linkoping  said  that  "it  were 
better  for  Paul  to  have  been  burned,  than  to 
be  known  by  every  one."  The  New  Testament 
translated  by  the  chancellor  Lorenz  Andreft  (q.v.) 
with  the  assistance  of  Pastor  Olaus  Petri  (q.v.)  was 
published  at  Stockholm  1526.  The  whole  Bible, 
translated  by  Lars  Petri,  archbishop  of  Upsala  (d. 
1573),  was  issued  1540-41.  This  Bible,  made 
after  Luther's,  was  for  a  long  time  the  church 
Bible  of  Sweden.  A  revised  edition  by  the  two 
bishops  Gezelius  in  Abo  (father  and  son;  see 
Gezeuus,  Johannes)  was  highly  praised.  Dif- 
ferent commissions  for  translating  the  Bible  were 
appointed;  one,  consisting  of  twenty-three  mem- 
bers, spent  a  long  time  in  preparing  a  translation 
with  a  rationalistic  tendency;  but  the  "  specimens" 
published  from  time  to  time  found  no  favor.  In 
1844  the  commission  was  reconstituted,  with  Prof. 
A.  Kn6s  as  one  of  its  most  active  members.  The 
New  Testament  prepared  by  the  cathedral  provosts 
C.  A.  Thoren  and  H.  M.  Melin  and  published 
in  1853-77  was  not  favorably  received.  A  better 
reception  met  the  version  of  the  New  Testament 
prepared  by  Archbishop  Sundberg,  Cathedral 
Provost  Thoren,  and  Bishop  Johanson,  published  in 
1882.    A  new  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  is 


in  preparation.    The  Bible  veraion  of  Cathedzil 
Provost  Melin  was  published  in  1865-69. 

J.  Belshedc. 

Biblioorapht:  J.  Belsheim,  VeUednino  i  Bibdem  Hiakm, 
pp.  252  sqq.,  Christiama,  1880;  J.  A.  Schinmeier.  09- 
Bchichts  der  tchtDediachen  Bibel-tleber^etzungen  umi  Aw- 
ffoben,  Leipsic,  1777;  P.  W.  Becker.  De  J.  P.  Remmi  vtr- 
•ione  Danica,  Copenhagen.  1831;  C.  Molbech,  Bidrat  li 
en  hUtorie  af  de  Danake  BibdcvereaetteUer,  ib.  1840;  Bibk 
of  Every  Land,  pp.  214-226,  London,  1861;  C.  W.  Braim, 
Bibliotheca  DanieOt  Copenhagen,  1872;  J.  P.  w«CTtt**w 
Forteckning  dfver  eveneka  upplaoor  of  Bibeln,  Upaah, 
1882;  KL,  ii,  767-769;  DB,  extra  vol.,  pp.  415-41d. 

XVL  Slavonic  Versions:  The  history  of  Bible 
versions  in  the  Slavonic  begins  with  the  seoond 
half  of  the  ninth  century,  llie  oldest  tranalatioii, 
commonly  called  the  Church  Slavonic, 
^•^®  ^Id  is  closely  connected  with  the  actiyity 
Slavo^o  ^^  *'^®  *^°  apostles  to  the  Slavs, 
Version.  Cyril  and  Methodius,  in  Moravia,  854- 
885  (see  Cyril  and  Methodius).  Hie 
oldest  manuscripts  are  written  either  in  the 
so-called  Cyrillic  or  the  Glagolitic  character.  TTie 
former  is  the  Greek  majuscule  writing  of  the 
ninth  century  with  the  addition  of  new  char- 
acters for  Slavic  sounds  which  are  not  foond 
in  the  Greek  of  that  time;  the  latter  was  a 
style  of  the  Greek  minuscule  with  the  addition  of 
new  signs  as  in  the  Cyrillic  alphabet.  The  oldest 
manuscripts  are  written  in  the  Glagolitic,  which 
is  older  than  the  Cyrillic.  The  oldest  manuscripts 
extant  belong  to  the  tenth  or  eleventh  c^tiuy, 
and  the  first  complete  collection  of  Biblical 
books  in  the  Church  Slavonic  language  originated 
in  Russia  in  the  last  decade  of  the  fifteenth  oentuiy. 
It  was  made  by  Archbishop  Gennadius  of  Nov- 
gorod, and  the  Old  Testament  was  translated  partly 
from  the  Vulgate,  and  partly  from  the  Septuagint. 
The  New  Testament  is  based  upon  the  old  Church 
Slavonic  translation.  During  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury a  greater  interest  in  the  Bible  was  awakened 
in  South  and  West  Russia,  owing  to  the  con- 
troversies between  adherents  of  the  Orthodox 
Church  and  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Uniates. 
In  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy 
the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  Epistles,  and  parts  of  the 
Psalter  were  often  printed  at  Lemberg  and  Wilna, 
though  the  oldest  edition  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  was 
issued  at  Moscow  in  1564.  In  1581  the  first  ^tion 
of  the  Slavonic  Bible  was  published  at  Ostrog,  a 
number  of  Greek  manuscripts,  besides  the  Genna- 
dius Bible,  having  been  used  for  this  edition. 
But  neither  the  Gennadius  nor  the  Ostrog  Bible 
was  satisfactory,  and  in  1663  a  second  somewhat 
revised  edition  of  the  latter  was  published 
at  Moscow.  In  1712  the  czar  Peter  the  Great 
issued  a  ukase  ordering  the  printed  Slavonic  text 
to  be  carefully  compared  with  the  Greek  of  the 
Septuagint  and  to  be  made  in  every  respect  con- 
formable to  it.  The  revision  was  completed  in 
1724  and  was  ordered  to  be  printed,  but  the  death  of 
Peter  (1725)  prevented  the  execution  of  the  order. 
The  manuscript  of  the  Old  Testament  of  this  re- 
vision is  in  the  synodal  library  at  Moscow.  Under 
the  empress  E^lizabeth  the  work  of  revision  was  re- 
sumed by  a  ukase  issued  in  1744,  and  in  1751  a 
revised  ''  Elizabeth "  Bible,  as  it  is    called,  was 


Bshed.  Three  other  editions  were  published  in 
1, 1757»  and  1759,  the  second  ecjinevvhat  revised. 
later  reprint-s  of  the  Russian  Church  Bible  are 
upon  this  second  edition,  which  is  the 
iOriEed  version  of  the  Russian  Church. 

Church  Slavonic  is  oot  intelligible  to  the 
people.  An  effort  to  produce  a  version  in 
rcroacular  was  made  by  Fmntsisk  Skorina  (d. 
1535),  a  native  of  Polotsk  in  Wliite  Russia, 
iblished  at  Prague,  1517-19,  twenty-two  Old 
TevStament  books  in  the  "  Russian 
language/'  in  the  preparation  of  which 
he  was  greatly  influenced  by  the 
ian  Bible  of  1506  (see  below,  §  5).  Other 
were  made  during  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
ocnturieSj  but  the  Church  Slavonic 
,ted  in  all  these  efforts.  Peter  the 
felt  that  the  mass  of  the  Russian  people 
i  a  Bible  in  the  vernacular  and  author- 
Pajstor  Glilck  in  1703  to  prepare  such 
diUoD.  Unhappily  Gluck  died  in  1705  and 
log  ia  known  of  his  work.  It  was  left  to 
mneteenth  C4?'ntury  in  connection  with  the 
rtiahment  of  the  Russian  Bible  Society  (founded 
il2  at  St.  Petersburg,  with  the  consent  of  Alex- 
r  I;  see  Bible  Socxetui&i  11,5)  to  prepare  a 
I  tn  the  vernacular.  The  work  was  under* 
ttby  Philaret  (q*v.),  rector  of  the  Theological 
Aemy  of  St.  Petersburg  (afterward  metro- 
An  of  Moscow),  and  other  members  of  the 
Ity  of  the  academy.  The  Gospels  were 
yied  in  1818  and  in  1S22  the  entire 
if  Testament.  In  1820  the  translation  of 
Old  Testament  was  undertaken,  and  in 
Philaret's  translation  of  the  Psalms  was 
In  1825  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua^ 
and  Ruth  were  issued.  The  year  1826 
^tD  end  to  the  activity  of  the  Bible  Society 
ban  put  upon  all  kinds  of  private*  associa- 
even  when  non-political-  Not  before  1858 
rtbe  work  of  translation  resumed.  In  1876  the 
w&B  publisheti  in  one  volume.  The  Old 
bodkB,  though  based  upon  the  Hebrew^ 
the  order  of  the  Septuagint  and  the  Church 
ic  Bible.  The  Apocryphal  books  also  form 
of  the  Ruaaian  Bible.  The  British  and 
Bible  Society  also  issued  a  Russian  edition, 
however,  the  Apocrypha. 
Igarians  too  were  provided  during  the 
century  with  translations  of  Bibhcal 
the  vernacular.  In  1S2S  the  New  Testa- 
published  at  Bucharest  (2d  ed.,  1833), 
by  the  pastors  Sapimov  and  Sera- 
For  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
the  archimandrite  Theodosius,  abbot  of 
the  Bistrica  monastery,  translated 
the  New  Testament,  which  was  printed 
at  London  in  1828.  The  entire  edition 
was  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  and  is  said  to 
have  been  destroyed  there.  A  new 
liUtio&  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  at 
rmn  in  1840  (3ded.,  Bucharest*  1853,  ami  often). 
^  the  American  Bible  Society  printed  in  New 
I^^Hnslation  of  tht*  New  Testament  and  other 
^f^^erc  issued  at  Constantinople  in  1866  and 
^^The  Old  Testament  *'  translated  from  the 


Bulff*.. 


original  *'  was  also  published  there  in  three  parts 
(1862-64),  but  without  the  .\pocrypha.  An  edition 
of  the  entire  Bible  *'  faithfully  imd  accurately  ren- 
dcroil  from  the  original  "  was  published  by  the 
same  society  at  Constantinople  in  1868  (3d  cd., 
1874).  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
Ser\nan  wad  made  by  Vuk  Stefano\^6  Karaji^,  the 
founder  of  modem  Ser\'ian  literature,  and  published 
at  Vienna  in  IS  17.  The  Old  Testament  was  trans- 
lated by  Vuk's  pupil  Dj'uro  Dan  ic  hid  and  issued  at 
Belgrade  in  1 8GS.  The  language  in  both  is  excellent. 
The  Ser\'ian  Bible  of  Atanasiie  Ivanovi^  Sloiko%'i(J 
(publiHbed  by  the  Russian  Bible  Society  at  St, 
Pet<?raburg,  1824)  in  not  written  in  the  vernacular, 
but  is  a  mixture  of  Church  Slavonic  and  Servian. 

The  Bible  versions  for  the  Slovenes  are  most  closely 
connected  with  the  activity  of  the  Reformer  of  Car- 
niola,  Primus  Truber  (1507-86;  see 
4.  Slo-  Truber,  Primus),  and  his  associates 
Croatian  and  soccessora;  they  were  m tended  for 
Veraiona,  the  Evangelical  Slovenes.  Truber  trans- 
lated the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  which  was 
printed  at  Reutlingen  in  1555;  in  1557  the  first 
part  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  at  Tii- 
bingen,  the  second  part  in  156<j,  and  the  complete 
New  Testament  was  issued  in  1582;  the  Psalms  ap- 
peared in  1560.  Dalmatin,  who  lissisted  Truber, 
tnmslated  the  Old  Testament,  and  an  edition  of  the 
entire  Scriptures  in  Slovenian  was  published  under 
liis  direction  at  Wittenberg  in  1584.  Steven  Kuez- 
mics  published  a  New  Te.stan^ent  for  the  Hungarian 
Slovenians  in  their  dialect  at  Halle  in  1771.  An  edi- 
tion published  at  Giins  (Kosicg)  in  1848  has  the 
Psalms  added.  In  1784  a  part  of  the  New  Testament 
for  the  use  of  Roman  Catholics  was  print^id  at  Lai- 
bacb,  translated  from  the  Vulgate  by  several  hands. 
The  second  part  of  the  New  Testament  wan  issued 
in  1786,  and  the  Old  Testament  between  1791  and 
1802.  Efforts  were  also  made  to  prepare  a  Bible 
version  for  the  Evangelical  Croats  or  for  those  who 
should  be  brought  over  to  the  Evimgelical  faith. 
A  New  Testament  translated  by  Anton  Dalmata 
and  Stipan  Consul  wa^  printed  in  Glagolitic  char- 
acters (2part.s)  atTiibingen,  1562-63.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  eiTorts  were  made  to  give  a  trans- 
lation to  the  Catholic  Croats  and  Servians  in  the 
Bo-called  lUyrian  diakct,  but  nothing  was  printed 
till  the  nineteenth  century,  when  a  Bible  in  Latin 
letters  together  with  the  parallel  text  of  the  Vulgate, 
translated  into  **the  Illyric  language*  Bosnian  dia- 
lect" by  Pctrua  Kataucsich,  was  published  at  Buda- 
pest (B  parts,  1831).  It  followed  the  Vulgate 
Blavi.shly. 

The  Czech  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages  is 
very  rich  in  translations  of  Biblical  books,  made 
from  the  Vulgate  (cf.  the  list  of  mimuscdpts  luid 
prints  in  J.  Jungmann,  Ih\^{ori£  Literaiury  Ccuk^f 
Prague,  1849).  During  the  fourteenth  century 
all  parts  of  the  Bible  .?eem  to  have  been  trans- 
lated at  different  times  and  by  different  hands. 
The  oldest  translations  are  those 
e.  Bohe-  (,f  tiio  Psalter.  The  New  Testar 
ment  must  also  have  existed  at  that 
time,  fnr  acctirding  to  a  statement 
of  Wyclif,  Anne,  daughter  of  Charles  IV,  received 
in  1381  upon  her  marrying  Richarfl  II  of  England 


mian 
Versions. 


Bible  Veraioiui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


164 


a  Bohemian  New  Testament.  It  is  certain  that 
Hubs  hacl  the  Bible  in  Bohemian  before  him  as  a 
whole  and  he  and  his  successors  undertook  a 
revision  of  the  text  according  to  the  Vulgate. 
The  work  of  Huss  on  the  Bible  antedated  1412. 
During  the  fifteenth  century  the  revision  was  con- 
tinued. The  first  complete  Bible  was  published  at 
Prague,  1488;  other  editions  were  issued  at  Kutten- 
berg,  1489,  and  Venice,  1506.  These  prints  were 
the  basis  of  other  editions  which  were  published 
from  time  to  time. 

With  the  United  Brethren  a  new  period  began 
for  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1518  the  New 
Testament  appeared  at  Jungbunzlau  at  the  instance 
of  Luke  of  Prague  (q.v.).  It  was  not  satisfactory 
and  the  same  must  be  said  of  the  edition  of  1533. 
Altogether  different  was  the  translation  made  by 
Jan  Blahoslav  from  the  original  Greek  (1564, 
1568).  The  Brethren  soon  imdertook  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  and 
appointed  for  this  work  a  niunber  of  scholars, 
who  based  their  translation  upon  the  Hebrew  text 
published  in  the  Antwerp  Polyglot.  The  work 
began  in  1577  and  was  completed  in  1593,  and  from 
the  place  of  printing,  Kralits  in  Moravia,  it  is 
known  as  the  Kralitz  Bible  (6  parts,  1579-93, 
containing  also  Blahoslav's  New  Testament).  This 
excellent  translation  was  issued  in  smaller  size  in 
1596,  and  again  in  folio  in  1613  (reprinted  at  Halle 
in  1722,  1745, 1766;  Pressburg,  1787;  Berlin,  1807). 

After  the  year  1620  the  publication  of  non- 
Catholic  Bibles  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  ceased,  and 
efforts  were  made  to  prepare  Bibles  for  the  Catholics. 
After  some  fruitless  beginnings  the  work  was 
entrusted  to  certain  Jesuits,  who  took  the  Venice 
edition  of  1506  as  the  basis,  but  relied  greatly, 
especially  for  the  Old  Testament,  on  the  Brethren's 
Bible.  Between  1677  and  1715  the  so-called 
St.  Wenceslaus  Bible  was  published  at  the  expense 
of  a  society  founded  in  honor  of  the  saint.  A  new 
edition  appeared  at  Prague  1769-71.  A  thoroughly 
revised  edition,  using  the  text  of  the  Brethren's 
Bible,  was  published  in  1778-80.  Still  more  de- 
pendent on  the  Brethren's  Bible  was  Prochaska's 
New  Testament  (Prague,  1786),  and  liis  edition  of 
the  whole  Bible  (1804).  Editions  of  Prochaska's 
text,  slightly  amended,  were  issued  in  1851  and  1857. 
The  Bible  edited  by  Besdeka  (Prague,  1860)  gives 
the  text  of  the  Brethren's  Bible  with  slight  changes. 
G.  Palkovi5  translated  the  Bible  from  the  Vulgate 
into  Slovak  (2  parts,  Gran,  1829). 

The  oldest  Sorbic  Bible  version,  that  of  the  New 
Testament  of  1547,  is  extant  in  a  manuscript  in 
the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  The  translator  was 
Miklawusch  Jakubica,  who  employed  a  dialect  (the 
Lower  Sorbic)  now  extinct.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  Gottlieb  Fabricius,  a  German, 
^orSS'Wo'*  made  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
Veri^ons.  ni^nt  which  was  printed  in  1709.  In  a 
revised  form  this  version  was  pub- 
lished by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
1860.  The  Old  Testament,  translated  by  J.  G. 
Fritz,  was  printed  at  Kottbus  in  1790.  An  edi- 
tion of  the  entire  Bible  was  published  by  the 
Prussian   Bible   Society  in  1868. 

Michael  Frentzel,  pastor  in   Post^itz  (d.  1706), 


translated  the  New  Testament  into  the  WendiA 
of  Upper  Lusatia  (Upper  Sorbic),  and  his  version  m 
published  by  his  son,  Abraham  Frentzel  (Zittan, 
1706).  A  complete  edition  of  the  Bible,  tb 
work  of  different  scholars,  was  first  publiihed 
at  Bautzen,  1728.  A  second  revised  edition  wu 
prepared  by  Johann  Gottfried  KQhn  and  issoed 
in  1742;  a  third  improved  edition  prepared  bj 
Johann  Jacob  Petschke  was  published  in  1797. 
Passing  over  other  editions,  it  is  worth  while  to 
note  that  the  ninth  edition  of  the  complete  BiUe 
(Bautzen,  1881)  was  revised  by  H.  Immisch  uA 
others  and  contains  a  history  of  the  Upper  Lua- 
tian  Wendish  Bible  translation.  For  the  Romas 
Catholic  Wends  of  Upper  Lusatia  G.  Luscaiuld 
and  M.  Homik  translated  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Vulgate,  and  published  it  at  Bautien, 
1887-92;  the  Psalms  were  translated  from  the 
Hebrew  by  J.  Laras  (Bautzen,  1872). 

The  history  of  the  Polish  translation  of  the  Bible 
begins  with  the  Psalter  (cf.  W.  Nehring,  AUpoIr 
nische  Sprachdenkmdler,  Berlin,  1886).  A  mano- 
script  of  the  second  half  of  the  foiurteenth  century, 
in  the  abbey  of  St.  Florian,  near  Linz,  in  Latin, 
Polish,  and  German  is  probably  the 
7.  Polish  oldest.  A  critical  edition  of  the  Po- 
Versions.  Ueh  part  was  published  by  Nehring 
(Paalterii  Florianensis  pars  PoMca^ 
Posen,  1883)  with  a  very  instructive  intro- 
duction. Besides  the  Florian  Psalter  there  is  the 
Psalter  of  Pulawy  (now  in  Cracow)  belonging  to 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  (published  in 
facsimile,  Posen,  1880). 

Polish  Bibles  originated  after  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  An  incomplete  Bible,  the  eo- 
called  Sophia  Bible  (named  after  Queen  Sophia, 
for  whom  it  was  intended,  according  to  a  remark 
from  the  sixteenth  century;  also  called  the  Siro** 
patak  Bible  from  the  place  where  it  is  preserved), 
contains  Genesis,  Joshua,  Ruth,  Kings,  Chronicles, 
Ezra,  Nchemiah,  II  (III)  Esdras,  Tobit,  and  Judith 
(ed.  A.  Malecki,  Bihlia  Krolowij  Zofii,  Lcmbeig, 
1871).  With  the  Reformation  period  activity  in 
the  work  of  translation  increased  as  the  different 
confessions  endeavored  to  supply  their  adherents 
with  texts  of  the  Bible.  An  effort  to  provide  the 
Lutherans  with  the  Bible  in  Polish  was  mad^  Ijy 
Duke  Albert  of  Prussia  (q.v.)  in  a  letter  directed  in 
his  name  to  Melanchthon.  Jan  Sieklucki,  preacher 
at  Kdnigsberg  (d.  1578),  was  commissioned  to  pre- 
pare a  translation,  and  he  published  the  New  Testa- 
ment at  Kftni^berg,  1551  and  1552.  The  Polish 
Reformed  (Calvinists)  received  the  Bible  through 
Prince  Nicholas  Radziwill  (1515-65).  A  com- 
pany of  Polish  and  foreign  theologians  and 
scholars  undertook  the  task,  and,  after  six 
years*  labor  at  Pincow,  not  far  from  Cracow, 
finished  the  translation  of  the  Bible  which 
was  published  at  the  expense  of  Radriwill  in 
Rrest-Litovsk,  1563  (hence  called  the  Brest  or 
llinlziwill  Bible).  The  translators  state  that  for 
the  Old  Testament  they  consulted  besides  the  He- 
brew text  the  ancient  versions  and  different  modem 
Latin  ones.  The  Brest  Bible  was  not  universally 
welcomed.  The  Reformed  suspected  it  of  Socinis^ 
interpretations;  the  Socinians  complained  that  it 


EEUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Verslona 


ecurate  enough.  The  Socinian  Simon 
»ecially  charged  against  the  Brest  Bible 
B  not  prepared  according  to  the  original 

after  the  Vulgate  and  other  modem 
knd  that  the  translators  cared  more  for 
»liah  than  for  a  faithful  rendering.     He 

a  new  rendering,  and  his  triinslation 
aew  from  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin 
oUsh  **)  was  printetl  in  1572  at  NeSv^iith. 
m  were  introduced  in  the  printing 
B  not  approved  by  Budny,  he  disclaimed 
'estament  and  published  another  edition 
'he  charged  which  he  made  against  the 
le  were  alBO  made  against  his  own,  and 
in  Adam  Czechowics  published  a  new 
»ved  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
1677)*  The  interesting  preface  states 
iDwiex  endeavored  to  nnake  an  accurate 
U  but  did  not  suppress  his  Socinian 
,  be  used  **  immersion "  instead  of 
"  Another  Socinian  New  Testament 
bd   by    Valentin  us  Smalciua    (Rakow^ 

Bt  Bible  was  superseded  by  the  so-called 
ble,  which  finally  becjime  the  Bible  of 
feUcal  Poles.  At  the  synod  in  Olarowiec^ 
w  edition  of  the  Bible  was  proposed  and 

was  given  to  the  Reformed  minister 
nicki,   who  had  already   trarwluted   the 

the  original  texts.  In  1603  the  printing 
islatton  was  decided  upon,  after  the  work 
carefully  revised.  The  work  of  revision 
ted  to  men  of  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran 
I  and  members  of  the  Moravian  Church 
ledally  to  Daniel  Mikolajewski  (d.  1633), 
dent  of  the  Reformed  churchea  in  Great 
id  Jan  Tumowaki,  senior  of  the  Mora- 
cb  in  Great  Poland  (d,  1629).  After 
a  compared  with  the  Janieki  translation, 

the  Bohemian,  Pagnini's,  and  the  Vul- 
lew  rendering  was  ordered  printed.  The 
inalation  as  such  has  not  been  printed, 
Ufficult  to  state  how  much  of  it  is  con- 
hft  new  Bible.  The  New  Testament  was 
hedatDan^g,  1606,  and  very  often  dur- 
ttecnth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The 
Jible  was  issued  in  1632,  and  often  since, 
ig  Bible  differs  so  much  from  that  of 
it  may  be  regardeti  as  a  new  translation* 
«OUaly  called  also  the  Bible  of  Paliurua 
m,  acnior  of  the  Evangelical   Churches 

fDd»  d.  1632);  but  he  had  no  part  in 
man  Catholics  the  Bible  was    trans- 
I  the    Vulgate    by   John     of     Lemberg 

PiCe  ihiM  was  called  the  LcopoUtan 
>liAhedat  Cracow,  I'm,  1574,  and 
Bible  was  superseded  by  the  new 
lof  Jakub  Wujek  (a  Jesuit,  b.  about  1540; 
►w  1593).  Wujek  criticized  the  Catholic 
atholic  Bible  versions  and  spoke  very 
>l  tlje  Polish  of  the  Brest  Bible,  but  aa- 
.it  waa  full  of  heresies  and  of  errors  in 

tith  the  approbation  of  the  Holy 
Testament  was  first  publinhod  at 
and  the  Old  Testament  in    1599| 


after  Wujek's  death.  This  Bible  haj  often  been 
reprinted,  Wujek'a  translation  follows,  in  the 
main,  the  Vulgate.  (A.  Leskien.) 

Brai.roaHAPBT:  For  the  beipnnin^s  of  Slavic  versiooj  eon- 
wyltt  Vita  mancH  MeUunixi,  Ji^iso-aiovenice  et  latint,  ed,  F, 
Miklosicb,  VienaA.  1870;  C.  DQinmler,  IHe  pannontJiche 
Leaende  vom  hriliffen  Method,  in  Archiv  fur  Kunde  htterr, 
OvachuhttqueUen,  voL  xiii;  idem  and  F.  MikJosich,  Dw 
LegeruU  vom  heUioen  CvrtUuM,  in  DenkschrifUn  dtr  Wuner 
AkaiUnM,  phii.-kistor,  CUuse,  xix  (1S70):  Ji^6,  Zur  Enittth- 
unQ»genchichU!  dtr  Kirchentlav-Sprnchr,  Vienrm,  1900.  On 
the  history  of  veraions  couauH:  8.  W.  Rin^dtaube,  Narh- 
richt  van  polnUcHm  BiMn.  Dftntig,  1744;  R,  G,  Ungar. 
sAtlarmeim  bdhmiMthe  Bibiufthek,pan  I,  Theologie.  Praiiuc, 
l7Sft  (a  bibliogr»phy  til  Bohfiiiian  vprsiona);  J,  Dobrow- 
«ky«  Vebtr  dtn  etsten  Text  der  ItfyhmiJtfJien^  Bibflabernett- 
ung,  Prague,  1708;  idem,  GlagtAHica,  ib.  1807;  K.  F, 
Hchnurrer,  Slavi*che  Bxicherdruck  in  WUrttcmlterg  im  16^ 
Jahrhufidert,  Tilbingen,  1799;  G.  J.  Dlabaci,  NcuhrirM 
von  Hntm  Hither  noch  unbekannten  bohmijfcken  A,  7*,^ 
Praifue,  1804;  BibU  of  Evfry  Land,  pp.  291-310.  tendon, 
1861;  ].  Ko9trvn<?i<f,  GttchicAtM  dW  pratestanHacfufn  Litle- 
ratur  dcr  SQd»Uivrn,  lS5<^e6,  Vienna.  1S74;  W,  iLMorfill^ 
Slavonic  Literature,  London,  1883;  Archiv  fUr  Stfivitchs 
Phitotoffit,  by  V.  Jai?id»  eflp«cially  nup piemen t  vol.  by  F. 
Paatirnek.  Berlin,  1892  (contains  bibliographicid  lwU»  of 
works  on  Slavonic  ftubjecti*  for  rbe  years  18713-fll,  inclu- 
dinK  whatever  baa  appeared  durinj?  that  time  on  the?  Has* 
eian  Bible);  V.  VondrAk,  Dit  Spuren  dtr  aUktrchennla- 
visrhen  EiHingeh^ubrr^Uung,  Vienna,  181)3;  F.  Ahn,  i^i^** 
liographiache  StlUnheiUn  tier  TruberliU^^atur,  Leip«iCf 
1804;  U  J.  iM.  Bt!bb,  The  Ruitaian  B%hU,  in  Church  Quarw 
ttrlTi  Review,  Oct.,  1895.  pp.  203-225;  T.  El»e,  X>w  utav^ 
niachen  prot^tanHachen  Drucktchriften  des  xvi.  Jahrhun- 
dertt,  Vciiic<e,  1896;  Scrivener*  1  ntroductian,  ii,  157  «iq,; 
BD,  extra  vol.,  pp.  417-420. 

XVn.  Spanish  Versions:  It  is  very  diffictilt 
to  decide  at  what  time  the  first  Spanish  vera] on 
wris  made*  In  treating  of  Spanish  Bibles,  a  dis- 
tinction should  be  made  between  the  CataJonian  and 
the  Cast ilian  speech*  Of  Biblical  manuscripti?  in  the 
former  there  are  many  from  the  fifteenth  century, 
one  (of  the  New  Testament)  from  the  fourt4^enth. 
Report  haB  it  that  the  Dominican  Homeu  Sabmguera 
of  Mallorca  (d.  1313),  who  translataJ  the  Psalms, 
worked  on  a  translation  of  the  entire  Bible;  but 
the  report  can  not  be  vcrifie<L  Most  of  the  Cata- 
lonian  translations  of  parts  of  the  Bible  (Prov- 
erbs, the  Prophets,  Pauline  and  Catholic  Epistles) 
depend  on  the  Vulgate  and  early  French  versions  j 
a  translation  of  the  Psalms  depends  wholly  on  the 
French;  the  Gospels  in  the  oldest  manuscnpt^i  are 
not  based  on  the  Vulgate  but  on  a  t-ext  in  southern 
French.  Of  an  alleged  translation  supposed  to 
have  been  printed  in  Valeneia,  1478^  no  biblio- 
graphical datum  or  exemplar  is  known,  only  a  few 
fragments  being  so  attributed. 

Of  the  Castilian  translations  almost  as  little  is 
known,  since  no  efficient  examination  of  Spanish 
manuscripts  has  yet  been  made.  If  tradition 
may  be  accepted,  the  oldest  %^ersion  belongs  to 
the  thirteenth  century,  having  been  made  at  the 
request  of  AJphonso  of  Castile  and  John  of  Leon; 
l>ut  there  is  no  confirmation  of  this  statement. 
It  is  a  remarkable  fart  that  the  early  Castilian 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  were  made  by  Jews, 
and  the  basis  was,  naturally,  the  Hebrew  text. 
Luis  do  CiUiman,  grand  master  of  the  Order  of 
Calatrava,  entrusted  in  1422  to  the  learned  rabbi 
Moses  Arragel  of  Maqueda  the  work  of  translating 
and  annotating  the  Scriptures,  but  with  the  help 
and  under  the  supervision  of  the  Franciscan  Arias 


Bible  Versions 
Bibles,  Annotated 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


156 


of  Emdnas  (Enciena)  and  others  of  the  clergy.  It 
accords  with  this  that  most  of  the  manuscripts 
follow  the  order  of  the  Hebrew  canon. 

Of  printed  texts  the  first  in  chronological  order 
is  the  New  Testament  by  Francis  of  Enzinas 
(Antwerp,  1543);  next  a  Bible  printed  in  two 
editions  (Ferrara,  1553),  one  for  Jews,  the  other 
for  Christians  (reprinted  Amsterdam,  1611,  1630; 
revised  ed.,  1661).  In  1556  Juan  Perez  published 
(ostensibly  at  Venice,  really  at  Geneva)  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  follows  the  original 
Greek.  In  1569  a  Bible  was  published,  probably 
at  Basel,  in  the  translation  of  Cassiodoro  de  Reina. 
Another  edition  with  slight  changes  was  published 
by  Ricardo  del  Campo,  1596,  and  an  entirely  re- 
vised edition  by  Cipriano  de  Valera  was  published 
at  Amsterdam,  1602.  The  oldest  Jewish-Span- 
ish printed  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  is  that 
of  Constance,  1547.  The  Old  Testament  in  He- 
brew and  Spanish  was  published  by  Solomon 
Proops  at  Amsterdam  in  1762.  It  was  not  imtil 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  a  Roman 
Catholic  scholar  undertook  to  give  his  Spanish 
countrymen  a  new  translation,  with  the  Latin 
text  and  a  commentary.  The  author  of  this  work 
(10  vols.,  Valencia,  1790-93;  20  vols.,  Madrid, 
1794-97)  was  Felipe  Scio  de  San  Miguel,  bishop 
of  Segovia.  It  was  often  reprinted.  A  more  re- 
cent translation,  having  respect  to  the  original 
texts,  was  published  by  Felix  Torres  Amat,  bishop 
of  Astorga  (9  vols.,  Madrid,  1824-29;  6  vols., 
1832-35;  reprinted,  17  vols.,  Paris,  1835).  A 
corrected  edition  of  Amat's  version  was  pub- 
lished under  the  care  of  Sefior  Calderon,  by  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge 
in  1853.  In  1893  the  American  Bible  Society 
published  a  thoroughly  revised  edition  of  Valera's 
Bible,  which  may  be  regarded  as  practically  a 
new  version.  The  work  was  done  by  H.  B.  Pratt. 
A  New  Testament  in  the  Catalan,  translated  by 
J.  M.  Pratt,  was  issued  by  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society.  (S.  BERGERf.) 

Biblioobapht:  S.  Berger,  NouveUet  reckerchu  »ur  lea  bibUa 
.  .  .  cataianea,  in  Romania,  zix,  1890;  idem,  Les  BibUa 
autillanea,  ib.  xxviii,  1899  (contains  bibliography  and 
list  of  MSS.);  J.  M.  de  Egur^n,  Memoria  de  lot  codieea 
notables,  Madrid,  1859;  J.  Rodrigues  de  Castro,  Bibli- 
oteca  eapaflola,  vol.  i,  ib.  1781;  J.  L.  Villanueva,  De  la 
Uccion  de  la  8.  Etcritura  en  lenguae  vulgaree,  Valencia, 


1791;  Bibie  of  Every  Land,  pp.  261-267,  London,  1881; 
The  Governor  of  Madrid* e  BibU,  ib.  1871;  J.  £.  B.  Haj«, 
Spain,  Portuoal,  and  the  BibU,  ib.  1806;  G.  Borrow.  Tk 
BibU  in  Spain,  latest  ed.,  ib.  1906;  KL,  u,  743-744;  DB, 
extra  vol.,  pp.  408-410. 

XVm.  Bible  VersionB  in  the  Miasion  Fidd: 
Eusebius  {Theophania,  iii,  28)  says  that  the  writing 
of  the  Apostles  were  translated  in  the  whole  worid, 
in  all  languages  of  Greeks  and  barbaiiaDs;  and 
Chrysostom  and  Theodoret  repeat  the  remaik 
with  still  greater  emphasis.  Nevertheleas  from 
this  early  time  till  the  rise  of  Pietism  and  the 
founding  of  missionary  and  Bible  societies  litUe 
was  done  by  the  official  Church  or  Ghurcbei 
for  the  translation  and  circulation  of  the  Bible. 
The  first  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  has  an  account  of  what  was  then  ^  most 
famous  collection  of  Bibles  (at  Stuttgart)  and 
estimates  the  number  of  languages  represented 
there  at  forty-one.  The  Bibles  presented  to  the 
Society  in  its  first  year  were  in  forfy-flix 
languages,  from  Arabic  and  Armenian  to  Tuik- 
ish  and  Welsh.  The  catalogue  of  Bibles  of 
the  British  Museum  includes  ninety-seven  lin- 
guages.  The  hundredth  Report  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  the  "  Historical 
Table  of  Languages  and  Dialects  in  which  the 
Translation,  Printing,  or  Distribution  of  the 
Scriptures  has  been  at  any  time  promoted  by 
the  Society"  (pp.  434  sqq.),  gives  378  lan- 
guages; versions  in  twenty-four  languages  pre- 
pare by  other  societies  have  been  removed  from 
the  list.  [The  total  number  of  languages  into 
which  the  Bible,  or  parts  of  it,  has  now  been 
translated  is  about  500.]  The  best  conspectus  is 
afforded  by  T.  H.  Darlow  and  H.  F.  Moule,  Hia- 
torical  Catalogue  of  the  Printed  EdiHone  of  Hot^j 
Scripture  in  the  Library  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  (2  vols.,  London,  1903-08). 

E.  Nestle. 
Biblioobapht:  The  BibU  of  Every  Land,  London,  1861; 
R.  N.  Gust,  Language  ae  lUuetraied  by  BibU  TrantUiint, 
ib.  188G;  idem,  Eeeaye  on  the  Languagee  of  the  BibU  ami 
BibU  TraneUUiona,  ib.  1800;  idem.  Three  LUte  of  Bihit 
Tranelaliona  accompliahed  .  .  .  to  Aug.  1,  1890,  ib.  1890; 
J.  S.  Dennis,  CenUnnial  Survey  of  Foreign  Mieeione,  New 
York,  1001;  £.  Wallroth.  in  AUgemeine  Mieeioneeiledffift, 
xviii,  1001;  T.  Nicol,  The  BibU  and  the  Church  and  ttf 
Miaeion  Field,  in  London  Quarterly  Review,  Jan.,  lOOi 
Tbe  ReporU  of  tbe  various  Bible  Sooieties  fumiBh  ^ 
souroes. 


BIBLES,  ANNOTATED,  AND  BIBLE  SUMMARIES. 


German. 

The  Ernestine  and  Tubingen  Bibles 

(§1). 
WQrttemberg  Bibles  (|  2). 
The     Marburg,      Berleburg,     and 

Ebersdorf  Bibles  (f  3). 
The  Wertheim  Bible  (|  4). 
Later  Works  (S  5). 


11.  English. 

Matthew's  and  the  Geneva  Bible 

(§1). 
The  Bishops'  Bible  (f  2). 
The  Authorized  Version  (f  3). 
John  Canne's  Notes,  1647  (f  4). 
Other  Works  to  1701  (|  6). 
Biatthew  Henry.     Other  Works  to 

1760  (I  6). 


Various  Works  after  1760  (|  7). 
Thomas  Soott  and  Others  to  1810  (f  8). 
Adam  Clarke,  D'Oyly  and  Mant,  and 

Bellamy,  1810-34  (|  0). 
Other  Works  1816-38  (§  10). 
Republication  in  America  (§  11). 
Original  American  Works  (f  12). 
Later  Works,  English  and  American 

(I  13). 


[Under  this  title  certain  works  are  mentioned 
which  give  the  text  of  the  Bible  with  annotations 
aiming  to  promote  its  proper  use  and  understanding. 
They  are  of  the  nature  of  commentaries,  and  a 
distinction  is  not  to  be  sharply  drawn.  The 
annotated  Bible,  however,  will  always  include 
the  text,  to  which  the  helps  are  strictly  subor- 
dinate; the  commentary  is  published  for  the  sake 


of  the  comments  and  frequently  does  not  include 
the  text.] 

L  German:  When  the  Reformation  made 
the  Bible  the  common  property  of  the  people, 
it  was  not  only  the  source  of  their  faith  and  piety, 
but  the  only  literature,  the  whole  intellectual 
world,  of  the  uneducated  classes.  The  more 
Luther's  Bible  was  cherished  as  the  compendium 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblea^  Anaotated 


o(  leligious  and  etliicol  truth  and  became  the  daily 
leading  of  the  people,  the  more  it  needed  exphiiia- 
ttyry&oU^,  Ab  early  as  l.>^]-3:i  Luther  pub  hilled 
iu^ "  Siunmaries  of  the  PMahiis/"  which  were  uicor- 
por»t£d  by  Hugciihagen  in  his  North  Saxon  Bible 
(Liibeck,  1534  l  In  the  High  German  Bible^ 
'*Mimmanes  and  brief  contents  of  all  the  chapters  '* 
lit  found  first  appended  to  the  Augsburg  etlition 
of  1535.  Rt-al  annotations  appeared  as  part^i  of 
Ibe  book  only  after  Luther's  death,  first  aa  mar- 
|)&.il  rotes  or  in  smaller  type  under  the  t€xt  (the 
Wittenberg  editions  of  LufFt,  15al,  and  KrafTt, 
1572*  the  latter  containing  the  argument.^  and  notea 
of  Vcit  Dietrich,  the  Nuremberg  preacher). 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  the  Re  for- 
mtkA  early  brought  the  Bible  into  everj-'  house. 
Them  were  no  small  cheap  editions,  and  the  Thirty 
Vcws*  Wat  made  the  earlier  onea  still  scarcer. 
Ihike  Ernest  the  Pious  of  Saxe-Weimar  (d.  1675; 
utErxest  L  the  Piors)  brought  about  the  publi- 
cation  of  the  famous  Ernestine  Bible,  on  which, 
W(«r plana  bdd  out  by  him,  nearly  thirty  prominent 
Iheotogi&iia  worked.  Every  community  was  to 
possess  a  copy;  if  they  were  poor,  the 

I.  The  dtdce  provided  it  wholly  or  in  part> 
Bmettine  xhe  actua!  work  of  preparation  begim 
■^ife^ea    in  1636,  and  was  completed  in   1640* 

B&Uet.  It  contained,  beisides  pictures  and 
maps,  and  a  running  commentary, 
titla  of  weights,  eoinsi,  etc.,  the  topography  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  crt>edi4  and  Augsburg  Confession. 
It  was  originally  sold  at  six  thalers,  but  the  price 
'  pidmilly  roe©  with  later  improvements  and  addi- 
tiocuil  illustrations,  until  its  general  circulation  was 
impeded.  The  Tubingen  Bible  (1730)  is  an  adap- 
tiim  of  this,  less  firm  in  its  dogmatic  stand,  by 
MHoph  Blatthaua  Pfaff  (q.v,),  professor  at 
Wogen,  and  his  brother-in-law,  Johann  Christian 

0160101. 

T^  lame    spirit    that    actuated    Duke    Ernest 

iftiaced  Eberhard  III  of  WOrttemberg  to  publish 

the    *•  WuHtemberg   Summaries  *^    in 

*^^^^     1669,  the  first  attempt  to  give  a  clear, 

ItblM*  precise,  and  connected  paraphrajse 
of  the  whole  Scriptures.  A  revised  and 
<i>Ivged  edition  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1709,  followed 
^yothera.  The  complete  revision  published  in  1787  by 
Mngiim  Friedrich  Roos,  Karl  Heinrich  Rieger.  and 
^'liiert  of  the  school  of  Bengel  was  less  clear,  objective, 
*wl  orthodox.  Another  WQrttemberg  edition  which 
*>WTCi  mention  is  the  New  Testament  published 
^  1701  by  the  court  preacher  Johann  Reinhard 
neriiiigvr  (q.v,);  it  was  marked  by  Pietistic  ilevia- 
l*n»  from  traditional  theology »  and  attracted 
WaitJon  by  its  sharp  rebukes  of  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
P**  U  large  and  especially  of  tlio  clergy. 

The  Dew  spirit  of  myptical  Pietism  which  influ- 
**oed  the  laat-tmmcd  work  was  fully  revealed  in 
*^  Marburg  Bible  (1712),  as  might  be  inferred  from 
«e  main  title,  *'  Mystical  and  Prophetic  Bible." 
Jo*  interpretation  of  ty^ie  and  prophecy  in  tins 
■*■»■»  the  federal  theology  of  Cocceius,  that  of 
^tidcA  and  Revelation  Madame  Guy  on.  It  was 
^  fornnmner  of  a  larger  work  in  the  same  spirit, 
««fMtjburg  Bible  of  1726-42  (H  vols,  folio), 
P^iMled  md  prepared  chiefly  by  Johimn  Heinnch 


Haug  (q.v.).     The  text  is  a  revision  of  Luther's, 
with    comparison  of  the   English  and    French  ver- 
sions; the  commentary  reni-cts  the  vieWH  of  the  Pliila- 
delphian    connnunitie^,    mid     quotea  i 
Marburg-     ^^^^    mystical    book.*!    current    among 
Berlebui'Ki  them,  especially  Madame  Guyon's,  but 
o-^ad         its  teaching  gcios  back  beynn<l  Dippel 


HberHdorf 


and  Petersen  to  Jakob  Bohme,  or  even 


4.  The 
Wert- 

Bible. 


Biblea.  -   .  .  .  ^     ,     , 

to  Ongen   m  some  points.      It  lacks 

unity  of  belief  and  of  treatment;  it  is  the  work  not 
of  a  single  mystic,  giving  voice  to  his  inner  eonvie* 
lions,  but  of  a  propagandist  sect  with  practical  tend- 
encies. It  is  not  without  value,  however,  from 
different  points  of  view;  it  edifies  by  its  continual 
applic4ition  of  Scriptural  w^ords  to  the  spiritual  life, 
and  it  prepares  the  way  for  historical  criticism  byoJi 
appendix  containing  apocrypha  (Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament), pseudepigrapha,  and  postapostoiic  wri- 
tings. In  the  same  year  (1726)  appeare<l  the  Ebers- 
dorf  Bible,  in  the  preparation  of  which  Zinzendorf 
shared.  Its  commentaries  are  altogether  in  bis 
spirit,  and  it  was  receive<l  with  favor  only  by  the 
friends  of  the  Herrnhut  community. 

When  the  emotional  mysticism  of  the  Pietists 
gave  way  to  the  prosaic,  commonplace  conceptions 
of  the  age  of  Enlightenment  (q.v.),  attempts  were 
made  to  replace  the  older  commentaries  by  work.s  con- 
ceived in  the  new  spirit.  The  Wertheim  Bible  ( 17^5) 
aroused  great  excitement  in  its  day,  both  in  Church 
and  State,  though  its  interest  now  is  purely  historical. 
This  was  only  the  first  part  of  a  projected  whole, 
and  contained  merely  the  Pentateuch.  The  gist 
of  the  long,  involved  preface  is  that 
the  traditional  ideas  about  the  Scrip- 
tures rested  on  pn^judice  and  un- 
scientific conceptions,  and  that  the 
attempt  was  now  n[iade  to  found  an 
exposition  of  their  real  meaning  on  adequate 
groimda  of  reason  and  historical  evidence.  It 
proposes  to  give  a  free  translation,  adapte<l  to 
modem  comprehension,  though  faitlif  ul  in  subatance, 
and  supplenjente*!  by  the  necessary  explanations. 
The  translation  is  hopelessly  b*dd  and  common- 
place to  our  taste;  the  editor  showed  some  orig- 
inality, however,  as  for  example  in  venturing  to 
discard  the  traditional  division  of  chapters  and 
verses.  The  general  philosophical  principles,  as 
well  as  the  critical  and  liistorical,  are  those  of  Wolf; 
in  spite  of  many  blimders,  a  fair  knowledge  of 
Hebrew  is  displayed.  The  editor's  name  is  not 
given,  but  it  was  soon  known.  He  was  Johann 
Loren*  Schmidt,  a  graduate  of  Jena,  personally 
much  respected,  who  was  then  tutor  to  the  young 
Count  von  Ldwenstein  at  Wertheim  in  Franconia. 
He  was  arrested  at  the  beginning  of  1737  ^nd  tho 
book  was  confiscated  by  the  imperial  authoritie^i. 
After  a  year's  close  imprisonment,  ho  was  allow eti 
more  liberty,  and  escaped  to  Holland.  The  literary 
war  which  raged  around  the  Wertheim  Bible  wa.i 
fierce  and  not  uninteresting.  In  1738  Schmidt 
published  a  collection  of  reviews  and  polemical 
pamphlets,  with  his  own  replies.  His  work  found 
imitators;  another  of  a  similar  nature,  with  mod- 
em deistic  explanations,  appeared  in  1756,  but  had 
little  iuccess;  and  the  excitement  over  the  frankly 
rationalistic  commentary  of  Nioolaus  Funk  (Altona, 


Bibles,  Annotated,  and 
[Bible  Summaries 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


156 


1815)  was  not  wide-spread  (cf.  J.  N.  Sinnhold, 
Ausfuhrliche  Histarie  der  Wertheim  Bibel,  Erfurt, 
1739). 

The  eighteenth  century  was  not  destitute  of 
attempts  to  carry  on  the  old  tradition  in  a  spirit 
of  orthodox  edification.  The  first  was  that  of 
Christoph  Starke  (New  Testament,  3  vols.,  1733 
sqq.;  Old  Testament,  6  vols.,  1741  sqq.),  which 
gave  Luther's  text  with  extended  comments  from 

_    -  older  expositors  and  ascetic  writers, 

Works,  introductions  to  each  book,  and  a 
summary  of  each  chapter.  Next 
came  the  Hirschberg  Bible  (1756-63),  an  excellent 
work  which  fell  flat  at  the  time  and  was  res- 
cued from  oblivion  only  by  a  reprint  in  1844 
under  the  patronage  of  Frederick  William  IV. 
The  age  was  not  favorable  to  the  spread  of  Biblical 
study,  and  but  a  few  readers  were  found  for  the 
oommentar}'  translated  from  E^nglish  expositors  by 
R.  Teller,  J.  A.  Dietelmayer,  and  Brucker  (19  vols., 
1749-70),  or  for  the  edition  of  Michaelis  (1769-92). 

But  the  revival  of  religious  devotion  ultimately 
made  itself  felt  in  this  field.  Friedrich  von  Meyer's 
revised  translation  with  short,  pointed  comments 
and  uncritical  introductions  appeared  in  1819. 
More  widely  read  were  Richter's  (1834-40)  and 
Lisco's  (1833-43).  A  more  learned  and  thorough 
work  was  that  of  Otto  von  Gerlach  in  6  vols.,  which 
is  still  popular  in  North  Germany,  as  is  the  Calwer 
Handbuch  der  Bibelerkl&rung  (1849)  in  the  South. 
Other  more  recent  editions  which  may  be  men- 
tioned here  are  those  of  Bunsen  (9  vols.,  1858-70), 
Christian  Mailer  (Collegium  Biblicum,  6  vols., 
1879-84),  Johann  Peter  Lange  (36  vols.,  1856-77), 
K.  A.  Dachsel  (illustrated,  7  vols.,  1865-80),  and 
R.  J.  Grau  (2  vols.,  1877-80).  [J.  F.  AUioli's  an- 
notated Bible  (6  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1830-34)  has 
been  very  popular  among  Roman  Catholics.] 

(H.  HttLSCHER.) 

n.  English:  As  a  rule,  Bible  societies  publish 
the  Scriptures  "  without  note  or  comment " — a 
wise  plan,  for  it  secures  the  widest  circulation  of 
the  Word  of  God.  In  early  times,  however,  when 
a  person  bought  a  Bible,  he  found  between  the 
covers  not  only  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments, 
but  a  commentary  in  the  notes  attached,  a  con- 
cordance at  the  end,  and  a  small  dictionary  in 
the  introduction  and  tables.  These  special  editions 
had  their  day,  and  fell  into  disuse,  for  very  evident 
reasons.  The  numerous  comments  made  the  vol- 
ume too  bulky  for  convenience  and  general  use; 
the  notes  were  likely  to  be  one-sided  and  subjec- 
tive, so  that  a  man's  theology  might  be  judged  by 
his  Bible,  from  its  being  supplied  with  comments 
by  Doddridge,  or  those  of  D'Oyly  and  Mant;  how- 
ever acceptable  the  annotations  might  be  for  a  time, 
eventually  they  were  superseded  by  later  scholar- 
ship. Moreover,  in  the  last  half-century  commen- 
taries, Bible  dictionaries,  and  concordances  have 
grown  into  great  volumes,  and  constitute  a  distinct 
class  of  literature.  They  have  found  their  true 
places  apart  from  the  inspired  words  of  the  Bible. 

Annotated  Bibles  date  back  to  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  Matthew's  Bible  (1537)  had  anno- 
tations, and  John  Rogers,  who  was  the  real  trans- 
lator of  this  Bible,  showed  by  his  notes,  especially 


on  the  subjects  of  faith,  holy  life,  and  repentance, 
that  he  was  in  full  touch  with  the  most  advanced 
Protestantism.  The  Geneva  Bible  (1560>  attained 
its  great  popularity  and  fame  by  its  prologues  and 
marginal  notes.  These  annotations  are  so  numer- 
ous and  miscellaneous  that  it  is  not  easy  to  give 

in  a  brief  statement  a  fair  lepreaen-    < 
1.  Kat-     tation  of  their  general  tenor.    Msoj    { 
^jj^^     are  strongly  antipapal,  and  for  thit    , 
Geneva     reason    they  were   espedaUy  accept^    ' 
Bible.       able   to  overzealous    Reformers.    Ai 
might  be  expected,  the  Geneva  notei 
are  also  Calvinistic.     When  the  Geneva  Bible  wai 
first  published,  Calvin   was   the  ruling  spirit  in 
Geneva.    All  the  features  of  his  theological,  eed»- 
siastical,  political,  and  social  system  are  acoordiogij 
reflected  in  the  marginal  annotations  of  the  Englkh 
Bible  that  issued  from  the  city  of  his  resid^ce. 
The  political  doctrine  of  the  book  was  as  much 
disliked  by  kings  of  the  absolute  order,  as  were  the 
ecclesiastical  notes  by  infallible  popes,  and  one 
of  the  reasons  that  led  King  James,  in  16Q4,  to 
agree  readily  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Soip- 
tures,  was  his  dislike  of  the  politics  preached  on 
the  margins  of  the  Geneva  Bible. 

The  marginal  notes  in  the  Bishops'  Bible  (1568) 
are  not  very  numerous,  and  they  are  generally 
not   interesting.    They  were  designed  mostly  for 
readers   of   weak    capacity.    A  few, 
^  ^® ,    which   are    valuable    and   entertainr 
Bible.      ^Ki  <^^  taken  verbatim,  without  ac- 
knowledgment,    from     the     Genevt 
Bible.    Some  of   them,   too,   remind   of  Geneva 
caps   and   predestination   in   a   way   that  would 
scarcely  be  expected  in  a  Bible  issued  by  a  body 
of   prelates.    The    distribution   of   notes   in  tbe 
Bishops'  Bible  is  very  irregular  and  unequal.    In 
some  books  hard  to  understand,  such  as  the  prophe- 
cies of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  the  notes  are  very 
sparse,  so  that  five  or  six  consecutive  pages  may 
be  found  here  and  there  without   a  single  anno- 
tation; while   in   other   books,    such   as   Geneos, 
Exodus,  Job,  and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  the  notes 
are  very  frequent. 

In  the  original  edition  of  the  Authorized  Version 
(1611),  the  number  of  marginal  references  to  cor- 
responding passages,  including  those  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha, was  about  9,000.    Large  as  this  number 
seems,  it  is  but  a  small  fraction  of  what  the  ref- 
erences now  amount  to  in  some  well-edited  Bibles. 
These  references,  doubtless,  have  their  value,  but 
it  can  not  be  denied  that  many  of  them  obscure 
the  meaning  of  the  statements  to  which  they  are 
attached.    It  is  different,  however,  with  what  are 
called  the  marginal  notes.    In  the  original  edition 
(1611)    these   notes   were   neariy  as 
8.  The     numerous  as  the  marginal  references. 
W* '"    ^   *^®   ^^^    Testament    there   were 
Version.    6,588  references  and  6,637  notes;  in 
the  New  Testament  1,517  references 
and    765    notes;     in    the   Apocrypha   885    refer- 
ences and  1,017  notes.    These  notes  are  brief  and 
non-polemical,    differing    in   these    respects   very 
markedly  from  the  annotations  in  both  Matthew's 
and  the  Geneva  Bible.    They  indicate,  for  the  most 
part,  alternative  or  more  literal  renderings.  In  some 


159 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bibles,  Annotated,  and 
[Bible  Summaries 


cases  they  specify  variant  readings  in  the  original 
text,  and,  in  other  cases,  they  give  brief  explanations 
of  words  or  expressions.  Not  a  few  of  the  alterna- 
tive rendering?  they  present  have  been  adopted, 
cither  verbatim  or  substantially,  in  the  revised 
version  of  1881-^.  The  headings  of  chapters 
in  the  translation  of  1611  were  new.  In  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  the  Geneva  Bible,  and  the  Great 
Bible,  all  the  chapters  were  headed  with  a  short 
table  of  contents;  but  the  King  James  translators 
prepared  tables  of  their  own.  And  these  tables, 
drawn  up  in  1611,  appear  in  many  editions  at  the 
present  day  unaltered,  save  in  some  twelve  in- 
stances. 

Other  Bibles  with  notes  from  the  pen  of  an- 
Dotators  appeared  and  in  course  of  time  became 
very  popiilar.  These  annotators  did  not  write 
■o  much  for  the  learned  as  for  the  common  people, 
md  their  Bibles  became  household  and  family 
books,  laying  stress   more  or  less  on 

4^  John     the  devotional    side.    John  Canne,  a 

^5^^*  Baptist  minister  (d.  1667?),  was  the 
1047.'  author  of  three  sets  of  notes  which 
accompanied  three  editions  of  the 
Bible.  His  great  ambition  was  "  to  make  the 
Bible  its  own  interpreter."  His  first  authenticated 
version  appeared  in  1647  at  Amsterdam,  imder  the 
title,  The  Bible,  with  Marginal  Note*^  Shewing 
Scripture  to  be  the  Beet  Interpreter  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  work  was  often  reprinted  (9  editions, 
between  1602  and  1754).  Orme,  in  his  Bibliotheca 
BMiea  (Edinburgh,  1824),  says  of  it,  "  The  mar- 
ginal references  of  Canne  are  generally  very  judi- 
cious and  apposite.  They  still  retain  a  considerable 
reputation,  though  most  of  the  latter  editions 
which  pass  under  the  name  of  Canne's  Bible  are 
full  of  errors,  and  crowded  with  references  which 
do  not  belong  to  the  original  author." 

In  1657  there  was  published  Annotatione  upon 
AU  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  .  .  . 
Wherein  the  text  is  explained,  doubts  resolved,  Scrip- 
tures paralleled,  and  various  readings  observed  by 
the  labor  of  certain  learned  divines  thereunto  appointed 
and  therein  employed,  as  is  expressed  in  the  preface, 
2  vols.,  London,  1657.  This  work  is  usually 
oalled  the  "  Assembly's  Annotations,"  from  the 
circumstance     of     its     having     been 

*-9^«'  composed  by  members  of  the  West- 
^2J**  minster  Assembly. — ^Another  popular 
1701.  work  of  the  same  character  was 
Annotalions  upon  the  Holy  Bible 
wherein  the  sacred  text  is  inserted,  and  various  read- 
ings annexed;  together  with  the  parallel  Scriptures. 
The  more  difficult  terms  explained;  seeming  con- 
tradictions reconciled;  doubts  resolved,  and  the 
whole  text  opened.  By  the  Rev.  Matthew  Poole, 
London,  1863, 2  vols.,  fo.  The  work  was  published 
in  many  editions.  Poole,  an  eminent  non-con- 
formist divine  (1624-79),  did  not  finish  it;  but 
it  was  completed  after  his  death. — Not  less  popular 
was  a  work  entitled.  The  Old  and  New  Testament, 
with  Annotations  and  parallel  Scriptures.  By 
Samuel  Clarke,  A.M.,  London,  1690.  Bishop 
Lloyd's  Bible  (London,  1701)  was  the  first  to  in- 
corporate Archbishop  Ussher's  chronology. 

In  1708  appeared  the  first  volume  of  Matthew 


Henry's  well-known  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament ;  four  other  volumes  (to  the  end  of  the 
Gospels)  were  published  in  1710,  and  a  sixth  volmne 
(the  Book  of  Acts)  from  Henry's  manuscript  after 
his  death  (1714);  the  work  was  completed  by  vari- 
ous non-conformist  clergymen  (see  Henry,  Mat- 
thew). It  long  enjoyed  a  high  and 
6.  Matthew  deserved  reputation,  and  is  distin- 
^nry.  guished,  not  for  depth  of  learning  or 
Works  oiginality  of  views,  but  for  sound 
to  1760.  practical  piety,  and  the  large  measiure 
of  good  sense  wliich  it  discovers. — Dr. 
Edward  Wells  edited  between  the  years  1709 
and  1728,  An  Help  for  the  more  Easy  and  Clear 
Understanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  after  the  fol- 
lowing method  :  1.  The  common  English  translation 
rendered  more  agreeable  to  the  original.  2.  A  para- 
phrase wherein  the  text  is  explained,  and  divided 
into  proper  sections,  and  lesser  dhnsions.  3.  An- 
notations. 4.  Preface,  8  vols. — Patrick,  Lowth, 
Whitby,  and  Arnold's  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  a 
work  of  a  similar  character,  appeared  in  London, 
1727-60, 7  vols.,  and  was  reprinted  as  late  as  1821. 
According  to  Orme,  Patrick  was  ''  the  most  sen- 
sible and  useful  commentator  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. He  had  a  competent  measure  of  learning 
for  the  undertaking,  of  which  he  never  makes  any 
ostentatious  display.  The  elder  Lowth  completed 
the  work  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  Whitby  com- 
mentated on  the  New  Testament.  Neither  Patrick 
nor  Lowth  has  so  much  Arminianism  as  Whitby, 
though  they  all  belong  to  the  same  theological  school. 
Whitby  was  superior  to  both  in  acuteness  and 
research,  but  if  the  reader  do  not  find  in  them  the 
same  talent,  he  will  be  exposed  to  less  injury  from 
specious  and  sophistical  reasonings  against  some 
important  doctrines  of  Christianity." — John  Gill 
published  An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  which  iie  sense  of  the  sacred  text  is  given ; 
doctrinal  and  practical  truths  are  set  in  a  plain  and 
easy  light ;  difficult  passages  explained ;  seeming 
contradictions  reconciled  ;  and  whatever  is  material 
in  the  various  readings,  and  the  several  Oriented 
versions,  is  observed.  The  whole  illustrated  by 
notes  from  the  most  antient  Jewish  writings.  By 
John  Gill,  D.D.,  9  vols,  fo.,  London,  1748-63; 
9  vols.  4to,  London,  1809.  Gill  gives  a  sxmimary 
of  each  chapter.  Orme  says  of  him,  ''  Had  Dr. 
Gill  fulfilled  the  promise  of  his  title  page,  no  other 
commentary  on  the  Bible  could  have  been  required. 
But  he  moves  through  his  exposition  like  a  man  in 
lead,  and  overwhelms  the  inspired  writers  with 
dull  lucubrations  and  rabbiniciU  lumber.  He  is 
an  ultra-Calvinist  in  his  doctrinal  sentiments; 
and  often  spiritualizes  the  text  to  absurdity.  If 
the  reader  be  inclined  for  a  trial  of  his  strength 
and  patience,  he  may  procure  the  burden  of  Dr. 
Gill.  He  was,  after  all,  a  man  of  undoubted 
learning,  and  of  prodigious  labour." — A  very  popular 
work  was  an  English  translation  of  Jean  Fr^d^ric 
Osterwald's  Argumens  et  reflexions  sur  V6eriture 
sainte  (NeuchAtel,  1709-15  and  often;  see  Oster- 
WALD,  Jean  Frederic),  which  appeared  under 
the  title,  The  Arguments  of  the  Books  and  Chap- 
ters of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  practical 
observations.     Translated   by   John  Chamberlayne, 


Bibles,  Annotated,  and 
[Bible  Summaries 


THE  NEW  SCHAPF-HERZOQ 


160 


Esq. J  London,  1749,  3  vols.;  fifth  edition,  enlarged, 
2  vole.,  London,  1779. 

Chamberlayne's  work  was  followed  by  A  New 
and  Literal  Translation  of  all  the  Books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  xoith  Notes  critical  and  ex- 
planatory. By  Anthony  Purver  (2  vols.,  London, 
1764).  Purver  was  a  Quaker  and  originally  a 
shoemaker.  He  taught  himself  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin,  in  order  that  he  might  understand  the 
Bible.  His  work  is  often  ungrammatical,  and 
unintelligible;  the  notes  are  very  similar  to  the 
text  and,  what  is  worse,  full  of  pride  and  ill-nature. 
Notwithstanding  these  defects,  Purver 
7.  Various  sometimes  gives  a  better  rendering 
^^J."  than  occurs  in  the  Authorized  Version. 
1760.  — One  year  later  appeared  The  Evan- 
gelical Expositor;  or  a  Commentary 
on  the  Holy  Bible,  wherein  the  Sacred  Text  is  inserted 
at  large,  the  sense  explained,  and  different  passages 
elucidated,  with  practical  observations,  etc.  By 
T.  Haweis,  LL.B.,  M.D.,  London,  1765,  2  vols.; 
Glasgow,  3  vols.  4to,  and  various  editions.  Haweis 
(d.  1820)  was  rector  of  Aldwinkle,  Northampton- 
shire; his  work  had  little  value. — Next  to  be 
mentioned  is  The  Complete  Family  Bible  :  or  a 
Spiritual  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament ; 
wherein  each  chapter  is  summed  up  in  its  context, 
and  the  sacred  text  inserted  at  large,  xoith  Notes, 
spiritual,  practical,  and  explanatory.  By  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Cruden,  London,  1770,  2  vols. — In  the  same 
year  appeared  a  similar  work  under  the  title, 
A  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  which  are  inserted  the  Notes  and  Collections 
of  John  Locke,  Esq.,  Daniel  Waterland,  D.D.,  and 
the  Right  Hon.  Edward,  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and 
other  learned  persons,  with  practical  improvements. 
By  W.  Dodd,  LL.D.,  London,  1770,  3  vols.  This 
is  mostly  a  compilation,  the  chief  value  of  which 
consists  in  notes  furnished  from  the  original  papers 
of  John  Locke,  Dr.  Waterland,  Lord  Clarendon, 
Gilbert  West,  and  some  others.  Great  use  is  also 
made  of  some  of  the  printed  and  long-established 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  such  as  Calmet,  Houbi- 
gant,  and  Doddridge.  Adam  Clarke  said,  rather 
hyperbolically,  that  it  was  on  the  whole  by  far 
the  best  conmient  that  had  yet  appeared  in  the 
English  language. — The  next  work  to  be  men- 
tioned is  The  Self-Interpreting  Bible,  containing 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments,  to  which  are  annexed 
an  .  .  .  introduction,  margined  references  and  iUus- 
trations  .  .  .  explanatory  notes  .  .  .  etc.,  etc.  By 
the  late  Rev.  John  Brown,  Minister  of  the  Gospel  at 
Haddington,  London,  1778,  2  vols.  It  was 
repeatedly  reprinted,  and  proved  almost  as  popular 
south  as  north  of  the  Tweed. — Henry  Southwell 
published  a  Bible,  Authorized  Version ;  with  notes 
etc.;  wherein  the  mis-translations  are  corrected, 
London,  1782. — Another  work  of  a  similar  character 
is  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  carefully  printed  from  the  first 
edition  (compared  with  oOiers)  of  the  present  trans- 
lation ;  with  notes  by  Thomas  Wilson,  D.D.,  Bishop 
of  Sodor  and  Man,  and  various  renderings,  collected 
from  other  translations,  by  the  Rev.  Clement  Crutwell, 
editor,  I^ndon,  1785,  8  vols.  Bishop  Wilson's 
notes  are  merely  brief  hints  either  for  the  expla- 


nation or  the  practical  improvement  of  particiiltf 
passages.  Dr.  Thomas  Paris,  in  the  Cambiidge 
Bible  of  1762,  and  Dr.  B.  Blayney,  in  the  Oxfoid 
Bible  of  1769,  added  considerably  to  the  number 
of  marginal  notes  and  references. 

But  far  more  popular  than  any  of  the  wdHs 
already  mentioned  was  the  Bible  with  oommentaiy 
edited  by  Rev.  Thomas  Scott  (q.v.)-  It  had  the 
largest  circulation  and  sustained  it  through  msiqr 
years.  It  appeared  under  the  title,  The  Holy  BiUt, 
containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments;  viA 
original  notes,  practical  observations,  and  eopiom 
marginal  references.    By  Thomas  Scott,  Redor  0/ 

Aston    Sandford  (London,  1788,  and 

8.  Thomas  often).    As  a  commentary  Dr.  Sootfi 

'Soott      work  was  superior  to  any  that  had 

Others      appeared    before    its    time.    Hoiim^ 

to  1810.    usually  a  discriminating  judge,  speab 

of  it  in  high  praise  (cf.  his  Mcanud 
of  Biblical  Bibliography,  London,  1839,  p.  259).— 
In  1799  appeared  A  Revised  Translation  and  /nJkr- 
pretation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  after  the  Eattsm 
manner,  from  concurrent  authorities  of  critics,  inkr- 
preters,  and  commentators'  copies  and  veniom; 
shewing  that  the  inspired  writings  contain  the  sesdi 
of  the  valuable  sciences,  being  the  source  vfkaut 
the  antient  philosophers  derived  them,  also  the  mod 
antient  histories  and  greatest  antiquities,  and  an 
the  most  entertaining  as  well  as  instructing  is  bcA 
the  curious  and  serious  (by  David  Macrae,  or 
J.  M.  Ray,  J.  McRay,  or  D.  McRae;  Glas- 
gow, 1799;  2d  ed.,  1815;  4to,  also  in  3  vols.  8va). 
The  author  introduced  many  improved  rendering 
but  marred  the  simplicity  and  dignity  of  the 
Authorized  Version. — ^Another  noteworthy  anno- 
tated Bible  IB  that  of  John  Reeves,  which  speared 
in  ten  volimies  in  London,  1802.  The  explana- 
tory notes  are  based  on  Wells's  Paraphrase,  and  the 
commentaries  of  Patrick,  Lowth,  Whitlsy,  and 
others.  A  similar  work  was  the  so-called  "Re- 
formers' Bible,"  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  according  to  the  Authorized 
Version,  with  short  Notes  by  several  learned  and 
pious  Reformers,  as  printed  by  Royal  Authority 
at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  with  additional  Notes 
and  Dissertations,  London,  1810.  The  notes  in 
the  Old  Testament  in  this  edition  are  taken  from 
the  Geneva  Bible,  the  annotations  of  the  New 
Testament  from  the  Latin  of  Theodore  Besa. 

Also  in  1810  there  began  to  be  published  TU 
Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments : 
the  Text  carefully  printed  from  the  most  corred 
copies  of  the  present  authorised  translation,  including 
the  marginal  readings  and  parallel  texts;  with  a 
Commentary,    and   Critical    Notes,  designed  as  a 

help  to  a  better  understcmding  of  the 

9.  Adam    Sacred  Writings.     By  Adam    Clarke, 

iroyiy     ^^•^"    F.AJS.,     London,      1810-26. 

and        The  author,  a  Wesleyan  minister  (see 

Kant,      Clarke,  Adam),  attained  a  high  repu- 

^  *^*        tation  as  a  student  of  Oriental   lan- 

1810^4.'   S^^S^-    Thescopeof  theconmientary 

is  expressed  in  its  own  words:  "In 
this  work  the  whole  of  the  text  has  been  col- 
lated with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  originals,  and  all 
the    ancient   versions;  the    most   difficult    words 


RELIGIOUS  ENCi^CLOPEDIA 


Bibles,  Annotated t  and 
[Bible  Summ&rieB 


imlyied  and  explained*  the  most  important 
readings  in  the  Hebrew  collectioius  of  Kennicott 
ind  De  Roasi  on  the  Old  Testanie«t,  and  in  tlioso 
of  Mill,  Wetstcin,  and  Griesbach  on  the  New,  are 
ontioetl;  the  date  of  every  tranRaction,  as  far  a^i 
it  baa  been  ascertained  by  the  best  chronoU 
ogiTti,  in  marked;  the  peculiar  customs  of  the 
Jtwi  and  neighboring  nations^  so  frequently 
itiuded  to  by  the  prophets,  evangelists,  and  apoatles, 
an  eiplained  from  the  best  Asiatic  authorities; 
tiki  great  doctrines  of  the  Law  and  Gospel  of  GcmJ 
ir«  defined,  illustrate,  and  defended;  and  the 
vbole  10  applied  to  the  important  purposes  of  prac- 
tictl  ChrisUaiiity.'*  A  considerable  popularity 
VM  ichieved  also  by  D*Oyly  and  Mant's  com- 
mentary. The  Holy  Bible  according  to  the  Authorised 
ymiati,  vnik  Notes  erplanaiory  and  practical, 
taken  principally  from  the  most  eminent  writers  of 
Vniitd  Church  of  England  and  Ireland  ;  together 
uppropriale  introduciions,  tables,  indexes, 
[,  and  plans,  prepared  and  arranged  by  ike  Rev. 
fl^lfOyly,  B.D.,  and  Rev,  Richard  Mant,  D.D., 
Oiford  and  London,  1814,  3  vo!a,,  and  various 
fobseqaent  editions  printed  at  Cambridge  and 
Oxford.  "  This  work,  which  was  published  under 
tbettDction  of  the  venerable  Society  for  Promoting 
Chfwtiaa  Knowledge,  professes  to  communicate 
only  the  results  of  the  critical  inquiries  of  learned 
nro,  without  giving  a  detailed  exposition  of  the 
UMjuiriei  themselves.  These  remilt^,  however,  are 
wUotod  with  great  judgment,  so  that  the  reader 
tho  may  consult  them  on  difficult  passages  will 
im^  be  diaappoin  ted »  O  f  the  i  abou  r  at  tending  tliis 
{nbUcation  some  idea  may  be  formed,  when  it  is 
•t»ted  thai  the  works  of  upward  of  one  hundred 
i»J  Bttty  authors  have  been  consulted  for  it, 
UKumitiiig  to  several  hundred  volumes.  On  thefun- 
dmotil  articles  of  Christian  verity — the  LXnty 
nditooement  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  personality 
IBd  <K(ficefi  of  the  Holy  Spirit— this  work  may  bo 
pnnumaced  to  be  a  library  of  divimty"  {Home, 
utfup,  pp,  261-262). — A  work  of  a  similar  charactjer 
»»»  The  Holy  Bible,  newly  translated  from  the  otig- 
M  Hebrew,  wUh  Notes  critical  and  explanalory. 
By  Mfi  Bellamy,  London,  1818^4.  Omie  con- 
«tdpw  It  a  strange  hodgepodge  of  error,  confi- 
'^ou*,  misrepresentation,  and  abuse  of  learnctl  antl 
nluiLhle  writers  in  all  the  departments  of  Biblical 
litovture. 

fte?.  B.  Boothroyd  edited  A  New  Family 
^,  ond  Improved  Version,  from  corrected  Tciis 
*/  Uf  Originals,  xinth  Notes  critical  and  ezplana- 
<*>;  and  short  Pradical  Refleclions  on  each  Chap- 
*p.  PbBtef ract  and  Ixindon,  181S-23,  3  vols.  The 
*itW  has  very  happily  blended  critical  disqui- 
^tiimwith  practical  instruction,  and  an  invariable 
''pH  to  the  spirit  and  design  of  revelation. — - 
^  I82t  there  appeared  The  Plain  Render's  Help 
*^  ^  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  cownBting  of 
"^,  expianaiory  and  illustrative,  chiefly  selected 
» ^M^td  from  the  Family  BibU,  pitblished  by  the 
5«%  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  By 
^  Btv.  WiUiam  Thomas  Bree,  M.A.,  Coventrj^ 
UQl-22.  The  aim  was  to  supply  brief  and  un- 
***MeaI  notes  at  a  moderate  price  for  readers 
^  ttwild  not  procure  or  consiilt  larger  works* — 

n.-u 


In  1824  appeared  The  Holy  Bible,  arranged  and 
adapted  for  family  reading,  with  notes,  etc.  by  a 
Layman  of  the  Church  of  England  (2 
^^^*^®*'  vols.,  London). — Another  popular 
1818-38.  R'^I^  wa.^  the  so-called  Cottage  Bible 
and  Family  Expositor ;  containing 
the  Authorized  Translation  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  with  Practical  Refiections  and  short 
Explanatory  N^otes^  calculated  to  elucidate  difficuU 
and  obscure  Passages.  By  Thomas  Williams f 
London,  1825-27,  3  vols.,  and  various  subsequent 
editions,  Tlus  unassuming  but  cheap  and  useful 
commentary  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  pro- 
fessedly designed  for  persons  and  families  in  the 
humbler  walks  of  life. — There  is  also  to  be  men- 
tioned The  Comprehensive  Bible  ;  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  according  to  the  Authorized 
Version,  wUh  the  various  readings  and  marginal 
noteit  usually  printed  therewith ;  a  general  iniro^ 
duction,  containing  disquisitions  on  the  genuinerie99f ; 
authenticUy,  and  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,'—'  ' 
various  divisions  and  marks  of  distinction  in  the 
sacred  Writings, — antient  versions, — coins,  weights^ 
OTid  measures, — various  sects  among  the  Jews : 
introductions  and  concluding  remarks  to  each  book  ; 
the  parallel  passages  contained  in  the  Bev.  J.  Scot^s 
Commentary,  Cannc^M  Bible ^  Rev.  J.  Broum's  Self- 
interpreting  Bible,  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary, 
and  the  English  Version  of  the  PolygloU.  Bible  syst^em^ 
atically  arranged  ;  philological  and  explanatory  notes ^ 
WUh  chronologieat  and  other  tndejre.?  (by  William 
Greenfield,  London,  1827).— In  1828  there  was 
published  The  Holy  Bible  .  .  .  principally  designed 
to  facilitate  the  audible  or  social  reading  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures ;  lUustrated  mlh  notes,  historical ^  geo- 
graphical, and  otherwise  explanatory,  and  also  point' 
ing  Old  the  futfdm^nt  of  various  prophecies.  By 
WiUiam  Akiander— vol.  i — the  Pentateuch— York, 
1828;  two  other  volumes  were  planned  but  did  < 
not  appear).  This  Bible  owed  ita  origin  to  efforts  « 
of  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Pasaagies 
**  unsuitable  for  a  mixed  audience  "  were  printed 
in  italics  below  the  text, — ^C.  Girdlestone  edited 
The  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  a  commen- 
tary,  consisting  of  short  lectures  for  the  daily  uss 
of  families,  London,  1836-42. — Another  Bible  of 
the  same  style  was  the  Treasury  Bible.  Ftrd 
division  :  containing  the  authorized  English  Versu^n 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  printed  in  Bagster*a  Poly^ 
glott  Bible,  with  the  soTne  copious  and  original  ssfso-  I 
tion  of  references  to  parallel  and  Utustrative  passages ,  . 
and  similarly  printed  in  a  centre  column.  Second 
division  :  containing  the  Treasury  of  Scripture 
Knowledge,  consisting  of  a  rich  and  copious  assem* 
blage  of  upwards  of  five  hundred  thousand  paraUd  ' 
texts,  from  Canne,  Brown,  Blayney,  Scott,  and  others, 
with  numerous  illustrative  notes,  London,  1835.-^ 
In  1837  there  was  published  The  Condensed  Com^ 
mentary  and  Family  Exposition  of  the  Holy  Bible  : 
containing  the  best  criticisms  of  the  most  valuabte 
Biblical  Writers,  with  practical  reflections  and  moT' 
ginal  references  ;  chronology ^  indexes,  etc,  etc.  By 
the  Rev.  Ingram  Co6dtn,  M,A,f  London «  1837* 
This  work  is  literally  a  oondensed  commentary, 
derived  from  the  best  accessible  sources.  The 
notes  are  brief^  but  weU  cho^o,  and  are  partly 


Bibles,  Annotated 
Bible*;  Hletorioal 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HER20G 


m 


critical  and  explanatory,  partly  practical.  They 
are  taken  from  nearly  two  hundred  writers,  British 
and  foreign. — ^Another  annotated  Bible  was  edited 
by  the  Rev.  C.  Wellbeloved,  The  Holy  Bible,  a 
New  Translation,  wiUi  introdtuiory  remarks,  notes 
explanatory  and  critical,  and  practical  reflections,  2 
vols.,  London,  1838.  It  is  Unitarian  and  designed 
principally  for  the  use  of  families. 

The  standard  English  version  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  (the  '*Douai"  Bible;  see  Bible  Vbr- 
BION8,  B,  IV,  {  5),  was  provided  with  notes  setting 
forth  and  defending  the  Roman  standpoint.  The 
later  amiotated  English  Bibles  of  the  Catholics  are 
based  chiefly  upon  these  notes.  Richard  Challoner 
(q.v.)  and  George  Leo  Haydock  (The  Holy  Bible, 
2  vols.,  Manchester,  1811-14;  revised  Reims  and 
Douai  text  with  extensive  notes)  are  well-known 
Roman  Catholic  annotators.  Most  of  the  ''minor 
versions  "  enumerated  in  {  8  of  the  article  on  Eng- 
lish versions  (Bible  Versions,  B,  IV)  are  anno- 
tated. 

The  popular  works  of  England  were  reissued  in 
America.  The  first  American  edition  of  Scott's 
commentary  was  printed  and  published  by  W.  Wood- 
ward of  Philadelphia  in  1804  in  4  vols.  Other 
issues  followed  by  different  publishers,  most 
of  them  from  the  press  of  Woodward  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  that  of  Samuel  T.  Armstrong  of  Boston. 
The  most  popular  form  of  the  book  was  an  octavo 
of  six  volumes.  Scott's  Bible  had  a  continuous 
sale  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  as  late  as  1844 
W.  E.  Dean,  2  Ann  Street,  New  York,  published 
an  edition  in  three  volumes. — ^Adam  Clarke's 
commentary  was  published  by  Ezra  Sargeant,  86 
Broadway,  New  York,  in  1811. — Osterwald's 
Observations  appeared  in  1813  with  this  imprint: 
"  New  York:  Published  by  Evert  Duyckinck,  John 
Tiebout,  G.  &  R.  Waite,  and  Websters  &  Sldnners 
of  Albany.  Grcorge  Long,  Printer." — The  first 
American  edition  of  Matthew  Henry's  Exposition 
appeared  in  Philadelphia  in  1816, 
11.  Bepub-  published  by  To  war  and  Hogan  in  six 

lication  volumes.  They  also  issued  a  stereo- 
Axnerioa  *'yP®^  edition  in  three  volumes  in  1829. 
Burder  and  Hughes  of  the  same  city 
issued  a  six  volume  edition  in  1828,  with 
preface  by  Archibald  Alexander. — D'Oyly  and 
Mant's  Bible  with  conunentary  was  reprinted  in 
New  York  in  181»-20  by  T.  and  J.  Swords,  160 
Pearl  Street.  This  edition  has  additional  notes 
from  the  pen  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  H.  Hobart,  D.D., 
bishop  of  New  York,  who  quotes  from  a  large  num- 
ber of  Biblical  scholars,  mainly  in  the  Anglican, 
Scottish,  and  American  Episcopal  Churches,  who 
had  not  been  noticed  by  the  English  editors. — 
Thomas  Williams's  Cottage  Bible,  reedited  by  the 
Rev.  William  Patton,  was  printed  in  two  octavo  vol- 
umes by  Conner  &  Cooke,  New  York,  in  1833.  It 
contains  numerous  engravings  and  several  maps, 
and  was  intended  chiefly  for  the  use  of  Sunday- 
schools  and  Bible-classes.  The  plates  were  sold 
by  the  New  York  printers,  and  in  after-years  the 
editions  were  issued  at  Hartford,  Conn. — Green- 
field's Comprehensive  Bible  was  issued  in  1839  with 
the  imprint  of  "Robinson  &  Franklin,  successors 
to   Leavitt,   Lord  &  Co.,   180  Broadway."    The 


book  is  a  thick  quarto  of  1,460  pages.  TTieAmerieu 
issue  was  also  published  by  Lippincott,  Gambo 
&  Co.,  Philadelphia,  in  1854,  and  by  J.  B.  Lippii^ 
cott  &  Co.  in  1857.  Canne's  mar^nal  notes  and 
references  appeared  in  many  editions  of  Ampni^ 
household  and  family  Bibles,  and  John  Brown*! 
Self-InterpreHng  Bible  was  frequently  reprodueei 
The  American  Tract  Society  early  published  a 
family  Bible  with  brief  notes  and  instructioiis  and 
many  editions  were  printed.  Eugene  Cummiikej, 
of  Philaddphia,  published  various  editions  for  Ro- 
man Catholics,  such  as  The  Holy  Bible,  transIM 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  with  annotations,  referents, 
etc.  Isaiah  Thomas,  the  famous  author  of  the 
History  of  Printing  in  America,  published  and  sold 
the  Authorized  Version  with  notes  at  his  pres  in 
Worcester  Mass.;  various  editions  i^peaied  after 
1791. 

One  of  tne  earliest  productions  of  the  Phila- 
ddphia  press  was  The  Christian's  New  and  Cim- 
pleU  Family  Bible,  published  by  William  Wood- 
house  in  1790.  It  was  issued  in  numbers,  and  the 
Rev.  Paul  Wright,  D.D.,  vicar  of  Oakley,  is  8ai>- 
posed  to  have  been  the  editor. — The  CohashiM 
Family  and  PtUpit  Bible  bears  the  imprint,  "Boston: 
Published  by  Joseph  Teal,  printed  by  J.  H.  A.  Frost, 
opposite  U.  S.  Bank,  Congress  Street,  1822."  It 
claims  to  be  a  "  corrected  and  improved  American 
edition  of  the  Popular  En^ish  Family  Bible," 
supplied   "  with   concise   notes   and   annotatioas, 

theological,   historical,   chronotogical, 

^^'^J*'^  critical,    practical,    moral,    and  ex- 

Worlw!^  planatory";  also  containing  "suiidiy 

important  received  various  readingi 
from  the  most  ancient  Hebrew  and  Greek  manu- 
scripts and  the  most  celebrated  versions  of  Scnp- 
ture.  Also,  sundry  corrections  and  improvements 
of  our  excellent  En^ish  version  (generally  admitted 
by  learned  Christians  of  every  name)  with  references 
to  authors,  versions,  and  manuscripts;  also,  an 
illustrative  argument  prefixed  to  each  sacred  book 
or  epistle,  from  the  best  authorities."  The  volume 
is  a  folio,  embellished  with  thirty-six  engravings. 
The  book  was  issued  in  numbere  and  had  more  than 
three  thousand  subscribers.  The  Rev.  Jonathan 
Homer,  D.D.,  of  Newton,  Mass.,  revised  the  ob- 
servations, and  condensed  some  of  the  notes  and 
enlarged  others.— In  1826  The  CbUaUral  BibU 
made  its  appearance  with  the  following  imprint: 
"  Philadelphia:  Printed  by  Samuel  F.  Bradford, 
and  by  E.  Bliss  and  E.  White,  New  York.  J.  Hard- 
ing, Prmter,  1826."  This  book  was  edited  by 
William  McCorkle,  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Esra  Stiles 
Ely,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  the  Rev. 
Gregory  T.  Bedell,  A.M.,  rector  of  St.  Andrew's 
Church,  Philadelphia.  ''In  this  work  the  best 
marginal  references  are  printed  at  large,  and  in 
connection  with  every  passage,  by  which  means 
every  parallel  or  related  phrase  in  the  sacred  volume 
is  brought  at  once  under  the  eye,  so  as  to  present 
the  whole  scope  and  subject  of  every  text  at  a 
single  view  "  (Home,  Biblical  Bibliography,  p.  86). 
The  three  volumes  comprised  only  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  the  New  Testament  part  was  never 
attempted. — The  Devotional  Family  Bible  was 
edited   by   the   Rev.   Alexander   Fletcher,    D.D., 


L63 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible*,  Annotated 
Bibles.  SlatoHcAl 


with   practical   and   experimentiil  refiectiona  on 

verse  of  the  Old  and  New  Tcstamejits,  and 

marginal  referencctj/'     An  edition  in  quarto 

fifty-seven  ill ust rations  was  published  with 

imprint:  '*  Ix)ndon    and    New    York:  Virtue, 

and  C/ompany.'*     The  title-page    has  no 

J,  though  0*Cal!aghiui  assigns  the  publication  to 

year  1835. 

f  more  moijem  works  of  a  similar  character 
following  may  be  mentioned:   the  Lange  com- 
latajy,  translated  and  edited,  with  additions,  by 
Philip   SchaflF  and   others    (26   vols., 
*W^**'  New  York,  1S86-88);   the  work  com- 
HiT  li*h     ™°^y  known  as  the  "  Speaker's  Com- 
and*       mentary  "  (because  suggested  by  the 
American.  ^**^     ^on.     J.     Evelyn      Denison. 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons)^ 
R    C.    Cook    (10    vols.,   London,    1871-81); 
Cambridge    Bibk  for    Sch^x}ls   and  Colleges  ^  ed. 
.  8-  Perowne  (48  vols.,  Cambridge,  1877  eqq.); 
p  EUicott's  Commerttary  for  English  Readers 
vols.,  London,  1877-64) j    J.  H.  Blunt's  Anno- 
BSbU  .  ,  .  a   Household  Commentarif  on  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (3  vols,,  London,   1878);    Clark'a 
Handbooks  far  Bible  Classes^  ed.  M.  Dods  and  A. 
Whytc    {47    vols.,    Edinburgh,    1879    sqq.);     the 
Anterican  Commentary  (Baptist;    N,  T.  complete, 
md.  Alvah  Hovey,  7  vols.,  O.  T.,  4  vols. — Lev.  and 
Num.,   Job,   Eccles.,   Prov.  and  Song  of  Songs — 
published  at  present,  1881  iqq.);    the  International 
iUuatraUd  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  ed. 
Phaip  Schaff   (4  vols.,  New   York,    1889);    J.   G. 
Butler,  BiMe  Work  (11  vols.,  1892);  the  Nem  Cen- 
piry  Bible,  ed.  W.  F.    Adeney   (N.  T.    complete. 
Id  vols.;  O.  T.,  10  vols,  issued,  Ix)ndon,  1901  sqq.); 
mad  the  Temj^  Bible  (31  voK,  London,  190M}3; 
especially  useful  for  reading  because   the  text  is 
paragraphed  according  to  the  sense,  and  chapter 
and  verse  divisions  are  rel^ated  to  the  margin). 
The  so-called  **  Teachers'  Bibles,"  of  which  many 
were  jniblisbed  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth oentuiy,  may  also  be  mentioned. 

Btblioow  *rT:  G.  W,  P&nier,  GtMchichle  der  dcuUt^n  Bi- 
lAQbgrwettuno  Dr.  Af.  Luthert  von  lSi7SS,  Nun»[nb«rK. 
1791;  J.  A,  GoM.  UeberUick  Hber  Luthen  .  ,  .  DotmeUch- 
wmo  1^  tmliaen  Sthrift  und  die  ,  .  .  seiner  Zeit^fena^- 
MfV  Nuramberg,  1824;  W.  Orm«,  BibtkitJustii  Bihtica, 
EdlDborvb.  1824;  F.  H.  Home,  Manual  a/  Biblical  B^ 
tiogropky.  LondoD.  1839;  M.  Gdbel,  GeMchithie  det  chruU 
liefc#n  Ltdbent  in  der  rikin^Mtcff  A/i«cAen  evanffeliechen  Kirche^ 
voliL  ii.  iii*  Ooblena,  1852-60;  A.  Beck,  Ernst  der  Fromme, 
%  ToU.,  Wwimar,  1865:  A.  EitBchI,  Geachichte  det  Pie- 
Mtmm*.  voli.  i.  li,  Bonn.  lSSO-84;  W.  Bt^hne,  Diepndago- 
#tjdb«i»  BMlnbunffen  Hertog  Ernst  .  .  .  von  Qotha,  Gf)th&, 
1S88;  G.  Frank.  iKv  Wertheimtr  BibelUbermtmnff  vor  dem 
ReiehMkofrat  in  Wien,  in  ZKO.  xii  C18Q1),  2. 

BIBLES  FOR  CHILDREN:  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  present  the  Bible  in  the  form 
of  a  *'  child^s  book/'  The  selection  of  parts  beat 
adapted  to  immatiu^  minds  and  the  omission  of 
the  unaui table,  with  simplification  of  language, 
are  the  chief  aims  in  such  attempts.  Illustrations; 
coarse  print,  and  other  typographical  devices  are 
natujnily  used  freely.  Such  books  spring  from  the 
conviction  that  the  Bible  contains  apiritual  truth 
for  all  and  is  the  greatest  instrument  for  awakening 
religious  feehng  and  quickening  moral  perception, 
but  that  Ita  usefulness  for  these  ends  is  Decessarily 


conditioned  upon  the  form  of  presentation  and  that 
tho  latter  may  well  be  varied  for  different  classes  of 
readers.  The  following  list  mentions  some  note- 
worthy bookn  of  till  a  sort  in  English,  but  makes 
no  claim  to  completeness. 

An  AbridQcment  &f  the  Holy  Scnpturet.  By  the  Rev,  Mr^ 
SeilQn,  late  MiniMter  ef  St.  Jame»*a.  Clerkemveil,  pubUflhud 
in  1781  %nd  many  later  e4a.,  at  Hart  Ford  by  HaL«  and  Hoa- 
mer,  1813. 

The  Bible  for  Children.  Arran^fed  from  the  Kino  Jame* 
Version,  With  a  Preface  by  the  Hev.  Francis  Brown,  D,D.^ 
and  an  Introduction  by  the  Right  Rev.  Henry  C,  P<>tter,  DM. 
[compiled  by  M™,  Joseph  B.  Gilder],  New  York  [19021. 

The  Bible  Story  Re-told  for  Youtio  People:  the  Old  Testa-- 
mtni  Story  by  IV.  H.  Bennett;  the  New  TtstamerU  Story  by 
W,  F,  Adeney.  London,  1897. 

The  Bible  for  Younff  People,  traoBlated  from  tho  Dutch 
of  H.  Oort  and  I,  Hooykas  by  P.  H.  Wickntced,  fl  vols., 
London.  1873-79;  2d  ©d„  1882. 

The  Children* s  BibU^  or  an  Hitttrry  of  the  Holy  Scriptx^reSt 
to  tchich  is  added  a  new  manwd  of  devotions  for  chUdren;  bjf 
a  divine  of  the  Church  of  England,  Landon,  1769. 

The  Child's  Bible,  With  plates.  By  a  Lady  of  Cincin- 
nati,  Philaiielphia.  Henry  F.  Annern,  1834. 

A  Compendium  of  the  Rcligiitus  Doctrines,  Religious  and 
hforal  Precepts,  Historical  and  Descriptiife  Beauties  of  the 
Bible;  with  a  Separate  Moral  Selection  from  the  Apocrypha; 
being  a  Transcript  of  the  receivrd  Text:  Intended  for  tfie  use 
of  Families,  but  more  pvtietdta^ly  as  a  Reading  Book  /or 
Schools,  By  RodolpbTM  DickJonoo,  Eoq.,  .  .  .  Greenfield, 
Maafl.,  Horace  Graves,  Print* r»  1814. 

A  curious  Hierofflyphick  Bible,  or  Select  Passages  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  represented  with  emblematical 
figures,  for  the  amusement  of  youth;  desiffned  chiefly  to 
familiarise  tender  ofiw*  in  a  pleasino  and  diverting  manner^ 
with  early  idciis  of  the  Holy  Scripturee^-vi.  very  popular  work 
which  appeared  in  many  editions  (I2th  ed.,  London,  1792; 
Woreeater.  Mattit.,  Isaiah ThnnuM,  1788;  Dublin,  1789;  etc.). 
It  is  a  child's  book,  oontaimng  short  paaaages  of  Seriptnre 
in  which  aome  of  the  words  are  reproBeoted  by  sinalil  cuta. 

The  Holy  BiMe  abridged:  <j>r  the  History  of  ths  Old  and 
New  Teetamtnt.  Illustrated  mth  Notes,  and  adorned  with 
cuts.  For  the  Use  of  Children.  To  which  is  added,  A  Com* 
pleat  Abstract  of  the  Old  and  New  Teetament,  teith  (A«  Apoc- 
rypha, in  Easy  Verse,  New  York,  Hodge,  Allen,  and  Camp- 
bell, 1790. 

The  School  and  Children's  Bible;  prepared  under  the  stt- 
perintf^ndence  of  the  Rev.  William  Rogers,  .  .  .  Loudon,  1873. 
It  presenta  the  Bible  in  a  shortened  form,  *' adapted  for  the 
u»e  of  child  re  n«  and  rearrange?  thp  matter/' 

The  Bible  for  Young  People,  New  York,  1902,  n.  e.,  1906. 

Scripture  Lessons  for  schools  on  tlie  British  system  of  mutual 
instruction.  Adopted  in  Russia  by  order  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander  I,,  London,  1820.  Acoording  to  the  p'refaoe, 
these  selections  were  originally  mode  in  Rusetiao  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  18 1 R.- 19,  and  adopted  in  HuA»ian  »chooLs  at 
the  Inataace  of  PHnoe  Alexander  GalitEin,  minister  of  in- 
atruction.  The  Committee  of  the  British  and  Foreiirn 
School  Society  iheu  determined  to  issue  them  in  the  chief 
lang;uagx>«  of  Europe.  The  extracts  ars  divided  into:  (1) 
Historical  Ijessons  from  the  Old  Te^ttament;  (2)  Lejisons  on 
Duty  toward  God  and  Man;  (3)  Leasons  from  th«  Evane^l- 
ieti  and  the  Aets. 

BIBLES,  HISTORICAL  (STORY-BIBLES):    The 

usual  term  applied  to  a  compilation  of  Holy 
Scripture  which,  confining  itself  chiefly  to  the 
hifitorieal  portions,  adapts  them  to  educational 
purposes.  This  may  be  done  either  by  a  faithful 
repetition  of  the  Biblical  natrativcs  or  by  thorough- 
going  changes  in  the  selection  of  the  material,  by 
the  representation  of  facts,  and  by  devotional 
application.  In  this  article  the  term  is  c»n fined  to 
cert^ain  medieval  works  which,  written  in  tho 
language  of  the  people  and  in  popular  style,  con- 
stituted in  their  time  the  chief  literary  media  for 
disaeminating  the  knowledge  of  Bible  history: 

It  ia  an  interesting  fact  that  the  historic-devo- 
tional mode  of  considering  the  Bible  received  attea- 


Bibles,  Historical 
Bibles,  ninstratad 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


164 


tion  only  when  the  people  themselves  began  their 
spiritual  and  religious  emancipation.  As  soon  as 
the  vernacular  was  allowed  to  become  the  language 
of  religious  instruction,  among  the  An^o-Saxons 
and  in  Germany  at  the  time  of  Charl&- 
The  Earliest  magne,  literary  phenomena  appear 
Story-Bibles,  which  at  least  to  a  certain  extent  fall 
under  the  conception  of  Story-Bibles. 
It  is  said  that  the  poetical  productions  of  Csedmon 
(q.v.)  in  their  original  form  treated  the  whole 
Bible  history  to  the  day  of  judgment;  in  the 
Krist  of  Otfrid  of  Weissenburg  (q.v.)  and  in  the 
Low  Saxon  Heliand  (q.v.)  not  only  was  sacred 
history  given  in  poetical  form,  but  in  picturesque- 
ness  and  minuteness  of  details  it  appealed  di- 
rectly to  the  spirit  of  the  people.  Several  other 
Story-Bibles  in  poetical  form  were  subsequently 
composed,  especially  in  Germany;  among  them 
the  work  of  Rudolf  of  Ems  (q.v.)  seems  to 
have  become  most  popular.  In  the  Biblical  Ut- 
erature  of  Holland  may  be  mentioned  the  **  Riming 
Bible"  of  Jacob  of  Maerlant.  Much  older  are 
the  poetical  compilations  of  Biblical  history  in  the 
French  language,  especially  that  of  Herman  of 
Valenciennes  and  the  popular  Roman  de  S.  Fanud 
which  piquantly  interweaves  evangelical  history 
with  apocryphal  and  miraculous  stories.  Ck>m- 
pilations  in  prose  were  also  written;  it  may  be  said, 
however,  that  the  strictly  literal  method  of  trans- 
lation made  slow  progress  and  fully  asserted  itself 
only  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  It  is  strange 
that  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  was  treated 
more  frequently  than  that  of  the  New  Testament; 
probably,  being  the  older  and  more  unknown 
record,  it  was  better  adapted  for  a  free  compilation. 

The  space  devoted  to  Genesis  was  large  in  pro- 
portion to  that  given  to  the  other  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  At  times  an  attempt  was  made  to 
insert  in  chronological  order  the  few  facts  known 
of  secular  history.  As  to  the  sources,  many  leg- 
endary elements  from  older  times  may  have  been 
incorporated  from  popular  tradition. 
Their       But  most  of  these  works  presuppose 

Character  a  written  source.  The  material,  so  far 
and        as  it  can  not  be  traced  immediately 

Sources,  to  the  Vulgate,  may  easily  be  found 
in  the  popular  collection  of  glosses  of 
Walafrid  Strabo  or  in  the  historical  works  of 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  of  Gottfrid  of  Viterbo,  and 
others.  Moreover,  later  Story-Bibles  used  earlier 
works  of  the  same  nature.  Thus  the  Historia 
scholastica  of  Peter  Comestor  (q.v.)  was  the  source 
of  several  German  and  French  works.  Similarly, 
poetical  works  became  the  sources  of  works  in  prose. 
A  popular  Story-Bible  of  Germany  may  be  traced 
to  the  poetical  production  of  Rudolf  of  Ems,  and 
French  literature  possesses  prose  compilations  of 
older  riming  Bibles;  even  in  the  Quatre  Livres 
dea  Tois  of  the  twelfth  century  there  are  found 
occasional  rimes  or  even  larger  passages  in  verse, 
all  of  which  clearly  show  that  the  original  form  of 
the  Biblical  story  in  popular  literature  was  poetic. 
It  was  only  gradually  that  higher  theological 
education  found  its  way  back  to  the  Bible  text  in 
its  proper  form. 

In  Spain  originated  the  Historia  generalf  under 


the  influence  of  King  Alfonso  the  ^Hae  (1252-84). 
He  entrusted  to  certain  scholars  the  task  of  wiitiDg 
a  great  collective  work  on  the  basis  of  the  Hidarin 
wiioUutioa  of  Peter  Comestor,  in  which  the  wiiok 
history  of  the  world  should  be  represented  in  the 
framework  of  the  Biblical  stories  with  the  additioD 
of  extensive  portions  from  secular  history. 

There  is  a  distinction  between  the  French  ex- 
pressions hiblea  historic  and  biUes  hisUfridn, 
HisUnre  in  Old  French  means  "  picture,"  beeuw 
to  people  of  no  education  history  in  the  form  of 
pictiures  was  most  easily  available.  Henoe  bAb 
histori^e  means  "  illustrated  Bible  "  (see  BoLn, 
Illustrated),  while  hibU  kittoriale  denotes  "  Stay- 
Bible."  Bibles  historiaUs  are,  then,  the  woifci 
treated  above.  Of  this  sort  was  the  translation  d 
the  Historia  scholastica  of  Peter  Comestor  into  the 
dialect  of  Picard  by  Guyard  dee  Moulins,  canon  of 
Aire  in  Artois  (1295),  a  work  which,  in  oonneetion 
with  a  literal  translation  of  the  Bible  dating  fram 
the  thirteenth  century,  formed  for  hundreds  of 
years  one  of  the  most  popular  Story-Bibles  (ne 
Bible  Versions,  B,  VI,  {  2). 

It  was  reserved  for  the  Reformation  to  place  in 
the  hands  of  Christian  people  the  whole  BiUe 
according  to  the  original  texts,  without  glosses  and 
additions,  and  thus  with  the  beginning  of  tint 
period  the  Story-Bible  had  fulfilled  its  misskm. 

(S.  BsROERt.) 

Biblxoobapht:  M.  Gademann,  Haooadah  umd  MiimA- 
Haooadah,  BerUn,  1884;  D.  H.  MiUler  and  J.  r.  ScUomt. 
Die  Haooadah  von  Sarajevo,  Vienna.  1896;  T.  Iferadorf, 
BibHoOukarieehe  Unierhaltunoen,0\6»iibBi%,  1860;  R  Eewi. 
Die  douiadte  Hialorienbibd,  Jena.  1855;  idem.  OMdUdUH 
der  hoUioen  Sduriftgn  dea  N.  7..  ||  463-464.  Bniniwkk. 
1887;  Lm  QueUn  IAvtm  dea  roU,  ed.LeR.de  liatj. 
Paris.  1841;  E.  Reuse,  in  Revue  de  ikSolooie  el  phik- 
aophie,  xvi  (1857).  1  eqq.;  H.  Palm,  Bin  miikOtock- 
deuieche  Hiatorienbibel,  Brealau.  1867;  J.  Bonnard.  Lm 
TradiAcUone  de  la  Bible  en  vera  fran^ie,  Paria.  1884;  U 
Roman  de  8.  Fanud,  ed.  C.  Chabaneau.  ib.  1889;  L.  D»- 
liflle,  lAvree  dHmaoee  deetinSe  h  Vineimction  rdioieuee  dt» 
laUquee,  Paris.  1890;  8.  Berger.  Lee  Biblee  CatHttanet,  in 
Romania,  xxviii.  1899. 

BIBLES,  ILLITSTRATED. 

Illustrated  Mantiscripts,  Roman  and  Bysantine  (|  1). 

Teutonic  and  Celtic  BCanuscripta  (|  2). 

Manuscripts  of  the  Eleventh  Century  (|  3). 

Biblia  Pauperum  (|  4). 

Illustrated  Bibles  of  the  Reformation  and  Later  (|  6). 

The  Nineteenth  Century  (|  6). 

The  history  of  illustration  goes  back  beyond  the 
Christian  era;  the  ancients  adorned  manuscripts 
of  Homer,  Vergil,  and  Idvy  with  drawing  and  ri(^ 
painted  designs,  and  illustrations  were  introduced 
for  educational  purposes  into  the  works  of  Vitm- 
vius  on  archite'cture,  Aratus  on  astrology,  and  Vege- 
tins  on  the  art  of  war.    In  like  manner,  from  the 
time  of  Constantine  and  probably  earlier,  illus- 
tration was  applied    to    manuscripts 
z.  Blustra-  of   the   Bible.      Presumably  to   this 
tedManu-  decoration    may    be    referred    what 
scripts,     Jerome  and  Chrysostom  say  in  repro- 
Roman  and  bation    of  the  luxuiy  which   people 
Byzantine,  allowed  themselves  in  the  ornamenta- 
tion  of   the    Scriptures.      The    hi^ 
veneration  paid  to  the  Bible  explains  the  seal  with 
which  miniature-painting  was  pursued  in  the  eaily 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bibles,  Ki«toTicnl 
Biblea,  Illustrated 


Church.     The    extant   LUiistmted   manuscripts  do 

not  apparently  go  further  back   thiin   the    fourth 

tentury   (the   fragment  of   Genesis  in  the  Vienna 

Obnry;  the  Vatican  Joshua;  the  evangeliarium  of 

RooHLno;  and  a  Syriac  evangc^liarium  of  586  in  the 

Uoitntian  library  at  Florence).     In   these  many 

fttturea,  Buch  as  the  architecture,  costume,  action^ 

the  iDtPoduction  of  allegorical  figures  and  personi- 

leatioDd.  indicate  the  nature  of  the  acene  or  ita 

Mkf,  which  are  derived  from  ancient  art  and 

■    nt««l  the  prevalence  of  a  good  tradition.     Among 

^nbem  ire  small  pictures   executed    in    body-colora 

^BHIi  tdyfiic  artistic  fechng»  after  the  manner  of  the 

^Kilder  mural  painting.     The  miniatures  of  the  Vienna 

Vtoesu  are   fitill   partly   in    the   purely   UlUHionist 

f^  which  had  been  dominant  sin(!C  the  Flavian 

{leriod,  like  the  paintings  in   the  Batha  of  Con- 

I      itiDtmc;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  are  in  a  style 

ipedftHy  adapted    to    book    illastnition^    more    a 

Mtmum's  than  a  painter's.    They    exhibit    the 

eoatiaucd  influence  of  the  narrative  art  of  the  Koman 

empire  in  the  second  and  third  centuries^  as  shown 

IQ  the  picture  from  the  OdysHey  on  thti  Eaquiline, 

on  Romna  sarcophagi,  and  in  the  pictures  of  Philoa- 

tnitus;  thia  defined  the  specific  style  of   all  Chria* 

tian  compositions    until    the    sixteenth    century. 

I       Tb«  illustrations  of   the   Paris   Psalter  and  other 

^LDatniKnpts  wlxich  may  be  ^aigned  to  the  end  of 

^P  lb  f(mrtb  century  are  characteristic   of  the  end 

H  of  Greek  and  the  beginning  of  Roman   painting. 

V  Tbe  Jofthua  continuea  the  Roman  triumphal  etyle, 

^    littt  Btrong  a  ffini  ty  to  the  relic  f s  o f  Tra j  an '  a  Co lu  mn . 

in  the  Byxontine  empire  the  influence  of  the  ancient 

Miiatkni  was  long  fett;  but  a  more  ornamental 

teidinejr  came  in   with   the   iconoclastic   contro- 

iwy.    It  is  true  there  are  some  illiiatrations  of 

the  tkinth  and   tenth   centuries^   a  psalter   and   a 

QRBfliaitaiy   on   Isaiah   in   the    Vatican,    another 

piherAnd  the  sermons  of  Gregory  Na«ianzen  in  the 

Btblioth^que  National  e  at  Paris,  which  are  worthy 

toitAnrl  by  the  side  of  the  early  Christian  si>ecimens; 

Iwrtui  rule  the  drawing  grows  hanler  imd  RtifTer 

Onjtmcntat'  »n,  on  the  other  hand,  is  richer;  the 

iS»ldj5rotmd  becomes  more  usual,  the  initial  letters 

wt  made  prominent,  and  the  oni amenta!  borders 

•rt  more  noteworthy.     Mosaic  and  enamel   paint- 

■^  let  the  style  for  the  muiiaturcs  as  well,     The 

•tttcUrd  of  Byxantine  painting  in  laid  flown  in  the 

femtAthoa  ''Guide  to  Pmnting  "  (14^58;  trans- 

taed  into  German  by  G.  Schafer,  Treves.  1855). 

TW  «Jeve!opmcnt  of   illustration  in  the  West  was 

■'together  different.     Here,  too^  the  influence  of  the 

•Mly  Christian   tradition   was  operative;  but   the 

•Wflttcc  of  the  Teutonic  nations  into  the  Church 

'bought  new  impulses  and  new  problems.     They 

**^T    indeed,     barbarians,    without     any    native 

*tirtic  Btyle;  but  they  brought  wjtii  thetn  a  joyous 

pWttT  of  accomplishment,   a    feeling   for  nature, 

*^  A  bold  love  of  truth  wiiich  had  far-reaching 

tAects. 

lU  Eoman  tradition  continued  among  the  lAmi- 
Wk  tiKJi  the  Franks;  but  art  became  ruder  and 
^  wfioed.     In  the  early  Christian   and  Byzan- 

ItiM  QHQuscripts  the  decoration  had  been  usually 
^fiosd  to  the  addition  of  pictures;  the  Teutonic 
1*0^  extended  it  to  the  text  itself.    The  initials 


are  almost  buried  in  bright  colors  and  elaborate 
decoration,  the  leaves  framed  in  colored  deaigns. 
The  scribe  was  often  the  painter. 
2.  Teutonic  These  characteristics  appear  plainly 
and  Celtic  in  the  Irish  manuscripts — the  "  Book 
Manuscripts,  of  Kells  "  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  those  of  Wfirzburg,  Treves,  and 
St»  Gall.  The  influence  of  Gregory  the  Great 
helped  to  preserve  the  early  Christian  tratlitiona 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Franks  until  within 
the  Carolingian  period  (the  Purple  Gospel  in  the 
British  Museum  and  an  evangeliarium  at  Cam- 
bridge, seventh  century).  An  independent  con- 
ception cornea  out  first  in  the  illustrations  proper, 
without  any  feeling  for  perspective,  but  with  an 
attractive  effort  to  attain  truth  and  naturalness 
(Aahbumham  Pentateuch,  seventh  century).  Un- 
der the  Carol  ingians  great  schoola  were  founded 
for  artistic  copying  of  manuscripts  at  Tours,  Orleans, 
Metz,  Reichenau,  St.  Gall,  Treves,  etc.  Their 
work  was  connected  with  the  old  tradition  by  its 
sober-minded  tiimplicity  and  its  careful  technique 
(evangeliarium  of  Godescalc,  Paris;  another  at 
Vienna;  another  of  St.  M6dardf  8"2f),  at  Soissons; 
another  of  King  Ix>thair,  843,  and  the  Bible  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  850,  both  in  Paris).  In  the  prov- 
inces the  development,  though  less  beautiful*  w%is 
more  independent  (Bible  of  Alcuin,  British  Mu- 
seum). Here  the  draftsman  takes  precedence  of  tltc 
painter,  but  the  work  is  marked  by  originality  and 
poetic  imagination  and  powder  (Utrecht  Psalter,  ninth 
century;  a  benedictionale  at  Chataworth;  cvangclia- 
riaof  Otto  I  at  Aix-la-Cliapelle,  of  Egbert  at  Treves, 
c.  980,  of  Echtemacb  at  Gotha,  c.  990,  and  of  Otto 
III  at  Aix-la-Chapelle),  Then  the  decoration  be- 
comes gradually  more  elaborate,  the  pictorial  and 
ornamental  parta  begin  to  interchange  their  qual- 
ities, the  initials  and  borders  are  rich  and  gay. 

In  the  eleventh  century   the  Cluniac  mood  of 
struggle   and   renmiciation    prevails;  the   Fpiritun! 
excitement  and  Wvid  fancy  of  the  time  are  shown 
in    the    Bible-illustrations;  wasted    forms   in    stiff 
garments  set  forth  the  ascetic  ideal  of  their  creators; 
truth  to  nature  disappears  entirely.     And  yet  there 
is  great  progress  in  every  domain  of  the  intellectual 
life^it  is  the  age  of  Bernard*     Even  in  the  mini- 
atures there  are  signs  of  the  awakening 
3»  Manu-   of  the  individual  life;  beneath  all  the 
scripts   of  passion  and  combat  there  are  a  quiet 
the         melancholy    and    longing    for    peace. 
Eleventh    Henry    II     endowed      his     Bamberg 
Century,     foimdations  with  beautifully  painted 
books,  and  at  Hihlesheim  an  important 
scriptorium,    influential   throughout   the  north   of 
Europe,  ivaHfounde<l  by  Bern  ward,  hi maelf  a  pioneer 
in  painting.     Here  the  forms  are  hard  and  tnwii- 
tional,    but  the  content  is  new  and  full  of  deep 
and  animatetl  feeling.     After  the  rise   of    general 
civilization  under  the  Hohenstaufens,  the  bars   of 
form  were  to   a  great  extent  brtjkcn  down.     The 
joy  of  living  came  back,  and  led  the  imagination 
once   more   into  the    comprehension    of    beautiful 
thingHj    both   graceful   and    dignified.     There   ts  a 
better  feeling  for  outline,  and  the  study  of  the  heri- 
tage of  antiquity  seems  to  re\^vc.     The  BrurhKal 
evangeliarium    at    Carlsruhe    shows    surprisingly 


Bibles,  niuBtrated 
Bibles,  Polyglot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


lae 


good  drawing  and  natural  movement,  as  does 
another  of  about  1200  in  the  cathedral  library  at 
Treves;  best  of  all  is  that  of  Henry  the  Lion, 
formerly  in  the  cathedral  treasury  at  Prague  but 
now  in  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland, 
and  the  Merseburg  Vulgate.  A  brilliant  period  for 
miniature-painting  was  opening;  but  its  tone  was 
characterized  rather  by  breadth  than  by  depth,  and 
the  more  popular  it  became,  the  more  the  profound 
symbolism  of  the  early  times  disappeared.  Illustra- 
tion was  now  bestowed  less  on  Bibles  than  on  books 
used  in  public  worship,  until  at  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages  artistic  interest  once  more  covered  the  whole 
Bible;  but  new  life  really  came  into  this  branch  of 
illustration  with  the  invention  of  wood-engraving. 

The  transition  to  illustrated  Bibles  for  the  people 

is  seen  in  the  Biblia  pauperum  of  the  thirteenth 

and  fourteenth  centuries — short  representations  of 

the  earthly  life  of  Christ  in  simple 

4.  Biblia    drawings,    generally    uncolored,   ran- 
Pauperum.  ging  in   number  from   thirty-four  to 

fifty.  Each  event  depicted  is  accom- 
panied by  two  antitypes  from  the  Old  Testament 
and  by  four  prophets  with  appropriate  citations, 
and  the  pictures  are  explained  in  Iiatin  or  in  Ger- 
man. The  most  important  examples  of  these 
"  Bibles  of  the  Poor  "  are  those  of  St.  Florian  in 
Lower  Austria,  of  the  Lyceum  library  at  Constance, 
in  the  Vienna  and  Munich  libraries  [and  in  the 
ducal  library  at  Wolfenbtittel]. 

With  the  invention  of  printing  and  engraving, 
especially  wood-engraving,  both  the  Bible  and  art 
became  common  property.  Reproductions  of  the 
Biblia  pauperum,  which  now  first  became  really 
accessible  to  the  ''poor,"  are  among  the  most 
celebrated  of  early  block  books.  The  German 
Bibles  before  Luther  (Augsburg  1477,  Cologne  c. 
1480,  Nuremberg  1483,  Labeck  1494)  have  wood- 
cuts. Finally  Diirer,  with  the  wonderful  vision 
which  could  realize  even  the  majestic  pictures  of 
the  Apocalypse,  raised  Biblical  illustration  to  its 
highest  dignity.  With  the  vernacular  text,  eagerly 
sought  after  as  it  was,  a  great  variety  of  illustra- 
tions went  hand  in  hand.  Luther  recognized  their 
importance  to  the  Reformation  cause  and  pro- 
moted illustration  zealously,  and  Melanchthon 
drew  rough  sketches,  which  he  gave  to  Lucas 
Cranach  for  execution.  Bible-illustration  has 
never  had  such  a  vogue  as  in  the  first  half  of  the 

sixteenth  century.    The  most  splendid 

5.  Illus-    edition  was  published   by    Krafft   of 
tratcd      Wittenberg  m  1576  and  1584.    With 

Bibles  of    the  middle   of   the    century  Biblical 
the  Refor-  illustrating  took  a  new  direction,  when 
mation     line-engraving  gradually  forced  wood- 
and  Later,  engraving  into  the  background.    The 
latter  was  used  mainly  for  cheap  pop- 
ular editions,  while  artistic  tendencies  were  mainly 
displayed  by  the   former.    In  1607  the  fifty-two 
pictures  from  the  logge  of  the  Vatican,  the  so-called 
Raffael  Bible,  engraved  by  Badalocchio  and  Lan- 
franco,  were  published,  followed  by  another  impor- 
tant series  of  line-engravings,  the   Iconea   bibliccB 
and  UiaioricB  aacrce  published  by  Merian  at  Frank- 
fort, 1625-27,  and  a  long  list  of  similar  works  in 
Germany,  FranoOi   and  Italy.    In  the  eighteenth 


century  wood-engraving  almost  entirdy  died  oat, 
except  for  chei^  ephemeral  productioiia,  while  IID^ 
engraving  flourished  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutdi 
school,  who  shared  the  renown  of  the  FreodL 
German  art  was  mainly  imitative,  and  prodooed 
little  that  is  noteworthy  in  Biblical  iUustntiao. 
Good  editions,  on  the  other  hand,  were  pobliflhed 
during  this  period  in  Holland  by  Mortier,  170(h, 
Danckers,  1700;  Luyken,  1740;  Schote,  1749.  la 
France  the  best  were  those  of  Basnage,  1705,  and 
Martin,  1724.  In  England,  besides  the  Oxford 
Bible  of  1717,  there  were  the  editions  of  Rpyao- 
mont,  1705;  Qarke,  1759;  and  Fleetwood,  1769. 
In  all  these  the  Dutch-Flemish  epint  uppetn,  with 
its  wide,  free,  joyous  life;  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  illustration  are  based  on  imitation  of  psint- 
ing;  Rubens,  and  Rembrandt  for  etching,  are  the 
highest  authorities.  In  the  nineteenth  oentuiy 
Bible-illustration  took  a  new  impulse  from  Eng- 
land. The  modem  romantic  manner  and  strain- 
ing after  effect  entered  into  it,  laigdy  as  a  result 
of  the  great  Holy  Bible  with  EngramngB  from  Pic- 
tures wnd  Deaigne  by  the  moei  Eminent  ilrfiats, 
published  in  London,  1800.  [This,  however,  had 
been  anticipated  by  the  Historical  Part  of  the  Holy 
Bible  with  illxistrations  engraved  by  John  Cole 
(London,  1730)  and  a  volume  with  the  same  title 
illustrated  by  John  Sturt,  as  well  as  by  the  James 
TitUer  Bible  (4  vols.,  1794-95).  It  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  efforts,  such  as  the  Pidorid 
Bible  by  Charles  Knight,  with  woodcuts  (London, 
1828-29,  New  York,  1843),  another  of  the  same 
name,  but  with  steel  engravings  (London,  1847-49), 
a  numerous  series  of  Bible  Picture  Books  issued  by 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge 
and  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  and  Bible  lUw- 
trationa,  issued  by  Frowde  (London,  1896).] 

The  interest  in  the  Orient  which  came  up  with 
Napoleon's  Egyptian  campaign,  in  alliance  with 
the  strong  realistic  tendency  of  the  century,  brou^i 
in  a  wholly  new  sort  of  illustrated   Bible,  hke 
Brown's    Family  Bible  (London  and  New  Yoric), 
with  views  of  towns  and  landscapes  in  addition 
to  historical  pictiures.    Later,  wood-engraving  re- 
vived reached  once  more   an  unexpected   height 
of  excellence,  and  succeeded  in  getting  in  touch 
with  the  great  masses  of  the  people. 
6.  The     Notable    products    of    this    revival 
Nineteenth  (in  Glermany)  were  Oliver's  Bible  of 

Century.  1834 ;  Overfoeck's  forty  fine  iUustratioDS 
to  the  New  Testament  (1841 );  the  Cotta 
edition  of  1850,  with  175  wood-engravings  after  the 
first  artists  of  Germany;  and,  best  of  all  the  German 
editions,  that  published  by  Wigand  (Leipsic,  1852- 
1860),  with  240  illustrations  by  Julius  Schnorr  von 
Carolsfeld  (Eng.  ed.,  Leipsic,  1855-60;  London, 
1869).  The  technically  brilliant  but  too  theatrical  de- 
signs of  Dor6  won  great  popularity.  The  Germans 
have  recently  published  several  noteworthy  editions, 
such  as  the  ''  PfeilstUcker  Bible  "  in  1887,  with 
many  explanatory  archeological  drawings,  and  the 
''  Star  Bible  "  published  by  Hinrichs  (Leipsic)  in 
1892,  with  reproductions  of  classical  pictures  for 
the  Old  Testament  and  Hofmann's  for  the  New. 
[One  of  the  latest  attempts  at  Biblical  iUustration 
is  the  work  of  the  Frendi  artist  J.  J.  J.  Tiasot  (d. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Siblea,  ninstratad 
Bibles,  Polyg^lot 


1902),  who,  dining  a  ten  yesn^  residenoe  in  Pales- 
linc  prepared  a  aenm  of  fiketchea  based  upon 
ftddy  o(  the  Biblical  places  and  €n\'ironmeiit. 
Tht  Lifi  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Chntt,  with  365  com- 
podUoM  in  color  and  black  and  wbi  tc^  was  pub- 
Niea  in  4  vols,  in  1S9^1900,  and  Tfie  Old  Teata- 
nnU,  with  306   similar    illuEtrationa,  in    1^04   (2 

VokJl  '  (H.  H&LBCHER.) 

BifuooBApgr:  A.  d«  Bavtard,  Pmnttart  ei  omtmenU  dsa 

ifM..«ipe«ully  Tot.  liL,  8  yob,,  Pftn«,  1832-«d  (4th-16Ui 

(fettturies^  a  very   complete  work);  idem,    Peiniurtt^  or- 

*«lea£i  .  .  .  cl«    fa    Bit>U   de    Charlst   U    Chauve  ...  A 

'Wii.  ib.  1883:  H.  ShAW.  lUuminaied  OmamenU  of  the 

^iddk  Age*,  London*  1833  (6th-17tb  ocaturiea,  eJ»bo- 

1*^  ftfid  OMtly);  idem,  Handbook  of  the  Art  of  Ilhimina* 

***•  ib.  1809;  J.  O.  Wertwood.  lUuminaUd  niustrntionM 

^  A*  BibU,  eopiad  from  SeUet  MSS,  of  tht  Middle  Afft^, 

Jj'  I£46  (with  dueriptive  letterpress);    H-  N.  Humphreys, 

'^^^^mimiad  BookM  of  the  MiddU  Age*,  ib.  1S4II  (hlirtorical 

^4  JUastntiTe);  H.    A.    Miiller.    Dqm    Evar^QetiBUxHum 

Jl*i»wiidb  ///.  in  der  SUtdllnbliothek  tu  Bremen,  Bremeo. 

4«^.  11^^  ^  Tymm«,  AH  of  lUuminaliTio,  LondoD,  1866 

525|n»orthy);  J.  O.  Westwood,   Fac^imiUa  of  the  Mini- 

^^  1988;  X  H.  Todd,  I>eii^pltfe  Remork*  on  lUumina* 
5^^,  ih.  ISdO  (deal*  buvely  with  the  Book  of  KclU); 
^>  E  WooeU  Dit  BUdtrbibti  de»  B€li*lav,  Praffue,  1871; 
r*^-  Fried,  Scriptum  9uper  ApotxUypnn  cum  imaffinibius, 
**>-  1872;  F.  W.  Del&motie,  Primer  of  the  Art  of  Ulu- 
^tttmikm^  London,  1874;  W,  dc  G.  Birch  tknd  H.  Jeoner, 
'^^Wliy  Dnminct  and  lUutninationt;  IntroducHon  to  the 
^ivdy  of  ilhtminated  MSS..  ib.  1879  ("a  b&ndftome  book 
*«ar  tp*ciali«U*');  A*  Sprin^r,  Pmdterillu^kiUwnen  im 
fwah^  MitUtatier,  Lcipaio,  1881;  idem.  Die  Oensn^bilder 
€fi  dmr  Kuntt  dtt  frohen  M ittehltm-t,  ib.  1884;  O.  von  Geb- 
Ikardi,  TAt  Miniature*  of  th*  AtfUmmham  Pentateuch, 
lioodoeu  1883;  R.  Muther«  Die  iiUeat&n  de%iUcken  Bitder- 
%ibtUK  Mumeh,  1883;  F.  X.  Krauv.  Di*  Miniaiuren  dee 
Cedhr  SfbrnH  •  .  .  m  Trier,  Freiburg.  18S4;  idem,  Ge- 
mAid^  der  dbnietficfcm  Kunet,  i,  447  Kiq.,  ib.  18&6;  Qe- 
•dUdkit  der  dt^tMtdhun  Kunet,  toL  iii.  H.  Janitschek.  Dim 
Maimei,  Berlin,  1800;  K«  von  LQtcow,  Geechiditt  dee 
JivteWa  K^^oreHche  vnd  HoUechniUe,  vol.  iv,  ib.  1891; 
SL  Beiiaatl,  Dae  .  .  .  Evanoelienbuch  im  Dome  t%t  ilildeih^ 
Jhnrn,  Hildeeheim,  1891;  J.  Striysowski4  Dae  Etechmiadzin 
gfwmmqeimr,  Vteiiaa,  1891;  C.  von  ECob£D,  Miniaturtn  und 
immdm  mt  MS8.  dee  4^-16.  JahrhunderU,  Munich,  1892; 
J.  B.  ICIddletoa,  lUuminaled  M3S,  in  Claeeical  and  Mod- 
em T^fPiM,  London,  1892  (letterprem  elaborate  and  com- 
prebenaive):  W.  von  Hartel  and  F.  Wiekhoff,  Die  Wiener 
Vie&na,  1895;  B.  Berger,  Lee  MantteU  pour 
du  Paoutier,  in  Memoirea  de  la  aodiU  de*  an- 
1808,  Ivii:  G.  E.  Warner,  JUuminated  MSS,,  Lon- 
d<»n»  1900;  the  illuirtrationfl  of  the  Evaner^tiarium  of  Ro»- 
iBoo  are  reproduced  in  the  exact  aise  of  the  onsinalB  by 
A.  UuDoa,  Rome,  1907. 

Ob  tlie  BiUia  Paupervm  eonmiU:  S.  L.  Sotbeby.  Prtn- 
eipia  i^pographica,  London,  1858;  J.  T.  Berjeau,  Bibiia 
ympimim  London,  1850;  A,  Camesinn  and  G.  Heider, 
Ptomrfh'fftfTi  DarvteUunifen  der  Bibiia  pauperum  ,  ,  .  in 
SL  FlertttfH  Vienna,  IS63;  E.  la  Roche,  Di*  Alteete  Bxl- 
iffhOMd,  die  eooenannte  Bibiia  pauperum,  Basel,  1881; 
W,  L.  Sehreibe-T.  Manuel  de  I'amateur  de  la  (Trattire  .  ,  . 
«a  ac«.  et^efe,  7  vobu.  Lcipsio,  1891-1000;  F.  Laib  and 
F,  J,  Behwara,  Bibiia  pauperum,  Freiburg,  1899;  E.  M. 
HiocDpeQii,  On  a  MS.  of  the  Bibiia  pouperufn,  in  Bihlio- 
iMco.  iii,  1807:  Bibiia  pauperum.  Unieum  der  Ileidtl- 
Ww  Vm»ermit^U»'BibliotKekt  in  S4  lAchtdrucktafdn  und 
m     4  TflM*.  Berlin,  lOOd, 

I  BIBLES,  POLYGLOT. 

I  I,  The  Complutensj&n  Pnlyglgt. 

H  n«  The  Anta^erp  Potyglol, 

■  lit.  The  Pant  Polyglot. 

■  IV,  The  London  PolygJot  (Walton's  Polyglot), 

■  V.  Minor  Polyglots. 

B  Fotjgjot  BiblcB  are  editiotiH  of  the  Bible 
^Praenting  the  text  in  several  languages  side  by 
BUk.  The  praottca]  needs  of  the  Jews  after  Hebrew 
Bbcued  to  be  a  living  tongue  led  to  the  preparation  | 


I 


of  manuscripts  giving,  with  the  oii^al  Hebrew, 
tranalationa  or  paraphraaes  in  Aramaic,  Greeks 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  the  languages  of  Europe,  Like 
conditions  in  the  Church  were  met  in  similar  manner. 
Certain  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  in  both 
Greek  and  Latin  are  mentioned  in  the  article 
BiblE'Text,  II,  1,  i  9,  An  ethtion  in  the  original 
and  in  modem  Greek  was  printed  in  1638  at  the  in- 
stance of  Cyril  Lucar  (see  Bible  Versions,  B,  vni), 
and  the  needs  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Armenia  are 
met  in  Uke  manner  by  editions  still  issued  by  Rome 
and  by  Protestxmt  Bible  Sodetiea,  The  so-ealled 
glossaries  (see  GLOfiSES^  Biblical)  and  interlinear 
versions  giving  the  Vulgate  and  the  vernacular  text 
of  the  Middle  Ages  may  also  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection.  And  there  are  numerous  modem 
copies  of  the  Vulgate  accompanied  by  an  English, 
German,  French,  Spanish,  or  ItaHan  translation. 

The  name  Polyglot,  however,  can  not  strictly 
be  given  to  editions  presenting  but  two  languages 
(Gk,  polys  =  **  many  "),  and,  in  common  Uistige,  is 
restricted  to  certain  particular  works,  viz.: 

L  The  Complutensian  Polyglot,  one  of  the  most 
noted  imd  rarest  of  Biblical  works,  was  undertaken 
under  the  super\'ision  and  at  the  expense  of  Car- 
dinal Francisco  Ximenez  de  Cisneros,  archbishop 
of  Toledo  and  chancellor  of  Castile  (d.  1517),  and 
was  prepared  by  the  most  famous  scholars  of  Spain, 
such  as  Demetrius  Ducas  of  Crete,  Antonio  of 
Lebrija.  I'iego  Lopez  de  Stunica*  Ferdinand  Nuftea 
dc  Guzman,  and  Alphonao  of  Zamora.  After  years 
of  labor  the  work  waa  printed  at  Alcala  (Latin, 
C&mpluium)  between  1513  and  1517,  being  finished 
only  a  few  months  before  the  death  of  the  cardinal, 
and  was  published  in  1520  with  the  sanction  of 
Pope  Leo  X.  It  consist*^  of  six  folio  volumes, 
the  first  four  including  the  Old  Testament,  the 
fifth  the  New  Testament,  and  the  sixth  being  a 
Ilebrew-Chaldee  lexicon  with  grammatical  and 
other  note*  (printed  separately  as  Atphonsi  Zajno- 
Tefisis  {ntroductiones  artU  grammatics  HebraiccBf 
Alcala,  1526).  The  languages  are  (1)  the  Hebrew 
of  the  Old  Testament;  (2)  the  Targum  of  Onkelos; 

(3)  the  Septuagint  (here  printed  for  the  first  time 
and  with  remarkable  alterations  of  the  manuscripts 
to  make  the  text  fit  the  Hebrew  or  the  Latin); 

(4)  the  Vulgate;  (5)  the  Greek  New  Testament. 
Latin  translations  of  the  Targum  and  Septuagint 
are  appended.  The  title-page  and  last  page  are 
given  in  reduced  facsimile  in  Schaff 's  Companion 
to  the  Greek  Testament  (New  York,  1885). 

n.  The  Antwerp  Polyglot  (Bibiia  Regia)  was 
printetl  at  the  expense  of  Philip  II  of  Spain  by 
the  famous  Antwerp  printer  Christophe  Plantin  (8 
vols.,  folio  ^  1 56^-72)*  Benedict  us  Arias  Montanus 
(see  Arias,  BENKDicms)  had  cliarge  of  the  work, 
with  the  help  of  Spanish,  Belgian,  and  French 
scholars,  among  them  Andrd  Maes,  Guy  le  FAvre  de 
la  Boderie,  and  Franks  Rapheleng.  Volumes  i-iv 
contain  the  Old  Testament,  voK  v  the  New;  be- 
sides the  original  texts,  the  Vulgate,  and  the  Septu- 
ni^nt  with  Latin  tnmslation,  Aramaic  targums  of 
the  Old  Testament  (with  the  exception  of  Daniel, 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles)  are  given, 
with  Latin  translation;  also  the  old  Syriae 
(Peahito)   version  of   the   New  Testament, 


Bibles,  Polyglot 
Bibliander 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


168 


ing  II  Peter,  II  and  III  John,  Jude,  and  the 
Apocalypse;  it  is  printed  with  both  Syriac  and 
Hebrew  characters  and  has  a  Latin  translation. 
Volumes  vi-vii  contain  the  Hebrew  lexicon  of  Sanctes 
Pagninus,  the  Syriao-Chaldee  lexicon  of  Le  F^vre 
de  la  Boderie,  a  Syriac  grammar  by  Maes,  a  Greek 
dictionary  and  archeological  treatises  by  Arias 
Montanus,  and  many  brief  philological  and  critical 
notes.  The  last  volume  repeats  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  texts  with  interlinear  Latin  translations, 
by  Sanctes  Pagninus  of  the  former,  and  the  Vulgate 
for  the  latter;  this  part  of  the  work,  especially  the 
New  Testament,  has  often  been  reprinted.  The 
critical  preparation  was  defective  and  the  manu- 
scripts us^  were  of  secondary  importance;  in 
many  places  there  is  dependence  on  the  Ck>mplu- 
iensian  work. 

IIL  The  Paris  Polyglot,  the  most  magnificent 
but  scientifically  least  important  of  all,  was  printed 
at  the  expense  of  Guy  Michel  le  Jay  in  seven  lan- 
guages (10  vols.,  1629-45).  Volumes  i-iv  are 
merely  reprints  of  the  Antwerp  Bible.  Volumes 
v-vi  contain  the  New  Testament  from  the  same 
edition,  augmented  by  the  Syriac  Antilegomena 
and  an  Arabic  version  with  Latin  translation. 
The  other  volumes  contain  (1)  the  so-called  Samari- 
tan Pentateuch  with  its  Samaritan  translation 
(see  Bible  Versions,  A,  IV);  (2)  the  Syriac; 
and  (3)  an  Arabic  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
all  with  Latin  translations.  The  Oratorian  Jean 
Morin  prepared  the  Samaritan  texts  and  the 
Maronite  Gabriel  Sionita  did  most  of  the  Syriac 
work. 

IV.  The  London  Polyglot  (Walton's  Polyglot), 
the  most  scholarly  and  the  commonest  of  all,  was 
imdertaken  by  Brian  Walton  (q.v.),  afterward 
bishop  of  Chester,  and  completed  in  1657  (6  vols., 
London).  Walton  had  the  help  of  nearly  all  con- 
temporary English  scholars,  particularly  the  Ori- 
entalists Edmund  Castcll,  Edward  Pococke, 
Thomas  Hyde,  Dudley  Loftus,  Abraham  Weelocke, 
Thomas  Greaves,  and  Samuel  Clarke.  The  excel- 
lence of  this  Polyglot  over  others  consists  in  the 
greater  number  of  old  Oriental  versions  and 
the  much  greater  and  more  intelligent  work 
of  the  editor.  The  first  four  volumes  con- 
tain the  Old  Testament  in  the  Hebrew  with 
the  Antwerp  interlinear  version,  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  the  Septuagint  from  the  Vatican 
edition  of  1587  with  the  variants  of  the  Alex- 
andrine codex,  the  fragments  of  the  Itala  col- 
lected by  Flaminius  Nobilius,  the  Vulgate  from 
the  Vatican  edition  with  the  corrections  of  Lucas 
of  Briigge,  the  Peshito  augmented  by  the  trans- 
lation of  certain  apocrypha,  a  better  edition  of  the 
Arabic  version,  the  Targums  from  Buxtorf,  the 
Samaritan  translation  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the 
Ethiopic  version  of  the  Psalms  and  Song  of  Songs. 
These  texts  (nine  in  all),  with  Latin  translations 
of  the  Greek  and  the  Oriental,  are  arranged  side 
by  side  or  one  under  the  other.  Two  additional 
Targxmis,  that  of  Pseudo-Jonathan  and  that  of 
Jerusalem,  with  a  Persian  translation  are  given  in 
▼ol.  iv.  The  New  Testament  appears  in  vol.  v, 
the  text  with  few  changes  from  Robert  Stephens's 
folio  edition  of  1550;  then  are  given  Arias's  version 


and  the  variants  of  the  Alexandrine  oodez,  Syriac. 
Latin,  Ethiopic,  and  Arabic  versioDS,  and  the 
Gospels  in  Persian,  with  literal  Latin  translationB. 
Walton's  Apparatus,  a  critical-historical  intro- 
duction in  vol.  i,  was  not  superseded  for  more  than 
a  century,  and  was  several  times  republished. 
Volimie  vi  contains  critical  ooUectionB  to  sll  the 
texts  published.  Finally  Edmund  Castell's  Lexiam 
HeptagloUum  (2  parts,  Cambridge,  1669)  is  usually 
counted  as  an  integral  part  of  this  Polyglot. 

V.  Minor  Polyglots:    I.iess  important  are  (1)  the 
Heidelberg     Polyglot     (PolygloUa    Sanctandnana ; 
Old  Testament,  1586;  New  Testament  added,  1599), 
probably  edited  by  Bonaventure  Comeille  Bertram, 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Geneva  1566-84,  afterward 
preacher  at  Frankenthal.    It  contains  the  original 
texts  and  Septuagint,  with  Latin  translations,  and 
the  Vulgate,  all  from  the  Antwerp  Poly^^t.    (2) 
The  Hamburg  Polyglot  (1596)  consists  of  six  volumes 
by  David  Wolder,  giving  in  four  columns  the  Greek 
texts,  the  Vulgate,  Pagninus's  Latin  trandation  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  Beza's  of  the  New,  with 
Luther's  German  version,  to  which  Elias  Butter's 
Hebrew  Bible  of  1587  was  added  with  new  title- 
page  bearing  the  date  1596.     (3)  The  Nuremberg 
Polyglot,  the  work  of  Elias  Hutter  (q.v.),  comprises 
(a)  an  Old  Testament  in  six  languages  (1599), 
carried  only  to  the  Book  of  Ruth;  (&)  a  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  German  Psalter  (1602);  (c)  a 
New  Testament  in  twelve  languages  (2  parts,  1599) 
— Syriac,  Italian,  Hebrew,  Spanish,  Greek,  French, 
Vulgate,    English,    German,    Danish,    Bohemian, 
and  PoUsh;     (d)  a  New  Testament  in  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  German,  taken  from  the  pre- 
oedmg  (1602).   (4)  The  Leipsic  Polyglot  of  Chris- 
tianus  Reinecdus,  rector  at  Weissenfels,  has  the 
New  Testament  in  five  languages  (1713)  and  the 
Old  Testament  in  four  (2  vols.,  1750-51).     (5)  The 
Bielefeld  Polyglot,  ed.  R.  Stier  and  C.  G.  W.  TheUe 
(4  vols.,  ii  and  iii  in  two  parts,  1846-55),  contains 
the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
German,   the  New  Testament  in   the  last  three 
languages,  with  variants  of  dififerent  German  ver- 
sions in  the  fourth  column;  there  are  also  copies 
with  the  English  version  in  place  of  the  German. 
Lastly,  mention  may  be  made  of  the  BiJblia  Hexor 
glotta  of  E.  R.  de  Levante  (6  vols.,  London,  1874- 
1876),  and  Bagster's  Biblia  sacra  polyglotta,  with 
prolegomena  by  S.  Lee  (London,   1831).    Other 
works  including  only  portions  of  the  Bible  do  not 
fall  within  the  scope  of  this  article.       E.  Nestle. 


Biblioorapht:  J.  Le  Long,  Bibliotheea  Sacra,  < 
ab  A.  O.  Match,  part  i.  chap.  4.  pp.  331-408.  Halle.  1778; 
idem,  Diacoura  hUioriqtie  tur  U$  principcUe*  SdiHofu  de* 
BibU*  polyglotUa,  pp.  554  sqq.,  Paris.  1713;  B.  Pick.  Hit- 
tory  of  PrinUd  Editiona  .  .  .  and  Polyglot  BihUa,  in  He- 
braica,  ix  (1802-93).  47-116. 

BIBLES,   RABBINIC,   called  also   Great  Bibles 

{MiAra^ot  Gedolot):  Hebrew  Bibles  containing, 
besides  the  original  text,  the  commentaries  of  sun- 
dry Jewish  rabbis.  The  first  of  these  Bibles  was 
published  by  Daniel  Bomberg,  edited  by  Felix  Pra- 
tensis  (4  parts,  Venice,  1517-18);  it  contains,  besides 
the  Hebrew,  the  Aramaic  paraphrases  and  commen- 
taries of  eight  different  writers  on  certain  books, 
Masoretic  notes,  and  other  matter.    As  the  editor 


RELIGIOUS  EISTCTCLOPEDIA 


Bibles,  Folyfflol 

Bibliander 


WIS  A  convert  to  Christianity,  Im  work  did  not 

prove  acceptable  to  the  Jews,     Its  faults  induced 

Bomberg  to  undertake  another  edition,  for  which 

be  cniptoyed  as  editor  the   celebrated   Masoretic 

I        wMar  Jacob  ben  Hayyim,  who  in  after-life  also 

1        aotoiced  Christianity.     This  edition,  the  Hebrew 

L      title  of  wliich  means  '*  The  Holy  Gate  of  the  Lord/' 

M    irai  published  at  Venice  (4   vols.,  1524-25)  and, 

B    tib  the  first  edition,  contains  the  Hebrew  text, 

F     the  Afftraaic  commentaries,  iiod  the  Masoretic  notes. 

I        The  editor'*  introduction,  containing  a  treatise  on 

I        the  Maaorah,  has  been  translated  int-o  English  by 

I        ChriitiAa    David    Ginsburg    (Jacob    ben    Chajiin'a 

Introditdion  to  the  Rabbinic  Bible,  London,  1865), 

who  bued    The   Massorfiic   CrUicnl   Text   of   the 

Htbm  BibU  (18&4)  on  this  edition  of  Hayj-im. 

A  reviaed  and  improved  edition  of  the  second 
Bomberg  Bible  was  published  (Venice,  1545-4S) 
under  the  Bui>ervision  of  Cornelius  Adelkind.  The 
chjuigBi  made  in  this  edition  were  the  omission  of 
tooic  commentaries  and  the  substitution  of  others. 
Boroberg*!  fourth  Rabbinic  Bible,  by  J.  de  Gara, 
WM  earned  through  the  press  and  corrected  by 
Urac  ben  Joseph  Salam  and  Isaac  ben  GerHhon 
Treves  (4  vols.,  Venice,  156S).  The  correctors 
wioitek  at  the  end  of  the  work  that  they  have  rein- 
wied  in  this  edition  the  portion  of  the  Masorah 
omitted  in  the  edition  of  1546-^8.  Appended  to 
tiui  M  the  ao-ealled  Jerusalem  Targum  on  the  Pen- 

tAlcUch. 

A  Rabbinic  Bible  (4  vols.,  Venice,  1617-18) 
WM  published  by  Pietro  and  Lorenzo  Bragadini 
•orl  editod   by   the   celebrated    Leon   of   Modena, 

I  It  contains  the  Aramaic  paraphrases,  the  Mosorah, 
*nd  the  Rabbinic  commentaries  of  De  Gara's 
ttlitioa.  This  edition,  however,  is  of  less  value  to 
tfce  critical  student,  being  censored  by  the  Inqui- 

BtuctorPt  Rabbinic  Bible  or  BMia  sacra  llebraica 

^  Chaidaiea  cum  Maiscra^  quct  critica  Hcbrmarum 

^of»tJ ««/,  magna  H  porta  ac  sekctiasimia  Hebrwomm 

w^erprrtum    commentariis  (4  parts,  2  vols.,  Basel, 

WI8-19)  has  a  Latin  preface  by  Byxtorf,  a  table 

®f  the  Bumbcr  of  chapters  in  the  Bible,  and  a  poem 

^^  Aben  Etra  in    the  Hebrew  language.     Besides 

"^  Hebrew  and  the  Aramaic  paraphrases,  it  con- 

'*o»  the  oommentaries  of  Rashi*  A  ben  Ezra,  and 

^^^^n^  and  Buxtorf's  Tiberias  sive  commeTitarius 

"*^*«>rd^tcu»  implex.    The   whole   is    formed   after 

Jacob  ben    Hayyim's    second    edition    (1546-48), 

J'th  iome  corrections  and  alterations  by  Buxtorf. 

jjj^torfs   Bible   is   imperfect,  but  in  spite  of  its 

J^ciencies,  the  student  must  still  thank  the  editor 

*f  his  work,  which,  however,  was  criticized  by  R. 

?**On  in  his  Histoire  criHque  du  Vieu^  Testament 

<P'  S13). 

*Hie  next  Rabbinic  Bible  was  the  Sepher  Kehil- 
**  ^otAe,  or  *'  Book  of  the  Congregation  of  Moses/* 
•^ited  by  Moaea  Frankfurter  (4  vols.,  Amsterdam, 
^^4-27).  This  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
^bbinic  Bibles.  It  is  founded  upon  the  Bomberg 
•Jilions,  and  gives  not  only  their  contents,  but  also 
*■***!  of  Buxtorf  s,  with  much  additional  matter, 

"HieUlest  Rabbinic  Bible  is  the  Uilfra'ot  Gedo- 

«^!mblkhed  at  Warsaw  (12  vols.,   1560-68)  by 

This   gigantic   work    contains    thirty- 


1^ 


two  commentaries,  old  and  new,  among  others 
the  critical  commentary  of  Norzi,  The  Hebrew 
text  is  on  the  whole  very  correct,  the  sixe  is  more 
eonvemcnt  than  that  of  its  predecessors,  and  the 
edition  is  reeomm ended  by  the  best  Jewish  au- 
thorities in  Poland  and  Austria.  B.  Pick. 

BiBLJioaliAi'nT:  The  one  book  for  coiumltAtion  in  C.  D. 
Giasburg.  introduction  to  the  MQntorrtica-criticai  EdUum 
of  Cht  flebrew  Bible.  Ix^odon,  18»7;  cf.  B.  Pick,  id  Hebraic^ 
ix  tlS92-93).  47-llG. 

BIBLIA  PAUPERUM  ("Bible  of  the  Poor"). 
See  Bibles,  iLLusTRATEn,  §  4* 

BlBLIAliDER  (BUCHMAFW ),  THEODOR:  Swiss 
theologian  and  teacher;  b.  at  Bisehofszell  Ul  mites 
s.s.e.  of  Constance)^  Switzerland,  l.itH  (1.509?);  d. 
at  Zurich  Nov,  26,  1564.  He  studied  Hebrew 
under  Jacob  Oporinus  in  Zurich,  in  1526  under 
Pel li can  and  Q!]colampadi«a  at  Basel,  and  later  on 
under  Capito.  When  Lhike  Fre^leriek  II  of  Lieg- 
nitz  in  1527  asked  for  teachers  for  his  high  school, 
the  Council  of  Zurich  sent  liim  Bibhander,  who 
served  there  two  years  with  distinction.  He  then 
returned  home  and  was  appointed  Zwingli's  sue- 
cessor  in  the  theological  professorship  at  Zurich 
in  1531. 

Bibliandcr's  specialty  was  linguistics,  and  he  used 
to  call  himself  hom^  grammatictis  ;  he  was  versed  in 
the  Semitic  dialects  and  wiis  maRtcr  of  several 
modem  languages.  From  the  beginning  his  ren- 
dering of  the  Prophets  was  successful,  was  indorsed 
by  But  linger  and  Pellic4in,  and  caused  J,  H,  Hot- 
tin  ger  to  call  him  the  father  of  exegetieal  theology 
in  Switzerland.  lie  wrote  also  on  Hebrew  Gram* 
mar  and  on  Comparative  Linguistics.  Perhaps 
the  greatest  sensation  he  caused  was  that  produced 
by  his  publication  of  the  Koran  (1543,  rev.  ed., 
1550);  the  magistrates  at  Basel  tried  to  prohibit 
the  book^  but  Luther  interfered  in  defetise  of  it  antl 
of  the  translator.  Bibliander  issued  studies  on  the 
Gospel  of  Mark  and  the  Protevangelium  Jacoln^ 
translating  them  into  Latin.  His  works  betray  a 
rich  histt>rical  knowledge.  Especially  worthy  of 
mention  in  this  regaai  are  his  De  Ratione  Tern- 
porum  (1551)  and  Temj^rum  Suppttiaiio  (1558). 
Most  of  Ills  writings  were  never  published,  but  are 
preserved  in  maniu^cript  at  Zurich. 

Next  to  BuUingcr,  Bibliander  appears  as  the  mo.st 
respected  representative  of  the  Church  at  Zurich. 
He  participated  in  all  theological  and  ecclesiastical 
discussions,  preser\ing  the  heritage  of  Zwingli. 
He  assbted  in  the  publication  of  Zwingli's  and 
(Ecolampadius's  letters  (1536).  In  some  trea- 
tises he  openly  attacke<l  the  Catholic  Church  and 
the  Tridentinum  (De  LcgHima  Vindkatione  Chrijf- 
iiamsmif  1553),  and  antagonized  the  Roman 
propagtinda,  appealing  to  England  m  the  land  of 
Christian  liberty.  He  advoea^ted  missions  to  the 
Jews  and  ftfohammedans,  and  went  so  far  as  to 
start  on  mission  work,  being  restrained  only  by 
Bullinger's  representations.  He  was  made  emeriiu» 
and  given  a  pension  in  1560.  (Emil  Eoli.) 

BtBUooRAPHT:  A  list  of  the-  writinisA  of  BibUander  is  ipvpn 
in  H.  J.  L«U.  AUgtmeinss  LfT\ron,  W,  11-14,  *JO  vols,. 
Zurich,  1747-iB5.  For  hJA  lifo  consult  J.  J.  Christiactr, 
T.  BihliarvUr,  nn  bioffraphiMch^M  Denkmal,  FraiMolvld, 
1807;  £.  £«li»  Anaiecia  nformataria,  ToL  ii,  Zurieb,  ISO!. 


BibUoAl  Aroheolonr 
Biblioal  OritioUm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


170 


BIBLICAL   ARCHEOLOGY.     See  Abcheoloot, 

BiBUCAL. 

BIBLICAL  CAlfON.     See  Canon  of  Scripture. 
BIBLICAL  CRinCISlI. 


Linguistic  Criiidsm  (|  3). 
Historieal  Critidsm  (|  4). 
Criticism  of  Style  (|  ft). 
Reconstructive  Criticism 

(§6). 
IV.  History  of  Criticism. 
Meaning  and  Limitations 

(§1). 
Hellenistic  and  Patristic 

Criticism  (|  2). 
Critidsm  from  the  Time 

of    the     Reformation 

(§3). 
Modem  Criticism  (|  4). 
V.  Biblical      Criticism      in 

the    Roman    Catholic 

Church. 


I.  Conception    and     Prol>> 

lem. 
The  History  of  the  Term 

(§1). 
Limitations  and  Sphere 

of  the  Critic  (|  2). 
Biblical  Criticism  (|  3). 
II.  The  Critical  Method. 
Fundamental     Assump- 
tions (I  1). 
Classification  (|  2). 
Function  (|  3). 
III.  The      Departments     of 

Criticism. 
Criticism  of  the  Canon 

(§1). 
Textual    Criticism    and 

Apparatus  (|  2). 

L  Conceptioii  and  Problem:  Criticism,  like  in- 
terpretation, is  an  art;  the  two  are  related  to  each 
other  as  sisters,  and  both  are  nourished  by  science. 
Interpretation  ib  the  art  of  bringing  to  the  compre- 
hension what  has  really  been  handed  down  and  of 
grasping  it  as  it  really  is;  criticism  is  the  art  of 
rightly  estimating  what  has  been  actually  appre- 
hended according  to  its  real  value.  Interpretation 
without  criticism  befogs  and  enervates;  criticism 
without  interpretation  is  vague  and  mere  intellec- 
tual play.  Since  man  can  not  understand  without 
exercising  the  faculty  of  judgment,  in  work  that 
deals  with  spiritual  verities  the  two  are  not  separa- 
ted, yet  the  point  of  view  from  which  they  approach 
the  same  object  is  as  different  as  their  method. 
Interpretation  proceeds  inductively,  collecting  every- 
thing which  bears  upon  the  understanding  of  the 
matter;  criticism  proceeds  deductively,  furnishing 
the  canons  by  which  to  value  that  understanding. 
While  one  asks  about  the  fact,  the  other  asks  about 
the  truth  of  it;  one  builds,  the  other  classifies  and 
estimates  the  material  and  tests  the  building 
process.  Criticism  is  the  inverse  of  interpretation, 
and  more.  While  it  pronoimces  upon  the  results 
of  interpretation,  it  opens  new  questions  about  the 
trustworthiness  or  untrustworthiness,  the  com- 
pleteness or  fragmentariness,  the  genealogy  and  the 
significance  of  the  object;  and  thus  it  affords  a 
starting-point  for  final  valuation  and  definition. 
It  is  skill,  partly  natural,  paxtly  acquired,  in  dis- 
tinguishing and  appropriating  true  from  false, 
good  from  bad,  beautiful  from  u^y,  whether  derived 
from  contemplative  perception  and  revelation  or 
through  chance  or  tradition.  Its  purpose  is 
positive,  though  its  result  may  often  be  negative. 
It  knows  no  other  authority  than  that  of  the  case 
before  it,  no  other  method  than  that  demanded 
by  the  same. 

The  word  has  been  in  use  since  Plato's  time; 
be  distinguished  between  criticism  and  constnic- 
tion,  the  two  being  employed  in  the 
\a  '^^^ti^  science  of  knowledge.  Aristotle  intro- 
Tenn.  *  duced  a  distinction  between  the  crit- 
ical and  the  literary  arts,  which  was 
taken  up  by  the  Alexandrian  school  in  connection 
with  literature  and  particulariy  with  poetiy.  Clement 


of  Alexandria  established  in  his  review  of  Greek 
culture  the  fact  that  fframmatikM  as  a  tecfanical 
term  is  later  than  krUikaa.  Terminology,  however, 
was  unstable  in  the  ancient  worid.  Ph3ologo$ 
was  differentiated  from  philo9apho8,  meaniiog  not 
the  independent  inquirer  but  the  critic  and  ex- 
pounder of  classical  productions.  Ab  the  art  of 
valuing,  criticism  is  the  product  of  the  ei^teenth 
oentury.  The  Encyclopedists  called  it  in  particular 
the  restorer  of  ancient  literature,  in  general  the  art 
of  open-eyed  examination  of  human  productiooB 
and  of  judging  them  justly. 

The    critic   stands   in    an   opposition   between 
subjective  and  objective.    The  obscure,  the  ugly, 

the  disorderiy,  the  arrogant,  the 
2.  Iiimita-  artificial — everything  which  tends  to 
tions  distort  a  pure  impression — artniae 
B^W9  ^^®  critical  function,  which  manifesti 
of  the  itself  in  simple  aversion  or  blame,  or 
Oritio.      in  a  deliberate  exposition  of  the  causes 

of  distortion.      Limitations  to  under- 
standing lie  also  in  the  person.    Complex  and  diffi- 
cult to  grasp  are  the  conditions  and  impulses  which 
deceive,  divert,  and  suborn  the  faculty  of  judg- 
ment.   Personal  taste,  inexperience,  dogmatic  pie* 
supposition,  arrogance — such    hindrances    are   as 
numerous  as  the  emotions  of  the  soul.    A  valuable 
inheritance  sometimes  suffers  injury  by  the  en- 
croachments  of   critical  ineptitude.   Whoever  re- 
gards a  thing  as  worthy  has  a  sense  of  loss,  even 
if  the  criticism  be  pertinent;  much  more  is  that  the 
case  if  in  the  critical  process  insincerity  and  arbi- 
trariness be  present.    It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  esthetic  and  religioxis  natures  are  filled  with 
aversion  to  criticism  and  distrust  of  it.    Goethe 
once  said  that  a  book  which  had  accomplished 
great  results  was  simply  above  the  operations  of 
criticism,  and  that  criticism  is  generally  a  mere 
habit  of  modems.    Such  an  attitude  seems  to  the 
critic  mere  obedience  to  blind  authority.     Great 
events  and  much  of  literature   have   rested  on 
fictitious   bases.    Apocrypha  and  peeudepigrapha 
claim  genuineness.    Such  facts  are  warrant  enough 
for  the  activities  of  critical  science. 

The  general  standards  of  critidsm,  like  those  of 
interpretation,    rest    on    logic,    philosophy,    and 

rhetoric.  It  applies  those  standards 
8.  Biblioal  to  the  particular  case,  and  the  general 
Oritioism.  rules  are  modified  to  aooord  with  the 

demands  of  the  occasion.  Since  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments 
have  a  special  importance  as  a  rdated  whole, 
Biblical  criticism  is  a  special  and  independent 
branch.  It  deals  with  sources,  history,  and  religion ; 
it  tests  the  historical  worth  of  the  documents 
which  set  forth  the  religion  of  the  two  Testaments. 
It  has  as  its  object  the  discovery  of  the  religious 
life  operative  therein  by  reason  of  which  this 
literature  has  its  special  meaning.  There  is  a  double 
outlook  here;  insight  into  the  essence  of  religion 
and  into  the  essence  of  historic  fact. 

Biblical  critidsm  is  on  its  other  side  historical 
criticism.  Hence  its  function  is  to  separate  the 
natural  progress  of  events  and  the  religious  limita- 
tions of  the  Biblical  expodtion  of  history  in  order 
to  comprehend  their  relations  upon  the  bads  of 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblical  Archeology 
Biblical  Crltioiun 


3. .  FnndA- 
m^tal 


thtf   lepArfttion.     EeLigjous    o€ciiiTencei    it    must 
aeek  to  expl&ln  upon  psychologic&l,  pathological^ 
md  hielonco-religious  grounds.     Lesaing  says  that 
"the  dramatic  poet  is  not  a  historian;  historical 
verity  is  not  his  purpose,  only  the  means  to  it/' 
h  ifcis  poet  then  a  falsifier  of  history?     Similarly 
for  the   Biblical  writers  historical    truth   is    only 
»  meftna  for  offering  reUgious  truth ;  it  is  the  channel 
©f  the  revelation  from  God.   Consequently  the  task  is 
to  examine  case  by  case  in  order  to  detem:iine  how 
far  historical  reality  carries  revelation.     Its  own 
ftandpoint,  therefore,  is   assured    to  this   science. 
It  asks  with  what  right  and  under  what  conditions 
and  limitations  the  Scriptures  exist  as  a  religious 
collection.     It  gives  historical  rating  to  the  con- 
teats.    Its  leading  word  is— discriminate,  which  it 
Bgca  in  promoting  recognition  of  worth  or  its  oppo- 
site, of  fact  or  mere  appearance. 

XL  The  Critical  Method:    To  acb'eve  real  service 
ia     Biblical  criticism  appreciation  of  the  religious 
f^jcUjT  is  necessary*    The  critic,  however,  may  not 
nr^iJk  in  a  rut  if  he  is  to  attain  a  right  position. 
A^f  ter  be  has  through  interpretation  grasped  the 
object  of  investigation,  be  gives  it  rating  according 
to  the  conditions  and  warrant  of  the 
facts  of  the  case.     He  proceeds  upon 
the  immanent,  not  the  transcendent. 
And     after     the    right    criterion     is 
found,  he   has    to   remember   that  a 
Dplete  and    not    a  partial    or  fragmentary  in- 
-^WsUg^tion  is  required,  and  further  that  fast  hold 
xnfiBt  be  Laid  upon  equipoise  between  critical  acute- 
D^^B&ad  the  perception  of  what  is  possible  and  plain. 
'Secies,  vii,  20  has  its  application  here,  **  God  made 
mm  upright^  but  he  has  sought  out  many  inven- 
tioM."    What  is  the  inherent  standard  of  Biblical 
criticigEQ?    The  historical  narratives  of  the  Bible 
tat,  BO  far  as  they  deal  with  religious  life,  inter- 
pretations of   history    and   testimonies    to    faith. 
To  express  a  right  judgment  the  critic  must  deter- 
loine  the  relation  between  the  historical  and  the 
religious  and  decide  which  is  the  more  prominent. 
^  Wette   regarded   the    Pentateuch    as   poetry; 
^  opposite  view  makes  the  Bible  historical  only. 
Between  these  extremes  lies  the  recognition  that 
^  Bible  employs  history  for  religious  purposes. 
1a  t[tij  friigious   signihcance   to   be   regarded    as 
^ipcrt  emphasis  upon  the  worth  and  force  of  a 
^  occurrence  or  was  it  used  to  support  some 
^'opnstic  purpose?     Is  it  found  in  or  read  into  the 
^■eT    Is  it  in  the  main  possible  to  recognise  the 
'>«t  in  the  reUgious  dress? 

Thf«  poBsibilitiea  the  critic  must  take  into 
•Ceo\int  as  he  holds  the  scales  of  truth,  testing  the 
^WBposite  parts  of  the  Bible  and  proceeding  thence 
^  i  consideration  of  the  Bible  as  a  whole.  Upon 
^  ground  only  can  the  decision  be  rendered  how 
'*f  the  historic  facts  which  the  Bible  reports  stand 
^  organic  connection  with  their  religious  valua- 
••^  and  whether  they  may  be  regarded  as  history 
**f  W  legend,  fable,  or  myth.  The  varying  ratio 
^'  Ihc  Ewimixture  of  the  historical  and  the  religious 
**><!  the  degn'ee  of  its  significance  must  be  observed; 
^  especially  the  interval  between  the  Old  Testa- 
"^  and  the  New  in  their  historical  relations, 
^"^^tial  limitations^  and  purposes  must  be  kept  in 


MiDd.  It  IB  erne  thing  to  appreciate  the  essential 
qualities  of  Hebrew  national  literature,  covering 
a  thousand  years  in  its  development,  and  another 
to  apprehend  the  worth  and  character  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is  the  literature  of  a  religiows 
propaganda  covering  but  two  generations.  Yet 
the  critic's  methods  are  essentially  the  same, 
corresponding  to  the  varied  historical  limitationa 
of  the  subject-matter.  When  the  question  of  the 
essence  of  Christianity  arises,  the  bearing  of  the 
Old  Testament  religion  upon  Christianity  is  to  be 
decided  and  grasped. 

The  fundamental  axiom  shows  that  each  literary 
production,  as  well  as  each  body  of  writings  which 

has  a  common  bond^  requires  its  ap- 
8.  Olasttl-  propriate   method    both   of   in terp re- 
ft cation.    tatioQ  and  of  criticism.     Means  and 

end  will  agree  when  the  character  of  the 
whole  presents  itself  in  the  parts;  the  last- named  will 
separate  and  indi\^dualize  themselves  where  origins 
and  relations  differ.  The  classifications  of  Biblical 
criticism  arise  not  out  of  logical  abstractions  but 
out  of  the  demands  made  by  the  individualistic 
Biblical  qualities.  Criticism  of  the  canon  asks 
how  and  with  what  right  the  two  Testaments  were 
united  in  one  book,  how  and  by  what  methods  the 
correct  text  of  that  which  has  come  down  is  to  be 
ascertained,  what  was  the  origin  and  what  is  the  his- 
torical worth  and  what  the  relation  of  the  present 
form  of  the  books  to  the  original  form.  It  draws 
conclusions  from  the  data  furnished  by  interpre- 
tation. On  the  basis  of  the  recognition  (I)  of  the 
suitability  of  means  to  ends  and  (2)  of  the  literary 
indi%4duality,  it  pronounces  upon  the  worth  of  a 
document  as  a  source  and  upon  its  relation  to  the 
whole  to  which  it  belongs  and  which  it  serves. 
The  science  divides,  therefore,  into  criticism  of  the 
text,  of  the  language,  of  the  history,  of  the  style ^ 
and  conAtructi%'e  criticism. 

Since  subjectively  criticism  finds  its  occasion 
in  the  limita  of  the  understanding,  its  starting-point 

is    doubt   about   the    trustworthiness 

S,  Fdjio-    and  the  arrangement  of  what  has  come 

Uon.        down.     This  doubt   proceeds   to   ask 

the  reason  for  this  impression.  If 
the  reason  lies  not  in  the  spiritual  being  of  the 
doubter  but  in  the  object,  then  some  defect  is 
understood  to  exist  in  expression^  contents,  or  style. 
The  critic  has  then  to  discover  the  kind  of  defect 
and  to  discern  its  cause.  As  a  means  to  tliis, 
Jerome  directs  the  critic  to  digest,  arrange,  deduce, 
construct.  In  other  words,  the  critic  first  diag- 
noses the  case  and  then  appics  the  remedy.  And 
in  this  pTOC4?BB  comparison  is  constantly  employed^ 
holding  in  view  the  separate  parts  and  the  united 
whole.  The  division  of  the  field  of  the  critic  into 
external  and  internal,  higher  and  lower,  does  not 
have  any  essential  truth  at  its  root,  and  should  be 
rejected  for  that  given  at  the  end  of  the  last 
paragraph. 

m.  The  Departments  of  Criticism;  That  the 
Old  Testament  existed  as  a  holy  authority  for  the 
synagogue  and  that  the  New  in  connection  with 
the  Old  had  the  same  value  for  the  Church  is 
the  fact  the  success  and  the  right  of  which  criti- 
cism has   to  investigate.      It  notes  the  process  of 


BlbUoal  Oritieism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


172 


1.  Orltt- 
oisin 
of  the 

Oanon. 


formation  of  the  canon  and  the  internal  testimony 
of  the  canonical  writings  as  related  to  the  author- 
ity attributed  to  them.  It  asks  whether  the  canon 
was  made  or  whether  it  grew,  whether 
and  how  far  its  parts  are  pseudepi- 
graphic.  For  the  Old  Testament  there 
is  outside  testimony  only  from  late 
Judaism  and  the  Tsimud;  for  the  New 
there  is  a  wealth  of  evidence  arising  from  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  it  came  into  existence  by 
about  180  A.D.  One  result  of  criticism  is  to  reveid 
the  motive  of  canon-formation  and  also  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  separation  of  the  literature  made 
authoritative  by  comparison  of  it  with  the  non- 
canonical  (see  Canon  of  Scripturb). 

A  preliminary  in  this  work  is  the  collection  of 
the  text-critical  apparatus  which  shall  present  an 
orderly  and  complete  picture  of  the 
8.  ^^t^»al  condition  of  the  text.  The  documents 
ULd^U>pa-  ™^*  ^  described  and  their  charac- 
ratiui.  teristics  brought  to  light.  The  sources 
of  text-criticism  are  manuscripts  in 
the  original  languages,  lectionaries  of  selected 
parts,  translations,  citations;  for  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  Masorah,  for  the  Septuagint  and  the  New 
Testament  also  patristic  commentaries  and  scholia. 
The  variant  readings  in  this  mass  of  materials  are 
to  be  arranged  and  classified,  a  preliminary  to  which 
is  the  valuation  of  the  text-sources  on  the  basis  of 
age,  genealogy,  and  trustworthiness.  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  difference  of  the  Masoretic  text  from 
that  of  the  Septuagint  proves  the  two  to  be  inde- 
pendent witnesses;  but  the  fact  that  the  text  of  the 
latter  is  not  yet  settled  makes  difficult  the  task  of 
arbitrating  between  the  two.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  New  Testament  writings  were  not,  before  the 
time  of  Origen,  handled  with  the  care  bestowed 
by  the  Jews  on  the  text  of  the  law.  The  collection 
of  apparatus  for  the  New  Testament  text  presents 
not  only  an  agitated  sea  of  differences  in  orthog- 
raphy and  word-forms  which  create  little  or  no 
difference  in  sense,  but  also  a  series  of  variations 
which  affect  the  meaning  and  educed  the  wail  of 
Origen  that  they  were  the  result  not  only  of  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  the  scribes  but  also  of  wil- 
fulness and  design.  The  tajsk  is  to  bring  order  into 
this  mass  of  variations.  There  have  been  discemed 
three  principal  types  of  text,  the  Alexandrian,  the 
Western,  and  the  Ck>nstantinopolitan.  The  text 
of  the  Synoptic  Gospels  shows  the  most  serious 
variations,  in  which  purpose  is  manifest  to  make 
parallel  passages  read  in  the  same  way  and  to  supply 
omissions.  The  text  of  Revelation  and  of  the  Lucan 
writings  also  is  in  a  bad  condition.  Great  differ- 
ences exist  between  the  text  of  the  Alexandrian 
and  the  Greco-Latin  types.  The  last  word  on 
relative  values  has  not  yet  been  said,  and  the 
matter  is  still  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that 
the  minuscules  have  not  yet  been  taken  fully  into 
consideration,  and  they  contain  very  many  excellent 
and  independent  readings.     See  Bible  Text. 

The  purpose  of  comparison  of  variant  texts  is 
approximation  to  the  original.  The  critic  esti- 
mates the  age  of  a  document.  For  this  much  help 
has  been  received  from  the  papyri  and  parchmentis 
recovered  in  Egypt,  from  which  it  has  been  learned 


that  the  earliest  texts  were  written  in  eapiUla  and 
without  accents  or  marks  of  punctuation,  and  tlut 
the  word  or  syllable  was  broken  at  the  end  of  tiie 
line  as  the  demands  of  space  required.  Study  of  \bd 
processes  of  reproduction  of  manuscripts  has  shown 
that  errors  are  either  mechanical  or  designed. 
The  former  are  illustrated  by  the  doubling  of  a 
word  or  a  passage  or  the  omission  of  the  same 
either  by  an  error  of  the  eye  or  of  the  ear,  or  by 
the  substitution  of  one  word  or  letter  for  another 
which  resembles  it  either  in  form  or  sound.  Of 
conscious  or  designed  variations  from  the  original, 
some  were  brought  about  by  attempts  to  smooth 
a  rough  passage  or  to  illumine  an  obscure  one, 
to  correct  real  or  supposed  errors,  to  make  two 
parallel  passages  read  in  the  same  way,  or  to  chan^ 
the  reading  so  as  to  support  some  dogmatic  interest 
The  Old  Testament  was  originally  written  without 
punctuation  or  helps  to  reading  and  pronunciatioii; 
the  possibility  of  error  is,  therefore,  greatly  increased 
as  compared  with  the  Greek  text,  the  vowels  of 
which  were  always  written. 

After  interpretation  has  set  forth  the  lexico- 
graphic and  grammatical  character  of  the  language, 
criticism  inquires  into  the  relation  of  expression 

to   thought,    unity   in    the   methods 

^I^^^J^J     of  expression,  and  individual  charac- 

Oritloism.  teristics  in  writing  as  related  to  the 

general  character  of  the  language, 
and  into  the  various  influences  which  have 
controlled  the  form.  Dissimilarity  in  style  in 
parts  argues  dissimilarity  in  authorship;  dis- 
arrangement or  disorder  siiggests  interpolation. 
Especially  valuable  are  the  tests  which  depend 
upon  uniformity  in  the  use  of  certain  fundamental 
notions  such  as  those  of  the  kingdom  of  €rod,  life, 
faith,  righteousness,  spirit,  flesh.  Similarly  use 
is  made  of  collection  and  comparison  of  idioms 
which  characterize  a  writing  or  a  group  of  writings, 
and  in  this  case  critical  judgment  is  of  great  im- 
portance. Individuality  is  thus  discovered,  since 
the  idiosyncrasies  of  writers  are  in  the  main  un- 
conscious and  undesigned.  And  rhetorical  quali- 
ties also  come  into  play,  the  tendency  to  a  type 
of  expression  or  fondness  for  certain  words  or  kinds 
of  figures  or  turns  of  sentence.  Recognition  of 
characteristic  ways  of  using  language  adds  to 
text-critical  apparatus,  since  it  not  only  presents 
the  facts  of  different  readings  and  of  peculiarities, 
but  also  notes  their  effects,  influences,  and  modi- 
fications. So  that  text-criticism  and  criticism  of 
the  language  work  together  in  correcting  an  unin- 
telligible or  corrupt  text  by  employing  conjecture. 
By  this  is  not  meant  merely  subjective  sagacity  or 
ineptly  used  technical  skill.  Ck>njecture  is  the 
result  of  study  of  the  causes  of  error  in  the  text 
which  marks  them  as  mechanical  or  designed,  and 
then  seeks  a  reading  in  accordance  with  the  habit 
and  character  of  the  document  under  examination, 
a  reading  which  on  known  principles  of  error  in 
transmission  will  produce  the  particular  error. 

Historical   criticism    is   applied   not   merely  to 
works  on  history  but  to   any  literary  product  of 
the  past  which  claims  or  really  has  importance 
for  any  historical  reason.    The  result  of  this  proc*- 
ess  is  pronouncement   upon   the   worth   of    any 


178 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BibUoAl  Oritioiam 


particular  document  as  a  source.    It  deals    with 
the  genuineness,  unity,  integrity,  and  trustworthi- 
ness  of  a  writing,  adcs  whether  it  is   as  the  au- 
thor wrote  it  or  whether  it  has  been 

*^™J     corrupted  or  falsified,  whether  it  re- 

Orltioifliii.  fleets  the  habit  of  the  author  assumed 
or  of  the  times  in  which  it  is  placed. 
Since  it  is  seldom  that  eiqplicit  external  testimony 
to  a  document  is  available,  criticism  usually  pro- 
ceeds upon  internal  evidence.  But  this  is  not 
always  decisive.  Conceivably,  the  tradition  of 
Israel's  sojourn  in  Egypt  might  have  arisen  out 
of  the  story  of  the  Babylom'an  exile.  So  of  the 
New  Testament  writings,  the  decision  whether  they 
are  really  documents  of  the  apostolic  age  depends 
fiinally  upon  the  judgment  of  their  character  as  a 
whole  and  upon  appraisement  of  the  distance 
between  them  and  the  xx)stapostolic  and  apocry- 
phal literature. 

The  three  points  upon  which  the  critic  is  intent 
are  not  of  equal  weight.  Thus,  though  the  auihen- 
ticUy  of  a  writing  be  denied  on  internal  grounds, 
the  worth  of  the  writing  as  a  source  is  not  thereby 
necessarily  denied,  for  the  document  may  have 
been  produced  anonymouJaly,  may  be  a  genuine 
witness  for  the  times  in  which  it  was  written,  and 
yet  have  had  a  name  wron^y  attached  to  it  later. 
Examples  of  this  are  the  Books  of  Samuel,  the  Gos- 
pel of  Matthew,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
which  last  is  a  genuine  document  of  the  apostolic 
age,  though  the  authorship  is  undetermined.  So 
integrity  does  not  of  itself  determine  source-value. 
Investigation  in  this  direction  discovers  gaps  or 
additions  and  relates  them  to  historic  credibiitty. 
The  final  test  has  reference  to  this  quality.  Inves- 
tigation into  a  writing  as  a  whole  leads  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  its  composition.  Criticism  of  sources 
enters  here,  which  on  the  basis  of  the  linguistic 
character  of  the  finished  work  and  of  its  parts 
decides  whether  the  work  is  a  unit  or  is  composite. 
In  the  latter  case  the  questions  arise  what  was  the 
original  form  and  how  far  it  has  been  changed  by 
the  successive  hands  through  which  it  has  passed; 
whether  the  parts  are  in  their  original  form  or  have 
been  woriced  over,  and  in  the  latter  case  whether 
in  some  dogmatic  interest.  Such  are  the  prob- 
lems which  arise  respecting  the  Pentateuch  and 
the  Gospels.  Decision  in  favor  of  the  trustworthi- 
ness of  a  document  in  itself  a  unit  and  complete  is 
carried  a  step  further  toward  assurance  by  com- 
parison with  the  general  whole  to  which  it  belongs. 
This  involves  consideration  of  linguistic  charao- 
teristics,  of  the  circle  of  ideas  in  which  it  moves, 
the  general  trend  of  thought.  Account  is  taken 
of  external  testimony.  In  this  case  error  has  to  be 
guarded  against,  since  the  trustworthiness  and 
competence  of  the  witness  is  itself  a  subject  for 
inv^tigation.  The  criticism  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Pbilippians  gives  an  illustration  of  the  difficulties 
of  the  process,  where  irreconcilably  different  oon- 
dusions  have  been  reached  by  Baur,  Holsten,  and 
P.  W.  Schmidt. 

The  most  important  problem  affecting  credi- 
bility arises  from  the  specific  character  of  the  Bib- 
lical narratives.  What  attitude  shall  be  assumed 
toward  mirades?    How  far  are  the  reports  legend- 


ary or  msrthical?  What  is  the  relation  of  the  relig- 
ious idea  to  the  question  of  the  historicity  of  the 
reports  and  of  their  worth  as  sources?  The  position 
taken  will  depend  upon  the  philosophical  position 
of  the  critic.  The  theist  does  not  disavow  belief 
in  miracles  and  values  the  divine  self-consdousness 
of  Jesus  as  testimony  to  his  living  participation  in 
deity.  But  the  historic  spirit  of  the  times  enters 
a  caveat  by  noting  the  limitation  placed  on  the 
reporters  by  the  characteristics  of  the  times  in 
which  they  lived.  Moreover,  he  who  accepts 
Jesus  as  a  wonder-worker  is  not  called  on  as  a  critic 
to  prove  the  reports  of  miracles  reliable;  nor  is  he 
who  accepts  Jesus  as  God's  son  required  to  prove 
the  stories  of  the  infancy,  analogies  of  which  are 
so  abundantly  available.  But  with  the  recognition 
that  there  are  obscurities  in  the  reports  of  miracles 
and  that  poetry,  legend,  and  msrth  are  used  by  the 
Bible,  the  last  word  has  not  been  spoken  on  the 
historidty  of  Biblical  narratives.  When  the  Eng- 
lish minister  Mitchell  said  in  relation  to  the  wars 
of  Frederick  the  Great  that  the  latter  was  fighting 
for  the  freedom  of  the  himian  race,  he  gave  an 
interpretation  of  history  but  did  not  alter  the  his- 
toric fact.  It  is  then  possible  that  without  altering 
the  facts  the  Gospels,  under  the  impression  made 
by  the  person  of  Jesus,  acknowledge  him  as  Son  of 
God  and  Savior  of  the  worid.  If  the  theologian 
speaks  of  salvation  as  a  fact  which  has  become 
known  in  history,  that  is  not  a  dogmatic  dislocation 
but  a  correct  valuation  of  the  historical  order  in 
which  the  Christian  religion  and  its  Old  Testament 
precursor  reveal  themselves. 

"  Style  is  only  the  order  and  progress  in  which 
thought  takes  form;  it  supposes  the  union  and  exer- 
cise of  all  the  intellectual  faculties, 

5.  Orltl-  and  it  is  the  man  "  (Buffon).  This 
®^"^  utters  the  final  decision  in  the  reaching 
Style.  of  which  the  critical  and  hermeneutical 
faculties  unite  more  dosely  than  in 
the  processes  named  above.  It  asks  the  question, 
what  purposes  did  the  writing  have  and  how  did 
it  attain  them?  It  takes  into  account  the  total 
impression  made  by  the  document,  the  progress 
of  thought  and  the  conception  of  history  it  em- 
bodies; it  notes  clearness  and  force  or  indefinite- 
ness  and  unwieldiness,  originality  or  accord  with 
accustomed  forms.  And  in  the  background  is  ever 
a  reference  to  the  historical  setting  and  relation- 
ships. Historical  criticism  may  show  composite- 
ness  in  a  document  and  answer  the  question  whether 
the  elements  are  united  by  a  loose  idea  or  are  worked 
into  each  other.  In  the  latter  case  criticism  of 
style  shows  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  the  whole. 
When  historical  criticism  has  thoroughly  inves- 
tigated historical  conditions  and  order,  the  question 
of  credibility  in  a  new  sense  arises.  Was  the  pur- 
pose objective  or  personal,  did  the  ideal  enter  into 
the  personal,  did  personal  interests  and  passion 
modify  the  objectivity  of  the  writing?  For  docu- 
ments run  to  Tendenz  whenever  they  are  not  purely 
objective  narrative. 

The  results  from  the  processes  so  far  re- 
viewed are  now  positive,  now  negative.  They 
produce  decisions  upon  the  completeness,  reli- 
ability, and  value  of  what  has  been  transmitted* 


BibUoAl  Oritiolflm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


174 


That  done,  the  relation  of  the  product  under  dis- 
cussion to  the  original  actuality  in  particular  and 
in  general  remains  to  be  investigated.    What  is 
historic    reconstruction?      Niebuhr's 

titra^*^'  ^*«*^^  ^f  ^^  ^^  *^®  ^^^  ^^' 
OritioinL.  ^^^  example  of  the  results  of  the 
process.  It  embodied  his  endeavor 
to  pierce  through  the  displacements  and  exag- 
gerations of  national  pride  which  influenced  the 
historical  form  of  the  statements  and  to  discover 
actuality  as  it  was  and  developed.  His  method 
is  and  remains  the  method  of  constructive  criti- 
cism. The  first  step,  then,  is  criticism  of  sources, 
which  not  only  reveals  their  nature  and  value,  but 
grasps  also  their  connection  with  the  original  fact, 
their  original  relations,  their  mutual  dependence  or 
independence.  In  religious  literature  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  regard  to  the  conceptions  embodied 
to  see  whether  these  are  the  original  gift  of  the 
religion  or  whether  they  have  entered  during  the 
course  of  the  development.  Hence  the  sources  have 
to  be  traced  to  their  original  form,  conceptions  are 
abstracted,  the  historical  course  of  events  displayed, 
and  the  method  by  which  events  have  worked  out 
of  the  objective  and  essential  conditions  discovered. 
The  dominant  method  of  source-criticism  is 
literary.  It  deals  with  documentary  indication, 
traces  backward  parallel  traditions  and  distinguishes 
their  relationship,  genealogy,  and  dependence;  it 
shows  their  original  or  secondary  character,  seeks 
the  occasions  of  their  deviations;  in  documents 
it  would  discern  the  seams  of  joining,  the  manner 
and  form  of  the  insertions.  And  then  often  the 
question  arises  whether  an  oral  or  a  written  soxirce 
lies  in  the  background.  And  besides  this  there  is 
in  Biblical  literature  the  complicating  factor  of  the 
editors;  so  that  modem  criticism  is  well  repre- 
sented graphically  by  the  "Rainbow  Bible."  In 
the  foregroimd  of  interest  now  is  the  proving  of 
the  relationship  of  Biblical  presentations  and  con- 
ceptions to  the  original  form  and  sense  and  the 
attempt  to  show  their  interrelationship.  Are  the 
leading  Biblical  conceptions  original  and  in  their 
original  form?  Do  the  terms  used  carry  their 
original  meanings,  or  has  the  original  sense  become 
detached  and  connected  itself  with  some  other 
term?  The  answers  to  such  questions  will  lead 
back  to  the  early  forms  of  the  religion  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  of  Christianity,  will  produce  a 
history  of  religious  ideas;  but  the  work  is  yet  in 
its  infancy.  Even  the  prehistoric  cult-motive, 
found  in  totemism,  animism,  and  belief  in  demons 
will  not  close  the  inquiry;  there  is  the  background 
of  the  self-seeking  impulses  which  led  men  to  placate 
ghosts  and  employ  magic  and  sorcery.  And  the 
relations  of  these  to  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
New  are  yet  under  discussion.  They  indeed  point 
out  in  which  direction  criticism  must  direct  its 
researches. 

The  highest  and  most  difficult  task  is  the  recon- 
struction of  the  historic  process,  the  monuments 
of  which  are  found  in  the  criticized  writings.  It 
purposes  a  presentation  of  the  entire  circle  of  ideas, 
and  seeks  to  discover  from  the  deficient  sources 
the  original  connection,  and  from  the  reports  brought 
together  the  original  development.    The  results 


then  are  historical,  the  basis  sou^t  is  the  mort 
ultimate  facts  attainable,  but  the  degree  of  asBiu*- 
anoe  necessarily  varies.  In  Biblical  science  tho 
two  objective  points  are  the  recovery  of  the  histocy 
of  Israel  and  of  the  history  of  the  origins  of  the 
Christian  Church.  The  crux  of  the  first  is  the  ro- 
lationship  of  the  prophetic  literature  to  the  Pents- 
teuch.  Is  the  latter  preprophetic  or  po8^>rophetie 
and  postexilic?  Another  question  still  under  discui- 
sion  is  the  historical  value  of  the  body  of  tradition 
about  the  patriarchs  and  Moses;  estimates  of  the 
highest  importance  and  bearing  upon  character 
himg  upon  the  decision.  The  reoonstructaon  of 
New  Testament  history  depends  upon  the  decisioo 
as  to  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  uaable 
sources  of  history  in  the  New  Testament.  The  new 
Dutch  school  returns  a  negative  answer  on  the 
ground  that  New  Testament  literature  is  mostly 
pseudepigraphic.  Everything  here  depends  upon 
criticism  of  sources,  upon  the  decision  about  the 
bases  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  the  Johannine  lit- 
erature, the  Christology  of  the  Epistles.  Upon 
decisions  rendered  here  hangs  also  the  estimate 
of  the  person  and  work  of  the  founder  of  Chris- 
tianity. For  the  conception  of  apostolic  timei 
critical  valuation  of  the  worth  of  Acts  as  a 'source 
is  required,  and  a  determination  of  its  relation  to 
the  Pauline  Epistles  and  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
latter.  In  this  case  also  conclusions  the  most 
opposite  are  reached  with  necessarily  opposite 
results  in  the  construction  of  history.  The  diffi- 
culties of  the  reconstruction  of  Biblical  history 
are  thus  suggested,  and  in  the  work  only  a  beginning 
has  been  made.  Real  progress  is  possible  only 
if  the  critic  is  not  self-deceived  in  respect  to  the 
continuity  and  completeness  of  the  sources  and 
the  objective  basis  of  his  hypotheses,  and  if  he  does 
not  forget  that  the  history  which  he  undertakes 
to  reconstruct  neither  claims  to  nor  can  supply 
the  religious  force  which  is  operative  in  history. 

IV.  History  of  Criticism:    This  might  be  noade 
to  embrace  aJl  work  conducted  with  critical  insight 
as  well  as  of  all  branches  of  Biblical 


.  -     science  with  the  hypotheses  and  con- 

Llmlta-  elusions.  Decision  must  be  made 
tlons.  between  a  review  of  the  results  and 
of  the  conditions  and  valuations 
which  have  given  the  impulse  to  a  new  series 
of  questions.  With  the  latter  goes  a  description 
of  the  methods  necessitated  by  the  newer  oondi- 
tions.  It  is  also  to  be  remarked  that  criticism 
and  interpretation,  so  to  speak,  alternate  and  relieve 
each  other.  Interpretation  flourishes  when  tra- 
dition is  accepted  at  its  face  value;  criticism, 
when  doubt  has  called  in  question  that  value, 
though  indeed  criticism  is  never  beyond  call. 

The  Greeks  were  the  fathers  of  criticism.    No 
other  people  of  the  ancient  worid  employed  critical 
methods;  the  memory,  not  judgment, 
!■«      ^"  held  sway.    Judaism  was  no  excep- 
Patristic    *^^^»  ^^^  ^^®  Masorah  is  text-criticism 
Oritioism.  ^  ^  limited  sense  only.     But  among 
the  Greeks  criticism  was  the  hand- 
maid of  interpretation.    Homer  was  their  canon, 
furnishing  the  model  of    the  completest  expres- 
sion of  human  relationships.     Conaequentiy,  text- 


176 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BlbUo&l  Criticism 


cjiticiiEn    found    there    Lis    task    and    elaborated 
its  methods,  while  intfirpretatioii  was  also  at  work. 
The  questions  of  integrity,  authenticity,  and  credi- 
bility weie  raised,  but  of  course  the  answers  were 
such  OS  the  age  was  qualified  to  give. 

It  has  often  been  denied  that  in  the  patristic 

m^S^  critteism  existed.     But  patristic  literature   set 

I     Mflclf  the  task  of  suppresaing  the  old  canon  and 

Kjfibctng  It  by  the  new  canon  of  the  Old  Testament 

mx^  the  New.     And  in  this  task  criticinm  was  a 

-KBiBomkry  agent.     Alexandria    and    Ant  loch    were 

tJkM  two  seats  of  the  new  learning,  the  beadquai1«r» 

'wleie  the  Enetboda  of  the  Greeks   were  applied 

io  pttTBuit  of  the  new  object   (see  Alex.ini>kia, 

I       ScBOOL    or;  Antioch,    Schooi.    of).     Even    the 

^■fourfakl  division  of  the  science  employed  by  the 

^m  Ofpeb  was  adopted^  though  the  whole  work  pro- 

H  enxbdfroma  different  standpoint.    For  the  Greeks 

F   tJieisthetic  was  the  principal  thing,  for  the  Church 

Fithere  the  religious;  in  both  eases  criticism  served 

interpretation.    The  great  undertaking  of  Origen 

t4i  bring  order  into  the  corrupt  text  of    the   Sep- 

tuagiat  remained  incomplete  and  only  introduced 

fuitlwr  confusion.     What  opinion  ia   to   be   enter* 

I         tuned  of  the  recensions  of  LucLan  and  Hesychiua 

I        10  not  yet  certain.     Jerome's   efforts   to   obtain    a 

L      better  text    of    the   Vulgate    advanced    text-criti- 

^ft    cism  but  little.     In  the  matter  of  the  canon  of  the 

^M    N'ew  Testament,  the  genealogy  ol  texts,  the  public 

^M  \m  of  the  Scriptures »  and   their  genuineness   were 

^f  uiaetMBed.    Explanations  were  offered  of  the  dif- 

■^   'wndes  found  in   the  writings  ascribed  to  John. 

-^^  in    the    councils  and  synods  the  matter  of 

^^poicity   waa  raised  for  churchly  authority  to 

•^th   the    Hefonnation   criticism    took    a   new 

^^t    upon  a  basis  prepared  by    humanism,    but 

^*    Crlti*     within    the   bounds   set   by   patristic 

criticism.    The     inspiration     of     the 

Bible  was  assumed,  for  the  need  felt 

was    for    nourishment    of   the    spirit. 

Criticism  assumed  more  definite  forms 

after  attempts  were  made  tt>   fix  the 

teaching  of  the  Evangelical   Church. 

Protestant    doctrine    of    inspiration 

to  exalt  into  law  what  hatl  been  till 


%iofi.« 

^^    6ariy 
^t'ftinpted 

J**^U    simple    religious    statement.     A    wall    was 
*''*^t  upon  the  Protestant   doctrine    of  Scripture 
^^ainst  the  Roman  Oatbolio  oonoeptiona.    A  polo- 
^^c»  and  harmonist! cs  were  created.    The  doctrine 
^t    verbal  inspiration  came  into  play  until   text- 
^iical    apparatus    began    to    accumulate.    Then 
^^Q^SKQAtie  pronouncement   upon    the    contents   of 
ScKpture^  upon  it«  clearness  and  sufficiency,  stum- 
bled over  fact,  and  the  earlier  dogma  of  inspiration 
catmeto  grief. 

Uoderauch  conditions  Biblical  criticism  developed 

"wi  became   more   opposed    to    dogmatism.     Its 

Hw^tte  was  Spinoza,  who  in  his  Tradatui  theohgico' 

politkuM   authoritatively   formulated   the  problem 

wf  the  future.     The   skepticism    of    the    aeven* 

l^'ftth  and  the  deism  and  rationalism  of  the  eight- 

^ih  centuries  clxanged  not  the  form  of  the  prob- 

™i  but  only  the  tone  of  the  critic.     Spinoea  had 

P^^  &  comprehensive  description  of  the  exigency 

produodi  by  a  theology  benumbed  by  dogmatics. 


His  desire  was  to  produce  an  undogmatic  Chris- 
tianity through  criticism  of  the  documents.  Chrie- 
tiaiitty  was  to  be  apprehended  as  teaching  for 
practical  life  and  not  as  philosophy.  Religion 
waH  not  to  contradict  reason.  Criticism  attacked 
the  problem  of  the  text  and  proceeded  to  discussion 
of  the  canon  and  its  contents.  Meanwhile  the  view 
was  held  that  religion  waa  something  different 
from  theology. 

The  first  attempts  to  build  up  a  critical  method 
were  in  the  region  of  the  Roman  classics.  J.  Rober- 
tellua  {De  arte  »ive  raiimie  c&rrigendi  aniiquarum 
tibros  dupuinlio,  Padua,  1557)  defined  the  sources 
ol  error  in  the  text  as  additions,  eliminations, 
transpositions,  extensions,  condensations,  aepara- 
tioTM  (of  parts  belonging  togetlier),  joinings  (of  parts 
which  should  be  kept  apart),  and  variations. 
Caspar  Scioppius  (1597)  argued  against  the  "  raah 
and  audacious  attempts  to  better  the  text." 
Johannes  Clericus  (1697)  connected  criticism  of  the 
classics  and  of  the  Bible.  Perhaps  he  was  the 
first  to  see  that  the  canon  had  a  history.  L.  Cap- 
pellus  (1634),  A.  Pfeiffer  (1680),  and  J.  G.  Carpzov 
(1728)  argued  for  the  unassailable  authority  of 
Scripture,  but  Carpaov's  conjectural  emendation 
of  the  MaHoretio  text  aroused  the  scorn  of  the 
orthodox,  who  declared  this  text  inviolable,  as  Ball 
and  Erasmus  had  that  of  the  Vulgate.  But  a  new 
turn  was  given  when  the  Oratorian  J.  Morinus 
(1633)  exalted  the  text  of  the  Septuagint  over 
that  of  the  Majsoretes  because  derivetl  from  purer 
sources,  though  this  valuation  was  discredited  by 
the  insecure  readings  of  the  Septuagint.  Mdl 
(1707)  and  WeUtein  (1751)  collected  a  rich  ap- 
paratus for  the  New  Testament,  and  Bengel 
proposed  to  alter  the  Textus  receptus  upon  the 
basis  of  manuscript  readings  properly  discrimi- 
nated. The  great  Bentley's  proposal  to  form  a 
new  recension  of  the  Greek  text  (on  the  basis  of 
MS.  A  and  of  t!ie  Vulgate)  was  wrecked  on  the 
rocks  of  the  opposition  of  the  theologians. 

The  criticism  of  sources  was  estaolished  in 
Beotley's  disproof  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Letters 
of  Phalaris,  That  method  wa«  applied  to  Biblical 
literature  only  in  individual  instances  among  the 
Arminians  and  Socinians,  an  example  of  which  is 
found  in  H.  Grotius'a  work  on  Thessalonians. 
The  application  of  this  to  the  Old  Testament  waa 
first  made  in  Astruc^s  discussion  of  Genesis  (1753). 
The  an ti dogmatic  position  of  criticism  became 
ever  more  pronounced  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
English  deism  attacked  clumsily  the  historicity 
of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  Skepticism  re- 
joicsed  over  the  proof  of  variety  in  origin  of  Bibli- 
cal writings.  Rationalism  sought  to  prove  that 
history  is  no  puzzle  and  all  proceeds  in  rational 
order.  Lessing's  discussion  with  Goetse  over  the 
*'  Wolfenbtlttel  Fragments  "  fathomed  deep  waters. 
Against  the  reckless  criticism  of  English  deism 
appeared  Lardner's  Ancient  JeieUh  and  Heathen 
Testirjwnies  to  the  Truth  of  the  ChrUtian  Reiigwn 
(1764-67),  while  through  Michaelia  and  Semler 
criticism  sought  to  find  equipoise. 

The  modem  age  of  critical  research  began  with 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Ita  aim  i« 
ae  tmdogmatic  method   founded  on  faeti  and  its 


L 


BibUoal  Critioinn 
Biblical  History 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


176 


task  is  reconstruction  of  history  on  the  basis  of 
a  grasp  of  original  conditions  and  of  the  actual 
course  of  development.  It  makes  use  of  psychol- 
ogy, linguistics,  literary  art,  and  his- 
Crm^*"*  tory,  and  it  attempts  to  guard  against 
®  *™*  the  one-sided  application  of  any  or 
all  of  these,  recognizing  that  subjective  criticism 
would  produce  results  inconsonant  with  the  spirit 
of  the  times  in  which  the  literature  discussed  was 
produced.  The  historical  point  of  view  as  applied 
to  the  Bible  was  first  expressed  by  Herder.  Schleier- 
macher  and  Eichhom  made  contributions  to  it, 
but  not  without  error.  Strauss's  intellectual 
method  overlooked  criticism  of  sources.  Bruno 
Bauer's  reconstruction  of  the  early  history  of 
Christianity  on  the  basis  of  Philo,  Seneca,  and 
Greco-Roman  pliilosophy  was  bettered  by  F.  C. 
Baur,  who  souglit  a  factual  basis.  Vatke's  work 
on  the  Old  Testament  has  been  confirmed  and  ex- 
tended by  Reuss,  Graf,  Wellhausen,  and  Kuenen. 
How  Biblical  criticism  has  changed  its  center  of 
gravity  is  illustrated  by  the  dictionaries.  Teller's 
WOrterbuch  dea  Alien  Testament  (6th  ed.,  1805) 
was  ultrarationalistic.  Winer's  work  {3d  ed., 
1847)  expressed  the  materialistic  doubt  of  De 
Wette.  Schenkel's  Bibellexicon  (186^75)  repre- 
sented the  Ttibingcn  school.  Riehm-Baethgen 
(1897)  shut  the  latter  out  as  much  as  possible, 
in  which  line  the  new  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  of 
Hastings  follows,  while  the  Encyclopcsdia  Biblica 
occupies  the  most  advanced  position  and  com- 
plains that  criticism  of  the  New  Testament  is  less 
advanced  than  that  of  the  Old. 

(G.  Heinrici.) 
V.  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  Roman  CathoUc 
Church :  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  subject  of 
Biblical  criticism  has  never  received  so  much  atten- 
tion among  Roman  Catholic  as  among  Protestant 
scholars.  This  disparity  of  interest  in  a  topic  so 
important  is  doubtless  largely  due  to  the  funda- 
mentally different  attitude  of  the  two  Churches 
toward  the  Bible  itself.  While  the  early  Reformers 
claimed  to  set  aside  tradition  and  church  authority, 
and  to  make  the  Bible — and  the  Bible  alone — the 
foundation-stone  of  their  respective  creeds,  the 
Catholic  theologians  and  controversialists,  on  the 
other  hand,  emphasized  anew  the  principle  of  cen- 
tral organic  authority.  For  Catholics  the  supreme 
and  ultimate  guide  in  matters  of  religion,  faith, 
and  morals  is  the  infallible  authority  of  the  living 
Church — authority  which  in  their  view  has  been 
inherited  from  the  Apostles  and  the  Divine  Founder 
of  Christianity.  This  organized  society  is  con- 
sidered as  the  divinely  appointed  custodian  of  all 
revelation,  whether  contained  in  the  Scriptures  or 
in  the  storehouse  of  Christian  tradition,  and  to  this 
society  belongs,  under  divine  guidance,  the  official 
and  authoritative  interpretation  of  Holy  Writ. 
The  great  and  exclusive  importance  given  to  the 
Bible  in  the  P*rotestant  communions  naturally 
called  for  a  deep  and  comprehensive  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  this,  in  the  nature  of  things,  was 
bound  to  develop  on  critical  lines;  whereas  Catho- 
hcs,  resting  content  with  the  principle  of  church 
authority,  continued  to  look  upon  the  Bible  as 
something  incidental  and  secondary  in  comparison 


with  the  living,  teaching  organization.  Henee  ka 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  latter  in  the  vanoui 
branches  of  Biblical  investigation,  and  likewise  ka 
alarm  at  the  changes  wrought  by  the  so-ctOed 
destructive  criticism  in  the  traditional  views  cqd- 
ceming  the  Bible. 

But,  while  the  general  interest  in  the  topic  hai 
been  less  marked  among  Catholics,  it  is  true  tbtt 
scholars  belonging  to  that  faith  have  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  rise  and  growth  of  scientific 
Biblical  criticism.  The  first,  perhaps,  who  de- 
serves mention  is  the  French  Oratorian  Richard 
Simon  (1638-1712)  who,  setting  aside  the  abstract, 
a  priori  methods  previously  in  vogue,  b^an  a  study 
at  once  historical  and  critical  of  the  principal  topici 
pertaining  to  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Bible; 
The  results  of  his  investigations,  which  were  too 
far  in  advance  of  his  age  to  receive  inteOig^ 
appreciation  from  his  contemporaries,  were  cin- 
bodied  in  a  series  of  volumes,  which,  however  muefa 
they  may  have  been  superseded  by  writings  of  later 
scholars,  are  nevertheless  extremely  interesting  m 
setting  forth  the  true  critical  method  and  applying 
it  with  a  freedom  which  was  bound  to  provoke 
opposition  and  censure  on  the  part  of  orthodox 
theologians  such  as  Bossuet  (see  Simon,  Richard). 
It  was  the  Catholic  physician  Jean  Astruc  (q.v.) 
who  gave  a  valuable  key  and  a  starting-point  to  the 
mo<iem  documentary  analysis  of  the  Pentateuch 
by  his  essay  published  in  1753.  Another  Oatholie 
clergyman  who  figures  prominently  among  the 
pioneers  in  the  field  of  scientific  Biblical  study  is 
the  Scotchman  Alexander  Geddes  (1737-1802;  see 
Geddes,  Alexander).  Foremost  among  modem 
and  contemporary  Catholic  scholars  who  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  the  field  of  Biblical  crit- 
icism must  be  placed  the  abbd  A.  F.  Loisy  (q.v.), 
who  to  a  vast  erudition  and  a  remarkably  keen 
critical  acumen  has  unfortunately  joined  a  sarcasm 
of  exposition  and  a  rashness  of  speculation  which 
have  brought  him  into  serious  disfavor  with  the 
authorities  of  the  Church.  The  more  moderate 
school  of  Catholic  Biblical  scholars  includes  a 
relatively  large  and  ever  growing  number  of  ad- 
herents who,  always  subject  to  the  limitations  im- 
posed by  church  authority,  frankly  accept  the 
well-authenticated  results  of  scientific  critical  inves- 
tigation. Obviously  these  scholars  are  not  so  free 
and  independent  in  their  researches  as  their  non- 
Catholic  brethren,  but  Catholic  apologists  claim 
that  while  the  restrictions  imposed  do  at  times 
curtail  unduly  the  freedom  of  investigators  whose 
views  though  correct  may  not  harmonize  with 
traditionally  received  opinions,  they  serve,  on  the 
other  hand,  as  a  salutary  check  on  critical  specu- 
lations of  the  more  radical  and  advanced  type. 

Moved  by  the  acute  controversies  which  within 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century  have  grown  up  in  the 
field  of  Bible  study  and  caused  so  much  alarm  in 
most  of  the  orthodox  commimions,  Pope  Leo  XI II 
instituted  a  Biblical  Conmiission  which  was  to  be 
a  standing  tribunal  composed  of  Scripture  special- 
ists and  theologians,  for  the  settlement  on  scien- 
tific as  well  as  authoritative  grounds  of  the  various 
knotty  questions  raised  by  higher  criticism.  Under 
the  present  pope,  however,  while  the  number  of 


RELTGIOTTS  EXCYCLOPEDU 


BlbUi:sftl  Oritlelmi 
Biblical  Hifltory 


&nd  conFultors  of  thia  tnbunal  wtis  p^atly 
Mi^iwnted,  m  lorg^  majority  was  conceded  to  the 
tMog^ians  na  distinguished  from  the  Bihlic^l 
KhoUiH;  and  the  decisions  rendered  thus  far  have 
little  or  no  interest  for  the  scientific  world,  as  they 
NQiiHute  gimply  a  reaffirmation,  without  sjiecified 
laiODe,  of  the  traditional  positions.  In  tlie  Church 
I(|lire6ent  the  trend  of  authoritative  direct  ion  or 
the  Scriptures  is  unfavorable  to  Bii*licul 
I,  n»  13  plain  from  the  Syllabus  of  Modem 
Gntirsand  the  eneyclicaj  against  Modernism  tssued 
liyPius  X  in  1907  (see  Syllabus). 

James  F,  Drjscoll, 

BiBuoifBuiniY:  For  worki  on  tc^xtual  criticiiim  see  Bible 
Tut.  oil  Ibe  history  of  criticism  confiilt:  H.  Cnre,  Tfw 
Bnttii  iti  Ik*  Stand pointtt;  the  Old  Te*tameni  and  the 
H*Qlktr  Critin*m^  l/omion.  1802  (brief  und  popular), 
U.  t  Kfcih,  Th€  HiaUfTu  of  th*  HUfhtr  CHUcitm  of  th€ 
HtxTulamtni,  New  York,  1900,  new  ed,.  1907  (vi  otru- 
ami  fetf  stiimtific  Bible  ttudy  )- 

f or  tipoillloa  of  m«thod<t  consult  C  A.  BrUcffs.  Ot^neral 
ItM^etim  to  the  Studu  of  Holy  Scripture,  New  York. 
IBM  (vxhkuBtivr);  A.  C.  Zeuaj«.  Element*  of  the  Higher 
Cnhrtm.  lb.  1895  (u#ejriil);  F.  AM.  W iMenj^diaftU^e 
Dmi^um^r  der  Grafnmatik^  Hrrmeneutik  und  KritUc, 
LmMkI,  160S;  F.  Hiixiic,  BeoHff  der  Kritik  am  Allen 
rtHMiX  H«d*»tber«.  1831;  F.  D.  E.  Schleiermacher. 
Vikm  Bt^ff  und  Bintextuno  der  philo4ophi»chen  Kritik, 
^  hit  Smm^ichf  Wrrke,  III,  iii.  3S7-404,  Berlin,  1835; 
JL  Ktwnen,  CntLct*  et  herm^tieutic^  tibrorum  Notn  Teata- 
•Mfi  tinmtmeftla.  I>y<lco,  1889;  F.  BUisa,  Hermeneutik 
mi  Krit^,  in  flandbuch  der  kla»9i§ehen  AltertumewUmn' 
»^t  I,  i,  127-128,  Murach.  1891;  F,  Godet  and  otfaem. 
Uiiim  Omeitm.  Six  Paper*,  New  York.  1803;  0,  W. 
^«*Wt  Bi(^  CriHeiam,  C'inrmnali.  1899  <n0«pd»  ravi- 
MA);  £,  Bemh^ifiL,  Lehrbuch  der  hUtari§eken  Meihode, 
UNe,  \mi,  H.  HiMcbrand,  Die  hr^here  B%h€lkHHK  P»- 
^n^m\  ISK)2;  W.  M6ller,  Bibticai  Critiritm.  London.  1903; 
R-  W  Gitmore*    Biidical  CritieUm^  in    The  MoniU,    xiv 

lor  trilidsm  of  hiKhpr*<!:riticsl  methoda  ajid  rcMult* 
^■mH;  E.  Bdhi.  Zum  Oeaetx  und  xum  Zeugni**,  eine  Ah- 
•^  vider  die  neu^kritieche  Schriftfi>r»cAuno  im  Atten 
Tt^amttU,  Virtina,  18S3;  O.  Nauinjiiia  Wellhauaen'e 
^<1^,  Leip«ic,  18^6;  F.  ViKouroux,  Lea  Livrea  aainta  et 
^•mkfpu  ratwnalUU,  4  vols.,  Paris.  lgg<V-90;  J.  J.  Bluiit, 
P"rf«i<f%*l  Cmrwideru^e  in  the  WHHnga  of  both  the  Old 
«rf  1^  Sew  TeMiamenie,  republiah*>d»  New  York.  1890; 
|t  i^.  Horton.  Reveleiiian  and  1h*  Bible,  London.  1892; 
^  Itopfuvcbt.  IHt  Antdttt^uno  der  kritiechen  Schule 
M^«^ii»iit,  Erlaacen.  1893;  A.  Zahn.  Emete  BlUke  in 
^*  WdkH  der  pwdemen  Kritik  dee  Alten  Teetamente, 
'•'i'^nU.  ItfOS;  F.  R.  Beiittie,  Radical  Cntieiem,  an 
vatid  SMtmintUion  of  the  Badiml  Critical  Theory. 
1894;   L.    liimhall,    Anti-hiifher   Criticiam,    New 

^iSH  (m%ittftam  in  its  coneiervatutnV,  S>   Lealhcs, 

Wmi§IAe  Old  Teelameni,  ib,  1897;  W.  H.  Green.  Gen^ 
("■  lukeduiiitm  to  th§  Old  Teetament,  New  York.  1899 
»**'  (^tan  w*a  th«  exponent  of  the  most  conaervative 
*yip*t  tj<  Biblical  study,  and  hk  strictures  on  hieher  criti- 
?"«  Will  bo  found  in  hi»  Moeee  and  the  Prophete,  1883. 
'*•  iltbeew  Feaete  in  their  BeUiiion  to  Recent  Critical  Hu- 
''^'w,  IftHA,  Higher  CHticiam  of  the  Pentateuch.  1895. 
M  Ctulv  of  the  Book  of  Geneeie.  1895);  W.  M6»er,  Ar» 
'  fVvlirt  Hiifktr  lb,  1903,  F.  D.  Storey,  Higher  Criti- 
Vrtm-eramined.  Philadelphia,  1905;  J.  On,  The 
of  the  O.  T ,  London.  1900  (coruwrvativel 
|ippUeation  and  statement  of  critical  mtMhodA 
[  Q.  D^Etchtbul,  A\fitan0e»  de  critit/ue  bihlique, 
gmllh,  OTJC,  cf.  H,  Watt».  The  Neuw 
i  the  AnAto(nf  of  the  Faith,  Fktinbnr^h,  1883 
\  tvpiy  to  8inith);  J.  F.  Smyth.  The  Old  Docu- 
tke  Nw  BihU,  London.  1890,  T.  K.  Cheyne. 
f  Oerout  Study  of  CHtieiem.  ib.  1802;  W.  San- 
7atpir«|io»,  ib.  1890  fadvancj&i!  in  doalinir  with  the 
c^nivrvative  tt»  rr^pecl«  the  N.  T.^;  idem,  Criti- 
•*Hf  the  Fourth  Ooapei  jb.  1905;  W  l'\  Adi^nfry.  How  to 
M^L^^*^*'  ^^'  ^*®^  ^^  liclpful  liauitW»ok>:  G.  A.Smith. 
II,****  CriHeiem  nnd  the  PrrarhinQ  of  the  Old  Teetament, 
'^,  R    rtnlmforth,  Tfir  BiiUe  from  the  Standpoint  of 

ll-\2 


Hioher  Criiitiem,  2  vols,.  New  York,  1904-1)5;  T.  W.  Boane, 
Bilde  Mpl/ta  and  the^r  Parallels  in  Other  Reliffiona,  ib.  1905. 
On  the  intf  rrclutionfl  of  critiri«im.  the  Bible*  and  arche- 
ology coD^'ult:  H.  A.  Harp«r,  The  Bible  and  Modern  />wt- 
cmmM.  Boston,  1889;  H>  E.  Kyle.  Early  Narratireti  of 
Grneaia,  Londrtn,  1892;  T.  Laurie.  AMyrian  Echoea  of  Uie 
iVord,  ib.  1894;  A.  H.  ftnyce,  Hitiher  Criticism  and  the 
Vefdirt  of  the  Monument*,  ib.  1894  (arehcolofpcal,  reach- 
injt  tlte  ittinio  cimchiflionj*  a»  the  critic*,  yet  violetitly  a»- 
nallitiK  thein);  W.  St.  C.  Boscawen,  Bible  and  the  Monu- 
ment*, ib.  IS05;  K.  Hoinmel.  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition 
a*  lltuetrated  by  the  AMonument*^  ib.  1897  (the  slnndpoint 
la  similar  to  Bayoe's);  D.  G.  Hogarth,  Authartly  and 
Arehealoijy,  ib.  1890  (in  it;*  Biblitial  parts  sober,  and  a  cor- 
rective of  Sayce  and  Houimel);  I.  M.  Price,  Monument* 
and  the  Old  Testament.  Ohicaitc^  1900;  T.  O.  Pinches,  The 
Old  Teetament  in  the  Light  of  HieUfrical  Record*  and  LegendM 
of  Aaei/ria  and  Babylonia,  London,  1902;  Schrader,  KAT, 

BIBLICAL  HISTORY.    See  Israel,  History  op,  I, 

BIBLICAL  HISTORY,  IllSTRUCTION  Df: 
Fundamentid  to  all  Christian  teaching  and  attmn- 
ment,  efipecially  acconling  to  the  Protestant  view, 
ia  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible;  and  thiM  knowledge 
natundly  begins  with  the  clmractert*.  event<«,  and 
institutions  of  the  Bible — a  sum  total  of  knowl- 
etlgti  wbich  may  be  comprehend etl  utnler  the  general 
cxpres-^iion  Bible  history.  Thence  the  individual 
m  led  on  to  the  weightier  matters  of  Christian 
doctrine  imd  the  mamier  of  tlie  Chrij*tian  life* 
The  organized  and  premeditated  efforts  of  the 
eariier  Church  to  impart  Clirititian  instruction 
(see  Catechu  MEN  ate;  CATECHEHia,  Cateciieticj*; 
Catechisms;  Homiletk's;  etc.)  aijnetl  more  directly 
at  the  latter,  assuming  that  tlje  fanner  id  ready 
existed.  In  the  New  Testament,  knowledge  of 
Old     Testament     history     ia     presupposed.     This 

knowledge  wait  commuiiicateil  at  homo 
Conditions  (II  Tim.  iii,  15)  or  by  readings  at 
Before  the  public  Bcrviees  (I  Tim.  iv,  13).  Tho 
Refomift-  aim  of  a  portion  of  the  New  Testa- 
tion,       ment    Scripture     (the    Gospels     and 

Act«)  waa  to  keep  alive  in  the  con- 
gregations  the  knowledge  of  the  New  Testament 
history.  In  the  primitive  Church,  besides  public 
eervdee,  home  training  (Eusebius,  Hist,  ec^l.,  vi,  2; 
Clirysostom  on  Eph.  vi^  4)  and  private  reading 
(Cyril,  Ciitech,,  iv,  35;  Apoxtolk  ComtUiitionA^ 
vii*  39)  were  mi-'ans  of  imparting  Biblical  history 
to  beginners  in  Christianity.  During  the  Mitldie 
Ages  no  systematic  school  instruction  in  Bililieal 
Itiutory  could  be  furnished  for  lack  of  c^juimtm 
schools,  and  self-instniction  wtis  not  possible  for 
the  pe^^ple  because  the  Bible  was  commonly  in 
Latin  and  ecKstly.  and  but  few  of  the  laity  could 
rtiftd  even  the  works  provided  for  them  in  their 
mother  tongue  (st^e  Bidles^  HiaTORicAL),  The 
great  mass  were  limited  to  the  translations  by 
preachers  of  the  texts  of  their  sermons,  or  uar- 
rations  of  Bible  stories  in  the  scnnon;  also, 
Hrenc^  espedjiUy  froro  the  life  of  Jesus  or  dramatic 
8|^)eetaelea  from  the  Biblical  record  helped  to  pn>- 
serve  in  the  lay  worbl  the  knowledge  of  Biblical 
ess4.*ntjnls  (see  Ueligious  Dkama>*).  In  Refop- 
mat  ion  time  as  well  im  in  the  following  centuries, 
tht-re  was  no  gt'iierul  sj^tematic schooling  in  Biblical 
hiist^^ry;  the  enmmon-school  system  wii^i  as  yet  a 
merely  formative  conception,  and  text-books  of 
Bible  history  (for  li.^t  cf*  Heu)  were  designetl  fur 
higher  achtiols  or  fur  the  lioiue 


BibUoal  History 
Biblioal  Introduotion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


178 


Not  until  Christian  common  schools  were  intro- 
duced did  histruction  in  Biblical  history  become 
a  systematized  branch  of  public  education .  Among 
the  text-books  thus  used  may  be  mentioned  the 
Biblische  Hiatorien  of  Justus  Gesenius  (1656), 
and  the  Zweimal  62  auserlesenen  hiblischen  His- 
torien  of  Johann  HUbner  (1714).  These  books 
are  the  prototypes  of  modem  Oerman  manuals, 
and  such  manuals  have  now  generally  taken  the 
place  of  the   Bible,   from   which  in 

Biblical  earlier  times  Biblical  history  was 
Instruction  taught  by  reading  aloud.  The  Roman 
in  Schools.  Catholic  Church  also  teaches  Biblical 
history;  a  text-book  widely  in  vogue 
was  that  of  Christoph  von  Schmid  (d.  1856).  At 
present  the  Bible  histories  of  the  Catholics  are 
combined  with  their  diocesan  catechisms.  Their 
new  catechism,  which  according  to  the  desire  of 
Pius  X  is  to  become  the  Catholic  standard  or  imi- 
form  catechism  (Campendio  della  doitrina  Chris- 
tiana, 1905),  contains  a  Breve  storia  deUa  religione. 
It  thus  appears  that  modem  Churches,  in  contrast 
with  the  primitive  Church,  have  reached  the  con- 
viction that  catechumens  should  gain  the  necessary 
amount  of  knowledge  of  Bible  history  not  imme- 
diately from  the  Bible,  but  from  a  text-book  pre- 
pared for  this  educational  object.  But  the  fact 
is  still  more  significant  that  the  Churches  are  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  Biblical 
history. 

This  conviction  rests  on  the  knowledge  that 
Christian  belief  is  the  product  of  a  history  which 
came  to  pass  between  (iod  and  humanity,  and  that 
the  knowledge  and  understanding  of  this  salvation 
on  the  part  of  individual  Christians  must  proceed 
from  acquaintance  with  this  history.  The  selection 
of   Bible  stories  for  catechumens   is 

Methods    adapted  to  this  principle.    The  various 

and        manuals   of    Biblical    history  deviate 

Principles,  from  one  another  in  details  of  selection, 

but  are  in  substantial  agreement  in 

the  matter  of  setting  forth  the  main  events  of  sacred 

history   according   to    their   historical   succession. 

An  exception  occurs  in  the  case  of  compilations 


intended  for  children  who  are  not  yet  catedietinl 
scholars;  for   these   there   is    need    of  partieiibr 
Bible  narratives  adapted  to  the  yean  of  difldliood 
and  related  to  the  church  f estivais.     With  referaw 
to  the  connection  between  instruction  in  BiblittI 
history  and  instmction  in  the  catechism,  a 
has  come  about,  since  in  earlier  times  ~ 
in    the    former   had   practically   no   indcpendft 
significance,  but  was  designed  to  subserve  the  ato- 
chism;  the   contrary  situation,   however,  obttni 
to-day,  certain  modem  instruotors  making  Biblical 
history  the  main  issue,  while  catechetical  sdioUit 
are  confined  to  the  fimdamentally  illustrative  or 
especially  adapted  Biblical  rdations.    Conoeniiflg 
the  method  of  instruction,  there  is  a  coiweiMai 
of  modem  conviction  to  the  effect  that  the  text- 
book should  coincide  as  far  as  possible  with  tbB 
wording  of  the  Bible  as  generally  in  use.    Tlie 
earlier  method  of  reading  the  narrative  from  tbe 
Bible,  or  having  it  read  aloud  by  a  piq>il,  has  b«B 
discarded.    It  is  better  to  have  a  stoiy  relatod 
by  the  teacher;  and  the  preferable  method  is  that 
his  oral  disooiurse  should  adhere  altogether  or  irith 
dose  approximation  to  the  phrasing  of  tbe  text- 
book.   In    particular   the    decisive    and   striking 
utterances  of  the  dramaUa  personm  should  be  repro- 
duced exactly.    Opportimity  for  explanation  and 
application  is  affoided    by   the    subsequent  dif- 
cussion.    The   use   of   nfaps   and   pictures,   with 
which  modem  Biblical  text-books    are   provided, 
tends  to  give  the  matter  more  of  an  objective 
background,  but  pictures  are  not  so  necessary  at 
they  formeriy  were,  when  pupils  had  fewer  books. 
[In  the  United  States,  religious  instruction  being 
necessarily  excluded  from  the  public  schools,  the 
teaching  of  Bible  history  belongs  to  the   Church 
and  the  home.     See  Sunday  Schoous.] 

W.  Caspabi. 

Biblioorapht:  C.  A.  O.  von  Zesschwits,  /ToledMiJb,  n.  2. 
chaps.  2-l«  Leipsio.  1872-74;  K.  H.  Holtseh,  SliMfie*  u&a- 
den  bibludun  GMcAicAltuntartcAl,  BresUu,  1870;  W.  H. 
G.  Thomas.  MethotU  of  Bible  Study,  New  York.  1«B; 
L.  Emery,  IniroducHon  h  Vftude  de  la  thfoiogie  prolnktnk, 
pp.  122-132.  Paris.  1904;  J.  M.  lUu.  QuetUn  tur  O 
achichte  dea  bibliachmi  UnierriehU,  Gatenloh,  igOtt. 


BIBLICAL   INTRODUCTION. 


I.  Old  Testament. 

Nature  and  Scoi>e  of  the  Discipline 

(I  1).  II. 

Method  of  Treatment  (|  2).  1. 

History  (5  3). 
To  the  Renaissance  (i  4). 
The  Reformation  Period  (|  6). 
The  Seventeenth  Century  (i  6). 

L  Old  Testament:  The  science  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Introduction,  like  that  of  Biblical  Introduction 
in  general,  has  developed  from  indefinite  beginnings, 
and  has  not  yet  won  the  assured  and  universally 
recognized  form  which  most  other  theological 
disciplines  have  assumed.  The  name  eisagOgS 
was  used  in  the  fifth  century  by  the  Syro-Greek 
monk  Adrian,  the  terms  introductorii  libri  and 
iniroductores  in  the  sixth  by  Cassiodorus.  But 
these  terms  carried  the  meaning  of  a  general  and 
instructive  direction  how  to  read  the  Bible,  a  guide 
to  its  correct  understanding,  an  exposition  of  the 
correct  principles  of  exegesis.    A  complete  under- 


The  Eighteenth  Century  (i  7). 

The  Nineteenth  Century  (i  8). 

New  Testament. 

History  of  the  Discipline. 

To  the  Reformation  (i  1). 

The    Sixteenth    and    Seventeenth 

Centuries  (i  2). 
Michaelis  (S  3). 


Semler.  Schmidt,  and  Otlwra  (f  4). 
Baur  (i  5). 
Later  Work  (f  6). 
The  Conoeption  and  the  Task. 
History  of  New  Testament  Scrip- 
tures (f  1). 
History  of  the  Canon  (f  2). 
Textual  Critidam  and  Versions  (f  3X 


standing  of  the  Bible  involves,  however,  a  number 
of  auxiliary  sciences — linguistics,  exegesis,  histoiy 
of  literature,  general  history,  archeology,  geography, 
Biblical  theology,  etc.,  all  useful  in 
^*  ^^fiT"^  obtaining  a  right  apprehension  of 
Scripture.  But  so  large  a  conception 
of  the  science  was  not  reached  all  at 
once.  It  was  J.  G.  Carpsov  who  first 
appreciated  the  comprehensive  nature 
of  the  discipline  and  defined  it  as  the  precise  setting 
forth  of  those  matters  a  knowledge  of  which  pre- 
pares the  approach  to  the  reading  of  the  sacred 
books.    Similarly  De  Wette  undeivtood  by  Intro- 


and 

Scope 

of  the 

Discipline. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bfbllcftl  SlBtory 
Biblical  IntrcMluctiox^ 


ductbn  all  knowledge  which  eontributwl   U>  the 

IptelHgent  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  which  set  it 

Bkirth  as  a  whole  and  in  itj}  part^  in  relation  to  hin- 

Bjlory.    Kcil  regarded  it  as  an  exposition  of  thoeo 

■tftfttters  the  understanding  of  which  prepares  for  a 

~  Iniithil  reading  of  Seripture^  by  wJiich  he  under- 

itaads  only  a  history  of  the  text,  of  the  origin  of 

the  indiWduaJ  writings,  the  story  of  the  rise  of  the 

CMon,  and  of  the  general  conception  of  Scripture, 

A  Dcw  start  waa  made  by  H.  Hupfeld,  who  held  that 

Introduction   sought   to   discover  what  were   the 

writingi  embraced  in  the  Bible  and  how  they  had 

come  to  be  what  tliey  are.     In  other  words,  what 

B  sought  are  the  extent  and  original   character   of 

the  writings,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  vieiRHitudea 

thiouigb  which  they  have  passed  in  attaining  their 

praent  fomi,  unity,  worth,  and efTectiveness.     Bui 

mn  is  needed   in   follow^ g  auch   a   formulation 

bt  one  make    of   Old    Testament    Introduction 

amply  a  history  of  Hebrew  literature,  a  mistake 

taide  by  Reusa,  who  included  in  his  work  the  letter 

ef  Aiifiteas  and   the  writings  of  Philo*     The  first 

eooaideration  of  this  science  must  be  its  service  to 

tbeobgy;  ita  principal  concern  Is  wnth  the  books 

flf  the  canon  held  by  the  Jews  of   Palestine,    and 

only  •econdarily  with  the  circle  of  writings  derived 

frdoi  HeUenistic  sources.     Care  must  aLso  be  taken 

iKrt  to  limit  the  taak  of  Introduction  so  as  to  take 

iwiy  iu  freedom  and  to  bind  it  in  effect  to  the 

pnxiounoements   of    tradition    as    to    authorship. 

.      On  the  other  hand,  Introduction  is  not  what  Riehm 

L   would  make  it,  the  literary-historical  characteri^a- 

B  tioo  of  the  Bible  as  the  authentihcation  of  a  divine 

H  IBwUtion.    It  has  ita  own  functions  to  perform 

V  Id  the  service  of  theological  science,  and  its  use- 

'     Msum  must  not  be  diminished  by  setting  it  at 

taib  which  it  may  not  undertake,     Ita  ivork  is 

*  preparation  for  tliat  of  exegesis  and  for  that  of 

Biblical  theology.     As   Reuss  has  well  expressed 

fhe  fact,  the  science  of  Introduction  is  not  the  house 

^^,  but  is  the  set  of  calculations  and  estimates 

'^OMiaiy  for  tJie  actual  processes  of  builchng. 

From  the  preceding  tt  follows  that  the  articu- 
wk^  of  this  discipline  in  the  general  science  of 
*Wojy  ia  Bxed.  In  the  arrangement  and  handling 
^  iti  iubject-matter  it  demands  and  requires  great 
■••^m;  on  the  other  Imnd,  certain  lines  are  laid 
«*^  ftbng  which  it  must  operate.  Thus,  wliile 
*fce  ongin  of  the  separate  writings  and  the  story 
**  tbeif  transDUfision  (history  of  the  text)  are  its 
•pjittm,  it  is  a  matter  of  choice  whether  considera- 
^  of  the  individual  writings  precede  or  follow 
*o«ideration    of    their    coUcction    into    a    canon. 

I  Not  unimportant   is  the  question  of 

lt«ibod  method  of  investigating  the  individual 
Twit-      writings.     Thus,  the  chronological  or- 
f^i^^m       der  certainly  lies  near  to  hand,  as  in 
the     treatment     by     Wildeboer    and 
Klutttch;  yet,    illuminating    as    this    method    is^ 
•W|Hty  considerations  may  be  urged  for  another 
^y  of  pmceeding.     If  one  is  disixjsed  to  empha- 
■••  Uic  theological    character   of   the   disci pUne, 
I^li^iaifating    his    attention    upon    the    writings 
'*^ve<i  into   the   canon,    the   chronological,   hia- 
^(al4iterary    urtler    assume*    a    complexion    of 
^''^■CQpleteiien^  ednoe  only  a  small  part  of  Hebrew 


literature  found  place  in  the  canon  and  that  part 
was  not  composed  witli  the  object  of  being  gathered 
into  a  collection.  By  a  simpler  grouping  the 
advantage  is  gained  of  awakening  no  expectations 
which  are  doomed  to  disappointment.  Then,  too, 
there  are  practic-al  di faculties  attending  such  a 
method.  Over  the  origin  of  most  Old  Testament 
writings  rests  a  darkness  not  yet  dispelled  and 
probably  never  wholly  to  be  banished.  Moreover, 
many  of  the  writings,  such  as  the  historical  books, 
are  complex  in  origin,  and  refer  to  preceding  com- 
positions of  which  too  little  is  knowTi  to  admit  of 
their  being  taken  into  a  history  of  the  literature. 
These  same  books  also  bear  traces  of  being  trans- 
mitted and  worked  over  by  hands  the  methods  of 
operation  of  which  are  altogether  uncertain.  This 
historical  method  consequently  leads  frequently  in- 
to a  cul-de-sac.  It  is,  therefore,  not  without  reason 
that  many  have  adopted  the  literary-historical 
metliod,  following  the  grouping  of  the  e^mon  so 
far  as  to  consider  the  historical  books  by  thera- 
selveB,  the  Prophets  in  another  section,  and  m  on, 
while  the  three  departments  of  Intrmluction  are 
tiistory  of  the  canon,  of  the  separate  books,  and  of 
the  text.  Whether  a  history  of  exegesis  is  to  be 
included  in  this  branch  of  study  is  debatable. 
For  the  history  of  the  Bible  in  a  narrower  sense  it 
is  not  important;  yet  in  itself  and  its  relationship 
it  has  such  value  tliat  tfiere  is  some  justification 
for  including  in  Introduction  what  properly  belongs 
in  hermeneutics. 

The  history  of  this  science  shows  in  all  its  phases 
the  same  marked  trait;  viz.,  that  the  Church, 
which  would  fain  remain  in  restful 
8i  History,  and  thankful  enjojrment  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  handed  do\ATi,  has  been 
compelled  by  outside  pressure  to  take  up  the 
problems  of  the  origins  of  those  Scriptures  and 
either  to  modify  or  di.scard  the  traditions  re- 
garding them.  In  the  earliest  times  this  pressure 
came  partly  from  Jewish  sources,  later  from  lin- 
guistic science  and  philosophy,  and  later  still  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  sought  to 
undermine  the  Protestant  principle.  Only  the 
salient  pi>inta  of  the  development  of  Introduction 
can  be  here  given. 

The  beginnings  are  found  in  the  treatment  of  the 
canon  in  the  prologue  to  Ecclesifu<?ticu8,  in  Josephua 
imd  the  Talmud^  and  in  the  controversy  bet  we«^n  the 
Jews  and  some  of  the  Church  Fathers  respecting 
the  Palestinian  and  the  Alexandrian  canon.  This 
led  up  to  the  text-critical  lalxjrs  of  Origen.  The 
next  name  is  that  of  Jerome,  about  whose 
time  began  work  on  Introduction,  but  with  the 
limita  in  treatment  already  referred  to  above, 
by  Adrian  and  Cassiodorus,  the  latter  of  whom 
dealt  briefly  with  the  history  of  the 
text  and  of  the  c4mon.  A  slight 
advance  was  made  in  the  work  of 
Junilius  Africanus  (about  550)  called 
Insiiiuia  regularia  divina;  hgi^.  This  classified 
the  books  according  to  their  contents  as  history p 
prophecy,  proverbs,  and  simple  teaching,  and 
according  to  their  degree  of  authority  as  perfect, 
medium,  or  of  no  authority;  it  distinguished  also 
between    poetical    and    prose    writings.     lu    this 


4.  ^o  tha 

Benala- 

■anoe* 


Biblical  Introdnotion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


J80 


connection  must  be  mentioned  Augustine's  De 
doctrina  Christiana^  which  treated  of  the  extent  of 
the  canon  and  of  the  use  of  translations.  The 
Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  content  with  the 
work  done  by  Cassiodorus,  Augustine,  and  Jimilius. 
But  among  the  Jews  there  were  the  stirrings  of  a 
more  vigorous  life,  exemplified  in  the  investi- 
gations of  Ibn  Ezra  in  the  region  of  special  intro- 
duction. 

By  the  revival  of  learning  the  Christians  were 
made  familiar  with  the  results  of  Jewish  investiga- 
tions which  were  soon  to  lead  to  the  enrichment 
of  isagogical  science.  The  interest  in  the  Hebrew 
language  grew  into  a  wider  concern  for  Oriental 
philology,  which  had  a  fertile  field  in  the  trans- 
lations of  the  Old  Testament,  soon  to  become  of 
use  in  the  department  of  text-criticism.  The 
earliest  fruits  ripened  among  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  work  of  a  convert  from  Judaism,  Sixtus  of 
Sienna  (d.  1599),  the  Bibliotheca  aanctay  which  dis- 
tinguished between  protocanonical  and  deutero- 
canonical  writings,  and  which  dealt  also  with 
matters  of  special  introduction.  The 
6.  The  Reformers  did  not  enter  this  field, 
Beforma-  though  the  exegetical  works  of  Calvin 
Period  contain  materials  for  special  intro- 
duction, and  Luther  necessarily  had 
to  do  with  the  extent  of  the  canon.  Important 
was  the  work  of  Carlstadt,  De  canonicis  scripturia 
(1520),  in  which  he  showed  the  superiority  of  the 
Jewish  canon  and  made  the  canonicityof  a  Biblical 
writing  depend  not  upon  the  authorship  but  upon 
its  relation  to  that  canon.  The  period  immediately 
following  the  Reformation  produced  nothing  notable. 
A.  Rivetus  (d.  1662)  represents  the  standpoint  of 
the  age  in  his  definition  of  Scripture  as  that  which 
proceeds  from  God  as  the  special  author,  who  not 
only  impelled  (the  scribe)  to  write  and  gave  the 
thought*,  but  even  suggested  the  order  and  the 
words. 

Out  of  this  dogmatic  quiet  the  theologians  were 
shaken  by  the  newer  criticism,  which  began  in  the 
realm  of  the  text.  The  Reformer  Cappellus  under- 
took investigations  which  showed  that  the  tra- 
ditional text  was  not  altogether  trust- 
worthy, and  he  was  followed  by  the 
Catholics  Morinus  and  Richard  Simon 
(d.  1712).  The  latter's  Histoire  cri- 
tique was  epoch-making  in  that  it 
employed  the  literary-hbtorical  method,  and  showed 
that  the  Pentateuch  could  not  be  wholly  the  work 
of  Moses  and  that  other  historical  books  had  been 
worked  over.  Simon  had  been  preceded  by  Hobbes, 
whose  Leviathan  had  used  the  method  of  inter- 
nal testimony,  and  Spinoza,  whose  Tractatus  theo- 
logico-politicua  had  advanced  a  number  of  positions 
which  were  to  be  established  later.  Simon's  book 
awakened  much  opposition  and  was  suppressed, 
only  to  be  reproduced  in  a  Protestant  land  (Rotter- 
dam, 1685).  The  ideas  of  Simon  were  further 
established  in  Protestant  regions  by  the  work  of 
Johannes  Clericus  (q.v.),  though  the  tendencies  of 
Protestantism  were  conservative,  and  its  supporters 
came  later  to  hope  that  the  learning  of  Carpzov 
would  establish  firmly  the  truth  of  the  traditional 
views. 


6.  The 
Seven- 
teenth 
Centnxy. 


In  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  eaitaaj 

new  doors  were  opened  to  Biblical  criticiflm,  eip^ 

dally  by  the  resefl^t^hee  of  Semler.    At  that  timethe 

attitude  of  criticism  toward  the  Old  TeBtament 

was  unfriendly;  it  treated  the  collection  from  the 

historical  standpoint  only,  but  insisted  upon  undo- 

standing  the  times  in  wUch  the  writings  originatei 

Of  religion  little  was  discovered  in  the  Old  Testt- 

ment.     Herder  came  to  the  help  of 

7-  ^«     the  defenders  of  the  Bible  with  lui 

^'?*"     discovery  of  the  poetvy  it  contMMd, 

C^ury.  ^^^  ^^  newer  lij^t  was  intenafied 
in  the  work  of  Eichhom,  which  out- 
shone all  the  works  of  his  predecenors  and  ooo- 
temporaries.  Special  interest  attaches  to  the 
researches  of  Eichhom  in  general  introductioQ, 
while  the  work  of  special  introduction  gained  from 
his  treatment  of  the  books  as  constituting  a  Hebiev 
national  literature.  Yet  permanent  results  were 
lacking  from  that  period,  excepting  only  the  dis- 
covery by  Astruc  which  forecast  the  documentaij 
analysis  of  the  Pentateuch. 

A  new  era  was  opened  by  De  Wette,  who  com- 
bined  the   literary   with   the   historical   method. 
Ewald  carried  the  process  on,  not  indeed  in  a  woik 
on  Introduction,  but  in  exegetical  researches  in 
which  he  employed  it,  using  along  with  it  a  sym- 
pathetic appreciation  rather  than   a  rigid  logic. 
Meanwhile  the  Pentateuchal  problem  was  pushing 
to  the  front  in  the  works  of  Vatke  and  Reus, 
to  receive  its  most  advanced  oonad- 
8.  The     eration  from  Wellhausen  and  Kuenen. 
r~!^      The  side  of  the  defense  had  mcan- 

Centnry  w^®  ^o*  ^^^^^^  inactive,  as  the  worin 
of  Hengstenberg,  H&vemick,  sod 
KeU  abimdantly  prove,  all  of  which  contributed 
something  toward  the  solution  of  the  problems 
discussed.  Between  the  two  extremes  represented 
by  the  men  named  come  others  who  approach  one 
or  the  other  tendency,  but  the  general  characteris- 
tic of  their  labor  is  to  bring  into  accord  the  assured 
results  of  criticism  and  the  faith  of  the  Church  in 
revelation.  The  most  notable  example  of  this  kind 
of  work  is  Driver's  Introduction.  But  the  final 
solution  of  the  problems  raised  by  the  science  of 
Introduction  will  come  not  from  that  discipline 
but  from  the  other  branches  of  theology  which 
build  upon  it.  (F.  Buhl.) 

n.  New    Testament — 1.  History  of  the  Dl«sl- 
pllne:    The  employment  of  the  term  "Introduc- 
tion" with  its  present  connotation  in  connection 
with   the    New  Testament  dates  in  modem  times 
from  Michaelis.  But  as  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, beginnings  had  been  made  long  before.    Be- 
sides the  men  mentioned  above  (I,  §4)  as  working 
in   this  department,  Tyconius  and  Eucherius  of 
Lyons  attempted  to  supply  the  needed  information 
about  the  origin,  occasion,  purpose,  and  history 
of  the  New  Testament  writings.    The  antagonism 
to  the  apocryphal  books  and  heretical  parties  such 
as  the  Marcionites  with  their  variant  canon  and 
the    Montanists   with    their    new    prophecy   en- 
hanced   in  the  second    and  third    centuries  the 
Church's  valuation  of    the  Christian  books  which 
had    come  to    it    from    the    apostolic  age.     The 
Muratorian  Canon  employed  a  legendary  report  of 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BibMo«.l  Introduction 


^ 


tbe  origb  of  the  Gospels,  not  to  explain  indivitiiial 
peculiarities,  but  to  establish  the  dogmatic  unim- 
portance of  variations  in  the  Gospel 
L  To  the  narratives.  Similarly,  the  cliurch  pnic- 
Btforznft-   tise   of   ysing  in    senice   the  private 
letters  of  Paul  as  well  as  the  public 
lettcR  and  of  excluding  the  spurious  ones  fnim  use 
«u  established >    The  vacillation  of  the  Church 
in  reference  to  such  writings  as  the  Apocalypse 
<rf  FettT  and  the  Sheperd  of  Ilermas,  the  Marcion- 
itic  criticism  of  the  canon  of  the  Gospels  and  of  the 
Tfiuline  epistles,  the  opposition  of  the  Alogi  to  the 
Jobaniae  writings   as   being    the    production    of 
» heretic  of  the  apostolic  age,  the  writings  of  Mclitiis 
ifid  Hippolytus  about  the  Fourth  Gospel  anrj  the 
Apocalypse— all  these  suggest  tlieway  in  which  the 
need  for  a   kind  of  Introduction  made  itself  felt 
b  even  those  early   times.     So  a  beginning  was 
made  in  the  writing  of  Dionysius  on  the  Apocalypse, 
while  tbw  sentiments  and  traditions  of  the  different 
diuffhes  began   to  take  systematic   form  in    the 
writing  of   Origen.     Eusebius   used   considerable 
ipaocin  his  works  in  setting  forth  the  varied  views 
•nd  «&rly  testimonies  concerning  the  New  Testa- 
mcot  books.     Jerome    followed    in    the   steps    of 
Etisebius,  but  without  contributing  much  that  was 
lipw  in  this  particular  line  of  investigation.     The 
doctrinal  contest*  of  the   fourth   and   succeeding 
fwitarics  turned  the  channel  of  investigation  away 
fpotn  the  history  of  the  canon,  and  for  a  considerable 
f«ne  there  api?eared  only  re  product  ions  of  the  early 
Opi&ions  about  the  New  Testament,  books  in  the 
pc^aen  to  the  oonuncntaries  or  summaries  and 
^riiop«8  which  came  into  being  and  which  gave  a 
Sonera!  view  of  tbe  arrangement^  contents,  and  ori- 
gin of  the  New  Testament  writings. 

Thf  silence  of  the  Middle  Ages  gave  place  during 
^ia«  Reformation  to  the  utterances  of  the  Catholic 
•<*oU»SaDct*^Pagninu8  of  Lucca  (d.  1541),Sixt\is 
^  Sicnaa(d,  1599),  and  A.  RivetuSt  who  wrote  an 
Imogtfgf  ,tW  introducJio  to  both  the  Old  and  New 
T»l2unpntfl    (Leyden,    1627).     These   works    con- 
fined much  information  in  this  departtnent,  along 
^'ith  lioginatic  discussions  concerning  inspiration 
^ftdibe  nelations  of  Scripture  and  tradit  ion .  Richard 
^rooii  (q,v  )  published   (at  Rotterdam)   his  three 
''^^b upon  tlie  critical  history  of  the  New  Tcsta- 
^^^i  tfiiAioirc  critique  du  textef  1689,  des  versions, 
l^,  and  t/f*    principaux  commeniaieunf,  WM,  du 
A<nttipQti  Testammt),  and  thus  won  his  place  as  the 
^  Th«      father  of  New  Testament  Introiluction, 
By    **  crUique "    he    understood    the 
investigations    for    the    establishment 
of  the  original  text;  and,  by  his  his- 
tory from  the  sources,  he  impugned 
not  only  the  Protestant  claim  of   ''  a 
witness   of   the  Spirit/'  but  also  the 
■'^'MJlantic  treatment,  which^  resting  upon  imper- 
j^  »cq«!iintance  i^nth  antiquity,  could  not  prove 
^hAt  Christianity   was   a   religion  based  on   facts 
J"d  that  the  Bible  was  the  record  of  lliose  facts. 
It^  lh«  effort    to    establish    the    New    Testament 
J**l»  lie  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  province  of 

^  iiuxt   name    is   Johann    David    Michaelia 
1^).  who  wrote  tbe  Einkitung  in  die  g&tlichen 


8U. 
'•tnth 
a&d 

8*vm, 

Otatiiri«», 


Mieha. 
eUa. 


Schriften  de^  Netien  Bundes  (GSttingen,  17ijO). 
He  disclaimed  dependency  upon  8imon,  and 
yet  his  work  was  really,  in  its  first 
shape,  based  upon  Simon.  With 
each  succeeding  edition  it  was  greatly 
improved;  but,  even  in  the  fourth  and  last  edition 
(1788),  its  standpoint  was  a  strongly  rational 
fiupematuralism.  The  differences  to  be  noted 
between  the  editions  are  mainly  that  his  attacks 
on  the  *'  doubters  ^'  became  milder,  and  that  he 
gave  up  the  inapiration  of  the  tiistorical  books ^ 
denied  also  the  inspiration  of  the  non-apostolic 
books  (among  which  he  reckoned  apparently  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews),  and  declared  that  the 
**  inner  witness  of  the  Spirit  "  was  of  as  Uttle  worth 
on  the  witness  of  the  Church  in  proof  of  the  inspira- 
tion of  any  book. 

Johann  Salomo  Semler  (q.v.)  made  the  next 
contribution  of  importance  (in  his  Ahhftndlung 
von  JTcifT  Unter8uchung  dcs  Kanonn,  4  parts,  Halle, 
1771-75),  when  he  distinguished  between  the 
word  of  God,  which  contained  the  doctrines  of 
directly  spiritual  value,  and  the  Holy 
S  k^r^  ^^"P*^"^*'  vfhkh  contained  them 
~i  only  sporadically.  There  is,  how- 
Ottiera.  ^^^^*  ^°  historical  proof  that  any 
particular  passage  was  the  word  of 
God;  the  iimer  witness  for  the  truth  was  the 
only  source  of  proof.  The  Church  had  the  right, 
exercised  by  the  ancient  Church  and  by  the  Re- 
formers, to  say  what  book»  should  constitute  the 
c-anon.  It  can  not  be  said  that  Introduction  was 
influenced  permanently  by  Semler;  the  greater 
impulse  was  given  by  Michaelis,  who  was  followed 
by  J.  E.  C.  Bchmidt  (1804),  Eichhom  (18(^4-14), 
Hug  (1808),  Berthold  (1812).  and  De  Wette  (1826), 
while  in  En^and  Home  (1818)  had  included  in  hia 
work  the  domains  of  BibliciU  geography  and  an- 
tiquities, which  were  excluded  by  the  Germans. 
Schmidt  applied  the  phrase  "  his  tori  co-critical  "— 
since  so  widely  used^ — to  his  Introduction;  Eich- 
hom started  his  fruitful  "  original  Gospel  ''  theory; 
Hug,  in  an  unexcelled  manner,  investigated  the 
relations  of  the  synoptists.  Schlcicrmacher  (1811) 
called  attention  to  the  neeil  of  a  reconstruction 
of  this  branch  of  study,  declaring  that  its  object 
was  a  history  of  the  New  Testament,  so  that  its 
present  readers  might  be,  in  their  knowledge  of 
the  origin  of  the  books  and  their  text,  on  a  level 
with  the  first.  Credner  ( 1 832  sqq.)  projected  a  fairly 
complete  scheme  for  a  treatment  of  the  subject,  em- 
bracing the  history  of  the  science  of  Introduction, 
history  of  the  origin  of  the  New  Te-stament  Scrip- 
turea,  history  of  the  canon,  of  translations,  of  the 
text^  and  of  interpretation.  This  scheme  lie  was 
not  |)crmitted  to  carry  out*  though  his  posthumous 
publications  completed  the  history  of  the  canon. 
Rcuas  followed  Credner's  lead  in  the  GescfMde 
der  heiligen  Schriften  dfs  Neuen  Testaments  (Bruns- 
wick, 1842),  while  Hiipfeld  made  a  contribution 
in  his  B^gnff  und  Methode  dtr  .  .  ,  biblwchen 
Einkitung  (Marburg,  1844). 

Ferdinitnd  Christian  Baur  (q.v.;  d,  1860)  has  Jiad 
by  far  the  mtwifc  influence  upon  New  Testament 
studies  of  any  man  of  modern  timos.  He  attempted 
nothing  less  than  a  n- const  ruction  of  all  apostolic 


Biblical  Introduction 
BibUoal  TheologT 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


182 


and    postapostolic    history    and    literature,    from 

the   four   Pauline    epistles    (Galatians,   I    and   II 

Corinthians^     and      Romans)     which 

6.  Baur.  alone  he  considered  genuine.  Starting 
with  the  idea  that  the  difference 
between  Paul  and  the  rest  of  the  apostles  was 
fimdamental,  he  declared  that  those  New  Testa- 
ment writings  which  either  put  the  relations  of  the 
apostles  in  a  more  favorable  light  or  seemed  to 
ignore  their  differences  altogether  were  either 
forgeries  or  the  products  of  a  later  time.  But  his 
historical  considerations  were  derived  from  Hegel's 
philosophy,  and  his  criticism  rested  upon  dogmatic 
convictions.  New  discoveries  of  vital  importance 
in  the  field  of  church  history  and  patristics  and  the 
recovery  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticua  and  of  parts  of 
Tatian's  Diatessaron  from  Ephraem's  commentary 
have  given  a  new  basis  for  a  historical  discussion 
of  the  New  Testament  and  its  origin  and  contents. 
It  is  the  irony  of  history  upon  Baur's  methods  that 
the  modem  Dutch  school  have  used  Baur's  methods 
to  discredit  the  four  **  genuine  "  epistles.  These 
four  points  may  be  made  against  Baur:  (1)  He 
reasoned  in  a  circle;  for  he  examined  critically, 
first  the  sources  of  the  history,  and  then  the  history 
of  the  sources.  The  reasoning  which  reduced  the 
genuine  Pauline  epistles  to  four  reduces  the  four 
to  none;  so  that  Paul  is  robbed  of  his  title  to  have 
produced  any  writing  which  lasted.  (2)  Baur 
certainly  was  extraordinarily  familiar  with  the  old 
Christian  literature;  but  he  read  it  with  prejudice, 
and  not  with  a  desire  to  learn  anything  different 
from  his  preconceptions.  (3)  He  was  lacking  in 
the  sense  of  the  concrete  and  the  value  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  therefore  could  not  grasp  complicated 
relations  and  their  results.  (4)  If  it  is  self-evident 
that  one  must  understand  what  he  criticizes,  and 
that  his  criticism  must  rest  upon  thorough  exegesis, 
then  Baur  surely  was  unfitted  for  his  labor;  for  he 
was  weak  as  an  exegete  and  his  school  has  done 
little  in  exegesis. 

It  may,  however,  be  added  that  the  deficiencies 
in  Baur's  method  of  work  were  supplied  by  others. 
B.  F.  Westcott's  General  Survey  of  the  History  of 
the  Canon  (London,  1855  and  often),  E.  Reuss's 
Histoire  du  canon  (Strasburg,  1863),  A.  Hil- 
genf eld's  Kanon  und  die  Kritik  dee  Neuen  Tes- 
taments  (Halle,  1863),  T.  Zahn's  GeachichU  dee 
neutestamcntlichen  Kanons  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1888-92),  and  A.  Ix)i8y's  HU- 
toire  du  canon  du  Nouveau  Testament 
(Paris,  1891)  are  productions  of  this  character. 
Such  works  as  W.  M.  Ramsay's  Church  in  the 
Roman  Empire  (Ix)ndon,  1893)  have  served  also 
as  correctives  of  much  of  the  work  which  has  been 
accomplished  in  Germany.  The  studies  of  F.  Bleek 
(6th  cd.,  1893;  Eng.  transl.  of  2d  Germ,  ed.,  1869), 
Ililgenfeld  (1875),  Holtzmann  (1892),  Salmon  (1894), 
S.  Davidson  (1894),  Godet  (1893-99;  Eng.  transl. 
1894-99),  Zahn  (1900),  and  jQlicher  (1901;  Eng. 
transU  1904),  and  of  the  Roman  Catholics  Trenkle 
(1897)  and  Schftfer  (1898)  in  Introduction  are 
important  contributions  to  the  science. 

2.  The  Conception  and  the  Task:  In  order  to 
obtain  an  adequate  comprehension  of  the  books 
which  together  make  up  the  New  Testament  as 


6.  Later 
Work. 


witnesses  for  a  historical  movement  and  to 
for  them  safe  utilization  as  historic  sources,  then 
is  required  a  scientific  investigation  of  their  origiD. 
That  is,  there  must  be  inquiry  into  the  tme  m 
which,  the  drcumstanoes  under  which,  the  puzpose 
for  which,  and  the  personal  rdations  of  the  pemi 
by  whom  they  were  produced.  In  other  wonfa, 
the  method  of  res^ux^  is  litenu74dBtoriGiL 
Whether  this  can  be  called  a  science  is  debttabk, 
since  criticism  is  the  art  of  Hi«tingiiinliing  the  gen- 
uine from  the  spurious.  But  if  it  l^  granted  that  an 
examination  from  a  historical  standpoint  of  \bb 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  and  an  adequate 
exposition  of  the  history  of  their  origin  is  reaQj 

1.  His-    ^ici^tificy  It  ^  i^one  the  less  a  fact  that 
tory  of     t^®  process  has  a  theological  character. 

Kew  For  the  fact  that  this  literature  ii 
Testa-  Greek  and  sprang  up  in  the  Roman 
ment  world  does  not  do  away  with  the  other 
Scrip-  fact  that  it  originated  in  certain 
t^*'®**  communities  which  had  in  certain 
vital  respects  their  existence  apart  from  the  woild 
about  them.  The  religious  element  maria  it  off 
from  the  other  productions  of  the  time,  and  the 
history  of  this  literature  is  one  side  of  the  histoiy 
of  the  Church.  If  Christianity  depends  upon  the 
historic  reality  of  a  revelation  mediated  by  Christ 
and  authoritatively  expoimded  by  the  apostlea, 
it  is  no  unimportant  result  that  it  can  reach  his- 
torical foundations  for  the  eariy  productbns. 
And  those  foimdations  are  found  in  the  writm^ 
brought  together  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
supereminent  value  in  this  respect  of  these  writings 
is  sufficient  justification  for  considering  them  apart. 
But  the  investigation  must  not  start  from  a  dog- 
matic conception  of  what  the  canon  is.  The  ground 
fact  is  that  even  from  the  second  century  this 
collection  has  existed  in  the  Church  and  has  been 
accepted  as  the  one  legitimate  source  for  the  history 
of  the  revelation  made  through  Christ.  But  if 
it  should  appear  that  there  are  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings  which  in  general  character  and  in 
origin  separate  themselves  widely  from  the  rest 
of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,  or  if  there  were 
outside  that  collection  writings  which  affiliate 
themselves  with  the  New  Testament  Scriptures, 
Introduction  can  not  content  itself  with  disregard- 
ing those  facts.  It  is  hardly  likely,  however,  that 
such  discoveries  will  be  made  as  will  compel  a 
radical  departure  from  the  accepted  procedure, 
that  there  will  come  to  light  such  writings  as  are 
referred  to  in  Luke  i,  1  sqq.,  or  the  correspondence 
of  Paul  with  the  Corinthians  implied  in  I  Cor.  v, 
9,  vii,  1.  Even  such  discoveries  as  those  last 
mentioned  would  not  be  likely  materially  to  change 
accepted  results,  and  the  business  of  the  discipline 
would  still  be  with  the  New  Testament  Scriptures. 
Along  with  the  history  of  the  separate  writings 
which  make  up  the  New  Testament  goes  as  a 
second  part  the  history  of   the  com- 

2.  His-     bination  of  these  into  the  canon  in 
*?f^        which   they    have    been  transmitted 

Canon       ^  *^®  present  time.     It  is  of  impor- 
tance   to    examine    and    exhibit   the 
historical    antecedents    and    developments    which 
compassed   the  formation  of  this    collection,  the 


183 


lELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblical  tntrodactloii 

BibUc&L  Theolosy 


tnefulAritj  and  vacillation  which  exifited  during 
ivvtral  ocDturies^  and  the  adjustment  which  pro- 
doood  »  final  and  imivereaUj  accepted  result. 

The  examination  of  the  origins  of  the  individual 
trilings  and  that  of  the  origin  of  the  coUectJon 
mpplemeat  each  other.  The  one  brings  to  light  the 
eommon  spirit  which  animated  the  indi\idual 
writers,  the  other  reveals  the  influence  which  thoae 
irrilere  exercised  over  the  churches.  And  it  is 
Mtewortb^r  that  the  collection  was  begun  almost^ 
if  not  quite,  before  the  latest  writers  had  ^iehed 
tbeir  wofk«  bo  tliat  no  appreciable  interval  of  time 
^putted  the  two  operationa  of  writing  and  of 
collection.  And  bo,  notwithstanding  the  different 
areas  in  which  these  two  processes  work,  they 
Wong  together  as  sectiona  of  the  one  diacipline 
of  thy  literary  history  of  the  New  Testjiment. 

Ab  to  the  inclusion  of  other  departments  in  thb 

bnncb  of  study,  ueage  differs.    Some   have    in- 

duded  therein  not  only  the   history  of  the   text 

iod  of  translations,  but  also  the  history  of  the 

theological    handling  of   the  same.     But,  strictly 

'"peaking,  neither  the  story  of  the  vicissitudes  of 

toammiaBion  nor  the  history  of  translations  belongs 

hei«.    U  with  Credner  and  Reuss  the  history  of 

translatiotis  is  put  as  a  part  of  the 

^Twrtual  history  of  the  propagation  of  the  New 

•Di   Xestament,  its  proper  place  is  in  the 

Vtniona     ^^^^T   ^^   missions.     So   far   as   the 

versions  assist  in  the  recovery  of  the 

original  text,  the   treatment  of    them   belongs  in 

*   guide  to    the   exercise  of    text-criticism   or  in 

the  prol^omena  to  editions  of  the  New   Testa- 

nwot.   To  be  sure,  the  history  of  the  earUer  text 

Mid  thst  of  the  old  versions  have  importance  for 

tbc  history  of  the  canon  because  of  the  fact  that  not 

*>  much  individual  books  as  the  entire  collection 

or  It  iaasi  great  part«  of  the  collection  were  copied 

«nd  tnmsUted.     Were   greater  certainty  than   is 

yet  the  case  attainable  concerning  the  Syriac  and 

the  Latan  versions,  great  gains   would   be  made 

in  the  history  of  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament. 

But  it  must  be  remembered  that  not  all  branches 

which  contribute  to  results  in  any  given  line  of 

""JCMch  are  to  be  included  in  the  department  of 

■'*«ee  in  which  they  arc  used.         (T.  Zaun.) 

™*«WE4PitT:  On  the  general   introduetion  t<»  th«  whole 

whit  connult:  C,  A,  Brigg«,  Sttidy  of  Holu  Scripture.  N«w 

^wk,  180Q  (the  bent  book  for  »  oomprebeoMve  eurvey); 

^   T    Lmdd^  Docttin*  of  Saered  Scripture,  ib.   1883  (full 

y**  dry);  E.  Ilii[»iii«  Lt*  LivT€9  de  VAncien  ef  du  Nourmu 

^'^omtfU,  Moudon,  1890*  A.  Schist ter,  Einleituno  in  die 

^*^,  Stutteart.  1S94  (oooaetvative). 

^  ^Xi  the  Canon  of  the  O.  T.  it  ii  sufficient  to  mention: 

^-  Kti»iiefi^  Hi4tmisch-'kriliBck  ondertoek  naar  fut  ojigkuin 

p*^  tvrMmcftncr  van  de  boeken  dea  Otiden  VerbondM,  3  vole, 

*2r**"'  *^^**-^3  (the  fullcBt  dJACUBsionl;  F.  Buhl,  Kanan 

J5|»  Tt^dM  Atten  TtatammU,  l^lpmCr  1891.  Eng,  tranjiL. 

5?*^0f«h.  1892  (a  modi*!):   H.  E.  Ryle,  Carwn  and  Text 

S-S*  ^'  ^'  London,   1802  (reliablo,  indiepenrable);  G. 

£3^**dfcbepT.  Hti  Ontlaan  van  den  kant>n  det  Ottden  Vrr~ 

■JJJlJ^  Ofomncen,  18S0«  Enjf.  tranut,  London.  1885  (all 

2Jp»aU  should   have  it);  E.    Kautxsch,   Ahriaa  der  Qe- 

5*J«lkll  dM  oittemlaTnenttirAen  Schrifttum*,   in    hia   Heili(jie 

■J^ill  dtt  A.   T,,  Freiburg,   18&6,  Eng.  tranul,.  Outline 

J|J«  J?tl*.  of  Ik4  Liierature  of  th$  O.  T.,  New  York.  1899 

^^'Jjfc  and  mteretting). 

yjy^  Q.  T.  Introduction  the  on©  indispensable  book  h 
Sl^*  /»6iorf««<M>fi,  Ut«9t  iuiprMFion,  London,  1807, 
^!^?*^uH  alio  J.  P,  P.  Martin,  Introduction  h  la  critique  gi- 
•■"^  A  VA,  r.,  a  ToU..  Pari*,  1888-89;  A,  F.  Kirkpat- 


riok*  The  Divine  Lihraru  of  the  0.  T.,  London,  1S93  (eon- 
servativ*):  S.  Davidaon,  IrUroduetion  to  the  O.  7\,  3  vols-» 
ib.  18M  (the  antithesis  of  Kirkpatrick);  H.  L,  Stmck^ 
Einhitunff  in  doe  A.  T.,  Muiiich,  1898;  W.  H.  Green. 
General  Introduction  to  the  O.  T.,  2  vols..  New  York, 
1898-^9  (the  extreme  in  oonflcrvatium);  W.  R,  Smith, 
O,  T,  in  Jewieh  Church,  Edinburgh.  1902;  C.  H.  Cbrnill, 
Eini^ituno  in  dot  A.  T,,  Freiburg,  1905,  Eng.  traiifil., 
1907^  J.  E.  McFadyen,  Introduction  to  the  O.  T.,  New 
York,  1905;  K.  Budde,  Geechichte  der  althebrdiachen  Lit- 
teratur,  Leipsic,  1906;  C.  L.  Gautier,  Introduction  it 
VA.  r.,  2  vols.,  Laujanne,  1906, 

On  the  N.  T.  the  works  have  been  sufficiently  indicated 
iu  the  text,  though  worthy  of  mention  are  A.  LoJj<»y,  Hietoire 
du  Canon  rfu  jV.  T.,  Paris,  1891;  Biblical  Introduction; 
N,  r.,  by  W,  Adeney,  London.  1899;  B.  W.  Bacon,  Intro- 
duction to  N,  r..  New  York,  1900;  H.  von  Soden,  UrchriU- 
tiche  Literatur-GeechichU,  i,  Die  Sckriftmt  ties  JV,  T.,  Berlin, 
1905,  Eng,  transL.  1905. 

BIBLICAL  THEOLOGY. 

Origin  and  History  (j  1  >,         The  Old  Testament  (f  3). 
Btudy    of   New    Teslaxnent     Litnitations  (M)* 

Theology  (|  2).  Constructive  Work  (f  6), 

The  Time  Aim  (i  6). 

Biblical  theology,  or  the  orderly  presentation  of 
the  doctrinul  coiit«nta  of  Scrip ture,  is  a  compara- 
tively modem  branch  of  theologicjil  eciencc.  In 
general  the  term  expressea  not  so  much  the  con- 
struction of  a  theology  which  is  Biblical  in  an 
especial  sense  as  a  method  of  dealing  with  the  Bib- 
lical matter  which  ia  midway  between  exege^^iis  and 
dogmatics.  Its  object  and  limitation  am  be  ^ 
shown  beat  by  tracing  ita  history. 

So  long  m  the  Church  felt  or  admitted  no  dis-l 
cord  between  its  tradition  and  the  Biblical  tradition,! 
there  was  no  need  to  compare  or  contrast  the 
oontenU  of  the  Bible  with  the  teaching  of  the 
Church.  On  this  account  the  beginnings  of  a 
Biblical  theology  appear  in  the  circles  of  the  theolo- 
gians of  the  Reformation,  who  perceived  in  Scrlp- 

1    Ori^      ^^^  ^^^  **^*'  ^^  which  to  try  eccle- 
■jid  ^   siastical     tradition.    Since    to     them 

History*  ^^®  Bible  was  the  sufficient,  self-ex- 
plaining basis  of  dogmatics*  by  this 
juxtaposition  the  possibility  was  given  of  a  sepa^ 
rate  treatment  of  the  doctrinal  contents  of  the 
Bible.  The  first  timid  effort  confined  itself  to 
a  disciission  of  the  customary  quotatiana  (Sebas- 
tian Schmidt,  ColUgium  Biblicum  in  *jtw>  dictai 
Veteris  et  Novi  TeAiamerUi  juxia  seriem  locorum  . 
explicantur^  lfV71).  Under  the  influence  of  Pietism 
the  close  connection  of  dogmatics  and  the  Bibl^ 
was  relaxed,  because  in  the  latter  was  seen  less  \ 
infallible  source  of  knowledge  than  a  means  of 
grace  (A,  F,  Btisching,  Gedankcn  von  der  Bexcfrnff en- 
he  it  und  dem  Vormge  der  bibHschen  Theologie  von 
der  schalaatischen,  Lemgo,  1758,  and  similar  works). 
When  in  the  eight>eenth  century  J.  S.  Semler  and 
his  school  busied  themselves  in  discovering  the 
difi'ercnces  in  date  and  characteristics  of  the  dif- 
ferent books  of  the  Bible,  and  brought  to  light  the 
dissonance  between  crystallized  dogma  and  New 
Testament  teaching  (a  dissonance  greater  still  in 
the  case  of  the  Old  Testament)*  the  desire  naturally 
arose  to  show  the  essential  agreement  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Churcii  and  that  of  the  Bible  by  an  nn- 
preju diced  study  of  the  latter  (G.  T.  Zacbarifti 
BibUsch^  Th€4)hgie  od^r  Untenfuchung  dejs  bibHaehen 
Grundes  der  vomehmsten  kirchiichen  Lehren,  5  vols,,! 
Gottingen,  1771-86).    The  rationalistic  school,  in 


BibUoal  Thaoloffy 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ00 


184 


opposition  to  the  fonnulated  dogma  of  the  Church, 
endeavored  to  read  its  own  views  (those  of  natural 
religion)  into  the  Bible  (C.  F.  Ammon,  ErUwiddung 
einer  reinen  bibliachen  Theologie,  Erlangen,  1792; 
G.  P.  C.  Kaiser,  Die  hMitiche  Theologie  oder  Judais- 
fnu8  und  Ckristianismtis  nach  einer  freimiUigen 
SteUung  in  die  kriUachrvergleichende  Universal- 
geschiMe  der  Religionen  und  in  die  universale 
Religion f  2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1813).  In  contradis- 
tinction to  this  there  was  during  the  nineteenth 
century  an  eager  desire  to  give  the  purely  historical 
results  of  examination  of  the  Bible.  In  this  way, 
the  fact  of  differences  of  conception  in  the  parts  of 
the  Bible  was  fully  brought  to  light. 

Probably  under  the  influence  of  Schleiermacher 
(q.v.)  especial  attention  was  directed  to  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  ''systems"  of  the  different 
apostles  were  separately  treated  (the  Pauline  by 
Meyer,  1801,  L.  Usteri,  1824;  the  Johannine  by 
K.  Frommann,  1839).  Along  with  this  an  effort 
was  made  to  show  the  unity  of  the  Gospel  in  the 
very  variety  of  individual  conceptions  (of  the  many 
important  works,  note  A.  Neander,  Oeachichte  der 
Pfiamung  .  .  .  der  chriatlichen  Kirche,  Hamburg, 
1832;  B.  Weiss,  Uhrhuch  der  bibliachen  Theologie, 
Berlin,    1868;    W.  Beyschlag,  Neutes- 

of  »W^  ^^^^^^^^  Theologie,  Halle,  1891). 
Testament  ^^  ^^®  same  time  another  class  of 
Thaoloffy.  theologians  was  eagerly  engaged  in 
tracing  the  differences  of  the  individ- 
ual conceptions  to  their  very  roots.  According 
to  Hegel's  formula  the  crystallized  dogma  was  a 
synthesis  of  the  two  sharp  opposites  of  Paulin- 
ism  and  the  primitive  apostolate,  and  this  develop- 
ment was  followed  up  in  all  its  details  from  a 
literary-historical  point  of  view  (F.  C.  Baur; 
H.  E.  0.  Paulus;  F.  C.  A.  Schwegler,  Nachapoe- 
tolischea  Zeitalter,  Tubingen,  1846;  O.  Pfleiderer, 
Pauliniemue,  Leipsic,  1873;  C.  Holsten,  Evange- 
lium  dee  Paulus  und  Petrus,  Rostock,  1868;  A. 
Hilgenfeld,  Urchristentum,  Jena,  1854).  In  like 
manner  the  life  of  Jesus  and  its  sources  were  treated, 
in  connection  with  which  work  there  originated  a 
coimtless  number  of  monographs  on  the  self- 
consciousness  of  Jesus  and  the  titles  he  assumed. 
The  result  from  this  point  of  view  was  the  con- 
viction that  New  Testament  theology  has  to  deal 
not  with  a  completed  whole,  but  with  a  mobile  and 
developing  Christianity.  Hence  "  Biblical  The- 
ology "  and  "  Introduction "  together  represent 
simply  a  part  of  the  apparatus  of  general  church 
history  (cf.  A.  Hausrath,  NeutestamenUiche  Zeit- 
geschichie,  Heidelberg,  1868;  O.  Pfleiderer,  Urchris- 
tentum, Berlin,  1887). 

Parallel  to  this  development  of  New  Testament 

theology  was  that  of  Old  Testament    theology. 

Students  came  to  discern  the  narrowness  and  one- 

sidedness   of   the   Old   Testament   religion,   upon 

which  Hcngstenberg  vainly  insisted  in 

#5!.  «,_*  his  obliteration  of  the  limits  between 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.    In 


Old  Tes- 
tament. 


acknowledging  the  principle  of  slow 
historical  genesis,  others  sought  to  understand  the 
development  of  the  Old  Testament  religion  by  the 
principle  that  no  doctrine  is  completed  in  the  Old 
Testament,  no  doctrine  in  the  New  Testament  is 


altogether  new  (G.  F.  Oehler»  Theoloffie  des  AUm 
Testaments,  Tabmgen,  1873-74;  similaziy  ScfaulU 
and  Riehm).  J.  Wellhausen  {Prolegomena  nr 
Oeschichte  Israels,  Berlin,  1886)  and  A.  Kumen 
produced  a  revolution  in  the  treatment  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Under  the  influence  of  their  religious- 
historical  suppositions  and  literaiy-criticai  ooo- 
clusions,  Old  Testament  theology  serred  to  deseribe 
how  from  the  supposed  original  oonditions,  bom 
animism  and  totemism,  the  prophetic  ninfy>tlyMm 
of  the  prophets  and  ultimately  the  theocratic 
ceremonialism  of  postexilic  Judaism  graduiUj 
developed  (B.  Duhm,  Theologie  der  PropkeUn, 
Bonn,  1875;  R.  Smend,  AltiestamenUiehe  Rdigiom- 
geschichte,  Freiburg,  1893;  S.  Kayser  and  Marti). 
In  this  way  the  Old  Testament  religion  was  placed 
on  a  level  with  other  religions,  and  the  Burprianglj 
rich  discoveries  concerning  the  ancient  Orient  and 
the  rising  science  of  the  lidstoiy  of  religion  grasped 
hands  with  this  method  of  treatment.  It  wai  a 
natural  consequence  to  show  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment possesses  a  rich  heritage  of  rdigious  fancy 
common  to  ethnic  religbns  (cf .  especially  H.  Gunkd, 
Schdpfung  und  Chaos,  G(>ttingen,  1895;  BeUgums- 
geschichtliche  Abhandlung  des  Neuen  TestameiiU, 
1904).  The  idea  of  unity  and  special  individ- 
uality of  the  New  Testament  thus  goes  by  tbe 
board. 

In  ^andng  over  the  devdopment  of  Biblieal 
theology,  it  is  surprising  to  see  how  this  brsnch 
has  worked  out  its  own  disintegration.  In  the 
beginning  the  aim  was  to  make  the  Bible  the  only 
and  sole  source  of  Christian  doctrine  in  the  Re- 
formers' understanding  of  the  phrase,  by  allowing 
it  to  speak  for  itself  without  introduciiig  any 
diluting  medium.  The  investigator  sou^t  to 
penetrate  its  polymorphous  nature,  and  finally 
saw  that  under  his  touch  the  uniting 

tatiOTLs"  ^^^  *^  disappeared  which  formeriy 
kept  together  the  disparate  parte 
and  made  it  an  undivided  object  of  scientific  re- 
search. This  self-immolation  the  discipline  owes 
to  a  one-sided  maintenance  of  the  historical  and 
religious-historical  method.  Biblical  theology  must 
indeed  be  a  historical  science;  but  the  adjectiTe 
must  not  become  a  noun  and  the  method  must  not 
master  the  subject.  For  in  this  study  there  are 
fundamental  perceptions  which  can  not  be  obtained 
by  literary  criticism  and  general  historical  researches. 
Thus  the  subject  itself — ^namely,  the  whole  Bible- 
suggests  the  question  whether  the  subject-matter 
is  the  remains  of  a  religious  literature  or  documents, 
productions,  and  descriptions  of  a  history  which  is 
fixed  by  a  revelation  from  Ood.  And  the  answer 
to  this  question  is  of  the  greatest  import  for  the 
investigation.  How  different  must  be  the  verdict 
of  higher  criticism,  provided  the  miracles  or  the 
declarations  of  Jesus  are  regarded  as  a  priori 
historically  possible  or  impossible;  how  much  the 
selection  of  the  matter  decides  whether  one  shall 
find  only  religious-ethical  views,  or  historical  facts 
•of  the  "  religion  of  Jesus,"  or  that  "  the  belief  in 
Christ  "  belongs  to  the  essence  of  Christianity. 

For  this  reason  there  has  always  cAcisted  an 
opposition  to  the  development  described  above. 
The  history  of  salvation  with  its  Uterary  deposit 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCfLOPEDIA 


Bil^lical  Thoolo^7 


rbe  resolved  into  a  purely  human 
I  The  imprei^oii  iB  gamed  mtlver 
llmt  the  Bible  oontams  a  primary 
life  of  faith^  having  the  character  of 
xincomipted  self-consistency  and  un- 
fcroken  independence^  and  that  con- 
tere  ia  underneath  a  uniform  and 
'  idea.  As  standing  for  this,  men- 
1^  made  of  K.  I.  Nit^sch,  Stjsttm  der 
I0ire  (Bonn,  1829),  and  H.  Ewald,  Lehre 
\  Gott  (3  vols,,  Leipsic,  1S71),  and  par- 
IJ.  C»  K.  von  Hofmann,  w!i08e  great 
\itQige  Schrifi  dfs  Neuen  Tesinment^ 
^end  untcrsuehly  completed  by  Volck, 
\)  culminatod  in  the  deflcription  of  the 

I  entire  New  Testament  preaching  as  a 
^lopment  of  the  uniform  word  which 
IKluct  of  the  intU\idual  authors.  Mer- 
er {Bibliisch-theohgisch&i  WoHerbuch 
menttkhen  GraHtat.  Sth  ed..  Gotha, 
lored  in  a  new  way  to  bring  into  view 
Ibe  contents  of  Scripture  by  collecting 

II  notioQH  of  the  Bible  and  folloi^ing 
Blent  from  the  Hebrew  into  the  Greek, 
fflim  there  are  not  only  diflferent  modes 
lAt  different  times,  hut  there  is  a  Bible- 
iilinguistic  body  of  the  divine  word, 
bg  itself.  It  is  a  ftcientific  necessity 
I  theology  regard  the  individuality  of 
(be  basal  principle  of  its  entire  activity, 
bo  of  the  Bible  ia  not  merely  a  part  of 
tpast;  it  is  an  active  factor  in  the  prea- 
\  manner  the  Bible  is  not  merely  a 
piwing  the  manner  in  which  the  Chris^ 
Iri^nated;  it  is  the  authentic  tradition 
[of  God,  out  of  whicli  the  Church  ia 
big  (M.  Kaehler,  Der  khit4)rische  Je^wi, 
kic,  1896).  On  this  account  Bibhcal 
{pt  always  proceed  from  the  unexcep- 
tfonent,  which  can  ordy  be  reached  at 
development;  its  way  leads,  therefore, 
pr  to  the  Old  Testament,  through  the 
I  partfi.    Since,  however,  that  result 

rered  in  complete  fonn,  it  ia  the  task 
to  educe  from  that  which  exists  what 
Ihe  entire ty-^tto  that  the  examination 
illar  IB  ever  a  means  to  an  end,  and  is 
I  the  control  of  the  final  aim  of  the 
I' 

tit  is  not  the  task  of  Biblical  theology 
theology  of  the  Bible  and  to  judge 
Iftfiure  of  a  probable  understanding  of 
jihe  original  to  be  obtained  scientif- 
ically, but  to  show  aa  a  matter  of  fact 
brhat  the  contents  of  the  Bible  are 
pud  at  the  same  time  to  bring  into 
brent  forms  and  shapes  in  which  these 
pffcped.  It  owes  to  the  Church  a  pure 
ftlie  **  woni  "by  the  preaching  of  which 
^  lived  in  all  ages.  On  thia  account 
pined  by  considering  some  **  probable 
ps/*  sought  behind  the  sources,  but  the 
I  that  the  Jesus  Christ  of  primiti\'e 
I  deficribed,  and  that  in  the  various 
ph  it  has  been  handed  down.  Again, 
pirn  is  always  to  produce  a  theology 


L 


of  the  entire  Bible  (such  an  effort  L^  K.  Schlottmann, 
Kompendiurn  dcr  biblijsdten  Theoiogie^  2d  etL, 
Leipsic,  1895).  But  the  separate  treatment  of  the 
Testaments  will  generally  recommend  itself  for 
practical  reasons,  aince  a  great  detd  of  preliminary 
work  is  necessary  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  because 
the  difference  of  degrees  of  revelation  must  be  in- 
dicated. But  the  correlation  between  the  two  must, 
after  all,  never  be  overlooked.  It  is  a  matter  of 
course  that  the  Biblical  theology  of  the  whole 
Bible  can  never  dispense  with  exegesis.  But  it 
raises  itself  above  the  purely  exegetical  by  its 
relation  to  systematic  theology.  It  is  released  from 
the  duty  of  exhibiting  ail  the  mazes  and  changes 
of  development  wliich  are  not  essential  to  the  umler- 
stanthngof  the  unified  whole.  On  the  other  lijin  I, 
it  must  not  bo  misled  into  compressing  Bil>lif:d 
richejj  into  a  narrow,  onesided  system,  which  will 
take  the  form  of  contemporary  dogmatics,  for  the 
dogmatic  interest  will  take  charge  of  the  process 
of  digeating  the  immense  amount  of  subject-matter. 
One  task  of  Biblical  theology  b  to  open  the  way  of 
return  from  contemporary  crystalli  Ration  into 
formulas  in  dogmatics  to  the  source  itself.  In  this 
sense  it  will  be  of  very  great  service  to  evangclieal 
theology,  provided  it  directs  us  to  disclose  moro 
clearly  and  richly  God's  word  in  Holy  Scripture 
and  thus  protests  in  the  name  of  the  document  of 
revelation  against  every  claim  of  human  infal- 
libihty,  for  *'  God  alone  ia  infallible  "  (Zwingli). 

BiBLioaRAFSY:  DLscuaBioua  on  the  method :«  of  the  diBci- 
plino  are  in;  G.  A.  Bri«g!9,  Study  of  Holu  Scripturr,  pp. 
&m-mQ,  New  York,  1899  (bwtorical  and  critiral,  .h:*- 
crimiaatirig)'  G.  R,  Crooka  and  J.  F.  Hurst,  TheoloQxml 
Eneucloptmiia  and  Methodologu,  pp.  249-255,  New  York, 
1894;  A.  Gave,  Introduciuin  tt>  Th^>hffy.  pp.  405-421 » 
Edinburgh,  1896;  W.  Wrede.  Utber  Aufaabe  und  Mt^ 
thode  der  utffenannten  neutr*tamenliichen  Theoloffi*,  G^t- 
tingen,  1897;  L.  Emery,  I titroductianhVMudtde la  thSoUtoie 
prateMttinte.  pp.  122-127,  Pari^,  I9(M  (tbo  foregoing  all 
e^nlain  bibljogmphies).  An  excellent  review  of  recent 
Ut«ratUFe  is  fumiahed  in  the  TheoloQi4tche  Rundttchau, 
May,  1907  (an  exoullent  pehodioal  devoted  to  the  review 
of  work*  oti  theology) - 

Work/i  additional  to  those  m  the  text  whioti  deal  with 
the  whole  of  Biblical  theology  or  of  some  phase  of  both 
the  O.  and  the  N.  T.  are:  L.  Noack.  Dim  biMiache  TheoU^- 
ffie,  Halle.  1853;  F.  Gardner.  Tfui  Old  ami  the  N,  T.  in 
thHr  Mutual  Relatione,  Now  York,  188,'^;  H,  8cbuK«, 
AUtetlamenUiche  Theolo(fie,  G^^ttmgen,  1885,  En«.  IranM-^ 
Edinburgh,  1892;  W.  L.  Alexander,  A  System  of  Bibli- 
mi  TheoioQu,  2  voIb..  Edinburgh,  1888;  C.  L,  Pillion, 
Uidee  ttntfole  de  la  BUde.  Parin.  1888;  C.  G.  Cha- 
vaunea.  La  Religion  dan§  la  BibU,  2  vola,,  PariA.  18K0; 
C.  H.  Toy,  Judaiitm  and  Christiamty,  Boston,  I8t)0 
(ealMi  by  Dt.  Briggs  '' the  be^it  book  on  the  subject"}; 
A.  Duff,  O,  T,  Theologu,  Edinburgh.  1891  (original); 
R.  H.  Ghnrles.  Critical  HiitrnTf  of  tha  DocSrint  of  a 
Future  Life  in  farael,  Judaitm  and  Chri^Haniti/t  Lon- 
don, 1899  (the  one  book  m  the  6eld). 

Additional  and  worthy  books  on  O.  T.  theology  mm 
C.  H.  Piopenbrin^,  Th^oioffie  de  I'Ancien  Tfi9tament,  Parii*. 
1886,  Eng.  tmnf^l..  New  York.  1893;  A,  Dillmann,  Han*i- 
buck  der  aiU^ttam^ntlichen  Theologie,  Leipsic,  1H95  (po'«t- 
humous):  W.  H.  Bi^nnett.  Theology  of  th§  O.  T.,  London, 
1896  (a  handbook  >;  E,  Sniend,  Liihrhuch  der  alU*mlaimnt^ 
fichen  Betigioruoetchichle^  Froiburg,  1899;  A.  B.  Davidapo, 
Th«  Th^oioav  of  the  O.  T.,  Edinburgh.  1904  (eomewhat 
disappointtng). 

Additional  works  on  tlte  N.  T,  are  W,  F,  Ad«ney«  rA#> 
oiooy  f>f  ifw  N.  r,,  London.  1894  (corresponds  to  Be&iwtt 
on  the  O.  TJ;  H,  J,  HoH»mann,  l^rbuch  dWr  ficuCMto- 
menUichen  THeologw,  2  Vols.,  TtVbtngen,  1«97  (one  of  the 
best  on  tbe  aubjeet);  G.  B.  Btevens^  TfuoUtgy  nf  the 
N.  T.,  New  York.  1890;  E.  P.  Gould.  Biblical  TkmUm  of 


BibUoiflts 
Biddle 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


186 


th€  N.  r..  New  York.  1900;  D.  F.  EatcR,  An  OtAtline  of 
N.  T.  Theolooy,  ib.  1901;  J.  Bovon,  Thluktgie  du  N.  T,, 
2  rola.,  Lauaanne,  1893-94,  vol.  i.  2d  ed.,  1902. 

BIBLICISTS,  BIBLICAL  DOCTORS:  A  name 
sometimes  given  to  those  who,  during  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  demonstrated  religious 
truths  by  the  Scriptures  and  by  the  authority  of 
the  Fathers,  in  contrast  to  others,  who  aban- 
doned Scripture  and  tradition  in  order  to  give 
full  rein  to  their  fancy  and  philosophy.  The  most 
of  the  latter  were  Dominican  and  FranclacAn  monks 
who,  since  their  orders  held  no  property,  had  no 
libraries,  and,  owing  to  their  unsettled  and  vagrant 
lives,  had  little  opportunity  for  the  study  of  books. 
Some  of  the  Biblical  doctors  were  schoSara,  and  pro- 
duced valuable  works;  but  the  majority  of  them 
were  servile  imitators  of  their  predecessors. 

BIBRA,   NICHOLAS    OF.     See     Nicholas    of 

BiBRA. 

BICKELL,  GUSTAV:  German  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  and  Orientalist;  b.  at  Gassel  Jdy  7, 
1838;  d.  at  Vienna  Jan.  15,  1906.  la  1862  he  be^ 
came  privat-docent  of  Semitic  and  Indo-Germanic 
philology  at  Marburg,  and  in  the  following  year 
went  in  the  same  capacity  to  Giessen.  Two  yetira 
later  he  became  a  convert  to  Roman  CathoUdam, 
was  ordained  priest  in  1866,  and  from  )S67  to  1874 
taught  Oriental  languages  in  the  academy  of  Mon- 
ster, where  he  was  appointed  associate  prof^sor 
in  1871.  From  1874  to  1891  he  was  piofessor  of 
Christian  archeology  and  Semitic  languages  in  the 
University  of  Innsbruck,  and  from  the  latter  year 
until  his  death  was  professor  of  Semitic  philobgy 
at  the  University  of  Vienna.  He  wrote :  De  indole  ac 
ratione  versionU  AlexandrincB  in  inter prei^nda  libro 
Jobi  (Marburg,  1862) ;  Sancti  Ephrdem  i  Syri  carmina 
Nistbena  (Leipsic,  1866);  Grundrisa  der  hebrauchen 
Grammatik  (2  vols.,  1869-70;  Eng.  imnHl.  by  S.  I. 
Curtiss,  1877);  Grande  fur  die  Unffhlbarhmt  dea 
Kirchenoberhauptes  (MOnster,  1870);  Conspedui 
rei  Syr  arum  liter  arics  (1871);  Mesae  und  Faaclm. 
(1872,  Eng.  transl.  by  W.  F.  Skene,  Edinburgh, 
1891);  Sancti  laaaci  Antiocheni  opera  omnia  (2 
vols.,  Giessen,  1873);  Kalilag  und  Damnag^  alie 
ayriache  Ueberaetzung  dea  indiachen  Fiilratenspitgeh 
(text  and  translation,  Leipsic,  1876);  Metricea 
bibliccB  regulcB  exemplia  iUuatratoB  (Innsbruck,  1879); 
Synodi  Brixinenaea  aceculi  quindemmi  (18S0); 
Carmina  Veteria  Teatamenti  metrica  (1882);  Dicht- 
ungen  der  Hebrder  (1882);  Koheletha  Untersuehung 
aber  den  Wert  dea  Daaeina  (1884);  and  Daa  Bux^h 
Job  nach  Anlaaa  der  StropkUc  und  der  Septuaginta 
auf  aeine  urapriingliche  Form  zuruckgefuhri  und  im 
Veramaaae  dea  Urtextea  Oberaetzt  (Vienna,  1894). 

BICKELL,  JOHANN  WILHELM:  Writer  on 
canon  law;  b.  at  Marburg  Nov.  2,  1799;  d.  at 
Cassel  Jan.  23,  1848.  He  studied  law  at  Marburg 
and  G(ittingen;  was  professor  of  jurij^rudence  at 
Marburg,  1824-34;  president  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  1841,  and  minister  of  state,  1843. 
He  wrote  Ueber  die  Entstehung  .  .  .  dea  Corpua 
Juria  Canonici  (Marburg,  1825);  Ueber  die  Reform 
der  proteatantiachen  Kirchenverfaaaung  ( 1  Si  1 ) ;  Ueber 
die  Verpflichtung  der  evangeliachen  GeiMchen  auf 
die  aymboliachen  Schriften   (Cassel,   1^9;  2d  ed.,  j 


1840);  of  his  Geschiehle  dea  Kirchenredda,  cffily  «» 
volume  was  completed  (part  i,  GieHBen,  im\ 
part  ii,  Frankfort,  1849)- 

BICKERSTETH,     EDWARD:      The    mnm  d 

three  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  Englaitd. 

1.  A  leader  of  the  Evangelicals;  b.  at  l^Mrj 
Lonsdale  (60  m*  n.  of  Liverpool)^  WestanorelaDd, 
Mar.  19,  1786;  d.  at  Watton  (21  m.  WJ-W.  of 
Norwich),  Hertfordshire,  Feb,  28,  1850.  He  wu 
at  first  a  lawyer  and  practised  at  Norwich,  but  bt 
was  always  of  deeply  religious  temperametit  and  m 
1815  received  priest*s  ordere  and  was  sent  to  Mnat 
by  the  Church  Misaionaiy  Sodety  to  inspect  the 
work  there.  Ecturning  in  Aug.^  1816^  he  becune 
one  of  the  society's  secretaries  and  for  tbe  rest  of 
his  life  spent  much  time  traveling  in  the  anria 
of  the  fioeiety;  in  1830  he  became  rector  of  Watloa. 
He  was  an  active  opponent  of  the  Tractariaa  Utm- 
ment^  and  was  one  of  the  founder?  of  the  Evii^gilicd 
Alliance  and  of  the  Irish  Church  MisaionB  Soek^. 
His  published  works  were  numerous  and  nmtf 
were  very  popular;  the  tnoro  iinportant  {A  h4p 
to  ihe  Study  of  the  Smpiunet,  21  at  edition;  A  Tm^ 
tue  on  Prayer,  14th  edition;  A  TrealiM  on  ik 
Lord's  Supper f  13th  edition;  A  Guide  to  the  Propk- 
edeat  8th  edition;  and  others)  were  collected  m 
sixteen  volumes  (London,  1853).  He  abo  com- 
piled Christian  Paalmody  (Hereford,  1833),  a  mucfa' 
used  hynm-book,  and  edited  the  Christianas  Familif 
Library  (50  vols.). 

BiDUooHAPHT^  T.   R.   Birks.   Mtmmr  of  E.  EidE&vk^  I 
Tob.,  LoDdon,  1S5«  (by  liu  ■oh-Id-Iaw);  DNB^  v,  3^ 

S.  Dean  of  Lichfield,  nephew  of  the  precedmg; 
b.  at  Acton  (12  m,  s.  by  e.  of  Bury  St.  iklnitmd'i), 
Suffolk,  Oct.  23,  1814;  d.  at  Leamington  (SO  m. 
n.w.  of  London)  Oct.  7,  1892.  He  studied  at 
Sidney  Sussei  College »  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1836; 
M.A..  1839;  D.D.,  1864).  and  at  Durham  Univff- 
sity;  became  curate  of  Chetton,  Shropshire,  1838; 
at  the  Abbey,  Shrewsbury,  1839;  Penn  Street, 
BuekingharasMre,  1849;  vicar  of  Aylesbury  and 
archdeacon  of  Buckinghamshire,  IS53;  boDorary 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1866;  dean  of 
Lichfield,  1875;  resigned  in  1892.  In  1864,  1^6, 
1869,  and  1874  he  was  prolocutor  of  the  lower  house 
of  convocation  of  Canterbury,  and  a^  such  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  New  Testament  re  vwra. 
He  was  a  nigh-churchman.  He  pubUshed  Dioct^an 
Synods  in  BelaHon  to  Coniwcalion  and  Parliament 
([^ndon,  1867);  My  Hermfier  (1883);  edited  tbe 
fifth  edition  of  R.  W.  Evajis's  Bishopric  of  Souls 
(1877),  w^ith  a  memoir  of  the  author;  and  contrib- 
uted the  commentary  on  Mark  to  the  PuipU  Com- 
mentary (1882), 

3^  Bishop  of  South  Tokyo,  Japan,  eldest  son  of 
Edward  Henry  Bickersleth  (q.v.);  b,  at  Banning- 
ham  (10  m.  n.  of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  June  26, 
1850;  d.  at  Chialedon  (30  m.  n.  of  Salisbury),  Wilt- 
shire, Aug,  6,  1S97.  He  wa3  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge (B,A„  1873),  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1874. 
He  was  eurate  at  Hampntead,  London,  1873-75; 
fellow  of  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  from  1875 
till  1877,  when  he  headed  the  Cambridge  Mis- 
aion  for  Del  hi ,  India.  In  this  mission  he  so  im- 
paired his  health  that   he  was  obliged  to  retun 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BibUciats 
Biddle 


b  England  in  1882,  and  he  became  rector  of  Fram- 
Inigfiun,  Suffolk.  In  1886  he  was  consecrated  bish- 
op of  Japan,  He  was  an  extreme  High-churchman 
lid  strove  to  reproduce  this  type  of  church  life 
loioog  the  Japanese,  The  result  was  the  so-called 
'*  Gitbolic  Church  of  Japan  "  {Xippon  Sei  Kokimi), 
In  1887  a  Wsit  to  Korea  bore  fruit  in  the  c«tablish- 
meat  of  a  miamon  in  that  country.  In  1892  his 
viBt  to  the  Anglican  mission  statioiw  in  Japan 
ODYUiGed  him  that  there  should  be  more  bishops; 
•eontdingiy  his  dioceae  was  made  that  of  South 
Tokyo.  Again  his  health  gaveivay  and  he  retunied 
bme  to  die.  His  lectures  for  Japanese  divinity 
Ituilents  were  pubUshed  under  the  title  Our  Heritage 
fa  Of  atinA  (London,  1S9S). 

Bauoom4rffT:  S.  Btckenteth,  Life  and  Letter*  of  Edward 
idhmMJk,  Bitkop  of  Sauih  Tokyo,  Loodoa.  I90fi  (by  kia 

BICKERSTETH,  EDWARD  HENRY:  Bishop  of 
Ewter,  eon  of  Edward  Bickersteth,  1 ;  b.  at  Isling- 
ton,  London^  Jan,  25,  1825 ;  d*  in  London  May 
{^r  1906.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam> 
bndge  lB*A*,  1847),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in 
IS^,  *ad  ordained  priest  in  the  following  year. 
He  WW  curate  of  Banningham,  Norfolk  (1848^51); 
wdorof  Hinton  Martell,  Dorset  (1852-55);  vicar  of 
Christ  (^hiurch,  Hampstead  (1855-^);  rural  dean  of 
Bighgate  (1878^-85),  and  dean  of  Glouce.^ter  (1885). 
Ha  tB0  oonaecrated  bishop  of  Exeter  in  1885,  but 
iNgBod  five  yean*  later  on  account  of  ago.  He 
wrrte  Wf^er  frmn  the  Well  Spring  (London.  1852); 
Tkt  Hock  of  Age^  (1857);  ComfnerUary  on  the  Ntw 
Tutammi  (1864);  Yesterday,  To-day,  and  Forever 
(pOCtD  in  twelve  books,  1 860;  prised  as  a  devout 
w»d»tion  of  heaven);  The  Spiril  of  Lift  (1869); 
f^ymnal  Companion  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
dSTO);  Tkt  Two  Brothers  and  Other  Poenis  (!871); 
ffknttf  and  Other  Parables  (1873);  The  Shadowed 
m  and  the  light  Beyond  (1874);  Words  of 
^^^mid  k>  the  Clergy  and  Laity  of  the  Diocese  of 
fa«ir  (1888);  Cfutrge  at  Third  Visitation  (1895); 
'^  Ymr  U>  y«ar  (1895);  The  Feast  of  Divine 
^•«»  (I89ft);  and  Charge  ai  Fourth  Visitation 
(^M).  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  well- 
«*0(wn  hymns. 

^'•tjoofcAFHT:  F,  K.  A«Jiotiby,   Li7«  of  E,  H.  BidircrtMA. 

BICKERSTETH,  SABUJEL:  Church  of  Eng- 
^JHI,  iecond  son  of  Edward  Henry  Bickerstetb 
'<l-v.);  b.  at  Hampstead  Sept.  9,  1857.  He  wa^ 
•<Hicited  at  St,  John*8  <>>IIego,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1881 ), 
•■M  was  ordered  deacon  in  1881  and  ordained 
l*^  in  the  following  year.  He  was  successively 
^wite  of  Christ  Church,  Lancaster  Gate  (1881-84); 
gyliin  to  the  bishop  of  Ripon  (1884-87);  vicar  of 
P^Nsdeifi,  Kent  (1887-91);  and  vicar  of  Lew^isham 
J*^Ul9a5).  Since  1905  ho  has  been  vicar  of 
j*rt  AiMi  rural  dean.  He  has  written  Life  and 
2^1  of  Edward  BickertitHh.  DM,,  Bishop  of 
^J^  Tokyo  (his  brother,  London,  1899),  and  is 
'***tdilor  of  the  Preachers  of  the  Age  series. 

^DDIG  PRAYER:  Originally  bidding  of  pray 

*'*'«i^fying  **  the  praying  (oiTering)  of  prayers," 

?^^  of  the  meanings  of  the  verb  **  to  bid "  down 

Ml©  Reformation  being  '*to  ask  preaaingly,  to 


beg,  to  pFay.^'  Ab  this  meaning  became  obsolete 
the  phrase  was  interpreted  to  mean  *'  the  ordering 
or  directing  of  prayers^';  i.e.,  an  authoritative 
direction  to  the  people  concerning  what  or  whom 
they  should  pray  for,  such  directions  being  not  un- 
common in  England  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Still  latter  '*  bidding"  was  taken  as  an  adjective 
and  the  phrase  *'  bidding  prayer "  came  to  mean 
the  prayer  before  the  sermon,  which  the  preacher 
introduced  by  directing  the  congregation  to  pray 
for  the  Church  catholic,  the  sovereign  and  the 
royal  family,  different  estates  of  men.  etc.  [Con* 
stitution  and  Canons  of  the  Church  of  England, 
I  55)«  A  collect  is  now  usually  KubHtilute<J  for  it» 
as  the  sermon,  except  on  rare  occaj<ion8.  is  preceded 
by  the  common  prayers,  which  include  the  petitions 
prescribed  by  the  canon.  When,  however,  these 
prayers  are  not  said  before  the  sermon  (as  at  univer- 
sity sermons),  and  on  occasions  of  more  than  usual 
solemnity,  the  •'  bidding  prayer"  is  used. 

Biblioorapby:  Forms  of  the  Bidding  Pmyvr  are  to  be 
fouQiJ  in  Manxmle  ei  Proo'Mi&naie  .  ,  .  «eel0*ia  Ebora- 
eenJtit,  ed.  W.  G.  Henderson  in  Surt«ea  Sodety  Public*- 
tioRji,  no.  63,  Durham,  187S,  and  in  F.  Procter.  fiUt  of 
Book  of  C&mm&n  Prautr  .  .  .  rtvwad  hu  W.  H.  Frer§, 
p.  394,  London.  t005.  Cbnautt  C.  Wbeiitlcy,  Bidding  of 
Prat/tr*  before  SerwMMW,  London,  1845;  D.  Rock,  Church 
of  our  Father*^  3  voU.,  ib.  1849-53, 

BIDDLE,  JOHH:  A  founder  of  modem  English 
LTnitarianism;  b.  at  Wotton-under-Edge  (15  m.  b, 
of  Gloucester),  where  he  was  baptized  Jan.  14, 
1615;  d.  in  a  London  jail  Sept.  22,  1662.  He  waB 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  appointed  head  master 
of  the  free  school  in  the  parish  of  St.  Mary  le  Crypt, 
Glouce«ter,  1641.  Study  of  the  Scriptures  led  him 
to  disbelieve  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ^  and,  his 
uni50undnesa  being  reported  to  the  city  magistratea, 
he  was  summoned  before  them.  Fearing  imprison- 
ment,  he  made  a  confes.^ion  of  faith  (May  2,  1644) 
which  was  not  satisfactory,  and  so  he  made  a  second 
in  which  he  used  more  conventional  language 
and  was  allowed  to  go  free.  He  then  conmiitted 
to  paper  Twchye  Argttmenis  Drawn  out  of  Scripture: 
wherein  the  commonly  received  opinion  t^mching 
the  Deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  dearly  and  fully 
refuted,  and  to  these  views  he  waa  faithful  the  rest 
of  hifl  life,  A  friend  informed  the  magistrates  of 
the  existence  of  this  paper  and  bo  he  was  cited  before 
the  committee  of  Parliament  then  at  Gloucester, 
and  put  in  the  common  jail  Dec.  2,  1645.  Happily 
a  prominent  citizen  bailed  liim  out.  In  16-16  he 
was  Bummoncd  to  appear  before  Pari* amen t  at 
Westminster  to  explain  his  position,  and  boldly 
avowed  Ms  belief.  He  was  committed  to  the  cufl^ 
tody  of  one  of  the  officers  of  the  House  of  Common* 
and  so  continued  for  five  years.  Meanwhile  a 
committee  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  sitting  at 
Westminster  considered  his  case  and  to  them  he 
gave  a  copy  of  his  Twelve  Argumenia,  They  made 
answer  to  it,  but  did  not  move  hhn.  So  in  1647  he 
published  hia  paper,  which  makeis  a  tract  of  thirty- 
eight  small  pages.  It  stirred  up  great  indignation 
and  waa  suppresaed  and  bumeil  by  the  common 
hangman.  Next  he  published  A  Confesmon  of 
Faiih  Touching  the  Holy  Trinity,  accortling  to  tha 
Scripture  (1648),  a  tract  of  seventy- five  small 
pagesj  in  which  in  ux  articles,  accompanied  by 


Btodermann 
BiUioan 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


188 


expositions,  he  plainly  states  his  views,  making 
God  the  Father  the  first  person  of  the  Holy  Trinity; 
one  chief  Son  of  the  most  high  God,  with  only  a  hu- 
man nature,  though  our  God  by  reason  of  his  divine 
sovereignty  over  us,  yet  subordinate  to  the  most 
high  God,  the  second  person;  and  one  principal 
minister  of  God  and  Christ  the  third.  Next 
came  another  tract  (eighty-six  pages)  containing 
alleged  testimonies  in  favor  of  his  views  from  the 
Fathers.  In  1648  Parliament,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Westminster  divines,  made  denial  of  the  Trinity 
a  capital  offense,  yet  Biddle  was  not  only  not 
put  to  death,  but  in  1649  was  released  on  bail.  He 
became  a  chaplain  and  preacher  in  Staffordshire, 
but  was  shortly  recalled  and  remained  in  prison 
till  Feb.,  1651.  On  his  release  he  publicly  advo- 
cated his  views  and  continued  his  publications 
with  A  Ttoo-fold  Catechism ;  the  one  eimply  called 
a  Scripture  Catechism;  the  other  a  brief  Scripture 
Catechism  for  Children  (1654,  the  first  of  141  small 
pages,  the  second  of  thirty-four,  both  with  a  pref- 
ace). The  answers,  being  entirely  in  quoted  Scrip- 
ture, could  not  be  gainsaid,  but  the  questions  were 
open  to  serious  criticism.  Consequently  he  was 
examined  by  the  House  of  Commons  and  com- 
mitted to  prison  on  Dec.  3,  1654,  and  was  not  re- 
leased till  May  28,  1655.  The  Catec/iwrn  was  burned 
by  the  common  hangman  Dec.  14,  1 654.  Again  pub- 
licly advocating  his  beliefs  on  July  3,  1655,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison  and  a  little  later  was  tried  for  his 
life  on  the  ordinance  above  mentioned.  Crom- 
well, unwilling  to  put  him  to  death,  banished  him 
to  the  Scilly  Islands  (Oct.  5,  1655),  and  allowed  him 
100  crowns  a  year  for  maintenance.  In  1658 
he  was  released,  and  resimied  preaching.  In  the 
latter  part  of  Aug.,  1662,  he  was  again  imprisoned 
and  after  five  weeks  died. 

Bibliography:  The  principal  source  of  information  refq?ect- 
ing  Biddle  is  the  lAfe  by  Joshua  Toulmin,  London,  1780, 
which  analyies  all  his  writings,  including  several  transla- 
tions not  mentioned  above.  There  are  earlier  accounts, 
such  aM  J.  Bidelli  Vita,  by  J.  Farrington,  ib.  1682,  and 
A  Short  Account  of  the  Life  of  John  Biddle,  ib.  1 691 .  Con- 
sult also  A.  It  Wood,  AOtence  Oxonienaee,  ed.  P.  P.  Bliss, 
iii.  503-603.  4  vols.,  ib.  1813-20;  J.  H.  Allen,  Hietorical 
Sketch  of  the  Unitarian  Movement,  pp.  131-135.  New  York, 
1804;  DNB,  v.  13-16.  Some  additional  information  is 
in  Walter  Lloyd's  Bicentenary  of  Barton  Street  Dieeentino 
Meeting  Hotiee,  Gloucester,  pp.  40-50,  Gloucester,  1800. 

BIEDERMANN,  bi'der-mfln,  ALOIS  EMANUEL: 
Swiss  Protestant;  b.  near  Bendlikon,  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich  (4  m.  from  the  city), 
Mar.  2,  1819;  d.  at  Zurich  Jan.  25,  1885.  He 
studied  at  Basel  1837-39,  and  then  at  Berlin; 
became  pastor  at  M5nchenstein  (3  m.  s.  of  Basel) 
1843;  professor  extraordinary  at  Zurich  1850, 
ordinary  1860,  where  he  lectured  at  first  upon 
theological  encyclopedia  and  New  Testament  in- 
troduction, later  chiefly  upon  dogmatic  theology. 
He  was  the  leading  theologian  of  the  neo-Hegelians, 
and  was  deeply  influenced  by  the  Ttibingcn  school, 
especially  by  Strauss.  He  was  a  prolific  writer 
for  the  religious  press,  but  obtained  his  greatest 
repute  by  his  Christliche  Dogmatik  (Zurich,  1869; 
2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1884-85,  vol.  ii  edited  by  Kehrake), 
in  which  he  denies  the  historicity  of  the  Gospels, 
yet  holds  to  the  eternal  ideas  which  the  supposed 
facts    of    the    Gospels    embody;  denies  Christian 


doctrine,  but  advocates  Chiistiaii  practiR;  deuM 
personality  to  God  and  perBonal  immortality  to 
man,  yet  holds  that  love  to  God  and  man  oomti- 
tutes  the  essence  of  religion.  He  took  a  dnp 
interest  in  education  and  public  affaiia,  praacbed 
often  and  by  preference  to  small  and  wceJc  coo^ 
gations,  and  was  tactful  and  courteous  in  his  aao- 
ciations  with  men  of  all  classes;  he  was  a  lofcr  of 
athletics  and  a  robust  mountain-climber,  lluf 
of  his  briefer  publications  were  collected  under  the 
title  AusgewdhUe  Vortrdge  vnd  Aufadtte,  with  t 
biographical  introduction  by  J.  Kradolfer  (Beriin, 
1885). 

Bibliooraprt:  For  further  notes  on  Biedennaan's  life  «» 
suit  J.  J.  Oeri,  Per9(hUid»4  Erinnerungen  an  Bieitrmom^ 
in  KirrkefMaU  fUr  die  reformitrte  SdiweiM,  188(1  dob.  7- 
18.  On  hiH  theology  and  philoaophy  oonsult  O.  Pflodem^ 
ReliirionephiloBopkie,  i,  504,  Berlin,  1883:  idem,  in  Ptem- 
eifche  JakrhQcher,  Jan..  1886,  pp.  63-76;  T.  MocMlMir. 
A,  B.  Biadermann  natk  minsr aUgemnnBn pfctlotoyfcwdtoi 
Stdluno,  Jena,  1893. 

BIEL,  btl,  GABRIEL:  One  of  the  most  renuui- 
able  theologians  of  the  late  Middle  Ages;  b.  at 
Speyer;  d.  at  Ttlbingen  1495.  He  studied  at 
Heidelberg,  became  preacher  at  St.  Martin's  Churdi 
at  Mainz,  provost  of  Urach  in  Warttemberg,  and 
after  1484  professor  of  theology  and  philosophy 
in  the  newly  foimded  University  of  TQbingen. 
In  his  old  age  he  joined  the  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life  (see  Coif mon  Lirs,  Brbthren  of  ihi). 
In  theology  Biel  followed  the  nominalism  of  Oocam 
(q.v.),  whose  system  he  reproduced  in  his  Epitome 
et  coUectorium  ex  Occamo  super  quattuar  Ubrm 
sententiarum  (Tubingen,  1495).  In  anthropology 
and  soteriology  he  was  a  Semi-Pelagian,  teaching 
that  "  merit  depends  on  man's  free  will  and  God's 
grace"  (sermo  xiv,  7);  the  sacraments  operate 
not  only  ex  opere  operantiSf  but  also  ex  opere  ope- 
rata  "  {Sent,,  IV,  i,  3).  The  Church,  therefore,  was 
for  him  a  mechanically  operating  sacramental 
institution;  in  its  priests  he  glorifies  a  "  mighty 
dignity."  In  questions  affecting  the  oonstitutioo 
of  the  Church,  Biel  took  the  position  assumed  by 
the  councils  of  Constance  and  Basel.  As  a  preacher 
he  surpassed  his  predecessors  in  the  practicality 
of  his  views;  his  knowledge  of  political  economy 
also  deserves  recognition.  Besides  the  work  already 
noticed,  he  wrote  Ijectura  super  canonem  missa 
(Reutlingen,  1488);  Expositio  canonis  misset  (Tu- 
bingen, 1499);  Sermones  (1499);  and  other  works. 

Paul  Tbchackert. 

Bibliooraphy:  F.  X.  Linaenmann.  OahruH  Biel  der  ktrk 
Scholaetiker  und  der  Nominaliemua,  in  TQbinger  tket4»- 
gieche  QuartaUchrift,  1865,  pp.  440  nqq.;  idem,  in  KL.  ii, 
804-808;  A.  Rittichl,  Die  chriatliehe  Lehre  von  der  Rechtferti- 
gung  und  Veredhnung,  i,  102  sqq.,  Bonn.  1889:  H.  Plitt, 
Gabriel  Biel  ale  Prediger,  Eriangen.  1879:  Schults,  Dn 
eittliche  Begriff  dee  Verdiangtes,  in  TSK,  1894,  pp.  304  sqq. 

BIERLIWG,  bt'ftr-ling,  ERNST  RUDOLF:  Ger- 
man Protestant  jurist;  b.  at  Zittau  (49  m.  s.e.  of 
Dresden)  Jan.  7,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Leipsic  (1859-63)  and  Gdttingen 
(1864-65),  and  after  being  a  lawyer  in  liis  native 
city  in  1868-71  was  privat-docent  at  Gdttingen  for 
two  years.  Since  1873  he  has  been  professor  of 
canon  and  criminal  law  at  Greifswald.  In  addition 
to  being  a  member  of  the  Pomeranian  provincial 
synod  in  1878-99  and  of  the  general  synod  in  1875 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bidddrm&nn 


i  18S4-1902,  he  was  a  member  of  the  House  of 
j  Deputies  in  1881-85  and  of  the  Upper  House  after 
LI889.  Hb  publicutiori8  include  Gfsetzgebungifrtcht 
Vftc^lisfhcr  Kirchen  im  Gebiete  der  Kirchenkkre 
lie,  18139);  Zur  KrUik  der  juriMischen  Grund- 
(2  vole.,  Gotha,  1877-82) ;  Die  konfes- 
}  SchuU  in  Freusiten  und  ihr  Recht  (1SS5); 
\§aAJwi8titche  FrinzipienUhre  (3  voIb*^  Tilbmgeti, 
18W-1905). 

BIGELMAIER,  ygeUmai'er,  AITDREAS:    Ger- 

I  min  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Oberhauaen  (a  suburb 

of  Augsburg)   Oct,  21,  1873.     He  was  ediicatetl  at 

the  rmversity  of  Munich  (Th.D.,    ISW)  and  was 

i^ftlained  to  the  priesthood  in  1S97-     From  October 

mber,  1^7,  he  was  chaplain  at  HOrzliausen^ 

1904  became  privatniocent  for  church  his- 

Itary  At   the    University  of   Munich.     Since    ItKlS 

b  bkB  also  been  university  preacher,  and,  in  ad- 

)  dttjoa  to  numerous  contributions  to    literary  and 

I  Uifiobgical    periodicalij,    has    written    Di^    Beteili- 

I  ffungm  der  ChriJiten  am  Sffentliciien  Leben  in  vorkon- 

9ttmlini»chrr    ZtU    (Munich,    1902)    and    Zeno  von 


BIGG,  CHARLES:  Church  of  England:  b.  at 
MaiicbMter  Sept.  12,  1840;  d.  Oxford  July  15.  1W)8. 
fie  ftudied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1H62), 
where  he  became  tutor.  He  wiwt  master  in  Chehen- 
bftm College  (1 866-7 1),  head  master  of  Brighton  Col- 
legc  (1871-81 ),  and  rector  of  Fenny  Com p ton,  Leam- 
ington, 1887-1901 J  and  honorary  canon  of  Worcester 
from  1889  to  1901,  when  he  was  appointed  regius 
proffttor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  Oxford  Univer* 
«ily.  He  was  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishops 
of  Worcester  (1889-91),  Peterl>orough  (1891-90), 
l^Midon  (1897-1901),  and  Man  (1903),  Hampton 
liftturerin  1880,  and  lias  l>i?en  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  since  1901,  He  has  edited  a  number  of 
^-Ireek  clas&ics  and  the  **  ConfeasionB  **  of  St.  Augus- 
tine  (London,  1896);  the  Didache  (189S);  the  De 
ione  CkriMi  of  Thomas  k  Kempis  (1898); 
UwV  Sertous  Cati  (1899);  and  has  written 
Christian  PlaUmists  of  Alexandria  (London, 
'886);  Seoptaioni*m  (1895);  Unity  in  Dii^cnfity 
nilftO);  Comm«fdary  on  ike  EpiMles  oj  Pder  ami 
-^^^4  (Etlinburgh,  1901);  and  The  Church's  Task 
^**>dm'  ih/t  Homan  Empire  (London,  1905). 

.  BlGHl,  bift,  MARGUERIN,  mar"ge"rah,  DE  LA : 

^>%tich  theolo^an ;  b.  at  Bemi^res-le-Patry,  in  Nor- 

'^•iidy*1540  or  1547;  d.  at  Paris  15S9.  He  came  of 

••^ible  Norman  parentage;  studied  at  Caen  and  be- 

'^■Ujie  rvctorof  the  university  thi^re;  wrnt  to  Paris, 

^bcre  be  studied  tlieology  at  the  Sorbonne  and 

^t^^ocived  ih^  doctorate.     To  refute   the  authors  of 

f  Migdeburg  Centuries  in  June,  1576.  he  under- 

rUiok  to  give  a  fuller  edition  of  the  writings  of  the 

I  Ttubftrs  of  the  Church  than  had  been  yet  made.     For 

^Hi«  work  he  was  appoint^^d  canon  of  the  church  of 

*^yeux,   and   some   time   after    profeasor    of   the 

cli4ptcr-*chool;  resigned    to    succeed     his    uncle, 

^rwj^w  ilu  Pare,  who  had  died,  as  dean  of  the 

chmb  of  Mans,     In  1576  he  was  sent  as  deptity 

I^Toin  the  clergy  of  Normandy  to  the  Stales  Gen- 
«T*1  of  Blois.  In  1581  he  went  as  canon  of  Ba~ 
T^ut  to  the  provincial  council  there,  and  defended 


vigorously  his  chapter  against  the  usurpation  of 
Bemanlin  dc  St.  Frani^ois,  bishop  of  Bayeux. 
The  death  of  the  bishop  ^Juty  14,  1582)  appeared 
to  end  the  conflict;  but  the  bishop's  successor, 
Mathurin  de  Savon  futures,  eventually  forced  Bigne 
to  resign.  He  retorned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  the 
same  year.  He  was  a  great  patristic  scholar  and 
an  eloquent  preacher,  G,  Bonet-^Maury. 

Bibuograpry:  Hi*  worlta  were:  VeUrum  patrum  et  antiguo* 
rum  Mcriptorum  eccU»ia»tic*irum  colleftio  i  Puria.  t575-7i»; 
Staiuta  tynodalia  Paritierunum  tpiscoporum,  QalonU  car- 
dirmlit,  Odonia  et  Wilhtlmi:  item  Fttri  rt  Qaiieri  Sem/ntn- 
tium  archiepitcoporumdetTcta  primum  ediia  (IfiTS);  S.  lav- 
d&ri  fiiapatet^isOprrail&aOj.  Ooojult:  J,  Herman t,  VHi*- 
itoire  du  dioci'M  dt  Baj/tux,  Cften,  1705;  P.  D.  Uuet, 
jt-e*  OriffineM  de  la  rilie  de  Ca*n^  Eouen,  170fl;  Nic^ruo, 
Af^moiret,  xxx,  279;  J.  G.  de  ChAufiTepie,  Nouveau  dic- 
Hiinnaire  hiMioriqtte  et  critique,  vol.  i,  Amsterdam,  1750. 

BILLICAlf,  THEOBALD  (Diepold  GemotI  or 
Gerlacher);  German  theologian;  b.  at  Billigheim 
(4  m,  s.s.w,  of  Landau),  Bavaria,  toward  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century;  d.  at  Marburg  Aug,  8, 
1554,  He  took  liis  «umame  from  his  birthplace; 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  w^hcre  Melanchthon  was  his 
fellow  student;  lecturetl  at  Heidelberg;  became 
provost  of  the  college  of  arts  (1520)  and  had  among 
others  Johann  Brena  (q.v.)  as  his  pupil.  When, 
in  1518,  Luther  came  to  Heidelberg,  Billican, 
Brenz,  Schnepff,  and  Martin  Butzer  (q.v,)  were 
among  his  admirers.  Billican  left  Heidelberg  in 
1522  and  went  t^  Weil  as  preacher.  But  liis  ser- 
mons against  the  mediatorship  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  against  purgatory  brought  about  his  deposition 
and  he  went  to  NOrdlingen  (1523),  where  he  re- 
mained till  1535.  Billican  opened  there  a  way  for 
the  Reformation  and  published  Von  der  Mes9 
Gemtin  Schlusured  (1524),  in  which  he  sharply 
rebuked  the  "  fraud  "  of  the  mass  as  a  sacrifice 
for  the  living  and  the  dead,  Billican*  who  corre- 
sponded with  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Rhegius,  Brenz, 
tEcolampadiiifl,  and  Zwingli,  was  regarded  as  a 
leatler  of  the  Evangelical  cause  in  South  Gennany, 
But  future  events  showed  the  instability  of  hii 
character.  In  his  controversy  with  Carls  tad  t, 
who  had  come  to  N6rtUingen,  he  sided  with  Luther 
against  Carlstadt  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  and  stated  in  his  Renoixdu?  ecde^itw  (1525) 
that  **  in  the  Lord's  Supper  tlie  flesh  and  blood  of 
the  Lord  are  present,"  Induced  by  Urban  us 
Rhegias  Cq.v.)  openly  to  defend  the  LtJtheran 
(J<ictrine,  Billican  sent  a  statement  to  Rhegius, 
which  the  latter  published  (in  mutilated  form,  as 
Billican  complained)  together  with  his  answer 
Dec,  18,  1525,  under  the  title  De  veTbi.8  ctrnm 
dominic(F  et  opinionum  varietate  The^baldi  BiUi- 
cnniad  Urbanum  Regium  (1526),  But  while  they  of 
Wittenberg  were  rejoicing  over  this  new  ally » Billican 
changed  his  views  in  a  letter  achlresaod  to  CEco- 
lampatiius  Jan,  16,  1526;  and  two  montlis  later, 
in  letters  addressed  to  ScWeupner  at  Nuremberg 
and  t^  Pirkheimer;  he  cxpresse<l  still  other  views. 
While  Bilhcan  did  not  fully  agree  with  Zwingli, 
he  stated  that  he  learned  more  from  the  Zwingtians 
than  from  the  Lutherans,  and,  adopting  in  part 
the  views  of  Carlstadt  and  (Ecolampatlius,  be  pre^ 
tended  to  teach  the  only  correct  doctrine  because 
he  fitood  between  the  two  parties.    His  vacillating 


Bilney 
Bintarim 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


M 


position  ifl  b^t  UluBtrated  in  a  booklet  entitled 
EpUtoln  TheobaMi  BUticjani  od  Joannem  Hidfelium 
qua  xUo  de  euchariidia  cogUandi  maUriam  exmseripsU 
(1528)  which  remamed  nnnoticed. 

Billican,  of  whom  so  much  had  been  expect^sd, 
was  DOW  avoided  hy  both  parties.  In  1529  ha  ap« 
plied  to  Heidelberg  Univeriity  for  the  doctorate, 
presenting  at  the  same  time  a  confession  in  which  he 
acrimoniously  rejected  Lutheran,  Zwinglian,  and 
Anabaptist  doctrine,  and  expressed  his  firm  belief 
in  tlie  teachings  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Being  refused  by  the  faculty,  he  married  a  woman 
of  wealth,  and,  regardless  of  wlmt  had  taken  place, 
he  had  the  boUinesa  to  ask  Melanchthon  to  procure 
him  the  doctorate  at  Wittenberg.  The  latter 
replied,  '*  [The  authorities)  advance  no  one  before 
he  has  set  forth  his  doctrinal  views  "  (CiJ,  i,  1112), 
8ince  he  was  repelled  by  the  Reformers  and  not 
fully  trusted  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  DilUcan's 
position  became  untenable,  and  so  in  1&3S  he  left 
Nardil ngen  and  went  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  com- 
menced the  Btudy  of  jurispnidence.  He  was  made 
licentiate  in  jurisprudence  and  (or  a  time  took  the 
place  of  a  professor  who  was  disabled  on  account 
of  sickness.  When  in  1543  thii^  professor  died 
and  BilUcan  sought  the  position,  the  entire  faculty 
opposed  his  nomination,  but  through  the  influence 
of  Margaret  von  der  Lay  en,  whose  "  chancellor  " 
h&  was  considered,  ho  was  permitted  to  give  inde- 
pendent lectures  on  law.  On  account  of  his  rela- 
tions with  Margaret,  the  elector  Frederick  II  deposed 
BUUcaii  from  his  office  July  26,  1544,  and  ordered 
him  to  leave  Heidelberg,  He  went  to  Marburg 
and  waa  made  professor  of  rhetoric,  a  position  which 
he  held  tiU  his  death.  CT.  Koldb,) 

BlBLiOoKAlPHT:  G.  fi«fleenmey«r,  Kleine  Beitr&ffe  tur  Ge* 
Mchichts  dea  Htk:h*tae»  wu  Au&ahtirg,  13S0,  pp.  5B  Kqq.^ 
Nuremberg.  1830;  A.  St^ichelci,  Daw  Biatum  Au^tburff, 
ill,  947  eqq.,  Augabmfi,  1872;  T*  Klein*  0ie  SteUung  dtr 
Khw&bfUchen  Kiri'hen  tur  twinfflisch-iuthenti'htn  *SpaUunff, 
in  TJB,  xiv,  lg94;  C.  Ge>er,  £>w  Niirdtinger  emn4fe- 
tiMfhen  Kirdienordnungan  da  1&.  Jal^hundtrtM,  Mmueh« 

BILNEY  (BYLNEY),  THOMAS;  Eariy  Eng- 
lish Protestant;  b.  of  a  Norfolk  family  about  1495; 
burned  at  the  atake  at  Norwich  Aug,  19,  1531. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  gave  up 
law  for  theology  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1519. 
He  adopted  the  belief  in  justification  by  faith  alone 
and  was  a  leader  in  a  company  of  Cambridge  men 
who  were  inclined  to  the  views  of  the  Reformation  j 
Hugh  Latimer  was  added  to  the  number  by  Bilney 's 
influence  and  became  his  lifelong  friend.  Con- 
cerning the  mass,  transubstantiatioo,  and  the  pow- 
en*  of  the  pope  and  the  Church,  Bilney  remained 
orthodox;  but  he  preached  unremittingly  in  Cam- 
bridge, London,  and  neighboring  coimtiea,  denoun- 
cing the  invocation  of  saints  and  relic- worship, 
pilgrimages  and  fastiugs,  at  the  same  time  leading 
a  most  austere  life  and  devoted  to  deedn  of  charity. 
He  was  arrested  and  confined  in  the  Tower  Nov, 
25,  1527;  brought  to  trial,  he  denied  having 
wittingly  taught  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  was 
finally  persuaded  to  abjure  his  alleged  heresies 
and  as  penance  was  kept  imprisoned  for  more  than  a 
year.  ReleaBcd  in  1 529,  he  went  back  to  Cambridge, 
Buffered  much  from  remorie  for  hia  abjuration,  and 


in  1531  reimmed  preaching,  but  wftt  imtnediai^ 
arrested,  and  wai  executed  as  a  rdapaed  heretic 

BisuoQBAPnT:  Tbe  wouroa  for  m  life  ue  in  fijlii  mi 
F^ptrw  .  .  .  afth*  Beiffn  #f  iT^nry  ViiL,  voL  T,  td.  J« 
Gairdiier,  ia  Record  PulrfuBliunu,  Loodiim,  iSAShWi  C^ 
iuJl  ftlw  C  H.  Cooper.  Aihtnm  Camiakriginan,  i,  4^^ 

ISSSi  I>NB,  V,  40-43. 

BH^OK,  THOMAS:  Bishop  of  Wincbesto; 
b.  at  Winchester  1M6  or  1547;  d.  there  ^\m% 
1616*  He  studied  at  New  CoU^e,  Oxford  CBi, 
1566;  M.A,,  1570;  B.D,,  1579;  D.D.,  15S1);  n 
made  prebend  of  Winchester  1576,  and  becai 
warden  of  the  college  there;  was  consecrated  bi^ 
of  Woreeater  1596>  translated  to  Winchester  IMl. 
He  waa  a  noted  preacher »  a  man  of  much  leaming, 
and  defended  the  Church  of  England  agiun^t  both 
Roman  Catholics  and  Puritans.  At  the  tatamMd 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  he  wrote  The  True  DiffeFtm 
between  ChrUHan  Subiedion  and  Unehruticm  RM- 
Iwn  (Oxford,  1585)j  in  answer  to  Cardinal  Willba 
Allen 'a  Defence  of  the  EnglUh  €a^iolie$  (lap'  '<..  ; 
1584),  and  The  Survey  of  Ckri^e  Suffer  r.  r 
Man's  Redemption  and  of  his  Deee&U  Ut  HaiMH 
Hell  for  ^mr  Deliverance  (London,  160i>,  a  r^y  to 
the  Brownist  Henry  Jacob;  in  The  F^pehd 
Government  of  Christ' 9  Church  (1593;  new  ei, 
with  memoir,  Oxford,  1842)  he  defended  epwco- 
pacy.  With  Dr.  Miles  Smith  he  revised  the  King 
James  translation  of  the  Bible  before  its  publicatioft, 
and  he  added  the  summaries  of  contents  at  the  hmi 
of  each  chapter. 

Bibuoobapbt:  A.  h  Wood^  Athenm  09&mi*m9e^  ed.  F.  fSm 
n,  100-171,  4  yob.,  London,  1813-20;  DNB.  v,  4^~ifL 

BmDlEQ  AHB  LOMIIfG>  POWIE  OR  Bee 
Keyb,  Power  or  the, 

BINDLEY,  THOMAS  HERBERT:  Ohunsh  rf 
England;  b,  at  Smethwick  (3  m.  n.w.  of  Birraiag' 
ham),  Staffordshire,  Oct.  21,  1861,  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Brownsgrove  College,  Worcestepahtre, 
and  Merton  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  18S4),  and  was 
ordered  deacon  in  1S89  and  ordained  priest  in  the 
following  year.  He  was  assistant  curate  of  Ix- 
worth,  Suffolk,  in  1889,  and  since  1890  has  been 
principal  of  Codrington  College,  Barbados,  and 
examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Barbadoe. 
He  became  canon  of  Barbados  in  1893  and  arch- 
deacon in  1904,  while  in  the  following  year  be  waa 
made  vi  car-general  of  the  dioceee.  In  theology 
he  ia  a  Uberal  High-ehurchman,  In  addition  to 
numerous  wjntributions  to  theological  periodicals, 
he  has  translated  St,  Athammus  de  incarnolwuif 
Verbi  Dei  (London,  1887);  T^ulli4in'»  Apdogy 
(London,  1889);  Epistte  of  the  Galliean  CAurtAet 
(1900);  and  St.  Ctfprianm  the  Lmi'^  Prayer  iim^). 
lie  has  also  edited  TertuUiani  Apol^tgeticua  (Ox- 
ford, 1889);  Terttdliani  De  Freemiptione  (1898); 
and  (Emmenicnl  Documents  of  the  Faith  (London, 
1900);  and  has  written  The  Creeds  (1^6)  and  Ei 
inmrnaJtm  est  (New  York,  1896). 

BINGHAMj  HIRAM:  Congregational  missionary; 
b.  at  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  Aug.  16,  1831 ;  d.  at  Balti- 
more Oct.  25 ,  1908.  He  waa  educated  at  Yale 
College  (B.A.,  1853)  and  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary (1854-55),  and,  after  acting  as  principal  of  the 
Northampton  High  School  In  1853^^,  enters  the 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blntefim 


ice  of  the  American  Boanl  of  CDmniissionerB  for 
Toreign  MiflBioDS  in  1S56.  He  began  his  misfiionary 
Ktivity  in  the  Gilbert  Islands  in  1857,  and  from  1866 
10  1868  was  in  comnxand  of  the  fnissionary  brig 
Morning  Star.  He  was  corresponding  secretary  of 
tlip  board  of  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association 
fraoi  1877  to  ISSO.  From  1880-82  he  was  Hawaiian 
jOTeroment  protector  of  South  Sea  immigrants.  la 
theology  be  was  a  conserv^ative.  He  has  written 
^Ofofthe  Morning  Star  (Boston,  1866);  GtlbtT*ese 
m>le  (New  York,  1893);  GilbeHe^e  Bible  Diclionanj 
(HoDoltilu,  1895);  Gilberte^e  Hymn  and  Turie  Book 
(New  York,  1897);  Gilbertese  Commentary  an 
MMew  (1904);  and  GUberiese  Commentary  on  the 
fwOotpeU  (1905). 

BOTGHAM,      JOSEPH:    Church     of     England; 

b,  at  Wakefield    (9   m.   s,   of   Leeds),   Yorkshire, 

Bepi..  1668;  d.  at  Havant  (6  m.  s,e,  of  Portsmouth), 

Himpahire,  Aug.  17,  1723.     He  studied  at  Oxford 

i&d  was   fellow    of    lTiii\ersity   College    1689-95, 

wbca  he  resigned  and  withdrew  from  the  university 

beieaose  his  controversial  sermon  on   the  Trinity 

pttBcbed   before   the    university   had    led    to    the 

chu^ge,    wholly    unmerited,    of    heresy*     He    was 

tely     appointed     rector    of    Headboum- 

(2  m.  n.  of  Winchester),  wliich  made  the 

^Iftthedral  library  accessible  to  him.     In  1712 

wu  transferred  to  the  better  living  of  Havant. 

(  fame   resta   upon   his   Origines   Ecx^lesiagticWt 

m  iSt  AntiquUita  of  ike  Christian  Church  (8  vols., 

Loodan,  1708-22).     This  is  exhaustive  for  the  field 

itooreni  and  can  never  be  superseded,  as  it  is  derived 

Inm  the  Bources  and  interestingly  written.     It  has 

bwi  ft  quarry  for  many  books  and  itself  several 

timei  reprinted;  the  best  edition  is  by  the  great- 

intt-graiidson  of  the  author,  Rev.  Richard  Bing- 

tim  (vois.  i-viii  of  Bingham's  Work«,    10  vols*, 

Oxford,  1855).    There  ia  a  separate  edition  of  tlie 

in  the  Bohn  Library  (2  vols,),  a  Latin 

ition  by  Johann  Heinrich  Grischow  (Grischo- 

11  vols,,   Halle,   1724-^8),   and  axi  abridged 

tmnalation    by    an    anonymous    Roman 

author    (4    vols.,     Augsburg,     1788-96). 

Pttfortunately    Bingham   invested   his   savitiga   in 
^  South  SeA  Bubble  and  so  lost  them  in  1720. 

ButJoaKAraT:  Bioghaca'a  biography  by  his  sre&t-gTftnd- 
*<>|Q  iiciven  in  the  Oxford  ed.  of  bi«  worlts.  Couftult  liso: 
J.  Dftrling.  Cyctopadia  BUtliographic4M^  pp.  312-315,  Lod* 
^  ia54;  S,  8,  Allibonc,  Crilical  DictionajTf  of  Eno. 
l^lmhirt,  I  189-190,  Philadelphia,  18&1;  DNB,  v,  4«-50, 

BniHIY,  THOMAS:  Engli^ih  Congregationalist; 
»•  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  Apr.  30,  1798;  d.  at 
^ptof),  London,  Feb.  24,  1874.  He  was  for  seven 
!*•«  a  bookseller's  clerk  at  Newcastle,  during  wliich 
'****  he  learned  Greek  and  Latin  and  accomplished 
^lUiiidenible  reading.  He  studied  at  the  theological 
■*ttiaary  at  Wymondley*  Hertfordshire,  and  was 
'•^iSJrter  for  a  year  at  Bedford;  became  minister 
*t  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  1824,  of  the  King's 
W(jgti.goi]jie  Chapel,  Eastcheap,  London,  1829, 
remained  there  forty  years.  Aft«r  retiring 
lu8  pastorate  he  was  professor  of  homtletics 
ral  theology  at  New  CbUege,  London, 
chairman  of  the  Congregational  Union  in 
JJ*8.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  an  established 
and  in  1S33  at  the  laying  of  the  comer- 


stone  of  a  new  chapel  for  the  Weigh-House  congre- 
gation expressed  himself  on  the  subject  in  language 
which  led  to  a  long  and  bitter  controversy.  He 
felt  that  the  sermon  occupied  too  large  a  place  in 
the  service  of  the  non-ritualistic  Churches  and 
favored  the  introduction  of  responsive  readings 
and  similar  changes  in  the  fonn  of  worship;  his 
Service  of  Song  in  ike  Hon^e  of  the  Lord  (London, 
1848)  exercised  much  influence  in  the  development 
of  a  richer  and  better  music4il  service,  and  he  en- 
riched the  hymnals  by  the  hymn  *'  Eternal  light, 
eternal  light,"  He  edited  Charles  W.  Baird'a 
Chapter  on  Liturgies^  adding  a  preface  and  an  appen- 
dix, *'  Are  Dissenters  to  Have  a  Liturgy?  *'  (1836). 
His  other  publications  include  a  Memoir  of  Stephen 
Morell  (1826);  Diment  Not  Schism  (1835);  a  life 
of  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton  (1849);  h  U  Possible 
to  Make  the  BeM  of  Both  Worlds?  (1853);  LighU 
and  Shadows,  or  Church  Life  in  Auatraliaj  obser- 
vations made  during  a  visit  in  1857-59  (1860); 
Money,  a  Popular  Exposition  in  Rough  Notes  ( 186*1 ); 
St.  Paul,  his  Life  and  Ministry  (1866);  Micah 
the  Priest  Maker,  a  handbook  on  ritualism  (1867); 
From  Seventeen  to  Thirty,  a  book  for  young  men 
(1868),  Two  series  of  his  Sermons  Preached  in 
the  King*8  Weigh-House  Chapel,  18i9-S9,  were  pub- 
lished, the  second  with  biographical  sketch  by 
the  Rev.  H,  Allon  (1869-75). 

Biblioorapht:  Besides  the  aketch  in  the  volume  of  bU 
Hercnonft,  the  foJJowing  may  be  consulted:  A  Mtrnttriat  of 
the  late  Rei\  ThomoM  Binneiff  ed.  J.  8toughton,  Loudon, 
1874;  E.  P.  Hood,  Thoma*  Binneu,  his  Mind.  LAfe  and 
Opini&nM,  ib.  1874;  DNB,  v,  57-50. 

BmTERDf,  ANTOK  JOSEF:  German  Catholic 
theologian;  b.  at  Dilsseldorf  Sept.  19,  1779;  d.  at 
Bilk  <s.  suburb  of  DaBseldorf )  May  17,  1855.  After 
receiving  his  first  education  in  his  native  city,  he 
entered  the  Franciscan  order  in  1796  and  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Diiren  and  Aachen 
for  five  years  and  a  half.  Returning  to  Dttsseldorf , 
he  was  ordained  priest  at  Cologne  (Sept.  19,  1802), 
The  suppression  of  the  monasteries  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine  in  the  following  year,  however, 
obliged  him  to  become  a  secular  priest,  and  in  1805, 
after  parsing  the  required  examination,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  ancient  and  extensive  parish  of 
Bilk,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  B interim 
waa  an  enthusiastic  propagandist  of  ultramonta 
nism,  and  to  this  cause  he  devoted  the  greater  part 
of  his  prolific  literary  activity.  He  also  defended 
the  Jesuits  and  upheld  the  authenticity  of  the  Hoi/ 
Coat  of  Treves,  wliile  with  equal  consistency  he 
opposed  the  followers  of  Georg  Hermes  (q.v.) 
and  Catholic  "  rationalism."  In  1837,  with  his 
elder  brother,  he  had  founded  and  endow*ed  the 
vicarage  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  at  Bilk,  and  in 
honor  of  his  jubilee  the  first  impulse  toward  the 
establishment  of  the  Historischer  Verem  ftlr  den 
Niederrhein  was  given  in  1852.  In  his  devotion 
to  the  Church  he  was  imprisoned  for  six  months 
in  1838  for  opposing  mixed  marriages. 

(Victor  Schultoe.) 

BiBiJooaAFBT:  Amoae  the  tiumeroua  publicmtionj  of  Bin- 
(eriin  Mp«ciftl  mention  may  be  made  of  the  foUowitvg: 
Ueb*r  Ehe  und  EheMcheidung  noih  QQtUmeoH  wnd  dtm 
OeigU  drr  katholUchtn  Kirchw  (0Q»*eldorf,  1810);  CaUm- 
darium  eccUna  Germanica  Ctdonimm*  taevii  noni  (Go* 


Biroh 
BUhop 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


m 


losne,  1824);  DU  vonOgliefuien  DenkwQrdigkeiien  der 
ehriaaUMcaOioliaehen  Kirch*  (7  vols..  Mains.  1825-41); 
DU  katholiaehe  Kirehe,  tin  OtoenaaU  de9  RaHonaliamu* 
und  AftermyMticimnuM  (DOflaeldorf,  1827);  Die  alU  und 
new  Enditieeee  Kdln  (4  vols..  1828-30);  Ueber  die  eweJc- 
nUUeige  Einriehiuno  dee  uraUen  katholieeKen  Ootteedienetee 
und  den  heileamen  O^rraueh  der  laieiniedien  Spraehe  hei 
demeelben  (1832);  Ueber  den  Oebraueh  dee  Ckrietenbluiee 
bet  den  Juden  il834);  Praomatieche  OeeehidUe  der  detUecK- 
en  ConeUien  (7  vols.,  1835-40);  Der  katholieehe  Bruder- 
und  Sdiweeierbund  eu  einer  rein  katholiedun  Ehe  (1838); 
De  proepieeopie  eive  euffraganeie  Colonieneibue  extraor- 
dinariie  (Bfmins,  1843);  Zeugnieee  fOr  die  Editheil  dee 
heilioen  Rockee  ku  Trier  (3  paits.  DOneldorf.  1845-46); 
Die  geietliehen  Oerichte  vom  It -19.  Jakrhunderi  (2  paits. 
1840);  Der  heUioe  Hilariue  (Leipdc.  1851);  Hermann  11., 
Erdneehof  von  Kdln  (DOaseldorf.  1851);  Ueber  den  Hoe- 
Uenhandel  in  Deuiechland  und  Frankreieh  (2d  ed..  1852); 
and  Die  geheimen  Voreehriften  der  Jeeuiten  {Monita  Se- 
ereta),  ein  altee  LUgenwerk  (1853). 

For  bin  life  oonBult:  ADB,  vol.  ii;  K.  Werner,  OeeehidUe 
der  kaiKoliedten  Theologie  eeU  dem  Trienter  Konsil  bie  sur 
GeffentDort,  pp.  301-303;  KL,  ii,  848-854  (in  oonoiderable 
detail). 

BIRCH,  THOMAS:  Church  of  England  clergy- 
man and  author;  b.  in  London  Nov.  23,  1705; 
d.  there  Jan.  9,  1766.  He  was  ordained  priest 
in  1731,  although  of  Quaker  parentage  and  with- 
out a  university  education;  was  an  ardent  Whig 
and,  having  influential  patrons,  received  many 
good  preferments,  holding  at  the  time  of  his  death 
the  rectories  of  St.  Margaret  Pattens,  London,  and 
Depden,  Suffolk.  He  was  an  indefatigable  writer, 
and  his  works  have  been  criticized  as  showing 
more  industry  than  judgment;  they  include  a 
number  of  volumes  relating  to  English  history; 
lives  of  Robert  Boyle  (London,  1744),  Archbishop 
Tillotson  (1752),  and  others,  as  well  as  most  of  the 
English  biographies  in  the  General  Dictionary 
(10  vols.,  1734-41);  editions  of  Milton's  prose 
(1738),  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  works  (1751),  and  the 
works  and  letters  of  Lord  Bacon  (1765);  History 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  (4  vols.,  1756-57); 
numerous  communications  in  the  "Philosophical 
Transactions"  and  other  periodical  publications. 
Bibuoorapht:  J.  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdolee  of  the  Eight- 
eenth Century,  i,  585-637,  ii,  507,  iii.  258.  v,  40-43,  53, 
282-200,  London,  1812-15;  DNB,  v,  68-70. 

BIRD,  FREDERIC  MAYER:  Protestant  Epis- 
copalian; b.  at  Philadelphia  June  28,  1838;  d.  in 
South  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Apr.  3,  1908.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  (B.A., 
1857)  and  Union  Theological  Seminary  (I860).  He 
was  ordained  to  the  Lutheran  ministry  in  1860,  and 
after  serving  as  an  army-chaplain  in  1862-63,  held 
several  pastorates.  In  1870  he  became  Protestant 
Episcopal  rector  of  Spotswood,  N.  J.,  from  1870  to 
1874.  Seven  years  later  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  psychology.  Christian  ethics,  and  rhetoric  in 
Lehigh  University,  remaining  there  in  this  capacity, 
as  well  as  in  that  of  chaplain,  \mtil  1886.  He  was 
also  acting  chaplain  there  in  1896-98,  and  from 
1893  to  1898  was  editor  of  Lippincott's  Magazine. 
In  the  latter  year  be  became  associate  editor  of 
Chandler's  Encyclopedia.  In  addition  to  numerous 
contributions  to  periodicals  and  encyclopedias, 
including  most  of  the  American  matter  in  Julian's 
Dictionary  of  Hymnology  (London,  1892),  he  has 
edited  Charles  Wesley  Seen  in  his  Finer  and  Less 
Familiar  Poems  ( New  York,  1867 ) ;  the  Hymns  of  the 
Lutheran  Pennsylvania  ministerium  (Philadelphia, 


1865;  in  collaboration  with  S.  M.  Schmucker); 
and  Songs  of  the  Spirit  (New  York,  1871;  in  col- 
laboration with  Bishop  W.  H.  Od^iheimer).  He 
made  a  noteworthy  collection  of  hymnology,  now 
in  Union  Theologi^  Seminaiy,  New  York  City. 

BIRETTA.    See  Vebtmentb  and  Inbionia,  £^ 

CLEBIASTICAL. 

BIRGITTA,  ST.,  AHD  THE  BIRGimilE  OR- 
DER.   See  Bridgkt,  Saimt,  of  Sweden. 

BIRINUS,  SAIHT:  First  bishop  of  the  Weit 
Saxons;  d.  Dec.  3,  650.  He  was  a  BenedictiDe 
monk  at  Rome  and  was  given  a  missionary  com- 
mission by  Pope  Honorius  I.  After  being  con- 
secrated bishop  at  Genoa  by  Asterius,  archbishop 
of  Milan,  he  landed  in  Wessex  about  634.  He 
baptised  its  king,  CynegiLs,  in  635,  Oswald  d 
Northumbria  standing  as  sponsor.  He  fixed  hie 
see  at  Dorchester  (now  a  sraiall  village,  8  m.  s.e.  d 
Oxford),  and  gained  influence  in  Wessex  and  Me^ 
cia.  Cwichelm,  the  son  of  Cynegils,  was  baptiied 
in  636;  Cuthred,  Cwichelm's  son,  in  639;  Cenwalh, 
the  brother  and  successor  of  Cynegils,  in  646. 
Bibuoorapht:  Bede,  HieL  eecL,  iii,  7. 

BISHOP:  A  spiritual  overseer  in  the  Christian 
Church.  The  origin  of  the  office,  its  historic  devel- 
opment, and  theories  of  its  relative  dignity  will 
be  found  discussed  in  the  article  Politt;  for  viewi 
of  different  oonununions  concerning  the  office,  see 
Episcopact;  this  article  will  deal  mainly  with  the 
selection  of  bishops  and  their  duties. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  bishop  holds 
the  first  place  in  the  hierarchy,  not  as  belong- 
ing to  a  separate  order,  but  as  having  the  fid- 
ness  of  the  priesthood.  Conditions  for  consecra- 
tion are  the  following:  legitimate  birth,  the  age  of 
thirty  years,  eminent  learning,  and  moral  probity. 
In  the  ordinary  case  the  candidate  is  supposed  also 
to  be  a  native  of  the  country  and  acceptable  to 
the  government.  The  choice  of  the  person  belongs, 
on  the  curialist  theory,  to  the  pope;  but  in  practise 
it  is  generally  left  to  the  chapter,  either  by  election, 
or  when  there  are  canonical  impediments  to  be 
removed,  as  when  translation  from  another  see  is 
required,    by    Postiilation    (q.v.);  or 

Election  it  may  occur  through  nomination 
and  by  the  government.  The  candidate 
Consecra-  must  then  receive  the  papal  con- 
tioa.  firmation,  after  examination  as  to 
his  fitness.  This  is  made  first  by  ft 
papal  delegate  in  the  place  of  the  election  {pro- 
cessus informativus  in  partOms  electi),  after  which 
a  second  investigation  takes  place  at  Rome,  by 
the  conunittee  of  cardinals  appointed  for  the  pu^ 
pose  (congregaiio  examinis  episcoporum) ;  this  second 
examination  is  called  processus  electionis  definitivvt 
in  curia.  If  both  prove  favorable  to  the  candidatOf 
he  is  confirmed,  preconized,  and  put  in  possession 
of  his  powers  of  jurisdiction,  though  not,  of  course, 
of  those  pertaining  to  orders  until  his  consecration, 
which  is  supposed  to  occur  within  three  months. 
It  is  administered  by  a  bishop  designated  by  the 
pope,  with  the  assistance  of  two  other  bishops  or 
prelates,  in  the  cathedral  of  the  new  bishop'^ 
diocese.    The  candidate  takes  the  ancient  oath 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Birch 
Bishop 


Vgfits 


ttdity  to  the  pope  (substantially  the  aome  ns 
I  |>rcscribe<i  by  Gregory  VH  in  1079)*  signs  the 
Itoaon  of  faith,  anJ  then,  after  he  bjis  bet»n  duly 
iBcnited  according  to  tlje  fomi  Imd  down  in  the 
Din  Pontifical,  is  solemnly  enthroned.  An 
I  of  allegiance  to  the  govemmont  of  the  country 

E  usually  administered  before  conssecratioo. 
rights  or  powers  of  a  bishop  may  be  con- 
under  three  heads— as  pertaining  t-o  his  or- 
i^  to  tus  jurisdiction,  and  to  his  dignity.  As 
k  firet,  he  haa  all  the  jura  ordinh  of  the  fulness 
|be  priesthood,  including,  besides  those  powern 
pik  every  priest  shares  with  him^  the  special 
llDfml  prerogatives  of  administering  ordination 
i  oOQfirmation,  of  consecrating  the  holy  oils, 
jllwit,  and  sacred  objecta  in  general,  of  bene- 
Ibn  of  ablxits  and  abbesses,  anil  of  anointing 
feigna.  The  rights  of  jurindietion,  in  the  broad 
k,  ttubrace  the  bishop's  whole  power  of  ruling 
pocese  lUi  its  cJiief  pastor.  Sometimes^  how- 
t  the  term  /ex  jurisdictwnis  is  applied  specially 
to  his  legislative  and  executive  func- 
tions (for  the  furisdidio  contentiosa  and 
coemVir^— i.e.,  the  power  of  hearing 
eases  and  pronouncing  and  enforcing 
judgment — see  Audientia  Episco- 
k;  JmusDicnoN,  ^Ecclesiastical),  while  the  ex- 
ptm  icr  diacesana  refers  to  hm  right  to  the  vari- 
purch  taxes.  These  rights  belong  to  the  bishop 
iihop,  and  in  regard  to  them  he  is  judex  ordina- 
I  "the  ordinary  ";  but  he  often  holds  other 
m  apecially  delegated  to  him  as  represent- 
I  of  the  pope  (see  Faculties)*  Finally,  in 
id  to  his  digm'ty,  he  takes  eccleaiafitical  rank, 
irtue  of  his  exalted  office,  immediately  after 
Itoniinalis,  and  bears  various  customary  titles 
Imor,  being  addressed  as  "  Right  Reverend/' 

LLonl,**  etc.    In  many  places  he  also  enjoys 
r  preoedence;  and  he  has  his  special  insignia 
vestments    (see    V£8TM£7irTB    and    Insignia^ 
J1B1A8TICAJ-).    To    these    prerogatives    corre- 
(Hog  duties  are  attached,  including  not  only 
^lire  of  souls,  but  residence  in  his  dioce.se,  tmd 
it  to  Rome  to  report  upon  its  condition  at 
I  intervals,  varying  with  the  distance.     Since 
eiihop  is  naturally  unable  to  exercise  all  the 
land  duties  above  described  in  person  through- 
lui  entire  diocese,  he  has  always  had  special 
IftntA — in    early    times    the    archdeacons    and 
tief^ts,  later  his  chapter  and  variously  dcsig- 
functionaries,   vicars-general    and    the  like, 
il  as,  for  those  things  wliich  pertain  to  the 
^  of  orders,   coadjutor  or  assLstaat  bishops. 
k*  articles  under  thei^  titles, 
lh«  Protestant    Churches  the  episcopate   in 
Catholic  sense  has  not  been  prenen^ed, 
fe  cnriy  days  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
paoults  of  the  Reformers  were  directed  not  so 
igainst    the   episcopal    power    in    itself   as 
[  abuses  in  ita  exercise;  until  1545  the  ques- 
M  doblLted  on  what  conditions  the  adherents 
i  tringelical  doctrine  could  agree  to  submit 
b  existing  bishops  of  the  old  Church.    The 
leron  confessions  of  faith  recognize  as  of  divine 
only  the  pastoral  function  in  the  bishop's 
^;  all  else  is  of  merely  human  institution,  and 
a-13 


may  be  abolished  by  the  same  power  that  created 
it.  Since,  however,  they  laid  down  no  definite 
ionn  of  ecclosiaatical  polity  as  ordained  by  God, 
they  could  iind  did  declare  themselves  willing  to 
recognizu  these  powers  still,  so  long  as  the  bishops 
would  allow  freedom  to  teach  the  pure  doctrine 
and  tolerate  the  priests  who  preached  it.  Some 
bishops  fulfilled  the  condition  and  accepted  the 
evangelical  doctrine;  but  this  semblance  of  episco- 
pal government  had  clearly  nothing  in  common 
wnth  the  p  re-Re  formation  episcopate  except  the 
name  and  certain  forms.  Elsewhere,  as  in  Schwerin 
and  later  at  Osnabrijck  and  LQbeck,  the  name 
bishop  wuH  definitely  used  for  an  official  appointed 
by  the  nilmg  power,  in  no  sens©  ecclesiastical. 
The  attempt  to  prove  that  the  German  Refonnation 
deliberately  intended  to  retain  episcopal  govern- 
ment is  quite  useless,  though  the  tendency  which  it 
represents  has  had  a<lherent-8,  among  whom  were 
Frederick  William  IV  and  Bunsen.  Where  the 
title  has  been  employed  in  the  modem  evangelical 
Church  of  Germany,  it  represents  notliing  more 
tbtm  a  general  superintendent.  The  bishops  of  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  Denmark  are  also  not  bishops 
in  tlie  strict  sense  understood  by  the  Roman 
Catholics;  their  institutions  rest  on  special  his  tori  cid 
grounds  which  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  article. 

(E.  FniEDBERQ.) 

In  the  Church  of  England  there  are  three  classes 
of  bishof>s:  the  thocesan  bishops,  taking  their  titles 
(with  a  few  exc<*ption8  of  recently  founded  sees) 
from  the  old  pre-Reformation  dioceses;  suffragan 
biahops,  bearing  likewise  territorial  titles;  and 
assistant  bishops.  The  diocesan  bishops  are  nom- 
inally elected  by  the  chapters  of  their  cathedrals, 
but  practically  are  appointed  by  the  Crown,  which 
mnds  a  nommiition  to  the  chapter  with  the  congi 
d'Hire,  Suffragan  bishops  are  also  nominated  by 
the  Crown,  while  assistant  bishops  are  appointed 
by  the  prelate  under  whom  they  are  to  serve. 
Their  appointment  is  revocable  at  his  pleasure; 
that  of  suffragans  is  for  life.  None  of  these  classes 
has  any  jurisdiction  independent  of  its  sujaerion 
With  the  first  extension  of  the  Anglican  colonial 
episcopate,  the  English  government  attempted  to 
claim  the  same  right  of  nomination  as  at  home; 
but  this  claim  was  abandoned,  and  the  colonial 
bishops  are  now  elected  either  by  the  clergy  or  by 
the  deUberative  assemblies  of  their  dioct^ses.  In  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  bishops  are 
elected  by  the  diocesan  conventions:  their  election 
must  then  be  confirmed  by  two-think  of  the  other 
bishops  and  '*  standing  committees.''  Assistant 
bishops  m  this  Church  are  now  known  as  bbhopa- 
coadjutor,  and  ha\'G  the  right  of  aucceasion  on  the 
death  of  the  diocesan  bishop.  In  England  bishops 
are  frequently  "  translated  "  from  one  see  to  an- 
other; in  the  Unit^  States,  bishops  of  missionary 
jurisdictions  may  be  elected  to  a  diocesan  see,  but 
this  is  all.  Throughout  the  Anglican  communion 
consecration  by  three  other  bishops  is  required* 
Every  English  bishop  at  his  consecration  takes  tlie 
oaths  of  allegiance  to  the  sovereign  and  canonical 
ol>edienci3  to  his  metropolitan;  in  the  United  States 
each  bishop  b  independent,  subject  only  to  the 
general  law  of  the  Church  as  formulated  by  the 


Bishop 
Blackwood 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


IM 


General  Convention,  the  oflSce  of  presiding  bishop 
being  ahnost  purely  honorary.  Throughout  the 
Anglican  communion  the  administration  of  certain 
quasisacramental  rites  (confirmation,  ordination, 
consecration  of  churches,  etc.)  is  strictly  reserved  to 
the  bishop,  who  also  has  a  power  of  ordinary  juris- 
diction in  some  measure  resembling  that  exercised 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  prelates.  The  two  Eng- 
lish archbishops,  the  bishoiM  of  London,  Winchester, 
and  Durham,  and  most  of  the  other  bishops  (the 
number  corresponding  to  that  of  the  more  ancient 
sees),  as  "  spiritual  lords,"  have  seats  in  the  upper 
house  of  parliament.  The  American  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  also  has  its  bishoiM,  who  are 
elected  in  any  number  required  by  the  General  Con- 
ference. They  have  joint  jurisdiction  throughout 
the  Church,  being  confined  to  no  diocese  or  districts, 
though  for  practical  reasons  the  General  Conference 
designates  episcopal  residences  at  its  quadrennial 
sessions.  Their  functions  are  purely  executive — 
they  preside  at  conferences,  arrange  districts  for 
presiding  elders,  fix  appointments  of  preachers,  and, 
especially,  travel  throughout  the  Church  to  pro- 
mote its  spiritual  and  temporal  interests.  No  dis- 
tinction of  order  is  recognized  between  them  and 
other  ministers. 

Biblioorapht:  Ck>n8ult  Bingham.  Origines,  books  iv,  v,  ix, 
xvi,  xvii,  for  the  election  of  bishops  and  the  exercise  of 
discipline;  P.  Hergenr6ther,  Lehrbuch  det  katholischen 
KirchenrechU,  Freiburg,  1905.  On  the  general  subject 
consult  works  cited  in  Chubch  Govebnment. 

BISHOP,  NATHAN:  Baptist  layman;  b.  of 
New  England  stock  at  Vernon,  Oneida  County, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  12,  1808;  d.  at  Saratoga  Aug.  7,  1880. 
He  was  graduated  at  Brown  1837,  and  elected  tutor; 
was  superintendent  of  schools  in  Providence  1838-51, 
in  Boston  1851-57.  Removing  to  New  York,  he 
became  an  active  member  of  the  Sabbath  Conunit- 
tee,  manager  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  a 
member  of  the  Christian  Commission  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  of  the  Indian  Commission  appointed 
by  President  Grant  in  1869;  he  was  also  a  member 
of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Charities,  a  dele- 
gate of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  to  the  Czar  of 
Russia  in  behalf  of  religious  liberty  in  the  Baltic 
provinces  in  1871,  a  trustee  of  Brown  University 
from  1842,  and  one  of  the  original  board  of  trustees 
of  Vassar  College.  For  two  years  he  served  gra- 
tuitously as  secretary  of  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Mission  Society,  and  he  was  chairman  of  the 
finance  committee  of  the  American  Bible  Revision 
Committee  till  his  death. 

(P.  SCHAFFt)  D.  S.  SCHAFF. 

BISHOP  (EPISCOPUS)  IN  PARTIBUS  INFIDE- 
LIUM.     See  Bishop,  Titular. 

BISHOP,  TITULAR:  According  to  the  old  law 
of  the  Church,  only  one  bishop  was  consecrated 
for  a  diocese;  and  none  was  consecrated  at  large 
or  without  a  definite  diocese  (First  Council  of 
Nica^a,  canon  viii).  If,  therefore,  occasion  arose 
for  the  designation  of  a  representative  to  perform 
episcopal  fimctions  in  the  place  of  an  incapacitated 
bishop,  it  was  necessary  to  call  upon  some  neigh- 
boring bishop  or  one  who  happened  to  be  in  those 
parts  (see  Coadjutor).     In  the  ninth  and  tenth 


centuries,  certain  Spanish  biahopfl  who  had  bn 
driven  from  their  sees  by  the  Saracens,  and  in  tk 
tenth  some  from  Prussia  and  Livonia  who  wereii 
a  similar  position,  served  in  this  capadtj.  Ik 
same  service  was  rendered  in  the  fourteenth  e» 
tury  by  the  bishops  of  sees  founded  in  the  EmI 
during  the  crusades  and  afterward  occupied  bjtk 
Mohammedans.  So,  even  after  all  hope  of  tti 
recovery  of  these  territories  had  been  abandonet 
bishops  continued  to  be  consecrated  for  Um 
dioceses,  called  epUcopi  in  partQms  infiddim 
{**  bishops  in  the  regions  of  the  unbelieving") 
until  1882,  when  Leo  XIII  ordered  the  use  of  tfai 
designation  epiacopi  tUulares.  Their  functions  m 
various.  In  the  first  place,  they  serve  as  auziliay 
or  coadjutor  bishops  in  dioceses  where  the  need 
exists,  when  the  diocesan  makes  a  request  to  tb 
pope  for  such  an  assignment,  naming  a  suitaUi 
person,  and  giving  assurance  for  Us  sop|Nii 
The  coadjutor  of  course  possesses  all  the  JM 
ordinis  like  any  other  bishop,  but  exodses  Um 
only  at  the  direction  of  his  superior,  and  he  hasooty 
ex  officio  f  the  other  prerogatives  of  a  diocesan  bidiflp 
(see  Bishop).  Apostolic  vicars,  who  admimikff 
missionary  districts  not  formed  into  dioceses,  are 
usually  consecrated  bishops,  and  so  are  certn 
Roman  fimctionaries  who  are  members  of  the  gnik 
congregations,  and  papal  nundoe  and  other  d^ 
matic  representatives.  Titular  bishops  are  abo 
consecrated  for  certain  special  purposes,  such  ai 
the  administration  of  holy  orders  to  tJie  Uniat 
Greeks  of  Italy,  and  the  spiritual  oversight  of  the 
military  and  naval  forces  of  certain  countries  (a 

ExEaiPTION).  (P.  HiNBCHIUBt.) 

Biblioorapht:  L.  Thomasrin,  Vehu  et  nova  •cdtaim  StOf 
plina,  part  I,  book  i,  chaps.  27-28,  Luoca,  1728;  A.  E 
Andnuoci.  Tractatua  de  epUcopo  tUulari,  Rome,  173% 
J.  C.  M5ller.  Cftsckichie  der  WeihbiadiOfe  van  Onabrid, 

Lingen,  1887. 

BISHOPRIC,  or  DIOCESE:  The  territory  over 
which  the  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop  extends.  Hm 
origin  of  such  divisions  goes  back  to  the  foundation 
and  growth  of  the  very  early  Christian  conununitiei. 
When  the  apostles  founded  a  church  in  a  city,  the 
faithful  living  there  (Gk.  paroikoi,  parepidimoi; 
cf.  Eph.  ii,  19;  I  Pet.  ii,  11)  formed  a  conmiunity 
(paroikia)  which  gradually  took  more  definite 
shape  under  the  leadership  of  the  presbyten  or 
bishops,  and  gained  adherents  outside  the  town. 
At  first  these  latter  attended  divine  service  in  the 
city,  imtil  their  numbers  increased  sufficiently  to 
form  a  separate  dependent  community,  the  tenn 
paroikia  being  applied  to  the  larger  territory 
equally.  In  the  West  the  name  parochia  retained 
this  sense  imtil  the  ninth  century,  when  it  became 
restricted  to  single  parishes  in  the  modem  sense, 
the  bishop's  jurisdiction  being  known  as  dicecmt 
(already  in  use  to  designate  a  civil  governor's  juris- 
diction) .  The  latter  word  in  the  East,  following  the 
analogy  of  civil  divisions,  was  applied  to  the  district 
ruled  by  a  patriarch.  In  Gaiil  the  ecclesiastical  unit 
was  constituted  out  of  the  chief  town  of  a  district 
and  its  annexed  territory  {conventuSf  Gk.  diaiklnsX 
which  in  the  Prankish  period  corresponded  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  count.  In  Germany  the  original 
diocese  was  larger,  and  the  Gau  was  coterminous 


05 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biahop 

Blackwood 


irilh  its  subdivision  M  archdeaconry  or  deanery. 
Tlie  ciTction  or  redistribution  of  dioceseij  was  from 
tV  (ourtb  century  a  fimcticm  of  the  metropolitan 
■ml  tbt?  pmvincial  synod;  in  Germany  from  the 
e^tli  century  it  waa  carried  out  under  pupal 
miptrvi^on.  From  the  eleventh  century  it  has 
been  mH?r\'ed  to  the  pope;  but  in  Germany  the 
jobt  action  of  the  state  has  been  required,  the 
Bmtler  being  considered  a  cau»a  mir/o, 

(E.  FmSDDERO.) 

IliRUOciL«rKT:   L.  ThonuMHn,   Vtha  et  nova  eccUtim  dUct- 

if^,  part  I.  book  iii.  Lucca.  1728;   R.  Hooker,  EccltmioM^ 

^ak  PMity.  book  riii,  chap,  8.  be«t  Ptl,.  by  Kebl«,  3  vqU., 

(Hinrdr   1845;   M.   Milman.   HitUrru  of  ChHstianUy,  book 

L  rj.lon,  1^67;  W.  T,  Aniold.  Roman  Sytem  of  Pro- 

M   idmimisiratioH,  London,  1870;  Bingham.  Oriffines, 

K...t*  iv-v.  iT;  KL.  ii,  S78-888. 

BISHOPS'  BOOK,  THE:  A  work  published 
iX  London  in  1537.  compiled  by  a  commiKsion  of 
EngliHh  bishops  and  clergjinen,  of  whicli  the  full 
Ihie  i*  Tht  Injttilution  of  a  Chrwtmn  Man^  eon- 
iButtiijf  th  cxpottiiion  or  inttrpretation  of  the  a^mmon 
mtiy  of  the  ttven  mcraments,  oj  the  x  command- 
unOa  oiv/  of  the  pater  noster,  and  of  the  ave  maria, 
padftaiitm,  and  purgatory.  It  reflects  the  con- 
Akiposof  the  time  in  maintaining  that  the  authority 
«f  tlM|K»pe  ift  a  human  institution,  while  not  denying 
Ihal  the  Church  of  Rome  is  a  part  of  the  Church 
rnivcr»al.  It  is  reprinted  in  FormtdarieM  of  Faith 
P\d  ! ,frih  by  Authority  during  the  Reign  of  Henry 

\illM\Xeii  by  C.  Lloyd,  bitthop  of  Oxford  (Oxfoni, 
liQii).  Consult  C,  Hardwick,  A  History  of  Hie  Chri^- 
Church  during  the  Reformatian  (6th  ed.,  London, 

BB6ELL,    EDWIN    CONE:     .Vm  eric  an    Congre- 
b.  at  Schoharie,  N.  Y..  Mar.  2,  1832; 
d  at  Chictt^  Apr.  10,  1894.     He  wa^  graduated 
Hi  Amberit  1855,  and  at  Union  Theological  Semi- 
W'W  York,  1859;  was  pastor  of  Congregational 
1   if4  ftt   Westliampton^   Mass.,    1859-64,   San 
JnuvoKso.    1864-69,   Winchester,    Mans.,    1871-73; 
TiisioMry    of    the    American    Board    in    Austria 
7^f.  became   Nettleton   profeeaor   of   Hebrew 
I    I  'id  Testament  exegeMs  in  the  Hartford  Theo- 
^giod  Seminary    18SL    and    of    Old    Testament 
nifBBt  and   literature  in  McCormick  Theological 
Sanianry*   Chicago^    1892.     During   his  pastorate 
•t  Werthampion  he  raised  a  company  of  the  fifty- 
*iQood  regiment,    Massachuaeitja    volunteers,   and 
•w»*d  as  itn  captain  under  Gen,  Banks  at  Port 
fiudm    1862-63.     In    1869-70    he    supplied    the 
pulpit  of  the  Congregational  Church  at  Honolulu, 
Stodiich    Islands.     Ho    published     The    Hi^toTit 
Origin  of  tht  Bible  (New  York,   1873);  The  Apoc- 
'/  (he  Old  TtMament  (a  revised  translation, 
iclion,  and  notes,  vol.  xv  of  the  Amerie^m 
series.    1880);  The    Pentatewh,    iU    origin 
fueiurt    (1885);  Biblieal   Antiquities    (Phila- 
%hia,    IB8S);  A    Praeiietil    Introductory   Hebrew 
OtmmiBr    (Hartfonl,    1891);  Oenems    Printed    in 
Cfllflfi,  thouing  the  original  sourcee  from  whieh  it 
tt  titppem^d  to  have  been  compiled,  with  introduetion 

OTHYTIDL    See  Asia  Minor  m  the  Apostolic 
Tail,  VI. 

WZOCHL     See  Fraticelli. 


BJORLIHG,    bju/ling,    CARL    OLOF:    Swedish 

theologian;  b.  at  Westerfis  (60  m.  wji.w,  of  Stock* 
holm),  Sweden,  Sept.  16,  1804;  d.  there  Jan.  20, 
1884,  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Upsalu; 
became  bishop  of  WeKterus,  1856,  having  long  been 
connectetl  a^  teacher  and  rector  with  the  Gefle 
gymnai^ium.  He  wa^*  the  author  of  Feveral  learned 
works,  including  a  treatise  on  Christian  dogmatics 
(2  parts,  1847-75),  wliich  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention in  Germany,  and  shows  his  finn  adherence 
to  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

BLACK  FATHERS.  Sec  Holy  Ghobt,  Oedkrs 
AND  Congregations  of  the,  II,  6, 

BLACK  FRIARS:  A  name  given  in  England 
to  Dominican  monks  because  of  the  color  of  their 
dress. 

BLACK,  HUGH;  Scotch  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Rothe.say  (40  m.  w.  of  Glasgow),  Butesliire,  Mar. 
26,  1868.  He  was  graduated  frt^m  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1887  and  the  Free  Church  College,  Glas- 
gow, in  1891,  and  was  ordained  to  the  Preabyterian 
ministry  in  the  latter  year.  He  was  pastor  of 
Sberwootl  Church,  Paisley,  1891-96.  and  became 
associate  pastor  of  8t*  George's  Free  Church,  Edin- 
burgh, 1896.  He  lectured  on  homiletics  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in  1905,  and  in 
1906  became  professor  of  practical  theology  in  that 
institution.  He  has  written  The  Dream  of  Youth 
(Tendon,  1894);  Friendship  (1897):  Culture  and 
Restraint  (1901);  Work  (1903);  The  Practice  of 
Self-Culture  (1904);  and  Comfort  (1906). 

BLACK  JEWS.    See  Church  of  God,  2. 

BLACK  RUBRIC:  The  popular  nanje  for  the 
declaration  enjoining  kneeling  at  the  end  of  the 
order  for  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
the  prayer-book  of  the  Church  of  England,  so  called 
because  it  was  printed  in  black  letter  in  the  prayer- 
book  ftfl  revised  by  William  Sancrtift  (q.v.)  in  166L 
It  h  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  rubric  at  all  aa  H  is 
intended  for  the  direction  of  the  people  and  not  for 
the  officiating  clergy.  Nor  did  Bancroft  originate 
it,  as  it  dates  back  to  the  second  prayer-book  of 
Edward  VI  (1552),  whofte  council  ordered  that  the 
cornmtinicants  should  receive  the  elements  kneeling, 
and  explained  in  the  "  rubric  "  that  this  attitude 
was  not  used  to  express  belief  in  trans ubstantiat ion. 
The  "  rubric  *'  was  omitted  in  the  Elizabethan 
prayer-book  of  1559,  and  this  omission  was  one  of 
the  cherished  grievances  of  the  Puritans.  In  the 
Savoy  Conference  of  1661  the  Presbyterians  de- 
manded its  restoration,  but  the  bishops  were  not  at 
the  time  inclined  to  grant  it;  at  the  last  moment, 
however,  it  was  replaced  anrl  so  it  appears  in  the 
revised  prayer-book  of  Charles  II  and  is  still  he?- 
tained  in  the  English  prayer-book.  It  was  removed 
from  the  prayer-book  as  revised  for  the  American 
Episcopal  Church  in  1789, 

BLACKWOOD,  WILLLAJJ:  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Dromara,  (Jounty  Down.  Ireland,  June  1,  1804; 
d.  in  Baltimore,  Md,,  Nov.  13.  1893.  He  wua 
graduated  at  the  Ik»ya!  College,  Belfast,  1832; 
became  pastor  successively  of  the  Fresbyterijui 
churches    of    Holy  wood,    near    Belfast,    1835;  o! 


Blalkl« 
BlmMghmmy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


19( 


Trinity  Church,  Newcastle-on-Tyue,  1S43;  and 
of  the  Nmth  Church,  Philmklplaa,  Penn.,  1850. 
Ho  wai  seeretajy  to  the  EducAtton  Committee  of 
the  Imh  Freshyterian  Chyrch,  1834-40;  ma^the- 
m&ticaL  exjynliier  of  students  under  care  of  tha 
Synod  of  Ubter,  1^9^43;  and  waji  modemtor  of 
the  PreshyteriaD  Church  in  England,  1S46.  He 
published^  with  other  woi^  essays  on  Mia«itmM 
£o  ike  Heaihen  (Belfast,  183());  Aiommmi,  Fmih, 
and  ABsurance  (Philadelphia,  1856);  BeUarmine'a 
Notes  «/  the  Churdi  (185§);  and  edited  the  paperi 
of  the  late  Rev.  Richard  Webster^  with  intro- 
duction and  indexes r  and  published  them  under 
the  title  Webster^ a  HiMory  of  the  Prt^ryienan  Cfmreh 
(Philadelphia,  1857);  also  the  BMiad,  Th^ohgical, 
Biographicai,  and  LUerary  Eneydopadia  (2  voU,, 
187^-76). 

BLAIKIE,  WTLLIAH  GARDllI:  Free  Chmtsh 
of  Scotland;  b,  at  Aberdeen  Feb.  5,  1820;  d.  at 
North  Berwick  June  11,  1899.  He  studied  at 
Miuwhal  Cdilege  and  at  Edinburgh  (M.A.,  Aber- 
deen, 1837);  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Estab* 
lished  Church  at  Drum  blade,  Aberdeenshire,  1842; 
joined  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland*  1843;  waa 
minuiter  of  Pilrig,  Edinburgh,  1844-68;  professor 
of  apologetics  and  pastoral  theology  in  New  College, 
F^nburgh,  1868-97.  With  the  Rev.  William  Ar- 
not  he  was  delegate  from  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  United  States  at  Philadelphia  in 
1870  to  convey  congratulation  a  on  union;  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed 
Churches ;  waa  deeply  interested  in  measures  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  poor  and  the  working 
elaiises;  and  active  in  behalf  of  home  misaions, 
temperance,  church  extension,  and  all  the  work 
of  the  Free  Church,  In  1892  he  was  moderator  of 
the  General  Assembly.  He  edited  The  Free  Church 
Magatine  1849-53,  The  North  BrUish  Review  1800- 
I8(i3,  The  Sunday  Ma^^ne  1873-74,  and  The 
Cutholic  Presbyterian  1879-83. 

BiouonSAi^ar:  The  more  important  of  hli  tnjiiiy  books 
wens  BibU  HiMtorM  »ii  Conw-cMon  with  the  Gfiural  liUiartf 
ef  the  Wortd,  London.  ISS&i  BtUer  Dau*  for  (Mm  Workinff 
PtopiM^  IS63  (arifEinAlly  published  aj  Six  Ltdut^  Ad- 
dremd  to  thi  Wurking  ClaameM  on  the  improj^ement  of  Iheir 
Twmpor^  CtmdUkni.  EdJiiburgh.  Ii46):  Meadm  and  Handw 
ti»  tht  WijrM  iff  Lab&r,  1865;  Far  tte  W&rk  of  the  Afinla- 
iP]/,  a  Manttal  of  H&miietical  and  PoMturat  Theohffif^  1873; 
Gtimp*e*  of  the  fnmr  tAft  of  out  Umt.  1876;  Th*  Per- 
Mortal  lAf*  of  David  lAmngmtont^  1880;  The  Public  MiniM- 
iry  and  PaaUfnd  Mtthodt  of  our  Lard,  1383;  Leadwa  in 
M&dem  Pkilanthropu,  im*;  Bohert  Rothck.  Jlrti  Prtncj- 
pal  of  tite  Unipettiit/  of  Edinburgh,  1884;  The  PrmehtrM 
&f  S&itland  from  the  Sistk  to  (he  N  in  flee  nth  Century  (CiiEt^ 
ninghsm  Lefittirea  for  1S88>;  Thomat  Ctudmert,  Edin- 
burgh,  1806;  David  Bro%im^  a  Meinoir,  Lotidnrt,  1808.  Ub 
■Iao  «4lJted  Memorvda  of  ^  Late  ArUrew  Cri^hlon,  1868, 
and  JnmeB  Wjilk^r'a  Theologj/  and  Theologian*  of  Scot- 
land, 1872^  wnjte  five  of  the  Prttent  Btiy  Tract*,  1883- 
1885;  contnbMted  Ihe  "  Expomtiorifi  And  Homiletic^'^'  for 
th<}  EpifltlQ  to  thfli  EpbeMiAos  In  th«  Ptdpii  Commen- 
tary, and  prvpfired  the  Book«  of  Jothua  and  B^muel  for 
the  ExpontuT'9  Sibh,  Far  hit  life  consult  bis  Aatobioa- 
raphy.  ediied  «itb  introduction  by  N*  L,  Walker,  L<jn* 
don,  im\,  and  DNB,  BuppLement  vol.  i,  212-213. 

BLAIR,  HUGH:  Chiireh  of  Scotland;  b.  in 
Edinburgh  Apr.  7,  1718;  d,  there  Dec.  27,  1800. 
He  studied  in  the  local  wnivengity;  became  minister 
of  Golessio,    Fifcalure,   1742;   second    mmkter  of 


the  Canon^te  Churchy  Edinburgh,  1743;  nuim^ 
of  Lady  Yeater's  1754;  wa^  transferred  to  the  Hi^ 
Church  1758.  From  1759  be  le^rtured  in  tk  U^ 
versity  so  aeoeptablj  on  rhetoric  and  belled-lettm^ 
that  in  1750  he  waa  appointed  the  town  coixnci 
professor  in  that  department,  and  from  1762  to 
1783  waa  the  royal  prpfeaBor;  when  on  red^iiDg  h 
published  hia  lectures  (2  voU.)  he  became  oneof  tb 
moat  famoui  authors  of  works  on  rhetoric  m  tlM 
En^iah  language  and  retained  the  positioa  For  a 
century.  In  1780  he  received  a  pennon  of  £M 
a  year*  To  his  own  generation  be  was  &  mut 
acceptable  preacher  and  hia  sermons  continued  to 
be  read  and  to  be  translated  far  into  the  m»- 
teenth  centujy*  Their  simpUci^,  cxceQ^t  ^ 
and  high  morality  aooount  for  their  vogue,  bat 
their  lack  of  depth  in  thought  and  ipiritu^ 
have  (^used  them  to  loae  populari^, 

fiiBUKMiaAFiiT:  fikfitehea  af  B\^*»  life  wmn  appeiukd  to 
vol.  r  of  hi«  nnnoiiK  by  J,  PmlayM>D«  LoitdmL,  1^1;  ■** 
milt  alK  John  Hill,  An  AtiMuni  of  thm  Life  ai>d  WriUm 
of  a.  Btair,  Edinbiuvb^  1807^  DNB,  w,  160-161, 

BLAIR,  JAMES:  Virginia  colonial  EpLacoptl 
ctcrgyman^  b.  In  Scotland  in  1656;  d,  at  WiUiini* 
burg,  Va,,  Apr.  18,  1743*  He  waa  gf^uatod  UJL 
at  Edinburgh  in  1673;  became  a  clergyman  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland  and  was  rectof  of 
CraJiflton  in  the  diocese  of  Edinburgh.  In  the  kttcr 
part  of  the  rdgn  of  Cliaj'lefl  II  he  went  to  En^biid 
and  was  persuaded  by  Dr.  Compton,  hishop  €f 
London^  to  emigrate  to  Vilginia,  where  he  iifi7«d 
in  1685;  he  was  mmifrter  of  Henrico  pamli  tOl 
1694}  at  Jamestown  till  1710^  and  at  WiSliMnnburg 
the  rest  of  hie  life.  In  1689  he  was  appointed  bf 
the  bishop  of  London  commissary  for  Yli^joia, 
the  highest  church  office  in  the  oolony,  the  dutia 
of  which  were  practically  thoee  of  a  bishop  ex- 
clusive of  ordination.  After  1793  he  was  member 
of  the  colonial  Coundl  and  for  many  yean  iU 
president.  He  waa  a  man  of  Bteriing  char^eter 
and  great  ability,  and  worked  with  per^stent  leal 
and  energy  to  promote  the  religious  and  mAtenfll 
welfare  of  Virginia.  He  did  much  to  elevat«  tbe 
character  of  the  colonial  clergy.  With  several  <rf 
the  govemori  he  had  bitter  diaputes  and  wai 
influential  in  securing  their  removal.  He  vtf 
founder  and  first  president  of  William  and  M^ 
College,  for  which  he  procured  a  charter  in  En^^flDii 
in  1693,  and  which  he  made  a  sucoeia  in  ^ite  of 
great  dif^culties  and  diaeouragcmenta.  He  p^ 
lished  four  volumes  containing  117  sermciu  op 
Our  Savior'M  Ditdne  Sermon  tm  ihe  MtmM  (Londoo, 
1722)  and  with  Henry  Hartwell  and  Edwtrd 
Chilton  prepared  The  Prt^etU  Siaie  of  Vtryima 
and  the  Ct^ge  (London,  1727). 

BmuaaBAPRv:  D.  E.  Motley,  The  Ltfe&f  Commitatsii  Ja^ 
Btair,  in  Johne  Nopkin*  Univrrtiiv  Studiee  in  liiMatiid 
and  Political  Science^  nries  xix*  do.  10,  Bkltimoiie,  l^i 
DMB,  v»  1&1-1S2. 

BLAIR,  SAUIJEL:  American  Presbytcriaii^  b. 
in  Ireland  June  14,  1712;  d.  at  Londcnderry,  Pmul. 
July  5^  1751.  He  came  early  to  America;  studiac 
at  Tennent'a  "  Log  College  "  at  Neshaminy;  w* 
ordained  pastor  of  Middletown  and  Shrewsbury 
N.  J.f  1734;  in  1739  removed  to  Londonderry  fi 
Fagg's    Btanor    (40    m.   w.s.w,   of    Philadelpbia! 


Blaikle 

Blasphemy 


County,  Penn.,  and  established  there  a 
Itliool  after  the  model  of  the  *'  Log  College,"  He 
an  adhcTent  of  Gilbert  Tcnnent  in  the  contro- 
nmci  u(  his  time.  His  principal  writings  were* 
Bodected  by  lus  brother.  Rev,  John  Blair  (Phila- 
diJlpbUi  1754);  they  include  Bermons,  a  treatise 
piredfsetiaaUon  and  reprobation,  and  an  account 
a  imviil  in  his  congregation  at  Lomlonderry. 


Cocuiult  tbe  biocraphic&l  sketch  in  A.  Alex- 
r,  like  FifUtuirr  and  Prinripat  Alumni  of  the  Loo  Coi- 
lip^pp^  164-196.  nultidelphiA,  185L 

HAIRf  WILLIAM;  United  Free  Church  of 
id;  b.  at  Cluny  {Ti  m.  s.w.  of  8t.  Andrews), 
Jan-  13,  1830.  He  studied  at  the  IJniver- 
St.  Andrews  (M.A„  18.51)),  antl  in  1^56  was 
to  the  Unite<l  Pn?sby1orian  ministry  at 
Dtmblanc,  Perthshire.  He  was  clerk  to  the  Stirling 
Presbytery  for  twenty-five  years*  and  to  the  United 
Prwbytenan  Synod  1894-19(10;  since  lOW  he  has 
derk  to  the  United  Free  Church  General  As- 
',  and   was   moderator  of   the  United   Pres- 

Synod  in  1898-99,     He  has  been  chaplain 

te  the  famous  Black  Watch  since  1892,  a  member 
of  the  University  Court  of  St.  Andrews  University 
moB  1903.  In  theolo^  he  adheres  strictly  to  the 
WeitiiiitiBler  Confession.  He  has  written  Chroni^^lea 
i4  Ahtrbrfdhoc  (Arbroath,  18&3);  Rumbling  RecoUec 
tiamt:  Of,  Sf^nes  worth  Seeing  (Edinburgh,  1857); 
Arrhhishop  IMghton,  Life  with  SckrfmnJt  (Ix^ndon, 
[myJtJtiltt  Memorial  Volume  (F^linburgh,  1887); 
Sidary  and  Prxm-iplejn  of  the  United  Preabyterian 
rhffth  (18S8);  and  Robtri  LeighUm^  Extracts  and 
luMmHm  (London,  1907). 

BLAISE,  SAIlfT.     See  Helpers  m  Need. 

BLAKESLEE,  ERASTUS:  Congregationalist;  b, 
tt  Plymouth,  Conn.,  8ept.  2,  1838;  d.  at  Brookline, 
Mm.,  July  12,  1908.  While  a  sophomore  at  Yale 
io  1861  he  enlisted  as  a  cavalryman.  He  was  muft- 
tered  out  In  1865  as  brevet  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
uniens.  After  a  business  career  be  studied  in 
^|iver  Theological  Seminary  from  1876  to  1879, 
^^Ktlered  the  Congregational  ministry.  He  had 
|Hi  ehargea,  at  Green  fields  Mass.,  Fair  haven, 
ffm,,  and  at  Spencer,  Mass.  (1887*92),  and  re- 
lied the  last  that  he  might  give  his  whole  time 
to  the  preparation  and  publication  of  the  *'  Bible 
Slttiy  Union  LesBons/'  which  are  not  only  widely 
tmd  to  this  country,  but  translated  into  several 
nifttoDary  languages.  '  With  the  te^diers'  aids^ 
bmd  separately,  more  than  160  volumes  of  lessons 
■ve  payished.  Franx  Sandehs. 

BLAKCKMEISTER,    FRAJ^Z    THEODOR:    Gcr- 

ft&tt  Lutheran;  b.  at  Plawen  (21  m.  s.w.  of  Zwickau) 

ffb.  4,  1858,    After  studying  at  Leipsic  from  1877 

to  1880  and  teaching  for  a  year,  he  entered  the 

^\  and  has  been,  since  1897,  pastor  of  Trinity 

Church  in  Dresden.     In  theology  he  is  extremely 

ProteBtaot  and   an  adverse   critic  of  the   Roman 

Githolie  Church.    Of  \\i»  numerous  publications  may 

bmimtfoned  AUe  Oe^tehichte  aus  dem  Sachaenlande 

i'-.u-men,  1886-89);   Sachsenspiegel  (Dres- 

3d  ed.,  1902) ;  and  Sdchaische  Kirchenge- 

idachU  (lS9e;  2d  ed.,  1900). 


BLAIfDIKA,  SAINT:  A  martyr  who  was  among 
the  victims  of  the  persecution  in  Lyons  under 
Marcus  Ayrclius.  In  the  account  of  that  persecu- 
tion given  by  the  Christian  community  there,  antl 
preserved  by  Eusebius  {HiM.  ccd.,  v,  1),  the  courage 
of  the  young  slave  girl  is  specially  extolled;  ami  she 
is  singled  out  for  mention  by  name,  an  honor  which 
she  shares  with  only  seven  of  the  other  martyrs, 
including  the  bishop  Pothinus.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BLAIfDRATA,  GEORGIUS:  Italian  Unitarian; 
b.  al>out  1515  at  Saluzzo  (17  miles  n.w.  of  Coni), 
Piedmont;  d.  after  1585.  He  migrated  to  Poland, 
where  he  becmne  physician  to  Sigismund  I,  then 
went  to  Transylvania  and  served  the  widow  of 
Jan  2apolya  in  a  like  capacity.  Having  returned 
to  I  tidy,,  he  went  to  Pa  via,  and  became  an  object 
of  suspicion  on  account  of  his  radical  utterances  on 
tlieology,  but  escaped  the  Inquisition  by  going  to 
Geneva.  There  he  debated  with  Martinenghi, 
the  preacher  of  the  Italian  congregation,  also  with 
Calvin,  especially  conoeniing  the  doctrine  of  tiic 
Trinity,  which  he  regarded  as  endangering  the 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God.  He  regarded  specu- 
lation on  the  relation  of  the  three  persons  as  un- 
neoeBsary  (F.  Trcchsel,  ProteMantische  Antitrini- 
forwr,  4  parts,  Bern,  1841-42,  ii,  467;  CR.  xvii, 
2871),  Calvin  replied  in  his  Respamsum  ad  qutrs- 
iiones  0.  Biandratw  (Geneva,  1559).  As  some  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  sided  with  Blandrata^ 
Calvin  had  a  confession  signed  which  condemnetl 
the  antitrinitarian  doctrine.  Blandrata  went  to 
Zurich,  then  again  to  Poland,  where  he  was  received 
by  Prince  RndsEiwill  and  took  part  in  several 
synods  (cf.  H.  Dalton,  Lancmna,  Beriin,  1898,  iv), 
but  Cah-in^s  repeated  waming;8  against  him,  stig- 
matising him  as  **  a  foul  pest,"  prevented  any 
lasting  activity.  In  156.1  Blandrata  went  again 
to  Transylvania  and  openly  professed  LTnitarianism, 
being  assisted  by  Prince  Stephen  Bathori,  aftcr- 
w:ird  king  of  Poland.  Fiiustus  Socinus  accused 
BlnnilrutM  of  having  separated  from  his  cort^ligion- 
ists  out  of  avarice;  at  any  rate,  tirc»d  of  tlic  con- 
flict, he  ceased  to  take  part  in  public  affairs. 

K.  Benrath. 

DiBLiooRAPmr:  Many  of  tbp  letter*  of  Btanilr»U  are  printed 
in  €?'H,  voln.  xvii-xxi.  Sources  for  a  bioKraphy  are:  C. 
8iinrliti«,  BiMiothMa  antUrinitariarum,  Prawtiidt,  1664; 
8.  Luhienski.  HiHoria  r^formationit  Poiometr^  ib.  1685. 
C^iiauU  V,  MaL«mnie,  CommetUaria  delle  optn  €  iMta 
vicendi  tti  O.  Biandrata,  Puliia,  1814;  O.  Fi>ck,  Der  So- 
cinianitmuM,  Kiel.  1847;  and  J,  H.  Allen,  HiMiorkal 
Skrtrh  (jf  the  UnitaTian  Movement,  New  York.  1894. 

BLASPHEMY  (Ok.  Mmphemia,  ''a  speech  or 
worti  of  evil  omen  "):  Properly  any  species  of 
calumny  and  detniction,  but  technically  limited 
to  evil-*q>eaking  of  God  or  things  held  sacred.  The 
conce|>tion  that  such  an  act  is  a  crime  may  l>e  traced 
back  to  Judaism,  wlioso  code  imposed  death  by 
sUining  as  a  punishment  (Lev.  xxiv.  15-16;  Matt. 
xx\n,  65;  John  x,  3;i).  The  later  Roman  law  also 
attachcnl  the  dejith  penalty  (Nov.  Jrwfm.,  LXXVII, 
i,  1-2).  In  the  earlier  church  law,  blasphemy  is  not 
mentioned  as  a  punishable  offen.se.  Pope  Gregory 
IX  (1227-41)  prescribed  penance  for  publ:*?  blna- 
phemy  against  God,  the  saints,  or  the  Virgin; 
the  guilty  person  must  stand  for  seven  Sunday* 


BIam 
Bledsoe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


Ul 


at  the  church  porch  during  the  maaa,  on  the  laet 
of  the  seven  without  cLoak  or  shoes;  he  muHt  fast 
the  FridayH  preceding  on  bread  and  water,  and  give 
alms  according  to  his  means.  The  civil  authorities 
were  also  admonished  to  irapoae  a  fine.  By  the 
end  of  the  century  the  offense  came  to  be  more 
definitely  defined  as  any  depredatory  or  oppro- 
brious  expression  concerning  God,  Christ,  or  the 
Holy  Spirit,  such  as  the  denial  of  a  divine  attribute, 
or  the  aflcription  of  some  thing  unseemly  (as  false- 
hood or  revcngic),  or  wishing  ill  to  or  in  any  way 
ditthonoririg  God,  the  saints,  or  the  Virgin*  Leo 
X  (1513-21)  imposed  fines  according  to  the  ability 
of  the  offender  and  bodily  puniehments  which 
included  flogging,  boring  the  tongue,  and  condem- 
nation to  the  galleys  in  extreme  cases.  Later  a 
tendency  to  substitute  admonition  and  exhortation 
for  severe  penalties  becomes  apparent.  By  the 
common  law  of  England,  ami  in  many  of  the  United 
States  by  statute  law,  blasphemy  is  an  indictable 
ofTense;  prosecutions,  however,  have  become  infre- 
quent. (P.  HlNSCHIUSt.) 

The  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  wliich 
is  pronounced  unpardonable  (Matt,  xli,  31;  Mark 
iiin  29;  Luke  xii,  10)  is  best  understood  to  be  wilful 
and  persistent  reaistance  to  the  influences  and 
warnings  of  God,  wliich  renders  the  subject  in- 
capable of  repentance  and  pardon.  See  Holy 
Spirit,  LL 
BiDLriouRAPHY:  J.  D.  MichaeliA,  MotAitcheM  Recht.  put  V. 

{   2Sl.   Fmnkfort.    1770-75.   Eng.  IranrtL*  London,   IS  10; 

P.  HinjjMchiui*T  D<is  Kirrhrnretht  in  DtaUftJilami.  iv.  p.  793. 

n.   3.    V.  184,  3lS-:n9,  325.  ft99.  vi.  188.  B^rUn,    1860-^98; 

11  lacks l4:>tie,  Cmnmefttarifi,  IV,  4.  iv;  Sir  J.  F,  Stephen. 

Hintffru  of  th€  Criminal  Law  of  England,  ii,  460-476,  Lcm- 

dori,  18H3;  Birttiop^  CommtntaHea,  X,  x;  D3,  i,  305^306; 

EH.  I,  589-590. 

BLASS,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM:  German  Prot^ 
Gstant  claj^aical  scholar;  b.  at  Osnabrtlck  (30 
m,  n.e.  of  MUnater)  Jan.  22,  1843;  d.  at  Halle 
Mar  5.  1907.  He  studied  in  GMtingcn  (1860-61) 
and  Bonn  (1861-6;jj  Ph.D.,  1863),  nnd  after  being 
a  teacher  in  gynina*sia  at  Bielefeld  (1864-66), 
Na  um  b  urg-an-der-Saal  e  ( 1 866-70 ) ,  Magdeburg 
(1870-73),  nnd  Stettin  (1873-74),  became  privat- 
doeent  at  KOnipberg  in  1874.  Two  yeara  later 
he  was  appointed  associate  profesj^or  at  Kidj  where 
he  was  pnimottHl  to  the  rank  of  full  professor  in 
IRRK  From  IS92  he  was  professor  of  clasaiea! 
philology  at  Halle.  BesidcB  editiona  of  Greek 
autlioru  and  inscriptions,  and  several  works  on 
strictly  cla^ical  themes,  he  published  Philology  of 
the  GoHpels  (London,  1898)  and  Gramfmiiik  dcs 
iteiitestamenUichen  Gri^^htJieh  (Gdttingen,  1896; 
Eng.  transL  by  11.  St,  J.  Thackeray,  London,  1898), 
ami  ciJited  Ada  Aposiohrum  (Gdttingen,  1895; 
minor  edition,  Leipsie,  1896);  Evangeliutn  secun- 
dum Lucam  (Leipsic,  1897);  Erangelium  secundum 
Matthirttm  (1901);  Emngelium  mcundum  Johan- 
nem  (1902);  and  (Barnabas)  Brief  an  die  Hebr^^r 
(Halle,  1903), 

BLAST  ARES,  MATTH^DS:  At  first  a  seeular 
priest  and  later  a  monk  of  tlie  order  of  St.  Baail, 
who  made  aljout  133.^  a  eoUeetion  of  laws,  lioth  civil 
and  eeclesiiistieal,  known  as  **  .Alphabetical  Col- 
lection," Syntagma  alphabcilcum  rerum  omnium 
quce   in    saeru    canonibua   comprehenduntur.    The 


ci\'Tl  part  ("  politicaJ  lawi ")  i*  bated  upon  Qi 
NoveUiEot  Justinian,  the  eecleda^ical  ("caaioffil 
upon  the  coltectbn  of  Photius,  with  the  ornxm- 
taries  of  Zonaraa  and  Balsamon.  Such  a  didkift^ 
ary  of  law  filled  a  practical  waQt,  and  so  wai  lai- 
vereally  ujsed  by  the  Eastern  dergy,  wid  ^m 
translated  into  Slavic.  A  complete  reprint  h  itmi 
in  Beveridge'a  SynodioMf  il,  2,  and  in  vol.  Ti  of  ii 
Syniogma  t&n  iheim  kai  hierm^  kanonm  (Atln^ 
1859).  (E.  Fnn^BOfi.) 

BLAUHER    (BLARER,    BLAARER),    AIBIO- 
SlUS;    German  Refonner;    b,  at  Coustanff  Apt 
12,  1492;  d.  at  Winterthur  (12  miles n.e. of  2aridi]i, 
Switaerland,  Dec.  6, 1 564.     He  studied  at  Tubijipi, 
where  be  became  acquainted  with  Melanchtba; 
about  1510  he  entered  the  monastery  at  Alpir^)*^ 
and  continued  his  studies  at  TObingen  till  Wt 
Through  study  of  the  Bible  and  of  Luther's  wiitinff^ 
to  the  reading  of  which  he  was  led  by  bis  bfotber 
Thomas^  who  wlule  studying  at  Wittenberg  Iji^ 
become   intimate  with   Luther   and   MelAndidHO, 
he  embraced  the  prindplea   of    the  Reformstkn, 
which  he  tried  to  introduce  into  the  monaatiry. 
Being  opposed   by   the   abbot,   he  went  to  Coo- 
stance  July  5,   1522,  and  at  the  instance  of  ik 
council  of  the  city  began  to  preach  in  j^t$.   He 
became    the    leader    of    the    Reformation   thne. 
From   1528,  Blaurer  labored  for  the  ReformAtiflB 
outside  of  his  native  eity.     He  was  present  at  tk 
colloquy  in  Bern  (Jan.  6,  152S),  wa«  at  Mamniiieai 
Nov.,  152S^Feb.,  1529,  and  presided  over  the  eom^ft- 
tion  of  the  frienda  of  the  Reformation  in  Up[« 
Germany  which  met  in  Memmingen  Feb»  27-Mjtr. 
1,  1531.     From  May  to  July,  1531,  he  was  at  ITm 
with  CEcolampadius  and  Butfer,  afterward  at  Geii- 
lingen,  and   (Sept.   L53Wuly,  1532)  at  Esslinguo. 
He    everywhere  displayed  ability  in  organijatioiL 
In  July,  1532,  his  native  city  recalled  him,  and  in 
1533  he  married  a  former  mm. 

In  1534  he  was  called  by  Duke  Ulrieh,  together 
with  the  Lutheran  Erhard  Schnepf,  to  further  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation  in  the  duchy  of  Wilrtiem- 
bcrg.  The  two  men  came  to  an  agreement,  Au|c.  2, 
1534,  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
paving  thereby  the  way  for  the  coming  union  oi 
the  German  Evangelical  Church.  To  Blaarer 
wa«  assigned  the  south  of  WQrttemberg  with  resi- 
dence at  Tubingen.  He  encountered  there  ccrtjin 
difficulties:  (1)  the  agreement  with  Schwcnckfeld, 
1535;  (2)  the  reformation  at  the  Univeraity  of 
Tubingen,  which  Brcna  had  undertaJcen;  (3)  the 
image-question,  which  Blaurer  soh*^  by  re- 
moving all  of  them  from  the  churches,  but  the 
"  idol-thet  "  at  Urach  left  the  decision  to  the  dvske. 
At  Schmalkald  Blaurer  refused  in  Feb,,  1537*  to 
iign  the  articles  of  Luther,  but  approved  those 
of  Mclanchthon.  Court  intrigues  brought  about 
Bluurer^s  dismissal  in  June,  153S.  Not  till  1556 
ditl  Duke  Christopher  compensate  him  for  his 
four  years'  services.  He  was  at  Augsburg  June 
27-Dec,  6,  1539,  where  he  earnestly  labored  against 
the  luxury  of  the  rich,  pleaded  for  benevolence  to 
the  iHDor,  and  for  the  CAUse  of  morality.  He  went  to 
Kerapt-en  and  labored  there  (Dec,  1539,  to  the  end 
of  Jan.^  1540)  for  the  peace  of  th€  Churckj  uidalflo 
at  I  any,  1544-55. 


ITO 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blafls 

Bl«dBO« 


By  the  Interim,  Constance  lost  its  independence. 
Spaniaxds  took  the  city  Aug.  6,  1548,  and 
[made  it  an  Austrian  town,  speedily  crushing  the 
*  UofonnutioD.  Blaurer  left  there  Aug.  28,  and 
preached  in  Biel  (1551-59),  Leutmerkenj  and 
finally  at  WintcrtKur,  where  he  died.  He  declined 
caUfi  to  Bern,  Augsburg,  Me-mmingcn,  and  the 
Palatinate,  and  influenced  large  circles  by  his 
MXTOpOEidence.  His  twenty-two  hymns  give  evi- 
dence of  poetical  power  and  fervor. 

G.  BOBSEHT. 

BmiOGUUPHT;  D<  C.  Pflster,  DenkvyQrdioteUen  der  wUritem^ 
bifidbm  und  tchw^bUchtn  R€formiUum§g9SchichU^  part 
tTObiosen,  1817;  T.  Keitn,  Amhr.  Blarer  der  utkiHl- 
h»^  Rfformalar,  gtuttKart.  1860;  T.  Preasel,  Amhromiu* 
Blnnr'«  Libm  und  Schriflen,  ib.  1861;  Ltfben  und  aun- 
fWdUlf  Sdirift^n  der  VMer  drr  refarmierUm  KtrcHe,  vol. 
tir.Bbtrfeia.  1861;  E.  Schneider.  W  nrUemberoiMdtM  Rtfor- 
■ifliM»i«MrAi£A«»,  Stutt^rt,  1887;  E.  l«wl.  £H4  Reformat 
$0*  in  Konstanz,  FreibuTis.  ISOB;  F.  Rath,  Auffabntrtin 
tUfanmtli&n»gr»ckichie,  vols,  i,  ii,  Munich,  1901,  1604; 
Zvinaliana,  1900.  no.  2,  p.  163,  1M2,  no.  2*  p.  3L7. 

BUURER,  MARGARETHA;  Sister  of  Am- 
t»Rinaa  Blaurer  (q.v.),  one  of  the  most  intelligent 
and  deeply  religious  women  of  the  Reformation 
time;  d.  b  Conjstance  1542*  She  became  deeply 
interested  in  the  person  and  work  of  Pilgram  Mar- 
beck  (q.v.)  during  his  residence  in  Strasburg  (1528- 
liSSilaud,  whether  she  sympathized  with  hi^  anti- 
peilobaptist  teaching  or  not,  reproached  Butzcr  for 
hi  intolerant  proceedings  again«t  Marbeck  and 
nfuaed  to  be  convinced  by  Butzer^a  arguments  that 
Marheck  was  a  heretic  or  a  hypocrite.  She  died 
while  ministering  to  the  plague-strickeii  poor  of 
Coiurtance,  and  has  the  honor  of  being  one  of  the 
fifst  Proteatant  women  to  engage  in  diaconal 
wrvioe.  A.  H.  Newman. 

Bibuocmpbt:  J.    W.    Baum,   Capito   und   Buixer,  pwwini, 

ElberWd,  1860;    C.  Gerbert.  GemchichU   der  Stra*»burorr 

xur  Zeit  der  Reformation,  1SM4-1S$4,  pp.  97 

,  1889;  and  literatuire  uxid«r  Bladbek^  Am- 


BUVATSKY,  HELENA  PETROVWA:  Theoso- 
ptirt;  b.  at  Ekaterinoslav  (250  m.  n.e.  of  Odessa), 
Rti«ia,  July  31  (O.  S.),  1831;  d.  in  London  May  8, 
WOl.  Supposed  to  have  been  the  chdd  of  a  Russian 
officer  named  Peter  Halm,  she  married,  at  the  age  of 
•"ventcen,  a  Russian  official,  Nicephore  Blavataky, 
from  whom  she  separated  after  a  very  few  months. 
For  the  next  twenty  years  her  life  w^as  a  wandering 
on«,  mixed  with  spirilualisro  and  similar  cults. 
uwriog  this  time  she  visitetl  Paris,  Cairo,  New  Or- 
igan*, Tokyo,  and  Calcutta^  and  she  claimed  to  have 
t^vkd  for  seven  years  in  Tibet,  whence  she  pre- 
teofied  to  draw  the  mysteriea  of  theosophy  (q.v.). 
In  1858  shestArted  a  spiritualistic  movement  in  Rus- 
»*»>  and  in  1873  was  again  in  the  United  States.  In 
1875  «he  founded  at  New  York,  in  collaboration  with 
Col.  Henry  Steel  Olcott,  the  Theosophieal  Society. 
Ht  chief  works,  w^hich  have  run  through  rej>eated 
*drtior«  and  have  lxH*n  transliitod  into  many  lan- 
pa|Ki;hoth  in  Europe  and  India,  are  Itth  Vnneiteti : 
TAt  Mwder  Key  to  Ancient  artd  Mttfiern  Mysteries t 
"Witandard  text-book  of  the  Theosophists  (2  vols., 
^«?w  York,  1877);  Setret  Doctrine  :  The  Sunthexis 
^iScitntf^  Htligion,  and  Philosophy  (2  vols.,  1888); 
Vm  of  the  Silence  (1889);  Key  to  Themophy,  in 
^  Fwm  of  Question  and  Amwer  (1889);   and  the 


posthumous  From  the  Caves  and  Jungle t  of  Hin* 
doMan  (1892;   originally  contributed  to  the  Ruf^sian 
Rustski/  VyeMnik);  Nightmare  Tales  (Lon^^lon,  1892) 
Thcosophical  Glossary  (1892);  said  Modern  Fanarion 
Collection  of  Fugitii^e  Fragments  (1899). 

BiBLiooBAPifT:  E.  Coulomb,  Some  Account  of  my  InkrantrM 
wiih  Madame  Blavaiakv  from^lA/i  to  IS84.  Loadon,  1886;  A. 
F.  Siniiett,  IncidetUa  in  the  Life  of  Matitiine  Blarat»ky,  ib. 
1886;  a  WftchtmeiBtcr,  Remini$cencca  of  H.  P.  BiavatMkjf 
and  "the  Secret  Doctrine,"  ib,  1893;  A.  Lallio,  Madame 
BUtratekyand  her  "  Theatopky":  A  StxtdM,  ib.  1896;  V. 
8.  Solovyoff.  Modem  Prietteeeof  leit,  from  the  Euiisiaiit  by 
W.  L«saf.  lb.  1805  (All  txpoa^);  H.  Freiniirk,  HeUna 
Petroima  Btatateku^  Lejpsic,  1907. 

BLAYKEY,  BENJAMIN:  Church  of  England 
Hebrew  scholar;  b.  1728;  d.  at  Poulshot  (22  m. 
n.w.  of  Salisbury),  Wiltshire,  Sept.  20,  ISOL  He 
studied  at  Worcester  and  Hertford  Colleges,  Ox- 
ford (B.A.,  1750;  M.A.,  1753;  B.D.,  176S;  D.D., 
1787);  was  appointed  regiua  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  1787  and  was  made  canon  of  Christ  Church. 
He  revised  the  text  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Bible  to  secure  tyiKigrapliical  accuracy  and  added 
to  the  marginal  references;  the  edition  appeared 
in  176J>  mid  is  the  stanclard  for  the  Oxford  press. 
He  also  published  .4  Dusertaiion  by  Way  of  Inquiry 
into  the  TrMe  Import  and  Application  of  the  Vision 
Called  Danictfi  Propfiery  of  Seventy  Weeks  (Oxford, 
1775);  two  sermons,  on  The  Si^  Given  to  Ah^iz 
(1786)  and  Christ  the  Greater  Glory  of  the  Temple 
(1788);  translations  of  Jeremiah  and  Lamentationa 
(1784)  and  Zechnriah  (1797);  and  an  edition  of 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  (1790). 

BLEDSOE,  ALBERT  TAYLOR:  .\merican 
Southern  jMethodist;  b.  at  Frankfort.  Kv.*  Nov.  9, 
1809;  d.  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  Dec.  8,  ^1877.  He 
was  graduated  at  West  Point,  1830,  became  lieu* 
tenant  of  infantry,  and  resigned  1832;  he  became 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  Kenyon 
College,  Gambier,  O.,  1834;  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  rector  at 
Hamilton,  O.,  and  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Miami  University,  Oxford,  O.,  1835-36;  practised 
law  in  Springfield,  IIL,  and  in  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  at  Wfishington.  1840-48;  wvaa  profes- 
sor of  mathematics  in  the  I'aiversity  of  Misaissippi, 
1848-54,  and  in  the  University  of  Virginia,  1854- 
1861 ;  ho  entered  the  Confederate  service  as  a  colonel, 
but  was  soon  made  assistant  secretary  of  war; 
lived  in  England  1863-66;  after  1867  published 
The  Southern  Review  at  Baltimore,  which  un- 
der his  majiagement  became  one  of  the  leading 
periodicals  of  the  Methodist  Church,  South.  He 
was  ordained  a  Methodist  minister  in  187U  but 
never  took  charge  of  a  church.  He  was  a  strenuous 
advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  free  will  and  a  stem 
opponent  of  atlieism  and  skepticism;  the  doctrine 
of  predestination  he  considered  a  reflection  upon 
the  diWne  glory,  and  a  cause  of  unbelief;  his\new8 
are  set  forth  in  his  Examination  of  Edwards  on  the 
WUl  (Philadelphia,  1845)  and  his  Thfodicy,  or 
Vindicalion  of  (he  DiHne  Ghry  (New  York»  1853), 
He  also  published  Liberty  and  Slainry  (Philadelphia, 
1857);  TAc  Fhiloaophy  of  Mathei7inties  (1868); 
Is  Davis  a  Traitor  f  or  toae  secession  a  eonstilu- 
tionai  right  previous  to  the  war  of  1861  f  (Baltimore, 
1866). 


Bleak 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


9M 


BLEEKyFRIEDRICH:  ProtestaDt  theologian  and 
ez^gete;  b.  at  Ahrensbdk,  Holstein,  July  4,  1793; 
d.  at  Bonn  Feb.  27, 1859.  He  studied  theology  and 
philology  at  Kiel  and  Berlin,  1812-17,  and  began  to 
lecture  as  repetcnt  in  theology  in  the  latter  place 
in  1818.  His  lectures  on  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments  attracted  attention,  and  in  1821  he 
was  made  extraordinary  professor;  he  succeeded 
LQcke  as  professor  at  Bonn,  1829,  receiving  the 
same  year  his  doctorate  from  Breslau.  For  thirty 
years  Bleek  lectured  at  the  university  in  Bonn. 
He  was  extremely  painstaking  in  the  preparation 
of  his  lectures,  which  were  so  carefiUly  written 
that  after  his  death  they  could  easily  be  used  for 
publication,  and  continue  in  much  larger  circles 
the  influence  they  had  already  exerted.  His  works 
printed  during  Ids  lifetime  include:  Ueher  die  Ent- 
atehung  und  ZusammenseUung  der  Sibyllinischtn 
Orakelf  Ueber  Verfaaaerund  ZweckdesBuches  Daniel, 
and  Beitrag  zur  Kritik  und  Deutung  der  Offenbarung 
Johannie,  three  valuable  essays  published  in  the 
theological  review  edited  by  Schleiermacher,  De 
Wette,  and  Lttcke  (Berlin,  1819-22);  Versuch  einer 
voUstdndigen  Einleitung  in  den  Brief  an  die  Hebrder 
(Berlin,  1828),  followed  in  1836  and  1840  by  a 
translation  of  Hebrews  and  commentary  on  the 
book;  Beitrdge  zur  EvangelienkrUik  (Berlin,  1846). 
Of  his  {XMthumous  works  mention  may  be  made  of 
Eirdeitung  in  das  AUe  Testament  (edited  by  his  son  J. 
F.  Bleek  and  A.  Kamphausen,  Berlin,  1860;  3d  ed., 
by  Kamphausen,  1870;  4th,  5th,  and  6th  ed.,  by  J. 
WeUhausen,  1878,  1886,  1893;  Eng.  transl.  by  G.  H. 
Venables,  2  vols.,  London,  1869;  on  the  last  three 
editions  cf .  H.  L.  Strack,  Eirdeitung  in  doe  AUe  Tee- 
tamentf  Munich,  1895,  11);  Einleitung  in  das  Neue 
Testament  (Ist  and  2d  editions  by  his  son,  J.  F. 
Bleek,  1862,  1866;  3d  and  4th  editions  by  W. 
Mangold,  Berlin,  1875,  1886;  Eng.  transl.  by  W. 
Urwick,  London,  1870);  Synoptische  Erkldrung  der 
drei  ersten  Evangelien  (ed.  II.  Iloltzmann,  2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1862);  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Apokalypse 
(ed.  T.  Hossbach,  Berlin,  1862;  Engl,  transl.,  Lon- 
don, 1874);  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Brief e  an  die 
Kolosserf  den  Philemon  und  die  Epheser  (ed.  F. 
Nitzsch,  Berlin,  1865);  Vorlesungen  iiber  den  He- 
brderbrief  (ed.  A.  Windrath,  Elberfeld,  1868).  Bleek's 
writings  are  esjMJcially  distinguished  for  thorough- 
ness in  investigation  and  clearness  of  expression. 
His  BtandpK)int  in  criticism  was  conservative. 

A.  ICaj^phausen. 

BLEMMYDESy  inElEPHOROS:  Greek  monk; 
b.  at  CJonstantinople  about  1 197;  d.  (near  Ephesus?) 
1272.  He  foimded  a  monastery  near  Ephesus,  and 
became  its  archimandrite.  His  many  writings  were 
philosophical  treatises,  discourses  on  the  procession 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  on  the  Trinity,  on  Christology, 
on  the  duties  of  the  king,  and  an  exposition  of  the 
Psalms.  [Ho  is  principally  noted  for  his  defense 
of  the  Roman  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the 
Spirit  from  Father  and  Son  before  the  emperor  John 
III  Vatatzes  at  Nicaja.]  Blemmydes  was  honest 
and  incorruptible,  but  harsh  in  character.  Out  of 
devotion  to  the  ascetic  Ufe,  he  declined  the  patri- 
archate. Philipp  Meyer. 

Bibuoobapht:  The   works  of   Blemmydes   are   in   MPG, 
czlii,  and  alao  in  A.  Heiseuberg's  N,  BUmmydce,  cwrrir 


euhtm  viim  §1  earwtima,  Leipaie,  18MI.  winch 
newly  disoorered  sutobioBrBphy.  Oontah 
GMcfcicto,  PPL  445  aoq..  at  puam. 


In  OommmiSon  with  God  (IS). 
lofBhwuiwdl). 


BibUeal  Bmom  (|  1). 
Foundation  in  Ethiet  (|  2). 

The  tetin  "blessedneflB"  is  the  usual  rendering  is 

the  English  Bible  for  the  idea  of  the  HthrewaAervA 

Greek  makarios.  The  German  Seligkeit  i  cpreecutibfr 

sides  the  content  of  those  words  ato 

1.  Biblical  the  idea   of   the   Greek  s&m,  ''to 
Baais.      save."    The  Latin  equivalent  of  nwb- 

rios  Lb  beatus,  which  has,  however,  pMad 
in  usage  to  designate  the  state  of  Christians  who  hvn 
falloi  asleep  (cf.  Rev.  xiv,  13);  while  beolMi 
in  scholastic  usage  designates  the  aim  and  tke 
highest  good  of  the  Christian.  The  union  of  tio 
Biblical  conceptions  in  one  e3q)re88ion  gives  to  the 
latter  its  unique  Christian  content,  as  is  retliied 
when  the  two  ideas  are  traced  to  their  j  unction. 
Illuminative  of  this  point  is  Paul's  use  (Bom. 
iv,  7-8)  of  Ps.  xxxii,  1-2.  The  Old  Testament 
passage  bases  "  blessedness  "  on  forgiveness  of  m, 
and  goes  to  the  root  of  human  felicity  or  its  oppo- 
site. The  Reformed  theology  traced  the  idn  of 
blessedness  to  the  salvation  implied  in  that  forgive- 
ness, and  the  fact  is  evinced  in  Luther's  use  of 
Seligkeit  to  express  the  state  consequent  upon 
forgiveness.  Thus  the  union  of  the  ideas  of  blesKd- 
ness  and  salvation  is  manifest. 

The  term  suggests  also  the  idea  of  a  condition  d 
abiding  satisfaction  fully  realised  in  oonsdousnesB. 
This  is  attributed  to  God  in  I  Tim.  vi,  15-16  (cf. 
i,  11),  with  which  dogmatics  agrees  on  the  ground 
of  his  absoluteness  and  completeness.  In  this 
respect,  to  man  may  be  attributed  only  a  relative 
blessedness.  By  reason  of  his  constitution  man 
may  pursue  and  attain  a  sort  of  arbitrary  satis- 
faction; and  in  consequence  of  his  being  a  creature 
he  can  attain  full  satisfaction  only  in  a  way  in 
accord  with  his  inner  nature.  A  purpose  which  for 
him  reaches  beyond  the  present  life  involves  a 
blessedness  not  to  be  reached  here,  where  only  a 
conditioned  form  is  for  him  attainable.  This  is  the 
point  of  view  of  the  Biblical  presentation.  Man 
holds,  on  the  one  hand,  relations  with  God,  and  on 
this  depends  his  blessedness;  he  is  also,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  race  of  Adam,  a  sinner  and  so  under  the 
impress  of  evil,  and  his  blessedness  is  contingent 
upon  salvation  from  this  condition. 

On  the  foregoing  basis  is  built  Christian  usage, 
in  which  **  eternal  life,"  "  eternal  blessedness,"  and 
'*  blessed  eternity "  are  variant  expressions  for 
the  same  concept.  Life  in  its  fulness  is  the  idea. 
The  Bible  and  philosophy  agree  in  the  ethical  as 
the  source  of  blessedness  (Jas.  i,  25;  Acts  xx,  35), 
but  the  former  annexes  also  a  religious 

2.  Founda-  relationship  (Jas.  i,  27).  If  the  most 
tionin  significant  limitation  in  Ufe,  that 
Ethics,      which  distinguishes  man  from  God, 

viz.,  guilt,  be  removed,  on  tliis  line 
of  thought  blessedness  may  be  attributed  to  man. 
Out  of  this  comes  the  emphasis  constantly  laid 
in  the  language  of  the  Gospels  upon  the  identity 
of  salvation  and  blessedness,  the  latter  resting  upon 
freedom  from  guilt  and  from  the  proscription  an- 


%n 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bleasi^ 


sing  ttoiD  sin,     Tbus  ble,s8edness  and  life,  in  this  way 
I  w&ching  its  fulness,  are  regarded  aa  equivalents. 
A  special  dogmatic  terminology  has  developcil 
this  usage,  as  when  SchleiRrmachtT  {Chriat- 
GUwbe,   Berlin,  1821,  §§  100,   101,  108,   110) 
the  activity  of  Christ  in  that  ho  receives 
up  into  lit8  own  God-consciousness  and 
into  participation   in  his  serene  blessedness,  into 
the  '* peace*'   of  the  New  Testament.     Similarly 
i.  C.  K-  von  Hofmann  (Thcotogkch^  Eihik,  N5rd- 
tingen,  1878,  p.  89)  asserti»  that  **  faith  as  obedience 
18  freedom,  faith  as  certainty  is  bles»ctlness/*    So 
the  term  designates  the  religious  aide  of  the  Chris- 
tiflo't  condition  as  distinct  from  the  ethical.     The 
.     eiKkmonistic    side    Is    expressed    by    J.    Kaftan 
HCH'cira  der  chruAlichmi  Religum,  Bielefeld.  1881,  pp. 
^BB7,  292)  in  the  form  *'  blessedness  is  enjoyment  of 
^Ethie  lughest  good/'     Into  Christian  usage  there  has 
B^eoDie  &  transcendent  element,  implying  the  satis- 
faction  of    all    needs    which    present    themselves 
to  the  people  of  God.     If  among  these  needs  is 
fitmcd  complete  communion  with  God  in  the  com* 
^    plddy  realiaed    kingdom  of   God,    or    intercom- 
■^■Hhi  of  mankind  made  one   in   God,  the  satis- 
^^^^pD  of  this  need  goes  on  to  God  a»  the  source, 
^^B^o  communion  with  him  as  the  means  of  attain- 
ing such  satisfaction.     Henc*  in  Bib- 
3-  la  Com-  lical     represent  at  ion«    intimate    com- 
xnunion      m  union     with     liim     is    the     highest 
^HtbGod.    privilege   of   which    man    may    think 
in  his  Godward  relations.       Comj>an- 
KMiahip  with  God  appears  therefore  as  an  implicit 
poiffld  of   blesisedness,    and    the   Old   Testament 
nociception    oomes    out    in    the    manifestation    of 
tlieophanies  and  In  the  intimatre  intercourse  had 
by   BlosoB  with  God  (Ex.  xxxiii,  11;  Num.  xii,  8; 
l^eiit,  xcdv,  10),    The  idea  is  still  further  carried 
»iit  in  later  books,  as  in  Ps.  xvii,  15,  cxl,  14  ('*  I 
*HjfcQ  be  satisfied  *'),  and  is  expressed  by  Job  as 
^  tloaire  (xix^  26).    The  opf>o8ite  effect  is  the  result 
^    aepareition    from    God    (Isa.  xxxviii,  U).     Ps. 
Ijocriv    exuberantly    eet^s    forth     the    blessedness 
^'ising  from    this   companionsliip   with   God.     In 
*^  New  Testament  the  stune  notion  of  the  con- 
<^cioueneH  of  God's  presence  antl  of  faitli  in  him  is 
Wg^  ^yidenoe  (John  xiv,  9;  II  Cor.  iv,  G;  1  Pet.  i,  8). 
^P^t  in  this  life  knowledge  of  God  and  communion 
"'•'tb  him  is  but  partial  (I  Cor.  xiii.  12,  cf .  II  Cor 
*" '  '';  Matt,  xi,  27).     It  is  the  sons  who  see  the  father, 
JJ'M  90  the  sons  of  the  Heavenly  Father  are  called 
V*'*iii!d  (Matt,  v,  9).    This  intimacy,  which  is  condi- 
^'^■led  upon  ethical  oneness  with  God,  is  the  source 
^'•^tKighout  the  development  of  the  man  of  God  from 
'y^ich  he  draws  the  completion  of  his  happiness. 
A  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in  the  question 
'  there  are  steps  or  grades  of  blessedness  or 
To  this  an  affirmative  answer  is  given  on  the 
I  of  such  passages  as  Matt,  x,  41,  xiv,  2S-29, 
**»,  14-15.    Such  a  conclusion  is  fortified  by  the 
consideration  that  blessedness  includes 
^   Degree*  within  itself  a  kingdom  whose  subjects 
^  BUnod^  are  men  of  God ,  and  that  such  a  concep- 
am.        lion  involves  diversity  in  which  differ- 
ences must  exist  in  relation  t*)  blessed- 
•{••■.   Such  differenoos  imply  variety  in  order  of  fe- 
^«ty bo  aocoftl  with  personal  gifts  and  individuality. 


The  figurative  language  of  Heb.  iv,  10  makes 
mention  of  a  final  Sabbath  rest.  The  question  has 
been  raised  whether  by  this  is  meant  a  stat*;  of 
inactivity  or  of  continued  activity.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  passage  refers  to  the  rest  following 
upon  creation;  therefore,  not  the  stagnation  of 
absence  of  life  is  represented,  but  the  quiet  tide  of 
the  acliievement  of  an  end.  And  in  the  Christian 
imagery  of  Rev.  xxi,  3-4,  what  h  implied  is  the 
absence  of  e%^t  Rnef ,  and  toil  with  the  unrc«t  which 
they  entail.  Similarly  the  conception  of  the  res- 
toration of  all  things  {apokalastasis  pantdn),  in 
which  there  is  stated  an  eternity  of  punishment 
as  well  as  of  satiiif action  or  peace,  raises  the  que^s- 
tion  whether  the  latter  will  not  be  marred  beciiuttc 
of  pity  on  account  of  the  misery  of  the  eondenmed. 
Rehef  is  afforded  by  the  consideration  that  the  region 
18  one  in  which  etliical  measures  apply,  not  tho**© 
of  emotion.  Dante  has  the  blehwed  look  into  the 
mirror  of  God*s  heart,  which  hii*t  is  the  source 
from  which  the  ethical  world  draws  its  being  and 
order.  In  ancient  times  Tertulhan  (Df  RpcctacuiiSf 
xxx),in  modern  times  Jonathan  Edwards  held  that 
among  the  causes  of  the  blessedness  of  the  redtx'med 
w*ill  be  the  sight  of  the  miseiy  of  the  wicked.  Ed- 
wards declared  that  the  *' sight  of  hell  torments 
will  exalt  the  happiness  of  the  saints  forever" 
(Work^,  vol.  vi,  pp.  120,  426). 

DiaLUJi^RAPMYi  II.  L.  Marten»ea.  Dovmatik,  ff  283-284, 
Berlin,  183fl.  Eiig.  tTaii«t,.  Edinburgh,  18fi5;  E.  Richm, 
Uhrb^mf!  (it*  Hebrdrrbrief*,  Bai»U  1867;  B.  Wci*«,  Th^ 
otoffie  d^  N.  T..  i%  144.  H9.  157.  Berlin,  1880.  Enp!. 
tranwl.,  EdinbuTKh,  1882-83;  L  A.  Domer,  Su»tem  der 
chrUtiichen  Glauben*l«hre,  ii,  851.  B4^rliii.  1887;  H.  Scbult*. 
AUlettamMnUirhe  Thmloaie,  pp.  370-371,  Gdttingen.  1896, 
Eng,  tranj^L,  London^  1892.^ 

BLESSIG,  JOHAim  LORENZ:  German  Prot- 
estant; b.  at  Stnisburg  Apr.  15,  1747;  d.  there 
Feb.  17,  1816.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his 
native  city;  traveled  extensively  in  Italy,  Hungary, 
and  Gennany ;  began  to  preach,  and  was  continually 
prt>motcd  till  he  was  in  charge  of  the  principal 
Protestant  church  of  Strasburg;  beciunc  professor 
in  the  philosopliical  faculty  in  1778,  and  in  the 
theological,  1787.  lie  waa  three  times  rector;  his 
lectures  covered  Greek  literature,  history  of  phi- 
losophy. Old  Testament  exegesis,  dogmatics,  and 
homiletics,  and  in  tliem  all  he  made  the  practical 
dominate.  His  activities  carried  him  into  the 
field  of  politics  also,  and  he  wa^  elected  to  the  city 
council.  The  French  Revolution  brought  upon 
him  exile,  a  fine,  and  imprisonment  for  eleven 
months.  Robespierre's  downfall  restored  his  lib- 
erty and  he  returned  t^  his  labors.  Church  and 
school  were  reorganized,  Blessig's  influence  being 
felt  c%'erywhere.  He  left  no  great  workt  but  not  less 
than  forty  minor  writings,  including  several  memo- 
rial addresses,  wliich  were  higWy  esteemed  in  tlieir 
time.  Worthy  of  special  mention  are:  V^bcr  (/»- 
giaubeiif  Aberglatiben  und  GUiuben  (Strasburg,  1786); 
De  censu  Davidico  pe4teque  hunc  cenaum  secula 
(1788) ;  and  De  evangeliis  secundum  Ebrctos,  jEgifpiios 
atque  Jmtini  Marti/ri^  (1807),  (A.  EiiicBsoNt-) 
BiBLiCMJHAPaY:  C.  M,  Friti,  L*6crt  Dr.  /.  L,  Blf*Mo»*  2  voK, 
Strawburg,  1819;  A.  Froelich.  Dr.  J.  L.  Blfssio,  Kin  Vor- 
kAmpfer  det  reluHf^*tn  Liheralimnu*  im  SlMua,  iu  Srhnft^n 
dtt  protesiantiKhen  libercUen  Vtrvint  in  EUaM-LQihrinifm^ 
mj.  3d,  ib.  1891. 


Blesalnff 
BUM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


BLESSING  AND  CURSING. 

Ethnic  Conceptions  ($  1 ).       In  the  Old  Testament  (f  2). 
Higher  and  Lower  View  ($3). 

The  conception  of  blessing  and  cursing  has  a  large 
part  in  every   religion.       It  refers  to  the  super- 
natural or  divine  promotion  or  hindrance  to  human 
action  and  welfare.    Sometimes  it  is  predicated  of 
man  himself  as  possessing  through  his 

1.  Ethnic  connection  with  deity  the  ability  to 
Concep-     exercise  over  another  the  power  orig- 

tions.  inally  possessed  only  by  deity  (cf. 
Gen.  xii,  3;  Num.  vi,  24,  27).  In  this 
latter  case,  the  power  is  often  exercised  by  means 
of  verbal  expression,  though  it  is  not  confined  to 
that  means.  It  is  apparent  that  in  the  religion 
of  the  peoples  who  were  neighbors  of  the  Hebrews 
as  well  as  elsewhere  the  conception  of  blessing 
and  cursing  belonged  in  the  sphere  of  magic. 
Wizards  commanded  the  blessing  and  furthering 
force  of  deity,  which  they  could  exercise  at  a  given 
point  for  good  and  still  more  often  the  power 
resident  in  a  host  of  evil  spirits,  to  damage  or  to 
cause  damage  at  the  desired  place  and  time. 
While  often  power  to  bless  comes  not  from  an 
equipment  gained  for  a  special  occasion  and  then 
lost,  continuance  of  power  and  conditions  for  evil  are 
especially  frequent.  The  ciu-se  lurks  in  the  back- 
ground of  earthly  existence,  enshrined  in  the 
form  of  harmful  and  malicious  demons,  into 
whose  f>ower  a  careless  word  or  heedless  step  may 
instantly  cast  the  unfortunate.  According  to 
ethnic  belief,  only  the  most  painstaking  care,  the 
most  punctilious  caution,  observance  of  a  host  of 
rules  and  practises  can  enable  one  to  escape  danger. 
Frequently  without  any  overt  act,  by  merely  men- 
tioning these  spirits  or  by  entering  their  domain 
without  adequate  protection,  the  spirits  are  sum- 
moned and  their  power  let  loose  on  man,  animal,  and 
possessions. 

Within  the  Old  Testament  there  are  many  traces 
of  the  contact  of  Israel  with  such  conceptions. 
The  prophetic  religion  was  especially  emphatic 
in  its  opposition  to  witchcraft,  necromancy,  and 
the  like,  and,  especially  in  the  Babylonian  age, 
was  not  successful  in  combating  them. 

2.  In  the  Earlier  examples  are  found  in  SauFs 
Old  Tes-  resort  to  the  witch  of  Endor  and  the 
tament.     cases  suggested  by  Deut.  xviii,  10-14, 

and  Isa.  ii,  6.  It  is,  then,  not  surprising 
that  the  conceptions  of  blessing  and  cursing  are 
found  together  among  the  Hebrews,  though  they 
come  to  have  a  more  spiritual  content.  It  is  notice- 
able that  the  tendency  of  the  development  was 
toward  a  narrowing  of  the  region  in  which  the  idea 
was  operative,  and  it  was  thrust  more  and  more 
into  the  background. 

In  examining  the  cases  presented  in  the  Old 
Testament,  it  becomes  evident  that  use  was  made 
both  of  the  word  of  power  and  of  an  instrument. 
The  staff  was  used  frequently,  its  use  being  attrib- 
uted to  Moses  and  Aaron  and  to  the  Egyptian 
magicians  (Ex.  iv,  2,  vii,  8  sqq.),  while  in  Hos.  iv, 
12,  it  seems  to  have  been  used  to  obtain  oracles, 
and  f>ossibly  it  was  a  magical  staff  which  Balaam 
carried  (Num.  xxii,  27).  It  is  possible  that  the 
origin  of  the  staff  is  to  be  connected  with  the  idea 


of  the  tree  as  the  seat  of  deity  (cf.  the  AahenJitBd 
the  stake  customary  at  the  grave).  A  brandi  bm 
a  tree  was  either  the  seat  of  deity  or  the  wpM 
of  his  power.  A  farther  means  of  operatiiig,  c^ie- 
cially  for  evil,  was  the  ^ance  of  the  eye  (cf.  the 
common  notion  of  the  "  evil  eye  ").  Cases  of  tbii 
in  the  Old  Testament  are  suggested  by  Piot.  xxii, 
6,  xxviii,  22  (cf.  Ecdus.  xiv,  3;  Ptrje  Abai  ▼,  13). 
The  laying  on  of  hands  seems  to  have  had  don 
connection  with  the  operation  of  blesBing  {Qm. 
xxvii,  xlviii,  14  sqq.),  the  idea  being  that  in  Uui 
way  the  person  bestowing  the  blessing  caused  to 
pass  to  the  recipient  some  of  the  power  which  wm 
his,  especially  if  he  were  a  man  of  God. 

Blessing  and  cursing  were  often  connected  witb 
things  holy,  particiilariy  with  sacrifice.  By  metis 
of  these  a  blessing  or  a  curse  were  often  bespokeiL 
So  in  Judges  ix,  27  the  cursing  of  Abimeledi  wm 
evidently  closely  bound  up  with  the  feast  in  tbe 
temple  of  the  deity.  The  episode  of  Balaam  abo 
makes  evident  the  connection  between  saoiSee 
and  curse  (or  blessing.  Num.  zxiii,  1  sqq.),  and 
the  same  fact  has  been  noted  among  Aiabe  of 
ancient  and  modem  times.  A  special  case  is  thit 
of  the  ordeal  by  water,  narrated  in  Num.  v,  11  sqq. 
Blessing  and  curse  operate  also  through  the  spoken 
word,  which  may  take  either  the  phase  of  a  magiol 
formula  or  of  a  prayer  of  which  the  content  it 
spiritually  pure.  The  latter  is  of  very  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Old  Testament,  where  the  blessing, 
or  equally  the  curse,  is  besought  of  God. 

Tliis  practise  of  seeking  blessing  or  curse  had 
continuing  vogue  in  the  conunon  rdigious  ideas  of 
Israel,  remaining  in  evidence  down  to  prophetic 
times.  As  elsewhere,  so  among  the  Hebrews, 
superstition  and  the  practise  of  magic  nevo*  com- 
pletely died  out,  and  not  only  deity  but  the  spiriti 
of  the  dead  (I  Sam.  xxviii)  and  of  ancestors  were  in- 
voked to  give  effect  to  the  invocation  or  the  impre- 
cation. The  deity  is  in  mind  in  Samuel's  blessing 
of  the  meal  (I  Sam.  ix,  13),  in  Eli's  blessing  of 
Hannah  (I  Sam.  i,  17),  in  the  blessing  of  Rebeccs 
by  her  brothers  (Gen.  xxiv,  60),  and  in  Solomon's 
blessing  (I  Kings  viii,  15  sqq.).  There  is  every 
reason  to  assume  that  on  occasions  of  gathering 
such  as  sacrifices  and  feasts  the  priests  besou^t  a 
blessing  for  the  people.  While  such  invocations 
did  not  always  ti^e  a  fixed  form,  there  must  have 
been  a  tendency  in  that  direction,  as  is  proved  by 
the  priestly  blessing  in  Num.  vi,  24-26.  And  there 
is  a  suggestion  of  a  fixed  formula  for  the  curse  in 
I  Kings  viii  and  in  the  alternate  words  of  blessing 
and  cursing  in  Deut.  xxviii. 

If  it  be  asked  who  are  the  persons  who  maj 
bless  or  curse,  it  is  always  foimd  that  they  are  those 
in  especially  close  relation  to  deity,  either  seer  or 
priest  or  man  of  God.  Of  those  Moses,  Balaam, 
Joshua  (Josh,  vi,  26),  Elisha  (II  Kings  ii,  24-2o) 
are  examples.  And  like  persons  are  among  the 
Arabs  conceived  as  possessing  the  power.  Special 
power  in  this  matter  is  also  ascribed  to  the  dying, 
who  are  already  on  the  border  between  the  human 
and  the  divine.  Thus  Moses  when  dying  blesses 
his  people  (Deut.  xxxiii),  and  the  dying  patriarchs 
Isaac  and  Jacob  distribute  both  blessing  and  its 
opposite  when  on   the  eve  of  dissolution   (Gen. 


203 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BUsfl 


I 


Lower 
Tttw, 


xxvii.  10  sqq.^  zl'^l,  8  sqq.,  xlix,  2  sqq.).  Under 
special  atress  the  power  to  bless  or  curae,  especially 
tb  latter,  is  attributed  to  almost  any  one,  as  when 
the  ArAbs  assert  that  one  influenced  by  anger  may 
effeciii'dy  pronounce  a  curse.  Such  a  case  is  pre- 
sented in  n  Sam.  x\i,  5  (cf.  verse  10),  and  another 
in  the  narrative  of  II  Sam.  xxi,  1  sqq.  Pro  v.  xxvii, 
H  present*!  b  peculiar  case,  in  which  the  early  and 
loud  call  may  be  thought  of  as  arousing  the  spirits 
of  inalj{?e  and  letting  them  loose  on  the  object  of 
the  call.  A  siniilar  conception  is  involved  in 
Amo*  vi,  10*  The  name  of  Yahweli,  who  lingers 
near  occupied  in  the  work  of  the  plague,  m  not  to 
be  epoken  lest  by  the  mere  utterance  he  be  sum- 
moDwi  to  the  spot  and  slay  the  only  surviving 
member  of  the  house  tiold. 

Investigation  into  the  way  in  which  blessing  and 
cursing  operate  in  the  Old  Te«taroent  shows  a 
lower  and  a  higher  view.  Not  infrequently  the  mere 
weal  expreaaion  of  the  wish  works  out  the  fulfil- 
ment  in  a  kind  of  blind  compulsion  such  sm  takes 
piBoe  in  ethnic  magic  (cf«  Gen.  xxvii,  33  sqq. — 
the  blessing  has  been  uttered  over  Jacob  and  can 
not  be  recalled — and  Num.  xxii  sqq.,  especially 
nil,  6,  **  I  know  that  he  whom  thou  blessest  is 
blessedf  and  he  whom  thou  cursest 
J.  Higher  is  cursed/'  the  words  of  Balak  to 
tad  Balaam).  An  illuminating  case  is 
given  in  the  connection  of  Josh,  vi, 
26  with  I  Kings  xvi,  34,  in  which  the 
ancient  curse  pronounced  upon  him 
wba  should  rebuild  Jericho  works  itself  out  in  the 
death  of  the  youngest  and  the  eldest  sons  of  Hiel 
th^  Betbelite.  And  a  similar  instance  h  SauPa 
breach  of  the  treaty  with  the  Gibeonitca  in  which 
the  cuRe  ofierates  after  his  death  until  reparation 
ii  made  with  blood  (II  Sam.  xxi).  David's  charge 
to  Solomon  (I  Kings  ii,  5  sqq.;  cf.  II  Sara,  xvi,  13) 
fumiihcA  other  examples.  Solomon  is  to  take  venge- 
sooe  00  Shiinei  and  on  Joab.  The  former  had  pro- 
Otninoed  a  hea\^  curse  on  David*  Since  it  was  yet 
operative  but  had  not  fallen  on  David  himself »  it 
must  work  itself  out  on  his  house.  But  it  can  be  so 
diverted  aa  to  fall  on  the  head  of  its  formulator  and 
^'^ootne  changed  into  a  blessing  for  David's  family. 
^  the  other  hand,  Joab's  deeds  of  blood  laid  David, 
ioah'a  lord,  under  a  curse  ivhich  could  be  relieved 

I  only  by  expiation  exacted  from  the  perpetrator  of 
*'>e  del^ds  [cf.  on  this  EB,  i,  1034,  note  1]. 
^*hiie  thiK  inevitability  is  to  be  recognized  in  the 
P'd  Testament  as  inherent  by  the  mere  formulation  of 
plcviiig  and  cursing  or  curse,  the  act  takes  on  more 
^*^^  more  the  cliaracter  of  the  expression  of  a  wish 
;  be  fulfilled  by  Yahweh,  and  so  it  becomes  dis- 
^^^guighed  in  form  and  character  from  magic  and 
J  *^hrraft.  And  while  the  method  of  operation 
*hus  transferred,  the  character  of  the  blessing 
^ght  changes  from  the  material  to  the  epiritual, 
^^  in  the  priestly  blessing  of  Num,  vi,  2*4—26 
is  doubtless  in  mind  the  highest  good  of 
*a  grace  and  peace,  and  hi  this  light  is  to  be 
tnied  verse  27.  A  similar  content  is  to  be 
in  Gen.  3di,  3  and  parallel  passages: 
thee  shall  all  families  of  the  earth  bless  them- 
"  i,e,,  shall  wish  for  them.selves  the  very 
ig  which  Abraiiam  had  obtained. 


As  oracles  were  quoted  among  the  heathen,  so 
sayi^ngs  attributed  to  Yahweh  or  spoken  in  his  name 
were  cited  among  the  Hebrews,  and  blessings  and 
curses  appear  almost  in  profusion  in  the  Old  Teeta- 
ment,  derived  from  prophetic  or  ancestral  authority. 
Those  take  on  often  a  cryptic  character  and  antici- 
pate the  more  extended  apocalyptic  w^ritings  of 
later  times  (cf.  the  sayings  fiscribed  to  Moses  and 
to  Jacob  in  Gen.  xlix  and  Deut.  xxxiii). 

The  uncertainty  of  the  original  significance  of 
the  practice  is  disclosed  by  an  examination  of  the 
etymology  of  the  words  used.  The  technical 
Hebrew  term  for  cursing  is  arar,  the  meaning  of 
which  was  evidently  to  press  heavily  upon  one. 
Alongside  this  was  used  for  the  curse  a  word  derived 
from  alahf  connect4Ki  w*ith  the  word  ety  *'  God." 
This  last  implies  a  calling  U|Kjn  deity  or  a  reference  to 
him  as  agent,  a  meaning  which  recalls  the  idea 
in  the  German  aegnerif "  to  (make  the)  sign  (of  the 
cross  over  one)/^  But  another  root  al--^  used, 
kalal^  had  no  inherent  reference  to  the  deity,  mean- 
ing simply  **  to  vilify,"  So  the  original  sense  of  the 
word  kabahh,  meaning  *'  to  curse/'  is  uncertain.  Not 
less  obscure  is  the  original  meaning  of  the  word  for 
blessing,  berakhah.  It  has  been  referred  to  berckh^ 
*'  knee/'  suggesting  the  meaning  **  to  bow  the 
knee/'  But  that  the  idea  of  worship  was  originally 
connected  with  the  word  or  that  it  meant  *'  to 
pray  '*  does  not  appear  probable.  It  is  possible 
to  relate  it  to  6tT?Ar/m/j ,  meaning  an  accumulation  of 
the  growth  and  fruitfulness  attributed  to  water 
and  then  the  attainment  of  prosperity, 

A  noteworthy  expression  is  that  which  appears 
quite  frequently  (e.g.,  Gen.  ix,  25),  "  Blessed  be 
Yahweh."  Is  this  only  a  manner  of  speech  equiv- 
alent to  **  Yahweh  be  praise*!  "?  While  this  may 
be  the  sense  in  lat^r  ages,  it  was  ban  11  y  so  in  early 
timiM.  It  has  doubtless  come  down  a-s  a  survival 
of  the  conception  that  even  deity  might  be  blessed 
by  the  utterance  of  Bome  highly  endowed  individuaU 

(R.  KiTTEL.) 

Biblio<3RAPHt:  P.  Bcholi,  Odtxndienst  und  Zauterv^rsen 
bei  dm  Hebriiem,  lleKcnsburg.  1877;  C,  F,  Keil,  Biblical 
Arehaol&gy.  ii,  457,  Edinburgh,  18S8;  R.  Smend,  AltUs- 
tamentiickti  Retiffionageschichte,  |  334,  Frejbuj-ff,  1803; 
DB,  I  307,  634-536:  EB,  i,  6&  1-592;  JE,  iii,  242-247. 
For  ethnic  pftralleb  coousiult:  E,  B.  Tylor.  Primiiive  Cul- 
ture, pp.  112-132,  New  York,  1877;  I.  Goldiiher.  Mu^ 
hammidaniitrJu  JStudien,  2  voLi*.,  HikUe.  1880-60;  Wellbau- 
Bcn,  Heidentum;  F.  T.  Elworthy.  The  Evil  Eyn,  Londou* 
181}fi;  F.  B.  JevoQS,  Introduction  to  HitL  of  R^iffion^ 
thmp».  m-iv.  ib.  1896;  G.  B,  Fmicir,  Golden  Bouffh,  i,  97. 
ib.  1000;  8.  1.  Curtiss,  PrimiHvt  Semitic  HHioton,  New 
York,  1902. 

BLISS,    DAIflEL:    Congregational    missionAiy; 

b.  at  Georgia,  Vt.,  Aug.  17,  1823.  Ho  was  gradu- 
ated at  Amherst  College  in  1852  and  Ajidover 
Theological  Seminary  in  185^.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  Congregational  ministry  in  1855,  and  imme- 
diately went  to  Syria  as  a  missionary  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
remaining  there  in  this  capacity  until  1862.  Four 
years  later  he  was  appointed  prt»«ident  of  the 
Syrian  Protestant  College,  Beinit,  and  retained  this 
position  until  1902,  when  he  rciii^ned  and  t>ecame 
president  emeritus.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number 
of  works  in  Arabic,  particularly  a  text-book  of  men- 
tal philosophy  and  another  of  natural  phiU>8ophy. 


Bliss 
Blood 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


204 


BLISS,  EDWIN  MUHSELL:  Gongregationalwtj 
b.  at  Erscnim,  Turkey,  Sept,  12,  1848.  He  was 
educated  at  Robert  College,  Constanikkople,  High 
8chool,  Bpringtieldi  Mass.^  Amherst  College  (B.A., 
1871),  and  Yale  Divimty  School  (B.D.,  1877),  He 
was  asaistant  agent  of  the  American  Bible  Society 
for  the  Levant  in  1S72-88  (excepting  1875-77, 
wh^i  he  was  completing  hie  theobgieai  studies  in 
America) r  and  after  his  return  to  America  in  1888 
edited  The  Enc^^dopedia  of  Missions  (New  York, 
1889-91 )  and  was  associate  editor  of  The  Inde- 
pendent in  1S91-190L  He  waa  an  editorial  writer 
on  Harper- a  Weekly  and  The  A-ew  York  Times  in 
1901 -02 »  and  wa*  field  secretary  of  the  American 
Tract  Society  for  New  England  in  1903-04,  He 
was  then  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
Sanford,  Fla,,  in  1904-05,  and  general  eecretary 
of  the  Foreign  Missions  Industrial  Association 
in  1905-06.  In  1907  he  became  connected  with  the 
United  States  Census  Bureau  in  Washington.  In 
theology  he  is  liberal-orthodox.  He  has  written 
Turkey  and  the  Armenian  Airociiies  (Philadelphia, 
1806);  The  Turk  in  Armenia r  Crete,  and  Greece 
(1896);  and  C&ncist  Hisiory  of  Mieeions  (Chicago, 
1897). 

BLISS,  FREDERICK  JONES:  American  arche- 
ologist;  b,  at  Mount  Lebanon,  Syria ^  Jan,  22, 
1859.  He  was  educated  at  Amherst  College 
(B.A,|  1880),  and  was  for  three  yearn  principal 
of  the  preparatory  department  of  the  Syrian  Prot* 
estant  Gbllego,  Beirut,  Syria.  He  then  studied  at 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  where  he  was  grad- 
uated in  1887.  Returning  to  Syria^  he  was  an 
independent  explorer  until  bis  appointment,  in 
1890,  as  explorer  to  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  (London).  During  the  ten  years  in  which  he 
held  this  position,  he  excavated  the  mound  of 
Tell-el-Hcwy  (Lachish)  in  1891-93,  and  from  1894 
to  1897  was  engaged  in  excavations  at  Jerusalem, 
In  1898-1900  he  excjivated  four  Palestinian  cities. 
In  addition  to  numerous  briefer  contributions,  he 
has  written  A  Mound  of  Many  Ciiits  ;  or  Tell- 
et-H&sy  Excuvaled  (Loudon,  1894);  Ezcnvaiwns  at 
Jerusakm,  1S94-1S97  (1898);  Excavations  in  Pal- 
estine during  1898-1000  (1902:  in  collaboration 
with  R,  A.  B.  Macalister);  and  The  Developmeni  of 
Palestine  E^^phratimit  the  Ely  lectures  at  Union 
Seminary  for  1903   (New  Y'ork,  1906). 

BLISS,  HOWARD  SWEETSER:  Congregational 
missionary;  b.  at  Mount  Lebanon,  Syria,  Dec. 
6,  1860.  He  was  educated  at  Amherst  College 
(B,A.,  1882),  Union  Theological  Seminary  (1884- 
1887),  and  the  universities  of  Oxford  (1887-88), 
Gottingen,  and  Beriin  (1888-89).  He  taught  at 
Washburn  College,  Topeka,  Kan.,  in  1883-84.  and 
after  his  return  from  Europe  to  the  United  States 
was  Bucocaaively  assistant  pastor  of  Plymouth 
Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (1889-91),  and  pastor  of 
the  Christian  Union  Congregational  Church,  Up- 
per Montclair,  N.  J,  (1 894-1902),  Since  1902  he 
has  been  president  of  the  Syrian  Protestant  Ollegc, 
Beirut,  Syria. 

BLISSf  ISAAC  GROUT:  Congregational  foreign 
missionary;  b.  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  July  5,  1822; 
d.  at  Aseiut,  Egypt,  Feb.  16,  1889.    Educated  at 


Amherst  College  (B,A.,  1844)  ajid  at  Yale  aod 
Andover  (1847)  theological  seminaries^  he  served 
as  misaionary  of  the  American  Board  at  Enenjin, 
Eastern  Turkey,  1847-52,  when  the  failure  ol  ha 
health  compelled  his  return  to  tHe  United  StateiL 
In  1857  he  retumed  to  the  foreign  field  as  spni 
for  the  Levant  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  with 
residence  in  Constantinople. 

BLI^,  WILLIAM  D WIGHT  PORTER:  Aiiu?ri- 
can  Protestant  Episcopalian;  b.  at  Constanimapli 
Aug.  20»  1856.  He  was  ^ucated  at  Eobert  Col- 
lege, Constantinople,  Pliillipa  Academy,  Andove, 
Mass.,  Amherat  College  (B.A.J  187S),  and  Hartfoni 
Theological  Seminary  (1882).  He  was  ordainfd 
to  the  Congregational  ministry,  but  after  hd<&i| 
pastorates  in  E^enver^  Col.,  and  South  Halick, 
Mass.,  he  entered  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  1885,  and  wsa  ordered  deacon  in  1886  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  following  year.  He  wss  mm- 
ister  at  Lee,  Mass.,  in  1885-87,  and  was  then  sue- 
Oessively  rector  of  Grace  Church,  South  Boston 
(1887-90),  Linden,  Mass.  (1890),  Church  of  the 
Carpenter,  Boston,  Mass.  (1890-94),  Church  of  Our 
Savior,  San  Gabriel,  Cal.  (1898-1902),  and  .^nitj- 
ville,  L.  L  (since  1902).  He  has  token  an  active 
interest  in  social  reform,  and  in  1889  orgsjiiied  the 
first  Christian  Socialist  Sodety  in  the  L^nited  States^ 
and  has  since  been  its  secretary,  while  he  has  been 
president  of  the  National  Social  Reform  League 
since  1890,  and  was  the  Labor  candidate  for  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  Massachusetts  in  1887.  He  has  also 
been  secretary  of  the  Christian  Social  Union  since 
1891,  and  in  1903  was  a  member  of  the  Unitol 
States  Labor  Department  on  the  Unemployed 
In  theology  he  is  a  radical  Broad-churdiman.  He 
edited  The  Dawn  (1889-96),  The  American  Fabian 
(l89o-9fi).  The  Civit  Councilhr  (1900),  and  ik 
Encyclopedia,  of  Social  Reform  (New  York,  1898; 
1908);  and  has  written  Hand-Book  of  Socialism 
(London,  1895). 

BLODGET,  HBRRY:  Congregational  forcip 
missionary;  b,  at  Bucksport,  Me,,  July  13,  1825; 
d.  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  May  23,  IW^.  Edu«it«^ 
at  Yalo  College  (B.A.,  1848)  and  at  Yale  Di^Hnitj 
School,  he  was  a  missionary  in  China  of  the  Aaier- 
ican  Board  from  1854  to  1894,  li%ing  in  Pekia^ 
from  1864  on.  He  shared  in  the  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Mandarin  colloquial  of 
Peking,  and  independently  translated  much  in  prose 
and  verse. 

BLOMFIELD,  CHARLES  JAMES;  Bishop  of 
London;  b,  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Suffolk p  Maj  2t, 
1786;  d.  at  Fulham  Palace  Aug.  5,  1857.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (B..4., 
1808);  was  ordained  1810;  became  chaplain  io 
Bishop  Howley  of  London  1819;  archdeacon  of 
Colchester  1822;  bishop  of  CJhester  1824;  bishop  of 
London  1828.  He  retired  from  office  in  1856  after 
a  vigorous  and  efTective  administration.  He  was 
a  noted  Greek  scholar,  edited  a  Greek  grammar 
(Cambridge,  1818),  and  a  number  of  Greek 
texts  (the  dramas  of  ^Escbylus,  1810-24;  Calli- 
machus,  1S15;  Euripides,  1821;  fragments  of  Sap- 
pho, Alcffius,  and  Stesichorus  for  Gaisford's  Poda 
minores  Graci,   1823),   and  wrote   much  for  the 


I 


ttncrws  on  daseicfll  subjects.  Hi3  theological 
mak»  oamprisc  Fii^e  LeHure^  on  John*«  Gospel 
(ISS);  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  AvU  (1828);  several 
oollections  of  eermons;  and  A  Manual  of  Primde 
mi  F<unUy  Prayers  (1824). 

Butt^od&APflT:  A.  Blom field*  A  MtTnoir  of  C.  J.  BlomfUtd^ 
,  .  ,  viM  S^islu>n*  from  hU  Correapondenct,  2  vol».., 
London,  J 863  (by  bi«  wn);  G.  E,  Biber.  Binkop  BlomfUld 
gtmi  Alt  Tim^,  London.  1857;  DiVfi.  v,  22&  230.  The 
BrHi*K  >Ui»mum  Catalogue  devotesi  lEive  pages  to  a  li»t  of 
Bloolicld'B  works. 

BLOMFIELD,  WILLIAM  ERNEST:  Engtisb 
Baptist;  b.  at  Rayleigh  (24  m.  e.w.  of  Colcheater), 
£>8ex,(kt.  23,  1862.  He  was  educated  at  Regent's 
Park  Coliege,  London  (B,A.,  Univereity  of  Lon- 
don, 1SS3),  and  after  being  assistant  (1884-85) 
and  mk  minister  (1885-86)  of  Elm  Road  Baptist 
Chufcht  Beckenham,  was  pastor  of  Turret  Green 
Church,  Ipswichj  1886-95  and  of  Queen 'a  Road 
Chufch,  Cov-entry,  1895-1^04.  Since  1904  he  has 
been  president  of  the  Baptist  College,  Rawdon, 
Leeds. 

BLOMMAERDmE,  blom"mar-di'ne,  HADEWICH 

or  HADEWIJCH ;  A  heretical  mystic  whose  religious 

activity  and  writings  caused  great  excitement    in 

BrusseU  early  in  the  14th  century.    Her  adherents 

v«Msrated  her  aa  a  saint  and  her  writings  as  divine 

'^^ations;  heropponents  charge<l  her  with  heretical 

•^acliing  on  the  freedom  of  the  spirit,  and  with 

**ungling  religious  devotion   and   sensual   passion. 

touring  his  stay  in  Brussels  (1317-43),  Ruysbmeck 

oc>iulucted   a  strong   jMilemical    campaign   against 

'*^'"»  which,  however,  did  not  prevent  peopie  from 

Pooling  after  her  death  to  seek  the  cure  of  disea^ies 

oy  touching  her  shroud.    The  scanty  notices  which 

Rtrysbroeck^s    biognipber    gives  of    her    life    and 

*'^tinga   have   been   recently    filled     out   by    the 

•^bolariy    investigations   of    K.    Ruelcns    mid    P. 

^''^isclerioq.    They  have  shown  it  to  be  extremely 

pit>l3able  that  the  mystic  was  identical  with  the 

^i^portant  Flemish  poetess  Hadewijch  (erroneously 

•S^ed  *' Sister    Hadewijch")^  whose   remains    in 

fw^Ofie  and  verse,  known  only  in  part  heretofore, 

^ve  been  published  in  full  by  J.  VercouUie  (Ghent, 

IS77),     The  principal  theme  of  all  these  writinp 

*  love  {Minne)  for  God.     The  specimens  given  by 

Pnodericq    display    the    tempestuous*    sometimes 

•«?tiially  Henaual,  passion  with  which  she  longs  for 

•^ysticttl  union  with  hnn.     In  describing  her  nu- 

''^'Cfous  visions  the  poetess  boasts  of  very  in  ti  mil  to 

*^ation«  with  Christ  and  the  saints,  ami  claims  the 

8wt  of  prophecy  and  the  power  of  working  miracles. 

^•^^txpresfleB  herself  bitterly  in  regard  to  tlio  perse- 

•^^'^•oiis  set  on  foot  by  her  enemies,  the  vreniden, 

^'Btott  beitself  and  her  adherents,  whom  she  calls 

^"^^nde^  the  nuwen  or  volmaakten  dcr  Minne  {per* 

*^ti}.    111  one  place  she  gives  the  number  of  her 

^^h  living  followers  (principally  nuns  or  Beguines) 

*f  ftiiiety««even,  of  whom  twenty-nine  were  out- 

^•J*  the    Netherlands.     Apparently    the  domicetia 

^^wi^^    dida    Blommardinef   the    daughter    of 

JJ'*Uiiini  Blommaert,  a  rich  and  noble   citixen  of 

"'^i*«cls,  who  died  about  1336,  b  the  same  as  the 

^y^tic  and  the  poetess.     It  appears  that  as  late  as 

y^  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Inqui- 

**tion  ia  Brussels  waa  still  obliged  to  proceed  against 


adherents  of  the  heresies  promulgated  by  her,  which 
were  not  far  removed  from  the  views  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Free  Spirit  (q.v.).  (Herman  Haupt.) 

BiDUOORArHY:  H«aricua  PomeriuH,  De  orioirm  monaMlgrii 
Viridimallia,  In  Analecta  Bollandiana^  iv,  286,  Puria, 
18S6;  H.  C>  Lea.  Historv  of  th«  tnquUiiion,  ii,  377,  PhiUi^ 
deLpM&,  18SS:  P.  Fredericq,  CorpuM  documeniorum  in- 
Quititionia  .  .  .  Neerlandicm.  I,  185  sqq.,  266  sqq,*  The 
Hague,  1880;  idem,  De  oeheimnnniifa  ketierin  Bttrmar' 
dinn^  en  de  te^tt  der  "  Nuwe  *'  te  Brtutel,  in  Ver^iagen  «i 
MtxUdtelifMjen  der  koninkl.  Akademie  van  Wetentduip- 
pen  tm  Amaierdam,  wrieH  3»  3di  (18«5),  77  «qti.;  W.  A. 
JonckbloBt,  QmackiedenU  der  N edetlandache  lettrrkunde,  u, 
270  fH|q.,  1889;  A.  AU4Eer,  Studa  tur  1st  mv9tigiu9  dee 
Paya-BoM  au  moifen  dge,  in  M^moire*  courtinnfM  .  .  .  par 
Vacadimie  royaU  de  Betffique,  xlvi  (1802),  149  «qg.,  164. 

BLONDELj  DAVID:  French  Protestant  theo- 
logian; b.  at  ChAlons-sur-Mame  1590?  d.  at 
Amsterdam  1635.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family 
of  Champagne;  studied  classics  at  the  College  of 
S^dan  and  theology  at  the  Academy  of  Geneva; 
was  called  as  pastor  to  Houdan  (lie  de  France), 
then  to  Roucy  on  the  estate  of  La  Rochefoucauld. 
Because  of  his  great  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures 
and  of  ecclesiastical  history,  he  was  chosen  more 
than  twenty  times  secretary  of  the  provincial 
synod  of  lie  de  France.  His  writings  in  defense  of 
tiie  Protestants  against  their  Roman  Catholic  op- 
ponents won  for  him  a  great  reputation  for  scholar- 
ship. In  1631  he  was  apjiointed  professor  of  divin- 
ity at  Saunmr,  but  his  parish  of  Roucy  declined 
to  give  him  up.  For  Ixis  contributions  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  Reformation^  the  National  Council  of 
Cbarenton  allowed  him  an  annuity  of  l,0<JO  livres, 
enabling  him  to  devote  himself  to  his  studies 
w^ithout  fear  of  want.  After  the  death  of  Vossiua 
in  1650,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  at 
the  Bcok  Illufitre  at  Amsterdam.  Pierre  Bayle  said 
of  him:  *'  He  was  a  man  who  hivl  an  unbounded 
knowledge  of  religious  and  profane  history.*'  He 
was  accused  by  the  orthwlox  party  of  Arminian- 
ism  and  of  indifference  to  his  church;  he  also  en- 
dured much  from  political  opponents  on  account  of 
an  article  against  Cromwell  written  during  the  war 
between  Great  Britain  and  Holland.  His  works 
were  in  part;  ModeMe  didaration  de  h  sinc^riM  H 
r^ril^  d^s  ^gtise^  n^formtes  de  France  (SSdan,  1619); 
Pxeudo-lMoTue  et  Turrianus  vapulantes  (Geneva, 
1628);  Edavrmssemenis  jamiiwrs  de  la  contrmwr»e 
de  rEneharisiie  (Quevilly,  1641);  Z)c  lu  primauii 
en  I'^glise  (Geneva,  1641);  Dcs  Sibylies,  cil^brim 
tanl  par  VanliquiU  payenne  que  par  teji  Sainig- 
P^re^  (Charenton^  1<M9);  Acteji  auihentiqueg  deji 
^gtkes  rt^formeea  de  France ^  Germanic ^  Grande- 
Brttxitjne  (Amsterdam,  1655). 

G.  BoNirr-MAURT. 

BLOOD-BROTHERHOOD.      See     Compakativb 

Religion,  Vl,  i,  b,  5  6. 

BLOOD-REVENGE:  A  custom  nearly  uniwr- 
sal  in  the  tribal  or  clan  stage  of  society,  often  sur- 
viving later,  binding  the  kin  of  a  murdererl  man  to 
secure  satisfaction  for  the  murder  by  tlie  death  of 
the  slayer  or  of  one  of  his  clan.  The  custom  de- 
pc*nds  upon  two  fundamentals  of  that  stage  (d 
civilization:  (1)  the  sacredness  of  life  and  the 
soliiiarity  of  the  clan;  (2)  the  kx  taJionis,  Its 
essence  is  execution  of  the  slayer  or  some  of  Ma 


Blood 
Boohart 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


kin  by  the  representetives  of  the  slain,  not  by  public 
authorities;  it  belongs  therefore  to  private  aa 
opposed  to  public  justice.  In  nomadic  Boeiety  the 
perpetuation  of  the  clan  depends  upon  it^i  fighting 
fltrengtb  and  its  sense  of  unity.  Henee  assault 
upon  a  member  of  the  clan,  if  attended  with  even 
unintended  fatal  results,  involves  tlie  tribe,  clan, 
or  family  of  the  filain  in  what  is  felt  to  be  a  sacred 
duty,  the  avenging  of  the  shedding  of  blood.  The 
eustom  is  important  from  the  standpoint  of  utili- 
tarian ethics,  irfnoe  the  knowledge  that  reparation 
will  be  demanded  by  the  clan  of  the  assailed  re- 
strains a  potential  assailant  from  wanton  attack 
and  makes  men  more  careful  in  ordinary  intei^ 
course.  The  duty  set  by  the  institution  is  binding, 
ancl  so  close  is  the  relationship  in  the  clan  (see 
Comparative  REuoIo^f,  VI,  J,  b,  5  1)  that  all  its 
tnembers  may  become  involved,  the  result  being  a 
blood-feud  between  the  ckna  of  the  assailant  and 
the  victim.  Usually,  however,  the  duty  devolves 
upon  the  next  of  Idn.  Refusal  on  his  part  to  exer- 
cise his  right  and  perform  his  duty  subjects  him 
to  utter  contempt  and  even  to  outlawry. 

In  the  advance  of  ci\Tliaation  the  State  assumes 
exclusively  the  function  of  Capital  Punishment 
(q.v,)  and  the  custom  becomes  obsolete.  The 
Hebrew  legislation  furnishes  an  example  of  an 
intermediate  condition,  by  which  the  right  of  the 
family  of  a  man  deliberately  (not  wantonly)  mui^ 
dered  to  execute  justice  was  recognized  and  the 
murderer,  when  captured,  was  delivered  by  the 
authorities  to  the  avenger  of  blood  {go*d  ht^iam^ 
Lev.  xix,  11-13;  Num.  xxxv,  19,  2\,  27;  for  the 
goneml  law  of  murder  among  the  Hebrews  consult 
Gen.  tx,  6;  Ex.  xxi,  12;  Lev.  xxiv,  17;  Joeh.  xx). 
Even  in  the  t^m  of  accidental  killing,  the  avenger 
of  blood  might  kill  the  slayer  if  iiefore  the  death  of 
the  high  priest  he  found  him  outside  the  city  of 
refuge  in  which  he  had  taken  sanctuary.  See  Law, 
Hebrew,  Civil  and  Crfminal,  II L 

GliO.  W.  GiLMORE. 

BiBUOaRAPHT:  A.  H.  Pout,  SHtdien  lur  Eniwicktuniftffe' 
nehichtA  deM  FamilitnrechtM ,  pp,  \  13-137,  Oldenburg,  lSS9l 
f^mitb,  iLiuAti?  (invnluAble  fnr  the  SemJtto  perapleB,  cL 
al*o  h|B  Hei.  of  Srrri,h  and  for  morittrn  savage  prBCtJBP, 
Bpencer  and  F.  J.  Gillen^  Nativf  TriUs  a/  Cftiirat  Aus- 
tralia, LoDdgti,  1690;  idem,  Northern  T*rife*t  of  CeniFol 
AiuttaiiQ,  Lb.  1904;   DB,  ii.  22i-224;   EB.  iK  1746-47. 

BLOURTp  CHARLES.     See  DmsM,  I,  }  3. 

BLUMHARDT,  christian  GOTTLIEB:  Ger- 
man Protestant;  b.  In  Stuttgari;  Apn  29,  1779; 
d.  in  Basel  Dec.  19,  ia38.  He  studied  at  Tiibingen; 
in  IfiOJi  became  secretary  of  the  Deutsche  Chria- 
Untumsgeselhchaft  in  Basel;  minister  at  Bdrg, 
WUrttemberg,  1807;  returned  in  1816  to  Basel 
as  director  of  the  mlflaionary  school  From  1816 
he  eitited  the  Mmii>mm<igaziHf  and  from  1S28 
also  the  Heidenbote;  he  published  Versiich  einer 
ailgerneinen  M  ismomgeJichichte  der  Kirche  Chrisii 
(5  vols. J  Bagel,  182S-37),  reaching  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation. 

BLUMHARBT,  JOHANI?  CHRISTOPH:  Ger- 
man Lutheran;  b.  at  Stuttgart  July  16,  1805;  d.  at 
Boll  (5  miles  s,w.  of  GOppingen)  Feb.  25,  1880.  He 
studied  at  TQbingen;  became  teacher  at  the  mis- 
iionnry  institution  at  Basel  1830;  succeeded  Pastor 


Barth  at  MattUngen,   near  Calw,   18S8,    Bj  tl^=*^ 
reported  cure  by  prayer  of  a  gu4  named  Gottliis^^ 
Dittus,  supposed  to  be  a  demoniac,  which  cann^^ 
efTectcsd    after  a   two   years'    stmg^e,  BlusU^ 
gained  great  fame.     A  revival  followed,  AttelM 
by  so  many  people  from  so  large  an  area  thil  ■ 
Good   Friday,   1845,   no  less   than    176  Iwaiii 
were   represented  at  the  service.     At  his  scrm, 
so  it  is  reported,   heahng  of  physical  infittnitia 
resulted  from  Blumhardt's  laying  on  of  handsk 
token    of    absolution,     Blumhardt    received  ca^ 
to  other  places,  but  felt  that  his  gifta  and  line 
belonged  to  the  "  distressed  ";  in  order  to  be  ibk 
to  devote  himself  entirely  to  them,  be  bought  in  ISM 
the  royal   watering-place  BoU,   which  became  tn 
asylum  for  sufferers  of  all  kinds,  and  from  all  iiaki 
of  society.     The  girl  he  had  cured  went  with  hiia 
as  an  assistant,  accompanied  by  a  brother  sod  t 
sister  whom  Blumhardt  had  also  cured.    In  iSflB 
and  1872  his  sons  joined  him  in  the  work.    Fitm 
all  countries  the  afflicted  flocked  to  his  asylum, 
where  his  unique  treatment  sei^ned  to  give  them 
new  vital  enei^^.     At  last  sickness  attacked  him, 
and  he  ordained  his  son  to  the  work  with  the  words, 
"'  I  consecrate  thee  to  victory,"     In  1899  this  son 
withdrew  from  the  clergy,  but  continued  to  main- 
tain the  establishment  at  Boll.  (J.  HEass,) 

BiBuoaHAFHT:  F.  Zandfll,  Pfmrtr  J.  C  BlumkoFdi,  Zondi* 
1887;  T.  H.  Mandpl.  Dvf  Sim  to™  Meming^  im  Liditt  d^ 
G^ttben*  urul  ^i^  WitwnKhaft.  Leipaic,  1895:  C.  Bluio- 
hardt,  Gtdankeyt  au»  dem  Beicht  OoUem  im  Aiudl^ia  « 
die  GetchUJiie  ton  Mmhn^tn  und  B^  BoU  und  «uvi 
heiitiffe  SieUung,  Bad  Bon,  1S95. 

BLUHT,    JOHN    HENRY:      Oiureb  of  En^snd 

scholar;  b.  in  Chelsea^  London,  Ang.  25,  l^\ 
d.  in  London  Apr,  11,  18S4,  He  gave  up  a  busi- 
ness career  for  the  ministiy,  studied  at  University 
College,  Durham  (M.A.,  1855),  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1855;  after  filling  a  number  of  curacies^ 
he  became  in  1868  vicar  of  Kermlngton,  near 
Oxfonl,  and  in  1873  rector  of  Beverston,  Gloucea- 
terahire.  He  was  a  pronounced  High-churchmaa, 
and  an  indefatigable  waiter  both  of  articles  ior 
the  periodicals  and  of  books;  among  his  works  we 
a  number  of  useful  theological  and  Biblical  com- 
pends,  such  as  The  AnnoUikd  Book  of  Commm 
Ftaytr  (2  vols.,  London,  1866;  new  ed,,  1^); 
Dktmiary  of  Dodrinal  and  Hisiorieal  Th&fhg^ 
{1870);  fhe  Book  of  Church  Law  (1872;  ^th  ed., 
revised  by  W,  G.  F.  Pbillimore  and  G.  E.  Jones, 
1901):  Didmnary  of  Secta,  Ileresieji,  Ecditsmstkal 
Parties,  arid  Sehooh  of  IMigi€nt*  Thoitgkt  (187-*); 
The  Annotated  Bihk  :  being  a  houaehotd  commen.- 
tary  upon  the  Holy  SeriptureSj  comprehending  iht 
TestUtJs  of  modem  disc€fver^  and  criiicism  {Z  vols*, 
187^^2);  A  Companion  to  the  New  Teitomenl 
(iSai);  A  Companion  to  the  Old  Testameni  (1883); 
also  an  important  history  of  The  Reformation  of 
the  Church  of  England  (2  vols.,  1869-^82).  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  working  upon  a  Cydfh 
p(s4ia  of  Religion  (1884). 

BLUNT,    JOHN    JAMES:      English  theolo^an; 

h.    at    Newcastle-under-Lyme    (15    m.    n.n.w.    of 

Stafford),    Staffordjshire,    1794;   d.    at    Cambridge 

I  June  18»  1855.     He  studied  at  St,  John's  College, 

I  Cambridge  (B,A,,  and  fellow,  1810;  UJl,,  1819; 


207 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Booburt 


I 


B.D.f  1826);  traveled  in  Italy  and  Sicily;  became 
forate  to  Reginald  Heb^r  at  Hodnet,  Shropshire, 
in  1821;  rector  of  Great  Oakley.  Essex,  1834; 
iMjdy  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge 
183^*  He  wrote  many  books  and  contributed 
ciucli  to  the  periodical  press;  some  of  bis  works 
Im.'v-e  psissed  through  many  editions.  They  include 
^  ^€kh  of  the  Reformatiim  in  England  (London, 
IS32);  Undesigned  Coincidences  in  the  WTiiing»  both 
aj  the  Old  Teaiament  and  New  Testntnerd  an  A  rgument 
f^  iJieir  Veraciiy  (1847);  A  //wrtory  o/  the  Christian 
CfcuM  during  the  Fir^  Three  Ccnturiea  (1856); 
The  DuHe9  of  the  Parish  PrieHt  (1856);  Two  Intro- 
duftaty  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  tlie.  Early  Eathers 
(with  memoir^  Cambridge,  1S56). 

BLYTH,  GEORGE  FRAHCIS  POPHAM:  AngH* 
can  bishop  in  Jerusalem  and  tlie  Eaat;  b*  at  Bever- 
ley (9  m.  n.n.w,  of  Hull)*  Yorkshire,  m  1832.  He 
was  educated  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford  (B.A*, 
18S4),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1855,  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  suc- 
cessively curate  of  Westport  St.  Mary's,  Wiltshire 
(1855-61),  and  Sigglesthomtv  Yorksliire  (1861-63), 
aod  ehftplkin  to  the  earl  of  Ivimberley  (1863-66). 
He  then  went  to  India,  wajs  chaplain  of  the  cede- 
aastical  establishment  at  Allahabad  (186d-67), 
^^  was  attached  to  the  cathedral  of  Calcutta 
*nd  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Calcutta  (1867-68). 
He  was  then  stationed  successively  at  Barrackpur, 
Bengal  (1868-74),  Naini*Tal,  Norths  West  Prov- 
»>ow  (1874-77),  and  Fort  William,  Bengal  (1877- 
'878),  after  which  he  was  archdeacon  of  the  pro* 
««thedna  at  Rangoon  from  1879  to  1887.  In 
*^  Utter  year  he  was  consecrated  bifihop  in  Jeru- 
^em  and*  the  East.  He  has  written  The  Holy 
W'adtond  Forty  Days  (2  vols.,  London,  1879). 

BQARDKAN,  GEORGE  DAK  A;  1.  Baptist  for- 
•^p*  miisionary;  b.  at  Liv'^ermore,  Me.,  Feb.  8, 
^801;  J.  at  Tavoy,  Burma,  Feb.  11,  1831.  In 
^4  he  was  a  resident  licentiatxj  in  Andover  Theo- 
'*^cai  Seminary.  In  1825  he  went  out  to  Burma 
'^'ider  the  Baptist  Board  of  Missions,  which  had 
•c<5epted  his  service's  in  1823,  but  owing  to  the 
■*uriii€»e  war  he  could  not  reach  that  country  till 
^^27.  After  a  year  at  Maulmaln  he  opened  the  new 
f**Uon  at  Tavoy*  150  miles  north,  and  there  he 
'^nmereed  the  first  Karen  convert — Ko  Tha  Byu. 
**^'t>tn  this  center  he  prosecuted  a  x^rj  successful 
''^^iasioaary  work,  but  pulmonary  dLsease  caused  his 
*^^^ath  after  less  than  three  years. 
^i»uooiiAPHT    A.    King,  Giyod   Fight,  or  Q,    A  Boardman 

^^  &^  Bitrytuxn  IHUttion,  Boston.  1875. 

S,  American  Baptbt,  son  of  the  preceding;  b. 
**    Tavoy,    Burma»  Aug.  18,  1S28;  d,  at  Atlantic 
^ty,  N.  J.,  Apr.  28,   1903,     He  was  gruduate^l  at 
&ix>»n  in  1852  and  at  the  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution 1855;  was  pastor  in  South  Carolina  1855- 
lS56;in   Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1856-434;  of   the  First 
^•piist  Church,   Philadelphia.    K%4-94.     He  was 
P'^Bdeiit  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
U880-^),  and  of   the   Christian   Arbitration   and 
J^*ee  Society  of  America.     His  publications  were 
w  the  most  part  studies  of  Biblical  texts  of  an  exe- 
""    1  character  and  include  Studies  %n  the  Creative 
k  (New  York,  1877),  in  the  Model  Prayer  (1879), 


and  in  the  Mountain  hh^truction  (1881);  Epipha- 
7iieH  of  the  Ri^en  Lord  (1879);  The  Divine  Alan 
from  the  A'ativity  to  the  Temptation  (1887);  Uni- 
versity Lecturer  on  the  Ten  Comnmndment^  (1SS9); 
The  Kingdom  (1899):  The  Church  (1901);  Our 
Risen  King's  Forty  Day^  (Philadelphia.   1902). 

BiBLiOiinAPBT:  Lif^  atui  Liifht.  Thtiui/ht*  frt^m  the  Wri^ 
tififfg  of  G«orge  Dana  Boardman,  vnth  Aiemorabilia,  Phtlft- 
deipkla,  1005. 

BOARDMAN,  GEORGE  NYE:  American  Con- 
gregational i«t;  b.  at  Pittsford,  Vt.,  Dee.  23, 
1825.  He  was  graduated  at  Middlebury  College, 
Vt.  (B.A.,  1847),  and  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1852).  He  was  tut^r  at  Middlebury  College, 
in  1847-49,  and  after  the  completion  of  Ids  theo' 
logical  studies  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  English  literature  in  Middlebury  College,  also 
acting  as  temporary  professor  of  intellectual  phi- 
losophy. Six  years  later  (1S59),  he  accepted  a 
call  to  the  p^istorate  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Binghamton,  N»  Y.,  where  he  remained 
until  1871,  when  he  was  chosen  professor  of  system- 
atic theology  in  Chicago  Theological  Seminary, 
He  resigned  from  this  position  in  1893,  with  the 
title  of  professor  emeritus.  He  was  the  first  mod- 
erator of  the  new  synod  after  the  reunion  of  the  Old 
School  and  New  School  Presbyterian  ChurchcM,  being 
also  chairman  of  the  committee  for  the  formation  of 
new  presbyteries.  He  was  also  moderator  of  the 
Congregational  General  Association  of  Illinois  in 
1881,  and  has  been  a  corporate  member  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  since  1869.  He  prepared  the  section  on 
systematic  theology  in  the  seven  volumes  of  Cur- 
rent DiscuHsion,  issued  by  the  faculty  of  the 
Chicago  Theological  Seminar^'  (Chicago.  l8a3-89), 
and  has  also  written  Lecturer  on  Natural  Theol- 
ogy (1881);  Congre^atwnalism  (1889);  Regeneration 
(1891):  and  History  of  New  England  Thedogy 
(New  York,  1899). 

BOCHART,  NS"shar',  SAMUEL:  French  Protes- 
tant; b.  at  Rouen  1599;  d.at  Caen  1667.  His  father 
was  the  learned  Ren^  Bochart,  pastorat  Rouen, and 
liis  mother  Esther  du  Moulin.  At  the  age  of  four- 
teen he  made  Greek  verses  in  honor  of  his  masters. 
He  studied  philosophy  at  S^dan,  theology  at  Sau- 
mur  under  Cameron,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
London  in  1621.  He  did  not  stay  long,  but  soon 
returned  to  Ley  den,  where  he  took  up  theology 
and  the  study  of  the  Arabic  language  under  Erpe- 
nius.  He  was  appointed  Protestant  minister  at 
Caen,  but  gave  private  lessons  in  a  Roman  Catholic 
family,  HLs  controversy  with  the  Jesuit  V^ron, 
in  1628,  ga%'e  him  a  great  name,  and  he  edited  an 
account  of  it  (2  vols.,  Saumur,  1630)  to  refute 
V6ron'8  teachings.  In  1652  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden  wishetl  his  presence  and  he  followtnl  her 
call,  accompanied  by  hi«  pupil  Huet»  later  bishop 
of  A\Tanches.  He  remained  in  Stockholm  one  year, 
studying  Arabic  texts  in  the  queen ^s  libmry.  Re- 
turning to  Caen,  he  became  the  representative  of 
Normandy  at  the  National  Cuhmiist  Synod  of 
Loudun.  He  died  su<ldenly  during  a  session  of 
the  academy  at  Caen.  His  works  include  Tiiene* 
timdogicw   de   verbo  Dei  (Saumur,  1620);  Ades  d§ 


Bookhold 
Boahme 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


M 


la  confircra^  Umm  h  Caen  entre  Samuel  Bochmi 
ct  J&in  BaiUckache,  minisirea  de  la  parole  de  Dieu 
en  l*6glme  rvfarmde  -  .  *  ei  Franfais  Viron  (2  vok., 
1630);  R^pmu^  A  la  UUre  d%i  ptr§  de  la  Barre^ 
Jiauii^f  mtr  la  prisense  r/eUe  (1661);  Hierotmcon 
mv€  historia  animalium  8.  ScriptuTtc  ( London , 
1663);  Opera  omniu,  hoc  eM,  FAo/^j  Canaan ,  el 
Hiero9oieont  qu^ms  aecesaere  vwrieB  difnertatwnes 
(Leaden,    1675).  G.  Bonet-Maurt. 

BlBLXooHAPRv:  P.  D,  Hiwip  LgM  OriffiruBB  de  la  viUe  ii«  Cj^r^ 
EoiKn.  1700:  Nic^ran,  MJmoirea;  W.  R.  Whitlin«h*Jii, 
Tkt  lit/*  &nd  Wri^rmm  of  S.  BiKkart,  in  EtaajfU  on  Bibdml 
Ltlfraeunff*  LoQtion,  l&'J&i  Smith,  SaMM>$i  Bodlorl,  C^nti^ 
1833;  EL  nnd  E.  Haa«.  t^a  Frane*  protettanU,  ed.  H.  L. 
Bordier,  vol  ti,  Paria,  18TB;  KL,  it,  950^^2. 

BOCKBOLD,  JOHANH  (JAIT  BEUKELS- 
ZOOIT)^    See  MvehbteRp  Ahabaftibts  im. 

BOD,  bdd^  PETBE:  Hungarian  theologian  and  ec- 
clesiastical hifltorian ;  b,  at  Felsfr-Csem^ton  (a  village 
of  Transylvania)  Feb.  12,  1712;  d.  at  Magyar- Igen 
(40  m.  BM.  of  Klausenbufg)  Mar.  3,  1709.  He 
waa  educated  at  the  Reformed  ooUege  of  Nagy* 
Enyecl  and  the  University  of  Leyden^  and  in  1743 
be^mme  pastor  at  H^viz,  whence  be  was  called,  81% 
years  later,  to  Mo^ar-Igen.  He  was  tbe  author 
of  fifty-fiix  works,  of  which  twenty-three  were 
prints,  but  by  a  decree  of  Maria  Theresa  r^tricting 
the  liberty  of  the  prens  certain  of  his  books  of  a 
patriotic  and  Protestant  tendency  were  confiscated. 
Among  bis  works  in  Hungarian  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  following,  the  titles  being 
translated  into  English:  **  History  of  the  Holif 
Bibk*'  (Hermannstadt,  1748);  **  History  of  ths 
Church  of  Ood"  (Basel,  1760);  "  Hislory  of  the 
He  formed  Bishopa  of  TTaneylvania  "  (Enyed,  1766); 
"  The  Magyar  Athews "  (Hermannstadt,  1767); 
biographies  of  4S5  Hungarian  authom,  and  "  The 
I  lunarian  Fhenix  "  (Enyed,  1767);  biography  of 
the  printer  Kiiia;  while  hia  Latin  works  include: 
HiMoria  VnUariorum  in  Tran^yloaniu  (Leyden^ 
1776),  a  vivid  description  of  the  struggles  of  the 
8ocJnians  in  Hungary;  Huloria  Hungarorum  eccle- 
f^Lasii^a  (cd.  RauwenhofT  and  Prins,  3  vols.,  ISSS- 
1390,  from  a  manuHcrtpt  recently  discovered  in  the 
library  of  the  university);  and  two  treatiflcs  on 
the  promoters  and  defendeni  of  the  Hungarian 
Reformation  (in  Gerdes,  Scrinium  Aniuiuarium, 
iij  Groningcn,    1763).  F.  Bavoqu. 

BiaiAOdRAPnri  G.  D*  Tcutacb,  Kormpondrnthtatt  det 
Fmrifu  f&r  ttUbenb.  Landttkundt,  no,  xi,  ISH8«  tion^  v^ 
vi,  1 801;  Pttihykeria^  mwf  Htftjrmed  Review^  voli.  i'ii„ 
1891^2. 

BODELSCHWHTGH,  bS'del-shving,  PRIEDRICH 
VON;  German  Lutheran;  b.  near  Tecklenbm^  (20 
m,  n.n.e,  of  Mlinster),  Westphdia,  Mar.  Q,  1831,  son 
of  Ernst  von  Botlelfiehwingh-VclroiHle,  a  distin- 
guiEthed  Prus«^ian  statesman.  After  gaining  prac- 
tical experience  of  mining  and  agriculture,  he 
studied  theology  (from  1854)  in  Bam^l,  Erlangen, 
and  Beriin,  and  in  1S58  became  pastor  of  the  Ger- 
man congregation  in  Paris,  at  Dellwig  in  T^'est- 
phalia  1864.  During  the  wars  of  180G  and  1870^ 
1871  he  served  as  amvy  chaplain.  Since  187'J  he  has 
devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  the  Innere  ^fi^mon 
(q.v.)  at  Bielefeld j  and  the  following  inatitutions 
hiive  bc^n  founded  by  hii  exertions:    the  Bethel 


bouse  for epileptioa  with  1,800  inmates;  the  Sarepti 
dcaeonesies'  house  with  980  skters  located  m  h& 
stations,  of  which  eleven  are  in  foreign  countnei; 
the  Nazareth  house  for  training  male  nursei  with 
350  deacons  in  120  stations,  six  not  in  Europe  ukI 
six  more  ouUide  Germany;  the  '^  workia|iDea'i 
colony  '*  Wilhelmadorf  (a  practical  attempt  to  detl 
with  the  tramp  problem),  the  first  of  its  kind  m 
Gennany,  having  at  present  five  branches  snd  400 
inmates;  a  "  workingmen's  home  **  with  164 
houses  and  400  dwellings;  a  missionary  semmuj 
for  candidate  in  theology. 

bung  dtr  AnMtaUen  Bvthd  .   .  .  b«t  BiMtId,  Betbel  pub> 
UthJin^  houae,  1806,  And  the  annuaj  micirtA^ 

B0D£ll5T£]ir,     AUDREAS      RUDOLF    ¥01. 

See  C^BLSTAnT^ 

BODYp  CHARLES  WILLIAM  EDMUHB:  Pmt- 
estant  Episcopalian ;  b.  at  Clapliam  (a  ^uburb 
of  London)  Oct,  4,  1851,  He  was  edui^ied  al  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge  (B^.,  1875),  where 
he  was  fellow  from  1877  to  1881.  In  the  bUer 
year  he  waa  chosen  provost  and  vieeHshanoelkr 
of  Trinity  University,  Toronto,  where  he  renuuded 
until  1894 p  when  be  was  appointed  profeeeor  of 
Old  Testament  Uterature  and  interpretation  hi 
the  General  Theological  Seminary ^  New  York  CII7. 
He  has  written  The  Permanent  Value  of  Getum 
(the  Paddock  L^ture^  for  1894;  New  York,  1894). 

BOBY^   GEOROE:    Church  of    England;  b.  it 
Cheriton  Fitcpaine  (9  m,  n,w,  of  Exeter),  Dctoo- 
shire,  Jan.  7^  1840.     He  was  educated  at  St.  Jobii'a 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1S62),  and  was  curette  of 
St,  James's,  Wednesbury,  StafTordsbire  (1833-63), 
Sedgley,  Staffordshire  (1865-67),  and  Christ  Chii/?^ 
Wolverhampton  (1867-70),     From  1870  to  1884  lie 
was  rector  of  Kirby-Misperton,  Yorkshire;  sadanrt 
1883  he  has  been  canon  of  Durham.     He  was  pn«- 
tor  in  convocation  of  York  for  Cleveland  in  18S0-85 
and  was  select  preacher  to  the  University  of  Cara- 
bridge  in  1892,  1894,  1896,  19O0,  and  1901,  aa  veil 
BS.  lecturer  on  pat^torai  theology  in  the  same  ^ 
versity  in  1897,     He  was  warden  of  the  Conununitj 
of  the  Epiphany,  diocese  of  Truro,  in  1891,  (^^ 
is  also  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  St.  Andrews  ^ 
vice-president  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagatioii 
of  the  Gospel.     He  has  written:  Life  of  Jmiif^" 
tion   (London,  1884);   Life  of  Tempiotim  (ISS4); 
The   Appearances  of  the  Riaen   Lord  (1890);  TM 
Sehoot  of  Calmry  (1891);  Aaivities  0/  the  Aeeeadsd 
Lord  (1891);  The  Life  of  L&oe  (1893);  The  Guid^ 
LifB  (1894);  and  Th^  Work  of  Grace  in  Poradi:^^ 
(1896), 

BOECKENHOFF,  bfJk'en-hef,  WILHELM  BE^ 
ETARD  ALOYSIUS  EARL:  German  Roman  Cuth^ 
lie;  b.  at  Schermbcck  (37  m.  s.w.  of  Mtlnster)  Ju-^^ 
10,  1870.  He  was  educated  at  Mtlnster  (1890-9^^ 
the  Gregorian  University,  Rome  (1897-190'" 
Doctor  Juris  Canon ici,  1899)^  and  the  Univerai"^ 
of  Beriin  (1900-01;  D,D.,  Mtlnster,  1901),  P^ 
wad  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1894  and  wa^ 
mcar  in  Dolberg  from  that  year  until  1S97,  wh.^ 
he  resumed  his  studies.  He  became  a  priv^^^ 
doccnt  at  Mtia-^tor  in  1902#  but  three  years  la"*^ 
went  in  a  similar  capacity  to  Strasburg,  wheie    ^ 


RELIGIOUS  ENCl'-CLOrEBIA 


Bockhold 
Boehme 


I  jippMiint^d  associate  professor  of  canon  law 
Ihe  following  montli.  In  addition  to  con  tribu- 
ne to  tbe«jlogical  periodically,  he  has  written 
I  individuitaU  matrimonii  (Berlin,  1901}  and 
H  apattolische  SpeUegeseiz  in  den  ersten  fiinf 
irhunderten  (Paderbom,  1903). 

MEGITER,      bOg'ner,     ALFRED      EDOUARD: 

BDch  Protestant;  b.  at  Strasburg  Aug.  2,  185!, 
I  WW  educated  at  the  tiniversity  of  hiw  native  city 
i  ii  the  theological  faculty  at  Montauban,  after 
ikh  he  sludied  at  the  German  universities  of  Lei jv 
liErliingen.  and  Tubingen  in  1873-74.    From  1876 

1879  be  wafl  pastor  of  the  Protestant  church  at 
iBDoy-le^raiKl,  and  in  the  latter  year  became 
bdireetor  of  th«  Paris  Society  of  Evangel icid 
JRbns,  of  which  he  haa  been  director  since  1SS2. 

this  capacity  he  made  tours  of  inspection  of 
mh  Africa  in  1883,  Senegal  and  the  West  Coaut  in 
(D^i,  and  Madagaj&car,  the  Transvaal^  Orange 
fee  State*  and  Cape  Colony  in  1898-99.  He  is  also 
lietor  of  the  Paris  House  of  Evangelical  Misflions, 
i  m  addition  to  editing  the  Journal  des  missiona 
mgiUg^uu  de  PartA  since  1S79  and  publishing 
^ttng  a  number  of  minor  contributions,  baa 
ktea  PaUeTion,  le  misgionnaire  de  la  Milan^sic 
Wa.  1881 );  Le MUsUmnaire  de  Methlakaila  ( 1 882); 
t  BaM9ouio9t  autrtfms  H  aujourd'hui  (1885); 
Upia  rifle:^an»  mtr  VautorxU  en  matihe  de  }oi 
)te);  and  Rapport  sur  la  ddlgalion  h  Mada^as- 
^  Cua  collaboration  with  P.  Germond;  1900). 

lOEHL,  bt)l,  EDIJARB:  German  theologian;  b. 
Hamburg  Nov.  18,  1836;  d.  at  Vienna  Jan.  24, 
13.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin  (1855),  Halle 
lM^-58).  and  Erlangen  (1858-00),  and  became 
btiate  and  privat-docent  at  Basel  in  1800^ 
IBMse  be  was  called  to  Vienna  four  years  later 
pnjfesaor  of  Reformed  dogmatics  and  symbolics, 
1  also  of  pedagogics,  philosophy  of  religion ♦  and 
lloiptios,  in  the  Protestant  faculty  of  theology, 
1864  he  al^i  became  a  permanent  member  of 
t  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Austria, 
|WM  in  1883  president  of  its  fourth  General 
kict.  He  edited  the  Evangdische  SonrUagsboten 
'ptMlemiek^  and  published  De  AramaismU  lihri 
mdh  (Erlangen,  1860);  Vaiicinium  JesajtE  c, 
P  annmenlario  iUiistratum  (Leipsic,  1861); 
ml  memanuehe  Psalmen  erkidri ;  nehst  einer 
yhgmtkn  chri^tologiichen  Einkitung  (Ba^el, 
I);  Canfesmo  Helvetica  posiejior  (Vienna,  1866); 
^tmeine  Pddagogik  (1870);  ForscAungen  nach 
t  Volksbibel  tur  ZeU  Jesu  und  deren  Zusam- 
hang  mil  der  Septuaginta-Uebcrsetzung  (1873); 
UftteiSofiMnt/icA^  Citale  im  Neuen  Testament 
m);  ChriHologie  ife*  Alien  Testaments,  oder 
Wfung  der  wichtigsten  messianischen  Weissa- 
(1882);  Zum  Ge^eU  und  rum  Zeugniss; 
'  wider  die  nexikrUUchen  Sckriftfornchun' 
lliteii  TeHameni  (1883);  Von  der  Incar- 
gmlichen  Wortes  (1884);  Chrisiliche 
(Amsterdam,  1886);  Dogmatik;  Bar- 
christlichen  Gla%ibenslehre  auf  refoTmirt- 
Grundhge  (1887):  Zur  Abwehr  :  etlkhe 
Wrkungen  gegen  Prof.  Dr.  A,  Kurjper*8  £m- 
p^  zu  seiner  Schrift  ^^  Die  Incarnation  d^s 
t**  (1888);  Von  der  BecfUfertigung  durch  den 
n,— 14 


Giauben  (Leipsic,  1890);  Bcitrdge  sur  GmchicMe  der 
Reformation  in  Oesierreich  (Jena,  1902). 

BOEHM,  HANS:  A  popular  preacher  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  known  aa  the  Drummer  of  Nik- 
lashausen;  executed  July  19,  1476.  He  was 
originally  a  shepherd  at  Helmstadtr  between  Wtirz- 
burg  and  Wertheim.  Up  to  the  begiiming  of  1476, 
he  had  been  used  to  play  the  drum  and  fife  for 
rustic  dances,  but  what  be  beard  of  the  preaching 
of  the  Franciscan  Capistrano  (see  Capistkano, 
GiovANKi  m)  worked  a  great  change  in  him.  He 
alleged  that  the  Virgin  Mary  had  appearetl  to  him 
and  called  him  to  be  a  prophet  and  preacher  of 
repentance.  In  the  village  of  Nikia^hausen  near 
his  home  there  was  a  picture  of  her  atreatiy  reputed 
miraculous  and  visited  by  pilgrims.  Here,  at 
the  end  of  March,  he  began  to  preachy  ha%ing  biunt 
his  cbiim  in  token  of  conversion.  Lacking  not 
only  secular  education  but  even  elementary  religious 
knowledge,  he  yet  made  a  deep  impression  on  his 
hearers  by  the  innocence  and  purity  of  his  nature. 
He  did  not  stop  with  calling  the  peasants  to  repent- 
ance, but  showed  increasing  bitterness  against  the 
clergy  and  nobles,  who,  he  said,  would  find  no  place 
in  the  kingdom  announced  to  him  by  the  Virgin; 
taxes  were  to  be  abolished,  no  one  was  to  have 
more  than  another,  and  all  men  were  to  live  as 
brothers.  His  fame  soon  spread  throughout  cen- 
tral and  Bouthem  Germany^  and  crowds  of  pilgrims, 
put  as  high  as  40,000,  thronged  Uy  hear  him.  He 
seems  to  have  intended  to  lead  tltem  in  an  armed 
rising;  but  Bishop  Rudolf  of  Wiirzburg  had  him 
arrested  on  July  12,  and  warded  off  the  danger  of 
a  great  peasants*  war.  Two  days  later,  16,000  of 
his  followers  appeared  to  rescue  him,  but  were 
tiispersed;  and  on  the  19th,  a  recantation  having 
been  extorted  from  him,  he  perished  on  the  scaf- 
fold as  a  beretie  and  enchanter. 

(Herman  Hauft.) 

BjqliooRapdt:  C.  A.  Barack,  Han»  Biihm  und  die  Wall- 
fahri  mich  Uikt^hauten  im  Jakre  1478.  WQniburK,  1858; 
C.  Ullnaann,  Reformers  before  tkm  Reformatutn.  i.  377-392, 
EdinburKh,  1877  (a  very  detailed  account);  E.  Goth«iii, 
FoHti*cke  und  rrftj^iiiUu!!  VolksbewegunQen  tM>r  rf^r  Rrforma- 
iion,  pp.  10  m^Q..  Br^i^laiuU  1878;  H,  Hnupt,  Ou  retioiomn 
Sekten  in  Franken  vor  der  Reformation^  pp.  fi7  sqq.,  ^¥flr*- 
buiiE,  1682. 

BOIHME,   bt^'me,    JAKOB. 

E&rly  Tendency  To  ward  Mys-    Finda  Sympathy  iu  Dreudon 

tkiflm  (ft  1).  (J  4). 

Mystio  Visions  (f  2).  De&th  of  B^lhtne  (9  &). 

Opposition      to      his     Firat    Hia  Writings  (f  A)* 

Book  (f  3).  His  TmnnoeadeutiUiAm  (|  7). 

HiA  Eflfeatial  Orthodoxy  ((  S)- 

The  famous  German  mystic  Jakob  B5hme  (often 

written  Behmen   or   Boehme  in  English),  bom   at 

Alt-Seidenberg,  near  G5rhtz,  Nov,,  1575;  d,  at  Gar- 

htz  Nov*    17,    1624.     Hia  parents  were  peasants, 

from  whom  he  inherited,  it  eeema,  a 

I.  Early     strain  of  visionary  mysticism.     Unable 

Tendency    t.o  bear  the  rough  outdoor  life  of  the 

Toward     fann,  he  was  put  to  shoemaking  in  the 

Mysticijm.  little  town    of   Seidenberg,   where  he 

hail    a    bard    apprenticeship   with    a 

family  that  had  no  Christian  principles,  and  got  an 

early   insight   into  the  controversies  of    the    age. 

With  diligent  reading  of  the  Bible  and  prayer  for 


Boehme 
Boehringvr 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


tlO 


the  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit  he  combined 
eager  study  of  the  works  of  fanatical  visionaries, 
such  as  Paracelsus,  Weigel,  and  Schwenckfeld,  by 
means  of  which  he  felt  himself  elevated  above  the 
strife  of  tongues  aroimd  him  into  the  light  and  joy 
of  the  contemplation  of  God.  He  settled,  as  master 
of  his  trade,  at  Q^rlits  in  1599.  He  had  his  shop 
there  until  1613,  and  must  have  prospered  to  a 
certain  extent,  since  he  bought  a  house  in  1610 
and  had  fully  paid  for  it  in  1618.  He  married 
a  master  butcher's  daughter  in  1599,  and  had  four 
sons  and  two  daughters,  passing  as  a  model  hus- 
band and  father  among  his  neighbors.  All  these 
things  go  to  show  that  he  had  a  practical  hold  on 
life,  and  was  far  from  being  a  mere  crazy  visionary. 
A  visionary,  however,  he  remained.  He  tells  the 
story  of  a  stranger  coming  into  his  shop  and  calling 
him  by  name,  taking  him  aside  to  tell  him  he  should 
be  so  great  that  the  world  should  wonder  at  him, 
and  warning  him  to  remain  true  to  the  Word  of 
God  and  to  a  life  of  virtue.    Other  visions  followed. 

One  day  the  reflection  of  the  sun  from 
3.  Myitic  a  bright  metal  vessel  in  his  shop  seemed 
Visions,     to  infuse  such  spiritual  light  into  his 

soul  that  the  inner  mysteries  of  things 
were  laid  open  to  his  sight.  He  went  out  into  the 
fields  to  seek  the  revelation  of  God's  will  in  earnest 
prayer,  and  found  his  peace  and  joy  only  grow  the 
deeper.  None  the  less,  ten  years  passed  before  he 
ventured  to  put  down  in  writing  what  he  had  seen, 
and  then  he  did  so  only  on  the  encouragement  of  a 
new  vision  and  as  a  memorandimi  for  himself. 
The  incomplete  manuscript,  written  in  great  haste, 
which  he  called  Aurora  oder  die  Margenrote  im  Auf- 
gang,  began  to  circulate  among  his  acquaintances 
at  the  instance  of  Karl  von  Ender,  a  friendly  noble- 
man who  was  an  adherent  of  Schwenckfeld's.  In 
this  way  it  came  imder  the  notice  of  Gregorius 
Richter,  the  pastor  of  Gfirlitz,  who  at  once  began 
a  fanatical  war  upon  the  presumptuous  shoemaker, 
and  urged  the  local  magistrate  to  suppress  him, 
lest  the  wrath  of  God  should  fall  upon  the  town. 

B5hme  was  minutely  examined  be- 

3.  Oppo-    fore  the  council,  and  only  dismissed 

sition  to  his  on  promising  to  write  no  more  books. 

First  Book.  The    observance     of     this    promise, 

however,  was  not  only  made  diffi- 
cult by  the  insistence  of  his  friends,  but  by 
his  own  inner  feeling  that  the  fear  of  men  had 
driven  him  to  deny  the  grace  of  God  that  was  in 
him.  The  bitter  abuse  of  Richter,  too,  still  con- 
tinued, and  after  five  years  of  silence,  during  which 
he  had  learned  a  good  deal  and  developed  more, 
Bohme  could  bear  it  no  longer,  and,  encouraged 
by  a  fresh  vision,  again  took  up  his  pen.  His  new 
writings  were  at  first  circulated  only  in  manuscript 
copies.  Richter,  who  thought  himself  the  appointed 
guardian  of  orthodoxy,  thundered  against  him  from 
the  pulpit  and  attacked  him  in  a  vulgar  lampoon, 
which  BOhme  answered  in  a  tone  naturally  excited, 
but  still  showing  a  nobler  spirit  than  the  absurdly 
haughty  and  unchristian  contempt  of  the  attack. 
Far  from  having  broken  with  the  word  of  God  and 
the  sacraments,  he  was  trying  to  live  as  an  upright 
Christian,  in  strict  self-discipline;  and  although 
among  hia  twenty-eight  works  there  are  some  which 


directly  attack  the  visible  Church  as  Babel,  the  dtj 
of  collusion,  and  set  forth  Ghiist  In  us  as  the 
mystical  ideal,  his  general  attitude  by  no  metni 
justifies  the  scornful  "  Shoemaker,  stick  to  ti^ 
last "  of  his  opponent.  In  1624  he  was  obligBd 
to  leave  Q6rlits,  and  went  to  Dresden,  where  b 
found  shelter  in  the  house  of  the  director  of  tliB 
Elector's  chemical  laboratory  "nd  enjoyed  tliB 
society  of  many  of  the  moat  intdle^ 

4.  FindB  tual  people  of  the  court  and  the  capitaL 
Sympathy   In  May  he  had  a  hearing  before  se^Ktal 

in         distinguished   denes   and   profeann, 
Dresden,    who  fully  recognised  his  mental  endow- 
ments, and  encouraged  him  to  go  homB, 
especially  as  his  family,  deprived  of  its  head,  hid 
been  exposed  to  no  little  suffering  in  the  oonfunaa 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.    He  returned  to  Gteliti» 
but  his  end  was  near.    When  he  asked  for  000- 
munion  upon  his  death-bed,  the  successor  of  Richter, 
a  man  like-minded,  would  only  give  it  to  him  after 
a  searching  examination,  of  which  the  report  is  stfll 
extant.    Full  of  confidence,   however,   and  with 
heavenly  voices  ringing  in  his  ean, 

5.  Death  BOhme  took  leave  of  his  wife  and 
of  Bohme.  children  and  died  with  the  joyM  cry 

''I  go  to  Paradise!"  In  ^ite  of 
clerical  opposition,  a  befitting  funeral  was  pro- 
vided by  the  town  authorities;  a  cross  was  put  up 
over  the  grave  by  his  friends,  to  be  defiled  and 
thrown  down  by  the  populace. 

Thus  despised  and  rejected  in  his  own  day, 
Bohme  has  been  honored  by  some  of  the  greatest 
minds  of  Germany  in  a  liter  age;  such  men  as 
Friedrich  von  Hardenberg,  Jung-Stilling,  Fiied- 
rich  Schlegel  and  Ludwig  Tieck,  Hegel  and  ScheOini^ 
received  valuable  intellectual  impulses  from  hia 
works,  which  also  attracted  much  attention  in 
England,  where  a  complete  translation  appeared 
between  1644  and  1662.  Besides  those  already 
named,  the  most  important  are  Van  den  drei  Prin- 
cipien  gdtUichen  Weeens  ;  Vom  dreifachen  Leben  d« 
Menachen ;  Vierzig  Fragen  von  der  Sede;  Ym 
wahrer  Buaae ;  Dae  Oeeprdch  einer  unerleudiUUn 
Seele ;  and  Der  Weg  tu  Ckristo;  including  two 
against    predestinarianism    and   two 

6.  His  against  pantheism.  BOhme's  influ- 
Writinga.  ence  has  never  been  a  popular  one,  be- 
cause his  train  of  thought  is  fre- 
quently difficult  and  sometimes  almost  impossable 
to  follow.  This  is  due  partly  to  his  lack  of  education, 
which  prevented  him  from  expressing  himself 
clearly,  but  partly  also  to  the  depth  and  intensity 
of  his  thought,  which  has  to  struggle  for  adequate 
representation  in  words.  With  sincere  longing, 
with  real  himger  of  the  soul  he  plunges  into  the 
depths  of  God's  being.  The  traditional  theology 
of  the  schools,  with  its  strife  about  the  letter, 
could  not  content  him.  "  As  the  many  kinds  of 
flowers  grow  in  the  earth  near  each  other,  and  none 

contends  with  the  other  about  color. 

7.  His  smell,  or  taste,  but  they  let  the  earth 
Tranacen-  and  the  sun,  rain  and  wind,  heat  and 
dentaliam.  cold,  do  what  they  will   with    them, 

while  they  grow  each  according  to 
its  own  nature,  so  is  it  with  the  children  of  God." 
And  he  was  simply  a  child  of  God,  that  longed  to 


fill 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BoehnM 
Bo6hrln8«r 


grow  and  approach  more  doeely  to  Giod.  In  this 
effort  he  studied  th«  Bible  and  clung  to  it,  but 
jiAture  and  life,  to  eaj  nothing  of  the  writings 
of  eajlier  enthmiaata,  contributed  their  part. 
He  bdd  fast  to  the  fundamental  doctrinea  of 
bk  Church,  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  the  Atone- 
fxient.  ''That  which  is  said  of  God,  that  he  ia 
Fstber,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  is  truly  saidj  but  it 
mtiat  be  explained,  or  the  unenlightened  can  not 
eomprebend  it/'  "  Thou  muat  not  think  the  Son 
is  another  God  from  the  Father,  or  that  he  ia  out- 
ttde  the  Father,  as  when  two  men  atand  aide  by 
sdfl.  The  Father  is  the  source  of  all  forces^ 
and  all  forces  are  m  each  other  as  one  force;  and 
thus  he  is  called  one  God.  The  Son  is  the 
Father's  hearty  the  heart  or  center  of  all  the  powers 
of  the  Father.  From  the  Son  riaee  the  eternal 
li^venly  joy,  having  its  source  In  all  the  powers 
of  the  Father,  a  joy  that  no  eye  ha« 

8,  His  E»-  seen,  and  no  ear  heard."     Christ,  the 
sential       Father's    heart,    descended    into    the 

Orthodoxy,  midst  of  the  cotiflagration  whtch  had 
broken  out  in  the  world,  extinguished 
il  by  his  death,  and  by  his  resurrection,  the  resmreo- 
tion  of  the  God-Man,  raised  man  to  participation 
in  the  Godhead,  The  Scripture  is  the  receptacle 
of  the  truth ;  he  holds  to  it,  and  its  sense  alone  (cf. 
Col.  i,  15-20)  teaches  a  cosmic,  universal  conception 
of  Christianity;  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  Bre 
means  of  grace  to  him.  He  remain;^,  in  spite  of  all 
obscurities,  a  man  of  inspiration  who  raised  Protes- 
tant mysticism  to  a  great  height,  and  not  only 
endowed  it  with  the  richea  of  his  own  meditations 
but,  through  his  **  theosophic  Pentecostal  school,  in 
which  the  soul  is  taught  by  God,''  has  shown  many 
others  the  way  to  a  deep  and  abiding  happiness. 

(F.  W,  DiBKuua.) 

finiuoamA^FHT:  The  worki  of  B5hnui  irere  collected  in 
Germaiiy  by  J.  G.  Gichtel,  1682^  and  »n  edition  in  7  vob* 
na  edited  by  Scbiebler,  Leipsic.  1831-47.  Thfi  Eq£. 
«d.  IB  mtaticwfld  in  tbm  text.  Eftrly  aooounta  in  Eng,  of 
hu  life  were  fay  D.  Hoth&m,  Loodon,  1654,  luid  fay  F. 
Okmlmy,  Nortiunnpton.  1780-  io  Germ*  by  J.  A.  Calo. 
WitteDbflFg,  1707.  For  latiiir  «iq<m>iixiU  ednsult:  J. 
QaaHn^  J.  B^me.  ^ein  Ltben  und  mne  Ihmtoj^iMht 
Wmtk^  3  yoU..  Stuttgftrt.  1^5;  H,  L.  Mirteoien,  /. 
Bdkme,  Copeahaeen,  1SS2,  Ene.  traniL,  London,  ISM; 
It  A.  VjiU4h»n.  Hourt  with  the  Mu^Hca,  vol  ii,  ib.  1888; 
ScbdDwltld«r,  Leberi*be4chrtibuno  J.  BdhnuM.  G^rlitJt, 
1895.  Mofe  oearly  concerned  with  h«i  pbilo^nphy  ura; 
J.  Hamberier.  Dm  Lthm  da  dtuitehen  Phihtitph  J. 
Bdkmt,  Mumeli,  1844;  C.  F,  B&ur.  Zw  Gemchichtm  d^r 
pro40tianiiKA0n  MytHk^  in  Tke^dooit^e  JahrbUchir,  vil- 
Tiii,  lft48-4fl;  A.  Peip,  J.  B^mm  .  .  .  dwr  Voridu/ffr 
eilg-UMuhxr  Wi»§en*eAah  Leip«c^  1860;  idem.  J.  B4ihm« 
,  ^  .  in  arinef  StfUiitiff  tur  Kirehe^  Hiunbuii!;,  I8&2j 
X  Tulloch,  RMitftuil  TheoloQif  and  ChriMtian  Philotophu 
ift  1^  Srrentsenth  Cfntury,  Edinburgh^  1874;  F.  von 
Baader«  Voriaunffen  ^ber  J.  B/ihmt,  in  S&mmUiche  Werkr, 
rot.  xiit^  Leipaif!,  1855;  F.  HiuimAQti,  Li/tf  and  DoctrtncM 
9f  BAkme,  the  God-tauQM  Fhilofophtr,  London.  1803;  J. 
F.  Htirsl,  Hittaru  of  HationaliMm,  chap,  i,  New  York. 
1002,  McCUntoek  and  Strong,  C^tlopmdm.  M,  842,  eiv«s 
in  Ed«.  complete  Ufft  of  hi*  works. 

BOEHMER,  be'mer,  IDUAKBt  German  the- 
cilogioo  and  Eomanoe  scholar ;  b.  at  Btcttin  May  24, 
1827,  He  was  educated  at  the  universltiE^  of  HsUe 
ttud  Beiiin,  and  in  1854  became  privat-doeent  for 
theology  in  the  former  university.  He  later  turned 
hia  attention  to  Romance,  however,  and  In  1866  was 
appointed  aasodaie  pmfesdor  in  that  mibjeet  m 


Halle,  becoming  full  profeasor  two  years  later, 
In  1872  ho  was  calleii  to  Strauburg  \n  the  same 
capacity t  but  retired  with  the  title  of  profeflsor 
emeritus  in  1S79,  Among  hia  numerous  workjs 
those  of  theological  importance  are  Udber  V^r^ 
/<wter  und  Abfo^^miTigsieil  der  jahanrwiachen  AjkH 
kal\fpa^  (Halle,  1855)  r  Das  erste  Buck  de»  Thmu 
(1862);  Frajizisca  HemaTidez  und  Frai  Fran2i&m 
OhU  (Leipaic,  1866);  BibU&theca  Wiffeniana : 
Spanish  Reformers  of  two  CerUuHes  from  15M>  (2 
vola.i  Strasburg,  1874-83);  and  Dea  AposUls  Patdut 
Brief  an  die  Emi^  (Borm,  1886). 

BOEHMER,  JUSTUS  HEWNHfG:  A  jumt  who 
made  important  contributions  to  the  study  of 
Roman  and  still  more  of  canon  law;  b.  at  Han- 
over Jan.  29,  1674;  d.  at  Halle  Aug,  23  or  29, 
1749,  BB  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg 
and  head  of  the  faculty  of  law  at  Halle.  He 
rendered  a  great  service  to  the  continuity  of  Prot- 
estant church  law  in  that  he  was  the  first  to  show 
the  adaptability  of  the  older  canonical  principles 
to  post-Reformation  conditionfi.  This  was  made 
possible  by  his  profound  knowledge*  of  church 
history  and  his  extensive  theoretical  and  prae* 
tical  acquaintance  with  both  the  common  and 
the  statute  law.  In  the  question  of  the  relation 
of  Church  and  State  lie  declared  for  the  territorial 
system.  Out  of  the  large  number  of  his  writings 
may  be  mentioned  the  DuCfdecim  disseriati&nes 
juri^  ecctesiasiici  ad  PHnium  Secundum  et  Tertulr- 
lianum  (2d  ed.,  Halle,  1729);  Eniwurf  de^  Kirchm^ 
staaU  der  drei  er$Un  Jahrhunderten  (1733);  In- 
Hituliones  juris  canonid  (5th  od.,  1770);  J%m 
ecclemmtkum  Protestantium  (6  vols.,  1714);  and  an 
edition  of  the  Corpus  juris  catwnici  {2  vols.,  1747), 
valuable  for  its  notes,  index,  and  appendices. 
He  also  made  some  contributions  to  church  hym- 
nody.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  family  of  jurists, 
two  of  whom  deserve  mention  for  their  contribu- 
tions to  the  study  of  canon  law.  These  are  hia  son, 
Georg  Ludwig^  b.  1715;  d,  1797,  as  head  of  the  law 
faculty  at  (iCSttingen;  author  of  Principia  juris 
eononid  (GOttingen,  1762),  which  was  used  in  the 
revision  of  the  Prussian  laws;  and  Georg  Ludwig's 
son,  Georg  Wilhelm  (1761-1839),  who  published 
Grundriss  des  protejitantischen  KirchcnrechU  (Q6t- 
tingen,  1786)  and  other  cognate  works. 

{E.  Friedbbrq.) 

BiBLiQcjiuPRTi  Nictfron,  MimoireM;  C.  G.  HauboM,  intH- 
tuii&net  jurU  Romnni  literuHei,  p.  15.1,  Leipeic,  1819; 
ABB,  iVu  79  tqq.,  1876^  J,  F.  Schulte.  Oaehiehte  der 
Qudten  und  LiUtraiur  de*  cafionisehtn  RechU,  vol.  iii.  put 
2.  pp.  92  flciq,.  Stuttgart,  18S(>;  W.  Schrader,  Gttchithte 
dcr  FritdritM'UnivertitM  lu  HgtUe,  i,  14€  iqq^.  Berlin, 
1894. 

BOEHRINGERj  btJ -ring'er,  GEORG  FRIED- 
RICH;  Swiss  Protestant  (Tiibingen  school);  b, 
at  Mavilbronn,  Wtlrttemberg,  Doc.  28,  1812-  d.  at 
Basel,  blind  and  crippled,  Sept,  16,  1879.  He  stud- 
ied at  TQbingen,  took  part  in  the  insurrectionary 
movements  in  1S33,  and  was  in  consequence  com- 
pelled to  fiee  to  Switzerland;  became  pastor  at 
Glattfeklen,  Canton  Zurich^  1842;  resignedj  1853; 
removed  to  Zurich,  and  then  to  Basel.  He  wrote, 
from  the  Bourcea  and  in  a  ^scholarly  manner,  a 
series  of  biograpliiea  which  constituted  &  church 


Boethiua 
Bohemian 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


8U 


history  down  to  pr^Reformation  times,  under  the 
general  title  Die  Kirche  Chruii  und  ihre  Zetigen 
(24  vols.,  Zurich,  1842-58;  2d  ed.,  1860-79). 

BOETHIUS^  bfU'thi'Ofl,  ANICms  MAMJUS 
SEVEEINUS;  Stat^man  and  plulosopher;  b.  at 
Borne,  of  wealthy  and  influential  family,  c.  480  j 
txeeutad  at  Pa  via  525.  He  received  m  good  an 
education  aa  the  time  could  givej  and  acquired  a 
close  acquaintance  with  Greek  philosophy.  In 
510  he  was  consul,  and  for  several  years  occupied 
B.  prominent  positioa  in  the  Roman  world,  equally 
revered  by  the  peojile  and  listeemed  by  the  Ostro- 
gothic  king,  Theodoric,  the  ruler  of  Italy  (489- 
52^),  After  the  decree  of  the  Emperor  Justin  I 
(51S--527)  agaituit  the  Arians,  Theodorie  became 
Buspicious  of  all  Eomane  and  Catholics;  be  im- 
prisoned Bo^thiujs  at  Pa  via  on  a  charge  of  desiring 
to  restore  the  old  Roman  freedom,  and  finally 
put  him  to  death.  By  his  translationa  and  com- 
mentaries  (including  the  entire  six  books  of  the 
Orgamn  of  Aristotle  and  the  hugogt  of  Porphyry) 
and  by  his  independent  works  (/nfrodwcfur  ad 
eategoficos  syltagimtOB,  De  gythgvmw  eaiagm-wo, 
De  wyllogisTno  hupoihetico,  De  dwiAwne,  De  defi- 
nilione^  De  mtmra,  De  ariihm^ioj,  etc.),  Bodthius 
became  the  connecting  link  between  the  logical 
and  metaphysical  science  of  antiquity  and  the 
scientific  attempts  of  the  Middle  Ages-  His  in  flu* 
ence  on  medieval  thought  was  still  greater  through 
his  De  comolatione  philosaphim  (written  wliile  in 
prison  at  Pavia)  and  the  theological  writings 
attributed  to  him.  Whether  BoSthius  was  a 
Christian  has  been  doubted;  and  it  is  certain  that 
the  CoriBolatia  makes  bo  mention  of  Christ,  and 
all  the  comfort  it  contains  it  owes  to  the  optimijun 
of  the  Neoplatonic  school  and  to  the  stoicism  of 
Seneca.  Keverthelcsss,  for  a  long  time  the  book 
was  read  with  the  greatest  reverence  by  all  Chri^ 
tendom^  and  its  author  was  regarded  as  a  martyr 
for  the  true  faith.  Having  arlvanced  from  a  mere 
logician  to  a  moralist,  he  next  came  to  be  regarded 
as  a  theologian;  but  It  is  not  probable  that  he  wrote 
any  of  the  theological  works  attributed  to  him. 
The  tradition  Is  very  old,  however;  he  ia  mentioned 
by  Alcuin  as  the  author  of  De  eancUx  trinUate,  and 
by  Hincmar  of  Reims  as  author  of  a  treatise, 
Vtrum  poier  et  fdiua  et  apiritua  sandus  de  diviniiale 
tubifianiiaiiUr  prfjEdicentitr. 

BlBLiooKAPBlr:  The  optnpbte  worka  of  Boethiua  first  ap- 
peared et  Venice,  U9:f-  mf^tda  &!  BaaeL,  1540  and  1570: 
tbey  are  reprodiicwd  in  MPL,  HiUAxiv.  The  C^ruc^lui 
phitom>phiit  waj  drat  printed  at  Nuremti«TK.  1473;  a 
gfxtd  eilition  is  by  Peiper,  LeipKte,  I87t ;  there  huve  heeo 
many  KaRUeh  tran^ilat  ionj»,  beeiimin^  with  King  AITi^'a 
A&Alo-Saxan  Temiun,  and  including;  one  by  Chauwf  and 
one  ascribed  to  Queea  ELixabeth;  a  Uit«  tratmLatiuu  is  by 
H,  R^  Jameo,  London,  1S07.  The  traa^latjoni  from 
Aristotle  were  published  by  C.  Meiser,  2  vola.^  LeipFic. 
1877-80;  tb«  Dt  arithmetiea.  Dt  mutica^  and  De  geoffte^ 
tn&i  by  G.  Friodlein»  ib*  IS67.  The  tbealoeica]  writin«e 
appeared  at  Luuvajn  in  1533  and  are  ia  Peip^r'fl  edition 
of  IhB  Conmtatio  (ut  mipO-  Conflult:  F.  Nilifich,  Dqm 
Sytiem  tU*  Boe^iut^  Berlin^  1B<60;  lourdain,  De  Vori^fin^ 
dtft  tradiiiont  tur  le  chfittianitme  de  Bo^ct,  FariSp  1861^ 
A.  Hildebrandi  SoethiuM  und  txine  SteUunff  gum  CkriMfen- 
thum^  Regeenjibufig,  lHfi6;  H.  F.  Stewuft,  BoeOiiut:  an 
Ettay^  Edinburgh.  1801  {valuable;  an  analytUii  of  the 
Conmtation  and  olber  theolo^ea)  tivcta,  diMiufiflea  the 
qioi^tion  of  Bocthiui'i  OiriBtlamty,  gives  literatiupQ  at 
head  of  emah  diaptaf>i  £.  K.  Rand,  Joh,  Switut,    1,  B^r 


Kommeniaf  da  Johanm*  Sa>thi«^   II.   Dm  BemiffiuM  «m 
Aujcrrn  <u  den  spuKula  aacra  de*  B^i^ihivs^  Htaa/^  liQ&. 

BOOktZKf,  KARL  HEmBICH  VOH:  Oanm 
I^etist;   b.  at  Jankowe  (a  viUage  of  Lower  &\xm^) 
Sept.  7,  1690;  d,  at  Halle  June  15,  1774.    W\m 
fourteen  years  of  age^  he  entered  the  ducal  eauit 
of  Sai^e-Weissenfels  m  a  page^  but  at  the  ioitaoee 
of  the  pious  count  Hemy  XXIV  of  ReuBs-KSstnti, 
he  began  to  complete  his  ^uoatioii  in  hit  tw^ticth 
year.     Frem  1713  to  1715  h©  studied  law  at  Jmk 
and  then  devoted  himself  to   theology  at  E&Ue, 
where  Francke,  An  ton  ^  Freylingbausen^  and  other 
Pietists  greatly  influeaeed  him.     After  compJettni 
his  theological  studies  in  171$,  he  lived  for  Kvenil 
years  among  the  nobility  of  Sileaia^  and  ex^ercM 
much   inBuence   as   a   Bpintual    leader.     He  also 
rciided  for  a  number  of  yeajs  at  the  Silesian  vilti^ 
of  Glaucha^  where    he  aided  in   btnlding  an  or> 
phan-asylum,  and  from  1740  to   1746  he  lived  it 
the  ducal  court  of  Saalfeld,  and   finally  at  H&De, 
engaged  in  literary  work  of  a  devotional  chsracler 
and   in   the  practical  furtherance  of  Hetistic  life. 
The  most  popular  of  his  many  worku  wa«  hi«  Gfif> 
denes  Si:haUkdMlmn  der  Kinder  Gottes,  which  be  coti- 
poeed  for  his  own  edification  while  at  the  umTenBtj 
(Breslau,  1718;  65th  ed.,  HaUe,  1904;  Eng.  tiuul,, 
London,    1745,    and   n>any   aitbaequent   edition); 
while  among  his  other  books  special  mentioa  zDAy 
be  made  of  Ma    Tdgliches   HausbucJt  der  Kinder 
amea  (2  vols,,  Halle,  1748-19)  and  of  bis  Betod- 
lun^en  %md  GebeU  tife^T  dm  Neue  Te^ameni  (7  ptrti, 
1755-61).     Several  of  his  hymns  obtained  a  plftoe 
in  the  f)opular  hymnals  of  the  German  people,  aad 
were  collected  in   his   Uebung  der  GoUaeligktii  in 
aUerlm  geisUichen  Liedem  ( Halle  ^  1749),  while  s  se- 
lection of  160  was  published  by  Johannes  Gassieji, 
(Stuttgart,    1888)^  together  with   a  biography  of 
Bo^txky.  (Geoeo  MCllee,) 

BifiutHiBAFnT:  Boffatiky'ft  autobiofraphr  was  publuhid 
by  Knaiip.  Halk^  1801^  Eng,  tranal.  by  B,  Jackno,  Loct- 
d*iti,  1S50,  GonfltUt:  G,  Fraak.  0»cAkAl0  dtt  piw- 
t€tUMnti*€Mn  Tfw>t&ffm.  ili,  201-202,  Leipiiic,  187$;  AM, 
iii,  37-30.  L«ip»i(?!,  l&7fl;  A.  F,  W.  FUcLct,  KirdiMn^li^dtr- 
Ijexikan.  ii.  430-*31,  Gotha,  1S79;  Jutian,  Hifm^tdoffM,  !*< 
152, 

BOGERMAH,  b6'ger-man,  JAM:  Dutch  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Oplewert»  East  Friealaod,  1576;  d- 
at  Franeker  Sept.  11,  1637.     He  waa  prof^aor  of 

divinity  at  Franeker  after  1633,  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Arminian  controversy  and  preside  *t 
the  Synod  of  Dort  (q.v;).  He  was  one  of  the 
workers  on  the  Old  Teetament  of  the  Siaotenbihd 
(see  Bible  Versions,  B,  III).  He  wnote  a  polemic 
against  Grotiuu^  Annotatiojies  cofntra  H.  Qrotium,  and 
translated  Beta's  De  ia  punilion  des  hiTHiques,\mdtf 
the  title  Van  hi  keiter  slraffm  (Franeker,  1601), 

BOGOMILES.     See  New  &lAmcRE.4jmf  L 

BOGUE,  DAVH):  English  Oongregationaliit; 
b.  at  Hallydown,  near  Goldlngham  (10  m.  n.w.  of 
Berwick),  Berwickshire.  Feb.  18,  1750;  d.  at 
Brighton  Oct,  25,  1825.  He  studied  at  Edinbuifh 
(M.A.,  1771),  was  lii^nsed  to  preach,  and  taught 
school  in  England-  in  1780,  while  minister  of  s 
Congregational  chapel  at  Goaport  (oppodte  Ports- 
mouth )j  he  undertook  the  instruction  of  young 
men  for  the  ministry,  and  from  this  beginning  WM 


RELIGIOUS  ENCTiTLOPEDIA 


BoStblna 


developed  the  London  Missionary  Society.  He 
WIS  rIm)  active  in  founding  the  British  and  Foreign 
BtWe  Society  and  the  Religions  Tract  Society, 
In  1796  with  two  other  ministers  and  Robert 
Ilaldane  he  offered  to  go  to  India  as  a  missionary, 
but  the  plan  was  not  approved  by  the  East  India 
Compati}'.    Besides  eermotia   and   tract-s   be  pub- 


lishcd  An  Esmy  on  Ift^  Divine  Aulh^riiif  of  Die  Xew 
TcHtument  (London,  18D1),  and  with  James  Bennett 
wrote  the  Histor\f  of  DwnenterB  frtrm  the  Reimlution 
to  ISOS  (4  vols.,  Idm-12;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  J«33). 
Hiiil.]qufiafiit:  Jamen  Bflnnelt,  Mtmoir»  of  the  Life  of  Rm, 
David  Bopue,  London,  1827;   DNB,  v.  aOa-303, 

BOHEMIA.     See  AueTRiA. 


L  Orifiii  Attd  HLitory  to  1406. 
Origin  of  the  Sect  (|  1). 
Eiriy  Orcanisfttkin  (t  2). 
Fint  t*rifwt«  of  the  Brethren  ({  3). 
BektioiM    with    the    Wftlden^ijmna 

(M). 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN, 

II.  TL©  Brethren,  under  Lukas. 

Oppressive    Mea«urQ«   of  Vladislav 

an 

Overt  urea      to      the      ProtejttantH 

(i  2). 
Later  Organisation  (f  3). 


11 L  Development  from  1528  to  1621. 
Johann  AujiuhU  (MX 
Cewation  of  Prrwcution  (J  2). 
The  brethren  Merged  i^  the  Utra- 
qiiiit»  (I  3). 

IV.  The  Brethren  in  FniMiaand  Poland. 


L  Origin  and  History  to  1496;  The  Com  pacta  ta 
of  Prague,  which  marked  the  political  end  of  the 
Hii«site  War«  in  1433  (see  Huas,  John,  Horsites), 
proved  uatiatisfactory  to  the  religious  and  ecclesias- 
ticat  demands  of  the  majority  of  the  Bohemians. 
Many  aeattered  eommimities  accordingly  arose 
Ibougbout  the  country,  seeking  to  carry  out  the 
R^rormation  in  life  and  doctrine,  independent 
of  the  Waldensians  who  had  long  been  settled  in 
Bobctnia.  In  1453-54,  moreover,  the  preaching 
of  the  Utraquistic  archbishop  Ilokycana  (pastor 
of  tht'  Teinkirchc  at  Prague  after  1448)  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  a  community  at  Prague,  headed 
by  his  nephew  Gregory,  The  conviction  that  the 
validity  of  the  sacrajnents,  sermons,  prayer,  and 
the  like  depended  on  the  moral  and  religious  char- 
acter of  the  priest  caused  them  to  seek  for  *^  good  " 
pa^tont,  and  this  congregation,  together  with  others 
and  at  the  suggestion  of  Rokycana»  became  closely 
»liied  with  the  Cheldic  Brethren,  the  followers 
0'  A  layman  named  Peter  of  Chelcic,  who  Erst  ap- 
peared at  Prague  in  1419  and  seems  to  have  died 
before  1457.     He  hati  refused  to  join  any  of  the 

I  Hussite  parties,  since  he  rejected  all 

Iofth'*  temporal  defense  of  the  GosjmjI,  and 
j^^*  recorded  his  peculiar  views  in  hia  wri- 
tings, of  which  the  most  imjioitant 
^yn  his  ScU  dea  wahren  Gloubens  (1455)  and 
^  Pifttah  (1434^6).  His  ideal  of  Christian  life, 
'^  ftilfilment  of  the  "law  of  Christ '*  (Mutt. 
Jtxit,  37-39;  Gal.  vi,  2)  m  public  and  in  private 
•"^without  regard  to  consequenecB,  and  his  rc- 
^t*oii  of  all  that  could  not  be  reconciled  with  tliia 
**•'■  such  as  temporal  power,  wealth,  war,  and 
^'^^s,  made  a  profound  impression  on  Gregory 
*^**  Ilia  followers,  and  inspired  them  to  attempt 
^  f^^adiie  this  ideal.  At  their  request  their  friend 
P**  ^oiuiselor  Rokycana  secured  permission  from 
^^^^  George  Podfbrad  for  them  to  settle  in  the 
^^^  of  Kunwald  in  the  district  of  Lititz,  which 
jj^^tiged  to  him,  and  they  accordingly  cstablislied 
*****^  colony  there  in  1457  or  14.58,  Michael  the 
P*^or  of  the  neighboring  town  of  Senftenberg, 
Tj^^^mfaig  their  spiritual  head.  How  large  it  was, 
?™^t.ber  including  only  individuals  or  entire  fam- 
!**^*»  is  not  known,  although  the  latter  seems  to 
"^"^^  been  the  case.  At  all  events,  families  were 
***^^  attracted  to  Kunwald,  for  the  oldest  docu- 
'^^tit  of  the  Brethren,  a  sjTiodical  resolution  of 
^^^4.  presupposes  the  exist-ence  of  households 
**^  civil  occupations,  aa  well  as  of  widows  and 
Qfpliaiii, 


Tliia  sketch  of  the  origin  of  the  Bohemian  Breth- 
ren renders  it  clear  that  the  current  view  which 
represents  them  as  remnants  of  the  Taborites  is 
incorrect.  In  1471  they  designated  tliemselveij 
as  disciples  of  Rokycana  and  his  colleagues,  and 
declared  that  they  had  been  developed  from  the 
older  communities  mentioned  above.  The  main 
outlines  of  the  organization  are  contained  in  cer- 
tain synodical  resolutions  of  1464-67.  The  com- 
munity was  divided  into  three  groups:  begin nera 
or  penitents,  comprising  children  under  the  age 
of  twelve  and  all  who  sought  to  enter  the  com- 
munity from  the  time  they  made  profession  of  their 
desire  until  they  were  received;  the  advanced, 
forming  the  majority  of  the  oommunity  and  devo- 
ting themselves  to  various  civil  callings,  with  maa- 
tera  and  matrons  api>ointed  to  8uj>ervise  and 
counsel  them;  and  the  perfcctetl  (also  called  priests, 
although  the  community  then  had  no  specially 
appointed   priesthood),   who   had   re- 

2.  Early  nounced  private  property  and  given 
Orffaji-      their  poaaesflions   to    the    poor,    par- 

Izatlon.  ticularly  to  those  who  "  journey  for 
the  Bake  of  the  word  of  Go<i/'  It 
waa  the  duty  of  the  perfected  to  proclaim  the  word 
and  to  hear  confessions;  they  were  required  to 
travel  in  pairs,  instead  of  alone,  to  earn  a  Uvelihood 
by  the  work  of  their  hands,  and  to  collect  alms 
regularly,  which  were  destinefl  partly  for  the  poor 
and  partly  for  themselves,  in  case  their  work  was 
insufficient  to  support  them.  Those  of  the  laity, 
either  male  or  female,  who  had  voluntarily  chosen 
poverty,  also  belonged  to  this  class.  At  the  head 
of  the  communities  st-ood  one  or  more  elders,  al- 
though no  details  of  their  duties  are  known,  and  infor- 
mation is  equally  scanty  regarding  the  composition 
of  their  frequent  synwis.  The  Brethren  at  Kun- 
wald gained  an  increasing  number  of  adherents  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  while  their  opposition  t«  the 
dominant  Church  became  stronger  and  stronger, 
espeeially  as  a  result  of  the  persecution  instituted 
against  them  by  King  George  in  14<M).  They 
accor*iingly  felt  themselves  obUged,  seven  yeans 
lat^r,  to  break  entirely  with  the  Church  by  the 
creation  of  on  independent  priesthood,  the  his- 
torical course  of  events  being  as  Follows^  according 
to  GoU's  proposed  combination  of  the  sources, 
which  are  not  always  in  entire  agreement. 

By  a  meeting  with  the  Waldeiisiiui«  and  their 
"bishop*'  StepheJi.with  whom  they  had  bectmie  ac- 
quainted through  Rokycana,  the  Bohemian  Brethren 
had  entered  into  relations  with  the  Waidensiims 


Bohemian 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


914 


previous  to  1467.  These  negotiations  proved 
fruitless,  however,  since  the  Waidensians  as  a 
body  would  not  countenance  an  open  break  with 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Some  of  them,  on 
the  other  hand,  joined  the  Brethren,  and  among 
this  nimiber  was  ah  old  Waldensian  priest,  who  was 
present,  together  with  certain  representatives  of 
the  German  Waidensians,  at  a  conference  of  about 
sixty  Brethren  from  various  parts  of  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  which  was  held,  according  to  a  later  tra- 
dition, at  Lhotka,  a  village  near  Reichenau,  in 
1467  to  choose  and  ordain  priests  of  their  own. 
Fully  aware  of  the  momentous  nature  of  their 
proceeding,  they  wished  God  himself  to  decide  by 
lot  whether  the  time  had  come  for  them  to  ventiu^ 
the  step,  and  which  persons  should  be  the  first 
priests.  Nine  candidates  were  proposed,  each  of 
whom  was  required  to  draw  one  of  twelve  slips, 
nine  blank  and  three  containing  the  word  jest 
{**  he  is  ")•  ^  case  all  the  candidates  drew  blanks, 
the  synod  was  to  be  adjourned  for  a  year.  Thomas, 
Matthias,  and  Elias,  however,  drew  the  three 
written  slips,  whereupon  they  were  "  confirmed  " 

by  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  the  old 

8.  First     Waldensian  priest,  apparently  assisted 

Priests     by  the  priest  Michael  (?),  in  the  name 

of  the     and   authority  of  the  synod.    By  a 

Brethren,  more  restricted  lot  Matthias  was  chosen 

from  the  three  to  have  "  the  first 
place  in  authority,"  or  as  "bishop,"  as  Michael 
called  himself  in  a  conference  with  the  Utra- 
quistic  consistory  in  1478.  It  was  not  until  May 
of  the  following  year  (1468)  that  the  Brethren 
informed  Rokycana  of  what  had  occurred,  and  they 
then  seem  to  have  broken  definitely  with  him. 
They  themselves,  however,  were  soon  divided  as 
to  "  whether  it  should  so  remain,"  and  the  result 
was  the  decision  that  Matthias  should  be  consecra- 
ted bishop  by  the  Waldensian  bishop  Stephen. 
Strangely  enough,  the  priest  Michael  was  sent,  in- 
stead of  Matthias  himself.  Michael  met  Stephen  in 
southern  Moravia,  received  consecration  from  him, 
and  gave  it,  when  he  returned,  to  Matthias,  where- 
upon he  resigned  both  the  authority  of  bishop, 
which  he  had  received  only  for  this  purpose,  and  also 
his  Catholic  priesthood,  having  himself  reordained 
by  Matthias  as  a  priest  of  the  Brethren,  while  the 
new  bishop  likewise  ordained  Thomas  and  Elias. 
This  is  the  account  of  Michael  and  other  eye-wit- 
nesses, while  later  sources,  even  of  the  early  six- 
teenth century,  present  many  deviations,  partly 
in  an  endeavor  to  conceal  the  cooperation  of  the 
Waidensians  so  far  as  possible. 

The  members  of  this  newly  constituted  com- 
munity called  themselves  "  Brethren,"  and  were 
known  in  different  portions  of  the  country  by  the 
names  of  their  chief  centers,  such  as  Kunwalders, 
Bunzlau  Brethren,  and  the  like.  As  a  whole  they 
termed  themselves  Jednota  BratrskA^  which  they 
later  rendered  into  Latin  as  Unitaa  Fratrum. 
Their  characteristic  designation  was  Brethren, 
which  had  already  been  current  in  various  older 
Bohemian  communities.  The  name  Fratrea  legis 
Christi  first  arose  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  never  became  general.  Their  oppo- 
nents usually  termed  them  Waidensians  or  Pick- 


ards  (a  corruption  of  Beg^iards),  and  this  dem^- 
nation,  found  even  in  the  royal  decrees,  became 
so  general  that  they  themselveB  empkyyed  it  in 
the  titles  of  many  of  their  writingB,  terming  them- 
selves "  the  Brethren  who  for  envy  and  hatred  are 
called  Waidensians  or  Pickards."  The  first  remit 
of  the  events  of  1467  was  a  renewal  of  the  per8»- 
cutions,  which  lasted  until  the  death  of  Geor]ge  and 
Rokycana  in  1471,  and  which  also  involvai  the 
Waidensians,  Stephen  being  burned  at 

4.  Bela-    ^^  stake  in  >^enna  during  this  period 
tiona       This  persecution  may  also  have  been 

with  the    the  cause  of  the  renewed  attacks  oo 

Walden-  them  in  Brandenburg,  and  about 
■^*A"-  1478  two  Waidensians  aooonfin^ 
went  from  that  countiy  to  the  Bretii- 
ren,  thus  inaugurating  an  interoonmiunicatioii  be- 
tween the  two  sects  which  resulted  in  a  number  of 
Waidensians  joining  the  Brethren  after  1480  and 
settling  at  Landskron  in  Bohemia  and  at  FulnedL 
in  Moravia.  In  the  latter  country  both  sects  were 
tolerated  under  King  Matthias,  untQ  the  end  of  hia 
reign,  when  a  decree  of  e}q)ulsion  was  issued  in 
1488,  although  it  was  soon  revoked  at  the  petitioD 
of  some  patrons  of  high  rank.  A  portion  of  the 
Brethren  had  already  emigrated  to  Moldavia,  but 
apparently  returned  within  a  few  years. 

Internal  strife,  centered  about  the  ideal  of  Peter 
mentioned  above,  was  more  perilous  to  the  mam- 
tenance  of  uni^  than  external  oppression.  A 
"  small  "  party  dung  to  this  ideal,  and  accordingly 
rejected  temporal  power,  law,  service  in  war,  the 
oath,  and  the  like  as  unchristian,  while  a  *'  great " 
party  regarded  all  these  as  dangerous,  yet  not 
to  be  rejected  unconditionally.  The  controversiea 
ended  in  1494  with  the  victory  of  the  "great" 
party,  the  "  small  "  party,  who  called  themselves 
Amosites  after  their  leader  Amos,  separating  as 
an  independent  community  and  preserving  an 
existence  for  several  decades.  During  these  dis- 
sensions two  leaders  of  the  "  great "  party,  Lukas 
and  Thomas,  journeyed  to  North  Italy  to  visit  the 
Lombard  Waidensians  in  their  own  homes,  possibly 
seeking,  in  view  of  their  disagreement  with  the 
"  small "  party,  to  make  a  final  effort  to  induce 
the  Waidensians  to  break  openly  with  Rome. 
A  correspondence  between  the  Brethren  and  the 
Waidensians  was  associated  with  this  journey, 
the  three  Waldensian  treatises,  preserved  either 
entire  or  in  fragments.  La  epistolaal  9ereni8simo 
Rey  Lancelau;  Aycto  es  la  caiAsa  del  nostre  departi- 
merit  de  la  gleyea  Romana ;  and  De  V Antichrist, 
as  well  as  the  catechism  Lae  interrogaHone  menon, 
being  apparently  translations  or  revisions  of  Bohe- 
mian writings  composed  by  the  Brethren,  although 
the  mutual  relations  are  not  yet  altogether  clear. 

n.  The  Brethren  tmder  Lukas:  The  period 
between  1496  and  1528  is  marked  by  the  activity 
of  Lukas.  Although  he  was  not  appointed  presiding 
bishop  imtil  1517,  his  influence  was  potent  during 
the  administration  of  his  predecessors  in  office, 
Procopius  (1507)  and  Thomas  of  PfelouS  (1517). 
His  special  task  was  the  restoration  of  the  Unity 
which  had  become  necessary  in  consequence  of 
the  secession  of  the  "  small "  party.  A  mass  of 
ordinances,  touching  on  all  the  relations  of  life. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Boliemlfto 


prepared  to  build  up  the  Chmtian  community 
the  princtples  newly  won.    The  doctrineB,  whicb 
thus  far  been  formulated  but  feebly,  were  now 
ezimtiBed  on  other  foundations,  and  from  these 
nous  points  of  view  Lukas  developed  a  note- 
^rthy  literary  activity.    The  external  existence 
the  Unity  was  serioii.Hly  threatened  at  the  begin- 
;   of  tbe  sixteenth    century,   when    Vladislav, 
had  tolerated  them  hitherto,  was  induced  to 
against  them  by  Bohualav  of  Lobkowitz, 
foremost   representative  of   Bohemian  human- 
ly who  saw  the  roots  of  manifold  evils  in  religious 
disunion.     At  the  same  lime  Alexander  VI  sent  the 
3tninican  Heinrich  Injstitoris  to  Otmiita  as  censor 
books  for  Bohemia  and  Moravia  (bull  of  Feb.  4, 
1500),  and  he,  after  a  fniitlesa  disputation  with 
ertain  representatives  of  the  Brethren,  preached 
fist   them   with  extreme  severity.     The   over- 
toward  a  reconciliation  between  Rome  and 
he  Utraquists  (1501)  led  the  latter  to  make  com- 
QOD  cause  in  opposition  to  the  Brethren,  and  a 
of  the  king,  dated  July  5,  1503,  forbade  all 
irther  toleration  of  the  sect  in  Prague  and  the 
[jyal    citie*t,    while    the    Roman    Catholic    estates 
oluntarily  enforced  this  prohibition  in  their  dis- 
ict«.     A  conference  held  at  Prague  between  the 
Jtraquistic  clergy  and  some  of  the  Brethren  failed 
to  con\4nce  the  latter  of  their  "  errors,"  nor  did  a 
Latin  creed  given  them  by  the  king  in  15011  meet 
with  their  approval.     He  was  still  more  incensed  at 
them  by  two  venomous  letters  of  the  OlmUtz  canon 
Augustine  Kitoebrot,  so  that  he  issued  a  sharp  decree 
against  them  in    1507-    These  decrees,    however, 
cx>uld  not  beoome  valid  until  accepted  by  the  diet, 
and  Madislav  accordingly  proposed  a  law  against  the 
Brethren  at  the  diet  convoked  on  July  25^  1508» 
Thifl  was  accepted  by  the  estates  and  placed  on  the 
code,    aa    in    force    throughout    the    country.     It 
forbade  alt  public  and  private  gatherings  of  the 
'*  Pickards/'   and  ordered   tlie  destruction   of   a! J 
their  books  and   writings,  while   they  ivere   com- 
manded   to    attend    Roman   Catholic 
I*  Op-       ^^  Utraquistic  churches,  their  clergy 
praaaiva     &nd   teachers   being  prisoners   of   the 
Keastirea    king    unless    they    should     consent, 
of  after    receiving    instniction,    to    join 

Tladl«UT,  oae  of  these  religious  bodies.  The 
law  is  said  to  have  been  obeyed  by  all 
estates  until  Christmas,  and  those  who  still  tolerated 
**  Pickards  "  w^ere  mulcted.  This  measure  condi- 
tioned the  position  of  the  Brethren  in  Bohemia  for 
almost  the  entire  period  of  their  existence,  but  the 
Moravian  diet  refused  to  accept  it.  In  1541  the 
ocxie  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  at  Prague,  so  that  it  be- 
came Deoessary  to  draft  the  laws  anew  at  following 
diets.  Thereupon  the  Brethren  endeavored  to  se- 
cure the  abolition  of  the  law,  but  in  vain;  nor  was 
it  repealed  until  an  imperial  letter  of  Rudolf  II 
in  1609.  It  is  strikingly  suggestive  of  the  political 
conditions  of  Bohemia  in  the  sixteenth  century^ 
however,  that  a  community  which  was  legally 
prohibited,  like  the  Brethren,  could  attain  such 
wide  extension  and  importance.  This  was  possible 
only  because  the  nobles  obeyed  tlic  laws  a.s  they 
pleased,  for  the  king  was  generally  too  much  occu- 
pied with  foreign  affairs  to  be  able  to  insist  rigidly 


on  compliance  with  his  statutes,  and  in  case  he  did 
attempt  to  execute  them,  he  was  resisted  by  a 
coalition  of  the  estates,  who  sought  to  check  fdl 
growth  of  the  royal  power.  At  first  the  law  was 
strictly  observed,  and  the  Brethren  were  severely 
oppressed,  their  meeting-places  being  closed, 
their  priests  expelled,  and  imprisonment  and  even 
occasional  execution  serving  as  deterrent  meas- 
ures. Lukaa  himself  was  imprisoned,  and  was 
freed  only  by  the  death  of  Vladislav  on  Mar,  13, 
1516.  This  event  lessened  the  severity  of  a  pers^ 
cution  which  had  been  opposed  by  some  estates 
from  the  very  beginning.  During  the  reign  of 
Vladislav's  son  Ixiuis,  winch  marked  a  further 
decay  of  the  royal  power,  the  persecution  of  the 
Brethren  ceased  altogether,  and  the  governmental 
center  of  the  Unity,  wliich  had  been  transferred  to 
Prerau  in  Moravia  during  the  period  of  oppression^ 
Tvas  again  removed  to  Bohemia,  and  located  at 
Jiuigbunzlau,  the  residence  of  Lukas.  While  ho 
was  presiding  bishop,  the  Brethren  first  came  into 
contact  with  the  German  Reformation,  when  Luther 
learned  of  their  short  catechism,  of  which  he  seems 
to  have  received  a  German  translation  in  1521. 

Although  Luther  at  first  declared  himself  at  lea.st 
in  sympathy  with  their  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
he  became  estranged  from  the  Brethren  after  1524, 
w^hile  their  tendency  to  remain  aloof,  so  far  as 
posflible,  from  the  Lutheran  movement  was 
strengthened  by  the  vagaries  of  G alius  Cahera  in 
Prague  (1523-29),  especially  since  it 
resTilted  in  the  enforcement  by  the 
diet  of  the  decree  of  \ladiBlav  (1525). 
The  Brethrc^n  also  sent  a  fniitleas 
deputation  to  Erasmus,  apparently  in 
1520.  In  the  closing  years  of  his 
life  Lukas  found  himself  obliged  to  break  with 
the  Habrovanitea  or  Lultish  Brethren  in  Moravia, 
who  were  closely  associated  with  the  "  small  *' 
party,  and  rejected  celibacy,  spiritual  and  temporal 
authority,  and  the  taking  of  oaths,  in  addition  to 
following  Carlstadt  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  wishing  to  substitute  baptism  of  the 
spirit  for  baptism  by  water.  After  a  fnntleaa 
eonferenoe,  letters  were  exchanged  with  consider- 
able frequency  for  a  number  of  years,  while  an  effort 
made  by  the  Anabaptists  who  had  emignitetl  from 
the  Tyrol  to  Mora\'ia  to  unite  with  the  Brethren 
ended  in  1528  in  a  complete  schism.  Lukas  died 
at  Jungbunzlau  on  Dec.  II,  1528,  and  was  buried 
in  the  local  house  of  the  Bretliren,  which  had  for- 
merly been  a  monastery.  The  organization,  how- 
ever, which  he  had  given  the  Unity  remained  un- 
changed until  its  end. 

In  principle  the  supreme  judicial  power  was 
lodged  with  the  synod,  which  consisted  of  all  the 
clergy,  although  it  contained  no  delegates  chosen 
from  the  communities.  It  was,  at  the  same  time, 
the  supreme  court  of  appeal,  although  the  chief  ad- 
ministrative body,  the  "Close Council"  (liikd  rada), 
which  was  composed  of  some  ten  members  chosen 
by  the  synod  for  life,  apparently  constituted  the 
real  government.  The  legal  relation  of  the  *'  Close 
Council  "  to  the  synod  seems  never  to  have  been 
accurately  defined.  At  the  Synod  of  1497  the 
"  Ooae  Council "  was  treated  with  all  submission 


8.  Over- 

tarsfl  to 
the  Prot- 

estanta. 


Bohemian 
Boia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


816 


and  obedience,  and  was  empowered  to  make 
whatever  changes  and  ordinances  it  deemed  best 
without  awaiting  a  decision  of  the  synod.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  it  never  abused  its  privileges,  and 
held  a  general  council  yearly  whenever  this  was 
possible,  while  other  synods  also  existed  in  individ- 
ual districts.  The  presiding  officer  of  the  "  Close 
Council "  was  called  a  "  judge  **  (audi),  and  this 
office  was  originally  united  with  that  of  bishop  in 
the  person  of  Matthias,  although  he  proved  himself 
unequal  to  the  position  in  the  strife  with  the 
"  small "  party,  so  that  Procopius  was  appointed 
sudif  Matthias  retaining  only  the  episcopal  power 
of  ordination.    Authorized  by  the  "  Close  Council," 

he    associated    Thomas    and    Elias, 

8.  I«ater    whom  he  had  already  ordained  priests, 

Oxvanlza-  and  after  the  death  of  Matthias  and 

tion.       the  resignation  of  Procopius  in  1500, 

the  power  of  direction  and  ordination 
was  again  imited,  and  given  to  foiu*  newly  chosen 
Brethren,  Thomas,  Elias,  Lukas,  and  Ambrose, 
the  first  two  already  possessing  the  episcopal  ordi- 
nation and  the  last  two  now  receiving  it.  Each  of 
them  was  placed  over  a  diocese  which  he  controlled 
and  in  which  he  ordained  the  priests.  The  priest 
next  in  age  to  these  four  was  called  the  judge,  and 
had  special  functions.  Jafet,  writing  in  1605, 
sought  to  show  that  this  organization  existed  from 
the  first  and  that  foiu*  bishops  had  ruled  simul- 
taneously since  1467,  and  this  erroneous  view  was 
so  widely  disseminated  by  Wengierski  (Regen- 
volscius)  that  it  is  still  found  sporadically.  At 
the  head  of  each  conmiunity  stood  the  priest  or 
director  (sprdvce),  who  lived  in  the  "  house  of  the 
Brethren  "  and  supported  himself  as  an  artisan  or 
farmer.  He  might  possess  property,  although  he 
was  bound  by  certain  restrictions,  so  that  when,  for 
example,  he  received  a  legacy,  he  was  required 
to  deposit  it  with  the  **  Close  Council,"  which 
deprived  him  of  it  in  case  of  need  or  inability  to 
discharge  his  office.  While  there  was  no  insistence 
on  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  it  was  regarded  as 
desirable,  in  view  of  the  unsettled  position  of  the 
community,  and  was  the  rule  until  the  second  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  With  the  priest  Hved 
his  assistant  or  deacon,  who  aided  him  both  in  his 
daily  toil  and  in  teaching  school,  and  especially  in 
the  instruction  of  the  acolytes  (young  men  in  train- 
ing for  the  priesthood),  who  resided  in  the  "  house 
of  the  Brethren."  The  deacon  accompanied  the 
priest  in  all  his  pastoral  journeys,  and  was  per- 
mitted to  preach,  to  baptize  in  case  of  need,  and  to 
aid  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  although  he  could  neither 
consecrate  the  elements  nor  pronounce  the  bene- 
diction at  the  close  of  the  service  of  the  conmiunity. 
A  council  of  the  community  aided,  and  in  part 
supervised,  the  priest  in  controlling  the  property 
of  the  congregation  and  in  distributing  alms.  The 
income  consisted,  in  addition  to  gifts  and  founda- 
tions, of  two  collections,  taken  at  Christmas  and 
8t.  Jolm's  Day.  Three  persons  were  deputed  to 
oversee  the  giving  of  alms,  wliile  the  council  of  the 
commimity  was  required  to  reconcile  antagonistic 
members  of  the  congregation  with  each  other  or  with 
the  priest,  to  control  morals,  and  to  maintain  the 
discipline  of  the  church.    The  bodies  next  in  rank 


were  the  "  Close  Council "  and  the  synodB.  The 
council  of  the  community  found  its  counterpart  in 
a  oonmiittee  of  aged  widows  and  spinsters  appointod 
to  supervise  the  morals  and  the  conduct  of  the  drten. 
This  organization,  the  genesis  of  which  is  known 
chiefly  from  the  Dekrety,  remained  unchanged 
after  Lukas.  It  was  first  described  in  fuD  d^ 
by  Lasidus  in  the  eighth  book  of  his  history  of  tfae 
Brethren,  and  was  officially  formulated  by  them 
at  the  General  Synod  of  2^vic  in  Moravia,  held 
in  1616. 

in.  Development  from   1528  to  1621:  The  in- 
dependent   development   of   the    Unitas  FnOnm 
closed  with  the  death  of  Lukas.     The  Lutheran 
party  among  the  Brethren,  headed  by  such  men  n 
Johann    Horn    (Roh),    Michael    Weisse,    Jdiann 
Augusta,  and  Mach  Sionsky,  now  became  more 
prominent  and  assumed  the  leadership.    After  the 
brief  administration  of  the  insignificant  Martin 
Skoda,  Horn  became  judge  in  1532,  but  was  ma- 
passed    in  importance    by    his  colleague   Johann 
Augusta,  a  man  characterised  by  meager  eduea- 
1    Johann  *^^^'  ^®*   ^^    ^^^^   fimmoss,  energy, 
An^nsta.    *"^^  eloquence,  and  deeply  impreand 
with  a  sense  of   the  peculiar  advan- 
tages of  the  community.    He  sought  to  associate 
the  Brethren  with  the  foreign  Evangelicals,  and 
found  a  favorable  opportunity  shortly  after  1330, 
when  the  margrave  George  of  Brandenburg  re- 
quested Conrad  of  Krajek  to  instruct  him  in  the 
doctrines  of  his  sect.    A  confession  was  prepared, 
and  Luther  was  induced  to  have  it  printed  at  Witten- 
berg with  a  eulogistic  preface.    At  the  same  time, 
however,  Augusta  made  overtures  to  the  Strasbwg 
theologians,  and   Matthias   Cervenka,   his  envoy 
to  Butzer,  unexpectedly  met  Calvin.    On  the  oth^ 
hand,  his  relations  with  the  Utraquistic  Church  of 
Bohemia    were    strained,    especially    during   the 
administration  of  Mistopol.    Another  trait  which 
characterizes   the   history  of   the   Brethren  after 
Lukas  (1528-47)  is  the  prominence  of  their  nobility. 
The  country  estates  were  required  to  take  part  in 
the  country  diets  just  as  the  estates  of  the  kmgdom 
shared  in  the  royal  diets,  and  it  thus  became  neoea- 
sary  for  the  estates  of  the  Brethren  to  enter  the 
former  to  defend  the  existence  of  their  ecdesiaa- 
tical   union.    In   1535,  therefore,  they  gave  King 
Ferdinand   the  creed  of   the  Brethren,  signed  by 
all  members  of   the  nobility  among  them,  twdve 
lords   and   thirty-five  knights.    Since  ten  of  the 
twenty-six  nobles  tried  by  Ferdinand  after  the  sup- 
pression of  the  so-called  Bohemian  revolt  in  1547 
were  members  of  the  Unity,  he  foimd  a  long-desired 
pretext  to  crush  the  community  so  far  as  possible. 
The  decree  of  Vladislav  was  reenforced,  certain  es- 
tates which  had  been  the  centers  of  the  brotherhood 
were  confiscated  by  the  king,  and  the  former  pro- 
tectors of  the  Brethren  were  no  longer  able  to  evade 
the  execution  of  the  decree  under  the  existing  cir- 
cumstances.   The  community  was  practically  des- 
troyed in  Bohemia.     Its  seat  of  government  was 
transferred  to  Moravia,  but  the  majority  of  the  Breth- 
ren were  banished  from  the  entire  kingdom.    Au- 
gusta himself  was  betrayed  to  Ferdinand,  and  re- 
gained his  freedom  only  after  repeated  tortures  and 
an  imprisonment  of  sixteen  years. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bohemian 
Boia 


ixth  decade  of  the  century  ushered  in  a  period 
arative  peace  for  the  Brethren,  and  they  now 
under  the  leadership  of  Johanii  Bbhowliiv, 
state  recognition  of  their  Church,  their 
seeming  capeciidly  favorable  in  view  of 
posed  Protestant  tendency  of  Maximilian, 
and  the  following  years  they  accordingly 
inid  to  win  tlve  favor  of  the  archduke  through 
I  conferences  between  Blahoslav  and  Maxi- 
court  preacher,  Pfau^^r  of  Vienna,  btit 
Forts  to  secure  definite  promises  for  the 
ore  little  fruit.  The  same  object  was  pur- 
sued by  Utraquismi  which  had  now 
^^^  become  essentially  Lutheran ,  and  wlueh 
^f  had  prepared  a  new  creed  for  the  Lu- 
m*  theran  Church  in  Bohemi a  in  1575,  after 
I*  the  compacts  had  been  annulled  by  the 
diet  of  deputies  in  1567  ob  antiquated. 
I  their  representatives  the  Brethren  sought 
their  independence  clearly  expressed  in  the 
of  the  new  creed,  but  their  chance  of  recog- 
f  the  side  of  the  "  Neo-lTtraquiata  "  steadily 
d|  while  their  essential  community  of 
with  the  new  body  became  more  and  more 
[n  1609,  when  the  estates  forced  Rudolf 
hifi  charter,  the  Brethren  shared  the  relig- 
irty  which  it  granted  by  joining  in  the  Bo- 
Oonfession  of  1575,  after  having  already 
full  explanation  of  its  acceptance  in  the 
year. 

»ecial  names  were  now  to  cease,  and  the 
I  of  the  united  Bohemian  Evangelical 
Rrere  henceforth  t-o  be  culled  "  Utraquistic 
is/'  The  Brethren  were  represented  in 
mon  consistory,  but  despite  the  abolition 
of  a  separate  name,  this  was,  strictly 
M  speaking,  not  a  union,  but  rather 
«D  a  confederation  between  the  Unitaa 
m  Fratrum  and  the  Bohemian  Church. 
'•^  The  Brethren,  therefore,  retained  their 
*"  own  organization  and  regulations, 
and  even  their  independent  creed 
while  the  Bohemian  Lutberana,  in  like 
held  to  the  Augsburg  Confession^  although 
Bcb  are  decla^^d  to  be  in  full  harmony  with 
[lenu&n  Confession  of  1575,  De&nitive 
10  accordingly  given  the  <^iirch  discipline 
brethren  at  the  Synod  of  Zeravic  in  1616 
iie  title  R4Jtw  di^cipUno!  ordinisqtte  eccle- 
n  unilale  fratrum  Bohemanim,  bu*.  the  plan 
ig  this  vaUd  for  the  -whole  Bohemian  Church 
i  realised.  This  organization,  however, 
a  brief  period  of  prosperity,  for  the  battle 
''hite  Hill  (Nov.  8,  1620)  destroyed  Protes- 
tn  Bohemia  and  Moravia  for  more  than  a 
and  a  half, 

19  Brethren  in  Prussia  and  Poland:  The 
i  eicpelled  from  Bohemia  in  1547  in  consc- 
of  the  Schmalkald  War  emigrated  partly 
ria  and  partly  to  Pnissia,  wiiere  they  were 
by  Duke  Albert.  After  his  death  in  156S 
limed  to  Moravia  and  Pijland,  exercising  an 
Dt  influence  on  the  introduction  of  the 
itbn  in  the  latter  country,  and  attempting 
ilish  friendly  relations  between  the  various 
Jcal  bodies  at  a  synod  held  at  Scndomir  in 


1570.  Their  scanty  remnants  still  exist  in  the 
five  so-cal!e<i  communities  of  Unity  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Posen:  Posen,  Lissa,  Lasswita,  Waschke, 
and  OrzcBzkowo.  Jobef  Mueller. 

Bini^iociRAPHv:  For  full  hihliography  of  the  i»ubii?ct  con- 
suk  W.  G,  Malin.  Catalogue  of  BookM  rtlaiino  U.*  m  iUtistra- 
ting  the  Hi»ioru  of  the  Unitas  Fralrum  or  United  Breth- 
ren now  ffeneraiitf  knoien  aa  the  Moravian  Church,  Philafiol- 
phia.  1881. 

For  general  hiatory  consult:  J.  Camerttrius,  IfiMttricti 
narraiio  de  fratrum  arthodoxomm  ecclejttia  in  Btthemia, 
Aftiravui,  et  Potonia,  Heidelberg,  160S;  J.  La»icitui,  D» 
origins  et  inttitutiM  Fnairum  iibri  viii  (only  the  eighth 
book  wiwi  published,  ed,  J.  A.  Comeniuii,  IM9);  Hittoria 
j)er»etuHonum  eecleBiw  Bohemicm^  Amsterdam.  1648,  Eng. 
trannLf  Loncfoii^  1650;  J,  A.  Ck>memue,  EccieniB  Sla^ 
vonicce  hi»tori^la,  Amaterdam,  IBflO;  idem,  HUtorin  fra- 
trum Bohemorumy  ed.  Buddcwi,  Halle,  1702;  Martyrolo- 
gium  Bohemicum,  odrr  die  btihrniacha  VerfolgunffBoeschichlm^ 
S9A-iG32,  Berlin,  n6«\;  D.  Cram,  Alts  und  ntue  BrUder 
Hittorie,  Barby,  1771.  Eng.  tratisl.,  London^  1780;  The 
Reformation  artd  Anti-Reformation  in  Bohemia,  ib.  1845; 
V.  Krasiiuki.  Rdigious  Hiatt.try  of  the  Slavonic  Nations, 
Edinburgh,  1851;  A.  Gindely,  Ge»chichte  der  biihmi9chen 
BrOder,  2  vol8.»  Prague,  1857t  A*  Bost.  Hi»t.  of  the  Bo- 
hemian and  Aforavian  Brethren,  London,  1863;  E,  W. 
Cromer.  Get^hichte  der  alien  Briiderkirche.  CSnadau,  1865; 
D.  Benham.  Note*  on  the  Origin  and  EpiMcopate  of  the  Bo- 
hemian Brethren.  London.  1867;  B.  Cserwenka,  OeschiehlB 
der  evanffelischen  Kirche  in  Bshmen^  2  vols.,  BieleTeld. 
1870;  E.  Jane  Whately,  Sketche*  of  Bohemian  ReligiouM 
History,  London,  1876;  E,  do  Schweiniti,  //it/,  of  the 
Church  knoum  a*  the  Unita*  Fratrum,    Hethlehem,    1SS5. 

For  the  ehurch  order  consult:  Ratio  di»ciptinm  ordi^ 
ntJiqtte  ecHeBiii»tiei  in  unitate  fratnam  Bohemorumt  Lea** 
no,  1632,  Amaterdjim.  1660,  and  Halle,  1732;  B.  Seifferth, 
Ckurdi  ConttituHon  of  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Bretk' 
r«n.     The  Original  Latin  urith  a  TransL^  London,  1866, 

The  ortgiEkal  text  of  the  Confeeeion  Ib  reproduced  in  A, 
Giodely,  QuelUn  sttr  Oeeehichte  der  hiihmischen  BrOfier, 
p.  354  «iq.,  Vienna,  1861,  and  in  de  Schweiniti,  HiaL^ry, 
ut  ETup.,  pp.  648  sqq.  Conidult  ali<o  J.  C.  Koeeher,  Die 
drey  letxten  und  vornehmeten  GlaubenebekenntniM*e  <f«r 
b6hmi»chen  BrUder,  Leip^^ie,  1741;  H.  A.  Niemeyer,  Col- 
leciio  confew^num,  pp.  771  sqq.,  ib.  1840. 

For  catechism*  eonsuU:  J.  G.  Eh  wall.  Die  alte  und  netie 
LeAri  der  bohminchen  BrMer,  Dansig.  1756;  C.  A.  G,  von 
Zetscbwiii,  Die  Katechierr^n  der  Waidenaer  und  Itokm^ 
echen  BrOder,  Erlangen,  1863;  J.  Mdller.  Die  deuieckan 
Katechiemen  der  bdhmiadtien  BrUder,  Berlin.  1887. 

Oq  the  Hymnology  consult:  P,  Wackemoffel^  Daa 
deuteche  Kirchenlied,  iii,  220-368,  iv,  346-485,  Berlin. 
1870-75;  J.  Zahn,  Die  geieUiehen  l^ieder  der  BrUder  In 
B6hmmn,  Mohren  und  Polen,  Nuremberg,  1876;  JiiiUan» 
Hymnoloffy,  pp.  163-160. 

BOIS  (BOYS),  JOHlf:  Church  of  England 
scholar;  b.  at  Nettlestead,  near  Hadleigh  (35  m» 
e.s.e.  of  Cambridge),  SuiTolk,  Jan.  3,  1561;  d.  at 
Ely  Jan.  14,  1644.  He  Btudied  at  St.  John's  and 
Magdalen  Collegei*,  Cambriilge,  was  dec  ten!  fellow 
of  the  former  in  \5S(\\  and  was  Greek  lecturur  1584- 
1595;  bec4ime  rt'ctor  of  Boxworth  (5  m.  n.w,  of 
Cambridge)  1596,  and  prebcndjuy  of  Ely  1615.  He 
was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Authorized  Ver- 
fiion,  belonging  to  the  Apocrypha  company,  and 
when  hiB  own  part  was  done  h  said  t-o  have  assisted 
the  other  Cambridge  company  on  the  section  from 
Chronicles  to  Canticle^s;  he  waa  one  of  the  delegates 
engaged  in  the  final  reviaion.  He  assisted  Sir 
Henry  Savile  (who  calts  him  '*  most  ingenious  and 
most  learned  '*)  in  Im  eilition  of  ChrysoBtom  (8 
volfl.,  Eton,  1612  [1610-13]),  and  left  many  manu- 
Bcripts,  but  his  only  published  work  was  Vetervi  in- 
terpretU  cum  Beta  aiiUque  re^entwribua  coUotio  in 
qwiiiiuor  evangeliU  et  aposiolorum  actis  (London, 
1655). 


BollnffbroZio 
Bolsano 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


218 


1 


BniiZooEAPHT:  The  lif«  of  Bois,  founded  {Mirtly  on  his  diary 
and  written  by  Anthony  Walker,  is  printed  in  Francis 
Ptoek's  Detiderala  eurioM,  ii,  325-342,  London.  1779.  and 
additions  to  it  by  T.  Baker  are  appended  to  Peck's  Mem- 
oir§  of  .  .  .  Oliver  Cromwell,  London,  1740.  Consult 
also  DNB,  V,  311-313. 

BOLINGBROKE,  HENRY  SAINT-JOHN,  VIS- 
COUNT.    See  Deism,  I,  §  8. 

BOLIVIA :  A  republic  of  western  South  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Brazil;  on  the 
south  by  Paraguay  and  Argentina;  and  on  the 
west  by  Chile  and  Peru.  The  area  is  estimated  at 
from  620,000  to  600,000  square  miles,  the  popula- 
tion from  1,900,000  to  2,500,000,  of  whom  1,260,000 
are  Indians  and  over  500,000  half-breeds.  The 
constitution  adopted  in  1826  after  independence  had 
been  attained  recognized  Roman  Catholicism  as 
the  state  religion  and  prohibited  the  public  exercise 
of  any  other  form  of  faith,  toleration  existing  only 
in  new  colonies.  Nevertheless,  the  properties  of 
the  Church  were  confiscated  and  sold,  only  the 
bishops  being  allowed  a  moderate  annual  sum. 
Complete  religious  liberty  was  granted  by  the  gov- 
ernment in  1905. 

In  its  hierarchical  organization,  Bolivia  forms 
the  province  of  La  Plata,  under  the  archbishop  of 
La  Plata  (Chuquisaca  de  la  Plata)  or  Sucre  (diocese 
since  1551;  archdiocese  since  1609  with  136  par- 
ishes). The  suffragan  bishoprics  are  those  of 
Cochabamba,  La  Paz,  and  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra. 
Cochabamba,  founded  in  1847,  has  fifty-six  parishes; 
La  Paz,  founded  1608,  has  thirty-eight;  and  Santa 
Cruz,  founded  1606,  fifty-four.  In  addition  to  the 
secular  clergy,  members  of  orders,  including  the 
Jesuits,  are  actively  engaged  in  missionary  labors 
among  the  Indians,  of  whom  some  200,000  still 
cling  to  their  pagan  faith.  The  schools  among  the 
converted  Indians  are  under  religious  control. 
There  are  four  seminaries  for  the  clergy,  six  "  uni- 
versities," and  sixteen  higher  schools. 

The  inaccessibility  of  Bolivia  renders  immigra- 
tion, especially  from  Europe  and  North  America, 
scanty.  The  number  of  Protestants  in  the  country 
is  accordingly  small.  There  is  a  Presbyterian 
chapel  in  Sucre.  Canadian  Baptists  have  been 
engaged  in  missionary  work  in  the  country  since 
1898  and  have  organized  churches  at  Oruro,  La 
Paz,  and  Cochabamba.  More  recently  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  has 
entered  the  field  with  headquarters  at  La  Paz.  An 
interdenominational  mission  is  being  conducted  at 
Cochabamba  by  Australians.  The  educational  sys- 
tem is  being  reorganized  under  the  direction  of 
an  American  missionary. 

Biblioorapht:  Bolivia,  issued  by  Bureau  of  American 
Republics,  Washington,  1891.  cf.  the  Annual  Reporte  of 
the  Bureau  since  then;  A.  Bellessont,  La  Jeune  AmSrique. 
Chili  et  Bolivie,  Paris,  1807;  C.  Matsenauer,  Bolivia  in 
hiatorischer,  geographiacher  und  adtureller  Hineicht,  Vienna, 
1897;  J.  S.  Dennis,  Centennial  Survey  of  Foreign  Mie- 
eiona,  New  York,  1902;  T.  C.  Dawson,  The  South  Ameri- 
can Republice,  vol.  ii,  New  York,  1904;  J.  Lee,  Religioiie 
Liberty  in  South  America;  vnth  epecial  Reference  to  recent 
Legislation  in  Peru,  Ecuador  and  Bolivia,  Cincinnati,  1907. 

BOLLAIH),    JAN,    AlfD    THE    BOLLAITOISTS: 

The   founder  of   the  monumental   hagiographical 
work   known   as   the   Acta  Sanctorum   BoUandis- 


tarum  (see  Acta  Mabttrum,  Acta  Sanctorum),  and 
his  associates.  Bolland  was  bom  at  Julemont,  nor 
Li^,  Aug.  13,  1596;  d.  at  Antwerp  Sept.  12, 1065. 
He  entered  the  Jesuit  order  in  1612,  was  ordsined 
priest  before  1625,  and  in  1630  was  sent  to  Ant- 
werp^ where  he  began  what  was  to  prove  his  life- 
woric,  making  use  of  the  mass  of  accumulated  male- 
rial  left  by  Hdribert  Rosweyde  (q.v.)»  the  originatar 
of  the  idea,  but  largely  extending  the  space  con- 
templated by  him.  After  working  for  thirteen 
years  on  the  two  volumes  of  January,  he  called  to 
his  aid  two  other  Jesuits,  Gottfried  Henschen  and 
Daniel  Papebroch  (qq.v.),  who  visited  numenMH 
libraries  of  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy  in  quest  of 
material,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  magnifi- 
cent collection  of  120,000  volumes  which  tha 
Bollandists  now  possess.  The  first  volume  ap- 
peared at  Antwerp  in  1643,  and  the  work  went  on 
without  interruption  until  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits  in  1773.  Their  house  at  Antwerp  was  to 
be  turned  into  a  military  school,  and  there  seemed 
little  prospect  of  continuing  their  task  until  in 
1776  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  made  amng&- 
ments  to  help  them,  and  two  yeais  later  assigned 
them  the  Caudenberg  monastery  in  Brussds  as  a 
home.  Here  they  labored  on  as  a  company  of 
secular  priests  until  Joseph  II  interfered  arbi- 
trarily with  their  plans  and  finally,  in  1788,  for- 
bade them  to  continue  the  publication,  as  a  mere 
collection  of  old  documents  which  could  have  but  lit- 
tle interest  for  educated  men.  In  the  following  year 
the  Premonstratensians  of  the  abbey  of  Tangeik) 
in  Brabant  offered  to  buy  their  library  and  con- 
tinue the  work.  The  sixth  volume  of  October 
appeared  there  in  1794;  but  in  1796  the  French 
Republic  took  possession  of  Belgium  and  dissolved 
the  abbey;  the  manuscripts,  however,  were  pre- 
served in  the  Royal  Library  at  Brussds.  Thou^ 
both  Napoleon  and  the  French  Academy  desired 
the  continuation  of  the  work,  it  was  not  found 
possible  imtil  1837,  when,  under  the  inspiration 
of  De  Ram,  rector  of  the  University  of  Louvain, 
the  Belgian  Jesuits  once  more  took  it  up,  with  the 
promise  of  an  annual  subsidy  of  6,000  francs  from 
the  government.  The  editors  are  now  at  work  on 
the  month  of  November,  and  at  the  present  rate  of 
progress,  it  is  hoped  that  the  end  of  the  twentieth 
century  may  see  the  completion  of  the  gigantic 
work.  The  present  Bollandists  are  also  publishing 
(since  1882)  an  annual  volume  of  Analecta  BoUan- 
diana,  containing  additional  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Syriac  texts,  new  dissertations,  and  conectionfl 
to  the  earlier  part  of  the  work;  and  since  1890 
they  have  also  published  a  BuUeiin  de  puUica- 
tions  hagiographiquea,  a  review  of  all  new  books 
bearing  on  the  subject.  They  have  published,  in 
addition,  two  complete  bibliographies  (Greek,  1  vol., 
Latin,  2  vols.)  of  all  the  printed  texts  and  other 
works  on  hagiography. 

Biblioorapht:  A  memoir  of  BoUand  is  pfvfized  to  roL  i 
for  March  of  the  ASB,  Consult  further  J.  If.  Neale.  B*- 
eaye  on  Liturgiology,  pp.  89-07,  London,  1863;  C.  De- 
haisnes,  Lea  Originea  dea  Acta  Sandorum,  Douai,  1809; 
G.  T.  Stokes,  The  BoUandiata,  in  CorJemporary  Review, 
xliii  (1883),  69-84;  B.  AuM,  Lea  Demiera  Travaux  dm 
BoUandiatea,  in  Revue  dea  deux  ntondea,  bnriii  (1885).  161^ 
199. 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Boltng-broke 
Bolzano 


ILSEC,  JERdME  HERHES:  French  contro- 
list  and  physician;  b.  at  Paris  in  the  early 
jhit  8uct^!€nth  century;  d,  probably  at  Lyons 
entered  tbe  Carmelite  order,  but  was 
Paris  for  the  boldnt-ss  of  his  sermotis 
fled  to  Ferrara.  In  L550  he  was  physician 
H.  lie  Falais,  a  nobleman  residing  near  Geneva, 
was  a  friend  of  Calvin.  Bolsec  was  fond  of 
ling  in  dogmatics,  bot  was  repeatedly  admon- 
by  the  eompagnu  den  pa^teurs  that  liifi  objcc- 
the  doctrine  of  predestination  were  con- 
the  Bible*  He  seemed  to  submit,  but  on 
1551,  he  provoked  a  new  discussion  at 
on  tbe  same  subject  and  was  imprisoned, 
bweupon  he  eliarged  Calvin  with  ignorance  of 
Bible  and  of  teaching  contrary  to  it,  and  the 
icii,  in  their  perplexity,  accepted  the  propo- 
n  of  the  clergj'  to  ask  the  odv'ioe  of  the  Swiss 
Rtrrbes.  Their  condemnation  of  Bolsec  was 
Bd,  but  the  clergy  of  Basel  declared  that  Bolsec 
»  heretical  in  many  respects,  while  the  pastors 
KeuchAtel  declared  that  he  was  an  instrument 
Satan.  On  Dec,  22  he  was  sentenced  to  per- 
llttl  banishment  for  publishing  offensive  doc- 
tm,  as  well  as  for  slandering  the  clergy  and 
ligmg  them  with  preaching  false  dogmas.  He 
C3cpelled  from  Thonon  (Chablais)  by  Cah'in, 
c(  from  Lausanne  by  Beza,  after  having  again 
the  fonner  of  "  milking  God  the  author 
lift/-  He  then  returned  to  France  and  abjured 
Dteetantism.  He  was  the  author  of  three  works: 
Jtftroir,  envoyi  de  V/tU^  au  R&t  Charl€4t  neu- 
m  (1562)  I  addreased  to  the  king  to  bring  about 
nloRii«>tio(n;  Histoire  de  Ui  etc,  mcenrs,  ades, 
Hut,  eofUianc€  et  ntort  de  Jean  Calinn^  jadw 
iiitrt  de  Genhfe  (Lyons,  1677)»  which  made 
itt(hor  infamous;  and  HUtoire  deta  me,  m/rurs, 

KdtpfrrUmem  de  Th.  de  Bhze,  dit  le  Spec- 
d  minietre  de  Gen^oe  (Paris,  1582),  written 
of  moderation,    Tbe  entire  life  of  Bolsec 
I  to  bave  been  a  restless,  vain  spirit,  not 
■venipulous  in  getting  revenge  or  in   winning 

EuofeNE  Choiby. 
N*ec  may  easily  be  repreaentetl  in  a  more  f a- 
ble  light  &«  an  honest  opponent  of  Cahinislic 
u,  and  an  advocate  of  liberty  of  conscience 
freedom  of  speech.  Persecution  (defamation, 
PKat«d  imprisfjnment.  banishment  from  Geneva 
'  from  other  places  w^here  he  attempted  to  settle 
the  persistent  efforts  of  Calvin,  Beza,  and 
fiw)  embittered  his  spirit  and  no  doubt  led  to 
Igfemted  representations  of  the  tyranny  and 
rtty  of  hiB  opponents,  and  at  last  drove  him 
\  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.       A.  H.  N. 

JOoiapiit;  CR,  Optra  Calvini,  viii,  141;  E.  and  6. 
MC  £o  Fr^nem  protmsiatUt,  ed.  H.  L.  B<irdiFr,  vol  ii. 
^  1870;  E,  Choby.  La  Th^ocratie  h  Gen^tft  au  ttmp» 
Cofftn,  GstMfTft.  1S07:  J.  A.  Gauticr,  Hititnn  dt  OenUft, 
^^ni.,  ib.  18f»9. 

BOLSEWA,  MIRACLE  OF:  A  miracle  which, 
rTdine  to  an  account  strongly  affirmed  in  local 
"iition,  occurred  in  1264  in  the  town  of  Bolsena 
*•  wicient  VuLsLnins;  7  ni.  s.w.  of  Orvieto)  in 
^^^,  Italy.  The  details  of  tlic  Ktory  vary  in 
f'ltnt  ftocouni8>  but  the  substance  of  the  occur- 
^  ii  M  follows:  A  priest,  who  had  been  long 


troubled  with  doubts  as  to  the  real  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  accidentally  let  fall  upon 
the  linen  corporal,  while  saying  mass,  some  drops 
from  the  consecrated  chalJce.  While  endeavoring 
to  conceal  thl"?  mishap,  he  was  amazed  to  perceive 
that  the  stain  was  no  longer  as  of  wine  but  resembled 
frcNh  blood,  and  had  not  the  irregular  trace  of  a 
fcTV  spOled  drops,  but.  the  form  and  contour  of  the 
consecrated  host  or  wafer.  The  rairacle  produced 
a  great  sensation  throughout  the  surrounding 
country.  Pope  Urban  IV,  at  that  time  staying 
in  Orvieto  with  the  pontifical  court,  caused  the 
stained  corporal  to  be  brought  to  the  city,  where  it 
has  e ver  since  been  carefully  preserved .  T  his  m  iracle 
was  the  determining  reason  which  cauweti  I' rban  to 
make  general  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  Cor]iua 
Christi  (q.v.).  The  composition  of  the  liturgical 
office  of  the  feast  was  entrusted  to  Thomas  Aquinas^ 
but  in  it  there  is  no  allusion  to  the  miracle. 

The  miracle  of  Bolsena  has  been  im mortal izetl 
by  the  genius  of  Raffael,  who  made  it  the  subject 
of  one  of  his  frescoes  in  the  second  sala  of  the  Vati- 
can. The  painting  idealizes  the  scene  and  intro- 
duces, not  Urban  IV  but  Julius  11,  unflor  whose 
pontificate  the  fresco  was  executed,  as  present  at 
the  mass.  The  present  cathedral  church  of  Or^ 
vteto  was  built  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  stntrture 
to  commemorate  the  miracle,  and  much  of  the  elal>- 
orate  decoration  refers  to  it.  The  corporal  is 
preserved  in  a  silver  shrine  enriched  with  many 
figures  in  relief  and  subjects  in  translucent  colored 
enamels.  The  shrine  was  begun  by  l^golino  Veri 
of  Sienna  in  1338  and  is  one  of  the  meet  imjiortant 
specimens  of  me<lieval  silversmith  work  in  Italy. 
The  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  is  celebrated  with 
extraordinary  solemnity  each  year  in  Orvieto  and 
the  corporal  is  carried  in  procession  throiagh  the 
town  together  with  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 

jAitEs  F.  Driscoll. 

BiBLtooRAPBT:  DicHonnaire  dtm  propkfHtM  «l  dm  miraeUst 
vol.  i.  in  Mjffne'fl  Eneffdopidi^  tMot^fno^t^  vol.  xxir,  FmrtM, 
1852. 

BOLZANOp  boUsa'nO,  BERlfHARD :  German  Ro- 
man Catholic  theologian,  and  noted  mathematician; 
b.  at  Prague  Oct.  5,  1781;  d.  there  Dec.  IS,  1848. 
He  took  orders  and  was  made  professor  of  the 
philosophy  of  religion  in  Prague  1805.  He  was  scjon 
suspected  of  heterodo^^',  waa  accused  at  Rome 
by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  1820,  on  a  charge  of  connection 
with  certain  student  societies,  was  compelled  to 
resign  his  professorship;  he  was  also  suspended 
from  his  priestly  functions.  Thenceforth  be  de- 
voted himself  to  study  and  literary  work.  He 
sought  to  reconcile  the  teachings  of  the  Church 
with  reason  and,  it  was  saidt  considered  the  reason- 
ableness of  a  doctrine  of  more  importance  tlian 
its  traditional  beiief.  In  philosophy  he  was  influ- 
enoed  by  Leibniti  and  Kant.  His  contributions 
to  mathematical  science  were  original  and  im- 
portant. His^  works  were  numerous;  the  most 
noteworthy  are  I^hrbuch  der  Reii^Mmmmssenschofi 
(4  vols.,  Snlzbach,  1834),  a  philosophic  presentation 
of  the  dogmas  of  Roman  Cathofic  theology;  Wimen^ 
Mchaftslekre ;  Ver8%idi  tiner  neuen  DartteUung  der 
Logik  (4  vols.,  1837). 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0Q 


m±,  Vittutt,  li7S  <M 


);  Dr.  B^Uanfi  vnd 
mmm  dmm,  Ldbm  B.  Boi- 


BOHBERGER,  JOHH  HEHRf  AUGUSTUS: 
Eefomied  iCttmrn};  b,  at  Lancaiter,  P^ifui., 
J»a*  tSp  1SI7;  d.  at  Collegeville,  Fetm.,  Aug.  19, 
18S0.  He  wa»  graduated  at  Marshal  CbUegjCr 
1837p  and  at  iht  Hieotagical  Bemiitary^  Mercera- 
hws,  Prna*,  1^8;  aerved  ba  paMor  of  German 
Heformed  CburchiaH  in  PetumylvaaiA  till  1870, 
when  be  ba^me  preddant  of  Uriiiiua  GoUege  at 
GbUcgeville.  He  began  a  eondeiuied  transUtion 
of  Ibe  first  editloti  of  Htfreog's  B^ient^fkhp&die 
of  irhieh  two  voliimefl  were  publiahad  (Philadd- 
phia,  ISfid^^),  entbraciDg  vols,  i-vi  of  the  orig- 
inai;  ba  lasued  a  revised  ttanslatkni  of  Kurta'a 
T€xUo0k  ef  Church  Hi^dary  (Philadelphia,  1860), 
and  edited  Th^  Befonn^  Chwrch  Mtmihiy  (in 
oppositioii  to  the  **  Mercersburg  ihedogj "), 
1B0S-77.  He  alao  publuibed  Infani  Salvaiion  in 
iU  EelfxHon  lo  infani  Dcpraviij/f  Infani  lUj^nm'uiwn^ 
and  Infani  Baptism  (1859);  Fim  Yem-a  at  the  Rac^ 
Str^^  Chttrch  [Philadelphia],  wUh  an  ecdcmaaiiad 
appendix  (1^0)^  The  Remsmi  Uiwrgy,  a  hislaiy 
and  GfiHcitm  of  the  ritualistic  mavemeni  in  the 
German  Mefarmed  Church  (1S67);  ReformM,  noi 
Hitualisiic :  a  reply  to  Dr,  Nevin**  "  Vindicaiimi  -* 
(1S67). 

BOHA^  GIOVAHiri:  Roman  Catholic  theology 
ical  writer^  b.  at  Mondavi  (56  tn.  w.  of  Genoa), 
Piedmont,  Oct.  19,  1600;  d.  in  Rome  Oct.  28, 
1674.  He  came  of  an  old  French  family,  and  in 
hi  a  fifteenth  year  entered  the  Italian  congregation 
of  reformed  CiAtereians,  beooming  later  prior, 
abbot,  and  general,  Clement  IX  made  him  a 
omlinal  in  16Q9,  and  he  acquired  a  great  reputation 
for  both  piety  and  learning.  Hii  motit  important 
writings  are  aacctical  and  liturgical.  To  the  latter 
claas  belong  his  FstUlenlis  e€clemw  harmonia  (Rome^ 
1653),  a  hiiitorical,  symbolic ,  and  ascetic  treatiae 
on  the  pflialmody  of  the  Church,  and  the  stilt  better 
known  Rerum  liiurgtcarum  libfi  ii  (Rome,  1671), 
a  sober  and  learned  investigation  of  liturgical 
antiquiti^.  The  first  complete  f^ition  of  hia 
workfi  appeared  at  Antweip,  1677,  followed  by 
several  others, 

BOMALD,  LOUIS  OAfiRIEL  AJCBR0I5E,  VI- 
COMTE  DE;  Frciich  politiciil  and  philosophical 
writer;  b.  at  Munna,  near  Millau  (130  m.  w.n.w. 
of  Marseilles),  Avcyron,  Oct.  2,  17M;  d.  there 
Nov,  23,  1840.  He  emigrated  in  1791  and  settled 
at  Heidelberg;  returned  to  France  in  1797,  lived 
in  concealment  for  a  timc^  and  then  was  allowed 
to  proceed  to  his  estates;  in  1808  he  was  appointed 
councilor  of  the  Imperial  University,  and^  after 
the  Heatoration,  member  of  the  Council  of  Public 
Instruction;  from  1BI5  to  1822  he  waa  member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  io  1822  minister  of 
State,  and  in  1823  was  made  a  peer  of  France; 
after  1830  he  retirtxl  to  private  life.  He  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  reactionary  school  to  which 
belonged  De  Maistre.  D' Eckstein,  Ballanche,  Lamen- 
nais,  and  others,  which  started  with  the  principle 


that  fcv^datioD  and  sot 
grotiiid  of  pbikvplij; 


i  the  b 
in  poiitiei  i 


▼i^w  the  natural  az>d  dearable  order  of  tlm^ 
Thm  moBt  notewortbj  of  bii  nmnj  wntingi  m 
ThionM  du  paiaoir  poivHqme  et  rdi^iemx   (3  vd 
Ooaatanoe,  1796);  La  L^^daHom  primiHm  (3  iid 
Pam«    1802);    BetA^vhea    pdMZoa^M^tM*    sw 
premiers  o6jeCt  deu  coiuiaieacpusi  mwraka  (2  fid 
1818),    His    collected    wofka    were    pubhshed 
twelve  volumes  hi    1817-19  and  mptm  h  tb 
volumes  In  1859.     His  aeoond  aoo,  Lou^  Jicfi 
Ma«ri««,  b.  at  Millau  Oct.  30,  1787,  d.  at  L;o 
Feb.  25,  1870,  beieame  bishop  of  Fuy  in  1823^  ut 
bishop  of   Lyone  in   1839,   cardinal  in   1141; 
was  a  strong  Ultramonlane- 

BatAOomAfWft  Victor  de  Booalii  D9  la  vU  ti  dm  ioi^ 
nomtto  4m  Btmald.  JLrigmsa,  ISSS  Cb^  bl*  mmV,    L  Bk 

LtToom,  1S70. 

BOVAR, AHDREW ALEUUrailK:  FmCbiF 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  Edinburgh  May  29,  181 
youngest  brother  of  Horatius  Bonar  (q.v.);  d. 
Glasgow  Dee,  30,  1892,  He  studied  at  Edi^noi 
was  minister  at  Coll  ace,  Perthshire,  183S-n5A, 
the  Finnieeton  Church,  Glasgow,  1856  till  his  detf 
He  joined  the  Free  Church  in  1843,  and  wm 
moderator  in  1S7S.  He  was  identified  with  en 
^Ucal  and  revival  roovementa  and  sdh^ed 
the  doctrine  of  prcmillenialism.  With  the  Bi 
R.  M.  MeCheyne  he  visits  Palestine  in  1830 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  Jews  theier  * 
published  A  NaTratirm  of  a  Miam&n  of  Inqmrjf 
ihe  JewA  from  the  Church  of  SmUand  in  1S3&  (Ed 
burgh,  1842);  he  also  published  a  MeTnoir  of ) 
MeCheyne  flS45);  a  Commentary  on  LmH 
(1846);  Rrdtmpiioen  Drawing  Nighj  a  dejerux 
FremiUeniali^m  (1847);  Ckri«i  and  his  Cfci 
in  the  Book  of  Psaima  (1859);  edited  Ban 
Rutherford^s  iMiera  ( t§63);  and  wrote  many  in 
pamphlets,  and  minor  biographies. 

BtnLiociHAPifT:  A.  A.  Bomtr.  Diartt  nt^  t^^ert,  edjtec 
hu  dAUjsht«r,  M&rjory  Hon&r,  London,  IS95,  who  | 
iuh«d  iklAO  A.  Tolunue  of  Beminitct^rKfeM^  ib,  1 S05. 

BOHAR,  HORATinS:  Free  Church  of  Scolla 
b.  in  Edmburgh  Dec.  19,  1808;  d.  there  July 
1889*  He  ^studied  at  Edinburgh;  become  mini 
at  Kelso  1837,  at  the  Chalmeia  Memorial  Chu 
Edinburgh,  1866;  with  his  congregation  he  joi 
the  Free  Church  in  1843.  He  was  a  premHlena 
and  expressed  his  views  in  books,  such  as  Prop 
icid  Landmarks  (London,  1S47),  and  in  the  Q^ 
terly  jQurnai  of  Prophecy ^  which  he  founded  in  l- 
He  is  best  known  for  his  poems  and  hymns  wl 
include  "  What  a  friend  we  have  in  Jesus,''  ^*  I  hi 
the  voice  of  Jesus  say,"  and  others  equally  fami 
The  best  known  collections  of  his  verse  are  Hi§ 
of  Faith  and  Hope  (3  vols.,  1857-66);  The  ^ 
of  th€  New  Creation  and  oiher  pieaei  (1872);  Hy 
of  the  NoHtrity  (1878);  Songs  of  Lope  and  Joy  (18 
Unlil  the  Daybreak  and  other  hymns  left  b^ 
(1890).  His  proae  publications,  besides  seno 
tracts,  etc.,  include  The  Nighi  of  Weeping,  or  1^ 
for  the  suffering  family  of  God  (1846);  God's  I 
of  Feaf^  (1862);  The  Whiie  Fields  of  Fran 
or  the  story  of  Mr.  McAU's  mission  ta  the  worti 


RELIGIOtrS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Boniface 


mm  oj  Paris  and  Lyon^t  (1879);    Lif€  and  Work 
6lO,T,Dodds  (18S4). 

BliUooKA^rHT:  iior9iiu9  Bonar,  a  Mtim^rial,  Ldiicjod. 
188B,  8  W,  Dufficld,  EnatUh  H\mn»,  pp.  108-169  and 
PMDB.  Nfw  York.  1886;  Julian.  Uymnology,  pp.  ie}l-l(^2; 
MB,  toppleoMsnt  voL  i.  331-232. 

BDHA VENTURA  (Giovamii  di  Fidanza,  called 
JJootor  Seraphicui):  Theologian;  b.  at  Bagnorea 
(SO  m.  n.n.w.  of  Rome)  1221;  d.  at  Lyon«  Jyly 
15,  1274.  He  entered  tbe  order  of  St.  Francis 
probably  in  1238;  went  to  Paria,  1242  or  1243, 
tnd  atutlied  under  Alexander  of  Halea;  lectureti 
ihtn  on  the  "  Sentences  '*  of  Peter  Lombard  and 
OQ  Lb  Holy  Scriptures  till  the  university  fiuspended 
l«ft*iTe»  in  12i>5;  was  chosen  general  of  his  order; 
1.7  cartlinal  bi&hop  of  Albano,  1273.  Ilia  laat 
^J  e  act  was  an  impresisive  speech  delivered 
bi'ftire  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  May,  1274,  for  the 
union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  He 
ira*  cnnonii^  by  Sixths  IV  in  1482.  In  defease 
of  his  unJer,  before  he  became  its  general,  during 
IIm?  coQte^t  between  the  Sorbonne  and  the  men- 
dicant monks,  he  wrote  his  De  paupertate  Christi, 
in  reply  to  William  of  St.  Amour's  Dt.  periculis 
nmwimonim  ttmporum  (1256);  by  a  somewhat 
farced  and  sophistical  argumentation  he  represents 
volmitary  |>overty  as  an  element  of  moral  perfection. 
Of  His  general  views  on  monastic  life  he  has  given 
121  exposition  in  his  Detenninaiumen  qutfEimnum 
iTBgulam  Franciaci.  In  his  admini  strati  on 
mild  yet  firm.  As  a  teacher  and  author 
one  of  the  most  prominent  places  in 
I  hiftory  of  medieval  theology;  not  so  much^ 
f,  OD  account  of  any  strongly  pronoimced 
as  on  account  of  the  comprehensiveness 
I  views,  the  ease  and  clearness  of  his  reasoning, 
li  style  in  which  still  linger  some  traces  of  the 
yebarm  of  Ids  persomtlity.  His  mystical  and 
writings— as,  for  instance,  De  stpt^^m 
tFttmitatig — are  almost  imitations  of 
of  8t.  Victor.  His  dialectical  writings  are 
[iftorc  indepentlent.  Ilia  Brevil4>quium  (ed.  Da 
I  VicHiia,  2d  ed.,  Freiburg.  ISSl)  is  one  of  the  best 
I  dpQBitiotu  of  Christian  dogmattca  produced  during 
I  ibe  Middle  Ages. 

i4nrT:  BoomTentun's     works     have     been     pub- 

li>M  IQ  a^ny  etlitioaa,  of  which  the  best  arc   that  by 

»oto.,  Pari*,  1863-71,  and  that  pw  pared  by 

10  vob.,  Claifae,  l882-«3.     Of  hia  real 

tiovi  works  aeoemible  io  English  translation^ 

^lolbirinK  may  be  mentioned:  The  Mirror  of  the  Ble»»ed 
*^VVMI  Ifory,  Dublin,  1S40;  Psalter  of  th*  BUm»^  Viruxn, 
l<0<bn.  1852:  TJU  Life  of  Chri»K  ib.  1881;  The  l^onth 
'tlmii  Chritt  ib.  1882:  The  Life  of  St,  Fmncia  of  A»- 
••i  4Ui  ed.,  ib.  1898;  SL  Bonav^ntura'a  Smtiruction*  for 
^  S$aam  of  Uni,  tb.  1884;  Thm  Soul's  PtogrfM  in  God 
((QmL gf  ibe  tHntroHum  w^enti*  in  dtum)  u  in  the  /our- 
>it«f  «»f«iilal»ve  Fhilouofihy,  val.  xxs  (1887). 

iWhii  life  eoonili:  ASB.  July  14.  vol.  iii.  pp.  838-860; 
•«••«  UXUmiiu  d€  ta  Fmntm,  %i^  266-291;  A.  M. 
^  Vienaa,  £)«r  heilioe  B^ma/^ttntura  .  ,  .  tn  •tfineifs 
J^  vid  irtdt#fi,  Germ,  traoal.  from  the  Italian,  Pader- 
yp*  If74:  Lm  Cardinal  S.  Bimaptnturs  .  .  .  «e!  vis,  aa 
^  «l  iM  mtto  d  Lyon,  Lyons,  187fi;  L.  C.  Skey,  L«/«  of 
^Bmmihtr*,  London.  1889. 

^Oft  bii  works  eonsult:  A.  de  Margerie,   E»aai  tur  la 


ra»^^  S,  Bomnmture,  Paritt.,1855:  W.A.  Hollon 
^t  SMim  tu  Bonaif^fUura,  Berlin,   IHtt'i;  J,   llidittrtl. 

•"^•^         aofiot^lkrcr.  Pahs.  1874.  A.  Mans  ik  Vioefi 


et  Johannes  a  Eubino,  Lexicon  Bonaventwianum  phi 
lomjphieo-iheotoffiritfn,  Venice^  1880;  J.  Krause.  Die  i^Ar« 
dtn  keiligen  Bonarentura  Hber  die  ^fatur  d4r  k^rperlichen 
und  oei»ti{fen  IVeaen,  Padcrborti.  1888. 

BOHD»  WILLIAM  BENNETT:  Anglican  arch- 
biahop  of  Montreal  and  primate  of  all  Canada; 
b.  at  Tnifo  (8  m.  n.n.e.  of  Falmouth),  Comwtill, 
England.  Sept.  10,  1815;  d.  at  Montreal  Oct.  9, 
1906.  He  came  to  Newfoundland  while  in  early 
youth  and  w^as  eiiueated  at  Bi shop's  College,  Len- 
noxville,  P,  Q.,  being  otdered  deacon  in  I&IO  and 
ordaineil  priest  in  the  following  year.  After  being 
succeasively  a  traveling  missionary  in  1840-4:^ 
and  a  missionary  at  Lacliine,  P,  Q.,  in  1S42— 18, 
he  waa  curate  of  St.  George^s,  Montreal,  from  1848 
lo  1860  and  rector  of  the  same  church  from  18410 
to  1878.  He  was  likewise  archdeacon  of  Mon- 
treal in  1S70--72  and  dean  in  1872-78.  In  the  lattA-r 
year  he  was  consecrateii  archbifthop  of  Montreal, 
and  in  1901  waa  elected  metropolitan  of  Canada, 
while  in  1904  he  became  primate  of  all  Canada^ 
He  was  also  president  of  the  theological  college  of 
the  diocese  of  Montresd. 

BOHET-MAURY,  AMY  GASTON  CHARLES  AU- 
GUSTE  J  French  Protestant;  b.  at  Paris  Jan.  2,  1842. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lye6e  Napol^'on  (now  College 
Henri  IV),  the  Borbonne  (baccalaur^t  hi  lettres, 
1800)  and  the  universities  of  Geneva  and  Stras- 
burg  (1868).  He  waa  snccetisively  pastor  of  the 
Walloon  Refomied  Church  at  Dort  in  1868-72 
and  of  the  French  Reformed  Church  at  Beauvais 
(OiHe)  in  1872-79.  In  1879  he  becimie  profcHwor 
of  church  Imtory  in  the  faculty  of  Protestant  the- 
ology of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  now  holds 
the  same  position  in  the  Independent  Divinity 
School  of  Paris.  From  1885  to  1889  he  was  librarian 
of  the  Mus^  P^dagogique.  In  theology  he  ih  a  liberal 
evangelical.  He  wrote;  Les  Oriffine*  de  la  reforms 
li  Beauvai^  (Paris,  1874);  Gerard  de  Groote^  un  prf' 
curaeur  de  la  r^lomm  an  tftmt&Tti^me  »ihcU  (1878); 
E  quihus  fontibus  Xederlandicis  kauserU  scriptar 
libri  cui  tituitts  eM  De  Imitatume  ChriJiH  (1878); 
DeM  OrigineM  du  chrvttmni^me  unUaire  rft#z  lea 
AnglaU  (1881;  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1883);  i4r- 
natdd  de  Breccia,  un  rtfonnaUnr  au  donii^me  si^le 
(Pima.  1H81);  De  optera  scholnsticu  frairtim  ri/<r 
communis  in  Nederlatuiia  (1889);  O.  A.  Biirger  et 
te-s*  originex  antflai$e»  de  la  balhde  liitt'TQire  en  A  tie' 
magne  (1890):  Ignace  Dailinger,  1799-1890  (1892); 
LettrcH  et  dvelurationn  de  J.  J.  I.  Dullinger  au  aujet 
desdvcret*  du  Vatican ^  traduite^  de  VAUemand  (1893); 
Le  Congrh  dm  religions  <4  Chicago  en  1893  (1895); 
Histmre  de  la  libertf  de  conscience  depuui  V6dit  de 
Nante^i  jusqu*ii  juiikt  1870  (1900);  Les  Fr^cur- 
seurs  de  la  r^ forme  et  de  la  tiberii  de  consdenee  dans 
k4i  pcyit  laiins  du  douzi^me  au  quinxikme  tiicle 
(1904);  Edgar  Quinei^  »on  wuvre  reltgieuse  et  «oi» 
duiracthe  nwrnl  (1903);  and  Uldamisme  et  U 
chrijstianiume  en  Afrique  (1906). 

BONIFACE:    The  name  of  nine  ponies. 

Bonil&ce  I:  Po|je  418-422.  After  the  death  of 
Zos?imu**,  a  part  of  the  clergy  and  people  chose  the 
archileacon  Eul alius  to  succeed  luin  (Bec«  27.  418); 
he  was  recogniaiud  by  ttie  prefect  Symmachus  and 
conHecrate<l  in  the  Lateran  two  day*  later.  But 
another  faction  ^Id  an  election  on  the  28th,  and 


Bonlfko* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


chose  Boniface,  the  son  of  the  priest  Jocundus, 
consecrating  him  on  the  following  day.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  report  of  Symmachus,  the  em- 
peror Honorius  recognized  Eulalius,  and  Boniface 
had  to  leave  Rome.  His  supporters  appealed  to 
the  emperor,  representing  him  as  the  choice  of  the 
majority.  Honorius  called  a  council  to  meet  at 
Ravenna,  Feb.  8,  419,  to  decide  the  matter,  but 
it  reached  no  conclusion,  and  another  was  sum- 
moned for  May  1,  both  candidates  being  forbidden 
to  enter  Rome  in  the  mean  time.  Eulalius,  how- 
ever, entered  the  city  on  Mar.  18,  and  had  to  be 
removed  forcibly;  and  Honorius  now  recognised 
Boniface,  who  took  up  his  duties  on  Apr.  10.  This 
contest  caused  Honorius  to  decree  that  in  any 
subsequent  case  of  a  contested  election,  both  can- 
didates should  be  set  aside  and  a  new  choice  made. 
When  Boniface  I  intervened  in  any  ecclesias- 
tical disputes,  he  showed  great  justice  and  modera- 
tion. The  clergy  of  Valence  accused  their  bishop 
Maximus  of  grievous  crimes;  Boniface  referred  the 
matter  to  a  Gallic  synod,  reserving  to  himself  the 
right  to  review  its  decision.  Considering  the  priv- 
ilege granted  by  Pope  Zosimus  (417)  to  Bishop 
Patroclus  of  Aries,  to  consecrate  bishops  for  the 
provinces  known  as  ViennenaUf  Narbonensia  prima, 
and  NarbonenHa  aecunda,  to  be  an  infringement  of 
earlier  canonical  provisions,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
withdraw  it  so  far  as  to  allow  the  bishop  of  Narbonne 
this  metropolitan  privilege  for  the  Provincia  Nor- 
bonensU  prima.  He  was  involved  in  long-drawn- 
out  negotiations  with  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. Certain  lUyrian  bishops,  wishing  to  bring 
charges  against  Bishop  Perigenes  of  Patras,  who 
had  been  chosen  metropolitan  of  Corinth,  get- 
ting satisfaction  neither  from  the  papal  delegate 
for  Illyria,  Bishop  Rufus  of  Thessalonica,  nor  from 
the  pope  himself,  turned  to  Atticus  of  Constanti- 
nople for  redress.  The  latter  procured  an  edict 
from  the  emperor  Theodosius  II  (421),  placing 
lUyria  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Constantinople. 
Boniface  made  strong  representations  to  the  By- 
zantine court  (Mar.,  422),  but  would  probably  not 
have  been  successful  had  not  the  influence  of  the 
Western  emperor  Honorius  prevailed  with  Theo- 
dosius, who  withdrew  the  edict.  Finally,  Boniface 
had  inherited  from  his  predecessor  a  difficult  con- 
troversy with  the  African  church  (see  Zosimus): 
he  had  no  better  success  than  Zosimus  in  securing 
the  recognition  in  Africa  of  the  right  of  appeal  to 
Rome.  On  the  contrary,  the  Synod  of  Carthage 
in  419  confirmed  the  seventeenth  canon  of 'the 
synod  of  418,  which  positively  forbade  to  priests 
and  lower  clergy  any  such  appeals,  and  tolerated 
them  for  bishops  only  on  condition  that  the  pre- 
scription appealed  to  could  be  shown  to  be  Nicene; 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  came  from  the  Council  of 
Sardica.  Boniface  died  Sept.  4,  422,  and  is  reck- 
oned among  the  saints  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBUoaRAPHT:  Liber  ponHficalia,  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  227. 
Paris.  1886;  A8B,  Oct..  xi,  606-«16;  F.  Gregorovius.  Ge- 
•chichU  der  Stadt  Rom,  i.  170  aqq..  Stuttgart,  1875.  Eng. 
tranfll.,  London,  1900;  J.  Langen,  GfchiditiB  der  rdmi- 
•ehen  Kirche  bit  Leo  /.,  pp.  763  sqq.,  Bonn,  1881;  Jaff^, 
Regeeta^  i.  52;  Hefele.  ConeUienoeachiehte,  ii.  122.  Eng. 
transl..  ii,  466;  Bower,  Popee,  i,  162-166;  Neander, 
Chrietian  Chvarch,  ii.  208.  236.  662. 


Boniface  II:  Pbpe  530-532.     After  the  detth  4 
Felix  IV  (middle  of  Sept.,  530),  a  oonterted  ekctb 
followed.    The  minority,  in  obedience  to  the  dji^ 
charge  of  Felix,  chose  the  archdeacon  Booi&tt^ 
a  Goth;  the  majority  elected  DioBcuiui,  a  QnA, 
and  both  were  consecrated  on  the  same  day  (Sipt 
22).    The  Roman  senate  took  oogniianoe  d  tin 
matter,    forbidding   under    heavy   penalties  uj 
proceedings  in  the  lifetime  of  a  pope  looking  to- 
ward the  elevation  of  a  aucoessor.    The  ad 
was  soon  ended  by  the  death  of  Dioecunis,  Oct.  Ii 
The  L4ber  ponHfiealia  asserts  that  Boniface  pro- 
ceeded with  great  violence  against  his  adherati; 
and  we  have  evidence  that  five  years  later  the 
bitterness  caused  by  this  was  not  extinct  amoBg 
the  Roman  clei^.    The  dose  of  the  Semi-Pdigm 
controversy  falls  in  the  pontificate  of  Bonifiee  IL 
In  a  letter  to  Gesarius  of  Aries  he  pronoiiiieed 
against  the  opinion  that  man  could  attain  faith  ia 
Christ  by  his  own  resources,  without  the  help  d 
divine  grace;  and  at  the  same  time,  in  aooonUoei 
with  the  wishes  of  Oeesarius,  he  oonfinned  the 
decisions  of  the  Synod  of  Orange.     He  was  ahnji 
sealous  in  maintaining,  if  it  was  not  possible  to 
extend,  the  pi^>al  claims  to  jurisdiction.    Wm 
Bishop  Stephen  of  Larissa  in  Thessaly  appealed 
to  him  from  a  sentence  of  deposition  jnonouiieed 
by    the    patriarch    of    Constantinople,    Booilaoe 
endeavor^  to  reassert  the  old  rights  of  the  Romaii 
See  over  Illyria,  which  had  b^  obsolete  for  a 
hundred  years.    The  proceedings  of  a  synod  hdd 
in  Rome  for  this  purpose  (Dec.,  531)  seem  to  have 
been  fruitless,  for  soon  afterward  the  see  of  LariaBa 
was  filled  by  a  nominee  of  Constantinople.    After 
attempting  in  vain  to  designate  the  deacon  Vigilius 
as  his  successor,  Boniface  died  in  Oct.,  532. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoorapht:  Liber   ponHfieaUe,  ed.    Daehame.    i.   281. 
Paris.  1886;  F.  GregoroviuB,  Oeechiekie  der  Siadt  Rem,  i 
829.    Stutt«art,    1875.    Eng.    tnmal..    London,  1900;  L 
Duchetne.  La  Sueeeeeion  du  pape  FHix  IV.,  Rome.  1884; 
J.  Langen.  OeeehidUederriimied»en  Kirdke  von  Leo  I.  ftu 
Nikolaue  /..  p.  306.  Bonn.  1886;  R.  Baxmann.  Die  PoUMk 
der  PApete  von  Qregor  /.  hie  auf  Qregar  F//..  i.  20  aqq.. 
Elberfeld.   1868;  Jaff^.  Regeela,  i.  Ill;  Schaff.  CJb<i«lieii 
Chtarch,  iii.  326.  869;  Neander.  CkriefHan  Ckurtk,  ii.  711; 
Hefele,  ConcUienoeechidUe,  ii.  737-742.  Eng.  traniL.  ir, 
165.  167.  171  sqq.;  Bower.  Popet,  i.  331-333. 
Boniface  ni:  Pope  607.    He  was  a  Roman  by 
birth,  previously  a  deacon  and  apocritiaritu  at  the 
court  of  Ck>nstantinople,  to  which  he  had  been  sent 
by  Gregory  the  Great  in  603.    Apparently  he  was 
still  there  when  the  election  took  place,  as  nearly 
a  year  elapsed  between  the  death  of  his  predecessor 
and  his  consecration  (Feb.  19, 607).     As  (in  modern 
language)  nuncio  at  Constantinople,  he  had  appar- 
ently maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  usurper 
Phocas,  which  would  account  for  the  favorable 
decision  made  by  the  latter  on  a  point  of  great 
importance  to  the  papal  daims.    One  of  the  com- 
missions given  to  him  by  Gregory  was  the  settle- 
ment of  the  strife  over  the  title  of   "imiversal 
bishop  "  claimed  by  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, John  the  Faster;  Gregoiy  did  not  claim  it 
for  himself,  but  he  was  unwilling  that  it  should  be 
borne  by  another.    The  Liber  pontificalia,  Paulus 
Diaconus,  and  Bede  all  assert  that  Phocas  recog- 
nised Rome  as  capu<  amnium  eoclesiarum.    Though 


ftds 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Boniflux 


the  fact  is  not  denied,  it  is  to  be  regarded  rather 
SB  a  triumph  of  papal  politics,  which  did  not  dis- 
dain the  aUianoeof  a  base  and  criminal  ruler,  than 
SB  a  historical  justification  of  the  claims  of  Rome. 
Boniface  died  Nov.  12,  607.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Ltber  poniifieatt»,  ed.  Duohesne,  i,  310, 
Paris,  1886:  Paulus  DiaoonuB,  Hut.  Langobardorum,  it, 
80.  in  MOH,  Script  rer.  Langob.,  ed.  G.  Waits,  Han- 
over. 1878.  Ens.  transl..  p.  177.  Philadelphia.  1907;  F. 
OreKoroviuB.  OMchichU  der  Siadt  Ram,  ii,  102,  Stuttsart, 
1870,  Eng.  transl.,  London.  1000;  J.  Langen,  (TMcAicAte 
dsr  rOmi$eh0H  Kireke  ...  Ms  Nikolau9  /..  p.  500.  Bonn, 
1885;  Bower,  Pope;  i.  425-427;  Mann,  Popee,  I,  i, 
260-262. 

Boniface  IV:  Pope  608-615.    He  was  the  suc- 

oeasor  of  Boniface  III  after  an  interregnum  of  ten 

months.    He  kept  up  the  same  friendly  relations 

with  Phocas,  from  whom  he  acquired  the  Pantheon 

in  Rome,  buUt  as  a  heathen  temple,  and  transformed 

it  into  a  church.    When  Heraclius,  who  overthrew 

Phocas  in  610,  was  endeavoring  to  find  a  way  to 

reconciliation    with    the    Monophysites,    Boniface 

aeems  to  have  approved  of  his  plans;  which  prob- 

mbly  accounts  for    a  letter  of    Columban   (q.v.) 

written  from  Bobbio  (c.  613),  informing  him  that 

people  call  him  a  receiver  and  protector  of  heretics 

who  deny  the  double  nature  of  Christ,  and  warning 

him  that  his  power  will  remain  only  so  long  as  he 

maintAins  the  true  faith.    Boniface  died  May  25, 

615.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Liber  ponHfiealiat  ed.  Duchesne,  i,  317,  Paris. 

1886;  Jaff^   Regeata,  i.   220;  Paulus  Diaoonus,  Hietoria 

Langobardorum,    iv.    36.    in  MOH,  Script  rer.   Langob., 

ed.  O.  Waits,  Hanover.  1878,  Eng.  transl..  p.  178.  Philar 

delphia.  1907;    Bede.  Hitt  eecL,  ii.  4.  ed.  Plummer.  vol. 

i,    p.   88,  Oxford,   1806;    R.   Bazmann,   Dis  Poliiik  der 

Pdpeie,  i.  150.  Elberfeld,  1868;  F.  Gregorovius.  GeeehidUe 

dmr  Stadt  Rom,   ii,   102,  Stuttgart,    1876,   Eng.   transl., 

London,    1000;     J.    Langen,    OeeckidUe    der    r&mi9(dien 

JCircAs  .  .  .  bia  Nikolaue  /..  p.  501,  Bonn,  1885;  Neander, 

Chrietian  Chvreh,  iii.  82,  34, 134;  Bower,  Popee,  i,  428-420; 

Mann,  Popee,  I,  i,  268. 

Boniface  V:  Pope  619-625.  The  Liber  ponHfi- 
ealU  tells  that  he  was  a  Neapolitan,  that  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  pope  by  his  love  of  peace 
and  kindness,  and  that  he  issued  a  number  of 
decrees  affecting  the  functions  of  the  different 
orders  of  the  clergy.  Bede  and  William  of  Malmes- 
bury  mention  several  letters  addressed  to  English 
personages;  the  most  important  is  that  preserved 
by  the  latter,  a  letter  to  Justus,  archbishop  of 
Canterbuiy  (625),  confirming  for  all  time  the  posi- 
tion of  his  diocese  as  the  metropolitan  see  of  Britain, 
and  extending  his  powers.  Boniface  died  Oct. 
25,  625.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Liber  poniifiealit,  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  321, 
Paris,  1886;  Jaff^,  Regeeta,  i,  222;  Bede,  Hiet  eccL,  ii, 
7,  ed.  Plummer.  vol.  i.  pp.  03-05.  Oxford.  1806;  F.  Gre- 
gorovius, OeediidUe  der  Stadt  Ram,  ii.  122,  Stuttgart, 
1876.  Eng.  transL,  London,  1002;  Mann,  Popee,  I,  i, 
204;  Bower.  Popee,  i,  430-432. 

Boniface  VI:  Pope  896.  He  was  the  son  of 
Hadrian,  a  Roman,  and  was  elevated  to  the  papal 
throne  in  April  or  May,  896,  by  a  popular  move- 
ment, on  the  death  of  Formosus,  although  he  had 
twice  been  deposed  from  his  spiritual  functions 
by  John  VIII  on  charges  affecting  his  moral  char- 
acter, and  apparently  was  never  canonically  re- 
stored. He  maintained  his  position  only  for 
fifteen  days,  as  the  party  hostile  to    Formosus 


carried  through  the  election  of  Stephen  VI,  who 
drove  him  out.  Others  say  that  he  died  fifteen 
days  after  his  election.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBUoaRA.pHY:  Jaff^,  Regeeta,  i.  430;   AnnaJee    Fuldeneee, 

ed.  G.  H.  Perts.  in  MOH,  Script,  i.  412.  Hanover.  1826; 

R.    Baxmann.  Die  Politik  der  P&peU,  ii.  70.  Elberfeld, 

1860;  J.   Langen,   Oeechiehte  der  r&mieehen  JCtre^  .  .  . 

bie  Qregor  VII.,  p.  303,  Bonn,  1802;  Bower.  Popee,  ii,  220. 

Boniface  VH:  Pope  974,  984-985.  After  the 
downfall  of  Benedict  VI,  Crescentius,  the  leader 
of  the  nobles,  caused  the  election  of  the  deacon 
Boniface,  called  Franco  (June,  974).  One  of  his 
first  acts  was  to  order  his  predecessor  to  be  put 
to  death.  But  he  was  able  to  hold  his  own  only  for 
six  weeks,  after  which  he  fled  to  Ck>nstantinople. 
Here  he  remained  for  more  than  nine  years — or 
as  long  as  Otto  II  lived  to  protect  the  popes  set 
up  by  him,  Benedict  VII  and  John  XIV.  Otto 
died  Dec.  7,  983,  and  the  fugitive  Boniface  imme- 
diately asserted  his  claims.  He  reappeared  in 
Rome,  and  in  the  following  April  defeated  John 
XIV,  imprisoned  him  in  the  castle  of  Sant'Angelo, 
and  had  him  either  poisoned  or  starved  to  death 
there.  Eleven  months  later,  this  "  horrible  mon- 
ster" (as  a  contemporary  calls  him)  met  a  like 
fate,  dying,  it  seems  probable,  by  assassination 
in  the  summer  of  985;  his  body  was  mutilated  and 
insulted  by  the  infuriated  populace.  GfrOrer's 
hypothesis  that  his  murder  was  caused  by  the 
empress  Theophano  has  no  support  in  the  original 
authorities.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Jaff^.  Regeeta,  i.  486;  Hermannus  Augien- 
sis.  Chronieon,  ed.  O.  H.  Perts.  in  MOH,  Script,  v.  116 
sqq..  Hanover.  1844;  Gerbert.  Acta  concilii  Remeneia, 
ed.  G.  H.  Perts.  MOH,  Script.,  iii.  672.  ib.  1830;  L.  C. 
Feruoci,  Inveeti4fationi  .  .  .  eu  la  pereona  ed  U  pontifUaio 
di  Bonif.  VII.,  Lugo.  1866  (attempts  to  clear  Bonifaoe 
of  the  charges);  J.  M.  Watterich,  Pontifieum  Romartorum 
vita,  i,  66.  Leipsic.  1862;  J.  Langen.  Oeechiehte  der  rtimi- 
eehen  Kirche  ...  bis  Oregor  VII.,  Bonn.  1802. 

Boniface  Vm  (Benedetto  Gaetani):  Pope  1294- 
1303.    He  was  bom  at  Anagni  [c.  1235],  and  prob- 
ably studied  civil  and  canon  law  at  Paris.    He 
began  his  ecclesiastical  career  as  canon  of  Todi, 
held  benefices  in  Lyons  and  Rome,  and  became 
notary  of  the   Curia.    Martin   IV   made   him   a 
cardinal   in    1281,   and   under   Nicholas   IV   and 
Gelestine  V  he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
members  of  the  sacred  college,  being  employed 
in    the    most    varied    missions.    He    encouraged 
Gelestine  V  in  his  project  of  retirement  to  ascetic 
seclusion,  and  even  drew  up  the  formula  of  abdica- 
tion, by  which  he  was  to  profit;  for,  less  than  a 
fortnight  after  Gelestine  had  laid  down  the  papal 
dignity,  it  was  bestowed  upon  his  adviser  (Dec.  24, 
1294).    Even   before   his    consecration,    the   new 
pope  asserted  his  prerogatives  by  revoking  many 
appointments  of  his  two  predecessors,  deposing 
archbishops  and  bishops  appointed  by  Gelestine 
without  the  consent  of  the  cardinals,  and  leaving 
Naples  for  Rome  with  all  his  court,  in 
Policy      spite  of  the  efforts  of  Gharles  II  to 
and        detain  him  there.    He  was  consecrated 
Successes    and  crowned  in  St.  Peter's,  Jan.  23, 
in  Italy.     1295,  and  soon  took  an  active  part  in 
the  conflicts  of  the  time,  offering  to 
mediate  between  Genoa  and  Venice  in  February. 
Sicily  occupied  him  next;  it  had  freed  itself  from 


BOTllfiftOft 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


m 


French  domination  in  1282,  chosen  Peter  III  of 
Aragon  as  king,  and  thus  dissolved  the  feudal 
connection  with  Rome.  Peter's  son  and  heir, 
James  II,  showed  himself  ready  to  abandon  SicUy 
after  Aragon  had  fallen  to  him  by  the  death  of 
his  elder  brother.  Another  brother,  however — 
Frederick — stepped  in  and  assumed  the  Sicilian 
crown,  and  neither  repeated  papal  anathemas 
nor  an  armed  league  against  him  could  make  him 
renounce  it;  in  1302  he  obtained  favorable  terms 
of  peace,  and  in  1303  papal  recognition.  Boniface 
also  intervened  in  the  strife  between  the  Blacks 
and  Whites  of  Florence,  in  favor  of  the  former, 
and  sent  a  legate  to  Tuscany.  From  the  sojourn 
of  Dante  in  Rome  as  the  ambassador  of  the  Bianchi 
dates  the  bitter  hatred  which  he  displays  for 
Boniface  VIII.  In  agreement  with  the  Nerif 
Boniface  brought  Charles  of  Valois  to  Tuscany  in 
1301  as  governor;  but  his  five  months'  rule  accom- 
plished nothing  but  the  alienation  of  the  last 
sympathizers  of  the  pope  there.  Boniface  had 
real  power  only  in  the  south  of  Italy  and  some 
central  cities.  Charles  II  of  Naples  became  the 
obedient  servant  of  the  Curia,  while  Pisa,  Velletri, 
Orvieto,  and  Terracina  chose  Boniface  as  their 
ruler.  But  a  hostile  party  was  forming  in  Rome, 
led  by  the  two  Colonna  cardinals,  who  disapproved 
of  the  close  alliance  with  Charles  II  and  secretly 
supported  the  pretensions  of  the  house  of  Aragon 
in  Sicily.  In  1297  the  pope  stripped  them  of  all 
their  ecclesiastical  dignities;  and  on  the  same  day 
they  formally  renounced  their  allegiance  to  him, 
declaring  Celestine's  abdication  to  have  been  in- 
valid and  appealing  to  a  general  council.  Boniface 
deprived  the  whole  family  of  their  possessions,  one 
after  another,  and  soon  Palestrina  alone  held  out 
against  the  papal  army.  The  Colonna  submitted 
in  1298;  but  when,  the  next  year,  Boniface  des- 
troyed Palestrina,  contrary,  they  asserted,  to  a 
promise  of  ultimate  restitution,  they  took  up  arms 
once  more  against  him.  Again  they  were  defeated, 
and  their  estates  divided  between  their  enemies, 
the  Orsini  and  the  Gaetani. 

Soon  after  his  accession,  Boniface  became  in- 
volved in  complications  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
Italy.    Eric    VIII    of    Denmark    had    imprisoned 

the    archbishop    of    Lund    in    1294, 

Denmark,  really  to  extort  money  from  him,  but 

Hungary,   nominally    on    the    ground    of    con- 

and        spiracy.     In    1295    Boniface    sent    a 

Poland,     legate  to  demand  his  release  on  pain 

of  excommimication  and  interdict. 
These  penalties  were  imposed  in  1296,  but  Eric  held 
out  until  1302,  though  even  then  the  pope  did  not 
succeed  in  restoring  the  deposed '  archbishop.  In 
the  contest  for  the  throne  of  Hungary,  on  the  ground 
that  he  had  been  "  set  over  princes  and  kingdoms, 
to  put  down  iniquity,"  and  that  Hungary  belonged 
on  special  grounds  to  the  Apostolic  See,  he  claimed 
the  deciding  voice;  in  1300  he  sent  Charles  Robert, 
grandson  of  Mary  of  Sicily,  to  the  Hungarians  as 
their  king;  but  they  first  clung  to  Andrew  III, 
and  after  his  death  elected  the  son  of  Wenceslaus  II 
of  Bohemia  as  Ladislaus  V.  At  the  moment  of 
Boniface's  death,  Wenceslaus  was  preparing  to 
unite  with  Philip  the  Fair  against  him,  and  his 


interests  clashed  with  the  pope's  in  another  pbn 
as  well — ^in  Poland,  which  had  elected  Weneatioi 
in  1300,  to  take  the  place  of  the  deposed  Kqg 
Ladislaus.  Again  Boniface  daimed  suierain  ri^ 
supported  the  exiled  king,  who  had  sought  hii  aid, 
and  forbade  Wenceslaus  to  assume  the  crown  witb- 
out  the  papal  sanction;  but,  as  in  Hungaiy,  hisiraidi 
were  not  heeded. 

He  met  with  somewhat  greater  success  in  Co- 
many.  The  undertaking  given  by  Adolf  of  Nm^ 
in  the  Treaty  of  Nuremberg  (Aug.  21,  1294),  to 
support    Edward    I    of    E^and    against  nip 

IV,  displeased  the  pope,  whowidHd 
Germany,  to  see  peace  between  France  and  Eq^ 

land.  Hewrote  to  Adolf  foibiddiDgbiii 
to  take  up  arms,  and  reproaching  him  for  not  hn^ 
ing  announced  his  election  to  him.  Adolf  retumBi 
a  submissive  answer,  and  received  some  pmrik^i 
in  retum,  but  the  papal  legates  were  btddeo  tA 
to  insist  on  peace.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  impM 
a  year's  truce  on  all  three  longs  (1295),  which,  it 
its  expiration,  he  renewed  for  another  two  yem. 
In  1296  he  commanded  them  to  submit  their  dif- 
ferences to  his  decision;  but  only  Adolf  sent  hii 
representatives  to  Rome.  On  June  27,  1298,  Booi- 
faoe  decided  that  neither  Philip  nor  Adolf  moit 
overstep  his  boundaries,  and  that  Uiese  must  be 
restored  where  they  had  been  violated.  Adolf 
never  heard  of  this  decision;  four  days  befoit  it 
was  rendered,  he  had  been  deposed  by  the  elector^ 
princes,  and  on  July  2  he  fell  in  beittle  against  hii 
rival  Albert  of  Austria.  Boniface  took  a  lofty  tone 
with  Albert,  summoning  him  to  appear  withm  ax 
months  and  submit  his  claims  to  the  throne,  since  it 
belonged  to  the  pope  to  exannne  the  peracm  choeeB 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  reject  him  if  i^nMii^AM»_ 
Albert  delayed  until  he  made  his  position  secure  ui 
Germany,  and  then  sent  his  ambassadors  (Mar., 
1302)  with  liberal  promises  and  the  required  evi- 
dence. Boniface  needed  his  help  against  France  too 
badly  to  raise  any  objection,  and  recognised  him  as 
king  of  the  Romans  and  future  emperor.  Albert, 
in  retum,  renounced  his  alliance  with  Philip,  and 
made  all  possible  theoretical  and  practical  con- 
cessions. 

But  a  more  stubborn  obstacle  was  found  in  the 
king  and  parliament  of  Eng^d.  When  Edward  I 
had  conquered  Scotland  for  the  second  time  in 

1298,  Boniface  claimed  that  country 
England,    also  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See,  and 

summoned  Edward  before  his  tri- 
bunal for  having  ventured  to  lay  hands  upon  it 
Edward  laid  the  bull  before  Parliament  in  1301; 
the  reply  of  the  English  people  was  that  Scotland 
had  never  been  a  papal  fief,  that  their  king  should 
not  answer  the  summons,  and  that,  even  if  he  wished 
to,  they  would  not  permit  it.  On  BCay  7  Edward 
informed  the  pope  that  he  would  not  give  up  Soot- 
land;  and  Boniface  was  obliged  to  be  content  with 
the  answer,  because  in  the  mean  time  the  mem- 
orable conflict  with  France  had  broken  out. 

Philip  the  Fair  was  a  ruler  after  the  very  patton 
of  Macchiavelli's  later  description,  knowing  no 
law  but  self-interest,  and  sticking  at  nothing  to 
accomplish  his  ends.  His  rdations  with  Bonifaee 
had  at  first  been  friendly,  but  he  was  probably 


RELIGIOUS  ENCfYCLOPEDU 


BonilSi4}« 


offtmlctl  by  the  pope's   above-mentioned  intcrfer- 

eooe  Mrith  his  designs  ajB^ainsi  England.     When  in 

1296  the  clergy  of    both  France   and 

France.     England  com  plaints  I  Ut  Boniface  of  the 

taxes  laid  upon  them  by  their  sover- 

cipw  for  warlike  purpoBes,  he  answered  by  the  bull 

Cifrimioicwi  (Feb.  25,  1296).     It  0|)enc*d  with  the 

offensive  assertion  that  the  laity  hatl  always  been 

and  still  were  hostile  to  the  clergy,  and  proceeded  t^ 

forbid  ail  princes  to  tax  the  clergy  of  their  domin- 

ioiQg  without  papal  sanction,  under  pain  of  excora- 

tion,     Edward,  though  at  first  protesting, 

in  1297  that  no  further  tax  should  be 
liid  upon  the  clergy  without  their  consent;  but 
Pbilip  responded  by  forbidtLing  a!l  exportation  of 
pM  ttnd  silver,  coined  or  unc*>inetl,  from  France 
{Au|,,  1296).  Tliia  cut  off  h*i  large  a  j>ortion  of 
the  papal  revenue  that  Boniface  modified  his 
ftltitude  in  the  buU  IneffabiliJi  am^friJt  (Sept.  25), 
jindyieldeil  more  completely  in  three  briefs  (Feb. 
And  July*  J 297)  extremely  conciliatory  in  tone; 
in  the  same  spirit  he  completed  the  canonisation 
of  Louis  IX  in  August,  and  the  discord  seemed  in 
a  fjiir  way  to  be  removed.  But  it  was  not  long  in 
breaking  out  again.  Philip  had  welcomed  to  his 
oourt  some  of  the  exiW  C^lonna  family,  and  had 
tent  a  willing  ear  to  their  unmeasured  abuse  of  the 
pope,  which  did  not  .spare  liia  moral  character. 
The  king's  misuse  of  the  droit  de  rigule  (see  Regale), 
00  the  other  hand,  bad  been  giving  increasing 
proTocatioii  to  the  pope  since  1299,  An  open 
rapture  came  in  1301;  and  by  that  time  both  oon- 
totaikti  had  increased  their  pretensions  and  were 
JiBidj  to  wage  a  more  bitter  war  than  ever,  Boni- 
{>oe  cboee  to  send  as  legate  to  Paris  a  Frenciunan, 
B^mapdi  de  Saisset,  bishop  of  Pamiers,  who  was  for 
•fvenl  renAons  persona  non  grata  at  the  French 
coiirt.  and  Ids  haughty  tone  at  thin  time  made  him 
w  bctti?r  liked.  Pliilip  refused  to  see  him;  and, 
to,  when  he  had  returned  to  Pamiers,  brought 
^  back  to  Paris,  and  Imd  liim  tried  and  condemned 
^  tt  charge  of  treason  and  lese-majesty.  On  Dec. 
^*  1301,  Boniface  demanded  that  hia  ambassador 
•^uld  immediately  be  set  free  to  come  to  Rome; 
*ttd  at  the  Sfime  time  he  summoned  the  principal 
'fciich  churchmen  and  jurists  to  assemble  in 
K«mc  Nov.  1^  1302,  to  take  counsel  with  him  in 
thtj  (lifficultie*  of  the  F'rencli  question.  Notifying 
Phibp  of  this,  amid  the  most  paflsionate  reproaches, 
wi  the  bull  Au»culiQ  fiti,  he  eonimandetl  him  also 
^  ftftpcar  in  person  or  by  proxy  at  thiw  iitisembly; 
*^»  a»crtion»  were  rt7>eated  that  God  had  set  the 
yiciiir  of  Christ  over  princes  and  kingdoms,  thus 
giving  hira  charge  to  ordain  what  might  be  needed 
^w  Ibfi  remuval  of  scandals  and  for  the  welfare  of 
the  kii^gdom  of  France,  To  meet  this,  Ptiilip  sum- 
iBpoetl  his  estates  to  Paris  for  Apr.  10,  1302,  and 
W  before  Ihem  not  the  bull  Amculta  filir  but  a 
*^^"ttment  purporting  to  be  the  pope's  uttenmce, 
*hich  fw  stirpasaed  even  the  real  one  in  matter 
^  offotue.  The  estates,  stirred  up  by  this,  voted 
*  *laiid  by  the  king.  Towani  the  end  of  the  year, 
'^^^'p  notifie*J  tl»e  pope  that  he  would  have  none 
W  hu  irbitration  in  the  fit  niggle  with  England; 
''^  Bodifacc  DOW  urgetl  Edwartl  to  war  matcajtl 
**  P«t«*    Peaoe^   however,   was  made   in    1303. 

IL-16 


Meantime,  a.s  a  result  of  the  synod  which  the  pope 
opened  on  Oct,  Hi),  I302»at  which  n*it.  a  few  French 
prelates  were  present  in  spite  tjf  Philip,  the  bull 
Vnam  samiam  was  drawn  up,  aaserting  in  the  most 
definit*!  tt!rms  thu  theory  of  "  the  two  swords," 
and  the  necessity  to  salvation  of  submission  to  the 
pope.  Some  futile  attempts  at  conciliation  took 
place  in  the  early  part  of  1303.  but  Philip  was 
declared  on  Apr.  13  to  have  rendered  himself  Uable 
to  excommunication.  Two  months  later,  the  king 
assembled  his  nobles,  prelates,  and  jurists,  and  his 
answer  came  in  the  fonn  of  a  definite  accusation 
against  Boniface  under  twenty-four  separate  heads 
of  the  most  appalling  nature.  Impressed  by  this^ 
the  assembly  resolved  to  appeal  to  a  general  council 
against  him;  but  since  he  wrmld  tiave  to  be  forced 
to  attend  it,  the  collection  of  fynds  for  this  purpo6e 
was  begun.  William  of  Nogaret,  the  king's  vice- 
chancellor,  went  to  Italy  and  struck  up  an  alliance 
with  Sciarra  Colo  una,  who  had  the  wrongs  of  his 
family  to  avenge.  They  enlisted  a  number  of  the 
nobles  of  the  Campagna,  and  used  money  freely, 
winning  adherents  even  among  Boniface's  fellow 
townsmen  of  Anagni,  where  be  was  then  holding 
his  court.  He  had  resoi'ved  to  make  formal  publi- 
cation of  the  anathema  against  Philip  on  Sept.  8; 
but  early  on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  William  and 
his  adherents,  a  few  hunt  I  red  strong,  gained  an 
entrance  int*>  the  town,  }jenetrat«d  even  into  the 
steeping  apartments  of  Boniface,  and  wlien  he 
refused  all  concessions  made  him  a  prisoner  in  his 
own  palace.  On  the  9th  the  citizens  rose  and 
h  berated  litm;  Nogaret  anti  Sciarra  Colonna  were 
forced  to  flee,  wliile  Boniface  returned  to  Rome 
Sept.  25.  But,  worn  out  by  the  long  strife^  ho 
died  Oct.  U. 

Ilis  defeat  is  to  be  seen  not  In  the  circumstjuiees 
of  his  captivity  and  his  death,  but  in  the  fact  that  the 
spiritual  weapons  he  wielded  proved  utterly  unequal 
tx>  the  conquest  of  the  aroustnl  national 
Character    feeling  of  France.    The  national  spirit 
and         showed  itself  more  powerful  than  the 
AcMeve-     ecclesiastical.     This    defeat    inflicted 
ments  of    a  staggering  blow  upon  the  authority 
Boniface,    of  the  papacy.     Yet  Boniface  was  no 
ordinary  man.    Though   he   was   be- 
tween seventy  and  eighty  when  he  became  pope, 
he  showetl  no  trace  of  the  weakness  of  age;  hia 
will   was  unbending,  liis  mind  clear  and  logical. 
But  his  whole  heart  was  set  on  power.     In  some 
ways   ho   reminds  of  Gregory   VII,  and   he  could 
no  more  hope  to  escape  conflicts  than  could  the 
unflinching  Hildebrand.     But  he  did  not  in  the  con- 
flict   show    the   moral    loftiness   of   Hildebrand — 
to  say  notliing  of  that  of  such  men  as  Nicholas  I 
and  Innocent  III.     Nor  is  his  i>eraonality  without 
moral  flaws.     He  had  no  scruple  in  using  the  funds 
he  had  raised  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land 
in  his  own  wars;  nor  is  the  reproach  imfounded  that 
he  used  the  privileges  of  Ins  position  to  surround 
his  own  family  with  princely  splendor.     When  he 
strove  for  |>euce,  as  between  England  and  France, 
his  determining  motive  was  plainly  the  desire  to 
show  himself  the  supreme  arbiter  of  nations;  when 
he  had  nothing  to  gain,  he  was  ready  enough  to 
set  them  against  each  other^  as  he  set  Albert  I  and 


TloiilftM^» 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


M6 


Edward  I  against  Philip.  Fair  criticism  must, 
however,  reject  the  accusations  of  debauchery 
entirely,  since  they  rest  on  no  trustworthy  testi- 
mony; and  quite  as  groundless  is  the  charge  of 
heresy  brought  against  him  by  his  foes.  Clement 
V  had  good  foundation  for  the  doubtful  praise 
which  he  bestows  upon  Boniface  when  he  calls 
him  a  destroyer  of  heretics;  for  he  not  only  con- 
firmed, but  even  strengthened  the  laws  passed 
against  heresy  by  Frederick  II.  He  had  a  great 
influence  on  the  development  of  the  canon  law 
by  the  issue  in  1298  of  his  so-called  Liber  sexhu, 
— a  continuation  of  the  five  books  which  Gregory 
IX  had  put  together  in  1234;  it  contains  his  own 
decrees  as  well  as  those  of  his  predecessors  since 
Gregory's  time.  It  must  be  mentioned  to  his 
credit  that  he  erected  higher  schools  at  Avignon 
and  at  Fermo  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  modeled 
after  the  University  of  Bologna,  for  the  study  of 
theology,  civil  and  canon  law,  medicine,  and  the 
liberal  arts;  and  he  has  a  special  title  to  the  grati- 
tude of  Rome  for  the  refounding  of  the  Roman 
University,  originally  established  by  Charles  of 
Anjou  in    1265.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Walter  de  Heminghbmgh,  Ckronieon  ds 
0Mfu  vgum  Anglia^  ed.  H.  C.  Hamilton,  pp.  39  aqq., 
London,  1848;  Riahanger,  Chronica,  ed.  H.  T.  RUey,  pp. 
145  sqq.,  483  aqq.,  ib.  1866;  Annale*  Parmentes  majorM, 
in  MQH,  Script.,  xviii  (1863).  716  aqq.;  Chronieon  Col- 
mar,  ib.  xvii  (1861).  263;  Guilelmus  de  Nangiaoo.  Chroni- 
eon, ib.  xxvi  (1882),  647  aqq.  The  bulla  CUrieia  lateoa 
and  Unam  tanclam  are  tranalated  in  Thatcher  and  Mc- 
Neal,  Source  Book,  pp.  311-313.  314-317.  and  other  rele- 
vant dooumenta  on  pp.  276.  313;  the  bulla  are  alao  in 
Henderaon,  DocwnonU,  pp.  436-437;  Unam  aandam  b  in 
Robinaon,  Europoan  Hietory,  i,  346-348;  the  CUriciM 
laieoM  ia  alao  in  Gee  and  Hardy,  Doeum€nU,  pp.  87-88; 
the  Lat.  text  ia  in  Reich.  Documenit,  pp.  191-196.  Val- 
uable for  aowcea  ia  alao  G.  Digard,  M.  Fauoon.  and  A. 
Thomaa,  Lm  Rigittrf  de  Boniface  VIII.  Reeueil  dee 
huUee  de  ee  pape  .  .  .  d'aprke  lee  MSS,  oriainaux  dee 
ardiivee  du  Vatican,  5  vela..  Paria.  1884-90;  T.  H.  Finke, 
Aue  den  Tagen  Bonifas  VIII.,  MOnater.  1902. 

For  Boniface 'a  life  and  activitiea  oonault:  L.  Toati. 
Storia  di  Bonifano  VIII.,  2  vola..  Monte  Caaaino.  1846; 
Jorry,  Hietoire  du  pape  Boniface  VIII.,  Plancy.  1850; 
W.  Drumann,  Geechickte  Bonifaciue  VIII.,  2  vola.,  KOniga- 
berg,  1852  (critical);  A.  von  Reumont.  Geechidite  der 
Stadt  Rom,  ii.  618.  Berlin,  1868;  A.  Potthaat,  Regeela 
pontificum  Romanorum,  ii,  1923-2024.  2133.  Berlin.  1875; 
F.  Gregoroviua.  Oeeehichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  v,  502.  Stutt- 
gart. 1878.  £ng.  tranal..  London.  1898;  W.  Wattenbach. 
Oeeehichte  dee  rOmiecKen  Papettume,  216  aqq..  Berlin. 
1876;  Balan,  II  Proceeeo  di  Bonifatio  VIII.,  Rome.  1881; 
F.  Rocquain,  La  PapauU  au  moyen  dge.  .  .  .  Boniface 
VII I.,  Paria.  1881;  idem.  Philippe  U  Bel  et  la  buUe  Aue- 
euUa  fili,  in  Bibliothkque  de  VicoU  dee  chartee,  1883.  pp. 
393-394;  B.  Jungmann,  Dieeertationee  eelecta,  vol.  vi, 
Regenaburg,  1886;  J.  Berchtold,  Die  Bulle  Unam  eanc- 
iam,  Munich.  1887;  W.  Martena.  Dae  Vaticanum  und 
BonifamVIII.,  Freiburg.  1888;  Neander.  Christian  Church, 
iv,  67,  682.  V.  1-13  and  paaaim;  Hefele.  ConciliengeechichU, 
vi,  281  aqq.;  Bower.  Popee,  iii.  43-55.  64;  R.  Bchola, 
Dis  Publinetik  wur  Zeit  .  .  .  Bonifas  VIII.,  Leipaic. 
1903. 

On  hia  relationa  to  the  varioua  European  atatea  con- 
sult: F.  C.  Dahlmann,  Oeeehichte  von  D&nemark,  i,  425 
aqq..  Hamburg.  1840;  R.  Pauli,  Oeeehichte  von  England, 
vol.  iv.  Gotha,  1855;  E.  Boutaric.  La  France  eoue  Phi- 
lippe le  Bel,  pp.  88  aqq..  Paria.  1861;  A.  Baillet,  Hietoire 
dee  dhnilie  du  pape  Boniftice  VIII.  avee  Philippe  le  Bel, 
Paria,  1818;  E.  Engelmann.  Der  Anepruch  der  PUpete  auf 
Konfirmation  bei  den  deutechen  Kdnigewahlen,  Breslau, 
1886;  Feaaler.  Oeeehichte  von  Ungam,  i.  451  aqq.,  ii.  3 
aqq.,  Leipeic.  1867-69;  J.  B.  Sagmdller.  Die  ThMigkeit 
und  Stellung  der  CardinAle  hie  Bonifas  VIII.,  Freiburg. 
1896;  J.  Ckro,  OeechichU  PoUne,  Gotha,  1863. 


Boniface  IX  (Pietro  Tomaodli):  Pcq>e  1380- 
1404.  He  came  of  a  noble  Neapolitan  family, 
and  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Urban  VI,  whom  he 
succeeded  Nov.  2,  1389.  He  is  said  to  have  beeo 
judicious,  affable,  and  pious,  but  without  leaniog 
or  knowledge  of  affairs.  His  principal  aim  wu 
the  restoration  of  the  ps^al  authority  in  Rome  and 
the  States  of  the  Church,  for  which  he  labored  not 
unsuccessfully.  The  Romans,  it  is  true,  expfM 
him  from  the  city  in  1392,  but  fearful  that  he  might 
fix  his  residence  permanently  elsewhere,  tbey 
recalled  him  in  the  following  year.  He  returned 
on  condition  of  the  surrender  of  a  great  pari  of  the 
civic  liberties;  and  another  rising  in  1396  pm 
him  the  opportimity  to  limit  them  still  further. 
He  was  fortunate  also  in  regard  to  Naples,  where 
things  were  in  a  condition  very  unfavorable  to  the 
papacy,  owing  to  the  confused  policy  of  Uifoan  VI. 
Clement  VII  and  Louis  II  of  Anjou  thought  the 
time  had  come  to  make  a  thorouf^  conquest  of 
the  kingdom,  but  Boniface  made  a  dose  allianee 
with  King  Ladislaus  and  finally  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  the  French,  holding  Naples  in  the 
Roman  obedience.  By  the  aid  of  his  political 
influence,  Boniface  hoped  to  succeed  in  ending 
the  great  schism,  at  first  depending  on  the  Gemun 
king  Wenoeslaus,  whom  he  invited  to  Rome  for 
coronation  as  emperor;  but  matters  were  in  too 
critical  a  state  in  Germany  for  him  to  leave.  An 
appeal  to  Charies  VI  of  France  in  1392  to  abandon 
his  allegiance  to  Clement  had  no  good  result;  wx 
had  a  similar  attempt  in  Castile.  The  hope  of 
accommodation  raised  by  the  death  of  Gonent 
VII  (Sept.  16,  1394)  was  destroyed  by  the  aetioo 
of  the  Avignon  cardinals,  who  elected  Benediet 
XIII.  In  the  contests  resulting  in  the  depoeitioa 
of  Wenccslaus  and  the  attempt  to  put  the  count 
palatine  Rupert  in  his  place,  Boniface  wavered 
from  side  to  side,  and  only  expressed  his  willing* 
ness  to  recognise  Rupert  in  1403  from  a  fear  that 
he  would  be  thrown  into  the  arms  of  the  king  of 
France.  Boniface  acquired  an  unenviable  r^utar 
tion  for  avarice,  nepotism,  and  simoniacal  trana^ 
actions.    He  died  Oct.  1,  1404.      (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Some  of  the  aouroM  for  a  history  of  Booi- 
faoe  IX  are  the  followinc:  The  bulb  are  in  O.  Baynakliw* 
Annalee  ecdeeiaetid,  ed.  Baronius,  contianed  by  A- 
Theiner.  Paris,  1864  sqq.;  the  Diptamata  are  in  MteMr 
menta  vaticana  hietoriam  Hungaria  iliuatuniia,  toL  vit 
Budapest.  1888;  Dietrich  von  Nieheim,  iDe  Sckumefew 
book  ii,  chap.  6  sqq.,  ed.  G.  Erler,  pp.  120  sqq.,  Leipa^ 
1880;  Gobelinus  Persona.  Coemodromium,  in  H.  lleiboiD* 
Rerum  Oermanirorum,  i,  816  sqq.,  Helmstadt,  1888;  9t»^ 
a  Vita  in  L.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum  Ilalimrum  mripL,  IH.  & 
830.  26  vols.,  Milan.  1723^38.  Conralt  further:  U.hmeo* 
Papet  Bonifatiue  IX.,  Freibur«,  1004;  Hiatoria  ...  * 
Bonifano  nono,  Venice,  1618;  N.  Valois.  La  Frana  d  tf 
grand  echieme,  ii.  167.  Paris,  1806;  Greichton.  F^Mcy.  *• 
111-183;  Pastor,  Popee,  i,  pasdm;  Neander.  CMt»^ 
Church,  vol.  v.  passim;  Bower.  Popes,  iii.  143-162;  EdeH^ 
Conciliengeechichte,  vi.  812. 

BOIOFACE,  SAIRT:  The  apostle  of  the  Ger- 
mans; b.  at  (>editon  (8  m.  n.w.  of  Elxeter),  Devon- 
shire, between  675  and  683;  d.  a  martyr  on  th^ 
banks  of  the  Borne  near  Dokkmn  (13  m.  ilo.  ^ 
Leeuwardcn),  in  Friesland,  June  6,  755.  He  w»i 
an  Englishman  of  a  distinguished  family  of  WeeeeXf 
and  was  originally  named  Winfrid  or  Wynfritb* 
His  studies  were  begun  at  the  monasieiy  of  Ade*- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Bonlikoa 


CKocafitro  (Exeter  T),  and  continued  at  NutshaJLmg 
or  Nursling,  near  Winchester,  Here  ho  won  dis- 
tmctjon  for  learmng  and  practical  wisdom >  and 
fti  AD  e&rty^  age  waa  made  master  of  the  monastic 


IHaregarding  brilliant  proapecta  at  homep  from 

717  Boniface  gave  liim^U  to  missionaiy  work  on 

the  Contment.    After  a  brief  effort  in  Friealand — 

the   field   of   his  countryman  WilUbrord  (q.v.)— 

be  went  to  Home  and  received  a  commisaion  from 

the  pope   (Gregory  II)  as  missionary  to  Central 

Germany,    He  began  his  labor  in  Thuringia  and 

Heaaia,  the  easternmost  of  the  lands  of  the  Franks^ 

where  he  found  not  only  heathen  but  Christians 

and  priests   who  knew  nothing  and 

Barly       want^  to   know  nothing  of    Roman 

Missionary  discipline  and  order.    They  were  prob- 

Work.      ably  convert*    and    disciples    of  Iro- 

Scottish  and  British  monlo!,  who  had 

long   been    laboring    among   the  tribes   from  the 

Rhine  to  the  Saale  and  southward  to  the  Alps  (see 

CSLTIG    CHUBCB   tH    BlUTAIN    AND    IRELAND,   II,   2^ 

i  3,  III*  2,  {  2).  For  two  or  three  years  Boniface's 
activity  was  diverted  to  Friesland,  but  then  he 
returned  to  the  Franks,  and^  with  the  help  of  two 
landed  proprietors^  founded  a  central  settlement 
for  himself  and  oompaniona  at  Am6neburg  on  the 
Ohm  in  He^ia,  Hia  success  was  great  and  led  to 
a  summons  to  Rome  from  Gregory  II.  There  he 
watf  oonsecrated  biabop  and  swore  fidelity  to  the 
e&nons  of  the  Church;  be  was  charged  to  be  on  bis 
guard  against  heretical  priests  and  anti-Eoman 
biahope.  About  724  he  returned  to  Germany, 
provided  with  letters  of  recommendation  to  tlie 
major '^omuSf  Charles  M artel,  to  the  clergy,  clnef- 
tains,  and  people.  Charlea  Maxtel  granted  him 
protection,  and,  after  con  firming  recent  converts 
in  Hesfiia,  and  felling  the  sacred  oak  of  Tbor  near 
Geismai-,  Boniface  went  eastward  into  Thuringia, 
and  estabtiahcd  ita  first  monastery  at  Ohrdruf. 
He  founded  many  churches,  converted  the  heathen, 
«gq»elled  the  anti-Roman  priesta,  and  in  ten  yeani 
bad  won  a  new  province  for  the  Church  and  the 
pope.    * 

Being  promoted  to  the  dignity  of  archbishop, 
Boniface  organic  his  Church  by  founding  the 
seea  of  WOrzburg,  Buraburg,  and  Erfurt,  and  by 
building  monasteries  and  nunneries,  which  ha 
filled  with  monks  and  nuns  from  England  and 
endowed  and  impix>ved  with  the  help  of  English 
money.  Bavaria  next  claimed  his  attention, 
Anti-Eoman  influence  waa  strong  there  and  among 
tbi@  neighboring  Alemanni  (q.v.),  but,  with  the 
authorisation  of  Gregory  III,  in  a  few  years,  Boni- 
faee  placed  men  in  sympathy  with  Rome  in  the 
aeea  of  Regensburg,  Pasaau,  Salzburg,  and  Freising, 
and  Hubstituted  the  Benedictine  rulee  for  those 

of  Columban  in  the  monaatencs.    On 

Qrganixa-   the   death   of    CbaHes   Martel  (741), 

tknL.        bis  sons  Karlman  and  Pepin,  who  had 

been  brought  up  under  monkish  in^ 
Euenee,  succeeded  to  his  power.  In  742  Karlman 
called  upon  the  papal  legate  to  regulate  the  affairs 
of  the  Church  for  the  Eaat  Franks.  Under  the 
guiding  inQuenoe  of  Boniface  two  aynode  were 
held  and  measurea  were  adopted  concerning  the 


monastic  and  acholastic  discipline,  the  restoration 
of  church  estates  wliich  had  been  lost,  the  intro- 
duction of  Ejonma  marriage  laws,  celibacy  of  tho 
clergy,  the  expulsion  of  the  old  British  itinerant 
priests  and  bi^hopjs^  the  extirpation  of  renmanta 
of  heatheniam,  the  establishment  of  the  hierarchical 
order,  and  the  like.  There  was  some  opposition 
from  the  nobles,  certain  of  the  biahops,  and  the 
people,  who  were  attached  to  their  old  customs, 
but  at  court  and  in  the  Council  the  adversaries 
of  the  **  reformation  of  the  Church  "  lost  all  autboi^ 
ity. 

In  744  Pepin  followed  the  example  of  his  brother. 
A  synod  was  held  at  Bois^ns,  and  Boniface  waa 
given  a  free  hand,  notwithstanding  resistance 
from  the  Franldsh  clergy.  For  a  long  time,  how- 
ever, he  was  unable  to  alienate  the  people  from 
their  old  priests  and  bishops,  such  aa  Adalbert 
and  Dement  (qq,v.)-  A  general  Frmnkish  synod 
in  745  published  new  agenda  for  both  divisions  of 
the  country  and  promised  Boniface  the  metro- 
politan see  at  Cologne,  In  747  the  Frankish 
bishops  with  Boniface  at  the  head  signed  in  due 
form  a  bill  of  submission  in  which  they  aeknowl^ 
edged  the  papal  rights,  laws,  and  power, 
Arch-  and  promised  obedience  and  faith- 
bishop,  fulness.  By  this  action  the  bond 
between  the  Frankish  empire  and 
Rome  was  sealed;  the  "  I*rinee  of  the  Apostles  " 
was  to  be  head  and  maater  in  the  countries  north 
of  the  Alps,  Pope  Zacbarias  had  every  reason  to 
be  grateful  to  his  legate.  Instead  of  Cologne, 
Boniface  received  Matnx  as  Ms  see.  Here  he  was 
near  his  old  mission  field  in  llessia  and  Thuringia, 
and  from  Mainz  be  could  direct  the  building  of  hia 
favorite  foundation,  the  abbey  of  Fulda  {q*v*)- 
Worldly  afi"aire  now  occupied  him  little.  After 
the  death  of  Wiihbrord  he  deeired  strongly  to 
continue  the  Friesian  mission.  In  754  he  spent 
some  time  in  Friesland,  The  next  year  he  again 
descended  the  Rhine  with  a  large  following  and 
pitched  hia  camp  on  the  little  river  Borne,  expecting 
the  newly  baptised  would  come  thither  for  con- 
firmation. But  the  camp  was  attacked  by  night 
by  a  band  of  heathen  and  Bonifaee  and  his  entiie 
company  were  massacred.  He  is  buried  at  Fulda« 
An  Engjiah  synod  shortly  after  his  death  proclaimed 
him  patron  of  the  English  Church  by  the  aide  of 
Gregory  the  Gmat  and  Augustine,  Pius  IX  in 
1875  ordered  to  invoke  hia  name  because  of  troubles 
in  Germany  and  England,  Many  churches  in 
Germany  are  dedicated  to  him.  [A  number  of 
writings  have  been  attributed  to  Boniface.  Tho^ 
most  commonly  regarded  as  genuine  are  letters, 
a  collection  of  eccleaiastical  statutes,  a  Latin  poem 
called  Mnigrrmia  de  mHutibua,  and  several  shorter 
poems.]  A.  Wkeneh, 

Biblioobapht;  S.  Bonifadi  optra  qu.a  eclanl  emnia^  ed. 
J.  A,  Gilm^  2  volfl,,  London,  1344,  ooKitaiiu,  benidea  tlie 
geoume  and  suppowd  worlu  of  Boniface,  hk  life,  vritteQi 
within  ten  yenfj*  of  hi5  deiith  by  Willibaid,  n  pnssihyter 
of  MAini.  The  workfl.  WULih&ld'A  Lilt,  and  a  lif«  by 
OthJo,  a  monk  of  8t>  Emmeram's  at  RegisiMibiurB.  writ- 
ten at  FuJda  between  1062  and  10*6,  are  in  M  PL,  InxxbL. 
Better  editions  *re:  Of  ttie  letters,  Willibald'*  life,  thA 
■o-called  FMna  B,  Bonifatii  <1 1  th  «ntury),  and  extracts 
fpom  Othlo  and  a  life  by  an  unknown  writer  of  Ulreeht 
in  Af<?aiiauaf9  MoffunHno,  td,  F.  Jaff6,  BiiiUotktea  rar. 


Bonlftktius-Versln 
Bonnet 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


r^rrrvi.,  vol.  iii»  1866;  tbe  bioe7»phi»1  m»tt<*r  rIw  i.^miwI 
m*|i»(mt«]y  with  title,  Vita  S.  BonifuHi.  Btfrlin,  I86t>:  ff, 
a|m>  rilii  S,  Bmii/ofii.  ed,  W.  L^viMin,  Hanover.  1903;  of 
ihA  l*tlPT»,  «i.  B.  Dainniter.  in  Altr/f.  £pi«l..  Ui  US92). 
KjnMteis  AferovintfuH  ff  Corolim  ftTi*  i;  of  the  poems*  ret 
ia*m.  in  MG«.  Pwt.  LaL  m4  Car.,  t  {1881>,  pp. 
1  23:  of  WilUbftld*!  life.  ed.  A,  NlirDbcFBerp  Brealmu. 
1801^  *nd,  nith  OthbV  proliSBiifi.  in  MGH.  Script,^  ii 
(iSiQ).  For  tbe  lettera  conRuU  B\  Loofa,  Zur  Chrono^ 
infl*#  <l«r  a«/  Jt9  friinJnJKhen  Sj/nodtn  det  keili&tn  Bonir- 
f^tiu*  b€i^tich*r%  Brit/*  dtr  bonifatUch/tn  Briefmimmlung, 
Leipnic.  ISSl;  G,  Pfihier,  Die  boni/atianiMchit  BrUf* 
mmmluno  rhronologiMek  ff«ardnsl,  HeUbronn,  1882, 

For  oflcxJern  iiciiounti  in  Germai)  from  the  Rohulq 
Catholic  stAndpointt  consult:  J.  C»  A,  Seiters^  Bonifaciua, 
«  .  .  fKidb  uin/Bm  LAtn  und  Wirk^n  ffe§ehildcrt„  Hunit 
1W5;  G,  PfuJvlcr.  SI.  BtmifaduM  und  aeins  EHt,  BegeUB- 
bum.  ISSO;  F.  J.  von  Bium,  Winfr^  Banifaciu*,  ed.  R. 
von  Scherer,  Grai,  1S80.  From  the  PtotestaRt  ei^nd- 
point:  J.  F.  MuUer,  jBont/onui,  E^ns  k&kkitiorUche 
^tudU,  2  voIb,,  Amiterdam,  18©&-70;  A.  Werner,  B<mi- 
Jacius  ^  .  .  und  die  Romanitirunff  von  MtUeUuropa^ 
Leipeic.  1875;  O.  Fiacber,  Bonifatiua  der  Apo>*t^  d*r 
Dtu$Kh*n,  ib.  1881;  J,  H.  A,  Ebrard.  BonifatiuM,  dtr 
Z^ti^irrr  dts  tolumha  n  u^chtn  K  ir^herdh  umi  a  u/  dem 
F«MiIand€,  GmmTiiloK  1882,  cf.  hln  /ro«Aoifi«Ae  Mw- 
»i&nMkirche  d&t  Gfen-Sten  Jahrhundert*,  lb.  1873;  G. 
Traub,  BoniftUi^*  ^'»  LebennbiM,  Lei  pile,  1884,  For 
life  in  End-  ooiiAult:  G.  W.  Cok,  Lift  of  BonifoA:*,  Lpndon, 
1853;  Mrs.  Hope,  Boniface  and  iht  Conva-aian  of  Germanif, 
ib.  1872;  G,  F.  Mac  Lear.  A-po^iktof  Medi^t^^al  Eufirpe,  pp. 
1 10  128.  London  J  S88;  I.  O.  Ir^mith,  HQnifa^^.  in  Fnihrri  /«#r 
EnglUh  fi&adert,  lb.  1800;  J.  .M.  Willi&meon,  Lift  and  Tim** 
of  SL  BonifiM,  ib.  1904.  Coniull  »Ih:  H.  Hahn,  Boni- 
foM  und  Lid.  Letpffic,  1883;  Q,  WoeLbinff.  Die  mitUsMtar- 
lirhen  l^^tnMbuMthreibufi^n  da  BonifatiuM  vnia-audit,  ib. 
1883;  Moeller,  Christian  CHurcK  Ih  74-83;  Schaff,  Chris- 
tian Church,  iv,  92-100;  DCB,  i,  334-327;  DNB.  v, 
346-350;  Neander,  ChH$Ufm  Ckvreh,  m,  46-96  et  pu. 
aim. 

BONIFATIUS^VEREIlf  <"  Boniface  Society  ") : 
A  Kiiriian  CttttioUc  society  of  Germany^  having  m 
iU  object  **  to  promote  the  apiritual  interests  of 
CathoHcsj  living  in  Protestant  parts  of  CJermany, 
aiid  the  main  ten  art  ce  of  schools  ^*  (by-laws,  }  I ) . 
The  tendency  tosvard  freer  relations  between  dif- 
ferent confessions  and  shifting  of  confessional 
connections  in  Germany  in  the  earlier  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century  arou.*?ed  the  anxiety  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Acconiing  to  a  Htatement  in 
the  Ultramontane  MuncfienEr  hlntorlsch'politische 
BldUer  (Ixviii,  45)  the  Roman  Church  losl  betwcf'n 
1802  and  1870  more  than  S00,O(J(J  souls  in  South 
Germany,  whereas  the  loaa  in  North  Germany 
between  1803  and  1850  waa  cstimatc?d  at  one 
million.  The  '^  Frajicia  Xavier  Society "  which 
had  its  headquarters  at  Lyons  in  France,  and  prop- 
erly speaking  WBs  a  missionary  society,  took  car© 
of  the  "  missions  "  in  Germany  as  far  aa  possible; 
but  until  1S48  no  Roman  Catholic  church  or  school 
could  be  established  in  Germany  without  the  consent 
of  the  government.  Thene  rcstnetiona  were  done 
away  with  in  1848,  and  when  the  third  convention 
of  Roman  Catholics  met  at  Regensburg,  Oct.  4, 
1849j  at  the  suggestion  of  D61  linger,  at  that  time 
an  ardent  champion  of  Rome,  and  of  Count  Josef 
%^on  Stolberg,  son  of  the  famous  convert  Frederick 
Leopold  von  St<Jlberg,  the  Bonifatius-Verein  was 
founded,  Paderborn  was  chosen  as  the  center  of 
operation.  Pius  IX  approved  the  society,  Apr*  21, 
18*52,  and  Leo  XIII  favored  the  prieats  belonging 
to  it  with  indulgenees,  Mar  15,  1901,  In  Bavaria 
the  society  was  not  favortihly  received  at  first 
on  account  of  eimilar  societies  already  exist ing^ 


and  in  North  Germany  it  seemed  to  be  a  {i3m 
by  1853,  But  after  1857,  owing  to  the  exeniou 
of  Bishop  Martin  of  Paderboni  and  of  Alban  Stoli. 
it  progressed  rapidly  and  in  1899  celebfitttl  thi 
gplden  jubilee  of  its  successful  ai:^ivity- 

The  Bodety  obtains  the  meaim  neeenAiy  for 
carrying  on  its  work  in  various  wayt:  (I)  hm 
collections  in  the  churches;  (2)  from  private  pw- 
sons  who  obligate  themselves  to  pay  for  a  ntaoho' 
of  years  the  minister's  salary  in  a  certain  ffs^t- 
Eitton:  (3)  from  donations  to  &  permanent  esuknr- 
mcnt  fund;  (4)  from  soeieties  which  collect  khih 
ingly  worthless  objects,  as  cigar  ends,  corks,  ifid 
the  like-  the  income  from  these  aodetieSt  inel 
particularly  for  orphan  asylums  and  like  mititi^ 
tions,  amounted  from  1885  to  1891  to  1,490.S» 
marks;  (5)  from  the  promts  of  the  Boaif&tnii 
printing-house  and  the  Bonifatiuja  aeoond-hand 
book-stall  at  Paderbora;  (6)  from  periodicaifl  liwi 
pamphlets;  (7)  from  academical  BonifatiuB  lo- 
cieties^  wliich  built  the  Catholic  church  at  Grdfr 
wald;  (8)  from  societies  of  a  like  character,  as 
the  *'  Boniface  Society  of  the  Catholic  Noblemea 
of  Silesia,"  the  "Boniface  Society  of  Cathdic 
Ladies  for  Church  Vestments  and  Fuituture," 
and  others.  The  aggregate  receipts  from  all  thaw 
sources  between  1849  and  1899  were  36,900,(100 
marks;  and  between  1849  and  1901  more  than  29,- 
000,000  marks  were  expended  for  2,240  statlcmi 
In  1902  the  revenues  aggregated  442,000  marki, 
and  expenditures  310^000  marks. 

The  territory  of  the  Bonifatius-Verein  compdMS 
Germany*  Austria  with  Bosnia  and  Hersegovini, 
Switzerland,  Denmark,  and  Luxembourg.  In 
Germany  special  attention  is  paid  to  the  Profetant 
parts  of  Prussia,  above  all  Beriin;  Saxony »  Bnm»- 
wick,  and  Mecklenburg  are  also  regarded  m  nd*- 
sionary  fields.  In  Bavaria,  Nuremberg,  fonneriy 
wholly  Protestant,  is  especially  an  object  of  the 
propaganda  in  order  to  connect  the  northern  and 
southern  parts  of  Bavaria,  C,  Fiet. 

BiBLio<5nAr«Y:  A,  J.  KlelFner  and  F.  W.  Wokcr,  Der  Bvm- 
famuM'Vtrein.  Seijin  GMchichte,  weint  ArbtrU  und  mim  Ar^ 
btdtsfeld,  1S4^SS99,  2  pifcrtJi.  Paderbom,  1890;. B™/«- 
diMJ^fdff,  ih.  1853  aqtl,;  SehltHaeh^  BomfQciut-Vtrwu- 
Biatt,  Br»$lau,  I860  sqq. 

BONI  HOHIITES;  A  name  home  by  several 
monastic  brotherhoods,  particularly  by  the  Gtam- 
montensians  (see  Grammont,  Ordee  of),  the 
Ftatrm  mccati,  or  Sack  Brethren  (q.v.),  and  lui 
order  of  canons  regular  founded  in  Portugal  by 
John  Vicenaa  (d.  1463),  physician  and  profe^or  ^ 
Lisbon,  afteni^ard  bishop  of  Lamego,  and  later 
bishop  of  Vizcu.  In  1425  Vicenza  and  his  foUowcTB, 
who  had  made  pilgrimages  throughout  Portugal, 
received  the  Benedictine  cloister  of  San  Salvador 
in  ViUar  de  Frades.  They  adopted  the  dreie  and 
statutes  of  the  canons  regular  of  San  Giorgio  ia 
Alga,  at  Venice,  and  received  papal  confirmation 
under  this  title.  In  another  house  near  Lisbon 
they  received  the  name  Canons  Regular  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  The  Boni 
homines  of  San  Salvador  were  later  included  under 
this  title.  They  gradually  attained  a  strength  of 
fourteen  houses  in  Portugal,  and  also  maintained 
Hussions  in  India  and  Ethiopia. 


BU9 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Boniftktius-Ver«ln 
Bonnet 


After  the  Minims  (q.v.)  had  come  into  possession 
of  the  house  of  the  Grammontensians  at  Vincennes 
tfaey,  too,  came  to  be  called  bans  hommes.  Even 
at  an  earlier  date  it  seems  that  the  Minims  in  Paris 
had  been  contemptuously  called  bans  hommes. 
The  same  name  was  also  appropriated  by  certain 
heretical  sects,  for  instance,  by  the  Cathari  (see 
New  Manicheans)  and  by  the  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Spirit.  In  Florence,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  twelve  men  elected  to  restore  order  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Ghibellines  were  called  buani 
uamini,  likewise  the  overseers  of  the  thirteen  city 
districts  in  Rome  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

BONIZO  (BONTTHO):  Bishop  of  Sutri;  b.  at 
Cremona  c.  1045;  d.  at  Piacenza  July  14,  probably 
1090.  As  a  young  cleric  he  joined  the  Patarene 
movement  (see  Patabenes)  in  Cremona  and  Pia- 
oenaa.  He  came  to  Rome  in  1074,  possibly  in  con- 
sequence of  his  conflict  with  Bishop  Dionysius  of 
Piacenza,  and  was  himself  made  bishop  of  Sutri 
in  1075  or  1076.  In  the  spring  of  1078  he  was  in 
Lombardy  as  legate,  and  back  in  Rome  by  No- 
vember, when  he  took  part  in  the  synod  that  dis- 
cussed Berengar's  teachings.  A  zealous  partizan  of 
Gregory  VII,  he  was  imprisoned  by  Henry  IV  in 
1082  and  entrusted  for  safe-keeping  to  the  antipope 
Guibert  of  Ravenna  (Clement  III).  He  contrived 
to  escape,  but  never  returned  to  his  see.  In  1085 
he  found  shelter  with  Countess  Matilda,  and  in  the 
simimer  of  1086  was  chosen  bishop  of  Piacenza  by 
the  Patarene  party.  His  election  being  uncanonical , 
Anselm  of  Milan,  the  metropolitan,  refused  to 
install  him;  but  he  succeeded  in  gaining  the  ap- 
proval of  Pope  Urban  II  in  1088  or  1089.  He 
did  not  long  enjoy  his  triumph,  meeting  a  violent 
death  in  a  rising  of  the  imperialist  party.  The 
most  important  of  his  writings,  the  Liber  ad  amicum 
(ed.  E.  DOmmler,  MGH,  LibeUi  de  lUe,  i,  1891), 
composed  between  the  death  of  Gregory  VII  and 
the  accession  of  Victor  III  (1085-86),  besides  dis- 
cussing the  question  whether  a  Christian  may  bear 
arms  in  the  defense  of  the  Church  (which  he  answers 
in  the  afiirmative),  shows  by  an  extended  historical 
sketch  that  the  Church  grows  under  persecution. 
The  chief  value  of  the  work  is  due  to  its  presen- 
tation of  the  ideas  of  Gregory  and  his  adherents; 
it  informs  us  how  the  papal  camp  judged  of  the 
numerous  theological  and  ecclcsiastico-political 
controversies  of  the  time,  and  as  a  whole  is  one  of 
the  most  noteworthy  productions  of  the  Gregorian 
party.  Often  as  it  has  been  appealed  to  as  a  con- 
temporary source,  it  has  to  be  used  with  caution, 
owing  not  only  to  carelessness  and  errors  of  detail, 
but  to  demonstrable  perversions  of  history,  as  in 
the  account  of  the  Canossa  episode.  In  fact,  it  is 
colored  throughout  by  the  author's  subjective 
standpoint.  The  Liber  in  Huganem  schismaticum 
(presumably  Cardinal  Hugo  Candidus)  has  un- 
fortunately been  lost.  As  a  canonist  Bonizo  left 
a  large  Decretum  in  ten  books,  from  which  Mai 
published  extracts  in  1854.  Carl  Mirbt. 

Bibuoorapht:  H.  Baur,  Studien  iiber  Bonizo,  in  For§chunr- 
gen  swr  deutadten  OeBchichte,  viii,  397-464.  Odttingen. 
1868;  E.  Steindorff,  JahrblU^ter  dea  detUtchen  Reich9 
unitr  Beifuieh  III.,  i.  457-462.  ii.  473-482.  Leipsio. 
1874,  1887;  W.  llmrtena,   Ueber  die  Gttd^ichtadirmbuno 


Bonizoa,  in  TUbinoer  (heologiache  QuarialachrifU  1883.  pp. 
457-483;  idem.  Qregor  VII.,  2  vols..  Leipsic,  1804;  H. 
Lehmgrabner.  Ueber  deMLebendea  Bonito  ....  inBemo 
von  Atba,  pp.  129-151.  Berlin.  1887;  G.  Meyer  von 
Knonau,  JakrhUdter  deM  deuUchen  ReidtB  unUr  Heinrich 
/v..  vob.  i.  ii.  Leipmc.  1890-94;  C.  Mirbt.  Die  PiMizietik 
im  Zeitalter  Oregart  VII.,  ib.  1894;  idem.  Die  WaM  Ore- 
gof  VII.,  Blarburg.  1892. 

BONNER,  EDMUND:  Bishop  of  London;  b., 
probably  at  ELanley,  Worcestershire,  about  1500; 
d.  in  the  Marshalsea  prison,  at  Southwark,  near 
London,  Sept.  5,  1569.  He  studied  at  Pembroke 
College  (then  called  Broadgate  Hall),  Oxford 
(B.C.L.,  1519;  D.C.L.,  1525),  and  was  ordained 
about  1519.  He  received  his  first  preferment 
from  Cardinal  Wolsey;  after  the  death  of  Wolsey 
(1530)  he  served  the  king,  received  a  number  of 
benefices,  and  was  employed  at  different  times  as 
ambassador  to  the  pope,  to  the  king  of  France,  and 
to  the  emperor;  he  was  made  bishop  of  London  in 
1539.  He  fell  out  with  the  privy  council,  which 
undertook  to  govern  under  Edward  VI  (1547), 
and  in  1549  was  reprimanded  for  not  enforcing  the 
use  of  the  new  prayer-book,  deprived  of  his  bishop- 
ric, and  imprisoned.  The  accession  of  Mary  (1553) 
brought  his  release  and  reinstated  him  in  his  see. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  by  his  connection  with 
the  religious  persecutions  of  the  reign  of  Mary  and 
it  is  said  that  in  three  years  he  condemned  more 
than  two  hundred  persons  to  the  stake.  In  1559, 
after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  he  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  supremacy  and  was  imprisoned  and 
kept  in  confinement  till  his  death.  It  has  been 
usual  to  represent  Bishop  Bonner  as  unprincipled 
and  cruel;  yet  his  firmness  in  following  the  unpop- 
ular course  and  the  suffering  undergone  in  conse- 
quence do  not  indicate  a  lack  of  principle;  to  judge 
and  condemn  heretics  was  one  of  the  duties  of  his 
position,  and  it  is  not  clear  that  he  took  delight 
in  imdue  severity;  there  is  documentary  evidence 
that  he  acted  imder  pressure  from  the  queen  and 
her  husband  (Philip  II  of  Spain).  He  was  un- 
popular in  London  apart  from  the  persecutions. 
He  wrote  a  preface  for  the  second  edition  of  Gar- 
diner's De  vera  abedientia  (Hamburg,  1536)  and 
published  a  collection  of  Homilies  for  his  diocese 
(London,  1555,  and  many  later  editions). 

BiBUoaRAPHT:  The  Bouroes  for  a  life  are  in  the  State  Paperz 
cf  Henry  VIII,  in  the  RaUe  Seriea,  15  vol8.,ed.  by  various 
hands.  London.  189-.  Consult  also:  8.  R.  Maitland. 
Subjecte  Conneded  with  the  ReformaHon  in  England,  Lon- 
don. 1849;  DNB,  vi.  358-360. 

BONNET,  beii^'n^',  ALFRED  MAXIMILIEN: 
French  classical  scholar;  b.  at  Frankfort  1841. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Bonn,  and, 
after  being  a  professor  at  the  academy  of  Lausanne 
in  1866-74  and  at  the  £cole  Monge  and  the  £cole 
Alsadenne  at  Paris  in  1874-81,  was  successively 
lecturer  and  instructor  in  the  faculty  of  letters 
at  Montpellier.  Since  1890  he  has  been  professor 
of  Latin  in  the  same  institution.  In  1898  he  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  and  has  written,  among  other 
works,  Narratio  de  miraculo  a  Michaele  archangeh 
Chanis  patratOf  adjecto  Sxfmeonis  Metaphrastce  de 
eadem  re  libeUa  (Paris,  1890)  and  Le  Latin  de 
Qrigovre  de  Tours  (1890);  and  has  prepared  editions 


Bonnet 
Bonosns 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


of  the  Liber  de  miracuiU  beoH  Andre^E  apoHoU^  in 
MGH,  Scnpt.  rer,  Menm.,  i  (1885),  82 1-^846,  the 
Acte  of  Thomas  (Leipaic,  1883)  and  of  Andrew 
(1S95),  and  the  Ada  apmiohmm  apocrypha  (1891 
Bqq,j  in  collabonition  with  R,  A.  LipniuB), 

BOmCETp  JULES:  Preach  Protestant  layman; 
b,  at  Nimes  (40  m,  n,e.  of  MontpeUier)  June  30, 
1820;  d.  at  Paris  Apr.  15,  1892.  He  wa«  educated 
as  a  lawyer,  but  became  a  professor  in  the  University 
of  France  and  gained  recognition  by  hia  worka 
OD  the  history  of  the  Reformation.  He  waa  also 
secretary  of  theSoci^t^d'Histoiredu  Ptoteetantisme 
Fran^ats  and  editor  of  its  publications.  Among 
his  works  special  mention  may  bo  made  of  the 
following!  (Mympia  Moraiat  ijmode  ds  la  renaia- 
sancc  en  Italie  (Paris^  1850;  Eng,  transl,,  Edin- 
burgh, 1S52);  Leitres  fraji^i^ea  dt  Calmn  (2 
vols.^  1854;  Eng.  transl.,  4  vols,,  Edinburgh, 
1855-57);  Ctdmn  au  wd  d'Ao^  (1861);  Arnvh 
Paieario,  6iudc  mut  la  r^fomm  cb  lialie  (1863; 
Eng.  trans!.,  London,  1864);  R^ciU  du  seimhne 
sikcle  (1864);  Nontaaux  ridt»  du  seizihne  sihcle 
(1869);  La  Riforms  au  cMitau  de  SairU  Privat 
(1873);  Noiice  mut  la  vie  et  le»  ^criU  de  M.  Merle 
d'Aubigni  (1874);  Demiere  ricUa  du  aei^ikme  eitcle 
(1875);  Queltjuee  Emtvenirs  eur  Augustin  Thierry 
(1877);  Famille  de  Curione,  r^cU  du  seizihTie  ail^U 
(Basel,  1 878) :  HtAtoire  de^  imiffrantee  du  ideiiheure^ux 
fnartyr  Louis  de  Marollee  (Paris,  1882);  Souvenirs  de 
Vigliee  rfformfe  de  la  CalmeUe  (1884);  and  mdie 
du  eeitihne  rn'Me,  iroieihrte  a^e  (1885).  He  also 
edited  the  M^moirei  de  laviede  Jean  de  Parihenay- 
Lareheviquet  Bieur  de  Sotdnee  (Paris,  1879),  while 
his  own  letters  from  1851  to  1863  have  been  edited 
by  E.  de  Bude  (Geneva,  1898). 

BOiraWAHI),  bon"nl'Vflr',  FRAHf OlS  DE:  The 
*'  Prisoner  of  Chillon  " ;  b.  at  Seyssel  on  the  Khone 
(21  m.  s.w.  of  Geneva)  c.  1493;  d.  at  Geneva  1570. 
As  a  younger  fion  he  entered  the  Church  and  became 
prior  of  Bt.  Victor  near  Geneva;  certain  other  bene- 
fices to  which  he  tljought  he  was  entitled  he  failed 
to  receive  through  the  intrig^jcs  of  Charles  III, 
duke  of  Savoy;  in  consequence  he  joined  the  party 
of  the  young  Genevan  patriots  who  were  resisting 
the  duke's  attempts  to  gain  control  of  the  city. 
When  the  duke  entered  Geneva  in  1510,  Bomiivanl 
fled,  but  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  duke^  and  was 
imprisoned  for  twenty  months.  On  May  26,  1530 
he  was  arrcftted  near  Lausanne,  taken  to  the  castle 
of  Chlllon  at  the  oa^t  end  of  Lake  Geneva,  and  kept 
there  for  six  years.  It  is  this  imprisonment  which 
Byron  has  immortalized  in  verse  mo«5  musical 
than  truthful.  The  first  two  years  were  tolerable; 
but  after  a  visit  from  the  duke  in  1532  he  was  put 
In  the  dungeon  now  shown  to  visitors.  It  is  only 
a  local  tradition  that  he  was  chained  to  a  pillar. 
In  the  spring  of  1536  the  Bernese  took  the  castle 
and  freed  Bonnivard,  During  his  incarceration 
the  priory  and  church  of  St*  Victor  had  been  razed 
and  the  inctime  of  the  estates  up  pi  led  to  the  city 
hospital.  As  indenmification  he  Wiis  pension lhI 
and  given  a  liberal  sum  to  pay  his  debts.  He 
ftdoptetl  the  Reformation  and  marrietl  four  timeSi 
but  no  time  happily,  lie  made  the  city  of  Geneva 
his  heir  on  condition  that  it  should  pay  his  debts; 


but  his  estate  eonaisted  only  of  certain  books  wiM 
formed  the  beginning  of  the  dty  library.  Bma- 
Yard's  literary  activity  was  the  chief  reaeoo  for  tbe 
forbearance  which  his  contemporaries  showed  ImL; 
bis  career  was  somewhat  wavering,  time^i^Tiq^ 
and  dishonorable.  In  1517  be  was  entitled  "peeu 
laureate/*  and  after  his  liberation  be  wis  tmt- 
missioned  by  the  magistracy  to  write  a  history  «l 
the  republic  of  Geneva.  This  work,  Lee  Cketmvpta 
de  Genhie  (published  at  Geneva,  2  vols.,  1831), 
ends  with  1551,  ia  full  of  anecdotes  and  i&terestiD^ 
but  unreliable.  Other  works  which  have  bem 
published  are;  Advie  ei  deme  dee  languee  (Geneti, 
1S49};  Advi9  ei  dttns  de  la  murce  de  f  itfo(afrv  4 
tyrannie  papaie  (1856);  De  l^ancienne  M  novvrfl 
pontes  de  Gmihe  (1865). 

BtaLioamAPHT:    ,1.    J.    ChapoDnifeni,     Memoir*   nsr  Bn^^ 
vard,   Geneva.    1^0;    F.  Gribble*  Lakm  Oemaa.  md  ii 

Liitf^ry  La7\dtn&fkt,  Londtiti,  IMIL 

BOinrnS,  HERMAmfUS  (Hcfuuum  OudeT): 
German  Reformer;  b.  at  QuackeubrQck,  in  Om*- 
bdlck,  1504;  d.  at  Labeck  Fab.  12,  IMS,  Be 
was  educated  apparently  first  at  MOnster,  then  ia 
Bug^nhagen's  school  at  Treptow,  but  certainly 
entered  the  Univeisity  of  Wittonbcrg  in  1523, 
coming  under  the  influence  of  Luther  and  Melanch- 
thon.  In  1525,  probably,  he  migrated  to  Grei£»- 
waldj  and  about  two  years  later  went  to  Gottt^ 
to  act  aa  tutor  to  the  six-year-old  eon  of  Frederick  I 
of  Denmark.  Thence  he  was  called  to  Ltlbedc 
in  1530,  and  (on  Bugenhagen's  oganisation  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  there)  made  superintendent  in 
the  following  February,  Here  he  remained  UDlfl 
his  deathj  in  spite  of  calls  to  Hamburg  In  1532  sad 
to  LQneburg  in  1534.  He  represented  his  town 
in  the  conference  of  the  six  free  cities  of  Labeck, 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  Rostock ,  Stralsund,  and  Luae- 
burg,  held  at  Hamburg  in  1535  to  concert  messares 
for  dealing  with  Papists,  Anabaptists,  and  Sacra- 
men  tarians.  In  1543  he  visited  OsnabrCIck  to 
take  part  in  the  establisbment  of  a  Refonned 
system  and  lituri^  which  received  the  approval 
of  the  bishop,  Fran*  von  Waldeek,  and  was  later 
extendi  to  the  whole  diocese.  The  attempt  to 
carry  it  into  that  of  Miinster  was  forcibly  resisted  by 
the  chapter,  but  met  with  partial  success  in  the 
country  districts.  His  inSuence  was  eittended  by 
his  Low  German  catechism  (1539)  and  by  his 
services  to  the  hymnody  of  this  dialect.  He  cer- 
tainly edited  aod  revised  several  collections  of  both 
German  and  Latin  hymns,  and  probably  contribute 
some  of  his  own.  He  took  a  courageous  part 
against  the  democratic  revolution  in  Labeck  under 
Wullenweber,  and  in  his  CAronifca  der  kaieerikhm 
Stadt  L^iheck  (153^)  pointed  out  the  dangers  of 
innovating  tendencies.  After  the  formal  adoption 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  1535,  be  contended 
successfully  against  the  efforts  of  the  Romsn 
Catholic  party  to  regain  control  and  against  the 
propaganda  of  the  Anabaptists.  His  office  re- 
quired him  to  expound  the  Scriptun^,  and  hi^ 
discourses  on  the  Acts  and  on  the  Uturpcal  epistles 
for  the  Sundays  were  published.  In  accordance 
with  the  Hamburg  dedsions,  which  had  required 
preachers  to  dwell  upon  the  examples  of  the  sadnts, 
he  published  in  1539  a  compilation  of  ha^ographical 


Ml 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bonnet 
Bonosofl 


extracts.  The  king  of  Denmaik  tried  to  secure 
him  for  an  important  office  (probably  the  bishopric 
of  Sleswick),  but  he  refused  to  leave  LQbeck,  where 
his  body  was  deposited  amid  universal  mourning 
in  St.  Maiy's  church.  (G.  Kawsrau.) 

BnuooBAnrr:  H.  Spieiel,  Hermann  B&nnua,  QOtiingen, 
1802;  G.  Boosert,  in  TLZ,  1802.  pp.  260  aqq. 

BOHOSUS  AUD  thb  bohosiahs. 

HerwT  and  Suspension  of  Bonotus  (|  1). 
Final  Condemnation  of  Bonoeua  (|  2). 
Bonoeians  in  Spain  and  Southern  Gaul  (|  3). 
Sympathy  between  Bonoeiana  and  Ariane  (|  4). 
Belation  between  Bonoeua  and  the  Bonoeians  (|  5). 

From  a  letter  written  to  Anysius  of  Thessalonica 
and  the  other  lUyrian  bishops,  soon  after  the  Synod 
of  Capua  (winter  of  391-392),  by  either  Pope  Siridus 
or  an  unknown  Italian  bishop,  we  learn  certain 
facts  about  a  bishop  Bonosus,  whose  see  is  not  given. 
He  had  been  accused,  apparently  by  neighboring 
bishops,  but  of  what  does  not  cleariy  appear  in  the 
letter,  except  that  he  had  asserted  that  Mary  bore 
other  children  to  Joseph,  after  the  birth  of  Jesus. 
The  case  came  before  this  synod  at  Capua,  called 
by  the  emperor  Theodosius  to  put  an  end  to  the 
schism  at  Antioch  (see  Msu&nus  of  Antioch); 
but  the  synod  refeired  it  to  the  bishops  whose 
dioceees  bordered  on  those  of  both  parties,  espe- 
cially the  Macedonian  prelates.  The  dedsion  was 
in  favor  of  suspension,  a  temporary  provision  being 
made  for  the  administration  of  Bono- 

z.  Heresy   sus's  diocese.    He  wrote  to  St.  Am- 

and  Sua-  brose  to  know  whether  he  was  bound 
penston  of  to  heed  this  sentence,  and  Ambrose 

Bonoras.  counseled  patience.  Meantime  the 
bishops  hesitated  to  make  the  sen- 
tence absolute,  and  would  have  been  ^ad  of  the 
opinion  of  the  writer  of  the  letter.  He,  however, 
whether  Siridus  or  some  one  else,  declared  that 
it  did  not  belong  to  him  "  to  dedde  as  if  by  au- 
thority of  a  synod";  the  responsibility,  he  told 
them,  rested  on  them  of  forming  such  a  decision 
that  neither  the  accused  nor  the  accusers  should  be 
able  to  evade  it.  So  much  consideration  was  not 
usually  shown  to  "  heretics  '*;  there  may  have 
been  circumstances  connected  with  the  case  which 
we  do  not  know.  But  to  deny  the  perpetual  vir- 
ginity of  Mary  was  a  serious  offense  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  time  (see  Helvidiub).  Ambrose 
speaks  (De  iruiU.  virg.,  v,  35)  of  a  bishop  being 
accused  of  this  "sacrilege" — ^probably  meaning 
Bonosus.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  at  this  time 
Bonosus  was  accused  of  no  worse  or  further  here- 
sies. 

Some  twenty  years  later  we  hear  more  of  Bono- 
sus in  two  letters  of  Innocent  I — one  to  Mardan  of 
Nalssus,  northwest  of  Sardica,  and  a  later  one  to 
the  bishops  of  lUyria.  From  them  it  appears  that 
Bonosus  had  been  definitely  condemned 

3.  final     by  his  fellow  bishops,  and  had  then 

Condemns-  founded  a  separate  ecclesiastical  organ- 

tion  of      isation  of  his  own.    For  the  avoiding 

Bonosus.  of  scandal,  those  who  had  been  or- 
dained by  him  were,  if  they  wished  it, 
recdved  back  into  the  Church  as  clerics.  Innocent 
allows  this  only  in  the  case  of  those  ordained  by 
Bonosus  before  his  condemnation;  but  here  again 


his  heresy  is  not  spedfied.  Twenty  years  later 
still  (431),  Marius  Mercator  names  Marcellus, 
Photinus,  "and  lately  the  Sardican  bishop,  Bo- 
nosus, who  was  condemned  by  Pope  Damasus, 
among  the  followers  of  Ebion."  There  is  prac- 
tically no  doubt  that  this  is  the  same  Bonosus;  in 
this  case,  and  accepting  [the  statement  of  Marius, 
we  have  learned  that  Bonosus  was  bishop  of  Sar- 
dica, and  that  his  errors  had  grown,  after  392,  into 
dynamistic  Monarchianism.  We  have  no  further 
ixiformation  as  to  the  fate  of  his  following  in  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  The  mention  of  him  in  the 
so-called  Deeretum  Odasix,  even  if  it  was  written 
by  Geladus,  and  the  anathemas  pronounced  against 
him  by  T^gilius  in  552  and  553  prove  nothing  on 
this  point.  If  Gregory  I  in  his  Epistola  ad  Quiricum 
really  named  the  Borumaci  with  the  Cataphrygians 
as  heretics  who  needed  rebaptism  because  they 
did  not  believe  in  Christ  the  Lord,  this  is  not  veiy 
strong  evidence  for  the  continued  existence  of  the 
body,  and  tells  nothing  of  its  locality. 

The  case  is  different  with  the  repeated  mentions  of 
BonaHaci  or  Bonosiani  by  the  writers  of  Spain  and 
southern  Gaul.  Gennadius  quotes  the  Spanish 
bishop  Audentius  (end  of  fourth  century)  as  having 
spedally  written  against  them,  which  proves  at 
least  that  Gennadius  knew  them;  he  speaks  in 
another  place  of  "  Photinians,  who  now  are  called 
Bonosians."  A  little  later  Avitus  of  Vienne  men- 
tions them  in  two  well-known  passages;  in  one 
he  expresses  himself  in  relation  to 
3.  Bono-  King  Gundobad  (see  Buboundi^ns) 
sians  in  as  willing  to  accept  their  baptism. 
Spain  and  The  17  th  canon  of  the  so-called  Second 
Southern  Synod  of  Aries  (generally  placed  443- 
GauL  452)  shows  the  same  oondliatoiy 
attitude;  but  the  Third  Synod  of 
Orleans  (538)  tells  us  that  the  Bonoeians  rebap- 
tised  their  converts,  which  may  be  taken  to  show 
that  thdr  baptism  was  not  then  recognised  by 
the  other  side.  About  the  same  time,  according 
to  Isidore  of  Seville,  Justinian  of  Valencia  was 
writing  against  them  his  lost  Liber  responsionum 
contra  Bononanaa,  qui  Christum  adoptivum  filium 
et  non  proprium  dicunt.  While  for  Gaul  the  latest 
reference  is  given  by  the  Synod  of  Clichy  in  626 
or  627,  showing  thus  their  gradual  extinction  there, 
in  Spain  they  were  attracting  attention  fifty  years 
later;  the  Synod  of  Toledo  in  675,  declaring  that 
Christ  was  the  Son  of  God  by  nature,  not  by  adop- 
tion, was  plainly  directed  against  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  mention  of  Bonosus — ^not  of  the 
Bonosians — ^in  the  Adoptionist  controversy  (see 
Adoptionism)  does  not  prove  that  they  lasted  to 
the  dghth  century  in  Spain,  nor  is  the  medieval 
view  that  Adoptionism  was  a  revival  of  the  heresy 
of  Bonosus  worth  considering.  They  really  dis- 
appear with  the  end  of  the  seventh  century. 

That  these  mentions  of  Bonosians  from  the  fifth  to 
the  seventh  centuries  are  not  merely  the  survival  of 
an  old  term  of  opprobrium,  but  that  they  really 
existed  in  Spain  and  southern  Gaul  at  that  period 
has  long  been  justly  accepted.  It  is  still  further 
confirmed  by  a  passage  of  Avitus,  whose  true  read- 
ing (Bonosiacorum  for  hmiorum)  has  only  lately 
b^  established.    Writing  to  Sigismund,  his  con- 


Bonosus 
Bora 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


vert,  son  of  the  Arian  king  Gundobad}  he  gives 

the  mformation  that  the  latter  ha«i  formallj  prom- 
tsed  to  Bet  up  a  BonosiaD  ©Dmmunity  in  hia  kii^om 
by  the  establishment  of  a  bishop  of 
4*  Sympathy  their  faith,  and  that  ttna  body  was 
between  reeniited  f torn  the  ArhLos.  Tbiswoidd 
Bonodana  explain  the  attitutle  of  G«tina<JUuB 
and  Amns.  toward  their  baptism.  Avitus  took 
an  opposito  \iew,  either  to  conciliate 
the  kingf  who  at  that  time  gave  hop€9  of 
his  converaion^  or  from  motives  of  general  policy. 
The  Bonosiana  began  to  be  absorbed  into  the  Arian 
body;  toward  the  end  of  Gvmdobad's  reign  AvitUB 
had  hopes  that  they  would  entirely  disappear, 
if  the  king  could  be  indut^l  to  let  his  promises 
to  them  lapse  into  oblivion.  The  later  history 
shows  tliat  this  hope  proved  false,  because  the  sect 
was  not  oon fined  to  Burgundian  territory;  and 
it  IB  not  surprising  that  sharp  measunes  were  taken 
agaiEist  those  who  remained  obdurate  in  their 
heresy  under  Catholic  rule.  Only  one  thing  ean  be 
iirged  against  the  correctness  of  the  account  here 
given — the  recognition  of  the  validity  of  Bonosian 
baptism  by  the  aynoti  said  to  have  been  held  at 
Aries  about  450;  but  this  really  telU  the  other  way, 
for  general  support  is  now  aecordetl  to  the  theory 
put  forth  in  the  eighteenth  century  that  this  second 
iynod  of  Aries  never  had  any  existence ^  the  canons 
attributed  to  it  being  nothing  but  a  collection  of 
various  older  synodical  decisions  made  toward  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  and  canon  xvii  having  then 
6r8t  l«en  heard  of.  Accordingly  it  is  safe  to  aay 
that  the  Bonosians  in  the  generally  Arian  terri- 
tories of  the  BurgunLhan"*  and  the  West^oths 
were  the  followers  of  Bonosus  of  Sardica,  though 
the  name  Bonosus  was  not  an  unoommon  one. 
Isidore  of  Se\nlle  saya  expressly  that  they  had 
Bprung  "  from  a  certain  bishop  Bonosus,"  an<l  the 
"  plague  of  the  Bonosians  *'  did  not  liegin  in  the 
Burgundian  kingdom,  since  Avitua 
g.  Relation  speaks  of  it  as  ah  infematibus  lalebris 
between  ej:ciiatn.  The  district  in  which  Bono- 
BonoauB  bus  of  Sar^lica  laborcil  bordered  on 
and  the  territories  held  in  his  time  by  the 
Bonosiana,  West-Goths,  and  relations  may  well 
have  remainc<l  close  between  that 
region  and  the  West-Goths  of  the  south  of  Gaul; 
00  that  the  passage  of  his  teaching  from  the  Balkan 
peninsula  into  the  Burgundian  kingdom,  which  was 
in  close  contact  with  the  West-Goths,  is  perfectly 
possible,  and  we  may  safely  conclude  to  accept  the 
statement  of  Mariiis  Mercator.  (F.  Loofs.) 

The  widespread  acceptance  of  the  Adoptionist 
view  of  the  petBon  of  Christ  from  the  apostolic  time 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  beyond  (Ebionitca, 
Shepherd  of  Hermas,  Theodotas  of  Rome,  Paul  of 
Saraosata,  the  Paulicians,  moat  medieval  sect^^ 
many  Anabaptists,  and  others)  makes  it  easy  to 
account  for  this  aspect  of  the  teaching  of  the 
Bonosians  as  well  as  for  the  Spanish  Adoptioniflm 
of  the  eighth  century  without  the  supposition  of 
its  independent  origin  in  either  ease.  For  much 
valuable  information  on  the  early  origin  and  tiio 
persecution  of  Adoptionist  Christology  cf*  F.  C. 
Conybeare,  The  Key  of  Truth;  A  Manunt  0}  the 
PauliciaTi  Church  of  AfTnenia,    Th§  Armenian  Text 


edited  and  tran&laUd   %eilh    iUuairaiht 

and  Inirodw^thn  (Oxford,  1S9S),  A.  H.  li, 

Bibuooiufht:  Ceiili«r,   Avtma^  mitrM,  ▼,  708^-711;  d  W. 

1&60;  C.  Binding,  Bo*  &wl^iKfi«dbmni«antde^  £««Hro4 
vol.  i.  LdpKic,  18^;  fiafeb,  CemdUengneky^Ot^  ^wIlI 
iu;  DCB,  i.  330-331. 

BONWETSCHj  b©n"vetch',  (K>TTLIEB  MJEAr 
HAEL:  German  Protes^nt  theologian;  b.  At 
NortJa,  Russia,  Feb,  11,  184S,  He  was  educitod 
at  the  universities  of  Dorpat  (1866-70),  GOttiagaL 
(1874-^75),  and  Bonn  (1877-78),  the  time  betwoa 
his  residence  at  these  univei^tties  being  sp^t  in 
practicaJ  pastoral  work.  He  became  privat-dortot 
at  Dorpat  in  1S78  and  aasodate  professor  of  chuni 
history  four  yeara  later,  while  from  1883  to  1801 
he  was  full  professor  in  the  same  urn  verity.  Sibbb 
1891  he  has  been  professor  of  church  history  il 
G^ttingen.  In  addition  to  numerous  contributioi]i 
to  theological  journals  and  religious  eneydo|:»edks,  fae 
edited  Thomasiua's  Dogm^ngeschidmdef  oUenKirtk 
(Eriangen,  1S86)  and  the  Studim  xur  Geaduchi£  4ff 
TheohgU  unrfiCircfte  in  collaboration  with  R.  Seeber^ 
(Leipsic,  1897  sqq,),  and  has  written  Die  Scktifm 
Terhdlian*  uniersuchi  (Bonn,  1878);  Die  Gt^ichichii 
des  Monianiamus  (Erlangen,  1881);  Un^r  Rifar- 
TTiiitor  Martin  Luther  (Dorpat ,  1883);  KynU  icnJ 
AfethadiuSf  dk  Lekrer  der  Slaven  (Erlangen,  1S8S); 
MtthodiuM  von  Olymjms,  t,  Schriften  (Leipeie,  1801); 
Studim  m  den  Ktmnnerdarm,  Hippotyius  zum  Buc^ 
Daniel  und  Hahenliede  (1897);  Hippolyiujt  Werke 
(Berlin,  1897^  in  collaboration  with  H,  Achdis); 
and  Die  Ap&kalypae  AbrakamSj  dox  TVsfameitf  (far 
vieriig  Afdrtj^rer  (1898).  He  also  edited*  in  GoUaba- 
ration  with  P.  Tschackert,  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth ed if  ions  of  J,  H.  Kurtz^a  Lehrtmch  der  Kir- 
chenge^ckicMe  (2  vols,,  Leipsic,  1899,  1906). 

BOOS,  MARTUT:  Roman  Catholic  priest^  b.  at 
Huttenried  near  Schongau,  Bavaria,  Etee,  25,  17d2; 
d.  at  Sayn,  near  Ckiblens,  Aug.  29.  1825,  He 
studied  at  Dillingen  under  Sailer,  Zimmer,  and 
Weber,  He  followed  the  extreme  practises  of  asg- 
ceticism  as  a  penance  for  sin,  all  to  no  avails  as  be 
beUeved,  and  then  developed  a  doctrine  of  aalvi- 
tion  by  faith  which  came  very  near  to  pure  Luther- 
anism.  This  he  preached  with  great  effect.  He 
waJ8  driven  from  Bavaria  by  the  opposition  of  the 
eccleeiastical  authorities  and  other  priests  and  lived 
in  Austria  from  1799  to  1816,  when  he  was  am- 
pelled  to  leave  that  country.  His  laat  years  w«re 
spent  at  Dilsseldorf  and  Sayn. 

Biitt.lO0BAPHT:  His  ftutobiogr&ph^  wbb  edited  by  J,  G«d»< 
ner,  Leipetic,  1831.  Eni£.  tmofil,  London.  1S36.  wbo  aIm 
uflued  twi7  VQlutnes  of  hi?  jiermoasi,  Berlin,  1S30.  Caa- 
BuU  ftljBO  F.  W.  Hodemftrm,  OeMummelte  BHefe  varb,  an  nM 
flA«r  Martin  Boot,  Frankfort,  V854. 

BOOTH,  BALLIHGTOIT:  General-in-chief  and 
president  of  the  Volunteers  of  America;  b.  at  Brig- 
house  (4m.  e.s.e.  of  Halifax),  Yorkshire*  England, 
July  28,  1859,  He  was  educated  at  a  private 
achool  in  Bristol  and  subsequently  at  Trenton  Col- 
legiate Institute  and  Nottingham  Seminary,  Kot- 
tinglmm,  England.  He  was  commander  of  the 
Salvation  Army  in  Austmlia  from  18S5  to  1 887, 
and  held  the  aame  office  in  the  United  States  from 


5)88 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bonosos 
Bora 


1887  to  1896.  In  the  latter  year  his  connection 
with  the  Salvation  Army  ceased,  however,  and  he 
established  a  similar  though  not  identical  organiza- 
tion known  as  the  Volunteers  of  America  (q.v.)i  of 
which  he  has  since  been  the  head.  He  was  ordained 
At  Chicago  in  August,  1896,  a  presbyter  in  the 
Christian  Church. 

BOOTH,  CATHERINE  (MUMFORD):  "Mother 
of  the  Salvation  Army";  b.  at  Ashbourne  (13 
m.  n.w.  of  Derby),  Derbyshire,  England,  Jan. 
17,  1829;  d.  at  Clacton-on-Sea  (13  m.  s.e.  of  Col- 
diester),  Essex,  Oct.  4,  1890.  She  was  educated 
ehiefly  at  home,  and  in  1844  removed  with  her 
parents  to  London.  In  the  same  year  she  joined 
the  Wesleyan  congregation  at  Brixton,  but  four 
years  later  was  debarred  from  that  organization, 
together  with  others.  These  **  Reformers,"  as  they 
called  themselves,  then  formed  a  separate  congre- 
gation, and  in  1851  she  became  acquainted  with  her 
future  husband,  William  Booth  (q.v.),  likewise  an 
ezcommimicated  "  Reformer."  Four  years  later 
they  were  married,  and  in  1858  she  first  took  pub- 
lic part  in  her  husband's  pastoral  work  at  Gates- 
head, Durham,  where  he  was  then  located.  Two 
3rears  later,  after  the  publication  of  a  pamphlet  de- 
fending the  right  of  women  to  preach,  she  delivered 
her  first  sermon  in  her  husband's  pulpit,  and  with- 
in the  next  three  years  began  to  conduct  independ- 
ent religious  meetings,  leading  successful  missions 
at  Margate  in  1867  and  at  Portsmouth  in  1873. 
Meanwhile  the  plan  which  resulted  in  the  formar 
tk>n  of  the  Salvation  Army  (q.v.)  was  maturing, 
and  the  new  organisation  was  definitely  formu- 
lated in  1877.  Mrs.  Booth  herself  took  an  active 
part  in  the  work,  especially  among  women  and  chil- 
dren. Her  greatest  work  as  a  revivalist  was  done 
in  1886-87,  but  in  the  following  year  she  was 
stricken  with  cancer,  which  ultimately  caused  her 
death.  She  wrote  Papers  an  Practical  Religion 
(London,  1879);  Papers  on  Aggressive  Christianity 
(1881);  Papers  on  Godliness  (1882);  Life  and  Death 
(1883);  The  Salvation  Army  in  Relation  to  the  Church 
and  suae  (1883);  and  Pojmlar  Christianity  (1887). 

Biblxoorapht:  F.  St.  O.  de  L.  Booth  Tucker,  The  Life  of  CeUh- 
erine  Booth,  2  voU.,  London  and  Chicago,  1892;  J.  Chap- 
V^lUFow  Noble  Women  and  their  Work,  ib.  1808. 

BOOTH,  WILLIAM:  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  Salvation  Army;  b.  at  Nottingham,  England, 
Apr.  10, 1829.  He  was  educated  by  a  private  theo- 
logical tutor  of  the  Methodist  New  Ck>nnexion 
Church,  and  began  his  career  as  an  open  air  preacher 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  entered  the  ministry  of 
the  Methodist  New  Connexion  Church  in  1852, 
and  was  successively  a  traveling  evangelist  and  a 
circuit  preacher  imtil  1861,  when  he  left  the  de- 
nomination to  devote  himself  entirely  to  evangel- 
istic work.  In  1865  he  founded  at  London  the 
Christian  Mission  for  the  amelioration  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  destitute  and  vicious  population  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  London,  and  this  developed, 
in  1878,  into  the  Salvation  Army  (q.v.).  He  has 
traveled  extensively  in  the  interests  of  his  Army, 
and  has  written  Salvation  Soldiery  (1890);  In  Dark- 
est  Engkmd  and  the  Way  Out  (1890);  and  Religion 
far  Every  Day  (1902). 


Biblxographt:  F.  St.  G.  de  L.  Booth  Tucker,  Life  of  Gen- 
eral William  Booth,  Chicago,  1898;  T.  F.  G.  Coates,  The 
Prophet  of  the  Poor;  the  Life  Story  of  General  Booth,  Lon- 
don, 1906. 

BOOTH  TUCKER,  EMMA  MOSS:  Salvation 
Army  worker;  b.  at  Gateshead,  Durham,  Jan.  8, 
1860;  d.  near  Dean  Lake,  Mo.,  Oct.  28,  1903.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  William  Booth  (q.v.),  the 
founder  of  the  Salvation  Army,  and  from  1880  to 
1888  was  in  charge  of  the  international  training 
homes  of  that  organization.  In  the  latter  year  she 
married  Frederick  St.  George  de  Lautour  Tucker 
(see  the  following  article),  and  went  with  him  suc- 
cessively to  India  and  London,  whence  she  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1896.  She  held  the  rank  of 
consul  in  the  Salvation  Army,  and  had  equal  powers 
with  her  husband  in  its  control.  She  died  from  in- 
juries received  in  a  railroad  accident.  A  volume  of 
selections  from  her  writings  has  been  published  under 
the  title  The  Cross  and  Our  Comfort  (London,  1907). 

BOOTH  TUCKER,  FREDERICK  ST.  GEORGE 
DE  LAUTOUR:  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs 
of  the  Salvation  Army;  b.  at  Mongh3rr  (80  m. 
e.  of  Patna),  Bengal,  Mar.  21,  1853.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cheltenham  Ck>llege,  England,  and  passed 
the  examinations  for  the  India  Civil  Service  in 
1874.  After  two  years  of  additional  study,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Punjab,  where  he  was  successively 
assistant  commissioner  and  treasury  officer.  He 
resigned  from  the  service,  however,  in  1881  to  join 
the  Salvation  Army,  which  he  established  in  India 
in  the  following  year.  He  remained  in  command 
of  the  Army  there  until  1891,  when  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  London  as  secretary  for  international  work. 
He  held  this  office  for  five  years,  and  from  1896  to 
1904  was  commander  of  the  Army  in  the  United 
States.  Since  the  latter  year  he  has  been  Secretary 
for  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  Salvation  Army,  with 
headquarters  in  London,  and  is  thus  responsible  to 
General  William  Booth  (q.v.)  for  all  work  of  the 
organization  outside  of  the  British  Isles.  In  1888 
he  married  the  daughter  of  Gen.  William  Booth 
(see  the  preceding  article)  and  subsequently  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Booth  Tucker.  He  has  written 
In  Darkest  India  and  the  Way  Out  (Bombay,  1891); 
The  Life  of  Catherine  Booth  (2  vols.,  Chicago,  1892); 
Life  of  General  William  Booth  (1898);  and  Favorite 
Songs  of  the  Salvation  Army  (1899). 

BOOTHS,  FEAST  OF.  See  Tabernacles, 
Feast  of. 

BORA,  KATHARINA  VON:  Luther's  wife;  b. 
of  an  old  family  of  Klein-Laussig,  near  Bitterfeld  in 
Meissen,  Jan.  29,  1499;  d.  at  Torgau  Dec.  20,  1552. 
She  was  placed  in  the  Cistercian  convent  of  Nimpsch 
at  Grinuna  (17  m.  s.e.  of  Leipsic)  when  a  child 
and  became  a  nun  in  1515;  with  the  cognizance  of 
Luther  she  and  eight  other  nuns  fled  from  the  con- 
vent Apr.  4,  1523,  and  repaired  to  Wittenberg. 
She  is  said  to  have  refused  an  offer  of  marriage  from 
Dr.  Kaspar  Glatz,  vicar  at  Orlamttnde,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  have  expressed  a  preference  for  Ams- 
dorf  or  Luther.  She  was  married  to  the  latter 
June  13,  1525,  and  bore  him  six  children.  She 
proved  a  true  wife,  was  a  good  housekeeper,  and 
the  marriage  was  a  happy  one.    After  Luther's 


Borborites 
Borowski 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


mlt 


death  (Feb.  18.  1546)  she  remained  at  Wittenberg, 

much  of  the  time  in  poverty.  Her  death  was  due 
to  an  accident  which  occurred  as  she  waa  on  the 
way,  w^ith  her  chiidren,  to  Torgau  to  escape  the 
plague  at  Wittenberg. 

BvnlA'OQmjLm't:  W.  Be^te,  Die  GeicAieAfo  Kaiharina*  pan 
Sc/ra,  Ha.lLe,  1843;  F,  C,  Hofmajm*  KatkariruM  von  Btwa 
od^T  LutiuT  olv  QaUt  UTvd  Vaier,  Leipsic.  1845;  h.  Stem, 
Kaiharina  von  Bora,  Luther^  Eheff^mahi^  H«]Je«  1897; 
A.  ThomK.  Ko^wrirtiBr  von  Bora,  tierliti,  liOO.  Consult 
&bo  the  vidrlouB  biosrBphtes  of  Luther.  Th«  chief  of  the 
XDi^tty  libelfl  t^mxTumK  Luther '«  marri&£«  is  EuBebiui 
EcigelbfLrd'i  (Michael  Kuen)  Lucifa-  ffiU^nderfPeruit,  2 
voU..  Lfcuddberg.  1747-40* 

BORBORITES,  BARDELITES-     See  Gnosticism. 

BORDELUMIAITS :  A  separatistic  sect  formed 
&t  Bordelum,  a  village  of  Sleawick,  about  1739, 
under  the  leadership  of  a  pietistic  Baxon  tlieological 
student  named  David  B&br.  They  originally 
consisted  of  fifteen  or  twenty  persons,  and  claimed 
to  be  saints  who  had  advanced  further  than  Paul 
according  to  Rom.  vii,  24.  Since  they  believed  that 
they  had  received  special  gifts  from  God,  they 
decried  the  Church  ai  the  house  of  the  devil  ^  and 
despised  the  sacramants.  As  beijig  pure,  to  whom 
all  things  were  pure,  they  rejected  marriage  in 
fa^-or  of  ff'ee  love,  and  instituted  a  coEmnunism  of 
property  for  their  fiiianciaf  support.  An  edict  of 
Christian  VI,  issued  June  11,  1739,  condemned  the 
leaders  to  imprisonment;  those  who  had  led  ftn 
immoral  life  were  punished  actxiiding  to  the  laws, 
and  the  remainder  were  admonished.  The  leadera 
managed  to  escape  the  punishment,  however,  Bjihr^ 
who  had  seduced  a  married  woman,  fleeing  to  Jena, 
Expelled  from  tlmt  city,  he  returned  to  Holstein, 
and  was  imprisoned  at  Gltickstadt.  Having  become 
a  cripple  in  consequence  of  the  rough  treatment  to 
which  he  had  been  subjected  in  prison,  he  was  re- 
leased, and  died  wretchedly,  still  unconverted,  at 
Bredstfldt  in  1743,  His  adherents  caused  much 
trouble  to  the  pafitor  of  Bordelum. 

Paul  Tschactkert- 
BiDtJOQiui^r;  Ada  hittarit^^^rt^eHaBHea,  voL  v,  part  20, 
p.    6S3  eqq.,   And   Supplement,   pp.   1014   »qq.,   20  voii., 
Weimar.  1734-38,  oontinued  in  13  vob.,  till  1790. 

BORDIER,  bflK'dy6',  HENRI  LEONARD:  Re- 
formed Church  of  France;  b,  in  Paris  Aug*  8, 1817; 
d.  there  Aug.  31,  1SS8,  He  was  educati^d  at  the 
Ecole  de  Droit  and  the  Ecolc  des  Chartes  in  Paris, 
and  licensed  in  law  and  aj&  paleographic  archivist 
in  1840;  thereafter  he  devoted  himself  to  his- 
torical studies*  He  was  successively  a*tsistant 
to  the  historian  Augustin  Thierry;  aswifltant  in  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptjona;  secretary  par  intern 
of  the  Ecole  des  Chartes;  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission on  the  departmental  archives  of  the  minis- 
ter of  the  interior  (1846);  archivist  of  the  national 
archives  (1850),  and  dismissed  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Empire,  Ho  was,  during  the  siege  of 
Paris,  on  the  commission  upon  the  papers  of  the 
Tuileriea;  and  in  1872  was  nominated  honorary 
librarian  in  the  department  of  manuscripts  in  the 
Bibliothique  Nation  ale.  He  was  for  many  years  on 
the  committee  of  the  Soci^t^  d'Hisloire  du  Protes- 
tant! sme  Fran^ais,  and  prepared  numerous  works, 
noted  for  their  accuracy-  Among  them  may  be 
meatioiiedr  various    notices    in    the    BiHioth^que 


de  ricok  dim  Chartm  (Pmm,  lStl-66);  Si4m 
g&n&raU  de  iou*  les  d^pbti  d'arcMms  exutaii  m 
France  (1S5S);  Le$  ^gliaes  H  num^iM^h^  it  Fmk 
(1856);  an  edition  of  the  Libri  miracularum  oEup 
opera  minora  of  Greigory  of  Tours,  Latin  teit  lilh 
French  translation  (4  vols,,  I8S7-64)i  a  Fr»4 
translation  of  the  Historia  Francorum  of  Qtt^ 
of  Toura  (2  vols.,  1859-61);  Lee  Ifwtnimm  4a 
archives  de  rSmpire  (1867);  Vne  Fabnqm  4m  fm 
aiitofffaphe*  (1860);  Chansimnier  hugven^  du  in- 
xihne  siMe  (1869);  VAUemagne  atix  TwUmm.k 
1850  h  1870,  coUcitum  de  documents  tiris  du  oaftni 
de  rEmpereiir  (1S72);  La  Saint- B<jrtyim^  4  k 
criHqtJte  modeme  (Geneva,  1879);  V£cole  KiManqm 
de  J&rojne  Bohec  (Paris,  1880);  Nicaka  CaMOk 
de  Tovmay,  r^f^gU  h  Genhm^  1SS4-1ST0  (1851); 
Descriptum  dee  peinturee  rf  auiree  amemenU  cm- 
t^tis  dane  lee  manueerUt  grece  de  la  Bib^aUi^ 
Naiionale  (1885).  With  E.  Charton  he  pubMd 
in  1860:  Huimre  de  France  d^aprke  ks  dofuMciA 
origif%atix  et  lea  numumerde  de  Vart  de  i^ujqut  ^poq^ 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  upoo  i 
new  and  enlarged  edition  of  the  brothers  Eug^ 
and  £mile  Haag's  La  France  proieeiante  (origMly 
12  vols.,  Paris,  1845--59),  and  bad  brought  out  tha 
first  BvG  volumes  (1877-86), 

BOREEL,  bo"rfil',  ADAM:  Preacher  and  aectu7; 
b.  at  Middelburg,  m  Zealand,  1603;  d.  in  Amsterdam 
1666.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Reformed  oongr^aticHi, 
but  resigned  his  office,  and  became  the  leado'  of  t 
separatistic  party,  which  acknowledged  no  othff 
religious  authority  than  the  Scripture,  His  work, 
Ad  legem  et  teetimonium  (1645),  attracted  pmi 
attention.  Here  he  developed  that  the  written 
word  of  God,  without  any  human  oonPimentAjy, 
was  the  sole  means  of  awakening  faith;  that  the 
Church  had  fallen  completely  away  from  the  Lord; 
that  the  Christian  ought  to  shun  all  connection 
with  the  Established  Church,  and  cod  fine  him- 
self to  his  private  devotion,  ete.  His  minor  wri- 
tings, fifteen  in  number,  were  collected  at  Amster- 
dam, 1683.  His  followers,  known  as  Boreeliita, 
never  attained  to  much  importance. 

BORNEMAIVn,  Mr^ne-mOn,  FRIKDRICH  WH- 
HELM  BERIfHARD:  German  Lutheran  thao- 
lopan;  b,  at  Ltineburg  (68  m,  nji,e-  of  Hanover) 
Mar.  2,  1858.  He  was  educated  at  the  unjverdtiei 
of  Gtittingcn  (Ph.D.,  1879)  and  Leipaie,  and  wbb 
successively  tutor  at  Bremen  (1879)  and  MedingB 
(1880).  Two  ye^rs  later  he  became  inspector  of 
the  seminary  at  Gftttingen,  and  in  1SS4  was  privat- 
docent  for  church  history  in  the  same  univemty. 
In  1886  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  setninaiy 
for  theological  candidates  at  Magdeburg,  where 
he  became  professor  in  the  following  year.  From 
1808  to  1902  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Bsad, 
and  since  the  latter  year  has  been  pastor  of  the 
Luther  Church  at  Frankfort.  His  works  include  In 
intfestiganda  nwnachatue  erigine  quQme  de  cavti* 
Toiio  habenda  aU  Origmie  (G<>ttingen,  18S6);  Di» 
UnzuMnglichkeil  dee  tkeologiechen  Siifdiume  (Leip* 
sic,  1886;  anonymous);  Kirckenideale  und  Kirchin' 
reformen  (18S7);  SehulandQchien  (Berlin,  18^); 
Biiiere  Wahrbeiien  (5th  ed.,  GSttingen,  1891); 
Unterricht  im  CMttentum  (1891);    Die  TheesoMr 


S8$ 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Borboritec  ^ 
Borowakl 


therbriefe  (1894;  in  KrUisch-^^e^etischer  KommeniGr 
iib^do9Seu€  Tcfttament);  HUlorische  und  praktische 
Theolo^  (Basel,  189S);  Die  Alkgoru:  in  Kumt, 
WiMMnaehaft  und  KircM  {Freiburg,  18»9):  Einfuh- 
vmg  in  die  evangelische  Missionskunde  (Tttbingen, 
1902);  and  Bett  und  Arbcite  f  (Leipsic,  1904;  a 
collection  of  sermons).  He  likewise  tranelated  the 
** Gonf essiona  '*  of  St.  Augustine  (Gotha,  ISSO). 

BORHHAEUSER,  bem-hei'zer,  KARL  BERN- 
HABD:  German  Lutheran;  b.  at  Mannheim  (43 
m.  5.W.  of  Frankfurt)  May  19,  18aH,  He  waa 
educated  at  the  univeraities  of  Halle  and  Greifa- 
v«ld,  and  was  pastor  successively  at  SinKheim 
(1890-94)  and  Carkmbe  (1894-1902).  In  J  902 
htt  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  system- 
atic and  practical  theology  at  Greifswald^  and  in 
1905-06  was  also  assistant  to  the  professor  of  prac- 
tical theology  at  Halle ^  conducting  the  seminar 
tP(l  delivering  lectures.  He  has  written  Vcrgot- 
Umgdehrt  dett  Aihanamus  und  Johannes  Danm»- 
m\ii  (Gatcrsloh,  1903);  and  WoUie  Je^ws  die 
Beidenmitsian  f  (1903). 

BORHHOLMERS:  Danish  sect  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  During  the  first  part  of  the  cen- 
tuiy  different  parts  of  Sweden  were  penneated 
with  sects  which  emphasised  the  gospel  of  the  free 
and  uomerited  grace  of  God  in  Christ.  About 
1305  the  Nya  Ldsare  ("  New  Readers")  origi- 
oitd  in  the  congregation  at  PitcA  in  Norrbotten, 
dtmling  from  the  old  Lasart,  who  adhered  to  the 
Lutheran  doctrines^  by  asserting  that  saving  faith 
Duy  be  found  in  those  whose  hearts  are  still  attachetl 
to  «m  and  the  world,  and  by  regarding  the  impor- 
taooe  attributed  to  the  law  as  a  temptation  to 
phansaical  self-righteousness.  In  the  course  of 
time  this  party,  headed  by  a  soldier  named  Erik 
SUUborg^  broke  with  the  State  Church,  and  finally 
the  "  New  Readers  ■  *  declared  that  the  ministers 
0^  the  latter  pre^iched  the  doctrine  of  the  devil, 
hi  the  fifth  decade  of  the  century,  the  Finnish 
pwurbcr  Frederik  Gabriel  Hedberg,  afterward 
piovost  and  preacher  at  Kimito  in  the  archbishop- 
ric of  Abo,  evolved  similar  ^-lews  in  a  work  on 
"Pietism  and  Christianity/*  in  which  he  accused 
Sjwicr  and  his  followers  of  teaching  that  man 
ttuit  be  holy  and  pure  before  he  can  rely  on  the 
^ffli&criteii  grace  in  Christ,  whereas  Hedberg  seems 
*ohave  regarded  man  as  a  soul  hungering  for  grace, 
^i  utteriy  unable  to  aid  himself  in  the  attainment 
o(«alvation«  In  1846  a  party  of  Hedbergians  was 
f')rai^  at  Stockholm  and  Helsingland  which 
''fjoctcd  all  preaching  of  repentance.  A  tike  tend- 
wcy  was  manifested  by  the  sect  headed  by  Karl 
Ok>f  Rosenius  (b.  1816;  d.  1868),  who  had  been 
I5«*tly  influenced  by  the  Methodist  George  Scott, 
*bo  labored  in  the  Swedish  capital.  Rosenius, 
*bo  sought  to  remain  a  true  Lutheran  throughout 
^  life,  emphasized  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ . 
^  iemions  and  his  magazine,  which  he  entitled 
J^uhktfn,  althougli  he  was  opfiosed  to  the  legalism 
^  the  Pietists,  exercisetl  an  important  influence 
**  the  religious  life  of  Sweden,  nedbergianism 
^  the  writings  of  Rosenius  gave  rise  between 
l^and  1870  to  a  new  evangelical  party  in  many 
P*rta  of  Sweden,  whoue  sole  dogma  wa*  the  for- 


giveness of  sins  without  merit  of  the  sinner,  and 
whose  watchword,  '*  the  world  is  justified  in  Christ," 
wcin  them  many  proselytes  not  only  in  Sweden  and 
Norway,  but  also  in  the  American  Synod  of  Missouri. 
The  new  evangeUsm  found  a  fertile  soil  in  the 
Danish  island  of  Bomholm  (in  the  Baltic  Sea,  9(1 
m.  e.  of  Zealand),  which  became  the  center  of 
propaganda  for  a  part  of  Denmark.  The  move- 
ment was  inaugurated  by  P.  C.  Trandberg,  a 
powerful  preacher  of  repentance,  who  had  broken 
with  the  State  Church,  and  by  1863  had  gathered 
about  him  almost  a  thousand  followers.  Trand- 
berg  sent  out  lay  preachers,  and  the  "  Boniholmers/' 
as  they  w^ere  called,  were  soon  found  in  North 
Zealand*  Copenhagen,  I^Iland,  Fidster,  and  West 
Jutland.  His  adherents  gradually  lost  confidence 
in  him,  however,  and  in  1877  he  resigned.  Later 
he  became  professor  in  the  Dano- Norwegian  de- 
partment of  Chicago  Theological  Seminary  and  died 
in  1890.  As  a  rule,  the  Bomholmera  are  pious  and 
earnest^  and  their  antinomiatic  theory  usually  t)e- 
comes  nomistie,  and  even  quasipietiBtic  in  practise, 
thus  forming  a  bond  of  union  between  them  and 
the  "  Inner  Mission  '*  in  Denmark,  and  making  them 
one  of  the  means  to  awaken  spiritual  life  in  many 
of  the  Danish  people.  F.  Nielsen f. 

BOROWSKl,  bo-rev'sk!,  LUDWIG  IRNST  VOIT: 

A  prominent  Prussian  evangelical  preacher;  b.  at 
K5nigsberg  June  17,  1740,  of  a  well-to-do  Polish 
family  which  had  emigrate*!  on  account  of  its 
religion;  d.  in  Berlin  Nov.  10,  1831.  In  his  four- 
teenth year  he  went  to  the  University  of  KOnigs- 
berg,  where  he  was  one  of  Kant's  earliest  pupils, 
practised  oratory,  and  showed  an  inclination  toward 
literature.  His  theological  convictions  were  not 
influenced  by  Kant,  desjiite  a  lasting  person d 
devotion,  but  rather  by  the  supernaturaliat  school. 
In  1758  Kant  recommended  him  to  General  von 
Knobloch  as  a  tutor  in  his  family;  but  before  long 
Field-martthal  von  Kunheim,  impressed  by  Bo- 
rowski's  oratorical  gifts,  urged  him  to  become  a 
military  chaplain.  This  career  he  finally  took  up 
in  1762,  being  ordained  by  Si^ssmilch,  and  joining 
his  regiment  in  the  camp  at  Sorau  acjon  afterward. 
He  remained  with  the  army  until  1770,  when 
Stl  asm  itch  had  liim  apj>ointed  superintendent  of 
the  district  of  Schaaken  in  East  Prussia.  Here  he 
labored  diligently  for  twelve  years,  until  he  was 
called  to  a  pastoral  charge  in  his  native  town. 
The  development  of  his  preaching  powers  and  theo- 
logical knowledge  won  him  increa.sing  prominence; 
in  1793  the  king  appointed  him  a  member  of  the 
special  commission  on  churches  and  ecIiooU,  and 
he  received  the  title  of  consistorial  councilor  in 
1804.  When  the  storms  of  war  burst  over  Ger- 
maiiy,  he  rose  to  the  height  of  the  occasion,  and  his 
eloquent  exhortations  had  a  deep  effect  on  Frederick 
William  III  and  his  queen,  who  resideti  in  Ktinigs- 
berg  from  1807  to  1800.  The  king's  warm  affection 
and  respect  continued  to  be  shown  thn^ugh  the 
years  that  followed.  In  1812  he  made  Borowski 
general  superintendent,  in  1815  first  court  prcaeher, 
in  1816  a  bishop,  and  in  1829  archbishop  of  the 
Pniflsian  Evangelical  Church.  These  last  years  of 
his  life,  old  as  be  waSi  were  full  of  incessant  activity; 


BorrhauB 
BoBse 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


he  was  president  of  the  Bible  Society  and  of  the 
Missionary  Union  founded  in  1822.  Outside  of 
his  preaching,  however,  he  gave  more  thought  to  the 
training  of  his  candidates  for  ordination  than  to 
anything  else,  and  even  in  the  wanderings  of  his 
last  illness  his  mind  was  occupied  with  them. 
(Hermann  Herino.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Selected  sermons  and  lectures,  with  sketches 
of  his  activities  by  yon  Kahle  &nd  E.  Oeaterreich,  were 
published  by  his  srandson,  K.  L.  Volkmann,  KOnigsbeiSf 
1833.     Consult  also  ADB,  iii.  177. 

BORRHATJSy  MARTIN  (generally  known  ajs 
CELLARIUS):  German  theologian;  b.  at  Stuttgart 
1499;  d.  at  Basel  Oct.  11,  1564.  Being  educated 
and  adopted  by  his  kinsman  Simon  Cellarius,  he 
called  himself  Cellarius  imtil  about  forty  years  of 
age,  although  the  name  of  his  parents  seems  to 
have  been  Burress  or  Borrhus.  In  1515  he  was 
made  magiater  artium  at  Tubingen,  where  he  became 
intimately  acquainted  with  Melanchthon,  two 
years  his  senior.  He  was  made  bachelor  of  theology 
under  Reuchlin  at  Ingolstadt  in  1521,  and  became 
a  friend  of  Marcus  Sttlbner  at  Wittenberg.  The 
eight  sermons  delivered  by  Luther  after  his  return 
from  the  Wartburg  impressed  Cellarius  deeply, 
but  his  zeal  in  defense  of  StUbner  was  such  that  he 
left  Wittenberg,  where  he  had  treated  Luther  with 
rudeness,  and  went  to  Switzerland,  whence  he 
traveled  by  way  of  Austria  and  Poland  to  Prussia, 
which  had  just  embraced  the  Evangelical  faith. 
There  he  was  tried,  and  required  to  sign  a  bond 
in  which  he  promised  to  retiuTi  at  once  to  Witten- 
berg. His  interview  with  Luther  in  1526  filled 
the  latter  with  respect  for  Cellarius,  who  now 
settled  in  southern  Germany,  winning  the  hearts  of 
Capito  and  Butzer  in  Strasburg.  In  1527  he  pub- 
lished his  first  work,  De  operibus  Dei,  and  in  1544 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Old  Testament 
at  Basel,  where,  in  collaboration  with  Castello 
and  Curio,  he  composed  a  polemical  treatise  imder 
the  name  of  Martin  Bellius,  directed  against  Calvin 
in  the  Servetus  controversy.  He  rejected  infant 
baptism,  but  was  a  firm  believer  in  predestination. 
Carl  Albrecht  Bernoulli. 

Biblioorapht:  ADB,  iii  (1876),  381;  E.  ErU,  Zxnngliana, 
i.  30-31,  Zurich,  1904;  C.  Gerbcrt,  Geschiehte  der  Stra9$- 
burger  S^tenbewegung  sur  Zeit  der  Reformation,  1624-SA, 
Strasburg,  1889.  References  will  be  found  in  the  lives 
of  the  Reformers  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Butser,  Zwingli. 

BORROMEOy  CARLO:  Italian  prelate  and  re- 
former; b.  at  Arona  (on  the  s.w.  shore  of  Lago 
Maggiore,  37  m.  n.w.  of  Milan)  Oct.  2,  1538;  d. 
at  Milan  Nov.  3,  1584.  He  was  the  nephew  of 
Giovanni  Angelo  Medici  (afterward  Pope  Pius  IV), 
and  even  in  his  boyhood  showed  an  inclination  for 
the  priesthood,  receiving  his  first  benefice  at  the 
age  of  twelve  through  the  resignation  of  an  uncle. 
Four  years  later  he  went  to  Pavia,  where  he  studied 
law,  and  had  just  taken  his  degree  in  1559,  when 
the  newly  elected  Pius  IV  invited  him  to  Rome. 
His  rise  was  extraordinary,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  he  was  a  cardinal  and  the  archbishop  of  Milan. 
When  the  Council  of  Trent  was  reopened  on  Jan.  18, 
1562,  Borromeo  used  his  influence  in  securing 
the  sharp  formulation  of  questions  relating  to  dis- 
cipline and  faith.    He  also  governed  the  Eomagna 


and  the  March,  both  of  which  had  been  added  to 
the  papal  dominions  in  the  oourse  of  the  fifteeotli 
century.  In  foreign  politics  nothing  took  pbes 
without  him  and  he  wajs  also  an  active  member  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Inquisitioii,  beades  bdm 
the  protector  of  the  Frandacans,  the  Knights  of 
Malta,  and  the  Carmelites.  He  could  maintain  sudk 
an  activity,  however,  only  while  he  lived  at  Rome; 
conforming  to  the  decision  of  the  Council  whicb 
required  all  bishops  to  reside  in  their  own  diooeM, 
he  removed  to  Milan,  where  he  had  already  pre- 
pared a  house  for  the  Jesuits,  who  acted  as  iui 
instruments  in  reorganizing  his  diocese  of  Milan. 
Borromeo's  activity  here  had  scarcely  begun  when 
Pius  IV  died,  but  his  successor  Pius  V  assisted  tbe 
archbishop  in  the  reorganisation  of  the  laigest  of 
the  Italian  dioceses,  which  was  to  be  a  modd  for 
all.  Borromeo  founded  seminaries  for  tbe  better 
education  of  the  clergy  in  the  strictest  ecclesiastical 
spirit,  and  also  introduced  rigid  church  disctpline, 
beginning  with  the  clergy;  his  efforts  to  popularia 
S3modical  work  and  to  improve  the  existing  orden, 
as  well  as  his  introduction  of  others,  such  as  the 
Theatines,  into  Italy  were  all  designed  to  further  the 
same  object.  In  revenge,  some  degenerate  moab 
who  had  been  affected  by  his  reform,  planned  hit 
murder,  but  by  a  miracle,  as  it  was  claimed,  be 
escaped  the  bullet  of  his  would-be  assassins.  Hand 
in  hand  with  the  reform  within  the  Church  went  a 
merciless  severity  against  every  form  of  "  heresy " 
in  Lombardy,  the  Valtellina,  and  the  Engadine, 
as  well  as  against  "witches"  in  Valcsmonica. 
Dining  the  plague  of  1576  he  heroically  cared  for 
the  sick  and  buried  the  dead,  while  tbe  officials 
fled  in  terror  from  the  city.  His  statue  near  Ansa 
still  recalls  the  memory  of  Borromeo,  who  became, 
by  his  canonization  in  1610,  the  saint  of  the  Counte^ 
reformation.  K.  Bekrath. 

Biblioorapht:  The  Opera  omnia  appeared  in  Mihii, 
1747.  The  earlier  biographies  are  antiquated  by  the 
works  of  A.  Sala:  DocumerUi  eirta  la  vita  m  Is  opere  di  Som 
C.  Borromeo,  3  vols.,  Milan,  1857-61,  and  Bioorafia  H 
C.  Borromeo,  ib.  1858;  The  lAfe  of  8t  Charlee  Borromtt, 
ed.  E.  H.  Thompson,  London,  1858.  new  ed..  1893:  SL 
Charlee  and  hie  Fellow  Labourere,  ib.  1860;  C.  SylTsin. 
Hietoire  de  8.  Charlee  Borromfe,  3  vols.,  ib.  1884;  C 
Camenisch,  Carlo  Borromeo  und  die  Oegenrtformation  im 
VeUlin,  Chur,  1901;  E.  Wymann,  Der  Asilt^e  Karl  Berro- 
meo,  Stans.  1003. 

BORROW,  GEORGE  (HENRY) :  English  adven- 
turer and  writer;  b.  at  East  Dereham  (15  m.  wji.w. 
of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  July  5,  1803;  d.  at  Oulton 
(15  m.  s.e.  of  Norwich),  Suffolk,  July  26,  1881. 
His  boyhood  was  unsettled,  his  father,  a  soldier, 
moving  about  the  country  with  his  regiment.  In 
1819  he  was  articled  to  a  solicitor  at  Norwich,  but 
abandoned  the  work,  went  to  London,  and  lived 
as  a  hack  writer  for  the  publishers.  Then  he  took 
to  wandering  about  England,  and  visited  France. 
Spain,  and  Italy.  In  1833  he  was  sent  by  tlic 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  to  St.  Petersburg 
to  superintend  the  publication  of  a  Manchu  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  (published  in  eight 
volumes,  1835);  he  continued  in  the  service  of  the 
Society,  most  of  the  time  in  Spain,  till  1840.  Then 
he  married  and  adopted  a  more  settled  life  in 
England.    He  had  much  aptitude  for  languages 


987 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BorrhAQS 
Bosae 


*iid  acquired  a  knowledge>  though  not  scientific, 
of  manj  tongues^  being  particularly  noted  for  his 
ftcquaiiitanoe  with  the  Roman j,  the  dialect  of  the 
GipmeBf  with  whom  he  associated  much  both  on 
his  wanderings  and  after  his  return  to  England. 
He  published  a  Komany  word-book  (London,  1874), 
traD^latlons,  and  romances  which  tell  the  story  of 
his  life  with  more  or  less  fiction  interwoven.  He 
edited  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
Spanish  (Madrid,  1837)  and  translated  the  Gospel 
of  Luke  into  the  dialect  of  the  Gitanoa  (Spanish 
Gipsies;  1837)  and  into  Basque  (1838).  Com- 
plete editions  of  liis  works  were  pubhshed  in  five 
volumes  in  London  and  New  York.  The  best 
know^n  of  them  are  The  Zincali ;  or  an  Ace&unl 
a/  the  Gip*j**  trt  Spain  (2  vols.,  London,  1841)  and 
The  Bible  in  Spain  (3  vols.,  1843). 

BiBMOoKAFffr:  W.  L  Knapp,  Tfw  Life,  Writine*,  ^nd  Cor- 
r^mpondmux  of  Gmarffe  Barrtrw,  2  YoIb.«  London.  ISOQ;  W. 
A.  Dull,  €wrff€  B^rrmit  in  Eatt  Anglia,  ib.  1SB4$;  DNB, 
V,  407-408. 

BOSCm,  bos'ki,  GIULIO :  Cardinal;  b.  at  Perugia, 
Itiily,  Mar.  2,  18SS.  He  was  educated  in  his  native 
city  and  completed  his  studies  at  Rome,  where  he 
became  the  secretary  of  Cardinal  Pecci  (afterward 
Pope  Leo  XTIT)  in  1861.  In  1888  he  was  conse- 
0^ted  bishop  of  Todi,  and  seven  yeara  later  was 
transilated  to  the  see  of  Sinigaglia.  In  1900  he 
was  elevated  to  the  archbishopric  of  Ferrara,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  created  cardinal  prieet  of 
S,  Lorenao  in  Paniapema, 

BOSinA  AJID  HERZEGOVHIA:  Two  provinces 
of  the  Austro- Hungarian  monarchy.  Previous  to 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878)  they  formed  the  extreme 
northwestern  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  but  since 
190S  they  have  been  part  of  Austria,  Bosnia 
ha^  the  Hungarian  and  Austrian  provinces  of 
Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatta  on  the  north  and 
west,  Servia  to  the  east,  and  to  the  south  Herze- 
govina, which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Monte- 
negro and  on  the  south  and  west  by  Dalmatia.  The 
capital  is  Sarajevo  in  Bosnia,  the  chief  town  and 
former  capital  of  Herzegovina,  Blostar.  The  area 
is  about  16,200  and  3,500  miles  respectively;  the 
population  (1896)  1,591,036,  of  whom  219,511  are 
credited  to  Herzegovina.  The  natives  are  nearly 
all  Slavs  of  the  Servian  branch.  The  number  of 
foreigners  living  in  the  land  is  estimated  at  71,000, 
most  of  them  having  entered  the  country  since  the 
Austrian  occupation. 

The  religious  statistics  for  1895  were  as  follows; 
Greek-Orientals,  673,246  (43  per  cent.);  Moham- 
medans, 548,632  (35  per  cent.);  Roman  Catholics, 
334,142  (21  per  cent)?  Jews,  8,213;  other  religions 
(mostly  Protestants),  3,859,  The  Mohammedans, 
in  the  main  converts  from  Christianity  since  the 
Turkish  conquest  in  the  fifteenth  century,  are  not 
of  the  most  rigid  kind,  although  tbey  made  a  brave 
stand  a^inst  the  Austrian  government.  They 
are  the  landed  proprietors  of  the  country  and  mer- 
chants in  the  towns.  They  are  under  the  Shdk  ul 
Islam  in  Constantinople  and  a  Rais  al  Ulama  in 
Sarajevo.  They  have  a  large  endowTnent  fund  for 
mosques,  schools,  hospitals,  and  the  like,  which  is 
now  administered  under  govenunent  supervision. 


The  free  exercise  of  their  rehgion  is  guaranteed  to 
them .  The  Roman  Catho hcs  arc  dcscen d an ts  of  the 
older  population  and  constitute  the  larger  number 
of  the  artisans  in  the  citi^  and  the  farmers.  They 
are  moat  numerous  in  the  districts  of  Travnik  and 
M 08 tar.  The  Franciscans  have  been  active  among 
them  since  the  thirteenth  century  and  have  done 
much  for  them.  Their  condition  has  much  im- 
proved flince  the  Austrian  occupation.  There  is 
an  archbishop  of  Bosnia,  who  since  1881  has  resided 
at  Sarajevo,  and  there  are  suffragan  bishops  of 
Banjaluka,  Mob  tax  and  Duvno,  and  Marcana  and 
Trebinj  e .  The  p  ro vin  dal  seminary  is  at  Ban j  al  uka, 
where  there  are  also  four  schools  for  boys  and  four 
for  girls  and  an  orphan  asylum  under  the  charge  of 
Trappist  monks.  The  adherents  of  the  Greek 
ChiiTch  are  under  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
and  the  metropolitans  of  Sarajevo,  Dokiia  Tutla, 
and  Mostar,  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  north, 
are  farmers  and  traders,  and  are  inferior  to  both 
the  Latins  and  Mohammedans  in  education.  Less 
than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  can  read 
or  write,  and  the  church  schools  are  poor.  Public 
schools  are  being  established  and  there  are  three 
higher  schools  (two  gymnasia  and  a  Healschide)^  ten 
trade  schools,  and  a  normal  school. 

SiBLiaoB^AFliiri  The  chui-ch  ststistics  are  Lndudpd  m  thooe 
for  Austria  (q.v.).  Consult:  V.  Klaijt.  Getchiekte  Bath- 
niena  hit  rum  ZerfaU  dtM  i^^icrrricA^,  Let|iflic,  IS^;  Bow- 
nient  Geeenwcrt  Ufui  nAefutU^  Zukunft,  Leipsic,  1SS6^  Dis 
L&O*  d^  MahammedaTver  tn  Bo^nitn^  Vjeniim  19Q0  Cas- 
Rwiered  by  KaUay  und  Botnien^Hm-tegovina,  Budapesl^ 
1900). 

BOSO;  Third  English  cardinal  j  d.  after  117S, 
His  namo  was  Boso  Breakspear  and  be  was  a 
nephew  of  Poi>e  Adrian  IV  (Nicholas  Breakspear), 
He  belonged  to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St. 
Aibans,  but  went  to  Rome  probably  under  Eugenius 
TIL  From  Nov.  6,  1149,  to  May  3,  1152,  he  caUs 
himself  RmnaneE  eccUHce  scriptar.  Adrian  IV 
made  him  his  chamberlain  early  in  his  pontificate, 
probably  therefore  in  1154,  and  later  made  him 
cardinal  deacon  of  Sts.  Cosmah  and  Damian;  under 
Alexander  III  he  became  cardinal  priest  of  St. 
Pudcntiana.  With  the  latter  title  his  signature 
appears  to  a  number  of  papal  bulls  from  March  18, 
1166,  to  July  10*  1178,  soon  after  which  he  appears 
to  have  died.  He  was  a  strong  eupporter  of  the 
policy  of  Adrian  and  Alexander,  He  wrote  nine 
poetical  lives  of  female  saints,  which  are  still  in 
manuscript  and  was  a  poet  of  considerable  merit. 
For  the    papal  biographiea  composed  by  him  see 

LtHEH  PoNTIFlCAHS, 

BiBLioQRAPnT;  The  aourcen  for  b  IHe  are  la  Thi«tmttr  of 
MerMsbbrgp  Chroni^on,  MGH,  Script.,  iu  (ISSS),  750. 
CooBuH  Miene,  EtictfctopMi*  (h^otoffique,  iroL  jBod,  Die- 
twmutite  det  Cardinau^t,  i.v.;  T.  Greenwood,  Caihedra 
Feiri^  London,  I&Sft;  DNB,  v,  421;  KL,  il  1120-30. 
O^asult  abo  Che  biogmphLeA  of  Adruka  IV  ubd  Alexander 
IIL 

BOSSE,  FRIEDRICH;  German  Lutheran;  b,  at 
Rossla  (38  m.  w.  of  Halle)  Aug-  23, 1864.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Tiibingpn,  Berlin 
(Ph.D.,  1886),  Marburg,  Heidelberg,  and  Greifswald, 
completing  his  stadies  in  180Q.  In  the  following 
year  he  became  privat-docent  at  the  University  of 
Greifswald,  and  from  1892  to  1894  waA  proviaioiiAl 


BoaaiMt 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


m 


professor  in  KOnigsberg.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  appointed  associate  professor  of  church  history 
at  Kiel,  and  five  years  later  returned  in  a  similar 
capacity  to  Greifswald,  where  he  still  remains. 
He  has  written  Prolegomena  zu  einer  Oeechichte  dee 
Begnffee  "  Nachfoige  Ckri^  "  (Berlin,  1805). 

BOSSUET,  bes^'sQ^'d",  JACQUES  BBNIOHE:  Bish- 
op of  Meaux  (about  27  m.  e.n.e.  of  Paris);  b.  at  Dijon 
Sept.  27,  1627;  d.  in  Paris  Apr.  12,  1704.  He 
began  his  studies  in  the  Jesuit  school  of  Dijon, 
and  finished  at  the  College  de  Navarre,  Paris.  He 
became  priest  and  doctor  of  theology,  1652;  after 
some  time  spent  in  retirement  at  St.  Lasare,  he 
went  to  Mets,  where  he  was  canon  and  archdeacon, 
acquired  great  fame  as  a  preacher,  and  engaged  in 
controversy  with  representatives  of  the  Reformed 
Churches.  At  the  request  of  his  bishop  he  pub- 
lished his  first  work  (1655),  a  lUftUoHan  of  the 
catechism  of  Paul  Ferry  (q.v.).  In  1660  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Condom,  Gascony,  but  resigned 
this  office  after  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
dauphin  (1670).  When  the  education  of  his  pupU 
was  finished,  in  1681,  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Meaux.  Bossuet  adopted  the  Cartesian  philosophy, 
to  which  he  added  the  Thomist  theology  and  a  great 
admiration  for  Augustine.  He  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  foremost  of  French  preachers;  and, 
in  so*  far  as  the  art  of  eloquence  is  concerned,  his 
six  Oraieone  funHbree  (best  collected  eds.,  by 
Lequeux,  Paris,  1762,  and,  with  notes,  etc.,  by 
A.  Gast^,  1883)  must  be  ranked  among  the  finest 
specimens  of  Christian  oratory,  though  they  reflect 
the  splendor  and  greatness  of  Louis  Quatorse 
more  vividly  than  the  power  and  humility  of  the 
Gospel.  As  tutor  to  the  dauphin  he  wrote  De  la 
connaiseance  de  Dieu  et  de  soi^mSme  (1722;  better  ed., 
1741)  and  Discotars  sur  rhisioire  univereelle  depute  le 
commencement  du  monde  jusqu'd  Vemjnre  de  Charle- 
magne (1681;  5th  ed.,  enlarged,  1703;  the  continua- 
tion to  1661,  published  1806,  was  printed  from  his 
notes),  the  latter  of  which  is  a  strildn^y  original  at- 
tempt to  construct  a  Christian  philosophy  of  history 
on  the  principle  that  the  destinies  of  nations  are  con- 
trolled by  providence  in  the  interest  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Among  his  controversial  writings 
against  the  Protestants,  the  two  most  remarkable 
are  Expoeition  de  la  doctrine  de  V6gliee  catholique 
eur  lee  maiikree  de  controverae  (1671)  and  Hisioire 
dee  variatiane  dee  ^glieee  proteetantee  (2  vols.,  1688; 
best  ed.,  4  vols.,  1680).  The  latter  was  sharply 
criticized  by  Jurieu  and  Basnage,  and  involved  its 
author  in  a  long  and  vehement  controversy.  He 
characterized  the  revocation  of  the  Iklict  of  Nantes 
(1685)  as  "  le  plus  bel  usage  de  I'autorit^,"  but  he 
was  no  ultramontanist.  He  presided  in  1682  over 
the  assembly  of  the  French  clergy  which  the  king 
had  convened  to  defend  the  royal  prerogatives 
and  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church  against  the 
claims  of  the  pope.  Nor  was  he  in  the  least  tainted 
by  mysticism.  His  attacks  on  Fdnelon  and  the 
Quietists  approached  very  near  to  persecution. 
He  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  many  distin- 
guished men  who  lent  brilliancy  to  the  century  of 
Louis  XIV,  but  he  was  a  representative  of  his  time, 
and  his  ideas  of  church  polity  corresponded  to. 


if  they  were  not  dictated  by,  the  king's  "VdUi, 

c'est  moi." 

Bibuoorapht:  Then  haTe been  niAnyeditiaiiiiolhHinifa; 
the  bMie  of  most  of  them  is  that  pfepared  by  the  AbM 
P^rau,  at  goVemment  ezpeme,  20  vole.,  Fkrii,  17IS- 
1760;  three  Tolomee  of  (Euvtm  poeOkuntm,  td,hfCf. 
Leroy  were  published  in  1758;  the  beet  edition  ii  thi 
a9u9rm  eompUUB,  by  F.  Leehat  and  othen.  81  idk, 
1802-66;  with  appendix  of  (Ewnm  ifUdiim,  2  Tob..  1881- 
1888.  BeMdee  many  eingle  eermona  ■eoeeiible  in  Et^ik 
tranelation,  the  foUowinc  work*  may  be  mentioned:  &- 
Ud  SermanB  and  rmtenU  OraiUme.  1801;  A  Avwf  if 
UnifMrmd  Hiaktry,  1810;  A  Confw^mm  (betweeD  BoMtt  . 
and  J.  Claude,  Mar.  1, 1679]  an  tike  AvAoriiy  of  tn Ckmk, 
London,  1841;  An  BxpotWon  of  tike  Doebin*  of  tn  C§t»- 
He  Failk,  1841;  BUwoHona  to  Ood,  1880;  7ft«  ITiifevyir 
Ae  VanaHono  of  tike  Frotoolant  Ckmrdm,  2  vob.,  Defafa. 
1836;  Modiiaiion*,  London,  1801. 

For  a  bibliography  eoneult  H.  If.  Bouneand,  Hiikm 
•I  dmeriptUm  dm  M8S,  ot  dm  SdiHone  onginatm  Jm  «• 
vragm  do  Bomnoi,  Paris  1898  (indudee  transiatioBs). 

For  hb  life  and  writings  and  his  reUtions  to  F^sdoe. 
Jansenism,  Quietism,  ete.,  eonsult:  L.  F.  de  BsaMt, 
Hiotoif  do  Jaevum  Biniano  BooonH,  4  vols.,  Fsris,  1814, 
Besan(on,  1846;  If.  M.  Tabaraud,  SuppUmoni  mtx  hMm 
do  BomuBi  .  .  .  eompooi  par  .  .  ,  da  BauoMi,  ?uk 
1822;  F.  le  Dieu  (his  secretary),  Mhaoirm  oi  jornnd  «r 
laviootlm  ouvraom  do  Booouet,  4  toIs..  ib.  1856-67;  A. 
lUaume,  Hitkrira  do  J.-B,  Bomaoi  at  do  ma  arnrn,  S 
Tols..  ib.  1869;  Mrs.  H.  L.  (Farrer)  Lear,  Boaamlo»dhit 
Contamporariaa,  London,  1874;  C.  A.  Sainte-Beim,  Kt- 
aaya  on  Man  and  Wotnon,  ib.  1880;  R.  de  la  BraiM.  Bo»- 
auatatla  Bt6lt,  Paris,  1891;  Q.  Lanson.  Booamt,  ib.  1801 
(a  study  of  the  writli«s);  A.  R^Mlliau.  Booaual,  hitkhm 
du  protaatanHama,  ib.  1891;  Sir  J.  F.  Stephen.  BoraM- 
hatiea,  toI.  ii,  London,  1892;  C.  E.  Fieppel  Bamod  d 
Vdoquonm  aaeria  au  «vm.  aiMa^  Paris,  1898;  J.  Dna. 
QuaraUa  da  Boaauat  ot  do  FinaUm,  ib.  1894;  L.  QmaM. 
FinaUm  at  Boaauat,  ^tudm  moratm  ot  UtUrm^aa,  2TOh.. 
ib.  1894-96;  A.  M.  P.  Ingod.  BossimI  at  iamaimamt,  ib. 
1897. 

BOST,  PAUL  AMI  ISAAC  DAVID:    Swiss  em- 
gelist;  b.  at  Geneva  June  10,  1790;  d.  at  La  Force 
(6  m.  w.  of  Bergerac),  France,  Dec.  14,  1874.   He 
devoted  four  years  to  theology  at  the  University  of 
Geneva,  but  gained  little  spiritual  profit  from  his 
studies,  and  was  ordained  in  1814   in  a  spirit  of 
empty  formalism.    In  1816  he  accepted  a  call  as 
assistant  pastor  at  Moutiers-Oranval  in  the  Canton 
of  Bern,  where  he  remained  two  yesn,  ascribing 
to  this  period  his  finn  belief  in  tiie  doctrines  of 
grace    and    justification.    A    parish    proved   too 
small  for  his  energies,  however,  and  in  1818,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  "  London  Osntinental  Society," 
he  began  the  missionary  journeys  which  were  to 
occupy  almost  thirty-five  yean  of  his  life.    After 
the  first  of  these  trips,  he  withdrew  from  the  Church 
of  Geneva,  and  in  the  following  year  was  in  Colmar. 
He  was  expelled  from  France,  however,  and  began 
a  roving  life,  oppressed  by  poverty  and  burdened 
with  a  large  family,  yet  preaching  in  Offenbach, 
Frankfort,  Hanau,  Friedrichsdorf,  and  Carlsruhe. 

In  1825-26  Bost  was  in  Geneva  as  the  pastor  of 
the  free  church  of  Bourg-de-Four.  In  answer  to 
the  attacks  of  the  State  Church,  he  published  his 
D^fenee  de  ceux  dee  fidHee  de  Qenhve  qui  ee  aont 
eonetitude  en  ^lieee  ind&pendantee  (Geneva,  1825), 
charging  the  national  Church  with  abandoning  tbe 
Gospel  and  adopting  Arianism.  He  was  accord- 
ingly tried  for  slander,  but  was  acquitted,  although 
he  was  fined  500  francs  for  his  libelous  statements 
regarding  the  "  Compagnie  des  pasteurs."  Despite 
the  fact  that  this  trial  marked  a  union  of  the  diver- 
gent elements  of  the  Free  Church,  Bost  resigned 


a89 


RELIQIOUS  ENCYCJLOPEDIA 


Bournct 
Bovuiiittt 


hiB  pafltorate  at  Bourg-^Ie-Four  and  fomidcd  a  he^w 
©ongregation  at  Carouge  near  Geneva,  which  he 
dissolved  after  two  yeara  in  favor  of  a  more  di- 
versified activity,  estabUaliing  the  rehgious  and 
|»oIitlc^  magazine  UEsp&ance  in  1838.  Two  yeare 
later  he  eucoessfiiUy  aought  readmission  to  the 
def^  of  Geneva,  without  retracting  any  of  his 
views.  After  a  brief  paBtorate  at  AsmiSres  and 
Bourg^  in  France,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of 
the  prison  of  the  Maison  Cent  rale  at  Melun,  where 
be  remained  untU  1848,  then  living  iuceesaively 
»t  Geneva,  Ntmea,  Neuchfitel,  Jersey,  and  Paris,  and 
ipen  ding  hia  last  years  at  La  Force.  The  chief  works 
of  Bost,  who  alao  gained  a  certain  amount  of  reputa- 
tion as  a  writer  of  hymns,  are  aa  follows:  Genkve 
rtligieuge  (Genevai  1S19);  Hutmre  des  frhrea  morales 
(2  vok.,  ISai ;  abridged  Eng,  transl,  London,  1834); 
Btet  la  primauti  de  Pterre  et  son  ^pisarpat  (3  pam- 
phlets, 1832);  Huimre  giniraie  de  rMablissemenl  du 
Christianisms  (a  reviaed  tranBtation  of  Blumhardt'a 
Vermtch  eintr  oUgemeinen  MissionMge^hichU  der 
Kirche  Chrisli,  4  vols,,  Valence,  1838);  Les  prophMes 
prt>UsiJints  (Mdun,  1847);  and  Mhnoires  poruvant 
•crtnr  d  Vhistcire  du  r^veU  rdigieux  (Paris,  1854-55). 

(E.  BARDEtO 

BiauooaArsT:  E.  Qmsj^  Prgmvir  ripeii  h  O^ni^e^  Paris, 
1871;  Lichtanbercef,  SSR,  i\,  373-374. 

BOSTOK,  THOBIAS:     Church    of    Scotland;    b. 

»t    Ehmse    (13   m.   w.   of   Berwick-upon«Tweed), 

Berwickflhire,    Mar.    17,    1677;  d.   at   Ettrick     (40 

m-  B.  of  Edinburgh),  Selkirkshire,    May  20,  1732. 

He  studied  at  the  University  of    Edinburgh;  be^ 

eamm   minister   at   Simprin,     Berwickshire,    1699; 

at  Ettrick,  1707.    By  drculatlag  the  Marrow    of 

Modem  Divinity  among  hia  friends  be  started  the 

Harrow  Controversy  (q,v,).     He  wrote  much  and 

bafl  exercised  great  infiuence  in  the  Preabyterian 

Ch arches    both   of   Scotland    and    England.    The 

worka  by  which  he  ia  now  best  known  are  Human 

A'^aiure  in  iU  Fourfold  State  of  Primitive  InUgrily, 

Entire    Depravation ^    Begun    Rec&vtn/t    and    Con* 

9ummQi^  HappintMa  or  Mie^r^  (Edinburgh,  1720), 

eommonly  called  "  Boston's  Fourfold  State  ";  The 

S&vereignty  and  Wisdom  of  God  Displayed  in  the 

A  ffliciums  of  Men  (1737;  reprinted  aa  Ths  Crook  in 

the  Loif  with  memoir ^  Glasgow,  1863).     He  left  an 

atttobiography  published  as  Memoirs  (Edinburgh, 

1776;    ed.  G.  H,  Morrison,    1899),     and    printed 

from  Boston's  manuscript,  with  introduction,  notes, 

and   bibliography  by  G.  h.  Low,  under  the   title 

General   Aecmmt   of   my  Life   (Eklinburgh,    1907). 

His  Whole  Works  edited  by  S.  McMillan  were  pub* 

tiahed  in  twelve  volumes  at  Aberdeen  in  1848-'52. 

BimuoaaiiLmT:  B««ddii«  the  ftuiobiosraphy  mcmlioiied;  a,biov«, 
«oaruit:  A.  ^  Wood,  Athena  0:^nimtet,  ed.  P.  BUba, 
ili  4OT-4O0.  4  vots,.  Oscford,  LoDdon,  1813-20;  Jetui  L. 
W»tMW,  Lif*  and  rinuc  of  Tkomat  Boston,  EkliiibuTgb, 
IS83:  A.  TbomKui,  Th&ma*  Sm0i^  X^odon,  ISftS,  DNB, 
y,  434-4m 

BOTTOME,  MAEGARET  (McBONALD);    Foun^ 

der  of  the  King's  Daughters;  b.  in  New  York  City 
Dec.  29.  1827;  d.  there  Nov,  14,  1906.  She  was 
educated  at  a  private  school  in  Brooklyti^  and 
in  1850  married  the  Rev.  Frank  Botlome.  She 
bad  already  become  interested  in  religious  and 
l^lanthropie  work,  and  in  1876  began  to  give 


Bible  talks  in  the  homes  of  prominent  New  York 
women,  continuing  them  for  twenty- five  years. 
In  1886  she  organised  the  order  of  King's  Daughters, 
basing  her  system  on  Edward  Everett  Hale's 
Ten  Time^  One  is  Ten.  In  the  following  year  the 
society  was  enlarged  to  include  men,  and  the  nanie 
was  changed  to  the  present  International  Order 
of  the  King's  Daughters  and  Sons.  In  1896  she 
was  elected  president  of  the  women's  branch  of 
the  International  Medical  Mission,  She  was  also 
an  associate  editor  of  the  The  Ladies'  Home  Jour* 
naif  and  in  addition  to  a  few  pamphlets  and  a 
large  number  of  contributions  to  religious  maga- 
cines  wiote  The  Gi^t  Chamber  (New  York,  1893); 
Crumbs  from  the  King's  Table  (1894);  and  A  Sun- 
shine Trip  to  the  Onent  (1897). 

BODDmOT,  bfl"dr'n6',  ELIAS:  American  man 
of  affairs  and  philanthropist;  b.  at  Philadelphia 
May  2,  1740;  d.  at  Burlington,  N,  J„  Oct.  24,  1821, 
He  was  a  lawyer  and  eminent  in  his  profession; 
represented  New  Jersey  in  the  Continental  Congress 
1778-79  and  1781-84,  was  choeen  president  in  1782, 
and,  BM  such,  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain;  he  was  member  of  the  first  three  national 
congresfles,  and  director  of  the  Unitetl  States  mint 
1795-1805,  He  was  a  member  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Miasiona 
(1812-21),  and  first  president  of  the  American 
Bible  Society  (1816^21),  He  was  wealthy  and 
gave  liberally  for  philanthropic  purposes  during 
his  life  and  in  his  will.  He  wrote  The  Age  of  Reve- 
lation ;  or  the  age  of  reason  shown  to  he  an  age  of 
infidelity  (Philadelphia,  1801),  in  reply  to  Thomaa 
Paine;  The  Second  Advent  or  Canting  of  the  Me^mah 
in  Glory  shmtm  to  be  a  scriptural  doctrine  and  taught 
by  divine  ret^elation  (Trenton,  N.  J,,  1815);  and  A 
Star  in  the  West  ;  or  a  humble  attempt  to  discover  the 
long  lost  tribes  of  Israel  (1816),  in  which  he  advocated 
the  view  that  the  American  Indians  are  the  ten 
lost  tribes.  Ho  also  published  anonymously  in 
the  Ewingdical  Intelligencer  for  1806  a  memoir 
of  William  Tennent  (reprinted  New  York,  1847). 
His  Journal  or  Historical  RecoUe^om  of  American 
Events  during  the  Bevdutianary  War  was  printed 
at  Philadelphia  in  1894. 

BiaLiooRAPHTr  Ths  Life,  PuMie  S^rvioe^t  Addrwate*^  and 
Lmen  of  Etiam  Bowftwl,  editod  by  Jane  J.  BoudiDCit,  3 
voRh  Boiton,  1806. 

BOUHOUHSp    ba"har',    DOMrniQUE;     Jesuit; 

b.  in  Paris  May  15,  1628;  d.  them  May  27,  1702, 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  sixteen,  and 
acquired  iuch  renown  as  a  teacher  that  the  young 
Longuevilie  princes  and  the  son  of  Colbert  were  put 
under  his  care.  Besides  a  number  of  biographical 
and  other  works,  he  made  (with  two  other  Jesuits, 
Tellier  and  Bernier)  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment from  the  Vulgate  into  French  (Paris,  1697- 
1703). 

BOUQUET,  bO'ltr,  MARTIN:  Benedictine  of 
St.  Maur;  b.  at  Amiens  Aug.  6,  1685*  d.  in  Paria 
Apr,  6,  1754.  He  entered  the  Benedictine  order 
at  St.  Faron,  Meau^c,  in  17*)6.  and  was  ordained 
priest.  His  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  Greek 
secured  his  appointment  as  special  assistant  to 
Montfaueon   in   hia   editorial   taboi^.     When    tha 


BoxLQuln 

Bousset 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HER20G 


240 


great  edition  of  the  Scripiores  rerum  GaUicarum 
et  Francicarum  came  to  be  made  (it  had  been  pro- 
jected by  Colbert  as  early  as  1676,  and  was  entrusted 
to  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Manr  in  1723),  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  it.  Difficulties  were  encountered 
owing  to  his  opposition  to  the  bull  Unigenitua, 
which  caused  the  king  to  banish  him  from  Paris; 
but  he  succeeded  in  preparing  the  first  eight  vol- 
umes for  publication  (1738-52).  Other  members 
of  the  congregation  brought  out  five  more  after 
his  death  (1757-86).  Interrupted  by  the  Revo- 
lution, the  work  was  taken  up  again  by  the  Institute, 
and  later  by  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  by  whom 
ten  more  volumes  were  published  in  the  nineteenth 
century. 

BOUQUTSr,  bO'Tcan',  PIERRE  (PETRUS  BOQUI- 
NUS):  French  Calvinist;  b.  either  in  the  province 
of  Saintonge  or  in  that  of  Guienne;  d.  at  Lausanne 
1582.  The  first  certain  date  in  his  life  is  his  taking 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  at  the  university 
of  Bourges  Apr.  23,  1539.  He  was  a  Carmelite 
monk  at  Bourges  and  rose  to  be  prior;  but,  em- 
bracing the  Reformation,  he  left  his  monastery 
in  1541  and  went  first  to  Basel,  then  to  Leipsio 
and  Wittenberg,  where  he  had  letters  to  Luther 
and  Melanchthon.  The  latter  recommended  him 
to  Butaer  when  a  theologian  was  required  to  con- 
tinue the  lectures  which  Calvin  had  delivered  in 
Strasburg.  Here  he  began  to  lecture  on  Galatians 
in  September,  1542.  Later  he  retmned  to  Bourges, 
where  he  lectured  on  Hebrew  and  the  Scriptures, 
gaining  protection  and  a  pension  from  Margaret 
of  Navarre,  and  being  allowed  by  the  archbishop 
to  preach  in  the  cathedral.  The  Protestant  leaders, 
Calvin,  Farel,  and  Beza,  seem  to  have  suspected 
him  of  intending  to  desert  the  Reformation;  but 
his  teaching  brought  him  again  into  conflict  with 
the  Roman  authorities,  and  he  left  Bourges  once 
more  for  Strasburg  in  1555.  Here  he  remained 
until  the  elector  Otto  Henry  appointed  him 
in  1557  to  a  provisional  professorship  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  whdch  was  made  permanent 
the  next  year.  In  the  internal  dissensions  of 
Protestantism  he  took  an  increasingly  decided 
Calvinistic  stand,  and  in  the  reign  of  Frederick  III 
was  thus  the  only  Heidelberg  theologian  to  retain 
his  position,  and  was  made  head  of  the  faculty 
and  a  member  of  the  new  Reformed  church  coimcil 
(1560).  This  period  of  prosperity  ended,  however, 
with  the  death  of  Frederick  III,  after  which  he 
was  deprived  of  his  position  (1577),  and  became, 
a  year  later,  professor  and  preacher  at  Lausanne. 
His  numerous  works  are  mainly  polemical  treatises 
against  the  Lutherans  and  Roman  Catholics. 
(E.  F.  Karl  Mt)LLBR.) 

Biblioorapht:  Biographical  material  is  found  in  his  Bre- 
vi$  notatio  ,  .  .  de  cana  domini,  pp.  140-179,  Heidel- 
berg, 1682.  Consult  further:  M.  Adam,  Vitce  eruditorum, 
ii.  72  sqq.,  Heidelberg.  1706;  E.  and  6.  Haag,  La  France 
proUttarUe,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier,  ii,  875  sqq.,  Paris.  1879. 

BOURDALOUE,  bur"dQ"lQ',  LOUIS:  Jesuit 
preacher;  b.  at  Bourges  Aug.  20,  1632;  d.  in 
Paris  May  13, 1704.  He  was  for  some  time  a  teacher 
in  literature  and  philosophy;  in  1665  he  was  sent 
to  preach  in  the  provinces,  in  1669  was  recalled  to 
Paris;  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 


he  was  sent  to  Languedoc  to  preach  to  the  Protes- 
tants; his  last  years  he  devoted  to  the  service  of 
the  poor  and  imfortunate  in  Paris.  As  a  man 
he  was  justly  esteemed  and  loved;  as  a  preacher 
his  strength  is  in  the  clearness  of  his  argument, 
its  readiness  and  its  cogency.  The  first  edition 
of  his  works  was  edited  by  Bretonneau  (16  vols., 
Paris,  1707-34);  a  good  recent  edition  is  that  of 
Lille,  1882  (6  vols.). 

Biblioorapht:  L.  Pauthe,  Bourdalou€t  d'aprka  Ua  doatr 
menu  ntnweaux,  Paris,  1900;  A.  Feug^re,  BotirdaUnte,  as 
pridicaHon  et  eon  tempe,  ib.  1874;  M.  Lauraa,  Bourdaiove, 
ea  vie  et  eee  eeuvree,  2  vols.,  ib.  1881;  £.  de  M^nonral, 
BourdaUme,  Paris.  1897;  F.  Castets,  La  Vie  et  la  pridia- 
tion  d*un  rdiffietix  au  xvii.  eiide,  voL  i,  Montpellier,  1901. 

BOURIGNON,  btl''ri"hyen',  DE  LA  PORTE, 
AJrronfETTE:  Fanatical  enthusiast;  b.  at  Rys- 
sel  (Lille),  then  in  the  Spanish  Netheriands,  Jan. 
13,  1616;  d.  at  Franeker,  Friesland,  Oct.  30, 
1680.  She  grew  up  neglected  and  solitary  on 
account  of  a  facial  deformity,  afterward  removed 
by  an  operation,  and  came  to  love  isolation  and 
communion  with  (xod.  For  a  time  her  older  sister 
drew  her  into  the  world;  but  she  shrank  from 
marriage,  and  once  thought  she  heard  the  voice  of 
(xod  asking  her,  "Canst  thou  find  a  lover  more 
perfect  than  I  ? "  She  thought  of  becoming  a 
Carmelite,  but  concluded  that  the  true  Christians 
were  not  to  be  foimd  in  the  cloisters,  and  sought 
another  way  to  leave  the  world.  Her  father  tried 
to  force  a  marriage  upon  her  yi  1636;  she  fled  in 
a  male  disguise,  and  after  many  romantic  adven- 
tures was  brought  home,  but  took  refuge  at  Mons 
imder  the  protection  of  the  archbishop.  When 
her  plans  for  founding  an  ascetic  community 
on  a  primitive  model  were  hindered,  she  went  to 
Li^ge  and  made  another  unsuccessful  attempt. 
On  her  father's  death  she  brought  suit  against 
her  stepmother  for  his  entire  property  and  won  it. 
Now  she  fell  imder  the  influence  of  a  doubtful 
friend  of  mysticism,  Jean  de  St.  Saulieu,  who 
induced  her  to  take  charge  of  a  home  for  orphan 
girls  (1653),  which  she  put  under  the  Augustinian 
rule  and  made  cloistered  (1658).  Her  rule  there 
came  to  an  imtoward  end  in  1662,  when  she  took 
flight  under  serious  accusations  of  cruelty.  She 
went  first  to  Ghent  and  then  to  Mechlin,  where  she 
found  an  adherent  in  the  superior  of  the  Oratorians, 
Christian  de  Cort.  Soon  she  developed  a  fantas- 
tical system,  based  on  alleged  revelations.  As 
the  "  woman  clothed  with  the  sun  "  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, she  was  to  revive  the  teachings  of  the  Gospel 
and  gather  her  spiritual  children  around  her  into 
a  communistic,  priestless  brotherhood;  she  was 
the  second  revelation  of  the  Son  of  Man  on  earth. 

The  books  which  Antoinette  now  began  to  publish 
contain  the  bitterest  condemnation  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  reject  infant  baptism,  and  the 
Trinity  was  exchanged  for  a  sacred  triad  of  truth, 
mercy,  and  justice.  She  had  dealings  with  the  Jan- 
senists,  but  rejected  their  teaching  on  predestination. 
In  1667,  with  De  Cort,  she  went  to  Amsterdam  and 
lived  for  a  while  in  the  happy  exchange  of  views 
with  the  most  various  heretics  and  fanatics.  The 
following  years  are  occupied  with  the  history  of 
the  attempt  to  find  a  home  for  her  elect  on  the 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bouciiim 


I 


I 


k 


inland  of  Nordfltrand  in  the  North  Sea,  which  De 
Cort  limi  tyscoveretl  as  tlie  deHtiiied  place.  His  finan- 
cial troubles,  wliirh  make  up  a  iarge  part  of  the 
story f  ended  only  with  liis  imprisonment  at  Amster- 
dam and  his  death  in  1669.  Antoinette,  as  his  heir, 
was  for  several  years  more  much  occupied  with 
courts  of  justice,  not  without  danger  of  imprison- 
ment, and  went  from  Amsterdam  to  Hajiriom, 
thence  to  Sleswick,  and  finally  to  Husum  to  be  as 
near  as  possible  to  Nordstrand.  Here  she  might 
have  been  left  in  peace  if  she  would  liave  given  up 
her  claims.  But  she  set  up  a  printing-press  and 
carried  on  the  liveliest  literary  controversy,  until 
her  press  was  confiscated  by  the  government. 
So  her  story  procseeds,  amid  quaint  and  vi\^d 
details  too  numerous  to  give  here,  until  she  la 
found  at  Hamburg  in  167D  formally  charged  with 
sorcery  by  a  former  adherent,  an  eccentric  colonel  i 
of  artillery  named  La  Coste.  She  fled  to  escape 
arrest,  and  remained  in  liiding  until  her  death  the 
next  year.  The  points  of  her  quiet istic  mysticism 
need  no  discussion;  for  herself  the  importimt  one 
was  her  own  position  as  bride  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  channel  of  revelation »  Though  she  was  prob- 
ably more  of  an  adventuress  than  even  an  enthusiast 
or  an  insane  woman,  the  solemn  prophetic  tone  of 
her  visions  and  divine  messages  continued  for  some 
time  to  attract  readers  who  believed  in  her  inspira- 
tion; but  her  community  seems  to  have  been 
entirely  scattered  at  her  death.     (G.  Kawerau,) 

Antoinette  had  many  followere  in  Scotland,  more, 
it  is  said,  than  in  any  other  country.  Prominent 
among  them  were  the  Rev.  James  Garden  U*i47- 
1726)»  who  rose  to  be  professor  of  divinity  at  King's 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  was  deprived  in  1690  be- 
cause he  had  refused  to  sign  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession of  Faith»  and  his  younger  brother,  Rev. 
George  Garden  (1649-173-1),  who  after  being  one  of 
tlie  ministers  of  St.  Nicholas,  the  town  parish  of 
Aberdeen,  was  '*  laid  aside  "  by  the  privy  council  in 
1G92  because  he  refused  to  pray  for  William  and 
Mary  and  in  1701  was  deposed  from  the  ministry  be- 
cause he  bad  advocated  Bourignonianism  in  liis  book, 
An  Apology  for  3/.  Anlonia  Bourignon{l&)9\s,Tep\y 
to  books  by  his  brother-in-law,  the  Rev.  John  Cock- 
bum  (1652-1729),  entitled  Bourignianism  Detected  ; 
or,  the  Deltmona  and  Errors  of  A.  Bourignon  and 
her  Growing  Sect.  Narraiii^e  i,  (London,  1698), 
Narrative  iL  (1698),  and  .4  Letter  to  his  Friend 
giving  an  account  why  iJie  other  Narratives  about 
Bourignianism  are  net  yet  pubiishedf  and  anAtoering 
some  Reflectiona  passed  upon  the  first  (1698). 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
in  1701,  1709,  and  1710  passed  deliverances  against 
Bourignonians  in  winch  their  views  are  thus  de- 
scribed: L  They  denied  (1)  the  divine  permisiiion 
of  sin  and  that  di\ine  vengeance  and  eternal  damna* 
lion  were  inflicted  upon  it;  (2)  the  decrees  of  elec- 
tion and  reprobation;  and  (3)  the  doctrine  of  the 
divine  foreknowledge.  IL  They  asserted  (1)  that 
Christ  had  a  twofold  human  nature,  one  produced 
of  Adam  before  the  woman  was  fonned,  and  the 
other  bom  of  the  Virgin  Mary;  (2)  that  in  each 
soul  before  birth  art?  a  good  and  an  evil  spirit; 
(3)  that  the  will  is  absolutely  fri^e,  and  there  is  in 
man  some  infinite  quality  which  makes  it  possible 
II.— 16 


for  him  to  unite  himself  to  God;  (4)  tliat  Christ's 
nature  was  ninfully  corrupt,  so  that  by  nature  he 
was  rtjbellioua  to  the  will  of  Gml;  (5)  that  perfec- 
tion may  be  attained  in  tins  life;  and  (G)  that 
children  are  bom  in  heaven. 

Notwithstanding  thci*e  deliverances,  the  view» 
of  Antoinette  Bourignon  continued  to  exist  in 
Scotland  and  in  1711  Bourignonianism  was  put 
among  the  heresies  which  Candida  tea  for  the  minis- 
try were  required  formally  to  disown  when  applying 
for  ordination. 

BiBLiOHiiBAfRT:  An  edilioQ  of  tho  ivorka  of  Antoitiett* 
BoiLiri(?Eion  va*  publij<lied  in  10  vob.»  at  Amsittrdum, 
1680-86.  She  wrote  two  nccounts  of  hef  Jife:  La  Parotm 
de  r>ieu,  cu  to  vie  in^itfurv  (1634-^53 J,  Mediliu,  1663; 
■nd  La  VU  exthieure  (1616-^1}.  Auufcerdain,  1668, 
These  were  continued  by  her  diAcipte.  Pierre  Poinet,  in 
Sa  Vie  continui'^,  reprise  depuie  »a  naisaance  et  tutrix 
iu9qu"a  9a  mvrt.  ftpi>end«d  to  a  later  etlition  of  iho  pm- 
cedlDS-  Her  auto biofT&phy  in  Eng.  transt  under  the  title 
FA*  Light  tj/  the  World;  a  Mott  True  Relatkm  of  a  PU- 
ffrimeu  Travetting  TotvardM  Eiernxtu.  3  parts.  London,  1 060, 
reprinted,  ib.  186S:  abriilgef^l,  ib.  17S6.  Consult  espL'^iaUy 
A.  Tan  der  Linde,  AniiAnrtie  Bourigjion,  Da»  Licht  der 
Wtli,  Leydcn.  1605  (cf.  ou  thia  G,  Kawerau.  in  GGA.  18©5, 
pp.  426  aqq.). 

BOtTRNE,  FRANCIS:  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  Westminster;  b.  at  Clapham  (a  suburb 
of  London)  Mar*  23,  ISOL  He  was  educated  at 
St.  Cuthbcrt*s  College,  Ushaw  (18G9-75),  St. 
Edmund's.  Ware  (1875-80),  St.  Thomas's  Seminary, 
HammerHmith  (1880-81),  SL  Sulpice,  Paris  (1881- 
1883),  and  the  University  of  Lou  vain  (1883-84). 
He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1884,  and 
after  serving  as  assistant  at  Blackheath,  Mortlake^ 
and  West  Grinstead  for  five  years,  was  appointed 
rector  of  Southwark  Diocesan  Seminary,  holding 
this  position  until  1898.  also  acting  for  several 
years  bb  professor  of  moral  thcoloK>*  and  Holy 
Scripture.  He  was  named  doracsiic  prelate  to  the 
pope  in  1895,  and  in  the  following  year  was  con- 
secrated titular  bishop  of  Epiphania  and  coadjutor 
to  the  bishop  of  Southwiirk.  He  wa^*  bishop  of 
Southwark  from  1897  to  1903,  and  since  tlie  latter 
year  has  been  archbishop  of  Westminster.  He 
practically  refounded  St.  John's  Seminary  at 
Wonersh,  and  has  been  moat  active  in  movements 
for  social  reform  in  the  diocese  of  Southwark, 
particularly  in  the  development  of  the  Southwark 
Rescue  Society  and  the  Catholic  Boys'  Brigade. 
He  is  also  preaident  of  the  Catholic  Canadian  Emi- 
gn"ation  Society,  and  represented  the  Roman  Catho- 
hcs  of  England  at  the  St.  Auj^ii^tine  celebrations 
at  Aries  in  1897,  ns  well  as  the  English  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  at  Autun  in  1899,  and  led  the 
English  pilgrims  to  Lourdes  in  1902. 

BOmSET.  biV'set',  JOHANX  FRANZ  WILHELM: 

German  Protestant;  b.  at  Lubf^ck  Sept.  3,  18C5. 
He  was  educated  at  Erlangen,  Leipsic,  and  ClOt tin- 
gen  (Th.Lic,  1890)  and  became  privat-docent  at 
the  latter  univcraity  in  189*1,  being  ma^lc  associate 
professor  of  New  Te^^tamcnt  exegesis  six  ycaJ*s 
later.  Theologically  he  belongs  to  tlie  liberal 
hiHtorieal  school.  In  addition  to  minor  contribu- 
tions, he  haa  written  Evangel lencitate  Jw<tin.s  des 
Mijrtijrera  (Goitingen,  1891);  Jem  Prcdigt  im 
Geffen^atz  lum  Jydenlum  (1892);  Textkritische  Stu- 
dien  (Leipsic,  1894);  Antichrist  (Gottingen,  1895,- 


Bonthillier 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


MS 


Eng.  traasL  by  A.  H,  Keane,  London,  1S96); 
Komjnentar  gur  Ogenbarung  dea  Jokannei  (in  the 
KrUuch-exeget-Ucher  Kommentar  iuTti  Neuen  Tesia- 
mtntf  IH9&);  EdigiondegJttdeniufns  Cm  neuUstament^ 
lichen  ZeUaUer  (Berlin,  10Q3;  2d  ed.,  1906);  Dot 
Weamder  Religion  (Halle,  1903);  Waswiucnmrvmi 
Jemitf  (1904);  JmuM  (H&Ue,  1904;  Ezig.transL,  Lqd- 
doQ,  1906);  and  ErkldTungdciGalaUr^und  eraten  und 
tweUen  Karinlherbriefeat  m  J,  Weiss's  Sckrifien  *fef 
Neuen  T€»iamenU  neu  Hb^a^M  (GSttingen,  1905). 
Since  1S97  he  baa  edited  the  Tkeoiogische  Rund- 
achau  in  collaboration  with  W,  Hejtmtjller,  and  the 
For&chungen  rur  Religion  und  LiiertduT  dea  Alien 
und  Neuen  TeMtajnenU  In  cotlaboiution  with  H. 
Oiinkel  ainca  1903« 

BOUTHILLIEE,  hn''tW\y^\  DE  RAHCE,  AR- 
MAIfD  JEAlf  L£.     Bm  TuAPPiflTB. 

BOWEHi  GEORGE:  Methodist  Episcopal  for- 
eign miasionary;  b.  at  Bllddlebury,  Vi.,  April  30, 
1816;  d.  in  Bombay,  India,  Feb.  5,  l^S.  He 
was  graduated  at  Union  Theological  Semlnaiy, 
New  York  City,  in  1847;  was  ordained  by  the  prea- 
bytery  of  New  York,  and  the  aame  year  went  to 
Bombay  under  tlie  American  Board.  He  spent  the 
TOit  of  his  life  in  that  city,  but  aevered  bia  oofmection 
with  the  American  Boanl  in  1S5S  and  waa  an  inde- 
pendent misflionary  tiU  1872  when  he  connected 
liimaelf  with  the  Methodiat  Epiaeopal  nuaBionary 
aociety.  He  edited  the  Bombay  Guardian  from 
1854  on;  and  was  ahio  the  secretary  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  of  Bombay,  By  the  votumca  which 
have  been  made  up  from  his  writings  be  haa 
betped  many  spiritually.  They  are;  DaUy  Af«di- 
taiiona  (Philadelphia,  1865);  Diacuaaiana  by  the  Sea^ 
aide  ( Bombay ^  1857);  Love  revealed.  Meditaliona  an 
thf  parting  worda  of  Jeaus  udlh  hi»  discipki  in  John 
xiii*  to  xrtt.  (Pluladclpbia,  1872);  Veriljfj  VerUy, 
TheAment  of  Chtiat  (1879), 

BOWEIT,  JOHK  WESLEY  EDWARD:  Methodist 

Epiiicopalian;  b.  at  New  Orieann,  La.,  Dec.  3, 
1855.  lie  waa  educated  at  the  Uni%'erHity  of  New 
OHmnM  (B, A,,  187H)  and  Ikiston  University  (Ph.D,, 
J  887).  After  acting  as  professor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages at  Central  Tennessee  Ck>llege,  Naabville, 
Tenn,,  from  1H7S  to  1882,  he  held  suceesaive  paa- 
toratca  at  Boston  (lSg2-S5),  Newark,  N.  J.  (1885^ 
1888),  and  Baltimore  and  Waalungton  (1888-^), 
while  during  the  latter  incumbency  he  was  likewise 
professor  of  church  history  and  systematic  theology 
in  Morgan  College,  Baltimore,  and  also  professor 
of  Hebrew  in  Howard  UniverHity,  Washington^ 
in  1891-92.  Since  1893  ho  has  been  president  anil 
professor  of  historical  theology  in  Gammon  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Atlanta,  Ga,  He  was  a  member 
and  examiner  of  the  American  Institute  of  Sacred 
Literature  in  1 889-93 ^  as  well  as  secretary  and 
librarian  of  the  Stewart  Misj»ionaTy  Foundation 
for  Africa.  He  was  likewiae  a  member  of  the  gen- 
eral conferences  of  1896,  1900,  and  1 904,  and  from 
1892  to  1900  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  control 
of  the  Epworth  League,  He  is  the  editor  of  The 
VoieCf  The  Negro,  and  the  Stewart  Missionary 
Magaeine,  and  has  written  National  Sermons f 
Africa  and  the  Amerimn  Negro  (Philadelphia,  1891); 


Unir^^ailg  Addreaaes  (Atlanta,  1895);  tHamaaiant 
in  Fhiioaophg  and  Thedogtf  (1895);  and  Tin 
Uniled  Negro  {imiy 

BOWER^  ARCHIBALD :    Professed  convert  from 
Roman  CathoUdsm  to  Protestantiam;  b.  at  Dund^ 
Jan.  17,  1686;  d.  in  London  Sept.  3, 1766>    He  mi 
educated  at  Douax,  went  to  Italy^  beeame  a  2emM 
1706,  and  In  1723  was  made  a  oounaelor  of  tk 
Inquisition  at  Maoerata^  Italy.    In  1726  be  M 
Becretly  to  England,  and,  after  seme  yean,  jouid 
the    Established    Church;  he    gained    influeotkl 
patrons,  who  procured  him  employment  in  litetuy 
work  and  teaching.    In  1745  be  was  readmittd 
into  the  Society  of  Jesus,  but,  after  two  ye«n, 
again   profeaaed   to   leave  the  Church  of  Boizk. 
Hia  principal  publication  was  the  Huiory  0/  thi 
Pop^a  (7  Tols.,  London,   1748-66;  reprinted  witli 
a  continuation  by  B.  H<  Cox,  3  Tola.^  Philad«{p!uK 
1844^5),  which  was  attacked  by  Alban  Butler       ] 
and  John  Douglas  as  a  mere  translation  of  lUle- 
mont  and  earlier  writers  without  proper  ocknovW 
edgment.    Bower's  character  for  virtue  as  wdi  a* 
veracity  Is  not  above  suspicion. 

BisuooftAFtiT:  The  DNB^  vi,  4S-£1,  fumiiliH  »  ^tteaa^t 

AC'^unt  of  hia  life  and  the  chArK«  BHVioit  hira,  wttb  1  li«* 
□I  litemtuffs  upon  him. 

BOWMAITp  THOAiAS:  The  name  of  two  ooDtefn' 
poraiy  American  biahopa. 

1«  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop;  b.  at  Berwick , 
Pa.,  July  15,  1817.  He  was  educated  at  l^ek- 
inson  College  (B.A.,  1837),  and  two  yeara  bUsr 
entered  the  Baltimore  conference  of  the  Metbod- 
ist  ministry*  He  taught  in  the  grammar-st^iool 
of  Dickinson  College  in  1840-43,  and  fivej«ar« 
later  founded  Dickinson  Seminary,  WiUiamjipartp 
Fa.,  of  wliieh  he  was  the  president  until  ISSSp , 
when  he  was  chosen  president  of  Asbury  {no^ 
De  Pauw)  University,  Gneencastle,  Ind.  In  18&4-" 
1865  he  was  also  elisplain  of  the  United  Stated 
Senate.  He  resigned  the  presidency  of  .^ury 
Univeralty  in  1872,  when  he  was  elected  biih»p» 
and  since  that  time  has  officially  visited  u31  ib^ 
conferences  of  his  denomination  in  tite  Vdt^ 
States,  Europe,  India,  China,  Japan,  and  Meideci* 

2.  Bishop  of  tlie  Evangelical  AaiM>ciation;  b.  i^ 
Lehigh  township,  Northampton  County,  Pa.,  Ma.y 
28,  1836.  He  studied  at  the  Vander\*eere  SeminaJ^* 
Easton,  Pa.,  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Evai*'' 
gelical  Association.    He  was  pastor  in  the  esistcr^ 
Pennsylvania  conference   1859-75,  and  was  pres*-" 
ding  elder  of  the  same  conference   1870-75.    1^^ 
has    been    a  bishop  since    1875,  and  since  IS^^ 
pHndpal  of  the   Union   Biblical   Institute  at  Ki»^ 
persviUe,  III.,  which  is   the    theological  startinaT^ 
of  the  Evangelical  Association.     He  charaeterii^^ 
his  theological  position  as  "  Armmian-evangelioDl- 
He  has  published  a  revision  of  the  catechism  of  h5^ 
Church,  also  an  account  of  the  disturbance  in  tt»-^ 
Evangelical  Asaodation* 

BOWlTEp  BORBEIf  PARSER:  American  ed»-^' 
cat-or;  b.  at  Leonardville,  N.  J,,  Jan.  14,  IS^^^ 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  New  Yo«'lf 
(B.A.,  1871),  and  later  studied  for  two  years  at  tto^ 

I  universities  of  Halle,  Gottingen,  and  Paris.    Sia*5« 
1876  he  has  been  professor  of  philosophy  at  B^y^' 


848 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BoxLthilUer 
Bosrd 


ton  Univerdty.  He  was  ehairraan  of  the  Philo- 
Baphieal  Department  at  the  St.  LoutH  WorUl's  Fair 
in  1904  and  ia  an  honorary  member  of  the  Imperial 
Education  Society  of  Japan.  He  hm  written  The 
Fhilosophy  of  Herbert  Spencer  (New  York,  1874)  j 
Studies  in  Theism  (1879);  Metaphysics  (1882); 
Philmophy  of  Thewm  (1887);  Introdui^wn  ta 
Psychological  Thmry  (1SS7);  Principles  of  Ethica 
(1892);  Theory  of  ThougU  and  Knotdedge  (1897); 
The  ChrUHan  Revelation  (Cincinnati,  1898);  The 
ChriMioM  Life  (1899);  The  Atonement  (1900); 
Theimn  (Deems  lectures  for  1902;  New  York,  1902); 
and  The  Immanence  of  God  ( Boston,  1905). 

BOWRHTG,  Sm  JOHH:  English  Unitarian;  b. 
at  Exeter  Oct.  17,  1792;  d.  there  Nov,  23,  1872- 
He  served  hia  country  aa  member  of  Partiainent 
(1835-37  and  1841^9),  ia  the  public  eervice  in 
China  and  the  Far  Eait  (1849-59),  and  aa  member 
of  varijQua  governmental  commissions;  he  waa  an 
ardent  Utilitarian  and  first  editor  of  the  Weat- 
mineler  Review  (1825).  He  waa  a  remarkable 
linguist  and  an  enthuaiaatic  student  of  literature. 
Bia  writings  relate  to  pnbUc  affairs,  give  the  results 
of  his  travels,  and  include  nuroerous  tranalations, 
parti eularly  of  the  popular  poetry  of  Eastern  Europe; 
be  edited  the  works  of  Jeremy  Bentham  with 
biography  (11  vols,,  London,  1838-^),  He  m 
mentioned  here  for  hia  hymns,  many  of  which  are 
In  general  use,  aa  **  Ciod  is  love,  his  mercy  bright- 
ena,"  '*  From  the  recesses  of  a  lowly  spirit,^'  **  In 
the  cross  of  Christ  I  glory,"  *'  Watchman,  te!l 
us  of  the  night,'*  *'  We  can  not  always  trace  the 
way,"  and  others. 

BiBMCkOKAFHTt  AtdobisgiNiishietU  RwcsU&:Hon9,  vnth  Memoir 
by  [hh  wn)  LewiQ  Eowiiog;,  Londou,  1377;  DNB.  vi, 
76~S0*  S.  W.  Duffield.  EnoUMh  Humnx.  pp,  200-263.  New 
York,  ISSflt  J.  Julian,  Dictiimar^  of  HymnaloQy,  pp.  160- 
107,  London.  1007. 

BOT-BKHOPs  A  popular  custom  of  the  Middle  | 
AgM  to  provide  a  diversion  for  the  boys  of  a  church 
or  cathadral  choir  or  school,  and  to  reward  the  most 
deserving.  One  of  the  number  waa  chosen  **  bish- 
op," most  commonly  on  St,  Nicholaa's  day  (Dec.  6), 
and  in  episcopal  dresA  and  attended  by  hts  fellows 
as  priests,  he  went  tlurough  the  streets  bestowing 
hia  blessing.  Often  he  entered  into  the  church 
and  conducted  some  part  of  the  service,  at  times 
delivering  a  sermon,  prepared  for  the  purpose  by 
an  older  head  (cf .  the  Concto  de  pitero  Je&u  of  Eras- 
mus, edited  by  S.  Bentley,  London,  1816,  which 
waa  spoken  by  a  boy  of  St.  Paul's  School,  London, 
tm  such  an  occasion).  The  boys  occupied  the  seats 
of  the  clergy  while  the  latter  eat  in  the  lowest 
places.  In  some  localities  the  game  lasted  from 
St.  Nicholaa's  day  until  Holy  Innocents*  day 
(Dec,  28).  It  was  very  popular  in  England,  where 
it  was  observed  not  only  in  the  churches  and 
schools,  but  at  the  co\xri  and  in  the  castles  of  the 
nobility;  the  boys  were  called  *'  St.  Nicholases 
clerks."  The  cuitom  was  forbidden  in  1542  but 
was  restored  under  Mary.  It  was  also  common 
in  France,  although  repeatedly  forbidden  there 
(by  the  papal  legate,  1198;  £he  synods  of  Paris 
1212,  Cognac  1260,  Nantes  1431;  the  chapter  of 
Troyea  1445).  In  some  places,  as  Reims  and 
Uainx.  it  lasted  till  the  eighteenth  century.    See 


Fools,   Pbast  op,   and   consult  the  works   men- 
tioned in  the  bibliography  of  that  article. 

BOYCE,  JAMES  PETIGRU:  American  Baptist; 
b,  at  Charltiiton,  S,  C,  Jan.  11,  1827;  d.  at  Pau, 
FraneOj  Dec.  28,  1888.  He  waa  graduated  at 
Brown  University  1847;  studiefl  theology  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  1849-51;  became  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  church  at  Columbia,  S,  C,  1851; 
profeaaor  of  theology  in  Furman  University,  Green- 
ville, S>  C,  1855;  chairman  of  the  faculty,  and 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  the  Southern 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  opened  at  the  same 
place  in  1859.  He  wad  opposed  to  sece^ion,  but 
went  with  his  State  into  the  Civil  War;  was  chaplain 
of  the  Sixteenth  South  Carolina  volunteers  1S61-62; 
member  of  the  legislature  1862-65;  of  the  State 
council  and  on  the  staff  of  Gov,  A,  G,  Mugrath 
1864-65;  member  of  the  State  convention  for 
reconstruction  1865.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  returned  to  his  duties  in  the  seminary,  re- 
opened it  and  reestablished  it  with  much  labor, 
and  made  considerable  contributions  to  its  support 
from  his  own  means.  In  1872  he  was  transferred 
to  the  chair  of  church  government  and  pastoral 
duties,  but  was  absent  much  of  the  time  for  the 
next  few  years  arranging  for  the  removal  of  the 
seminary  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  which  was  accom- 
plished in  1877,  In  1887  he  returned  to  Ids  old 
department  of  aystematie  theology.  He  waa 
president  of  the  Southern  Baptist  (Convention 
1872-7fi  and  in  1888.  Besides  sermons,  speoch<», 
and  articles  he  published  Three  Changes  in  The4^ 
logical  Education  (Greenville,  1856);  A  Brief 
Catechism  of  Bible  Doctrine  (Memphis,  1872);  An 
Abstract  of  Theology  (Louisville,  1882;  rev.  and 
enlarged  ed.,  Baltimore,  1887;  rev.  and  annotated 
by  F,  H,  Kerfoot,  Philadelphia,  1898), 

BibLtOGnAnBT:    J.  A.  Broad  us,  Memoir  of  Jamei   Pt^^ru 
S&Uf^  New  York,  1893. 

BOYD,  AIJDREW  KEIfflEDY  HUTCHISOU: 
Establiabed  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at  Auchinleck 
(28  m,  s.  of  Glasgow),  Ayrshire,  Nov,  3,  1825; 
d.  at  Bournemouth,  Hampshire,  England,  Mar,  1, 
1899.  He  studied  at  King's  College  and  the  Middle 
Temple,  London,  and  at  the  University  of  Glasgow 
(B.A,,  Glasgow,  1846);  was  ordained  minister  of 
Newton-on-Ayr  1851;  minister  of  Kirkpatrick- 
Iroagray,  near  Dumfries,  1854-59;  of  St.  Bernard's, 
Edinburgh,  1859-65;  first  minister  of  the  city  of 
St.  Andrews  from  1865.  He  won  distinction  both 
as  a  clergyman  and  a  writer  (over  the  signature 
A,  K,  H,  B,,  and  the  sobriquet  **  The  Country  Par- 
eon  "),  and  was  perhaps  the  most  widely  known 
minister  of  the  Scottish  Church,  In  1866  he  waa 
made  chairman  of  a  oomraittae  to  prepare  a  new 
collection  of  hymna  and  filled  the  place  with  much 
judgment  and  tact.  He  was  moderator  of  the 
Gi^neral  Assembly  in  1890.  The  most  notable 
of  his  many  books  were  Recreations  of  a  Country 
Parson  (3  series,  London,  1859-78);  Leimire  Houre 
in  Toim  (1862);  Grat*er  Thoughts  of  a  Country 
Parson  (3  series,  1862-75);  The  Commonplace 
Philosopher  in  Town  and  Country  (1862-64); 
Coum^  and  Comfort  Spoken  from  a  COy  PulpU 
(1863);  The  Autumn  Holidays  of  a  Country  Parsm 


Boyle 
Bradley 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


844 


(1864);  Critical  Essays  of  a  Country  Parson  (1865) ; 
Sunday  Afternoons  in  the  Parish  Church  of  a  Uni- 
versity CUy  (1866);  Lessons  of  Middle  Age  (1867); 
Changed  Aspects  of  Unchanged  Truths  (1869); 
Present  Day  Thoughts  (1870);  Seaside  Musings 
(1872);  A  Scotch  Communion  Sunday  (1873); 
Landscapes f  Churches,  and  Moralities  (1874);  From 
a  Quiet  Place  (1879);  Our  LiUle  Life  (2  series, 
1881-84);  Towards  the  Sunset,  Teachings  after 
Thirty  Years  (1882);  What  Set  him  Right,  wUh 
other  chapters  to  help  (1885);  Our  Homely  Comedy 
and  Tragedy  (1887);  The  Best  Last,  vnth  other 
papers  (1888);  To  Meet  the  Day  through  the  Chris- 
tian Year  (1889);  East  Coast  Days  and. Memories 
(1889);  Twenty-five  Years  of  St.  Andrews  (2  vols., 
1892),  autobiographical  reminiscences,  continued 
in  St,  Andrews  and  Elsewhere  (1894),  and  Last 
Years  of  St.  Andrews  (1896). 

Bibuoorapht:  Consult,  beaides  the  ftutobiographioal 
sketches  mentioned  above:  A.  Lang,  in  Lonoman'M  Maoor- 
wine,  liay,  1899;  DNB,  supplement  vol.  i,  244-246. 

BOYLE,  ROBERT,  KSD  THE  BOYLE  LEC- 
TURES: Robert  Boyle  was  bom  at  Lismore  Castle 
(30  m.  n.e.  of  Cork),  Waterford,  Ireland,  Jan.  25, 
1627,  son  of  Richard  Boyle,  earl  of  Cork;  d.  in  Lon- 
don Dec.  30, 1691.  He  studied  at  Eton  and  (1638-44) 
at  Geneva  and  elsewhere  on  the  Continent;  on  his 
retium  to  England  he  lived  at  first  on  his  estate, 
Stalbridge,  Dorsetshire,  after  1654  in  Oxford,  and 
after  1668  in  London.  As  a  scientist  he  holds 
a  high  rank  and  has  been  considered  the  heir  to 
both  the  methods  and  abilities  of  Francis  Bacon. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society 
(1662),  and  was  constantly  engaged  in  investiga- 
tions which  resulted  in  numerous  publications.  He 
wrote  many  theological,  moral,  and  religious  essays, 
gave  freely  for  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
various  languages,  and  was  liberal  in  private  charity. 
He  was  governor  of  the  Corporation  for  the  Sprestd 
of  the  Gospel  in  New  England  (see  Eliot,  John). 
In  his  will  he  left  an  endowment  of  £50  annually 
for  the  Boyle  Lectures,  a  series  of  8  sermons, 
to  be  delivered  each  year  in  some  church,  against 
unbelievers.  For  the  lectures  St.  Paul's  was  used 
in  1699  and  1701,  the  parish  church  of  St.  Mary 
le  Bow  1711-1805,  Westminster  Abbey  1852-53,  the 
Chapel  Royal,  Whitehall,  1864-«5,  while  the  lectures 
of  1903-05  were  delivered  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Edmund,  Lombard  St.  The  first  course  was  given 
by  Richard  Ben tley  (1692);  his  successors  have  in- 
cluded some  of  England's  most  prominent  theo- 
logians. A  selection  from  the  sermons  was  pub- 
lished by  Gilbert  Burnet,  vicar  of  Coggeshall,  in  4 
vols.,  London,  1737.  A  partial  list  of  the  published 
Boyle  Lectures  down  to  1892-93  is  given  in  J.  F. 
Hurst,  Literature  of  Theology  (New  York,  1896). 
Since  then  there  have  been  published  the  lectures 
for  1895,  W.  C.  E.  Newbolt,  The  Gospel  of  Expe- 
rience (London,  1896),  and  for  1903-05  by  R.  J. 
Knowling,  The  Testimony  of  St.  Paul  to  Christ  (Lon- 
don, 1905). 

Boyle's  complete  works  with  life  were  published 
by  Thomas  Birch  (5  vols.,  London,  1744;  2d  ed., 
6  vols.,  1772). 

Biblioobaphy:  Aside  from  the  life  by  Birch  there  are  avail- 
able: A.  k  Wood.  Athenm  Oxonienwes,  ed.  P.  Bliss,  ii,  286, 


4  vols.,  London,  1813-20;  A.  C.  Brown,  DmMiopmeiU  of 
the  Idea  of  Chemical  CompomHon,  pp.  0-14,  Edinbunfa. 
1860;  DNB,    vi.    118-123. 

BRACE,  CHARLES  LORINO:  American  philan- 
thropist; b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  19,  1826; 
d.  at  Campfer  in  the  Engadine,  Switzerland, 
Aug.  11,  1890.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  1846; 
studied  at  the  Yale  Divinity  School  1847-48  and 
at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  1848- 
1849;  traveled  and  studied  in  Europe  for  two  yean; 
in  1853  he  became  first  secretary  and  execu- 
tive agent  of  the  Children's  Aid  Society  of  New 
York,  and  remained  such  till  his  death.  He 
planned  and  developed  the  work  and  supported 
it  in  the  earlier  days  with  much  self-«acrificing 
labor;  industrial  and  night  schools  were  established, 
lodging-houses  provided  for  newsboys  and  for 
girls,  reading-rooms  opened,  summer  charities 
instituted,  and  nearly  100,000  boys  and  giiis 
were  assisted  to  new  homes  and  occupations  with 
healthful  and  moral  surroimdings.  By  thus  re- 
moving incipient  criminals  a  marked  diminution 
in  juvenile  crime  was  shown  in  the  police  reports 
of  New  York.  The  history  of  the  work  was  given 
by  Mr.  Brace  in  his  annual  reports  and  in  his  two 
books.  Short  Sermons  to  Newsboys,  with  a  history 
of  the  formation  of  the  Newsboys*  Lodging  House 
(New  York,  1866);  and  The  Dangerous  Classes  of 
New  York,  and  twenty  years*  work  among  them 
(1872;  enlarged  ed.,  1880).  He  published  several 
works  of  travel  of  a  popular  character  such  as 
Home  Life  in  Germany  (1853);  The  New  West 
(1869);  and  as  results  of  considerable  thinking 
and  study,  Gesta  Christi,  a  history  of  humane  prog- 
ress under  Christianity  (1882;  4th  ed.,  1884);  and 
The  Unknown  God,  or  inspiration  among  pre- 
Christian  races  (1890). 
Biblioorapht:  C.  L.  Brace,  Hie  lAfe,  t^iefiy  UM  in  hie  own 

Letlertt  edited  by  his  daiighter,  Enuna  Braoe,  New  Y(vk, 

1894. 

BRACKMAHN,  ALBERT:  (German  Protestant 
historian;  b.  at  Hanover  June  24,  1871.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Tubingen,  Leipsic, 
and  Gdttingen,  and  occupies  the  position  of  associate 
professor  of  history  at  the  University  of  Marburg. 
He  is  a  collaborator  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Gdttingen  for  the  publication  of  early 
papal  documents,  and  in  addition  to  a  number 
of  contributions  to  hbtorical  periodicals  has  writ- 
ten: Urkundliche  Geschichte  des  HalberstOdter  Doft^ 
kapUals  im  Mittelaltcr  (Wemigerode,  1898). 

BRADFORD,  AMORY  HOWE:  American  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Granby,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  14, 
1846.  He  was  educated  at  Genesee  College,  Hamil- 
ton College  (B.A.,  1867),  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  (1870),  and  Oxford  University.  Since 
1870  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational 
Church,  Montclair,  N.  J.  He  was  associate  editor 
of  The  Outlook  from  1894  to  1901,  member  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions deputation  to  Japan  in  1895,  and  moderator 
of  the  National  Council  of  Congregational  Churches 
in  1901-04.  He  is  also  first  secretary  and  sec- 
ond president  of  the  American  Institute  of  Chris- 
tian Philosophy,  and  was  elected  president  of  the 
American    Missionary   Association    in    1904.    He 


,  whB  South  worth  Lecturer  at  An  clover  Theological 
bminAjy  in  1902-03  and  George  Sheppard  Lec- 
urer  at  Bangor  Theologinil  Seminary  hi  194)6* 
tkk^olog^r  he  i£  a  liberal  evangel  icaU  He  has 
ritteo  Spirit  and  Life  (New  York,  1888);  Old 
hue.  New  BoUleit  (1892);  The  Pilgrim  in  Old 
^nqUa^  (1893);  Heredity  and  ChriMian  Problems 
<(189S>;  The  Groxmng  Revelation  (1897);  The  tSis- 
r^e  Madonna  (1897);  Th^  Holy  Family  (1899); 
The  J%.fi  of  Living  Alone  (1899);  The  Return  to 
iChri^tt  (1900);  The  Age  of  Faith  (Boston,  1900); 
^UpiVi^ua/  Le»9omi  from  the  Broiiming&  (New  York, 
BldDCI);  M&isages  of  the  Masters  (1902);  The  Ascent 
■jf  iMe  Soul  (1905);  and  The  Immrd  LigH  (1905). 

BILADFORD,  JOHlf:    Church  of  England  Protes- 
tant  niartyr;  b,  at  Manchester  about  1510;  burned 
^1  liSn-uthBeld  July  1,  1555.     He  was  in  the  service 
Bof  Sir  Joiin  Harrington,  the  king^'s  payraa^ster  in 
"  Fnincc;  began  to  study  law  in  the  Temple  1547,  but 
the   next  year  turned  to  divinity  and   entered   St. 

ICAtherine'e  Halh  Cambridge  (M.A.,  by  special  grace, 
)549);  was  elected   fellow  of  Pembroke  Hall  1549; 
fcecame  prebendary  of  Kentish  Town  in  the  church 
BfStr,  Paul,  1551;  was  chaplain  to  Bishop  Ridley, 
b  1 S52  one  of  the  king's  six  chaplains  in  ordinary, 
iod    preached  in  many  localitica  with  great  fervor 
ifid    duneetness.     In  August,  1553  (six  weeks  after 
thft      aooeseion    of  Mary),  he  was  arrested  on    the 
^iuks~^  of  preaching  seditious  sermons  and  com- 
^■fL^ed    to    the    Tower;   he  was    examined  before 
niuftt^opB  Gardiner,  Bonner,  and  others  in  January, 
1&&3,  and  condemned   as  a  heretic.     His  writings 
(eblefty  sermons,  letters^  and  devotional  pieces)  were 
etlit:^i<i  for  the  Parker  Society  by  Aubrey  Townsend 
(2    ^-©U,,  Cambridge,  1848-53). 

BiBa-iooiu^aT:  W.  Stephena.  Memoirt  of  John  Bradford, 
Loutiua.  Ig32;  The  Lift  of  Johf^  Bradford,  voL  iii  of  Li- 
f^f-tvy  (tf  ChrUtian  Biography,   Lofldon.   1865;  DNB,   vi* 

^ItADLAUGH,  CHARLES :  Enghsh  f  reef  bought 
advocate  and  politician;  b.  at  Hoxton  (a  suburb  of 
Lcwidcm)  Sept.  20,  1833;  d.  at  London  Jan.  30. 189L 
He  was  educated  in  local  schools  until  the  age  of 
twelve,  when  his  business  life  began.  A  few  years 
l^^r  he  became  an  advocate  of  free  thought,  and 

pidly    achieved    notoriety    for    hi«    propaganda. 


I«i 


^  attitude  seriously  aflfected  his  career,  and  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier, 
■^maining  in  the  army  three  years.  He  then  en- 
'^'^i  a  8oUcitor*8  office,  and  soon  rose  to  a  position 
**'  ^responsibility.  Mt^antime  he  had  resumed  his 
^■^paign  for  freethought,  and  in  1858  began  a 
»*"^form  t<iur  of  the  provinces,  advocating  not 
?5*'y  radicalL<)m  in  religion,  but  also  in  politics. 
^p:^  lSt52  until  his  death,  excepting  in  1863-^6, 
^  Was  the  proprietor  of  the  republican  Xational 
'^forjf^er,  and  in  hk  advocacy  of  radical  i>otitica 
^*«  secretary  of  the  fund  raised  in  1858  to  defend 

I**-  Truelove  for  publishing  a  vintlication  of  OrHini^e 
JJ^^mpt  to  aaaassinate  Napoleon  III.  He  was 
*w*Wiie  a  member  of  the  parliamentary  rc^forni 
***gjic  of  1856,  and  drew  up  the  first  draft  of  the 
■'**Uan  proclamation  issued  in  the  following  year, 
*^ilc  three  years  latiT  he  was  the  envoy  of  the  Kng- 
|J»h  rr^iublicans  to  the  Spanish  republican  leader 
Cwtelar,  and  wu  Ukewifle  nominated  as  candidate 


I 


for  a  division  of  Paris  on  the  foundation  of  the 
French  republic  in  the  same  year.  He  then  at- 
tempted to  go  to  Paris  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
(immune  to  be  an  intermediary  between  Thiers 
and  the  insurrectionists,  but  wan  arrested  at  Calais 
and  forced  to  return  to  Engl  and » 

In  1868  BratUaugh's  attempts  to  gain  a  seat  in 
the  House  of  Commons  began ♦  but  his  avowed 
principles  caused  his  defeat  both  in  that  year  and 
in  1874.  Six  years  later,  however,  he  was  returned, 
and  by  his  refusal  to  take  the  required  oath  on  the 
Bible  initiated  a  struggle  which  involved  him  in 
repeated  acenes  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  in 
eight  legal  actions.  He  was  again  and  again 
excluded  from  the  House,  his  willingnesij  tx>  take 
the  oath  as  a  mere  matter  of  form,  or  to  affirm, 
being  overruled  by  the  plea  that  he  was  an  avowed 
freetliinker.  Nevertheless,  he  was  reelected  for 
Northampton  by  special  elections  after  his  expul- 
sion in  ISSl  and  1882,  and  at  the  general  election 
in  1886  was  once  more  returned,  being  permittjed 
this  time  to  take  his  seat,  which  he  retained  until 
his  death.  During  this  troubled  period  of  his  life 
he  ivas  also  involved  in  a  contest  for  the  abolition 
of  all  restrictions  on  the  press,  beginning  with  hia 
refusal,  in  1808,  to  give  security  to  the  government 
against  the  publication  of  blasphemy  and  sedition 
in  his  Naiional  Reformer,  In  the  following  year 
another  legal  contest  resulted  in  the  passage  of  the 
Evidence  Amendment  Act,  by  which  the  evidence 
of  freethinkers  was  declared  admissible,  a  judge 
having  refused  to  take  his  testimony  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  a  freetliinker,  A  few  years  later,  in 
1874,  he  became  associated  with  Annie  Besant 
(q.v.)»  who  was  assistant  editor  of  the  National 
Reformer  until  1885,  when  she  resigned  on  account 
of  his  opposition  to  socialism.  In  1876  they  were 
sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine 
of  £200  for  the  publication  of  the  Fruits  of  Phihs- 
ophy,  which  advocated  the  artificial  restraint  of 
tlje  increast^  of  population.  The  sentence  w^as  sus- 
pended, however,  and  the  contest  resulted  in  the 
passage  of  an  act  removing  the  remaining  restric- 
tions on  the  press. 

Id  Parliament  Bradlaugh  was  active  in  securing 
the  passage  of  a  number  of  measures,  of  which  the 
chief  was  one  permitting  the  substitution  of  an 
affirmation  for  the  oath  both  in  the  House  of  C'Om- 
mona  and  in  the  courts.  In  1889  he  \iHite«l  India, 
and  during  his  final  illness  the  rtvHolutions  of  his 
expulsion  from  the  House  of  Commons  were  unani- 
mously expunged.  The  writings  of  Bradlaugh 
were  chiefly  brief  controversial  pamphlets  and 
contributions  to  the  preaa.  Among  them  the  most 
important  are  The  Impeachment  of  the  House  of 
Brunstmck  (London,  1S72);  Autobiography  (1873); 
iMnd  for  the  People  (1877);  The  New  Life  of  Daind 
(1877);  OeneeiA,  Us  Authorship  and  Aidhentidty 
(1882);  and  Tfie  True  Story  of  my  Parliamentary 
Struggle  {\dS2). 

Hihuographt:  a.  S.  Heftdinsley.  Sioarvphu  of  Charht 
Braitlaugh.  I^ndon.  1880;  €.  R,  Mackay.  Lift  of  Charl** 
Bradlfiu{ih  ib.  1S88;  H.  Hiinner  Uiw  duu^htflr).  Chart** 
Bradiauoh:  A  Bfctfrd  of  hi*  fAfe  and  Work,  2  vt>k>,  ib, 
1894. 

BRADLEY,  GEORGE  GRANVILLE:  Dean  of 
Westminster;  b.  at  High  Wycombe  (30  m,  w.n.w. 


Bradshaw 
Bmlunaiiisiii 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


246 


of  London),  Buckmghamehire,  Dec.  11^  1S2X; 
d.  in  London  Mar.  12,  1903.  He  studied  at  Rugby 
under  Arnold  (1837^0),  and  at  University  College, 
Oxford  (BJi.,  1844;  M.A.,  1847);  waa  fellow  of 
Univereity  College  1844—50;  became  asaistant  mas- 
ter at  Rugby  1846;  head  master  of  Marlborough 
College,  Wiltshire,  1858;  master  of  Uoiversity 
College,  Oxford,  1870;  dean  of  Westminster^  Lon- 
don, Bucccoding  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley^  IS81; 
rei!igned  his  deanery  1902,  He  ediletl  and  revised 
Arnold's  Latin  Proae  CrnnpoBition  (London,  1881), 
and  published  Aid^  to  W riling  Latin  Prose  (1884); 
RecoiktiionM  of  AHhur  Fenrhyn  SUinky  (1883); 
Lectures  on  Ecdemaaies  (Oxford,  1886;  new  ed., 
1898);  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Job  (1887);  and 
aiisist«d  R.  E.  Prothero  in  preparing  the  Life  and 
CorresjjoTvdence  of  Arthur  Pcnrkyn  Stanley  (2  vols., 
London,  1894). 

BRADSHAW,  WILLIAM:  Puritan;  b.  at  Market 
Boa  worth  (12  m.  w.  of  Leicester),  Leicestershire, 
1571;  d.  at  Chelsea  1618.  He  studied  at  Emmanuei 
College,  Cambridge,  and  became  fellow  of  Sidney 
Suasex  College  in  1599;  took  orders  but  never 
received  a  living  owing  to  his  Puritan  principles, 
and  spent  much  of  his  time  in  retirement  in  Derby- 
shire, whence  he  made  many  journeys  in  behalf  of 
the  cause  to  which  he  was  devoted.  His  chief 
work  was  English  Furitanism  :  containing  the  main 
opinions  of  the  rigid  sort  of  those  that  are  called 
Puritans  in  the  Realm  of  England  (London,  1605; 
Latm  transL,  by  William  Ame^a,  Frankfort,  1610; 
an  abstract  is  given  in  Neara  History  of  the  Pwrieaaa, 
part  ii,  chap,  i).  The  main  [xiint  of  his  system 
was  that  he  would  subject  no  congregation  to  any 
ecclcaiaatical  jurisdiction  **  save  that  which  is 
within  itself/*  He  would  have  the  merabera 
delegate  their  powers  to  pastors  and  elders,  retain- 
ing that  of  excommunication.  No  clergyman 
ahould  hold  civil  office.  He  was  strongly  opposed 
to  "  ceremonies."  He  was  not  a  separatist  and 
held  that  the  king  as  **  the  archbishop  and 
general  overseer  of  all  the  churches  within  his 
dominions "  had  the  right  to  rule  and  must 
not  be  resisted  except  passively;  He  published 
many  other  works  and  tracts,  most  of  them  anony- 
mously, 

BtnLioonAFHT:  A    fur   bio^riiiphy    &nd   Tefflrennn   to    the 

Bomewhjit  abuixdamt  Utemture  m»y  bo  fo%md  fa  DNB, 
vi  182-1&5. 

BRABWARBIKE,  THOMAS;  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  b.  probably  at  Chichester,  Sussex, 
1290;  d.  in  London  Aug.  26,  1349.  His  name  is 
variously  spelled  (Bragwardin,  Brandnardin,  Bred- 
wardyn,  etc.),  in  public  documents  he  is  usually 
called  Thomas  de  Bradwardina,  and  a  title  often 
^ven  him  is  Doctor  pro  fundus.  He  studied  theology, 
philosophy,  mathematics,  and  astronomy  at  Mer- 
ton  College,  Oxford j  lectured  there;  became  chan- 
cellor of  St.  Paurs  Church  at  London;  in  1339 
accDompanied  Edward  III  aa  his  cx>nfe5sor  in  his 
caimpaigns  in  France;  in  1349  was  chosen  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury*  was  consecrated  at  Avignon, 
and  died  a  few  weeks  afterward.  He  was  lughty 
esteemed  by  Wyclifp  Jean  Gerson,  and  Flacius.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  large  work  entitled  De  causa 
Dei  contra  Pelagium  [ed.  Sir  Henry  Savile^  London, 


1618],  in  which  be  attempted  to  show  that  iht 
theology  aa  well  aa  the  Church  of  bis  time  ivei« 
Pelagian.  He  gave  the  name  Cainitea  to  tbasa  who 
gave  up  hope  in  God  and  depended  upon  their  own 
merits;  his  personal  experience  gave  him  a  differ- 
ent  conception;  ''  In  the  schools  of  the  philoiopben 
I  rarely  heard  a  word  oonoeming  grace,  •  *  ,  bul 
I  continually  heard  that  we  are  the  mastei^  of 
our  own  free  actions.''  Bom,  ix,  16  bad  ee^aed 
to  hina  to  be  wrong;  "  but  afterward  ,  .  .  I 
came  to  see  that  the  grace  of  God  far  preceded  all 
good  works  both  in  time  and  in  nature — by  grace 
I  mean  the  will  of  God."  Bradwardine  wished  to 
support  this  position  on  theoretical  grounds.  He 
acknowledged  Augustine  as  his  master.  The  sum 
of  his  teaching  is  as  follows:  God  Is  complete 
periection  and  goodness^  is  good  action  itself, 
fn^  from  the  potentiality  of  imperfection.  H«  ii 
not  limited  by  mentality.  He  is  the  first  cacsK, 
the  absolute  principle  of  being  and  motion.  There- 
fore, no  one  can  act  nor  can  anything  "  happen  "; 
God  works  or  orders  events.  Divine  foreknowl- 
edge is  will  exercised  long  before,  or  predestinatioii 
of  [man's]  will,  God's  will,  moreover^  is  unchsa- 
ging.  Everything  takes  place  by  virtue  of  the 
immutable  antecedent  necessity  eaused  by  the 
divine  volition.  Hence  man  can  say  nothing  "  more 
useful  or  ef&cacious  .  ,  .  than  '  thy  will  be  done.'  *' 
The  efiFects  of  predestination  are  the  ^ft  of  grace 
in  the  present}  justification  from  sin,  award  of  merits 
perseverance  to  the  end^  and  unending  bliss  in  the 
world  to  come.  The  result  of  this  line  of  thought  is, 
of  coiurse^  determinism  of  a  Tbomistic  type.  In 
spite  of  this  theory,  Bradwardme,  like  Augustine, 
asserted  the  reality  of  free  will.  His  historical 
important^  consists  in  the  fact  thai  be  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  champions  of  the  Augustinian 
movement  which  took  place  toward  the  end  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  This  movement  contributed  to 
the  dissolution  of  scholasticism  and  to  a  new 
understanding  of  Christian  doctrine  from  the  point 
of  view  of  personal  faith.  R.  Sejebeho. 

Bibuoobaput:  The  M*»iity  notioefl  of  bii  Me  mra  col)««ted 
by  Sir  Henry  Savile  in  tho  pref&oo  to  bla  edition  of  th» 
Couta  Dei.  For  hij  fimthematiofil  works  conmill  M-  CmA- 
toT,  Geschichtc  dv  MQihemaiik,  ii,  102  iviq.,  Leipttie.  liOl 
CohauU  further  G.  Y.  Leehler,  l>fl  TAcnAa  Br^vmrdimA, 
LeipaJc^  1S02;  idem,  J^j^nn  f^em  WuMf  und  die  Vsftp^ 
$chichti  der  Reformatian,  u  220  «qq.»  L^iptmc.  1873: 
Enfi.  tran*!.,  pp.  SS^fi,  London.  1S7S;  K,  Werner,  Der 
AitguMtinigmuM  in  der  SchG^niMik  dea  tp&igrsn  Mii^iaUff% 
pp  337  Kiq.,  Vieiuia,  1SS3;  R,  Seeberg,  Doffmeii^ 
tu^iihte,  ii,  102.  Leipqic  1898;  DNB,  vi,  lSS-190. 

BRADY,  mCHOLAS:  Church  of  EIngJand  deriy- 
man  and  poet;  b.  at  Bemdon  (20  m.  s.w.  of 
Cork),  County  Cork,  Ireland,  Oct.  28,  16^;  ± 
at  Richmond,  Surrey,  May  20,  1726.  He  etudiisd 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  <B.A.,  1682),  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  (B.A.,  1685;  M.A.,  1686;  B.a 
and  D.D,,  1699);  took  orders  in  Ireland  and  received 
two  livings  in  the  dioceae  of  Cork.  He  was  a  sealont 
promoter  of  the  Revolution  of  1688  and  aoon  there- 
after  removed  to  England;  became  lecture  at 
St.  Michaels,  Wood  Street,  London;  minister  at 
St.  Catherine  Cree,  1691;  rector  of  Rjehmond, 
1696,  and  of  Clapham,  1706.  He  was  also  rectar 
of  Stratford-on-Avon,  1702«OS*  and  conducted  a 
school  at  Eichmond.    He  was  chaplain  toWilliini 


947 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BradBhaw 
Brahmanism 


m,  to  Mary,  and  to  Queen  Anne.  He  published 
a  tragedy,  The  Rape,  or  the  Innocent  Impostera 
(London,  1692),  a  translation  of  the  iEneid  of 
Vergil  (4  vols.,  1726;  now  extremely  rare),  and 


two  volumes  of  sermons  (1704r-06);  but  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  his  share  in  the  New  Version  of  the 
Psalms  of  David,  produced  jointly  by  himself  and 
Nahum  Tate  (q.v.)* 


Vedim,  the  Ace  of  the  Vedwi  and 
their  Andllary  Literature. 

The  Ftople  of  the  Vedwi  and  their 
Gods  (S  1). 

The  Rig-Veda  (§  2). 


n. 


BRAHHANISM. 

The  Sama-  and  Taiur-Vedwi  (S  3). 
The  Atharva-Veda  (f  4). 
BrahtnanJHm  and  thB  Pantheisn  of 

the  Upanishadfl. 
The  Upanishadfl  (§  1). 


The  Six  Orthodox  Systems  of  Phi- 
losophy (S  2). 
III.  The  Age  of  the   Buddhistio  and 
Jainistio  Heresies. 


Brahmanism  is  the  orthodox  religion  of  India, 
the  most  ancient  of  all  Indo-Germanic  faiths  of 
which  there  is  record.  In  itself  the  most  catholic 
and  elastic  of  cults,  its  test  is  the  recognition  of 
the  divine  authority  of  the  Vedas;  its  outward 
sign  is  reverence  for  the  gods,  some  of  whom  are 
comparatively  late  and  foreign  in  origin;  and, 
for  the  Brahmansy  its  end  is  emancipation  from 
the  sorrow  of  existence  and  the  misery  of  reincar- 
nation through  reabsorption  into  the  divine  essence 
of  the  All-Soul. 

Brahmanism  may  be  divided  into  three  periods: 
I.  The  Age  of  the  Vedas  and  their  Ancillary  Litera- 
ture; II.  Brahmanism  and  the  Pantheism  of  the 
Upanishads;  III.  The  Age  during  which  the 
Buddhistic  and  Jainistic  Heresies  Prevailed.  The 
two  phases  which  are  included  in  the  Brahmanistio 
oounterreformation  and  rise  of  the  EUndu  sects, 
and  modem  Hinduism  and  the  unitarian  move- 
ments are  treated  under  Hinduism  (q.v.). 

I.  Vedism,  the  Age  of  the  Vedas  and  their  An- 
cillary Literature  (the  Brahmanas  and  Sutras — the 
former  a  sort  of  Hindu  Talmud;  the  latter  brief 
verses  in  technical  language,  a  favorite  form  of 
expressing  rules):  At  a  period  of  remote  antiquity, 
possibly  between  2000  and  1500  b.c.,  a  section  of 
the  Indo-Germanic  peoples  known  by  various 
names,  of  which  the  most  common  are  Indians  and 
Aryans,  broke  oft  from  the  kindred  Iranian  stock 
and  wandered  southward  and  eastward  through 
Afghanistan  into  the  Pimjab  or  the  "  Five  Waters," 
in  the  extreme  northwest  of  the  Indian  peninsula. 
Like  the  Iranians  of  Persia,  they  were 
I .  The      divided  into  the  three  classes  of  priests, 

People  of  warriors,  and  husbandmen,  whence 
the  Vedas  were  to  be  formed  later  the  three 
and  their  higher  castes,  and  were  a  nomadic  and 
Gods.  agricultural  people,  filled  with  the  joy 
of  living,  valiant  in  war,  daring  free- 
booters, hot  in  love  and  reveling  in  wine,  almost 
everjrthing,  in  short,  that  the  later  Hindus  were  not. 
Their  gods  were  like  themselves,  concrete  and  strong: 
Surya,  the  bright  deity  of ^  the  sun;  Indra,  the 
blinding  lightning  which  ushers  in  the  rainy  season; 
Agni,  the  god  of  fire;  and  Soma,  the  deified  in- 
spiration of  strong  drink  and  of  the  divine  courage 
which  it  gives.  Few  are  the  deities  which  show 
the  softer  side  of  the  eariy  Aryan  mind,  such  as 
Ushas,  the  goddess  of  the  dawn,  or  Varuna,  the 
god  of  the  sky-ocean,  who  watches  over  all  and 
even  later  in  this  period  receives  praises  which 
almost  savor  of  monotheism. 

The  beliefs  of  the  Aryans  of  this  period  are  con- 
tained in  the  Rig- Veda,  a  book  of  hynms,  the  earliest 
literary  records  of  the  Indo-Germanic  race,   to 


which  the  most  probable  date  assigned  is  1500- 

500  B.C.    This  Veda  is  divided  into  ten  books 

containing  1,022  hynms.    Books   ii* 

2.  The      vii  form  the  "  family  books,"  com- 

Rig-Veda,  posed  by  successive  generations  of 
families  of  bards.  Book  ix  is  restricted 
to  the  Soma  hymns,  while  i  and  viii,  and  especially 
X,  the  latest  of  all,  are  more  diverse  in  contents 
and  authorship.  Within  this  range  of  space  and 
time  are  represented  many  phases  of  religious 
thought,  ranging  from  crass  polytheism  through 
intricate  henotheism  or  sjmcretism  to  a  quasi- 
monotheism,  or  rather  pantheism;  varying  from 
earnest  faith  to  incipient  skepticism;  touching, 
too,  on  daily  life  as  weU  as  on  worship  and  sacrifice. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  faith 
of  the  Veda  is  naive  or  childlike.  It  is,  on  the 
contrary,  quite  developed  and  occasionally  even 
corrupt.  Many  of  the  hynms  were  undoubtedly 
composed  for  the  ritual,  although  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  regard  the  entire  collection  as  sub- 
servient to  the  liturgy.  Untenable  also  is  the 
theory  of  the  French  school  which  reduces  the 
entire  Rig- Veda  to  a  mass  of  allegory,  nor  are  the 
conclusions  of  the  realistic  school,  which  regards 
this  Veda  as  entirely  Indie  and  interprets  it  rational- 
istically,  altogether  free  from  criticism.  To  the 
elucidation  of  a  collection  so  extended  both  in 
space  and  time  no  single  method  of  interpretation 
is  adequate.  Naivete  and  mature  thought,  liturgy 
and  hynmology,  allegory  and  realism  must  each 
be  recognized  as  occasion  demands,  must  even 
be  combined  at  times  to  give  a  true  representation 
of  the  Vedic  Hinduism. 

The  basis  of  the  Vedic  religion  is  nature-worship. 
Each  element  is  deified,  the  fire  as  Agni,  the  dawn 
as  Ushas,  the  sky  as  Varuna,  and  the  lightning  of 
the  storm  as  Indra.  A  single  object  in  nature  may 
be  represented  by  many  gods,  as  when  the  sun  is 
venerated  under  the  names  of  Surya,  "  the  glowing 
one ";  Savitar,  "  the  enlivener ";  Bhaga,  "  the 
bestower  of  boons  ";  Pushan,  ''  he  who  causeth  to 
flourish ";  and  Vishnu,  "the  mighty  one."  While 
these  names  may  represent  the  deity  in  different 
aspects,  as  do  the  Egyptian  Ra  and  Tum,  the 
gods  of  the  rising  and  the  setting  sun,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  variance  in  name  and  even  in 
eoncept  of  the  same  divinity  may  have  been  in  its 
origin  mere  local  divergence  in  expression  for  one 
and  the  same  god,  for  the  Rig- Veda  was  composed 
by  many  minds,  at  many  places,  in  many  periods. 
Behind  nature-worship  doubtless  lay  the  earlier 
phase  of  animism,  although  its  traces  are  obsciu«d 
in  the  Vedic  texts.  Still  more  scanty  are  the 
evidences  of  ancestor^worship,  or  the  cult  of  ghostly 


BrftTi  'Ti  ivTil  T^* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


248 


though  this  phase  was  perhaps  rather  officially 
ignored  than  popularly  absent.  The  eschatology 
of  the  Rig- Veda  is  comparatively  simple,  and 
resembles  in  its  meagemess  the  poverty  of  early 
Semitism  as  represented  by  the  Assyro-Babylonian 
religion.  Allusions  to  the  future  state  of  the 
dead  are  practically  confined  to  the  late  tenth  book. 
Yama,  the  first  of  men  to  die,  is  the  king  of  the 
dead;  and  apparently  the  blessed,  i.e.,  the  brave 
and  generous,  go  when  they  die  to  the  sun,  where 
they  engage  in  revelry  like  that  of  the  Norse  heroes 
of  Asgard.  The  unblessed  dead  merely  disappear, 
for  hell  is,  in  Indian  thought,  a  late  theological 
invention,  devised  to  counterbalance  the  joys  of 
heaven.  In  the  latest  portion  of  the  Rig- Veda, 
moreover,  appear  the  chief  hynms  later  rubricized 
in  the  ritual,  if  indeed  they  were  not,  at  least  in 
part,  designedly  composed  for  an  already  existing 
liturgy. 

Beside  the   Rig- Veda  exist  two  other  canonical 

Vedas,  and  a  fourth  which  is  uncanonical.    The 

Sama   or   "  Song "    Veda   is   composed   of   verses 

taken  chiefly  from  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of 

the  Rig- Veda  and  arranged  for  the  liturgy.     Far 

more   important   is    the    Yajur   or    "  Sacrificial " 

Veda,  which  exists  in  several  recen- 

3.  The      sions,  the  chief  being  the  Vajasaneyi 

Sama-  and  or  "  Wliite  "  Yajur- Veda,  so    called 

Yajur-      from  being  composed  only  in  verse, 

Vedas.      and    the    Taittirya    and    Maitrayani, 

which  are  termed  '*  black,"  since  the 

verse  of  the  text  is  intermingled  with  a  quasi- 

commentary  and  amplification  in  prose. 

The  arena  impHed  is  no  longer  the  Punjab  but 
the  **  middle  district,"  around  the  modem  Delhi, 
which  the  Aryans  had  reached  in  their  slow  migra- 
tion eastward.  The  change  of  locality,  however, 
is  dwarfed  into  insignificance  by  the  alteration  in 
religious  tone.  The  frank  dchght  in  life  which 
characterizes  the  Rig- Veda  is  changed  to  mysticism 
and  an  ever-increasing  ritualism.  Religion  has 
given  place  to  magic.  The  principle  of  henotheism 
which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  the  Rig- Veda, 
through  which  poetic  enthusiasm  comes  to  attribute 
to  one  divinity  the  names  and  attributes  of  another, 
thus  elevating  him  for  the  nonce  into  the  supreme 
and  only  object  of  adoration,  becomes  in  the 
Yajur-Vcda  symbolism  carried  to  its  limit.  A 
thing  is  no  longer  like  something  else,  it  is  some- 
thing else.  The  Brahman  is  no  longer  merely  a 
priest,  he  is  a  god  with  all  the  attributes  of  divinity, 
while  prayer  and  sacrifice  are  now  means  of  com- 
pelling the  deity  to  perform  the  will  of  his  wor- 
sliipers,  instead  of  being  modes  of  propitiation  or 
bargaining.  The  religion  of  India  now  centers 
in  the  sacrifir/*,  and  a  ritual  is  developed  which 
is  perhaps  the  most  elaborate  that  the  world  has 
ever  seen.  While  the  power  of  the  Brahmans 
was  thereby  increased  until  they  were  apotheosized, 
the  view  is  antiquated  which  regards  the  develop- 
ment of  the  liturgy  as  the  ecclesiastical  device  of 
a  cunning  and  self-interested  priesthood,  despite 
the  enormous  fees  which  were  given  for  the  per- 
formance of  sacrifice. 

The  pantheon  of  this  period  suffe^  httle  dimi- 
nution as  compared  with  the  epoch  of  ffce  Rig- Veda, 


but  the  gods  have  declined  in  power,  although  some 
have  been  greatly  magnified,  such  as  Kala  (Time), 
who  played  no  part  in  the  earliest  Veda.  The 
epithets  and  the  functions  of  the  gods  become 
separate  divinities  in  many  cases,  and  an  All-Ood 
now  gains  the  full  recognition  which  is  only  sug- 
gested even  in  the  latest  portions  of  the  Rig- Veda. 
The  legends  of  the  deities,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
richly  developed,  though  their  quantity  is  more 
adminible  than  their  quality.  This,  however,  is  a  re- 
crudescence of  popular  beliefs  previously  not  offi- 
cially recognized,  rather  than  new  speculations  of  the 
Brahmans,  though  this  faith  of  the  people  finds  its 
application  in  the  explanation  and  proof  of  the 
sacrifice.  The  rules  for  the  Brahmanic  ritual  are 
contained  not  only  in  the  various  recensions  of  the 
Yajur- Veda,  but  in  the  still  more  important  Brab- 
manas,  of  which  each  school  of  each  of  the  Vedu 
has  at  least  one,  while  the  Tandin  recensioif  of  the 
SamarVeda  has  three.  Additional  details  are  con- 
tained in  the  Srautasutras,  and  the  ritual  for  daily 
life  may  be  found  in  the  various  Grihyasutras. 

Beside  the  three  canonical  Vedas  and  their 
ancillary  literature,  representing  the  official  rdigion 
of  the  Vedic  and  Brahmanic  periods,  stood  a  Veda  of 
magic — the  uncanonical  Atharva-Veda.  The  pan- 
theon of  the  Rig- Veda  is  here  a  jumbled  confusion 
of  divinities,  at  their  h^ui  a  supreme 
4.  The      god  of  all,  while  eschatology  has  bo 

Atharva-  far  developed  as  to  recognise  a  place 
Veda.  of  torment  for  the  malignant  dead. 
The  predominant  note  of  the  Atharva- 
Veda  is  magic.  It  is  filled  with  all  manner  of 
charms  and  incantations  for  wealth  and  for  chil- 
dren, for  long  life  and  good  health,  for  love  and  for 
revenge,  charms  for  plants,  animals,  and  diseases, 
curses  and  maledictions  for  the  destruction  of 
enemies  and  for  counteracting  the  enemy's  black 
magic.  Linguistically  and  chronologically  far  later 
than  the  Rig- Veda,  the  material  of  the  Atharva- 
Veda  is  in  all  probability  as  old  in  some  of  its  parts 
as  the  most  ancient  portions  of  the  Rig.  It  is 
an  invaluable  docimient  for  early  Hindu  religion 
as  the  oldest  monument  of  its  popular  faith. 

XL  Brahmanism  and  the  Pantheism  of  tbe 
Upanishads:  The  enormous  structiue  of  ritualism 
erected  by  the  Yajur- Veda,  the  Brahmanas,  and 
the  Sutras  gradually  became  a  burden  too  heavy 
to  be  borne;  liturgy  was  then  undermined  by 
philosophical  speculation.  Traces  of  this  are 
already  evident  in  the  later  portions  of  the  Rig- 
Veda,  as  in  the  famous  hynm  (x,  121)  whose  refrain 
runs:  "  To  whom  (as)  god  shall  we  offer  sacrifice?" 
thus  affording  a  basis  for  the  Brahmanas  to  create 
a  god  '*  Who."  By  this  time,  moreover,  an  All- 
God  was  definitely  recognized  in  Prajapati,  ''the 
lord  of  creatures,"  but  it  was  reserved  for  the  dose  of 
the  Brahmanic  period  to  ignore  the  gods  and  arrive 
at  God. 

The  Upanishads,  the  literary  records  of  this 
phase  of  thought,  represent  a  perfection  of  pan- 
theism which  has  never  been  equaled,  and  thdr 
influence  is  a  mighty  factor  in  Hindu  thought  of 
the  present  day.  Salvation  is  no  longer  to'  be 
attained  by  works,  but  by  knowledge,  and  the 
entire  teaching  of  the  Upanishads  may  be  com- 


240 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brahmanlmi 


prised    in  the    one  famous   phrase  found  in  the 
Chandogya  Upanishad:   Tat  tvam  cut,  **  That  art 
thou,"    or,  in    other    words,  "  Thou 
X.  The      art  the   Infinite."    Though  the  aunv- 
TJpani-      mum  honum  of  the  Upanishads  is  this 
shads.      saving  knowledge  and  the  reunion  with 
the  All-Soul  which  it  brings,  such  a 
consummation  is  not  requisite  for  all,  since  there 
are  many  who  do  not  desire  it,  and  for  them  minor 
blessings  are  reserved  in  a  future  life.    The  exist- 
ence of  the  gods  b  not  denied,  though  they  be  but 
phases  of  the  All-Soul,  nor  is  the  advantage  of 
sacrifice  denied,  for  such  offerings  are  still  im- 
perative.   Herein  lies,  perhaps,  the  secret  of  the 
origin  of  the  Upamshads. 

The  concluding  portion  of  each  Brahmana  is  an 
Aranyaka,  or  "  forest-book,"  designed  for  the  use 
of  those  forest  hermits  who  had  passed  beyond  the 
need  of  sacrifice,  and  in  each  Aranyaka  is  an 
Upanishad.  Primarily,  therefore,  the  Upanishads 
represented  the  text-books  of  those  who  had  passed 
thorough  the  sacrificial  stage  of  their  religious  life 
and  were  henceforth  free  to  meditate  on  sacred 
things  as  seemed  best  in  their  own  eyes.  Later, 
however,  the  Upanishads  became  a  special  form 
of  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hindus;  and  served 
as  the  basis  of  the  most  lofty  of  all  their  six  orthodox 
systems  of  philosophy.  To  see  in  them  a  religious 
revolt  of  the  second,  or  warrior,  caste  against 
Brahman  control,  as  certain  scholars  have  sought 
to  do,  seems,  on  the  whole,  scarcely  warranted. 

Somewhat  subsequent  to  the  Upanishads  were 
developed  the  six  orthodox  systems  of  Indian  phi- 
losophy, the  Samkhya  and  Yoga,  the  Vaiseshika 
and  Nyaya,  and  the  Purvamimamsa  and  Vedanta. 
Of  these  the  Vaiseshika  and  Nyaya 
a.  The  Six  are  systems  of  logic  rather  than  of 
Orthodox    philosophy;  the  Samkhya  and  Yoga, 
SystemB     which    supplement    each    other,    are 
of  Phi-     essentially  dualistic;   while  the  Pur- 
losophy.     vamimamsa  and  Vedanta,  of  which 
the  former  is  the  lea«t  important  of 
all  the  systems,  represent  the  spiritual  aftermath 
of  the  Upamshads,  and  are,  accordin^y,  rigidly 
pantheistic. 

in.  The  Age  of  the  Buddhistic  and  Jainistic 
Heresies:  Beneath  the  excessive  ritual  of  the 
Brahmanistic  period  and  the  pantheistic  specu- 
lations of  a  chosen  few  still  lay  the  popular  faith 
of  the  Aryan  invaders  of  India.  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever,  the  course  of  immigration  had  moved  still 
further  to  the  east  and  become  centered  about  the 
holy  city  of  Benares.  The  doctrine  of  the  misery  of 
all  earthly  existence  was  by  this  time  accepted  by 
ally  and  the  teachings  of  metempsychosis  were 
fully  established.  The  worship  of  Siva,  originally 
a  local  godlingof  some  aboriginal  western  tribe, 
was  attaining  such  popularity  that  he  was  opposed 
as  the  Destroyer  to  the  Vedic  sun-god  Vishnu,  who 
was  worshiped  as  the  Preserver  (of  the  universe). 
For  the  sake  of  synunetry,  brahmat  denoting  in  the 
Rig- Veda  '*  prayer,"  was  developed  by  the  priestly 
theologians  into  Brahma,  the  Creator,  who,  though 
on  the  whole  a  pale  abstract  deity,  respected  rather 
than  worshiped,  formed  the  third  member  of  the 
Irimurti,  or  triad. 


The  religious  texts  of  this  period  are  compara- 
tively few,  though  from  them  may  be  gleaned  data 
of  the  greatest  importance  for  a  knowledge  of 
India's  faith.  The  principal  sources  are  the  law 
books,  especially  the  famous  code  of  Manu,  and 
the  Mahabharata,  the  great  epic  of  India  and  the 
longest  poem  of  all  literature.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  orthodox  Hinduism,  however,  the  epoch, 
possibly  because  of  the  comparative  scantiness 
of  material,  presents  less  of  interest  than  any  of  the 
others.  It  was,  on  the  other  hand,  essentially 
the  age  of  heresy,  this  term  denoting  in  India  simply 
a  formal  denial  of  the  divine  authority  of  the  three 
canonical  Vedas.  There  had,  of  course,  been  here- 
tics and  infidels  long  before  this  period;  traces 
of  them  occur  as  early  as  the  tenth  book  of  the 
Rig- Veda,  but  it  was  not  until  the  period  under 
consideration  that  heresies  of  lasting  importance 
were  able  to  develop.  In  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
arose  two  independent  teachers,  both  from  the 
Kshatriya,  or  warrior,  class  and  both  accordingly 
more  or  less  antagonistic  to  the  Brahmans.  Fore- 
bodings of  such  a  struggle  between  the  two  upper 
castes  are  not  lacking  in  the  Upanishads,  where, 
in  more  than  one  instance,  a  warrior  rose  superior 
to  a  Brahman  in  theological  learning. 

Rebelling  against  Brahman  supremacy,  ignor- 
ing salvation  by  sacrifice,  rejecting  the  authority 
of  ^the  Vedas,  teaching  emancipation  from  the 
pain  of  life  and  the  misery  of  rebirth  by  per- 
sonal service  to  all  living  creatures  however 
lowly,  and  choosing,  moreover,  with  pointed 
significance,  as  their  linguistic  mediimi  the 
despised  popular  dialects  instead  of  the  hallowed 
Sanskrit  of  the  Brahmans,  Sakya  Mimi  (Buddha) 
and  Mahavira  foimded  the  religions  which  still 
exist  as  Buddhism  and  Jainism  (qq.v.).  When, 
after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  millennium,  those  two 
religions  lost  their  hold  upon  India,  a  new  form  of 
Brahmanism  arose  in  what  is  known  as  Hinduism 
(q.v.),  the  basis  of  which  was  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  orthodox  and  philosophical  Brahmanism 
of  pre-Buddhistic  times  and  the  religions  of  the 
Dravidian  and  other  non-Aryan  peoples  of  southern 
India.    See  India. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  literature  of  India  itself  is  enormoiu, 
and  that  upon  it  f^  almost  as  great.  A  bibliography  of 
India  is  much  needed.  The  most  accessible  and  oonve- 
nient  body  of  sources  for  the  English  reader  is  the  SBS, 
more  than  half  of  which  is  devoted  to  translations  from 
the  various  departments  of  Indian  literature.  Outside 
of  this  collection,  the  following  texts  and  translations  are 
important:  Sanakrit  Texts,  Sacred  Hymne,  6  vols..  Lon- 
don, 1849-74,  new  ed..  1890-02;  H.  H.  Wilson.  Rio- 
Veda  Sanhita,  6  vols.,  ib.  1850  sqq.  (a  translation);  Rig 
Veda,  a  transl.  by  P.  Peterson,  ib.  1888;  H.  Orassmann, 
Rigveda  Hbereetzt,  4  vols..  Leipsic.  1876-77;  Ri4hVeda,  by 
A.  Ludwig,  in  6  vols.,  Prague,  1875-^  (Germ,  transl..  in- 
troduction and  commentary);  <Sama-Veda.  T.  Benfey, 
Leipsic.  1848  (text  and  Orm.  transl.);  R.  T.  Griffith, 
Hymna  of  the  Rigveda,  Tranal.  with  Commentary,  4  vols., 
Benares,  1889-92;  idem.  Hymne  of  the  Samaveda,  TranaL 
vith  Commentary,  ib.  1893;  idem.  Hymne  of  the  Atharva^ 
Veda,  ib..  2  vols.,  1895-96;  Atharvaveda,  by  A.  Ludwig, 
2  vols..  Prague.  1876  (GJerm.  transl.);  Atharva-Veda,  livre 
vii  (rtii,  xiii)  traduit  .  .  .  par  V.  Henry,  Paris,  1891- 
1892;  The  Aitareya-Brahmana.  transl.  by  M.  Haug,  2  vols., 
Bombay,  1863;  the  Brahmanae  of  the  Sama  Veda  have 
been  edited  by  A.  C.  Bumell,  6  vols..  London,  TrObner, 
n.d.;  Atharva-Veda  Samhita,  Tranelation  and  .  .  .  Com- 
mentary by  W.  D.  Whitney,  ed.  C.  R.  T.anman,  2  vola.. 


Brahmo  BomiQ 
BimmhfcU 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


960 


Boston.  1006;  THm  V^daniamra,  A  Manual  of  Hindu  Pan^ 
theism,  traosl.  by  O.  A.  Jacob,  ib.  1881.  Parts  of  some 
of  the  Upani$hads  have  been  edited  and  translated  by 
E.  Roer.  10  parU.  Calcutta,  n.d..  and  by  E.  B.  CoweU.  2 
parts,  ib.  1861.  Important  is  J.  Muir.  Original  Santkrit 
TexU,  5  vols..  London.  1868-73.  The  Sutra*  are  repre- 
sented in  the  Germ,  transl.  by  A.  F.  Steniler.  Leipsic. 
1876.  in  the  Eng.  transl.  of  W.  D.  Whitney.  New  Haven. 
1871,  and  of  G.  Thibaut.  London,  TrQbner.  n.d. 

On  the  history  of  Indian  literature  consult:  A.  Weber. 
The  White  Yajur  Veda,  Bertin.  1840;  idem.  A  Hist,  of 
Indian  Literature,  London,  1882  (critical  and  brief):  F. 
Max  MQUer.  HieL  of  Ancient  Sanekrit  Literature,  ib.  1860 
(now  out  of  print):  A.  Kaegi.  Der  Rigveda,  Leipaie.  1881, 
Eng.  transl..  London.  1886;  F.  Nfive.  Les  ipoquae  littS- 
rairee  de  I'Inde,  Paris.  1887;  J.  C.  Oman.  The  Great  Indian 
Epice,  London.  1884  (a  condensation  of  the  stories,  with 
notes):  A.  A.  Maodonell.  HieL  of  Sanekrit  Literature,  ib. 
1000;  E.  W.  Hopkins,  The  Great  Ejfie  of  India,  New 
Haven,  1001. 

On  the  philosophy  the  best  single  book  is  F.  Max  M  Oiler, 
Six  Syeteme  of  Indian  Philoeophy,  London.  1800,  cf.  his 
Three  Leeturee  on  the  Vedanta  Philoeophy,  ib.  1804.  Other 
works  are  J.  Davies,  The  Sankhya  Karika  of  lewara 
Kriehna.  A  n  Expoeition  of  the  Syetem  of  Kapilh,  ib.  1881 ; 
A.  E.  Ck)ugh,  Philoeophy  of  the  Upaniehade,  ib.  1882; 
Ram  Chandra  Bose,  Hindu  Philoeophy  popularly  Explained, 
Calcutta,  1888;  M.  Williams,  Indian  Wiedtnn,  London, 
1803:  R.  Garbe,  Philoeophy  of  Ancient  India,  Chicago, 
1807  (an  excellent  "  first  book  ");  J.  Kreyher.  Die  Weie- 
heit  der  Brahmanen  und  dee  Chrietentume,  GQtersloh.  1001; 
P.  Deussen,  Philoeophy  of  the  Upaniehade,  Edinburgh, 
1006;  idem.  Die  Oeheimldire  dee  Veda,  Leipsic.  1007;  idem. 
Outlinee  of  Indian  PhHo9ophy,  Berlin,  1007;  L.  D.  Bar- 
nett.  Some  Saying*  of  the  Upanithade,  London,  1006;  8. 
A.  Desai,  A  Study  of  the  Indian  Philoeophy,  ib.  1007. 

On  the  reUgion  of  India  the  best  single  book  is  R.  W. 
Fraser,  Literary  HieL  of  India,  New  York,  1808.  H.  T. 
Colebrooke.  Eaeay  on  the  R^igion  and  Philoeophy  of  the 
Hindue,  2d  ed.  by  his  son.  3  vols.,  London.  1873.  is  a 
classic,  with  which  should  be  put  C.  Lassen.  Indieehe 
Alterthumekunde,  4  vols.,  Bonn,  1847-61.  Of  high  value 
is  J.  H.  Wilson,  Eteaya  on  the  Religion  of  the  Hindue,  2 
vols.,  London.  1861-62.  Other  treatises  are:  8.  John- 
son. Oriental  Religione,  India,  Boston,  1872;  F.  Max 
Mailer.  Leeturee  on  .  .  .  Religiont  of  India,  London, 
1870;  A.  Barth.  Religione  of  India,  ib.  1882;  W.  J.  Wil- 
kins,  Hindu  Mythology,  Vedic  and  Puranic,  ib.  1882;  A. 
W.  Wallis.  Coemology  of  the  Rig  Veda,  ib.  1887;  M.  Will- 
iams, Religioue  Life  and  Thought  in  India,  ib.  1887;  G. 
A.  Jacob.  Hindu  Panlheiem,  ib.  1880;  J.  Dowson,  Clae- 
eical  Dictionary  of  Hindu  Mythology  and  Religion,  ib. 
1801;  Religioue  Syteme  of  the  World,  ib.  1803;  H.  Olden- 
berg.  Die  Religion  dee  Veda,  Berlin,  1804;  idem.  Ancient 
India,  it$  Language  and  Religione,  London.  1806;  £.  W. 
Hopkins,  Religione  of  India,  Boston,  1805  (very  useful, 
systematic  and  clear,  gives  Ust  of  works);  idem,  India, 
Old  and  New,  New  York.  1002;  M.  PhilUps.  The  Teach- 
ing of  the  Vedae,  London.  1805;  Z.  A.  Ragosin.  Vedic 
India,  ib.  1805;  A.  Weber.  Vedieche  Beitr&ge,  Berlin. 
1805;  A.  Hillebrandt,  Vedieche  Mythologie,  3  vols..  Bres- 
lau,  1002;  J.  C.  Oman.  Myttice,  Atcetice  and  Sainte  of 
India,  London.  1003;  J.  M.  Mitchell.  Great  Religione  of 
India,  New  York.  1005;  E.  B.  Havell.  Benaree  the  Sacred 
City,    SkeUhee  of  Hindu  Life  and  Religion,  London.  1006. 

BRAHMO  SOMAJ:  A  Hindu  theistic  society. 
Its  aim  is  the  monotheistio  reform  of  the  Hindu 
polytheistic  religion.  The  foimder,  Rammohan 
Roy  (b.  1774),  of  Brahman  descent,  through  the 
study  of  the  Koran  and  the  Bible  became  estranged 
from  his  ancestral  belief,  and  was  attracted  by 
Christianity,  without,  however,  getting  beyond 
a  rationalistic  pantheism.  He  endeavored  to 
formulate  a  imiversal  monotheism  based  upon 
various  ancient  scriptures.  He  denounced  ethnic 
impurities,  but  maintained  the  institution  of  caste. 
In  1816  he  gathered  a  small  community  at  Calcutta, 
the  Atmiya  Sabhaf  of  which  he  was  the  leader 
till  his  death,  Sept.  26,  1833,  at  Bristol,  England, 
where  he  acted  as  political  agent. 


The  weakened  reform  party  was  strengthened 
in  1839  by  the  founding  of  the  TtOwabodhini  Sabha, 
whose  leader  was  Babu  Devendranath  Tagore. 
He  held  aloof  from  Christian  influenoes  in  the 
patriotic  effort  to  restore  (what  he  regarded  w) 
the  pure  religion  of  the  Vedas,  but  finally  oon- 
oeived  a  deistic  system  on  the  basis  of  reason, 
rejecting  all  scriptures.  In  1862  the  rdigious  com- 
munity was  reorganised  as  the  Adi  Somaj,  Mean- 
while a  follower  named  Dayanand  Saraswati  had 
turned  again  to  the  Vedas,  which  h^  regarded 
as  teaching  a  purdy  theistic  religion,  and  as  an- 
ticipating also  the  results  of  modern  culture.  He 
foimded  the  Arya  Somaj,  the  adherents  of  which 
came  afterward  under  spiritualistic  influences. 
The  two  societies  last  named  found  a  competitor 
in  the  adherents  of  Babu  Keshav  Chandra  Sen 
(b.  Nov.  19,  1838,  at  Calcutta),  who,  timragh 
European  culture  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the 
religion  of  his  ancestors,  and  attempted  to  find  rest 
in  philosophy.  But  this  brought  no  satisfactioQ 
to  his  rdigiously  disposed  mind.  After  much 
study  of  the  Bible  he  came  to  a  decisicm,  and  in 
1858  joined  the  Adi  Somaj.  For  a  time  be  co- 
operated with  Devendranath  Tagore,  but  finally 
found  himself  at  variance  with  this  conservatively 
disposed  leader,  who  did  not  approve  his  bold 
denunciation  of  the  shameful  practises  of  heathen- 
ism, and  even  of  caste.  After  the  rupture  which 
naturally  resulted,  in  1863  he  founded  the  Brakm 
Somaj  of  India,  which  soon  developed  an  activity 
that  almost  rivaled  the  Christian  pn^^aganda. 
He  went  to  England  in  1870,  where  fa^  was  much 
honored.  Blany  Christian  ideas  tending  to  promote 
his  cause  were  brought  back  by  him  to  India,  and 
the  Brahmo  Somaj  found  many  adherents.  But 
he  grew  more  conservative  and  gradually  drew 
away  from  Occidental  influences.  The  represent- 
atives of  progress  separated  and  founded  the 
Sadharan  Brahmo  Somaj,  Only  the  less  important 
members  of  the  former  community  adhered  to 
Chandra  Sen,  who  lost  himself  more  and  more 
in  a  dark  mysticism.  Finally  he  appeared  as  the 
founder  of  a  world-religion  ("  The  New  Dispen- 
sation ")f  as  he  claimed  by  divine  command.  For 
the  new  Church  he  prepared  a  ritual  and  teaching. 
Nevertheless,  his  success  was  not  striking,  though 
by  his  small  circle  of  adherents  he  was  aknost 
worshiped.  He  died  January  8,  1884.  His 
successor,  Babu  Protap  Chandra  Moaumdar,  had 
great  difliculty  in  preventing  the  further  di»* 
ruption  of  the  community,  and  little  progress  was 
made.  In  1891  it  numbered  3,051  members,  mostly 
in  Bengal. 

The  Arya  Somaj  had  a  larger  success,  devd- 

oping  especially  in  the  United  Provinces  and  the 

Ihinjab,  numbering  some  40,000  members.    But 

few  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj    have  accepted  Chria- 

tianity.    See  India,  III,  1.        R.  GauMDEiiAifN. 

Biblioorapht:  Sources:  Indian    Mirror,    Calctttta,    1861- 

IS80',  Sunday  Mirror,  ib.  1880-^2;  TheLiberalandOuNew 

Diepeneation,   ib.    1881    sqq.;  Theietic  Annual,  ib.  1872 

sqq.;   Theietic  Quarterly  Review,  ib.  1879.     Consult  also: 

Mary  Carpenter,  Ixiet  Day  in  England  of  Ranu^un  Roy, 

London.  1886;  K  Chunder  Sen,  Brahmo  Somaj,  ib.  1870: 

J.  Hesse,  Der  Brahmo  Somaj  ...»  in  Baeler  Mienont 

Magaxin,   1876,   pp.  385  sqq.;  Kesavachandra.  Brokmo 

Soma],  Calcutta,  1883;  F.  Max  IfOUer,  is  Biograpkieal  Be- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Braliino  Som^ 
Br&mhall 


*  LondoD*  ISS4  (giTes  mccnimta  of  recent  rcLiffioiu 
entA);  T.  £.  Sinter,  Keahnb  Chundra  Sen  and  the 
i  Samai,  Madras,  1884;  P.  C.  Moioomdur,  Life  and 
Tmukingm  of  Chunder  Sen,  CatouttA,  1887;  H.  BaynPB. 
FvoititlioK  0t  Rtl*g\ottM  Thought  in  India,  London,  1889  U 
full  aeoount );  L.  J.  Frohmeycr,  Neurre  R«iormb«9ir^un^n 
in  Hinduitmu9,  In  BqmIo-  Mis«ionM  MoQoiin,  1888,  pp.  120 
•q«t;  Tlu  Otfnring  of  Dmendranath  Tagon,  timnsl.  by 
M.  II.  Ch*tt«rji«  Calcutta.  1889;  Rammohan  Roy.  En^f- 
M  ir«rJk«,  2  vols, .  LoDcloQ.  1888:  Nav&k&nta  ChatUipa- 
dkyaya,  tAfe  and  Character  af  Ram  Mt^un  Roy,  Dncca, 
l«Kh  C.  N,  Aitchitwo.  Tht  Brahmo  Somau  in  Church 
Mim&nanf  tnlelligenixr^  1S93,  pp.  161  «qci. 

BRMG,    KARL   VOIT   BORROMAEO;     German 

Rotniui  Catholic;  b.   at   Kunxach    (a  village  near 

BuchftQ,  30  m,  8.W.  of  Vhn)  Feb.    10,  1853,      He 

Wia  educated  at  the  University  of  Ttlbingen  (Ph.D., 

I877)t  where  he  was  instructor  in  dogmatic  theology 

in  1879-S3,  and  was  parish  priest  iit  Wildbiid  and 

■ict  inspector  of  schools,  except  for  tovira  of 

ria,  Germany T    France,    Italy,  and    England, 

from   1883  to    1893.     In   the  latter  year   he  was 

appointed  asaociatc   professor   of   apologeticJi   aixtl 

dogmatics  at  the  University  of  Freiburg,  and  four 

years  later  waa  proniot<jd  to  hm   present   position 

of  full  professor  of  the  same  subjects.     He  m  aJso 

director  of  the  dogmatic  fleminar   in   the  \miver- 

sity,  and  has    written  Zukunff religion  des  Unbe- 

iPiwwIfn  (Freiburg,  1882);  Kuruit  des  Gedanhmleserts 

[  (Frajikfort,   1880);  Encykiopddie    der    theoretischen 

\  PkQ^mtrphie    (Stuttgart,    1886);     GoUeabeweis    oder 

\Goiiesbet£eisef    (1888);    Apologie   dejt    ChriMentums 

(Freiburg.  1889);    La   Maii^e  (Paris,  1891);    Dis 

\Freiheit  drr  phUoiophUcfum    Forschung   (Freiburg, 

1 18^);  Vom  Denkcn  iism);  Vom  Scin  (1896);  Vom 

(1897);  LtibnUf    nein    Lcben    und    die 

_      7— —tf    seiner    Lehre    (Frankfort,     19C»1);  Zur 

t-Erinnening  an    Fram   Xaiyier   Krausn    ( Freiburg » 

11902);  Wt9en    des    Christenturf^    (1903);  and   Da- 

^<^PH  und  die  Freiheit  (1903). 

BRAIlfERD,  DAVn) :  Missionary  to  the  Amcr- 
[Iran  Indiana;  b.  tit  Haddam,  Onn.,  Apr.  20, 
**1S;  d.  at  the  home  of  Jonathan  Edwards  (to 
^nose  daughter  Jemima  he  was  engaged).  North- 
•f»I>lon,  Mass.,  Oct.  9,  1747.  He  entered  Yale 
''Icgp  in  1739  and  was  expelled  in  hia  junior  year; 
^'aa  the  time  of  the  Great  Awakening  and  Brain- 
J'^j  M-ho  was  *'  eober  and  inclined  to  melancholy  ^' 
«'t)rn  childhood »  sympathkctl  with  the  "  New 
J^ights"  (Whitelield,  Tennent,  and  their  followers); 
^  *it  tended  their  meetings  when  forbidden  to  do 
•*!  i^iid  criticized  one  of  the  tutors  aa  having  '*  no 
*°"^  grace  than  a  chair  " ;  as  a  oonflcqucnce  he  was 
^'^'^^lleii.  He  was  licensed  at  Danbury,  Conn., 
July  29^  1742;  was  approved  as  a  missionary  by 
JJ[^  l^cw  York  oorrespondenta  of  the  Society  in 
2^^land  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowledge, 
^'*'^.  25,  1742,  and  labored  among  the  Indians  at 
>J^vaiiauineck  (Brainerd,  Rensselaer  County,  N.  Y., 
'^  »*1,  «,e.  of  Albany)  Apr.,  1743-Mar.,  1744;  was 
*[^^^.ined  as  a  missionary  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  June 
,  •  1744;  ten  days  later  began  work  at  what  wa,s 
^^&»de<i  to  be  his  permanent  station,  at  the  forks 
^tie  l^laware,  near  Easton,  Penn.;  in  Octolmr 
.Iriaited  the  Indians  on  the  Susquehanna,  and 
|9«  1745,  began  to  preach  at  Crossweeksung 
iick,  9  m.  s.e.  qJ'  Trenton),  the  acene  of  his 
^^^*i^  success.     His  life  among  the  Indians  was 


one  of  hardship  and  suffering  borne  with  heroic 
fortitude  and  self-devotion;  his  health  gave  way 
\mder  the  strain  and  he  relinquished  the  work, 
Mar.  20,  1747,  dying  from  consumption.  The 
portions  of  his  diary  dealing  with  his  work  at  Cross- 
weeksung  (June  l9-Nov.  4,  1745,  and  Nov.  24, 
1745- June  19,  1746)  were  published  before  his 
death  by  the  commissioners  of  the  Society  (Aiira- 
bilia  dei  inter  Indicos  :  or  the  rwe  and  progrem  of  a 
remarkable  work  o}  grace  among  a  number  of  the 
Indians  in  the  promnces  of  New  Jersey  and  Penn- 
eylvania ;  and  Divine  Grace  Displayed ;  or  the 
continuance  and  progress  o]  a  remarkable  work  of 
graee^  etc.^  both  published  at  Philadelphia,  1746^ 
and  commonly  known  as  "  Brainerd's  Joixmal  *'). 
All  of  his  papers,  including  an  account  of  his  early 
life  and  the  original  copy  of  his  diary,  were  left 
with  Jonathan  Edwards,  who  prepared  Aii  Account 
of  the  Life  of  the  Late  Rev.  Damd  Brainerd  (Boston, 
1749),  omitting  the  parts  of  the  diary  already 
published.  The  life  and  diary  entire,  with  his 
letters  and  other  writings,  were  edited  by  S.  E. 
D wight  (New  Havcn^  1822)  and  by  J.  M.  Sherwood 
(New  York,  1884).  His  place  as  missionary  was 
taken,  at  his  request,  by  his  brother  John  (b.  at 
Haddam,  C^nn.,  Feb.  28,  1720;  d.  at  Dt^erficld, 
N.  J.,  Mar*  18,  1781),  He  was  graduated  at  Yale, 
1749.  His  work  was  hindered  by  disputes  about 
title  to  Indian  lands,  war,  and  opiwsition  from 
the  Quakers;  he  was  dismissed  by  the  Society  in 
Scotland  in  1755,  reengaginl  in  1750,  again  dis- 
missed in  1757,  and  again  asked  to  return  in  1759; 
the  funds  provided  by  the  Society  and  by  the  Synod 
of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  were  insuflicicntr 
and  he  gave  freely  from  his  own  scanty  in  cans; 
he  served  the  whites  no  less  faithfully  than  the 
Indians  and  was  at  the  same  time  both  foreign  and 
home  missionary;  after  1777  he  had  cliarge  of  a 
church  at  Deerfield.  Consult  his  life  by  Thomaa 
Brainerd  (Philadelphia,  1865).      » 

BRAINEEDj  THOMAS:  American  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Leyden,  Lewis  County,  N.  Y.,  June  17,  1804; 
d.  at  Scranton,  Penn.,  Aug.  22,  1866.  lie  gave  up 
the  study  of  law  for  theology,  and  was  graduated 
at  Andover  in  1831;  was  pastor  of  the  Fourth 
Presbyterian  Church,  Cincinnati,  1831-33;  of  the 
Pine  Street  (Third)  Presbyterian  Church,  Phila- 
delphia, 1837  till  his  death.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  New  School  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
a  personal  friend  of  Lyman  Beecher  and  Albert 
Barnes;  was  distinguished  for  patriotic  ardor  and 
services  during  the  Civil  War.  He  wrot«  much 
for  religious  periodicals,  edited  the  Cincinnati 
Journal,  a  Presbyterian  religious  paper  (1833-36), 
and  a  young  people's  paper,  and  wrote  the  Life 
of  John  Brainerd  (Philadelphia,  1865).  His  great- 
great-grandfather  was  an  unde  of  David  and  John 
Brainerd,  the  missionaries. 
Biblioorapiiy:  Mary  Brakierd,  Life  of  Rev,  Thoma*  Braii^ 

trd,  Philariplphia.  1870. 

BRAMHALL,  JOHN:    Protestant  archbishop  of 

Armagh;  b*  at  or  near  Pontcfract  (22  m.  saw. 
of  York),  Yorkahire,  1594;  d,  at  Omagh  (30  m.  s, 
of  Londonderry),  County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  June 
25,  1663.  He  studied  at  Sidney  Sussex  College, 
Cambridge  (B.A.,   1612;  M.A.,   1616;  B.D,,   1623; 


Brandenburff 
Brastow 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


268 


D.D.,  1030);  took  orders  about  1616  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  Yorkshire,  where  he  received 
several  appointments.  In  1633  he  went  to  Ire- 
land as  chaplain  to  Wentworth  (afterward  Earl  of 
Strafford);  became  archdeacon  of  Meath,  and,  in 
1634,  bishop  of  Deny.  He  did  much  to  increase 
the  revenues  of  the  Irish  Church,  and  tried  to 
establish  episcopacy  more  firmly.  Most  of  the 
time  from  the  Irish  insurrection  of  1641  till  the 
Restoration  he  spent  on  the  Continent,  was  made 
archbishop  of  Armagh  in  1661,  and  as  such  dis- 
played a  commendable  moderation  in  striving  to 
secure  conformity.  His  works  were  collected  by 
John  Vesey,  archbishop  of  Tuam,  and  published 
at  Dublin  in  1677;  they  include  five  treatises  against 
Romanbts,  three  against  sectaries,  three  against 
Hobbes,  and  seven  miscellaneous,  in  defense  of 
royalist  and  Anglican  views.  The  works  are 
reprinted  in  the  Library  of  Anglo-Catholic  Theology 
(5  vols.,  Oxford,  1842-45)  with  life. 

BRAHDENBURG,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  diocese 
established  by  Otto  the  Great  in  948,  including 
the  territory  between  the  Elbe  on  the  west,  the 
Oder  on  the  east,  and  the  Black  Elster  on  the  south, 
and  taking  in  the  Uckermark  to  the  north.  It 
was  originally  under  the  archiepiscopal  jurisdiction 
of  Mainz,  but  in  968  was  transferred  to  that  of 
Magdeburg.  The  disturbances  of  983  practically 
annihilated  it;  bishops  continued  to  be  named, 
but  they  were  merely  titular,  imtil  the  downfall 
of  the  Wends  in  the  twelfth  century  and  the  Ger- 
man settlement  of  that  region  revived  the  bishopric. 
Bishop  Wigers  (1138-60)  was  the  first  of  a  series  of 
bishops  of  the  Premonstratensian  order,  which 
chose  the  occupants  of  the  see  until  1447;  in  that 
year  a  bull  of  Nicholas  V  gave  the  right  of  nomina- 
tion to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  with  whom  the 
bishops  stood  in  a  close  feudal  relation.  The  last 
actual  bishop  was  Matthias  von  Jagow  (d.  1544), 
who  took  the  side  of  the  Reformation,  married,  and 
in  every  way  furthered  the  undertakings  of  Elector 
Joachim  II  (q.v.).  There  were  two  more  nominal 
bishops,  but  on  the  petition  of  the  latter  of  these, 
the  electoral  prince  Jolm  George,  the  secularization 
of  the  bishopric  was  undertaJcen  and  finally  ac- 
complished, in  spite  of  legal  proceedings  to  have 
the  bishopric  declared  immediately  dependent  on 
the  empire  and  so  to  preserve  it,  which  dragged  on 
into  the  seventeenth  century. 

BRANDENBURG,  CONFESSIONS  or  CONFES- 
SIONS OF  THE  MARK  {Confessioneamarchica,  i.e., 
Brennoburgenses) :  The  confessions  of  the  mark 
Brandenburg  during  the  Reformation.  They  are 
three  in  number:  (1)  the  Confession  prepared  by 
order  of  Johann  Sigismund,  elector  of  Brandenburg, 
1614,  which  was  intended  to  reconcile  the  views 
of  Luther  with  those  of  Calvin  (see  Sigismund, 
Johann);  (2)  the  Leipsic  Colloquy,  1631,  i.e.,  the 
declarations  of  the  theologians  who  took  part  in  the 
Colloquy  of  Leipsic  (q.v.),  1631;  (3)  the  Declaration 
of  Thorn,  1645  (see  Thorn,  Conference  of). 

Bibliography:  The  text  of  the  three  confessions  is  in  J.  C. 
W.  Aiiffusti,  Corptit  librorum  gymholicorum,  pp.  369  sqq., 
Elberfeld,  1827,  and  in  H.  A.  Niemeyer,  ColUctio  canfea- 
tionum  in  ecclena  rtformata  publieaiarum,  pp.  642  sqq., 
Leipaic  1840.     Consult  Sohaff.  Creed*,  ii,  654-663. 


BRAHDES,  brdnMez,  FRIEDRICH  UJfUlKlCH: 

German  Reformed;  b.  at  SaUuflen  (48  m.  s.w.  of 
Hanover)  Apr.  25,  1825.  Educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin,  he  was  successively  second  preacher 
and  rector  at  Salzuflen  from  1853  to  1856,  and 
pastor  at  GOttingen  from  1856  to  1001.  Since  the 
latter  year  he  has  been  court-preacher  at  BQcke- 
burg.  Among  his  numerous  writiiigB  those  of 
theological  interest  are:  Wir  vferden  leben,  Ge- 
8prache  aber  UnsterblichkeU  (GOttingea,  1868); 
John  Knoxy  der  Reformator  Schoitiands  (Elberfeld, 
1862);  Katechismus  der  chrisaiehen  Lehre  (Gdt- 
tingen,  1865);  Verfassung  der  Kirche  nach  evange- 
lUchen  Grundadtzen  (2  vols.,  Elberfeld,  1867); 
Ztif  Wiedervereinigung  der  heiden  evangeHMym 
Kirchen  (G6ttingen,  1868);  Dee  Aposiel  Patdru 
Sendschreiben  an  die  Galaier  (Wiesbaden,  1869); 
GeschichU  der  kirchlichen  Polizei  dee  Haueee  Bran- 
denburg (2  vols.,  Grotha,  1872-73);  Blicke  in  dot 
Seelenleben  dee  Herm  (GQtersloh,  1888);  Unter 
Herr  Chrietus.  t,  Seine  Person  (1901);  and  Eim- 
gungen  der  evangeliechen  Kirchen  ein  Befehl  da 
Herm    (Berlin,    1902). 

BRAHDT,  WILHELM:  Dutch  Protestant;  b. 
at  Amsterdam  July  22,  1855.  He  was  educated 
for  the  ministry  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
and  was  a  pastor  until  1891,  when  he  went  to  Berlin, 
where  he  resided  for  two  jrears.  Since  1893  he 
has  been  professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis 
and  the  history  of  religions  at  the  University  of 
Amsterdam.  In  theology  he  belong  to  the 
historico-critical  school,  and  has  written  Die 
mandaieche  Religion  (Leipsic,  1889);  Manddisehe 
Sckriften  (Gftttingen,  1893);  and  Die  evangelitdie 
Geechichte  und  der  Ureprung  dee  Chrisienihum 
(Leipsic,  1893). 

BRANNy  HENRY  ATHAHASIUS:  Roman  (Cath- 
olic; b.  at  Parkstown  (27  m.  s.w.  of  Drogheda), 
Coimty  Meath,  Ireland,  Aug.  15,  1837.  He  cam* 
to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  ten,  and  was 
educated  at  St.  Mary's  College,  Wilmington,  Del, 
St.  Francis  Xavier's  College,  New  York  City  (B.A., 
1857),  St.  Sulpice,  Paris  (1857-60),  and  the  Amer- 
ican College,  Rome  (D.D.,  1862).  He  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  at  Rome  in  1862,  being  the  first 
priest  of  the  American  College,  and  from  1862  to 
1864  was  vice-president  of  Seton  Hall  College, 
South  Orange,^ N.  J.,  where  he  also  taught  theology. 
Four  years  later  he  became  director  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical seminary  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  where  he 
remained  until  1870,  when  he  was  appointed  rector 
of  St.  Elizabeth's  Church,  Fort  Washington, 
N.  Y.  Twenty  years  later  he  became  rector  of 
St.  Agnes's  Church,  New  York  City,  where  he  still 
remains.  He  is  archdiocesan  censor  of  books  and 
has  written  Curious  Questions  (Newark,  N.  J.,  1867); 
Truth  and  Error  (New  York,  1871);  Essay  on  the 
Popes  (1875);  The  Age  of  Unreason  (1881);  The  Im- 
mortality  of  the  SoiU  (1882);  and  Life  of  Archbishop 
Hughes  (1892). 

BRAim,  MARCUS:  German  Jewish  historian;  b. 
at  Rawitsch  (64  m.  s.  of  Posen)  July  9,  1849.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Breslau  (Ph.D., 
1873)  and  the  rabbinical  seininary  in  the  same  city, 
from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1875.    He  was 


SUB 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brandenburg 
Bra«tow 


I 


llien  A  nibbi  in  various  cities  of  Oerraany  until 

I8W1,  when  he  was  apjiouitml  to  Kucoeetl  H.  Cirat't* 

as  professor  of  liistury  aruJ  Biblical  exegi'sis  in  the 

JoHi^h  thctilogiful  seminary  at  Breslau,  win- re  hu 

etill  Tvinmns,     He  haa  written:  De  HcrodUs  Mugni 

[iliis   patrtm    in    imperio   secuiis    (Breslau,    1873); 

Die  Sohne  de^  U erodes  ( 1873);  QeBchichie  der  GeneU' 

fehaft  drr  Hrddcr  in  Breshu  (1880);  Ge^hichte  der 

J  mien     und    ihrer    LHeraiur    (2    vols.,     189Ji-94); 

Vanchichte  tfe*   liitbbnmU  in  Sehneidfmuht  (1894); 

Gtschichia  der  Juden   in  Schleinen  (3  parts,   I89.>- 

1^11):   Ein    kurzer    Gang   durck    die    judiscHe    Ge- 

$chichie    (1S95);  Ein    kurzer   Gang   durch   die   Ge- 

9(hiirhte    der   fuduschen    Liter otur    (189fi);  Lehrbuch 

der    ftidigchen    Getfchickte    (4  vols.,  19lKM)3);    md 

Otfchiekte    de^    ji'tdi^chen    theol&gi^chen    Seminars 

(,1904).     He    haa    likewise    edited    the    Jahrhitch 

lur   BeUhrung  und   Unierhaitung  since    189<>,   and 

from  1892  to  1899,  in  collaboration  with  D.  Kauf- 

nuum,  edited  the  M onatssckrift  fur  GeRchichl^  und 

Wtssenschafl    de^    Judentum^i,    becoming    its    sole 

editor  on    Kaufmann's  death  in  the  latter  year. 

He    ltkewi^»e    collaborated    with    F.    Rosenthal    in 

eiliting  the  Gedenkburh  zur  Erinnerung  an  David 

Kitnfmann  (Breslau,  1900). 


BRAirr,  brant,  SEBASTIAH :  German  satirist  j  b. 

at  8tra»burg  1457;  d.  there  May  10, 1521.     He  was 

tut  t4*n  years  old  when  his  father  died,  andp  after 

educated  privat<-*ly,  entered  the  University 

'*>f  Basel  in  1475,  where  the  strife  between  realism 

•^d   nominalism   had  been  revived  as  a  straggle 

t>^ween  humaniism  and  ficholasticiHm.     There  Brant 

devote  himself  half-hearteilly  to  the  study  of  law, 

**'^*t     Uis    preference    for    philosophy    and    poetry 

'^^ved  too  miremunerativc  to  yield  him  a  liveli- 

**^l»  so  be  was  obliged  to  take  yp  the  study  of 

lUrispf^tlt^uce  in  earnest,  and  finally  received  the 

■^griee  of  doctor  of  civil  and  canon  law  in   1489. 

Mcaji'^lule  he   ha^d   developed   a  lit^Tary  acti\nty 

*'bieb  ietl  him,  in  addition  to  the  lectures  which  he 

"^^vered  after    1484,   to   write  book  ufxin  book, 

P^'^Jy  on  jurisprudence,  both  in  Latin  and  the  ver- 

"''^^Ular,  and  partly  in  verse,  cliiefly  in  German. 

*^^^  with  longing  for  liis  native  city,  he  applied 

^   tbe  vacant  position  of  syndic,  and  secured  it 

*^He  early  part  of  1501,  both  through  his  own 

station   and   through    the   recommendation   of 

**a^ui    Geiler.    Two    years    afterward    he    was 

in  ted  secretary  of  the  municipality,  and  later 

inade  imperial  councilor  to  the  emperor  Maxi- 

A  though  Brant  was  either  the  author  or  the  editor 
long  series  of  books,  there  is  but  one  which 


of 


-^  preserved  his  fame  to  the  presetit  day,   the 

^  ^^^emehifl  (Basel,  1494).     The  end  of  the  Middle 
L^K^^.  which  marked  the  wreck  and  ruin  of  all  the 
*^i«nt  c«inditions  in  Church  and  State,  as  well  as 
■*»4iral  and  social  Ufe.  was  felt  most  keenly  in 
Germany,  where  it  evoked  a  spirit  of 
I         satire  which  spared   neither  life   nor 
of    death.    The  most  striking  represent- 
fc.**      ative   of   this  tendency,  next    to  the 
Dance  of  Death,  is  the  XarrenschifJ  of 
ot    Wherfver  the   poet   looked,  he   saw  only 
K^t  Pcgajtllesa  of  sex,  age,  or  estate,  and  as  at 


carnival  the  mummers  ran  through  the  streets  in 
the  guist^  of  fools,  often  with  sliips  on  wbeels,  he 
rf'garded  life  as  a  great  carnival,  where  fool  on  fmil 
took  hia  seat  in  the  ship  of  fool«  to  voyage  to  Narra- 
gonia,  the  land  of  fools.  Brant  was,  therefore,  in 
this  bcnse  the  spokesman  of  his  time,  and  his  work 
has  become  immortal  in  that  it  is  a  mirror  of  the 
period*  He  remaincil  tnic,  moreover,  t43  the  genius 
of  the  German  people,  despite  hia  attraction  toward 
humanism  and  his  numerous  sentiments  and  paral- 
lels drawn  from  the  classics.  His  views  and  his 
habits  of  thought  were  taken  from  the  life  around 
him.  and  his  German,  though  evidently  based  on 
Ilia  Latinity,  is  neither  as  awkw^ard  nor  as  unin- 
telligible as  that  of  Niclas  of  Wyle  immediately 


lum 
tar 


He  was  so  isLT  from  intending  to  restrict  his  work 
t<3  the  learned  that  he  even  considered  those  who 
did  not  know  how  to  read,  and  accordingly  adorned 
his  book  with  pictures  as  a  substitute  for  the  letters. 
The  Marrcjiachifff  therefore,  alternates  between 
picture  and  text,  thus  giving  a  double  representation 
of  folly,  an  arrangement  which  divides  the  poera 
into  disjoin tmi  fragments  succeeding  each  other 
by  chance  rather  than  by  design,  although  the 
diversity  of  the  material  would  scarcely  have  per- 
mitted the  author  to  mold  it  into  a  homogeneous 
whole.  Yet  Brant  was  swayed  by  two  op|>osing 
tendencies,  and  wliile,  on  the  one  hand,  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  expose  the  faults  in  the  external  life  of 
the  Church  with  its  lack  of  faith,  and  lis  lack 
of  morality,  he  feared  to  touch  its  inner  and  higher 
teachings,  and  lanjcnted  the  wavering  bark  of  St. 
Peter,  upbraiding  the  heretics  and  regarding  the 
printer  as  an  unmixed  evil.       (E,  Steinmeveh.) 

Bibi^iograpby:  The  Narren§chiff  wma  repHiit«d  many 
timea  and  wm  aa  frequently  revmmped.  i»p«<;ially  in  the 
Latm  tranalatioQ  of  Jakob  Locher  PbilotnuKUB  (1407). 
In  1497  it  vaa  tronHlatcKl  into  Freaob,  four  yeaim  later 
into  Latin  verse  by  Jodocuji  Badius  A»censiiui,  in  IM9 
into  Low  German,  and  in  1635  into  Dutch,  while  in  1509 
it  was  rendered  into  Eoglish  by  Alexander  B&r<'lay  i^.v  ) 
under  the  title  of  tbe  Ship  of  Foot*.  The  beat  German 
ediUim  h  by  F.  Z&rneke,  Leiptftic,  1854,  next  to  it  i«  that 
by  K.  C*oedcke,  ib.  1872,  In  1498  a  »erie«  of  5iermon« 
waa  baaed  upon  the  NarrtuMt-hif!  by  Geiler  of  Kainern- 
bergt  uid  it  was  repeatedly  imitated,  as  in  the  F<m  S^ 
Vrwuien^Si^ifflein,  by  the  Brotherhood  of  ^t.  Ursula 
(8trasbur^,  1497),  and  by  Brant's  compatriot,^  Ttiomai 
Murner,  in  hia  Narrenbe*ckw6riing  (1512),  Bthhojrra- 
phies  are  siven  by  C.  Schmidt,  Hixtoire  liU^rain  dt 
VAtmee,  i,  lS9-33a,  ii.  340-373»  Paris,  1879.  and  K. 
Goedeke.  Grundriu  tw  Getehichte  der  deutMchen  Dicktun(f, 
i.  383-3t>2.  Dreftden,  18S4.  The  best  account*  of  th» 
Life  of  Brant  are  to  be  found  in  the  ititroductions  to  the 
editions  of  th©  NarrenscAiff  by  Zarncke  and  Qocdeke,  ut 
BUp.  Consolt  aUo  C.  Sphmidt*  Notice  tur  Sibattian 
Brant,  in  the  Revu«  d' Alsace,  [i«w  «erit?«,  vol.  lii.  1874. 

BRASTBERGER,  IMMAKUEL  GOTTLOB :  Pop- 
ular German  preacher;  b.  at  Hula  (40  m.  s.w.  of 
Stuttgart),  WQrttemberg.  1716;  d.  July  13,  1764, 
as  Spezial.superintendent  at  NQrtingen.  His  ser* 
mona  on  the  Gospels,  Evangdi^che  ZengniMt  der 
Wahrheit  tur  Au/munterung  im  wahren  Christen* 
ihum  (Stuttgart.  1758)  are  still  rcad»  the  eighty- 
fifth  edition  ha\dng  appeared  at  Reutlingeu  in 
ISS3,  and  a  translation  into  Poliah  in  1905. 

BRASTOW,  LEWIS  ORSMOND:  Congregation- 
alist:  b.  at  Brewer,  Me.,  Mar  23,  ia34.  He  was 
educated   at  Bowdoin  College   (Bji,.    18o7>  and 


Bratke 

Brull 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


954 


Bangor  Theological  Seminary  (1860),  and  held 
successive  pastorates  at  the  South  Congregational 
Church,  St.  Johnsbury,  Vt.  (1860-73),  and  the  First 
Congregational  Church,  Burlington,  Vt.  (1873-84), 
in  addition  to  being  chaplain  of  the  Twelfth  Ver- 
mont Volunteers  in  the  Civil  War.  Since  1885 
he  has  been  professor  of  practical  theology  in  Yale 
Divinity  School.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  of  the  State  of  Vermont 
in  1870.  In  theology  he  is  a  conservative  liberal, 
and  in  addition  to  numerous  briefer  contributions 
has  written  Representative  Modem  Preachers  (New 
York,  1904)  and  The  Modem  Puljnt  (1906). 

BRATKEy  EDUAIU):  German  Protestant;  b.  at 
Neuhaus  (a  village  near  Waldenburg,  43  m.  s.w. 
of  Breslau),  Silesia,  Feb.  26,  1861;  d.  at  Breslau 
Jan.  30, 1906.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Berlin,  GOttingen  (Ph.D.,  1883),  and  Breslau 
(licentiate  of  theology,  1885).  In  1886  he  became 
privat-docent  of  the  latter  university,  but  four 
years  later  was  called  to  Bonn  as  associate  pro- 
fessor of  church  history,  remaining  there  until 
1903,  when  he  returned  to  Breslau  as  full  professor 
of  the  same  subject.  He  wrote  Justus  Gesenius  und 
seine  Verdienste  um  die  hannaverische  Landeskirche 
(GOttingen,  1883);  Luthers  fUnfundneuntig  Thesen 
und  ikre  doffmenhistarischen  Voraussetzungen  (1884); 
Wegweiser  zur  Quellen-  und  Literaturkunde  der 
KirchengeschichU  (Gotha,  1890);  Das  neuentdeckU 
vierte  Buch  des  Danielkammenlars  des  Hippolytus 
(Bonn,  1891);  Das  sogenannte  ReligumsgesprOch 
am  Hof  der  Sasaniden  (Leipsic,  1900);  Die  Weis- 
heit  des  Todes  (Gatersloh,  1902);  and  Euagrii 
altercatio  Itgis  inter  Simonem  Judaum  et  Theo- 
philum  Christianum  (Vienna,  1904;  text  and  com- 
mentary). 

BRAXTON,  THEODORE  DU  BOSE:  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  bishop  of  Mississippi;  b.  at  Winns- 
boro.  S.  C,  Nov.  11,  1862.  He  studied  at  the 
UniverBity  of  the  South,  Sewance,  Tenn.,  but  with- 
drew in  1882,  a  few  months  before  graduation, 
because  of  trouble  with  his  eyes.  He  was  at  once 
appointed  proctor  of  the  university,  and  in  1883 
became  a  teacher  in  the  preparatory  school  at- 
tached to  the  same  institution.  He  pursued  theo- 
logical studies  in  St.  Luke's  Theological  Hall,  the 
seminary  of  the  University,  and  was  graduated  in 
1887.  He  was  ordered  deacon  in  the  same  year 
and  was  priested  in  1888,  after  having  been  a 
missionary  in  his  native  State  in  the  interval.  He 
was  then  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Advent,  Spar- 
tanburg, S.  C,  1888-99,  also  being  professor  of 
history  in  Converse  College,  Spartanburg,  1890-99, 
after  which  he  was  rector  of  St.  Mary's  School  for 
Girls  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.  In  1903  he  was  consecrated 
third  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Mississippi. 

BRAUN,  JOHAim  WILHELM  JOSEF:  Roman 
Catholic  theologian  and  scholar;  b.  at  Gronau 
(30  ra.  n.w.  of  MUnster)  Apr.  27,  1801;  d.  at  Bonn 
Sept.  30,  1863.  He  was  associated  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn  as  a  student  from  1821  to  1825, 
adjunct  professor  from  1829  to  1833,  and  professor 
of  theology  from  1833.  For  the  part  which  he  took 
in  the  llermesian  controversy  see  Hermes,  Georo. 
With  J.  H.  Achterfeld,   he    published    the   Zeit- 


schrift  far  PhtUmophie  und  kathoUsehe  Theologk 
from  1832  to  1852.  His  Biblioiheea  rtgulanan 
fidei  (Bonn,  1844)  and  a  numbo'  of  occasiooal 
archeological  studies  should  also  be  mentioned. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BRAT,  GUmO  DE.    See  Br^ 

BRAT,  THOMAS:  Church  of  Enejand;  b.  at 
Marton,  near  Cherbuiy  (17  m.  s.w.  of  Shrewsbury), 
Shropshire,  1656;  d.  in  London  Feb.  15,  1730. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  (B A.,  AU  Souls,  1678;  MA., 
Hart  HaU,  16d3;  B.D.  and  D.D.,  Magdalen,  1696), 
took  orders  about  1678,  and  soon  won  friendB  and 
advancement  by  his  "  exemplary  behaviour  and 
distinguished  diligence."  In  1690  he  beeaoae 
rector  of  Sheldon,  Warwickshire.  In  1696  Bishop 
Compton  of  London  appointed  him  oommiflttry 
for  Maryland.  He  was  unable  to  sail  for  the  cskaay 
untfl  Dec.,  1699,  landed  in  Mar.,  1700,  but  after  a 
residence  of  less  than  six  months  returned  to  Eng- 
land, finding  he  could  better  promote  the  interest;^ 
of  the  province  there.  From  1706  he  was  rector 
of  St.  Botolph  Without,  Aldgate,  London. 

Bray's  life  furnishes  a  striking  example  of  wlLd.t 
can  be  accomplished  by  energy,  good  judgmei&^t 
and  dinnterested  benevolence.    As  soon  as  he  w^ts 
appointed  oonmussaiy  for  Maryland  he  took  up 
the  work,  and,  while  detained  in  En^and,  tri^^id 
to  find  there  suitable  men  to  send  out  as  missiox^' 
aries  and  formed  a  plan  to  provide  them  with  boolc.^- 
He  did  not  limit  his  good  services  to  Maryland,  aim<i 
his  plan  grew  into  a  scheme  for  a  "  Protesta-Xi^at 
congregation     pro     propaganda    fi^^^ 
Bray'i      by  charter  from   the  king."    Wh^n 
Varied      this  failed  in  spite  of  penristoit  exp- 
and       deavor,    he    organised    a    volunta..xry 

Effective    society  to  provide  libraries  at  hoocme 

Activity,  and  abroad  and  to  support  schoc=»l^ 
and  missions  for  the  colonies  and  t^^'^^ 
heathen.  The  first  meeting  was  held  Mar.  8,  169^ » 
and  this  was  the  beginning  of  the  Society  for  the  Pk"'*>^ 
motion  of  Christian  Knowledge  (q.v.) .  In  June,  170  1 » 
he  divided  its  work  and  procured  a  royal  charter  €'o^ 
a  second  society — the  Society  for  the  Propagation,  o^ 
the  Gkwpel  in  Foreign  Parts  (q .v.) .  From  his  appoi«^  ^^ 
ment  as  conunissary  till  he  was  able  to  sail  he  b€=prG 
his  own  expenses  and  he  paid  the  costs  of  1.:b^^ 
voyage.  By  lus  return  he  forfeited  his  sal&:vy' 
which  was  available  only  when  he  was  in  MarylaK^^'-* 
A  present  of  £400  he  devoted  to  public  use.  fri-^ 
collected  and  managed  a  fund  for  the  instruct m<=>^ 
of  the  negroes  in  the  provinces,  and,  at  the  ag©  ^^^ 
seventy-one,  became  interested  in  the  prisoa.^*^ 
in  the  London  jails  and  undertook  to  amelior^^^ 
their  condition.  It  is  believed  that  he  influeaoe^J 
General  Oglethorpe  to  found  the  colony  of  Georgia- 
His  benefactions  were  continued  by  numerous 
bequests  in  his  will. 

Bray's  exertions  resulted  in  the  foundation    o/ 
nearly  forty  libraries  in  America.    In  1699,  just 
before    he   sailed   for    Maryland,    he 

Libraries    wrote  that  he  had  sent  books  to  tbe 
in  America,  value    of    £2,400    into    the   planta- 
tions, "  whereby  thirty  libraries  have 
been  already  advanced,  and  a  foundation  is  laiVf 
of  seventy  libraries  more."    The  greater  number 


855 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


BmtkM 
Braidl 


were  in  Maryland,  but  there  were  several  in  Vir- 
ginia, two  in  North  Carolina,  and  one  each  in  Bos- 
ton, Rhode  Island,  New  York  City,  Albany,  New 
Jersey,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston.  That  at 
AnnapoUs,  Md.,  was  the  largest  collection  of  books 
at  the  time  in  the  plantations  and  was  the  first 
lending  library  in  the  British  colonies.  Its  remains 
are  now  in  the  possession  of  St.  John's  College, 
Annapolis.  The  remnant  of  the  Boston  library  is 
in  the  Boston  Athenaeum. 

After  a  severe  illness  in  1723  Bray  chose  four 
friends  to  assist  in  the  management  of  the  negro 
schools  and  continue  his  work  sJter  his  death.  Thus 
originated  **  Dr.  Bray's  Associates  for  Founding 
Clerical  Libraries  and  Supporting  Negro  Schools," 
an  association  which  has  continued  to  exist  and  in 
1906  reported  130  libraries  maintained  in  England 
and  Wales  and  153  in  sixty-seven  colonial  and  mis- 
sionary dioceses;  during  the  year  two  new  libraries 
were  founded  and  negro  schools  were  maintained 
in    Nova  Scotia   and  the  Bahama  Islands.    The 

total  number  of  libraries  founded  in 
The  Bray  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies  is 
Associates,  over  500.   About  eighty  of  the  total 

number  were  founded  by  Dr.  Bray,  ex- 
clusive of  those  established  in  America.  A  reorgani- 
sation of  the ''  Associates  "  was  effected  in  1905,  and 
a  division  of  the  funds  was  made  whereby  the  in- 
come of  an  endowment  amounting  to  about  £7,000 
will  be  Implied  to  the  support  of  the  schools;  the 
remainder  of  the  funds,  amounting  to  about  £4,500, 
will  be  used  to  establish,  maintain,  or  augment 
theological  libraries  in  Great  Britain  or  elsewhere 
for  the  use  of  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England 
and  students  who  are  candidates  for  holy  orders. 

While  at  Sheldon,  Bray  planned  A  Cowrae  of 
Lectures  upon  the  Church  Caiechism,  in  4  volumes, 
and  completed  vol.  i,  twenty-six  lectures.  On  the 
Preliminary  Questions  and  Answers  (Oxford,  1696); 
the  book  proved  popular,  brought  him  upward  of 
£700,  extended  his  reputation  to  London,  and 
helped  to  secure  his  appointment  as  commissary; 
vols,  ii-iv  were  not  completed.  In  connection 
with  his  library  plans  he  published:  Bibliotheea 

parochialis,  or  a  scheme  of  such  theo- 
Writings,   logical   heads   as   are   requisite   to    he 

studied  by  every  pastor  of  a  parish, 
tpith  a  catalogue  of  hooks  (London,  1697;  2d  ed., 
much  changed,  1707);  An  Essay  towards  Pro^ 
mating  All  Necessary  and  Useful  Knowledge  (1697), 
closing  with  a  catalogue  of  sixty-three  books 
"  designed  to  lay  the  foundation  of  lending-libraries 
to  be  fixed  in  all  the  market-towns  in  ^igland  "; 
Bibliotheea  catechetica,  or  the  country  curate's  library 
(1702);  and  Primordia  hibliothecaria  (1726),  in 
which  he  gives  **  several  schemes  of  parochial 
libraries  "  and  outlines  a  method  "  to  proceed  by 
a  gradual  progression  from  strength  to  strength, 
from  a  collection  not  much  exceeding  in  value  £1 
to  £100."  Several  Circular  Letters  to  the  Clergy 
of  Maryland  (1701)  treats  of  the  "work  of  cate- 
chising "  and  the  **  duty  of  preaching,"  with  many 
practical  directions  for  the  use  of  books;  a  list  for 
a  "  layman's  library "  is  appended.  Of  interest 
as  Americana  are:  a  sermon  on  Apostolic  Charity, 
preceded  by  A  General  View  of  the  English  Colonies 


in  America  with  Respect  to  Religion  (London,  1698); 
a  sermon  on  The  Necessity  of  an  Early  Religion, 
preached  before  the  Assembly  of  Maryland  (Ann- 
apolis, 1700;  the  earliest  extant  work  printed  in 
Maryland);  The  AcU  of  Dr.  Bray's  Visitation  at 
Annapolis,  May  23^25,  1700  (London,  1700; 
reprinted  in  F.  L.  Hawks's  Contributions  to  the 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  United  States,  vol.  ii, 
New  York,  1839,  pp.  497-523);  A  Memorial  Rep- 
resenting  the  Present  State  of  Religion  on  the  Conti- 
nent of  North  America  (1700).  He  was  a  strong 
Anti-Romanist,  and  another  noteworthy  publica- 
tion was  Papal  Usurpation  and  Persecution  (1712), 
intended  as  a  supplement  to  Fox's  Book  of  Martyrs. 
The  materials  gathered  for  this  volume  and  a  con- 
tinuation of  it,  which  he  did  not  complete,  he  left  * 
to  Sion  College,  London. 

Bduoohapht:  Bray's  Life  and  Detignt,  written  probably 
by  Richard  RawUnaon  (d.  1755)  and  preserved  in  manu- 
eoript  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  has  been  made  the  basis 
of  all  subsequent  aooounts  (such  as  PtMic  Spirit  IUu9- 
traUd  in  the  Life  and  Deeigne  of  the  Rev,  Thomaa  Bray, 
London,  1746,  2d  ed.,  with  notes  and  the  report  of  the 
"  Associates  "  for  1807.  by  Henry  J.  Todd.  1808),  and 
has  been  printed  in  full,  with  valuable  notes  and  Sheeted 
Worke  ROaUno  to  Maryland,  by  B.  C.  Steiner,  Maryland 
Hietorieal  Society  Fund  PtMieation  no.  S7,  Baltimore.  1001. 
An  article  by  Mr.  Steiner  in  The  Ameriean  Hietorieal  Re- 
view, ii  (1807).  60-75,  gives  an  account  of  Bray's  Ameri- 
ean libraries.  Some  information  concerning  the  fate  of 
those  in  England  may  be  found  in  the  TraneacOone  and 
Proceedinge  of  the  Firet  Annual  Meetinif  of  the  Library  Ae- 
eoeiation  of  the  United  Kingdom,  pp.  51-53,  145-160,  Lon- 
don. 1870.  A  paper  by  J.  F.  Hurst  on  Parochial  Li- 
hrariee  in  the  Colonial  Period,  in  Papere  of  the  Ameriean 
Society  of  Church  Hietory,  vol.  ii,  part  1,  New  York.  1800, 
deals  with  the  Bray  libraries.  The  **  Associates  "  (ad- 
dress, 10  Delahay  St.,  London,  S.  W.)  publish  an  annual 
report  which  contains  a  brief  Memoir  of  Dr.  Bray, 

BRAZIL:  A  republic  of  eastern  South  America; 
area,  3,218,100  square  miles;  population,  15,000,000. 
Brazil  became  independent  of  Portugal  by  the 
creation  of  the  Empire  of  Brazil  in  1822,  which 
was  superseded  without  war  in  1889  by  the  United 
States  of  Brazil,  forming  a  republic  with  a  new 
constitution  framed  in  1891.  Each  of  twenty 
states  sends  representatives  to  the  senate  and  house 
of  deputies,  but  retains  a  large  measure  of  self- 
government.  It  is  expressly  forbidden  to  '*  create, 
support,  or  prevent  religious  denominations,"  the 
basal  principle  being  the  free  exercise  of  all  relig- 
ions, so  far  as  they  are  not  prejudicial  to  the  public 
welfare.  No  religion,  therefore,  receives  aid  from 
the  State,  and  civil  marriage  before  a  magistrate 
is  legal,  while  instruction  in  the  schools  is  required 
to  be  secular,  the  religious  orders  being  suppressed. 
Simultaneously  with  the  promulgation  of  this 
constitution,  and  partly  in  consequence  of  it,  there 
was  a  rapid  increase  in  immigration  from  Europe 
to  Brazil,  although  for  many  years  previously  a 
considerable  number  of  Italians  had  been  coming 
to  the  country.  This,  however,  made  little  change 
in  religious  conditions,  although  in  more  recent 
times  the  German  immigration  has  somewhat 
increased,  and  a  small  number  of  North  Americans 
has  been  added  to  the  Italians,  particulariy  in  the 
cities;  this  increase,  predominantly  Protestant, 
is  almost  negligible  in  comparison  with  the  num- 
bers of  Italians,  Portuguese,  and  Spaniards.  Non- 
German  Protestant  denominations  are  also  rep- 


BriMll 
Breed 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


M6 


reeentedp  enpedAUi'  in  the  msiitlme  townR,  where 
there  are  English  church^,  which,  however,  do 
not  always  have  pentiarient  rectors.  The  Pres- 
byterians, particulaHy  from  North  America,  have 
^ttled  in  considerable  numbers  in  Silo  Paulo, 
where  they  have  established  a  colleger  ^nd  the  Amer- 
lean  Seaman's  Friend  Society  has  an  agent  in  the 
eapilal,  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In  1S99  the  Protestant 
Epi^opal  Church  made  the  Rev.  Lucien  Lee  Kin« 
solving  (q*vO  biihop  of  sou  them  Brazil,  with  rea- 
€lenee  at  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (Silo  Pedro).  In  1907 
hifl  diocese  was  made  an  integral  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can Epiacopal  Church* 

German  Protestantism  is  represented  over  as 
extensive  territory  and  haa  numerous  centers,  aa 
ifl  shown  by  the  existence  of  two  great  ecelesiaa- 
tical  bodies,  the  *'  Evangelical  German  Synod/' 
Bubjeet  to  the  jurisdietion  of  the  higher  church 
x»uncil  of  Berlin  since  lSfi9,  ajid  the  "  Evangelical 
Bynodical  Union "  of  18S4.  The  latter  receives 
its  clergy  not  only  from  Berlin ^  but  also  through 
the  mitiGiooary  societiea  of  Barmen  and  Basel, 
especially  in  view  of  the  number  of  Swiss  immi- 
grants to  Braail.  Many  German  evangelical  com^ 
muniti^,  aa  well  as  scattered  members  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  are  found  both  in  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro itself  and  the  state  of  the  same  name  (inclu- 
ding Petropolijs)  and  the  etate  of  Espirito  Santo  (in- 
cluding Leopoldina),  and  especially  in  the  four 
louthcm  states  of  Silo  Paulo ,  Farani,  Santa  Catha- 
nna,  and  Rio  Grande  do  SuL  In  the  latter  state 
there  are  forty  congregations,  while  in  Banta 
Catharina  7,5€0  Protestants  live  in  the  Cxerman 
city  of  Blumenau  alone »  and  of  the  100,000  Ger- 
mans in  the  state  about  two-thirds  are  evangelical. 
All  the  dlntricts  with  a  Gennan  population  are 
richly  provided  ^dth  schools,  even  though  all 
branches  of  instruction  are  not  H£  thorough  as 
might  be  desired.  Evangelical  schools,  however, 
are  not  infrequently  replaced  by  interdenomi* 
national  religious  schools.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Gorman  communities  careful  provision  is  made  for 
schools,  and  in  a  number  of  colon ica  the  educa- 
tional activity  of  the  clei^  is  such  that  they 
ri'ccivc  salaries  from  the  State. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  two  arehdioceses 
in  Brazil;  (1)  Bahia  or  SSo  Salvailor  (founded  as  a 
bishopric  in  1555,  made  an  archbishopric  in  1676)^ 
with  the  suffragan  bishoprics  of  Alagoas  (founded 
1000;  residence  at  Maeei^  )*  Amazon  ( 1 893 ;  residence 
MandoH),  Bclem  or  Pari  (1719),  Fortalera  orCeiii^ 
(laU),  Goyaa  (lS*J6t  rtmidence  Uberava)»  Stlo  Luia 
(1677;  residence  Maranhilo)  Oiinda  (1676),  Para- 
liyba  (1893),  and  Piauhy  (1»02;  residence  There- 
iina);and(2)  SAoSebastiiloorHio  de  Janeiro  (1670; 
made  an  arehbishopric  1893),  with  the  suffragan 
bishoprics  of  Curitibft(1893),  Cuyabd  (1745),  Dia- 
mantina(lS54),  Marianna  (1745),  Silo  Paulo  (1745), 
Petropolis  (1S9:J)*  Silo  Pedro  (1848;  residence 
Porto  Alegre),  Pouso  Alegre  (1900),  and  Espirito 
Santo  ( 1896;  residence  Vitoria).  There  is  also  the 
exempt  prelature  of  Santarcm  (1903). 

Wlule  secular  priests  are  chiefiy  employed  in 
tlie  service  of  the  Chureh,  they  are  lacking  in  many 
diBtricts  and  their  training  is  defective.  Deiapite 
Iho  guppre&sion  of  the  orders,  therefore,  many  of 


the  larger  ones  have  numerous  representatives.  Al- 
though they  have  few  stations,  they  are  acti?df 
engaged  in  the  conversion  of  the  Indians,  smoiif 
whom  the  Jesuits  worked  with  great  succ^  \n  tho 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  eentuties  in  the  ranpi 
of  the  Cordilleras  and  along  the  Upper  Amajna 
In  1767  the  Portuguese  expelled  the  Jesuits  from 
Brazil.  The  aborigines  in  the  interior  of  Br&ia 
still  remain  unin  dueneed  by  any  misssionary  acti%. 

WUMEIU  Go^n. 
BiBuoaRAPVT:  On  the  oouiitr7  »iad  peopto  eosinilt:  I  C 
and  D,  P.  Kidder,  BratU  and  Uui  BnurtltaiM,  New  Y<«t, 
IgQQ;  {Hiw  U,  R.  Wriffhtl.  TK*  Aew  Bratik  i^  Bmmm 
and  AtimuiManM^   London*    IfOli  Swit*-Annft  Skj,  JU 
Land  lit  the  AmoM&m.  fitw  York,  tOOl;  UnUtd  S^ttf 
Bratit   a  G^offmjfhimi  Sk^ch,   with  «p«dal  B^mal» 
Eeommtie  C&ndUioiu  and  IVotpecta  «f   fulm  Dadtfi 
mpni,   BuTvi^u  of  Am.   Eupublica,  Waflbinxtou,  1901;  t 
C.  Dawboh,    Tht  South  Ameriixin  R^jnttlura.  Tol  i,  Kfv 
York.    1003      On  reli^us  mattcn  coiuult:  F,  BmiAmiq, 
Let   Ctmt^nM  au    Brimii,    Flof^nw,    1897;   H.    P.  R»4 
PtotaUint  Minioju  in  S4mik  Amerim^  Kew  YwK  IIMCI; 
J.  B,  DenaLfl.  CvnienTimt  Sttrres  of  Fateign  Miaiefin  ik 
1002:   li.  C.  TyckeFp  BtMs  in  BrotU,  ib.  1002,    Aq  «i- 
bnuj^tive  work  of  rpfenence  ia  A.  L-  G«rt»iii,  BMtign- 
pkie  bfrSrUUnns,  Pfuis*  1  SOS- 
BREAD  Ain>  BAEHfG;      Bread    was   for  the 
Hebrews  the  chief  article  of  diet,  as  it  is  for  modem 
Palestinian  peaiiants.     In  early  titnes  it  waa  majde 
from  barley,  which  was  later  displaced  by  wbeai, 
except  as  it  remained  the  staple  for  the  pomtr 
classes p  though  now  it  is  not  regarded  as  atto^ther 
wholesome  >     Primitive  usage  was  to  roast  the  eais 
of  graiuj  which  were  so  eaten  especially  at  hsn/«st 
time  (Ruth  ii,  14),  and,  thus  prepared,  still  fonn  i 
convenient  food  for  travelers.    In  primitive  prep«r 
ration  of  grain  for  food,  a  sort  of  mortar  was  ii«dto 
crush  it  into  the  coarser  meal,  a  handmill  for  tbe 
flour.    The  latter,  of  primitive  form,  is  atiH  used 
in  the  East  and  i^nsists  of  two  stones,  thi:  It>wer 
one  the  harder,  the  middle  mirfaces  not  Aat^but 
reHpecti%*ely  concave  and  conv^ex,  the  upper  ffitb 
a  hole  in  the  center  in  which  the  post  of  tb?  t^ver 
is  set  and  into  which  the  grain  is  poured  for  griDiir 
ing.    The  work  of  grinding  fell  to  the  woroen  <^ 
to  slaves,  though  the  later  and  larger  milljs  were 
turned  by  beaAta,    The  preparation  of  meal  or 
flour  was  a  daily  task,  done  as  there  was  need  for 
the  product.     The  dough  was  mixed  in  a  woodea 
knea*ling-trough,  and  in  early  times  was  unleavfiwd, 
as  is  the  case  generally  with  the  modem  BedotUQ* 
The  dough  was  made  up  round,  flat  or  disk'«hapei 
and  baked  on  a  layer  of  heated  ston^  from  which 
the  coals  were  removed  when  the  dough  was  placed 
upon  the  stones  to  bake  and  then  replaced.    Me"^ 
tion  is  made  (Lev.  ii,  5)  of  an  iron  plate  or  pim  f^ 
baking.    There  came  to  be  finally  two  form*  of 
oven,   both   in   common  use  among  the  mod^"* 
peasantry,  one  of  which  is  heated  from  the  oytdd^- 
the  other  from  the  inside.    The  art  of  baking  was 
developed  w*ith  the  other  arta  till  it  became  * 
handicraft  or  trade,  and  gav^  its  name  to  a  ett^ 
in   Jerusalem    (Jer.   xxxvii,   21;  cf.    Hos.  vii,  ^)* 
Bread  was  use<l  in  aacred  offerings  at  Bret  eithef 
leav^enod    or    unleavened;    later    the    former  '^ 
excluded  (Ex.  xxiii,  18;  Lev.  ii,  11). 

(I.  BnwmQEK-) 

BiBLioaitJLPiiT:  An  frxotlleTii  Jiccount*  ii«rhAp«  Uur  hffl  ^ 
to  bfl  found  ID  D3,  i,  Sl^-BlO.     Cottnilt  ftlio:  £■  B^?^- 


857 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


BraiU 
Bread 


•on.  BiUieal  ResearckM,  ii.  410-417.  New  York.  1856; 
C.  M.  Doughty,  Aralna  Deterta,  i,  131  and  passim,  Lon- 
don, 1888;  Bensinger,  ArehOolooie,  pp.  62-66,  2d  ed.;  H. 
Vogebtein,  DU  Landwirtaehaft  in  PaldMUna,  Berlin,  1894; 
EB,  i.  604-«05. 

BRECKINRIDGE,  JOHN:  American  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Cabell's  Dale,  near  Lexington,  Ky., 
July  4,  1797;  d.  there  Aug.  4,  1841.  He  studied 
at  Princeton  and  was  tutor  there  1820-21;  was 
chaplain  of  Congress  1822-23;  was  ordained  Sept. 
lOy  1823,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Second  Presby- 
terian Church,  Lexington,  Ky.,  1823-26;  of  the 
Second  Presbyterian  Church,  Baltimore,  1826-31; 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Philadelphia  1831-36; 
professor  of  pastoral  theology  in  Princeton  Seminary 
1836-38;  secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  1838-40.  He  was  president  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  at  the  time 
of  his  death  was  president-elect  of  Oglethorp  Uni- 
versity, Georgia.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Old 
School  party  and  an  ardent  controversialist.  He 
published  a  discussion  with  Archbishop  Hughes 
of  New  York  under  the  title  Roman  Catholic  Con- 
troversy (Philadelphia,  1836)  and  some  minor 
controversial  essays. 

BRECKINRIDGE,  ROBERT  JEFFERSON:  Pres- 
byterian minister,  brother  of  John  Breckinridge 
(q.v.);  b.  at  Cabell's  Dale,  near  Lexington,  Ky., 
Mar.  8, 1800;  d.  at  Danville,  Ky.,  Dec.  27, 1871.  He 
was  graduated  at  Union  College,  1819;  practised 
law  in  Kentucky,  1823-31,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  State  legislature,  1825-29;  studied  theology 
at  Princeton,  1831-32,  was  ordained  Nov.  26,  1832, 
and  was  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church, 
Baltimore,  1832-45;  president  of  Jefferson  College, 
Pennsylvania,  1845-47;  pastor  of  the  First  Pres- 
byterian Church,  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  at  the  same 
time  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
1847-53;  professor  of  theology  at  Danville  Send- 
nary,  1853-69.  He  was  a  stanch  Old  School  Pres- 
byterian and  the  author  of  the  **  Act  and  Testi- 
niony"  (1834),  complaining  of  the  prevalence  of 
doctrinal  errors,  the  relaxation  of  discipline,  and 
the  violation  of  church  order,  which  played  an 
important  part  in  the  disruption  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church;  he  opposed  the  reunion  in  1869. 
He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  During  the  Civil  War  he  defended  the 
Union  cause  and  was  president  of,  the  national 
Republican  convention  at  Baltimore  in  1864  which 
renominated  Abraham  Lincoln  for  the  Presidency. 
During  his  residence  in  B&ltimore  he  edited  The 
Literary  and  Religums  Magazine  (1835-43),  and 
The  Danville  Review  at  Danville  (1861-65); 
his  principal  literary  work  is  two  volumes,  The 
Knotcledge  of  God,  objectively  and  subjectively 
considered  (New  York,  1857-59). 

BRECKLING,  FRIEDRICH:  A  forerunner  of 
the  Pietistic  school;  b.  at  Hanved  near  Flens- 
burg,  Sleswick,  1629;  died  at  The  Hague  Mar.  16, 
1711.  He  studied  at  Rostock,  where  he  imbibed 
the  theology  of  Amdt;  then  at  K5nigsberg,  where 
syncretism  was  dominant,  at  Helmstftdt,  where  his 
relation  Calixtus  then  was,  at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic, 
Jena,  and  Giessen.  Here  his  thesis  for  the  master's 
n.— 17 


degree  (1653)  was  criticized  as  savoring  of  Weigel- 
ianism,  but  he  refused  to  alter  it,  and  published  it 
at  Amsterdam  under  the  title  Myeterium  magnum, 
Ckristus  in  nobis  (1662).  He  became  closely 
allied  with  Tackius,  and  went  deeper  into  theosophy 
by  the  aid  of  Hermes  Trismegistus,  Paracelsus,  and 
Bdhme.  Going  to  Hamburg,  he  read  Betke's 
Antichrislentumf  and  was  much  influenced  by  its 
conception  of  priestless  Christianity.  After  some 
years  of  wandering  in  search  of  Imowledge,  he  was 
ordained  to  be  his  father's  assistant  and  ultimate 
successor;  but  violent  attacks  on  the  local  clergy 
caused  his  deposition  and  imprisonment  in  1660. 
Escaping,  he  went  to  Amsterdam  and  got  a  charge  at 
Zwolie,  where  he  spent  eight  years  of  comparative 
quiet,  but  was  again  deprived  of  his  office,  and  lived 
in  retirement  at  Zwolie  (1668-72),  Amsterdam 
(1672-90),  and  The  Hague  (1690-1711).  He  main- 
tained a  correspondence  with  Spener  and  with 
Gottfried  Arnold,  whom  he  help^  in  his  church 
history,  and  was  busily  engaged  as  a  writer.  In 
spite  of  his  weaknesses,  he  deserves  remembrance 
as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  mystical  natures  who  pre- 
pared the  way  for  Spener  and  the  Pietistic  move- 
ment. (F.  NlELfiENf*) 
Bibuoorapht:  G.    Arnold,    Kirehen   und   /CetcergetcAidUs, 

iii,  14^-149,   iv,    1103-04,    Frankfort,  1729;  A.    Ritachl. 

Ofchichte  de9  Pietiamua,  ii,  1.  128.  146,  Bonn.  1884;     L. 

J.  Molteeen,  F.  Bneklino,  et  Bidrag  tU  PieOtmenM  Udvik- 

lino9hxMloritt  Copenhagen,  1893. 

BREDENKAMP,  KONRAD  JUSTUS:  German 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Basbeck  (a  \illage  near  Stade, 
22  m.  w.n.w.  of  Hamburg)  Jime  26,  1847;  d.  at 
Verden  (21  m.  s.e.  of  Bremen)  Mar.  25,  1904. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Erlangen, 
Bonn,  and  GOttingen,  and  was  pastor  at  Kuppentin, 
Mecklenburg,  from  1872  to  1878.  He  then  resided 
at  GOttingen  for  a  year,  and  from  1880  to  1883 
was  privat-docent  at  Erlangen.  In  the  latter  year 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Greifswald  as  professor  of 
theology,  and  remained  there  until  1889,  after  which 
he  was  honorary  professor  of  Old  Testament  exe- 
gesis at  Kiel  until  his  death.  He  wrote  Der  Prophet 
Sacharja  eriddrt  (Erlangen,  1879);  VaUcinium  quod 
de  Immanuele  edidU  Jesaias  (vii,  l^ix,  6)  (1880); 
GeseU  und  Propheten  (1881);  and  Der  Prophet 
JesaiaerlduteH  (1887). 

BREECHES  BIBLE.  See  Bible  Versionb,  B, 
IV,  §9. 

BREED,  DAVID  RIDDLE:  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  June  10, 1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Ham- 
ilton College  (B.A.,  1867),  and  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary  (1870),  and  was  pastor  of  the  House  of 
Hope  Presbyterian  Church  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  from 
1870  imtil  1885,  when  he  organized  the  Church  of  the 
Covenant,  Chicago,  of  which  he  was  pastor  imtil 
1894.  In  the  latter  year  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Pittsburg,  and 
since  1898  has  been  professor  of  practical  theology 
in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny, 
Pa.  In  theology  he  is  conservative.  In  addition 
to  nimierous  pamphlets,  he  has  written  Abror 
ham,  the  TypUxJ,  Life  of  Faith  (Chicago,  1886); 
History  of  the  Preparation  of  the  World  for  Ckrigt 


Breithaupt 
Brendan 


THE  N£W  dCHAFF-HERZOG 


(1891);  Herety  and  Heresy  (1891);  and  The  His- 
tory and  Use  of  Hymns  and  Hymn  Tunes  (1903). 

BRETTHAUPT,  broifhaupt,  JOACHIM  JUSTUS  i 
First  profeesor  of  theology  at  Halle;  b.  at  Nord- 
heim  (12  m.  n.  of  GOttingen),  Hanover,  Feb. 
1658;  d.  at  the  monastery  of  Berge  (Kloster 
Bergen,  s.  of  Magdeburg;  the  site  is  now  a  public 
park)  Mar.  16.  1732.  He  studied  at  Heknst&dt, 
became  oorector  in  WolfenbQttel  in  1680,  and 
went  thence  to  Kiel,  where  he  continued  theo- 
logical studies  under  Christian  Kortholt  (q.v.) 
and  became  privat-docent.  Then  he  lived  for 
some  time  in  Frankfort  and  came  completely 
under  Spener's  influence.  He  returned  to  Kiel 
as  professor  of  homiletics,  became  court  preacher 
at  Meiningen  in  1685,  went  to  EIrfurt  in  1687  as 
preacher  at  the  Dominican  Church  and  became 
professor  of  theology  in  the  university.  His  Piet- 
istie  tendencies  aroused  much  opposition,  and  in 
1691  he  removed  to  Halle,  where  with  August 
Hermann  Francke  and  Paul  Anton  (qq.v.)  he  gave 
the  theological  study  of  the  new  university  its 
peculiar  character  and  direction.  In  1705  he 
added  to  his  other  duties  those  of  superintendent 
of  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg  and  in  1709  was  made 
abbot  at  the  monastery  of  Berge  (then  transformed 
into  a  school).  He  was  a  man  of  much  faith, 
prayerful,  and  took  a  deep  interest  in  poor  students. 
Besides  minor  writings,  he  published  InstitiUianes 
theologica  (2  vols.,  Halle,  1694:  2d  enlarged  ed., 
1723;  vol.  iii,  InsHtutiofies  theologice  moralise  1732); 
Thst!es  credendorum  et  agendorum  fundamerUales 
(1700).  He  was  not  without  poetic  talent  and 
published  a  collection  of  Poemata  misceUanea 
(Magdeburg,  1720).  Some  of  his  h3rmns  are  still 
found  in  the  German  hymn-books. 

(Georo  MCujer.) 
Bibuoohaprt:  The  Memorial,  ed.  G.  A.  Francke,  Halle, 
1736,  contains  the  Lebenabethreibung  by  C.  P.  Leporin 
and  Baumcartens  Memoria  ineomparabUU  tkeologi  J.  J. 
Bniihaupt.  Consult  also  A.  Hitachi.  OeadiichU  de9 
PuHsmua,  iii,  385  et  passim,  Bonn.  1884;  Julian.  Hym- 
no/<w,  pp.  169-170;  W.  Schrader,  OeschiehU  der  Fried- 
rieh^UnivertiUU  «u  HaUe,  vol.  i,  passim.  Halle.  1894; 
ADB,  iii.  291. 

BRBITINGER,  brai'tin-ger,  JOHANN  JAKOB: 
Swiss  theologian;  b.  at  Zurich  Apr.  19,  1575;  d. 
there  Apr.  1,  1645.  Not  imtil  his  seventeenth  year 
dill  his  Bi)iritual  gifts  begin  to  manifest  themselves, 
but  from  1503  to  1596  he  studied  at  Reformed 
•eminaritvi  in  (tcrmany  and  Holland,  and  in  1597 
booanio  a  member  of  the  clergy  of  his  native  city. 
His  prominence  during  the  pestilence  of  1611 
pwvwi  him  worthy  of  the  appointment  of  deacon 
to  th«  church  of  St.  Peter.  Two  years  later  he 
wan  nmdo  pastor  of  the  GrossmUnster,  thus  becom- 
ing tho  nioHt  important  clergyman  in  Zurich,  and 
in  1614  lie  was  apiwinted  school-rector.  His  im- 
IMirtnntM^  wtw  not  due,  however,  to  his  religious 
i\r  t  hiM>l(>glwil  originality,  but  rather  to  his  political 
IhtoUiKtMicH)  and  practical  skill  in  organisation  and 
itxiMUitlon.  oombining  shrewd  circumspection  and 
pntiiMUH^  with  a  vor8atile  initiative.  His  sermons, 
lluniKh  not  dwp,  were  characteriied  by  warmth 
III  r<H«)inK,  olouriM^HH.  pithiness,  and  charm.  The 
iiiitMl  Important  of  his  works  arc  his  synodical 
iMl(lr«>Nniii|  III  which  ho  sought  to  exalt  the  position 


of  the  clergy.  These  sermons,  delivered  at  ti 
semiannual  sessions  of  the  synod  and  coUeele 
by  him  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  are  moddi  < 
pastoral  wisdom,  and  received  practical  applia 
tion  in  Breitinger's  own  activity.  The  statu  ( 
the  preachers  was  revolutionised  on  the  bans  c 
two  of  his  speeches  before  the  council  in  1021 
and  he  secured  the  general  adoption  of  musie  i 
the  churches,  which  Zurich  had  lacked  altogetbi 
until  1598.  He  likewise  enriched  the  liturgy  wit 
sections  which  are  still  in  use,  as  with  the  prafi 
for  the  dead  and  the  morning  prayer  after  the  in 
mon  of  1638.  Breitinger  also  successfully  ux^ 
the  need  of  religious  instruction  of  the  young,  as  i 
shown  by  repeated  ordinances  of  1613,  1628, 1637 
1638,  and  1643.  He  was,  likewise,  the  ultimate  autho 
of  the  custom  by  which  the  Swiss  GonfederatiQii 
celebrate  the  days  of  thanksgiving,  repentance 
and  prayer  at  the  same  time,  and  it  was  be  wh 
introdu(^  the  rule  of  making  a  public  announa 
ment  of  marriage.  In  1634  he  introduced  mti 
the  churches  of  Zurich  and  eastern  Switierian 
the  use  of  parochial  registers,  which  were  to  b 
returned  every  three  years  to  the  head  of  the  detg 
and  thus  served  as  a  sort  of  census-report.  Fou 
years  later  he  instituted  parochial  visitations,  an 
finally  established  the  ecclesiastical  archivoa  ( 
Zuricli. 

Breitinger  was  deeply  interested  in  educatioi 
and  was  also  active  in  the  establishment  of  schoiai 
ships  for  poor  students.  He  was  no  less  entbi 
siastic  in  his  patronage  of  charity,  and  prepared  sti 
tistics  of  the  poor  as  early  as  1621,  while  in  162S 
at  the  request  of  the  mayor,  he  published  GtUadU» 
der  Bettler  und  Armen  h/dber.  Three  years  lata 
on  the  basis  of  further  studies,  Breitinger  mad* 
noteworthy  proposals  for  houses  of  correction  fo 
neglected  youth,  and  was  also  active  in  the  im 
provement  of  prisons  and  hospitals.  Ever  watcb 
ful  over  the  morals  of  the  people,  he  opposed  lad 
of  refinement  and  excess,  and  sought  to  obviatt 
the  evil  influences  of  the  war  in  the  neighboriui 
kingdom,  in  addition  to  restricting  lavish  expea 
diture  in  clothing  (1616,  1628),  and  in  wedding 
and  funerals  (1621,  1628,  1640),  as  well  as  tb 
drinking  of  toasts  (1632),  and  occasionally  eve 
the  stage  and  the  cultivation  of  art.  A  watcbf^ 
opponent  of  the  hopes  and  propaganda  of  Catbc 
icism  and  Anabaptism,  he  refrained  from  excessa 
hostility,  contenting  himself  with  remaining 
constant  protector  of  the  Reformed.  His  perBoc 
preeminence  and  his  interest  in  his  church  fi 
quently  involved  him  in  political  problems,  ai 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  he  was  the  lead 
of  a  Swedish  party  in  Zurich.  The  fortificati^ 
of  the  city  was  due,  strictly  speaking,  to  him,  3i 
had  he  had  his  way,  Switzerland  would  havebei 
involved    in    the   strug^e.  (Emil  Equ.) 

Biblxoorapht:  The  chief  work  ia  by  J.  C.  Mdrikofer,  /.  J 
Breitinger  und  ZUru^,  Leipeio,  1874.  Consult  also  Q.  I 
Zimmermann,  Die  Ziircher  Kirchet  pp.  143-184,  Zmick 
1877-78. 

BREMEN :  A  free  city  and  state  of  the  Gennai 
Empire.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  Weser,  abou 
forty-six  miles  from  its  mouth  and  215  miles  by  rai 
wji.w.   of   Berlin.    The   state   includes   also  th 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


_ftr«lthftiipt 
Brendan 


[lkubor-citiG6  of  Vegesack  and  Brcmerhaven  and 
1  About  ninety-oine  square  mJlea  of  contiguous 
I  territory.    Tlie  total  population  in  1900  was  224,- 

697,  of  whom    163,2^2   bcilonged    to   the   city   of 

Bremen.  Ninety-four  per  cent,  are  reported  na 
\  Evangelical  Protestantfl.  4.9  per  cent,  as  Roman 
I  Catholics;  the  number  of  Jews  is  about  1,000.  Of 
I  the  Protestants    ocHrly   ont-thirijl    are    llefonnt^d, 

Th  ProlestantiJ  ha%'e  no  eccliisiastical  organization, 
llbe  government  Hiont^liiig  nt  the  head  of  the  Chureh 
liod  muL&giog  its  afTaira  tluxiugh  a  commission, 
f  which  is  also  the  school  board.    The  various  con- 

grtgations  are  independent  one  of  the  other,  but, 
I  itidividually,  take  a  warm  interest  in  missionary 

*nd  benevolent  work. 

pBiULiOGAAPOiri  W.  von  ^ippea.G'esehichte  der  Stadi  Brertien, 
2  toU..  Bremen.  lS&2-«8.  Jahrbu^h  far  bremtMche  Statia- 
HJt,  ib,  1005. 

BREMEN,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  former  diocese 
o(  Germany,  whose  foundation  belongs  to  the 
period  of  the  missionary  activity  of  Willeliiul  (q,v.) 
^HP  the  lower  We^T.  He  was  eonsecnite4  July  15, 
HftBT,  at  Worms,  on  Charlemagne's  initiative,  his 
juriAdiction  being  assigned  to  cover  the  Saxon 
territory  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser  from  the  raoulh 

tthe  Aller,  nortliward  t<o  the  Elbe  and  westward 
the  llunfce,  and  tfie  Friiniaii  territory  for  a  certain 
tancc  from  the  mouth  of  the  Weser.  Willehad 
fijced  bia  headquarters  at  Bremen,  though  the 
Cortnal  constitution  of  the  bishopric  took  place 
only  after  the  subjugation  of  the  Saxons  in  804  or 
8Q5,  when  Willehad's  disciple,  Willerich,  was  con* 
derated  bishop  of  Bremen,  with  the  same  territory, 
diocese  was  probably  at  that  time  eecles las- 
tly subject  to  Cologne.  When^  after  the  death 
Bishop  I^euderich  (83S-845),  it  was  given  to 
it  lost  its  independence  (see  Ansgar), 
Bd  from  that  time  was  permanently  united  with 
nburg.  The  new  coml>iiied  Bee  was  regarded 
the  headquarters  for  missionary  work  in  the 
|llorth»  anil  new  sees  to  be  erected  were  to  l>e  sub- 
to  its  jurisdiction-  Ansgar's  successor,  Rini- 
the  "  second  apostle  of  the  north/'  was 
'  troubled  by  onslaughts  first  of  the  Normans  and 
then  of  the  Wends,  and  by  renewed  clauus  on 
\\iii  part  of  Cologne.  The  Bt»e  of  Bremen  attained 
it*  |;reatest  proe|>erity  and  later  had  its  deepest 
tfoubiea  uader  Adalbert  (see  AoALBEnr  of  Ham- 
boiig-Breacen).  The  next  two  archbishops,  Liemar 
and  Humbert,  were  deU^rmined  opponent^!  of  Greg- 
ory V IL  1  nder  the  latter  the  archbishopric  of  Lund 
'<lv.)waa  erected,  and  Bremen  had  sulTnigan  sees 
wJy  ia  Damet  the  WendiKh  bishoprics  having  been 
Wrtroyed,  Schisms  in  Church  and  State  marked 
^  next  two  centuries,  and  io  spite  of  the  labors 
of  the  Windesheim  and  Bursfelde  congregations 
'^iq.v.),  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  Fieformation, 
*hich  made  rapitl  headway,  partly  owing  to  the 
[act  that  the  last  Roman  Catholic  archbishop^ 
lopher  of  Brunswick,  was  also  bishop  of  Verden 
resided  there.  By  the  time  he  died  (1558 J, 
;  was  left  of  the  old  religion  outside  of  a  few 
eries  and  the  districts  served  by  them.  The 
of  archbishop,  with  the  secular  jurisdiction, 
nras  borne  for  a  time  by  Protestant  princes.  The 
PemoB  of  Weetphalia  (UMS)  secularized  it  and  made 


it  (with  Verden)  a  duchy  and  an  appanage  of  the 
crown  of  Sweden.  In  1712  it  passed  into  the 
poasesKion  of  Denmark,  antl  three  years  later  w^as 
sold  to  Hanover,  to  which  it  was  restored  in  1813 
after  the  Napoleonic  disturbances.  Its  former 
territorj^  was  di-^tributetl  <MTleKiaHtically  at  this 
time  among  the  neighboring  dioceses  of  Hildes- 
heim,  OsnabrUck,  and  Mtinster,  the  imperial  city 
of  Bremen  and  the  surrounding  district  being 
administered  by  the  vicar-apoatolic  of  the  northern 
ml^jsions. 

BRENDAlf,  SAIHT,  OF  CLOHFERT  (called 
**  the  Navigator").  Irish  saint;  b.  at  Tralee  (on 
Tralee  Bay;  west  coast  of  Ireland,  County  Kerry) 
484;  d.  at  the  monastery  of  his  sister,  Brigh,  at 
Ammdown  (on  the  east  shore  of  Lough  Corrib, 
County  Galway),  577.  After  stutlying  with  the 
most  distinguished  Irish  masters,  he  was  ordained 
presbyter,  and  then  undertook  the  expedition  or 
expeditions  wliicb  form  the  basis  of  **  The  Naviga- 
tion of  St.  Brendan,'^  one  of  the  most  popular 
legends  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  552  or  553  (accord- 
ing to  others  in  556  or  557)  he  founded  the  monas- 
tery of  Clotifcrt  (in  the  barony  of  Longford,  County 
Longford)  and  ruled  it  for  twenty  years,  during 
which  time  it  was  the  most  famous  school  in  West 
Ireland.  He  is  said  vtlso  to  have  founded  a  monas- 
tery in  Brittany.  A  visit  to  Columba  on  Hinba 
Island,  near  lona,  is  reconled,  which  must  have 
been  aftt.T  563,  and  he  is  !ast  heartl  of  in  570,  when 
he  acted  aa  bard  at  the  inauguration  of  the  first 
Christian  king  of  CajaheL 

According  to  an  Irish  Ufe  of  St.  Brendan,  when 
he  was  ordained  he  pondered  on  the  words  in 
Luke  xviii,  29-30,  and  determined  to  forsake 
country  and  brethren  and  seek  a  mysterious  un- 
known land  wliich  he  saw  in  visions.  Under 
angelic  guidiuice  he  set  forth  in  a  coracle  of  wicker 
work  and  hides,  but  after  seven  years  was  directed 
to  return,  as  w^ork  wa-s  waiting  for  him  at  home. 
Some  years  lat^jr  the  impulse  to  travel  again  sent 
him  forth,  this  time  in  a  fine  ship,  fully  eijuipped, 
and  with  a  crew  of  sixty.  **  The  whole  story  of 
the  saint's  adventures  bears  neither  repetition  nor 
criticism:  but  in  the  midst  of  much  crude  fiction 
we  find  occasional  touches  which  have  evidently 
been  derived  from  the  reports  of  genuine  voyagers. 
In  the  course  of  their  seven  y^ears'  adventures  they 
visit  the  Isle  of  Sheep,  a  full  fair  island  full  of 
green  pjisture:  anotlier  fair  island,  full  of  flowers, 
herbs,  and  trees,  where  they  thank  God  of  his  good 
grace:  a  Uttle  island  wherein  were  many  vines  full 
of  grapes,  they  meet  with  great  tempests,  in 
which  they  are  greatly  troubled  long  time  and 
sore  foriatioured,  at  other  times  calm  airs  and 
water  so  clear  that  they  miglit  see  all  the  fishes 
that  were  about  them,  whereof  they  are  full  sore 
aghaiit:  again  they  behold  an  hill  all  of  fire  and 
a  foul  smoke  and  stink  coming  from  thence:  and 
finidly  reach  lui  atteinperate  land,  ne  too  hot  ne 
too  cold,  the  fairest  country  that  any  man  miglit 
see,  in  which  the  trees  are  charged  with  ripe  fruit 
and  flowers.  Here  they  walk  forty  ilays,  but 
find  no  end  thereof,  and  at  length  lade  their  ships 
mth   its   fruits    and  return   home"  (E.  J.  Payne^ 


Brent 
Brena 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


800 


HUtory  of  the  New  World,  i,  Oxford,  1892,  106-107). 
The  story  was  known  in  France,  Spain,  and  Holland 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  was  very  popular 
with  all  classes.     It  exists  in  translation  into  eight 
languages.    Some  of  its  incidents  are  derived  from 
classical   sources;     others   resemble    the   Arabian 
Nights,  An  expedition  to  the  Hebrides  and  northern 
islands  may  have  furnished  the  basis  of  fact. 
Bduoohapht:  Lanisan,  Bed.  Iliat.,  ii.  28-38;  St.  Brandan,  a 
metrical  and  a  prose  life,  in  English,  ed.  T.  Wright,  in  Percy 
Society  Publications,  vol.  xiv,  London,  1844;  W.  J.  Rees, 
LivM  of  the  Cambro-BrUiah  SairUa,  pp.  251-254.  575-579. 
Uandovery*  1853;W.  Reeves's  ildamfian'«Lt/eo/<St.  Colum- 
ba,  p.  221 ,  Dublin,  1857;  C.  Schrdder,  Sanct  Brandon,  ein  la- 
teiniaeUr  und  drei  deutache  TexU,  Erlangen,  1871;  A.  P. 
Forbes,  KaUndara  of  Scotiiah  SainU,  pp.  284-287,  Edin- 
burgh, 1872;  F.  Michel,  Lea  voyagea  merveUleux  de  S.  Bran- 
dan,  Paris.  1878;  J.  HesJy,  Inatda  aanctorum  et  doctorum,  pp. 
209  sqq.,  Dublin,  1890;  D.  O'Donoghue,  Brendaniana,  Dub- 
lin, 1893;  T.  Olden.  The  Church  of  Ireland,  pp.  63-64,  Lon- 
don, 1895;  C.  Plununer,  Some  New  Light  on  the  Brandan 
Legend,  in   Zeitachrift  fUr  celtieche  PhilologU,   v   (1904). 
124-141;  J.  O'Hanlon.  Livea  of  the  Iriah  Sainia,  v,  389- 
472,  Dublin,  n.d. 

BRENT,  CHARLES  HEIVRT:  Protestant  Epis- 
copal missionaiy  bishop  of  the  Philippines;  b.  at 
Newcastle,  Ont.,  Apr.  9,  1862.  He  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Toronto,  in  1884,  and  was  or- 
dered deacon  in  1886  and  priested  in  1887.  He 
was  then  curate  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  1887-88,  and  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  Bos- 
ton, 1888-91,  and  associate  rector  of  St.  Stephen's, 
in  the  same  city,  1897-1901,  being  also  a  member  of 
the  editorial  staff  of  The  Churchman  from  1897  to 
1900.  In  1901  he  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of 
the  missionary  district  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 
On  May  6, 1908,  he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  Washington.  He  has  written  With  God  in  the 
World  (New  York,  1899);  The  Consolations  of  the 
Cross  (1902);  The  Splendor  of  the  Human  Body 
(1904);   and  Liberty  and  Other  Sermons  (1906). 

BRENZ,  JOHANN. 

Early  Advocacy  of  the  Refor-    Opposed    by    the     Empe/or 

mation  (S  1).  (S  3). 

Activity  in  behalf  of  the  New    Activity,  1550-53  (I  4). 

Movement  (f  2).  Controveraiefl  (f  6). 

Later  Years  (S  6). 

Johann     Brenz,     the    German  theologian    and 
Swabian  Reformer,  was    bom    at  Weil  (8  m.  s. 
of  Stuttgart)   June  24,  1499;  d.  at  Stuttgart  Sept. 
11,   1570.     He  received  his  education  at  Heidel- 
berg, where,  shortly  after  becoming  magister  and 
regent  of  the  Realistenbursa  in  1518,  he  delivered 
philological   and  philosophical   lectures.     He   also 
lectured  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  only  to  be  pro- 
hibited on  account  of  his  popularity  and  his  novel 
exegesis,  especially  as  he  had  already  been  won 
over  to  the  side  of  Luther,  not  only  through  his 
ninety-five    theses,    but    still    more    by    personal 
acquaintance  with  him  at  the  disputa- 
I.  Early     tion  at  Heidelberg  in  Apr.,  1518.     In 
Advocacy    1522    Brenz  was   threatened  with    a 
of  the  Ref-  trial  for  heresy,  but  escaped  through 
ormation.    a  call  to  the   pastorate  of  Hall.     In 
the  spring  of  1524  he  received  a  strong 
ally  in  his  activity  as  a  Reformer  in  Johann  Isenmann 
(q.v.),  who  became  pastor  of  the  parish-church  at 
Hall.    The  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  was  the  first  to 
be  discarded,  and  in  1524  the  monastery  of  the 


Discalced  Friars  was  transformed  into  a  sdiooi. 
In  the  Peasants'  War,  on  the  other  hand,  Breoi 
deprecated  the  abuse  of  evangelical  liberty  bj 
the  peasants,  pleading  for  mercy  to  the  ooo- 
quered  and  warning  the  magistracy  of  their  dutiei. 
At  Christmas  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered 
in  both  kinds,  and  at  Easter  of  the  following  year 
the  first  regulations  were  framed  for  the  diurdk 
and  the  school.  Brenx  himself  prepared  in  152S 
a  larger  and  a  smaller  catechism  for  the  young, 
both  characteriied  by  simplicity,  warmth,  and  & 
childlike  spirit. 

He  first  attained  wider  recognition,  however, 
when  he  published  his  Syngramma  Suevicum  on 
Oct.  21, 1525,  attacking  CEcolampadius,  and  finding 
the  explanation  of  the  creative  power  of  the  word 
of  Christ  in  the  theory  that  the  body  and  Uood 
of  Christ  are  actually  present  in  the  sacrament. 
Henceforth  Brenz  took  part  in  all  the  important 
conferences  on  the  religious  situation.  In  Oct., 
1529,  he  attended  the  Colloquy  of  Marburg,  and  in 
the  following  year,  at  the  request  of  the  Margrave 
George  of  Brandenburg,  he  was  present  at  the 
diet  in  Augsburg,  where  he  seconded  Melanchthon 
in  his  efforts  to  reach  an  agreement  with  the  adher- 
ents of  the  ancient  faith,  but  refused 

2.  Activity  all  association  with  the  followers  of 
in  behalf   Zwingli.     In  1532  he  collaborated  in 

of  the  New  the  church-regulations  of  Branden- 
Movement  burg  and  Nuremberg,  and  furthered 
the  Reformation  in  the  margravate 
of  Brandenburg-Ansbach,  DinkeLsbQhl,  and  Hdl- 
bronn,  while  three  years  later  Duke  Ulrich  of  WQrt- 
temberg  called  him  as  an  adviser  in  the  framing 
of  regidations  for  the  church,  visitations,  and 
marriage.  In  Feb.,  1537,  he  was  at  Schmalkald, 
and  two  months  later  undertook  the  difiicult  but 
successful  task  of  the  reformation  of  the  University 
of  Tubingen.  He  likewise  attended  the  conference 
on  the  use  of  images  held  at  Urach,  Sept.,  1537, 
where  he  urged  their  abolition.  Brena  returned 
to  Hall  in  April  of  the  following  year,  in  June, 
1540,  attended  the  conference  at  Hagenau,  was 
at  Worms  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year,  and 
in  Jan.,  1546,  was  at  Regensburg,  where  he  was 
obliged  to  deal  with  Cochlsus,  although,  as  he  had 
foreseen,  he  was  unsuccessful.  He  devoted  himself 
with  great  zeal  to  his  pastoral  duties,  and  side  by 
side*Vith  his  sermons  was  evolved  a  valuable  series 
of  expositions  of  Biblical  writings. 

After  the  last  remnants  of  the  ancient  regulations 
of  the  church  of  Hall  had  been  abolished,  his  new 
rules  appeareil  in  1543.  Calls  to  Leipsic  in  1542, 
to  Tubingen  in  1543,  and  to  Strasburg  in  1548 
were  declined  in  favor  of  his  position  at  Hall. 
Brenz  had  long  opposed  the  adherence  of  Hall 
and  the  margrave  to  the  Schmalkald  League,  since 
he  regarded  resistance  to  the  temporal  authorities 
as  inadmissible.    Gradually,  however, 

3.  Opposed  his  views  changed,  through  the  hostfle 
by  the      attitude   of    the    emperor.     In   1538 

Emperor.    Hall  entered  the  League,  and  after  its 

defeat  Charles  V  came  to  the  city  (Dee. 

16,    1546),    and   obtained    possession    of    papers, 

letters,  and  sermons  of  Brens,  who,  despite  the 

bitter  cold,  was  obliged  to  flee,  although  he  re- 


aei 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCTX)PEDIA 


Brent 


tttraod  Jan.  4»  1547*    The  new  Interim  of  the  em- 

pwor  (see  Interim),  which  Brtina  calleti   interilus 

("mm*'),  recalled  him  to  the  scene  of  action,  and 

be  earnestly  opposed   its  adoption*     The  imperial 

chancellor,  G ran vella,  demanded  his  Burrendcr,  and 

Brenj,  wametl    by   a  note  reading:  "  Flee>  Brenz, 

quickly,    more  quickly,    most   quickly !  *'    escaped 

on  the  evening  of  his  forty-ninth  birth^lay,  June 

24,  1548.     He  hastened  to  Duke  Ulrich,  who  con- 

eeajed  him  in  the  castle  of  Hohenwittlingcn  near 

tTrachp  where^  under  the  pflcudonyin  of  Joannes 

W^itlinpue,  be  prepared  an  exposition  of  Ps.  xciii 

^d  cxxx.     Afl  the  emperor  was  everyiisdiere  t^earch- 

ing  for  him,  ITlrich  sent  him  by  way  of  Straaburg 

^  Basel,  where  he  wa^  kindly  received  and  found 

^Une  to  write  an  expoeition  of  the  prophecy  of 

laaiah.     Duke   Christopher    called   him    to   Miira- 

pelgiuxl«  where,  in  Jan.,  1549,  Brenz  wa«  notifieil 

of  the  death  of  his  wife.    The  condition  of  hia 

children  induced  him  to  go  to  Swabia,  but  owing 

to  the  pursuit  of  the  emperor,  he  was  often  in  gcreat 

danger,  and  the  duke  sheltercHj  him  in  the  castle 

of  Homberg  near  Gutach.     There  he  spent  eighteen 

Diontlis  under  the  name  of  lluldrich  Engster  (En- 

eaustiufi),  always  active  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church, 

both  by  his  adxnce  to  the  duke  and  his  theological 

labors.     He  declined  calls  to  Magdeburg,  Konigs- 

berg,  and  England*     In  Aug**   1549,  he  ventured 

to  go  to  Urach,  where  his  friend  Isenmann  was  now 

piioister,  in  order  to  take  counsel  with  the  duke, 

his  advisers,  and  Mattha*u9  Alber  (q,v.)  regarding 

the  restoration    of  the  evangehcal  di\nne  ser^Hcc. 

In    the  autumn  of  1550  he  married  for  his  second 

wife  Catharine,  the  oldest  daughter  of  Isenmann. 

After  ITlrich 's  death  Brenz  was  asked  to  prepare 
the  oon/essio  Wirtemf}ergira  for  tlie  Council  of  Trent^ 
and  with  three  other  Wiitcoberg  theoUigians  and 
Jobann  Marbach  of  Strasburg,  he  went  to  Trent, 
Mar*,  1552,  to  defend  his  creed  (see 
4.  ActiTity,  BEuaLfN,  Jakob)*  Great  was  the 
1550-53.  8ur|>rise  of  the  fathers  of  the  council, 
but  they  refusal  to  be  instructed 
by  thoee  who  were  to  obey  ihem*  The  Int^irini 
was  abolished.  Brenz  who  had  thus  far  lived  at 
Stuttgart,  TObingen,  Ehningen,  and  Bindelfingen 
as  counselor  of  the  duke,  was  made  provost  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Stuttgart,  Sept.  24,  1554,  ami  ap- 
pointed ducal  counselor  for  life»  He  was  now  the 
light  hand  of  the  duke  in  the  reorganixation  of 
eccleeiasticai  and  educational  affairs  in  Wrirtteni- 
berg*  The  great  church  order  of  1553-59,  con- 
taining also  the  confe»»io  Wirtembergira,  in  spite  of 
its  dogmatism,  is  distinguished  by  clearness,  mild- 
ness, and  consideration.  In  like  manner,  his 
CaUehiJfm^m  pia  ei  ulik  expOcatione  illustrattAs 
(Frankfort,  155i )  became  a  rich  source  of  instruction 
for  many  generations  and  countries.  The  propo- 
sition made  by  Kaspar  Ix-yser  and  Jfdcob  Andreii  in 
1554  to  introduce  a  form  of  discipline  aft4?r  a  Cal- 
vinistic  model  was  opposed  by  Brenz,  since  he  held 
that  the  minister  should  have  charge  of  the  preach- 
ings the  exhortation  to  repentance,  and  dissuasion 
frotn  the  Lorti'a  Supper,  whereas  excommunication 
belonged  to  the  whole  churclu  At  the  instance  of 
the  duke,  Brenz  moved  in  1553  to  Neuburg,  to 
uTftDge  the  church  affairs  of  the  Palatinate, 


The  Osiandric  controversy  about  the  dcctrine  of 
justification  in  1551  and  the  following  years,  which 
caused  a  scandaloiis  schism  in  Prussia,  was  a  cause 

of    much  annoyance  and    defamation 

5*  Contro-  to  Drcnz,  who  saw  in  this  controversy 

versies.     nothing  but  a  war  of  words*  In  1554— 

1555  the  question  of  the  Religious 
Peace  of  Augsburg  occupied  his  mind;  in  1556  the 
conference  with  Johannes  a  Lascx),  in  1557  the 
Frankenthal  conference  with  the  Anabaptists 
and  the  Worms  Colloquy;  in  1558  the  edict  against 
Schwenckfeld  and  the  Anabaptists,  and  the  Frankfort 
Receas;  in  1559  the  plan  for  a  synod  of  those  who 
wore  related  to  the  Augsburg  Coafession  and  the 
Stuttgart  Synod,  to  protect  Brena's  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Snp[ier  against  Calvinistic  tendencies;  in 
1563  and  15fi9  the  struggle  .^^inst  Calvinism  in  the 
Palatinate  (Muulbronn  Colloquy)  and  the  crypto- 
Ca!vimstic  controversies.  The  attack  of  the 
Dominican  Peter  a  Soto  upon  the  Wiirttemberg 
Confession  in  hia  Asmriio  fulet  (Cologne,  1562)  led 
BrenK  to  reply  with  his  Apologia  confesmonU 
(Frankfort,  1555).  In  1558  he  was  engaged  in  a 
controversy  with  Bishop  Hosius  of  Ermland. 
The  development  of  the  lieformation  in  the  Palati- 
nate le<i  tlie  aged  man  to  a  vehement  renewal  of 
his  negotiation  with  BulUnger,  with  whom  he  had 
been  forced  into  close  relation  through  the  Interim. 
The  question  concerned  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  and  also  involved  a  peculiar  development 
of  Christology^  which  was  opposed  by  the  Lutheran 
theologians  outside  of  Wiirttemberg,  since  Brenz 
carried  to  its  logical  conclusion  the  concept  of 
"  personal  imion,"  thus  favoring  an  absolute 
omnipresence  (ubiquity)  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
whicli  did  not  begin  with  the  ascension  but  with 
the  incaniation. 

Fin^na  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  Waldcnsians 
and  the  French  Protestants,  But  all  efforts  in  be- 
half of  the  latter,  the  journey  of  the  Wiirttemberg 

theologians  to   Paris  to  advise   Iving 

6.  Later     Antony  of  Navarre  in  1561  (see  Bki'r- 

Years.       lin,  Jakob),  the  meeting  of  the  duke 

and  Brena  with  Cardinal  Guise  of  Lor- 
raine at  Zabem,  the  correspondence  and  the  sending 
of  writings,  all  ended  in  bitter  disappointment. 
The  Protestants  of  Bavaria,  who  had  to  sulTer  mider 
Albert,  also  liad  his  full  sympathy.  To  the  citizens 
of  Strnsburg  Brenz  expressed  his  dotibts  as  to  the 
advisability  of  following  the  procession  with  the 
monstrance  and  advised  them  not  to  attend  mass. 
He  was  also  deeply  interested  in  the  Protestants 
in  Austria,  for  whom  the  first  Slavic  books  were 
then  printed  at  Urach*  His  last  Reformatory 
activity  was  the  correspondence  with  Duke  Will- 
iam of  Jidich  and  Julius  of  Brunswick-Wolfen- 
biittel  (1568-09).  In  iwidition  to  this  he  continurd 
his  exposition  of  the  Psalms  and  other  lliblir:d 
books,  which  he  had  commenctHl  at  Stuttgart. 
In  L569  he  was  paralyzeil,  and  his  strength  wfis 
broken*  He  was  buried  beneath  the  pulpit  of 
the  cathedral;  but  the  Jesuits  demolished  his  grave. 

G.  BoafiERT. 

Biblioohapht:  An  index  of  the  works,  printed  und  in  MS., 
of  Breni,  and  of  worka  »boul  him  in  fvirni»hcd  in  W. 
K^hier,  Biblioffraphia  Brentiana,  Berlin,   1904.     Tbero  is 


Br^s 
Breviary 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


M 


no  eomplct^  «d.  of  Breni'e  produGiionft.  tbough  wkctod 
worli»«  in  S  V(?b.,  were  published,  Tflbi&eea,  IST^-IK). 
The  tettaf*  are  £iv«D  in  T.  FresBeL.  ^niNXJ4:rea  BrfnUana^ 
lb.  1S08»  and  in  Bmtr^g*  rur  ^y«rucA<rn  A'ifrApFi^deAuibto, 
ed.  T;  Kulflie.  i,  273,  ii.  M.  Tbe  eftrlieJiC  iiketch  of  his 
life  ifl  by  J.  Heerbr&nd«  Onjiw  fuy^hrim,  TQbineeu.  1670, 
For  tatei:  lUHXi'unts  oqclpuU:  J.  Hartnuuui  «Jid  C.  Jftfer, 
JaAunn  ^rvtu.  2  voln.,  liaioburff,  1840-42  (aUU  the  bent 
account):  J.  HartHL^nTi,  JohAwn  Brem£.  Elb«rfeld,  1S&2; 
G,  Boawsrt.  ZJoj  /fitmiw  in  H'artfem*«Tff.  Halle,  1895: 
E,  Schneider,  W^TtUinbrrgitchis  tlt^chichU;.  BtuttgiLrt.  J  866. 
On  the  tbeokisy  of  Breni  consuit:  H,  Schmid,  Dm- 
Kampf  der  lutherUchen  Kiteke  um  Luifi&*t  Ltkn  vom 
Abemimahi  im  RefortnationMniiaUer,  Leipdc,  1868;  A. 
Hegltrn  J.  Bretu  umi  dU  He/ttrmatitm  im  fiersij^ium  iVirtrm- 
bm-g,  Fmibiirg,  l«t*9:  C.  W.  KUgelgeji,  Di*  RcrJUfefti</ung»^ 
Uhre  d0M  /,  Br^fU,  Leipsic.  ISOft;  G.  Truub,  Bmtro^  ctir 
Gt^hidiU  ilct  R9cMfrniffU7^ttb€ariff»*  ui  TSK,  Isxiii, 
1000. 

BR^,  bi^,  GUY  DE  (Guidode  Bray):  Reforaier 
in  tlie  Netherlanda;  b.  at  Mons  L522;  executed  at 
VtticrideDne«  May  31,  1567*  He  wm  brought  up 
strictly  by  his  Roman  Catholic  mother,  but  before 
hifl  twenty-fifth  year  had  become  a  thorough 
Protestant.  When  peraecutkm  broke  out  in  IMS, 
he  6etl  to  England,  where  he  spent  four  years. 
Theo  he  came  back  and  mjttled  at  Rysael  (Li<^ge), 
where  he  won  great  popularity  as  a  preacher. 
In  1556  his  congregation  was  dispersed  by  a  fresh 
persecution,  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee,  going 
apparently  for  a  while  to  Ghent,  then  to  Frankfort, 
and  probably  to  Swit&.^rlanii.  Early  in  1559  he 
returned  to  the  wuthem  Netherlanda,  with  Toumai 
for  hifj  headquarters,  but  serving  also  Hyegel  and 
Valenciennes,  and  viaiting  Antwerp  and  Mons  in 
the  cause  of  his  religion,  oft«n  in  disguise  for  safety '« 
Bake.  The  pubUc  einging  of  Marot's  pnalms 
!n  Sept,,  1561,  gave  rise  to  a  judicial  investigation^ 
which  exposed  Brfes  to  fresh  danger.  Undaunted, 
he  undertook  to  secure  jimtice  for  hid  comrfldes  by 
laying  before  the  authorities  his  confession  of  faith 
(known  a^  the  Belgie  Ckmfession,  q.v.)  in  thirty- 
seven  articles,  on  the  model  of  that  adoptml  by  the 
French  Reformed  chureheu  in  1559.  This  modest, 
sober,  positive  statement,  which  he  hopeii  would 
show  the  authorities  that  his  friends  were  not 
revolutionary  AnabaptiHtu,  failed  to  stop  the  perse- 
cution; but  the  frequent  editions  of  it  show  that 
it  met  with  popular  approval;  it  won  thousanda 
to  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  wa«  soon 
recognized  as  a  standard  formula.  Once  known, 
however,  as  its  author,  the  Reformer  was  obliged 
to  escape  from  Toumai  to  Amiens,  and  thence 
possibly  to  Antw^erp.  In  1564  he  was  in  Bniaaela 
for  a  conference  with  William  of  Orange,  and  took 
part  in  the  negotiations  at  Met^  for  a  union  of  the 
Lutherans  and  Cahimsts-  Then  he  found  a  refuge 
at  S^dan  with  Henri  Robert  de  la  Marck,  Sieur  de 
Boitillon,  but  was  called  back  to  a  post  of  danger 
in  the  summer  of  1566  by  the  consistory  of  Ant- 
werp, In  August  he  settled  at  Valenciennes, 
where  by  this  time  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
inhabitants  were  in  sympathy  with  the  Reforma- 
tion, At  first  he  preached  in  the  ojicn  air,  hut  aft^r 
the  iconoclastic  outbri^ak  of  Aug.  24  took  possession 
of  St,  John's  church.  The  govemor^a  attempts 
to  suppress  the  movement  led  to  the  siege  of  the 
city  in  December,  and  its  surrender  in  the  following 
March.  Once  more  Bn'^s  was  forcctl  to  fl<*e,  but 
he  and  bis  fellow  preachers  were  captured  a  few 


hours  later  at  Saint-Amand,  aad  sent  am  prbara&i 

to  Toumai  and  then  back  to  Valenciennefl*    Tk 

letters  which  he  wrote  to  comfort  his  wife  and  loi 

aged  mother  give  an  insight  into  his  faith  and  Cbc 

nobility  of  his  character.     He  was  eentenced  to  b 

banged  in  front  of  the  town  hall,  and  tbu*  ^M 

a  life  full  of  toil  and  peril,  which  is  one  of  the  ^xm 

of  the  Refarmatbn  in  the  ^southern  Netherlands. 

(L,  A,  TAK  Lahger^uu.) 

BiPt-TQciRAFffT;   L>  A>  Tan  Lanf$«nad,  Guidtt  dr  Bray;  sr^ 

ieteti  m  wtrken.     Bffdra^  t&t  dig  gg»£hied£mi»  tmm  kd  s^ 

N^thrlandKhv  Protatantinm,  Ziesiksee,  1S84;  W.  C  tu 

Uanen,    Guy  dt   Bray*    opmteller  van    ds   B^iydtiuMt  im 

^floaf%  4€r  0ereformt^9   Kerdttn  in  NmUriatidt.  AzBte- 

dam.  1MB. 

BRESLA0,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  dioceae  wtflcfc 
is  fihown  to  be  already  in  existence  at  the  date  d 
the  foundation  of  the  archbishopric  of  Gastm 
(1(X)0).  Probably  it  was  established  not  kt% 
l>efore  that  date,  presumably  not  by  Otto  IIlj  but 
by  Duke  Bolealftv  Chrobry  of  Poland,  The  opgtnil 
ext4'nt  of  the  diocese  can  not  be  detenninedf  biA 
in  later  times  it  was  neariy  coextensive  with  the 
present  province  of  Silesia,  including  also  the  Mhk 
sen  district  on  the  w^tem  side  of  the  Quds. 

(A,Hauck.) 

A  line  of  unusually  excellent  bishopa  admiitii- 
tered  the  see  with  success  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury; but  Jacob  von  Salia  (1520-39)  was  too  w«k 
to  stand  against  the  rising  tide  of  the  Reformatiooj 
and  his  successor,  Balthasar  von  Prommtx^  wascTta 
inclined  to  Lutheran  doetrinis.  From  1608  tQ 
U¥H  the  see  waj  occupied  by  three  archdukw  of 
Austrb  and  a  prince  of  Poland,  who  had  little  ear? 
for  religion,  and  when  Bdeaia  came  under  Freder- 
ick H  of  Prussia  Protestantism  was  still  more  eD- 
couraged.  In  1821  the  diocese,  which  is  now  parllT 
in  Germany  and  partly  in  Aujstria  and  numben 
about  two  million  souls,  was  made  an  exempt 
bbhopric. 

BRETHREIT,  BOHEMIAHj  BRETHREH  OF 
THE  COlOfON  LIFEj  and  similar  titles.  See 
Bohemian  BaETHREN;    Common  Lite,  Brethresi 

OF  THK,    etc. 

BRETSCHlf  EIDER,  bret'shnai"der,  KARL  GOTT- 
LIEB^ German  theologian-  b.  at  Gersdorf  (-M) 
m.  e.  of  Dresden),  Saxony,  Feb,  11,  1T76;  d.  at 
Gotha  Jan,  22,  1S4S;  studied  at  Leipsie;  appointed 
minister  at  Schneeberg,  1807.  superintendent  at  An- 
naberg,  1808,  and  superintendent-general  at  Goths, 
181G.  Hb  m'aa  a  prolific  writer  and  took  an  active 
part  in  coU trove rsic«.  Among  his  principal  works 
may  be  mentioned:  Lexicon  manuaie  Grtrat-LaH- 
num  in  libros  Novi  Te^tumenli  (Leipaic,  1821;  3d 
ed,,  1840);  SyiienrntUche  EntwickMMng  alitr  in  der 
Dogmaiik  vorkomm^nden  Be^ffe  (1S05;  4th  t-d., 
IS41);  Handbwch  der  DogmaJtik  (1814;  4th  e^l,, 
}}&S),  He  founded  the  series  of  reprints  called  the 
Corpua  Teformaionim  (Halle,  1834  ?»qq.),  in  which 
the  works  of  Melanchthon  and  Calvin  have  ap- 
peared, to  which  ZwingU  will  be  added,  Hifl 
standpoint  was  that  of  the  scM^Ued  rational 
eupernaturalisra — a  rather  untenable  ground  be- 
tween rationalism  and  supematuraliam. 
liiitLK^onAPHT:  K.  O.  Bret»chneider,  Aut    mrirutm    Lfbin; 

SvltmUiioffniphim,  md.  H,  Bt9U«haeider  (hia  nan),  GotMi 

18AX 


263 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Breviary 


e^        BREVIART:     The  name  of  the  Roman  Catholic 

^    service-book  containmg  what  is  called  the  "  divine 

^    office "  or  the  services  for  the  canonical  hours, 

I     aa  distinguished  from  the  missal,  which  contains 

^*     the  altar-service,  and  the  ritual,  which  has  the 

f     rites  for  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  etc. 

It  is  a  practically  arranged,  well-divided  collection 

of   prayers    with   numerous    brief    extracts    from 

Scripture,   and  the  Fathers  and  ancient  hymns. 

From  the  subdeacon  upward  every  Roman  cleric 

is  bound  to  recite  the  whole  office  daily. 

The  breviary  is  based  on  the  idea  of  realizing, 
in  the  spirit  of  the  Church,  at  least  symbolically, 
the  apostolic  command  to  "  pray  without  ceas- 
ing"; the  whole  life  of  the  Christian  is  to  appear 
as  a  continuous  prayer,  not  only  in  heart  and  works, 
but  also  in  words;  at  all  hours  and  places  of  the 
earth  the  prayer  of  the  Church  is  to  ascend  to  God. 
The  custom  of  the  synagogue  (Dan.  vi,  10,  13; 
Pis.  iv,  18)  in  regard  to  morning  and  evening  hours 
(I  Chron.  xxiv,  30)  as  well  as  other 
The  times  of  prayer  (JPs.  cxix,  62,  64) 
Canonical  was  taken  as  a  standard.  At  first 
Hours.  there  were  the  three  hours,  the  third, 
sixth,  and -ninth,  or  9  a.m.,  noon,  and 
3  P.M.  (cf.  Acts  ii,  15,  46;  iii,  1;  x,  9).  To  these 
were  added  midnight,  the  hour  when  Paul  and 
Silas  prayed  in  the  prison  (Acts  xvi,  25),  and  the 
beginning  of  the  day  and  the  night.  This  arrange- 
ment of  prayer  is  mentioned  in  Tertullian,  Cyprian, 
Justin  Martyr,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions.  In  the  fourth  century, 
Athanasius  (De  virginitaUf  xii-xx)  knows  of  seven 
hours;  Gregory  Nazianzen  speaks  with  approval 
of  the  nightly  vigils  and  the  antiphonal  singing. 
All  these  hours  were  adopted  in  the  monasteries 
especially,  as  Jerome  {Epist.^  vii,  cviii,  cxxx),  Basil, 
and  Augustine  attest.  From  the  monasteries 
these  hours  of  prayer  (called  canonical  as  a  part 
of  canonical  life)  spread  to  the  cathedral  and 
collegiate  chapters.  Benedict  added  the  seventh 
(compline,  completorium),  and  since  the  sixth 
century  the  order  and  number  of  hours  have  not 
varied.  The  day-hours  are  prime  (normally  at 
6  A.M.),  terce  (9  a.m.),  sext  (noon),  none  (3  p.m.), 
and  vespers  (6  p.m.);  nowadays  compline  and  lauds 
are  usually  reckoned  with  them.  (See  the  articles 
imder  these  titles.) 

Matins,  answering  to  the  three  Roman  vigils, 
is  divided  into  three  nocturnes,  and  was  originally 
followed  by  the  present  lauds. 

The  bulk  of  the  prayers  for  all  these  hours  was 
taken  from   the  Psalms,  to  which  antiphons  were 
added,  giving  the  psalms  a  special  meaning  appro- 
priate to  the  occasion.    Afterward  collects  were 
added,  which  were  intended  to  pre- 
Sources     vent  distraction  and  excite  devotion, 
and  Revi-  and  are  accordingly  brief.    The  pos- 
sions  of  the  ture  varied  between  standing,  sitting, 
Breviary,    and   kneeling.    The   whole   structure 
was  enriched  and  completed  by  the 
addition  of  other  prayers,  responsories,  versicles, 
etc.    The  musical  element  was  provided  for  by 
official  books  known  as  antiphonaries,  especially 
that  composed  imder  Gregory  I,  and  the  so-called 
Micrologits     (twelfth     century).    Cassian     attests 


that  each  three  psalms  at  matins  were  followed 
by  three  lessons,  taken  from  Scripture,  on  Sunday 
only  from  the  New  Testament;  later  on  the  lives 
of  the  saints  and  exegetical  passages  from  the 
most  prominent  teachers  of  the  Church  were  in- 
serted. The  introduction  of  metrical  hymns  was 
long  opposed  (Council  of  Braga,  553),  especially 
in  Rome.  So  many  arbitrary  additions  made  the 
offices  too  long,  and  Gregory  VII  reduced  them; 
other  revisions  were  made  under  Gregory  IX, 
Clement  VII,  who  had  the  assistance  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan general,  Cardinal  Quignoncz  (1536),  Clement 
VIII  (1602),  and  Urban  VIII  (1631).  The  late 
Vatican  Council  also  introduced  some  changes. 

At  present  the  Roman  breviary,  which  has  at 

last  succeeded  in  supplanting  the  many  local  or 

diocesan  uses,  consists  of  four  parts,  corresponding 

to  the  four  seasons  of  the  year.    Each 

Contents  part  again  has  four  divisions:  (1)  The 
of  the       psalter,  or  ordinary  week-day  service 

Roman      for  each  day  and  hour;  (2)  the  "  proper 

Breviary,  of  the  season,"  the  service  for  the  fes- 
tivals of  Christ  and  the  Sundays  of 
the  various  seasons;  (3)  the  "proper  of  saints,"  the 
special  service  for  the  festivals  of  particular  saints; 
and  (4)  the  "  common  of  saints,"  providing,  under 
separate  classes,  services  for  those  saints  who  have 
no  special  one.  Appendices  contain  the  office  for 
the  dead,  the  gradual  and  penitential  psalms, 
prayers  for  the  dying  and  for  travelers,  and  grace 
before  and  after  meals. 

The  analogous  service-book  in  the  Greek  Church 
is  called  Horologium.  In  the  Evangelical  Church 
a  similar  service  was  often  retained  in  cathedral 
and  collegiate  chapters,  for  which  Luther's  sug- 
gestions of  1523  and  1526  fiumished  a  basis.  The 
matins  and  vespers  were  especially  retained. 
Attempts  have  lately  been  made,  with  varying 
success,  to  restore  the  other  hours;  but  the  prob- 
lem can  not  be  considered  as  solved.  The  Anglican 
Church,  in  its  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  has  made 
skilful  use  of  important  portions  from  the  ancient 
order.  M.  Herold. 

The  calendar  of  the  Roman  breviary  is  a  com- 
plicated affair,  especially  since  the  multiplication 
of  festivals  in  the  last  two  or  three  centuries.  These 
are  classed  as  double  or  simple.  The  simple  form 
the  lowest  class,  and  have  no  second  vespers. 
The  double  (so  called  from  the  antiphons  being 
doubled,  or  recited  entire  both  before  and  after 
the  psalms  and  canticles  at  lauds  and  vespers) 
are  classed  in  order  of  importance  as  doubles  of 
the  first  class  (with  or  without  an  octave),  second 
class,  greater,  and  lesser.  Where  two  feasts  occur, 
i.e.,  fall  on  the  same  day,  or  concur,  i.e.,  the  first 
vespers  of  one  conffict  with  the  second  vespers  of 
the  other,  the  difficulty  is  met,  according  to  detailed 
rules  based  on  the  rank  of  the  feasts,  either  by 
"  transferring "  the  less  important  to  the  first 
unoccupied  day,  or  by  "  commemorating "  it 
with  the  recitation  of  its  chief  antiphon,  versicle 
and  response,  and  collect,  after  the  collect  for  the 
day  at  lauds  and  vespers. 

Bibuoorapht:  A  complete  Eng.  transl.  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  was  made  by  John  Marquese  of  Bute,  2  vols., 
London.  1879.     Consult  also:  C.  H.  CoUette,    The  Roman 


Srow8r 
Bridget 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


M 


BrmiarVt  I^Ddon,  1880;  O.  Bdiob«r,    Eipkxmdia  eriUm. 

.  .  brt!ti&rii  Bomani,  Rcgeiuibtirs,  1891;  B.  Biumefp 
OM^icMf  d«9  BrffTwra,  FroiburK,  189fi.  Ff.  traniil.,  Pftrift, 
1906;  F.  B*tiffol,  Hi*toir*  du  brrviaitt  Romain.  Vmrin,  1S©3, 
Ejifi.  tmuaL.  London*  189Si  Binch&m.  OriffiiMn,  book  xiti, 
cbmp.  9:  J.  B»udot,  Le  Brivusin  remaift,  wu  origine$t  $^m 
hiMioiri,  Pans.  19D6. 

On  thei  Scripture  reAdiufi  sotunilt  E.  R&nko,  Diu  Jrircft^ 
liehe  Ptrih>ptnsy»tem  au9  4sn  {UUiien  Urkunden.  tUr  rdmi- 
Mchen  Liturgia,  Berlin,  IS47, 

Ok  the  h^cuna  eonnult:  F*  PiTjb»tt  Brmfiw  und  Brv^Ur- 
Ifebett  T^bLngen,  1368;  J.  KKyaer.  BtitfOge  tur  G^^diichtt 
vnd  ErktAnifiQ  otsr  alien  Kirdiefikf/mnen,  2  voln^,  Piwl^r- 
born,  1881-8C5;  JuJjmn,  Hymnoloffy,  pp.  170-1  SI,  A  rich 
bib1iogT%t>hy  of  Breviaries  la  to  be  /aund  ia  the  BrUiMh 
Mweum  CakdoiTiie,  h.v,  LittirKiP-*. 

BREWER,  LEIGH  RICHMOHD:  Protefltant 
EpiflCDpal  Ijiiihop  of  Montana;  b.  at  BerkBtiire,  Vt., 
Jan.  20,  1839.  He  waa  educated  at  Hob  art  GDllege 
(B.A-,  1863)  and  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
(1866),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1866  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  followmg  year.  He  waa  sue- 
eeaaively  rector  of  Grace  Churchy  Carthage,  N*  Y. 
(1866-72),  and  Trinity  Church,  Wateri^wn,  N.  Y. 
(1872-80),  and  in  1880  waa  conaocrated  nLissionary 
biahop  of  Montana. 

BREWSTER,  CHAUNCEY  BUHCE:  Protestant 
Episcopal  biahop  of  Connecticut;  b,  at  Wind- 
ham,  Conn.,  Bept,  5,  1848.  He  waa  educated  at 
Yale  CoHego  (B,A,,  1868)  and  Berkeley  Divinity 
Bohocl,  Middletown,  Conn.  (1872),  He  was  a  tu- 
tor at  Yale  in  1870-71,  waa  ordered  deacon  m 
1872,  and  waa  advanced  to  the  priesthood  in  the 
following  year.  He  was  curate  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Meriden,  Conn.,  in  1872,  and  was  then  rector  in 
Bucceasion  of  Chriflt  Churchy  Rye,  N.  Y.  (187^-^1), 
Chriat  Church,  Detroit,  Mich.  (1881-85),  Grace 
Church,  Baltimore  (1885-88),  and  Grace  Church, 
Brooklyn  Heights  (1888-97).  In  1897  he  waa 
Kinaecrated  biahoi^coadjutor  of  Connecticut,  and 
became  biahop  in  1899-  His  theologicjil  posilton 
Ls  that  of  a  High-chtirchman  with  liberal  sympa- 
thiea.  He  haa  written  The  Key  of  Life  (New  York, 
1894);  Aspeds  of  Revelotim  (1901;  the  Baldifvin 
lectures  for  1900);  and  The  Catholic  Ideal  of  the 
Church  (1904). 

BREWSTER,  WILLUM:  Leader  of  the  ''Pil- 
grim Fathers";  b.  of  good  family  probably  at 
Scrooby  (37  m.  s.  of  York),  Nottinghamshire, 
England,  1560;  d,  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  Apr,  10, 
1644.  He  matriculated  at  Peter  house,  Cambridge  ^ 
but  apparently  did  not  graduate.  From  1584  till 
1587  he  was  in  the  service  of  William  Daviaon, 
ambassador  to  the  Low  Countriea  and  aftcrw^arti 
lecretary  of  state.  About  1587  heretiretl  to  Scrooby, 
where  ho  hved  in  the  manor-house  and  waa 
keeper  of  the  poet,  a  position  of  considerable  im- 
portance at  that  time.  He  was  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  a  aeparatbt  congregation  of  which  Richard 
Clifton  (q,v,)  waa  pastor,  holding  its  meetings 
regularly  at  Brcwster'a  house.  Because  of  perae- 
cutioD  In  England  they  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  flee  to  Holland  in  1607,  and  in  1608 
escaped  to  Amsterdam  with  John  Robinson  (q.v.) 
as  "  teacher  "  and  Brewster  as  "  elder."  In  1C09 
they  settled  at  Ley  den,  where  Brewster,  having 
exhauBted  hia  means,  gave  leerons  in  English  and 
also  set  up  a  printing-press .     He  favored  the  emi- 


gration to  America,  waa  mfluential  in  aeetuiiig  & 
grant  of  land  in  1619,  and  sailed  with  the  fim 
company  in  the  Mayficwer,  Sept-,  16"^.  Hi 
continued  as  elder  of  the  congregation  at  Plynuraih, 
and  preached  regularly  until  the  fij^  ordiined 
miniater,  Ralph  Smith,  catme  in  1629,  but  is  k 
waa  not  ordained,  he  never  administered  the  mt 
ments.  See  Conoregatiohalistb,  I,  1,  {t>-T; 
4JL 

BisuQGiupirT:  Mmruir,  written  by  his  doUeBCoe,  W3bu 
BnutfofnL  the  governor  nod  bistarisn  of  the  Flfmoiitb 
eolony  (b.  l5fKl;  d.  1657),.  m  Y&uns'a  nhfvnj^iec  «f  it 
PUgHtru,  BoFrton.  iS4l,  find  ia  ihm  Coll^^Monm  of  the  Mmmt- 
^uMtt»  Hitt&nail  Siteiety,  serie^i  5,  vol.  lij;  A.  Btach 
Chi^  of  th«  Pilgrim*.  Life  and  Time  of  W.  BrYvpiff.  Plai- 
actelphlft,  1S57;  J.  Saviase,  Oemaloaital  DietumoFg  «f  it 
Firti  Settter*  of  Nop  Eivl^mi,  4  vols.,  Boololi,  imHSi 
W.  Walkfir,  Hmtxtry  of  Conffngationat  Churektt^  p^  Sk, 
59.  61-74.  77.  227.  New  York,  J  894;  DNS,  m,  30*-3(». 

BREYFOGEL,  brd'fo^gel,  SYLVAITUS  CHARIE: 
Bishap  of  the  Evangelical  Association;  b.  at  Bad- 
ing,  Pa.,  July  20,  185L  He  was  ordained  io 
the  ministry  of  the  Evangelical  Asaoektion  io 
1873,  was  elected  presiding  elder  of  the  nine 
organissation  in  1886,  and  has  been  bkhop  ime 
1891,  In  this  capacity  he  haa  made  toun  rf 
inspection  throughout  the  United  States,  Oaa- 
ada,  and  Europe,  as  weU  as  China  and  JapuL 
He  ia  chancellor  of  the  CorrcapondeDce  CdOq^ 
of  the  Evangelical  Aesocbtion  at  Reading,  F&, 
has  lectured  frequently  before  the  Ocean  Grove 
School  of  Theology,  the  Winona  Assembly,  and  aijn- 
iiar  summer  assembliea,  and  haa  writt'CO  Landrmaia 
of  the  Evangelic^  As9ociation  (Cleveland^  1887). 

BRIC01flfET,bri"Bon"nft',einLLAUME;  Fmaidi 

prelate;  b.  at  Paris  1470;  d,  at  Estnana  (near 
Montereau,  20  m.  e^.e,  of  Melun)  Jan.  24,  15S4. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  a  noble  family  of  Touraine, 
and,  after  completing  his  theological  studies  at  tbe 
college  of  Navarre,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Lod&ve 
and  was  also  made  abbot  of  St.  GerraaiiiHies-RTSa 
in  1507.  Four  years  later  he  attended  the  Councfl 
of  Pisa,  and  during  his  absence  a  epirit  of  Ucea- 
tiouaness  spread  among  his  monks,  whom  he  was 
unable  to  control,  Francia  I  then  appointed  him 
bishop  of  Meaux  and  sent  him  on  a  miasioa  to 
Rfjme,  where  he  remained  two  years.  On  his 
return,  he  sought  to  improve  the  morals  and  cus- 
toms of  his  diocoie,  and  accordingly  convoked 
several  synods,  and  also  e?i tended  invitations  to 
a  nuniber  of  evangelical  preachers,  such  as  Lef^vre, 
RouBsel,  and  Farel,  who  preached  io  thirty-two 
different  places  in  hija  diocese,  and  introduced 
French  translations  of  the  Gospels  and  Epistles. 
When  Farel  attacked  Rome,  however,  Brigonnet 
deprived  him  of  hia  office  and  convoked  two  synods, 
the  first  condemning  the  teachings  of  Luther  asd 
forbidding  the  purchase  or  the  reading  of  bis  workd, 
and  the  aecond  prohibiting  all  heterodox  inter- 
pretations of  the  Goapel.  Bri^onnet  found  himself 
between  two  factions;  one  turning  against  Rome 
by  denying  the  authority  of  the  pope,  the  worelup 
of  the  Virgin  and  of  the  saints;  and  the  other 
clinging  to  the  old  traditions.  In  his  effort  to 
avoid  extremca,  he  published  certain  proclamatioDS 
between  Dec,  1524,  and  Jan.,  1525,  threatening 
to  excommimicate  those  who  had  burned  the  bull 


865 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brow0r 
Bridget 


©f  Clement  VII  and  destroyed  images  of  tbe  Virgin, 
Notwithstanding  this,  he  was  charged  by  the 
Cordeliers  before  the  Parliament  of  Paris  with  be- 
ixig  in  sympathy  with  the  Lutherans  (Mar.,  1525- 
0«t.,  1526),  whereupon  a  commission  ordered  that 
Lef^vre's  translations  be  burned,  and  forbade 
evangelical  preaching.  The  preachers  accordingly 
fled  to  Stra^^burg,  although  Bri^onnet  hhniaelf  was 
acquitted.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence  of 
Francis  1,  who  was  held  captive  in  Madrid,  the 
Cordeliets  renewed  their  charges,  and  two  of  the 
new  preachers.  Jacobus  Pauvan  and  Matthffiua 
Saunier,  were  convicted  of  heresy  by  the  Sorbonne 
and  bumed  at  the  stake.  Bri^onnet  wrote  a  letter 
0f  submission  to  the  Parliament^  and  Francis 
qtiaahed  the  case.  His  works  were  as  follows; 
Synodolu  oraiio  (Paris,  1520):  SynodalU  oraHo 
(1552);  and  a  corFespondence  with  Margaret  of 
Navarre,  iome  of  which,  with  other  fragmentSi 
ifl  contained  in  G^nin,  Lettres  de  Marguerite  d'Ang^yu- 
iime  (1841)  and  Nouvelles  kUre^  de  la  reine  de 
Naparre  {IS42).  and  Henninjard,  Corre^pomiancG 
des  T^f&rmaieura  (Geneva,  1878). 

G-  Bonet-Machy. 

Bibuckimafst:  G.  BRtonnemu,  HiMtmre  ffSnSaloffique  ds  la 
mdtitondetBriamntUFmiA^  1620:  M.TX,  DuplwsSi.  HiMtoin 
dm  rSglite  de  Maiiu,  ib.  1731 ;  V.  Duniy,  HiMtoire  de  Frama, 
it  675  scm.,  ib=  llSfifl:  A*  L.  HerTDiDJard»  Cf^Te*pcmdartce 
d&  rifarmateurt,  vol.  i.  lb.  1S7S;  E.  and  E,  Uaag,  La 
France  prote^ftante.  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier,  ib.  1S77  Bqq-t  Licb- 
lenbeTiger.  ESE.  H.  423-420;  8,  Berger.  in  BulleHn  tU  Ca 
m>ei6U  du  prote*ta-nii»tns  fran^aia^  ISQ5, 

BRICTINAlfS  (Bnttuians,  Brittiniana,  so  named 
from  S.  Blasius  de  Brictinis,  a  desolate  region  not 
far  from  Fano  in  Umbria):  An  Italian  hermit- 
■odety  founded  during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory 
IX,  who  confirmed  it  in  1234  by  an  edict,  enjoining 
upon  the  members  the  most  rigomue  asceticism, 
especially  as  to  fasting  and  the  total  abstinence 
from  fl^h  in  any  form  between  Sept.  14  and  Easter 
of  every  year.  Innocent  IV  sought,  apparently 
with  succ^s,  to  merge  them,  as  well  as  the  anchorite 
orders  of  the  Williamites  and  John-Bonitea  (qq-v.), 
in  the  new  order  of  the  Augustinians  (q.v.).  A 
bull  of  Alexander  IV,  however,  dated  in  1260 
(Pott hast,  Regmta^  no.  17,915),  assures  them  the 
right  of  independent  existence.        O,  ZdCKXEBf. 

BIUDAIFE  {BRYDAUTE),  JACQUES:  French 
Roman  Catholic  preacher;  b,  at  Chusdan  (15  m. 
nj].w.  of  Avignon) J  Department  of  Gard,  Mar,  21, 
1701;  d,  at  Eoqiiemaure,  near  Avignon,  Dec.  22, 
1767.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuit  College  and  the 
B£ijs&ion  Seminary  of  St.  Charles  de  la  Croix  in 
Avignon;  visited  aa  a  missionary  preacher  or  evan- 
gelist nearly  every  city  and  village  of  France,  pro- 
ducing ft  profound  impression  by  hia  somber  and 
vehement  sermons.  He  almost  always  preach^  ex- 
temporaneotuly,  appealed  to  the  emotions  of  bis 
hearers,  and  sought  to  terrify  them.  He  prepared 
a  volume  of  Cantiqiie^  spiriiueh  (Montpcllier,  1748), 
which  has  paist^ed  through  fifty  editions.  Certain 
works  have  been  published  from  hies  manuscripts, 
including  Led;ures  ei  mMitations  (Avignon,  1821  )j 
Jt^l^meM  de  vie  pour  une  pieuse  demmseUc  (1821); 
and  five  volumea  of  sermons  (1823), 

Bibuoo&afht:  AbbA  Cutod,  Le  ModkU  da  pr^frwt,  F»fu, 
ISOft, 


BRIDEL,    brt'Md',  PHILIPPE  LOUIS  JUSTEf; 

Swiss  Protestant;  b,at  Lausanne  Nov.  27»  1852.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Academy  (now  the  Univeraity) 
of  his  native  city  and  in  the  theological  faculty  of 
the  Free  Church  of  the  same  institution,  being 
graduated  from  the  former  in  1870  and  from  the 
latter  in  1876.  He  also  studied  at  the  Univefsity 
of  GOttingen^  and  after  the  completion  of  his 
education  held  gucees^ive  pa^storates  in  the  Canton 
of  Vaud  (1875-78),  Paria  (1879-87),  and  Lausanne 
{18S7-94).  Since  1894  he  has  been  professor  of 
philosophy  and  the  history  of  theology  in  the 
theological  faculty  of  the  Free  Church  at  LauJianne. 
He  has  been  associate  editor  of  the  Revue  de  iMo- 
logie  ei  de  phUosiyphie  sinc^  1S95  and  of  the  LihmU 
chrMienne  since  1898,  In  theology  he  is,  to  a  <^r- 
tain  extent,  a  follower  of  C,  Secr^tan  and  A.  E, 
VLnet,  and  has  written  La  Fhihsophie  de  la  religion 
d*Immanud  Kanl  (Lausanne,  1876);  La  Falentine 
illuBlrie  (4  vols.,  1888-91);  Ri>ger  HaUard,  pa&teur 
fl  Paris  (1902);  and  Charles  Ren&umer  ei  la  phv- 
lomphie{l9(i5). 

BRIDGE,  WILLIAM;  Puritan;  b.  in  Cam- 
bridgeshu^  about  1600;  d.  at  Oapham,  near 
London,  Mar.  12, 1670.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Emman- 
uel CoUegei  Cambridge,  and,  as  rector  at  Norwich, 
was  silenced  by  Bishop  Wren  for  non-conform- 
ity (1637),  and  excommunicated;  he  remained  in 
Norwich,  however,  till  the  writ  de  excommunkaio 
capiendo  came  out  against  him^  when  he  ficd  to 
Holland  and  became  pastor  of  the  English  Church 
at  Rotterdam,  succeeding  Hugh  Petem  and  asao- 
clated  with  Jeremiah  Burroughs;  he  returned  to 
England  in  1642  and  was  a  member  of  the  West^ 
minster  Assembly;  was  minister  at  Great  Yar- 
mouth  till  ejected  in  1662,  and  spent  the  rest 
of  his  Ufa  at  Clapbam,  He  was  sax  Independent 
(Congregationalist)  and  Calviniat,  a  learned  man, 
and  had  a  library  rich  in  the  Fathers  and  school- 
men. His  collected  works  in  three  volumes  were 
published  at  London,  16-19,  and,  with  memoriE,!, 
in  five  volumes,  1845, 

BRIDGET  (Brigit,  Brigida,  Bride),  SAUTT,  OF 
KILDARE:  Patron  saint  of  Ireland;  b.  atFochart 
(Faugher,  2  m,  n.  of  Dundalk),  Leinater,  c.  453; 
d.  at  Kiidare  (30  m,  w.s.w.  of  Dublin)  Feb.  1,  523. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  certain  Dubhthach  and 
his  bondmaid  or  concubine  named  Brotsech,  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  she  received  the  veil  in  Meath 
from  the  hand  of  Bishop  Machille  (Mel),  and  during 
a  long  life  won  renown  for  piety  and  benevolence, 
an  d  as  a  founder  o  f  monasteries .  Her  first  and  most 
important  foundation  was  KUdare  {ciU  dara^  so 
named  from  a  large  oak  under  which  her  cell  was 
first  pla<^),  which  was  followed  by  Breagh  in 
Meath,  Hay  in  Conn  aught,  Cliagh  in  Munater, 
and  others.  She  was  buried  at  KUdare,  where  the 
niina  of  her  monastery  (the  "  fire-bouse  ")  kept 
the  so-called  ''St,  Bridget's  fire "  i^ntinuahy 
burning  in  her  honor  till  1220»  when  the  bishop  of 
the  time  ordered  it  extinguished  to  make  an  end 
of  the  many  superstitions  connected  with  it.  Thus 
far  the  notices  of  her  life  are  well  authenticated; 
but  in  very  early  times  legend  began  to  ass^ociate 
marvels  of  the  wildest  sort  with  her  name — a  tend- 


Bridget 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ency  not  unknown  to  her  oldest  biographers. 
An  aged  seer  foretold  her  future  greatness  to  her 
mother  before  she  was  bom. 

While  still  a  child  Bridget  prophesied  her  coming 
spiritual  rule  over  Ireland  by  stretching  her  arms 
over  the  green  fields  and  crying  "it  will  be 
mine."  As  nun  and  monastery-head  she  per- 
forms numerous  miracles  of  benevolence  and 
love  like  those  of  Elijah  at  Zarephath  and  Jesus 
in  feeding  the  multitude.  The  milk  which  she 
gives  to  a  poor  man,  instead  of  making  it  into 
butter,  is  restored  in  a  wondrous  way;  so  like- 
wise the  bacon  which  she  gives  to  a  himgry 
dog  instead  of  cooking  it.  She  gives  seven  sheep, 
one  after  the  other,  to  a  beggar  who  comes  to 
her  in  seven  different  forms,  but  the  number 
of  her  flock  is  not  diminished.  She  changes  the 
water  drawn  from  a  spring  for  a  sick  man  into 
a  delicious  liquor.  She  satisfies  a  whole  company 
of  episcopal  guests  with  the  milk  of  a  single  cow 
which  had  already  been  milked  three  tinges  the 
same  day. 

Some  of  her  dream-miracles  and  visions  are 
more  credible;  but  here,  on  the  one  hand,  a 
Roman-clerical  tendency  is  easily  recognized — 
as  when  she  finds  herself  transported  to  Rome 
and  hears  a  mass  read  there  which  awakens  in 
her  the  desire  to  transplant  the  same  to  Ireland — 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  we  meet  with  characteris- 
tics of  a  benevolent  nature-deity,  which  the  legends 
mentioned  above  also  indicate  by  ascribing  to 
her  manifold  miracles  connected  with  the  giving 
of  food  and  drink.  It  is  thus  not  unlikely  that 
the  old  heathen  nature-goddess  Ceridwen  (the 
Ceres  of  the  Celts),  transformed  into  a  Christian 
saint,  survives  in  Bridget.  The  fire  also  which 
was  kept  burning  in  her  honor  at  Kildare  speaks 
for  this  supposition.  It  is  said  that  the  foimdations 
of  a  temple  of  Ceridwen,  with  great  vaults  for  the 
storing  of  fruits,  have  been  found  beneath  the 
chapel  of  the  monastery  (of.  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy,  iii,  1789,  Ant.,  75-85).  In 
old  Irish  legend  and  song,  Bridget  is  likened  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  or  even  extolled  as  the  Mary  of 
the  Irish  by  expressions  such  as  "  mother  of  Christ," 
"  mother  of  the  Lord,"  and  the  like.  A  hymn, 
attributed  to  Bishop  Ultan  (d.  656)  and  in  any 
case  very  old,  calls  her  "  beloved  queen  of  the 
true  God,"  and  the  old  Officium  S.  Brigidw  (printed 
at  Paris,  1622)  speaks  of  her  as  "  another  Mary," 
**  like  to  Mary,"  etc.  The  monasteries,  churchetf, 
and  villages  named  after  her  are  almost  without 
number.  O.  ZocKLERf. 

Bibuoobapht:  The  three  oldest  lives  (by  Brogar  Cloen, 
Cogitosus,  and  Ultan),  dating  from  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries,  with  three  later  lives,  from  the  ninth  to  the 
twelfth  centuries,  were  published  by  J.  Colgan  in  his  Trias 
thaumatwga^  pp.  61&-626,  Louvain,  1647;  the  ASB  gives 
three  of  these  lives  with  two  others  and  a  preface,  Feb., 
i,  99-186.  The  life  by  Cogitosus  is  in  Af  PL,  Ixxii.  For 
later  presentations  consult  J.  Lanigan,  EccUsiaatical  His- 
tory af  Ireland,  i,  68,  335,  and  chaps,  viii  and  ix,  passim, 
Dublin.  1829;  J.  H.  Todd,  The  Book  of  Hymna  of  the  An- 
cient Church  of  Ireland,  i,  64-70,  Dublin,  1855;  idem,  St. 
Patrick,  pp.  10-26,  Dublin,  1864;  A.  P.  Forbes,  Kalendare 
of  Scottish  Saints,  pp.  287-291 ,  Edinburgh,  1872;  J.  Healy, 
Insula  sanctorum,  pp.  106-121,  Dublin.  1890;  T.  Olden, 
The  Church  of  Ireland,  pp.  38-48,  London,  1895;  J.  O'Han- 
lon.  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints,  ii.  1-224,  Dublin,  n.d. 


BRIDGET,  SAINT,  OF  SWEDEN  AND  THE 
BRIGITTINE  ORDER. 

Bridget's  Early  Life  (i  1). 

Bridget's  Revelations  and  Later  Life  (i  2). 

Her  Works  (|  3). 

The  Brigittine  Order  (i  4). 

Bridget,  the  famous  Scandinavian  mystie  and 
monajstic  founder,  was  bom  probably  at  Finstad, 
not  far  from  Upsala,  in  1303;  d.  in  Rome  July  21, 
1373.  Her  father,  Birger  Persson,  was  one  of  the 
principal  landowners  of  the  district,  and  ehugod 
with  both  administrative  and  judicial  functkna. 
Her  family  on  both  sides  had  been  distingiBsfaed 
for  religious  devotion,  and  the  child  received  i 
careful  education  in  spiritual  things.  Her  ima|;i- 
nation,  nourished  on  the  lives  of  the  saints,  bnra^ 
her  her  first  vision  at  the  age  of  seven.  OtherB  fol- 
lowed, the  reality  of  which  neither  db 

z.  Bridget's  nor  her  parents  doubted.  After  her 
Early  mother's  death,  Bridget  was  entnnled 
Life.  to  an  aunt  at  Aspan&s,  whose  strict  do- 
cipline  laid  the  foundation  of  her  asceti- 
cism and  strength  of  will .  In  13 1 6  she  was  married, 
in  pursuance  of  her  father's  political  plans,  to  Utf, 
son  of  the  governor  of  the  province  of  Nerike,  and 
took  up  her  residence  at  Ulf&sa  in  that  proviooe, 
where  she  acquired  great  influence  by  the  renown 
of  her  piety  and  unselfishness.  By  degrees  she  col- 
lected around  her  a  group  of  devout  and  leaned 
men — Nicolaus  Hermanni,  renowned  as  a  Latin 
poet,  and  later  bishop  of  LinkOping,  who  was  the 
instructor  of  her  children;  Matthias,  her  confessor, 
the  foremost  theologian  of  the  time  in  Sweden; 
Prior  Peter  of  Alvastra;  and  another  Peter,  who 
succeeded  Matthias  as  her  confessor.  Through 
Matthias,  who  was  the  author  of  a  oommentaiy 
on  Revelation,  she  gained  an  insight  into  the 
religious  movements  and  the  rich  apocalyptic 
literature  of  the  day.  After  King  Magnus  Erics- 
son's marriage  with  Blanche  of  Namur,  Bridget 
became  chief  lady-in-waiting  to  the  queen,  and 
soon  acquired  a  great  influence  at  the  court. 

No  remarkable  visions  or  revelations  seem  to  have 
marked  this  period.  When,  however,  she  was 
approaching  the  age  of  forty  (probably  between 
1341  and  1343),  she  and  her  husband  noade  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  shrine  of  St.  James  at  CompostelU 
(see  CJompostella).  On  the  way  back,  Ulf  fell 
ill  at  Arras;  and  as  she  watched  by  his  bedside, 
she  thought  she  saw  St.  Denis,  the  protector  of 
France,  who  told  her  that  she  was  under  the  ^>edal 
care  of  heaven.  Her  husband's  recovery,  which 
was  indicated  as  a  sign  of  this,  was  only  temporary. 
He  died  in  1344,  and  Bridget  believed  the  last  tie 
which  bound  her  to  earth  had  been  broken.  Not 
long  afterward,  she  thought  she  saw 

a.  Bridget's  Christ  himself,  who  said  to  her:  ''Thou 
Revela-     art  my  spouse,  and  the  link  between 

tions  and   me  and  mankind;    thou  shalt  see  and 

Later  Life,  hear  marvelous  things,  and  my  Spirit 
shall  be  upon  thee  all  thy  days." 
This  was  her  first  revelation,  strictly  so  called. 
She  and  those  around  her  were  fully  convinced  of 
the  reality  and  the  divine  origin  of  these  revelations. 
She  used  to  write  or  dictate  them  in  Swedish; 
later  they  were  somewhat  freely  put  into  Latin 


867 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bridget 


by  Matthias,  by  Prior  Peter,  and  after  1365  by 
the  Spanish  prelate  Alphonsus,  formerly  bishop 
of  Jaen.  Bridget  felt  herself  called  to  be  a  divine 
instrument  for  the  religious  and  moral  awakening 
of  her  age.  Soon  she  was  convinced  that  she  should 
found  a  new  order  in  honor  of  the  Savior,  and  dic- 
tated to  Peter  the  rules  revealed  to  her.  King 
and  nobles  joined  in  building  and  endowing  a  home 
for  the  order;  the  approval  of  the  archbishop  of 
Upsala  was  secured.  To  obtain  that  of  the  pope, 
Bridget  undertook  the  long  journey  to  Rome  in 
1349,  arriving  in  the  jubilee  of  the  following  year. 
Here  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  life,  except  for  pil- 
grimages, in  works  of  mercy  and  in  warning  great 
and  small  against  sin.  She  did  not  gain  the  papal 
sanction  for  her  order  until  1370,  when  her  nile 
was  confirmed  by  Urban  V.  A  pilgrimage  to 
Palestine  in  1372  was  the  last  notable  event  in  her 
life.  She  was  canonized  by  Boniface  IX  in  1391. 
The  connection  between  Sweden  and  the  South  was 
much  furthered  by  her  fame  and  by  the  permanent 
use  of  her  Roman  house  by  monks  from  her  con- 
vent of  Vadstena  (on  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Vettem, 
110  m.  s.w.  of  Stockholm);  its  head  in  the  Refor- 
mation period  was  Peter  Magnus,  who,  after  his 
return  to  Sweden,  consecrated  the  Lutheran  bishops 
there,  affording  a  basis  for  a  claim  to  apostolic  suc- 
cession. 

The  authorized  edition  of  Bridget's  works  con- 
tains eight  books  of  revelations,  besides  another 
of  Revdationea  extravaganteSf  or  supplement,  from 
the  collection  of  Prior  Peter,  with  his  own  notes; 
the  rule  of  her  order;  and  a  collection  of  edifying 
readings  for  the  commimity,  with  certain  prayers 
(known  as  the  Qvatiuor  orationes).  The  works 
were  first  printed  at  Ldbeck  in  1492 

3.  Her      from  the  official   copy  preserved  at 
Works.      Vadstena;      the    Roman    edition    Oi 

1628  is  considered  the  best.  The 
"Revelations"  have  been  translated  into  most 
European  languages  and  into  Arabic.  With  much 
that  is  superstitious  and  fantastic,  they  contain 
a  pure  mysticism,  rich  in  thought,  and  marked  by 
deep  insight  into  the  inner  mysteries  of  the  devout 
life.  Bridget's  views  are  of  course  medieval  and 
those  of  a  submissive  daughter  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  None  the  less,  they  show  traces 
of  admirable  anticipations  of  Reformation  ideas. 
The  conception  of  the  universal  priesthood  appears 
here  and  there;  in  her  personal  devotion,  she  goes 
back  to  the  eternal  source  of  life  and  truth;  and 
her  rule  conmiends  the  preaching  of  the  Word  to 
the  people  in  the  vernacular. 

The  Brigittine  Order  (Ordo  SancH  Augustini 
sancH  Salvatoris  nuncwpatua)  was  intended  by  her 
as  an  instrument  for  spreading  the  Kingdom  of 
God  upon  earth.  Its  convents  (as,  e.g.,  at  Font^ 
vraud)  were  for  both  monks  and  nuns,  though 

their  dwellings  were  separate.      The 

4.  The      age  of  entrance  was   twenty-five  for 
Brigittine   men   and   eighteen  for  women.    The 

Order.      convent  was  to  be  ruled  by  an  abbess 
selected  by  the   community.    Origi- 
nally the   monks  were  governed  by   a  prior  in- 
dependent of   the  abbess,    but   before*  long   the 
pope  subjected  them  also  to  her  rule,  the  former 


prior  being  called  only  confessor-general.  At 
the  same  time  they  were  placed  under  imme- 
diate papal  jurisdiction,  though  provision  was 
made  for  a  yearly  visitation  by  the  bishop. 
They  were  strictly  cloistered;  silence  was  ob- 
served, except  at  certain  hours,  but  the  rule  of 
fasting  was  not  rigorous.  The  monks  were  admit- 
ted to  the  nuns'  convent  only  to  administer  the 
sacraments  to  the  dying  or  to  carry  out  the  dead. 
The  rich  endowments  of  the  convent  of  Vadstena, 
which  remained  the  mother  house,  show  the  p>opu- 
larity  of  this  national  foundation  among  all  classes. 
Not  a  few  Brigittine  convents,  however,  sprang 
up  in  other  coimtries,  prominent  among  which 
were  N&dendal  in  Finland,  Munkaliv  near  Bergen, 
Mariendal  near  Reval,  Marienwald  near  LUbeck, 
Marienkron  near  Stralsimd,  and  Sion  House, 
Richmond,  near  London.  The  importance  of  the 
order  during  the  later  Middle  Ages  for  the  civili- 
zation of  the  North,  and  especially  of  Sweden,  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  Vadstena  has  been 
called  the  first  high-school  of  the  North;  on  it 
and  on  its  daughter  house  at  N&dendal  the  literary 
life  of  Sweden  before  the  Reformation  depended. 
Vadstena  had  the  largest  library  in  Sweden;  and 
here  were  made  the  first  attempts  toward  a  com- 
plete Swedish  version  of  the  Bible.  In  1495  a 
printing-press  was  set  up;  but  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire  the  same  year,  and  published  nothing  so  far 
as  known. 

The  order  was  so  deeply  rooted  in  Sweden  that 
it  survived  the  Reformation,  though  with  dimin- 
ished strength.  Not  even  Gustavus  Vasa's  hatred 
of  the  "  popery  "  of  the  Brigittines  could  entirely 
destroy  the  devotion  of  all  classes  to  them.  During 
the  sixteenth  century  his  wife,  sons,  and  daughters, 
and  many  others  of  the  highest  nobility,  as  well 
as  numbers  from  other  classes  are  foimd  among 
the  benefactors  of  Vadstena,  which,  however,  was 
suppressed  by  Duke  Charles  in  1595.  The  Refor- 
mation abolished  most  of  the  houses  outside  of 
Sweden,  but  an  attempt  was  made  to  revive  it  in 
the  Counterreformation,  to  which  period  belong  the 
Fratrea  noviasimi  Birffittini  in  Belgium,  confirmed 
by  Gregory  XV,  and  the  reformed  order  for  women 
introduced  only  into  Spain  by  the  visionary  Marina 
de  Escobar  (d.  1633)  and  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII. 
This  is  said  to  have  a  few  houses  in  Spain  now;  and 
four  convents  of  the  original  order  still  exist — at 
AltomQnster  in  Bavaria,  St.  Bridget's  Abbey  in 
Devonshire,  and  two  in  Holland. 

(Herman  LuNDSTRdM.) 

Bibuoobapht:  The  two  earliest  lives,  by  the  two  oonfee- 
sora  of  Bridffet  in  the  year  of  her  death,  were  published 
by  Dr.  C.  Annerstedt  in  Script,  rerum  Svtcicarum  medii 
itrt.  III,  ii.  188-206  Upsala,  1876.  The  Vita  aive  chroni- 
con  by  Margareta  Clausdotawas  published  in  Script.  Su- 
0eici  medii  crvi,  ed.  J.  E.  Riets,  pp.  103-240,  Lundi,  1844. 
Early  material  is  found  also  in  ASB,  Oct.  4th,  pp.  368- 
660.  The  best  modem  accounts  are  in  H.  SchQck,  Svenak 
Literahirhi»toria,  pp.  129  sqq.,  Stockholm,  1800,  and  in 
lUuuttrad  Sventk  LiUeraharhiwtoria,  i,  84  sqq..  ib.  1896. 
Consult  also  L.  Clams,  Das  Leben  der  heilioen  Birgitta, 
Regensburg.  1856;  J.  B.  Schwab,  Johannes  Oeraon,  pp. 
864  sqq.,  WOrsburR.  1858;  F.  Hammerich,  St.  Birgitta, 
dis  nordiaehe  Prophetin  und  Ordetuatifterin,  Gotha,  1872 
(Germ,  transl.  from  the  Swedish);  Bettina  von  Rinsgeis, 
Laben  dar  heiligan  Birifitta,  Regensburg.  1890;  0.  Bin- 
der, Die  heitiaa  Birgitta  wm  Schvaden  utui  ihr  Kloai^m^ 


Bri( 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ardm,  MtmJcb.  1801;  Canit4?«B  Flavigny,  8tv.  BriffiOs  ds 
£uk£B,  Pariit,  1892;  A.  BrinkiiL&DD,  D^n  tuUigt  Birgittat 
OopenbuceA.  1803. 

For  tbe  order  oonsult:  Acrufn  Suevicarum  KripL  medii 
mvL  ed,  E.  M.  FtuiU  h  U  tSVS  -qq.*  UpwU.  1818;  f/i*- 
tory  o/  the  EnQ.  BriffitHne  Nun*.  Plymoulh,  1SS&;  Getam- 
melMe  NofiktidUen  Qixr  dim  ieintt  batandcnen  Khtier  vom 
Ordtn  drr  heUie^n  Bimlla,  Ifumcb.  IB88;  Binder,  ut 
iup.f  and  OnchidUe  der  bayruicAsffn  fi(r0i«eipf»~Kli^ter,  ib. 
18Qd;  Helyot,  Onfred  indmi«/t:gu«s,  li,  146  sqq..  CiUTief, 
J{«j:i^u/ti4  C?r«?<rfl,  pp.  185- 1 S7;  Heimbucber.  Onden  wrwf 
Konjsjregaim-nxji,  i.  440,  5C)&^510. 

BRIBGETT,  THOMAS  ED  WARD:  English  Rt> 
tnan  Catholic;  b.  at  Derby  (35  m.  ii.n,e.  of 
Birmingham),  Derbyshire,  Jan.  20,  1829;  d.  at 
OlApham  (a  auburb  of  Loudon)  Feb.  17.  \m9. 
His  parcnta  were  BaptiBt^,  but  in  1845  lir  uis 
baptized  into  tbe  Church  of  England.  Two  year^i 
later  he  matriculated  at  8t,  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge,  but  just  before  taking  bLs  degree  in  1S50 
he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  waa 
recei%*sd  into  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church.  He 
then  studied  for  six  yearw  on  the  Continentj 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1856,  after  having 
joined  the  Redempt-orist  Order.  His  life-work 
lay  in  the  mission  field  to  which  his  order  in  par- 
ticularly devoted,  and  in  1868  he  catabibhcd  the 
Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Family  connected  with 
the  Redemptoriat  church  at  Limerick,  Ireland. 
In  addition  to  his  activity  aa  a  misHioner,  he  wrote 
ThR  Ritual  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1873)? 
Our  Lady's  Dotm^,  or,  how  England  Gtiined  and 
Loal  thai  TUk  (1875);  The  Dismpiine  of  Drink 
(1876);  Hhtory  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  in  Great 
Britain  {2  vols,,  1881);  Life-  of  BUssedJohn  Fisher, 
Euhap  of  Roch^ter  (1888);  The  True  Story  of  the 
Catholic  Hierarchy  Deposed  by  Queen  Elimbeth  (in 
collaboration  with  T.  F.  Ivnox;  1889);  Blunders 
and  Forgeries :  Hiiftoricol  Ejinayn  (1890);  The 
Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (1891); 
and  SonndH  and  Epigrams  on  Sacred  Subjects  (1898). 
He  Ukewiae  edited  a  number  of  works,  of  which 
the  moat  important  were  Bishop  T.  Wattson's 
Sermons  on  the  Sacrantcnls  (London,  1876);  R. 
Johnson's  The  Suppliant  of  the.  Holy  QhoH  (1878); 
Cardinal  W.  Men's  Souh^  Departs  (1886);  The 
WU  and  WiMom  of  Blmmd  Thotnas  More  (18§2); 
L^a  ilieratiea  ;  Poems  on  the  PriestJujod  (IKUG); 
Foems  on  England's  Reunion  wiik  Christendom 
(1896);  and  Characteristics  from  the  Writings  of 
Nicholas  Cardinal  Wiseman  (1898). 

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES:  A  series  of 
books  written  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  Francis 
Henry,  eighth  earl  of  Bridgewater  (d.  Feb.  11, 
1829),  who  left  eight  thousand  pounds  to  the  Royal 
Society,  to  be  paid  to  one  or  several  authors, 
selected  by  the  president,  for  writing  a  treatise 
"  On  the  power,  wisdom,  and  gf>odncss  of  GckU  aa 
manifeatetl  in  the  Creation."  The  following  eight 
authors  were  selected,  and  their  treatises  published 
(12  vols.,  London,  1833-36):  (1 )  Thomas  C!ialmers, 
The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral 
^nd  Intellectual  Condition  of  Man  ;  (2)  John  Ividd, 
The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  FhyMcal 
Condition  of  Man  ;  (3)  William  Whew  ell.  Astron- 
omy arui  General  Fhysics  considered  wiih  Reference 
to  Natural  Theology  ;  (4)  Charles  Bell,  The  Hand, 
iU  Mechanism  and  Vital  Endommenls  as  Evincing 


Dem^  ;  (5)  Peter  Mark  Roget>  Animai  wti  Vep- 
tMe  Physiology  considered  with  Refermet  lo  S4- 
urai  Theology ;  (6)  Williani  Buckland,  Gtob§^  mi 
Mineralogy  consider^  wiih  Rejerencm  to  A** 
T^ie^y;  (7)  William  Kirby,  The  HabUi 
Instincts  of  Animals  tmih  Reference  to  Natiffd 
Theology;  (8)  William  Prout,  Chemimry,  Msm- 
ologg,  and  the  Fumtion  of  Digestion 
%mth  Reference  to  Natural  Theokfgy, 

BRlDGBftAN,    ELIJAH    COLEMAM:    Googicp- 

tiona)  foreign  miasionaiy;  b,  at  Bdcbcrtowi, 
Ma^.,  Apr,  22,  1801 ;  d.  in  Sha^igliai,  China,  ^ov, 
2,  186  L  He  was  graduated  at  Amberst  CoJkfB 
in  1826  and  at  Andover  Theological  S^ninaiy  a 
1829  and  that  year  on  October  14  aaOcd  for 
Canton  under  the  appointment  of  tbe  American 
Board.  He  arrived  there  on  Feb,  25,  1830,  tod 
lived  there  till  1847,  when  he  removed  to  Shan^ 
to  supervise  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  En  1S32 
he  began,  as  a  labor  of  love,  the  valuable  moatUy 
The  Chinese  Repository  and  waa  its  editor  till  1851. 
In  1841  he  brought  out  his  Chmese  ehrestomatlif. 
In  1844  he  was  one  of  the  two  secretaries  of  Ic^tioo 
to  Hon.  Caleb  Cusbing  when  on  bis  special  mii- 
sion  to  China  and  rendered  important  servioei. 
In  February,  1852,  be  left  Shanghai  for  a  visit  to 
Amcnea,  arrived  there  June  16;  on  bia  return  be 
left  New  York  on  October  12,  and  arrived  at  ShAog- 
bal  on  May  3,  1853. 

Hiblioohapht:    E.  G.  firidgznaa,  lAfe  vf  B.  C.  Bndgmm, 

f*e«  York,  1864. 

BRIEFS.  BULLS,  AND  BULLARIA;  Written 
mandates  of  the  pK)pe,  differing  in  form,  tbe  bull 
being  more  nolemn  than  tbe  brief;  bullaria  are 
coUc-ctions  of  both  kinds  of  documents.  At  fint 
the  Roman  bishops  sealed  documents  with  a  ring, 
but  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  centuty  seal-boses 
or  seal-forms  {buUfe)^  usually  of  lead,  began  to 
be  atta^-hed  to  aU  public  document®,  whereas  for 
tlie  others  the  signet  stamped  in  wax  by  tbe  ring 
was  used.  Since  the  thirteenth  century  it  has 
bonie  the  siune  device,  the  apostle  Peter  casting 
a  net  into  the  sea  (Matt,  iv,  18,  19),  whence  it  is 
known  m  the  "  ring  of  the  fishermau  "  {annulus 
piscaioris,  q.v,).  The  oldest  buU^  have  on  one 
side  the  name  of  the  pope,  on  the  other  the  word 
Papa.  The  present  fonn  has  on  the  obverse  the 
heails  of  Peter  and  Paul  with  the  distinguishing 
inscription  S.  P.  A. — S.  P.  E,  (Le,,  Sand  us  Pdrus 
or  Paulus  Apostolus,  Sanctits  Petrus  or  Paului 
Episcopii^};  on  the  reverse,  the  name  of  the  pope 
with  hia  number.  The  string  by  which  they  are 
attached  is  of  red  and  yellow  silk  or  hemp.  From 
demgnating  the  ms],  the  word  buUa  passed  to 
the  document  itself. 

The  bull  is  written  upon  strong  parchment;  the 
brief  on  thin  parchment  or  paper.  Instead  of 
having  the  seal  attached  to  it^  it  is  issued  svb 
anmd^  pisca&oriSf  which  to^-day  m  only  a  stamp 
on  the  paper.  Both  begin  in  an  invariable  fonn 
with  the  name  of  the  pope  and  a  salutation.  In 
the  brief  the  number  is  added  to  tbe  name,  in  the 
bull  the  title  Episcopus  sermis  servorum  Dei  takes 
the  place  of  the  number.    At  the  dose  of  the  brief 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bridgfitt 

Brieevnianii 


merely  Ihe  place  and  date  are  given;    the   bull 

gifcs  the  date  accorrling  to  both  the  ant- it^nt  Hciman 

lod  the  Christian  caiimdans  imd  the  year  of   the 

pope^8  reign.     The  moat  solemn  form  is  iLsed  for 

bulls  issued  in  the  consistory  {bultm  con»Lsti^nates). 

They  are  signed  by  the  pope  and  the  cardinals, 

and  are  sent  out  not  in  the  original  but    in  an  au- 

iMxcdcsypyiiranscri plumy.     Of  other  bulls  {mm 

I        eoftaistoritde^)    the    pope    signs    only    the    miiuite 

K    iminvia),  and  the  completed  document  is  rtigned 

V    by  the  various  papal  officers  who  helped  in   it^ 

'        prepanition.     The  briefs  are  signed  only  by  the 

hgecretary  of  briefii.  Briefs  are  drawn  up  in  accord- 
ince  with  the  special  mles  of  the  department  in 
the  a|K)Btolic  secretariate  or  dataria  (see  Curia); 
bulk  ia  the  chancery.  Leo  XIII  simplified  the 
prooedupe  in  187S  by  oniering  that  bulls  other 
than  wnsistorial  should  l^e  written  in  onlinary 
*cript  on  parchment  and  sealed  only  with  a   red 

P  stamp  containing  the  pictures  of  Peter  and  Paul 
iwjd  the  name  of  the  reignijig  pope. 
The  more  important  briefs  and  bull*^  are  con- 
tAined  in  collections  known  as  imllarifu  The  oldest 
collections  contained  mostly  only  a  small  number. 
*o  these  belong:  BiiHw  dlversorum  pontifworum  a 
Joanne  XX  J I  ad  Julium  ///  a  bihliotheca  Ludmfiri 
Gomc^  (Rome,  1550),  c^mtaining  only  some  fifty 
<*»ciimefits;  another  from  Boniface  VIII  to  Paul  IV 
(1559),  with  about  a  hundred  and  sixty;  and  one 
irom  Gref^ry  VII  Ui  Gregory'  XIII  (1579).  with 
^'^  documents.  The  Matpium  bullarmm  RomuFium, 
~  vering  the  period  from  Lt>o  I  in  tlie  year  1585, 
*  published  in  1586,  and  since  baa  been  contituied 
'©viaed  and  completed  e<litionti.  The  latest  a^s 
'''ell  SA  most  convenient  and  ctjmph.^e  edition  is 
IP*^  ^uUarium  magnum  Rotttanujri,  published  at 
'Urin  by  order  of  Piuk  IX  and  under  the  auHjiices 
**J  Cardinal  Gaude  (1857-72.  24  vols,,  covering 
^^  years  440-l74tJ).  For  delinuting  bulb?  {buUo' 
^^^^^^fnacriptionis),  eee  CoNCORnATs  and  Delimit- 

^P^    BtTLLS-  E,  FaiEDEERO. 

•*t-tooitAPiiT:  M.  Mnriiu,  DiptoTnatica  pimiitlcia.  Rome. 
*^-U;  H.  Bfe*lau,  Haruihuch  dcr  UrkundetilfATe,  i,  67 
^q..  Uj|Mtc.  1888;  O.  Phillipa.  KirrhrnrrcM.  iii.  tHO  eqq,, 

•*^<t  evuftgeliMchgn  Kirchenrechtt,  Lejp»ic,  1895. 

J.  ^RIEGER,  bri'ger,  JOHAIfB  FRIEDRICH  THEO- 
I^^^:  German  Protestant;  b.  at  Greifswald  June  4, 
»jj^2;  educated  at  the  universities  of  Greifswald, 
£-^laiigen,  and  Tubingen  from  1861  to  1864  (Ph.D., 
?''^*l>eic,  1870).  He  became  privat'docent  at  Halle 
^J^  1870,  and  wa»  appointetl  associate  professor  of 
«  *^Ureh  history  in  the  same  university  three  years 
^-^r.  In  1876  be  was  called  to  Marburg  as  full 
P'^f^ieor  of  tlie  same  Bubject,  and  since  1886  haa 
*ii  professor  of  chiuch  history  at  Leipsic.  In 
Ution  to  numerous  ccmtributions  to  theological 

.  iodicain.  he  has  written  Qasparo  Contarini  und 
^***  BtQennlmrger  Cancordienwerk  des  Jahrea  IS^l 
^^"^otlui,  1870);  De  formulce  Rati^bonensis  origine 
***9"U<  indoU  <Ha!le,  1870);  Constantin  der  Grosse 
Jj^  R4igiompoHtiker  (Gotha,  1880);  Die  angeb- 
y«^^  Marimrger  Kirckenordnnng  von  1527  (1881); 
*-^a«Act  und  sein  Werk  (Marburg,  lSa3);  AUander 
*J^    Luiher,    iS^i    (Gotha,    1884);     Die    Torgauer 

^^^tUkU  (Leipaic,  1888);   Die  iheohgwcki-n  Promotion 


nen  auf  der  UniversUiit  Leipzig  l//^'S-lfh)V  (1890); 
Der  Glauhe  Luthers  in  neiner  FreiktU  von  mennch^ 
li4^hen  AutoritiUen  (1892);  Die  farlschreitende  Ent- 
frcmdung  van  der  Kirche  im  Lichi  der  Geschichte 
(1894);  Dajt  We^ien  de^  Abtaanes  am  Au^gange  dcM 
MitietaUers  (1897);  and  Zur  Ge^chickle  des  Attg»- 
biirger  fteichntages  von  lf>^^0  (1903).  He  was  also 
ime  of  the  founder.*?  of  the  Zekachrili  fur  Kirchenge- 
schiehle  in  1876,  and  has  b^en  its  editor  tu  the 
present  time. 

BRTESSMAITN,    bris'man,  JOHAFN:   Reformer; 

b.  at  Cottbus  (on  the  Spree,  43  rn.  k.s.w.  of  Frank- 
fort), Brandenburg,  Dec.  31,  1483;  d.  at  Konigsberg 
Oct.  L  1549.  He  belonged  t«  a  prominent  family, 
and  as  a  Franciscan  he  studied  after  1518  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oiler,  and  after  1520  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  was  promoted  in  1521  as  licentiate 
and  in  1522  as  doctor  of  theologJ^  Inllueuced  by 
Luther's  appearance  at  the  Leipsic  tlis^jutation 
with  Eek  (1519),  but  more  especially  by  Luther*8 
great  refonnatory  w^ritingn  of  the  year  1520*  be 
soon  fomid  himself  one  m  the  Evangelical  faith 
with  his  beloved  friend.  When  the  Frimciscans 
had  to  leave  Wittenberg,  Bries«mann  went  to  Cott- 
bus,  but  on  the  initiative  of  Luther  he  was  able 
to  return  in  1522.  He  addressed  a  reformatory 
epistle  to  the  congregation  at  Cottbus,  Unterricht 
und  Enmihnung  (Cottbus,  1523),  and  at  the  in- 
stance of  Luther  wrote  a  powerful  Refutation  of 
the  attacks  of  the  Frajidacim  8chatzgeyer  upon 
Luther's  De  vatis  mommticls  (Wittenberg?,  1523), 
stating  in  his  declaration  to  Spalatin  that  he  could 
not  ri'fuse  the  wish  of  Luther,  '*  since  he  felt  him- 
self in  agreement  not  so  much  with  a  Lyther  as 
with  the  EvangelicaJ  truth.*^ 

On  the  recommenilation  of  Luther,  be  was  called 
in  1523  as  preacher  to  Ki>nigsberg  by  Albert,  the 
grand  ma^ster  of  the  Teutonic  order  (see  Albeht 
OF  Prltsslv).  a  K5nigsberg  chronicler  thus 
describes  his  life  and  work:  he  pn.^ache<l  the  word 
with  gentleness  but  with  all  serious- 

Preaclier     ness;    many  became  pious  Christians 

in  Konigs-  and  better  men;    "  on  account  of  hia 

berg,       gotlly.   honorable,  moral  life  lie   was 

1523-27,  beloved  by  many  and  his  sennonu 
were  gladly  heard."  About  the  time 
when  he  entertKl  upon  his  pastoral  duties  he  pub- 
lished his  Fhacnii  dc  hmnine  inferi^re  ei  ezteriore 
de  fide  et  operibus  (ed.  P.  Tschackert,  Ciotha,  1887), 
containing  110  verses  in  which,  following  Luther's 
wu.>rk  "Concerning  Christian  Liberty,"  he  defends 
the  Evangelical  doctrine  Jigainst  Rome  and  the 
fanatics.  His  influence  upon  Bishop  Gecjrge  of 
Polenta  (q.v.)  is  s  "i»n  in  tht*  latter's  sermon  delivered 
on  Christmas  dxiy,  1523,  hi  which  he  publicly 
expressed  his  belief  in  the  Evangelical  teaching  of 
justification  by  faith  alone.  As  the  bishop  did 
not  preach  himself,  he  appointed  as  his  substitute 
"  the  learned  Dr.  Jolumn  Briessmann,  a  man  well 
versed  in  the  holy  scripture."  In  1524  the  bishop 
issued  his  first  refonnatory  mandate,  enjoim'ng  the 
ministers  to  us*'  only  the  Gennan  language  in  their 
miniaterial  acts,  and  to  read  Luther's  WTitings, 
especially  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  Of  lasting 
effect  were  also   certain   writings  of  Briessmann, 


Briesamann 
Brlnokerlnok 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


S70 


as  his  Umsckreibung  und  Erkl&rung  des  Voter 
Unsera  als  Anleitumj  zum  wahrhafl  evangelischen 
GtheUUben  im  OegensaU  gegen  die  MariengtheU; 
a  Sermon  von  dreierlei  heilsamer  BeichUf  as  guide 
to  Evangelical  confession  in  opposition  to  auricular 
confession;  and  his  sermon  Von  der  Anfechtung 
des  Glaubena  und  der  Hoffnung^  with  reference  to 
the  Gospel-lesson  on  the  woman  of  Canaan  (Matt. 
XV.  21-28).  For  the  benefit  of  the  more  cultured 
members  of  the  congregation  he  delivered  lectures 
on  the  epistle  to  the  Romans.  He  laid  stress 
upon  the  inwardness  of  the  Christian  life  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  impetuous  zeal  of  Amandus  in  forcibly 
doing  away  with  ancient  usages  and  forms.  With 
Luther,  who  greatly  rejoiced  over  the  rapid  prog- 
ress of  the  Reformation  in  Prussia,  he  entertained 
a  lively  correspondence,  and  on  June  12,  1524, 
one  day  before  Luther,  he  was  married,  being  the 
first  married  minister  of  Prussia. 

After  the  secularization  of  the  territory  of  the 
Teutonic  Order  (q.v.)  in  1525  imder  Polish 
feudal  supremacy,  Briessmann  and  his  colaborers, 
Speratus  and  Poliander,  faithfully  assisted  Duke 
^bert  at  the  diet,  Dec,  1525.  He  accepted  a  call 
from  the  citizens  of  Riga  to  complete 

In  Riga,    the     reformatory     movement     there, 

1527-31.    with  the  consent  of  the  duke,  Oct., 

1527.    By    preaching    and    teaching 

he  brought  about  the  necessary  reformation    and 

published   in    1530   Kurze  Ordnung  des  Ktrchen- 

dienstes  samnU  einer  Vorrede  von  Ceremonien, 

After  four  years  of  faithful  work  he  returned  to 
K5nigsberg  in  1531  as  cathedral  preacher.  With 
his  colleagues  he  had  soon  to  oppose  the  fanatical 
tendencies  of  Schwenckfeld,  which  the  ill-advised 
duke  had  favored  at  first.  As  he  labored  for  the 
purity  of  Evangelical  doctrine,  he  also  labored  for 
the  upbuilding  of  the  inner  life  of  the  Church  by 
the  new  Landesordnung  (1540),  by 
Activity  in  the  articles  concerning  the  appoint- 
Kdnigsberg    ment  and   support  of   the    ministers 

1531-49.  (1540),  by  the  introduction  of  a  new 
order  of  marriage  and  divine  service 
(1544).  He  recommended  the  lectio  continua,  or 
continuous  reading  of  the  whole  Bible  in  divine 
service,  thus  making  the  congregations  acquainted 
with  Holy  Scripture,  and  a  thorough  instruction 
in  the  catechism  besides  the  preaching;  he  intro- 
duced church-singing  by  the  use  of  a  hynm-book, 
the  first  in  Prussia.  Repeated  calls  to  Rostock 
he  declined.  He  also  devoted  his  energies  to  the 
development  of  the  schools  and  higher  education. 
He  formed  the  plans  for  the  university  wliich  was 
founded  in  1544.  During  the  sickness  of  Bishop 
Polentz  in  1546,  the  business  of  the  episcopal 
see  was  entrusted  to  Briessmann,  and  in  1547  he 
made  a  tour  of  inspection  to  correct  abuses  which 
still  existed  in  the  diocese.  He  opposed  especially 
teachings  brought  thither  by  refugees  from  the 
Netherlands,  represented  by  the  humanist  Guli- 
elmus  Gnaphseus  (or  Fullonius,  q.v.),  a  sympa- 
thizer with  Carlstadt.  It  was  also  due  to  Briess- 
mann's  energy  that  the  troubles  caused  by  the  first 
rector  of  the  imiversity,  Georg  Sabinus,  had  no 
lasting  influence.  Against  Andreas  Osiander,  whom 
the  duke  had  called  to  K5nigsberg,  he  defended  the 


genuine  Lutheran  doctrine  and  confession.  Pain- 
ful as  was  this  Osiandrian  oontroversy  for  BrieBs- 
mann,  yet  he  rejoiced  toward  the  end  of  his  life 
that  the  Moravian  Brethren,  driven  from  Poland 
by  the  intrigues  of  the  Polish-Catholic  d^gy,  were 
in  1548  received  into  the  Prussian  state  church, 
after  being  settled  in  Prussia  with  the  pennisnoD 
of  the  duke.  In  opposing  the  Osiandrian  enon, 
Briessmann  also  opposed  the  duke  who  at  first 
adhered  to  Osiander.  To  the  suggestion  of  the 
duke  to  hear  the  opinion  of  churches  from  abroad, 
Briessmann  replied:  "  Since  the  present  contro- 
versy concerns  doctrinal  points  which  have  been 
preached  in  Prussia  for  over  twenty-four  yean, 
the  opinion  and  judgment  of  others  is  not  to  be 
awaited."  These  are  the  last  words  from  hii 
mouth  and  pen,  "  the  testament  of  the  first  Refoimer 
of  Prussia,  and  therefore  especially  valuable  for 
the  history  of  the  Prussian  Reformation  "  (Tschadc- 
ert).  In  the  spring  of  1549  he  retired  from  his 
arduous  duties.  He  is  buried  in  the  choir  of  the 
cathedral  at  Kdnigsberg.  Davtd  Erdmawk. 

Biblioorapht:  P.  Tschackert,  Urkundenbudi  rar  R^tf- 
maHon»oe»chichie  de»  Henogtunu  Preuaaen,  toIs.  l,  ii.  m 
Publikatumen  aiM  den  kOnioliehan  preuMMchen  Skuth 
archiven,  vols.  xliii.-x]v.,  Leipnc,  1890. 

BRIGGS,  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS:  Protestant 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  New  York  City  Jan.  15,  1841. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Viiginia 
(1857-60),  Union  Theological  Seminary  (1861-63), 
and  the  University  of  Beriin  (1866-69).  From 
1863  to  1866  he  was  in  business  with  his  father. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  minisUy 
and  was  pastor  at  Roselle,  N.  J.,  from  1870  to  1874, 
when  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Union  Theological  Seminary.  In  1891  he  was 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  Biblical  theology,  and 
since  1904  has  been  professor  of  theological  ency- 
clopedia hnd  symbolics.  In  1892  he  was  tried 
for  heresy  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York,  but 
was  acquitted,  although  in  the  following  year  he 
was  suspended  by  the  General  Assembly.  In 
1899  he  was  ordidned  to  the  priesthood  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  He  is  a  monber 
of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  the  Deutsche 
Morgenl&ndische  Gesellschaft,  and  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Presbyterian  Review  from  1880  to  1890,  and 
collaborated  with  S.  D.  F.  Salmond  in  editing  the 
International  Theological  Library  (New  York,  1891 
sqq.),  with  S.  R.  Driver  and  A.  Plummer  in  editing 
the  International  Critical  Commentary  (1895  sqq.), 
and  with  F.  Brown  and  S.  R.  Driver  in  preparing 
the  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (12  parts,  Oxford,  1891-1906).  In  addition 
to  numerous  studies  in  various  theological  period- 
icals, he  has  written  Biblical  Study  (New  York, 
1883);  American  Presbyterianism  (1885);  Mes- 
sianic Prophecy  (1886);  Whither  r  A  Theological 
Question  for  the  Times  (1889);  The  Authority  of 
Holy  Scripture  (1891);  The  Bible,  the  Church,  and 
the  Reason  (1892);  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the 
Hexateuch  {IS9S);  The  M essiah  of  the  Gospels  {ISBi); 
The  Messiah  of  the  Apostles  (1895);  General  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture  (1899);  The 
Incarnation  of  the  Lord  (1902);    New  Light  on  the 


271 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brinokarinok 


Life  of  Je9U8  (1904);  Ethical  Teachings  of  Jesus 
(1904);  and  Critical  Commentary  on  the  Psalms 
(1906). 

BRIGHT,  WILLIAM:  En^h  church  historian 
and  patrifitic  scholar;  b.  at  Doncaster  (30  m.  s.  of 
York),  Yorkshire,  Eiigland,  Dec.  14,  1824;  d.  at 
Oxford  Mar.  6,  1901.  He  studied  at  Rugby  and 
University  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1846;  M.A., 
1849),  and  became  fellow  1847;  was  theological 
tutor  in  Trinity  College,  Glenalmond,  Perthshire, 
1851-58;  tutor  of  University  College,  Oxford, 
1862;  appointed  regius  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  and  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1868. 
His  publications  were  very  numerous  and  have 
gone  through  many  editions;  besides  sermons 
and  addresses,  poems,  and  devotional  works  they 
include:  Ancient  Collects  and  Other  Prayers  selected 
from  various  rituals  (London,  1857);  A  History  of 
the  Church  from  the  Edict  of  Milan,  A,D,  SlSy  to 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  A.D.  461  (1860);  Eight- 
een Sermons  of  St,  Leo  /,  sumamed  the  Great,  on 
the  Incarnation,  translation  and  notes  (1862); 
Eusebius^s  Ecclesiastical  History,  text  and  intro- 
duction (1872);  Orations  of  St.  Athanasius  against 
the  Arians,  text,  with  life  (1873);  Socrates* s  Eccle- 
siastical History,  text  and  introduction  (1878); 
Chapters  of  Early  English  Church  History  (1878; 
3d  ed.,  1897);  Select  Antir- Pelagian  Treatises  of 
St,  Augustine  (1880);  St.  Athanasius's  Historical 
Writings  (1881);  Later  Treatises  of  St,  Athanasius, 
translation,  notes,  and  an  appendix  of  St.  Cyril 
(vol.  xlvi.  of  A  Library  of  the  Fathers,  ed.  E. 
B.  Pusey  and  others,  1881);  Notes  on  the  Canons 
of  the  First  Four  General  Councils  (1882);  Lessons 
ffrom  the  Lives  of  Three  Great  Fathers  (1890);  Mo- 
rality in  Doctrine  (1892);  Waymarks  in  Church 
History  (1894);  The  Roman  See  in  the  Early  Church 
and  Other  Studies  in  Church  History  (1896);  The 
Law  of  Faith  (1898);  Some  Aspects  of  Primitive 
Church  Life  (1898).  With  P.  G.  Medd  he  edited 
a  Latin  translation  of  the  En^ish  prayer-book 
(1865),  and  he  contributed  the  section  on  the  Litany 
to  J.  H.  Blunt's  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
(1866). 

Bibuooraphy:  W.  Bright,  SeUcUd  Lettera,  ed.  B.  J.  Kidd. 
with  Memoir  by  P.  Q.  Medd.  London.  1903. 

BRIGHTMAN,  FRANK  EDWARD:  Church  of 
En^and;  b.  at  Bristol  June  18,  1856.  He  was 
educated  at  University  College,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1879),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1884  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  chap- 
lain of  University  College  from  1884  to  1887  and 
assistant  curate  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  Kennington, 
in  1887-88,  while  from  1884  to  1903  he  was  Pusey 
Librarian.  He  was  also  examiner  in  the  Theology 
School  in  1899-1901,  and  since  1902  has  been 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  as 
well  as  prebendary  of  Carlton  with  Thurlby  in 
Lincoln  Cathedral.  He  has  written  Liturgies 
Eastern  and  Western  (vol.  i.,  Oxford,  1896)  and  What 
Objections  have  been  made  to  English  Orders  t 
(London,  1896),  and  has  also  translated  the  Preces 
Privates  of  Lancelot  Andrewes  (1903). 

BRIGHTHAN,  THOMAS:  Puritan  and  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Nottingham  1562;  d.  at  Hawnes  (5  m. 


s.  by  e.  of  Bedford)  Aug.  24,  1607.  He  studied 
at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1581;  M.A., 
1584;  B.D.,  1591),  became  a  fellow  there  in  1584, 
and  rector  of  Hawnes  in  1592.  He  was  one  of 
the  fathers  of  Presbyterianism  in  England;  as 
Thomas  Cartwright  says,  "  The  bright  star  in 
the  Church  of  God."  He  subscribed  the  Pres- 
byterian Books  of  Discipline.  He  was  a  fa- 
mous expositor  of  Revelation  {Apocalypsis  Apo- 
calypseos,  Frankfort,  1609,  Heidelberg,  1612,  Eng. 
transl.,  A  revelation  of  the  Revelation,  Amsterdam, 
1615,  Leyden,  1616)  and  of  Daniel  from  xi.  36  to 
end  of  xii.  (Basel,  1614,  which  edition  has  notes  on 
Canticles;  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1644).  He  opened 
up  a  new  path  in  the  exposition  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse by  making  two  distinct  millenniums:  the 
first,  from  Constantine  until  1300,  in  this  corre- 
sponding with  the  common  orthodox  view;  the 
second,  from  1300  to  2300,  which  was  a  new  de- 
parture, by  which  he  was  enabled  to  find  a  place 
for  the  future  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  a  more 
glorious  condition  of  the  Church  on  earth,  which 
he  gains  by  a  symbolical  interpretation  of  Rev 
xxi.  and  xxii.  His  views  greatly  modified  the 
Puritan  interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse,  and 
were  expounded  by  different  writers  and  repro- 
duced in  different  forms  long  after  his  death.  His 
collected  works  appeared  London,  1644. 

BRIGIDA,  SAINT,  BRIGITTINES.  See  Bridget, 
Saint,  op  Sweden. 

BRILL,  JAKOB:  Mystic;  b.  at  Leyden  Jan.  21, 
1639;  d.  there  Jan.  28,  1700.  He  was  a  follower 
of  Pontiaan  van  Hattem;  between  1685  and  1699 
he  published  about  forty  works  of  a  mystical- 
devotional  character,  which  were  much  read;  but 
spiritualizing  Christ  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
historical  Christ  almost  disappeared,  and  the  sac- 
rifice on  the  cross  became  a  mere  symbol  of  the 
sacrifice  which  shall  take  place  in  us,  he  at  last  got 
lost  in  a  mystical  pantheism,  far  away  from  Chris- 
tianity. 

Biblioorapht:  A  eulogy  of  Brill  is  found  in  Poiret's  CcUa- 
looue  de$  Scrivaina  myatiquea  (Lat.  transl,  Amsterdam, 
1708).  Consult  also  Ypey  en  Dermont,  Da  Kervormda 
Kerk  in  Naderland,  vol.  iii..  Breda.  1824. 

BRINCKERINCK,  JAN:  A  popular  preacher 
and  spiritual  director  in  connection  with  the  Breth- 
ren and  Sisters  of  the  Common  Life;  b.  near  Ztit- 
phen,  Guelderland,  1359;  d.  at  Deventer  Mar.  26, 
1419.  Thomas  k  Kempis,  who  wrote  his  life, 
says  that  he  came  of  a  good  family,  but  tells  nothing 
further  of  his  early  life  except  that,  living  in  the 
days  of  the  great  religious  awakening  under  Groote's 
influence,  he  was  profoundly  impressed  by  it. 
He  came  into  intimate  personal  relations  with 
Groote  and  his  disciples,  and  devoted  himself  to 
forwarding  the  "  new  devotion  "  and  the  education 
of  the  young.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1393, 
and  not  long  afterward  took  charge  as  rector  of 
the  house  for  women  founded  at  Deventer  by 
Groote,  "  Meester  Geertshuis  "  as  it  was  commonly 
called  (see  Common  Life,  Brethren  of  the). 
He  introduced  a  strict  discipline  into  the  life  of 
the  inmates,  and  was  practically  the  founder  of 
the   sisters   whose   houses   afterward   became   so 


British  Ohuroh 
Brooks 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


878 


numerous.  Under  his  direction  the  numbers 
grew  BO  considerably  that  new  buildings  were 
needed.  After  three  years  the  church  and  convent 
were  ready  for  occupancy;  at  first  of  wood,  they 
were  rebuilt  of  stone  in  1407.  The  foundation  was 
placed  under  the  Windesheim  chapter,  who  named 
Brinckerinck  as  its  confessor.  Numbering  in  that 
year  twelve  sisters  and  novices,  by  the  middle  of 
the  century  the  community  had  grown  to  con- 
siderably over  a  himdred,  including  all  classes. 
It  was  self-supporting;  the  sisters  copied  and 
illuminated  manuscripts,  or  occupied  themselves 
profitably  in  other  ways  according  to  their  gifts. 
In  1408  a  new  house  was  erected  at  Diepenveen, 
a  few  miles  away,  in  the  choir  of  whose  church 
Brinckerinck  was  buried.  He  was  known  far  and 
wide  for  his  popular  preaching,  which,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  Rudolf  Dicr,  one  of  his  hearers, 
and  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  gave  to 
all  the  impression  that  he  had  sat  at  the  feet  of 
Jesus.  From  a  manuscript  biography  by  Elizabeth 
of  Delft,  one  of  the  twelve  first  sisters,  we  learn 
that  she  wrote  down  some  of  his  sermons,  and 
Rudolf  Dier  adds  that  out  of  such  materials  eight 
vernacular  "  collations  "  were  formed,  containing 
his  admonitions  to  the  sisters.  These  were  dis- 
covered not  long  ago,  and  published  by  Moll  in 
1866.  They  read  like  notes  of  spoken  discourses, 
sometimes  apparently  combinations  of  different 
ones.  Like  the  usual  "  collations  "  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life,  they  were  not  formal  sermons 
following  a  rhetorical  method,  but  simple  and 
artless  talks  which  pass  readily  from  one  topic  to 
another,  and  are  rich  in  short,  pithy  sentences  of  a 
kind  to  be  easily  understood  and  remembered  by 
his  hearers.  Taken  as  a  whole,  they  form  a  notable 
memorial  of  this  remarkable  man,  whose  prcacliing, 
before  their  publication,  was  known  principally 
through  the  account  given  by  Thomas  k  Kempis. 

L.  SCHULZE. 
Biblioorapht:  The  Vita  by  Thomas  k  Kempis  is  Id  the 
Chronicon  monaaterii  S.  Affnetia,  ed.  H.  Rosweyde.  Ant- 
werp, 1616;  another  by  J.  Buschius  is  in  the  latter's  Chroni- 
con WindeMhmenw,  ed.  K.  Grube,  Halle.  1886.  Consult: 
G.  Dunbar,  Analecta,  vol.  i.,  Deventer,  1719;  idem,  Het 
Kerktlyk  en  WerelUyk  Deventer,  ib.  1732-88;  W.  Moll. 
Kerkgeeehiedenia  van  Nederland  voor  de  Hervorming,  ii.  2, 
209  sqq.,  Utrecht.  1871. 

BRITISH  CHURCH.    See  Celtic  Church. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS.    See  Central  America. 

BRITTINANS,  BRITTINIANS.     See  Brictinans. 

BRIXEI?,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  diocese  which 
takes  its  name  from  Brixen,  a  town  of  the  Tyrol, 
situated  40  m.  s.s.e.  of  InnsbrQck.  The  present 
Tyrol  became  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  15  a. d., 
and  the  rapid  spread  of  Christianity  in  north  Italy 
gives  ground  for  the  supposition  that  it  penetrated 
comparatively  early  into  the  Alpine  region.  The 
earliest  authentic  mention  of  a  bishopric  in  southern 
Rhsetia,  however,  dates  from  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century.  Among  the  bishops  of  Venetia  and 
Rhffitia  Secimda  who  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
emperor  Maurice  in  591  appears  the  name  of  a  cer- 
tain Ingenuinus,  whom  Paulus  Diaconus  and  the 
author  of  the  Versus  de  ordine  conprovincialium 
porUificum   describe   as   bishop    of   Sabiona,    the 


present  Seben.  The  existence  of  the  bishopric 
seems  to  have  been  continuous  from  this  time. 
It  embraced  to  the  south  of  the  Brenner  the  upper 
Eisackthal  and  the  Pusterthal,  to  the  north  of  the 
Brenner  almost  the  whole  of  what  is  now  the  lyrol. 
Probably  under  Otto  II.,  the  see  was  removed 
from  Seben  to  Brixen;  in  a  document  of  967 
Bishop  Richpert  is  designated  as  PrihsinetuU 
ecdesiiB  episcopus.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Brixen  counts  among  the  most  ancient  exam- 
ples of  exemption  from  the  secular  jurisdiction, 
having  received  it  from  Charlemagne  and  Louis 
the  Pious.  Its  territory  increased  largely  by  do- 
nations from  successive  emperors,  and  Frederick 
I.  (1179)  gave  its  incumbent  the  princely  title  and 
rights.  Henceforth  the  bishops  received  inverti- 
ture  immediately  from  the  emperor,  and  had  a 
seat  and  a  voice  in  the  imperial  diet.  The  secular 
privileges,  however,  were  gradually  absorbed  by 
the  powerful  magnates  of  the  Tyrol,  and  at  the . 
Peace  of  Lun^ville  the  principality  was  formafly 
suppressed,  to  be  conferred  the  next  year  on  the 
house  of  Austria.  Brixen  was  the  meeting-place 
in  1080  of  a  council  of  imperialist  prelates  who 
undertook  to  depose  Gregory  VII.  and  elect  Gui- 
bert  of  Ravenna  pope  in  his  place.  Cardinal 
Nicholas  of  Cusa  occupied  the  see  from  1450  to 
1464,  and  Caspar  Ignatius,  Count  KOnigl  (1702- 
1747),  was  among  the  greatest  and  most  active 
prelates  of  his  day.  The  nomination  to  the  see  is 
vested  in  the  emperor  of  Austria. 

BROAD  CHURCH.    See  England,  Chttrch  of. 

BROADUS,  JOHN  ALBERT :  American  Baptist; 
b.  in  Culpeper  County,  Va.,  Jan.  24,  1827;  d.  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  Mar.  16,  1895.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Virginia  1850,  and 
was  assistant  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  there, 
1851-53,  chaplain  to  the  University  1855-57,  pw- 
tor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  the  place  until,  in 
1859,  on  its  organization,  he  became  professor 
of  the  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament  and 
of  homiletics  in  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary,  then  in  Greenville,  S.  C.  In  1877  the 
seminary  was  removed  to  Louisville,  and  in  1888 
he  became  its  president.  He  attained  high  rank 
as  teacher,  preacher,  and  scholar,  and  published 
two  notable  volumes  in  the  field  of  homileticBi 
The  Preparation  and  Delivery  of  Sermons  (Phila^ 
delphia,  1870;  25th  ed.,  by  E.  C.  Dargan,  New 
York,  1905)  and  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Prtan^ 
ing  (New  York,  1876);  also  Sermons  and  Addresta 
(1886;  6th  ed.,  1905);  a  commentary  on  Matthew 
(Philadelphia,  1887);  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (New 
York,  1890);  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  according  to 
the  Revised  Version  (1893);  Memoir  of  J(vne» 
Petigru  Boyce  (1893).  He  also  prepared  a  com- 
mentary on  Mark  (Philadelphia,  1905),  and  edited 
and  revised  the  Oxford  translation  of  Chrysostom's 
homilies  on  Philippians,  Colossians,  and  Thessalo- 
nians,  with  an  essay  on  St.  Chrysostom  as  s 
homilist,  in  vol.  xiii.  of  Philip  Schaff's  Niceneo^ 
Post  Nicene  Fathers  (New  York.  1889). 
Bibliography:  A.  T.  Robertaon,  Life  and  LeUen  of  /«** 

Albert   Broadua,  Philadelphia,  1901. 

BROCHMAND,  brok'mtod,  JESPER  RASMUS- 
SEN:    Bishop  of  Zealand;   b.  at  Kdge  (20  m.  s-W. 


978 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


British  Ohurdli 
Bro<~ 


Brooks 


of  Copeohagen),  Zealand,  Aug.  5,  15S5;  d.  at 
Copenhagen  Apr,  19, 1652,  He  studied  at  Herlufs- 
bolm^  GopenhageD,  Leyd^i,  and  Franeker;  became 
f^^lor  of  Herlufaholm  a«:adem]r  1608;  professor 
pctdagDgicu^,  Umvemity  of  Copenhagen,  1610;  pro- 
leMor  of  Greek  1613;  member  of  the  tbeological 
faculty  1615.  In  1617  he  wa^  appoiatcd  teaehcr 
to  Priooe  Christian p  son  of  King  Chrktian  IV,, 
but  returned  to  the  universitj  three  years  later. 
At  this  time  Denmark  was  disturbed  by  Roman 
C>atholie  propaganda,  aod  Broclimand  made  the 
controvetwy  with  Rome  a  subject  of  his  public 
lectures.  In  1626-28  be  publbbed  Contr&uenim 
macrts  (3  parta),  a  reply  to  BeUarmino'fl  attacks 
on  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  in  1634^  at  the  king's 
ofder,  he  engaged  in  a  polemic  with  the  JeeuitSp 
who  endeavored  to  defend  the  conversion  of  Mar- 
grave Christian  William  of  Brandenburg  to  Cathol- 
idam.  In  their  final  reply  the  Jesuits  atigma* 
iLu?d  Broeiimand  aa  a  ''  disturber  of  the  Roman 
empire,  the  boldest  deapiser  of  His  Imperial  Majesty 
and  the  Cathohc  nilers,  a  poiaonoua  spider,  and 
&  degenerate  Absalom,'^  Against  this  pamphlet 
Brochmand  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  which 
After  his  death  were  collected  and  published  imdej 
the  title  Ajtologia  spectdi  mrUatU  confulatio  (Copen- 
hagen, 1653).  He  waa  ordamed  bishop  of  Zealand 
in  1639,  and  during  his  long  and  fruitful  activity 
In  this  office  reorganized  the  [laniah  church  serv- 
ice, especially  by  abolishing  the  Latin  choir,  and 
by  introducing  Wednesday  services  during  Lent. 
His  reputation  as  a  dogmatist  was  established  by 
his  Univer«a  iheologm  systama  (2  vols.,  1633)  in 
which  he  proved  himaelf  a  bitter  opponent,  not 
only  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  but  also  of  the  Re- 
formed, whom  he  caOs  "  enemies  of  God  and  of 
truth,"  He  wrote  several  devotional  works ,  of 
which  his  Sobbaii  sanciificaiio  for  more  than  two 
centuries  was  a  favorite  collection  of  sermons 
with  the  Danish  people.  (F.  NiELSKjrt-) 

BROBMEL,  brrmel",  ALBERT  ROBERT:  Ger- 
man Lutheran  pastor  and  author;  b.  at  Teichel 
(15  m.  B,B^.  of  Erfurt),  Schwarzburgi  Apr,  27,  1815; 
d.  at  Rat^burg  (12  m.  s.e.  of  Ltibeck),  Ftussta, 
Oct.  28,  1885.  He  was  educated  at  Gcttingen, 
Jena,  and  Beriin,  and  after  spending  two  years 
helping  Otto  von  Gerlach  (q. v.)  in  both  educational 
and  pastoral  duties  in  the  last-named  place,  was 
called  in  1846  to  be  pastor  of  Lassahn  in  the  ducby 
of  Lauenburg.  In  1854  he  became  superintendent 
of  the  whole  district,  with  spedal  charge  of  the 
principal  church  of  Ratseburg,  Besides  the  multi- 
farious duties  which  occupied  him  during  the  next 
thirty  years,  he  found  time  for  a  considerable 
Uterary  activity.  His  principal  work  was  his 
Homii^isck^  CharakierbUder  (2  vols,,  Berlin,  1869- 
1874),  which  is  practically  a  history  of  prtsaehing, 
especially  the  post- Reformation  and  German, 
As  is  natural  from  the  character  of  his  Ufe,  his 
writings  generally  are  more  practical  than  theo- 
f«tical.  (Wii-HEtM  Glamann.) 

BROMLEY,  THOMAS:    English  mystic;    b.  in 

Worceater  1629;    d,   1691,     Ho  held  a  fellowship 

in  Oxford  until  1660,  when,  as  a  non- conformist, 

be  refused  to  accept  the  Anglican  Liturgy.    But 

XL— 18 


prexnously  he  had  become  a  follower  of  Jakob 
Boehme  the  mystic  (q,v,),  and  with  John  Fordage 
and  Jane  Lead  had  founded  the  Philadclphian 
Society  {see  Leah,  Jakk);  when  he  left  Oxford 
he  came  to  Pordage,  and  lived  with  him  many  years, 
Bromley  was  active  in  propa^ting  his  opinions, 
which  included  the  rejection  of  the  outward  church 
and  of  marriage  not  for  license  but  on  the  theory 
that  the  example  of  Christ  was  in  favor  of 
voluntary  and  holy  virginity  for  all.  He  was 
himself  in  every  respect  an  estimable  man.  His 
works  were  translated  into  German  and  pub- 
lished, In  second  edition,  at  Frankfort  and  LeipsiCr 
2  vols.,  1719-32.  The  most  important  of  them 
was  Tim  Way  to  the  Sabbath  of  Eesi  (London, 
1692;  later  eds.,  with  additions,  1710,  and  as  late 
as  1802), 

BROOKE,     STOPFORD     AUGUSTUS:    English 

Unitarian;  b*  at  Letterkenny  (16  m.  s.w.  of  Lon- 
donderry), County  Donegal,  Nov-  14,  1832.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  CttUege,  Dublin  (B.A., 
1856),  and  was  ordaineti  pri^t  in  the  Church  of 
England  in  1857,  He  was  successively  curate  of 
St.  Matthew's,  Marylebone  (1857-59)  and  Ken- 
sington Church  {1860-63).  He  was  then  chaplain 
to  the  princess  royal,  Berlin  {lS63r-65),  and  after 
his  return  to  England  was  minister  of  Bt,  James's 
Chapel,  York  Street  (1866-75),  and  of  Bedford 
Chapel  (1876-94),  He  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  the  queen  in  1872,  but  in  1880  he  withdrew 
from  the  Church  of  England,  finding  himself  unable 
to  accept  the  orthodox  teaching  concerning  miracles. 
Among  his  writings  special  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  following:  Life  and  LeUcrg  of  the  laic  Fred- 
erick W.  Robertson  (2  vols,,  London,  1865);  Free- 
dom in  the  Church  of  England  (1871);  SerTmma 
(1868-77);  Theology  in  the  English  Poets  (1874); 
A  Fight  of  Fmth  (1877);  Spirit  of  the  Chriitian 
Life  (1881);  UnUy  of  God  and  Man  (1886);  The 
Early  Life  of  Jeims  (1887);  History  of  Early  Eng- 
ti»h  Literature  (1892);  Short  S^nnona  (1892); 
History  of  English  LiUrature  (1894);  Study  of 
Tennyson  (1894);  God  and  Christ  (1894);  Jesus 
and  Modem  Thought  (1894);  Old  Testament  and 
Modem  Life  (1896);  The  Gospel  of  Joy  (1898); 
and  Poetry  of  Robert  Brownir^  (1902), 

BROOKS,  ELBRIDGE  GERRY:     American  Um- 

versalist;  b.  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  July  29,  1816;  d.  at 
Philadelphia  Apr,  8,  1878,  He  was  licensed  at 
Portsmouth,  N,  H.,  1836;  became  piwitor  in  West 
Amesbury,  Mass,,  1837;  in  East  Cambridge,  1838; 
in  Lowell  (First  tlniversallst  Church),  1845;  in 
Bath,  Me,,  1846;  in  Ljmn,  Mass.  (First  Univer- 
sa^ist  Church),  1850;  in  New  York  (Church  of  our 
Savior),  1859;  in  Philadelphia  (Church  of  the 
Messiah),  1868.  He  was  general  agent  of  the 
board  of  trustees  of  the  General  Convention,  1867- 
1868.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  courageous 
and  energetic,  an  advocate  of  the  Maine  liquor 
law  and  of  the  cause  of  the  Union  during  the  Civil 
War,  as  well  as  of  the  doctrine  of  remedial  pun- 
ishment in  the  future  world.  He  published  Uni- 
versaiism  in  Life  and  Doctrine  and  its  Superiority 
as  a  Pradicul  Power  {New  York,  1863)  and  Our 
New  D^iorture,  or  the  methods  and  works  of    the 


Brooks 
Brown 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


974 


Universalist  Church  of  America  as  it  enters  on  its 
aecond  century  (Boston,  1874). 

Bibuogkapht:  E.  S.  Brooks,  Life-Work  of  Elbridgt  Gerry 
Brook9,  Boston.  1881. 

BROOKS,  PHILLIPS:  American  preacher  and 
bishop;  b.  in  Boston  Dec.  13,  1835;  d.  there  Jan. 
23,  1893.  He  was  of  distinguished  New  England 
ancestry,  being  descended  on  his  father's  side  from 
John  Cotton  and  on  his  mother's  side  from  Ssimuel 
Phillips,  the  founder  of  Phillips  Academy,  Andover. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1855;  studied  at 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Theological  School,  Alex- 
andria, Va.,  1856-59;  became  rector  of  the  Church 
of  the  Advent,  Philadelphia,  1859;  of  Holy  Trinity 
Church,  Philatlelphia.  1862;  of  Trinity  Church, 
Boston,  1869;  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 1891.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent, 
spiritual,  successful,  and  highly  esteemed  clergy- 
men of  his  time,  and  held  this  position  both  by 
mtellectual  power  and  an  engaging  personality. 
His  preaching  was  preeminently  the  product  of  his 
own  experience;  he  was  of  broad  sympathies  and 
tactful  in  his  dealings  with  men.  He  was  partic- 
ularly courteous  in  cultivating  cordial  relations 
with  those  of  other  than  his  own  denomination. 
He  gave  the  Lyman  Beecher  lectures  on  preaching 
before  the  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1877  (published 
as  Lectures  on  Preaching^  New  York,  1877),  and 
was  Bohlen  lecturer  at  the  Philadelphia  Divinity 
School  in  1879  (The  Influence  of  Jesus,  1879). 
He  published  five  volumes  of  Sermons  during  his 
life  (1878-90),  and  five  have  been  added  since  his 
death  (1893-1905).  His  Letters  of  Travel  writUn 
to  his  family  appeared  in  1893,  and  a  volume  of 
Essays  and  Addresses,  religious,  literary ,  and  social , 
edited  by  his  brother,  John  Cotton  Brooks,  in 
1894.  Individual  sermons,  addresses,  etc.,  have 
been  printed  in  many  forms  and  the  number  of 
books  of  extracts  from  his  preaching  is  very  large. 
Bibliography:  The  best  biography  is  his  Life  and  iMtera 

by   A.  V.   G.    Allen,  2  vols.,  New  York,   1900,  condenaed 

into  1  vol.,  ib.  1907. 

BRORSON,  HANS  ADOLF:  Bishop  of  Ribe; 
b.  at  Randrup,  on  the  west  coast  of  northern  Sles- 
wick,  June  20,  1694;  d.  at  Ribe,  Jutland,  June  3, 
1764.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen 
(1712-17),  devoting  himself  more  to  history  and 
literature  than  to  theology,  and  acted  as  tutor 
in  the  house  of  an  uncle  at  Liigum  in  Sleswick, 
where  he  caught  the  spirit  of  the  religious  revival 
at  that  time  making  itself  felt  in  this  province. 
In  1722  he  was  appointed  minister  at  Handrup, 
and  in  1729  he  was  called  as  deacon  to  Tondern. 
Here  he  began  collecting  Danish  hymns  for  the 
use  of  his  congregation,  to  replace  the  German 
ones  previously  sung  before  and  after  the  Danish 
sermon.  In  1732  he  published  a  small  volume 
of  Christmas  hymns  w^hich  contains  some  of  his 
most  excellent  compositions;  later  he  published 
other  booklets,  and  in  1739  the  first  edition  of  his 
Troens  rare  Klenodie  ("  The  Faith's  Rare  Jewel  "), 
a  collection  of  250  hymns,  mostly  translations  from 
the  German.  In  1737  King  Christian  VI.  appointed 
him  dean  of  Ribe  stift,  and  two  years  later  he 
succeeded  to  the  bishopric.  Brorson  was  one  of 
the  greatest  of  Danish  hymn-writers,  and  is  pre- 


eminently the  poet  of  Christzniis.  His  hymia  ut 
associated  with  the  melodies  of  the  people,  mi 
he  was  essentially  a  singer  for  those  who  wor- 
ship in  the  privacy  of  their  homes.  While  not 
unable  to  write  original  hymns,  it  was  especally 
the  hymns  and  melodies  of  German  Pietism  that 
he  transplanted  into  the  church  of  Denmark.  Tlx 
best  edition  of  his  hymns  is  by  P.  A.  Ariand  (Co- 
penhagen, 1867).  (F.  NiEMDft.) 

Bibliogbapht:  A.  D.  Jdrgensen,  H.  A.  Brormm,  OopcB- 
ha«en,  1887. 

BROTHERHOODS,  RELIGIOUS.     See  CoKm- 

TERNITIES. 

BROTHERS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAll  SCHOOUl 
See  Christian  Brothers. 

BROUGHTON,  brau'txm,  HUGH:  Church  of 
England  Hebrew  scholar;  b.  at  Oldbury  (near  tliB 
border  of  Wales,  20  m.  s.w.  of  Shrewsbury),  Shrop- 
shire, 1549;  d.  in  Tottenham,  London,  Aug.  i 
1612.  He  was  helped  in  his  efforts  to  obtaio  u 
education  by  Bernard  Gilpin  (q.v.),  and  became 
fellow  of  St.  John's  and  Christ's  colleges,  Gun- 
bridge  (B.A.,  1570).  In  London  he  gained  fame 
as  a  preacher  of  Puritan  doctrine.  In  1588  be 
published  A  Consent  of  Scripture,  a  treatise  on 
Bible  chronology;  it  was  attacked  at  both  uzuve^ 
sities  and  Broughton  undertook  lectures  in  iti 
defense  at  London.  In  1589  or  1590  he  went  to 
Germany  and  thenceforth  spent  most  of  his  life 
on  the  Continent,  where  he  disputed  with  Jeva, 
Roman  Catholics,  and  Protestants  who  did  not 
agree  with  him,  and  wrote  letters  to  E^n^and  aaloDg 
for  appointments.  His  learning  and  ability  were 
unquestioned,  but  his  unhappy  temper  and  bad 
manners  prevented  his  advancement.  He  was 
long  anxious  to  assist  in  preparing  a  new  veisioa 
of  the  Bible,  but  when  the  translators  were  v^ 
pointed  by  King  James  in  1604  he  was  not  one  of 
them,  and  when  their  work  was  done  he  made  a 
bitter  attack  upon  it.  His  writings  were  collected 
by  Lightfoot,  with  the  pompous  title  The  Works  oj 
the  Great  Alhionean  Divine,  Renowned  in  Man}/ 
Nations  for  Rare  Skill  in  Salem's  and  Athem's 
Tongues  and  Familiar  Acquaintance  unlh  all  Reb- 
binical  Learning,  Mr.  Hugh  Broughton  (Landoo, 
1662);    a  sketch  of  his  life  is  included. 

Biblioqrapht:  Besides  the  life  prefixed  to  his  woriui,  then 
are  available  sketchea  in:  B.  Brook,  Lives  of  ths  PwHam, 
ii.  215  sqq..  London,  1813;  A.  k  Wood.  Athena  Oxotntnm. 
ed.  P.  BUss.  u.  308  sqq..  4  vols.,  ib.  1813-20. 

BROUSSON,  bra"s6n',  CLAUDE:  French  Prot- 
estant; b.  at  Nimes  1647;  executed  at  Montpellier 
Nov.  4,  1698.  lie  practised  as  a  lawyer  at  Castres, 
Castclnaudary,  and,  after  1679,  in  Toulouse,  and 
employed  his  talent  with  courage  and  self-sacrifice 
to  defend  his  coreligionists  against  the  rigorous 
measures  of  the  government.  In  1683  he  was 
compelled  to  leave  France  and  lived  for  a  time  in 
Lausanne.  He  visited  Berlin  and  Holland  to 
bring  about  a  coalition  between  the  Protestant 
princes  against  Louis  XIV.  In  1689  he  returned 
to  France  and  traveled  through  the  southern  part 
of  the  country  admonishing  and  exhorting  his 
brethren,  though  a  price  was  put  on  his  head,  and 
he  was  himted  by  the  officials  like  a  beast  of  piey. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Browa 


^ 


la  1693  he  again  retired  to  Lausanne^  and  was 

ord.Vmed    there    (1664).     In    1695    he    reentered 

Frunce  through  S^an,  and  visited  most  of  the 

rnned  eongregationw  north  of  the  Loire,  finally 

itig  through  Franche-Comt'6  into  SwitxerlantL 

ice  more,  in   1697.  he  visited  France,  but  was 

esLiif^hi  at    Oloron,    antl   sentenced    to    death    by 

strangling.     Among  his  worka,  of  which  a  list  la 

given  in   La  Franre  protestante,  vol.  iii,,  tl>e  most 

pnotninent  are:  E'tat  den  reforrnts  de  France  (The 

Hague^  16S5);    La  Marine  myBiique  dti  d*»ert  (Am- 

rterdam,  1695);    Lettres  paaloralei  nur  le  c4ifUique 

dtm  cantiques  (Delft,  1697). 

BtsuooRAFHT:  A.  BorreL  Biographie  de  C.  BrouMson^  Ntmes, 
IS52:  H.  8.  Bayrif^.  The  EtanoeiUl  of  the  Brsrrl  Lift  of 
O.  BrouMmn,  Londoti,  18S3. 

BROWN.  ARTHUR  JUDSOIf :  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  IloUist/in,  Ma^^is.,  Dec,  3,  1856.  He  was 
cducat4?d  at  Wabash  College  (B.A.,  1S80)  and 
Lane  Theologieal  Seminary  (18S3).  He  was 
ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in  188^3, 
and  held  Huecessive  pastorates  at  Rijwn,  Wis.  (IS83- 
1884).  Firet  Presbyterian  Church.  Oak  Park,  111. 
(1884-88),  and  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Port- 
land, Ore.  (1888-95).  Since  1895  he  has  been  one 
of  the  secretaries  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions.  In  addition  to  numerous  con- 
tributions to  periodicals,  he  has  written  Tht  A'eu? 
Era  in  the  Philippines  (Ojicago,  1903)  and  New 
Forcv^  in  Old  China  (1904). 

BROWN,    CHARLES     REYNOLDS:     Congrega- 
jtionaiigt;   h.    at   Bethany,  W.  Va.,   Oct.    t,    1862. 
I  He  w^as  graduated  from  the   llnivernity  of  Iowa 
|(BA.,  1883;  M.A.,  IS86)  and  the  School  of  Th(- 
pogy   of  Boston  University  (1889).     He  was  pus- 
Weslej''  Chapel  Metlio^lbt  Episcopal  Church, 
^iiinati,   O.   (1881>-92);  of  Winthrop  Congrcga- 
a   Church,    Boston    (1892-96);  since    1896   he 
en  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Chnrcli, 
pt^nd,  Cal.     He  was  spi^cial  lecturer  on  ethics 
and  Stanford  University  in  lWKM>6j  Lyman 
^lier  lecturer  at  Yule  in  19()5--06,  and  lecturer 
^^hicfl  in  Mills  College  in  1906-08.     In  1897  he 
"^•*i^  a  tour  of  Eg>'pt  and  Palestine,  and  has  been 
^^'^^Ident  of  the  lx)ard  of  trustees  of  iMills  College 
~       1902  and  a  director   of    the    Oakland  Asso- 
Charities  since  1899,  and  elmirman  of  the 
^rnittee  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  8an  Fran- 
churches  after  the  earthquake  of  1906.     In 
logy  he  is  a  lil^eral*  ami   in  athlition  t^  pam- 
I  and  sermons,  has  written  Tn:^  Parables  (Chi- 
1898);   Tfu^  Main  PoinlJi :  A  Shuiif  in  Chri.^- 
Belief  (San  Francisco,   1899);  and  The  Sttcial 
_\  of  the  Modem  Pulpit  (Yale  lectures,  New 

;i906), 

^HOWN,  CHARLES  RUFUS:  Baptist;  b.  at 
^*^t  Kingston.  N.  H.,  Feb.  22,  1849.  He  was 
***Ucate^l  at  Phillips  Elxeter  Acjulemy  {1863-65) 
•^^  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  (1865-69), 
*^^  attained  the  rank  of  master.  He  resigned 
^^^xti  the  navy,  however,  and  continued  his  atudiea 
*^  Newton  Theological  Institution  (1874-75,  1877- 
'  "|^*8K  Harvard  University  (B.A.,  1877),  Union  Theo- 
'  al  Seminary  (1878^79),  and  the  universities 
Beriin  (1879-80)  and  Leipsic   (1880-81).     He 


Ej 


wa^  ordained  to  the  Baptist  ministry  at  Franklin, 
N.  H.,  in  1881,  and  remained  there  as  pastor  until 
1883.  He  was  appointed  associate  professor  of 
Biblical  interpretation.  Old  Testament,  in  the 
Newton  Theological  In.Htitution  in  188^^,  and  since 
1886  has  been  professor  of  Hebrew  and  cognate 
languages  there.  He  was  also  librarian  of  the 
institution  in  1884-85,  1889-97.  and  1900-06. 
secretary  of  the  faculty  in  1SS7-92,  and  registrar  in 
1892—95.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis  since  1883, 
and  was  fom^erly  u  member  of  the  American 
Oriental  St>ciety  (1886),  the  Archeological  Institute 
of  .'im erica  (1899),  and  the  department  of  arche- 
ology in  the  Univereity  of  Pennsylvania  (1902). 
He  has  written  An  Aramaic  Methyl  (2  parts, 
Chicago,  1884-86);  in  1893-94  editc<i  the  course 
of  Sun  day-school  lessons  in  the  Bible  Study  Minor 
Graded  Lesson  System,  and  made  a  critical  transla- 
tion of  Jeremiah  (Philadelphia,  1907). 

BROWN,  DAVID:  Free  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  at  Aberdeen  Aug.  17,  1803;  d.  there  July  3, 
1897.  He  studied  ut  the  University  of  Aberdeen 
(M.A.,  1821);  was  lioens€^d  1826»  ami  was  assistant 
to  Edward  Irving  in  I^ondon  1830-32;  was  ordained 
minister  of  a  country  chaijel  six  miles  southwest 
of  Banff  L836;  he  went  with  the  Free  Church  1843, 
and  the  same  year  became  minister  of  St.  James's, 
Glasgow;  was  electeti  profcssfjr  of  apologetics^ 
church  history,  and  exegesis  of  the  Gospels  at  the 
Free  Church  College,  Aberdeen,  1857;  elected 
principal  1876,  and  resigned  his  professorship  1887. 
He  was  a  director  of  the  Natiouiil  Bible  Society  of 
Scotland,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance,  was  deeply  inti^rested  in  the  Alliance  of 
the  Reformed  Churches  and  a  member  of  the  third 
General  Council  at  Belfast,  1888.  He  was  an 
opponent  of  Robertson  Smith  in  the  controversy 
which  resulted  in  the  dismissal  of  the  latter  from 
Aberdeen,  and  as  a  member  of  the  New  Testament 
revision  company  took  a  highly  conservative  posi- 
tion. He  ivas  moderator  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Free  Cliurch  in  1885.  Besides  numer- 
ous contributions  to  the  periodicals,  he  published 
ChrisCs  Second  Coming:  Will  it  be  Premilleniai  f 
(Edinburgh,  1846;  6th  ed.,  1867),  a  classic;  Crushed 
H Often  Crotimed  in  Death,  a  memorial  of  his  son^ 
Alexander  Brown,  of  the  Bengal  civil  service,  d. 
Jc.n.,  1860  (London.  1861);  The  Resioraiiofi  of  the 
JewH :  the  History,  Principles ^  and  Bearings  of  the 
Question  (Edinburgh,  1861);  Lije  of  the  late  John 
Ditncan  (1872);  The  Apocalypae :  its  structure 
and  primarj/  predictions  (London,  1891).  He  col- 
laborated 'with  R.  Jamieson  and  A.  R.  Fausset  in 
preparing  the  Commentary,  Critical,  Experimental, 
and  Practiced^  on  the  Old  and  .Veii;  TeMaments  (6 
vols.,  Glajigow,  1864-70)t  furnishing  the  ^lortion 
devoted  to  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans;  wrote  the  commentary  on  the 
Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  for  Schaff's  Popular 
Commentary  on  the  New  Testament  (1882);  and 
prepared  the  Epistle  to  tiie  Romans  for  Dods  and 
Whyte's  Handbooks  for  Bible  Classes  (Edinburgh, 
1883). 

BfBMOURAPEiT:  W.  G.  Blaikje,  David  Srtmm,  ,  .  .  A  Mm^ 

oir,  Lotirlon.  189^ 


Brown 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


276 


BROWIf,  FRANCIS;  Presbyterian;  b.  at  Han- 
over, N.  H.,  Dt^c-  26,  1849.  He  wsfl  educated  at 
Dartmouth  ColJefie  (B,A„  1870),  Uiuoo  Theo- 
logicai  Seminary  (1877),  and  the  Univemty  of 
BerUn  (1877-79).  He  was  asmstant  mnjster  m 
Ayena'  Latin  Srhool,  Pittaburg,  Pa.,  in  1870-72, 
and  tutor  in  Greek  in  Dartmouth  College  in  1872-74, 
From  1879  to  1881  he  wm  lecturer  in  Biblical 
philology  in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  was 
associate  profeeeor  of  the  earn©  subject  from  ISSI 
to  1890,  when  he  was  appointed  Davenport  pro- 
feasor  of  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  language**  in 
the  sama  institution.  He  has  been  a  member  of 
the  Sodety  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis 
oizice  1880,  and  was  its  president  in  1895-96;  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Historical  Theology 
(Oxford)  uince  1891  and  its  president  in  1899-1900; 
and  a  member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society 
nnce  1 88L  In  addition  to  numerou/i  briefer  atudie*i, 
he  has  written:  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelm  ApostJe& 
(New  York,  1884;  in  collaboration  with  R,  D. 
Hitchcock);  AvsyriGUigy,  its  Urn  and  Abme  in  Old 
TestamefU  Study  (188.5);  A  Hebrew  and  EnglUh 
Lexicon  of  the  Old  Testament  (12  parte,  Oxforti, 
1891-1906;  in  coUaborution  with  S.  II.  Driver 
and  G.  A.  Briggs);  and  The  Christian  Foini  o/ 
View  {New  York^  1902;  in  collaboration  with 
A*  C.  McCtiffert  and  O.  W.  Tvnox). 

BROWIf,  HUGH  STOWELL:  Engliah  Baptist; 
b.  at  Dougla'*,  Jale  of  Mani  Aug*  10,  1823;  d.  at 
Liverpool  Feb.  24,  1886.  He  learned  surveying, 
luid  became  a  railroad  engineer;  at  twenty-one  en- 
tered King  Wiiham's  College,  Castletown ,  Isle  of 
Man,  to  study  for  the  ministry  of  the  Establiihed 
Church;  doubta  concerning  the  baptismal  teachings 
of  the  Church  and  the  reJations  of  Church  and  State 
led  him  to  think  of  returning  to  Iiis  trade;  in  1846 
he  joined  the  Baptists,  in  1847  became  minister 
of  the  Myrtle  Street  Chapel ^  Liverfjool,  and  re* 
jnained  there  till  his  death.  He  inaugurated  Sun- 
day afternoon  lectures  for  workingmen,  with  whom, 
owing  to  his  early  oxperienct!s,  he  had  great  influ- 
ence. Ho  was  president  of  the  Baptist  Union 
1878,  an  active  member  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  and  president  of  the  Liverpool  Peace 
Society.  He  published  numerous  lectures  and 
sermons. 

BiBtJOORAPlTTt  fiugh  i^tniweU  Brtmm,  hit  A  utobinQravhu,  his 
C&mTnonplofm  Book,  and  Extratf^  from  hi»  iHrrmitna  and 
Addresta,  s  mem^^l  Vt^fumt^  pdiied  by  his  fion-in-law, 
W.  B,  Cojtie,  Londpn.  lfiS7:  DNB,  Bupplement  voK,  i 
300-301. 

BROWTT,  JAMES  BALDWIN  i  Englwh  Congi^^ 
gationuliat;  b.  in  London  Aug.  19,  1820;  d. 
there  June  23,  1884,  He  studied  at  London  Uni- 
versity (B.A.,  1839);  studied  law  for  two  years 
and  then  studied  theology  at  Highbury  College; 
became  minister  of  London  Road  Chapel,  Derby, 
1843;  of  Claylands  Chapel,  Clapham  Roail,  London^ 
1846,  and  remained  with  this  congregation  till 
his  death;  anew  chureh  on  Brixton  Road  (Brixton 
Independent  Chureh)  was  occupied  in  1870.  He 
was  distinguished  for  the  breadth  of  his  theological 
views  and  strongly  opposed  to  Calvinism.  He 
took  an  active  interest  in  pubhc  movements  such 
as   the  relief  of  the  laboring  classes  during  the 


Lancashire  cotton  famine .  He  f avcired  the  i  _ 
of  the  Crystal  Palace  on  Sundays^  and  w%a  a  i 
advocate  of  the  admission  of  dissanteTB  to  tha 
universities.  He  strenuoujily  opposed  the  doc- 
trine of  conditional  immortality  aa  a  deadly  eimr. 
In  1878  he  was  chairman  of  the  Oon^egatboAl 
Union;  at  this  time  a  movement  to  discover  some 
common  groimd  on  which  dmstians  of  various 
ways  of  thinking  might  unite  in  independence  of 
dogma  and  of  the  historic  aide  of  Chiistianitj 
had  made  nuch  progress  as  to  c^l  for  reprenive 
action  on  the  part  of  the  Union  in  the  opinion  of 
many-  he  strongly  opposed  such  action^  but  wii 
overruled  and  outvoted.  His  more  important 
books  were:  The  Divine  Life  in  Man  (London, 
1859),  which  brought  upon  him  a  charge  of  hetcfo* 
doxy;  The  S&td's  Es^u^  and  FUgHmage  (1^2); 
The  Bimne  Treaimenl  of  Sin  (1864);  The  Horn 
Life  in  the  Light  af  \u  Divine  Idea  (1866);  Idifk- 
in'eit,  Old  and  iWew,  their  Cause  and  Cure  (1867); 
TJw  firiit  Frincipieji  of  Ecckmmti^l  TrtOh  (1871); 
The  Higher  Life^  it^  Reality,  Experience^  and  Dm- 
tiny  (1874);  The  Doctrine  of  Annihilaiian  in  the 
Light  of  the  Gmpel  of  Lorn  (1875);  H&me,  He  Bdth 
Hon  to  Man  and  Sceiet^  (1883). 

BiBLiooajLPEiT:  For  hia  tifei  conimUl  Hlijwlwtli  B,  Brovn, 
J.  Itatdvdn  Mrawn,  Mini*^  of  Briition  Indeptrndtmi 
Chureh,  London,  1884  (by  hia  wife). 

BROWn,  JOBMi    EngMsh  C!ongregationali«L;  b. 

at  Bolton-le-Moors  (12  m.  n.w.  of  Manchester), 
Lancashire,  June  19,  1830.  He  was  educated  at 
Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  the  Lancashire 
Independent  Cbllege,  Manchester  (B.A.,  Londmi 
University,  1853),  and  waa  minister  oSf  Park  Chapd, 
Manchester,  from  1855  to  1864,  and  of  Bunysa 
Church,  Bedford,  from  1864  to  1903,  when  be 
became  pastor  emeritus.  He  was  chairman  of 
the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wsle^ 
in  1891,  Congregational  Union  lecturer  in  1898, 
and  Lyman  Beccher  lecturer  at  Yale  in  IS99. 
He  was  also  president  of  the  County  Assodstbn 
of  Free  Churches  in  Bedfordshire  from  1S7S  to 
1902,  and  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  Coo- 
gregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales,  1893-95. 
He  represented  the  latter  body  at  the  Triennisl 
Union  of  the  United  States  at  Minneapolis  in  1892, 
and  at  the  Congregational  Union  of  Ontario  aad 
Quebec  at  Toronto  in  1905.  In  Biblical  criticism 
he  is  a  liberal  conservative,  and  in  theology  belongi 
to  the  evangelical  school.  In  addition  to  numerous 
pampliiets  and  magazine  articles,  he  baa  written: 
Leriurm  on  the  Book  of  Revelatiim  (London,  1866); 
Qod*H  Book  for  Man^s  Life  (1881);  John  Bunyan, 
hi£  Life,  Times,  and  Work  (1885);  The  FUgrim 
Fathers  of  New  England  (1895);  The  Bedfardihire 
Union  of  Chnatianft  (1896);  Apoatolicai  Sitcttmim 
in  the  Light  of  Hietory  and  Fact  (Congregational 
Union  lecturea,  1898);  The  Fresent  Crigie  in  the 
Church  of  England  (1899);  FuHtan  Fteaching  in 
England  (Yale  Lectures  for  1899,  New  York,  1900); 
Eras  of  Nonconformity  (2  vols.,  London,  1904). 
He  likewise  edited  Bunyan's  Piigrim^B  FrogretA, 
Holy  War,  and  Grace  Abounding  (3  vola,,  Londcni, 
1887-88),  and  the  same  author's  complete  works 
for  the  Cambridge  University  Press  (2  vols*.  Gun- 
bridge,  1905-06). 


277 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Brown 


BROWN,  JOHN:  The  name  of  several  Scotch 
Emnisters,  the  most  noteworthy  being: 

1.  John  Brown  of  Edinburgh:  Scotch  Burgher 
Enudflter,  eldest  aon  of  Rev.  John  Brown  of  Whit- 
bum  (21  m.  w.s,w,  of  Edinburgh),  Linlithgowshire- 
(b,  1764;  d.  1832),  and  grandson  of  John  Brown 
of  Haddington  (q.v.);  b.  at  Whitburn  July  12. 
1784;  d,  at  Edinburgh  Oct,  13,  ifeS.  He  studied 
at  Edinburgh  and  the  divinity  hall  of  the  Burgher 
Church  at  Bclkirk;  was  liceni»ed  1S05  and  ordained 
nunietcT  of  the  Burgher  Church  of  Biggar,  Lanark- 
nhire,  1806;  became  miniBter  of  the  Rose  Street 
Church,  Edinburgh,  1822,  and  of  the  Broughton 
place  Church  in  the  sanie  city  1S29;  was  professor 
of  exegetical  theology  to  the  United  Associate 
Synod  after  1S34,  He  waa  strongly  in  favor  of 
tlie  Reparation  of  Church  and  State,  and  in  1345 
was  tried  (and  acquitted)  before  the  synod  on  a 
charge  of  holding  unsound  views  concerning  the 
atonement.  He  wa^  a  fine  orator  and  a  voluminous 
writer;  the  ni06t  prominent  of  his  works  are: 
ExposUory  DiaeGumeit  an  First  Peier  (3  vols,, 
Edinburgh;  1&4S);  Expomtwn  of  the  Discourses 
and  Sayings  of  our  Lord  Jems  Chrisi  (3  vols*,  1850); 
The  Rc^uTTedwn  of  Li/e,  an  exposition  of  I  Cor.  xv* 
(1852);  Expo&Uoiy  Di^c^/ur^e*  m  GakUiana  (1863); 
Analytical  Ej^posUion  of  the  EpiMk  of  Paul  to  the 
Romans  (1857).  He  waa  the  father  of  the  well- 
known  John  Brown,  M,D.  (b.  ISIO;  d.  1882),  author 
of  Bab  and  his  Friends  (Edinburgh,  1859). 
BtauoGiiAPBf  ^  J*  CftimB,  Mfmenrt  of  Jehn  Broum^  Edio- 
buTKk  lS«lv  DA^B,  viL  lg-19. 

0«  John  Brown  of  Haddington:  Scotch  Burgher 
minister;  b.  at  Carpow,  near  Abernethy  (on  the 
Frith  of  Tay,  6  m.  s,e.  of  Perth),  Perthshire,  1722; 
d*  at  Haddington  (12  m,  e,  of  Edinburgh)  June  19^ 
1787.  He  was  poor  and  self-taught,  but  acquired 
no  email  amount  of  learning;  was  a  herd-boy,  ped- 
ler,  soldier,  and  school-teacher;  studied  theology 
tinder  Ebencxer  Erskine  and  James  Fisher  of 
Glasgow;  was  licensed  in  1750,  and  in  1751  settled 
as  pastor  of  the  Burgher  branch  of  the  Secession 
Church  of  Haddington,  where  he  remained  till 
bis  death,  declining  a  call  as  professor  of  divinity  in 
Qu^^n'a  College,  N,  J.  After  1768  he  was  professor 
of  theology  to  the  Aiaociate  Synod-  His  yearly 
income  from  his  church  never  e^cceeded  £50,  and 
Im  professorship  had  no  salary;  nevertheless  he 
brought  up  a  large  family,  gave  freely  in  charity, 
and  wrote  books  (which  brought  him  no  pecuniary 
profit)  not  only  popular  but  valuable.  They  in- 
clude: Two  Short  Catechisms  Mutrsally  Connected 
{Edinburgh,  1754);  A  Dkiionary  of  the  Bible  (2 
vols.,  1769;  revised  ed.,  1868);  The  Self-inlet' 
'preting  Bible  (2  vols.,  1778;  often  reprinted);  and 
A  Compendiotis  Hiittory  of  the  Church  of  England 
and  of  the  Protectant  Churches  in  Ireland  and  America 
(2  vols,,  Glasgow,  1784;  new  edition  by  Thomas 
Brown,  Edinburgh,  1823), 

BiBiiiooRAPHT:  8ket-che*  of  bin  life  are  prefixwi  to  vaiious 
flditioiu  of  bb  workfl;  the  beat  is  thAt  by  bia  ison,  prefixed 
to  his  SdeH  Remain*^  e^.  hU  Btimtt  J,  and  E.  Brawn,  thia 
cditvd  by  W,  Brown,  Ediabursb,  ISfiO.  Coiisult  frlao 
DNB,  vii.  12-14, 

BROWH,  JOHN  HEWTOH:  American  Baptist; 
b.  at  New  London  J  Conn.^  June  29,  1803;    d,   at 


Germantown,  Penn.,  May  15,  1868,  He  was 
graduated  at  Hamilton  Institute  (Colgate  Uni- 
versity), Hamilton,  N,  Y.,  1823;  preached  at 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Providence,  R.  I„  Maiden,  Mass., 
and  Exeter,  N.  H.;  was  profe^ssor  of  theology  and 
church  history  in  the  New  Hampton  (New  Hamp- 
shire) Theological  Institution,  1838-45;  pastor  at 
Lexington,  Va,,  1845-49;  editorial  secretary  ot  the 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society  1849  till  his 
death.  He  prepared  (1833)  and  revised  (1852) 
the  "  New  Hampshire  [Baptist]  Cimfession  of 
Faith »"  His  most  important  literary  work  was 
the  Encyclopaedia  o/  Religwus  Knov}ledge  (Brattle- 
boro,  1835). 

BROWN,  PETER  HUME:  Scotch  historian,  lay- 
man; b,  at  Haddington  (18  m.  e.  of  Edinburgh), 
Haddingtonshire,  Dec,  17,  1850.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  Univereity  (M.A.,  1873),  and  had 
originally  intended  to  enter  the  Church.  He  gave 
up  this  plan,  however,  and  ultimately  turned  his 
attention  to  history.  In  1898  he  was  made  editor 
of  the  Register  of  the  Privy  Council  of  Scotland, 
and  three  yeam  later  was  appointed  to  his  present 
position  of  professor  of  ancient  (Scottish)  history 
and  paleography  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
He  has  written:  George  Buchanan,  Humanist  and 
Reformer  (Edioburgh,  1890);  Early  Travellers  in 
Scotland  (London,  1891);  Scolhnd  before  1700, 
from  Contemporary  Documents  (Edinburgh,  1893); 
John  Knox:  a  Biography  (2  voISm  1895);  History 
of  Scotland  (2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1 898- 1902);  Scot- 
land in  (he  Him!  of  Queen  Mary  (Rhind  Lectures  for 
1903;  London,  1904);  and  George  Buchanan  and  his 
Timcn  (1906). 

BROWN,  PHCEBE  ALLEN  (HKfSDALE):  Hymn- 
writer;  b.  at  Canaan.  Columbia  C<iunty,  N.  Y., 
May  1,  1783;  d.  at  Marshall^  Henry  County,  EL^ 
Oct.  10,  186L  She  was  left  an  orphan  at  the  age 
of  two,  and  in  early  life  siifTcred  great  hardship 
and  even  cruel  treatment  at  the  hands  of  strangers; 
she  first  learned  to  write  at  the  age  of  eight4*en. 
In  1805  she  married  Timothy  Brown  (d.  1853) 
and  moved  to  East  Windaor,  Conn.  In  1813  the 
family  went  to  the  neighboring  village  of  Ellington, 
and  in  181S  to  Monsou,  Mass,  Her  husband  was 
a  village  mechanic,  the  family  was  poor,  and  her 
life  was  hampered  by  care;  nevertheless  she  read 
much,  kept  up  systematic  Bible  study*  and  found 
money  to  devote  to  Christian  work,  especially  to 
the  cause  of  missions.  She  wrote  for  her  own 
amusement,  but  published  newspaper  articles, 
tracts,  and  a  volume  of  tales,  The  Tree  and  its 
Fruits  (New  York,  1830);  she  left  an  autobiog- 
raphy in  manuscript.     Her  best  known  hynm, 

*■  I  love  to  irtcal  awhile  away 
From  ©very  crumberjniE  curt," 

is  said  to  have  been  written  at  Ellington  at  a  time 
when  poverty  and  domestic  duties  left  little  oppor- 
tunity for  meditation  at  home  and  she  was  m  the 
habit  of  going  out  for  a  walk  every  day  at  dusk; 
some  thoughtless  remarks  of  neighboni  being 
reported  to  her,  she  wrote  *^  An  Apology  for  mj 
Twilight  Rambles."  The  second  line  originally 
read  **  From  Uttle  one>^  and  care,"  The  poem 
was  first  printed  (abridged  and  revised)  in  Nettle- 


Brown 
Browne 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


278 


ton*s  X^illagc  Hymns  (New  York,  1824).  The  tune 
*'  Motuion/'  to  wluch  it  b  often  sung,  was  written 
by  har  son,  Samuel  Robbins  Brown  (q.v.). 

Biblioohaput:  F.  M.  Bird,  in  The  Indtpendeni  for  Jan.  6. 
Jan.  20.  and  April  14.  1881;  a  W,  Duffield,  £naii*h 
Mtm^*  PP-  242-240.  New  York,  ISSfl  (gives  origmai  text 
of  the  hymn  mtmcioiMd  in  the  textl;  JuJiaa,  Hymrwlogy, 

p,  las. 

BROWK,  SAMUEL  ROBBL^Si  The  firat  .\iner- 
ican  flpf>ointed  miasionary  to  Japan;  b.  at  East 
Windsor,  Conn,,  June  16,  1810,  son  of  Phoebe 
(Hinsdale)  Brown  (q.v.);  d,  at  Monaon,  Mass., 
June  20,  1880.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale,  1832; 
studied  at  the  Theobgieal  School ,  Columbia,  S.  C.^ 
1835-^7,  and  at  Union  Theological  Seminmy,  New 
York,  1837-.18;  went  to  China  in  lS;i8  and  took 
charge  of  a  school  founded  and  maintained  by 
the  MorriBon  Education  Society  (see  MoRaisoit, 
Robert),  located  firat  at  Macao,  in  1842  rcinovi?d 
to  Ron^ong,  He  returned  to  America  in  IS47 
bringing  with  hiin  three  Chinese  boySj  one  of  whom 
was  Yung  Wing,  aftarwai^l  at  the  head  of  the 
Chinese  Education  Commission;  he  taught  at 
Rome»  N.  Y*,  1848-51,  and  wia  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  and  principal  of  a  suc- 
eeasfui  fw;hool  at  Owasco  Outlet  (Sand  Beach). 
near  Aubum,  N.  Y.,  1851-59;  was  one  of  the  incor- 
porators (1851)  and  firwt  chairman  of  the  executive 
committee  of  Elmira  Col!cgi%  the  first  eharteretl 
woman's  college  in  America.  In  May,  1851*,  he 
sailed  for  Japan  as  missionary  of  the  Refonned 
(Dutch)  Church,  and  locatjed  at  Kanagawa  till 
1863.  when  he  removed  to  Yokohama;  returned  to 
America  in  1867  and  for  two  years  preached  for  his 
old  church  at  Owawco  Outlet:  was  again  in  Japan 
1869-79.  Dr.  Brown  arrivini  in  Japan  immediately 
after  the  opening  of  the  country;  during  the 
difficult  transition  perioti  which  followed  he  labored 
with  rare  judgment  and  unfailing  %vn\  for  both 
natives  and  foreign  rc^sidcnts.  His  vit'ws  and  his 
methods  were  free  froni  narrowncHsi  and  he  ctm- 
sidered  the  advancement  of  civilization  a  part  of 
the  work  of  the  Christian  mi,'4siona^J^  He  wrote 
many  articles  and  newspat>er  letters  on  Chinese 
and  Japanese  subjects;  prepared  school  books 
for  \m  pupils;  published  CoUfXjuial  Jajmne^e 
(Shanghai,  1 803),  and  Premier^ast's  Mastery  Sifntem 
Adapled  to  the  Study  of  Japanese  or  English 
(Yokohama,  1878);  and  Ilfifiist4^d  in  the  Japanese 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  completed  just 
before  his  death  and  published  the  same  year. 

BiBLioaHAPErr:  W.  E.  Griffip*^  A  ^faktT  fjf  tht  Nfv*  OrisnL 
Samtifl  R.  Br^wn,  New  York.  Itttt2. 

BROWHjWILLUM  ADAMS:  Presbiierian;  b. 
in  New  York  Gty  Di^c.  29,  1865.  He  was  educated 
at  Yale  University  (B.A.,  1886),  Union  Thcc4ogical 
Seminary  (1890)^  and  the  University  of  Berlin 
(1890-92),  He  wm  iuceesaively  instructor  in 
church  history  (1892-93)  and  systematic  thenlogy 
(1893-95)  in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  where 
he  was  provTBional  profestsor  of  system aiic  theology 
from  1895  to  1898,  and  has  been  Roosevelt  pro- 
fessor of  the  same  subject  since  1S98.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and 
Exegesis,  and  has  written,  in  addition  to  contribu- 
tions to  Hajsting^'s  Dtcticnary  of  the  BibU^  Mumcal 


Instruments  and  their  Homes  {New  York,  1888) j 
The  Emence  of  ChristianUy  (1892);  CkrUi  the  V^a^ 
ixing  Principle  of  Christian  Thealogy  (1^8);  and 
ChtiMian  Theology  in  (hdtine  (1907). 

BROWH,  WILLIAM  MOHTGOMBRY:  Prot- 
estant Epiacopal  bishop  of  Arkansais:  K  neu 
Orr\ille,  O.,  Nov.  6,  1855.  He  was  educated  at 
Seabuiy  Hall,  Faribault,  l^linn.,  and  by  i^vste 
tutors,  and  gradua^ted  from  Besdey  Hall,  tbe  the- 
ological seminary  of  Kenyon  CoUe^,  Gambler, 
O,  1SS4.  He  WB£  ordered  deacon  in  ISS-l,  tad 
priest,  1884.  He  was  in  clmrge  of  Gjw^  MiasiQa, 
Galion,  O.,  1883-91,  and  during  this  period  oUb- 
lished  seven  other  miBsbni  in  adjaoeot  plaoea.  Id 
1891  he  waa  chosen  general  missionaiy  and  iicb- 
deacon  of  the  diocese  of  Ohio,  and  in  this  capacitj 
founded  many  new  parishes,  besides  buildim 
twenty-one  mission  chapels.  He  was  Mkewwe 
secretary  of  the  Dioi^san  Missionary  Committit 
and  of  the  Diocesan  Board  of  Trust eea.  In  1S9S 
he  was  consecrated  bishop-coadjutor  of  Arkanns, 
and  on  tlie  death  of  Bishop  Henry  N.  Pierce  m 
1899,  l>ecame  bishop  of  the  diocese.  He  has  writ- 
tan  T/wf  Church  far  Americjans  (New  York,  1896). 

BROWNE,     EDWARD    HAROLD:     Bishop    of 

Winchester;  b.  at  Aylesibury  (35  m,  n.w.  of  Loth 
don),  Buckinghamshire,  Mar.  6,  181 1;  d.  at  Shalcp, 
near  Bitterne  (2  m,  n.e.  of  Southampton),  Hamp- 
shire, Dec.  18,  189L  He  studied  at  Emmaaud 
College,  Cambridge  (B,A.,  1832;  M«A..  1836; 
B.D.,  1855);  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  co^ 
lege,  1837;  curate  of  Stroud,  Gloucestershire,  1840; 
perpetual  curate  of  St.  Janies's,  Exeter,  1841 ;  pet* 
petual  curate  of  St.  Sidwell's,  Exeter,  1842;  viee- 
principal  and  professor  of  Hebrew  in  St.  Efevid'Ss 
Dillegef  Lampeter.  Wales,  1843;  vicar  of  Ken- 
wyn-cum-Kea,  Cornwall,  and  prebendary  of  Eip- 
ter.  1849;  -vncar  of  Hea vitrei  and  c^mon  of  Exeter. 
1857;  in  18.t4  he  was  appointinl  Norrisian  profejsor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge;  in  1864  was  con- 
fjccrated  bishop  of  Ely;  In  1873  translated  to 
Winchester;  resigned  1890.  He  took  a  deep 
interest  in  the  "  Old  Catholic "  movement  and 
attended  the  congres.^  at  Cologne  in  1872;  was  a 
nic ruber  of  the  Old  Testament  company  of  revisers; 
was  prominent  on  the  conservative  side  in  th« 
begiiming  of  the  eontrovcray  concerning  Bible 
criticism  and  i'lsuetl  The;  Pentateuch  and  the  Elo- 
hhtic  P Balms,  in  Reply  to  Bi»hop  CoUnso  (London. 
1863).  Me  al^  pul>lished:  The  Fulfitmeni  of  the 
Old  Testament  Prophecies  Relating  to  the  Me^iah 
(1S36);  An  ExposUion  of  the  Thirty-nine  ATiicUi 
(2  vols.,  1850-53;  new  cd.,  18S6>-^lhe  work  by 
which  he  is  best  known;  and  Position  and  Forties  of 
the  English  Church  (1875).  He  abo  contribute 
Ui  A  ids  to  Faith  ami  wrote  the  introduction  to  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  commentJiry  on  Genesis  for 
the  **  SpeakeHs  Commentary." 

BtnuoGRArar:  G,    W.    Kitdiin,    Edward   Hantd   Brtm*^ 
.  .  .   A   Memoir,  Loniloti,  1SS5^  DNB,  supplcmeril  toIv» 

i.  304. 

BROWlfE,   GEORGE:    First    Piotastant  aieh- 

bishop  of  Dublin;  d.  1556.  He  is  first  heard  of 
in  1534,  when,  as  provincial  of  tbe  order  of  Austia 
Friars,  he  was  employed  to  administer  the  oath  of 


S70 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brown 
Browne 


succession  to  the  friars  of  London  and  the  south  of 
En^and;  he  was  nominated  to  the  see  of  Dub- 
lin, vacant  by  the  murder  of  Archbishop  Allen, 
was  consecrated  the  same  year,  and  arrived  in 
Ireland  in  1536.  He  worked  diligently  to  intro- 
duce the  Reformation  in  Ireland  and  to  further 
the  cause  of  the  king;  he  was  deposed  imder  Mary. 
His  opponents  have  described  him  as  avaricious, 
profligate,  and  unlearned. 

Bibuoorapht:  A  sketch  and  useful  references  to  sources 
are  in  DNB,  vii.  43-45. 

BROWTTE,  GEORGE  FORREST:  Bishop  of 
Bristol;  b.  at  York  Dec.  4,  1833.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Catherine's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A., 
1856),  where  he  was  fellow  and  lecturer  in  1863- 
1865.  He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1859, 
and  after  being  chaplain  of  St.  Catherine's  College 
and  theological  tutor  at  Trinity  College,  Glenal- 
mond,  Scotland,  was  rector  of  Ashley,  Hants,  from 
1869  to  1875.  He  was  a  member  oif  the  Council 
of  the  Senate  of  Cambridge  University  in  1874- 
1878  and  again  in  1880-92,  and  was  Disney  professor 
of  archeology  in  the  same  university  from  1887  to 
1892.  He  was  treasurer  of  St.  Paul's  in  1891-99 
and  canon  in  1892-97,  and  in  1895  was  consecrated 
bishop  suffragan  of  Stepney,  being  translated  to 
the  see  of  Bristol  two  years  later.  He  was  also 
Bell  lecturer  in  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church  in 
1862  and  secretary  to  the  Cambridge  Local  Exam- 
inations seven  years  later,  and  is  president  of  the 
Alpine  Club.  He  has  written:  Ice  Caves  of  France 
and  Switzerland  (London,  1865);  The  Venerable 
Bede  (1879);  University  Sermons;  The  Ilam 
Crosses  (1889);  Lessons  from  Early  English  Church 
History  (1893);  The  Church  at  Home  before  Augus- 
tine (1894);  Augustine  and  his  Companions  (1895); 
Off  the  Mill  (1895);  Conversion  of  the  Heptarchy 
(1896);  Theodore  and  Wilfrith  (1897);  History  of 
St.  Catherine's  College  (1902);  and  Life  and  Works 
of  St.  Aldhelm  (1903). 

BROWNE,  JOHN:  English  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  North  Walsham  (15  m.  n.  of  Norwich),  Nor- 
folk, Feb.  6,  1823;  d.  at  Wrentham  (33  m.  n.e.  of 
Ipswich),  Suffolk,  Apr.  4,  1886.  He  studied  at 
Coward  College  and  University  College,  London 
1839-^14  (B.A.,  London  University.  1843);  was 
minister  at  Lowestoft.  Suffolk,  1844;  at  Wrentham, 
1848  till  his  death.  His  chief  publication  was  the 
History  of  Congregationalism  and  Memorials  of  the 
Churches  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  (London,  1877), 
which  is  of  great  importance  for  the  beginnings  of 
English  Congregationalism. 

BROWNE,  PETER:  Protestant  Irish  bishop; 
b.  in  County  Dublin  soon  after  1660;  d.  Aug.  25, 
1735.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Cork  and  Ross  1710.  He 
opposed  the  custom  of  drinking  healths  in  a  series 
of  pamphlets  (1713  sqq.)  which  won  him  much 
notoriety,  but  has  more  enduring  fame  as  an  anti- 
deistical  writer;  in  reply  to  John  Toland  he 
published  A  Letter  in  Answer  to  a  Book  Entitled 
Christianity  not  Mysterious  (Dublin,  1697),  and  after- 
ward elaborated  his  argument  in  The  Procedure, 
Extent,  and  Limits  of  Human  Understanding  (Lon- 
don, 1728),  a  critique  of  Locke's  Essay;  in  Things 


Divine  and  Supernatural  Conceived  by  Analogy  vjith 
Things  Natural  and  Human  (1733)  he  asserts  that 
knowledge  of  God's  essence  and  attributes  can  be 
only  "  analogical  "  and  not  direct. 

BROWNE,  ROBERT:  Leader  of  the  English 
Separatists  (from  whom  they  received  their  popu- 
lar name  of  Brownists),  and  generally  considered 
the  foimder  of  the  Congregationalists;  b.  at  Tole- 
thorp  (3  m.  n.  of  Stamford),  Rutlandshire,  about 
1550;  d  at  Northampton  after  June  2,  1631.  He 
was  of  good  family  and  had  influential  relatives 
on  both  his  father's  and  his  mother's  side,  including 
the  great  chancellor.  Lord  Burghley.  He  studied 
at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1572). 
It  is  said  that  in  1571  he  was  domestic  chaplain 
to  Thomas  Howard,  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  that  the 
duke  took  his  part  in  some  obscure  trouble  with 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities;  but  this  is  doubtful. 
He  taught  school  for  three  years  (seventeenth 
century  writers  say  in  or  near  London)  and  made 
"  enemies  "  by  freely  speaking  his  mind  concern- 
ing "  many  things  amiss,  and  the  cause  of  all  to  be 
the  woeful  and  lamentable  state  of  the  Church." 
In  1578  or  1579  he  returned  to  Cambridge.  At  this 
time  his  views  seem  to  have  ripened.  Holding  that 
the  true  Church  consisted  only  of  such  as  led  Chris- 
tian lives  and  did  not  properly  include  all  baptized 
persons,  he  declared  that  "  the  kingdom  of  God  was 
not  to  be  begun  by  whole  parishes,  but  rather 
of  the  worthiest,  were  they  never  so  few."  He 
publicly  harangued  against  "  the  calling  and 
authorizing  of  preachers  by  bishops,"  preached 
constantly  to  Puritan  audiences  (acceptably,  it 
would  appear)  although  he  had  no  bishop's  license, 
and,  when  his  brother  obtained  a  license  for  him, 
disdained  it.  Naturally  he  was  silenced,  and  ill- 
ness compelled  him  temj>orarily  to  comply  with 
the  bishop's  mandate. 

About  1580  Browne  went  to  Norwich,  attracted 
thither  by  a  friend,  Robert  (or  Richard)  Harrison 
(q.v.),  who  became  his  coworker.  Here  he  organ- 
ized his  first  church  and  soon  extended  the  field 
of  his  operations  as  far  as  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  The 
bishop  of  Norwich  complained  of  him  as  a  preacher 
of  "corrupt  and  contentious  doctrine"  and  likely  to 
mislead  "  the  vulgar  sort  of  people,"  but  Burghley 
protected  him.  Nevertheless  Norwich  was  made  so 
uncomfortable  for  the  little  band  that  about  Jan., 
1582,  most  of  them,  with  their  pastor,  emigrated 
to  Middelburg  in  Zealand.  , Browne's  impulsive 
and  imperious  character,  as  well  as  the  principles 
of  the  congregation,  did  not  promote  unity.  After 
two  years  of  continual  discussion  and  division, 
with  four  or  five  families,  he  left  for  Scotland. 
They  arrived  in  Edinburgh  Jan.,  1584,  and  at  once 
commenced  the  propagation  of  their  peculiar  doc- 
trines. They  "  held  opinion  of  separation  from 
all  kirks  where  excommunication  was  not  rigorously 
used  against  open  offenders  not  repenting;  they 
would  not  admit  witnesses  [sponsors]  in  baptism, 
and  sundry  other  opinions  they  had."  Within  a 
week  Browne  was  summoned  befoce  the  session 
of  the  kirk;  he  was  imprisoned,  but  only  for  a 
short  time;  and  soon,  unhindered,  if  not  covertly 
encouraged  by  the  secular  authorities,  he  traveled 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


280 


over  ScotLmd.  He  returned  to  England,  and,  po»- 
obly,  again  visited  Holland. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  Browne 
kept  on  as  zealously  and  offensively  as  ever  so  far 
as  his  strength — which  was  beginning  to  break 
owing  to  imprisonments  and  hardships — per- 
mitted, continually  harassed  by  the  authorities  and 
favored  by  Burghley,  until  1586;  that  in  that  year 
the  bishop  of  Pcterlxirough  excommunicated  him, 
and  this  so  wrought  upon  him  that  he  changed 
completely,  submitted  to  the  Church,  and  thence- 
forth lived  quietly,  and,  after  a  few  years,  in  the 
enjoyment  of  a  good  benefice.  Mr.  Burrage  trans- 
fers the  excommunication  to  a  later  period  and 
gives  the  date  of  Browne's  submission  Oct.  7,  1585. 
In  Nov.,  1586,  he  was  elected  master  of  St.  Olave's 
Grammar-school  in  Southwark,  binding  himself 
to  abstain  from  propagating  hid  peculiar  doctrines 
and  to  live  as  a  member  of  the  Church.  His  con- 
troversial powers  were  now  employed  against  his 
former  associates,  Henry  Barrow  and  John  Green- 
wood. In  Sept.,  1691,"  he  received  the  living  of 
Achurch-cum-Thorpe,  Northamptonshire;  he  was 
ordained  deacon  and  priest  on  Sept.  30,  and  he  re- 
mained at  Achurch  for  forty  uneventful  years. 
For  a  period  of  ten  years  (1616-26)  the  entries  in 
the  parish  register  are  not  in  his  handwriting.  Mr. 
Burrage  thinks  that  this  was  the  time  when  he  was 
under  sentence  of  excommunication  by  the  bishop 
of  Peterborough,  and  that  the  cause  was  a  mani- 
festation of  Separatist  tendencies  encouraged  by 
Browne  in  his  parish.  If  this  be  so  he  made  sub- 
mission a  second  time,  for  hid  handwriting  reap- 
pears in  the  register.  His  last  entry  is  dated  June 
2,  1631,  and  in  Nov.,  1633,  a  new  rector  took  his 
place.  He  died  in  Northampton  jail,  committed 
for  striking  a  constable  who  came  to  him  to  collect 
a  debt,  and  having  shown  something  of  his  early 
fervid  manner  when  brought  before  a  justice  in 
coiiHocjuonce. 

Browne's  biographers  have  been  much  puzzled 
to  c?x plain  or  extenuate  his  extraordinary  conduct 
in  making  terms  with  the  Church.  It  has  been 
urged  that  he  was  broken  physically  and  mentally 
in  1586;  but  he  can  not  have  been  forty  years  old 
at  that  time  and  he  lived  forty-five  years  after- 
ward. Dr.  Dextcr's  suggestion  that  he  was  nat- 
urally of  unsound  mind  with  a  tendency  to  insanity 
which  at  times  became  acute  has  found  wide  ac- 
ceptance. It  would  explain  not  only  Browne's 
own  conduct  but  also  the  long  forbearance  and 
continued  kindness  which  he  enjoyed  from  Burgh- 
ley  and  others.  Mr.  Burrage  thinks  that  "  at  last 
he  had  become  wearied  of  the  continual  criticism 
to  which  his  views  in  the  past  had  subjected  him, 
and  probably  had  honestly  come  to  feel  that  he 
might  be  of  really  more  service  to  the  world,  as  it 
was,  not  by  wearing  himself  out  by  combating  es- 
tablished ideas,  but  rather  by  accepting  what  the 
world  offered  him  and  by  using  tlie  advantage  he 
had  thus  gained  to  the  furtherance  of  his  higher 
ideals." 

The  starting-point  of  Browne's  views  and  system 
seems  to  have  been  his  conviction  that  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  true  Christians  required  their  separation 
from  others  who  were  Christians  in  name  only. 


It  was  futile  to  hope  that  such  separation  would 
be  brought  about  by  the  bishops  and  dergy  of 
the  Established  Church  or  by  the  civil  rulers.  Yet 
the  Deceasity  for  it  was  immediate.  Hence  the 
only  course  possible  was  for  the  faithful  to  secede 
and  organize  themselves.  A  voluntary  assodatioii 
or  covenant  of  true  b^evers  constituted  a  ehurch, 
and  each  church  had  the  ezdusive  ri|^t  of  dis- 
dpline  and  the  choice  of  its  own  officers.  Two 
kmds  of  officers  are  designated  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment: apostles,  prophets,  evangelists  are  temporaiy 
and  belong  to  the  past;  the  abiding  officers  are 
the  pastor,  teacher,  elders,  deacons,  and  widows 
who  have  their  charge  in  one  church  only.  The 
presence  of  these  officers  does  not  release  any  mem- 
ber from  the  duty  of  watching  and  hdping  the 
others,  and  a  similar  responsibility  exists  between 
churches.  The  dvil  authorities  should  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  spiritual  matters,  and  it  is  not  their 
province  to  enforce  conformity  to  any  eodesiastical 
system.  He  was  thus  the  first  Englishman  to 
express  the  Anabaptist  doctrine  of  complete  sep- 
aration of  Church  and  State.  See  Congregation- 
ALI8TB,  I.,  1,§§  1-2. 

Browne  published  three  treatiBes  at  Midddbuxg  (1582), 
entitled  respectively:  (1)  A  Bo<^  fohidi  Shewetk  As  lAft  mi 
Mannera  of  All   True  CkriKHana,  and  how  unlik$  Aey  m 
unto   Turk9  and  Papista  and  heathen  folk;  aUo  Ae  poutti 
and  parte  of  all  divinity  that  ie  of  the  revealed  wiU  and  word 
of  Ood  are  declared  6y  their  eeveral  definiHona  and  divuioMM 
order  (extracto  in  Walker,  pp.  18-27);    (2)  A  Treatm  of 
Reformation  without  Tarrying  for  Any,  and  of  the  tcidti- 
neee  of   thoee  preatkera  whieh  wiU  not  reform  titt  the  magU- 
irate   command   or  compel  Aem  (reprinted,   Boston,   "Old 
South  Leaflet,  no.    100  ";    with  biographical  introdnetiaii 
by   T.    Q.  Crippen,  London,  1903);  (3)  A    TreaUai  npom 
AetSdof  Matthew,  both  for  cm  order  of  etudying  anikoMr 
dling  the  Scripturee  and  alao  for  avoiding   Ae  popiak  ditor- 
dera  and  ungodly  communion  of    <M  falae  Chri^ian»,  eipe- 
dally  of  wicked  preatkera  and  hirdinga  (extracts  in  Bunase, 
pp.    21-26).       These   were   intended    primarily  to  further 
his  cause  in  England  and  were  spread  abroad  by  his  foUo^r- 
ers;    two   men   were   hanged    in    15S3    for   diasemiiwHTig 
them  (see  Coppin,  John).     Several  other  publicatioDi  or 
manuscripts   of    Browne's   are   mentioned     (Mr.  BumflC^^ 
True  Story,  pp.  74-76.  enumerates  twenty-five)  and  the  fol- 
lowing are  known  to  be  preserved:  (4)  A  Tnie  and  Sk^^^ 
Declaration  both  of  Ae  Gathering  and  Joining   together^  W 
Certain  Peraona,  and  alao  of  the  lamentable  breadt  and  &^^ 
aion  which  fell  among  Aem  (16847;  reprinted  in  The  Co^ff^^*" 
gaUonaliat,  London.  1882),  the  story  of  Browne's  early  li^<^ 
(6)  An  Anawer  to  Maater  CartwrighVa  Leiter  for  joining  ^p*^ 
the  Engliah  Churehea  (London,   n.d.;    extracts  in  Bum^^ 
pp.  31-36):     (6)  A  Reproof  of  Certain  Schiamatieal  Peno'*^ 
[Henry  Barrow  and  John  Greenwood]  and  (heir  d«fri*»*» 
touching  the  hearing  and  preaching  of  the  word  of  God  itau***' 
script  written  probably  in  1688,  discovered  by  Mr.  Bvrm^^ 
and  published  by  him.  Oxford.  1907);  (7)  A  letter  addrws*^, 
"  My  good  Uncle,"  and  dated  "  the  last  of  December.  158^ 
[Jan.   10,   1689].  discovered  and  published  with  introdi*^ 
tion    by    Champlin    Burrage    under    the     title    A  ^^\^ 
Yeara   Guifi    (London,   1904).     The    letter   is  quoted   t>y 
Richard   Bancroft,   afterward    archbishop  of    Ganterbux^* 
in  a  sermon  at  Paul's  Cross,  Feb.  9,  1688,  and  the  ntfc»^ 
script  discovered  by  Bir.  Burrage  is   indorsed  in  what     ^ 
believed    to    be  Brancroft's    handwriting  "Mr.  Browa^  • 
Answer  to  Mr.  Flower's  Letter."    One  sheet  (4  P^C^J^^q 
lacking,  but  the  part  preserved  contains  more  than  6,(l*^ 
words,  discusses    the    subject  of    church    government  ^\^ 
considerable    length,   and    is    particularly    interesting  >^ 
the  idea  which  it  gives  of  Browne's  views  ooncerfting  **^J 
Church  of  England  at  the   time  of  writing:   (8)  A  ^^^tL 
to  Burghley.  Apr.  16.  1690,  printed  by  Strype  in  the  ^^*i 
and  Acta  of  John  Whitgift,  appendix,  bk,  iii,  no.xlv.C^*'* 
pendix.  pp.  133-134.  ed.  London,  1718). 
Bibliogbaphy:  T.  Fuller.  Church  Hiatory  of  Great  Brik^'^^ 

book  ix.,  oent.  xvi..    sect,  vi.,  H  1-7,  64-60.  ed  J-      ^^ 


281 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BrowxM 
Bmoa 


Brewer,  6  vols.,  London,  1845;  C.  H.  Cooper,  Athena 
Cantabrioientes,  ii.  177-178.  London.  1868-61;  H.  M. 
Dexter,  Congregtitionaliam  of  the  Laat  Three  Hundred 
Year9,  New  York.  1880;  W.  Walker,  Creede  and  Platr 
fomu  of  Congreoationalitm^  pp.  1-27,  ib.  1893;  idem,  Hie- 
tory  of  the  Congregational  Churdkea  in  the  United  States^ 
31-41,  ib.  1894;  DNB,  vii.  67-61;  C.  Barrage,  The  True 
Story  of  Robert  Browne  U5SO-160S),  Father  of  Congre- 
gationaliam,  Oxford,  1906. 

BROWNE,  SIR  THOHAS :  Author  of  the  Rdigio 
Medici;  b.  in  Cheapside,  London,  Oct.  19,  1605; 
d.  at  Norwich  Oct.  19,  1682.  He  attended  Win- 
chester College  and  Broadgate  Hall  (Pembroke 
CoUege),  Oxford  (B.A.,  1626;  M.A.,  1629);  studied 
medicine  and  practised  in  Oxfordshire;  traveled 
in  Ireland,  France,  and  Italy,  continued  his  medical 
studies  at  Montpellier  and  Padua,  and  received 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about 
1633;  settled  at  Norwich  in  1637,  where  he  gained 
much  repute  as  a  physician  and  still  more  as  a  man 
of  imiversal  knowledge.  The  Religio  Medici  was 
probably  written  about  1635  and  not  intended  for 
publication;  two  imauthorized  editions  appeared 
in  1642,  which  led  to  an  edition  with  the  author's 
approval,  but  anonymous,  in  1643.  The  work  is 
peculiar  from  its  blending  of  deep  religious  feeling 
and  skeptical  views.  "  It  appears  to  have  been 
composed  as  a  tour  de  force  of  intellectual  agility, 
an  attempt  to  combine  daring  skepticism  with 
implicit  faith  in  revelation."  The  style  is  meta- 
phorical and  artificial,  with  many  Latinized  words, 
but  striking  and  impressive.  Browne  also  pub- 
lished: Pseiuiodoxia  EpidemicGf  or  Enquiries  into 
very  Many  Received  Tenets  and  commonly  Presumed 
Truths,  which  Examined  prove  but  Vulgar  and  Com- 
mon Errors  (London,  1646);  Hydriotaphia  or  Urn- 
burial  and  The  Garden  of  Cyrus  (1658);  many  of  his 
manuscripts  were  published  posthumously.  The 
best  edition  of  his  complete  works  is  by  Simon 
Wilkin  (4  vols.,  London,  1835-36;  reprinted, 
abridged,  by  Bohn,  3  vols.,  1851-52).  The  Religio 
Medici,  with  A  Letter  to  a  Friend  upon  Occasion 
of  the  Death  of  his  Intimate  Friend  (first  published 
1690)  and  Christian  Morals  (1716),  and  the  Hydrio- 
taphia and  Garden  of  Cyrus,  have  been  carefully 
edited  by  W.  A.  Greenhill  (London,  1881  and  1896); 
and  the  Religio  Medici  is  ed.  with  introduction  by 
C.  H.  Herford  (New  York,  1907). 

Bibliographt:  A  rather  extended  sketch  of  Browne's  life 
and  writini^  is  given  in  DNB,  vii.  64-72,  where  the  liter- 
ature and  list  of  works  is  given  at  some  length.  Consult 
also  £.  Goese,  in  Engliah  Men  of  Lettera,  London,  1905. 

BROWNISTS.    See  Browne,  Robert. 

BROWNLEE,  WILLIAM  CRAIG:  American 
(Dutch)  Reformed  clergyman;  b.  at  Torfoot,  Lan- 
arkshire, Scotland,  1783;  d.  in  New  York  Feb. 
10,  1860.  He  was  graduated  at  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity; was  licensed  and  emigrated  to  America  in 
1808;  was  pastor  at  Mt.  Pleasant,  Washington 
County,  Penn.,  Philadelphia  (1813),  and  Basldng- 
ridge,  N.  J.  (1819);  professor  of  languages  in 
Rutgers  College  1825;  called  to  the  Collegiate  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church,  New  York,  1826;  made  pastor 
emeritus  after  a  paralytic  stroke  in  1843.  He  was 
a  strong  opponent  of  Roman  Catholics  and  Quakers. 
He  published  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Quakers 
(New  York,  1824);    The  Roman  Catholic  Contro- 


versy (Philadelphia,  1834);  Lights  and  Shadows  of 
Christian  Life  (New  York,  1837);  Popery  an 
Enemy  to  Civil  and  Religious  Liberty  (1836);  Ro- 
manism in  the  Light  of  Prophecy  and  History  (1857). 

BiBUoaRAPHY:  A  Memorial  was  published  by  the  consis- 
tory of  his  Church  (New  York,  1860). 

BROWHSON,  ORESTES  AUGUSTUS:  Roman 
Catholic  convert;  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Vt.,  Sept.  16, 
1803;  d.  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  Apr.  17,  1876.  His 
religious  career  is  marked  by  its  many  changes. 
The  influences  of  his  boyhood  were  of  the  strictest 
New  England  orthodoxy;  at  nineteen  he-  joined  a 
Presbyterian  church  at  Ballston,  N.  Y.;  in  1826 
he  was  ordained  (at  Jaffrey,  N.  H.)  a  Universalist 
minister;  after  two  or  three  years  he  left  the  Uni- 
versalists,  and,  influenced  by  Robert  Dale  Owen 
and  his  projects,  became  a  socialist,  entered  politics, 
and  helped  form  a  "  Workingmen's  Party "  in 
New  York.  He  soon  despaired  of  reform  by  means 
of  political  organization,  and  in  1831  again  began 
preaching  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  this  time  as  an  inde- 
pendent, attracted  by  the  writings  of  William 
EUery  Channing.  Later  he  had  Unitarian  parishes 
at  Walpole,  N.  H.,  and  Canton,  Mass.  In  1836  he 
organized  in  Boston  "  The  Society  for  Christian 
Union  and  Progress  "  and  continued  its  minister 
till  1843,  when  he  gave  up  preaching.  In  Oct., 
1844,  he  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Boston,  and  did  not  again  change  his 
faith,  although  he  continued  independent  and  com- 
bative within  the  Church  and  received  a  recom- 
mendation from  Rome  to  be  more  guarded  in  his 
language.  He  wrote  with  great  zeal  and  no  small 
ability  in  advocacy  of  all  of  his  successive  be- 
liefs. He  started  The  Boston  Quarterly  Review  in 
1838  and  wrote  nearly  all  its  numbers  till  it  was 
merged  in  The  Democratic  Review  of  New  York 
in  1843;  from  1844  to  1864  and  agam  1873-75 
he  published  Brownson's  Quarterly  Review,  at 
first  in  Boston,  later  in  New  York,  where  he  lived 
1855-75.  His  books  were:  New  Views  of  Chris- 
tianity, Society,  and  the  Church  (Boston,  1836); 
Charles  Elwood,  or  the  Infidel  Converted  (1840); 
Essays  and  Reviews  (New  York,  1852);  The 
Spirit  Rapper  ;  an  Autobiography  (Boston,  1854); 
The  Convert,  or  Leaves  from  my  Experience  (New 
York,  1857);  The  American  Republic,  Us  Consti- 
tution, Tendencies,  and  Destiny  (1865). 

Bibuoorapht:  His  son,  Henry  F.  Brownson,  has  pub- 
lished a  collected  edition  of  his  Worka,  20  vols.,  Detroit, 
1882-87,  and  his  Li/e.  3  vols..  1898-1900. 

BRUCE,  ALEXAIfDER  BALMAIN:  Church  of 
Scotland;  b.  at  Aberargie  (a  hamlet  in  the  parish 
of  Abemethy,  7  m.  s.e.  of  Perth),  Perthshire, 
Jan.  30,  1831;  d.  at  Glasgow  Aug.  7,  1899.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
(1845-49)  and  the  Divinity  Hall  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland,  which  he  entered  in  1849.  After  the 
completion  of  his  theological  studies,  he  was  an 
assistant  minister  at  Ancrum,  Roxburghshire, 
and  Lochwinnoch,  Renfrewshire,  imtil  1859,  when 
he  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  Cardross, 
Dumbartonshire,  where  he  remained  nine  years. 
He  was  then  minister  of  the  East  Free  Church, 
Broughty  Ferry,  Forfarshire,  from  1868  to  1875, 


§mo6 
rusrmann 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


882 


and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  professor  of 
apologetics  and  New  Testament  exegesis  in  the 
Free  Church  Hall,  Glasgow,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death.  In  theology  he  declared  him- 
self to  be  "  in  sympathy  with  modem  religious 
thought,  while  maintaining  solidarity  with  all 
that  is  best  in  the  theology  of  the  past;  in  favor  of 
freedom  in  critical  inquiries  on  the  basis  of  evan- 
gelic faith,  and  of  a  simplified  and  more  compre- 
hensive creed."  The  boldness  of  his  views  brought 
him  to  the  notice  of  the  General  Assembly  of  his  de- 
nomination in  1890,  but  after  consideration  his  wri- 
tings were  pronoimcedto  be,  on  the  whole,  in  accord 
with  orthodox  standards.  He  was  Cunningham 
Lecturer  in  1874,  Ely  Lecturer  in  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  in  1886,  and  Gififord  Lec- 
turer in  Glasgow  University  in  1896-97,  and  after 
1894  collaborated  with  T.  K.  Chejme  in  editing 
the  Theological  Translation  Library.  In  addition 
to  minor  contributions,  he  wrote  The  Training  of 
the  Twelve  (Edinburgh,  1871);  The  HumiliaHon 
of  Christ  (1876);  The  Chief  End  of  Revelation 
(London,  1881);  The  Parabolic  Teaching  of  Christ 
(1882);  The  Galilcean  Gospel  (Edinburgh,  1884); 
F.  C.  Baur  and  his  Theory  of  the  Origin  of  Chris- 
tianity and  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1885); 
The  Miraculous  Element  in  the  Gospels  (the  Ely 
lectures  for  1886;  1886);  The  Life  of  WiUiam 
Denny  (1888);  The  Kingdom  of  God,  or,  Christ's 
Teachings  according  to  the  Synoptic  Gospels  (Edin- 
burgh, 1889);  Apologetics  :  or.  The  Cause  of  Chris- 
tianity defensively  stated  (1892);  St.  Paul's  Con- 
ception of  Christianity  (1894);  With  Open  Face  : 
or,  Jesus  mirrored  in  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke 
(London,  1896);  The  Providential  Order  of  the 
World  (Gififord  lectures  for  1897;  1897);  a  com- 
mentary on  the  synoptic  Gospels  in  The  Expositor's 
Greek  Testament  (1897);  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  : 
the  first  Apology  for  Christianity  (Edinburgh,  1899); 
and  The  Moral  Order  of  the  World  in  Ancient  and 
Modem  Thought  (Gififord  lectures  for  1898;  Lon- 
don, 1899). 

Bibuoorapht:  DNB,  nupplement  i..  321-322. 

BRIJCH,  bruH,  JOHAinf  FRIEDRICH:  German 
theologian;  h.  at  Pirmasens  (13  m.  e.s.e.  of  Zwei- 
briicken),  Rhenish  Bavaria,  Dec.  13,  1792;  d.  at 
Strasburg  July  21,  1^74.  He  was  educated  at  the 
gymnasium  of  ZweibrUcken  and  the  Protestant 
academy  of  Strasburg,  after  which  he  was  succes- 
sively tutor  at  Cologne  (1812),  vicar  at  Lohr  in 
German  Lotharihgia,  and  private  tutor  in  Paris 
(1815).  In  Nov.,  1821,  he  was  appointed  professor 
at  the  Protestant  seminary  at  Strasburg,  and  a 
few  months  later  became  full  professor  in  the  theo- 
logical faculty.  His  position,  both  then  and  later, 
was  rationalistic.  His  conception  of  revelation, 
miracles,  Christ  and  his  works,  sin,  and  salvation, 
therefore,  frequently  diverged  widely  from  the 
teachings  of  the  Church  and  of  tradition.  His 
lectures  were  at  first  restricted  to  Christian  ethics 
and  the  synoptic  Gospels,  but  later  embraced  also 
systematic  theology  and  the  New  Testament,  in 
addition  to  practical  homiletics.  After  1831  he 
was  preacher  at  the  Nicholaikirche,  where  he  sought 
to    instruct    and    calm    the    religious    excitement 


caused  by  the  attacks  of  orthodox  Pietism  on  liberal 
theology,  aiming  to  further  a  faith  baaed  on  reason 
and  a  life  of  true  Christianity,  as  well  as  unity  and 
peace  within  the  Church. 

Bruch's  influence  was  also  felt  in  the  devdop- 
ment  of  the  religious  life  of  his  city,  and  in  the 
foundation  and  administration  of  religious  and 
ecclesiastical  projects.  The  first  infant  sdiools, 
the  evening  sctibols  for  poor  children,  Sunday 
lectures  for  workingmen,  the  society  for  the  im- 
provement of  young  criminals,  and  the  society 
for  the  evangelization  of  Protestants  scattered 
in  the  departments  of  the  East  were  among  those 
inspired  and  called  into  existence  by  him.  He 
was  also  the  president  of  the  Strasbiu^  Bible 
Society  and  imtil  his  death  conducted  the  pastoral 
conference  of  his  city.  After  1828  he  likewise 
acted  as  the  director  of  the  Protestant  gymnasium. 
In  1849  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  district 
of  St.  Thomas,  in  1852  a  member  of  the  supreme 
consistory,  and  in  1866  of  the  directory.  Amid 
all  these  tasks  he  found  time  and  strength  to  treat 
the  most  obscure  problems  of  theology  and  phi- 
losophy, although  he  was  obliged,  for  lack  of 
sympathy,  to  abandon  his  plan  of  writing  in  French 
to  supply  the  deficiency  of  Protestant  theological 
literature  in  France.  The  Franco-Prussian  War 
brought  devastation  into  Church  and  school,  and 
Bruch  was  accordingly  appointed  rector  of  the  new 
imiversity  and  placed  in  control  of  the  provisional 
direction  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  the  final  efforts 
of  his  life  being  devoted  to  a  reorganisation  of  the 
theological  faculty  and  of  the  ecclesiastical  situar 
tion,  which  he  sought  to  protect  against  the  dom- 
ination of  the  system  prevailing  at  Berlin. 

Bruch  was  a  prolific  writer,  his  works,  in  ad- 
dition to  numerous  pamphlets  and  articles  in 
learned  periodicals,  being  as  follows:  Lehrhuck 
der  christlichen  Sittenlehre  (2  vols.,  Strasburg, 
1829-32);  Christliche  Vortrage  (2  vols.,  1838^); 
Etudes  philosophiques  sur  le  christianisme  (Paris, 
1839);  Ideen  zur  Abfassung  einer  den  BedUrfnissen 
der  deutsch-protestantischen  Kirche  Frankreickg 
entsprechenden  Liturgie  (Strasburg,  1839);  Die 
Lehre  von  den  gdttlichen  Eigenschaften  (Hamburg. 
1842);  Zustdnde  der  protestantischen  Kirche  Frank- 
reichs  (1843);  Betrachtungen  uber  ChristenOium 
und  christlichen  Glauben  in  Brief  en  (2  vob.,  Stras- 
burg, 1845-46);  Weisheitslehre  der  Hebrder,  ein 
Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Philosophie  (1851);  Dai 
Gehet  des  Herm  (1853);  Ueber  das  Primip  der 
weltiiberwindenden  Macht  des  Christenthums  (Gotha, 
1856);  Die  protestantische  Freiheit  (Strasburg, 
1857);  Die  Lehre  von  der  Prdexistenz  der  mensch- 
lichen  Seele  (1859);  and  Theorie  des  Bewusstseifu 
(1864).  T.Gbrold. 

BiBLioaRAPHT:  Bnich's  life-€tory  is  told  in  KindheU-  nnd 
Jugenderinnerungen  von  Dr.  Fr.  Bruek,  StrasburK.  1^89, 
and  Johann  Friedrich  BnuJi,  9eine  WirkMami^U  in  Sduik 
und  Kirche,  1821-72,  1890,  both  edited  from  his  renuim 
by  his  aon-in-law,  T.  Ceroid. 

BRUECK,  brilk  (PONTANUS,  real  name  HEUiSE, 
HENISCH,  HEmCZ),  GREGORIUS:  German  ju- 
rist; b.  at  Brack  (22  m.  n.  of  Wittenberg)  c.  1484; 
d.  at  Jena  Feb.  15, 1557.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg 
and  Frankfort-on-the  Oder,  and  became  co  famous 


288 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bruoe 
Brngmaiin 


as  the  secretary  and  repTesentative  of  the  jurist 
Hennlg  G6de  that  princes  and  critics  sought  his 
advice.  Frederick  the  Wise  invited  him  to  his 
court,  and  after  the  death  of  the  electoral  coimcilor 
Degenhard  Pfeffinger  (1519),  Brttck  seems  to  have 
taken  his  place.  He  waa  soon  interested  in  Luther, 
and  it  was  not  without  significance  that  he  accom- 
panied the  elector  to  Cologne  and  Worms.  Having 
returned  to  Wittenberg,  BrQck  received  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  law,  and  soon  afterward  was  appointed 
chancellor.  His  tact  and  ability  greatly  helped 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Evangelical  Church.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  the  Torgau-Magdeburg 
confederations;  he  advised  the  elector  at  the  diets 
held  at  Speyer  in  1526  and  1529,  and  it  was  due  to 
him,  next  to  Luther,  that  the  Pack-disturbances 
did  not  lead  to  a  general  war.  But  his  greatest 
services  were  rendered  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg 
in  1530.  He  not  only  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the 
composition  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  but  he 
took  part  in  the  preparation  of  its  details,  wrote 
the  introduction  to  it,  caused  it  to  be  read  in  public, 
and  gave  to  the  emperor  the  Latin  copy  in  the 
name  of  the  Evangelical  estates.  He  would  not 
be  intimidated,  but,  on  the  contrary,  encouraged 
the  timid,  and  acted  as  spokesman  in  all  public 
debates,  so  that  his  eloquence  and  ability  were 
even  recognized  by  his  opponents.  Cochlseus, 
well  aware  of  the  importance  of  BrQck,  vainly  tried 
to  induce  him  to  abandon  the  Lutherans  by  an 
"  Admonition  to  Peace  and  Unity."  Brttck's  reply 
is  imknown,  for  at  the  time  he  was  engaged 
in  writing  a  true  accoimt  of  events  at  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg,  1530,  which  was  first  printed  in 
FOrstemann's  Archiv  fur  die  Geschichie  der  kirch- 
lichen  Reformation  (Halle,  1831).  Brttck  at- 
tended all  diets  held  during  his  lifetime,  and  he 
also  strove  for  the  consolidation  of  the  Church, 
finally  succeeding  in  1542  in  forming  a  permanent 
consistory.  For  a  time  he  resided  at  Wittenberg, 
but  after  the  disastrous  end  of  the  Schmalkald 
War,  which  he  had  consistently  opposed,  he  fol- 
lowed the  sons  of  the  Elector  to  Weimar,  remaining 
a  loyal  friend  of  the  imprisoned  Frederick.  Still 
later  Brttck  retired  to  Jena,  where  he  died. 

(T.  KOLDE.) 

Biblioorapht:  CR,  xii.  351  oontaiiiB  the  OmUo  de  Ortocrio 
Pontano  (by  Melanchthon);  J.  A.  Wimmer,  Vita  Chregorii 
Pontani,  Altenburg,  1730;  T.  Kolde.  in  ZHT,  1874.  pp. 
34  sqq. 

BRUECEJ^R,  brttk'ner,  BEimO  BRUNO: 
German  Protestant;  b.  at  Rosswein  (23  m.  w.  of 
Dresden)  May  9,  1824.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipsic,  and  after  serving  as  pastor  at 
Hohburg  from  1850  to  1853  was  appointed  associate 
professor  and  second  university  preacher  at  Leipsic. 
Two  years  later  he  was  made  full  professor,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  appointed  university 
preacher  and  director  of  the  seminary  for  practical 
theology.  He  became  canon  of  Meissen  and  con- 
sistorial  councilor  in  1860,  and  nine  years  later 
went  to  Berlin  as  provost  of  St.  Nicholas  and  St. 
Mary,  honorary  professor,  university  preacher, 
and  member  of  the  high  consistory,  of  which  he 
became  derical  vice-president  in  1877.    In  1872  he 


was  chosen  general  superintendent  of  Berlin,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  appointed  canon  of  Bran- 
denburg. He  became  high  consistorial  councilor 
in  1880,  a  member  of  the  Prussian  coimcil  of  state 
in  1884,  and  president  of  the  imited  sjmods  of  the 
district  of  Berlin  in  1889.  His  works  include 
Epistola  ad  Philippenses  Paulo  auctori  vindicata 
contra  Baurium  (Leipsic,  1848);  Betrachtungen 
tlber  die  Agende  der  evangeli8ch4utheri8chen  Kirche 
in  Sachsen  (1865);  and  numerous  sermons,  both 
individual  and  collected,  many  of  which  ran  through 
several  editions.  He  also  ^ited  the  second  and 
third  editions  of  W.  M.  L.  De  Wette's  commentary 
on  the  Catholic  Epistles  (Leipsic,  1853-67)  and 
the  fifth  edition  of  his  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of 
John  (1863). 

BRUEGGLERS.    See  Kohler,  Christian  and 

HiERONTMUS. 

BRUGMANN,  brttg^mOn,  JAN:  A  theologian 
and  reformer  of  the  Franciscan  order  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  (]rermany.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known, but  from  the  way  in  which  he  speaks  of 
his  age  in  1473,  the  year  of  his  death,  he  was  prob- 
ably bom  about  1400,  at  Kempen.  He  was  edu- 
cated and  admitted  to  the  clerical  state  in  a  monas- 
tery of  the  northwestern  Netherlands,  perhaps 
Groningen.  He  joined  the  Franciscans  at  Saint- 
Omer  in  Artois,  where  the  community  was  full  of 
the  spirit  of  St.  Bemardin  of  Sienna,  the  founder 
of  the  strict  or  Observant  Franciscans.  Here 
he  taught  theology,  imtil  in  1439  he  was  charged, 
at  the  request  of  the  town  coimcil  of  Grouda,  with 
the  erection  of  an  Observantine  house  there,  and 
later  took  part  in  a  similar  work  at  Stuis,  Leyden, 
and  Alkmaar.  Learning  to  know  the  moral  and 
spiritual  condition  of  the  people  while  discharging 
these  missions,  he  set  hunself  to  elevate  it  by 
popular  preaching,  at  the  same  time  efifecting  a 
reform  in  the  convents  of  Gronigen,  Gorinchem, 
Haarlem,  Wamsveld,  and  Nymwegen  between 
1450  and  1455.  At  Amsterdam  he  founded  a  house 
in  1462,  and  composed  a  bitter  factional  strife 
among  the  citizens.  He  brought  about  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Observantine  province  of  Cologne,  of 
which  he  was  provincial  for  several  years.  Feeling 
his  end  approaching,  he  retired  to  Nymwegen, 
where  he  died.  His  influence  went  far  beyond 
the  reform  of  the  Franciscan  houses;  he  ranks 
with  the  great  popular  preachers  of  the  Nether- 
lands at  that  time,  such  as  Groote  and  Florentius 
Radewyns,  with  whom  he  was  in  close  alliance. 
A  few  of  his  sermons  have  been  printed  (see  be- 
low). He  wrote  also  a  life  of  (5hrist,  which  in 
some  particulars  resembles  those  of  Bonaventura 
and  Ludolf  of  Saxony,  though  adhenng  more 
closely  to  the  Grospel  narrative.  In  spite  of  its 
frequently  erroneous  exegesis  and  its  arbitrary 
mystical  interpretations,  it  is  so  full  of  simple  piety 
and  warm  devotion  that  it  awakens  respect.  He 
wrote  also,  in  three  different  versions,  the  life  of 
Lidwina  of  Schiedam,  a  mystical  ascetic  considered 
a  saint  in  the  Netherlands  (1350-1443);  it  has 
recently  been  discovered  that  he  was  a  vernacular 
spiritual  poet  of  no  slight  importance. 

L.  SCHUUB. 


BruUy 
Bruno 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


284 


BiBUOGRAPHTi'The  one  book  ia  W.  Moll,  Joh.  Brugmann, 
«n  lui  Godmiienatig  Leveih  AmBterdam.  1854.  One  of  his 
sermona  is  given  in  Moll's  biography,  but  other  sermons 
and  writings  of  his  appear  in  Handtlinoen  .  .  .  MaaUchap- 
pij  dm'  N«derland9che  Utterkunde,  The  Hague.  1887:  De 
Kaikolik,  XX.;  Archief  voor  NederlaruUche  Kerkgeachiedenia 
I  (1886).  iv.  (1892-93). 

BRULLY,  bra'^yr  (BRUSLY),  PIERRE  (Petrus 
Brulius):  The  successor  of  Calvin  in  Strasburg;  b. 
at  Mersilhaut  (Mercy-le-Haut,  about  2  m.  s.e.  of 
Metz)  c.  1518;  burned  at  the  stake  at  Toumai  (14 
m.  e.  of  Lille),  Flanders,  Feb.  19,  1545.  Educated 
for  the  Church,  he  became  lector  in  the  Dominican 
convent  at  Metz  and  was  expelled  in  1540  or  1541 
for  sympathizing  with  the  Reformation.  In  July, 
1541,  he  was  in  Strasburg  and  intimate  with  Calvin,  in 
whose  house  he  lived,  and  when  Calvin  was  recalled 
to  Geneva  (1541)  succeeded  him  in  the  pastorate. 
In  September,  1544,  he  undertook  a  missionary 
journey  to  Flanders  on  the  invitation  of  persons  in 
Toumai  who  wished  instruction  in  the  Reformed 
faith;  preached  there  and  in  neighboring  cities 
with  earnestness  and  success,  but  necessarily  in 
secret,  as  to  preach  Protestant  doctrine  was  for- 
bidden. He  was  arrested  at  Toumai  in  November, 
condemned,  and  executed,  notwithstanding  efforts 
made  to  save  him  from  Strasburg  and  by  the  Prot- 
estant princes  of  Germany. 

Bibliooraphy:  C.  Paillani,  Le  Procca  de  Pierre  BruUy, 
Paris.  1878;  11.  Reujw,  Pierre  BruUy,  Strasburg,  1879. 

BRUNETIERE,  brO^ne-tyar',  MARIE  FERDI- 
NAIfD:  French  Roman  Catholic  critic;  b.  at  Toulon 
(42  m.  e.8.e.  of  Marseilles)  July  19,  1849;  d.  in 
Paris  Dec.  9,  1906.  Educated  at  Marseilles  and 
at  the  Lyc6e  Louis  le  Grand,  Paris,  he  became 
secretary  of  the  editorial  board  of  the  Revue  dcs 
derxx  mondes  in  1875  and  editor  in  1893.  lie  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  French  language  ami 
literature  at  the  ficolc  Normale  Suj)^rieure,  Paris, 
and  in  1893  became  a  lecturer  at  the  Sorbonne. 
He  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  in  the  United 
States  in  1897.  In  1887  he  wiis  made  a  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  in  1893  was  admitted  to 
the  French  Academy,  while  in  1895  he  was  appointetl 
a  commander  of  the  Order  of  Pius  IX.  His  theo- 
logical attitude  was  noteworthy  in  that,  like  Cop- 
p^e,  Huysmans,  and  other  distinguished  literary 
men  of  France,  he  became  convinced  of  the  truth 
of  the  teachings  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
abandoning  the  agnosticism  which  he  had  fonnerly 
professed.  His  writings,  which  mark  a  new  epoch 
in  French  criticism,  include  Etudes  crituiues  sur 
VhisUnre  de  la  liU('rature  fran^-aise  (7  vols.,  Paris, 
1880-1903);  Histoire  et  littcrature  (3  vols.,  ISSA-SQ); 
Questions  de  critique  (2  vols.,  1889-90);  Evolution 
des  genres  dans  V histoire  de  la  littcrature  (1890); 
Nouvelles  questions  de  critujue  (1890);  Les  fjpoiiues 
du  thvAtre  jraw.ais  16S6-1850  (1892);  Essais  sur 
la  litUrature  contemporaine  (2  vols.,  1892-95); 
U6voluiion  de  la  potsie  lyrique  en  France  au  dijr- 
neuvibme  sibcle  (2  vols.,  1894);  Education  et  instruc- 
tion (1895);  La  Morality,  de  la  doctrine  {n}olutii^e 
(1896);  La  Renaissance  de  Vidcalisrne  (1896);  Le 
Roman  naturaliste  (1896);  Manuel  de  V histoire 
de  la  litttrature  fran<;aisc  (1897;  Eug.  transl..  New 
York,  1898);  and  Discours  acad^miques  (1901);  Les 


motifs  d^espfrer  (1902);  Cinq  leUrea  sur  EmutRam 
(1903);  Les  difficultisde  croire  (1904);  and^wfet 
chemins  de  la  croyance  (1904). 

BRUNFELS,    OTTO:    German     humanist  and 
Reformer.    The  date  of  his  birth  can  not  be  deter- 
mined;  d.  at  Bern  Nov.  23,  1534.     His  father  wm 
an  artisan  at  Mainz.    At  an  early  age  he  entered 
the  Carthusian  order,  but  the  spirit  of  the  age  soon 
drew  him  out  of  his  convent  into  the  polemics  of 
the  time.    At  first  he  was  a  follower  of  Hutten, 
for  whom  he  broke  a  lance  with  Erasmus,  and 
whose  library  he  used  in  compiling  a  small  oollectioD 
of  the  writings  of  Huss,  which  he  published  in  1524, 
with  a  dedication  to  Luther.     He  served  the  Refor- 
mation as  a  preacher,  first  at  Steinheim,  and  then 
at  Neuenburg  in  the  Breisgau.     When  the  attitude 
of  the  imperial  government  made  his  f>o8ition  there 
insecure,  he  went  to  Strasburg,  where  he  supported 
himself   by   teaching,   wrote   against   tithes,  and 
studied    medicine.    He  was  a    friend  of   Luther 
and  also  of  Carlstadt,  but  was  still  more  strongly 
attracted  by  ZwingU,  whose    influence   procured 
him  a  medical  position  at  Bern.     His  importance 
lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  he  was  a  suoceasfid 
botanist,  and  a  pioneer  in  this  science  for  Germany, 
w^th  his  extensive  illustrated  Herbarium  (Strasburg 
3  vols.,   1530-40,  translated  into  German,  2  parts, 
ir>32-37,  2d  ed.,  1546).  (W.  Voor.) 

BRUITNER  (FONTANUS),  LEOlfHARD:  Ger- 
man Reformer;  b.  probably  at  Esslingen  (7  m.  e.8.e. 
of  Stuttgart)  c.  1500;  d.  at  Landau  (18  m.  n.w.  of 
Carlsruhe)  Dec.  20,  1558.  In  1527  he  was  called 
from  Strasburg,  where  he  was  a  deacon,  to 
Worms,  as  pastor  of  the  congregation.  By  his 
discretion  he  soon  restored  harmony  in  the  com- 
munity, w^hich  had  been  endangered  for  a  time  by 
the  activities  of  the  Anabaptists  Denk,  Hetzer, 
and  Kantz.  In  1531  he  published  his  ChriMliche 
Bctrachtung,  xvic  man  sich  bei  den  Kranken  und 
Sterltenden  halten  soil;  and  in  1543  he  prepared 
a  Catechismus  und  Anweisung  zum  christliehen 
Glaul)en^  of  which  the  few  fragments  still  extant 
show  his  catechetical  ability.  In  the  doctrine  on 
the  Lord's  Supper  he  followed  the  Strasburg 
theologians.  Through  the  Interim  he  was  obliged 
in  1548  to  resign  his  office  at  Worms  and  fled  to 
Strasburg.  where  he  soon  became  assistant  pastor. 
With  the  other  Strasburg  ministers  he  adopted  the 
Lutheran  teacliing,  and  remained  faithful  to  it  in 
Landau,  whither  he  was  called  in  1553  by  the 
Treaty  of  Passau.  Here  he  contributed  much 
toward  the  amelioration  of  the  moral  and  religious 
life  of  the  people.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  published  Concardantz  des  Xeuen 
Testaments  (Strasburg,  1524)  and  ConcordanU 
und  Zeiger  aUer  biblischen  BOcher  (1530). 

Julius  Net. 

Bibliography:  A.  Weckerling,  L.  Brunner,  Worms.  1895; 
A.  Becker.  Beitr&o^  Mur  GeukichU  von  Worma,  pp.  M 
Hqq..  ib.  1880. 

BRUIfO  OF  COLOGNE:  Archbishop  of  Cologne 
953-9G5;  b.  in  the  spring  of  925,  the  young- 
eat  son  of  Henry  I.,  the  Fowler;  d.  at  Reims 
Oct.  11,  905.  He  was  educated  from  his  fourth 
to  his  fourteenth  year  in  the  cathedral  school  of 


28^ 


RELTGIOUB  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BruUy 


tJirecht.     Hifl  brother  Otto  I.  recalleil  him  in  939 
10  the  court.     As  early  as  940  he  was  in  vested 
^irith  the   functionK   of   chancellor,    and   ordained 
on  a  year  or  two  later.     In  951  he  was  made 
hkapellnnun  and  thus  exereij*ed  a  great  influ- 
ence on  the  administration  of  the  whole  kingdom. 
In  ^7  he  took  part  in  tlie  Synod  of  Vonlun,  where 
German  eeclesi amities  settled   the  question  of  the 
archbiKhopric   of    Reims,    important    to  tlie  later 
history  ol  France.     In  951  he  went  with  Otto  to 
Italy,  and  supported  his  brother  faithfully  in  the? 
tiifturhances   of   the   next   year.     Otto    had    liim 
cho^n  archbishop  of  Cologne  ir  953,  and  added  to 
hij  spiritual  sovereignty  the  government  of  Lor- 
raine.     He    wa«    cotuseerated    8ept.  25,     Lorraine 
Was  a  very  troublesome  possession;  it  was  not  until 
after  the  banishment  of   Count    Raginar  of    Hai- 
naiilt  in  958  that  lie  succeeded  in  establishing  peact^ 
JUid  order  there.     The  relations  witli  France  often 
offered  difBcult  problems,  too.     After  the  death  of 
King  Louis  d'Outremer  and  Duke  Hugh  the  Great, 
Bruno  was  made  a  8ort  of  supreme  judicial  arbiter 
for  France  in  bis  brother's  name.     Peace  was  his 
constant  aini,  together  with  the  jissertion  of  Curi>- 
iiof^ian  sovereignty*     On  Otto's  second  absence  in 
Italy  (961),  the  administration  of  the  empire  was 
confided  to  Bruno  and  William  of  Mainz.     Bruno *s 
importance  is  mainly  political,  as  a  representative 
of  the  close  aUiance  of  the  episcopate  and  the  crown 
which  marked  Otto's  policy*     As  a  bi.shop,  how- 
ever, he  did  much  to  promote  a  real  and  living 
piety  and  to  encourage  education*      (A.  Hauck*) 

1  BtnuooitAl'HY:  The  Vita  Brunonia,  by  Ruotjifer,  ed.  G*  H, 
Pert*,  t*  i»  MGH,  StripL,  iv.  2S2-275,  Hanover.  1841; 
and  another  Vita  by  aii  unknown,  author,  ib,,  pp,  27«5- 
279.  Consult:  Pielcr,  Ersbiachof  Bruno  /,  von  Ktdn, 
AmsberSf  1851;  K*  Meyer,  De  Brufwne  I,  orchifpiBcopo 
Cidomfnm,  Berlin,  1867;  C.  Martin,  Beitrdgf  tur  QeichichU 
Brww  I.  von  Koln.  J»na,  187^;  Mauck,  KD,  iu.  40  Ht^q. 

BRUNO,  (FILIPPO)  GIORDANO:  lUdian  phi- 
losopher of  the  Renaissance;  b.  at  Nola  (14  m. 
c.n.e.  of  Naples),  Campania,  1548;  burned  at  the 
stake  at  Rome  Feb,  17,  1601).  He  jomtd  the 
Domitiicans  at  Naples  at  the  age  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen,  but  study  and  reflection  and  p>articuhirly 
the  influence  of  the  works  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa 
luid  Raymond  Lully  made  liim  doubtful  of  dogma 
and  rejitive  under  the  strict  rules  of  his  order. 
Iq  1576  he  fled  to  Rom©  and  thencefortli  led  a 
wandering  life.  He  first  visited  various  cities  of 
North  Italy;  about  l5St)  he  reached  Geneva, 
stayed  there  two  years^  and  went  on  to  Paris 
through  Lyons  and  Toulouse;  at  Paris  he  gave 
lectures  on  philosophy;  from  15S3  to  1585  he  was 
in  Ea^&nd,  where  he  had  the  friendship  of  such 
men  bs  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  composed  his  most 
important  works;  between  1586  and  1588  he  was 
le>cturing  at  Wittenberg;  he  visited  Prague,  Helni- 
9t4dt,  Frankfort,  Zurich*  and  Padua,  and  reached 
Venice  early  in  1592,  Here  he  was  arrested  in 
May*  tried  before  the  Inquisition,  and  his  case 
adjoumcd  to  Rome,  Jan*,  1593.  On  Jan.  7,  16(X), 
after  a  confinement  of  seven  years,  he  was  con- 
denmed  as  an  apostate  and  heretic  and  given  over 
to  the  ciAdl  authorities  for  execution.  He  waa 
ibe  Brst  philoBOpher  to  espouse  the  Copemican 
bjpolhens;    in    his    metaphysical     interpretation 


of  it  he  radically  opposed  the  philosophy  and 
science  of  his  time,  and  subverted  also  the  most 
cherished  teachings  of  the  Church.  His  fundamen- 
tal principle,  as  against  Aristotle,  was  the  abso- 
lute boundlessness  of  the  universe*  The  super- 
natural in  its  traditiomil  sense  was  thus  eliminated. 
No  hc^aven  existeil  separate  from  the  universe^ 
The  world— the  phenomenal  aspect  of  the  uni- 
verse—anil  Gotl  arf!  not  the  same,  but  God  is 
identifitvl  with  the  universe;  or  God  may  be 
designated  as  matter  conceived  of  in  extended 
Kubstance,  essentially  immateriuh  the  immanent 
cause  or  soul  of  the  world.  Later  philosophers, 
Deacartes,  SpinoKa,  Leibnitz,  Bo  eh  me,  and  Hegel 
owe  much  to  Bruno.  Just  three  hundrt»d  years 
after  his  execution,  Feb,  17,  i9(Hi,  on  the  very  spot 
where  he  was  burnetl,  a  monument  was  tledicatefl 
to  hw  memory. 

Bruno^s  most  important  works  were  the  Spaccia 
ddla  fK'Mia  trionfantr  (Paris,  15S4);  Delia  causae 
prineipio  id  uno,  an<l  Del  infmUo  unh^erso  e  mondi 
(V^enicc,  158^4);  De  triplfei  minirno  ei  mensura,  and 
De  mrniade  numero  et  figura  (Frankfort,  1591). 
His  Italian  works  were  edited  by  Wagner  (2  vols*, 
Leipsic,  18^30)  and  by  Paul  de  La  garde*  (2  vols,, 
Gottingtm,  1888);  his  Latin  works  by  Fiorentino 
(2  vols*,  Naples,  1879-91)  and  by  Tocco  (Florence, 
1889).  The  Delia  causa  has  been  translated  into 
Gennan  by  Lasson  t3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1902),  and 
a  Gennan  translation  of  his  collected  philosoj>h- 
icai  works  begun  by  L.  Kuhlenbcck  (Jena,  1904, 
vol.  v.,  1907),  who  has  also  edited  LiclUMrafi^ 
le7i  au^  Giordano  Bmno's  Werken  (Leipsic,  1891). 
There  is  an  English  translation  of  "  The  Kx- 
pulsion  of  the  Triumphant  Beast"  by  W,  More- 
liead  (London,  1713;  only  50  copies  printed  and 
now  extremely  rare),  and  of  the  *'  Heroic  Entliu^ 
Blasts  "  {Gli  eroiH  lurort\  Paris,  1558)  by  L.  Williams 
(London,  1887);  a  general  account  and  synopsis 
of  the  "  Infinite  Universe,"  written  by  Bruno  in 
his  dedication  of  the  work  to  Lord  Castelnau,  was 
translated  by  John  Toland  an<i  printed,  with  a 
Latin  essay  on  the  death  of  Bruno  (in  A  CfillecHon 
of  Several  Pircesi  of  Mr.  John  Toland ,  vol.  i,,  Lon- 
don, 1726,  pp.  304-349). 

BiBUCK^aAPHT:  On  the  life  of  Bnino  a  noteworthy  produo 
tion  i»  J.  L.  M  duty  re,  Qiordano  Bruno,  Lundoij^  1903. 
Fha^ifs  of  hifl  life  and  philosophy  are  prcivnted  in  F,  J. 
Clenten!).  Gitiniano  Brutw  und  Nicolau*  I'vn  Cu»a,  eiiw 
philitMophi»(Ju  Ahhotidiung,  Bonn,  1847;  C,  J,  G.  B&r- 
tholtEi(BS««  Jordano  Bruno,  2  vah.^  Paris.  1846-47;  D* 
Berii,  Vita  di  Giordano  Bruno,  Miliwi.  1868;  Mrs,  Bezant. 
Giordano  Brutut^  Londan,  1877;  R.  Mannno,  Giordano 
Bruno,  la  vita  e  ruoma,  Rome,  1881  (important >;  M. 
Carrierc,  Die  philo9ophi*che  IV eUanachauung  drr  Rejor- 
mationsieik  L«Lpf^ic«  18S7  (the  work  of  a  special ist);  Mim 
L  Frith,  Li/#  of  Giordano  Bruno.  I^ndon,  1887;  D.  B«rti, 
Oiordano  Bruno,  ,  .  .  9ua  vita  e  »ua  dottrina,  Turin.  1889; 
R.  Laadii«ck,  Bruno  drr  Mnrturrr  drr  tuntrn  \tVelian- 
achauuno,  Leipsic,  1890;  J.Owen.  Giordarm Bruno, in Sktp- 
tic9ofthe  Italian  Renai^Mnet!,  Ix>ndon<  1893;  H.  Brunohofer, 
Giordano  Bruno'9  W eltanMchauuno  und  VrrkdnaniM,  Leip> 
«ic.  18&e;  C.  Louis,  Giordano  Bruno.  Seint  Weltan- 
mrJiauunif  und  Leb«nMauffaM§unff,  Bcrlint  IftOO;  A,  Riehl, 
Oitwdano  Bruno,  Leipeiic,  1000,  Eng.  tranRL,  London, 
1D05.  Qjnuult  also  the  work*  on  the  Hiatory  of  Pbi]o»- 
ophy^  by  Uebcrweg,  EbranJ,  etc, 

BRUKO  (BOfaFATIUS)  OF  QUERFURTr  Mis- 
sionary to  the  Shivs  and  PruiisianH,  among  whom 
he  suffered  martyrdom,  Feb,  14,  or  Mar.  10,  UX>9* 


Bmno 
Bryant 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


286 


He  was  a  Saxon  nobleman,  educated  at  the  cathe- 
dralHSchool  at  Magdeburg,  and  accompanied  his 
cousin,  the  Emperor  Otto  III.,  to  Rome  (996), 
where  he  took  holy  orders.  Pope  Sylvester  II. 
entrusted  to  him  a  missionary  expedition  to  the 
Slavs  in  the  east,  which  the  Polish  duke  Boleslav 
had  asked  for,  and  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
archbishop.  His  chief  task  was  to  be  the  conver- 
sion of  the  heathen  Prussians,  to  whom  Adalbert 
of  Prague  (q.v.)  had  fallen  victim  but  a  short  time 
before.  Being  detained  at  Magdeburg  by  wars 
between  Germans  and  Poles,  he  wrote  the  Vita 
5.  Alberti.  Peace  being  reestablished,  he  went 
to  Poland  and  was  gladly  received  by  Boleslav, 
but  being  imable  to  enter  into  Prussia,  he  con- 
verted the  Petchenegs  and  organized  their  church 
afifairs.  Remaining  for  some  time  in  Poland,  he 
wrote  the  Vila  quinque  fratrum  Poloniaj  Christian 
martyrs  slain  in  1003  near  Meseritz,  and  when  at 
last  he  took  upon  him  the  task  he  was  entrusted 
with,  he  and  his  companions,  like  St.  Adalbert, 
lost  their  lives  by  the  swords  of  the  heathen  not 
far  from  Braunsberg.  Boleslav,  who  was  deeply 
afflicted,  ordered  the  remains  of  the  martyrs  to  be 
gathered  and  brought  to  Poland,  where  they  were 
solemnly  buried  and  became  an  object  of  most 
devoted   reverence.  A.  Werner. 

Bibliooraphy:  The  sources  for  a  life  are:  the  Chronicon 
of  Dietmar,  ed.  J.  M.  Lappenberg,  Hanover,  1889;  Da- 
mian's  Vita  St.  Romualdi,  cd.  G.  H.  Perta.  in  MGH, 
Script,  iv.  850-854,  ib.  1841;  Chronicon  M aydeburgenae, 
ed.,  Meibom,  in  Script,  rer.  Germ., pp.  269-378.  Consult: 
W.  von  Giesebrecht,  Geachichte  der  deutschen  Kaiserteit, 
ii.  104.  192  sqq.,  Brunswick.  1875;  idem,  Ertbitehof 
Brun-Boni/atitu  in  Neue  preuasUche  Provinzialbldtter,  i. 
(1869);  Hauck.  KD,  vol.  iii.;  ADB,  iii.  433. 

BRUNO,  SAINT:  Founder  of  the  Carthusian 
order.     See  Carthusians. 

BRUNO  OF  SEGNI:  Bishop  of  Segni  (28  m.  s.e. 
of  Rome);  b.  at  Solero  (6  m.  w.  of  Alessandria), 
Lombardy,  between  1045  and  1049;  d.  at  Segni 
July  18,  1123.  He  was  educated  in  a  monastery 
near  his  birthplace  and  at  Bologna,  became  a  canon 
at  Sienna,  and  came  to  Rome  in  1079.  Here  he 
came  in  contact  with  the  leaders  of  the  Church, 
and  must  have  soon  attracted  the  attention  of 
Gregory  VII.,  if  it  is  true  that  it  was  at  his  request 
that  he  disputed  with  Berengar  on  the  Eucharist. 
In  any  ca»e  he  accomplished  his  task  so  well  that 
the  pope  made  him  bishop  of  Segni  in  the  Campagna 
the  same  year.  He  was  even  more  closely  connected 
with  Urban  II.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  France 
in  1095.  In  1099  he  entered  the  monastery  of 
Monte  Cassino,  but  without  resigning  his  see  or 
severing  his  relations  with  the  outside  world.  He 
undertook  an  important  mission  to  France  for 
Paschal  II.  in  1106,  and  remained  with  the  pope 
for  some  time  after  his  return,  finally  going  back 
to  his  cloister,  where  he  was  elected  abbot  in  1107. 
Paschal  made  no  objection  to  this  pluralism  until 
in  the  conflicts  of  1111  Bruno  took  the  part  of  the 
antipope  Maginulf  (Sylvester  IV.),  and  was  forced 
to  resign  his  abbacy  and  return  to  Segni.  Lucius 
III.  canonized  him  in  1181.  His  works  (in  MPL, 
clxiv.,  clxv.)  are  principally  exegctical.  His  Libel- 
Ins  de  symoniacis,  written  before  1 109,  is  important 
for  its  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  simony,  and 


especially  for  its  attitude  on  the  sacraments  of  a 
simoniacal  priest.  Carl  Mirbt. 

Bibuoorapht:  Sources  for  a  life  are  the  Ckranium  C^ati- 
nenae,  book  iv..  chaps.  31-42,  ed.  W.  Wattenbach.  in  MGB, 
Script.,  vii.  776-783,  Hanover,  1846,  and  an  anonymma 
Vita  in  ASB.  18  July.  iv.  478-488.  The  folleet  and  bat 
modem  treatment  is  by  B.  Giealski,  Bruno,  Biatkef  rm 
Segni,  .  .  .  §ein  Leben  und  aeine  Schrifign,  MOutcr, 
1898.  Consult  also  Hefele,  ConeilienoeackidUe,  vol  y.; 
C.  Mirbt.  Die  PiMinatik  im  ZeitaUer  Gngon  VII..  ppi 
384-385.  423-424.522-523.  Leipsic.  1894;  Meyer  von  Koo- 
nau.  JahrbUcher  deM  deutachen  Reidia  unUr  Heimriek  IV., 
pp.  02  sqq.,  ib.  1004. 

BRUNO  OF  TOUL.    See  Leo  IX.,  Pope. 

BRUNO  OF  WURZBURG:  Bishop  of  Wfln- 
burg  1034-45.  He  was  the  son  of  Duke  Conrad  I. 
of  Carinthia,  and  thus  a  nephew  of  Pope  Gregoiy  V. 
and  a  cousin  of  the  emperor  Conrad  II.  Tlie 
latter  made  him  bishop  of  Wdrzburg  in  1034.  In 
the  spring  of  1045  he  accompanied  Henry  III.  to 
Himgary,  and  died  May  26  from  the  results  of 
injuries  received  in  the  fall  of  a  building  at  Penen- 
beug  in  what  is  now  Upper  Austria.  As  a  theo- 
logian he  is  remembered  for  his  commentary  oo 
the  Psalms,  made  up  mainly  of  extracts  from  older 
authors,  especially  Cassiodorus,  but  including 
Augustine,  Gregory  the  Great,  the  pseudo-Bede. 
and  the  Breviarium  in  PacUmos  ascribed  to  Jerome. 
A  catechetical  exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer 
and  the  Apostles'  and  Athanasian  Creeds  attributed 
to  him  is  probably  older.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  Bruno's  Commentary  is  in  MPL,  f^ 
Consult:  J.  Baier,  Der  heilioe  Bruno  .  .  .  aU  Kakdul, 
WQrsburs.  1803;  ADB,  iii.  435. 

BRUNSWICK:  A  North  German  duchy,  con- 
sisting of  three  larger  territories  and  six  small 
exclaves,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Hanover,  on 
the  east  by  Saxony,  on  the  south  by  Hanover,  and 
on  the  west  by  Westphalia;  area,  1,424  square 
miles;  population  (1900),  464,333,  of  whom  432.- 
570  (93.1  %)  are  Lutherans;  4,406  (.9  %)  Reformed: 
24,175  (5.2%)  Roman  Catholics;  1,358  of  various 
sects;  and  1,824  (.39%)  Jews.  The  Lutheran 
Church  was  established  in  the  duchy  in  1568,  but 
received  its  first  official  organization  in  1657  and 
1709,  while  in  1755  and  1764  the  administration 
was  placed  under  six  general  superintendencies, 
which  are  now  located  at  Wolfenbuttel,  Brunswick, 
Helmstadt,  Blankenburg,  Gandersheim,  and  Hol»- 
minden.  The  act  of  Oct.  12, 1832,  emphasized  the 
ecclesiastical  power  of  the  duke,  which  is  enfortxd 
with  the  cooperation  and  counsel  of  an  evangelical 
consistory  composed  of  both  clergjr  and  laity.  At 
the  same  time  the  appointment  of  church-directors 
for  the  administration  of  individual  churches  was 
considered,  but  these  officials  were  not  actually 
created  imtil  Nov.  20,  1851.  Where  the  congre- 
gation has  the  right  of  electing  its  pastors,  these 
**  church-deputies,"  together  with  an  equal  num- 
ber of  representatives  elected  by  the  community, 
choose  the  ministers,  and  in  other  cases  extend 
the  invitation  to  the  candidates  proposed  by  tbe 
duke  or  by  patrons.  The  congregations,  however, 
have  the  right  to  reject  candidates  who  are  defi- 
cient either  in  morality  or  in  ability.  The  number 
of  deputies  has  increased  with  the  population  from 


d87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bruno 
Bryant 


four  to  sixteen,  and  they  arc  chosen  by  secret  ballot, 
serving  for  a  term  of  six  years. 

About  twenty  years  after  the  organization  of  the 
parishes,  a  general  synod  was  created  (May  31, 
1871),  consisting  of  twelve  clergymen  and  sixteen 
laymen  from  seven  electoral  districts,  in  addition 
to  two  clerical  and  two  lay  delegates  appointed 
by  the  duke.  This  synod,  which  holds  its  sessions 
in  public,  controls  all  modification,  interpretation, 
and  promulgation  of  laws  for  the  churches,  except 
in  matters  of  doctrine.  The  committee  of  the  sjmod 
is  composed  of  two  clerical  and  two  lay  members 
with  a  fifth  chosen  from  one  of  the  two  main 
bodies,  and  is  required  to  decide,  together  with 
the  consistory,  on  the  rejection  of  candidates  by 
individual  congregations,  and  to  discipline  pastors 
and  teachers  of  religion. 

Shortly  after  the  creation  of  this  sjmod,  inspec- 
toral synods  were  introduced  by  a  law  of  Jan.  6, 
1S73,  which  enacted  that  each  parish  should  be 
inspected  every  two  years,  and  that  this  must  take 
place  annually  for  the  city  of  Brunswick  in  one  of 
the  local  churches.  A  lay  inspector  may  also  be 
i^pointed  by  the  duke  in  addition  to  the  regular 
synod.  These  regulations  control  twenty-eight 
superintendencies  with  230  parishes  and  428  build- 
ings for  religious  purposes,  of  which  333  are 
churches.  A  seminary  for  preachers  is  conducted 
at  Wolfenbattel  by  the  consistory,  and  numerous 
institutions  and  associations  exist  in  the  duchy. 
Among  the  latter  special  mention  may  be  made  of 
a  missionary  society,  a  house  of  deaconesses,  the 
sisterhoods  at  Marienberg  near  Helmst&dt,  and, 
above  all,  of  the  **  Evangelical  Association  for  the 
Duchy  of  Brunswick,"  with  its  many  affiliated 
interests.  Few  sectaries  have  found  their  way 
into  Brunswick,  although  Baptists  and  Mennonites 
are  foimd  here  and  there,  the  latter  having  an 
establishment  for  missions  in  the  capital  itself. 

(WiLHELM  GOETZ.) 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Beste,  Oetdiichte  der  braunschweigiBchen 
Landetkirchf,  WolfenbOttel,  1889;  ErUwurf  einer  Ver- 
fa»»unga-Urkunde  fiir  die  evangeliBd^-lutheritche  Kirche 
dea  Herzogtunu  Braunschiveig,  Brunswick,  1850;  J.  Bu- 
Senhagen,  BugenhagenM  Kirchenordnung  far  die  Stadt 
Braunachxceig,  1628,  Leipftic.  1885;  F.  Koldewey,  Bei- 
trikge  xur  Kitchen-  und  Schtdgeeehichte  dee  .  .  .  Braun- 
Bditoeig,  WolfenbOttel.  1888;  Beitrdge  nur  StaHeHk  dee 
Henogtume  Braunechxoeigt  Brunswick,  part  xx.,  1907. 

BRUSTON,  brQ"8t«n',  CHARLES  AUGUSTE: 
French  Reformed;  b.  at  Bordeaux  (90  m.  n.  of 
Marseilles)  Mar.  6,  1838.  He  was  educated  at  the 
lyceum  of  Grenoble  (bachelier  ^  lettres,  1854), 
the  seminary  at  Montauban  (bachelier  en  thtologie, 
1859),  and  the  universities  of  Geneva,  Halle,  Berlin, 
GOttingen,  and  Heidelberg.  He  was  then  succes- 
sively pastor  of  Reformed  churches  at  ChAtillon- 
en-Diois  in  1861-^2,  Die  in  1862-64,  Bordeaux  in 
1864-68,  and  Orleans  in  1868-74.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
Protestant  faculty  of  theology  of  Montauban,  and 
since  1894  has  b^n  dean  of  the  same  faculty.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  synodical  conunittee  of  studies 
and  other  conunittees,  and  was  elected  a  corre- 
sponding associate  of  the  Soci^t^  des  Antiquaires 
de  France.  In  theology  he  is  progressive,  but  is 
opposed  to  arbitrary  speculations.    He  has  written: 


De  VautherUidU  des  Actes  des  ApfHres  (Toulouse, 
1859);  Les  PsaHmes  traduils  de  VHibreu  (Paris, 
1868);  Du  Texte  primitif  des  PsaHmes  (1873); 
De  lapsu  hominis  (Orleans,  1873);  Histaire  critique 
de  la  literature  prophHique  des  H^breux  (Paris, 
1881);  Les  Quatre  sources  des  lois  de  VExode  (1883); 
Etudes  sur  V Apocalypse  (1884);  Les  Deux  Jiho- 
vistesy  Hudes  sur  les  sources  de  V histaire  saints 
(Montauban,  1885);  Les  Origines  de  V Apocalypse 
(Paris,  1888);  La  Vie  future  d^aprhs  Venseignement 
de  JisuS'Christ  (1890);  La  Sulammite,  milodrame 
en  cinq  actes  (1891);  Les  Cinq  Documents  de  la 
lot  mosaique  (1892);  Le  ParaJMe  entre  Adam  et 
J^sus-Christ,  ^tude  ex^Hique  sur  Rom,  v.  IS-Sl 
(1894);  La  Vie  future  d'aprks  St.  Paul  (1895); 
Le  Dixihne  congrks  des  Orientalistes  et  VAncien 
Testament  (1895);  Etudes  sur  Daniel  et  V Apoca- 
lypse (1896);  Iai  Descents  de  Christ  aux  enfers 
d'aprks  Us  Ap6tres  et  d^aprhs  V^glise  (1897);  Les 
Paroles  de  Jisus  ddcouvertes  en  ^gypte  (1898);  Les 
Predictions  de  J6sus  (1899);  Le  Cantique  de  Dihora 
(1901);  Etudes  phiniciennes  (2  vols.,  1903-06); 
V Inscription  de  SHod  et  cells  d* Eshmoun-azar  (1904); 
Vraie  et  fausse  critique  biblique  (1905);  Frag^ 
ments  d*un  ancien  recueil  de  paroles  de  J^^sus  (1905); 
and  UHistoire  sacerdotale  et  le  Deut^onome  primitif 
(1906),  in  addition  to  numerous  contributions  to 
theological  periodicals  and  works  of  reference. 

BRXnrS,  PIERRE  DE.    See  Peter  op  Bruts. 

BRYANT,  JACOB:  English  antiquarian;  b.  at 
Plymouth  1715;  d.  at  Cypenham,  in  Famham 
Royal  (4  m.  n.  of  Windsor),  Nov.  14,  1804.  He 
studied  at  King's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1740; 
M.A.,  1744),  and  became  fellow;  was  tutor  and 
in  1756  became  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  family 
during  his  life  and  had  free  access  to  their  famous 
library  at  Blenheim.  He  was  a  learned  man,  but 
his  fondness  for  paradox  and  other  eccentricities 
render  his  writings  of  slight  permanent  value. 
He  published  works  upon  a  variety  of  subjects, 
classical  literature  and  antiquities,  the  gipsy 
language,  the  Marlborough  collection  of  gems,  etc. 
Those  which  have  religious  interest  are  Observa- 
tions and  Enquiries  Relating  to  Various  Parts  of 
Ancient  History  (Cambridge,  1767),  in  which  he 
defends  the  reading  Euroclydon  in  Acts  xxvii.  14, 
and  maintains  that  Melita  was  not  Malta;  A  New 
System  or  an  Analysis  of  Ancient  Mythology  (3 
vols.,  London,  1774-76;  3d  edition  with  account 
of  the  author,  6  vols.,  1807),  an  attempt  to  sub- 
stantiate the  Bible  by  a  study  of  the  traditional 
remains  of  all  nations;  Vindicice  Flaviana:  a 
Vindication  of  the  Testimony  of  Josephus  concerning 
Jesus  Christ  (1777);  A  Treatise  on  the  Authen- 
ticity of  the  Scriptures  (1791);  Observations  on  a 
Controverted  Passage  in  Justin  Martyr;  also  upon 
the  Worship  of  Angels  (1793);  Observations  upon 
the  Plagues  Inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians^  with  maps 
(1794);  The  Sentiments  of  Philo  Judctus  concern- 
ing the  Logos  (1797);  Observations  upon  Some 
Passages  in  Scripture  (relating  to  Balaam,  Joshua, 
Samson,  and  Jonah,  1803). 

Bibuoorapht:  Literary  Anecdotee  of  iKe  Eighleenth  Century 
(9  vols.,  London,  1812-15)  and  lUuetratume  of  the  Liter- 


Bryc« 
Bnohwald 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


888 


ary  Hiatary  of  Ae  Ei^kUenA  Cenhtry  (%  toI.«..  ib.  1817-58  >. 
both  by  John  yicbola.  contain  very  numerous  refereneea 
to  Brymnt.     ConraJt  also  DSB,  trii.  1&5-157. 

BRTCE,  GEORGE:  American  Pre8b3rterian;  b. 
at  Mount  Pleasant.  Ont..  Apr.  22,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Toronto  and  Knox 
College.  Toronto  (B.A..  1871),  and  was  examiner 
in  natural  history  in  the  former  institution  in  1870- 
1872.  In  1871  he  was  chosen  by  the  General  As- 
sembly of  the  Presb>'terian  Church  of  Canada  to 
organixe  a  church  and  college  in  Winnipeg,  and 
acconiin^y  established  Manitoba  College  in  the 
same  year  and  Knox  Church.  Winnipeg,  in  1872. 
Five  years  later  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
Manitoba  University,  where  Ik?  was  examiner  in 
science  and  chairman  of  the  faculty  of  science  until 
1904.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
to  his  present  position  of  professor  of  English 
literature  and  financial  agent  in  Manitoba  College. 
For  many  years  he  lias  been  active  in  Presby- 
terian home  missions  in  Manitoba,  and  was  modera- 
tor of  the  general  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada  in  1902-(y3.  He  has  written: 
Manitoba:  Infancy,  ProgrtM,  and  Present  Condition 
(Ix)ndon.  1882):  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  Peo- 
ple (1887);  TheApostleof  Red  Hirer  (Toronto.  1898); 
Remarkable  History  of  the  Hudiwn*n  Bay  Company 
(Ix)ndon,  1900);  and  Makers  of  Canada  (Toronto, 
190;j). 

BRYENNIOS,  brt-en'^nfos.  PHILOTHEOS,  fi'lo- 
th^'tw:  Gnvk  metropolitan  of  Nicomedia;  b.  at 
Constantinople  March  26  (old  style).  1833.  He 
was  eilucated  at  the  **  Theological  School  in  Chalce 
of  the  gn»at  Church  of  Christ'*  (1856),  and  the 
universities  of  Lei{>sic.  IkTlin,  and  Munich.  In 
1S<\1  he  lH»came  professt)r  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
exegi'sis,  ami  otlier  studies  at  Chalce,  of  wliich 
he  was  apiH>int(\l  master  and  director  in  1863. 
although  he  siNm  n'sigiunl  the  latter  positions. 
Ilk  lSt)7  he  was  calltnl  to  Constantinople  to  be  the 
head  «)f  the  **  (in»at  Sclux^l  of  the  Nation  "  in  the 
Phanar,  or  Greek  quarter  of  Constantinople,  and 
nMiiaintHl  thert*  until  in  1875  he  was  sent  by  the 
Must  Holy  Symxl  of  metroiK)litans  and  patriarchs 
to  tlie  Old  Catliolic  confon»nct»  at  Bonn,  where  he 
riMHUVinl  the  patriarchal  letter  announcing  liis 
appointment  as  nietmjH^litan  of  Serrae  in  Mace- 
donia. In  IS77  he  Wiis  transferreil  to  tlie  metro- 
(Hklitan  KtM»  of  NiwnuH-lia.  and  three  years  later 
%^enl  t»»  Ihieharest  as  commissioner  of  tlie  Eastern 
Oithtidox  Patrian^hal  and  other  indei)endent 
ehurehen.  to  dveide  ciMuvniing  the  (ini'k  monas- 
teiios  whirh  ha»l  Ihhmi  plunderiHl  in  Moldavia  and 
NVallaehia.  In  1SS2.  at  the  in^tance  of  the  Holy 
S>iuid  «»f  MetroiH>litans  in  Const:mtinople.  and 
\\\v  patriarch  Joarluni  III.,  he  wrote  a  reply  to  the 
ohr>«'hnil  letter  of  Pojw  Iak)  XIII.  concerning 
tho  Sliivie  apostles  Cyrillus  and  Methodius,  wliich 
\^.»H  pulili.Nhed  at  Constantinople  in  1882  with  the 
uppiolmttou  and  at  t!i«'  rxornst*  of  the  Holy  Synod. 
IIm  lame  rents  upon  his  discovery  in  1873  in  the 
JeiunaliMu  Mt)nivslery  of  the  Most  Holy  Sepulcher 
\\\  \\\v  thiM»k  tpiarter  of  Constantinople  of  a  manu- 
MUlpt  «M»maihing  (l)  a  s>^lopsis  of  the  Old  and 
N«t^  re«lau»ents  in  the  onler  given  by  St.  CJhrysos- 
|\iiM.    ^-^  'l'*»«»  Kpistle  of  Barnabas;    (3)  The  First 


Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians; 
(4)  The  Second  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corin- 
thians;   (5)  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostla; 

(6)  The  spurious  letter  of  Mary  of  Caasoboli;  and 

(7)  Twelve  paeudo-Ignatian  Epistles.  He  edited 
the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  with  prolegomeni 
and  notes  at  Constantinople  in  1875,  and  pi^lished 
the  '*  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  "  in  the 
same  city  in  1883.    See  Didache. 

Bibuographt:  P.  SchafF.  Teaeking  of  tk€  Twdm  ApoaSm, 
pp.  8-0.  289-205.  New  York.  1800. 

BUCER,  MARTIN.     See  Bittzkr. 

BUCHANAll,  CLAUDIUS:  A  pioneer  of  modem 
Anglican  missionaiy  work  in  India;  b.  at  Cambw- 
lang,  near  Glasgow,  Mar.  12,  1766;  d.  at  Brox- 
boume  (5  m.  s.e.  of  Hertford),  Hertfordshire.  Feb. 
9,  1815.  At  sixteen  he  went  to  the  Universitj  al 
Glasgow,  intending  to  study  law,  but,  after  fimsfaiD; 
his  course,  spent  three  years  in  a  careless  wander- 
ing life.  Smitten  by  repentance,  he  placed  himself 
under  the  care  of  John  Newton,  the  celebrated 
evangelical  preacher  in  London,  one  of  wfaoee 
friends  enabled  him  to  spend  four  years  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1796  he  went  to  Calcutta  as  a  chaplain 
in  the  East  India  Company's  Her\nce.  He  found 
the  conditions  there  very  unfavorable  for  earnest 
work.  All  the  Company  was  willing  to  do  for 
sixty  millions  of  souls  was  to  place  a  chaplain  bere 
and  there,  who  was  told  not  to  meddle  with  the 
native  population.  While  Buchanan  was  waiting 
for  a  chance  to  do  real  work,  he  learned  Hindustani 
and  Persian.  In  1800,  being  transferred  to  Cal- 
cutta itself,  he  found  a  like-minded  helper  in  Lonl 
Momington  (later  Marquis  of  Wellesley),  tiie 
Governor-general,  who  founded  a  college  in  Cal- 
cutta for  the  teaching  of  the  Oriental  languages 
and  placed  Buchanan  in  charge  of  it.  It  was  closed. 
however,  three  years  later,  and  all  looked  as  dark 
as  ever.  But  after  a  while  a  new  institute  was 
founded,  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  Buchanan  took 
hoix!  once  more.  In  1805  he  publisluxl  his  Ei- 
ptdiency  of  an  Ecclesiastical  Establishmeht  /or 
India,  in  which  he  developed  the  first  plan  for  the 
establishment  of  regular  dioceses  and  bishops. 
Wliile  waiting  for  his  seed  to  bear  fruit,  he  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  into  Hindustani  and 
Persian,  and  founded  an  institute  for  such  work. 
In  1806  he  made  an  extended  journey  along  the 
Malabar  coast,  partly  for  his  health  and  partly 
in  the  missionary  interest,  publishing  his  obser- 
vations in  Christian  Researches  in  Asia  (Cambridge. 
1811.  new  ed..  London,  1840).  He  returned  to 
Calcutta  in  1S07.  full  of  plans  for  which  the  time 
was  once  more  unfavorable.  Lord  Wellesley  had 
been  recalled,  and  his  successor.  Lord  Minto,  looked 
coldly  on  such  projects,  as  did  the  Company  in 
gi'neral.  To  push  his  views  in  'England  was  the 
most  necessary  tiling,  and  Buchanan  returned 
thither  in  1808  to  press  upon  the  ministry  the 
setting  up  of  a  theological  seminary  in  each  presi- 
dency, the  granting  of  licenses  to  missionaries, 
and  the  apix)intmcnt  of  bishops.  Lord  Liverpool 
approvetl  this  plan,  but  the  House  of  Commons 
agreeil  to  the  ap|X)intment  of  only  one  bishop. 
Middleton,  the  first  bishop  of  Calcutta,  was  con- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bryc« 
Buchw&ld 


in  1S16,  and  when  his  aucee^sor  was 
with  fiuffragans  for  Matlrai*  and  Bombay, 

o*s  plan  had  been  realized  in  its  essentials, 

e  did  not  Uve  to  sec  it. 

pfTi:  H.  Pearson.  M*mmra  of  th^  Life  and  Wri- 
.  .  .  ClaudiuM  Buehanan,  2  voIji.,  London,  ISld; 
ibauin«  H.  Marfyn,  D.  Brou?n  und  C,  Buchanan^ 
I  1866;  DNB,  vii.  182-184, 

UIAIT,  GEORGE:  Scotch  scholar;  b.  in 
1  of  Killeam  (44  m-  w*n.w,  of  Edinburgh), 
lire,  early  in  Feb.,  LWO;  d,  in  Edinburgh 
,  1582.  He  studied  in  Paris,  1520^22, 
adrews,  1525,  and  again  in  Paria,  where 
le  teacher  in  the  College  of  8te.  Barbe, 
itiimed  to  Scotland  1535.  lie  inclined 
Yotestant  views  and  wrc»tc  two  satires  on 
Cs.  the  Somnium  and  the  Francistantt^  ct 
r  which  he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  countrj'' 
He  taught  at  Paris,  Bordeaux,  and  Coim- 
was  active  in  t!ie  |)rodueti(m  of  literary 
D  this  period  belong  his  translations  into 
he  Mt'dt'a  and  of  the  Alcestis  and  his  Latin 
,  Jcphihe^  and  BapfiaUa  (tranalatA;d  into 
reree  bj''  A,  Gibb,  Edinburgh,  1870;  and 
rordon  Mitchell,  Paisley,  I90:MJ4);  he 
B  tranalfltion  of  the  Psalms  into  Latin 
d  at  Paris,  1.566)  while  confined  in  a 
y  by  the  Inquisition  at  Coimbra.  In 
was  acting  as  tutor  to  Mary  Stuart  in 

he  now  openly  embraced  Protctjtantiiiim 
me  infiuential  in  both  Church  and  State; 
rdent  supporter  of  Moray  (who  made  him 
of  St.  Leonard's  College,  St.  Andrews,  in 
id  an  active  opponent  of  tlie  queen.  In 
lecame  tutor  to  the  young  Jiunes  VI .  and 
the  privy  seal;  his  royal  pupil  he  under- 
Eiake  "  the  greatest  scholar  in  the  land." 
le  last  period  of  his  Ufe  he  wrote  his  two 
works,  the  De  jure  regni  apud  Scoto9 
fh,   1570;    Eng,  transit,  1680),  a  defense 

monarchy,  svippr^aed  by  act  of  pariia- 
15^  and  again  in   1664  and  burned  at 

1683;  and  the  Rerum  Scot  tear  urn  hisioria 
mi  ed.,  1762;  Eng.  tnin^L,  1690).  His 
ve  been  edited  by  Huddiraan  (2  vols., 
b,  1715;    reprinted  by  Burman,  Ley  den, 

Wt:  Tlie  Leyden  ed.  of  the  W^wkm  roBtiun«  a 
ioKFftphy.  The  Lift,  by  Dfl^id  Irving.  Etiin- 
il7*  u  an  excelkoi  literftry  history  of  th«  tiTnes. 
Uio:  P.  H.  Browu^  Oeorut  Buchanan^  Humani»t 
rwm'^  EdintnirRb,  ISiJO;  i»brn,  Gtorti«  Buchanan 
'tUtct,  ih,  1906;  D,  MaemiUan,  Georffe  Buchanan, 
fktf,  Lundofi,  1^6;  D.  A.  Millftr,  Gtorffe  Bu- 
i  Memoriai,  tSQ6-t90e,  Loudon,  1907;  DNB, 
103. 

lNITES:  The  followers  of  Elspat  (or 
Bimpson,    wife    of    Robert     Buchan,    a 

R  potter  at  Greenock*  Scotland.  She 
Fatmacken,  between  Banff  and  Port- 
;  was  brouglit  up  in  the  Scottish  E|>isco- 
h;  while  a  servant  at  Greenock  she  mar* 
followed  her  husband  into  the  Burgher 
I  Church.  In  17S1  she  separated  from 
removed  with  her  children  to  fllasijow. 
he  joined  the  Dowhill  llelief  clnirrh  at 
liose  pastor  was  the  Rev.  Hugh  White. 
IL— 19 


She  had  already  adopted  fantastic  views  as  to 
religion  and  claimed  to  be  a  teacher  sent  from 
heaven.  She  got  a  hearing,  her  chief  converts 
being  Mr.  White,  who  proclaimed  that  she  was  the 
woman  spoken  of  in  Rev.  xii.  1  sqq.  and  that  he  wag 
the  man-child  she  had  brought  forth.  The  Relief 
presbytery  deposed  Mr.  White  from  the  niinistry, 
and  when  converts  to  Mrs.  Buchan's  pretensions 
began  to  gather,  the  parish  authorities  in  May, 
1784,  compelled  the  whole  band  to  leave.  They 
settletl  on  a  farm  at  New  Cample,  near  Closeburn, 
Dumfriesshire,  and  there  the  sect  grew  to  about 
fifty  members,  some  of  whom  were  superior  per- 
sona. Mrs.  Buchan  was  called  "  spiritual  mother  " 
by  !ier  foUowc^rH,  and  professed  to  be  able  to  impart 
the  Holy  Spirit  by  breathing  on  the  candidate; 
also  to  be  a  ]>rophetess,  and  as  such  foretold  that 
neither  she  nor  her  followers  would  ever  die  but 
woidd  meet  the  Lortl  in  the  air  in  the  advent  which 
whe  taught  was  at  hand,  basing  her  teaching  on 
I  Thess.  iv.  17.  The  usual  charge  of  sexual  im- 
morality was  1  wrought  against  the  sect,  tlie  most 
distinguished  witness  being  the  poet  Robert  Bums, 
who  is  said  to  have  had  a  lady-love  in  the  sect 
(see  his  letter  to  John  Bume^*?«,  dated  August,  1 784). 
His  song  '*  As  I  was  a  walking  "  was  set  to  an  air 
which  wa.s  a  favorite  with  the  Buchanites.  In 
May,  1791,  Mrs.  Buchan  died,  Thb*,  being  in 
direct  contrarliction  to  her  teaching,  had  a  dis- 
astrou."*  effect  on  her  sect  which  then  liegan  to 
disintegrate,  but  the  last  adherent  of  it  did  not 
pass  away  till  1848. 

BtiiLiocRApnT:  Joseph  Train.  The  BttchaniU^  from  Fir»l  §6 
Lnmt,  Edinburgh,  1840;  Eight  f^HUrr*  between  the  People 
catteri  Bttchanites  and  a  Teachrr  {J.  Purvtn):  Three  of 
which  ar€  writtett  by  \1t.  White,  and  one  by  Mrt,  Buchan^ 
together  with  tuky  letter*  from  Mr*.  Bttchtm  and  one  from 
Mr.  Whiit  to  a  Clerfft/man  in  England,  ib.  1785. 

BUCHELj  AlTlf  A  VON*     See  Ronsdorf  Sect. 

B0CHWALD,  bQH'vald,  GEORG  APOLLO :  Ger- 
man Protestant;  b.  at  Gro.s.s4jnhain  (19  m.  n.n.w, 
of  Dresden)  July  16,  1859.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Leipsic  (Ph.D.,  1882),  and  waa 
siiccesKi%x4y  a  teacher  in  the  R^til-school  of  Mitt- 
weida  (1882-^83)  and  the  royal  gymnaatimi  of 
Zwickau  (1883-85).  after  which  he  was  diaconus 
at  Zwickau  (18Sj-92)  and  Leipaic  (1892-96), 
Since  1S96  he  has  been  pastor  of  tlie  Michaeliskirche, 
Leip«ic.  In  addition  to  numerous  minor  contri- 
butions to  theological  periodicals  and  to  collab- 
orating on  the  Weimar  and  Eriangen  editions  of 
the  works  of  Luther,  he  has  written  Lttilitr  und 
die  Juden  (Leipnic,  1881);  Nachkhng  der  EpiMolm 
obxcurorum  mrorum  (Dresden,  1882);  Logonbegriff 
des  Johannes  Srotus  EH{fena  (Leipsic,  1884);  Luiheri 
Scholfi  in  iihrum  Judicum  (1884);  UngedruekU 
Fredigten.  D.  Martin  Luth^s  lf**^0  auj  der  Coburg 
gehatten  (Zwickau.  1884);  Seeks  Predigten  Johannest 
Bugenhagcns  (Halle,  1885);  Andreas  Poachs  hand- 
ichrijtliche  Samndung  ungcdruckter  Fredigten  D, 
MaTiin  Lidhers  am  den  Jahren  I^^S-^fJ  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1884-85);  AUerlei  mm  drei  Jahrhunderten 
(Zwickau,  1887);  Eine  michjii^sche  Pitgerfahrt  nach 
Paidfdifm  vor  v£<t  hitmhrt  Jahren  (Barmen,  1889); 
ICif  ungedruckte  Predigtrn  Ltd  hers  geiialten  in  der 
TrinUaiisieit,  US'J  (Werdau,  1888);    L\dher9  UizU 


■& 


Buck 
Buddeiui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


890 


S^eilschrift  (Leipaic,  18&3)-  Zur  Witisnberger 
Stadt-  U7id  UnivermMisgefickkhie  in  der  Reformaiiom' 
«etfr  (1893);  EntsUhung  der  KQUchi.smert  Luthers 
und  dU  Grundiage  de^  gTos^^rn  Kt^cchi^mutt  (lSft4); 
WUtenberger  Ordinierten'Buch  (2  voIh,,  1894);  Se^ 
lige  FUgerschafi  (1^6;  extracts  from  the  writings 
of  Luther);  PhiUpp  Melaiu^hihm  (1897);  LuIAct-* 
^oM€r  K<Uechismu9  (1S97);  Paul  Eber  (IB97); 
Gc9chi€h£e  der  evangdiscHsn  Gem^nde  su  KH^ingen 
(1898):  Luthtr$  dcutHche  Brwft  ausgmjodhlt  und 
erlduiert  (1899);  Rcforn^MonsgescMchU  der  Stadl 
LeipHg  (1900);  Konrad  Sturtzd  twi  Bmhheim 
(1900);  Die.  evangelische  Kirche  im  Jahrhundert 
der  Reformation  (1900);  />r,  Martin  Iniher  (1901); 
So  sprichl  Dr.  Martin  Luther  (BerUn.  1903;  selec- 
tions from  the  writ  logs  of  Luther);  DetUM^hlatids 
Kirch^nge^ehichtt  jur  das  evangtlUsdte  Hau9  (Biele- 
feld, 1904);  Lulherh»diuch  (Hamburg,  1905); 
and  Ungedruckte  Pr6digi€7i  am  den  Jahren  15^17- 
1540  (Leipsic,    1905). 

BUCK,  CHARLES:  English  Independent;  b. 
at  Hillsley  (15  m.  n.e.  of  Bristol),  Gloucestershire, 
1771;  d.  in  London  Aug.  II.  1815.  He  held  pas- 
torates  at  Sheemess  and  London.  He  is  mentioned 
for  his  Theological  Didionaryt  containing  defmiiiomi 
&}  nil  religious  term^ ;  a  eomprehewdve  view  of 
every  article  in  the  sjfBtem  of  divinitif;  an  impartuU 
acemtnt  of  all  the  principal  dert&minaii&n»  which 
ham  submsted  in  the  religious  u^d  from  the  birth 
&f  Christ  to  the  present  day  ;  together  wiih  an  oceurate 
et/e^ment  of  the  nuMi  remarkable  transact  tone  and 
eisents  recorded  in  ecdesiastical  history  (2  vols., 
London,  1802;  many  subsequent  editions  and 
neprinls).  He  also  published  Anecdotes ^  R^igiouSt 
Moral,  and  Entertaining  (1799),  which  proved  a 
highly  popular  work, 

BthUOGUAraY:  Buck'i  MemMr§  und  Remain*  were  edited 
by  J.  StylM,  London.  1817. 

BUCKLAlfD,  AUGUSTUS  ROBERT:  Secretary 
of  the  IteHgious  Ti-Rct  ^ciety;  b.  at  Newport 
(20  ID.  n.w.  of  Bristol),  Monmouthshire,  Apr*  18, 
1857,  He  waa  educated  at  Pembri>ke  C<illege, 
Oxford  (B.A,,  1881),  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  of  the  Church  of  England  in  1881.  He 
waa  curate  of  Spitol fields*,  London,  in  1 880^-84.  in 
1887  he  became  editor  of  the  Record  anil  ha.-*  since 
engaged  largely  in  journalist jc  work.  He  lias  alHO 
been  monxing  preacher  in  the  Foundlhig  Hospital, 
1,00 don,  since  1890,  and  was  chosen  secretary  of 
the  Religious  Tract  Society  in  19(i2.  He  has 
written:  tStrayed  E(mt  (London,  1889);  Tlxe  Patience 
of  Two  (1894);  The  Heroic  in  MiBskms  (1894); 
John  Harden f  Missionary  Bishop  (1S94);  Women 
in  the  Misition  Field  (1895);  The  Confessional  in 
the  English  Church  (1900);  and  The  Missionary 
Speaker's  Manual  (1901;  in  coUabo ration  with 
J.  D.  Mullins).  In  addition,  he  htm  edited  many 
works  for  th©  Rehgious  Tract  Society ^  notably  its 
Dei'otional  Commerttary. 

BUCKLEY,  JAMES  MOITROE :  SlethodUt  Epis- 
oopalian;  b,  at  Rah  way,  N,  J.,  Dec  16,  1836.  He 
was  educated  at  Wesley  an  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  but  did  not  graduate,  and  be  also  studied 
theology  at  Exeter,  N,  H,  He  held  various  pas- 
torates   in    New    Hampshii«    (1859-63),    Central 


Church,  Detroit  {186S-66),  Brookljm,  N.  Y-  (1866- 
1869, 1872-75,  and  1878r-80).  and  Btamfowl,  Comi, 
(1869-72  and  1875-78).  Since  1880  he  has  b«ea 
editor  of  the  New  York  Chri^ian  Advocate.  Hii 
general  theological  position  is  that  of  hia  dcnom* 
ination,  although  he  reserves  all  rightm  to  mdividiul 
judgment  concerning  non-easenUala.  He  has  wrii- 
ten:  Appeals  to  Men  of  Sense  and  BefUdion  to  begiik 
a  Christian  Life  (New  York,  1869);  Christians  and 
the  Theatre  (1875);  Supposed  Miracles  (Boatoa. 
1875);  Oats  or  Wild  Oats  f  (New  York,  1885);  Th 
Midnight  Sun,  the  Cmr  and  the  Nihilist  (Boston, 
1887);  Faith  Healing,  Christian  Science ^  and  Kin- 
dred Phenomena  (New  York,  1892);  Tromk  m 
Three  Continents  (1895);  Hisiory  of  Methodism  in 
the  United  States  (1897);  Extemporaneous  Oratory 
for  Professional  and  Amateur  Speakers  (1^); 
and  The  Fundamenials  of  Religi&n  and  thev  Ctnt- 
lT(wf#  (1906). 

BUCEMDf  STER,  JOSEPH  STEVBHS :  New  In- 
land clergyman;'  b.  at  Portsmouth,  N,  H.,  May  2^ 
1784;  d.  in  Boston  June  9,  1812*  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  1800;  studied  theology  whik 
teacher  at  (Phillips)  Exeter  Academy  and  private 
tutor  at  Waltham;  was  called  to  the  Brattle  Street 
Church,  Boston,  1804;  appoioted  lecturer  on 
Biblical  criticism  at  Harvard,  181 L  In  theology 
he  was  liberal,  a  forerunner  of  the  Unitarian  move* 
ment;  he  belonged  to  the  "  Anthology  O^," 
was  a  frequent  eontributor  to  the  MonUdy  An- 
thology, and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  literary 
reputation  of  Boston.  He  superintended  th* 
publication  of  the  American  edition  of  Griesbacb^t 
Greek  Testament  (1808);  two  volumes  of  sennoiu. 
with  memoir  by  Rev,  S.  C.  Tlxscher,  were  published 
after  hia  death  (Boston,  1814;  1829),  and  hia  Worh 
appeared  in  two  volumes  in  1839. 

BhilioqrAlPHt:  His  Memtfir  (togetber  irith  tlmt  ef  tui 
fftther,  Itev.  Joseph  Huckmmitor  of  FortKitioath,  N,  E.; 
b^  L75U  d.  1S12)  wfta  pubUibed  by  his  mMtmr,  ULn  B, 
Lee,  Booton,  1S5I. 

BUDDE,  bad'de,  KARL  FERDIHAWD  REU- 
HARD:  German  Protestant;  b,  at  Beasbeig 
(9  m.  e.  of  Cologne)  Apr.  13,  1850,  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  universiti^  of  Bonn,  Beriin,  and 
Utrecht  from  1868  to  1873,  although  hia  studies 
were  interrupted  in  1 870-7 1^  when  he  served  ifl 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  He  became  pri^-at- 
docent  for  the  Old  Testament  at  Bonn  in  1S73, 
and  was  also  teacher  at  the  Sehulbring'sche  hoheie 
Tachterachuie  in  1873-89  and  inspector  of  the 
theological  seminary  of  the  university  in  l87S-8i 
In  1879  he  was  appointed  aaaociate  professor  dt 
Old  Testament  theology  at  tb©  same  university, 
and  ten  years  later  was  called  to  Strasburg  in  i 
like  eapaeity,  being  promoted  to  a  full  profeawc* 
ship  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months.  Since  1900 
he  has  been  professor  of  Old  Testament  tbeolo^ 
at  Marburg.  He  has  written;  Beiirdge  rur  Krit^ 
des  Buches  Hu^  (Bonn,  1876)-  Die  hiblisehe  tV 
sehichte  untermchi  (Gicssen,  1883);  Die  Bucher  dff 
Hichter  und  Samuel,  ihr  Aufbau  und  ihre  Qviliffi 
(1890);  The  Books  of  Samuel,  Critical  EdUim  -j/ 
the  fhbrew  Text  (in  the  Fo^^/ehrome  Bible,  Leipsi^i 
ISUI);  Das  Buch  Hiob  (in  the  Handeommenisr 
mim  Alten  Testament y  G^ttingjen^  1896);    Das  Bui 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Buck 
Bttddeu9 


Wdrr  Ricktrr  (in  the  Kutter  HanHcomnirntnr  zum 
\AUtn    Tt*tametU,    Freiburg,    1H97);     ilohdlvd    utul 

Ctagdie4ier  (in  the  same  series »  1898);  The  firliginfi 
Isrtiel  to  the  Ertk  (The  American   Lecturi's  on 

the  History  of  Religiotis  for  1898-lHK  New  York. 
11899);    Die  sogenanMen  J ahx>el\efler  uryi  die  Bedrut- 

\ing  rf*r/r  KnechU^  Jdhvcn  xn  Jemija  4^^-55,  nn 
fM  inonMi^*otwn  (G lessen,  1900);  Der  Katmn  iUkh 
\AUen  TeJttamenls  (1900);  Die  Biicher  Samud  {m 
iKiirzer     ilandcommentar     zum     Alirn     Testament, 

F'reiburg,    1902);     Dm    Altt    TeMament    und    die 

iuMgrabungen  (G lessen,   1903);    Die  Schatzung  des 

XdnigtutnA  tm   AUtn  Ttntoment  (Marburg.    lfM}3); 

7 as  »oU  die  GemHnde  aus  dem  Strett  um  Babel  und 
\Bibfl  lenient    (Tabingen.    1903);    and   HcbMisrhe 

ZitUraturgenchichte  (I^ipsie,  19(>G).  He  also  truns- 
llatefl  A.  Kuenen's  Xational  Religiims  and  Universal 

~  eligions  (Hibbert  Lectures  for  18S2*  L^mtUni. 
|1S82)  under  the  title  Volk«religinn  und  Wdlrehgion 

(Beiiin,  1883),  and  a  number  of  the  same  echolar'a 

monographs  as  Gesammelte  Jibhandlungen  zur  bihli- 

^Mchen  frtVt«eftJrrAa/f  (Freiburg p  1894).  He  has  likewise 

lited  the  eighth  and  ninth  editions  of  ,L  Unllen- 

ll>erg'8  Hebraisches  Schtdbuch  CBerUn,   1895,  1900) 

|aji(l  Eduard  Reus»'  Briefwechset  mii  fteinem  Sch tiler 

Freunde  Karl  Heinrich  Graf  (in  coll aboi"at ion 

ith  H,  J.  Holtzinann.  Giessen,  1904). 

BUDBENSTEG,  bQd"den-st^^,  OSKAR  GOTTLIEB 
RUDOLF:     fierman    Lutheran;     b.    at    (ireussen 
<23  m,  n,w.  of  Weimar)   Sept.  5,  1844.     He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Berlin 
(18^4-67;  Ph.D.,  Berlin.  1871),  and  studiwl  in  Lon^ 
don  in  1867-73.     Re  turning  to  his  native  country, 
he  was  a  teacher  successively  at  the  Aadreanum  in 
Hildeshetm  (1S73-74)  and  at  the  Vitzthimi  g,ym- 
naaium  in  Dresden  (1874-87),  declining  a  call  to  a 
profeAorship  in  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1886. 
Prom  1887  to  1894  he  was  director  of  a  nonnal 
■chool  for  young  men  in  Dresden,  and  since  the 
^Blatter  year  has  occupied  a  similar  position  in  a 
^■normal  school  for  young  women  in  the  Siime  city. 
In  1883  he  founded  the  Wyclif  Society   in  Lon- 
don.    He  has  written:   Die  a^nyrtschen  Ausgrabun- 
gen    und   dan    AUe    Text^tment    (Heilbronn,    J8S0); 
Johann  Widifs  lateini^che  Streitschriftcn  mm  ersten 
^^Mole  aus  den  Handichriften  keraiMgegcben  (2  vols., 
BLetpsic,  1883;    Eng.  ed.,  under  the  title  JoAn  TFic- 
mat*  PoUmicnl    Worka,  2  vols.,  London.  l884-8i>): 
Ujchann  Widif  und  aeine  Zeii  (Halle.  1S84);    John 
Wicli/,  Patriot  and  Reformer  (London,  1884);    and 
Johann  Widifs  De  vcritate  8atr(F  scripturm  (3  vols., 
Lt^ipsic^  1904;    Eng.  ed.,  3  vols..  London,  1905^)7). 

BTJDDEtrS,  bfld'd^Ms,  JOHANNES  FRANCIS- 
CUS  (Johann  Franz  Budde):  German  theologian 
and  philosopher;  b.  at  Anclara  (47  m,  n,w*  of 
8tettin),  Pomerania,  where  his  father  was  pastor, 
June  25,  1667;  d.  at  Gotha  Nov.  19,  1729.  He 
early  received  a  thorough  education  in  classical 
aood  Oriental  languages,  and  had  reatl  the  Bible 
through  in  the  original  before  he  went  to  the  ITni- 
venity  of  Wittenberg  in  1685.  He  was  appointed 
adjunct  profeasor  of  philosophy  there  booh  after 
taking  his  master's  degree  in  1687,  and  in  1(>89 
exchanged  this  for  a  similar  p>osiition  at  Jena,  where 
i  paid  muck  attention  to  the  study  of  history. 


In  1692  he  went  to  Coburg  ni  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin,  and  the  next  year  to  the  new  LTniversity 
of  Halle  an  professor  of  moral  philosophy.  Here 
he  remained  uritil  1705»  when  he  went  to  Jena  as 
second  professor  of  theology.  His  lectures  era- 
braced  all  branches  of  this  science,  and  frequently 
touched  on  philosophy,  history,  and  politics.  Re- 
spected by  all  as  a  man  and  a  CliriBtian ,  he  remained 
at  Jena  for  the  reat  of  his  life,  several  times  acting 
as  rector  of  the  university  temporarily  and  being 
head  of  his  department  and  an  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cilor from  1715.  He  was  considered  the  most 
univeraally  accomplished  Germmi  theologian  of 
his  time*  In  philosophy  he  professctl  an  eclec- 
ticism which  reste^J  on  a  broad  historical  foundation; 
but  he  recognized  in  Descartes  the  originator  of  a 
new  period,  and  in  attacking  the  '"  atheist  "  Spi- 
noza followed  especially  the  upholders  of  the  law 
of  nature,  such  as  Hugo  Grot i us,  Puffendorf,  and 
Thomasius.  His  theological  jx)sition  was  deter- 
mined  by  the  tradition  of  Musaeus  at  Jena,  partly 
through  his  close  relations  with  Baier;  but  on 
another  side  he  wiis  inclined  toward  Pietism. 
His  association  with  Spangenberg,  Spenur.  and 
^inzendorf  brought  him  under  suspicion  and  uetuully 
gave  rise  to  a  formal  inveatigation  of  hi^  doctrine. 
In  certain  ways,  too,  he  wa^  influenced  by  the 
federalist  theology,  but  without  allowing  it  to 
lead  him  beyond  the  bounds  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy. 
In  all  departments  he  showed  himself  a  man  of 
sound  learning  and  scholarly  instincts.  His  work 
was  epoch-making  in  church  history,  e^^pecially 
that  dealing  with  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
apostolic  age.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  life  of 
Buddeus  belongs  to  the  transition  period  which 
follows  that  of  simple  ortho^loxy;  the  influence 
of  a  new  age  and  new  leading  interests  appears 
in  him,  and  at  timoa  he  seems  to  be  conscious  of 
the  change.  Yet  in  bis  Biblical  criticism  he  did  not 
get  so  far  as  to  make  the  slightest  concession; 
not  a  verse  of  a  canonical  book  can  be  touched 
without  injuring  the  {perfection  of  the  whole.  As 
an  academic  teacher  he  attained  great  success,  and 
he  Tiatl  the  gift  of  a  striking  and  pregnant  style, 
especially  in  Latin.  His  works,  great  and  small, 
number  over  a  hundred.  Of  those  published  in 
the  Halle  period  may  be  mentioned  Elementtt 
philoitophitF  prarticfB  (1697)  and  ElenieiUa  phi- 
haophia'  edecHecE  (1703).  To  the  second  Jena 
period  belong  among  others  the  Institutiones  tfiea- 
lo^(F  moratis  (1711;  Gennan  trani^L.  1719).  a  work 
strictly  in  accordance  with  his  pliilosopliical  etliics; 
the  Hist4}Tia  e^Tlesinsii&iveterU  iestammti  (1715^18); 
Theses  ihcoiogieo'  de  alheumo  ei  suj>ersti4ione  (1716), 
which,  directed  especially  against  Spinoza,  attracted 
much  attention;  hintiiidione^s  theolm^a;  dogmaticcp 
(1723),  a  work  once  very  influential,  obviously 
founded  on  Baler's  Compendimn;  HistoriMhe  und 
iheologisehe  Einiettung  in  die  vorm'hmnim  Rdiqimm- 
atrtitigkeiten  (1724,  1728),  edited  by  Walch;  hagoge 
hisiorico-theologiea  ad  throhgiatn  universam  (1727), 
dealing  with  the  problems,  methods,  and  history  of 
theology  in  a  way  remarkable  for  that  time;  and 
Eeclemn  apofitotita  (1729),  intended  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  ^iudy  of  the  New  Testament. 

(Johannes  KtrNzeJ 


I 


Buddhicm 


THE  ^EW  9CHAFF-HERZOG 


803 


BiBUOOKArar:  Rudfleiiii  himMlf  i«!nied  a  Sotitia  diMerta- 
Hunum  .  .  .  Mcrii^Ufrutiuiwe  a  J.  F.  buddeo  .  .  .  edito- 
rum,  Jena.  1728  ^a  lUt  of  hifl  writingji;;  and  the  Ehrtn- 
gedArhtnit  dea  .  .  .  J.  F.  BuddeitM,  ib.  1731.  aim  con- 
tains a  catalogue  of  his  productions.  Ck>n»ult:  W. 
Bchrader,  (JeMchiehU  der  FriedriehsunireniUit  zu  Halle,  i. 
CO.  Il«rrlin.  1894;  W.  Ga^*!!.  Geachithte  der  proUMtantiMchen 
Doomaiik.  iii.  30.  149  nqq..  214  sqq..  Berlin.  1862;  G. 
Frank.  Oeaehichte  der  proteataniUrJien  Theolooie,  ii.  148. 
214  wiq..  Leipfic,  1805;  C.  K.  Luthardt.  Geachichie  der 
ehrisaichen  Ethik,  ii.  203  m\<\.,  ib.  1893. 

BUDDHISIL 
Life  of  Buddha  ff  1).  Buddhist  Monks  (f  5). 

Legendary  Additions  Development  after  Buddha's 

(i  2).  Death  (f  A). 

Buddha's  Teaching  (§3).  Buddhi^t  Rects  rf  7). 

Nirvana  (§4).  The  Dhyani  Huddhas  (f  8). 

Hiiddhism' and  Chrii<tianity   (f  9). 

Buddhism  is  the  religion  establishwi  in  India  by 
Buddha  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  havdng,  ac- 
cording to  a  conservative  estimate,  upward  of 
100,00(),0CX)  adherents  at  the  pre.sent  time,  chiefly 
in  Ceylon,  Nepal,  Tibet,  Farther  India,  China,  and 
Japan.  While  frequently  regarded  as  a  new  relig- 
ion, it  is,  strictly  speaking,  only  a  reformation  of 
Brahmanism,  and  can  not  be  understood  without 
Bome  knowle<lge  of  the  conditions  preceding  it. 
The  religious  system  of  India  as  outlined  in  its 
oldest  religious  books,  the  Vedas,  had  reached  in 
the  Brahmanas  and  Sutras  a  degree  of  ritualism 
such  as,  perhaps,  nev<T  existed  elsewhere  (see 
Brahmanihm).  This  formalism  pro<luced  a  revolt, 
and  from  time  to  time  arose  various  teachers, 
philosophers,  and  reformers,  of  whom  the  most  in- 
fluential was  Siddhartha,  also  known  as  Sakya, 
Sakyamuni,  Gautama,  and,  most  frequently,  as 
Buddha. 

Buddha,  the  son  of  Suddhodana,  king  of  Kapi- 
lavastu,  a  city  in  the  district  of  Oorakhpur,  Oudh, 
was  bom  in  .557  B.C.  in  the  grove  of  Lumbini,  two 
miles  from  the  capital.  He  was,  therefore,  like 
Mahavira.the  founder  of  the  rival  syst^im  of  Jainism 
(q.v.),  a  member  of  the  Kshatriya  or  warrior  caste. 
The  details  of  the  life  of  the  Buddha,  or  **  The 
Enlightened  One,"  so  far  as  they  may  be  verified 
historically,  are  comparatively  few.  He  lost  his 
mother,  whom  the  later  texts  name  Maya,  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  he  married  while  still  young,  accord- 
ing to  Hindu  custom,  and  had  a  son  called  Rahula. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-nine  (528  B.C.),  he  renounced 
his  succt^ssion  to  the  throne  and  became  a  hermit. 
Herein  there  is  nothing  extraordinary,  for  Brah- 
manism divided  life  into  the  four  stagi^s  of  student, 
householder,  hennit,  and  ascetic.  Two  of  these 
tin?  prince  had  already  performed;  two  more  yet 
remained  for  him,  and  he  went  forth 

I.  Life  of    to   win   knowledge  of  the   truth   by 

Buddha,  penance  and  meditation.  From  the 
first  he  gained  nothing,  nor  could  liis 
teachers  help  him,  while  his  five  companions  aban- 
doned him  as  unfitted  to  receive  a  knowledge  of 
the  truth.  In  his  wanderings  he  came  to  Uruvela, 
the  modem  Buddha  Gaya  in  Bengal.  There,  in 
521  B.C.,  after  seven  years  of  struggle,  he  received 
illumination  while  sitting  in  meditation  beneath 
the  sacred  bo-tree  (Ficun  reJigiosa  or  pipul-tree). 
Thus  the  Bodhisattva,  or  potential  Buddha,  be- 
came a  true  Buddha  or  Tathagata,  "  the  Perfected 
One."     He  now  entered  upon  the  fourth  and  the 


last  stage  of  life,  and  became  a  wandering  ascetic  and 
teacher.  His  earliest  followers  were  the  five  monks 
who  had  turned  from  him  before,  and  as  other  con- 
verts were  made  they  were  sent  as  apostles  of  the 
doctrine.  Favor  was  his  in  high  places  also,  for 
Bimbisara,  king  of  Magadha,  became  an  adherent 
of  the  faith.  Over  all  ranks  and  classes  Buddb 
exercised  a  powerful  influence,  due,  it  is  very  pos- 
sible, rather  to  Ids  personal  charm  of  manner  than 
to  any  essential  novelty  of  the  doctrine  which  he 
taught.  It  was  undoubtedly  in  great  pari  the 
result  of  his  disregard  of  the  fundamental  Hindu 
principle  of  caste  that  he  won  for  himself  so  Urge 
a  following.  Peaceably  and  calmly  the  life  of 
Buddha  passed,  with  little  opposition,  save  from 
his  cousin  Devadatta,  who  attempted,  from  motives 
of  personal  ambition,  to  rouse  hostility  against 
his  kinsman.  At  the  age  of  eighty  the  Buddb 
felt  that  his  end  was  drawing  near,  and  for  the  first 
time  in  his  life  severe  illness  befell  him.  At  the 
village  of  Kusinara,  about  thirty  miles  west  of 
Kathmandu;  the  capital  of  Nepal,  the  master 
passed  away  (477  b.c). 

About  the  life  here  outlined  the  mythopdc  tend- 
encies of  the  Oriental  mind  wove  a  web  oflegeni 
In  course  of  time  Buddha  no  longer  stands  alone. 
lie  is  the  successor  of  twenty-seven  Buddhas  and 
himself  received  recognition  from  twenty-four  of 
them,  passing  through  a  hundred  thousand  world 
cycles  and  countless  reincarnations  before  he 
reached  the  perfection  which  was  requisite  for  his 
high  mission.  When  in  him  all  perfection  and  all 
knowledge  was  united,  the  gods  besought  him  to 
be  bom  on  earth,  and  in  answer  to 
2.  Legend-  their  prayer  he  entered  the  womb  of 
ary  Maya  in  the  form  of  a  white  elephant. 
Additions,  while  thirty-two  signs  of  wonder  ap- 
peared and  the  ten  thousand  worlds 
trembled  at  the  coming  of  the  savior  of  the  world. 
At  the  end  of  ten  months,  the  Buddha  was  bom 
beneath  a  sal-tree  in  the  grove  of  Lumbini,  while 
gods  and  men  did  homage  unto  him.  On  the 
fifth  day  of  his  life  the  Bralunan  Kondanoa 
pro))hesied  to  Suddhodana  the  king  that  the 
child  was  destined  to  become  a  Buddha  when  be 
should  see  four  signs  of  evil  omen,  an  old  man.  ft 
sick  man.  a  corpse,  and  a  monk.  By  every  mean* 
within  his  jwwer  the  father  sought  to  keep  his 
son  from  seeing  these  sights,  surroimding  him 
with  every  luxury,  and  marrying  him  in  his  six- 
teenth year  to  his  cousin  Yasodhara,  the  daughter 
of  Suprabuddha.  It  was  all  in  vain,  however,  for 
Siddhartha  beheld  the  four  signs,  realised  the 
misery  of  life,  and  abandoned  the  palace.  On  the 
expiration  of  liis  seven  years  of  wandering,  he 
realized  that  he  was  at  last  to  gain  Buddhabood, 
and  amid  many  marvels  he  sat  down  beneath  the 
bo-tree  facing  the  East.  Fruitlessly  did  Mara, 
the  leader  of  the  host  of  evil,  endeavor  to  terrify 
the  Bodhisattva.  The  blandishments  of  his  dau^ 
ters,  Desire,  Pining,  and  Lust,  and  his  more  subtle 
temptation  that  the  Buddha  should  at  once  enter 
Nirvana  without  proclaiming  his  saving  knowl- 
edge to  mankind,  failed  ignominiously.  From 
the  time  of  his  illumination  until  his  death  fc^ 
myths  gather  about  the  Buddha,  but  when  he  was 


808 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


^9llOjQ2LXflO& 


about  to  die  there  were  marvels,  and  the  course  of 
nature  was  again  disturbed,  until  the  Tathagata 
passed  to  Nirvana. 

The  key-note  of  Buddhism  is  the  transitoriness 
and  vanity  of  life,  which  is  conditioned  by  karma, 
the  fruit  of  deeds  done  in  countless  previous  lives; 
nor  can  existence  be  ended  before  the  expiration  of 
many  reincarnations  devoted  to  works  of  holiness  and 
spent  in  unceasing  efforts  to  gain  Nirvana.  Three 
elements   common   to   all  post-Vedic 

3.  Buddha's  Hindu  thought  are  at  once  discernible 
Teaching,     in  this  teaching;  viz.,  transmigration, 

karma,  and  the  dissolution  of  individ- 
uality. In  its  shortest  form  Buddha's  teaching 
may  be  summarized  as  follows:  Birth  is  sorrow, 
age  is  sorrow,  sickness  is  sorrow,  death  is  sorrow, 
clinging  to  earthly  things  is  sorrow.  Birth  and 
rebirth,  the  chain  of  reincarnation,  result  from 
the  thirst  for  life  together  with  passion  and  desire. 
The  only  escape  from  this  thirst  is  to  follow  the 
Eightfold  Path:  Right  belief,  right  resolve,  right 
word,  right  act,  right  life,  right  effort,  right  think- 
ing, right  meditation. 

The  goal  of  Buddhism  is  Nirvana.    A  definition 

of  this  term  is  almost  impossible  for  the  simple 

reason  that  Buddha  himself  gave  no  clear  idea, 

and  in  all  probability  possessed  none,  of  this  state. 

He  was  indeed  asked  by  more  than 

4.  Nirvana,    one  of  his  disciples  whether  Nirvana 

was  postmundane  or  postcelestial  ex- 
istence, or  whether  it  was  annihilation.  To  all 
these  questions,  however,  he  refused  an  answer, 
for  it  was  characteristic  of  his  teachings  that  they 
were  practically  confined  to  the  present  life,  and 
concerned  themselves  but  little  either  with  prob- 
lems of  merely  academic  philosophy  or  with  the 
unknowable.  Some  measure  of  light,  however, 
may  be  gained  from  the  orthodox  systems  of  Indian 
philosophy  which  are  based  upon  the  doctrine  of 
the  divine  inspiration  of  the  Veda.  According  to 
all  of  these,  the  aummum  bonum  is  release  from 
karma  and  reincarnation,  a  goal  which  is  to  be 
attained  by  knowledge,  and  which  consists  in 
absorption  into  or  reimion  with  the  Over-Soul. 
This  involves  the  annihilation  of  individuality,  and 
in  this  sense  Nirvana  is  nihilism,  so  that  with  the 
tacit  ignoring  of  any  real  conception  of  the  divine 
in  the  teachings  of  Buddha,  Nirvana  seems  to  imply 
the  annihilation  of  the  soul  rather  than  its  absorp- 
tion. It  is  noteworthy,  furthermore,  that  the  word 
Nirvana  etymologically  denotes  ''  a  blowing  out." 
the  extinguishing  of  the  fires  of  hatred,  infatuation, 
and  all  passions.  Nirvana  seems  to  have  been 
twofold,  a  secondary  condition  which  may  be 
reached  by  the  righteous  in  this  life,  and  the  blessed 
state  of  freedom  from  rebirth. 

Surpassing  the  teachers  who  had  preceded  him, 
Buddha  denied  both  the  authority  of  the  Vedas, 
whose  recognition,  however  formal,  constitutes 
orthodoxy  in  India,  and  the  power  of  sacrifice, 
while  he  practically  ignored  the  existence  of  the 
divine.  He  rejected  the  entire  system  of  caste, 
thus  imconsciously  preparing  his  doctrines  to  be 
potentially  a  world-religion  instead  of  an  etlmic 
faith.  In  the  later  BiKidhist  theology  an  elab- 
orate   cosmology   is    developed,    with    thirty-one 


worlds  inhabited  by  fourteen  classes  of  beings,  of 
which  the  three  highest  are  the  supreme  Buddhas, 
Pratyekabuddhas,  and  Arhats,  the  latter  being  those 
who  are  almost  ready  to  attain  Nirvana,  while  the 
Pratyekabuddha  has  attained  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary to  Nirvana  but  does  not  preach  it.  In  addition 
to  these  must  be  noted  the  Bodhisattva,  a  potential 
Buddha  who  will  attain  to  Buddhahood  in  due  time. 

Even  in  his  lifetime  Buddha  established  an 
order,  thus  forming  the  "  triple  jewel,"  Buddha, 
Dhamma  (the  law),  and  Sangha  (the  congregation). 
In  this  order  were  gathered  the  followers  of  the 
teacher,  who  were  bound  by  the  ten  vows:  neither 
to  kill  nor  to  steal,  to  abstain  from  impurity,  false- 
hood, and  intoxicating  drinks,  not  to  eat  at  for- 
bidden times,  to  abstain  from  the  folly  of  dancing, 
singing,  music,  pnd  the  theater,  to  use 
5.  Buddhist   no  manner  of  adornment,  not  to  sleep 

Monks.  in  a  high  or  a  broad  bed,  and  to  receive 
neither  gold  nor  silver.  The  monks, 
who  were  bound  to  celibacy  and  poverty,  and  were 
called,  in  old  Hindu  fashion,  bhikkus,  or  beggars, 
might  be  received  as  novices  at  the  age  of  seven  or 
eight,  although  they  could  not  be  ordained  before 
their  twentieth  year.  Twice  a  month  the  monks 
of  each  monastery  assembled  for  the  confession  of 
sins,  and  annually  in  the  rainy  season  a  retreat  was 
held  both  for  rest  from  the  pilgrimages  of  the  pre- 
ceding year  and  to  gain  new  strength  for  the  coming 
season.  Even  in  the  lifetime  of  Buddha  women 
were  admitted  to  the  order  and  nunneries  were 
built  for  their  acconunodation. 

The  history  of  Buddhism  is  a  curious  bit  of  irony; 
the  founder  who  had  ignored  the  existence  of  a  god 
himself  became  a  god.    In  Southern  India,  how- 
ever, the  religion  remained  relatively  pure,  although 
some  heretical  doctrines  crept  in  at  an  early  period 
and  a  number  of  councils  were  held  to  maintain 
the  faith  in  its  integrity.    The  first  of  these  took 
place   at   Rajagaha   in    the    year   of 
6.  Develop-  Buddha's  death,  the  second  at  Vaisali 
ment  after  about  a  century  later,   the  third,  a 
Buddha's    sectarian     meeting,     at     Pataliputra 

Death,  about  246  B.C.,  and  the  fourth  at  Jal- 
andhara  under  the  Indo-Scythian  king 
Kanishka  in  78  a.d.  The  religion  gained  royal 
approval  at  an  early  date,  its  great  kingly  adherent 
being  Asoka,  who  was  crowned  at  Pataliputra  in 
Madagha  about  259  B.C.  and  reigned  thirty-seven 
years.  Not  only  did  he  spread  the  faith  through- 
out his  dominions,  but  his  son  Mahcndra  carried 
the  new  creed  to  Ceylon.  In  the  second  century 
B.C.  the  Indo-Scythian  kings  of  Cabul  and  Bactria 
established  Buddhism  in  their  lands,  whence  it 
was  promulgated  in  Northwestern  India.  Thus 
the  faith  spread  by  degrees  over  all  the  ooimtry 
north  of  the  Vindhyas,  existing  side  by  side  with 
Brahmanism  and  Jainism  in  harmony  and  peace. 
Its  downfall  in  the  land  of  its  birth  was  due  to  two 
causes,  the  conflict  of  the  sects  which  arose  within 
itself  and  the  Mohammedan  invasion  of  India, 
but  there  was  no  persecution  by  the  other  Hindu 
sects.  In  Ceylon,  on  the  other  hand.  Buddhism 
still  exists,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
island,  and  it  is  there  that  the  purest  Buddhism 
is  found. 


BadcUiisni 
BueU 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


294 


It  wan  but  natural  that  divergent  opinions  should 
arise  within  the  faith  itself.  These  remained  com- 
paratively unimportant,  however,  until  the  schism 
into  the  Mahayana  and  Ilinayana,  or  the  **  Great 
Vehicle  "  and  "  Little  Vehicle."  The  latter  still 
adhered  strictly  in  the  main  to  the  original  tenets 
of  Buddhism,  although  it  was  subdivided  into  the 
Vaibhasliikas  and  the  Sautrantikas, 
7.  Buddhist  the  former  laying  special  stress  on  the 
Sects.  "  Abhidhanmiapitaka  "  or  metaphys- 
ical section  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
religion,  and  the  latter  on  the  "  Suttapitaka  "  or 
discourses  of  the  Buddha.  The  Mahayanists,  on 
the  contrary,  who  form  by  far  the  larger  sect,  devo- 
ted themselves  to  all  manner  of  speculation,  being 
influenced  not  only  by  Hinduism  but  at  a  later 
period  by  Shamanism  (q.v.)  as  well.  The  Mahayana 
postulates  the  existence  of  a  thousand  Buddhas 
with  a  supreme  god,  the  Adibuddha,  and  prefers 
beneficent  activity  to  the  passivity  of  the  Buddha's 
own  doctrines,  although  both  the  principal  sub- 
divisions of  this  sect,  the  Yogacaras  and  the  Mad- 
hyamikas,  are  strictly  idealistic,  and  in  so  far  are 
orthodox  Hindus. 

Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Tibet  about  the 
seventh  century  a.d.,  when  it  was  already  permeated 
by  Saivaite  and  Tan  trie  Hinduism  and  by  Mahar 
yanism,  while  under  the  influence  of  Mongolian 
Shamanism  it  departed  still  more  from  its  original 
ideal.  Here  is  evolved  the  concept  of  the  Dhyani- 
Budtlhas,  the  celestial  types  of  the 
8.  The      Buddhas  wliich  appear  on  earth  as 

Dhyani-     men  (Manushi-Buddhas).    These  Dha- 

Buddhas.  yani-Buddhas,  who  are  five  in  number, 
watch  over  the  welfare  of  the  world 
between  the  incarnations  of  the  Manushi-Buddhas, 
although  they  themselves  never  become  incarnate. 
Three  of  them  correspond  to  the  three  Buddhas 
who  preceded  Gautama  in  the  present  age  of  the 
world;  one.  Amitabha,  to  the  historical  Buddha, 
whose  earthly  reincarnation  is  the  lesser  Lama 
of  Tibet;  and  the  fifth  is  the  Dhyani- Bodhis at va 
Padmapani  or  Avalokitesvara,  who  is  represented 
on  earth  by  the  Dalai-Lama  at  Lhassa,  and  is  the 
tyi)e  of  the  Bodhisatva  Maitreya,  the  future  earthly 
Buddha  and  the  savior  of  the  world.   See  Lamaism. 

Buddhism  was  introduced  into  China  in  it.s  Maha- 
yanistic  form  by  the  emperor  Mingti  in  61  a.d., 
and  despite  persecutions,  esi)eciaUy  imder  the  Tang 
djmafity  (620-907).  it  has  survive*  1  there  until  the 
present  day,  although  overlaid  with  superstition 
and  consisting  in  great  part  in  the  worship  of  pic- 
tures and  relics.  It  has  gained,  however,  only  a 
subordinate  place  in  China,  being  unable  to  com- 
pete either  with  the  popular  Taoism  or  the  cultured 
Confucianism,  desi)ite  the  fact  that  the  three  relig- 
ions exist  peaceably  side  by  side.  From  Cldna 
Buddhism  was  carried  to  Japan,  where  numerous 
sects  have  arisen,  although  the  results  have  been 
little  more  than  a  further  tlcparture  fn)m  the 
original  faith  (see  China,  L,  3;  Japan,  L,  II.,  2). 

Some  scholars  would  like  to  derive  the  gospel 
narrative  from  Buddhism,  but  it  is  a  significant 
fact  that  an  overv^'helming  majority  of  Oriental 
scholars  have  decided  that  the  story  of  Buddha 
has    had   no   influence   on    the   canonical    life  of 


Christ.  They  reach  this  conclusion  by  a  com- 
parison of  elements  of  the  Buddha  legend  com- 
posed long  after  the  death  of  the  teacher  with 
the  Gospels.  The  Buddhist  parallels  are  drawn, 
moreover,  in  the  main,  from  the  texts  of  the 
Northern  school,  which  are  confessedly  late  and 
mythopeic  to  a  degree  which  almost  totally  ob- 
scures the   figure  of  the  historic  Buddha,  wliile 

some  of  the  so-called  cogent  Christiao 

9.  Bud-     parallels  are  based  upon  the  apocry- 

dhism   and  phal  Gospels.    Considering  the  canoD- 

Christianity.  ical  Gospels  on  the  one  hand  and  the 

texts  of  the  Southern  Buddhism  on 
the  other,  the  parallels  between  the  lives  of  Jesus 
and  Buddha  seem  to  resolve  themselves  into  those 
which  are  natural  in  the  case  of  great  religious 
teachers.  Thus  of  five  parallels  mentioned  by 
Seydel,  the  ablest  advocate  of  the  theory  of  Bui 
dhistic  influence  on  Cliristianity,  the  three  most 
important  are  the  presentation  of  the  infant  Jesus 
in  the  temple  compared  with  that  of  the  infant 
Buddha;  the  fast  of  Jesus  and  that  of  Buddha; 
and  the  preexistence  of  Jesus  and  of  Buddha  in 
heaven.  Of  these  the  presentation  of  Buddha  is 
found  neither  in  the  writings  of  the  Southern  school 
nor  in  the  ancient  text  of  the  Northern,  while  at  the 
time  of  Jesus  it  was  usual  for  a  pious  mother  to  ^ 
attend  the  temple  for  the  redemption  of  the  first- 
bom  and  her  own  ritual  purification.  The  account 
of  the  fasting  and  temptation  is  not  entirely  ha^ 
monious  in  both  accounts.  Buddha  first  over- 
comes Mara  and  then  fasts  forty-nine  days,  while 
Jesus  fasts  forty  days  and  is  then  tempted  by  the 
devil.  Not  only  is  the  accoimt  of  the  Gospels  the 
more  accurate  psychologically,  but  it  may  be  paral- 
leled with  similar  events  in  the  lives  of  Moses  and 
Elijah,  while  the  story  of  the  temptation  is  found 
not  only  in  Buddhism  and  Christianity,  but  also 
in  Zoroastrianism.  The  third  parallel  of  the  pre- 
existence of  Jesus  and  Buddha  is  equally  discrepant. 
Jesus  existed  in  heaven  from  ail  eternity  and  is 
unique  in  such  existence,  while  Buddha  merely 
shares  the  history  of  all  other  Buddhas  and  was 
reincarnated  on  earth  coimtless  times.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  spirit  of  the  two  religions 
as  of  their  founders  is  entirely  divergent.  The ' 
tragedy  and  the  majesty  of  the  Christ  is  very  differ- 
ent from  the  peacefulness  and  the  sweetness  of 
Buddha.  Jesus  sought  to  save  the  world,  not 
himself.  Buddha  began  by  saving  himself  and  then 
taught  the  world.  The  aim  of  Jesus  is  faith  and 
individual  existence  in  heaven  in  the  presence  of 
God;  the  siimmum  bonum  of  Buddha  is  knowledge 
and  the  annihilation  of  self  in  Nirvana.  In  the 
face  of  such  essential  divergencies,  the  parallels 
alleged  to  exist  between  Buddha  and  Jesus  seem 
to  be  cases  of  accidental  coincidence,  and  it  ^ 
almost  certain  that,  despite  the  travel  between 
Palestine  and  India,  which  may  have  influenced 
to  some  degree  the  apocryphal  Gospels  on  the  one 
hand  and  late  Northern  Buddhism  on  the  other, 
Christianity  and  Buddhism  developed  to  all  intents 
and  puri)oses  independently.  For  esoteric  Bud- 
dhism (so  called),  see  Theosopht. 

Hibliography:  The  literature  on  Buddhism  is  enortaoy^ 
and  it  is  possible  to  cite  here  only  a  few  out  of  the  m^'^ 


290 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bnddhiwn 
BueU 


txMska  OD  the  »ubjeot,  while  reference  m»y  be  m»cle  for 
Euore  complele  biblip^uphiea  to  tbe  worlu  of  Kern  and 
Aiken  tnetitiqned,  below. 

G«neTml  works  &od  IndJAn  fiuddhum:  K.  Kappen,  Die 
Rtiigion  dc«  Buddha,  Berlin,  1867-59;  Bftj-tbaemy  Sainl- 
Hil*Jro,  L*  Bowdfflka  et  m  Htiliffion,  ParLn.  lS60i  R.  H»rdy, 
JIfanuoi  <r/  BudyAtrm  in  it*  Afodem  DtrtUfi»ntnt,  London, 
1660;  E,  Burnouf,  Introduction  d  t'hi»knre  du  B&ud- 
dkitma  Imiitn,  Paria,  1376;  H.  Oldenbenr.  Buddha,  arin 
Lebtn,  Mcim  Lehre,  Kifw  Ovrrmnde,  Beflio.  1897,  Eng. 
transL  by  W*  Hoey,  London.  18S2;  E.  Senart,  Etwai  mr 
ia  U&^mde  du  Bouddha,  Pafis,  1882:  M.  William*,  Bud- 
<d^ifm  in  its  C&nn^ctiim  jpith  Brahmanitm  t^nd  Hindui$m 
And  ili  C<fntrmt  wOh  Chri9iianiitf,  Loudon,  ISSO;  T.  W. 
Rhys  D*vid0,  Buddhitm,  itM  HiMtai^u  ^^  Litemtwtt,  New 
York,  IB06;  idem,  BmidhUm,  London,  189©;  H.  Kem. 
GMchudlrnit  van  ket  BuddhiJtme  in  Jndii*  Haarlem,  1884; 
idem,  Manual  Qf  Indian  liuddhitm,  Str&f<burK.  1896;  E. 
Hardy,  Dw  BuddhinnuB  ma^  diteren  PaH-Werktn,  MU fi- 
tter, 1890;  idem,  Buddha.  LeipBtc,  1&03:  R  CktpleAton, 
Buddkim,  Primitive  and  Preweni^  in  Magadha  and  Crj/- 
ion,  London,  1802;  K.  Neumann,  BnddhUtisfrJui  Aniho- 
hffUt  Berlin,  1892;  idem,  Die  Heden  dim  Gatama  Buddhat, 
LeipHie,  1897;  idem.  Theraoatha  und  Theryfatha,  Berlin. 
ISWi  H.  Warren,  Buddhi§m  in  Translation,  Cambridge. 
Ua«a..  1895:  J^  Dablmann.  Buddha,  Berlin,  1898;  and  for 
vpenal  topics  cooeult,  among  other  works:  S.  Hardy , 
Eaxtfm  Manojchitm^  LoDdon,  I860;  A^  Bojitimn.  D&  Bud- 
dkitmi^  in  irincr  P»^htA&Qit,  Berlin^,  1882;  idem,  Der 
Buddhitmua  afj  reI%Qian4-phiIo9Qphisdi€s  BMsiem.  ib. 
1S03:  J.  Oahlmaon,  AVt^fw,  ib.  1890;  W.  St,  C.  Tifdall, 
Th€  NoUe  Eightfold  Path,  London,  1903;  A.  Meaxiea,  The 
ReligioTi*  of  India,  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism,  ib.  1904. 

EjiceedJc^ly  iniiiortant  for  the  legendary  developrnriit 
of  BuddJtiism  id  the  Jataka:  or  Glories  of  ths  Byddha'9 
Farmer  Births.  Pali  text  edifed  with  ita  commentaQ"  by 
V.  FauibalJ,  8  vob,^  London,  1877-97;  tmnetation  by 
various  handa  edited  by  E.  B.  Cowell,  vol**  i,-¥.,  ib,  1895- 
1906.  Conauli  also  FartUlio  of  Buddhist  Art,  Hiatrfricai 
and  Modern,  Chicago.  10O6  (a  eollectloo  of  31  plates). 

E^ira-lQdi&n  Buddhifim:  H.  Aiabojiter,  The  Wheel  of 
ih*  Law,  London.  1871;  R  Biffandet,  The  lAfe  or  LtQcnd 
of  Gaudama^  the  Buddha  of  the  Burmese,  ib.  1S80;  E^ 
Bfihlagintweit,  Buddhitmi  in  Tibet,  Leipsic,  1863;  W.  Rock- 
hill,  Th€  Life  of  the  Buddha,  London,  1884;  L.  A,  Wad- 
dell,  J^  Buddhism  W  Tibet  or  Lamaism,  ib.  1S95  (mo- 
tains  bibliography,  pp.  67S-6S3):  A.  GrftnwedeU  Mtftho- 
ioois  des  Buddhismus  in  Tibei  und  der  Mongalei,  Leipaic, 
1900;  J.  Edkins,  Chinese  Buddhism,  Londoo,  1880;  S. 
BtAl.  Buddhism  in  China,  ib.  1884;  idem.  Si-ifU-ki,  Bud* 
dhisi  Re&jrdM  of  the  Westrm  World,  from  the  Chinese,  ib. 
1900;  B,  Nanjio,  Txidve  Japanese  Buddhist  Seets,  Tokyo. 
1887;  E.  Fuliahinia,  Le  Bauddhi»m>e  Japeruiis,  Paria. 
1887. 

Biiddbixm  and  Ouutianily^  E.  Beydet,  Das  EvaT^iv- 
lium  von  Jents  in  iciii«iPi  VerhSUnisMn  xu  BmddhtiSaae 
und  Buddha^ Lehre,  Letpdc,  1882:  idem.  Die  Buddha-Le- 
^endeunddasI^^ebenJemt,  ib<  ed.  1897;  Rhya  Davids,  Bud' 
dhism  and  Christianity,  London,  1888;  R-  Falke.  Buddha, 
Mohammad  und  Chnstus.  Goterskh,  1900:  C.  Aiken.  The 
Dhamma  of  Oittama  the  Bwddhn  and  the  Gottpet  of  Jesus 
ths  Christy  Boeton,  1900;  A.  Bertholet,  B^tiMhismus  und 
Christentum^  Tllbingen.  1902. 

ilefennoe  inay  bIpo  be  made  to  the  eener^l  works  on 
eomiwmtive  rellirion  and  I  be  rvlijenons  oi  India,  especmlly 
E.  Hopkina,  Relimons  of  fndia,  Boston,  1895,  pp.  298- 
347:  Chantflpie  de  ta  Sauaaaye,  f^hrbuch  der  Religions- 
ffssdki^te,  3d  ed.,  Freiburg.  1905;  C.  von  Orelli,  AOn*- 
meine  Ridiffionstreschichte,  pp.  44£H193,  Bonn,  1899,  and 
the  bibhoerapbiea  there  ffiveo. 

BUDE,  bti"dfi^  GUILLAUME :  French  humanist ; 
b,  at  Paris  1467;  d.  there  Aug.  23,  1540,  He 
studied  law  at  Orleans,  and,  after  leading  a  dissi- 
pated life  for  several  years,  began  to  apply  himself 
to  Greek,  philosophy,  theolo^,  and  science.  Well 
received  at  coort,  he  was  repeatedly  entruHted  with 
diplomatic  miss  ions  to  Rome,  On  Aug.  21,  1522, 
Francia  I,  appointed  him  librarian  of  the  royal 
libraty  at  Fotttainebleau  and  royal  coimdior,  and 
it  waa  owing  to  Bud6's  initiative  that  the  king 


enlarged  the  Royal  Library  of  Pans  and  alao  the 
Royal  College,  which  afterward  became  the  College 
de  France,  Long  before  Luther,  Bud6  had  felt 
the  necessity  of  refonns  in  the  Church,  but,  like 
many  scholars  and  bishops  of  his  day^  he  fear^ 
a  rupture  with  Rome.  Among  his  numcroua  works, 
special  mention  may  be  made  of  the  following; 
De  Aftge  ei  portibus  ejm  (Paria,  1514);  De  Siudh 
bonarum  liUeramm  rede  H  commode  ■  institucndo 
(1527);  Commfintarii  HngutE  grtFC^  (1^2^);  De  iron- 
situ  Helitnhmi  ad  Chrialiam^tum  (1535);  Foremsia 
quibus  vufgtiTes  et  vere  latin  tz  jurigconault^T^m  lo^ 
qii^idi  fQrmula;  daniur  (1548);  and  Lexicon  gr(E€o~ 
latinum  (Geneva,  1554  etcl.    G.  BonitivMaury, 

BiBUooKAFfTT:  The  beet  aeoount  of  hin  life  ia  by  E.  de 
Eud4,  Tm!  de  Ouiltaume  Bud^,  Parii,  1884,  Conauit  aUo 
E,  and  E.  Hoag.  La  France  pr&testante.  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier^ 
ib.  1877-88;  Rebittd,  (?.  Bud^,  essai  hisloriiiur,  Pafb, 
184A;   A.  Moquet,  Les  Seigneurs  de  Marly,  Pans,  1882. 

BUDER,  btS'der,  PAUL  VOIf :  German  Protes- 
tant; b,  at  Leulkirch  (40  m.  s.  of  Ulm)  Feb.  15, 
1830.  He  wua  e^iucated  at  the  University  of 
Tftbingen  (Ph.D.,  1858),  and,  after  being  lecturer 
at  the  theological  seminary  attached  to  that  iruititu- 
tion  from  1861  to  1865,  was  successively  deacon 
and  inspector  of  schools  at  Backnang  from  1865 
to  1868  and  second  court-preacher,  as  well  as  assist- 
ant in  the  consistory  and  a  member  of  the  theo- 
logical examining  board,  in  Stuttgart  from  1868 
to  1872,  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed 
associate  professor  of  dograatica  and  New  T^ta- 
ment  exegesis  and  supwr^'isor  of  the  theological 
senvinary  of  the  University  of  Ttibmgcn,  where  he 
has  been  full  professor  since  1877.  He  has  written 
Ueher  die  apologetiatJie  Aufgobe  der  Theologie  der 
Gegenwari  (Tabingen,  1876). 

BUECHNER,  bQn'ner,  GOTTFRIED,  got'frid. 
German  Lutheran  theologian;  b.  at  Riidersdorf 
(the  district  of  Saxc-Altenburg)  1701  j  d.  at  Quer- 
furt  (18  m.  w.  of  Mer?*eburg)  1780.  He  studied 
at  Jena,  and  lectured  there  from  1725  until  he  was 
called  as  rector  to  Querfurt.  where  he  died.  He  is 
best  known  as  the  author  of  Biblische  Real-  und 
V&rbol-Hand-ConeoTdanz  (Jena,  1740;  23d  ed,, 
BerUn,  1899;  ed.  H.  L.  Heubner.  PhiladelpWa, 
1871).  A  list  of  BOchner's  other  theological  works 
is  given  in  Jdcher  and  Adelungs  AUgemeinen 
Gdahrten-Lexikon,  s.v. 

BUECHSEL,  bOH'sel,  KARL:  German  Lutheran 
theologian:  b,  at  8ch6nfcld  (a  suburb  of  Prenzlau, 
71  m.  nm.e.  of  Potsdam)  May  2.  1803;  d,  at  Berlin 
Aug.  14,  1889.  After  completing  his  studies,  he 
became  minister  in  his  native  place,  superintendent 
at  BriiBBon,  and  in  1846  pastor  of  St.  Matthew's 
at  Berlin.  In  1853  he  was  made  superintendent 
generaL  but  retired  from  the  ministry  in  1884. 
He  belonged  to  the  most  prominent  and  influential 
preachers  of  the  German  capital,  and  was  the 
author  of  Erinnerungen  aus  d£m  Leben  eines  Land- 
geMichen  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1888-97),  which  went 
through  many  editions. 

BTTELL,  MARCUS  DARIUS  r  Methodist  Episco- 
palian; b.  at  Wayland,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  1,  1851.  He 
waa  educated  at  New  York  University  (B.A.,  1872) 
and   the   Boston   University   School   of  Theology 


Bqit  Bibli 
Bnlflraria 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


896 


(1875).  He  entered  the  Methodist  ministry  in 
1875,  and  held  successive  pastorates  at  Portchester, 
N.  Y.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1875-84.  In  the  latter  year  he  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Cambridge,  Berlin,  and  Heidelberg, 
and  returned  to  the  United  States  as  professor  of 
New  Testament  Greek  and  exegesis  in  Boston 
University,  a  position  which  he  still  holds.  He 
was  also  assistant  dean  in  1885-89  and  dean  in 
1889-1904.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis  and  of  the  Harvard 
Biblical  Club,  and  has  written,  in  addition  to  a 
number  of  minor  contributions,  Studies  in  the  Greek 
Text  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark  (Boston,  1890). 

BUG  BIBLE.    See  Bible  Versions,  B,  IV.,  J  9. 

BUGEiraAGEN,  ba"gen-h^gen,  JOHANW:  A 
leader  of  the  German  Reformation;  b.  at  WoUin 
(29  m.  n.  of  Stettin),  Pomerania,  June  24,  1485; 
d.  at  Wittenberg  Apr.  20,  1558.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Greifswald,  paying  special 
attention  to  the  Latin  classics.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  school  at  Trep- 
tow  on  the  Rega,  which  he  made  famous  far  and 
wide  by  the  thorough  Renaissance  devotion  to 
study  which  he  inculcated.  In  1509  he  was  or- 
dained priest,  though  without  any  special  theo- 
logical training  Humanism,  in  fact, 
Sarly  Life,  strongly  influenced  his  theology.  He 
turned  away  from  the  schoolmen  to 
seek  a  purer  doctrine  in  the  early  Fathers,  and 
by  Erasmus,  whom  he  considered  to  represent 
them,  was  brought  to  a  deep  study  of  the 
Bible.  In  1517  he  was  appointed  to  lecture  on 
the  Bible  and  the  Fathers  in  the  new  monastic 
school  of  Belbuck.  A  journey  throughout  Pome- 
rania in  search  of  documents  to  aid  in  Spalatin's 
historical  work  led  to  the  publication  of  its  results 
in  his  Pomerania  (1518),  in  which  he  foreshadows 
his  later  career  by  incidental  attacks  on  the  preach- 
ers of  indulgences;  and  a  sermon  delivered  before 
a  clerical  assembly  in  1519  (or  1520)  is  even  more 
outspoken  in  its  reproof  of  abuses.  Not  long  after, 
Luther's  writings  fell  into  his  hands.  He  was  at 
first  shocked  by  the  Captivitas  Bahylonicaj  but 
further  reading  convinced  him  of  its  truth.  An 
earnest  correspondence  with  Luther  followed,  and 
in  1521  Bugenhagen  went  to  Wittenberg,  sending 
back  to  Treptow  a  long  letter  in  which  he  declared 
his  adhesion  to  his  new  master's  doctrines. 

He  matriculated  at  the  university,  made  friends 
with  Melanchthon,  and  began  to  expound  the 
Psalms  to  an  increasing  audience.  The  swift 
development  of  practical  reform  carried  him  with  it, 
and  he  married  m  1522,  in  spite  of  the  uncertainty 
of  his  futiu^.  Luther  exerted  himself  to  find  a 
posit'on  for  him,  and,  a  vacancy  occurring  in  the 
principal  church  of  Wittenberg,  put  his  useful 
follower  in,  despite  the  protests  of  the 

At  Wit-     capitular  body  to  whom  the  right  of 

tenberg.  nomination  really  belonged  Here 
Bugenhagen  busied  himself  in  many 
practical  pastoral  works,  finding  time  for  literary 
activity  also;  he  helped  in  the  Low  German  edition 
of  Luther's  New  Testament  (1524),  and  in  the  same 
year  published  his  lectures  on  the  Psalms  and  Latin 


commentaries  on  several  other  bookB  of  ScriptuRL 
These,  as  well  as  some  German  treatises  on  practical 
piety,  made  his  name  known,  and  he  was  called  to 
St.  Nicholas's  church  at  Hamburg.  The  town 
council  objected,  and  the  proposal  fell  through. 
Bugenhagen  came,  however,  to  the  help  of  the 
evangelical  community  in  Hamburg  in  the  follow- 
ing year  by  his  tractate  Von  dem  Christenloven  und 
rechten  guden  Werken  (published  1526;  High  (Ser- 
man  version  in  Vogt),  which  is  one  of  the  best  pop- 
ular presentations  of  the  Lutheran  teaching.  In 
1525  he  officiated  at  Luther's  marriage,  and  wrote 
a  defense  of  the  married  clergy.  Besides  his  faith- 
ful pastoral  labors,  continued  even  through  the 
plague  of  1527,  he  took  part  in  the  general  move- 
ment of  the  Reformation  by  a  letter  "  to  the 
Christians  in  England "  (1525),  by  taking  a 
prominent  part  against  Zwingii  and  Butzer  in  the 
eucharistic  controversy,  and  by  new  exegetical 
works. 

Bugenhagen's  forte,  however,  was  organization, 
which  he  carried  forward  in  many  parts  of  North 
Germany,  in  both  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
matters.    The  results  of  his  activity  were  seen, 
for  example,  in  the  new  church  constitutions  of 
Brunswick,    Hamburg,    LObeck,   and  Pomerania. 
In   1535  he    came  back  to  spend  two  years  in 
his  duties  at  Wittenberg,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  theological  faculty.     He  was  called  away 
once  more   in  1537   to  superintend  the  canying 
out    of  the  reforming    movement    in    Denmark, 
which  had   been   begun   the    year   before,  when 
Christian  III.  had  broken  the  power 
His         of  the  bishops  and  confiscated  their 
Ability  as  property.    He   revised   the  proposed 
an  Organ-  constitution,   crowned   the  Idng  and 
izer.        queen  at  Copenhagen,  ordained  seven 
evangelical    theologians    as    superin- 
tendents to  take  the  place  of  the  ex{)eUed  bishops, 
and  reorganized  the  university,  which  he  governed 
for  a  time  as  rector,  working  meanwhile  at  his  great 
commentary  on  the  Psalms,  not  completed  till  1544. 
Returning  home  in  the  spring  of  1539,  he  took  part 
in  the  thorough  revision  of  Luther's  Bible,  and  stood 
by  him  in  the  conflict  with  Agricola  (see  Anti- 

NOMIANISM       AND       ANTINOBaAN      CONTROVERSIES^ 

II.,  1,  §  3).  He  declined  a  call  to  the  bishopric  of 
Sleswick,  and  another  to  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen; but  he  visited  Holstein  in  1542,  at  the  king's 
invitation,  to  assist  in  the  adoption  and  adaptation 
of  the  Danish  church  constitution  for  the  duchies. 
No  sooner  had  he  returned  than  the  success  of  the 
arms  of  the  Schmalkald  League  against  Heniy  of 
Brunswick  laid  a  new  task  upon  him,  together  with 
Corvinus  and  Gdrlitz;  viz.,  that  of  organizing  an 
Evangelical  Church  in  the  conquered  territory. 
The  constitution  for  Brunswick- WolfenbQttd  which 
appeared  in  the  autimin  of  1543  is  mostly  his  work, 
and  that  adopted  for  Hildesheim  in  the  following 
year  is  practically  derived  from  it.  Yet  the  diffi- 
culties which  he  had  experienced  in  this  visite- 
tion  were  sufficient,  it  would  seem,  to  make  him 
reluctant  to  accept  the  invitation  of  the  duke 
of  Pomerania  to  take  the  place  of  the  deceased 
bishop  of  Kammin;  and  when  the  duke  would 
have  no  conditional  acceptance,  he  declined  abso- 


807 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BoffBibh 
Bulgaria 


luteljf  though  professing  his  wiUingneaa  to  &semt 
for  a  time  in  organisation. 

Bugenhagen  remained,  aceordinglf,  at  Witten- 
bergf  a  help  and  strength  to  Luther  in  hia  Jaat  years, 
uid  preached  his  funeral  sermon  on  Feb,  22,  1546, 
In  the  troublous  times  that  followed,  he  adhered 
•  imdauntedly  to  the  cause  of  the  Wittenberg  church , 
encouraged  the  citteens  during  the  siege,  and  went 
on  preaching  even  after  the  emperor  had  entered 
the  city  as  conqueror.  The  conside ration  with 
which  he  was  treated  by  Charles  V.  and  the  new 
elector  Blauriee,  and  his  desire  to 
Lost  serve  the  university  and  to  remain 
Years*  connected  with  it,  combined  to  recon- 
cile him  to  the  new  state  of  things 
more  readily  than  some  ardent  evangelicals  thought 
fitting.  There  was  much  criticism  of  hia  action 
from  his  own  dde,  and  calumny  even  went  so  far 
as  to  accuse  hjm  of  venality.  He  was  drawn  into 
th©  policy  of  the  Interim  etill  further,  as  conducted 
by  Maurice  of  Saxony  and  represented  theologically 
by  Melanchthon.  His  personal  share  in  the  nego- 
tiations  was,  indeed,  a  slight  one;  he  was  i^i  the 
opposition  at  Alten-Zelle,  and  was  consequently 
not  summoned  to  Jilterbogk.  But  the  concessions 
made  to  the  Roman  ^CathoUo  ceremonial  found  a 
iynapathi*er  in  the  man  who  had  impressed  upon 
North  German  Lutheranfsm  a  eonservative  approx^ 
unation  to  the  old  forma;  he  overlooked  the  fact 
that,  as  Hering  has  tmly  said,  what  had  originally 
been  consideration  for  the  weak  brethren  might 
now  bo  only  obsequious  deference  to  the  powerful. 
Bis  attitude  cost  him  the  confidence  of  the  deposed 
elector  and  of  Albert  of  Prussia,  and  not  a  few  of 
bis  old  friends  turned  from  him.  As  an  attempt 
to  set  himself  right^  he  published  in  1550  hia  com- 
mentary on  Jonah f  in  which  he  gave  vigorous 
expression  to  his  undiminished  protest  against 
the  lioman  Catholic  Chureh,  undertaking  to  derive 
its  doctrinea  and  practises  from  the  Montanist 
beresy.  He  raised  his  voice  during  the  troubles 
fkf  1556  in  a  warning  to  ail  pastors  to  prepare  for 
the  end  of  the  world  by  oonfession  of  sin  and  firm 
adherence  to  their  faith.  Decaying  bodily  strength 
forced  him  to  give  up  preaching  in  1557,  and  a  year 
later  he  went  to  his  long  rest^  being  bimed  near  the 
aJtar  in  the  church  he  had  served  so  long.  He  left 
behind  him  many  a  trace  of  hii  organizing  abilities 
throughout  northern  Germany,  especially  in  Lower 
Saxony,  of  his  wisdom  in  practical  matters,  his 
■ensible  views  on  education,  and  his  liturgical 
institutions f  which  substantially  determined  the 
abiding  character  of  North  German  Lutheranlsm, 

(G.  KawsRiLU,) 

Siuttc&rt,  I8SS.  The  bert  tmmtmeot  b  ta  be  fouod  in 
U.  HeriBii,  Doktor  PonuranuM,  J,  Buffenhiiarn^  Halle, 
188&  flpeciiil  treaties  are:  G.  H,  G<M?tie»  i>«  J.  fi»- 
gvrtii&gm  fUt^ritia  .  .  .  oraHo,  Lei^ic,  1704;  J.  D.  Jincke^ 
Ubefuoaekithii  J.  Bueenhagtn*,  Rmto^k,  1157:  K.  F.  L. 
Ei9«vlk«i,  /.  Bvi^tnhaevn,  cih  biotrraphiarhtr  Aufmit  jUr 
dig  eTan&eli§^ie  Kifdk*.  Berlin,  IfilT;  J.  H.  ZwtM,  J.  Bu- 
(f^nhoitfen.  Ein  Mtfffraphiitrher  VirntcK  Leipaio,  1834;  M* 
Meun^r.  /.  BnQenhagen't  Uben,  ib.  1862;  K,  A.  T.  VoKt» 
/,  Bve^nkaggn  PomernnuM,  Elberfeld,  1S67.  Coamlt 
furtlier :  J.  K^etUn.  Martin  Luther^  «d.  G.  KavenQ,  pna- 
■m*  2  volfu,  Berlia,  1003;  BchafT,  Christian  ChunA.  vi. 
347,  467.  S67,  621-622;     Motller,  Chmttian  Church.  voL 


an  dim  Bohmen  wan  publbbed  in  Zeitaem&Mm  TrakiaUf  auM 
dtr  Rffvrmaticnaeit,  part  2,  «d.  C  von  KO^Ifen,  L^tpsie, 
1903. 

BUHL,  bill,  FRANTS  PEDER  WIIXUM  MEYER: 

Danish  Semitic  scholar;  b.  at  Copenhagen  Sept. 
6,  l&SO.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Ck^penhagen  (Ph.D.,  187B),  and  waa  successively 
professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  at  Copenhagen 
(1882-60)  and  Leipslc  (1890-SS),  In  IS98  he 
was  recalled  to  the  University  of  Copenhagen  oa 
prof^sor  of  Semitic  languages,  a  position  whieh  he 
still  holds.  In  theology  he  is  dogmatically  con- 
eervative,  but  liberal  in  iaagogica.  Since  19(30  ho 
has  been  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Scieneesi 
at  Copenhagen.  In  addition  to  numerous  briefer 
contributions,  he  has  written:  Jtftuja  over»ai  oq  for- 
iolkU  (S  partSp  Copenhagen,  1889-04);  Gemmret  SS 
og  dens  Omgiveher  (1889);  Pakjttina  i  kortfatiei 
geografijsk  o0  iopo^afisk  FremsHliing  (1890);  Karwn 
und  Tert  des  AU^n  Tesiamenf^  (Leipsic,  1891;  Eng, 
tranah  by  J.  Macpheraon,  Edinburgh^  1892);  Dei 
vtraeliiiske  Folks  Hktorie  (Copenhagen,  1892); 
Geschichte  der  Edomiler  (Leipsic,  1893);  Do  mej- 
sianske  F&rjadleher  i  del  Gamh  Testament  (1894); 
TU  Vejledning  i  de  gammdiestamenilige  Undersd- 
gdMT  (1895);  Geographie  den  alien  Fald$lina  (Frei- 
burg, 1896);  Hebrauk  Synt^sjE  (Copenhagen,  1897); 
DUsoaialen  VtrhdUnisae  der  IsraelUen  (Berlin,  1899); 
Fsalmeme  overmilo  og  fortolke^e  (12  parts,  Copen- 
hagen, !S9S^1900);  and  Muhammed^  Liv  (1903), 
lie  has  also  collaborated  in  editing  the  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  editions  of  the  He- 
brdisches  ttJid  aramdi^ches  Handwdrtcrbuch  uber  dan 
AUe  Te$tamen£  of  Geeeniua  (Leipaic,  189,7-1905), 

BULGARI  (BOURGES):  Name  of  a  heretical 
*eet.    See  New  Manicheanb,  II. 

BULGARIA:  A  principality  under  the  suae- 
rainty  of  Turkey  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Eu* 
mania,  on  the  east  by  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  south 
by  Tin-key,  on  the  west  by  Serv-ia.  It  waa  created 
by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1S78  and  attaineti  ita 
present  extent  in  1885  by  the  addition  of  Eastern 
Rumelia  (the  territory  south  of  the  Balkan  Moun< 
tains)  after  a  revolt  of  tlie  Bulgars  there;  in  1908 
it  proclaimed  its  independence;  area,  38,080  square 
miles;  population  (1900),  3,744,283. 

In  race  and  religion  the  poptilatioa  is  very  diverse. 

The  majority  are  the  Bulgara,  who  number  some 

2,880,000    and    belong  to  the  Oriental    Orthodox 

Church,    their    prince    Boris    having 

Bulgarian    adopted  Christianity  in  864,  two  oen- 

Cburch*  tunes  after  they  had  entered  the 
region  aoulh  of  the  Danube  (see  Bui/* 
OARIANS,  C?ONVEBflioK  QV  TttE)^  Simeon,  the  suc- 
c^Bor  of  Boris  as  prince  or  C£ar,  established  an 
autonomoufl  Church  for  his  extensive  domami, 
placing  at  ita  head  a  bishop,  or  exarch,  who  had 
his  seat  at  Ochrlda  on  the  frontier  of  Albania. 
This  diooeso  lapse*!  aft^r  the  fall  of  the  Bulgarian 
state,  nor  was  it  revived  when  the  piindpality  waa 
pcorganiaed*  The  Slatne  bishoprics  were  grad- 
ually replaced  with  Greek,  and  the  Bulgarian 
Church  was  firbt  restored  in  1870-72,  when,  through 
the  insistence  of  Russian  diplomats,  the  Sultan 
permitted  the  Bulgarian  Church  to  separate  from 


Bnlfrarla 
Bnllinffer 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


898 


the  patriarchate  and  to  appoint  an  exarch  in  Con- 
stantinople who  should  be  the  Slavic  head  of  all 
those  communities  which  might  wish  to  join  the 
new  ecclesiastical  body.  Although  condemned  by 
the  patriarch  in  1872  as  schismatic,  large  num- 
bers of  Slavs  in  the  Turkish  provinces  soon  de- 
clared themselves  Bulgarians. 

The  governing  body  of  this  Church  is  the  Holy 
Synod,  which  consists  of  four  bishops  chosen  for 
four  years  by  secret  ballot  of  all  the  bishops  and 
presided  over  by  the  exarch;  it  meets  annually  in 
May.  The  rights  and  external  organization  of  the 
Bulgarian  Church  are  recognized  tliroughout  the 
principality  by  the  constitution,  which  declares 
it  to  be  the  State  Church.  Other  religions  are 
tolerated,  however,  while  the  exarch  can  issue 
commands  to  his  bishops  only  after  reaching  an 
agreement  with  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
According  to  the  exarchial  statute  of 

Organiza-  1883,  the  laity  exercise  a  considerable 
tion.  influence  on  the  election  of  bishops, 
and,  with  the  Turkish  districts  of  the 
Bulgarian  Church,  even  on  the  choice  of  the  exarch. 
In  each  eparchy,  or  diocese,  three  clerical  and  tluree 
lay  members  form  a  committee  which  selects  two 
names  from  a  large  list  of  candidates,  sending  these 
names  to  the  Holy  Synod,  by  which  the  list  in  ques- 
tion is  drawn  up  and  constantly  renewed. 

In  the  principality  of  Bulgaria  there  are  eleven 
dioceses,  or  eparchies,  at  Varna,  Rustchuk  (Cherven 
and  Dorostol),  Timova,  Lovatz,  Vratsa,  and  Widin 
north  of  the  Balkans,  and  Sofia,  Philippopolis, 
Stara  Saghra,  and  Sliven  south  of  this  mountain 
range.  These  dioceses  receive  from  the  State  an 
annual  revenue  of  800,000  francs,  while  the  monas- 
teries supply  the  funds  for  twenty-four  archiman- 
drites. One  of  the  richest  moniisteries  is  that  of 
St.  John  in  the  Rilo  mountains,  and  other  important 
cloisters  are  tliose  of  St.  Nicholas  near  the  Shipka 
Pass  and  Tcherepis  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Isker 
gap.  The  majority  of  the  parish  clergy  lack  the 
requisite  education,  and  the  monks  are  very  inferior 
in  education  to  those  of  Servia.  The  parish  priests 
are  accordingly  reverenced  but  little  by  the  peasants 
and  citizens.  They  number  nearly  2,000,  and  there 
are  240  monks  in  seventy-eight  monasteries. 

Not  all  tlie  Slavs  recognize  the  authority  of  the 
exarch,  and  in  the  southeast  60,000  Greeks  have 
the  four  small  dioceses  of  Vama,  Mesembria,  So- 
zopolis,  andAnchiolo,  as  well  jis  the  mctropoHtanate 
of  Philippopolis.  Roman  Catholicism  has  but 
scant  representation  in  Bulgaria.  Nicopolis  is  the 
name  of  the  bishopric  for  Danubian  Bulgaria,  but 
in  reality  the  bishop  resides  at  Rustchuk.  In  the 
south  is  the  apostolic  vicariate  of 
Other  Sofia  and  PhilippopK)lis.  in  charge  of 
Churches,  the  Capuchins  since  1841.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  Roman  Catholics  are 
Bulgars,  partly  descended  from  the  Paulicians, 
who  were  formerly  numerous  (see  Paulicians). 
The  minority  are  immigrants  from  Austria-Hungary 
and  other  Roman  Catholic  countries,  and  have 
churches  and  small  congregations  in  various  cities 
along  the  Danube,  as  well  as  in  Sofia,  Philippopolis, 
and  Burgas.  The  Armenians  have  their  own  bishop 
in   Rustchuk.     Bulgarian   Protestants  are  mainly 


the  result  of  American  missionary  propaganda. 
[The  Methodists  entered  the  country  north  of  the 
Balkans  in  1857  and  the  field  waa  oiganiied  into 
a  missionary  conference  in  1892.  The  American 
Board  commenced  work  south  of  the  Balkans  at 
about  the  same  time  as  the  Methodists  and  main- 
tains schools  and  a  publishing  house  at  Samakov. 
The  educational  work  of  Robert  College  near  Con- 
stantinople has  done  much  for  the  Bulgarians.] 
There  are  also  Protestant  communities  of  some 
500  Germans  in  Sofia  and  Rustchuk,  both  cities 
having  a  German  school. 

The  Jews  in  Bulgaria  are  for  the  most  part  descend- 
ants of  exiles  from  Spain  in  the  sixteenth  centuiy. 
The  Gipsies  number  about  50,000,  although  some 
of  them  declare  themselves  Orthodox. 
Non-Chris-  The  great  majority  of  the  Moham- 
tian        medans   are  Turks;   the  number  has 

Religions,  decreased  owing  to  extenave  emi- 
gration since  1878.  They  have  numer- 
ous schools,  including  a  theological  school  at 
Shumla. 

The  educational  system  of  Bulgaria  soows  a 
creditable  development,  thanks  to  compulsory 
schooling.  There  are  many  public  and  inte^ 
mediate  schools,  as  well  as  *  gymnasia  and  nor- 
mal schools.  The  State  provides  generously  for 
educational  purposes.  The  minor  reli^ous  bodies 
have  numerous  schools,  and  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  cities  receive  instruction  from  teachers  pro- 
vided by  the  French  congregations. 

[The  religious  statistics  of  the  census  of  1900  are 
as  follows: 

Orthodox  Greeks,  3,019,296;  Mohammedans, 
643,300;  Jews,  33,663;  Roman  Catholics,  28,569; 
Armenian  Gregorians,  13,809;  Protestants,  4,524; 
Unknown,    1,122.]  Wilhelm  Goetz. 

Bibliography:  C.  JireSek.  Geachichte  der  Buliforen,  Prague, 
1876  (authoritative);  idem,  Das  FUrBtentum  Bulgarien, 
Vienna.  1891 ;  J.  Samuelson.  Buloaria,  Past  mnd  Preant, 
London,  1888  (best  general  account  in  English);  L.  L*- 
mouche.  La  Bulgarie  dans  le  passf  et  dans  U  priseni,  Paris, 
1892;  A.  Straiui.  Die  Bulgctren.  ^nopraphiscke  Studien, 
Leipnic,  1898;  Acta  Bukfaria  ecdesiasHm,  1666-1799, 
coUegit  C.  Fermendiiu,  Agram,  1868;  A.  d'Avril  U 
Bulgarie  chrHienne,  Paris,  1898;  J.  8.  Dennis.  CeiUewua' 
Survey  of  Foreign  Missions,  New  York,  1902. 

BULGARIANS,  CONVERSION  OF  THE:  Ac- 
cording  to  Jire^ek,  who  follows  Schafarik,  the  Bul- 
garians were  originally  related  to  the  Finns.  Jo^ 
danis  says  that  they  lived  on  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea  in  the  fifth  century,  clashing  frequently  with 
the  Ostrogoths  in  the  reign  of  Theodoric,  who, 
according  to  Ennodius,  checked  their  victorious 
advance  toward  the  west  in  487;  Cassiodorus 
mentions  another  victory  in  5()4.  But  their  attacks 
were  directed  also  against  the  Byzantine  Empire. 
Under  Const  an  tine  Pogonatus  a  Bulgarian  horde 
established  itself  in  679  between  the  Danube  and 
the  Balkans,  extending  their  conquests  gradually 
as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Save.  This  tenritory 
seems  to  have  been  inhabited  by  people  of  Slavic 
race,  who  first  gave  their  language  to  the  conquerors 
and  then  gradually  amalgamated  with  them.  The 
race  formed  by  this  fusion  was  so  strongly  pagao 
that  it  resisted  the  introduction  of  ChristianitT, 
which  had  its  martyrs  in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth 


800 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


century.  A  change  set  in  under  Bogoria  (c.  S52- 
888),  who  in  his  contests  with  both  Franks  and 
Greeks  held  out  hopes  of  a  conversion  as  an  induce- 
iiicnt  for  peace.  In  864  he  seemt  to  have  entered 
the  Greek  Church,  and  received  in  return  a  consid- 
erable slico  of  territory.  In  Constantinople  hia 
convereion  was  considered  genuine,  anti  Photiua 
took  paint*  to  in^itmct  him  at  some  length  in  the 
duties  of  a  CliriBtian  prince.  The  Bulgarians  were 
apparently  less  delighted,  and  rose  in  armed  revolt. 
The  wily  barbarian ,  however,  had  one  eye  on  the 
1\'eiit,  ancl  at  the  same  time  sent  an  embassy  to 
Piope  Nicholas  L,  with  a  number  of  questions  on 
wtuch  he  sought  enlightenment  from  Home.  Nicho- 
las immecliately  sent  two  bishops  to  take  postfeesion 
of  the  Bulgarian  territory  for  the  Church,  and 
answered  the  questions  of  Bogoris  with  much  more 
painstaking  seriousness  than  they  deserved.  An- 
other embassy  went  to  Louis  the  Germaa  to  ask 
that  Christian  nussionaries  might  be  sent,  fn  867 
lAnm  eommissionod  Bishop  Ermanrieh  of  Passau 
and  a  numeraua  retinue  of  priests  to  set  out  for  the 
Danube.  Charlemagne  followed  by  raiiiing  a  large 
Bum  to  provide  boobs  anil  church  utensils  for  the 
Bulgarians.  But  all  this  interest  was  thrown  away. 
When  Ermanrieh  reached  Bulgaria,  he  found  the 
fit*ld  already  occupied  by  priests  from  Rome,  and 
returned  to  Gennany.  The  communion  w4th 
Rome  Iflstetl  but  a  few  years  longer,  Bogoris 
re<iuested  the  appointment  of  Formosus  of  Porto 
{one  of  the  two  original  Roman  missionariefi)  as 
archbishop,  and  proposed  another  candidate  when 
Nieholaj^  declined;  when  this  secMnd  nomination 
was  rejected  by  Adrian  IL  he  loi^t  patience  and 
turned  to  Constantinople,  His  envoys  took  part 
there  in  the  final  session  of  the  Eighth  Ecumenical 
Council  {S7DJ,  and  after  its  dose,  in  spite  of  the 
protests  of  the  Roman  legates,  declared  that  Bul- 
garia belonged  to  the  patriarchate  of  Constan- 
tinople. Tlie  Roman  cler^  were  obliged  to  leave 
and  the  patriarch  Ignatius  organized  the  church 
by  the  conseeration  of  a  metropolitan  and  several 
bieshops.  Adrian  IL  protested  (871),  but  in  vain, 
and  the  efforts  of  Jolm  VIII.  to  reopen  the  ques- 
tion were  equally  fruitless;  Bulgaria  remained,  as, 
indee<],  its  geographical  mtuation  demanded ,  a 
part  of  the  Greek  Church.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBLioofUPttt:  C,  JtHfrSffk,  Gttchichte  der  Buloar^n,  Frogiue, 
lg7fi;  iifem.    Don    Fur^ttntum    Bulgarian,    ib.    IMl;   La 

ffrmtEt   ttliffitWKM  bulg^irm^  tradHiteM   par   Lydia   Sdiitek- 
off,  ib.  1890. 


BULGAR^,  bul-gft'ria,  EUGIHIOS,  r'Q^g^'nl  os: 
Russian  prelate;  b,  in  the  island  of  Corfu  Aug.  10, 
17 16  J  d.  at  St.  Petersburg  June  10,  IfiOa.  He  waa 
educated  at  Padua,  and  taught  in  various  schools 
and  at  the  ac^emy  of  Athoa  from  1765  to  1759. 
His  orthodoxy  being  impugned,  he  went  to  the 
West,  and  was  recommended  by  Fretk-rick  the 
Great  to  Catharine  IL  of  Russia,  who  appointed 
Iiim  bishop  of  Slovensk  and  Kherson.  In  1801 
he  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Ale?tander  Nevsky. 
Bulgans  was  a  very  gifted  and  learned  man,  and 
contributed  toward  making  Western  culture  acces* 
sible  to  his  people.  Together  witli  KoraTs,  he  may 
be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modem  culture  in 


Greece.  He  was  an  eclectic  in  philosophy,  and 
was  familiar  with  all  branches  of  theology.  Among 
bis  numerous  works  (in  Greek),  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  his  '*  Orthodox  Confession " 
(Amsterdam,  1767),  written  against  the  Jesuit 
Leclerc,  but  also  opposing  the  Protestants;  and 
his  '*  Address  on  Tolerance"  (1768),  denying  the 
State  the  right  of  intolerance  toward  adherents 
of  other  creeds  than  that  of  the  national  church. 
His  principal  work  was  the  "  Dogmatic  Theology  '* 
(ed,  Lontopulos,  Venice,  1S72),  the  first  real  Greek 
treatise  on  dogmatics  since  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
is  divided  into  four  parlf}^  treating  of  God,  the 
Trinity,  anthropology,  and  Cbristology.  Among 
bis  historical  writings  the  most  imf>ortant  was  the 
"  First  Century  from  the  Incarnation  of  Christ 
the  Saviour"  (Leipaic,  1805),  while  to  the  depart- 
ment of  practical  theology  belong  the  '*  Pious 
Talk  ^^  (2  vols.,  1801),  a  moralistic  exposition  of 
the  Pentateuch.  He  also  translated  several  wri- 
tings of  Augustine,  and  such  works  as  the  Z>«  prcH 
txsgwne  Spiritusmndi  of  Skjemikau  (St.  Peteraburg, 
1797),  He  Ukewise  edited  the  works  of  Joseph 
Bryennius,  and  assisted  In  the  editing  of  the  works 
of  Theodoret  (Halle,  1768).  Phujfp  Meyzr. 

BiDLroQRAFfiir:  P.  StrftKl,  Dot  or^rArt^  RuMland^  Leipaic, 
182S  (frorn  Rus^al&n  source*);  A.  P,  Vntos.  Bi/tffrophw 
dt  I'arcker^tfut  B,  fiulgoH,  Athrna,  mm.  A.  D,  Ksriakca, 
GeacAtc-AfC!  det  otiintQiit^hen  Kirchm^  L«ipj>ic,  1902. 

BULL,  GEORGE:  Bishop  of  St.  David's;  b.  at 
Wells,  Somersetshire,  Mar.  2b,  1634;  d.  at  Brecon, 
Wales,  Feb.  17,  17](J.  He  studied  at  Oxford  but 
did  not  take  a  degree;  became  minister  of  St. 
George's,  near  Bristol,  1655;  rector  of  Suddington 
St.  Mary's,  near  Cirencester,  16S8,  to  which  was 
joined  the  viearage  of  the  adjoining  parish  of  St. 
Peter's  1662;  rector  of  Avening,  Gloucester,  1685, 
From  1678  to  1686  he  wa*  a  prebendary  of  Glouces- 
ter; from  1686  to  1705  archdeacon  of  Llandaff.  He 
became  bishop  of  St.  David *a,  Wales,  in  1705,  His 
fame  rests  upon  his  Defenmo  fidei  Nkmrnr,  pub- 
lishetl  originally  in  Latin  in  1685  and  received  with 
marked  approval  by  Protestant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic (e.g.,  Bosauet  and  Juries)  scholars  everywhere; 
i  t  is  sti  II  a  classi  c.  I  n  English  translation ,  i  t  appears 
in  the  Library  of  Anglo^atholic  Theology,  together 
with  hie  Harmsmta  Apadolim  (4  vols,,  Oxford, 
1851-53). 
BTBiJoaiiAi<RY:  His  oomplftt*  workH  ApfKArpd   in   7  tfoU., 

1827»  with  the  life  by  Robert   Nelwin  (oriKinAlly  1713, 

BcpAraiely  18-40).     The  DNB,  vii.  238-238,  gives  *  wty 

sat  iftfactory  account  of  hi*  lifi?. 

BT7LL,  PAPAL.     See  BriefBj  Bulls,  and  BifL- 

LAJUA. 

BULLDTGER,  bul'lin-gcr,  HEIHRICH. 

Goti version  (o  ProtijRtantifiiii  EuchATiKtie  Teaching  (i  6). 

(I  n.  Th«  Helvetic  »nd  Zurich  €an~ 

Friendship  with  ZwinitUti  2).  fessions   atid   the  ConMO- 

The     SuroeK^or    oF     Zwingli  »!»  Tit^rinmi  (f  7). 

(I  3).  His  F&rt  in  (be  Second  He|- 

PoliliMl  Activity  (|  41.  vetie  Oonferakm  (f  8). 

Pastfiral  and  EducAtiona]  Ae-  View   on    the    Relatioti    of 

tivity  (I  5>.  Chui-ch  and  State  (§9). 
The  Work^  iif  BuUiJifter  (|  10). 

Hcinrieh  Bullingor  waa  a  Swiss  Reformer;  b,  at 
Bremgarten  (14^  m.  eja.e.  of  Aargan)  July  18,  1504; 
d.  at  Zurich  Sept*  17»  1575.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
priest,  who  looked  after  bia  bringing  up.  Alter  receive 


Bullincer 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


800 


inghis  elementary  education  in  the  schools  of  his  na- 
tive town,  he  was  sent  to  Emmerich  on  the  Lower 
Rhine  to  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  and 
in  1519  he  went  to  Cologne.  There,  in  the  seat  of 
opposition  to  the  Reformation,  Bullinger  gradually 
became  a  convert  to  the  new  doctrines.  When  he 
began  the  study  of  theology,  his  text-books  were 
the  SenierUice  of  Peter  Lombard  and  the  Decretum 
of  Gratian,  but  noting  that  these  were  based  on 
the  Church  Fathers,  he  resolved  to  study  the  lat- 
ter more  closely,  thus  learning  from  Chrysostom, 
Ambrose,  Origen,  and  Augustine  how  widely  the 
scholastics  had  diverged  in  their  treatment  of 
Christian  truths.  At  the  same  time  he  came  into 
possession  of  some  pamphlets  of  Luther  which 
convinced  him  that  the  Wittenberg 
I.  Conver-  Reformer  marked  an  advance  over  the 
sion  to  scholastics.  Since,  however,  Luther, 
Protestant-  like  the  Church  Fathers,  appealed 
itm.  to  the  Scriptures,  Bullinger  obtained 
a  New  Testament,  which  nourished 
hia  opposition  to  Roman  doctrine.  He  was  also 
strongly  influenced  by  Melanchthon's  Loci  com- 
munes,  and  by  1522,  despite  a  bitter  inward  struggle, 
he  had  broken  definitely  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Being  thus  debarred  from  an  ecclesias- 
tical career,  he  resolved  to  become  a  teacher,  and 
after  nine  months  he  secured  a  position  in  the  Cis- 
tercian monastery  at  Kappel,  where  he  remained 
from  Jan.,  1523,  to  Pentecost,  1529.  Not  only 
did  he  introduce  his  pupils  to  the  classics,  but  he 
also  interpreted  a  portion  of  the  Bible  to  them 
daily,  in  addition  to  lecturing  on  other  theological 
subjects  in  the  presence  of  the  abbot,  the  monks, 
and  many  of  the  residents  of  the  city.  Through 
his  preaching  of  a  reformation  of  doctrine  and  life 
the  movement  was  completed  in  1525-26,  although 
BuUinger's  life  was  imperiled  by  the  hostility  of 
the  adherents  of  the  ancient  faith.  In  the  early 
part  of  1527  the  monastery  was  transferred  to  the 
authorities  of  Zurich  and  the  monastery  church 
became  the  parish  church  of  the  community,  with 
Bullinger  as  the  preacher.  In  close  harmony  with 
Zwingli,  whom  he  had  known  since  the  end  of  1523, 
and  in  consultation  with  Leo  Jud,  he  began  the 
active  preparation  of  a  large  number  of  tracts 
designed  to  work  for  the  Reformation 
a.  Friend-  in  central  Switzerland.  After  being 
ship  with  invited  by  Zwingli  in  Jan.,  1525,  to 
ZwinglL  attend  a  conference  with  the  Ana- 
baptists, he  combated  them,  and  in 
1528  he  accompanied  Zwingli  to  the  Disputation  of 
Bern,  where  the  leading  Reformers  of  Switzerland 
and  South  Germany  became  acquainted  with  each 
other. 

In  June,  1529,  Bullinger  succeeded  his  father  as 
pastor  of  Bremgnrten,  but  his  position  was  a  peril- 
ous one,  and  the  Reformed  strongholds  were  forti- 
fied in  expectation  of  the  war  between  the  Con- 
federates, which  threatened  to  break  out  in  1529. 
Despite  the  so-called  "  land-peace  "  and  the  ser- 
mons delivered  by  Bullinger  at  the  diets  held  at 
Bremgarten  in  the  summer  of  1531,  in  which  he 
urged  upon  his  hearers  the  horrors  of  civil  war  and 
sought  to  reconcile  the  adherents  of  both  creeds 
by  the  weapons  of  the  spirit  and  the  word  of  God 


without  the  effusion  of  bloody  the  Refonnatioii 
had  long  been  political  rather  than  religious,  and 
on  Oct.  11,  1531,  the  battle  of  Kappel  was  fought, 
in  which  the  leaders  of  the  Zurich  Reformation  feL 
The  progress  of  the  entire  movement  was  chedced. 
and  at  Bremgarten  at  heavy  cost  a  peace  was  made 
from  which  the  clergy  were  excepted.  In  the  night 
of  Nov.  20  Bullinger  fled  to  Zurich.  The  difficult 
task  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Reformed  Church 
and  the  maintenance  of  Zwin^'s  life-work  now 
devolved  upon  him,  and  on  Dec.  9,  1531,  he  was 
chosen  pastor  of  the  GrossmQnsterto 

3.  The  Sue-  succeed  the  great  Swiss  Reformer.  At 
cesser  of  the  same  time,  however,  a  oontroveny 
ZwinglL     arose  between  the  adherents  of  the 

ancient  conditions,  who  advocated 
peace  at  any  price,  and  the  evangelical  party, 
resulting  in  a  decision  to  prohibit  the  clergy  from 
touching  on  political  questions  in  their  sermons. 
After  consultation  with  his  colleagues,  Bullinger 
declared  himself  ready  to  promote  peace,  but 
declined  to  refrain  from  political  problems  whidi 
were  connected  with  religion.  The  liberty  which 
he  demanded  was  granted  him  after  long  delibers- 
tion,  and  the  clergy  accordingly  placed  themselveB 
in  opposition  to  the  reactionaries.  The  sermons 
of  Bullinger  and  Jud,  however,  resulted  in  their 
being  cited  before  the  coimcil.  They  were  hono^ 
ably  discharged,  but  were  requested  in  future  to 
lay  their  political  complaints  before  the  oouncO 
on  the  chance  that  they  might  be  settled  without 
the  necessity  of  publicity.  Through  this  recog- 
nition of  the  spheres  of  Church  and  State  as  dis- 
tinct but  not  opposed,  Bullinger  sustained  a  more 
healthy  relation  to  the  political  body  than  Zwingli, 
and  he  also  avoided  the  struggles  made  by  Calvin, 
to  make  the  State  subservient  to  the  Church.   A. 

still  more  difficult  task  was  the  stcna— 

4.  Political  ming   of   the   Catholic   reaction,  aad 
Activity,     it  was  chiefly  due  to  liim  that  tbie 

disaster    of    Kap]>el    had    no   wons© 
results.    The   evangelical    communities,   however , 
suffered  severely,  and  turned  to  Zurich  for  help, 
and  the  council,  in  their  eagerness  to  refute  the 
charge   of    Roman    tendencies,    unwisely  inserted 
in    their    manifesto    words    which    the   Catholics 
claimed  were  an  insult  to  the  mass.     In  the  con- 
troversy which  ensued,   Zurich  was  cited  before 
the  council  of  the  Confederation,  whereupon  Bul- 
linger,  while  blaming   the   city   for  its  folly,  ad- 
vised the  mutual  surrender  of  the  old  letters  of 
confederation,  the  peaceable  division  of  the  com- 
mon territories,  and  the  formation  of  a  new  union 
with  such  bodies  as  held  to  the  word  of  God. 
Although  it  proved  possible  to  preserve  peace  with- 
out this  dissolution  of  the  Confederation,  the  result 
was  a  partial  himiiliation  of  Zurich. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  his  pastoral  activity  Bul- 
linger was  an  indefatigable  preacher,  delivering 
between  six  and  eight  sermons  each  week,  nor  was 
it  imtil  1542  that  his  labors  were  lessened  to  two 
addresses,  on  Sunday  and  Friday.  Like  Zwingh, 
he  was  accustomed  to  interpret  entire  books  of 
the  Bible  in  order,  and  his  sermons  were  esteemed 
far  and  wide,  especially  in  England.  He  was  »!*> 
active  in  education,  and  brought  the  schools  of 


301 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bollinver 


Zurich  to  a  high  standard  of  excellence,  propo- 
sing an  admirable  scheme,  which  comprised  both 
teachers  and  pupils  and  prescribed  their  duties. 
He  likewise  promoted  theological  training  by  the 
establishment  of  scholarships  and  secured  the 
canons'  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools, 
1X1  addition  to  preparing  regulations  for  preachers 
and  synods.  The  first  of  these,  drawn  up  by  him 
and  Leo  Jud,  remained  imchanged  for  almost 
three  centuries.    The  synod  met  twice 

5.  Pastoral  annually,  and  had  as  representatives 
and  Educa-  of  the  State  a  non-officiating  burgo- 

tional  master  and  eight  members  of  the 
Activity,  great  council.  The  chief  duty  of  the 
synod  was  a  complete  report  of  the 
activity,  qualifications,  and  conduct  of  each  and 
every  pastor.  Bullinger  was  highly  esteemed  as 
a  pastor,  especially  in  time  of  pestilence,  while  his 
Quo  pacto  cum  cBffrotarUibus  et  morierUibus  agendum 
sit  paromeais  (1540)  is  a  work  of  unusual  excellence. 
A  generous  friend  and  patron  of  fugitives  from 
Germany,  Locarno,  and  England,  he  also  wrote  an 
enormous  mass  of  letters,  numbering  among  his 
correspondents  Lady  Jane  Grey,  Henry  II.  and 
Francis  II.  of  France,  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 
of  Elngland,  Elizabeth,  Christian  of  Denmark, 
Philip  of  Hesse,  and  the  palsgrave  Frederick  III. 

Bullinger  took  part  in  the  controversy  over  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  the  chief  representative  of  Ger- 
man-Swiss doctrine.  After  the  death  of  Zwingli 
both  the  Romanists,  headed  by  Johann  Faber,  and 
Luther  assailed  the  doctrines  of  his  followers,  only 
to  be  answered  by  Bullinger  in  his  Auf  Johannsen 
wieniachen  Biachofs  TroalbucKLein  trostliche  Ver- 
untiDortung  (Zurich,  1532)  and  in  the  introduction 
to  Leo  Jud's  translation  of  the  treatise  De  corpore 
€t  sanguine  Domini  of  Ratramnus,  a  monk  of 
Corvey.  Even  in  these  earlier  works  he  emphasized 
the  objective  side  of  the  sacrament,  the  work  of 
Christ  in  the  faithful,  whereas  Zwingli 

6.  Eucha-    had    taught    rather    the    subjective 
ristic        aspect  as  a  memorial.    The  contro- 

TeachingB.  versy  involved  the  Protestant  party 
in  Germany,  and  in  the  ensuing  efforts 
for  recondliatioD  Butzer  and  Bullinger  were  active 
figures,  the  latter  preparing  a  confession  for  the 
former,  showing  how  far  a  union  with  Luther  was 
possible.  This  confession  was  sent  in  Nov.,  1534, 
to  the  remaining  Swiss  cities  and  was  gladly  ac- 
cepted by  the  majority,  Bern  alone  refusing  to 
subscribe  to  it  imtil  after  the  Conference  of  Brugg 
in  Apr.,  1535.  This  was,  however,  little  more  than 
an  agreement  of  the  clergy,  and  the  desirability 
of  an  understanding  with  Luther,  as  well  as  the 
expectation  of  a  general  council,  rendered  it  advi- 
sable for  the  Swiss  Church  to  make  an  official  formu- 
lation of  its  creed.  The  result  was  the  First  Helvetic 
Confession  (see  Helvetic  Confessions),  framed  at 
Basel  in  1536,  Bullinger  being  one  of  its  authors. 
Meanwhile  Butzer  had  framed  the  Wittenberg  Con- 
cord (q.v.),  which  was  accepted  by  the  cities  of  Upper 
Grermany,  but  was  opposed  by  Bullinger  in  Zurich 
and  rejected  by  Bern.  The  Swiss  responded  with 
an  elucidation  of  the  Helvetic  Confession  prepared 
by  Bullinger  and  addressed  directly  to  Luther 
^   (Nov.,   1536),  seeking  the  middle  way  between 


transubstantiation  and  the  concept  of  a  mere 
memorial  meal.  The  reply  was  conciliatory,  but 
the  peace  was  soon  broken  by  Luther,  who  bitterly 
attacked  the  Zwinglian  doctrines  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  in  1544.  Bullinger  replied  in  the  Zurich 
Confession  of  1545,  and,  though  no  understanding 
was  reached  between  the  Swiss  and  the  Lutheran 
churches,  the  French  and  German  sections  of  the 
Swiss  Church  were  drawn  together  all 

7.  The  Hel-  the  closer,  a  matter  which  was  the 
vetic   and  more  momentous  since  the  Reformed 

Zurich      had  found  a  second  center  in  Geneva, 
Confessions  thus  giving  rise  to  the  danger  of  a 
and  the     schism  like  that  headed  by  Luther 
Consensus  and  Melanchthon  in  Germany.    The 
Tigurinus.  peril  was  averted,  however,  by  the 
Consensus  TiffurinuSf  which  was  qui- 
etly prepared  by  Bullinger  and  Calvin  in  1549  and 
wtdch  was  in  complete  harmony  with  the  pre>dous 
views  of  Bullinger  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  while  it 
emphasized  the  divine  work  of  grace,  though  it 
restricted  it  to  the  elect.     In  his  later  years  he  was 
involved  in  a  controversy  with  Brenz,  who  defended 
the  doctrine  of  the  ubiquity  of  the  sacraments 
but    reached  no  definite  conclusion.    The  views 
concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  were  closely  con- 
nected with  the  doctrine  of  predestination.    While 
still  in  Kappel,  Bullinger  had  maintained  that  free 
will   was   incompatible    with   the    foreknowledge 
of  God,  but  later  he  was  gradually  led  to  accept 
the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  his  views 
finding  their  ultimate  expression  in  the  famous 
Second   Helvetic  Confession,   which   he  prepared 
in  consultation  with  his  friend  Peter  Martyr  to 
serve -as  a  posthumous  testimony  of  his  own  belief 
and  that  of  his  church.    It  was  published,  how- 
ever, in  1566,  when  Frederic  III.,  who  was  accused 
of  Calvinism,  wished  to  defend  himself  before  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg.    At  his  request  Bullinger  sent 
him  the  confession,  which  he  printed 

8.  His  Part  and  which  was  accepted  not  only  by  all 
hi  the  Swiss  churches  with  the  exception 
Second      of  Basel,  but  also  by  the  Reformed 

Helvetic     in    France,    Scotland,    and    Hungary 
Confession,  and  highly  praised  in  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  Holland.    It  was,  strictly 
speaking,  the  bond  uniting  the  scattered  members 
of  the  EvangeUcal-Reformed  churches. 

In  the  controversies  concerning  the  relation  of 
Church  and  State,  Bullinger  regarded  the  two  as 
united,  Christian  citizens  forming  both  Church  and 
State,  and  temporal  officials  being  Ukewise  the  serv- 
ants of  God.  The  chief  duty  of  the  Church  was 
the  imrestricted  preaching  of  the  word,  and  the 
power  of  admonishing  the  authorities,  when  neces- 
sary, of  their  obligations.  Neither  Church  nor 
State,    however,    should   interfere   in 

9.  Views  on  each  other's  afifairs.    External  admin- 
the  Rela-  istration  of  the  property  of  the  Church, 

tion  of      on  the  other  hand,  was  to  be  left  to 

Church     the  State,  which  was  also  to  execute 

and  State,  ecclesiastical  punishments.    With  this 

was    closely    connected    his    attitude 

toward  heretics.    While  in  his  earlier  career  he 

had  expressed  the  utmost  tolerance,  he  later  reached 

the  conclusion  that  preaching  and  writing  against 


Btdlinffer 
SunUnff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


809 


ticrcsy  must  be  supplemented  by  state  punish- 
ment. Roused  by  Anabaptism,  he  urged  in  1535 
tliat  no  heretics  should  be  admitted  to  the  city 
and  that,  if  all  efforts  at  conversion  proved  fruitless, 
they  should  be  punished  by  the  secular  arm,  though 
with  due  consideration  of  the  circumstances  of 
each  individual  case.  This  position  did  not  ex- 
clude capital  punishment,  and  while  Bullinger 
did  not  avail  himself  of  it  in  the  case  of  the  Ana- 
baptists, it  is  easy  to  see  how  he  could  counsel  the 
execution  of  Serve tus  and  the  exile  of  Ochino. 

The  years  1564-65  were  marked  with  sorrow  for 
Bullinger,  who  lost  many  of  his  relatives  and 
closest  friends  by  death,  and  was  himself  so  seri- 
ously ill  with  the  plague  that  his  life  was  despaired 
of.  Even  after  his  apparent  recovery  his  health  was 
shattered,  and  his  sufferings  from  calculi  increased 
until  he  was  rep)eatedly  near  death.  His  last 
sermon  was  delivered  on  Whitsuntide,  1575,  and 
four  months  later  he  died. 

BulUnger's  works  are  extraordinarily  numerous 
but  have  never  been  published  in  collected  form 
and  some  are  extant  only  in  manuscript.  The 
catalogue  of  the  municipal  library  of  Zurich  lists 
about  100  separate  works,  and  this  number  is 
raised  to  150  by  J.  J.  Scheuchzer.  Especially 
noteworthy  are  his  Latin  expositions  of  all  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  with  the  exception  of  the 
Apocalypse,  which  were  prepared  up  to  1548, 
when  their  place  was  taken  by  collections  of  ser- 
mons, the  majority  also  in  Latin,  comprising  100 
on  the  Apocalypse,  sixty-six  on  Daniel,  170  on 
Jeremiah,  and  190  on  Isaiah.  His  sermons  on  the 
decalogue,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  sacraments, 
etc.,  were  highly  esteemed  and  pubUshed  under 
the  title,  Sermonum  decades  quinque 
10.  The  (Zurich,  1557;  translated  into  Dutch 
Works  of  and  French:  Eng.  transl.,  The  Decades, 
Bullinger.  London,  1577,  ed.  for  the  Parker  So- 
ciety by  T.  Harding,  Cambridge,  1849- 
1851).  Among  liis  theological  works  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  his  De  prmidcrUia  (Zurich,  1553); 
De  gratia  Dei  justificante,  and  De  scripturw  sandas 
auctoritate  et  certiiudine  deque  episcoporum  institv^ 
tione  et  functione  (1538,  Eng.  transl.,  Woorthynesse, 
authorities  and  sufficiencie  of  the  holy  Scripture,  Lon- 
don, 1579).  He  was  likewise  the  author  of  a  drama 
on  Lucretia  and  Brutus  and  of  a  hymn  beginning: 
"  O  holy  God,  have  mercy  nowi  "  Bullinger  also 
wrote  a  chronicle  and  description  of  Kappel,  and 
later  prepared  a  similar  work  entitled  Antiquitates 
aliquot  ecclesim  Tigurinopf  which  is  preserved  in 
manuscript  in  the  municipal  library.  An  important 
source  for  the  liistory  of  the  Anabaptists  is  found 
in  his  Der  Wiedertai'ifem  Ur sprung,  Fiirgang,  Sekten 
(Zurich,  1560),  but  his  chief  historical  work  wuh  his 
detailed  chronicle  of  the  Swiss,  the  most  valuable 
part  being  the  history  of  the  Reformation  up  to 
1532  (cd.  J.  J.  Hottinger  and  IL  IL  Vftgeli,  6  vols., 
Frauenfeld,  1838-40).  (Emil  Egli.) 

Bibliography:  Sources:  Bullinger's  autobioin^phy  was 
printed  in  Miscellatiea  Tiffurini,  iii.  1-171,  Zurich,  1722; 
valuable  also  is  his  ReformationsQeachichte,  3  vols.,  Frau- 
enfeld, 1838-40.  Other  eariy  sources  are:  J.  W.  Stucki, 
Oratio  fuwbrU,  Zurich,  1675;  J.  Simmler,  De  artu,  rito, 
€t  ohitu  Heinrici  BuXlingeri.  ib.  1576;  Archiv  fUr  die 
Mchweixeriache  ReformoHontottchichte,   vol.   i.,   Solothurn, 


1868.  For  his  life  consult:  J.  F.  Frans,  Merkwiitdiife  Zfi«e 
auM  dem  Leben  dcB  .  .  .  H.  BuUinifer,  Bern,  1828;  & 
Hess.  La>enaoe»chuJUe  BuUingen^  2  vole..  Zurich.  1S28- 
1820;  G.  Friedl&nder.  BeitrAge  sur  RefarmaHan^fetekidtk. 
Sammlung  ungedruckier  Briefe  de»  BuUinger,  Beriin.  1837; 
C.  Pestalosn.  Heinrieh  BuUinger,  Elberfeld,  1858;  R. 
ChriBtoffel,  H.  BuUinoer  und  teinB  OaUin,  Zurich.  1875; 
G.  R.  Zimmermann,  Die  ZQrcher  Kirche  und  ikre  An- 
HtteM,  ib.  1877;  Sehaff.  Christian  Church,  viL  a06>214. 
514.  618;  MoeUer.  Chrittian  Church,  vol.  iii.  | 


BUNBURT,  THOMAS:  Protestant  bishop  of 
Limerick;  b.  at  Shandrum,  County  Cork,  in  the 
year  1832.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin  (B.A.,  1852),  and  was  ordered  deam 
1854,  and  priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was 
curate  of  Clonfert,  County  Galway  (1856-68),  and 
of  Mallow,  County  Cork  (1858-63),  rector  of 
Croom,  County  Limerick  (1863-72),  rector  of  St. 
Mary's,  Limerick,  as  well  as  dean  of  XJmeriek 
(1872-99).  From  1895  to  1899  he  was  also  chap- 
lain to  the  bishop  of  Limerick,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  himself  consecrated  to  that  see. 

BUND,  EVAHGELISCHER  ("Evangelical  Un- 
ion''):  An  alliance  of  German  Protestants  for 
maintaining  Protestant  interests  in  Germany. 
The  occasion  of  the  formation  was  the  modem 
aggressions  of  the  papacy  O^^^ding  to  the  KuUur- 
kampf)  and  the  arrogance  of  Ultramontamsm,  the 
dream  of  which  is  to  reestablish  Catholicism  in 
Germany.  Its  founder  was  Prof.  W.  Beyschlag 
of  Halle  who,  finding  others  interested  in  the 
scheme,  called  a  preliminary  meeting  at  Erfurt, 
October  5,  1886,  which  was  attended  by  seventy 
men  representing  different  types  of  Protestant 
theology.  After  a  thorough  discussion,  an  organ- 
ization was  effected  under  the  presidency  of  Count 
von  Wintzingerode-Bodenstein.  The  confessional 
basis  of  the  alliance  is:  *'  Belief  in  Jesus  Christ, 
the  only  begotten  Son  of  God,  as  the  only  mediator 
of  salvation,  and  adherence  to  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation."  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1887 
a  circular  containing  243  names  was  sent  out,  and 
wlicn  the  alliance  held  its  first  annual  meeting  in 
Frankfort,  August  15-17,  1887,  10,(X)0  members 
were  reported.  The  ecclesiastical  authorities,  who 
were  at  first  indifferent,  soon  perceived  the  great 
importance  of  the  Bund  and  expressed  their  ap- 
proval of  the  purposes  of  the  alliance,  which  in 
various  ways  has  developed  a  great  activity  in 
opposition  to  the  Roman  propaganda.  In  public 
lectures  the  burning  religious  questions  of  the  day 
are  treated  with  the  intention  of  sharpening  and 
strengthening  the  Protestant  consciousness.  M 
the  Bund  has  its  own  publication  house  at  Leipsic, 
it  publishes  not  only  a  monthly  in  behalf  of  Protes- 
tant interests,  but  also  pamphlets  intended  to  ex- 
pose and  to  refute  the  claims  of  Ultramontanism 
and  to  repel  attacks,  especially  directed  against 
the  memory  and  work  of  Luther  and  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  The  Bund  has  also  the  practical  end 
of  affording  material  help  to  weak  institutions  in 
the  "  Diaspora."  The  effect  of  the  Bund  is  felt 
by  the  Ultramontanes,  and  their  attacks  upon  it 
only  show  its  necessity.  (W.  BEYSCHLAot.) 

Bibliography:  G.  Warneck,  Der  evanoeliMche  Bund  ^ 
»eine  Gegner,  Leipaic,  1889;  H.  Meyer-Hernnum.  D^ 
Kampf  dea  evanoelitdten  Bundea  tfegen  Rom  und  mM 
WirkaamktU  in  der  evangtliaehen  Kirche,  Bmumo,  1800; 


303 


REUGIOUS    EXCTCLOPEDTA 


Bullinffor 

Biuiting* 


Nippold,  Zitde  ui»d  Vorffetichiehig  dim  etHmffrliBcArn  Bumirft, 
tSOO;  L.  Wttte,  Der  nanaeiiachr  Burtfi.  etvn  ijutfM  Htrht 
und  mi*^  ff9ihan€»  IVVrA,  Barmen,  \HQ&,  Blankm«*L-*t«T.  Das 
RtitA  mum*  un*  dock  bleihtn.  l^ipilc,  189<:);  also  the  paiii- 
phletH  published  by  the  Bund. 

BUNGENER,  bun"ie-n6'  (LAURENT  LOUIS), 
FELIX:  Swiss  Protestant;  b.  at  Marseilles  Hi^pt. 
H,  1814;  d.  in  Geneva  June  14.  1874,  He  was 
graduate*]  B,L.  at  Marseilles,  1832,  B.S.  al  Oeneva* 
1834,  stadiL'ii  theology  at  Geneva  and  wius  graii- 
tmted  at  Strasbur^,  1H'18;  ordained  in  Geneva. 
1839,  and  lived  there  as  teacher,  writer,  ami  ocva- 
nonal  preacher.  lUn  books  and  articles  were  very 
numerous  and  exerted  a  wi<k"  inflnenet\  e.'tpecially 
those  of  u  controversial  character  against  the  Chureh 
of  Rome,  From  15U9  till  his  death  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  Etrenneft  reUgieu^t-K,  an  annual 
chronicle  of  relig:ious  events,  particularly  those 
connected  with  Geneva.  Hitt  more  noteworthy 
books  were:  Vn  sermon  sous  Louh  XIV  (Paris, 
1843;  Eng,  transL,  The  Preacher  and  the  King, 
or  Bourdahue  in  the  Court  of  Louis   XIV,  London 

fcd  Boston.  1853);  HiMoire  thi  i  one  tie  de  Trentr  (2 
Im.,  1847;  Eng.  trimfiL,  Edinburgh,  1852;  by  J.  Mc- 
0intock,  New  York,  18.S.5);  Troiti  nenmjns  soua  I^huh 
XV  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1849;  Eng.  transl.,  Tfte  I'rivxt 
and  the  IlugueniH^y  or  Persecution  in  the  Age  oj  Loitia 
Xr,  2  vols.,  London,  1853);  Voltaire  et  aon  temfh<i 
(2vols.,185();  Eng.traasK.EdinburghJHM);  Juliet 
ou  la  fin  d'unsii!cJe  (4  vols,,  Paris.  IS.') 4;  Eng,  transL, 
London.  1854);  Christ  ct  ksitde  (Paris,  1856);  Rome 
tt  Ut  Bible  (1858);  Calvin,  sa  mt\  Hon  ctwrre  ct  sat 
tcnfji  {\m2\  Eng.  tnmsl.,  Etlinburgh,  1863);  Trots 
jimrsdelavied'unpere^Vt'riiUmviiU'r  the  death  of  hiw 
two  years  old  daughter  <, Paris,  1863;  Eng.  trannL. 
Edinburgh.  1864,  New  York,  1867  >;  Lincoln,  m  vie, 
«orn  amvre  et  sa  rnort  (Lausanne,  1865);  Saint  Paul, 
sa  vie,  ses  oeutre^  et  *e^  epUres  (Paris,  1867;  Eng. 
transL,  London,  1870);  Pajx'  ct  concHe  au  xix. 
mecle  (Paris,  1870;  Eng.  trarisL.  Edinburgh,  187(1). 
A  volume  of  "  Sermotiu"  wa«  publisheil  after  h'm 
death  (1875). 

rmuoGUAfttr:  Jean  GabcreL  m  Strenw  rfliQieuM  for  1 87.'!; 
Hcfluri  Gambier,  Fcltx  BuHfj*ufr,  CwtievA,  1801. 

BUWSEN,  bun'zen,  CHRISTIAN  KARL  JOSIAS: 
Baron;  Cierman  scholar  and  diplomat;  b.  at  Kor- 
bach  (28  m.  k.w.  of  Ctus^sel)  Aug.  25,  1791;  d.  at 
Bonn  Nov.  28.  1860.  lie  studied  theology  ami 
philology  in  Marburg  and  (JOttingen  (1808-13), 
Resigning  hLs  hoj>es  of  journeying  to  India,  Bunsen 
followed  his  friend  Brandis  t^  Home  in  1816, 
first  na  aecretar>'  to  the  HusHian  embiiswy,  over 
jrhich  Niebuhr  presided.  Two  years  later  he 
lioow'dcMi  Brumiis  in  the  dii>lomatic  service,  and 
*I>re8enteil  Prussia  at  Honie  (where  he  berame  a 
friend  of  Tholuek  and  llothe)  from  1823  to 
*  In  the  latter  year  he  wlih  .sent  as  minister 
)  Bern,  and  in  1841  to  Ivondon  ns  niiinster  plenipo- 
atiary  and  envoy  extraordinary  of  his  Majesty 
derick  William  !V^  at  the  Court  of  St.  James. 
tn  1854  he  returned  to  Genu  any  and  was  ennobled 
by  the  king  of  Prussia.  In  the  same  year  he 
to  Heidelberg,  devoting  hitm^c-lf  to  literary 
LirHUtts.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  moved  to 
rjnn,  where  he  continued  his  studies  until  the  last, 
iliisen's  influence  and  position  enaljleil  Iiim  to 
not    only    scliolars    like    Birch,    Cureton, 


Max  Mtlller,  Richard  Lcpsius,  and  Hoffmann,  but 
also  to  found  institutions,  like  the  German  hos- 
pitals in  Rome  and  Lomlon,  and  the  archeologtcal 
inestitute  at  Home.  He  helped  to  establish  the 
Anglo-Prussian  bishopric  at  Jerusalem  (i*ee  Jerusa- 
lem, Anglican-German  Bishophic  in)  as  a  hiuiin 
of  a  larger  union  between  the  German  evangelical 
and  the  Anglican  churches.  A  complete  list  of 
his  writings  woukl  inchule  contributiotLS  to  Roman 
and  Eg>'ptian  Antiquities,  us  well  as  to  politics, 
liturgj',  find  llymno|og>^  His  chief  works  of  theo- 
logical interest  are  as  follows;  Ignatiuji  win  Anti^ 
ochien  und  seine  Zeil  (Hamburg,  1847);  Hippaltftua 
and  Aw  Age  (4  vols,,  London^  18.^1),  wliich,  together 
with  his  Annkda  Ante-Xicitna  and  OuttineH  of 
the  Philosophtj  of  Universal  History  as  Applied  to 
Language  and  Reltgioji,  form  Kia  great  work  Chris- 
tiunilt/  and  Mankind  (7  vols,,  1854),  for  which  many 
scholars  wrote  contribution.s.  Soon  after  liis  return 
to  CJermany  he  published  Dte  Zeichen  der  Zeit 
(2  vols.,  T.^ipsic,  1855;  Eng.  transl..  Signs  of  the 
Times,  London,  1856),  in  which  he  assailed  the 
anarchy  existing  in  political,  religious,  and  intellei?- 
tual  life,  advocating  toleration  and  liberty  of  con- 
acience,  and  opposing  the  sopliistical  and  fanatical 
doctrines  of  Stahl  and  Ketteler,  Another  work 
wliich  in  vol  vet  I  Bunsen  in  controversy  was  his 
Gott  in  der  Geschichte ,  oder  der  Fortschritt  des  Glau- 
bens  an  fine  sittHrhe  Weltordnung  {'S  vols.,  1857-58; 
Eng.  transl. ,  God  in  Histonj,  3  vols.,  London, 
1868-7f)),  but  his  most  important  book  was  his 
Votlstdndigeti  Hibelwerk  jiir  die  Gerneinde  (9  vols., 
1858-70),  Bunsen  lived  to  see  the  publication  of 
vols,  i,,  ii.,  and  v.;  after  his  death  Adolf  Kamp- 
hausen,  continued  the  work  with  the  help  of 
Johannes  Bleek,  IL  Iloltzmann,  and  others;  the 
work  gave  a  marked  impetus  to  the  revision  of 
Luther^s  Bible  version,  and  was  diligent ly  consulted 
by  the  German  revisers.  A.  Kamphaitsen. 

BiBLtuoRAPiiv:  The  chi>f  work  od  Bunscn'w  life  w  by  bin 
widow.  Mrmuir  of  Btinm  C,  C,  J,  Bunurn,  2  vols,.  Lpon- 
don,  1868-459,  irnnt^liiteif  and  euliirgetl  by  Nlppold.  3 
vol«..  l^ipHtc,  18G8-71  t]bnAult  als^t  A.  J,  O,  Hare.  iAf€ 
and  LetlerM  of  Barnufi^t  Bunacn,  London,  1878,  Genn. 
tmnal  hy  F,  A,  Perthes,  Gotha,  lS8fi,  Both  work*  have 
had  »i  large  circulation  on  both  ajdcw  of  th«  Atlnatic. 

BUNTIKG,  JABEZ:  The  "second  founder  of 
Methodism  ";  b.  at  Manchester  May  13,  1779; 
ti,  ill  London  June  16,  1858,  He  received  a  good 
school  education  in  Mrmehester,  and  began  to 
preach  at  the  age  of  nineteen:  was  stationed  first 
in  Manchester,  then  at  Macclesfield  (1801),  London 
(1803),  Manchester  (IS05),  Sheffield  {1807}.  Liver- 
P«xj1  (18fm),  Halifax  (1811),  Leeds  (1813),  London 
(1 8 L") ),  Manchester  ( 1 824 ),  Li verpool  ( 1 8:10) ;  from 
1S33  he  lived  in  London  and  filled  the  most  im- 
pijftant  positioris  at  the  denominational  head- 
quarters. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
W<'sleyan  Missionary  Society  and  its  secretary 
for  eighteen  years;  was  first  president  of  tlie  Wea- 
leyan  Missionary  Institute  in  London,  from  1835 
till  his  death;  was  president  of  the  conference  in 
1820,  1828,  1836.  and  1844,  He  perfected  the 
Metbodist  organization ♦  and  it  was  his  influence 
which  ga\^e  steadily  tncreasing  powers  to  laymen. 
He  edited  the  seventh  edition  of  Crudcn*s  Concord- 
ance (Liveri^ool,  1815)  and  Meffwirs  of  the  Earijf 


Banyan 
Buryes 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


804 


Life  of  William  Cowper  (1816).  Two  volumes  of 
Bermons,  edited  by  his  eldest  son,  W.  M.  Bunting, 
appeared  posthumously  (1861-62). 

Biblioorapht:  His  Life  was  written  by  T.  P.  Bunting 
(brother  of  W.  M.  Bunting,  above),  vol.  i..  London,  1859, 
vol.  ii.,  completed  by  G.  S.  Rowe,  1887.  Connult  also 
DNB,  vii.  273-275,  where  other  literature  is  given. 

BUNYAlf,  JOHN:  "The  immortal  dreamer  of 
Bedford  jail;"  b.  at  Harrowdcn  (1  m.  s.e.  of  Bedford), 
in  the  parish  of  Elstow,  christened  Nov.  30,  1628; 
d.  in  London  Aug.  31,  1688.  He  had  very  little 
schooling,  followed  his  father  in  the  tinker's  trade, 
was  in  the  parliamentary  army,  1644-47;  married 
in  1649;  lived  in  Elstow  till  1655,  when  his  wife 
died  and  he  moved  to  Bedford.  He  married  again 
1659.  He  was  received  into  the  Baptist  church 
in  Bedford  by  immersion  in  the  Ouse,  1653.  In 
1655  he  became  a  deacon  and  began  preaching 
with  marked  success  from  the  start.  In  1658  he 
was  indicted  for  preacliing  without  a  license;  kept 
on,  however,  and  did  not  suffer  imprisonment  till 
Nov.,  1660,  when  he  was  taken  to  the  county  jail 
in  Silver  Street,  Bedford,  and  there  confined,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  weeks  in  1666,  till  Jan.,  1672. 
In  that  month  he  became  pastor  of  the  Bedford 
church.  In  March,  1675  (the  original  warrant,  dis- 
covered in  1887,  is  pubUshed  in  facsimile  by  Rush 
and  Warwick,  London),  he  was  again  imprisoned 
for  preaching  and  tliis  time  in  the  Bedford  town 
jail  on  the  stone  bridge  over  the  Ouse.  In  six 
months  he  was  free  and  was  not  again  molested 
In  Aug.,  1688,  on  his  way  to  London  he  caught  a 
severe  cold  from  being  wet,  and  died  at  the  house 
of  a  friend  on  Snow  Hill. 

All  the  world  knows  that  Bimyan  wrot«  Tlie 
Pilgrim* 8  Progress,  in  two  parts,  of  which  the  first 
appeared  at  London  in  1678,  and  was,  at  all  events, 
begun  during  liis  imprisonment  in  1676;  the  second 
in  1684.  The  earliest  edition  in  which  the  two 
parts  were  combined  in  one  volume  was  in  1728. 
A  third  part  falsely  attributed  to  Bunyan  appeared 
in  1693,  and  was  reprinted  as  late  as  1852.  The 
Pilgrim*s  Progress  is  the  most  successful  allegory 
ever  written,  and  like  the  Bible  is  adapted  to  man 
in  every  clime.  It  is  indeed  commonly  translated 
by  Ihrotestant  missionaries  after  the  Bible.  It  is 
thus  read  in  all  literary  languages  and  is  a  world- 
classic.  Two  other  works  of  Bunyan's  would  have 
given  him  fame,  but  not  as  wide  as  that  he  now 
enjoys;  viz.,  The  Life  and  Death  of  Mr.  Badman 
(1680),  an  imaginary  biography,  and  the  allegory 
The  Holy  War  (1682).  The  book  which  lays  bare 
Bunyan's  inner  life  and  reveals  his  preparation 
for  liis  appointed  work  is  Grace  Abounding  to  the 
chief  of  sinners  (1666).  It  is  very  prolix,  and  being 
all  about  himself,  in  a  man  less  holy  would  be  in- 
tolerably egotistic,  but  his  motive  in  writing  being 
plainly  to  exalt  the  grace  of  God  and  to  comfort  those 
passing  through  experiences  somewhat  like  his  own, 
his  egotism  makes  no  disagreeable  impression. 

The  works  just  named  have  appeared  in  numer- 
ous editions,  and  are  accessible  to  all.  There  are 
several  noteworthy  collections  of  editions  of  the 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  e.g.,  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  in  the  New  York  Public  Library,  collected  by 
the  late  James  Lenox. 


Bunyan  was  a  popular  preacher  as  well  as  a  very 
voluminous  author,  though  most  of  his  works 
consist  of  expanded  sermons.  In  theology  he  wa8 
a  Puritan,  but  not  a  partizan;  nor  was  there 
anything  gloomy  about  him.  The  portrait  which 
his  friend  Robert  White  drew,  which  has  been 
often  reproduced,  is  a  most  attractive  one  and  this 
was  his  true  character.  He  was  tall,  had  reddish 
hair,  prominent  nose,  a  rather  large  mouth,  and 
sparkling  eyes.  He  was  no  scholar,  except  of  the 
English  Bible,  but  that  he  knew  thoroughly. 
Another  book  which  greatly  influenced  him  was 
Martin  Luther's  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  in  the  translation  of  1575. 

[Some  time  before  his  final  release  from  prison 
Bunyan  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with 
Kiffiji,  D'Anvers,  Deime,  Paul,  and  others.  In 
1673  he  published  his  Di)7^^nc68  in  Judgement  about 
Water-Baptism  no  Bar  to  Communion,  in  which  he 
took  the  ground  that  "the  Church  of  Christ  hath 
not  warrant  to  keep  out  of  the  conmiunion  the 
Christian  that  is  discovered  to  be  a  visible  saint  of 
the  word,  the  Christian  that  walketh  according  to 
his  own  light  with  God."  While  he  owned  *'wate^ 
baptism  to  be  God's  ordinance,"  he  refused  to 
make  "  an  idol  of  it,"  as  he  thought  those  did  who 
made  the  lack  of  it  a  ground  for  disfellowshiping 
those  recognized  as  genuine  Christians.  Kiffin  and 
Paul  published  a  rejoinder  in  Serious  RefUctunu 
(London,  1673),  in  which  they  ably  set  forth  the 
argument  in  favor  of  the  restriction  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  to  baptized  believers,  and  received  the  ap- 
proval of  Henry  D'Anvers  in  his  Treatise  of  Bap- 
tism (London,  1674).  The  result  of  the  contro- 
versy was  to  leave  the  question  of  conununion  with 
the  unbaptized  an  open  one  so  far  as  the  Partic- 
ular (Calvinistic)  Baptists  were  concerned.  Bun- 
yan's church  admitted  pedobaptists  to  fellowship 
and  finally  became  pedobaptist  (Congregational- 
ist).  A.  H.  N.] 

Bibliography:  The  best  edition  of  Bunyan's  CompMf 
Work9  is  by  G.  Offor  and  R,  Philip,  3  vols.,  London.  1853, 
new  ed..  1862.  The  best  biography  is  by  John  Biovb, 
London,  1885,  new  ed..  1902,  the  author  of  which  wia 
for  many  years  the  minister  of  the  Bunyan  chapel  at  Bed- 
ford. Other  good  biographies  are:  J.  A.  Froude.  in  EnffiiA 
Men  of  LeUert,  1887;  E.  Venables.  in  Great  Writen  Stria, 
1888;  and  W.  H.  White,  in  Literary  Lives  Seriet,  190i 

BURCHARD  OF  WORMS:  Bishop  of  Wonns; 
d.  Aug.  20,  1025.  He  was  a  Hessian  by  birth,  and 
was  educated  at  Coblenz  and  under  the  famous 
Olbert  in  the  Flemish  monastery  of  Laubach. 
Willigis  of  Mainz  ordained  him,  and  employed  him 
in  a  number  of  important  afifairs.  Otto  III.  gave 
him  the  bishopric  of  Worms  (1000),  which  had  fallen 
into  a  bad  condition.  He  improved  the  city  in 
many  ways;  established  the  episcopal  power  more 
firmly  and  even  increased  it;  demolished  the  fort- 
ress of  Duke  Otto  and  built  a  monastery  with  the 
stones  from  it,  placing  over  the  door  the  inscription 
06  libertatem  dvitatis.  In  1014  Henry  II.  gave 
him  secular  jiuisdiction  over  the  inhabitants,  which 
he  used  to  promote  uniformity  and  security  of 
law.  He  rebuilt  the  cathedral,  consecrating  it 
in  1016;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  collection 
of  canon  law,  which  had  a  very  wide  circulation 
not  only  in  Germany  but  in  Italy.     (A.  Hauck.) 


IGIOUS  ENCYCI 


Btmyan 
BuTgem 


BTt  The  Decretfrrum  Uhri  viainli  are  iu  MPL, 
eriab  for  «  life  %ri3  in  hex  familiar  Warmatien^i* 
iGH,  Leffum,  section  iv.,  CfmBHiutioneM  et  aria, 
liUod,  L  (1893)  639.  no,  438;  and  the  anony- 
;,  ed.  G.  H.  Perta  in  MGH.  Srript,  i\\  (1&41> 
&tid  MPL,  cxl.  507-536,  ajrusuU:  Hauck, 
i3fi;  H.  G.  Gentler,  Dnn  Hiyfrerht  deM  BuTchard 
4,  ErlanReii.  1859;  A,  M«  Ktiniger,  Burchard  I . 
s.  Muni  eh,  1003. 

AM)  OF  WURZEURG :  Bishop  of  Wti  rz- 
-754,  He  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  who  left 
fter  the  death  of  his  kin*jfoIk  and  joined 
D  bis  missioDary  labors,  some  time  aft^T 
ai  Boniface  organized  bi.sboprics  in 
rmany,  he  placed  Burchard  over  that  of 
;  bifl  consecration  can  not  have  occurred 
the  summer  of  74 1  ♦  sinre  in  the  autumn 
ar  we  find  him  officiating  as  %  bishop  at 
;ration  of  WiUibald  of  Eichstiidt,  Pope 
confirmed  the  new  bishopric  in  743. 
appearn  again  m  a  member  of  tlie  first 
»uncil  in  742,  and  as  an  envoy  to  Rome 
face  in  748.  With  Fulrad  of  Saint- Denis, 
i  to  Zachariaa  the  famous  question  of 
ose  answer  was  suppost;d  to  justify  the 
a  of  regal  power  by  the  Merovingians. 
(A.  Hauck.) 

Wt:  Two  anonymouB  Uvcp.  one  of  the  ninth  or 
other  of  the  twelfth  century,  ed.  Holder-Egger, 
OH,  Script.,  XV.  (1S87)  47 -C2.  Consult:  A. 
nr.  AuM  d«T  liU^nritchfn  HinterlagMTuichaft  Jea 
harduM,  NeiHM;.  1S8S;  Rettbei^.  KD,  il  313; 
CD,    i.    487    and    paaaim;  Ne&uder,    Chriatian 

R,  GEORGE:  English  Congregational- 
London  June  5,  1752;  d.  there  May  29, 
i  was   trained   for   an  artist,  but  began 

under  the  influence  of  White  field  and 
tes;  became  minister  at  Lancaster ,  1778; 

1783;  Fetter  Lane,  London,  1803.  He 
r  the  founders  of  the  London  Missionary 
1795),  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society 
i  of  the  Brilish  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
d  frona  1803  to  1827  served  gratuitously 
ly  of  the  first-named,  besides  editing 
gelical  Magazine  fur  many  years.  The 
lessful  of  his  many  publications  were 
rmons  (7  vols.,  London,  1798-1816),  and 
m  of  Hifmnn,  Intertdid  as  a  Supplement 
[1784),  which  went  through  sonae  fifty 
ad  contained  three  or  four  hymns  of  his 

Bt;  There  are  Memoira  by  his  son,  H.  F.  Burder, 
1S33,  and  by  L  Cobbin,  186ft.  Con.'^ult  al.-»D 
,  2JW-295.  and  for  hia  hytnns,  8.  W.  Duffield. 
fymnM,  pp,  121.  508.  New  York.  188ft;  Julian^ 
V,  p.  194. 

nJS»  MAURITIUS.    See  Gregory  VIII., 


R,  KARL  HEINRICH  AUGUST  VOH: 
beologian;  b.  at  Baireuth  (126  m.  n.  of 
iJay  1,  1S(J5;  d.  at  Schtinau  (a  village 
it^gaden,  12  m.  s.  of  Sahburg)  July  14, 
►  studied  theology  and  pliilology  at  the 
^  of  Erlangen  (1823-27),  ami  in  1827 
inted  teacher  at  the  gymnui^ium  there. 
5ar«  later  be  became  curate  lit  Fiirth 
rmberg,  and  in  1846  he  was  transferred 
L— 20 


in  the  same  capacity  to  Munich,  where  he  was 
appointed  dean  in  1849  and  councilor  of  the  high 
consistorj^  in  1855,  holding  this  office  until  his 
resignation  in  1883.  Under  the  guidance  of  his 
father-in-law,  Johann  Christian  KnifFt,  of  Erlangen, 
he  gained  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Bible  which 
was  evinced  by  his  IMc  Brufe  Fault  an  die  Korinther 
(2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1859-60);  Die  EvatifjcHen  rwch 
MattkfiuSf  M areas  and  Lucas  (NBrdlingen,  1865); 
Das  Evangdmm  nach  Johannes  (1868);  and  Die 
Offenbarung  tSt.  Joh^nnis  (Munich,  1877).  Inter* 
preting  the  Bible  by  the  Bible,  he  sought  to  rentier 
his  work  available  for  the  educated  laity,  while 
clergymen  also  find  it  valuable  in  the  preparation 
of  sermons.  His  interpretation  of  Revelation  has 
met  with  special  favor  in  W(irt  tern  berg.  While 
his  sermons  were  not  couched  in  popular  style, 
and  while  they  demanded  close  atteution  on  ac- 
count of  their  logic  and  depth,  they  appealed 
effectually  to  serious  auditors,  and  two  cxillectiona 
of  them  were  published,  Fredi{fUn  in  der  protestan- 
tischen  Stadtpjarrkirche  zu  Munchen  gehalten  (Er- 
langen, 1857)  and  Predlgien  fur  aile  Sonn-  und 
Fe^'iUage  des  Kirchenjahre^  (2  vols.,  NGrdlingen, 
1864)*  As  a  member  of  the  high  consistory,  Burger 
aided  the  Bavarian  Church  to  surmount  rationalism 
and  to  become  a  true  evangelical  Lutheran  body, 
and  Ilia  ttisk  was  facilitated  by  his  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  philo!*ophy,  history,  and  theology,  as  well 
as  by  his  tact  and  discrctjan.  Despite  his  reserved 
and  quiet  natiu«,  which  shunned  all  publicity,  he 
enjoyed  the  deep  esteem  and  gratitude  of  the  clergy 
and  their  congregations,  as  well  as  the  confidence 
of  the  three  kings  of  Bavaria  under  whom  he  served, 
Louis  L,  MaximiEan  XL,  and  Louis  XL 

Karl  BoROERt' 

BURGES,  btJr'jcs,  CORNELIUS:  Presbyterian;  b. 
in  Somer8trtshire(date  undetermined,  probably  1589); 
d*  at  Watfiird  (7  m.  s.w.  of  St.  Albans),  buried  there 
June  9,  1665.  He  wa-s  educated  at  Oxford  in 
Wadham  and  other  colleges;  was  vicar  of  Watford 
(1613-45),  also  (1626-41}  rector  of  St.  Magnus 
Church  in  London,  holding  the  two  charges  at  the 
siune  time.  On  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  (1625), 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  chaplains  in  ordinary. 
He  wiLs  appointed  a  member  of  the  Westminster 
AsHcmbly  in  1643,  July  8  he  was  chosen  by  them 
assessor  with  Dr.  Wliite,  and  generally  occupied 
the  chair  on  account  of  the  illness  of  Dr.  Twisfle. 
He  was  chairman  of  the  first  of  the  three  grand 
committees  of  the  Assembly,  and  one  of  the  most 
energetic  members  of  the  body,  being  active  espe- 
cially in  the  discussion  of  Church  Government  and 
the  Directory  for  Worship.  He  was  energetic  in 
political  as  w*ell  as  ecclesiastical  affairs.  On  the 
Restoration  his  handsome  prnjierty  was  confiscated, 
and  hediixlinwant.  His  chief  works  are:  A  Chain  of 
Grares  Drawn  &tU  at  Length  for  Rtfonnation  of  Man^ 
ners  (London.  1622);  7'/i*  Fire  of  the  Sandimry  nettfty 
Discovered  or  a  Compleai  Tract  of  Zeal  (1625) ;  and 
Baptismal  Regeneration  of  Elect  Infants  (Oxford, 
1 629) .  In  the  latter  he  maintains:  "  It  is  most  agree- 
able to  the  Institution  of  Christ  that  all  elect  infants 
that  are  baptized  (vmlessin  florae  extraordinar>'^  cases 
doe,  ordinarily,  receive,  from  Christ,  the  Spirit  in 


Biurlkl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


S06 


Bftptiitn,  for  ibmr  first  solemn  jmtuitioii  mto 
ChHit^  and  for  their  futttre  actual  renovation,  in 
God  i  good  time,  if  th^y  live  to  yearm  of  dkereiion, 
mnd  enjoy  the  ordinaiy  mcMUi  of  gra^  &p|>ointed 
of  God  to  thsa  end/'  He  delivered  a  brf^e  num- 
ber of  aermonft  before  PariJameni  and  other  civil 
bodiea,  which  were  publiiihed  from  time  to  time. 
He  iji  crecUied  also  with  the  paper  fiubflcribed  by 
the  London  minbtterHf  entitled  A  Vindicaiion  of 
the  miniitterfi  of  the  Gmpd  in  and  ab&ui  London 
Jram  ihe  unju*t  AMperHont  ca$i  upon  their  former 
Ae^ngn  for  the  Parliamenif  aa  if  the}/  hod  promoted 
the  Bringing  of  lA*  Kir^  to  CapUal  PunUhment, 
London r  J 548.  €.  A.  Beigqb. 

BlUifoaaAFtrr:  A.  i^  WqcnI  AOientr  Q^tnmiUKa^  rd.  P, 
bliH,  itL  mu  D.  ntm.1  iiiJiofV  of  thM  Puritan*,  ii.  m&. 
Zm,    Iv.    332,   Dublin,   175«-  DNB,  im.  301 -30t  (qilil« 

dctwledl. 

BURQESSf  AETHOITY:  Non-eon fonniit  cler]^- 
man.  He  entered  Bt.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1623  and  became  follow  of  Emmanuel;  was  vicar 
of  Sutton  Cfild field,  Warwiekihire,  in  1&S5:  mem- 
ber of  the  WeiitmiiiHter  Amembly;  ejected  by  the 
Unifonnlty  Act  of  1662  after  the  Restoration,  and 
lived  afterward  in  refinement  at  Tarn  worth  (14 
m.  n.w,  of  Binningham).  He  wrote:  Vindieim 
Legis  (London,  1646);  The  True  Docirine  of  Jwsti- 
ficaiion  Asserted  (I64S):  Spiritual  Refining,  120 
■ermonit  (1*552;  2d  od.,  161  Mermon«.  1658);  Ex- 
pofHory  Sermons  (145)  on  John  xvii.  (1656);  The 
Scripture  DireH&rjf  (a  commentary  on  I  Corinthians 
iii.),  to  t&hich  in  Annexed  the  Gwlbj  and  Naiurul 
Man'n  Choice,  u|>on  Pffalm  iv.  6-g  (1659);  The 
Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  Ameited  (1659). 

BOUGHT,  DAHIEL:  English  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Staines  (15  m.  w.!S.w.  of  London),  Middlesex, 
1645;  d.  in  Ijondon  Jan.  26,  1713.  Hf;  studied  at 
Magdalen  Hat  I,  Oxfonl,  but  would  not  conform  and 
so  did  not  graduate;  went  to  ircland  in  1667  with 
Roger  Boyle,  e*iirl  of  Orrctry^  and  becanits  maiiter 
of  a  Hcbool  fouudeil  by  hln  patron  at  Charleville, 
C/OUfity  Cork;  waw  ordained  by  the  Dublin  pres- 
byt^sry;  in  1685  he  settlinl  in  London,  'where  he 
gained  influential  frienda  and  preached  to  a  large 
con^'gation  atlracted  by  his  lively  and  witty  «tyle. 
Bctiid^M  prciacbing  lie  took  puplln  and  wa»  tutor  to 
Henry  Ht,  John  (Lord  BoJiugbrokc).  Km  publi- 
eationu  were  mmieroiis,  moatly  sermons:  they  in- 
clude: Directions  for  Doihj  Hohf  Liring  (London, 
1690);  The  GoUkn  Snuffer r  ;  or  ChriMion  Reprovers 
and  Reformers  Characterized ,  Catitioned^  and  En* 
eouraged  (1007);  Proof  of  God'^  Being  and  of  the 
Scriplurm*  IHtmte  Original,  with  Ty?enfy  Directions 
for  Reatiing  them  ( 1 697). 

BOHQESS,  FREDERICK:  Protestant  Epificopa! 
biBhop  of  Long  iKkind;  b.  at  ProvidencCt  R.  L, 
Oct.  6,  185^^.  He  wil^  educated  at  Brown  Univer^ 
flity  (B,A,,  1873),  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
(1874-75),  and  Oxfonl  Univemty  (1876),  and  waa 
auccceaivt?ly  rector  of  Grace  Church.  Amherst, 
Mass.  (lS7Sua3),  Christ  Church,  Pomfret,  Conn, 
(1883-^9),  Grace  Church,  Bala,  Pa,  (1889-96), 
Christ  Chwrch.  Detroit  (1S96-98),  and  Grace  Church, 
Brooklyn  (1898-1902).  In  1902  be  wfls  conHC- 
crated  bishop  of  Long  Liland. 


BURGESS^  GEORGE:  First  Prot«ituit  E^mm^ 
pal  bishop  of  Maine;  b.  at  PtoTi<k&c«,  R*  L^Ort. 
31 ,  ldO&;  d.  at  sea  while  rettmung  fTom  tbe  Wen 
Indiea  Apr.  23,  t§66.  He  wan  graduated  at  Bnnni 
1826:  tutor  there  1829-^1;  studied  at  Bodq,  (jdt> 
tin^n,  and  Berlin  1831-S4;  waa  rector  d  (MA 
Church,  Hartford,  1834-47;  coQaeerated  bisbqp 
Oct.  31,  1847.  He  pubUabed  a  tranalatioQ  of  tl^ 
P^lma  into  English  verse  (New  York,  ]M% 
Pages  from  the  EcrJeeia^icid  HitstofTjf  of  .Vnr  En^ 
land  bettoeen  IT40  and  tS^O  (Boston,  1&17),  lad 
other  worka. 

BivLicKjaAi^T:  Mmmnr  of  Lift  ttf  t^r*  Gwa-  Bi^vtm,  ^  bi 
bmtbvr.  A,  BuTve«,  Pbiladelphia.  IStiO, 

BURGESS,  HEHRT:  Church  of  En^afid  defg^ 
man  and  aeholar;  b,  in  Newington,  London,  Jul 
29,  18(18;  d.  Feb.  10,  1880.  He  studied  it  tk 
Diiaumting  Collie,  Stepney;  after  graduation  (1830) 
waa  for  a  time  a  Baptiat  miniater,  but  deci- 
ded to  join  the  Church  of  England  in  1849,  vu 
ordained  deacon  1850^  and  prieit  1851;  beevne 
curate  at  Blackburn  1S51;  perpctud  curate  of 
Olfton  Reynes,  Buckinghamabire,  1854;  vicar  of 
8t.  Andrew,  WhittleiM^&f  C^nbridgieshire,  18$1. 
His  prindpal  worl^  were  tranalattooa  from  tbe 
Syriac  of  the  Festal  LetUrs  of  St.  Athanasiia  (Los^ 
don.  1852)  and  of  Select  Metriced  H^mm  Qfd 
Hamiiies  of  Ephraem  S^/rus,  with  an  introduetim 
and  hisiariml  and  philologi^  notes  (1853);  Tk 
Reformed  Church  of  England  in  its  Principiet  aM 
their  Legtlimate  Development  (1869);  Emay*t  B^ 
lical  and  Eecleeiasiiaalf  relating  chief y  to  the  auihar- 
ity  and  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scripture*  (ISH); 
The  Art  of  Preaching  and  the  Compoeiiiom  tf 
Sermms  (1881).  He  edited  The  Cleriml  Jounid 
l&S4-'68,  The  Journal  of  Sacred  Literature  1854-62, 
and  the  fcecond  edition  of  Kltto's  CycJapadk  0/ 
Biblical  Literature  (2  vobs.,  Edinburgh*  1856). 

BURGHERS  AHD  ANTIBURGHERS.    See  Puis- 

BYTEniANS. 

BURGOH,  JOHN  WILLIAM ;    Church  of  England 
scholar;  b.  at  Smyrna  (the  aon  of  a  Turkey  mer- 
chant)   Aug.  21,   1813;  d.  at    Ghiehefiter  Aug-  4, 
1888.     He  studied  at  London  University  (U^ive^ 
sity  Cbllege)  1829-30  and  then  entered  liis  fatber'i 
counting-house;  matriculated  at  Worcester  Ojllcff, 
Oxford,    1841,    and    was    graduated    B,A,,    1S45; 
elcct^xl  fellow  of  Grid  1846,  graduated  MA..  ^B4S, 
B.D.,  1S71;  ordained  deacon  1848  and  held  c^ir^ 
cics  in  Bcrksliire  and  Oxfordshire;  became  \i(^ 
of   St.   Mary's    Oxford,    1863;  Gresham  professor 
of  divinity  1867;  was  installed  dean  of  Cycbesti^r 
1876.     He  haa  been  described  aa  ^*  a  High-cbuicb- 
man  of  the  old  school/'  and  he  won  diatim^tion  ^t 
Oxford  as  a  vehement  ''  champion  of  lost  causs 
and  im^vo^ible  beliefs/'     He  waa  the  ableft  utii 
most  learned  as  well  as  the  bitterest  ad\'eiae  cotic 
of  the  Revised  New  Testament  and  of  the  levised 
Greek  text.     His  publicationa«  including  serwuM* 
articles  in  the  periodicals,  and  controversia]  tnu^ts, 
were  very  numerous;  among  the  most  noteworthy 
of  his  books  were;  The  Life  and  Time^  of  Sir  Thm^ 
Gresham  (2  vols.,   London.   1839);   A  Plain  Cm^ 
mentary  on  the  Four  Htdif  Gospels  (8  voht.,  1855); 
Ninety  Sh&ri  SerrftonM  for  Family  Betiding  (2 


307 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bi 


BuriiEa 


each  2  vols.,  1855,  1867);  Historical  Notices  of  the 
Colleges  of  Oxford  (1857);  Portrait  of  a  Christian 
Gentleman,  a  Memoir  of  P.  F.  Tytler  (1859);  In- 
spiration and  Interpretation f  seven  sennons  in 
answer  to  Essays  and  Revietos  (Oxford,  1861); 
The  Last  Ttoelve  Verses  of  the  Gospel  according  to 
St.  Mark  Vindicated  and  Established  (1871);  The 
Revision  Revised,  articles  reprinted  from  The 
Quarterly  Reinew  against  the  Revised  Version  of 
the  New  Testament  (London,  1883);  The  Lives  of 
Twelve  Good  Men  (2  vols.,  1888).  The  TradUional 
Text  of  the  Holy  Gospels  Vindicated  and  Established 
and  Causes  of  the  Corruption  of  the  Traditiorud 
Text  J  edited  by  Edward  Miller,  appeared  in  1896. 
Bibliography:  E.  M.  Goulbum,  John  W.  Burgoti:    a  Bi- 

ography,  teith  Letter*  and  JournmU,  2  vols.,  London,  1801; 

DNB,  supplement  vol.  i.  335-d38. 

BURGUNDIANS :  A  Germanic  race,  akin  to  the 
Goths  and  Vandals,  whose  earliest  known  home 
was  on  the  Baltic  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula. 
In  the  middle  of  the  second  century  they  had  begun 
to  move  southward;  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
they  were  driven  further  to  the  southwest,  and 
occupied  what  is  now  Franconia,  north  and  east  of 
Lyons.  With  their  neighbors  on  the  southwest, 
the  Alemanni,  they  had  many  conflicts,  and  sum- 
moned the  aid  of  the  Romans;  they  are  found  co- 
operating on  the  Rhine  with  Valentinian  I.  against 
them  in  370.  Next  they  occupied  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  and  the  Vandal  invasion  of  Gaul  in 
the  fifth  century  carried  them  across  with  it,  to 
receive  an  allotment  of  land  in  Germania  prima , 
a  province  of  Gaul,  in  413,  and  become  subject  to 
the  empire.  By  this  time  they  had  adopted  the 
religion  of  their  Roman  neighbors,  probably  almost 
in  a  body.  Peaceful  relations  with  the  Romans 
did  not  last  long,  however.  In  435  King  Gundicar 
attacked  the  first  Belgian  province,  but  was  driven 
back  by  Aetius.  A  year  later  they  were  again 
defeated  by  the  Huns,  acting  with  the  Romans, 
and  lost  their  king  and  much  of  their  power.  But 
they  must  have  recovered  before  many  years,  for 
in  457,  with  the  consent  of  the  West-Goths,  they 
occupied  the  province  Lugdunensis  prima;  in  the 
following  decade  they  extended  their  rule  over  the 
Provincia  Viennensis;  and  about  472  they  added 
the  greater  part  of  the  Maxima  Sequanorum.  After 
Gundi car's  death,  his  sons  Gunduic  and  Chilperic  I. 
shared  the  kingship,  and  the  latter  reigned  alone 
after  his  brother's  death.  Gunduic's  son,  Gundo- 
bad.  succee<led  Chilperic;  he  had  three  brothers, 
Godegisel,  Chilperic  II.,  and  Godomar.  Godegisel 
appears  as  a  partaker  of  his  sovereignty;  Chilperic 
was  said  to  have  been  put  to  death  by  his  order, 


but  tliis  is  not  certain,  as  Avitus  speaks  of  Chil- 
peric's  death  and  Godomar 's  (which  happened 
early  in  his  reign)  as  a  great  blow  to  him.  Gun- 
dobad  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sigismimd,  who 
was  captured  by  the  Prankish  kings  in  523  and 
put  to  death  in  the  next  year.  His  brother  Godo- 
mar II.  maintained  himself  against  the  Franks 
for  ten  years;  but  he  also  succumbed,  and  in  534 
the  Burgundian  territory  became  part  of  the  Prank- 
ish kingdom. 

The  religious  development  of  the  Burgundians 
during  the  progress  of  these  events  is  peculiar. 
They  had  come  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Rhone  as 
Catholic  Christians;  but  most  of  them  joined  the 
Arians  in  their  new  home.  The  royal  house  seems 
to  have  been  slow  to  change;  Gunduic  and  Chil- 
peric II.  were  Catholics;  but  Gregory  of  Tours 
mentions  Gundobad,  with  his  brother  Godegisel, 
as  Arians.  The  change  to  Arianism  seems  to  have 
followed  from  the  feudal  relations  of  the  Burgun- 
dians to  their  more  powerful  West-Gothic  neighbors. 
Gundobad  was  not  a  {)ersecutor,  though  some 
churches  were  taken  from  the  Catholics;  Avitus 
of  Vienne  seems  even  to  have  had  hopes  of  his 
conversion.  But,  though  the  bishop  failed  with 
the  father,  he  succeeded  with  the  son;  Sigismund 
returned  to  the  Church  in  his  father's  lifetime, 
followed  by  many  of  the  people.  But  not  until 
Gundobad's  death  did  the  decisive  movement  away 
from  Arianism  occur.  Sigismund 's  son  Sigeric 
followed  his  father's  example,  and  Godomar  had 
become  a  Catholic  even  earlier.  In  517  a  synod 
was  held  at  Epao,  the  present  Albo,  south  of  Vienne 
(see  Epao,  Synod  of),  the  decrees  of  which  plainly 
show  that  Arianism  was  no  longer  dangerous,  and 
that  the  time  for  its  total  suppression  was  believed 
to  have  come.  Certainly  it  disappeared  from  that 
time,  though  no  exact  date  can  be  assigned.  By 
the  union  with  the  Prankish  kingdom,  the  Burgun- 
dian Church  lost  its  independence  and  became 
merely  a  part  of  the  Prankish  ecclesiastical  organ- 
ization. (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuographt:  Sources  are  to  be  found  in  MOH,  Legum, 
section  iii..  Concilia,  vol.  i..  ed.  F.  Maassen,  1893;  MOH, 
LegtM,  ed.  G.  H.  Perts,  vol.  iii.,  1863;  Chronica  Minora 
§CBC.  ii^-vii,  ed.  T.  Mommsen,  in  MOH,  AucLant.,  vols.  ix. 
(1892).  xiii..  part  i.  (1894);  Q.S.  A.  Sidonius.  Ejnttolarum 
lUjri,  Carmina,  ed.  C.  LQttjohann,  in  MOH,  Auct.  anL, 
viii.  (1887)  1-264;  A.  E.  Aviti.  Opera,  ed.  R.  Pieper.  in 
MOH,  Auct.  ant.,  vii..  part  2  (1883).  ConstUt:  H.  De- 
richsweiler,  Oeachichte  der  Burgunden,  MQnster,  1863;  A. 
Jahn,  Die  Oeachichte  tier  Btirffundionen,  2  vols.,  Halle, 
1874;  P.  Milsand.  Bibliographie  boitrffuignonne,  2  vols., 
Dijon.  1885-88;  L.  M.  J.  Chaumont,  Hietoire  de  Bour- 
gogne,  Lyons.  1887;  Retting.  KD,  vol.  i.;  HaucV.  KD, 
vol.  i.;  Neander.  Chriatian  Church,  vols,  iii.,  iv.,  oassim. 


Hebrew. 

Preparation  for  Burial  ($1). 

Place  ($  2). 

Varieties  of  Graves  ($  3). 


BURIAL. 

II.  Christian. 

Early    Practise    and    Ceremonies 

(§1). 
The  Greek  Church  ($  2). 


The  Medieval  Church  ($  3). 

The    Reformation    Burial   Serriea 

(5  4). 
Modem  Developments  ($  5). 


L  Hebrew :  In  all  periods  interment  was  the  cus- 
tomary Hebrew  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead. 
I  Sam.  xxxi.  12  and  Amos  vi.  10,  in  spite  of  the 
corrupt  condition  of  the  text,  show  that  burning 
was  exceptional;  indeed,  incineration  implied  some- 
thing discreditable  to  the  dead  and  in  ancient 
custom  and  the  priest-code  was  an  intensification 


of  the  death-penalty  (Josh.  vii.  25;  Lev.  xx.  14). 
Aversion  to  incineration  accompanied  ancient 
belief  in  the  existence  of  a  bond  between  soul  and 
body  even  after  death.  The  spirits  of  the  unburied 
dead  wandered  restless  on  the  earth,  and  in  Sheol 
their  lot  was  pitiable,  driven  as  they  were  into  nooks 
and   comers    (Ezek.   xxii.   23).    The  grave   con- 


Burial 
Bnrldan 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


806 


fined  the  soul  to  the  body  so  as  to  give  it  repose 
and  save  it  from  injury.  Consequently  it  was  not 
merely  an  awful  disgrace  but  a  terrible  misfortime 
not  to  be  buried  (I  Kings  xiv.  11;  II  Kings  ix. 
10;  Isa.  xxxiii.  12).  Hence  it  was  a  sacred  duty 
to  inter  a  body  found  unburied.  In  the  case  of 
criminals  stoned  to  death  a  heap  of  stones  over 
the  body  served  as  a  grave  (Josh.  vii.  26). 

The  climate  of  Palestine  necessitated  the  quickest 
possible  disposition  of  the  corpse;  interment,  there- 
fore, took  place  on  the  day  of  death  (Deut.  xxi.  23). 
In  the  time  of  Christ  the  body  was  washed,  anointed 
with  fragrant  spices,  and  more  or  less  completely 
wrapped  in  linen  (Acts.  ix.  37;  Mark  xvi.  1;  John 
xi.  44).  The  Old  Testament  makes 
z.  Prepara-  no    allusion    to    this    custom.    The 

tion  for     belief  that  the  dead  in  Sheol  might 

BuriaL  be  recognized  by  the  habit  implies 
that  in  early  times  the  corpse  was 
buried  in  the  apparel  of  daily  life.  Later,  royalty 
and  officials  were  buried  with  costly  spices,  orna- 
ments, gold,  and  silver  (Josephus,  An/.,  XIII.  viii. 
4;  XV.  iii.  4).  And  if  the  accoimt  by  Josephus 
of  the  plundering  of  David's  tomb  by  Hyrcanus 
and  Herod  may  be  trusted,  tliis  custom  reached 
back  into  antiquity.  Embalming  was  a  custom 
foreign  to  the  Hebrews;  cases  of  it  are  Jacob  and 
Joseph  (Gen.  1.  2,  26)  and  Aristobulus  (Josephus, 
ArU,f  XIV.  vii.  4).  The  use  of  coffins  was  post- 
exilic. 

The  place  of  burial  was  determined  by  the  belief 
that  the  ties  of  kinship  lasted  beyond  death.  The 
value  of  a  family  burying-place  was  in  part  due 
to  the  fact  that  burial  therein  involved  union  with 
kin  in  Sheol  (Gen.  xxv.  8,  17;  II  Sam.  xxi.  14). 
Therefore,  family  tombs  were  in  the  earliest  ages 
on  the  estate  and  near  the  house  (I  Sam.  xxv.  1). 
Therein  might  be  laid  only  members  of  the  family. 
A  public  cemetery  was  provided  for  the  very  poor, 
for  foreigners,  and  for  criminals  (Jcr.  xxvi.  23; 
Isa.    liii.    9;     Matt,    xxvii.  7).     The 

a.  Place,  kings  of  Judah  had  tombs  in  Jerusalem, 
and  Ezekiel  charges  them  with  the 
serious  offense  of  laying  their  dead  next  to  the 
precincts  of  the  sanctuary.  To  miss  burial  with 
one's  kin  was  dire  misfortune  or  divine  punish- 
ment. For  practical  reasons  people  began  quite 
early  to  locate  tombs  outside  the  cities,  and  graves 
came  to  be  regarded  as  ceremonially  impure.  In 
the  time  of  Christ  tombs  were  whitewashed  in  order 
that  their  character  might  be  known  at  a  distance 
and  defilement  avoided  (Matt,  xxiii.  27;  Luke  xi. 
44). 

The  grave  was  simple  in  its  appointments. 
Wherever  in  Jewish  tombs  rich  ornamentation  is 
found,  foreign  influence  (generally  Greek)  is  recog- 
nized. Apart  from  the  general  lack  of  artistic 
sense  displayed  by  the  Hebrews,  a  religious  con- 
sideration comes  in  to  explain  this:  the  stem 
opposition  of  the  Yahweh-cult  to  ancestor-worship 
discouraged  adornment  of  burial-places,  which 
thus  differed  widely  from  Egyptian  and  Phenician 
tombs.  This  and  the  lack  of  inscriptions  make  it 
difficult  to  determine  the  date  of  Jewish  graves. 
For  situation,  rocky  chambers,  natural  or  artificial, 
were  preferred. 


Four  kinds  of  graves  are  known:  (1)  reoe»- 
graves,  oblong,  rock-hewn,  about  six  feet  long  bj 
one  and  a  half  square,  hewn  lengthwise  into  tbe 
wall  of  the  chamber,  into  which  the  body  was 
placed  from  the  end;  (2)  sunken-graves,  like  those 
used  in   the  Occident,   but  covered  with  stone; 

(3)  bench-graves,  set  bench-like  in  the 
3.  Varieties  walls  of  the  chamber,  twenty-two 
of  Graves,   inches    high,   often    arch-roofed  and 

hewn  sidewise  into  the  chamber-wall; 
(4)  trough-graves,  a  combination  of  (2)  and  (3) 
above.  Of  the  chambers  there  are  three  varieties: 
(1)  single  chambers  with  a  single  sunken  grave 
in  the  floor;  (2)  single  chambers  with  several 
graves  of  one  or  more  of  the  above-mentioned 
kinds;  (3)  larger  burial-places  with  more  than  one 
chamber.  All  of  the  third  variety  so  far  found 
belong  to  a  late  date,  as  is  proved  by  the  archite^ 
ture.  The  oldest  and  commonest  are  of  the  second 
type,  single  chambers  with  recess-graves,  which 
are  so  typical  that  they  may  be  named  specifically 
Hebrew.  Such  allow  the  largest  number  of  inter- 
ments in  a  given  chamber.  Shaft-tombs  of  the 
Egyptian  pattern  have  so  far  not  been  discovered 
in  Palestine. 

The  Phenician  custom  of  marking  an  excavated 
grave  by  a  grave-stone  other  than  the  stone-heap 
piled  on  it  was  not  adopted  by  the  Hebrews.  The 
tombs  built  above  ground  date  from  the  Gredc 
period,  or  later,  and  are  of  foreign  origin. 

(I.  Bemzinqer.) 

Biblxoorapht:  F.  I.  Grundt,  Die  Trauergebriueke  der 
HebrOer,  Leipaio,  1868;  W.  M.  ThomsoD,  ThgLandamdikt 
Book,  New  York.  1886;  F.  Schwally,  Dot  Leben  nack  dm 
Tode  ttadi  den  Vor»tellun{fen  dee  oUen  lend  und  da  Jvdt^ 
tume,  Giesaen.  1892;  Benxinger,  ArchAologie,  pp.  136-137; 
Nowaok,  ArchAoloffie,  i.  187;  H.  B.  Tristram,  Eastern  Cm- 
tome  in  Bible  Lande,  London,  1894;  A.  P.  Bender,  Bdkft. 
Ritee  and  CueUmie  of  the  Jewe  connected  icith  Death,  Bvnd 
and  Mourning,  in  JQR,  1894-05;  G.  M.  Mackie,  Bitit 
Manners  and  Cuetome,  London.  1895;  KL,  ii  182-189; 
DB,  i.  331-333. 

n.  Christian:  From  the  beginning  the  Chris- 
tians regarded  the  final  disposal  of  the  dead  as  a 
congregational  matter,  and,  w^hen  possible,  they 
had  burial-places,  in  which  only  those  who  were 
their  members  might  be  buried  and  which  were 
called  cwmeteria  ('*  resting-places  ")»  in  adlusion  to 
the  resurrection  (see  Cemeteries).  In  deference 
to  the  body  as  the  organ  of  the  spirit  and  in  the 
expectation  of  the  resurrection,  they  were  careful 
that  the  funeral  should  take  place  in  a  proper 
manner.  The  corpse  was  carried  to  the  grave  by 
bearers  whom  the  Christian  congregation  had 
appointed,    and    the    fact    that  the 

I.  Early     funeral    took    place,    if    possible,  in 

Practise  day-time,  was  designed  to  exprtfls 
and  Cere-  joy  and  hope  that  the  departed  had 

monies,  been  set  free  and  had  entenxi  into  eter- 
nal life.  The  pagan  lamentation  for  the 
dead,  as  well  as  the  crowning  of  the  corpse,  was 
not  approved,  but  torches  were  carried  in  front,  as 
befitting  the  victorious  combatant,  and  hymns 
and  psaims  were  sung,  in  praise  of  God.  A  me- 
morial address  was  doubtless  made  on  special 
occasions,  but  a  funeral  sermon  in  the  modem  sense 
seems    to    have    been    unknown.    Prayers   were 


BELIGIOUS  ENCTCLOPEDL\ 


3.  The 
Medieval 

Church. 


offered  at  the  grave,  and  the  simivors  gave  food 
and  money  to  the  poor.  Prayers  were  made  for 
the  deceased,  not  only  in  private,  but  also  io  public. 
The  tliird,  seventh  (or  ninth),  thirtieth  (or  fortieth) 
day  were  memorial  daj's,  on  which  the  church 
ceremony  for  the  dea*.l  took  place,  as  well  a^  on 
the  anniversary  of  death  (»ee  Cemeteries,  II.,  6). 
These  prayers  and  offerings  were  beheved  to  have 
a  beneficial  effect  for  the  dead,  provided  he  be- 
longed to  the  saved. 

The  Greek  Church  preaerves  a  remnant  of  the 

idea  that  tJie  death  of  a  Christian  inWtes  to  praise, 

and  on   this   account  uses  the  Halle- 

a.  The       lujah  in  the  celebration  at  the  cluirch 

Greek       The   requiem-ma^s    is    unknown,,  but 

Church,    additional  prayers  are  offered  for  the 

dead.    The  ceremony  at  the  grave  ia 

very   brief »  the   priest    throwing   earth    upon    the 

corpse  with  the  spade  and   sprinkling  it  with  oil 

from  the  holy  lamp  or  ashes  from  the  censer. 

The  WcsU-m  Church  of  the  Mitidle  Ages  also 
knew  only  of  burial  as  a  means  of  dispH>Ral  of  the 
dead.  Charlemagne  forbade  the  conquered  Saxons 
to  cremate  corpses  on  pain  of  death.  The  place 
in  which  a  Christian  was  buried  was  cotwidereii 
holy  ground,  but  patrons  or  spiritual 
digni times  wxvre  entombed  in  churches 
in  token  of  distinction.  Every  Chris- 
tian w^aa  to  be  buried  in  consecrated 
ground,  but  if  special  emergencies, 
like  war  or  Bhipwreck,  necessitated  a  burial  in 
tmconsccrated  ground,  the  grave  had  to  be  pro- 
vided with  a  cross.  The  dead  waa  waahed,  drcijsed 
in  linen  or  penitential  robeSj  or,  in  case  of  one 
in  holy  orders,  in  official  drees.  On  the  day  of  the 
funeral  he  was  carried  by  his  peers,  the  lapnan  by 
laymen,  and  the  clergy  by  clergy,  first  to  tlie  church, 
where  maas  was  celebrated,  and  afterwani  to  the 
grave,  in  which  he  was  laid,  with  hi.s  face  turned 
toward  the  East.  Various  ceremoniea  had  their 
meaning;  the  holy  water  sprinkled  on  the  body 
protected  it  from  demons  j  charcoal  iiniieated  that 
there  was  a  grave  there  and  thus  kept  it  from  prof- 
snation;  incense  kept  away  the  otlor  of  dcctvy, 
and  waft  a  symbol  of  prayer  for  the  dead,  as  imply- 
mg  tluit  be  was  a  sacrifice  well  plea^iing  to  GnMl; 
ivy  and  laurel  symbolized  the  imperishable  life 
those  who  die  in  Christ.  The  custom  of  throwing 
thovelfuls  of  earth  upon  t!ie  body  was  known 
the  Middle  Ages,  although  the  present  Roman 
itual  does  not  mention  it.  The  modem  Roman 
tholic  Church  has  retained  the  old  Cliristian 
iew  that  the  death  of  httlc  children  who  have 
been  baptised  is  a  joyful  event  and  that  their  burial 
tbould  have  the  cliaracter  of  joy. 

The   Reformation   made  a  clean  sweep  of  the 
existing  burial  rites,  in  so  far  as  they  preflupposc^tl 
the  doctrines  of  purgatory,  moss,  and  the  mediation 
of  tlie  Church,  but  it  adhered  to  the 
4,  The  Ref-  view  that    the  dead    botly   is  not    a 
ormation    worthless  thing  but  is  to  rise  again, 
Burial      no  matter  how  it  has  decayed.     On 
Serrice.     tliis  account  it  should  have  a  Chris- 
tian burial,  and  the  burial-places  mu^t 
have  n  fitting  appearunce.    The  burial  was  a  mat- 
T  of  the  churdi,  and  the  congregation  should  take 


part  in  it,  if  possible,  and  sliould  Alio  attend  the 
funerals  of  the  poor.  Aceonlingly,  the  bells  called 
the  congregation  together.  The  church  was  repre- 
sented by  the  minister  and  the  school -children,  or 
at  leai^t  by  the  eexton  and  grave-digger.  As  the 
procession  was  passing  to  the  cemetery,  the  children 
or  the  mourners  sang  Cliristian  funeral  hymns, 
and  at  the  grave  such  Biblical  passages  as  1  Thess. 
iv,  13-18  or  John  xi.  were  read  and  prayer  was 
offered,  while  ba*«ins  were  also  placeil  to  receive 
alms  for  the  poor.  The  burial  service  of  the  Re- 
formed Wiis  simihir.  In  some  coimtries  the  con- 
gregation recited  the  creed  after  the  closing  prayer. 

The  desire  to  instruct  the  congregation  on  every 
occasion  wa«  expressed  in  the  burial  service  by 
the  reading  of  Scripture  mid  the  .singing  of  hj'mns. 
A  short  discourse  on  vieath  antl  the  resurrection 
wa.s  n.*ad  in  the  home,  in  the  church,  or  at  the  grave, 
although  a  special  sermon  might  be  requested  of 
the  minister  if  he  was  speci^illy  paid  for  it,  and  In 
such  cases  he  referred  particuhirly  to  the  life  and 
death  of  the  subject  of  liis  addre.ss.  Thus  arose 
the  fimeral  sermon,  which  was  originally  designed 
to  instruct  the  congregation  in  eschatology,  and 
io  honor  the  memorj'  of  the  depart^id. 

In  mociem  times  the  burial  rites  were  extended 
by  carrjang  the  cross  before  the  procession,  by 
casting  earth  uiion  the  body  thrice,  and  by  pro- 
nouncing the  benediction.  The  first  two  cere- 
monies were  knoT^Ti  even  among  the  Protestants 
in  former  centuries  and  were  occasion- 
5.  Modern   ally  used,  although  they  were  generally 

Develop-  regarded  with  tiistruiit,  and  were  even 
ments.  directly  proliibittd.  The  blessing  m 
ctJimected  with  the  prayer  for  the 
dead.  The  Reformed  rejected  prayers  for  the  dead 
unconditionally,  wliile  Luther  and  the  .\ugshurg 
Confession  permitted  it^  and  Johann  Gerhard 
endeavored  to  pro%^  it^  validity  by  dogmatics. 
From  this  developed  the  b Jessing  of  the  dead, 
which,  despite  vehement  opposition  since  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  has  spread  more 
and  more.  That  the  dead  is  addrt^B-^d  by  '*  thou," 
may  perhaps  be  explained  on  the  ground  that, 
acconiing  to  the  ancient  C'hristian  view,  the  con- 
gregation regards  the  tiepiirted  as  still  belonging 
to  it.  The  meaning  of  the  solemn  declaration: 
*'  I  bless  thee,"  however,  is  very  uncertain,  and 
the  blessing  sliould  take  the  form  of  a  wish. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Church  of  Rome 
proliibits  cremation,  whereas  the  F^rotestimt 
Churches  have  not  yet  reached  a  uniform  conclusion. 

W.  Caspahi. 

BIBLJCK3R4.PHT:  Oil  the  ceneral  question  conjiiilt  C.  M*r- 
t^ne,  De  anliquis  ^cdeHa  ritibus,  Antwerp,  1735-37;  F. 
X.  KrauA.  Rmisn^ifklofiiidie  der  chri^Uichen  AUerthum^, 
articlea  T<Hi,  Toienbt^taUuno,  Freiburg,  lSSO-9<5:  T. 
KJiefoth.  LiturgiMdte  Abhandlungen,  vol.  i.,  part  2,  Vom 
BeifrObniM,  Halle,  1869;  BinghAin,  OriffingM.  h(iok  xxiii. 
Oil  thR  antiquarian  »od  loeftl  ndes  of  En«lifih  custom  eon* 
suit;  J,  Stutt,  A  C&mphai  Viev*  of  (*«  Manners,  Cmtom* 
,  .  ,  of  th§  If^iabitantM  of  England,  3  vo\«,,  London^  1775- 
1770:  C.  A.  Cr4pp».  Law  of  Church  and  CUrgy.  ib.  1886; 
T.  Bttk*r,  Lavf  of  BuriaU,  6tb  ed.,  by  E.  L.  Tbonuw,  ib. 
189S:  EncyclopwdiA  Britannica,  xxvi,  466-468. 

BDWDAN^  bor^i-dan  or  French  bli"ri"dflii'. 
JEAN  {Johannes  Buridanm):  Medieval  French 
philosopher;  b.  at  B^thime  (25  m.  n.w.  of    Douai)^ 


BurlM 
Burma 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


810 


in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century;  d.  after 
135S.  He  was  educated  at  Paris,  and  wii«  mode 
rectcr  m  1327.  The  story  of  his  expulsion  from 
the  city,  like  hk  love  afifair  with  a  queen  of  France, 
eeeniB  to  be  a  myth,  for  it  is  clear  that  he  occupied 
1,  prominent  position  at  Paris  between  1348  and 
1358.  He  was  the  author  of  the  Summula  de 
dial^u^f  or  Compendium  logktF  (Paris,  1487), 
and  also  wrote  on  the  "  Politics/*  "  Ethics/*  and 
other  Aristotelian  wntLngs,  but  he  paid  no  attention 
to  theology.  As  an  admirer  and  follower  of  Occam, 
he  was  a  consistent  nominalist,  and  hence  felt  a 
flpadal  interest  in  ethical  and  psychological  ques- 
tions, in  which  he  showed  the  characteristic  union 
of  skepticism  and  dogmatiam.  He  became  famoua 
by  his  thorough  research  into  the  problem  of  the 
freedom  of  the  will,  but  his  works  contain  ingenious 
investigations  rather  tlmn  clear  decisions,  so  that 
it  is  doubtful  whether  he  was  a  determinist  or  an 
indeterminist.  His  psychology  alloweti  no  de- 
cision of  the  will  without  a  motivating  judgment 
of  the  understanding.  The  famous  aphorism  of 
the  ass  standing  between  two  haystacks,  aad 
obliged  either  to  starve  or  to  decide  determinis- 
tically  for  one  or  the  other^  is  not  found  in  hiii  w*ri- 
tings,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether  either  he  or  his 
opponents  uwd  it,  or  whether  later  legend  ascribed 
to  him  the  example  already  found  in  Aristotle. 
His  collected  works  were  first  edited  at  Paris  by 
J.  Dullardus  in  1500,  and  were  frequently  reprinted. 

R.  SCHMtD. 

BiflLHKiftAFHT:  Sketches  of  his  life  and  pbilonophy  yd}]  he 
found  m  the  work»  on  the  liiBtpry  of  phitoiidphy  by  Utber- 
weg,  Rltt«r,  and  Erdtnannp  CotUfiUt  alea  A.  Blikskl. 
Oaehk^ttf.    d€F    PMiMopHit  de»    MiUetatterw,  u.  1023-2B, 

BURKE,  THOMAS  MARTIN  ALOYSIUS:  Ro- 
man Catholic  bishop  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  h.  in 
County  Mayo,  Ireland,  Jan.  10,  rs4tJ.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  childhood,  and  waa  edu- 
cated at  St,  Michaerp  G^Uegc,  Toronto,  8t.  Charles' 
College,  Md  (B.A.,  1861),  and  St.  Mary's  Semi- 
nary, Baltimore  (B.T.,  1864).  He  was  ordained  to 
the  priesthood  in  ,1864,  and  was  miercKflively  as- 
sistant and  rector  at  St.  John's  Church,  Albany, 
N,  Y.  (1S64-74),  and  rector  of  St.  Joseph's  Clnirch 
in  the  same  city  (1874-94),  He  was  appointed  I 
vicar-gen cral  of  the  diocese  of  Albany  in  1887  and 
consecrated  bishop  in  1894.  He  was  created  a 
Knight  of  the  Holy  Sepuleher  in  1890,  and  a 
Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross  in  1894. 

BURKITT,  FRAHCrS  CRAWFORD:    Church  of 

England  theologian  and  Syriac  scholar-  1),  at 
London  Sept.  3,  1864.  He  was  educaU^tl  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1886),  where  he  was 
appointed  University  lecturer  in  paleography  in 
1904-05.  Since  1905  he  has  been  Norrisirin  pro- 
feasor  of  divinity  in  the  same  univerBity.  He  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  British  Academy  in  1905i 
and  was  also  president  of  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
logical Society  in  1904-05  and  Jo  wot  t  lecturer  in 
1906.  In  addition  to  numerous  contributions  to 
theological  periodicals  and  encyclopedias,  he  has 
written:  The  Ruks  of  TTyconiufl  (Cambridge,  1894)^ 
Ths  Old  Latin  and  the  Itala.  (1S90);  Fragm^nf^f  of 
AquUa  (1S97);  Hymn  of  Bardaisan  (London,  1S9D); 


Early  Chri&iianUy  &utside  (he  Hanum  Empire  {(^m- 
bridge,  1S99);  Two  Lecturer  <m  the  OospeU  (Lciadm, 
1900);  Goitpel  Qtwtations  of  St  Ephnum  (C^st 
bridge,  1901);  Evan^lion  da-Mephm-rethe  (2  ?iDia^ 
1904);  and  Early  EoMUm  Christianity  (London, 
1905)*  He  also  made  an  Engbsh  translation  d 
the  Lfhrbuch  der  ogypto-arabischen  U  ntgangupraih 
of  K.  VoUers  (Cairo,  1890)  at  Cambridge  in  1885, 
and  collaborated  with  R,  L,  Bensly  and  J,  R,  Harris 
in  editing  The  Fow  Go^tpeh  in  Syriae  tranxribti 
from  the  Sinailic  Manuscript  (CambridgCt  18W), 
and  with  G.  H.  Gwilliam  and  J,  F.  Stennmg  b  tbe 
Biblical  and  Pairisiic  Relics  of  the  Ft^etfyiim 
Syriac  Literature  from  ManuscHpiM  in  the  BoOimk 
Library  (Oxford,  1896), 

BURKITT,  WILLIAM;  Church  of  Engjand;  b. 
at  Hitcham  (12  m,  n.w\  of  Ipswich),  Suffolk,  Jaly 
25.  1650;  d.  at  Dedham  (10  m.  s.w-  of  Ipswich^, 
E^*x,  Oct.  24,  1703,  He  studied  at  Fembfoke 
Hall,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1558;  M.A„  1672);  hc«anic 
curate  at  Milderii  Suffolk,  about  1672,  and  viear  d 
Dedham^  1692,  He  is  remembered  for  bk  £r- 
posUory  Notes  with  Practical  ObatrrtkUiofm  m  the 
New  Testament  (the  Goepels,  London,  1700;  Acts- 
Revel  atbn.  1703;  many  subsequent  cditioD.^). 
It  ia  a  eompilatioQ  and  beara  some  resemblance  lo 
the  commentaries  of  Matthew  Henry. 

BOEMA:  [At  pn^sent  the  lorge&t  and  easten- 
most  province  of  British  lnt[lia,  having  been  gnd- 
ually  annexed  after  three  wan*  in  1826,  1852,  and 
1885,  It  extends  aouthw^ard  from  Tibet  into  the 
Malay  peninsula  a  distance  of  1,250  rall^^  with  % 
breadth  from  eaat  to  west  varying  from  30  or  40 
to  550  miles.  According  to  the  census  of  1901  tbe 
area  is  236,738  square  miles,  the  population  10,- 
4 IK  1,024  persons,  classed  by  rclin^ions  as  foUowi: 
Hindus  457,;i9I;  8ikhs  3,147;  Buddhists  8,951,- 
649  tS5,3  per  cent,);  Mohammedans  533,973: 
Christians  1248,628;  Animjfit«  294,7S7:  other  m- 
ligioii!!  1,049.  The  native  peoples  are  of  Malaf- 
Chiiiese  stock,  l>elonging  to  many  tribes.  Tht 
capital  k  Rangun,  Buddhism  appears  at  its  bc^t 
in  Burma;  the  prevail ing  form  i^  of  the  southern 
type,  most  closely  approximating  the  teachtnp  of 
Gautama,  and  it  has  done  much  to  uplift  the  peo- 
ple, who  are  l)ettcr  educated  (by  the  Buddhist 
monks)  than  the  people  of  India.  Temples  and 
shrines  are  numerous  and  have  been  built  at  much 
expenfte.     The  monaateries  arc  well  organued.) 

Baptist  Missions:  The  eariicst  attempt  at 
Protestant  missionary  work  in  Bunna  was  at  Ranr 
gUB^  where  Messrs.  Chater  and  Mardon,  of  tlie 
Baptist  Missionary  Society  of  England^  opeaed  a 
mission  in  18(17.  During  a  serxice  of  four  yearn 
Chater  translated  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  into 
Burmese.  FelLx:  Carey,  son  of  William  Ciirey 
(q.v.),  came  soon  after  Chater  and  Mardon,  ff- 
maining  until  1814,  when  be  entered  the  service  d 
the  Burman  Government  and  remo\'ed  to  Ava. 
The  London  Missionary  Society  sent  two  nuKkin- 
aricj*  to  Rangun  in  1808,  but  within  a  year  oae 
dlf d  and  the  other  left. 

The  first  permanent  Protestant  mission  in  Bunni 
was  that  of  the  American  Baptiit  Missionary  Inioft, 
which  began  work  at   Rangun  in  1813.    The  Snt 


811 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Burke 
Banna 


missionary  was  Adoniram  Judson  (q.v.)y  who 
translated  the  Bible  into  Burmese.  Six  years  after 
he  landed  in  Rangun  the  first  convert  was  bap- 
tized, and  then  the  work  among  the  Burmans  pro- 
gressed, although  slowly. 

The  Karens,  a  hill  tribe,  early  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  missionaries.  They  had  strange 
traditions  that  they  once  had  known  of  the  true 
God,  and  that  foreigners  would  restore  to  them 
the  lost  knowledge  and  the  book  containing  it.  In 
1828  the  first  Karen  convert,  a  slave  redeemed  by 
Dr.  Judson,  was  baptized  by  Rev.  George  Dana 
Boardman  (q.v.).  The  Karens  have  been  more 
receptive  of  the  Gospel  than  any  other  race  in 
Burma.  They  are  divided  into  many  tribes;  the 
chief  dialects  are  the  Sgaw  and  the  Pwo,  into 
which  the  Bible  hfus  been  trapslated.  Self-support 
has  been  a  marked  feature  of  the  Karen  churches. 
They  are  distinctly  missionary  in  spirit,  represent- 
atives having  gone  from  them  to  many  other  races. 
A  remarkable  development  in  the  Karen  mission 
is  an  independent  evangelistic  movement  inaugu- 
rated and  directed  by  a  native  leader,  Ko  San  Ye. 
Large  buildings  have  been  erected  and  an  institu- 
tional work  is  carried  on.  In  one  year  over  2,500 
converts  were  baptized  in  two  stations  alone  as  a 
result  of  this  movement. 

Work  is  conducted  also  among  the  Shans,  the 
Chins,  the  Kachins,  the  Talains,  the  immigrants 
from  peninsular  India  (mostly  Telugus  and  Tamils), 
the  Chinese,  and  the  Eurasians  and  other  English- 
speaking  peoples.  A  movement  of  large  propor- 
tions is  taking  place  among  the  Lahu  and  other 
hill  tribes  about  Kengtung,  in  eastern  Burma, 
where  over  2,000  were  baptized  in  1905.  They 
have  peculiar  traditions  similar  to  those  of  the 
Karens. 

Educational  work  has  been  emphasized,  vil- 
lage day-schools,  station  boarding-schools,  and  the 
Rangun  Baptist  College  being  conducted  in  co- 
operation with  the  government.  The  college  has 
over  1,000  students  in  all  departments.  There  are 
two  theological  seminaries  at  Insein,  for  Karens 
and  Burmans  respectively.  The  American  Bap- 
tist Mission  Press,  at  Rangim,  has  a  fine  equip- 
ment, and  prints  literature  in  most  of  the  languages 
and  dialect*  of  the  province. 

Statistics  (1906):  Stations,  20;  churches,  843;  members, 
58.642;  baptisms,  7,069;  missionaries,  192,  including  13 
physicians;  native  workers,  1,909;  schools,  696,  pupils, 
24,807:  Sunday-Schools,  618.  pupils,  19.730;  college,  1; 
theological  seminaries,  2;  high  schools,  3;  boarding-schools, 
31;  hospitals,  ^^  in-patients,  77,  out-patients,  23.093;  dis- 
pensaries, 7;  receipts  in  medical  fees,  $1,155;  total  contri- 
butions, $91,101  (benevolence,  $19,666). 

American  Methodist  Episcopal  llissions:  Amer- 
ican Methodists  entered  Burma  in  1879,  whei^  a 
church  was  organized  by  Bishop  Thobum.  The 
mission  has  now  grown  to  nine  stations,  where  work 
is  conducted  for  English-speaking  peoples,  Bur- 
mese, Tamils,  Telugus,  and  Chinese.  Emphasis  is 
placed  upon  schools,  colportage,  and  street  preach- 
ing. The  European  high  school  in  Rangun,  for 
boys  and  girls,  is  the  only  one  for  non-conformists 
in  the  city  and  has  a  well-earned  reputation  for 
thoroughness  and  moral  training.  Anglo-vernacu- 
lar schools  are  conducted  in  several  stations.    A 


number  of  strong  schools  are  now  being  equipped 
with  new  and  lar^r  buildings.  A  training  institute 
is  held  during  the  summer  months.  At  Thandaung 
a  successful  orphanage  is  conducted.  A  monthly 
paper  for  Telugus  is  published. 

Statistics  (1905):  Missionaries,  17;  native  helpers,  44; 
members,  561;  probationers.  370;  baptised  adults,  46, 
children,  28;  high  schools.  4;  day-schools,  10;  pupils,  943; 
Sunday-schools,  26;  Sunday-school  pupils,  986;  churches 
and  chapels,  3;  contributions  on  field,  44,319  rupees 
[=  $21,494]. 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel:  This 
society  conducts  work  among  English-speaking 
peoples,  Burmese;  Karens,  Tamils,  Telugus,  and 
Chins.  Educational  work  is  vigorously  pushed, 
the  leading  institution  being  St.  John's  College,  at 
Rangun,  whose  graduates  take  high  rank.  A 
printing-press  at  Toungoo  provides  Bibles,  prayer- 
books,  and  other  literature.  There  are  35  mis- 
sionaries, 13  being  European. 

Statistics  (1905):  Outstations.  196;  churches,  15;  board- 
ing-schools, 75;  teachers.  125  (14  non-Christian);  boarders, 
549;  pupils  in  all  schools,  3.366;  catechists.  139;  readers, 
4;  baptisms,  adult  722,  children  753;  baptised  persons, 
10,403;  communicants,  4.047;  catechumens,  3,531;  con- 
firmed during  year,  273;  native  contributions,  11,759 
rupees,  12  annas  [=  $5,703]. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Hissions:  English  Wes- 
ley ans  began  work  in  1889  and  have  now  four  sta- 
tions, with  seven  missionaries.  Special  features 
are  the  work  among  soldiers,  evangelistic-educa- 
tional work,  and  a  lepers'  home,  at  Mandalay, 
which  has  140  in  its  wards. 

Statistics  (1903):  Chapels  and  other  preaching  places, 
26;  catechists,  5;  local  preachers,  19;  teachers  (day-school), 
62;  members.  270;  on  trial,  61;  Sunday-schools,  19;  pupils 
in  Sunday-schools,  1.065;  day-schools,  25;  pupils  in  day- 
schools,  1.181;  raised  locally.  £3,450  17b.  3d.  The  average 
attendance  at  public  worship  is  1.550. 

Roman  Catholic  llissions:  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  have  been  on  the  ground  for  several 
centuries,  and  are  about  equally  divided  between 
French  and  Italian.  Their  work  is  in  various  parts 
of  Burma.  The  statistics  for  the  French  Foreign 
Missionary  Society,  including  those  for  Laos,  are 
as  follows  (1906):  Missionaries,  70;  native  workers, 
3;  charities,  65;  total  Roman  Catholic  population, 
66,600. 

lliscellaneous:  Besides  the  organizations  men- 
tioned, the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and 
the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  have 
work  at  Rangun.  The  Mission  to  Lepers,  the 
Missionary  Pence  Association,  and  the  Leipsic  Mis- 
sionary Society  also  have  work  in  Burma.  The 
China  Inland  Mission  has  one  missionary  in  Bhamo. 
Stacy  Reuben  Warburton. 

Biblioobapht:  7^  Life  of  Adoniram  JutUon,  by  F.  Way- 
land,  Boston,  1853.  and  by  E.  Judson,  Philadelphia.  1808; 
Mrs.  M.  Wylie,  Story  of  ike  Goapel  in  Burmah,  New  York, 
1860;  Mrs.  Mason,  CivUinng  Mountain  Men,  .  .  .  MiB- 
aion  Work  among  the  Karene,  ib.  1862;  C.  J.  S.  F.  F. 
Forbes,  BriHah  Burmah  and  iU  People,  .  .  .  Mannere, 
Cuetome  and  Relioion,  London,  1878;  J.  H.  Titcomb, 
BriHah  Burmah  and  ita  Miaaion  Work,  ib.  1880;  Mrs.  I. 
B.  Bishop,  Golden  Cheraoneae,  ib.  1883;  C.  H.  Carpenter, 
Self  Support  in  Bcuaein,  Boston.  1884;  A.  R.  Colquhoun, 
Amonoat  the  Shana,  London.  1885;  L.  P.  Brockett.  Story 
of  the  Karen  Miaaion  in  Baaaein,  Philadelphia,  1801; 
W.  N.  Wythe,  Miaaionary  Memoriala,  Ann  H,  Judaon, 
Sara  B.  Judaon,  Emily  C.  Judaon,  3  vols..  New  York, 
1802;  E.  D.  Cuming,  With  the  Jungle  Folk,  London,  1807; 


Bnrraffe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


811 


A*  Btmker,  S0&  Tkoh^  .  .  .  Making  ef  the  Karen  Sation^ 
New  York*  1902;  JtiJiuA  fimith,  Ten  YmTt  in  Burmah, 
aadrmati.  1902;  W.  C*  Gri^ga^  OdiU  and  EwU  from 
Pttgoda  Land,  FhilAdeLphia,  1006. 

BUBMAHlf,  FRAMS:  Dutch  theologiaa;  b.  at 
Leyden  1628;  d.  at  Utrecht  Nov,  12,  1679.  At 
twenty-tliree  he  t<Kik  the  paet^ml  charge  of  a  new 
Dutch  church  at  Hanau;  in  1661  he  became  vic©- 
rtctor  of  the  college  at  Lcydenj  and  the  next  year 
professor  of  dogmatic  theolo^  at  Utrecht,  combi- 
ning this  position  with  a  pastoral  ctmrge  there^  and 
teaching  church  history  also  from  167  L  His 
principal  work,  Syn&psU  thmiogi^  (2  vols.,  Utrecht , 
1671-72),  shows  him  to  have  been  the  clearest 
Hystematic  thinker  of  the  school  of  Cococius  (q.v,). 
He  also  wrote  Dutch  commentaries  on  all  the  his- 
torical books  of  the  Old  Testament  (coUected 
edition  AmBterdam^  1740),  and  several  minor  works. 
(E,  F.  Karl  Mt^i^ER.) 

BURN,  RICHARD :  Legal  writer-  b.  at  Win  ton 
(37  m.  s,e.  of  Carlisle),  Westmoreland,  1709;  d,  at 
Ortonj  Westmoreland  (10  m,  w.  of  Wmton),  Nov. 
12,  17S5.  He  studies!  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford 
(B^,,  1734);  became  vicar  of  Orton  1736,  and 
was  juatice  of  the  peace  for  Westmoreland  and 
Cumberland;  cliancellor  of  Carlmle  1765.  His 
worka  include  two  standard  treatises^  The  Juatice 
of  the  Pmc£  and  Parhh  Officer,  comprehejiding  all 
the.  law  to  the  present  time  (2  vob.,  London,  1755; 
29th  edition,  enlarged,  edited  by  Chitty  and  Dere, 
e  vols.,  1845;  30th  ed.,  1B69);  and  Eccl&siaslk^l 
I^w  (2  vols.^  1763;  9th  edition,  with  additions, 
by  Phillimore,  4  vole.,  1842), 

BTTRITETj  GILBERT:  Bishop  of  Salisbufy;  b. 
in  Edinburgh  Sept.  IS,  1643;  d.  at  Salisbury  Mar. 
17,  1715.  He  was  educated  at  Aberdeen;  became 
m  probationer  1661;  studied  and  traveled  in  Eng- 
land, Holland,  and  France  till  1664;  became  minis- 
ter at  Saltoun  1G6S;  professor  of  divinity  at  Glas- 
gow 1669;  removed  to  London  1674  and  was  made 
chaplain  at  the  Rolls  Chapel,  and  lecturer  at  St. 
Clement's^  1675.  The  popularity  he  enjoyed  in 
Scotland  did  not  forsake  him  in  London,  but  his 
intimacy  with  Lord  William  Russt;ll,  whom  ho 
attended  on  the  scaffold  (July  21,  16S3)»  cost  him 
the  court  favor  and  he  was  diamissed  from  both 
these  positions.  On  the  accession  of  James  H. 
he  left  England  andj  after  visiting  France  and  Italy^ 
settled  at  The  Hague  aad  was  active  in  promoting 
the  accession  of  WilUam  and  Mary.  Ho  rettimed 
to  England  with  WiUiam  in  16S8  and  by  him  was 
made  in  16S9  bishop  of  SaUabury,  in  which  office 
be  was  a  model.  His  family  connections,  wealth, 
and  ambition ,  his  scholarship ,  f rien ds hips,  and 
positions,  his  employment  in  diplomacy  and  honor- 
able politics,  all  qualified  him  to  write  his  admirable 
HisU^y  of  his  own  Time  {i,,  I^ndon,  1723;  ii.,  1734; 
beet  ed.  by  M,  J.  Routh,  6  vols,,  Oxford,  1S33;  Part 
I.  The  Reign  of  Charles  the  Second,  edited  by  Os- 
mund Airy,  2  vols.,  1897-1900;  a  Supplement  to  the 
EwfcTTf  was  edited  by  Miss  H.  C.  Foxcroft,  1902), 
a  work  of  great  accuracy  atid  fairness.  Other 
works  worthy  of  mention  are:  Hietoryof  the  Re  for- 
tnatioH  of  the  Church  of  England  (i.,  1679;  ii.,  ISSI; 
m.,  1714;  ed.  N.  Pocock,  7  vols.,  1865);  his  works 
against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church*   The  mystery 


of  iniquity  unveiled  (1673);  Rome's  glory,  m  Q^rf. 
leethn  of  divers  miracles  wrought  by  popCtJI  Arttk 
(167^);  InfallibilUy  of  the  Hom^in  Church  tmtf^id 
(1680);  also  his  Ufe  of  WiUiam  Bedell  {\m); 
ExposUum  of  the  XXXiX.  Articles  (1699),  wlM 
was  censured  by  the  Lower  House  of  CoavocttkiL 

BTBMOQHAFnT:  Tfac  Lift,  by  liia  eotu  Tboinu  B.  Bwaei.  ii 
pr^Ix^Bcl  to  the  Oxford  edition  of  biii  vorks,  in  fl  Kik, 
1S33^  which  contain*  a\so  a  list  of  the  bUtiopfl  wrtii^ 
A  detjuled  account  is  given  in  I>NB,  vii.  ^l94-405s  C^ 
iult  Also  S,  A.  AlUbooe,  Critical  DuM&mase^  &f  f^tik 
Lieerq^umff,  i.  ^)6-29S,  FhiUdeltibm,  1891.  Fm^ 
BDuriseA  urts  the  Hiaiary,  and  tbe  Letterm  to  Herti«T|  m  lb 
E^ertoD  3rLS8.  ici  the  Britifib  Muweum* 

BITRliET,  THOMM:    Church   of  EnglMid;  h. 

at  Croft  (40  m.  n.  of  York).  Yorkshire,  about  1635; 
d,  in  London  Sept,  27,  1715.     He  studied  at  dia 
Halt  and  Cluist's  College,    Cambridge    (fello*-  d 
Cttrist's,  1657;  M,A.,  1658;  LL.D,,  I6S0?);  \mam 
mister  of  the  Charterhouse     1685,    and  ia  1^ 
incited   the   first  stand  made   by   nny  society  ca 
England  against  the  royal    dispensing   power  ia 
the  reign  of  James  IL,  and  thereby  prevented  tbe 
illegal  admission  of  a  pensioner  at  the  king's  demaiui 
He  wrote  fine  English  and  exceUeiit  Latin,  and  wu 
the  author  of  several  booka  which  created  mnA 
commotion.    The    Telluriji    th^aria    aacra  (part  L, 
London,   16S1;  Eug.  version,  revised.   The  Satrd 
Theory  of  the  Earth,  16&4;  part  ii.  and  Eng.  vm&oa 
of  the  eotire  work,   168B;  7th   ed,»   with  life  by 
Ralph  Heathcote,    1759)  wua   a   fanciful  attempt 
to  explain  the  structure  of  the  csarth,  and  of  so 
scientific  value.     In  the  Arn^ologia  phOosopkit^ 
aive  dodrina   aniiqua  de  return   originibus  (1692; 
Eng,  transL,  1692)  he  interpreted  the  account  of  tbe 
Fall  as  an  allegory,  and  the  work  cost  him  \m 
position  as  clerk  of  the  closet  to  William  HL  and 
marred  his  hope  of  advancement.     In  later  life  be 
wrote  De  fide    el  officiia  ChrtMtianorum,   in  whidi 
''  he  regards  the  historical  religions  as  based  upcm 
the  religion  of  nature  and  rejects  origiaal  dn  and 
the   'magical'   theory  of  the  sacraments";  md 
De  statu  mofiuorum  et  resurgentium^^  in   which  he 
defended   the  doctrine  of  tbe   middle  state,  the 
millennium,    and    the    Uroited  duration  of  future 
punishment;  these  works  were  first  authoritativdf 
printed  in  1727  (Eng.  trans! ationa,   1727-28). 

BmLioanAPEiT:  R*  Heathcot4>»  Lif€  ef  Thowna^  B-mmtt  pn- 
fijied  to  the  7th  ed.  *jf  The  Sacnd.  Themy,  1750;  IMffi, 
vii.  40S-410. 

BTJRlfETT  PRIZES  AKI>  LECTURES:  A  foim- 
dation  by  John  Burnett,  a  merchant  of  Aberdeen, 
Scotland  (b.  1729;  d.  1784),  who  bequeathed  hu 
entire  estate  for  charitable  and  philanthropic 
purpoaes.  One  of  the  provisions  of  his  will  vestd 
a  portion  of  his  property  in  trustees  to  proiiile 
prizes  for  the  best  and  the  neirt  b<^t  essay  intendfd 
to  prove  "  that  there  is  a  Being,  all-fjowerful,  •wisCs 
and  good,  by  whom  everything  exists;  and  pa^ 
ticularly  to  obviate  difficulties  regarding  the  wisdaa 
and  goodness  of  the  Deity;  and  this,  in  the  first 
place,  from  cousiderations  independent  of  written 
revelation,  and,  in  the  ioeond  place,  from  the  rfw- 
latioD  of  the  Lord  Jesus;  and,  from  the  whole,  to 
point  out  the  inferences  most  necessary  for,  and 
uaefid  to  mankind."  It  was  provided  that  tte 
comx^etition  should  be  open  to  the  whole  wotid; 


818 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bunnann 
Bnrra^e 


thjit  the  prised  should  be  of  not  less  than  £],2()0 
find  £4tX>  pcfipoctively,  and  shouJd  be  offered  at 
.inten^ak  of  forty  yeors;  and  that  three  appointees 
of  the  tnisteea  of  the  testator's  estatej  the  minis- 
ters of  the  Eatablijshed  Church  of  Aberdeen,  and  the 
principals  and  professors  of  King's  and  Marischal 
Colleges  should  aet  as  judges.  The  fifet  compe- 
tition was*  in  1815,  when  fifty  essays  were  submitted 
and  the  first  prize  was  given  to  William  Laurence 
Brown  (b,  1755;  professor  at  Utrecht,  I7SS-95; 
at  Marisehal  College ^  1795,  principal  from  1796; 
d.  1830)  for  a  treatise  On  iM  Existence  of  a  Suprewie 
Crmtar  (2  voli.,  Aberdeen,  1816),  and  the  second 
to  John  Bird  Sumner  (q*v.)t  afterward  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  for  an  essay  entitled  Records  of 
Crtalion  (2  vols.,  London,  1818).  In  the  second 
eompetition,  1B55,  out  of  208  essays  the  judgi^ 
galected  Christian  Theism  (2  vols.,  London,  1855) 
by  Robert  Anchor  Thompson  (b.  1821;  curate  of 
Binbrook,  Lincolnslure,  1854-58;  from  1858  raajster 
of  the  Hospital  of  St,  Mary  the  Virgin,  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne;  d.  1894)  for  the  first  prize,  and  Theism 
(Edinburgh,  1855)  by  John  Tulloch  (q.v.)  for  the 
second  prize.  In  188 1  the  use  of  the  fund  was 
changed  by  being  applied  to  the  support  of  a  lec- 
tureship at  Aberdeen,  the  lecturer  to  be  appointed 
at  intervals  of  five  years  and  hold  office  for  three 
years,  and  the  subject  to  be  either  that  prescribed 
by  Mr,  Burnett  or  some  topic  of  history,  archeology^ 
or  physical  or  natiiral  science,  so  treated  as  to 
Olustratc  the  theme  originally  suggefitad.  Lec- 
ttirera  and  subjecta  have  been  as  follows: 

1883-S6.  Gcfirge  G&bricl  gtokei,  pmreaaor  of  mmtham^t- 
im  *t  CambHdgi?,  On  Lifffd  (l^ndon.  18S7). 

1 888-9  L  W,  Robert  ma  Smith,  pfafciyAr  of  Arabic  si 
CkmbndA?t  On  ihp  Rftiijian  of  ths  StmiieM  (lat  serien  oialy 
publiflb&d,  FuyidamxnUjI  /nvfi^uli^Tw,  London,  1SS@;  3d  ed.. 
10<J7K 

18&1-94.  William  L.  Davidsion,  ministerof  Boiirtie,  Aber- . 
deenjbii^,  Th^^m  aa  Ortmndtd  in  Human  Nature  hittor- 
ictdljf  and  criiiailly  Handled  (London,  189^), 

The  funds  are  now  devoted  toward  the  endow- 
ment of  a  chair  of  history  and  archeology  in  the 
university. 

BITRITS,  WILLIAM  CHALMERS:  Missionary: 
b.  at  Dun  (6  ra.  w.  of  Montrose),  Forfarshire, 
Scotland^  Apr.  1,  1815;  d,  at  Niu-chwang,  China, 
Apr.  4,  18^,  He  studied  at  Marisehal  College, 
Aberdeen;  began  the  study  of  law,  but  decided 
to  become  a  minister  and  reentered  the  university 
in  1832;  studied  theology  at  Glasgow  and  was 
Uoensed  in  1839;  preached  first  in  Dundee,  and 
tbeii  traveled  through  the  British  Hands  and 
visited  Canada  (1844-46)  aa  an  evangelist,  meeting 
with  much  success.  On  Jane  9,  1847,  he  sailed 
&s  first  missionary  to  China  of  the  English  Presby- 
terian Missionary  Society;  he  adopted  the  Chinese 
dresa  and  life  and  lived  m  Hongkong,  Canton, 
AjBoy,  Shanghai,  Peking,  and  Niu-chwang,  chooe^ 
ing  not  to  stay  long  in  one  place.  He  woa  one  of 
the  most  devoted  missionanes  of  modem  times 
and  won  the  respect  of  both  the  natives  of  China 
nnd  the  foreign  r^idents.  He  translated  Bunyan's 
Pilgrim^a  Fro^ss  into  Chinese. 

Brai40<»RAi>ST^  I.  Burnst  Memoir  of  W.  C.  Bum*.  London, 
1H70  Iby  bJ»  brotber):  W  G,  Bbuld«,  la  L^adwi  in  Mod- 
MFn  Phihnihivpit,  New  York,  1SS4, 


BURNT  OFFERnrG,     See  Sacrifice. 

BURR,  ENOCH  FITCH:  Congregationalist;  b, 
at  Weatport,  C<vnn.,  OcL  21,  1818;  d.  at  Hamburg, 
Conn.,  May  8,  1907.  He  wa«  educated  at  Yale 
College  (B.A.,  1839),  and  devoted  several  years  of 
study  in  New  Haven  to  science  and  theology.  He 
then  traveled  extensively,  and  aftctr  his  return  to 
the  Umted  States  was  called  in  1850  to  the  pas- 
torate of  the  Congregational  church  at  Lyme, 
Conn.,  which  he  held  till  his  death.  He  lectured 
on  the  scientific  evidences  of  feligton  at  Amherst 
College,  Williams  College,  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School,  and  other  institutions,  and  wrote:  The 
Mathematicat  Theory  of  Neptune  (New  Haven, 
1848);  SpirituuHsm  (New  York,  1S59):  Ea^ 
Cfslum  (Boston,  1867);  Pater  Mundi  (1869);  Ad 
Fidem  (1871);  Evoluiion  (1873);  Sundutj  After- 
noons for  Liitie  People  (New  York,  1874);  Toward 
the  Strait  Gate  (Boston,  1876);  Work  in  the  Vine- 
yard (1 876);  Dio  the  Athenian  (New  York,  ISSO); 
Tem'^d  to  Unbelief  (1882);  Ecm  Terra  (Phila- 
delpliia,  1884);  Celesiinl  Empirm  (New  York,  1885); 
ThHnm  as  a  Canon  of  Science  (London,  1886); 
Vniversai  Beliefs  (New  York,  1887);  Long  Agoj 
o«  Interpreted  by  the  Nineteenth  Cerdury  (I888)j 
Supreme  Things  (1889);  Akph  the  Chaldean  (1891); 
Fabi^js  the  Roman  (1897);  and  Autumn  Learns 
from  the  Mansffioood  (Andover,  Mass.,  1905). 

BURGAGE,  HENRY  SWEETSER:  Baptist; 
b.  at  Fitehbiu-g,  Mass.,  Jan.  7,  1837,  He  was 
educated  at  Brown  University  (Bj^.,  1861),  and 
entered  Newton  Theological  Institution,  but  left  it 
in  1S62  and  scrvud  in  the  36th  Massachusetts 
Volunteers  throughout  the  Civil  AVar,  rising  from 
private  to  brevet  major  and  acting  assistant  adjn- 
tant-^general,  first  brigade,  second  di\ision,  ninth 
army  corps.  He  was  womided  at  Cold  Spring 
Harbor,  June  3,  1864,  and  was  a  prisoner  of  war 
from  Nov.  1,  1864,  to  Feb,  22,  186*5,  On  the  con- 
clusion of  the  war,  he  reaumed  his  studies  at  Newton 
Theological  HiBtitution  (1867)  and  the  University 
of  Halle  (1868-69),  and  was  successively  pastor 
of  the  Baptbt  church  at  Waterville,  Me.  (1870-74), 
and  editor  of  Zion^»  Adwcale,  Portland,  Me,  (1874- 
1905),  Since  1905  he  has  been  chaplain  of  the 
eaatcm  branch  of  the  National  Home  for  Disabled 
Volunteer  Soldiers,  Togus,  Me,  From  1875  to 
1905  he  was  recording  secretary  of  the  Maine 
Baptist  Missionary  Convention,  and  since  1876 
has  held  a  similar  office  m  the  American  Baptist 
Misaionary  Union .  Since  1 889  he  has  been  recorder 
of  the  Maine  Commandery  of  the  Military  Order 
of  the  Loyal  Legion  of  the  United  States,  and 
chaplain-in-cliief  of  the  entire  organization  since 
1890,  while  he  was  secretary  of  the  Maine  Society 
of  the  Sons  of  the  American  Revolution  from  1891 
to  1906.  when  he  wna  elected  its  president  for  1906- 
1907.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Maine  Society  of 
Colonial  Wars  in  1899-l[M>5,  and  is  the  president 
of  the  Maine  Baptist  Historical  Society,  He  is  a 
trustee  of  Colby  College  and  Newton  Theological 
Institution,  and  was  also  a  trustee  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity from  1889  to  1903,  when  he  was  chosen  one 
of  the  board  of  fellows.  In  addition  to  numerona 
artidea  in  OLagaanes  and  reviewis,  he  has  written: 


Burrell 
Burton 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


SU 


Brown  UnwersUy  in  0ie  Civil  War  (Providence,  R,  I,, 
1868);  The  Act  oj  Baptism  in  the  Hintsory  of  the 
CTrweicn  Church  (PhUadelphia,  1879);  Htsiotij  of 
the  Anabaptiste  in  SwiUerktnd  (1882);  Rmier'n 
Relation  of  Waymouih'^  Voyage  to  the.  Cowst  of 
Maim,  1605  (Portland,  Me,,  1S87);  BQpii&t  Hymn 
WrUers  and  their  Hymns  (Bogton,  1888);  History 
of  the  Baptists  in  Ncvj  England  (1894);  History 
of  th£  Baptists  in  Maine  (Philadelphia,  1904);  and 
Gettysburg  and  Lincoln  (New  York,  1906).  He 
has  also  edited  Early  English  and  French  Voyages 
(N.  Y,,  1907)  and  a  number  of  works  mlatlng 
chiefly  to  the  history  of  Maine. 

BURHELL,  DAVH)  JAMES:  Reformed  (Dutch) ; 
b.  at  Mount  Pleaaant.  Pa.,  Aug.  1,  1844,  He  wait 
cductttcd  at  Yale  University  (B.A.,  1867)  and 
Union  Theological  Seminary  (1870),  and  liftcr 
serving  Wi  a  miaaionary  in  Chicago  for  four  yearat 
held  iiucoessive  pastorates  at  the  Second  Presby- 
terian Church,  Dubuque,  Iti.  (1876-87),  West- 
minsler  Presbyterian  Church,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
(1887-91),  and  the  Marble  Collegiate  Church. 
Manhattan,  Now  York  City  (since  1891).  Since 
1903  he  has  alao  been  acting  profcasor  of  homi- 
letics  in  Princeton  Theological  Heminary.  He  has 
been  on  the  board  of  regcntjs  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  Northwest,  Bennett  Female  Semi- 
nary, Elmira  l-eniale  C^ollegCj  and  McCortnick  Theo- 
logical Seminary;  and  IH  at  present  a  member  of 
the  board  of  manngera  of  the  American  Tract 
Society,  the  Pan-Presbyterian  CounciJ,  and  the 
Ameriean  Sabbath  Union;  preeident  of  the  New 
York  State  Sabbath  AttHociation,  a  vice-preaident 
of  the  National  Temperance  Society,  and  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance;  and  a  trurit4X3  of  the 
Uniteil  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  anfl  the 
Board  of  Domestic  Mission**  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  He  ia  alto  a  mcniljcr  ot  ttie  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  HiHtorical  Socictiea.  In 
thL-ology  he  h  a  coiiBcrvative-  He  has  writt*^n: 
The  Heligions  of  the  World  (Pliiladelphiap 
1888);  Hints  and  Hvtps  (3  vola.,  New  York, 
1891-93);  Gosjiel  of  Glodneea  (1892);  Morning 
Cometh  (1893);  Religion  of  the  Fuinrr.  (1894);  Bpirii 
of  (he  Age  (1895);  For  Christ^ s  Croum  and  Cowmmt 
(1896);  The  Golden  Pa^^ional  (1897);  The  Early 
Chun^Ji  (1897);  The  Wojidrom  CroHs  (1898);  God 
and  the  People  (1899);  The  Go&})el  of  Certainfy 
(London,  1S99);  Tlie  Unocroantohle  Man  (Chicago, 
imm);  The  Church  in  ike  Fort  (1901);  The  Wonder- 
ful Teaclieriim-i);  The  Verities  ofJeMiS  (New  York, 
1903);  Christ  and  Progress  (19<I3):  Teaehings  of 
JeBos  Conf^eming  the  Script  urea  (1904);  Christ  and 
Men  (1906);  The  Wayfarrrs  of  thv  Bible  (1906); 
and  The  Evolidion  of  a  Christian  (1006). 

BITRRITT,  ELIHTJ:  American  Congregational 
layman  H  acholar,  and  plnlanthropiat;  b,  at  New 
Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8.  1810;  d,  there  Mar.  6.  1S79. 
While  earning  his  living  by  his  trade  of  blacksmith, 
he  ac^juircd  before  the  age  of  thirty  some  acquaint- 
ance with  moat  of  the  languages  of  Euroi>e.  and 
alao  with  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  and  Etluopic,  So  al- 
though modci^t  and  deprecating  notoriety,  he  be- 
came known  bb  *'  the  leametl  blacksmith,"  In  1841 
he  wajs  invited  to  lecture,  and  prepared  an  address 


on  "  Application  and  G^oJua,"  in  which  he  ixf«^ 
that  all  attainments  are  the  reffidt  of  peniUcM 
will  and  applj cation  aione.  His  lecturing  wti  iua- 
cessfuL  and  thenceforth  he  was  prominent  bdm 
the  public  aa  orator,  editor,  ajid  philanthroput.  h 
1846  he  went  to  England.  For  thenext  twiD^-ln 
years  ha  ^^pent  most  of  his  time  abrimd.  Re  m- 
gnniaetl  *'The  League  of  Utiiver»al  Brotherbood* 
to  work  for  the  abolition  of  war  and  to  pnmole 
friendly  feeling?  between  dMenent  peoples,  and  ini 
active  in  eonneetion  with  the  fiiwt  Peace  Coapoi 
at  Bruasela  in  184B  and  similar  gathering  iftat- 
ward.  He  developed  the  idea  of  an  **  ocei 
postage/'  i,e,,  the  reduction  of  the  high  ratei 
charged  on  international  letters  to  a  mnn  not  watt 
than  double  the  domestic  rate.  After  the  o» 
break  of  the  Crimean  War  he  returned  to  Amoia 
and  advocated  the  emancipation  of  the  nopo 
slaves,  with  compemsatioo  to  the  ownem.  Ytm 
1865  to  1869  ha  waa  consular  agent  of  the  UnM 
States  at  Birrmngham.  After  1870  he  lived  mif- 
tirement  at  New  Britain,  but  was  bu^y  with  hkpm. 
He  was  always  active  in  church  work  and  itraK 
to  promote  Christian  fellowship  between  diflenoi 
crecils  and  eonfessiona.  He  published  many  wtjibi 
including:  Sparks  from  the  Anvil  (London,  18^; 
Thoughts  and  Things  at  Home  oTid  Abroad  CBoflbm, 
18.54);  Walk  from  London  to  John  CGroaes  Umm 
(London,  1864):  Wolk  from  London  Co  L(md'$  W 
and  Back  (1865);  Walks  in  the  Bla^  Counlry  md 
Us  Green  Border  Lands  (1S66);  Ledures  asi 
Speeches  (18G6);  The  Mis&ion  &jf  Greai  Svfftria^ 
(1867);  Prayers  and  MeditaH&ns  fr^mi  the  Fsa^ 
(New  York,  1869);  SanskrU  Handbook  (Loudon, 
1874).  He  foundetl  and  edited  a  Dumber  of  peri- 
odicals for  tlie  promotion  of  his  plans,  of  wMch  tk 
moat  important  were  The  Chrisiian  Citizen,  dp- 
voted  to  *'  pi»ace,  freedom,  temperance,  and  eveit 
good  cause  *'  (\Voree*itcr,  Mass..  1844-51),  ssA 
Bonds  of  Brotherhood  (London.  1846-^), 
BimirMjiiAPUT:  0.  Northend,  Kiihw  Burritt;  ^Jutdi  of  Mt 
IJk  fitvi  i.ahors,  Nftw  York,  1882. 

BUHKOUGHES    (BXJKRODGHS),    JER^CAH: 

English  C-ongregationaliat;  b,  about  1600;  d.  in 
London  Nov.  13,  1646.  He  etudie^l  at  Emra*nid 
College.  Cambridge,  and  wa^i  graduated  MA  id 
l(i24,  but  left  the  university  because  of  non-eoo- 
formtty;  waa  assistant  to  Edmund  Calamy  (q^j 
at  Bury  ,St.  Edmunds;  in  1631  became  rector  of 
Tivet*^lialU  Norfolk;  auspcnded  for  non^conforp- 
ity  in  15tiG  and  soon  afterwartl  deprived^  he  wfot 
to  Rottcr^lam  (1037)  and  became  *' teacher'^  fl( 
the  English  church  there;  returned  to  En^bnd  in 
1641  and  served  as  preacher  at  Stepney  and  Qv^ 
plegate,  Loudon.  lie  wat*  a  member  of  the  Wert- 
minster  As^sembly  and  one  of  the  few  who  opfK«d 
the  Prt^ijbytcrian  majority.  While  one  of  the  mort 
f ti^tinguished  of  the  E^glifih  Independents,  he  ms 
one  of  the  most  moderate,  acting  consistently  is 
accordance  with  the  motto  on  his  study  door; 
Q-pinionnm  varietas  et  irpinantium  unitas  non  jwii 
(VrTj  (jrnro  (*'  IMffcrence  of  beUef  and  unity  of  be- 
lie vera  are  not  inconsistent  ").  His  publicatido* 
were  many,  the  moat  important  being  .4  it  Erptm' 
tinn  ivith  Practical  ObservaHonx  an  the  Prophei^  tl 
Ilomo  (4  vols.,  London,  1643-57). 


815 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BuxreU 
Burton 


BURROUGHS  (BURR0U6H),  GEORGE:  The 
most  prominent  victim  of  the  Salem  witchcraft  de- 
loflion;  b.  about  1650;  executed  on  Gallows  Hill, 
Salem,  Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1692.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1670;  preached  at  Casco  (Portland),  Me.; 
at  Salem  Village  (Danvers),  Mass.,  1680-83,  where 
he  Bu£fered  because  of  a  church  quarrel  antedating 
his  pastorate;  was  in  Casco  again  in  1685,  and  when 
the  town  was  destroyed  by  the  French  and  Indians 
in  May,  1690.  In  1692,  while  acting  as  preacher 
at  Wells,  Me.,  he  was  accused  of  witchcraft  by 
certain  of  his  old  parishioners  at  Salem  and  ar- 
rested; was  brought  to  trial  at  Salem  Aug.  5  and 
convicted  on  all  indictments  against  him;  before 
his  execution  he  made  an  address  which  moved  the 
hearers  to  tears  and  led  Cotton  Mather  to  remind 
the  crowd  that  the  devil  often  appeared  as  an 
angel  of  light. 
BiBLXoaRAPHT:  J.    L.   Sibley,   Harvard  Oraduates^   vol.  ii., 

Cambridge.   1881;  C.  W.  Upham,  SaUtn  Witchcraft,  ib. 

1867. 

BURROWS,  WINFRID  OLDFDSLD:  Church  of 
Eln^and;  b.  at  London  Nov.  9,  1858.  He  was 
educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1881)  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (M.A.,  1885),  and 
was  ordered  deacon  in  1886  and  priested  two  years 
later.  He  was  a  tutor  of  Christ  Church  from  1884 
to  1891,  after  which  he  was  principal  of  Leeds 
Clergy  School  until  1900.  He  was  then  vicar  of 
Holy  Trinity,  Leeds,  for  three  years  (1900-03), 
and  since  1903  has  been  vicar  of  St.  Augustine's, 
Ekigbaston,  Birmingham.  He  was  commissioner 
for  North  China  in  1894  and  for  Natal  in  1901,  as 
well  as  surrogate  for  the  diocese  of  Ripon  in  1900- 
1903  and  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Wake- 
field in  1888-1905.  Suice  1904  he  has  been  arch- 
deacon of  Birmingham,  and  since  1905  has  also 
been  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Bir- 
mingham. In  addition  to  briefer  contributions,  he 
has  written  The  Mystery  of  the  Cross  (London, 
1896). 

BURSFELDE,  CONGREGATION  OF:  An  asso- 
ciation of  reformed  Benedictine  monks,  taking  its 
name  from  the  abbey  of  Bursfelde  on  the  Weser, 
about  10  m.  west  of  Gdttingen,  founded  by  Count 
Henry  of  Nordheim  and  his  wife  Gertrude  in  1093. 
It  had  been  richly  endowed,  but  by  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century  was  so  far  fallen  into  decay 
that  only  a  single  monk  lived  there,  and  he  in  great 
poverty,  while  the  church  was  used  by  traveling 
merchants  as  a  stable.  Johann  of  Minden,  abbot 
of  Rheinhausen,  with  Rembert  ter  Last,  prior  of 
the  Windesheim  monastery  of  Wittenberg,  was 
charged  with  reforming  monastic  life  in  Saxony 
and  Brunswick  after  the  Coimdl  of  Basel;  and  the 
case  of  Bursfelde  was  specially  commended  to  him 
by  Duke  Otto  of  Brunswick.  He  took  up  the  task 
in  1433,  and  obtained  the  monks  he  needed  from 
the  abbey  of  St.  Matthias  at  Treves.  Dying  in 
1439,  he  left  an  equally  energetic  successor  in 
Johsum  Hagen,  who  thoroughly  completed  the 
task  in  the  thirty  years  of  his  rule,  and  foimded 
the  Congregation,  including  four  other  monas- 
teries, with  a  view  to  the  strict  observance  of  the 
monastic  rule,  after  the  model  of  the  Windesheim 
Congregation  (q.v.).    The  spirit  grew  until  Hagen 


could  number  thirty-six  monasteries,  besides  some 
nunneries,  under  Us  leadership.  The  movement 
spread  into  the  Netherlands  also,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Jan  Busch  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa.  A  yearly 
chapter  of  the  whole  congregation  was  held,  always 
under  the  presidency  of  the  abbot  of  Biursfelde.  It 
received  numerous  privileges  from  the  provincial 
council  held  by  Nicholas  of  Cusa  in  1451,  and  was 
confirmed  by  Pius  II.  in  1458  and  1461.  It  grew 
after  Hagen's  death  irntil  it  numbered  142  monas- 
teries; but  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  began  to  de- 
cline, though  there  was  a  brief  revival  about  1629 
and  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Many  of  the 
monasteries  came  into  the  possession  of  Protestant 
princes,  including  Bursfelde  itself,  whose  Catholic 
abbot  was  replaced  in  1579  by  a  Lutheran.  Since 
the  foundation  of  the  University  of  GOttingen, 
the  senior  professor  of  the  theological  faculty  has 
borne  the  title  of  abbot  of  BiuBfelde,  with  an  in- 
come derived  from  the  revenues  of  the  foimdation. 
The  last  head  of  the  Congregation  was  Bemhard 
Bierbaum,  abbot  of  Werden,  who  was  elected  in 
1780  at  a  chapter  held  in  Hildesheim  and  died 
in   1798.  L.  Schulzb. 

Biblioorapht:  Sources  are:  The  Ckronicon  Windethemenm 
by  J.  Buach,  ed.  with  introduction  by  K.  Grube,  Halle, 
1886;  J.  G.  Leuckfeld.  Anttquitates  Bursfeldense*,  Leip- 
sic,  1713;  Ewelt,  Die  Anf&noe  der  Burtf elder  Benedik- 
tiner-Kongr^atiun,  in  Zeitachrift  /(ir  vaierlAndieche  Oe- 
echicJUe,  3d  series,  vol.  v.,  MClnster.  1865.  Consult  Heim- 
bucber,  Orden  und  KongrtoaHonen,  i.  141-144,  159,  196. 

BURT,  WILLIAM:  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop; 
b.  at  Padstow  (38  m.  n.w.  of  Plymouth),  Cornwall, 
England,  Oct.  23,  1852.  He  was  educated  at 
Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.  (B.A., 
1879),  and  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  Madison, 
N.  J.  (1881).  He  entered  the  New  York  East 
Conference  in  1881,  and  after  being  successively 
pastor  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Brooklyn  (1881-83), 
and  the  De  Kalb  Avenue  Church  in  the  same  dty 
(1883-86),  he  was  transferred  to  the  Italy  Con- 
ference and  made  presiding  elder  of  the  Milan 
district.  He  then  resided  in  Florence  from  1888 
to  1890,  when  he  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  re- 
mained fourteen  years,  having  charge  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  churches  and  schools  of  Italy  and 
establishing  several  churches  and  schools,  as  well 
as  a  publishing  house  and  two  colleges.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Ecumenical  Methodist  Conference 
at  London  in  1901,  and  to  the  General  Conference 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1892,  1896, 
1900,  and  1904.  He  was  also  a  fraternal  delegate 
to  the  Irish  Conference  at  Belfast  in  1906  and  to 
the  British  Conference  at  Nottingham  in  the  same 
year.  In  theology  he  is  an  orthodox,  though 
liberal,  member  of  his  denomination.  In  1904  he 
was  elected  bishop  by  the  GreneraJ  Conference  at 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.  Since  that  time  he  has  resided 
in  Europe,  with  special  jurisdiction  over  the  Meth- 
odists of  the  Continent.  He  was  created  a  cavalier 
of  the  Order  of  Mauritius  and  Lazarus  in  1903, 
and  is  the  author  of  several  works  in  Italian,  and 
in  1889  foimded  the  Italian  weekly  U Evangelista. 

BURTON,  ASA:  Congregational  minister;  b. 
at  Stonmgton,  Conn.,  Aug.  25,  1752;  d.  at  Thet- 
ford,   Vt.,  May   1,   1836.    He  was  graduated  at 


Burton 
BuBoh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


lie 


Dartmouthi  1777;  ordained  minis tcr  nt  The t ford, 
1779,  aJQil  flpeut  hia  life  there,  laborii>g  for  the 
spiritual,  Eoeial,  and  material  welfare  of  tlie  eom- 
munity  in  the  way  of  the  old-fashioned  New  Eng- 
land dergymati.  It  is  eaid  that  he  tmined  sixty 
young  men  for  tlie  ministry.  He  published  Essay* 
on  Some  of  the  First  Principles  of  Metaphr/sicSj 
Ethics,  and  Theolagy  (Portland,  Me.,  182t). 

BiDUCPO&ApaT:  A  MsTnoir  by  Thoma*  Adu-nu  wa*  priated 
ia  Thi  Am^rimtk  Quarttrlsf  Ewsi^ter,  il,  321 -S4l,   HoiitoD, 

BURTON,  EDWAM);  Chufch  of  England  pa- 
tristic scholar  and  ehnrch  historian;  b.  at  Shrews- 
bury  Feb.  13,  1794;  d.  at  Ewelme  (10  m.  8.e.  of 
Oxford)  Jan.  19,  1835.  He  studied  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1S15-  M.A,,  1818;  D.D., 
1829);  became  curate  of  Pettenliall,  Staffordshire, 
1815;  went  to  the  Continent  in  1818  and  worked 
ID  the  hbrariea  of  France  and  Italy;  took  up  hia 
residence  at  Oxford  1824,  and  in  1829  became 
regiua  profe^or  of  divinity.  Among  the  more 
important  of  his  works  are:  Tmtimonie-B  of  the  Ante- 
Nieene  Fathers  Ig  the  Divinity  of  Christ  (Oxford, 
1826);  Inquiry  tnto  the  Htreme^  of  the  Aposkdic 
Age  (Baiopton  lectures,  1829);  The  Greek  Testa- 
fnent  mih  English  Notes  (2  vols.,  1831);  Testi- 
monies of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  to  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  and  of  the  Dimnity  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
(1831);  Lectures  on  the  Ecckstastical  History  of 
the  First  Three  Centuries  (2  vob.,  1831-33).  Hit 
edition  of  the  Historia  eeclemastica  of  Eusebius 
appeared  after  bis  dealb  (text,  i83B;  again  1856 
and  1S72;  notes  by  Heinichenj  Leipsic,  1840). 
BiBLfooRAPHT:  U\3  coUected   worku,    with   nuimi^ir,  ver« 

ptiblifibed  at  Oxford  la  5  vaU.,  I&46. 

BURTON,  ERNEST  DE  WITT;  Baptist;  b.  at 
Granville,  O.,  Feb.  4,  lS5f,  He  was  educated  at 
Deniaon  University,  Granville,  O.  (B.A.,  1875), 
and  RochcHtcr  Theological  Seminary  (1SS2),  and 
also  studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  (1887) 
and  Berlin  (1894).  He  wa;*  an  inntructor  in  Kala- 
mazoo College,  ICalamazoo,  Mieh.,  jn  1S76-77, 
and  a  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  Xcnia  and 
Norwood ,  O . ,  i  n  1 877-79 .  I  n  1 882  he  wsi,'^  a  jipoi  n  te<l 
instructor  in  New  Tcfitarncnt  Grtek  in  KtirheHler 
Theological  Seminary,  but  in  the  following  year 
was  called  to  Newton  Theological  In^^titution  ai 
asfiociato  profcdiior  of  New  Te^tanient  intcrj^'r^- 
tation,  and  waa  full  profeasor  there  from  18ii6  to 
1892.  In  the  latter  year  he  went  to  the  University 
of  Chicago  as  professor  of  New  Testa mt-tit  literal- 
ture  and  interpnetation,  and  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Biblical  and  patristic  Greek,  a  position 
which  he  stilt  holds.  He  hn^  been  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis 
since  1SS3  and  of  the  Chicago  Society  of  Biblical 
Iteeareh  einoe  1892-  In  theolo^*  an^i  Biblical 
critieism  his  attitude  m  that  of  a  conservative 
progressive.  He  has  been  a^ociate  editor  of  the 
Biblical  Wofrld  since  1892  and  of  the  Amerifon 
Journal  of  Theology  since  1897.  He  has  als^cj  written : 
Syntax  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses  in  New  Testament 
Greek  (Chicago,  1893);  Harmony  of  the  Gospeh 
for  Historiml  Study  (New  York,  1894;  in  collabo* 
ration  with  W,  A.  Stevens);  Handbook  of  the  Life 
of  Christ  (1894;  in   collaboration  with   W,  A.  Ste- 


vens); Records  and  Letters  a/  the  Apo^olie  Agi  (IM); 
Handbook  of  the  Life  of  Fat4  (Chicagp,  11^)^  €» 
#frwciirc  Studies  in  the  Life  of  Chrisi  (IflOljl 
collaboration  with  S.  Mathews);  Prineiplm  mi 
Merits  of  the  Sunday  School  (190S;  in  ooUabontis 
with  S.  Mathews);  Short  Introduction  U>  theGoKfA 
(1904);  Studies  in  the  Gospel  of  Mark  (1901);  tad 
Some  Principles  of  Literary  Criticism  oikJ  IJbr 
Application  to  the  Synoptic  Problem.  (1904), 

BURTONj  LEWIS  WILLIAJff:  Prot«stAnt  If» 
cof>al  bishop  of  Lexington,  Ky.;  b.  at  Clerdiii 
O.,  Nov.  9,  1852.  He  was  educated  at  Em- 
yon  CoUege,  Gambler,  O.  (B,A.,  1873),  a£id  tttk 
Divinity  School  of  the  Protestant  Kpiscop^  Cbanfcb 
Philadelphia^  from  which  be  was  graduated  m  1177. 
He  waa  ordered  deacon  In  1877  and  waa  priertdl 
in  1S7S.  He  was  successively  curate  and  m^ 
of  AU  Saints'.  Cleveland,  ISlT-m,  of  St  Mai^t, 
Oeveland,  1881-84,  rector  of  St.  John's,  ESOmmd, 
Va.,  1884-93,  and  t^tor  of  St.  Andrew^!,  hsm 
ville,  Ky.,  1893-96,  In  1896  he  was 
bishop  of  Lexington.  While  in  VirgifUftr  be 
an  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  tliat  ^ 
eeise.  He  is  now  a  trustee  of  Kenyon  Colle^  mi 
of  the  University  of  the  Bouth^  as  well  as  a  meoAe 
of  the  Joint  Commission  of  the  General  Con^Teaaa 
on  Christian  Education.  In  theolpgy  he  bsksp 
to  the  conservative  school.  His  publicatioDa  w 
elude  sermons,  charge,  contributions  to  pefiod- 
icak,  and  the  section  on  the  annals  of  Hemiro  fm- 
ish,  Va^i  in  J.  S.  Moore's  Virginiajui  (RidiiDa4 
1904). 

BURTON,  ROBERT:    Author  of   the  jIiw*i^ 

of  Melancholy ;  b.  at  Lindley  (20  m.  ejije,  i 
Birmingham),  Leicestershire,  Feb*  8,  1577;  <L  * 
Oxford  Jan.  25,  1640.  He  studied  at  Biveotfi 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.D.,  1614);  betafflt 
\icar  of  St.  Thomas,  in  the  west  suburbs  of  Oxfa«i 
1G15*  and  in  addition,  about  1630,  rector  of  ^ 
grave,  Leicestershire-  HLi  life  was  spent  amo; 
his  books  at  Oxfonl;  Anthony  Wood,  a  gea^itiia 
after  his  death,  describes  him  as  a  good  mathai* 
tieian,  a  plulologist,  and  astrologer,  a  hard  studoi 
and  well -read  scholar,  considered  by  some  mdin- 
clmly  and  moixise,  but  by  thoBe  who  knew  bii 
bctU^r  esteemed  for  honesty  and  charity,  andiii 
merry  and  gonial  companion*  His  famous  w«rt 
(Oxford,  1C21 ),  which  is  a  vaat  collection  of  qo*- 
tations  and  allusions,  abundantly  proves  his  letfs- 
in^.  Five  editions  ajvpeared  during  Burton**  Kfe 
each  with  many  alterations  and  additions  lai 
a  sixth  was  printed  from  bis  annotated  manuMfi^ 
(lOt^l-52).  The  edition  of  1800  csontaiiM  la  •^ 
count  of  the  author.  There  ia  a  modem  edrtto 
by  A.  E.  Shilleto,  with  introduction  by  A.  H.  Bute 
(London,  1893),  The  Philosophaster  is  i  lil« 
comedy  written  in  1606  and  acted  at  Christ  Onii 
on  Shrove  Monday  (Feb.  16),  1618;  with  mt«il 
Lfitin  poemaia  it  wa^  printed  for  the  Eoxbtn^ 
Club  (London/1 862). 

liiGLioaBAFrtr:  BeHide#  th*  Mvmmr  in  the  ©d*  of  180ft  *»' 
jiiilt;  A.  A  Wood,  Aihenm  OnJiiMrfwe»,  eC  P.  Bliss,  a.  «^ 
6.7.1.  4  vols..  London,  1813-20;  J.  Niehot,  SiJin^ 
Aniitp4itie9  of  tht  County  of  Leicester^  voU  m.^  pultuW' 
415-4L0,  4  voIh.,  London,  1 795-181 L  The  amo^* 
DNB,  Tiii.  12^14  deambes  imth«r  tb»  b<iok  th»  tlv«» 


rCLOPEDIA 


Burton 

Buiioh 


iURWASH,  NATHAiriEL:  Methmlist  Episco- 
fen;  b,  at  Argeiiteuil,  Quebec,  July  25,  1839. 
[was  educated  at  Victoria  College,  Cobourg,  Out. 
ill.,  1859),  Yale  College,  and  Gam^tt  Biblical 
|fcitut€,  Evanston,  IlL  (B.D.,  1S7I).  He  euti^rcd 
(Methodist  Episcopal  tniiiiistry  in  I860,  and  after 
[ng  as  classical  tutor  in  Victoria  College  in  1860- 
jl,  held  pa&to rates  until  1866,  when  he  was  re- 
let! to  Victoria  College  as  profus^sor  of  natural 
BDce.  He  waa  made  dean  of  the  theological 
nlty  in  the  same  institution  in  1873,  and  nince 
17  has  been  its  president  mid  cluxncellor.  He 
iko  a  member  of  the  senate  and  council  of  the 
iversity  of  Toronto  and  of  the  council  of  edu- 
tton  for  the  paivince  of  Ontario.  Fie  has  been 
tntmber  of  successive  general  conferences  of  his 
Qoiaination  since  1874,  and  wtus  president  of  the 
ekid  in  1SS9-9*).  in  addition  to  being  secretary 
^•ducation  for  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
Ckaada  from  1874  to  1S86.  lie  has  written: 
^moriaU  of  Edward  and  Lydia  Jackifon  (Toront^j, 
IB);  Genesis,  Nature^  and  RcsulL'i  of  Sin  (1878); 
key*»  Doctrinal  Standards  (1881);  Reirjtiifn  of 
tdren  to  the  Fall,  the  Atonement,  and  the  Church 
Il2 ) ;  Handbook  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (1887 ) ; 
mttive  Slmlks  in  Theohgy  (18^6);  Manual  of 
fetuin  Theology  (19tKJ);  Life  and  Times  of  Eger- 
Hyerson  (1902);  and  The  Development  of  the 
hersily  of  Tor  onto  as  a  Provincial  InstUulion 
>5) 

iDEY,  RICHAEX*  BE:  Bishop  of  Durham;  b. 
iiiry  St,  Edmunds  ((31  m.  n.e.  of  Ixjndon)  1281, 
•on  of  Sir  Richard  Aunger-ville;  d.  at  Aut^kland 
tn.  8, w,  of  Durham)  Apr.  14,  1345,  IleKtudicd 
I>xford,  then  entered  the  Benedictine  order  at 
tisam,  became  tutor  to  the  future  Edward  TIL, 
►  on  his  accession  (1327)  entrusted  vurioua 
lea  o  him,  and  sent  him  twice  to  Pope  John 
fll*  OS  rjnbassador,  and  later  in  the  same  ca- 
tty to  Paris,  ?Iainault,  and  Gemiauy,  and  as 
llniasioner  for  the  afTairs  of  Scotland.  He  was 
Alt  dean  of  Wells,  and  the  same  year  (1333) 
bop  of  Durham.  Useful  aa  he  was  to  the  king 
I  his  ctauntry  as  a  diplomat,  and  able  as  he  was 
Jto  ecclesiastic,  he  is  remembered  solely  as  a 
pkjphile,  perhaps  the  earliest  in  England  worthy 
Ibe  name.  He  has  no  claim  to  be  considered 
teiiolar,  but  he  loved  books  and  used  iill  Ida  per- 
kat  and  official  iixfincnee  in  their  accumulation, 
kerever  he  was,  he  was  on  the  lookout  for  MSS., 
I  he  also  had  agents  on  the  Continent  m  the 
ieh  for  them.  So  he  had  more  books  than  all 
fother  Ekkglish  bishops  put  together.  Some  of 
iG  MSS,  he  stored  in  his  palace,  others  he  is  said 
have  deposited  in  tiie  librarj^  he  founded  in 
forii  in  connection  with  Durham  College  (on 
•aite  of  the  present  Trinity  College).  Hia  love 
jjooks  cornea  out  in  that  bibliophile's  delight, 
\j*hilobiblon  (first  publiiihed  at  Cologne,  1473, 
^  at  Speyer,  14a3,  and  in  Paris,  1301)),  It  hfis 
It  often  republished,  the  bent  edition,  having  both 
:Latin  t^xt  and  an  English  translation,  being 
teiTiest   C.  Thomas   (London,   188.8),   and  Mr. 

is'a  translation  was  reprinted  1902. 
ioofiAFiiT:  Sources  for  a  bu«rftphy  ar*»:   H.  Wharton, 
pUa  Seicra,  L  706  Mciq,,  London,  ilVOl;   Hv»U)ri<i  Dunel- 


mensit*,  efJited  for  the  S  i!y  by  J.  Rairn?.  Dur- 

ham. 1830;  T.  iiytntr,   i  i    ii.,  beat  ed.,  London, 

1816.     Consult  Bido  DNB,  via,  2^-27, 

BUSCH,  JAN  I  Dutch  monastic  refonner;  b. 
at  Zwolle  ^,52  m.  cne.  of  Amsterdam)  Aug.  9, 
KiOD;  d,  at  Slilte,  near  Hildesheim,  c.  1480.  Edu- 
cated first  in  the  schot^l  of  ZwoUe,  which  then, 
under  its  famous  rector  Cele,  numbered  about  a 
thousand  students,  he  went  to  Erfurt  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  to  study  law;  but  his  iachnation  was 
for  the  monastic  life,  and  in  1419  he  entered  the 
Windesheim  house,  of  which  Vos  was  then  prior. 
He  labored  diligently  to  overcome  theorc^tical 
doubts  by  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  spiritual 
writers,  and  to  fonn  himself  practically  in  the  devout 
life.  Vos,  on  his  death-bed,  exhorted  Itim  to  con- 
stancy in  refonning  zeal,  and  he  was  soon  sent  to 
Bodingen  near  Cologne,  where  he  was  ordained 
priest.  He  remained  four  years  at  Bftdingen,  and 
then,  after  a  short  stay  in  the  mot  lie  r  ho  use  ^ 
received  a  more  difficult  commission,  being  sent 
to  Ludinkerken  in  East  Friesland,  where  conditions 
of  shocking  laxity  prevailed,  but  the  great  papal 
Bcliism,  a  contested  episcopal  election,  and  his  own 
weak  health  prevented  him  from  accomplishing 
much  there.  After  some  years  of  comparative 
rest,  he  began  his  more  important  work  in  1437 
as  Bubprior  of  the  reformed  monastery  of  Witten- 
berg near  Hildesheim,  which  w:is  to  extend  over 
a  large  part  of  Gennany  and  to  embrace  especially, 
in  the  s]jirit  of  tlic  Council  of  Basel,  the  reform 
of  the  Augustinian  convents  of  both  sexea,  par- 
ticularly in  Saxony.  Working  in  harmony  with 
the  Bursfelde  Congregation  (q.v.),  he  began  with 
the  neighboring  monastcrj^  of  Siilte,  of  wliich  he  took 
charge  himself,  with  the  title  of  provost,  commonly 
used  in  Saxony  inst<?ad  of  prior.  His  success  in 
restoring  discipUne  there  induced  the  archbishop 
of  Magdeburg  in  1446  to  place  in  his  hands  the  Prc- 
monstra tens i an  house  of  Our  Lady  in  the  same  city. 
In  the  following  year  he  became  provost  of  the 
rich  NeuwerkMijt  at  Halle,  com!>ining  with  it  the 
ofBco  of  archdeacon,  which  gave  him  authority 
over  70O  secular  priests.  After  the  plague  of  1450, 
he  went  on  to  Glaucliau,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
powerful  support  of  his  friend  Nicholas  of  Cusa^ 
who  had  been  sent  t.o  Gennany  as  cardinai-legate 
with  special  reference  to  mouiistic  reform.  After 
a  provincial  synod  at  Bergen »  the  legate  entrusted 
Busch  with  the  oversight  of  this  work  In  the  entire 
province,  giving  him  full  power  to  inspect  all  monas- 
teries and  refonn  whatever  disorders  he  found, 
taking  the  Windesheim  statutes  as  a  standard. 
He  went  vigorously  tt>  work  in  Halle,  Leipsic,  and 
Ilalberstodt,  but  in  14,52  the  opposition  aroused 
by  his  zeal  led  to  demands  for  his  n?moval  being 
laid  before  the  pope  and  the  arclibishop.  At  first 
they  were  fruitless,  but  when  Busch  found  the 
archbishop  cooling  toward  him,  he  resigned  hk 
office  of  provost,  still  retaining  his  powers  as  visi- 
tor. In  1456  he  went  to  attend  a  genera!  chapter 
at  Windesheim,  and  remained  there  several  years, 
living  as  a  simple  brother  and  employing  the  time 
in  literary  work.  He  wrote  the  Nves  of  the  first 
twenty-four  brothers  and  of  liis  teaclier  Cele  {Liber 
de  mris  illustribus  de  Windesfi€m),iui  well  as  a  chron- 


U 


I 


Basembaiun 
Butler 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


818 


ide  of  the  house  and  congregation.  He  took  up 
active  work  again  as  provost  of  Stilte,  and  exer- 
cised his  visitatorial  powers  over  a  still  wider  field, 
at  the  same  time  writing  an  account  of  his  work 
which  is  of  some  value.  He  resigned  his  office  as 
provost  in  1479,  and  probably  died  in  the  following 
year.  His  Chronicon  Windeahetnemte  was  first 
printed  by  Heribert  Rosweyde  at  Antwerp  in  1621, 
and  an  incomplete  edition  of  his  four  books  De  re- 
formatione  monasteriorum  was  prepared  by  G.  W. 
von  Leibnitz,  in  Scriptores  rerum  Brunsvicerurium 
(3  vols.,  Hanover,  1707-11);  an  excellent  modem 
edition,  with  introduction  and  notes,  is  that  of  K. 
Grube  (Halle,  1886).  A  few  smaller  works,  let- 
ters, and  sermons,  have  recently  been  discovered 
and  published  by  J.  M.  WOstenhoff  (Ghent,  1890). 

L.  SCHULZE. 
BrBLiooRAPHT:  The  sources  for  a  life  are  best  discovered 
in  his  own  writings:  Chronicon  Winde9hemenae,  ed.  K. 
Grube,  Halle,  1886;  lAber  de  reformatione  monaaieriorum, 
ed.  Grube,  with  the  Chronicon,  ut  sup.  (contains  a  brief 
life  by  the  editor).  Ck)nHult  also:  K.  Grube,  Johannet 
BuscA,  AuotttHnerpropat  zu  Uildetheim,  Freiburg,  1881; 
Kerkgeschiedenis  van  Ncderlande  voor  de  Hervorming,  vol. 
ii..  part  2.  pp.  115.  221  sqq..  349.  Utrecht,  1871;  J.  G.  R. 
Acquoy,  Het  Klooeter  te  Windeeheim  en  njn  invloed,  3 
vols.,  ib.  1875;  L.  Schulse.  Dee  Johannee  Buech  biafier 
unbekannU  Schnften,  in  ZKO,  xi.  (1890)  586-596. 

BUSEMBAUM  (BUSENBAUM),  HERMANN :  Ger- 
man Jesuit,  casuist;  b.  at  Nottelen  (a  village  of 
Westphalia)  1600;  d.  at  MUnster  Jan.  31,  1668. 
He  was  a  teacher  at  Cologne,  and  afterward 
rector  at  Hildesheim  and  Mtlnster.  His  text-book 
of  casuistry,  entitleil  Medulla  theologice  moralia 
(Mtlnster,  1645),  in  seven  books,  ran  through  200 
editions  before  1776,  although  it  caused  offense 
when  it  was  published  with  a  commentary  in  1710. 
The  book  contained  the  Jesuitic  teacliings  on 
regicide,  and  in  France,  when  an  attempt  was  made 
to  assassinate  Louis  XIV.,  the  matter  was  brouglit 
before  the  courts.  The  Paris  parliament  was 
satisfied  with  simply  condemning  the  book,  while 
that  of  Toulouse  had  it  publicly  burned  and  held 
the  principals  of  institutions  who  used  it  respon- 
sible. Meanwhile  the  moral  theology  of  the  Me- 
dulla was  incorporated  in  the  classical  text-book 
of  the  order  of  Redemptorists,  edited  by  Liguori. 
Busembaum's  Lilium  inter  spinas  (Cologne,  1660) 
is  ascetic   in   character.  K.  Benkath. 

BiBLiooRiipnY:  J.  J..  I.   Dollinger  and  F.  H.   Reiuch.  Ge- 

echichte    der  MoraUtreitigkeiten,  vol.   i.,   StuttRart.   1890; 

F.  H.  Reu8ch,  Index  der  verbotenen  BQcher,  ii.  826,  896, 

898.  920. 

BUSH,  GEORGE:  American  Swedenborgian ; 
b.  at  Norwich,  Vt.,  June  12,  1796;  d.  at  Rochest^T, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  19,  1859.  He  was  graduate  at  Dart- 
mouth, 1818;  studied  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  1820-22;  was  tutor  in  Princeton  College, 
1822-23;  went  to  Indiana  for  the  Home  Missionary 
Society  in  1824  and  was  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  at  Indianapolis  1825-28;  professor  of  He- 
brew and  Oriental  literature  in  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York  1831—47;  instructor  of  sacred 
literature  in  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  the 
same  city  1836-37.  In  1845  he  connected  liimself 
with  the  Swedenborgians  and  was  preacher  of  the 
New  Church  Society  in  New  York  1848-52,  in 
Brooklyn    1854-59.     He   was   an   active  defender 


of  the  tenets  of  his  faith  with  both  pen  and 
voice,  and  edited  the  New  Church  Repontory  and 
Monthly  Review  1848-55.  His  writings  on  other 
subjects  include:  Life  of  Mohammed  (New  York, 
1832);  A  Treatise  on  the  Miliennium  (1832);  A 
Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  (1835);  Seta 
Critical  and  Practical  on  the  Old  Testament  (Gen- 
esis-Judges, 8  vols.,  1840  sqq.);  Anastans  (1S13). 
against  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
He  was  justly  esteemed  as  a  Hebrew  scholar. 

Bibuoorapht:  Memoira  and  RetniniMrenseM  of  George  Bvk. 
a  ooUection  of  contributions  from  f riencLi,  edited  by  Wood- 
bury M.  Femaid,  Boston,  1860. 

BUSHNELL,   HORACE:     Congregationalist;   b. 
at  Litchfield.  Conn..  Apr.  14,  1802;  d.  in  HartfonL 
Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1876.     He  was  graduated  at  Ytfe 
College,  1827;  after  an  interval  spent  in  teadung 
and  journalism,  he  returned  (1829)  to  study  lawii 
the  Yale  Law  School,  but  after  two  years,  durmg 
which  he  was  a  tutor  in  the  college,  was  converted 
and  studied  for  the  ministry  in  the  Yale  Divinity 
School  and  graduated  in  the   class  of  1833.    He 
was  pastor  of  the  North  Church,  Hartford,  Oomu 
from  May  22,  1833,  till  Nov.  22.  1859.  when  be  re- 
signed on  account  of  his  health,  though  he  coo- 
tinued  his  ministrations  with  undiminished  pover. 
His  distinction   rests  upon    several    great  works: 
(1)  His  Christian  Nurture  (Hartford,  1846)—*  con- 
tribution of  the  first  rank  to  religious  thought^-in 
which  he  drew  attention  away  from  revivab  to  the 
training  of  children  in  Christian  households  as  the 
law  of  growth  in  the  Church.     (2)  His  doctrine  of 
the  "  Instrumental  Trinity  "  {God  in  Christ,  Ne» 
York,  1849),  showing  affinities  with  Sabellianian, 
but  lifting  the  idea  of  the  Trinity  out  of  the  regno 
of  speculation  and  making  it  available  for  actaal 
life  (sec  C^RiftTOLOGY,   IX.,  3,  §   4).     (3)  His  sn- 
preme  emphasis  on  ethical  and  religious  values  and 
his  refusal  of  metaphysics;  here  he  anticipates  the 
Ritschlian  attitude,  the  ground  of  which  for  him 
lay  not  in  philosophy,  but  in  a  theory  of  langiugp 
(**  Dissertation  on  Language,''   in  God  in  Christ; 
'*  Our  GosixjI  a  Gift  to  the  Imagination,"  in  Bu^ 
ing  EraSf  New   York,    1881)    and   in   a  profound 
Christian  experience.     (4)  His  moral  view  of  the 
Atonement  (q.v.),  "  grounded  in  principles  of  uni- 
versal   obligation "    and    universal    vicariousness, 
later  modified  by  the  idea  of  God  as  propitiating 
himself  in  the  forgiveness  of  the  sinner  {The  Vi- 
car ious  Sacrifice f  New  York,  1865;  Forgiveness  and 
iMWf  ib.  1874 — the  two  volumes  published  under 
the  title   The  Vicarums  Sacrifice,    1877).     (5)  In 
a[)ologctics  Bushnell  related  "  Miracles  "  to  "  Law," 
and  drew  his  matchless  picture  of  "  The  Charafter 
of  Jesus  Forbidding  his  Possible  Classification  with 
Men  "   {Nature  and  the  Supernatural,   New  Yoii, 
1858).     (6)  Many  of  his  sermons  are  unsurpaased 
for  insight,  feeling,  imagination,  noble  thought,  and 
splendor  of  diction.     Yet  by  his  own  generation  he 
was  generally  called  a  heretic;  and  for  his  con- 
demnation there   was  a  demand   throughout  the 
American  orthodox  churches  I     In  1849  and  1S51 
he  was  actually  accused  of  heresy  in  formal  fashion, 
and  still  more  savagely  attacked  after  1866,  but 
his  congregation  stood  by  him  and  he  was  not 
tried.     The  present   generation    in    America  ven- 


319 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Butler 


erates  him  as  one  of  the  molders  of  religious  opin- 
ion, and  has  been  influenced  by  him  more  perhaps 
than  it  knows.  A  centenary  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  in  twelve  volumes  (New  York,  1903). 

Bibuographt:  H.  C.  Tnimbull,  in  MyFourReligiouaTeach- 
<r«,  Philadelphia.  1903;  M.  B.  Cheney,  Life  and  Lettera  of 
Horace  BuehneU,  New  York,  1880  (by  his  daughter); 
T.  T.  Hunger,  Horace  BuehneU^  Preacher  and  Theologian, 
Boeton,  1899.  His  Spirit  in  Man,  Sermons  and  Selec- 
Hona  waa  published  in  a  centenary  ed.,  with  classified 
and  annotated  literature,  by  H.  B.  Learned,  New  York, 
1903. 

BUTLER,  ALBAN:  English  Roman  Catholic; 
b.  at  Appletree  (70  m.  n.w.  of  London),  Northamp- 
tonshire, Oct.  24,  1710;  d.  at  St.  Omer  (22  m.  s.e. 
of  Calais),  France,  May  15,  1773.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Douai  and  became  professor  there  of  phi- 
losophy and  divinity;  was  ordained  priest,  1735; 
traveled  through  France  and  Italy,  1745-46,  and 
then  was  sent  for  a  short  time  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic mission  in  Staffordshire.  Later  he  was  tutor 
to  Edward  Howard,  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  accom- 
panied him  to  Paris;  about  1766  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  English  college  at  St.  Omer.  He 
labored  for  thirty  years  on  his  chief  work.  The 
Lives  of  the  Fathers^  Martyrs^  and  Other  Principal 
Saints,  which  was  published  anon3rmously  in  four 
volimies  (vol.  iii.,  2  parts)  at  London,  1756-69. 
The  second  edition,  with  notes  and  other  matter 
omitted  in  the  first  edition,  edited  by  Dr.  Carpen- 
ter, archbishop  of  Dublin,  appeared  at  Dublin  in 
twelve  volumes  in  1779-80.  It  has  appeared  in 
several  later  editions  and  abridgments  (as  by  F. 
G.  Husenbeth,  with  omission  of  the  notes  and  most 
of  the  shorter  lives,  2  vols.,  London,  1857-60),  and 
was  translated  into  French  and  Italian.  His 
nephew,  Charles  Butler  (q.v.),  prepared  a  continua- 
tion (London,  1823).  A  complete  general  index  was 
published  in  1886. 

Bibuographt:  Charles  Butler,  An  Account  of  the  Life  and 
WriUnge  of  Alban  Butler,  Edinburgh,  1800,  contained  also 
in  vol.  iii.  of  the  works  of  Charles  Butler,  London,  1817, 
and  in  many  editions  of  the  Lives;  DNB,  viii.  33-34. 

BUTLER,  ALFORD  AUGUSTUS:  Protestant 
EpiscopaUan;  b.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Sept.  23,  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  Griswold  College,  Davenport, 
la.,  where  he  completed  his  theological  education 
in  1873.  He  was  ordered  deacon  in  the  same  year, 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1874.  He  was  suc- 
cessively assistant  in  Grace  Cathedral,  Davenport, 
la.  (1873),  and  rector  of  Grace  Church,  Cedar 
Rapids,  la.  (1873-77),  Trinity  Church,  Bay  City, 
Mich.  (1877-84),  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  New 
York  City  (1884-91),  and  Christ  Church,  Red  Wing, 
Minn.  (1891-94).  Since  1894  he  has  been  warden 
and  professor  of  homiletics,  liturgies,  and  religious 
pedagogy  in  Seabury  Divinity  School,  Faribault, 
Minn.  He  was  active  in  organizing  the  Parochial 
Mission  Society  of  the  United  States,  and  was 
chosen  secretary  of  its  executive  committee,  and 
also  took  a  prominent  part  in  establishing  the  first 
deaconess  school  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  He  is  likewise  a  member  of  the  Joint 
Commission  on  Sunday  Schools  and  of  the  General 
Convention  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
He  has  written:  How  to  Study  the  Life  of  Christ 
(New  York,   1902);  How  shall  we  worship  Oodt 


(1904);  and  The  Churchman* s  ManiuU  of  Sunday 
School  Methods  (Milwaukee,  1906). 

BUTLER,  ALFRED  JOSHUA:  Church  of  Eng- 
land layman;  b.  at  Loughborough  (10  m.  n.n.w.  of 
Leicester),  Leicestershire,  Sept.  21,  1850.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1874), 
and  after  being  assistant  master  at  Winchester 
from  1874  to  1879,  was  tutor  to  the  Khedive  of 
Egypt  in  1879-81.  He  was  elected  fellow  of  Erase- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  in  1877,  and  was  appointed 
bursar  four  years  later,  both  of  which  positions 
he  still  holds.  He  has  written:  Amaranth  and  As- 
phodel,  Verses  from  the  Greek  Anthology  (London, 
1880);  AncierU  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt  (2  vols., 
Oxford,  1884);  Court  Life  in  Egypt  (London,  1887); 
The  Churches  and  Monasteries  of  Egypt  and  some 
neighboring  Countries  attributed  to  Abu  Salihf  the 
Armenian  (1895,  in  collaboration  with  B.  T.  A. 
Evetts);  and  The  Arab  Conquest  of  Egypt  (London, 
1902). 

BUTLER,  CHARLES:  English  Roman  Catholic 
layman;  nephew  of  Alban  Butler  (q.v.);  b.  in 
London  Aug.  14,  1750;  d.  there  June  2,  1832.  He 
studied  at  Douai,  and  for  many  years  was  a  leading 
lawyer  of  London.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
movement  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the  laws  against 
Roman  Catholics;  in  regard  to  the  hierarchy  and 
the  relations  of  English  Catholics  to  the  pope  he 
was  an  extreme  Gallican,  and  found  bitter  opponents 
in  the  vicars-npostolic  in  England.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer;  among  the  more  important 
of  his  works  are  Horce  biblicce  (2  pts.,  London,  1797- 
1802);  Historical  Memoirs  respecting  the  English, 
Irish,  and  Scottish  Catholics  from  the  Reformation 
(4  vols.,  1819-21);  Reminiscences  (1822);  The  Book 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (1825);  biographies 
of  Alban  Bulter  (1800),  F^nelon  (1811),  Erasmus 
(1825),  Grotius  (1826),  and  others.  He  continued 
his  uncle's  Lives  of  the  Saints. 

BUTLER,  CLEMENT  MOORE:  American  Epis- 
copalian; b.  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  16,  1810;  d.  in 
Philadelphia  Mar.  5,  1890.  He  was  graduated  at 
Washington  (Trinity)  College  1833,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  1836; 
was  rector  of  various  churches  in  New  York,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Massachusetts,  and  Ohio 
1837-61,  and  from  1849  to  1853  chaplain  of  the 
United  States  Senate;  chaplain  of  the  United 
States  embassy  at  Rome  1861-64;  professor  of 
church  history  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Divinity 
School,  Philadelphia,  1864-84.  Besides  occasional 
sermons,  he  published:  The  Year  of  the  Church, 
hymns  and  devotional  verse  for  the  Sundays  and 
Holy  Days  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  for  young  persons 
(Utica,  N.  Y.,  1839);  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
Interpreted  by  its  History  (Boston,  1845;  2d  ed., 
enlarged,  Washington,  1849);  Addresses  and  Lec^ 
tures  on  Public  Men  and  Public  Affairs  delivered 
in  Washington  City  (Cincinnati,  1856);  The  Flock 
Fed,  catechetical  instruction  preparatory  to  con- 
firmation (New  York,  1862);  Inner  Rome,  political, 
religious,  and  social  (Philadelphia,  1866);  The  Rit- 
ualism of  I^w  (1867);  A  Manual  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  (from  the  first  to  the  nineteenth  century; 
2  vols.,  1868-72);  History  of  the  Book  of  Common 


Batler 
Buttlar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


pTayer  (ISSO)j  History  of  the  Ec formation  in  Swe- 
den {l^ew  York,  1883). 

BUTLER,  HEimY  MONTAGUE:  Master  of 
Trinity  College,  Ctunhndpi;  b.  at  Gayton  (4  m. 
n-  of  Towccster),  NortliamptoUp  July  2,  1833,  Ha 
was  educated  at  Trinity  Collcgo  (B.A.,  18S5), 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1859.  He  was  fellow 
of  Ms  eoUege  ia  1855-60,  and  wa^  head  master  of 
Harrow  School  from  1859  to  1885.  He  was  honor- 
ary chaplain  to  the  queen  iu  1875^77  and  chaplain 
in  ordinaiy  in  1877-85,  m  well  aa  examming  chap- 
lain to  archbishops  Tait  and  Benson  of  Canterbury 
from  1879  to  1887,  He  was  ali^o  prebendary  of 
Holbom  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1882-85,  dean 
of  Gloucester  in  1885-85,  and  vice-chancellor  of 
Cambridge  in  1889-91.  Since  1886  he  has  been 
master  of  Trinity  College,  and  honorary  canon  of 
Ely  since  189^.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Oxford 
in  1877-78,  1878-80,  1882,  and  !899,  and  at  Cam^ 
bridge  in  1S79,  188.7,  1893,  1890-98,  1901,  and  1903. 
while  in' 1871  ho  was  created  a  eommamler  of  the 
Order  of  the  Crown  of  Italy,  He  is  also  a  governor 
of  Haileybury  College,  Harrow  School,  Cheltenham 
College,  Wellington  Colh'ge,  and  Westminster 
School,  and  has  written:  Servwn^  preached  ia  the 
Chapel  of  Harrow  School  (2  vols.,  London,  1861-09); 
Belief  in  Christ  and  other  Sermons  preached  in 
Trinity  College  (1898);  '*  Lift  up  your  Heari^"  : 
Words  of  Good  Cheer  for  the  Holy  Communion  ( 1 898) ; 
Univensity  and  other  Sermons  (1899);  and  Public 
School  Sermons  ( 1 899), 

BUTLERj  JAMES  GLENTWORTH :  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,  182 L  He 
■w&B  etiucatod  at  New  York  Univ-eniity  (did  not 
graduate),  Union  Theological  Seminary  {184&-47), 
and  Yale  Divinity  Sehtjol,  being  griuluntcd  from 
the  latter  in  1 849.  After  being  a  resident  licentiate 
at  the  same  institution  in  18rt9-50,  he  was  ordained 
to  the  Prcfibytiman  minbtry  latt*  in  1852  ami  was 
pastor  of  the  Walnut  Street  Pn'Mbj-terian  Church, 
Philailelphia,  Fa.,  until  1808,  He  was  then  elected 
corre&«]>onding  scen^tary  of  the  American  and  For- 
eign Christian  Union,  a  position  which  he  rtlained 
three  j'ears,  after  which  lie  was  pas^tiir  of  the 
First  Pre.Mbytcrian  Church,  Brooklyn,  for  two  years 
(1871-73),  In  1874  he  retired  'from  the  active 
ministry,  and  ha^^  since  lived  the  life  of  a  private 
scholar.  In  addition  to  a  number  of  briefer  con- 
tributions, he  pmpareij  The  Bihte  Reader^ s  Com- 
mentary, New  Testnment  (2  voIh.,  New  York*  1879), 
which  was  afterward  enlarged  under  the  title 
Bible  Work  (11  vols.,  189'i)  ami  made  t^  inehiilo 
the  Old  Testament;  and  Vitol  Truths  respecting 
Godond  Man  (Phila^iclphia.  in04). 

BUTLER,  JOHH  GEORGE:  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Cumbcriand,  Md,,  Jan.  28,  1S20,  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Pennsylvania  College  (1846)  and  Gettys* 
burg  Theological  Seminar^*,  Ctttysburg.  Pa  (18-17- 
1S49},  and  was  pastor  of  St.  Paura  English  Lutheran 
Church,  Waslungton,  D,  C,  from  1819  to  1873.  Since 
the  latter  year  he  haa  been  pastor  of  the  Luther 
Pkce  Memorial  Church  in  the  same  city.  He  a  bo 
served  tlu-ougliout  tlie  Civil  War  as  a  chaplain  in 
and  near  Washington,  was  chaplain  of  the  Hou^  e 
of  Representatives  from  1869  to  1875,  and  of  the 


Senate  from  1866  to  1893,  He  waa  ^kenriie  p»- 
f es3or  of  homileties  and  church  hktory  m  HmM 
UDiverHity,  Washington,  from  1871  to  1881,  lod 
for  many  years  was  Waaliington  correspqadBOt  of 
the  Lutheran^a  Observer  and  the  Lutheran  E:mifi' 
ist,  and  hai  also  been  the  editor  of  the  Utter  pigs 
since  1S93. 

BUTLER,  JOSEPH;  Bishop  of  Ihirham;  b,  it 
Wantage  (14  m.  a,w.  of  Oxford)  May  IS,  1692;  i 
at  Bath  June  16,  1752.  He  was  the  younpst  cf 
the  eight  children  of  Thomaa  Butler,  &  ntind 
Imen-draper  and  stanch  Presbyterian,  but  mm 
allowed  ti>  enter  Oriel  College,  Chcford,  and  ia  1718 
the  mini&try  of  the  Church  of  Elng^and.  Fian 
1719  to  1726  he  was  preacher  at  the  RoUs  Chipd, 
London,  where  most  of  the  congregation  m 
lawyers  and  the  pay  small;  from  1721  to  1738  ta 
was  prebendary  of  Salisbury;  from  1721  to  1723^ 
rector  of  naughton-le-^kcme  (2  m.  nje.  of  Dw- 
lington)i  and  from  1725  to  1740  of  Stanhope  (26  m. 
n.  of  Darlington).  From  1733  to  1740  ho  wai a  p«b- 
endary  of  Rochester  j  from  1733  to  1736  chipkii 
to  the  lortl  chancellor;  from  1736  to  her  deattii 
1737  clerk  of  the  closet  to  Caroline,  queen  coourt 
of  George  It.;  from  173S  to  1750  bishop  of  Briitd, 
the  poorest  eee  in  England;  from  1740  to  1750 
dean  of  St.  Paulas  with  a  prebend  and  reaidentijiy 
canony;  from  1746  to  1750  clerk  of  the  doxt  to 
the  King  ((leorge  IL);  from  1750  till  his  deitb, 
bishop  of  Durham,  the  richest  see  in  Elngknd.  A« 
appears  from  the  above,  he  -was  a  pluralist.  Be 
was  not.  however,  avaricious,  but  generous  to  i 
fault,  ^e  was  shy,  reticent,  sensitive,  more  ef  a 
thinker  than  a  reader,  and  he  never  married.  Bis 
one  great  aim  was  to  combat  the  current  Dekn 
and  contempt  for  religion.  This  he  did  with  un- 
rivaled force.  He  had  the  very  expensive  taste 
of  building  and  spent  much  money  in  reconstrud- 
ing  his  episcopal  residences. 

His  reputation  rests  upon  his  writings,  all  piib- 
lif^hed  by  himself  or  in  his  lifetime,  as  his  lltenur 
pcniflinn  were  dcstroye<l  at  his  death,  according  to 
his  ihriTtian.  These  writings  are  few  in  nuaiber 
but  ueighfy  in  matter.  This  is  the  full  hst:  F-r 
teen  Sermons  Preached  ai  £Ac  Bolls  Chapd  {17^}', 
The  Analog^i  of  Religion  Natural  and  M^vealei  to 
the  ConMution  and  Course  of  Nature  (1736);  sii 
occasional  sermons  of  various  dates;  a  part  of  his 
episcopal  charge  at  Bristol  in  1740,  and  his  episco- 
pal charge  at  Durham  in  1751;  and  the  corre- 
Bpondcnce,  down  to  1714,  between  himself  snd 
f^amuel  Clarke,  which  the  latter  published  in  tbc 
fourth  edition  (1716)  of  his  Bfsyle  lectuiee  en  the 
Being  and  Attributes  of  God,  and  sepu^tdy  the 
eame  year,  but  which  has  received  additions. 

To  understand  and  appreciate  theee  writinp  of 
Butler  one  must  bear  in  mind  two  facta:  Butler 
livcil  in  the  "  golden  ago  of  English  Deism,"  when 
Christianity,  as  he  himself  says,  was  "  not  ao  mudi 
as  a  Bubject  of  inquiry;  but  that  it  is,  now  at 
length,  discovered  to  be  fictitious";  and  secondly 
that  he  was  intensely  practical.  He  wrote  hk 
famous  FifUcn  Sermons,  as  J,  H.  Bernard  sxj% 
*'  nf)t  to  propound  a  new  basis  for  speculative 
ethics,  but  to  justify  to  practical  men  the  praetioe 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Butler 
Buttl&r 


the  common  virtues,  benevolence,  compassion, 
the  like.     He  desires  to  take  human  nature 
m  existing  fact,  and  to  analyse  its  constitu- 
}  just  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  bring  to  light  the 
utions  to  right  li^^ng.*'     His  Six  Sermons  are 
t  practical :    The  fir8t  is  a  tief ensc  of  foreign 
rions;  the  second  is  an  appeal   for  the  London 
pitals;  the  third  is  on  the  true  way  to  safeguard 
ibcrty;  the  fourth  is  a  plea  for  charity  schools - 
he  fifth  is  upon  the  uses  to  which  the  union  of 
IJhiirch  and  State  should  be  put,  and  the  sixth 
the  proper  management  of  infirmaries.     Of 
I  practicality  is  his  more  famous  Analogjf,     He 
the  Deists  on  their  own  ground  and  strove  to 
jt  the  ground  from  under  their  feet  in  order  tliat 
might  bring  them  to  the  Christian  foundation, 
quote   Bernard  again:  *'  We   find  in   Butler's 
orks    no     attempt    to    construct    a  pliilosopliy 
religion    nor  ...  an  analysis  of  the  religious 
onsciousness.  .  .  .  Religion    Is  treated  altogether 
OTD  the  historical  jxjmt  of  view*     Its  main  doc- 
"nes  are  facts   and  are  susceptible  of  proof,  just 
any  other  facta*  .  .  .  It  is  an  argujnentum  ad 
all  through,  and  is  not  intended  to  pre- 
\  an  abBolut«  and  conHecutive  statement  of  the 
tids  of  faith.  .  .  J  His  point  was,  not  that  the 
ifficulties  of  revelation  repeat  the    difficulties  of 
ftture,   but  rather  the  difficulties    of  revelation, 
lmjtte«I  to  be  embarrassing  in  themselves,  cannot 
counted  detitructive  of  religious  belief,  inasmuch 
difficulties  of  a  similar  nature  beset  the  recog- 
ition   of  nature   as  a   coherent   and   syBtematic 
rhole/*    * 
The  first  part  of  the  Analogyt  conBisttng  of  seven 
bapters,  Ls  the  Analogy  of  Natural  Religion  to  the 
institution  and  course  of  Nature;  and  is  gencr- 
considered  more  successful  than  the  second 
t,  in  eight  chapters,  on  the  Analogy  of  Revealed 
eUgion  to  the  constitution  and  course  of  Nature 
'  a  kind  of  evidences  of  Christianity).     But  both 
j)arts  are  very  hard  reading,  because,  though  per- 
fectly clear,  the  argument  is  very  profound,  "i  It  has 
a  college  and  miiversity  text-book  for  nigh 
►  years  and  the  quarry  of  innumerable  works. 

are  many  editions  of  Butler.     Two  of  re- 

jlcftble  excellence  are  that  by  the  late  W.  E. 

jladstone  (two  vols.,  Oxford,  1896,  with  a  volume 

Gladstone's  Studieji  mbsidioTy  to  Bniler's  works) 

Qd  that  by  J.  H.  Bernard  (2  vols.,  London,  1900). 

BiaLIOORAPmr:  The  earliest  Life  appeared  in  the  Biogra- 
phia  Britanniea,  in  the  Supplement,  Lotidon,  1753,  und 
thf9  Li/*  by  Kippift.  which  appeared  in  hw  ed.  of  the  Bi- 
vffraphia,  Londuti,  1778-93,  ih  often  prefixed  to  the  WotI-m 
or  to  the  Anatogjf.  ConeiyU  further:  T.  Bar t let t,  AfemotTt 
0f  JoB^ph  BuUer^  London,  1839;  John  Hunt,  RelitfiouA 
Tho^takt  in  Engiond^  vols.  ij..  iii.,  ib.  1871-73;  C.  J.  Abbey 
and  J.  H.  Overton.  EngliMh  Church  in  the  Eiffhteenth  Cen* 
tury,  2  irob,.  ib,  1878;  T.  R.  Pynchon,  Bishop  Butler,  a 
Stetdi  of  hi*  Life  with  an  Examination  of  the  Analogy, 
New  York.  1889;  Binhop  Butler,  An  Ap^preciation,  with 
the  best  patmoe*  of  hi*  Wriiinga^  LoDdon.  1^03;  BNB^ 
viii  67-72. 

BUTLER,  WTLLL4M :     Methodist;   b,  in  Dublin, 

I  Ireland,  Jan,  31,  1818;  d.  at  Newton  Ontre,  Mass. 
Aug*  18j  1899.  He  was  ^aduated  at  Didsbury 
CJollege,  near  Manchester*  Eng.,  1844,  and  the  same 
year  became  a  member  of  the  Irish  Wesleyan  Con- 
ference, In  1850  he  came  to  America  and  joLncd 
I  U.— 21 


the  New*  England  Conference.  In  1856  he  was 
sent  to  India  to  be  superintendent  of  a  mission  to 
be  founded  in  that  eolmtrJ^  He  located  it  in 
Oudh^  Northwest  India,  but  had  scarcely  begun 
work  before  the  Sepoy  rebellion  broke  out  and  he 
wajs  for  a  time  in  extreme  peril.  Quiet  being  re- 
storetl,  ho  conducted  the  mission  very  successfully, 
making  his  headquarters  at  Bare  illy.  In  1 865  he  re- 
turned to  America  becaiUsCp  the  nVij^ion  being  organ- 
ized into  a  conference,  no8Uperint4sndent  was  needed. 
He  resumed  Ids  paittoral  labors  till  in  1869  ho  became 
secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union,  in  New  York.  In  1873  he  was  for  the  sec- 
ond time  selected  by  his  Church  to  found  a  mission, 
tliis  time  m  Mexico,  and  was  its  superintendent  till 
1879.  He  revisited  India  in  1883  and  1884,  and 
saw  the  great  success  which  had  attended  the  mia- 
sioa  he  ha^l  founded.  His  last  days  were  passed  at 
Newton  Centre^  Mass,  Ho  WTote:  Compendium  of 
Afissions  (Boston,  1852);  The  Land  of  the  Veda 
(New  York,  1872);  From  Boston  to  BareiUy  and 
Back  (18S.5);  Mexico  in  Transition  (1892). 

BiRUioQRAfnY;  Clementina  Butler,  William  Butler*  th* 
Founder  uf  Txm  MiMeion*  of  One  M.  E.  Church,  New  York, 
1902, 

BUTLER,  WILLIAM  ARCHER:  Church  of 
Ireland;  b.  at  Annenille  (2  m.  e.  of  Clonmel), 
County  Tipper ary,  1814;  d,  at  Raymoghy  (5  m,  n. 
of  Raphoe),  County  Donegal,  July  5^  I84S,  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  moral  pliilosophy  there  from  1837  to  liia 
death.  From  1837  to  1842  he  was  minister  at 
Clondehorka,  diocese  of  Raphoe»  County  Donegal, 
and  then  rector  of  Raymoghy  in  the  same  diocese. 
He  w^as  a  brilliant  and  profound  thinker,  but  his 
works  are  all  posthumous  and  prepared  for  the 
press  by  others.  They  are  Letters  on  the  Devehp- 
meni  of  Christian  Doctrine  in  fUply  to  Mr.  Nevj- 
man*8  Eiyiaay  (ed,  Thomas  Woodwar^l^  Dublin, 
1850);  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Ancient  PhiloS' 
ophy  (ed.  William  Hepworth  Thompson,  2  vols., 
Cambridge,  1856,  5th  ed..  1  vol.,  London,  1874); 
Sermons  Doctrinal  and  Practical  (1st  series,  ed,  with 
memoir  by  Thomas  Woodward,  Dublin,  1849,  3d 
ed.,  Cambridge,  1855;  2d  series,  ed.  Jame«  Ami- 
raux  Jeremie,  Cambridge,  1856),,  each  series  having 
twenty-six  sermons;  the  two  serii^  with  his  lec- 
tures were  reprinted  in  New  York,  1879, 

EUTTERBRIEFE,  BUTTERWOCHE,    See  Laq- 

TICINIA. 

B0TTLAR,  EVA  VOH :  The  leader  in  a  disgrace- 
ful aberration  externally  connected  with  Pietism, 
which  is  in  no  way  pesi>onflible  for  it;  b.  at  Esch- 
wege  (26  m*  e.s,e,  of  Cassel),  Hesse,  1670;  d,  at 
Altcpna  after  1717.  Educated  without  religious  in- 
struction, she  married  at  seventeen  a  French  dan- 
cing-master in  Eisenach,  named  Do  V^sias.  After 
ten  years  of  a  gay  court  life,  she  was  touched 
by  the  Pietistic  movement,  left  her  husband, 
stopped  going  to  church,  and  in  1702,  with  a  group 
of  friends,  founded  at  Ailendorf  in  Hesse  a  new 
Chrislian-Philadelphie  society,  like  several  others 
which  had  sprung  up  in  the  Netherlands  and  weat^ 
crn  Germ  any.  The  esoteric  doctrine  of  these  so- 
cieties included  the  expectation  of  an  approach- 


Sm 


lutts 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


882 


Ing  millennium,  the  rejection  of  marriage  bb 
degrading,  and  the  extinction  of  carnal  desires  by 
unrestrained  indulgence.  Eva  and  her  friends  are 
■aid  to  have  practised  the  most  lawless  excesses,  as 
sanctioned  by  their  beliefs.  Driven  from  Allen- 
dorf,  they  sought  refuge  in  Wittgenstein,  the  com- 
mon asyliun  of  the  persecuted;  but  even  there  the 
tribunals  were  obliged  to  interfere.  Eva  and  her 
special  intimates,  the  theologian  Winter  and  the 
physician  Appenfeller,  embraced  Catholicism  at 
Cologne  pro  forma  as  a  means  of  protection,  and 
then  settled  at  LOde  near  Pyrmont.  where  their 
blasphemous  insanity  reached  its  height  in  1706. 
They  were  all  again  arrested,  but  escaped.  Ap- 
penfeller,  who  had  been  legally  married  to  Eva, 
settled  with  her  in  Altona  as  a  practising  physician; 
and  she  is  said  finally  to  have  lived  a  decent,  regu- 
lar life  with  him  there  as  a  member  of  the  Evangel- 
ical Lutheran  Church. 

(F.  W.  DiBELIUB.) 

BlBUOGRAnnr:  Tbomanua,  Oedanken  Hber  alUrkamd  o»- 
mi»ehi€  pkUo»ophi»eke  und  jurUHseKe  UAiuUl,  iii.  209-fi24, 
Halle.  1725:  Keller.  Die  ButtlartMche  RoUe,  in  ZHT, 
1846,  part  4;  M.  Goebel.  OachuhU  dea  MruKidken  LateiM 
in  d^  rhnnisek^i€€MtpMUi9eken  Kireke,  Coblenx.  1852. 

BUTTZy  HENRY  AlfSON:  American  Methodist 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Middle  Sniithfield,  Pa.,  Apr. 
18,  1835.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton  College 
(B.A.,  1858),  and  held  pastorates  at  Millstone, 
N.  J.  (1K5H-59),  IrvingUm,  N.  J.  (1859-60),  Wood- 
bridge,  N.  J.  (IHCKMll),  Mariner's  Harbor,  Staten 
Island  (1H02-IW;,  PrciMjKTt  Street  Church,  Pater- 
son,  N.  J.  (18(H-WJ),  and  Morristown,  N.  J.  (1867- 
1860).  Ho  WHS  also  inHtnicUir  in  Drew  Theological 
Seminary,  Mfulifwm,  N.  J.,  in  1867,  becoming  ad- 
junct pmfesHor  of  (irc<*k  and  Ih;bnfw  in  1868,  and 
profcHHor  of  New  TeHiariK^iit  (iireuk  and  exegesis 
two  ywirs  later.  Since  18W)  he  haH  Ikjch  president 
of  tlic  fM;minary.  He  lias  edittMl,  in  midition  to  a 
numlxjr  of  brit?fer  studieH:  The  New  lAfe  Dawning 
by  li.  H.  Nadal  (New  York,  1873)  and  The  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  in  Greek  (1876). 

BUTZER,  MARTIN. 

Early  Aetivity  in  the  Proten-  The      Wittenberg     Concord 

tsnt  Cause  (§  1).  ((4). 

The    Reformation   in    Straii-  Critique  of  Dutier's  Attitude 

burg  a  2).  ill  the  Controveray  (}  6). 

Endeavors  to  Reconcile  Lu-  Butzor  in  Kngland  (§  6). 

ther  and  Zwingli  (§  3).  Death  of  Butxer  (§  7). 

Martin  But»er(Bucer)  was  bom  at  Schlettstadt  (26 

m.8.w.ofStrasburg)Nov.  11, 1491;  d.  at  Cambridge, 

Eng.,  Feb.  28, 1551 .  He  received  liis  first  education  at 

the  excellent  Latin  school  of  his  native  town,  and 

in  1506  joined  the  order  of  the    Dominicans.     In 

1517  he  was  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  studied  the 

writings  of  the  humanists,  the  Bible,  and  also  the 

writings  of  Luther,  whoso  personal  acquaintance 

he  made  in  1518  and  with  whom  he 

I.  Early     began  to  correspond  in   1520.     Being 

Activity     suspected  by  his  order  and  accused  at 

in  the      Rome,  Butzer,  who  favored  the  evan- 

Protestant  gelical   cause,  left   the   monastery  in 

Cause.      1520  to  avoid  further  difficulties,  and 

became   an   associate  of  Hutten   and 

Sickingen.    The   latter  called  him  in  1522  to  the 

pastorate  of  Landstuhl,  and  in  the  same  year  he 


married,  being  one  of  the  first  priests  to  breakjus 
vow  of  celibacy.  When  Siddngen  was  defeated 
by  the  elector  of  Treves,  however,  Butzer  had 
to  leave  the  dty,  and  for  a  year  he  acted  as 
evangelical  preacher  at  Wissenburg  in  Alssee, 
supported  by  the  council  and  dtiaens,  but  attacked 
by  the  Frandscan  monks.  In  1523  he  went  to 
Strasburg,  where  the  Reformation,  prepared  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  was  already  in  progress.  Together 
with  Zell,  Capito,  and  Hedio,  Butaer  became  the 
soul  of  the  Strasburg  Reformation,  and  by  preadi- 
ing  and  writing,  by  letters  and  journeys,  and  by 
personal  relations  with  ecclesiastics  and  statesmen, 
he  exerted  a  reformatory  and  organising  activity, 
not  only  in  Alsace  but  also  in  different  oountriea. 
He  was  paster  of  St.  Aurelia  1524-31,  and  pastor 
of  St.  Thomas  1531-10,  having  already  become  in 
1530  president  of  the  newly  founded  diurch  ooim- 
cil  which  was  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority 
in  Strasburg.  As  spiritual  spokesman  of  the 
Strasburg  dtizens,  who  were  eager  for  the  Refo^ 
mat  ion,  and  as  leader  of  the  evangelical  miniiten, 
he  appeared  before  the  council,  which  proceeded 
cautiously  and  advisedly.  He  acoomplished  the 
abolition  of  the  mass  on  Feb.  20, 
2,  The      1529,  by  a  decree  of  the  lay  amcoDon, 

Reforma-     and  thus  the  introduction  of  the  Bef- 
tion  in      ormation  into  the  free  imperial  dty 

Straalrarg.  Strasburg  was  made  a  matter  of  his- 
tory. But  long  before  this  the  reor- 
ganisation of  the  divine  service  and  of  ecdesiaatical 
life  began.  Butser's  Ordnung  und  Inhalt  deutsdier 
Messe  (1524)  was  typical  of  the  Reformed  order  of 
worship.  He  devoted  spedal  attention  to  cate- 
chetics  and  published  three  catechisms  between 
1524  and  1544,  while  by  the  church  ordinance  of 
1534  he  introduced  the  lay  presbytery  into  Stras- 
burg, and  in  1539  he  inaugurated  confirmation  in 
the  same  city.  Together  with  his  friend  Johannes 
Sturm,  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Protestant 
educational  system  in  Strasburg,  founding  the 
gymnasium  in  1538,  and  the  seminary  in  1544.  In 
the  interest  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  he  energet- 
ically opposed  the  Anabaptists  and  such  radicals  as 
Carlstadt,  Hetzer,  Denk,  Sebastian  Frank,  Schwenck- 
feld,  Melchior  Hofmaim,  and  Clemens  Ziegler. 

Outside  of  Strasburg  Butzer  brought  about  the 
introduction  of  the  Reformation  into  Hanau-Lich- 
tenberg  (1544),  while  Wttrttemberg,  Baden,  and 
especifdly  Hesse  owed  him  much.  For  the  elector 
of  Cologne,  Archbishop  Hermaim  of  Wied,  Butser, 
together  with  Melanchthon,  composed  an  order  of 
reformation  (1543).  His  influence  even  reached 
as  far  as  Belgium,  Italy,  and  France. 

Butzer's  activity  in  ecdesiastical  organization 
is  treated  too  lightly  in  most  works  on  dburch  his- 
tory, which  lay  their  main  stress  on  his  efforts 
toward  a  union  of  the  two  main  streams  of  the 
Reformation,  and  espedally  on  his  endeavors  to 
reconcile  Luther  and  Zwin^i  in  the  eucharistic 
controversy,  which  significantly  interrupted  the 
course  of  the  main  events  in  the  period  of  the  Refo^ 
mation.  When  Carlstadt  had  to  leave  Strasburg 
in  1524,  Butzer  addressed  a  writing  to  Luther  in 
the  name  of  the  Strasburg  ministers,  in  which  he 
and  they  expressed  their  position  in  regard  to 


^arlstfl<it,     Coneeming  the  sarrament  nf  the  altar, 
bey  taught  that  the  bread  is  the  body  of  Christ 
ad  the  wine  his  blood*  but  that  greater  impor- 
nce  should  be  attnchfd  to  *.he  commemoration  of 
lie  deuth  of   Je^sus  than  to  the  question  what  one 
Ekto  and  drinks.     At  first  I^uther  answered  rcan- 
Hiirinjrly*  but  in  his  work   Wider  die 
3.  Endeav-  himmli'schrn   Propheien   (1525)    he  at- 
!  ors  to  ReC'  tacketl     the     Strasburg     theoIofi^an«. 
oacile       The  latter  sent  an  envoy  to  ai>pease 
Luther  ajid  Luther,  but  he  emphasizerl  the  bodily 
Zwingii.     presence  of  Clu^ist  in   the  Lord's  Sup- 
per  more   than   ever;    and   gave   the 
Strasburgers  to  understand  that  they  should  not 
deceived    by  the  light  of  reason.     The  Btras- 
t>urgers  now  saw  themselves  drivftn  more  and  more 
►  the  side  of  tbo  Swiss,  so  far  as  the  doetrine  of  the 
ncrament  ivas   concerned.   At  the   Disjiutation  of 
lem  (q.v.)  in  1528  Butxer  matle  the  personal  ac- 
intance  of  Zwingii,  with  whom  he  had  been  cor- 
onding  since  1523.     Luther  again  attacked  his 
pponents    in    hia  Grosjicn  BekenntnU    vom    Ahend- 
ahl  (1528),  but  Butzer  did  not  lo.se  hope  of  com- 
Dg  to  an  understanding  by  a  personal  interview. 
Together  with  the  landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  who 
ras  animatetl  by  the  same  intere-.st  m  the  union 
ad  agreement  of  the  Protestants,  he  brought  about 
be  religious  conference  of  Marburg  (q.v.)  in  1529» 
onceming  the  question  whether  the  true  body 
ad  blood  of  Christ  are  actually  present   in  the 
and  wjne^  no  agreement  could  be  reached; 
evertheless,  each  party  waa  to  ahow  Christian  love 
award  the  other^  so  far  as  the  conscience  of  each 
illowed.     Butzer  visited  Luther  at  Coburg  in  Sept., 
1530,    and    received    the    promise    to    examine   a 
oonfession  which  Butzer  intended  to  prepare. 
latser    now    endeavored    to  induce   the    Protes- 
ate,  at  least   in  southern  Germany,  to  prepare 
declaration  which  should  approximately  aatittfy 
Luther »    since    the    Siviss  opposed    every   further 
i Vance,  an  additional  incentive  being  the  threat- 
ag  attitude  of    the  empenir   toward   the  Prot- 
ats    at   this    time.      The    outcome    of    these 
adeavors  w*a  the  Wittenberg  Concord  (q  .v.)  ^  wliich 
was  agreed  upon  with  Luther  in  1536 
4.  The     by    a    delegation    of    Upper    Gennaii 
Wittenberg  theologians     under  the    direction    of 
Concord.     Butter.      In    this   Concord    the   con- 
cession was  made  to  Luther  that  the 
iy  and  the  blood  of  Christ  are  truly  and  eBsen- 
lly  present  wit  li  the  bread  and  with  the  wine  and 
!  HO  given  and  received,  the  oidy  modification  be- 
;that  the  unworthy,  but  not  the  unholy,  actually 
eive  the  body  of  the  Lord.     By  this  agreement 
certain  sort   of   theological    uiuierstanding    was 
ftched   between  Luther  and  the  South  Germans, 
but  the  rupture  between  Butzer  jmd  the  Swiss  was 
omplisbed. 

Whatever  views  be  held  of  Butzer's  efforts  for 
aion,  especially  in  the  eucharintic  controvenry^ 
honest  intention  and  his  unselfish  zeal  to  serve 
be  Church  arc  beyond  all  question.  His  diplo- 
ttatic  tactics  were  not  always  such  as  t4j  ins|>irecon- 
ience,  and  they  gave  offense  to  other  parties  be- 
Luther.  Butzer  himself  felt  it  afterward  and 
onestly  acknowledged   that  he   had  not   alTeaya 


6. 


interfered  in  a  discreet  manner.  The  whole  sub- 
ject of  controversy  was  of  less  interest  for  But- 
zer than  for  Luther,  hence  Butzer's 
5,  Critiqiic  readineaa  to  make  concessions  and 
of  Butzer's  ever  new  formularizations^  The  real 
Attitude  suct^ss  of  his  endeavors  was  that  the 
in  the  Con-  Siiuth  Germans  were  not  only  induced 
troversy.  to  make  common  political  ca>use  with 
the  North  Germans,  but  were  also 
drawn  into  the  communion  of  Luthcranism,  in  spite 
of  their  peculiar  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  fact  that  Melanchthon,  influenced  partly  by 
Butzer,  took  an  intermediute  position,  and  was 
thua  drawn  nearer  to  Calvin,  was  also  far-reachiiig 
in  its  importance  for  the  future  formation  of  the 
Evangi>lic4il  Church  in  Germany,  The  outcome  of 
the  Schmalkald  War  and  the  defeat  of  the  Protes- 
tants (1547)  gave  the  emperor  power  to  settle 
the  rt^ligious  troubles  by  the  Augsburg  Interim 
(see  Intkkim)  in  1548,  which  was  accepted  by  the 
majority  of  the  intimidated  diet  and  was  to  bo 
forced  upon  the  city  of  Strasburg.  Tliis  was  moat 
energetically  opposed  by  Butzer  and  liia  younger  col- 
league, Paul  Fagius,  on  the  ground  of  the  Romani- 
sing character  of  the  document.  But  when  the  coun- 
cil, jneldingto  the  force  of  circum^itances,  accepted 
the  Interifti,  Butzer  perceived  that  he  could  remain 
in  Strasburg  no  longer,  and  he  accepted  a  call  to 
England,  whither  lie  liad  been  invited,  together 
with  Fagius,  by  Thomas  Cranmer,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  the  soul  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  England,  In  Apr,,  1549,  both 
arrived  at  London,  and  were  met  by 
Cranmer  and  Iving  Edward  VI.  The 
king  wished  them  to  translate  the 
Bible  from  the  original  into  Latin,  tliis  version  be- 
ing intended  to  fM3rve  as  the  ba.«!is  of  an  English 
version  for  the  people.  The  work  was  commenced 
at  once.  At  the  end  of  the  eummer  of  1549  But- 
zer and  P'agius  were  to  go  to  Cambridge  as  teachers 
and  assist  in  the  education  of  candidates  for  the 
ministry.  Fagius  arrived  first,  but  dietl  of  a  slow 
fever  (Nov.,  1549).  In  Jan,,  1550,  Butzer  com- 
menced his  lectures  at  Camhriilge^  which  were  at- 
tended by  large  crowds  of  students,  some  of  whom 
afterward  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  the 
Anglican  Church.  Butzer  was  directed  to  exam- 
ine the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  was  thus  led 
into  a  public  disputation  held  on  Aug.  6,  1550,  to 
expose  the  opposition  of  the  English  bishops  (who 
still  leaned  toward  Rome)  to  evtuigelical  principles 
an<l  innovations.  At  the  reciuest  of  the  young 
king,  Butzer  wrote  his  Ih  retpm  Christif  which  he 
prepared  in  less  than  three  months.  This  work 
was  intended  to  teach  the  true  nature  of  Gmi's  king- 
dom and  the  means  by  wiiich  it  might  be  rcaUsed 
in  earthly  form  in  a  country  like  England.  Thia 
w^ork  was  Butzer's  last.  Scarcely 
had  the  king  expressed  bis  warm  ap- 
proval and  the  university  conferred 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  di\nnity  un- 
conditionally, a  thing  which  never 
happened  before,  when  Butzer  died  after  a  short 
illness.  He  was  buried  with  great  honor  in  the 
principal  church  at  Cambridge;  but  in  L556  hia 
body  was  exhumed  and  publicly  burnt.  Four  years 


Butter 
in 
England. 


7.  Death 

of 
Butzer, 


Buztorf 
Byrum 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


884 


afterward,  however,  Queen  Elizabeth  again  honored 
his  memory.  Paul  Gruenbero. 

Biblioqrapht:  A  complete  collection  of  Butser'a  works  has 
never  been  made,  that  begun  by  his  araociate  K.  Hubert 
never  getting  beyond  the  first  volume.  Basel.  1577  (known 
as  Tomu9  Anglieaniu  because  it  contained  mostly  wri- 
tings published  in  England).  A  bibliography  of  But- 
ser's  published  works  and  literature  about  him  was  issued 
by  F.  Mentx  and  A.  Erichson  in  Vierhundertjdkrio€  Ge- 
burUfeier  M.  BuUer'a,  Strasburg.  1801.  Ck)n8ult:  J.  W. 
Baum.  Cajnto  und  Butzer,  StroMburga  Reformatoren,  EI- 
berfeld.  1860  (from  the  sources);  I.  B.  Rady.  Die  Refor- 
matoren in  ihrer  Beziehung  zur  Doppelehe  dea  Landgrafen 
Philipp,  Frankfort,  1890;  C.  Ck)nrad,  Martin  Butzer, 
Strasburg,  1801;  A.  Erichson,  Die  calviniati»che  und  die 
AlUtrasaburger  Ootieadienetordnung,  ib.  1804;  H.  von 
Schubert,  in  Beitr&ge  zur  Reformation»ae»chichte,  pp. 
102-228,  Gotha,  1806;  A.  Ernst  and  J.  Adam,  Kateche- 
Heche  Oeachichte  dee  Eleaeaee  bta  zur  Reformation,  pp.  42- 
72.  Strasburg,  1807;  F.  Hubert,  Strassburger  Katechie- 
men  aue  den  Tagen  der  Reformation,  in  ZKG,  xx.  (1800) 
305-413;  A.  Lang,  Der  Evangelienkommentar  Butzera  und 
die  GrundzQge  aeiner  Thcologie,  in  Studien  tur  Geachichte 
der  Theologie  und  Kirche,  vol.  ii..  Leipsic,  1000;  S.  M. 
Jackson.  Huldreich  Zunngli,  pas«im.  New  York,  1003; 
J.  Kdstlin.  Martin  Luthm^  «JL  G.  Kawerau,  passim,  2 
vols.,  Berlin.  1003;  J.  M  9lt^  Quellen  zur  Geachichte  dea 
Hrehlichen  Unterrichta,  GQtMlloh.  1004;  J.  Ficker.  Theaau- 
rua  Baumianua,  Strasburg.  1005;  Moeller.  Chriatian  Church, 
vol.  iii.,  passim;  Schaff.  Chriatian  Church,  vol.  vi..  passim. 

BUXTORF:  A  family  of  scholars  at  Basel, 
noteworthy  for  their  services  in  the  study  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  Hebrew  language  and  litera- 
ture. 

1.  Johann  Buxtorf  the  Elder:  Orientalist;  b.  at 
Camen  (8  m.  s.w.  of  Hamm),  Westphalia,  Dec.  26, 
1564;  d.  at  Basel  Sept.  13,  1629.  He  received  his 
earliest  education  in  the  schools  of  Hamm  and  Dort- 
mund, and  then  went  to  Marburg  and  Herbom, 
where  he  began  his  Hebrew  studies  under  Piscator. 
Leaving  Herbom,  he  studied  successively  at  Hei- 
delberg, Basel,  Zurich,  and  Geneva,  returning  to 
Basel  and  taking  his  degree  in  1590.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  after  much  hesitation,  he  accepted 
the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  the  University  of  Basel, 
and  later  added  other  duties  to  this  position,  in- 
cluding the  direction  of  the  gymnasium.  In  1610, 
however,  he  declined  an  appointment  to  a  profes- 
sorship of  theology,  as  well  as  calls  to  Leyden  and 
Saumur.  Buxtorf  was  the  greatest  rabbinical 
student  among  the  Protestants,  availing  himself 
not  only  of  the  Hebrew  commentaries  on  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  writings  of  learned 
Jews,  but  also  carrying  on  an  active  correspond- 
ence with  Jewish  schola*^  in  Germany,  Poland,  and 
Italy.  His  close  relations  with  Jews,  however, 
frequently  exposed  him  to  suspicion,  and  on  one 
occasion  he  was  fined  100  florins  for  attending  the 
circumcision  of  a  son  of  a  Jew  who  resided  in  his 
house  as  his  assistant  in  the  printing  of  his  Hebrew 
Bible.  He  devoted  his  Hebrew  knowledge  to  the 
defense  of  the  original  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
against  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  regarded  the 
Vulgate  and  the  Septuagint  as  the  more  reliable 
authorities,  and  also  against  the  doubts  cast  upon 
it  by  such  Reformers  as  Luther,  Zwingli,  and  Cal- 
vin, his  services  being  the  more  important  in  view 
of  the  necessity  of  appeal  to  the  purity  of  the  He- 
brew text  in  P*rotestant  polemics  against  Cathol- 
icism. His  chief  works  are  as  follows:  Manuale 
Hebraicum   et   Chaldaicum    (Basel,    1602);  Juden- 


Schiil  (1603;  Latin  transl.,  Synagoga  JtuUnca,  by 
H.  Germberg,  Hanau,  1604);  Lexicon  Hebraicum 
et  Chaldaicum  (1607);  De  abbreviaturis  Hdraieii 
(1613);  Biblia  Hebraica  cum  parapkrasi  Chaldaiea 
et  commentariis  rabbinorum  (4  vols.,  1618-19);  and 
TtberiaSf  sive  commentarius  masorethicus  (1620); 
but  he  did  not  live  to  complete  his  ConcordanHa 
Bibliorum  HebraiccB  or  his  Lexicon  Chaldatenm, 
Talmudicum  et  Rabbinicumy  both  of  which  were 
edited  by  his  son  (Basel,  1632,  1639). 

2.  Johann  Buxtorf  the  Younger:  Orientalist;  son 
of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Basel  Aug.  13, 1599;  d.  there 
Aug.  17,  1664.  After  receiving  his  first  educa- 
tion from  his  father,  he  attended  the  hi^  scbool 
of  his  native  city,  and  in  1617  went  to  Heidelberg, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  then  going  to  Dort, 
where  he  attended  the  synod.  After  its  condu- 
sion  he  made  a  tour  of  Holland,  England,  and 
France,  in  company  with  the  delegates  of  the  dty, 
and  then  returned  to  Basel.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
three  he  published  his  Lexicon  Chaldaicum  et  Syrior 
cum  (Basel,  1622),  and  in  the  following  year  studied 
at  Geneva,  but  declined  a  call  to  the  professorship 
of  logic  at  Lausanne,  preferring  to  remain  in  his 
native  city,  where  he  served  as  a  deacon  from  1624 
to  1630.  Delicate  health,  however,  obliged  him 
to  resign  all  hopes  of  becoming  a  preacher,  and  h. 
1630  he  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  Hebrew. 
He  declined  calls  to  Groningen  and  Leyden,  and 
in  1654  accepted  the  chair  of  Old  Testament  exe- 
gesis, as  being  closely  associated  with  the  one 
which  he  already  held.  It  was  his  task  to  defend 
the  views  of  his  father  on  the  purity  of  the  trans- 
mitted Masoretic  text  of  the  Old  Testament  against 
many  attacks,  particularly  by  Cappel  (q.v.),  who 
assailed  the  credibility  of  rabbinical  tradition  and 
regarded  the  Hebrew  text  as  inferior  in  places  to 
the  ancient  versions.  In  this  and  kindred  con- 
troversies Buxtorf  wrote  De  punctorum^  vocalUm 
atque  accentuum  in  libris  Veteris  Testamenti  He- 
braicis  origine,  antiquitate  et  aucioritate  (Basel 
1648),  and  Ardicriticaj  seu  vindicice  veritatis  Hebraica 
adversiLS  Ludavici  CappeUi criiicam  quamsacramw- 
cat  (1653),  but  though  the  logical  victory  rested 
with  Cappel,  who  could  appeal  both  to  the  judg- 
ment of  Elias  Levita  (q.v.),  who  exercised  a  power- 
ful influence  ca  the  development  of  Old  Testament 
studies  amoiij;  the  Protestants,  and  could  also 
claim  the  support  of  many  of  the  Reformers,  he 
was  regarde<  1  as  a  dangerous  man,  who  sought  to 
deny  the  di  /inity  of  the  Scriptures,  while  his  op- 
ponent was  looked  upon  as  a  defender  of  ortho- 
doxy, and  won  the  formal  verdict.  In  a  minor 
controversy  with  Cappel  on  the  Eucharist  he 
wrote  his  Vindicice  exercilationis  Sandce  Cctna  oM' 
tra  Cappellum  (Basel,  1646)  and  his  Anticntiea 
contra  Cappellum  ( 1 653 ) .  He  likewise  made  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  March  Nebukim  of  Maimonides 
(Basel,  1629)  and  edited,  with  notes  and  a  trans- 
lation, the  Liber  Cosrij  sive  colloquium  de  relifficM 
of  Judah  ha-Levi  (1660). 

3.  Johannes  Jakob  Buxtorf:  Orientalist;  son  of 
the  preceding;  b.  at  Basel  Sept.  4,  1645;  d.  there 
Apr.  1,  1704.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
of  Hebrew  in  Nov.,  1664.    In  the  following  year 


iw 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Buxtorf 
Byrum 


J  he  received  leave  of  absence  and  ™ited  Geneva, 
I  France  p  Ilolhmd  (wintering  at  Leyden),  and  Lon- 
[don.     Tbe  general  suspicion  of  foreignere  in  Lon- 
"on  just  after  the  great  fire,  however,  caused  Bnx- 
Itorf  t<j  take  refuge  in  a  neighboring  village,  whence 
■lie  later  went  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge.     In  1669 
the  relumed  to  Basel  and  resumed  his  duUea  at  the 
lliiii%iersity,  in  addition  to  acting  as  librarian      Al- 
|though  rc'gardvd  as  an  excellent  scholar  and  a  dili- 
ent  student,  he  w*rote  Uttle  with  the  exception  of 
preface  tc»  his  edition  of  his  grandfather's   Tibc- 
^  (Basely   1665),  and  bis   emendations  to    tiie 
I  Judaica  (1680). 
4.  Johann  Buitorf:    Nephew  of  the  preceiling; 
.    at    Bai^el    Jan.    8,    HMi3;    d.    there    June    It), 
|1732.     After  eonipleting  hit*  education    at  Basel, 
lie  went  to  Holland  to  continue  his  Oriental  studies. 
1694  he  was  appointed  preacher  at  Aristdorf,  a 
rillage  near  Basel,  and  in  1704  he  succc<!ded    liia 
icle  as  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the    University, 
elding  this  position  until    his  death.     His  most 
noteworthy  book  was  kia  Catalccla  phitologico-theo- 
fica  cum  ma7Hissa  epistoiarutn  virorum  daroru?n 
Johannem    Bu^rtorffium  patrem  ct   fHiurn  scrip- 
urn  (Basel,  1707).  (Carl  Bertheau.) 

ItBuooBAPnT:  AUiiena  Rauricm,  BascI,  1778  (cootaina 
biosrapliiefl  and  eataloguefl  of  tbeir  pybUcations);  K.  R. 
Hl<«Db»ck»  Die  1heolooi»che  Schnde  Biueh^  pp.  27  itqq. 
lb.  18^.  a  M.  H.  yfriehU  Introduction  to  Ow  O.  T.. 
LondoQ,  1891;  C.  D.  GinftbuiB,  IntroducHon  tu  the  Mosto- 
rtticih<Titical  Edition  of  the  Hetr.  Bible,  ib.  IS97;  C.  A 
Brigg^s,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pasRim,  New  Yurk.  1809; 
Buxtorf'FalkebeiL,  Johannrs  Buxtorf  Vater.  lla.««;l,  ISflO; 
E,  Kautisch,  J,  Buxtirrf  der  Atttre,  ih.  1«79.  On  the 
yoUQffer  Joba.nne.s,  L,  Uicstel.  Oeschichte  dea  aiUn  Te*ta- 
meniM  in  dtr  t^rintlirhen  Kirche,  pp,  336  »qq..  Jeoa,  1S68. 
On  Johannes  Jnkob,  S.  WerenfeLs,  Vila  ,  ,  ,  J.  J.  Buxtor- 
fii,  Ba«ei.  1705. 

BYFIBLD,   ADOHTRAM:     Puritan  and  Presby- 
^rian;  b.  probably  at  Chester,  before  1615,  tlie  son 
[Nicholas  By  field  (q.v.);  d.  in  London  1660.     He 
educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
chosen   chajjiain    to    a    regiment   of    Pariia- 
aent's  army  in  164i2.     In  1643  he  was  appointed 
oe    of     the     two    scrib<»s    of     the    Westminnler 
ably,  but   was  not   a  member  of  that  bwly. 
manuscript  minutes   (edited  by  Mitrhel  and 
ilthers,    1874),   now   in    the    Williams   Lilirar\% 
Jniversity  Hall,  Gordon  S^juare,  London,  are  in 
handwriting.     He  also  edited,  by  authority  of 
ParUament,  the  various  papers  in  the  controversy 
between  the  Westminster  Assembly  and  the  Dis- 
senting  BrethR^n^  publiwlied    London,  16-18,   inclu- 
Rea»ons  Presented  by  the   DisHenling  Brethren 
tinst    Certuin    ProposUtmis    ronceniing    Prej^bj/- 
Govemmentf  The  Answer  of  Aj^i<i^mtfff  of  Di- 
«,  Papern  Jar  Accumulation ,  {and  The  Papers  and 
inswers  of  the  Dissenting  Brethren  and  the  Commit - 
of  the  Assembly  of  Divines,     He  was  reactor  of 
Fulham  in  Middlesex  (1644?)  and  vicar  of  Fulham 
Ul645?-1657),  subsequently  rector  of  Collingboum- 
uds  in  Wiltshire.  C.  A.  Bkigob. 

BYFIELD,    NICHOLAS:     Puritan    and    Prosby- 

It^rian,  b.  in  Warwicks!ure  in  1579;  d.  at  Isleworth 
12  m.  8.  of  Brentford), Saddlesex,  Sept.  8, 1622.    He 


was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford;  was  for 
seven  years  pastor  of  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Cheater, 
when  (1615)  he  Ix'came  vicar  of  Tsleworth  in  Mid- 
dlesex, where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Will- 
iam Gouge  describes  him  as  '^  a  man  of  a  profoimd 
judgment,  strong  memory,  sharp  wit,  quick  in- 
vention, and  unwearied  industry/'  His  works 
were  numerous,  and  gn^atly  esteemed.  His  Mar- 
row of  the  Or&cUs  of  God  (I^ondon,  1620),  contain- 
ing six  treatises  previously  published  apart,  reache<l 
an  eleventh  edition  in  1640.  The  Principles,  or, 
the  PaUem  of  Wholesome  Wordn,  dedicate  in  1518, 
reached  a  seventh  edition  in  1665,  and  is  a  valuable 
compend  of  divinity.  His  expository  sermons  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossi  ana  were  published  1615, 
and  several  series  on  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  at 
various  times,  finally  collected  and  enlarged  in  a 
Com  men  fury  upon  the  Whole  Firmt  Epistle  of  Si. 
Peter  { 1(KJ7).  The  Rule  of  Faith,  or  an  Expomtion 
of  the  Apo^th's*  Creed  %vas  issucnl  by  his  son  Adonl- 
ram,  after  his  death  (1626),  and  is  an  able  and  in- 
stnictivc  w^ork.  He  must  be  numbered  among  the 
Presbyterian  fathers  in  England. 

C.  A.  Brioos. 

BYROM,  JOHH:  Author  of  '' Christiana  awake, 
salute  the  happy  mom,*'  a  Christmas  hymn  in  al- 
most universal  use  in  England;  b.  at  Kersall  Cell, 
Broughton^  near  Manchester,  Feb.  29,  1692;  d. 
there  Sept.  26,  1763.  He  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  1708  (B.A.,  1712;  M.A.,  1715),  and 
became  fellow,  1714;  contributed  to  the  Spectator; 
invented  a  system  of  shorthand  and  tiiught 
it  w^ith  success;  became  F.R.S.,  1724;  succeeded 
to  the  family  estate  at  Kersall,  1740,  and  spent  liis 
later  years  there.  He  was  a  mystic  and  a  Jacobite; 
took  deep  interest  in  rchgious  speculations,  and 
knew  most  of  the  celebrities  of  liis  time;  he  wrote 
some  of  the  best  epigrams  in  the  language.  His 
Poems t  written  in  eajsy,  colloquial  style  for  his  own 
and  his  frientls'  amusement^  were  printed  posthu- 
mously (2  vols..  Manchester,  1773;  again,  with  life 
and  notes,  London,  1814);  the  Chatham  Society  of 
Manchester  has  published  his  Private  Journal  and 
Literary  Remains,  ed.  H.  Parkinson  (2  vols.,  1854- 
1857).  and  the  Poems,  ed,  A.  W.  Ward  (2  vols.,  1894- 
1895). 

BYRUMj  EPfOCH  BDWTlf:  American  clergy- 
man and  editor  of  The  Church  of  God;  b.  near 
Union  City,  Ind.,  Oct.  13,  1S61.  Ho  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools,  and  also  studied  elocution 
and  oratory  in  tlie  Northern  Indiana  Normal 
SchcMjl  (1SH6)  and  Sunday-school  work  in  Otterbein 
University  (1887).  He  was  cjrdained  a  minister 
of  **  The  Church  of  God  "in  1892,  and  in  addition 
to  editing  The  Gospel  Trumjiet  and  The  Shining 
Light  since  189t*,  baa  written;  The  Boy*s  Com' 
ponton  (Aloundsville,  W.  Va.,  1890);  Dirim'  Heol- 
ing  of  Soul  and  Bmhj  (1892);  The  Secret  of  Solva- 
tion (189<5);  The  Prayer  of  Faith  (1899);  The  Great 
Physician  (19(H));  Behind  the  Prison  Bars  (1901); 
What  (^holl  I  do  to  be  Saeefif  (1903);  Ordinances  of 
the  Bihtc  (19<)4):  and  Travels  and  Experiences  in 
other  Lands  (1905). 


OalMd* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


8M 


Origin  and  Spread  of  the  Oabala  (i  \\ 
Doctrine  of  God  (f  2). 
Creation  and  the  Sefiroth  (i  3). 
Names  of  the  Sefiroth  (|  4). 
Triads  of  Sefiroth  (|  5). 
The  Four  Worlds  (|  6). 
Origin  of  Evil  (J  7). 
Doctrine  of  the  Messiah  (i  8). 

The  term  Cabala  designates  the  esoteric  doctrines 
of  Judaism.  Although  it  claims  to  be  a  product 
of  the  tannaitic  period  and  to  be  the  work  of  such 
sages  as  Ishmael  ben  Elisha,  Simeon  ben  Yohai,  and 
Nel^unya  ben  ha-^anah,  modem  investigation  has 
proved  that  it  is  purely  a  product  o'  the  Middle  Ages. 
Nor  does  the  name  kabbalah  (from  ffibbelf  "to  re- 
ceive ")  occur  with  this  special  connotation  before  the 
thirteenth  century,  the  term  kabbalah  denoting  in 
the  Talmud  the  Hagiographa  and  the  Prophets  in 
contradistinction  to  the  Torah,  or  Pentateuch. 

The  Cabala  originated  at  a  period  when  a  crassly 
anthropomorphic  concept  of  God  prevailed  in 
Judaism.  In  Maimonides  rationalism  had  reached 
its  climax,  the  literal  meaning  alone  being  accepted, 
while  all  allegorical  interpretation  was  rejected. 
The  study  of  the  Talmud  had  become  purely  legal- 
istic, and  worship  had  degenerated  into  formalism. 
Against  this  stereotyped  faith  bom  of  Aristote- 
lianism  arose  a  reaction,  the  Cabala.  This  sought 
to  give  the  soul  the  nourishment  it  craved  by 
an  esoteric  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  vivid 
presentation,  and  dramatic  narrative,  even  though, 

in  its  speculative  fervor,  it  became 

I.  Origin   involved  only  too  often  in  hopeless 

and  Spread  haze,  and  evoked  a  dark  superstition 

of  the       through  its  juggling  with  the  names 

Cabala,     of    God.     Arising    in    Provence,    the 

reaction  against  rationalism  passed 
to  Spain,  the  real  home  of  the  Cabala.  Thence, 
with  the  expulsion  of  the  Spanish  Jews,  it  was 
carried  to  Palestine,  whence  it  spread  throughout 
Europe.  The  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Cabala 
are  derived  from  the  Hellenistic  Judaism,  Neo- 
platonism,  and  Neo-Pythagoreanism,  with  occa- 
sional traces  of  Gnosticism.  These  elements  are 
so  interwoven,  however,  with  the  Bible  and  with 
a  midrashic  metho<l  of  presentation,  that  the  whole 
has  been  stamped  with  the  seal  of  Judaism. 

According  to  the  Cabala,  God  is  the  eternal  and 
boundless  principle  of  all,  and  is  therefore  called 
En  Sof  ("The  Infinite").  The  attributes  given 
him  are  general,  rather  than  specific.  He  is  abso- 
lutely perfect,  and  is  free  from  all  blemish;  he  is 

imity  and  immutability ;  he  is  boundless 

2.  Doctrine  and  naught  exists  beside  him;  and  since 

of  God.      he  may  be  known  neither  by  wisdom  nor 

by  understanding,  no  definition  can  be 
given  of  him,  no  concept  be  formed  regarding  him, 
and  no  question  asked  concerning  him.  To  ail 
beings  he  is  the  concealed  of  all  concealed,  the 
hidden  of  all  liidden,  the  ancient  of  the  ancient;  the 
first  of  all  first,  and  the  primal  principle. 

The  cardinal  cosmogonic  doctrine  of  the  Cabala 
is  creation  e  nihilo.    The  reconciliation  of  the  im- 


CABALAy  cab'a-la. 

Dootrinee  of  the  Soul  (i  9). 

Metempsychosis  (i  10). 

Mystic  Biblical  Exegesis  of  the  Oabala 

(I  11). 
Biblical    Interpretation    by    Gematzia 

(I  12). 
Magic  Powers  of  the  Tetragrammaton 

(I  13). 


The  Eariy  Period  of  the  Oabala  (i  14). 
The  Sefer  Yeprah  <f  15). 
Crystalliiation  of  the  Oabala  (|  16). 
TheZohar  (f  17). 
Closing  Period  of  the  Cabala  (1 18). 
Influence  of  the  Cabala  on  Judainn(|19lL 
Relation  of  the  Ckbsda  to  Christanit} 
($20). 

perfect  and  transitory  phenomeual  worid  with  the 
perfection  and  immutability  of  God,  and  the  mu- 
tual relation  of  the  two  formed  never-ending  prob- 
lems for  the  cabalists.  To  explain  the  riddk 
they  assumed  the  existence  of  a  series  of  independent 
and  spiritual  primeval  potentialities,  which  were 
intelligible  substances  or  demiurges  f!maT»iti''.g 
from  the  deity.  These  demiurges  (sefiroth)  are 
mentioned  as  early  as  the  Sefer  Ycfirahf  when 
their  number  is  given  as  ten.  According  to  tbii 
work,  the  first  emanation  was  the  spirit  of  the  living 
God,  from  which  proceeded  the  entire  phenomenal 
world.  This  same  spirit,  futhermore,  caused 
ether,  water,  and  fire  to  emanate  from  each  other. 
From  ether  arises  the  intellectual  world,  from  water 
the  material  (the  tohu  loo-bo^u  of  Gen.  i.  2),  and 
from  fire  the  spiritual  (the  angels  and  the  thione  d 
God).  These  four  sefiroth  are  followed  by  the  six 
bounds  of  space,  height,  depth,  east, 
3.  Creation  west,  north,  and  south.  There  is, 
and  the  however,  no  consistent  view  conoem- 
Sefiroth.  ing  the  nature  of  the  sefiroth,  which 
are  sometimes  regarded  as  inte^ 
mediaries  between  God  and  the  visible  worid, 
and  at  other  times  as  the  manifestations  of  the 
powers  and  properties  of  God;  and  there  is  sn 
equal  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  whether  they  are 
actual  creations  which  form,  in  a  sense,  the  bass 
of  later  creations,  or  emanations  whereby  God 
emerges  from  his  concealment  and  assumes  form. 
All  attempts  to  reconcile  these  conflicting  views 
by  postulating  the  existence  of  God  both  in  and 
above  phenomena  proved  unsuccessful.  The  issu- 
ance of  the  sefiroth  from  God  was  regarded  by  the 
cabalists  as  imperiling  the  doctrine  of  his  immu- 
tability and  infinity.  The  first  difficulty  was 
obviated  by  the  hypothesis  that  God's  design  to 
manifest  himself  had  existed  from  all  eternity. 
Since,  however,  God  in  his  infinity  filled  the  entire 
universe,  no  room  was  left  for  the  sefiroth,  until 
Moses  ben  Jacob  Gordo vero  (1522-70)  and  Isaac 
Luria  (1533-72)  postulated  two  concentrations, 
one  a  contraction  and  the  other  a  retraction.  Many 
cabalists,  however,  felt  themselves  imable  to  accept 
this  theory  of  concentration,  which  was  closely  con- 
nected, moreover,  with  the  Gnosticism  of  Valentin- 
ian  and  Basilides,  and  preferred  to  assume  that  the 
emergence  of  God  from  his  retirement  was  to  be  un- 
derstood in  terms  of  concept  rather  than  of  space, 
and  some  regarded  the  entire  process  as  metaphorical 
The  first  sefirah  was  Kether  ("Crown"),  the 
primal  source  of  all  existence.  The  second  was 
JJokmah  ("  Wisdom  "),  which,  though  enveloped 
in  God,  generated  the  ideas.  The  third  was  Binak 
I   ('^  Intelligence  "),  which  carries  out  the  ideal  of 


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RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OalMd* 


eternal  Wisdom.     The  fifth  was  ^e8edh  ("  Love  "; 

sometimes    called   Gedhulahf    "  Magnitude "),    the 

fifth  Din  ("  Law  ";  also  called  Gebhurah,  "  Might," 

or  PaJiMK  "  Fear  "),  the  sixth  Tifereth  ("  Beauty"; 

also  called  Rahamim,  "  Mercy  "),  the  seventh  Nesfah 

(**  Firmness "),     the      eighth      Hodh 

4.  Names    ("  Splendor"),  and  the  ninth  Yesodh 

of  the       ("Foundation").     The  tenth   aefirah 

Sefiroth.  was  MalkhiUh  ("  Kingdom ";  also 
called  Shekhinah,  "Royalty"),  and 
was  united  in  marriage  with  the  God  who  rules  the 
world.  The  number  of  the  sefiroth  was  doubtless 
influenced  by  the  fact  that  astronomy  then  pos- 
tulated the  existence  of  ten  spheres,  and  also  by 
the  sanctity  ascribed  to  the  number  ten. 

As  early  as  the  eleventh  century  Hai  Gaon  (998- 
1038)  classified  the  ten  primal  potentialities  into 
two  groups,  the  first  including  three  which  pro- 
duced the  spiritual  world,  and  the  second  com- 
prising two  triads  which  were  united  by  a  seventh, 
and  these  formed  the  source  of  the  material  world. 
The  main  outlines  of  this  classification  were  retained 
by  later  cabalists.  Azriel  (1160-1238)  distinguished 
three  groups — intellectual,  spiritual,  and  mate- 
rial, a  classification  evidently  due  to  Neoplatonic 
influence.  Each  group  forms  a  triad,  and  its 
members  stand  in  the  mutual  relation  of  thesis, 
antithesis,  and  synthesis.  The  first  two  members, 
moreover,  sustain  a  polar  relation  to  each  other, 
and  are  imited  by  the  third.  Thus,  in  the  first 
triad,  which  consists  of  "  Crown,"  "  Wisdom," 
and  "  Intelligence,"  "  Intelligence "  forms  the 
connecting  link.  In  the  second  triad,  which  con- 
sists of  "  Love,"  "  Law,"  and  "  Beauty,"  "  Beau- 
ty "  (or  "  Mercy  ")  forms  the  bond  of  union,  while 
in  the  third  triad  of  "Firmness,"  "Splendor," 
and    "  Foundation,"   the  last  recon- 

5.  Triads  ciles  the  first  two.  All  three  triads 
of  are    subject    to    the    tenth    aefirah, 

Sefiroth.  "  Ivingdom,"  which  binds  them  into 
a  harmonious  whole.  The  first  triad, 
moreover,  contained  the  "  authors  of  the  plan  of 
the  world,"  the  second  the  "  arrangers,"  and  the 
third  the  "  creators."  Although  the  sefiroth  are 
by  no  means  comparable  with  Gk>d  and  do  not 
condition  his  independence,  they  partake  of  his 
infinity  and  transmit  his  streams  of  blessings  to 
the  various  worlds.  For  this  purpose,  on  which 
their  existence  and  activity  depend,  they  are 
united  with  God  by  invisible  canals  (j^innoroih) 
which  proceed  from  the  throne  of  the  divine  majesty. 

In  so  far  as  the  sefiroth  are  the  earliest  manifes- 
tations of  God,  they  form  an  ideal  world  which 
bears  no  relation  to  the  material  world,  and  in  this 
aspect  they  are  termed  either  "  primeval  man  " 
(adham  kadhmon)  or  "  superman  "  {adham  'itot), 
who  is  sometimes  considered  to  be  the  sefiroth 
collectively,  and  sometimes  regarded  as  the  first 
manifestation  whereby  God  revealed  himself  as 
the  creator  and  ruler  of  the  world.  In  this  aspect 
he  seems  to  be  a  revelation  interposed  between 
God  and  the  universe,  and  thus  a  second  god,  as 
it  were,  or  the  Logos. 

According  to  a  later  view,  various  grades  of 
emanation  produced  four  worlds,  in  each  of  which 
the  ten  sefiroth  were  repeated.    The  first  of  the5«c 


was  the  'Olam  ha-A^Uah  ("  World  of  Radiation  "), 
which  contains  the  powers  of  the  divine  plan  of  the 
worlds.  These  powers  have  the  same  nature  as 
the  world  of  the  sefiroth  or  the  Adham  kadhmon, 
while,  according  to  the  2k)har,  it  also  contains  the 
throne  of  the  Shekinah  and  God's  mantle  of  light. 
From  the  'Olam  ha-Aplah  emanated  the  'Olam 
ha-Beriah  ("World  of  Creation"),  the  home  of 
the  organizing  powers  and  potencies.  There  were 
the    treasuries   of   blessing   and   life, 

6.  The  and  there  was  the  throne  of  the  glory  of 
Four       God,  as  well  as  the  halls  of  all  spiritual 

Worlds,  and  moral  perfection,  where  the  souls 
of  the  righteous  dwelt.  In  its  turn, 
the  *Olam  ha-Beriah  produced  the  *Olam  ha-Yezirah 
("  World  of  Creation  ")  with  the  angels  and  Mefa- 
(ron  as  their  chief.  To  him  are  subject  the  evil 
spirits  (Ipelifoth,  "  husks  "),  who  dwell  in  the  planets 
and  other  heavenly  bodies,  or  in  the  ether.  The 
fourth  world  is  the  present  material  and  phenomenal 
'Olam  ha-*Assiyah  ("  World  of  Action  "),  which  is 
subject  to  constant  change  and  delusion.  Like 
the  sefiroth,  the  four  worlds  are  closely  connected 
with  God  as  the  primal  principle,  and  receive  con- 
tinual streams  of  divine  blessing.  This  cosmology 
of  four  worlds  is  based  on  the  theophany  of  Ezek. 
i.  and  seems  to  be  first  mentioned  in  the  Masseh- 
heth  A^uth,  a  small  treatise  of  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  anthropomorphic  tend- 
encies of  the  cabalists  led  them  to  make  distinc- 
tions of  sex  among  the  sefiroth.  The  mascub'ne 
principle,  which  is  white  in  color,  appears  chiefly 
in  "  Love,"  although  it  underlies  both  the  other  two 
sefiroth  of  the  right  side  ("  Wisdom  "  and  "  Firm- 
ness ");  while  the  passive  red  female  principle,  which 
owes  its  existence  to  the  male,  dwells  chiefly  in 
"  Law,"  yet  also  forms  the  basis  of  the  other  sefiroth 
of  the  left  side  ("  Intelligence  "  and  "  Splendor  "). 

Side  by  side  with  the  heavenly  sefiroth  exist  the 
sefiroth  of  evil,  and  Adham  kadhmon,  in  like  manner, 
has  his  counterpart  in  Adham  Beliyya'al.  The 
realms  are  related  to  each  other  as  the  right  and 
the  left  wing.  In  the  kingdom  of  evil,  as  in  the 
realm  of  good,  there  are  ten  grades.  Under  the 
leadership  of  Samael  and  his  queen,  the  great 
adulteress,  the  dark  sefiroth  toil  unceasingly  for 
the  destruction  of  the  world.  Since,  however,  the 
sefiroth  of  darkness,  like  the  sefiroth  of  light,  were 
regarded  as  emanations,  there  was  danger  that  the 
Infinite  might  be  considered  the  author  of  evil. 
To  obviate  this,  the  older  cabalists  advanced  the 
hypothesis  that  the  origin  of  evil  was  to  be  sought  in 
the  distances  of  the  emanations  from 
7.  Origin    their  divine  author,  since  the  further 

of  EviL  they  went  from  God  into  the  material 
world,  the  more  degenerate  they  be- 
came. The  younger  cabalists  like  Luria,  on  the 
other  hand,  held  that  the  vessels  of  the  sefiroth 
were  unable  to  contain  and  conduct  the  fulness  of 
the  divine  blessing  and  burst,  thus  giving  rise  to 
evil.  Penance,  self-mortification,  prayer,  and 
rigid  observance  of  the  prescribed  ceremonies, 
however,  would  gradually  reconcile  the  upper  and 
lower  realms  and  restore  the  original  harmony  of 
the  imiverse.  It  is  noteworthy  that  this  doctrine 
of  the  opposition  of    the  two  kingdoms  is  a  late 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


8S8 


develapmimt  of  the  CabaU,  and  that  it  was  not 
fully  rk'veloped  until  the  thirteenth  oentuiy. 

The  Meimanic  teachingw  of  the  Cabala  are  doaely 
eonnectefi  with  the  doctrine  of  the  realm  of  the  evil 
§efirolh.  When  through  their  piety  and  virtue  man- 
kind ahall  ateadily  have  diminished  the  kingdom  of 

the  JfdifUh,  the  Messiah  will  appear 

8w  Doctrine  and  restore  all  things  to  their  original 

of  the      condition.  Under  his  rule  all  will  turn  to 

Mtwfith      the  divine  liglit,  and  idolatry  will  cease. 

In  its  acootmt  of  the  nature  and  task 
of  the  Messiah  the  Cabala  diverges  a  little  from  the 
views  advanced  by  the  Talmud  and  the  Midrash. 

In  its  anthropology  the  Cabala  generally  adopts 
the  tenets  of  Talmudic  and  Oaonic  mysticism,  so 
that  its  new  developments  may  be  simmiari^ed 
briefly.  Earthly  man  is  a  type  of  the  prototype 
Adham  l^adhmon,  and  thus  comprises  within  him- 
self all  that  the  ideal  creation  contains.  He  is, 
therefore,  a  microcosm.  The  Cabala  also  teaches 
the  dual  nature  of  man,  who  consists  of  body  and 
•oul.  Every  member  has  its  symbolic  meaning, 
while  the  body,  as  the  garment  of  the  soul,  typifies 
the  merkabah  (the  heavenly  Throne-Chariot  of 
Esek.  ].,  X.).  The  soul,  however,  is  far  superior 
to  the  body,  since  it  is  derived  from  the  divine 
all-soul,  and  through  the  ''  canals "  (zinnoroth) 
can  influence  the  intellectual  world  and  draw  down 
its  blessings  to  the  lower  worid.  It  appears  imder 
the  three  designations  of  nefesh,  ruafy,  and  neshamah. 
The  first  is  blind  impulse,  the  second  is  the  seat 
both  of  good  and  evil  impulses,  and  the  third  is 
able  to  unite  with  God  and  the  kingdom  of  light. 

The    Cabala    also    teaches    the    pre- 

Q.  Doctrinet  existence  of  the  soul.     All  souls  des- 

of  the       tined   to   enter   human   bodies   have 

Soul.        existed  from  all  eternity  in  a  fixed 

number,  nourished  by  the  sight  of  the 
divine  radiance  of  the  Shekinah.  The  entrance 
of  the  soul  into  a  body  is  a  misfortune,  and  it  im- 
plores Qod  to  spare  it  such  imprisonment.  Before 
their  entrance  into  human  bodies  souls  are  an- 
drogynous, while  marriage  unites  the  severed 
halves  to  a  single  whole.  This  doctrine,  like  the 
precoiling,  is  reminiscent  of  Plato  and  Pliilo,  as 
is  the  cabalistic  doctrine  that  all  earthly  learning 
is  but  a  reminiscence  of  what  the  soul  had  known 
before  it  came  to  earth.  Of  special  interest  is  the 
cabalistic  doctrine  of  reincarnation.  Each  soul 
which  is  imitcd  with  a  body  is  to  undergo  a  period 
of  trial  in  this  world,  and  if  it  is  found  able  to  pre- 
serve its  original  purity  it  returns  immediately  at 
death  to  its  place  of  heavenly  origin.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  falls  into  sin,  it  is  subjected  to  a  puri- 
fication, and  is  obligetl  to  remain  in  lower  forms  of 
existence,  such  as  animals,  trees,  stones,  and  rivers, 
until  it  has  fully  atoned  for  its  eWl  and  has  regained 
the  purity  requisite  for  its  return  to  its  celestial 
home.     Occasionally,  however,  the  sin-laden  soul 

wanders  in  the  world  with  its  fellows, 

10.  Metemp-  naked    and  ashameti,  until  it   finally 

lychosis.     receives  its  purification  in  hell.     New 

souls  are  seldom  bom,  the  greater 
number  binng  nnncamations.  This  is  a  proof  of 
the  comiption  of  the  human  race,  and  though 
exalted  s|nrits  sometimes  descend  to  earth  for  the 


welfare  of  man  and  assume  human  fonn,  all  the 
souls  created  from  the  beginning  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  be  bom  on  account  of  the  number  of  rein. 
eamations  necessitated  by  human  wickednesB,  and 
the  Messiah  consequently  has  not  come.  During 
sleep  the  souls  of  the  righteous  frequently  leave  their 
bodies,  ascend  to  the  celestial  regions,  hold  eooYerae 
with  the  spirits  there,  and  receive  revelations  of 
future  mjTsteries.  Evil  soub,  on  the  other  hand, 
descend  to  the  realms  of  darimeas  and  impurity  and 
converse  with  demons,  who  give  them  false  and  lying 
words.  To  enable  mankind  to  hold  fmrnm^inif^iitiffli 
with  the  worid  of  light  during  terrestrial  existence, 
the  cabalists  exacted  a  scrupulous  observance  of  the 
ceremonial  law  and,  above  all,  prayer,  to  which  was 
ascribed  an  influence  over  God  himself.  Amongother 
agencies  stress  was  laid  on  asceticism,  flageUatioD, 
retirement  from  the  worid,  the  practise  of  aU  good 
works,  the  wearing  of  white  garments,  and  the  use 
of  the  phylacteries  and  the  prayer-mantle. 

Aristotelian  scholasticism  gave  rise  in  Judaian. 
to  a  system  of  exegesis  which  resulted  in  a  view  of 
religion  as  a  matter  of  the  head,  rather  than  the 
heart.     Yet  at  this  very  time  the  increasing  per- 
secution of  the  Jews  evoked  a  need  for  spiiitud 
strength    and    revivification,    and    these  require- 
ments were  met  by  the  cabalistic  opposition  to  the 
purely  intellectual  interpretation  of  the  Bible  andl 
by  the  substitution  of  a  new  method  of  hermenen— 
tics,  which  sounded  the  depths  of  the  Scriptures 
and  thus  strengthened  the  sinews  of  religion.   K^ 
early  as  the  Talmudic  and  Mishnaic  period  th^ 
feeling  had  prevailed  in  certain  quarters  that  ixs. 
addition  to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  Bible  (petha^y 
there  was  an  allegorical   meaning  (derush).  Tb.^ 
cabalists    went    still    fiuther,    and    regarded  tb.^ 
letters,  words,  and  names  of  the  Bibl^ 

11.  Mystic  as  possessed  of  deeply  hidden  divim.' 
Biblical     mysteries,    while    such    accounts 

Exegesis  of  those    of    Hagar,    Esau,    and   BalaJ^ 
the  Cabala,  contained  far  more  than  mere  history^' 

They  therefore  laid  little  stress  on  tl»^ 
literal  sense  of  the  Bible,  though  not  a  letter  migta.^ 
be  added  to  it  or  taken  from  it.     In  their  endeavo^ 
to   unlock   the   divine   mysteries   they  employe*^ 
various  systems  of  exegesis.     Of  these  the  chi^^ 
was  the  gemapria,  or  study  of  letters.     As  early  9^ 
the  Sefer   Ye^rah  the  twenty-two  letters  of  thi« 
Hebrew  alphabet  were  divided  according  to  sound, 
form,   and   numerical    value.     To   the   first  dass 
belonged  the  three  "  mothers,"  aleph,  mem,  and 
shin,  which  represented  the  three  primal  elementa, 
aleph  standing   for   air   (ainocr),   mem  for  water 
(mar/im),    and    shin    for    fire    (esA).    The  seven 
"  double  "  letters  which  fonned  the  second  divisioo 
(heth,  gimelf  daleth,  kaph,  pe,  reshy  and  taw)  were 
symbolic  of  the  seven  planets,  the  seven  days  of 

the  week,  the  seven  gates  of  the  soul, 

12.  Biblical  the  seven  seas,  and  the  like;  while  in 
Interpre-  virtue  of  their  twofold  pronunciation, 
tation  by  either  aspirated  or  unaspirated,  they 
Gematria.    typified  the  8e\*en  antitheses  of  man: 

life  and  death,  wisdom  and  foDy, 
riches  and  po\'crty,  peace  and  war,  beauty  and 
hideousness,  fertility  and  desolation,  power  and 
slavery.     The    twelve    "simple"    kttm, 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oabala 


onstitut^d  the  remainder  of  the  alphabet,  symbol- 
the  twdve  activitiea  of  man:  sight,  hcaritig, 
noil,  speech,  catingp  cohabitation,  toil,  walking, 
rath,   laughter,    reflection,    and   sleep.     The   nu- 
Clerical  value  of  the  letters,  moreover,   rendered 
abers    sacred,    so    that    twelve,    for    example, 
pified  the  twelve  tril>es,  the  twelve  montlii?,  and 
twelve    sigaa    of    the    lodiac.     Subsequently 
atria  was  divido<i  into   aritlimetical   and    fig- 
urative, the  first  considering  the  letters  aceoniing 
to  their  numerical  value  and  the  latter  devoted  to 
he  mode  of  writing  the  letters, 
A  second  exegetical  system  wsm  the  no(arikon, 
Ihe  acrostic  use  of  the  letters  in  such  a  way  that 
letter  of  a  word  formed  the  initial   letter  of 
new   word.     The   tliird   method   was  fin*/,   the 
Dmbination  of  letters,  and  the  fourth  was  temurak, 
Ihe  creation  of  new  wonls  by  the  pennutation  and 
oterchange  of  letters.     The  names  of  God  were 
special  subjects  of  cabalistic  jugglery,  since  they 
were  no  longer  the  means  whereby  God  had  emerged 
Dm  his  concealment  ami  become  manifest  to  the 
nderytanding,    but   were    now   agencies  to   work 
on  the  intelligible  powers  and  to  perform  miracles 
Bf  all  kinds.     The   moat   marvelous  powers  were 
•ibed  to  the  divine  tetragrammaton  YHWH. 
hosoever    possessed    the    true  pronunciation  of 
this  name  might  come  into  relation  with  the  upper 
rorld  and  receive  revelations  from  the  All-Soul 
ach  letter  of  the  name  was  portentous.     The  yodh 
represented    the    Father    as    creator, 
13.  Magic    and  the  double  he  the  upper  ami  lower 
Powers  of  Alother,   while  the  uhiw   tji>ified  the 
the  Tetra-  creation.     Through     permutation     of 
l^ammaton.  the  letters  of  the  tetragrammaton  was 
obtained   a  wealth  of  divine  names, 
which,  in  like  maimer,  were  a,scribed  miraculous 
In    the   "  practical "   Cabala   these   new 
played  an  important  part,  being  usefl  in 
ormulas,  amulets,  and  conjurations,  their  correct 
aunciation  and  the  gestures  with  which  they  were 
en  being  leading  factors  in  all  these  operations. 
like  manner,  the  twelve-lettered,  twenty-two- 
twenty-four-lettercd,    and    seven  ty-two- 
I  name  contained  great  mysteries,  influenced 
be  Supreme  Being  and  averted  threatening  doom, 
rhile  the  names  of  the  angels  were  subjected  to 
Uar    mimipulation.     The    net    result    was    the 
[>tal  loss  of  any  comprehension  of  the  actual  mean- 
ag  of  the  text  of  the  Bible. 
The  history  of  the  Cabala  corapiises  a  period  of 
thousand   years,   since   its   beginnings   may  be 
aced  to  the  seventh  century,  while  its  last  adhcr- 
ata  belonged   to   the  eighteenth.     This  lapse  of 
may  be  divided  into  two  periods,  the  first 
the  seventh  to  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
ond  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  eighteenth. 
From  the  seventh   to   the   ninth   cen- 
14.  The     tury  flourished  the  mysticism  of  the 
Early       Mrrkahah,  devoted  to  descriptions  of 
Period  of    "  the  great  and  small  halls/'  and  dc- 
the  Cabala,  scribing  the  throne  of  Cod  and  his 
court  of  angels  according  to  Byzantine 
models,     God  the  Infinite,  the  ^firoik^  and  transmi- 

Igratlon  are  still  unknown,  and  the  authority  cited  on 
Ul  occasionB  is  the  Tanna  Ishmael  ben  Elisha,  who 


flourished  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  A.n, 
The  juggling  with  the  alphabet  is  represented  by 
the  **  Alphabet  of  Rabbi  Akiba,"  which  treats  of 
the  letters  according  to  name  and  form,  and  coii- 
necta  them  WMth  all  manner  of  moral  and  religious 
teachings.  With  the  appearance  of  the  Sefer 
Yezirak  ('*  Book  of  Creation  ")  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, the  mystery  of  the  Throne-Chariot  gave  place 
to  the  mystery  of  the  creation,  ant  I  a  cjjsmogonic 
element  was  introducetl  which  increased  steadily 
in  imjjortance  in  the  subsequent  period.  Here  the 
doctrine  of  emanation  appears  in  the  fonn  in  wluch 
it  had  originated  in  Alexandria.  Tlie  twenty-two 
letters  are  connected,  moreover,  wHth  the  ten  divine 
emanations,  and  thus  form  the  tliirty-two  paths 
of  e>soteric  wisdom  and  constitute  the  basis  of  all 
things.  God  is  not  only  the  creator,  but  also  the 
fiustaincr  and  ruler  of  the  world. 
15.  The  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  "  real 
Safer  powers^'  which  underlie  all  phe- 
Yezirah.  nomena,  while  their  permutation  and 
their  evaluation,  like  their  connotation, 
are  of  importance.  The  Sefer  Ycsirah  is  the  earliest 
work  which  unites  cabalistic  speculation  in  a 
systematic  whole.  According  to  it  there  are  four 
basal  principles,  emanating  in  order  from  each  other 
— spirit,  spirits,  primeval  water,  and  primeval  fire, 
all  united  by  the  three  dimensions  and  their  an- 
titheses into  a  decatle.  All  things  arc  in  continual 
flux,  disso!\'ing  old  combinations  and  fonning  new 
one^,  while  throughout  phenomena  rules  the  law 
of  antitheses,  which  are  unitotl  by  the  mean  between 
thera.  A  remarkable  work  of  the  same  period 
is  the  Sefer  Ruziel,  which  teaches  the  influence  of 
the  planets  and  the  figures  of  the  zotliac  on  the 
earth.  The  angel  Raziel  here  takes  the  place  of 
Me|atron,  the  angel  of  the  presence,  as  he  who 
possesses  and  communicates  astrological  and 
astronomical  mysteries. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  cryBtallisation  of 
the  Cabala  began  and  the  doctrine  of  the  sefiroih 
was  fully  developed.  To  the  same  period  probably 
belongs  the  composition  of  the  "  Luminous  BcK)k/* 
also  called  the  "  Midnish  of  Nehunya  ben  ha^ 
^anah,"  which  teaches  the  main  outlines  of  metemp^ 
eychosis,  wiiile  the  ten  divnne  emanations^  which 
are  not  yet  culled  sefiroth,  but  ma^amfirim  ('*  com- 
mands "),  appear  as  categories  pos- 
16,  Crystal-  scssed  of  creative  force  and  connected 
lization  of  with  the  attributes  of  God.  A  tend* 
the  Cabala,  ency  toward  \i8ionarj''  prophecy 
was  impressed  upon  the  Cabala  by 
Abraham  ben  Samuel  Abulafia  (d.  about  1304), 
who  laid  special  stress  on  a  knowledge  of  the  divine 
name  as  determined  by  the  exegetical  methods  of 
gematruit  notnrikonf  ziruf,  and  iemurahf  wliile  his 
pupil  Joseph  ben  Abraham  Gikatilla  devoted  him' 
self  to  the  mysteries  of  the  alph:d>et,  wdiich  ho 
brought  into  close  association  with  the  doctrine 
of  tlie  mfiroth.  The  cabafistic  speculation  begun 
by  Lsaac  the  Blind  reached  its  climax  in  the  Zohar^ 
apparviitly  WTitten  by  Moses  ben  Shem-Tob  of 
Leon  (d.  1305).  If  the  Sefer  Yezirah  be  called  the 
^tishnah  of  the  Cabala,  the  Zohar  is  its  Talmud, 
OstenNibly  it  is  a  midrashic  commentary  on  the 
I>ericopes  of  the  Pentateuch,  but  practically  it  is 


OMdmon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


830 


filled  with  a  mass  of  cabalistic  and  other  mystical 
speculations,  and  with  allegorism  run  mad,  espe- 
cially concerning  the  names  of  God,  the  accents, 
and  the  vowel-points.  In  like  manner,  the  kingdom 
of  evil,  with  its  demons  and  evil  spirits  which  con- 
tinually oppose  the  realm  of  righteousness,  is 
described  in  terms  of  wildest  fantasy.  Its  state- 
ments are  placed  in  the  mouth  of  Simeon  ben 
Yohai,  a  Tanna  of  the  second  century  a.d.,  who, 
according  to  the  Talmud,  lived  in  association  with 
the  angel  Me^a^ron,  who  communicated  to  him 
the  divine  mysteries.  Yet  it  is  by  no  means  a 
uniform  work,  among  its  older  components  being 
the  "  Book  of  Mystery,"  which  is  devoted  to  the 
creation  and  the  events  which  pre- 

17.  The  ceded  it;  the  "  Great  Holy  Assem- 
Zohar.  bly,"  which  forms  a  compend  of 
cabalistic  speculation  and  finds  the 
type  of  all  wfiroth  in  man,  through  whose  mental 
processes  the  upper  world  of  light  is  united  with 
the  lower  world  of  sense,  while  the  anthropo- 
morphisms of  the  Old  Testament  are  declared  to  be 
mere  metaphors;  and  the  "  True  Shepherd,"  which 
explains  the  nature  of  the  primal  emanations. 
The  later  elements  of  the  Zohar  are  as  follows: 
the  "  Small  Holy  Assembly,"  which  gives  a  clearer 
exposition  of  the  subjects  treated  in  the  **  Great 
Holy  Assembly";  the  "Book  of  the  Mystery  of 
Mysteries,"  devoted  to  physiognomy  and  cheiro- 
mancy; the  "  Book  of  the  Halls,"  which  describes 
the  abodes  of  the  souls  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  and 
in  hell;  the  "  Hidden  Midrash,"  which  recounts 
the  return  of  the  souls  to  their  new  and  perfect 
human  forms  after  the  resurrection,  and  portrays 
the  meal  prepared  for  the  righteous;  the  "  Aicient," 
which  describes  the  transmigration  of  souls  and 
the  punishments  of  hell;  the  "  Young,"  an  expo- 
sition of  various  cabalistic  teachings;  and  "  Mish- 
nas  and  Tosefta,"  which  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the 
mystical  meanings  of  the  divine  names.  Despite 
the  opposition  of  Talmudists  and  philosophers  the 
Zohar  gained  an  enormous  following  and  was 
regarded  as  a  revelation  from  heaven.  Through 
it  Spain  became  the  real  home  of  the  Cabala,  and 
even  to  the  present  day  it  is  considered  author- 
itative in  some  Judaistic  quarters. 

With  the  exile  of  the  Jews  from  Spain  the  Cabala 
was  carried  into  all  lands,  and  Safed  in  Palestine 
became  its  new  center.  There,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  Moses  ben  Jacob  Cordovero  and  Isaac 
Luna  systematized  the  Cabala  and  filled  many  a 
gap  wb'<jh  had  existed  in  the  Zohar ^  the  former 
emphasizing  the  metaphysical  and  speculative, 
and  the  latter  the  ascetic  and  ethical 
18.  Closing  side.    Through  them  the    Zohar  was 

Period  of  well-nigh  deified,  and  in  a  like  spirit 
the  Cabala,  many  cabalists  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  such  as  Shabbathai  2ebi 
and  Jacob  Frank,  proclaimed  themselves  prophets 
or  asserted  that  the  Shekinah  or  the  soul  of  the 
Messiah  had  become  incarnate  in  them.  From 
this  time  on,  however,  the  Cabala  has  steadily 
declined,  and  the  names  of  its  representatives  are 
too  unimportant  to  require  mention  here. 

Though  the  Cabala  was  devoted  to  a  spiritual- 
ization  of  religion,  the  pagan  elements  which  it 


adopted  brought  to  Judaism  a  view  of  the  uni- 
verse which  was  entirely  foreign  to  it,  and  worked 
it  grave  injury.  The  Biblical  concept  of  a  mono- 
theistic God  was  superseded  by  a  vague  Gentile 
theory  of  emanation  with  a  panthebtic  tendency, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God  was  thruBt 
into  the  backgroimd  by  the  ten  sefiroth,  who  were 
regarded  as  divine  in  essence.  Since  prayer  was 
no  longer  addressed  inmiediately  to  God  but  to 
the  sefiroth,  a  genuine  8efirothr<i}At  was  evolved. 
The  Talmud  and  philosophy  were  disdained  by 
the  cabalists,  and  even  the  study  of  the  Bible  was 
neglected,  since  it  was  no  longer  read  for  its  own 
sake,  but  solely  with  the  aid  of  cabalistic  methods 
of  hermeneutics.  Nor  did  the  ritual  escape  chacge 
and  mutilation,  and  the  phylacteries 

19.  Influ-    and  the  prayer-mantles  were  now  put 
ence  of  the  on  to  the  accompaniment  of  various 
Cabala  on  cabalistic  formulas,  especially  prom- 
Judaism,    inent  being  the  prayers  to  the  tefirotk 

Worst  of  all  was  the  growth  of  super- 
stition. That  the  soul  might  attain  to  the  r»ilm 
of  light  after  death,  the  severest  mortification  of  the 
flesh  was  practised,  while  the  mysterious  names  of 
God  were  believed  to  heal  the  sick  and  quench  the 
flames,  and  God  altered  his  divine  infill  at  the 
prayer  of  the  cabalist.  The  very  kingdom  of 
darkness  was  subject  to  the  proper  formdas  of 
prayer,  and  the  damned  were  freed  from  their 
torments  by  use  of  the  magic  names  of  God. 

During  the  period  of  the  Reformation  the  Cabala 
attracted  wide  attention  because  of  the  alleged 
kinship  and  agreement  of  its  doctrines  with  the 
dogmas  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  opinion 
accordingly  prevailed  that  it  formed  the  means  by 
which  Judaism  and  Christianity  might  easily  be 
imited,  especially  as  it  was  believed  to  contain  the 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  the  Messiah  as  the  Son 
of  God,  and  his  work  of  atonement.  In  his  mis- 
sionary zeal  for  the  Saracens  in  the 

20.  Rela-  thirteenth  century  Raymond  Lully 
tion  of  the  (q.v.)  considered  the  Cabala  a  divine 
Cabala  to  revelation,  and  after  the  converted  Jew 

Christianity.  Paulus  de  Heredia  (about  1480)  bad 
shown  in  his  "  Letter  of  Secrets " 
that  all  the  chief  truths  of  Christianity  were  con- 
tained in  the  Cabala,  Christian  scholars  became 
rivals  in  their  eagerness  to  study  esoteric  Judaism. 
In  1486  Pico  de  Mirandola  published  at  Rome  his 
Septttagintorduce  conclusiones  cabbaUisticcB,  and  invi- 
ted all  scholars  to  Rome  to  attend  a  disputation 
to  convince  themselves  of  the  kinship  between  the 
Cabala  and  Christianity.  The  first  German  to 
investigate  this  subject  was  Reuchlin,  who  devoted 
to  it  his  Z>e  verbo  mirifico  (Basel,  1494)  and  his 
De  arte  cabbalistica  (Hagenau,  1517).  Latin  trans- 
lations of  various  portions  of  cabalistic  works  were 
made  by  Baruch  of  Benevento  at  the  request  of 
Cardinal  iEgidius  of  Viterbo  and  by  the  convert 
Paul  Riccio,  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  emperor 
Maximilian  I.,  but  the  most  important  work  which 
sought  the  truths  of  Christianity  in  the  Cabala 
and  gave  translations  from  it  was  the  Kabbala 
denudata  of  Christian  Knorr  von  Roeenroth  (4 
vols.,  Sulzbach  and  Frankfort,  1677-84),  the  source 
for  all  subsequent  scholars. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ceedmon 


recognized  that  the  concepts  of  God 
and  tiie  creation  arc  entirely  divergent  in  the 
^^b^a  and  Chmti&nity;  the  first  triad  of  the 
^fafrofA  docs  not  actually  correspond  to  the  Trinity, 
Bnr  does  the  Christian  doctrine  of  Christ  &s  the  Son 
of  God  find  an  analague  in  the  Adhajn  kadhmon  of 
the  Cabala.  Acconling  to  Chriatiaiiity,  redemp- 
tion is  possible  only  through  Christ,  while  the  Cnbala 
postulat<^  that  man  can  save  luniiself  by  hin  mystic 
influence  on  God  and  the  world  of  light  through 
;id  obser\'^ance  of  the  law,  asceticism,  and  similar 
ies.  (August  WOnsche.) 

orapht:  Tbm  literature  up  to  about  I860  i»  asmnsed 
FOrtl.  BibliaUuca  jiidaica,  m.  32g-:i35.  Leip»ic.  lSli3. 
r  book  in  Eng.  is  C,  D,  <jjn»burg»  The  Kahbal^. 
Doe^net^  Development,  and  LUrrature,  Loodon,  18415. 
most  vtklu&ble  work  ia  \.  Franck.  La  Kobbate^  ou  ia 
hUtMophie   reiigiewte   dem    Htbreui^    3d    ed.^   Pftris,    1892 
|iCi«rm.  iranBl,.   Leip«ic,   1844).     Of   older    Utemture    the 
iog    may   be    mentioned:    J.    F.    Budd<3u».    /rUro- 
!  hiUitriain  philtwiphiti  fithrceorum,  Halle,   1721; 
ge.  Hi*t(nre  de  la  rtilgion  de»  Juift,  vol.  iij.,  Rot- 
1707-11;  J.    F.    Kleuker,    Uei?er  die   Natur   ttnd 
dvn    UrmpruHti   dct   EmanalionsUhre   Itei  den    KabbaiiBten^ 
Riga,    17Sti;   F.    A.   Tholuck,    De  ortu    Cahbai<r.   vol.    i., 
abuTK,    1837.     Of   later   literature    the   followinfi;   are 
K^ted  AH  worthy  of  ittudy:  A.  Jellinek,   BeitniQe  jur 
Q*»chi£ht€  der  Kabbala^  2  voli.,  Leipnc,   1852  (of  great 
Jue)    idem,  AumeiM,   hMtalxMUtcher  My§iik.   ib.    1853; 
f  J.  W.  Ethcridffe^  J«ru«alein  and  TibenoM^  Bora  and  Cor- 
dfprti,    London,   18S6;  S.   Munk.   Mitarioet  d€  philotophia 
>u*P€   «l   arabe,   pp.  46t-^U,  Parip.   1857;  G.  dea  Mou»- 
aux,  L«  Juif,  pp.  ftO»  BQq.,  ib.  1869;  C.  SiesEfri^,  Phit& 
aU  Atutftwr  tftJi  Alien   TrMtttmrnOi,   Jena,    1S72;     F, 
Itfebcrweg.  Hitk^rv  of  Philoaophy.  I  417.  New  York.  1876; 
Weber.   Su9tem  der  nUjtifnagogalen  paUl*tinincIien  The- 
l^lsfffie,  l^tpsic  1880:  L.  Wo«iic*  Hi»ttnre  de  I'fx^QeM  bib- 
'UquM^  Psrii,  1881;  Oie  Kabbaia,     Ihre  HauptMire,  Inns- 
bruok,     18i85;  SimeotL    ben    Yochiu,    Kabbala    denutiata, 
Kabh^ah    Uni^riUd,   London.  1SS7;  I.    Mey^r,   Qal^Uih; 
^PKilo»ophitat  Wriiing*  of  Stdomon  .  ,  .  Gebirot  or  AHce- 
^<hron    an*i    their    Conne^lion    uilh    the    H threw    Qabbahh^ 
delphia,  1888;   P.  Hloch,  Geachicht^  der  Entwickeiur^f 
jLoUtala,   Trier*    1S94;  1.  Hamburger,    Real-Encykh- 
far  Bibei   und    Talmud,    Leip«ip,    18«6-lfl01;  The 
IC«f»»n.*    an  Ezpo»ilion  of  the  Paffan  MyMlery  PerpettMitfd 
lift  the  Cabnla,   London,   1S97;   M.   MJie|i;ini?r,   Introduciitm 
Talmvd,  Ciutintiati,  1897;  J.  li.  Wcldon.  The  Cab- 
!«/  the  Bible,  1897-1000;  C.  A.  Briss^.  Sttidu  of  Hoi^f 
,  chap,  itviii..  New  York.  1899;  W,  Bcgley.  Bibiia 
Uca,  Umdon,  1903;  E.  Bischoff,  De  Kabbah  I nleidinff 
HAde  jooritche  mt/»tiek,  Amflterdaro,  1906;    8.    A,   Billion, 

kThe  Kabbalah,  iii  Wttrld'a  Beet  fMerature.  ed.  C.  D.  War- 
Hear,  pp.  8425-42;  JE,  iii-  456-479,  where  other  litera- 
lure  i»  tneolioned*  At  the  head  of  the  artichj  in  llaunk- 
{!«TXOC,  RB  is  a  very  full  list  of  works,  inrluding  period- 
teaJ  Uieratun. 

CADALUS:  Antipope.  See  Honoriub  II,,  anti* 
pope. 

CADMAN»  SAMUEL  PARKES:  C-ongregation- 
%list;  b,  at  Wellington  (30  m.  n.w.  of  Birmingham)^ 
Bhropshire,  England,  Dec,  18,  ISiU.  He  was 
Audited  at  Richmond  Cbllege,  London, graduating 
in  theology  and  clasmcs  in  1889,  an«l  held  Huccessive 
agregational  pastorat'es  at  Mi II brook,  N.  Y. 
-93),  Yonkers,  N.  Y.  (1893-95),  the  Metro- 
itan  Temple,  New  York  City  (LS95-19(K)).  and 
tbe  Central  Congregational  Church,  Brooklyn 
^900  to  the  present  tune).  His  theological  posi- 
^no  is  that  of  a  liberal-conservative. 

CABOC  {Cadocu»^  Docus):  A  Welsh  i^aint.  called 
**lhe  WiAe,'*  son  of  a  chieftain  of  South  Wales 
and  cousin  of  St.  David  of  Menevin:  fl,  according 


to  one  account,  at  liia  monastery  of  Llancarven 
(near  Cowbridge,  10  m.  w.s.w.  of  Llandaff,  Glamor- 
ganshire )^  accortiing  to  others,  as  a  martyr  at  Bene- 
ventum,  570  (?).  He  early  devoted  himself  to  the 
religioua  life,  refused  to  succeed  his  father  in  his 
principality,  etuflied  under  Irish  scholars  at  home, 
and  visited  Ireland,  Scotland,  Rome,  and  Jerusalem 
in  quest  of  instruction.  He  founded  the  monas- 
tery at  Llancarven  and  made  it  a  famous  center  of 
learning.  Tradition  asaoeiates  him  with  David 
and  Gildas  (who  was  one  of  the  teachers  at  Llan- 
carven) as  training  the  ''  serond  order  of  Irish 
saints "  (see  Celtic  Church  in  BiitTAm  ako 
Ireland,  1L,  2,  §  1 )  and  thus  influencing  the  church 
life  of  Ireland.  One  of  the  earliest  monuments  of 
the  Welsh  language  is  The  Wisdom  of  Cadoc  the 
Wise,  a  collection  of  proverbs,  maxims,  and  the  like 
(in  The  Myvtjrian  Archmoiogy  of  Waks,  ed.  O, 
Jones,  E.  Williams,  and  W.  O.  Pugh,  hi,,  LondoOi 
\UM\  newed.,  Denbigh,  1870,  754  aqq.).  Th^  FMen 
0f  Catioc  the  Wise  maybe  found  mloio  MantiscriptSf 
ed.  E.  Williams  (Ixindon,  1848), 

BtuLiOGRAPHT:  Loiiigafi,  Ecd.  Hiet.,  i.  481^^02;  W.  J.  Reea, 
Livee  of  the  Cambro-Britieh  SaitUn,  22-06,  309-305,  468, 
5S7,  Lhiudovery,  1853;  A.  P.  Forbes,  KaUadare  of  Scot^ 
tieh  SainU,  pp.  292-293,  Edinburgh,  1872. 

C^CILIAJnJS.     See  Donatism. 

CMDUOH:  The  firwt  Chri.^tinn  poet  of  England 
and,  with  the  exception  of  Cynewulf  Cq.v.),,  the 
only  Anglo-Saxon  versifier  whcxse  name  is  known; 
d.  about  680.  All  information  concerning  him 
comes  from  Bede,  who  states  {Hist.  erW.,  iv-  24) 
that  he  was  a  brother  in  Hilda's  monastery  at 
Streanfeshaleh  (see  Hilda,  Saint)  and  learned  the 
art  of  song,  not  from  men,  but  from  God.  Till  well 
advanced  in  years  he  lived  a  secular  life,  and  he 
often  left  a  merry  company  where  all  were  called 
on  to  sing  in  turn,  feeling  his  inability  to  comply. 
On  one  such  occasion  he  went  from  the  hall  to  the 
stable,  it  being  his  duty  that  night  to  watch  the 
animals,  and  in  his  sleep  he  saw  some  one  standing 
before  Ixim  ami  commanding  him  to  sing  of  the 
Creation— which  he  thereujxjn  was  enabled  to  do. 
reciting  an  original  poem^  wliich  Bede  gives  in 
Latin  translation/  On  awaking  Ctcdmon  re- 
mem  bereil  the  poetry  of  Ids  dr*.nim,  and  proceeded 
to  add  more  of  the  same  purport.  Being  brought 
before  the  abbess  Hilda,  he  relatecl  his  x-ision,  and, 
at  the  requei^t  of  the  learned  men  there  present, 
put  passages  of  Scripture  which  they  repeated  to 
him  into  excellent  verse.  Thereupon  he  was 
receive*!  into  the  monastery  and  instructed  in  the 
Bibhcal  stories,  large  portions  of  which  he  subse- 
quently versified.  Among  these  were  the  creation 
of  the  world,  the  origin  of  man,  and  the  whole 
history  of  Gen^s;  the  departure  of  tbe  children 

^  "  Now  ought  wo  to  praiAe  the  founder  of  the  heavenly 
kiaEdom,  the  power  of  the  Creator,  and  hiji  wistiom,  the 
dficds  of  the  Father  of  Glory;  how  he,  wince  he  ia  God  eter* 
nal,  is  tbe  author  of  ah  thing!)  wonderful,  and  the  one  who 
first  created  the  hoaven  b»  a  roof  fur  the  «on.4  of  meii,  then 
the  eflhTth — the  almishty  guardiaii  of  the  hunian  race." 
Bede  explains  that  he  i^ivea  Ihe  aeniMi,  not  the  order  of  words, 
and  wioely  remarks  that  oo  verses  can  be  tranef erred  verba* 
tim  from  one  laniEUlfiO  to  another,  no  DUtter  how  weU  it 
may  be  done,  wttbout  tadng  much  of  Ibeir  beauty  and 
power. 


CsBdmon 
CaesarluB  of  Aries 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


832 


of  Israel  from  Egypt  and  their  entrance  into  the 
land  of  promise;  the  incarnation,  passion,  retiurrec- 
tion,  and  ajacension  of  Christ;  thy  descent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  the  preacting  of  the  apostles; 
the  terror  of  future  judgment,  the  horror  of  hcU, 
and  the  ble^edneas  of  heaven;  and  many  other 
thingis  by  wliich  he  sought  to  lead  men  from  the 
love  of  the  world  and  to  the  choieo  of  a  good  hfe. 
He  wad  a  very  religious  man  and  the  manner  of  his 
death  wub  m  complete  accord  with  hi^  devout  and 
tranquil  life.  Be<le  was  bom  before  Casdmon'iJ 
death  and  lived  not  far  from  hb  monastery;  hence 
his  account  is  worthy  of  belief.  The  attempt  of 
Sir  FraDcie  Pal  grave  to  show  that  the  story  is  a 
mere  monk's  tale  is  to  be  rejected.  No  doubt  a 
monk  named  C^mon  lived  at  StreaniBshalch 
antl  wrote  ix>etfy  there ,  and  e\4dently  be  was  of 
low  origin  and  unlearned.  Several  poems  from 
a  manuscript  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library—a 
paraphraas  of  Genesis  of  more  than  2,900  lines; 
ExoduSj  about  600  lines;  Daniel,  about  800  lines; 
and  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  including 
the  lament  of  the  fallen  angels,  Christ's  visit  to 
hell,  and  the  temptation  of  Christ,  formerly  known 
aa  the  ChriHt  antl  Satan^were  published  by  Fran- 
ciseus  Junius  (Frangois  du  Jon)  at  Amsterdam 
in  1655  and  attributed  to  Cffidmon.  At  present 
it  is  concedeil  that  only  the  fir«t  of  these  poems 
hai  any  claim  to  be  consitlerecl  the  production  of 
Ck^dnion,  and  that  even  this  has  been  transmit t4^d 
m  an  interj>olated  and  much  modified  form  (see 
Heljanu^thb,  and  the  Old*Saxon  Genisib)  ;  many 
think  that  it  contains  no  work  of  Ca^lmon's  at  ail. 
The  hymn  mentioned  by  Bedc,  however,  is  pre- 
eerved  in  the  Northumbrian  dialect  (Ca»dmon's 
own)  by  a  Cambridge  manuscript  of  the  H(M/>ria 
€€clrsia^tica  aritl  is  the  oldest  extant  Christian  poem 
in  a  Germanic  toiigue.  (R,  WClker.) 

Bibliogbapht:  Besides  the  edjtidfi  uf  Jimiiui,  tbo  poem«  of 
the  Hodleinn  mjiiiuM^ript  h&ve  been  publkhed  by  iht? 
Society  of  Antiquariea  of  London — Cadtrum't  Mefricat 
FaraphroM  uf  PartM  of  the  Holu  Sitipture  in  A  ngltT-Saxon^ 
wiih  an  Engiisk  Tmmlatioit,  NoteM,  und  a  ivrkiJ  lnde£  bu 
B,  Thorpe,  LondoD.  1832.  The  e*nie  society  also  pub- 
Lblied  in  tbeir  Archfgfdopva,  xsJv.  (,1832K  fifty-two  plutsfi 
illuj^trative  of  the  manuAeripU  inclucljiig  thi?  illumitm- 
tiobii,  rei»aued  eepATfttoly  London,  lg33.  Ijitcr  ediUana 
are  by  K.  W.  Boiilerwek,  2  toIh.,  GQt€r?lob,  IS40-54. 
Mid  C.  W.  M.  Grein,  in  hifl  BihiioMe  d*r  ans/ehAcJmtchen. 
Faesir.  ii.  310-562.  new  ltd.  by  IL  Wfllkur,  I^ipHic,  1804, 
Grein  hjis  ii.l»o  fiirninhod  a  Germon  trHnNJi^tiOFi  in  allltPra.- 
iive  vema  in  Dicktungeit  der  Awi^Hmthten  ttaltteim^nd 
aberttUi,  ijC*ti'mg,efi,  1SG3,  Consult  further:  Mir  Frandfl 
FtiXfAyn^  in  Archtriihgia^  xxi v.  (1B32)  341-343.  reprinted 
by  Cook,  pp*  12-13  (m«  below);  W.  M.  F.  BiMmnquet, 
The  Fall  &f  Sfan  or  PnraffiMe  Lfttt  o/  Ctrdrnffn  Tranttlatrd 
in  Verte.  London,  IS*M};  K.  Siuvera,  Der  H^iand  uml  die 
anff9^chm»€he  Qtnriti*.  Halle.  1875;  R.  B.  Watson,  Ci^ti- 
mon,  the  Firnt  English  Fort,  London,  1875;  R.  tf^n 
Brink.  GMckirJite  drr  ^nglia^itn  FJUFratiir,  L,  2d  ed,, 
Stnuibure,  18^«  Eriic.  tmne^l.,  London,  \Sf^;  J.  Earic, 
Angi/i-Sax&n  Littraiure^  London,  IRS4;  R,  Wftlker, 
OmiviTisa  rur  Geachkhte  drr  anffeUdrhnisrhfyt  LUltFatur, 
Lt^ipj'ic,  IRSfi;  idem,  GrKhirhle  drr  ftnfjhifchfn  Litirrfitur, 
Lelpsic,  ISBfi;  A.  Ebert.  AUgrmrint  Getrhlchts  d^r  Lit- 
ttr&tur  dea  Mi^elaltert,  vol.  iii,,  Lelpc<ic.  ISk'^T;  A.^.  Cadk^ 
in  the  FubHc^ti^nM  of  the  Modtm  l^nffimffr  Annf^aiion 
af  America,  voL  vi.,  part  l^  pp.  0-28^  Oahirnnrp.  ISOl; 
Plumnipri^  Bede,  ii.  248-258,  Ox rord,  ISOPn  W.  Briglit. 
Early  English  Chtiteh  HiBtarjf,  pp,  311^316,  Oxforri,  1807: 
E.  T,  Gatikin,  Cisdmon,  (h«  Firtt  EngtUh  Foet.  London, 
1902.  For  the  RtrikinK  reaemblnnoe  beiwevn  parts  of  tfae 
Gen«8ifi<  and  Miiton/a  FiLradij«   Loitt,  cionflull  I,  Dier&eiiT 


AmmUiew  of   Literaiurt,  pp.  37-^  «d,  B,  Dim«iji,  Loi^ 
don,  1S75;  8.  H.  Giirteen.  The  BpU  of  tke  FaU  of  Mum^  9. 
Comparaiiv€  Study  0/  C^moiL,  D^nlsv  awi  Mitiony  Loodtfa, 
1 896  fj^ven  r«du«d  faiaimileB  of  tlie  itluimmationi  of  the 
Bodktan  manuacdpt), 

CJELESTIUS.     See  Pelaqiub,  PELAauu^u. 

CiERULARIUS,  MICHAEL:     Patriarch  of  Con- 
fitaQtinople    1043-58.     Ihe  exact  date  and  pl&oe 
both  of  hie  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  and  frw 
details  of  hh  Hfe  are  Gcrtaln.     thirinf  the  xdgKi. 
of   Michael   the   Paphlagonian    ( 1034^41)   he  woub 
banished  for  conspiracy,  but  he  was  raised  to  time 
patriarchate    b^   Constantine    Monomachus,  vkio 
tiopcil   to   Hnd  In   him   a  firm   ally.     CeBrulantxs. 
however,  strenuously  defended  the  rights  of  tlie 
Church,  Mid  kia  chief  Importance  is  due  to  the  itkct 
that  bis  course  resulted  in  the  complete  cleavai^ 
between    the    Gr^k   and    Roman    Churches.    At 
the  very  time  when  the  Norman  Wax  gave  tlie 
Byzantine  court  and  the  pope  an  opportuaitj   to 
draw  more  closely  together,  the  patnareh  Tidently 
suppr^sed    the    Latin    ritual    observed   in   many 
cloisteri  and  churches,  and  renewed  the  anrient 
ehargei  of  Photiua  (q.v.)  in  a  letter  to  the  bishop 
of  Trani  in  Apulia,  reserving  his  special  attack  for 
the  Roman  um  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  Sacrm- 
ment,  which  he  condemned  as  Jewish.     Leo  IX. 
replied  with  a  haughty  defend  of  the  primacy  of 
Home,  and  at  ConMantine^s  request  an  embassy 
waj<«  sent  to  Constant inople,  headed  by  the  Cardind 
Biabop  Humbert.     Their  letters  were  intendad  to 
win  over  the  emperor  and  bumble  the  patrianA, 
and   the  feeble  Constantine^  overawed  by  Hum^ 
berths  attacks  on  the  Greek  Church,  had  adther 
the  courage  to  protect  Qerularius  nor  to  oppoR 
him  openly.     The  patriarch,  however,  refuted  to 
yield,  and  oq  July  16,  1054,  the  embas^'  t%VM- 
municnted  him  and  all  his  adherents.     After  the 
departure  of  the  envoys,  Co^rularius  regained  bis 
prestige  with  Const  an  tine,  and  maintained  it  duiii^ 
the  reipi  of  Theodora,     Isaac  Comnenus,  on  tte 
other  ham  I,  banished  him  on  account  of  his  am> 
gance  in  105S,  and  he  seems  to  have  died  shortly 
afterward.     In    addition    to    the    letters   alreidy 
mentionetl,   C^nilarius  was   the   author  of  ^sam* 
decretals  (D*  epismporum  judiciwt  De  nnpHi^  ^ 
septimo  grudu  non  mntraJxendis^  D€  ndcerdMh  usm 
adidterto    jjoUultj;   edited   by   Rhalles    and   Potlis, 
"'  Collection  of  Canons,"  v.  40-47)  and  a  few  wntings 
still  prf?served  in  manuscript  {De  mhRU,  Opus  amira 
Latinos;  listed  by  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  frrotss, fid. 
Haries,  xi.  195-197),  (Pmupp  Met^e.) 

BiBLiiofiiiAfHY;  G.  Will,  Atta  el  stripta  .  .  .  d«  eenkvpfftii 
ixth*iis  .  .  .,  Marbniig,  ISfll;  J.  Hergenrutbcj,  FhoHui, 
vol.  iii,t  Rpsfonsburg^  ISOO  (noh  in  nd«]n«]  ni*uer)i  A. 
PicllLl*!'^t  GeMrJiithte  der  kir^lichfn  Trmnung  ^ffiMchniim 
Orient  und  Otrirident,  2  vols.,  Munich,  1864-65:  K.  Bo- 
mann.  Die  F^litik  der  P&patt.  vnl.  ii.,  Elberfdd  IfiflS-eC; 
W.  Fisclier.  i^tadien  lur  hyiaf%lini9chen  G^Khkhk  da  «if- 
ten  Jtihrhu-ndfrtt,  Pl^uen,  18SS;  K.  KjM]3ib»«b«,  Gf 
tfhirhts    drr    bymntiniKhen    Litteroh^,    pAAtim,   Mumdb. 

C^S  ARHJS  OF  ARLES :  Bishop  "of  Aries;  h.  at 
ChAloH'Sur'SarjiiL-  {33  m.  n.  of  MAcon)  469  or  470; 
fL  at  Aries  (44  m.  n.w.  of  Marseilles)  Aug.  27t  5^2. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life  before  his  eighteenth  year, 
but  at  the  a^  of  twerjty  he  went  to  the  famous 
cloister  on  the  island  of  L^rina,  although  it  w^  nm 


333 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cmdmon 
CeB«arlii»  of  Aries 


^i 


decJimcg  under  the  weak  abbot  Porcarius.     There 
Cassariu*  became  aequainted  with  the  writings  of 
FausttiSi  who  had  been  abbot  of  L^rins  for  sntne 
ibirty  years,  and  these  works  exercised  an  in  flu- 
ence     on  him  throiighout  his  life.     Porcarius  ap- 
pointed him  mtLHter  of  the  refecto^\^ 
Eftrlj  Life,  but    the    discontent    of    the    monkt* 
caused  hii*  removah  and  fie  thereupon 
Ldeirc^^ed  himself  so  rigidly  to  fasting  that  it  be  came 
[nsoeBBary  to  send  him  to  Aries  in  Bi*arch  of  health. 
I  He     ^here  liecame  acquainted  with  Fimiinus,  antl 
At   l^ifi  request  began   the  study  of  rhetoric  witli 
P'ocd.^rius  of  Africa,  who  is  now  gtuierally  regarded 
a«  icJ^entical  witli  the  author  of  the  De  i^ila  contem- 
ptat^-i}Q.     Pomerius  was,   moreover,   a   follower  of 
r  Augxistine,  and  seems  to  Lave  won  hm  pupil  over 
to  t,tuis  teacher.     Recognizing  in  Ca^sariua  a  fellow 
«**xi:i.tryinan    and    kinsman,    jEnntius,    bishop    of 
I      Arl^?©^  not  only  onlained  liim  and  placed  him  in 
^■•p^^^'ge  of  a  monastery,  but  also  induced  the  clergy. 
^r6iti.:^iQijs^  and  king  to  appoint  him  his  succeHsor. 
!*>    S02,  therefore »  Cffisarius  became  bishop  of  Aries, 
™^iagh  sorely  against  bis  will. 

-^^is  first  measure  was  to  make  daily  atterolanee 
^^  ^^hurch  agreeable  to  the  laity,  largt^ly  by  singing, 
^^^^  he  ahso  required  them  to  I  cam  pa>isages  from 
i\\^  Bible,  in  addition  to  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's 
■^s^yer.  The  administnition  of  funds  was  entruwted 
^  laymen  and  deacons,  aii<l  he  strove  to  main- 
tain firm  discipline,  being  aiiparently 
Bishop,  the  author  of  the  first  Occidental 
502.  manual  of  ecclesiaatical  law,  the 
Stotuta  et^leaiGt  Gniiqua.  In  505 
^^sarius  was  charged  with  high  treason  by  his 
■^cretary  Licinianui;!,  and  was  banished  to  lionlcaux 
by  Alaric  IL.  although  he  quickly  proved  his 
innocence  and  wa*^  permitted  to  return.  On  Sept. 
ll,  506,  he  re8ume<l  the  long  interrupted  series  of 
Gallic  synods  with  the  SjTiod  of  Agde  (q.v,),  and 
the  canons,  e\idently  written  by  Caesariint,  are 
important  tlocument^  for  ecclesiafltical  history. 
Particularly  noteworthy  among  them  are  the 
r^solutionn  on  ecekmastical  jurisdiction,  slavery, 
celibacy,  and  church-property  which  was  to  he 
regarded  as  set  aside  for  the  poor.  The  death  of 
Alaric  shortly  after  the  close  of  the  synod  endcil 
the  kingilom  of  Toulouse,  and  in  50S  the  Franks 
and  Burgundianji  began  the  siege  of  Aries.  A 
relative  of  the  bishop  deserted  to  the  enemy^  and 
Casarius  himself  was  cliarged  with  treason  and 
imprisoned,  escaf>ing  only  when  the  tretison  of  the 
Jcvrs  who  had  accused  him  became  know^.  In 
510  the  city  was  relieved,  and  Ca*sarius  cared  for 
the  captives  without  n^gard  to  creed,  in  addition 
to  ransoming  many  with  the  money  and  ornaments 
of  the  churches.  Tliree  years  later,  however,  he 
was  cited  to  appear  before  Theodoric  at  Ravenna, 
probably  because  of  liis  expenditures  of  church 
funds  for  the  foundation  of  a  nunnery  at  Aries 
and  similar  purposes,  but  he  won  the  king  com- 
pletely to  his  side,  and  received  auch  rich  gifts  from 
all  qtjarters  for  the  ransom  of  Burgundian  captives 
tliat  he  was  able  to  bring  to  Aries  8,000  solidi 
(about  $.56,000).  From  Ravenna  ho  went  to  Rome, 
and  in  October  gave  the  pope  a  jKtition,  in  which 
\  hiy  n&quested  permission  to  employ  church  funds 


for  cloisters;  to  abrogate,  in  view  of  the  lack  of 
clergy  in  CJauI,  the  hieratic  ramus  honotum^  on 
w^hich  strict  stress  was  laid  at  Rome;  and  also 
asked  information  reganling  the  marriage  of  widows 
and  nuns,  bribery  in  the  election  of  bishops,  and 
the  prohibition  against  naming  a  bishop  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  metropolitan.  On  Nov.  6, 
513,  the  petition  was  granted  with  a  few  reserva- 
tions, Symmachus  allowing  only  the  usufruct  to 
I>e  devoted  to  cloisters  and  the  like. 

Little  is  known  of  the  life  of  Ciesarius  between 
514  and  523,  althougli  the  cimons  of  the  Council  of 
Gerunda  in  515-517  show  that  his  influence  was 
traceable  in  Spain,  In  523,  however,  it  became 
possible  for  liim  to  exercise  his  metropoUtan  func- 
tions, since  the  peaceable  intervention  of  Theodoric 
in  the  Franko-Burgundian  War  brought  ten  cities 
of  Burgundy  under  the  sway  of  the  OBtrogoths* 
Ca^sarius  now  held  five  synods:  Arlea^  524;  Car- 
pentras^  527;  Orange  and  Vaison,  529;  and  Mar- 
seilles, 533.  The  disciplinary  and  legislative 
activity  of  C^osariua  accordingly  hes  in  the  SUtiuta 
eccles^ia:  antiqtta  and  in  the  Ciinona  of  the  six  synods, 
t^  which  should  probably  be  added 

Synods  the  (lecrees  of  what  is  cotumonly  con- 
after  523.  sidered  the  second  synod  of  Aries, 
Stress  should  also  be  laid  on  his  care 
for  the  rural  communities  and  for  the  erection  of 
schools  for  the  education  of  the  clergy.  As  early 
as  the  Stfjtutiif  moreover,  Ciesarius  had  taken  for 
granted  the  right  and  duty  of  preaching,  and  ho 
insisted  on  it  again  in  the  Admoniih,  which  seems 
to  have  appeared  at  the  synod  of  Vaison.  The 
Council  of  Orange  (June  3,  529)  wai*  the  only  one 
devoted  to  a  dogmatic  question,  and  also  the  only 
one  which  received  papal  sanction  as  an  ecumenical 
council.  This  waa  apparently  the  conference  of 
bishops  of  Vienne  (mentioncfi  in  the  Vita),  who, 
as  Semi -Pelagians,  attacked  the  doctrine  of  grace 
taught  at  Aries,  while  Cj^^rian,  bishop  of  Toulon, 
representeti  CaKariun,  who  was  prevented  by  illness 
from  attending,  and  defended  the  dogma  of  pnv 
venicnt  grace.  The  epilogue  of  its  rt^solutions, 
apparently  written  by  Ca;sarius  himself,  ascribes 
free  will  to  all  the  baptized,  and  rejects  predes- 
tination to  damnation.  His  own  position  toward 
this  problem  first  became  clear  in  LS96,  when  Morin 
edited  the  treatise  Quid  domintis  Ctrs&ritis  senstrU 
contra  eos  qui  dinmt  ip«?rc  olih  dct  Detis  grati4im, 
ahis  non  dvt,  in  which  he  nuiintains  that  divine 
grace  works  without  regard  to  the  merits  of  miui, 
while  God  act^s  according  tfl  his  will  and  pleasure. 

The  close  of  the  second  decade  of  the  sixth  century 
saw  the  climax  of  the  acti\aty  of  Cacsarius,  and  his 
relations  with  Rome  changed  for  the  worse.  Pope 
Agape tua  charged  him  with  cruelty  and  injustice 
in  hi  a  proceedings  against  Contumelies  us,  bishop 
of  Rie?.,  although  he  hatl  acted  simply  in  accord 
with  Gallicun  usage  and  had  defended  the  disci- 
pline of  the  Church.  Under  Pope  Vigilius  he  was 
obliged,  as  vicar  of  the  Roman  See,  to  render  a 
decision  in  a  question  of  marriage,  which  was  dis- 
regarded. Old  and  sickly,  he  took  no  personal 
part  in  the  French  synods,  although  the  ecclesias- 
tical influence  of  his  pupils  remained  important. 
He  lived,  however,  to  see  the  cloister  which  he  had 


CflBsarius  of  Aries 
Oaillin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


834 


founded  on  Aug.  26,  512  or  513,  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  and  to  complete  a  bishopric  of  forty 
years. 

No  collected  edition  of  the  works  of  Ceesarius 
exists  as  yet,  although  the  Benedictine  Germaine 
Morfii  has  long  been  preparing  one,  but  the  places 
in  which  his  scattered  writings  may  be  found 
are  given  by  Arnold,  435-450  (cf.  491-496),  Mal- 
nory,  v.-xviii.,  and  Fessler-Jungmann,  438,  452. 
In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  his 
most  important  writings  are  his  sermons.  His 
chief  sources,  often  noted  in  his  manuscript,  were 
Augustine,  Rufinus,  Faustus,  Salvianus,  and 
Eucherius,  and  his  generosity  in  giving  of  his 
treasures  to  others  lias  resulted  in  the  ascription 
of  many  of  his  sermons  to  Augustine,  Faustus,  and 
similar  authors.  On  the  other  hand,  he  prepared 
homiliaries,  represented  by  Cod.  Loon.  121  (ninth 
century)  and  Pari»in.  10605  fol.  71  (thirteenth 
century).  A  similar  collection  contains  forty-two 
admonitions,  and  a  third  is  devoted  to  sermons 
for  the  cloister.     A  special  category 

Works,  is  formed  by  the  homilies  for  the  Old 
Testament  lessons  for  each  fast,  and 
these  are  supplemented  by  interpretations  of  texts 
of  the  New  Testament.  Another  group  of  sermons 
is  eschatological  and  a  third  is  important  for  the 
history  of  penance.  His  monastery  rules  are 
extremely  valuable  for  the  history  of  asceticism, 
and  his  regulations  for  nims,  based  on  Augustine's 
letter  Ad  sanctimonialeaf  the  so-called  rules  of 
Macarius,  and  his  own  monastic  rules,  received  their 
final  form  in  534  and  clearly  show  the  various 
strata  of  their  development.  Of  the  other  writings 
of  Csesarius,  only  the  letters  need  be  considered, 
for  the  Testamentum  beati  Caaarii  {MPL,  Ixvii. 
1 139-42)  is  now  recognized  as  spurious. 

(F.  Arnold.) 

Bibliography:  Sources  for  a  life  are:  EpUt  ArdcUenae», 
in  MQH,  Epist.,  iii.  1-83,  ed.  W.  Gundlach.  Hanover, 
1801;  Concilia  ctvi  Alerovingici,  in  MGH,  Leg.,  eectio 
iii.,  part  1,  pp.  37-61,  ed.  Maassen,  ib.  1803.  The  early 
lives  are  in  MQH,  Script,  rer.  Merovingicarum,  iii.  457- 
601,  ed.  B.  Krusch,  ib.  1806,  and  in  ASB,  27  Aug..  vi.  64- 
83,  with  comment  by  Stilting,  pp.  50-64.  Consult:  A. 
Malnory,  S.  Cfaaire  ivhjue  d' Aries,  Paris,  1804;  C.  F. 
Arnold,  CAaariita  von  Ar elate  und  die  galliache  Kirehe 
eeiner  Zeit,  Lcipsic,  1804;  Hiatoire  litUraire  de  la  France, 
iii.  100,  iv.  1,  X..  p.  xv.,  xii.,p.  vii.;  J.  M.  Trichaud,  Ilia- 
trnre  de  S.  Ciaaire,  Sveque  d'Arlea,  Aries,  1858;  U.  Ville- 
vieille,  Hiatoire  de  S.  Ciaaire,  Aix-en-Provenoe,  1884; 
P.  Lejay,  Lea  Sermona  de  Ciaaire  d'Arlea,  in  Revue  bi- 
blique,  iv.  (1805)  50.3-610;  J.  Fessler.  InatihUionea  patro- 
logice,  ed.  B.  Jungmann.  ii.  438-452.  Innsbruck,  1806; 
G.  Pfeilschifter,  Der  Oatgothen  KOnig  Theoderich  der  Groaae 
und  die  katholiache  Kirehe,  pp.  123-136,  MQnster,  1806; 
Hefele.  ConciliengeachiclUe,  ii.  68-77,  Eng.  tranal.,  iv.  131, 
143  sqq. 

C-ffiSARIUS  OF  HEISTERBACH,  hois'ter-bOH: 
Monk;  b.  probably  at  Cologne  c.  1180;  d.  at 
Heisterbach  (20  m.  s.  of  CJologne)  c.  1240.  He 
received  an  excellent  education  at  Cologne  and 
gained  a  good  knowledge  of  the  Church  Fathers 
and  classical  writers.  In  1198  or  1199  he  entered 
the  monastery  of  the  Cistercians  at  Heisterbach 
and  spent  his  life  there  in  quiet  seclusion.  He 
became  master  of  the  novices,  and  also  prior 
according  to  Henriquez  (Monologium  Ciaterctense, 
ad  diem  25  Sept.).     His  literary  activity  is  closely 


connected  with  his  monastic  duties.  Only  az- 
teen  of  his  many  writings  are  extant  and  most  of 
these  are  still  in  manuscript.  One  of  tlie  best 
known  is  the  Dialogic  miraculorum  or  De  mtracuKr 
et  visionibua  8ui  temparis  (ed.  J.  Strange,  2  vob, 
Cologne,  1851 ;  index,  Coblenx,  1857;  see  bibliognphjr 
below  for  title  of  German  select  transL).  As  master 
of  the  novices  Csesarius  had  to  acquaint  the  fatme 
monks  with  the  regulations,  opinions,  and  dedoooi 
of  the  order,  and  he  believed  the  beat  way  to  a^ 
complish  this  was  by  means  of  examples.  At  the 
request  of  his  abbot  he  committed  his  instouctiooB 
to  writing  and  the  copiousness  and  variety  of  his 
material,  drawn  from  the  recent  past  as  weU  ai 
more  remote  antiquity,  is  surprising.  His  writtCD 
sources  belong  mostly  to  the  Cistercian  order,  bat 
he  also  drew  from  oral  communications.  Euk 
narrative  is  intended  to  have  a  religious  or  monl 
practical  application,  but  Gsesarius  knew  how  to 
include  everything  under  these  heads,  and  thus  it 
happens  that  his  stories  contain  many  pcnnts  o( 
interest  for  contemporaneous  history  aind  the  his- 
tory of  civilization.  In  a  series  of  pictures  be 
brings  before  us  the  life  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  espe- 
cially at  Cologne,  and  we  often  meet  with  popular 
beliefs  and  superstitions  in  which  survivals  of  old 
Germanic  mythology  may  still  be  disooverei 
The  Dialogus  is  especially  important  for  infoims- 
tion  concerning  ecclesiastical  customs  and  con- 
ditions, especially  in  the  monastic  life.  T\at 
regulations  of  the  monasteries,  especially  among 
the  Cistercians,  the  chorus-singing  and  work,  the 
eating  and  sleeping,  the  fasting  and  bloodletting 
of  the  monks — aU  comes  before  us  in  living  ex- 
amples. Csesarius  is  much  in  earnest  about  the 
evils  of  confession;  he  suppresses  the  worst,  but 
what  he  tells  is  bad  enough  and  his  judgment  upon 
it  is  severe  (cf.  iii.  41  and  45).  For  the  rest  the 
dialogue  from  beginning  to  end  is  a  witness  to  the 
mania  for  miracles  and  the  belief  of  the  time  in  the 
marvelous.  One  finds  everywhere  an  interferenoe 
of  partly  divine,  partly  demonic  powers  with 
earthly  happenings,  and  when  it  takes  place  the 
most  incredible  becomes  credible.  Here  is  the 
weak  point  of  the  book  which  must  not  be  over- 
looked, despite  the  poetic  charm  of  manynarrstives 
and  the  morally  pure  personality  of  Csesarius.  He 
contributed  his  share  to  cause  the  belief  in  witch- 
craft and  sorcery,  in  incubi  and  succubi,  and  all 
sorts  of  devilish  intervention,  to  be  regarded  as  a 
constituent  part  of  Christian  belief.  The  praise  be- 
stowed on  the  Dialogus  induced  Csesarius  to  pre- 
pare a  second  work  of  the  kind,  not  however  in  the 
form  of  dialogue,  the  Libri  VIII  miraculonan,  of 
which  only  three  books  are  preserved  (ed.  Atojfs 
Meister,  Rome,  1901,  supplementary  vol.  to  the  £^ 
miHche  QuartdMirift),  CTsesarius's  historical  woria 
include  a  Catalogus  episcoporum  Colaniensium(\n  J. F. 
Bdhmcr,  Pontes  rerum  Germanicarum,  ii.,  Stuttf^. 
1845, 272-282,  and,  ed.  H.Cardauns,inAf(?jy,iScrijrf.. 
xxiv.,  1879,  345-347;  Germ,  trand.  by  M.Beth- 
any, Elberfeld,  1898)  and  a  VitasancH  Engdherti^tn 
archbishop  of  Cologne  who  was  murdered  byarda- 
tiveinl225(inB6hmer,utsup., 294-329).  ThiswoA 
insures  to  Csesarius  a  place  among  the  most  prom- 
inent biographers  of  the  Middle  Agea.  The  first  book 


REUGIOUS  E-N  CYCLOPEDIA 


Caesarlnji  of  Aries 
CallUn 


desecibos  the  personality  of  Engeibcrt;  the  second 
describes  in  dramatic  manner  the  dangers  witli 
which  the  arrogance  of  insybordinate  vasdala 
threatened  the  archbishop,  and  ends  with  u  thnlhng 
ftooount  of  the  final  catn-strophe.  The  third  book 
treata  of  the  niiniclea  of  Engelbert,  who  was  revered 
aa  martyr,  Lii«tl3%  Cap.sariiLs  deserves  no  minor 
pliLce  among  the  preachers  of  bis  thne.  Mia  homi- 
lies (edited  by  the  l>oniitiicun  J.  A,  Koppenstein, 
4  parts,  Cologne,  1G15-2S)  are  indeed  monai^tic, 
not  popular,  sermons,  like  those  of  Bernard  of 
dairvaiix.  But  both  have  in  common  the  rich 
application  of  Holy  Writ,  the  connection  of  moral 
and  allegorical  exposition,  and  the  endeavor  to 
edify  their  hearers.  In  spite  of  thtvir  simplicity 
they  reve^  an  indeed  unsought  for,  b^it  not  un- 
oonscioua  art  in  their  plan.  Peculiar  to  CteKarius 
and  corresponding  to  his  method,  alr^'udy  noted, 
is  the  very  copious  intertwining  of  hiiitorical  ex- 
amples from  mcKtem  times.  He  was  a  true  chihl 
of  his  time,  and  belongs  to  its  best.  In  hitn  still 
lives  the  spirit  of  the  old  Cistercians,  aa  Bernard 
impressed  it  on  the  order.  He  unites  an  cameNt 
orthodoxy  with  fervent  piety  and  a  highly  moral 
sentiment.  Though  implicitly  tie  voted  to  the 
Church,  nevertheless  he  hm  a  keen  eye  for  it-s 
obvious  defects,  and  his  judgment  w^as  incorrupt- 
ible. Though  a  zealous  monk,  he  did  not  lone  all 
interest  in  the  events  of  the  world,  and  the  political 
di^ordens  of  the  time,  with  all  the  misery  wliich 
they  brought,  concern  liim.  S.  M.  Deutsch. 

BtBLiooRAFinr:  A.  K^ufmann,  Ciuatius  von  HeitterbacH, 
ColofftM).  1850,  2de<i.,  1802;  W.  Cave,  Stript&rum  tcdnaiaiti- 
€ontm  hUioTw  Uterariar  year  1225,  2  vob.,  London,  I0$8-&B; 
J.  Hartzheim.  Bibliothtca  Colmiiensi*,  pp.  42-45»  Coloene, 
1747:  Hwioire  Uarrair^  de  la  France,  xviij.  194-201. 
FmriB,  1835;  Braun,  in  ZeiUchrift  fllr  Phiia^ophh  und 
kaiheilitche  Theoloaie,  pp.  l-27»  Bonn,  184.'>  (cont4a.infl  a 
list  of  his  writingfi  prepared  by  IdtnAelfi;  A.  W.  Wy- 
braada,  Dt  DialoQUM  mircutUorumvanCtr»ariu»  van  Hei^- 
itrbaek,  to  Studitn  «m  Biidraoen.  ii.  1-116,  Atrtinterdain, 
1871;  K.  Unkel,  Die  flomiiien  de%  C&»ariu*  tron  Heitfler- 
baeh  vnd  ikr*  Bi^iirutun^f  fQr  dU  KuUur  und  Sittcnot- 
§chichU  det  ricMften  und  dretM^nten  Jt^rhundrrU,  m  An- 
nalfn  d««  hiMtanichen  Vereinw  fUr  den  Niederrhnn.  xxxiv. 
(1870)  1-07;  A.  Kaurmonn,  Wuruierhare  und  d^nktoUrdifjt 
G^schithttn  out  den  Werken  dr*  CfUariut  von  HeititrbQck, 
in  Annalen  de*  hUtoriMchtm  Vereina  fQr  dm  Niederrhein, 
Cologne.  2  partfs.  1884-91;  Wattenbach,  DCr^g,  ii.  412.  485, 

CJESARIUS  OF  SPEYER.     See  FitAKcie,  Saint, 

OF    A^SSISI,    AND    THE    FRANCISCAN    OrDEH,    I.,    ^  i; 

n,,  i  1. 

C^SAROPAPISM:  A  name  applic?d  to  the  eon- 
eeption  of  the  relations  between  Churcli  and  State 
which  contemplates  the  Bccwbr  ruler'a  exercising 
tpirittial  power  idao.  It  ia  thus  the  converse  of  the 
theocratic  system  which  the  popes  have  attempted 
to  carry  into  effect  (i.e.,  in  regard  to  the  world 
at  large^  not  to  their  limited  states),  which  al^o 
underlies  Calvin's  teaclung  as  to  the  relations  of 
Church  and  State,  Its  principles  are  met  with  as 
early  as  355,  when  €on.HtantmL*  aiitlressed  the 
Synod  at  Milan  in  the  words:  "  Whatever  /  will, 
let  that  be  acknowledged  as  a  *  cjinon  *  '^  (Atha- 
aamus,  Uist  Arwn.f  xxxiii,;  A'PA'F,  2d  ser,  iv, 
281).  It  dcvelopLHl  more  rapidly  in  the  Eastern 
Church  because  of  the  absence  of  the  counterpoise 

ich  the  papacy  formed  in  the  Wesit.     Justinian 


may  be  regarded  as  a  typical  representative  of  it; 
but  the  Church  managed  during  the  iconoclastic 
controversy  to  frce  itself  in  a  large  measure  from 
imperial  chctation.  Since  that  time  the  term  has 
not  borne  any  strict  application,  though  it  is  some* 
times  ajjplied  in  a  motlilk^l  seiise  to  the  position 
of  the  Cxars  since  Pct4?r  the  Great  in  the  Russian 
Church,  and  has  Mometimes,  though  with  still  less 
justice,  been  used  of  the  German  evangelical 
princes  who  have  exercised  authority  in  spiritual 
tilings*  though  even  the  territorial  systein  recog- 
nises a  sphere  for  religion  indei>endent of  the  State,' 
See  Erastus,  Thomas,  (E.  Fhiedbehq.) 

CAIAPHAS,  cai'a-foa  (more  exactly  Joseph,  who 
also  was  called  Caiaphas;  cf.  Joaephus,  Ant,,  XVIII. 
ii.  2):  The  Jewish  high  priest  who  held  office 
during  the  ministry  and  death  of  Jesus.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  four  liigh  priests  whom  the  Roman 
procurator  Valerius  Gratus  appointed  successively 
to  this  dignity.  As  Valerius  was  procurator  from 
15  to  26  A.D.,  his  appointment  of  Caiaphaa  must 
have  occurred  at  the  latest  in  26  a.d.;  most  likely 
it  happ>ene<l  c.  18  a. o.,  as  Valerius  Gratus  probably 
appointed  Ifilimael,  the  first  of  the  four  high  priests, 
immediately  aft-er  his  own  inauguration,  and  as  the 
next  two  remained  in  office  only  about  one  year, 
Caiaphas  held  his  office  until  c.  36  a,d.,  when  he 
was  removed  by  Vitt'llius,  the  legate  of  Syria. 
His  administration,  therefore,  histetl  about  eighteen 
years — a  long  term  when  compared  with  timt  of 
most  other  high  priests  of  the  Roman  period. 
For  this  he  was  probably  indebted  less  to  his  ability 
than  to  hia  submissiveneRs  to  the  an ti- Jewish 
policy  of  the  Roman  govenunent.  Probably  he 
belonged  to  the  party  of  tiie  Sailducees  and  sliared 
their  fondness  for  foreign  ideas,  as  did  his  father-in- 
law  Annas  (Acts  iv,  1,  6;  v,  17)  and  the  latter's 
son  Annas  the  Younger  (Josephus,  Ant,  XX,  ix.  1). 
See    Annas.  F.  Sieffert. 

IIiblioghapht:  A.  Eder»h<?tm,  Life  and  Times  of  Jetu*  the 
MeMiah,  ii.  &47.  l^ndon,  1885;  D.  F.  Straiisa.  Lebitn 
Jetu.  iv.  30  »qq.,  Uonn,  ISOij;  S<;hflr«3r,  Geschickte,  ii. 
204.  218.  Enif.  tmiisl,  IL  i.  182.  199;  DB,  i.  338;  BB,  i, 
171-172;  JE,  ii.  493;  and,  in  senerat,  comiii«nUuiea  oa 
the  Gospels. 

CAILLIN,  SAINT,  OF  FENAGH:  Irish  saint  of 
the  "  second  order  *'  who  fluurished  about  560. 
His  allegetl  liistorj-  is  a  tjqiieal  one  among  the 
stories  of  the  Irish  '*  saints/'  and  is  also  note- 
worthy for  the  light  it  throws  on  the  conditions 
of  the  time  and  the  progress  of  Christianity 
in  pagan  Ireland.  Caillin's  kinsmen  of  Dunmore 
(County  Galway)  hud  determined  to  slay  a  part 
of  their  number,  the  land  having  become  over- 
populated;  but,  on  the  advice  of  the  saint,  who 
had   receive(i  Christian  education  in   Rome,  they 

*  The  t*rm  Ca>i9&ropapism  ia  eomewhat  opprobriouB  in  its 
implication'^;  but  if  it  is  to  be  kept  in  uro  tit  all  it  10  uppli- 
cablc  to  all  monarchical  Kovcrnmonts  id  which  union  of 
Church  and  Btate,  with  civil  controt  prevaiLs.  In  a  limited 
moimi^ehy  hke  Gn^at  Britain  it  U  not  oa  miioh  the  king  aa 
the  cabinet,  representing  a  EOaJohty  of  the  rvpreae&tativea 
of  the*  people,  that  exerci^A  authority  in  ntlicioun  nmttara. 
Where  imperial  authority  i»  1ea«  Limited,  ae  in  Germany,  eo- 
el(!<(iadtica1  cootrnl  by  the  (Sovereign  or  bia  represent  alive  !• 
more  compk^te.  Where  imperial  authority  ia  absolute.  a«  in 
Rufft^ia  until  rewntly,  the  lenn  CoBearopapimn  ii»  applieabto 
without  quoli^catioQ.  A.  U.  14. 


Gain 
CaiuB 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


386 


desisted,  and  Caillin  undertook  to  find  more  land. 
In  the  course  of  the  search  he  came  to  Fenagh 
(County  Leitrim,  3  m.  s.w.  of  Ballinamore),  where 
he  converted  the  king's  son,  Hugh,  and  a  band  of 
warriors  sent  to  drive  liim  away.  The  prince  then 
gave  the  saint  his  fortress  and  the  latter  built  a 
church  there.  When  the  druids  came,  at  the  king's 
behest,  to  expel  Caillin,  he  restrained  his  Christian 
followers  from  attacking  them,  and  turned  them 
into  stones.  Hugh  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  his 
father's  death;  he  was  known  as  "  the  Dark " 
from  his  personal  appearance,  but  Caillin  made  him 
of  fair  complexion.  Notwithstanding  his  love  of 
peace,  Caillin  is  said  to  have  given  the  tribe  a 
cathach  or  standard,  a  mighty  talisman  in  battle. 

Biblxoorapht:  The  Book  of  Fenagh,  ed.  D.  H.  Kelly  and 
W.  M.  Ilenneasy,  Dublin.  1876;  T.  Olden,  The  Church 
of  Ireland,  pp.  65-<J7,  London,  1892. 

CAm,  KENITES:  The  Hebrew  word  Kayin 
occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  name  of  a  stock 
of  nomads,  associated  with  Midian,  Amalek,  and 
Israel,  mentioned  in  Judges  iv.  1 1  and  Num.  xxiv. 
22,  probably  also  to  be  read  in  I  Sam.  xv.  6b.  More 
often  the  form  Kent,  **  Kenite,"  is  met  (Gen.  xv. 
19;  Num.  xxiv.  21;  Judges  iv.  11,  17,  etc.).  In 
the  time  of  Moses  this  stock  seems  to  have  been 
dependent  on  the  Midianites,  since  Hobab,  Moses's 
father-in-law,  appears  (Judges  i.  16)  as  the  head 
of  a  Kenite  family,  and  in  Num.  x.  29  is  designated 

as  a  Midianite,  as  is  Jethro  in  Ex. 

The        iii.  1  and  Reuel  in  Ex.  ii.  16.     Mid- 

Kenites.     ianites  is  most  likely  the  larger  term 

and  includes  the  Kenites  as  one  of  the 
branches.  The  Kenites  attached  themselves  to 
the  Israelites  during  the  wandering;  at  the  time 
of  Barak  and  Deborah  the  Kenite  Heber  was  near 
the  plain  of  Jezreel,  detached  from  the  rest  of  his 
tribe  (Judges  iv.  11).  In  Saul's  time  the  Kenites 
were  associated  with  the  Amalckites.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  in  I  Chron.  ii.  55  the  Kenites  are 
brought  into  connection  with  the  Rechabites,  who 
retained  primitive  customs,  suggesting  their  ad- 
herence to  a  nomadic  form  of  life  and  to  the  primi- 
tive Yahweh-religion  of  the  desert  (Jer.  xxxv.). 

This  stock  of  Cain  was  apparently  intended  to  be 
brought  into  connection  with  the  patriarchs  of  the 
race  (Gen.  iv.  1-16);  the  conclusion  of  Wellhausen, 
Budde,  and  Stade,  however,  is  that  originally  the 
story  of  Cain  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  Kenites 
for  the  following  reasons:  Gen.  iv.  7  sqq.  deals 
with  the  world  at  large  (verses  17,  20-22);  Gen.  iv. 
1-16  with  the  land  of  Israel  and  neighboring  deserts. 
The  Adhamah,  "  ground,"  of  Gen.  iv.  14  can  be 
only  the  land  inhabited  by  Israel  from  which  Cain 

was    banished.     Gen.    iv.    20    makes 

Their       Jabal  the  ancestor  of  nomads,  wliile 

Relation     Cain's    nomadic     condition     resulted 

to  Cain,     from  his  sin  (iv.   14-16).     Abel,  too, 

was  a  shepherd  of  small  cattle  who 
dwelt  in  Yahweh's  land.  The  story  of  Cain  in  this 
passage  can  not  be  understood  to  deal  with  the 
earliest  ages  of  mankind  because  of  the  advanced 
civilization  it  implies.  Its  region  is  the  southern 
part  of  Palestine;  it  explained  the  separation  of  a 
people  whose  God  was  the  same  as  Israel's  by  the 
conmiission  of  murder  which  is  named  fratricide 


because  of  the  close  connection  of  Kenites  and 
Hebrews.  The  mark  for  Cain,  worn  on  the  fore- 
head, must  have  denoted  adherence  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Yahweh  (cf.  Ex.  xiii.  9,  16;  Isa.  xliv.  6; 
I  Kings  XX.  38,  41),  and  implied  the  same  limits  in 
exacting  blood-revenge  as  were  obligatory  on  the 
Israelites. 

The  word  Kayin  also  occurs  as  the  name  of  an 
ancestor  of  a  part  of  mankind.  The  name  stands 
in  J  at  the  head  of  the  so-called  Cainitc  table,  (jen. 
iv.  17.  In  its  present  form  this  includes  seven 
generations,  and  in  the  seventh  four  branches  i^ 
pear — Jabal  and  Jubal,  sons  of  Lamech  by  Adah, 
and  Tubal-cain  and  Naamah,  son  and  daughter  of 
Lamech  by  Zillah.  Cain  built  the  first  city  and 
named  it  after  his  son  Enoch;  Jabal  was  the  ances- 
tor of  nomads,  Jubal  of  musicians,  and  Tubal-cain 
of  artisans.  The  table  evidently  is 
Cain  in  an  account  of  suppoeed  origins  of 
Gen.  iv.  civilization,  so  is  to  be  related  to  Cko. 
ix.  20-27.  Then  Noah's  eariier  con- 
nection with  the  Cainite  table  through  Lamedi 
is  probable,  though  in  Gen.  y.  28  (P)  he  is  a  Sethite. 
That  the  narratives  are  doublets  appears  on  com- 
parison (cf.  Cain  and  Kenan,  Methusael  and  Methu- 
selah, Ired  and  Jared,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  Adam 
and  Eno8  both  mean  **  man  ").  The  Sethite  azid 
the  Cainite  tables  are  both  traced  to  a  sin^e  original, 
and  the  Cainite  line  of  J  is  believed  to  have  been 
originally  a  Sethite  line,  while  Gen.  -  iv.  25-26 
originally  preceded  iv.  17. 

The  present  form  of  the  text  is  probably  attrib- 
utable to  the  editor  of  the  work  of  J  who  inserted 
the  flood  story.  He  borrowed  the  material  from 
an  old  Sethite  table,  and  setting  Cain  at  the  head 
formed  a  Cainite  table  and  inserted  the  Cain-story 
(Gen.  iv.  1-16)  and  the  sword-song  of  Lamech. 
He  thus  brought  into  juxtaposition  the  kilUng  by 
Lamech  and  that  by  Cain,  completed  the  identi- 
fication of  Cain  [father  of  the  Kenites  and  Cain 
brother  of  Abel]  through  Cain,  foimder  of  the  dty. 
Thus  he  secured  a  contrast  between  the  godless 
Cainites  and  the  pious  Sethites  on  which  was 
founded  the  ecclesiastical  tradition  that  alienation 
from  God  was  in  the  Cainite  blood,  while  in  the 
Sethite  piety  was  instinctive. 

Of  the  other  names  in  the  table  little  need  be 
said.  In  II  Sam.  xxi.  16  Kayin  means  "  a  spear," 
in  Arabic  and  Sjrriac  "  a  smith,"  and  possibly 
(Gen.  iv.  1)  is  to  be  connected  with  the  word  to 
''  make."  Enoch  {Hanokh)  is  the  name  of  a 
Reubenite  (Gen.  xlvi.  9)  and  a  Midianite  (Gen.  xxv. 
4)  stock  (cf.  the  Annakus  who  was  king  of  Phiygia, 
mentioned  by  Stephen  of  Byzantiimi).  With 
Jubal  should  be  connected  the  Hebrew  for  "ram's 
horn  "  (Joshua  vi.  5).  Tubal  is  the  Tibareni  of 
Asia  Minor  (Gen.  x.  2),  while  the  addition  of  Cain, 
"  smith,"  goes  well  with  their  reputation  for  metal- 
work.  A  goddess  Adah  was  worshiped  by  Baby- 
lonians, and  one  named  Naamah  by  the  Phenidana. 

(H.  GUTHE.) 

Biblioora-pht:  The  subject  is  trmted  more  or  lum  ad»- 
quately  in  the  commentaries  on  Genesis,  best  in  A.  Dp* 
mann's.  Eklinburgh,  1897,  and  in  H.  Gunkel's,  Odttis- 
gen,  1902.  Consult  further:  I.  Goldsiber.  Der  AfyA« 
bei  den  Hebr&em,  Leipsic,  1876,  Eng.  trans].,  London. 
1877;  K.  Budde.  Bii>U9ch€  Urg€§ehidUe,  pp.  1178qq..Gi» 


337 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cain 
Caius 


B,  1883;   F.  Lenormftnt,  Lf ■  OKinne*  da  Ihiatoire  d'aprrit 

BiifU^  vol.   i.,    F«rui,    L8S0.  I.ing.  tran#i1..  B^innin^n  of 

futory,    London,    1883;  J.    WellliauK'ii.  Di«  K&mpotiit&n 

iM^xattuch*,  pp.  10  iiqq.,  305,  Berlin,  L8JS0;  B.  E.  liylc, 

'flfarraliriiM  of  itefu:ais,  pp.  7S-83,   London,  ISO 2;   B. 

,in  ZATW,  xiv.  (180-1)  1^50   sqq.;   ED.   i.   622HJ2.S 

4411-17;   DB.  i,  338-330.     On  the  later  Jewish  myth- 

ey,  J.  A.  Eisenmcticer,  EntftevkUti   Jw/entHum,  L  4ti2, 

ri.  832.  836,  Frankfort,  1700. 

According  to  Irena*us  {HcsT.t  i.  31), 
of  the  Ophites  (q.v.)  who  worahii>ed  Cain  as 
instrument  of  the  Gnostic  Sophia,  treated  with 
itility  by  the  demiurge.  They  saw  in  Juda^s  t!ie 
one  who  best  of  all  knew  the  truth,  eel ebra toil  liii* 
treason  as  a  mystery,  and  hwd  a  *'  Go^rpel  of  Judas," 
The  notices  of  Pseudo-TertulIiEm  {Htrr.,  vii.). 
jPhilastrius  (Htrr.,  ii.),  and  Epiphaniua  (f/«rr., 
xxxviii.)  accord  with  these  statements.  Cain  was 
generated  of  higher  power  than  Abel,  and  Judas  was 
the  benefactor  of  the  humsm  race,  either  because 
by  his  treiiHon  ho  fniHtrate<l  Christ's  intention  to 
destroy  truth  (Philastrius),  or  because  he  compel  led 
the  archons  to  kill  Christ,  and  so  assisted  in  obtain- 
ing the  salvation  of  the  cross  (Epiphaniujs).  When 
TertuUian  {Pr<TKcnpti4f  hcpreiicorum,  xxxiii.;  cf.  De 
bapti^ffw.i.)  mentions  '*  Gaiana  he  re-sis"  he  prob- 
ably refers  to  the  Cainites*  Cf.  also  Clement, 
iSlrom,,  vi.  108;  Theodoret,  i/or.,  h  15;  Hippolytus, 
Phil.,  \'iii.  20.  For  Cainitea,  descendatitB  of  Cain, 
Bee  Cain.  Kenites.  G.  KfttJoER. 

BuiUOciR^pnY.  Neander.  CkruHan  Church,  i.  448,  476,  640; 
^Ammck,  Littcrtttur,   tl.   i,  538  »qq.;    aoe  Uterature  uiider 
I       GjfoefTtrtBM;  Oi*hiteb. 

BCAIRD,  JOHN:  Church  of  Scotland:  b,  at  Green- 
HHc  (2-3  m.  w.ii.w.  of  Glasgow),  Renfrewshire, 
Vec,  15,  1820;  d.  there  July  30,  1898.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow  (1837- 
1838,  IS4<>45;  M.A.,  1845),  interrupting  hi«  studies 
in  1838-39  while  engaged  in  hia  father's  engineering 
WoHcB.  After  the  completion  of  his  education  he 
was  minister  witceciwively  at  Newton-t»n-Ayr  (1845- 
lg47),  Lady  Yeeter's,  Edinburgh  (1847-49),  Errot, 
Ptertbahire'c  1849-57),  and  the  Park  Church,  Glas- 
gow (1857-62).  In  18G2  he  wm^  appointed  profes- 
sor of  theology  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  where 
be  became  principal  and  \ice-chanccllor  in  !S73, 
retaimng  both  poaltiona  until  his  death,  although  he 
ttDnotmoed  his  intention  of  resigning  early  in  1898* 
He  was  Croall  Lecturer  at  Edinburgh  in  1878-79 
and  Gi£Ford  Lecturer  at  Glasgow  in  1890-91  and 
1896»  though  a  stroke  of  paralysis  forced  him  to 
dMOontinue  this  second  course.  He  wrote:  Ser- 
mcn»  (Edinburgh,  1858);  Introduction  to  the  Phi- 
ioaaphy  of  Religion  (Croall  lectures  for  1878-79; 
Glasgow,  1880);  Spinom  (Edinburgh,  ia86);  and 
the  poBthumous  Univermty  Addresses  (Glasgow, 
1898);  University  Sermom  (180S);  and  The  Fun- 
damental  Ideas  of  Christianity  (Gilford  lerturtjs;  2 
vols.,  1899;  ed.,  with  a  memoir  of  the  author,  by 
R  Caird). 

BtBUOoitAFEm  E.  Coird.  memoir  pre&xed  to  hiA  edition 
of  Th€  Fundamental  Idea*  nf  Christianitif,  2  vota.,  Glik*- 
BOV,  1899;   DSB,  Mupplemont,  i.  368-36Q. 

CAIRNS,  JOHN:  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
Scotland;  b.  at  Ayton  Hill  (7  m.  n.w.  of  Derwick- 
on-Tweed)  Aug.  23.  1818;  d.  in  Edinburgh  Mar. 
12,  1892.  After  being  the  wonder  of  his  first  sehwil, 
he  became  the  wonder  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
U.— 22 


burgh,  where  he  atudicd  arts  ( 1834-40),  and  of 
Secession  Hall,  whcrt  he  .studied  theology  ( 1840-13), 
In  1843-44  he  studied  and  traveled  on  the  Continent 
and  received  impressions  and  made  acquaintancsea, 
especially  in  Gonnany,  which  affected  hia  Efe. 
From  1845  till  LS7G  he  was  miruster  of  the  Golden 
Square  United  PreBbjlerian  Churcht  PiCrwick-on- 
Tweed,  In  frame  he  was  massive,  and  he  had  appar- 
ently great  powers  of  ondiiranc*',  but  he  toiled  too 
much,  responded  to  ttio  many  calks  in  everjulirection, 
and  on  all  sorts  of  errauds,  and  so  in  1855  broke 
down  and  after  tliat  was  frequently  laid  aside* 
He  early  beciime  one  of  the  leaders  of  his  denom- 
ination, and  developed  into  one  of  the  foremost 
Scotclnnen.  He  wiw  from  1867  to  1876  professor 
of  apologetics  in  tht^  theological  hall  of  his  denomi- 
nation in  Edinburgh;  in  1872  moderator  of  hs  gen- 
eral as.senibly.  In  1876  he  gave  up  his  paatoral 
charge,  and  mo\nng  to  Eciinburgh  received  the  joint 
professorship  (with  the  principal)  of  systematic 
theology  and  apologetics — the  terms  of  wliich  had 
been  lengthened  from  seven  weeks  to  five  months. 
In  1879  he  succeeded  to  the  principalship.  In  1880 
he  visitetl  America  and  was  a  prominent  character 
in  the  second  council  of  the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed 
Cliurche.s  held  in  Philadelp!iia.  He  died  of  heart 
disease  after  a  brief  illness.     He  never  married. 

His  best  work  wsis  done  upon  the  platform  and 
in  the  pulpit.  The  great  respect  felt  for  him  there 
and  as  a  man  of  affairs  and  counsel  withheld  criti- 
cism of  him  aa  an  educator,  for  aa  such  he  was 
less  successful.  He  had  considerable  learning  and 
remarkable  gifts,  especially  in  the  way  of  language, 
and  he  acquired  foreign  languages  readily,  even 
such  tongues  as  Assyrian  and  Arabic  when  in 
middle  life.  He  was  signing  from  the  common 
people^  undersood  how  to  address  them,  and  was 
reverenced  by  them.  His  nature  was  genial,  free 
frcim  affectation  and  hauteur,  and  he  was  untiring 
in  the  service  of  others.  He  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  Ilia  own  generation  by  his  broad-mindedness, 
moral  courage,  and  fervent  eloquence. 

The  topics  upon  which  he  spoke  with  convincing 
power,  springing  from  deep  conviction,  were  the 
freedom  of  the  C^hurch  from  the  State;  home  and 
foreign  missions;  temperance,  and  (after  1874)  in 
advocacy  of  total  abstinence;  modification  of  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  by  a  declaratory  statement 
(adopted  1879);  union  of  the  United  Presbyterian, 
the  Free  Church,  and  the  Church  of  Scotland  (real- 
i3M:!<l  as  far  as  the  first  two  arc  concerned  in  1900); 
and  the  disestablisliment  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

His  literary  work  was  small  in  amount.  He 
published  Jisidc  from  pamphlets  a  memoir  of  Rev. 
John  Brown,  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
father  of  the  author  of  Rab  and  his  Friends  (Edin- 
burgh, 18450);  Unbelief  in  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
Cunningham  lectures  for  1881;  and  after  his  death 
came  a  volume  of  his  sermons,  Chrisi  the  Morning 
Star,  and  Other  Scrmans  (London,  1882). 

Dibliografry:  A.  R,  M»o»wen.  Life  and  Letltrt  of  John 
CairnM.  I>ondoa,  180«*;  Principal  Caim*^  in  tlie  Famous 
Scots  Strits,  Edinbursh,  1903, 

CAIUS,  k^-'us:  Tlie  name  of  several  characters 
in  Roman  liistory,  of  whom  only  two  need  be  in- 
cluded here. 


Oaius 
Oalamy 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


888 


1,  Roman  author  early  in  the  tlArd  century, 
mentioDGd  by  Hippolytim,  DIonyalus  of  Alcxan^ 
dria,  and  Eufiebiua.  Wbat  Theodorct  and  Je^ 
rome  tell  of  him  rests  on  Eusebius;  Photiu^'M 
account  is  wortbleaa,  aa  the  tradition  from  which 
he  derived  it  confused  Hippolytus  and  Caius. 
It  ia  doubtful  whether  he  wa^  a  Roman  prc^^byter, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  title  of  **  bishop  of  the  na- 
tions "  given  him  by  Photiue  from  tradition.  In 
the  Library  at  Jerusalem  EuiK^biua  found  a  work 
of  his,  the  **  Dialogue  with  Proelua  "  (the  head  of 
the  Roman  Montamsts);  but  this  is  the  only  one 
known.  From  the  quotatiotui  of  Eusebiu^  it  ap- 
pears tliat  Caiua  rebuked  the  audacity  of  the  Mon- 
taniflts  in  manufacturing  new  Bcripturee^  that  he 
rejected  millenarianism  and  with  it  the  Apocalypse, 
and  that  he  recognized  only  thirteen  epktles  of 
Paul-  Ebed  Jesu  (in  Assemani,  BiM.  Orient. t  HI. 
i.,  p.  15)  says  that  Hippolytua  wrote  some  Capita 
adver«u«  Caium  ;  and  this  statement  is  now  eon^ 
firmed  by  the  discovery  of  John  Gwynn,  who  found 
in  the  British  Muaeum  and  published  five  frag- 
ments of  these  very  CapUa  (HenmUhena,  vi.,  Dublin, 
1888).  From  the  statements  of  Caius  here  attacked 
It  is  clear  that  he  spoke  (Strongly  againut  the 
eon  tents  of  the  Apocalypse  (presumably  in  the 
'^  Dialogue  ")t  and  considered  it  as  unworthy  of 
credence  and  conflicting  with  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
Thus  from  one  of  Euaebius^s  references  (HisL  ecd., 
III.  XKviii,  1-2)  the  conclusion  is  almost  certainly 
justified  that  Caius  held  the  Apocalypse  to  be 
the  work  of  Corinth  us.  Sinc^  this  view  is  also  that 
of  the  Alogians  of  Asia  Minor ,  and  since  the  method 
of  his  polemic  against  the  book  strikingly  suggests 
theirs,  a  connection  between  them  is  a  plaUHiblo 
hypothesis*  (A.  Harn^ack,) 

BmucionAPHT:  A,  It&maek^  Die  Qwynn'tchen  CajuM  vnd 
Hippolytu^jToomefiU,  in  TU,  vi  3  (1891),  121- 128^  ideni, 
Litt^fttvr.  i,  ftOl  *KI1;  Kriliter,  HinUfry,  pp.  320-321  tgivca 
further  literature);  DUB,  L  3S4-380;  NPNF,  I  129.  IftO, 

3.  Pope  2S3-2&Q.  These  dates,  Dec.  17  for  his 
election  and  Apr.  22  for  his  death,  are  given  in  the 
Catalofftts  LiberiaTiun ;  Euscbius  (HisL  err/.,  VII. 
xxxii.  1)  ascribes  to  him  a  pontificjite  of  about 
fifteen  years.  In  any  eaae,  his  nile  falls  in  the 
peaceful  period  before  the  outbreak  of  the  perse- 
cution of  Diocletian,  and  for  tliis  reason,  if  for  no 
other,  the  tradition  that  he  died  a  martyr  js  in- 
credible* \ceording  to  the  Depo^itio  episcoporuTn 
ho  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Calixtus. 

(A.  Hauck,) 

CAJETAH,  cQ'j^ti^  or  ca j'e-tan .  THOMAS :  Italian 
cardinal;  b.  at  Gaeta  Feb.  20,  1469;  d.  at  Rome 
Aug,  0,  1534.  His  real  name  wjis  Jacopo  Vio,  he 
took  the  monastic  name  Thomas,  an<l  his  #<umame 
is  from  hia  birthplace.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  en- 
tered the  Dominican  orttcr,  antf*  devotitig  himself 
to  studies  in  the  Thomiat  pldlosophy*  became, 
before  he  was  thirty ,  one  of  its  no  led  teachers; 
he  was  made  general  procurator  in  1 507  and  general 
a  year  later.  Faithful  to  the  traiiitions  of  the 
DominicanSp  he  appears  in  1511  as  a  supporter  of 
the  pope  against  tlie  claims  of  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
composing  in  defense  of  his  possition  the  Trart^tus 
de  CamparaHons  auctoriiaiia  FapetE  H  &mciii&rum 


ad  invicem.  At  the  Fifth  Lateran  Counci]  (1512-17) 
which  Julius  Ih  set  up  in  opposition  to  that  of 
Ptsa,  Cajetan  played  the  leading  rdle;  and  it^traa  be 
who  during  the  second  session  of  the  council  bfougjlit 
about  the  decree  recognizing  the  inf ainbility  of  il^ 
pope  and  the  superiority  of  his  authority  to  tbt 
of  the  council.  For  his  services  Leo  X.  made  liim 
in  1517  cardinal  pn^byter  of  Saint  Sisto,Eonie,iuui 
bestowed  on  him  in  the  following  year  the  bishapKe 
of  Palermo.  This  he  resigned  in  1519  to  take  the 
bishopric  of  Gaeta  granted  him  by  the  emperor 
ChaHes  V*,  for  whose  election  Cajetan  had  labortd 
sealously.  In  1518  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  and  to  him,  at  the  wish  of  the 
Saxon  elector^  was  entrusted  the  task  of  exsminioi 
and  testing  the  teachings  of  Luther.  Trettii^ 
of  his  own,  written,  without  knowledge  of  Lutber'i 
theses*  in  1517  show  that  Luther  was  justified  m 
his  assertion  that  on  the  doctrine  of  di^n&stioit 
the  Church  had  as  yet  arrived  at  no  finnly  e^tsh- 
Lishcd  position;  the  doctrine  of  confession  CajHia 
seemed  also  to  regard  as  a  subject  op^i  to  octatn^ 
veray.  Yet  more  than  investigator  and  thlak^r 
he  was  politician  and  prelate ^  and  hk  MppeamK 
at  Augsburg  in  all  the  splendor  of  ecdedutol 
pomp  only  served  to  reveal  liim  to  Luther  ss  tb 
type  of  Homan  curialist^  hateful  to  Gertnani  mi 
German  Christianity.  Cajetan  was  active  ia  fur^ 
thering  the  election  of  Adrian  VL,  retained  iaflur 
ence  under  Clement  VIL^  suffered  a  short  terat 
of  imprisonment  &fter  the  storming  of  Rome  by 
the  Constable  of  Bourbon  and  by  Frundsbetig 
(1527),  retired  to  fiis  bishopric  for  a  few  yeais,  sad, 
returning  to  Home  in  1530|  assumed  his  old  posi^ 
tion  of  influence  about  the  person  of  Oameat  in 
whose  l>chalf  he  wrote  the  decision  rejectiai  tht 
appeal  for  divorce  from  Catharine  of  Aiagon  made 
by  Henry  VIIL  of  England  (Mareh  23,  IbU;  prints 
in  Rec^ds  of  the  Refarrtrnticn,  ed*  N.  Power.  Ox- 
ford, 2  vols.,  1870,  ii,  532-533).  Of  the  Refof^ 
nmtion  he  remained  a  steadfast  opponent,  eocn- 
posing  several  works  directed  against  Liitber, 
and  taking  an  important  share  in  shaping  tk 
policy  of  the  papal  delegates  in  German j.' 
Learned  though  he  was  in  the  scholastics,  hei^cof- 
nized  that  to  fight  the  Reformers  with  some  chaaor 
of  success  a  deeper  knowledge  of  the  Scriptura 
than  he  jyossessed  was  necessaiy.  To  this  stud,? 
he  devoted  liiniself  with  characteristic  lesl,  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  acii 
the  New  Testament,  and,  in  the  expodtion  of  bs 
text,  which  he  treated  critically,  allowed  himself 
considerable  latitude  in  departing  from  the  litffJ 
and  trmlilional  interpretation.  In  the  veiy  fidd 
of  Tliomist  philosophy  he  showed  striking  iad^ 
pcndence  of  judgment,  expressing  liberal  Tiett 
on  marrirvgie  and  divorce,  denjring  the  existence  of 
a  material  hell  and  advocating  the  eelebmtioa  of 
public  prayers  in  the  vernacular.  The  Sorhonii 
found  some  of  th^sc  views  heterodox,  and  in  the 


P  Cajetan  bore  wftneH  to  Luther's  ability  wbeti  be  ei" 
claimed.  "  KiEO  nola  ampUiu  cum  liac  beatia  eciLtcKiui:  bibet 
rnim  profundoA  ocuIqh  f<t  mirabilew  RpcHcuJationni  in  etp^ta 
»ui>."  tl  do  not  wftnt  to  hnvt!!  any  furtber  parky  wttla  ih*t 
beaati;  for  he  has  itiarp  eyes  and  wonderful  Apeoulatiocu  u 
hia  head.)] 


339 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


O&lus 


1570  edition  of  Ids  celebrated  commentary  on  the 
Summa  of  Thomaa  Aquinas  (counted  among  the 
best;  new  ed.,  Lierret  1892  aqq.)  the  objectionable 
passages  were  expunged.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  with  life  appeared  in  five  volumes  at 
LyoM,  1639.  (T.  Kolde.) 

BnuCKiBAPiiTt  Besides  the  lif©  prefixed  to  hia  works,  cod- 
iult:  R,  Simon,  Hintoire  critique)  rfw  YitHX  Teatam^nt,  p. 
319.  Rottordattj,  1678;  idem*  Hittoire  df  ifrincipaux  o)m- 

tm*»i^ieurMdu  A^  7*.,  p.  637,   lfi39;  C.    F.   JAger,  in  2HT, 
1858.  p.  431. 
CAJETAIIS.     See  Theatines, 
CALAH.    See  Assyria,  IV.,  ji  3. 

CALAMY;  The  name  of  an  English  family 
which  produced  several  dis^tinguishetl  clergj'men  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

1.  Edmund  Calamy  the  Elder:  Pre«byt.erian; 
b.  in  London  Feb.,  mm:  d.  there  Oct  29,  U5G6. 
He  was  educated  at  Pembroke  IlalU  Cambntlge; 
became  (1626)  vicar  of  St.  Marj'''s  in  Swaflham 
Prior,  Cambridgeshire;  thence  in  the  same  year 
removed  to  St.  Edmund 'h  Bury  in  Suffolk  as  lec- 
turer* where  he  remained  ten  years,  until  compelled 
to  retire  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  the  Btxtk 
of  Sports  J  thereby  identifying  himtpelf  with  the 
Puritan  party.  He  accepted  from  the  Earl  of 
Warwick  the  rectorj''of  Rochford  in  Essex,  where 
he  remaine<l  until  in  1039  lie  wa.s  chosen  pa^itor  of 
St*  Mary  Aldermanbury  Church  in  London,  where 
he  labored  imtil  1662,  He  comi>08ed  in  1041  with 
others  *'  An  Ansu*cr  to  a  Btmk  entitled.  An  Humble 
Remonstrance  in  tvhirh  the  i/rhjinol  of  LUurgy  and 
Epiitcof*acy  m  dij^cn^jted :  ami  Queri^^  proposed 
coneeming  both.  The  Parlttj  of  Bishops  &  Pres- 
byUrt  in  Scripture  demonstrated.  The  occumtm  of 
their  Imparity  in  Antiquittj  discottered.  The  Din- 
parity  of  the  Ancif^nt  d-  our  modem  Bishopn  nmni- 
fetted.  The  Antiifuity  of  Rtding  Elders  in  the  Church 
vindicoted.  T^ie  Prclatical  church  bounded,  WHl- 
ien  by  Sfnectymnuus  [i.e.,  Sitephen)  M(arshall)t 
E(dmimd)  C(alamy ),  Tf  homas)  Y(oufig),  M(atthew) 
N(ewcommen),  and  W(illiam)  S(purstow)].  Tliis 
reply  to  Joseph  IlalTs  Humble  Remontitrance  became 
the  platform  of  tlie  Pre j^byte nans,  a**  that  became 
the  platfonn  of  the  Episcopal  party,  each  side 
claizning  jure  divimK  Stn-eral  other  tractw  w^ere 
issued  in  the  controversy  pro  and  con.  Calamy 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Westminster  .Assem- 
bly of  Divine**  (U>4'1),  and  took  an  active  part  in  it>s 
■proceedings,  being  moderate  in  doctrinal  position, 
Pmiid  inclineil  to  a  union  with  both  Independents 
and  Epiacopaliim«  in  some  comprehensive  polity. 
He  also  became  one  of  the  most  energetic  mem- 
bens  of  the  Provincial  Assembly  of  London;  totik 
part  in  the  composition  of  the  Vindieation  of  the 
Presbyterian  Gm^ernmenf,  and  Ministry^  1649;  waa 
the  author  of  the  Juj*  Dlvinum  Ministerii  Evon* 
2$l%eij  16.>4,  both  adopts!  by  that  body.  He  had 
opposed  the  execution  of  Charles  L  and  was  active 
in  restoring  Charles  11.  {jo  tJie  kingdom  in  1659; 
was  one  of  the  divines  went  to  Holland  Uy  treat 
with  him.  At  the  Restoration  in  166t>  he  was 
made  one  of  the  king's  chaplains,  and  offered  tne 
bishopric  of  Coventry  and  Lichffeld,  which,  fiow- 
ever,  he  declined.  With  Baxter,  Reynolds,  and 
otbeiBf  he  gave  his  energies  for  a  comprehension 


of  Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians  through  a 
revision  of  the  Liturgy,  and  a  reduction  of  Episco- 
pacy  on  Archbishop  Unsher's  model  He  took 
part  in  drawing  up  tlie  Exceptions  against  the  Lit- 
urgy, and  reply  to  the  Reasons  of  the  Episcopal 
clergy.  He  wa-s  a  great  preacher,  frequently  de- 
livering sermons  before  Parliament  atid  the  lord 
mayors  on  public  occasions;  and  his  lectures  were 
frequented  by  the  best  people  of  London.  A 
number  of  these  have  been  published.  His  most 
popular  work  is  Ttie  Godly  Man's  Ark  (London, 
1657;  18th  ed.,  1709;  reprinted,  1865).  He  wa,H 
the  compiler  of  The  Souldier*s  Pocket  Bi"6/e,  issue*! 
for  the  u*«e  of  the  C^^mmon wealth  amiy  in  1643; 
reprinted  in  facsimile  1S95.  He  waa  a  practical 
man  of  affairs,  rather  than  a  scholar  and  writer. 
He  wai4  ejected  for  non-conformity  in  1662,  iinil 
imprisoned  in  Newgate  for  a  short  time  for  having 
preached  after  his  ejection.  But  the  king  inter- 
posed* on  account  of  great  public  indignation,  and 
he  was  released.  C.  A.  Briggs. 

Bimliography:  The  DNB.   viii,   227  230,  containi  «n  «a- 
iiKlJent  m^coimt  ot  hh  life,  ftiid  addii  detojln  of  refflreac«« 

iu  literaturie. 

2.  Edmund  Calflmy  the  Younger:  Non-con- 
forming  minister,  eldest  son  of  Edmund  Calamy 
the  elder;  b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  about  163*5; 
d.  at  Totteridge,  near  Bamet,  May,  ll>85.  He 
studied  at  Sidney  Sussex  College  and  Pembroke 
Hidl,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1654;  M.A.,  1658);  was 
made  rector  of  Moreton,  Essex,  1658;  ejected  on 
the  pa.ssage  of  the  Uniformity  Act  (1662),  and 
thencelorth  lived  a  retired  hfe  in  London,  preach- 
ing occasionally  in  private  or  to  friends. 

Biduooeapiit:  Bio^p•aphta  BHiannim,  ed.   A,   Kippis,   iii. 

136,  London.  1784;  DATJB,  viii.  230-231. 

3.  Benjamin  Calamy:  Chureh  of  England^  sec- 
ond son  of  Edmund  Calamy  the  elder;  b.  in  I>ondon 
on  or  before  June  8,  1642;  d.  there  Jim.,  1686 
(buried  Jan,  7).  He  studied  at  Catherine  Hall, 
Cambridge  (B.A.,  1664;  M.A.,  1668;  D.D.,  1686); 
became  curate  of  St.  Mary  Alderman burj',  London, 
1677,  from  which  liis  father  waa  ejected  fifteen  years 
earlier;  king's  chaplain  1680;  vicar  of  St.  Law- 
rence Jewry,  with  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  Milk  Stn^et^ 
annexed,  1683;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  1685. 
Urdike  his  father  and  elder  brother,  be  waa  a  High- 
churchman;  he  lived  on  very  friendly  terms, 
however,  with  his  non-conformist  brotner  And 
t>efriendetl  the  latter's  son.  He  published  many 
sennon®  which  are  commended  for  beauty  of  lan- 
guage and  excellent  sentiments.  His  Discourse 
ab&ut  a  Doubting  (in  the  second  edition,  Scrupuious) 
Conscience  (16S3)  made  a  great  sensation,  it  wa« 
directed  against  dissenters  and  called  forth  a  reply 
from  Thoma.s  de  Laune,  a  Baptist  schixJmiister 
(A  Plea  for  the  N on-Con formijilii^  1684).  His 
brother  James  Calamy  edited  a  volume  of  his 
sermons,  containing  also  his  funeral  sermon  by 
Dean  Sherlock  (London,  1690;  several  subsequent 
editions). 

BmuooiUPinr:    BinQraphia  Britanniea,  ed.   A  Eippis.  iii. 

137.  London,  1784;  DNB,  viii.  226-227. 

4.  Edmund  Calamy:  The  historian  of  non-con- 
formity,   son    of    Edmund   Calaniy    the    younger; 


CalaB 
Oalab 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HEKZOG 


340 


b,  in  London  Apr  5,  1671  j  d,  thepe  June  3,  1732, 
He  studied  at  several  schools  kept  by  ejected 
ministers  in  England,  and  at  the  Umvemity 
of  Utrecht,  16SS-S9;  then  spent  nine  montha  at 
Oxford;  became  a&^istant  to  Matthew  Sylvester 
ftt  Biackfriam,  London ,  1692  j  wa^  ordained  1694^ 
in  1703  settled  aa  pastor  of  a  church  in  Westminster, 
London,  He  was  a  man  of  winning  manners  and 
mucli  tact,  and  succeeded  in  aceompli^iiing  his 
purposes  without  making  enemies.  His  publica- 
tions were  numerous,  for  the  most  part  sermons; 
those  which  have  permanent  value  are  tiia  hist^^r- 
ical  works  on  English  non-conformity.  He  edited 
Baxter's  Narraiive  (Reli^^uic^  Baxi^riunw}  and 
supplied  an  index  and  table  of  contents  (1696); 
mx  years  later  he  publiished  an  abridgment  of  the 
same  work,  adding  a  history  of  ministers  ejected 
for  non-conformity  down  to  the  close  of  Baxter's 
life  in  169L  Tho  pubUcation  provoked  much 
criticism,  to  which  Calamy  replied  in  a  second 
edition  (2  vols.,  1713)  bringing  the  history  down 
to  1711;  and  in  1727  he  pubHshed  a  continuation 
of  the  work  in  two  volumes.  Calamy's  four  vol- 
umes were  condensed  into  two  by  Samuel  Palmer, 
with  the  title  The  A* on-Con f&rmist*s  Memoriai 
(1775),  and  a  three-volume  edition  was  issued  in 
1803.  He  left  an  aufcnbiography^  An  HUtorical 
Account  of  my  Ottm  Life,  wUh  sonie  TefUdions  on 
the  timea  I  have  lived  in,  edited  by  John  To  will  Rutt 
<2  vols.,  Lcintlon,  1829),  Calamy  waa  well  quali- 
fied by  his  moderation  and  catholicity  to  bo  the 
fair-minded  historian  of  non-4x>nformity. 
Bibuookaprt:  Bcfidois      tUo     autobiography     mentioiiofl 

above..  ooiLtult:  Bi^fraphia   Brikktiknita^  ed.  A,  Kippii,  iij. 

140,  tondda,  17S4;  DNB^  vm.  221-235  (quite  iu  detail). 

CALAS,  ca"la',  JEATf.     See  Rabaut,  Paul. 

CALASAISZE,  J0S£     See  Piaristb. 

CAUITRAVA,  ORDER  OF:  A  knightly  order, 
founded  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century; 
to  defend  the  frontiers  of  Chri.^tian  Spain  against 
the  Moors,  The  fortress  of  Calatrava  (on  the 
Guadiana,  65  m.  s,e.  of  Toledo),  on  the  borders  of 
Andalusia,  commanded  the  paaaea  into  Castile 
and  was  hotly  contested.  Aiter  being  bravely 
held  for  several  yearw  by  a  company  of  monks  and 
knights  under  the  lemi  of  a  CiKtereian  monk  and 
former  soldier,  Velasquez,  and  the  abbot  Raymond 
of  Fitero,  it  was  presented  to  the  band  by  Sancho 
II r.  J  king  of  Castile,  in  1158.  The  general  chapter 
of  the  Cistercians  gave  the  onier  a  rule  under  the 
overaight  of  the  monastery  of  Morimimdj  and 
prescribed  a^  dress  a  white  scapulary  (or  white 
cloak)  with  a  garland  of  reti  lilies.  The  rule  was 
confirmed  by  Pope  Alexander  ML  in  llfrt.  The 
knighta  of  the  order  captured  Cordova  in  1 177  and 
performed  other  noteworthy  deecis  of  arms.  After 
1195  a  long  period  of  decline  be^n.  Calatniva 
wai  lost  and  the  seat  of  the  onlcr  was  trnnsferred 
to  Salvatierra  (Monn  Saiuiijs)  in  the  Sierra  Morena* 
In  1212  Calatrava  Wii^  again  occupied,  but  was 
abandoned  for  New  Calatras-'a^  eight  miles  farther 
aouth,  in  1218,  the  Order  of  Alcantara  (q.v*)  under- 
taking the  defense  of  Calatrava.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Agea  the  grand  master  pcssesaed 
such  wealth  and  power  that  he  became  an  object 


of  suspicion  to  the  crown.  At  the  instigation  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Pope  Innocent  VIIL  ia 
1486  deprived  the  order  of  the  right  of  cboofiiog 
its  master,  and  after  1523  the  ofEoe  was  united 
with  the  erown.  Since  1S08  the  order  has  been 
merely  one  of  merit.  Nuns  of  Calatrav'a  ^ttt 
instituted  by  the  grand  maater  Gonialei  Yanes 
in  1219  at  the  time  of  the  removal  to  New  Cob- 
trava.  They  had  their  convent  at  Barrica  n«ar 
Amaya^  later  at  Burgos,  but  never  attained  to 
inaportanoe,  (O.  ZdcKLEttf.) 

BiBLio«3iiAif»Y:  Helyot,  Ordra  monattiquet,  t|.  34-^  §& 
JKici.;  W.  U.  Prcwedtt,  Hi»ioiru  of  tk€  Bmffn  of  FtrdingM 
and  Igabeila,  L  308-300,  Fhyjulelphiji.  IS73;  P.  B.Ckm^ 
KlTc}i^fiif€»ckich(€  Spanum*.  I'd.  54,  R^raubinx,  ISTt; 
Helmbiicher,  Qfd^n  und  Kongr^ffotionan,  1,  2gfr-K7; 
Currier,  Beliffimtt  Order*,  p.  21 G. 

CALDECOTT,   ALFRED:    Chureh  of  En^d; 
b.  at  Chester  Nov*  9^  1850.     He  was  educated  at 
the  Univcraity  of  London  (B-A.,  1873)  and  at  St, 
John's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1879),  and  was 
ordered  deacon  in  1880,  and  ordained  priest  two 
years   later-     He   was   cujate   of    Christ   Church, 
Staffonl,  in  1880,  fellow  of  St,  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1880-86,  and  fellow  and  dean  of  the  same 
college  in  1889-95,  in  addition  to  being  curate  of 
St.  Paurs,  Cambrid^,  in  1881-^,  vicar  of  Hom- 
ingsey,  Cambridgeshire,  in   1883-84,  and  prindpid 
of   Codrington  College^  Barbados,  and    examining 
chaplain    to  the  bishop  of    Barbados  in  1884-36. 
He  was  organising  secretary  of  the  Soeiety  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  at  Cambridge  in  1889- 
1905,  and  was  rector  of  North  cum  South  Lophaa, 
Norfolk,  in  1895-98.     Since  the  latter  year  be  has 
been  rector  of  Frating  cum  Thorington,  Essex,  and 
has  also  been  exanaining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of 
St.  Albans  sincii  1903,     He  was  examiner  In  Moral 
Science  Tripos  in  Cambridge  in  1884,  1888-^89,  and 
189S-94.  and  was  select  preacher  in  the  same  uni* 
versity  in  1S84,  1890-91,  and  1894,  while  in  1831- 
1892  he  was  junior  pro^jtor.  In  addition  to  hisdutfe 
as  reetor,  be  has  been  professor  of  moral  and  mental 
pliilosophy  in  King's  College,  London,  since  1891, 
and   examiner   in   theology   in   the   Univeraitf  of 
London  since  1902,  as  well  as  Cambridge  Extension 
Lecturer  in  1880-82  and   lSSfr-S7.     He  has  like- 
wise been  senior  secretary  of  St.  John's  Cambrid|e 
Mission  in  South  London  in  J8S3--86  and  1SJS9-^, 
vice-president  of  the  Cambridge  Ethical  Society 
in    1890-1905,    governor  of   Colchester  Grammar 
School  in  1900-05,  a  member  of  the  oommitlee  of 
the  Christian  Evidence  Soeiety  dnco  1903,  and  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  the  University  of  London 
since  1904.     In  1906  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
King*s  College,  Jjondon.     He  has  written;  En^i^ 
Colonisation    and    Empire    {London,     1891);  The 
Church  in  the  West  Indies  (1898);  and  fk  Phi- 
losophy of  Religion  in  England  and  America  (ISOl^ 

CALDERWOOD,  BAVID :    The  hiMorian  of  the 

Church  of  Scotland;  b,  probably  at  Dalkeith  (7  dl 
B.e.  of  Eiiinburgh)  1575;  d,  at  Jedburgh  (40  m. 
s.e  of  Edinburgh)  Oct,  29,  1650.  He  SEtudiecl  at 
Edinburgh,  and  in  1604  was  ordained  miniitcr  ©f 
Crailing,  near  Jedburgh.  He  was  a  determined 
opponent  of  the  eehcme  of  King  James  to  introdiice 
prelacy  into  the  Church  of  Scotland;  in  1617  b^ 


preseated  a  remonstrance  to  the  king,  and  argued 
BO  boldly  and  successfully  in  support  of  his  position 
that  he  was  imprisoned  and  ultimatttly  ordt^rtHl 
to  leave  the  country.  He  went  to  Holland  [I61[>), 
where  he  livetl  in  quiet  and  obscurity;  at  one  time 
it  was  rumored  that  he  was  dead  and  a  false  Recan- 
iaHon  Directed  to  Such  in  Scotkmd  as  Refiixe  Con- 
formity to  the  Ordinarwes  of  iiie  Church  was  pub- 
Ibshed  and  ascribed  to  him  (IjondoUp  !G22).  After 
the  death  of  James  (1625)  he  returticd  to  Scotland, 
but  did  not  obtain  a  charge  imtil  1640.  when  lie  was 
appointed  minister  at  Pencaitland,  East  Lotliian. 
Gradually  he  came  again  into  prominence  and,  with. 
David  Dickson  and  Alexander  Henderson,  was 
employed  in  drawing  up  the  "  Directory  for  Public 
Worship/'  In  1648  the  General  Assembly  voted 
him  an  annual  pension  of  £800  Soots  {£66  13s.  4d. 
sterling)  to  enable  him  to  complete  liis  great  work, 
the  history  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland.  He  diet!, 
however,  leaving  it  still  in  manuscript,  and  in 
three  forms;  the  first  and  longest  ia  now  partially 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum;  the  second, 
**  a  digest  of  the  first."  was  published  with  a  Idfe 
by  Thomas  Thomson  by  the  Wodrow  Society  in 
eight  volumes,  Edinburgh,  1842-49;  the  tliird* 
another  abridgment,  was  published  in  1678  with 
the  title  The  TriAe  IHstory  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
from  the  Beginning  of  the  Reformation  unto  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  King  James  VL  These  liistories 
have  slight  literary  merit,  but  are  invaluable  as 
0ource8,  their  material  ha\'ing  been  collected  with 
diligence  and  fidelity.  The  most  notable  of  Cal- 
derwood^s  other  publications  was  his  Altar  of 
Damascus,  or  the  pattern  of  the  English  hierarchy 
and  church  obtruded  upon  the  Church  of  Scotland 
(Ley den,  1621;  Lat.  transl.,  AUnre  Datnascenum, 
with  considerable  additions,  1623;  2d  ed,,  1708), 
which  became  later  the  great  storehouse  of  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  Presbytcrianism. 


r 


it>L,toGRAPHT:  BesidMi  the  Life,  by  T.  ThomsoTit  prefixed 
to  the  Wodfow  ed,  of  tbi«  Hi*kiry.  and  the  Preface  to  vol. 
Tiii.  of  the  aanie,  by  D.  L&iiiff,  coti^sult:  G.  Grub,  Ecrltux- 
a9iit4%l  Hittary  of  Scotland,  vab.  ii.,  iii.,  I'Minburgh,  1861; 
J.  Walker,  TheoloffU  and  TfitoloouiM  of  Scotland,  ib.  1872; 
DSB,  viii.  244-246. 


CALDERWOOD,  HEIfRY:  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at  Peebles  (21  m.  a.  of  Edin- 
burgh) May  10, 1S30;  d.  at  Edinburgh  Nov.  19,  1897. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  and  the 
theologicid  hall  there  of  the  United  Pn?sbyterian 
Church;  was  ordained  minister  of  Grcyfriars  Churcli , 
Glajsgow,  1856;  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philonophy,  Edinburgh,  1868.  As  a  pliilosopher 
*•  he  tried  to  discover  and  explain  the  bearings  of 
physiological  science  on  man's  mental  and  moral 
nature.  ...  He  believed  it  to  be  demonstrated 
by  physiology  tliat  the  direct  dependence  of  mind 
on  brain  was  confined  to  the  sensory-motor  func* 
tionB,  the  deiK'odence  of  the  higher  forms  of  mental 
activity  being,  on  the  other  Imnd.  ordy  indirect. 
He  endeavoreti  to  establish  the  thesiji  that  man'?* 
intellectual  and  spiritual  life,  as  we  know  it,  is  not 
the  product  of  natural  evolution,  but  necessitates 
the  assumption  of  a  new  creative  cause.'-  His 
interesta  were  not  confined  to  liis  professional  work; 
was  chairman  of  tlie  Edmburgh  scliool  board. 


chairman  of  the  North  and  East  of  Scotland  Liberal 
Unionist  Association,  was  a  member  of  the  mission 
board  of  his  Church,  and  advocated  temperance 
reform,  Presbyterian  union,  and  other  philanthropic 
and  religioui*  movements* ,  He  edited  The  United 
Preshifterian  Magazine ^  and  publinhed  Tf\e  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Infinitjc  (London,  1S54),  a  criticism 
of  Sir  William  namilton  prepared  during  his  stu- 
dent diiyB;  Handfmok  of  Moral  Philosophfj  (1872)j 
On  Teaching,  its  Means  and  Ends  (1874);  The 
Relations  of  Mimi  and  Brain  (1879);  The  Parables 
of  our  l^yrd  (1880);  The  Relatimis  of  Science  oTid  Re- 
ligion f  Morse  lectures  before  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary, New  York,  1880  (1881);  Evolution  and  A  fan's 
Place  in  Nature  (189:^;  enlarged  etJ.,  1890);  several 
of  these  works  have  appeared  in  many  editions, 

liiHi^iooEAPeT:  His  l^xft  was  writ  tea  by  hia  aon,  W,  L. 
Calderwood,  with  David  Wootiside,  with  cbapter  on  tua 
phitoAopbJctil  worka  by  A.  8.  Priugle-Fattbou,  Loddon, 
1900. 

CALEB,  CALEBITES:  One  of  twelve  scouta 
whom  Mo«ea  acnt  from  the  Wildemesa  of  Sin  to 
Bpy  out  the  promised  land  (Num.  xii.  16-xiii.  17a, 
21,25),  and  his  dcHccndanta.  According  to  Num. 
xiii,  6  he  represented  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Joshua 
xiv.  6,  14  designate^s  him  as  *'  the  Kenizzite/'  with 
wliich  Joshua  xw  17  agrees  in  making  Othniel,  the 
brotlier  of  Caleb,  the  **  son  of  Kenaz."  The  Ken- 
izzites  were  a  branch  of  the  Edomitic  stocky  Kenaz 
being  a  grandson  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi,  11,  15), 
Then  Caleb,  and  Othniel  were  originally  not  Israel- 
ite<i,  but  had  left  their  people  and  united  with  the 
Ikbrewfi,  and  tliis  agrees  with  the  location  of  their 
Rett  lenient^  in  Hebron  and  Llebir  (Josh.  xiv.  6-15, 
XV.  13-19;  Judges  i.  12-15.  20).  I  Chron.  ii.  42-49 
puts  into  the  possession  of  Caleb  Marc^ha,  Hebron, 
Tappuah,  Maon,  Jokileam,  and  Beth-asur  (Mad- 
mannah,  verse  49,  is  a  city  of  the  Negeb,  Josh.  xv. 
31).  The  Calebitea  occupicil  the  same  region  in 
the  time  of  Saul  and  David,  and  to  them  belonged 
a  part  of  the  Negeb  (I  Sam.  xxx.  14).  There  David 
lived  long  as  a  freebooter,  his  first  wife  was  of 
Calebite  stock,  and  Abigail  was  fmm  Maon-CanneL 
After  SaiiPs  death  David  occupied  Hebron  and  its 
Calebite  neighborhood  and  waa  there  made  king. 
His  realm  included  the  territory  of  Caleb  and 
Judah,  though  the  hitter  gave  the  name  to  liis 
kingiiom.  In  spite  of  the  formal  union  of  the  two 
peoples,  the  Calebites  maintained  a  practical  inde- 
l>endence  with  a  rej^idence  in  Judahitic  territory. 
This  explains  Absalom's  resort  to  Hebron  in  his 
inKurrection  against  David. 

The  name  Caleb  was  then  originally  that  of  a 
stnck,  and,  persomfiedi  became  that  of  the  epon- 
ymous ancestor  (see  Epoktm).  With  this  the  story 
of  Aclisab  (Judges  i.  12-15,  Josh,  xv,  15-19)  \b 
seen  to  agree  when  it  is  remembered  that  tri bally 
' '  ilaughter ''  means  a  weaker  stock  which  has  lost 
itfi  independence  to  a  stronger. 

The  Calebitea  remained  in  the  district  mentioned 
till  exilic  times,  when  the  Edomitcs  drove  them, 
weakened  by  Nebuchadrezzar's  measures,  north- 
ward to  the  neighborhood  of  Jeruaalem^ — a  cliango 
explained  in  customary  genealo^cal  phrasing  (I 
Chron.  li.  18-19),  and  the  Calebites  were  reckoned 
to  Judah  (I  Chron.  ii.  5,  9,  18,  50-65). 


Calendar  Br«ihr«n 
cSffimrtar,  T     ~ 


» The  Ohxlstlaa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


848 


An  early  age  can  not  be  ascribed  to  the  narrative 
which  giives  the  stoiy  of  the  spies,  since  Caleb  is 
there  reckoned  as  a  Judahite  without  any  dis- 
crimination  of  stocks  such  as  other  passages  cited 
above  make  necessary.  The  assumption  in  the 
representation  of  P  in  Num.  xiii.-xiv.,  and  of  the 
Chronicler,  of  the  assimilation  by  the  Hebrews  of 
the  Calebites  is  good   for  postexilic  times.     (See 

JUDEA.)  (H.  GUTHE.) 

While  advanced  scholarship  generally  takes  the 
position  indicated  in  the  text  (so,  for  example,  J. 
A.  Selbie  in  DB^  i.  340),  conservative  criticism  in- 
sists that  Caleb  was  originally  a  personal  name  and 
declines  altogether  the  idea  of  eponymity;  cf.  J.  D. 
Davis,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Philadelphia,  1898, 
pp.  103-104. 

Bibuoohapht:  J.  WeUhausen,  De  genHhuM  el  famUiiB^  I 
Chron.  it.  4,  G^^ttingen,  1870;  idem.  Die  Komponiion  dsB 
Hexateucht,  pp.  33&-338.  Berlin,  1889:  U.  Grftts,  Die 
Kdubaiten  oder  KalebUen,  in  Monataeehrift  fUr  Oeeehichle 
und  WiuenecKaft  dee  Judentume,  xzy.  (1876)  461  aqq.; 
W.  R.  Bmith,  Kinehip  and  Marriaoe,  pp.  200.  210.  Lon- 
don. 1886;  idem,  in  Journal  of  PhiloloQv,  ix.  (1876)  80; 
E.  Meyer.  Die  Entetehuno  dee  Jtuienhime,  pp.  114  aqq.. 
147-148.  HaUe,  1896. 

CALEITDAR  BRETHREN  (Fratres  Calendarii): 
A  fraternity  which  arose  in  the  second  half  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  especially  in  lower  Saxony,  but  also 
in  other  portions  of  Germany  and  occasionally  in 
the  neighboring  countries.    It  might  be  termed  a 


clerical  gild,  for  though  men  who  were  not  mem- 
bers  of  the  clergy  were  admitted,  they  were  re- 
stricted to  a  minor  position,  and  the  statutes  of 
many  communities  termed  only  the  dergy  "full 
brothers."  The  first  fraternity  of  Calendar  Breth- 
ren which  is  definitely  known  to  have  existed  was 
that  of  Laer  in  Westphalia  in  1279,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  fourteenth  century  that  they  became 
numerous.  They  seem  to  have  originated  in  the 
official  conferences  held  by  the  clergy  of  each 
archdiaconate  on  the  first  day  of  the  month  (Latin, 
Kalenda).  They  centered  about  religious  worship, 
the  members  being  required  to  say  mass  for  the 
repose  of  each  other's  souls  or  have  it  said,  and  to 
pray  for  one  another.  They  were  likewise  bound, 
as  in  the  gilds,  to  mutual  support  and  soda!  ele- 
vation. With  the  accession  of  wealthy  laymen, 
the  fraternities  gained  in  importance  and  wealth, 
and  became  famous  for  their  banquets.  They 
made  a  firm  resistance  to  the  Reformation,  since 
they  refused  to  allow  their  wealth  to  be  diverted 
to  other  purposes.  Some  maintained  themselTes 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time  in  Evangelicsl 
districts,  but  they  were  finally  suppressed  even  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  (G.  UHLHORNf.) 

Bibuooraprt:  L.  von  Ledebur.  Die  KalandeverbrHdmah 
oen  in  den  Landen  dee  eiidmechen  Volkeeiammee,  in  Mir- 
kieche  Forechungen,  iv.  7  sqq.,  Berlin,  1850;  BierUng,  Dii 
Kalandetfntdenduiften,  in  Zeiteehrift  fUr  AUertemthuiit 
und  OeeeKichie  in  Weetphalen,  eeriee  10.  iii.  178  sqq. 


CALENDAR,  THE  CHRISTIAN. 


The  Origin  of  the  Christian  Calendar  Early  Medieval  Calendars  (i  4). 

(i  1).  Greek  and  Slavic  Calendars  (i  6). 

The  Calendar  in  the  Early  Church  (|  2).  Later  Medieval  Calendars  (i  6). 

Complications  in  Dating  (|  3).  Errors  in  Calculating  Blaster  (i  7). 


The  Gregorian  Reform  (i  8). 
Opposition  to  the  Gregorian  Cdeodar 

(19). 
Attempts  to  Reform  the  Calendar  (f  lOX 


The  Christian  calendar  is  an  index  of  the  year 
arranged  according  to  months  and  weeks,  and 
giving  a  list  of  feasts,  fasts,  and  saints'  days,  to 
which  data  of  a  more  miscellaneous  character  may 
be  added.  The  dependence  of  the  feasts  on  chro- 
nology renders  it  necessary  to  consider  the  systems 
of  reckoning  time,  especially  as  both  the  chrono- 
logical and  liturgical  portions  of  the  calendar  were 
established  by  the  Church,  and  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergy  throughout  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  its  most  general  aspect  of  an  annual  list  of  days 
and  feasts,  the  Christian  calendar  dates  from  the 
primitive  C^hurch,  which  found  its  model  in  classical 
antiquity,  particularly  among  the  Romans.  Nu- 
merous Roman  calendars  of  the  imperial  p>eriod 
have  been  preserved  either  in  whole  or  in  part, 
designed  for  public  use  within  areas  ranging  from 
a  town  to  an  entire  country.  These  calendars  con- 
tain astronomical  information  as  well 
I.  The  Ori-  as  lists  of  religious  feasts  and  civic 
gin  of  the  celebrations,  some  of  which  were  con- 
Christian  nected  with  the  cult,  such  as  many 
Calendar,  of  the  public  games,  while  others 
commemorated  historic  events.  The 
transition  from  pagan  to  Christian  usage  may  be 
seen  in  two  calendars  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  (od.  T.  Mommsen,  CIL,  i.  332 
sqq.).  One  of  these  was  drawn  up  at  Rome  in 
the  reign  of  Constantino  II.  and  is  evidently  a 
revision  of  a  pagan  calendar,  omitting  all  feasts  of 
a  distinctively  religious  character,  both  heathen 


and  Christian,  but  retaining  the  purely  civic  feasts. 
Christian  influence  is  visible,  however,  in  the  recog- 
nition of  the  Christian  weeks  beside  the  Roman 
system,  since  the  year,  which  here  begins  with 
Jan.  1 ,  falls  in  two  regular  divisions,  one  of  eight 
days  each  (the  nundin(r)  represented  by  the  letters 
A-H,  and  the  other  of  seven  days,  indicated  by 
A-G.  The  second  calendar  was  prepared  in  448, 
during  the  reign  of  Valentinian  III.,  and,  though 
pagan  in  basis,  contains  for  the  first  time  a  small 
number  of  Christian  feasts,  having  five  festivals  of 
Christ  and  six  saints*  days.  The  oldest  exclusively 
Christian  calendar  is  a  Gothic  fragment,  apparently 
prepannl  in  Thrace  in  the  fourth  century,  contain- 
ing the  last  eight  days  of  October  and  the  entire 
month  of  November.  Seven  days  have  the  names 
of  saints  attached  to  them,  two  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, three  from  the  general  Chiurch,  and  two 
from  the  Goths. 

Even  before  the  inclusion  of  Christian  feasts  in 

the   Roman  calendar,   however,   the  Church  had 

lists  of  saints*  days  arranged  according  to  the  date 

of  their  celebration,  although  not  yet 

a.  The      incorporated    in    a    formal  calendar. 

Calendar  Allusions  to  such  lists  of  memorial 
in  the  days  are  found  in  Tertullian  and  Cyp* 
Early       rian,  but  the  earliest  one  extant  was 

Church,     prepared  at  Rome  in  the  middle  of 

the  fourth  century.     It  consists  of  an 

enumeration  of  twelve  Roman  bishops  and  a  list  of 

martyrs  for  twenty-four  days,  including  feasts  in 


a43 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oalendftr  BretbroB 


K 


¥ 


nimemo ration  of  the  birth  of  Chriat  aiitl  of  St. 
*et4?r  (Feb.  22),  all  the  remairuler  btuiig  festivals  of 
yrSf  generally  of  local  origin.  The  next  oldest 
leniiar  is  a  liiit  of  the  festivals  of  the  Church  of 
■iCarthage,  which  appaa-ntly  dat<.'a  from  the  end  of 
the  fifth  or  the  beginning  of  the  si\t  Ii  century,  and 
containH  the  names  of  bisliops  and  martyra,  tlie 
lOfit  of  wliom  were  natives  of  Carthage.  From 
ch  beginnings  a  wealth  of  calendars  soon  dcvel- 
>ped  throughout  the  Latin  world,  and  the  lists 
if  the  days  of  the  montli  received  an  ine* easing 
roportion  of  martyrological,  hagiological,  and 
icortologicjil  material.  The  active  intercourse 
€>f  the  churches,  es|>ecially  of  Rome  with  Africa, 
GauU  Spain,  and  England,  resulted  in  the  aditition 
of  Buch  numbers  of  foreign  saints  that  those  who 
received  honor  throughout  Ihe  Church  exceeded  the 
9aints  of  local  fame,  and  finally  there  was  no  day 
the  year  which  did  not  have  one  or  more  saints* 
Since  martyrs  were  commemorated  in  the  early 
Church  especially  in  the  place  wlierc  they  had 
suffered,  each  community  originally  had  its  own 
list  of  feasta  and  its  ow*n  calendar  This  w«age 
was  of  long  duration^  despite  the  frequent  mler- 
change  of  names  and  despite  the  increasing  pres- 
tige of  the  Roman  calendar  and  list  of  feast«. 
The  diversity  of  calendars  was  augmented,  more- 
over, by  the  reverence  paid  to  the  local  sabits  of 
mdi\'idual  countries  and  dioceses,  while  a  still 
more  importiint  factor  was  the  discrepancy  in  the 
dating  of  the  beginning  of  the  year.  The  first  of 
the  year  was  reckoned  from  no  less  than  six  days: 
1)  the  Feast  of  the  Circumcision  (Jan.  1;  iLsed  in 
'conformity  to  the  Jnhan  calendar);  (2)  Mar,  1 
(Merovingian  France,  the  Lombartls,  Venice,  and, 
for  a  time,  Kiissia);  (3)  the  Feast  of  the  Annun- 
ciation (Mar.  25;  first  in  Florence  and  Pic^ii,  whence 
it  extended  to  France,  Germany,  Enf;land.  and 
Ireland,  being  retained  in  the  latter  two  countries 
until  the  eighteenth  centurjO;  (4) 
J.  Compli-  Easter  (especiatly  in  France);  (5)  Sept,  1 
cations  in  (Byzantine  Empire,  and,  until  motl- 
Dating,  em  times,  Russia);  (6)  Christmas 
(Carolingian  France,  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
Scandinavia,  Prussia,  Hungary,  and  portions  of 
Holland,  Switzerland,  etc.).  The  problem  was 
further  complicated  by  the  various  methods  of 
indicating  the  day  of  the  month,  of  which  at  least 
five  ByNtems  were  use<l  contemporaneously:  (1)  the 
ancient  Roman  method  of  calends,  ides,  and  nones; 
(2)  the  Greeo-C*hristian  consecutive  numbering  of 
ihe  days  of  the  month,  now  generally  used;  (3)  the 
canstteiitdo  Bononicnsia,  wliich  divided  the  month 
to  two  halves,  in  one  of  wliicli  {mensh  intrans) 
.yB  were  numbered  fon*"ard  from  K  while  in 
ber  (mauis  exiens)  they  were  reckoned  back- 
frora  30  or  31;  (4)  the  method  of  Cisiojanws 
or  Cisianus,  which  design  at  cij  tlie  days  of  tlie  month 
by  the  syllables  of  arbitrary  mnemonic  verses 
(long  popular  in  Poland  mid  North  Germany); 
(o)  the  designation  of  the  day  by  tlie  feast  cele- 
brated on  it.  This  confusion  was  worse  confounded 
fcjy  the  various  reckonings  of  Easter,  wliile  the 
movable  feasts  based  upon  it  and  ruiming  wide  by 
side  with  the  fixed  festivals,  or  even  crossing  them, 
added  their  quota  of  perplexity. 


In  the  Middle  Ages  calendars  were  rauUiplied, 
partly  in  consi-quence  of  the  ctironologicai  intrica- 
cies already  noted  and  partly  because  of  the  uni- 
versal need  for  ecclesiastical  data  of  this  character. 
It  is  tnie  that  there  are  few  calendars  still  extant 
which  were  prepareti  previous  to  the  eighth  century^ 
but  tliis  deficiency  is  made  go<xl  in  various  ways, 
especially  by  the  sacramentaries  which  give  the 
list  of  feasts,  while  liturgical  books,  particularly 
manuscripts  of  the  Psalter,  frequently  have  a 
calendar  prt^fixeil  to  them.  Such  calendars  are 
usually  perpetual,  that  is,  available  for  any  year, 
but  are  usually  provided  with  methods  for  the 
determination  of  the  movable  feasts  of  any  par- 
ticular year.     Not  only  are  the  letters 

4.  Early     A-(\  repeated  in  them  from  Jan,  1  to 

Medieval  designate  the  days  of  the  wtn^k^  but 
Calendars,  they  also  contain  the  numljerw  I. -XIX. 
to  denote  all  new  moons  which  fall, 
in  the  course  of  a  cycle  of  ninett^en  years,  on  the 
day  of  the  month  designated  by  one  of  thc*e  num- 
bers. By  means  of  such  a  calendar,  when  the 
Dominical  Letter  ami  the  Golden  Numbf  r  (qq.v.) 
of  the  cycle  are  knnwn^  may  be  obt^iined  the  day 
of  the  week  of  any  date  and  all  new  mocmri  through* 
out  the  year.  From  the  latter  is  derived  the  date 
of  the  spring  new  mtion,  which  gives,  when  the  day 
of  the  week  on  which  it  falls  is  det<irminetl  by  the 
Dominical  Letter,  the  date  of  Easter.  An  Easter 
table  for  a  series  of  years  is  also  frequently  added 
to  the  calendars. 

All  calendars  of  the  Greek  and  Slavic  churches 
begin  their  ecclesiastical  year,  as  already  noted, 
with  Sc?pt.  1.  The  great  majority  of  their  im- 
movable feasts  are  consecrated  to  the  saints  and 
the  Virgin,  wtiile  a  number  of  the  movable  feasts 
are  consecrated  to  Christ,  The  latter^  like  the 
Sundays  of  the  year,  are  divided  into  three  periods: 
Trioidion  (beginning  wltli  the  tenth  Sunday  before 
Easter) J  Pcniekoslarum  (from  Ea.ster  to  tlie  close  of 
the  second  week  after  Whitsuntide),  and  Oktolchos 
(extending  from  the  second  Sunday  after  Whit- 
suntide into  the  Westeni  Epip>hany)- 

5-  Greek     The  calendar  of  the  Greek  Church  is 

and  Slavic  chziracterized     by     numerous     faats. 

Calendars,   partly  of  single  days  and   partly  of 

several  weeks.     To  the  latter  belong 

the  four  "  great  fasts."     Two  of  these  are  movable, 

the  Easter  fast  of  seven  weeks,  and  the  Fast  of  the 

Apostles,  the  latter  lasting  from  the  Feast  of  All 

Martyrs  on  the  Sunday  after  Whitsuntide  to  the 

day  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  (Jime  29).     The  other 

two,  the  Fast  of  the  Virgin  (August  1-15)  and  the 

Fast  of  AcH^nt  (Nov.  24- Dec.  2-1).  are  immovable. 

In  a  number  of  the  more  important  feasts  the  Greek 

calendar    harmonizes    with    the    Westeni.    but    it 

deviates  in  numerous  instances  from  the  latter  in 

its  dating  of  the  feasts  of  saints  and  martyrs. 

In  the  Western  Church  the  majority  of  calendars 
were  written  in  Latin  until  the  end  of  the  Crusades. 
Among  them  special  mention  may  be  made  of  the 
ancient  list  of  feasts  prepared  at  Home  during  the 
reign  of  Gregorj^  IL  or  Gregory  III.,  and  noteworthy 
as  gi\'ing  the  Romsin  stations  in  which  the  feasts 
were  celebrated  and  the  lessons  from  the  Gospels. 
Other  notewortliy  calendars  mclude  one  prepared 


THE   XEW  SCHAFF-IIERZOG 


844 


in  7S1  by  riorlesfiralc  at  the  rommarnl  of  Charle- 
magne, a  caleniiar  from  Liixeinl  ot  ciie  latter  part 
of  the  seventh  cenriir^r.  a  marble 
6-  Later  calendar  -Iraxn  ip  jlZ  Naples  by 
Medieval  Bishop  John  IV.  Nitween  S4*)  and  S.)<). 
Calendan.  and  a  calendar  oi  BLshop  Gundckar 
11.  of  ELichititt  :').37-79).  Among 
other  '"lerman  calemian  mention  may  be  made  of 
one  from  Freiaintf  of  the  Latter  part  of  the  tenth 
century,  from  Saizbur?  in  the  eU-venth  centur>-. 
from  Reccnsburs  in  the  twelfth,  and  from  Pascsau 
and  Auipbur:;  in  the  thirteenth.  Towanl  the  end 
of  the  Midiile  .\jies  the  Latin  calemlars  began  to  be 
tnuuiiated  into  the  venainiiar.  although  a  metrical 
calendar  had  been  written  in  .Xngio^axon  before 
the  oioae  of  the  tenth  century.  A  French  calendar 
of  the  thirteenth  century  ia  still  extant  in  manu- 
script, but  German  calendars,  which  are  tolerably 
numerous,  are  not  found  until  a  hundred  years 
later  The  invention  of  printing  in  the  fifteenth 
century  wrouisht  im{xtrtant  changes  in  the  calendar, 
although  the  dm  printeti  specimens  resemble  those 
in  manuscript  and.  like  them,  are  perpetual.  The 
first  caleniiar  for  a  definite  year  was  printed  at 
Nuremben,;  in  U73  in  Gennan  and  Latin.  It  was 
viesigne^-l  for  the  wars  U7o.  1494.  and  1513  as  the 
first  of  a  triple  cycle  of  ninetL'en  years  each,  and 
was  A>  const ructLii  that  the  dates  for  other  years 
nii^ht  Iv  ilerivv-ii  !n.»m  these  three,  so  that  it  n-ally 
oMeiuicvl  tri.Mii  U73  to  IWl.  Tlie  ecclesiastical 
].H.»r(ivuis,  however,  were  in  |H?q.H.'tual  form,  since 
the  oalciular  cvMit;unv\l.  in  addition  to  the  letters 
V  il  tor  I  ho  days  of  the  wivk.  only  the  names  of 
tile  s;uit(s  for  a  hiuitevl  number  of  days  without  a 
.im.Moii  uito  ^*wks  and  without  the  movable  feasts. 
1 1  x^.ui  ;iot  '.uitil  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centurj' 
''\.\i  .-.lii-iuiai-s  .irr:i:i^\l  ;u*vvnii:'.i:  to  the  weeks  and 
■c.i^i-*  «.»t   i  vii'iiiiiic  yvar  came  ii'.to  j^'nenil  use. 

l*K'  -vi-Jv^'niiii;  oi   K;tjiCor  hitherto  cmpltnvd  had 
!oa^  'k\  Ji  ix^xx'^-^'^l  -»^  iti;uU\juate.  and  ihe  elim- 
tii.ij'on  .«i  '-K*  ».'n\»:>4  wliiv'h  this  systetn  had  caused 
\%.wx  .'iio  s^i  '. £u-  •  I !*•«.[   urt^'i'.t  ta^Ivs  which  awaitiil 
M'i\iroii   ».Tvi  ■"v  vli'.M' oi  the  Mi^ivilc  Ai:i^s.     Since 
w  -^v*«.ui  'i.iii  v'l  liv  'IvM  ^vp.JLLr>-  the  nile  had 
K\»i   l.•^«j'^^^i  1*>  I'v  V!o\.iVviri.i:i  Cliurvh,  and  con- 
.:iuxx'    *s   :  !*•  v.\mii\-i1  ^•:   Niv*;tM.  ti'.-it  Kiu^tcr  sliould    ■ 
\,i  .'.I  •.  I*'  '<r.iK».i\    I  'vr  t:»o  spriri^i  full  nuxMi.  that    I 
X.    -.1     K-    iiNi   Si.!Kl.i\   .i:*.iT  tlv  I'.ill  m^v^  on  or  | 
.X  \.     1. 1*-;    i-U'   w'Mi.iI  i.\j;::-!0\       The  vlato  of  this   , 
xxj.:.!u'\  «  i>  u»  *v  M,ir.  Jl.  while  the  | 
'.  \2iv^H  til   •;.!    nxvn  «.!.'»  lo  Iv  nvkoiu\i  acivn.!-  | 
K*x;i  uIm;  u i|;    :  I .;;  '  X  ^  »  x"  w  I o  v i  r  •  • : tot ^v »  years.     This 
VwiV4-        »\^uMi    v':    'Avkv**'-:^^   vi:is   iiitrkvluiVvl 
ii:o    ■.  s-    Ux'JM.iM  k*!'.urvh    in    oJo   by 
Sx'»,vx.-..»  *^Av   ■*    '  ''^  >»t>!v.id  theiKV  thrvni*:hoiit 


i^S         (    ■ 
U      .K       »■   •' 

V  -^    ■  "■' 

U^«     \x^. 


x;m    »     ;  'si  ^  tx  i;'.\cii  to  the  Amj;K>- 
■^  x^v   :•»    .*■».      Vhis  meth^Ki. 

.  .    \  . •.   .1.  V \'      '^     I  ^*  V'       » *'. ■  -  '^   ^*  •' ■«'*h    iVUlvl 

Sxxsnv-  x-x"»A-'-.   ■"  '.'v  vvi:rN^  of  time. 


X  ,U  « 


:  x»;i  C'M  the  vi-mal 
..\i  i'v  x'l^f.rv^xlvi'iau 
i\s*(  J  IX s  'r.\  lc:^cth 
■  wMvv  \:\  rw.lity 
o»  ..V  !v •:»,»;  ^»  that  an 
xx-  .'**.  \    '  *S  >v.»"s.     l'.^  the 


.  .   X     i  Xi'»\.    * 
»x'    NVM: 


moon  according  to  a  nincteen-ycar  cyde  of  235 
months  or  6.939}  days,  it  made  the  cycle  an  hoar 
too  long,  thus  making  a  discrepancy  of  the  day 
between  the  real  and  the  theoretical  new  mooo 
every  210  years.  It  was  not  until  the  thirteenth 
century  that  this  error  attracted  attention,  tht 
first  works  to  note  it  being  the  Computus  of  Muter 
Conrad  in  1200  (extant  only  in  a  re\ision  of  1396 
in  a  Menna  manuscript)  and  the  similar  work  of 
an  anonymous  author  of  1223  (preserved  ia  great 
part  by  Vincent  of  Beauvais).  The  problem  wai 
likewise  taken  up  by  Johannes  de  Sacro-Busto 
about  1250  in  his  De  anni  ratione  and  by  Roger 
Bacon  in  a  treatise  addressed  to  Clement  IV.,  Dt 
reformatione  calendariif  while  among  the  Greeb 
the  monk  Isaac  Argyros  wrote  on  the  problem  in 
1272.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  reformation 
of  the  calendar  was  discussed  in  the  great  councils 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  especially  by  Kerre 
d'Ailly  at  Kostnitz  in  1414  and  by  Nicholas  of  CNua 
at  Basel  in  1436,  the  latter  proposing  to  begin  the 
correction  of  the  calendar  in  1439. 

The  actual  reform  of  the  calendar  was  first  car- 
ried out  by  Gregory  XIII.  (1572-85)  in  conforai- 
ity  ^ith  a  resolution  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  In 
1577  the  pope  appointed  a  committee  which  held 
its  sessions  at  Rome  to  carry  out  the  plan  proposed 
by  the  Calabrian  astronomer  Aloigi  Ligli,  and  con- 
firmed this  reformed  calendar,  which  was  called 
the  Gregorian  in  his  honor,  by  a  bull  of  Feb.  24. 
1582.  The  reform  was  designed,  on 
8.  The      the  one  hand,  to  regulate  Easter  with 

Gregorian    reference  to  the  solar  and  lunar  revo- 

Reform.     lutions,  thus  restoring  the  year  of  tbe 
lunar  cycle  according  to  the  date  and 
intention  of  the  Nicene  Council,  and,  on  the  other,  to 
avoid  any  future  shifting  of  the  vernal  equinox  and 
the  spring  full  moon.    To  restore  the  vernal  equinox 
to  Mar.  21,  the  ten  days  between  Oct.  4  and  15 
were  dropped,  while  for  the  correction  of  the  spring 
full  moon  the  new  moons  were  set  back  three  days 
from  Jan.  3  to  Dec.  31.     These  corrections  were 
:u«urcvl  by  retaining  the  Julian  system  of  intercala- 
tion anil  the  nineteen-year  lunar  cycle  for  a  century. 
The  intercalar\'  day  was  to  be  omitte<l  thrice  in 
four  centuries,  and  the  new  moon  was  to  be  retarded 
one  day  eight  times  in  twenty-five  centuries  (sc\'en 
times  after  each  three  hundrtd  years  and  the  eighth 
time  after  four  hundred).     For  the  correction  of  the 
lunar  cycle  the  reckoning  of  epacts,  or  the  age  of 
the  moon  on  Jan.  1 ,  was  introduced  according  to  the 
cycle  pn>j>o.«je<l  by  Ligli. 

The  Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted  in  Roman 

Catholic   countries  either  immediately  or  in  the 

course  of  a  few  years.     The  Protestant  district*, 

on  the  other  hand,  opiX)sed  it,  partly  on  account 

of  their  hostility  to  Rome  and  partly  on  account  of 

its    chronological    discrepancies.     Its   inaccuracies 

were    recognized    by    the   landgra^"© 

g.  Opposi-  William  IV.  of  Hesse-Casscl,  and  the 

tion  to  the  Calvinistic  Joseph  Justus  Scaliger  is- 

Gregorian   sued    repeated    warnings    against  it. 

Calendar.    After  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 

the  Julian  calendar  existed  in  Germany 

side  by  side  with  the  Gregorian,  the  two  being  des- 

icixated  as  old  and  new  style,  respectiwly.    The 


1845 


REHGIC 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OaI«ndwr 
Calf 


I  movable  feasts  of  the  two  faitlm  accortiingly  dif- 

lfere<l,  arici  the  advocates  of  the  new  atjle  dated  the 

tdny^  of  the  month  ten  days  in  advance  of  the  old  un- 

I  til  the  end  of  the  st-'venteenth  century.     In  \iew  of 

[the  discrepancies  between  the  two  systems  the  Ger- 

L  Protestants  devised  a  third  ev^lendar,  which  was 

I  agree  neither  with  the  Gregorian  nor  the  Julian 

■  waa  to  take  effect  in  Mm.     In  its  reckoning 

I  of  time  it  agreed  with  the  Gregorian,  but  lis  feasts 

I  were  calculated  astronomically  aocording   to  the 

jmeridian  of  Uraniborg  antl  the  Hudotphinian  Tables 

I  of   Kepler.     The    result    was    increased    confusion 

land  embitterment  between  Roman  Catholics*  and 

IProtestants,  particularly  in  172t,  1744,  and  17S8, 

Jwhen  there  was  a  divergency  of  a  week  Ixitweeii  the 

'■regorian    and    the    astronomical     Eaater,     This 

otestant    calendar    was    finally    suppressed    by 

ederick  the  Great  in   1775,  and  the  Gregorian 

Jendar   became   supreme    throughout   Germany, 

ermari  ProtestanU  have  sought  in  recent  years 

»  transform  Easter  into  an  immovable  feast,  but 

Ihe  plan  as  yet  remains  inchoate. 

The  evangehcal  reforms  of  the  calendar  thus  far 

onsidered  were  contx.'med  only  with  chronology, 

[without  regard   to  the   traditional   Christian   hsts 

of  saints  and  martyrs.     There  is,  however,  a  tend- 

Qcy  among  the  Lutherans  to  revise  the  hagiology 

of  the  Church,  In  view  of  the  Protectant  skepticism 

^-arcUng  the  existence  of  many  of  the  saints  of 

lition  and  the  ChriHtiaiuty  a>icribed  to  others. 

hey  are  offended ,  furthermore,  by  the  names  of 

Licb    heroes    of    the    Counterre formation   as    St, 

Ignatius  Loyola  and  other  opponents 

lo.  Attempts  of  their  sect*  while  prominent  Protes- 

to  Rcfoma  tants,  it  is  felt,  should  be  recognized 

the         in  an  ecclesiastical  c^ilendar  designed 

Calendar,    for  Lutheran  use.     Such  an  attempt 

was  made  by  Ferdinand  Piper  in  his 

^vangeli^cher  Ka lender    (published   from    1850  to 

1870).  in  which  he  sought  to  transfonn  the  hagi- 

:>logy  of  the  Western  Church  according  to  evan- 

elical  ideas.     To  increase  the  interest  of  the  laity 

this  new  list  of  names,  brief  biograpliies  were 

ided,  and  these,  399  in  number,  were  later  pub- 

bed  separately  imder  the  title  Zeugen  der  Wahr- 

(4   vols.,    Leipaic,    1S74;  Eng.    transl.,  by   H. 

MacCracken,  3   vols.,   Boston,  1S79).     Piper's 

MendaTr  however,  failed  to  secure  official  rccogni- 

■*on  in  any  German  church,  although  in  various  re- 

riona  it  has  been  included  In  a  number  of  popular 

dend&re  in  Germany.     It  is  sclf-eviiicnt  that  only 

aal  success  can  be  attained  by  any  Protestant 

pological  calendar  in  view  of  the  diversity  of 

otestant  ccinditions  and   requirements.     Appar- 

ntly,  the  most  that  can  bo  done  is  to  add  new 

ates  and  names,  whether  these  be  supplementary 

corrective,  to  the  traditional  hagiology  of  the 

lurch,  so  that,  according  to  the  requirements  of 

ae  or  place,  a  choice  may  be  made  from  the 

aes  associated  with  any  particular  day. 

(0.  ZoCKLERt  ) 
ora^pst:  On  the  generat  nubjcet  consult;  L.  Idolcr, 
Handbudi  der  ,  .  .  Chtonclogie.  2  vol§.,   Berlin,   1825-20; 

tA.  J.  Weideubaoh^  Caieitdariuin.  hiMUiric&^hriiitmnum 
wmiii  ef  novi  <m,  Re«eiuburg,  1855:  W.  8.  B.  Woolhou#c, 
Afuduna  of  As  ChrUtian^  Htbrvw  aruf  Mahometan  Caltn- 
doF^t  Londicm,  1881;  Ledoybk,  La  ConmiwMnce  dem  an- 


niet  et  des  jmirt.  TraiU  .  ,  .  du  c^lendri^,  Souioiu. 
1887;  E.  Mjihler.  ForUtUutHt  der  W  tisUnftld'tchun  W- 
gUichunoa'Tabel2en  der  muhammtdattUchen  und  ehrUt^ 
lichen  Zeitrechnung,  Lciprio,  1887;  J.  G.  MacdooftJd, 
ChnmoloaiM  and  CalendarM,  LoQilon.  1897;  l\  ROhl, 
ChronoUitfic  deM  MittelalUira  und  der  NemeU,  Berlin,  1897; 
B,  M.  Lernch,  EinUiiunQ  in  die  ChrttniiUtffie,  2  vols.,  Frei- 
burig,  1899  (voL  ii.  on  Chri»liftQ  Calendar  J ;  Enevclopm- 
dm  Bntefinica,  iv,  664-682  (gives  comparative  tablea): 
BCA,  L  256-258. 

On  the  origin  of  the  Climtian  calendar  consul t:  T. 
Mommj*oti,  Der  Chronoffraph  vom  Jahre  36 ^,  in  Ahkand- 
lunffen  der  t^chsiechen  GeeeUschaft  drr  W iMtenM-haften,  ii. 
(1850)  647  sqq.;  A.  J.  Binterim.  Denkwikrdigkeiten,  i.  20 
»qq..  7  vols..  Main*,  1837-41;  L.  Colermin.  Andeni 
ChriMtmmiti,  chap,  xxvi.,  i  5.  Philadolphia,  1852;  F. 
Piper.  Der  Urepruna  der  chrisUichen  Kalendarien,  in 
Kiiniolicher  pretiMtnecher  StaaUkalender^  1S66,  pp.  0-26; 
A.  L«hn«r,  M itielalterliche  Kalendarim  in  Bauem,  Fni- 
bunj.  1891;  E.  Berfried,  Die  Ausgeetaltunff  der  chniUichen 
0*terberechnunff,  Mittelwalde,  1893. 

Oil  calendars  of  the  Middle  Ag««  u^ful  works  are: 
N.  Nillea,  Kalendarium  manuale  uiriuwqite  liccleeitr,  4  vols., 
Irinabruck,  1879-83,  vols,  i..  ii..  2d  «d..  1897  <a  most  val- 
uable collection  for  the  Eaat4»rn  Churchen);  A.  Cave. 
Scriptarum  eccUMaaticorutn  hUUrria  lit^raria,  Appendix, 
part  a..  London.  109S  (describcft  Eaatern  calendarB); 
F.  Piper,  Kirckrnredinuno.  pp.  vi.  Bqq.,  Berlin.  1841; 
idem,  KarU  deM  Gronnen  Kalemiarium,  ib.  1858;  W.  L, 
Krafit,  Kirchengeschichte  der  gcrmani»cken  VdLker,  I.  L 
371.  385^387,  ib.  1854;  F,  Kaltcnbruniier,  Di4:  Vorge- 
Bchichte  der  grtQari^nUchen  KaUmirrreferm,  Vienna,  1876; 
O,  E.  Hartmann,  Der  rtmiecke  Kalender,  Leipe^ic,  1882; 
J.  Wcale,  Anahcta  Uturtfica,  2  vols..  London,  1889;  H. 
Grotefend,  Tatchenbuch  der  Zeitrechnung  dee  dc%UKhem 
MitiekUtera  und  der  Neiueit.  Hanover,  1S98;  A.  von  Malt- 
Bew,  Menologien  der  orlhiMiox-katlioliMchefi  Kirrhe  dm  Mor- 
oenkindce,  part  i.,  B«rlja.  19€0  (Sept.-Feb.,  German  aod 
Slavic  and  reference  to  origiiial  Gk.  t^sxf). 

For  the  history  of  the  Grej^orian  reform  *50n#ult:  F. 
Kaltenbrijnner,  Die  Polemik  Hiier  die  grevifrianiscfie  Katen- 
derrefarm,  Vienoa,  1877;  J.  B.  J.  Dteljimbre,  llinUnre  de 
Vaatrotu>mie  motierne,  L  1-84,  Parii,  1821;  G,  B,  Ferrari, 
H  caiendario  Grenoriano,  Rome,  1882;  the  literature  under 

GwtOORT  XIIL 

For  modern  Protestant  Oftlendara  the  following  may 
be  consulted:  F.  Piper,  J>f«  Vtrb^Meruno  den  Kalefuier», 
in  Evangeliacher  Kalendo'^  1850.  pp.  1-1 1.  idem.  Die 
Verbeeeerung  dee  evangeUechen  Ka  fender*,  Berlin,  1850; 
W,  Lobes.  MariifTflhgium,  Zur  Erkliirung  der  herkt'tfnm' 
lichen  Kafendernnmen,  pp.  1-12;  Nuremberg.  1868;  E, 
Scharffl,  Die  chrinUiche  ZeitrechnunQ  und  drr  detdeeh- 
evan4}elijirhe  Kaiender,  pp,  18-28.  Stuttgart.  1893. 

CALENDAR,  HEBREW  AND  JEWISH,  See 
Day,  the  Hebrew;  Moon,  Semitic  CoKCEPTiOBm 
of;  Year,  thu  Hebrew;  Stnaoogue. 

CALF,  THE  GOLDEN,  AITD  CALF-WORSHIP. 

Origin  of  Calf- worship  amon^  the  Hebrews  (S  1). 
Bull- worship  aznonK  Other  Senxutea  (S  2). 
Btill'WorBhJp  in  Israel  {f  3). 
BulUworihip  in  Judah  (5  4). 

The  stoiy  of  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf  dur- 
ing the  desert  jonmey  ia  given  Ex.  xxjdi.  &nd 
Dent.  Lx.  7-21;  cf.  Neh.  ix.  IS;  Ph.  cvi.  19-20; 
Acts  vii.  39-^0-  The  authorized  calf- worship  of 
Northeni  Israel  is  mention wl  I  Kings  xii.  28-33; 
II  ICinga  X-  29,  xvii.  16;  Hos.  viii*  5-6^  x.  5-6, 
xiii.  2:  II  Chron.  xi.  15,  xiii.  8.  The  Hebrew  tenu 
generally  api^Hcd  to  the  calf  is  'cgel ;  *egUih  in  Hos. 
X*  5  is  probably  a  mistake  for  'egel. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  Israel- 
ites borrowed  calf-worship  from  the  Egyptians,  a 
supposition  thought  to  be  supported  by  the  fact 
that  Jeroboam  had  been  recalled  from  Egj-pt. 
But  the  Egyptian  animal-worship  was  essentially 
different  from  the  Semitic  type,  since  the  Egyptian 


Ctablf 
Oallxtus 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


846 


worship  was  paid  to  living  animals.  The  bulls  or 
calves  of  Jeroboam — ^the  classical  example  in 
Israel — were,  on  the  other  hand,  intended  to  be 
symbols   of    Yahweh.      In   any   case    Jeroboam 

would  not  have  introduced  a  foreign 

I.  Origin  of  cult  to  strengthen  his  new  and  pre- 

Calf-wor-   carious    government.      The    Hebrew 

ship        calf-worship   did   not   reproduce   the 

n^wpng  the  cult  of  Apis  and  fiinevis,  which  were 

Hebrews,    living  animals,  one  black,  the  other 

white,  dedicated  to  Osiris,  and  he  was 
believed  to  be  incarnated  in  them  (J.  G.  Wilkin- 
son, Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  EgyptumSy 
iii.,  London,  1878,  86-95,  306-307).  Suggestions  of 
bull-worship  among  the  Hebrews  are  found  in  the 
horns  of  the  altar,  in  the  oxen  under  the  lavers 
(I  Kings  vii.  25),  and  possibly  in  the  cherubim. 
While  examples  of  Hebrew  bidl-worship  are  rare, 
the  proof  of  its  existence  among  neighboring  na- 
tions is  abundant.  In  the  Babylonio-Assyrian 
and  Syro-Phenician  religions,  the  bull  represented 
the  masculine  type  of  divinity,  as  was  natural  to 
a  pastoral  people.  The  primitive  Aryans  also  ex- 
plained the  heavenly  phenomena  by  comparisons 
drawn  from  the  life  of  their  herds.  The  Zenda- 
vesta  makes  mention  of  ''  the  fu^t  bull."  The 
bull  represented  power  and  strength,  and  at  the 

same  time  the  destructive  and  the  re- 
a.  Bull-  productive  omnipotence  of  the  deity, 
wonhip  The  sun-god  is  hardly  to  be  recog- 
among  nized  in  the  bull,  as  has  been  supposed. 
Other  The  gold  of  the  Hebrew  bull  idols  does 
Semites,    not  necessarily  point  to  the  splendor 

of  the  sun,  for  the  images  of  other  gods 
were  also  of  gold  or  gilded.  Still  less  credible  is 
the  assertion  that  the  strength  of  the  bull  repre- 
sented the  scorching  blaze  of  the  sun.  Among  the 
Babylonians  the  bull  was  sacred  to  the  thunder- 
god  Ramman  (Syrian  Rimmon),  Assyrian  A  dad 
(Syrian  Hadad),  who  is  represented  in  Layard's 
Monuments^  plate  65,  as  having  four  horns  and 
holding  the  lightnings  in  one  hand  and  a  battle-ax 
in  the  other.  The  bull  is  also  the  emblem  of  Ram- 
man-Adad  on  the  stele  of  Eisarhaddon  found  at 
Zingirli  in  Northern  Syria,  as  well  as  in  the  pro- 
cession of  the  gods  depicted  on  the  rock  at  Maltai 
(cf.  G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  Vart  dans 
VaniiquiU,  ii.,  Paris,  1881  sqq.,  642-643).  An 
image  of  the  Syrian  Jupiter  of  Doliche,  which  was 
carried  from  Syria  to  Rome,  represents  him  stand- 
ing upon  a  bull  (cf .  F.  Hettner,  De  Jove  Dolicheno 
dissertatio  philologica,  Bonn,  1877;  A.  H.  Kan,  De 
JovisDolicheni  CvUu  disserto/io,  Groningen,  1901). 
The  Jupiter  of  Hierapolis  in  Syria  was  pictured 
sitting  upon  bulls  (Lucian,  De  dea  Syria,  xxxi.). 
The  classical  tale  of  the  seduction  of  Europa  is  a 
form  of  the  Baal  myth,  in  which  the  god,  in  the 
shape  of  a  bull,  journeys  with  Astarte  (q.v.)  to 
Crete  (for  the  identity  of  Astarte  with  Europa,  cf. 
De  dea  Syria^  Iv.).  The  sacredness  of  cattle  among 
the  Philistines  also  is  demonstrated  by  the  story  of 
the  return  of  the  ark  on  a  new  cart  drawn  by  two 
milch  kine,  on  which  there  had  come  no  yoke 
(I  Sam.  vi.  7  sqq.). 

That  bull-worship  among  the  Hebrews  was  an- 
cient the  foregoing  makes  quite  possible.     It  was. 


however,  hardly  practised  before  the  final  settle- 
ment in  Canaan,  since  it  was  always  characteristic 
of  peoples  who  had  either  reached  or  passed  the 
agricultural  stage.  The  prohibition  of  the  Book  of 
the  Covenant  (Ex.  xx.  23,  cf.  xxxiv.  17)  is,  therefore, 
the  first  warning  against  this  type  of  worship  Ex. 
xxxii.  assumes,  however,  that  it  was  practised  dur- 
ing the  journey  in  the  wilderness.  The  leading  fea- 
tures of  the  narrative  are  as  follows:  The  people 
had  become  impatient  under  the  continueid  ab- 
sence of  their  leader,  and  Aaron  made  for  them  an 
image  of  the  god  who  had  led  them  out  of  Egypt. 
With  the  material  furnished  by  the  gold^  ea^ 
rings  of  the  women  and  children,  "  a  molten  caH  " 
was  fashioned,  before  which  an  altar  was  built,  and 
to  it  divine  honors  were  paid.  The  rest  of  the 
chapter  tells  of  Yahweh's  anger,  of  Moses's  ener- 
getic intervention,  of  Aaron's  apology,  and  finally 
of  the  destruction  of  the  calf  and  of  3,000  of  its 
worshipers.  The  narrative — a  composite  of  J  and 
E — ^has  been,  however,  considered  by  many  nxnlem 
critics  as  unhistorical  and  really  a  polemic  against 
Jeroboam's  newly  instituted  worship.  The  caidinal 
passage  on  calf-worship  is  I  Kings  xii.  28-29  (cf. 
II  Chron.  xi.  15),  where  the  story  is  told  of  the 
bulls  set  up  by  Jeroboam  I.,  who  ordained  a  non- 
levitical  priesthood,  and  did  not  pre- 

3.  Bull-  tend  to  do  more  than  retiim  to  the 
worship  Yahweh-worship  of  the  past.  That 
in  IsraeL    he  did  thus  return  is  proved  by  his 

success.  When  Jehu  destroyed  the 
Baal-worship,  he  did  not  touch  the  bulls,  a  dear 
proof  that  he  acknowledged  the  bull-worship  as 
Yahweh-worship  (II  Kings  x.  29).  Yet  the  spir- 
itual prophets  opposed  the  bull-worship  from  the 
beginning.  Indirect  testimony  to  this  may  be 
seen  in  Amos  (v.  5).  Direct  testimony  is  first 
found  in  Hosea.  This  younger  contemporary  of 
Amos  is  the  only  one  of  the  prophets  who  alludes 
to  bull- worship;  and  to  him  the  worship  of  an 
image  is  the  worship  of  an  idol  (viii.  5-6,  xiii.  2, 
cf.  X.  5-6).  With  regard  to  the  precise  form  and 
structure  of  Jeroboam's  bulls  there  is  no  direct  in- 
formation. Gold  being  scarce  and  precious,  it  is 
probable  that  the  images  were  small — ^an  assump- 
tion supported  by  the  fact  that  they  are  called 
calves.  Naturally  these  royal  statues  would  be  of 
pure  gold  and  not  merely  gilded. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Judah  bull-worship  does  not 
seem  to  have  flourished,  for  nowhere  is  found  a 

reference  to  Judaic  worship  of  this 

4.  Bull-  kind,  and  the  polemics  of  Hosea  ex- 
worship     clusively  against  the  calf  of  Sam&na 


in  Judah.    at  Bethel  would  be  unintelligible,  had 

he  been  aware  of  the  same  cult  in  1 
Judah.  The  Deuteronomic  redactor  of  the  book  of 
Kings  saw  in  the  bull-worship  the  special  sin  of 
Jeroboam,  wherewith  he  caused  Israel  to  sin  (I 
Kings  xiv.  16,  xv.  26). 

Diblioqrapht:  W.  Baudissin,  Studien,  voL  i.,  LdiMie,  1878: 
J.  Selden.  De  dis  Syri»,  pp.  45-64.  London.  1617;  C.  T. 
Beke.  The  Idol  of  Horeb  .  .  .  the  OoUUn  Image  .  .  . « 
Cone  .  .  .  not  a  Calf,  ib.  1871;  A.  Kuenen,  Religion  «t 
Israel,  i.  73-75.  235-236.  260-262.  345-347.  ib.  1874; 
E.  KAnig,  Hauptprobleme  der  aUi9rneliH»eheH  Relioio^ 
oeachichU,  pp.  53-02.  Leipnc.  1884;  idem,  BiidlMigkef^ 
dee  leffitimen  JahtpehcuUu9,  ib.  1886;   F.  Baetbfen.  Bei- 


SDI/ 


Calf 


Hsxt  1888;  J.  Eobertaon*  Etsriy  Rrlioion  of  Iwrofh  chap, 
tx.,  EdinburKh,  1892;  F.  W.  Farrar.  Was  there  a  Golden 
Calf  ai  Danf  in  Erpoeiior,  riii.  (1893)  264-265;  8.  Oettii* 
Dtr  KuUuM  bet  Amou  utid  Hown,  in  Greifrwaider  Stzidien, 
1806,  pp.  1-34;  DB,  a.  340-343;  EB,  i.  63l-r>32.  Con- 
siill  abo  tb«  works  on  O.  T.  The«>1o|^y.  eKpedally  that  by 
H-  SchulU.  Eo«,  transL,  Edinburgh*  1892,  and  tbc  worku 
mcAtioaied  luder  Ii>olatrt;  lMAGi:«  and  iMAOE-woRa&ip. 

CAUXTIHES,     See  Hubs,  John,  Hubsiteb, 

CALIXTUS,  ca-lix'tus:  The  name  of  three  popes 
tid  one  ant  i pope. 

Caliitua  (Callist  us)  I :  Pope  217-222.  Through 
tie  discovery  of  the  work  of  Hippolytus  (q-v.) 
D  heresieis*  a  new  nspect*  differing  in  many  par- 
Lculars  from  the  trmlitioniil  one,  has  been  a^ssumcd 
y  the  story  of  this  early  bisliop.  The  old  acl?ount 
scribed  to  lum  the  building  of  the  church  of  Santa 
[aria  in  Trastevere.  The  PHeudo-lsidorian  Decre- 
als  (q.v,)  contain  two  in  which,  among  other 
hings,  regu  hit  ions  are  laid  down  for  the  ember  fasts. 
le  waa  called  a  mart^T^,  but  the  acts  of  his  martyr- 
loin  are  purely  legend  a  ^J^  pmbahly  composed  in 
he  seventh  century.  The  i>icture  given  by  liip- 
K>l3rtiifl,  though  bitterly  hostile,  is  at  leai*t  clear 
nd  sharp  in  its  outlines.  According  to  it,  Caltistus 
ras  the  stave  of  a  Christ iim  official  named  Car- 
K}phonis,  who  entrusted  turn  with  considerable 
uma  of  money,  which  he  lost.  Taking  flight  to 
*void  a  reckoning,  he  was  pursued  by  liis  master, 
lad  jumped  into  the  sea  to  eaca|>e  him,  but  was 
nulled  out  and  condemned  to  the  treadmill.  Then 
le  got  into  a  quarrel  with  the  Jews  in  Rome,  tind 
rsa  beaten  and  sent  to  the  mines  of  Sardinia^  from 
rhich  he  was  released  by  the  influence  of  Marcia, 
he  miatrese  of  Commodus.  It  is  impossible  to 
etermine  how  far  Calhstus  was  morally  blame- 
rorthy  in  this  chequeretl  career — probably  not 
■  much  as  Hippolytus  says.  The  events  recited 
re  aaid  to  have  Imppened  in  the  pontificate  of 
Ictor.  The  next  bishop,  Zcphyrinus,  brought 
aliistus  back  to  Rome,  probably  already  in  orders, 
nd  ga\'e  him  cliarge  of  the  large  cemetery  which 
iter  bore  his  name.  Under  Zephjn*inus  he  came 
ito  conflict  with  Hippolytus  on  the  dogma  of 
^e  Incamation  (see  Monarchianism);  and  at  the 
ext  vacancy  a  schism  occurred,  each  party  electing 
'M  own  leader  as  bishop  {see  HippOLTTua).  Cal- 
stus  seems  to  have  been,  like  Zephyrinus,  a 
lodalkt;  it  was  he  who  exconununieate*!  SabeUiua. 
Tie  question  of  discipline  also  brought  him  into 
onflict  with  Mippolytus,  according  to  whom  he 
lid  down  the  principle,  unacceptable  to  the  rigor- 
ita  of  the  time,  that  all  sins  might  be  forgiven,  and 
lenied  the  ncceissity  of  deposing  a  bishop  w^ho 
hould  be  guilty  of  deadly  sin.  Hippolytus  accuses 
lim  of  taking  this  position  so  as  to  increase  the 
kumbers  of  \m  own  church;  but  it  is  undeniable 
hat  a  clear-sighted  man  could  hanily  fail  to  see 
he  defects  and  inconsistencies  of  the  then  existing 
Jiurch  discipline,  and  Callistus  was  probably 
eeking  to  establish  a  more  logical  system.  The 
7aialogus  Liberianus  is  authority  for  placing  hie 
tfiftth  in  222.  [The  largest  of  the  Roman  cat  a- 
ombs  is  the  Cemetery  of  St.  Callistus;  and  De 
lossi  aays  it  was  the  first  common  cemetery,  given 
pope  by  some  noble  family  for  the  use  of  the 


whole  Christian  community.  Thirteen  out  of  the 
next  eighteen  popes  after  Zephyrinus  are  said  to 
have  been  buried  there.]  (A.  Hauck,) 

Btdlichjrapht:  The  EpUtoliF  are  in  MPO,  toL  i.  An 
anonymous  Tmrislatian,  ed.  Bo)der*EgK<u'«  i*  in  MGII, 
Script,  TV,  (1887)  418-422.  Consult:  G.  K,  J.  BtinBen, 
HippolyUiM  and  hit  Age,  2  vol*..  London,  1852-56;  J.  J.  L 
Tan  DolUnger,  Hipjtalifiua  und  Catlittua,  ReKem«bviTK,  1863; 
K,  J.  Neumann,  Der  r&mi»che  Staai  und  dis  allo^nnein* 
Kirch*,  i.  312-313,  Leipsdo,  1800;  T,  E.  Rolffs.  Dom  Indut- 
O^nt-Edikt  de*  .  ,  Kallui.  in  TV,  xi.  (1894)  3;  H.  Ache- 
lie,  ifippotyUftudien,  Leipsic,  1897;  Harnack,  LiUeratur,  i. 
603-005;  Jaff^,  Reaetta.  i.  12-13.  Li.  731;  Mil  man.  Latin 
ChriMtianUy,  L  75-79;  Bower,  Papet,  i.  30-21. 

Calixtus  n,  (Gui,  or  Wido,  eon  of  Count  William 
of  Burgundy):  Pope  1119-24.  He  wa«  made 
archbishop  of  Vienne  in  1088,  and  under  Paschal 
n,  was  legate  in  filngland,  with  little  success.  In 
the  investiture  controversy  he  was  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  French  opposition  to  the  compromise  of  1111 
with  Henry  V.  A  synod  called  by  him  at  Vienne 
in  that  year  condemned  lay  investiture  without 
reserve  and  excommunicated  Henry*  threatening 
the  pope  with  renunciation  of  allegiance  if  he  did 
not  confirm  its  decrees.  When  he  was  elected 
pope  by  the  cardinals  assembled  at  Cluny  (Feb,  2, 
1119),  Henry  had  reason  to  fear  the  accession  of  a 
second  Hildebrand.  He  made  conciliatory  over- 
tures to  the  new  pontiff,  offering  to  submit  the 
controversy  to  a  council  called  by  Calixtus,  and 
appro\''ed  an  agreement  with  the  papal  represent- 
atives by  which,  in  return  for  the  revocation  of  his 
excommunication,  he  surrendered  his  claims  to 
the  right  of  investiture.  But  the  agreement  proved 
impossible  of  execution,  and  soon,  in  a  great  council 
held  at  Reims  (Oct.  29  and  3Q»  1119),  Calixtus 
rtinewed  his  denial  of  the  right  and  his  excora- 
munication  of  Henry  and  of  Antipope  Gregory 
VIII.  Though  the  sentence  remained  ineffective 
in  Germanyt  Calixtus  strengthened  liis  authority 
in  France  during  his  stay  there^  finthng  a  firm  ally 
in  Ijouis  the  Fat.  He  went  to  Italy  in  the  spring  of 
1 1 20,  and  entered  Rome  in  triumph,  Gregory  VIIL 
fleeing  to  Sutri,  whose  citizens  delivered  him  up  to 
his  victorious  rival  in  the  following  April.  This 
strengthenetl  Calixtus's  position  still  more  against 
the  emperor;  but  the  final  decision  of  the  cont-est 
was  brought  about  by  the  intervention  of  the 
German  princes,  assembled  at  WOrzburg  in  the 
autumn  of  1121.  They  counseled  Henry  to  ac* 
knowledge  Calixtus  and  the  canoiiically  elected 
bishops,  undertaking  in  return  to  arrange  a  peace 
with  the  Church,  and  proposing  the  convocation 
of  a  general  council,  in  w*hich  they  promised  to 
defend  the  honor  of  the  Empire.  Calixtus  ap- 
jMinted  Lambert  of  Ostia  and  two  other  cardinals 
to  conduct  the  negotiations,  which  bi^gan  at  Worms 
in  Sept.,  1122.  Archbishop  Adalbert  of  Mainx 
continued  to  urge  the  strict  Hildebrandine  position, 
and  it  was  due  to  Lambert's  w^ork  alone  that  the 
discussion,  instead  of  being  fruitless,  led  to  the  Con- 
cordat of  Worms  (see CoMCORDAT»  and  Deumitinu 
BuLUS,  L,  §  M  This  was  solemnly  confirme<J  by 
Calixtus  in  the  First  Lateran  Council. opened  on  Mar. 
18,  H23,  which  also  renewed  the  canons  against 
simony  and  clerical  marriage^  and  proclaimed  a 
**  truce  of  God  "   and   a  new  crusade.     While  the 


Oalixtns 
Oallenberff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


848 


plans  for  this  undertaking  were  being  made,  Calix- 
tus  died,  Dec.  13  or  14,  1124.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibliography:  The  EpUtolcB  et  PrivUegia  are  in  MPL, 
clxiii.;  An  Epittola  apuria,  ed.  W.  Grundlach,  is  in  MGH, 
EpUt.,  iii.  (1891)  108-109.  The  VUa  by  Cardinal  Pan- 
dulfuB  Aletrinua,  a  contemporary,  is  in  ASB,  May,  v. 
14-15,  and  in  MPL,  clxiii.  Consult:  Liber  porUificalu, 
cd.  Duchesne,  ii.  322,  376,  Paris,  1892;  H.  Witte,  For- 
Mchungen  zwr  OeBchichte  de»  Wormaer  Concordats.  Gottin- 
gen,  1877;  M.  Maurer,  Papal  Calixt  II.,  Munich.  1889; 
F.  Grcgorovius,  Geschickte  der  Stadt  Rom,  iv.  369  sqq., 
Stuttgart,  1890,  Eng.  transl.,  iv.  390-402,  London,  1896; 
U.  Robert,  Histoire  du  pape  Calixte  II.,  Paris,  1891;  idem, 
BuUaire  du  pape  Calixte  II.,  ib.  1891;  Jafif^,  Regeaia,  i. 
270;  Milman,  Latin  Chrietianity,  iv.  130-149;  Bower, 
Popes,  ii.  456-460. 

C^lixtus  m.  (Johannes  de  Struma):  Antipope 
1168-73,  in  opposition  to  Alexander  III.  (q.v.). 
After  the  peace  of  Venice,  he  maintained  himself 
for  a  wliilc  at  Albano,  but  on  Aug.  29,  1178,  he 
made  liis  submission  to  Alexander  and  was  restored 
to  the  communion  of  the  church,  being  entrusted 
with  the  government  of  Benevcnto.  (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibliography:  Jaff^,  Regeata,  ii.  429,  430;  Milman.  LaHn 

Chriatianiiy,  iv.  431-437;  Bower,  Popes,  ii.  614-615. 

Caliztus  m.  (Alonso  de  Borja  or  Borgia) :  Pope 
1455-68.  Born  at  Xativa  in  Valencia  [Dec.  31, 
1378].  After  a  legal  education  he  became  bishop  of 
Valencia  in  1429  and  cardinal  in  1444.  On  Apr.  8, 
1455,  being  then  seventy-seven  years  old,  he  was 
elected  pope.  He  was  a  man  of  simple  and  blameless 
life,  but  too  weak  to  cope  with  the  disorders  of  the 
time,  some  of  which  arose  directly  from  his  own  par- 
tiality for  his  relatives.  Immediately  after  his  acces- 
sion, he  took  a  vow  to  carry  forward  a  war  against 
the  Turks  and  atone  for  the  manner  in  which  Europe 
had  looked  on  supinely  at  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 
I.ugates  were  sent  throughout  the  Continent  to 
preach  a  crusade  and  collect  troops  and  money. 
Money,  indeed,  came  in,  especially  through  the  help 
of  the  mendicant  orders,  in  large  sums;  but  the  old 
crusading  zeal  had  died  down  too  far  to  be  rekin- 
dled. The  tithes  which  were  required,  on  behalf 
of  the  undertaking,  from  the  clergy  of  France  and 
Germany  aroused  universal  discontent.  The  doc- 
tors of  the  University  of  Paris  and  the  clergy  of 
Rouen  appealed  in  1456  to  a  general  council  against 
the  tax,  and  a  similar  appeal  was  made  in  Germany, 
not  only  on  this  ground  but  on  that  of  the  failure 
to  observe  the  Viemia  Concordat  of  1448  in  regard 
to  the  system  of  clerical  benefices.  While  en- 
deavoring to  put  down  this  rebellious  spirit,  Calixtus 
succeeded  in  assembling  a  small  fleet  wliich  sailed 
(May  31,  1456)  to  help  the  Knights  of  St.  John  in 
their  dangerous  position  at  Rhodes.  The  fleet, 
under  the  command  of  the  cardinal  legate  Scarampo, 
occupied  some  small  islands  of  the  Grecian  archi- 
pelago, without  venturing  on  a  decisive  engagement. 
The  Greeks  had  not  the  courage  to  rise  in  force, 
and  the  Christian  princes  and  Italian  cities  took 
but  a  languid  interest  in  the  crusade.  It  was  a 
piece  of  luck  that  the  victory  of  the  heroic  Hunyadi 
at  Belgrade  (July  14  and  21,  1456)  averted  the 
most  pressing  peril.  The  pope  was  hindered  by 
the  consequences  of  his  hostility  to  Alfonso 
of  Naples,  after  whose  death  (June  27,  1458)  he 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  claim  of  Alfonso's 
natural  son  Fernando,  asserting  that  the  kingdom 


reverted  as  a  fief  of  the  papacy  to  hiniBelf.    This 
attitude  was  the  outcome  of  his  desire  to  advaaoe 
his  own  nephews,   one   of   whom,   Rodrigo  (the 
future  Alexander  VI.),  he  had  made  cardinal  and 
vice-chancellor  of  the  Roman  Church  in  spite  of 
his  being  below  the  canonical  age;  another,  Ptedio, 
he  had  made  duke  of  Spoleto,  destining  the  Nea- 
politan crown  for  him.      Calixtus  died,  however 
(Aug.    6,  1458),   before  his  unscrupulous  deagDs 
could  break  the  peace  of  Italy.     His  nephews  and 
their  Spanish  followers  left  Rome,  where,  in  alliance 
with  the  Colonna  family,  they  had  been  guilty 
of  incessant  crimes  and  violence.         (A.  Haucl) 
Bibliography:      B.    Platina,    The    Uvf  of  the  Popm,  i. 
250-257.  London,  n.d.     Consult:  A.  von   Reumont,  6»- 
schichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii.  126  aqq..  Berlin,  1868;  F.  Gi«- 
goroviufl,  Geschickte  der  Stadt  Rom,  vii.   146  aqq.,  Stett- 
gart,  1870.  Eng.  tran»l.,  London,  1000;  Pastor.  Pepti,  i. 
317-479;  Creighton.  Papacy,  iii.  178-201;  Milinan.  Ulm 
Christianity,  viii.  120  sqq.;  Bower,  Pope9,  iiL  238^24a 

CALIXTUS,  GE0R6:  The  most  influential  ooih 
tinuator  of  Melanchthon's  theology  in  the  seves- 
teenth  century,  spokesman  of  the  so-called  "  syn- 
cretism ''  in  Germany  at  that  time;  b.  at  Medelb3fe 
(in  the  district  of  Tondem,  115  m.  n.n.w.  of  Ham- 
burg), Schleswig,  Dec.  14,  1586;  d.  at  Hdmstadt. 
Bnmswick,  March  19,  1656.  His  father,  pastor 
at  Medelbye,  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon,  wished  to 
have  his  son  educated  in  the  same  way,  and  after 
due  preparation  sent  him  to  the  university  at 
Helmst&dt,  where  like-minded  friends  of  Mdanefa- 
thon,  e.g.,  the  humanist  Caselius,  were  sUll  in 
office.  From  1603  to  1607  he  studied  philolofir 
and  pliilosophy,  then  theology,  paying  espedal 
attention  to  the  study  of  early  patristics.  From 
1609  to  1613  he  traveled  in  Germany,  Bel- 
gium, England,  and  France,  enlarging  his  ideas, 
and  becoming  acquainted  with  the  conditions  of 
the  Reformed  and  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
comparing  them  with  those  of  the  Lutheran  Churdi 
to  which  he  belonged.  Thus  he  developed  an 
irenic  tendency  which  he  retained  all  his  life.  He  was 
appointed  in  1614  professor  of  theology  at  Helm- 
stiidt,  and  remained  there  until  his  death.  A 
memorial  tablet  on  his  house  in  the  little  city  in 
the  duchy  of  Brunswick  commemorates  the  activity 
of  this  enlightened  mind.  His  life  fell  in  the  age 
of  the  Counterreformation  and  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  when  the  hatred  of  the  confessions  toward  each 
other  had  reached  its  height.  The  main  effort  of 
this  irenic  theologian  was  inspired  by  the  idea  that 
theology  must  have  for  its  prime  object  not  so 
much  pure  doctrine  as  Christian  life.  Thus  he 
became  the  creator  of  theological  ethics  as  a  special 
theological  discipline,  and  therein  undoubtedly 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  progress  of  theology;  mort 
moral  philosophers  still  follow  him  in  this  formal 
principle.  But  the  danger  was  thereby  incurred 
of  detaching  ethics  from  dogmatics  and  building 
the  former  without  the  necessary  religious  founda- 
tion. In  the  second  place  he  endeavored  to  bring 
about  a  union  of  all  Christian  churches,  taking  the 
Apostles*  Creed  and  the  consensus  of  the  first  five 
centuries  as  a  dogmatically  and  ecclesiastically 
sufficient  norm.  He  aspired  to  a  union  of  all 
Christian  confessions.  For  this  reason  he  took 
part  in  the  Conference  of  Thorn  (see  Thobn,  Com- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oalixtua 


;BNCE  of)  in  1645,  where,  however,  he  found 
thut  the  Lutherans  would  not  work  with  kim,  since 
they  felt  justifiably  that  from  his  point  of  view 
the  Reformation  lost  its  esi^ential  im|>ortance: 
a  religious  inJifTerentism  would  be  the  obvious 
sequence^  and  it  is  certainly  no  accident  that  during 
the  seventeenth  century  many  princes  and  prin- 
OCiwrn  left  the  Lutlieran  Churcli  tind  joined  the 
Itoman  Catholic  (John  Frederick  of  Hanover^ 
Christine  of  Sweden,  the  daughter  of  Gu^stavus 
Adolphus,  and  some  others).  On  the  other  hand 
the  orthodox,  not  altogether  from  conibativeness, 
endeavored  to  maintain  the  religious  content  of  the 
Rcfomiation;  tkif*  xa  their  merit  ngainst  all  syn- 
cretism. Finally  Calixtu3  made  Idinself  a  name 
in  scientific  dogmatics  by  introducing  the  analytical 
method.  Aft-er  his  death  the  syncretistic  contro- 
versies continued  till  they  lost  their  interest  through 
the  Pietistic  movement.  Among  his  numerous 
writings  those  of  most  interest  arc  liis  academical 
orations  Orationea  select (p  (Helmstiidt,  16(MI);  his 
influontiat  cxegetical  writings,  Exposithnes  and 
Lucubrationes  on  New  and  Old  Testament  books; 
ftnd,  of  liis  irenic  writings,  the  Judicium  de  con- 
irvTerm«  tkeologiciii  qutp  inter  Lutheranos  ct  Re- 
I  formatoB  a^iantur,  et  de  mutmi  jmrtium  fratemitat'd 
I  tUque  tolerantia  propter  conseruium  in  fumiamentis 
(1650).  Ills  son  and  successor.  Friedrich  Ulrich 
Caluctus  (b.  1622;  d.  1701),  tried  to  continue  the 
work  of  hk  father,  but  met  with  no  approval  among 
the  Lutherans,  They  rather  tried  to  supplant 
^riicretism  in  the  Lutheran  Clmrch  by  a  new  ortho- 
dox confession,  Consensus  repetitus  fldei  i^ere 
Lutherantje.  But  this  confession,  which  would 
have  turned  the  Church  into  an  orthodox  school^ 
was  nowhere  officially  accepted.  The  syncretistic 
controversy  remained  for  a  long  time  of  such  im- 
portance that  no  interest  waa  felt  in  the  Pietistic 
principles  which  soon  sprang  up.  Tliis  can  be  un- 
derstood only  from  the  course  of  the  syncretistic 
R'^ntroversies.  See  Syncretism, 
Paul  TacHACKERT. 
UoonAPftT:  Account  ahould  be  taken  of  Calixtus's 
driefwtehMet,  ed.  £.  L.  T.  lienkc,  Halle,  1»B3.  cf.  in- 
Buesof  Jena,  1833,  Marburg,  1840.  Consult:  W,  Gaas. 
a.  Calltt  und  der  Svn^^timnuB,  Hrealjiu.  1846;  E.  L,  T. 
Henke,  G,  Calisiu*  und  atmt  Zeit.  2  voli*.,  Halle,  1%53- 
1856;  W.  C.  DovrdxuitMermanTheot&Qy  during  ih^  Thirty 
F«ari*  Wtur;  Life  and  Corre*pondenc€  of  Q.  Caiixlu*, 
LcmdoQ«  1863;  H.  Friedrich,  Qeorg  Calixium,  der  Uniona- 
mann  d€M  t7.  Jahrhunderts,  Anklum,  18dl;  ADB.  UL  ^6 

CALLAWAY,  HENRY;  Church  of  England, 
misaionary  bishop  of  St.  John*s,  Kaffraria;  b.  at 
Lymington^  SomerHCt,  Jan.  17,  1817;  d.  at  Ottery 
Saint  Mar>'  (12  m.  e.n.e,  of  Exeter)  Mar.  20,  1890. 
In  cariy  life  be  waa  a  Quaker,  and  after  teaching 
from  1835  to  1839,  was  fiucceasively  a  chemist's 
ft«6istant  and  a  surgeon's  assistant.  lie  then 
studied  surgery  mid  was  licensed  by  the  Royitl 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1842  and  by  the  Apothe- 
caries' Society  two  years  later.  In  1852,  however, 
failing  health  obligetl  him  to  sell  his  lucrative  prac- 
tiae  and  to  spend  a  year  in  France.  In  the  following 
year  he  graduated  M.D.  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  determined  to  be  a  physician,  but  his  interest 
in  missionB  be coming^  active,  he  was  ordered  dcorcon 


in  1854,  having  left  the  Society  of  Friends  for  the 
Church  of  England  two  years  pre\iously.  and  went 
Bs  missionarj'^  to  Africa,  lie  wa-^  first  stationed  at 
Ekukanyeni  near  Pie  term  aritzburg,  but  on  being 
pries  ted  in  1855  was  made  rector  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Pietennaritzburg.  Three  years  later  he  obtained 
a  grant  of  land  beyond  the  Umkomanzi  River  and 
Ht'tHed  at  Insunguze,  which  he  renamed  Spring 
Vale.  There  he  began  his  studies  of  Zulu  relig- 
ion and  customs,  but  was  recalled  to  England  in 
1873  to  he  consecrated  first  missionary  bishop  of 
St.  JohnX  Kaffraria.  In  the  following  year  he 
left  England  mul  in  1876  removed  the  mmt  of  the 
diocese  to  Umtata,  where  he  founded  St.  John's 
Theological  College  in  1879.  His  fragile  health, 
however,  had  already  necessitated  the  consecration 
of  Bransby  Key  as  bishop-coadjutor  in  1873,  and 
in  1886  Callaway  resigned  his  see  and  returned  to 
England  in  the  following  year*  settling  at  Ottery 
Saint  Mary,  where  he  spent  tlio  remainder  of  his 
life.  He  wrote:  Imtiiedi^te  Revelation  (London, 
1841);  Memmr  of  J  times  Parnelt  (1846);  Numery 
Tales f  Traditi<}ns^  and  Histories  of  the  Zulus  (Spring 
Vale,  1868);  The  Religious  System  of  the  Amazulu 
(Natal,  1868-70);  and  Missionary  Sermons  (Lon- 
don, 1875).  He  likewise  translated  the  book  of 
Psalms  (Natal.  1871)  and  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  (1882)  into  Zulu. 

BiBLiociRAPEY:  M.  8.  Beoham,  Henryt  CaUmcayt  M.D., 
D.D.^  firat  Biahop  of  Kaffraria;  hi*  Life-HUloru  and 
Wwk,  London,  1896. 

CALLEGARI,  cQl"l^"g^'r!,  GUTSEPPE;  Canlinal 
priest;  b.  at  Venice  Nov.  4,  1841.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  in  18t)4,  and^  after  being  succes- 
eively  a  teacher  and  a  pariah  priest,  waa  consecrated 
bishop  of  Treviao  in  1880,  and  two  years  later  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Padua.  He  was  created 
cardinal  priest  of  Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin  in  1903, 
and  still  retains  his  bishopric.  He  is  likewise  a 
member  of  the  C^ongnegations  of  Biuhops  and  Reg- 
ulars, the  Council,  Rites,  and  Studies. 

CALLENBERG,  cQl'len-berK,  JOHANR  HEm- 
RICH:  German  theologian;  b.  at  Mobclileben 
(a  village  of  Got  ha)  Jan.  12,  1694;  d.  at  Halle 
July  10,  1760.  He  was  educated  at  Halle,  where 
in  1727  be  wais  appointed  associate  professor  of 
philolo^,  becoming  full  professor  in  1735  and  being 
transferred  to  the  faculty  of  theoogy  foin*  years 
later.  His  deep  interest  in  Protestant  missionB 
among  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans  of  the  East 
led  him,  in  1728,  to  found  the  Instiiulum  Judaicum 
for  the  education  of  missionaries.  To  this  insti- 
tution, which  litsted  until  1791  and  was  iiistrumeD- 
tal  in  the  conversion  of  a  large  number  of  Jews,  be 
later  attachetl,  at  his  own  exj>ense,  a  press  for  the 
promotion  of  the  cause.  Europe,  as  well  as  parts 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  was  traversed  by  liis  pupils, 
for  whom  he  printed  Arabic  translations  of  por- 
tions of  the  Old  Testament,  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament,  "  The  Imitation  of  Christ,"  and  other 
works.  His  propaganda  among  the  Mohammedans, 
however,  met  with  little  success.  His  independent 
works,  which  are  of  minor  importance,  include: 
KuTze  A nhitung zuT  judisch-teuischen  Sprache  (Halle, 
1733);  Berichle  mn  einem  Versuch  das  judische  Volk 


CalUnff 
Oalmet 


TU£  NEW  SCUAFF-UERZOG 


810 


mr  ErkenrUnisa  des  ChrisUichen  amuleiten  (3  vols., 
1728-36);  and  De  convenione  Muhammedanorum 
ad  Christum  expeHta  tentaque  (1733). 

Bibuooraprt:  J.  M.  H.  Doering,  Dm  o^Uhrten  Theoloffen 
DeuUchlands,  i.  221  sqq.,  Neuatadt.  1831;  J.  C.  F.  Hoefer, 
NouvelU  BiographU  ginfrale,  vii  202.  46  vob..  Paris. 
1861-66. 

CALLINO  (vocation;  Lat.  vocatio,  Gk.  kUsis): 
In  dogmatic  language  as  well  as  in  the  practical 
usage  of  the  Church  that  act  of  divine  grace  {gratia 
applicatrix)  with  which  the  ordo  aaluHs  (see  Obdks 
or  Salvation)  begins. 

The  Greek  terms  kalein,  kUtos,  kUsia  are  often 
used  both  in  the  Septuagint  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  sense  of  calling  (e.g.,  Matt.  ix.  13;  Acts 
iv.  18),  then  of  summoning  to  court, 

Biblical  of  inviting  to  dinner,  etc.  (e.g.,  Ill 
Usage.  Macc.v.  14;  Matt.  xxii.  4,  8;  Rev.  xix. 
9).  But  even  in  the  Old  Testament 
usage  the  Hebrew  Ipara'  or  the  Greek  kalein  has  the 
meaning  of  calling  some  one  effectually  for  some 
purpose  (cf.  Isa.  xlii.  6,  xlviii.  12,  xlix.  1,  li.  2), 
which  may  signify  **  to  call  into  existence  "  (Wisd. 
of  Sol.  xi.  25;  Baruch  iii.  33,  34;  cf.  Fs.  xxxiii.  9). 
From  this  point  the  solemn  usage  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment takes  its  departure.  The  call  proceeds  from 
God;  it  comes  to  man  through  the  word  of  preach- 
ing, which  is  not  the  word  of  man  but  of  God  (I  Cor. 
i.  9;  II  Pet.  i.  3;  I  Thess.  ii.  13;  II  Thess.  u.  14). 
Inasmuch  as  the  call  comes  from  God, it  is  a  "holy 
calling"  (II  Tim.  i.  9),  a  "heavenly  calling" 
(Heb.  iii.  1 ),  a  "  high  calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  " 
(Phil.  iii.  14).  The  call  is  a  free  act  of  the  grace  of 
God  (Rom.  ix.  11),  in  which  the  divine  election 
and  predestination  realize  themselves  (II  Thess. 
ii.  13,  14;  II  Tim.  i.  9-10;  Rom.  viii.  30).  From  this 
it  is  clear  that  it  is  always  the  effectual  calling  that 
is  thought  of;  indeed  it  is  precisely  the  divine 
election  of  grace  which  is  made  manifest  in  the 
call.  Hence  those  who  became  Christians  were 
"  called  to  be  saints  "  (Rom.  i.  7;  I  Cor.  i.  2,  cf. 
Jude  1:  "  called  and  kept ").  That  to  which  the 
Christians  are  called,  or  that  which  constitutes  the 
content  of  the  call  is  the  blessing  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment salvation,  and  this  is  expressed  in  the  most 
diverse  terms:  to  communion  with  Christ  (I  Cor. 
i.  9);  to  salvation  (II  Thess.  ii.  14);  to  the  peace 
of  Christ  (Col.  iii.  15);  to  the  kingdom  and  glory 
of  God  (I  Thess.  ii.  12);  out  of  the  darkness  into 
a  wonderful  light  (I  Pet.  ii.  9);  to  eternal  life,  to 
his  glory  and  his  inheritance  (I  Tim.  vi.  12;  I  Pet. 
v.  10;  Heb.  ix.  15);  to  the  hope  of  his  calling  (Eph. 
i.  18,  iv.  4). 

Inasmuch  as  the  call  indicates  the  New  Testa- 
ment salvation,  it  also  procures  the  moral  change 
comprehended  in  that  blessing.  As  on  the  human 
side  obedience  corresponds  to  the  call  (Heb.  xi.  6), 
BO  we  are  called  "  not  for  uncleanness,  but  in  sanc- 
tification"  (I  Thess.  iv.  7);  the  Christian's  life 
is  to  be  holy  "  as  he  who  called  you  is  holy  "  (I  Pet. 
i.  15).  If,  therefore,  the  call  is  the  effectual  invi- 
tation of  God  to  man,  conveyed  through  the  Word, 
for  the  kingdom  and  its  blessings,  so  that  every  one 
possessing  these  came  by  them  through  the  call, 
the  call,  on  the  other  hand,  points  beyond  itself 
to  the  realization  through  God  or  through  man: 


"  Faithful  is  he  that  calleth  you  who  also  wiP  do 
it '  (I  Thess.  v.  24)  and  "  give  the  more  diligenoe 
to  miake  your  calling  and  election  sure  "  (U  Fet 
i.  10). 

Luther's  use  of  the  expression  in  the  ezpoiitioD 
of  the  third  article  of  his  Shorter  C^t<Jh^aiq  is 
important  for  the  history  of  the  oonoeptioo.    But 
the  term  did  not  immediately  receive  on  that 
account  an  independent  place  in  dogmatioB.    h 
the  older  Protestant  literature  it  b  used  in  con- 
nection with  election  and  the  Churck 
By  the  Re-  It   seems   to   have   received  a  finn 
formera.    place  in  dogmatics  for  the  first  time 
in  Hutter  {Compendium,  XUL  t.  8). 
Aooording  to  Galovius  it  opens  the  ordo  soteit, 
and  he  defines  it  {Systema,  x.  1)  as  an  "effeetuil 
bringing  in  to  the  Church  "    {ad  ecdeaiam  efnx 
adducHo),   whereas   Hollas    {Examen  theotogiam,    \ 
III.  i.  4,  quAstio  1)  makes  it  an  offer  of  boiefiti    I 
by  Christ.    Moreover,  a  distinction  is  made  between    { 
the  vocaiio  generalise  which  through  nature,  etc,    | 
comes  to  all  men,  and  the  voeatio  epeeialis,  which    i 
comes  through  the  Gospel.    The   latter  may  be 
ordinariay  i.e.,  through  tfa^  Word, or  extraordinaria, 
and  that  immediala  or  mediata.    The  call  is  teria 
and   effieax  (in  opposition  to  the  view  of  the  Re- 
formed), inasmuch  as  the  Spirit  regulariy  becomei    < 
effectual  in  the  Word.   It  is,  moreover,  universdu,    ' 
That  many  peoples  do  without   it  is   their  own    j 
fault.    Then  comes  the  doubtful  contention  that 
since  Adam  all  peoples  in  one  way  or  another  have 
been  given  the  opportunity  of  hearing  the  Go^ 
(the  tix}ye  is  from  Hollas;  for  a  fuU  discussion  cL 
H.  Schmid,  Die  Dogmatik  der  evangeliechrkuhen' 
8chen  Kirche,  Gtttersloh,  1893,  320  sqq.). 

Dogmatically  considered,  the  doctrine  of  vocation 
is  only  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Word 
of  God  to  conversion.  Therefore,  this  conception 
will  disclose  no  new  dogmatic  knowl- 
In  Dog-  edge,  but  will  only  offer  a  confirma- 
matics.  tion  of  such  things  as  have  been 
acquired  elsewhere.  But  because  the 
Scriptures  often  apply  the  term  and  because  it  has 
through  the  catechism  gone  over  into  the  popular 
religious  consciousness,  its  right  to  a.special  treat- 
ment in  dogmatics  is  not  to  be  denied.  The  call 
takes  place  the  very  moment  a  person — be  be  a 
non-Christian  or  be  he  externally  connected  with 
Christianity — becomes  aware  that  the  heard  (or 
read)  Word  as  the  Word  of  God  efficaciously  woib 
in  him  the  divine  will  unto  salvation,  and  as  there 
is  no  conceivable  moment  in  the  Christian  lif« 
in  which  that  revelation  of  salvation  in  the  Word 
becomes  superfluous,  the  vocation  will  be  a  con- 
tinual one  and  the  Christian  will  always  remain  a 
vocatus.  We  may,  therefore,  confine  the  oonoq>tion 
to  the  opening  of  the  new  life;  but,  starting  from 
the  thought  of  the  Word  of  €k>d,  we  must  define 
the  call  as  that  influence  of  God  upon  man,  through 
the  medium  of  the  Word,  which  makes  the  beginning 
of  the  new  life  and  conditions  its  continuation  and 
its  completion.  The  call  brings  us  the  wbcde 
salvation,  as  the  passages  of  Scripture  above  cited 
show.  If  dogmatidans  as  a  rule,  in  qieaking  of 
vocation,  think  onlyof  the  first  influence  of  Goi 
this  must  be  supplemented  by  the  fact  that  thia 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


C&lmet 


erm  comprehenda  within  itself  the  further  divine 
ctivities.  If  now  the  call  embraces  the  whole  of 
Ivation  in  its  n-lution  to  us,  it  m  plain  that  ita 
atent  is  the  Gospel;  as  the  old  writers  rightly 
dved*  But  since  "  hiw  '*  and  GoHpe!  stand  in 
slose  connection,  the  law  also  must  he  indirectly 
acluded  in  the  call.  E.  Seebehg. 

CALLING,    EARTHLY:    The    position    in    life 
cupied   by  each  incli\idual,  and   the  duties   to- 
rard  society  which  appertain  to  such  a  position. 
These  duties  are  primarily  social  rather  tiian  ethical, 
nd  may  be  he<ioniatic  in  motive,  as  when  they  are 
Brformed  for  the  sake  of  Uvelihood-     The  calling 
By  be  ethicized,  however,  if  the  ends  of  the  social 
sm  be  served  expressly  for  the  glory  of  God, 
tius  transforming  the  calling  into  divine  worship. 
ace  the  culling  conclitiona  the  clasa  of  services 
adered  to  society,  it  must  form  the  basis  of  an 
thicnl    activity*     Each    function    resulting    from 
he  divinely  created  nature  of   man  may  develop 
a  to  a  calling,  although  the  variety  in  callings  does 
dot  necessarily  imply  a  distinction  in  tlie  value  of 
erBonalitics.     Nor  is  it  unethical  to  have  no  calling, 
but  only  to  desire  to  have  none,  hi  nee  those  who 
f  so  conditioned  that,  tlirough  no  volition  of  their 
It  they  are  without  a  calling  do  not  become  un- 
thieal  for  that  reason. 
In  the  ricli  develoument  of  Christian  ethics  in 
New  Testament    the  earthly  calling   is  com- 
fttively  neglected,  yet,  from  the  point  of  \new  of 
3ve  toward    one's  neighbor,   he   w!io    disregards 
m  duties  to  his  family,  and  toward  society  and 
he  Church,  must  be  considered  unctliicaL     The 
tbly  calling  is,  accordingly,  individualistic  rather 
umversal  in  its  obligations  to  society,  and 
j>reeeDt8  one  of  the  forms  of  Chrintian  ethics. 
Wilful  neglect  of  the  calling  is  immoral,  since  it  is 
he  only  means  of  intercommunication  in  society, 
rhich   would    otherwise   be    incoherent    and    dis- 
t»rganized.     The  bodily  and  mental   gifts  of  man 
fruitless  unless  they  are  devoted  to  the  welfare 
society   through   a  definite   calUng,   and  their 
aeglect  is  not  only  contrary  tc>  nature  but  also  to 
ho  will  of  Cfod 
The  ethical  signification  of  the  earthly  calling 
(  ftn  important  chapter  of  philosophical  ethics, 
ough  it«  recognition  of  the  dignity  of  labor  and 
be   worth   of  the   individual,   Christianity    revo- 
utioniied  the  ethics  of  the  pagan  worlcj,  although 
he  full  ethical  evaluation  of  the  calling  began  only 
the  Bfiformation.     Since  God  is  serveii  le>ss  by 
df-cbomn   cultij   than    by   the   ethical   obedience 
rhich  I>e  himself  has  commanded  (Isa.  i.   11-17^ 
lofl.  \'i.  6;  Matt.  ix.  13,  xii,  7),  the  believing  Chris- 
performs  a  true  worship  corresponding  to  his 
I  a  child  of  God  in  his  faithful  performance 
hi*  calling.     In  a  certain  sense  the  principles  of 
Athical  value  of  the  fulfilment    of  the  calling 
I  merely  a  renewal  of  the  New  Testament  doctrine 
the  Christian  confirmation  of  faith  through 
&ve  bears  a  distinct  and  active  relation  to  society 
Cor.  vii.  20-24;  Eph.  vi,  5  sqq.;  I  Pet.  li.  12 
qq.).  even  though  nowhere  in  the  New  Testament 
i    earthly    calling    specifically    mentioned.     The 
[Ustinetion  of  callings  begins  m  the  tanuly,  whence 


it  develops  successively  into  the  acquisition  and 
control  of  temporal  benefits  and  into  the  charge 
over  intellectual  and  spiritual  blessiui^  in  religion^ 
science,  and  art,  the  culmination  being  the  con- 
stitution of  society  as  a  whole.  Yet  the  individuaj 
can  not  make  free  chr)icc  of  his  own  calling,  but  ia 
restricted  by  certain  social  limitation.'*;  still,  other 
things  being  equal,  that  calling  should  be  chosen 
which  is  most  in  harmony  both  with  talents  and 
inclination.  External  conditions,  however,  fre- 
quently render  impossible  the  development  of  the 
most  gifted  talent,  yet  in  such  cases  there  is  no 
reason  for  the  fonnation  of  a  religious  and  mora! 
personality  to  suffer  injury,  since  such  adverse 
circumstances  demand  full  an<i  complete  fidelity 
to  the  calling,  and  thus  strengthen  true  Christiaii 
piety,  instead  of  impairing  it,         (L,  Lemme,) 

CALMET,  AUGUSTTH:  French  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  and  author;  b.  at  Meanil-la-Horgne 
(a  village  near  Commercy,  25  m,  e,  of  Barde-Duc) 
Feb.  26,  1672;  d.  at  Senones  (7  ra.  n.e.  of  St.  Di6) 
Oct-  25,  1757.  He  was  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the 
congregation  of  St.  Vannes,  and  studied  at  the 
priory  of  Breuil,  while  he  learned  Hebrew  from 
the  Pmteatant  clergyman  Favre.  After  1698  he 
instructed  the  pupils  of  the  order  in  theology  and 
philosophy  at  the  abbey  of  Moyen-Moutier  in  the 
Vosges,  and  in  1704  was  appointed  snbprior  at 
MQnster.  Fourt'Cen  years  later  the  general  chapter 
of  his  order  mu<lc  him  abbot  of  St.  Leopold  at 
Nancy,  whence  be  was  transferred  in  1728  to 
Senones,  and  there  he  paissed  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  His  numerous  works  gi\Tj  evidenoe  of 
extraordinary  reading  and  erudition,  but  lack 
critical  ability  mid  insight.  His  best  writinjB^  are 
devoted  to  the  interi>retation  of  the  Bible  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  of  the  C-ouncil  of  Trent.  To 
tliis  category  belongs  his  La  Sainte  Bibh  en  latin 
et  en  fran^ais  at^ec  un  comtnentaire  IMral  et  crUiqtAe 
(23  vols.,  Paris,  1707-1(1),  the  French  translation 
being  that  of  Sacy  and  the  commentary  giving 
simply  a  grammatical  exegesis.  The  excursuses 
on  each  book,  dealing  with  chronology,  history, 
antiquities,  and  similar  topics,  were  the  most 
valuable  portion  of  the  work,  and  were  published 
separately  under  the  title  DisBertntUm^  qui  pcuveni 
eervir  de  proUgomhies  a  V Venture  Sainte  (3  vols., 
1720),  and  the  Trrnor  d'aniiquUis  socries  H  pro- 
fanes dts  commentaires  du  P.  Caltnei  (13  vols., 
Amsterdam,  1722)  is  the  same  work  with  a  difiFerent 
arrangement.  The  notes  scattereti  in  the  com- 
mentaries are  collected  in  alphabetical  order  in  the 
Dictionnaire  histfirupie  et  crUiipief  chronologiquef 
g^ographique  et  iUit'rai  de  la  Bihk  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1722,  supplement,  1728;  Eng.  transl.,  3  vols., 
London,  1732),  which  long  remained  the  quarry  for 
similar  works.  Less  important  are  the  //wrtoVe 
mainte  de  rAncien  et  du  Xouveau  Te^anient  et  den 
Juifn  (2  vols.,  1718)  and  the  Histmre  universeUe 
MoCT^e  et  profane  (17  vols.,  Strasburg,  Senones,  and 
Nancy,  1735-71).  Calmet*s  works  are  now  little 
read,  wth  the  exception  of  the  Histmre  eccUsias- 
iique  et  civile  de  la  Lorraine  (4  vols.,  Nancy,  1728), 
which  is  based  on  archi%^s  and  accompanied  with 
val  liable  documents,  cC,  Pfendeb.) 


Caloviiui 
Calvin 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


858 


Bibliography:  The  autobiography  is  contained  in  hia  His- 
toire  de  Lorraine,  vol.  iv..  ut  sup.  Comiult:  A.  Fangtf,  Vie 
de  Calmei,  Scnoncs,  1762  (by  his  nephew;  contains  a 
complete  list  of  Calmet's  works):  A.  Digot,  Notice^  Wo- 
graphique  et  litttraire  »ur  A.  Calmei,  Nancy,  1861;  KL,  ii. 
1717-21.  New  material  is  presented  in  Documents 
inSdiU  mr  leM  correapondanceM  de  Dom  CalmeU  ed.  P.  fi. 
Quillaume.  ib.  1875. 

CALOVIUS,  ca-l6'vi-us  (KALAU),  ABRAHAM: 
Lutheran  dogmatic  theologian;  b.  at  Mohningen 
(62  m.  8.8.W.  of  Kdnigsberg),  Prussia,  Apr.  16,  1612; 
d.  at  Wittenberg  Feb.  25,  1686.  He  was  driven 
away  by  the  plague  from  the  first  two  schools  he 
attendeti,  at  Thorn  and  at  Konigsberg,  but  he 
prosecuted  his  studies  at  home  to  such  good  purpose 
that  when  barely  fourteen  he  was  able  to  enter  the 
University  of  K6nigsberg.  Here  he  took  his  mas- 
ter's degree  six  years  later,  and  waB  at  once  taken 
into  the  philosophical  faculty.  He  lectured  on 
philosophy  and  mathematics,  while  eagerly  con- 
tinuing the  study  of  theology.  His  polemical 
activity  began  with  a  tractate  against  the  Reformed 
court  preacher  Berg  (1635).  In  1634  he  migrated 
to  the  University  of  Rostock,  of  which  he  became 
a  doctor  in  1637.  Then  he  returned  to  Kdnigsberg, 
was  made  assessor  to  the  theological 
Educatioii  faculty,  and  resumed  his  lectures, 
and  Early  Two  years  later  he  became  adjunct 
Professorial  professor,  and  visitor  of  the  Samland 
Activity,  district;  in  1643  he  went  to  Danzig 
as  rector  of  the  gymnasium  there 
and  pastor  of  Trinity  Church.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Thorn  Conference  of  1645,  where  he  came 
in  contact  with  Calixtus.  From  this  time  on  a 
^eat  part  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  polemical 
Activity,  especially  against  Syncretism  (q.v.)  and 
Calvinism.  In  1650,  at  the  invitation  of  the  elector 
John  George  I.,  he  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  to  be  spent.  He  began  there  as 
third  professor  and  preacher  at  the  parish  church, 
of  which  he  became  pastor  in  1652  and  general 
superintendent  of  the  district,  and  by  1660  he 
wafl  head  professor  and  dean  of  the  faculty.  The 
university  increased  considerably  in  numbers 
through  the  attraction  of  his  teaching,  though 
the  increase  fell  off  when  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg forbade  his  subjects  (1662)  to 
Caloyius  go  there  for  theology  or  philosophy, 
at  Witten-  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the 
berg.  principia  Caloviana  to  the  Reformed 
teacliing.  An  iron  constitution  en- 
abled him  to  work  incessantly  at  his  books  and 
lectures,  as  well  as  to  support  the  loss  of  five  wives 
and  thirteen  children  and  to  marry  again  at  the 
age  of  seventy-two.  A  complete  record  of  his 
activity  is  left  in  his  books,  since  he  nearly  always 
expanded  his  lectures  into  that  form.  His  po- 
lemical activity  was  directed  chiefly  against  the 
Syncretistic  school  of  Helmstadt  and  its  K6nigsberg 
allies  Behm,  Dreier,  and  Latermann,  as  well  as 
later  againqjb  the  Hessian  friends  of  Calixtus.  He 
had  paid  his  compliments  to  the  latter's  teaching 
even  in  his  Danzig  days,  and  in  his  InstUutionum 
theologicarum  prolegomena  (2  parts,  1649-50). 
More  important  onslaughts  on  this  school  were 
Synopsis  controversiarum  potiarum  (1652),  with  an 
introduction   specially   directed   against   Calixtus; 


Syncretismus  Calixtinua  (1653);  and  Harmoma 
CaHxtina-hccTetica  (1655),  in  which  he  accuses  the 
"  innovators  "  not  merely  of  tolerating  false  doe- 
trine  but  of  teaching  it  themselves,  and  proves  his 
point  by  attempting  to  show  their  "  hannony  *' 
with  CaUinists  and  Papists,  Arminians  and  Sodn- 
ians.  By  the  date  of  this  publication  Caloviui 
thought  the  time  was  ripe  for  a  step  which  he  had 
been  urging  for  four  years.  The  Conaensui  repe- 
tUtta  fidei  vera  LtUherancB  is  undoubtedly  in  its 
essence  the  work  of  Calovius,  in  its  first  as  well  as 
in  its  final  form.  The  purpose  of  this  new  dog- 
matic standard,  the  exclusion  of  the 
His  Contro-  Syncretists  from  the  Church  and  so 
versial  from  the  protection  of  the  religious 
Writings,  truce,  was  not  attained;  in  fact,  after 
1655,  and  still  more  after  1669,  when 
definite  instructions  were  conveyed  to  the  Witten- 
berg theologians  to  restrain  their  polemical  ardor, 
there  is  a  noticeable  slackening  of  anti-Syncretist 
activity;  and  Calovius  turned  his  attention  rather 
to  the  Jena  school,  and  especially  to  Musseus.  In 
1682,  finally,  he  published  a  complete  account  of 
the  whole  controversy  in  his  Historia  syncreH^ea. 
Owing  to  the  prohibition  of  polemical  publications, 
it  appeared  without  any  author's  name  or  place  of 
printing,  described  merely  as  the  work  of  "  D.  A  C. 
[Dr.  Abraham  Calovius],  a  distinguished  theologian.'' 
The  elector  John  George  III.,  who  objected  on 
political  grounds  to  such  literature,  had  all  the 
copies  bought  up,  so  that  this  edition  is  very  rare. 
A  second  edition  appeared  in  1685,  with  Calovius's 
approval  and  with  his  name  on  the  title-page.  He 
attacked  the  Roman  Catholics  in  his  ilatwoHogia 
papistica  (1647).  and  the  Sodnians  in  several  smaU 
works,  which  when  collected  (1684)  filled  two  folio 
volumes.  As  if  the  conflict  within  his  own  CJhurch 
did  not  give  him  enough  to  do,  he  interposed  in 
the  controversies  of  the  Calvinists  with  his  Con- 
sideratio  Arminianismi  (1655)  and  his  Theses  theo- 
logiccB  de  Labbadismo  (1681).  His  last  work,  the 
Anti-Bcehmius  (1684),  directed  against  Jakob 
Bdhme,  shows  a  failure  in  power. 

In  the  way  of  constructive  theology,  his  Systema 
locorum  theologicarum  (12  vob.,  1655-77)  is,  with 
the    possible    exception    of   Gerhard's,    the  most 
important  dogmatic  production  of  the  century— 
the  true  exemplar  of  what  has  been  called  Lutheran 
scholasticism.     It    takes    the    Lutheran   doctrine, 
as  it  had  developed  on  the  basis  of  the  Formula 
Concordia  and   the  Scriptural   principles,  pushed 
to  their  extreme  since  the  Regensburg  conference 
of  1601,  and  defends  it  with  unyielding  logic  and 
firmness  against  the  intellectual  forces  of  a  new 
age.     Even    liis    principal    exegetical    work,  the 
Biblia   iUustrala    (4    vols.,    1672-76), 
His  Con-    has  a  polemical  bearing,  being  intended 
structive    to    correct    the    Annotata   of   Hugo 
Theology.    Grotius,  which  is  incorporated  in  it 
He  accomplishes  his  task  with  great 
acuteness,   wonderful   learning,   and  more  feeling 
for  the  sense  of  Scripture  than  his  opponent,  whose 
preference  was  for  secular  authors,  but  with  his 
inevitable     dogmatic     limitations.    The    circum- 
stances of  his  life  render  it  difficult  to  pronounce 
a  summary  judgment  on  the  man  and  his  career. 


858 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Calovliife 
Cftlvln 


The  party  of  Calixtus  naturally  hated  and  despised 
him;  but  the  fact  that  they  found  it  necessary 
to  spread  absurd  fictions  about  his  horrible  end 
Bhows  clearly  enough  that  nothing  could  justly 
be  said  against  his  personal  character.  In  his  own 
day  he  compelled  the  respect  and  admiration  of  a 
great  variety  of  men,  and  his  talents  have  been  fully 
recognized  by  some  who  were  far  from  agreeing 
with  him,  Uke  Buddeus,  Walch,  and  StSudlin. 
His  incessant  controversial  activity  has  left  a  mis- 
leading impression  of  him;  he  himself  says  of  this 
branch  of  his  work,  "  I  come  to  this  kind  of  writing 
unwillingly    and    by    force;  my    dis- 

Estimate    position  inclines  me  rather  to  stick 
of  to   positive   doctrinal   work."     As   a 

Calovius.  theologian  he  was  a  faithful  member 
of  the  Wittenberg  school.  No  one 
has  insisted  more  on  the  necessity  of  a  Scriptural 
basis  for  all  teaching.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that 
the  defects  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy — its  hardness 
and  its  extremes — are  to  be  found  in  him.  Faith 
is  essentially  the  acceptance  of  the  orthodox  system; 
not  only  the  essentials  (and  they  covered  a  great 
deal  of  ground  in  those  days),  but  every  derived 
article  must  be  accepted,  for  the  faith  is  one.  The 
standard  books  of  doctrine  are  theoretically  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Scriptures;  but  the  student  is 
required  to  accept  them  not  hypothetically  but 
categorically — not  in  so  far  as,  but  because,  they 
agree  with  the  Bible.  His  firm  conviction  of  the 
truth  of  his  system  gives,  however,  a  certain  dignity 
to  his  polemics;  but  his  untiring  activity  never 
reached  its  aim — he  did  not  succeed  in  raising  the 
Consensus  repetUus  to  the  dignity  of  a  creed,  and 
a  new  era  had  dawned  before  he  went  to  his  rest. 

(Johannes  Kunze.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  sources  for  a  life  of  Calovius  are:  his 
own  Historia  auncretistica,  1682;  a  funeral  discourse  by 
his  colleague  J.  F.  Mayer,  1686;  and  C.  S.  Schursfleisch, 
Orationet  panegyricct,  pp.  71  sqq.,  Wittenberg,  1607. 
Consult:  U.  Pipping,  Memoria  iKeolooorum,  pp.  106-136, 
Leipsic,  1705;  J.  C.  Erdmann,  Lebenabeachreibunoen  .  .  . 
von  den  wiUenbergitchen  Theologen,  pp.  88-91.  Witten- 
berg. 1804;  A.  Tholuck,  Der  Oeitt  der  lutheriachen  Theo- 
logen  Wxttenbero;  pp.  185-211.  Gotha.  1852;  E.  L.  T. 
Henke.  Oeorg  Calixtua  und  aeine  Zeit,  2  vols.,  Halle.  1853- 
1856. 

CALVARY.    See  Holy  Sepulcher. 

CALVARY,  MOUNT,  ORDERS  OF:  Three  relig- 
ious orders  taking  their  name  from  the  Mount  of 
Crucifixion. 

1.  The  Calvarists  or  Priests  of  Mt  Calvary :  An  as- 
sociation of  secular  priests  founded  by  Hubert  Char- 
pentier  at  Mt.  B^tharam,  diocese  of  Lescar  (4  m.  n.w. 
by  w.  of  Pau),  France,  in  1633  "  in  commemoration 


of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  for  the  spread  of  the 
Catholic  faith/'  five  years  later  united  with  a 
similar  association  formed  in  Paris  by  a  Capuchin 
named  Hyacinthe,  primarily  to  convert  Protestants. 
The  chief  seat  of  the  united  orders  was  Mont  Va- 
l^rien,  Paris  (hence  popularly  called  CoUine  du  Col' 
vaire).    They  perished  in  the  French  Revolution. 

2.  The  Nuns  of  Mt  Calvary  {BdrUdidines  de 
Notre-Dame  du  Calvaire) :  Founded  by  Antoinette 
d*0rl4ans  (d.  1618)  and  the  Capuchin  Joseph  de 
Clerc  de  Tremblay  in  1617  at  Poitiers,  properly 
a  branch  of  the  Order  of  Font^vraud  (q.v.).  In 
the  seventeenth  century  they  had  about  twenty 
houses  which  were  destroyed  in  the  French  Revo- 
lution. Since  then  the  order  has  been  revived  and 
has  a  number  of  convents  mostly  in  western 
France. 

3.  The  Daughters  of  Mt  Calvary  (Figlie  del 
CcUvario):  Founded  at  Genoa  in  1619  by  Virginia 
Centurione  (d.  1651),  daughter  of  the  doge  of  Genoa 
and  wife  of  Grimaldi  Bracelli,  who  undertook  the 
care  of  abandoned  children  in  a  time  of  great  dis- 
tress from  famine.  She  received  help  from  the 
Marchese  Emanuele  Brignole,  from  whom  the 
members  of  the  order  were  called  Le  suore  Brignole 
in  Genoa.  They  spread  in  North  Italy,  were  given 
a  house  in  Rome  by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1833,  and 
later  established  orphan  asylums  at  Rieti  and 
Viterbo.  (O.  ZftCKLERtO 
Biblioobapht:  Helyot.    Ordrea  monaatiquea,    vi.   355-370; 

Heimbucher,  Orden  und  KongreoaHonen^  i.  107,  ii.  362, 
427.  Consult  also  A.  M.  Centurione,  Vita  di  Virginia  Cenr 
turione-Bracdli,  Genoa,  1873. 

CALVERT,  JAMES:  Wesleyan  foreign  mission- 
ary; b.  at  Pickering,  25  m.  n.  by  e.  of  York,  Eng- 
land, Jan.  3,  1813;  d.  at  Torquay,  England,  Mar. 
8,  1892.  When  appointed  by  the  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  1838  to  go  to  Fiji  he  was  master 
of  the  printing  and  bookbinding  trades  and  had 
been  in  1837  a  student  in  the  Hoxton  Academy. 
His  industrial  training  stood  him  in  good  stead 
for  he  was  able  to  do  his  own  printing  in  Fiji  and 
issue  many  books,  among  them  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  the  vernacular.  He  lived 
to  see  the  complete  abandonment  of  heathenism 
by  the  Fijians,  a  result  to  which  his  heroic  labors 
contributed  largely.  From  1865  to  1872  he  was 
supernumerary  minister  at  Bromley,  Kent,  England, 
thence  he  went  as  missionary  to  the  South  African 
diamond  fields.  He  returned  in  1881  and  settled 
at  Torquay.  In  1885  he  paid  a  visit  to  Fiji  and 
rejoiced  in  the  marvelous  change. 

Biblioobapht:  G.  S.  Rowe.  Jamea  Calvert  of  Fiii,  Londoa* 
1893. 


Childhood  ((  1). 
Student  of  Theology  ((  2). 
Student  of  Law  and  the  Classics  (i  3). 
His  First  Pablieation.  Conversion  (i  4). 
Cop's  Inaugural  Address  (i  5). 
''Years  of  Wandering."     Second  Pub- 
lication (i  6). 


CALVIN,  JOHN. 

Publication  of  his  '*  Institutes  "  (i  7). 
First  Residence  in  Geneva  and  in  Stras- 

burg  (I  8). 
Rising      Fame.      Recall     to     Geneva 

(19). 
Second  Residence  in  Geneva  (i  10). 
Calvin's  Fundamental  Ideas  (|  11). 


His  Reforms  (i  12). 

His  Opponents  (i  13). 

His  Ecclesiastical  Influence  (f  14). 

His  Character  (f  15). 

His  Personal  Appearance  (f  16). 

His  Literary  Labors  (i  17). 


John  Calvin  the  Reformer,  b.  at  Noyon  (60  m. 

n.e.    of    Paris),  Picardy,   July    10,    1509;    d.   in 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  May  27,  1564,  was  the  son 

of  Gerard  Cauvin,  or  Caulvin,  of  which  Calvin  is 

II.— 23 


the  Latinized  form,  a  registrar  of  the  government 
of  Noyon,  solicitor  in  the  ecclesiastical  court,  fiscal 
agent  of  the  county,  secretary  of  the  bishopric,  and 
attorney  of  the  cathedral  chapter.    Calvin's  mother 


Oalvln 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


8M 


was  Jeanne  Le  Franc  of  Cambrai,  noted  for  personal 
beauty  and  great  religious  ferv^or  and  strictness. 
Of  the  five  sons  of  his  parents  he  was  the  second, 

and  but  one  of  liis  younger  brothers 

I.  Child-    survived  childhood.     Ills  mother  died 

hood.       while  he  was  still  young  and  his  father 

married  a  ^ndow,  whose  name  is  un- 
known, who  bore  him  two  daughters.  His  father's 
position  and  ambition  for  liis  sons  was  such  that 
he  secured  for  them  the  best  educational  advan- 
tages at  home,  association  with  the  children  of 
prominent  families,  and  ecclesiastical  patronage; 
so  that  Calvin  on  May  19,  1521,  when  only  twelve 
years  of  age,  received  the  chaplaincy  attached  to 
the  altar  of  La  G^ne  in  the  cathedral  of  Noyon, 
which  gave  him  a  regular  income.  It  was  expected 
that  he  would  become  a  priest  and  so  he  was  given 
the  tonsure. 

In  1523  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  prepare  for  the 
priesthood.  He  attended  for  a  few  months  the  Col- 
lege de  la  Marche,  wherein  Mathurin  Cordicr 
grounded  him  in  Latin;  next  the  College  de  Mon- 
taigu,  where  he  remained  till  the  opening  of  1528. 
The  high  grade  of  his  childish  friendships  and  of  those 

of  matiu*er  years  reveals  his  own  char- 

2.  Student  acter,  and  refutes  the  insinuations  his 

of  detractors  have  dared  to  whisper. 
Theology.  That  he  stood  well  with  the  eccle- 
siastics in  liis  native  city  is  shown  by 
their  giving  him  on  Sept.  27,  1527,  in  addition  to 
the  chaplaincy  mentioned,  the  (nominal)  curacy 
of  Saint  Martin  de  Martheville,  eight  leagues  from 
Noyon,  wliich  he  exchanged  on  June  5,  1529,  for 
the  curacy  of  Pont  I'fiv^ue,  a  village  1  m.  w.  of  s. 
of  Noyon,  associate  with  his  ancestors,  who  were 
boatmen  on  the  Oi^  (not  to  be  confounded  with 
Pont  rfiv^ue,  25  m.  e.n.e.  of  Caen).  On  Apr.  30, 
1529,  he  resigned  his  chaplaincy  in  favor  of  liis 
younger  brother,  but  resumed  it  on  Feb.  26,  1531, 
and  held  it  till  May  4,  1534. 

As  a  student  Calvin  showed  rare  abiUty  and  was 
rapidly  acquiring  the  priestly  training  when  in 
1528  his  father,  who  liad  fallen  out  with  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities  in  Noyon,  ordered  him  to 
change  his  studies  to  law.  He  meekly  obeyed  and 
left  Paris  for  Orleans,  whose  university  was  then 
a  famous  law  center,  as  there  Pierre  Taisan  de 
I'Estoile  lectured,  and  the  next  year  went  to 
Bourges,    where    Andrea    Alciati,    a 

3.  Student  rival  of  equal  eminence,  and  more  to 
of  Law  and  Calvin's  taste,  was  the  great  attrac- 

the  tion.  In  both  universities  he  came 
Classics,  under  the  influence  of  Melcliior  Wol- 
mar,  a  humanist  of  the  front  rank  and 
favorable  to  the  Reformation.  On  May  26,  1531, 
his  father  died,  and  Calvin  left  Bourges  and  returned 
to  Paris,  to  classical  study  and  the  study  of  Hebrew, 
except  that  from  the  summer  of  1532  to  that  of 
1533  he  was  again  a  student  of  law  at  Orleans  and 
there  "  annual  representative  "  of  the  dean  of  the 
Picard  students,  another  indication  of  liis  moral 
standing  and  popularity  with  the  students,  for 
students  d  >  not  honor  of  their  own  accord  dubious 
or  disagreeable  characters. 

In  Apr.,  1532,  he  published  in  Paris  at  his  own 
expense,  and  at  a  pecuniary  loss,  the  text  of  Seneca's 


De  Clementia,  with  a  commentary,  which  shoved 
that  he  was  still  a  humanist  within  the  Romaa 
Church.  But  the  Reformation  was  making  head- 
way in  France  among  the  humanistic  class  to  which 
he  belonged,  and  so  must  have  often  been  a  topie 
of  his  conversation.  Step  by  step  he  approaebed 
the  position  of  the  Reformers,  but  slowly,  for,  is 
he  says  himself,  in  the  partly  autobiographic  pref^ 
ace  to  his  commentary  on  the  Pulmi 
4.  His  First  (and  it  is  about  all  that  is  known  oa 
Publication,  the  subject),  he  "  was  too  obsti- 
Conversion.  nately  devoted  to  the  superstitiau 
of  popery  to  be  easily  extricated  from 
so  profound  an  abyss  of  mire."  But,  some  time 
in  1533,  "  God  by  a  sudden  conversion  subdued 
and  brought  [his]  mind  to  a  teachable  frame.  Hit- 
ing  thus  received  some  taste  and  knowledge  of  trae 
godliness,  [lie]  was  inunediately  inflamed  with  lo 
intense  a  desire  to  make  progress  therein,  that 
although  [he]  did  not  altogether  lea\'e  off  other 
studies,  [he]  yet  pursued  them  with  less  ardor. 
[He]  was  quite  surprised  to  find  that  before  a  ym 
had  elapsed,  all  who  had  any  desire  after  puier 
doctrine  were  continually  coming  to  [him]  to  leam 
although  [he  himself]  was  as  yet  but  a  mere  noviee 
and  tyro." 

Among  those  with  whom  he  discussed  Refoimed 
doctrine  was  his  bosom  friend  Nicolas  Cop,  and 
when  Cop  was  elected  rector  of  the  imiversity  of 
Paris  it  seemed  to  them  a  splendid  opportunity 
to  commend  the  Reformation  to  the  cultured  and 
brilliant  audience  which  would  be  gathered  in  the 
Church  of  the  Mathurins  to  hedr  the  inaugural  ad- 
dress. Accordingly  they  planned  it  together  and 
on  Nov.  1, 1533,  Cop  delivered  it.  He  announced  hii 
theme  as  ''Christian  Philosophy,"  and  proceeded 
to  speak  in  a  manner  which  greatly 
5.  Cop's  In-  amazed  his  audience.  By  "Chm- 
augural  tian  Philosophy  "  he  meant  the  GoapeL 
Address.  The  phrase  and  the  treatment  in  tha 
opening  part  of  the  address  were  deriTed 
from  Erasmus.  The  burden  of  it  was  on  the  reb-  H 
tion  of  Law  and  Gospel,  and  here  Luther's  influent* 
appears.  The  concluding  part  was  more  independ- 
ent, and  in  it  was  struck  that  note  of  certainty  as 
to  salvation,  which  was  to  be  a  feature  of  CJalTin- 
ism. 

Perhaps  all  would  have  gone  well,  for  there  mat 
havti  been  many  secret  sympathizers  with  their 
views  in  the  audience,  had  Cop  not  criticiaed  the 
theologians  of  the  Sorbonne  as  '*  sophists."  Tbk 
infuriated  them,  and  they  stirred  up  the  govern- 
ment against  the  audacdous  speaker,  and  Cop  hadtc 
fly.  Calvin  also  fled,  because  his  intimacy  with  Cop 
was  known,  although  it  is  not  certain  whether  it 
was  even  suspected  that  he  had  any  share  in  the 
composition  of  the  address  as  it  is  now  certain  that 

he  had.     Being  assured  that  his  feaft  1 

6.  Years  of  of  personal  injury  were  groundless,  he 

Wandering,  ventured  to  return  shortly  afterwanl 

Second      But  his  sympathy  with  the  Reforma- 

Publication.  tion  could  not  be  hidden,  and  so  be 

did  not  feel  safe  in  the  city  whwe  « 

many    already    had    been    imprisoned   for  their 

faith's   sake,  and  in   Jan.,  1534,  he  went  forth  a 

wanderer,  usually  living  under  an  assumed 


866 


RELIGIOt^S  ENrYCLOPEDIA 


cralTln 


!  wanderings  lusted  for  two  years  and  a  half* 
I  well  as  they  can  ba  made  out  their  eouree  was 
Ilia:  he  went  first  to  Angoul^me,  w  lie  re  he  studii^d 
i  the  exc**lleQt  library  of  his  friend  Loiiis  dit  Til  let 
id  began  his  "  Institutes  *';  next  to  N^^rac  in  Apr., 
where  Margiterite  dMngouIAme,  duchess  of 
erry  and  sister  of  King  I'rancis  L  of  France,  held 
'court;   in  May  he  was  at  Noyon,  where  he  re- 
signed Ins  benefices,  and  wljcre  he  was  for  some 
jn  imprisoned;  intlie  closing  part  of  the  year  he 
i  at  Pariti  again,  and  then  it  w:ii  he  met  Servetus 
the  first  time.     Next  he  appeared  at  Orleans, 
benoe  he  is3iie<l  hi«  second  publication,  hi^  Psycho- 
finyehia,  a  refutation  of  the  theory  that  the  soul 
[>8  between  <leath  and  the  Ljvst  Judgment.     In 
1534,  he  was  at  Angouleme,  and  tiienee  with 
I  Tillethe  removed  to  Strasburg  t^  escape  threat- 
l  persecution. 

[  Jan.,  l/>35,  he  was  at  Strasburg,  and  the  same 
dtith  at  Basel.     There  he  put  the  finishing  touches 
on  his  **  InHtitute«  of  the  Christian  Hehgion/'  and 
sue<l  it  Mar.»  1536.     The  peri^ecutian  of  the  He- 
aed   in    France   was    lis   immediate    occasion, 
thus  speaLs  of  tliis  famous  book  in  the  prefaee 
his  commentary  on  the  Pj^alms:  *^  My  objects 
ere,  first,  to  vindiciit^  my  brethren  whose  death 
precious  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord;  aufl  next 
t,  as  the  same  cruelties  might  very  soon  after 
exercised  against  many  unhappy  individuals, 
agn  nations  might  be  touched  with  at  least 
some   compa-ssion    tow  an  I    them    and 
Publica-  solicitude  about  them.     When  it  was 
[>n  of  his  then  published  it  was  not  the  copious 
(Institutes."  and   labored  work  which   it  is   now, 
but  only  a  small  treatise,  containing 
L summary  of  the  principal  truths  of  the  ChriHtiiin 
ligion;  and  it  was  publjslie<l  with  no  other  design 
that  men  might  know  what  was  the  faith 
^d  by  those  whom  1  saw  basely  and  wickedly 
fajned  by  those   fingitious  and  perfidious   flat- 
That  my  object  was  not  to  acquire  fame 
from  this,  that  immediately  after  1  left 
el,  and  particularly  frotn  the  fact  that  nobody 
etc  knew  that  I  was  the  author."     It  was  pref- 
by  a  letter  to  King  Fruncis  L  of  France,  who 
an  arehpersecutor  of   Protestants  in  his  king- 
Dm  while  cultivating  friendly  relations  with  them 
lltside,  which  ranks  aa  one  of  the  masterpieces 
I  apologetic  literature. 

After  publishing  it  he  went  to  Ferrara  to  stay 

(while  in  tiie  court  of  the  Duchess  Ren^e,  wife  of 

eole  II.     In  Alay  153ti  he  wiis  in  Aosta  and  a 

tie  hiter  in  Paris  once  more.     There  he  met  his 

linger  brother  Antoine  and  liis  half-sister  Marie, 

with  them  left  for  Straaburg.     The  war  tlien 

sing  on  compelled  him  to  make  a  <It*tour  and  so 

arrived  in  Geneva  in  the  latter  part  of  July, 

1536,    intending   only    to   spend    tiie 

8.  First     night  there.     But  Farel   (see  Farel, 

[Rcftidcnce   Gdillau.me),    who    was    trying   with 

Geneva  zeal  not  always  directed  by  discretion 

uid  in      to  keep  the  Genevans  whom  he  won 

|6traftbiirg,  for  the  Reformation  at  peace  amtmg 

themselves,    learned    of    his   presence 

I  seeing  in  the  young  scholar,  who  wanted  nothing 

much  as  to  be  allowed  to  pursue  his  studies  in 


quiet,  a  valuable  ally,  besought  him  to  stay  with 
liim,andthen,a3  Calvin  himself  says  in  the  preface 
mentioned  above,  '*  finding  that  he  gained  nothing 
by  entreaties  proceeded  to  utter  an  imprecation 
that  God  would  curse  [his]  retirement  and  tlie  tran- 
quillity of  the  studies  which  [he]  sought  if  [he] 
should  withdraw  and  refus^to  give  assistance 
when  the  neeeasity  wajj^KSurgent."  Calvin  felt 
as  if  "  Goti  had  fropa-'-'Ecaven  laid  his  mighty  himd 
upon  [him]  t<T  arn?st  [him].'*  Unable  to  resist, 
he  laid  aside  all  his  jjlana  and  stepped  to  Farel's 
side.  But  the  city  could  not  brook  the  drastic 
reforms  which  the  Reformers  would  institute,  and 
so  on  Easter  Monday  (Apn  23),  153S.  leas  than 
two  years  from  his  arrival,  he  and  Farel  were 
ordered  by  the  General  Assembly  to  leave  the  city 
within  three  days.  Calvin  went  to  Basel,  and  then 
to  Strasburg  where  on  Sept.  8,  1538,  he  became 
minister  to  the  French  refugees,  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Nicolas  aux  Oudes.  He  marrieti  early 
in  Aug..  1540,  Idelette  de  Burc,  widow  of  Jean 
Stordeur  of  Li^^ge,  an  Anabaptist  whom  Calvin 
had  converted  to  the  pedobaptist  position.  She 
had  had  a  son  and  daughter  by  her  first  husband, 
but  they  hud  died  in  infancy.  To  Calvin  she  bore 
a  son  on  July  28,  1542,  but  he  lived  only  a  few  days. 
She  herself  passed  away  on  Mar.  29.  1549,  and 
Calvin  did  not  marry  again. 

When  Cahin  went  to  Strasburg  he  thought  he 
had  done  with  Geneva.  He  was  very  poor,  and 
his  position  was  comparatively  obscure,  but  Iiis 
abilities  soon  brouglit  liim  into  prominence  and 
appeals  for  advice  from  friends  in  Geneva  kept 
him  in  touch  with  that  city.  He  utili^d  tiis 
position  to  study  and  also  to  put  into  practise 
certain  reforms  he  could  not  carry  out  in  Geneva. 
Antl  his  fame  rapidly  spread.  He  was  asked  to 
share  in  the  cathedral  lecture  course,  next  he  wa^ 

sent  as  delegate  of  the  eity  to   the 

g.  Rising    Colloquies  of  Worms  and  Regensburg, 

Fame.       When    on    Mar.     18,     1539»  Cardinal 

Recall    to   Jacopo  Sadoleto  wrote  a  letter  to  the 

Geneva,     city  of  Geneva  wliich  was  a  plea  for 

it  to  return  to  the  Roman  obedience 
and  it  was  sent  to  Bern,  it  was  Calvin  who  was 
requested  by  the  Bern  government  to  answer, 
and  he  did  in  liis  masterly  fiishion.  A  change  took 
place  in  the  government  in  Geneva  and  t!ie  friends 
of  Calvin  got  the  upper  hand.  Then  his  virtues 
and  extraordinary  powers  were  retnemberetl,  and 
on  Sept.  21,  I54f-),  the  Little  Council  voted  to  try 
to  iJiduee  him  to  return.  More  and  more  the 
impi-ession  spread  that  he  was  the  man  to  rule 
the  city.  There  was  no  intention  of  going  back 
to  Rome,  but  the  city  was  torn  by  faction  and 
contained  many  unruly  elements  which  needed  an 
irt^n  hand  to  hold  in  cheek.  On  Oct,  19  auil  20 
the  Two  HuntlrtHJ  and  the  Generid  .Assembly 
formally  in\ntetl  him  to  ret  urn  ^  hut  the  in\itation 
was  unwelcome  and  he  would  give  ijo  deeide<l  an- 
swer. But  when  in  Feb,,  1541,  the  impetuous 
Farel  urged  him  to  gn,  he  found  him  as  irresistible 
as  before,  and  so  on  Sejit.  13, 1541,  he  entered  again 
the  city  of  Geneva  and  took  up  the  heavy  task  of 
onlering  her  affairs  according  to  his  high  standards. 
He  came  without  illusions,  knowing  that  he  was 


OalTin 


THE   NKW    SiHAKK-HHKZOG 


356 


not  even  the  choice  of  a  majority,  that  he  had 
many  perKonal  enemu'^,  and  woukl  encrjunter  many 
difficulties;  but  he  believed  that  God  had  called 
him  and  woulri  sustain  him. 

He  received  an  honorable  reception  from  the 
government,  and  was  given  a  hoase  to  live  in,  and, 
for  salary,  five  hundred  florins,  twelve  measures 
of  wheat,  and  two  tubs  of  wine.  From  that  time 
on,  Geneva  was  his  home  anrl  his  parish,  his  center 
of  activity,  but  by  no  means  liis  cir- 

10.  Second  cumference  of  influence.  Under  his  firm 
Residence  rule  the  city  a^'Kumerl  a  new  aspect. 
in  Geneva.  Immorality  of  every  sort  was  stenily 

suppressed.  It  was  well  for  the  suc- 
cess of  tliis  system  that  Geneva  was  a  refuge  for 
the  persecutcil  in  every  land.  Hollanders,  English. 
Italians,  Spanianls.  ami  more  particularly  French- 
men, settled  in  the  town,  and  readily  lent  their 
aid  in  maintaining  Cahin's  peculiar  methods. 
But  not  refugees  alone  came:  his  lectures  and  those 
of  I5eza  attracte<l  many  thoasands  of  students, 
and  thus  spread  their  f:ime  far  and  ^-ide.  But 
incessant  study,  a  vast  correspondence,  '*  the 
care  of  all  the  churches."  his  sedentary  life — 
these  conspired  to  make  him  the  victim  of  disease, 
and  at  fifty- five  years  of  age  he  breathed  his  last. 
lie  had  spent  little  on  himself,  but  given  generously 
both  in  money  and  ser\'ice,  so  he  left  beliind  him  only 
a  hundred  and  seventy  dollars,  but  an  incal- 
culable fortune  in  fame  and  consi'crated  influence; 
and  from  him  Geneva  inherite<i  faith,  education, 
government,  brave  citizens,  and  pride  in  an  honored 
name. 

Calvin  based  his  system  upon  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
and  followed  its  lines.  Ethics  and  tiieology  were 
handled  in  the  closest  connection.  His  reforma- 
tion in  theology  was  preeminently  a  j>ractical 
affair.  Even  the  doctrine  of  prodcrstination  was 
developed,  not  as  a  speculation,  but  im  a  matter 
of  practical  concern.  By  the  extraordinary  em- 
phasis put  upon  it,  the  Genevans  were  taught  to 
consider  it  almost  the  comiir-stone  of  the  Christian 
faith.  In  opposition  to  the  lax  views  of  sin  and 
grace  which  the  Roman  Church  inculcated,  he 
revived  the  Augustinian  doctrine  in  order  by  it  to 
conquer  Rome.  In  so  doing  he  was  one  with 
Zwingli,  Oi^colampadius,  Lutlier,  and  Melanchthon. 
But  in  liis    supralapsarian  views  he  stood  alone 

among  the  Ileformers.     His  views  of 

11.  Calvin's  ecclesiastical  authority  and  discipline 
Fundamen-  are   also   important.     He   allowed   to 

tal  Ideas,  the  Church  a  greater  authority  than 
any  other  Reformer.  Here,  again, 
the  influence  of  Augustine  is  seen.  He  says, 
"The  Church  is  our  mother"  ("Institutes,"  IV. 
i.  1).  Outside  of  the  Church  there  is  no  salvation. 
Her  ministry  is  divinely  constituted,  and  to  it 
believers  are  bound  to  pay  deference.  Her  au- 
thority is  absolute  in  matters  of  doctrine;  but, 
when  civil  cases  arise,  she  hands  the  offenders  over 
to  the  State  for  punishment.  State  and  Church 
have,  therefore,  separate  and  exclusive  jurisdiction; 
yet  they  exist  side  by  side,  and  cooperate).  They 
rimtually  support  each  other.  The  ideal  govern- 
ment embraced  a  democracy,  an  aristocracy,  and 
a  king  or  autocrat.     Calvin  taught  obedience  to  the 


powers  that  be.  In  this  scheme  he  had  in  mind 
the  Israelites.  He  aimed  at  a  theocracy.  He 
bowed  before  the  majesty  of  the  righteous  Judge: 
His  fear  of  God  led  him  to  unquestioning  sub- 
mission. In  a  sense  it  was  his  \-eiy  breath;  and 
so  in  his  system  justice  is  more  prominent  than 
love.  God  as  the  ruler,  rather  than  as  the  k>vef 
of  all  in  Christ,  waa  the  object  of  his  peverenee. 

In  accordance  with  his  principles  was  his  woiL 
During  his  first  residence  in  G«.  nera  he  showed  his 
determination  to  separate  Church  and  State;  and 
therefore  he  and  his  fellow  preachers  protested 
against  the  interference  of  the  State  in  the  matter 
of  the  use  of  fonts,  of  unleavened  bread  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  in  the  celebration  of  the  church- 
festivals,  as  these  were  properly  within  the  eccle- 
siastical proAince.  When,  also,  he  refused  the 
Eucharist  imto  the  city,  because  of  its  immorality, 
he  asserted  for  the  Church  freedom  from  the  dril 
authority.  TliLs  determined  stand  cost  him  tem- 
jKirarily  his  position;  but.  when  he  resumed  his 
work  in  Geneva,  he  and  the  citizens  knew  that 
he  aimed  to  rule  absolutely.  The  refoms  he 
in.stituted  are  fainoas,  i.nd  often  condenmed  as 
infamous.  They  are,  however,  not  only  defensible, 
but  conunendable,  if  judged  by  the  standard  of 
that  age.  We  can  not  withhold  our  admiratioQ 
of  the  moral  courage,  the  self-forgetfulness.  the 
stem  morality,  and  the  uncompromising  zeal  with 
which  Calvin  addressed  himself  unto  the  apparently 
hopeless  task  of  curbing  the  passions  of  the  loose 
populace,  and  gaining  the  cordial  oo- 
12.  His  op<^ration  of  the  upper  classes.  He 
Reforms,  succeeded.  Geneva  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  normal  school  of  religioas 
life.  Religion  was  the  life  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  inhabitants.  With  a  correct  insight  into  the 
necessities  of  the  case,  Calvin  declaretl  imme- 
diately after  his  \'ictorious  reentry  that  he  couU 
not  take  up  work  without  a  rcorganizati  )n  of  the 
Church;  viz.,  by  the  formation  of  a  chiurh-couit, 
which  should  have  full  authority  to  maintain  dis- 
cipline. On  Nov.  20,  1541,  at  a  jwpular  meeting, 
the  scheme  he  drew  up  was  ratified.  This  pro- 
vided for  a  consistory,  comix)se.l  of  the  pastors  of 
the  city  churches,  who  were  five  in  number,  and 
three  a.ssistants,  and  twelve  elders — one  of  the 
latter  to  be  a  syndic  and  their  president — ^which 
met  every  Thursday,  and  put  under  church-dis- 
cipline, without  respect  of  persons,  every  species 
of  evil-doers.  The  rigor  and  vigor  of  this  admin- 
istration quickly  awakened  natural  indignation, 
in  part  even  among  those  who  on  the  whole  favored 
Calvin.  His  life  was  at  times  in  danger.  Some 
showed  their  terrified  contempt  for  liim  by  naming 
their  dogs  after  liim.  In  a  city  like  Geneva,  full  of 
refugees  of  every  description,  there  were  many 
who  looked  upon  all  restraint  as  oppression;  others 
who  objected  to  Calvin's  measures  as  going  too 
far,  or  criticized  his  methods.  In  onier  still  fiff* 
ther  to  increase  the  authonty  of  the  church-court, 
Calvin  secured  (l^oo)  an  important  modification 
of  the  city  government,  whereby  the  Conseil  Genird 
(the  "  General  Council  "),  the  highest  law-making 
body,  was  only  called  twice  a  year — in  February 
to  elect  syndics,  and  in  November  to  fill  some 


357 


RELIGIOtTS  ENCTCLOPEDIA 


O&lirin 


4Hmc! 


nor  offices,  and  fix  the  price  of  wine.  But 
oothiDg  might  be  discussed  in  this  meeting  whirh 
had  not  hetm  previonsiy  determined  upon  in  the 
Ck>UDdl  of  Two  Plundretl;  nor  in  the  latter  which 
the  Council  of  Sixty  did  not  approve  of;  nor  could 
this  council  tuke  up  anything  n'>t  prcviou-sly 
agreed  to  in  the  highest  comieil.  whicli  thus  prac- 
tically governed  the  State.  The  General  Council 
became  in  tliLs  way  a  superfluity,  without  the  power 
of  initiative.  It  had,  however,  accomplished  its 
mission — accepted  the  Reformation* 

Mo6t  prominent  among  the  means  Calvin  used 
to  reform  the  city  wai*  preaching.  Ever>'  other 
week  he  preached  every  day  in  plain,  direct,  con- 
vincing fashion,  without  eloquence,  but  gtill  irre- 
sistibly; and  the  life  that  the  preacher  led  con- 
stituted his  strongest  claim  to  attention.  The 
reports  of  his  sermons  are  probably  from  notes 
made  by  his  hearers;  which  was  the  easier  done, 
l>ec^use,  being  asthmatic,  he  spoke  very  slowly. 
Every  Friday  the  so-called  ''Congregation  "  was 
held,  in  which  qtieations  were  anawereti.  and  tie- 
bates  even  carried  orL  Minors  were  carefully  in- 
structed In  a  catechiaui  originidly  prepared  by  Cal- 
%'inin  Frenchand  Latin,  1545.  In  1537  he  had  issued 
a  French,  and  in  1538  a  Latin  cutecliism,  wliich 
was  »  mere  abridgment  or  syllabus  of  his  "  Insti- 
tutes/' and  wiis  not  «n  the  form  of  question  and 
answer;  but  the  catechism  of  15-15  was  in  the  usual 
form* 

Calvin  has  the  credit  of  first  introducing  con* 
grcgational  singing  into  the  w'orstlip  of  the   Re- 

Sieii  Church  in  GLneva.  The  first  i^ongs  were 
e  of  his  own  metrical  renderings  of  the  Psalms. 
yig  Zmngli  and  Luther,  Calvin  liad  his  dilli- 
H  with  the  Anabaptists.  He  met  them  in 
W debate  Mar.  IfV-lT,  1537,  and  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Council  of  Iwo  Hundred  effect uidly  dis- 
posed of  their  arguments,  S<j  on  Mar,  19  it 
~  a  sentence  of  perpetual  banishment  against 


^^But  he  had  personal  controversies,  the  chief  of 
Mnich  wert — (1)  first  with  Pierre  Caroli,  a  French 
refugee  and  pastor  in  Lausanne,  a  rc^ligious  etianic- 
leon,  whose  latest  hue  was  that  of  a  stickler  for 
ortluKloxy.     Calvin    was    very   indif- 
13.  His       ferent  to  the  tenninology  of  theolog3^ 
Opponents,  so  long  as  the  truth  was  expressed. 
In  discussing  the  nature  of  the  God- 
head during  his  first  residence  in  ( Jeneva,  he  avoided 
using  the  words  "  Trinity  "  anil  "  Person,"  although 
he  had  no  particuhu^  ol>jection  to  them;  and  so 

KY  did  not  occur  in  the  Confession  of  Faith  which 
drew  up,  and  to  which  the  citizens  of  Geneva 
«  compelled  to  assent;  nor  diil  the  Geneva 
Church  subscribe  formally  to  the  Athimasian 
Creed.  Caroli  accused  Cahin  and  his  fellow 
di^nnes  of  Arianism  and  Sabellianism;  and  so 
plausible  was  the  charge,  that  Calvin  wa-s  greatly 
troublecL  However,  in  the  sjtio<1  of  1537*  held 
Bern,  the  Genevan  di^-ines  fully  cleared  them- 
and  Caroli  was  «lejK*sed  and  banished, 
liiUbert  Bertlielier,  the  son  of  a  martyr  for 
dom,  was  forbidden  the  eommunion  (1553) 
consistory.  The  council  absolved  the 
Calvin  from  the  pulpit,  two  days  before  the 


September  Commumon  (one  of  the  four  yearly 
occasions),  declared  that  he  would  die  sooner  th:m 
give  tlie  Lord's  holy  things  to  one  under  condem- 
nation for  despising  God.  Perrin,  who  was  then 
sjTidic  for  the  second  time,  ordered  Berthelier  to 
stay  iiway  from  communion*  and  so  ended  a  dis- 
pute from  wliich  the  enemies  of  Calvm  had  hoped 
a  gretit  deal.  (3)  J(5r<jme  Hermes  Bolsec  (q.v.), 
whose  presmnption  in  denying  predestination,  and 
abusing  the  ministers  at  a  "  Congregation/'  drew 
upon  him,  not  oidy  Calvin's  indignant  reply  at  the 
time,  but  also  imprisonment  and  banishment  ( 1551 ), 
(4)  Sebastiaja  Castellio  (q  v.),  a  learned  but  arro- 
gant man.  won  Cahnn's  opposition  because  of  his 
denial  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Canticles  and  of  the 
descent  of  Christ  in '43  hell,  (5)  But  by  far  the  most 
famous  of  all  Calvin's  opponents  was  Michael  her- 
vetus  (q-v.)j  who  seems  to  have  been  a  rather  Qip- 
pant  person ►  It  is  said  he  de.sired  Calvin's  banish- 
ment in  order  that  he  might  bo  installed  in  liis 
place*  To  this  end  he  accused  Calvin  of  perfi^l- 
iou-s,  tyrannical,  and  unchristian  conduct.  It  is 
no  wonder,  thereof  ore,  that  Calvin  treated  liim 
harshly-  It  is  idle  to  shield  Calvin  fmm  the 
charge  of  bringing  about  Ser\'et list's  deaths  although 
it  is  true  tliat  the  mode  adopted  (burning)  did  not 
meet  with  his  a|sproval — he  wislioti  to  have  him 
behearled;  hut  at  the  same  time  it  is  easy  to  exctise 
him  on  the  ground  of  the  persecuting  spirit  of  hia 
age.  The  Protestants  who  had  felt  tlic  persecution 
of  Rome  were  ready  to  persecute  all  vi4io  did  not 
follow  them.  The  burning  of  Servetus  (Oct.  27, 
1553)  for  the  crime  of  hen^sy,  specifically  anti- 
trinitarianism,  w:is  approved  by  the  Helvetic 
Cliurch,  imd,  what  is  nutre  remarkable,  by  the  miM 
Mehmclithon;  but  it  failed  even  then  to  win  uni- 
versal upijrovah  atid  now  it  is  usually  considered  a 
sad,  inelTat^^able  blot  upon  Calvin's  cliaracter. 
Many  who  know  nothing  else  of  either  Calvin  or 
Sen-etus  are  verj^  indignant  over  the  tragedy,  and 
apparently  reject  CaUnnism  because  of  it.  We 
ought  ratlier  to  mouni  than  t^  censure,  Servetus 
knew  the  danger  he  braved  in  coming  to  t?ieneva. 
He  ha<l  as  early  as  1534  been  in  debate  with  Calvin, 
although  they  did  not  meet  personally.  On  his 
intimating  an  intention  to  \isit  Geneva,  ("alviu 
gave  him  fair  warning,  that,  if  he  came,  he  wmjld 
prosecute  him  to  the  death.'  While,  therefore, 
Calvin  may  be  held  responsible  for  8ervetus's  death, 
he  must  be  cleaR-^l  of  tlie  charges  of  ha\ing  alluretl 
Servetus  to  (Jeneva,  and  of  rejoicing  in  his  death 
on  personal  grounds. 

No  go<id  came  of  the  execution,  only  evil— - 
ridicule  from  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  the  ad- 
verse criticism  from  many  friends.  It  likewise 
failed  to  check  the  antitrinitarian  heresy.  Calvin 
defended  himself,  and  Beza  aidefl  him;  but  u  > 
defense  could  excuse  the  fact.s.  In  19t)3  a  peniten- 
tial monument  was  erected  on  the  place  of  his 
burning. 

By  his  lectures  Calvin  attracted  students  from 
every  quarter.     He  often  had  as  many  as  a  tht>u- 

*  "  Nam  «i  niodo  vitlcat  nion  nuctoritafl  vivmn  exin*  tiuii- 
quam  patiur  (E  ^hiiU  iK^vi-r  pi^rmit  him  to  J<> part  alive*  if  my 
authority  in  grent  fjijoujjhi/"  Cjilvm  to  Fait>t,  F«b.  13.  IMfi 
{cf,  Cfivin's  Letters,  En«.  tmiM).,  ih  33), 


OalTln 
OalTinlam 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


808 


sand:  therefore  his  influence  was  constantly  spread- 
ing.    As  was  natural,  it  was  most  formative   in 
France,  whence  most  of  his  pupils  came,  and  to 
whose  Protestants  Calvin  was  leader 
14.  His  Ec-  and   spiritual   father.    But   in   other 
clesiastical  lands  he  exerted  his  power.     In  Italy 
Influence,   he  came  to  the  aid  of  the  troubled 
duchess    of    Ferrara.     To    England 
he  sent  his  commentary  on  Isaiah,  with  a  dedication 
to  the  youthful  king,  Edward  VI.     To  Cranmer 
he  wrote  letters;  and  through  Knox  he  molded 
Scotland.     He  counseled  the  Moravian  Brethren. 
He  helped  the  Poles  in  the  Trinitarian  controversy, 
and  likewise  the  Reformed  cause  in  Hungary.     He 
also  prepared,  in  his  way,  the  present  interest  in 
foreign   missions   by   his   unfortunate   mission   to 
Brazil  in  1555  (see  Villeoaqnon,  Nicolas  Durand 
de). 

Calvin's  relations  with  Switzerland  and  Ger- 
many were  unpleasant.  He  strove  most  earnestly 
to  unite  the  different  branches  of  the  Protestant 
Church.  But  unhappily  he  was  suspected  by 
many  Swiss  of  Lutheran  views  on  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per— for  this  was  the  controverted  point — and  by 
many  Germans  of  too  much  Zwinglianism;  so 
that  he  made  but  an  indifferent  mediator.  He 
had  high  hopes  of  the  Consensus  of  ZQrich  (1540), 
which  harmonized  the  Swiss  churches;  but  the 
controversy  with  the  Lutherans  was  violently 
renewed  byHesshus. 

The  common  conception  of  Calvin  is  erroneous. 
He  was  not  the  stony-hearted  tyrant,  the  relent- 
less persecutor,  the  gloomy  theologian,  the  popular 
picture  represents  him  to  have  been.  Men.  by 
a  blessed  inconsistency,  are  often  kinder  than  their 
creeds.  So,  at  all  events,  was  Calvin.  To  tlic 
superficial  observer  he  is  not  attractive;  but  it  is 
the  opinion  of  every  one  who  has  studied  him  that 
he  improves  upon  acquaintance.  Granted  that 
he  was  constitutionally  intolerant;  that  he  did 
draft  and  sternly  carry  out  regulations 
15.  His  which  were  vexatious  juid  needlessly 
Character,  severe;  that  he  knew  no  other  stand- 
point in  government,  morals,  or  the- 
ology than  his  own — he  had  qualities  which  en- 
title liim  to  reHjH'ct  and  admiration.  He  was 
refined,  conscientious,  pure,  faithful,  honest, 
humble,  pious.  He  attnicte<l  men  by  the  strength 
of  his  character,  the  loftiness  of  his  aims,  and  the 
directness  of  his  efforts.  He  had  the  common 
human  affections.  He  loved  his  wife,  and  mourned 
luT  death.  He  grieved  over  his  childlessness. 
He  took  delight  in  his  friends;  and  they  were 
the  noblest  in  the  Protestant  Church.  Somewhat 
of  the  forbidding  aspect  of  his  life  may  perhaps 
be  accounted  for  by  the  Unnatural  life  he  was 
forced  to  lead.  He  desired  to  spend  his  days  in 
study;  whereas  he  was  forced  to  incessant,  mul- 
tifarious, and  most  prominent  labor.  Experience 
shows  there  is  no  harder  master  than  a  timid  man 
compelled  to  lead.  Again,  his  ill-health  must  be 
taken  into  account.  He  was  a  chronic  invalid. 
Such  men  are  not  apt  to  be  gentle.  The  wonder 
rather  is  that  he  showc<l  so  patient  a  spirit.  The 
popular  verdict  has  been  given  against  him;  but 
vox  populi  is  not  always  vox  del.    What  Beza,  his 


biographer,  wrote  is  nearer  truth:  "Having  been 
an  observer  of  Calvin's  life  for  sixteen  years,  I 
may  with  perfect  right  testify  that  we  have  in 
this  man  a  most  beautiful  example  of  a  truly 
Christian  life  and  death,  which  it  is  easy  to  ca- 
lumniate, but  difficult  to  imitate."  Ernest  Benan 
finds  the  key  to  his  influence  in  the  fact  that  be 
was  "  the  most  Christian  man  of  his  generatioQ  " 
(Studies  of  Religious  History  and  Criticismy  New 
York,  1864  pp.  286  sqq.). 

Calvin  was  of  middle  stature,  and,  through  feeble 
health,  of  meager  and  emaciated  frame.    He  had  a 
thin,  pale,  finely  chiseled  face,  a  well- 
id.  His     formed  mouth,  a  long,  pointed  beard, 
Personal    black  hair,  a  prominent  noae,  a  lofty 
Appearance,  forehead,  and  flaming  eyes.    He  was 
modest,  plain,  and  scrupulously  neat 
in  dress,  orderiy  and  methodical  in  all  his  habits, 
temperate,  and  even  abstemious,  allowing  himself 
scarcely  food  and  sleep  enough  for  vigorous  work. 
(The  famous  portrait  by  Ary  Scheffer  is  too  much 
idealized.) 

Leaving  out  of  view  his  correspondence,  the 
writings  of  Calvin  divide  themselves  into  the  theo- 
logical and  the  exegetical.  In  regard  to  the  latter 
it  suffices  now  to  say  that  they  have  never  been 
excelled,  if,  on  the  whole,  they  have  been  equaled.  | 
He  possessed  all  the  requisite  qualifications  for  as  j 
exegcte — knowledge  of  the  original  tongues,  good 
common  sense,  and  abundant  piety.  His  eiqM)- 
sitions  are  brief,  pithy,  and  dear. 
17.  His  His  theological  writings  are  remark- 
Literary  able  for  their  early  maturity  and  their 
Labors,  imvarying  consistency.  Besides  his 
minor  writings,  we  possess  that  master- 
piece of  Protestantism,  the  "  Institutes  of  the 
Christian  Religion."  lie  produced  at  twenty-six 
a  book  in  which  he  had  nothing  essential  to  change 
at  fifty-five.  The  repeated  enlargements  were  mere 
developments  of  its  germinal  ideas.  The  first 
edition  (Basel,  1536)  contained  519  pages,  measuring 
6i  by  4  inches,  was  divided  into  six  chapters, 
imd  was  intended  merely  as  a  brief  apology  d 
the  Reformed  doctrine:  (1)  Of  law,  with  an  expo- 
sition of  the  decalogue;  (2)  Of  faith,  with  an 
exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed;  (3)  Of  prayer, 
with  an  exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer;  (4)  Of 
the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per; (5)  Of  the  other  so-called  sacraments;  (6)  Of 
Christian  liberty,  church  government  and  disd- 
pline.  The  French  translation  made  by  Calvin 
himself  appeared  in  Basel,  1541.  The  final  form 
was  given  to  the  "  Institutes  "  in  the  Latin  edition 
of  Geneva,  1559,  when  it  was  made  into  a  treatise 
of  four  books,  divided  into  a  hundred  and  four 
chapters. 

Bidliocraphy:  For  a  oomprebenBive  bibliofcraphy.  pvinj 
full  details  an  to  the  successive  publications  oif  CslriQ* 
their  later  editions,  also  of  books  written  on  Calvin's  Hi* 
and  theology,  consult  A.  Erichson,  Bxhliogra^ia  Ctlr 
viniana,  Berlin,  1900. 

The  complete  edition  of  Calvin's  Works,  supcrwiini 
previous  editions,  is  JoannU  Calvini  Opera  qw«  «!*■ 
8ttnt  omnia,  vol.  i.-lix.,  ed.  J.  W.  Baum,  E.  Cuniti,  E. 
Ueuss,  P.  Lobstein.  and  A.  Erichson.  The  Ust  w»i 
asjsisted  by  W.  Baldentjpergcr  and  L.  Horst.  The  editioo 
was  begun  by  the  three  first-named,  Berlin,  18M.  «» 
finislied   by   Erichson   in    1000.     There  is  an  exoeUfot 


IS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Calvin 
CaMniaia 


trftruibition  of  the  oommentanet,  his  /rwiei/utei,  and  his 
TrarU  nLating  to  Oie  Ittformation^hy  U,  lievcndg«,  pub- 
liAbed  by  the  Calvin  Tranalatioo  Society,  52  voh.,  Edin- 
burgh. 1»44~5S.  The  fullent  collection  of  CalvJDV  letters 
b  in  the  Berlin  edition.  In  1854  io  Paris  Jules  Bonnet 
ptiblinhe^  a  collection,  and  this  ha«  been  tranalated, 
Tolumei  L,  ii..  by  D.  Constable,  Edinbursfh*  1856-57; 
voltmiM  iii.,  iv„  by  M.  R»  Gilchrist,  Philitdelpbia,  1858. 
The  four  volumes  are  now  published  by  the  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Publication,  Pbil&delphia.  Tbe  lettem  to  cor- 
iwipcmdenta  livitiK  in  Frencb-flpeakiiis  lands  are  fdven  in 
their  original  Latin  or  French  with  <»reful  and  Kchalarly 
annotatioQi^  by  A.  L,  Herminjard  (d.  l&OO)  in  the  nine 
volumes  of  his  CorreMpofuiatic^  dtt  rf^fonrtateurM  dans  lea 
payt  de  la  none  fran^aUt,  1512-H.  GenevB.  1866-^7.  TKe 
first  letter  of  Calvin's  is  no.  310  in  vol,  ii..  2d  ed,,  1878. 

For  the  hfe  of  Calvin  the  origiual  Bouree  is  the  sketch 
by  biji  friend  and  coadjutor  Theodore  B«Ba,  Oeneva« 
1664,  2d  ed.,  Lausanne,  1575;  edited  by  Neander,  Berlin, 
1841,  Eng.  transl.,  by  H.  Beveridge.  in  Tracta  relating  ttj 
th€  Rrformalion,  in  the  Cftlvin  Stracty  translation*  vol,  i.^ 
£klinburgh«  1844,  Much  information  coinen  out  inri- 
dentally  in  his  oorrespondenoe. 

Modern  lives  of  Calvin,  derived  from  indepeodent  study 
of  the  worka  and  other  »ourco«,  which  can  be  com- 
mended  are  those  by  T.  H.  Dyer.  Losidon,  1850;  F.  Bun- 
Oener.  2  vols.,  Paris,  1862-03.  Eng.  tranaL.  Edinburgh, 
1863i  £.  Bt&heUn^  2  vola..  Elberfeld.  18t)3;  F.  W.  Kamp- 
Mfaulta,  ed,  W.  Goeti,  2  vob.,  Leipdio>  180^;  P,  Schaff,  ChriM- 
Han  Church,  vii.  257-844;  E.  Douinergile,  LaiUMWine,  1800 
■t)q.  (to  be  in  five  volumes,  of  which  the  second  appeared 
in  1902  and  the  third  in  1903,  a  life-work,  aims  at  being 
exhaustive^  i^  illuntrated  by  numeroiui  reproduetionji  of 
old  drawings,  plarn;^  pictures,  etc..  and  hundreds  of  spc^- 
eial  sketches  by  U.  Armand-Dehl^);  A.  M.  Fairbairn.  in 
The  CanUffido*  Modem  HiMi&ry,  vol.  ii.,  The  Reformaiion, 
chap.  3Q,,  pp.  342-376,  New  York,  1004;  by  W.  Walker, 
in  the  Heroes  of  the  Reformation  SerUn,  New  York,  1606; 
and  by  A.  Bomert,  Parist  10O6.  Iilention  should  aliao  be 
made  of  the  material  on  Calvin  and  French  chiu-ch  his- 
tory generally  constantly  appearing  in  Paris  in  the  Bui- 
Z«tifi  de  ia  eoci/ti  de  Vhiatoire  du  protevtanlievui  fran^aie^ 
under  the  editorship  of  the  learned  Nathanael  Weiss,  sec- 
retary of  the  Society. 

CALVINISM, 

faamag    and    Uses    of    the  Consistent    Development    of 

Term  C|  1).  Calviniiim  (fi  6). 

^undaroeotal  Principle  (|  2).  Varieties  of  Calvinism  (f  7). 

Helaiion    to    Other  Syslema  SupralapsariauLsm  and  Infra- 

(f  3).  lapsarianism  (fr  8). 

}lalviidsm  and    Lutheranism  Postredemptionism  (jji  9). 

(|  4).  Pre^wnt  Furtune«  of  Calvin- 
kjterioloey  of  Calvinijttn  (f  5),         bni  ( |  10). 

CalvinjBin  is   an  ambiguous  term   in  so  far  as 
it  is  currently  employed  in  two  or  three  senses, 
doecly  rclat*-Hl  indei'd,  anil  piissing  insensibly  into 
ani?  jinotlier,  but  of  varying  latitudes  of  cxjnnotation. 
St»metime*    it    clesijarnatefl    merely    the    inciividunl 
teaching    of    John   Calvin.     Sometimes   it   devnig- 
Eiatcs,  more  broatlly,  the  doctrinal  system  confessetl 
by  that  tMxiy  of  Prote,Htant  Churches  known  his- 
torically, in  di«tinctio!i  from  the  Lutheran  Chiirehes, 
M*"  the  Reformed  Churehes  "  (see  PKOTEHTANTissf); 
but  also  quite  commonly  called  **  the  Calviiiiatic 
Churches  "  because  the  greatest  seien- 
1.  Meaning  um  exf^osition  of  their  faith  in  the 
tnd  Uses  of  Refoniiation    age,    and    perhaps    the 
the  Term,    most  influential  of  any  age,  was  given 
by  John  Calvm.     Sometimes  it  desig- 
QAtes,  more  broadly  still,  the  entire  boily  of  oon- 
oeptions,  theological,  ethical t  phdosophicah  sociah 
political,  which,  untier  the  mflucnce  of  the  maiiter 
mind  of  John  Calvin.  mi«ed  itself  to  dominance  in 
Ihe  Protest  ant  lands  of  I  he  pi>Ht-Refonnution  agpi 
|nd  has  left  a  pennanrnt  murk  iiol  only  upoii  the 


thought  of  mankind t  but  upon  the  life- history  of 
men,  the  social  order  of  civilized  peoples,  and  even 
the  political  organization  of  States.  In  the  present 
article,  the  tenn  will  he  taken,  for  ob™us  reasons, 
in  the  second  of  tliese  senses.  Fortunately  this 
in  alfto  it.s  central  sense;  and  there  js  little  danger 
that  its  other  connotations  w^'l  fall  out  of  mind 
while  attention  is  ci>ricentratcd  upon  this. 

On  the  one  hand,  John  Cahin,  though  always 
looked  ujion  by  tlie  Reformed  Churches  as  an 
exponent  rather  than  as  the  creator  of  their 
doctrinal  syistcm,  has  nevertheless  been  both  rev- 
erenced as  one  of  their  founders^  and  deferred 
to  as  that  particular  one  of  their  founders  to 
whose  formative  hanti  and  systematizing  talent 
their  doctrinal  gj-^tem  has  perhaps  owed  most. 
In  any  exj>osition  of  the  Refomied  theology,  there- 
fore, the  teaching  of  Jolin  Cai\'in  must  always  take 
a  liigh,  and,  indeed,  determinative  place.  On 
the  other  hand,  although  Cahinlsm  hasdug  a  chan- 
nel through  which  not  merely  flows  a  stream  of 
theological  thought,  but  also  surgf^s  a  great  wave 
of  human  life — filling  t!ie  h  rt  with  fresh  ideals 
and  conceptions  which  have  revolutionized  the 
conditions  of  existence — ^yet  its  fountain-head  lies 
in  its  theological  system;  or  ratlier,  to  l)e  perfectly 
exacts  one  step  belund  even  that,  in  its  religious 
consciousness.  Ftir  the  root^n  of  Calvini.sm  are 
planted  in  a  specific  religious  attitude,  out  of  which 
is  unfolded  finst  a  particular  theology,  from  which 
springs  on  the  one  hand  a  special  church  organi- 
zation! and  on  the  other  a  social  order,  involving 
a  given  political  arrangement.  The  whole  out- 
working of  Calvinism  in  life  is  thus  but  the  efflo- 
rescence of  its  fimdamental  religious  consciousness, 
wliich  finds  its  scientific  statement  in  its  theo- 
logical system. 

The  exact  formulation  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple  of  Calvinism  has  indeed  taxed  the  acumen 
of  a  long  series  of  tliinkera  for  the  last  hundred 
years  (e,g.,  Ullmann,  Semisch,  ilagenbach,  Ebrard, 
Ilerjfiog.  Scliweizer,  Baur,  Schneckenburger,  Guder, 
Schenkel,  Schoberlein,  Stahl,  HmKleshagen;  for 
a  disciis-sion  of  the  several  views  cf.  H.  Voigt, 
Fumimnentaldogmaiik,  Gotha,  1874,  pp.  397-480; 
W.  Has  tie.  The  Theology  of  the  Refortfu^d  Church  ■ 
in  iU  Fundamental  Principles^  Edinburgh,  1904, 
pp.  129-177)»  Perhaps  the  simplest  statement  of 
it  is  the  best:  that  it  lies  in  a  profomid  apprehen- 
sion of  God  in  lus  majesty,  with  the  ine\itably 
accompanying  poignant  realization  of  the  exact 
nature  of  the  relation  sustained  to  him  by  the 
creature  as  such,  and  particularly  by  the  sinful 
creature.  He  who  believes  in  God  without  reserve^ 
and  is  detennined  that  God  shall  he 

2,  Funda-    God  to  him  in  idl  his  thinking,  feeling, 
mental      willing — in  the  entire  compass  of  Ills 

Piindple.  life-activities,  intellectual,  moral,  spir- 
itual, throughout  all  liis  individual, 
aoclalf  rehgious  relations — is,  by  the  for*>e  of  that 
strictest  of  all  logic  wliich  presides  ove*  the  out- 
working of  principles  into  thought  and  Ufe,  by  the 
xt:ry  tiecessjty  of  the  case,  a  Cal'vinist.  In  Cal- 
vinism, then,  objectively  speaking,  theism  cornea 
to  its  rights;  subjectively  speaking,  the  religious 
relation  attains  its  purity;  soteriologically  speak- 


Oalvinism 


THE  NEW  SCHAl^F-HERZOG 


860 


ing,  evangelical  religion  finds  at  length  its  full 
expression  and  its  secure  stability.  Theism  comes 
to  its  rights  only  in  a  teleological  conception  of  the 
universe,  which  perceives  in  the  entire  course  of 
events  the  orderly  outworking  of  the  plan  of  God, 
who  is  the  author,  preserver,  and  governor  of  all 
things,  whose  will  is  consequently  the  ultimate 
cause  of  all.  The  religious  relation  attains  its 
purity  only  when  an  attitude  of  absolute  depend- 
ence on  God  is  not  merely  temporarily  assumed 
in  the  act,  say,  of  prayer,  but  is  sustained  through 
all  the  activities  of  life,  intellectual,  emotional, 
executive.  And  evangehcal  religion  reaches  sta- 
bility only  when  the  sinful  soul  rests  in  humble, 
self-emptying  trust  purely  on  the  God  of  grace  as 
the  immediate  and  sole  source  of  all  the  efficiency 
which  enters  into  its  salvation.  And  these  things 
are  the  formative  principles  of  Calvinism. 

The  difference  between  Calvinism  and  other 
forms  of  theistic  thought,  religious  exp>erience, 
\  evangelical  theology  is  a  difference  not  of  kind 
but  of  degree.  Calvinism  is  not  a  specific  variety 
of  theism,  religion,  evangelicalism,  set  over  against 
other  specific  varieties,  which  along  with  it  con- 
stitute these  several  genera,  and  which  fK>ssess 
equal  rights  of  existence  with  it  and  make  similar 
claims  to  perfection,  each  after  its  own  kind.  It 
differs  from  them  not  as  one  species 
3.  Relation  differs  from  other  species;  but  as  a 
to  Other  perfectly  developed  representative  dif- 
Systems.  fers  from  an  imperfectly  developed 
representative  of  the  same  species. 
There  are  not  many  kinds  of  theism,  religion, 
evangelicalism,  among  which  men  are  at  liberty  to 
choose  to  suit  at  will  their  individual  taste  or 
meet  their  special  need,  all  of  which  may  be  pre- 
sumed to  serve  each  its  own  specific  uses  equally 
worthily.  There  is  but  one  kind  of  theism,  relig- 
ion, evangelicalism;  and  the  several  constructions 
laying  claim  to  these  names  differ  from  each  other 
not  as  correlative  species  of  a  broader  class,  but  as 
more  or  less  perfect,  or  more  or  less  defective,  ex- 
emplifications of  a  single  species.  Calvinism  con- 
ceives of  itself  as  simply  the  more  pure  theism, 
religion,  evangelicalism,  superseding  as  such  the 
less  pure.  It  has  no  difficulty,  therefore,  in  recog- 
nizing the  theistic  character  of  all  truly  theistic 
thought,  the  religious  note  in  all  actual  religious 
activity,  the  evangelical  quality  of  all  really  evan- 
gelical faith.  It  refuses  to  be  set  antagonistically 
over  against  any  of  these  things,  wherever  or  in 
whatever  degree  of  imperfection  they  may  be 
manifested;  it  claims  them  in  every  instance  of 
their  emergence  as  its  own,  and  essays  only  to 
point  out  the  way  in  which  they  may  be  given 
their  just  place  in  thought  and  life.  Whoever 
believes  in  God;  whoever  recognizes  in  the  recesses 
of  his  soul  his  utter  dependence  on  God;  whoever 
in  all  his  thought  of  salvation  hears  in  his  heart  of 
hearts  the  echo  of  the  soli  Deo  gloria  of  the  evan- 
gelical profession — by  whatever  name  he  may 
call  himself,  or  by  whatever  intellectual  puzzles 
his  logical  understanding  may  be  confused — Cal- 
vinism recognizes  as  implicitly  a  Calvinist,  and 
as  only  requiring  to  permit  these  fundamental 
principles — which  underlie  and   give  its  body  to 


all  true  religion — to  work  themselves  freely  ud 
fully  out  in  thought  and  feeling  and  action,  to 
become  explicitly  a  Calvinist. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  a  great  body  of  the  sdeo- 
tific  discussion  which,  since  Max  Gdbel  {Die  rdigim 
EigenthUmlichkeit  der  liUherischen  und  reformirtai 
KircheUf  Bonn,  1837)  first  clearly  posited  the 
problem,  has  been  carried  on  somewliat  vigorously 
with  a  view  to  determining  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  Calvinism,  has  sought  particularly  to  bring 
out  its  contrast  with  some  other  theological  tend-  , 
ency,  commonly  with  the  sister  Protestant  ' 
tendency  of  Lutheranism.  Undoubtedly  some- 
what different  spirits  inform  Calvinism  and  Lu- 
theranism. And  undoubtedly  the  distinguishing 
spirit  of  Calvinism  is  rooted  not  in  some  extraneous 
circumstance  of  its  antecedents  or  origin— as,  for 
example,  ZwingU*s  tendency  to  intellrxjtualism, 
or  the  superior  humanistic  culture  and  predilec- 
tions of  Zwingli  and  Calvin,  or  the  democratic 
instincts  of  the  Swiss,  or  the  radical 
4.  Calvinism  rationalism  of  the  Reformed  leaders 
and         as     distinguished    from    the    merely 

Lutheran-  modified  traditionalism  of  the  Luther- 
ism,  ans — but  in  its  formative  principle. 
But  it  is  misleading  to  find  the  for- 
mative principle  of  either  type  of  Ihrotestantism 
in  its  difference  from  the  other:  they  have  infi- 
nitely more  in  conmion  than  in  distinction.  And 
certainly  nothing  could  be  more  misleading  thani  / 
to  represent  them  (as  is  often  done)  as  owing  their  '^ 
differences  to  their  more  pure  embodiment  respect-' 
ively  of  the  principle  of  predestination  and  that 
of  justification  by  faith.  The  doctrine  of  predes- 
tination is  not  the  formative  principle  of  Calvinr/ 
ism,  the  root  from  which  it  springs.  It  is  one  of  ^ 
its  logical  consequences,  one  of  the  branches  which 
it  has  inevitably  thron^-n  out.  It  has  been  firmly 
embraced  and  consistently  proclaimed  by  Cal- 
vinists  because  it  is  an  implicate  of  theism,  is 
directly  given  in  the  religious  consciousness,  and  is,, 
an  absolutely  essential  element  in  evangelical 
religion,  without  which  its  central  truth  of  com-| 
plete  dependence  upon  the  free  mercy  of  a  saving 
God  can  not  be  maintained.  And  so  little  is  it  a 
peculiarity  of  the  Reformed  theology,  that  it  under- 
lay and  gave  its  form  and  power  to  the  whole 
Reformation  movement;  which  was,  as  from  the 
spiritual  point  of  view,  a  great  revival  of  religion, 
so,  from  the  doctrinal  point  of  view,  a  great  revival 
of  Augustinianism.  There  was  accordingly  no' 
difference  among  the  Reformers  on  this  point;| 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  and  the  compromising  y 
Butzer  were  no  less  jealous  for  absolute  predes-', 
tination  than  Zwingli  and  Calvin.  Even  Zwingli 
could  not  surpass  Luther  in  sharp  and  unqualified 
assertion  of  it:  and  it  was  not  Calvin  but  Melanch- 
thon who  gave  it  a  formal  place  in  his  primary 
scientific  statement  of  the  elements  of  the  Protes- 
tant faith  (cf.  Schaff,  Creeds,  i.  451;  E.  F.  Kari 
Mailer,  Sr/mbolik,  Leipsic,  1896,  p.  75;  C.  J.  Nie- 
mijer,  De  Strijd  over  de  Leer  der  PredesHnaHe  in 
de  IX.  Eeuw,  Groningen,  1889,  p.  21;  H.  Voigt, 
Fundamenialdogmatik,  Gotha,  1874,  pp.  469-470). 
Just  as  little  can  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  ' 
faith  be  represented  as  specifically  Lutheran.    N(^ 


HEUniOUS  ENCrV'CLOPEDTA 


ftlTkdsm 


merely  has  it  from  the  beginning  been  a  RubstantiaJ 
element  in  the  Refonned  faith,  but  it  is  only  among 
the  lieformed  that  it  has  retained  or  can  retain 
its  purity,  free  fmrn  the  tendency  to  become  a 
doctrine  of  iustification  on  account  of  faith  (cf. 
E.  Bdlil,  Von  tier  Uechtjerttgung  durch  de^n  Gtaii}j€n^ 
Amsteniixm,  I8W).  Here,  too,  the  difference 
between  the  two  tjpcj*  of  Protestanti^irn  is  erne  of 
degree,  not  of  kind  (cf.  C.  P.  Ivrautli,  Tlw  Con- 
FCTvative  Reformation f  Plnladelpiiia,,  1872),  Lu- 
theranism,  the  product  of  a  poignant  senne  of  sin. 
bom  from  the  tlirous  of  a  guilt-bitrdened  soul  which 
can  not  be  stilled  until  it  finds  peace  in  Cod^H 
decree  of  justification,  is  ajjt  to  rest  in  this  peace; 
while  Cah^nism,  the  product  c»f  an  oven^ helming 
vnsion  of  Gml,  bom  from  the  reflection  in  the  heart 
of  man  of  the  majesty  of  a  God  who  will  not  give 
his  glory  to  another,  can  not  pause  until  it  places 
the  scheme  of  salvation  itself  in  n;hition  to  a  com- 
plete world- view,  in  which  it  becomes  subsidiary 
to  the  glory  of  the  Lord  God  Almighty.  Cahinism 
asks  with  LutheraniMm,  indeed,  that  mo.st  poignant 
of  all  questional  Wliat  shall  I  do  to  be  saved?  and 
answers  it  as  Lntheraiusm  answers  it.  But  the 
j  great  qiieetion  which  presses  ujxin  it  Ls,  How  shall 
God  be  glorified?  It  h  the  contemplation  of  God 
and  zeal  for  his  honor  which  in  it  draws  out  the 
emotions  and  absorbs  endeavor;  and  the  end  of 
himian  as  of  all  other  existence,  of  salvation  as  of 
all  other  attainment,  is  to  it  the  glory  of  the  Lortl 
of  all.  Full  justice  is  done  in  it  to  the  sclicmc  of 
redemption  and  the  experience  of  salvation,  be- 
cause full  jui^tiee  is  done  in  it  to  religion  itself  winch 
iinderlies  these  elements  of  it.  It  begins,  it  centers, 
it  ends  \^ith  the  vision  of  God  in  his  glory;  and 
it  sets  itself  before  all  things  to  render  to  God  his 
rights  in  even,'  sphere  of  lifc-actiTr-ity, 

One  of  the  consequences  flowing  frtjoi  this  fun- 
damental attitude  of  Cahinistic  feeling  and  thought 
is  the  high  supernaturalisin  which  informs  alike 
itfi  religious  eonseiousnesa  and  its  doctrinal  con- 
struction. Calvinism  would  not  be  bailly  definetl. 
indeed,  as  the  tendency  which  is  detennined  to  do 
justice  to  the  immedialely  Huperaatural,  as  in  the 
first,  so  also  in  the  second  creation.  The  strength 
and  purity  of  it^s  belief  in  the  supernatural  Fact 
(which  is  God)  saves  it  from  all  embarrassment 
in  the  face  of  the  snpematurai  act  (whicli  is  miracle). 
In  everything  which  enters  into  the  proccsBS  of 
redemption  it  is  impelled  by  the  force  of  its  first 
principle  to  place  the  initiative  in  God.  A  super- 
natural revelation,  in  which  God  makes  known  to 
man  his  will  and  his  purposes  of  grace;  a  super- 
natural record  of  this  revelation  in  a  supcmaturally 
given  book,  in  which  God  gives  his  revelation  pcr- 

fanency  and  extension — such    things  arc  to  the 
Calximst    almost    matters   of    course. 
5.  Soteri-   And,  above  all,  he  c^m  but  insist  with 
ology  of     the     utmost     strenuousness     on     the 
Calvinism,  immeiliate    sijpernaturalness    of    the 
actual     work     of     redemption     itself, 
and  that  no  less  in  its  apphcation  than  in  its  im- 
pet  ration.     Thus  it  comes  about  that  the  doctrine 
of  monergistic  regeneration^ — or  as  it  was  phrased 
*  by  the  older  theologians^  of  "  irresistible  grace  " 
**  effectual  calling  "—is  the  hinge  of  the  Cal- 


vinistic  soteriology,  and  lies  much  more  deeply 
embedded  in  the  system  than  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination itself  which  is  popularly  looked  upon 
as  its  hall-mark.  Indeed,  the  t^oteriological  aig- 
nificajice  of  predestintition  to  the  Calvinist  con- 
twists  in  the  safeguard  it  affords  to  mtmerglstic 
regeneration — to  purely  supernatural  salvation. 
What  lies  at  the  heart  of  his  soteriology  is  the 
absolute  exclusion  of  the  creaturely  element  in 
the  initiation  of  the  .*5a\ing  process,  that  so  the 
pure  grace  of  God  may  be  magnified.  Only  so 
could  he  express  tiis  sense  of  men's  complete  de- 
pendence as  sinners  on  the  free  mercy  of  a  saving 
God:  orextmde  the  evil  leaven  of  SjTiergism  (cpv.) 
by  which,  as  he  clearly  sees,  Go<l  is  robbed  of  his 
glory  and  num  is  encouraged  to  think  that  he  owes 
to  some  power,  some  act  of  choice,  some  initiative 
of  his  o-^vn^  his  participation  in  that  salvation  which 
is  in  reality  all  of  grace.  There  is  accordingly 
nothing  against  which  Calvinism  .sets  its  fare  with 
more  firmness  thiin  everj'  form  and  degree  of 
autosoterism.  Above  everything  else,  it  is  deter- 
mincxl  that  God,  in  his  Son  Jesua  Clirist,  acting 
through  the  Holy  Spirit  whom  he  has  eent^  shall 
be  reeognized  as  our  veritable  Savior.  To  it  sinful 
man  stanrls  in  need  not  of  inducementa  or  assist- 
tmee  to  save  himself,  but  of  actual  saving;  and 
Jesus  Christ  has  come  not  to  ad\HsH;,  or  urge,  or 
induce,  or  aid  liim  to  save  himself,  but  to  save  lum. 
This  is  the  root  of  Cahanlstic  soteriology*;  atid  it  is 
because  this  deep  sense  of  human  helplessness 
and  tills  profound  consciousness  of  intlcbtutlness 
for  all  that  enters  into  .salvation  to  the  free  grace 
of  God  is  the  root  of  its  soteriology  that  to  it  the 
doctrine  of  election  becomes  the  cor  cordii  of  the 
Gospel.  He  who  knows  that  it  is  God  who  has 
chos<*n  liim  and  not  he  who  has  chosen  God,  and 
that  he  owes  his  entire  salvation  in  all  its  processes 
and  in  every  one  of  its  stages  to  this  choice  of  God, 
would  be  an  ingrate  indeed  if  he  gave  not  the  glory 
of  his  salvation  solely  to  the  inexplicable  elective 
love  of  Gf)d, 

Historically    the    Reformed   theology    finds   its 
origin  in  the  reforming  movement  l>egun  in  Switzer- 
liind  under  the  leadership  of  Zwingh  {151fi)r     Its 
fundamental    principles    are    already    present    in 
Zwingii-s  teaching,  though  it  was  not  until  C'al\4n's 
profoimd   and   fienetrating   genius   was   called    to 
tlieir  exposition  that  they  took  their  ultimate  form 
or  received  systematic  development.     From  Swit- 
zerland Calvinism  spn^nul  outward  to  France,  aad 
along   the   Rhine   through   Gcrm:my   to   Holland, 
east  want  to  Bohemia  and  Himgarj',  and  westward* 
across    the  Channel,    to    Great    Britain.     In    this 
broaci  expansion  tliroiigJi  so  many  lands  its  voice 
was  raised  in  a  multitude  of  confessions;  and  in 
the  course  of  the  four  hundred  years  which  have 
elapsed   since   its    first   formulation,   it    has   been 
expounded  in  a  vast  body  of  dogmatic 
6.  Consist-  treatises.     Its  development   has  nat- 
ent  Devcl-  unilly  been  much  richer  and  far  more 
opmcnt  of  many-sided   than    that   of    the   sister 
Calvinism,  system  of    Lutheranism    in  its  more 
confined    and    homogeneous   environ- 
ment; and  yet  it  Una  retained  its  distinctive  char- 
acter and  preficrvx'd  its  fundamental  features  with 


OalTlnism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


362 


marvelous  consistency  throughout  its  entire  his- 
tory. It  may  be  possible  to  distinguish  among 
the  Reformed  confessions,  between  those  which 
bear  more  and  those  which  bear  less  strongly  the 
stamp  of  Calvin's  personal  influence;  and  they  part 
V     into  two  broad   classes,  according  as  they  were 

>  composed  before  or  after  the  Arminian  defection 
(c.  1618)  demanded  sharper  definitions  on  the 
points  of  controversy  raised  by  that  movement 
(see  Arminius,  Jacobus,  and  Arminianibm;  Re- 
monstrants). A  few  of  them  written  on  Ger- 
man soil  also  bear  traces  of  the  influence  of 
Lutheran  conceptions.  And,  of  course,  no  more 
among  the  Reformed  than  elsewhere  have  all  the 
professed  expounders  of  the  sjrstem  of  doctrine 
been  true  to  the  faith  they  professed  to  expoimd. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  precisely  the  same  system 
of  truth  which  is  embodi^  in  all  the  great 
historic  Reformed  confessions;  it  matters  not 
whether  the  docimient  emanates  from  Zurich  or 
Bern  or  Basel  or  Geneva,  whether  it  simis  up  the 
Swiss  development  as  in  the  Second  Helvetic  Con- 
fession, or  publishes  the  faith  of  the  National 
Reformed  Churches  of  France,  or  Scotland,  or 
Holland,  or  the  Palatinate,  or  Hungary,  Poland, 
Bohemia,  or  England;  or  republishes  the  estab- 
lished  Reformed  doctrine   in  opposition   to   new 

^contradictions,  as  in  the  Canons  of  Dort  (in  which 
the   entire    Reformed   world    concurred),    or    the 

^Westminster  Confession  (to  which  the  whole  of 
Puritan  Britain  gave  its  assent),  or  the  Swiss  Form 

^of  Consent  (which  represents  the  mature  judgment 
of  Switzerland  upon  the  recently  proposed  novel- 
ties of  doctrine).  And  despite  the  inevitable  variety 
of  individual  points  of  view,  as  well  as  the  imavoid- 
able  differences  in  ability,  learning,  grasp,  in  the 
multitude  of  writers  who  have  sought  to  expound 
the  Reformed  faith  through  these  four  centuries — 
and  the  grave  departures  from  that  faith  made 
here  and  there  among  them — the  great  stream  of 
Reformed  dogmatics  has  flowed  essentially  un- 
sullied, straight  from  its  origin  in  Zwingli  and  Calvin 
to  its  debouchure,  say,  in  Chalmers  and  Cimninghara 
and  Crawford,  in  Hodge  and  Thomwell  and  Shedd. 
It  is  true  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  distin- 
guish two  types  of  Reformed  teaching  from  the 
beginning;  a  more  radical  type  developed  imdcr 
the  influence  of  the  peculiar  teachings  of  Calvin, 
and  a  (so-called)  more  moderate  type,  chiefly 
propagating  itself  in  Germany,  which  exhibits 
rather  the  influence,  as  was  at  first  said  (Hofstede 
de  Groot,  Ebrard,  Heppe),  of  Melanchthon,  or,  in 
its  more  recent  statement  (Gooszcn),  of  Bullinger. 
In  all  that  concerns  the  essence  of  Calvinism,  how- 
ever, there  was  no  difference  between  Bullinger 
and  Calvin,  German  and  Swiss:  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism  is  no  doubt  a  catechism  and  not  a  con- 
fession, but  in  its  presuppositions  and  inculcations 
it  is  as  purely  Calvinistic  as  the  Genevan  Catecliism 
or  the  catechisms  of  the  Westminster 
7.  Varieties  Assembly.  Nor  was  the  substance  of 
of  Gal-  doctrine  touched  by  the  peculiarities 
vinism.  of  method  which  marked  such  schools 
as  the  so-called  Scholastics  (showing 
themselves  already  in  Zanchius,  d.  1590,  and  cul- 
minating in  theologians  hke  Alsted,  d.  1638,  and 


Voetius,  d.   1676);    or  by  the  special  modes  of 
statement  wliich  were  developed  by  such  scbodi 
as  the  so-called  Federalists  (e.g.,  Cocceius,  d.  1669, 
Burman,  d.   1679,  Wittsius,  d.   1708;  cf.  Diestd, 
Studien    zur    Federaltheologis,  in    Jahrbucher  jkr 
deutsche  Theoloffie,  1862,  ii.;  G.  Vos,  De  Verbonds- 
leer  in  de  Gereformeerde  Theologiet  Grand  Rapids, 
1891;  W.   Hastie,   The  Theology  of  the  Reformed 
Church,    Edinburgh,     1904,    pp.     189-210).    The 
first  serious  defection  from  the  fundamental  con- 
ceptions of  the  Reformed  system  came  with  the^ 
rise  of  Arminiamsm  in  the  early  years  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  (Arminius,  Uytenbogaert,  Episco- 
pius,   Limborch,  Curcelheus);   and   the  Arminian 
party  was  quickly  sloughed  off  under  the  condem- 
nation of  the  whole  Reformed  world.    The  five 
points  of  its  **  Remonstrance  "  against  the  C!al- 
vinistic  system  (see  Remonstrants)  were  met  by 
the  reassertion  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
absolute    predestination,    particular    redemption, 
total  depravity,  irresistible  grace,  and  the  peat-, 
verance  of  the  saints  (Canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort).' 
The  first  important  modification  of  the  Calvinis- 
tic system  which  has  retained  a  position  within  its 
limits  was  made  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  by  the  professors  of  the  French  school  at 
Saumur,  and  is  hence  called  Salmurianism;  other- 
wise   Amyraldism,    or    hypothetical    universalism 
(Cameron,   d.    1625,  Amyraut,  d.   1664,  Placwus, 
d.  1655,  Testardus,  d.  c.  1650;  see  Amyraut,  MoIm)/ 
This  modification  also  received  the  condemnation 
of  the  contemporary  Reformed  worid,  which  reas- 
serted with  emphasis  the  importance  of  the  do^ 
trine  that  Christ  actually  saves  by  his  spirit  all  for 
whom  he  offers  the  sacrifice  of  his  blood  (e.g., 
Westminster  Confession,  Swiss  Form  of  Consent). 
If  "  varieties  of  Calvinism  "  are  to  be  spoken  of 
with  reference  to  anything  more  than  details,  of 
importance  in  themselves  no  doubt,  but  of  little 
significance    for    the    systematic    development  of 
the  type  of  doctrine,  there  seem  not  more  than  three 
which   require  mention:  supralapsarianism,  infra- 
lapsarianism,  and  what  may  perhaps  be  called  in 
this  reference,    Postredemptionism;    all   of  which 
(as  indeed  their  very  names  import)  take  their 
start  from  a  fundamental  agreement  in  the  prin- 
ciples which  govern  the  system.     The  difference 
between  these  various  tendencies  of  thought  within 
the  limits  of  the  system  turns  on  the  place  given  by 
each  to  the  decree  of  election,  in  the  logical  order- 
ing of  the  "decrees  of  God."   The 
8.  Supra-    Supralapsarians  suppose  that  election 
lapsarian-  underhcs  the  decree  of  the  fall  itself; 
ism  and     and  conceive  the  decree  of  the  fall  M 
Infralap-    a  means  for  canying  out  the  decree 
sarianism.   of  election.     The   Infralapsarians,  on 
the  other  hand,  consider  that  election 
presupposes  the  decree  of  the  fall,  and  hold,  there- 
fore, that  in  electing  some  to  life  God  has  mankind 
as  a  massa  perditionis  in  mind.     The  extent  of  the 
difference  between  these  parties  is  often,  indeed 
usually,  grossly  exaggerated:  and  even  historians 
of  repute  are  found  representing  infralapsarianism 
as  involving,  or  at  least  permitting,  denifd  that  tlie 
fall  has  a  place  in  the  decree  of  God  at  all:  as  i^ 
election  could  be  postposited  in  the  ordo  decrdo- 


S6a_ 


RELir.rOl^  ENCYCLOPEBTA 


CalvlsistxL 


rum  to  the  decree  of  the  fall,  while  it  wiis  dotiUted 
whether  there  were  any  decree  of  the  fall;  or  as  if 
indeed  God  could  bo  held  to  eonceivc  men,  in  his 
electing  decree,  as  fallen,  without  by  that  very  act 
fixing  the  presTupposed  fall   in  hts  eternal  decree. 
In  point  of  fact  there  is  and  c^^n  be  no  difference 
«%mong  Calvinistjs  as  to  the  in  elusion  of  the  fall  in 
the  decree  of  God:  to  doubt  this  inclusion  is  to 
place  oneself  at  once  at  variance  with  the  fiintlamen- 
tal  Cal\anistic  principle  which  conceiveji  all  that 
comes  to  pjuw  teleologically  and  ascribes  everj* thing 
that  actually  occurs  ultimately  to  the  will  of  God. 
Aceordingly    even    the    PowtrtHiemptioniBta    (that 
is   to  say   the   Salmurians   or   Amyraldians)    find 
no    difficulty    at    tliis    point.     Their 
9,  Postre-   peculiarity  consists  in   insisting  that 
demption-   election    succeeds,    in     the    order    of 
K       ism,         thought,  not  merely  the  decree  of  the 
I  iiill   but   tliut  of  redemption  as  well, 

^pidiig  the  term  redemption  here  in  tlie  narrower 
Bfcae  of  the  impetration  of  rtHlemption  by  Christ. 
They  thus  suppose  that  in  his  electing  decree  Cod 
conceived  man  not  merely  as  fallen  but  as  already 
redeemed*  This  involves  a  modified  doctrine  of 
the  atonement  from  which  the  party  has  receiveil 
the  name  of  Hj-pothetical  t'niversalism,  holding 
as  it  does  that  Christ  died  to  make  satisfaction  for 
the  sins  of  all  men  without  exception  if—iU  that 
is,  they  beheve:  but  that,  foreseeing  tliat  none  would 
believe,  God  elected  some  to  be  granted  faith 
through  the  effectual  operation  of  the  Holy  8pirit. 
The  indifferent  standing  of  the  Postredeniption- 
ists  in  historical  Calvinism  is  indicated  by  the  treat- 
ment accorded  it  in  the  historical  confessions.  It 
alone  of  the  "  varieties  of  Calvinism  '*  here  men- 
tioned has  been  made  the  object  of  formid  con- 
fcsfdonul  condemnation;  and  it  received  condem- 
nation in  every  important  Reformett  confession 
written  after  ita  development.  There  are,  it  is 
true,  no  supralapsarian  confessions:  many,  how- 
ever, leave  the  questions  wdiich  divide  supralap- 
«arian  and  infralapsarian  w^jolly  to  one  side  and 
thus  avoid  pronouncing  for  either;  and  none  is 
polemically  directed  against  supralapBarianiam, 
On  the  other  hand,  not  only  does  no  confession 
close  the  door  to  infralapsarian  ism,  but  a  consid- 
erable numbi'r  explicitly  teach  infralapsarianism 
which  thus  emerges  aa  tlie  typical  form  of  Calvinism. 
That,  despite  its  confessional  condemnation,  Post- 
redemptionism  has  remained  a  recognized  form 
of  Calvinism  and  has  worked  out  a  history  for  itself 
in  the  Calvinistic  Churches  (especially  in  America) 
may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  its  atlvocates,  while 
departing,  in  some  important  particulars,  from 
typical  Calvinism,  have  nevertheless  remain tsl,  in 
the  main,  true  to  the  fundamental  postulates  of 
the  system.  There  is  another  variety  of  Post- 
redemptionism,  however,  of  which  this  c^ui  scarcely 
be  said.  This  variety,  which  became  dominant 
among  the  New  England  Congregationalist  Churches 
about  the  second  third  of  the  nineteenth  century 
(e.g.,  N.  W.  Taylor,  d.  1858;  C.  G.  Finney,  d.  1875; 
E,  A.  Park»  d.  1900;  see  New  England  Theolooy), 
attempted*  much  after  tlie  manner  of  the  "  Con- 
gruists  "  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  to  unite  a  Pelagian 
doctrine  of  the  will  with  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 


of  absolute  predestination.  The  result  was,  of 
course,  to  destroy  the  Calvrniatic  doctrine  of 
"  irresistible  grace,"  and  as  the  Calvinistic  t^loctrine 
of  the  **  fliitisfaction  of  Christ  ^*  was  also  set  aside 
in  favor  of  the  Grotian  or  governmental  tlieory  of 
atonement,  little  Wiis  left  of  CaKinism  except  the 
bare  doctrine  of  predestination.  Perhaps  it  is  not 
strange^  thert^fore,  that  this  "  improved  Calvin- 
ism "  hsLA  crumbled  away  and  given  place  to  newer 
and  explicitly  anti-Calvinistic  constructions  of 
doctrine  (cf.  WiOist^^n  Walker,  in  AJ1\  Apr.,  1<>U6, 
pp.  204  sqq.). 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  fortunes  of  Cal- 
vinism in  geneml  are  not  at  present  at  their  fltwd. 
In  America^  to  be  sure,  the  controversies  of  the 
earher  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  compacted 
a  boily  of  Cah-inistic  thouglit  which  gives  way  but 
slowly:  and  the  influence  of  the  great  tlieologians 
who  adorned  the  churches  during  that  |seriod  is 
still  felt  (especially  Charles  Hodgt?,  17*17-1878, 
Robert  J.  Breckinridge,  1800-71,  James  H.  Thorn- 
well,  1S12-62,  Henry  II  Smith,  lSb5-77,  W.  G.  T. 
Shedd,  1820-94,  Robert  L.  r>ubney,  182(1-98, 
Archibald  Alexander  Hodge,  1823-S6).  And  in 
Holland  recent  years  have  seen  a  notable  revival 
of  the  Reformer!  consciousness,  es- 
10.  Present  pccially  among  the  adherents  of  the 

Fortunes    Free  Churches,  wluch  has  been  felt  as 
of  Cal-      widely    as   Dutch    influence   extends, 

vimam.  and  which  is  at  present  represented 
in  Abraham  Kuyper  and  Uennan  Ba- 
vinck,  by  a  theologian  of  genius  and  a  theologian 
of  erudition  wortliy  of  the  be^t  Refonued  tra- 
ditions. But  it  is  probable  that  few  "  Calvinists 
without  reserve  "  exist  at  the  moment  in  Fa*nch- 
speaking  lands:  and  those  who  exist  in  lauds  of 
German  speech  and  Easteni  Europe  api>ear  i<t 
owe  their  inspiration  directly  to  the  teaching  of 
KohlbrQgge.  Even  in  Scothmd  there  has  been 
a  remarkable  decline  in  strictness  of  constr\iction 
ever  since  the  days  of  William  Cunningham  and 
Thomas  J.  Crawford  (cf.  W.  Hastie,  The  Tfu^nhgij 
of  the  Rcformtd  Church,  Erhnburgh,  1904,  p.  228). 
Nevertheless,  it  may  be  contended  that  the  future, 
as  the  past,  of  Christianity  itself  is  bound  up  with 
the  fortunes  of  Calvinism.  The  system  of  doctrine 
founde<l  on  the  idea  of  God  which  h:ui  been  expii- 
catetl  by  Cahinism,  strikingly  remarks  W.  HiLstie 
{Thealogy  m  a  Scwnce,  Gla^sgtjw,  1899,  pp.  97-98), 
"  is  the  only  system  in  which  the  whole  order  of  the 
world  is  brought  into  a  rational  unity  with  the 
doctrine  of  grace.  ...  It  is  only  with  such  a 
imiversal  conception  of  God,  established  in  a 
living  way,  that  we  can  face,  with  hoi>c  of  com- 
plete conquest,  all  the  spiritual  dzmgers  and  terrors 
of  our  time*  ,  .  .  But  it  is  deep  enough  and  large 
enough  and  divine  enough,  rightly  underst^wid,  to 
confront  them  and  do  battle  with  them  all  in  vin- 
dication  of  the  Creator,  Preserver,  and  fio%'emor 
of  the  world,  and  of  the  Justice,  and  I^ove  of  the 
Divine  BBraonality.'^  See  Fiv^e  Points  of  Cal- 
vinism* Benjamin  B.  Wahfield. 
Bibliography^  Th«  Il(pforme4  Cbnfesfiloiit  have  often  been 

collected;  th«  fullcnt  collection  is  E.  F.   K.  Mailer.  Di^ 

Bfk^nntniMchriJten  dtr  reiormierten  Kirche,  Leipsjc,  IftOS. 

For  Eng.  roadlera  the  un>»t  convenient  is  fioUttff,  Credit, 

voh  iii.  (vol.  i.  eontiuns  a  history  of  creed*).     An  older 


Oalvinism 
Gambridtf  e  Platonists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


864 


collection  U  H.  A.  Niemeyer,  ColUctio  Confeanonum  in 
eccUnia  reformatia  pitblicatarum,  Leipsic,  1840.  Con- 
sult also:  M.  Bchneckenburger,  Vergleichende  Dargtelluno 
dea  lutheriachen  und  reformierten  Ijehrbegriffa,  Stuttgart, 
1855;  G.  B.  Winer,  ComparcUwe  Daratellung  dea  Lehrbe- 
griffa  der  verachiedenen  chriatlichen  Kirchenparteien,  lier- 
Un,  1866,  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1873;  and  the  various 
works  on  Symbolics,  especially  E.  F.  K.  Mflllcr,  Sym- 
bolik,  Erlangen,  1896.  Attempts  more  or  less  successful 
have  been  made  to  present  the  Reformed  system  from 
the  writings  of  its  representative  theologians.  For  ex- 
amples of  these  consult:  A.  Schweiaser,  Die  (ilaubenalehre 
der  evaiigeliBch-refarmierten  Kirche,  2  vols.,  Zurich,  1844- 
1847;  J.  H.  Scholten,  Da  Leer  der  Uervormde  Kerk  in  hare 
GrondbeginaeUn,  Leyden,  1848,  2d  ed.,  1870;  11.  Heppe, 
Die  Dogmatik  der  erangeliach-refurmierien  Kirche,  Elber- 
feld,  1861;  cf.  B.  de  Moor,  Ctnnmentariua  perjtetuua  in 
Johannia  Marckii  compendium  theologice  cJiriatiana,  7 
vols.,  Leyden,  1761. 

For  the  "  principle  "  of  Calvinism  consult:  H.  Voigt, 
Fundamentaldogmatik,  pp.  397-480,  Gotha,  1874;  W. 
Hastie,  The  Theology  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  iU  Fun- 
damental Principlea,  I'kiinburgh.  1904;  cf.  Scholten  and 
Schneckenburger,  ut  sup.,  where  lists  of  the  literature  are 
given.  A  good  history  of  the  lieformed  theology  is  still 
a  desideratum.  Sketches  have  been  given  in:  W.  Ga.sfl, 
Geachichte  der  proteatantiachen  Dogmatik,  Iterlin,  1854-67; 
G.  Frank,  Oaachichie  der  proteatantiachen  Theologie,  3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1862-75;  I.  A.  I>orner,  Geachichte  der  protea- 
tantiachen Theologie,  Munich,  1867,  Eng.  transl.,  2  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1871.  Contributions  have  been  made  by: 
C.  M.  Pfaff,  JrUroductio  in  hiatoriam  theologice  literariam, 
pp.  258  aqq.,  TQbingen,  1724;  B.  Pictet,  Theologia  chria- 
tiana,  part  iii.,  Leyden,  1733-34;  J.  G.  Walch,  Biblio- 
theca  theologica  aelecta,  i.  211  sqq.,  Jena,  1757-68;  A.  M. 
Toplady,  Hiatoric  Proof  of  the  Doctrinal  Calviniam  of  the 
Church  of  England,  London,  1774;  A.  Ypey  (Ijpeij), 
Beknopia  UUerkundiga  geachiedenia  der  ayatem.  godge- 
leerd  (UtrechtT),  1793-98;  A.  Schweizer.  Die  proteatan- 
tiachen Centraldogmen  in  ihrer  Entwirklung  innerhalb  der 
reformierten  Kirche,  Zurich,  1854;  J.  11.  Scholten,  ut  sup., 
i.  67  sqq.;  H.  Heppe,  Die  confeaaionelle  EntuicJclung  der 
altproteatantiachen  Kirche  DetUachlanda,  Marburg,  1854; 
idem,  Dogmatik  dea  deutechen  Protentautiamua  un  aechr- 
tehnten  Jahrhundert,  Gotha,  1857;  W.  Cunningham,  The 
Rcformera  and  the  Theoloq'j  of  the  Refirrmation,  Edinburgh, 
1862;  idem,  Historical  Theohnf;/,  2  vols.,  ib.  1864;  J.  H. 
A.  Ebranl,  ChrisUiche  Dogmatik,  i.  44,  Krmigsberg,  1803; 
J.  Walker,  The  Theology  and  Theologians  of  Scotland,  Eilin- 
burgh,  1872;  C.  Sepp,  llci  (rodficleerd  ondenviia  in  Neder- 
land  .  .  .  /<7f  en /rerruu'.Loyden,  1873-74;  A.  Milroy,  r^ 
Church  of  Scotland,  Pctat  and  Prenent,  ed.  K.  H.  Story,  \jon- 
don,  n.d.;  idem,  Scottish  TheoU>giana  and  Preacher  a,  1610- 
16S8,  Edinburgh,  1891.  C-onxult  also  on  t  he  general  .sub joct : 
A.  Kuypcr,  Calviniam,  New  York,  1890  (an  mliiiirahlc 
statement,  summing  up  a  series  of  brochures  in  Dutch); 
J.  A.  Froudo,  Calviniam,  Ixmdon,  1871,  and  in  Short 
Studies  on  Great  Subjecta,  second  sericH,  ib.  1871;  J.  L. 
Girardeau.  Calviniam  and  Evarigelical  Arminianiam,  Co- 
lumbia, 1893;  B.  B.  Warfiehl.  The  Significance  of  the 
Westminster  Standards  as  a  Creed,  New  York,  1898;  E. 
W.  Smith.  The  Creed  of  Presbyterians,  ib.  1901.  Some 
of  the  chief  Calvini.ntic  doginati.-<ts  find  mention  in  the 
text;  a  list  of  the  more  important  is  given  in  Heppe  and 
Schwciaer,  ut  sup.,  at  the  beginning.  The  series  may  be 
fairly  represented  by  the  following  names:  Calvin,  Ursi- 
nu.s,  Zanchius,  Polanus.  Alsted.  Voetius,  Burman,  Turretin, 
Heidegger.  Van  Mastircht.  The  brief  compi^nda  of  Bu- 
canus  U nstitutiones  theologica;  Geneva.  1()09),  WoUebiiis 
{Compendium  theologia;,  Cambri<lge.  1648),  Ames  (Medulla 
theologica,  Amsterdam,  1656,  Eng.  transl..  I^ondon,  1642). 
and  Marck  {Compendium  theologice,  Amsterdam,  1705) 
present  the  system  in  briefest  form.  The  more  recent 
theologians  are  indicated  in  the  text. 

CAMALDOLITES  (railed  also  Camaldolensians, 
Camaldolese,  Camaldules,  Camaldiilians,  from  the 
monastery  at  Camaldoli  near  Arezzo):  A  religious 
order  springing  from  the  movement  for  monastic 
reform  which  also  gave  rise  to  the  congregations 
of  Cluny  and  Lorraine,  with  which  it  is  allied  in 


some  respects,  though  it  differs  from  tbem  in  others. 
The  Italian  movement  is  wholly  independent  of 
the  French,  and  began  later — ^not  before  the  doee 
of  the  tenth  century,  after  the  Cluniac  monks  had 
already  reformed  numerous  monasteries  in  upper 
and  central  Italy.  It  was  more  enthusiastic  than 
the  French,  and  had  for  its  object  not  so  much  the 
strict  enforcement  of  the  Benedictine  rule  as  the 
commendation,  in  opposition  to  the  moral  corrup- 
tion which  was  even  deeper  in  the  south  than  in  the 
north,  of  the  severest  form  of  the  asccUc  life, 
that  of  hermits.  This  recalls  the  Greek  monastic 
originators;  and  the  fact  is  easily  explicable  by 
the  strong  influence  of  Greek  traditions  in  Italy, 
especially  in  the  south. 

St.  Romuald  is  the  most  prominent,  but  by  oo 
means  the  only,  representative  of  this  idea.  Before 
or  with  him  were  working  for  the  same  end  the 
Armenian  hermit  Simeon,  St.  Dominic  of  Foligno, 
the  founder  of  Fonte  AvcUana,  and  the  Greek 
Nilos  of  Rossano.  Romuald  was  bom  at  Ravenna, 
of  the  ducal  family  there,  about  950.  He  was 
startled  out  of  a  worldly  lilfe  when  his  father  Ser- 
gius  killed  a  kinsman  in  a  duel  arising  out  of  a 
dispute  over  a  piece  of  property,  and  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  S.  ApoUinare  in  Classe  near  Ravenna 
to  do  penance  forty  days  on  his  father's  behalf. 
His  ascetic  zeal  was  not  satisfied  here,  althou^  the 
monastery  had  been  reformed  not  long  before  by 
Majolus  of  Cluny.  He  began  to  live  a  hermit's 
life  near  Venice,   continued  it  in  Catalonia,  and 

then    returned    to    the    neighborhood 

St  Romu-  of  Ravenna.     Wherever  he  went,  a 

aid.        group  of  disciples  formed  around  him; 

but  as  soon  as  they  were  sufficiently 
numerous  in  any  one  place,  he  gave  them  into  the 
charge  of  a  superior  and  left  them.  Most  of  these 
colonies  were  in  ctmtral  Italy;  the  three  most  impo^ 
timt  were  Val  di  Castro,  Monte  Sitrio  in  Umbria,  and 
Camaldoli,  where  he  established  a  monastery  in  1012. 
Ilis  orgimization  shows  a  combination  of  the  West- 
em  cenobite  system  with  the  Elastem  anchorite 
life.  The  brothers  lived  in  single  cells,  with  an 
oratory  in  the  midst.  The  whole  Psalter  was 
recited  every  day;  the  only  written  memorial 
left  by  llomuald  was  an  exposition  of  the  Psalms, 
which,  however,  is  taken  almost  word  for  word 
from  that  of  Cassiodorus.  Meals  were  taken  in 
common,  but  they  were  exceedingly  scanty;  the 
brothers  went  barefoot  and  wore  their  hair  and 
beards  long;  the  rule  of  silence  was  strictly  oh- 
ser\'ed.  They  busied  themselves  with  agriculture 
and  various  handicrafts,  those  near  the  sea  espe- 
cially with  the  making  of  baskets  and  nets.  We 
meet  for  the  first  time  in  these  hermit  colonies 
with  famuli,  the  later  lay  brothers,  who  relicvetl 
the  monks  of  the  more  burdensome  household 
duties.  The  rule  of  fasting  and  silence  was  not  so 
strict  for  them,  but  apparently,  as  at  Fonte  Avel- 
lana,  they  had  to  take  lifelong  monastic  vows. 
This  institution  was  borrowed  by  Gualberto,  * 
disciple  of  Komuald's,  for  his  order  of  Vallom- 
brosa  and  further  developed  by  him  (see  Guai^- 
BERTO,  Giovanni).  Romuald's  activity  was  not 
confined  to  the  founding  of  these  communities.  He 
made  a  deep  impression  upon    the  most  varied 


865 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Calvinism 
Oambridffe  Platonists 


classes,  and  exercised  a  great  influence  over  the 
emperor  Otto  III.,  who,  it  is  asserted  not  improb- 
ably, promised  him  to  exchange  the  crown  for  the 
cowl  after  he  had  conquered  Rome.  Though 
Romuald  disclaimed  any  intention  of  taking  part 
in  ecclesiastical  i>olitics,  he  raised  his  voice  loudly 
in  Italy  against  simony  and  the  marriage  of  the 
dergy.  His  zeal  called  him  to  the  mission- field; 
disciples  of  his  penetrated  into  Russia  and  Poland, 
there  to  meet  death  for  their  faith,  and  the  de- 
sire of  the  martyr's  crown  finally  took  the  aged 
hermit  himself  to  Hungary.  Ill  health  hindered 
his  work  there,  and  he  returned  to  die  in  1027. 

His  zeal  for  a  reform  of  monasticism  remained 
active  in  his  followers.  They  did  not,  however, 
emphasize  the  hermit  ideal  to  the  same  extent,  and 
the  Italian  movement  gradually  approximated  to 
that  of  Cluny.  Romuald's  spirit  was  best  followed 
in  the  community  of  Camaldoli,  which  received 
papal  confirmation  from  Alexander  II.  in  1072. 
Its  rule  was  first  written  in  1080  by  the  fourth 
prior,  Rudolph,  who  modified  in  some  respects  the 
extreme  strictness  of  Romuald's  prescriptions,  and 
also  founded  (1086)  the  first  convent  of  nuns  under 
this  rule,  San  Pietro  di  Luco  at  Mogello.  Camal- 
doli received  many  rich  gifts,  and  the  congregation 
spread  throughout  Italy,  without,  however,  pro- 
ducing any  very  notable  men  except  the  famous 
jurist  Gratian  (q.v.).  The  transition  from  the 
hermit  to  the  community  life  became  more  marked, 

in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Ambrose  the 

The  Carnal-  Camaldolite  (q.v.)  of  Portico,  "  major  " 

dolese.      or  head  of  the  conp:regation  in  1431, 

supported  by  Poi>e  Eugenius  IV.,  to  re- 
store the  old  ideals.  In  1476  the  community  of 
St.  Michael  at  Murano  near  Venice  renounced  the 
obedience  of  Camaldoli,  and  formed  a  group  of  ilis- 
tinctly  cenobitic  Camaldolese  houses,  confirmed 
as  a  congregation  by  Innocent  VIII.  In  1513 
Leo  X.  reunited  all  the  Camaldolese  monks  under 
the  headship  of  Camaldoli,  providing  that  the  major 
should  hold  oflSce  for  but  three  years,  and  be  chosen 
alternately  from  the  hermits  and  the  cenobitcs. 
But  in  1520  he  allowed  Paolo  Giustiniani  to  draw 
up  new  statutes  and  to  form  the  new  commu- 
nities of  hermits  which  he  was  to  found  into  an  in- 
dependent congregation  of  St.  Romuald.  This 
new  congregation,  which  took  its  name  from  Monte 
Corona  near  Perugia,  had  a  very  strict  rule;  it 
spread  through  Germany,  Austria,  and  Poland. 
A  fourth  congregation,  that  of  Turin,  was  founded 
in  1601  by  Ale^asandro  di  Leva  (d.  1612),  to  take 
in  the  hermits  of  Piedmont.  A  branch  of  this  be- 
came practically  a  separate  congregation  on  ac- 
count of  the  political  views  of  Richelieu,  who  was 
unwilling  that  the  French  hermitages  should  be 
subject  to  Italian  superiors.  By  a  brief  of  Urban 
VIII.  (1635),  its  head  was  always  to  be  a  French- 
man, and  directly  subject  to  the  pope.  From 
1642  Gros-Bois  near  Paris  was  its  mother  house. 
All  the  French  communities  perished  at  the  Revo- 
lution. The  congregation  of  Camaldoli  has  now 
six  houses,  including  Camaldoli  itself  and  one 
famous  for  its  picturesque  site  high  above  Naples. 
The  principal  house  of  the  Murano  congregation  is 
4  San  Grcgorio  in  Rome,  from  which  came  the  only 


Camaldolese  monk  who  has  occupied  the  papal 
throne,  Gregory  XVI.  (1831-46).  Outside  of  Italy 
there  is  only  the  couununity  of  Bielany  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Cracow,  belonging  to  the  congregation  of 
Monte  Corona.  The  total  membership  of  the 
order  is  not  more  than  200.  Convents  of  nuns 
exist  only  in  Rome  and  Florence. 

(G.  Gk&tzmacher.) 

Biblioorapht:  Petnis  Damianus,  Vita  Romualdi  is  in  Dar 
mianus,  Opera,  ed.  C.  Cajetanus,  ii.  256  sqq..  Rome,  1608. 
and  Af  PL,  cxliv.  953  »qq.  Another  Vita  is  in  ASB,  7th 
Feb.,  ii.  124-140.  Consult:  G.  B.  MittarelU  and  G.  D. 
Ck>stadoni,  Annalea  Camcddulenaet,  0  vols.,  Venice.  1756- 
1773;  W.  Wattenbach.  DetU»chland$  Geschiehta^iellen,  i. 
436,  Berlin,  1893;  C.  W.  Currier,  Hut.  of  ReliffioM  Order; 
pp.  118-123,  New  York,  1896;  P.  Helyot,  Ordrf  mona»- 
tiquea,  vol.  v.;  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Konoregationen, 
i.  203-208. 

CAMBRAI,  c(lh"br6':  An  ancient  archbishopric 
in  the  north  of  France.  As  early  as  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century,  when  the  Franks  invaded 
Gaul,  Cameracum  was  an  important  town,  as  is 
evident  from  Gregory  of  Tours  (Hist.  Francorum, 
ii.  9).  On  the  death  of  Lothair  II.  it  passed  to 
Charles  the  Bald.  Later  its  possession  was  con- 
tested by  the  emperors,  the  counts  of  Flanders, 
and  the  kings  of  France.  It  was  taken  from  the 
French  by  the  Spaniards  in  1595,  but  has  been  a 
part  of  France  since  1677. 

The  traditional  list  of  its  bishops  begins  with 
Diogenes,  said  to  have  been  sent  by  Pope  Siricius 
(384-398);  but  this  is  untrustworthy.  Firm  his- 
torical ground  is  reached  first  with  St.  Vedast, 
who  was  consecrated  bishop  of  St.  Remigius, 
bishop  of  Reims,  and  presided  over  the  churches 
of  Arras  and  Cambrai  until  his  death  in  540.  The 
see  was  transferred  to  Cambrai  under  Vedulf  (545- 
c.  580),  but  the  two  remained  united  until  Arras 
received  a  bishop  of  its  own  in  1093.  Among  later 
incumbents  of  the  see  of  Cambrai  may  be  men- 
tioned the  holy  Odo  (1105-06),  the  imfortunate 
Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva  (bishop  from  1368, 
antipope  1378-94),  the  renowned  Pierre  d'Ailly 
(1397-c.  1425);  and,  after  its  elevation  in  1559  to 
the  rank  of  an  archbishopric,  F^nelon  (1695- 
1715),  and  Cardinal  Dubois  (? 720-23).  The  Revo- 
lution deprived  Cambrai  of  its  metropolitan  dig- 
nity, subjecting  it  as  a  simple  bishopric  to  the  see 
of  Paris,  but  in  1842  it  was  once  more  made  an 
archbishopric,  with  Arras  as  suffragan.  Its  mag- 
nificent ancient  cathedral  was  destroyed  in  the 
Revolution,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower,  which 
fell  in  a  great  storm  in  1809.  The  present  (Cathe- 
dral was  formerly  the  Benedictine  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher. 

Bibuoorapht:  M.  A.  le  Glay,  Recherchea  »ur  V6gliae  meiro- 
politaine  de  Cambrai,  Cambrai,  1825;  idem,  Cameracum 
ckriatianum,  Lille,  1840;  H.  J.  P.  Pisquet,  La  France 
pontificale,  a. v.  Cambrai,  22  vola.,  Paris.  1864-71;  KL, 
ii.  1760-55. 

CAMBRIDGE     PLATFORM.     See     Conoreoa- 

TIONALISTB,  IV.,  §   1. 

CAMBRIDGE  PLATONISTS:  The  name  usually 
given  to  a  succession  of  distinguished  En^ish  di- 
vines and  philosophers  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
also  known  to  their  contemporaries  as  "Latitude 
Men,"  from  the  breadth  and  comprehensiveness  of 


Cambridge  Platonists 
Oameron 


THE   NKW   SCHAFF-liERZOG 


366 


their  teaching.  The  most  important  of  them  were 
Benjamin  Whichcote,  John  Smith,  Kalph  Cud- 
worth,  and  Henry  More.  Other  members  of  the 
school  were  Simon  Patrick,  Nathanael  Culverwel, 
John  Worthington,  George  Rust,  and  Edward 
Fowler;  while  Joseph  Glanvill  and  John  Norris, 
though  Oxford  men,  were  so  intimately  associated 
with  it  as  to  be  sometimes  included.  Starting 
with  many  of  the  same  thoughts  as  their  imme- 
diate predecessors  in  the  development  of  liberal  or 
rational  thought,  Hales  and  Chillingworth,  they 
aimed  less  than  these  at  ecclesiastical  comprehen- 
sion; their  purpose  was  to  find  a  higher  organon 
of  Cliristian  thought,  and  to  vindicate  the  essen- 
tial principles  of  Christianity  against  both  dog- 
matic excesses  within  the  Church  and  philosophical 
extravagances  without  it.  Unlike  the  former, 
too,  they  all  came  from  the  Puritan  side;  with  the 
exception  of  More,  their  leaders  were  members  of 
the  famous  Puritan  college  of  Emmanuel,  and  thus 
closely  bound  together  into  a  definite  group  or 
school.  The  main  source  of  their  inspiration  was 
the  study  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  not  only  in 
Plato  himself  but  in  his  Alexandrian  and  modem 
disciples.  •  This  Platonic  revival  was  important 
as  evoking  the  only  force  adequate  to  meet  the 
development  of  naturalism  in  a  direction  which 
threatened  the  distinctive  principles  of  religion. 
But  if  Platonism  was  the  positive  determinant 
factor  in  the  movement,  the  negative  influence 
wliich  formed  the  school  was  opposition  to  the  de- 
structive reasoning  of  Hobbes,  whose  materialistic 
tendency  they  met  not  only,  like  Clarendon  and 
others,  by  polemical  criticism,  but  by  a  well-or- 
dered scheme  of  thought,  whose  principles  had 
been  already  worked  into  unison  with  Christian 
philosophy.  Of  tlieir  permanent  achievements, 
not  the  least  imjwrtant  was  their  inculcation  of 
the  doctrine  of  toleration,  at  that  time  so  novel 
and  impopular.  They  solved  the  religious  prob- 
lem, not  by  giving  it  up,  but  by  pushing  it  to  its 
legitimate  conclusion  and  drawing  tlie  essential 
distinction  between  dogma  and  religion,  which  is 
one  of  their  chief  contributions  to  modem  thought. 
Against  the  materialism  of  their  time,  they  labored 
to  prove  that  religion  was  a  transcendent  reality, 
a  substantive  power  binding  the  soul  to  God  and 
revealing  God  to  the  soul.  Their  writings  arc  fre- 
quently obscure  and  involved,  and  they  show  a 
lack  of  critical  and  historical  judgment  in  their 
confusion  of  Platonism  and  Ncoplatonism,  in 
their  speculative  fanci fulness,  and  in  their  misap- 
preciation  of  evidence.  But  their  services  to 
their  age  can  scarcely  be  overrated.  The  expo- 
nents and  advocates  of  a  comprehensive  Church,  the 
purifiers  of  the  popular  theology,  they  were  at  the 
same  time  the  great  champions  of  the  reality  of 
religion  at  a  time  when  the  excesses  of  its  parti zans 
were  driving  so  many  of  their  contemporaries  into 
unbelief.  See  the  st'parate  articles  on  the  various 
men  named  above. 

DinLiooRAPHT*.  The  best  account  is  by  J.  TuUocb,  Rational 
Theology  and  Christian  Philosophy  in  England,  vol.  ii., 
Kdinburgh,  1872.  The  early  prospectua  was  a  pamphlet 
by  S.  P.  (Simon  Patrick?),  Brief  Account  of  the  New  Sect 
of  the  New  Latitude  Men,  London.  1602.  Consult  further: 
E.    Fowler,  Pmctices  of   Certain  ,  .  .  Divines  .  .  ,  Abu- 


eively  Called  Latiiudinarians,  ib.  1671;  G.  Dyer,  ffutoy 
of  the  Univeraitv  .  .  ,  of  Cambridge,  ii.  91-101,  ib.  1814; 
W.  £.  H.  Lecky.  HisAory  of  .  .  .  RaUonaliMm  in  EMrope, 
2  vols.,  ib.  1875  (an  ill-balanoed  estimate);  F.  Greenaiet. 
Joseph  GlanviU,  New  York,  1900;  E.  T.  Campacmiff,  The 
Cambridge  PlatoniHs;  being  Selections  from  Whiduek. 
Smith,  and  Culverwel,  Oxford.  1901. 

CAMEL:  The  most  valuable  possession  of  the 
nomads  of  the  desert. 

The  Syrian  and  Egyptian  camel  is  the  aingje- 
hiunped,  lank,  and  long-legged  Camdus  dromeda- 
riu8.  Its  foremost  utility  is  that  of  common  car- 
rier ("ship  of  the  mainland"  was  its  poetical 
designation  even  prior  to  Islam).  Great  bodily 
strength  and  endurance  fit  it  for  this  service.  Its 
very  voracity  is  content  with  the  meanest  fodder 
of  the  driest  pasture  grasses,  half-dried  acada 
twigs,  dry  straw,  and  the  like;  and  it  can  toil  days 
at  a  time  upon  an  exceedingly  small  stint  of  forage. 
At  such  times  the  fatty  hump,  which  when  in  good 
condition  weighs  as  much  as  thirty  pounds,  almost 
entirely  disappears.  It  is  no  less  easily  sa^fied 
in  the  article  of  water.  In  spring  it  feeds  on  freshly 
dewed  grasses,  and  can  dispense  with  watenng 
several  weeks  running.  In  the  dry  season  it  can 
hold  out  three  or  four  days  without  water;  and 
then,  when  it  reaches  a  watering-place,  it  swallows 
the  water  in  enormous  quantities.  Its  broad, 
fleshy,  cushioned  foot  prevents  it  from  sinldDg 
deeply  into  the  desert  sand. 

The  carrier  camel  bears  ordinarily  from  two  to 
three  hundredweight;  still  more  on  occasion  (cf. 
II  Kings  viii.  9).  Its  gait  at  a  walk  is  about  tiro 
and  one-half  miles  an  hour,  and  it  maintains  this 
pace  right  along  with  alacrity  and  freshness  for 
twelve  or  fourteen  hours  and  even  longer.  The 
riding  c^mel  differs  from  the  foregoing,  just  as  a 
noble  race-horse  from  the  heavy  draft-horse.  It 
can  cover  as  much  as  ninety  miles  a  day,  and 
this  for  several  days  together.  The  camel  saddle 
is  a  trough-shaped  wooden  seat  fastened  over  the 
hump  with  a  tight  gearing  both  front  and  back. 
This  is  covered  with  a  cushion.  The  rider  sits  as 
on  a  side-saddle.  For  women  and  children  palan- 
quins are  likewise  in  use,  with  seats  and  curtains 
(Gen.  xxiv.  61,  xxxi.  17).  The  camel  ministers  to 
the  Bedouins*  every-day  needs.  The  rather  thick 
and  fatty  camel's  milk  is  their  beverage;  and  their 
horses  often  drink  it.  The  flesh  of  the  camel,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  hump,  which  is  esteemed  a  peculiar 
delicacy,  is  said  to  be  hard  and  tough;  but  still  it  is 
a  feast  for  the  Bedouin  to  kill  one  of  the  herd  and 
eat  meat.  They  also  occasionally  bleed  the  camel 
a  little  in  times  of  scarceness.  The  Israelites  a^ 
counted  camel's  flesh  unclean.  The  Bedouins' 
coarse  cloaks  are  woven  of  camel's  hair  (Matt,  iii- 
4),  and  also  their  thick  tent-ruga.  The  hide  is 
worked  into  sandals,  thongs,  water-skins,  and  the 
like.     The  dung  is  dried  and  then  serves  for  fuel 

The  camel  naturally  is  less  important  in  agri- 
cultural Palestine.  Yet  even  here  it  has  its  use- 
fulness as  beast  of  burden;  and  when  heavy  loads 
and  great  distances  are  in  question,  horses  and 
mules  are  not  to  be  compared  with  it.  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  breeding  of  camels  on  a  large  scale 
is  found  imder  the  patriarchs  (Gen.  xii.  16.  xxiv- 
10,  XXX.  43)  and  David  (I  Chron.  xxviL  30).  But 


367 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cambridge  Platonists 

Cameron 


m  every  era  there  is  rekrence  to  the  raantfolil  usch 
af  camels  (e.g.,  11  Kings  viii,  9;  Ua,  xxx.  6;  I 
Chron.  xii.  40;  Ezra  ii.  67;  Neb.  vii.  60).  To  the 
poet  the  camel  m  its  wiUl  raging  during  the  rutting 
aea»xn  is  an  image  of  the  niitioiis  which  in  tlieir 
blind  passion  are  devoteri  to  strain  g;e  gode  (Jer.  ii. 
23).  L  Benxinueh. 

rSiLirmnAFHY:  H.  B,  Trintrjim,  Xaturai  tfUkT}/  of  the 
Bible,  p,  58  flq<l^>  Loudon,  1867;  idlem,  Snrrtu  of  Wegtern 
PoifMine,  Fauna  at\d  Flora,  ib.  1884;  H.  Blackburn, 
Bible  Umat*  and BirdM,  ita.  IftSO;  J .  G.  Wood.  liibU  AnimaU, 
ib.  1S&3;  idem,  Domettic  AninuiU  of  the  Bihte,  ih.  1S87, 
H,  C.  Hart.  AnimaU  of  thu  Bible,  ib.  I88«;  A.  E.  Kriight. 
BibU  Plants  and  AnimaU,  ib.  ISOO;  DB,  i.  SU-MS; 
EB.  L  tta:l-rt36. 

CAMERA  APOSTOLICA.     See  Curia,  }  2. 

CAMERARIUS,  ca"m^rQ'ri^ua  (CAHERMEIS- 
TER),  JOACHIM:  Protestant  Inimamst;  b.  at 
Bamberg  Apn  12,  15110;  d.  at  Leipsic  Apr.  17, 
1574.  He  was  dertccnded  from  an  old  Barn  berg 
family  and  wms  educated  there  till  liia  thirteenth 
year*  when  his  parents  sent  him  to  the  University 
.of  Leipaict  where  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
Pitudy  of  Greek  imder  Richard  Crocus,  Juhaiiu 
lletzler,  and  Peter  MoaellantiH,  Subsequently  he 
removed  to  the  Tniversity  of  Erf^irt,  where  he 
joined  the  cirele  of  the  humaniMti*,  became  ma^^ter 
of  arts  (l.i2())»  and  waa  highly  esteemed  and  ad- 
mir€>d  for  his  knowledge  of  Greek.  In  1521  he 
went  to  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he 
became  intimately  aequainted  with  Melanchthon. 
In  1525  he  aeeompaniml  Melanchthon  on  his  jour- 
ney to  the  Palatinate,  and  tlieuce  proceeded  to 
Uai*el  to  pay  homage  to  Erasmus.  In  the  same 
year  he  left  Wittenberg  and  went  to  Damberg, 
From  here  he  accompanied  Canon  Fuch^  on  a 
journey  to  Pnisaia  (1525)  and  in  1526  was  culled, 
upon  recommendation  of  Melant^hthon,  to  the 
gymmLsiuin  of  Nuremberg  ^a  teacher  of  Greek  and 
expounder  of  the  Latin  historianis.  A  visit  to 
Melanchthon  at  Speyer  in  1529  during  the  diet 
held  at  that  city  brought  him  into  immediate  con- 
tact with  the  ecclesiastical  :mil  political  affairs  of 
the  time;  he  also  took  part  in  the  Diet  of  Augsh 
burg  in  153>5*  Condition.^  at  Xu  rem  berg  did  not 
satisfy  him.  although  he  had  intercourse  with  men 
like  W.  Pirkheimer,  W.  Linck,  Osiander*  Ltusarus 
Spender,  and  Albrcclit  Diirer.  As  early  as  1528 
he  complained  of  the  coldness  ami  indilTerenci* 
towanl  the  humanistic  sciences  on  the  part  uf  hi« 
contemporaries.  His  Kchool  also  did  not  make 
progress,  and  in  I5.'i5  he  gladly  followed  a  call  to 
Tiibingen,  where  he  found  a  fruitful  field  for  his 
activity  a*s  teacher.  In  1541  he  removed  to  Leip- 
sic. Although  Came rari  lis  took  part  in  the  eccle- 
siastical diaaensions  of  the  time,  his  chief  impor- 
tance lies  in  the  field  of  humanism  tmd  pedagogics. 
In  his  first  pedagogical  trL'atise  PnTrepta  bttntMa- 
tijt  atque  decoris  puiriiis  (1528)  he  emphasized  iVA 
a  true  disciple  of  Mehmehthon  humanistic  educa- 
tion as  a  necessary  preparation  for  all  later  voca- 
tions, but  humanistic  education  ♦  as  he  Iiolds.  hiia 
it*  foundation  in  the  revercnce  of  God-  In  ac- 
cordance with  hia  view  that  the  Christian  religion 
should  be  taught  alongside  of  the  rudiments  of  the 
laii^uageSf  he  edited  the  eliief  articles  of  Chris- 
in  Greek  hexameters,  translated  the  Augs- 


burg Confession  into  Greek  and  composed  a  cate- 
cliism  in  the  same  language.  His  biographical 
works  are  of  great  value  as  sources,  and  show 
that  he  was  a  keen  observer,  especiafly  his  Narra- 
iio  d^  Eobano  HesRo,  etc.  (Nuremberg,  1553),  Nar- 
Tatio  de  Gt'oryio  Principe  Anh^ltino  (Leipsic,  1555), 
juid  his  famous  writing  De  Philippi  Mt^hmdithonii 
urftif  kitiu;»  i^itfE  eurriculo  el  morte,  implkata  rerum 
jriemorabiiinm  UmporU  Ulius  hominuTrufue  men- 
tione  .  .  ,  m7rraii<j(  Leipsic,  1566;  best  ed,  with  copi- 
ous notes  by  S.  T.  Strobel,  Halle,  1777;  the  text 
reprinted  by  A.  F.  Neander,  Berlin,  1841).  Another 
prominent  work,  measured  by  the  standfirila  of  hia 
time,  is  liis  nisfonea  narmtm  de  Fratntm  Oriho- 
doxorum  eedesits  in  Bohemia^  Moravia  et  Poloniat 
which  wan  first  edited  in  1605  by  liis  grandson 
Joacliim  Ludwig  Camerarius  and  is  still  valuable. 
CamerariiLs  also  edited  (though  badly)  the  letters 
of  Melanchthon  (Leipsic,  1569),  and  rendered  great 
services  to  liistorical  research  by  hia  collection  of 
letters  from  the  time  of  the  Refomiation,  which 
was  eontinue<l  by  his  son.  (T.  Koloe.) 

Hiiilioqbaphy:  E,  C.  fiexzel,  Joachim  CamerariM,  Nurem- 
berg, 1793;  H.  J.  Kiimtntsl.  Joachim  Camerariua  in  N Urn- 
berg,  ZiUau.  18(^2;  P.  Sekt,  Ueher  einige  theoloffiacken 
Schriften  des  J.  Cameranm.  Berlin.  188S:  KL,  ii,  1 75ft- 
17<V1:  ADB,  ill.  72(i»iQ. 

CAMERLINGO  (CAMERLEIfGO)-  See  Curia,  S  L 
CAMERON,  GEORGE  GORDON:  Free  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  Plusearden  (a  village  near  Elgin, 
71  m.  TiAv.  of  Aberdeen),  Elginshire,  Sept.  13, 
IS36.  He  was  educated  at  University  and  King's 
College,  Aberdeen  {\LA,,  I860),  Free  Church  Col- 
lege, Abenieen  (1860-02),  and  New  College,  Edin- 
burgh (1863-65).  He  was  a  tutor  on  the  Conti- 
nent in  1862-63  and  in  1865-66  VfiiB  assistant 
minister  in  Legliorn.  Italy.  He  was  then  assistant 
minister  in  Dundee,  Heotland,  for  a  year  and  at 
Kuthrieaton,  Aberdeen,  in  l8C7-6f>,  and  after  an- 
other year  as  temporary'  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
Free  Church  College  in  1860-70  was  assistant  min- 
ister for  brief  periotis  at  Bt.  Andrews,  Edinburgh, 
London,  and  North  Leith  in  1870-71.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  onlained  aasociate  minister  of  St. 
Jolrn's  Free  Church,  Glasgow,  and  retaineti  thia 
position  until  1882,  when  he  was  appoijited  to  the 
chair  of  Old  TesLament  language  and  litcraturt^  in 
the  United  Free  Church  College,  Aberdeen,  where 
he  Btii!  remains.  He  is  a  memlier  of  various  com- 
mitteen  for  the  geneml  work  of  his  sect,  and  haa 
writt>en,  in  addition  to  contributions  to  periodicals, 
Merrwnals  of  John  Roxburgh  (Glasgow*,  1881). 

CAMERON  (CAMERO),  JOHN:  Scottish  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Glasgow  c.  1570;  d.  at  Montauhan, 
France,  W23.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and  began 
to  give  lessons  in  Grec^k  there  at  the  age  of  twenty. 
In  l6tM)  he  went  to  Bordeaux  and  was  soon  ap* 
pointed  professor  of  the  luunanities  at  Bergeme. 
From  16111  to  1603  he  was  professor  of  divinity  at 
Sedan.  Then  he  returned  to  Bonleaux  and  re- 
ceived a  scholarship  enabling  him  to  complete  hia 
tlieological  stULlies.  He  became  tutor  in  the  fam- 
ily of  Calignnu  and  went  with  his  pujtils  to  Paris, 
Geneva*  and  Hridelberg.  At  the  umverHityof  the 
last-named  platr  on  Apr,  4.  IfkjH,  he  supported  in  a 
a  public  discussion  theses  de  triplid  Dei  cum   h>- 


Oameron 
OamlBardU 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


368 


mine  Jfrdere.  Later  in  tlio  same  year  he  became 
a  minister  at  Bordeaux  and  had  great  success  as 
a  preacher.  When  the  Protestants  were  driven 
from  the  town  after  eight  years  he  took  refuge  at 
Tonneins.  He  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
Academy  of  Saumur  in  1618.  In  1G20  he  partic- 
ipated in  a  discussion  at  Orl&ms  with  Tilenus,  for- 
merly professor  at  SMan,  and  controverted  his 
Arminian  propositions.  In  1622  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land called  him  to  London  and  appointed  him 
principal  and  professor  of  theology  at  Glasgow. 
But  the  jealousy  of  many  of  his  colleagues  forced 
liim  to  leave  his  native  town  and  in  1623  he  re- 
turned to  Saumur.  The  following  year  the  king 
authorized  him  to  teach  at  Montauban.  He  ar- 
rived there  at  a  time  when  there  was  violent  con- 
tention on  the  question  of  obedience  to  the  king 
and  took  sides  with  the  party  of  passive  obedience. 
On  May  15,  1625,  he  was  injured  in  a  public  tu- 
mult and  died  in  consequence  a  few  months  later. 
His  works  are:  Discours  apologHique  pour  ceux  de 
la  religion  ri^formee  (Bergerac,  1614);  TraiU  atujuel 
8ont  examines  les  prejug^a  de  ceux  de  VBglise  ro- 
maine  contre  la  religion  ri^JomU-e  (La  Rochelle, 
1616;  Eng.  transl.,  Oxford.  1624);  Theses  de  gratia 
et  libero  arbitrio  (Saumur,  1618);  Arnica  collatio  de 
graticB  et  humanas  voluntatis  concursu  in  vocatione 
(Leyden,  1621);  Defensio  sententiw  de  gratia  et  libero 
arbitrio  (Saumur,  1624);  and  Pra-lectione^  (3  vols., 
1626-28).  G.  Bonet-Mauuy. 

Biblioorapht:  Sources  for  a  life  are:  the  memoir  by  Cap- 
pel  prefixed  to  Cameron's  Opera,  Geneva,  1642;  Robert 
Baillie,  Leltera  and  JowrnaU,  pas8im.  2  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1776.  Consult  also:  D.  Irving,  Scottish  Writers,  i.  333- 
340,  London,  1850;  R.  Chambers,  Bioffraphical  Diction- 
ary of  Eminent  Scotchmen,  i.  273-275.  Edinburgh,  1868; 
DNB,  viii.  295-206. 

CAMERON,  RICHARD,  CAMERONIANS :  Scotch 
covenanting  leader  (b.  at  Falkland,  Fifeshire; 
killed  at  Ayrsmoss  or  Airdsmoss,  Ayrshire,  July  22, 
1680),  and  his  followers.  Brought  up  in  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  early  impressed  by  the  serv- 
ices of  those  ministers  who,  ejected  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  (q.v.)  of  1662,  continued  to  preach  in 
the  fields,  Cameron  adopted  and  advocated  their 
view  that  it  was  wrong  to  accept  the  Declaration 
of  Indulgence  (q.v.)  of  1662,  although  it  mitigated 
their  lot.  Licensed  by  these  field  preachers,  al- 
though without  university  training,  he  soon  be- 
came a  leader.  In  1679  he  went  to  Holland, 
whither  many  of  his  persecuted  countrymen  had 
gone  after  the  defeat  in  the  battle  of  Bothwell 
Bridge,  June  22, 1679;  in  1680  he  returned  and  with 
Donald  Cargill  (q.v.)  and  Thomas  Douglas  headed 
the  party,  which  after  him  was  called  "  Camero- 
nians,"  or  impersonally  "  Society  People."  Their 
platform  was  the  Declaration  of  Sanquhar  (pub- 
lished June  22,  1680),  drawn  up  by  Cameron  and 
others.  In  it  the  royal  authority  was  disowneti 
because  of  its  tyranny.  This  action  brought  Cam- 
eron and  his  followers  immediately  into  trouble. 
A  band  with  him  at  its  head  was  attacked  by  the 
royal  troops  and  literally  cut  to  pieces. 

The  party  lived  in  and  were  united  in  "  socie- 
ties," which  had  become  somewhat  numerous  be- 
fore the  Revolution.  They  welcomed  King  Will- 
iam; but  they  did  not  approve  of   the  Revolution 


settlement,  and  did  not  join  the  Established  Church. 
They  objected  to  the  Churck^.  which  had  made 
many  imworthy  compromises;  were  displeased  at 
the  want  of  recognition  of  the  covenants;  did  not 
consider  that  the  independence  of  the  Church  was 
secured;  and  generally  believed  that  God  was  not 
sufficiently  honored  in  the  new  settlement.  They 
objected,  too,  to  the  recognition  of  Erastianism  in 
England.  In  1706  the  Rev.  John  Macmillan  of  Bal- 
maghie  joined  the  societies,  and  was  their  first 
minister.  In  1743,  another  minister  having  joined 
them,  they  constituted  "the  Reformed  Presby- 
tery." In  1774  a  similar  presbytery  was  formed 
in  the  United  States.  A  presbytery  was  consti- 
tuted likewise  in  Ireland.  About  1863  most  of  the 
Scotch  synod  came  to  be  of  opinion  that  there  was 
nothing  in  their  principles  requiring  them  to  ab- 
stain from  countenancing  the  political  institutions 
of  the  coimtry,  e.g.,  from  voting  for  a  member  of 
Parliament;  but,  a  small  minority  having  a  dif- 
ferent opinion,  a  disruption  took  place.  In  1876 
a  union  took  place  between  the  larger  body  and 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Although  "Cam- 
eronians  "  has  always  been  a  conmion  name  given 
to  those  who  refused  to  accept  the  settlement  of 
Church  and  State  imder  William  and  Mary,  they 
repudiated  it  themselves,  preferring  to  be  called 
"  Reformed  Presbyterians."  See  Covenamtebs; 
Presbyterians. 

Biblioorapht:  Bioffraphia  preabyteriana,  vol.  i.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1827  (life  of  Cameron);  R.  Wodrow,  Hi$L  of  &i 
Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  2  vols.,  ib.  1721-22; 
T.  McCrie,  Sketches  of  ScoUish  Church  HisL,  ib.  1876; 
J.  Cunningham,  Church  Hist,  of  Scotland,  2  Tola,  ib. 
1883;  DNB,  viu.  301-302. 

CAMILLnS  DE  LELLIS.     See  Agonizantb. 

CAMISARDS,  cam'i-zOrds:  The  name  generally 
applied  to  those  French  Protestants  who,  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  rose  in  arms  in  Languedoc 
and  waged  a  bloody  war  (1702-05)  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restoring  their  Church.  Their  name  was 
derived  from  the  jacket  (camisia)  which  they  wo'« 
over  their  clothes  during  their  night  attacks. 
Neither  the  dragonades  nor  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  succeeded  in  destroying 
Protestantism  in  France;  but,  though  private 
worship  was  never  forbidden,  new  laws  were  con- 
tinually enacted  by  Ijouis  XIV.  in  his  attempt  to 

enforce  conformity  in  religion  through- 
Origin,      out  France,  wliich  made  it  more  and 

more  diflScult,  and  at  last  almost  im- 
possible, for  a  French  citizen  to  adhere  to  the  Re- 
formed confession.  In  1686  and  the  following 
years  the  gatherings  in  the  desert  were  forbidden, 
and  fines,  imprisonment,  demohtion  of  homes,  the 
galleys,  and  the  wheel  were  employed  as  punish- 
ments. Nevertheless,  with  the  pressure  grew  the 
power  of  resistance.  Religious  meetings  were  held 
by  night  in  secluded  places,  originally  presided 
over  by  refugee  clergy,  and  later  by  men  of  little 
learning,  but  fervent  in  prayers  and  exhortations. 
As  was  natural,  the  miseries  of  the  time  pro- 
duced a  corresponding  hope  of  the  future;  and 
books  like  Pierre  Jurieu's  L* AccomplissemerU  da 
propMies  (Rotterdam,  1686)  and  SuUe  de  Tfl^ 
complissement  (1687),  in  which  he  predicted  th« 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oameron 
Csunia&nlm 


ffulall  of  the  papacy,  contributett  to 
and  direction  to  this  unoonscious  move- 
girl  appeared  as  prophetess  in  Dauphini^ 
3ther  prophets  arose  in  Vivarais.  The 
creases!  nipidly,  especially  in  the  C<§- 
er  1700,  where  almost  a  fourth  of  the 
was  Protestant*  Despite  tlie  creation  of 
pries  for  their  conversion  and  notwith- 
he  military  aid  given  by  the  State  to 
astical  authorities,  ecstatic  phenomena 
throughout  the  district,  sparing  neither 

old  nor  young.  In  the  trance,  when 
.  seize*:!  by  con\iilsions,  and  pouring 
.    forth   worrb    of  repentance  and  ad- 

monitit*n,  often  in  pure  French  in- 
e  local  dialect  p  those  ''  po«sse^smi  by  the 
w  troops  from  far-off  garrisons  come 
ioward  the  place,  they  singled  out  those 
ir  comradcH  who  should  fall  in  the  en- 
ley  recognizeti  the  traitors  among  them; 
prc^iictions  were  always  accci>ted  with 
uid  confidenrt!,  and  often  proved  true; 
>n  the  other  hand,  the  power  of  proph- 
iteadily  declined,  Withotit  this  apoca- 
3r,  diseased  yet  sincere,  the  enthusiasm 
;acy  of  the  Camisards  is  unintelligible, 
lemselves  **  children  of  God,'^  and  their 
*  camp  of  the  Eternal,"  they  relied  with 
rust  on  divine  guidance  ami  aid^  wliile 
Icism  in  destroying  churches,  like  their 
killing  priests,  finds  its  explanation  in 
bat  they  believed  themselves  chilled  of 
tirpate  "  Babylon  and  Satan/'  aa  they 
Bhe  Roman  Catholic  priests  and  their 

volt  broke  out  in  1702,  when  a  priest 
kD^iB  de  Liingladc  du  Chayla  undertook 
the  refractory.  In  liis  house  at  Pont 
rt,  in  the  present  ilepartment  of  Loz^re, 
cell  in  which  he  shut  up  his  recalcitrant 
■B,  and  torturetl  them.  On  t!if  nigiit  of 
izaring  a  rumor  that  the  abbe  intended 
tain  prisoners  to  death,  the  Cumisartls 
at  the  instigation  of  the  im>phets  i^^- 
ierc,  and  Mai.eb  burned  the  house,  Ub- 
prifioners,  and  slew  the  priest*  Baville, 
ant  of  Langueiltjc,  felt  a  particular  eat- 
n  pursuing  the  guilty.  Si^guier  was 
I  burned  at  the  stake  Aug.  12;  but  the 
sd  among  the  mountains,  where  they 
unenforced  by  new  throngs  formed  by 
Cat  mat,  Roland,  and  others.  In  Jean 
..  at  Rihante,  department  of  Garti,  Nov. 
28,  1581)  they  found  an  able  leatkr^ 
and  the  war  began  wdiich  was  to  de- 
I  populate  imtl  devastate  the  prov- 
inces of  Languedoc,  Vivaraia,  Gevau- 
ilan,  and  Rouergue.  The  Camiaartla 
ibered  more  than  five  thousand,  and 
no  military  organization.  But  they 
h  bnital  fmy,  ev(*n  wlien  they  marched 
!  with  psalnis  on  their  lips,  while  the 
>«  punished  them  with  torture  and  im- 
^  In  their  camps  they  lived  as  in  a 
liMhing,  praying*  and  fasting;  anil  they 
at  victories,  particularly  at  Sainte-t'hatte, 
—24 


Mar,  15,  1704,  Ba,ville  waa  unable  to  make  head 
against  them,  and  in  Feb.,  1703,  Marshal  Montre- 
vaJ  was  sent  with  a  large  body  of  troops.  He  de- 
feated the  Camisards  rejieatedly  (La  Jonguicre, 
Mar.  6;  La  Tour  de  B^lot,  Apr.  '2Q),  but  the  cruel- 
ties practised  by  tlic  troops  won  new  adherents  to 
the  Protestant  cause,  even  though  he  razed  all  the 
houses  and  villages  in  the  upper  Cevennes,  thus 
rendering  20,000  homeless.  The  confusion  was  in- 
creased by  a  bull  of  Clement  XL  (May  1,  1703), 
proclaiming  a  crusade  against  the  heretics  and 
creating  bjiods  which  equaled  their  opponents  in 
sa^'agery.  In  Apr.,  17tM,  Montreval  was  replaced 
by  Marshal  Villars.  Before  Villars  lx*gan  active 
operation,  he  surrounded  thy  whole  district  with 
a  line  of  strong  military  posts,  thus  cutting  off  all 
communication  between  the  rebels  and  the  out- 
side world;  an<l  then  he  olTered  pardon  t-o  all  ivho, 
within  a  certain  time,  laid  down  anns  and  sur- 
rendered. Cavaher,  who  saw  that  further  resist- 
ance was  useless,  left  the  country,  afterward 
fought  against  his  countrymen  in  Holland,  Italy, 
and  Spain,  and  settled  finally  in  England,  There 
he  was  appoint^nl  governor  of  Jersey,  and  later  gov- 
ernor of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  died  in  Chelsea,  Lon- 
don, May  18,  1740.  His  former  comrades  braniltHl 
him  as  a  traitor  and  continued  the  hopeless  strug- 
gle. Kfjland  fell  Aug  14,  1704.  Ca^staiiet,  Catinat, 
Joanni,  and  others  fled  to  Geneva.  Without  lead- 
ers, tlie  C'amisard  anny  gradually  meltetl  away. 
In  1705  Catinat,  Havmiel,  and  some  of  their  col- 
leagues returned  lind  Gonspired  to  raise  a  new  re- 
volts only  to  die  at  the  stake  or  on  the  wheel.  A 
last  attempt,  made  by  Mazel,  Coate,  and  Claris  in 
17t)rt  in  Vivarais  was  quenched  in  blood,  and  the 
French  Reformed  Church  was  definitely  blotted 
out.  [In  En  giant  I  the  Cimiisarda  were  knowTi  as 
the  French  Prophets  (q.v.).] 

(Theodou  ScHorrf.) 

BinLtooRJLi'HY:  For  sources  from  tbe  Rotnan  Catholio 
siandpoiot  consult:  C.  J.  de  la  Baume,  R^ialitm  hiMtorique 
de  la  T^t'olle  dfs  CafnUiardt^  clL  GuifToD,  Nlriiei»,  1S74; 
J.  B.  Louvrolciul,  Le  Fanatitme  renouvtU,  Aviicnoa,  1704- 
1707;  LeMr«j  choi»%€»  de  FUchitr  avtc  ufie  r^toHttn  de$  fanor 
tiijiUM  du  Vivarei,  Paris,  1715  ( parti *an);  AfiiTioirM  tU 
iinUndant  Bdville,  Amsterdam.  1734  (acrviceablo); 
Mhnoira  ds  ViUarB,  The  Hagxie,  1734  (brief  but  impar- 
tial}. Written  from  the  Proteataiil  side  are:  M.  MiAson, 
Le  Thf'itre  aacrf  de»  Cfvenn^,  London^  1707  (by  an  eye* 
witness,  but  partisan  and  unreliable):  J,  CavBJi«*r,  Mrm- 
oirM  of  ths  War»  of  thg  Cerennra,  ib,  1712  (inaccurate), 
lu  the  Bulletin  de  la  mcitM  de  VhieUnre  du  proieetaniimi^ 
franca i»  are  Le  Camp  des  enfante  de  Dieur,  1807,  pp.  27!} 
gqq,,  »nd  tlie  memoiri*  of  ^f^>nbonnoux,  1873,  pp.  72  aqci. 
Itsad  ali^o  M^-moireM  de  Rotsel  d'AiQaliera,  ed.  U.  Frost^rua^ 
in  Bibiiothiiiue  Univertelle.  March-May,  19ti^,  and  A. 
J^er,  SpiHtaa  fniracidotuM  in  prorincia  Sev^rtnenn  rt^ 
nafi*,  TtlbinKen,  1712.  Con*iilt  further:  A.  Courts  Hia- 
Uiire  de  irauhlet  dee  Chennea^  Villcfranrhc^  1760,  ed.  Alaiai 
1819  Ihcb  and  reliable);  1.  C.  K.  Hofmanti.^  GMchichU 
dee  Aufruhre  in  den  Sev-ennen  unier  L%iduig  XIV^,  N6rd- 
lingen,  1S37  (also  raluablc);  N.  Peyrat,  Hiatoire  dee 
paateure  du  d6e§rt^  Paris,  1842  (picturesque  but  unreli- 
able); O.  Front^ma,  Lea  Itieurg^a  proteetanta  aoua  Louie 
XiW,  ib.  IStiS  (of  import»noB);  E.  Bormem^^e,  Hieioirt 
dea  Camiaarda,  Paris,  I860;  B.  Smiles,  Huguenota  in 
Franre  After  the  Edict  of  NanUa,  London.  1877;  C.  Tylor, 
fjuffuenota  in  the  Seit'ent4pentfi  Cetilun/*  PP-  255  sqq..  Lon- 
don, 1892;  H.  M.  lAaird,  TheCamU^srd  Ujrnaing.  in  Papen 
a/  the  Ameritrxin  Church  Hi»t.  Society,  ii.  13-34,  New  York, 
ISiJO;  idem,  ffuituenote  and  tfie  Rfvoeation  of  */»*  Edict  of 
Xante*.  Vol.  ii,,  ib.  1893- 


Oampanella 
Oampbell 


THE  NEW   JSC'HAJ?F-IlEttZOG 


870 


CAMPAITELLA,  TOMASO:  It^lbn  monk  and 
philosopher;  b,  at  Stilo  (50  m-  n*o.  of  Rcggio),  Ca- 
labria, Sept.  5,  I36S;  ±  in  Puris  May  21, 1639.  He 
entered  the  Dominican  ort!er  nt  thit  age  of  fifteen; 
atudicd  philoauphy  utid  theology  at  Co^nza  and 
NapleSp  ond  added  to  his*  othor  aecomplirilimentii  a 
knowledge  of  medieine.  astrology,  ulcKeniy,  ami 
magic.  He  boldly  rejected  the  Amtotelian  syatjom 
and  chose  to  study  nature  rather  than  author- 
ity, wbereby  he  made  many  and  powerful  opj>i>- 
nenta.  After  wandering  through  Italy  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  he  retumtnl  to  Co«enxa  in  1598,  and 
the  next  year  wa&  arrested  by  the  government, 
charged  I  probably  truthfutly^  with  being  implicated 
in  a  conspiracy  to  free  Najilc^  from  the  Spanish 
dominion.  His  political  and  aodal  views  wen^  un- 
deniably dangerous.  i[e  was  kept  in  prij^n  till 
1626j  when  Pope  Urban  Mil.  sueceetled  in  hav- 
ing him  trannf erred  to  the  InquiKition,  and  in  1629 
set  hun  free.  For  a  few  years  he  lived  at  Home, 
but,  not  feeling  secure  there,  in  1634  he  went  to 
Paris,  whenB  he  wan  received  wuth  favor  by  Car- 
dinal Richelieu.  I  lis  la^it  years  were  i^pcnt  in  pre^ 
paring  a  complete  etlition  of  luii  workw,  of  which, 
however,  only  one  or  two  volumes  appear  to  have 
been  publishcfl.  The  pluloHophy  wliich  Campa- 
neila  would  substitute  for  that  of  AriHtotle  was  in* 
complete  and  fantastic,  influenced  by  Thomaa 
Aquinaa,  Bemarduio  TelcNio  (b.  at  Cownza  1503), 
fiaymund  Lully,  and  the  Cabala,  but  in  part  in- 
dependent and  in  certain  points  anticipatory  of 
the  work  of  more  mmlem  thinkeris.  He  held  that 
God  has  made  a  twofold  revelation  of  himself,  in 
nature  and  in  the  Bible;  on  the  one  rests  phitos^ 
ophy,  on  the  other  theology.  These  have  notliing 
to  do  the  one  with  the  other.  He  was  thuj*  able  to 
take  a  very  conservative  position  in  theology,  and 
stoutly  dcfende*!  Roman  CathoHciam  and  the 
papacy  (as  in  his  Monarehlm  MmHiee  antl  Discorsi 
delta  libcrki  e  dciki  fclice  sxigtjditone  alio  »iaio  eccle- 
smstica,  Jesi,  10.3).  Certainty,  he  tauglit,  is  found 
only  in  immediate  intnitionn;  the  first  truth  is 
that  I  e^iHt;  then  that  I  can,  that  I  know^,  and 
tljat  J  w^ant  or  will;  tliese  three  activities  indicate 
the  fund  amen  tid  qualities  of  all  being  (pot^ntia^ 
mipientiUf  anwr).  He  believed  that  matter  is  eter- 
uid  iinrl  that  the  workl  wan  created  through  ema- 
natifjTJrt  from  the  detty.  Hih  viL^w^rf  conc^'rning  so- 
ciety and  the  State  were  conimuni,Htic-  they  are 
j*et  flirt h  in  hiu  Cimtax  mliH,  uk^i  reipultlicfv  philo- 
mjihii'tFt  printed  as  an  apj>cm<liK;  t^  part  iii,  {poH- 
tvra)  of  hm  Realis  philosuphitT  tpiioginiicts  parifs 
iv,  hoc  e$£,  de  rerwm  natuTa,  hmninum  inorilnA^,  po- 
lUicQt  ci  meanomita  (Frankfort,  1623);  there  is  an 
EngliMh  translation  (incfimplete)  by  T.  \V\  Halll- 
day  in  Ideul  CmnmoTtu'ddfh^,  voL  xxiii.  of  "  Morley's 
Universal  Library"  tlxjndon,  IStS-j). 

BmLiooRAPiiT:  r&mpp^ni^lln  if*  imiil  tn  have  written  eighty- 
two  w<jrkt4,  tiiiMt  of  llii'iii  itliirijifE  hin  lon^  imprit^^TiEuent, 
He  &vm  HuniB  acrrjiinl  *jf  thtm  in.  hi»  De  iihris  pntpriiM 
ei  Tecta  Taiii/ne  nbtdriuti  tifntaffma,  nl.  (i.  NuikI^,  Paris, 
ltt42.  Amgncr  fhi?  more  important  ^f  tho?e  wliicli  hiLV@ 
been  published,  bf?i!4iiie.fi  tbo  onrrc  ulruiu Ly  [ticulioni^d,  ard': 
PhUotophia  Mf.tmbuM  dfrnmiftlrtita,  &  ddcnsm  of  Tete^iOp 
Nai^eiiT  15^;  Prndnrmfi*  phlhutophirr  inttaurandfr^ 
Fmnkfort,  1017;  Dt  Kn*u  rmirn  tt  mof/ia^  Hll^);  ApaUt- 
ffia  pro  GaiiU&,  l62iS:  .1  fl^Lt^iri>rum  hhri  tii.  1030; 
Atkeitmiit  triumphaluM,   Rouia,   1Ij31;  Mtdicinaiium.  libri 


vii.  Lyon$,  1€35;  De  ffet^itma  w»t  retimrtida  uid  Di 
prtrdeMiinaH&ne  conira  THomittico^^  Fan5,  163€;  Pkiim^ 
pkia  raH&mdit  parfim  %  vidtlicei  ffra-mmaHoa,  dnkdHim. 
rheioneaf  poetica^  hiMitfrioffraphiat  L63S^  U  fvivtttaiiM  fi»- 
Mmaphi'S  ftfu  meUiphifnearum  fwrum  jujeta  propria  ffiirgjnfri 
pari^  til,  liirn  rtiii.  16SS;  D*  in&nareAui  tiifptmak 
Amjfleniam,  1040,  Eng.  Yransi..  A  Diacxturm  Tmsdd^gi* 
>>panith  \F<marthif,  LorHion,  1654.  A  vkctieo  fnm  b 
i^-urltii  by  A.  d'Ancona  appeared  in  2  Toliuoet  at  Tmx 
1854.  Hifi  jH^iiuiMa  have  \vsmn  tra&slapbed  into  Eoffidl  hj 
J.  A.  SymuDdB  with  ihe  fionnetA  of  Midi^lBzicdok  Lea- 
dqn,  ISTS.  For  hbk  Lif«  and  mdciMni  of  his  wiiliiKp  lad 
t<aeliing)i  oonrult:  Cyprian,  Vila  £f  pkiubuopkia  T.  Cam- 
panula, AmitetiiMaK  1705.  2d  «1.,  1722:  IL  BaidKdmi 
Vita  €  iUim^^a  di  T  Cumpan^lU,  Naplw,  IS40:  Ikfti 
La  ritit  %  It  optre  di  T.  Campattrlla,  Bonie,  1B7S,  L  AaiiF 
bile,.  Fm  Tomwuuo  Campaneila,  la  ma  ^^rnrturii,  i  mtt 
proc^tti,  f  ia  mta  po^xioy  3  vob.,  Naples,  tSBS;  vim. 
L'atviata  di  Fra  T.  CamptuntUa  a-  R^ma  dapa  ia  hof^ 
pTHMmia  di  Nap&ii,  ib.  ISSfii  idem.  Fra  T.  ruirwijai^ 
fic'  toAi^i  di  Napoii^  in  Rcma  «f  ii«i  Pariffi,  2  tdIl,  lb- 
1SS7;  idem,  Dtl  oaratiere  di  Fra  T.  Campandia^  lU  I8lfr, 
£.  Nys.  r.  Campaji^lkt  H  u*  thi&riet  poti^qttm.  Bpomh 
1880;  G.  B.  FeLici  Lt  d^>Unn4  fil4m>iU;iHniiffis^  H  T. 
Campanttla,  t^nriano,  1S95;  P,  Laf  argue,  \n  Dit  t^ 
lHuJiT  d0M  nruffvH  Sct:ialitmua*  pp.  AmSO^  StiatlMt, 
1805:  TOR  Kodlowski,  Bit  Erkgnnini^Uhrg  rcnnjimwflrtt 
LeipMc,  1&B7. 

CAMPAHtfS,  cam-pfl'nijs,  JOHAJHriS:  R«- 
former  J  b- at  Massofck  (17  m.  n.e.of  Maatridktjin 
Belgium ;  d.  at  Jtllicb  ( Julien,  15  m.  n.e.  of  AAchem) 
c.  1575,  He  studied  at  Cologne  ^  whence  he  vm 
expelled  in  1520  for  opposing  the  scbolafftic  doe- 
tors;  went  to  Julieh  and  was  noted  for  Ms  i^ 
hement  Luthemnii^m^  went  to  Wittenberg  h 
1527;  was  pre^nt  at  the  Conferenoe  of  Maibui; 
in  1529,  and  RurpHfled  both  sides  by  his  presents- 
tion  of  the  view  that  the  bread  is  indeed  bread  and 
at  the  same  time  the  body  of  Christ  because  be 
makes  It  so.  He  was  not,  however,  aUo^wed  to 
take  part  in  the  debate.  Thia  snub  and  othea 
ineurred  by  hiis  tendency  to  unorthodox  vieffi 
turned  him  agoinst  the  Reformers  and  tbem 
against t  him.  lie  was  call^  insane  because  he 
would  not  yield  to  their  argument's.  So  he  was 
repeat ctlly  imprisoned  and  died  a  prisoner.  In 
t5IJ0  he  prepare^!  a  book  in  Latin  and  GemuD 
*'  Against  All  the  World  Since  the  Apostles"  iid 
eireulateti  It  in  manuscript^ — no  complete  or  pmted 
copy  is  known  to  exist,  but  extracts  have  been  pi^ 
served  in  a  manuscript  by  Bugpnhagen  (ef.  ZBT. 
lS-16,  pp.  495  RqqJ.  In  1532  one  of  hi.s  follcmer^ 
Franz  von  Streltten,  published  a  popular  restate- 
ment of  hl^  views  which  he  dedicated  to  Kid; 
Frederick  of  Denmark.  He  taught  that  the  Udj 
Spirit  WQB  not  the  Third  PerBon  but  ttic  oommoa 
essence  of  the  two,  while  the  Bon  w^as  not  eoete^ 
nal  with  the  Father  but,  created  out  of  hia  ^ 
senoCj  before  all  creature.'^.  He  was  likewise  aa  Ani^ 
baptist  and  in  general  a  radical. 

(A.  HEGLEEf)  IL  Eou^ 
BruiJOGRAf^ir:  F.  B.  Bock^  Hutorici  aniittimikMrvrrwm,  a. 
244  nqq.,  Ldpi^k.  1784;  G.  J.  Dl&ba«i,  Biioerojihit  d^ 
J.  €ampanu».  miteintm  Vtfztichnii^  KtiMr  .  «  ,  &An^ 
en.  Pmi^tw,  1S04;  K.  Rcmbcrt,  Di*  "  Witdtrt^ifff "  ta 
Jiilich,   lierUn^   1890;  J.    KOfltlin,   MarUfv  LuHur.  vol  V- 

CAMPBELL,    ALEXAllBEIt:     Founder   of  tb 

Disciples  of  Christ  (q.v.);  b.  near  DaHymena  (a 
mile  froin  Shane's  Castle  on  the  northern  shored 
Lough  Neagh),  County  Antrim,  Ireland,.  Sept.  Ti, 
17S8;  d,  at  Bethany,  W.  Va.,  Mar.  4,  1866-    Be 


371 


HELKjIIOUS   ENCYCLOPKDIA 


Oampanalla 
Oampbell 


was  the  son  of  Thomas  Campbell,  a  Seccder  minis- 
ter, and  Jane  Camcigle.  Educated  at  Glasgow 
University,  he  went  to  America  in  1809,  whither 
his  father  had  precede<l  him  two  years  earlier,  and 
settled  in  western  Pennsylvania.  While  at  Glas- 
gow he  liad  come  in  contact  with  James  Alexander 
and  Robert  Haldane  (q.v.)  and  was  greatly  im- 
pressed by  their  teaching.  On  joining  his  father, 
he  found  Providence  had  guided  him  into  the 
same  liberal  and  independent  views.  Thomas 
Campbell's  fraternity  with  other  Christians,  his 
indiflerencc  to  ecclesiastical  rules,  and  his  pleadings 
in  behalf  of  Christian  liberty  and  brotherhood  had 
brought  upon  him  the  censure  of  his  brethren; 
consequently  he  withdrew  from  them 
His  Father,  and  continued  to  plead  for  Christian 
Thomas  liberty  and  union,  dwelling  upon  the 
Campbell,  evil  of  divisions  in  religious  society, 
urging  the  Sacred  Word  as  an  infalli- 
ble standard  and  all-sufficient  and  alone-sufficient 
basis  of  union,  and  setting  forth  one  rule  to  govern 
himself  and  his  associates:  **  Where  the  Scriptures 
speak,  we  speak;  and  where  the  Scriptures  are  si- 
lent, we  are  silent."  On  Sept.  7,  1809,  he  formed 
The  Christian  Association  of  Washington  and  is- 
sued his  famous  Declaration  and  Address  (see  Dis- 
ciples OF  Christ).  In  May,  1811,  The  First 
Church  of  the  Christian  Association  of  Washing- 
ton Co.,  Pa,,  was  organized  at  Brush  Run  with 
twenty-nine  members;  here  Alexander  Campbell 
was  ordained  to  the  ministry  Jan.  1,  1812. 

Mr.   Campbell's  marriage  in   1812  to  Margaret 
Brown,  a  Presbyterian,  turned  his  attention  to  the 
subject  of  baptism.     After  diligent  study  of  the 
Scriptures  and  critical  examination  of  the  words 
"  baptize  "  and  "  baptism,"  he  became  satisfied 
they  could  mean  only  "  immerse  "  and  "  immer- 
sion," and  that  believers  only  could 
Adopts      be  the  proper  subjects  of  this  ordi- 
Baptist     nance.     With    his    father    and    five 
Views,      others  he  was  immersed  by  Mathias 
Luse,   June   14,    1812.     "  I   have  set 
out,"  he  said,  **  to  follow  the  Apostles  of    Christ 
and  their  master,  and  I  will  be  baptized  only  into 
the  primitive  Christian  faith."     From   this  time 
Thomas  Campbell  conceded  to  his  son  the  guid- 
ance of  the  movement  he  had  originated.    The 
Brush  Run  church  joined  the  Redstone  Baptist 
Association   after  full   statement  of  their  views, 
using  the  primitive  Confession  of  faith  instead  of 
a  religious  experience,  and  breaking  bread  weekly 
without  restricted  communion.     A  second  church 
on  the  same  basis  was  organized   in  Wellsburg, 
W.  Va. 

In  1820  Mr.  Campbell  held  his  first  public  dis- 
cussion.    He  was  not  disputatious,   and   at   first 
declined  a  challenge,  but  it  was  forced  upon  him. 
The  debate  was  with  the  Rev.  John  Walker,  a  Pres- 
byterian, and  the  chief  point  debated 
Public      was  the  identity  of  the  covenants  upon 
Debates,     which  the  Jewish  and  Christian  insti- 
tutions rested.     His  later  discussions 
with  Rev.  N.  L.  Rice  on  baptism,  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  himian  creeds  as  bonds  of  union,  a  debate 
which  lasted  sixteen  days  and  over  which  Henry 
Chiy  presided  (1843),  with  Robert  Owen  on  the 


claims  of  Christianity  (at  Cincinnati,  1829),  and  with 
Archbishop  Purcell  on  the  claims  of  Roman  Cathol- 
icism (also  at  Cincinnati,  1837)  are  masterpieces 
of  discussion  which  created  a  profound  impression 
in  their  time  and  did  much  to  extend  the  principles 
advocated  by  Mr.  Campbell. 

In  1823  Mr.  Campbell  began  the  publication  of 
The  Christian  Baptist.  In  the  first  seven  years 
from  his  httle  country  printing-office  he  issued 
46,000  volumes  of  his  works.  His  writings  were 
read  far  and  wide.  His  views  began  to  influence 
large  numbers  of  people.  He  was  assailed  as  a 
disorganizer,  but  it  was  not  his  aim  merely  to  over- 
throw the  existing  order  of  religious  society.  He 
was  well  aware  of  the  vast  benefit  resulting  to 
mankind  from  Christianity  even  in  its 
His  Views  most  corrupt  forms.  He  desired  sim- 
and  Aims,  ply  to  dethrone  the  false  that  he 
might  reestablish  the  true,  to  replace 
the  traditions  of  men  by  the  teachings  of  Christ 
and  the  Apostles;  to  substitute  the  New  Testa- 
ment for  creeds  and  human  formularies.  His 
work  was  positive,  not  negative.  In  1825  he  pub- 
lished in  The  Christian  Baptist  a  series  of  articles 
entitled  A  Restoration  of  the  Ancient  Order  of 
Things f  in  which  he  argued  for  the  abandonment 
of  everything  not  in  use  among  the  early  Chris- 
tians, such  as  creeds  and  confessions,  unscriptural 
words  and  phrases,  theological  speculations,  etc., 
and  for  the  adoption  of  everything  sanctioned  by 
primitive  practise,  as  the  weekly  breaking  of  the 
loaf,  the  fellowship,  the  simple  order  of  worship, 
and  the  independence  of  each  church  under  the- 
care  of  elders  and  deacons.  His  plea  was  not  for 
a  reformation,  but  for  a  restoration  of  the  original 
Church. 

In  1826  Mr.  Campbell  published  The  Sacred 
Writings  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists  of  Jesus 
Christ,  Commonly  Styled  the  New  Testament,  with 
notes.  In  this  work  he  Anghdzed  the  Greek  words 
coDMnonly  rendered  "  baptism,"  "  baptize,"  etc., 
being  the  first  to  do  so  in  an  English  version.  The 
principles  taught  by  the  Campbells  were  now  wide- 
spread, especially  among  the  Baptists;  but  in  1827 
Baptist  Associations  began  to  declare  non-fellow- 
ship with  the  brethren  of  "  the  Reformation  "  and 
from  this  time  dates  the  rise  of  the  people  known 
as  the  Disciples  of  Christ. 

In  1829  Mr.  Campbell  began  to  publish  the  Mil- 
lennial Harbinger,  a  magazine  which  he  continued 
to  issue  monthly  until  his  death.     In  October  of 
the  same  year  he  sat  in  the  Virginia  State  Consti- 
tutional Convention.     Ex-President  Madison,  one 
of  his   fellow  delegates,  said   of   him 
His  Most  afterward:    "  I    regard    him  as    the 
Active      ablest  and  most   original    exp6under 
Years.      of  Scripture  I  ever  heard."     In  1840  he 
founded    Bethany    College   with    the 
Bible    as  a  text-book.     In  1847  he  traveled  and 
preached  in  Great  Britain.     This  was  his  busiest 
period;  he  traveled  thousands  of  miles,  lectured 
and  preached  constantly,  edited,  presided  over  the 
College,  and  held  public  discussions.    In  June,  1850, 
he  spoke  before  both  houses  of  Congress  at  the 
Capitol   at   Washington.     He  was  gifted  with  a 
fine  presence,  with  great  ease  and  skill  of  utteranoe. 


37S 


HELIGTOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OaenpTseU 
Gam  pi  on 


hiB  support  of  tlie  Pis  an  eouncil  and  for  the  pope's 
cheme  of  a  Liiteran  couiicil.  Retuniiiig  nuccesa- 
in  1512  lie  was  maiie  bi.shop  of  Feltrc  ami  sent 
nuncio  to  the  court  of  Muxiiniliari  Sforxa  at 
It  but  WHS  recalled  to  be  entrusted  with  a  aec- 
iniBiion  to  the  imperial  court  wit!i  the  object, 
I  time,  of  furthering  the  ptipul  pltin  ftjr  the  re- 
Blablishtiient  of  gt^neral  jjeaee  in  EurofbC.  At 
tiis  post  he  remained  till  1517,  when  on  account 
hiis  "  preeminent  Ber\'iees  tu  the  Apostolic 
ir  **  and  for  a  fee  of  24,000  ducats  he  was  created 
'canlinal  in  company  with  thirty  others.  Once 
more  Campeggio  was  sent  on  a  minsion  of  universitl 
eace,  this  time  to  England,  where  he  shared  the 
b'gnity  of  papal  legate  with  Oftrdind  Wolsey  and 
irticipate<l  iai  the  formation  of  the  General  League 
&f  Peace  concluded  in  October,  1518*  In  the  same 
he  retumeii  to  Ronie^  bearing  with  hira  many 
yai  gifts  and  the  promise  of  the  succession  to  the 
bishopric  of  Sah^bur5^  He  became  bishop  of  Bo- 
logna in  1523,  but  resigned  the  ofhce  two  years  later 
on  acquiring  [Hjf=i?essitrn  of  the  promised  English 
flee  and  retained  it  till  1535.  He  enjoye<l  at  the 
same  time  the  profits  from  a  Spanish  bishopric 
and  from  other  churches,  tliough  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  preciisely  wliich.  Alone  among  the  car- 
rlinala  lie  seems  to  liave  won  the  confidence  of 
Adrian  VL  and  to  him  (not  to  Egidio  of  Vitcrbo) 
must  be  attributed  the  authorship  of  the  reform 
memorial  addressed  to  the  pope*  After  the  ill 
auccess  of  the  papal  cause  at  the  first  diet  of  Nu- 
remlK^rg,  Campeggio  was  sent  to  Germany  to  work 
for  the  enforcement  of  tire  Edict  of  Wumis.  At 
the  second  Nuxf-mberg  tliet  he  met  the  deniatifls 
of  the  Gennan  princes  with  insulting  pride,  but  by 
all  his  efforts  could  not  prevent  the  tissembly  frctm 
expreissing  the  demand  for  a  meeting  of  the  reprc- 
nentatives  of  tlie  German  nation  to  consider  means 
Bbr  the  settlement  of  the  religious  question.  It  was 
\?am|[)cggio  who  was  primarily  responsible  for  the 
league  oonchided  at  Hegt^nsburg  in  the  siunnier  of 
^J524  by  the  enemies  of  the  Reformation,  the  first 
Bbf  the  partizan  confederations  that  were  to  result 
Pb  the  dismembenneut  of  the  natiun.  At  Regens- 
V  talSf  too,  a  scheme  of  re  form  for  the  clcrgj'  was  for- 
mulated by  Ctmipeggio  with  the  aid  of  Nausea  and 
Coclil.Tus,  a  scheme,  however,  wliich  never  attained 
practical  effect.  An  unsuccessful  mission  to  Eng- 
land in  1528-29  in  the  matter  of  tite  divorce  of 
■Henry  MIL  was  followed  by  an  apiioinlment  to 
Hike  imperial  court,  where  he  is  known  to  huve  ad- 
vised Cliarles  V,  in  case  a  policy  of  conciliation 
toward  the  Pro  test  an  t-s  provcti  ineffective  **  to 
eradicate  the  poisonous  growth  with  fire  and 
swortl"  At  the  same  time  be  did  not  disdain  to 
att-empt  the  milder  means  of  briberj%  notably  in 
the  case  of  Melanchthon,  In  1532  Campeggio  re- 
turn e<l  to  Rome.  His  last  phas**  of  activity  waa 
in  connection  with  the  plans  of  Paul  III.  for  a  gen- 
eral council,  A  memorial  on  the  Centum  gravamina 
Germaufmim,  w^ritten  in  153(5,  shows  that  by  that 
time  t^ampeggio  had  arrived  at  a  different  view  of 
the  claims  and  rights  of  the  Gennan  nation- 

(1\  BniBaEH.) 

RiLPitT!  G.  Sigomus.    De    vila    Laurent ii    Cumpcitii. 
1581,  republisbKl  in  Siffonii  Opera  amnia,  iii. 


S3l~67«.  Milan.  1733;  S.  EhsoH,  R^mische  Dokument^  tur 
QtschichUf  der  EhimdieidunQ  Htinrich*  VII I,,  1S27-S4, 
pp.  xvi.-xxxi.,  PHcierborn,  1893. 

CAMPELLO,  COUHT  ENRICO  BE:  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Rome  in  the  year  1831;  d.  in 
the  year  1903.  Brought  up  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  he  became  priest  1855,  and  canon 
of  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  1868.  Feehng  himself  un- 
able, however,  to  accept  the  dogma  of  papal 
infallibility,  he  resigned  his  office  in  1881  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  Later  he  joined  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church,  and  foun<led  the  Reformed  ItaUan 
Catholic  Church,  of  \i'Iiieh  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  by  Bishop  E.  Herxog  in  Switzeriand.  He 
worked  for  many  years,  first  in  Rome  without  suc- 
cess and  later  in  Umbria,  but  in  1902  returned  to 
the  Roman  Cat liolic  faith.  He  wrote:  Cerini  auto- 
biografiH  eke  reridono  ragione  dcW  uscUa  di  lui  daUa 
chusa  papale  (Rome,  1881). 

BiDUorjHAPHY:  A.  Robprtson,  Count  Campeito  and  Caiholie 
Rrh'rm  in  Italy,  London,  1801. 

CAMPION^  EDMUm):  Jesuit;  b.  in  London 
Jan.  25,  1540:  hanged  there  at  Tyburn  Dec.  1,  1581. 
He  w^on  much  distinction  for  ability  and  scholar- 
ship at  school  in  London,  and  had  a  brilliant  career 
at  St.  John*s  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1561;  M.A., 
1565)'  in  1567  he  was  ordained  deacon  in  the 
Church  of  England,  but,  ha\ing  alwajTS  been  a 
Roman  Catholic  at  heart,  in  1569  or  1570  he  went 
to  Ireland,  hoping  to  find  employment  in  a  new 
iniiversity  to  be  located  in  Dubhn.  The  scheme 
fell  through  and  he  returned  to  England,  went 
thence  to  Douai,  where  he  openly  renounced  Prot- 
estantism, fini.shed  lus  theological  studies,  and 
took  the  degree  of  B.D.  In  1573  he  joined  the 
Jesuits  in  Rome,  and  was  sent  to  Prague,  where 
he  was  ordained  deacon  ami  priest  in  1578.  In 
June,  1580,  he  entered  England  as  a  missionary 
of  his  order,  and  preached  tmd  worked  there  with 
succf*ss  until  July,  1581,  when  he  was  arrested  and 
comnntted  to  the  Tower.  He  wa^  treated  with 
much  severity,  was  several  times  examined  imder 
torture,  and  in  November  was  condemned,  after 
an  unfair  triah  upon  a  charge  of  ha\ing  conspired 
to  dethrone  the  queen.  He  is  describe<I  by  Prot^ 
cstaiits  as  well  as  Roman  Cathohcs  as  a  man  of 
uncommon  ability,  an  eloquent  orator,  of  much 
diplomatic  skill,  and  amiable  in  disposition  and 
hfe.  His  chief  work  was  the  Decern  ra(iom»t  in 
which  he  challenges  the  Pmfestanta  to  meet  him 
in  debate  and  professes  himself  ready  to  prove  the 
falsity  of  Protestantism  and  the  truth  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  by  argmnent  upon  any 
one  of  ten  topics,  finished  about  Easter,  1581,  and 
printed  ostensibly  at  Douai,  but  really  in  or  near 
London,  the  same  year;  it  was  spread  broadcast 
at  commencement  at  Oxford  in  June  (best  edition 
by  Silvester  Petra-Sancta,  Antwerp,  1031;  Eng, 
transl..  1606,  1^32,  1687.  1827).  While  in  Ireland 
he  wrote  a  history  of  the  country  which  woa  used 
by  HoUnshed  in  compiling  his  Chronicles  (1577), 
and  was  printed  by  Sir  James  Ware  in  his  History 
of  Ireland  (DubUu,  1633;  reprinted  in  Ancient 
Iriah  Hixtorit^,  L809). 
BrBLioGRAFHT:   K.    Simptfoti,    Edmund    Campion,    a   Bia^ 


Qamp-11 
Pan Man 


•VaatiBffs 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


874 


raphy,  Lontlon,  1867  ("  perhapn  the  mont  able  mono- 
graph of  Catholic  hiMtory  ");  J.  A.  Froudc,  HitUtry  of 
England,  vol.  xi.,  chap,  xxviii.,  London,  1870;  E.  L. 
Taunton.  Tk»  HUlory  of  Ihs  JeauiU  in  England,  1680- 
1773,  ib.  1901;  J.  Gillow,  BiUiographical  Dictiotuxry  of 
ike  EnffixA  CaUioliet,  i.  376-392.  London,  n.d.  (a  full  li«t 
of  his  works  it  appended);  DSB,  viii.  398-402. 

CAMP-MEETniGS:  Religious  gatherings  held 
in  a  grove,  usually  lasting  for  several  days,  during 
which  many  find  shelter  in  tents  or  temporary 
houses.  The  main  features  are  the  ojwn-air  preach- 
ing, the  night  prayer-meetings,  and  the  freedom 
of  the  life.  They  are  not  now  so  common  as  for- 
meriy.  The  first  meeting  of  the  kind  is  said  to 
have  taken  place  in  Kentucky,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rett  River,  in  1799,  under  a  Presbyterian  and  a 
Methodist  minister.  These  denominations  at  first 
u«hI  them  in  common;  but  gnulually  the  Presby- 
terians withdrew,  and  they  became  almost  exclu- 
sively Methodist  and  Baptist  gatherings.  In  re- 
cent times  the  Methoiiists  have  purchased  tracts 
of  land  in  desirable  locations  on  the  seaboard  or 
inland,  and  turned  them  into  parks,  with  comfort- 
able houses,  streets,  post-offices,  mei'ting-places, 
Biblical  models,  etc.,  and  there  in  the  summer 
many  persons  live,  and  there  the  religioas  gather- 
ings of  different  kinds  arc  held  daily.  Thus  the 
primitive  camp-meeting  is  continued  in  an  im- 
proved form.  The  credit  of  introducing  camp- 
meetings  into  England  is  due  to  the  Rev.  Lorenzo 
Dow  (q.v.),  an  eccentric  though  able  minister  of 
Methodist  views,  who  in  18()7  proposed  it  in  Staf- 
fordshire. Two  Methodists,  William  Clowes  and 
Hugh  Bourne,  were  so  impressed  with  the  advan- 
tages of  this  style  of  service  that  they  i)ersiHU.H.l 
in  holding  them  after  they  were  disapproved  by 
the  Wesleyan  C<>nferenct»  in  18()7;  for  doing  which 
they  were  finally  cxpclle<  I.  In  IS  10  tlioy  founded  tlie 
Primitive  Methodists,  which  Ixxly  uses  tlie  cani{>- 
mceting  The  Irish  WesU'vans  commenced  using 
theminl8(M). 
Bibliography:  S.  C.  Swallow,  Camp-MfetmtjH:  thnr  Origin, 

Hist.,  and  Utility,  aUo  their  Perversion.  .N<'w  York.  1878. 

CAMUS,  ca"mu',  de  Pont  Carr€,  JEAN  PIERRE: 
French  prelate;  b.  in  Paris  Nov.  3,  1584;  d.  there 
Apr.  25,  1652.  He  Ix'came  successively  bishop  of 
Belley  1()09,  abbot  of  Aulnay  in  Normandy  MV2\i, 
but  retired  to  the  Hospital  des  Incurables  in  Paris 
1651.  He  was  an  extremely  prolific  writer.  Tlie 
catalogue  of  his  writings  (Paris,  1653)  contains  IM) 
titles.  Among  them  are  many  moral  romances, 
which  were  admired  in  his  time,  and  some  t  ranslatc^l 
into  English,  but  are  now  forgotten.  He  is  still 
remembered  for  hLs  satirical  pamphlets  against  the 
mendicant  orders,  e.g.,  Disappropriation  Claustrelle 
and  PauireU'  Eixingdique,  which  wen*  elaborately 
refuted  in  Anti-Camus  (Douai,  1634),  and  esfwcially 
for  the  fruit  of  his  great  intimacy  with  Francis  of 
Sales,  U Esprit  d\i  bien-heurcux  Francois  de  Sales 
(6  vols.,  Paris,  1641,  new  ed.,  3  vols.,  1840,  abridged 
by  Collot,  1737;  Eng.  transl.  of  abridgement,  The 
Spirit  of  S.  Francis  de  Sales,  London,  1880).  His 
dogmatic  work  in  the  Latin  translation  Appropin^ 
quatio  Protestantium  ad  Ecclesiam  Catholico-Ro* 
tnanam  is  in  vol.  v.  of  Migne's  Cours  de  thiologic, 
BiHLiooRAPnT:  F.  Boula.>!i.  Camu;  Lyuii!>,  1879. 

CAIVA.    Sec  Galilee,  II.,  §  4. 


CANAAN,  CANAANITES. 

The  Name  (5  1  )•  The  Hittites  (|  7). 

language  and  Ueligif>ii  iS  2).  The  Hivite*  (|  8). 

Commerce  (13).  The  HoriUs  (|  9). 

Political  Relatioiu  (|  4i.  The  Perizsites  (f  10). 

The  Earlier  Inhabitants  vi  6).  The  Geehurites  (§11). 

Peoples    Mentioned    iu   the  The  Conquest  by  the  H^ 
Bible  (I  6).  brews  (|  12). 

Canaan,  Canaauites,  arc  names  given  in  the  Old 
Testament  and  elsewhere  to  the  land  acquired  bj 
the  Hebrews  and  to  the  pre-IIebraic  people  who 
occupieii  it.  Apart  from  a  few  cases  of  personifi- 
cation, Canaan  is  the  general  name  applied  to  the 
country  (Judges  v.  19;  in  JE.  Gen.  xlii.;  in  P,  Gen. 
xi.  31).  It  is  formed  from  Kanu'  with  the  addition 
of  the  n  denoting  place;  the  simple  form  does  not 
occur  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  there  is  abundflnt 
evidence  in  the  Amama  tablets  and  elsewhere  that 
it  was  used.  It  is  also  clear  that  it  was  not  orig- 
inally a  proi)er  name.  The  significance  of  the 
word  is  not  clear,  though  many  attempts  to  dis- 
cover it  have  been  made.  It  seems  in  some  plaoeB 
to  have  the  signification  of  **  Lowland"  (Num. 
xiii.  29;  Josh.  v.  1;  Zeph.  ii.  5).  In 
I.  The  some  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  the 
Name.  woni  is  used  to  tlenote  the  part  of 
Asia  under  Egyi>tian  control,  inclu- 
ding Plienicia:  hut  the  general  custom  of  Egyptian! 
was  to  designate  southern  Syria  by  J/aru  and  north- 
em  Syria  by  Rutennu.  In  the  Amama  tablets  it 
means  what  is  now  understood  by  SjTia.  Old 
Testament  usage  varies.  In  Gen.  x.  19  (JE)  it  in- 
cludes Phenicia.  the  land  of  Israel,  and  Philidtia, 
with  boundaries  undefined  on  the  north,  a  usage 
followed  generally  by  D,  though  Deut.  xi.  24  ex- 
tends the  eastern  boundary  to  the  Euphrates.  The 
gi»neral  statement  is  justified  that  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament the  name  is  used  to  designate  what  is  now 
meant  by  Syria,  without  very  definite  Ix^undaries, 
generally  excluding  lands  east  of  the  Jordan.  And 
Canaanites  designated  the  ixjople  who  inliabited 
the  lanti  of  C'anaan,  except  that  E  ases  "Amo- 
rites  "  (q.v.)  to  expn»ss  this  meaning. 

The  question  is  suggested  wliether  the  Canaan- 
ites  had  anytliing  in  common  apart  from  their 
ilwelling  in  the  land  so  designateil.  I.sa.  xLx.  18 
mentions  "  the  language  of  Canaan."  a  phrase 
which  iniplirs  that  a  common  language  was  there 
us(.^l.  Of  course  there  were  dialectical  d'fTercnces, 
say.  betwtrn  the  north  and  the  south,  hut  these 
wcR*  not  such  that  the  inhabitant  of  one  part  could 
not  understand  the  inhabitant  of  another.  His- 
toric and  in.srriptional  evidence  bears  tliis  out.  Be- 
siiles  uiiliv  of  language  there  was  a  common  con- 
ception of  religion.  The  deities  were  originally 
nature-powers  such  as  the  sun.  the  heavens,  the 
moon,  thunder  and  lightning,  ^"ith 
2.  Language  advance  of  civili74ition  they  blended, 
and         while  worship  was  still  offered  at  nu- 

Religion.  nierous  K)cal  shrines.  At  the.-*  the 
pro{)er  names  of  the  deities  were  not 
gi'nerally  u.sed,  the  gixis  were  spoken  of  as  the 
lia'al  "'l^ml  "  or  the  Ba'alah  "  Mistress"  of  the 
place,  e.g.,  Baal-lleraion,  "  Lord  of  Hcrmon. 
The  plact's  of  worship  were  the  tops  of  the  huu^ 
^see  lIujH  Places).  Near  the  altar  stood  a  sacred 
btone  or  tree  or  pillar.     If  there  were  an  image  of 


HELIGIOUS  EXCYCLOPEDIA 


Camp*Hee  tin^« 


the  deity,  there  was  also  a  temple  or  a  hou^e  and 
a  priest.  The  customs  of  worship  were  in  the 
closest  connectioD  with  the  work  of  daily  life,  the 
offerings  were  of  the  pnxiueU  of  fiuld^  gardeii, 
vineyard,  or  pasture*  In  the  cities  more  developed 
forms  tiXik  tlierr  place.  The  myth  was  everywhere 
employed,  at  first  in  local  form,  later  in  philosoph- 
ical and  poetical  development  to  which  origiriH,  iha- 
tinies,  beginnings  of  hmnan  eustomK,  and  the  be- 
ginnings of  cities  antl  holy  localities  had  their  place. 
In  some  places  prostitution  for  religions  purpo^ea 
was  practised,  also  self-mutilation  aiiil  infant-eacri- 
fice.  There  were  also  numerous  practises  which 
were  survivals  from  primitive  worsliip,  from  ani- 
mism, totemism,  and  fetishism.  The  culture  of  the 
people  had  in  general  a  common  stamp.  Baby- 
lonian influence  had  advanced  by  the  third  mil- 
lennium B.C.  at  least  as  far  fwuth  a^  central  Syria. 
Egj7)t*s  influence  waa  first  felt  about  1500  B.C. 
While  northern  Syria  immediately  bonlered  on  the 
Euphrates,  a  desurt  stretched  between  southern 
Syria  and  Egj^pt.  The  fact  tliat  the  Amiuna  tab- 
lets, which  are  claatsed  ns  Kg;^'\}tliin  document.s* 
Are  in  the  cuneiform  shows  that  Babylonian  ideas 
jjrere dominant,  though  some  admixture  of  Egyptian 
ideas  must  be  allowed. 

The  middle  position  of  Syria,  between  the  east 
and  the  west,  between  the  desert  and  the  sea,  iu- 
trotiuees  another  uccut>ation  liesidea  those  men- 
tioned in  which  the  inhabitants  engaged,  com* 
merce.  Before  the  sea  was  traversed  by  ships, 
the    roads    from    the    Euphrates    to 

3.  Com-     Egypt  passed  through  north  and  south 

Lmerce.  Sji-ia.  Sea-travel  hiter  opened  up 
routes  which  included  the  Mediter- 
ean  and  the  Reti  Sea.  The  products  of  Canaan 
proper  were  small  in  proportion  to  those  resulting 
from  conimercial  operations.  The.se  became^  there- 
fort,  the  favorite  employment  of  the  Canaanites, 
and  their  name  beeanve  synunymous  with  mer^ 
chant  (Ewk   xvi.  29,  R.  V.  margin). 

There  were  no  great  states  built  up  in  Canaan 
(the  Hebrews  are  nut  here  imder  discussion)  t-x- 
oept  tluit  of  the  Hittites  (Cj.v.),  who  possessed  a 
great  kingdom  in  nortliern  Syria,  Apart  from 
this  only  small  statt's  nm  mentioned.  The  Amama 
tabht-s  make  known  a  nttmber  of  these  as  at  war 
with  each  other  and  as  accused  of  unfatthfulne.ss 
to  the  Pharaohs  Amcnoj>liis  II L  and  IV.  Egyp- 
tian overlordsliip  was  maintainetl  more  or  le.ss 
completely  15(M>-l'i^HJ  n,c.  The  sons  of  the  local 
kings  were  sent  to  Egj^it  fur  their 
4.  Political  LHiucation,  and  their  enthrcjncment 
B  Helations.  when  they  suceeetied  to  i)ower  was 
■  the  deed  of  the  Pharaoh,     The  topog- 

^phy  of  the  country',  cut  up  by  mountain  ranges 
with  interA'ening  valleys  iuid  wadLs,  is  not  favor- 
able to  the  foniuition  and  maintaining  of  great 
states;  even  those  of  Damascus  and  of  Israel  were 
not  long-liveil. 

Accortling  to  the  rep  resent  11  tion  in  Gen.  x.  18b, 
the  Canaanites  had  spn^ad  fnnn  the  central  part 
tc^'ard  the  aoutii.  This  can  not  be  proved,  but 
the  course  of  subset |ut*nt  historical  movemt^nts 
make^  it  prt)bal)le.  The  ciustom  of  E  in  using 
1*  Amorites "   to    cormotc   the   inhabitants  of   the 


land  and  the  known  course  of  the  progress  of  thi« 
people  is  one  of  these  indications.     Only  faint  rec- 
ollections   of    the    ]mmitive  dwellers 
5.  The      arc  preserved  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Eaj-lier      in  such  paflsages  as  Deut.  ii.    lO-l!; 
Inhabitants,  II    Sam.  xxi.    16,   18,  20,  22,  where 
they  appear  as  "  giants/*  a  mythical 
terra   (cf.  Amos  ii.  9).     From  them  the  Plain  of 
Rephaim  west  of  Jerusalem  receivetl  its  name.     In 
the  passages  from  Samuel  quoted  above  Raphahf 
**  the  Giant/'  is  namei!  as  their  ancestor.     Deut. 
ii.   1 1   reckons  the  Anakim  as  belonging  to  them, 
and  Num.  xiii.  33  is  an  expres.sion  of  their  physical 
stature;  their  chief  town  is  named  as  Kirjath-arba, 
the  hitter  part  of  ivhich  name  is  explained  ilh  the 
name  of  the  ancestor  and  the  greatest  of  the  Ana- 
kim (Josh.  xiv.  15,  XV.  13). 

Tlic  Old  Testament  employ's  the  tenn  Canaan- 
ites not  only  in  the  sense  explainetl  in  the  foregtiing 
as  the  common  numc  of  the  inhabitantj*  of  Canaan, 
but  also  in  an  ethnograiihieal  sense  of  one  of  the 
stocks  included.     But  from   the  prt^ceding  discus- 
sion t!ie  doubt  is  raised  whether  this  usage  is  orig- 
inal or   has    ethnological  worth.     For  decision  of 
tliia  question  it  is  important  to  note   that  tlie  Ca- 
naanites  are   mentioni.'tl    among  other  peoples   of 
Canaan   when    ttie   author  wishes   to 
6*  Peoples   note  a  ^reut  number  of  peoples  whom 
Mentioned  the   Hebrews   had   subdued.     In   this 
in  the       case    a   settled    fonn    was    employed 
Bible.       with  an  alternative  fonn.     The  com- 
mon   fonn  was    ^*  Canaanite,   llittite, 
Amorite,  Perizzite,  Hivite,  and  Jebusite  '*  (in  eleven 
passages)^  in  which  the  intention  is  clear  to  place 
the  tnore  important  peoples  first  in  the  arrange- 
ment.    The  alternative  form  is  "  Amorite,  Periz- 
zite,   Canaanite,    Hittite,   Girgiishitc,    Hivite,   jmd 
Jebusite"  t.Jo.sh.    xxi  v.    11).     This  last   is   varietJ 
by  the  insertion  of  Kenites.  Kenizzitejs,  and  Kad- 
morutes  (Cen,  xv.  19-21),  or  by  the  omission  of  one 
or  more  fmm  the  list  (for  Kenites  see  C.\1N,  Kic- 
xiTEs;  for  Kenijtzites  see  Caleb.  CALEBiTES»aud  see 
also  Amuuite.s  and  Jebus,  Jebu.sites). 

The  Hittites  have  become  monj  familiar  through 
the  deeipherment  of  the  hieroi^lyphs  and  cuneifonn 
inscriptions  tlian  thrtjugh  the  Old  Testament. 
Thothmes  III.  {c.  I'M)  B,r.)  iirst  came  into  con- 
tact with  them  in  the  district  later  known  as  Com- 
magene  on  the  northern  boundurj'  of  8>'Tia.  A 
hundred  years  later  they  \'vrv  in  possessiun  of  a 
kingdom  which  stretehed  from  the  Euphrates  to 
the  middle  Orontes,  incluiliug  lliimatli  within  its 
bounds.  Rameses  11,  ic,  I3tlO-t23()  n.c\)  waged 
a  long  war  with  thetn,  and  in  the  twenty- first  year 
of  his  reign  made  a  treaty  in  which  a  demarcation 
of  the  boundaries  of  their  resjjective  realms  wjm 
agreed  uiwn.  About  12(M)  luc.  this  kingdom  fell 
apart  into  a  number  of  small  states.  In  tJie  ninth 
and  eightli  centuries  the  .A^yrians  mention  a  small 
Hittite  kingthmi  eneounlered  in  their  campnigus, 
that  of  Carehemish  on  the  Euphrates.  They  also 
use  the  phrase  **  land  of  tlie  Hittites  "  to  denote 
the  region  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Taurus 
range  and  south  as  fur  as  Palestine.  Hut  this  can 
not  be  hold  to  prove  that  the  Hittite  jmwer  ex- 
tended so  for.     They  left  numerous  inscriptions, 


Oanaaa 
OaiMulA 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


876 


in  the  attempt  to  decipher  which  P.   Jensen  is 
particularly  engaged,  and  he  thinks  he  can  dis- 
cover in  the  Hittites  the  forerunners  of  the  Arme- 
nians.    The  Egjrptians  call  the  Hit- 

7.  The       tites  ^ata,  the  A8S3rrian8  call  them 
Hittites.     ffaUi.    Old  Testament  passages  locate 

them  in  North  Syria  in  close  connection 
with  the  Arameans  (I  Kings  x.  29)  and  II  Kings  vii. 

6  associates  them  with  the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Muzri 
(according  to  Winckler,  misread  "  Egypt,"  see 
AflSYKiA,  VI.,  2,  3,  {  7).  And  the  Table  of  Na- 
tions in  Gen.  x.  15  with  its  context  leaves  no  doubt 
that  the  intention  was  to  locate  them  in  North 
Syria.  The  Hittites  in  the  service  of  David  (I 
Sam.  xxvi.  6;  II  Sam.  xi.  3)  were  probably  sol- 
diers of  fortune  who  had  come  south.  Some  few 
Old  Testament  passages  coincide  with  the  late 
Assyrian  usage  and  speak  of  the  land  far  south  as 
Hittite.    See  HrmrES. 

The  Hivites  are  associated  with  the  Amorites  in 
the  LXX.  text  of  Isa.  xvii.  9  (cf.  R.  V.  margin), 
but,  apart  from  the  stereotyped  formulas  mentioned 
above,  seldom  appear  in  Scripture.     II  Sam.  xxiv. 

7  locates  them   among  the  Canaanites  dwelling 

south  of  Tyre.    According  to  Judges 

8.  The      iii.  3,  cf.  Josh.   xi.  3,  their  country 
Hivites.     was  in  Lebanon  between  ''  Baal-her- 

mon  and  the  entering  in  of  Hamath." 
Josh.  xi.  3  is  not  in  accord  with  II  Sam.  xxiv. 
7,  and  it  does  not  lighten  the  difficulty  to  substi- 
tute Hittites  for  Hivites. 

The  Horites  according  to  Gen.  xxxvi.  30  inhab- 
ited Mt.  Seir,  that  is  the  district  east  and  west  of 
the  valley  (the  wadi  Arabah)  south  of  the  Dead 

Sea.    They   were   destroyed    by   the 

9.  The      Edomites    (Deut.    ii.    12,    22).     Gen. 
Horites.     xxxvi.   20-30  coimts  seven   branches 

of  the  Horites.  Gen.  xiv.  6  assigns  to 
them  the  mountain  east  of  the  wadi  Arabah.  Now- 
adays the  custom  prevails  to  connect  them  with 
the  people  named  ITaru  by  the  Egyptians,  who 
mean  by  it  South  Palestine. 

The  Perizzites  are  seldom  mentioned  except  in 
the  stereotyped  formulas;  in  three  J  passages,  Gen. 
xiii.  7,  xxxiv.  30;  Judges  i.  4,  they  are 
10.  The     associated  with  the  Canaanites,  and 
Perizzites.  in  Josh.  xvii.  15  with  the    Rephainif 
"  Giants."    The   last   passage   would 
make  of  them  pre-Canaanites,  for  which  the  J  pas- 
sages  give  no  occasion,   but  locate  them   about 
Bethel,  Shechem,  and  Bezek,  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  Joseph  territory. 

The  Geshiuites  are  in  Deut.  iii.  14;  Josh.  xii.  5, 

xiii.  11,  13  placed  in  the  Aramaic  district  of  Geshur, 

in  the  northern  part  of  the  Jaulan 

II.  The  Ge- east  of   the   Jordan;  but  Josh.   xiii. 

shtu-ites.     2  and  I   Sam.  xxvii.  8  locate  them 

in    southern    Philistia.     Since    Well- 

hausen,  the  last  passage  has  been  made  to  read 

"  Gezerites  "  instead.     But  it  must  be  concluded 

that  the  name  Geshurites  was  applied  to  nomads 

in  southern  Palestine.    Besides  the  foregoing  there 

appear   the  Girgashites  (Gen.  x.   16,  etc.),  to  be 

connected,  p>erhap>s,  with  names  known  to  be  Phe- 

nician;    the    Awim   (Deut.  ii.    23;  Josh.  xiii.  3), 

whose    residence  was    south    of  Gaza;  and    the 


Kadmonites  (Gen.  xv.  19),  of  whom    nothing  ii 
known. 

The  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Hebrews  was 
rendered  easy  by  several  circimistances.  The  ove^ 
lordship  of  the  Egyptians  became  about  1250 
B.C.  a  mere  name.  Moreover,  about  1400  B.C.,  a^ 
cording  to  the  Amama  Tablets  (q.v.),  a  people  called 
the  Qabiri  had  crossed  the  Jordan  westward, 
partly  because  the  chiefs  there  were  employing 
them  as  soldiers  and  partly  to  better  their  lot 
These,  related  to  the  Israelites,  were  indeed 
their  predecessors  along  the  same 
12.  The  route,  who  by  establishing  themselTes 
Conquest  gave  the  invitation  to  others  to  settle 
by  the  there.  But  the  light-armed  Israel- 
Hebrews,  ites,  who  established  themselves  in 
the  more  open  country,  had  a  more 
difficult  task  against  the  Canaanites  armed  with 
iron  weapons  and  chariots  of  the  same  material 
The  assault  of  the  Hebrews  was  not  made  with 
their  united  force  and  at  one  time,  as  the  narrative 
in  Joshua  asserts,  but  in  two  divisions,  and  not  at 
the  same  time.  The  first  attack  was  made  by 
Simeon,  Levi,  and  Judah,  the  second  by  the  Joseph 
tribes  under  the  leadership  of  Joshua  (Judges  L  1- 
3,  22).  A  series  of  victories,  reported  in  Josh, 
ii.-x.,  made  it  possible  for  the  Joseph  tribes  to  settle 
between  Bethel  and  the  Plain  of  Jezreel.  Accord- 
ing  to  the  first  part  of  Joshua,  the  Hebrews  put  the 
ban  on  the  Canaanites,  i.e.,  exterminated  them. 
But  this  does  not  agree  with  other  statements. 
While  indeed  those  foes  were  perhaps  extenninated 
who  were  taken  in  actual  contest,  the  universal  ap- 
plication of  the  ban  does  not  accord  with  many 
other  passages  of  Scripture.  The  Canaanites  were 
pressed  back;  progress  in  possession  was  made 
partly  by  subjecting  the  earlier  inhabitants,  partly 
by  peaceful  means.  In  the  former  case  the  Csmaan- 
ites  became  slaves;  in  the  latter,  union  of  stocks 
was  brought  about.  The  victory  at  Taanach  under 
Deborah  and  Barak  assured  to  the  Hebrews  the 
control  of  the  Plain  of  Jezreel.  The  northern  dis- 
tricts of  Naphtali  and  Asher  retained  their  non- 
Israelitic  population  (see  Galilee).  The  southern 
stock  of  Judah  in  time  allied  itself  with  many  peo- 
ples of  alien  race  (see  Caleb,  Calebites,  and  cf. 
Gen.  xxxviii.).  The  remainder  of  the  non-Hebraic 
population  was  put  to  service  by  Solomon. 

It  is  this  reduction  of  the  Canaanites  to  servitude 
which  is  at  the  basis  of  the  narrative  in  Gen.  ix- 
20-27,  which  deals  with  Noah  and  his  three  sons. 
Wellhausen  has  made  it  plain  that  in  ix.  22  the 
words  "  Ham  the  father  of  "  are  an  intrusion  by 
the  editor  to  bring  the  section  into  harmony  with 
its  context.  Canaan  is  the  younger  brother  who 
is  there  subjected  to  his  brethren.  Shem  no  doubt, 
in  the  passage,  means  Israel,  and  Japhet  the  Pbe- 
nicians,  and  Shem  and  Japhet  are  both  ruling  peo- 
ples. Canaan's  position  in  the  Table  of  Nations 
(q.v.)  is  quite  other  than  that  in  Gen.  ix.  20-27. 

(H.  GUTHE.) 

Bibliography:  K.  Budde,  Die  bibliaehe  UrgeududUe,  Gm- 
een,  1883;  A.  H.  Sayce.  Races  of  the  Old  Ttttameni,  Lon- 
don, 1891  (brief,  need.*)  bringing  up  to  date);  idem.  The 
*  Higher  Criticism  '  and  the  MonumenU,  ib.  18W;  i<l«n« 
Patriarchal  Paleetine,  ib.  1895  (the  last  two  boola  are 
damaged  by  their  polemic  aim);  G.  F.  Moore,  in  JAOS, 


377 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oanftan 
Canada 


XV.  (ISt^),  pp.  Ixvii.-bix.  <ou  the  etymology);  J.  Bon- 
Kinder,  Hebraixchg  ArchaotoiM.  S  12.  Freiburg,  1804; 
E.  Schrader.  Oat  Land  Amumt,  in  4Si£^un(;ftiericAf«'  dct 
BmtlintT  Akademie,  D«c.  20,  1894;  idem,  KAT,  Index 
B-VT.  *'  Amontcr,"  "  Amurru,"  '"  KauoAn  *';  J.  F.  Mc- 
Cujxly^  Hiatory,  Prophecy  and  the  Monumenta,  vols,  i.-ii., 
New  York,  1895-96;  F.  Buhl,  Gmgraphie  de»  often  Paiea- 
Hna.  I  46.  Ttibingen,  1896;  F.  Homracl,  The  Aitctent 
Umbrete  Tradition.  Londoa.  1897;  G.  A.  Bmith,  Hi»U}r- 
ical  Geoffraphy  of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  4-6.  ib,  1867  (od  the 
etymology);  L.  B.  PatoHr  Early  llinUiry  of  Syria  and 
PaUatin€t  New  York*  1901  Un  jiatidot©  for  the  workis  of 
Bayoe  and  Hommftt);  W.  Erbt,  Di»  Hebftker.  Kamuin 
tm  ZtUaittr  der  hebrdi$chen  Wawlerunff  und  hebraiKhen 
Staa^ngriindunQen,  Leip^^ic,  1906;  H»  %^inoont»  Canaan 
d'aprU  Vtxplaraiion  ritumte,  Parifl,  1907;  Dii,  i.  347-348; 
EB,  i.  638-643.  The  literature  oq  the  Amartia  Tablets 
usually  diflcuases  the  subject. 

CAlfADA:  A  country  of  North  America  occu- 
pying the  entire  continent  north  of  the  United 
States  except  Ahiaka;  area,  3,745,574  nquare  miles; 
fiopulation  (1901),  5^371,315  (estimated  in  1906  at 
5425,0CM}). 

The  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  official  designation 
of  the  country,  was  formed  in  18<57  by  a  confedera- 
tion of  the  eastern  provinces  of  Upper  anc[  Lower 
Canada  {now  Ontario  and  Quebec),  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  Nova  Sctitia,  the  coalition  being  recog- 
nised by  an  Act  of  Parliament  of  the  mother  coim- 
try.      A  gpvenior-general,    appuinted  by  tlie  king 
of  Englanti,  and  a  pri\y  coimcil  administer  the 
go%^ernnient.     The    legislative   power  is  a  parlia- 
ment consistiBg  of  a  senate,  whose  members  are 
appointed  for  life  by  the  crown  on  nomination  of 
the  ministry,  and  a  house  of  coram on^^ 
Political     electt^d  every  five  yesas  at  the  longest. 
Divisions    The  Dominion  now  comprises,  in  ad- 
and  Gov-    dition  to  the  pru%'inces  already  named, 
emmeiit    Manitoba     (adtnitt^xi     1870),    British 
C-ohimbia     (1871),     Prince     Edward 
Ifiland     (1873),     Alberta     (19(J5),     Saskatchewan 
(1905),  and  the  Northwest  Territories  comprising 
the  districts  of  Assiniboia,  Athabai^ca,  Keewatin, 
Yukon,  Mackenzie,  Ungava.  and  Franklin.     Each 
pro\'ince  has  its  o\ni    "  i  ie  u  tenant -go  v^ernor,"  ex* 
ecutive  council,  and  legislative  ius^embly.     Nearly 
three-quarters  of  the  entire  population  is  in  the 
two  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  almost 
ninety  per  cent  in  the  five  eastern  provinces.     The 
incroaae  during  the  last  decade  wm  a  little  more 
than  eleven  per  cent,     Ther«  is  no  Stat«  Church, 
hut  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Quebec  are  guaranteed 
privileges  which  they  enjoyeti  previous  to  the 
glish  occupation. 

The  Frenchman  Jacques  Carticr  took  poesession 
of  the  Labrador  region  in  the  n.ime  of  his  king  in 
1534,  and  in  153o-3li  he  ascended  tire  St.  Lawrence 
A8  far  as  Montreal.  The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment was  at  Qut'bec  in  1*308  under  the  lead  of 
Champlain.  The  gain  in  French 
colonists  w^as  .slow,  and  the  stream 
flowed  WH'-stwanl  toward  the  Missis- 
Statistics,  sippi.  English  conquest  and  the 
peace  of  1763  brought  Canada  undt^r 
igllah  control.  The  EngUsh  and  Protestant  in- 
bitant^  were  eoneiderably  increased  by  immi- 
ion  of  English  loyalists  from  the  United  Sta!t*a 
17'S3,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  received  a 
intTemcnt  during  the  nineteenth  ceutur>'  by 


1^' 


History 
and 


immigration  from  Ireland;  the  French  population 
also  was  augmented  after  1871  by  a  noteworthy 
niunber  of  Alsatians, 

The  following  is  the  table  of  religious  i^tatistica 
from  the  census  of  19(J1: 


AdventiatB. *. 

A^moatics,  Atbetbta, 

utc. 

Anglicans. 

BaptiatJ 

BjLptietl^  Freo 

Brethreo, ,  ^ » 

Buddhiufca. .,.,.... 
C^atholic    Apoatolic 

( I  rvin^tew) 

Chmtadiilpbjans. . . 

CliriwtiaiiiS. , . 

Chrbtian  ^nienti^its. 
Cliurcb  of  Christ. . , 
Gburcli  of  God.  ... 

Confucian.<« 

CoagregatJauabfltD. . 

Deinta , , 

Dii^cjpka.  ....,,..* 

Dukhobors 

Evangelicalis. ..,,.. 
Frwnda  (Quakera). 
Gr««k  Chtirtih. , .... 
HolineHH  Movement 

(Horneritea)...,. 
Jews 


8,0SS 

3,613 

eSO,IJ20 

'J92Am 

24,288 

8,014 

10.407 

4€0 

1,030 

6,W0 

2.619 

2.264 

351 

6415 

28,293 

78 

14.(»0O 

8.775 

10.103 

4,100 

15,630 

2J75 
10,401 


LAtter-dny  Saints 
(Monuoud),. 

LutkeraQs. ».,...., 

Meujionitea 

Methoiliatd  *..,,.., 

Mohammedanfl. .... 

New  Church  (Swe- 
denborg:iiLn») . , , , 

Non-H£t:tarmn . . .... 

Nii  HelijfiuQ 

Paean.H, ,  ,  ,  . 

Plymouth  Brethren 

PreMbyteriaiiA. . 

Priot«!rtaQtB. .....,, 

lieforin«d  Episoo- 
paliana  .  ^ 

Roman  Catholioa...2, 

Salvation  Array. ... 

ypirituahsta. 

Then^KopMsta. , 

Tunkers 

Umtariaits. 

UnHed  Brethreii... 

UniversaliiftU, 

Unspecified. 

VariQUB    Socts 

ZioDJt«s. ...» 


6,801 

92,524 

31.797 

G16,88e 

47 

881 

215 

4.810 

15.107 

2,774 

842.442 

11^612 

874 

,22d,eoo 

10,308 

616 

107 

1,628 

l.d34 

4.701 

2.5^9 

43.222 

2,795 

42 


The  Roman  Catholics  constitute  41.5  per  cent  of 
the  entire  population.  They  are  moj^t  numerous 
in  Quebec  (1,429.200;  iSll7  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  prtJvince);  in  Ontario  their  number 
is  390,304  (LS  per  cent).  The  total  number  of 
Protestants  is  about  3,01K},000  (50.2  per  cent). 
Nearly  all  of  the  Buddhists  auti  Confucians  are  in 
British  Columbia,  whither  they  have  como  as  a 
result  of  the  active  trade  with  eastern  Asia.  The 
adherents  of  tlie  Greek  Church  are  mastly  immi- 
granta  from  Russia  to  Manitoba,  Alberta,  and  As- 
siniboia;  the  Dukhobors  (qvj,  who  may  be  re- 
ganied  as  a  schismatic  branch  of  tlils  Church,  are 
in  Assiniboia  and  Saskatchewan.  Of  the  Jews  al- 
most lialf  (7,498)  are  in  Quebec  and  5,321  in  On- 
tario. Nearly  all  the  Mormons  arc  in  Ontario 
(3,377)  and  Alberta  (3.212).  Of  the  Meunonites, 
15,246  arc  in  Mimitoba,  12,208  in  Ontario,  and 
3,683  in  Saskatchewan.  The  **  pfigans  '*  are  the 
Eskimos  and  unconverted  Indians;  accor^ling  to 
some  authorities  their  number  is  much  larger  than 
that  given  by  the  census.  All  the  large  denomina- 
tions are  actively  engaged  in  tnissionjiry  work  in 
the  wide  domain  of  Canatla,  operating  through 
pcrmaninit  stations  and  itinerant  miss  ion  aric«. 
The  Roman  Catliolic  Church  has  from  the  first 
been  particularly  successful  in  this  w^ork,  and  the 
majority  of  the  Indians  ct)nvertoil  to  Christianity 
belung  to  this  Church.  The  *^  various  sect*  "  &re 
110  in  nimiber  and  include  seventy-nine  which  re- 
ported less  than  ten  members  each. 

The  Ronuin  Catholic  Church  in  Canada  iiAtea 
from  the  discovery.  Huguenots  were  allowed  to 
settle,  only  on  conditions  that  soon  proved  fatal  to 
their  religion.  In  1615  three  Recollect  priests  set- 
tled itj  Quclx-c,  fomiing  the  earliest  regular  estab- 
lishment. In  1625  the  Jesuits  arriveil.  and  began 
their  missionary  and  educational  labors.     In  165^ 


OuiSidft 
OandlUh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


878 


Francois  Xavier  de  Laval-Montmorency  (q.v.)  was 

nam^  vicar  apostolic    of  New  France,  becoming 

firet  bishop  of  Quebec  in  1674.     Under 

The  Ro-     him  the  church  system  was  fully  or- 

man  Cath-   ganized.     For   some    time    after   the 

olio  conquest,  the  see  of  Quebec  remained 

Church,  vacant,  as  the  English  Government 
would  recognize  its  occupant  only  as 
the  head  of  the  Roman  Church  in  Canada,  and  not 
as  the  bishop  of  that  city.  The  difficulty  was.  how- 
ever, overcome.  In  1819  Joseph  Octave  Plessis 
(bishop  of  Quebec  from  1806)  became  the  first  Ca^ 
nadian  archbishop. 

As  organized  at  present  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  of  Canada  has  an  apostolic  delegate  (first 
appointed  by  Leo  XIII.),  who  resides  at  Ottawa. 
There  are  eight  provinces,  twenty  dioceses,  and 
four  vicariates  apostolic,  as  follows: 

Provinoe  of  Halifax  (Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island, 
and  New  Brunswick;  the  Bermuda  Islands  also  form  a  part 
of  the  archdiocese  of  Halifax);  archdiocese,  Halifax  (founded 
as  the  vicariate  apostolic  of  Nova  Scotia,  1817;  diocese, 
1842;  archdiocese,  1852);  dioceses,  Antiffonish  (founded  as 
the  diocese  of  Arichat,  1844;  transferred  to  Antagonish, 
1886).  Charlottetown  (Prince  Edward  Island  and  the  Mag- 
dalen Islands,  1820).  Chatham  (1860).  and  St.  John  (1842). 

Provinoe  of  Kingston  (Eiwtem  and  Northern  Ontario); 
archdiocese,  Kingston  (diocese.  1826;  archdiocese,  1880); 
dioceses,  Alexandria  (1800),  Peterborough  (1882),  and  Sault 
8te.  Marie  (1004). 

Provinoe  of  Montreal  (Southern  and  Wcxtem  Quebec): 
archdiocese,  Montreal  (diocese,  1836;  archdiocese,  1886); 
dioceses,  Joliette  (1004).  St.  Hyacinthe  (1852),  Sherbrooke 
(1874).  and  Valleyfield  (1802). 

Province  of  Ottawa  (parts  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Ottawa  and  the  region  about 
James  Bay);  archdiocese,  Ottawa  (diocese,  1847;  archdio- 
cese, 1886);  diocese,  Pembroke  (vicariate  apostolic,  1882; 
diocese.  1808). 

Province  of  Quebec  (Eastern  Quel^ec);  archdiocese,  Que- 
bec (vicariate  apostolic,  1657;  diocciie.  1C74;  archdiocese. 
1844);  dioceses,  CJhicoutimi  (1878).  Nicolet  (1885).  Ri- 
mouaki  (1807).  and  Three  Riven*  (1852);  vicariate  apostolic 
of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  (prefecture  apostolic,  1882; 
vicariate,  1005). 

Province  of  St.  Boniface  (the  extreme  western  part  of 
Ontario.  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  Northwest 
Territories;;  archdioccHc,  St.  Boniface  (diocese.  1847; 
archdiocese,  1871);  diocese.  St.  Albert  (1871);  vicariates 
apoMtolir,  Athabasca  (1862),  and  Saskatchewan  (1800). 

Province  of  Toronto  (Southwestern  Ontario);  archdio- 
cew.  Toronto  (diocew,  1841;  archdiocese,  1870);  dioceses, 
Hamilton  (1856).  and  London  (1856). 

Province  of  Victoria  (British  Columbia,  the  Klondike  and 
Great  Slave  rcgionH);  archdiocese,  Victoria  (1847);  diocese. 
New  Went  minster  (vicariate  apostolic  of  British  (Columbia, 
1863;  diocese,  1800);  vicariate  apostolic  of  Mackenzie 
(1001). 

The  Official  Catholic  Directory  for  1006  gives  the  following 
figures:  number  of  priests  of  religious  orders,  1,116;  secular 
priests,  2,613;  churches,  2,405;  seminaries,  17,  with  1,183 
students;  universities  and  colleges,  45;  charitable  institu- 
tions. 202.  One  hundred  and  ten  Catholic  papers  are  named, 
and  the  list  of  religious  orders  includes  twenty-seven  for 
men  and  thirty-five  for  women,  the  larger  number  of  which 
are  actively  engaged  in  missionary  and  charitable  work. 
Laval  University  was  founded  at  C^uelwc  in  1852  and  has 
faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  arts. 

The  Anglican  Church  in  Canada  dates  from  its  con- 
quest by  England.  The  first  congregation  was  or- 
ganized in  Montreal  in  1766,  service  being  held  in 
the  chapel  of  the  Recollects  at  such  hours  as  the 
building  was  not  required  for  mass.  In  1774, 
while  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  secured  in 
all  its  previous  rights,  it  was  restricted  to  collect- 


ing its  church-dues  from  members  of  its  oiwn  oooh 
munion,  and  the  purpose  was  intimated  of  estib- 
lishing  a  Protestant  Church.    In  1791, 
The        when  Canada  first  received  a  CQusti- 
Anc^ican    tution,  one-seventh  of  all  the  land  in 
Church,     the  colony  disposed  of  by  sale  or  grant 
to  colonists  was  '*  reserved  "  for  the  sap- 
port  of  a  Protestant  clergy.    lA  1787  Charles  Inglii 
was  appointed  by  the  English  Crown   bishop  of 
Nova  Scotia — the  first  of  the  colonial  bishops;  in 
1793  Jacob  Mountain  was  appointed  bishop  of  Que- 
bec.    The  present  organization  includes  two  prov- 
inces and  twenty-three  bishoprics,  as  follows: 

Province  of  Canada  (the  Maritime  Provinees,  Qnebee, 
and  Ontario):  archdiocese.  Montreal  (founded  1850;  areb- 
diocese,  1901;  since  1004  the  archbishop  haa  borne  the  titk 
primate  of  all  Canada);  dioceses,  Alcoma  (with  the  biiliap'i 
■eat  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  1873).  Fredericton  (1845).  Hnraa 
(London,  1857),  Niagara  (Hamilton.  1875).  Nova  Scotit 
(Halifax.  1787).  Ontario  (Kingston.  1861).  OtUwa  (1806). 
Quebec  (1793),  Toronto  (1839). 

Province  of  Rupert's  Land  (the  territory  west  ai  OnUiio 
and  south  and  east  of  Hudson  Bay);  archdioeeae,  Rupert's 
Land  (1849;  archdiooeee,  1893;  the  cathedral  is  at  Wia- 
nipeg);  dioceses,  Athabasca  (1884),  Calgaiy  (1888).  Km- 
watin  (1901).  Blaokenxie  River  (1874).  MooMmee  (1S72), 
Qu'Appelle  (1884).  Saskatchewan  (1874).  Selkirk  (1891). 

Dioceses  not  forming  part  of  any  proTinoe:  Oaledooia 
(1879),  Columbia  '1859)  Kootenai  (1001).  New  Wtftmia- 
ster  (1879). 

There  are  theological  schools  at  LennoxviQe, 
Que.,  Montreal,  Toronto,  and  Winnipeg. 

For  the  history  and  information  about  other  re- 
ligious bodies  of  Canada,  see  the  articles  on  the  dif- 
ferent denominations. 

Canada  has  a  good  system  of  public  instructioD, 
each  province  managing  its  own  affairs  without 
centralized  system  for  the  entire  dominion.  Ele- 
mentary schools,  high  schools  or  collegiate  insti- 
tutes, and  normal  schools  lead  up  to  the  university, 
and  a  good  education  is  within  the 
Edu-  reach  of  all.  The  expenses  are  met 
cation,  by  government  grants,  local  asess- 
ments,  and  school  fees.  Roman  Cath- 
olic schools  are  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  public 
educational  funds  by  the  agreement  of  1763,  and 
the  religious  question  has  led  to  complications  in 
some  localities.  In  Quebec  there  are  two  distinct 
boanls  of  school  commissioners,  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic,  each  having  its  portion  of  the 
public  funds  and  managing  its  schools  as  it  sees  fit. 
In  Manitoba  there  are  no  separate  schools,  but  re- 
ligious instruction  may  be  given  in  the  school 
buildings  by  Protestant  or  Catholic  teachers. 

Bibliograpqt:  Statistics  and  other  information  may  be 
gathered  from  the  Canadian  Almanac,  Toronto,  the  Slor- 
tiatical  Year  Book  of  Canada,  Ottawa,  and  Le  Canada 
eccUMaatique,  Montreal,  all  annuals,  the  last  Roman  Cath- 
olic. On  the  English  Chiu-ch  consult:  E.  R  SUmsoo. 
History  of  Separation  of  Church  and  State  in  Canada,  To- 
ronto, 1888;  J.  Langtry,  History  of  the  Church  in  Ecakm 
Canada,  London,  1892.  There  is  also  a  Cydopadia  ^ 
Methodism  in  Canada,  Toronto,  1881.  For  early  Catbdic 
relations  consult  the  monumental  work.  ed.  R.  G.  Thwaito. 
Jesuit  Relations  and  Allied  Documents,  74  Tols.,  Cleve- 
land, 1896-1901. 

CANARY  ISLAlfDS.    See  Africa,  IH. 

CANDroUS,  can-di'dQs  (WEISS),  PAlfTALEOH: 
Reformed  theologian;  b.  at  Ybbs  (60  m.  w.  of 
Vienna),  Austria,  Oct.  7,  1540;  d.  at  ZweibrOcken 


379 


REUGTOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


tSmnmAtk 

Oandlish 


(55  m,  n.w*  of  Carl sm he),  in  the  Palatinate,  Feb.  3. 
1608.  He  was  sent  in  his  tenth  year  to  Andreas 
Cupicius,  Evangelical  preacher  at  Wtissenkirelien* 
for  instruct  ion.  Wiwn  his  teacher  was  persecuted 
by  the  Jeauit-s  on  account  of  hia  faith  and  thrown 
into  prison,  Candidus  attendcti  him  iis  fajuuhin  and 
fled  with  him  to  Hungar>'.  Returning  to  his  na- 
tive land,  he  continued  hia  studies  with  the  aid  of 
lltus  Nuber,  abbj>t  of  Saussenstein  (near  Ybbs)> 
and  when  he  also  was  persecute^:!,  Canditlus  ac- 
oomp^mied  liim  to  Duke  Wolfgang  of  Zweibriickeii. 
^e  teceiveil  a  ficholarship  from  the  duke  which 
abled  liiin  to  acquire  a  thorough  humiiniNtic  and 
theological  education  at  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, where  he  sjient  about  seven  years  irom  155H; 
be  became  amanuensis  of  Hubert  Languet  and  was 
on  intinuite  terms  with  Melanchthon.  In  1565  he 
left  Wittenberg,  and,  after  having  tauglit  a  ehort 
time  in  the  Latin  schmil  of  Zw^eibrOcken,  became 
lABStor  at  Hinxwciler,  then  deacon  at  Weiscnheim 
Htful  Zweibnicken,  and  in  1571  town  preacher  and 
funeral  superintendent  in  Zweibriicken. 

The  Church  of  Zweibriicken  had  been  founded  by 
Johannes  Schweblin  in  accordance  with  the  Lu- 
theran doctrine  by  the  acceptance  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  and  the  Wittenberg  Cbncord  (q.v.)  of 
1536.  Ehike  Wolfgang,  after  the  death  of  Melanch- 
thon, took  vigoroua  meiusures  against  the  Philippists 
and  Calvinists  by  employing  strict  LutheraiiB  like 
Marbach,  Andrea,  and  1 1  cash  us.  His  f*on,  John  L, 
continued  the  same  policy,  and  the  most  influential 
positions  were  fillcti  with  trustwortliy  Lutherans 
guch  as  Jacob  Ileilbrunner  and  Jacob  Schopper. 
But  a  change  of  conditions  wan  brought  about 
under  the  influence  of  the  Count  Palatine  John 
Caiomir,  who  sent  his  cousin  John  a  stateoient  of 
the  conflicting  opinions  of  Refurmed  princcii  and 
theologians.  Thereupon  the  latter  demanded  in 
1578  a  general  convention  for  the  cliscusjsion  of 
thfifle  quest  lonH.  C:mdidus^  who  had  always 
leaned  toward  Cahinism,  became  now  one  of  the 
most  influential  advocates  of  the  Reformed  cause, 
and  the  duke  himself  Of>enly  oonfesse^l  the  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine,  although  he  had  signed  the  Fonnula 
of  Concord.  Tiie  remonstrances  of  the  Lutheran 
electoral  princes  wiite  of  no  avail,  nor  was  a  Lu- 
theran embassy  w^iich  was  sent  in  1580,  oonaisting  of 
men  like  Jlarbach  and  Osiander.  Candidus  ac- 
cepted the  Refonned  Christology  and  the  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  of  the  Lorcrs  Supper,  and  in  15S5 
edited  a  catechism  which  contributed  considerably 
^p  the  eradication  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine.  More- 
^^er«  he  enteretj  into  negotiations  with  the  Re- 
^onned  theologians  of  Heidelberg  and  completed 
the  work  of  Calvinism  in  158S  by  b's  ChrisUiche  und 
^fOiwenHige  Erklarung  des  CaicchLsmi  mis  fjMtes 
Hp^or/,  etc. t  which  in  its  wording  and  sense  follows 
^lot«ely  the  Heidellierg  cat-echism.  The  Reformeil 
Church  servnoe  w^as  introtluced  in  the  same  way. 
he  disserisions  were  renewetl  in  1593  at  the  re- 
rious  colloquy  of  Neuburgt  where  the  Zweibrucken 
ologians  prote^tcxt  against  any  innovations  ajid 
Ittempted  to  show  their  agreement  with  the  Au- 
st,ana.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
ntury  the  Church  of  Zweibriicken  has  been 
nted  among  the  Reformed  Churches,     Candidus 


was  also  active  in  the  literary  fleld  and  has  left 
twenty  works,  written  mostly  in  Latin,  fie  was 
especially  prolific  in  Latin  poetical  productions 
and  handled  the  elegiac  meaisare  with  ability* 

(J.  ScHKninEE.) 

Biuliographt;  F.  Butters,  Panialton  Candidut,  tin  I^tn^- 
hi  Li,  Zwflibnirken,  I8fl5;  L.  HftiJ«««er,  GmeKichte  der 
rheinitichcn  PfaU^  Heidelbora^  185fl;  ADB,  s.v.,  vol.  iii. 

CAITOLEBIAS;  The  popular  English  name  for 
the  feast  of  the  Purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary  or 
the  Prei*entation  of  Christ  in  the  Tumpic,  Feb>  2, 
derived  from  the  ancient  custom  of  bles-sing  candles 
on  that  dav  for  use  in  church  and  elsewhere.  See 
Mary. 

CAKDLEMAS  DAY.     Hee  Maky,  Festivalb  op, 

CANDLER,  WARREN  AKIN:  Bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South;  b.  near  Villa 
llieii,  Oa.,  Aug.  2*i,  1857.  He  was  educated  at 
i:mory  College.  Oxford,  Ga.  (BA.,  IH75).  and  en- 
tered the  North  (Jeorgia  Conference  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  South,  in  1875,  hoMing 
various  pastorates  until  1886.  From  the  latter 
year  until  1888  he  was  editor  of  the  Christutn  Advo- 
cftte,  Na^shville,  Tenn,,  the  ofBcial  organ  of  Iiia  de- 
nominatinn,  and  from  1888  to  1898  was  president 
of  Emorj'  College.  Since  1898  he  has  been  a  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  In 
the*j|ogy  he  is  a  W^esleyan  Arminian.  He  has 
written:  Hlatory  of  Sunday  Schools  (New  York, 
i88());  Georgia's  Educational  Work  (Atlanta,  Ga., 
lHm)\  Chri^tus  Aurtor  (Nashville,  Tenn.,  19IK1); 
Iltffh  Living  and  High  Liieji  (19()1);  and  Great  Re* 
r/ro/.^  tmd  the  Great  Republic  (]0O4)» 

CANDLES,  See  Lights,  Usk  of,  m  DniNE 
Skrvice. 

OANDLISH,    ROBERT    SMITH:     One    of    the 

founders  and  a  leader  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land; b.  in  Edinburgh  Mar.  23.  ISOfi;  d.  there  Oct. 
19,  1873.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  (M,A.,  1823), 
and  at  the  divinity  hall  1823-2ii;  was  licensed  in 
1828  and  ser\etl  as  asjiistant  of  St.  Andrews,  Glas- 
gow, and  of  Bonhill,  Dumbartonshire:  in  18^H  he 
became  minister  of  St.  George's,  Edinburgh,  where 
his  talent  as  a  preacher  soon  made  him  famoiLs. 
In  1839  he  puMicly  identiiie<l  himself  with  the 
party  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  which  afterward 
became  the  Free  Church,  and  in  all  the  public  pro- 
ceedings prior  to  the  disruption  in  1843,  especially 
in  the  debates  in  the  General  As,st'mbly,  took  a 
leading  part;  after  the  disruption  he  was  foremost 
in  orgiUiizing  and  developing  the  Free  Church. 
lihs  eloquence  in  debate,  his  bu.sines.s  tact,  and  his 
high  character  enabled  him  to  rt^tain  the  liigh  posi- 
tion ho  had  gained  in  spite  of  a  somewhat  sharp 
and  abrupt  manner,  and  a  tenrlency  to  what  some 
considered  diplomatic  management.  On  the  cleath 
of  Dr.  Chalmers  in  1847  he  wn><  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed him  as  professor  of  itivinity  in  New  Ci>llege, 
Edinburgh,  but  declineil  the  appointment,  pre- 
ferring to  continue  minii^ter  of  St-  George's;  in 
1862,  however,  he  became  principal  of  New  College, 
the  duties  iiivoKing  little  hd>or.  He  wa-s  the 
chief  orgJinizer  and  extender  of  the  sch«x)l  system 
of  the  Frw  Church,  which  waa  afterward  ineorpo- 


Canisius 
Oanon  Law 


THE  NEW  SCHAiT-HERZOG 


880 


rated  with  the  national  system  of  education;  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in 
1845.  He  was  a  voluminous  author,  although 
his  books  did  not  attain  a  very  large  circulation; 
among  his  writings  were:  Contributions  Towards  the 
Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  (3  vols.,  Ekiin- 
burgh,  1843-62;  rev.  ed.,  2  vols.,  1868);  Scripture 
Characters  and  Miscellanies  (London,  1850);  Ex- 
amination of  Air.  Maurice's  Theological  Essays 
(1854);  Life  in  a  Risen  Saviour ,  discourses  on  I 
Cor.  XV.  (Edmburgh,  1858);  The  Two  Great  Com- 
mandments, sermons  on  llomans  xii.  (London, 
1860);  The  Atonement,  its  Reality,  Completeness,  and 
Extent  (1801);  The  Fatherhood  of  God,  the  first 
course  of  Cunningham  lectures  at  New  College, 
Edinburgh,  1804  (5th  ed.  cnlargt'd,  2  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1800);  Tlw  First  Epistle  of  John  Expounded 
in  a  Series  of  Lectures  (1800);  Discourses  Bearing 
upon  the  Sonship  and  Brotherhood  of  Believers  (1872); 
Sermons f  with  memoir  (1873);  and  The  Gospel  of 
Forgiveness^  a  series  of  discourses  ( 1878). 

Bibliography:  W.  Wil.wn,  MemoriaU  of  R.  S.  Caiidliah, 
EkUnburgh,  1880  (with  a  concluding  chapter  on  his  char- 
acter as  a  thooloKian  by  Ilohort  liainy,  his  nuccca:«or  an 
principal  of  Now  College);  Jean  L.  WatM>n,  lAfe  of  R.  S. 
Candliah,  London,  1882. 

CANISIUS,  ca-ni'si-u8  or  ca-ni'shus,  PETRUS 
(Peter  Kanis,  Canis,  Canijs):  A  Jesuit  to  whom 
the  order  owes  its  spread  in  Germany;  b.  at 
Nymwegen,  in  the  Netherlands,  May  8,  1521;  d. 
at  Freiburg,  Switzerland,  Dec.  21,  1597.  He 
studied  at  Cologne  from  1535  to  1544  and  ob- 
tained the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  theology,  li- 
centiate of  arts,  and  master  of  arts  (i.e.,  doctor 
of  philosophy).  In  1543  he  went  to  the  Jesuit 
Pierre  Favre  (q.v.)  at  Mainz,  made  the  "  spiri- 
tual exercises  '*  (see  Jesuits)  under  his  guid- 
ance, and  entered  the  order  as  a  novice.  With 
nine  like-minded  companions  he  foimded  se- 
cretly at  Cologne  the  first  Jesuit  colony,  but 
the  city  council  dissolved  the  body,  though  at 
the  intercession  of  the  university  the  members 
were  permitted  to  remain  in  the  city,  as  individuals. 
In  1545  Canisius  began  his  lectures,  preached, 
and  prepared  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  with  a  Latin  translation,  the  first 
volume  of  which  was  published  at  Cologne  in  1546. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  fervent  orator,  who  had 
agitated  especially  against  the  archbishop  Hermann 
of  Wied,  who  inclineil  toward  Protestantism,  had 
obtained  such  authority  among  the  strictly 
Catholic  party  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  Schmal- 
kald  War  it  delegated  him  as  mediator  to  the  im- 
perial camp  at  Ulm.  Here  he  came  into  close 
relations  with  Cardinal  Otto  Truchsess,  bishop 
of  Augsburg,  who  was  destined  to  open  the  way 
for  him  into  Uavaria  and  insure  the  activity  of 
his  order.  Ignatius  Loyola  perceived  the  talent 
of  Canisius,  and,  to  perfect  him  in  the  spirit  and 
nature  of  the  order  and  make  him  a  chosen  vessel, 
called  the  young  man  to  Rome  and  emi>loyed 
him  for  two  years  in  Italy  at  Messina.  Upon  his 
return,  Canisius  commenced  his  work  in  Havaria 
in  1549,  in  1552  at  Vienna  and  in  the  Austrian  terri- 
tories, in  1555  at  Prague  with  the  two  objects  in 
view,  to  permeate  the  German  Catholics  with  the 


Jesuitic  spirit  of  piety,  and  to  repel  Protestantism. 
At  Vienna  he  composed  the  Summa  dodrina 
Chrisiiance,  the  "  catechism/'  whidi  an  imperial 
edict  soon  introduced  into  all  Austria;  in  four 
hundred  editions  published  during  130  years,  it 
proved  an  excellent  means  of  mental  trainioig 
(Eng.  transl.,  Paris,  1588).  His  other  literaiy 
productions  include  two  volumes  (De  Jokaau 
BaptistOf  Dillingen,  1571,  and  De  Maria  Virgine, 
Ingolstadt,  1577),  written  against  the  *'  pestilentis* 
simum  opus,"  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  (q.v.).  But 
his  literary  activity  against  Protestantism  was 
unimportant  compared  with  what  he  docomplished 
as  teacher  in  Vienna,  Dillingen,  and  Ingolstadt,  as 
adviser  of  Catholic  princes,  and  as  preacher  aod 
pastor  of  very  large  circles.  Besides  the  colleges 
already  mentioned,  the  order  owes  to  him  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  important  colleges  of  Augsburg 
Munich,  and  Innsbruck,  and  its  spread  to  Polaod. 
When  at  the  height  of  his  successes  he  attended 
the  Council  of  Trent  in  1562.  And  yet  in  the  long 
run  he  did  not  retain  the  confidence  of  the  leadeis 
of  his  onler.  The  general  stopped  him  when  he 
was  on  the  point  of  preparing  a  third  volume  for 
the  refutation  of  the  *'  Centuries "  (De  potestak 
Petri  et  successorum).  His  last  achievement  was 
the  founding  of  a  new  college  at  Freiburg  in  Swit- 
zeriand.  K.  Benrath. 

Bibliography:  F.  Riess,  Der  tdioe  Petnu  Canuiw,  Frei- 
burg, 1865;  M.  P^iilippson,  La  Conire-Revolutian  niioievai, 
Bnis9el8«  1880;  l>clplace,  L'£tabliBaement  de  la  compoomt 
de  Jfnu  dans  Ue  Pays  Bae,  ib.  1887;  P.  Drews,  Pffrw 
Caniaiua,  der  erate  deuUche  Jesuit,  Halle.  1892;  Epi4^ 
et  acta  P.  Canisii,  ed.  O.  Bramuberger,  4  voIb.,  Freibuig, 
1896-1905. 

CANO,  ca'nd  (Canus),  MELCHIOR:    A  scholastic 
Dominican  of  the  University  of  Alcala;  b.  at  Ta- 
ranc6n  (38  m.  w    of  Cuenca),  Spain  [Jan.  1,  1509; 
d.   at  Toledo  Sept.   30,    1560].     He   t<x)k  part  in 
the  deliberations  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  espe 
ciaily    in    those    concerning   the   doctrine   of  the 
Eucharist,  opposing  the   efforts  made  at   the  in- 
stance of    the  emperor  Ferdinand   that  the  cup 
should   be  given   to   the  laity.     Ha\'ing  returned 
from  Trent,   Philip  II.   made  him  bishop  of  the 
Canaries,  without  residence  there,   as  he  became 
provincial  of  his  onler  in  Castile.     His  principal 
works    are:    Pralectiones    de    pctnitentia    and  Dt 
sncramentiji    (both     Salamanca,     1550),    and    his 
Loci  theohgici  (1563).  consisting  of  twelve  books 
about  the  sources  whence    doctrinal    proofs  may 
be  derived;  the  "  auihoritas  "  has  its  place  before 
the  *'  ratio,'*  and  the  principal  source  is  of  course 
tradition.     Although  an  opponent  of  the  Jesuits, 
Cano  was  a  thoroughgoing  papal  theologian,  and  he 
was  a  scholastic,  although  he  opposed  **  false"  scho- 
lasticism.    For  his  opposition  to  the  Jesuits  he  had 
to  suffer  denunciations  which  caused  his  dtation 
to  Home  in   1556  as  **  peniitionis  fihus,  Melchior 
Canus,  diabolicis  motus  suasionibus.  non  erubuit 
praxlicaro,    antichristum    venisse."     By  the  exer- 
tions of  the  Spanish  government  the  dtaticm  WM 
not  headed.     But  the  Loci  thcologici  were  placed 
on  the  Lisbon  index  in  1624,  and  were  much  altered 
by  the  expurgator.  K.  Benhath. 

Bibliography:  F.    H.    ReuBch,    Der   Index  der  rerbckM* 
Backer,  i.  303  et  pasaim.  Bonn,  1883;  T.  Gabollcro.  Co*- 


Canon  Luw 


QurraMi  iUuaina.  11.  JlfelcAior  Cano,  pp.  279,  382,  Madrid, 
1871. 

CANON;    A  word  used  in  a  variety  of  senses  in 

eocle^ia^tical  terminology,  all  more  or  less  related 

■o  the  primarj^  meaning  of  the  Greek  word  kfinoti, 

B^ft  stniight  rod  or  bar,  rule,  staridurtl/*     (I)  The 

^Bcii^ive  li&t  of  the  books  considered  ils  fonning  part 

^OT  the  Holy  Scriptures  («ce  Canox  of  S*:iiiPTiriiE). 

(2)  In  ancient  usiigL\  any  official  church  lii^t,  as  of 

those  who  were  to  be  conmiemorated  iu  the  liturgy, 

whence   the   term   canonizatiou,   or  of   the   clergy 

^iifiched  to  a  certain  church,  whence  (3)  A  mem- 

^■r  of  a  body  of  clergy  living  togetlicr  under  a 

^Kore  or  less  definite  rule  in   connection   with   t% 

cathedral  or  collegiate  church  or  in  a  quiLsimonaii- 

tic  organixation  as  canons  regnhir  (see  Cbapter; 

AUGtJSTlNl-\NS;     PltEMONSTRATENSlANS),         (4)  The 

deci'ec  or  decision  of  ii  council  for  tlie  regulation  of 
doctrine  or  discipline  (see  C-\^on  Law).  (5)  Tlie 
fixed,  most  important  portion  of  the  niai»s,  from 
the  Sanctus  to  the  Fatcr  noster,  (G)  In  tlie  h^TU- 
nology  of  the  Eastern  riinrch,  an  important  chis« 
of  long  and  elaborate  iiymn«  usually  sung  iu  the 
morning  office,  founded  mainly  on  tlie  Old  Testa- 
ment canticles  then  used,  and  composed  of  either 
eight  or  nine  odes. 

CANONESS:  A  member  of  a  company  of  women 

teier  the  rule  of  an  abbe^ii  and  boutul  by  vows  of 
bacy  and  obedience,  but  not  by  one  of  pov- 
erty. Some  canonetises  were  ''  secular.*'  und  the 
bouses  they  hved  in  were  hornet  for  ladies  uf  the 
nobility;  but  others  were  '*rehj^ir>us '^  and  hvetl  in 
nunneries  of  the  Benedictine  or  Auga^tuiian  order. 
Few  of  these  estabhshinents  iiur\ived  the  Refor- 
mation, and  their  inmates  generally  became  Prot- 
eiitants.  Some  of  the  houne.s  became  Protestant 
homes  for  noble  Indies,  as  those  at  llandersheim, 
Herford,  and  Quedhnburg  in  Germany. 

CANON  LAW, 


L  Defmition»ndGeoerttl  Dis- 


tL  Collectiofia  of  Cfeuioiia  and 
Decrat&b. 

I.   E*rl>*  History. 
2t  kir^t  Cihfiti ctktin n . 

Hitmi  Western  CoUp»^- 
liuits. 

he  Quf^nt^Uiana  ( |  1  K 
iThe  Fri,*m  (i'J). 
|l^uUt'CU(Jti«  of  DiouyNiu} 

iKriLi  period,   by  Cottii* 
trin 


Africa  (in. 
Spain  (}2). 
Britif^h  Isleii  (£  3). 
FrankiMh  Empire  (§  4), 
Further  Syst<!tnati»atic>n. 
Foncnmners  of  Grutiiin 

Gratian  ($2). 
Collections  of  Decretain, 
Befon?  Grcirory  IX.  (S  1). 
Or>l  lection      of     Gregory 

(§  2). 
Rupplfnient-*  to  Tt  (J  3). 
,   Corpus  Juris  Canonic i. 


_  law  is  the  sum  total  of  the  legal  enact- 
bts  of  the  Church- 
L  Definition  and  General  Discussion:  In  mod- 
em times  tlie  difTerences  between  \'arioiL!?  Cliristian 
Churches  have  brought  aUuit  a  variance  of  law. 
since  it  springs  in  the  first  instance  from  the  devel- 
opment of  the  ecclesiastical  eons citiu^n ess;  LUid 
it  is  thus  possible  to  sj»eak  of  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  canon  law.  While  the  expression  is 
most  commonly  used  in  connection  with  the  for^ 
mer,  it  is  not  cjuite  coextensive  or  identical  with 
the  Inw  of  tlie  lioraan  Catholic  Church,  but  desig- 
nates rather  the  content  of  the  Corpus  juris  canonici 
(see  below,  II.,  7),  in   contrast  with    the     newer 


regulations  based  on  the  decisions  of  the  Coxincil 
of  Trent,  the  concordats  and  bulls  of  circumscrip- 
tion of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  the  Vatican 
Coaneil.  These  Iiave  in  many  particulars  iiiothfit^ 
or  superseded  the  older  law,  ujitil  a  new  codifica- 
tion of  the  whole  m.iss  of  enactments  has  become 
nece^jwary,  and  is  now  contemplated  unrler  the 
direction  of  Pope  Pius  X, 

The  canon  law,  in  the  sense  thus  fwtsigned  to  the 
tenn»  contains  a  large  number  of  regulations  per- 
taining to  matters  wliich,  according  t<j  modern 
constitutions,  have  been  withdrawn  from  eccle- 
siastical juristliction  ;uid  phiccd  under  the  ordinary 
secultir  tribunals.  These  provisions  have  thus 
ceas<id  to  be  operative.  They  include  the  relations 
between  Church  rmd  State,  the'  legal  status  of 
heretics,  cedes iastlcid  jurisdiction,  etc.  The  Ro- 
man Catliolic  Church,  it  is  true,  still  maintains  in 
theory  the  permanent  vahdity  of  these  enactments, 
and  claims  the  same  preeminent  power  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  State  as  it  possassed  in  tlie  Midille 
Ages,  Since  the  Reformation  and  the  ui>building 
uf  modern  nationalities,  howcv^er,  the  principle  of 
the  unity  of  jurisdiction  and  t!ie  authority  of  the 
law  luts  proved  irreconcihible  with  these  claims.  The 
freethiui  mni  independence  eoncedixl  to  the  Church 
in  the  onlering  of  its  own  internal  altairs  by  no 
means  involves  the  absolute  supremacy  and  validily 
of  the  canon  hiw  when  it  comes  into  conflict  with 
the  civil  law,  or  rele;ises  the  ecdesiiustieal  author- 
ities from  their  res[Hjnsibility  and  their  obi'dience 
to  tlic  State;  for  the  free^lom  of  the  Church,  like 
all  other  fi-eedom  in  the  modern  world,  ir,  a  free- 
dom witliin  tlie  bounds  of  tlie  law.  But  while  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  apjieals  to  divine  mi^SHion 
and  inalienable  rights  in  support  of  its  protest 
against  these  limitations,  and  has  occasionally 
provoked  serious  conflicts  by  insist<!nce  u|>ou  its 
position  in  tliis  matter.  Protestantism  from  tlie 
very  start  took  a  much  more  restricted  view  of  the 
extent  of  ecclesiastical  operations  and  of  the  au- 
thority of  its  own  laWj  sometimes,  where  it  is 
cstabll.slied,  working  directly  with  the  State,  but 
always  stibmitting  without  quest iou  to  civil  ordi- 
nances. The  difference  is  seen  again  in  the  fact 
tliat  while  Roman  Catholicism  recognizes  only 
one  Church,  and  thus  only  one  vahd  church  law, 
Protest; uit ism,  though  holding  its  own  interpre- 
tation of  the  Christian  fuith  for  the  true  one,  does 
not  claim  exclusi\re  jurisdiction  over  all  creatures, 
and  c once* lea  Xa}  the  %'arious  bodies  wluch  it  con- 
ceives as  fornung  an  invisible  unity  the  right  to 
their  own  independent  action  in  matters  of  legis- 
lalion* 

Canon  law,  the  outcome  of  the  Church's  devel- 
opment, rest^  upon  |>ositive  enactment,  and  the 
attempt  to  construct  a  natural  ecclesiastical  law 
on  rational  principles  must  necessarily  fail,  setting 
as  it  does  arbitrary  and  subjective  views  in  plaee 
of  the  positive  data  of  church  histoo'*  A  philo- 
so|)liiral  treatment  of  church  law  is,  on  the  tvther 
hanil,  of  great  importance.  It  grasps  in  their 
entirety  the  fundamental  principles  on  which  as 
a  basis  the  actual  development  hfus  taken  place, 
correlates  them  with  the  objective  conceptions 
and  principles  of  tlie  Church  itself,  imd  in  this  way 


Canon  Law 


tiil:  new  schaff-herzog 


888 


discovers  not  only  the  errors  and  deviations  but 
the  inevitable  tendencies  and  direction  of  the  de- 
velopment. In  modem  times,  since  the  delimita- 
tion of  the  boundary  between  Church  and  State, 
doubt  hiia  been  cast  u\Hm  the  independence  of  the 
church  law,  as  if  there  could  be  no  law  without 
the  action  of  the  State,  and  what  passed  for  law 
outside  this  action  was  only  an  ethical  standanl, 
not  a  juridical.  The  law  of  the  State,  however, 
in  its  essence,  in  a  product  not  so  much  of  the  State 
as  of  the  national  consciousness  of  what  is  just, 
and  really  precedes  rather  than  follows  the  opera- 
tion of  the  State;  its  standards  do  not  have  to 
wait  for  sanction  until  the  State  declares  its  readi- 
ness to  enforce  them  by  pains  and  penalties.  The 
Church  as  a  distinct  moral  order  is  qualified  to 
regulate  and  develop  its  own  internal  functions 
and  institutions  of  its  own  motion.  It  is  true  that 
until  recently  Protestant  churches  have  to  a  large 
extent  been  organized,  especially  in  England  and 
Germany,  by  secular  legislation;  but  this  state 
of  things  is  really  an  anomalous  one,  not  corre- 
sponding to  the  essential  idea  and  meaning  of  the 
Church.  The  result  of  the  modem  settlement 
has  been  in  most  cases  to  leave  the  Church  free 
to  develop  independently  its  own  system,  without 
the  need  of  any  special  permission  or  privilege  from 
the  State  in  order  to  give  such  regulations  the  force 
of  law  within  the  Church.  Its  members  realize 
that  they  are  bound  to  the  fulfilment  of  such  or- 
dinances becAiLsc  they  have  come  into  being  in 
a  regular  and  legal  manner,  and  so  long  as  they 
are  not  rci>ealed  in  the  same  manner.  This  obli- 
gation is  not  a  mere  matter  of  conscience,  but  rests 
on  a  basis  of  positive  law,  because  the  standards 
of  action  imposed  by  it  are  the  expression  of  the 
will  of  the  Church  in  its  corporate  capacity.  Nor 
docs  the  Church  lack  means  to  enforce  obedience 
by  the  withdrawal  of  blessings  which  it  alone  is 
empowered  to  impart  and  equally  empowered  to 
witlihold.  According  to  the  Protestant  conception, 
it  is  true,  the  binding  force  of  ecclesiastical  regu- 
lations is  to  a  prc.'it  extent  dependent  upon  the  will 
of  the  individual  to  he  and  remain  a  member  of  the 
church   fellowship.  E.  Sehlinq. 

n.  Collections  of  Canons  and  Decretals. — 1.  Early 
History:  In  the  first  three  centuries  the  term  canon 
was  applio<l  to  the  standard  of  right  living  accepted 
in  the  Church,  resting  partly  on  written  and  partly 
on  oral  tradition.  When  the  synods,  especially 
the  general  ones,  became  the  main  agents  in  the 
development  of  church  life,  their  decisions  on  points 
of  practise  were  also  known  as  canons — though 
this  name  was  not  usually  applied  to  the  decrees 
of  local  synwis  until  the  sixth  century,  after  their 
incliLsion  in  the  great  and  widely  circulated  col- 
lections nad  given  them  a  status  and  an  authority 
in  a  mejisure  analogous  to  those  of  the  ecumenical 
councils.  With  the  development  of  the  primatial 
jKjwer  of  the  pope,  the  name  came  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century  to  be  applied  also  to  liis 
decrees,  and  finally  its  use  was  extended  in  medi- 
eval t-erminology  to  any  ecclesiastical  enactment. 
The  collections  of  canons  w^ere  made  up  at  first 
of  the  decrees  of  coimcils  and  of  popes;  later  col- 
lections include,  in  addition  to  these,  excerpts  from 


the  Fathers,  from  letters  and  regulations  of  bidiops, 
from  Scripture,  and  even  from  Roman  law,  Frank- 
ish  capitularies,  and  ordinances  of  German  em- 
perors. The  Council  of  Trent  employed  the  iroid 
exclusively  for  dogmatic  propositions  couched  in 
juridical  form  and  followed  by  an  anathema. 

2.  First  OodifLoation:  During  the  primitive  age 
of  the  Church,  when  its  constitution  and  disripline 
rested  quite  simply  upon  the  precepts  of  dirirt 
and  the  Apostles,  and  the  new  problems  which  were 
later  to  make  the  Christian  life  more  complicated 
had  not  yet  come  up,  there  was  no  need  for  a  cod- 
ification of  the  laws.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  tliat  the  so-called  Apostolic  Constitutions  and 
Canons  (q.v.)  are  the  product  of  a  later  age.  Tlie 
systematic  formulation  of  law  began  with  the  closer 
organization  of  the  Church  and  the  holding  of 
synods.  The  earliest  mention  of  a  Codex  eanonum 
is  found  in  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(451),  at  which  certain  canons  were  read  to  the 
assembly  from  a  collection.  These,  though  num- 
bered consecutively  in  the  collection,  can  be  iden- 
tified as  the  sixth  of  Nicaea  (325)  and  the  fourth, 
fifth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  of  Antioch  (332). 
This  collection,  accordingly,  seems  to  have  con- 
tained the  canons  of  several  councils,  beginning 
with  the  twenty  of  Nictea  and  possibly  closing 
with  those  of  Antioch,  including  between  these 
twenty-five  of  Ancjrra  (314),  fourteen  of  Neo- 
csBsarea  (314),  and  twenty  of  Gangra  (c.  365). 
There  were  undoubtedly  other  collections  known 
in  this  period;  one,  which  is  still  recognizable  in 
the  oldest  Western  Latin  version,  which  omitted 
the  canons  of  Antioch;  others  which  included 
those  of  Laodicea  (between  347  and  381),  Con- 
stantinople (381),  and  Chalcedon  (451);  and  still 
others  which  had  also  those  of  Sardica  (347)  and 
Ephesus  (431).  There  is,  however,  no  basis  for 
the  supposition  that  either  the  collection  read  from 
at  the  Council  at  Chalcedon  or  any  other  of  these 
collections  had  an  official  character. 

3.  Earliest  Western  Collections:  Of  these  Greek 
canons,  only  those  of  Nicaea  were  at  first  aocept«i 
in  the  West,  and  those  of  Sardica  in  the  Latin 
original.  As  early  as  the  fifth  century,  howe^T^. 
there  were  collections  here  also  of  Greek  canons 
in  a  Latin  version,  through  which  the  Eastern 
decrees  gradually  acquired  authority.  Of  these 
three  deserve  special  mention.      (1)  The  Isidorian 

version,  incorrectly  so  called  because 
I.  The     it  is  found  in  the  great  collection  long 
Quesne/-     ascribed  to  Isidore   of  Seville,  is  the 
liana.        oldest.     It  seems   to   have    included 
originally  only  the  canons  comprised 
in  the  oldest  Greek  collection,  to  which  those  of 
Antioch,  Laodicea,  and  Constantinople  were  added 
later.    It  was  probably  made  in  Italy;   its  date 
can  not  be  determined,  but  its  version  of  the  Nicene 
canons  was  known  in  Gaul  as  eariy  as  439.    It  was 
first   published  in    1675  by  Paschasius  Quesnell, 
from  a  manuscript  at  Oxford  of  a  collection  appar- 
ently made  in  Gaul  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century. 
(2)  The  Veraio  priscOf  made  in  Italy  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fifth  century,  which  contains  the  e»n(sa 
of  Ancyra,  Neocsesarca,  Nicsea,  Antioch,  Gangrn, 
Constantinople,  and  Chalcedon;    frequent  use  was 


983 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


GaAon  Xiftw^ 


made  of  it  for  the  completion   of  the  Isidorian 
version  and  for  other  collections,  especially  Italian, 

It  was  first  publkhetl  by  Jui^teau  in 
3.  The  the  Bttdiotheca  juris  ajnonici  from 
Ptiaca.      an    imperfect  manuscript,   then  more 

fully  and  accurately  by  the  Ballerini 
brothers.  (3)  Tiiat  made  by  Dionysiys  ExiguUH, 
pTiobably  in  Korae  at  the  end  of  tlie  fifth  ecntur\% 
and  revised  early  in  the  sixth.     It  contains  fifty 

"apostolic  canons";  those  of  Nicani, 
3.  Collec-  Ancy ra ,  Neoca?8area ,  G an gra ,  Ant ioch , 
tionB  of  Laoilicea,  and  Conatantinople  from  a 
Dtonytius.  Greek  collection;  frnm  anollier  twenty- 
seven  of  Clialcedon  in  a  new  version; 
tweoty-one  of  Sardica  in  the  Latin  original;  and  the 
acts  of  the  Synod  of  Carthiigi^  (419).  Somewhat 
later,  probably  under  Pope  SjTnmachiis  (49S-514), 
Dionyaius  made  another  collection  of  al!  the  decrees 
of  popes  known  to  him*  including  thotk.'  of  Siricius. 
Innocent  I.,  Zosimus,  Boniface  I.,  C^lesline  I., 
Leo  L,  Gelafiins  1*,  and  AnastiusitiK  IL  Of  0  third 
collection  made  by  onier  of  Pope  Hormisdas 
(514— 523) t  and  containing  the  ori^nal  text  of 
Greek  canons  with  a  I^atin  vernion,  only  the 
prologue  is  extant.  The  first  two,  however, 
combinetl  into  one,  »oon  ac<]uircd  preeminent 
consideration;  Cassiodorus  (d,  530)  sayn  that  they 
were  universjdly  preferred  in  the  Roman  church 
of  his  time;  they  were  used  in  Africa,  the  Franki^^h 
church,  Spain,  England,  and  Ireland,  They  were 
supplemented  in  course  of  time  by  the  dccretale 
of  Hilary,  Simplicius,  Felix,  Syrnmachus,  Hormis- 
das,  and  Gregory  11.  A  codex  tlius  enlarged  was 
presented  by  Adrian  IL  to  Charlemagne  in  774; 
this  was  taken*  after  the  CopituLire  erclemaMitum 
of  789,  as  the  basis  of  the  Frankiah  cniyitiilaries, 
and  probably  sanctioned  at  the  8jTiod  of  Aachen 
in  802  as  the  officiid  c*ide  of  the  Frankish  church, 
4«  Kezt  Period,  by  Countrien:  The  canonical 
collections  of  the  succeeding  period  may  mo»t 
conveniently  l>e  grouped  under  their  respective 
oountries.  In  Africa  discipline  rested  primarily 
on  tlie  decrees    of    home  councilB,  special    weight 

being  given  to  the  Synod  of  Carthage 
I*  Africa,    in  419,  with  whr*ae  act^s  those  of  the 

sjTiods  held  under  Aurelius  from  393 
were  incorporated.  These  are  the  canons  Included, 
though  imperfectly,  in  the  collection  of  Dionysius; 
they  were  later  translated  int-o  Greek  and  received 
into  Oriental  collections.  Of  other  African  col- 
lections only  two  require  special  mention — that 
made  before  546  by  Fulgentius  Ferranduft,  a  Car- 
thaginian deacon,  under  the  name  of  Breinatm 
eanonum,  containing  some  of  the  Greek  canons  in 
the  Isidorian  version  and  African  canons  down  to 
523,  and  the  Concardia  canonum,  compiled  c*690  (?) 
by  Cresconiufl,  possibly  a  bishop. 

Spain  had  its  collections  of  canons  and  decretals 
m  the  sixth  centur>%  as  is  shown  by  the  acts  of  the 

Council  of  Braga  in  503  and  the  Thial 
2.  Spain,    of  Toledo   in   679,     The  enforcement 

of  order  and  discipline  required  a 
completer  codification,  and  a  large  collection  »H"em,^ 
to  have  been  made  at  the  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo 
(633).  By  later  a*lditions  it  acquired  the  fomi  in 
tich  it  is  now  printed  (Madrid,  1808).     Its  first 


or  conciliar  part  contains  the  Greek  canons  found 
in  the  Isidorian  version,  those  of  Sardica,  those  of 
the  Third  Qiuncil  of  Constantinople  (081),  and 
two  Ivttcra  of  Cyril  under  the  name  of  the  Council 
of  Ephesus;  nine  African  coimcils;  sixteen  Gallic 
councils,  from  314  to  549;  and  thirty-six  Spanish* 
from  3U5  (?)  to  094.  In  this  last  division,  to  the 
canons  of  the  Second  Council  of  Braga  m  appended 
a  collection  made  by  Martin,  archbishop  of  Braga, 
a  nativu  of  Pannonia  (d,  about  5S<3),  by  free  trans- 
lation and  Btlection  of  Greek,  African,  Gallic,  and 
Spanish  canons.  The  second  part  contains  decre- 
tals of  the  popes  from  Damasus  to  Gregory  I.,  in- 
cluding all  that  Dionysius  had  placed  in  his.  The 
compiler  of  this  great  collection^  usually  cited  as 
Hi^pana,  is  unknown.  There  is  no  e\Hdence  to 
show  that  Isidore  of  Seville  had  any  direct  hand  in 
it;  his  nimae  was  first  connected  with  it  by  the 
compiler  of  the  False  Decret:ds,  who  incorporated 
the  older  and  genuine  collection  with  them. 

In  the  British  Isles  the  Celtic  church  deve!t*pc<l 
a  disciplinary  system  of  its  own  In  synotis  of  whose 
proceedings  scarcely  anything  hivs  been  preserved. 
l*^or  certain  fifth-  and  sixth -century  canons  of  a 
pcnitentiiil  nature*  see  Penitential  Books. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  church  In  like  manner  relied 
for  a  long  time  on  its  own  legislative  resources, 
though  the  collection  of  Dionysius 
3,  British  was  known  here  in  the  seventh  century. 
Isles.  Except  the  penitential  ordinances  of 
Tlieodore,  Bede,  and  Egbert,  no 
Anglo-Saxon  canons  are  extant-  There  is,  however, 
aii  Irish  collection  of  the  seventh  century  or  begin- 
ning of  the  eighth,  compiled  in>m  Scripture,  the 
Fathers,  numerous  Greek,  African,  GaUic,  Spanish, 
and  Irish  synods,  and  papal  decretals.  The  large 
number  of  Irish  canons  gives  a  specially  interesting 
insiglit  into  the  conditions  of  church  life  there. 

Tlic  Frankish  empire,  before  the  period  mentioned 
above,  possessed  a  number  of  collections  of  Greek, 
Gallic,  and  Sijanish  canons  and  papal  decretals, 
which,  however,  need  no  detailed  consideration. 
Besides  the  enlarged  Dionysian  cDllcction,  the 
Htsprina  Wiia  also  known  at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century,  antl  was  usetl  to  ct»mplete  the  Codex  sent 
by  Adrian.  The  large  extent  of  tliis  material  and 
its  lack  of  chronological  arrangement  soon  broug!it 
about  attempt-a  at  selection  and  sj^stematic  arrange- 
ment, which  were  frequent  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries,  and  of  which  some  ileserve 
4.  Frankisli  special   mention.     (I)  A   collection  in 

Empire.  381  chapters,  sometimes  found  inde- 
pendently, sometimes  as  a  fourth  book 
to  the  canonical  work  erroneously  ascribed  to 
Archbishop  Egbert  of  York.  It  dates  from  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century,  and  is  importajit  be- 
cause of  the  use  made  of  it  by  Begin o  (see  below, 
5)  and  of  the  help  which  it  gives  toward  explain- 
ing a  number  of  erroneous  titles  wliich  passe<l  over 
into  this  and  the  Decreta  of  Burchartl  and  Gratian. 
(2)  The  Coihxfio  Acheriana,  so  calletl  from  its 
fi.rst  publisher  D'Ach^rj',  extant  in  numerous  manu- 
scripts and  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  eighth  or 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  Its  cimons,  divi- 
ded into  three  books,  are  taken  witliout  exception 
from  Adrian's  edition  of  Dionysius  and  from  the 


Oanozi  Law 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


884 


Hispana,  (3)  The  Penitential  of  Halitgar  of  Cam- 
brai,  compiled  between  817  and  831  at  the  request 
of  Archbishop  Ebbo  of  Reims.  Of  its  five  books 
the  first  two  are  taken  from  the  writings  of  Gregory 
I.  and  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  while  the  larger  part 
of  the  last  three,  as  well  as  the  prologue,  come 
from  the  two  collections  just  named,  especially  the 
second.  All  three  of  these  collections  are  con- 
structed with  sp>ecial  regard  to  the  penitential  sys- 
tem of  the  time;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  col- 
lections made  by  Rabanus  Maurus,  particularly 
the  Liber  pcpnitentium  ad  Otgarium  of  841  and  the 
Epistola  ad  Heribaldum  of  853,  the  main  purpose 
of  which  is  to  restore  the  ancient  discipline  by 
appeals  to  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  the  old 
canons  and  decretals.  A  somewhat  similar  char- 
acter is  seen  in  the  Capitula  episcoporum,  or  small 
collections  made  by  individual  bishops,  sometimes 
with  the  assent  of  diocesan  synoils,  for  the  regu- 
lation of  their  own  subjects,  usually  from  larger 
works,  but  occasionally  including  their  own  edicts 
and  the  provisions  of  local  law. 

6.  Further  Systematization:  The  great  influ- 
ence of  the  secular  power  on  ecclesiastical  action 
in  the  Carolingian  period  tended  to  add  to  the 
earlier  church  law  a  large  amount  of  material,  fre- 
quently covering  matters  of  church  discipline,  in 
the  capitularies  of  the  Prankish  kings.  EfTorts  at 
systematization  were  soon  called  forth  in  this  field 
also  by  practical  needs.  The  first  was  that  of 
Abbot  Aiisegis,  which,  however,  as  it  contains 
nothing  but  capitularies,  does  not  need  further  con- 
sideration here.  It  is  different  from  the  work 
which  Benedict  Levita  of  Mainz  compiled  in  three 
books.  Its  purpose,  according  to  him,  was  the 
completion  of  the  work  of  Ansegis,  but  the  im- 
p)erial  laws  form  only  a  small  part  of  its  cont^jnts, 
which  are  far  more  largely  taken  from  the  Bible, 
the  Fathers,  the  ancient  canons,  with  Roman 
statute  and  German  common  law.  The  sj>ecial  in- 
terest of  this  collection  is  the  relation  in  which  it 
stands,  or  has  been  thought  to  stand,  tothePseudo- 
Isidorian  Decretals  (q.v.). 

Between  the  ninth  and  twelfth  centuries  a  large 
number  of  compilations  came  into  being,  with  the 
purpose  of  bringing  the  wealth  of  material  scat- 
tered  throughout   the  older  works  into  practical 
relation  with  the  more  modem  ecclesiastical  prin- 
ciples.    Unlike    the   smaller    collections   described 
above,  which  usually  served  rather  local  interests, 
these  are  as  a  rule  of  considerable  size  and  suf- 
ficiently general  to  be  used  outside  the  limits  of 
the   diocese    in   which    they   originate.     Some   of 
them  attained  a  wide  currency  imd  no  little  prac- 
tical importance;    but  only  a  few  of  them  need 
be  mentioned  for  the  purpose  of  this  article.  (1)  The 
as    yet    unpublished    Colleclio    Ansel  mo    dcdicata, 
taking  its  name  from  an  Archbishop  Anselm,  prob- 
ably Anselm  II.  of  Milan   (883-897). 
I.  Fore-     It   is   certainly  Italian   in   origin;  its 
runners     material  is  taken  partly  from  Adrian's 
of  Gratian.  edition  of  Dionysius  enlargetl  by  the 
addition  of  Carthaginian,  Gallic,  and 
Spanish   councils    from   the  Ilispana,   and   partly 
from  the  False  Decretals,  the  Registrvm  of  Gregory 
I.,  two  Roman  synods  under  Zacharias  (743)  and 


Eugenius  II.  (826),  the  laws  of  Justinian,  and  the 
NovellcB  of  Julian — though  probably  this  last  part 
was  interpolated  afterward.  It  is  important  not 
only  as  being  the  first  to  make  a  thorough  use  of 
the  code  of  Justinian,  but  as  being  the  source  of 
a  large  part  of  the  Decretum  of  Burchard,  and 
through  it  of  that  of  Gratian.  (2)  The  Ltbri  duo 
de  cattais  synodalibua  et  discipHnis  eccladasticis.  ocm- 
piled  by  Regino,  abbot  of  Priim  about  906,  at  the 
request  of  Rathbod,  archbishop  of  Treves,  to  be 
used  by  him  and  his  representatives  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  diocese.  This  work,  interesting  as 
another  source  of  Burchard's  as  well  as  for  its  im- 
mediate relation  to  the  synodal  courts  and  the 
practise  of  its  time,  was  later  enlarged,  revised, 
and  borrowed  from  in  a  whole  scries  of  similar 
collections.  (3)  The  Decretum  {Liber  decretman, 
Collectarium)  of  Bishop  Burchard  of  Worms,  com- 
piled between  1012  and  1023.  The  important 
material  contained  in  its  twenty  books  embraces 
the  whole  range  of  church  discipline  and  order. 
A  peculiarity  of  Burchard  is  that  he  frequently 
ascribes  canons  of  councils  and  excerpts  from  Ro- 
man law,  the  capitularies,  or  p>enitential  ordinances 
to  one  of  the  older  popes  or  councils,  evidently 
with  the  view  of  assuring  their  reception  as  autho^ 
itative — thus  misleading  later  compilers,  especially 
Gratian.  (4)  The  CoUectio  duodecim  partium,  still 
unprintcd;  apparently  made  by  a  German  very 
soon  after  the  completion  of  Burchard 's.  Theiner, 
who  was  the  first  to  call  attention  (in  liisDiagw- 
sitionea  criticce,  Rome,  1836)  to  the  importance  of 
this  collection,  was  under  the  erroneous  impresaioD 
that  it  was  a  source  of  Burchard's;  but  the  relation 
is  exactly  the  reverse.  It  contains,  however,  a 
number  of  interesting  Prankish  and  German  canons, 
some  of  them  probably  copied  directly  from  the 
original  documents.  (5)  The  collection  of  Bishop 
Anselm  of  Lucca  (d.  1086),  which  was  incorporated 
almost  bodily  in  the  Decretum  Gratiani,  and  which 
contains  a  number  of  papal  decretals  not  preriously 
known,  and  probably  taken  from  the  Roman  ar- 
chives. (0)  The  collection  of  Cardinal  Deusdedit, 
dedicated  to  Pope  Victor  III.  (108G-87),  in  four 
books,  of  which  the  last  deals  with  the  freedom 
of  the  Church  from  secular  interference,  and  thus 
introduces  an  element  new  to  these  collectioni 
The  ample  use  made^of  the  Lateran  arehives  gi\'e3 
a  special  interest  to  his  collection,  much  of  which 
is  also  in  Gratian.  (7)  and  (8)  are  two  collections 
attributed  to  Bishop  Ivo  of  Chartres  (d.  1117}— 
the  Decretum  in  seventeen  books  and  the  Panm- 
mia  in  eight.  The  relation  of  these  two  works  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy;  and  if  Ivo's 
authorship  of  the  Pannormia,  at  one  time  often 
denied,  is  now  considered  certain,  the  Decretm, 
on  the  other  liand,  has  been  recently  thought  not 
to  be  his.  Both,  however,  were  abundantly  drawn 
upon  by  Gratian,  as  was  also,  though  not  to  the  same 
extent,  another  unpublished  collection  (9),  known 
under  the  name  of  Collectio  trium  partium.  Its 
first  part  contains  papal  decretals  down  to  Urban 
II.  (d.  1099)  in  chronological  order,  though  not 
complete;  the  second,  canons  of  councils,  aimilaiiy 
arranged;  the  tliird,  a  separate  collection  of  canons 
taken  from  the  Decretum  of  Ivo.     (10)  A  woik 


RELIGTOTTS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oanon  Law 


Cmreclores  Romani  (see 
is  that  eompiied  hy  a  certain  Caniinal 
^gorj*  in  1144.  prmcipally  from  the  two  collt^c- 
Ha  Ansclmi  ami  Ann^lmo  dvdicata.  It  is  usually 
mI  as  Polycarpu^,  from  the  designation  given 
it  by  the  compiler  himself  in  his  preface,  ad- 
vaed  to  Bishop  Didacus  of  Composteila. 
rhese  collect  ions,  from  such  diverse  countries 
1  periods,  had  many  defects  when  it  came  to  a 
Eation  of  pmctieiil  use.  There  was  no  sort  of  gen- 
1  arrangement^  but  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  uni- 
«al  and  loeal  law  were  inextricably  mixcxl  up; 
crepanciefi  and  eontrailictions  were  nuinerouu; 
ny  regulations  liad  become  obsolete,  and  been 
laced  in  actual  practise  by  others.  There  was 
I  great  need  for  the  compilation  of  a  new 

BratlaiL  work  wliich  should  give  a  com  pre- 
I  hcnsive  survey  of  the  law^  that  was  in 

m  Thia  was  undertaken  by  Gratian,  a  brother 
Ibe  Camaldolite  monastery  of  St,  Felix  at  Bo- 
Da.  Itetiveen  1139  and  1142  he  compiled  a 
rk  entitletl  Concordaniia  discofdantium  canonum, 
mgh  since  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  it  Ima 
lally  been  known  simply  as  the  DecrHum  Gro- 
iw.  It  is  composed  principally  of  the  material 
Lnd  in  (3)  and  (5)  to  (10)  of  the  works  nametl 
the  last  section,  and  is  divided  into  three  parts, 
e  first  twenty  •*  distinctions  "  in  the  first  part 
itain  projxysitious  as  to  the  sources  of  laWj  wliich 
attan  designates  as  a  treatise  on  decretals, 
lowed  by  other  treatises  on  qualifications  for  ordi- 
tkm,  on  ordination,  and  on  ecclesiastical  promo- 
tL  The  second  part,  though  other  subjects  occa- 
nally  come  in»  is  mainly  devoted  to  ecclesiastical 
isdiction,  offenses,  and  legal  proceedings,  dcal- 
l  ia  the  last  nine  c<ius(^  with  the  law  of  matri- 
Joy,  with  a  separate  treatise  on  penance  put  into 
ft  Ihirty-tlunl.  The  luiit  part,  entitled  ''  Of  con- 
Sf»tion»"  deals  with  religious  functions,  and  e^^pe- 
»lly  the  sacraments,  in  five  distinctions.  The 
Uure  most  characteristic  of  the  work  as  a  whole 
that  Gratian  did  not  content  himself  with  col- 
iting  canons  to  illiLstrate  and  enforce  the  prin- 
ipi  to  which  they  related  and  arranging  them 
W  a  certain  rather  unsatisfactory  system,  but 
the  first  two  parts  himself  elucidated  these  prin- 
►les  in   (gunerally  .short)  explanations  to  wldch 

Esended  the  canons  as  pitce^  justijicatives.     In 
dictti  of  his  the  attempt  is  fn^quently  \'isil>le 
)ncilc  or  eliminate  the  diserepanciea  appearing 
the  canons  as  they  stand, 

Hje  extent  to  w^hich  the  Decrelum,  m  spite  of  all 
defects,  met  a  practical  want  of  its  day  is  seen 
the  approval  and  currency  wliich  it  attained. 
€  older  collections  were  auperseded  hy  it;  the 
fk  which  Cardinal  Laborans  put  together  in 
S2,  containing  much  the  same  material  with  a 
Jly  better  arrangetnent,  failed  to  attract  at  ten- 
0.  The  wide  popularity  of  Gratian's  work  is 
■•explained  partly  by  the  fact  that  it  apj>eanxi 
Btime  when  Bologna  was  the  headquarters  for 
Bliidy  of  law.  The  laborious  acti\ity  of  the 
Wof»  of  the  Roman  law  afforded  a  mode!  for 
ripplication  of  the  same  learned  mcthoti  to 
itian's  nmterial.  He  himself  lectured  upon  it, 
bus  became  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of 

n.— 25 


canonists  wlm,  in  addition  to  their  lectures,  like 
the  civil  jurists,  expoimded  separate  passages  of 
the  Decrctum  by  gIos.ses  or  commentaries  (see 
GunssES  AND  Gix>8ftATOfts  OF  Canon  Law).  In 
this  way  it  became  known  far  and  wide;  and  its 
authority  was  further  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  the  popes  made  use  of  it  and  cited  it.  It  was 
never^  indeed*  expressly  confirmed  by  any  pop^,  or 
receivctl  in  the  Church  aa  an  official  codex;  but 
the  influence  of  the  university  insured  its  respect- 
ful acceptance  and  its  application  in  practise.  It 
was  not  long  before  others,  particularly  a  pupil  of 
G ration's  named  Paucapaleo^  added  canons  here 
and  there  to  make  it  more  complete — at  first  in 
the  form  of  marginal  glosses,  but  later  aa  a  part,  of 
the  text,  with  the  designation  Pakay  which  must 
have  referred  originally  to  the  above-named  scholar 
(though  other  interfiretiitions  have  been  attempted) 
and  then  have  been  adopted  as  a  st>ecific  term  for 
these  additions.  That  they  must  early  have  crept 
InUy  the  text  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  ma- 
jority of  them  are  accepted  in  the  work  of  Cardi- 
nal Laborans,  a  few  years  later. 

6.  Colldctlons  of  Decretal^:  Great  as  was  the 
popularity  and  the  practical  imfxirtance  which  the 
Decretum  acquired  at  the  outset,  it  appeared,  none 
the  lees,  in  a  jx-riod  chnnicterizt*d  by  great  legisla- 
tive activity  on  the  part  of  the  jwpes^  wlio  were  now 
approaching  the  height  of  their  power.  The  decre- 
tals issued  from  the  twelfth  century  on  contained 
an  extraordinary  wealth  of  new  materiid  for  eccle- 
siastical law,  which  in  many  particulars  altered  and 
further  developed  the  previous  dincipline  of  the 
Church;  and  thus  it  was  not  long  before  the  work 
of  Gratian,  Tvhich,  when  it  was  compiled,  represented 
practically  the  whole  extant  canon  law,  came  in* 
evitab!y  to  i>e  regarded  as  antjquatett  or  incom- 
plete, an<l  the  need  of  new  collections  was  felt. 
These,  because  they  were  com[3osed  almost  wholly 
of  papal  decrees  and  the  canons  of  councils  held 
under  the  pope*s  eye,  were  usually  know^n  a;3  col- 
kciiones  decrtUjlium. 

Of  such  collections  made  before  Gregory  IX., 
five  deserve  special  mention.  (1)  The  Breviarium 
exirai'oganiium^  compleieil  alxmt  1191  by  Bernard t 
dean  of  Pavia.  The  title  comes  from  the  fact  that 
the  laws  included  in  it*  principally  new  ones,  were 
such  as  were  not  found  in  the  Decretum,  but,  so  to 
si>eak,  wantlere<^l  about  homeless  (extra  Decretum 
iHjgantcs).  Bernard  took  his  materiid  partly  from 
some  older  collections,  of  which  he  names  explic- 
itly the  Corpus  canonum  (probably  the  CoUectw 
Ansclmo  dcdicata)  and  Burchard.  and  partly,  espe^ 
cialiy  for  the  newer  decretals,  from  collections  made 
after  Gratian,  In  the  division  and  arrangement 
of  his  workt  he  evidently  took  the  eode  of  Jus- 
tinian for  a  model.  The  first  book  deals  with  eccle- 
siastical offices  and  prerequisites  for  judgment;  the 
second,  with  judicial  tribunals  and  their  procedure; 
the  third,  with  the  clergy  and  relig- 
I,  Before  ious  orders;  the  fourth,  with  mar- 
Gregory  DC*  riage,  and  the  fifth  with  crime  and  its 
punishment.  The  work  was  accepted 
by  the  Bolognese  teachers,  and,  as  the  first  of  its 
kind,  became  known  as  Compihiio  prima.  (2)  By 
order  of  Innocent  III,  the  papal  notary  Petrm  Col- 


Oaaon  Law 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


886 


livacinus  of  Bencvento  made  a  collection  of  the  de- 
cretals of  that  pope,  issued  in  the  first  eleven  years  of 
his  pontificate,  to  1210,  based  upon  two  earlier  ones 
which  had  not  been  received  at  Bologna  because 
they  contained  unauthentic  documents.  Innocent, 
sending  the  new  work  to  the  universities,  guaranteed 
its  fidelity  to  the  Regeata,  thus  making  it  tlie  first 
codification  of  canon  law  expressly  authorized  by 
any  pope.  This  Compilatio  tertia,  as  it  is  called, 
marks  a  turning-point  in  the  history  of  canon  law. 
The  action  of  Honorius  III.,  and  still  more  of  Greg- 
ory IX.,  shows  how  the  development  of  ecclesias- 
tical law  had  by  their  time  become  an  exclusive 
privilege  of  the  pope.  (3)  Though  written  after 
the  last-named,  that  which  contains  the  decretals 
of  the  popes  from  Alexander  III.  to  Innocent  III. 
is  known  as  Compilatio  secunda  from  its  place  in  the 
chronological  order.  These  particular  decretals  had 
already  been  compiled  by  two  Englishmen  at 
Bologna,  Gilbert  and  Alan,  but  the  university  had 
not  approved  their  work,  and  it  was  now  done  over 
by  Johannes  Galensis  (John  the  Welshman),  his 
collection  being  accepted.  (4)  The  Lateran  Coun- 
cil of  1215  gave  occasion  for  another  compilation, 
known  as  Quarto ,  which  included  the  decrees  of 
the  council  and  the  papal  pronouncements  of  the 
years  following  1210.  Its  compiler  is  unknown. 
(5)  In  1226  Honorius  III.  sent  to  Bologna  a  col- 
lection of  his  own  decretals  and  the  constitutions 
of  Frederick  II.  It  was  accepted  as  Compilatio 
quintOf  but  was  soon  superseded,  with  the  other 
four,  by  the  official  collection  of  Gregory  IX. 

In  1230  Gregory  entrusted  his  chaplain  Raymond 
of  Pefiaforte  with  the  preparation  of  a  new  collec- 
tion which  should  reduce  all  that  had  gone  before 
to  a  consistent  and  intelligible  whole.  Raymond 
omitted  a  number  of  sections  from  the  older  com- 
pilations in  order  to  avoid  repetitions  or  discrep- 
ancies, revised  some  older  decretals  to 
2.  Collection  bring  them  into  harmony  with  the 
of  Gregory,  most  recent  legislation,  condensed 
some  long  documents,  and  divided 
others  into  parts  which  could  be  classified  by  their 
subjects.  This  compilation  was  sent  to  Bologna 
by  the  pope  in  1234  as  the  only  authorized  collection. 

The  legislative  activity  of  the  succeeding  popes 
soon  made  supplements  necessary,  which  were  sent 
by  them  to  the  universities  as  separate  compilations, 
but  were  intended  to  be  added  to  the  Gregorian 
collection.  Thus  Innocent  IV.  in  1245  sent  to 
Bologna  and  Paris  a  list  of  the  initial  words  of  his 
bulls,  desiring  that  they,  as  well  as  the  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Lyons,  should  be  inserted  in  their 
proper  places  in  the  decretals  of  Gregory  IX.; 
thus  too  the  decretals  of  Alexander  IV.,  Urban  IV., 
and  Clement  IV.  were  put  together  in  special  col- 
lections. Gregory  X.  communicated  to  the  univer- 
sities the  acts  of  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons  (1274), 
and  the  same  was  done  with  a  collection  of  five 
decretals  of  Nicholas  III. 

The  same  reasons  which  had  influenced  Gregory 
IX.  induced  Boniface  VIII.  to  combine  all  the  post- 
Gregorian  decretals  with  his  own  numerous  bulls 
into  a  single  whole.  In  his  bull  of  publication 
addressed  to  the  universities  of  Bologna  and  Paris, 
he  emphasized  the  uncertainty  which  had  prevailed 


in  regard  to  the  authenticity  of  aome  decretab,  lo 
eliminate  which  he  had  had  a  thorough  reviaoo  and 

verification  made.  He  promulgitod 
3.  Supple-  the  new  compilation  in  1298  under  tht 
ments  to  It  name  of  Liber  aextus,  as  being  a  eoo- 

pletion  of  the  five  books  of  the  (In- 
gorian  collection.  The  decretals  subsequently  it 
sued  by  Boniface  himself  (including  the  famoa 
bull  Unam  aanctam)  and  by  hiB8ucce88or,BeDedid 
XL,  sixteen  in  number,  were  frequently  wpupaM 
to  the  Liber  aextuSf  though  without  offidal  authoiity. 
Clement  V.  had  the  decisions  of  the  Council  «f 
Vienne  (1311)  and  his  own  decretals  collected  (l^ 
cording  to  the  traditional  system)  into  five  boob^ 
which  he  promulgated  in  1313,  apparently  under 
the  title  of  Liber  aeptimua,  and  sent  to  the  Umm^ 
sity  of  Orleans.  Then,  however,  be  stopped  iti 
further  circulation  and  had  it  revised,  bo  that  it 
was  sent  to  Paris  and  Bologna  only  by  lua  sueces- 
sor  John  XXII.  in  1317.  This  collection  ultimateij 
became  known  as  the  Clementine  Constitutionfl. 
The  difference  between  it  and  the  other  po8t-<jie- 
gorian  compilations  was  that  while  they  had  boiu 
to  a  certain  extent  the  character  of  exdusive  oodei, 
it  did  not  exclude  the  other  Extravagantit  which 
had  appeared  since  the  Liber  sextus,  and  that  ik 
contained,  besides  the  canons  of  Yienne,  nothing 
but  Clement's  own  decretals. 

The  reason  for  this  abandonment  by  Qement  V. 
and  John  XXII.  of  the  system  of  their  predBoei> 
sors  was  the  difficult  situation  in  France,  and  the 
desire  to  avoid  provoking  a  rejection  of  their  eom- 
pilation  by  including  in  it  matter  which  was  eertaa 
to  excite  violent  opposition  there.    This  accouBti 
for  the  fact  that  no  further  official  ooOectiaoaof 
decretals  were  published.     The  increasing  difficul- 
ties of  the  papacy  with  the  secular  power  and  with 
national  churches  made  the  reception  of  such  thingi 
problematical,  at  the  same  time  that  it  claimed  tbi 
best  energies  of  the  popes  for  other  matters.   Of 
collections    subsequently    published,    though  no 
longer  by  the  popes  themselves,  with  the  title  of 
ExtravaganteSy  two  have  retained  some  importanee 
to  the  present  day,  because  of  their  inclusion  in  the 
Corpus  juris  canonici.     When  at  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  booksellers  Gering  and  Rem- 
boldt  in  Paris  undertook  an  edition  of  all  the  parts 
of  the  Corpus,  they  entrusted  the  editing  of  the 
Decretum,  the  Liber  sextus,  the  ClementinOf  and  the 
Extravagantes  to  Jean  Chappuis,  who  made  a  new 
arrangement  of  the  last-named,   preserved  in  all 
subsequent  editions.     He  divided  them  into  two 
collections;  the  first,  Extravagantes  JohannisPapt 
XXILy  contained  twenty  decretals  of   that  pope, 
put  together  by  himself  in  a  chronologically  oon- 
sistent  whole  and  glossed  by  Zenselinus  de  CassiaDii 
in  1325;    the  second,  seventy-four  (originally  kt- 
enty)  decretals  of  popes  from  Urban  IV.  (1261-64) 
to  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-34),  known  as  ExtuKoqiaiia 
communeSf  not  because  they  belong  to  a  number 
of  popes,  but  because  they  are  the  conunonly  cited 
ones — though  no  single  previous  edition  had  ood- 
tained  more  than  thirty-three  of  these.    In  1590 
Petrus  Matthseus  published  at  Lyons  a  Liber  Uf^ 
mus  containing  decretals  from  Sixtus  IV.  to  Sixtv 
V.  (1585-90);  but  this,  though  printed  as  an  ap- 


BELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canon  l^aw 


endix  to  many  old  editions  of  the  Corpus  juris 
ananici,  never  met  with  luurU  recognition  or  ueo. 
Sregory  XIIL  apjKrinted  a  commisaioD  to  prepare 
official   Liher  septimus,   but   the   work,   which 
ily  included  the  dogmatic  decrees  of  Fioretice 
ad  Trent,  was  nut  completely  printed  until  1598, 
the  pontificute  of  Clement  VIIL,  under  whose 
rie  it  api>eared;    and  then  Clement,  for  some 
on  now  unknown,  refused  to  approve  it.     No 
ther  Fystemutie  collection  of  later  decretals  has 
undertaken,    though    frequent    chronological 
ements  of  them  have  been  published  under 
Ktle  of  BuUaria  (see  Briefs,  Bulls,  and  Bul- 

iRtA). 

7.  Corpus  Jnrl*  Canonioi:  It  remains  to  give  an 
[>unt  of  the  Corpun  juris  canonici,  by  which  name 
has  been  customary  since  the  sixteenth  ct^ntury 
designate  the  collection  formed  by  combining 
be  Decretum  Gratiani,  the  decretals  of  Gregory  IX., 
he  Liber  sextuSf  the  Clementina,  and  the  two  col- 
ctions  of  Extravaganlts  made  by  Chappuis.     The 
ne  wns  applied  to  Gratian's  work  in  the  twelfth 
entuiy,  and  by  Innocent  IV.  to  the  Grcgtirian  col- 
ction;    Pierre  d'Ailly,  in  his  treatise  De  necesm- 
aU  rtjormationis,  written   at  the  opening  of  the 
ouDcil  of  t>>n.stanee,  speaks  of  the  ranervations 
ribed  "  in  corpore  juris  canonici,"  where  there 
no  doubt  tlmt  he  means  the  sum  of  the  collec- 
ktons  named  above,  with  the  exception  of  the  as 
H  non-existent  Extranagantes.     During  the  coun- 
the  tenn  Corpus  juris  or  jus  scriptum  was  con- 
ntly  employed  in  contradistinction  to  the  post- 
Jlementine    Extravaganfes,    and    similarly    at    the 
cmncil  of  BaseL     The  legal  authority  of  the  Ex- 
nvagantes  waa»  in  fact,  frequently  contested,  and 
thefiia  of  the  independent   validity  of  every 
pronouncement,   wliich    had    hatl    practical 
feet   since   Innocent  III.,  no  longer  recognized, 
far,   then,   this  distinction   was  justified,   and 
'while  no  new  accepted  collection  waa  fidded  to  the 
Clementina  the  previously  accepted  Corpus  might 
considered  as  closed.     The  name  does  not  occur 
the  oldest  printed  editions,  which  is  to  be  ex- 
iained  by  the  fact  tliat  the  component  parts  were 
t»uaUy  printed  separately.     In  the  sixteenth  cen- 
it  became  usual  for  these  parts,  t<igether  with 
Birppuis's  two  collections  of  Extravaganles,  to  be 
ublishcd  by  the  same  house  in  three  vokunes,  the 
st   containing  Gratian's  work,    the   second   the 
cretals  of    Gregory  IX.,  and  the  tlxird  the  re- 
linder  with  the  gtoeees.     In  the  latter  half  of 
I  century,  however,  it  was  more  common  to  omit 
glosses  and  bind  the  whole  in  one  volume,  so 
lit  the  inclusive  title  now  becomes  usual.     The 
Litioo  of  Demochares  {Paris,  1.550,  1.561)  show^ed 
certain  amount  of  cntical  spirit,  but  w^ith  tittle 
lit.     During  the  sessions  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
tie  need  of   revision   was  clearly   apparent,   and 
iufi  IV.  in  1563  establishetl  a  eommiBsion  of  car- 
Is  and  other  scholars  for  this  purpose.     Under 
successors,  Pins  V.  and  Oregon,''  XIIL,  it  wim 
on  firmer!    and   enlargcti   to   thirty- five  members. 
The  work  of  these  Corrretore^^  Romani,  as  they  are 
illed,  was  completed  in   1580,  and  the  resulting 
e^ised  edition  published  at  Rome  in  1582.     Though 
cy  had  rendered  valuable  service,  much  remained 


to  be  done,  as  was  made  evident  by  the  editions  of 
Antoniujs  Augu.stinus  and  Ikrardus — to  say  noth- 
ing ol  the  modern  ones.  The  earlier  editions 
usually  contained  a  number  of  apf>cndices,  inclu- 
ding th^ I ttsHtutioncs  juris  canonici  of  Paul  Lancelot, 
professor  at  Perugia  under  Paul  IV.  (1555-59)^ 
the  Liher  seplimus  of  Petrus  Matthti^ua,  etc. 

For  the  intenial  relations  of  the  Roman  CatholJc 
Church  the  CorjniJ^  juris  cammiri  is  still  the  au- 
thority in  common  law,  though  with  some  hmita- 
tions.  The  appendices  are  not  considered  author- 
itative, especially  those  just  named,  unless  the  single 
decretals  contained  in  the  last  of  them  have  been 
universally  received;  and  the  same  principle  applies 
to  the  Extra I'agantes.  The  position  taken  at  the 
councils  of  Constance  and  Basel  was  not  affect-ed 
by  the  edition  of  Gregory  XIIL^  whose  purpose 
was  not  to  give  them  an  official  character  by  in- 
cluding them,  but  merely  to  establish  a  correct 
and  authentic  text  of  the  documents  which  had 
previously  been  included  in  widely  circulated  col- 
lections. Acting  on  the  same  principle  in  regard  to 
this  edition  of  Grt^gory  XIIL,  most  modem  can- 
onists deny  the  potiitive  authority  of  the  Decretum 
Gratiani  as  such,  since  it  was  a  mere  private  col- 
lection, never  officially  authoriz^id  by  the  Church 
or  the  pope,  and  regard  it  only  as  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  documents  for  the  history  of  canon  law. 
This  view  was  even  expressed  in  a  decision  of  the 
Mota  Romana,  too  long  to  quote  here,  and  more 
than  once  by  Benedict  XIV,  But  thougli  this 
may  be  theoretically  the  case,  yet  in  practise  the 
De^dum  haA  retained  a  large  measure  of  authority; 
and  Gregory  XIIL  himself  woidd  scarcely  have 
displayed  so  much  seal  in  having  it  edited  and 
completed  if  he  had  regarded  it  as  no  more  than 
a  jirivate  compilation,  without  legal  authority. 
It^  contents,  however,  have  in  the  lapse  of  time 
been  to  a  great  extent  modified  or  rendereti  obso- 
lete by  later  decretals,  so  that  its  practical  impor^ 
tanee  is  small. 

Besides  the  genera!  principle  that  a  new  law 
supersedes  an  older  one,  wliieh  has  destroyed  the 
validity  of  so  much  that  is  in  the  Corpus  juris 
(not  merely  in  Gratian^s  part  of  it),  the  course  of 
secular  legislation  since  the  fourteenth  century  haa 
had  a  marked  influence  in  the  same  direction. 
The  canon  law  covers  not  merely  the  doctrine, 
worship,  sacraments,  and  discipline  of  the  Church, 
but  a  vast  mass  of  other  things  in  which  eccle- 
siastical interests  were  supposed  to  be  concerned, 
such  as  vows,  oatlis,  betrothals,  wills,  funerals, 
benefices,  church  projierty*  tithes,  and  the  like. 
The  reaction  against  the  all^mbracing  claims  of 
the  Church  has  taken  many  of  these  things  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals  (see  Juris- 
diction, Ecclesiastical),  wliile  by  its  proclama- 
tion of  the  principle  of  the  unity  of  national  law 
and  government  it  luis  rethiced  the  Church  to  the 
position  of  any  other  corporation  T^Hthin  the  limits 
of  the  State;  and  thus  a  large  number  of  canonical 
provitiions,  mich  as  those  covering  the  procedure 
against  heretics,  which  conflict  with  the  civil  con- 
stitution, have  necessarily  become  ineffective.  In 
France,  Belgium ,  imd  Italy  it  is  still  reganled  as 
a  part  of  the  general  body  of  law.     In  the  German 


OanonZiaw 
Oanon  of  Soriptmre 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


Empire,  after  gradual  restrictloDs  in  many  of  the 
component  states,  it  ceased  on  Jan.  1,  1900,  to 
have  any  legal  validity  outdde  of  the  internal  dia- 
dpline  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

(J.  F.  VON  SCHULTB.) 

BnuoomArsT:  On  the  eoneeption  and  mpolocetios  of 
church  law  consult:  W.  T.  Knig,  D<u  KireKenneki  mack 
Orund^diMen  dtr  Vemunft  und  im  lAektt  de9  CkriaUnimmM, 
Leipnc  182tti  cf.  F.  Schirmer,  Kirekmgeachiehaieks  Ui^ 
itnuekunotfi,  Berlin.  1820;  C.  Gross.  Zur  B^griffabmUm' 
mung  und  WikrdiQung  de9  KirekennehU,  Gras.  1872. 

Collections  or  digests  supplementing  those  mentioned 
in  the  text  are:  Z.  B.  van  Espen,  Jtia  eecUnatHeum  uni- 
vtr$td9t  2  vols.,  Louvain,  1700;  A.  ReiffenstOl,  Ju»  eanoni' 
cum  univenaU,  3  vols.,  Venice,  1704;  J.  H.  Bdhmer. 
Ju4  eecUnoBiieum  FroietlanHum,  5  vols..  Halle,  1714; 
F.  BchmaligrQber.  Ju»  •edtmaaUeum  universale.  3  vols., 
Ingobtadt,  1728.  Other  discussions  are:  J.  F.  Schulte, 
D<u  kalhoUackM  KirtkenredU,  2  vols.,  Gieseen.  1856-^0; 
D.  Craisson,  Manuals  toiiu»  juris  canonici,  4  vols.,  Paris, 
1863;  F.  Walter,  Lekrbueh  des  Kirdunreehia  oiler  ekriaUieken 
Konfessionen,  14th  ed.,  Bonn.  1871;  F.  Thudicum,  Kircken- 
rseht,  2  vob.,  Leipsie,  1877-78;  A.  L.  Riehter,  Lekr- 
budi  des  kaUtolisdun  und  evantfeliseken  Kirdtenrsektat 
8th  ed.  by  W.  Kahl.  Leipsie.  1877-86;  W.  Kahl.  Kirdten^ 
redU  und  Kir^enpolitik,  Freiburg,  1894;  E.  Geigel, 
Reuks-  und  reidislAndiadus  Kirdun-  und  Stiftungsrecht, 
Strasburg,  1000;  E.  Friedberg.  Ldtrbuek  des  kaikUiseken 
und  svanodisdisn  Kirdienredits,  Leipsie,  1003. 

Works  in  Eng.  on  the  general  question  are:  J.  Fulton, 


Judex  Canonum,  Ok.  Text  vUk  Translation  and  Csstfkk 
Dufssi  of  Canon  Law  of  ike  Universal  Ckmrk,  New  York, 
1802;  8.  B.  Smith.  ElsmsnU  of  EedesiasUoal  Law,  viA 
Rsferenee  to  tke  Syllabus,  ConsHtuOonss  apostoliew  mAi 
of  Pops  Pius  IX.,  tke  Council  of  tke  VaUean  .  .  .  .  S 
vols.,  ib.  1803-04.  For  English  church  law  conmU: 
E.  Gibson,  Codsx  juris  serhsiaetici  AnoHeani:  er,  Ai 
^Sfalades,  Constituiions,  Canons,  Bubries,  an^  Ariidee  .  . . 
MetkodieaUy  DiQSSlsd  ,  .  .  wiA  a  Counmeniary,  Loadoi. 
1713,  ef.  [M.  Foster],  An  Bxaminaiiom  of  As  Sdmm  M 
Ckwrtk-Powsr  Laid  Down  in  tks  Codsx  juris  sed.  Ai^ 
eani,  ib.  1735;  C.  H.  Davis.  BngUsk  Ckurdi  Caasm»  tf 
190A:  wiik  kistarioal  introdmdion  and  Notss,  ib.  IW, 
M.  E.  C.  Waloott,  Constitutions  and  Canons  EdseiaeHed 
of  As  Ckurek  of  England  Rsferred  to  Tkair  Original  Sesnm 
.  .  .  .  ib.  1874;  Sir.  W.  PhUlimore.  Lam  of  As  Ckmktf 
England,  2  vols.,  ib.  1806;  F.  W.  Maitland,  Camom  Lss 
in  England,  ib.  1806;  A.  T.  Wiigman.  ConstikOieml 
Auikority  of  As  Biskops  in  As  CaAolie  Ckurdk  /SsiMri 
by  History  and  Canon  Law,  ib.  1800.  Cbnsuh  abo  E. 
Taunton,  Tks  Law  of  tks  Ckurek,  A  Cydopmdia  eif  Cams 
Law  for  Englisk-spsaking  Countrise,  Tx>ndon,  1006. 

For  American  church  law  consult:  F.  Vinton,  Msaud 
Cotamsniary  on  tks  Osnsral  Canon  Law  of  tks  Prole^d 
Episcopal  Ckurdi,  New  York.  1870;  M.  Hoffmann,  Bsis- 
siasHeal  Law  in  tks  Slats  of  New  York,  ib.  1868;  kkn. 
Ritual  Law  of  tks  Ckurdi.  ib.  1872;  W.  S.  Fteiy,  Tie 
Osnsral  EcdssiasHad  Constitution  of  Am  Amsriean  Ckmdi, 
ib.  1801;  Rsvissd  Constitution  and  Canons  of  tks  Pntm- 
tant  Episcopal  Ckurdi,  ib.  1805;  H.  J.  Desmond.  Tkt 
Ckurek  and  tke  Law,  wiA  Special  Rsfsrsnesto  EtdmnaiMali 
Law  in  As  United  Stales,  Chicago,  1806. 


.  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  History  Among  the  Jews. 
Traditional  Account  of  the  Rise  of 

the  Collection  (|  1). 

The  Theory  of  the  Synagogue  (|2). 

Criticism  of  the  Two  Theories  (f  3). 

Positive  Exposition,  a.  The  Pen- 
Uteuch— the  So-oalled  '*  First 
Canon  ";  b.  The  Hi8torico>pro- 
pbetic  and  Distinctively  Pro- 
phetic Books — the  **  Second 
Canon  ";  c.  The  Hagiographa — 
the"  Third  Canon  "  (|  4). 

2.  Witnesses  for  the  Second  and  Third 

Parts  of  the  Canon. 

3.  Supposed  Jewish  Dissent  from  the 

Canon. 

4.  History    of    the   Old    Testament 

Canon  Among  the  Jews. 
The  Triple  Division  (f  1). 
Order  (f  2). 


CANON  OP  SCRIPTURE. 

Number  of  the  Canonical  Books 
(§3). 
6.  The  Oki  Testament  Canon  in  the 
Christian  Church. 
Plktristic  and  Medieval  Writers  (f  1 ). 
The  Ancient  Oriental  Versions  (f  2). 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  (|  3). 
The  Greek  Church  (f  4). 
The  Protestant  Church  (f  6). 
6.  The  Names  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  of  Its  Chief  Divisions. 
II.  The  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  The  Terms  Used. 

2.  The  New  Testament,  170-220. 
The  Four  Gospels  (f  1). 
The  Pauline  Letters  (f  2). 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (f  3). 
The  Apocalypse  (14). 
The  CathoUo  Epistles  (f  5). 
Writings  Temporarily  Regarded  as 

Canonical  (f  6). 


Canon  of  Scripture  is  a  term  that  designates  the 
books  of  the  Bible  accepted  as  authoritative.  The 
word  "  canon  "  (Gk.  kandn)  means  primarily  a 
straight  staff,  then  a  measuring-rod,  hence,  figura- 
tively, that  which  is  artistically,  scientifically,  or 
ethically  a  guide  or  a  model;  so  in  the  earliest 
Christian  use  (Gal.  vi.  16;  Phil.  iii.  16;  Clement  of 
Rome,  i.  7,  41)  the  canon  was  a  leading  thought, 
a  normal  principle.  The  next  change  of  meaning 
(indicated  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Strom. ,  VII. 
xvi.  94)  was  to  a  tj^pe  of  Christian  doctrine,  the 
orthodox  as  opposed  to  the  heretical.  Since  300 
the  plural  form  "  canons  "  has  been  used  of  eccle- 
siastical regulations  (see  Canon).  Now,  since  the 
Christian  doctrines  were  professedly  based  upon 
the  Scriptures,  the  writings  themselves  were  natu- 
rally known  as  the  canon;  and  the  test  of  the 
canonicity  of  any  particular  writing  was  its 
reception  by  the  Church.  The  earliest  use  of 
the  word  in  this  sense  is  in  the  fifty-ninth 
canon  of  the   Council   of  Laodicea    (363),    "  No 


Summary  (|  7). 
8.  The  New  Testament,  140-17a 
Mardon's  Bible  (|  1). 
The  Bible  of  the  VaJentinians  (|  2) 
The  Apoetolie  Writings  in  JosliB 
Martyr  (|  8). 
4.  The  Oldest  Traces  and  the  Oripi 
of  OoUeetioiia  of  ApostoUe  Wri- 
tings. 
The  Collection  of  Plkuline  Lettcn 

(ID. 
The  ••  Gospel  "  (f  2). 
Other  Writings  (f  3). 
6.  Origen  and  his  School. 

6.  The  Original   New  Testament  of 
theSsrriana. 

7.  Lucian  and  Euaebiua. 

8.  Athanasius. 

9.  The  Development   in  the  Oricot 
till  the  Time  of  Justinian. 

10.  The  Assimilation  of  the  West 

psakns  of  private  authorship  can  be  read  ia  the 
Church,  nor  imcanonical  books,  but  only  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,'* 
and  contemporaneously  in  Athanasius  {Epistola 
festalis,  i.  961,  Paris,  1698).  A  few  years  later  the 
use  was  general. 

L  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament — 1.  Hlstorr 
Amonff  the  Jews:  The  theory,  which  was  almost 
universally  received  for  fifteen  hundred  years,  that 
Ezra  was  the  author  of  the  Old  Tes- 
I.  Tradi-   tament  canon,  dates  from  the  first 
tional  Ac-  Christian  century;    for  it  is  found  in 
count  of  the  IV  (II)    Ezra  xiv.  44  that  Ezra  was 
Rise  of  the  inspired  to  dictate  during  forty  days 
Collection,  to    five   men  ninety-four    books,  of 
which  twenty-four  were  to  be  pub- 
lished.   These  twenty-four  quite  evidently  are  the 
twenty-four  books  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  according 
to  the  counting  given  below;   and  the  seventy  an 
the  Jewish  Apocrypha  alluded  to  in  the  Gospd  o/ 
Nicodemus  zxviii.   {ANF,  viii   453).    What  U» 


RELIGIOUS  ENOYCLOPEDI 


Canon  X*aw  * 

Canon  oi  ^Lii'ipturd 


^hthers  have  to  say  upon  ihia  matter  ia  derived 

^B  part  from  IV  Ezra,  and  is  equally  fabulous. 

B  The  theory  above  mentioned  htm  been  supposed 

^B  be  the  one  prevalent  among  tlie  Jews  themselvea. 

^m  Bui  tliis  has  no  other  support   than 

^p..  The  The-  that  the  eminent  rabbis  David  Kimclii 

^Lry  of  the  (d.    1240)    and    Eliaa    Levita    (1472- 

^%ymigogue.  1549)  remarked  on  the  work  of  Ezra 

and  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue, 

in  bringing  together  the  twenty-four  books  in  their 

di\naions.     The  only  Talmudic  passage  which  can 

t  quoted  threctly  in  its  behalf  is  in  Baba  Bathra  ; 
the  other  quotationn  commonly  made  prove 
rely  the  care  of  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great 
Synagogue  for  the  law,  not  for  the  canon;  indeed, 
mostly  for  the  oral  law,  and  some  also  for  altera- 
tions in  the  text.  The  paasage  is  in  these  wortls: 
[The  order  of  the  prophets  is  Joshua  and  Judges, 
auel  and  Ivings,  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  Isaiah 
ad  the  Twelve.  Hosea  is  the  fir«t,  because  it  ia 
written,  *The  beginning  of  the  word  of  Jehovah 
by  Hosea '  (i.  2).  Did  God,  then,  epeak  to  Hoaea 
first?  and  have  there  not  been  many  prophets 
between  him  and  Moses?  R.  Johanan  explained 
this  ols  meaning  that  Hosea  w^as  the  first  of  the 
four  prophets  who  prophesied  at  that  time, — 
Hoseai  Isaiah,  Amos,  and  Micah.  Why,  then,  was 
he  not  put  first?  Because  his  prophesy  stands  next 
to  that  of  the  latest  prophets,  Haggai,  Zcchariah, 
and  Malachi;  he  is  therefore  counte<l  with  them. 
So  this  prophet  should  have  been  kept  by  himself, 
and  inserted  before  Jeremiah?  No:  he  was  so 
BmaU  that  he  might  then  eaiiily  have  been  lo«t. 
Since  Isaiah  lived  before  Jeremiah  and  Eackich 
ouglit  he  not  to  have  been  put  before  them?  [No.) 
because  Kings  cloises  with  destruction,  Jeremiah  i» 
entirely  occupied  with  it,  Eaekiel  begins  with  it 
but  ends  with  consolation,  while  Isaiah  is  all  con- 
eolation;  hence  we  can  not  connect  destruction 
with  destruction,  and  consolation  with  consolation. 
But  Job  lived  in  the  time  of  Mose^;  why  should 
he  not  come  in  the  first  part?  No;  for  it  would 
never  do  to  begin  witli  misfortune.  Yet  Ruth 
contains  misfortune?  True;  but  it  issues  in  joy. 
And  who  wrote  them?  Movses  wTote  his  book  and 
^^e  Balaam  section  and  Job.  Joshua  wrote  his 
^feok  and  eight  verses  in  tlie  Law  (Deut.  xxxiv. 
^5^12).  Samuel  wrote  his  book.  Judges  and  Ruth. 
David  wrote  Psalms  for  ten  Elders,  Jeremiah 
wrote  his  book,  Kings,  and  Lamentations.  Heze- 
kiah  and  his  company  wrote  Isaiah,  Proverbs, 
the  Song,  and  Eccleaiastea.  The  men  of  the  Great 
Synagogue  wrote  Ezekiel,  The  Twelve,  Daniel,  and 
Esther.  Eira  wrote  his  book  and  the  genealogies 
in  Chroniclea  up  to  hia  time.  That  is  a  support 
for  the  Baying  of  Rab;  for  Rab  Jchuda  says,  in  the 
name  of  Rab,  *  Ezra  did  not  leave  Babylon  until 
he  bad  written  his  own  family  register.'  Who 
ended  it?  Nehemiah  the  son  of  Hachaliah,"  The 
understanding  of  this  passage  depends  upon  ob- 
serving that  the  word  "  wrote  "  is  u.scd  in  difTerent 
senses,  of  actual  authorship,  of  editorship,  and  of 
merely  collecting  and  placing  together  books  wliich 
had  not  before  been  brought  into  connection.  It 
will  bo  perceived  that  the  passage  Bayn  nothing 
about  the  closing  of  the  canoDi  but  also  that  it 


would  readily  furnish  ground  for  the  idea  that  the 
canon  was  closed  in  the  time  of  Ezra  and  the  Great 
Synagogue. 

Both  theories  agree  in  assigning  the  collection 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  Ezra  and  his  companions 
and  successors,  and  also  asserting  that  the  division 
into  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Hagiograplm 
(see  below)  was  primitive.  But  against  this,  two 
objections  may  be  urged:    (I)  Critical 

3.  Criticism  investigation  as.signs  the  first  part  of 
of  the  Two  the  Book  of  Daniel,  on  account  of  its 

Theories.  Greek  words,  to  a  time  when  Greek 
waa  understood,  and  the  second  part  to 
the  Maccabean  age  (see  Daniel,  Book  of);  (2)  The 
position  of  some  of  the  historical  books,  e.g.,  Ezra 
and  Daniel,  among  the  Hagiographa,  ia  inexpli- 
cable if  the  canon  was  made  at  one  time.  Moses 
Maimonides,  Da\dd  Kimchi,  and  Abarbancl  ex- 
plained the  fact  by  a  diiferenee  in  inspiration.  But 
Christ  calk  Daniel  a  prophet  (Matt.  xxiv.  15;  Mark 
xiii.  14). 

The  Hebrews,  like  other  ancient  peoples,  pre- 
served their  sacred  writings  in  sacred  places.  So 
the  law  was  put  by  the  side  of  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant (Deut.  xxxi.  26),  with  its  additions  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xxiv.  26);  Samuel  laid  the  law  of  the 
kingilom  "  before  the  Lord  "  (I  Sam.  x. 

4.  Positive  25);  Hilkiah,  the  lugh  priot  under 
Exposition*  Josiah,  found  the  book  of  the  law 
a.  The  Pen-  "in  the  house  of  the  Lord"  (II  Kings 

tateiich —  xxii.  8),  We  are,  therefore,  safe  in 
the  So^alled  believing  that  since  the  time  of  Mo- 
"  First  ses  documents  and  intelligence  con- 
Canon."  ceming  the  Mosaic  giving  of  the  law, 
besides  the  tables  of  the  covenant,  and 
also  whatever  of  law  and  history  Moses  had  written, 
were  carefully  preserved  in  the  sanctuary  (Ex» 
xxiv.  4,  7,  xxxiv,  27;  Num.  xxxiii.  2),  The  priestJJ 
also  would  retain  partly  oral  and  partly  written 
information  (subsecjuently  combined  in  the  Priest- 
code)  in  regard  to  many  similar  matters.  The 
existence  of  an  authoritative  code  is  proved  (a)  by 
the  use  of  the  '*  Book  of  the  Covenant  "  in  Deut., 
and  (b)  in  the  Priest-code;  (c)  by  Hos.  viii.  12; 
(d)  by  II  Kings  xxii.  The  Books  of  Kings,  finiahetl 
during  the  exile,  mention  by  name  the  "  Book  of 
the  Law  of  Moses,"  by  which  only  Deuteronomy  is 
meant  (cf.  II  Kings  xiv.  6;  Deut  xxiv.  16:  I  Kings 
ii.  3;  II  Kings  xxiii.  2o).  The  mention  of  the  Book 
of  the  Law  of  Moses  (Josh.  i.  7-S;  viii.  31,  34, 
xxiii.  6)  can  not  be  taken  without  limitation,  since 
it  proceeils  from  the  Deuteronomic  editor  of  Joshua. 
Ilag.  ii.  11-13  shows  the  existence  of  the  Priest- 
cotle,  dealing,  as  the  passage  does,  with  two  stat- 
utes of  that  code*  The  Wellhauscn  hypothc^^is, 
that  t!io  Priest-code  was  the  private  possession  of 
Ezra  till  445  B.C.,  and  that  Neh.  viii.-x.  tells  of 
the  introduction  of  the  law»  is  in  incompatible 
contrmliction  with  that  passage.  The  lowest  dtvtc 
for  the  separation  of  Joshua  [from  the  Pentnteuch] 
is  the  time  of  Nehemiah  and  the  Samaritan  srhism. 
The  prophetii  wtre  the  spiritual  exhorters  and 
guides  of  the  people,  and  therefore  helil  in  hijfh 
esteem  by  the  faithful,  whose  natural  desire  to 
have  a  collection  of  their  writings  there  is  every 
reason    to    beUeve    was    early  gratihed.     At  all 


Canon  of  Scripture 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


890 


events,  it    is    quite    evident   from   the  prophetic 

parallels  that  the  prophets  were  acquainted  with 

one  another's  writings.     The  loss  of  so 

b.  The  Hist-  much  sacred  literature  in  the  destruc- 

orico-pro-     tion  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans 

phetic  and    made  the  collection  of  the  remaining 
Distinct-      historic  as  well   as  prophetic  books 

ively  Pro-    the  more  imperative.     The  success  of 

phetic        a  collection   of   historical  books  was 

Books — the     furthered    by  the  fact    that    Joshua 

"  Second  continued  the  narrative  of  the  Pen- 
Canon.'*  tateuch.  Since  Kings  continues  the 
history  in  I  and  II  Sam.,  and  may  be 
placed  in  the  latter  half  of  the  exilic  period,  the 
close  connection  with  the  earlier  prophets  gave  the 
name  to  them  of  "  the  Former  Pix)phet8 "  and 
secured  a  high  estimate  for  them  on  the  return  from 
Babylon. 

David  and  Solomon  began  the  arrangement  of 

the  temple  praise-service  and  a  collection  of  Psalms, 

and  later  collections  and  individual 

c.  The  Ha-  Psalms  were  added.  The  time  of 
giographa  Nchemiah  was  very  productive.  The 
— ^the  "  Third  division  into  five  books  is  older  than 
Canon."  the  Chronicler.  The  first  collection 
of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  (cf.  Prov. 
X.  1-xxii.  16)  was  so  highly  valued  that  Hezekiah 
ordered  a  second  to  be  prepared  (Prov.  xxv.  1). 
The  name  of  the  wise  man  sufficed  to  recommend 
Canticles;  its  age  and  contents,  the  Book  of  Job. 
Lamentations  appealed  directly  to  every  patriotic 
Jew  during  the  exile,  and  was  accepted  as  sacred, 
although  Jeremiah  was  not  its  author.  Ruth,  by 
age,  and  especially  by  its  genealogy  of  David,  was 
put  in  the  third  canon,  and  formed  an  introduction 
to  the  Psalter.  These  early  writings  were  followed 
gradually  by  the  others,  Ezra-Neh.,  I  and  II  Chron., 
Eccles.,  Esther  (an  explanation  of  Purim,  the 
festival  the  Persian  Jews  brought  back  with  them), 
and  finally  Daniel,  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees. 
After  this  time,  and  down  to  the  destruction  of 
Jenisalcm  by  Titus,  70  a.d.,  the  nation  was  so 
affecte<l  by  Greek  customs,  and  divided  by  the 
growing  rival  parties,  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees, 
that  its  religious  development  was  too  much  hin- 
dered for  any  work  to  receive  universal  recognition, 
and  hence  canonicity.  The  reception  of  Dan.  into 
the  canon  appears  explicable  under  the  circum- 
stances only  if  a  Daniel  narrative,  the  basis  of  Dan. 
ii.-vi.,  already  existc^d  (cf.  Ezek.  xiv.  14,  20;  xxviii. 
3).  Not  long  after  the  Maccabees,  the  second 
collection  or  canon  received  its  name,  the  Prophets, 
descriptive  not  only  of  a  portion  of  its  contents, 
but  of  their  authorship;  and  thus  the  three  divi- 
sions of  the  Old  Testament  canon — the  Law,  Proph- 
ets, and  Hagiographa — dated  from  the  second 
century  B.C.  (cf.  the  Prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus). 
Valentin  Loescher  (De  caush  linguae  Hebrcece,  p.  71, 
Leipsic,  1706)  said  rightly:  "  The  canon  came  not, 
as  they  say,  by  one  act  of  man,  but  gradually 
from  God." 

2.  Witnesses  for  the  Second  and  Third  Parts  of 
the  Canon:  Jesus  Sirach  (Ecclus.  xlvi.-xlix.,  es- 
pecially xlix.  10)  shows  acquaintance  only  with 
the  Pix)phets  in  the  wider  sense,  the  **  second 
canon.''     His  grandson  testifies  to  the  third  divi- 


sion also.  The  Second  Book  of  Maccabees,  dated 
by  Niese  (Kritik  der  beiden  Makkabaerbucher,  Ber- 
lin, 1900)  125-124  B.C.,  in  the  section  i.  10-iL  18 
contains  an  account  of  the  recovery  of  the  saoed 
fire,  a  quotation  from  the  "  records  "  of  Jere- 
miah (a  lost  apocryphal  writing);  and  then  fol- 
lows ii.  13:  ''  And  the  same  things  also  were 
reported  in  the  records,  namely,  the  memoirs  of 
Nehemiah  [another  apocryphal  writing]^  and  how 
he,  founding  a  library,  gathered  togeth^  the  boob 
concerning  the  kings  and  prophets,  and  those  d 
David,  and  epistles  of  kings  concerning  hdy  gifts." 
This  reference  to  the  "  epistles  of  kings  concerning 
holy  gifts  "  can  not  denote  the  Book  of  Ezra,  but 
only  a  collection  of  documents  regarding  inter- 
national matters,  such  as  would  be  of  value  to  a 
statesman  like  Nehemiah,  and  which  had  oonneo- 
tion  with  the  temple  and  its  offerings.  It,  there- 
fore, bears  witness  to  Nehemiah's  collection  of  the 
second  canon  substantially  as  we  have  it  today, 
in  addition  to  the  Psalms  and  the  documents  bo 
weighty  for  the  rebuilt  city.  The  next  verse, "  And 
in  like  manner  also  Judas  gathered  together  all 
those  books  that  had  been  scattered  by  reason  of 
the  war  we  had,  and  they  are  with  us,"  applies 
only  to  the  third  canon.  Therefore,  the  last  en- 
largement of  the  Hebrew  canon  took  place  under 
Judas  Maccabseus;  although  probably  most  of  the 
books  of  the  third  canon  had  previously  been 
preserved  in  the  temple  archives. 

Philo  had  the  same  canon  as  ours  (cf .  C.  Signed, 
PhilOf  p.  161,  Jena,  1875),  and  quotes  from  almost 
all  the  books;  while  from  the  Apocr3rpha  he  makes 
no  excerpts  or  citation,  not  giving  it  the  honor  he 
accords  to  Plato,  Hippocrates,  and  several  other 
Greek  writers.*  The  New  Testament  contains  quo- 
tations principally  from  the  Pentateuch,  Prophets, 
and  Psalms,  as  might  be  conjectured  from  its  scope, 
but  recognizes  the  threefold  division  of  the  canon 
(Luke  xxiv.  44).  In  this  verse  "The  Psahns" 
does  not  stand  for  the  entire  Hagiographa;  for 
our  Lord  meant  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the 
Psalms  spoke  of  him.  The  use  of  the  phrase 
"  the  Law  and  the  Prophets "  (Matt.  v.  17; 
Acts  xxviii.  23)  does  not  imply  a  division  into  two 
parts.  The  Syrians  used  the  same  expression  for 
the  whole  Old  Testament.  The  absence  of  quota- 
tion in  the  New  Testament  of  any  Old  Testament 
book  argues  nothing  against  its  canonicity.  The 
use  by  the  New  Testament  of  Apocrypha  or  Pseud- 
epigrapha  has  no  bearing  on  the  canonical  status 
of  the  books  used  or  cited.    Josephus  (Apiorif  1 8) 


*  P.  C.  Lucius,  Die  TherapetUen  und  ihn  Stdlung  in  der 
Aakete,  Strasburg,  1880,  has  proved  that  the  De  vita  conim- 
plativa  was  not  written  by  Pbilo,  and  consequently  the 
classic  pasAa«;e — "  In  every  house  there  is  a  sacred  shrine, 
which  is  called  the  holy  place,  and  the  monastery  in  whid> 
they  [the  Therapeutics]  retire  by  themselves,  and  perfona 
all  the  mysteries  of  a  holy  life  .  .  .  studjrins  in  that  i^Me 
the  laws  and  the  inspired  words  through  the  prophets  and 
hymns  and  the  other  [writings],  by  which  knowledge  swl 
piety  are  increased  and  perfected  "  (De  into  eonlempl.,  m\ 
which  is  the  only  direct  reference  to  the  threefold  divisioD 
of  the  canon  found  in  Philo 's  works  (genuine  and  pretended) 
— must  be  given  up.  [The  passage  is  translated  by  C.  D. 
Yonge.  Philo,  in  Bohn's  Library,  iv.  6.  F.  C.  Conybesre,  in 
his  edition  of  Philo  About  the  ContemptaiiM  Life  (Oxford, 
1895)  defends  the  Philonian  authorship.] 


fS9t 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canon  of  8oripttii« 


» 


I 
I 


bears  the  strongesl  testimony  for  the  canon,*  and, 
fi£  is  evident^  expresses  tlie  natiorjal  and  not  his 
irivate  opinion.  And,  further,  the  books  mentioned 
are  not  mere  literature,  but  a  sacred,  divine  collec- 
tion. He  enumerates  twenty-two  books;  thus,  L 
The  five  books  of  the  Law;  2.  The  thirteen 
PropbetBr  counting  the  twelve  minor  Prophetji  as 
one  book,  and  Lamentations  with  Jeremiah;  3. 
The  four  Hagiographa — Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesi- 
ftstes,  and  CanticleH.  But  this  arrangement  is  not 
to  be  looked  upon  as  either  old  or  correct. 

8.  SapiK>a&d  Jewish  Dissent  from  the  Oanon  i 
dissent  is  not  real,  only  apparent;  but  api>eal 
liaa  be^^i  roatle  (a)  to  the  Talmudical  controversies 
about  certain  booka,  e.g.,  Esther;  on  further  ex- 
amination the^e  "  controversies  "  are  perceived  to 
be  mere  intellectual  displays;  there  is  no  intention 
of  rejecting  any  book,  (b)  The  Book  of  Sirach,  it 
Is  said,  is  quoted  as  Scripture;  but  there  is  no  proof 
that  it  was  regarded  as  Scripture,  and  the  two  or 
three  qyotations  are  menwrittr,  and  probably  made 
under  a  misapprehension  of  their  source,  (c)  A 
high  regard  for  the  Book  of  Baruch  is  assert ed^ 
but  all  Jewish  literature  furnishes  no  proof.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  late  origin  of  the  book  is  against 
the  assumption;  it  is  dependent  upon  Dan.  ix., 
■pd  was  not  compo«ed  till  after  the  capture  of 
Jenifialem  by  Titus,  (d)  The  Septuagint  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  show  that  the  Alexandrian  Jewa 
had  a  different  canon  frtim  the  Palestinian,  be- 
cause books  are  added  to  the  canonical  twenty- 
four  and  additions  are  matic  to  some  of  the  ca- 
nonica]  iKJoka;  but  this  does  not  follow.  For  the 
Palestinian  idea  of  a  canon  (namely,  the  compo- 
aitiona  of  inspired  pr^jphets,  a  chisa  of  men  not  then 
existent)  was  not  known  in  Alexandria,  where^ 
on  the  contrary,  the  statement  of  Wistiom  {viL 
27).  "  [Wisdom]  from  generation  to  generation 
entering  into  holy  souls  prepares  them  friends  of 
God  and  prophets,"  was  fully  believed ^  as  by  Philo 
(cL  De  cherubim,  ix,)  and  Jo^pbua  (IFar,  L  iii.  5| 
II,  viii.  12,  III.  viii.  3,  9),  who  even  declared  that 
they  themselves  had  been  at  times  really  inspired, 
and  freely  accorded  the  fact  imto  others.  There- 
fofe,  to  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  there  w^as  no  im- 
propriety in  enlarging  the  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament,  not  only  by  additions 
of  sections  to  the  canonical  books,  but  of  en- 
tirely new  books.  The  great  respect  entertained 
lor  the  Septuagint  was  extended  to  these  addi- 
tions, but  without  giving  the  latter  any  canonical 
authority.  There  was  no  Alexandrian  canon; 
for  neither  the  number  nor  the  order  of  the  books 
added  was  fixed. 


•  This  pama^  in  eondetiMct  form  is  an  followi:  "  Wc  have 
twenty-two  books  cont&ininc  the  nBcorcb  of  all  the  past 
tinteB.  and  justly  believed  to  be  in^pirc'd.  Five  of  them  are 
Ifoacfl'.  The**  contain  hia  la  wis  and  the  tradilions  of  the 
origio  of  manikind  till  hb  death.  From  Moses  to  Artaxcrxeo 
th«  propbets  made  the  ret^ord  in  tktrteen  booke.  The  ro- 
inaining  four  books  contain  hymnn  to  God.  and  prec«^pts 
for  the  oonducC  of  human  life.  ^'h«  history  written  since 
that  day,  tbousrh  accurate,  is  not  eo  much  e^steemedt  becauiv 
there  ha«  not  been  an  exact  ruceesnion  of  prophet*.  No 
one  darcA  add  to.  take  from,  or  alter  them;  but  all  Jews 
cflteem  these  books  to  contaiii  divine  doctriDes,  and  arc 
wiiims  Co  die  for  them." 


4.  History  of  the  Old  Teatament  Oanon  Axnan^ 

the  Jewa:      The   Triple    Division  of   the    Hchrcw 

canon   is  testifievl  to  by  the  prologue  to  Sirach  and 

the  New  Testament  (Luke  xxiv.  44). 

I,  The      The  Septuagint  gave  ii{j  this  diviiiion  in 

Triple       favor  of  a  different  one — the   present 

Di vision.  Christian  arrangement  <»f  the  books 
in  the  order^  history »  poetry,  prophecy 
— and  inserted  the  apocryphal  books  and  eectiona 
in  appropriate  places. 

The  order  of    the  books  in  the  Hebrew  canon  m 

as    follows:     I.  The   T&rah  or  "Law"^the   five 

books  of  Mosea;    2.  The  A'ei»/iiim  or 

2.  Order,  '*  Prophets"— (a)  the  "  Former  FVoph- 
ets,"  Joshua,  Judges,  I  and  II  Samuel, 
I  and  II  Kings;  (b)  the  "  Latter  Prophet^/'  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah.  Ezekiel,  the  twehc  minor  Prophets j 
3,  The  Kethubhim  ("  Writings  ")  or  Hagiographa — 
pMulms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamenta- 
tions, Ecclesia^tea.  E«ther»  Daniel,  Ezra,  and 
Nehemiah,  I  and  II  Chronicles,  in  all,  tw^enty-four 
books.  The  view  once  entertained  that  Ruth  and 
Lam.  once  w^ere  in  the  t^ccond  C4inon  and  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  third  when  it  was  formed  has  no  basis 
in  fact.  The  principle  of  arrangement  of  the  his- 
torico-prophetical  books  is  chronological.  The 
Mishnah  arranges  the  proplietical  books  proper  in 
ortler  of  length:  Jer.,  Ezek.,  Isa.,  the  Twelve, 
But  with  this  went  probably  the  recollection  that 
as  a  whole  Isa.  was  later  than  Jer.  and  Exek.  The 
Mason tes  put  Isa.  first.  In  some  MSS.  of  the 
third  canon  the  most  important  book,  Pe.,  mtro- 
duced  by  Ruth,  is  tit  the  head,  then  Job  and  the 
thrue  books  connected  with  Solomon's  name,  and 
tlie  four  latest  books  at  the  close.  The  Masorites 
arrange:  Chron.,  Ps.,  Job^  Prov.,  Ruth,  Song  of  Sol., 
Eccle.s.,  Lam.,  Esther,  Dan.,  Ezra.  Manuscripts 
differ  greatly  in  the  order  of  these  books. 

Jewish  tradition,  except  w^hen  influenced  by 
Alexandria,  unanimously  gives  the  number  as 
twenty-four.  Nevertheless,  it  b  iisual  to  say  that 
the  original  reckoning  was  twenty-two.  If.  how- 
ever, the  witnesses  for  the  latter  num- 
3.  Ntmibcr  ber  be  not  counted,  but  weigheii,  it  Is 
of  the  plain  that  the  authority  they  rest  upon 
Canonical  in  Alexandrian;  and  this  is  worthless 
Books^  for  getting  at  the  primitive  reckoning, 
because  the  Alex  and  riim  Jews  not  only 
altered  the  order  and  division  of  the  books,  but 
added  to  them  others  not  in  the  canon.  Further- 
more, the  Alexandrians  arrived  at  the  number 
twenty-two  by  joining  Ruth  to  Judgt-s,  and  Lam- 
entations to  Jeremiah,  Having  thus  made  twenty- 
two,  they  were  impressed  mth  its  nnmerical  agree- 
ment with  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.  This  idea  was  thought  significant,  part 
of  the  divine  intention  intleetl;  and  so  it  bec4une 
fixed  in  the  Jewish  mind.  The  Church  Fathers 
took  it  up  in  their  uncritical  fasliion;  and  so  it  has 
come  dow^n  to  our  day.  Josephua  first  gives 
twenty-two;  but  he  makes  greater  use  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint than  of  the  Hebrew  original.  It  ia  note- 
worthy that  Epiphanius  and  Jerome,  who  reckon 
the  books  tw^enty-two,  mention  also  tw^enty-seven; 
i.e.,  the  Hebrew^  twenty-two  letters^,  with  the  five 
&Qal  letters  (the  letters  which  have  a  special  form 


Canon  of  Soripture 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


892 


when  at  the  end  of  a  word);  made  by  separating 
the  double  books,  Samuel,  Kings,  Chronicles,  and 
Esra.  But  this  double  counting  was  only  possible 
for  Jews  using  the  Scptuagint,  since  the  original 
does  not  divide  these  books.  Further,  neither  in 
the  Talmud  nor  in  the  Midrash  is  there  the  least 
trace  of  any  acquaintance  with  the  number  twenty- 
two;  but,  on  the  contrary,  twenty-four  is  always 
given,  not  because  it  corresponds  with  the  twenty- 
four  Greek  letters,  but  simply  as  the  natural  result 
of  the  gradual  rise  of  the  canon.  In  the  present 
printed  Hebrew  Bible  the  number  is  thirty-nine, 
similariy  counted,  though  not  arranged,  with  those 
of  Protestant  Bibles. 

5.  The  Old  Testament  Canon  in  the  Christian 
Church:  The  Fathers  did  not  impugn  the  authority 
of  the  Old  Testament;  but,  because  of  the  universal 

use  of  the  Scptuagint,  they  recognized 

I.  Pfttristic  as  Scripture  what  we  regard  as  Apoc- 

and        rypha.    Origen,  who  counts  only  the 

Medieval    books  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  yet  speaks 

Writers,     of  Jeremiah,  Lamentations,  and  the 

Epistle  as  in  one  [book].  Justin  Martyr 
used  the  additions  to  Daniel;  Iremeus,  Tertullian, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Cyprian,  and  others  used 
the  Apocrypha  with  the  same  formula  of  citation  as 
when  they  used  the  Old  Testament.  From  the 
fourth  century  the  Greek  Fathers  make  less  and 
less  use  of  the  Apocrypha;  while  in  the  Latin 
Church  conciliar  action  justified  and  emphasized 
their  use.  Jerome  alone  speaks  out  decidedly  for 
the  Hebrew  canon.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the 
Apociypha  were  not  recognized  by  the  majority 
of  the  Greeks;  while  just  the  opposite  was  true  of 
the  Latins,  although  not  a  few  followed  Jerome. 

The  Book  of  Esther,  because  of  its  contents,  was 
sometimes  excluded  from  the  Christian  Old  Testa- 
ment canon.  Mclito  of  Sardis  (170  a.d.)  omits  it 
from  his  list  (see  Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.,  IV.  xxvi.), 
although  perhaps  it  has  rather  dropped  out  after 
Esdras  (Ezra),  inasmuch  as  in  other  lists  it  comes 
next  to  this  name.  It  ia  also  omitted  by  Atha- 
nasius  {Epistola  Festalia,  i.  9C1,  ed.  Bened.), 
Gregory  Nazianzen  (Carm.f  xxxiii.),andin  the  sixth 
century  by  Junilius  (De  partibus  legis  divina^  i.  3-7). 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  includeil  in  the  canon  by 
Origen,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  Epiphanius. 

The  old  Syrian  Church  did  not  receive  the  Apoc- 
rypha. They  are  not  in  the  Peshito,  although 
found    in    a    later  Syriac   translation.     Ephraem 

Syrus     (d.      373)     does      not     give 

2.  The      them  canonical  authority.    Aphraates 

Ancient     (fourth    century)    cites     from    every 

Oriental     canonical  book,  but  uses  the  Apoc- 

Versions.    rypha  sparingly  and  not  in  such  a 

way  that  they  must  be  regarded  as 
canonical.  A  great  difference  is  perceptible  in  the 
Peshito  translation  between  Chronicles  and  the 
other  books.  This  has  starteil  the  query  whether 
Chronicles  was  accepte<l  as  canonical  by  the 
Syrian  Church.  The  Nestorians  certainly  rejected 
it  and  Esther.  Tlie  Ethiopic  translation  fol- 
lows the  Scptuagint  throughout,  and  contains 
not  only  the  canonical  but  also  the  apocryphal 
books,  except  that  for  I  and  II  Maccabees  it  sub- 
stitutes two  books  of  its  own  under  the  same  name, 


and  some  pseudographs  of  which  the  Greek  texts 
do  not  now  exist;  for  the  Ethiopic  Church  makes 
even  less  difference  than  the  Alexandrian  between 
canonical  and  uncanonical  books.  (See  Pszud- 
EPioRAPHA,  Old  Testament.) 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  committed  to  the 

use  of  the  Apociypha  as  Scripture  by  the  dedacD 

of  the  Council  of  Trent  at  the  fourth 

3.  The  session.  In  order  to  get  a  nonnal 
Roman  text  for  purposes  of  quotation,  a  Bible 
Catholic  was  published  in  Rome  in  1592  under 
Church,     the  order  and  care  of  the  pope.    In 

it  is  given  Jerome's  remark,  that  the 
additions  to  Esther  and  Daniel  which  are  printed 
are  not  in  the  Hebrew  text;  and  in  smaUer  type 
the  candid  annoimoement  is  prefaced  to  the  Prayer 
of  Manasses  and  the  Third  and  Fourth  Books  of 
Ezra,  that,  while  it  is  true  they  are  not  in  the  Scrip- 
ture canon  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  they  are  stiD 
included  because  they  are  quoted  occasionaUy  by 
certain  of  the  Fathers,  and  are  found  both  in  printed 
and  manuscript  copies  of  the  Latin  Bible.  The 
decree  of  the  council  was  not  passed  without  oppo- 
sition; and  later  Roman  Catholics,  such  as  Da 
Pin,  Diasertation  priliminaire  au  prol^gomhiea  sur  k 
Bt5fe,  Paris,  1699;  and  B.  Lamy,  Apparatm  hiblietUj 
II.  V.  333,  Lyons,  1723,  have  endeavored  to  estab- 
lish two  classes  of  canonical  books — the  proto- 
canonical  and  the  deuterocanonical — attributing 
to  the  first  a  dogmatic,  and  to  the  second  only  an 
ethical  authority;  but  this  distinction  contravenes 
the  decision  of  Trent,  and  has  found  little  support 
In  eariy  times  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  many 
distinguished  three  kinds  of  writings,  the  canon- 
ical, recognised,  and  apocryphal.  So  the  *'  Easter 
Epistle  "  of  Athanasius.  The  synods  of  Constan- 
tinople (1638),  Jassy  (1642),  and  Jerusalem  (1672) 
expressly  reject  the  view  of  Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch 

of  Constantinople,  and  others,  which 

4.  The      distinguishes  the  canonical  form  from 
Greek      the  apocryphal.     And  the  last,  which 

Church,  is  the  most  important  in  the  histoiy 
of  the  Eastern  Church,  defined  its 
position  in  regard  to  the  Apocrypha  in  the  answer 
to  the  third  question  appended  to  the  Confession  of 
DositheuSf  in  which  it  expressly  mentions  Wisdom, 
Judith,  Tobit,  History  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  His- 
tory of  Susannah,  the  Maccabees  (four  books),  and 
E^clesiasticus  as  canonical.  Reuss  {Geschichte  der 
heiligen  Schriften,  §338,  Brunswick,  1878)  says 
that  the  official  Moscow  edition  of  the  Bible  of 
1831  has  all  the  Apocrypha,  Ezra,  in  both  recen- 
sions, with  Neh.  and  I-IV  Mace,  at  the  end  of  the 
historical  books,  the  Prophets  before  the  seven 
Poetical  or  Wisdom  books.  But  the  "  Longer  Cate- 
chism" of  Philaret  (Moscow,  1839),  the  most  au- 
thoritative doctrinal  standard  of  the  orthodox 
Greco-Russian  Church,  expressly  leaves  out  the 
apocryphal  books  from  its  list  on  the  ground  that 
*'  they  do  not  exist  in  the  Hebrew  "  (cf.  Schaff, 
Creeds,  ii.  451).    See  Eastern  Church,  III.,  §9. 

The  Lutheran  symbols  do  not  give  any  express 
declaration  against  the  Apocrypha,  Nevertheless, 
they  are  denied  dogmatic  value.  Luther  transla- 
ted them,  not,  however.  III  and  IV  Eira,and 
recommended  them  for  private  reading,  except- 


ENCYCLOPEDU 


Canofi  of  Serlptnre 


ing  Banich  and  II  Mace.  In  the  first  complete 
editioo  of  the  Bible  (Zurich,  1530)  the  Apocrj'pha 

stood  at  the  end.     With    this    agree 

5.  The      the  deciaiona  of   the  other  Refomied 

Protestant  churches:  the   "Gallican  Confession/^ 

Church.      1559,  U   3,   4;    "  Bdgic  Confession/' 

15G1,  SI  4-^;  •*Thirty-mne  Articles;'' 
1562,  S  6  (cf.  Schiiff,  Creeds  of  Christendom,  lliX 
The  Book  of  Com  mo  u  Pmyer  contains  readings 
from  the  Apocrj^iha  and  especial  recommeadatjon 
of  portions  of  Wisdom  and  8irach.  At  the  Sjiicxl 
of  Dort  (1618)>  Go  mams  and  others  raiBcd  an 
atiimated  discussion  by  demanding  the  exclusion 
of  the  apacryphal  Ezra,  Tobit,  Judith,  and  Bel 
and  the  Dragon  from  the  Bible.  This  the  aynod 
refused  to  do,  although  apeaking  strongly  against 
the  Apocrypha.  Similarly  opposed  to  them  wan 
the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divinea,  1647,  Con- 
fmaum  of  Faithf  i,  3;  the  Arminians,  Corifessifi 
*  .  .  pastorumj  qui  .  .  .  re7no7ist ranter  vocantur,  i, 
3,  6;  the  Sociniana  (Ostorodt,  Unterrkhlung  von 
den  vomehmsten  Hauptpunckteri  diT  chriAiUchen 
Religion f  Rakau,  16(14)  and  the  Mennonitea  (Johann 
Rifl,  Pfoecipuorum  ChrutianGt  fidei  ariiculorum 
bre^  confessiOf  xxix.)  agree  with  the  other  Protea- 
tantA.  For  history  of  the  relation  of  the  Bible 
societies  to  the  AjKieiypba,  aee  Bible  SoctEfiEd. 
For  the  Apocrypha  in  general,  see  Apocrypha. 

6.  The  Names  of  the  Old  Testament  and  of  Its 
Chief  Divisions:  (a)  Hebrew*  Neh,  viii.  8  has  the 
expression  Mikra,  '*  Reading/'  which  here  must 
sigtiify  the  Law,  Dun.  ix.  2  lias  Sepkerim,  *'the 
Books  ";  Kii£b€  haHodesh,  '*  the  Holy  Writings/'  is 
Talraudic.  The  division  into  three  parts  ij*  coiiimon 
in  the  Talmud, with  the  names  IWah,  Nehhnm,imd 
Kethubhimt  **  Law,  Frophcta,  and  Writings,"  with 
the  abbreviation  TXK.  Often  the  whole  is  em- 
braced in  the  term  Torah.  The  first  part  in  named 
also  **The  Five  Fifths  of  the  Law."  The  first 
part  of  the  prophetical  canon  is  called  "  the  Former 
Prophets  ";  the  second  part "  the  Latter  Prophets/' 
The  third  part  of  the  canon  is  known  as  "  the 
Writings  **  and  "  the  Sacred  Writings."  The  Song 
of  Sol.,  Ruth,  Lam.,  Eccles.,  and  Esther  are  classed 
together  as  MegiUot, ''  Rolls/'  Tiie  second  and  tliird 
parts  are  often  named  together  as  the  kabbalah. 

(b)  Greek-  It  may  be  concluded  that  by  the  time 
of  the  translator  of  Ecclus.  the  words  *'  the  Books  " 
were  in  use,  sinoe  he  speaks  of  "  the  other  p^ooks]/' 
"  the  rest  [of  the  books]. *'  In  the  New  Testament 
tbey  are  called  **  the  Scripture,"  '*  Holy "  or 
"Sacred  Writings'*:  the  Pentateuch  is  calleti  **the 
Old  Covenant  "  in  II  Cor.  iii.  14.  Among  the  Greek 
Fathers  the  following  names  are  used:  **  The  Books 
of  the  Old  Covenant,'*  "  The  Sacred  (Holy)  Wri- 
tings of  the  Old  Covenant,"  the  "  Old  Covenant/' 
*'  the  Twenty-two  Books  of  the  Old  Covenant/' 
'*  the  Covenant  Books/'  and  "Law  and  Prophets." 

(c)  Latin,  Vetus  (eslamentum  translates  Hebr. 
berUhf  '* covenant";  instr^Amentum,  totum  instru- 
wnentum  utriumfue  testatnenii,  vetus  scriptura,  vdus 
lex.  and  v^terts  Itgis  /tW  are  used.    (H.  L.  Stiiack.) 

n.  The  Canon  of  the  ITew  Testament. — 1.  The 
Term  a  Used:  Mongsidt*  the  word  canon,  exjiressiiig 
the  idea  of  the  collection  of  scriptures,  were  itscil 
±hc   terms   **  covenant "    (derived   from   the   Old 


Testament,  Ex*  xxiv*  27),  "  Scripture  "  or  *'  Scrip- 
tures "  with  the  qualifying  wonU  "holy/'  "sa- 
cred," "  divine/'  or  "  of  the  Lortl,"  also  *'  Law 
and  Gospel,"  *'  Prophets  tmd  Apostles/'  The  word 
tJidiathckoH^  "  contained  in  the  covenant,"  was  oi>- 
posed  to  apokrt/phoSf  **  apocryphal/'  the  former 
word  often  containing  the  meaning  *^  used  in  public 
fler^ice." 

2.  The  Now  l!e»tament,  170-220:  Since  there 
are  at  command  no  specific  reports  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  New  Testament,  an  examination  of 
the  fact^  which  may  throw  light  upon  the  problem 
must  be  made  in  order  to  discover  that  origin. 
A  starting-point  is  found  in  the  period  of  the  con- 
teat  between  the  Gnostic  sects,  particularly  the 
Marcionites  and  the  Valentinions,  and  the  ortho- 
dox. The  Montanistic  movement  was  under  way 
during  this  period,  though  it  wa^*  concerned  not 
80  much  with  the  New  Testament  as  with  its  own 
objects.  The  Church  had  a  New  Testament  already 
commonly  so  called,  over  against  the  Montanistic 
contention  of  a  new  period  of  prophecy  alre^vdy 
openetl  which  was  to  lead  the  way  to  a  wider  devel- 
opment. The  Church  regarded  the  age  of  revelation 
as  closed  with  the  death  of  the  last  8ur\i\ing 
apostle  anil  the  canon  of  the  New  Te^itaiiient  as  com* 
pleted,  though  discussion  still  went  on  as  to  the 
inclusion  of  some  books  therein.  In  opposition 
to  Marcion  and  Montanua  the  Church  had  the 
feeling  that  it  had  an  inviolable  po^ession  in 
the  two  Testaments,  and  the  Montanist  himself 
distinguished  them  from  the  body  of  '*  new 
prophecy." 

Opposed  to  the  gospel  which  Marcion  prepared 
for  his  communities,  to  the  Evangelium  verUaiis 
used  by  the  Valentiniana  alongside  the  four  Gos- 
pels of  the  Church,  to  the  discarding 
I.  The  Four  of  the  Johanneau  Gospel  by  the  Alogi» 
Gospels,  and  to  the  exclusive  use  of  Matthew  or 
Mark  by  other  parties  of  the  Church, 
is  the  statement  of  Irenajus  that  the  spirit  wliich 
created  the  world  had  given  to  the  Church  its  gos- 
pel in  fourfold  form  {H err, ^  III.  xi.  8)1  to  violate 
which  was  a  sin  against  God's  revelation  and  spirit. 
The  unity  of  these  is  asserted  in  the  designation 
of  them  as  "  the  Goapel  "  (in  the  singular),  and 
in  the  titles  "  the  Gospel  acoordijDg  to  Matthew/' 
etc.  Clement  of  Alexandria  in  his  discxisaion  of 
the  origin  of  the  Gospels  dealt  only  with  the  four. 
Recollection  waa  soon  lo«t  of  the  fact  that  a  gospel 
not  among  the  four  had  striven  to  be  retained  in 
use  in  public  service,  and  that  one  of  the  four  had 
had  to  win  its  place  among  them.  But  even  the 
Alogi  did  not  deny  that  the  Fourth  Gospel  belonged 
t«  the  age  of  John  and  had  ever  since  been  in  the 
Church.  Tatian's  preparation  for  the  Syrians  of 
the  "  Diatessaron  "  witnesses  by  its  very  title  to 
the  fact  that  for  an  ecclesiastical  book  of  the  Gos- 
pels no  other  sources  than  the  four  were  conceivable. 
The  very  pcnnission  given  by  »Serapion  of  Antioch 
(c.  2LH))  to  certain  of  his  parinhioners  to  read  a 
gos[>el  calletl  tliat  of  Peter,  wtiich  he  gave  without 
reading  the  book  and  through  ct»nfiilence  in  thenj, 
really  speaks  for  the  same  set  of  facts,  as  does  the 
subsequent  annulment  of  the  permission.  Origen 
sums  up  the  practise  of  that  period  in  the  saying: 


Oanon  of  Scripture 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


894 


"  The    Church    values    only    the    four    Gospels " 
(/  Ham.  in  Lucam). 

Generally  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul  were  received. 

If  in  the  Muratorian  Canon  the  reception  of  four 

private  letters  is  justified,  it  appears  to  have  been 

caused  less  by  a  recollection  of  a  late 

2.  The      introduction  of  them  into  public  serv- 

Pauline     ice  than  through    a    thought-process 

Letters,     of   the    author,    equating   the   seven 

letters  of  Paul  to  the  communities  in 

83rmbolical  fashion  with  the  letters  to  the  seven 

churches  of  the  Apocalypse.     No  statement  can 

be  made  regarding  any  favorable  feeling  for  the 

letters  to  the  Laodiceans  and  the  Alexandrians 

there  rejected.     Great  difference  of  opinion  existed 

as  to  Hebrews.    The  Alexandrians  regarded  it  as 

Pauline,    and    Origen    supposed    it    substantially 

Pauline  through  one  of  Paul's  disciples,  a  position 

which  was  widely  adopted  in  the  eastern  Church. 

But  the  western  Church  disputed  its  Paulinity, 

while  holding  it  in  high  esteem.     This  was  the  case 

in  Lyons,  Rome,  and  Carthage.      In  the  Monta- 

nistic  and  Novatian  Churches  there  was  a  decided 

tendency  to  ascribe  it  to  Barnabas. 

Of  the  Book  of  Acts  all  that  need  be  said  is  that 
its  name,  its  general  recognition  as  of  Lucan  author- 
ship, its  position  between  the  Gos- 
3.  The  Acts  pels  and  the  Pauline  Epistles  in  the 
of  the      Muratorian  Canon,  its  abimdant  use 
Apostles,    by   Irenseus,    Tertullian,  and   others, 
and  the   condemnation  by  Tertullian 
of  Marcion  for  rejecting  it   speak  abundantly  for 
its  canonicity. 

The  strongest  proofs  are  found  of  the  reception 
of  the  Apocalypse  by  all  parts  of  the  Church.  It 
was  cited  by  Theophilus  of  Antioch  about  180,  and 
by  the  church  of  Lyons  in  177,  as  "  Holy  Scrip- 
ture." Neither  Irenseus  nor  the  Muratorian  Canon 
regard  any  defense  of  it  as  necessary. 

4.  The      As  against  the  high  value  attached 
Apocalypse,  to  it  by  the  Montanists,   the  Alogi 

scornfully  criticized  it  as  the  work 
of  Cerinthus.  Caius  of  Home  assumed  this  atti- 
tude also,  and  Hippolytus  defended  it  against  him. 
But  the  general  feeling  of  the  catholic  Church  was 
that  the  book  was  inspired,  written  about  95  a.d., 
and  properly  closed  the  New  Testament. 

The  position  of  the  Catholic  Epistles  about  200 
was  a  very  varied  one,  though  about  300  they  were 
known  as  one  division  of  the  New  Testament.  II 
and  III  John  must  have  been  attached  to  I  John, 

if  their  history  in  the  Church  and  their 

5.  The  preservation  are  understood.  Testi- 
Catholic  mony  to  II  John  comes  from  Irena>us 
Epistles,     and  Clement  of  Alexandria;   that  III 

John  was  not  treated  by  Clement 
does  not  really  damage  the  case.  The  doubt  which 
stood  in  the  way  of  the  unconditional  recognition 
of  II  and  III  John  was  soon  banished.  It  is  almost 
certain  that  the  Muratorian  Canon  designated  the 
two  lesser  epistles  as  recognized.  Where  it  was  not 
known  that  the  Apostle  John  was  by  his  disciples 
called  "  the  Elder,"  there  was  likelihood  of  the 
authorship  of  those  two  being  questioned  on  the 
matter  of  genuineness.  Their  brevity  was  against 
both  frequent  citation  and  frequent  use  in  public 


and  equally  against  serious  question.  Jude,  as 
one  of  the  Catholic  Epistles,  was  the  subject  of 
conunent  by  Clement  of  Alexandria.  The  Mura- 
torian Canon  quoted  it  as  received.  Tertullian 
cited  it  as  the  convincing  writing  of  an  apostie, 
though  Origen  remarked  that  it  was  not  generally 
received.  In  the  fourth  century  it  was  amoog 
the  antilegomena  (Eusebius,  Hist,  ecd..  III.  zxv.  3). 
Th«  canonicity  which  it  had  in  the  earlier  tima 
was  later  lost  for  it  in  a  wide  circle  of  the  Church. 
James,  though  read  in  the  West  in  early  times  and 
known  probably  both  to  Irenseus  and  to  Hippolytus, 
was  until  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  not  in 
the  New  Testament  of  the  western  Church.  The 
Canon  Muratori  is  silent;  among  the  Greeks  of 
the  East  it  was  among  the  g^erally  recognixd 
scriptures.  Though  Origen  placed  it  among  the 
antileffomena,  in  Codex  Cktromontanua  it  staDdi 
before  I  John.  A  noteworthy  fact  is  that  Metbodiuf 
mistakenly  ascribed  it  to  Paul.  In  325  it  was  by 
many  considered  not  genuine  and  Ehisebius  put  it 
among  the  antilegomena  (HisL  ecd..  III.  xxv.  3). 
The  general  recognition  of  I  Peter  about  the  yetr 
200  is  vouched  for  by  Irensus,  the  Epistle  of  Lyom, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and  Hippolytus. 
The  silence  of  the  Muratorian  Canon  would  have 
been  inexplicable,  and  to  it  must  refer  the  renaaik 
that  a  letter  of  Peter  is  received  as  is  the  Apoca- 
lypse. Against  II  Peter  there  were  many  protests. 
At  Rome  it  was  not  unknown,  but  was  not  on  the 
same  footing  as  I  Peter.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
Iremeus  knew  it.  Origen's  personal  opinion  wu 
favorable,  but  he  recorded  a  divided  opinion  in  the 
Church  concerning  the  letter.  In  the  East  its 
position  was  different  from  that  of  I  Peter  in  that 
there  it  was  not  a  New  Testament  book  (Eusebius, 
Hist  ecd,,  IV.  xxv.  8).  As  late  as  380  Didymus 
pronounced  it  uncanonical  and  the  Syrians  deter- 
minedly rejected  it.  Of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas 
it  may  be  said  that  Clement  of  Alexandria  eeema 
to  have  included  it  among  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  Origen.  Codex  Claromontanva 
puts  it  after  the  seven  Cathob'c  Epistles  and  before 
Revelation.  It  is  pertinent  here  to  remark  that 
the  first  and  second  Epistles  of  Clement  are  by  the 
Canones  Apostolorum,  Ixxxv.,  put  between  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the  Didache.  I  Gement 
is  elsewhere  given  as  a  Catholic  Epistle;  at  Corinth 
it  was  used  occasionally  in  public  service,  a  usa^ 
which  spread  to  Alexandria  and  to  S3nia.  It  was 
cited  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  by  Origen. 
But  its  connection  with  the  New  Testament  was 
less  firm  even  than  that  of  Barnabas;  in  the  West 
it  was  not  considered  as  of  the  canon,  and  Irencus 
seems  to  have  employed  it  as  belonging  to  the  sub- 
apostolic  age. 

The  Shepherd  of  Hermas  was  used  as  scripture 
by  Irenffius,  Clement   of  Alexandria,  and  in  An- 
tioch.    At  the  beginning  of  the  third 
6.  Writings  century  there  was  in    Catholic  and 
Temporarily  Montanistic    circles    a    loosening  of 
Regarded    the  connection  between  this  book  and 
as  Canonical,  the   canon.    Tertullian,  contrary  to 
his    earlier    practise,   owing    to    the 
laxity  of   discipline   attributed  to  this  book,  de- 
clared that  it  should  be  regarded  as  apocryphal 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


nd   even  The  Muratorian  Canon  ex- 

Auded  it  ti'^iu  iiit-  negulur  and  public  reading  of 
ho  Scriptures,  though   ita  perusal   was  pennitteil 
ad  even  eojoined,     Tliia  waii  the    first  attempt 
form  a  secoudary  canon.     There  are  two  Latin 
slationa  of  the  book,  and  an  unknown  Roman 
shop  cited  it  as   scripture,  while  Novatian  and 
Qodian  Inilorsed    it,  an<l  the  Latin  Liturgi^ 
ita  influence.     Yet  by  an  ecclesiastical  de- 
rion  about  21X^-2lO  the  Shepherd  wa-i  set  out«kie 
tie  canon.     While  Clement  of  Alexandria  did  not 
!iclude  the  Shepherd  in  his  brief  commentary^  he 
lid  treat  the  ApocahT^ee  of  Pet^^r,  a  little  book  of 
"  Dut  3CK)  lines,     Thia  book  closed  the  canon  of 
Uodex  Cl^iroTnontunuii  ;   but  the  Armenian  List  put 
among  the  Apocrypha,  and  Eusebius  {HM.  ecd. , 
T*  XXV.  4,   cf,  iii.  2)  declared  against  its  genuine- 
Sozomen  says  that  it  was  u^ed  as  late  as 
f  in  Palestine  at  Easter,     The  Didache  was  cited 
nd  used  as  scripture  by  dement  and  Origen,  and 
iuring  the  next  century  this  was  its  status  in  Egypt, 
lluaebius  (Hist,  eccl^t  lU.  xxw  4)  put  it  among  the 
^egomena  of  the  second  grade.     It  waa  known 
the  neighborhood  of  Antioch  and  in  the  West, 
be    apocryphal  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  often 
ftd  in  the  early  Church  without  question.     The 
lets  of  Paul  came  the  nearest  to  winning  canonical 
kuthority^  and    received    favorable    notice    from 
Clement  and  Tcrtulhan, 

ITlie  New  Testament  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Church  of  170-220  included  as  in  quite  definite 
authority  the  four  Gospela,  thirteen  letters  of  Paul, 
Revelation,  I  Peter,  I  John  (to  which  were  attached 
,  II  and  III  John),  probably  also  Jude. 

p,  SummAjy,  Up  to  210  the  Shepherd  waa  also  in- 
I  eluded.     On    the    other    hand,  there 

mere  questionings  about  James,  Hebrews,  11  Peter^ 
5lhe  ApocaljT^se  of  Peter,  the  Didache,  Barnabas, 
1  atid  II  Clementt  Acts  of  Paul,  and  the  Shepherd. 
The  polemic  against  Marcion,  the  Gnostics,  and  the 
Alog]   brought  the  discussion  of  the  New  Testa- 
^—Bient  canon  to  a  focus  about  the  time  of  Iren^eya 
^■ind  Clement  of  Alexandria.     There  was  yet  lacking 
^^hat  defimteness  of  organization  of  all  the  churches 
wliich   alone  could  secure  uniformity.     The   New 
Tentament  of  about  200  was  not  the  result  of  a 
revolution   occurring  150-170,  but  of  a  broad  de- 
velopment which  was   many-sided.     The   nharply 
bounded  canon  of  Marcion  had  pointe^i  the  w^ay 
,io  a  definiteness  in   canonicity  which  the  Church 
raa  sooai  to  follow. 
3.  The  New    Te»tamont,   140-170:     Valentinufl 
1  founded  his  school  which  had  divided  into  many 
and  spread  from  the  Rhone  to  the  Tigris 
,  rich  literary  activity  and  yet  a  general  con- 
of  action.     I^Iarcion  founded  his  church  at 
iome  after  he  had  separated  from  the  catholic 
Church  probably  about  147.    Alongside  the  polemic 
nst   these   movements.  Christian   writers  were 
ed  in  the  apologetic  of  the  Church  which  was 
go  before   the  pagan   nilers  and   populations, 
apologetic,  however,  found  far  less  occasion  to 
Jeal   with  the  Christian  Scriptures  than  did   the 
Twri  tings  against  the  heretics. 

Knowledge  of  Marcion's  Bible  is  due  chiefly  to 
Teittillian,  who  claimed  to  use  as  a  weapon  against 


the  heretic  his  own  New  Testament,  and  so  came  to 
traverse  the  latter  from  beginning  to  end.  After 
Tcrtullian  as   a  source  of    knowledge  comes   Epi- 

phanius  (//at.,  xlii.)*  and  a  number  of 

I,  Marcion*B  citations  from  Greeks  and  Syrians  up 

Bible,       to  the  fifth  century  w^hich  enable  one 

to  reconstruct  quite  securely  Marcion^s 
canon.  Marcion  issued  not  only  his  New  Testa- 
men  i  but  also  his  Ant  it  hems  as  a  defense  of  his 
dogmatic  position  and  of  his  critical  edition  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  this  became  the  doctrinal 
basis  of  his  Church,  which  was  studied  by  Tcrtul- 
lian, Ephraem  Syrus,  and  others.  His  Bible  con- 
sisted of  a  "  Gospel  "  and  an  '*  Apostle/'  both 
anonymous.  Since  Paul  seemed  to  Iiim  the  one 
preacher  of  an  miadulterated  gOvspel,  his  "  Apostle  " 
embraced  ten  epistles  of  Paul  and  in  the  following 
order:  Gal.,  I  and  II  Cor.,  Rom.,  I  and  11  Thess., 
Laodiceans  (i.e.,  Eph.),  Col.,  Phil.,  Pliilem.  It  is 
of  course  evident  tliat  this  collection  must  have 
been  received  by  him  from  the  Church.  He  sought 
to  show  that  the  letter  to  the  Ephesians  was  the 
letter  to  the  Laodiceana  mentioned  in  Col.  iv.  16. 
Galatians  he  esi>ecially  prized  because  of  the  anti- 
Judaic  polemic  it  contains.  I  and  II  Tim.  and 
Titus  he  discarded  as  private  letters,  Pliilemon  waa 
admitted  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a  letter  to  a  church 
in  a  household,  and  this  alone  was  left  intact  and 
unedited.  For  the  criticism  of  the  writings  he 
received  he  dependeii  neither  upon  historic  tra- 
dition nor  on  testimonies  to  historicity;  his  basis 
was  Ins  own  subjective  conception  of  Tvhat  true 
Christianity  was  and  what  the  Pauline  Gospel 
was;  from  thia  standpoint  proceedetl  ail  his  text- 
criticism.  That  he  recognized  the  Gospel  of  Luke, 
the  basis  of  his  o'wn,  as  the  work  of  one  of  the  Paul- 
ine school  is  shown  by  liis  elimination  of  the  wortls 
"  the  beloved  physician  "  in  Col.  iv.  14.  His  gos- 
fjel,  so  far  as  its  text  can  be  made  out,  proves  that 
he  had  before  him  tlie  thirtl  Gospel,  and  tliis,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  long  association  with  the  first  and 
second  Gospels,  had  received  amplifications  of  its 
text  from  them.  But  no  trace  of  influence  due  to 
extracanonical  Gospels  upon  Marcion  has  ever  been 
shown.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  canon  of  the 
Gospels  of  the  Church  at  Rome  from  about  140 
on  was  our  four  Gospels.  Marcion*8  canon  of  the 
epistles  coincides  with  that  of  the  Muratorian 
Canon.  It  is  natural  that  he  should  place  no  value 
upon  the  letters  of  Peter,  John,  or  James,  the  last- 
named  especially  in  view  of  Gal.  li.  9,  12»  Acts  and 
Rev.  he  appears  to  have  expressly  rejected.  In 
comparison  with  the  ecclcaiaatical  New^  Testament 
not  only  of  his  times  but  of  the  next  two  centuries 
with  its  varying  boundaries  and  its  variant  text, 
the  Marcion  canon  is  a  sharply  drawn  work  of  art 
in  miniature,  though  it  was  the  work  of  an  arbitrary 
lawgiver. 

What  Marcion  accomplished  with  knife  and 
eraser  the  Valentinians  sought  to  do  by  means  of 
expoeition.  Since  they  had  not  voluntarily  sep- 
arated from  the  Church,  but  merely  distinguished 
themselv^  from  the  communes  ecctcsiastici ,  they 
had  no  objection  to  raise  to  the  common  ©di* 
tion  of  the  "  Prophet*  and  Apostles.*'  They 
needed  no  special  Bible.      They  used  the  GospeU 


Oaaon  of  Soriptnre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


896 


freely,  particularly  the  Fourth.    Apart  from  the 

prologue  to  this  last,  the  structure  of  the  series  of 

eons  of  Valentinus  are  unintelligible. 

2.  The  Heraclion  commented  on  all  four  of  the 
Bible    of    Gospels.    In  the  different  branches  of 

the  Valen-  this  sect  Eph.,  Col.,  and  I  Cor.  were 
tinians.     especially  valued,  but  Rom.,  II  Cor., 

Phil.,  and  Gal.  were  also  used.  In 
their  criticism  of  the  Gospels  they  laid  stress 
upon  a  secret  tradition.  They  used  also  an  Evan- 
gelium  veriiati8,  a  fifth  Gospel,  which  probably 
contained  the  sum  of  apocryphal  tradition,  derived, 
according  to  Serapion,  not  from  the  Docetes  but 
from  their  precursors.  The  Gospel  of  Peter  may 
have  arisen  about  150  from  the  eastern  branch  at 
Antioch  as  did  the  Evanffdium  verUatis  among  the 
western  school  of  Valentinians.  To  a  branch  of 
the  Valentinian  school  of  Asia  Minor  belonged 
Leudus,  the  author  of  the  Acts  of  Peter  and  John. 
They  probably  used  also  the  Gospel  of  the  Infancy. 
Leucius  wrote  also  a  "  Joumeyings  of  John,"  sug- 
gested by  the  "  Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches  "  of 
Revelation.  In  short,  the  foundation  of  the  canon 
of  the  most  important  schools  of  Gnostics,  140-170, 
is  that  of  the  Church  of  200,  only  that  these  **  men 
of  the  spirit "  used  alongside  of  the  canonical  wri- 
tings a  mass  of  other  traditions  and  poetical  and 
subjective  creations  which  were  not  employed 
among  the  orthodox. 

In  his  short  description  of  the  Sunday  service  as 
observed  by  Christians  in  city  and  country,  Justin 
names  as  taking  the  first  place  the  reading  of 

the  "  Memorabilia  of  the   Apostles," 

3.  The  "  which  are  called  Gospels  "  (I  Apol- 
ApostoUc  ogy,  Ixvi.-lxvii.,  ANF,  i.  185-186), 
Writings  and  the  "  collection  of  the  Prophets." 
in  Justin     "  Gospel  "  in  the  singular  is  also  used 

Martyr,  by  the  Jew  Trypho  and  by  Justin  as  a 
collective.  Out  of  deference  for  his 
readers  who  were  not  acquainted  with  the  term 
"  gospel,"  Justin  conmionly  used  the  term  Apo- 
mnemoneumataf  '*  Memorabilia."  While  generally 
such  memorabilia  took  their  name  from  the  author, 
Justin  named  these  from  the  subject,  "  The  Memo- 
rabilia of  our  Savior."  As  under  the  term  "  proph- 
ets "  the  whole  Old  Testament  is  included,  the 
term  memorabilia  in  Justin  may  include  the  New 
Testament  writings.  The  answer  to  the  question 
what  gospels  are  meant  has  long  been,  those  com- 
monly used  about  150  in  the  places  Justin  visited 
or  lived  in,  in  Ephesus  and  Rome,  in  the  public 
service  and  known  as  the  product  of  the  Apostles  or 
their  disciples.  Trypho  (Dialogue,  x.)  speaks  of 
the  "  so-called  gospel  "  as  a  totality,  a  unit.  They 
can  be  no  other  than  what  Marcion  criticized  and 
Valentinians  so  fully  employed.  In  one  place 
Justin  expressly  discriminated  between  the  Apostles 
and  their  disciples  in  a  passage  which  goes  back  to 
Luke  xxii.  44  (Dialogue,  ciii.).  He  named  the 
second  Gospel  "  The  Recollections  of  Peter,"  a 
designation  which  implies  the  old  tradition  of  the 
connection  of  this  Gosjk'I  with  that  apostle.  What 
has  partly  or  entirely  produced  the  idea  that  Jus- 
tin's "  memorabilia  "  are  not  the  Gospels  of  the 
Church  is  first  the  looseness  and  inexactness  of 
quotation,  and  second  the  material  additions  of 


facts  or  reports  grounds  for  which  are  not  fouiid 
in  the  Gospels.  But  in  Justin's  citations  exBctsksa 
is  no  more  to  be  expected  than  in  Clement's;  and 
much  that  appears  apocryphal  to  us  may  have  been 
read  in  the  Gospels  of  his  time.  Justin  regarded 
Revelation  as  the  work  of  the  iqx>BtIe  John  and  as  a 
true  testimony  of  Christian  prophecy.  Investigation 
of  his  writings  shows  contact  of  Justin  with  Rom., 
I  Cor.,  Gal.,  Eph.,  Col.,  II  Theas.,  Heb.,  I  Pfet., 
Acts  and  the  Didache:  more  questionably  with 
Phil.,  Titus,  I  Tim.,  and  James. 

4.  The  Oldest  Timoes  and  the  Origin  of  CoUeo- 
tioiui  of  Apostolio  WrittnflTs :  From  the  preceding 
array  of  facts  it  appears  that  by  140  in  the  entire 
circle  of  the  cathoUs  Church  the  collection  com- 
prising the  four  Gospels  and  thirteen  Epistles  of 
Paul  were  read  alongside  of  the  Old  Testament 
writings,  and  that  in  one  part  or  another  of  the 
Chm*ch  other  writings  such  as  Acts,  Rev.,  Heb., 
I  Pet.,  James,  and  the  Epistles  of  John  were  held 
in  like  honor. 

The  collection  of  Pauline  letters  seems  to  go 

back  to  the  first  century,  judging  from  I  Clement, 

the  Ignatian  Epistles,  and  Polycarp.    The  bishope 

of  Smyrna  and  Antioch  had  a  knowledge  of  Paul 

which    involved    acquaintance    with 

I.  The      his  letters,  and  the  way  in  which  they 

Collection   employ  them  shows  that  the  letters 
of  Pauline  were  before  them.     Polycarp  advised 

Letters,     the  Philippians  to  read  Paul's  letters 
for  edification;    Ignatius  knew  Eph. 
under  the  title  used  later  by  Marcion  as  part  of  an 
ecclesiastical  collection.     Polycarp  included  PhiL 
and  Thess.  in  a  group  directed  to  the  Macedonians 
just  as  Tertullian  knew  them  a  oentuiy  later. 
Clement  seems  to  make  the  collection  begin  with 
I  Cor.,  an  order  which  the  Muratorian  Canon  sup- 
ports, closing  with  Rom.     This  aggregation,  which 
contained  also  the  order  Phil.-Thcss.  and  the  title 
"  to  the  Ephesians,"  has  every  claim  to  originality 
and  to  have  circulated  before  97.     That  there  was 
an  interchange  of  letters  among  the  churches  before 
this  collection  was  made  is  clear  from  Col.  iv.  16, 
but  the  circulation  and  use  implied  in  II  Pet.  iii.  15 
involve   a  collection   in  one  manuscript,  perhaps 
not  official  but  private.    The  passage  lost  cited 
implies  a  Pauline  letter  to  Jewish  Christians,  and 
I  Cor.  V.  9  and  Phil.  iii.  1  imply  other  letters  of 
Paul  which  have  not  survived.    These  facts  suggest 
a  deliberate  selection  from  the  available  letters  of 
Paul,  made  probably  in  some  important  center  of 
Christianity,  which  came  into  general  use  and  was 
seen  to  be  available  for  public  service.    But  the 
settlement  of  the  order  of  arrangement  implies 
that  the  collection  was  made  very  early,  soon  aft4?r 
the  death  of  Paul.     Where  this  was  done  can  not 
be  stated,  though  the  placing  of  I  and  II  Cor.  at 
the  head  suggests  Corinth.     Rome  is  also  to  be 
thought  of  OS  explaining  the  closing  of  this  col- 
lection with  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

The  word  euaggelion,  which,  150-200,  designated 
the  collection  of  four  Gospels,  is  frequently  found 
in  the  earlier  literature  so  used  that  by  it  must  be 
meant  a  written  exposition  of  the  words  and  deeds 
of  Jesus  in  possession  of  the  churches  and  gener- 
ally known  to  the  communities  (^Didache,  viii.  2; 


//  Clem,,  viu.  5;     Ignatius^  Smijrna,    \\  I;  Phila- 
kiphiaf  viii.  2),     That  **  Gosjjel  *'  wits  the  authori- 
tative document.     The  general  knowl- 
2,  The      edge     of    its    contents     involves     its 

**Go§peL"   regular  use  in  public  service.     It  wtis 
cited   with    the    fomiula    **  the    Lord 

lys,"  with  or  without  the  addition  **  in  the  Gos- 
pel/' and  with  the  formula  (used  with  Olil  Testament 
citations)  "  it  is  written/'  But  what  was  this 
*'  Gospel  "?  A  clear  understanding  of  what  it  was 
existed  between  the  writers  of  the  period  90-140 
and  their  readers.  Papias  declared  that  during 
the  lifetime  of  Jolm  in  the  vicinity  of  Ephesus  a 
Gospel  of  Mark  wna  used,  and  Cerinthus,  a  con- 
teitiporary  of  John,  preferred  it  to  the  others 
(Iren^BUS,  Hctr.,  III.  xi.  7,  cf,  I.  xxvi.  1).  Papias  as- 
serted that  the  Hebrew  Matthew  was  long  used  in 
the  province  of  Asia  with  the  aid  of  oral  interpreta- 
tion until  a  Greek  version  superseded  it.  Even  the 
Fourth  Gospel  recalls  the  very  words  of  Mark  and 
Luke  (T.  Zahn,  Einleitung,  Leipsic,  1900,  pp.  505- 
506,  520).  The  spurious  passage  Mark  xvi.  9-20  is 
derived  from  Luke,  John,  and  Papias.  Tlie  earliest 
Gospels  of  the  Infancy  and  the  Gospels  of  Peter 
and  Marcion  go  back  to  the  canonical  Gospels, 
In  the  literature  of  95-140  among  a  mass  of  ordi- 
nances for  ecclesiastical  direction  only  four  gospel 
citations  are  not  traceable  to  the  four  Gospels 
{//  Ctem.,  V.  2, 4,  viii.  5,  xii.  2-6;  Ignatius,  Smyrna, 
iii.  2).  Such  uncanonical  sayings  as  these  four 
were  circulated  orally  as  well  as  in  writing;  Papiaa 
about  125  coilectetl  many  of  them.  Of  the  origin 
of  the  makiJig  of  the  Gospel  canon  there  is  no  trust- 
worthy report,  nor  can  it  be  said  where  it  took  form. 

Other  writings  which  are  found  afterward  as- 
llgned  to  the  New  Testament  were  not  unified  in 
any  one  collection  aa  were  the  Gos- 

3.  Other    pels  tuid  the  Pauline  Epistles.     They 

Writings,  appeared  first  either  as  indisputable 
or  as  debated  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
jftent  in  the  stage  it  then  had  reached.  A  very 
wide  u«e  in  cxtendetl  circles  of  the  Church  during 
public  een^ice  ia  provable  for  I  Pet.,  I  John^  Rev., 
and  the  Shephertl.  none  of  which  was  originally 
addressed  to  a  single  community. 

6.  Oriffen  and  Hia  SchcKil:  During  the  tliird 
century  the  New  Testament  underwent  no  essen- 
tial change.  The  achievement  of  Origen  was  the 
comparison  of  the  content  of  the  traditional  posses- 
sion of  various  eommunities.  His  varied  life  and 
travels  gave  him  the  opportunity  to  leam  through 
obser>'ation  existing  variations;  his  philological 
training  and  hb  decided  vocation  for  learned  work 
in  the  ser\^ice  of  the  Church  qualified  him  txD  pro- 
nounce a  discreet  judgment.  Before  217  he  was 
welcome*!  at  Rome  as  one  of  the  rising  stars  of  the 
Chiirch;  hia  travels  took  him  to  Athena,  Antioch, 
and  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  while  his  later  years 
were  spent  in  Palestine.  Students  flocked  to  him 
both  in  Alexandria  and  in  Palestine.  But  Bible  stu- 
dent though  he  was,  he  was  no  thoroughgoing  critic. 
He  quoted  Pro  v.  xxii.  28  in  reference  to  tliscussion  of 
the  canon:  tradition  spoke  for  him  the  last  wort], 
though  indeed  that  tradition  was  to  be  investigated. 
Hence  he  voiced  the  distinction  between  the  homo* 
mena^  the  writings  universally  recognised  aa 


Bcripture,  and  the  antilegomena,  or  those  more  or 
less  opjsoscd.  To  the  former,  according  to  Origen, 
bi^longed  the  four  Gospeh,  thirteen  Pauline  Epis- 
tlesj  1  Pet.,  I  .Jnhii,  Acts,  and  Rev.,  the  luist  the  clo- 
sing book  of  the  New  Testament.  To  the  latter 
belonged  lleb.,  II  Pet.,  II  and  III  John,  Jas,,  Jude, 
Barnabas,  the  Sliephcrd,  the  Did  ache,  and  the 
Gospel  of  the  Hebrews.  Hebrews  was  frequently 
cited  by  him  as  though  Paulino  and  canonical^ 
especially  in  his  earlier  writings;  and  he  defended 
its  Paulinity  rather  as  conung  through  a  member 
of  Paul's  school  than  from  Paul  himself.  II  Pet* 
was  also  frequently  cited  by  him  as  scripture, 
in  which  liis  scholar  Firmilian  followed  him.  Jas. 
was  also  frequently  cited  both  as  scripture  and  as 
**  the  apostle  James./"  Jude  appears  to  have  been 
valued  by  him,  though  not  often  appearing  in  his 
writings.  Barnabas  is  called  a  Catholic  Epistle 
and  in  tlie  Onomaaticon  is  put  with  the  other 
Catholic  Epistles.  He  regarded  the  Shepherd  as 
an  inspired  work  and  useful.  He  appears  also  to 
have  cited  the  Didache  as  scripture.  The  Gospel 
of  the  Hebrews  is  not  mentioned  in  his  list  of  the 
apocryphal  gospels;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  often 
cited  with  the  formula  he  used  when  citing  from 
such  writings.  He  sharply  discriminated  the 
Jewish-Christian  communities,  whoBa  one  gospel 
this  was,  from  the  heretical  Ebionites  on  the  ground 
that  the  former  held  fast  the  ecclesiastical  rule  of 
faith. 

The  allegorical  interpretation  by  means  of  which 
Origen  undertook  to  reconcile  the  most  divergent 
materials  and  the  most  varied  writings  and  to  unite 
them  thus  in  one  Bible  found  opposition.  The 
composition  of  Nepos,  bishop  of  Arsinoe,  **  Against 
the  Allegorists"  advanced  and  spread  a  chiliasm 
which  to  Bishop  DionyBius  of  .Alexandria  about 
260  appeared  unendurable.  To  Origen  it  apj>eared 
that  Rev.  was  written  by  an  inspired  man  of  the 
apostolic  age  named  John,  but  the  chfference  in 
stylo  and  conception  from  the  Fourth  Gospel  did 
not  allow  its  ascription  to  the  apostle.  It  was 
especially  a  book  for  the  application  of  the  alle- 
gorical method. 

6.  The  Original  Ifew  Teataineiit  of  tho  Syrians: 
On  the  beginnings  of  the  church  in  Edessa  there  is 
a  legendary  rejiort  in  Syriac,  TfiC  Doctrine  of  Addai, 
ed.  PhillipSi  London,  1876,  which  contains  some 
signi  ficant  words  about  the  books  introduced  there 
for  use  in  the  service.  Addai,  the  founder  of  the 
church  of  Edessa,  is  made  to  say  e.xpressly  that 
beside  the  Old  Testament  no  other  scriptures  shall 
be  read  tlmn  the  Go8pi?l,  the  Epistles  of  Paulf  and 
the  Acts.  And  by  the  Gos{>c!  is  doubtless  meant 
the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian.  On  the  other  hand, 
Ephraem  knew  well  the  four  Gospels,  and  a  8yrian 
canon  contained  not  the  Diatessaron  but  the  four 
GosfM^ls  in  our  order.  The  Syrian  collection  of 
the  Pauline  letters  embraced,  about  330-370,  ac- 
cording to  the  commentaries  of  Aphraates  and 
Ephrat?m.  Heb.  and  the  apocry|>hal  III  Cor.,  but 
not  Philem.  The  last-named  book  failed  to  appear 
in  the  otherwise  complete  commentary  of  Ephraem. 
A  summary  from  Sinai  gives  Philem.  at  the  end 
and  dc»ca  not  contain  HI  Cor:  on  the  other  hand, 
it  has  a  II  Phil,  which  may  be  another  name  for 


Canon  of  Sorlptore 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


896 


III  Cor.  It  is  now  known  that  this  apociyphal 
writing  is  but  a  section  out  of  the  AcU  of  Paul 
which  belongs  to  the  period  about  170  at  the  earliest. 
It  could,  therefore,  not  have  belonged  to  the  original 
Syrian  Canon.  Tatian  became  a  Christian  at  Rome, 
and,  according  to  the  legend,  the  canon  of  the  Epis- 
tles was  received  from  Rome.  Eusebius  {Hist, 
eccl.,  IV.  xxix.  6)  heard  an  obscure  report  that  there 
was  a  recension  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  by  Tatian. 
The  oldest  Syrian  text  both  of  Epistles  and  of 
Gospels  has  a  relationship  to  the  Western  text. 
The  Sinai  sununary  throws  new  light  on  the  sub- 
ject.   The  order  of  the  Epistles  there  is  Gal.,  I  and 

II  Cor.,  Rom.,  Heb.,  and  so  on,  and  just  this  is  the 
order  in  which  Ephraem  commented  upon  them 
and  it  is  the  order  of  Biardon,  and  no  one  was  more 
likely  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Biardon  than 
Tatian.  It  is  very  remarkable  too  that  in  the 
Syriac  summary  II  Tim.  is  mentioned,  but  I  Tim. 
is  omitted.  The  Sjrrian  Church  could  not  maint4un 
its  original  individuaUty.  While  before  the  time 
of  Aphraates  and  in  the  third  century  it  received 
Heb.  and  I  Tim.,  it  could  not  exclude  all  the  Cath- 
olic Epistles.  The  Syriac  translation  of  Eusebius's 
Church  History,  which  Ephraem  had  diligently 
read,  acquainted  the  Syrians  with  the  older  his- 
tory of  the  New  Testament.  Intercourse  sprang 
up  in  the  fourth  century  between  Greek  and  Syrian 
Christians,  and  Greeks  and  Greek  Bibles  appeared 
in  Edessa;  it  is,  therefore,  no  wonder  that  Ephraem 
was  familiar  with  all  the  Catholic  Epistles.  In  the 
Peshito  a  selection  was  made  of  Jas.,  I  P^.,  I  John, 
while  II  Pet.,  II  and  III  John,  Jude,  and  Rev. 
were  excluded. 

7.  Luoian  and  Biiaebiiia:  While  the  New  Tes- 
tament of  the  early  Church  in  Antioch  had  its  indi- 
viduality, the  canon  of  Chrysostom  was  exactly  that 
of  the  Peshito  and  carried  the  exclusion  of  II  and 

III  John  back  to  the  decision  of  the  Fathers.  This 
can  not  be  due  to  the  efforts  of  Eusebius,  since  he 
would  set  aside  the  Apocalypse,  but  would  recog- 
nize the  seven  Catholic  Epistles;  to  reach  the  roots 
of  the  matter,  one  must  go  back  to  the  beginning 
of  the  exegetical  school,  to  Lucian.  Report  sajrs 
that  Lucian  was  bom  in  Samosata  and  that  he 
labored  in  Edessa  before  he  became  a  priest  and 
the  founder  of  the  school  in  Antioch.  It  is  doubt- 
less true  that  he  extended  his  text-critical  work  to 
the  New  Testament,  and  that  his  recension  of  that 
as  well  as  of  the  Septuagint  was  diffused  as  far  as 
Constantinople.  So  that  the  Antiochean  school's 
text  of  about  380-450  probably  goes  back  to  Lucian 
and  was  a  compromise  between  the  Edessan  and 
the  Antiochean  traditions.  Rev.  was  excluded 
while  Jas.,  I  Pet.,  and  I  John  of  the  Catholic  Epis- 
tles were  taken  in.  This  doubtless  influenced  the 
Peshito. 

In  Palestine  the  Bible-studies  of  Origen  were 
continued  by  Pamphilus  and  Eusebius.  But 
Eusebius  was  affected  both  by  the  Origenistic 
tradition  and  by  the  Antiochean  school,  with 
representatives  of  which  he  was  connected  in  the 
debate  over  the  Trinity.  In  his  Church  History 
according  to  his  promise  he  has  diligently  given 
the  pronouncements  of  eariier  writers  about  the 
antilegomena  of  the  New  Testament,  and  also  in- 


teresting information  about  both  acknowledged 
and  doubtful  writings.  With  Origen,  he  found 
two  classes,  hamologoumena  and  antilegomena ;  but 
the  second  he  divided  into  two  sobdaases,  the  ooe 
containing  the  books  he  would  hare  acknowledged 
and  the  other  the  noUia  or  "  ^uiious."  His  table 
then  is:  (1)  Homologoumena,  the  Gospeb,  Aeti, 
fourteen  Pauline  Epistles,  I  Pet.,  I  John,  and  Be?.; 
(2)  AntiUgovMnat  (a)  the  better  sort,  Jas.,  Jude, 
II  and  III  John,  and  (b)  the  noiha.  Acts  of  Fiul, 
Shepherd,  Apocalypse  of  Peter,  Barnabas,  and  the 
Didache.  But  Eusebius's  treatment  is  not  always 
either  clear  or  consistent.  He  uses  a  tenn  enditk- 
thekos,  "  within-the-New-Testament,"  as  a  syno- 
nym of  hanu4ogoumeno8  and  appears  thereby  to 
exclude  from  the  New  Testament  the  first  cUsb  of 
the  antilegomena.  On  the  other  hand,  in  naming 
the  second  subdivision  of  the  antilegomena  "  spuri- 
ous "  he  seems  to  argue  the  genuineness  of  the  fint 
subdivision.  But  for  him  the  seven  Oatholie 
Epistles  are  a  closed  collection.  It  was  about  Rer. 
that  Ehisebius  found  it  hard  to  come  to  a  dedsioQ. 
llany  times  he  dtes  it  and  adduces  the  strongest 
testimony  for  its  ecclesiastical  importance  (HvA. 
eccl.,  IV.  xviii.  8,  xxiv.  1,  xxvi.  2,  V.  viiL  5,  xviiL 
14,  VI.  XXV.  9).  But  when  in  III.  xxiv.  18  he 
reports  the  vacillation  of  opinion  about  the  book, 
he  calls  attention  to  the  influence  of  the  Lucian 
school.  He  dtes  it  as  '*  the  so-called  Apocalypse 
of  John  "  (III.  xviii.  2,  cf.  xxxix.  6),  briefly  refera 
to  the  vituperation  of  Caius  (III.  zxviii.).  and  notes 
the  more  cautious  criticism  of  Dionysius  (VU.  xm. 
5).  His  conjecture  that  another  John  wrote  it 
he  follows  out  with  dihgenoe,  and  in  the  interest 
of  this  hypothesis  seeks  to  prove  the  existence  of 
a  presbyter  John  as  distinct  from  the  apostle.  He 
would  disrobe  the  book  of  its  apostoUc  dress  and 
remove  it  from  the  New  Testament,  though  he 
never  expressly  utters  this  decision.  On  account 
of  its  quite  universal  recognition  in  the  Church 
he  leaves  open  the  choice  between  placing  it  among 
the  hamologoumena  or  among  the  notha.  Apart 
from  this  book,  however,  his  New  Testament  is 
the  same  as  ours.  The  making  of  fifty  copies  of 
the  New  Testament  on  parchment  for  Constantine 
gave  him  an  opportunity  to  diffuse  his  opinions, 
and  the  result  showed  that  he  inclined  to  the  Lucian 
form  of  text  rather  than  to  the  Origenistic,  though 
including  therein  the  lesser  Catholic  Epistles. 

8.  Athanasias:  According  to  the  Easter  Letter 
of  367,  recently  recovered  through  a  Coptic  trans- 
lation, in  which  is  given  a  view  of  the  continuous 
undiscriminating  usage  of  all  kinds  of  Apocrypha 
as  scripture  in  the  ecclesiastical  province  where 
Athanasius  was,  there  was  afforded  him  the  oppor- 
tunity of  setting  forth  a  definitely  limited  canon 
arranged  in  order  of  books  and  in  groups.  He  was 
the  first  to  name  the  twenty-seven  books  of  the  New 
Testament  as  exclusively  canonical.  He  ignored 
the  opposition  to  which  several  of  them  had  so  long 
been  subjected,  notably  II  Pet.,  which  Didymus 
continued  to  oppose.  But  not  to  break  completely 
with  the  Alexandrian  tradition,  he  placed  in  sharp 
distinction  from  the  "  canonized "  books  and 
equally  from  the  apocryphal  ones  a  class  of  ana- 
gignoskomena.    The  Fathers  had  designated  these 


8M 


RELIGTOITS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Caiioii  of  Scrlpturtt 


I 


I 


as  to  be  placed  before  the  catet^bumens  for  their 
instruction.  They  included  Wiad.  of  Sol.t  Ecclu^., 
Esther,  Judith.  Tobil,  the  Didaclie,  and  the  Shep- 
herd. The  Did  ache  had  greiit  influence  iij^mn  the 
liturgy  in  Egypt,  and  to  the  Shepherd  Athanasius 
iiimself  attached  high  %'alue.  The  aur|jriising  ele- 
ment, however,  is  the  complete  silence  concerning 
other  writings  which  at  lea-st  in  Alexandria  had 
equally  with  the  Didache  and  the  Shepherd  been 
reckoned  with  New  Testament  writings.  Serapion, 
the  friend  of  AthanasiuB,  had  cited  Barnabas  as 
*'  the  most  honored  apostle  Barnabas  "  along  with 
the  Romans  of  Paul,  and  in  Codex  Sinaiiicus  it 
Blood  between  Rev.  and  the  Shepherd.  The  New 
Testament  of  twenty-seven  books  Bcenied  to  be 
as  firmly  settled  as  that  of  Eusehius'a  twenty-six 
had  been.  And  this  view  came  to  have  the  victory 
in  the  Church;  ruling  out  finally  the  shorter  canon 
of  Euscbius  and  the  uac  of  a  class  of  books  merely 
for  the  instruction  of  catechumens. 

9.  The  Bevelopment  In  the  Orient  till  the  Time 
€>f  Justinian;  The  peculiar  criticism  of  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  did  not  essentially  change  the  sit- 
uation established  by  Lucian  and  EusebiuB.  The 
concordant  testimony  of  Theodore's  opponent 
Leontius  and  of  his  admirer  Jesudad  is  that  Theo- 
dore rejected  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles.  And 
sincse  as  an  Antiochean  he  rejected  the  Apocalypse  ^ 
his  New  Testament  was  the  Syrian  one  of  about 
340.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  Pauline  Epistles 
(Rom.,  I  and  II  Cor.,  Heb.j  Eph.)  he  followed  the 
Syrian  usage  in  respect  to  Heb.,  and  the  Greek  in 
res|>ect  to  Rom,  imd  GaL  He  defended  the  eano- 
nicity  of  Philemon,  but  rejected  111  Cor-  It  is  no 
wonder  that,  admired  as  he  was  by  the  Syrian 
Nestorians,  these  latter  adopted  his  canon.  And 
the  Nestorian  Jesudad  (ninth  century)  still  regarded 
the  three  greater  Catholic  Epistles  as  a  sort  of 
aniiiegomena.  How  tenacious  the  opposition  to 
the  Apocalyjjse  wasj  as  also  that  to  the  four  lesser 
Cat  hob  c  Epistles,  has  been  shown  above.  Never- 
theless, by  the  sixth  century  the  Apocalj'pse  had 
won  all  along  the  line  from  Jerusalem  to  Constan- 
tinople, If  Philoxeniis  of  Mahiig,  c.  508,  had  Rev, 
and  the  lesser  Catiiohc  Epistles  translated  for  the 
first  time  into  Syriac,  this  implies  that  in  the  con- 
tiguous Greek  ecclesiastical  province,  in  the  patri- 
archate of  Antioch^  the  Ajiocalypse  was  no  more 
ig;nored  as  it  was  c.  40(),  that  on  the  contrary  it 
was  again  reeeived.  About  the  year  'fOQ  Andrew 
wrote  in  CjEsarea  his  great  commentary  on  the 
Apocalypse,  in  which  with  a  certain  assiduity  by 
appeal  to  t!>e  older  teachers  from  Papias  to  Cyril 
he  defended  the  inspiration  of  the  book,  and  in  a 
note  on  Rev.  xxVu  18-19  assailed  the  critics.  About 
530  Leontius  designated,  in  lectures  dehvered  in 
the  monastery  at  Jerusalem,  the  **  Apocalypse  of 
the  Holy  John  "  as  the  latest  canonical  book  of 
the  Church. 

10.  The  ABBlmllation  of  the  Weat:  By  the 
vacillation  and  the  attempts  at  fixation  which  the 
canon  unden*'ent  in  the  East  the  Latin  Church  wm 
not  immediately  affected.  Until  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  New  Testament  there  excluded  Heb.,  had 
an  incomplete  canon  of  the  Catholic  Epistles, 
but  included  the  Apocalypse,  which  was  aeriouiily 


assailed  only  by  Caius,  The  events  of  the  fourth 
cetitury  made  isolation  impossible.  The  settle- 
ment  of  Pierios,  "  the  new  Origen/^  in  Home  was 
a  significant  preparation.  There  followed  the 
councils,  the  exile  of  Athanaaius  in  Trier  0*36-337), 
in  Rome  (340-343),  and  in  other  parts  of  the  West 
(till  340);  of  Hilary  of  Poitiers  in  Asia  Minor 
(35l>-350),  of  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  Eusebius  of  Ver- 
(Xjlli,  and  others;  the  long  sojourn  of  Jerome  and 
Rufinus  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  and  during 
this  whole  period  the  close  connection  of  Latin 
Church  literature,  especially  of  exegesis,  with  Greek 
models.  The  ecumenical  consciousness  of  the 
Church  overleaped  all  barriers  and  affected  even 
the  canon.  The  inliuence  of  Athami^ius  in  this 
respect  is  not  to  be  underestimated,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  production  of  a  recension  of  the 
Bible  at  Rome  340-343. 

Hebrews,  prized  by  the  Novatians  as  a  produc- 
tion of  Barnabas,  began  after  the  time  of  Hilary  and 
Lucifer  to  be  quoted  more  and  more  in  the  West 
as  Pauline  and,  therefore,  cmjonical.  The  growth 
of  sentiment  in  favor  of  James  took  place  unnot^id, 
as  did  that  of  the  lesser  Catholic  Epistles.  The 
African  Canon  (350-365),  published  by  Mommsen, 
has  a  more  or  less  official  air;  it  makes  no  mention 
of  Heb..  Jaa.,  or  Jude,  but  includes  I  and  II  Pet., 
I,  II,  and  III  John;  but  it  was  corrected  by  a  re- 
viser so  aa  to  omit  H  Pet.  and  II  and  III  John. 
In  a  sjTiod  of  c.  382  the  controlling  spirit  was 
Jerome,  so  that  II  and  III  John  were  received  as 
the  presbyter- s  while  the  rest  of  the  Catholic  Epis- 
tles were  ascribed  to  Apostles.  Hebrews  was  reck- 
oned as  a  fourteenth  Pauline  letter.  The  influence 
of  Augustine  was  dominant  in  the  synods  of  Hippo 
(383)  and  Carthage  (397),  the  pronouncement  of 
wliich  was  for  thirteen  Pauline  Epistles,  to  which 
Hebrews  was  added  as  a  sort  of  stranger. 

The  history  of  the  canon  was  closed  in  the  West 
by  the  l>eginning  of  the  lifth  century,  a  hundped 
years  earlier  than  in  the  Eai5t.  (T.  Zahn.  ) 

BtaLiooRAPHT:  On  the  ^ncral  topic  of  the  canon  for  the 
reader  of  Eagljah  posmbly  the  bpst  survey  of  the  reaultA 
of  modern  achol&mhip  ia  W.  Sanday,  Intpiration  .  *  . 
Earlu  Hifiorji  and  Origin  of  the  Doctrine  of  Bibticat  /f»» 
tpirafi&n^  London^  1806  (fairly  advmnced  on  the  O.  T., 
conservative  ou  the  N.  T.);  L.  Gau^Men,  Le  Canon  dM 
Maint£M  Scriturea  au  doi^ble  point  de  vue  <h  ia  tdence  et  d* 
la  foi,  2  vols.,  Geneva,  1S60,  Eng.  tranAl.,  London,  1863; 

E.  lieius*  Hitiairt  du  canon  df*  aaifxie*  Scriiurt*  dan» 
r^gii»e  cAn^icfine,  Btrasburg,  1S64,  Eug.  tranal.^  Edin- 
b«JTrh.  1S91;  T.  H.  Home,  rntroduriion  to  the  Critical 
M^tudjf  .  .  .  of  the  Holy  Scripturet,  3  vol§.»  London,  1873 
(though  written  a  century  a^o.  it  contain!  much  that  a 
(•till  vaJuable);  8.  Davidson,  The  Catwn  of  the  Bibie,  ib. 
1880  (radical,  but  the  work  of  a  scholar);  F.  Overbeck, 
Zur  GtMchithte  de*  Kanont,  ChemtiiU,  1880  (conUina  an 
eeaay  on  the  origm  of  the  canon);  J.  J.  Given,  The  Truth 
of  Seriptitre  in  Connection  unth  ,  ,  ,  the  Canon,  E<lin* 
burgh,  1881;  G.  T,  L*dd,  The  Doctrine  of  Sacrtd  Scrip- 
ture, 2  vah..  New  York,  1883  (abstract  and  wordy,  but 
Beholarly);  0.  A,  Briguat  Study  of  ilvly  Scripture,  chmpe^ 
v.-vi.,  ib,  1899;  W.  H,  Bennett  and  W.  F,  Adeoey, 
Biblieal  Introduction,  London,  IH99  (brief,  but  accurate); 

F.  E.  C.  GiiCot«  General  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
HoSy  Scripturea,  vol.  i,»  New  York,  1901  (»n  example 
of  the  newer  Roman  Cotholic  8chular»hip). 

On  the  canon  of  the  O.  T.  thtm  are  four  workfl  of  fir^t 
rank.  via,.  H.  E.  Rylo,  Canon  of  the  O.  T,,  London^  1892; 
F.  Buhl,  Karwn  urid  Text  dee  A,  T„  Leipaic,  J 891,  Eng. 
tranal.,  Edinbunth,  1892  (a  f*bort  treatise,  but  lucid  and 
uni:unibcrcd     with     techaicahUtt»);  G,     Wildeboer,     U^t 


Oanonioal  Hours 
Oantor 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


400 


onttaan  van  den  Kanon  dsa  Ouden  Verhonds,  Qroningen, 
1891.  Eng.  transl.,  Origin  of  the  Canon  of  the  O.  T.,  Lon- 
don. 1895  (much  like  Buhl);  E.  Kautuch,  Ahriee  der 
OeechichtedeealUeetamenUiehenSchrifUuma,  Freiburg,  1897, 
Eng.  tranal.,  London,  1898  (ludd.  altogether  a  model 
brief  discuesion).  Other  works  which  may  be  consulted 
are:  J.  FOrst.  Der  Kanon  dee  A.  7.,  Leipaic,  1868;  A. 
Loisy.  HiaUrire  du  Canon  de  I'A.  T.,  Paris.  1890  (Roman 
Catholic  and  scientific);  Q.  H.  Dalman,  Traditio  Rob- 
binorum  veterrima  de  librorum  V.  T.  ordine  et  orioine^  Leip- 
sic  1891;  Smith.  OTJC;  X.  Koenig,  Eeeai  eur  la  for- 
mation du  Canon  de  VA,  7.,  Paris.  1894;  W.  J.  Boecher. 
The  Alleged  Triple  Canon  of  the  O.  T.  in  JBL,  zv. 
(1896)  118-128;  W.  H.  Green,  General  Introduction  to  the 
O.  T.,  2  vols..  New  York,  1898-99  (states  the  ex- 
treme conservative  position);  Magnier.  6tude  eur  la 
canonieiU  de  VA.  T.,  Paris,  1899;  F.  £.  C.  Gigot.  General 
Introdudkon  to  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Seripturee,  vol.  i.. 
New  York.  1900;  J.  P.  Peters,  The  Old  Teetament  and  the 
New  Scholar9h%p,  New  York,  1901. 

On  the  N.  T.  canon  the  best  work  is  by  B.  F.  Westcott, 
A  General  Survey  of  the  Hiet,  of  the  Canon  of  the  N.  7*., 
London,  1889;  K.  A.  Gredner,  Geethiehte  dee  neuteeta- 
mentlicfien  Kanone,  Berlin,  1860  (though  an  old  work, 
much  of  the  material  is  still  usable);  R.  F.  Grau,  EfU- 
%ncklunoeo^»chidUe  dee  neuteetamentliehen  Schriftihume, 
2  vols.,  GOtersloh,  1871;  A.  H.  Charteris,  Canonicity: 
a  Collection  of  early  Teetimoniee  to  the  Canonical  Booke 
of  the  N.  T.,  London,  1880;  idem.  The  N.  T.  Seripturee, 
their  Claime,  Hiet,  and  Authority,  ib.  1882  (a  popular 
form  of  the  preceding);  T.  Zahn,  Foreehungen  tur  Ge- 
echidUe  dee  neuteetamentliehen  Kanone,  fi  parts,  Erlangen, 
1881-93;  idem,  Geeehichte  dee  neuteetamentliehen  Kanone, 
Erlangen  and  Leipsio,  1888-92;  A.  Loisy,  Hietoire  du 
Canon  du  N.  7*.,  Paris,  1891;  H.  J.  Holtsmann,  Hie- 
toriech-kritieche  Einleitung  in  dae  N.  7*.,  Freiburg.  1892; 
G.  Salmon.  Hietorical  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Booke  of  the  N.  T.,  London,  1894;  A.  Hamack.  Dae  N.  T. 
urn  dae  Jahr  tOO,  Freiburg,  1889;  idem,  AUchrietliche 
Litteratur,  2  vols.,  Leipsio,  1897-1904  (exhaustive);  B. 
W.  Bacon.  IntroducHon  to  N.  T.,  New  York.  1900  (con- 
densed); D.  8.  Mussey.  Riee  of  the  N.  T.,  ib.  1900;  A. 
JOlicher.  Einleitung  in  dae  N.  7*.,  TCkbingen,  1901,  Eng. 
transl.,  London,  1904;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Canon  and  Text  of 
the  N.  r.,  Edinburgh,  1907;  J.  Leipoldt,  Geeehichte  dee 
neuteetamentliehen  Kanone,  vol.  i.,  Die  Entetehung,  Leipsic, 
1907. 

CANONICAL  HOURS:  Certain  portions  of  the 
day  set  apart  according  to  the  rule  (canon)  of  the 
Church  for  prayer  and  devotion.  It  seems  likely 
that  the  Apostolic  Church  observed  the  Jewish 
custom  of  praying  three  times  a  day  (Ps.  Iv.  17; 
Acts  ii.  15,  iii.  1,  x.  30),  at  the  third,  sixth,  and 
ninth  hour.  In  the  fourth  century  the  zeal  of  the 
Psalmist  ("  seven  times  a  day  do  I  praise  thee," 
cxix.  164)  was  held  up  for  Christian  imitation  by 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Hilary,  and  by  the  time 
of  Cassian  (d.  about  435)  it  had  become  a  general 
rule  of  devotion.  (See  Breviary.)  In  England 
the  term  "  canonical  hours  **  also  refers  to  the  time 
within  which  marriage  may  legally  be  solemnized 
in  a  parish  church  without  a  license,  which  was 
from  eight  to  twelve  in  the  morning,  until  a  re- 
cent Act  of  Parliament  extended  it  to  three  in  the 
afternoon. 

CANONIZATION:  The  process  of  attributing 
the  title  of  saint  to  a  man  or  w^oman  already  known 
as  "  blessed."  The  word  refers  to  the  inclusion 
of  the  person's  name  in  the  list  (canon)  of  the  saints 
and  recognizing  his  right  to  a  fitting  veneration, 
wliich  includes  the  setting  apart  of  a  day  in  the 
ecclesiasticiil  calendar  for  the  commemoration  of 
the  saint's  feast,  together  ^ith  an  office  in  the 
breviary  and  a  mass  for  the  day  in  his  honor. 
To  promote  the  veneration  of  a  saint  throughout 


the  universal  Church,  no  better  method  ezutod 
than  to  seek  papal  oonfirmatioD  of  his  cUims. 
This  probably  happened  now  and  then  even  in 
early  times,  or  the  popes  gave  such  confinnaticm 
of  their  own  motion.  We  have  definite  evidence 
of  the  formal  canonixation  of  Bishop  Ulric  of 
Augsburg  in  993.  But  canonization  as  a  rig^ 
reserved  exclusively  to  the  pope  appears  first  under 
Alexander  III.  (1159-^1).  The  bishops  continued 
to  feel  justified  in  canonizing  for  their  own  dio- 
ceses, imtil  this  was  declared  unlawful  by  Urban 
VIII.  in  1625  and  1634.  At  present  a  formal  and 
very  carefully  regulated  process  is  gone  through 
before  canonization.  The  candidate,  having  died 
in  good  repute,  is  first  designated  as  "of  pious 
memory,"  and  when  a  regular  investigation  hai 
been  set  on  foot,  as  ''  venerable."  If  it  is  con- 
clusively shown  that  he  has  lived  a  holy  life 
and  worked  miracles,  his  beatification  may  be 
requested,  but  normally  not  until  fifty  years  after 
his  death.  The  process  is  first  conducted  by  the 
bishop  of  his  home;  a  commission  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  examines  whether  it  is  permissible, 
in  which  case  papal  authority  to  proceed  is  granted. 
In  order  to  make  the  necessary  demonstration  that 
the  candidate  possessed  "  heroic "  virtues  and 
worked  miracles,  three  separate  investigations  are 
held — one  before  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  one 
before  the  whole  college  of  cardinals,  and  one  before 
a  consistory  held  under  the  pope's  presidency. 
When  the  pope  has  approved  the  request,  a  brief 
is  drawn  up  which  grants  the  title  of  beaiuSf  and 
determines  the  limits  of  the  consequent  rtiihu, 
including  commemoration  and  invocation  in  public 
worship,  the  erection  of  altars,  public  exposition  of 
relics,  and  the  like.  The  solenm  publication  of  the 
decree  of  beatification  takes  place  in  St.  Peter's. 
After  repeated  miracles  and  a  similar  proces  of 
investigation,  canonization  may  follow  later,  with 
still  more  imposing  ceremonies,  the  p>ope  or  his 
representative  singing  high  mass  in  honor  of  the 
new  saint.  While  the  veneration  of  the  "  blessed  " 
is  limited  to  a  certain  definite  part  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  that  of  the  saints  is  extended  to 
the  entire  Church.  (N.  Bonwetsch.) 

Biblioorapht:  Giusto  Fontanini,  Codex  eonetitutionum 
quae  eummi  pontificee  ediderunt  in  eolemni  canoniiatione, 
993-1729,  Home,  1729;  W.  Hurd.  Rdigunte  Ritee  end 
Ceremoniee,  p.  244.  London,  1811;  C.  Elliott^  Delineatiim 
of  Roman  Catholiciem,  book  iv.,  chap.  4,  New  York,  1S42; 
Boissonnet,  Dictionnaire  .  .  .  dee  ch-^moniea  ,  .  .  eaerfei, 
in  Migne,  EneycUtpMie  thfologique,  xv.-xvii.;  L.  Femra, 
Prompta  biUioOieca  canonica,  b.v.  *'  Venermtio  Sancto* 
rum."  new  ed.,  Rome,  1844-45. 

CANSTEIN,  cOn'stoin,  KARL  HILDEBRAin), 
BARON  VON:  Founder  of  the  Canst«in  Bible  In- 
stitute at  Halle;  b.  at  Lindenberg  (a  village  near 
Furstenwalde,  21  m.  w.  of  Frankfort)  Aug.  4, 
1667;  d.  at  Berlin  Aug.  19,  1719.  After  comple- 
ting his  legal  studies  at  the  University  of  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  in  1686,  he  traveled  through  Holland. 
England,  France,  Italy,  and  southern  Germany, 
but  was  called  to  Berlin  by  the  death  of  the  Elector 
in  1688.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
gentleman  of  the  bed-chamber,  but  resigned  after 
a  few  years,  and  enlisted  as  a  volunteer  with  the 
Brandenburg  troops  sent  to  Flanders.    There  be 


401 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oanonloal  Hoars 
Cantor 


fell  seriouBly  ill,  was  converted,  and  after  reeovering 
his  healtii,  returned  to  Berlin,  where  he  lived  in 
retirement,  devoting  himself  to  philanthropy.  In 
1691  he  became  acquainted  with  Spener,  and  thus 
formed  a  lifelong  friendship  with  August  Hermann 
Francke  (q.v.),  whom  he  aided  in  all  his  enter- 
prises. 

A  literary  result  of  Canstein's  unceasing  study 
of  the  Bible  was  his  Harmonie  und  AusUgung  der 
heiligen  vier  Evangelisten  (Halle,  1718),  but  his 
crowning  life-work  was  his  establishment  of  the 
Canstein  Bible  Institute.  Seeking  to  make  the 
Scriptures  known  in  the  widest  circles,  he  ex- 
pounded his  views  in  a  small  pamphlet  entitled 
Ohninassgebender  Vorschlagf  wie  QoUesxDort  den 
Armen  tur  Erbauung  um  einen  geringen  Preis  in 
die  Hdnde  zu  bringen  sei  (Berlin,  1710),  in  which  he 
expressed  his  conviction  that  the  use  of  stereotype 
plates  would  render  it  possible  to  sell  copies  of  the 
New  Testament  for  two  groschen,  and  of  the  entire 
Bible  for  six.  His  first  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment appeared  at  Halle  in  1712,  and  was  followed 
by  the  entire  Bible  in  the  next  year.  Before  Can- 
stein's death  the  New  Testament  had  appeared  in 
twenty-eight  editions,  and  the  Bible  in  eight  octavo 
and  eight  duodecimo  editions,  making  a  total  of 
about  100,000  New  Testaments  and  40,000  Bibles. 
When  the  founder  died,  Francke  took  charge  of  the 
Institute.  In  1727  the  buildings  were  enlarged, 
and  in  1734-35  the  Cansteinische  Buckdruckerei 
was  established.  The  Bible  was  printed  in  Bohe- 
mian and  Polish  in  1722,  and  in  1868-69  versions 
in  Wcndish  and  Lithuanian  appeared.  The  re- 
vised text  of  Luther's  version  was  also  first  printed 
by  this  Institute  (Halle,  1892).  See  Bible  So- 
cieties, II.,  1. 

CANTATA.    See  Music,  Sacred,  II.,  2,  §  5. 

CAITTERBURY:  The  ancient  metropolitan  see 
of  England.  The  city  is  of  great  antiquity,  suc- 
ceeding the  British  village  of  Durwhem,  the  Ro- 
man Durovemum,  and  the  Saxon  Cantwarabyrig. 
Augustine,  sent  from  Rome  by  Gregory  the  Great 
in  596  to  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons,  made  it  the 
headquarters  of  his  missionary  activity;  but  it 
was  not  until  the  episcopate  of  the  great  organizer 
Theodore  of  Tarsus  (668-690)  that  the  claim  of  the 
see  to  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of 
England  was  acknowledged  by  the  other  bishops 
and  confirmed  by  Pope  Vitaliaji.  This  authority 
extended  over  Ireland  as  well  imtil  the  elevation 
of  the  see  of  Armagh  (q.v.)  to  primatial  rights. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  important  position  of 
York  in  the  north  of  England,  the  archbishops  of 
that  see  for  a  long  time  contested  the  first  place 
with  Canterbury,  and  it  was  not  imtil  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Alexander  III.  (1159-81)  that  the  latter 
enjoyed  an  unquestioned  primacy.  Among  the 
long  line  of  archbishops  some  distinguished  names 
occur:  Dunstan  (959-988);  -^Ifheah  martyred  by 
the  Danes  (1006-12);  Lanfranc  (1070-89)  and 
Anselm  (1093-1109),  the  great  defenders  of  the 
rights  of  the  Chiu'ch  and  people  against  the  first 
Norman  kings;  Thomas  Becket  (1162-70),  mur- 
dered in  the  cathedral  itself  for  his  resistance  to  the 
king's  encroachments;  Stephen  Langton  (1207-28). 
IL— 26 


William  Warham  (1503-32)  was,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  two  years*  tenure  of  the  see  by  Cardinal 
Pole  under  Mary  (1556-58),  the  last  Roman  Cath- 
olic archbishop.  Thomas  Cranmer  (1533-56)  begins 
the    Anglican    succession,    followed    by    Parker, 
Grindal,    and    Whitgift    under    Queen    Elizabeth. 
William  Laud  (1633-45)  kept  up  the  earlier  tra- 
ditions of  the  see  by  giving  his  life  for  his  principles; 
but  in  the  post-Reformation  annals  few  names  of 
great  significance  occiu" — though  Archbishops  Tait, 
Benson,  and  Temple  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  were  men  of  broad  and  statesman- 
like   abilities.    The    archbishop    of    Canterbury 
ranks  as  the  first  peer  of  the  realm  after  the  princes 
of  the  blood  royal,  and  has  the  right  to  crown  the 
sovereign  and  to  other  secular  prerogatives.    The 
cathedral  in  its  present  shape  was  begun  by  Lan- 
franc on  the  site  of  St.  Augustine's  monastery; 
it  contains  work  extending  from  his  time  to  that  of 
Prior  Goldstone  in  the  fifteenth  century,  thus  ex- 
hibiting specimens  of  all  schools  of  Gothic,  and 
affording  the  best  guide  to  the  study  of  the  devel- 
opment of  architecture   in   England.     From   the 
death  of  Becket  imtil  the  Reformation,  it  was  a 
favorite  place  of  pilgrimage.     His  body,  brought 
from  the  crypt,  was  placed  in  1220  in  a  shrine  of 
such  magnificence  that  Erasmus,  who  visited  it  in 
1512,  recorded  that  **  gold  was  the  meanest  thing 
to  be  seen."    In  1538  Henry  VIII.  destroyed  the 
shrine,  as  that  of  a  rebel  against  royal  authority, 
and  confiscated  its  treasures.     Among  the  other 
interesting   ecclesiastical    remains    in    Canterbury 
are  St.  Martin's  church,  said  to  be  the  oldest  in 
England  and  to  date  in  part  from  the  period  of 
the  Roman  occupation,  and  the  first  house  of  the 
Dominicans    in    England.     See    the    biographical 
notices  of  Augustine,  Theodore,  and  other  arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury;    also  the  articles  Anglo- 
Saxons,  Conversion  op  the;  Celtic  Church  in 
Brffain  and  Ireland;    England,  Church  of. 
Biblioorapst:  The  history  of  the  diocese  is  given  by  R. 
C.  Jenkins,  in  Diocetan  HiMtoriet,  Canterbury,   London, 
1880.     On  the  cathedral   constdt:  A.   P.   Stanley.   H%9- 
tortcal  MemoriaU  of  Canterbury  Cathedral,  ib.  1900;  J.  M. 
Cowper.  Memorial  Inscriptiont  of  the  Cathedral  Church 
of   Canterbury ,    Canterbury,    1897.     For    the    monastery 
consult:  Liter  a  Cantuarienaee.    Letter  Books  of  the  Monas- 
tery of  Ckriai  Church,  3  vols.,  ed.  by  J.  B.  Sheppard  for 
Rolls  Series,  London,  1881-89.     Ck>n8ult  also:  S.  R.  Gar- 
diner, Student's  Hist,  of  England,  passim,  ib.   1895;  W. 
Bright.  Early  English  Church  Hist,  Index,  Oxford,  1897; 
W.  A.  Shaw,  History  of  the  English  Church,  1640-1660, 
London,  1900  (contains  much  material):  W.  W.  Capes, 
English  Church  in  14th  and  16th  Centuries,  ib.  1900;  W. 
R.  W.  Stephens,  The  English  Church,  1066-1272,  p.  33, 
ib.    1901;  J.   Gairdner,   The  English  Church  in  the  16th 
Century,  pp.  1,  66,  104,  et  passim,  ib.  1903 

CANTHARUS:  A  well,  cistern,  fountain,  or 
simply  a  vessel  for  water,  in  the  center  of  the 
atrium  just  in  front  of  the  entrance  of  the  ancient 
basilica,  used  by  the  faithful  for  the  ablution  of 
hands  and  face  before  entering  the  church  build- 
ing.    See  Holy  Water. 

CANTICLES.    See  Song  op  Solomon. 

CANTOR:  A  name  applied  in  the  early  Church 
to  those  who  were  specially  set  apart  to  conduct 
the  singing.  They  are  mentioned  as  a  special 
class  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  and  in  the 


Cans 
Oapemamn 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


401 


cationji  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  {365),  and  were 
set  apiirt  by  the  clergy  with  a  particular  rite.  In 
the  later  Western  Chureh  the  name  was  also  applied 
in  cathedrab  and  collegiate  churches  to  one  of  the 
canona  who  had  the  oversight  of  the  musical  in- 
struction of  the  younger  members  and  led  the 
musical  part  of  the  service;  called  al^so  precentor. 
It  ifl  flometimes  used  quite  generally  for  specially 
designated  singers,  whether  clerical  or  lay,  who 
intone  or  begin  the  psahns^  antiphonSi  and  hymns. 

CAHZ,  cflntB,  ISRAEL  GOTTLIEB.  See  Woi^, 
Chkistian,  and  tbk  Wolffian  School. 

CAPECELATRO,  ca^p^"chi-!a'trty,  ALFOHSO: 
CardinaJ  priest;  b*  at  Marseilles  Feb.  5,  1824. 
He  entered  the  oratOTy  of  8t.  Philip  Neri,  and  in 
lg7S  was  appointed  sublibrariaii  of  the  Holy 
See.  Two  yearn  later  he  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  Capua  p  and  in  1885  was  created  car- 
dinal  priest  of  Santi  Keteo  ed  Achilleo.  In  the 
following  year,  however ,  ho  chose  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Pqi>o1o  in  preference  to  that  of 
Santi  Nereo  ed  Achilleo.  He  still  retains  his  archi' 
episeopai  eoe^  and  also  remains  the  official  librarian 
of  the  Holy  8ee,  In  addition  to  a  number  of 
briefer  contributionn,  he  h&&  written:  Storia  di 
Safda  CaterinOr  €  del  papatQ  del  stw  tempore  (2  vols,, 
Naples,  1 356);  Nermnan  e  la  religione  cattolim  in 
InghiUerrn  (2  vob.^  1859);  La  vita  di  Gm^  €ruU> 
(1862);  iStoria  di  San  Pier  Damiano  e  dd  suo  iem- 
pare  (Florence,  1862);  ScrUH  Van  rdigioiti  e 
todaii  (3d  ed.|  Milan,  1873);  La  doUnna  caUoUm 
(3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Sienna,  1ST9);  Vita  di  San  FUippo 
Neri  (2  vols.,  Naples,  1879;  Eng.  transl.,  by  T.  A. 
Pope,  London,  1^2);  Prone  sacre  e  moraJe  (Sienna, 
ISM);  and  Xumye  PfoAf  (2  vols.,  Milan,  1899). 
An  edition  of  his  worksi  w^as  publiahed  in  eighteen 
volumes  at  Rome  in  1886-93, 

CAPE  COLOIfY;  The  most  important  of  the 
British  pobsesdions  m  South  Africa,  comprising, 
in  general,  that  portion  of  the  continent  south  of 
the  Orange  River;  area,  277,000  square  miles; 
population  (1904),  2,409,804,  of  whom  leas  than 
one-fourth  (not  quite  580,000)  are  Europeans  or 
whitens;  the  remainder  (still  predominantly  heathen) 
includea  1,114,100  Kafirs  and  Bechuanas,  310,- 
720  half-breeds  classed  a&  Fingo  st^ck,  91,260  Hot- 
tentots, 15,680  Ma]a3^,  and  29S,M]  classed  as 
half-breeds  and  of  nuscellancous  origin. 

The  more  important  reUgious  bodies  of  the  colony 
are  as  follows:  (1)  The  Dvtch  Ref<n'm€d  Church j 
with  399,500  members  (1904),  of  whom  296,800 
were  white.  It  is  the  church  of  the  original  Euro- 
pean (Dutch)  settlers,  who  ipread  widely  through 
the  land  by  conquest  from  1652  onward.  Their 
Church  IB  governed  by  a  general  synod,  whose 
acasions  are  held  every  three  years.  The  separate 
congregation  is  administered  by  a  church  council 
{kerk^<Mid)j  and  six  to  twelve  congregations  con- 
stitute a  congregation al  circuit  ("  ring  '')|  whose 
chosen  representatives  become  members  of  the 
General  Synod*  A  standing  committee  of  the 
Synod  adminiiiters  the  principal  affairs  of  the  Church 
as  a  whole.  The  colored  congregations  are  for 
the  mofit  part  the  result  of  miiaionary  Labor;  only 


a  sraali  number  of  their  clergy  have  a  higher  afa^ 
cation.  (2)  The  Church  of  England,  281,44(J  mmr 
bers  (122,560  white).  The  diooeee  of  Cape  Tovi 
WBB  founded  in  1847;  the  incumbetit  haa  borne  tb 
title  of  archbishop  aince  1807  and  is  mctropdltaa 
of  the  province  of  South  Africa,  which  eomphgei 
nine  dioceses  beaJdcs  the  metropolitan  iee,Tii.: 
Bloemfontein  (formeriy  the  Orange  F*«e  Stite, 
formed  1863),  Grahamstown  (1853),  Lebombo 
(1891),  Mashonaland  (1891),  Natal  (fomieTir 
Maritaburg,  1853),  Pretoria  (1878).  St.  Rdeu 
(1859),  St.  John's,  Kalfraria  (1873),  and  ZuluUod 
(a  misBionary  bishopric^  1870).  (3)  The  Wetiq^ 
Methodiiti  Church  of  S&uth  Afrioat  277,300  roembeia 
(S.5,900  white).  This  body  very  eariy  ranpluyHl 
colored  teachers  and  has  appUed  leas  rigorDUi  testi 
of  conversion  than  others;  in  1891  it  had  ihmit 
1,250  lay  helpers.  Two  other  Methodist  bodia 
have  an  inconsiderable  aggre^te  membership.  (4) 
Congregalionali&is,  112,200  members  (5,000  Euro- 
peans), for  the  most  part  connected  with  the  Loa- 
don  Miasionary  Society.  The  Congregational  Unkm 
of  South  Africa  waa  formed  in  1900  from  the  Vmm 
of  South  Africa  (1877)  and  the  Union  of  KaUl  aod 
Southeastern  Africa  (1882).  (5)  PrettyfanoM. 
88,660  members  (26,360  of  European  ori^l 
The  Scotch  Church  began  miasionary  aeti^ty  ia 
the  east  of  the  colony  in  1821.  (6)  LulAcrotu, 
37,050  members  (13,100  Europeans),  mo^j  d 
German  origin.  They  are  united  in  the  Cknoan 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  South  Afiiea. 
(7)  The  Rhenish  Mission  Church  has  20,800  mem' 
bers  and  (8)  the  Moravians  23,100,  nearly  lU 
colored,  (9)  The  African  MethodUi  Epiieopd 
Church  has  12,060  members;  (10)  the  BapO^ 
number  14J0O,  of  whom  9,950  are  white,  tte 
congregations  being  organised  practically  on  t 
European  basis;  (11)  the  Church  of  Chrij^t  hu 
7,600  membera  (1,075  Europeans),  and  (12)  tk 
South  African  Refontwd  Church  6,210,  neadr  aD 
Europeans,  Further,  there  ia  a  group  of  mm^ 
congregations,  of  which  the  largest  is  Dutch  (4,790) 
and  the  smallest  American  (215),  and  more  tban 
forty  additional  sects  or  denominations  mtaesi 
the  tendency  to  religious  division  which  manif««u 
itself  in  English-speaking  lands.  For  further  in- 
formation concerning  missionary"  activity,  ^ 
Africa,  IL 

The  Roman  Cathoiic  Church  has  had  a  vigorcua 
growth  in  the  last  ten  years,  and  now  counts  more 
than  37,000  members  (28,500  of  European  ori|iiil 
The  organization  includes  the  apoetoUc  vi<ari4t«i 
of  western  and  eastern  Cape  Colony,  dating  tt- 
spectivcly  from  1837  and  1847,  with  reaidence  it 
Cape  Town  and  Port  Elizabeth,  and  the  apostolif 
prefecture  of  central  Cape  Colony  (1874),  with 
residence  at  Cape  Town,  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  active  throughout  South  Africa  sod  hm 
establbhed  vicariates  for  Natal  (1850),  the  Tm^ 
vaal  (1904),  and  Orange  Free  State  (18S6),  audi 
prefecture  of  Basutoland  (1894). 

The  Greek  Orthodox  Church  reckons  1,050  ad* 
herents,  almost  excluiively  European,  The  Ifrad- 
Uea  have  decreased  on  accoimt  of  emigTation;  ^ 
19,500  remain.  Mohamm^animn  m  repi^fierled 
by  22,630  members  (among  them  15,100  Mskjfl. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cans 
Oapernaum 


and  2,035  Hindtjs  are  eimmerated.  In  spite  of 
tbc  niisaionary  zcul  of  «o  many  Christ  iun  soets, 
more  than  half  the  natives  continue  in  heatheni^^m, 
the  official  figures  of  colored  heathen  being 
1,015,230. 

The  number  of  illiteratea,  after  deduction  of 
children  under  school  age,  is  1,368,000.  The 
religious  bodies  are  engaged  in  active  rivalry  to 
meet  the  needs  of  education  and  thereby  to  in- 
crease their  niunbers,  and  the  government  has 
latterly  applied  itself  to  the  biiildrng  and  equj la- 
ment of  Bchoola  on  a  scale  of  greatly  increased 
expenthture.  Attendance  at  Kchool  was  made 
compulsory  in  1905.  Wilhelm  Goetz. 

BtBUOQKAPHir:  For  BC't)«>'Al  facta  and  ntalius,  J.  Bryce.  Im- 
pr999u>n9  of  S&uih  Africa,  London,  1899.  F<ir  Bt&tiAtics, 
Sf»UK  African  Ytar  Book,  Ancnual,  London,  For  pbasca 
of  mission  and  other  church  work  oonwiit:  A.  T.  Wirg- 
tnnn,  HiMtory  of  the  Englitfi  Church  in  South  Africa,  Lon- 
don, ISafi;  A,  G.  8.  Gibson.  SkeUhea  of  Church  Wtn'k  in 
th^  Dioee^t  of  Capetoum,  CapeTtiwn.  l&OO;  MittionChron- 
uU  of  tht  SeoUiah  Church,  with  the  Kafjrarian  Diocetan 
Quarterly,  Edinburgti;  Sou^  African  Catholic  Magazine, 
Cape  Town;  Reports  of  the  Wttieyan  Miwana  in  the  Cape 
0f  Qvod  Hope  IHetrict,  annual,  Cape  Town;  Almanak  vo&r 
de  fferefoormeerde  Kerk,  auniiai  Cape  Town;  HandeUn- 
[der  Verffoderin^f  van  de  iytwde  drr  gertfoorwieerde 
rk^  Cap«  Town  (published  stjbftequent  to  thi?!  meetlnj^  of 
ch  synod);  J.  Mackeniie,  Da}/-Davn  in  South  Africa, 
Dndon,  1SS4;  ideai,  London  Mit&iomirf/  Society  in  South 
Africa,  ib.  1888;  A.  Brigg.  Mitnanan/  Life  in  the  South 
?  Ihe  Dark  Continent,  ib.  1883;  W.  S.  Walton,  Cape  Gen- 
Mieeion,  ib.  1889;  A.  G.  B.  Gibaon.  Eiijht  Yeart  in 
zffrmiA,  ib.  1891;  T.  Cook,  Mjf  Mieeion  Tour  in  South 
Ifrka.  ib.  1895;  Mer«n»ky«  in  iMietioneieitachrift,  1897- 
Baeler  Mieeionemaffatin,  IWO. 

"CAPEK.  ELBfER  HEWITT:  Univerealist;  b.  at 
Stoughtont  Mass.,  Apr.  5,  I83S;  d,  at  Medford, 
Mafie.,  Mar.  22,  1005.  He  was  graduated  at  Tufts 
CoUegep  1860;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1863;  waa  pas- 
tor of  the  Independent  (Uni\'ersali8t)  Christian 
Society  of  Gloucester,  Mass.,  1865-69;  of  the  First 
Umveraalifit  Church  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  1870-75; 
aiid  after  1875  president  of  Tufts  College,  Medford, 
Mass.  He  bclonge<l  to  the  school  of  Universal iets 
who  make  the  final  triumph  of  good  over  evil  a 
ooroUary  of  the  nature  of  God — a  result  to  be 
wrought  out  through  those  moral  processes  which 
are  seen  in  operation  around  us.  He  waa  member 
of  the  legislature  from  Stought^sn^  1859-60,  His 
publications  eonsisted  of  sermons,  addresses,  re- 
porta,  etc. 

CAPERNAUM,  ca-per'na'Trra:  The  name  of  a 
Galilean  city,  situated  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee*  The 
form  of  the  word  follows  the  Uxtus  recepttis,  though 
the  best  manuscripts  give  Caphamaum.  It  is  a 
compound  name  meaning  *'  villagij  of  Nahum  " 
or  '*  of  conaolation,"  Jesua  made  it  the  center  of 
his  Galilean  acti%^ties  and  it  was  calW  '*  his  own 
dty  '*  (Matt.  iv.  13,  ix.  1 );  hiB  disciples  Simon  Peter 
and  Andrew  had  a  house  there;  he  taught  in  the 
synagogue  there,  in  Peter's  house,  and  on  the  sea- 
shore, and  performed  a  number  of  wonderful  cures. 
There  he  obtained  his  disciples  Peter,  Andrew, 
and  LeW- Matthew*,  and  near-by  Jatiies  and  John 
(Mark  i.  16-17,  19,  ii.  14).  The  city  lay  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  sea,  had  a  customs-office  and 
rcqral  collector  and  a  garrison  in  command  of  a 
captain  who  waa  a  fneml  of  the  Jews  and  had  built 
synagogue.     Josephus  in   describing  the 


plain  of  Gennesaret  (War,  II L  x.  8)  sjwaks  of  a 
copious  spring  watering  the  plain  which  was  calleil 
by  the  inhabitants  Capernaum.  There  are  still 
near  the  north  of  the  plain  two  springs.  Oiic  of 
these,  the  Ain-el-Tine,  issues  from  the  rock  under 
the  roots  of  a  fig-tree  not  far  from  Khan  Minyeh. 
But  this  can  not  be  the  one  meant  by  Josephus, 
since  it  lies  too  low  to  water  the  plain.  The  other 
lies  northwest  of  the  first  and  outside  the  boundaries 
of  the  plain.  This  is  the  most  copious  spring  in 
Galilee,  stronger  by  far  thfm  the  Elanias  source  of 
the  Jonlan,  known  now  as  Ain-el-Tabigah,  the 
waters  of  w^hich  are  collected  in  a  hexagonal  res- 
ervoir of  old  masonry;  showing  that  the  spring 
was  used  for  irrigation  purposes.  This  is  doubtless 
the  spring  mentioned  by  Joaephus,  and  Capernaum 
must  have  been  in  the  neighborhood,  and,  like 
the  spring;  not  within  the  limits  of  the  plain. 
Joaephus  states  (Life,  Ixxii.),  that  in  a  skirmish 
against  the  troops  of  Agrippa  IL  which  took  place 
on  the  bonks  of  the  Jordan,  he  was  thrown  from 
Ms  horse  and  wounded,  and  had  himself  carried 
to  the  village  Cephamomf  and  in  the  following 
night  to  Tarichece.  In  spite  of  different  textual 
readings  of  the  name  of  the  place,  it  is  probable 
that  Josephus  here  meant  Capernaum. 

Eusebiua  {Onomaatic&nf  273)  discusses  *'  in  the 
borders  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali"  of  Matt.  iv. 
13  in  connection  w^ith  Isa.  ix.  1.  The  meaning  of 
the  phrase  is  **  in  the  district  of,"  not  **  on  the 
boundary  of."  With  Tel-Hum  goes  well  Jerome's 
statement  of  two  Roman  miles  as  the  distance 
between  Chorazin  and  Capernaum  (the  *'  twelve 
miles  "  of  Euaebius  seems  a  copyist's  error).  Put 
alongside  the  foregoing  that  Capcniaum  and 
Betlisaida  were  adjacent  (Epiphanius,  Hot.,  1.  15), 
and  early  reports  are  quite  exhausted. 

Tel -Hum  is  the  one  old  site  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
spring,  forty  minutes  distant  in  a  northwestern 
direction.  E.  Robinson  in  1838  visited  and  de- 
scribed the  ruina^Bome  quite  pretentious  buildings, 
of  black  basalt  and  limestone,  among  which  travel- 
ers have  thought  they  identified  the  remains  of  a 
synagogue.  The  name  of  the  foimtain,  even  though 
forty  minutes  away,  makes  for  the  identification 
of  TeUHum  with  Capernaum.  And  the  fomi  Tel- 
Hum  may  be  an  Arabic  variation  for  Tenhum,  ab- 
brexnated  from  the  Talmudic  Kaf  Tanhumim 
C'  Village  of  Consolation  "). 

The  Franciscan  Quaresniio  in  1616--20  identified 
Khan  Minyeh  near  Ain-el-Tine  as  the  site  of  Caper- 
naum, and  he  has  been  followed  by  many  scholars. 
On  this  site  appear  the  traces  of  the  larger  streets 
which  a  garrison  city  seems  to  require.  A  con- 
clusion has  been  urged  that  John  vi.  1-21  and 
Mark  vi.  46-53  imply  that  Capernaum  waa  on  the 
plain  of  Genu esa ret,  but  this  falls  after  close  exam- 
ination of  the  passages .  A  r guinen  ts  d  r aw^n  from  the 
element  '*  Minyeh"  in  the  modern  name  have  also 
no  cogency. 

The  mins  of  To! -Hum  belong  now  to  the  Fran- 
ciscans, who  have  enclosed  them  with  a  w*all,  in- 
tending to  excavate  there  in  the  future. 

(H,  GuTHi:.) 

BiHiJoa«AWrr:  Authoritii?^    and    literature    favoring    Tcl- 
Mum  are:  J.  Wilson,  Lande  of  the  Bitrte  Visited  and  De- 


cSpii 


.perolani 
Ital  Punishment 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


404 


aeribed,  u.  13^140.  London.  1847:  A.  E.  Wilson  and  W. 
Warren.  Recovery  of  JeruaaUm,  pp.  375-387.  ib.  1871: 
W.  M.  Thomson,  Land  and  the  Book,  3  vols..  New  York. 
1880.  i.  352-366  of  London  ed..  1873:  V.  Gu^rin.  De- 
ecripHon  .  ,  .  de  la  PaUetine,  part  3,  GaliUe,  i.  227-228, 
Pans,  1880;  F.  Buhl,  Geoffraphie  dm  alien  PalAsHna^  pp. 
224-225.  Freiburg,  1806.  Favoring  Khan  Minyeh  are: 
A.  P.  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Paleatine,  London.  1866:  E. 
Robinson,  Biblical  Reeearehea,  Boston.  1868;  T.  Keim. 
Jeeua  of  Natara,  2  vols.,  London,  1870;  C.  R.  Conder. 
Ten*  Work  in  PaleaHne,  ib.  1880;  A.  Henderson.  Palee- 
tine,  Edinburgh.  1885;  O.  A.  Smith,  Hiatarical  Geography 
of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  456-457.  London.  1807;  DB,  i.  350- 
851;  EB,  i.  606-608. 
CAPEROLANI,     ca-pA"r6-la'ni.    See     Francis, 

Saint,  of  Assibi,  and  the   Franciscan  Order, 

III.,  §7. 
CAPEROLO,  ca-p6'rO-l6,  PIETRO.    See  Francis, 

Saint,  of  Assisi,  and  the  Franciscan  Order. 
CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS.    See  Africa,  III. 

CAPERS,  ELLISON :  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop 
of  South  Carolina;  b.  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Oct. 
14, 1837;  d.  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  Apr.  22, 1008.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  South  Carolina  Military 
Academy  1857,  was  assistant  professor  there 
1858-60.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  en- 
tc\red  the  Confederate  Army,  in  which  he  attained 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  From  the  close  of  the 
war  until  1868  he  was  secretary  of  the  South  Caro- 
lina Legislature,  but  in  the  mean  time  studied  the- 
ology, and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1867. 
He  was  then  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Greenville, 
S.  C,  1867-87,  excei)t  for  a  year  (1875-76)  as  rector 
of  St.  Paul's,  Selma,  Ala.,  and  of  Trinity,  Coliunbia, 
S.  C,  1887-93.  In  1886  he  had  been  tendered  and 
had  declined  the  bishopric  of  Easton,  but  in  1893 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  South  Carolina. 
Bibliography:  W.  S.  Perry,    The  Epiecopaie  in  Atneriea, 

p.  355.  New  York,  1896. 

CAPHTOR,  caf'ter:  A  locality  provisionally 
identified  with  Crete,  though  the  question  can  not 
be  regarded  as  settled.  According  to  Amos  ix.  7 
it  was  the  original  home  of  the  Philistines;  Jer. 
xlvii.  4  (Masorctic  text)  makes  of  it  an  island  or 
coast-land;  Deut.  ii.  23  and  Gen.  x.  14  use  the 
term  "  Caphtorim  "  of  the  inhabitants.  The  early 
tradition  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  Septua- 
gint,  Vulgate,  Peshito,  and  Targums  us<»  "  Cappa- 
docia  "  and  "  Cappadocians  "  in  Amos  ix.  7  and 
Deut.  ii.  23;  this  was  based,  however,  on  a  misun- 
derstanding. Attempts  to  find  the  meaning  have 
been  made  by  investigating  the  word  **  Cherethites  * 
(I  Sam.  XXX.  14-16;  Zeph.  ii.  6;  Ezek.  xxv.  16), 
used  of  a  people  in  the  Philistine  region  and  of  Phi- 
listine stock.  The  transliterations  of  the  Hebrew 
in  the  Septuagint  show  that  the  latter  did  not  un- 
derstand the  meaning.  In  the  prophetical  books  the 
form  Kretcs  is  used  by  tiie  Septuagint,  implying  im- 
migration from  Crete;  but  how  far  this  rested  upon 
data  known  to  the  interpreters  is  indeterminable. 

On  Egyptian  monuments  of  the  time  of  Thothmes 
III.  appears  mention  of  a  land  the  name  of  which 
takes  a  form  corresponding  to  "  Caphtor  "  minus  the 
final  consonant.  {Kefti).  Ebers  explained  this  by 
"  Phenicians,"  only  to  have  the  explanation  shown 
untenable  by  W.  Max  MtiUer.  According  to  G. 
Steindorff,  the  Egyptian  word  connotes  "  islands  of 
the  ^gean";   and  the  same  authority  notes  among 


the  representations  of  tribute  to  Thothmes  UL 
from  the  Kefti  vessels  of  the  Mycensan  type  of  about 
1450-1250  B.C.  The  Kefti  must  have  been  within 
the  sphere  of  influence  of  Mycemean  culture.  But 
Mailer  connects  them  with  Cilicia.  Evans  in  his 
investigations  in  Crete  has  discovered  numeroui 
evidences  of  the  existence  there  of  Mycensan 
culture,  thus  bringing  Crete  within  the  ^here  of 
influence  of  that  civilization.  Alongside  of  them 
are  articles  of  Egyptian  workmanship,  showing 
exchange  of  oonmiodities  between  Egypt  and 
Crete.  Steindorfif  puts  the  two  facts  together,  and 
equates  Crete  and  the  Egyptian  Kefti.  But  this 
may  prove  superfluous  provided  success  is  attained 
in  geographically  defining  the  word  kptar  recently 
found  at  Omboe,  a  word  which  closely  correspondB 
with  the  Hebrew  Caphtor.  The  equation  Kefti  = 
kptar  is  not  fully  proved.  (H.  Guthe.) 

Biblxoorapht:  W.  M.  llOUer,  Aaien  und  Ewopa,  pp.  337 
■qq.,  Leipcio,  1893;  idem,  in  MiUheihMoen  dtt  torder- 
aaiaUeehen  OeeMeehaft,  1 1  ■qq.,  1900  (plaoes  Caphtor  on 
tbt  Lyeian  or  Carian  coast);  G.  Ebers,  AegypteH  uwi  di§ 
Bitcher  Moeie,  p.  130,  Leipde,  1868;  G.  A.  Smith,  Hi*- 
lorieal  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  p.  171.  London,  1897; 
DB,  i.  351-352;  BB,  i.  608-700;  JB,  iiL  653-554. 

CAPISTRAIIO,  GIOVAHlfl  DI :  Frandscan;  b.  at 
Capistrano  (22  m.  s.e.  of  Aquila),  in  the  Abnuzi, 
1386;  d.  at  lUok  (Ujlak,  26  m.  w.  of  Peterwardein), 
Slavonia,  Oct.  23,  1456.  He  first  studied  juris- 
prudence,  but  joined  the  Franciscans  in  1416  and  in 
the  school  of  Bemardin  of  Sienna  became  a  theolo- 
gian and  preacher.  After  1426  he  acted  as  inquisi- 
tor against  the  Fratricelli  and  Jews,  and  by  cruel 
measures  attained  a  moderate  success.  His  main 
achievement  was  the  defense  and  extension  of  the 
order  of  the  Observantines,  of  whom  he  was  made 
vicar-general  in  Italy  in  1446.  In  1451  he  was  sent 
to  Germany  against  the  Hussites.  Followed  by 
large  crowdis,  he  went  to  Vienna, and  is  reported  to 
have  performed  320  miracles  on  the  way,  while  the 
number  of  his  hearers  is  said  to  have  increased  from 
150  to  300,000.  He  intended  now  to  go  to  Bohemia 
to  destroy  the  heresy  there;  a  disputation  to  which 
he  was  invited  by  the  Utraquist  bishop  Rokycxana 
he  managed  to  avoid,  and  finally  he  did  venture  to 
enter  the  country,  .tineas  Silvius  states  that  he 
did,  indeed,  convert  a  few  Hussites,  but,  considering 
the  multitude  of  the  heretics,  they  are  hanily  worth 
mentioning.  At  any  rate  Bohemia,  in  spite  of  his 
sermons,  remained  as  it  was  before.  By  way  of 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Lusatia,  he  went  to  Silesia 
and  Poland,  and  on  account  of  his  sermons  and 
miracles  was  everywhere  revered  like  a  saint 
After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453)  he  tried  to 
induce  the  princes  of  Germany  at  the  Diets  of 
Frankfort  and  Wiener-Neustadt  to  make  war 
against  the  Turks,  but  failed,  and  was  very  little 
successful  generally  in  preaching  the  cross.  He 
went  to  Hungary  in  1455  and  when  Mohammed  II. 
advanced  against  Belgrade  (1456)  Capistrano,  the 
papal  legate  Carjaval,  and  John  Hunjradi  were 
almost  the  only  men  who  bestirred  themselves  to 
repel  the  foe.  In  spite  of  his  age,  Capistrano  with 
a  number  of  crusaders  went  to  Belgrade  and  by  a 
daring  sally  gave  Hunyadi  opportunity  to  beat  the 
Turks.    For  this  the  friends  of  his  order  have  cele- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oapemlanl 

Capital  Pimiahment 


[  him  as  savior  of  Europe.  He  died  Booti  after, 
exhutiBled  by  bards  Kips.  Altbnuy;h  revered  in  hiB 
lifetime  as  a  saint ,  be  was  not  caiionizetl  until 
1690.  Prominent  contemporarit^s,  among  tbem  tbe 
subsequent  pope  Piujs  II.,  exprensed  aome  doubts 
ad  to  his  miracles  and  had  no  favorable  opinion  of 
him  because  of  his  bragging  eelf-glorifiealion  ond 
eholeric  irritability.  E.  Lempp. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  early  l^iUt  and  aome  of  John'ci  let  tern 
are  id  ASB,  Oct,,  x.  260-552.  witK  which  cL  L.  Wadding, 
AnwuUst  Minorum,  voIm.  iv.-vi,,  Leyden,  1648,  orix,-xiii,, 
Ronie.  1734  (,iui  excel  lent  Bource).  The  moat  comprehen- 
•iTi»  biocraphy  iaby  A.  Hcrmaan,  CupiMtranus  triumphant^ 
Colocz»«  1700;  the  firBt  eci phU fie  life  U  by  G.  Voigt,  in 
'  Y9  HiM4>ritch€  ZHUchrift,  x.  <1S63)  19-96;  cf.  idem, 
Uviodi'  Picctdomini.  vol.  ii..  Berlin,  I860;  the  latest 
I  by  E.  Jacob,  Jo AonnM  von  Capii£narui,  Breslau,  10O3. 
i  ooaaderable  List  of  literature  la  (ivaa  in  Potthaet,  W^g- 
,  pp.  1396-07. 

CAPITAL  PUinSHMEHT. 

*^  1.  Ttw  Hiatorical  Development  of  Capital  Puniihment. 

In  Primitive  Sodiety  (fl  1). 

In  Koraan  Law  (J  2). 

Attitude  of  the  Church  (4  3), 
II.    Place  of  Helisious  Ide»»  in  the  QueatioQ. 
Ill,   CopU&l  Puni aliment  in  Modem  Times. 

I.  The  Historical  Development  of  Capital  Pun- 
ishment: It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
killing  of  a  pereon  guilty  of  grievouts  erime  does  not, 
in  primitive  society,  belong  to  the  class  of  deliberate 

•  ordinances   enacted    by   the    eomniu- 

I.  In  nity.  It  is  rather  a  fonn  of  the  im- 
Primitivc  pulse  of  revenge,  which  tbe  primitive 
Society,  institutions  of  all  the  older  civthzed 
nations  first  tolerate,  and  then  regu- 
late and  uphold  or  limit  (see  Bloud-Revengk).  In 
primitive  conditions  revenge  has  a  twofold  oiiera- 
tion.  It  is  directed  in  some  cases  against  ofTenses 
which  affect  tbe  individual  or  the  family  (such  as 
theft,  adultery,  and  the  murder  of  a  freeman);  in 
these  cases  the  injured  family  proceeds  against  the 
offender  or  his  family,  and  the  community  takes 
part  only  in  the  interests  of  public  peace,  by  estab- 
lishing a  penalty  on  payment  of  which  the  offender 
is  to  be  safe  from  revenge.  Quite  a  different  form 
of  procedure  is  that  against  crimes  which  offend 
the  cOfUi»ciousneB8  of  the  whole  community  (sacri- 
lege, unnatural  vices,  treason  in  war,  etc.).  Here 
the  vengeance  of  the  community  is  provoked,  and  it 
acts  first  by  formal  delivery  of  the  offender  to  the 
will  of  the  members  or  outlawry,  then  later  by  ac- 
tual execution,  in  connection  with  which  aacred 
ceremonies  analogous  to  those  of  sacrifice  are  often 
found.  As  organi^d  government  grows  stronger, 
it  takes  an  official  interest,  in  crimes  which  were 
originally  in  the  private  sphere,  withdraws  them 
from  infJividual  vengeance,  and  subjects  them  to 
capital  punishment.  Religion  has  its  influence 
het«;  the  interference  of  government  in  such  cases 
is  usually  brought  about  by  the  conception  that  the 
crime,  apart  from  tlie  injury  to  the  imme^ltate  vic- 
tims, defiles  the  community  and  mu.st  be  punished 
in  order  to  retain  peace  wit!i  the  deity.  This  can 
be  clearly  shown  in  the  Greek  law  of  the  post- 
Homeric  age,  less  clearly  but  still  jirobably  in  an- 
cient Roman  law;  and  the  same  couree  was  followed 
in  He!»rew  luntory.  In  the  primitive  law  (cf.  Ex. 
xxu  \2  sqq.)  the  murderer  i^  exposed  to  the  pursuit 
|be  a\'euger  of  blood,  and  the  elders  of  the  com- 


munity cooperate  only  to  the  extent  of  driving  the 
fugitive  from  an  asylum  and  delivering  him  to  the 
avenger.  In  the  case  of  the  other  crimes  men- 
tionetl  in  Ex,  xxi.  the  punishment  of  deatli  is  either 
private  vengeance,  or  at  most  a  sort  of  tribal 
%'engeance  or  lynch  law.  As  late  as  the  i>eriod  of 
Deut.  xix.  the  blood-\'engeance  is  mentioned;  but 
by  the  side  of  it  appears  the  idea  that  the  whole  com- 
munity  is  affected  with  blood-guiltiness  by  a  de- 
liberate murder,  and  must  be  purified  by  the  death 
of  the  offender.  The  same  law  Ijegan,  when  priestly 
influence  increasingly  dominated  all  departments  of 
life,  to  be  applied  to  other  offenders  (blasphemers, 
traitors,  adulterers,  etc.).  The  formal  abandon- 
ment to  the  avenger  was  replacwl  by  stoning,  in 
which  all  the  men  of  the  community  took  part. 

In  so  far  as  the  religious  influence  remained  a 
permanent  factor  in  the  penal  code,  the  JewLsh 
State  stands  alone  among  the  Mediterranean  com- 
munities.    In    the    others,    especially 

3*  In       tbe   Greek  and    Roman,   punishment 
Roman     became  exclusively  a  matter  of  secu- 

Law.  lar  enactment.  In  the  Roman  the 
principle  is  continuously  applied  from 
the  fifth  century  tliat  the  death  pjenalty  (whether 
by  decapitation,  burning,  or  throwing  down  a 
precipice)  is  due  to  all  grave  crimes  (including 
murder,  arson,  perjury,  ticason,  etc.);  but  in  prac- 
tise this  was  mitigated  by  the  frequent  substitution 
of  the  "  intenliction  of  fire  and  water,*'  i.e.,  banish* 
ment  from  the  community,  especially  after  the 
introduction  of  the  jxrovocatio  od  popuhim,  an  appeal 
to  the  wliole  body  of  the  people  against  the  decision 
of  consuls  and  other  magistrates  empowered  to 
pronounce  sentence  of  outlawry.  In  the  last  two 
centuries  of  the  republic  capital  punmhment  was 
seldom  applied,  to  members  of  the  upper  classes  at 
least.  But  it  was  never  abolished,  and  wdien  the 
reorganization  of  the  Roman  system  took  place 
under  imperial  legislation  it  was  again  more  fre- 
quently em  ploy  eel,  even  against  Roman  citiaena. 
Thus  at  the  beginning  of  the  Chrijitian  era  it  was  an 
accepted  institution  throughout  the  Roman  Empire, 
though  with  variations  in  usage  due  to  local  law. 

The  teaching  of  Christ  made  no  substantial  altei^ 
ation  in  these  conditions.  Of  his  own  recorded 
sayings,  the  only  one  directly  bearing  on  the  sub- 
ject is  Matt.  xxvi.  52,  which  (like  Gen.  ix.  5)  refers 
rather  to  the  eternal  working  out  of  the  divine 
justice  in  tbe  abstract.  But  Paul  speaks  expressly 
in  Rom.  xiii.  1  sqq.  of  the  legal  death-penalty — 
although  here  it  is  merely  designated  as  reconci- 
lable with  the  divine  law,  not  required  or  imposed 
as  a  duty  upon  the  State.  Accordingly  Christian 
teaching  made  no  change  in  the  Roman  law,  and, 
when  the  Christians  became  dominant,  after  having 
been  for  two  centuries  frequent  victims  to  its  pro- 
visions, they  still  allowed  it  to  take  free  course* 
In  fact,  it  was  applied  -with  increasing  frequency 
even  to  Roman  citizens  of  the  higher  classes,  and 
from  the  time  of  Const  ant ine  to  a  large  number 
of  minor  offenses. 

Although  the  Church  wa^  more  firmly  and  fully 
organized  when  it  came  into  contact  with  the  iuisti- 
tutiouiiof  the  new  Germanic  kingdom?^,  and  assumed 
the  right  of  extensive  interference  with  their  penal 


Capital  Fnniahmwit 
Oapito 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


406 


legislation  on  principles  resembling  those  of  the 

Jewish    theocracy,  its  influence    in   the    question 

of  capital  punishment  was  not  deci- 

3.  Attitude  sive.     Germanic    law    at    first,    like 

of  the      all    primitive   systems,  made   private 

Church,  vengeance  and  the  mitigation  of  it  by 
surrender  of  property  on  the  part  of 
the  offender  the  principal  factor  in  the  punishment 
of  crime.  The  Church  undertook  to  regulate  this 
to  the  extent  of  minimizing  private  vendettas, 
both  by  providing  and  bupporting  means  of  recon- 
ciliation between  the  contending  parties  and  by 
strengthening  orderly  official  justice.  But  In  spite 
of  the  "  horror  of  bloodshed "  consistently  em- 
phasized by  the  Church,  which  from  the  tenth 
century  on  created  an  impressive  mechanism 
against  private  vendettas  in  the  Truce  of  God  (q.v.)f 
it  was  obliged  to  give  a  general  support  to  the 
gradual  upbuilding  of  the  secular  system  of  corporal, 
including  capital,  punishment  in  the  kingdoms  of 
western  Europe.  When  the  death-penalty  had 
been  finally  established  as  a  regular  part  of  settled 
secular  law,  the  Church  in  theory  took  the  position 
of  a  simple  spectator  of  its  exercise.  It  forbade 
the  clergy  to  take  any  part  in  its  administration, 
laid  down  the  principle  Ecclesia  non  sUU  sanguinem 
("  The  Church  does  not  thirst  for  blood  "),  and 
admonished  ecclesiastical  authorities  to  provide 
asylums  and  in  other  ways  to  work  for  mercy  to  the 
offender  in  the  hope  of  his  improvement.  This 
position  was  somewhat  modified  when  the  war 
against  heresy  began.  Even  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  State  threatened  heretics  with  death  in 
isolated  cases  in  France  and  Germany;  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the  growth  of  heresy 
led  to  a  formal  alliance  between  Church  and  State, 
by  which  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  1184,  and  then 
other  sovereigns  of  southern  Europe,  pledged  the 
pope  the  support  of  the  secular  arm  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  heresy.  The  penalties  were  at  first  outlawry, 
infamy,  and  confiscation  of  goods;  but  in  1224 
Frederick  II.  approved  of  death  by  fire  as  the  pen- 
alty in  Lombarcly;  and  this  penalty,  soon  applied 
throughout  Italy,  was  not  only  sanctioned  but 
directly  called  for  by  Gregory  IX.  It  was  not  long 
before  the  new  principle  was  extended  to  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  Spain,  and  the  death-penalty, 
while  theoretically  administered  by  secular  officials, 
was  actually  the  consequence  of  an  ecclesiastical 
condemnation. 

The  teaching  of  the  Reformers  brought  about 
no  essential  alteration  in  the  general  attitude  to- 
ward capital  punishment;  it  might  seem  that  the 
Reformation  strengthened  the  institution,  but 
really  this  attitude  is  rather  the  result  of  contem- 
porary conditions.  The  death-penalty  had  been 
more  frequently  employed  in  all  European  states 
since  the  fifteenth  century  as  a  result  of  violent 
proletarian  risings  and  the  increase  of  the  dangerous 
unemployed  and  vagabond  population,  and  the 
period  from  1530  to  1630  is  that  in  which  the  num- 
ber of  executions  reached  its  high-water  mark. 
When  a  reaction  came  about,  it  was  directed  pri- 
marily against  an  excessive  use  of  this  penalty, 
and  then  toward  the  establishment  of  penitentia- 
ries   (London  1580,    Amsterdam    1596,  Hamburg 


1622,  etc.),  which  brought  about  a  decrease  in  the 
number  of  executions.  The  movement  for  the  abo- 
lition of  capital  punishment  did  not  proceed  from 
a  religious  source.  While  Locke,  Voltaire,  Montes- 
quieu, and  Thomasius  had  all  recognized  it  as  a 
necessary  part  of  the  social  system,  and  Rousseaa 
in  the  Contrat  social  had  left  it  theoretically  free 
play,  it  was  Cesare  Beccaria  in  1764  who,  as  a  deduc- 
tion from  Rousseau's  general  ideas,  proclaimed  its 
irreconcilability  with  abstract  justice.  In  modem 
times  no  agreement  has  been  reached  on  the  basis 
of  religious  convictions. 

n.  Place  of  Religious  Ideas  in  the  Queition: 
The  historical  outline  given  above  shows  clearly 
that  the  sanction  and  province  of  capital  punisb- 
ment  in  secular  law  can  not  be  brought  directly 
under  religious  control.  The  old  philosophical  doc- 
trine of  the  **  Christian  State  "  is  now  no  longer 
recognized.  On  modem  principles,  the  State's 
justification  for  existence  lies  in  its  necessity  to  the 
unhampered  development  of  him:ian  activity;  and 
on  this  rests  its  power  of  punishing,  and  in  particu- 
lar its  right  to  apply  the  death-penalty.  The  es- 
sential characteristics  of  a  just  and  proper  pun- 
ishment will  thus  have  to  be  determined  by  a  coufk 
of  empirical  historical  research. 

In  the  older  development  of  the  penal  code  of  aU 
nations,  corporal  punishment  is  found  concurrently 
with  penalties  affecting  the  property  of  the  offender; 
but  the  corporal  is  finally  preferred  because  it  is 
capable  of  application  alike  to  all,  while  money 
fines  have  a  varying  effect  according  to  the  wealth 
of  the  offender.  By  degrees  the  permission  of  com- 
pounding for  corporal  penalties  is  abolished,  with 
the  gradual  building  up  from  the  twelfth  century 
of  modem  principles  of  government.  The  death- 
penalty  is  increasingly  preferred  as  emphasizing 
the  thought  of  the  equality  of  all  men  before  the 
law.  It  is  misused  for  a  time  as  the  easiest  way  of 
ridding  society  of  dangerous  persons,  and  then,  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  the  ques- 
tion is  widely  discussed  how  far  it  ought  properly 
to  be  applied,  and  the  principle  of  justice  is  urged 
in  favor  of  its  restriction  to  very  grave  crimes. 
These  arguments,  however,  produced  no  great  effect 
until  the  reaction  from  the  excessive  use  of  it  led  to 
the  creation  of  a  third  form  of  penalty  in  a  regular 
system  of  imprisomnent,  thoroughly  established 
about  1700.  The  considerations  which  moved 
John  Howard  and  others  in  the  eighteenth  century 
to  agitate  for  prison  reform  on  the  ground  of  human- 
ity led  also  to  the  more  frequent  discussion  of  the 
desirability  of  abolishing  capital  pimishment,  and 
finally  to  an  almost  universal  recognition  of  the 
sole  groimd  on  which  its  maintenance  can  be  de- 
fended. It  is  now  admitted  that  on  grounds  of  hu- 
manity the  State  has  no  right  to  aimihilate  the 
individual  existence,  and  that  so  far  as  these  grounds 
go,  the  heaviest  penalty  that  may  be  inflicted  is  that 
of  penal  servitude  for  life.  From  the  standpoint, 
however,  of  abstract  justice,  it  is  still  possible  to 
defend  the  death-penalty,  not  in  the  interest  of 
terrifying  offenders,  nor  yet  on  the  basis  of  a  Ui 
talioniSf  but  on  that  of  a  proportion  between  crime 
and  penalty,  which  may  fairly  demand  that  the 
severity  of  the  punishment  shall  correspond  in 


i07 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Capital  Punishment 

Caplto 


ne  measure  to  the  importance  of  the  social  func- 
tion injured  by  the  crime.  With  this  ia  connected 
Ihe  requirement  that  the  penalty  shall  be  impres- 
Bi^'e — as  much  so  aa  the  crime— in  order  that  the 
iuthority  of  the  law  shall  be  upheld,  and  equal, 
falling  with  the  same  severity  on  all  classes  of  the 
community.  The  validity  of  this  argument  will 
!  denied  by  those  who  reject  the  principle  of  equiv- 
Jent  compensation  and,  taking  their  stand  ex- 
jlusively  on  the  principle  of  humanity^  seek  as  the 
Jt  of  punishment  the  amelioration  of  the  offender 
i  the  deterrence  of  hira  from  any  further  crimes » 
;  the  fact  that  many  of  those  who  take  thia 
etical  view  acquiesce  in  the  retention  of  capi- 
Ekl  puoishment  in  practise  shows  that  the  tradi- 
anal  verdict  of  many  centuries  as  to  the  relation 
^t  crime  and  punishment  m  stitl  to  be  reckoned 
rith  in  any  dlscussioD  of  this  question. 

(RiciL\RD  Schmidt.) 
in.  Capital  Punishment  m  Modem  Tunes:      In 
aodem  times  the  maintenance  or  abohtion  of  the 
ieath-penalty  had  been  considered  mainly  from  the 
tandjioint  of  social  utility  and  social  justice.     In 
he  history  of  penology  the  iniuenc^  of  Christian 
id  humane  sentiments  ha^i  been  distinctly  felt; 
but    many   ilrastic    punishments    have    been    laid 
aide,  not  because  they  were  cruel  and  severe^  but 
aiuse  they  were  ineffective.     As  mutilation  has 
en  practically  abandoned  in  civilized  countries, 
reliance  upon  capital  punishment  as  a  means  of 
epreasing  crime  has  been   greatly  weakened.     A 
onclusivc  proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  restriction  of 
be   number  of  offenses   to  which   it  is   applied, 
carcely  more  than  a  century    ago    200  offenses 
iFere    includeil    in    the  list    of    capital    crime  in 
Qglaud,     Until    1894    tw^enty-five    offenses    were 
s  capital  under  the  military  code  of  the  United 
AteSf    twenty- two   under   the   naval    code,    and 
Dieen  under  the  penal  code,     lender  Federal 
iW8  the  number  of  capital  offenses  has  now  been 
duced  to  three.     Many  advocates  of  capital  pun- 
ihmrnt  to-day  are  willing  to  limit  its  application 
rhoUy  to  cases  of  murder. 
PubUcity  was  formerly  regarded  as  absolutely 
ary  for  the  deterrent   effect  of  executions. 
ven  after  death  the  body  of  the  criminal  was  ex- 
i  for  weeks  on  the  gibbet  as  a  warning  to  tnale- 
ctors.     The  practise  of  pbbeting  has  now  been 
ibandoned,  and  the  practise  of  public  execution 
gradually    following    it.    Within    recent   years 
or  eight  States  of  the  Union,  including  New 
forkf  Massachusetts,  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota, 
ave  decided  that  attendance  on  executions  should 
?  limited  to  a  number  of  legal  or  specified  witnesses, 
he  govemom  of  Georgia  and  Kentucky  have  rec- 
n ended   Himilar  legii^latioru     In  several  States 
electric  chair  has  been  substituted  for  the  gal- 
ows  with  a  view  of  mercifully  rendering  death  in- 
stantaneous.    Other  States    of    the    Union    have 
abolished  the  death-penalty  altogether.     Michigan 
abolished  it  in  1847,  Rhoile  Island  in  1852;  Wiscon- 
sAin  in  1853.     Maine  abolished  it  in  1 876,  restored  it  in 
3,  and  again  abolished  it  in  1887.     In  1903  New 
npshire  abolished  the  death -penalty  for  murder 
I  the  first  degree  unless  the  Jury  should  have  fixed 
i  same  to  the  verdict;  otherwise  the  sentence  is  for 


life  imprisonment.  In  KanKas  there  have  been  no 
official  executions  since  1872,  as  no  governor  has 
exercised  his  power  to  order  the  execution  of  a 
prisoner.  In  1&07  the  legislature  amended  the  law 
by  substituting  life  imprit*onment  for  the  death- 
penalty.  The  governor  of  Nebraska  in  1903  urged 
the  legislature  to  abolish  capital  punishment.  Col- 
orado alxjlisbed  the  death-penalty  in  1897,  but 
restored  it  1901,  as  a  result  of  a  lynching  outbreak 
in  1900. 

In  its  Reasion  1906-07  the  subject  of  the  abohtion 
of  capital  punishment  occupied  a  prominent  place 
in  the  discussions  of  the  French  parliament  without 
final  result.  Russia,  one  of  the  first  countries  to 
respond  to  the  appeal  of  Beccaria,  aboUshed  it  in 
1753,  except  for  political  offenses.  It  was  abol- 
ished in  Portugal  in  1867,  in  Holland  in  1870,  in 
Italy  in  1890;  and  it  has  been  abolished  in  the 
majority  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  in  Costa  Rica,  Brazil. 
Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Venezuela,  and  three  stiites  of 
Mexico.  Some  countries  which  have  not  formally 
abolished  it  by  legislative  act  have  suppressed  it  in 
practise.  Tliis  is  true  of  Belgium,  and  of  some 
states  of  Mexico.  It  remains  yet  to  be  pro\"en  that 
an  increase  in  capital  crimes  has  followed  the  abo- 
htion of  the  death -penalty  in  any  country.  On  the 
contrary,  the  higher  dev^elopment  of  civilization  in 
these  countrieH,  the  growth  of  the  humane  senti- 
ment, and  increased  reliance  upon  educational  and 
preventive  measures,  instead  of  upon  dnistic  de- 
terrent laws,  have  led  to  a  gradual  reduction  of 
crimes  of  violence.  Samuel  J.  B arrows. 

Bibliogbapht:  G.  B.Cheever,  Puni»hnuml  fcj/  Dfxith:  its  Au- 
thitritytand  Expediency,  Npw  Vork,  1840  (one  of  the  mopt 
vigorous  deferufieA  of  the  practise);  H.  8ee^?er,  AhhandluH' 
Ocn  aus  <iem  Strafrefkte.  Tabingen,  1858;  C.  J,  5ittt«r- 
m&jer,  Die  TodeMtrafe  nach  den  ErgcbniMten  der  iri««en- 
KhafUi^hen  Forachunffen,  Heidelb)erg;  1862  (the«  i*tandArd 
work  against  capital  puniflhiiMBnt,  Eng.  condensatioci  hy 
J.  M.  Moir,  Capiial  Pumshnumt,  London.  1865);  R,  E. 
Jolin.  Ueber  die  Tednttrafe.  B«rlin,  1807;  H.  Het*el» 
TodtMtraft  in  ihrer  htdturgeachkhtiicJun  Entufidtdunff^  ib. 
1870;  F.  von  HoUt«ndorff,  Bom  Verbrecken  dea  MtmlsB 
und  die  Todetattrafe.  ib.  1B75;  L.  voa  Bar,  Handbuch  dea 
de\iiitchen  StrafT^chta.  vol.  i,*  ib.  1882;  H.  Romilly,  The 
Puniehment  of  Death,  London,  1886;  A,  J.  Palm^  The 
Death  Penaltj^,  New  York.  1891;  J.  MacMjutt«r,  The  Dimv4 
Purpate  of  Capiial  Punishment,  London,  1802;  8.  R.  D. 
K.  Olivecnoner,  D«  ki  purine  de  la  mort,  Parit,  1803;  R, 
Schmidt,  Aufgaben  der  StrafrerhUptteaer  PP.  178  sqq.,  224 
BQci..  LeipBic,  1805;  R,  Katxenjitein.  Todesstrafe  in  einem 
neuen  Reichaatrafgeeetgbuch,  Herlin.  1902;  D.  P.  D.  Fabius. 
De  doodMraf,  Ainsterdam.  1606.  For  ibe  ancient  enact- 
ments oonjitilt  Juriiipnideniiw  anteiuetimant^^  cd.  £. 
Hu^ike,.  5th  ed.,  Leipaic,  1886  (cf.  Index  under  "Capi^c 
puniuntur*^).  and  "The  Inatiiyte«  of  Jiuitinian."  Book 
IV.,  title  rviii.,  in  Moyle'ft  transl.,  4th  ed,,  pp.  205-207, 
Oxford,  1906;  A.  H.  J.  Greenidse,  Infamia;  iU  Plaea  in 
Raman  Puhlic  and  Primia  Law,  1894, 

CAPITO,  cQ'pi'to,  WOLFGANG  t  Refonner  at 
Strasburg;  b.  at  Hagenau  {!6  m.  o.  of  Straaburg) 
1478;  d.  at  Strasburg  Nov.,  154L  He  was  tKe 
Bon  of  a  blacksmith  named  Koepfel,  whence  the 
L^tin  name  Capilo.  Having  paf^sed  the  schools  at 
Pforzheim  and  Ingolstadt,  he  studied  at  Freiburg 
first  medicine,  then  law,  a«d  finally  theology.  In 
1512  he  became  parisli  priest  at  Bmehsul  and  there 
made  the  acquaintance  of  (EcolampadiuB  and 
Pellican.  Called  to  Baael  in  ISL"?  as  preacher  and 
profciwor^  he  became  intLmate  with  the  humanistts, 
including  ErasmuSi  and^  abandoning  scbolasticiam. 


Oapito 
Oappal 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


406 


betook  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Bible.  He 
published  the  Psalter  in  the  original  (1516),  be- 
came personally  acquainted  with  Zwingli  and  from 
1518  corresponded  with  Luther.  Contrary  to 
all  expectation,  he  was  appointed  in  1519  chaplain 
to  Albert,  elector  and  archbishop  of  Mainz.  For 
a  time  he  tried  to  mediate  with  humanistic  liber- 
ality between  the  elector  and  Luther,  but  in  1522 
he  was  brought  over  completely  to  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation,  and  resigned  his  position  at  Mainz. 
In  May,  1523,  he  went  to  Strasburg  and  as  provost 
of  St.  Thomas  (a  position  obtained  by  the  favor  of 
Leo  X.)  preached  in  accordance  with  his  conviction. 
In  1524  he  married  and  became  pastor  of  the  Jung- 
St.  Petergemeinde.  From  this  time  on,  he  belonged, 
with  Butzer  and  the  burgomaster  Jacob  Sturm, 
to  the  leaders  of  the  Strasbiu'g  Reformation.  In 
his  Kinderbericht  (1527  and  1529)  he  prepared  a 
catechism,  which,  by  its  peculiar  arrangement  and 
characteristic  treatment  of  the  matter,  forms  a 
noteworthy  pendant  to  Luther's  contemporaneous 
smaller  catechism.  With  Butzer,  Capito  prepared 
the  Confessio  Tetrapolitana  (1530).  His  most  im- 
portant reformatory  work  is  the  Berner  SynoduSt 
the  result  of  the  synod  held  at  Bern  in  1532,  a  kind 
of  church-discipline  and  pastoral  instruction,  dis- 
tinguished by  apostolic  power  and  unction,  great 
simplicity,  and  practical  wisdom.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  Butzcr's  efforts  to  bring  together  the 
Evangelicals  of  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland. 
He  also  had  part  in  bringing  about  the  Wittenberg 
Concordia  of  1536.  Toward  the  Anabaptists  and 
other  sectaries  who  disturbed  the  chiu'ch  at  Stras- 
burg he  was  more  friendly  and  confiding  than  Butzer, 
and  for  a  time  sided  with  them,  thus  destroying  the 
good  understanding  between  himself  and  Butzer. 
But  in  1534  he  became  convinced  of  the  necessity 
of  stricter  measures  against  the  Anabaptists.  Char- 
acteristic of  Capito  were  not  only  his  mildness  and 
large-hoartcdness,  but  also  a  certain  timidity  and 
uncertainty  in  his  theological  and  ecclesiastical 
position.  However,  this  was  not  due  to  di])lomatic 
opportunism,  hut  to  a  sincere  repugnance  to  un- 
fruitful theological  controversy  and  a  religious 
individuality  wliich  had  more  regard  to  the  inner 
possession  of  the  fruits  of  salvation  than  to  a 
dogmatic  definition  of  the  doctrine  of  salvation. 

He  tiled  of  the  plague  after  having  attendeil  the 
Diet  at  Ilcgensburg.  Paul  GrOnbehq. 

Bibliooraphy:  J.  W.  Daum,  Capito  und  BuUer,  Elberfeld, 
1860;  ADB,  iii.  772-776;  A.  Baum,  Magitttrat  und  Refor- 
mation in  StrasBburg  bia  1629,  Strasburg,  1887;  C.  Ger- 
bert,  Geschichte  der  Straatburger  Sektenbewegung  .  .  . 
1624-1634,  ib.  1889;  A.  Ernst  and  J.  Adam,  Katechetiache 
GeachichU  dea  Elaaaaea,  pp.  22-36,  ib.  1897;  S.  M.  Jack- 
son, H uldreich  Zwingli,  passim.  New  York,  1903;  J.  Fickcr, 
Theaaurua  BaumiantiS,  pp.  52-57,  Strasburg,  1905;  A. 
Ilul.ohof,  Grachiedenia  ivin  de  Doopagezinden  te  Straatt^urg 
van  1626  tot  1667,  Amsterdam,  1905. 

CAPITULARIES:  A  term  which  designates  a 
certain  class  of  royal  edicts  in  the  Carolingian 
perio<i,  antl  which  is  frequently  employed  not  only 
for  the  Carolingian  capitularia  but  also  for  the 
edirta,  pr(rccpti(mcs,  dccrctaj  or  dccrct tones  of  the 
Merovingian  kings  and  the  mayors  of  the  palace 
under  Amulf.  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
other  class  of  diplomata  or  mandata^  not  so  much 
by  the  division  into  chapters,  from  which  they  get 


their  name,  or  by  the  general  nature  of  their  pro- 
visions as  by  their  form  and  by  the  absence  of  any 
attestation  in  the  way  of  signatures  or  seal.  This 
absence  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  they  were 
either  put  into  execution  by  the  Idngs  in  person 
or  had  to  pass  through  the  hands  of  officials.  They 
attained  their  highest  importance  under  Charle- 
magne, and  were  scarcely  less  used  under  Louis 
the  Pious;  after  his  death  they  ceased  in  the  East 
Prankish  kingdom,  to  be  kept  up  for  a  while  in  the 
West  Prankish  and  in  Italy  by  his  sons  and  grand- 
sons, disappearing  here  also  toward  the  end  of  the 
ninth  centmry.  They  contain  partly  instructions 
for  officials,  especially  the  missi  dominid^  and 
partly  supplements  or  modifications  of  the  old 
tribal  law;  but  to  a  still  greater  extent  they  are 
substantive  regulations  for  all  departments  of  both 
secular  and  ecclesiastical  life.  The  former  include 
the  most  diverse  matters,  of  administration,  com- 
merce, the  army,  markets,  coinage,  tolls,  protection 
against  robbers,  etc.  These  substantive  regulations 
go  deeply  into  not  merely  the  external  organizatioQ 
of  the  Church  and  its  relation  to  the  temporal 
power,  but  also  the  monastic  system,  education, 
church  discipline,  and  even  liturgical  matters. 

The  origin  of  the  capitularies  and  the  basis  of 
their  authority  have  been  much  discussed.  The 
prevalent  view,  derived  in  the  first  instance  from 
Boretius,  distinguishes  between  capituUxria  legQmt 
addenda  and  per  se  scribendaf  which  means  prac- 
tically a  class  of  laws  originating  (like  those  spedf- 
ically  known  as  leges)  in  the  assent  of  the  whole 
people,  and  another  class  originating  from  the  king 
alone,  at  most  with  the  advice  of  the  nobles  as- 
sembled in  a  diet.  But  there  seems  to  be  no  suf- 
ficient ground  for  this  distinction  betw^een  popular 
and  royal  law;  in  so  far  as  there  is  any  contrast 
between  leges  and  capUularia,  it  may  be  fully  ex- 
plained by  the  special  reverence  which  was  fdt  for 
the  ancient  tribal  law.  In  the  cases  in  which  the 
capitularies  do  not  contain  merely  instructions 
to  officials,  they  were  less  legislative  enactments 
than  promulgations  of  a  law  already  existing. 
This  law,  so  far  as  we  can  trace  its  origin,  came  into 
being  with  the  assent  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual 
lords,  assembled  in  diets  or  synods.  But  the  diet 
must  not  be  conceived  of  as  a  representative  as- 
sembly of  the  whole  people;  its  decisions  were  held 
to  be  binding  upon  the  individual  by  virtue  of  his 
allegiance  to  the  sovereign,  and  the  period  of  the 
capitularies  is  precisely  that  in  which  the  oath  of 
allegiance  was  most  pimctiliously  required  from 
all  ailults  within  the  empire.  The  multiplication 
of  capitularies  led  before  long  to  the  need  of  codifi- 
cation; for  the  collection  made  by  Ansegis  of 
Fontanella,  see  Ansegis,  and  for  the  forged  capit- 
ularies appended  to  his  collection  by  Benedictus 
Levita,  see  Pseudo-Isi dorian  Decretals. 

(Siegfried  Rietschel.) 
Bibliography:  Critical  editions  of  the  Capitularia  rrgnw 
Francorum,  ed.  G.  H.  Pert*,  are  in  MGH,  Legum.  i..  ii.. 
1835,  1837;  and.  ed.  A.  Boretius  and  V.  Krause,  ih.Ut., 
sectio  II.  i.,  ii..  1883-97  (cf.  A.  Boretius.  inGGA,  1882,  pp. 
65  sqq.,  1884.  pp.  713  aqq.).  Consult:  A.  Boretiuis  Dii 
Kapitularien  im  Langobardenreich,  Halle.  1864;  icfem. 
BeitrOge  Bur  Kapitularienkritik,  Leipeic.  1874;  R.  Sohm. 
Die  frUnkiache  Reicha-  und  GfTxehtavtrfaaaung,  pp.  102 
sqq.,  Weimar,  1871;  Fuatel  de  Coulanges,  Dt  ia  e<ni»- 


409 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Capito 
Cappel 


Han  dn  Ibit  au  tempt  dfji  CarolinQims^  in  Rtpue  huttoriqxitf^ 
in.  (1878)  3  »qq.;  M.  Th^veniii,  L^  rt  capitula.  in  .Sf^- 
iaiHW*  c£r  VicoU  den  hauien  etude9,  pp.  137  (Mjq.,  1S78;  H. 
Bnixuier»  DeuUchv  Recht»fte*ch\chte,  i.  5^9  »:|q.,  Leipeic, 
1006;  £.  GUk»fton,  Hiitairt  du  droit  el  de»  irmtihUionM  poh- 
Uq^M  €i  adminittraiivtM  dt  la  France,  i.  281  nqq..  Paris, 
1800;  G.  Se#licer«  Z>tr  Kapil^ilarien  der  Karolinoer,  Mu- 
nich* 1893:  a,  Schrbdcr,  l^hrbueh  der  deuUdten  Recht*- 
tftaehickU,  pp.  2^  eqq.,  Leipffic,  1902, 

CAPPADOCIA,  cap"i>(i-*l^'sWHi.  See  Asia  Menoii 
IN  THE  Apostolic  Time,  XI. 

CAPPEL  (CAPPELLUS) :  A  French  family  which 
produced  many  noteworthy  statesmen  and  schol* 
are  between  the  fift^*cnth  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries, aa  well  as  tliree  theologians,  Louis  Cappel 
the  Elder,  Jacques  Cappe!  the  Third,  and  Louih 
Cappel  the  Yoi-mger. 

1,  Louis  Cappel  the  Elder:  Reformed  theo- 
logian; b,  at  Paris  Jan.  13,  1534;  d-  at  S^lan 
Jan.  6,  1586-  Despite  the  early  death  of  his  father, 
he  received  an  excellent  education,  and  in  liis  twen- 
ty««eoond  year  went  to  Bonleaux  to  study  law, 
but  before  long  accepted  a  professorship  of  Greek. 
Becoming  acquainted  with  certain  of  tlie  Refonn- 
ers,  lie  was  converted  to  their  doctrines,  and  w^ent 
to  study  theology  at  Geneva,  where  Calvin  con- 
trolled the  Church.  Returning  to  Paris  about 
150*^,  he  won  the  confidence  of  hi  a  coreligionists 
by  his  zeal  for  the  in  teres t-«  of  the  Reformed,  and 
Wftfl  finally  ordained  pastor.  He  otHciate<l  suc- 
cessively at  Meaux,  Antwerp,  and  Clermont,  but 
the  constant  outbreak  of  disturbanceH  rendered 
any  continuous  activity  impossible,  and  !ie  was 
repeatedly  obliged  to  retire  to  Sedan,  where  he  was 
safe,  since  it  lay  In  tlie  duchy  of  Bouillon.  In 
1573  he  was  appouited  professor  of  theology  at 
the  Umversity  of  Leyden,  but  was  recalled  in  the 
following  year  to  Fnmce  and  matle  preacher  and 
professor  of  theology  at  S6dan^  holding  these 
positions  until  his  death. 

2.  Jacques  Cappel  the  Third:  Nephew  of  the 
preceding;  b.  at  Rcnnea  Mar.,  1570;  d.  at  Stkian 
Sept.  7,  1624.  After  completing  his  theological 
education  at  SMan,  he  went  in  1593  to  his  ances- 
tral estate  le  Titloi,  where  he  preached  for  several 
yeanB.  In  1590  he  accepted  a  call  to  Sikian  as 
professor  of  Hebrew,  and  eleven  years  later  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology.  His  learning, 
piety,  and  charity  won  him  high  esteem.  Among 
his  numerous  works  special  mention  may  be  made 
of  his  ObHcnxilimitH  in  »ehcia  Penlateuchi  loca  (ed. 
J.  Capi>el,  in  his  ComTnentarii  et  notir  tritictr  in 
VeiU9  Te^iatfientum,  Amsterdam,  1689)  and  his 
Hiatmia  sacra  et  erotica  ab  Adamo  usque  ad  Augusti 
arium  (S^lan.  1612). 

B,  Louis  Cappel  the  Younger:  Youngest  brother 
of  the  preceding;  b.  at  St.  Elier  (a  village  near 
SMan)  Oct.  15,  1585;  d.  at  Saumur  June  18, 
1658.  His  father,  Jacques  Capjiel  the  Yoimger, 
who  had  been  a  parliamentary  counselor  at 
Hennes,  had  been  forced  t-o  resign  on  account  of 
his  conversion  to  the  Reformed  Church  and  had 
been  driven  by  the  adherents  of  tlje  League  from 
his  estates  of  le  Tilloi.  During  his  flight  to  liis 
brother  Louis  Cappel  the  Elder  at  9^ dan,  his  son 
was  boni  and  named  for  his  uncle.  After  his 
father's  death  in  1586,  the  boy  was  taken  by  his 


mother  to  le  Tilloi,  where  he  waa  educated  by 
Roman  Catholics  until  his  brother  Jacques  Cappel 
took  him  from  their  charge.  He  then  studied 
theology  in  Si?dan,  and  in  1609  reecived  from  the 
church  in  Bordeaux  the  means  to  study  four  years 
in  Eiighmd,  Belgium,  and  Germany,  On  his  re- 
tiun  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Saumur,  but  in  1621  the  war  forced  him  to  take 
refuge  with  liis  brother  at  S6Jan,  where  he  re- 
mained three  years.  In  1626  he  became  professor 
of  theology,  and  through  him,  together  with  Mols© 
Amyraut  and  Josu^  de  la  Place,  Saumur  attained 
high  fame.  Of  his  five  sons  two  died  in  early  youth, 
the  eldest,  Jean,  became  a  convert-  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  the  youngest,  Jacques  the 
Fourth,  when  eighteen  years  of  age  succeedetl  his 
father  as  prt>fessor  of  Hebrew  at  Saumur.  Louis 
Cappel  was  a  man  of  piety,  sincerity,  courage, 
energy,  and  learning.  1 1  is  life-work  wa.s  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  text  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  refutation  of  false  views  con- 
cerning it.  His  first  book.  Arcanum  punchitwnis 
revelatum,  was  completed  in  1623,  and  sought  to 
prove  that  the  Hebrew  pimctuation  did  not  orig- 
inate with  Moses  and  the  other  Biblical  authors, 
but  had  been  intrmluced  by  Jewish  scholars  after 
the  completion  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  The 
novelty  of  the  book  is  not  its  assertion,  but  its 
logical  proof.  The  Tvork  was  sent  by  its  author  to 
various  scholars  for  their  opinions,  but  wliilc  Bux- 
t-orfat  Basel  counseled  caution,  Erpenius  at  Leyden 
had  it  printed  anonymously  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility in  1624.  The  book  foimd  a  friendly  reception 
in  many  quarters,  but  twenty  years  later  Buxtorf's 
son  attacked  the  author  bitterly  in  his  Troctatus 
de  punrtorum  originc  (Ba^nel,  1648).  Capi>el  replied 
with  his  V Indicia;  arcani  punctatiftnis,  although  it 
first  appeared  thirty  years  after  liis  death  in  the 
Commentarii  et  notcc  crilicfv  in  Vettts  Tettamentum 
edited  by  his  son,  Jacques  Cappel  the  Fourth 
(Amstenlam,  1689).  His  second  famous  work 
was  the  Critica  sacra  (Paris,  1650),  based  on  tlie 
theory  of  the  integrity  of  the  text  and  completed 
in  1634,  although  it  remained  unprinted  for  many 
years  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Protes- 
tants in  Cene^^a,  Ley<ien,  and  S^lan.  The  work 
is  divided  into  six  books  with  the  following  sub- 
jects: parallel  passages  in  the  Old  Testament; 
citations  froni  the  Old  Te^^tament  in  the  New;  the 
various  readings  of  the  keri  and  ktihihh,  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  Oriental  and  Occidental  Jews,  printed 
Bibles,  and  the  Masoretic  and  Samaritan  texts 
of  the  Pentateuch;  deviations  in  the  Septuagint 
from  the  Masoretic  text;  variimta  in  other  ancient 
translations,  the  Talmud,  and  early  Jewish  writings; 
the  choice  of  readings  and  the  restoration  of  the 
original  text.  Cappel  was  obliged  to  meet  repeated 
attacks.  Even  when  his  work  first  appeared,  it 
contained  a  defense  agamst  the  younger  Buxtorf, 
who  had  learned  the  contents  of  the  book 
before  it  was  printcth  and  had  combated  it  in  the 
Trartalu^  already  menlioned.  Certain  passages 
which  had  been  omitteil  in  the  original  edition 
against  his  wmII  were  added  by  Cappel  in  his  EpiJi- 
tola  apohgetica  (Saumur,  1651),  another  work  in 
his  own  defense.     A  new  edition  of  the  Critica 


Cappel 
Uaraooioli 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


410 


sacra  was  prepared  by  G.  J.  L.  Vogel  and  J.  G. 
Scharfenberg  (3  vols.,  Halle,  1775-86).  His  third 
important  writing  was  the  Diatriba  de  veris  et 
antiquis  Hebroeorum  Uteris  (Amsterdam,  1645),  in 
which  he  proved  the  priority  of  the  Samaritan 
script  over  the  square  characters  and  ^us  refuted 
the  treatise  of  the  younger  Buxtorf,  De  liUerarum 
Hebraicarum  genuina  antiquitcUe  (1643).  In  these 
writings  Cappel  discussed  problems  which  were  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  the  Protestants  in  their 
controversy  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  Of  his 
opponents  the  yoimger  Buxtorf  was  the  most  im- 
portant, and  had  practically  all  the  theologians  of 
Germany  and  Switzerland  on  his  side,  while  many 
prominent  scholars  of  France,  England,  and  Hol- 
land defended  the  views  of  Cappel.  The  first  sen- 
tences of  the  Helvetic  Consensus  Formula  of  1675 
are  directed  against  Cappel,  the  greater  number 
of  the  rest  being  aimed  at  Amyraut.  In  later 
times  a  fairer  and  calmer  judgment  prevailed  con- 
cerning the  investigations  of  Cappel,  and  his  results 
are  now  generally  accepted.  A  list  of  his  printed 
and  unprinted  works  is  given  by  his  son  Jacques 
in  the  Commentarii  noted  above.  Special  mention 
may  also  be  made  of  his  Templi  Hierosolymitani 
delineatio  triplex  and  Chronologia  sacra  (both  con- 
tained in  Walton's  Polyglot),  as  well  as  of  his 
Historia  apostolica  iUustrata  (Geneva,  1634).  [His 
Pivot  de  la  foi  et  religion  (Saumur,  1643)  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  P.  Marinel  (London,  1660).] 

Carl  Bertheau. 

BiBUOORAPHT :  Nio^Ton,  Mimovntt,  vol.  xxii.;  Bioora- 
phie  univertelle,  vii.  75-80.  Paris,  1813;  I.  A.  Doraer, 
(Jenchichie  der  proteatantiechen  TKeologie,  pp.  450  sqq., 
Munich,  1867,  Eii«.  trannl.,  Ldinburgh.  1880;  L.  Diestel, 
GfchidiU  dc*  AUen  TetUunerUa  in  der  chriatlicKen  iCtrcAa, 
pp.  336  sqq.,  346  sqq.,  Jena.  1808;  G.  Schnedermann, 
hie  Controverae  des  L.  Cappellua  mit  den  Bxixiorfen,  Leip- 
Ac.  1878;  C.  A.  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Saripture,  pp.  222 
sqq.,  New  York,  1899. 

CAPREOLUS,  JOHANNES:  The  most  distin- 
guished Thomist  theologian  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury; d.  1444.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  Accord- 
ing to  Qui^tif,  he  joined  the  Dominican  order  at 
Rodez.  The  subscriptions  of  the  four  books  of  his 
Defensiones  (first  printed  in  Venice,  1483),  where 
he  is  described  as  of  Toulouse,  tell  that  he  finished 
the  first  book  in  1409  at  Paris,  where  he  was  then 
lecturing,  the  others  at  Rodez  in  1426,  1428,  and 
1433.  So,  at  least,  Qu^tif  asserts;  but  an  extant 
copy  of  the  editio  princeps  assigns  the  composition 
of  the  first  three  books  to  1409,  and  the  fourth  to 
1432,  no  place  given;  and  the  second  edition 
(Venice,  1514-15)  gives  1409  for  the  first  two, 
1428  and  1432  for  the  others,  all  in  Paris.  The 
diversity  renders  all  the  dates  uncertain;  nor  can 
we  be  sure  of  the  date  (Apr.  6,  1444)  assigned  to 
his  death  by  an  inscription  on  his  tomb  at  Rodez, 
of  evidently  lat^r  composition.  The  Dominicans 
of  Toulouse  assert  that  he  was  for  some  time  at 
the  head  of  their  studium  generate.     (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibliography:  J.  Qu^^tif  and  J.  l^chard.  Scnptoret  ardinie 
pranlicatorum,  i.  795  eqq.,  Paris,  1719;  K.  Werner,  Der 
heilige  Thonuuvon  Aquino,  iii.  151  sqq.,  Regensburg,  1859. 

CAPTIVITY  OF  THE  JEWS.  See  Israel,  His- 
tory OF,  I.,  5  9. 


CAPUCHINS:  A  branch  of  the  order  of  Fran- 
ciscans, foimded  in  the  third  decade  of  the  sixteenth 
century  by  Matteo  di  Bassi,  an  Observantine  Fran- 
ciscan. Repeated  attempts  had  been  made  since 
the  fourteenth  century  to  restore  the  primitive 
strength  and  simplicity  of  the  Franciscan  rule. 
and  one  of  these  movements  was  concerned  espe- 
cially with  the  habit  of  the  order.  In  connection 
with  this  attempted  reform,  Matteo  was  told  by  a 
brother  monk  that  the  cowl  worn  by  St.  Francis 

differed  essentially  from  that  adopted 

Early       by  his  order.     Matteo  thereupon  left 

History,     his  monastery  of   Montefalcone  and 

hastened  to  Rome,  where  in  1526  he 
obtained  permission  from  Clement  VII.  to  wear  a 
pyramidal  hood  and  a  beard,  to  live  as  a  hermit, 
and  to  preach  wheresoever  he  wished,  on  condition 
that  he  should  report  annually  to  the  provincial 
chapter  of  the  Observantines.  Matteo's  example 
was  followed  by  his  fellow  Observantines  Lodovico 
and  Raffaelle  di  Fossombrone,  both  of  whom  re- 
ceived similar  privileges  from  the  pope;  and  the 
three,  soon  joined  by  a  fourth,  fotmd  a  home  with 
the  Camaldolites  and  the  duke  of  Camerino. 
Through  the  duke's  influence,  they  were  received 
among  the  Conventuals  in  1527,  whereupon  Lodo- 
vico and  Raffaelle  returned  to  Rome  and  obtained 
from  the  pope  the  bull  of  May  18,  1528,  by  which 
they  were  permitted  to  preach  repentance,  have  the 
care  of  souls,  especially  of  abandoned  sinners, 
and  form  a  congregation  with  the  privileges  already 
granted  them.  They  were  freed,  moreover,  from 
the  Observantines  and  placed  under  the  control  of 
the  Conventuals,  since  their  vicar-general  must  be 
confirmed  by  the  general  of  the  Conventuals,  while 
they  were  to  receive  visitations  from  the  Conven- 
tuals and  were  obliged  in  their  processions  to  march 
under  the  cross  either  of  the  Conventuals  or  the 
parish  clergy.  The  members  of  the  new  onicr 
speeilily  became  conspicuous  by  their  long  beards 
and  pointed  hoods  or  capuches,  whence  they  were 
termed  Capuchins  in  ecclesiastical  documents  as 
early  as  1536  {Capucini  ordinis  fratrum  minorum 
or  Fratres  minores  Capucini).  Their  first  monas- 
tery was  given  them  by  the  duchess  of  Camerino, 
but  by  1529  they  possessed  four  houses  and  in  the 
same  year  their  first  chapter  was  convened.  At  the 
same  time  the  rules  of  the  order  were  drawn  up, 
and  thenceforth  remained  essentially  unchanged. 

The  Capuchins  were  required  to  pre8er\e  the 
primitive  service,  to  refuse  all  compensation  for 
singing  mass,  to  devote  two  hours  daily  to  silent 
prayer,  to  observe  silence  throughout  the  day  with 
the  exception  of  two  hours,  to  practise  flagellation, 
to  beg  only  what  was  necessary  for  each  day,  to 
provide  only  for  three  or  at  most  seven  days,  and 
never  to  touch  money.     The  use  of  meat  and  wine 

in  strict  moderation  was  allowed,  but 
Rule,      the  friars  were  forbidden  to  beg  for 

meat,  eggs,  or  cheese,  although  they 
might  accept  them  when  they  were  offered.  The 
habit  was  to  be  poor  and  coarse,  and  the  brothers, 
who  might  ride  neither  on  horseback  nor  in  wagons, 
were  required  to  go  barefoot,  sandals  being  allowed 
only  in  special  cases.  The  monasteries,  which 
were  to  contain  at  most  ten  or  twelve  friars  each, 


411 


RELIGIOUS  EN^CYCLOPEDIA 


O&ppet 
C&raocioU 


Bre  to  be  fitted  in  the  most  meager  tnajmer  pos- 
In  addition  to  the  general,  tlie    Capuchins 
provincials^   custodians,   and    guapdiaiiB,    but 
procurators   or  syudics.     Elections   were   held 
anually,  except  in  the  case  of  the  general,   who 
ras  elected  by  the  ciiapter  triennially. 
The    first    vicar-genenU    was    Mattco    di    Bassi 
tiself,  but  two  months  after  ids  election  in  1529 
he  resignetl,  and  in   1537  returned  to  the  Obser- 
Fantines.     He  was  flucceoded  by  Lodovico  di  Fo&- 
ombrune,  who  failed  of  reelection  in  1535  *and  was 
iielled    for   exciting    dissatisfaction    within    the 
[>rder.     The   next    heads   of   the   Capuchins   were 
Giovanni    de    Fano    and    Bernardino 
Since  the    Ochino  (q,v.).      The  defection  of  tlie 
Reforma-    latter  to  Protestantism  in  1543  caused 
tion.         Paul  11 L  to  contemplate  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  order,  and  for  a  number 
yeari  tbe  Capuchins  w^ere  forbidden  to  preach. 
be  result  of  Ochino's  act  whe  the  transformation 
the  Capuchins  into  a  rigidly  ultramontime  order 
rhich    renounced    all    independent    judgment    in 
atters  of  faith  and  doctrine. 

After  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
pread  of  the  ortler  was  rapid.  Originally  re- 
eled to  ItaJy.  it  was  established  in  France  at 
f«quest  of  Charles  IX,  in  1573,  and  in  1593 
atercd  Germany,  after  having  already  been  im- 
planteii  in  Switzerland.  In  1606  it  was  in  Spain, 
ad  thirteen  years  later  was  freed  from  the  Con- 
Iventuals  and  receivetl  its  ow^n  general,  as  well  as 
Eihe  right  to  march  in  processions  under  its  own 
The  Capuchins,  who  then  had  1,500  monas- 
fieries  and  fifty  provinces,  follow^ed  the  Spaniards 
ad  Portuguese  across  the  sea,  and  toiled  valiantly 
for  the  Church  in  America,  Africa,  and  Asia  Insside 
eir  great  rivals,  the  Jesuits.  In  the  suppression 
'of  the  monastic  orders  in  France  and  Germany 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Capu- 
chins suffered  severely,  and  had  also  to  endure 
much  south  of  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  nineteenth 
century,  however,  they  again  prospered,  and  at  its 
close  numbered  fifty  provinces  with  534  monas- 
teries and  294  hospices.  The  twenty-five  Italian 
provinces  are  officially  suppressed,  but  retain  a 
limiteti  existences  Of  the  other  twenty- five,  Ger- 
many contains  two,  Austria  and  Hungary  seven 
Switserlond  two,  Belgium  and  Holland  one  each, 
France  five*  Great  Britain  three,  Russia  and  Po- 
land two>  and  the  Unitetl  St^itea  two,  that  of  I>e- 
troit  with  sixty-eight  fathers  and  that  of  Pitts- 
burg with  sixty- five. 

Capuchin  nuns  were  founded  at  Naples  in  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  although, 
strictly  speaking,  they  are  a  branch  of  the  Clares. 
They  now  have  a  number  of  houses  in  France, 
Italy.  Spain,  and  America,  and  are  subject,  when  the 
nunnery  contains  the  full  number  of  thirty-three, 
to  the  juris<iiction  of  the  general  of  the  Capuchins, 
and  in  other  caaes  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in 
which  they  live. 

Capuchin  scholars  have  been  authors  of  works  of 
edification,  practical  exegesis,  moral  the<ilogy,  and 
sermons.  Among  their  most  famous  preachers 
have  been  Ochino,  John  Forbes,  St.  Laurence  of 
Brindisi,  Jacques  Bolduc,  Conrad  of  Salzburg,  and 


Martin  of  Cochem.  Father  Josephs  the  confidant 
and  adviser  of  Richelieu,  and  Father  Matthew, 
the  noted  temperance  lecturer,  were  Capuchins. 

(O,  ZdCKLERt) 
BiBooodAPHv:  Sourtiea  for  the  hUtory  are:  Z.  Bov«niii, 
Annate*  .  .  .  ardiniB  minw^ttn  wive  /Vanciwi  qui  Capii- 
cini  nuncup&tur.  vols,  i.-ii.,  Leyden,  1632-39,  vol.  iii.,  by 
MATwlUn  de  Pi<«,  lft76;  Michael  a  Tugio,  Butlarium  er- 
ilini*  fratrum  minvrum  ^  ,  .  Capttcinarutn,  7  vols,,  lioniA, 
174(K62;  Ortlinnlionet  et  drcinoneM  capiiulonim  0#fl»- 
rvufium  Capurtnurum,  lb,  1851;  Analecta  Capucinnrum,  an 
ftnnuar,  ib.  1884  fiqq.  Coniiult  further:  Heimbucber. 
Orden  und  Konartoationen,  i.  279*  316-328.  359,  3&1-362; 
L.  Wo^htiniet  Anrmtf  Minontm,  2d  ed,  by  J.  M,  Fonjiec&. 
xvi,  207.  24  vol*.,  Rome,  1731-1860;  Helyot,  Ordre* 
monastiquea,  vii.  ItH-lSO;  P.  Le^hnen  Ltben  drr  HeUiQen 
.  .  der  Kapuziner,  'A  vols,,  Munich,  1863;  A.  M,  I  In, 
Geist  dM  .  .  .  Fraru  von  AbHH  dorgtrnklU  in  L«hen»bild- 
grti  atm  drr  (Jetchichte  dr^  Kttputinfr^Ordtna,  Au^nburg, 
187«;  K.  Benmth.  B,  Ochino,  pfUMUm.  Leipdo.  1802; 
Currier,  Rtliui&us  Ordera,  pp.  244-248, 

CAPUTUTI,  oQ-pQ'tS-a"t!  ("hooded,"  '*ca- 
puehcd  '* ;  also  known  as  Paciferi  and  Blancs 
Chaperi^ns):  A  society  founded  in  1183  at  Puy-en- 
Veiay  (I^e  Puy.  68  m.  s.w,  of  Lyons)  in  the  Au- 
vergnc  by  a  poor  artisan  ealled  Durand  to  ojipose 
the  fearful  devjij^tationa  eauaed  by  the  mercenary 
and  predatory  bands  of  the  "  Braban^onn "  or 
*'  Cotereaux."  Durand  claimed  that  the  Madonna 
had  authorized  hira  to  do  this;  the  members  of  the 
aociety  were  to  wear  a  white  dress  wit  h  a  eapuche  and 
a  leaden  image  of  the  wonder-working  Madonnn  of 
Puy.  Or^nized  after  the  manner  of  an  ecclesiaa- 
tical  brotherhood,  the  Caputiati  followetl  the  royal 
troops  and  took  bloody  vengeance  on  the  destroyers 
of  peace.  The  society  did  not  last  long.  Lnter 
reports,  but  little  reliable,  make  its  membi-rs  rebels 
against  State  and  Church,  who,  as  is  allegeil,  were 
routed  about  1 186  and  condemned  to  do  fR^nance. 
Even  in  late  times,  from  too  implicit  reliance  on 
these  reports,  the  Caputiati  have  been  conaiderc*! 
a  sect  opposed  to  the  Church, 

Herman  Haupt. 

BiBL,iooaAPirT:  A.  Kluekhohn,  Ge»rM<^hU  de*  GottesfritHien*, 
pp.  126  sqq.,  Ldpdc.  1857;  K.  B^michon,  /x»  Paijt  et  ta 
fr-^re  d«  Dieu,  pp.  194,  390,  Pariti.  1857;  L.  Huberti,  Studien 
tur  ReehUgetchichU  duQoUe*-  und  Landfritden*,  i.  462 sqq., 
An»bach,  1892;  Lcvrmmi  d'Aoaiy,  in  NoUcm*  et  exiraiU 
dtM  manuacriU  dW  la  BiMioihtgvM  Nationale,  torn,  v.,  vntio 
vii.,  pp.  200-203.  PariB,  1798-99. 

CARACCIOLI,  cfl-ra'c!ij-o"li,  GM^EAZZO  (Mar- 
cheae  di  Vico):  Italian  Prot<*8t^mt:  b.  at  Naples 
1517;  d.  at  Geneva  July  5,  1586.  lie  was  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  Italians  who  nought  a  refuge 
at  Geneva  when  the  reaction  came  over  Italy; 
his  mother  w*as  a  sister  of  Pope  Paul  IV..  he  waa 
in  the  royal  service,  and  his  wife  was  a  CAraffa. 
At  Naples  he  became  acquainteti  with  Juan  de 
Vald^s  and  Peter  Vermigli,  who  at  that  time 
preached  there,  and  was  deeply  impressed  by  these 
reformatory  men.  The  evangelical  ideas  which  he 
imbibed  at  Naples  and  which  caused  him  many 
struggles  in  his  family  and  in  society,  were  deepened 
by  a  journey  to  Germany  in  1544.  He  foimd  it 
impossible  to  make  open  profesi^ion  at  Naples; 
the  ciTorts  to  introduce  the  Imiuisition  after  the 
Spanish  pattern  were  fruf^trated  by  the  resistance 
of  the  people  in  1547  bcmlering  on  a  revolution; 
but,  nevertheless,  the  vict^-regent  urged  the  .sup- 
pression   of    every    anti-Romim    opinion.     Carac- 


Qaraflk 
Oarlste 


•Utadt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


412 


cioli  decided  to  forsake  fatherland,  position,  and 
possessions  rather  than  to  continue  as  a  hypocrite. 
Pretending  to  go  to  the  imperial  court  at  Augs- 
burg, he  left  Italy,  his  wife  refusing  to  follow  him. 
He  reached  Geneva  June  8,  1551,  and  joined  the 
Italian  community  wliich  was  founded  there  in 
1542.  All  efforts  of  his  people  to  bring  him  back, 
renewed  by  Paul  IV.,  after  his  accession  in  1555, 
were  in  vain.  Toward  the  end  of  1555  he  became 
a  citizen  of  Geneva.  He  kept  up  correspondence 
with  his  wife  and  his  son  and  in  1558  met  them 
once  more  in  a  little  isle  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  in 
the  paternal  castle  at  Vico;  as  they  refused  to 
follow  him,  in  spite  of  his  entreaties,  he  left  them 
forever.  The  consistories  of  Geneva  and  other 
places  declared  his  marriage  dissolved,  and  in 
1560  he  married  again.  K.  Benrath. 

Biblioorapht:  HIa  life  was  written  by  N.  Balbani,  //i«- 
toria  deUa  VUa  di  O.  Caraccioli,  Geneva.  1687,  repub- 
lished, Florence.  1875. 

CARAFFA,  ca-rof'fa,  GIOVANNI  PIETRO.     See 

Paul  IV.,  Pope. 

CARCHEMISH,  cOr'che-mish  (modem  Jerabis): 
A  city  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates 
in  the  upper  part  of  its  course.  In  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  the  name  denotes  either  a  Hittite  state 
or  the  capital  of  that  state,  which  long  maintained 
itself  against  the  Assyrians.  Its  earlier  identifica- 
tion with  Circesium,  at  the  confluence  of  theChebar 
with  the  Euphrates,  is  obsolete.  The  earliest  men- 
tion dates  from  Ammi-zaduga  (about  2200  B.C.), 
which  speaks  of  the  weight  (measure)  of  Carche- 
mish,  a  mention  which  agrees  with  a  later  Assyrian 
note  of  the  "  Mina  of  Carchemish,"  and  with  the 
city's  location  on  one  of  the  most  important  routes 
of  commerce.  It  appears  first  in  Assyrian  annals 
in  the  accounts  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  about  1110  B.C. 
The  Hittite  power  was  at  that  early  date  already 
breaking  under  the  pressure  of  the  northern  immi- 
grations then  going  on,  and  was  completed  later 
by  the  Aramean  migrations.  King  Sangara  paid 
tribute  to  Asshumasirpal  (about  880  B.C.),  was 
worsted  in  a  conflict  with  Shalmancscr  II.,  and  was 
compolleil  again  to  pay  heavy  tribute  and  to  send 
his  daughter  to  the  Assyrian's  harem.'  Its  last 
king,  Pisiris,  was  taken  prisoner  by  Sargon  II., 
717  B.C.,  and  under  Sennacherib  the  region  was  made 
an  Assyrian  province.  Near  it  was  fought  the 
battle  between  Nebuchadrezzar  and  Nucho  wliich 
decided  the  fate  of  western  Asia.    (A.  Jere.mias.) 

Bibliography:  G.  Ma.sp4ro,  De  Carchemui  oppidi  iitu,  Leip- 
sio,  1872;  idem,  StruQole  of  the  Nations,  pp.  144-145, 
Ix)ndon,  189(5;  J.  Menant,  Kar-Kamit,  aa  position,  an 
appendix  to  the  Fr.  trannl.  of  A.  H.  Sayce's  Hittitea,  Paris, 
1891:  W.  M.  Mailer.  Aaien  und  Europa  nach  aWigup- 
tiachen  Denkm&lern,  p.  263,  Leipsic,  1893;  DB,  i.  353; 
EB,  i.  702-703. 

CARD  ALE,  JOHN  BATE :  Apostle  of  the  Catho- 
lic Apostolic  Church;  b.  in  London  Nov.  2,  1802; 
d.  at  Albury  (20  m.  s.w.  of  London),  Surrey,  July 
18,  1877.  After  his  schooling  at  Rugby  he  was 
admitted  to  the  l)jir  in  1822,  became  head  of  a 
Londor  firm  of  solicitors,  and  rctircd  with  a  com- 
petency in  1834.  lie  had  already  become  inter- 
ested in  the  religious  movement,  originating  in  Scot- 
land, known  as  the  "  Catholic  A-postolic  Church " 


(q.v.),  whose  distinguishing  feature  is  its  belief 
in  the  revival  of  the  ministries  and  gifts  seen  in 
the  apostolic  age  of  the  Church,  especially  of  the 
ministries  of  apostles  and  prophets.  Mr.  Car- 
dale  was  the  first  called  of  the  twelve  "  apostles " 
of  the  Church,  Henry  Drunomond  (q.v.)  being 
the  second.  This  was  in  1832,  although  it  was  not 
until  July  14,  1835,  when  the  number  was  com- 
pleted, that  the  twelve  were  formally  set  apait 
to  their  work  as  an  Apostolic  College.  Mr.  Car- 
dale  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  anonymous 
religious  pubhcations,  the  most  noteworthy  of 
which  was  Reagdins  upon  the  IMurgy,  London, 
vol.  i.,  1849-51,  vol.  ii.,  1852-78.  G.  C.  Boaae,  in 
the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography^  says  of  him: 
"  His  strength  of  will,  calmness  and  clearness  of 
judgment,  and  kindness  of  heart  and  manner, 
added  to  the  prestige  of  his  long  rule,  made  him 
a  tower  of  strength.  He  was  indefatigable  in 
labour,  of  which  he  accomplished  a  vast  amount; 
besides  Latin  and  Greek,  he  was  a  good  French  and 
German  scholar,  and  late  in  life  learned  Danish." 
Samuel  J.  Andrews. 
Bibliooeapht:  DNB^  ix.  36-38. 
CARDINAL.    See  Curia,  §  1. 

CAREY,  WILLIAM :  Baptist  missionary  and  Ori- 
entalist; b.  at  Paulerspury,  Northamptonshire, 
Eng.,  Aug.  17,  1761;  d.  at  Serampur,  India,  June 
9,  1834.  By  baptism  a  member  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  he  was  early  in  life  convinced  of 
the  Scriptural  authority  for  the  Baptist  viewa, 
and  joined  this  sect,  in  which  he  soon  became  a 
preacher.  His  congregations  were  very  poor, 
and  he  supported  himself  and  family  by  shoe- 
making.  But  his  thirst  for  knowledge  was  strong; 
and  he  managed,  notwithstanding  the  pressure  of 
poverty,  to  acquire  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  a 
goodly  amount  of  other  useful  learning,  especially 
in  natural  history  and  botany.  His  attention  was 
turned  to  the  heathen,  and  he  saw  plainly  liis  duty 
to  go  to  them.  On  Oct.  2,  1792,  largely  through 
his  exertions,  the  first  Baptist  missionary  society 
was  founded;  and  on  June  13,  1793,  he  and  his 
family  sailed  for  India,  accompanied  by  John 
Thomas,  who  had  formerly  lived  in  Bengal.  On 
reaching  Bengal  early  in  1794,  Carey  and  his  com- 
panion lost  all  their  property  in  the  Hugli;  but, 
having  received  the  charge  of  an  indigo-factory 
at  Malda,  he  cut  off  his  pecuniary  connection  with 
the  missionary  society,  and  began  in  earnest  what, 
instead  of  regular  missionary  labor,  was  to  be  the 
work  of  his  life — the  study  of  and  translation  both 
from  and  into  the  languages  of  India.  In  1799  the 
factory  was  closed;  and  he  went  with  Thomas  to 
Kidderpur,  where  he  had  purchased  a  small 
indigo-plantation.  Here,  joined  by  Marshman  and 
Ward,  he  started,  under  bright  hopes,  a  mission, 
but  soon  encountered  the  opposition  of  the  Indian 
government,  which  forbade  the  mission's  enlarge- 
ment, and  compelled  it^  removal,  at  a  great  pecu- 
niary loss,  to  Serampur,  a  Danish  settlement 
(1800),  where  it  took  a  fresh  lease  of  life.  For 
some  time  Carey  and  Thomas  had  been  diligently 
at  work  upon  a  version  of  the  New  Testament  in 
Bengali.     In   1801   it  was  published  by  the  press 


413 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OarafEk 
Oarlstadl; 


Carey  instituted.  About  the  same  time  the  Marquis 
of  Wellesicy  api5oint€(l  him  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  in  the  Fort  William  College,  which  the 
marquis  had  founded  at  Calcutta  for  the  instruction 
of  the  younger  members  of  the  British  Indian  civil 
Bcrvice.  Carey  held  this  position  for  thirty  years, 
and  taught  Bengali,  Mahrati,  and  Sanskrit.  He 
wrote  articles  upon  the  natural  history  and 
botany  of  India  for  the  Asiatic  Society,  to  which 
he  was  elected,  1805,  and  thus  made  practical 
application  of  acquisitions  of  former  years;  but 
this  was  only  a  part,  and  by  far  the  less  val- 
uable part,  of  his  work  That  which  has  given 
him  his  undying  fame  was  his  translation  of  the 
Bible,  in  whole  or  in  part,  either  alone  or  with 
others,  into  some  twenty-six  Indian  languages. 
The  Serampiu*  press,  imder  his  direction,  ren- 
dered the  Bible  accessible  to  more  than  three  hun- 
dred million  human  beings.  Besides,  he  prepared 
grammars  and  dictionaries  of  several  tongues;  e.g., 
Mahratta  Grammar,  1805;  Sanscrit  Grammar,  1806; 
Mahratta  Dictionary,  1810;  Bengalee  Dictionary, 
1S18;  and  a  dictionary  of  all  Sanskrit-derived 
languages,  which  imhappily  was  destroyed  by  a 
fire  in  the  printing  establishment  in  1812.  Later 
students  have  discovered  errors  and  omissions  in 
these  works;  but  all  honor  is  due  to  Carey  for 
"  breaking  the  way,"  and  every  inhabitant  of 
India  is  Ids  debtor. 

Bibliography:  John  Taylor,  Biograpkiccd  and  Literary 
Noticet  of  William  Carey.  Bibliographical  Notices  of 
Works  ....  Northampton,  1886;  J.  C.  Marshman,  Life 
and  Times  of  Carey,  Marshman  and  Ward,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don. 1859;  J.  Culross.  WiUiam  Carey,  New  York,  1882; 
George  Smith,  Life  of  William  Carey,  London,  1887;  H.  O. 
Dwight.  H.  A.  Tupper,  and  E.  M.  BUm,  Encyclopadia  of 
Missions,  pp.  133-134,  New  York,  1904;  DNB,  ix.  77. 

CARGILL,  DONALD  (or  DANIEL):  One  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Scotch  Covenanters;  b.  in  the  parish 
of  Rattray,  Perthshire,  1619;  beheaded  at  Edin- 
burgh July  27,  1681.  He  was  educated  at  Aber- 
deen and  St.  Andrews;  and  about  1650  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Barony  Church,  Glasgow.  In  1661, 
when  Episcopacy  was  established  in  Scotland,  he 
refused  to  accept  his  charge  from  the  archbishop, 
and  was  banished  (1662)  beyond  the  Tay;  but  he 
did  not  go;  instead  he  became  one  of  the  **  field 
preachers,"  who,  deprived  of  their  churches, 
preached  in  the  open  air.  In  1679  he  joined  Cam- 
eron, Douglas,  Hamilton,  and  others  in  the  rebellion 
against  prelacy,  which  arose  out  of  the  ''  Ruthergien 
Declaration  "  of  May  29  of  that  year,  and  with  his 
fellow  Covenanters  endured  the  defeat  of  Bothwell 
Bridge,  June  22.  He  ded  to  Holland,  but  soon 
returned.  The  next  year  he  and  Cameron,  with 
their  adherents,  drew  up  the  "  Sanquhar  Declara- 
tion," Jime  22.  The  government  set  a  price  upon 
the  leaders'  heads.  They  were  attacked  at  Ayrs- 
moss,  July  22,  and  Cameron  was  slain;  but  Cargill 
succeeded  to  the  leadership,  and,  as  if  to  testify 
in  the  most  signal  manner  his  abhorrence  of  the 
tyrannical  persecutors,  he  publicly  excommunicated 
the  king  and  several  of  the  nobles  at  a  field-preach- 
ing held  at  Torwood  in  Stirlingshire  in  September. 
When  the  Duke  of  York,  one  of  the  "  excommu- 
nicated," came  to  Scotland,  the  persecution  of  the 
followers    of   Cargill  increased.    He  himself  was 


hunted  from  place  to  place;  but  on  July  11,  1681, 
he  was  captured  between  Clydesdale  and  Lothian, 
and  taken  to  Edinburgh  for  trial.  He  readily 
confessed  that  he  had  tlone  what  the  council  had 
called  treason.  The  council  were  equally  divided 
whether  to  imprison  him  for  life  or  to  execute  him; 
but  the  vote  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle  decided  in  favor 
of  the  latter — a  vote  which  cost  Argyle,  later  on, 
the  support  of  the  Covenanters,  to  say  nothing  of 
deep  remorse.  Accordingly  Cargill  was  put  to 
death.    See  Covenanters. 

Bibligorapht:  Biographia  preshyteriana,  vol.  ii.,  Edin- 
burgh. 1827  (life  of  Cannll);  R.  Wodrow,  Hist,  of  the 
Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  2  vols.,  ib.  1721-22; 
T.  McCrie,  Sketches  of  Scottish  Church  Hist.,  ib.  1S75; 
J.  Cunningham,  CAurc^  Hist,  of  Scotland,  2  vols.,  ib.  1883; 
DNB,  ix.  79-80. 

CARLILE,  WILSON:  Church  of  England;  founder 
of  the  Church  Army  (q.v.) ;  b.  at  Brixton  (a  suburb 
s.w.  of  London)  Jan.  14,  1847.  He  was  educated 
at  Highbury  College,  London,  but  did  not  take  a 
degree.  He  entered  conmiercial  life  in  1862,  but  in 
1878  matriculated  at  the  London  College  of  Divinity, 
and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1880  and  ordained 
priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  curate  of 
Kensington  from  1880  to  1882,  when  he  founded 
the  Church  Array  in  the  Westminster  slums,  and 
in  1890  established  the  Social  System  of  Church 
Army  in  Marylebone.  He  was  also  rector  of 
Netteswell,  Essex,  in  1890-91,  and  since  the  latter 
year  has  been  rector  of  St.  Mary-at-Hill,  Eastcheap, 
London.  He  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  in  1906,  and  has  written: 
The  Church  and  Conversion  (London,  1882);  Sfiri- 
tual  DifficuUies  (1885),  and  The  Continental  Outcast 
(in  collaboration  with  V.  W.  Carlile;  1906). 

CARLSTADT,  cOrl'stat  (KARLSTADT,  CAROL- 
STADT),  AITDREAS  RUDOLF  BODENSTEIN  VON: 
Protestant  Reformer;  b.  at  Karlstadt  (14  m.  n.w.  of 
Wttrzburg),  Bavaria,  c.  1480;  d.  at  Basel  Dec.  24, 
1541.  The  assumption  that  he  pursued  his  aca- 
demical studies  at  foreign  universities  rests  upon 
a  confusion  with  his  later  journey  to  Rome.  In 
the  winter  term  of  1499-1500  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Erfurt,  where  he  remained  until  1503, 
and  then  removed  to  Cologne.  In  1504  he  turned 
to  the  newly  established  University  of  Wittenberg, 
in  which  he  acquired  considerable  fame  as  a  teacher 
of  philosophy.  He  was  a  zealous  adherent  of 
scholasticism,  advocating  the  imoon- 

Training  ditional  authority  of  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  Life  to  By  1510  he  had  obtained  all  the  higher 
XjiS.  academical  degrees.  In  1508  he  re- 
ceived a  canonry  at  the  collegiate 
church  in  Wittenberg  and  in  1510  became  arch- 
deacon. As  such  he  had  to  preach  and  read  mass 
once  a  week  and  to  lecture  at  the  university.  In 
1515  he  left  Wittenberg,  without  the  permission 
of  the  university  and  the  elector,  and  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  studied  law  and  took  a  degree, 
hoping  to  obtain  the  first  prelacy  at  Wittenberg, 
for  which  legal  training  was  necessary.  He  did 
not  succeed,  however,  in  obtaining  the  position 
after  his  return.  His  journey  to  Rome  brought 
about  a  rupture  with  scholasticism.  The  evidence 
of  the  worldliness  of  the  papacy  which  Carlstadt 


OarUtadt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


414 


saw  in  Rome  may  have  been  the  chief  factor  in 
the  change  of  his  religious  views.  His  151  theses 
of  Sept.,  1516,  contain  the  fundamental  traits  of 
his  later  theology.  He  combats  the  scholastics 
and  Aristotle  (theses  xxxvii.,  cxliii.),  and  even 
anticipates  Luther,  on  the  basis  of  Augustine,  con- 
cerning the  inability  of  the  human  will  to  attain 
imto  God  and  in  attributing  the  act  of  redemption 
exclusively  to  the  work  of  divine  grace.  Thus  no  di- 
rect dependence  of  Carlstadt  upon  Luther  can  be  as- 
sumed ;  each  influenced  the  other  after  1516,  although 
a  bond  of  personal  friendship  never  united  them. 

In  the  spring  of  1518  Carlstadt  published  a 
comprehensive  collection  of  theses,  on  the  occasion 
of  Eck's  attack  upon  the  ninety-five  theses  of 
Luther.  Here  he  affirms  for  the  Bible  the  most 
absolute  authority  as  a  source  of  religious  knowl- 
edge and  adheres  to  its  literal  interpretation.  In 
June  and  July  a  disputation  took  place  between 
Carlstadt  and  Eck,  and  although  the  former  was 
always  equal  to  the  dialectic  cleverness  of  his 
opponent,  he  became  more  and  more  conscious  of 
the  impossibility  of  reconciling  his  convictions  with 
the   ruling  doctrine  of  the  Church. 

Deviates     He  emphasized  more  and  more  the 
from       efficacy  of  divine  grace  alone  in  the 

Church  redemption  of  humanity,  and  wrote 
TeachingB.  polemical  treatises  against  the  church 
doctrine  of  justification  by  works  and 
against  indulgences.  In  1521  he  went  to  Denmark 
by  invitation  of  King  Christian  II.  and  helped  in 
the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical  laws,  but  after 
a  few  weeks  in  Copenhagen  he  had  to  give  way 
before  the  united  resistance  of  nobility  and  clergy. 
In  June  he  was  again  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  ex- 
pressed his  views  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
a  treatise  Von  den  Empfahem  Zeichen  und  Zusag 
des  heiligen  Sacraments.  In  this  treatise  he  still 
clings  to  the  corporal  presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacra^ 
ment,  but  looks  upon  it  only  as  a  sign  of  divine 
promise.  In  another  treatise  Carlstadt  places 
beside  the  literal  explanation  of  Scripture  a  spiritual 
interpretation  which  penetrates  its  deeper  sense 
and  rests  upon  divine  interpretation.  Here  are 
to  be  found  certain  points  of  contact  between  the 
views  of  Carlstadt  and  those  of  the  enthusiasts. 

The  attitude  of  Carlstadt  in  the  Wittenberg 
disturbances  and  his  doings  there  during  Luther's 
stay  at  the  Wartburg  have  frequently  been  repre- 
sented in  an  erroneous  light.  When  the  Augus- 
tinians,  in  Oct.,  1521,  refused  to  hold  mass  and 
demanded  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supp>er 
in  both  kinds,  the  university  appointed  a  com- 
mission of  four  theologians,  among  them  Carlstadt, 
to  investigate.  Against  the  more  decided  attitude 
of  Melanchthon,  Carlstadt  conceded  that  the  abo- 
lition of  the  mass  could  only  be  accomplished 
with  the  consent  of  the  magistracy.  A  letter, 
expressing  the  same  spirit  and  signed 

The  Ref-  by  seven  professors ,  was  sent  to  the  elec- 
ormation  at  tor.  As  the  excitement  did  not  abate, 
Wittenberg,  Carlstadt  tried  to  quiet  the  more  strenu- 

1521-22.    ous  by  emphasizing  the  Grospel  as  the 
proper   guide  in  all  actions.     Never- 
theless,    the    disturbances    continued    until     on 
Christmas  day  he  administered  the  Lord's  Sup- 


per in  both  kinds.  His  action  was  approred 
by  all  Evangelicals.  From  this  moment  he  was 
silently  acknowledged  as  the  leader  of  the  refonna- 
tory  movement  in  Wittenberg.  He  did  not  stop 
with  the  reformation  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  At  the 
end  of  1521  and  at  the  beginning  of  1522  auricular 
confession,  the  elevation  of  the  host,  and  the  in- 
junctions concerning  fasting  were  abolished.  Jan. 
19,  1522,  Carlstadt  marri^.  On  being  infonned 
of  the  events  in  Wittenberg,  the  so-call^  Zwickau 
prophets  arrived  (see  Anabaftistb,  II.,  §  1 ;  Zwiauu 
Prophets),  but  Carlstadt  kept  aloof;  it  was  only 
at  the  end  of  1522  that  he  began  to  correspond 
with  Thomas  MUnzer  (q.v.).  He  proceeded  in  his 
reforms  in  entire  conformity  with  the  Council  of 
Wittenberg,  in  which  he  saw  the  supreme  author- 
ity in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  dty.  He 
soon  opened  the  battle  against  pictures  in  the 
churches,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the  coun- 
cil. Some  small  excesses  occurred,  .which,  how- 
ever, were  severely  condemned  by  both  the  council 
and  Carlstadt. 

These  ecclesiastical  changes  had  aroused  the 
displeasure  of  Frederick  the  Wise,  who  was  espe- 
cially ofifended  by  the  abolition  of  the  mass.  Cail- 
stadt  and  Melanchthon  were  called  to  account. 
Melanchthon  immediately  showed  himself  sub- 
missive; Carlstadt  also  promised  in  Feb.,  1522,  to 
renounce  further  innovations  after  he  had  carried 
through  the  reforms  which  he  deemed  essential. 
But  Frederick  desired  an  entire  rehabilitation  of 
the  Old  Church  usages.  The  course  of  events  made 
it  impossible  for  Luther  to  remain  at  the  Wartbuig. 
He  did  not  agree  with  Carlstadt's  radical  measures, 
believing  that  forbearance  ought  to  be  shown 
toward  the  weak.  After  his  arrival  at  Wittenberg, 
on  Mar.  6,  he  succeeded  in  shaking  the  dominating 
position  of  Carlstadt  and  counteracting  his  reforms. 
The  Lord's  Supper  sub  una  specie  was  restored,  also 
the  elevation  of  the  host.  Carlstadt  remained 
as  professor  in  the  university,  but  lost  all  his  influ- 
ence. As  he  was  thus  deprived  of  the  possibility 
of  being  active  in  a  practical  way,  he  devoted  himself 
to  speculative  theology.  His  views  were  somewhat 
mystical,  but,  imlike  the  true  mystics,  Carlstadt 
was  not  satisfied  with  the  contemplative  rapture 
in  the  union  of  the  soul  with  God,  and  set  up  ethical 
standards  for  the  practical  realization  of  his  new 
convictions.  In  his  desire  to  do  away  with  all 
intermediary  agencies  in  the  religious  conmiunica- 
tion  between  God  and  man,  he  denied  the  indelible 
character  of  orders  and  did  not  even  acknowledge 
the  ministry  as  a  special  profession.  He  called 
himself  after  1523  "  etn  neuer  Lai,"  put  off  his 
clerical  robes,  and  lived  for  some  time  as  a  peasant 
in  Segrena,  near  Wittenberg,  with  relatives  of  his 
wife. 

In  1524  Carlstadt  became  preacher  in  Orlamiinde, 
where  he  carried  on  the  reform  of  the  church  serv- 
ice as  he  had  done  two  years  before  in 

At  Orla-     Wittenberg.    He  expounded  the  book 

miinde,     of  Acts  daily  to  his  congregation,  and 
1524.       on  Sundays  and  holidays  the  Gospel  of 
John.     In  the  course  of  his  develop- 
ment Carlstadt  arrived  at  the  conviction  that  bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  not  sacraments. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


C&rlBtadt 


■pelv 
Vina 


At  the  same  time  he  strongly  attacked  the  mass. 
AgaiDf^t  Luther  he  wrote  Vemtand  de^  Worts  Pmtli 
Ich  begeret  ein  Verbannler  aein,  Withtnit  men- 
tiotdng  Luther's  name,  he  shows  the  dangerous 
eonsequences  t^  whieh  the  exaggeration  of  the 
principle  concerning;  forbearance  for  the  weak  might 
leoiJ,  Apart  from  his  controversial  writings, 
Ca^rtstadt  emphasized  the  necessity  of  personal 
devotion  and  satictifi cation, 

Carlstadt  did  nut  derive  his  political  or  social 
principles  from  his  theological  views.  When 
Mtinzer's  revolutionarj'  measures  in  Allstiidt  became 
threatening,  Carlstatlt  cautioned  Idm^  and  lie  in- 
duced the  people  of  Orlamdnde  to  separate  them- 
ves  fonnally  frf>m  those  of  Allstfidt.  Neverthe- 
t  the  points  of  difference  between  Wittenberg 
and  Orlamunde  were  so  considerable  that  the  uni- 
versity took  active  measures  against  Carlstadt. 
Luther  met  Carlstadt  at  Jena,  in  Aug.,  1524,  and 
thence  proceede<J  to  Orlamunde;  he  w^aa  not  sue- 
OGssfuI,  however*  in  settling  the  difficulties.  In 
September  Carltttadt  with  his  family,  his  adherents 
NIartin  Reinhard.  preacher  in  Jena,  and  GerhanI 
W^e^sterburgt  his  brother-in-law^,  were  expelled  from 
the  territory  of  the  elector.  Carlstatlt  now  en- 
countered a  time  full  of  hardships  and  dangers,  but 
I  he  developed  an  extraortlinary  activity 

Hard-  as  a  writer.  The  asiiumption  of  the 
ships  of  his  corporal  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Later  Life.  Lord's  Supper  is,  according  to  him, 
in  contradiction  to  the  fundamental 
presuppositions  of  Christian  doctrine.  He  found 
atiherents  to  these  ideas  not  only  among  the  people, 
but  many  even  in  the  clergy.  In  Oct.^  1524,  he 
sojourned  at  Strasburg,  then  livetl  temporarily 
in  Heidelberg,  Zurich,  Basel,  Schweinfurt,  Kit- 
singen,  and  Nordlingen,  He  was  active  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  Rothonbiwg-on-thc-Tauber,  where 
his  sermons  carried  aw^ay  the  great  majority  of  the 
cttisens.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  Peasants* 
War  broke  out  in  Rothenburg.  Carlstadt  was  sent 
ajs  envoy  to  the  petusants,  thus  making  himself  un- 
popular among  them.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
South  German  peasants  and  the  capture  of  Rothen- 
burg by  Margrave  Casimir,  Carlstadt  escaped  from 
the  town  with  difficulty.  The  collapse  of  his  hopes 
broke  down  his  power  of  resistance.  He  wrote 
humbly  to  Luther  to  open  the  way  for  his  return 
to  Saxony,  Luther  took  pity  upon  him,  and 
Carlstatlt  returned  to  Wittenberg  after  he  had 
recanted  to  some  degree  his  doctrine  concerning  the 
Lord's  Supper;  but  he  had  to  pledge  himself  not 
to  teach  or  preach.  He  lived  at  first  in  Segrena, 
after  1526  in  Bergwitz,  where  he  had  to  earn  his 
living  like  a  peasant.  Before  the  close  of  the  year 
he  was  reduced  almost  to  poverty,  and  he  removed 
to  the  little  town  of  Kemberg  and  kept  a  smalt 
store*  He  soon  retracted  his  former  recantation 
and  was  compelled  to  flee.  In  Mar.,  1520,  he  was 
with  Melchior  Hofraann,  the  Anabaptist,  in  Hol- 
stein.  Being  expelled  hence  also,  he  wandered 
with  Hofmann  to  East  Friesland,  where  he  remained 
imtil  the  beginning  of  1530  and  gathered  a  great 
number  of  adherents.  Thence  he  went  to  Switzer- 
land, where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Zwingli, 
who  secured  for  him  a  position  as  assistant  preacher 


in  Zurich.  In  Sept.,  1531,  he  became  preacher  in 
Altstlitten  in  the  valley  of  the  Rliine,  but  the  un- 
fortunate battle  near  Kappel  (Oct.  11)  compelled 
him  after  a  few  months  to  return  to  Zurich,  where 
he  lived  in  close  union  with  the  Reformers  of  that 
city.  The  preachers  of  Zurich  took  Carlstadt's 
part  when  Luther  renewed  liis  attacks.  In  1534 
he  was  called  to  Basel  as  preacher  and  professor 
in  the  university.  Here  he  became  involved  in 
disputes  with  Myconius;  the  people  took  Carl- 
stadt's part,  but  he  estranged  himself  from  his 
friends  in  Zurich.  He  fulfilled  his  last  public  task 
in  1536,  when  the  government  of  Basel  sent  him 
with  GrynBEua  to  Strasburg  to  negotiate  with  the 
theologians  of  that  city  conceniing  a  reconciliation 
with  the  Wittenberg  theologians  on  the  question 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  showed  a  very  concilia- 
tory spirit,  w^hich  was  not  approved  by  the  Swnas 
theologians. 

Carlstadt's  earliest  writings,  De  intentwnihutf 
(1507),  DiMindiones  aive  iormaliiaUs  TkomisttE 
(1508),  were  of  a  scholastic  nature.  His  journey 
to  Rome  occasioned  his  treatise  Von  pdpstlicher 
Heiiigkeit  (1520),  in  which  he  criticized  the  abuses 
of  popery.  In  De  canonicts  scripturis  (1520)  he 
laid  down  the  results  of  his  investigations  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament  wri t in p;  he  shows  him- 

eelf  a  free  and  independent  critic,  but 
Writings,    does  not  shake  the  authority  of  the 

literal  sense.  In  1521  appeared  Von 
den  Empfahem  Zeithen  und  Zusa^  des  keiligen 
Sacraments  and  Von  Getiibden  Lhdcrrichtung  ;  in 
the  latter  treatise  he  advocatea  the  abolition  of 
monastic  vows,  especially  the  vow  of  celibacy. 
In  Sept.,  1521^  appeared  De  legi^  I  Hera  sive  €<irne  et 
spirUu  ;  here  Carlstadt  propoimded  for  the  first 
|,ime  an  entirely  new  principle  of  interpretation 
which  became  of  much  importance  in  the  further 
development  of  his  theology — the  spiritual  inter- 
pretation of  the  words  of  Scripture,  Against 
pictures  in  churches  he  wTote  in  1522  Von  Abthuung 
der  BiMcr,  In  1524  he  published  Priesterhtm  und 
Opjer  Christi.  After  his  expulsion  from  Saxony 
in  1524  appeared  the  most  radical  of  his  writings, 
Ob  man  gemuch  faren  soil,  in  which  he  denies  the 
corporeal  prc»c?nce  of  Christ  in  the  Lord^s  Supper, 
and  Anzeig  etlicher  Haupturiiket  christllicker  JLeftre, 
which  contains  a  comprehensive  summary  of  his 
views.  He  combats  the  central  position  which 
the  conception  of  sin  had  assumed  in  Luther^a 
theology,  as  he  understood  it,  and  emphasises  the 
necessity  that  Christian  liberty  and  justice  must 
produce  fruits  in  good  works. 

(Hermann  Barge.) 

Bibliooraprt:  Th©  autbodtative  biography  is  H,  Barge^ 
Andrta*  Bordrmtein  von  Karlttadt,  2  voh.,  Leipeic^  1006« 
AmoDf  the  older  Ltteraiure  the  following  may  be 
ccixu$ultcd:  Mayer.  £H»»er(atio  dt  KaTohtadio^  Grails- 
wald.  1703;  FussJin,  L^fiermgeschicJiU  dts  A.  B.  von 
KarUiadl,  Frankfort,  1776;  J,  F,  Kahlpr^  BeitrAfft  g-ur 
Erg&fuuim  der  deutscfutn  Litttratur,  i.  1-162.  ii.  239-269, 
2  vols.,  Leipsic.  17U2-94;  M.  Kirchhofer,  Otu^ld  My- 
coniuM,  pp.  153.  310-343,  Zurich,  1813.  More  rnodam 
treatmeut  will  be  found  in:  A.  W.  Dieckhoff,  De  Cord- 
tiadio  Luiheranct  d&ctrinm  contra  Eckium  defenaore^  GOt* 
titifcen,  1850;  idem^  DU  tn>anstli*che  AhendmakUUhr^  im 
RciftmuxiifinMxeiUdUT,  ib.  1854;  Jii«er.  .4.  B.  von  KaH- 
4adt,  Stuttttart,  1856;  G.  P.  Fiaher.  THm  RefarmaHon,  pp. 
93,  113,  New  York,  1873j  W.  Walker,  The  ReiormaHon, 


CTarlstadt 
Oarmel 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


416 


paaaim.  ib.  ICOO;  J.  K6stlin,  Martin  Luther,  passim,  2 
vols.,  Berlin,  1903  (important);  Cambridge  Modern  His- 
tory, vol.  ii..  The  Reformation,  passim,  ib.  1004;  Moeller, 
ChrieHan  Church,  vol.  lii.  passim,  especially  pp.  27-36; 
Sc^ff,  Chriatian  Church,  vol.  vi.  passim.  Consult  also: 
G.  Bauch,  in  ZKG,  xi.  (1890)  448  sqq.  (on  C^lstadt's 
scholasticism);  D.  Sch&fer,  ib.  xiii.  (1892)  311  (on  the 
De  legia  litera). 

CARLSTADT,  JOHANN.    See  Draconites. 

CARLTLE,  THOMAS:  Historian,  biographer, 
and  essayist;  b.  at  Ecclefechan  (60  m.  s.  of  Edin- 
burgh), Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  Dec. 

Life  and    4,  1795;   d.  in  London  Feb.  5,  1881. 

Writings.  He  was  early  noted  for  his  extraordi- 
nary memory,  and  for  his  love  of  read- 
ing. He  entered  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in 
1810,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  mathematician, 
but  declared  that  he  owed  nothing  to  the  university 
but  the  miscellaneous  reading  afforded  by  its 
library.  Having  abandoned  the  study  of  theology, 
he  taught  mathematics  in  the  high  school  at  Annan 
for  two  years.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
the  Burgh  School  at  Kirkcaldy.  Here  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  German,  and  translated 
Legendre's  Oeometry,  adding  an  introductory  essay 
on  proportion. 

Carlyle  removed  to  Edinburgh  in  1818,  where  he 
supported  himself  by  literary  work,  pursued  a 
large  and  varied  course  of  reading,  and  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  German.  From  1820 
to  1823  he  contributed  a  number  of  articles  to  the 
Edinburgh  Encyclopctdia  and  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
In  1824  he  introduced  Goethe  to  English  readers 
by  the  translation  of  Wilhelm  Meiater'a  Lekrjahre, 
and  in  1825  published  the  Life  of  Schiller.  He 
married  Jane  Welsh  in  1826,  and  removed  in 
1828  to  Craigenputtoch,  where  he  wrote  his  Critn 
ical  and  MisceUaneoua  Essays ,  and  Sartor  Resartus, 
a  philosophic  romance  in  the  form  of  a  treatise  on 
dress,  containing  his  views  on  the  problems  of 
religion  and  life;  it  was  published  during  1833-34, 
in  Fraser*s  Magazine. 

In  1834  he  removed  to  London,  to  the  house  in 
Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea,  where  he  resided  imtil  his 
death.  In  1837  appeared  The  French  Revolution , 
the  first  of  his  works  to  which  his  name  was  for- 
mally attached.  In  the  same  year  he  began  lec- 
turing, and,  during  1837-43,  delivered  courses  on 
Oerman  Literature,  The  Periods  of  European  Cul- 
ture, the  Revolutions  of  Modem  Europe,  and  Heroes 
and  Hero-Worship,  besides  publishing  Chartism,  a 
political  treatise,  and  Past  and  Present. 

One  of  his  most  important  woiks,  Oliver  Crom- 
toeWs  Letters  and  Speeches,  was  issued  in  1845,  and 
produced  a  great  revolution  of  sentiment  in  favor 
of  Cromwell.  In  1840  Carlylo  inaugurated  the 
movement  which  resulted  in  the  London  Library, 
of  which  he  was  afterward  elected  president.  Dur- 
ing 1848-50  he  wrote  a  number  of  political  and 
social  treatises,  notably  The  Latter  Day  Pam- 
phlets, the  ultimate  and  most  violent  expression 
of  his  political  creed. 

The  Life  of  John  Sterling,  especially  valuable 
as  a  partial  expression  of  his  own  religious  views, 
appeared  in  1851.  His  magnum  opus,  The  History 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  was  begun  in  1858,  and 
finished  in  1865.     It  is  a  monument  of  patient 


industry  and  minute  research,  and  oontainfl  % 
complete  political  history  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. In  1866  Carlyle  was  chosen  rector  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  delivered  an  inau- 
gural on  The  Choice  of  Books.  Mrs.  Carlyle  died 
during  his  absence  on  this  occasion  (Apr.  21). 
A  few  newspaper  articles,  with  Historical  Sketdia 
of  the  Early  Kings  of  Norway,  and  The  Portrait 
of  John  Knox,  marked  the  next  five  years,  ind 
completed  his  literary  labors. 

Carlyle's  life  is  marked  by  great  unity  of  pur- 
pose and  concentration  of  energy.  He  lived  for 
literature.  With  his  imaginative  genius,  hii 
poetic  insight,  and  his  opulent  diction,  he  was  a 
poet  by  constitution;  but  his  lack  of  the  sense  of 
form  and  proportion,  and  his  impatience  of  meas- 
ured expression,  made  him  despise  poetry.  He  is  a 
preacher  and  a  prophet  rather  than  an  artist 
His  keen  sense  of  the  grotesque,  with  the  real 
depth  of  his  nature,  made  him  a  hiunorist  at  once 
racy,  subtle,  and  satirical;  but  this  element  devel- 
oped itself  disproportionately,  and  ran  into  cyn* 
icism  as  he  grew  older. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  admixture  of  ethics 
and  philosophy  in  his  writings,  it  is  wdl-nigh 
impossible  to  define  accurately  his 
Ethics  position  as  a  philosopher,  moralist, 
and  or  religionist.  Veracity  is  the  basis 
Philosophy,  of  his  ethical  conceptions,  by  which  he 
means  the  disposition  to  go  behind 
appearances  to  facts,  and  the  assertion  of  reality  as 
against  mere  symbols  and  conventionalities.  His 
hatred  of  shams  is  intense,  and  often  leads  him  into 
needless  roughness  of  speech.  His  ethical  ideal 
is  defective  from  its  identification  of  physical  and 
moral  order,  of  might  and  right.  It  is  too  sub- 
jective, lodging  the  test  of  right  in  each  man's 
moral  consciousness.  Hence  his  fundamental  fal- 
lacy, expounded  in  Hero-Worship,  and  applied  in 
Frederick — the  reverence  for  strength,  regardless 
of  moral  quality.  He  is  a  dangerous  guide,  there- 
fore, as  a  historian  and  political  philosopher. 
His  conception  of  history  as  only  the  record  of 
the  world's  great  men  is  radically  false.  He  has 
no  sense  of  the  popular  power  in  the  solution  of 
political  problems.  The  moral  teaching  of  his 
histories  is  unsound  in  blinding  the  reader  to 
vice  through  the  admiration  of  greatness.  The 
logical  outcome  of  his  political  philosophy  is  sla- 
very and  despotism.  As  a  historian  he  is  distin- 
guished by  exact  and  laborious  attention  to  detail. 
He  studies  folios  and  pasquinades  alike;  and  no 
detail  of  topography,  featxire,  or  costume  escapes 
him.  His  histories  are  a  series  of  striking  por- 
traits or  pictures.  He  stands  committed  to  no 
philosophical  system.  With  much  talk  about  the 
real  and  practical,  his  philosophy  is  intuitional  and 
sentimental,  emphasizing  feeling  above  reason. 

Theologically  he  can  not  be  accurately  placed. 

The  Life  of  Sterling  throws  most  light  upon  his 

religious    views.      He  may  fairly  be 

Religious    regarded  as  a  theist.      He  is  mainly 

Views.      silent  on  the  truth  of  creeds,  always 

reverential  toward  Christ,  and,  while 

agreeing  that  Christianity  is  the  supreme  religion, 

denies  that  it  embraces  all  truth.     He  seems  to  hold 


117 


HELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Sarlitidt 

C&ruiel 


N 


Lthat  responsibility  to  God  is  the  essential  truth 
Iforeahadowed  in  all  n*ligions^  and  that  the  efwseoce 
l©f  all  religion  is  to  keep  conscience  alive  anrl  shining. 
iHe  believes  in  retribution  as  the  natural  outcome 
lof  wrong.  He  revered  genuine  piety,  and  his  own 
I  moral  life  wai*  aingularly  pure.  As  a  critic  he  haa 
[great  knowledge  and  keen  discernment^  but  is  too 
iHable  to  be  swayed  by  his  personal  prejudices. 

His  earlier  style,  as  in  the  esaaya  on  Bums  and 
iBcoitf  was  natural^  simple,  dignified,  and  vigorous. 
rHls  later  style  is  figurative,  abrupt,  enigmatical, 
(ttometunea  turgid  and  involved,  inverted,  declama- 
tory, and  at  times  coarse,  yet  withal  often  beauti- 
rfulj  rich^  and  powerful,  and  always  picturesque. 

M.  R.  Vincent, 

BiBUOCitAPltY:  BNB,  \x,   127  append  a  to  account  of  Car- 

lyl«^i  life  a.  lijit  of  the  iii]collcet«d  writinKM  as  well  a»  of 

bij  booki*.     R.  H.  ShepKerd  ha«  pubiii^bed  a  BihUogTuj^hy 

of    Thama»    CarlyU,    London,    1S81,  &nd    in    NoUf   and 

Ou«ne9,  6th  wrioa,  iv,  145.  201,  226  arc  lifita  of  aniolee 

referring   to   Ca/Iyle.     The   authoritiea   for   Ckrlyte'a   life 

are  hiB  ReminiMcenc€M,  ed.  J.   A.  Froude,   London.   188 J; 

J.  A.  Froude,  Th&mtutCarlyle,  a  Hiatory  of  the  Firtt  Forty 

y«or«  of  hU  Lift,  2  vols.,  1882«  and  Hiatory  of  hU  Life  in 

London,   2  toIs,,    1S84;  Comtpandencti   of    Tfwmam  Car- 

^H     lylf  and  Ralrh  Waldo  Emervm,  «d.  0.  E.  Norton.  Boston. 

^^k     1883:  Lcltertf  and  MemorvafM  of  Jane  IVeUk  Carlyte,  pre- 

^^r    fnradT  ,  ,  .  by  Tkoma*  Carlyle  and  ^ited  by  J.  A,  Froudt^ 

P  a  vols..  London,  1883. 

I  For  accounts  of  hia  life  and  eotimateo  of  his  writings 

^H      and  activitiM  oonjBult:  O.  MacCrie,   The  Rdiffion  of  our 
^B      Liirraturt,  Bt9ay9  upon  Thoma*  Cartyte^   IxindoD,   187fi; 
^1      U.  D.  Conway.   Thomae    Carlyie.  ib.  ISSl;  E.   D.  Mead, 
^m      The   Fhiloeophy  of  Carlyle,   Boston,    IB81;   R,   H.   Shep- 
^H     herd.  Memmrt  of  the  Life  and  Writing*  of  Thoma*  Carlyte, 
^B     London,    1881;  H.   Jamea.   Literary  Bemains,   Some  Per^ 
^H     mnai  RecolUctianM  of  Carlyle,  Boston,   1884;  D.   Massoa, 
^V     Carlyle   pertiona^ly  and   in   kie    WriHnot^    London,    IS85; 
^^      A.    S.    Arnold.    The  Storj/  of    Thomae   Carlyle,   ib.    1888; 
E.   Flil^el,   T,  Carlyle*  TdigiUte  uttd  eittlicAe  Entttrickluno 
Hnd   Wfttanechauunm,   LeipAio,    1887.    Eng.   trannl..    Lon- 
don,   1891:  J.   M,  RobertMin.    Sfodem   Numani^,  Swio- 
ioi/ieai  Studies    of  Carlyle,  ib.  1891;    IJavid  Wilson.  Mr, 
Froude  and  Carlyle,  New  York,  1898;  May  AJden  Ward. 
Prophet*  of  the  fifineteenth  Cmtw^,  Boston ,   1900;   J.   M. 
^^      Sloan,  The  Carlyle  Country,  Philadelphia,  1903;   H.  PanJ. 
^K     Life    of    Froutle,     London.     19QS:  lUualrated    f^emorial 
^H     Volume  of  the  Carlyle' e  Houee  Purchaee  Fund  C&mmitt^, 
^■^     uiih  CtUaloQue  of  Carlyle**  Booke^   MSS.,    Pici:%tr€e,   and 
Fumit%tre,  London,  1897, 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS:     Apostle  of  the  Catholic 
ApoBtolic  Church  (q.v.) ;  b.  at  King's  Grange  {90  m. 
..w,  of  Edinburgh)^  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scotland, 
July  17,  1803;  d.  at  Albury  (26  m,  s.w,  of  London) 
an.  28,  1855.     After  studying  at  Edinburgh  Uni~ 
raity  he  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1824. 
le  same  year  by  the  death  of  a  relative  the  dor- 
mant title  of  Baron  Carlyle  passed  over  to  him. 
1831  he  figured  as  legal  counsel  of  the  Rev.  John 
cLeod  Campbell  (q.v,)  in  the  famous  Row  heresy 
He  believed  that  the  revival  in  Scotland 
!  speaking  in  prophecy  and  tongues  was  a  true 
of  the  Spirittand  in  Apr.»  1835,  was  himself 
led   to  the  apostolate.     Thereupon  he  gave  up 
practise  at  the  bar  and  settled  with  liis  wife 
AJbury,  where  was  the  sc^at  of  the    Apostolic 
liege,  and  the  center  of  its  work.     He  ivaa  much 
Germany,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  many 
leologians,  among  them  H.  W.  J.  Thiersch  (q,v,) 
,d  C.   J.   T,   Boehra.     In   1845  he  published   at 
n  The  ^forQl  Phenomena  of  Germantff  which 
iuced  him  to  King  Frederick  William  IV.  of 
He  wTote  many  pamphlets,  among  which 
n.— 27 


Jul 


may  be  mentioned  Pleadings  ivith  my  Mother,  the 
Church  of  Scotland  (1854).  A  volume  of  his  col- 
lected writings  was  published  in  1S78. 

Samuel  J.  Akdrews. 

GARMEL :  The  mountain  in  the  west  of  Palestine 
which  separates  the  Plain  of  Acre  from  the  Plain  of 
Sharon-  I  Kings  xviii.  40-46  locates  it  near  the 
Kishon  and  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Jezreel 
(q.v.);  Joshua  xix.  26  and  Jer.  xlvi.  18  locjite  it 
as  the  southern  boundary  of  Asher  and  as  abutting 
on  the  sea.  Jabal  Karmal  is  the  name  it  stiil  bears, 
and  it  is  also  called  '*  Mount  of  the  Holy  Eliiah." 
In  the  Hebrew  the  name  haa  the  article,  and  means 
**  wooded  garden,"  setting  forth  the  contrast 
between  the  greenness  of  Carmel  and  the  bareness 
of  the  hills  of  central  Palestine.  This  fact  is  often 
referred  to  in  Scripture,  the  wooded  Bashan,  I-rcb- 
anon,  and  Cannel  being  named  together,  though 
the  bushy  rather  than  forest  growth  of  the  last  is 
sometimes  noted. 

The  mountain  is  wedge-shaped,  with  the  edge 
toward  the  sea;  the  western  extension  turning 
toward  the  south  runs  approximately  parallel  to  the 
coast,  while  the  northern  cliffs  curve  gently  along 
the  plain  of  the  Kishon.  Its  stone  is  a  gray  lime- 
stone, and  caves  are  numerous.  It  is  about  thir- 
teen milea  in  length  and  eight  and  a  half  broad  at  its 
eastern  end.  It  is  marked  off  by  the  Wadi-al-Milh, 
emptying  into  the  Kishon,  and  the  Wadi-al-Matabin, 
which  flows  to  the  coa*it  plain. 

The  northern  point  is  occupied  by  the  convent 
of  the  Carmelites  and  a  shelter  provided  for  pil- 
grims. The  situation  affords  an  unobstructed  view 
both  of  the  coast  to  the  south  and  of  that  to  the 
north  as  far  as  Acre.  There  are  at  present  only  two 
villages  on  the  mountain,  both  in  the  southern  part 
and  inhabited  by  Druses.  In  earlier  times  the 
mountain  was  more  densely  populatefJ,  as  is  shown 
by  the  remains  of  cisterns  and  oil-  and  wine-presses. 
In  1820  the  Druses  made  seventeen  settlements 
there,  but  in  the  Turco-Egyptian  war  all  were 
destroyed  btit  two. 

From  its  striking  characteristics  of  position,  form, 
and  abundance  of  tree-growth,  it  is  hardly  to  be 
wondered  at  that  Carmel  was  a  sacred  place. 
I  Kings  xviii.  connects  this  fact  wnth  the  memory 
of  Elijah.  The  site  of  the  episode  related  there  is 
given  by  tradition  as  El-Mahraka,  "  the  Place  of 
Burning/'  a  terrace^  1,600  feet  above  the  sea,  where 
are  a  [Druse]  chapel  and  some  ruins.  Beneath  this 
on  the  bank  of  the  ICishon  is  a  little  mound  to 
which  the  name  *'  Hill  of  ti^e  Priests  "  is  given, 
pointed  out  as  the  place  where  the  priests  of  Baal 
were  slain.  Tradition  locates  also  the  place  where 
Elijah  dwelt,  in  a  valley,  in  which  there  is  a  spring 
known  as  Ain-al-Sih,  about  two  miles  south  of  the 
convent.  The  Mohammedans  regard  the  place  as 
sacred,  and  point  oyt  the  site  of  Elijah's  garden, 
where  appear  numbers  of  "  Elijah's  melons/' 
geodes  which  characterise  the  Carmel  formation. 
Near  it  the  first  monastery  was  built  about  1200» 
replaced  by  a  new  one  somewhat  later,  which  was 
destroyed  by  Abdallah  Pasha  in  1821  that  it  might 
not  be  used  as  a  fort  by  his  enemies.  It  was  re- 
constructed about  1828,  and  the  church  is  built  over 


Oarmelites 
Caroline  Books 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


418 


an  '' Elijah-grotto";  that  is,  a  cave  in  which  Elijah 
is  said  to  have  lived. 

The  Old  Testament  does  not  determine  to  which 
of  the  tribes  Carmel  belonged,  whether  to  Asher, 
Zebulun,  or  Manasseh.  At  various  times  it  was 
counted  to  Galilee  and  to  Phenicia.  Tacitus,  asserts 
that  **  Carmel "  was  the  name  of  a  mountain  and  a 
deity,  and  Vespasian  had  the  oracle  there  consulted. 

The  coast  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  is  about 
100  yards  wide,  broadening  north  and  south.  At 
the  foot  of  the  bay  of  Akko  there  was  an  old  city 
called  Sycaminum  by  Greeks  and  Romans  and 
Haifa  in  the  Talmud,  coins  of  which  are  known. 
The  place  was  destroyed  and  the  material  used 
to  build  the  present  Haifa  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Kishon,  1760,  the  growth  of  which  in  recent  years 
has  been  quite  rapid.  (H.  Guthb.) 

Biblioorapht:  C.  R.  Condor  and  H.  H.  Kitchener,  Survey 
of  Weatem  Paleatine,  Memoira,  i.  264  sqq.,  London.  1881; 
G.  A.  Smith,  Hiatorical  Oeography  of  the  Holy  Land,  337- 
340,  7th  ed.,  London,  1897;  E.  Robinaon.  Biblical  Re- 
eeardiea  in  Paleeiine,  iii.  189,  Boston,  1841;  A.  Reland, 
Palcutina,  2  vols.,  Utrecht,  1714;  J.  de  S.  Th^r6se.  Le 
Sanctuaire  du  Mont  Carmel  depuia  eon  origine  juaqu'h  no» 
jourat  BfArseilles,  1876;  T.  Saunders,  Introduction  to  tKe 
Survey  of  Western  Paleatine,  London,  1881;  PEF,  Quar- 
terly StatemenU,  particularly  for  the  years  1882-86;  G. 
Ebers  and  H.  Guthe.  PalAatina  in  BUd  und  Wort,  ii.  106 
■qq.,  1884;  C.  R.  Conder,  Tent-work  in  PaUetine,  new  ed., 
London,  1889. 

CARMELITES. 

Griffin  and  Early  History  ({  1). 
Habit  and  Scapular  ({  2). 
Reforms  Within  the  Order  ({  3). 
Controversies  with  Other  Orders  ({  4). 
Present  Status  ({  5). 

Carmelites  (Ordo  fratrum  BeatcB  Virginis  MaricB 
de  monie  Carmelo)  is  the  name  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
order  foimded  in  the  twelfth  century  by  a  certain 
Berthold  (d.  after  1185)  on  Mount  Carmel,  whence 
the  order  receives  its  name.  Carmelite  tradition 
traces  the  origin  of  the  order  to  a  community  of 
hermits  on  Mount  Carmel  that  succeeded  the 
schools  of  the  prophets  in  ancient  Israel,  although 
there  are  no  certain  records  of  monks  on  this  moun- 
tain before  the  ninth  decade  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Berthold,  who  had  gone  to  Palestine  from  Calabria 
either  as  a  pilgrim  or  as  a  crusader,  chose  Mount 
Carmel  as  the  seat  of  his  community  because  it  was 
the  traditional  home  of  Elijah.  It  was  but  natural 
that  this  community  of  Eastern  hermits  in  the  Holy 
Land  should  gain  constant  accessions  from  pil- 
grims, and  in  1209  they  received  a  rule  from  the 
patriarch  Albert  of  Jerusalem.     This 

I.  Origin  consisted  of  sixteen  articles,  which 
and  Early  enjoined    strict    obedience    to    their 

History,  prior,  residence  in  individual  cells, 
constancy  in  prayer,  the  hearing  of 
mass  every  morning  in  the  oratory  of  the  com- 
munity, poverty  and  toil,  daily  silence  from  ves- 
pers until  terce  the  next  morning,  abstinence  from 
all  forms  of  meat  except  in  cases  of  severe  illness, 
and  fasting  from  Holy  Cross  Day  (Sept.  14)  to 
Easter  of  the  following  year.  This  rule  received 
the  approval  of  Honorius  III.  in  1226.  With  the 
increasing  cleavage  between  the  West  and  the 
East,  however,  the  Carmelites  found  it  advisable 
to  leave  their  original  home,  and  in  1238  they  settled 


in  Cyprus  and  Sicily.  In  1240  they  were  in  Eng- 
land, and  four  years  later  in  southern  France, 
whil*^  by  1245  Ihey  were  so  numerous  that  they 
were  able  to  hold  their  first  general  chapter  si 
Aylesford,  England,  where  Simon  Stock,  thai 
eighty  years  of  age,  was  chosen  general.  During 
his  rule  of  twenty  years  the  order  prospered,  espe- 
cially by  the  establishment  of  a  monastery  at 
Paris  by  St.  Louis  in  1259. 

The  original  rule  of  the  order  was  now  changed 
to  conform  to  that  of  the  mendicant  orders  on 
the  initiative  of  Simon  Stock  and  at  the  command 
of  Innocent  IV.  Their  former  habit  of  a  mantle 
with  black  and  white  or  brown  and  white  stripes 
was  discarded,  and  they  wore  the  same  habit  as 
the  Dominicans,  except  that  the  cloak  was  white. 
They  also  borrowed  much  from  the  Dominican 
and  Franciscan  rules.  Their  distinctive  garment 
was  a  scapular  of  two  strips  of  gray 

2.  Habit    cloth,  worn  on  the  breast  and  back, 
and        and  fastened  at  the  shoulders.    This, 

Scapular,  according  to  the  traditions  of  the  order, 
was  given  to  Simon  Stock  by  the 
Virgin  herself,  who  descended  from  heaven  and 
promised  that  all  who  wear  it  in  this  world,  or  at 
least  in  the  hour  of  death,  should  be  saved,  she 
herself  going  each  Saturday  to  purgatory  to  rescue 
those  to  whom  this  might  apply.  Thus  arose  a 
sodality  of  the  scapular,  which  affiliated  a  large 
number  of  laymen  with  the  Carmelites.  The  order 
speedily  became  infected  with  arrogance,  however, 
contesting  the  invention  of  the  rosary  with  the 
Dominicans,  terming  themselves  the  brothers  of 
the  Virgin,  and  asserting,  on  the  basis  of  thor 
traditional  association  with  Elijah,  that  aU  the 
prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  the  Virgin 
and  the  Apostles,  had  been  Carmelites.  Their 
second  general,  Nicholas  of  Narboime  (1265-70), 
protested  in  vain,  only  to  be  deposed  from  his 
office. 

In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the 
Carmelites,  like  other  monastic  orders,  declined, 
and  reform  became  imperative.  Shortly  before 
1433  three  monasteries  in  Valais,  Tuscany,  and 
Mantua  were  reformed  by  the  preaching  of  Thomas 
Conccte  of  Rennes  and  formed  the  congregation 
of  Mantua,  which  was  declared  independent  of 
the  Older  by  Eugenius  IV.  In  1431  or  1432  the 
same  pope  sanctioned  certain  modifications  of  the 
Carmelite  rule,  and  in  1459  Pius  II.  left  the  regu- 
lation of  fasts  to  the  discretion  of  the  general. 
Soreth,  who  was  then  general,  and  had  already 
established  the  order  of  Carmelite  nuns  in  1452, 
accordingly  sought  to  restore  the 
3.  Reforms    primitive    asceticism,    but    died   of 

Within  poL<<on  at  Nantes  in  1471-  In  1476 
the  Order,  a  bull  of  Sixtus  IV.  founded  the  Car- 
melites of  the  Third  Order,  who  re- 
ceived a  special  rule  in  1635,  which  was  amended 
in  1678.  The  sixteenth  century  saw  a  number  of 
short-lived  reforms,  but  it  was  not  until  the  second 
half  of  the  same  century  that  a  thorough  refor- 
mation of  the  Carmelites  was  carried  out  by  St 
Theresa,  who,  together  with  St.  John  of  the  Cross, 
established  the  Discalced  Carmelites.  In  conscious 
opposition  to  Protestantism  the  order  was  now 


4ig 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


inspired  with  an  asceticism  and  n  devotion  hitherto 
unknown  to  it.  In  I/V9.1  the  Di,scalced  Carmelites 
1 134^1  their  own  general,  and  by  ItiCWj  tliey  wem  so 
numerous  that  it  became  necessury  to  divide  them 
ito  the  two  congregationa  of  Spain  and  of  Italy* 
St.  Elia8,  the  latter  including  all  provincts*  except 
n.  Henceforth  there  were  four  Carmelite 
erals:  the  general  of  the  Obaer\f  an  tines,  of  the 
ependent  congregation  of  Mantua,  and  of  the 
two  congregations  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites. 

By  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Carmelites  liad  reached  their  zenith.  At  tliis 
period,  however,  they  became  involved  in  contro* 
versies  with  other  oniers,  particularly  with  the 
Jesuita.  The  special  objects  of  attack  were  the 
traditional  origin  of  the  Carmelitci*  an^l  the  source 
of  their  scapular.  T!ie  Sorbonne^  represented  by 
Jean  Launoy,  joineti  the  Jesuits  in  their  polemics 
against    the    Carmelites.     Papebroeh* 

4.  Coatro-  the    Bollandi^st    editor    of    the    Ada 
Tersies  with  Sanctorum,  was  answered  by  the  Car- 
Other       meLite    Sebastian    of    St.    Paul,    who 

Orders,      made  such  uerious  charges  againj^t  the 
^ft  orthotloxj"  of  his  opponent's  writings 

^Rhat    the   very   cxi.stcncc   of   the    Bollandistw   was 
threatened.     The  i>erii  Wim  averte^l,  however,  and 
in  1696  a  decree  of   Rocaberti,  archbishop  of  Va- 
lencia and  inquisitor-general  of  the  holy  office,  for- 
bade all  further  controversies  between  the  Carmel- 
il€8  and  Jesuits.     Two  j'-eara  later,  on  Nov.  20,  I698» 
Innocent  XIL  issued  a  brief  which  definitely  ended 
^Bb^  controversy  on  pain  of  excommunication,  and 
^placed  all  writings  in  violation  of  the  brief  upon 
the  Index. 

The  French  Revolution  and  the  sequestration  of 

monasteries  in  southern  Europe  were  heai-y  blows 

to  the  CarmeUtes.     At  the  present  time  there  are 

five  provinces  of  Calceii  Carmelites  (Rome,  Malta, 

Iceland.    England,   and    Galicia)   and 

5.  Present  eight    of    Discalced     (Rome,    Genoa, 
Status.       Lom  hardy,    Venice,     Tuscany,    Pied- 
mont,   Aquitaine,   and    Avignon),    in 

addition  to  a  number  of  isolated  cloisters  and 
priories  of  both  Caloed  and  Discaloed  Carmelites 
in  various  countries.  (O.  ZdcKXEaf.) 

3tBi4ioaRAPffT:  For  aouroes  ootutaltt  ASB  tor  MoTh  6 
and  20,  and  Apr.  8;  D*  Papebroch,  Re^ponsio  ad  ex- 
potiHottem  crromin  per  StboMtian  a  S,  Paulo  evutoatam, 
3  volm^  Aotwert),  101)6-99;  Chronvfuea  de  t'ordre  den  Car- 
mHUtt  d«  la  Riforrn^  d*  Ste.  ThfrtM  ,  .  .  «n  France^ 
6  vol*.,  TroyiM,  l840-6fi,  second  serieat  4  vols  ,  PoiUera, 
laSS  89.  Consult  further:  Heimbucher,  Onien  und  Kon- 
§ngaiion0n^  it  1-32:  Helyot.  Ordret  monoMtiqiiei.  L  282- 
399;  H-  E.  Wacming,  Life  of  St.  Terem,  I^ndon.  18^5; 
H,  J.  Col^rifljE<»,  Lift  and  Letterm  of  SL  Teresa,  3  voJ»,»  ib. 
IS81-88;  F.  H*  Retw«h,  IruUz  der  rerb^^Unen  BUchtr.  jL 
2fl7-276,  520-521,  691,  Bonn.  1885;  H.  H.  Koch,  Die 
Km  n%tlilenklit9tier  der  niederdeutschen  Prtwim,  Freiburg, 
ISS9.  C.  W.  Currier,  Carmei  in  AfMrica.  Baltimore,  1890; 
idffixn,  Rtiliffioua  Ordert,  pp,  384-304;  L,  A.  le  Moyne  de 
U  Bord<*ne,  HiMtoire  des  Carme*  en  Brrtoffne,  R«ntie4*, 
I89fl;  J.  P*  Ruabe,  Carmel  in  frtlatvi:  Narraiiire  of  tfim 
tritk  FroHnet  of  CarmelHea,  London,  IS97;  B.  Zimmer- 
RiMin.  Carrrwl  in  Enoland.  Hixt.  of  the  Eng^  Mifman  0/ 
the  Citrmttite*.  I6tS-Jff4^.  London,  1899;  Life  of  St  Jfthn 
9f  iht  Cro**.  trftnsL  and  ed.  by  David  Lewis,  London, 
1897. 

CARNESECCHI,   caKn^-s^c"ch!,    PIETRO.    See 
Italt,  The  Reformation  m. 


Carmelites 
Caroline  Books 


CAROL 


Book  It.  (8  7). 
Book  111.  (M)* 
Book  IV.  a  9). 
ChamctorisatJoo  of  the  C&ro» 

lino  Book«  ({  10). 
Importance     of     the     Work 

(*  H). 
Thcolo^Jc&LStAndpoint  (|  12). 
Later  Influence  of  the  Oftto> 

Line  Books  {%  13). 


Orijrin  of  ihv  Coiroline  Book« 

Munu.Hcnptti     and      EditionM 

(S  2). 
Problem  i>f  Authornhip  (S3). 
Thii    Work    Sent     to     Popo 

Adrian  ((4). 
Hcilat  ion  of  Original  Work  to 

LarKcr  Ercensioa  {%  5). 
BcKik  L  (}  6). 

**  Caroline  Books  "  is  the  name  given  to  a  criticism 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  Second  Council  of  Nic^a 
(787),  w[iich  appeareLl  under  the  name  of  Charle- 
magne toward  the  end  of  the  eighth  century. 
The  acts  of  tlie  council  hail  been  sent  to  Charle- 
raagite  in  a  very  imperfeei  Latin  version.  Already 
displeflseti  with  the  attitude  of  the  Byzantine  court 
and  the  equivocal  policy  of  Pope  Adrian  L,  he  took 
occasion  to  have  the  whole  question  of  the  icono- 
clastic controversy  and  of  the  validity  of  the  coun- 
cil's  action  discuHsed  by  his  theologians,  and  sent 
on  thf*  report  of  itfi  proceediJigis  to  King  Oflfa  in 
England,  with  a  request  for  the  opinion  of  his 
bishops.  Alcuin,  then  in  Englimd,  drew  tip  their 
reply,  and  brought  it  to  Clmrfemagne.  It  haa 
been  lost,  and  thus  it  ia  not  now^  knoi^-n  in  what 
relation  it  stands  to  tlie  work  whicli  the  emperor 
caused  to  be  written  about  the  same  time  (790 
or  soon  after),  and  promulgated  as  ha\qng  the 
assent   of   tlio   bishops   of   his   realm, 

1,  Origin    imder  the  title  Opus  inlustriwmi   et 
of  the       excelientwsimi  sen  speclahilis  viri  Caroli^ 

Caroline  mdu  Dei  regU  Francorum  .  .  ,  contra 
Books.  Synodunij  qum  in  parlibtts  Grctcim  pro 
adorandis  imaginibus  stolide  ei  arro- 
ganter  gesta  est.  The  work,  whose  contents  and 
spirit  are  sufficiently  indicated  by  tliis  title,  con- 
sists of  four  l>ookfl  containing  120  chaptere.  It 
ia  preserved  in  two  manu^scripts,  the  Codex  FariM- 
mis  and  the  Cod^x  Vaticanus,  the  latter  somewhat 
defective  and  apparently  daling  from  the  beginning 
of  the  tenth  century.  Two  more  were  known  in 
the  sixteenth  centiuy,  but  have  since  been  lost* 
One  wa-s  said  then  to  be  extant  in  Rome,  and  a 
chapter  fmm  it  wa^i  quoted  by  Stcuchi,  the  papal 
librarian,  in  a  polemical  work  against  Laurentiua 
ValUi.  The  other,  then  extant  in  France,  was  the 
baiiis  of  the  efUlio  prineepa  of   1549, 

2.  Manti-    printed  pjrobably  in  Paris  and  edited 
scripts  and   by  Jean  du  Tillct,  later  bishop  of  St. 

EditionB,  Brieux  and  of  Meaux.  This  eilition, 
which  the  subsequent  ones  followed, 
was  used  by  the  Protestant.'?  (Flacius,  Calvin, 
Chemnits,  and  others)  in  their  attacks  on  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Clntrch,  and,  therefore,  put  on  the 
Index  by  the  popes  from  1564,  which  accounts  for 
its  rarity.  Of  the  subsequent  editions  the  best 
is  that  published  by  Heumann  in  1731,  which 
makes  use  of  all  the  materials  at  his  command 
and  gives  the  intrmluctions  and  notes  of  prciious 
editom.  The  less  perfect  edition  of  Goldast  (1608) 
ia  followed   in  M PL,   xcviii. 

The  authenticity  of  the  work  was  denied  by 
many  of  the  older  Roman  Catholic  theologians, 
such  aa  Surius  (who  thought  it  a  sixteenth-centuiy 
forgery),    Bellarmine,    Suares,    Baronius,    and    as 


Caroline  Books 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


4M 


recently  as  1860  by  Floss  of  Bonn,  who  succeeded 
in  convincing  Baur  that  it  was  at  least  doubtful. 
But  these  doubts  have  long  since  been  abandoned 
by  Catholic  theologians  (the  Jesuit  Sinnond, 
Natalis  Alexander,  Du  Pin,  Hefele).  The  oldest 
external  evidence  in  its  favor  is  the  letter  of  Adrian 
himself  (printed  by  Mansi,  Migne,  and  Jaff^); 
the  next  is  that  of  Hincmar  of  Reims,  who  says  he 
has  seen  the  book  in  the  imperial  palace,  and  quotes 
a  chapter  (iv.  26)  from  it.  If,  however,  the  origin 
of  the  work  from  Chariemagne's  immediate  entou- 
rage and  by  his  authority  is  indubitable,  the  ques- 
tion as  to  the  actual  author  is  still 
3.  Problem  imsolved.  This  can  not,  of  course, 
of  Author-  have  been  Charlemagne  himself, 
ship.  though  his  name  is  used,  but  must  have 
been  one  (if  not  more  than  one)  of 
the  most  prominent  theologians  of  his  court.  The 
majority  of  scholars  are  inclined  to  favor  Alcuin; 
but  there  is  some  reason  to  think  that  it  may  have 
been  Abbot  Angilbert  of  St.  Riquier,  who  stood 
in  close  relations  to  Chariemagne  and  was  en- 
trusted by  him  with  negotiations  at  Rome  regard- 
ing this  controversy. 

The  composition  of  the  work  was  begun,  as 
appears  from  the  preface  to  the  first  book,  not 
earlier  than  the  winter  of  789-700  and  not  later 
than  the  sununer  of  791.  When  it  was  completed 
is  not  now  known,  but  Charlemagne  was  not  likely 
to  have  granted  his  theologians  more  time  than 
was  neoessary,  so  that  it  may  have  been  finished 
in  790  or  791.  It  was  intended  to  affect  public 
opinion  in  favor  of  Charlemagne's  rejection  of  the 
Nicene  decrees.  He  endeavored  to  obtain  like 
action  from  Pope  Adrian,  and  sent  Angilbert  to 
Rome  for  this  purpose.  Adrian's  answer  referred 
to  above  discusses  and  controverts  eighty-five 
chapters  somewhat  fully.  The  question  arises 
whether  Angilbert  laid  before  him  the  whole  work 
or  only  these  chapters,  and  whether 

4.  The  these  eighty-five  were  the  basis  for 
Work  Sent  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition,  or  a 

to  Pope     condensation  of  the  larger  work.     A 

Adrian,  supplementary  question  also  arises 
as  to  the  date  of  Angilbert's  mis- 
sion, whether  it  was  before  or  after  the  Synod  of 
Frankfort  in  794.  The  answer  to  the  first  ques- 
tion is  determined  by  Adrian's  assertion  that  he 
has  answered  each  chapter  serto^tm,  and  by  a 
similar  assertion  of  the  Council  of  Paris  (825). 
Hincmar  was  probably  in  error  when  he  said  that 
the  "  not  small  volume "  which  he  saw  had  been 
sent  to  Rome.  The  second  question  involves  more 
difficulty.  The  theory,  recently  supported  by 
Hampe,  that  Adrian's  answer  led  to  the  expansion 
of  the  original  docimient  into  the 
5.  Relation  present  Caroline  Books  is  invalidated 
of         by  the  fact  that  in  their  present  shape 

Original     they  contain  no  reference  to  Adrian's 

Work   to    answer,  and  make  no  attempt  to  rebut 

Larger  Re-  it.     It  is  more  likely  that  the  eighty- 

cension.     five    chapters   consisted    of    extracts 

from   the   larger  work.     Adrian   was 

asked    to   condemn    certain    propositions,  not    to 

confirm    Charlemagne's     official     pronouncement. 

As  to  the  date  of  tiiis  proceeding,  it  must  have 


been  before  the  Synod  of  Frankfort,  whose  de- 
cision was  taken  in  the  presence  of  papal  legates 
and  its  validity  never  questioned,  while  the  rejeo- 
tion  of  the  eighty-five  chi4>ters  would  have  been 
tantamount  to  a  condemnation  of  it.  Angilbert 
was  in  Rome  in  792,  and  the  occurrence  probablj 
took  place  then — ^possibly  not  till  the  next  year. 
In  consequence  Chariemagne  laid  the  matter  before 
the  synod. 

We  come  now  to  the  contents  and  character  of 
the  lAbri  Carolini.  Each  book  has  its  own  pref- 
ace. That  of  Book  I.  begins  with  a  rfaetorieal 
eulogy  of  the  Church  as  the  ark  of  safety,  Charle- 
magne's duty  to  which  leads  him  to  take  up  this 
question.  Pride  and  ambition  have  led  the  Eastern 
princes  and  bishops  to  introduce  innovations  into 
the  true  doctrine  "by  notorious  and  senselefli 
synods."  The  Council  of  Constantinople  (754) 
erred  in  one  direction,  by  abolishing  the  pictures 
which  had  from  of  old  served  to  adorn  the  diurebea 
and  commemorate  past  events,  referring  what  (xod 
had  spoken  of  idols  to  images.  The  I^cene 
Council,  on  the  other  hand,  three  years  before  the 
date  of  writing,  had  erred  not  less,  by  exhorting 
the  people  to  worship  such  images.  Both  pa- 
verted  the  teaching  of  the  fathers,  who  allowed 

the  possession  of  images,  but  forbade 
6.  Book  L  the  worship  of  them.     We,  however, 

resting  on  the  foundation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  orthodox  fathers,  and  the  six  ecumeniol 
councils,  reject  all  innovations,  especially  those  of 
the  Nicene  Council,  whose  acts  have  reached  us. 
We  have  undertaken  to  combat  these  errors  with 
the  assistance  of  the  clergy  of  our  kingdom.  Neither 
of  these  councils  deserves  the  name  of  ecumenical; 
and  in  contrast  with  both,  the  via  media  must  be 
followed,  which  consists  in  neither  breaking  down 
the  images  nor  worshiping  them,  but  retaining 
them  as  ornaments  and  memorials,  adoring  God 
alone  and  rendering  due  veneration  to  the  sainti 
The  standpoint  being  thus  set  forth  in  the  preface, 
the  polemic  of  Book  I.  is  directed  first  against  the 
imperial  summons  to  the  Nicene  Coimcil,  whose 
phraseology  is  condenmed  in  four  several  points. 
The  council  itself  is  accused  of  erroneous  expo- 
sition of  the  Scriptures  and  erroneous  employment 
of  patristic  citations.  The  author  thinks  it  neces- 
sary (i.  6)  to  express  his  acknowledgment  of  the 
authority  of  the  Roman  Church,  both  in  faith  and 
in  worship,  founded  not  on  human  ordinances  but 
on  divine  prescription.  The  section  i.  7-ii.  12 
examines  the  passages  of  Scripture  alleged  by  the 
council,  and  ii.  15-20  the  patristic  passages,  some 
of  which  are  not  authentic  and  others  inconduave. 
In  ii.  26  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that,  as  the  whole 
of  Scripture  proclaims  in  thunder-tones,  '*  God  alone 
is  to  be  worshiped  and  adored,"  the  "  cultus  of  im- 
ages "  is  altogether  to  be  reprobated,  as  contrary  to 
the  Christian  religion;  whether  or  not  pictures  are 
retained  in  the  churches  is  a  matter  of  indifference,      I 

though,  indeed,  visible  memorials  of 
7.  Book  n.  Christ  and  the  saints  are  unnecessary. 

The  friends  of  images  (obviously  in- 
cluding the  pope)  are  warned  not  to  disturb  the 
peace  of  the  Church  and  the  prosperity  of  CJharlcs's 
kingdom  by  their  councils.    The  apostles  never 


421 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


GarollJie  Bo€>ka 


taught  the  veneration  of  images  by  word  or  ex- 
ample; it  is  an  error  to  compare  them  with  the  ark 
of  the  covenant,  and  an  absurdity  to  place  them  in 
the  same  categpry  with  the  eucharistic  host;  nor 
must  they  be  likened  to  the  cross  of  Christ,  the 
sacred  veaseb,  or  the  Scriptures,  alt  of  which  are 
venerated  in  their  own  way  a«d  meaaure  for  dif- 
ferent reasons. 

Book  III,  beginii  with  a  confession  of  faith ^  for 
the  purpose  of  evincing  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Prank- 
ish Church.  This  is  supposed  to  be  taken  from 
Jerome,  but  is  really  almost  verbally  the  profession 
of  Pelagius  (the  LibelluR  fidei  ad  Innocentium  of 
417),  which  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  was  re- 
ceived as  orthodox,  under  the  name  of  St/mboium 
Hieronymi  or  Sermo  AnQuaiini.  The  author  then 
attacks  the  patriarch  Tarasius  on  the  ground  of  the 
irregularity  of  his  consecration  and  the  error  of 
his  teaching  on  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  latter  reproach  and  that  of  further  rioctrmal 
aberrations  arc  brought  against  the  other  members 
of  the  council  I  and  one  chapter  attacks  the  im- 
propriety of  the  empress  Irene's 
8.  Book  in.  assumption  of  the  teaching  office. 
A  special  onslaught  is  made  on  a 
pro(K>sttion  assumed  to  have  been  uttered  by  one 
of  the  bishops  which  clearly  resti^  upon  a  gross 
miBiranslatioti,  A  distinction  is  drawn  between 
knages  and  relies;  and  even  if  it  is  true  that  some 
of  the  former  ha%'e  worked  miracles,  no  adoration 
i»  therefor  due  them.  Still  less  can  dreams  and 
visions,  or  absurd  apocryphal  inventions,  be  ad- 
duced in  favor  of  the  ''adoration  of  images."  Not 
this,  but  the  keeping  of  the  divine  precepts,  is  the 
beginning  of  the  fear  of  the  Lord. 

Book  IV.  continues  the  attack  upon  expressions 
of  indiTp^dual  members  of  the  council,  and  upon 
ilB  authority  as  a  whole.     It  can  in  no  wise  be  com- 
pared with  the  First  Nicene  Council;  that  asserted 
the  ©quality  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  while  this 
places  pictures  on   a  level   with  the 
g.  Book  IV-  Trinity.     Apart,  from  all  the  unseemly, 
obscure,    perverted ♦    absurd,  illogical, 
and  untheological  expressions  to  be  found  in  the 
acts  of  the  latter,  it  does  not  deser\'e  the  name  of 
ecumenical  given  to  it  by  the  Greeks,  because  it 
neither  utters  the  pure  Catholic  faith  nor  is  recog- 
nised by  all  the  churches. 

The  Caroline  Books,  then,  in  their  fundamental 

conceptions,  attempt  to  preserve  the  golden  mean 

indicated  by  Gregory  the  Great  In  his  letter  to 

Serenua  of  Massilia:    "  We  approve  unreserv^edly 

because    you    have    forbidden    to    worsliip    tliem 

[images];  but  we  do  not  approve  of  thejr  being 

broken;   if  any  one  wants  to  make  images,  at  least 

forbid  him;   but  ahun  in  every  way  the  worshiping 

of   them."     But    their    polemic    (apart    from    its 

vehement,    almost     passionate    tone) 

io«  Cbar-  does  material  injustioe  to  the  Nicene 

acterixation  FatherB  by  ignoring  their  distinction 

of  the  Caro-  between  latrma  [worship]  which  is  due 

line  Books,  to  God  alone,  and  proskunesis  (imltik^ 

[honoring  obeisance)   which    may   be 

given   to  creatures,  and   in  ascribing  to  them  the 

blasphemous  proposition  that  the  same  *•  servitude 

of  adoration  *'  is  due  to  the  imagies  aa  to  the  Holy 


Trinity »  This  is  explained  by  the  imperfection  of 
the  version  of  the  acts  sent  to  Charles,  which  al- 
ways renders  the  Greek  pmskune^is  by  odor  alio, 
and  by  a  particular  misunderstanding  or  wrong 
reading  alreatly  referred  to. 

The  work  as  a  whole,  however,  may  be  taken  as 
gi\^ttg  a  good  general  view  of  Prankish  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  theology  in  its  day,  of  conaiderable  impor- 
tance for  the  dogmatic,  exegetical,  dialectic,  and 
critical  attainments  of  the  age>  Of  special  interest 
is  the  attitude  assumed  toward  the  grejit  funda- 
mental questions  of  medieval  theology— the  rela- 
tions of  Scripture  and  tradition,  authority  and 
reason,  the  Roman  and  the  universal 

II*  Impor-  Church.     In    spite    of    all    its    recog- 
tance  of     nition  of  the  teaching  authority  of  the 

the  Work.  Church,  and  particularly  of  the  Roman 
Church,  the  work  postulates  the  right 
of  critical  examination  in  a  way  seldom  found  in 
the  Middle  Ages — though  it  will  not  do  to  interpret 
this  tendency  in  terms  of  modem  \'iewa.  The 
theological  standpoint  of  the  book  as  a  whole  is 
that  of  Gregory  the  Great,  a  somewhat  weakened 
Augustinianism  which  allows  the  author  to  accept 
the  profeasion  of  Pelagius  as  "  theConfession  of  the 
Catholic  Faith."  He  follows  Gregory,  as  in  the  ques- 
tion of  images,  so  also  in  the  doctrines  of  original 
sin,  of  the  replacing  of  the  fallen  angels  by  an  equal 
number  of  redeemed  men,  of  purga- 

12.  Theo-    tory  and  prayern  for  the  dead.     Other 
logical      patristic   authorities   cited   are   esj>e- 

SCandpoint.  cially  Augustine  and  Jerome,  and 
sometimes  Ambrose  and  Setiulius. 
The  author  attempts  to  show  his  universal  culture 
by  all  sorts  of  grammatical,  rhetorical,  philosoph- 
ical, historical,  and  literary  remarks;  by  quotations 
from  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Vergil  and  Cicero,  Ma- 
crobius  and  Apulems^  Cato  and  Joseph  us;  and  by 
the  use  of  scientific  terminology  and  logical  formuliis. 
The  work,  however,  haa  not  the  charact-er  of  a 
theological  treatise  written  by  a  private  person; 
it  is  a  state  docimient,  an  official  protest  on  the 
part  of  the  Franklsh  Church  againat  Byzantine 
and  Roman  superstition  and  against  the  unjus- 
tifieil  anathemas  pronounced  by  both  the  Greek 
and  the  Roman  Church  on  all  who  differed  from 
them  as  well  as  on  their  own  purer  past. 

The  effect  of  this  protest  can  not  here  be  fol- 
loweil  out  in  detail.  Adrian  was  clearly  much 
disturbed  by  it^  and  sent  his  defense  to  Charle- 
magne with  many  conciliatory  expressions,  declar- 
ing that  he  had  not  as  yet  given  an  answer  to  the 
Byzantine  emperor,  because  the  latter  still  per- 
sisted in  his  usur^itttion  of  what  belonged  to  the 
Roman  See,  but  that  he  must,  following  the  ancient 
tradition  of  his  predeces-sors,  condemn  those  who 
refused  to  venerate  the  sacred  images.  Charles's 
answer  was  the  Synod  of  Frankfort,  the  presence 
at   which   of  the  papal  legates  beto- 

13.  Later    kened  Adrian's  submission.     Thej>oj»e 
Infltience    died  on  Christmas  day;  795,  and  the 

of  the  Caro-  question  slumbered    until  it  came  up 

line  Books,  once  more,  under  Louis  the  Pious  and 

Eugeniua  IL,  at  the  Synod  of  Paris  in 

825.     This   synod  adhered  to  the  position  of  the 

Libri    Carolini    and     the    SjTiod    of    Frankfort, 


Oarpentar 
OarpsoT 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


422 


venturing  openly  to  condemn  Adrian  for  encour- 
aging superstition,  though  unconsciously,  in  the 
cultus  of  images.  It  was  mainly  through  the 
influence  of  the  Caroline  Books  that  the  Prankish 
Church  excluded  this  cultus  all  through  the  ninth 
century.  Even  in  the  tenth  we  find  the  Nicene 
Council  spoken  of  as  "  The  pseudo-synod  falsely 
called  the  Seventh/'  and  the  principle  adopted  that 
pictures  are  tolerated  in  the  churches  "only  for  the 
instruction  of  the  ignorant,"  without  any  attempt 
on  the  part  of  Home  to  enforce  its  anathema. 

Charles  and  his  theologians  must  thus  have  the 
credit  of  holding  back  for  a  time  the  influx  of 
superstition  into  the  West,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  asserted  the  rights  of  Christian  art  and  its 
value  for  ecclesiastical  decoration.  When  in  the 
sixteenth  century  Tridentine  Catholicism  reaf- 
firmed the  proposition  assailed  in  the  Caroline 
Books,  that  veneration  was  paid  not  to  the  pictures 
but  to  their  subjects  ("  honos  refertur  ad  proto- 
typa  "),  and  on  the  other  hand  Swiss  Protestant- 
ism, in  its  abhorrence  of  idolatry,  renewed  the 
tumults  of  iconoclasm,  the  Lutheran  controver- 
sialists, especially  Flacius  and  Chenmitz,  with 
cheerful  confidence  "  went  back  to  the  moderation 
of  Charlemagne."  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  A  luminous  discussion  is  found  in  Hefele, 
CofuHUnoMchichU,  iu.  695-717.  Consult:  H.  J.  Floss. 
Commentaiio  de  nupecta  librorum  Carolincnan  fide,  Bonn, 
1860;  R.  Kaxmann.  Die  PdUik  der  P&pete,  i.  29  sqq., 
297-299.  Elbertold.  1868;  H.  lieuter.  OeschichU  der 
Aufkl^rung,  i.  H  sqq..  Berlin,  1877;  F.  H.  Reusch, 
Indez  der  verhotenen  Biicher,  i.  255,  Bonn,  1883;  O. 
Leiflt,  Die  liUtrarieehe  Beu>eoung  dee  BUderatreiie,  vol. 
i.,  Magdeburg,  1871;  Neander,  ChrieUan  Chttrtk,  iii. 
235-243  (still  of  great  value,  though  supplementary 
reading  is  necewary);  Schaff,  Chrietian  Church ,  iv.  467- 
468;  Hauck,  KD,  ii.  105,  110,  316  sqq.;  DCB,i.  405-406; 
KL,  vii.  190-190;  and  the  literature  on  Charlemagne. 

CARPENTER,  J(OSEPH)  ESTLIN:  English  Uni- 
tarian; b.  at  Ripley  (22  m.  s.w.  of  London),  Surrey, 
Oct.  5,  1844.  He  was  educated  at  University 
College,  London  (1860-63),  and  Manchester  New 
College  (1860-66;  B.A.,  University  of  London, 
1863),  and  was  successively  minister  of  Oakfield 
Road  Church,  Clifton,  Gloucestershire  (1866-69), 
and  Mill  Hill  Chapel,  Leeds  (1869-75).  From 
1875  to  1906,  he  was  a  lecturer  on  Hebrew,  Old 
Testament  literature,  and  comparative  religion  in 
Manchester  New  College,  first  in  London,  then 
at  Oxford,  where  he  was  appointed  principal  in 
1906.  He  has  edited  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
volumes  of  Ewald's  Ilutory  of  Israel  (London, 
1871-74),  a  portion  of  the  Sumahgala  Vil^sinl 
(1886),  and  the  Dlgha  Nikaya  (2  vols.,  1890- 
1903;  both  in  collaboration  with  Rhys  Davids); 
and  The  Ilexateuch  According  to  the  Revised  Ver- 
sion (2  vols.,  1900;  in  collaboration  with  G.  Har- 
ford-Battersby);  and  has  translated  C.  P.  Tide's 
Ceschiedenis  van  den  Godsdienst  tot  aan  de  heer- 
scluippij  der  Wereldgodsdiensten  (Amsterdam, 
1870)  under  the  title  Outlines  of  the  History  of 
Religion  (London,  1878).  His  independent  works 
include:  Life  and  Work  of  Mary  Carpenter  (Lon- 
don, 1879);  Life  in  Palestine  when  Jesus  Lived 
(1889);  The  First  Three  Gospels,  Their  OHgin 
and  Relations  (1890);  Composition  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch   (1902);    The   Bible  in  the  Nineteenth  Cenr 


twry  (1903);  Stvdif  in  Theohgy  (1903;  in  vA- 
laboration  with  P.  H.  Wicksteed);  The  Place  of 
Christianity  Among  the  Religions  of  the  Worii 
(1904);  and  James  Martineau,  Theologian  and 
Teacher  (1905). 

CARPENTER,  LANT:  En^iah  Unitarian;  b.  at 
Kidderminster  (15  m.  s.w.  of  Birmingham),  Worces- 
tershire, Sept.  2,  1780;  lost  overboard  from  a 
steamer  between  Naples  and  Leghorn  Apr.  5, 
1840.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  College  1798-1801; 
became  a  popular  and  successful  school-teacher 
and  preacher;  was  minister  at  Exeter  1805-17, 
and  at  Bristol  1817-39.  He  did  much  to  broaden 
his  denomination  and  to  consolidate  its  scattered 
congregations;  was  a  leader  in  philanthropic  work; 
and  was  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  English  school- 
masters. His  publications  were  numerous,  the 
most  noteworthy  being:  An  Introduction  to  the 
Geography  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1805); 
Unitarianism  the  Doctrine  of  the  Gospel  (1809;  3d 
ed.,  with  alterations,  Bristol,  1823);  Systematic 
Education,  in  collaboration  with  William  Shepherd 
and  Jeremiah  Joyce  (2  vols.,  1815);  An  Examim- 
tion  of  the  Charges  Made  Against  Unitarians  lyUa 
Right  Rev,  Dr.  Magee  (Bristol,  1820);  Prineijia 
of  Education  (London,  1820);  A  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels  (Bristol,  1835).  After  his  death  appeared 
a  volume  of  Sermons  on  Practical  Subjects  (Bristol, 
1840),  edited  by  his  son,  Russell  Lant  Carpenter. 

Bibliographt:  R.  L.  Carpenter.  Memoin  of  fl«  LUe  oi 
Rev.  Lant  Carpenter,  vfith  StieeHone  from  Ma  Corrttpoid' 
•nee,  Bristol,  1842;  DNB,  ix.  157-150. 

CARPENTER,  ICARY:  Philanthropist;  b.  at 
Exeter,  England,  Apr.  3,  1807;  d.  at  Bristol  June 
14,  1877.  She  was  the  eldest  child  of  Lant  Car- 
penter (q.v.),  and  received  an  excellent  education 
in  her  father's  school;  she  taught  for  several  years; 
became  interested  in  reformatory  movements  in 
India  through  the  visit  to  Bristol  of  the  Rajah 
Rammohun  Roy  in  1833,  and  also  in  work  for  desti- 
tute children  in  England  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  Joseph  Tuckerman,  of  Boston.  She  opened 
"  ragged  schools  "  and  developed  and  set  in  opera- 
tion a  plan  for  reformatory  schools  which  was 
legalized  by  Parliament  in  1854;  she  was  also  one 
of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Industrial  Schools 
Act  passed  in  1857.  She  visited  India  four  times 
between  1866  and  1876,  and  came  to  America  in 
1873.  Prison  reform  also  received  her  attention, 
and  she  was  earnest  in  advocacy  of  the  higher 
education  of  women.  She  wrote  much  in  behalf 
of  her  projects,  and  her  reports  and  memorials  to 
Parliament  had  no  little  influence  in  shaping 
legislation. 

Biblioorapht:  J.  E.  Carpenter,  Lift  and  Work  of  Uam 
Carpenter,  London.  1879;  DNB,  ix.  159-161. 

CARPENTER,  WILLIAM  BOYD:  Church  of 
England  bishop  of  Ripon;  b.  at  Liverpool  Mar. 
26,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Catherine's 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1864),  and  was  ordered 
deacon  in  1864  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  successively  curate  of  All  Saints', 
Maidstone,  Kent  (1864-66),  of  St.  Paul's,  Qapham 
(1866-67),  and  of  Holy  Trinity,  Lee  (1867-70).  He 
was  then  vicar  of  St.  James's,  HoUoway  (1870-79), 


423 


BELIGTOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oftrpenter 
Carpzov 


and  of  Christ  Church,  Lancaster  Gate  (1879-84). 
He  was  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  London  from 
1879  to  1884  and  canon  of  Windsor  from  1S82  to 
1884,  while  he  was  also  honomrj'^  chaplain  to  Queen 
Victoria  in  187^-83,  and  chaplain  in  ordinary  in 
1883-84.  In  1884  he  was  consecrated  the  bishop 
of  Ripon.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1875  and  1877,  and  at  Oxford  in  1S83''84, 
and  was  also  Hulsean  Lecturer  at  Cambridge 
in  1878,  Bampton  Lecturer  at  Oxford  in  1887, 
Pastoral  Lectiirer  on  theology  at  Cambridge  in 
1895,  and  Noble  Lecturer  at  Har\'ard  Um^'ersity 
in  1904.  He  has  been  a  clerk  of  the  closet  since 
1903,  and  is  also  a  knight  of  the  Prussian  Ortler 
of  the  Royal  Crown.  In  addition  to  numerous 
volumes  of  seranons,  he  has  written:  Thoughls  on 
Prayer  (London,  1871);  Narcissus,  a  Tale  of  Early 
Christian  Times  (1879);  The  Witness  of  the  Heart 
to  Christ  (1879;  the  Hulsean  Lectures  for  1878); 
I>isiriei  Visitor's  Companion  (1881);  Mi/  Bible 
(1884);  NatureandManilSm);  Permanent  Elements 
of  Religion  (Bampton  Lectures  for  1887,  1889); 
The  Bttming  Bush  (1893);  Tunlight  Dreams  {1893); 
Lecturer  on  Preaching  (1895);  Tfioughis  on  Re- 
union (1895);  Religious  Spirit  in  the  PoeU  (UHX)); 
Popular  History  of' (he  Church  of  England  (1900); 
and  Witness  to  the  Influence  of  Christ  (Noble  Lec- 
tures for  1904;  1905).  He  likewise  contributed 
the  notes  on  Revelation  in  C.  J.  Ellicott'a  Nev? 
Testament  Commentary  (Londonj  1879). 

CARPCX:RATES,  cor-pec'ra-tlz,  AlfB  THE  CAR- 
POCRATIANS:  An  .Alexandrian  Gnostic  of  the  first 
half  of  the  second  century  and  the  sect  which  ho 
founded.  His  teachings  rested  upon  a  Platonic 
basis,  and  were  interspersed  with  Christian  ideas. 
According  to  Irenffius  {Hmr.,  i.  25),  auppleraentcd 
here  and  there  by  Epiphanius  {Hot,,  xxvii,),  he 
taught  that  in  the  beginning  was  the  divine  primi- 
tive source,  "  the  father  of  all/*  **  the  one  begin- 
ning ■  *  (Gk.  arche).  Angels,  far  removed  from  this 
source  t  have  created  the  world.  The  world-builders 
have  imprisoned  in  bodies  the  fallen  souls,  who 
onginaily  worked  with  God,  and  now  have  to  go 
through  every  form  of  life  and  every  act  to  regain 
their  freedom.  To  accomplish  this  a  long  series  of 
transmigrations  through  the  bodies  is  needed.  The 
words  of  Jesus  in  Luke  xii.  58  (Matt.  v.  25)  ex* 
pressed  this  thought  very  clearly  in  Caq^ocrates's 
view;  the  "  adversary  **  is  the  devil,  who  drags 
the  souls  to  the  highest  of  the  world-builders;  the 
latter  deli'vers  them  to  another  angel,  liis  measenger, 
to  be  incarcerated  in  bodies  until  they  have  paid 
the  last  farthing,  i.e.,  have  won  freedom,  and  can 
ri«e  to  the  highest  God.  During  their  transmi- 
grations the  souls  have  retainetl  the  power  of 
remembering  (Gk.  anamn^is),  though  in  different 
di^ree.  The  soul  of  Jesus,  son  of  Joseph,  possessed 
the  power  of  remembering  God  in  greatest  purity. 
Therefore  God  bestowed  upon  him  power  to  e3cai>e 
the  world-builders  and  to  despise  the  Jewish  cus- 
toms in  which  he  Wiia  brought  up.  Whosoever 
thinks  and  acts  like  turn  obtains  the  same  power; 
whosoever  is  still  more  perfect  can  reach  higher. 
This  is  the  faith  and  the  love  through  which  we  are 
■aved;    everything  else,  essentially  indifferent,  is 


good  or  bad,  godless  or  shameless  only  according 
to  human  conceptions;  for  by  nature  notliing  is 
bad.  This  is  the  teaching  which  Jesus  himself 
gave  to  his  disciples,  "  privately  in  a  mystcr)*,'* 
orLlering  them  to  disseminate  it  among  the  faithful 
("  the  worthy  and  believing ").  The  Caipocra- 
tians  rendered  divine  honor  to  Jesus  as  to  the  other 
secular  sages  (Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle).  They 
claimed  for  themselves  the  power  of  ruling  the 
world-builders:  magic  arts,  exorcismt  philters  and 
love-potions,  dreams  and  cures  were  at  their  com- 
mand, and  like  other  secret  societies  they  had  a 
special  mark  of  recognition,  which  they  burned 
with  a  hot  iron  on  the  back  of  the  lobe  of  the  right 
ear. 

Later  writers  follow  Irenseus.  Clement  alone 
adds  new  matter  in  some  quotations  from  a  Car- 
pocratian  manuscript.  He  says  that  Carpocrates 
had  a  son^  Epiphanes,  w^hose  mother  was  Alex- 
andria of  Cephalonia;  that  this  son  became  an 
author,  died  when  seven tt»en  years  old*  and  was 
honored  as  a  god  at  8ame  in  Cephalonia.  This 
story  has  been  declared  mj'lhical  (cf.  Volkmar  in 
the  Monatsschrift  des  wissenschaftiichen  Vereins  in 
Ziinch,  ia58,  pp.  276-277;  Lipsius,  Zur  Quellen- 
kritik  des  Epiphanius ^  pp.  161-162,  Leipsic,  1855), 
and  it  is  maintained  that  traits  of  the  moon-god 
worshipetl  at  Same  (Gk.  theos  epiphanis)  were 
transferred  to  Epiphanes,  the  Gnostic.  Though 
this  suggestion  is  striking,  there  is  hardly  reastju 
for  making  a  myth  of  the  entire  statement  of 
Clement,  so  much  the  more  as  he  has  filled  out  his 
account  by  a  long  extract  from  a  work  of  Epiph- 
anes  *^  On  Righteousness."  In  this  work  the 
young  idealist  advocat-ed  community  of  goods  and 
women  without  the  intention  of  preaching  general 
immorality.  Even  Irenieus  had  wntten:  *'  1  can 
hardly  believe  that  all  the  ungodly,  unlawful,  and 
forbidden  things  of  ivhich  we  read  in  their  books 
are  really  done  among  them/'  One  needs  only  to 
reflect  how  inconsistently  highly  endowed  advo- 
cates of  similar  views  think  and  act  nowadays, 
though  of  course  it  must  be  admitted  tltat  such 
conceptions  in  earlier  times  might  have  caused  in 
immature  minds  the  same  troubles  as  they  do 
to-day.  At  all  events,  Carpocratianism  can  not  be 
called  Christianity.  It  is  a  specifically  ethnic 
phenomenon,  easily  explicable  from  the  religious 
syncretism  of  the  second  century.      G.  KrOger. 

BiBLioGaAPinr:  The  «ourc«ii  are  accessible  in  Eng,  in  ANF, 
i,  350,  iL  3S2-404,  iji,  216.  631.  v.  113;  NP.VF,  i.  114, 
179.  199.  Conaillt  also:  C.  W.  F,  Wdob.  Uitivtie  der 
KeUereien,  i.  302-335,  Leipaie.   1762;   A.    NeAndttr,    Gen€- 

pp.  355-350,  Bprlin,  1818;  idorn,  Chriatian  Church,  \,  202, 
399,  44fi-t51.  4H4;  W,  Miiller,  tre»cJiirhte  der  K(>nmoli}itie, 
pp.  335  343,  Halle.  1860;  A.  Hilgenfeld,  KeUertfeMchichU 
de*  UrchHiUnJtum*,  pp.  397-408.  Leipdc,  18S4;  Uar- 
nack,  LiUerattir.  i.  161-162, 

CAHPZOV:  A  family  of  German  lawyers  and 
theologians,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most 
important  members: 

1.  BenediktCarpiov:  Laiayer:  b.  at  Wittenberg 
May  27,  1595;  d.  at  Leipaic  Aug.  30,  16«36.  He 
was  educated  at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic,  and  Jena,  and 
after  a  tour  through  Italy,  France,  and  England 
became  a  member  of  the  court  of  sheriffs  at  Leipsic, 


OarpaoT 
Oarroll 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


484 


where  he  remained  with  little  interruption  for 
forty  years.  He  was  later  appointed  assessor  of 
the  supreme  court  in  Leipsic  and  counselor  of  the 
Dresden  court  of  appeals.  In  1&15  he  was  made 
professor  in  the  faculty  of  law  at  Leipsic,  and  was  for 
eight  years  a  member  of  the  privy  council  of  Dres- 
den, but  returned  to  Leipsic  in  1661.  Although 
he  had  not  a  creative  mind,  his  diligence,  judg- 
ment, and  system  enabled  him  to  become  the 
founder  of  German  jurisprudence,  and  in  his 
Practica  nova  imperialU  Saxonica  rerum  crimina- 
lium  (Wittenberg,  1638)  he  formulated  the  first 
system  of  German  criminal  law,  while  his  JurU- 
pmdentia  ecdesUuHca  aeu  consistorialia  (Leipsic, 
1649)  formed  the  earliest  complete  system  of 
Protestant  ecclesiastical  law.  He  distinguished 
carefully  between  ecclesiastical  and  canon  law, 
and  was  the  first  to  use  the  ordinances  of  the 
Evangelical  Church,  the  rescripts  of  the  sovereigns, 
and  the  decisions  of  the  consistories,  thus  sum- 
marizing the  legal  development  of  Protestantism 
since  the  Reformation. 

8.  Johann  Benedikt  Carpzov  the  Elder:  Theolo- 
gian, brother  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Rochliti  (16 
m.n.n.w.  of  Chemnitz)  June  22,^1607;  d.  at  Leipsic 
Oct.  22,  1657.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Wittenberg  from  1623  to  1627,  and  then  entered 
the  University  of  Leipsic.  In  1632  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Meuselwitz  and  five  yean  later 
became  deacon  at  the  Church  of  St.  Thomas  at 
Leipsic.  In  ten  jrears  he  rose  to  the  archdeaconry 
and  received  the  additional  appointments  of  as- 
sessor of  the  consistory  and  canon,  having  become 
professor  of  theology  at  the  imiversity  in  1641, 
although  his  pastoral  duties  allowed  him  little 
time  for  teaching.  He  maintained  a  certain  reserve 
in  the  sjmcretistic  controversies  of  the  period,  and 
though  in  harmony  with  his  colleague  HQlsemann, 
he  carried  on  a  friendly  correspondence  with  Calix- 
tus  and  later  with  his  pupil  Titius.  His  most 
important  work,  which  bias  won  him  the  title  of 
the  father  of  symbolics,  was  his  IsagdgS  in  libros 
eeclesiarum  Lutheranarum  symbolicos  (Leipsic,  1665), 
which  was  completed  after  his  death  by  Olearius, 
general  superintendent  of  Magdeburg.  Still  more 
famous,  however,  is  his  Hodegeticum  brevibua 
aphorismis  olim  pro  collegio  concionatorto  conceptum 
et  nunc  revisum  (1656),  which  gives  100  methods 
of  arranging  sermons. 

8.  Johann  Benedikt  Carpzov  the  Younger:  The- 
ologian, son  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Leipsic  Apr.  24, 
1639;  d.  there  Mar.  23,  1699.  He  was  educated 
in  his  native  city  and  at  Jena,  and  was  also  influ- 
enced by  Buxtorf  in  Basel  and  by  Johann  Schmid 
in  Strasburg.  In  1659  be  became  privat-docent 
at  Leipsic,  and  in  1665  was  appointed  professor  of 
ethics.  Three  years  later  he  was  made  licentiate 
of  theology  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages. 
In  1684  he  became  professor  of  theology,  having 
already  been  made  deacon  in  1671,  archdeacon  in 
1674,  and  pastor  of  St.  Thomas's  in  1679.  His 
pastoral  duties  forbade  extensive  literary  activity, 
and  he  therefore  restricted  himself  to  editing  the 
works  of  others,  such  as  the  Jils  regium  of  Wilhelm 
Schickhard  (Leipsic,  1674),  the  In  Prophetas 
Minorca  cammentariua  of  Johann  Tamov  (1688),  the 


HorcB  TcUmudiecB  et  HebraiccB  of  John  Lightfoot 
(1674),  and  an  enlarged  edition  of  his  father's  Hode- 
geiicum  (1689).  Through  this  last-named  work  an 
interest  was  aroused  in  homiletics  which  completely 
overshadowed  philosophy  and  exegesis.  T1m»«  was 
gradually  evolved,  therefore,  an  antagonism  between 
Carpzov  and  Spener,  which  increased  in  bitteniea 
until  in  1691  three  programs  assailed  Pietism, 
and  five  jrears  later  Carpzov  attacked  Thomasius 
in  his  Z)s  jure  decidendi  controvernas  theobgiau 
(1696),  vainly  attempting  to  support  a  failing  cause. 

4.  Samuel  Benedikt  Carpzov:  Theologian,  mm  d 
Johann  Benedikt  the  Elder;  b.  at  Leipsic  Jan.  17, 
1647;  d.  at  Dresden  Aug.  31,  1707.  After  studying 
philosophy  and  philology  at  the  university  of  his 
native  dty  from  1663  to  1668,  he  went  to  Witten- 
berg, where  he  became  a  dose  friend  of  Calov  and 
Aegidius  Strauch.  In  1674  he  was  called  to  Dreadeo 
as  court-preacher,  and  five  jrears  later  he  was 
transferred  to  the  KreuMrchef  being  also  appointed 
superintendent  and  thus  given  the  right  to  attend 
the  sessions  of  the  high  consistory.  He  conducted 
the  negotiations  for  the  call  of  Spener,  and  proved 
himself  a  true  friend  of  the  Pietist  until  his  brother 
at  Leipsic  became  the  leader  of  the  opposition  and 
persuaded  him  to  change  his  attitude.  After  the 
retirement  of  Spener  and  the  death  of  Green, 
Carpzov  was  chosen  to  succeed  them,  and  he 
accepted  with  much  hesitation,  althou^  he  held 
the  podtion  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

5.  Johann  Oottlob  Carpzov:  Theologian,  son  of 
the  preceding;  b.  at  Dresden  Sept.  26,  1679;  d.  at 
LQbeck  Apr.  7,  1767.  He  was  ^ucated  at  Ldpaie 
and  Altdorf,  and  though  the  most  learned  theo- 
logian of  his  family,  was  indoctrinated  with  rea^ 
tionary  principles  by  his  father  and  unde.  In 
1708  he  went  from  Dresden  to  Leipsic  as  deacon. 
He  ranked  among  the  foremost  of  Old  Testament 
scholars,  although  in  the  preface  to  his  Introdvdio 
in  libros  Veteris  Testamenti  (Leipdc,  1721)  he  de- 
clared that  only  the  entire  absence  of  such  a  woik 
had  rendered  it  posdble  for  him  to  publish  his  own. 
This  book,  like  his  Critica  sacra  (1728).  is  charac- 
terized by  clear  arrangement,  deep  knowledge, 
and  thorough  criticism.  Equally  valuable  was  his 
Apparatus  historico-criHcus  arUiquitatum  Veterit 
Testamenti  (1748).  His  chief  attacks  were  reserved 
for  R.  Simon,  Clericus,  and  Spinoza,  as  represent- 
atives of  the  new  criticism,  and  his  point  of  view 
was  that  of  Buxtorf  and  Hottinger,  so  that  he  pos- 
tulated the  verbal  inspiration  of  the  text  of  the 
Bible,  and  admitted  no  error  whatsoever.  He 
was,  moreover,  a  consistent  opponent  of  Pietism 
and  the  Moravians,  and  gladly  accepted  a  call  as 
superintendent  to  the  orthodox  dty  of  LQbeck 
in  1730,  after  having  been  obliged  to  decline  a 
dmilar  invitation  to  go  to  Danzig.  There  be  con- 
tinued his  polemics  against  the  Moravians,  pub- 
lishing in  1742  one  of  the  sharpest  of  all  attacks 
on  them  in  his  Religiansuntersuchung  der  bdhmi- 
schen  und  mdhrischen  Bruder  von  Anbeginn  iktr 
Gemeinden  bis  auf  gegenwdrtige  Zeiten. 

6.  Johann  Benedikt  Carpzov:  Qasdcal  scholar 
and  theologian,  grandson  of  Johann  Benedikt  the 
Younger;  b.  at  Leipsic  May  20, 1720;  d.  at  KOnip- 
lutter  (9  m.  w.n.w.  of  Helmst&dt)  Apr.  18, 1803. 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OarpxoY 
OanroU 


e  was  educated  at  the  umversity  of  his  native  city^ 
here  he  was  appointed  associate  professor  in  1747, 
ut  was  called  in  the  follow  in  g  year  as  professor 
if  Greek  to  Helm^tildt,  and  in  1757  became  abbot 
I   KSnigslntter.     Adhering   to   the  orthodoxy  of 
family,  he  was  commissioned  by  the  duke  to 
»ve  the  reputation  of  the  university,  endangered 
Ijy  the  rationalism  of  Albrecht  Teller*  and  he  accord- 
ingly published  his  Liber  docirimilm  theohgia:  pufi' 
^tfns  (Brunswick,    1768).     His  philological  learning 
twas  shown  in  his  editions  of  the  classics  and  in  his 
Sacra  exercUatume*  in  epwtolam  ad  Hehrcpos  ex 
Philme    Akaxtndrino    (Helmst&dt,    1750);     Stric- 
iura  iheohgicoi  in  eputotam  S.  Pauli  ad  Hmnanos 
(1756);    and  Ejnstolarum  catholwarum  septcnarius 
^Halle,    1790).     His  lectures,   which   he  delivered 
Latin,  were  devoted  to  classics^  the  New  Testa- 
ent,  patristica,  and  Dolscius'e  Greek  translation 
if  the  Augsburg  Confeseion. 

(Georo  Mueller.) 


I 


4O0RAPfrr:  On  the  fftmily  oarwuU:  ADB,  iv.  10-26; 
R.  Stint  ling^  Oe*chichte  der  deutitchen  RechtnuisMenMchaft, 
i.  723,  ii.  56,  Munich.  1880.  On  Benedikt  Carpiov  con- 
milt:  K.  Rieker.  Di*  rechUiche  SttUuno  der  evangtiischtn 
Kirche  DeuUchlandM.  pp.  21S-220,  Leipaic,  1863.  Od 
Johann  the  Elder  conault:  A,  H.  Kreyiig.  Album  dtr 
evixriQeluich-liUhentchen  Otiatlifhen  in  .  ,  .  SachBtn,  pp. 
265-267,  Dresden,  1883;  T.  8pi*el,  Vetu*  academia  Jt9U 
ChrUti.  pp,  227-233,  Augnburg,  1071.  On  Johann  the 
Youniter  coaault:  H.  Fipping,  Sacrr  decadum  Btptrnarin* 
mtmoriam  IkecfloQorum  .  .  .  ,  pp,  763-784,  Leipsic.  1706; 
K.  Rieker,  ut  stip.,  pp.  220-222;  A,  H.  Kreysia;,  ut  anp., 
pp.  3ft5,  277.  On  Bumucl  Benedikt  conjsult:  J.  A.  Gleich. 
AnTtaUum  eccte*iaMtitomm^  ii.  622-550.  Dresden.  1730; 
G.  L,  Zetnnter.  Geschichte  der  a&ch*i9cken  Oberhofprtdicfr, 
pp.  111-119,  LeipHic.  Ift^ft.  Oa  Johann  Gotthjb  consult: 
A.  H.  KreyM«,  ut  imp.,  pp.  108.  266;  L,  Diestd,  Gt- 
tcKuhtt  d€B  Alien  Tetffamcntt  in  der  rhriMtliehen  Kirche,  p. 

y""!»  Jena.  1869.  On  Johann  Benediki  consult:  F,  Kol- 
rey,  Cr«wAkAte  der  kta*mschen  Fhiioloffie,  pp.  166-168, 
imvwiek,  ISO?  (gives  further  hterattire). 
LRRANZA,  cOr-rOn'tha,  BAHTOLOMEt  Aroh- 
ap  of  Toledo;  b,  at  Miranda  (175  m.  n.e.  of 
rid),  Navarre,  1M3;  ti  at  Rome  May  2.  1576. 
jntered  the  order  of  the  Dominic  ana  and  from 
1528  lectured  on  philosophy  and  scholastic  the- 
ology at  Alcala,  aft-ens'ard  at  Valladolid.  Charles 
V.  offered  him  the  bishopric  of  Cuzco  in  Peru^  but 
he  declined.  At  the  request  of  the  emperor  he 
took  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Council  of 
1^ Trent  after  1546,  and  insisted  that  the  bishops 
pbould  reside  in  their  own  dioceses.  Strange  to 
ay,  Carranza  came  into  conflict  with  the  Roman 
Itheologians  because  he  asserted  that  the  bishops 
Iliad  their  rights  jtire  divino,  not  by  papal  appoint- 
linent.  When  the  council  was  suspended  he  might 
libave  gone  to  Flanders  as  confessor  of  the  infante 
^bilip,  but  he  declined  this  influential  position  to 
pwork  in  Spain  as  provincial  of  his  order.  He  ac- 
companied Philip  to  England  (1554)  when  the  lat- 
Llerwas  marriaj  to  Mary  Tudor,  and  shared  in  the 
ersecution  of  the  Prot^jstanta  there.  For  this 
be  was  rewarded  by  Philip  in  1557  and  made  arch- 
bishop of  Toletlo,  which  proved  the  culmination  of 
[liis  career.  When  Charles  V.  was  dying  (1558), 
iCarranza  gave  him  the  sacrament.  His  opponents 
circulated  the  report  that  the  emperor  had  not 
died  in  the  faith  of  the  Church  and  that  this  was 
^^  owing  to  Carransa.     The  Inquisition  had  state- 


ments made  by  prisoners,  which  offered  sufficient 
materia!  to  justify  intervention,  and  his  enemies, 
especially  the  inquisitor-general  Valdez  and  Mel- 
chior  Cano,  called  attention  to  his  catechism  (Co- 
fjitntxirio^  dtl  reverendisshno  Froy  Bartslom/  Car- 
Tanza  sobreel  CatechismoChristmnOjAnivfeq^,  1558), 
which  contained  anything  but  Protestant  doc- 
trines, but  deviated  in  some  expressions  from  the 
Roman  tradition.  Carranza  was  imprisoned,  his 
papers  were  confiscated,  and  some  further  material 
for  charges  was  found.  The  examinations  of 
Protestants  in  Valladolid  which  he  held  in  1558  and 
1559  were  especially  scrutinized,  and  it  was  found 
that  on  the  doctrine  of  justification  and  purga- 
tory he  had  made  oral  statements  which  were  not 
Catholic.  In  spite  of  his  appeal  to  the  pope^  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  kept  him  in  prison  eight  years 
and  when  he  was  transferred  in  1567  to  Rome  at 
the  behest  of  Pius  V.  he  was  kept  there  under 
examination  nine  years  longer.  The  Roman 
process  ended  with  a  solemn  abjuration  of  four- 
teen statements  especially  taken  from  his  wri- 
tings and  with  canonical  punishment.  He  was 
suspended  f*>r  five  years  and  died  in  Rome 
without  returning  to  Spain.  The  court  of  in- 
quisition had  overcome  in  his  person  the  highest 
episcopal  dignitp^,  but  Gregory  XII L  allowed 
a  laudatory  epitaph  to  be  set  up  in  Santa  Maria 
sopra  Minerva.  K.  BENiLiTH. 

BiBMOOitAPtiT:  Carr&nia'H  ixiorI  noted  work,  Summa  con- 
cUurram  ti  pontifirum  (A  chureh  hiBtory  to  Julius  II L), 
vmB  published  at  Venice,  1546  and  oft©©.  Hia  life,  by 
H.  Lftdj^wita,  BarthotoTni^  Cfwrama^  Ersbiaehaf  t>on  To- 
ledo, WM  published  at  Kenipt«n,  1870.  GoDiiult  also: 
J.  Qudtif  and  J,  ifechard^  ScripiortM  ordinis  praviicaiorum^ 
vol.  ii..  Pans.  1721;  F.  H.  Reusch,  Der  Index  der  ter- 
botenen  Burher,  L  254,  398<  58g  et  pasAim,  Bonn,  1883; 
Mo«IJer,  Christian  Church,  iii.  317;  H.  C.  Lea,  InquiaiHom 
in  Spain,  ii.  45-87,  iv.  15,  4S6.  502.  Now  York,  1006. 

CARRASCO,  cQr-rOs'co,  ANTOITIO:  Spanish 
Protestant;  b.  in  Malaga  Jan.  19,  1843;  lost  with 
the  steamer  ''  Ville  du  Ha%-re  "  Nov.  22,  1873, 
w!ule  returning  home  from  the  Sixth  Genera!  Con- 
ference of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  held  in  New  York 
Oct.,  1873.  He  was  converted  at  sixteen  and 
joined  a  band  of  Bible-readers  in  Malaga  connected 
with  Manuel  Matamoros  (q.v-);  was  imprisoned 
for  two  years  (1860-62),  and  then  condemned  to 
the  galleys  for  a  term  of  nine  years,  but  at  the 
solicitation  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  supported 
by  representations  of  the  Prussian  government, 
the  sentence  was  changed  to  banishment  (1863). 
He  studied  theology  in  Geneva;  on  the  downfall 
of  Queen  Isabella  in  1868  he  returned  to  Spain  and 
yndertook  the  work  of  evangelization;  at  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  pastor  of  the  Free  Church  in 
Madrid,  with  a  membership  of  700,  and  president 
of  the  Protestant  Synod  of  Spain. 

Biblioorapht:  A  brief  sketch  of  hi*  Ufp  may  be  found  in 
the  Hintory,  tic.,  of  the  Sixth  General  Conference  Qf  the 
EvanofUcai  AUiame,  p.  764.  New  York.  1874. 

CARROLL,  HENRY  KING:  Methodist  Episco- 
palian; b.  at  Dennisville,  N.  X,  Nov.  15,  1848. 
He  was  self-taught,  and  early  entered  journalism, 
being  successively  editor  of  the  Havre  Republican, 
Havre.  Md.  (1868-69),  and  assistant  editor  of 
Th€  Methodist,  New  York  (1869-70),  and  of  the 


QaiToU 
CarthAi 


luiC« 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


486 


IlMrth  and  Htmu,  New  York  (1870-71).  From 
1870  to  1898  he  wan  religious  and  political  editor 
of  Thti  IrvleperuJUintf  New  York,  but  resigned  in  the 
latt4;r  year  tri  accept  the  apf^ointment  of  special 
commiMiioner  of  President  McKinley  to  Porto  Rico. 
In  1881  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  E^cumenical 
Bfethoflist  Crjnference  in  London,  and  in  1884  was 
organizing  secretary  of  the  Methodist  Centennial 
Conference,  of  which  he  erlited  the  proceedings  (New 
York,  ISH5),  while  in  1890  he  was  special  commis- 
sioner of  the  United  States  census  for  religious 
denominations.  In  19(X)  he  was  elected  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  Methodist  Missionary  So- 
ciety, and  was  reelected  four  years  later.  He  is 
a  member  of  the  Methodist  Historical  Society,  a 
manager  of  the  Methodist  Sunday  School  Union  and 
of  the  American  Sabbath  Observance  Society,  and 
a  trustee  of  the  United  Society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor. In  theology  he  is  in  thorough  accord  with 
the  doctrinal  position  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  In  arldition  to  a  number  of  minor  con- 
tributions, he  has  written:  Religiotu  Farces  of  the 
United  Statee  (New  York,  1893,  2d  and  enlarge 
ed.,  1895). 

CARROLL,  JOHN :  First  Roman  Catholic  bishop 
in  the  United  States;  b.  at  Upper  Mariborough, 
Prince  George's  County,  Md.,  Jan.  8,  1735;  d.  in 
Baltimore  Dec.  3,  1815.  He  studied  with  the 
Jesuits  at  Bohemia,  on  the  east  shore  of  Maryland, 
and  at  the  College  of  St.  Cmer,  France;  joined  the 
Jesuits  in  1753;  was  ordained  priest  in  1759;  taught 
at  St.  Omcr,  Li^gc,  and  Bruges;  traveled  through 
Europe  as  tutor  to  tlic  son  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
nobleman;  returned  to  America  in  1774  and 
became  niissionary  and  priest  of  his  native  region 
with  licadquarterH  at  his  mother's  residence  at 
Rock  Creek,  not  far  from  WaHhington.  Like  his 
kinsinan  Charles  ('arroll  of  ('arrollton,  he  warmly 
su[)porte<l  the  caum;  of  the  colonies  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary war.  When  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States  wilh  organized  as  a  distinct 
body,  froo  from  tlic  authority  of  the  vicar  apos- 
tolic of  I/ondon,  he  was  niiulo  prefect  apostolic 
in  17S4;  in  1789  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Balti- 
more and  conHocratcMl  in  England  in  1790;  in  1808 
he  became  archbiHhop.  He  founded  Georgetown 
College  in    1791. 

Biuuoorai'iiy:  John  O.  KhoA  Rives  CarroWa  Life  and 
Timen  in  Hintory  of  the  Catholic  Chttrch  in  the  U.  S.,  vol. 
ii.,  Now  York.  188«. 

CARROLL,  JOHN  JOSEPH:  American  Roman 
Catholic;  h.  at  Knniscnine,  County  Sligo,  Ireland, 
June  Jl,  1850.  lie  was  educated  at  St.  Michael's 
Collejre,  Toronto  (R.A.,  1S70),  and  St.  Joseph's 
Provincial  Theological  Seminary,  Troy,  N.  Y., 
from  which  he  w:us  graduated  in  1879.  In  the 
following  year  he  wjis  onlained  priest,  and  was 
ap|H)inteil  aiwistant  nn'tor  of  the  Cathedral  of  the 
Holy  Name,  Chicagt>,  and  since  1887  has  been 
rector  of  St.  Thomas  Church  in  the  same  city.  In 
1S9S  he  was  elect ihI  chainnan  of  Gaelic  history  in 
the  Gaelic  I-«eague  of  America  and  in  1902  was 
chosi'n  national  librarian  of  the  same  organisation. 
He  has  written:  Sotvs  and  Observations  on  the  Aryan 
R  cc  and  Tongue  (Chicago,  1900);  Tale  of  the 
Wanderings  of   the   Red  Lance  (1902);   and  JPre- 


christian  Occupation  of  Ireland  6y  ike  Gadie  Aryans 
(2  vols.,  1903-06). 

CASSOH,  ALEXAHDER:  Irish  B^tist;  b.  at 
Annahone,  near  Stewartstown  (30  m.  w.  of  Bel- 
fast), County  Tyrone,  Irdand,  1776;  d.  at  Belfast 
Aug.  24,  1844.  He  studied  at  Glaagow  and  was 
ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister  at  Toberaiore, 
near  Coleraine,  County  Londonderry,  1798.  After 
a  few  years  he  left  the  Presbyterians  and  published 
as  justification  of  his  action  Reasons  for  Separating 
from  the  General  Synod  of  Ulster  (Edinburgh,  1804); 
a  portion  of  his  congregation  followed  him,  and  for 
ten  yesLTs  he  preached  in  bams  or  the  open  air.  A 
stone  church  was  built  for  him  in  1814.  In  the 
eariy  part  of  his  independent  career,  while  studying 
the  New  Testament  in  order  to  confute  the  Baptists, 
he  became  a  Baptist  himself,  and  thenceforth 
advocated  their  views  with  the  exception  of  dose 
conmiunion.  His  Baptism  in  Its  Mode  and  Sub- 
jects Considered  (Edinbur;^,  1831;  enlarged  ed., 
1844)  is  a  Baptist  classic.  His  other  writings  were 
numerous  and  treat  topics  of  Bible  interpretation, 
philosophy,  doctrinal  and  practical  theology,  and 
the  like.  He  was  a  bitter  controversialist.  His 
collected  works  were  published  in  six  volumes  at 
Dublin,  1847-64. 

Bibliographt:  G.  C.  Moore,  Life  of  Alexander  Carton, 
New  York.  1851;  John  DoukIbs,  A  Bioffraphiad  SkdA 
of  ...  A.  Carton,  London,  1884;  DNB,  ix.  186. 

C ARSTARESy  WH^LIAM :  Scoteh  clergyman  and 
political  leader;  b.  at  Cathcart  (5  m.  w.n.w.  of 
Glasgow)  Feb.  11,  1649;  d.  in  Edinburgh  Dec.  28, 
1715.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  (graduated  1667) 
and  at  Utrecht,  whither  he  went  because  of  the 
political  troubles  at  home,  in  which  his  father  was 
implicated.  Toward  the  close  of  1674  he  was 
arrested  in  London,  being  suspected  of  having  a 
hand  in  the  distribution  of  a  seditious  pamphlet 
and  of  being  the  bearer  of  despatches  to  the  dis- 
affected in  Scotland  from  their  sympathizers  in 
Holland ;  he  was  kept  in  confinement  till  Aug.,  1679. 
When  released  he  entered  actively  into  the  plots 
which  were  then  rife,  and  appears  at  different  times 
in  Ireland,  England,  Scotland,  and  Holland.  After 
the  discovery  of  the  Rye  House  plot  (a  scheme  to 
assassinate  Charles  II.)  in  July,  1683,  he  was  caught 
in  Kent,  and  was  sent  to  Edinburgh  and  examined 
under  torture  before  the  Scottish  Coimcil,  but  dis- 
played "  great  discretion  "  in  the  disclosures  which 
he  made.  In  1686  or  1687  he  settled  at  Leyden, 
and  thenceforth  was  seldom  separated  from  William 
of  Orange,  whom  he  had  known  from  his  student 
days  in  Utrecht  and  who  trusted  him  implicitly 
and  often  took  his  advice,  especially  on  Scotch 
affairs.  After  William  became  king  of  England, 
he  made  Carstares  chaplain  for  Scotland,  and  the 
latter  rendered  valuable  services  both  to  his  country 
and  his  king,  especially  in  reconciling  the  Scotch 
Presbyterians  to  the  new  regime.  His  personal 
influence  at  court  ceased  with  the  death  of  William, 
and  thenceforth  he  resided  in  £}dinburgh,  where  he 
was  made  principal  of  the  university  in  1703;  he 
also  became  minister  of  the  Gray  Friars'  Church, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  both  capacities.  He 
retained  his  position  as  royal  chaplain  under  .\nne, 
and  at  the  accession  of  George  I.  was  chosen  by  the 


427 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


©rftl  Assembly  to  make  the  usual  con^atulatory 

f»peerh.     Hut  for  Kia  iniluunce  it  \n  iloubtful  if  the 

'Scotch  parliumeiit  would  have  passed  the  Act  of 

Union  in  1707,  and  again  in  171 2,  when  the  Prt*a- 

byti^riiUifl  were  deeply  incensetl  and  alanned  by 

Lthe  course  of  the  government^  he  averted  serious 

[eonsequences  by  eoimseling  moderation   both  in 

England  and  Scotland.     He  was  four  times  mod* 

|#rator  of  the  General  Assembly. 

BiBX400iiAi*Hr:  Statt-- Papers  and  LetUra  AddttMtd  to  Will- 

Cantaru,   with   life    by  J.   M'Cormiek,   Eilinburgh^ 

1774;    It,    H.   Stori'.    William   Carstaren^  a  character  and 

caner  of  the  revittutioruxry  epoch,  i60-17i6,  London,  IS74; 

DNB.  IX.  187-190. 

CARTER,  JAMES:  American  Presb j-terian ;  b.  in 

iKew  York  Oct.  1,  1853.     He  graduated  at  Colum- 

CoUcge  in    1S82|   and   at   Union  Theological 

ainary  in  1885,     He  was  pastor  at  WiOiamsport, 

ll*a.^  from  1880  till  1905,  when  he  became  professor 

[of  church  history  and   sociology  in   Lincoln   Uni- 

Iveiaity,  Pa.     He   has    written    the    biography   of 

fhis  fa\her,  Walter  Carter  (New  York,   1901),  and 

two  volumes  of  poems. 

ICARTESIAMSM,     See  Descartes,  Ren6. 
CARTHAGE,  SYl^ODS   OF. 
L  Synodj  b&for«  and  iisder  Cyprian. 
II,  8yTJ*jii»  during  the  Donatiat  Coutrover^y. 
211.  8yTit>dfl  in  CVunnection  with  the  Pelagi&n  Controyemy, 
IV.  Cbticiuding  Synodjs. 
Carthage,  the  ancient  rival  of  Rome,  preserved 
a  remnant  of  its  former  grcatncsa  in  the  command- 
Ling  jxtwition  ast*utned  by  its  bishops,  at  leaist  from 
[the  beginning  of  the  third  centurj%  in  the  North- 
lAfrican  Church.     By  right  of  their  see^  they  w^cre 
Ytx  officio  primates  of  their  province,  while  this 
sit  ion  in  Numidia,  and  later  in  the  other  prov- 
llnces  of  North   Africa,  wxnt  by  seniority.     But 
ny  bishops  of  thene  provinces  paid  great  heed 
the  counsels  of  the  bishop  of  the  capital,  at 
Ileast  in  Cy{irian's  time,  and  even  earlier  than  that 
Iliad  formed  the  habit  of  meeting  there  for  con- 
Iference.     The  decii^rions  taken  in  regartl  to  the  con- 
Kroversics  agitating  the  African  Church ,  especially 
the    Dnnatist   and    Pelagian,   were   of   permanent 
and  far-reaching  importance  for  the  development 
of  theology. 

L  Synods  before  and  under  Cyprian:  (1)  That 
under  Hishop  Agrippinua  (e.  220)^  to  whose  de- 
cision Cj^prian  appealed  in  the  controversy  about 
baptism  by  heretics,  (2)  That  held  c.  240  at  Lam- 
beae  in  Numidia  (or  Carthageh  which  condemned 
the  heretic  Privatum.  (Z)  The  first  under  Cyprian 
after  his  return  to  Carthage,  just  after  Easter,  25 L 
After  a  long  debate,  it  decided  that  the  lapsed, 
especially  those  who  had  offered  sacrifice,  should 
be  restorc<i  only  on  an  extended  penance,  except 
in  danger  of  death,  while  the  libeUatir^i  (see  Lapsed) 
might,  provisionaHy  at  least,  be  at  once  received. 
It  seems  to  have  been  customary  at  this  time  to 
hold  an  annual  Easter  sjmod-    and  at  least  one 

(4)  i**  known  in  252,  to  which  probably  the  letter 
of  Cj'prian  and  sixty-vsix  bishops  to  Fidus  (Epist.i 
bdv.)  refers;  here  Privatus  attempted  to  have  hia 
ca.se  reopened,  but  was  refused  and  joined  the 
opposition  that  set  up  Fortunatus  aa  a  rival  bishop. 

(5)  In  253,  witli  reference  to  the  new  persecution 


under  Callus,  the  procedure  in  the  case  of  the 
lapBcd  was  modified,  so  that,  if  truly  penitent, 
they  might  be  at  once  restored  {Epht. ,  I  vii. ) .  Subse- 
quent synods  dealt  with  baptism  by  heretics,  con- 
cerning which  the  African  bishops  held  strict  views; 
(6)  One  attended  by  thirty-one  bishops  in  256 
{Epist.t  Ixx.).  (7)  A  more  general  one,  of  seventy-one 
bishops,  from  Numidia  as  welJ,  in  the  spring  of  256 
(Epist.j  Ixxiii.).  (8)  One  of  eighty-seven  bishops, 
this  time  including  the  Mauritanians^  in  September 
of  the  same  year.  The  views  expressed  in  the  last- 
named  were  controverted  by  Augustine,  De  bap- 
iismo  contra  Donatintaji,  vi»,  vii. 

n.  Synods  during  the  Poomtist  Controversy; 
(1)  In  312,  composed  of  seventy  bishops,  opponentJi 
of  C^cihan,  who  was  excommunicated.  (2)  One 
of  270  Donatist  bishops,  about  330,  which  showed 
a  conciliatory  spirit,  and  sanctioned  the  admis- 
sion of  traditores  to  communion.  The  succeeding 
synods  for  some  time  are  all  on  the  Catholic  side, 
and  show  a  more  or  less  severe  attitude  toward  the 
Donatist^  according  to  the  position  taken  at  the 
time  by  the  schismatics.  (3)  The  so-called  "First 
C4>uncil  of  Carthage,"  between  345  and  34S,  at- 
tended by  fifty  bishops,  at  the  close  of  a  heavy 
persecution.  This,  like  S,  10,  11,  L5,  and  20,  deaJt 
only  cursorily  with  the  Donatist  question,  while  4, 
5,  6,  7,  9,  and  18,  as  far  as  we  know,  did  not  touch 
upon  it  at  all.  Under  Bishop  Genethlius  of  Car- 
thage, who  was  much  esteemed  by  the  Donatiets, 
took  place  (4)  a  synod  in  the  *'  Pnetorium,"  and 
a  year  later,  or  in  390,  (5)  the  so-called  *'  Second 
Council  of  Carthage,"  attended  by  sixty  bishopa. 
Under  his  successor,  Aurt-lius,  twenty  synods  are 
said  to  have  been  held,  in  the  most  important 
of  wliich  Augiistine  participated.  In  a  general 
African  council  held  at  Hippo  in  393  it  was  de- 
cided that  the  various  provinces  should  take  turns 
in  holding  such  general  gatherings;  but  tliis  system 
was  difficult  of  execution f  since  Mauritania  and 
Tripolifl  were  too  distant,  and  the  latter  had  only 
five  episcopal  sees.  Among  such  general  councils 
may  be  reckoned,  besides  that  of  Hippo  wliich 
began  the  series,  that  of  Hadrumetum,  394,  those 
numbered  here  3,  5^  S,  11,  12^  15,  and  20,  and  that 
of  Milevc,  402.  In  4^17  it  was  <lecided  to  abandon 
the  attempt  and  call  them  when  and  where  it 
seemed  expedient,  wliilc  the  provincial  synods 
were  to  go  on  as  before.  (6)  and  (7)  Ti*'o  synods 
held  respectively  on  June  26,  394,  and  June  26,  397, 
of  which  little  is  known. 

What  is  known  as  the  Breviarium  canonum 
Hipponensium  corresponds  substantially  with  (8) 
the  Carihaginkn^e  III.  of  the  Spanish  collection, 
Aug.  28,  397.  The  canons  of  393  and  397,  con- 
finned  at  Mileve  in  402,  give  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  church  life  of  the  time.  The  most  famous 
is  that  containing  the  list  of  Scriptural  books,  and 
dealing  with  the  reading  of  the  martyrologies. 
The  position  of  the  prcabytera  in  relation  to  the 
bishops  is  restricted,  aggressions  by  bishops  on 
neighboring  chocemm  reprobated,  and  tlie  whole 
conduct  of  the  clergy  within  the  bounds  of  the 
Church  regulated.  In  regard  to  the  Donatist 
matter,  a  change  is  made,  allo\*ing  clerics  coming 
from  the  schism  to  exercise  their  function,  under 


Carthusians 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


certain  conditions,  where  formeriy  they  had  been 
relegated  to  lay  communion.  Legations  from  the 
court  often  appeared,  as  at  (9)  a  synod  of  Apr.  27, 
390,  when  the  right  of  asylum  in  churches  was 
considered.  From  401  on  more  attention  is  paid 
to  the  Donatist  controversy,  at^rst  in  a  concilia- 
tory spirit;  in  that  year  two  synods  were  held 
(10)  on  June  16  and  (11)  on  Sept.  13,  both  of  which 
occupied  themselves  also  with  the  removal  of  the 
remains  of  paganism.  (12)  The  general  synod  of 
Aug.  25,  403,  laid  down  a  formula  to  be  accepted 
by  the  Donatists  which  only  increased  the  bitter- 
ness, and  the  following  synod  (13)  of  June  16,  404, 
appealed  to  the  emperor  to  repress  the  schismatics 
by  legal  measures.  This  was  done,  and  tho  next 
synod  (14),  Aug.  23,  405,  returned  thanks  to  him. 
At  the  general  synod  (15)  of  June  13, 407,  measures 
were  adopted  to  facilitate  the  reception  into  the 
Church  of  entire  schismatic  communities;  and, 
after  the  issue  of  an  imperial  decree  which  mitigated 
the  former  severity,  both  on  (16)  June  16  and  (17) 
Oct.  13,  408,  delegations  were  sent  to  impress  the 
ecclesiastical  view  on  the  emperor.  The  only 
extant  provision  of  (18)  the  provincial  synod  of 
June  15,  409,  has  no  direct  connection  with  the 
burning  question;  but  after  the  issue  of  a  decree 
of  toleration,  the  next  (19),  on  June  14,  410,  sent 
another  delegation  to  the  emperor,  and  this  time 
with  success.  (20)  The  synod  of  May  1,  418,  is 
occupied  again  with  the  reception  of  Donatist  com- 
munities and  the  duty  of  the  conversion  of  heretics; 
while  some  of  its  provisions  look  forward  to  the 
next  division. 

in.  Synods  in  Connection  with  the  Pelagian  Con- 
troversy.   For  these  see  Pelaoiub,  Pelaoianism. 

IV.  Concluding  Synods:  At  the  head  of  these 
comes  the  frequently  cited  synod  of  419,  attended 
by  217  bishops,  which  held  two  sessions.  May  25 
and  30  (designated  in  the  Hispana  as  Carihaginiense 
VL  and  VII.).  It  codified  and  to  some  extent 
shortened  the  preceding  legislation.  Part  of  its 
work  dealt  with  the  claims  of  the  Roman  See,  based 
improperly  on  the  decrees  of  the  First  Council  of 
Nicsea.  It  drew  up  also  a  reply  to  a  letter  of  Pope 
Boniface,  who  had  laid  four  points  before  it — the 
question  of  appeals,  the  journeys  of  the  African 
bishops  to  the  imperial  court,  the  right  of  excom- 
municated clerics  to  apply  for  restoration  to  neigh- 
boring bishops,  and  the  conduct  of  the  bishop  of 
Sicca  in  deposing  a  priest  who  had  appealed  to 
Rome.  The  council  temporized  on  the  first  and 
third  points,  agreed  to  the  restoration  of  the  priest, 
though  not  in  the  same  diocese.  A  still  firmer  tone 
was  taken  toward  Rome  by  the  synod  wliich 
(after  422)  wrote  to  Pope  Celestine  in  connection 
with  the  priest  above  mentioned,  which  showed 
that  the  ancient  independence  and  conciliar  spirit 
of  the  African  Church  were  still  unbroken. 

But  with  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals  from  the 
west,  threatening  Carthage  in  439,  the  existence  of 
the  Church  of  North  Africa  drew  to  a  close.  In 
the  face  of  such  dangers  as  the  persecutions  of  the 
Arian  kings  brought  upon  the  Christians  of  those 
parts,  minor  differences  disappeared.  The  con- 
ference on  religion  held  in  484  did  not  give  them 
much  relief;    but  more  was  accomplished  by  the 


synod  of  Feb.  5,  525,  in  the  reign  of  Hilderic,  at- 
tended by  sixty  bishops  from  different  provinces. 
After  the  annexation  of  North  Africa  by  the  Byian- 
tine  government.  Bishop  Reparatus  held  a  synod 
of  217  bishops  in  535;  it  dealt  with  Rome  about 
the  reception  of  converted  Arians  into  the  service 
of  the  Church,  regulated  the  relation  of  monasteries 
to  the  bishops,  and  sent  a  deputation  to  Justinian 
to  ask  the  restoration  of  property  and  privileges. 
Thenceforth  the  history  of  the  North-African 
Church  is  merged  in  the  general  development  of 
the  state  religion,  and  has  no  more  separate  im- 
portance before  its  final  extinction  by  the  Arabs. 
(Edgab  Hennecke.) 

Bibuoosapht:  For  the  eanons  of  the  lyiKKlB  eonsnlt:  W. 
Bereridge,  Synodikan,  aiv4  pandtttm  eonomtm,  Oxford, 
1672  (includes  the  oanons  of  the  African  synods):  G.  D. 
Fuehs,  BibUoOk&k  dm'  Kirekmwtrmmmiumo,  iu.  1^78, 
Leipsie,  1788.  On  the  ceneral  question  consult:  F. 
MaMsen,  GeseftteUs  dsr  Qusttsn  nnd  dsr  Liknhr  dm 
kanoniMcKmi  Am^.  l  149  sqq..  Qras.  1870;  J.  Lloyd. 
Tk€  NorOk  African  Church,  London,  1870;  O.  Ritwhl, 
Cvprian  van  Karthago,  pp.  153  sqq.,  GAttinfen,  1885; 
Hefele,  Coneilitnoem^hiehi^  vols.  L,  iL  passim.  Ens.  tnioL, 
vols,  i.,  ii.  passim;  the  brothers  Ballerini  in  Appendix  to 
the  Optra  of  Leo  I.,  toL  i.,  ehapp.  iii.,  zxi.-zxiz.,  Veniee, 
1767.  Detailed  treatment  may  be  found  in  Nesnder, 
ChriMtian  Churdi,  toIs.  L,  iL  passim,  consult  Index  under 
"  Councils  and  Synods."  Short  discussions  are  sbo  in 
Schaff,  Chrittian  Chwreh,  iU.  793.  798;  Moeller.  CArw- 
Uan  Church,  L  363,  267,  882.  447,  452-453,  467;  DCA, 
L  86-89;  and  literature  under  Don  atom. 

CARTHUSIAKS. 

The  Life  of  St.  Bruno  (f  1).      Carthusians  in  Italy  (f  3). 
Foundation    of    Chartreuse     Growth  of  the  Order  (f  4). 
(f  2).  Organisation  ({  6). 

Scholarship  (f  6). 

The  Carthusians  are  a  Roman  Catholic  order 
founded  by  St.  Bruno  of  Cologne  at  Grande  Char- 
treuse (14  m.  n.  of  Grenoble)  in  Dauphin^  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  period 
was  particularly  favorable  to  the  formation  of  new 
monastic  orders.  The  monastery  of  Cluny  (q.v.) 
inspired  a  tendency  to  the  religious  life  throughout 
the  surrounding  regions,  but  this  cloister,  which  had 
adopted  the  cenobitic  monasticism  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, gave  no  impetus  to  eremitic  life.  In  the 
course  of  time,  however,  the  longing  for  medi- 
tation in  solitude  peopled  the  wastes  of  Burgundy 
and  Lorraine,  apparently  gaining  inspiration  from 
Italy  by  way  of  Dauphin^.  To  this  period  be- 
longed Hugo,  bishop  of  Grenoble  (1080-11321, 
who  had  barely  ascended  the  episcopal  chair  when 
he  renounced  it  to  bury  himself  in  the  monastery 
of  Chaise-Dieu,  whence  he  was  recalled  to  his  high 
office  by  the  mandate  of  Gregory  VII.  In  a  like 
spirit  two  canons  of  St.  Rufus  in  Dauphin^  retired 
to  the  north  of  France,  returning  after  some  years 
with  Bruno. 

He  was  bom  of  noble  parentage  at  Cologne 
before  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  and 
educated  at  the  cathedral  school  of  Reims.  Suc- 
cessively canon  of  St.  Cimibert  at  Cologne  and 
scholastic  of  the  cathedral  of  Reims,  Bruno  had 
held  this  latter  office  with  distinction  for  some 
twenty  years  and  had  diligently  inculcated  the 
stem  principles  of  Hildebrand  and  the  monks  of 
Cluny.  Appointed  chancellor  of  the  archbishopric 
of  Reims  in  1075,  Bruno  relaxed  his  energies  as  a 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Uartnaire 


pacher  to  assail  the  siTnony  of  his  own  archbishop, 
^MaQasseh    of   Goumey    (1067-80).     After   a   long 
struggle r  in  which  Bnino  was  seconded  by  the  best 
I  element  in  his  chapter,  as  well  as  by 

I  1.  The  Life  the  neighboring  clergy^  Manasseh  was 
'  of  St,  deposed.  His  antagonist,  however^ 
Bnmo.  liad  becomo  disheartened  with  the 
condition  of  the  Church.  In  equal 
despair  regarding  the  theology  to  which  he  devoted 
himself,  he  resolved  to  abandon  the  world  and  live 
the  life  of  a  hermit.  Where  he  met  the  two  canons 
who  were  later  to  take  him  to  the  Chartreuse  ia 
uncertain,  but  at  all  eventa  he  retired  with  a  few 
friends  of  like  sympathies  to  Molcame  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Lang  res  to  live  the  life  of  an  anchorite  in 
the  center  of  French  asceticism.  He  there  joined 
the  adherents  of  Robert,  then  abbot  of  Molesnae 
and  later  founder  of  the  Cistercians,  and  with  his 
permission  established  a  small  community  of  her* 
mits  in  the  neighboring  S6c he-Fontaine.  Feeling 
that  this  refuge  was  insufficiently  sundered  from 
the  worlds  Bruno  left  all  his  followers  but  six  in 
S^che- Fontaine,  pushed  southward^  and  in  1084 
peached  Grenoble,  where  the  little  company  was 
welcomed  by  HugOi  who  had  but  recently  resumed 
his  episcopal  office* 

Partly  through  the  influence  of  the  abbot  of 
Chaise-Dieu ,  Bruno  and  his  companions  received 
from  Hugo  the  lofty  and  almost  inaccessible  valley 
of  Cartusia  as  their  place  of  refuge,  and  on  June  24, 
1084,  they  began  the  construction  of  the  hermitage, 
originally  consiatiiig  of  three  wretched  huts,  each 
to  be  occupied  by  two  anchorites,  and  a  chapeL 
At  first  the  new  community  had  no  special  rule, 
although  they  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by 
the  Italian  Camaldolites  in  many  respects.  They 
were  clad  in  white,  and  were  bound  to  perpetual 
silence,  to  the  observance  of  the  monastic  hours, 
to  the  most  rigorous  renunciation  and  mortifica- 
tion, and  to  the  copying  of  books  of 

2.  Founda-  devotion.     After    directing  his    little 
tion  of      colony  of  hermits  for  six  years,  Bruno 

Chartreuse,  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Urban 
IL,  who  had  once  been  his  pupil  at 
Reiins,  Bruno  obeyed  with  reluctance,  but  went 
accompanied  by  some  of  his  monks,  while  others 
renuuned  in  their  hermitage,  although  for  some 
time  they  proved  restive  under  the  administration 
of  Landuin,  whom  Bruno  hat!  placed  at  their  head. 
In  Rome  the  hermits  found  themselves  longing 
for  their  mountain  valley,  and  Bruno  obtained 
permission  for  them  to  return,  bearing  letters  of 
commendation  from  the  pope  to  Hugo  of  Grenoble 
and  Hugo,  archbishop  of  Lyons.  Bruno,  however, 
remaineil  in  Rome,  although  he  was  neither  ener- 
getic enough  nor  polemical  enough  to  exercise  an 
influence  on  Urban 's  rule  of  the  Church.  He  de- 
clined the  proffered  archbishopric  of  Rcggio  in 
Calabnai  and  shortly  before  the  first  crusade,  ap- 
parently in   1091,  he  retired   to   the 

3,  Carthu-  wild  region  of    La  Torre  near  Squil- 
fii&ns  in     lace  in  Calabria,  where  he   gathered 

Italy*       about  him  a  number  of  hermits  and 

formed  a  community  like  that  at  the 

Chartreuse.     In    10»7    Count    Roger   of   Cftlabria 

.^ve  blm  La  Torre  and  Santo  StefanoinBosco,  and 


two  years  later  presented  him  with  Sun  Jaeobo 
dc  Mcritauro,  so  that  he  was  able  to  establish  two 
large  cloist^irs  for  his  order.  He  was  buried  in 
Santo  Stefano  in  1101,  but  the  monastery,  which 
then  contained  thirty  monks,  soon  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Cistercians,  nor  was  it  until  1 137  that 
the  Carthusian  cloisters  even  reached  the  number 
of  four^  all  situated  in  France. 

After  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the  order 
steadily  increased,  and  in  1170  the  Carthusians 
were  deemed  worthy  of  the  special  protection  of  the 
pope  and  were  officially  recognized  by  Alexander 
111.  In  1258  the  monasteries  of  the  order  num- 
bered fifty-six,  but  in  1378  the  Carthusians  were 
obliged  to  contend  with  a  division  corresponding 
to  the  papal  schism  and  lasting  until 
4.  Growth  the  Council  of  Pisa.  The  entire  body 
of  the  of  Carthusians  recognized  Martin  V. 
Order*  as  pope,  and  the  two  generals  of  the 
order  resigned  in  favor  of  John  of 
GreilTenberg,  the  prior  of  the  Carthusian  monastery 
of  Paris,  who  thus  became  sole  general.  In  1420 
Martin  V,  granted  the  order  exemption  from  tithes 
for  all  its  estates,  and  in  1508  Julius  II.  issued  a 
bull  enacting  that  the  prior  of  the  mother  house 
should  always  be  the  general  of  the  order,  and  that 
the  annual  chapters  should  be  held  there.  Five 
jrears  later  the  Calabrian  monastery  of  Santo 
Stefano,  where  the  founder  of  the  order  was  buried, 
was  restored  to  the  Carthusians,  and  in  1514  Bruno 
was  canonized.  At  the  bcgirming  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  Carthusian  monasteries  numbered  170^ 
of  which  seventy- five  were  in  France.  The  Revo- 
lution struck  the  order  a  heavy  blow,  but  it  sur- 
vived and  in  1819  the  mother  house  near  Grenoble 
was  again  occupied.  In  1905,  in  consequence  of 
the  legislation  enacted  in  France  concerning  re- 
ligious orders,  the  Grande  Chartreuse  of  Grenoble  as 
well  as  the  other  Carthusian  monasteries  was  again 
vacated,  and  most  of  the  monks  retired  to  Spain, 

The  Carthusian  spirit  may  be  learned  from  its 
rule.  Until  1130  the  order  had  no  special  regu- 
lations, but  in  that  year  Guigo  de  Castro,  the  fifth 
prior  of  Chartreuse,  prepared  the  Consnetttdinea 
Cartusicp.  In  1258  the  resolutions  of  the  chapters 
from  1141  were  collected  by  Bernard  de  la  Tour 
and  designated  StattUa  antiquaf  while  additional 
collections  were  made  in  1S67,  1509,  and  1581. 
The  chief  aim  of  them  all  was  the  most  absolute 
detachment,  not  only  from  the  world  and  all  its 
attractions  and  interests,  but  even 
S»  Orgftiii-  from  the  brother  monks  of  the  order 
latioa.  and  the  raonasteTy.  The  lay  brothers, 
who  are  divided  into  the  three  classes 
of  conversi,  donati,  and  redditt^  are  sharfjly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  professed.  Each  monastery 
is  strictly  separated  from  the  surrounding  popu- 
lation and  from  all  other  orders,  while  every  form 
of  ecclesiastical  and  secular  influence,  whether 
active  or  passive,  is  carefully  avoided.  The  faithful 
adherence  of  the  Carthusians  to  their  rule  spared 
them  the  necessity  of  reform  felt  by  many  orders 
in  the  transition  from  the  Middle  Ages  to  modem 
times. 

The  Carthusians  now  control  twenty-six  monas- 
teries, and  still  retain  their  absolute  retirement 


CarthTUiians 
Cartwriirht 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


480 


from  tlie  world.  The  order  likewise  indudea 
Carthusian  nuns,  who  are  said  to  have  estiated  as 
eady  as  the  twelfth  century,  although  in  the  eight- 
eenth only  five  nunneries  were  known,  all  dating 
from  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  centuiy.  Over 
th&ie  convents  Carthusian  monka  |>rcaided,  who 
as  vicars  ranked  above  the  prioreaees  and  lived  in 
separate  bouses  with  other  professed  and  lay 
brothers.  The  ntins,  who  were  first  pemiitted  to 
become  professed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the 
sixteenth  century ^  may  eat  togiether  and  converse 
more  frequently  than  ii  allowed  to  the  monks. 

Although  in  scholarship  the  Carthusians  ean  not 
rival  the  Benedietinesj  Dominicans,  or  Jesuits, 
they  are  not  without  their  men  of  fame.  From 
the  pre-Reformation  period  mentLon  may  be  mader 
in  addition  to  the  Guigo  already  noted  ^  of  auch 

authors  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 

6*  ScholftT-  centuries  as  Ludolf  of  Saxony,  Hen- 

ihip,        drikof  Coesf eld,  Gerhard  of  Schiedam^ 

and  Henry  of  Kalkar,  aa  well  as  of 
Jacob  of  Jttterbogk  and  Dionysiua  of  Rickel. 
Noteworthy  names  of  later  date  are  the  hagiog- 
raphers  Lorene  Surius  and  H.  Murer,  and  such 
historians  of  the  order  aa  Petneua,  Le  Vasseur,  and 
Le  Couteubc.  In  recent  times,  moreover}  the  order 
entered  upon  a  revival  of  literary  activity. 

(O.  ZdCKLEBt) 

BEBLifmftiiFHT:  Hvintbticlwl't  Ordtn  vwf  Kongr^^Honsn^ 
L  251: -2^;  Lb  V&awur,  Ef^temtridea  afdini*  Car^ttJden- 
«it,  2  vdli.^  Montreuil^  18fj2  (a  bio^TAphy  arranged  by 
thm  cii1«ndar,  bcks  anly  iq  July  31 ;  (be  author  di0d  16@3); 
Helyot,  OrdrtM  monaaUi^uia,  vil.  366-405;  Mttgna  Vita 
S,  huffonim^  ed.  J.  F.  DicDook  for  Rollt  SeHef,  no.  37, 
Loudon*  ISdi;  F.  A*  L«febiJre»  8.  Bruno  el  V&rdrm  ifef 
Chm-tttiix,  2  vole.,  P&rift.  1SS3;  Uem.  La  ChartteuKtU  J^itn- 
Dam^^d69-Pre9  h  NeuvilU^  Neuvilk,  ISOO;  C.  li«icb«D]eth- 
ner,  Ber  ICarttJu«rtKrd*Ji  in  DeuiMihtaiui,  Wftfiburf^ 
1SS5;  C,  ]«  Couteulx,  Annalr*  ordiniM  CartuxUmtit,  J0S4~ 
14^9,  2  Yo\».,  Montreuil,  18*7-88;  C.  Boutnii**  The  Mon- 
atterif  of  the  Grande  Cfmrtreume,  London p  ISOul;  Vie  de  S. 
Bruruj,  Montrauit,  1898;  H.  Ldbb^l,  Der  Stiftgr  de*  Kar- 
thAwt^ordem,  .  .  ,  iJruno  aua  Kitln.  M^ruter*  1899; 
Currier*  BrliffimtM  Ordert,  pp.  163-1 SL  On  tb«  Eng* 
Cart  bun  i  AHA  consult:  W,  H.  Brown,  ChaHerhoum,  Past 
und  Present ■  a  Brief  History,  London*  1876;  W.  D. 
Pariah,  Liei  of  Carthuniant,  1800-1879,  ib.  ISBO;  T.  Mot- 
ley, RtminiscetifeM  of  Tcurn*,  VilUiffes^  and  SrJi&oU.  I.  376- 
436,  ib.  1885;  J>.  L.  Hendriks,  Lotvion  Charterh&um,  lit 
Monk*  aryd  Martyr* ,  ib.  1889. 

CART  WRIGHT,  PETER;  .Ajnerican  Methodist; 
b.  in  Amherst  County,  Va.^  Sept-  1,  1785;  d.  near 
Pleasant  Plains,  Sangamon  County,  III.,  Sept*  25, 
1872.  His  parenta  removed  to  Kentucky  whQo 
he  waa  a  child,  and  there  he  was  "  convert^  *'  in 
1801;  he  WES  licensed  a.^  an  exhorter  in  tS02,  and 
spent  eight  years  in  the  old  Weatem  conference » 
four  in  the  Kentuckyj  eight  in  the  Teimessee,  and 
forty^ight  in  the  lUinoid.  He  i&  said  to  have 
reeeived  more  than  10,000  members  into  the 
Church,  baptized  more  than  12,000  persons,  and 
preached  more  than  15,000  sennona.  He  was 
known  as  the  "  backwoo<ds  preacher,^*  and  it 
is  reported  that  when  moral  suasion  proved  in- 
effective wnth  the  rough  characters  with  whom  he 
bad  to  deal  he  was  able  and  witling  to  quiet  tliem 
by  phyBicaJ  force*  He  was  once  a  member  of  the 
Illinois  legislature  and  was  defeated  for  Congress 
by  Abraham  Xinooln  in  IMO* 


BlftLlCKittAFBT:  lie  WTDle  t«T«r«l  trmctM^  ma  AMiahiosmi^f, 
«<1.  W.  P.  Stricklawl.  New  York*  185d.  mod  Fiftu  Yrni 
a  Premdin^g  Elder ^  6tL  W,  S.  Hooper*  Cindiuiali,  IStt 

CARTWRIOHT,  THOMAS. 
Leader  ol  thu  PuritMi  Party  (|  1>. 
Conlmrersa&l  Writitisft  (|  2t 
Minjjtter  m  Antwerp  (|  3). 
Afputi  la  Ensl&nd  {f  4). 
Altitude  Tow&rd  the  BrowiuEtii  C|  &). 

Thomas  Cartwright,  English  Puritan  and  Pres- 
byterian, waji   bom   in   Hertfordshire   1535;  d.  &t 
Warwick  Dec.  27,  1603*     He  was  matriculatei  is 
a   Biaar  of  Claire   HaJl,    Nov.,    1547,   and  &s  m 
scholar    at   St.    John's  College,    CambHdgie,  Nor* 
5,    1550-     Being    a    Prot^tant    and    refufiing  %cm 
return    to    tlie  Roman    Church,  he  was  debamd. 
from  the  university  during  Mary's  reign  {1553-59)^ 
In    1560  he  became  a    minor    fellow  of   Trinitj^ 
College,  and  on  Apr,  6  of  the   same  year  a  M — 
low  of   St.    John's    College;     in    Apr.,    1562,  ^ 
major  fellow  of  Trinity  College*     In  1567  he  m)sz. 
his  bachelor's  degree,  and  in  1569  w*ai!  choicti  Ladjr^ 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity,  and  began  to  lecti 
on    the   Acts   of    the    Apostles.    Bk 

X*  Leader    lecture    were    exceedingly    popuUr 
of  the  Piiii-  and  made  a  profoiind  impreBsioD 

tan  Partj.  favor    of    hi^    distinctively    PimUj::^ 
views,  but  created  a  storm  of  oppo — 
sition  from  the  Prelatical  party,  beaded  by  Dn- 
Whitgift.     This   eonfiict,   under   these   two  pts'^ 
champions*    continued   to   grow  more  and  aiQi<e 
severe,  and  was  continued  by  their  successore  in 
two  great  parties  in  the  Church  of  England— the 
Presbyterian    and    the    Prelatical,     The    PuriUn 
platform    is   weU  stat^  in    tbe    six  propoaitimi^ 
which  Cartwright  delivered  under  his  own  bvul 
to  the  vice*chanKllor,  tbe  groundi  of  his  peiseca- 
tion  by  the  Prelatists; 

1 .  Tbat  the  nunes  mud  ftinetmiu  of  mrdxhiakopB  uid  iirrh- 
de»cons  ought  to  be  AbnUtihpd.  2.  That  I  he  ofScev  at  tbe 
Uwful  tninifflers  of  the  Cburi^h,  vii^,  bisliepit  and  deflcou. 
ought  to  be  reduced  to  their  apojftoUnU  institullon;  bbfadie 
to  prescb  the  word  of  God,  and  pray,  mnd  dea«>D#  io  be  em- 
ployed in  t&kmK  ^ai^  of  the  poor.  3.  That  (he  g^owmcuiit 
of  the  Chiu^cb  owgbt  not  to  be  cntnisted  to  bijibop's  cJiaa- 
cellofp^  or  this  uffitdAlft  of  arehde«j?ODR;  but  tvery  ^wA 
oujchi  to  be  eoTem«l  by  itt  ova  iniiii*tet«  and  preshjrtifs. 
4*  That  miniHtefi  oujtht  tiot  to  be  at  larEe,  hut  every  one 
should  have  the  charge  of  a  particuLar  coii£t«g:iitLoti.  5.  TbU 
no  man  ought  to  nolicit.  or  to  stand!  ar  a  cantiidftt«  foif  tbe 
mmistry.  6.  That  minbter^  ought  not  to  be  rreat^  by  the 
»a](!  authority  of  the  bishop,  but  to  be  openly  and  furty 
ehoiwii  by  tbe  people. 

Havingbeen  deprived  of  his  professorship  Dec.  1 1, 

1 570,  and  of  his  fellowship  at  Trinity  Ck>llege  in  Sept,, 

1571,  Cartwright  went  to  tbe  Continent,  and  in 
Geneva  conferred  with  Beia  and  other  chiefs  of 
the  Reformed  Churches.     He  was  prevailed  upon 

by  hifl  friends  to  return  in  Nov.,  1572. 

3.  Contro-  An  Admoniimn  io  Parliument  fo^  ^ 

verbal       R^formaiwn  of  Church  Disciplvne  h&i 

Writings,    been  isaued  by  his  friends  John  Tietd 

and  Thomas  Wilcox,  for  which  they 

had  been  cast  into  prison.     Cartwright  espou»d 

their  cause,  and  issued   The  Second  Admomim, 

with  an  HumbU  Peiitwn  to  Bath  Houses  of  Forlis^ 

meni  for  Relief  AgainH  Sitbscn'ption,  1572.   Whit^ft 

replied  in  An  Answere  to  a  Cerien  Libeil,  Jn^uW 

An  Admonition  to  the  Parliamenit  1572.    Caitwri^i 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CTarthusianV 

Cartwri^ht 


dii 

I        dil 


jomed  in  A  Rcplye  U>  an  Awfwere  Made  o}  M. 
Doctor   WhUegifte   Againsle   ike   Admonitioti  to  the 
Partiament,  1573.     This  was  a  renewal  of  the  old 
discussion  on  a  larger  scale,  going  to  the  roots  of 
differcnct^;    Cartwright  and  the  Puritans  cont^nil- 
ing  that  the  church  government  and  the  diseiplinc, 
well  us  the  tloctrine,  must  be  refomieti  accortiing 
to   the  8eripture8-     The  discussion   took   a  wide 
range — as  to   the  standard  of  church  government, 
the  choice  of  ministers^  the  Qfnces  of  the  Christian 
Church,  clerical  habits,  bishops,  archbishops,  the 
authority  of  princes  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  con- 
"rmation,  etc.     Wliitgift  replied  in  A  Defense  of 
Eccle^a^ticuU  Regiment  in  Engiandc  Defaced  by 
.  C.  in  hi»  Reptie  against^  D,  Whitgifte,  1574,  and 
The  Defense  of  the  Anmoere  to  the  Admoniimn^ 
inM  the  fieplye  of  T.  C,  1574,  pp.  812,  folio. 
An    order    for    Cartwright's    apprehen.'^ion    was 
iued  Dec.  !!»  1574;  but  he  fled  to  the  Continent, 
d  became  minister  of  the  English  congregation 
if    merehaut-a  at  Antwerp    and    Middelburg.      In 
1576  he  went  to  the  isles  of  Jersey  and 
3.  Minister  Guernsey,   aided  the    Puritans    there 
in  Antwerp,  in    settling    the    discipline    of    their 
churches,     later    returning     to    Aiit- 
erp,  where  he  preached  for  several  years.     While 
abroad,   he   wrote   the   Second   Reptie   of   Thomas 
*ariwTifjhi  Atjaynst  M aiMer  Dt/etor  Whiiffiften  Second 
nswer  Touching  the  Churche  Discipline,  1575^  and 
The  Rest  of  the  Second  Reph'e,  1577.     He,  in 
574,  prepared  also  a  preface  t^  the  Latin  work  of 
illiam  Travera,  and  translated  it  under  the  title 
Fuli  and   Ploine  Declaritiion   of  EcckmGsticatI 
Ucipline  owt  off  the   Word  off  God  and  off  the 
•lininge  off  the   Chyrchc   off   England  from   the 
'Bame^  1574.  which  still  more  embitt<jred  his  foes. 
In  K5S3,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester, 
and  Lord  Treasurer  Burleigh,  and  a  large  number 
if  Puritan  friends,  he  undertook  to  write  a  confu- 
tation of  the  Rhemish  version  of  the  Scriptures, 
which  took  him  many  years;  but  he  was  prevented 
py  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  England  from 
ilijihmg  his  work.     The  year  before  his  death, 
wever,  hia  Anstvere  to  the  Preface  of  the  Rhemish 
Testament  J  1602,  waa  issued;    but  the  work  itself, 
not  until  1618,  under  the  title  A  Confutation  of 
Rhemists  Translatimi^  Glosses,  and  Annotations 
the  New   Testament,  $0  farre  as  they  containe 
anifest   Impieties,   HeremeSy   Idolatries ^   cic.,  foL, 
ip.  Iviii.,761,  xrviii.,  Leyden*     In  1584  he  waa  in- 
ted  to  the  divinity  chair  in  St,  Andrew^s,  Scotland, 
lut  declined. 
In  1585  Cartwright  returned  to  England  without 
royal    permission,   and   was   apprehentled   by 
►p  Aybner  of  London  and  cast   into  prison, 
here  be  remained  from  April  imtil  June,    when 
was  released  througli  the  influence  of  Ins  power- 
ful friends,  and  the  Earl  of  Leicester 
.  Again  in  appointe<l    him   muster  of  a  hospital 
England,    wliich  lie  had   founded   at   Warwick. 
His    preaching  was  opposed    by    his 
enaies,  but  without  success,  until  159().     During 
this  time  he  went  over  a  great  part  of  Proverbs 
id    Ecciesiastes.     The  latter  ifvas   published   in 
604   under   the   title  ^fetaphrasL8  et    homilias  in 
um  SolomoniSf  qui  inscr^itur  EccUsiastesj  4to; 


■bob: 


the  former  in  1617,  Commeniarii  tmccindi  et  delu- 
cidi  in  Pfoverhla  Solamonisp  4to.  He  ia  said  to 
have  been  the  first  prtuicher  in  England  who 
practised  ext^^mpore  praycrbefore sermon, although 
he  usually  employed  forms  of  prayer.  During  this 
period  the  ecclesiastical  conflicts  waxed  hotter  and 
hotter.  The  Puritans  had  been  making  rapid  prog- 
ress .  The  first  p resby te rj"-  was  o rga ni zed  a t  Wan ds- 
worth  within  the  Church  of  England  in  1572. 
Cla«ses  were  rapidly  organized  in  all  parts  of  Eng- 
land, but  secretly.  In  15S3  a  rough  draft  of  a 
book  of  discipline  was  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Curt- 
wright  and  Walter  Travcrs,  and  at  an  assembly 
held  either  at  London  or  Cambridge  it  w^as  re- 
solved to  put  it  in  practi.se.  It  was  revised  at  a 
national  synod  in  London  (1584),  and  referred  to 
Mr,  Travers  '*  to  be  corrected  and  ordered  by 
him/'  It  was  then  passed  around  the  various 
classes.  It  wan  !i<lopted  and  subscribed  by  an 
assembly  of  all  the  classes  of  Warwickshire  in 
15S8,  and  then  by  a  pro\'inciaI  synod  in  Cam- 
bridge; and  by  1590  the  Directory  had  spread  all 
over  England^  and  was  flubBcribetl  to  by  as  many 
as  500  ministers.  The  episcopal  party  were  greatly 
alarmed,  and  determined  to  arrcai  Cartwright 
with  the  other  leaders  and  to  destroy  as  large 
a  number  of  copies  of  the  Holy  Disci pHne  as  pos- 
sible, A  few  copies  were,  however,  preserved, 
two  copies  in  manuscript,  one  in  the  British 
Museum,  another  in  Lambeth  Palace,  in  Latin, 
entitled  IMsciplina  ecclesim  sacra.  These  were 
discussed  and  the  LambiUh  manuscript  published 
by  F.  Paget  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Fifth  Book  of 
Hmker^R  Treatise,  London,  1899,  pp.  238  sqq.  An 
edition  in  English  with  slight  modifications  was 
issued  in  1544  by  authority  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, entitled  A  Directory  of  Church  Government 
anciently  contended  for,  and  as  farre  as  the  Times 
u^uld  suffer,  praciii^ed  by  the  first  Non-Con  form- 
ists  in  the  Daies  of  Queen  Elimbcth.  Found  in 
the  study  of  the  most  accomplished  Divine,  Mr, 
Thomas  Cartwright ,  after  his  decease ;  and  re- 
served to  be  published  for  such  a  time  as  th  is. 

The  discussion  between  the  Presb^rterians  and 
the  Prelatists  was  complicated  by  the  Brownist 
party  and  the  Marprelate  tracts  (q.v.),  which 
bitterly  satirized  the  biwhopa.  Cartwright  took 
strong  ground  against  the  Hrow*nists 
5.  Attitude  and  their  doctrine  of  separation,  and 
Toward  the  ofiposed  the  Marprelate*  method  of 
Brownists.  controversy;  but  it  was  the  policy 
of  the  Prelatists  to  make  the  Puritans 
bear  all  the  odium  of  the  weaker  and  more  obnox- 
ious party.  Manuscripts  of  Cartwright  against  the 
Hrownists  are  preserved  and  lately  published  (see 
Brow^ne,  RoREftT).  In  May,  1590,  he  was  sum- 
moned before  the  High  Commission,  and  com- 
mitten!  to  the  Fleet.  He  and  his  associate* 
were  confronted  with  thirty-ono  articles  of 
charges,  afterw^ard  increased  to  thirty-four,  be- 
sides articles  of  inquirj*.  He  was  willing  to 
reply  to  the  charges,  but  refuscMi  to  give  testimony 
against  his  brethren.  He  was  then  summoned 
befoa*  the  Star  Chamber  with  Edmund  Snape 
and  others;  but  the  case  never  reached  an  issue. 
Powerful    friends    worked    in    his    behalf,    and 


Oarua 
Oaaoliiis 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


he  waB  finally  released  from  prison  in  1592,  on 
the  promise  of  quiet  and  peaceable  behavior, 
in  broken  health.  From  1595  to  1598  he  lived  on 
the  island  of  Guernsey,  and  afterward  at  Warwick. 
To  a  bitter  attack,  he  wrote  A  Brief  Apohgie 
of  Thomas  Cartwrighi  against  all  such  slaunderous 
Accusations  as  it  pleaseth  Mr.  Sutcliffe  in  his  Sev- 
erall  pamphlets  most  injuriously  to  load  him  with, 
etc.,  4to,  pp.  28,  1596.  In  the  main,  the  Presby- 
terian churches  of  Great  Britain  and  America  still 
stand  by  his  principles. 

Other  works  besides  those  mentioned  in  their 
historical  connections  were  published  after  Cart- 
wright's  death  by  his  disciples:  A  Catechisme, 
1611;  A  Treatise  of  the  Christian  Religion,  1611 
(anonsrmous),  2d  ed.,  4to,  1616,  edited  by  Will- 
iam Bradshaw;  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to 
the  Colossians,  1612;  Harmonia  Evangelica,  Am- 
sterdam, 4to,  1627;  Commentaria  Practica  in  totam 
Historiam  Evangelicam,  1630,  3  vols.,  4to.  See 
also  Puritans,  Puritanism,  §  7. 

C.  A.  Brigos. 
Bxbuoohapht:  C.  H.  and  T.  Cooper,  A^ena  Cantabrioi^n- 

Mt.  ii.  360-366.  London,   1861;  B.   Brook.  Lives  of  iKe 

Puritofu,  ii  136  aqq..  3  vols.,  ib.  1813;  idem,  Memoir 

of  the  Life  and  WriUnge  of  Thomae  Cartwrighi,  ib.  1845; 

F.  L.  Colvile.  Worthiee  of  Warwiekehire,  pp.  92-100.  878. 

ib.   1870:  J.  B.   Mullinger.  Hietory  of  tite  Univereity   of 

Cambridge,  ib.  1888;  DNB,  ix.  226-230. 

CARUSy  PAUL:  Philosopher  and  student  of 
comparative  religion;  b.  at  Ilsenburg  (27  m.  s.e. 
of  Brunswick),  Germany,  July  18,  1852.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Tubingen,  Qreifs- 
wald,  and  Strasburg  (Ph.D.,  TObingen,  1876), 
and  after  teaching  in  two  realgymnasia  in  Dresden 
and  in  the  Royal  Saxon  Cadet  Corps,  he  came  to 
America  in  1883,  and  since  1887  has  been  editor 
of  The  Open  Court,  Chicago,  also  editing  The 
Monist,  Chicago,  since  1890.  He  has  been  secre- 
tary of  the  Religious  Parliament  Extension  since 
its  inception,  and  was  the  inaugurator  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Parliament  of  Religions  held  at  Chicago 
in  1893.  He  is  also  a  member  of  the  Leopoldina, 
Germany,  the  Press  Club,  Chicago,  the  American 
Oriental  Society,  and  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science.  In  theology  he  holds 
that  religion  is  to  be  purified  by  scientific  criticism 
and  ultimately  to  be  based  upon  the  facts  of  ex- 
perience. He  has  written,  in  addition  to  a  large 
number  of  minor  articles  and  contributions:  Helgi 
und  Sigrun,  ein  episches  Gedicht  der  nordischen  Sage 
(Dresden,  1880);  Metaphysik  in  Wissemtchaft, 
Ethik  und  Religion  (1881);  Algenor,  eine  episch- 
lyrische  Dichtung  (1882);  Gedichte  (1882);  Lieder 
eines  Buddhisten  (1882);  Ursache,  Grand  und 
Zweck  (1883);  Aus  dem  Exit  (1884);  Monism  and 
Meliorism  (New  York,  1885);  Fundamental  Prob- 
Icfns  (Chicago,  1889);  The  Ethical  Problem  (1890); 
The  SoiU  of  Man  ( 1891 ) ;  Homilies  of  Science  ( 1 892) ; 
Primer  of  Philosophy  (1893);  The  Religion  of 
Science  (1893);  Truth  in  Fiction  (1893);  The 
Gospel  of  Buddha  J  According  to  Old  Records  (1804); 
De  rerum  natura,  philosophisches  Gedicht  (1895); 
Religion  of  Enlightenment  (1896);  Buddhism  and 
its  Christian  Critics  (1897);  Chinese  Philosophy 
(1898);  Kant  and  Spencer  :  A  Stiuly  of  the  Fal- 
lacies of  Agnosticism  (1899);  Sacred  Tunes  for  the 


Consecration  of  Life  (1899);  The  Dawn  of  a  New 
Era,  and  Other  Essays  On  Religion  (1899);  Wkena 
and  Whither  :  An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  of  ikt 
Soul,  /to  Origin  and  /to  Destiny  (1900);  The  History 
of  the  DevU  and  the  Idea  of  Evil  (1900);  The  Swi 
of  Metaphysics  (1903);  Friedrich  Schiller  (1905); 
Magic  Squares  (1906);  and  The  Rise  of  Man  (1906). 
His  works  of  fiction  include:  Karma  :  A  Story  (tj 
Early  Buddhism  (Chicago,  1895);  Nirvana:  A 
Story  of  Buddhist  Psychology  (1897);  The  Chieft 
Daughter:  A  Legend  of  Niagara  (1901);  71c 
Croum  of  Thorns :  A  Story  of  the  Time  of  Ckrid 
(1901);  and  Amitabha  (1906).  He  has  also  trau- 
lated  from  Latin  the  Eros  and  Psyche  of  Apuleius 
(Chicago,  1900),  and  from  German  the  Xenumt  U 
Goethe  and  Schiller  (1896)  and  Kant's  ProUgomm 
to  any  Future  Metaphysics  (1902),  while  he  hai 
edited  and  translated  the  Chinese  texts  of  lio- 
tse's  Tao-Teh-King' (Chic&go,  1898),  as  well  as 
the  Kan  Ying  P'ien  (1906)  and  the  Yin  Chih  Wen 
(1906). 

GARY,  ALICE:  Poet  and  hynm-writer;  b.  on 
a  farm  8  m.  n.  of  Cincinnati  Apr.  26, 1820;  d.  in 
New  York  Feb.  12, 1871.  Her  name  is  inseparably 
connected  with  that  of  her  sister,  Phobe,  b.  Sept. 
4, 1824;  d.  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  July  31, 1871.  Both 
began  to  write  verses  early  and  published  jointly 
a  volume  of  Poems  in  1850.  In  1850-51  they 
removed  to  New  York,  where  they  supported 
themselves  by  literary  work  and  gathered  a  wide 
circle  of  friends.  Alice  was  the  more  productive 
writer  and  published  stories  and  novels  as  well  as 
poems.  Ballads,  Lyrics,  and  Hymns  (Boston,  1865) 
is  her  most  important  volume  of  verse.  Phcebe 
published  independently  Poems  and  Parodia 
(1854)  and  Poems  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Love  (1868); 
with  Dr.  Charles  F.  Deems  she  compiled  Hymm 
for  all  Christians  (1869).  The  poems  of  both 
sisters  are  collected  in  the  "  Household  Edition" 
(Boston,  1882)  and  Early  and  LaU  Poems  (1887). 
The  most  familiar  of  their  hymns  is  Phcebe's 
"  One  sweetly  solenm  thoiight  comes  to  me  o'er 
and  o'er." 

Biblioorapht:  Mary  Clemmer  Ames,  Memorial  of  A^ 
and  Phabe  Gary,  New  York.  1872;  8.  W.  Duffield.  E^ 
liah  Hymne,  pp.  447-449.  ib.  1886;  Julian,  Hynnol/w. 
p.  214. 

GARY,  GEORGE  LOVELL:  Unitarian;  b.  at 
Medway,  Mass.,  May  10,  1830.  He  was  educated 
at  Harvard  College  (B.A.,  1852),  and  was  acting 
professor  of  Greek  in  Antioch  College,  Yellow 
Springs,  O.,  in  1856-57,  being  appointed  full  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  following  year  and 
serving  in  this  capacity  until  1862.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  made  professor  of  New  Test^unent 
language  and  literature  in  Meadville  Theological 
School,  where  he  remained  until  1902,  when  he 
became  professor  emeritus.  He  was  also  acting 
president  of  the  institution  in  1890-91  and  presi- 
dent in  1891-1902.  His  theological  position  is, 
in  general,  that  of  modem  Unitananism.  He  has 
written:  An  Introduction  to  the  Greek  of  the  Aw 
Testament  (Andover,  Mass.,  1878)  and  The  Syn- 
optic Gospels,  Together  with  a  Chapter  on  the  Text- 
Criticism  of  the  New  Testament  (New  York,  1900). 


433 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oara« 
Oft— Hub 


GARY,  HEITRY  FRANCIS :  Translator  of  Dante; 
b.  at  Gibraltar  Dec.  6,  1772;  d.  in  London  Aug.  14, 
1844.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (M.A., 
1796),  took  orders,  and  became  vicar  of  Abbot's 
Bromley,  Staffordshire.  In  1800  he  removed  to 
Kingsbuiy,  Warwickshire,  and  after  1807  lived 
in  London.  He  was  assistant  keeper  of  printed 
books  in  the  British  Museum,  1826-37.  His 
translation  of  Dante  was  begun  in  May,  1800,  and 
finished  twelve  years  later;  the  Inferno  was  pub- 
lished in  1805  and  the  completed  work  in  1814.  It 
attracted  little  attention  at  first,  but  was  com- 
mended by  Coleridge  in  his  lectures  in  1818,  and 
Southey  afterward  pronounced  it  "  one  of  the  most 
masterly  productions  in  modem  times.''  Four 
editions  were  issued  during  Gary's  life,  and  it  still 
remains  the  standard  translation  in  English  blank 
verse. 

Bxbliographt:  Henry  Guy,  Memoir  of  Rev.  H.  F.  Cary^ 
2  vols..  London,  1847;  DNB,  ix.  242-244. 

CARYLy  JOSEPH:  English  Independent  clergy- 
man; b.  in  London  1602;  d.  there  Mar.  10,  1673. 
He  studied  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became 
preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  was  appointed  minister 
of  St.  Magnus'  Church  near  London  Bridge,  1645; 
ejected  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1662,  but  gathered 
a  new  congregation  and  continued  to  preach  in  the 
same  neighborhood.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly  and  one  of  the  triers  for  the 
approbation  of  ministers  in  1653.  He  is  remem- 
bered for  his  Exposition  with  Practical  Obaervationa 
on  the  Book  of  Job  (12  vols.,  4to,  London,  1664-66; 
2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  folio,  1676-77;  abridged  ed.  by 
Berrie,  Edinburgh,  1836). 

CASALI  DEL  DRAGO,  cO-saO!  del  drfl'gO,  GIO- 
VANNI, j6-vfln'ni,  BAPTISTA,  bflp-tis'tfl:  Car- 
dinal; b.  at  Rome  Jan.  30, 1838.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Roman  Seminary,  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1860.  Six  years  later  he  was  ap- 
pointed chamberlain  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  and  was 
then  canon  successively  of  the  Lateran  (1867-71) 
and  of  St.  Peter's  (1871-78).  In  1878  he  became 
domestic  prelate,  and  in  1895  Leo  XIII.  created 
him  titular  Latin  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He 
received  the  cardinal's  hat  in  1899,  being  created 
cardinal  priest  with  the  title  of  Santa  Maria  della 
"^ctoria. 

CASANAS  Y  PAGES,  cd-sa'nyOs  !  pfl-H^z',  SAL- 
VATORE,  8m"va-t6'r6:  Cardinal,  b.  at  Barcelona, 
Spain,  Sept.  5,  1834.  He  was  educated  in  his 
native  city,  and  in  1879  was  consecrated  titular 
bishop  of  Keramus  and  seven  months  later  be- 
came bishop  of  Urgel.  In  1901  he  was  translated 
to  his  present  see  of  Barcelona,  and  in  1895  was 
created  cardinal  priest  of  Santi  Quirico  e  Giulitta. 

CASAS,  BARTOLOMEDELAS.    See  Las  Casas. 

CASAUBON,  CQ-sS'ben  or  c(l"z6"b6n',  ISAAC: 
Scholar;  b.  in  Geneva  Feb.  18,  1559;  d.  in  London 
July  12,  1614.  His  father  was  a  poor  Huguenot 
preacher,  who  could  give  his  son  little  education, 
nevertheless  he  came  to  be  considered  the  most 
learned  man  in  Europe  after  Joseph  Scaliger.  He 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva,  1582-96,  at 
Montpellier,  1596-99;  in  1600  he  went  to  Paris, 
II.— 28 


where  he  might  have  been  professor  in  the  univer- 
sity if  he  had  embraced  Roman  Catholicism;  this, 
however,  he  refused  to  do,  although  he  offended 
the  rigid  Calvinists  by  denying  their  extreme  posi- 
tions. He  was  given  a  pension  by  Henry  I Y.  (1600), 
and  in  1604  became  sublibrarian  of  the  royal 
library.  In  1610  he  went  to  England,  where  he 
was  well  received  by  King  James  and  the  Anglican 
bishops  and  was  niade  prebendary  of  Canterbury 
and  Westminster.  His  works  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  the  field  of  classical  scholarship,  but  he 
edited  a  Greek  New  Testament  (Geneva,  1587),  and 
published  some  minor  pamphlets  of  theological 
interest;  his  criticism  of  the  Annates  of  Baronius, 
begun  at  the  request  of  King  James,  was  left  un- 
finished. His  letters  (in  Latin),  with  life,  were 
published  by  D'Almeloveen  (Rotterdam,  1709); 
his  diary,  Ephemerides,  ed.  Russell,  was  printed  at 
Oxford,  1850. 

Bibliography:    Mark   Pattison,   Itaae  Catavbon^  London, 
1875,  2d  ed..  by  Nettleahip.  1892. 

CASELIUSy  ca-sdOi-us,  JOHANNES,  yd-hOn'es: 
German  scholar;  b.  at  G6ttingen  1533;  d.  at 
Hebnstftdt  Apr.  9,  1613.  He  belonged  to  the 
Dutch  family  of  Chessel,  which  during  the  Refor-  • 
mation  period  had  emigrated  on  account  of  its 
faith.  His  father,  Matthias  Bracht  von  Chessel, 
found  a  refuge  at  G<)ttingen  and  became  a  teacher 
there.  Johannes  studi^  at  Wittenberg  under 
Melanchthon  and  at  Leipsic  imder  Joachim  Came- 
rarius.  Under  their  guidance  he  became  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  humanists  of  Germany;  he 
was  made  a  doctor  of  law  at  Pisa  in  1566,  and  was 
ennobled  in  1567  by  the  emperor  Maximilian  II. 
From  1563  to  1589  he  labored  at  Rostock  and  then 
accepted  a  call  to  Helmstftdt.  He  enjoyed  there 
the  favor  of  his  prince,  Duke  Henry  Julius  of 
Brunswick,  and  the  fame  of  his  learning  made  him 
a  kind  of  European  celebrity.  But  the  orthodox 
theologians  in  the  imiversity,  who  opposed  Melanch- 
thonianism,  soon  attacked  Caselius.  The  leader 
of  the  orthodox  was  Professor  Daniel  Hoffmann 
(q.v.),  who  considered  all  use  of  reason  and  phi- 
losophy in  theology  as  dangerous,  because  the 
revealed  truth  is  injured  thereby.  In  this  and 
similar  tendencies  Caselius  saw  the  approach  of  a 
new  barbarism,  and  he  was  not  far  wrong.  He 
had  the  encouragement  of  a  few  bright  pupils, 
including  the  young  Georg  Calixtus  (q.v.),  and 
comforting  messages  came  to  him  from  friends 
abroad.  But  imfortunately  his  material  circum- 
stances became  more  and  more  wretched,  and  for 
this  reason  his  life  ended  in  discord  and  dark- 
ness. In  the  barbarism  which  came  over  Germany 
with  the  Thirty  Years'  War  his  numerous  writings, 
distinguished  by  spirited  contents  and  elegant  form, 
were  soon  almost  forgotten.  As  far  as  they  are 
printed,  they  can  only  be  found  in  larger  libraries. 
They  refer  to  Greek  authors,  ancient  grammar, 
hermeneutics,  and  rhetoric,  as  well  as  to  pedagogics 
and  political  science.  Caselius  was  the  firat  to 
separate  political  science  from  the  Roman  juris- 
prudence and  raise  it  to  a  distinct  discipline. 

Paul  Tschackert. 

Biblioorapht:  For   the    letters   oonsult:  J.    a   Dransfeld, 
Ojnu  eputolicum  1.   Ctuelii,   Frankfort,   1687;  CoimiMr- 


Caspari 
OAsaimniia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


484 


eium  lUerarum  darorum  virorum  €  miueo  R.  A.  Notteniit 
Bremen,  1737.  See  Calixtus.  Consult:  £.  L.  T.  Henke, 
Calixhu'  BriefuxchMel,  Halle.  1833;  idem.  O.  Calizhu  und 
aeine  Zeit,  vol.  i..  Halle.  1856;  ADB,  iv.  40  sqq.  F.  Kol- 
dewey  has  projected  a  monograph  on  Caselius.  for  which 
he  has  access  to  the  best  sources. 

CASPARI,  cOs'pa-ii,  CARL  PAUL:  Norwegian 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Dessau  Feb.  8,  1814;  d.  at  Chris- 
tiania  Apr.  11,  1892.  He  was  of  Jewish  parentage 
and  was  brought  up  in  the  faith  of  his  fathers. 
From  1834  to  1838  he  studied  at  Leipsic,  where 
he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Arabic  and  Persian 
under  Fleischer.  Partly  from  the  influence  of 
fellow  students,  among  whom  was  Franz  Delitzsch, 
he  adopted  Christianity  and  was  baptized  in  1838. 
His  Jewish  training  naturally  fitted  him  for  work 
in  Old  Testament  exegesis,  and  he  spent  two  years 
at  Berlin  under  Hengstenberg.  In  1842  he  became 
doctor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  and  in  1847  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Christiania,  where  he  remained 
from  choice  the  rest  of  his  life,  declining  calls  to 
Rostock  in  1850,  to  Dorpat  in  1856,  and  to  Er- 
langen  in  1857  and  again  in  1867.  His  linguistic 
ability  enabled  him  speedily  to  master  the  Nor- 
wegian language,  so  that  he  could  begin  lectures 
in  less  than  a  year.  He  was  made  full  professor 
in  1857.  In  his  university  work  Caspari  inter- 
pieted  various  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments and  treated  Old  Testament  introduction. 
His  lectures  were  inspiring,  thorough,  earnest,  and 
bore  evidence  of  a  living  Christian  faith.  In  his 
exegesis  and  apologetics  he  followed  Hengstenberg, 
and  he  remained  to  the  end  an  opponent  of  modem 
critical  scholarship.  But  his  work  and  interest 
were  not  confined  to  the  Old  Testament  field.  In 
1825  a  Danish  preacher,  Nicolai  Frederik  Severin 
Grundtvig  (q.v.),  propounded  peculiar  views,  viz., 
that  the  baptismal  formula,  the  renunciation,  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  words  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
come  directly  from  the  Lord,  have  never  been 
changed,  and  therefore  stand  above  the  Scriptures. 
The  view  found  adherent  in  Denmark  and  Norway, 
and  fear  was  felt  that  the  formal  principle  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  was  in  danger.  Caspari  under- 
took a  careful  investigation  of  the  questions  con- 
nected with  tlie  baptismal  formula  and  its  history 
and  thus  was  led  on  to  extensive  ecclesiastico- 
patristic  studies.  He  published  a  long  series  of 
articles  and  books  as  the  result,  most  of  them  in  the 
Norwegian  language.  Under  the  auspices  of  the 
Norwegian  Bible  Society  he  assisted  in  making  a 
new  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was 
completed  for  the  seventy-fifth  anniversary  of  the 
Society,  May  26,  1891;  at  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  working  on  the  New  Testament  (see  Bible 
Versions,  B,  XV.,  §  2).  He  was  a  member  of  the 
central  committee  of  the  Bible  Society,  president 
of  the  Norwegian  mission  among  the  Jews,  and 
belonged  to  numerous  learned  and  honorary  so- 
cieties. 

His  most  important  publications  were:  A  commentary  on 
Obadiah  (in  Delitzsch  and  Caspari 's  ExegetUches  Handbuch 
BU  den  Propheten  det  Alten  Bundea,  Leipaic,  1842);  Gratn- 
matica  Arabica  (2  partH,  Leipsic,  1844-48;  6th  Germ,  ed., by 
August  MQller.  Halle,  1887;  Kng.  ed..  by  W.  WriRht.  Lon- 
don. 1859-62,  1874-76;  by  W.  Robertson  Smith  and  M.  J.  de 
Goeje,  Cambridge.  1896-98):  BeitrOge  tur  EinUitung  in  da* 
Buch  JcMia  und  tur  O^t^idUe  der  jetaianiachen  Zeit  (vol. 


ii.  of  Delitzsch  and  Caspari 's  BibUMtk-theoloffiaehe  und  apdo- 
OHiseh-kriHaehs  Studien,  Berlin,   1848;;     Ueber  den  eyruA- 
epKraimitiadien  Krieg  unter  J<^kam  und  Ahaa  {Chnstiuaa, 
1849);    Udper  Midta  den  MoraethUen  und  aeine  propkeHaAi 
SehHit  (2  parts,   1861-52);     Ungedruckte,   unbeacktete  wi 
wenig  beachtete  Quellen  tur  Geaehiehle  dea  TaufaymboU  vid 
der  Glaubenaregel  (3  yols.,  1866-75);  Zur  EinfuKrung  in  daa 
Buck  Daniel  (Leipsic,    1869);    AUe  und  neve  QueOen  nr 
GeachidUe  dea  Taufaymbola  und  der  Glaubenaregd  (Christiaoa, 
1879);    an  edition  of    Martin  of  Bracarm's  De  comcHim 
TuaHeorum  (1883);    Kirdienhiaioriaehe  Anecdota  nAei  mam 
Auaoaben  patriaiiadier  und  kirchlid^-^nitielaHerlidur  Sckrifka 
(1883);  Eine  AuffuaHn  lOieddith  beioeUgte  HomUia  da  «am- 
Ugiia  (1886);  Briefe,  Abhandlunffen   und   Prediglen  ma  dmt 
awei  lettten  Jahrhunderten  dea  kirchli^en  AlierAuau  mi 
dem  A  nfang  dea  MiUdaltera  (1891 );  Daa  Budi  Hiob  in  Hien- 
nymua*a   UeiberaetMung  (Cbristiania.    1893).     Der  GUntbe  n 
der  TriniUU  Gottea  in  der  Kirdie  dea  eraien  ehriatlidten  Jekr- 
hunderta  nadtgewieaen  (Leipsic  1894).   In  Norwegian  he  pab- 
liahed  a  translation  of  the  Book  of  Concord  (Chnstiinii. 
1861);    an  essay  upon  the  Wandering  Jew  (1862);  a  com- 
mentary on  the  first  six  chapters  of  Isaiah  (1867);  a  hi»- 
torical  essay  on  the  confession  of  faith  at  baptism  (1871);  os 
Abraham's  trial  and  Jacob's  wrestling  with  God  (1S71); 
on  Abraham's  call  and  meeting  with  Melchitedek  (1872); 
a    volume  of  Bible  essasrs  (1884);  etc.     With  his  frieod 
G.  C.  Johnson  (q.v.)  he  established  in    1857  the  Tkuioiuk 
Tidakrift    for    den   evangeliak-luiherake    Kirke  i  Norgt,  of 
which  a  volume  appeared  annually  till  shortly  before  Ca»- 
pari 's  death.     Most  of  the  articles  were  written  by  the  editon, 
and  in  this  and  other  periodicals  a  large  numbo*  of  Ouptri'i 
writings  were  originally  published. 

J.  Beishhu. 

CASPARI,  WALTER:  German  theologifin;  b. 
at  Sommerhausen  (a  village  of  Lower  Franconia) 
June  19,  1847.  He  was  educated  at  the  mava- 
sities  of  Munich,  Eriangen,  and  Leipsic  from  1864 
to  1868,  after  which  he  was  pastor  in  Memmingen 
and  Ansbach  until  1885.  In  the  last-named  year 
he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  practical 
theology,  pedagogics,  and  dogmatics,  andunivenity 
preacher  at  Erlangen,  and  became  full  profewor 
two  years  later.  In  addition  to  contributions  to 
the  Hauck-Herzog  RE  and  briefer  studies,  he  has 
written:  AusgeivdhlU  Lesestucke  der  ausldndischn 
Literatur  (Munich,  1877);  I>ie  epistolischen  Peri- 
kopen  nach  der  Auswahl  von  Dr,  Thomasim  ei^ 
tisch-homiletisch  erkldrt  (Erlangcn,  1883);  Dieemn- 
gelische  K<mfirm<Uion  (Leipsic,  1890);  and  Dii 
geschichtliche  Grundlage  des  gegenwdrtigen  evange- 
lischen  Gemeindelebena  (1894). 

C AS-SANTJER,  GEORGIUS :  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian; b.  at  Pitthem  (15  m.  s.e.  of  Bruges)  Aug. 
24,  1513;  d.  in  Cologne  Feb.  3,  1566.  He  lectured 
at  Bruges  and  Ghent  on  antiquities,  theology,  and 
canon  law,  but  retired  to  Cologne  in  1549  and 
devoted  himself  to  study.  The  Duke  of  CIev« 
employed  him  in  an  effort  to  win  back  the  .Ana- 
baptists in  Duisburg,  and  still  more  important  was 
the  charge  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I,  who 
endeavored  to  unite  the  Catholics  and  Protestants 
in  his  territories.  Cassander  had  already  published 
anonymously  an  irenic  writing,  De  officio  pit  ac 
pnblicoB  tranquiUiUUis  vere  amantis  viri  in  hoc 
religionis  dissidio  (Basel,  1561),  which  elicited  a 
sharp  rejoinder  from  Calvin.  Strict  Roman 
Catholics  also  disliked  the  work,  and  it  was  placed 
on  the  Lisbon  Index  in  1581.  At  the  emperor's  re- 
quest Cassander  prepared  a  CansuUatio  de  articulii 
inter  CcUholicos  et  Protestantes  controversu,  which 
he  presented  to  Maximilian  II.  in  1564,  Ferdinand 
having  died  in  the  mean  time  (published  at  Lyoos, 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ed.  H.  Gmtius,  Amstenlam.  1642),  To 
inng  about  a  union  Ca^isaiHJer  Btarts  with  Iho 
^  coQseiiims  *'  of  the  most  aneit^nt  ctiurch,  expreswd 
b  the  Apostles*  Crfed.  Though  the  Holy  Scrip- 
lure  IB  to  be  authoritative,  he  wishes  to  maintain 
the  importance  of  tradition,  esjjecially  of  the  great 
Church  Fathers  (doi^ii  to  Gregory  L);  only  a  tlif- 
'icrence  which  concerns  the  position  to  Chritit 
ihmiscU,  not  "  opinionea  "  or  "  rituit/*  may  become 
Is  cauae  of  division,  but  the  bond  of  *^  earitas  '* 
lis  by  no  means  to  be  violated.  In  the  doctrine  of 
original  sitip  the  Lord's  Supijer,  and  juKtifieution, 
lie  tries  to  mediate.  He  is  even  inclined  to  give 
the  cup  to  the  laity,  and  he  will  also  admit  of  the 
marriage  of  the  clergy  as  a  makeshift.  In  the  other 
oontroverKial  questions  ( worship  of  aaints,  monaa- 
ticism,  indulgences,  papal  power)  he  tries  to  soften 
the  diffjcultieji  and  do  away  with  exaggerations. 
A  recantation  before  hia  death  has  been  imputed  to 
lum.  It  is  hard  to  save  him  for  tlie  Roman 
Catliolios,  however,  and  still  less  can  he  be 
llaimed  by  the  Protestant  side.  Seckcndorf  is 
torrect  when  he  says  in  the  Commentarius  ( Frank - 
brt  and  Leipaic,  16S0,  p.  347):  "  Georgiua  Cassan- 
fer,  a  good  theologian,  to  be  sure  not  a  Lutheran^ 
Put  a  lover  of  truth."  K.  Benrath. 

It BUOOK A  Pirr:  Th©  Opera  app^nuvd  Paria,  1618.  Qjnault 
F*  H.  Reuicfa,  Index  der  verbotenen  Bueher^  L  331  it<iq., 
Boim,  1883. 


CASSEL,  COHFERENCE  OF;  A  religious  col- 
Kjuy  at  Cassel,  July  1-9,  1661,  between  ctjrtain 
Mormed  theologians  from  the  University  of 
lArburg  and  Lutheran  theologians  from  the  Uni- 
isrsity  of  Rinteln,  arranged  by  Lantlgrave  William 
n.  of  He^se,  The  aim  was  t«  bring  about  agree- 
^nt  or  at  least  mutual  toleration.  They  suc- 
i&eded  in  finding  some  not  unessential  point^s.  in  the 
lOctrines  of  the  Lonre  Supper^  predestination, 
he  person  of  Christ,  and  baptism,  on  which  both 
^ftities  agreed.  It  wa^  resolved,  moreover,  not 
o  re\*ile  one  another  in  the  futurt*  because  of  the 
ifferenoes  still  remaining,  to  free  sermons  from  the 
'luxten  of  confessional  polemics,  and  in  any  case 
K)  longer  to  attack  an  opponent  personally.  But 
liis  peaceful  apt?ement  tlid  not  meet  with  a  kind 
feoeption  in  the  rest  of  Gennany.  Frederick 
^Uam,  the  Great  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was^ 
D  be  sure,  an  exception,  and  the  Reformed  party 
ll  France  and  Holland  were  inclined  to  come  half- 
ray;  but  the  Lutherans  rejected  the  arrangement 
absolutely.  The  union  became  the  subject  of 
jvely  literary  combats,  and  tlie  final  result  was  a 
intensification  of  confessional  dilTerences. 

CaKL  MlRBT. 

>aAPinr:  E,    L,    T,    Henko,     Das    UnionthyiUtQitium 
^aM$(lt061,     MiLrbtirK,    IftBl,    H.     Hepp**,     Kirchenge- 
Iteuler  Hr*»en,   vol.  ii..    ib.   1870;   H.    Landwcbr, 
Kirthenpolttik  Friedrich  \Vilhelm§,  Berlin,  1894. 

L,  PAULUS  STEPHAirUS  (SELIG):    Ger- 

aaan  Protestant  theologian:  b.  at  Gross-Glogau 
(55  m.  n.w.  of  Breslau),  SilCNia,  Feb.  27,  1821; 
iL  at  Friedenau,  a  suburb  of  Berlin,  Dec.  23.  1S92. 
lit  was  of  Jewish  parentage,  studied  history  at 
feeriin,  and  from  1850  to  1856  etlit^d  a  newspaper 
ftt  ErCort.     On  May  28,  1855,  he  ivaa  baptized  at 


Btissleben  near  Erfurt,  and  the  next  year  became 
librarian  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Erfurt.  In  1859  ho 
settled  at  Berlin,  where  he  acted  a-s  tut^^r  jmd  devo- 
ted him^'lf  to  literary  work.  In  I86t>-67hc  wns  a 
member  of  the  Prufwian  Parliament,  then  he  entered 
the  ser\nce  of  the  Ltindon  Jewi.'sh  Missionary  Society 
and  became  its  minii^ter  at  the  Christuskirche  in 
B(!rlin.  In  1891  he  resigned  his  j^>sition  and  died 
shortly  af terwanl .  Cassel  was  a  most  proii  fic  writer, 
antl  liis  article  on  the  history  of  the  Jews  from  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  to  the  year  1847, 
written  wliile  iitill  a  Jew  for  Erseh  and  Oruber*s 
Aiigemeine  Encykhpadie,  sect.  IL,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp. 
1-238,  Leipsic,  1850,  is  still  valuable.  By  public 
lectures  delivcreiJ  in  different  cities  of  Germany, 
he  tried  to  influence  the  educated  Jews  in  favor 
of  Christianity,  and  baptized  many.  He  alscj 
combated  anti-Semitism.  Other  works  by  liim  in- 
clude the  commentiiries  on  Judges  and  Ruth  in 
Lange's  Conmientary;  aim  Weihnachten,  Urttpriinge, 
Brditcheund  Abergiuuben  (Berlin,  1862);  Aitkirch- 
Hrher  Festkalender  nach  VrsprUngen  und  Br{iuehtn 
(1869);  Vmn  Wege  nach  Davuakus  (Gotha,  1872); 
Die  GerechtigkeU  att»  dem  Ghiuben  (1874);  Doit 
Bmh  EMher  (Berlin,  1878);  and  Die  SymMik  de9 
Blutes  (1882).  (H.  L.  Strack,) 

CASSETTA,  cQs-set'ta,  FRANCESCO  DI  PAOLA: 
Italian  cardinal;  b.  at  Home  Aug.  12,  184L 
He  was  educated  at  the  Roman  Seminary  and 
was  ordain eti  to  the  priesthood  in  1865.  In 
1884  he  was  consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Amiata 
and  appointed  canon  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore, 
and  three  years  later  became  titular  archbishop  of 
Nicomedia  ami  grand  almoner  to  Pope  Leo  XIIL 
As  titular  patriarch  of  Antioeh  he  was  nominated 
vicegerent  of  Rome,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  as 
the  deputy  of  the  cartlinal  vicar.  He  was  created 
cardinal  priest  of  S;mti  Vito,  Modesto  e  Crescenzia 
in  1899,  and  is  titular  bishop  of  Sabina,  perpetual 
abbot  of  Farfa,  ajwstolic  visitor  of  the  Hospice 
of  the  Catechumens,  commissioner  for  the  apos- 
tolic visitation  of  the  Italian  dioceses,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Congregations  of  Bishops  and  Regulars, 
the  CounciL  the  Index,  the  Consist orj\  the  Propi- 
aganda,  the  Propaganda  for  the  Oriental  Rite, 
and  Indulgences. 

CASSIAH:  A  martyr  whose  death  is  described 
by  Prudentius  in  the  ninth  hjmin  of  his  PeriHtepha- 
non.  The  poet  says  that  he  saw  the  martyr's 
grave  at  Forum  Cornel  ii  (Imola),  with  a  picture  of 
hi^m,  and  that  tlic  custodian  rehxtcd  that  Casaian 
had  been  stabbed  by  his  own  pupils  with  their  styli 
and  otherwi.se  cruelly  hanilled.  Gre^ry  of  Tours 
gives  substantially  the  same  account.  The  Mur- 
tyroitjgium  H icrmiyminnum  names  Aug.  11  as  the 
day  of  his  death.  The  fact  of  his  martyrdom  at 
Forum  Comclii  need  not  be  doubte<l,  but  tlie  man- 
ner relatcil  by  PrxKlentius  is  improbable,  and  it  ia 
impossible  to  fix  the  date.  (A.  IL\urit.) 

CASSIANUS,  ca^'si-a'n0B,  JOHAHKES:  Monk  of 
the  fifth  century  and  the  real  founder  of  Semi- 
Pelagian  ism  (q.v.>;  b.  probably  in  Provence  c* 
360;  d.  at  Mareeilles  c.  435.  He  received  a  thor- 
ough education  J  and  then  visited  the  East  with  an 


OaMianu* 
Oasteliion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


43$ 


older  friend  named  Germanus.  At  Bethlehem  he 
entered  a  cloister,  but  the  desire  to  know  the 
famous  Egyptian  hermits  led  him  and  Germanus 
to  Egypt,  where  they  remained  seven  years,  after 
which  they  revisited  Bethlehem,  but  soon  re- 
turned to  Egypt.  Thence  Cassianus  went  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  became  the  pupil  of  John 
Chrysostom,  who  ordained  him  deacon.  The 
exile  of  Chrysostom  in  403,  however,  obliged  Cas- 
sianus and  Germanus  to  take  refuge  with  Innocent 
I.  When  Cassianus  was  ordained  priest  and 
returned  home  is  unknown,  and  the  fate  of  Ger- 
manus is  equally  imcertain.  At  Marseilles  Cas- 
sianus founded  two  cloisters,  one  for  monks  and 
the  other  for  nuns,  and  seems  to  have  died  shortly 
after  completing  his  polemic  against  Nestorius. 

His  earliest  work,  written  before  426,  was  en- 
titled De  insHtutis  ccmobiorum  ei  de  octo  princi- 
palium  vitiorum  remediis  libri  dtuxiecim,  and  was 
composed  at  the  request  of  Castor,  bishop  of  Apta 
Julia,  who  wished  to  introduce  the  Oriental  and 
especially  the  Egyptian  rules  into  the  monastery 
which  he  had  founded.  His  second  work  was  his 
CoUtUumes  vtgirUi-quaUuorf  completed  before  429. 
Both  were  widely  spread  throughout  the  Occident; 
Benedict  of  Nursia  commanded  that  they  be  read 
to  the  monks  in  the  refectory;  Cassiodorus  es- 
teemed them  highly,  although  he  warned  his  monks 
against  the  heretical  views  of  the  author  con- 
cerning the  freedom  of  the  will;  and  Gregory  of 
Tours  mentions  them  as  used,  together  with  other 
Oriental  rules,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Yririx. 
A  brief  compend  was  made  by  the  friend  of  Cas- 
sianus, Eucherius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  which  served 
as  a  source  for  the  Concordia  regularum  of  Benedict 
of  Aniane. 

The  thirteenth  collation  of  Cassianus  is  impor- 
tant in  the  controversy  on  Augustine's  doctrine  of 
grace.  Against  his  enemies,  who  were  centered 
in  Marseilles,  the  latter  addressed,  shortly  before 
his  death,  his  De  prcedestinatione  sanctorum  and 
De  dono  peraeverantice,  his  chief  opponent  being 
Cassianus,  who  in  this  collation  had  enunciated 
the  doctrine  called  Semi-Pclagianism  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  although  it  might  more  properly  be  termed 
Semi-Augustinianism,  since  Cassianus  separated 
himself  sharply  from  Pelagius  and  branded  him 
as  a  heretic,  while  he  felt  himself  in  complete  har- 
mony with  Augustine.  His  Greek  training,  how- 
ever, rendered  it  impossible  for  him  to  accept 
Augustine's  doctrine  of  unconditional  predestina- 
tion, particular  grace,  and  the  absolute  denial  of 
the  freedom  of  the  will.  Cassianus,  on  the  other 
hand,  recognized  the  necessity  of  divine  grace 
throughout  the  process  of  salvation,  while  postu- 
lating the  existence  of  free  will  as  a  necessary 
condition  for  the  operation  of  grace,  and  asserting 
that  God  never  destroys  the  freedom  of  the  will, 
even  in  such  an  extraordinary  case  as  the  conver- 
sion of  Paul.  He  regarded  it  as  a  religious  axiom, 
therefore,  that  salvation  through  Christ  is  not 
restricted  to  a  small  number  of  the  elect,  but  is 
intended  for  all.  This  non-Augustinian  concept 
of  the  process  of  salvation  conditions  Cassianus's 
view  of  original  sin.  He  believed  that  the  fall 
of  Adam  had  brought  destruction  on  the  whole 


human  race,  although  it  still  retained  the  poftcr 
to  seek  goodness  in  virtue  of  its  original  state  «l 
inmiortality,  wisdom,  and  complete  freedom  of  titt 
will.  After  the  victory  of  a  modified  Augustinia- 
ism  at  the  Synod  of  Orange  in  529,  the  doctnas 
of  Cassianus  were  generally  r^^arded  as  heteiodai, 
although  this  did  not  injure  his  fame  as  a  TmwiMtii 
author,  and  in  southern  Gaul  he  was  offidtlj 
honored  as  a  saint.     See  Semi-Pelaoianism. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Cassianus  wmm 
involved  in  the  Nestorian  controversy,  and  at  the 
request  of  the  archdeacon  Leo  (later  Pope  Leo  L) 
wrote  his  De  ineamaHane  Domini  contra  Natorim 
libri  aeptem,  the  date  being  subsequent  to  the 
letters  written  by  Nestorius  to  Pope  CeleBtine  ■ 
430.  The  work  lacks  the  importance  which  it  woidd 
otherwise  possess  as  the  only  extensive  contribu- 
tion of  an  Occidental  to  the  Nestorian  contnnmf, 
through  its  restriction  to  personal  attacks  ootk 
opponent  of  its  author  and  a  complete 
of  positive  and  independent  Christolog^cal 
ments.  Cassianus  sought  to  prove  that  the  <fi- 
vinity  of  Christ  had  existed  from  eternity  and  fatd 
never  been  renoimced,  so  that  Mary  must  be  calkd 
not  merely  the  mother  of  Christ,  as  Nestonoi 
taught,  but  the  mother  of  God.  The  work  ii 
especially  valuable  as  showing  the  dose  sympttl^ 
of  the  interests  and  methods  of  Nestorianiflm  ud 
Pelagianism,  while  Cassianus,  following  the  Gslfie 
monk  Leporius,  who  had  renounced  PfclagisiiMB 
in  426,  held  that  Christ  possessed  in  a  sin^  per 
son  the  two  coexistent  substances  of  God  sad  man, 

(G.  GrCtzmachb.) 

BiBUOOEArHT:  The  Opera,  ed.  A.  Gas&ua,  were  pnbfaM 
at  Douai,  1616.  reprinted  in  MPL,  zliz.,  1.;  bcit  ad.  bf 
M.  Petschenig.  in  CSEL,  2  voU.,  188&-8S.  Ab  Em. 
transl.,  with  a  well-written  Life,  is  contained  in  SFSF, 
2d  aeries,  xi.  163  aqq.  Consult:  G.  F.  Wicsen.  ?Nr 
mati»che  DarUeUung  dee  AuQuatimnua  und  Pdagiviimm, 
ii.  7-153.  Beriin.  1833;  A.  Hamack.  IXogmengtatkidik,^ 
IM.  Ttlbinsen.  1897.  Ens.  transl..  ▼.  246  aqq^  253  t^ 
Boston,  1809;  A.  Hooh.  Die  Lehre  dee  J.  d 
Natur  und  Qnade,  Freiburs,  1895. 


CASSIANUS,  JULIUS. 

TITE8. 


See    DocETmM;  Encia- 


CASSIODORUS,  cas^'si-o-dey'rns  (CASSIODO- 
RIUS),  HAGNUS  AURELIUS:  Roman  historiin. 
statesman,  and  monk;  b.  at  Scylacium  (the  mod- 
em Squillace,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  40  m. 
s.s.e.  of  Cosenza),  Calabria,  c.  480;  d.  in  the  mootf' 
tery  of  Vivarium,  near  Scylacium,  c.  570.  Ow- 
ing to  the  esteem  in  which  his  father  was  held 
by  Theodoric,  a  public  career  was  early  open  to 
him;  and  he  pursued  it  until  he  had  reached  the 
highest  dignities  under  the  Ostrogothic  nionarci» 
He  stood  in  close  personal  relations  with  Theod- 
oric, with  whose  efforts  to  bring  about  a  fusios 
between  the  Germanic  and  Roman  elements  amon; 
his  subjects  he  thoroughly  sympathised.  About 
640  he  retired  from  public  life  to  the  peace  and 
quiet  of  the  monastery  founded  by  him  on  his  on 
estates  at  Vivarium.  Here  he  devoted  himrf 
to  Uterary  work,  of  which  he  had  already  ma* 
a  beginning  amidst  his  political  activity,  ^ad 
pursued  it  zealously  until  his  ninety-third  year. 
He  insisted  on  the  duty  of  intellectual  labor  for 
his  monks,  helped  their  studies  by  every 


\ 


RELiniOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CaiiteUioii 


iliiii  power^  of  which  his  own  example  waa  not 
least,  and  ao  contributed  largely  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  tradition  which  made  the  monas- 
especially   of    the    Benedictine   order,    the 
\  of  learning  throughout  the  dark  ages, 
lis  literary  work,  like  his  life,  falls  Into  two 
fiodfi.     To  the  fimt  belong  a  consular  chronicle 
m  519;    twelve  books  of  Gothic  hiHtcir>% 
I  in  the  spirit  of  the  policy  of  fusion  already 
.  tOj  known  to  us  only  in  the  recast  version 
Jordanes,  De  origine  actifmsque  Getarum   (the 
rk  of  Cassiodorua  seemg  to  have  borne  the  same 
p);    panegjTics  on  the  kings  and  queens  of  the 
olhs,  of  which  only  dubious  fragments  remain; 
a  collection  (made  about  538)  of  reacripta  com- 
posed by  him  during  his  long  and  varied  official 
life,  and  formula*?  of  appointment  t-o  a  great  va- 
ty  of  offices,  in   twelve   books,  under  the   title 
a  amall  philosophiciil   work,  De   animUt 
^tten  immediately  after  the  completion  of  the 
riir»  at  the  request  of  friends,  whose  questions 
out  the  soul  he  answers,  following  Claudianus 
Mamertus  and  Augustine.     The  last-named  work 
forms  a  sort  of  transition  to  those  of  the  second 
period.     The  most  important  of  thcise,  composed 
probably  in  544,  is   the  Instituti&nes  dhnnarum  et 
^acuiarium  lUterarum  (or  better  lec4ionum).     The 
ybvt   book   is  devoted    to   spiritual   learning,   the 
^pDond  to  secular;  and  both  together  form  the  firsi 
^^rt  of  a  complete  course  of  instruction  designed 
by  Caasiodorus  for  the  Western  clergy,  and  ejspe- 
^Uly  for  his  own  monks.     The  first  book  is  only 
^m  intrcKluction  to  the  study  of  theolog>^  explaining 
^be   most   important   preliminary    knowledge  re- 
quired and  the  literary  helps  at  the  student's  com- 
^Mknd  for  his  further  education;    the  second  gives 
^feef  compendiuma  of  various  branches  of  secular 
T&ming.     To  this  the  last  work  of  Cnssiodorus, 
De   orihographiat   forms   a  supplement.     Another 
▼oluminous   theological    work,    begun    before    the 
InMiiiutiones  but   finished   long  after,  was  a  full 
planation  of  the  Psalms  in  their  threefold  aspect, 
lilual,    historical,     and    symbolic.     He    wnite 
Iher  exegetical  works,  of  which  his  Compiexmnes 
in  epuiola^  et  acta  apostolorum   et  apocahfpnin   is 
ill  extant*     Of  much  greater  I'alue  t-o  posterity  is 
Historia  §celmaJiti4:a  tripartita  in  twelve  booka^ 
aposed  of  extracts  from  the  Greek  historians 
ates,  Sozomen,  and  Theotioret,  whose  works 
\  had  translated  by  Epiphanius.     It  is  in  no  sense 
loriginal  work,  and  is  put  together  in  a  patchwork 
ihion;   but  it  filled  up  a  groat  gap  in  the  general 
pestem  knowledge  of  church  history,  and,  incom- 
fct^  a8  it  is,  was  the  principal  handbook  uaed  in 
Middle  Ages  for  its  period. 

(A.  HatjckO 

pPUOoaAPRT:  Tbe  Varia  fcnd  OraHonum  reli(juim, 
KWith  iotrcKluctioti,  ftro  in  MGH,  Auet  an/.,  xii.  1-385, 
lim»^4R4:  the  Varim  are  also  ia  AfPL,  txix.  The 
lX«ltor«  of  C<is*iodaru9t  d  Condtnaed  Truful.  of  the  Varim^ 

id,   T.    Hodjckin,   appeared    London,    1886.     Conxult.  A. 

J)l]eri9,  Ca*itiodtir€,  con»ervateur  deu  Uvrea  de  VantifjuiU 
Bi|ffJNin«,  Pan:^.  1^1;  R,  K5pke,  Deuttrht  Fm-tithuruftn. 
WM>it  AnfnnQf  den  Kiinifftuma,  pp.  78-94,  licrlin*  \H[i/9; 
FA>    Thorbecke.    Ca»9iodoru»    Henator,    Heidelberg,    18^7; 

A.  Fran*,  M  AHrelixL^CattiodrfHuM  S^nnUtr,  Hr<*!*len],  1872; 

H.  von  Sybet,  EnUtehxtno  dt»  dfuiachen  K'tnifjtum*,  pp. 
*  104-308.  Frankfort,  1S81;   A.   Ebert.  GeMchichU  d«r  Li* 


teratuT  d^  Mitt^daiier*.  i.  198.  408-514.  Lcipsio,  18«9, 
For  further  literature  coanult  Potthait,  WtQ%Mi»rr, 
p.  198. 

CASSOCK,      See     Vestments     ANn    Insignia, 

ECC  LE81  .IBTI CAL. 

CASTELLi  EDMUND  I  English  Orientalist;  b*  at 
East  Hatley  (12  m.  s.w.  of  Cambridge),  Cambridge- 
Bhire.  !606;  d.  at  Higham  Gobion  (10  m.  s.s.e.  of 
Bedford),  Bedfordshire,  16S5.  He  studied  at 
Emmanuel  and  St.  John*®  colleges,  Cambridge 
(B.A.,  1625;  M.A,,  1628;  B.a,  1635;  D.D.,  1661). 
He  assisted  Walton  on  his  Polyglot  (1657)v  (>oii- 
tributing  the  editiouH  of  the  Samaritan,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  and  Ethiopic  versiona,  and  other  (unac- 
knowledged) iiortions,  and  alao  spent  freely  of  hia 
own  fortune  for  the  work.  In  1669  he  brought  out 
in  two  voluraea,  folio,  at  London,  hia  Lexicon 
HepiagioUont  HebraicuTtif  Chaldai^:um,  Syriacum, 
Samaritanum,  Mihiopicum,  Arobicuinj  conjunctim  ; 
ti  Persicum  separatim,  specially  prepared  to  su|>- 
plement  the  Po!ygloL  This  work  waa  the  result  of 
eighteen  years  of  the  most  unremitting  labor, 
cost  the  author  £12,000,  and  left  him  ruined  in 
fortune  and  health.  His  work  was  enthufiiastically 
received  m\  the  Continent,  but  neglected  in  Eng- 
land. Lute  in  life  he  recei^^ed  some  favor  from 
the  king,  waa  appointed  chaplain  in  ordinary  in 
1666,  prebendary  of  Canterbury  and  professor 
of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  1667,  and  was  auccessively 
vicar  of  Hatfield  Peverell,  Essex;  rector  oF  Wode- 
ham  Walter,  Essex;  and  rector  of  Higham  Gobion, 

BiHumoftAPFfr:  A.  91  WcmkI,  /lfA*ntf  OtonienutA^  ed*  P.  Bli«, 
iii.  SS3,  4  vttln.,  London.  1  SI 3-20;  twenty-three  of  hit 
Ittterfl  iippeaj-  in  J.  Lightfoot,  Whols  Work*,  ed.  J.  R. 
Pittimn,  13  vol*,,  London.  1S22-25.  Conault  DNB,  ix. 
271-272, 

CASTEILIO(H),  SEBASTIANUS  (SEBASTIEW 
CHATEILLOM):  French  Reforraer;  b.  at  Saint- 
Martin  du  Fresne  (30  m.  w.  of  Geneva)  1515;  d.  at 
Ba-sel  Dec.  29,  1563,  He  pursued  his  studies  under 
difficult  circumstances  until  he  became  tutor  to  three 
young  noblemen.  In  1540  he  went  to  Strasburg, 
lived  in  Calvin*a  house,  and  accompanied  him  to 
Geneva t  where  on  Calvin's  recommendation  he  be- 
came rector  of  the  high  school.  But  disagreement 
soon  anise  betw^een  him  and  the  great  Reformer, 
Castellio  holding  views  of  his  own  concerning 
election  and  Christ's  descent  into  heU*  and  re- 
garding the  Song  of  Solomon  aa  an  erotic  poem 
which  should  be  excluded  from  the  canon.  He 
left  Geneva  in  1544  and  settled  in  Basel,  where  h© 
lived  in  great  poverty  till  1552,  when  he  waa  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Greek  literature.  His  first 
publication  was  Dialogi  sacri  (Geneva,  1543;  Eng. 
transi.  The  HUtory  of  the  Bible,  colkcled  into  ttB 
dialogties,  London,  1715;  again  under  the  title, 
Youth* 8  Scripture  /femeTO^ranccr,  1743),  much  used 
as  a  Bchool-book,  In  1551  he  published  in  Basel 
his  chief  work,  an  elegant  annotated  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible »  which  he  dedicated  to  Edward 
VI.  of  England  [12th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1778).  The 
notes  gave  offense,  as  they  betrayed  skepticism 
as  to  the  attainability  of  religious  truth,  ati J  the 
dedication,  a  noble  plea  for  religious  toleration, 
was  unacceptable  to  the  age,  In  1555  he  published 
at  Basel  a  complete  French  translation  of  the  Bible, 


Castor 

SSwaU 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


with  a  dedication  to  Henry  II.  of  France.  It  also 
had  notes,  but  is  not  of  great  importance.  He  waa 
violently  attacked  by  Calvin  and  Be*a  because  of 
his  criticism  of  their  conduct  in  burning  Servetus, 
but  defended  himself  vigorously  in  his  i>e  haretir 
cis,  writing  under  the  pen-name  of  Martinus  Bel- 
lius  (Basel,  1554);  and  in  Contra  libellum  Calvini,  in 
quo  08iendere  conatur  hcereiicos  jure  gladii  coercendoM 
esse.  Calvin's  influence  suppressed  the  latter,  and 
it  was  not  published  till  1612. 

Bibliooeafht:  F.  BuisBon,  8fb.  CoMtOlian,  m  vie  ti  mm 
crurre.  2  vols..  Paris.  1802  (i.,  p.  zvii.  wirta  literature  ood- 
oemins  him;  ii.  341  sqq.  g^vn  list  of  hit  writings);  C.  Jarrin, 
Deux  aubliea;  SA.  C<uUUion,  Uonard  RaeU,  Paris,  1805. 

CASTOR,  SAINT:  According  to  legend,  a  com- 
panion of  St.  Maximin  of  Treves,  who  had  an  influ- 
ential career  as  a  missionary  and  ascetic  on  the 
lower  Moselle.  But  these  assertions  can  not  be 
traced  further  back  than  the  Carolingian  period; 
and  nothing  is  said  of  him  by  Gregory  of  Tours, 
who  had  a  great  devotion  to  Maximin.  His  relics 
are  said  to  have  been  miraculously  discovered  under 
Bishop  Weomad  (d.  791).  They  were  first  placed 
at  Carden  on  the  Moselle  (the  Roman  Caradunum); 
but  in  836  a  part  of  them  was  translated  to  Co- 
blcnz  (of  which  city  Castor  has  since  been  known 
as  the  patron)  by  Archbishop  Hetti  of  Treves,  and 
preserved  in  the  minster  founded  there  by  him. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

CASUISTRY:  The  name  of  a  special  form  of 
discipline,  or  branch  of  ethics,  constituting  a  some- 
what elaborated  scheme  of  doctrine  concerning 
proper  moral  action  in  single  and  concrete  instances. 
The  evaluation  of  this  kind  of  activity  evolves 
itself  generally  as  consequence  of  a  lawful  and 
rightful  apprehension  of  the  moral  walk,  whereby 
we  accentuate  external  conduct  according  to  defi- 
nite prescriptive  rules.  Coordinately  with  a  fun- 
damental moral  coile  for  this  action,  certain  ethical 
norms  with  legal  adjuncts  were  in  practical  opera- 
tion so  far  back  as  the  Jewish  "  scribes  and  Phar- 
isees." Jesus  came  forward  in  sharpest  contrast 
with  this  casuistical  doctrine  of  morals. 
Teaching  As  he  suffered  his  disciples  to  become 
of  Jesus  derivately  participant  of  his  integral 
and  Paul,  community  with  God,  he  kindled  in 
them  a  love  to  God,  which  was  to 
verify  itself  in  love  to  men.  To  this  love  he  brought 
back  the  conception  of  the  Law  fulfilled;  and  accord- 
ingly he  teaches  in  the  place  of  casuistry  a  direction 
of  life  spontaneously  individual.  Even  where  he 
appears  himself  to  set  up  casuistical  requirements 
(Matt.  V.  21  sqq.,  vi.  1  sqq.,  xxii.  17  sqq.;  Luke 
xiv.  3  sqq.)  it  is  always  expressly  in  order  to  lay 
emphasis  upon  the  spiritual  interpretation  of  the 
Law,  over  against  legalizing  constructiveness. 
Tlicse  thoughts  were  but  dialectically  expanded 
through  Paul's  epistles,  inasmuch  as  he  teaches 
that  faith  in  Crod's  grace  in  Christ  has  its  operation 
in  the  love  which  fulfils  tlie  requirements  of  God's 
will  in  agreement  with  the  spirit  of  the  Law.  Yet 
he  knew  that  even  tliough  faith  and  love  be  present, 
still  the  certainty  is  not  immediately  vouchsafed 
as  to  what  is  right  in  this  or  that  particular  in- 
stance (Rom.  xii.  2;  Phil.  i.  9,  10).     He,  therefore, 


dwells  on  a  peraistenUy  proving  emminitinn  of 
God's  will,  and  gives  conesponding  instruetkns  to 
his  own  congregations;  which  instruetioDs  unr 
and  then  throu^  their  touching  iqwa  particolar 
conditions  have  a  certain  casuistic  stamp  about 
them  (cf.  I  Cor.  vii.  8,  10);  but,  indiatinetionfrom 
every  form  of  casuistic  legalism  by  means  of  manBj 
postulated  direction,  they  seek  to  develop  the  proper 
moral  consciouaoees  of  the  ocMigregatioiit  tbem- 
selves. 

But  even  early  in  the  poatapoatdie  age,  the 
tendency  set  in,  coordinately  with  a  onesided 
intellectualiaing  conception  of  the  faith,  to  regu- 
late by  outward  legalism  the  moral  life  as  thai 
robbed  of  its  religious  main^ring;  and  the  suie 
tendency  involved  the  casuistical  treatment  of 
ethics.  Still  further  was  this  disposition  fostered 
in  Western  theology  through  the  influenoe  of 
Stoicism,  and  in  part  through  the  legalising  devel- 
opment of  ecclesiastical  doctrine.  It  shows  itself 
even  in  Augustine,  despite  his  obliteratkm  of 
ethics,  and  continued  to  be  characteristic  of  the  en- 
tire Western  Catholic  ethical  sjrstem.  What  min- 
istered still  more  widely  to  the  development  of 
casuistry  was  the  very  early  and    momentously 

elaborated  ecdesiastical  institution  of 

I>evel-      penance,  with  the  infliction  of  eoel^ 

opment  of  siastical  penalties  for  individual  ane. 

Casuistry.  The  appertaining  customary  rules  of 

the  ancient  forms  of  procedure  and 
the  relevantly  codified  decrees  of  separate  synodi 
were  brought  together,  supplemented,  and  arranged 
by  the  compilers.  There  thus  arose  the  definite 
manuals  on  penance  for  the  use  of  confesson; 
among  which  the  best  known  were  those  attributed 
to  Archbishop  Theodore  of  Canterbury  (d.  690) 
and  the  Venerable  Bede  (d.  735).  A  still  greater 
amplification  of  casuistry  was  promoted  by  the 
entire  method  of  the  scholastic  ethics,  with  its 
subtle  disputations;  by  the  influence  of  the  canon- 
ical repetition;  and  by  the  universally  obligatory 
institution  of  auricular  confession  (1215).  Under 
such  influences  there  arose  a  distinctive  system- 
atic discipline,  which  in  contradistinction  to  the 
philosophic  and  legal  came  to  be  designated  as 
theological  casuistry.  The  scholars  who  cultivated 
the  same  constituted,  under  the  name  of  casuists 
or  schemists,  both  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  at 
Roman  Catholic  imiversities  much  later  still,  s 
special  class  of  teachers,  notably  so  as  against  the 
canonists.  The  writings  which  embodied  this  dis- 
cipline were  the  so-called  "  summa  of  cases  of 
conscience ''  (summce  casuum  conscientis).  Of 
these  the  most  ancient  was  compiled  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  by  Raymond  of  Pefiaforte  (printed 
at  Lyons,  1719).  There  then  followed  a  good  many 
such  writings  while  scholasticism  was  approaching 
the  term  of  its  decay  through  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  The  most  renowned  of  these 
summce,  which  are  usually  designated  in  brief  by 
the  author's  name  or  birthplace,  are  the  following: 
the  Astesana  (printed  14ft8,  and  often);  Pitandh 
(written  1338;  printed,  Paris,  1470);  Padfica 
(written  c.  1470;  printed,  Venice,  1576);  Rotelk; 
Angelica;  and  lastly  the  one  usually  known  as 
summa    summarum :     properly    the    compilation 


480 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oastor 
Oaswall 


merely  of  Sylvester  Prierias,  which  dates  from 
the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  period. 

As  the  Reformers  revived  the  Pauline  idea  of  a 
free  motive  power  in  faith,  casuistry  proper  was 
fundamentally  set  aside,  and  they  even  occasion- 
ally declared  themselves  expressly  opposed  to  it 
(Calvin,  **  Institutes,"  IV.  x.  1  sqq.;  Luther,  Resol.  i. 
concL  Ecc.f  ii.).  Existing  conditions  nevertheless 
gave  rise  to  a  certain  evangelical  counterpart  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  casuistry.  The  Reformatory 
movement  introduced  a  multitude  of  new  problems 
in  morality.  So  in  difficult  contingencies  people 
frequently  appealed  for  enlightenment  to  the 
Reformers  and  other  persons  of  esteem,  or  in 
turn  to  the  theological  faculties.  In  this  way  the 
collected  letters  of  Luther  and  Calvin, 

Casuistry  as  well  as  Melanchthon's  counsels 
in  Protes-  {Berathschlagungen,    etc.,    issued     by 

ta"ti«f"^-  Petsel,  1601),  have  furnished  copious 
illustrations  at  large  in  the  matter  of 
evangelical  resolutions  of  conscience.  The  sys- 
tematic collections  of  faculty  decisions  (Thesaurus 
eonsUioTumj  etc.,  by  Dedekenn;  Gerhard's  In 
richtigerer  Ordnung,  1676)  even  early  denote  the 
transition  to  a  distinctive  evangelical  casuistry. 
The  more  legalizing  spirit  of  the  post-Reformation 
era  became  thus  practically  effective.  Even  here, 
however,  the  various  particular  moral  transactions 
were  not  viewed,  in  their  development,  as  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  casuistry,  but  as  fruits  of  faith, 
of  knowledge  in  part,  and  of  the  life  according  to 
the  spirit  of  Christ.  The  Reformed  theology  took 
precedence  in  the  elaboration  of  casuistry.  The 
first  treatise  of  this  kind  is  that  of  the  Cambridge 
professor  William  Perkins  (d.  1602;  see  Perkins, 
William),  Decisions  of  Certain  Cases  (originally 
in  English;  La&i  by  Mager,  1603),  of  a  strict 
Puritan  tone.  A  similar  book  of  kindred  thought 
was  written  by  his  pupil  the  Scotchman  William 
Ames  {De  conscientia,  Amsterdam,  1630).  Some- 
what prior  to  this,  the  German  theologian  Alstedt 
had  published  a  work  on  casuistry  {Theologia 
casuum,  Hanover,  1621).  But  although  he  rep- 
resented casuistry  as  a  singularly  important  science, 
there  were  in  the  Reformed  Church  only  a 
few  English  theologians  that  still  espoused  cas- 
uistry. The  first  Lutheran  work  on  casuistry 
grew  out  of  lectures  delivered  by  Professor  Baldwin 
at  Wittenberg  in  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
casuistry,  and  with  the  design  of  systematically 
setting  forth  the  import  of  the  faculty's  opinions. 
His  manuscript  was  published  after  his  death  by 
the  Wittenberg  Theological  Faculty  (Tractatus  de 
casibus  canscienHce,  Frankfort,  1659).  Of  the 
remaining  Lutheran  writings  of  this  nature,  there 
should  still  be  noted  the  works  of  Dannhauer  (1679), 
Bechmann  (1692),  and  Johannes  Olearius  (1699). 
Pietism,  although  Spener's  views  on  moral  ques- 
tions (Theologische  Bedenken,  1700;  LeUU  iheo- 
logische  Bedenken,  1711)  have  a  casuistical  tone, 
still  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  shelving  of  cas- 
uistry, in  that  it  deepened  the  understanding  with 
reference  to  the  interdependency  of  the  Christian's 
total  transactions  with  his  religious-moral  basic 
intuitions.  After  Buddeus  in  his  moral  theology 
had  shown  casuistry  to  be  superfluous,  only  isolated 


works  on  the  subject  appeared  in  the  Lutheran 
Church. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  on  the  contrary, 
the  ethics  of  the  Jesuits  came  to  be  out  and  out 
casuistical.  And  even  apart  from  them,  in  that 
quarter,  casuistry  was  cultivated  (cf .  P.  Lambertini, 
Casus  conscientia,  Augsburg,  1763;  S.  Sobiech, 
Compendium  theologia  moralis,  Breslau,  1822). 

F.  SlEFFERT. 
Bibuoobapht:  F.  D.  Maurice,  The  Conacience:  LeciurtB 
on  Camtiatry,  London.  1872;  K.  F.  St&udlin,  GeachiehU 
der  ehriatliehen  Moral,  Gdttincen,  1808;  W.  M.  L.  de 
Wette.  ChruUiche  SiUenlehre,  vol.  ii.,  part  2,  Berlin,  1821; 
8.  Pike  and  S.  Hayward,  Relioioua  Caaea  of  Conacienee, 
new  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1859;  C.  Beard,  Port  Royal,  pp. 
262-291,  London,  1861;  J.  Cook,  The  Conacience,  Bos- 
ton, 1879;  W.  Gass.  Geachichte  der  ehriatliehen  Ethik,  i.,  ii., 
parte  1-2,  Berlin,  1881-87;  W.  T.  Daviaon,  The  Chris- 
tian Conaeianca,  a  Contribution  to  Ethica,  London.  1888; 
C.  E.  Luthardt,  Geachichte  der  ehriatliehen  Ethik,  2  vols., 
Leipsio,  1888-93.  Many  of  the  treatises  on  ethics  deal 
with  the  subject  of  casuistry. 

CASUS  RESERVATI  C' Reserved  Cases''):  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  cases  in  which  abso- 
lution can  be  given  only  by  a  priest  specially  author- 
ized. The  practise  of  such  reservation  is  defended 
on  the  ground  that  Christ  granted  the  power  of 
absolution  only  to  the  apostles  and  their  successors 
(John  zx.  21-23),  and  that  the  pope  and  bishops 
have  thus  the  right  to  reserve  to  themselves  as 
much  of  this  power  as  in  their  judgment  the  good 
of  the  Church  requires.  This  view  is  formally 
sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIV., 
cap.  vii.,  de  pcenitenHa,  11).  The  cases  in  question 
are  "  certain  graver  cases  of  offense,"  "  certain 
more  atrocious  and  graver  offenses  " — grave  external 
sins,  definitely  completed  and  specifically  deter- 
mined by  the  legislator,  i.e.,  by  the  pope  or  bishop. 
The  details  were  gradiudly  fixed  in  practise.  Or- 
dinarily speaking,  the  popes  reserved  to  themselves 
only  sins  for  which  excommunication  was  the  pen- 
alty, from  which  only  the  apostolic  see  could  re- 
lease the  culprit,  though  there  are  some  to  which 
this  did  not  apply.  The  principal  instances  are 
those  named  in  the  bull  In  cana  Domini  (q.v.). 
Where,  in  these  cases,  the  sin  is  not  matter  of  public 
knowledge,  the  bishops  are  allowed  to  absolve  (in 
person  or  by  deputy)  in  foro  conscientia  ;  and  other 
cases  reserved  to  the  pope  are  placed  in  their  juris- 
diction by  their  quinquennial  faculties  (see  Fac- 
ulties). The  constitution  Apostolica  sedis  of  Pius 
IX.  (1869)  gives  precise  details  on  the  different 
classes  of  reserved  cases  at  the  present  day.  The 
cases  reserved  to  the  bishops  vary  according  to  the 
locality;  in  general,  they  include  a  number  of  the 
graver  sins,  certain  forms  of  unchastity,  homicide, 
breach  of  the  seal  of  confession  by  priests,  etc. 
Bishops  commonly  depute  their  powers  over  a 
number  of  these  cases  to  subordinates,  either  per- 
manently or  for  special  seasons.  In  all  kinds  of 
reserved  cases,  however,  a  penitent  may  be  ab- 
solved by  any  priest  in  case  of  urgent  necessity, 
such  as  approaching  death.  (E.  Friedberq.) 
Biblioorapht:  M.    Hausmann,   Geachichte  der  p&paUidten 

Reaervatfalle,   New  York.    1868;  H.   C.   Lea.   Hiatcry  of 

Avaicular  Confeaaion  and  Indulgencea  in  the  Latin  C^urcA, 

L  312  sqq..  Philadelphia.  1896. 

CASWALL,  EDWARD:  Hymn-writer;  b.  at 
Yateley  (35  m.  w.8.w.  of  London),  Hampshire,  July 


ktAOombs 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


440 


15,  1814;  d.  at  the  Oratory,  Edgbaston,  near 
Birmingham,  Jan.  2,  1878.  He  studied  at  Braae- 
noM  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1836;  M.A.,  1838);  waa 
curate  of  Stratfordniub-Castle,  near  Saliabury, 
1840-47;  in  1850  he  joined  the  Oratory  of  St. 
Philip  Neri  under  Newman,  to  whoae  influence  his 
conversion  to  Roman  Catholicism  was  due.  He 
wrote  original  poems,  but  is  best  known  for  his 
translations  from  the  Roman  breviary  and  other 
Latin  sources,  which  are  marked  by  faithfulness 
to  the  original  and  purity  of  rhythm.  They  were 
published  in  Ljfra  Catholiea,  containing  ail  the 
breviary  and  missal  hymns  (London,  1849);  The 
Masque  of  Mary  (1858);  and  A  May  Pageant 
(1865).  Hymns  and  Prose  (1873)  is  the  three 
books  combined  with  many  of  the  hymns  rewritten 
or  revised. 

CATACOMBS.   See  Cemstebieb,  I.;  II.,  3;  III.,  1. 

CATAFALQUE:  A  structure  erected  to  repre- 
sent a  corpse  lying  in  state,  decorated  with  em- 
blems of  mourning  (also  called  tumba,  castrum 
doloris).  The  custom  of  erecting  such  structures 
arose  in  the  Catholic  Church  when  the  cort)se  of 
the  deceased  was  no  longer  brought  into  the  church, 
where,  according  to  the  Roman  rite,  the  office  of 
the  dead,  the  requiem-mass,  and  the  Libera  were 
to  be  sung,  before  the  interment.  The  object  of 
the  catafalque  was  to  keep  the  older  custom  in 
mind,  and  to  add  greater  solemnity  to  the  service 
The  bier  is  covered  with  black  hangings,  and  sur- 
rounded with  lights.  The  officiating  priest  sprin- 
kles it  with  holy  water,  as  a  symbol  of  the  purifying 
blood  of  Christ  and  the  water  of  eternal  life,  and 
then  censes  it  as  a  token  of  honor  to  the  body  of 
the  deceased,  which  has  been  the  temple  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  as  a  symbol  of  the  prayers  for  the 
departed  soul  which  are  to  go  up  as  a  sweet  savor 
before  the  Lord. 

CA-TALDUS:  According  to  legend,  a  native  of 
Ireland  and  biHhop  there  of  a  place  called  Rachan, 
otherwise  unknown.  He  is  said  to  have  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  and  to  have  been  directed 
in  a  viHion  to  i)reach  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen  at 
Tarentum.  Witli  signs  and  wonders  he  performed 
his  mission,  Ix^came  bishop  of  Tarentum  or  even 
archbishop,  and  converted  the  entire  region  before 
his  death.  The  historical  fact  which  underlies 
the  legentl  is  probably  that  a  pious  Irishman 
named  Cataldus  or  Cathaldus  (  =  Cathal  orCathald, 
a  real  Irish  name)  proache<l  in  I^wer  Italy.  His 
time  can  not  bo  earlier  than  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century.  The  veneration  of  Cataldus  begins  in 
the  early  Middle  Agos.  His  relics  were  discovered 
in  1071,  and  many  churches  are  dedicated  to  him 
in  Ix)wer  Italy,  and  also  in  France,  where  he  is 
honored  as  St.  Carthauld  or  St.  Catas.  He  is 
commemorated  on  Mar.  8,  May  8,  and  May  10, 
the  la«t  being  the  day  of  his  death  according  to  the 
Martyrohgium   Homanum. 

(O.  Z5CKLERt.) 

Riblioorai'hy:  ASH,  May,  ii.  668-577;  J.  Colgan.  Acta 
tanctorum  veteri»  et  majari*  Scotia  aire  Hibemict,  pp. 
544-662.  Louvain,  1645;  Lanigan.  Ercl.  Hist.,  iii.  121- 
128;  J.  Healy.  Inaula  Sanctorum,  pp.  457-465,  Dublin, 
1890. 


CATECHESIS,  CATECHETICS. 

Origm  and  flignifimtiop  at  Um  Tcmw  (|  1). 

DiTiersent  Views  at  the  Object  of  Citf»rhfMi  (i  2). 

True  Aim  at  Cmtmehnm  (|  3). 

Methods  at  GatecfaeM  (i  4). 

Practical  AppUcation  at  Oateefaeeia  (|  5). 

Relation  at  Gatecheeis  to  Confirnrntion  (S  6). 

The  education  which  the  Christian  Church  im- 
parts to  its  inunature  members  through  its  chosen 
servants,  and  the  theory  of  this  education,  is  called 
cateche^.  The  Greek  word  katichein  means 
literally  "  to  sound  downward."  Hippocrates,  con- 
necting it  with  the  accusative  of  the  perBon,  sig- 
nified by  it  the  oral  instruction  which  the  physidan 
imparts  to  the  layman  concerning  the  nature  and 
treatment  of  disease.  Lucian  applied  the  word 
in  a  similar  sense  to  the  relation  of  the  dnimatie 
poet  to  his  audience.  Thus  it  gradually  came  to 
denote  the  making  of  an  oral  communication  to 
another  (Acts  xxi.  21,  24),  or  the  instruction  of 
another.     It  is  used  in  the  sense  of 

1.  Origin  religious  instruction  in  Luke  L  4; 
and  Signifi-  Acto  xviii.  25;    Rom.  ii.  18;   I  Cor. 

cation  of  xiv.  19;  Gal.  vi.  6.  In  ecdesiastical 
the  Terms,  usage  it  signified  preparation  of 
adults  for  baptism  (see  Catbchu- 
menate).  Here  instruction  was  the  principal, 
but  not  the  only  factor;  heart,  will,  and  conduct 
were  to  be  influenced.  The  word  catecbess, 
therefore,  properly  covers  the  whole  training  g;iven 
by  the  Church  to  its  children.  It  is  distinguished 
from  Christian  pedagogics  in  that  it  furnishes 
only  an  elementary  Imowledge  of  Christian  tnith, 
while  pedagogics  leads  to  a  detailed  and  scientific 
knowledge. 

In  the  ancient  Church  ecdesiastical  education 
began  as  soon  as  a  heathen  announced  his  willing- 
ness to  be  received  into  the  Churcli.  He  was  then 
accepted  among  the  catechumens  and  bore  the 
name  of  Christian.  Nowadays  Christian  educa- 
tion is  concerned  no  longer  primarily  with  the 
heathen,  but  with  the  children  of  Christians.  They 
are  baptized  in  infancy,  on  condition  that  their 
parents  promise  to  give  them  a  Christian  education. 
Moreover,  the  baptized,  when  they  come  to  yean 
of  discretion,  must  evince  a  desire  for  the  bless- 
ings of  the  Church,  and  give  promise  of  Christian 
conduct. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  define  the  aim  of  eccle- 
siastical education.  This  can  not  be  intellectual 
only;  for  catechesis  is  to  lead  to  Christian  feeling, 
to  a  Christian  formation  of  will  and  conduct.  Nor 
is  it  merely  to  inculcate  obedience  to  the  teach- 
ings and  commandments  of  the  Church;  for 
catechesis  is  intended  to  lead  to  personal  con\'i^ 
tion.  Others  have  considered  qualification  for  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  its  aim,  but  tliis  definition  begs 
the  question;  for  who  is  really  qualified 

2.  Diver-  for  the  Lord's  Supper?  Others  regard 
gent  Views  living  faith  as  the  aim  of  Christian  edu- 

of  the       cation;  but  children  of  Christian  par- 
Object   of   ents  can  not  be  regarded  as  unbelie\'ers. 
Catechesis.  They  come  from  Christian  surround- 
ings and  possess  already  a  certJiin  un- 
conscious faith  in  God  and  the  Savior:  ecclesiastical 
education  is  rather  to  confirm  this  implicit  faith 
and  develop  it  into  Christian  conWction  and  conduct 


441 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oataooxnbfc 
Oat«chesis 


Thus  faith  is  the  presupposition  of  ecclesiastical 
education,  but  not  its  aim.  As  to  what  this  really 
is,  Scriptiu^  does  not  give  a  definite  answer;  the 
distinction,  however,  between  immature  and  mature 
Christians  (I  Cor.  iii.  1;  Eph.  iv.  13;  Heb.  v.  12) 
brings  nearer  to  a  solution  of  the  problem.  There 
is  a  childlike  faith  in  the  Lord  which  is  still  ignorant 
and  without  a  firm  hold,  and  there  is  a  faith  of  the 
adult  who  has  attained  a  convinced  knowledge  of 
Christian  truth  and  a  certain  perfection  in  Christian 
conduct.  Whoever  of  his  own  will  and  upon  the 
basis  of  his  faith  seeks  communion  with  Christ 
in  the  means  of  grace  and  in  prayer  is  mature, 
and  ecclesiastical  education  exists  for  the  purpose 
of  attaining  that  maturity.     It  is  evident  that  no 

definite  age  can  be  laid  down  for  such 

3.  True  Aim  an    attainment,    because    faith    and 

of  Christian    conduct    are    based    upon 

Catechesis.  moral     freedom.     Maturity    depends 

altogether  upon  the  individual,  and 
can  not  be  affirmed  of  any  one  because  the  heart 
can  not  be  read.  On  that  account  every  person 
must  be  considered  mature  who  possesses  a  suf- 
ficient knowledge  of  Christian  truth  and  who 
promises  to  lead  a  Christian  life.  Matiuity  is,  there- 
fore, more  than  a  qualification  for  the  reception  of 
the  Lord's  Supper;  a  child  of  ten  years  may  have 
the  faith  and  knowledge  necessary  for  receiving 
the  sacrament  in  a  becoming  manner,  but  he  is  not 
mature.  Ecclesiastical  education  must  be  con- 
tinued after  the  first  communion.  This  further 
growth  may  be  gradually  attained  by  the  contin- 
uation of  Christian  fellowship  in  the  family  and 
in  the  Chureh;  but  since  this,  under  the  conditions 
of  modem  life,  is  not  always  applicable,  theologians 
usually  lay  down  the  necessity  of  special  institu- 
tions whose  educational  work  shall  continue  imtil 
the  attainment  of  maturity. 

Instruction  is  the  principal  although  not  the  only 
means  of  education.  Religious  instruction  is  first 
and  foremost  instruction  of  the  heart,  intended  to 
lead  to  a  knowledge  of  God.  But  this  knowledge 
is  based  upon  inner  experiences,  and  these  expe- 
riences again  have  their  foundation  in  observation. 
God  has  revealed  himself  in  natiu«,  but  more  com- 
pletely in  the  spiritual  life.  This,  as  manifested  in 
Christ,  is  the  perfect  revelation  of  God;  and  as  the 
record  of  this  Ufe  is  found  in  Holy  Scripture,  the 
Bible  is  the  principal  book  of  instruction.  Owing 
to  the  wealth  of  material  contained  therein,  it  has 
been  considered  advisable  to  condense  and  select 
certain  stories  specially  adapted  for  the  young 

without  paying  particular  attention  to 

4.  Methods  their  connection  as  a  whole.     From 

of  this  book  of  stories  the  pupil  is  grad- 

Catechetis.  ually  led  to  the  Bible  itself.     He  is  to 

memorise  certain  passages  and  read 
different  portions  of  it  in  order  to  penetrate  its 
spirit  and  attain  practise  in  its  use.  The  Gospels, 
some  historical  sections  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
the  Psalms  are  best  adapted  for  this  purpose. 
Another  source  of  material  for  religious  instruction 
is  found  in  the  Chureh  hymns,  which  awaken  relig- 
ious sentiment  and  enable  the  pupil  to  participate 
intelligently  in  public  worship.  After  the  pupil  has 
acquired  a  number  of  religious  truths  from  the 


selections  or  from  the  Bible  itself,  it  is  possible  to 
present  these  truths  in  their  most  concise  form  and 
in  their  connection.  This  is  necessary  in  order 
to  give  the  pupil  a  clear  survey  of  the  Christian 
truths  and  to  strengthen  his  conviction.  Such  an 
epitome  is  given  in  the  catechism.  The  part  of 
it  longest  in  use  is  the  Apostles'  Creed;  next  fol- 
lowed the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages 
the  decalogue  was  added  as  a  basis  of  instruction, 
to  give  a  proper  understanding  of  sin.  These  three 
articles  form  the  main  portions  of  the  Evangelical 
catechism;  from  the  law  the  pupil  learns  the  great- 
ness of  his  sin,  in  the  creed  he  professes  his  faith 
in  the  means  of  salvation  from  it,  and  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer  he  expresses  his  longing  for  Christian  con- 
duct as  a  disciple  of  Christ.  Since  the  inunediate 
aim  of  religious  instruction  is  participation  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  forms 
the  fourth  division  of  the  Catechism.  This  is  the 
order  of  the  Reformation  catechisms;  and  though 
objections  have  been  made  to  it,  they  may  be 
shown  to  be  unfounded. 

As  the  catechist  has  not  only  to  communicate 
knowledge,  but  to  move  the  heart  and  will,  the 
instruction  must  be  oral  and  personal.  No  book 
ought  to  be  used  in  religious  instruction,  except 
the  Bible  at  the  time  fixed  for  reading  it.  BiblicJEd 
stories,  hymn-books,  and  catechisms  are  only  aids 
to  be  used  at  home.  As  children  like  to  hear 
stories,  the  teacher  should  begin  his  instruction 
with  telling  them.  Verses  of  hymns,  texts  and 
answers  from  the  catechism  are  to  be  used  mainly 
in  illustration  of  the  Biblical  story.  As  the  child's 
attention  is  attracted  only  a  short  time  by  the  talk 
of  the  teacher,  his  interest  has  to  be  retained  by 
asking  him  questions.  There  is  a  distinction  made 
between  analytical  and  synthetical  instruction. 
In  analytical  instruction  the  material  is  ready  at 
hand,  as  in  the  Biblical  story,  in  Scripture-reading, 
and  hymns,  and  the  religious  truth  is  developed 
from  it.  In  S3mthetical  instruction  only  the  theme 
is  given,  as  in  the  catechism  and  Bible  texts,  and 
the  material  has  to  be  gathered  elsewhere. 

Owing  to  the  amoimt  of  material,  religious  in- 
struction must  be  spread  over  several  years.  In 
the  German  system  it  covers  eight,  during  the  first 
four  of  which  the  Bible  story  forms  the  basis  of  in- 
struction. In  the  fifth  year  hymns  are  treated  in 
connection  with  the  church  year,  and  Bible-reading 
and  instruction  in  the  catechism  are  begun.  The 
pupils  receive  practise  in  the  use  of  the  Bible,  and 
some  portions  of  the  historical  books  are  read 
in  connection  with  the  Biblical  stories.  The  deca- 
logue, the  creed,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  are  briefly 
explained  and  thus  stamped  upon  the  memory. 
The  last  two  years  place  Bible-reading  and  the 
catechism  in  the  foreground.  The  instruction 
should  be  imparted  by  both  pastor  and  teacher. 
It  is  advisable  that  the  pastor  should  instruct  the 
pupils  at  least  two  years;  he  should  confine  him- 
self mainly  to  the  catechism  in  connection  with 
Bible-reading,  and  leave  the  Biblical  stories  and 
hymns  to  the  teacher.  On  any  arrangement  it  is 
essential  that  pastor  and  teacher  should  work  in 
harmony,  each  with  an  eye  to  the  special  instruction 
imparted  by  the  other. 


Cateohesi* 
Cateohlsms 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


442 


As  religious  education  addresses  itself  to  the 
heart  as  well  as  to  the  mind,  the  cultivation  of  the 
former  is  not  less  the  duty  of  the  catechist.  Com- 
mon devotional  exercises  are  held,  consisting  of  the 
singing  of  hymns,  reading  of  Scripture,  and  an  ex- 
tempore prayer  by  the  teacher.  Moreover,  observ- 
ance   of  Sunday  and  regular  attend- 

5.  Practical  ance   on  the  Church   services  should 
Application  be  required  of  the  children.     As  the 

of  sermons  at  those  services  can  not  be 

Catechesis.  sufficiently  gnusped  by  younger  chil- 
dren, special  services  are  to  be  arranged 
for  them.  With  the  religious  practise  moral  prac- 
tise must  go  hand  in  hand.  Order,  diligence, 
modesty,  obedience,  truth,  and  other  virtues  must 
be  inculcated. 

While  the  pupil  must  be  taught  obedience  and 
respect,  the  teacher  should  not  be  inmioderate  and 
unjust  in  his  demands  or  irascible.  If  he  shows 
the  least  partiality  or  injustice,  he  weakens  his 
authority.  Reproof  should  come  before  punish- 
ment, and  should  be  made  to  suffice  as  long  as 
possible,  so  that  the  teacher  shall  not  come  too 
soon  to  the  end  of  his  resources.  Older  scholars 
should  be  won  by  private  exhortation  where  neces- 
sary, and  led  to  self-examination  and  self-judg- 
ment, so  that  they  may  find  the  path  of  goodness 
for  themselves. 

Christianity  as  a  spiritual  religion  demands  a 
definite  religious  conviction  and  moral  sentiment. 
The  Christian  Church,  therefore,  receives  as  mem- 
bers only  those  who  make  their  confession  of  faith 
and  promise  Christian  conduct.  Xn  the  early 
Church  a  profession  of  faith  and  a  vow  were  made 
before  baptism,  and  the  first  conmiimion  followed 
after  it.  When  infant  baptism  became  general, 
the  need  was  felt  of  bringing  in  this  profession  and 
vow  later  as  a  preliminary  to  the  first  communion. 
In  this  way  originated  the  rite  of  confirmation 
(q.v.)  in  the  Protestant  churches.  Confirmation 
is  not  a  declaration  of  maturity.  The  faith  of  a 
child  may  be  of  such  a  kind  as   to 

6.  Relation  admit  him  or  her  to  the  Lord's  Sup- 

of  per,  but  not  yet  to  a  life  that  may 

Catechesis   dispense    with    all    further    religious 
to  Confir-  aid.     The     profession    and    the    vow 
mation.      muHt  be  spontaneous,  they  must  pro- 
ceed from  the  candidate's  own  moral 
decision;  therefore,  the  child  should  not  be  forced  to 
confirmation  at  a  fixed  age.     The  custom  of  con- 


firming children  as  a  matter  of  course  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  has  led  to  insincerity  and  hypocrisy,  and 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  Church  to  check  it  as  much 
as  possible,  which  can  to  a  certain  extent  be 
accomplished  by  emphasizing  the  purely  voluntaiy 
character  of  the  act,  and  by  having  an  intervening 
time  between  the  examination  in  religious  knowl- 
edge and  the  profession  of  faith. 

If  the  confirmed  are  still  immature  in  the  religious 
sense,  their  education  must  be  continued.  The 
influence  of  the  Christian  home  and  of  church 
fellowship  are  hardly  sufficient  for  this.  Our  an- 
cestors in  both  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed 
churches  demanded  that  the  children  should  con- 
tinue to  participate,  even  after  their  first  commu- 
nion, in  the  regular  catechetical  instruction  of  the 
Church  until  their  eighteenth  year  or  until  their 
marriage.  These  customs  have  disappeared  in 
the  last  century  because  confirmed  children  hare 
been  considered  mature,  but  this  is  a  grave  mistake. 
in  view  of  the  diminution  of  wholesome  family 
influence  and  the  observance  of  Sunday,  and  the 
reform  of  these  conditions  is  an  urgent  necessity 
of  our  modem  Church.  (E.  Sachsse.) 

The  preceding  article  is  written  from  the  stand- 
point of  a  subject  of  Germany,  where  Church  and 
State  are  united  and  religious  instruction  is  conse- 
quently a  part  of  the  curricidum  of  the  schools. 
A  treatment  of  catechetics  from  a  more  general 
point  of  view  is  given  by  implication  in  Catechisms 

(q.v.). 

Bibuooeapht:  The  bibliosraphies  under  Catfchwms  and 
Catechumen ATB  should  be  consulted;  C.  I.  NitzKh. 
PrakHadu  TKeoloffU,  ii.  133-235.  Bonn,  1860;  C.  Palmer. 
Evanoditt^  Katech^ik,  Stuttgart.  1875;  R.  KUbcl.  Kak- 
cKetik,  Barmen,  1877;  J.  G.  Wenham.  Tfu  CaUAwnn, 
London.  1881;  E.  Daniel.  How  to  Teaek  the  Church  CaU- 
chum,  ib.  1882;  T.  Harnack,  Katechetik,  Erlangen.  1882; 
8.  J.  Hulme,  Principles  of  the  Catechiem  of  the  Churd  of 
EnoUind,  8tow-on-the-Wold,  1882;  N.  Haas,  Wii  toU  dtr 
Reliffionslehrer  uffentlieh  katediisierenf  Kegensbui:g,  18S5. 
E.  Bather.  Hinta  on  the  Art  of  Catechinng,  London,  1888; 
K.  Buchrucker,  Grundlinien  de§  kirchliehen  Kakfhim^ 
Berlin,  1889;  J.  E.  Denison.  Catechinng  on  the  CatoAJm 
London,  1889;  F.  A.  P.  Dupanloup.  The  Minuty  of 
Catechiaing,  ib.  1891;  P.  Schaff.  Theological  PropadeuUc. 
part  ii..  pp.  600-504.  New  York,  1893;  K.  Schulw. 
Evangelieche  Volkaachulkunde,  Gotha.  1893;  G.  R.  Croob 
and  J.  F.  Hurst,  Theological  Enct/clopadia,  pp.  514-526, 
New  York,  1894;  E.  Sachsae,  Die  Lehre  von  der  kirth- 
lichen  Erziehung,  Berlin,  1897;  E.  C.  Achelia.  ProJtft*** 
Theologie,  ii.  1-176,  Leipsic,  1898;  J.  Lutkemann,  An- 
leitung  tur  KatechiemueUhre,  Hermannsburg,  1898;  R. 
Staude,  Der  Katechimnuaunierricht,  PrAparationen,  3  voli, 
Dresden.  1900-01. 


CATECHISMS. 


II. 


The  Middle  Ages. 

Need  of    Catechetical   Instruction 

($1). 
Influence  of  Confesflion  ($2). 
Pre- Reformation  Catechisms  (§3). 
The  Post-Reformation  Period. 
Early  Lutheran  Catechisms  ($1). 
Gradual     Supremacy   of   Luther's 

Smaller  Catechism  (§  2). 
Early  Catechisms  Based  on  Luther's 

Work  (5  3). 
Orthodox  and  Pietistic  Catechisms 

(5  4). 

Catechisms  are  written  or  printed  summaries 
of  the  pi'incipal  doctnnes  of  the  Christian  faith,  in- 
t^indcd  for  the  instruction  of  the  unlearned  and  the 


Rationalistic   Catechisms    of 
Eighteenth  Century  ($  5). 

Modem   German  Lutheran 
chisms  ((  6). 

Modem    German  Reformed 
chisms  ((7). 

Switterland  ((  8). 

Austria-Hungary  (S  9). 

Slavic  Countries  (J  10). 

Scandinavian  Countries  ((  11). 

Holland  (§  12). 

England  ((13). 

France  (§  14). 


the  luly  (§  15). 

American      Lutheran    Cstechians 
Cate-  (5  16). 

The     Moravians    and    BohcmiM 
Cate-  Brethren  (f  17). 

Methodist  Catechisms  (§  18). 
Baptist  and  Irvingite  Catechisms 

(J  19). 
Unitarian  Catechisms  (I  20). 
Roman  Catholic  and  Old  Cathoac 

Catechisms  ($21). 
The  Greek  Church  (J  22). 


young.  These  formal  aids  to  systematic  instruction 
are  of  comparatively  modem  growth.  For  the  svi^ 
tem  of  the  primitive  Church,  see  Catechumenate. 


19 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cateohisms 


1.  Need  of 

Catechet- 
ical In* 
struotlon^ 


L  The  Middle  Ages:    The  beginnings  of  modem 
teclietical    iniJt ruction,   ua    to    the    development 

Ef  which  &ee  CATEctiE.si&,  Catechetics,  are  found 
rincipally  in  the  Germanic  Churches,  Here,  aa 
px  priminve  days  and  for  the  same  rcasoUj  it  orig* 
jfnally  addrtsseil  itself  chiefly  to  adults.  Some- 
Itimejs  whole  tribes  had  been  converted  to  Christi- 
(pjiity  in  wliieh  the  individuals  did  not  posaesa  the 

tost  elementary"  knowledge  of  the  Christian  faith, 
id  it  was  necessary  to  impttrt.  by  further  teaching 
hat  had  been  neglected  at  the  time  of  bajitisiu. 
^he  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  and  afterward  Charle- 
te*  under  the  influence  of  his  Anglo-Saxon 
iviser  Alcuin,  decreed  thai  everj^  baptiseti  person 
i^iould  know  by  heart  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer*  But  the  rising  generation  was  not  left 
altogether  out  of  view.  Tliert^  was  from  tlm  begin- 
ning an  indefinite  feeling  among  the  Teutonic 
Churehcij  that  the  Church,  by  its  acceptance  of 
infant  bajititim,  was  bound  to  care  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  children  tlius  brought  into 
it«  fold.  It  was  naturally  impossible, 
in  view  of  the  widely  scattered  parishes 
and  the  necessity  of  instruction  being 
almost  excluHivety  ond,  to  undertake 
the  actual  teacliing;  but  the  need  wa3  to  some 
extent  indirectly  met  by  the  requirement  that  no 
gjxinsor  should  pre-sent  a  child  for  baptism  without 
being  able  to  recite  the  Creed  and  tlie  Lord's  Prayer, 
and  that  sponsors  should  teach  the  same  articles 
to  their  grnl children* 

Another  influence  that  helped  to  enforce  a  certain 
mnount  of  Christian  knowledge  was  the  system  of 
legular  confession,  especially  after  an  annual  con- 
fession was  made  obligatory  by  the  Fourth  Late  ran 
Council  of  1 215.  With  the  act  of  confession  was 
lisuaily  connected  a  recitation  of  the  articles  which 
fche  sponsors  were  supposetl  to  have  impressed  upon 
Ibeir  godchildren.  The  system  further  led  to  an 
inlargement  of  the  scope  of  regular  instruction. 
As  the  Creed  and  the  Lortl's  Prayer 
^'  l^^^.^*"  ^^^^>'  formed  a  suitable  basis  for  the 
confession  of  sins,  there  originat<?d 
hst^i  of  the  sins  which  required  .cccle- 
■ajstical  penance;  and  these,  with  corresponding 
lists  of  virtues,  were  often  ordered  to  be  learned 
by  heart;  in  this  connection  the  decalogue  waa 
Redeemed  from  oblivion.  It  became  a  regular 
praetiBe  t^  pn?acb  sermons  on  the  Ten  Command- 
inents  in  Lent,  the  most  usual  time  for  confession; 
and  thus  catechetical  preaching  tlevcloped.  The 
feforroers  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
ptich  OS  Gerson  and  Geiler  von  Kaisersberg,  were 
itrong  advocates  of  these  sermons  on  the  founda- 
lioDB  of  Christian  doctrine.  The  Ave  Maria  was 
Included  among  the  articles  to  be  Jcarnett  and  came 
to  take  equal  rank  with  the  Creed  and  the  Lorifs 
iprayer  The  tendency  was  to  enlarge  the  materia!, 
though  some  attetnpts  were  made,  on  the  other 
liand,  to  condense  it;  thus  Jolumn  Wolf  of  Frank- 
fort si  lowed  that  all  the  articles  used  in  confession 
^>uld  be  traced  to  the  decalogue.  He  also  laid 
ipeci^  emphanis  upon  the  religious  instruction  of 
youth  in  a  period  when  the  councils  of  the  Church 
paid  no  particular  attention  to  it  as  a  distinct 
pranch  of  church  work.     The  beginning  of  a  refor- 


of  Con- 
feAsion. 


mation  in  this  respect  was  the  work  of  humanists 
like  Jakob  Wimp  he  ling  and  Erasmus.  Colet  in 
Englautl  drew  up  a  manual  of  religiou.s  instruction 
under  the  title  of  CuUchyzon  for  the  boys  of  St. 
Paul's  School,  which  Erasmus  put 
8.  Pre^Ref-  into  Latin  hexameters,    thereby    per- 

orzi^tioa  haps  giving  the  impulse  to  Petrus 
Catechiam*.  Tritouiua  to  produce  a  similar  work* 
Outside,  however,  of  such  efforts, 
which  were  rather  scholastic  than  eeelesjastieal, 
catechisms  in  the  modem  sense,  or  compilations 
of  the  principal  articles  of  faith  for  children,  were 
practically  unknown  to  the  medieval  Church. 

There  were^  indceil,  such  compilations  for  the 
clergy,  which  with  the  invention  of  printing  began 
to  circulate  widely  among  the  laity.  The  Tajel  dea 
chriJsUichen  Lebcns  (c.  1480)  is  in  more  w^ays  than 
one  a  direct  predecessor  of  Luther's  smaller  cate- 
chism, but  a  comparison  shows  the  characteristic 
difTereiice  between  the  meiiieval  and  the  Evan- 
gehcal  Church.  In  the  Cathohc  table  are  found 
numerous  pieces  without  any  explanatory'  word, 
sacred  formulas  that  were  frequently  repeated 
without  comprehension;  in  Luther's  catei^hism 
appear  the  five  main  articles,  with  tlje  emphasis 
laid  upon  the  explanation.  Great  importance  was 
attached  to  the  religious  instruction  of  youth  by 
the  Bohemian  Brethren  and  tlie  Waldenses.  The 
Interrogaciom  menoTB  of  the  Waldense-s  date  from 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  or  at  least  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth,  century:  The  Kimiirfrag^n 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethre^n  are  si  ill  older,  since  they 
served  as  a  model  for  the  InterTogaeions. 

II.  The  Post-Reformation  Period:  From  the 
beginning  of  the  Hefonnation  care  was  taken  to 
provide  for  the  religious  instruction  of  youth. 
Almost  simultaneously  the  two  placets  where  the 
movement  had  its  origin  established  institutions 
which  were  followed  as  models;  in  1521  Johann 
Agricola  was  appointed  catechist  at  Wittenberg, 
and  in  1522  systematic  instruction  of  youth  in  the 
Christian  faith  was  established  in  Zurich  in  place 
of  the  Roman  confirmation. 

Luther's  popular  expositions  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  Creetl,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
especially  his  Kurze  Farm  and  his  Betbuchtein,  are 
not  catechisms  in  the  proper  st^nse  of  the  word, 
but  rather  prepared  the  way  for  them. 

1.  Earl^  Several  adaptations  of  the  Kind4^- 
Lutheran  Jragen  of  the  Bohemiaji  Brethren, 
OatechlsmB.  German  translations  of  Melanchthon's 
Enchirtdion  and  Schoti/i,  and  numer- 
ous other  compilations  of  the  Christian  truth 
adapted  for  children  show  the  demand  for  an  Evan- 
gelical text- book.  Toward  the  end  of  L'>2-4  Justus 
Jonas  and  Agricola  were  ordered  to  write  such  a 
book;  they  did  not  execute  their  commission ^  but 
toward  the  end  of  1525  tljere  ivas  published  the 
BilcMein  fiir  die  Laien  und  Kinder  (possibly  by 
Bugenhagen),  which  pro\n9ionally  at  least  supplied 
the  want.  About  the  same  time  Luther  urged »  in 
his  DeiitHcke  Memc^  the  introdnction  of  religious 
instruction  for  children.  His  ap|K'al  called  forth 
numerous  expositions  of  the  articles  of  faith,  and 
in  mnny  places  systemiitic  teaching  was  begun. 
In    1529  Luther  published  Ids  Smaller  Catechism 


J. 


Oateohimi* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


444 


(sometimes  known  as  Enchiridion),  and  with  it 
the  material  of  the  catechism  was  firmly  estab- 
lished for  the  future  (see  Luther's  Two  Cate- 
chisicb).  In  some  places,  especially  under  the 
influence  of  the  Nuremberg  Kinderpredigten  (1533), 
the  power  of  the  keys  was  added  as  a  sixth  article, 
and  is  still  used  as  such  in  some  of  the  churches 
of  Germany. 

At  first  Luther's  catechism  was  merely  one  among 
several  others,  though  it  was  almost  universally 
adopted  in  both  parts  of  Saxony,  in  Brandenburg, 
and  in  Pomerania.  Apart  from  manuals  produced 
under  the  influence  of  the  Swiss  theology,  like 
those  of  Leo  Jud  and  Bullinger,  there  are  others 
which  follow  Luther's  doctrine,  among  them  Kaspar 
L6wer's  Unterricht  des  Olaubens  (1529),  Johann 
Brenz's  FragtatOcke  (1535),  which  is  still  used  in 
Wttrttemberg,  Butzer's  catechisms  for  Strasburg 
(1534  and  1537),  and  others.  It  was  only  by 
degrees  that  Luther's  work  assumed  the  supremacy 
over  other  catechisms  of  the  same  tendency,  until 
it  finally  attained  the  importance  of  a  standard  of 
doctrine.  It  was  treated  as  such  for 
S.  Qradaal  ^^®  ^^  i\mQ  in  1561  in  the  articles 
Stipremaoy  o^  LUneburg,  where  it  had  its  place 
of  Luther's  beside  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the 

Smaller  Apology,  and  the  Schmalkald  Articles 
Catechism,  (see  Corpus  DocTRiNiB).  It  attained 
a  still  stronger  position  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  (q.v.).  The 
latter,  which  from  the  first  was  considered  in  the 
light  of  a  confession  of  faith,  was  compiled  in  1563 
by  Olevianus  and  Ursinus  from  the  catechisms  of 
Leo  Jud  and  Bullinger,  from  the  Emden  cate- 
ehism  of  1554,  from  Calvin's  catechism  of  1542 
(see  below),  and  from  two  catechisms  used  among 
Low-German  emigrant  churches  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  was  soon  introduced  in  all  countries 
where  the  Reformed  faith  prevailed.  In  1580  the 
Smaller  Catechism  was  included  in  the  Book  of 
Concord,  and  took  rank  everywhere  as  the  corre- 
sponding standard  of  Lutheran  doctrine.  While 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  as  the  more  compre- 
hensive work,  retained  everywhere  its  old  form, 
Luther's  Enchiridion  formed  frequently  only  the 
basis  for  fuller  expositions,  in  connection,  e.g.,  with 
Brenz's  Fragestiicke  of  1535  and  a  booklet  printed 
in  1549  at  Erfurt  under  Luther's  name,  though 
really  compiled  by  Johann  Lang,  entitled  Frage- 
Btiicke  fur  die,  so  zum  Sacrament  gehen  wdUen. 

No   little   influence   on   the   development   of   a 

traditional  form  for  catechisms  was  exercised  by 

the   Latin  ones  prepared   for   the   Latin   schools. 

The  material  of  these,  based  partly 

8.  Early  upon  the  Loci  of  Melanchthon,  grew 
Oatechisms  to    such    an    extent    that    they    al- 

Based  on    most  formed  regular  dogmatic  works. 

Lather's  Among  the  catechisms  which  origi- 
Work.  nated  from  such  sources  on  the  basis 
of  Luther's  Encheiridion  the  Kleiner 
Catechi8mu8  D.  M.  Lutheri  by  Nicolaus  Herco  (1554) 
shows  a  fairly  definite  form  already  assumed  by  the 
development.  A  wider  circulation  was  attained 
by  the  Fragestiicke  of  Bartholomseus  Rosinus 
(1580).  The  first  regular  catechism  with  expo- 
sitions was  the  Goldene  Kleinod  of  Johann  Tetelbach 


(1568);  and  the  first  of  such  to  receive  offidsl 
sanction  was  the  Nurembei^  Kinderlekrbiiddein 
(1628). 

During  this  whole  period  catechetical  instruction 
consisted  of  nothing  more  than  the  memorizing  bj 
the  children  of  the  catechisms.  Further  expla- 
nations were  left  to  the  catechetical  sermons  which 
gradually  became  more  common,  modeled  after 
Luther's  Larger  Catechism  and  the  Nuremberg 
Kinderpredigten  of  1533.  Frequently  it  was  de- 
cided that  the  children  should  be  questioned  on 
these  sermons.  On  the  other  hand,  efforts  were 
early  made  to  guard  children  against  a  mechanical 
memorizing  by  making  the  text  intelligible  to  them. 
A  school  edition  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  (1610) 
gives  four  rules  in  tUs  respect;  (1)  dif- 
4.  Orthodox  ficult  passages  are  to  be  explained; 
andPietis-  (2)  a  long  paragraph  is  to  be  con- 
tlo  Gate-  densed  by  the  pupil;  (3)  the  text  of 
®*^^*"^*'  the  catechism  is  to  be  analyzed  by  the 
teacher,  putting  questions  which  the 
children  have  to  answer  from  the  text;  (4>  the 
catechism  is  to  be  confirmed  and  proved  by  Bible 
texts  and  stories.  The  method  laid  down  in  these 
rules  dominated  catechetical  instruction  until  a 
late  time  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Orthodox 
and  pietistic  catechists  agreed  in  the  use  of  the 
analytical  method;  but  the  latter  emphasized  more 
strongly  the  cultivation  of  the  heart,  and  in  formu- 
lating the  questions  and  answers  of  the  catechism 
laid  stress  upon  the  practical  side  of  life,  as  may  be 
seen  from  Philipp  Jakob  Spener's  Tabulce  caU- 
chetica  (Frankfort,  1683).  The  two  principal 
pietistic  catechisms  are  Spener's  Erkldrung  der 
ehriatlichen  Lehre  (1677)  and  the  Dresden  Kreuz- 
Katechismtia  (1688).  But  even  Pietism  could  not 
hinder  the  gradual  degeneration  of  catechetical 
instruction  into  mere  formalism. 

A  fresh  impulse  was  received  from  the  new  methods 
introduced  by  the  rationalist  school.  Starting 
from  rationalistic  premises,  Johann  Bcmh^jd 
Basedow  (q.v.)  demanded  in  his  Abhandlung  torn 
Unterricht  der  Jugend  in  der  Religion  (LQbeck,  1754) 
that  children  should  not  be  forced  to  memoriie 
anything  but  what  they  already  understood,  and 
that  they  should  be  left  to  acquire  new  knowl- 
edge only  by  their  own  thinking,  with 
5.  Bation-  *^®  ^®^P  °^  instructive  questions. 
alistio  Cat-  Basedow  laid  down  these  views  in  his 
echismsof  catechism  for  two  grades  entitled 
theEiffht-  Grundriss  der  Religion,  loelche  durch 
eenthOen-  Sachdenken  und  Bibelforschen  erkannt 
tury.  ^^y^  (1764).  This,  which  gradually 
became  known  as  the  Socratic  method. 
was  developed  further  by  Karl  Fried  rich  Bahrdt 
in  his  PhilanthropinischerErtiehungsplan  (Frankfort. 
1776)  and  confirmed  from  the  philosophy  of  Kant 
by  Johann  Friedrich  Christian  Graeffe  in  his  V/M- 
atdndiges  Lehrbtich  der  allgemeinen  Kaiechetik 
(GOttingen.  1799).  Its  most  prominent  repre- 
sentatives were  Johann  Peter  Miller.  Johann  Chris- 
tian Dolz,  and  especially  Gustav  Friedrich  Dinter. 
With  these  new  ideas  new  manuals  appeared  wliich 
either  dropped  altogether  the  old  cat-echisms  base<i 
on  the  articles  of  faith  or  relegated  them  to  an 
appendix.     Johann    Gottfried    Herder   attempted 


445 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oataohi«m« 


t<)  explain  the  smaller  catechism  of  Luther  accord- 
ing to  the  new  principles  (Weimar,  1800).  The 
weak  point  of  the  Socratic  method  is  its  inseparable 
connection  with  rationalist  theology.  Pestalozzi 
criticized  this  method  because  it  tried  to  elicit 
from  children  what  is  not  in  them.  Schleiermacher 
pointed  out  that  the  Socratic  method  ignored  the 
revelation  of  the  Christian  religion  and  its  history. 
Marheinecke,  Nitzsch,  Kraussold,  Harms,  and  H(ji- 
fell  followed  him  in  opposition  to  it.  The  modem 
method  of  catechizing  has  retained  from  the  So- 
cratic method  its  feature  of  development;  it  does 
not,  however,  consider  human  reason  and  natural 
religion  as  the  basis  of  this  development,  but  rather 
the  documents  of  revelation  and  the  history  of  the 
Church. 

The  catechisms  used  in  the  different  territories 
of  Germany  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  In  the 
territories  of  the  Evangelical  Union  as  well  as  among 
the  orthodox  Lutherans  the  Smaller  Catechism  of 
Luther  forms  the  basis  of  instruction. 
®-^^^  But  in  accordance  with  their  peculiar 
L  ^**'^  doctrines  the  Unionists  have  made 
Cateohiiu^.  concessions  to  the  Reformed  teach- 
'  ings,  so  that  their  manuals  represent 
more  or  less  a  compromise  between  Luther's  Smaller 
Catechism  and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism.  The 
chief  country  of  the  Union  is  Prussia,  and  here 
the  consistories  in  agreement  with  their  respect- 
ive provincial  synods  have  selected  a  number 
of  compendiums  to  be  used  in  instruction.  Man- 
uals of  the  same  sort  are  found  in  the  other 
Unionistic  territories,  Anhalt,  Baden,  Hesse, 
Waldeck,  Hanau,  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  Nassau, 
and  Birkenfeld. 

In  the  distinctively  Lutheran  territories  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism  is  used  everywhere,  in  Hesse  in 
connection  with  the  so-called  Hessische  Frage- 
siucke,  in  WUrttemberg  with  Brenz's  catechism. 
The  text  is  at  present  formulated  after  the  revision 
proposed  by  the  Evangelical  conference  held  at 
Eisenach  in  1882.  In  the  selection  of  aids  to  be 
used  besides  the  text  a  certain  freedom  exists  in 
Saxe-Coburg,  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  in  Hamburg,  in  the  Lutheran  Church 
of  the  province  of  Hanover,  and  in  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main.  In  certain  places  besides  the  text  of 
the  Smaller  Catechism  are  mostly  Spruchbucher, 
that  is,  collections  of  Bible  texts  and  hynms. 
The  use  of  such  books  for  the  explanation  of  Lu- 
ther's catechism  has  been  made  obligatory  in  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  in  Altenburg, .  Meiningen,  the 
principalities  of  Reuss,  in  Sleswick-Holstein  and 
Eutin,  in  Oldenburg  and  Schaumburg-Lippe.  Be- 
sides the  SpruchbUcher,  various  expositions  of  Lu- 
ther's catechisms  have  been  introduced,  the  use  of 
which  has  been  made  obligatory  in  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  LObeck,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Brunswick, 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  the  former  county  of  Schaumburg,  Weimar, 
Bavaria,  and  in  the  Free  Lutheran  Church  of 
Pnissia. 

As  regards  the  Reformed  territories,  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism  is  used  in  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Lippe-Detmold,  in  the  Reformed  congregations  of 
East  Friesland,  in  the  former  coimty  of  Bentheim, 


in  the  synodal  district  of  Bovenden  (near  GOttingen), 

and  in  the  confederation  of  Reformed  Churches  in 

Lower    Saxony.     In    the    Reformed 

7.  Modem  territories  of  the  consistorial  district 
OermanBe-of  Cassel  (Lower  Hesse)  and  in  the 
formed  Oat-  synodal    district    of    Hamburg    the 

eohiams.  Hessischer  LandeskatechismuSf  a  Re- 
formed revision  of  Luther's  Smaller 
Catechism  with  the  Hessische  Fragestucke  inserted, 
is  used.  In  Bremen  and  in  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Alsace-Lorraine  no  special  manual  for  religious 
instruction  is  prescribed. 

In  Switzerland  there  appeared  at  St.  Gallen  in 
1527  a  compilation  of  the  Kinderfragen  of  the 
Bohemian  Brethren.  About  the  same  time  CEoo- 
lampadius  published  his  Kinderbericht  for  Basel. 
In  1534  Leo  Jud  published  his  catechism  for 
Ziuich.  An  epitome  of  it  followed  in  the  next 
year,  which  in  1598  was  declared  obligatory  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  catechisms  of  Heinrich  Bullinger 
(1559)  and  Burckhardt  Leemann  (1583),  and  was 
introduced  also  in  Grisons  and  Schaffhausen.  In 
1536  Kaspar  Grossmann  (Megander) 

8.  Switzer-  revised  Jud's  catechism  for  Bern;  a« 
land.       in  the  course  of  time  it  was  made  to 

serve  the  views  of  Zwingli,  it  had  to 
be  revised  anew,  and  in  this  form  became  known 
as  the  Bern  Catechism.  These  old  catechisms  were 
either  superseded  or  influenced  by  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism.  The  Zurich  Catechism  of  1609,  the 
work  of  Marcus  Bfiumlein,  originated  in  a  combi- 
nation of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  with  those  used 
in  Zurich.  It  was  introduced  in  different  cantona 
and  used  until  1839.  Under  the  influence  of  ration- 
alism most  of  the  cantons  adopted  new  catechisms 
between  1830  and  1850.  Basel  took  the  lead  in 
1832,  then  followed  Zurich  with  a  new  catechism 
(1839).  In  French  Switzeriand  Calvin's  Caie- 
chismus  Genevensis  (1542)  was  used  at  the  beginning. 
In  the  canton  of  Vaud  it  was  replaced  in  1552  by 
a  translation  of  the  Bern  Catechism,  which  gave 
way  to  that  of  Heidelberg  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. In  1734  there  appeared  in  (jeneva  the  small 
catechism  of  Jean  Frdd^ric  Osterwald,  which,  after 
revision,  was  also  adopted  in  Vaud.  About  1620 
Stephen  Gabriel,  pastor  at  Ilanz,  compiled  a  cate- 
chism for  the  Romance  districts  which  remained 
in  use  even  after  a  translation  of  Osterwald's  cate- 
chism had  appeared.  But  entire  freedom  exists 
as  to  the  choice  of  religious  manuals  in  Switzerland. 
In  many  cases  the  individual  preachers  write  their 
own  books  of  instruction. 

Since  the  edict  of  toleration  of  Joseph  II.,  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  Austria  has  used  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism  and  the  Reformed  Church  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism.  According  to  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Austria,  all 
further  guides  in  religious  instruction  have  to  be 
sanctioned  by  the  Evangelical  Supreme  Church 
Council  in  Vienna,  and  approved  by 

9.  Austria-  the   ministry  of  ecclesiastical   affairs 
Honffary.   and  public  instruction.     Some  of  the 

approved  manuals  are,  in  German, 
Buchrucker's  and  Emesti's  editions  of  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism,  in  Bohemian  that  of  Molmar. 
Among  those  approved  for  the  Reformed  Church 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


446 


may  be  mentioned  the  enlarged  German  edition  of 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  by  Franz  (Vienna,  1858), 
and  the  Bohemian  by  Von  Taniy  (Prague,  1867), 
and  by  Vesely  (1885).  In  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania the  same  conditions  exist  as  in  Austria. 

In  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia  an  Esthonian 
translation  of  the  Smaller  Catechism  seems  to  have 
appeared  as  early  as  in  1553.  In  1586  a  Lettish 
translation  by  J.  Rivius  was  printed  at  Kdnigsberg. 
It  was  revised  in  1689  by  E.  GlQck  and  used  a  long 
time  among  the  Lettish  congregations  of  Livonia. 
Another  by  H.  Adolphi  appeared  in 
10.  Blavlo  1685  and  found  a  large  circulation  in 
Oountrles.  Courland.  In  accordance  with  a  reso- 
lution of  the  Synod  of  Livonia  and 
Courland  in  1898,  a  new  Lettish  standard  text 
has  been  established  (Riga.  1898),  which  has  sup- 
planted all  earlier  translations.  An  Esthonian 
exposition  of  the  Smaller  Catechism  was  intro- 
duced in  Esthonia  in  1673  as  the  official  catechism, 
and  used  almost  exclusively  until  1866.  The 
catechism  of  Martin  Kdrber  (1864),  modeled  after 
the  official  catechism  of  Neustrelitz,  has  found  a 
considerable  circulation.  The  Germans  in  the 
Baltic  provinces  also  produced  numerous  inter- 
pretations of  their  own;  Jodocus  Hoist,  EinfdUige 
Aualegung  des  Kleinen  Katechismus  LtUhers  (Riga, 
1596);  Immanuel  von  Essen,  Christliche  Katechis- 
musubung  (1781);  Werbatus,  Dr.  Martin  LtUhera 
Kleiner  Katechismue  (1895);  and  many  others. 
For  the  Lutheran  congregations  of  Poland  there 
has  been  recently  approved  Maly  Katechizm  Dok- 
tora  Marcina  Lutra  (Lublin,  1900).  It  is  an  expo- 
sition of  the  Smaller  Catechism  by  Alexander 
Schdnaich,  preacher  at  Lublin.  An  official  text 
of  the  Smaller  Catechism  has  been  published  for  the 
Russian-8i>eaking  Lutherans  (St.  Petersburg,  1865). 
The  first  catechetical  writings  in  Sweden  were 
a  working-over  of  Luther's  Betbilchleinf  a  transla- 
tion of  the  revision  of  the  Kinderjragen  of  the 
Bohemian  Brethren  published  at  Magdeburg  in 
1524,  and  a  translation  of  the  Handbiichlein  jiir 
junge  Christen  by  Johann  Toltz.  The  Smaller  Cate- 
chism was  translated  by  Laurcntius  Petri  into 
Swedish  perhaps  as  early  as  1548;  the  oldest 
extant  copy  dates  from  1572.  In  1595  the  Smaller 
Catechism  v.:is  officially  introduced, 
11.  Soandi-  but  came  into  general  use  only  after 
navian  the  Church  Order  of  1686.  An  official 
Oountries.  translation  of  Luther's  Larger  Cate- 
chism dates  from  1746.  The  expo- 
sition of  the  Smaller  by  Olaf  Swcbelius,  which  had 
been  in  use  for  some  time,  was  revised  in  1811  by 
Archbishop  J.  Axel  Lindblom  and  intro<luced  as  an 
official  catechism.  In  1843  a  new  revision  ap- 
peared, but  in  1878  the  Doktor  M&rten  LtUhers 
Lilla  Katekes  med  kort  lUveckling,  atadfast  af  kon- 
ungen  den  ll.Oktober  1878  took  its  place  and  is 
still  used.  In  1 532  the  Smaller  Catechism  was  trans- 
lated into  Danish  by  Jorgen  Jensen  Sadolin.  In  1 537 
there  appeared  almost  simultaneously  two  further 
translations,  Den  lille  danske  CntechiKmus  by  Franz 
Wormodson  and  Luihers  lille  Kotekismus  by  Petrus 
Palladius.  The  latter  was  republished  in  1538  as 
Enchiridion  sive  Manu^le  tU  voamt  and  officially 
recognized.     H.  P.  Petersen  edited  the  Latin  text 


18.  SzLff- 
land. 


of  the  Smaller  Catechism  side  by  side  with  a  Danish 
translation  for  the  use  of  schools  (1608).    In  1627 
he  used  the  Danish  text  for  a  manual  destined  for 
popular  instruction.     The  text  deviates  frequently 
from  the  original,  and  these  variants  have  crept 
into  other  compilations  modeled  after  it.    It  re- 
tained its  authority  in  Denmark  until  1813,    in 
Norway  imtil  1843.    The  standard  work  for  Not- 
way  is  at  present  Dr.  M.  LtUhers  Lille  Katekisrrz-xie 
(9th   ed.,   Christiania,    1897),    and   for  DenmsL«-V^ 
C.    F.    Balslev's   LtUhers   Kotekismus  meden  h^^^ 
Forklaring  (Copenhagen,  1899). 

In  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  absolute  fi*J-<^ 
dom  exists  in  the  choice  of  guides  to  be  used      ^^ 

-g  _  ,      religious  instruction.     Besides  the  Or«- 
2^^^  "    neva  and  Heidelberg  catechisms,  AbK"":^- 
ham  Hellenbroek's  Vorbeeld  der  gum^- 
delyke  Waarheden  has  been  used. 

The  Established  Church  of  England  uses  Uyd^sky 
the  catechism  from  the  Book  of  Common  Pray^^r, 
with  but  slight  changes  from  the  original  form      of 
1552.     An  exposition  of  it  by  John  Palmer  (Londc^  :zi, 
1894)  shows  the  text  of  the  original  catechism      in 
prominent  type  and  provides  each  individual  paK^SL- 
graph  with  an  introduction.     The  Congregation  .^al- 
ists  have  also  adopted  the  catechism  of  the  EstaB-T>- 
lished  Church,  but  besides  this  they  use  a  manijs..a.l 
by   Samuel   Palmer,    A   Catechism   for  Prateste^-rU 
Dissenters    (London,   1772,  29th  ^^=1., 
1890),  which  contains  a  brief  histc^xy 
of  non-conformity  and  treats  of  tirbe 
reasons  for  it.    In  the  Sunday-schools  the  Con^v<e- 
gationalists  use  a  catechism  by  J.  Hilton  Sto^np^^U 
revised  by  A.  M.  Fairbaim  (1892).    The  Pre8l:>y- 
terian  Church  of  England  and  the  Church  of  S<?«3't- 
land  have  accepted  the  Westminster  Catechism,      as 
the  basis  of  their  instruction.     It  is  divided  LEi.t;c 
the  doctrines  we  are  to  believe  and  the  duties    '^rc 
are  to  perform  (The  Moral  Law;  Faith  and  Repexit- 
ance;     Sacraments;    Prayer).    The  form   of  relig- 
ious instruction  chiefly  cultivated  in  EnglancJ.     i^ 
the  Sunday-school,  for  which  the    Sunday-scti.ool 
Union  furnishes  manuals.     Dr.    Watt's  first   ^Ln<i 
second  catechisms  have  also  found  a  large  cLrovi' 
lation;   the  former  contains  a  short  survey  of    ^t»€ 
doctrines  of  Christian  salvation  and  especially     ^ 
catechism  on  Scriptural  names,  the  latter  an  iii.t:^*'- 
pretation  of  the  decalogue  and  information  on  'ttit 
sacraments  and  prayers.     Before  the  catechisrx'i    of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  appeared,  LutUer's 
Smaller  Catechism  was  used  for  several  years     i^ 
England;  at  the  instance  of  Cranmer  the  Nurorn- 
berg    Kinderpredigten  which  interpret  it  was      ^ 
1548  translated   into   English  under  the  title     --^ 
Short  Introduction  into  the  Christian  Religion. 

In  the  French  Reformed  Church  Calvin's  cate- 
chism of  1542  was  at  one  time  almost  universallj 
used,   later  with   Osterwald's   smaller  c&iechisrn, 
but   has   now   been    superseded    by    Bonnefon'* 
Nouveau  cat^chisme  4UmerUaire  (14th 
14.  Prance,  ed.,  AlaLs,  1900)  and  Decoppet's  Cal^- 
chisme  populaire  (Paris).    Less  popui^ 
are   Babut's   Cours  de  religion  chrittenne  (6th  ed., 
1897)    and    Nyegaard's   Catichisme  d  Vusage  da 
6glises  evangiliques  (13th  ed.,  1900).    The  Jrce 
Church  uses  the  same  catechisms.    In  the  ' 


447 


RELIOTOUS  ENCYCLOPEBTA 


Cftteottlsmt 


de  la  Confession  d'Aygsbourg'*  Luther's  Smaller 
Qitc^chi^ni  hits  always  been  in  nm.  The  FciU  cair- 
ekisffi^  *i*^  l-^her  (CJiateauroux)  liais  aikkvJ  t<j  Lu- 
tlier*s  tt'xt  Bible  texts  and  storiee  and  retidcrw 
tJie  Ten  Conirnandnients  exaolfy  ok  tlit-y  am  found 
Kx,  XX.  1-17,  combining  the  mntli  and  lentlj 
miilmenta  and  treating  tUe  |irohibition  of  the 
worsliip  of  images  as  a  separatee  commandment. 

A»  a  result  of  the  Evangelical  movement  iti 
Italy,  there  originated  alxiut  1535  the  **  Christian 
Ini^truction  for  Children  "  by  Juan  de 
IB*  Italy*  Vald^s,  apparently  first  writt-en  in 
Spanish,  but  published  first  in  Italian 
and  then  translated  into  various  hmguagea  (cf. 
the  polyglot  edition  of  E.  Bdluner  under  the  title 
ittstrudion  criMiana  para  los  niftos  por  Jiian  de 
Kaicf^/»,  Bonn,  1883).  To-day  the  "  Free  Church  " 
MBG9  II  cattchixmo  ossrui  sunio  della  doUrina  crisiiana 
*eeondo  la  paroladi  DiOf  by  G,  P.  Meille  (Florence, 
6th  ed.,  1895).  Of  a  wimilar  nature  are  the  cate- 
chisms used  by  the  Waldenses,  Cate^hi^tfio  della 
CAtesa  evangetiat  Vatdejie  o  Mamiak  d^utruzione 
^^^t^tiarta  ad  ttso  del  caiecumeni  di  delta.  Chiesa  (1866) 
^nd  Colechismo  evangdico  ossia  sunto  della  doUrina 
criafian^(lS95), 

The  Lutherans  in  the  United  States  use  Luthcr'a 

Smaller  CateehiBm,  which  exists  in  many  German , 

English,    and    German-English    editions.     In    the 

^vnodical  C^inference  the  Dresden  Kreuzkaiechis- 

^iii«  of  1688  has  a  large  circulation,  in  the  Missouri 

^^oti     Z>r.    M.    Ltithfts    Kleiner    Katechismus    in 

^ra^c  ^^  j4nfw>rf  ^imdlkh  an.sgelegi  by  J.  K,  Die- 

tncQ    (gt    LouJs^  Mo.)  and  a  condensed  edition  of 

r"©  sa^ne  are  much  used;   the  former  also  in  Eng- 

hsh.       In  iije   Ohio  Synod  originated   Der  KleiriB 

C*  olecAvffnus  Dr.   M.   Luther^  mit  erkliiTenden  und 

beweisenden  Bibelstellen^  also  in  Eng- 

^®'  A^^neri-  Ush    (Allento^Ti,    Pa.).     It    contains 

^^"^  l^Titlier-  besides    the    Smaller    Catcclusm    the 

^^»te-    ^*  Order  of  Salvation,'^  that  is,  a  sur- 

*3Ji«.      ye-y  of  (lie  whole  contents  of  Christian 

doctrine,  an  analysis  of  the  catechism 

^'^^d  like  Spcner's  catechetical  tables,  and  the 

^UrtVcmberg  Konjerenz-Exomen^  which  is  an  epi- 

*ome  of  the  A'lrtfifrfcAreintrtxlucevl  in  1682  in  WClrt- 

jetiiborg.     Prof.  M.  Loy,  Prof.  F.  W.  Stellhom,  and 

C  H*  Rohe  wrote  an  exposition  of  the  Smaller 

^^^^^hism  on  the  basis  of  Dietrich's,   under  the 

*'*^   Ur,  M,  Luihers  Kkiner  KatechiJimus,  in  Frage 

th^    -^"^"orf  Quagehgt  (Columbus,  O,,   1882).     On 

J  ^    Oasis  of  Caspari's  catechetical  exposition,  W. 

"    ^I^nn  and  G.  F.  Krotel,  of  the  Synod  of  Penn- 

Xiv^^jIj^^  published  Luihers  Kleiner  Katechismus  in 

^^en   and   Antworlen  mm  Gebraueh  in   Kirche, 

^'^«*^«  und  Haus  (Allcntown,  lStJ3).     The  General 

jfc.,  \*^*>dl  uses  also  a  catechism  which  contains  the 

|.  ^ 'Sternberg  Konferenz-Examen  sub  an  appendix^ 

^   appeared  under  the  title  Dr.  ^f,  Luther  &  Kleiner 

^^^echismus    mil    Erk  Iti  rung    fiir    die    evangelisch' 

^^'^^Hjtche  Kirche  in  den   Vereinigteii  Staaten,  also 

-     .     I^nglish     (New  York).     A  recent  addition  ex- 

I  "*^iTia  Luther's  text  by  Bible  texts  and    stories — 

J^'^Uts    Kleiner    Katerhinmus    vtit    Bibelspruchen 

^"mladclphia).     The    German-EvanjCfelical    synod, 

^Vich  is  akin  to  the  Evangelical  Union  in  Germany, 

I 


toi 

■litle 
■Wnci 


evangeliseher  Katechi^mus,  also  an  edition  with 
German  and  En^ilish  on  parallel  pages  (St.  Louis). 
It  is  a  free  revision  of  the  Smaller  Catecliism,  dif- 
fering from  it  espeei:illy  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
siiiTaments.  The  Gcnnan-Rcfonncd  Church  uses 
a  catechism  pn'pared  in  1862  by  Philip  SehafT  anil 
entitled  ChriatlicJt^^  Katechijtmtis :  vin  Leitjaden 
zum  Reiigionjittnlerriiht  in  Schide  und  }Iau3  (Phila- 
delphia). These  rather  compreheniriive  books  are 
intended  for  the  school  and  especially  for  young 
people  to  be  cx>n firmed.  In  the  numerous  Sunday- 
schools  the  cliildren  are  frequently  instructed  only 
in  Biblical  stories.  A  catechism  intended  for  that 
purjjose  is  The  Little  La  nth' s  Cateehimn  by  J.  H. 
Lauritzen  ( Iuiox\-ille,  Tenn.)'  The  same  author 
wrote  another  manual  which  has  become  very 
popular — Dr.  M.  Lutkcr^s  Kleiner  Katechisnius^ 
also  in  English  (Knox\ille,  Tenn.).  The  German- 
Evangehca.1  Synod  posseeses  an  excellent  manual 
for  the  instruction  of  Sunday-schools  in  Kurze 
Kalecki^mu^lehre  (St,  Louis,  1899),  which  extends 
its  maU^rial  over  three  grades  and  is  considered  a 
preparation  for  the  catechism  proper* 

In  the  German  Moravian  congregations  the 
department  for  churches  and  schools  under  the 
direction  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum  has  reserved  to 
itself  the  right  of  selecting  manuals  to  be  ust^d  in 

instruction.     Luther's    Smaller    Gate- 

17.  The      <"liisni  is   chiefly  used,  in  some  placea 

Moraidanii  also  Hauptinhalt  der  chrinttlirhen  Heils- 

and  Bohe-   lehre  zum  Gebraueh  bel  dem  Unierricht 

miau        der  Jugend  in  den  evangdiscken  Bruder^ 

Brathran.  genwinden     (8th    ed.»  Gnadau,   1891), 

compiled  by  Samuel  Lieberkilhn  in 
1760.  Among  the  Bohemian  Bn'thren  the  Kate' 
ehismxis  der  christlichen  Lehre  zum  Getrauch  bei  dem 
Unierricht  der  Jugend  in  den  evangelijschen  Bruder~ 
gemeinden  (Dauba)  has  become  the  standard.  It  ia 
baaed  upon  a  catechism  written  by  L.  T.  Eeichel  for 
the  American  congregations  of  Brethren.  Among 
the  earlier  catechisms  wliich  are  out  of  use  now 
may  be  mentioned  Zinzendorf's  works — his  strange 
prothjction  Lauta-e  Mikh  der  Lehre  von  Jemi  Christo 
(1723)  and  liis  Gewi&ser  Orund  chriJiUicher  Lehre 
nnch  Anleitung  des  einfaehen  Cak^hi^rni  seel.  Herm 
Dr.  Luthers  in2S\ 

Among  the  German-speaking  Methodista  of 
the  United  States  the  only  books  used  are 
tlie  manuals  w^ritten  at  tho  order  of  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  in  1858  by  Willielm  Nasi  in 
Cincinnati,  especially  with  the  aid  of  Schaff'a 
catechism,  Der  grdssere  [kkinere]  Katechismus  fiir 

die  deiUschen  Gefneinden  der  Bisehdf- 
^®*^***  lichen   Methodi^knkirche  (Cincinnati). 

The  English  Methodists  use  A   Brief 

Catechism  {or  the  Une  of  MethodistB 
Compikd  by  Order  of  the  Conference  (London)  and 
The  Catechism  of  the  Weskyan  Afethodist^  (ib.). 
The  latter  work  consists  really  of  three  catechismj, 
arranged  in  gradation  for  pupils  of  dilTerent  agea» 

The  manuids  used  among  the  Baptists  in  Ger- 
many are  Rode's  ChriMHcher  ReligioHmmterrirht  far 
die  reifere  Jugend  (Hambnrg,  1882)  and  Kaiser's 
Leitfaden  far  den  Rfligi/tnminlerrichtf  which  first 
apiDcarcd  in  English  imder  the  title  of  Prize  Cak' 
chi^m.      Besides   these,  Wcert'a  KaleehismtiSt  etn 


18. 

odist  Gate-  I 
oMams. 


Oataohlsnui 
Oataohuxnenato 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


448 


Leitfaden  fUr  den  Religionsunterri^ht  (Cassel,  1899) 
is  used.  [Several  catechisms  were  prepared  by 
English  Particular  Baptists  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury: A  Soul  Searching  Catechism^  by 
10.  BaptUt  Christopher  Blackwood  (1653);  Cate- 
and  Irviner-  chiam  for  Children^  by  Henry  Jessey 

ite  Oata-    (1673);  The  Child's  Instructor :  a  New 

ohlmns.  and  Easy  Primer^  by  Benjamin  Krach 
(1664).  The  General  Assembly  of  the 
Particular  Baptists  at  its  session  in  London  in 
June,  1693,  requested  William  Collins  to  draw  up 
a  catechism  "  containing  the  substance  of  the 
Christian  religion,  for  the  instruction  of  children  and 
servants."  It  has  been  reproduced  in  authentic 
form  in  Confeesiane  of  Faiih,  and  other  Documents, 
edited  for  the  Hanserd  KnoUys  Sodeiy^  by  E.  B, 
VnderhiU  (London,  1854).  Among  the  Baptists  of 
the  United  States  in  the  South  and  Southwest 
Question  Books  (four  series)  by  A.  C.  Dayton,  and  a 
Catechism  by  J.  A.  Broadus,  have  been  widely  used. 

A  H.  N.] 

The  catechism  of  the  Irvingites  contains  three 
chapters;  the  first  two  represent  practically  the 
Prayer-book  catechism;  the  third  part  treats  of  the 
doctrines  peculiar  to  the  Irvingites,  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church  and  its  offices. 

[For  th^  catechisms  used  in  most  Presbyterian 
communions  see  Webtminster  Standards.] 

The  Eng^sh  Unitarians  use  especially  two  small 

manuals — Ten   Lessons    in    Religion     by   Charles 

Beard  (London,  2d  ed.,  1897)  and  A  Catechism  of 

Religion  by  H.   W.  Hawkes.     While 

80.  TTnlta-  the  fonner  contains  only  an  exposition 

rianOato-    of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  instruction 

ohinna.  on  the  Bible,  the  latter  treats  in 
fifty-two  questions  of  the  most  im- 
portant terms  in  Christian  faith  and  interprets 
them  in  the  Unitarian  sense.  The  latter  b  in  some 
respects  dependent  on  An  Evangelical  Free  Church 
Catechism  for  Use  in  Home  and  School  (London), 
which  is  used  by  Unitarians,  Methodists,  Baptists, 
Congregationalists,  Presbyterians,  and  some  smaller 
denominations. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  learned  from  the 
Evangelicals  its  solicitude  for  the  religious  in- 
struction of  youth.  Numerous  manuals  appeared 
as  imitations  of  Evangelical  catechisms.  The  cate- 
chism of  John  Dietenberger,  a  very  popular  book, 
was  in  some  passages  copied  verbatim  from  Luther's. 
But  all  the  catechisms  previously  published  were 
far  surpassed  in  popularity  by  the  Summa  doctrines 
christianoPf  per  quwstioTies  tradita  et  ad  capitum  rudi" 
orum  accommodata  (1556)  by  the  Jesuit  Peter 
Canisius.  It  forms  an  epitome  of  his 
21.  Boman  Summa   doctrines   christiance   of    1555 

Catholic    ^^^  was  translated  into  all  European 

and  Old     languages.     It  was  used  even  in  India 

Catholic  and  remained  for  about  two  centuries 
Catechisms,  the  principal  catechism  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  1559  Canisius 
enlarged  it  under  the  title  Parims  Catechismus 
catholicorum,  which  became  the  model  for  numerous 
expositions  of  the  Summa.  In  1566  appeared  the 
Catechismus  ex  decreto  Concilii  Tridentini  ad 
Parochos  Pii  V.  Pontificis  Maximi  iussu  editus, 
intended  as  a  homiletical  and  catechetical  hand- 


book for  the  dergy;  but  the  influence  of  the  Jes- 
uits was  so  great  that  it  could  not  compete  with 
the  catechisms  of  Canisius;  and  even  those  of 
Bellarmin,  which  appeared  in  1598,  did  not  attain 
equal  popularity  with  them.  The  Roman  Catholic 
books  of  instruction,  like  the  Evangelical  catechisms, 
did  not  escape  the  influence  of  rationalism,  at  firet 
in  method  and  then  even  to  some  extent  in  con- 
tents. A  return  to  the  stricter  teaching  of  the 
Church  made  itself  felt  in  the  first  decades  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Since  1847  J.  Dehaibe's 
catechisms  have  been  generally  recogmied  as 
standard  works.  They  include  Katholiseher  Katt- 
ehismus  fOr  Stadt-  und  Landschulen  (R^nsbuiig, 
1847);  and  Kleiner  katholiseher  KatechismusswMd 
for  solche  Landschulen^  welche  nur  wShrend  da 
Sommer-  oder  Wintersemesters  besucht  werden  (1847). 
In  the  United  States  the  Catholic  Church  provides 
manuals  of  catechetical  instruction,  such  as  those 
edited  by  W.  Faerber  in  German  and  English  (St 
Louis,  1897  and  often),  and  Catechisms  of  Catholic 
Teaching  (New  York,  n.d.). 

The  Old  Catholic  Church  has  two  oflidal  cate- 
chisms, the  Katholische  Katechiemust  herausgegAm 
tm  Auftrage  der  aUkathdischen  Synods  (Bonn)  and 
Leitfaden  fOr  den  kaihoUschen  ReligionswUenuk 
an  hdheren  Schulen,  herausgeg^ben  im  Auftrage  der 
altkatholischenSynode  (Bonn,  1877). 

In  1721  the  S3mod  of  the  Russian  Orthodox 
Church  decreed  that  three  small  manuals  for  the 
instruction  of  youth  and  the  common  people  should 
be  made,  one  on  the  principal  doctrines  of  faith 
and  on  the  decalogue,  a  second  on  the 
88.  The  special  duties  of  each  class,  and  a  third 
Gtreek  contaiitung  sermons  on  the  principal 
Ohuroh.  doctrines,  virtues,  and  vices.  On  the 
strength  of  this  order  there  appeared  a 
book  entitled  "  First  Instruction  of  Youth,  Contain- 
ing a  Primer  and  a  Short  Exposition  of  the  Decalogue, 
the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Creed,  by  order  of  his 
Majesty  Peter  I.,  emperor  of  all  the  Russias,"  which 
is  probably  the  first  real  catechism  in  the  Greek 
Church.  The  catechism  used  at  the  present  time, 
the  "  Complete  Christian  Catechism  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Catholic  Eastern  Church,"  first  published  in 
1839,  originated  imder  the  influence  of  a  manual 
composed  by  Jeromonach  Platon  in  1765  for  the 
heir  to  the  throne,  the  Grand  Duke  Paul  Petrovitch, 
which  is  influenced  in  the  arrangement  of  material 
by  the  Confessio  orthodoxa  of  Peter  Mogilaa  (1643). 
Like  the  latter,  it  groups  its  material  under  the 
three  Christian  virtues  of  faith,  hope,  and  love. 
After  an  introduction  on  revelation,  Holy  Scripture, 
and  catechetical  teaching,  it  begins  with  an  expo- 
sition of  the  Nicene  Creed,  followed  by  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  the  Beatitudes,  the  union  between 
faith  and  love,  and  an  exposition  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments. The  book  closes  with  the  application 
of  the  doctrine  of  faith  and  of  piety. 

(Ferdinand  Oohbs.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  works  under  Gatkchssib.  Catkhhicb; 
Catechumenate;  Ldther'b  Two  Catkch»i»:  •bA  Hb- 
DELBRRo  Catechirm  ehould  be  consulted.  ColIectioM  « 
early  catechisms  are  made  in  A/onutwrite  Gfrmani9  p«»- 
ffoffica.  ed.  C.  Kehrbach.  vols.  4,  20-3.^.  .39.  BerUn,  1887- 
1907.  and  in  Katechetiaehe  Handbibliothek,  ed.  F.  W»lk. 
Kempten,  1891-1905  (oontaininc  not  only  oatechismB  but 


RELIGIOITS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


3a  tech 


|worki  on  eat«cbeticf ).     On  the  cat^nhiHtns  of  the  Middle 
OotiauJti    G-  Lasi^emnvk,  Histaria  catechetica^  vol.  i., 
Btrabund.   1729;    J,   GelTckori,   Dtr  BilderkatechinmuM  dt* 
UnfztknleH    Jahrhundcrta   und   d^  k&UidieiiMchen   Ilaupt^ 
I  in  die$tr  Zcit  bU  auf  Luiher,  voL  i.,  Lfip*it',  IfctSS; 
Hnick.,    Der   rtiigibte    UfUrrrirht  ,  ,   ,  in  DeuiMcfiland, 
■«  1870;   P.  Gobi.  Ge^ekicht*  der  Kaitch^Mt  im  Abend- 
vom    V^faU   de4   Kattchumenai   bis  turn   Ende  deM 
^MiUetalUrM,    Keinpt«a,    188U;     F.   rrubr>l,    He^chichte  der 
kaikoliitchen  KaischeM,  Ure&lau.  1887;  F.  bu\k,  Der  Unler- 
riehJl    d«a    Volkif   *«    dm    AnttcMlmchrn    liaupiatucken    am 
I  dm  AfiUekUlert,  ia  Jii*torUch'polUi»di£  BlaiUr,  cviJi 
>,  553  sqq..  682  pqq,,  cix  (18»2)  8t  tuq..  721  nqq,; 
m^    DenUchiand*   kaiholi^Khg  Kaltchigmen  biM 
.  Ende  des  aechMt^nten  JahrhurtderUt  MiinAter,   18Sf4; 
,  KD.  voh.  i.-iii. 
r  coUeclioaa  of  catechisms  in  post^Reforiiuition  timea 
Germ*ny  conault,  besides  the  coUections  of  Kirbrbach, 
W&Lk,  ut   Bup.:    J.   Hartuiaim,    AtUe9te  kat^chetische 
Dmikmtde  dtr  evangelitchen   Kirdie,   Stutteart,   1844;    F, 
W.    Bodemann^    Katechttiacht  Denkmatr  der  evanoeli^ch- 
iuth«ri»dien  Kirche,   Horburs,    1861;    G.   Kawtirau,    Zuti 
HJietitt    KateehUrmen    dtr  lulheritcken    RefvrTnatimi,    Halle, 
1800.     For  s   bibliofirraphy   of    newer  literature  ronsuk: 
F.   Schneider^   Kritiacher    [V«ffwH«er  durch   die  lAttaxUur 
dm  KimfirmandBnunlerrichia  und  der  o fJenUichmn  ChrisUn' 
^^  Uhre^    Stuttgart.     1899.     The    history    of    cateehlama    ia 
^K^ treated  in:  G.  Langemark,  ut  aup,,  volii.  ii.-iii,,  Straliaund^ 
^^17a€-40;    K.  J.  l^schke.  £/i«    rdi^OM   BUduno  der  Ju- 
^H|Ptnd  untf  cfar  tiUliche  Zuaiand  der  Sckultn  im  t6.  Jahrhun- 
^■^0r<»  Braslau.  1846;    F.  R.  Chretifeuchter^  Zur  Grachi^hle. 
^V^st   Kaiechiwmus,    G^ttingen,    1857;     K.    Neumann.    Der 
*        (gvangeliache  ReUffionsurtterricht  im  ZeiiaUar  der  Reforma- 
tion, Berlin,  I89f9. 

On  other  than  German  lands  ooaeult:   9.  Hcbr.  Omchiehte 

Ziircher-KatrchiaTnua,     Z<urich^     1811;       Tercentenart/ 

ionumen/.    In   Commemoratwn   of   the    Three   Hundredth 

innivertarjf   of    the    Heidelbero    CaiecJiiem,    PhilatlHphia, 

C.  A.  Toren,    Df-r  eianaelUche   Ketiowna-Untfrricht 

Beutachland,   Groaabriiannien    und    DUnemark,   Gotba, 

||&65:     H.   Bo  nor.   CaterhittmJt  of  the  Sratti«h  I  rfarrrQtion^ 

ondon.   18«i0;    A.  T.  Mitchell.   Cate^htJune  of  the  Second 

Btffonno/um  .  .  .  with     Hiatoricat    Introduction^   Loudon, 

||8S6;    A*  C.  Banir,  Dokttmenter  oq  etudier  redrfirende   den 

rake    katekismue'  hietorie  in  f^ordenm  kirkrr,  2  vol*., 

■nia.    1803^99;     I.    Moschakes,    Caiechiem    of   the 

rfox  Eaetern  Church,  London.  1804;    J.  Foynot.  The 

"  Rtal  Ref*rrmatiotk  Catechimm  of  1B6$,  ib.  1894;  W,  E«jne«, 

Earlu   New   Enffland   Catechi^mt.     A    hUMoffrapkieid   Ae^ 

^^mnk  of  tome  Catechieme  published  before  1800^  Woroeater. 

Th»  literature  on  Homan  Catholie  pateebiama  in  very 

oua:  the  following  may  tie  consulted ;    The  Cat^ 

\efJohn  HamiUon,  Oxford,  1844;    C,  Moufan«.  Die 

'  Kaiechimnen  von  der  Erfindunff  der  Bitchdrucker- 

phcfMf  his  rum  Emie  dee  achit^nien  JahrhundertM,  Maine. 

J877:   Commentitire  eur  te  cat/cHiame  dea  provinree  etrffn- 

de  Quebec.   Afontr/al  Ottavsa,  Montreal,   1»P7;    F, 

K,  Thalhofer,  EntvnckeUing  dee  ka^diaehen  Katerh%»mn« 

i  DeuUcMand  von  Cani)>iue  bie  Deharhe,  Freibnrc.  1899; 

P.  Spiraco.  The  Caterhiem  Erptained.  New  York.  1899;  T. 

",  CTox,  Biblical  Treatun/  of  the  Catrrhiem.  ih.  1900;  T.  L. 

:inkaad.  Explanation  of  the  Baltimore  Cateehiem,  ib.  1902; 

J,  Perry.  Explanatifin  of  the  CatecJiiem,  St.  Louis,  1902. 

CATECHUMEWATE. 


rtif«t  DatA  (I  !>. 
Aoeording     to     the     Chureb 

I  Fathers  (f  2). 
en  Period  of  Development 
(I  3). 
"'. 


Second    Period   of    Develop- 

mput  (S  4). 
Decline    of   the  Cateehuttwo 

nate  d  5). 
Ritual  Bur\nvab  (S  6). 


Catechumen at<;  ia  a  term  applied  to  the  method 
receiving  and  instructing,  in  preparation  for 
ptism,  those  who  applied  for  membership  in  the 
early  Christian  Church.  Aa  soon  as  the  apostolic 
mission  had  reached  the  stage  of  founding  a  Chris- 
tian Bodety,  it  was  natural  that  thosf*  who  wished 
to  enter  it  should  be  required  to  go  through  a 
rotiFBe  of  inHtruction  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  hopes 
ch  it  held  out  and  the  demands  which  it  made 
IL-29 


of  its  members.  Our  information  aa  to  the  method 
pursued  in  the  earliest  period  is  very  scanty.  Ap- 
paa'utly  tiie  gatherings  of  the  disciples  were  at  first 
freely  opened  to  any  one  (I  Cor.  xiv,  24)  who 
desired  to  know  more  of  their  faith  and  practise; 
and  baptism  was  probably  oft^n  administered 
with  but  a  short  delay.     As  time  went  on,  more 

care  was  exercised;     the   need   of   it 

I.  Earliest  was  demonstrated  by  cases  of  relapse 

Data.       into  heathenism   and  of  the  seeking 

of  menil>ership  from  interested  or 
treacherous  motives.  We  find  traces  of  this  greater 
caution  as  early  as  the  first  Apology  of  Justin 
(c.  150).  A  demand  is  made  for  some  aecurity 
as  to  the  belief  and  conduct  of  the  candidate,  who 
is  not  appart-'ntly  admitted  to  the  asi^embly  of  the 
faithful  imtil  he  has  been  adjudged  worthy  of 
baptism*  How  this  security  was  obtained  is  not 
clear  J  the  preparation  seems  to  have  been  private, 
and  the  one  who  conducted  it  probably  answered 
for  the  candidate,  as  at  once  6j>oiiaor  and  catechist. 
Tertullian  portrays  a  somewhat  different  system; 
though  catechmiiens  are  still  excluded  from  the 
assembly,  the  apphcation  of  this  name  to  them 
implies  that  they  were  already  reckoned  as  in  a 
sense  belonging  to  tlie  Church  and  under  its  care. 
This  is  still  more  clearly  the  case  in  Origt^n's  aeeoimt. 

The  much  discussed  passage  Contra  Cel- 

a.  According  sum,  iii.  51  shows  plainly  that  there  wajs 

to  the       a  definite  system  of  examination  and 

Church      of  infltniction.     It  gives  also  the  fact 

Fathers,     that  at  this  period,  besides  the  class 

which  (as  in  Justin  and  Tertullian) 
is  excluded  from  the  assembly,  there  is  another 
which  has  advanced  far  enough  to  claim  the  priv- 
ilege of  admission,  and  is  only  waiting  fur  the  last 
decisive  step  of  baptism.  It  is  a  raiatake  to  at- 
tempt to  deduce  from  liis  wor^is  three  classes 
divided  by  a  hard  and  fast  line,  or  to  apply 
to  theae  classes  the  names  audtenies  (GAr.  akrod^ 
menoi ) ,  gett ufledenle  { yon  uklinonte^ ) ,  and  corn  peten- 
tev  (phMizomenoi).  The  last  occurs  in  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  and  in  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  passim, 
for  the  candidates  approaching  baptism,  who  are 
definitely  distinguished  from  the  catechumens. 
The  name  akrodmenai  occurs  for  the  first  time  in 
the  passage  of  Origen  referred  to,  but  witliout  a 
distinct  meaning;  it«  use  later  in  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  deacon  in  the  liturgy,  summoning  those 
not  entitled  to  be  present  to  depart,  relates  to  a 
class  of  penitents  not  allowed  to  hear  a  part  of  the 
serv^iee  to  which  catechumens  were  admitted.  In 
like  manner  the  application  of  gonuklinonles  to  a 
class  of  catechumens  rests  on  a  misimderstanding 
of  the  oorrupt  Greek  text  of  the  fifth  canon  of  the 
S3mod  of  Kfeoctesarea  (314),  which  really  means 
that  catechumens  falling  into  sin  are  to  be  put 
among  the  penitents*  and  expelled  altogether  if  they 
do  not  amend. 

To  sum  up,  then,  what  has  been  said.  Origen 
shows  a  development  of  the  catechumenate  from 
what  Ju.*itin  gives,  while  Tertullian  exhibits  an 
intermediate  stage,  Wc  must,  however,  remember 
that  these  witnesses  are  from  difTerent  part.^  of 
the  Church.  The  development  was  probably 
largely   influenced    by   local    conditions.     Ia  Ter- 


Oatoohnmenato 
Oatenn 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


450 


tullian's  time,  Septimius  Sevenis  had  forbidden  oon- 
vexBions  to  Christianity,  and  formal  arrangements 
for  the  preparation  of  converts  would  have  been 
direct  rebellion.    In  Origen's  day,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Church  had  enjoyed  a  long  period  of 
peace,  and  was  not  afraid  to  allow 
3.  First     trusted  catechumens  to  be  present  at 
Period  of  its  services;   but  the  large  number  of 
Develop-    converts  made  it  more  probable  that 
ment.       some  imworthy  ones  would  be  among 
them,  and  so  to  the  original  exam- 
ination   before    baptism,    a    second    and    eariier 
one  was  added.     Origen's  account  of  the    cate- 
chumenate    gives    all    the    essential    features    of 
the  institution,  as  we  meet  with  it  when  fully 
established,  after  persecution  had  ceased.     Chris- 
tianity had  become  the  state  religion,  and  it  was 
possible  to  work  out  in   detail   institutions  which 
had   been  carefully  planned  in  the  dark  days  pre- 
ceding. 

This  second  or  established  period  covers  roughly 
the  fourth  and  early  fifth  centuries.  The  can- 
didate, accompanied  by  a  sponsor,  annoimces  his 
desire,  normally  to  a  deacon,  who  informs  the 
bishop  or  presbyter.  The  groimds  of  his  desire  are 
investigated;  people  of  certain  sinful  or  dubious 
occupations  are  ipso  facto  excluded  unless  they  will 
abandon  them.  If  the  candidate  is  acceptable, 
he  receives  a  preliminary  instruction,  and  is  then 
Bet  apart  by  the  sign  of  the  cross,  laying  on  of  hands, 
and  (in  the  West)  with  blessed  salt,  as  a  catechumen. 
For  a  time  he  receives  no  special  instruction,  shar- 
ing that  which  the  whole  congregation  gets  in  the 
missa  catechumenorum,  though  depart- 
4.  Second  ing  before  the  later  and  more  solenm 
Period  of  part  of  the  liturgy.  After  two  (or 
Develop-  three)  years,  he  may  ask  for  baptism; 
ment  he  enters  the  class  of  competerUeSf  and 
his  name  is  inscribed  on  the  church 
list.  The  immediate '  preparation  includes  special 
instructions,  usually  given  by  the  bishop;  certain 
ceremonies,  especially  of  exorcism,  which  show 
the  influence  of  the  pagan  mysteries;  and  finally 
the  traditio  aymboli,  or  instruction  in  the  precise 
words  of  the  baptismal  creed,  whose  general  sense 
has  long  been  known  to  him.  After  learning  and 
repeating  this,  he  is  taught  the  words  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  which  has  also  been  withheld  from 
him  until  now  by  the  Arcani  disciplina  (q.v.).  The 
recitation  of  the  creed  as  a  solemn  act  and 
the  final  renunciation  of  paganism  accompany  the 
act  of  baptism,  which  usually  takes  place  in  the 
night  before  Easter.  During  the  following  week 
the  neophyte  receives  further  instructions,  and  on 
the  next  Sunday,  siill  wearing  his  white  baptismal 
robe,  he  takes  his  place  among  the  congregation 
as  a  baptized  Christian,  and  joins  in  the  recitation 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  prayer  of  the  children  of 
God.  As  to  the  matter  contained  in  the  instruc- 
tions to  the  catechumen  in  this  period,  fullest  in- 
formation comes  from  Augustine  in  the  West  and 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  in  the  East. 

The  decline  of  the  institution  was  brought  about 
by  the  constantly  increasing  numbers  of  those 
who  sought  admission  to  the  Church.  A  thorough 
examination  of  them  all  became  impossible;    the 


preliminary   instruction    was    gradually  dropped, 
and  the  catechumenate  was  reduced  to  the  imme- 
diate preparation  for  baptism.   The 
5.  Decline    growing  practise  of  baptizing  infuiti 
of  the  Gate-  and   young   children    completed  the 
chumenate.  process,  since  there  was  no  place  for 
instruction  in  their  case.    Something 
still  remained,  however,  .of  the  ancient  procedure. 
On  the  Monday  after  the  third  Sunday  in  Lent, 
notice  was  given  to  present  the  children  who  were 
to  be  baptized  at  Blaster.    On  the  following  Wednes- 
day their  sponsors  brought  them  to  the  church, 
where   their   names   were   regLstered.    The  cere- 
monies of  signing  with  the  cross,  laying  on  of  hands, 
exorcism,  giving  of  salt,  and  a  final  prayer  made 
them  catechumens.    Seven  masses  were  said  on 
succeeding  days,  five  containing  similar  ceremonies, 
while  the  last  two  were  especially  solemn.   The 
sixth  contained  the  **  opening  of  the  ears,"  a  re- 
minder of  the  ancient  traditio  symboU ;   the  book 
of  the  Gospels  was  borne  in  procession  to  the  altar 
and  a  short  extract  from  each  Go^ 
6.  Ritual    read,  after  which  the  creed  was  given 
Surviyala.    to    the   candidates,    and   an  acolyte 
brought  forward  two  children,  a  boj 
and  a  girl,  and  recited  the  creed  for  them  (the 
ancient   redditio   symboli);     with   the   subsequent 
communication  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  were  usually 
connected  short  expositions  of  each  clause.  The 
last  "  scrutiny  "  took  place  the  day  before  Easter, 
and  followed  much  the  same  order,  but  more  sol- 
emnly and  formally;    and  baptism  took  phu»  it 
the  traditional  time. 

When  the  time  came  that  nothing  remained  d 
the  original  institutions  of  the  catechxunenate  except 
the  outward  ceremonies,  these  were  more  and  more 
condensed,  until  they  formed  but  a  single  rite 
leading  up  to  the  baptism  which  immediately 
followed  them.  In  the  Ordo  baptismi  of  the  Romso 
Ritual  the  order  of  the  ancient  preparations  for 
baptism  may  still  be  traced  without  difficulty,  and 
not  a  few  relics  of  it  remain  in  the  evangelical 
baptismal  ceremonies  (see  Baptism). 

(Ferdinand  Cohbs.) 
A  very  interesting  survival  of  the  ancient  cate- 
chumenate is  found  in  the  Armenian  work  found 
among  the  modem  Paulicians,  translated  and  edited 
by  F.  C.  Conybeare  (The  Key  of  Truth  :  A  Mmvd 
of  the  Paidician  Church  of  Armeniaf  Oxford,  1898) 
and  believed  by  the  editor  to  have  been  written  not 
later  than  the  ninth  century  and  to  represent  an 
almost  primitive  form  of  Oriental  Christianity.  It 
is  adoptionist  in  its  Christology  and  drastic  in  its 
opposition  to  infant-baptism.  It  provides  for  a 
solemn  consecration  of  the  infant  of  Christian  pa^ 
ents  by  the  minister  when  it  is  seven  days  old,  the 
careful  training  by  parents  and  church  until  ma- 
turity is  reached,  the  thorough  testing  of  the  can* 
didates  for  baptism  in  life  and  in  knowledge  of  Clin^ 
tian  doctrine  and  morals,  and  the  administration 
of  baptism  with  considerable  ceremony  to  those 
who  have  fulfilled  all  the  conditions  and  bare 
attained  to  the  age  at  which  Christ  was  baptiaed. 
A  brief  catechism,  embracing  the  points  of  doctrine 
in  which  catechumens  must  be  grounded,  is  gi^^ 
at  the  end.  A  E  N. 


451 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oateclmmen  ate 
Gatenee 


BiBLirfonAPHT:  Th«  »ouroe»  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of 
Juatifi  Martyr,  Ori|ten''ii  Conira  Ctltum,  the  "  Catechetical 
Lectur«fl"of  Cyril  of  Jenjumlem,  AugiutinoB  De  catechi- 
aandit  rudibuM,  &nd  %he  Didach^,  all  of  whioli  are  acc<l'^l^dble 
in  Ens,  tran»l.  The  history  of  the  institution  is  traced  in: 
G.  von  Zesflcbwiti.  Si/»tem  der  d^ruUirhen  Katechetik, 
3  vob..  Leipeic  1863-72;  X  Mayer,  Qetchichte  dew  KnU- 
dkwmemiUi  ,  ,  ,  in  den  trtten  «ecAt  Jahrkunderten,  Kemp- 
tati.  186G  (Roman  Catholic);  A.  Weiaa,  Die  attkirdUiche 
^tamdagofftk  .  e2er  ergten  aecha  Jahrhufiderte,  Fn^ibiiv;gt 
1860;  F.  X.  Funk,  in  TiibinQer  Theulogi^he  Qxmrtaitchrijt, 
1883.  pp.  41-77,  1886,  pp.353  aqq.,  1899.  pp.  434  Bqq.; 
E*  Hatch,  C^ffanitation  of  the  Early  Churchee^  London, 
1888*  J.  Heron,  CAitrcA  of  StJ>-Apo»tolic  Age:  itM  Lifw, 
Wanhip,  and  OrganUation,  London*  1888;  E,  SaflhjMMj, 
EvangeliKhe  KaiecKetik:  die  Lehre  von  der  kirtMichen 
Brtimhung,  Berliu,  1897;  F.  Wiegand,  Die  Stelluno  dee 
vptmloliechen  Sii/mbuls  im  kirchlichm  Leben  deM  MiUelaliere, 
i.  Symbol  und  Katechumenat,  Leipeic.  1899;  Neander, 
ChHttian  Churchy  vols.  i.  and  ii.  contain  much  valuable 
matter,  consult  the  Index;  Schaff,  ChrUtian  ChwcA,  ii. 
36&-257;  Binebam,  Chrioinee,  books  x„  xi.,  xiv. ;  DC  A, 
L  317-319:  the  literature  on  the  Didache  (q.v.)  usually 
t  the  eatecbetxcii  of  the  early  Cburch. 

CATENA, 


tMgin  (f  1). 

Meuiins  of  the  Term  (I  2). 

Sokire»(|3). 

Vilued  4). 

K«thod  (5  5). 


Form  (§  fi). 

CateasB  Previoua  to  the  Four- 

teeuth  Century  (|  7). 
Medieval  Catensc  Cf  8). 
Foit^  lie  formation  Cateoie  (£0). 


The  term  catena, "  a  chain"  (pluml,  catenae),  des- 
ignates a  commentary  on  Holy  Scripture  made  up 
bypiedng  together  short  extracts  from  the  Fathers 
and  older  writers.  This  plan  of  constnjction  was 
suggested  by  the  accumulation  of  exegetical  mate- 
riili  made  both  by  On  gen  and  his  school  and  by 
the  tbeologians  of  Antioch  In  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries* 

The  principal  motive  which  impelled  later  scholars 

to  collect  and  examine  the  early  utt-erances  was  a 

dogmatic  one.     After  the  conver^on  of  Constan- 

tine,  the  Church  was  anxious  to  put  together  in 

a  clear  and  systematic  form  the  results 

t.  Origin,    of  previous  theological  work^  and  to 

^  emphasize  the  connection  of  the  pairt 

th  the  present.  For  this  purpose  in  regard  to 
doctrine  the  decrees  of  the  ecumenical  councils 
wiswered  admirably;  but  it  was  not  so  easy  to 
attain  the  same  result  in  the  extjosition  of  Scrip- 
ttire.  The  problem  was  to  represent  the  results 
Arrived  at  by  the  recognized  commentators  in 
pix>positioDs  that  had  a  unity  of  scheme  and  an 
admitted  authority.  The  principles  of  its  solution 
»re  laid  down  in  the  nineteenth  canon  of  the  Quini- 
•ext  (Second  Trullan)  Coiuidl:  that  Holy  Scripture 
ifi  the  standard  of  truth,  that  the  limits  of  doctrine 
ilpfifidy  fixed  and  the  traditions  of  the  Fathers  are 
iKSt  to  be  transgressed,  and  that  if  any  question 
oonoeming  the  ^ripture  comes  up,  it  is  to  be  ex- 
pounded in  no  other  way  than  as  the  great  teachers 
^  the  past  have  given  it  in  their  works.  The 
**pcwtion  of  the  Seripture  was  thus  firmly  at- 
^ched  to  the  recognized  orthodox  doctrine.  The 
•cfond  canon  of  the  same  council  had  named  some 
of  the  ''lights  and  doctors ''  who  were  to  be  fol- 
^wed^  and  the  first  canon  had  given  warning  against 
*ii  heretics,  not  merely  against  Anus,  Macedonius, 
^{KiUiaaris,  and  NestoriuSj  but  also  against 
^^ore  of  Mopsuestia,  Origen,  Didymus,  Eva- 
pius,  and  Theodoret.  It  was,  however,  found 
^pueaible  to  cany  out  these  principlea  strictly. 


The  writings  of  the  authors  suspects  of  heresy 
offered  material  too  valuabte  to  be  Dcglectcd;  ami 
it  was  found  impossible  to  arrix'e  at  a  unity  of 

results  in  an  anthology  of  this  kind  without  doing 

violence  to  the  individuality  of  the  authors  and 
damaging  their  authority,  so  that  nothing  could 
be  doiie  but  to  put  together  what  was  selected. 

In  this  manner  arose  the  collections  of  extracts 
which  are  so  characteristic  of  Byzantine  theology, 
covering  all  the  books  of  the  Bible  (especially 
Genesis,  Job,  the  Psalms,  Canticles,  Isaiali,  Mat- 
thew, and  John)  by  extracts  from  patristic  com- 
mentators, and  setting  an  example  of  methoti  which 
was  widely  followed  in  Western  and  medieval  com- 
mentaries. These  collections  are  usually  known 
as  Caienm  (Seirai),  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
obscure,  but  its  meaning  is  plain.  It  refers  to 
collections   of  material   put   together 

1,  Meaning  in  a  purely  external  but  visible  con- 
of  the       nection,  and  strung  upon  the  thread 
Tena.       of  the  text.     Tfiero  may  have  been 
originally  a  mystical  significance  at- 
tached to  it.     As  the  hermetic  chain  of  the  later 
Neoplatonist^   symbolized     the    harmonious   con- 
junction of  the  bearers  of  wistlom  to  the  world, 
hand  joined  in  hand  from  the  earliest  to  later  times, 
so  the  hne  of  the  Fathers  woa  to  hand  doT^n  the 
approved  ex]x»9itions  of  the  one  true  Church. 

The  first  compilers  have  no  fixed  phrases  to 
describe  their  process;  but  their  lengthy  titles 
give  an  idea  of  the  plan  they  set  before  them. 
They  collected  their  material  according  to  the 
maxim  of  Seneca,  Quod  verum  e^t,  meum  est  {'*  What 
is  true  is  mine  ■ ').  The  manner  in  which  literary 
property  was  handled  in  the  ancient  world  per- 
mitted not  only  straightforward  appropriation  of 
other  people's  work,  but  the  utmost  freedom  in 
adaptation  to  the  borrower's  special  purpose.  The 
retention  of  the  original  authors*  names  here  is  an 
e\idence  of  the  weight  attachetl  to  their  testimony 
as  authoritative  expositors;  where  the  compiler 
adds  comments  of  his  own^  he  is  usually  careful 
to  distinguish  his  additions.  Great  variety  is 
found  in  the  manner  of  reproduction  and  in  the 
extent  of  the  material  included.  In  the  Catena  of 
Possinua  on  Matthew  we  have  one  const nicted  on 
the  exact  lines  laid  down  by  the  Quinisext  Council— 
a    mosaic    of    verbal    citations    from 

3.  Sources,  commentaries  or  other  writings  of 
ortho<lox  Fathers.  Where  the  com- 
piler, like  Nicetas  of  Serra?,  added  reflections  of 
his  own,  he  gt^ne rally  put  them  at  the  head  of  the 
group  of  quotations  following  a  fresh  section  of 
the  text,  Wbere  he  adapted  and  condensed,  ho 
either  kept  to  the  serial  order,  or  worked  over  all 
the  materiid  he  had  accumulated  without  making 
divisions  for  the  separate  authors.  Tliis  is  the 
manner  adopted  by  Procojjiiis,  CEcumenius,  and 
Theophylact,  who  emphasize  at  the  same  time  the 
fact  that  they  are  not  originators  but  transmitters. 
There  is  no  sharps  dividing  line  between  this  kind 
of  Catena  and  the  Byzantine  commentary;  for 
the  latter  also  patristic  tradition  is  the  standard, 
though  the  sources  are  not  intlieated  in  the  margin, 
as  is  usually  the  case  in  the  Catenae,  and  the  expo- 
aitton  prooeeda  without  a  break. 


Qatenn 
Oftthftiiim 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


452 


The  value  of  the  6aten»  is  measured  by  their 
judgment  in  selecting  and  their  skill  in  combining 
the  material  they  borrow.  The  difficulty  of  choice 
is  increased  by  the  dogmatic  limitations,  which 
are  sometimes  in  inevitable  conflict  with  the 
scholarly  interest.  Origen,  for  instance,  the  first 
great  Christian  critic  and  commentator,  was  of 
inestimable  value  to  exegesis;  and  for  the  Old 
Testament  Catense  both  Philo,  who  had  been 
studied  by  all  learned  theologians 
4*  Value,  from  Origen  down,  and  Josephus  were 
invaluable  authorities.  A  compro- 
mise was  reached  in  the  principle  (still  followed 
by  Roman  Catholic  commentators)  of  Cyril  of 
Alexandria:  *'  We  need  not  avoid  or  question 
everything  that  heretics  have  said;  for  they  con- 
fess many  things  which  we  also  confess."  Another 
difficulty  was  found  in  the  occasionally  conffict- 
ing  expositions;  their  diversity  was  explained  by 
Drungarius,  with  reference  to  the  obscurity  of  the 
text,  as  providential.  He  contents  himself  with 
placing  side  by  side  the  varying  renderings  and 
explanations  of  Isaiah,  leaving  the  reader  to  form 
his  own  judgment. 

The  simplest  method  of  making  a  Catena  was  to 
follow  one  principal  authority,  to  whose  expo- 
sition shorter  scholia  are  added  from  other  sources. 
Thus  Chiysostom  is  the  main  source  in  the  Catena 
of  Possinus  on  Matthew,  as  well  as  in  the  Gospel 
conmientaries  of  Euthymius  and  Theophylact, 
though  all  of  these  differ  in  the  ad- 
5.  Method,  ditions  they  make  to  what  they  take 
from  him.  Other  Catens  are  indis- 
criminate anthologies,  no  one  authority  being  pre- 
ferred. Of  this  type  are  those  of  Procopius  and 
Nicetas,  and  most  of  those  on  the  Epistles. 

The  external  form  of  the  Catenae  differed  accord- 
ing to  their  extent.  Where  they  were  not  too 
extensive,  the  text  was  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  page,  surrounded  by  the  exposition,  usually  in 
smaller  characters,  sometimes  even  in  tachygraphy. 
The  names  of  the  authorities  are  sometimes  in  the 
margin,  sometimes  in  the  body  of  the  exposition, 
as  a  rule  abbreviated.  Occasionally  diacritical 
marks  show  the  connection  between  text  and  com- 
mentary. If  the  Catena  is  too  extensive  to  allow 
this  arrangement,  the  sections  of  the  text  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  commentary,  in  separate  paragraphs, 
with  the  authors'  names  on  the  margin,  or  else  writ^ 
ten  without  a  break.  The  manuscripts,  of  which  few 
date  further  back  than  the  tenth  century,  differ 
much  in  execution.  Some  are  of  admirable  work- 
manship,   with    illustrations;     others 

6.  Form,  are  plain  copies  for  students,  with  the 
marks  of  long  use  upon  them,  and 
some  seem  to  have  been  hastily  and  carelessly  made 
to  supply  the  demand  of  the  bookselling  trade. 
Besides  the  commentaries,  the  Catenae  contain  a 
good  deal  of  introductory  or  illustrative  matter. 
Thus  the  Gospels  are  frequently  prefaced  by  the 
canons  of  Eusebius  and  his  epistle  to  Carpianus,  as 
well  as  by  arguments  and  biographies  of  the  evan- 
gelists; the  Pauline  epistles  have  a  life  of  Paul,  a  list 
of  his  journeys,  and  an  account  of  his  martyrdom. 

Whether  the  beginnings  of  the  manufacture  of 
CatensB  can  be  traced  back  to  the  patristic  period 


it  is  impossible  to  say  with  certainty,  though  it 
seems  not  improbable.  After  Eusebius  the  work 
of  theologians  to  a  great  extent  took  the  directe 
of  codifying  and  criticizing  what  had  been  handed 
down.  But  Procopius  (d.  528)  is  the  first  who  can 
be  demonstrated  to  have  made  Catens.  The 
value  of  his  work,  which  rests  not  only  upon  the 
Fathers  from  the  third  to  the  fifth  century  bitf 
upon  Josephus  and  Philo  and  upon  some  of  the 
teatchers  before  Origen,  gave  it  an  epoch-makiDf 
position.  From  the  manner  in  which  he  speaks  of 
his  task  in  the  prefaces  to  Genesis  and  Isaiah,  we 
may  conjecture  that  he  was  not  aa 
7.  Catenas    imitator  of  others  but  an  originator  io 

Previous    this  line.    Other  extant  Catenae  wm 

to  the       compiled  by  Andreas   the  pre^jter 

Fourteenth  (seventh  to  tenth  century);  Johanaa 

Century.  Drungarius  (tenth  century);  Michael 
Psellus,  and  Nicetas,  bishop  of  Sens, 
later  metropolitan  of  Heradea  in  Thrace  (deventh 
century);  Nicolaus  Muzalon  and  Neophytus  &i- 
cleistus  (twelfth  century);  and  Macauius  Chiyso- 
cephalus  (fourteenth  century).  To  these  maj  be 
added  not  only  the  conmientaries  arranged  moie 
or  less  in  catena  style,  though  without  names  d 
authorities:  (Ecumenius,  of  whose  date  and  per- 
sonality we  know  nothing  certain,  though  he  wai 
probably  a  contemporary  of  Arethas  of  Cappadom: 
and  the  Gospel  commentaries  of  Theophylact  aad 
Euthymius,  composed  under  the  Comneni.  Theie 
is,  however,  a  much  larger  number  of  anonymooi 
Catenae;  and  this  fact  is  siuprising,  since  Byian- 
tine  theologians  were  not  given  to  hiding  thdr  light 
under  a  bushel.  It  may  possibly  be  explained  by 
the  theory  that  these  Catenae  were  produced  not 
by  any  one  man  but  by  a  group  of  collaborator! 
Their  dates  are  very  hard  to  determine;  the  surest 
way  to  reach  conclusions  on  this  point  is  by  eiam- 
ining  their  relations  to  those  whose  dates  we  knov, 
which  requires  a  good  deal  more  investigation  than 
has  yet  been  given  to  them.  In  fact,  what  has 
been  done  in  the  way  of  scientific  study  of  the  Ca- 
tenae in  general  has  only  covered  certain  specific 
points;  and  those  which  have  been  printed  cover 
only  a  small  part  of  the  extant  material,  and  that 
not  always  selected  with  judgment. 

The  catena  form  impressed  itself  as  a  modd 
upon  medieval  exegesis  in  the  West,  which  also 
imitated  the  spirit  in  which  the  Eastern  compilers 
went  about  their  work.  Here  too  the  aim  was 
to  preserve  the  tradition  of  the  Church  in  a  uni- 
form arrangement  of  Scriptural  exposition,  '*» 
that  the  line  of  prophetic  and  apostolic  interpre- 
tation may  follow  the  norm  of  the  ecclesiastical 
and  catholic  sense "  (Vincent  of  Lerins).  The 
principal  sources  were  Ambrose,  Hilary,  Augustine, 
and  Jerome;  less  often  the  Greek  Fathers,  such  as 
Origen,  Chrysostom,  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  are 
cited.  The  prototypes  of  the  medieval  cateia 
commentaries  may  be  seen  in  the  expositions  of 
Cassiodorus  and  Isidore  of  Sevilie. 
8.  Medieval  On  the  Carolingian  period  the  nume^ 

CatensB.     ous  commentaries  of  Bede  exercised 

a  decisive  influence.     He  knew  Gi«ek, 

and  shows  some  feeling  for  textual  criticism;  hot 

he  was  not  an  ezegetical  individuality.    He  ooi- 


46a 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oaten  as 
OAtbikziiid 


lects  hiB  fragments  of  expoaition  mainly  from 
Jerome,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Gregory,  and 
Ibjs  his  ciiief  stress  on  the  edifjdng  explanation  of 
the  moral  and  mystical  sense.  In  thiH  tendency 
tW2B  followed  by  Alcuin,  Rabonus  Maitrus,  Wala- 
Strabo,  Dietrich  of  Hersfeld,  Haimo,  and 
uigius  of  Auxerre,  all  less  carefiil  in  the  repro- 
iction  of  their  sourcea  than  Bede,  with  whom 
a  matter  of  principle  to  designate  deariy 
B  intellectual  property  of  hia  authorities.  Among 
commentaries  of  the  catena  sort  especial 
Qoe  waa  exerted  by  that  of  Peter  Lombard 
I  Pauline  epistles,  which  made  no  pretense  of 
indicating  sourcejs,  and  the  Catena  Aurea  of  Thomas 
^quinaij  on  the  Gospels,  which  makes  u.se  of  some 
Greek  Fathers  as  well  as  of  Augustine,  Jerome, 
Rabanus,  and  Remigius.  Mention  should  also  be 
niade  of  the  "  glosses  " — the  Ghssa  ordinaria  of 
Walftfried  Strabo,  the  Gtoasa  interlinealU  of  Ansel m 
of  Laon  (1110),  and  the  PostUice  perpetuw  of 
Nicholas  of    Lyra  (1340;    see  G losses.    Biblical 

A^TD  EcCLESIASTJCAL). 

These  works  lead  wp  to  the  exegetical  collections 
^hich  w*ere  made  after  the  Reformation  and  under 
'ts    influence.     The    expository    standpoint    was 
*iifferent,  but  the  method  of  compilation  remained 
the   same.     They  either  gave  tlie  ob- 
Q.  Post-     servations  of  certain  selected   exposi- 
Reforma-    tors  side  by  side  without  change,  or 
tion        they  made  groups  of  extracts  from  as 
Catens.      large  a  number  as  possible.     Instances 
of   the    first   method   are   the    Biblia 
nuiffna  of   De  la  Haye   (Paris,    1643),   the  Biblia 
9tuixtma  (ib,   1660),  the  English  Annotatiorm  upon 
€Ul  tht  Books  of  tfie  Old  and  New  Testament  (London, 
1645),  and  the  Critiri  sacri  <jdited  by  J.  Pearaon 
and  others  (ib.  1660).     The  second  class  is  repre- 
sented   by    Matthew    Pole^s    Synopsis    criticorum 
aiiorumque  scriptures  sacra  interprctum  et  comnienta^ 
tarum   (London,   1669),  which  contains  the  most 
Taried  extracts  from  more  than  eighty  theologians 
of  all  ages  and  beliefs,  even  including  the  Jewish. 
The  Roman  Catholic  expositors,  such  as  Cornelius 
a  Lapide,  Estius,  and  Calmet,  followed  the  lines 
laid  down  by  the  older  Catena,  to  which,  however, 
with   their  uncritical  subservience  to  a  tradition 
presupposed  as  authoritative,  they  are  far  inferior. 

(G.  Heinrici.) 

CATHARI.     See  New  Majocheanb,  II. 

CATHAREfE,  SAINT,  OF  ALEXANDRIA.  See 
Catharine,  Saint,  the  Martyr. 

CATHARINE,  SAINT,  OF  BOLOGNA:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b^  at  Bologna  or,  according  to  other 
accounts,  at  Verona  Sept.  8*  1413;  d.  at  Bologna 
Mar,  9,  1463.  About  1430  she  entered  the  order 
of  the  Poor  Clares  at  Ferrara  after  having  been  a 
Udy  of  honor  at  the  court  of  Princess  Margaret  of 
Ekte  for  about  two  years.  She  later  became  abbess 
of  A  convent  of  her  order  which  was  founded  at 
Bologna.  Her  name  was  included  in  the  Roman 
martyrology  in  1592,  and  she  was  canonized  by 
Benedict  XIII.  in  1724.  Later  tradition  wove 
many  legends  about  her  name,  and  her  body  was 
preserved  undecayed  in  her  convent  until  recent 
yeaiB.     To  St.  Catharine  is  ascribed  a  prophetic 


work  entitled   RevetationeSf  Bive  de  stptem  armu 

spiritualibus,  composed  about  1438  and  first  edited 

probably  at  Bologna  in  1475  and  repeatedly  since. 

In  art  she  is  represented  in  the  habit  of  the  Poor 

Clares,  carrjnng  the  Christ-child,  since  the  Virgin 

is  said  to  have  appeared  to  her  and  to  have  placed 

in   her  arms  the  infant  Jesus  in  his  swaddhng- 

clothes.  (O.  ZocKi^ERt.) 

Bibuogiiapht:  The  Vita  which  is  the  earlieat  source  wu 

published    At   Bologna,    1502,    from   which   &  number  of 

biographjen  were  dx&wa   in    the   next   century,     ConsuJt: 

J.  Gdrreti,  Die  chriatliche  Mu*tik,  ii.  63  sqq.,  168-168,  4 

ToU.,  Regenaburg.  1835-42. 

CATHARINE,  SAINT,  OF  GENOA:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b.  at  Genoa  1447;  d.  there  Sept.  14, 
1510.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Hoberto  Fieschi, 
who  had  been  viceroy  of  Naples  under  Hen^  of 
Anjou.  Despite  her  desire  for  a  life  of  religion , 
she  was  obhged  to  marry  a  nobleman  of  her  native 
city  named  Giuliano  Adorno^  whence  she  is  often 
called  Catharina  Fliaca  Adurna.  After  a  life  of 
extravagance  her  husband  died  in  1474,  but  not 
before  he  had  been  converted  by  his  wife's  piety 
and  had  become  a  Franciscan  of  the  thiixl  order.  Foi 
the  remainder  of  her  life  his  widow,  as  a  member 
of  the  order  of  tlie  Annunciation  of  St,  Marcellina, 
was  distinguished  both  for  her  care  of  the  sick  in 
the  Genoese  hospital  Pammatone  {especially  during 
the  plagues  of  1497  and  1501)  and  by  her  extreme 
asceticism.  For  twenty-three  years  during  the 
seasons  of  Lent  and  Advent  she  is  said  to  have 
fasted  absolutely,  taking  at  most  a  glass  of  water 
with  salt  and  vinegar  '"  to  cool  the  raging  flame 
within."  She  wa**  formally  canonized  by  Clement 
XIL  in  1737,  and  the  following  pope,  Benedict  XIV,, 
placed  her  name  in  the  Ronmn  martjrrology,  ap- 
pointing her  feast  for  Mar.  22.  St.  Catharine  waa 
one  of  the  numerous  mystic  and  prophetic  authors  of 
the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  wrote  Demon^ 
straiio  purgatorii  or  Tracttitus  de  purgatorio  (ed. 
C.  Marabotto  and  E,  Vemazza  in  their  biography 
of  St.  Catharine,  Genoaj  1551 ;  Eng.  transl.,  London, 
1858),  Diaiogxts  animam  inter  et  corpus ^  amerem 
propriumy  spiritum,  kumanilatem  ac  Deuntt  and  a 
treatise  on  the  Christian  life  (both  contained  in  the 
edition  already  mentioned).  Her  visions  were 
assailed  by  Adrian  Bail  let  in  his  Vies  des  saints 
(Paris,  1701)  from  the  Galhcan  point  of  view,  but 
other  Roman  Catholic  authorities,  such  as  St. 
FrancLS  of  Sales  and  the  modem  Jesuit  Christian 
Pesch,  have  esteemed  them  highly. 

(O.  ZflCKLERt) 
BrBLJOOKAPHT:  The  anonymous  Vita  with  commentmry  is 
in  A  SB,  Sept.,  v.  123-17R*  *nd  waa  tmnsUted  into  French 
by  the  Abb^  Piot,  Parii,  1840,  Conauit:  P.  Lwshner, 
lA^jen  und  Schriften  der  hritiffen  Katharina  pan  Oenuch 
Recenabiui^  l&SQ:  T.  die  Buftnitre,  Vie  tl  (Tuitm  dt  mH, 
Coiherim  d»  Gimt,  Pim*.  1873;  P,  Flichp.  S.  Cathtrint 
dt  Gina,  Pjuis«  ISSO;  F.  voq  HOgel,  in  Ths  Hampattad 
A  nnual,  IS9Rn  PP.  70  Bqq, 

CATHARmE,  SAraX,  THE  MARTYR  (SAllfT 
CATHARINE    OF    ALEXANDRIA):     One    of    the 

most  honored  saints  both  of  the  Eastern  and  the 
Western  Church.  Many  modem  hagiographera 
identify  her  with  a  wealthy  and  noble  Chrialian 
lady  of  Alexandria  who,  according  to  EusebiuJ 
{Hist  ecd.^  VIIL  xiv.  15),  resisted  the  licentiouj 
advancea  of  the  emperor  Maximinua,  and  waa  oon* 


Oatharlne 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HEBZOG 


454 


sequently  deprived  of  her  estates  and  banished. 
This  identification,  however,  does  not  agree  with 
the  statement  of  Rufinus  (Hist  eccl,  viii.  17)  that 
this  lady  was  named  Dorothea^  nor  does  it  har- 
monize with  the  legend  of  St.  Catharine  as  given 
both  by  Simeon  Metaphrastes  and  the  Roman 
martyrology.  According  to  these  sources,  St. 
Catharine  was  a  maiden  of  royal  birth  (the  daughter 
of  King  Konstos,  in  the  Greek  Officium),  and  of 
extraordinary  wisdom  and  beauty.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen,  she  engaged  in  a  controversy,  at  the  com- 
mand either  of  Maximinus  or  Maxentius  (although 
the  latter  never  ruled  Alexandria),  with  fifty  pagan 
philosophers,  whom  she  converted  so  signally  that 
they  remained  faithful  to  Christianity  even  to 
martyrdom.  In  prison,  a  few  days  before  her  own 
execution,  she  converted  the  empress,  the  general 
Porphyrius,  and  his  200  soldiers,  all  of  whom 
suffered  death  by  the  sword  for  their  faith.  Resist- 
ing both  the  pleadings  and  the  threats  of  the  tyrant, 
Catharine  remained  unharmed  by  torture,  even 
on  a  machine  of  sharp-pointed  wheels,  imtfl  she 
was  finally  beheaded  by  the  command  of  Maxi- 
minus. 

The  day  of  St.  Catharine  is  celebrated  either  on 
Nov.  25  or  on  Mar.  5.  Her  body  is  said  to  have 
been  borne  by  angels  to  Mount  Sinai,  where  Justin- 
ian I.  built  a  cloister  in  her  honor  and  where  her 
bones  were  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Egyp- 
tian Christians  in  the  eighth  century,  thus  giving 
rise  to  the  feast  of  the  discovery  of  the  body  of 
St.  Catharine  on  May  13  or  26.  About  1027  Sim- 
eon, a  monk  from  Sinai,  is  said  to  have  carried  a 
portion  of  the  relics  of  St.  Catharine  to  Rouen, 
and  her  monastery  on  Moimt  Sinai  now  retains 
only  her  head  and  one  hand.  [These  are  en- 
closed in  a  marble  sarcophagus.]  Inspired  by  the 
tradition  of  her  victory  over  the  philosophers  of 
Alexandria,  the  philosophical  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  later  chose  her  as  their  patron  saint. 
According  to  Occidental  tradition,  she  is  one  of  the 
fourteen  '*  helpers  in  need,"  the  only  other  fem- 
inine members  of  this  band  being  SS.  Barbara  and 
Margaret.     See  Helpers  in  Need. 

In  Christian  art,  both  of  the  East  and  the  West, 
St.  Catharine  is  an  important  figure.  Her  usual 
attributes  are  a  sword  and  a  wheel  (either  entire 
or  broken),  through  which  curved  knives  are  thrust. 
To  these  are  frequently  added  a  palm  of  victory, 
a  book  in  token  of  her  learning,  and  occasionally 
a  crown,  or,  more  often,  a  bridal  ring  which  the 
Christ-child  liimsclf  is  said  to  have  placed  on  her 
finger  in  emblem  of  betrothal.  The  oldest  Oriental 
picture  of  this  saint  is  a  mosaic  over  the  apse  of  the 
basilica  of  the  Transfiguration  in  the  monastery 
on  Sinai,  wliich  represents  simply  a  female  head 
without  attributes.  In  a  picture  by  Simon  of 
Sienna  (d.  1344)  she  bears  in  her  hand  a  palm  and 
a  book.  Among  the  numerous  representations  of 
St.  Catharine  in  Western  art,  special  mention  may 
be  made  of  the  works  of  Altichiero  da  Zevio  (c. 
1380)  in  the  frescos  of  the  chapel  of  St.  George  at 
Padua,  the  frescos  of  Masaccio  (c.  1420)  in  the 
upper  church  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome,  eleven  marble 
bas-reliefs  (probably  dating  from  the  fourteenth 
century)  in  the  church  of  Santa  Chiara  in  Naples, 


nine  pictures  of  1385  in  the  dcnster  of  St.  Paul  at 
Leipdc,  and  the  miniatures  in  the  Vie  de  Soma 
Catherine  (TAiexandrie  by  Jean  Mielot,  secretuy 
of  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy  (c.  1462). 
After  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  moA 
noteworthy  artists  of  Italy,  Flanders,  and  Gemisny, 
such  as  Fiesole,  Raffael,  Cario  Dolce,  Jan  van 
Eyck,  Hans  Memling,  and  Lukas  Cranach,  vied 
with  one  another  in  the  production  of  pictures  of 
St.  Catharine,  and  the  medieval  Christian  dnmi 
repeatedly  represented  the  legend  of  the  saint  in 
mysteries,  the  earliest  being  that  of  the  Nonnan 
Geoffrey,  abbot  of  St.  Albans,  which  was  plajed 
at  Dunstable  about  1120.  (O.  ZdCKLESf.) 

BiBUOoaAFBT:  Tlu  Legend  of  8L  KoAerine,  ed,  from  a  M8. 
in  Ae  Cotton  Library  by  J.  Morton  for  Ae  AbbolafaidChA, 
London,  1841;  Life  and  Martyrdom  of  8L  KoAmm  §1 
Alexandria,  Roxburgbe  Club  publications,  no.  M,  ib. 
1884;  Life  of  SL  Katherine,  ed.  E.  ESnenkel  for  Euiy 
Text  Sodety,  ib.  1884;  The  Life  Metrical,  by  J.  Cefg[V% 
ed.  F.  C.  Hingeeton,  ia  in  Rotte  Seriee,  no.  1,  pp.  8S7- 
354.  ib.  1858.  Consult:  C.  Hnidwiek,  HiaUwiai  l^teh 
Toudnno  8L  Catharine  of  Alexandria,  Cambridfe;  1841; 
H.  Knust,  OeeekidUe  der  Legenden  der  heUioem  CcAenm, 
Halle.  1800.  On  the  art  side,  consult:  Mrs.  Jsmano, 
Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,  iL  74-07.  Boston.  1803;  J. 
Wipfli  and  J.  J.  von  Ah.  Dae  Leben  der  keUigen  KeAanm 
vonAlexandrien,  Einsiedeln.  1808. 

CATHARINE  DE'RICCI,rit'cht,  SAINT:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b.  at  Florence  [Apr.  23]  1522;  d.  at 
Prato  (11  m.  n.w.  of  Florence)  Feb.  2  [1590].  She 
was  educated  in  a  convent  at  Montioelli  and  at  the 
wish  of  her  father  lived  in  the  world  for  a  short 
time,  after  which  she  took  the  veil  and  entered  the 
Dominican  nunnery  of  St.  Vinoent  at  Prato.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-6ve  she  became  pxioreas,  and 
spiritual  counsel  was  sought  from  her  by  bishops, 
cardinals,  and  princes.  She  was  also  a  dose  fnaid 
of  St.  PhiUp  Neri,  with  whom  she  maintained  an 
active  correspondence.  The  intensity  of  her  medi- 
tation on  the  Passion  was  such  that  she  actually 
felt  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  frequently  shed 
blood  as  if  from  scourgings  and  wounds.  St. 
Catharine  was  canonized  by  Benedict  XIV.  in 
1746  and  her  feast  was  appointed  for  Feb.  13.  In 
art  she  has  the  attributes  of  the  crown  of  thorns 
and  a  marriage  ring.  The  elegant  style  of  her 
letters  ranks  her  as  one  of  the  best  Italian  classics 
of  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  [ed.  A. 
Gherardi,  Florence,  189Q].  (O.  ZdcKLERf.) 

Biblioorapht:  F.  M.  Capes.  Li/eofSt,  Catherine de'Ried^loa- 
don,  1905,  which  gives  a  traonl.  of  a  number  of  her  letters. 


CATHARINE,  SAINT,  OF  SIENNA:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b.  at  Sienna  [Mar.  25]  1347;  d.  at 
Rome  Apr.  29, 1380.  She  was  the  twenty-third  child 
of  a  dyer  named  Jacomo  Benincasa.  Her  early 
home  in  the  vicinity  of  a  Dominican  monastery 
made  a  deep  impression  on  the  sensitive  child, 
and  she  believed  that  St.  Dominic  himself  appeared 
to  her  in  a  dream  and  urged  her  to  enter  his  order. 
Disregarding  her  mother's  wish  that  she  should 
marry,  Catharine,  then  about  twelve  years  of  age, 
cut  off  her  long  blond  hair  to  escape  unwelcome 
attentions.  Three  years  later  smallpox  destroyed 
her  beauty  and  she  was  able  to  fulfil  her  heart's 
desire,  to  which  her  mother  had  consented  some 


455 


'Seligious  encyclopedia 


Oatbftrine 


time  previously,  by  entering  the  order  of  peni- 
tents of  St.  Dominic.  She  no  longer  drank  wine, 
while  her  only  food  was  uncookefi 
Early  Life*  herbs,  taken  as  a  salad,  or  with  oil, 
fniit,  and  bread.  She  scourged  her- 
self thrice  daily  according  to  the  mo^t  rigid  Domin- 
ican custom,  onoe  for  herself,  once  for  the  livings 
and  onoe  for  the  dead.  Under  her  habit  she  wore  a 
shirt  of  haircloth  for  which  she  substituted  later 
an  iron  chain  about  her  waist.  She  passed  the 
night  in  prayer  until  the  bells  on  the  monastery 
caJleti  to  matins  and  then  lay  down  between  boards 
wfijch  sj^mbolized  her  coffin.  This  asceticism  she 
practisc^l  in  a  tiny  room  in  her  father's  house  which 
ahe  scarcely  left  for  three  years  except  to  attend 
mass  in  the  neighboring  Dominican  church*  After 
1356,  however,  she  appeared  more  frequently  in 
public  and  became  conspicuous  for  her  deeds  of 
mercy  to  the  poor  and  sick,  especially  during  the 
plague  of  1374.  Through  her  devotion  and  her 
piety  she  gathered  around  her  a  spiritual  house- 
hold of  about  twenty  persons  of  both  sexes, 
chiefly  members  of  the  Dominican  order. 

The  chief  cause  of  St.  Catharine's  fame  was  her 
reputation  for  visions  and  for  prophecy.  Even 
during  the  time  of  her  novitiate  she  believed  that 
Christ  often  appeaje«i  to  her  and,  toward  the  end  of 
this  period  of  preparation,  that  he  himself  betrothed 
her  formally  as  he  had  the  first  8t.  Catharine  (see 
/^THARINE,  S.vixT,  THE  Mahttr),  by  placing  a 
ag  upon  her  finger.  This  miirriage  symbol  ^ 
declared,  was  always  visible  to  her,  although 
other  eyes  might  see  it.  Her  union  with  Christ 
ks  further  sanctified  by  an  interchange  of  hearts 
and  finally  by  the  di\dnc  stigmata, 
VIstoxiB.  beginning  with  the  print  of  a  nail  on 
her  hand  and  ending  with  the  painful 
npr^is  of  the  four  other  wounds.  This  stigmati- 
ation  also,  as  in  the  case  of  her  German  con- 
emporary,  Margareta  Ebner  (q.v.)  of  iMedingen, 
iways  remained  inviHible,  whereas  in  St.  Francis 
ad  the  majority  of  the  stigmatists,  the  wounds 
ight  be  seen  of  all.  She  likewise  believed  that 
associated  much  with  the  Virgin  and  with 
St,  not  only  being  convincetl  that  she  drank 
blood  from  the  wounded  side  of  the  Lord,  antl 
be  milk  from  Mary's  breast,  but  also  that  she 
ei%'ed  divine  instruction,  admonition «  and  com- 
wbich  she  was  frequently  able  to  commu- 
5  to  others  in  her  ecstasies.  Many  of  her 
tters  and  writings,  especially  her  **  Dialogues/' 
ere  dictated  by  her  in  trances.  She  once  fafltt?d 
iring  the  forty  days  from  Easter  to  Ascension » 
;  supported  solely  by  the  Eucharist  and  thuH 
"ng  a  model  for  later  iaiats,  particularly 
two  Catharines  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Despite  her  death  to  the  world,  St,  Catharine 
compelled,  during  the  closing  years  of  her  life, 
take  part  repcatc<lly  in  the  political  and  eccle- 
atical  affairs  of  her  country.  After  1374  she 
quently  left  Sienna  for  the  promotion  of  peace 
the  hostile  nobles  of  Tuscany.  In  1375 
was  in  Pi.'*a,  where  she  wrote  Queen  Joan  of 
to  undertake  a  crusaile  to  free  the  Holy 
A  year  later  she  went  to  Avignon  to  recon- 
the  republio  of  Florence  with  Gregory  XL, 


but  was  unsucccfssful  on  account  of  the  treachery 
of  the  Florentines.  Later,  however,  after  she  had 
in  great  measure  been  instrumental 
Political  in  securing  the  return  of  the  pope  to 
Activity*  Rome,  she  effected  her  purpose  by  a 
journey  to  Florence  in  1378.  The 
schism  between  Urban  VL  in  Italy  and  Clement 
VII.  in  Ai-ignon  also  engaged  her  attention.  She 
was  a  firm  partisan  of  the  former,  who  summoned 
her  to  Rome  and  after  listening  to  her  exhortations 
of  peace  sent  her  to  the  court  of  Joan  together  with 
St.  Catharine  of  Sweden  to  win  the  queen  from 
Clement  to  himself.  The  mis-sion  failed,  sinc# 
Bridget's  daughter  woyld  not  be  subordinate  to 
her  sister  saint,  but  Catharine  of  Sienna  lived  to 
see  the  longed-for,  though  brief,  adherence  of 
Naples  to  her  pope.  She  was  recalled  to  Home 
by  this  turmoil  and  struggle  and  there  died.  Sho 
was  buried  in  the  Dominican  Church  of  Minerva  in 
Rome,  although  her  skull  is  said  to  be  in  the  Domin- 
ican Church  of  her  native  city.  She  was  canon iaed 
by  Pius  II.,  in  1461.  while  Urban  VIII.  appointed 
her  feast  for  Apr,  30.  She  is  represented  in  art  as 
carrying  a  crucifix  with  stigmata  on  her  bands, 
as  well  as  with  the  bridal  ring.  Occasionally  she 
carries  in  her  hand  a  lily  or  a  book. 

The  chief  writings  of  St.  Catharine  of  Sienna 
are  373  letters  (best  separate  edition  by  N.  Tom- 
maseoi  Le  LeUere  di  Santa  Caterina  da  Siena  t  4 
vols.,  Florence,  1860),  many  of  them  addressed  to 
popes,  cardinals,  princes,  and  nobles,  and  impor- 
tant for  the  history  of  the  period.  She  likewise 
wrote  twenty-six  prayers,  various  short  prophetic 
oracles,  and  a  dialogue  between  herself  and  God 
the  Father,  dictated  in  a  trance  in  1378,  under  the 
title  Libro  deUa  Dimna  Dottrina  (Eng.  transL,  by 
A.  Thorold,  Ditdogue  of  the  Seraphic  V^irgin  Cath- 
arine of  Sienna,  London,  1896),  later  divided  by 
G.  Cigli  into  four  treatises  on  religious  wisdom, 
prayer,  providence,  and  obedience;  an  older  di- 
vision is  into  six  treattaes  under  the 
WritingB*  title  Diahgi  de  providentia  Dei,  His- 
torically, the  most  interesting  of  these 
treatises  is  the  one  on  prayer,  in  which  St,  Catharine 
emphasiaes  the  value  of  the  prayer  of  the  heart, 
which  needs  no  words,  in  contradistinction  to 
mere  formalism.  In  her  criticisms  she  spared 
neither  priests,  cardinals,  nor  pope,  sternly  re- 
pro\'ing  them  for  their  derelictions  and  admonish* 
ing  them  of  their  high  duty.  Yet  though  she  pro- 
claimed the  necessity  of  reformation,  she  desired 
it  to  be  wnthiii  the  Church  and  was  unswerving  in 
her  orthodoxy  and  in  her  allegiance  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  Her  complete  works  were  first 
edited  by  Aldus  at  Venice  in  1500,  but  the  best  of 
the  older  editions  is  that  of  G.  Gigli,  UOpere  della 
Serafica  Santa  Caterina  da  Siena  (5  vols,,  Sienna, 
1707-26).  (O.  ZOcKLERt) 

BtBtitooRAPirr:  The  9mr\y  ViUi  &ad  oth«r  documcnta  are 
collect«l  iQ  ASB.  April,  iii.  853-978.  For  later  lives 
and  criticLsra  eooflult:  A.  CapoeeUtro,  Storia  di  Catfrifta 
da  Siena  e  del  PapaUj  del  tuo  tempo,  4th  ed..  Hienna,  1878; 
AuRUstJi  T.  Drane,  HUt.  of  Si.  Catherine  of  Siena  and  her 
CompanionM,  2  vols.,  London,  1887;  A.  H.  Chirat,  S. 
Cafherina  de  SUnm  tl  V^fflite  au  14.  n^ch,  Parii^  1888; 
Josephine  E.  Biitter«  CaUiorine  of  Siena,  London,  1885; 
C4}iDtcBae  de    Flavigny,  S,  Cathetine  d«  Sienne^    Psiit^ 


Oathanne 

Oatholio  Apostolio  OhTiroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


456 


1896;  Vida  D.  Scudder.  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  cm  eeen 
in  her  LeUera,  New  York.  1905:  St.  Catherine  of  Siena 
and  Her  Timee,  London,  1906;  E.  G.  Gardner,  St. 
Catherine  of  Siena,  London  and  New  York.  1907.  Also 
L.  Gaset,  Le  Grand  Schien%e  d'Occident,  2  vols.,  Florence, 
1889. 

CATHARINE,  SAINT,  OF  SWEDEN:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b.  in  Sweden  1331  or  1332;  d.  at 
Vadstena  (130  m.  s.w.  of  Stockholm)  Mar.  24, 
1381.  She  was  the  second  daughter  of  St.  Bridget, 
the  founder  of  the  Brigittines  (see  Bridget,  Saint, 
OF  Sweden).  At  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen 
she  married  a  young  nobleman  of  German  extrac- 
tion named  Eggart  of  Kilmen — the  marriage  was, 
however,  by  mutual  consent  only  nominal,  and  both 
parties  preserved  a  lifelong  virginity.  During  the 
lifetime  of  her  husband,  Catharine  accompanied  her 
mother  on  the  last-named's  first  journey  to  Rome, 
where  through  a  vision  of  St.  Bridget  she  learned 
of  her  husband's  death  in  Sweden.  She  then  made 
a  pilgrimage  with  her  mother  to  the  Holy  Land, 
but  was  in  Rome  with  her  brother  Birger  when 
St.  Bridget  died  there  in  1373.  She  was  one  of 
those  who  escorted  her  mother's  bones  to  Sweden, 
and  she  then  took  up  her  abode  at  Vadstena,  the 
mother  house  of  the  Brigittines,  where  she  ruled 
as  the  successor  of  St.  Bridget.  About  the  time 
of  the  return  of  the  popes  from  Avignon,  St.  Cath- 
arine again  resided  for  some  years  in  Italy  and 
twice  secured  papal  confirmation  of  the  rule  of  her 
order,  first  from  Gregory  XI.  in  1377  and  again 
from  Urban  VI.  two  years  later.  The  day  ap- 
pointed for  her  feast  in  the  Roman  martyrology 
is  Mar.  22.  In  art  her  attribute  is  a  hind.  She 
wrote  a  "  Consolation  of  the  Soul,"  which  has  been 
lost.  According  to  the  preface,  it  was  a  compilar 
tion  from  many  books  and  treated  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments, the  seven  benedictions,  the  seven  joys 
of  Mary,  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
the  seven  deadly  sins.  (O.  ZocKLERf.) 

Biblidoraphy:  The  early  Vita  with  commentary  is  in  ASB, 
March,  ii.  603-531,  and  in  E.  M.  Fant,  Script,  rer.  Sued- 
carum,  iii..  section  2,  pp.  244-275;  cf.  A.  Butler.  Livee  of 
the  Fathers,  Martyrs,  and  Other  Saints,  Nov.  25th,  London, 
1860;  /iCL,  vii.  344-345. 

CATHARINUS,  AMBROSIUS:  The  monastic 
name  of  Lancelotto  Politi,  Dominican,  bishop  of 
Minori  and  archbishop  of  Conza;  b.  in  Sienna  1487; 
d.  in  Naples  Nov.  8,  1553.  In  1517  he  entered  in 
Florence  the  monastery  of  Savonarola,  against 
whom  he  wrote  a  polemic  treatise  in  1548.  Eager 
in  opposing  every  form  of  heresy,  he  appeared 
against  Luther  in  1520  with  an  Apologia  pro  veri- 
tate  catholicce  ac  apostolicoe  fidei.  Luther  replied 
in  1521  {Ad  librum  A.  Catharini  responsio),  and 
Catharinus  answered.  Then  he  went  to  France, 
and  wrote  in  Paris  against  a  member  of  his  own 
order,  Cardinal  Cajetan,  Annotationes  in  commen- 
taria  Cajetani.  After  returning  to  his  country  he 
wrote  against  his  fellow  townsman  Bernardino 
Ochino,  who  in  the  mean  while  had  fled  from  Italy 
to  live  according  to  his  own  belief  (see  Ochino, 
Bernardino).  A  little  later  Catharinus  issued 
two  treatises  against  Italian  Protestant  works; 
viz.,  Trattato  utilissimo  del  benefizio  di  Gesxi  Cristo 
crocifisso  and  Sommario  della  Sacra  Scriitura.  The 
polemic  theologian  was  present  at   the  Council  of 


Trent.  He  arrived  in  1545  with  the  legntc  Dd 
Monte  and  made  a  speech  at  the  third  seasiaL 
As  a  reward  for  his  services  Paul  HI.  made  him 
bishop  of  Minori  in  1546.  Julius  III.  made  him 
archbishop  of  Conza  in  1552,  and  was  on  thepdm 
of  naming  him  cardinal  when  Catharinus  died.  The 
earliest  of  the  works  of  Catharinus  are  collected 
in  his  0pu8cula  (Leyden,  1542),  but  there  is  no 
complete  edition.  K.  Benbath. 

Biblioorapht:  The  life  and  writinss  of  Catharinus  an  dis- 
cussed in:  J.  Qu6tif  and  J.  Echard.  Script  ardinia  vm^ 
eatorum,  ii.  144  sqq.,  332.  885;  K.  Werner.  GeaAiAie  dm 
apologeHechen  und  poUmAacKen  LUeraiur,  voL  !▼.  jtaaam, 
Schafifhauaen,  1865;  F.  H.  Reusch.  Der  Index  der  »•^. 
botenen  BUeher,  vol.  i.  passim,  Bonn,  1883. 

CATHCART,  WILLIAM:  American  Baptist;  b. 
at  Londonderry,  Ireland,  Nov.  8,  1826.  He  was 
educated  at  Glasgow  University  and  Horton  (mnr 
Rawdon)  Baptist  Theological  College,  Yorkshire, 
England,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1S50. 
He  was  minister  of  a  Baptist  church  at  Bamsley, 
near  Sheffield,  from  1850  to  1853,  when  he  went 
to  the  United  States,  and  accepted  a  call  to  Mystic 
River,  Conn.,  where  he  remained  four  years.  He 
was  then  pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  Churdi. 
Philadelphia,  from  1857  to  1884,  and  was  also 
president  of  the  American  Baptist  Historical  So- 
ciety from  1876  to  1884.  He  has  written:  The 
Papal  System,  from  Its  Origin  to  the  Present  Timt 
(Philadelphia,  1872);  The  BaptieU  and  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  (1876);  and  The  Baptism  of  the 
Ages  and  of  the  Nations  (1878),  and  edited  Tkt 
Baptist  EncydopcBdia  (Philadelphia,  1881).  Since 
1884  he  has  held  no  regular  charge,  his  health  not 
permitting  him  to  accept  a  pastorate,  although 
he  has  been  able  to  devote  part  of  his  time  to 
literary  labors. 

CATHEDRA:    The  ancient  Latin  title  for  the 
special  seat  occupied  by  the  bishop  in  Christian 
churches.     Even    in    the    catacombs    such    seats 
were  used,  either  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  or  port- 
able.    In  the  basilicas  the  cathedra  stood  at  the 
back  of  the  semicircular  apse,   behind  the  altar, 
which  was  on  the  chord  of  the  arc;    but  when  it 
became  customary  to  place  the  altar  back  against 
the  wall,  the  bishop's  seat  was  brought  down  into 
the  choir  and  placed  on  the  north  or  gospel  side. 
The  early  Church  preserved  with  great  re^-erence 
the  seats  of  its  first  bishops;  thus  it  is  learned  from 
Eusebius  {Hist  eccl,  VII.  xix.  32)  that  the  church 
of  Jerusalem  preserved  that  of   James,  and  the 
church  of  Alexandria  that  of  Mark.     A  very  ancient 
chair  traditionally  believed  to  be  that  of  Peter  is  pre- 
served in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  was  used  for 
many  centuries  for  the  enthronement  of  new  popes, 
until  Alexander  VII.  (1655-67),  for  its  better  pres- 
ervation,   had    Bernini    enclose    it   in   a   colossal 
bronze  throne.    At  the  celebration  of  the  eighteenth 
centenary  of  the   apostle's   martyrdom  in    1867, 
Pius  IX.  had  it  again  exposed  to  view;   an  exact 
description  and  picture  of  it  may  be  found  in 
Kraus,    Roma    sotterranea,    Freiburg,    1873.    The 
bishop's  seat  was  often  used  as  a  symbol  of  the 
teaching  office  of  the  Church,  exerdsed  through 
him;   this  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the  mosaics 
and  carving  of  extant  chairs  dating  from  the  fifth 


457 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oatharlne 

Oatholio  Apostolio  Ohuroh 


to  the  ninth  century.  Thus  in  the  definition  of 
the  doctrine  of  papaJ  infallibility,  the  pope  is  said 
to  speak  ex  cathedra  when  he  proclaims  a  doctrine 
"  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  as  pastor  and  teacher 
of  all  Christians." 

CATHEDRAL:     In  the  churches  with  episcopal 
organization,   the  principal  church  of  a  diocese, 
the  especial  seat  of  the  bishop.     It  is  the  normal 
place  for  the  principal  episcopal  functions,  such 
as  ordination,  and  is  directly  imder  the  charge  of 
the  bishop,  who  is  assisted  in  its  administration 
and  in  the  performance  of  divine  service  by  a  body 
of  canons  (see  Chapter),  whose  head  is  a  dean  or 
provost.    In  England,  from  the  Reformation  until 
1840,  a  distinction  was  drawn  between  cathedrals 
of  the  old  and  of  the  new  foundation.     The  former 
were  those  where  the  chapter  had  been  always 
composed  of  secular  canons,  and  whose  constitu- 
tion remained,  therefore,  unchanged;  in  the  latter, 
after  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry 
VIII^,  a  new  organization  was  required  to  replace 
the  earlier  monastic  chapter.    The  older  cathe> 
drals,  from  their  rank  and  importance  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  offer  some  of  the  most  splendid 
and  imposing  examples  of  Christian  architecture. 
See  Architecture,  Ecclesiastical. 
Bibuoorapht:    M.  E.  C.  Walcott.  Cathedralia:  a  CaruUtu^ 
Honal  Hidory  of  CathedraU  of  the  Western  Church,  London, 
1835  (authoritative);   idem.  Documentary  Hietory  of  Eno- 
luh  CathedraU,  London,  1866;   J.  S.  Howson,  ed.,  Eeaay 
on  CathedraU,  by  vcarUnu  teritere,  London,  1872;    C.  A. 
Swainson,   Hut.  of  a  Cathedral  of  the  Old  Foundation, 
London,  1880;   P.  Schneider,  Diebitdidflichen  Domkapitel, 
Mains,  1885;    BeW»  Cathedral  Series,  85  vols.,  London, 
1896-1903  (deab  with  history  and  archeology);  J.  J.  Bou- 
rass^.  Lea  plua  belUe  caOUdraUe  de  France,  Paris,  1896;  L. 
Cloquet,    Lea  Grandee  Cath^raUa  du  monde  catholiq%te, 
Paris.  1897;  The  CathedraU  of  Englarui  and   WaUa,   New 
York,  The  Churchman  Company,  1907. 

CATHOLIC  (Gk.  katholiko8f  "general,  univer- 
sal," from  kath'  holou,  "on  the  whole"):  The 
phrase  fii  katholikS  ekklesiaf  "  the  catholic  church," 
was  first  used  by  Christian  writers  to  distinguish 
the  entire  body  of  believers  from  individual  bodies. 
It  then  came  naturally  to  designate  the  orthodox 
in  distinction  from  heretics  and  schismatics.  Later 
it  was  applied  to  faith,  tradition,  and  doctrine; 
it  was  understood  as  expressing  the  universality 
of  the  Church  ("  in  Greek  that  is  called  *  catholic  ' 
which  is  spread  through  all  the  world,"  Augustine, 
Epist,,  lii.  1);  it  distinguished  a  cathedral  from 
parish  churches,  or  the  latter  from  oratories  or 
monastic  chapels.  After  the  separation  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  the  epithet  "  cath- 
olic "  was  assumed  by  the  latter,  as  "  orthodox  " 
was  by  the  former.  At  the  Reformation  it  was 
claimed  by  the  Church  of  Rome  in  opposition  to 
the  Protestant  or  Reformed  churches;  in  England 
the  theory  was  maintained  that  the  national  Church 
was  the  true  catholic  Church  of  the  land,  and  the 
expression  "  Roman  Catholic  "  came  into  use  for 
the  sake  of  distinction.  "  Anglo-Catholic "  was 
coined  by  analogy  with  this  at  the  time  of  the 
Tractarian  movement.  On  the  Continent  the  single 
word  "  catholic  "  ia  the  common  designation  for 
that  branch  of  the  Church  in  affiliation  with  Rome. 
By  Protestants  the  term  has  generally  been  inter- 
preted to  mean  the  entire  communion  of  the  saved 


in  all  time  and  places.  The  word  "  catholic  "  in  the 
phrase  "  the  holy  catholic  Church  "  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed  is  explained  by  Pearson  {ExposUion  of  the 
Creed,  art.  ix.)  as  indicating  that  the  Church  is  to 
be  disseminated  through  all  nations,  extended  to 
all  places,  and  propagated  to  all  ages;  that  it 
contains  in  it  aU  truths  necessary  to  be  known, 
exacts  absolute  obedience  from  all  men  to  the 
commands  of  Christ,  and  furnishes  us  with  all 
graces  necessary  to  make  our  persons  accepta- 
ble and  our  actions  well-pleasing  in  the  sight  of 
God.  The  word  was  not  in  the  earliest  form  of  the 
Creed. 

CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH:  The  out- 
come  of  a  religious  movement  which  began  in 
Scotland  in  1830,  but  took  its  full  and  distinctive 
form  in  1835.  Its  adherents  do  not  use  the  term 
"The  Catholic  Apostolic  Church"  as  implying 
that  they  alone  constitute  the  Church,  but  as 
affirming  that  they  are  members  of  it.  It  em- 
braces all  the  baptised. 

In  1828  about  fifty  gentlemen,  some  clei^gymen 
and  some  laymen,  but  mostly  of  the  Church  of 
England,  met  at  the  country  seat  of  Henry  Drum- 
mond  (q.v.)  at  Albury,  West  Surrey,  for  the  study  of 
the  prophetic  Scriptures.  The  subjects  considered 
were  those  connected  with  the  return  of  the  Lord 
and  the  present  office  of  the  Spirit  in  the  Church. 
In  Feb.,  1830,  some  members  of  a  Presbyterian 
family  living  near  Glasgow  began  to  speak  in  what 
were  believed  to  be  supernatural  utterances.  They 
affirmed  that  their  organs  of  speech  were  used  by 
the  Spirit  of  God  to  express  the  divine  mind  and 
will.  It  is  said  by  one  who  had  intimate  personal 
knowledge    of    those    speaking    that 

Supemat-  the  subject  of  spiritual  gifts  had  not 
uial  Utter-  at  all  occupied  their  attention;  much 
ances.  less  had  they  any  thought  or  expec- 
tation of  their  revival.  These  utter- 
ances, both  from  the  religious  character  of  those 
spealdng  and  from  their  own  intrinsic  nature, 
awakened  great  attention  in  all  the  region  round; 
and  having  come  to  the  knowledge  of  certain  gentle- 
men in  London,  some  of  whom  had  attended  the 
conferences  at  Albury,  a  deputation  was  sent  up 
to  Scotland  in  July  to  inquire  into  them,  and  ascer- 
tain whether  the  utterances  were  of  the  Spirit,  or  not. 
They  returned  fully  convinced  that  the  utterances 
were  divine.  In  May,  1831,  like  utterances  were 
heard  in  London,  the  first  in  a  congregation  of  the 
Church  of  England.  This  being  reported  to  the 
bishop,  he  forbade  them  in  the  future  as  inter- 
fering with  the  service.  Their  occurrence  in  several 
dissenting  congregations  brought  forth  similar 
prohibitions,  and  this  led  to  the  utterances  being 
made  chiefly  in  the  church  of  Edward  Irving  (q.v.), 
he  being  a  believer  in  their  divine  origin.  But 
they  were  not  confined  to  London.  At  Bristol  and 
other  places  the  same  spiritual  phenomena  ap- 
peared. Of  these  utterances  one  of  the  earliest 
was,  "  Behold  the  Bridegroom  oometh.  Go  ye  out 
to  meet  him ";  and  another  often  repeated,  "  The 
body  of  Christ." 

The  meaning  of  this  was  for  a  long  time 
not    understood,    but    it    was    gradually    made 


Oatholio  Apostollo  Church 
Catholio  Smancipation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


458 


plain  that  the  Lord  could  not  return  till  due 
spiritual  preparation  had  been  made  in  the  Church, 
and  that  this  could  be  effected  only  through  the 

Spirit  working  in  all   the  ministries 

Apostles    and  ordinances  appointed  by  God  in 

Appointed,  it.     It  was  also  made  known  that  it 

was  his  purpose  to  restore  the  ministry 
of  apostles;  and  twelve  men  were  designated  as 
such  by  the  Spirit  speaking  through  prophets. 
The  first  was  so  designated  in  1832;  but  it  was  not 
until  1835  that  the  number  was  completed,  and 
in  a  solemn  service  they  were  separated  to  their 
work  as  an  apostolic  college.  The  names  of  the 
apostles  were  J.  B.  Cardale,  H.  Drummond,  H. 
King-Church,  S.  Perceval,  N.  Armstrong,  F.  V. 
Woodhouse,  H.  Dalton,  J.  O.  Tudor,  T.  Carlyle, 
F.  Sitwell,  W.  Dow,  and  D.  Mackenzie.  The  fol- 
lowing account  has  been  given  of  their  antecedents 
by  one  who  knew  them  personally: 

CUuned  by  their  religious  position,  eight  of  them  were 
members  of  the  Church  of  England;  three  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland;  and  one  of  the  Independents.  Classed  by  their 
occupations  and  social  positions,  three  were  clergymen, 
three  were  members  of  the  bar,  three  belonged  to  the  gentry, 
two  of  them  being  members  of  Parliament;  and  of  the  re- 
maining three,  one  was  an  artist,  one  a  merchant,  and  one 
held  the  post  of  Keeper  of  the  Tower.  Some  of  them  were 
of  the  highest  standing  socially  and  politically,  some  of 
them  of  great  ability  as  scholars  and  theologians;  and  all  of 
them  men  of  unblemished  character,  soundness  in  the  faith, 
and  abundant  seal  in  all  Christian  labors. 

To  prepare  them  for  their  work  two  things  were 
necessary — knowledge  of  the  purpose  of  God  in 
the  Church,  and  of  its  present  actual  condition. 
Their  separation  was  followed  by  a  retirement  to 
Albury  that  the  Scriptures  might  be  read  with  such 
light  through  prophecy  as  God  might  please  to  give. 
Later  they  visited  the  several  countries  of  Christen- 
dom, which  were  divided  among  them,  to  seek  for 
all  that  was  good  and  true  in  doctrine  and  ritual. 
Another  step  was  a  work  of  testimony  to  the 
Church  in  general  of  the  Lord's  acts  in  the  restora- 
tion of  his  ministries.  In  1836  they  delivered  an 
address  to  the  king  of  England  and  the  privy 
councilors,  and  another  later  to  the  archbishops 
and  bishops  of  the  United  Church  of  England 
and  Ireland;  and  in  1837  a  testimony  addressed 
to  the  rulers  in  Church  and  State  in  Christian  lands. 
So  far  as  practicable,  these  testimonies  were  deliv- 
ered by  the  apostles  in  person  to  the  patriarchs, 
arehbishops,  bishops,  emperors,  kings,  and  sover- 
eign princes  to  whom  they  were  addressed. 

In  these  docimients,  as  well  as  in  the  whole 
coiirse  of  their  apostolic  labor,  the  apostles  wit- 
nessed to  such  things  as  these: — That  the  Church 
is  the  company  of  the  baptized,  the  body  of  Christ, 
and  constituted  by  God  in  infinite  wisdom  that 
the  Head  in  Heaven  might  manifest  himself  through 
it  in  word  and  act;  that  its  constitution  was  per- 
manent, having  a  fourfold  ministry — apostles, 
prophets,  evangelists,  pastors;  that  these  minis- 
tries were  adapted  to  the  mental  and  spiritual 
constitutions  of  man;  that  all  were  needful  that 
the  Head  might  carry  on  his  work  and  perfect  his 
saints;  that  the  Head  only  could  appoint  his 
ministers;  that  apostles  chosen  by  him  were  his 
representatives,  the  bond  of  unity,  having  universal 
jurisdiction;  that  prophets  speaking  through  the 


Holy  Ghost  were  media  of  light  from  God  to  the 
apostles;  that  evangelists  were  to  preach  to  those 
without  the  Church,  bringing  them  to 
Doctrines,  baptism,  and  then  to  transfer  them 
to  the  pastor;  that  the  pastoral  min- 
istry embraces  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons;  that 
the  retention  by  the  Church  of  the  pastonl 
ministry  only  points  to  its  having  departed  in 
measure  from  the  ways  of  the  Lord,  and  that  thn 
departure  ultimately  leads  to  the  apostasy  and 
the  man  of  sin  spoken  of  by  St.  Paul.  The  adher- 
ents of  this  movement  point  to  the  apostolic  con- 
gregations as  the  true  credentials  of  i^MMtles— thdr 
faith  in  the  Scriptures,  their  order,  their  obedience, 
their  worship,  their  calm  and  patient  waiting  for 
the  Lord,  their  catholic  spirit. 

The  gathering  of  these  oongregalions  was  of 
necessity,  not  of  choice,  as  otherwise  the  divine 
order  in  ministries  and  worship  could  not  be  mani- 
fested. Their  relation  to  the  members  of  the 
Church  in  general  is  thus  defined:  "  We  are  not 
separatists  nor  schismatics.  We  are  not  gathered 
together  and  distinguished  from  others  in  any 
hostile  or  aggressive  attitude.  The 
Congrega-  Head  is  not  erecting  new  altars,  but 

tions  and    rebuilding  that  which  was  decayed.'' 

Worship.  The  liturgy  used  was  not  a  mere  com- 
pilation from  existing  liturgies,  but 
was  based  upon  the  Mosaic  ritual,  its  spiritual 
antitype  and  fulfilment.  In  the  worship  the  three 
great  creeds  of  the  Church,  the  Apostles',  Nioene, 
and  Athanasian,  are  used.  In  all  congregations 
sufficiently  large,  daily  worship  is  appointed  at  six 
A.M.  and  five  p.m.,  the  opening  and  dosing  houxi 
of  the  day.  The  Eucharist  is  the  chief  forenoon 
service  on  every  Lord's  day,  and  at  other  times  as 
appointed.  The  ministers  of  each  fully  organised 
local  church  are  a  chief  pastor,  or  angel,  or  bishop, 
and  under  him  priests  and  deacons.  All  members 
pay  tithes  of  income  as  of  obligation,  and,  as  able, 
voluntary  offerings. 

As  no  official  statistics  of  the  number  of  congre- 
gations have  ever  been  published,  it  is  imposable 
to  say  how  many  there  may  now  be,  but  oongr^a- 
tions  are  formed  in  most  of  the  larger  cities  of 
Christendom.  The  death  of  the  apostles  made 
necessary  some  changes  in  the  administration  and 
worship,  but  the  faith  is  apparently  strong  that 
the  Lord  will  in  some  supernatural  way  speedily 
confirm  the  work  already  done,  and  will  complete  it 
(Samuel  J.  ANDREWsf.) 

This  body  repudiates  the  title  "  Irvingites," 
by  which  it  is  generally  known  (see  Irving,  Ed- 
ward). In  the  early  days  of  the  movement  there 
was  no  little  uncertainty  as  to  the  final  arrangement 
of  the  offices  and  jealousy  between  the  different 
ranks.  In  1839  Cardale  was  recalled  from  his 
second  mission  abroad  to  compose  the  differences 
which  had  arisen  on  account  of  the  claim  of  the  el- 
ders, which  was  supported  by  the  prophets,  to  a 
voice  in  the  government  of  the  church.  The  aposto- 
late  succeeded  in  suppressing  this  revolt,  and  to 
avoid  any  recurrence  of  it  the  full  general  council 
was  not  again  convoked,  and  only  revived  in  1877 
in  the  form  of  a  conference  of  the  seven  angels  of 
London  under  the  presidency  of  the  apostle.   In 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Catholic  ApostoUo  Churoli 
Oathollo  EmaucipatiDn 


Ihe  Fame  crisis  (1840)  the  priociple  was  laid  down 
that  the  purity  of  the  prophets'  doctrine  must  bo 
attested  by  the  a{>ostle»,  and  thua  the  superiority 
the  apostohc  office  vindicated.  The  same  year 
Eirks  the  beginning  of  another  inifiortant  change, 
be  apostles  who  had  been  traveling  on  the  Con  ti- 
nt had  conic  there  into  contact  with  Roman 
tboUcism,  and  the  result  was  a  definite  assimila- 
i  to  its  ways  of  the  "  Catholic  Apostolic  Church," 
I  it  was  now  officially  called.  All  tmees  of  Scotch 
byterian  or  English  non-conformist  traditionH 
ere  gradually  eradicated.  Altars  were  now  erected 
El  ted  from  the  body  of  the  church  by  a  rail 
which  the  commxmi cants  knelt.  The  people 
ere  taught  to  regard  the  Eucharist  as  a  sacrifice 
praise  and  thanksgi\'ing  In  which  the  elements, 
mged  by  t lie  Holy  Ghost  into  the  body  and  blood 
Christ,  were  offered  to  God  in  commemoration 
of  his  death.  The  same  tendency  appeared  in  the 
^tiu-gy  introduced  in  1S42  and  drawn  up  mainly 
^  '  Cardale,  which  went  back  to  early  forms,  East- 
,  as  well  as  Western.  Tlie  eucharistic  refitments 
pre  adopted  practically  as  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
liiircb;  extreme  unction  was  introduced  in  1847; 
1850  the  consccratetl  elements  were  reserv^ed 
a  tabernacle  and  every  morning  and  evening 
the  analogy  of  the  showbread)  exposed ^  not 
i  objects  of  adoration  but  to  assure  the  people  of 
Lord's  presence  and  abiding  intercession.  In 
52  the  use  of  candles  on  the  altar  and  incense  was 
i,  and  in  1868  holy  water.  The  moat  original 
nony  is  the  "  seeing/*  which  was  introduced 
1S47  on  Cardale *«  motion;  with  reference  to 
V.  vli.  3  sq<i.  it  w^as  taught  tlmt  those  who  were 
be  saved  must  be  sealed  in  order  to  escape  the 
at  tribulation.  This  was  to  be  done  by  the 
ies  with  laying  on  of  hands  and  unction; 
odidates  must  be  at  least  twenty  ye^rs  old. 
The  result  of  the  discord  which  followed  these 
novations,  of  the  defection  of  the  apostle  Macken- 
e,  and  of  the  failure  of  prophecy  to  fi,x  the  exact 
lite  of  the  Lord's  coming,  all  contributed  to  keep 
own  the  numbers  of  the  body,  which  in  1851 
[>unted  4,018  members  with  thirty-two  churches, 
decline  from  the  days  of  ihe  first  enthusiasm, 
lut  the  movement  had  already  spread  to  other 
Duntries.  In  183*5^36  it  had  gained  a  foothold  in 
neva;  in  1841  a  propaganda  had  been  under- 
ken  in  s<^»uthem  Germany  by  Caird  (husband  of 
ary  Campbell,  one  of  the  original  claimants  of  the 
gift  of  tongues),  and  still  more  zealously  in  northern 
ay  by  the  apostle  Thomas  Carlyle  (q.v.),  who 
blished  public  worship  in  Berlin  in  1848.  Out- 
of  Holland,  however,  httle  progress  was  made 
,  other  countries.  Doubts  were  awakened  by  the 
ath  of  one  apostle  after  another,  and  in  1860,  at 
meeting  of  the  apostolic  college  at  Albury  the 
ophet  Geyer  called  for  the  elevation  of  the  evan- 
Bfihm  and  Caird  to  the  apostolic  office. 
two  then,  and  in  1870  some  others,  were 
as  coadjutor  apostles.  Geyer  was  not 
and  in  1861,  being  in  K6m^berg  with 
IToodhouse,  proclaimed  the  call  of  a  lt)cal  evangelist 
aaatzki  to  the  apostolate.  The  latter  soon 
his  submission,  but  a  schism  ensued.  In 
Geyer  himself  was  called,  and  ten  months 


later  one  Schwartz,  especially  for  Holland;  on  the 
assumption  that  there  must  always  be  twelve 
apostles,  there  were  six  in  Hamburg  and  thnw  in 
Ajnsterdam  by  1S75.  Woodhouse,  the  last  Enghsh 
apostle,  died  in  1901.  In  the  English  body  proph- 
ecy was  allowed  less  and  less  importance^  and  Car- 
dale  "^s  treatise  Prophesying  and  the  Ministry  of  the 
Prophet  in  the  Christian  Church  (1868)  practically 
gave  it  its  death-blow. 

The  accessible  figures  give  the  present  numl>er 
of  churches  in  England  as  about  eighty,  and  in  the 
United  States  as  ten»  with  1,401  communicants. 
Probably  more  numerous  are  the  followers  of  the 
German  and  Dutch  branch,  w%ich  has  increased 
in  strength,  though  its  separation  from  the  English 
body  has  favored  a  tendency  to  fanatical  extrava- 
gance and  to  the  abandonment  of  the  likeness  to 
Roman  Catholicism  in  externals.  Aix)stles,  proph- 
ets, and  other  functionaries  appear  in  ordinary 
dress,  and  the  altar  is  usually  replaced  by  a  com- 
mon table.  ■  The  element  of  adoration  in  pubhc 
worship  is  less  and  less  emphasised,  wliile  more  stress 
is  laid  upon  conversion  by  preaching  and  prophecy 
and  the  assembling  of  the  faithful  for  the  speedy 
coming  of  the  Ix>rd.  The  insistence  on  the  number 
of  twelve  apostles  which  was  the  justification  for 
the  schism  is  now  considered  merely  as  the  letter, 
the  essential  being  the  permanence  of  the  office,  so 
that  in  1900  there  were  fourteen  apostleit  minis- 
tering in  this  branchy  Its  principfd  seats  ar« 
Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  and  Konigsberg.  In 
recent  years  it  has  extended  also  to  North  and  South 
America,  and  claims  that  with  tlie  help  of  a  native 
missionary  no  less  than  15,000  converts  have  been 
*'  scaled  "  in  the  island  of  Java,  Its  official  organ 
is  the  Wachterstimmcn  aus  Ephraim,  pubhshed 
monthly  by  the  apostlo  Fr.  Krebs  at  Iserlohn, 
Westphaha,  Prussia,  containing  reports  of  the 
journeys  of  the  apostles  and  statistics  of  conver- 
sions. (T,  KOLDE.) 

BiBUOORAPHTt  Tlie  sources  are  found  in  the  wntit^s  of  Ed- 
wardi  Irving,  and  in  the  following  work*  on  his  Uf*:  W. 
Jones,  Bioffraphicai  Sketch  o/  Bet\  Edward  Irvintf,  wUh  Ex^ 
irxicUfromhi*  .  .  .  FYincipal  Writing*^  LondoiK  1835;  W, 
WiJkfl,  Edward  Irvinff,  an  Ecctetiaatical  and  Literary  Biog- 
raphv,  ib.  1854:  Mrs.  O.  W.  Oliphani,  Lift  of  Edward 
Irving,  /iliwrfrated  by  hi*  JoumaUand  CorreMpoiuUtncM,  2 
vole..  Lb.  1862,  new  ed.,  1865  (on  this  consult  D,  K«r, 
ObtervationM  on  Afr«,  OHphant*a  Life  of  Edward  JrvinOt 
Edinburgh,  1863);  T,  Carlyle,  in  hiis  Reminiac^ncstt  ed. 
C.  E.  Norton,  2  vole.,  London,  1878;  T,  Kolde»  Edward 
irving,  Leipaic,  IflOl.  For  this  hiatory  and  doctrine  of  the 
Church  consult:  J.  N.  K5h)er,  H«t  IrvinffiMmt,  The  Hagus, 
1876;  E.  MiUpr,  History  and  Di^trine*  i>f  Irvingi*m,  2  Toli., 
London,  1878;  H.  M,  Prior,  My  Exp€ritnc€  of  the  Catholic 
ApoatoHc  Church,  ib.  1880;  S.  J,  Andrews,  Qitd'§  Revela- 
tion* i)f  Himutf  to  Men,  New  York,  1886;  E.  A.  Ilort- 
taiLseher,  Der  Aufhau  der  Kirche  Chrvtti  auf  den  «r* 
eprHnfftichtn  Grundtaoen,  Basel,  1886;  A.  8.  Dyer.  SketchM 
of  English  Nonconformitj^,  LondotL,  1893. 

CATHOLIC  EMAHCIPATIOlf :  The  name  given 
to  the  Act  by  which  Parliament,  on  Apr.  13,  1829, 
finally  removed  the  civil  disabilities  under  which 
the  Roman  Catholics  of  England  and  Ireland  had 
labored  ever  since  the  reign  of  Elizabeth^  when 
those  who  rcfuaed  to  take  the  oatli  of  supremacy 
and  conform  to  the  Efltablished  Church  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  House  of  Commons  and  from  all 
political  power.     They  suffered  from  a  maas  of 


Qathollo  Smanoipation 
OMdda 


THE   NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


460 


accumulated  disabilities,  which,  if  the  law  had  been 
strictly  enforced,  would  have  deprived  them  of  their 
rights,  not  only  as  dtiiens,  but  as  parents,  proprie- 
tors, and  men.  With  the  growth  of  toleration,  a 
bill  abolishing  some  of  these  disabilities  was  passed 
in  1778,  to  be  followed  by  the  uprising  of  the  Lon- 
don mob  known  as  the  "  Gordon  Riots."  Pitt  had 
intended  that  the  union  between  England  and 
Ireland  should  be  followed  by  a  measure  admitting 
Catholics  to  Parliament,  with  a  provision  for  their 
clergy  and  a  commutation  of  tithes.  This  hope, 
informally  held  out,  probably  helped  to  win  their 
support  for  the  union;  but  George  III.  was  inflex- 
ibly opposed  to  this  measure  of  justice,  and  Pitt 
resigned  in  consequence  of  its  failure.  In  1821, 
with  Canning  for  its  eloquent  champion,  a  measure 
of  emancipation  was  carried  through  the  House  of 
Commons,  only  to  be  defeated  by  Lord  Eldon  in 
the  upper  house.  But  a  mighty  agitation  followed 
in  Ireland,  led  by  Daniel  O'Connell  and  fomented  by 
a  great  Catholic  Association.  This  body  was  dis- 
solved when  Canning  became  minister  in  1825, 
but  revived  when  he  was  replaced  by  the  anti- 
Catholic  ministry  of  Wellington  and  Peel,  and  soon 
showed  such  formidable  strength  that  the  great 
Duke,  with  his  political  insight,  saw  that  the  hour 
for  concession  had  come.  The  bill  which  Peel 
introduced  threw  open  to  Catholics  Parliament  and 
all  the  great  offices  of  state,  except  those  of  regent, 
lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  chancellor,  the 
crown  remaining  limited,  by  an  Act  of  Settlement 
to  the  Protestant  Concession,  and  gave  the  elec- 
toral franchise  to  English  Catholics.  As  the  re- 
moval of  an  unjust  anachronism,  this  measure  was 
inevitable;  but  it  failed  to  restore  tranquillity  to 
Ireland,  since  the  concession  had  been  robbed  of  its 
grace  by  delay  and  enforcement,  and  since  the 
chief  cause  of  Irish  disaffection  was,  after  all,  not 
the  n4igious  disabilities  but  the  tenure  of  land, 
as  the  sequel  clearly  showed. 

Bibuooraphy:  Sources:  .\.  Wellesley  (Duke  of  Wellington), 
Supplementary  I)e«patchea,  edited  by  his  son,  7  July,  1812, 
Lonilon:  lSti7-80.  Speeches.  17  May,  1819,  2  vob.,  ib.  1854: 
K.  S.  l.arpent.  Private  Journal,  i.  95,  ii.  20,  London, 
185:1:  Memoir  of  Sir  Rttbert  Peel,  pt.  i..  The  Human  Catholic 
Question,  London.  1834;  J.  F.  Stephen.  History  of  Crim- 
i*HU  Law  of  England,  ii.  476  ffqq..  London,  1883  (exceed- 
ingly valuable V,  W.  J.  Amherst,  History  of  Catholic 
timancithition  in  the  British  Isles,  2  vols.,  London,  1886 
vfairly  complete). 

CATHOLIC  EPISTLES:  A  name  given  to  seven 
of  the  epistles  i)f  the  New  Testament;  viz..  James, 
I  and  11  IVter.  I,  II,  and  III  John,  and  Jude. 
IXlTori'Ut  explanations  have  been  given  of  the  sig- 
uitioAniv  of  the  name.  (1)  It  has  reference  to  the 
vriltrs,  wlu>  were  the  ajKistles  in  general,  whereas 
the  otiu*r  New  Testament  epistles  were  believed 
k^  Ih»  written  by  Paul.  (2)  It  refers  to  the  con- 
^His,  \vhieh  »!(>  not  treat  of  any  particular  topic, 
^u(  HW  p'ueral.  (3)  It  refers  to  the  recipients, 
iKe  letters  not  being  addressed  to  a  particular 
chui\'h.  iMit  tt>  the  Church  universal.  (4)  It  refers 
H>  i/f^inion  iH>iuHTning  these  writings  and  indicates 
lh*l  ihey  wert»  >!:enerally  accepted  as  authentic, 
in  diiitiuetion  frtmi  the  many  writings  current  and 
«Wff%NHt  to  ap<»stolie  authorship  but  not  every- 
jui  r«uviveil.     The  name  was  given   to  the 


First  Epistle  of  John  in  the  East  about  the  second 
century,  and  by  the  fourth  century  it  included  the 
seven  epistles  named.  In  the  West  they  were 
called  ''  canonical  "  epistles.  Certain  non-caDoD- 
ical  writings  (as  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the 
letter  from  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  in  Acts  xv. 
23-29)  are  also  called  "  catholic  "  by  early  writers. 
See  Canon  op  Scripture,  II.,  2,  §  5. 

Bibuoobapht:  The  Catholic  Epistles  are  of  cotine  dnh 
with  in  the  principal  works  on  the  N.  T.  Canra,  N.  T. 
Introduction,  and  in  the  Commentaries.  Conault:  P. 
J.  Gloag,  Introduction  to  tk9  Catholie  Epistles,  Edinburpli, 
1887;  W.  Sanday,  in  Biblicol  Inspiration,  London.  ]^%, 
W.  H.  Bennett,  in  the  Century  Bible,  ib.  1901;  aodC.A. 
Bi|K,  Commentary  on  SL  Peter  and  St.  Jude,  Edinbursfa. 
1902. 

CATHOLIC  OR  UHITED  COPTS.     See  Uniateb. 

CATHOLICUS:  In  the  time  of  Constantine,  a 
civil  officer  established  after  the  orgjmization  of 
dioceses,  each  diocese  having  its  catholicus,  or 
receiver-general.  As  an  ecclesiastical  officer  occur- 
ring in  several  Eastern  churches,  the  catholicus 
occupied  a  position  between  the  metropolitan  and 
the  patriarch.  The  title  is  also  applied  to  the  head 
of  an  independent  or  schismatic  communion,  such 
as  the  Armenian  Church. 

CATTLE.    See  Pastoral  Life.  Hebrew. 

CAVAGinS,  ca"va"nyt3,  FELICE:  Roman  Cath- 
olic  cardinal;     b.    at   Bordogna   (near    Bergamo, 
39  m.  n.e.  of  Milan)  Jan.  13,  1841;    d.  at  Rome 
Dec.  29,  1906.     He  was  educated  at  the  Roman 
Seminary,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  '^^ 
1863.    Three  years  later  he  became  a  teacher  a^ 
Celano,  and  later  became  a  member  of  the  faculty 
of  the  Roman  Seminary,  of  which  he  was  rector 
from  1887  to  1893.     Later  still  he  was  appointed  sec- 
retary   of    the    Congregation    for    ExtraordinaTTf 
Ecclesiastical   Affairs,   and   in    1901    was  creatc-d 
cardinal  deacon  of  Santa  Maria  ad  Mart)Te5.      I^ 
addition   to   the   Congregation   for   ExtraordiiiJ.  O' 
Affairs,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Congregations    ^^ 
the  Consistory,    the   Bishops    and    Regulars,  tti^ 
Council,  the  Index,  and  the  Sacred  Visitation. 

CAVALIER,  JEAN.     See  Camisards. 

CAVE,     ALFRED:     Enghsh     Congregationali^t: 
b.  at  London  Aug.  29,  1847;  d.  there  Dec.  19, 19<'>0. 
He  was  educated  at  New  College,  London  (B.^-V.. 
London  University,  1872),  and  was  GongregatioT-i:il 
minister   successively    at     Berkhanipstead,    Hearts 
(1872-76),    and    Watford,    Herts    (1876-SO).     Ih- 
was  appointed  professor  of   Hebrew  and  church 
history  in  Hackney  College.  London,  in  1880,  arri 
two  years  later  was  chosen  principal  and  profe.ssor 
of  apologetic,  doctrinal,  and  p:istoral  thcolog>-  in 
the  same  institution,  retaining  both  these  position-* 
until    his    death.     He    was    also    Congrcgatioriai 
Union    Lecturer    in    1888,    \'ice-pre8ident  of   the 
London  Board  of  Congregational  ministers  in  ISSS 
and   1898,   and   Merchants*   Lecturer  in  1S93-P4. 
He  collaborated  with  J.  S.   Banks  in  translating 
the  System  der  christlichen  Glaubenslehre  of  I.  '^• 
Domer  (2  vols.,  Beriin,   1879-81)  under  the  title 
System  of  Christian  Doctrine  (4  vols.,  Edinburgh,        , 
1880-82),  and  also  wrote  the  independent  works:        j 
Scriptural    Doctrine    of    Sacrifice    and   Atonement 
(VAlrnhxiTgh,   1877);    An  Introduction  to  Thedogji:       j 


.461 


HELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Catholio  Smanoipatioa 
Oeadda 


Ita  Principles,  Its  Branches,  Its  Results,  and  Its 
Literature  (1886);  The  Inspiration  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Inductively  Considered  (Congregational  Union 
Lectures;  London,  1888);  The  Battle  of  the  Stand- 
ardSf  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Higher  Criticism 
(1890);  The  Spiritual  World,  the  Last  Word  of 
Philosophy  and  the  First  Word  of  Christ  (1894); 
and  The  Story  of  the  Founding  of  Hackney  College 
(1899).  An  enlarged  edition  of  his  Introduction  to 
Theology  appeared  in  1896. 

CAVE,  WILLIAM:  Church  of  England  patristic 
scholar;  b.  at  Pickwell  (13  m.  e.  by  n.  of  Leicester) 
Dec.  30,  1637;  d.  at  Windsor  Aug.  4,  1713.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  in  St.  John's  College,  and 
was  made  M.A.  in  1660,  D.D.  in  1672,  in  1681  D.D. 
by  Oxford.  He  was  vicar  of  Islington,  now  part 
of  London,  1662-91;  rector  of  All  Hallows  the 
Great,  Thames  Street,  London,  1679-89;  became 
chaplain  of  Charles  II.  and  canon  of  Windsor  in 
1681;  and  in  1690  vicar  of  Isleworth,  London.  His 
reputation  rests  on  his  eminent  attainments  in 
patristics.  His  principal  works  are:  (1)  Primitive 
Christianity  (London,  1672;  reprinted,  Oxford, 
1840,  in  connection  with  his  Dissertation  Concerning 
the  Oovemment  of  the  Ancient  Church  by  Bishops, 
Metropolitans,  and  Patriarchs,  1683);  (2)  Tabula 
ecclesiasticcB,  tables  of  ecclesiastical  writers  (1674; 
improved  ed.  under  the  title  Chartophylax  eccle- 
siasticus,  1685);  (3)  Apostolici,  or  the  Lives  of  the 
Primitive  Fathers  for  the  Three  First  Ages  of  the 
Christian  Church  (1677);  (4)  Ecdesiastici :  or, 
the  Histories  of  the  lAves,  Acts,  Deaths  and  Writings 
of  the  Most  Eminent  Fathers  of  the  Church  That 
Flourisht  in  the  Fourth  Century  (1683;  3  and  4 
were  combined  and  edited  by  Henry  Cary  imder 
the  title  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Fathers  of  the 
Church  That  Flourished  in  the  First  Four  Centuries, 
3  vols.,  Oxford,  1840);  (5)  Scriptorum  ecclesiastic 
corum  historia  literaria  (1688;  in  Latin,  to  the 
fourteenth  century,  continued  by  others  to  1617 
and  reprinted,  Oxford,  2  vols.,  1740-43). 

Bibliogbapht:  J.  Darling,  Cyclopcedia  Bibliographica,  pp. 
605-607,  London,  1854;  S.  A.  Allibone,  Critical  Dictumary 
of  Englith  Literature,  i.  356-357.  Philadelphia,  1801;  DNB, 
ix.  341-343. 

CAVICCHIONI,  ca-vi'ch8"nl,  BENJAMm:  Ro- 
man Catholic  cardinal;  b.  at  Veiano  (a  village 
near  Viterbo,  42  m.  n.n.w.  of  Rome)  Sept.  27, 
1836.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1859,  and,  after 
teaching  for  several  years,  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
studied  canon  law.  In  1872  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  and  twelve 
years  later  was  consecrated  titular  archbishop  of 
Amidaand  appointed  apostolic  delegate  to  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Ecuador,  where  he  remained  imtil  1889. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
council,  with  the  title  of  archbishop  of  Nazianzum, 
and  in  1903  was  created  cardinal  priest  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Ara  Cceli.  He  is  a  member  of  the  0)ngre- 
gations  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  the  Council,  the 
Propaganda  for  the  Oriental  Rite,  the  Index,  and 
Indulgences. 

CAYET,  ca"y6'  (CAHIER,  CAIET,  Cajetanus), 
PIERRE  VICTOR  PALMA:  Roman  Catholic  con- 
vert;   b.  at  Montrichard  (18  m.  s.s.w.  of  Blois), 


Touraine,  1525;  d.  in  Paris  May  10  (or  July  22), 
1610.  He  studied  at  Paris  and  Geneva,  was  Prot- 
estant pastor  at  Poitiers  and  in  its  neighborhood, 
and  in  1584  became  chaplain  to  Catherine  of  Bour- 
bon, sister  of  Henry  IV.;  in  1595  he  embraced  Ro- 
manism, was  made  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
Sorbonne  in  1596,  and  became  priest  in  1600.  He 
was  accused  of  scandalous  writings  and  immoral- 
ity, but  claimed  that  all  charges  were  prompted 
by  ill  will  because  of  his  change  of  faith.  His  most 
noteworthy  writings  were  Chronologie  septinaire 
de  Vhistoire  de  la  paix  entre  le  roi  de  France  et 
d'Espagne  (Paris,  1605)  and  Chronologie  noviTiatre 
sous  le  rhgne  de  Henri  IV  (1608). 

CAZALLA,  ca-thdl'ya,  AUGUSTmO:  Spanish 
Protestant;  b.  at  Valladolid  1510;  executed  by 
the  Inquisition  there  May  21,  1559.  He  was  a 
scholar  of  Bartholom^  Carranca  (q.v.)  and  stud- 
ied at  Valladolid  and  Alcala.  The  influence  of 
his  father,  the  chief  officer  of  the  royal  finances, 
opened  to  him  a  brilliant  career  in  the  Church,  and 
his  own  ability  won  him  the  reputation  of  being  one 
of  the  foremost  preachers  in  Spain.  In  1545  he  be- 
came chaplain  and  almoner  to  Charies  V.  and  accom- 
panied the  emperor  to  Germany  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Schmalkald  war.  There  he  imdertook  to 
confute  the  Lutherans,  but  ended  by  accepting 
their  doctrines.  Returning  to  Spain  in  1552,  he 
was  cautious  at  first  in  expressing  his  opinions, 
but  ultimately  his  mother's  house  in  Valladolid 
became  the  meeting-place  of  the  Protestants  of  the 
city  and  Cazalla  himself  the  head  of  the  congrega- 
tion. In  1558,  with  his  brothers  and  sisters  and 
about  seventy-five  others,  he  was  put  into  prison. 
On  Mar.  4,  1559,  when  threatened  with  torture, 
he  acknowledged  that  he  had  accepted  Luther's 
teachings,  but  denied  that  he  had  taught  them  to 
others  except  to  those  already  of  like  mind;  fur- 
ther concessions  he  steadfastly  refused  to  make. 
The  auio  da  fi  at  which  he  perished  was  the  first 
of  these  sad  spectacles.  Sixteen  persons,  including 
a  brother  and  a  sister  of  Cazalla,  brought  to  judg- 
ment at  the  same  time,  were  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  life;  two,  Cazalla's  brother  Fran- 
cisco and  Antonio  Herezuelo,  a  lawyer  of  Toro, 
were  burned  alive;  and  twelve  others,  including 
Cazalla,  were  strangled  before  being  burned.  At 
the  place  of  execution  he  was  persuaded  to  address 
his  fellow  prisoners.  (O.  ZdCKLERf.) 

Biblxoorapht:  T.  McCrie,  History  of  the  Progre—  and  Sup- 
pression of  the  Reformation  in  Spain,  pp.  226-231,  285- 
289,  Edinburgh,  1829;  C.  A.  Wilkens.  Oesd^iehte  dts 
spanischen  ProtestanOsmus,  pp.  70  f>qq.,  224  sqq.,  234  sqq., 
Gatersloh.  1888;  H.  C.  Lea.  History  of  the  Inquisition  in 
Spain,  ii.  318. 612.  iii.  201,  430.  431.  438.  New  York.  1906. 

CEADDA  (CHAD),  ST. :  Third  bishop  of  Mercia; 
d.  at  Lichfield  Mar.  2,  672.  He  was  one  of  Aidan's 
pupils  at  Lindisfame  and  also  spent  some  years  at 
the  monastery  of  Rathmelsigc  (Melfont,  near 
Drogheda?)  in  Ireland.  His  oldest  brother,  Cedd 
(q.v.),  chose  him  to  succeed  himself  as  abbot  at 
Lastingham,  Northumbria.  in  664.  After  the  Synod 
of  Whitby  (q.v.)  Wilfrid  was  elected  to  the  North- 
umbrian bishopric  and  went  to  Gaul  to  be  conse- 
crated. As  he  did  not  return  immediately  Kin^ 
Oswy  saw    fit   to   appoint   Ceadda,  and   he  was 


OecU  ^ 
Oeleatine 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


469 


consecrated  (665?)  by  Wine  of  Winchester  and 
two  British  bishops.  Wilfrid  acquiesced  on  go- 
ing back  to  England,  but  when  Theodore  be- 
came archbishop  of  Canterbury  (669)  objection 
was  raised  to  Geadda's  consecration;  he  expressed 
his  willingness  to  lay  down  an  office  of  which 
he  had  never  deemed  himself  worthy,  retired  to 
his  monastery  in  Northimibria,  and  Wilfrid  was 
instated  in  his  place.  Theodore,  however,  impressed 
by  Geadda's  humility  and  worth,  reconsecrated  him 
as  bishop  of  the  Mercians  to  succeed  Jaruman,  and 
he  fixed  his  residence  at  Lichfield  (Sept.,  669). 
His  simplicity,  piety,  and  devotion  to  duty  won 
the  hearts  of  all,  and  in  later  times  he  was  one  of 
the  most  popular  of  En^ish  saints. 

Biblxooraprt:  Bede,  HUt.  ecd.,  iii.  23,  24,  28;  iv.  2,  3;  t. 
19.  24;  FomH  Eboraceruea,  ed.  W.  H.  Dixon  and  J.  Raine, 
i.  47-65.  London,  1863;  W.  Bright.  Early  Engliah  Churdi 
HxMtory,  pp.  243-246,  269-266,  Oxford.  1897;  DNB,  ix. 
391-393. 

CECIL,  RICHARD:  English  "evangelical  ";  b. 
in  London  Nov.  8,  1748;  d.  at  Hampstead  (Lon- 
don) Aug.  15,  1810.  His  early  life  was  profligate, 
but  he  was  converted  about  1772,  and  in  1773 
entered  Queen's  (College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1777);  he 
was  ordained  priest  1777  and,  after  holding  various 
livings,  was  appointed  minister  of  St.  John's  Chapel, 
Bedfoiti  Row,  London,  in  1780.  He  was  the  lead- 
ing "  evangelical "  clergyman  of  his  time,  and 
exerted  a  wide  influence.  He  had  an  original  mind, 
dignified  carriage,  and  impressive  delivery.  His 
works,  were  collected  and  published  with  memoir 
by  the  Rev.  J.  Pratt  (4  vols.,  London,  1811;  new 
ed.,  with  his  letters  and  memoir  by  Birs.  Cecil, 
1854).  Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  of  his  works 
is  The  Remains  of  Richard  Cecil,  xmth  numerous  se- 
lections from  his  works,  new  ed.,  with  introduction 
by  his  daughter  and  preface  by  R.  Bickersteth 
(London,  1876),  containing  reminiscences  of  his 
conversations. 

CECILIA,  SAINT:  Roman  maiden  of  noble 
family,  who  is  said  by  different  versions  of  the  un- 
certain and  contradictory  tradition  to  have  suf- 
fered martyrdom  under  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Com- 
modus,  under  Alexander  Severus,  and  under 
Diocletian.  Her  Ada  relate  that  on  the  eve  of  her 
marriage  she  converted  her  husband,  Valerianus,  to 
Christianity.  Angels  appeared  to  both  Cecilia  and 
Valerianus  charging  them  that  her  virginity  should 
not  be  impaired.  Tibertius,  the  brother  of  Valeri- 
anus, was  then  converted.  The  two  brothers,  refu- 
sing to  sacrifice  to  the  gods  at  the  bidding  of  the 
prefect,  Almachius,  were  executed  by  the  sword,  and 
Cecilia  was  exposed  to  death  in  an  overheated  bath 
in  her  own  house;  when  this  means  failed  she  too 
was  beheaded.  The  remains  of  the  three  martyrs 
were  placed  in  the  catacombs  of  St.  Calixtus,  whence 
Pope  Paschal  I.,  in  821,  is  said  to  have  removed  the 
relics  of  Cecilia  to  a  church  called  after  her  name 
(Sta.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere);  her  coffin  of  cjrpress 
wood  was  found  there  in  1599  (Baronius,  Annales, 
ad  an.  821 ).  De  Rossi  discovered  what  is  probably 
the  original  crypt  of  Cecilia,  adjoining  the  papal 
crypt  in  the  cemetery  of  Calixtus,  and  has  at- 
tempted to  prove  that  she  belonged  to  the  old  pa- 
trician family  of  the  Csecilii;  also  that  the  date  of  her 


martyrdom  was  177  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  Cecilia  begins  to 
be  represented  in  art  with  musical  attnbutea. 
The  conception  of  her  as  patroness  of  the  oi^ 
dates  probably  from  RaffaePs  painting  of  1513, 
now  in  Bologna,  and  may  be  based  upon  a  mis- 
imderstanding  of  certain  words  of  her  Acta  whidi 
refer  to  the  (secular)  musical  instruments  at  her 
wedding,  but  were  thought  to  indicate  a  particukr 
instrument  played  by  herself.  The  r61e  which  she 
fills  among  both  Roman  Catholics  and  Prntestants 
as  patroness  of  church  music  in  general  may  be 
due  to  the  foimding  of  a  musical  academy  at  Bam 
by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1584  under  her  protection 
and  named  after  her.  (O.  ZOcKLEHf.) 

BzBuooaAPHT:  ASB.  April,  ii.  203-211:  A.  Bosio,  Ada  8. 
CacUia,  Rome,  1600  ed.  J.  Laderchi,  with  title.  Atk 
8.  Caeilia  et  tranMUbtrina  ba§ilica  iUuBtrala,  2  Tok,  Booe, 
1722;  J.  B.  de  Rossi,  Roma  totterratt^a  cfemfiaiia,  iL.pp. 
xxxii.-xliii.,  113-161,  Rome,  1867,  Eng.  traziil.,  L  315^ 
London,  1879;  Dom  Gu^ranger.  iSto.  deUe,  Fna,  1S74 
(richly  illustrated,  but  of  little  seientifio  value);  C.  Martio, 
Die  KeUi4f€  Cdeilia,  Mains,  1878;  Bertha  E.  Lorenil. 
The  Lilt  of  8t.  CteUia,  in  YaU  Studies  in  BngUA,  vol  iil. 
New  York.  1898. 

CEDD  (CEDDA),  ST.:  Bishop  of  Essex;  d.  at 
Lastingham  (25  m.  n.n.e.  of  York),  Northumbrian 
Oct.  26,  664.  With  his  youngest  brother  Ceadda 
or  Chad  (q.v.),  he  was  brou^t  up  at  Lindiafarne, 
and  was  sent  in  653  by  his  abbot,  Finan  (q.Y.), 
and  Oswy,  king  of  Northumbria,  as  miaaoiiajy, 
first  to  Peada,  king  of  Mercia,  and  then  to  Sgbert, 
king  of  Essex.  He  was  very  successful  and  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  the  East  Saxons  by  Finan 
and  two  Scotch  bishops  in  654.  He  founded  tio 
monasteries  in  Essex  and  the  one  at  T.flgfiw|rh«m 
and  governed  them  strictly,  according  to  the  Go- 
lumban  rules.  He  was  present  at  the  Synod  of 
Whitby  (q.v.)  in  664  and  acted  as  interpreter;  he 
inclined  to  the  British  side,  but  when  the  Ronan 
prevailed  he  acquiesced.  He  died  of  the  plague 
while  on  a  visit  to  Northumbria.  He  has  been 
called  the  second  bishop  of  London,  but  Bede, 
who  is  the  source  of  all  information  concerning  him 
(Hist,  eccL,  iii.  21-23,  25,  26,  28;  iv.  3),  never 
speaks  of  him  as  such. 

CEILLIER,  sfil'ayfi',  REMY:  Fi«nch  bibUogra- 
pher;  b.  at  Bar-le-duc  May  14, 1688;  d.  at  Flavigny, 
near  Nancy,  Nov.  17,  1761.  He  entered  the  Con- 
gregation of  St.  Vannes  (reformed  Benedictines) 
in  1705,  and  became  titular  prior  of  Flavigny. 
His  great  work  was  an  HiMoire  g&ndrale  des  auteun 
sacris  et  eccUsiastiques,  qui  corUient  leur  vie,  U 
catalogue,  la  critique,  le  jugement,  la  daronologie, 
Vanalyse,  et  le  dinombrement  des  diffCrentes  iditim 
de  leurs  ouvrages;  ce  qu'Hs  ren/ermerU  de  plui  inr 
tiressant  sur  le  dogme,  sur  la  morale,  et  sur  lada- 
cipline  de  Valise  (23  vols.,  Paris,  1729-63;  TSfi 
gindrale  des  matih-es  by  Rondet  and  Drouet,  2  vols., 
1782;  new  ed.,  16  vols.,  1858-69).  This  work  ia 
brought  down  to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, and  is  more  complete  and  exact  than  the 
sinailar  imdertaking  of  Du  Pin  (q.v.),  but  is  in- 
ferior in  respect  to  style  and  critical  judgment; 
it  is  of  most  value  for  the  first  six  centuries,  for 
which  Ceillier  was  able  to  use  Tillemont  and  the 
Benedictine  editions. 


463 


HELTGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cecil 
CeleBtino 


Biin4ooiiAFnT:  A.  BpUKii«t,  £tudt  bioffmphiqve  et  triU^nm 

Mur  Dom  fUmi  CeUii<^,  tlar-i(-Duc.  J89L 

CELE,  JOHAITNES:  Teacher  at  Zwolle;  b.  at 
Zwolle,  about  the  mititile  of  tho  fourteenth  century; 
d-  there  May  9,  1417.  He  receiveii  his  early  edu- 
cation in  liis  native  place,  continued  his  Htudics  in 
Bome  unknown  school,  and,  returning  to  Zwolle, 
in  1374  was  entruate^d  with  the  school>majiageraerit 
there.  Having  bc?eri  awakened  by  the  preaching 
of  Gerard  Groote,  he  thought  of  joining  the  order 
of  Minorites  J  but  waa  prevcnteil  from  doing  my  by 
Groote,  who  advised  him  to  complete  his  studies 
at  Prague.  Whether  he  went  to  Prague  is  not 
known.  Depressed  in  mind,  Cele  spent  some  time 
in  the  monastery  at  Munnikhuizen  and  in  com- 
pany with  Ruysbroeck.  Through  the  influence 
of  Groote,  in  apite  of  opposition,  Cele  was  made 
rector  of  the  sch(x>l  at  Zwolle.  He  received  much 
help  from  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  and 
assisted  them  especially  in  the  difficult  task  of 
seeming  houses  at  Zwolle  for  their  adherents  and 
those  committed  to  their  charge,  but  he  dici  not 
join  the  brothcrhoixi,  remaining  rector  of  the  ever- 
growing schoob  which  numbered  l.tKX)  pupils* 
He  taught  Latin,  grammar,  and  rhetoric,  and 
expounded  the  Scriptures,  admitting  lajTiien  to 
his  lectures  against  the  will  of  the  city  ministers. 
He  founded  a  large  library  by  buying  and  copying 
uscripts.  For  more  than  forty  years  he  stood 
thfe  bead  of  the  institution,  liighly  esteemed  for 
learning  and  piety  and  his  1,'isting  influence  on 
pupils.  The  lazy  and  presumjjtuous  were  kept 
der  rigid  discipline.  All  wore  the  sintple  dress 
the  brethren.  He  had  no  method  of  ids  own, 
mt  laboretl  in  the  spirit  of  his  friend  Groote,  rccog- 
niiing  in  a  jnous  personality  the  t*ouree  of  all 
morality,  and  thus  he  gave  to  the  growing  himian- 
ism  the  right  direction  and  true  basis  in  the  Chris- 
faith  and  genuine  piety.  Many  prominent  men 
hia  pupils,  such  as  Heinrich  von  Herxen^ 
I  Gansfort^  Alexander  Hegius,  Rudolf  Langen^ 
Rudolf  Agrieola,  Ludwig  Dringenberg,  Moritsi  von 
Ipiegelberg,  and  Johaimes  BuBck 

L.  SCHULZE. 

iLiOQRAPfiY:  Beaides  the  works  mcntloaed  in  the  article 
Common  Life,  BmcTHREN  of  thk,  v&liuible  wurcca  for 
C«le  iir«  ibe  peraonal  reminii^cenopa  of  TlmmiiK  h  Kern  pis 
in  the  Chranicon  monaaUrii  S.  A(fnrti»,  «d.  H^  Roaweyde, 
p.  171,  Antwerp,  1615,  and  of  hifl»cbolar,  Johannes  Bu«ch, 
in  the  Chrvnicon  WindeghemenMr^  ed.  K.  Grube^  pp.  204- 
222,  Halle,  1887.     Consult  also  ADB.  iv.  79. 


^nTesE 


tCELESTINE :     The  name  of  five  popes. 
Celcstine  L :  Pope  422-432.     He  was  a  Roman  by 
irth,  and  only  a  deacon  when,  in  Sept.,  422,  be 
was  raised  to  the  episcopate.     The  main  endeavor 
^Kf  hia  pontificate  was  to  extend  the  jurisdiction 
^Ut  biB  see.     To  this  end  ho  made  use  of  a  conflict 
^^^hich  had  been  going  on  for  years  in  the  African 
Church  in  order  to  assert  the  right  of  tlie  Roman 
pontiff  to  receive  appeals  thence.     He  restored  to 
communion  Apiarius,  an  African  priest  who  had 
been  deposed  by  his  bishop  and  had  appealed  to 
Rome  under  Zoaimus  and  Boniface  L     The  Afri- 
CttnSy  however,  in  a  syntxl  at  Carthage  in  424  or 
425,  denied  his  right  to  interfere.     C*lestine's  part 
^io  the  dogmatic  controveriiics  of  Ms  time  was  also 


influenced  by  political  considerations    (see   Semi- 

rELAGiANiaai;  NiesTonius).     He  died  at  the  end  of 

July,  432.  (A,  IlAUCit.) 

BrBLtOQfiArRT:     Liher  pontificalU,   ed.    Ducli««De,   i.  230, 

Paria.    1886;    Jaff4,   Regesta,   i.   56;     Hefele,   Ctmciheni^ 

tchichte^  iL    159  ttqqi.,   Eu^.   trana).,  ii.  476  sqq.:    Bower, 

PoptM.  L  16fi-18fi;   Milman.  Lc/trt  ChritHanitv,  L  200-238. 

Celestine  II,  (Guido  de  Castellis):  Pope  1143- 
1144.  He  was  a  Tuscan  of  noWe  birth,  reputed  to 
be  learned  and  pious.  He  occupitKl  the  papal 
throne  only  from  Sept.  26  to  Mar.  8,  not  long 
enough  to  fulfi]  the  hopes  which  his  elevation  had 
raised.  {A.  IUdck.) 

Bidlio4}Rapeit:  Ja(F^«  Reffr*la.  ii.  1;  Bower.  Pttpe*,  ii.  475. 
Celestine  m.  (Jacinto  Bobo):  Poi>e  1191-98, 
After  being  a  cardinal  forty-seven  years^  at  eighty- 
five  he  was  electwl.  Mar.  30  (?),  1191,  the  first  }K>pe 
of  the  houso  of  Orsini.  The  times  were  troublous 
(see  Clement  111),  and  the  aged  pope,  a  man  of 
mild  temper  and  inclined  to  half  measures,  was  no 
match  for  his  formidable  opponent  Henry  VI,, 
who  appeared  before  Rome  and  demanded  his 
coronation,  which  Celestine  was  obliged  to  i^ter* 
fomi  on  the  day  after  Easter,  Henry  surrendered 
Tusculwm  to  him,  but  later  forced  him,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  agreen»ent  of  May  31,  1188,  to  give  it 
up  to  the  Romans  for  destruction.  From  1194 
he  saw  the  Norman  kingdom,  with  which  hia  pred» 
ecessors  had  invested  Tancretl,  in  tlio  posses.'iioii 
of  the  hated  Hohenataufen.  Henry  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  fealty  or  to  pay  tribute;  he  appointed 
bishops  and  judged  them,  and  gave  the  lands  of 
C<juntesii  Matilda  to  his  brother  Philip  in  fee. 
Celestine  did  not  venture  to  excommunicate  him, 
but  did  break  off  relations  with  him,  tiiough  he 
offered  reconciliation  when  Henry  took  the  croaa 
(May  31,  1195).  It  soon  became  e\4dent  that 
Henry  was  a  cnisader  only  for  political  advantage} 
and  the  territory  and  rights  of  the  Church  were 
invaded  in  various  quarters.  Httmiliations  beset 
the  aged  pof>e.  He  was  ohligetl  to  release  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  from  his  imi>erformed  vow  to 
free  the  Holy  Sepulcher;  and  could  not  force  the 
recognition  of  hia  legate  in  England,  William  of 
Longchamp  (the  bishop  of  Ely,  Richard  C<fur  de 
Lion's  chancellor),  by  Prince  John  imd  the  barons; 
nor  did  Philip  Atigustus  heed  Ids  admonitiona 
against  the  arbitrary  dissolution  of  his  marriage 
with  Ingeborg  of  Denmark  and  the  contracting 
of  a  new  one.  His  fear  of  the  emperor  pre- 
vented lum  from  protesting  against  Richard's  im- 
prisonment; only  after  the  English  king  had  paid 
liis  ransom  did  he  excommunicate  Leopold  of 
Austria.  Celestine  survived  Henry  VI,  by  only  a 
few  months,  dying  Jan.  S,  1 198.  (A.  Hauck.  ) 

BtnLiooRjiLPifT:  Ja(f6,  RegeMUx^  ii.  577;  J.  M.  Watierich, 
Pontificum  Ramanorum  rita,  ii.  708.  Laipaier  1803;  F, 
Gn?>gortiviuB,  OrMchichte  dfr  SUidt  Rum^  iv.  601*  Stuttsart^ 
1890,  Eng.  transl..  iv.  626^-630,  609,  Lnndon,  1896;  Bower. 
Pop*!,  ii,  531-534;  Bauck.  KD.  iv,  063-^81. 

Celestine  IV.  (Galfrido  di  Ca^stiglione):  Pope 
1241,  A  Milanese  by  birth,  he  was  elected  pope 
in  a  conclave  held  by  permission  of  Frederick  li- 
on Oct.  25.  He  was  old  and  feeble,  and  died,  be- 
fore he  could  be  consecrated ^  on  Nov.  10. 

(A.  Haucil) 

EioLiOQaApnT:   Bower,  Popes,  ii.  550^560* 


Oeleatine 
Oellbaoy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


464 


Cclaatine  V.  (Pietro  di  Murrhone):  Pope  1294. 
He  was  bom  about  1215  in  tbe  Abruzzi;  d.  at 
Fumone,  near  Anagni,  May  19,  1296.  At  twenty 
h©  entered  the  Benedictine  order,  and  lived  for 
yeaiH  in  retirement  first  on  the  Mmrhone,  then  on 
the  Majella^  where  numerous  foUoweii&  gathered 
arounti  him  (eee  CblestinbbX  After  the  death  af 
Nicholas  IV,  (Apr.  4,  1292),  dissensiona  among 
the  cardinal  hindered  an  election,  until  in  March, 
12^,  Charles  11.  of  Napki,  who  needed  a  pope 
to  support  his  designs  on  Sicily,  took  up  the  matter* 
Since  there  was  no  hope  of  agreeing  on  a  cardinal, 
Latin  us,  the  head  of  the  Angevin  party  in  the  aacred 
coUege,  drew  his  attention  to  the  hermit  of  the 
AbruKzi,  whose  sanctity  was  universally  revered  j 
and  Pietro  was  elected  on  July  5.  Hie  unfitness 
for  high  affairs  of  atate  was  equally  well  known; 
the  various  leaders  hoped  to  rule  through  him. 
But  the  remarkable  choice  can  only  be  fully  ex- 
plained by  a  atudy  of  the  mystical  reform  move* 
ment  represented  by  Joachim  of  Fiore  Cq.v,)|  which 
had  upreod  m  widely  among  a  eection  of  ttie  Fran- 
ciscan order.  Their  pronainent  men  favored  the 
electinn  of  Pietro  enthusiastically,  Boeked  to  his 
coronation,  and  renewed  their  old  relations  with 
him  by  a  formal  embassy.  The  new  pope  sanc- 
tioned their  obser\'ance  of  the  rule  of  the  order  in 
its  strictest  form,  and  took  them  under  his  Bj>ecial 
protection  J  allowing  them  to  be  known  by  the  name 
which  he  had  assumed  as  p>ope.  Meantime  Charles 
was  preparing  to  use  his  candidate  for  his  own 
purpoaes;  he  iurrounded  him  with  Sicilian  coun- 
selorSi  and  brought  him  to  Aquila,  where  he  had 
him  crowned  in  the  presence  of  only  three  cardinals. 
The  king^s  influence,  however,  finally  induced  the 
others  to  appear  one  by  one,  the  last  being  Bene- 
detto Ga^^tani,  Celestine's  successor  as  Boniface 
VIU.i  and  the  coronation  ceremony  was  repeated. 
Celestine^s  whole  interest  was  given  to  the  pro- 
motion of  monasticism;  in  other  things  he  wi^ 
merely  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  Charles,  who  got  him  to 
create  twelve  Arige\in  cardinal  confirm  his  treaty 
with  Aragon,  and  supply  large  sums  of  money  for 
the  Sicilian  war*  The  strict  regulation  of  Gregory  X. 
for  the  conclave  was  reenaeted,  that  Charles  might 
have  the  next  election  also  securely  in  his  hands, 
and  in  October  the  curia  was  removed  to  Naples, 
Both  the  carilinals  and  the  pope  were  discontented 
with  the  state  of  affairs,  and  the  latter  began  to 
tliink  of  abdication,  that  he  might  be  able  to  give 
himself  once  more  wholly  to  his  ascetic  practises. 
The  thing  was  without  precedent,  and  offered  great 
constitutional  difficulties,  which,  when  Celes tine's 
resolve  was  seen  to  be  fixed,  were  as  f sir  as  possible 
removed  by  the  legal  wisdom  of  Gaetani,  and  the 
abdication  took  place  on  Dec,  13,  WMle  Dante 
speaks  scornfully  of  the  pope  *"  who  made  the  great 
refusal/'  others  lauded  the  act  highly^Petrarch 
among  them,  who  regarded  it  tm  an  example  of 
humility  entitling  the  poor  hemiit  to  rank  above 
the  apostles  and  many  otiier  saints.  Gajotani  was 
later  accused  of  having  brought  about  the  abflica- 
tion  by  guile  in  ortler  to  secure  \u»  own  advance- 
ment. The  charge  ia  not  jiistified,  but  he  im* 
doubtedly  had  his  eye  on  tlie  tiara  in  view.  After 
he  had  attained  it,  he  wished  to  keep  hij9  prede- 


cessor with  him  in  Rome,  lest  he  should  be  used 
as  a  tool  by  the  opposition;  but  the  aseetic  flad. 
and  was  finally  taken  and  imprisoned  in  die 
mountain  castle  of  Fumone,  where  he  died  lie 
next  year.     He  was  canonized  by  Clement  V. 

(Hajib  ScHtni.) 

BisuooaAPMT:  Th»  oldw  docum«Dl«  »re  ciolle^ed  in  AEB, 
May,  iv.  418-198,  cf,  Mumtori,  Scfiptoiw,  ni.  L  fil3-^l. 
CoDftuIt:  A.  Potthut,  R4&e§ia  p(mH0€vm  Rmmttanm. 
ii.  1915^22.  BerUn,  1875;  tkin  Josaphtl,  I^  Wip 
Faptt  Covhatin  V.,  Fulda,  1S94;  F.  Grecwimui^  Gt- 
atMchia  drr  Stadt  Rimt,  v.  4m  «qq..  Btuttcart.  IS&2,  Ed- 
tranjl.,  V,  523'fi34.  London,  1898;  Bower.  Popa.  m.  40-43. 

CELESTINES :  A  name  borne  by  two  monaatie 
societies  which  owe  their  origin  to  Pope  Celeattne  V. 
(q.v.).     (1)  The  Beneduiine  CeU^Unm,  known  alio 

as    Moronites    and    Murrhonites,    were    originflUj 
composed  of  men  who  were  members  of  the  Bene- 
dictine order,  btit  lived  as  hermits  on  Monte  Majelk 
in  the  Abruzzi  from  about  1258,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  future  pope  Celestine^  who  gave  thean  i 
severer  rule  and  obtained  papal  conSrmation  for 
the   congregation   from    Urtian    IV.,   probably  is 
1264,  though  the  alleged  bull  of  this  year^  as  w^ 
as  another  of  Gregory  X.  from  1274,  is  of  doubtful 
genmneness.     The  early  history  of  the  congregsr 
tion  is,  in  fact,  frequently  open  to  critical  objection; 
as,  for  example,  the  statement  that  it  already  had 
sixteen  bouses  in  1274,  when  its  founder  is  said  to 
have  gone  to  the  general  council   at  Lyons  mA 
attracted    great    attention    as    a     wonder-worker. 
After  about  1290,  the  mother  house  seems  to  have 
been  at  Monte  Murrhone  near  Subnona.     On  ttie 
fonnder's  elevation  to  the  papacy  in  1294,  be  at- 
tempted by  rich  grants  of  indulgencea  and  other 
pri\nleges  to  give  it  a  commanding  position  m  the 
BenetHctine  monastic  family;    indeed,    heaspirKi 
to  reform   the  mother  house  of   the  whole  order 
at  Monte  Cassino  on  the  principles  of  his  concre- 
gation.     But  the  brevity  of  his   pontificate  [\k- 
vented  the  execution  of  his  plana.     The  congrega- 
tion, however,  continued  to  grow,  until  in  Italy 
it  had  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  rentyjy 
mncty-fiix  houses.     Its  rule,  which  in  some  pointa, 
especially    as    tci    fasting,    surpasses    the   ongzoal 
Beivedietine    rule    in    strictness,    was    revised  by 
Urban  VII L  in  1629.     The  French  province  never 
got  beyond  twenty-one  houses.     In  Bohemia  and 
Lusatia  the  congregation  had  some  famous  m^% 
as  at  Prague,  Konigstein,  and  Oybin  near  Zittau, 
the  last  of  which  was  founded  by  Charl(?5  IV.  ia 
1366  and  suppressed  in  the  sixteenth  ceatuiy.— 
(2)  The  FraneiJ!tc4in  Crlesiinm  (Povm  cremiHdiCe' 
lestina),  called  also  FraticeUi,  were  a  congregatioi 
within  the  Franciscan  order,  founded  in  12W,  oo 
an  impulse  given  by  Celeatine  V.,  by  two  of  tie 
"  spiritual  "  sectiona  of  the  order,  Pietro  da  Maeeratu 
(Liljcrato)   and   Pietro   da   Fossombrone   (Xn^^ 
Claremo,  d.  1357)*     It  existed  down  to  about  i3# 
in   nearly  alt   its   original   strength   as   a  congre- 
gation of  the  Minorites.     See  Francis,  Rvixt.  or 

ASSISI,  AWD  THE    FrANCISCAIC  OrDER, 

(0.  Z5CKLXflt.) 

BiBLioonAPRT:  For  (1)  Helyot,  Ordret  m^ngittiQttei,  r,  Bl 
»qq.,  vi.  I&O-IQI;  Hdmbflclier^  Orden  uftd  Kongrf^oii'rfi^ 
i.  134-136  <Eiv«  thn  lat«r  literature);  Ciirrirr,  Rdis^^mi 
Ordm-t,  p,  147;  KL,  m.  582-^84.     For  {2)  Feike  Toesa. 


465 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeleatiaa 
OeUbaoT 


/  fraHeetti  o  poveri  ermUH  di  CdmHno,  in  the  BMttHno 
deUa  9oci€ih  ttariea  Abnuwem,  vii.  (1895)  117-160. 

CELESnUS.    See  Pelagius,  Pelagianisii. 

CELIBACT. 

GelibMy  in  the  Early  Church  (|  1). 

Marriage  of  the  Clergy  Still  Permitted  (|  2). 

In  the  Early  Roman  Catholic  Church  (|  8). 

The  Medieval  PMiod  (|  4). 

The  Council  of  Trent  on  Cehliaoy  (I  6). 

Protestant  Rejection  of  Celibacy  (|  6). 

Celibacy,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  means 
the  pennanently  unmarried  state  to  which  men 
and  women  bind  themselves  either  by  a  vow  or  by 
the  reception  of  the  major  orders  which  impliai 
personal  purity  in  thought  and  deed.    The  Jewish 
pneeta  and  high  priests  were  married,  being  re- 
stricted only  in  the  choice  of  a  wife  (Lev.  xxi.  7, 
S,  14,  15).    In  preparation  for  the  exercise  of  their 
office,  they  were  to  abstain  from  commerce  with 
their  wives,  which  was  also  required  of  the  whole 
people  before  the  reception  of  the  Law  on  Sinai 
(Ex.  xix.  15).    The  New  Testament  contains  no 
prohibition  of  marriage;  some  of  the  apostles  were 
married  (Biatt.  viii.  14;    I  Cor.  ix.  5),  and  Paul 
recommended  marriage  to  the  heads  of  churches 
(I  Tim.  iii.  1),  thou|^  he  considered  that  under 
some  circumstances  it  was  better  not  to  marry 
(I  Cor.  vii.  38).     Very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  the  idea  grew  up  that  the  unmarried  state 
was  preferable  (Hennas,  I.  ii.  3;  Ignatius  to  Poly- 
carp,  v.),  and  grew  into  a  positive  contempt  of 
marriage  (Origen,  Horn.  m.  in  Num. ;   Jerome,  Ad 
Javinianum,  i.  4).    As  eariy  as  the  second  century 
examples  of  voluntary  vows   of  vir- 
X.  Celibacy  ginity  are  found,  and  the  requirement 
in  the  Early  of  continence  before  the  performance 
Church,     of  sacred  functions.    By  the  fourth 
century  canons  began  to   be  passed 
in  that  sense  (Synod  of   Neocsesarea,  314  a.d., 
canon  i.;  Synod  of  Ancyra,  314  a.d.,  canon  x.). 
Unmarried    men    were    preferred    for    ecclesias- 
tical   offices,   though  marriage  was  still  not  for- 
bidden;  in  act,  the  clergy  were  expressly   pro- 
hibited from  deserting  a  lawfully  married  wife  on 
religious   groimds    (Apostolic   Canons,  v.).     The 
Qynod   of    Gangra   (3557)   anathematised   in   its 
fourth  canon,  against  the  Eustathians,  those  who 
refused  to  accept  the  ministrations  of  a  married 
priest.    The  stricter  view  prevailed  so  far,  how- 
ever, that  the  Coimdl  of  Nicsea  could  speak  of  it 
as  an  ancient  custom  that  priests  and 
a.  Harriage  deacons  should  not  marry  after  ordina- 
of  the       tion,  unless,  in  the  case  of  deacons. 
Clergy  Still  they  had  expressed  an  intention  of 
Pennittad.  marrying  at  the  time  of  their  ordina- 
tion— though  both  were  allowed  to 
retain  wives    already    married,  and  a    marriage 
contracted  in  contravention  of  this  regulation  was 
valid.    The  standpoint  of  the  Roman  Church  was 
different  from  this.    Thus  Pope  Siridus  declared 
in  385  that  priestly  marriage  had  been  allowed  in 
the  Old  Testament  because  the  priests  could  only 
be  taken  from  the  tribe  of  Levi;  but  that  with  the 
mbandoimient  of  that  limitation  this  permission 
had  lost  its  force,  and  that  "  obscoena  cupiditates  " 
(^e.|  marriage)  hindered  the  proper  performance 
IL-30 


of  spiritual  functions.  Succeeding  popes  adhered 
to  this  view  (cf.  decretals  of  Innocent  I.,  404,  405, 
and  Leo  I.,  456,  458),  and  the  rest  of  the  Western 
Church  came  to  it  (Synods  of  Carthage,  390,  401). 
Candidates  for  the  l^gher  orders  were  accordingly 
required  to  take  a  vow  of  celibacy,  and  from 
the  fifth  century  those  for  the  sub- 

3.  In  the    diaconate  also.    A  breach  of  this  vow 
Eariy  Roman  entailed  degradation  from  office,  but 

Catholic     not   the    nullity    of    the  marriage. 

Church.  Those  in  minor  orders  were  still 
permitted  to  marry,  but  not  a  widow 
or  for  the  second  time  (Fifth  Synod  of  Carthage, 
401;  Gregory  I.,  601).  Secular  legislation  con- 
firmed these  regulations  in  so  far  as  it  forbade 
married  men,  or  men  who  had  children,  to  be 
made  bishops,  and  even  went  further  by  declar- 
ing the  marriages  of  those  in  major  orders 
void  and  their  children  illegitimate.  The  Eastern 
Church  adhered  to  the  older  legislation,  with  the 
modifications  introduced  by  the  imperial  decrees 
just  referred  to;  prohibited  marriages  were  now 
dedared  void,  but  married  men  coidd  still  be  ad- 
mitted to  orders  without  giving  up  their  wives, 
except  in  the  case  of  bishops  (Coundl  of  Constan- 
tinople, 602).  This  system  the  modem  R(»nan 
Catholic  Church  still  allows  for  the  Uniat  Greeks, 
as  explained  by  Benedict  XIV.  in  the  constitutions 
Etai  pastoraUs  (Biay  26,  1742)  and  Eo  quamviB 
tempore  (May  4, 1745).  But  within  its  own  bound- 
aries the  Latin  Church  has  held  more  and  more 
strictly  to  the  requirement  of  celibacy,  though  not 
without  continual  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
clergy.  The  large  number  of  canons  on  this 
subject  enacted  from  the  eighth  century  on  shows 
that  their  enforcement  was  not  easy.  After  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  the  new  ascetic 
tendency  whose  champion  was  Gregory  VII.  had 
a  strong  influence  in  this  matter.  Even  before 
Hildebrand's  accession  to  the  papacy,  the  legia- 
Ution  of  Leo  IX.  (1054),  Stephen  DC. 

4.  The      (1058),  Nicholas  II.  (1059),  and  Alex- 
Medieval    ander  II.  (1063)  had  laid  down  the 

Period,  principles  which  as  pope  he  was  to 
carry  out.  In  the  synod  of  1074 
he  renewed  the  definite  enactment  of  1059  and 
1063,  according  to  which  both  the  married  priest 
who  said  mass  and  the  layman  who  received  com- 
munion at  his  hands  were  excommunicate.  Urban 
II.  decreed  in  1089  that  the  marriage  of  one  in 
major  orders  should  be  punished  by  the  loss  of 
both  office  and  benefice.  The  Councils  of  Reims 
(1119)  and  of  the  Lateran  (1123)  ordered  that  the 
parties  to  such  a  marriage  should  be  separated 
and  sent  to  places  of  penance.  The  Lateran  Council 
of  1139  confirmed  this  provision,  with  the  dedara- 
tion  "  that  such  connection  was  not  marriage." 
These  strict  principles  were  not  extended  to  the 
minor  orders.  It  is  true  that  Alexander  III.  and 
Iimooent  III.  prescribed  the  loss  of  clerical  raiik  and 
privileges  for  even  the  holders  of  these  in  case  they 
married;  but  Boniface  VIII.  (1298)  and  (dement 
V.  (1311)  reasserted  the  older  law.  After  the 
Reformation  had  done  its  work,  Charies  V.  endeav- 
ored by  the  Interim  of  1548  to  bring  about  the 
abolition  of  these  rules,  and  with  several  othflC 


CMiteey 


THE  NEW  SC^HAFF-HEIiZOG 


prinoet  requested  the  ducunkm  of  the  questkm 
at  the  Council  of  Trent.    The  oouncU,  however, 
maintained  the  syBtem  as  a  whole, 
5.  The      and  the  following  rules  are  now  in 
Conncfl  of  force:  (1)  througli  the  reception  of  ma- 
Trent  on    jor  orden  or  tlie  taking  of  monastic 
CelilNicj.    or  other  solemn  vows,  celibacy  becomes 
so  binding  a  duty  that  any  subsequent 
marriage  is  null  and  void.  (2)  Any  one  in  minor  or- 
ders who  marries  loses  his  office  and  the  right  to  go 
on  to  major  orders,  but  the  marriage  is  valid.     (3) 
Persons  already  married  may  receive  the  minor 
orders  if  they  have  the  intention  of  proceeding  to 
the  major,  and  show  this  by  taking  a  vow  of  per- 
petual abstinence;  but  the  promotion  to  the  higher 
orders  can  only  take  place  when  the  wife  expresses 
her  willingness  to  go  into  a  convent  and  take  the 
veil.    The  Council  of  Trent  furtlier  lays  down  that 
the  functions  of  the  minor  orders  may  be  per- 
formed by  married  men  in  default  of  unmarried — 
though  not  by  those  who  are  li\'ing  with  a  second 
wife.     In  the  nineteenth  century  attempts  were 
not     lacking,   even   within   the   Roman   Catholic 
Church,  to  bring  about  the  abolition  of  celibacy. 
They    were    rather    hindered      than     helped    by 
temporal  governments,  and  always  firmly  rejected 
by  Home.    Celibacy  has  been  abolished  among  the 
Old  Catholics;  and  modem  legislation  in  Germany, 
France,  Ik^lgium,  Italy,  and  Switzeriand  authorizes 
the  marriage  both  of  priests  and  of  those  who  have 
taken  a  solemn  vow  of  cliastity.     Austria,  Spain, 
and    Portugal    still    forbid    it.     The    evangelical 
churches  at  the  very  outset  released 
6.  Protes-  their  clergy  from   the  obligation  of 
tant  Rejec-  celibacy,  professing  to  find  no  validity 
tion  of     in  the  arguments  adduced  in  its  favor 
Celibacy,    on  the    Roman   side.     Tlie    question 
is    carefully    discuiwcd    and    decided 
against  the  Roman  practise  in  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fcHtdon   (xxiii.)    and  the  Apology    (vi.).      Similar 
ground  is  taken  in  Art.  xxxvii.  of  the  first  Helvetic 
Confession  and  Art.  xxix.  of  the  second,  as  well  as 
in  Art.  xxxii.  of  the  Tliirty-nine  Articles.     Like- 
wise disapproval  is  expressed  of  binding  vows  of 
celibacy  in  the  Augsburg  Confession  (xxvii.)  and 
Apology  (xi.).  (E.  Friedbero.) 

Bibliography:  The  book  best  worth  connultinc  from  the 
Protestant  ntandpoint  is  H.  C.  l^ea.  Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in 
the  Chrittian  Church,  3d  ed.,  2  vmIh.,  London  and  New 
York,  1907;  for  the  Catholic  prenentation  consult  Migne, 
Kneydoprdie  Theolooiqtte,  vol.  xxv..  "Wlibat,"  Paris, 
1856;  Dictionnaire  de  TMoloffie  catholique,  "C<$Ubat  eccl^ 
siastique."  ib.  1005.  Other  treatises  are:  J.  Schmitt, 
Der  Prieatercolibat,  MOnster.  1870;  P.  M.  R.  des  Pilliers, 
Ia!  Ctiibat  eccUeiaatuiue,  Chamb^ry.  1886;  Clerical  Celibacy, 
Oxford,  1891;  F.  Chavard.  Le  CHibat,  le  prftre  et  la 
femme,  Paris.  1894;  L.  Bocquet.  Le  Cflibai  ecclAtiastigue 
juequ'au  concile  de  Trente,  Paris,  1895;  A.  Vassal,  Le 
CHibat  eccUeiastique  an  premier  ti^cle  de  I'/vli*^,  ib.  1896; 
Eesay  on  the  Law  of  Celibacy,  V/oT€seeter,  n.d.;  E.  Carry, 
Le  CHibat  eccUeiaatique  devant  I'hiUoire  et  devant  la 
eon»cienee,  Paris.  1905;  E.  A.  Spcrry,  An  Outline  of  the 
Hiet.  of  Clerical  Celibacy  in  Western  Europe  to  the 
Council  of  Trent,  New  York,  1906  (contains  a  bibliog- 
raphy). On  the  change  of  status  in  the  Eng.  Church 
consult  J.  Collier,  Eccleeiaetical  History,  ii.  262  sqq..  Lon- 
don, 1714,  and  G.  Burnet,  History  of  the  Reformation, 
ii.  84  sqq.,  ib.  1716.  The  subject  of  celibacy  is  treated 
at  greater  or  less  length  in  the  church  histories,  e.g..  Nean- 
der.  Christian  Church,  consult  the  Index. 


CELL:  UsuaOj  the  room  or  hot  i 
monk*  nun,  hennit,  or  friar  Ihres,  but  abo  a  c 
ency  of  a  large  monastery,  ruled  by  a  prior,  dm, 
or  abbot,  who  was  the  Tiitual  cfaoiee  of  the  abbot 
of  the  mother  house.  Such  "ccfla"  were  bt- 
quently  oountiy  houses  which  with  the  gmimdi 
were  bestowed  upon  the  abbey  as  a  souree  of  rev- 
enue, as  the  mcmks  living  therein  had  to  pay  i 
certain  part  of  their  revenue  to  the  mother  hooM. 
Sometimes  the  "  cell "  was  an  important  buikfii^ 
as  Tynemouth  Prioty  near  Newcastle^  EngiaDd, 
which  was  a  "  cell "  of  the  Benedictme  abbey  of  St 
Alban's  (20  m.n.of  London);  orBermoodsey,wbidi 
was  a  "  cell  "  of  the  Ouniac  abbey  of  La  Chaiit^ 
(140  m.  s.  of  Pans).  Originally  a  "  cell  "  wm  as 
oratory  erected  over  the  grave  of  a  martyr  or  aaint 

CELLARIUS.    See  Borbhacb,  Ifamif . 

CELLTTES  (CELLITJB).    See   Alkxiajb;  Bn- 

HABDS,  BbGCINEB. 

CELSUS:  A  pagan  philosopher  and  controwr 
aialist  against  Christianity.  In  the  period  of  peace 
which  the  Church  enjoyed  under  the  emperor 
Philip  in  the  year  248,  Origen  broiigfat  to  notiee, 
by  an  exhaustive  reply  (the  Contra  Cdtim\  a 
treatise  written  about  seventy  years  eariier  agamst 
Christianity  by  a  highly  educated  Flatooiat  Tbe 
occasion  of  this  reply  nmy  have  been  the  eekbn- 
tion  in  that  year  of  the  thousandth  annivenaiy 
of  the  founding  of  Rome,  which  gave  the  ChriitiaDi 
reason  to  fear  religious  excitement  on  the  part  of 
the  pagan  population.  Origen  gives  the  argnmaiti 
of  Celsus  sometimes  word  for  inxd, 
Origen*!  sometimes  in  substance;  in  the  laitv 
Contra  case  there  is  little  abbreviatioo  and 
Celaum.  not  many  omissions,  so  that  there  ii 
very  fair  material  for  an  attempt  to 
reconstruct  the  original  text  of  Celsus.  This  at-  i 
tempt  was  first  made,  not  very  systematically  or 
successfully,  by  Jachmann  in  1836;  in  1873  Kdm 
undertook  a  restoration  of  Celsus  in  a  German 
version  which,  in  spite  of  its  defects,  has  many 
merits,  and  this  was  partially  improved  on  in  the 
French  version  of  Aub6  in  1878.  The  recent  recon- 
struction by  Neumann  in  the  Greek  shows  that  not 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  original  has  been  lost, 
and  that  three-fourths  of  what  we  have  is  word- 
for-word  quotation. 

The  **  True  Discourse  "  of  Celsus  was  oompoaed 
in  the  last  years  of  Marcus  Aurelius.    It  ootioee 
the  rescript  of  that  emperor,  issued  in  177  (or  176  at 
the  earliest),  against  popular  tumults  caused  by 
the  introduction  of  a  new  religion  (viii.  69).    In 
viii.  71  the  author  speaks  of  two  emperors  reigning 
at  the  time,  which  fixes  the  date  in  the  joint  rule 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus,  from  177  to 
180.     He  was  thus  at  least  a  oontemporaiy  of  the 
Celsus  to  whom  Lucian   dedicated   his  ''Alexan- 
der/' and  some  have  supposed  the  two  to  be  iden- 
tical.    Ludan's  friend,  however,  was 
The  "True  an   Epiciuean,   while  our  Celraa,  in 
Discourse  *'  spite  of  Origen,   stands  out  dMriy 
of  Celsus.    as  a  Platonist;   and  the  books   *b*^ 
fiayuv    (Ludan,  Alez.,  bd.;    Origen. 
i.    68,    Kord   fiayeiac)  do  not  seem  to  fit  in  with 
the  conception  and  tone  of  the  "  True  Disoouiae." 


H&T 


nKLIGIOlTS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oolibacy 

Gel  SUB 


Tbe  tatter « though  usually  divided  into  eight  booksi 
to  have  been  but  one  originally;  and,  ac- 
cording to  Origen  (viii,  76),  CjelsuH  intended  to  write 
another,  **  in  which  he  engaged  to  supply  prac- 
tical rules  of  living  to  those  who  felt  disponed  to 
embrace  his  opinions/-  In  iv.  36  Origen  menticms 
two  more  books  written  hy  a  C^Isna  wliose  identity 
with  ours  he  leaves  uncertain;  but  as  he  seems  to 
know  nothing  of  these ,  it  m  at  leawt  posNible  that 
be  has  miflUtiderHtood  a  notice  referring  to  the  two 
already  mentioned.  Keim,  followctl  by  P^4agaud, 
places  the  home  of  Celsiw  in  tiie  West,  probably 
in  Rome^  where  he  thinks  the  **  True  Diacourae  " 
waa  written — partly  on  the  ground  that  the  Jew 
depicted  by  CelsuK  is  a  Horn  an  and  not  an  Eaatem 
Jew.  The  old  view,  atlopted  also  by  Aubd,  that 
tbe  book  was  compoBed  in  the  East,  probably  in 
Alexandria,  rested  upon  its  accurate  knowle<.lge 
of  Eg^fpt;  and  this  \iew  might  be  supported  by 
the  eontention  that  a-s  a  matter  of  fact  Cebus's 
Jew  is  really  not  the  Ronian  t^Tje,  but  belongs  to 
those  Eastern  Jewish  circles  in  which  the  doctrine 
of  the  Logos  was  familiar;  thus  in  Origi^n,  ii.  31, 
the  Jew  of  Celsussiiys,  *'  If  your  Logos  is  the  Son 
of  God,  we  also  give  our  assent  to  the  same." 

After  the  introduction,  there  follow  objections 
bgainst  Christifmity  from   the  Jewish  standpoint, 
•rhich  should  be  compared  with  Justin's  dialogue 
with    TrjTjho.     With   book   iii.   begins   the   direct 
attack,  which  is  direct-ett  not  against  Christianity 
fttone,  but  also  against  Judaism,  although  a  slight 
preference  is  show^n  for  the  latter.     Celsus  shows 
n  good  knowledge  of  Genesis  and  Exodus;    Aut>^ 
tbinka  he  can  prove  an  acquaintance  with  the  Proph- 
ets and  with  the  Psalms,  and  a  reference  t^  Jonah 
and  Daniel  is  indeed  found  in  vii.  53.     His  knowl- 
edge of  Chriatianity  is  sufficient  to  be 
Criticism    of  some  value  to  the  historian  of  t-o-day, 
of  and  Hamack  has  used  it  in  hk  Dag- 

_^CtUua.      mengeachiehtt.     The  manner  in  which 
^fe  Celsua   employs   the   New^   Testament 

VKresponda  to  the  stage  of  development  of  the 
canon  which  the  Acta  of  the  Martyrs  of  SoiU  show 
in  180.  He  knew  and  used  our  Gospels,  showing 
a  preference  for  the  synoptic  type;  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Acts  is  riisputed,  wliile  familiarity 
with  Pauline  ideas,  though  not  with  the  epistlea 
themselves,  is  generally  admitted.  Gnosticism 
he  knew  well;  his  relation  to  Marcion  needs  further 
investigation.  His  whole  criticism  is  not  irre- 
Ugioua;  it  is  that  of  a  pious  pagan  of  Platonic 
tendencies,  though  his  Platonisra  is  that  of  his  age, 
aa  we  meet  with  it,  for  example,  in  Plutarch.  It 
is  the  religion  of  welUto-iio,  self-confident  people, 
and  shows  no  conc*?ption  of  those  crjing  needs  of 
the  time  which  heljxKl  Cliristianity  to  spreat]  so 
rapidly,  of  the  reasons  why  it  was  welcomed  by  the 
poor  and  oppressed.  Again,  he  fails  to  appreciate 
tile  significance  of  the  church  idea,  though  he  under- 
fftanda  the  relation  of  the  local  communities  to  the 
Church  at  large  (v.  59,  61),  and  knows  that  all 
Cbristiana  do  not  belong  to  the  latter  (iii.  12). 
But  it  presents  itself  to  him  rather  in  its  oppo- 
■ition  to  the  Gnostic  sects  than  as  a  great  bond  of 
unity,  whose  importance  he  undervalues  while 
in  the  conflict  of  sects  a  sign  of  weakness. 


jpng 


Still,  Christianity  seems  to  him  important  enough 
to  make  lum  desirous  of  winning  back  ita  adherents; 
and  he  closes,  not,  as  he  began  (i.  1),  with  the  ac- 
cusation of  secret  and  illegal  association,  but  with 
the  hope  that  an  understanding  may  be  reached. 

The  book  had  no  influence  on  the  attituiJe  of  the 
Roman  government,  and  scarcely  a  trace  of  ac- 
quaintance with  it  can  be  found  in  classical  litera- 
ture. Such  traccH  liave  been  seeru 
Later       on  the  otljcr  hand,  in  Minucius  Felix 

History  and  in  the  Apoiogrtieum  of  Terlullian; 
of  His  but  Origen  waa  the  fir.st  to  call  gen- 
Work,  eral  attention  to  it.  The  Neopla- 
tonic  controversialiRts  naturally  went 
back  to  it;  et^rtain  fundiimental  thoughts  rejippear 
in  Porphyry,  whom  Julian  follows,  and  the  A6)<h 
^laki^it^  (**  Truth-lo\ing  Discourses  *')  of  Hiero- 
cles  point  t(j  it  in  their  very  title.  Meatitime^ 
however,  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  had 
been  completed,  and  it  was  possible  for  assaults  on 
Clmslianity  to  take  the  form  of  assaults  on  ita 
sacred  writing^.  Later  Christian  antiquity  saw 
the  tyjjicid  literary  attack  from  the  pagan  side  not 
in  Celsus  but  in  Porphyry;  Theodosius  11.  orderetl 
the  bcx)ks  of  Porphyry,  not  those  of  Celsiw  or  of 
Julian,  to  be  burned  in  448.      (K.  I.  Neumann.) 

According  to  the  account  of  Origen,  the  principal 
charges  brought  by  Celsua  against  Christianity 
were  aa  follows.  The  Chriatiana  were  members  of 
illegal  secret  associations  which  w*ere  necessary  to 
them  because  they  wotild  suffer  death  if  their 
jiractises  were  known.  The  origins  of  Chri^stianily 
were  derived  from  secondary  sources,  some  of  the.^e 
even  barbarous,  and  Moses  himself  simply  borrowed 
the  ordinances  which  he  promulgated.  The  al- 
leged divinity  of  Jesus  can  not  be  proved  fron»  liis 
miracles,  since  they  were  the  mere  tricks  of  a 
juggler,  while  the  indicationH  of  his  life  and  charac- 
ter are  equally  against  the  doctrine.  Jewish  con- 
verts to  Christianity  were  ipso  facto  renegade.s, 
since  the  new  religion  Wiis  no  improvement  upon 
the  old.  Both  the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  religions 
were  really  relwlhous  against  the  state.  The 
alleged  theophanlea  were  really  the  appearances 
of  demon*',  and  the  Christian  eschatology  is  ii^ 
rational  and  incredible. 

TIrtiMoanAPBT:  The  b«at  editioa  of  OrlK^a's  Contra  CeUum 
VH  hy  P.  KfKTt^chau,  Leipeic,  169fl^  juid  tbe  truiaUitioQ  is 
Bi«^t  accessible  in  A  NF,  iv.  305  tqa.  T  Keim,  CtUus*  Wak- 
TtM  Wt/ri,  Zurich,  18U3,  puts  toffetber  in  tJerm&u  the  quota- 
t\ti%xn  by  Origen  ftfid  mo  raeoiiatrtieto  the  orii^iji&l  text.  Qjii- 
ftuir:  K.  It  JiMjhinAuo,  £>•  Cti»o  pkUoaopho,  Koni^aberK, 
IR.'}6;  B«  Aul36,  La  P&timufwi  pa^enn^  d  ta  fin  du  deuxiht%e 
9UcU,  Farii,  1878:  E.  PelaiEiiuii,  Un  conutrvaUur  uu  wecofid 
ttVr^e.  Stude  tut  CeijM,  Lyons^  1878;  C.  Bias,  Chri*han 
PlatoniaU  of  Alrraruiria,  pp.  254-268,  Oxford,  1886; 
idem,  Ne&platanism,  pp.  08-118,  London,  1805;  K*  J« 
NeumAtm,  Dtr  romische  Stoat  und  dit  allGetnein^  Kirch*, 
I  6S-60,  2&&-273,  Leipsic,  1890;  J.  A.  Uobinaoij,  On  th* 
Text  of  Orio*n  amtra  Celsum.  in  Journal  of  PhiUAoau, 
xviii.  U800)  288-206;  P.  Koetuchau,  Die  GlUdtruna  det 
AlethM^  LoQOM  d*a  Ceiti**,  in  JPT.  xviii  (1892)  604-632;  J 
Pmtriclc^  ApoUnnf  of  Origen,  Ethnburgh.  !802;  F.  M.  MillVr. 
Die  wahro  GttchichU  dM  Cetsua,  in  DeuiMche  Rundwchau^ 
bcxxiv.  (1805)  79-07;  HarnAck,  /fUtory  of  Ditgma,  voli, 
i.-ii.,  pAisim,  Bovton*  1805-07;  idem,  Liftrrahtr,  11,  L 
314-315;  A.  C.  MeGi!f<»rt.  in  hu*  edition  of  Eu»«biiii» 
NPS^F,  L  278-270:  Moeller.  ChrUtian  Church,  i.  100-170; 
Neander,  Christian  ChttrcH.  vol.  i,,  paasim:  Scbaff.  Chrit' 
tian  Church,  ii.  80-03;   DCB,  i.  435-436, 


CMtie  Ohnroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


MS 


CELTIC  CHURCH  IN  BRITAIH  AND  IRELAND. 


L  Oricin  ^nd  Early  History,  to  c.  600. 

1.  In  Britain. 
Hereaies  (|  1). 

2.  In  Ireland. 

Native  Tradition  of  Origin  (f  1). 
The  Tradition  Unreliable  (|  2). 
Proeper'a  Palladius  the  Same  at 

Patrick  (I  8). 
True  Origin  of  the  Irish  Church 

(§4). 
St.  Patrick  (I  6). 

3.  In  North  Britain  (Alba). 

n.  Development   and   Full   Maturity, 
600-800. 
1.  In  Britain. 
The  Church  in  Walee  (f  1). 


The  British  Church  and  Augustine 
(12). 
2.  In  Ireland  and  North  Britain. 

The  Irish  (Jhureh  not  Revived  from 
Wales  in  the  Sixth  Century  (|  IX 

Learning  of  the  Irish  Blonks  (|  2). 

Travels    and   Missionary    Labors 
(IS). 

North  Britain  Christianised  (f  4). 

Relations  with  Rome  (I  6). 

The  Patrick  Legend  (|  6). 

Conforms  to  Roman  Usage  (|  7). 
ni.  Complete  Assimilation  to  the  Ro- 
man Church,  800-120a 

1.  In  Wales. 

2.  In  Ireland. 


Incursions  of  the  No 
Irish    Monks    on    the 

(§2). 
Rise  of  Armagh  (f  8). 
The  Culdees  (|  4). 
Final  SubJMrtion  to  Robm  (|  5). 
8.  In  North  Britain, 
rv.  Some  General  Consideratiooi. 
Reason  for  the  Divergences  faosi 

Rome  (I  1). 
Consecration  by  a  Sii^  Biilujp 

(§2). 
Monastic  Charmetar  of  the  IiiA 

Church  (I  8). 
The  Celtic  and  Roman  Spirit  (1 4). 
(16). 


By  the  Celtic  Church  in  Britain  and  Ireland  is 
meant  the  Christian  Church  which  existed  in  parts 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  before  the  mission  of 
Augustine  (597),  and  which  for  some  time  thereafter 
maintained  its  independence  by  the  side  of  the  new 
Anglo-Roman  Church.  It  comprises  two  branches, 
one  in  Roman  Britain  and  a  continuation  of  it  in 
Wales,  the  other  in  Ireland  and  Alba  (Scotland). 

L  OriginandEariyHistoiy,toc.5oo.— 1.  In  Brit- 
ain: There  is  no  trustworthy  accoimt  of  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  into  Britain.  That  the 
British  Church  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century 
had  no  knowledge  or  tradition  of  the  time  or  man- 
ner may  be  inferred  from  the  silence  of  Gildas. 
The  Lucius  story  may  be  dismissed  at  once  as 
fabulous  (see  Eleuthsrub;  Chxtr,  Bishopric  of). 
Foreign  writers  give  no  more  reliable  information 
than  the  native  sources.  The  arguments  of  Warren 
(pp.  46-62)  for  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Britain  from  Greek  churches  in  Lyons  and 
Vienne  as  a  consequence  of  the  persecutions  imder 
Marcus  Aurelius  are  not  convincing  [cf.  F.  Haver- 
field,  Early  British  Christianity,  in  The  English 
Historical  Review,  xi.  (1896)  418,  n.  2].  It  is  more 
probable  that  the  Gospel  came  to  the  island  by 
ordinary  intercourse  with  other  countries,  and  Gaul 
and  the  Lower  Rhine  lands  are  those  of  which  it  is 
most  natural  to  think.  Had  there  been  organised 
or  individual  mission&iy  effort,  tradition  would 
have  preserved  names.  That  Christianity  was 
widely  spread  in  Britain  by  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  can  hardly  be  inferred  from  the 
notices  in  Tertullian  and  Grigen  (Haddan  and 
Btubbs,  i.  3-4),  which  are  too  rhetorical  to  be  safe 
testimonies.  It  does  seem  certain,  however,  that 
much  progress  was  made  during  the  third  century. 
This  rests,  not  upon  the  sixth-century  tradition 
of  martyrs  in  Britain  during  the  Diocletian  perse- 
cution, which  probably  did  not  have  any  note- 
worthy extension  into  Britain  (cf.  Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  i.  5-6),  but  upon  the  fact  that  three 
bishops,  a  presbyter,  and  a  deacon  from  York, 
Lincoln  [according  to  others  Colchester  or  Carleon- 
on-Usk],  and  London  took  part  in  the  Synod  of 
Aries  in  316  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  i.  7).  The 
towns  from  which  they  came  as  well  as  the  localities 
assigned  for  the  martyrdoms  mentioned  by  Gildas 
(8t.  Albans,  Carleon-on-Usk)  show  distinctly  that 
Christianity  first  took  firm  foothold  in  the  cities 
and  stations  of  the  Roman  highways. 


The  reooids  are  sufficient  to  show  that  throui^ioDt 
the  fourth  century  there  was  a  wdl-oiganiied 
Church  in  Britain  which  stood  in  constant  toudi 
with  the  rest  of  the  Church,  particulariy  in  Gnd, 
and  considered  itself  an  active  member  d  tbat 
body  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  i.  7-12).  Bridrii 
bishops  attended  the  synod  sunmi(med  at  Ariminum 
(Rimini)  by  Constantius  in  359  [Haddan  andfitubbs, 
i.  9-10],  and  their  presence  shows  that  their  Chureh 
was  d»wn  into  general  doctrinal  disputes.  GiUii 
maintains  that  it  was  much  injured  by  AriaaisD 
(p.  32,  11.  20-25).  His  testimony  is  controverted 
by  that  of  Hilaiy  of  Fbitiera  (c  358) 

I.  HereaiM.  and  Athanasius  (363;    both  in  Had- 

dan and  Stubbs,  i.  7,  0).  But  it  moit 
be  admitted  that  Aiian  views  found  aooeptanoe  in 
Britain  during  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  oentuiy, 
and  as  the  Roman  power  was  waning  there  from 
that  time  on,  it  is  conceivable  that  audi  views  m^ 
have  lingered  and  found  expression  as  late  as  600, 
possibly  in  the  baptismal  formula  (cf.  F.  C.  Gony- 
beare,  The  Character  of  the  Heresy  of  the  Early 
British  Church,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Socidji 
of  Cymmrodorion,  1897-98,  pp.  84-117).  It  is 
noteworthy  that  a  life  of  GUdas  written  in  the 
eleventh  centuiy,  but  based  upon  materials  taken 
from  the  sixth  century,  and  a  life  of  Patridc  of 
the  second  half  of  the  seventh  century  lay  strea 
on  their  devotion  to  the  Holy  Trinity  (Chronka 
minora,  iii.  95,  11.  8-9;    TripartiU   Life,  il  273, 

II.  12-13;  286,  11.  6-7);  and  Gr^ory  the  Great 
is  said  to  have  suspected  Columba  of  not  being 
quite  sound  in  the  doctrine  (Bernard  and  Atkin- 
son, i.  64,  ii.  25).  It  is  certain  that  Pdagianion 
appeared  in  Britain  during  the  fifth  centuiy  (see 
Aoricx)la).  Germanus  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Auxnre, 
was  sent  thither  in  429,  and  "  overthrew  the  he^ 
etics  and  directed  the  Britons  to  the  Cathdie 
faith"  (Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  C^onicfe,  anno 429). 
Some  years  later,  on  a  second  mission,  he  com- 
pleted the  extirpation  of  P^lagianism  in  the  idaod 
(Vita  Germani,  used  by  Bede,  L  17,  21).  Gfflda^ 
writing  a  century  later,  does  not  mention  the  henif. 
For  a  hundred  years  aifter  the  mission  of  Gennanue 
nothing  is  heard  of  the  Church  in  Britain.  Tbe 
land  was  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  and  the  An^ 
Saxon  conquest  caused  Christianity  to  disappear 
completely  from  the  East.  With  those  Britons 
who  kept  their  independence  it  found  a  refuge  in 
the  mountains  of  the  West,  whence  it  gradody 


€00 


BELIQIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeltlo  CThuroli 


comes  again  into  view  in  the  dxth  century  (see 
below,  IL,  1). 

2.  Jm  Irel&nd;  There  is  native  tradition  of  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  Ireland,  the  two 
oldest  records  of  which  can  scarcely 
J^^^^^**  be  dated  earlier  than  the  last  qiiar- 
g  '^^  ter  of  the  seventh  century.  They 
Qfiglj^^  are  (1)  the  life  of  Patrick,  written 
by  Muirchu  Maecu-Machtheni  at  the 
wish  of  Bishop  Aed  of  Sletty  (d,  698),  and  (2)  the 
collections  of  a  certain  Tirechan,  a  pupil  of  Ultaa 
of  Ardbrechan  (d.  656),  based  upon  information 
about  Patrick  which  his  teacher  had  communi- 
cated to  him  personally  or  had  left  in  his  papers. 
Both  records,  but  with  additions  and  amplifica^ 
iioDs,  are  in  the  Book  of  Armagh  (Liber  Ardma- 
chanus),  the  several  parts  of  which  were  written  be- 
tween 807  and  846.  In  brief  thia  native  tradition 
ia  OB  follows:  In  431  Ireland  was  entirely  heathen. 
In  that  year  Pope  Celestine  I,  sent  a  certain  Pal- 
ladius  to  preach  to  the  people,  but  he  turned  back 
and  died  in  Britain.  Hia  place  was  at  once  {c. 
432)  taken  by  a  Briton,  Patrick,  who  in  his  youth 
bad  been  a  prisoner  in  Ireland.  He  evangelized 
the  entire  land,  founded  churches  everywhere, 
ordained  bishops  and  presbyters,  and  died  (459) 
universally  revered  as  the  head  of  the  Church,  in 
which  he  held  a  sort  of  metropohtan  rank,  with  bis 
see  at  Armagh  in  Ulster. 

^ Everything  discredita   the  aut!ienticity  of  this 
idition.     (1)  It  representa  Patrick  as  a  person- 
ality comparable  to  Martin  of  Toura  or  Columba, 
the  apostle  to  the  Picts;  such  men  do  not  fail  to 
find  a  biographer  among  their  mlmirers  and  asso- 
ciates; their  fame  grows  and  is  spread 
8.  Tno     jjj  ^jj^  next  generation.     But  the  name 
^^^^**°  of   Patrick  does  not  appear  till   the 
**  second  third  of  the  seventh  century, 

and  then  it  is  in  the  letter  of  Cum- 
(q.v.)  tx>  the  abbot  Segbine  of  lona,  in  con- 
nection with  the  introduction  of  the  Dionysian  (I) 
paschal  computation ^  which  is  ascribed  to  him. 
He  is  not  mentioned  in  the  full  report  of  the  Synod 
of  Whitby  (664),  although  the  arguments  were 
historical  and  the  Irish  referred  to  the  traditions 
of  their  forefathers  and  to  Columba  (Bede,  iii.  25). 
Bede  must  have  been  well  informed  concerning  the 
Church  in  North  Ireland  and  his  interest  in  the 
beginnings  of  Christianity  in  the  Britifsh  Isles  was 
keen;  yet  he  saj^  nothing  about  Patrick  in  his 
Historia  ecck^astica.  It  mema  impossible  that 
there  can  have  existed  in  the  North  of  Ireland  in 
the  Beventh  century  a  tradition  of  a  founder  of  the 
Irish  Church  called  Patrick.  And  yet  it  is  in 
the  North  (at  Armagh)  that  the  tradition  (the  first 
Imports  of  which  come  from  the  South)  represents 
Patrick  as  having  his  see  and  ending  his  days. 
p2)  The  tradition  describea  the  Irish  Church  as 
gpiscopal^  deperndent  on  Putrick^s  see  of  Armagh. 
But  aa  a  matter  of  fact  the  Church  of  Ci^lumba 
sod  *of  Finnian  of  Clonard,  i.e.,  from  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  is  a  monmtie  church 
without  ceniTid  orgunimtion  and  with  no  traces 
of  Buch  a  past  as  the  tradition  presupposes. 
How  intensely  the  Irish  ding  to  the  cuatoma  of 


their  fathers  was  shown  at  Wlutby;    it  took  four 
hundred  years  to  transform  this  monastic  church 
of  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  even  after  the 
theoretical  acceptance  of  an  episcopal  constitution. 
If,  then,  the  organiaation  was  ®o   fundamentally 
changed  within  one  generation,  as  it  must  have  been 
if  the  tradition  be  correct,  an  explanation  is  needed* 
And    none    is    forthcoming.     (3)    There    is    good 
reason   to  believe  that   Ireland  was  not  entirely 
heathen  in  431.     The  island  is  easily  accessible  from 
Britain;    and   active  intercourse,  particularly  be- 
twcen  the  Southwest  of  Britain  and  the  Southeast 
of  Ireland,  existed  as  early  aa  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries  (cf.  Zimmer,  Nennins  vindicaltts,  pp.  85-- 
9^f   Berlin,    1893;    Kuno   Meyer,    Early   Rdutiona 
Between  Gael  and  Brython,  in  the  Transadion^  of 
the  Society  of  CymmTodor{4>n,  1895-96^  pp»  5&-86), 
As    has    been   seen,    there   was   a   well-organi»ed 
British  Church  in  the  fourth  century.     It  is  natural 
to  aaaume^  then,  that  Christianity  was  carried  to 
Ireland  from  Britain  before  the  time  assigned  to 
Patrick.     And  the  assumption  is  corroborated  by 
certain  saints'  lives,  particularly  those  of  Declan, 
Ail  be,  Ibhar,  Oaran,  and  Abban  (ASB,  July,  v* 
590-608;    Sept.,  iv,  26-31;    Apr,,  iii,   173;    Mar., 
i.  389-399;    Oct.,  xii.  27(K293;    cf.  also  Ussher, 
Antiquii4ite»,  ed.  of  16S7,  pp.  408  sqq.).     In  all  these 
lives  Patrick  figures  as  **  Archbishop  of  Ireland," 
but  this  is  due  to  tlie  time  of  redaction*     These 
same  men  are  not  only  Patrick's  contemporaries, 
but  older  contemporaries,  independent  of  Am,  and 
recognized  as  the  apostles  of  their  districts.     Their 
locality  m  the   Southeast,   the  coast  counties  of 
Wicklow,  Wexford,  and  Waterford,  and  the  ad- 
joining  inland  counties  of  lulkenny  and  Tipperary, 
where  local  testimonies  to  their  cult  still  aurvi\'e. 
Further  evidence  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  two  lives  of  Patrick,  mentioned  above,  limit 
his  activity   to   the  North.     The    Patrick    legend 
originated  in  the  South  and  was  forced  upon  the 
North  from  the  time  of  Cummian's  letter,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  win  over  the  North  Irish  to  conformity 
with  the  Roman  Church.     But  thia  alone  does  not 
explain  the  silence  of  the  lives  concerning  the  South. 
It  must  be  that,  wliile  the  Southerners  were  willing 
to  acknowledge   Patrick   theoretically   as   apostle 
of  the  North  with  his  see  at  Armagh,  hoping  there- 
by to  win  over  the  mainstay  of  the  opposing  party, 
the  abbot-bishop  of  Armagh,  the  traditions  in  the 
South  concerning  the  founders  of  the  monasteries 
there  were  too  well  known  to  admit  of  a  deacription 
of  Patrick  as  the  apostle  of  the  South.     A  third 
testimony  is  the  fact  that  Ireland  cherished  the 
memory  of  the  heresiarch  PelagiuB  and  was  well 
acquainted  with  liis  writings  (cf.  Bede,  ii.  19).     In 
the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  centuries,  the  Irish 
Church   possessed    the   original    unmutihted   com* 
mentary   of   Ptelagius    (when   it   had   disappeared 
everywhere  else  in  the  West)  and  knew  that  Pela- 
gius  was  the  author.     Pelagius  may  himself  have 
been  an  Irishman  (cf.  Jerome,  in  MPL,  xxiv.  682a^ 
75Sb).     He  was  a  sincere  and  earnest  thinker  and 
did  not  adopt  heretical  views  until  he  went  to 
Rome  (c.  400).     His  learning  was  great  and  would 
naturally  gratify  the  pride  of  his  coun  tiymeo*    If  he 


Oeltio  Oharoh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


470 


came  from  a  monastery  of  southeastern  Ireland, 
it  is  easy  to  understand  how  his  books  were  brought 
thither  and  how  they  came  to  be  preserved.  But, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  nationality  of  Pela- 
gius,  his  celebrity  in  Ireland  is  incompatible  with 
the  Patrick  legend.  Pelagianism  wajs  annihilated 
in  the  Roman  State  and  See  by  Honorius  and 
Zosimus  in  418.  In  429  Germanus  successfully 
combated  it  in  Britain.  If,  then,  Ireland  was  wholly 
heathen  in  431  and  Patrick  Christianized  the  land 
and  organized  its  Church,  he  must  himself  have 
carried  Pelagianism  thither — ^which  is,  of  course, 
absurd.  But  if  the  South  was  already  Christian 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  fifth  century,  it  is  quite 
comprehensible  how  Pelagianism  found  its  wav  to 
the  island.  (4)  Linguistic  facts  prove  that  Chris- 
tianity came  to  Ireland  from  Britain.  British 
and  Irish  are  Celtic  tongues,  but  certain  differences 
of  sound  had  developed  by  the  fourth  century. 
Ecclesiastical  and  other  loan-words,  introduced  into 
Irish  from  Latin  with  the  Christian  religion,  show 
forms  hard  to  explain  if  they  came  directly  from 
the  Latin,  but  quite  comprehensible  if  they  came, 
through  the  medium  of  British  (cf.  GUterbock, 
Laieiniache  Lehnworter  tm  IrUchen^  pp.  91  sqq. 
Leipsic,  1882).  Patrick  himself  was  a  Briton,  it  is 
true;  but  he  is  said  to  have  studied  on  the  Conti- 
nent, and  his  associates  are  represented  as  of  Ro» 
manoe  origin  {Tripartite  Life,  ii.  273,  305;  Haddaa 
and  Stubbs,  ii.  292).  (5)  Among  the  writings  attrib- 
uted to  the  supposed  apostle  of  Ireland  are  two, 
the  so-called  "  Confession  "  and  the  "  Epistle  Con- 
cerning Coroticus,"  which  are  imdoubtedly  authen- 
tic. They  are  the  work  of  a  man  **  unlearned  and 
rustic,  not  at  all  such  a  one  as  later  times  extolled 
with  the  highest  praises  "  (Sch6ll,  p.  71;  cf.  p.  68),  or 
one  who  could  have  founded  in  the  fifth  century 
the  Irish  Church — ^a  Church  in  which  from  the 
sixth  to  the  ninth  century  Christian  and  classical 
learning  were  united  as  nowhere  else  in  the  West. 
Moreover,  the  *'  Confession  "  is  the  work  of  a  man 
looking  back  upon  a  long  life,  complaining  bitterly 
of  ingratitude,  trying  to  defend  himself  from  the 
reproach  of  having  presumed  to  undertake  a  calling 
above  his  capabilities,  and  threatening  to  turn  his 
back  on  Ireland  because  he  recognizes  the  failure  of 
his  life's  work  there.  And  he  makes  not  the  slight- 
est mention  of  ever  having  consecrated  a  bishop  or 
established  a  single  church  in  the  island.  (6) 
Finally  there  is  the  definite  statement  of  Prosper 
of  Aquitaine  {Chron,,  anno  431)  that  Pope  C^elestine 
"  ordained  Palladius  and  sent  him  as  their  first 
bishop  to  the  Irish  believers  in  Christ."  Prosper 
was  probably  in  Rome  in  431  and  issued  the  first 
edition  of  his  "  Chronicle,"  which  contains  the 
statement  quoted,  in  433.  Here  then  is  a  record, 
as  certain  and  credible  as  may  be,  which  con- 
firms the  supposition  that  the  Irish,  in  part  at  any 
rate,  were  Christians  in  431.  The  meaning  of 
Prosper 's  expression  "  first  bishop  "  is  clear,  bear- 
ing in  mind  the  organization  of  the  Irish  Church. 
Palladius  wad  the  first  bishop  canonically  ordained 
according  to  Prosper's  view,  in  distinction  from 
the  missionary  and  monastic  bishops  of  the  Irish 
Church  during  the  fifth  century.  In  his  later 
Liber   contra   coUatorem    (written    probably    about 


437),  in  the  ooune  of  a  fulsome  eulogy  of  CdMtme, 
Prosper  states  that  "  while  he  [Celestine]  eodeaT- 
ored  to  keep  the  Roman  island  [Britain]  Catholic, 
he  made  also  the  barbarous  island  [Ireland]  Chris- 
tian" (in  MPL,  Ii.  271b-c).  But  a  rhetorical 
statement  of  this  sort  does  not  impair  the  YBlne 
of  the  careful  entiy  in  the  "  Chituiicle."  More- 
over, the  supposition  that  Celestine  ordained  i 
simple  deacon — for  such  Palladius  still  was  in  431— 
as  bishop  of  a  land  considered  wholly  heathen  is  in 
itself  imtenable.  It  was  not  customary  to  cod- 
secrate  "  bishops  "  for  lands  where  there  were  no 
Christians.  Augustine  was  sent  by  Gregory  to 
preach  to  the  An^es;  but  he  was  not  consecrated 
till  he  had  made  converts  among  them. 

Before  attempting  to  reconstruct  the  early  hii> 
tory  of  Christianity  in  Ireland,  it  must  be  noted  that 

the  historical  Patrick  and  Proeper's 

®- ^P^^^er's  pjji^^ua     are     the     same.    Variom 

th  a^tt      reasons  may  be  mentioned:   (1)  Pal- 

•Ipa?-*    ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  Rome  to  the  Irish 

^o^       Christians  in  431;    Patrick  appeared 

in  Ireland  in  432.  In  view  of  the 
difficulties  of  travel  of  the  time,  it  is  hardly  oon- 
oeivable  that  two  different  persons  should  have  been 
despatched  to  Ireland  within  the  ^ace  of  one  year. 
(2)  Palladius  went  as  the  ordained  bishop  of  the 
Irish  Christians;  Patrick  (in  the  first  sentence  of 
the  "  Epistle  ")  calls  himself  with  emphasis  the 
appointed  bishop  for  Ireland.  (3)  Palladius  is  fint 
mentioned  by  Prosper  under  the  year  429  as  in- 
stigating the  mission  of  Germanus  against  Fda- 
gianism,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that 
Palladius  was  a  Briton  and  stood  in  somewhat 
intimate  relations  with  Germanus.  This  is  true  of 
Patrick  according  to  his  own  testimony  and  state- 
ments of  the  lives  ("  Confession,"  Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  ii.  309,  11.  1-4;  TnpartUe  Li/e,n.  370,11. 
^14;  lives,  ib.  ii.  272,  11.  4-5;  302,  IL  19-23). 
(4)  If  Palladius  was  a  Briton,  his  Romanized  name, 
according  to  the  general  custom  of  the  time,  should 
be  a  trsmslation  of  his  native  name.  Hence  the 
latter  should  have  some  such  signification  as  "  war- 
like "  or  "  having  to  do  with  war."  Patrick's 
British  name  was  Sucat  (Muirchu,  TripartiU Lile,iL 
494,  1.  6;  Tirechan,  ibid.  302, 1.  5;  Place's  Hymn, 
ibid.  404-405),  composed  of  «k,  "  good,"  and  cat, 
"  war,"  a  word  still  in  use  in  modem  Welsh  in  the 
form  hygadf  signifying  "  warlike."  If,  as  was  but 
natural,  he  resumed  his  native  name  on  reaching 
Ireland  and  the  name  Palladius  first  became  known 
there  from  Prosper's  work,  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  the  idea  of  two  persons  arose.  As  for  the  name 
Patrick,  it  is  not  improbable  that  Sucat-Palla- 
dius  assumed  it  himself.  He  was  especially  proud 
of  his  alleged  aristocratic  descent  (cf.  his  words  in 
Haddan  and  Stubbs,  ii.  316,  11.  15-17;  306,  U.  2^ 
27;  TripartiU  Life,  ii.  377,  U.  1^22;  368,  IL  1-2), 
which,  however,  was  not  so  distinguished  as  he 
would  make  out.  In  Rome  at  that  time  the  title 
Patricius  was  often  conferred  upon  high  officials 
of  the  empire  to  indicate  rank.  The  somewhat 
narrow-minded  Sucat,  applying  Roman  conditioDi 
to  the  little  British  country  town  of  Bannaventa, 
where  his  father  had  been  senator  or  mayor,  may 
have  taken  to  himself  the  title  Patriciu$,  uid  so 


471 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Celtlo  Oburoh 


figured  in  Ireland  as  Sucat  Patriciiifl,  and  in  his 
writings  merejy  as  Patricius,  If  this  name  entered 
into  the  Irish  vernacular  of  the  fifth  century,  ac- 
corthng  to  Unguistic  laws  it  should  appear  in  Irish 
€>f  the  seventh  ctuitury  aw  Catbrigie  or  Cothrige. 
And  it  is  a  fact  that  a  number  of  sources  (Tireehan, 
Fiacc'ft  Hymn,  and  others)  state  that  Patrick  was 
ftlsD  called  Cothrige. 

As  a  result  of  the  foregoing  argument,  the  origin 

and  eariy  history  of  the  Celtic  Church   in   Ireland 

I  aeemg  to  be  as  follows:  Christianity  was   brought 

^L  to    Ireland    from  Britain  during    the 

^"   Ot^^*     fourth  century  as  a  natural  outcome 

of  the       ^^  *^^  close  intercourse  between  south- 

kirtah  "^'^^^  Britain  and  southeast  Ireland, 
Ohnj-oli.  The  actual  foundation  of  a  Church,  ex- 
tending  over  large  parts  of  the  island, 
lat  be  regardetl  aa  a  rcHult  of  that  first  great 
tve  of  monasticism  which  swept  over  Gaul  and 
Britain  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  and 
carried  a  number  of  half -Romanized  Christian 
Britons  to  Ireland.  Two  facta  confirm  this  view: 
(I)  The  great  repute  of  Martin  of  Tours  in  Ire- 
laod^  so  great  that  in  the  ninth  century  it 
was  thought  de^sirable  to  bring  the  new  apostle, 
Patrick,  into  close  relations  with  Martin,  and  he 
waa  even  accounted  the  iatt-er's  nephew.  (2)  The 
difference  between  the  organization  of  the  Irish 
Church  and  that  of  the  British  Church  from  which 
it  sprang.  Just  how  fast  and  how  far  Christianity 
spread  can  not  be  ascertaincil,  but  it  seems  safe 
to  say  that  the  northeast  coast  was  Christian  about 
400-  It  is  noteworthy  that  Patrick ,  in  the  two 
paasages  of  the  **  Confession  ''  where  he  speaks  of 
his  six  years'  captivity  in  North  Ireland  (Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  ii.  296,  IL  5  sqq.;  300, 11.  16  sqq.;  Tripartite 
Life,  u.  357,  \l  7  8qq.\  361,  IL  19  sqqj,  does  not 
intimate  by  a  single  word  that  the  Irish  with  whom 
he  hved  were  heathen.  This  is  the  more  remark- 
able since  he  dwella  with  horror  on  the  paganism 
of  the  pirates  into  whose  hands  he  fell  when  he 
made  his  escape  {Haddan  and  Stubbs,  ii.  301,  L  IB- 
SOS,  L  2;  Tnpariiie  Lije,  ii,  362, 1  1&-363, 1.  34).  No 
doubt  the  Saxons  drove  a  number  of  Christian 
Britons  into  Ireland,  as  well  as  to  the  Armorican 
coast  of  Gaul,  during  the  fifth  century* 

A  Briton  named  Sucat  played  a  prominent  part 

fthe  Irish  Church  during  the  second  third  of  the 
fifth  century.  The  following  out- 
Bt,  Pat*  Y^^^  ^^  1^^  jifg  jg  based  upon  his  own 
^  *  Btatementa  in  the  "  Confession,"  and 
the  notices  of  Prosper,  interpreted  as  above.  He 
was  bom  about  386  in  the  borough  of  Bannaventa 
in  central  Britain,  probably  near  the  modem 
Daventry  in  Nortliamptonshire.  Uia  family  pos- 
sessed some  wealth  and  had  been  Christian  for 
generations.  He  led  an  easy  worldly  life  luitil  the 
age  of  sixteen  (402),  when  phmdering  Irish  carried 
him  of!  as  a  slave  to  North  Ireland.  For  six  years 
(402-408)  he  was  a  swinehcDl.  Reflection  and 
changet!  circumstances  made  him  a  new  man.  He 
practised  austerities,  saw  visions,  and  heard  voices 
which  counseled  him  to  fJee.  He  reached  the 
coast  and  fell  in  there  with  heathen  (doubtless 
Saxons),  who  t^ook  him  to  Britain  and  led  him 
about  the  coiuitry  for  sixty  days.     Then  he  escaped 


and  fioally  arrived  at  }m  home  (408  or  409).  There 
he  became  a  deacon.  Hia  visions  continued,  and 
eventually  he  came  to  Ijcheve  himself  called  to  be 
the  bishop  of  Ireland.  In  his  native  place,  where 
he  was  looked  upon  as  an  enthusiast,  narrow- 
minded,  and  <jf  defective  education,  obstacles 
arose  to  liis  consecration.  His  parents  and  friends 
were  against  it.  So  he  left  home  at  the  age  of 
thirty-eight  (c.  424),  and  followed  the  old  road 
by  way  of  Auxerre  (where  he  stayed  some  time 
wnth  Germanus),  through  the  Rhone  valley,  by 
way  of  Aries,  along  the  coast  of  Provence  and  the 
Lerinian  islands,  through  Upper  Italy,  to  Rome. 
If  Ultan  may  be  believed  (Tirechan,  Tripartite  Life, 
ii.  302,  Ih  19-23),  he  spent  seven  yeara  wandering 
through  Gaul  and  Italy.  His  barbarian  name  was 
Latinized  into  Pall  ad  i  us.  At  Rome  he  gained  in- 
fluence, probably  the  more  readily  since  for  twenty 
yeara  Britain  had  been  separated  from  the  em- 
pire  and  the  connection  between  the  British  Church 
and  Rome  had  become  difficult.  Perhaps  also 
he  exaggerated  his  family's  position  and  influence 
to  the  leading  ecclesiastical  circles.  In  429  he 
was  instrumental  in  sending  Germanus  of  Auxenre 
to  Britain,  and  in  431  he  attainetl  his  heart's  desire 
and  was  consecrated  epimcopun  for  Ireland.  Ho 
reached  Ireland  in  432,  dropped  the  Roman  trans- 
lation of  hia  name^  and  assumes!  in  its  stead  the 
title  Patricitis.  There  are  no  trustworthy  details 
of  hia  activity  in  Ireland.  But  he  was  never  recog- 
nized as  its  *'  appointed  bishop."  In  the  letter  on 
Coroticus  he  says  complainingly  '**  although  now 
I  am  despised  by  some,"  and  in  the  "  Confeasion," 
written  near  the  end  of  his  hfe,  he  characterixes 
himself  as  "  despised  by  most."  His  very  limited 
literary  education  may  well  have  aroused  the  scorn 
and  derision  of  his  more  cultured  associates.  How 
far  he  extended  hia  missionary  efforts  in  Connaught 
and  the  Northwest,  where  there  must  still  have 
been  opportunity  for  such  work,  can  hardly  be 
ascertained  from  the  "  Confesaion/'  the  only  source 
of  any  authority.  Its  words  are  those  of  a  monk- 
ish ascetic  to  whom  comwrtere  ad  deum  is  identical 
with  "  to  enter  a  monastery/'  and  definite  infer- 
ences can  not  be  drawn  from  its  statements. 

There  are  some  indications  of  the  locality  where 
the  histo  rical  Pa  tri  ck  Ii  veil ,  M  ui  re  h  u  ( Tripartite  L  ife , 
ii.  275^  I.  13)  says  that  the  legendary  Patrick  landed 
at  a  port  called  HoBtium  Dee,  near  the  present 
Wicklow.  Ah  the  tendency  of  the  legend  required 
Patrick  to  settle  in  the  North  as  soon  as  possible, 
it  is  probable  that  an  item  of  true  trathtion  is  pre- 
Berv€sl  here.  Muirchu  was  himself  from  County 
Wicklow  ajid  used  the  "  Confession  '^  and  '*  Epistle  " 
of  Sucat  as  sources  of  hia  life.  Aed,  at  whose  re- 
quest Muirchu  wrote,  was  bishop  of  Sletty  in 
Queen *s  County,  near  Cartow.  Cummian,  who  was 
the  first  to  mention  the  legendary  Patrick,  was 
also  a  native  of  the  South.  Therefore  tlie  South 
of  Ireland  possessed  the  material  left  by  the  his- 
torical Patrick  (the  Confesmo  and  tha  Epistola)  aa 
well  as  notices  of  his  life.  Hence  it  is  probable 
that  Patrick  settled  somewhere  in  County  Wicklow. 
He  died  Mar.  17,  459,  according  to  the  statement 
in  tlie  Luxeuil  Calendar  and  the  most  irvistworthy 
entries  of   the   Annals.     He   was   soon    forgotten, 


I 


Oeltio  Ohnroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


478 


save  in  the  district  of  his  special  activity;  and 
here,  in  the  seventh  century,  under  the  influence 
of  a  spedfio  tendency,  he  was  resurrected  and  made 
the  apostle  of  the  Irish,  as  Augustine  was  the 
apostle  of  the  Saxons  and  Golumba  of  the  Picts. 

It  is  not  possible  to  say  definitely  why  Patrick 
does  not  mention  his  consecration  by  Pope  Oeles- 
iine  in  the  *'  Confession."  But  it  may  be  recalled 
that  for  three  himdred  3rears  the  Roman  Empire 
was  a  standing  menace  to  the  liberty  of  the  Irish. 
Without  doubt  bitter  feelings  and  hatred  were 
still  alive  in  432,  and  the  Iriidi  were  not  likely  to 
^MfeSngiiiah  carefully  between  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral Rome.  If,  therefore,  wh^  Patrick  arrived 
m  Irdand  he  tried  to  impress  the  Christian  Irish 
with  his  ordination  by  Celestine,  he  must  soon  have 
found  out  his  mistake.  With  his  rdigious  feelings 
and  views,  Patrick  would  look  upon  Celestine 
merely  as  the  instrument  of  God,  who  had  himself 
appeued  to  him  in  visions  and  dreams  and  ap- 
pointed him  apostle  to  the  Irish.  And  it  was  only 
natural  that  to  the  <^d  man  on  the  brink  of  the 
grave  Celestine's  slight  and  casual  intervention  in 
his  life  should  fade  away  before  the  image  of  Qod 
Almighty,  whose  chosen  one  he  was.  (For  other 
views  concerning  St.  Patrick,  see  the  article  Pai^ 
RICK,  Saiict.) 

8.  In  North  Britain  (AllMi):  From  statements  by 
Bede  (iii.  4)  we  know  that  a  Briton  named  Nynia 
(St  Ninian,  q.v.)  founded  a  monastery  on  the 
peninsula  of  Hi^gtown,  in  the  extreme  Southwest 
of  Scotland,  about  400,  and  thence  spread  Chris- 
tianity among  the  Picts  south  of  the  Grampians. 
The  germs  of  the  young  faith  seem  to  have  been 
destroyed  in  the  confusion  which  arose  in  North 
Britain  early  in  the  fifth  century.  In  two  passages 
of  his  letter  concerning  Coroticus  Patrick  with 
evident  anger  calls  the  Picts  "  apostates  "  (Haddan 
and  Stubbs,  ii.  314, 1.  13;  318, 1.  5;  TripaHiU  Life, 
ii.  375,  1.  26;  379,  1.  7).  Coroticus  was  probably 
a  king  of  the  Strathclyde  Britons,  ruling  near  the 
modem  Dumbarton  between  420  and  450.  His 
subjects  were  Christians;  and  as  Patrick  does  not 
reproach  the  Irish  (ScotH),  living  to  the  northwest, 
with  paganism,  it  may  be  that  they  also,  like  their 
countrymen  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Antrim,  were 
Christians. 

XL  Development  and  Full  Maturity,  500-600. 
—1.  In  Britain:  The  British  Church  reappears  in 
Wales  in  the  second  third  of  the  sixth  century, 
and  is  the  direct  continuation  of  the  Church  of  the 
fourth  century.  That  the  latter  consisted  mainly 
of  Roman  residents  of  the  towns  while 

^'  J^*  the  Britons  in  the  country  remained 
wldear  heathen,  and  that  the  Celtic  Church 
first  arose  after  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Romans,  is  an  opinion  based  upon  defective 
knowledge  of  conditions  in  Roman  and  post- 
Roman  Britain  and  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that 
the  Christian  missionaries  to  Ireland  in  the  fourth 
century  and  the  Christians  who  settled  in  Armorica 
in  the  fifth  spoke  British,  i.e.,  they  were  native 
Britons ,  not  Roman  occupants  of  the  country.  The 
external  organization  of  the  sixth  century,  how- 
ever, is  not  an  uninterrupted  development  from 
the  fourth.    When  the  Britons  fled  from  the  Saxons 


to  the  thinly  populated  hill-regions  of  the  Wert, 
they  found  there  no  cities  to  serve  as  centers  of 
ecclesiastical  organisation.  But  monastidsm,  widdi 
had  flourished  in  Britain  from  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  soon  created  new  centen.  Dio- 
ceses were  formed,  each  based  on  the  monasteiy 
of  a  dan  and  comprising  the  territory  beloogiog 
to  the  dan.  In  time  these  were  combiDed  into 
larger  organisms,  and  during  the  seventh  oentmy 
the  ecclesiastical  organisation  of  Wales  was  defini- 
tivdy  fixed  by  the  constitution  of  four  bishop- 
rics, corresponding  to  the  four  pditical  divinoiM, 
vis.:  Bangor  on  Menai  Straits  in  Gwynedd;  St 
Asaph  in  the  Northeast  in  Powys;  MeneviaCSt 
David's)  in  the  Southwest  in  Dyfed;  and  Llsadaff 
in  the  Southeast  in  Gwent.  They  were  inde- 
pendent of  one  another  and  based  on  the  chief 
monasteries  of  the  territories  named.  Abbot 
and  bishop  were  generally  the  same.  AcoordiDg 
to  the  AnruUeM  CambricB,  the  founders  of  the 
four  bishoprics  died  in  584  (Daniel  of  Bangor), 
601  (David  of  Menevia),  and  612  (Dubridui  of 
Llandaff  and  Kentigem  of  St  Asaph). 

The  result  of  Gregory's  mission  to  the  Saxoos 
(see  Anolo-Saxonb,  CoNVKRaioN  of  t&x;  Augcb- 
TDfx,  Saint,  of  Camterburt)  was  to  intensify  and 
perpetuate  the  isolation  from  which  the  Britnh 
Church  already  suffered.  Two  conferences  nere 
hdd  between  its  representatives  and  Augutine 
(602  or  603),  but  the  Britons  rejected 
8.  The  ^0  proposals  of  the  Roman  mis- 
Britiflh  sionary  and  refused  to  have  him  for 
Ohnroh  and  archbishop  (Bede,  ii.  2;  cf.  Bright,  pp. 
Auirnstiiie.  86-93).  Augustine's  unskilful  man- 
agement may  have  contributed  to  the 
result — he  is  said  to  have  offended  the  Britons  by 
not  rising  to  meet  them — but  he  offered  to  overiook 
all  other  differences  if  the  Britons  on  their  part 
would  accept  the  Roman  computation  for  Easter, 
would  remove  divergences  from  Roman  practise  in 
the  baptismal  rite,  and  would  join  him  in  preaching 
the  Gospel  to  the  Saxons.  The  third  requirement 
was  probably  the  chief  obstacle,  and  union  was  not 
effected  because  the  Britons  regarded  the  miadon- 
ary  as  the  representative  of  their  hated  foes.  In 
his  disappointment  Augustine  is  said  to  have 
threatened  the  obstinate  Celts  with  death  at  the 
hands  of  the  Eln^ish  if  they  would  not  preach  to 
them  the  way  of  life.  Eight,  or  perhi^  twelve, 
years  after  Augustine's  death  Ethelfrid,  the  heathen 
king  of  Northumbria,  massacred  a  large  company 
of  British  priests  and  the  monks  of  Bangor  at 
Chester,  and  the  prophecy  was  thought  to  be  ful- 
filled. 

When  the  South  Irish  Church  conformed  to 
Rome,  about  630,  the  Welsh  Church  was  cut  off 
on  both  sides,  and  this  isolation  proved  fatal  to  its 
spiritual  culture.  Its  most  eminent  representative 
in  the  sixth  century  is  Gildas,  and  after  him  there 
is  no  one  of  greater  literary  merit  than  Nennius 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century.  According  to  the 
Annales  Cambria,  Elbodug,  bishop  of  Bangor, 
adopted  the  Roman  Easter  computation  in  768: 
the  CkronicU  of  WeUh  Prince*  gives  the  date  as 
755  and  says  that  South  Wales  followed  in  777 
(Haddan  and  Stubbs,  L  203-204).    Butoppcatioo 


478 


KELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


O«ltio  Ohuroh 


did  not  cease  at  that  time,  for  the  same  source 
lays  that  when  Elbodug  diet!  in  SO©  **  a  great  con- 
troversy arose  because  of  Easter." 

d*  Z&  Irel&ndand  North  Brltalai;  The  earliest 
native  and  foreign  sources  show  a  flourishing  church 
in  Ireland  in  the  aixth  century.  Ita  type  ia  that 
of  a  miasion-chuFch^  resting  not  on  the  labors 
of  a  aingle  man,  but  growing,  without  central 
OT;gani2ation,  in  a  land  di\adcd  among  many 
dana,  through  the  constant  activity  of  a  mia- 
nonary  monkhood.  It  is  the  natural  develop- 
ment  of  the  aeed  sown  in  southeastern  Ireland 
by  British  miseionaries  from  the  middle  of  the 
foitrth  century,  springing  up  and  increaaing  un- 
dbtoibed  by  outride  influences.  This  view  is 
quite  different  from  the  prevalent  one,  which  as- 
razDea^  on  the  one  band,  a  complete  collapse  of  the 
Irish  Church  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
1.  The  Iriah  century,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
Cburch  revival  in  the  sixth  century  due  to  the 
▼ivodfrom  ^"f^^^*^^*^  of  ^^^  Welsh  Church,  and 
Waleain  Particularly  of  fiuch  men  as  Gildas, 
the  Sixth  C^*><^f  ajid  David,  A  collapse  about 
Century.  500  is  inexplicable,  and  is  nHaumed 
only  because  necessitated  by  the 
Patrick  legend  and  the  hypothesis  of  a  revival 
from  Britain  in  the  sixth  century.  Thia  hypoth- 
esis rests  upon:  (1)  statements  concerning  the 
activity  of  Gildas  in  Ireland,  made  in  his  life  writ- 
ten at  Ruys  in  Brittany  in  the  eleventh  century; 
(2)  the  view  of  the  Irish  Church  of  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries  found  in  the  eighth  century  Cata- 
hgus  $anc4orum  Hibemiw  >;  and  (3)  notes  of  cer- 
tain saints'  lives  [such  as  that  of  St  Diaibod,  q.v.], 
oertainly  not  older  than  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century  (cf.  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  i.  115,  n.a.). 
On  the  other  hand,  a  mere  enumeration  of  dates 
shows  that  the  Irish  Church  was  in  no  need  of 
revival,  Finnian  of  Clonard,  the  father  of  the 
"  twelve  apostles  of  Ireland/'  died  in    548.     Co- 

I  This  document  tt  Ihe  pouroe  of  the  fftioiliAi'  divUion  of 
Iriah  aftinU  into  thre<)  *'  ordera."  It  states  thmt  the  fiTBt 
aidar  bekmg«d  to  tho  time  of  Pat  rick.  They  were  lUl  hlah- 
Opi*  350  ia  number,  founders  of  churchea.  They  had  on* 
beedi  Chniit.  Had  one  Lord,  Patrick;  they  obiierved  orie  tsmtift. 
Ode  oelebratioa,  emd  one  toQuuro  from  ear  to  ear;  they  kept 
out  Ewter.  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  Diooa  after  the 
fvniid  equinox;  and  what  waa  excommumcated  by  one 
•hujeh  «U  exoommumcated.  They  did  not  reject  tho  mrv- 
k«a  And  society  of  women,  becauae,  founded  on  the  rock 
of  Christ,  they  feared  not  the  blaat  of  temptationi.  This 
order  last«d  through  four  rei^n^,  and  lift  mesDbera  were  alJ 
biabops,  from  the  Ilonians,  the  Fraztka,  the  Britons,  and 
the  Irish  (^«ttt). 

In  the  aeoond  order  biahopA  were  few  and  preftbyters  many, 
300  in  number.  Tbey  had  one  head,  our  Lord;  they  ocle- 
bmted  different  mnaaM  and  had  different  rules,  but  their 
Easier  and  tonxura  were  bb  in  the  first  order.  They  re- 
jected the  aenrieea  of  women,  aeparatin^  them^frotxi  the 
Bonaatariee.  Tbey  laated  through  four  reijfn«,  and  received 
a  maaa  from  Bishop  David,  and  Gildas,  and  Docus,  the 
Britooa, 

The  member!  of  the  third  order  were  holy  presbyters  and 
ft  fifiw  biabopa.  100  in  ail.  Tbey  dwelt  in  solitary  places, 
and  lived  on  herbs  and  water  and  alma,  shunning  pnvaie 
property.  Their  rule?.  maB»es»  tonsure,  and  Eaater  were 
all  different,  and  they  lived  ibrouflth  four  raifna. 

The  first  order  was  tanciiiuimu*,'  the  aeoood,  aanc^ua 
•ttudorum;  the  third,  aanefus.  They  w«rtt  like  the  aun, 
tlM  moon^  the  dawn.  These  three  orders  were  fonMeao  by 
Patrtek  in  a  viition  from  on  high.  Cotietilt  Haddan  and 
Stubba.  iL  2D2-294. 


lumba  fotmded  the  monastery  of  Derry  abo^t  546 
and  Durrow  before  560.  Ciaran  founded  01  on- 
macnoise  641  and  died  548.  Com  gall  founded 
Bangor  in  Ulster  554  or  558.  Brendan  founded 
Clonfert  in  Longford  552.  In  563  C'Olumba  went 
to  lona.  The  authority  of  an  eleventh -century 
monk  of  Ruya  is  not  to  be  put  above  Buch  evidence 
aa  this.  Nor  can  the  etatement^i  of  ignorant 
authors  of  sainta'  li^'es,  who  confuse  different 
eenturiea,  furnish  the  basis  for  a  historical  con- 
struction at  variance  with  all  fixed  dates.  There 
is  no  evidence  of  British  influence  in  Ireland  apart 
from  the  visit  of  Gildaa  there  in  566  (cf.  Mommsen, 
Chronica  minora ,  m.  6,  IL  3-23).  [Thia  visit  ia 
considered  doubtful  by  some;  so©  Gildas,]  The 
Church  of  Gtldas^  Cadoc,  and  David,  it  may  be 
noted,  was  epu&rpal  ;  if  then  these  men^  and  men 
like  them,  revived  the  dying  Irish  episcopal  Church, 
why  did  they  substitute  another  entirely  monastia 
with  no  trace  of  an  episcopal  character?  Further- 
more, the  Church  in  Britain  at  this  time  was  in  no 
condition  to  infuse  fresh  life  into  the  Irish  Church. 
In  the  trouble  and  turmoil  of  the  fifth  century  it 
had  lost  all  organization^  and  Gildas  himself  draws 
a  gloomy  picture  of  the  state  of  tilings  in  Britain 
before  547.  Ireland,  however,  did  not  suUer  from 
barbarian  attacks,  and  her  Church  was  able  to 
dei'elop  undisturbed.  Hence  the  natural  suppo- 
sition is  that  at  tliis  time  the  Irish  Church  was  the 
giver  and  the  British  Church  the  recipient.  And 
we  know  that  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century  Irish  clerics  went  to  southwest  Britain 
and  to  Brittany,  gi\ing  and  spreading  knowle<Jge, 
not  receiving  it.  The  foundation  of  new  mona^ 
teries  in  Ireland  by  Finnian  of  Clonard  and  meo 
regarded  as  his  disciples  between  520  and  560  can 
not  be  considered  a  restoration  or  reformation  of 
the  Irish  Church.  There  was  already  a  large  num- 
ber of  older  monasteries,  such  as  Emly  in  Munster 
and  Armagh  in  Ulster,  which  for  centuriea  played 
a  greater  r61e  in  the  entire  life  of  the  Irish  Church 
than  any  of  these  new  foundations.  Finnian  waa 
a  sort  of  Irish  Benedict  of  Nursia;  he  established 
liis  new  house  at  Clonard  by  the  side  of  the  older 
institutions— rather  mission-stations  than  monas- 
teries — with  stricter  rules,  and  through  the  influence 
on  Comgall  and  Columba  it  became  the  model  of 
the  Irish  monasteries  in  North  Britain  and  on  the 
Continent.' 

*  Irieh  monaatiGiRm  of  the  aixth  eentury  was  very  different 
from  that  of  a  later  f^eriod.  It  fiaa  been  characteriEed  m 
the  transition  from  the  hermil  life  lo  the  reU^oua  ordera  of 
the  ^fiddle  Asei — a  tranflition  that  waa  aeon  made  in  tba 
East^  but  in  Ireland  proeoeded  more  alowly  and  lasted'  tilt 
the  aubjection  to  Rome.  The  primitive  Iri»h  monaatcnea 
wtre  of  the  aame  type  as  those  of  Egypt  and  8yria,  Tba 
nucleua  wan  a  church  or  oratory,  alwayn  oblonif  (from  ten 
to  forty  feet  in,  l«nittb,  rarely  aiityD,  and  without  cbanoel, 
aiflles^  or  apoe.  No  rcmaina  have  been  found  ihowing  anj 
approach  to  tbe  baailica  form  or  anything  of  Roman  type. 
Round  the  ehureh  were  grouped  **  beehive  "  huta  or  evllBt 
each  for  a  aingle  occupant,  and  the  whole  waa  awTOUDded 
by  a  wall  or  rampart,  with  a  ditch,  and  a  hedg*  or  paliaada 
on  top.  There  in  mention  of  kitehena  and  the  "  sraat  houae  " 
(refectory):  and  there  were  alao  gueat  houaM,  atorebouaea 
and  barns,  workahopa,  and  tbe  bke.  Tbe  ao-««)l«d  **  Round 
To  were  "  are  always  connected  with  e«cl«aia8tjeal  fouoda- 
tLoriH.  and  belong  f^^r  the  moat  part  to  the  ninth  and  tentb 
centuriea.  They  probably  aerved  aa  bell-towera,  for  refuge 
or  defenae  in  oaae  of  attack,  and  aa  bMCona  and  lighthouaea. 


CMtlo  Ohiureh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


474 


The  Irish  Church  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  centuries,  then,  was  the  natural  develop- 
ment of  the  Church  of  the  fourth  and 
2.  Learn-   gj^j^    centuries,    without    interference 
*^l^h***  from  outside.     This  freedom  accounts 
^^5k».     ^®'  ^^®  ^8^  standard  of  learning  main- 
tained by  the  Irish  monasteries  till 
the  ninth  century.     They  kept  the  knowledge  and 
culture  received  with  Christianity,  and  cherished 
it  at  a  time  when  everywhere  else,  in  Britain,  Gaul, 
and  Italy,  barbarian  hordes  came  near  to  stamping 
it  out.  The  erudition  of  the  Irish  monks  in  the  sixth 
centuiy — surely  not  derived  from  a  Church  whose 
greatest   scholar    was    Gildas — surpassed    on    the 
whole  that  of  Italy.     Greek  was  studied  at  Bangor 
when  Gregory  the  Great  probably  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  Uinguage.     In  the  seventh  century 
Aldhelm,  writing  to  a  young  friend  returning  home 


The  wbote  MtobliihnMBt  wm  ealled  a  "  dty "  ieiviioM), 
Mid  the  dfwignetioa  is  not  inapt  for  the  larger  communitiee, 
with  two  or  three  thoueand  members,  eaofa  haying  his  own 
house,  and  its  complex  of  public  or  common  buildings.  The 
first  itep  in  the  foundation  was  to  obtain  a  ate,  which  was 
frequently  giren  by  the  chieftain  when  he  was  converted, 
and  sometimes  was  his  fortress.  It  was  often  necessarily 
in  the  forest,  as  the  extent  of  cleared  land  was  very  limited. 
The  building  material  was  most  commonly  wood  or  wattles 
and  clay,  but  stone  sometimes  was  used;  the  earliest  stone 
structures  are  without  mortar.  As  the  first  building  opera- 
tion was  commonly  the  driving  of  stakes,  "  to  drive  "  came 
to  be  the  usual  expression  to  deagnate  the  founding  of  a 
monastery.  Each  monastery  had  its  own  rules,  followed 
also  by  the  affiliate  houses,  which  were  governed  by  a  local 
head  under  the  abbot.  The  abbot  was  not  chosen  by  the 
monks,  but  was  appointed  by  the  chieftain,  generally  from 
his  own  family  or  that  of  the  founder,  and  hence  was  known 
as  the  coorb  or  heir  of  tbe  founder.  He  was  seldom  a  bii^op, 
but  there  were  always  one  or  more  bishops  in  each  commu- 
nity, always  subject,  however,  to  the  abbot.  Poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience  were  considered  eaaential.  The 
rule  of  St.  Colimiban  (q.v.)  no  doubt  represents  the  life  and 
practise  of  the  Irish  monasteries,  particularly  that  at  Bangor, 
of  which  Colimiban  had  been  a  member.  Adam  nan  also 
gives  many  interesting  details  of  the  life  at  lona  in  Colimiba's 
time,  and  this  monastery,  doubtless,  did  not  differ  materi- 
ally from  the  others.  Divine  service  and  private  devotion, 
study,  and  manual  labor  occupied  the  time  of  the  brethren. 
Sundays  and  saints'  days  were  marked  by  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist,  rest  from  toil,  and  an  allowance  of  better  food. 
Easter  was  the  chief  festival  and  during  the  PatcKaUs  Die9 
(from  Easter  to  Whitsunday)  there  was  some  relaxation 
in  the  Severity  of  dincipline.  Christmas  was  the  other  great 
festival.  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  were  fast-days  except 
during  the  Patchcdes  Die9.  Lent  was  strictly  kept,  and  the 
forty  days  before  Christmas  were  observed  by  some  in  a 
like  manner.  Holy  Scripture  was  the  chief  object  of  study 
and  the  Psalms  were  learned  by  heart.  Much  effort  was 
spent  in  the  copying  of  books  and  there  are  two  Irish  manu- 
scripts of  the  Vulgate,  known  respectively  as  the  Book  of 
KelU  and  the  Book  of  Durrow  and  dating  from  the  seventh 
century,  which  are  among  the  finest  extant  specimens  of 
illuminated  work.  It  is  a  question  where  such  work  was 
done,  as  it  must  have  been  impossible  in  the  poorly  lighted 
cell!>;  perhaps  it  was  executed  in  the  open  air.  aad  we  read 
of  the  monks  writing  "  on  their  knees,"  HoMi<le>*  writing, 
the  production  and  preparation  of  food  was  tlii'  cliief  labor. 
Strangers  were  hospitably  received  and  faHts  were  relaxed 
in  their  honor.  Consult:  Reeves's  Adamnan,  pp.  339-360, 
Dublin,  1867;  J.  T.  Fowler'j*  Adamnan,  pp.  xxxvii.-l, 
Oxford.  1894;  J.  Lanigan.  Eeclesuutical  Iliaiory.  iv.  348  sqq., 
Dublin,  1829;  F.  E.  Warren,  Liturgy  and  RUual,  chap.  ii.. 
Oxford,  1881;  G.  T.  Stokes.  Ireland  and  the  CelHc  Church, 
lectures  ix.  and  xi.;  G.  Petrie,  EccUnaatical  Architecture  of 
Ireland,  Dublin.  1845;  Margaret  Stokes.  Earlu  ChrUtian 
Arl  in  Ireland,  London.  1887;  J.  Anderson.  Scotland  in 
Early  Christian  Time;  2  vols..  Edinburgh,  1881;  J.  Healy, 
Inevla  •anctorum,  pp.  144-1.59.  Dublin,  1890. 


from  the  Irish  schools  (MPL,  boodx.  94<Mi), 
reluctantly  admits  the  superiority  of  Irish  scholar- 
ship. And  in  the  eighth  century  Bede  Bpe$}a 
with  admiration  of  Irish  learning  (iiL  7,  27;  [d. 
Plununer's  note  to  iiL  27,  p.  192]).  Besides  their 
seal  for  learning,  a  noteworthy  love  of  wandering 
characterised  the  Irish  monks.  Sin^y  or  in  groupi 
they  went  forth  from  the  great  monk-colonies— 
for  such  the  monasteries  really  wer&- 
8.  Travel,  to  seek  a  form  of  the  anchorite's  life 
^^  ^'^  They  were  content  at  first  with  the 
jJJJ^2[  isles  of  their  own  lakes  aad  liven; 
then  they  betook  themsdves  to  the 
many  islands  of  the  Irish  coast;  then  to  the  Heb- 
rides, the  Orkneys,  and  the  Shetland  Islands,  and 
before  800  they  had  reached  Iceland.  At  the  same 
time  othen  went  to  Britain — where  many  Chris- 
tian inscriptions  of  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
centuries  with  Irish  names  and  written  in  Ogham 
bear  witness  to  their  presence  north  and  south  o( 
the  Severn  estuary — and  to  Brittany,  and  then 
through  the  land  of  the  Franks  to  the  Alps 
and  across  the  Alps,  so  that  Bobbio  (perhaps  Taren- 
tum;  see  Cataldus;  Columban)  beoune  the  south- 
em,  as  Iceland  was  the  northern,  limit  of  their 
wanderings.  Their  primary  purpose  was  not  mis- 
sionary work;  but  circumstances  made  them  mis- 
sionaries and  teachen  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  settled  to  lead  the  contemplative  life. 

The  greatest  achievement  of  the  Irish  Church 
and  its  monks  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries, 
the  Christianiiation  of  North  Britain, 
4.  North  must  be  regarded  from  the  same  point 
of  view.  With  twelve  oompamons 
Columba  (q.v.)  left  Irdand  in  563, 
**  wishing  to  go  into  exile  for  Christ " 
(Adamnan's  Life  of  Columba^  p.  9).  They  settled 
on  the  little  island  of  lona  (Eo,  lo,  Hi),  belonging 
to  the  Irish  (Christian)  state  north  of  the  Clyde, 
took  up  missionary  work  among  the  heathen  Picta 
of  the  neighborhood  and  rapidly  extended  it,  so 
that  when  Columba  died  (597),  the  mainland  north 
of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  as  well  as  the  western 
islands,  was  studded  with  monasteries,  whose  in- 
mates looked  after  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  neigh- 
boring population,  all  of  them  dependent  on  the 
mother  monastery  at  lona  (q.v.).  A  generation 
later  Oswald,  king  of  Northumbria,  who  had  been 
converted  to  Christianity  during  a  seventeen  years' 
exile  in  Ireland,  applied  to  Columba's  successor  for 
missionaries  to  introduce  Christianity  in  his  realm. 
Aidan  (q.v.)  was  sent  (635)  and  under  his  lead  and 
that  of  his  successors,  Finan  (652-661)  and  Co^ 
man  (661-664),  with  the  earnest  support  of  Oswald 
and  his  brother  Oswy,  the  Gospel  made  rapid  and 
splendid  progress.  Monasteries  were  founded, 
such  as  Mailros  (Old  Melrose)  by  Aidan,  the  first 
nuimery  by  Heiu  at  Hartlepool,  the  double  monas- 
tery for  both  men  and  women  at  Coldingham 
by  Oswald's  half-sister,  Ebba,  the  monastery  st 
Whitby  by  Hilda,  and  others.  Christianity  and  the 
Irish  Church  reached  to  the  Angles  living  south  of 
the  Humber. 

This  flourishing  state  of  the  Irish  Church  wis 
disturbed  by  the  Roman  mission  to  the  Saxons  in 
597.      Like  the  British  Church,  that  of   Ireland 


Britain 

Ohiistian- 

iaad. 


475 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeltio  OhvTCb 


differed  in  some  respects  from  the  Roman  Church 
of  Gregory's  time,  the  most  important  divergen- 
B  "Rmim^  ^^^  being  the  form  of  the  tonsure  and 
Honfl  with  *^®  method  of  computing  Easter  [cf . 
^fc^e.  Hummer's  Bede,  ii.  348-^54;  Bright, 
pp.  86-93, 224-225].  In  604  Augustine's 
successor,  Laurence,  with  his  fellow  bishops,  Mel- 
litus  and  Justus,  sent  a  letter  to  Ireland  exhorting 
to  conformity  to  Roman  usage,  but  without  success 
(Bede,  ii.  4).  A  party  favorable  to  conformity 
gradually  arose  through  visits  of  Irish  clerics  to 
Gaul  and  Rome,  and  partly  perhaps  through  in- 
fluence of  the  Anglo-Roman  Church,  but  in  627 
it  was  still  in  the  minority,  for  the  exhortation  of 
Pope  Honorius  I.  to  conform  in  628  was  again  im- 
successful  (Bede,  ii.  19).  Honorius  then  excom- 
municated Ireland  (Cummian's  letter,  977,  IL  5-6) 
and  in  629  the  Southeast  generally  observed  the  Ro- 
man date.  Farther  west  opinions  wavered,  but  in 
630  the  abbots  met  in  a  synod  at  Mag  Lena  near 
TuUamore,  and  decided  to  celebrate  Easter  the 
next  year  with  the  Roman  Church.  Opposition, 
however,  made  another  meeting  necessary  and  the 
Roman  party  failed  to  win  a  decisive  victory. 
They  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome,  which  returned 
in  633.  Through  the  influence  of  this  embassy 
and  the  death  (636)  of  Fintan,  abbot  of  Taghmon 
in  County  Werford  (see  Fintan,  Saint),  leader  of 
the  opposition,  the  Roman  party  finally  prevailed 
in  the  South.  The  North  held  out  stubbornly  for 
sixty  years  longer.  Cummian's  letter  to  Seghine, 
abbot  of  lona  (634),  and  a  letter  from  Pope  John 
IV.  (partly  preserved  by  Bede,  ii.  19)  in  640  to  the 
prominent  abbots  of  the  North  were  ineffectuaL 
The  details  of  the  struggle  are  not  known,  but  it 
may  be  assumed  that  the  Patrick  legend  was  not 
the  least  important  of  the  expedients  resorted  to 
to  work  upon  the  North  Irish. 

It  was  natural  for  the  Irish  to  seek  for  an  apostle 
who  should  be  to  them  what  Coliunba  was  to  the 
Picts  and  Augustine  to  the  Saxons. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  Wicklow  a 
certain  Patridus  was  remembered 
who  had  called  himself  the  "  appointed 
bishop  of  Ireland."  Is  it  unreasonable  to  assume 
that  about  625  it  came  to  be  believed  in  the  South- 
east that  the  apostle  was  found  in  this  man?  The 
scanty  history  of  Patrick  was  filled  out  by  analogy 
with  that  of  Columba  and  Augustine.  The  Irish 
were  supposed  to  have  been  all  heathen  in  432  as 
the  Picts  had  been  in  563  and  the  Saxons  in  597. 
Patrick  converted  the  land  in  a  brief  time,  estab- 
lished a  Christian  Church,  and  won  the  favor  of 
King  Laeghaire  as  Columba  had  that  of  King  Brude 
and  Augustine  that  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent.  This 
legend  was  at  once  utilized,  if  not  invented,  by  the 
Roman  party,  as  is  evident  from  the  first  mention 
of  it  in  Cummian's  letter.  He  attributes  to  Patrick 
the  introduction  of  the  Dionysian  cycle  in  Ire- 
land, although  it  was  not  introduced  in  Rome  till 
the  sixth  centuiy  (col.  975c). 

The  legend  was  also  useful  in  winning  over  the 
bishop  of  Armagh.  As  the  presumed  successor  of 
St.  Patrick  he  was  acknowledged  in  the  South  as 
metropolitan  (cf.  Tripartite  Life,  ii.  346, 11.  21-24). 
The  claims  of  Armagh,  however,  met  with  violent 


6.  The 
Patrick 


opposition  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  both 
in  Connaught  and  Munster.  Northumbria  con- 
formed  to  Rome  after  the  Synod  of 
foFM^U)  ^'^^^^y  (^•^•)  ^  ®^'  whereupon  the 
Boman  ^^^  returned  to  their  native  land  (see 
XTsaffe.  Colman,  Saint).  Adamnan,  ninth 
abbot  of  lona  (679-704),  was  persuaded 
to  yield  while  visiting  the  court  of  Aldfrid  in  North- 
imibria  in  686  or  687-688,  but  was  imable  to  control 
the  abbots  of  the  dependent  monasteries  or  his 
own  monks  at  lona  when  he  returned  home  (Bede, 
V.  15).  Then  he  went  to  North  Ireland  and  with 
an  Angle,  Egbert  (see  Egbert,  Saint),  took  the 
lead  in  efforts  to  win  over  the  Irish  party.  The 
bishop  of  Armagh  yielded  in  697.  The  0)lumban 
monasteries  continued  obstinate.  In  713  Naiton, 
king  of  the  Picts,  enlisted  the  services  of  Geolfrid 
(q.v.),  the  distinguished  abbot  of  Wearmouth  and 
Jarrow;  the  latter  wrote  a  long  letter  on  the  Easter 
question,  which  Naiton  sent  in  copy  to  all  clerics  in 
his  dominion  with  an  order  to  obey  (Bede,  v.  21). 
Those- who  continued  recalcitrant  were  expelled  from 
the  ooimtry  in  717.  In  716  Egbert  persuaded  the 
abbot  and  monks  of  lona  to  celebrate  Easter  at  the 
Roman  date.  Their  compliance,  however,  came 
too  late  to  save  the  position  of  lona  as  the  center 
of  a  great  monastic  church.  It  was  reduced  to  a 
mere  parent  monasteiy  with  a  few  affiliated  houses 
on  the  west  coast  of  North  Britain  and  belonging 
to  the  Irish  state.  Armagh,  on  the  other  hatid, 
by  timely  yielding  and  a  skilful  use  of  the  Patrick 
legend  had  prepared  the  way  for  becoming  the 
head  of  an  episcopal  church  comprising  all  Ireland. 
UL  Complete  Assimilation  to  the  Roman  Church, 
800-1 300. — 1.  In  Wales:  The  Church  in  Wales, 
having  been  episcopal  from  the  first,  differed  from 
the  Roman  Church  only  in  subordinate  points 
after  it  had  conformed  in  respect  to  Easter  and  the 
tonsure.  Political  conditions  hastened  its  com- 
plete assimilation  to  the  Roman-Saxon  Church. 
From  the  time  of  Egbert  of  Wessex  (d.  836)  the 
weaker  Welsh  chieftains  sought  the  protection  of 
the  En^ish  kings  against  their  more  powerful 
countrymen.  The  attacks  of  the  Northmen  also, 
which  from  853  on  were  felt  more  and  more  severely 
in  Wales,  promoted  friendly  feelings  and  relations 
between  the  two  nations.  That  the  culture  of  its 
clergy  was  higher  after  the  isolation  of  the  Welsh 
Church  was  ended  is  evident  from  the  appointment 
and  position  of  Asser  (q.v.),  a  nephew  of  Bishop 
Novis  of  Menevia,  as  teacher,  counselor,  and  friend 
of  Alfred.  At  the  end  of  the  tenth  and  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century,  consecration  of  bishops  of 
Llandaff  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  seems 
to  have  been  the  rule,  and  there  is  some  reason  to 
believe  that  an  earlier  bishop,  Cyfeiliawc  (d.  927), 
was  so  consecrated.  The  Anglo-Norman  arch- 
bishops Lanfranc  (1070-89)  and  Ansehn  (1093- 
1109)  repeatedly  interfered  in  Welsh  matters  as  if 
the  Welsh  bishops  stood  legally  under  the  primate 
of  England.  IMsputes  concerning  the  boimdaries 
of  the  Welsh  dioceses  of  St.  David's  and  Llandaff 
and  the  En^h  diocese  of  Hereford  between  1119 
and  1 133  were  referred  to  Rome.  About  this  time 
the  bishop  of  St.  David's  began  to  set  up  the  claim 
to  metropolitan  rank.    After   1187,  when  Arcl|- 


Celtio  Ohnroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


476 


bishop  Baldwin  of  Canterbury  as  papal  legate  held 
a  visitation  in  parts  of  Wales  and  preached  the 
Crusade,  the  Welsh  Church  may  be  regarded  as 
part  of  the  English  Church,  although  as  late  as 
1284  the  bishop  of  St.  David's  formally  protested 
against  the  visitation  of  Archbishop  Peckham  of 
Canterbiuy.  [Webh  tradition  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  Lollard  movement  in  the  fourteenth 
oentiuy  spread  among  the  English-speaking  people 
on  the  borders  of  Wales  favor  the  theory  that  the 
ancient  British  form  of  Christianity  persisted  in 
Wales  .throughout  the  Middle  Agp«  side  by  side 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  establishment.  The 
moimtainous  character  of  the  coimtry  and  the 
character  of  the  language,  which  Englishmen  rarely 
acquired,  were  favorable  to  the  perx)etuation  of 
evangelical  dissent.  A.  H.  N.] 

8.  In  Ireland:  A  systematic  sketch  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Irish  branch  of  the  Celtic  Church 
in  this  period  is  not  yet  possible  owing  to  the  de- 
fective character  of  the  special  investigations.  A 
factor  deserving  more  attention  than  it  has  com- 
monly received  is  the  influence  of  the  incurnons 
and    settlements   of    the    Norsemen. 

1.  Incur.   j^Q  Viking  period— beginning  in  796 
thA  VonL.  *"^  lasting  more  than  160  years — 

m^^  brought  indescribable  wo  to  all  Brit- 
ain and  particularly  to  Christian  Ire- 
land. Churches  and  monasteries,  as  the  centers 
of  civilisation  and  the  Christian  religion,  were 
marked  for  destruction  by  the  heathen  Norwegians 
and  Danes.  Certain  of  the  Irish  monasteries 
(such  as  lona,  Bangor  in  Ulster,  and  many  others) 
Uy  temptingly  exposed  to  seafaring  robbers.  The 
rivers  gave  them  eaey  access  to  the  heart  of  the 
land  from  both  the  east  and  the  west  coast.  The 
wooden  structures  of  the  monasteries  were  an  easy 
prey  to  the  flames,  in  which  both  books  and  monks 
perished.  If  any  manuscripts  escaped  burning 
they  were  thrown  into  the  water.  A  heathen 
Vildng  state  in  Armagh  between  832  and  846  com- 
pelled the  abbot-bishop,  Forindan,  to  flee  to  Mun- 
ster.  At  the  same  time  the  Norwegian  heathen 
were  settling  in  the  interior,  but  they  were  either 
ultimately  expelled  or  abe^orbed  by  the  native 
population  and  became  Christian.  In  862,  how- 
ever, a  Viking  kingdom  was  set  up  at  Dublin,  which 
remained  heathen  and  plundered  Ireland  and  all  the 
coasts  of  the  Irish  Sea  for  more  than  a  centuiy. 
Under  such  conditions  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
exodus  of  Irish  monks  to  the  Conti- 

2.  Uah     ngjj^   continued  and   increased   from 
Se  ContT.  ^^  ^^'     ^^  ^^^  ^^^^  century  they 

nent.  '  ^^^  teachers  in  the  monastic  schools 
everywhere  in  the  land  of  the  Franks, 
at  St.  Denis,  Pavia,  and  on  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Rhine,  and  they  spread  the  repute  of  Irish  learn- 
ing so  that  it  is  almost  a  truism  to  say:  Whoever 
knew  Greek  on  the  Continent  in  the  days  of  Charles 
the  Bald  was  an  Irishman  or  had  learned  it  from 
an  Irishman  (of.  H.  Zimmer,  Ueber  die  Bedeutung 
dea  irischen  Elements  fiir  miUelalterliche  KultuTf  in 
PreuB8i8che  Jahrbiicher,  lix.,  1887,  pp.  27-59;  L. 
Traube,  O  Roma  nobilis,  in  Abhandlunffen  der  phiio- 
aophisch'philologiachen  Klasae  der  kdniglich-bayeri- 
9chen  Akademie,  xiz.,  1892,  pp.  332-3^) .    They  took 


their  manuscripts  with  them  in  such  numbers  that 
no  fewer  than  117  Irish  manuscripts,  or  fragments 
of  such,  older  than  the  eleventh  centuiy  are  still 
extant  in  Continental  libraries,  not  counting  those 
in  the  Vatican  or  the  Bibliothdque  Nationale  (cf. 
W.    Schultse,    Die   Bedeutung   der   iroschottisclm 
BiOnche,  in   CentralblaU  far  BtUioihekeweeen,  6th 
year,  1889,  pp.  287-298).    But  if  this  was  the  Con- 
tinent's gain,  it  was  Ireland's  loss.    King  BriAn 
(1002-13)  had  to  send  across  the  sea  "  to  buy 
books  "  (J.  H.  Todd,  The  War  of  the  GoedkU  with 
the  GaiU,  RoUe  Series,  no.  48,  p.  138,  London,  1867). 
The  standard  of  education  in  the  monasteries  sank 
with  each  generation,  and  the  new  and  inferior 
priesthood  had  less  power  to  resist  the  forces  which 
were  substituting  for  the  native  monastic  church 
an  episcopal  church  with  metropolitan  head.    The 
Irish  chi^tains  and  princes  also,  instead  of  uniting 
against  the  common  foe,  thou^t  the  time  most 
fitting  to   fight  out  their  domestic  feuds.    The 
monasteries  were  involved  in  these  quarrds,  not  to 
mention  fierce  and  bloody  disputes  between  mon- 
asteries themselves  when  their  interests  happened 
to  dash.    Thus  the  old  organisation  was  weakened 
and  broken  up.    Furthermore,  the  Patrick  legend 
became  a  sort  of  dogma  during  the  dghth  century; 
and  its  view  of  the  Christianisation  of  Ireland  and 
the  position  of  the  epiaeopue  in  church  government 
was  an  additional  force  shaking  the  firmly  buHt 
edifice  of  the  monastic  church  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries.    It  can  be  shown  from  the 
Annals  of  Ulster  that  the  abbot-bishop  of  Armagh, 
making  free  use  of  his  opportunities, 
8.  Blsa  of  between  730  and  850  attained  to  some 
Armmgh.    extent  to  that  primacy  in  the  Irish 
Church  which  was  the  logical  outcome 
of  the  Patrick  legend.    The  year  805  was  decisive 
for  Meath,  824  for  Connaught,  and  822,  as  well  as 
Forindan's  stay  in  Munster  from  841  to  845,  for 
South  Ireland;  thenceforth  the  see  of  Armagh  hsd 
its  tax-gatherers  for  Patrick's  pence  in  all  Ireland, 
excluding  of  course  the  Viking  state  whose  ruler 
resided  at  Dublin.     In  943  this  ruler,  Amlaib  mac 
Sitricca  (Norse,  Olafr  Sigtriggvasonr),  became  a 
Christian  in  England  and  was  baptized  by  Wulf- 
helm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Edmimd,  king  of 
England,  standing  as  his  godfather.     As  Chiisti- 
anity  spread  among  his  subjects  they  naturally 
looked  toward  Canterbury  and  drew  their  clerics 
from  England.    The  incumbents  of  newly  estab- 
lished Norse  bishoprics  of  Dublin,  Waterford,  and 
Limerick  were  consecrated  at  Canterbury.    This 
was  not  satisfactory  to  the  bishop  of  Armagh,  who 
desired  revenues  from  the  rich  Norse  settlements 
in  Dublin.     He  again  had  recourse  to  the  Patrick 
legend,  utilizing  a  detail  of  it  which  had  already 
become  current;  namely,  that   Patrick   had  con- 
verted the  Vikings.     One  of   his   adherents,  wri- 
ting about  1000,  tells  how  the  saint  had  converted 
the  heathen  Norse  of   Dublin,  and  consequently 
asserts  that  the  successor  of  "  Patrick  of  Armagh 
with   the  great   revenues "    had    a    right    to   an 
ounce  of  gold  "  from  each  nose  "  in  the  Dublin 
Viking  state  (cf.  H.  Zinmier,  KelHsche  Beitrage,  iii., 
in  Zeitschrift  fUr  deuUchea  AUerthum,  xxxv.,  1891, 
pp.  54-85). 


177 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OfiltlG  Clitiroli 


Another  phenomenon  in  the  inner  ilcvelopment 
I  the  Irish  Church  in  this  pericMi  winch  deserves 
attention  is  the  appearance  of  the 
4.  The  80-€AlledCijldeea  [Imh,  cr/t*ifS'  Latin, 
Culdftes^  colidei).  It  is  difficult  to  define  ex- 
actly the  origin  and  position  of  these 
The  Irish  name  does  not  furnish  a  trust- 
orthy  clue*  It  meant  originally  one  who  enters 
God's  service  and  devotes  himself  to  him  to  deaths 
d  could  be  applied,  like  vir  dei  in  Lattn,  to  monkn 
ind  anchorites  in  general.  Hector  Boeee,  the 
Scottish  historian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  started 
^e  theory  that  the  CuUei^  as  he  calls  them,  were 
Ihe  direct  continuation  of  Irish  monasticism  of  the 
Aucth^  seventh,  and  eighth  centuries,  or  even  of 
Celtic  monaBticism  in  general,  Btit  Bishop  Reeves 
lias  shown  that  the  term  afi  used  from  the  ninth 
to  the  twelfth  century  was  applied  to  members 
€>f  spiritual  aaeociationa  whose  existence  can  not 
iwith  certainty  be  traced  earlier  than  about  800. 
Bence  the  associations  of  the  Colidei  must  have 
been  fonned  in  Ireland  about  tliis  time  and  an  ex- 
iitiiig  tenn  of  general  application  was  given  a  more 
limited  signification  to  designate  their  members. 
Apparently  Chrodegang*a  monastic  rule  (749)^ 
designed  originally  for  Metz,  was  brought  to  Ire- 
tmd  in  the  eighth  century,  and  Irkh  anchorites, 
;who  were  not  under  regular  monastic  rule,  were 
Cist  a^sodated  in  acoortlance  with  it.  The  Culdees 
were  never  of  great  importance  in  Ireland,  They 
mentioned  in  nine  places,  often  in  connection 
ith  monasteries  to  which  the  bouse  of  the  Culdees 
a  sort  of  annex.  The  care  of  the  sick  and 
the  poor  was  their  chief  cfiarge,  and  they  also  seem 
lo  have  been  entrusted  with  the  choral  part  of  the 
pervice.  In  North  Britain,  however,  whither  they 
irent  from  Ireland,  they  attained  to  great'Cr  ira- 
|>ortancc»  Nai ton's  expulsion  of  the  refractory 
inonka  of  lona  in  717  left  gaps  in  the  clergy  which 
bhe  new  associations  of  the  Colidei  helped  to  fill 
Hiey  appear  in  Scotland  as  a  mixture  of  secular 
k^ergy  and  anchorites  organised  after  monastic 
|>attem;  at  a  later  time  they  reeemble  the  regular 
canons  of  the  Continent.  Tliere  was  a  want  of 
connection  between  different  convents  due  to  the 
lack  of  a  common  head  and  fixed  forms.  Hence 
Iherc  were  wide  divergences,  and  eon  temporary 
Jeecriptions  and  opinions  differ  greatly.  They 
Irere  ultimately  absorbed  in  the  Roman  orders, 
irhich  were  introduced  in  Ireland  and  Scotland 
during  the  twelfth  eentury. 

The  full  subjection  of  the  Celtic  Church  of  Irelajid 
lo   that   of   Rome  was   accomplished   after    1050. 
Archbishop    Lanfranc   of   Canterbury 
0.  Final     found  opportunity  to  interfere  in  Ire- 
BiLttiootloii  land  in  1074  and  sent  a  letter  to  the 
to  Borne,    y^ng,  Torlogh   O'Brian,   through  Gil- 
pat  rick,  the  Norse  bishop  of   Dublin. 
Instigated  by  both,  Gregory  VI L  mint  a  letter  to 
Ireland  and  appointed  Gilbert,  the  Norse  bishop  of 
Limerick,   papal    legate   for   Ireland.     As   in    the 
ieventh  eentury,  so  now,  the  bishop  of  Armagh 
lesisted.     But  in  the  end  Gilbert  found  a  man  who 
let!  in  with  his  views,  when  in  11 06  Celsus  succeeded 
lo  the  see  of  Armagh.     At  the  Synod  of  Rath- 
breaaail  in  1120  it  was  decided  to  divide  Xrelaod 


into  twenty-four  tlioceses,  all  except  Dublin  sub- 
ordiiuitt?  to  Armagh.  In  1152  a  synod  was  held  at 
Kclls,  under  the  presidency  of  the  papal  legate. 
Paparo,  and  Ireland  was  dinded  into  four  prov- 
inces, Armagh  was  selected  as  the  see  of  the  pri- 
mate, and  the  bishops  of  Dublin,  Cash  el,  and  Tuam 
were  promoted  t'O  archbisbofis  and  received  palUa 
brought  from  Rome.  The  complete  Romamzatiozi 
of  the  Irish  Church  in  internal  affairs  was  effected 
in  furtherance  of  the  political  interests  of  the  Anglo- 
Normans  at  a  synod  held  at  Cashel  in  1172  by  Dom- 
mand  of  Henry  II. 

8,  In  Nortb  Britain:  In  844  Kenneth  mac  Alpin, 
njler  of  the  Irish  state  in  North  Britain,  mounted 
the  throne  of  the  united  North  and  South  Picts, 
and  thereby  created  a  united  kingdom  of  Alba, 
later  known  as  Scotland.  In  850  Kenneth  had 
the  bones  of  Columba  removed  from  lona  (which, 
because  of  constant  attacks  from  the  Vikings,  had 
fallen  into  complete  decay)  and  deposited  at  Dun- 
keld,  in  the  land  of  the  South  Picts,  the  mainstay 
of  his  power.  At  the  same  time  he  established  a 
bishopric  at  Dunkeld,  apparently  aiming  to  fonn 
here  a  center  for  a  national  church  Like  lona  in  the 
seventh  century,  with  a  different  basis,  however, 
the  abbot-bishop  of  Dunkeld  being  at  the  bead  of 
the  church  government  as  bishop  and  not  as  abbot. 
In  865  Kenneth's  son,  Constant ine,  removed  the 
see  of  the  bishopric  to  Abernethy,  leaving  Dunkeld 
with  an  abbot  only.  In  908  the  see  of  the  primate 
was  transferred  to  St.  Andrews  and  a  parUament 
of  the  same  year  exempted  the  Church  from  taxa- 
tion. Margaret,  grandniece  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor and  queen  of  Scotland  106&-&3,  took  ener- 
getically in  hand  the  reformation  of  the  Scottish 
Church  according  to  Roman  rules  and  usages. 
She  received  efficient  support  from  her  confessor, 
Turgot,  abbot  of  Durham  (see  Turoot).  Her  sons, 
Edgjir  (1097-1107),  Alexander  (1107''24),  and 
David  (112^^-53)  continued  and  completed  their 
mother's  reforms.  In  1107  Turgot  was  appointed 
to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews  and  was  consecrated  at 
York,  His  successor,  Eadmer,  a  Canterbury  monk, 
at  the  desire  of  King  Alexander  was  chosen  and  con- 
secrated by  Ralph,  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1116).  By  1188  the  outward  and  inward  trans- 
formation of  ecclesiastical  Scotland  into  a  Roman 
province  was  complete.  It  was  then  declared  in- 
dependent of  Canterbury  and,  like  the  Irish  Church, 
came  directly  under  the  sovereignty  of  Romt 
through  a  bull  of  Clement  II L  (cf.  Haddan  and 
Stubbi,  ii,  273-274).  The  land  was  divided  into 
nine  dioceses  with  strictly  defined  boundaries,  and 
Augustinian,  Benedictine,  and  Cistercian  monks 
were  introtiuced  and  absorbed  the  remnant  of 
the  national  Celtic  monasticism. 

IV.  Some  General  Considerations:  Concerning 
institutions  and  doctrine,  neither  tratlition  nor  his- 
tory offers  any  support  to  the  view  that  the  Celtic 
Church  in  its  prime  almost  reproiluccfl  the  Church 
of  the  Apostolic  Age.  The  British  Church  of  the 
fourth  eentury  was  a  part  of  the  Catholic  Church 
of  the  West^  just  as  Britain  was  a  part  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  And  the  Irish  Church  was  an  off- 
shoot of  the  British  Church.  The  divergences  from 
Rome  which  both  branches  of  the  Celtic  Church 


i 


CMUo  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HEKZOG 


478 


■bowed  at  the  begmning  of  the  seventh  century 
are  easQy  explicable.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  position  of  the  bishop  of 
1.  Beason  Home  in  the  time  of  Leo  the  Great 
for  the  (440-461)  was  different  from  that  of 
DiTttrven.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (690-604); 
OM  firom  that  the  fourth  century  knew  nothing 
Borne.  Qf  thi^t  rigid  uniformity  of  institutions 
which  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century  was  looked  upon  as  an  essential  requirement 
of  the  unitaa  eatholica ;  and  that  innovations 
domesticated  themselves  slowly  in  the  more  dis- 
tant members  of  the  Church.  About  400  the 
British  branch  of  the  Catholic  Church  was  cut  off 
because  political  Rome  lost  its  hold  on  Britain. 
A  series  of  events  of  the  early  fifth  century  is  in- 
structive for  the  immediate  consequences.  The 
popes  Innocent,  Zosimus,  and  Boniface  (401-422) 
energetically  opposed  the  teaching  of  Pelagius, 
and  the  emperor,  Honorius,  supported  them  by 
issuing  a  rescript  (Apr.  30,  418)  threatening  ban- 
ishment to  every  Pelagian.  The  suppression  of 
the  heresy  in  the  empire  was  thus  due  to  the  civil 
power.  But  the  arm  of  the  emperor  did  not  reach 
to  Britain  and  in  429  Pope  Celestine  could  only 
send  Germanus  of  Auxerre  thither  to  eradicate  the 
heresy  by  moral  suasion.  Later  all  connection 
between  the  Celtic  Church  and  Rome  was  broken 
for  150  years  by  a  double  and  threefold  wall  of 
barbarians — Burgundians,  Visigoths,  Franks,  and 
Saxons.  The  development  of  the  Western  Church 
during  all  this  time  left  no  impress  on  the  Celtic; 
and  local  conditions  could  not  fail  to  influence  the 
latter.  This  explains  how  a  Columban  of  Luxeuil 
presumes  to  address  the  pope  in  a  way  which  two 
hundred  years  earlier  would  not  have  been  remark- 
able in  a  bishop  of  North  Africa  or  Alexandria.  It 
explains  why  the  Welsh  Church  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury knew  only  of  independent  bishops  without 
metropolitan;  the  British  Church  in  400  knew 
nothing  of  this  institution.  The  difference  in  the 
date  of  Easter  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  600  the 
Celtic  Church  still  used  the  older  suppiUaHo  Ro- 
manOf  which  had  been  followed  by  Rome  till  343, 
but  was  then  superseded  by  the  younger  suppuUUio 
Ramana.  Other  changes — the  paschal  table  of 
Zeitz  in  447,  the  nineteen-year  cycle  of  Victorius 
in  501,  the  cycle  of  EMonysius  about  550 — were  all 
unknown  to  the  Celtic  Church. 

The  representatives  of  Britain  at  the  Synod  of 
Aries  subscribed   the   canon   that  when   possible 
seven,  and  in  any  case  three,  bishops 
S.  Oonse-    should  take  part  in  the  consecration 
oration  by  of  a  bishop.     Yet  consecration  could 
a  Sinffle    be  performed  by  a  single   bishop  in 
Bishop,     both  the  British  and  Irish  Churches 
long  after  their  contact  with  Rome. 
This  is  not  as  surprising  as  it  has  been  thought  (cf . 
Warren,  pp.  68-69).     In  the  nature  of  things,  partic- 
ularly in  the  earlier  period,  consecration  often  had 
to  be  by  one  bishop  if  it  took  place  at  all.     Gregory 
the  Great  recognized  the  necessity  and  gave  Au- 
gustine permiBsion  to  consecrate  alone  with  the  re- 
mark, "  Since  you  are  the  only  bishop  in  the  English 
Church  you  can  not  ordain  otherwise  than  without 
other  bishops  "  (Bade,  i.  27).    Boniface  V.  gave  the 


same  permission  to  Justus,  Augustine's  third  sac- 
oessor,  "when  the  occasion  made  it  neceflsary" 
(Bede,  ii.  8).  Custom  with  the  En^Ush  makes  law 
without  specific  enactment.  Hence  it  is  comprehen- 
sible how  consecration  by  a  single  bishop  became 
first  established  usage  and  then  law.  In  respect 
to  the  markedly  monastic  character  of  the  Irish 
Church  and  the  position  of  the  bishop  in  it  unlike 
that  in  the  Western  Church,  it  must 
8.  Xonaatio  y^  noted  that  in  the  older  monasteries 

^^^VJh**'  ^^^^  ^  Armagh  in  the  North  and 
^^      Emly  in  Tipperary)  the  abbots  were 
Ohuroh.     ^'^  bishops;  that  is,  the  heads  of  the 
dioceses  were  abbots  and  bishops  in 
one  person,  but  their  power  of  church  government 
rested  on  their  position  as  abbots.    This  is  ex- 
plained by  the  political  and  social  conditions  of  the 
Celts  and  the  time  and  maimer  of  their  conversion. 
The  first  step  was  the  establishment  of  a  monastic 
missionary  station  with  a  clan.    A  member  of  the 
chiefs  family  inevitably  became  the  head  of  such 
a  station.     In  some  esses  the  right  of  succession 
to  the  abbacy  remained  hereditary  in  the  chiefs 
family  for  centuries.    The  necessity  for  some  one 
to  perform  episcopal  fimctions  would  not  be  felt 
immediately.     When  it  did  arise  an  original  lay 
abbot  may  have  received  consecration,  but,  living 
as  he  did  far  from  the  sight  and  influence  of  an 
episcopal  church,  it  was  only  natural  that  he  should 
continue  to  perform  the  duties  of  church  govern- 
ment in  the  church  of  the  clan  by  virtue  of  his 
position  as  abbot  and  member  of  the  chiefs  family. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  a  complete  picture 
of  the  doctrines  and  institutions  of  the  Celtic  Churdi 
in  its  prime.    The  material  at  hand  is  not  sufficient, 
although  it  is  adequate  to  support  the  oondusion 
that  the  Celtic  Church  of  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries  was  a  reproduction  of  the  Western  Church 
of  the  fourth  century,  modified  only  in  epeaal 
points.     An  important   difference,  however,  must 
be  noted.     The  spirit  of  the  Roman  and  Oltic 
Churches  when  they  first  came  in  conflict  was  not 
the  same.     The  representatives  of  the  former  were 
intolerant  and  uncharitable,  as  Augustine  toward 
the  British  bishops  (Bede,  ii.  2),  Wfl- 
4.  The      frid  toward  CoUnan  (ib.  iii.  25),  Ald- 

^a?°  ^^^  ^  ^  ^^^^^  ^  Geraint   {MGH, 

SplrU.  ^P^'*  "*•  231-235).  The  Irish,  on  the 
other  hand,  such  as  Columban  on  the 
Continent  and  Aidan  and  the  rest  in  Northumbria, 
only  asked  that  they  be  allowed  quietly  to  follow 
the  customs  of  their  fathers.  As  soon,  however, 
as  an  Irishman  went  over  to  the  Roman  party  a 
new  spirit  entered  into  him.  Ronan,  an  Irishman 
who  had  been  in  Gaul  and  Italy,  began  the  quarrel 
in  Northumbria  with  the  gentle  Finan  (Bede,  iii. 
25).  Cmnmian  in  his  famous  letter  expresses  the 
pious  wish  that  God  would  "  strike  "  Fin  tan  (his 
chief  opponent)  "  as  he  would  "  (col.  977b),  al- 
though four  or  five  years  earlier  he  had  himself 
kept  Easter  at  the  Celtic  date.  Again,  the  spirit 
of  deliberate  falsification  to  serve  church  interests 
does  not  appear  in  the  Irish  Church  before  its  con- 
tact with  Rome.  That  it  appears  immediately 
thereafter  is  abundantly  shown  by  the  history  of 
the  Patrick  legend.     Lastly,  the  new  spirit  which 


470 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Celtio  Ohuroh 


begiiiB  to  pervade  the  Irish  Church  in  the  seventh 
century  is  indicated  by  the  unprecedented  ex- 
tension of  the  cult  of  relics.  Ireland  had  no  mar- 
tyrs.    There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  relics 

were  known  or  honored  in  any  part  of 
6.  Selios.    the  Irish  Church  before  contact  with 

Rome.  In  633  the  embassy  sent  to 
Rome  because  of  the  Easter  contest  (see  above, 
p.  475)  returned  laden  with  books  and  relics.  And 
the  next  year  Cummian  writes  to  Seghine:  **  And 
we  have  proof  that  the  virtue  of  God  is  in  the  relics 
of  holy  martyrs  and  the  writings  which  they  have 
brought.  We  have  seen  with  our  own  eyes  a  girl 
totally  blind  open  her  eyes  before  these  relics  and 
a  paralytic  walk  and  many  demons  cast  out" 
(col.  978b).  Everjrthing  here,  even  to  the  word- 
ing (reliquiee),  is  Roman,  not  Irish.  Muirchu 
Maccu-Machtheni's  life  of  Patrick  witnesses  the 
progress  of  the  cult  of  relics  in  South  Ireland  dur- 
ing the  seventh  oentuiy.  Speaking  for  his  own 
time  (before  G97),  the  author  mentions  with  em- 
phasis that  in  three  different  places  in  the  Roman- 
Irish  territory  relics  are  worshiped  and  he  even 
makes  Patrick  prophesy  such  worship  (Tripartite 
Life,  ii.  281,  U.  1-2;  283,  11.  3-5;  497,  11.  14-19). 
To  Adamnan,  writing  his  life  of  Colimiba  in  North 
Ireland  at  the  same  time  and  before  he  had  joined 
the  Roman  party,  relics  are  utterly  unknown. 
But  no  sooner  did  Roman  influence  find  entrance 
in  the  North  through  the  yielding  of  Armagh  (697) 
and  lona  (716)  on  the  Easter  question  than  the 
same  change  of  attitude  took  place  which  had 
occurred  seventy  years  earlier  in  the  South.  The 
Annals  of  Ulster  give  much  information  on  the 
history  of  the  Church,  but  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries  they  contain  not  a  single  entry  respecting 
relics.  In  726,  however,  occurs  the  first  of  a  long 
series  of  entries  recording  the  transference  or  en- 
shrining of  relics,  and  a  little  later  Armagh  ex- 
hibited at  the  great  fairs  of  Ireland  the  relics  of 
Patrick,  supposed  to  have  been  found  at  Down- 
patrick  in  733,  and  took  them  to  Connaught  and 
Munster. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  spirit 
which  animated  the  Celtic  Church  about  600  was 
quite  different  from  that  which  the  emissaries  of 
the  Roman  Church  brought  to  the  British  Isles. 
Both  had  the  same  dogmas.  But  on  the  one  side 
was  a  striving  after  individual  freedom  and  per- 
sonal Christianity,  on  the  other  side  a  bigoted  zeal 
for  rigid  uniformity  and  systematizing.  The  Celt 
emphasized  a  Christianity  manifesting  itself  in 
word  and  deed,  the  Roman  Catholic  valued  a 
formal  Christianity  above  all  else.  As  has  been 
said,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  Celtic 
Church  greatly  resembled  the  Apostolic  Church  in 
institutions  or  doctrines.  But  the  practical  results 
of  its  teaching  as  seen  in  the  life  of  such  men  as 
Aldan  and  Finan  (cf.  Bede,  iii.  17)  unquestionably 
come  nearer  the  popular  conception  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Age  than  does  the  spirit  manifested  by  the 
representatives  of  Rome. 

(H.  ZlMMER.) 
BiBUOoaAnrr:    A.  W.  HaddAn  and  W.  Stubbs.  CounciU  and 
Bedmiattieal  l>oeumentM  RdaHng  to  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, a  eoDTeniant  ooUeetion  of  the  aouroes  with  valuable 
Dotes.  voL  i.,  Oxford.  1860.  dealing  with  the  Britiah  Church 


in  Roman  times  and  the  period  of  Anglo-^axon  oonquett, 
the  Church  in  Wales  and  Cornwall;  vol.  ii..  part  i..  1873. 
with  the  Church  in  Cumbria  or  Strathdydis.  branches  of 
the  British  Church  in  Armorica  and  Gallicia.  the  Church 
of  Scotland  till  declared  independent  of  York;  vol.  ii., 
part  ii..  1878.  with  the  Church  in  Ireland  and  the  memo- 
rials of  Patrick;  vol.  iii.,  1871.  with  the  English  Church 
during  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  Adamnan 's  Life  of  SL 
Columba,  ed.  W.  Reeves.  Dublin.  1857.  Edinburgh.  1874 
(see  Adamnan).  Bede.  Historia  scetetiosMco  tf^ntis  An^ 
glorum,  ed.  A.  Holder,  Freiburg.  1890.  ed.  C.  Plummer. 
2  vols.,  Oxford.  1806.  Cummian's  letter  to  Seghine, 
abbot  of  lona,  in  MPL,  Ixxxvii.  060-^78.  Gildas  and 
Nennius.  [Historia  Britonum,  ed.  T.  If  ommsen.  in  MOH, 
Atictant.,  xlii.,  Chronica  minora  ettculorum  tv.-vti,  iiL, 
1808.  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  Chronieon^  ed.  idem.  ib.  i. 
AucL  anL,  ix..  1802.  The  TripartiU  Life  of  Patrick  with 
Other  Documenta  Relating  to  That  Saint,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes, 
in  RoUe  Seriee,  no.  80.  2  vols.,  1887  (see  Patrick.  Saxmt). 
The  JAvee  of  the  Cambro-Britieh  Sainte  of  the  Fifth  and 
Immediate  Succeeding  Centuriee,  ed.  W.  J.  Rees.  Llando- 
very, 1853.  dating  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies, which  is  also  true  in  part  of  the  material  in  the  so- 
called  Liber  Landaveneie  ("  Book  of  Llandaff."  ed.  W.  J. 
Rees.  Llandovery,  1840;  ed.  J.  G.  Evans.  Oxford.  1803)! 
The  Acta  eanctorum  Hibemiee  ex  codice  Salmanticenai,  ed. 
C.  de  Smedt  and  J.  de  Backer.  Edinburgh.  1888.  and  Lives 
of  Sainte  from  the  Bo€.k  of  Liemore,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes, 
in  Aneedota  Oxonienaia,  1800,  also  present  only  relatively 
late  material.  The  various  annalistic  works  give  impor- 
tant data  for  ecclesiastical  history,  vis.:  for  the  Briti^ 
and  Welsh  (Church,  the  Annalee  Cambria,  ed.  J.  W.  ab 
Ithel.  in  RoUe  Seriee,  no.  20.  1860;  the  oldest  part  ^T«^ 
in  Y  Cymmrodor,  ix..  1888;  for  the  Irish-Scotch  branch, 
the  Annale  of  Tigemach,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes,  in  Repue 
CeUique,  xvi.-xviii..  1805-07;  the  Annale  of  Uleter,  ed. 
W.  M.  Hennessy  and  B.  MacCarthy,  4  vols.,  Dublin,  1887- 
1001;  the  Chronicon  Scotorum,  ed.  W.  If.  Heimessy.  in 
RoUe  Seriee,  no.  46.  1866;  Annaie  of  Ireland,  Three  Frag- 
mente,  ed.  J.  O'Donovan.  Dublin.  1860;  Annale  of  tke 
Kingdom  of  Irdand  by  the  Four  Maetere,  ed.  idem.  7  vols.. 
1848-51 ;  Annale  of  Clonmacnoiee,  ed.  D.  Murphy.  Dublin, 
1806;  Chronidee  of  the  Picte  and  ScoU,  ed.  W.  F.  Skene, 
Edinburgh.  1867.  The  oldest  of  the  Irish  collections  is 
that  of  Tigemach  (d.  1088).  Since  the  sources  upon 
which  they  are  based  are  all  lost,  and  the  sources  them- 
selves appear  in  part  to  have  been  compilations  of  the 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  centuries  from  older  monastic 
annals,  it  is  clear  that  statements  concerning  Irish  church 
history  of  the  fifth  century  have  no  decisive  value  when 
they  coincide  with  the  views  concerning  the  earlier  period 
current  after  750.  In  using  the  collections  of  Wel^  and 
of  Irish  laws  (Ancient  Lowe  and  Inetitutee  of  Walee,  Lon- 
don. 1841;  Ancient  Lavoe  of  Ireland,  6  vols..  Dublin.  1865- 
1002)  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  former  dates  from 
the  tenth  century  and  the  latter  can  not  be  much  older. 
Other  sources  are:  the  Stoiroe  Mieeal,  ed.  F.  E.  Warren, 
in  The  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  Cdtic  Church,  pp.  108-268. 
Oxford.  1881 ;  the  A  ntiphonary  of  Bangor,  ed.  idem,  and  the 
Irish  Liber  Hymnorum,  ed.  J.  H.  Bernard  and  R.  Atldn- 
son  for  Henry  Bradshaw  Society,  iv..  x.  and  xiii..  xiv., 
1803-08;  F.  W.  H.  Wasserschleben.  Die  Bueeordnungen 
der  ab^Tidlilndiechen  Kirche,  Halle,  1851;  idem.  Die  irieehe 
Kanoneneammlung,  Leipsie.  1885;  the  Filire  of  Oenifue, 
ed.  Whitley  Stokes.  Dublin.  1881;  the  Martyrology  of 
TaUagh,  ed.  M.  Kelly.  Dublin,  1857;  the  Martyrology  of 
Donegal,  ed.  J.  H.  Todd  and  W.  Reeves.  Dublin.  1864; 
the  Martyrology  of  Gorman,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes,  for  Henry 
Bradshaw  Society,  ix..  1805. 

The  father  of  Celtio  church  history  was  Archbishop 
Ussher.  whoee  work.  Britanniearum  ecdeeiarum  onfi^M- 
tatee,  Dublin,  1630;  2d  ed..  enlarged,  London,  1687. 
however,  has  now  only  historic  interest.  The  mono- 
graph of  C.  Schdll.  De  ecdeeiaeticee  Britonum  Scotontmque 
hietoria  fontibue,  Berlin  and  London.  1851,  and  the  intro- 
duction and  notes  of  Reeves's  Adamnan,  aa.,  were  pio- 
neer work  in  the  critical  investigation  and  appreciatmi 
of  the  sources;  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  not  all  tbrir  suo- 
cessors  have  continued  in  the  same  spirit.  The  legends  of  th« 
Celtic  Church  are  briefly  but  fully  told  in  Cardinal  Newman's 
Life  of  SL  Auguetine,  chaps,  i.-v..  London.  1845.  Works 
dealing  with  the  Celtic  Church  in  both  Britain  and  Irela-?d 
are:  J.  H.  A.  Ebrard.  Die  iroechottiet^e  Mieeimtekirche 
dee  eeehelen,  eiebenten  und  achten  Jahrhunderte,  Oaterslo^ 


[tUCkmg^ 


THE  HEW  8CHAFF-HER2(M3 


•MTM. LoiMie  Md  Lowkm.  1«S2:  W.  CatWwt.  rft«  ilt 

Bamam  Cmthcht  cteuM):  H.  Zimacr.  TkMCdHeCkmAim 
Bniai»^ndirwUmd,Limdtm,l90r  For  tlM 
»oC«worth7  work*  mm  R.  Ba«i,  X«i  Fmrng  0m 
BmmU,  Umdim,  ISM;  J.  H.  Ovwto^  n«  Cftavc*  te 
Bmglamd,  L,  n«  NaUamai  Ckmnkm,  2  i^ok^  Lowk».  1801 ; 
H.  WininM.  Amw  il«p«eit  •/  A«  OriiH—  Cftvdb  m 
Walmdmim^mMFif^mmdSixdiCmUmnmaJomdam.  IflOS. 
nprsBted  from  tk*  TrmmmeUomg  mf  ^m  8mei^  •/  Cynm- 
rodariam,  18B»-94,  pp.  ft6-132>;  E.  J.  Ne««l,  A^Hiattrp  «# 
A«  IFdUk  Cftwdk  19  A«  Dimnlmtinn  •/  A«  MwrnmUrim, 
Lowlaa.  1806;  J.  W.  W.  Bvad.  TU  C^mc  CkmA  •/ 
IF«lM.  ib.  1M7:  W.  Brisbt.  Cftcpitari  •/  £v<r  ^«0iMik 
Cftwdk  HMory.  Oxioni.  1M7;  J,  W.  W.  Bvad.  n« 
Cd«e  Cftwdk  •/  IF«lM.  Lowlaa.  1807;  W.  E.  GolliMi 
TU  B^gimmmgB  ml  Bm^iuk  Cknttimmig,  wUk  wpteUL  Bmh 
wnmtm  •»  tkm  Comimg  •/  SL  Aw§mtMmt,  Lowk».  1888;  W. 
Httiit,  Tkm  B^gluk  Chmtk  frmm  lU  Ftmmdwtim  to  A« 
Nmimmm  Comgumt.  tcmdom,  1808.  For  IrriMd:  J.  Lm- 
i^a,  ilm  BeeUmaakeai  Hiattnf  «f  /rdMil  I9  A«  TliiiMiiflb 
CmUmv,  4  Tok..  DaMia,  1820;  R.  Kii«.  A  Ftimw  •/ 
A«  i^Mory  •/  A«  Holy  CaAolie  Ckmdk  in  tnlmmd  to  §m 
FormatUm'fil^Modmn  BrmmA  0/  mm  Ckmnk  mf  Romm,2 
▼ok.  and  snpplMDeDt.  DaUtB,  1861;  idem.  A  Mmmmir 
IntndueiorwIoAmBmHvHittenf^mmFnameifmfArmmtk, 


UM;    GL  J.  GmiA. 
Kwdkm,  Ffobmi;  1867;   W.  D.  : 
Hiaitrwoflrd^ti,2^ 


KwAm  im  Mtlmmi.  3  ▼vfau  Mm 
T.  OUm.  7W  Cftwdk  «#  Irafa^  m  rw  jr^te 
Lomkm.  1802;    J.  Hcro^  7W  CrfKe  Clvdb  m  MWL 


DdUm.  10O6l    For 

faiid.  &.  Cftwdk  and  Crii^i;  3 


Cdib&d- 

Xv«*rM8dhi8> 
faiid.  2vola.  liiiii,  1881.  £«. 
aad  BOtai^  bj  D.  O.  H.  Blmr.  4  ▼vli 
1800:  H.M.fm*nrfc,  TkmCkmtkim I 
Umml  Ckmdkm^  Loadoa.  1883;  J. 
Ckvdkte&atfaad.Loadoa.l804:  W. 
mm  Bemmtk  Ckmnk,  2  vola,  i 
CbioBba  EvaH^  TW  JSW% 
1006  (daimo  orisiBal  Boowa  ■■jnwiij).  For  thi  Qi- 
dem:  W.  Ewvaa,  Thm  CwUmmmml  A«  BHIidk Mbidtm  n« 
AwP^i^Bimtmnf,  Dobiia.  18M;  flhma^  ul.  ppl  tX-lH; 
J.voaPteib-Hartaiv.  Dm  XaUMr,  ia  ZKO,  sir.  (MM) 
100-102.  Fvlkr  bibbocrapUm  maj  ba  f 
a.flL,  pp.  niL-xix.;  nilliAFim.  Jriand 
jgdboilfaad,  ppL  tu.-xt.;  aadOUcB,  pp.  4 


CBMETERIES.I 


I.  NammUmd  in  Early  Timm. 
II.  Cbrwtiaa  Bttrial  aad  |Barial-FlaeH 
iaGoaeral. 

1.  FnadamMital  Idoaa. 

2.  Pradawmors  of  the  C«Mt«rim. 

8.  DaTtflopmant  of  ^CamatariM  aad 

Tbair  Typaa. 
Origin  of   the  General    Cametery 

(ID. 
Period  of  the  Cataeomba  (|  2). 
Burial  In  Mauaoletuna  and  Cburehea 

(18). 
4.  Katahllahment  and  Admlnlatratkm 

of  Cemeteriea. 
VtHmtrrtm  H  1 ). 

AilrninliiirMfivii  OlfieUU  (|  2). 
6.  AfV|tii«ifiori,    I/m,  and    rrotection 

of  (Iravna. 
Vurthmim  ot  (Irnvtut  (§1). 
The  Hairui  Ciravn  Uaed  fur  Beveral 

IkNliAN  (I  2). 

Violation  of  Hravpfi  (|  3). 
0.  (^inimrrnoration  of  the   Dead   in 
tlie  Ometerieii. 


(ID. 


IIL 


n.  Plaaaadl 
la  tbe  Opoi  Air  (I  I). 

i(|2X 
1  Form  (I  SV 


a.  Hie  Oriental  Groop. 
Pyeatine  (|  1). 
Syria  (I  2). 
Mceopotamia  (|  8). 
Alia  Hinor  (I  4).   ' 
Eorpt  (I  5).       . 
Cyrenaiea  (|  0).  >^ 

b.  The  Weatem  Qroop. 
North  Africa  (|  1). 
Sicily  (I  2).  ^ 
MalU  (I  3).  ^ 
Meloa  (I  4).  \ 
Apulia  (I  6). 
Naplea  (|  6). 
Caatellamare  (|  7). 
Rome  (I  8). 

2.  Cemeteriea  Above  Ground. 


Ckjmeterica  is  a  term  used  to  designate  the  burial- 
plaoeH  of  the  early  ChriBtians,  including  the  sub- 
terranean burying-grounds  commonly  known  as 
catacombs. 

L  Names  Used  in  Early  Times :  Among  the  vari- 
ous titles  by  which  the  Christians  of  the  first  few 
centuries  designated  the  burial-places  of  their  dead, 
the  most  frequent  and  probably  the  oldest  is  the 
Greek  koimiUrion  or  the  equivalent  Latin  coRmer- 
terium.  It  is  not  found  in  the  Septuagint  or  in  the 
New  Testament,  but  the  verb  koimasthaiy  "  to  lie 
down  to  rest,"  "  to  sleep,"  occurs  in  both  the  literal 
and  the  metaphorical  sense,  usually  the  latter  in 
the  New  Testament  (metaphorical:  Matt,  xxvii. 
62;  Acts  vii.  60,  xiii.  36;  I  Cor.  vii.  39,  xv.  6,  18, 
20,  51;  I  Thess.  iv.  13;  II  Peter  iii.  4;  literal: 
Matt,  xxviii.  13;  Luke  xxii.  45;  Acts  xii.  6). 
While  the  word  koimitirUm  is  ot  rare  occurrence  in 
classical  Greek  (it  was  applied  by  the  Cretans, 
according  to  AthensBUs,  to  a  room  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  guests),  it  was  constantly  used  by 
both  Christians  and  Jews  for  single  and  family 
graves    and  for   larger  burying-grounds,  whether 


(§4). 
b.  T^pea  of  QravML 
The  Ordtnary  Grave  (|  1). 
The  Gorari^  of  tbe  Giafa  (f  S). 
BMeophaci  (I  3). 
Other  Baeeptadm  (|  4). 
IV.  Eqmpmant    aad     neeotalifiB    «f 
Tomba. 

1.  The  Grave  Iteelt 

a.  The  Interior. 
Ob  jecto  Fiertainitts  to  the  OspM 

(ID. 
Diapoaition  of  the  Oirpm  (|  2). 
GifU  to  the  Dead  (|  3). 

b.  Tbe  Exterior. 
Veeaela  for  Ucht  and  Inoemedl). 
Marka  of  IdenUfication  (|  2). 
Inacriptiona  and  Paintinsa  (i  3). 

2.  The  Chambera  and  PeamceiL 

above  ground  or  imder  ground.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  only  one  doubtful  case  of  its  use  in  a 
heathen  inscription  for  a  burial-place  {OIL,  riil 
7543),  against  thousands  in  which  other  terms  are 
used.  That  the  expression  was  recognised  as  a 
distinctly  Christian  and  Jewish  tenn  is  evident  from 
the  way  in  which  it  is  used  as  an  tinffmu'liar  tenn 
in  the  edicts  of  the  Roman  emperors  (Euaebius, 
Hist,  ecd.,  VII.  xi.  13).  Latin-speaking  ChristiaQa 
also  occasionally  employed  the  term  occu^ttortum, 
which  originally  meant  (from  the  Roman  habit  of 
reclining  at  table)  a  dining-room.  These  words 
show  their  connection  with  the  Christian  hope, 
which  saw  in  death  only  a  sleep.  Besides  these 
specifically  Christian  expressions,  the  inscriptioDS 
give  a  ntmiber  of  others,  of  a  more  general  nature. 
Besides  some  of  minor  importance,  there  is,  for 
example,  hypogctum  (or  in  one  place  Gk.  katagaum) 
to  designate  small  imdergroimd  burial-places  among 
both  Christians  and  pagans.  Modem  scholars  fre- 
quently employ  this  term  to  designate  imder- 
ground  burial-places,  no  matter  wluit  their  aiae 
or  arrangements.    The  word  area  is  also  found 


Ml 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


GeiaeteTie« 


among  the  Latin-speaking  rares,  especially  in 
North  Africa,  and  it  hiis  become  customary,  fol- 
lowing De  Rossi,  to  use  it  for  all  surface  burying- 
groimds  of  the  primitive  C^hurch.  The  name 
"  catacomb  **  is  more  recent  than  any  of  the  above- 
named,  but  has  come  into  more  general  ujse  to  desig- 
nate not  only  the  Bubterranean  biirial-piaces  of  the 
piimitive  Christians  but  frequently  aUo  those  of  the 
Jews  and  other  races.  It  m  first  met  with  in  con- 
nection with  the  drcufl  of  Maxentius  near  the 
Appian  Way  outside  of  Rome,  in  an  inscription 
which  has  the  phrase  fecit  €t  circum  in  cutecumbas, 
Aa  relating  to  a  ChriBtian  burial-place,  it  is  not 
demonstrable  before  the  year  Z54,  when  it  appeaiB 
aa  a  specific  designation  of  the  cemetery  of  St. 
Sebastian  on  the  Appian  Way;  to  wliich  it  was 
limited  for  centuries.  Johannes  EHaconus  is  the 
carUeat  evidence  for  its  apph cation  to  other  Chris- 
tian cemeteries,  outside  of  Rome  as  well  as  within. 
Familiar  as  the  word  now  is,  however,  there  is  no 
certainty  as  to  its  original  signification.  The  most 
probable  theory  is  that  of  De  Waal,  followed  by 
Schult2e,  that  the  circus  of  Maxentius  and  the 
cemetery  of  St.  Sebastian  were  called  i>i  catacumbas 
(Gk,  knta  kumbas,  "  in  the  ravine  '*)  liecause  of  the 
sudden  dip  which  the  land,  including  the  Appiao 
Way^  takes  at  that  point  into  a  deep  hollow. 
,  n*  Christian  Burial  and  Burial-Placcs  in  Generals 
*— 1.  Fundaiiietital  Idaaa:  The  burial  of  Christ  in 
the  garden  was  taken  as  the  model  for  that  of  his 
disciples.  The  fact  that  never  in  the  oldest  Chris- 
tian hterature  (including  the  New  Tefltament)  and 
not  often  later  is  a  prohibition  of  cremation  found, 
and  the  absence  of  traces  of  crematioo,  cinerary 
urns,  and  the  like^  demonstrate  that  burial  in  the 
earth  was  the  unwritten  law.  Based  originally 
upon  the  example  of  Christ,  it  was  supported  later 
by  reasoning  which  connected  the  resurrection  of 
the  body  more  or  less  with  its  burial.  Minucius 
Felix,  however,  prefers  burial  to  cremation  merely 
as  "the  older  and  better  custom*'  {Octavius,  xxxiv. 
11).  Augustitie  (De  civiiate  Dei,  i.  22;  De  cura 
pro  mortuia,  iii.,  etc.)  takes  burial  for  granted, 
and  BO  does  Origen  in  the  East  {Contra  Celsum^  v. 
23,  viii.  49;  De  principik,  ii.  10).  It  is  impossible 
to  decide  how  far  Christiana  of  the  Apostolic  Age 
were  buried  in  Jewish  and  pagan  graveyards;  but 
later  a  strict  hue  of  demarcation  was  drawn,  at 
least  as  early  as  Tertullian.  The  Christian  graves 
were  not  required  to  be  at  a  great  distance,  but 
there  was  to  be  a  distinct  interval  between  them 
and  the  heathen,  and  the  burial  of  indi^-idual  Chris- 
tians in  heathen  graveyards  was  strictly  forbidden, 
and  \ice  versa.  Primitive  Christianity  was  thus 
as  exclusive  in  death  as  in  its  worwhip  during  life. 

2.  Fr«deceaiors  of  the  Cemeteries:  While  Chris- 
tian antiquity  agreed  in  condemning  cremation,  it 
made  no  attempt  at  enforcing  uniformity  in  the 
manner  of  burial  Both  of  the  earlier  methods  of 
sepulture,  undjer  and  above  the  ground,  were  em* 
ployed.  The  choice  between  the  two  was  deter- 
mined partly  by  the  geological  conformation  of  the 
place,  though  perhaps  not  aa  largely  as  has  been 
usually  assumed.  Other  prev^ailitig  reasons  are  to 
be  sought  in  the  customs  of  pre-Christian  times  in 

tto  the  disposal  of  corpses.    That  the  early 
11—31 


Chri!?tians  should  have  undertaken,  in  the  absence 
of  any  definite  prt^acription,  to  Rtrikc  out  wholly 
new  lines  for  themselves  in  this  matter  is  unlikely, 
especially  since  they  ditl  not  attempt  this  in  the 
analogous  matter  of  the  construction  of  their  houses 
and  churches.  Naturally,  therefore,  they  adopted 
in  each  place  the  prevailing  local  custom — the 
Hebrew  Christians  of  Palestine  following  the  Jewish 
motle,  and  the  Gentile  Christiana  of  Sicily  that  ol 
their  pagan  neighbors.  The  fuller  our  knowledge 
grows  of  both  ancient  Christian  and  ancient  pagan 
burial-places*  the  more  clearly  is  this  theory  de- 
monstrated»  not  only  in  regard  to  the  choice  men- 
tioned above,  but  equally  in  regarti  to  the  shape, 
decoration,  and  equipment  of  the  sepulchers.  Thus 
it  may  be  remarked,  without  anticipating  too  much 
what  will  be  said  later,  that  private  vaults,  holding 
but  a  small  numl>er  of  bodies,  are  characteristic  of 
the  earliest  period  of  Christian  burial.  As  far  as 
itifjcriptions  and  other  indications  go,  these  were 
restricted  to  the  members  of  one  family,  its  friends, 
etc.,  with,  it  is  true,  the  addition  (as  in  the  familia 
of  the  imperial  period)  of  Christian  freedmen  and 
their  Christian  offspring.  It  is  not  yet  certain 
whether  so  early  as  this  (on  the  analogy  of  the  older 
Roman  and  later  Christian  custom)  individuals 
joinetl  together  in  associations  for  the  purpose  of 
pro\dding  a  common  burial-place.  In  a  word,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  primitive  Christians  followed 
Jewish  models  in  Palestine  and  pagan  elsewhere, 
almost  without  exception. 

3.  Development  of  Cemeteries  and  Their  Types: 
As  in  other  tilings,  so  here  Christianity  proved  itself 
a  religion  of  development;  and,  once  more  follow- 
ing the  general  rule,  this  development  was  more 
rapid  in  the  West  than  in  the  East.  To  take  but  a 
single  important  point,  the  development  from  the 
family  vault  to  the  general  cemetery,  the  East 
never  went  beyond  a  few  experiments,  and  bury- 
ing-grounds  for  the  whole  of  a  local  church  re- 
mained exceptional,  even  at  a  much  later  |>eriod. 
The  West,  on  the  other  hand,  while  it  began  with 
the  family  vault,  and  examples  of  this  form  persist 
through  the  whole  of  Christian  antiquity,  was  not 
long  in  adopting  the  large  common  cemetery.  The 
development  was  not  everywhere  equally  rapid; 
Sicily  was  least  alTected  by  it,  and  Rome  mo«t. 
By  the  third  century  the  common  cemetery  was 
the  rule  here. 

The  Roman  catacombs  mark  the  highest  point 
reached  in  the  development  of  ancient  Christian 
burial,  the  greatest  and  moat  speedy  advance  upon 
its  pre-Christian  prototy|jes  and  upon  its  own  begin- 
nings. The  most  striking  feature  of  this  is  not  the 
immense  extent  attaincii  by  the  wonderful  under- 
ground city,  but  the  motive  power  whicii  created  it 
^the  spirit  of  brotherly  love  and  esprit  de  corps. 
As  nearly  as  the  obscure  beginnings  can  be  traced, 
this,  rather  than   practical  considera- 

1.  Orlffin  lioQa  or  needs,  was  responsible  for  the 
**raf  C^o^  ^^^  extension  of  the  system.  Before 
*™tery^*'  the  advent  of  Christianity,  it  was  not 
uncommon  for  philanthropisU  to  pro- 
vide either  individuals  or  whole  classes,  principally 
among  the  poor,  with  burial-plaoes,  and  there 
was  nothing  in  itself  remarkable  about  Christians 


OeiiMtarlM 


THK   x\EW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


483 


being  inspired  with  the  same  benevolent  idea. 
But  the  earlier  instances  were  the  product  of  mere 
kindness  of  heart,  while  the  motive  of  the  Christian 
benefactions  was  distinctly  the  spirit  of  brotherhood. 
The  most  famous  among  those  who  thus  endowed 
the  oldest  Roman  church  was  a  member  of  the  im- 
perial family,  Flavia  Domitilla,  who  possessed  an 
estate  on  the  Via  Ardeatina,  of  which  she  allowed 
portions  to  be  used  for  burial.  The  largest  com- 
mon cemetery  of  Rome,  the  catacomb  which  bears 
her  name,  was  constructed  on  this  spot,  and  some 
of  her  own  relations  buried  in  it.  Other  Christians 
followed  her  example,  and  the  Church  as  a  whole, 
so  renowned  for  its  spirit  of  charity,  can  not  have 
been  idle  in  this  good  work. 

These  beginnings  date  from  the  second  century; 
the  third  is  the  great  epoch  of  subterranean  burial 
in  Rome;  and  the  new  development  ceased  there 
first,  as  it  had  begun  there.  It  is  true  that  new 
catacombs  were  established  in  the  fourth  century, 
such  as  that  of  St.  Felix  on  the  Via  Aurelia,  but 
their  niunber  and  extent  were  comparatively  insig- 
nifiisant.  Burial  on  the  surface,  previously  rare, 
increased  in  frequency  with  the  oessa- 

8.  Period  tion  of  persecution,  and  by  the  begin- 
of  the  ning  of  the  fifth  century  became  the 
Oataoomb*.  rule.  The  dated  inscriptions  give  an 
accurate  view  of  the  change:  if  their 
proportion  may  be  taken,  one-third  of  the  burials 
between  338  and  360,  half  between  364  and  369, 
two-thirds  between  373  and  400,  and  after  450 
all  those  who  died  were  buried  outside  the  cata- 
combs. This  striking  change  is  not  sufficiently 
explained  by  the  recognition  of  Christianity;  the 
decisive  change  does  not  coincide  with  the  date  of 
the  Exlict  of  Milan  (313),  and  both  in  Sicily  and  in 
Palestine  burial  continued  to  be  as  before — in  the 
former  on  the  surface,  in  the  latter  underground. 
It  may  perhaps  be  better  taken  as  merely  an  ex- 
pression of  the  general  consciousness  of  the  change 
in  the  Church's  position  during  the  century,  cor- 
responding to  the  change  which  has  been  noticed 
in  the  ideal  portrait  of  Christ  in  the  same  period 
(see  Jesus  Christ,  Pictures  and  Ibiaoes  ofX 

After  the  Roman  catacombs  ceased  to  be  burial- 
places,  they  were  by  no  means  deserted,  but  re- 
mained the  destination  of  pious  pilgrimages.  The 
veneration  of  the  martyrs  and  their  relics  received 
a  great  extension  in  the  fourth  century,  and  the  use 
of  the  ancient  burial-places  in  this  way  was  fur- 
thered by  the  restoration  of  the  passages  and  cham- 
bers and  the  opening  of  new  approaches  by  Pope 
Damasus.  A  number  of  fifth  and  sixth-century 
popes  followed  his  example.  The  old  chambers 
were  enlarged  into  chapels,  or  regular  basilicas 
were  established  in  the  catacombs  (Sant'  Agnete, 
San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura,  Santi  Nereo  ed  AclSleo). 

While  burial  either  in  catacombs  or  in  the  open 
ground  was  the  common  practise  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity, it  sometimes  took  place  in  mausoleiuns  or 
churches.  The  construction  of  churches  to  mark 
the  sepulchers  of  the  martyrs  and  render  them 
accessible  to  large  numbers  of  the  faithful  began 
soon  after  the  recognition  of  Christianity.  In 
churches  of  this  kind  burial  was  practised,  either 
by  graves  dug  in  the  earth  or  by  sarcophagi.    The 


principal  churches  used  in  this  way  in  Rome  were 
those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  St.  Laurence  and  St. 
Agnes  without  the  Walls,  and  St.  Pancreas,  in  and 
aroimd  which  large  numbers  of  Christians  wen 

buried  imtil  late  in  the  sixth  oentuxy. 

8.  Burial  in  ^   "^   ^^^    ^"^   three    centuries  tbB 

Kauflo-     Christians    had    respected    the   dyO 

leoma  and  ordinance  which  required  burial  out- 

Ohurohea.  gije  the  walls  of  cities,  the  fourth  wit- 

nessed  a  tendency  to  break  down  thoe 
restrictions.  In  Constantinople  this  took  pUoe 
about  381;  in  the  mean  while  the  relics  of  mictjn 
had  been  translated  to  the  churches  within  the 
city,  and  promoted  the  desire  of  othen  to  be  biuied 
in  their  neighborhood,  so  that  an  imperial  edict 
was  required  which  strictly  prohibited  such  intn- 
mwraX  burial.  Chrysostom,  however,  who  had 
sanctioned  this  restriction,  was  himself  buried  in  a 
church  in  Constantinople  in  438,  and  near  him  a 
number  of  persons  of  prominence.  The  increaang 
prevalence  of  the  practise  gradually  broke  through 
the  law;  in  Rome  there  were  intramural  burial- 
places  in  the  sixth  century — a  cemetery  on  the 
Esquiline  and  a  number  of  places  in  and  around  the 
churches  of  the  city,  though  the  solemn  translatioa 
of  the  relics  of  martyrs  from  the  cemeteries  outode 
to  the  city  churches  did  not  begin  till  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries. 

4.  Bstabliahment  and  Administration  of  Oem^ 
teriea:  The  same  spirit  of  love  which  watched  over 
not  only  the  poor  and  the  sick  but  also  the  dead  in 
the  primitive  Church  must  have  had  before  it  the 
problem  of  the  setting  apart  of  definite  officers  for 
the  care  of  this  part  of  its  work.  It  seems  probable 
that  as  early  as  C3rprian's  day  special  persons  were 
officially  charged  with  the  care  of  funerab.  Where 
vaults  were  hewn  out  of  the  rock  or  built  up  in 
masonry,  special  grave-diggers  were  not  required; 
but  the  laying  out  of  the  larger  catacombs  required 
the  services  of  technical  knowledge.  Thus  it  hap- 
pens that  next  to  nothing  is  heard  about  the  organ- 
izers of  cemeteries  before  the  reign  of  Constantine, 
and  in  and  aft^r  that  reign  more  in  the  'East  than 
in  the  West.  The  Roman  Church  had  no  special 
officials  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  but  at 
Cirta  in  North  Africa  as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian  fosaores  appear  as  the 
lowest   of   the   clerical   orders    (see   Fossariamb). 

Accordingly  they  came  to  be  reckoned 
1.  Foaaorea.  among  the  clerics  between  250  and 

350.  Outside  of  Africa  the  fouem 
are  sometimes  named  before  the  ostiarii.  Tlior 
function  was  to  dig  the  graves  and  act  as  custo- 
dians of  the  cemeteries.  In  the  catacombs  there 
are  a  number  of  pictures  which  show  them  at  their 
work;  here  they  are  evidently  of  a  higher  class  than 
mere  laborers.  In  view  of  the  complicated  nature 
of  their  task,  they  are  rather  to  be  compared  with 
architects.  They  seem  to  have  been  supported  at 
first,  like  other  church  officials,  from  the  free-will 
offerings  of  the  faithful;  but  a  number  of  fourth  and 
fifth-century  inscriptions  imply  that  they  received 
considerable  sums  from  the  sale  of  graves.  Thif 
sort  of  traffic  probably  led  to  abuses,  and  so  ulti- 
mately to  the  decline  of  the  order  as  an  order.  It 
seems  to  have  been  definitely  suppreesed  in  Bome 


M8 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Owneteriaa 


in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  Constant!- 
aofpHib  also  had  its  official  grave-diggen,  though 
bere  they  were  not  reckoned  among  the  clergy. 
ka  a  dasB  established  by  Constantine  and  added  to 
t>y  Anastasius,  they  attended  to  burials  without 
diaxge,  but  received  immunity  from  taxation  and 
>ther  privileges,  so  that  their  position  was  a  desir- 
ible  one,  and  coveted  even  by  well-to-do  trades- 
men. It  is  learned  from  Ambrose  ( MPL,  x vii.  745) 
that  in  the  church  of  Milan  the  whole  charge  of 
t>uriab  was  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  but  he  gives 
no  details. 

Eariier  and  fuller  information  is  extant  in  regard 
to  the  officials  who  had  the  administration  of  the 
cemeteries.  With  the  development  from  private 
vaults  to  burial-groimds  for  the  whole  local  church, 
this  naturally  came  within  the  bishop's  sphere  of 
influence.  He  would  of  course  deputize  some  of 
his  dergy  to  assist  him,  and  in  Rome  from  the  third 

centiuy   the   names   of   such   clerics 

2.  Admin-  appear  as  administrators  of  the  com- 

iatratlve    mon  burying-groimd;    the  first  who 

OflloiaU.    can   be  positively  identified  was  in 

deacon's  orders.  The  Liber  ponHfi- 
ealis,  in  its  account  of  Pope  Dionysius  (259-268), 
implies  that  each  of  the  titular  or  parish  churches 
of  Rome  had  one  cemetery  specially  assigned  to  it, 
and  that  the  priest  of  each  church  had  the  oversight 
of  the  corresponding  cemetery.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  centiuy,  the  growth  of  the  local 
ehurch  required  an  enlargement  of  the  number, 
and  a  redistribution  was  made  (again  according  to 
the  Liber  poniificalis)  by  Pope  Marcellus  (308-300). 
Assistants  of  the  parish  priest  in  this  matter  were 
those  called  from  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  prce- 
panH,  who  had  charge  of  the  more  important 
cemeteries,  and  the  mannonarii,  who  had  charge  of 
the  less  important  burial-places.  The  prcBjxmti 
of  the  catacomb  of  St.  Calixtus,  which  was  not 
classed  with  the  others,  and  of  St.  Peter's,  St. 
Paul's,  and  St.  Laurence's,  were  subject  not  to 
parish  priests  but  directly  to  the  pope. 

6.  Aoq:oisition,  Use,  and  Protection  of  Ohraves: 
In  Christian  antiquity  graves  were  acquired  and 
prepared  as  in  pre-Christian  times,  either  by  pur- 
chase or  gift,  and  in  the  lifetime  of  the  destined 
occupant  or  at  death.    People  provided  their  rel- 
atives, friends,  and  servants  with  graves  by  their 
wills  or  by  deed  of  gift.    The  only  innovation  is 
that  which  has  been  already  remarked,  that  local 
churches  provided,  burial-places  for  the  poor  out 
of  the  common  fimds.    Both  single  graves  and 
faunily  vaults  were  frequently  purchased,  and  the 
1   Pur      '^^^^  o^  ^^®  transaction  sometimes 
^jj^^^  Jf   occupy  more  space  than  the  funeral 
Q^n^r^^n-     inscription  proper,  giving  the  names 

of  buyer,  seller,  and  witnesses,  the 
price  and  location  of  the  grave.  In  some  of  the 
Boman  inscriptions,  probably  relating  only  to  par- 
ticular churches,  the  permission  of  the  pope  is 
mentioned.  In  cases  where  the  purchase-price  is 
mentioned,  though  it  may  have  included  the  cost  of 
construction,  it  seems  in  some  instances  to  be  ex- 
cessive, and  the  faasorea  are  likely  to  have  driven  a 
good  bargain,  especially  for  places  near  the  tombs 
of  the  martyrs,  for  which  there  was  an  increasing 


demand.  Gregory  the  Great  set  his  face  against 
the  selling  of  graves,  but  after  his  death  the  system 
seems  to  have  revived.  Though  the  question  can 
not  be  positively  decided,  it  seems  that  in  Chris- 
tian antiquity  the  practise  of  providing  a  burial- 
place  during  life  was  more  common  in  the  East 
than  in  the  West,  and  during  the  period  after  Con- 
stantine than  that  before. 

A  passage  in  Tertullian  (De  anima,  li.)  and  the 
decrees  of  certain  councils  against  the  crowding  of 
bodies  on  top  of  one  another  or  close  together  has 
led  many  archeologists  to  believe  that  in  the  primi^ 
tive  Church  each  Christian  had  a  grave  to  himself. 
But  this  view  is  untenable,  as  b  shown  especially 
by  the  excavations  of  Paolo  Orsi  in  the  cemeteries 
of  Sicily,  where  he  frequently  found  more  than  one 
body  in  a  grave,  and  in  one  case  as  many  as  eighteen. 
Even  in  Rome,  where  more  respect 
2.  The  yfgjn  pai(j  ^  the  dead,  the  inscriptions 
®^**®^^^not  seldom  show  that  an  old  grave 

Savena'    ^^  ^^^^  again  for  fresh  interments. 

Bodies.  ^^®  original  tablet  being  reversed  and 
made  to  bear  the  name  of  the  new 
tenant.  The  practise  seems  to  have  originated 
and  to  have  been  carried  on  with  the  least  scruple 
in  the  East,  where  as  early  as  the  third  century 
measures  had  to  be  taken  against  the  violators  of 
graves,  not  merely  those  who  opened  them  for  the 
purpose  of  interring  more  corpses,  but  some  even 
who  did  not  shrink  from  robbing  them. 

The  custom  of  putting  an  inscription  on  a  tomb 
to  guard  it  from  profanation  is  very  old,  and  on 
the  other  hand  was  common  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  Christian  inscriptions  of  this  kind  warn  those 
who  read  them  most  frequently  and  expressly 
against  the  use  of  the  grave  for  burial  by  unau* 
thorized  persons;  but  the  writings  of  fourth-cen- 
tuiy  Fathers  and  the  edicts  of  Christian  emper- 
ors in  the  same  period  show  that  this  was  not 
the  only  danger  feared.  Gregory  Nazianzen  has 
left  more  than  eighty  epigrams  directed  against 
grave-robbers,  and  John  Ch^rsostom  was  obli^  to 
scourge  this  abuse  again  and  again  in 
tlon^of '    ^®  sermons.     A  startling  fact  is  that 

Q^^^^g^  the  Christian  inscriptions  affixed  to 
graves  as  a  protection  seem  to  be 
addressed  mainly  to  Christians,  if  one  may  judge 
from  their  appeals  to  God  and  the  last  judgment. 
In  all  the  principal  sections  of  the  ancient  Church 
niunerous  inscriptions  are  found  which  threaten 
violators  of  tombs  either  with  secular  or  with 
divine  penalties,  or  with  both;  but  they  are  no- 
where so  niunerous  as  in  Phrygia  and  the  adjoining 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  This  frequency  may  be 
explained  partly  by  the  open  and  comparatively 
unprotected  nature  of  the  cemeteries  there,  al- 
though such  inscriptions  are  found  also  in  the 
Roman  and  Sicilian  catacombs;  but  it  is  probably 
due  more  largely  to  the  pre-Christian  tradition  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  pagan  inscriptions  of  the  kind 
were  very  niunerous — ^while  in  Rome,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  are  equally  rare  among  pagans  and 
Christians.  Secular  rulers  imposed  heavy  penal- 
ties upon  violators  of  graves;  they  were  excluded 
from  profiting  by  the  usual  Easter  indulgences,  and 
their  wives  were  allowed  to  get  a  divorce  from  them. 


OaoMterlM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HEBZOG 


484 


Nor  was  the  Church  behindhand  in  warning  and 
punishing  offenders.  But  the  evil  was  so  deeply 
rooted  that  in  spite  of  all  these  measures  it  lasted 
much  longer  than  Christian  antiquity. 

6.  Oommemoratlon  of  the  Dead  in  the  Oemeteriee: 
Besides  the  solemnities  of  interment,  the  primitive 
Church  had  a  ntmiber  of  arrangements  for  the  sub- 
sequent commemoration  of  the  dead.  The  earliest 
recorded  is  the  annual  commemoration  at  the  grave 
of  Polycarp  on  the  day  of  his  martyrdom  (Marty- 
Hum  Polycarpi,  xviii.).  In  the  time  of  Tertullian 
it  was  customary  in  Africa  to  celebrate  the  anni- 
versary of  the  death  of  other  Christians  (Z)e  corona, 
iii.;  be  monogamia,  x.;  cf.  also  Apostolic  Con- 
MtUtUuma,  ym.  42;  Cyprian,  Epiat.,  zxxix.3).  Other 
commemorations  took  place  on  the 
1.  Various  third,  seventh,  ninth,  thirtieth,  and 
Oomxnemo-  fortieth  days  after  death  or  burial, 
rations.  As  has  been  seen  in  regard  to  the  mode 
of  burial,  so  here  also  these  variations 
may  be  referred  to  the  influence  of  pre-Christian 
local  customs,  whether  Jewish  or  pagan.  Thus 
Ambrose  (De  obUu  Theodosii,  iii.)  ascribes  the  cele- 
bration of  the  thirtieth  day  to  the  example  of 
Deut.  xxxiv.  8  and  of  the  fortieth  to  Gen.  1.  3;  and 
Augustine  {QucutionM  in  Heptatettchum,  i.  172) 
shows  the  pagan  origin  of  the  ninth  by  objecting 
to  it  as  reminding  people  of  the  Roman  novendial 
and  being  without  Biblical  precedent. 

The  place  of  these  commemorations  is  not  always 
mentioned  in  the  early  authorities.  Those  de- 
scribed in  the  Martyrittm  Polycarpi  and  the  early 
Gnostic  Acta  Joannia  took  place  at  the  sepulcher. 
What  may  be  inferred  from  the  latter  to  have  been 
the  practise  of  the  Christians  of  Asia  Minor  is 
shown  by  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  to  have  pre- 
vailed also  in  Africa — the  celebration  of  the  Eucha- 
rist in  connection  with  these  observances.  By 
this  sacred  feast,  which  consolingly  united  the 
living  with  those  who  had  gone  before,  the  memorial 
ceremonies  acquired  a  specifically  Christian  char- 
acter. Later  it  came  to  be  surrounded 
by  a  number  of  other  ceremonies.     Of 


2.  Oere- 
monlea  of 


Oommemo-  *^®®®  ^^®  ^"*  ^  come  up  was  a  meal, 
ration.  ^^^  ^^®  ancient  agape  but  one  par- 
taken of  in  the  ordinary  way  as  simple 
nourishment.  These  feasts  on  the  anniversaries 
of  the  saints  led  to  abuses  and  excesses  which  are 
frequently  rebuked  by  the  Fathers,  especially  in 
Africa,  but  also  at  Milan  and  in  Rome.  Offenses 
not  merely  against  temperance  but  against  morality 
seem  to  have  taken  place  on  these  occasions  in  the 
East,  according  to  Chrysostom,  and  also  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  centuiy  in  Spain,  where  a 
council  legislates  against  them.  In  fact,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  pagan  dies  parentales  and  femoralia 
continued  to  be  felt,  as  was  clearly  the  view  of 
Ambrose  and  Augustine  when  they  endeavored 
to  regulate  such  customs,  and  especially  to  abolish 
anything  which  could  seem  like  the  heathen  custom 
of  offering  food  and  drink  to  the  dead  (Augustine, 
De  moribus  ecdesice  catholica,  i.  34;  Confessiones, 
vi.  2;  and  a  canon  of  the  Second  Synod  of  Tours, 
667).  These  authorities,  however,  do  not  raise 
any  objection  to  other  survivals  of  pre-Christian 
customs,  such  as  the  offering  of  balsam  and  other 


sweet-smelling  spices,  which  were  frequently  poured 
into  the  grave  in  liquid  form,  through  specially  pie- 
pared  openings  such  as  are  still  to  be  seen  in  one  of 
Orsi's  discoveries  in  the  catacombs  of  Syracuse,  sad 
at  San  Paolo  fuori  le  Mura  in  Rome.  Incense  was 
also  used.  It  was  a  common  practise  todeck  the 
graves  with  flowers,  and  li^ts  were  sometimes 
burned,  though  this  was  forbidden  by  the  Synod 
of  Elvira  on  the  singular  groimd  that  "  the  ^irits 
of  the  saints  are  not  to  be  (Bsturbed.''  This  custom 
is  evidenced  by  the  large  ntmibers  of  small  lamps 
found  in  the  catacombs,  either  placed  in  niches  or 
fastened  to  the  walls,  which  can  hardly  have  been 
intended  merely  for  lifting  the  dark  passages. 

nL  Arrangement,  Structure,  and  Grave-Fonna- 
tion  of  the  Cemeteries:  In  the  oonsideration  of 
these  points,  the  geogn^hical  divisioQ  is  evidently 
the  right  one;  but  lack  of  space  will  allow  it  to  be 
carried  out  only  in  the  description  of  the  8ubte^ 
ranean  burial-places,  while  a  generic  dassificatioD 
will  have  to  be  adopted  for  those  above  ground 

1.  Bnbtarrsmean  Borial-Plaoae.  a.  The  Oriental 
Oroup  (Asia  Minor,  the  Crimea,  Lower  Egypt,  and 
Cyrenaica):  Palestine  is  rich  in  tombs  hollowed 
out  of  the  rock,  more  or  less  reminding  the  belxrfder 
of  the  sepulcher  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxiiL,  zzr.  9). 
There  has  not  been  sufficient  scientific  investiga- 
tion into  their  origin  and  age  to  enable  an  aocorate 
distinction  to  be  drawn  between  Jewish  and  Qiris- 
tian  tombs  in  the  individual  instances.  Either 
naturally  perpendicular  or  artificially  filled-out 
walls  of  rock  were  dug  into  horiiontally,  or,  where 
such  were  difficult  of  attainment,  an  excavation 
was  made  downward  in  suitable  rocky  ground, 
into  which  a  flight  of  steps  or  a  ladder  led  down. 
Places  for  single  or  family  graves  were  excavated 
horizontally,  with  a  low  and  narrow  door  to  each, 

closed  with  a  stone,  often  cylindrical 
ti       *"    "^  ^OJ"™'     ^  the  single  graves  a  sort 

of  niche,  or  sometimes  two,  were 
chiseled  out,  at  the  base  of  which,  on  the  semblance 
of  a  couch,  the  corpse  was  laid,  wrapped  in  doths 
without  a  coffin.  A  variant  or  development  of  this 
was  the  hollowed-out  grave,  corresponding  to  the 
arcosolium  of  the  Roman  catacombs,  allowing  the 
body  to  be  laid  in  an  excavation  resembling  a  coffin. 
The  best^known  single  graves  in  Palestine  are  those 
called  the  tombs  of  Absalom  and  of  Zechariah  at 
Jerusalem  and  a  number  of  tombs  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Valley  of  Hinnom.  The  family  tombs 
present  the  same  forms,  and  later  frequent  instances 
are  found  of  another  kind,  in  which  the  excavation 
in  the  walls  is  shaped  so  as  to  allow  the  body  to  be 
pushed  in  head  or  feet  foremost;  of  these  a  large 
number  have  been  found  in  Palestine.  This  latter 
class  may  be  taken  to  be  exclusively  Jewish  in 
origin,  and,  where  they  are  found  in  coimection 
with  indisputably  Christian  graves,  it  is  commonly 
assumed  that  the  Christians  merely  appropriated 
them.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Jewish  Christians 
also  used  the  hollowed-out  and  the  vertically  sunk 
graves.  An  interesting  burial-place  with  the  latter 
type  of  grave  is  that  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  which 
in  more  than  one  particular  differs  from  the  normal 
arrangement  in  Palestine,  and  probably  belongs  to 
a  comparatively  late  period  of  Christian  antiquity. 


185 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCL0PEDL4 


Cemeteriei 


^Elsewhere  in  the  country,  even  down  to  the  fifth 

sixth  ccnturiea,  the  original  character  of  both 

agle  and  family  tombs  was  preserved. 

Syria  offers  a  considerable  number  both  of  an- 

|rient  church  biiildingB  and  of  ancient  cemeteries^ 

3th  above  and  below  ground,  and  a  type  which  is 

combination  of  the  two,  at  onoe  hollowed  out  in 

rock  and  built  over  above.     The  openings  to 

subterranean  burial-places  are  either  vertical 

9T  horixontaJ.     In  the  former  case  they  are  covered 

by  a  stone  like  the  lid  of  a  sarcophagits,  or  some- 

timcH  by  a  roof  with  columns  or  a 

2.  Syria,    complete  chamber;    in   the  latt«r,   a 

door  leads  directly  into   them   by  a 

(flight  of  8t«p8,  or  one  parses  first  through  a  portico 

[or  anteroom.     The  inner  space,  usually  rectangu- 

flar,  has  in  most  cases  two  or  three  hollo  wed-out 

f  and  vaultetl  graves,  each  along  one  wall;  six  is  the 

[largest  number  citeil  by  De  Vogud-     The  cofEn- 

[ehaped  place  for  the  body  is  generally  coven?d,  not 

I  by  a  slab,  but  by  a  heavy  stone  shaped  like  the 

liarched  aarcopbagua-lids.     The  principal  dilTerence 

Ibetween    the    known    Christian    burial-plaees    of 

6>'Tia   (mostly   fifth   century,   to  judge  from   the 

inscriptions)   and    their  pagan   prototypes  is   the 

almost    uni%'ersal   choice   of   t!ie   arcosoHum    form 

Hmong  those  used  in  pre-Christian  times. 

The  cemeteries  of  Mesopotamia  seem  to  corre- 

I  ppond  in  their  main  features  to  thoae  of  central 

Syria,    including    structures    wholly    or    partially 

kiabove  ground  and  excavations  in  the  rock.     An 

Ditant  necropolis  is  that  outaide  the  walls  of 

atina    in    northern    Mesopotamia,    above 

[ground,     containing    nearly     2,000    graves.     The 

subl^rranean    burial-places    seem    to 

'        '        'have    been    mostly    connected    with 

ancient  stonc-q names ,   and  some  of 

hem   are    more   extensive    than  the  similar  ones 

Syria,  though    numerous    smaller    ones    have 

f  been  found. 

The  best-known  early  Chriatian  cemeteries 
I  in  .A^ia  Minor  are  in  the  extreme  eoutheast- 
I  em  provinces  of  Isauria  and  Cilieia,  of  wluch 
I  the  former  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  explored  by 
i  L*  Duchesne,  Near  the  ancient  Scleucia  (now 
( Selefkeh)  are  numerous  rectangular  chambers  at 
I  irregular  distances  from  each  other,  excavated  in 
I  soft  limes tf me  and  entered  by  doors.  They  con- 
\  tain  from  three  to  ten  graves  apiece,  somewhat 
[  like  armfiob'a,  but  standing  out  further  from  the 
I  walls.  Rock-chambers  and  isolated  arcosolia  are 
also  found  near  the  \illage  of  Li  baa,  and  many 
I  isolated  coffins  were  scattered  around  three  basil- 
icas at  Mout,  the  ancient  Claudiopolis,  as  well  as 
I  graves  dug  straight  down  and  covered  with  stone 
slabs.  Anazarbe  in  Cilieia  baa  a 
large   necroj>oLis   dating   from  a   late 


4.  Asia 
MiJ^or. 


period  of  Christian  antiquity,  in  which 
fbotb  rock-chambera  and  rock-coffina  are  found*  as 
I  also    at    Elieussa*     A    still    larger    cemetery   w^as 
I  probably  that  of  Cotykoa  (now  Ghorigi"*),  where 
chambers  are  excavated  in  the  rock,  sometimes  in 
I  several  line8  one  akmvn  another.     These  seem  to 
h&ve  been  all   for  famihea  or  small  grou^is.     AU 
about  the  ni;ighborLng  liills  are  large  isolated  sar- 
cophagi with  saddle^back  covera.     In  Fisidia,  at 


Temiessoa,  there  are  burial-chambers  which  the 
crosses  show  to  have  been  Christian.  Since  Arme- 
nia has  Christian  rock-tombs  at  Arabissoa  (now 
Yarpuz),  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  intervening 
province  of  Cappadocia  will  yet  furnish  some  ex- 
amples. It  is  possible  that  the  lack  of  interest  tiith- 
erto  shown  in  the  Christian  cemeteries  of  Asia  Minor 
is  due  to  the  close  resemblance  between  them  and 
the  pagan  burial-places;  and  e^ndence  is  not  lack- 
ing to  support  the  theory  that  a  considerable 
number  which  have  heretofore  been  classed  aa 
pagan  will,  upon  further  investigation ,  be  proved 
to  be  Christian. 

Accurate  modern  scientific  investigation  of  the 
Christian  sepulchral  remains  of  Egypt  has  borne 
no  proportion  to  the  importance  of  the  northern  part 
of  that  country  in  the  eariy  Church,  and  the  ques- 
tion must  be  here  difleusaed  principally  from  the 
e\'i deuces  to  be  found  in  Alexandria,  Among  the 
catacombs  to  which  access  was  gained  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  best  known  is  that  discovered 
in  185B,  lying  near  the  Scrape um  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  ancient  city.  A  flight  of  8te{>8 
leads  down  into  a  squart^  anteroom,  with  a  semi- 
circular niche  adjoining  it  on  the  west  side,  and 
two  burial-chambers  extending  out  from  it.  One 
of  these  h  long  and  narrow,  vaulted  above,  and 
containing   thirty-two   tombs   of   the 

5.  Effypt.  kind  into  which  the  bofiy  is  pushed 
head  or  feet  first.  The  other,  smaller 
and  square,  has  three  hollo  wed-out  graves,  one  on 
each  side,  and  another  sunk  in  the  floor.  That 
these  were  used  by  Christians  is  demonstrated  by 
paintings  and  inscriptions,  though  more  recent  in 
date  than  the  construction.  N^routsos,  the  most 
thorough  student  of  the  Alexandrian  catacombs^ 
mentions  another,  discovered  in  1876^  which  he 
believes  to  be  Christian.  In  this  the  anteroom 
resembles  a  Greek  or  Roman  (tdicula^  though  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  are  decorated  with  lotus- 
flowers  instead  of  acanthus-leaves.  The  oblong 
burial-chamber  leading  out  of  this  has  on  three 
sides  rows  of  gra%'es  of  the  kind  described,  at  right 
angles  with  the  wall,  one  above  another,  to  the 
niunber  of  fifty-four  These  cemeteries  were 
probably  family  burixd-placea,  serving  for  more 
than  one  generation.  The  pagans  and  Jews  of 
Alexandria  undoubtedly  began  with  this  system, 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Christiana 
did  not  always  adhere  to  it. 

Cyrenaica  contains  a  great  number  of  burial- 
places  hollowed  out  in  the  rock,  both  pagan  and 
Christian,  esjiecially  in  the  old  capital  city;  but 
they  have  not  been  explored  with  sufficient  com- 
pleteness and  accuracy  to  allow  the  formation  of 
definite  conclusions.  As  far  as  can  be  determined, 
most  of  the  burial-places  of  Cyreno  are  excavated 
in  the  side  of  ijcrpendicular  cUffs  near  the  city. 
Only  a  few  of  them  give  positive  evidence  of  Chris- 
tian use,  though  there  is  reason  to  think  that  these 
are  not  all.     A  great  variety  of  methods  appears, 

^   _,  including    movable    and    immovable 

'    . V_  *    stone     sarcophagi,     artmoliat     loculi, 

graves  sunk  in   the   floor,  and  long^ 

narrow  holes  in  the  cliff  in  which  the  dead  were  laid 

one  above  another,  separated  by  horizontal  alatM. 


CtaBMtwriMi 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


486 


The  areosolia  show  oonmderable  artistic  feeling, 
and  where  the  vaulted  roof  occurs  it  resembles  not 
a  little  the  vaulting  of  the  apse  in  early  churches, 
like  which,  again,  it  is  often  painted.  In  these 
catacombs  several  chambers  are  sometimes  united 
to  form  a  larger  whole,  evidently  serving  for  more 
than  one  family,  and  in  one  case  it  is  possible  to 
conclude  with  certainty  that  it  was  a  conmion 
burial-place  for  the  Christian  community.  In  this 
particular  alone  the  Christians  of  Cyrenaica  devel- 
oped beyond  their  predecessors,  whom  they  followed 
only  in  the  variety  of  shapes  used  for  the  graves, 
b.  The  Western  Oroap:  Even  if  the  assumption 
frequently  made  that  there  were  no  subterranean 
cemeteries  in  North  Africa  is  abandoned,  it  is  true, 
at  least,  that  they  have  but  little  significance  com- 
pared with  the  large  niunber  in  the  open  air  or  in 
and  near  buildings  above  ground.  There  seem 
really  to  be  but  two  subterranean  burial-places  to 
consider.  One  at  Tipasa  has  ten  adjoining  cham- 
bers dug  out  of  the  rock  of  the  foot- 

1.  North    hills.    The     chamber,     trapezoid     in 
Afrioa.     form,    approximately    ten    feet    by 

nine,  has  an  arcoaolium  on  each  of 
three  sides  and  three  graves  dug  in  the  floor,  ap- 
parently covered  with  flat  slabs.  Gavault,  its 
discoverer,  compares  it  with  some  chambers  in  the 
Roman  catacombs,  but  it  is  more  analogous  to 
the  Oriental  and  Sicilian.  The  other  cemetery, 
discovered  in  1885,  is  at  Arch-Zara.  The  accessible 
portion  is  elliptical  in  shape,  terminating  in  a  sort 
of  apse.  Four  parallel  passages,  the  longest  about 
eighty-eight  yards,  crossed  by  others  at  right 
angles,  are  found  in  it.  In  the  walls  of  these  gal- 
leries are  placed  loculi,  closed  by  slabs  of  brick.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  the  place  extends  further  in, 
or  even  that  there  is  a  second  level  below  the  one 
which  has  been  excavated. 

The  cemeteries  of  Sicily  surpass  in  number  those 
of  any  other  province  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and 
show  more  varied  forms  than  even  Rome  itself  can 
offer.  Each  of  the  races  which  successively  ruled 
the  island  brought  its  own  customs  with  it,  while 
none  was  strong  enough  to  enforce  them  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  old.  In  dealing  with  the  problem 
of  sepulture,  Christianity  had  a  number  of  methods, 
both  aboriginal  and  mixed,  to  choose 

2.  Sicily,    from,  and  needed  only  to  adopt  or 

adapt.  Nor  was  it  limited  to  Sicilian 
types;  the  many  ties  which  connected  the  island, 
even  in  Christian  times,  with  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Egypt,  North  Africa,  and  Rome  rendered  it  pos- 
sible for  still  other  architectural  types  to  find  an 
entrance.  The  geological  formation  of  the  island 
favored  the  excavation  of  subterranean  burial- 
places.  Limestone  and  tufa  abound,  the  latter 
usually  of  firmer  substance  than  the  tufa  granu- 
lar c  of  the  neighborhood  of  Rome. 

The  first  stage  in  the  development  is  formed  by 
the  family  vaults,  of  which  the  simplest  show  a 
square,  oblong,  or  trapezoid  form  with  graves  in 
the  walls,  usually  of  the  arcaaolium  or  loculua  type. 
Next,  the  small  vault  developed  into  a  hall,  from 
which  recesses  ran  o£f  on  each  side,  usually  shaped 
like  a  bell  or  a  flower-pot,  though  sometimes  square, 
with  :in  opening  at  the  top  for  light  and  air.     Struc- 


tures based  upoa  older  dstema  are  eoofined  to  the 
vicinity  of  Girgenti,  and  tombs  with  a  btldadun 
covering,  to  eastern  Sidly  and  Malta.  Some  of 
these  stand  free  from  the  walls  with  the  eovering 
supported  by  pillars  on  all  sides,  like  the  ciboriam 
of  an  altar;  othes  are  supported  from  one  ade 
on  pillars,  and  from  the  otlier  connect  with  the 
wall.  In  the  eastern  part  are  some  with  deeoratiTe 
facades  in  front  either  of  a  single  grave  or  of  a 
group,  furnished  with  doors  and  windows. 

The  main  diflferenoes  in  structure  depend  upon 
the  size  of  the  cemetery.  The  galleries  of  the  lufgst 
catacombs  were  laid  out  with  one  or  more  main 
alleys  and  a  number  of  smaller  ones  running  acnw 
or  parallel  to  them.  The  passages  are  as  a  rule 
comparatively  wide,  much  wider  than  in  Rome. 
Occupying  an  intennediate  position  between  pas- 
sages and  chambers  are  the  recesses,  as  wide  as  or 
wider  than  the  corridors,  but  shorter.  These  are 
met  with  frequently  in  Sicily,  and  often  contain 
(besides  other  types  of  graves)  sarcophagi,  som^ 
times  arranged  in  terraces.  Where  chambers  occur 
in  the  large  catacombs,  they  are  connected  with 
the  galleries,  and  are  in  shape  square,  oblong,  trap- 
ezoid, or  circular,  the  last  bdng  especially  pre- 
ferred in  the  principal  catacombs  of  Syracuse. 
The  rectangular  ones  have  either  a  flat  or  a  vaulted 
roof,  the  dreular  are  often  covered  with  a  ciq)ola, 
with  an  opening  in  the  top  for  light  and  air.  Where 
the  size  was  sufiiciently  great  to  admit  the  pos- 
sibility of  a  fall  of  the  roof,  this  was  guarded  against 
by  the  construction  of  pillars  out  of  the  solid  rock 
or  by  the  erection  of  columns.  The  corridors  and 
chambers  are  sometimes  all  pn  one  level,  some- 
times in  different  stories. 

The  variety  of  grave-forms  is  even  greater  than 
that  of  the  general  structure.  In  most  places  the 
commonest  type  is  the  arcosoliumf  sometimes 
double,  one  above  another.  Single  graves  are 
found  relatively  seldom;  usually  several  occur  in 
a  row  (up  to  fifteen  or  even  more)  imder  the  same 
vaulted  roof.  In  Sicily  loculi  are  much  leas  com- 
mon than  arcosoliaf  and  where  they  are  numerous 
certain  corridors  contain  them  almost  exclusively 
for  children.  The  "  table-tomb  "  and  the  grave  at 
right  angles  with  the  wall  are  rare.  Sarcophagi. 
on  the  other  hand,  were  common,  either  cut  out  of 
the  natural  stone,  built  up  with  masonwork,  or 
made  of  better  material,  such  as  marble;  and  so 
were  graves  sunk  in  the  floor  of  chambers,  recesses, 
and  galleries,  to  the  extent  of  forming  a  character- 
istic of  the  Sicilian  cemeteries.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  all  the  Sicilian  catacombs  was  that  of  San 
Giovaimi  near  Syracuse,  which  in  extent  and  siril- 
ful  laying  out  surpasses  even  the  Roman. 

In  Malta  most  of  the  ancient  cemeteries  lie  near 
the  capital,  in  the  neighborhood  of  CarthBginian 
burial-places.  Where  the  sides  of  rocky  diffs 
were  accessible,  the  excavations  were  horiiontal. 
vertical  in  the  flat  country.  Some  of  these  have 
nothing  but  galleries,  others  nothing  but  chambeis- 
As  a  rule,  the  galleries  are  few  and  short,  their 
height  that  of  a  man.  Among  the  grave-forms  is 
one  which  so  far  has  not  been  found  outside  of 
Malta,  knoT^n  for  convenience  as  the  "  oven-grave." 
This  is  an  opening  in  the  wall  at  a  greater  or  les^ 


distance  from  the  floor,  with  the  bottom  and  sides 
titraigiil,  and  the  top  in  the  nhape  of  either  an  arch 
or  a  shell,  or  sometimes  straight.  These  external 
parts  are  carefully  constructed  and  decora ted^  often 
with  pilastcra  in  the  front;  at  the  back  ia  a  rec- 
tangular opening  which  gives  access  to  the  length 
of  a  grave  uaimlly  for  twOt  less  often  for  one  or  three 
bodies.  These  graven  are  generally  arranged  in 
a  row;  in  the  catacomb  of  Tal-Liebru 

3.  Malta,    there  are  two  rows,  one  above  the 

other.  This  peculiar  form  can  hardly 
be  of  Christian  origin,  but-  is  rather,  as  Mayr  haa 
Bhowii.  tlie  development  of  a  type  used  by  the 
Pheniciiin  population  of  the  island.  In  a  number 
of  burial-places  it  is  the  only  form  used,  in  others 
it  appears  concurrently  with  the  more  usual  types, 
among  which  the  arcosolium  is  the  most  frequent. 
Both  in  the  oven-graves  and  in  the  others  a  head- 
rest with  a  semicircular  depression  is  common. 
The  Maltese  cemeteries,  most  of  which  date  from 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  are  as  a  rule  small, 
and  must  hiive  served  for  families  or  otiier  small 
groups.  Only  a  single  catacomb  is  known  on  the 
neighboring  island  of  Gozzo. 

Near  the  vilhigp  of  Trypiti  in  Melos*  surrounded 
by  pagan  tombs,  is  a  Christian  necropolis  unques- 
tionably usi?d  as  early  as  the  fourth  century^  com- 
posetl  originally  of  five  sepamtc  catacombs,  four 
of  which  were  afterw^ard  connected;  antl  it  is  prob- 
able that  others  still  lie  concealed  in  the  vicinity. 
The  oldest,  that  in  the  middle,  consists  of  a  broud 
main  gallery  and  several  side  corri- 

4.  Melos*    dors.     The     width    of    the    galleries 

varies  from  3  ft.  3  in.  to  16  ft,  4  in., 
ihe  height  from  4  ft.  7  in.  to  7  ft,  6  in.  The  walla 
contain  areosotia  with  semicircular  arches  and  a 
few  loculi,  and  there  are  graves  sujik  in  the  floor 
of  all  the  passages,  usually  in  pairs.  The  three 
undoubtedly  Christian  catacombs  liave  no  cham- 
bers, but  the  other  two,  winch  are  probably  Chris- 
tian, have  them.  Bayet  coimtcd  150  arcosolia 
and  sixty-six  sunk  graves  in  the  whole  five. 

Far  as  Melos  and  Apulia  are  from  each  other, 
it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  closer  affinity  between 
types  of  catacombs  than  exists  between  these  just 
describeri  and  those  of  Venosa,  of  which  the  one 
most  fully  studied  is  apparently  of  Jewish  origin. 
Here  again  one  finds  the  same  unuauaJ  breatlth  of 
galleries,  in  spite  of  the  friable  nature  of  the  tufa^ 
the  arcosolium  is  the  predominant 
5*  Apulia,  fomi,  at  least  in  the  main  galleries, 
and  the  floor  is  full  of  sunk  graves, 
while  chambers  are  once  more  lacking.  The  prin- 
cipal difference  is  in  the  form  of  the  arcosolia,  which 
in  Melos  are  of  only  one  kind,  in  Venosa  of  several, 
answering  to  the  Sicilian  variety;  and  in  fact  the 
Jewish  catacomb  of  Venosa  offers  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent the  intermediate  step  between  Melos  on  one 
side  and  Sicily  and  southern  Italy  on  the  other. 

The  catacombs  of  Naples  are  the  most  impor- 
tant among  thoae  of  Campania;  and  of  these  the 
largest  and  oldest  are  those  of  San  Gennaro  dei 
Poveri,  whose  beginnings  apparently  go  back  to 
the  first  century.  Four  are  enumerated  nowadays; 
but  there  ia  reas^-jii  to  suppose  that  there  were 
originally  more.     The  oldest  is  tra^w^oid  iii  ground- 


plan,  witl)  a  maximum  width  of  thirty-three  feet 
and  length  somewhat  more.  Other  smaller  rooms 
open  from  it  to  left  and  right,  the  latter  of  which 
was  later  remcKleletl  into  a  church.  At  the  back 
of  the  large  hall  are  the  en  trances  to 
e.  Naples,  two  parallel  galleries  nearly  100  yards 
long,  connected  by  numerous  trana- 
vense  passages.  From  the  outer  side  of  each  of 
these  stretch  out  other  chambers  and  gallerieSp 
which  in  their  turn  ramify  still  further,  though  to 
a  much  less  extent  than  in  the  Roman  catacombs. 
The  seeond  c-atacomb  is  less  important,  and  the 
other  two  still  less.  They  exhibit  three  types  of 
graves — arcosolia ^  hctdif  and  sunk  graves.  The 
first  are  the  most  numerous  in  the  halls  and  cham- 
bers, as  well  as  in  the  oldest  and  most  important 
galleries;  unlike  the  Roman,  but  like  those  of 
MeJofi  and  Sicily,  they  are  sometimes  in  two  rows, 
one  above  the  other.  From  the  irregular  dispo- 
sition of  the  loruli,  which  look  as  if  they  had  been 
crowded  in,  it  is  safe  to  attribute  a  later  date  to 
them.  They  form,  however^  an  actual  majority  of 
the  total  number  of  graves. 

At  Castellamare  there  is  a  later  but  not  uninter- 
esting catacomb,  named  after  St,  Blasius.  Besides 
a  nearly  square  cntranoe-hall,  it  contains  a  main 
gallery  nearly  twenty-two  yards  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  9  ft.  10  in,,  lined  with  arcosoiia. 
On  the  left  of  it  three  side  galleries 
7*  Cawtell*-  branch  out,  and  at  its  further  end  IB 
Daar®.  a  chamber  from  which  further  galler- 
ies continue.  The  weight  of  evidence 
is  in  favor  of  a  Christian  origin.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  graves  in  the  chambers  at  Castella- 
marc  and  Sorrento  is  peculiar;  they  are  placetl  in 
rows  one  above  another  so  as  to  resemble  a  honey- 
comb, a  form  wliich  i.s  lacking  in  the  ohler  cata- 
combs, though  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  it 
originated  with  the  Christians  of  these  places. 

The  history  of  the  immense  anil  widely  kno\«ii 
catacombs  of  Rome  begins,  as  is  the  case  else- 
where, with  the  family  plot.  In  the  first  two  cen- 
turies, and  even  lat-er,  individual  Christians  picked 
out  places  for  the  interment  of  themselves  and 
their  families,  including  in  some  cases  their  freed- 
men.  The  arrangement  of  the  first 
9.  Bopxo.  cemeteries  is  not  demonstrably  derived 
from  pagan  models,  since  there  were 
many  Jews  in  Rome  and  in  the  primitive  Church 
there,  and  these  also  buried  their  dead  in  subter- 
ranean cemeteries.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that,  wliile  it  would  be  too  much  to  say  that  Jewish 
traditions  had  no  infiuence  on  the  early  develop- 
ment, the  first  beginnings  of  the  Christian  burial 
system  in  Rome  were  derived  rather  from  pagan 
prototypes. 

With  the  extension  of  the  family  plot  into  the 
common  cemetery  for  the  faitlifub  underground 
Rome  became  apparently  a  labyrinth  ^  tliough  really 
its  plan  is  more  simple  and  intelUgible  than  that  of 
some  of  the  larger  catacombs  outside  of  Rome. 
Since  the  groimd  was  either  flat  or  slightly  rolhng, 
the  excavation  was  begun  by  digging  down  at  an 
angle  into  the  earth,  the  descent  being  furnished 
with  steps,  usually  covered  with  brick  or  marble. 
After  it  had  reached  the  required  depth  (averaging 


Oemeteries 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


488 


about  twenty  feet),  the  excavation  continued 
horizontally  in  a  main  gallery  and  others  roughly 
parallel  with  it,  connected  by  croes  passages  into 
a  regular  network.  The  dead  were  interred  usually 
in  the  walls,  less  often  in  the  floor  of  the  passages. 
Here  and  there,  at  the  side,  end,  or  intersection  of 
passages,  doors  were  cut  which  led  to  one  or  more 
chambers  (cubictda).  The  shape  of  these  was  as  a 
rule  nearly  rectangular,  less  often  polygonal,  semi- 
circular, or  circular;  the  roof  nearly  or  quite  flat 
or  crosa-vaulted  in  the  rectangular  ones,  and  of 
the  nature  of  a  cupola  in  the  polygonal  or  circular. 
The  later  catacombs  usually  have  smaller  cham- 
bers, sometimes  not  more  than  about  foiu:  square 
yards  in  extent. 

As  to  the  form  of  the  tombs,  the  locultu  here  is 
the  most  frequent,  larger  than  necessary  in  the 
oldest  cases,  but  later  dosely  following  the  shape 
of  the  body.  Sometimes  they  were  dug  in  deep 
enough  to  afford  room  for  several  bodies.  Above 
the  arcosolia  there  was  usiially  a  neariy  or  quite 
semicircular  arch.  If  two  bodies  were  to  be  buried 
together  in  these,  a  loculiu  was  cut  at  the  back  of 
the  hollowed-out  space,  or  sometimes  the  arch  was 
carried  further  back  and  two  spaces  hollowed  out 
side  by  side;  or  again  loculi  were  cut,  especially 
for  children,  in  the  limette  of  the  arch.  A  com- 
bination of  the  lociUua  and  the  arcosolium  is  the 
so-called  locultu  a  menaa  or  *'  table-tomb."  The 
grave  dug  in  the  floor  is  foimd  less  often  than  in 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  most  of  those  which 
exist  probably  date  from  a  time  when  the  walls 
were  already  full.  Sarcophagi  were  also  used, 
made  of  marble  in  most  cases;  these  were  placed 
mostly  in  the  cubicula  and  galleries,  but  sometimes 
on  the  side  of  the  stairs.  When  the  wall-space  of 
a  catacomb  was  filled,  the  foaaarea  gained  more 
room  by  digging  the  floor  of  the  passages  deeper. 
When  this  had  gone  so  far  as  to  threaten  the  sta- 
bility of  the  walls,  a  second  shaft  or  gallery  was 
begun  at  a  downward  angle  from  the  first,  and  the 
whole  process  repeated.  Thus  in  the  catacombs 
of  St.  Calixtus  and  St.  Domitilla  five  different  levels 
are  found,  the  lowest  more  than  eighty  feet  be- 
neath the  surface.  An  approximate  conception 
of  the  vast  extent  of  the  Roman  catacombs  may 
be  gained  from  the  calculations  of  Michcle  Stefano 
de  Rossi  and  of  Marchi.  The  former  estimated  the 
total  length  of  the  passages  at  550  miles,  the  latter 
at  750.  The  number  of  bodies  buried  there  is 
variously  given  as  from  three  and  a  half  to  six 
millions. 

The  catacombs  of  the  towns  around  Rome  and  in 
Etruria  resemble  the  Roman,  it  is  true,  more  than 
the  Sicilian;  but  there  are  striking  dififerences,  as 
in  the  typical  ones  of  Bolsena,  Chiusi,  and  Soriano, 
which,  when  examined  in  detail,  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  influence  of  the  ancient  Etruscan 
burial-customs  had  much  to  do  with  them.  It 
extended,  in  fact,  very  nearly  to  the  gates  of  Rome, 
and  some  of  its  characteristics  are  found  in  the 
catacombs  of  Rignano  and  at  the  twentieth  mile- 
stone on  the  Via  Flaniinia. 

2.  Oemetexlea  Above  Qround.— a.  Plan  and 
Oonstruction:  The  simplest  form  of  cemeteries  in  the 
open  air  is  found  in  Upper  Egypt,  where,  in  order 


to  save  the  soil  available  for  agriculture  and  at  the 

same  time  to  protect  the  graves  from  inundation, 

the  Christians  laid  their  dead  to  rest 

1.  In  the  on  the  border  of  the  desert,  in  large 

Open  Air.  cemeteries  used  by  a  oonsideTable  dis- 
trict. They  seldom  used  wooden 
coffins,  but  tied  the  corpse,  mimunified  with  89- 
phalt  or  natron,  to  a  sycamore  board,  then  wrapped 
cloths  around  it  and  buried  it  in  an  ordinary  grave. 

The  discovery  in  1873  of  a  cemetery  dating  from 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  at  Portogruaro,  the 
ancient  Julia  Concordia,  gives  an  accurate  idea  of 
other  vanished  burying-grounds,  especially  in 
northern  Italy.  Several  hundred  sarcophagi  of 
Istrian  limestone  rest  either  directly  on  the  ground 
or  on  large  square  bases.  They  are  carved  out  of 
a  single  block  of  stone,  usiially  without  anything 
on  their  sides  except  inscriptions,  and  covered 
with  heavy  roof-sh£4)ed  covers.  The  cemeteries 
of  Aries,  Yienne,  and  Treves  were  aimilariy  laid 
out.  At  Aries  five  layers  of  graves  ultimately 
existed,  one  above  another,  separated  only  by  a 
layer  of  earth — ^the  lowest  heathen,  the  upper 
ones  Christian.  Much  the  same  was  the  arrange- 
ment at  Yienne  and  at  Treves,  except  that  in  Q» 
latter  there  are  both  sarcophsgi  and  graves  lined 
With  masonry  or  brick  and  covered  with  slabs  of 
brick,  limestone,  or  sandstone.  Here  again  the 
lowest  layer  contains  a  ntmiber  of  pagan  inscrip- 
tions and  sarcophagi,  the  most  probable  inference 
being  that  the  Christians  in  Gaul  and  the  Rhine 
country  occupied  former  pagan  burial-places.  The 
arecB  of  northern  Africa  attained  a  certain  celerity 
even  during  the  epoch  of  persecution,  and  were 
carefully  investigated  by  French  scholaTS  during 
the  nineteenth  century.  One  at  Lamb^ae,  about 
sixty-five  by  fifty-three  yards  in  extent,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  slight  wall,  and  apparently  contained 
nothing  but  ordinary  graves.  Elsewhere,  in  ad- 
dition to  these,  small  vaulted  structures  were 
erected  over  the  bodies,  as  at  Csesarea  (modem 
Cherchel)  in  Mauretania.  Two  important  open- 
air  cemeteries  existed  at  Tipasa;  in  the  center  of 
one  was  a  basilica  erected  over  the  body  of  the 
martyr  Salsa. 

The  word  "  mausoleiun,"  now  usually  restricted 
to  large  and  imposing  monuments,  was  used  in 
ancient  times  for  less  important  tombs,  and  memoria 
is  also  frequently  employed.  These  small  memo- 
rial buildings  have  mostly  disappeared.  They 
must  have  been  p£urticularly  niunerous  in  regions 
where  the  small  family  burial-place  was 
riS^^'  ^^^  '^®'  *^^  where  the  custom  of 
Boildinffs.  erecting  them  had  been  prevalent  in 
pre-Christian  times.  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia have  supplied  a  considerable  proportion 
of  them,  and  Asia  Minor  probably  had  as  many; 
but  they  existed  also  in  countries  where  the  com- 
mon burying-ground  was  the  rule.  Some  stood 
among  graves  in  the  open  air,  as  above  the  Cata- 
comb of  St.  Calixtus  in  Rome;  others  near  or 
attached  to  churches,  as  at  Tipasa  and  two  that 
adjoined  the  old  St.  Peter's  in  Rome;  others,  again, 
were  isolated,  like  the  tomb  of  Galla  Placidia  and 
that  of  Theodoric  at  Ravenna. 

The  frequency  of  nearly  or  quite  rectangular 


I 


grave-chambers  in  the  undergrouiid  cemeteries 
would  lead  to  the  (expectation  of  finding  the  eatna 
structure  above  ground;  and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
it  is  the  rule  in  SjTia  and  Mesopotamia,  while  the 
early  existence  of  numerous  examples  of  thiis  class 
mi^  be  inferred  from  paintings  and  sculpt  urea 
representing  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  which  nearly 
always  depict  an  oblong  tomb  like  a  houi*e  or 
temple.  Actual  examples  from  the  West  are  one 
built  like  a  tower  above  the  Catacomb  of  St*  Calix- 
tus  in  Rome,  another  vaulted  one  at  Tropea,  two 
adjoining  ones  by  the  side  of  a  basilica  at  Morsott, 
and  another  at  Tipasa  in   North   Africa.     Occa- 

Bionally  to  the  rectangular  ground- 
s' around^  plan  was  added  a  Bemicircular  ter- 
FIbpH  and  mination  at  the  rear,  aa  m  the  group 
Form*       of  tombs  in  the  cemetery  of  Manas- 

tirine  near  Salona,  of  the  fourth 
century  or  earlier,  and  otlier  examples  at  Tipaaa 
and  Ancona.  The  rotunda  ehafie^  however,  was 
also  of  frequent  occurrence  from  the  earliest  timet . 
Two  large  mausoleums  of  this  eh  ape,  Santa  Petro- 
nilla  and  Santa  Maria  della  Febbre^  stand  near 
St.  Peter's  in  Rome,  and  the  church  of  St.  George 
at  Salonica  was  probably  eepulchral  in  origin. 
The  tomb  of  Theodoric  at  Ravenna  is  externally 
a  decagon,  on  the  ground  floor  within  a  Greek 
cross,  and  circular  above.  After  semicircular 
additions  to  an  original  rectangular  plan  became 
eommon,  suggesting  the  form  of  a  cross,  the  idea 
received  further  development  at  the  hands  of 
Ghristians.  The  most  prominent  representative 
of  this  was  the  mausoleum  of  the  Erst  Christian 
emperors,  the  church  of  the  Apostlej*  at  Conatan- 
tinople,  of  whose  sumptuous  structure,  unhappily, 
little  more  is  known  now  than  that  it  had  the  shajie 
of  a  Greek  cross.  The  tomb  of  Galla  Placidia  at 
Raveima  also  deserves  study  from  tliis  point  of 
view^.  Probably  earlier  than  the  time  of  Cons  tan* 
tine  is  the  original  construction  of  the  two  mausole- 
ums  above  the  catacombs  of  St.  Calixtus^  which 
later  received  the  names  of  St.  Sixtu*?  and  St.  Sot^r, 
When,  after  the  cessation  of  persecution,  the 
erection  of  churches  over  or  near  the  graves  of  the 
saints  was  carried  out  on  a  large  scale,  the  develop* 
ment  of  cemeteries  in  connection  with  them  fol- 
lowed as  a  consequence  of  the  desire  of  Christians 
to  be  buried  near  the  resting-place  of  the  raartyrs. 
In  spite  of  the  ancient  law  forbidding  burial  withiin 
the  walla  of  the  city,  such  burials  continued  after 
the  relics  of  the  martyra  were  brought  in  to  the 
principal  churches  of  various  places  (see  Church- 
yard). Burial  within  the  church  itself  was  not 
everywhere  approved.  In  Spain  and  Gaul,  par- 
ticularly, it  was  even  a  subject  of  adverse  concilia r 
legislation,   although  this  barrier  did  not  sulfiee 

to  keep  back  the  iowing  tide  of  popu- 

4*  Ceme-    ^^  piety.     Both  literary  and  monu- 

terles  Con-  Baental  evidence  attests  the  existence 

Booted  with  in  the  most  widely  separated  portions 

OhurcheB.    of  the  primitive  Cliurch  of  buihiinga 

used  both  for  worsliip  and  for  mter- 
ment.  A  large  number  of  them  arose  outside  the 
walls  of  Rome.  Unfortunately  many  smaller  build- 
ings of  ihki  class  sank  into  decay  or  oblivion 
during  and  after  the  Middle  Ages,  while  the  larger 


ones  were  so  transformed  in  course  of  time  that 
toHJay  they  have  scara^ly  a  trace  of  their  original 
use.  It  la  thu^  easier  to  examine  the  extant  ruins 
in  order  to  form  an  idea  of  the  construction  adopted 
in  the  first  instance.  Of  these  undoubt<xlly  the 
most  significant  is  that  discovered  and  explored 
by  Dclattre  at  Damous-el-Karita  near  Carthage. 
Here,  in  the  church  pniper  and  atrium  as  well  as 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  more  than  14,000 
inscriptions  or  fragments  of  inscriptions  were 
brought  to  light.  The  deatl  were  buried  in  ordi- 
nary sunk  graves,  lined  and  covered  with  slabs^ 
though  some  were  constructed  of  masonry,  fre- 
quently covered  with  stone  slabs,  and  a  number 
of  sarcophagi  were  found,  these  latter  sunk  flush 
with  the  floor.  Of  the  great  burial-churches  in 
Rome,  the  best  example  was  until  recently  fur- 
nished by  that  of  Santi  Nereo  ed  Achilleo,  the  floor 
of  which  was  hterally  crowded  with  graves  and 
sarcophagi.  The  church  of  St.  Paul  without  the 
Walls,  also  at  Rome,  which  from  the  fourth  cen- 
tury waa  a  favorite  burial-place,  was  surrounded 
by  a  space  intended  es|)eeially  for  interment, 
covered  by  a  roof  supported  on  columns,  and 
adorned  with  paintings;  and  that  of  St.  Balbina, 
also  outside  the  city,  had  a  tegkUa  under  which  the 
dead  were  buried. 

b*  Types  of  O-rmves:  In  the  primitive  age,  the 
simple  grave  dug  in  the  earth  was  the  commoneat 
form  for  cemeteries  above  ground.  It  was  ordi- 
narily not  so  deep  as  the  graves  of  to-day,  and  was 
frequently  hned  with  slabs  of  stone,  with  brick,  or 
with  masonry*  This  custom  led  to  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  simple  grave  into  a  vault  capable  of 
holding  several  bodies.  Of  these  vaults  none  have 
been  so  thoroughly  investigat^^d  as  were  those  of  the 
upper  cemetery  of  St.  Calixtm  tmd  the  churches 
of  St,  Laurence  and  St.  Paul  without  the  Walls 
by  De  Ros^^i.  In  the  first- named  large  holes  were 
dtig,  and  then  divided  olT  by  partitions  into  spaces 
each    large    enough    for    one    body* 

Ordinary  '^^^  materials  used  in  constructioil 
G-rave^  ^^^  *'^^^'  brick,  marble,  and  thidc 
layers  of  mortar.  In  these  compart- 
ments the  corpses  were  placed  one  above  another, 
a  slab  covering  the  one  irst  buried  and  serving  as 
a  support  for  the  next.  The  place  of  the  slab  waa 
occasionally  taken  by  an  arched  covering  of  brick 
or  by  a  layer  of  masonry.  In  this  particular  ceme- 
tery the  excavation  wiis  carried  deep  enough  to 
contain  ten  or  even  more  bodies  thus  superim- 
posed; the  average  is  between  eight  and  nine. 
The  same  system  is  found  at  Ostia,  Porto,  and 
Tropea  in  Calabria,  as  well  as  in  North  Africa  and 
at  Athens.  In  other  eases,  as  in  the  same  ceme- 
tery of  St.  Calixtua,  the  corpses  were  laid  side  by 
side  and  separated  by  an  upright  slab.  Wliil© 
the  usual  shape  of  all  these  graves  waa  rectangular, 
some  occur  in  North  Africa  which  correspond 
roughly  to  the  shape  of  the  body,  and  are  rounded 
off  at  the  head  and  foot.  They  were  frequently 
also  wider  at  tlie  head  than  at  the  foot,  giving  a 
bell-shai>ed  tj-pe  which  corresponds  to  examples 
found  in  the  Sicilian  catacombs.  In  both  caaes 
this  type  is  a  survival  of  nati%'e  pre-Christian  usage. 

The  closing  of  the  graves,  whichever  of  these 


CtaMterias 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


400 


fonns  they  took,  was  done  in  various  ways.  In 
Upper  Elgypt  commonly,  but  elsewhere  as  well,  the 
etfth  removed  in  excavation  was  heaped  over  the 
grave.  In  other  cases  slabs  were  laid  either  flat 
on  the  ground  or  on  the  top  of  the  sides  where  an 
artificial  lining  was  placed  in  the 
2.  The  grave.  These  slabs  were  frequently 
ofthe*  decorated  in  the  fifth  century  with 
(]^fi^^0^  mosaic,  including  an  inscription  and 
various  pictorial  representations,  some- 
times the  portrait  of  the  deceased  or  symbolic 
designs.  Instead  of  slabs,  large  heavy  stones  cut 
into  a  rough  shape  were  used  in  some  places,  espe- 
cially in  the  East,  and  in  North  Africa,  where  it 
was  an  inheritance  from  Carthaginian  custom. 

The  term  sarcophagus  was  originally  used  by 
the  ancients  in  connection  with  a  kind  of  stone 
found  near  Assos  in  Asia  Minor,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  have  the  property  of  consuming  the  flesh 
of  the  corpse  in  a  short  time  (Pliny,  Hiat  not., 
XXXVI.  xvii.  27),  but  it  was  often  employed  for 
receptacles  made  out  of  other  stone.  The  early 
Christians,  taking  over  both  name  and  things, 
used  the  stone  they  found  at  hand. 

8.  Bar-      For  relief  decorations,  however,  the 

oophaffi,  porous  and  often  flawed  limestone 
was  ill  adapted,  and  marble  was  gen- 
erally selected  where  these  were  desired.  The 
most  usual  form  was  that  of  a  parallelepiped, 
hollowed  out  to  receive  the  body.  The  shape  of 
the  body  was  sometimes  partially  reproduced  on 
the  outside,  especially  in  North  Africa,  or  at  least 
the  head  was  semicircular;  while  at  Rome  the 
head  and  foot  were  alike.  Sarcophagi  for  children 
seldom  occur,  because  they  were  usually  buried  with 
their  parents  in  the  larger  ones.  When  more  than 
one  body  was  to  be  placed  in  the  same  sarcoph- 
agus, stone  partitions  were  sometimes  placed  in 
the  interior.  Christian  sarcophagi  were  frequently 
adorned  with  more  or  less  elaborate  decorations, 
usually  in  relief,  though  the  taste  of  the  North 
African  Christians  for  mosaic  led  them  to  employ 
it  in  some  cases. 

Wooden  coffins  were  also  used,  either  enclosed 

in  the  sarcophagi  or  buried  in  the  earth;    but  on 

account   of   their  perishable   material   they   have 

ahnost  disappeared.     A  coffin  of  cypress  was  found 

in    the    marble    sarcophagus    of    St. 

4.  Other    Cecilia,  and  Gsell  found  others  of  oak 

Beoepta-  and  pine  in  sarcophagi  at  Tipasa.  A 
olea.  plain  rectangular  chest  of  cedar,  but 
richly  decorated  with  plates  of  gold 
and  silver,  received  the  remains  of  St.  Paulinus  at 
Treves,  and  was  afterward  enclosed  in  a  large 
sandstone  sarcophagus.  Coffins  of  lead  were  also 
known;  but  the  most  peculiar  receptacles  were 
those  in  the  shape  of  an  amphora  or  large  water- 
vessel.  These  easily  held  the  corpses  of  little 
children;  when  they  were  used  for  full-grown 
persons,  they  were  sometimes  taken  apart  and 
lengthened  by  the  addition  of  cylindrical  pieces 
taken  from  other  amphorse,  and  then  cemented 
together. 

IV.  Equipment  and  Decoration  of  Tombs :  Cor- 
responding to  the  great  variety  of  arrangement 
and  Htructure  noticed  above  is  a  still  greater  wealth 


of  objects  pertaining  to  the  equipment  and  deoon- 
tion  of  the  resting-places  of  the  dead.  Many  of 
these  objects  seem  natural  and  intelligible  to^y, 
but  others  appear  peculiar,  especially  the  pro- 
vision of  household  utensib.  The  furnishing  of 
tombs  with  inscriptions  and  with  painted  or  carved 
images  is  but  an  inheritance  of  the  traditions  of 
earlier  civilized  peoples,  especially  the  Greeks  and 
Romans;  and  it  seems  on  the  face  of  it  not  unlikely 
that  the  provision  of  these  various  other  objects 
was  similarly  a  following  of  ancient  custom.  It  ism- 
disputable  that  these  pre-Christian  peoples  regarded 
the  grave  as  a  house,  and  gave  it  oorre^nding 
arrangements  and  decorations.  Roman  tombs 
sometimes  acciuntely  resemble  dwelling-houses,  with 
atrium^  triclinia,  and  the  like.  Ntmierous  pagan 
inscriptions  designate  either  a  burial-vault  or  a 
single  grave  as  a  house,  the  eternal  house,  etc. 
These  same  designations  and  an  analogous  form 
of  construction  are  not  unconunon  in  early  Chris- 
tian usage,  as  might  be  shown,  did  space  permit, 
from  monuments,  inscriptions,  and  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers.  This  conception  of  the  grave  as 
a  house  offers  the  only  satisfactory  explanation 
of  what  would  otherwise  be  so  mysterious,  the 
character  of  the  objects  in  the  tombs  as  gifts  to 
the  dead.  In  themselves  imnecessary  if  not  sense- 
less additions,  they  merely  demonstrate  the  power 
of  long  custom,  from  which  even  medieval  Chris- 
tianity was  not  able  wholly  to  emancipate  itself. 

1.  The  Orave  Itaelf.— a.  The  Interior:  Proper 
clothing  for  the  corpse  was  universal,  no  matter 
what  form  of  grave  was  used.  Even  those  who 
died  of  the  plague  in  Alexandria  had  their  seemly 
vesture  (Eusebius,  Hist  eccl.,  vii.  22).  Linen  seems 
to  have  been  the  usual  material,  and  white  the 
color,  though  costly  stuffs,  such  as  silk  and  purple 
and  gold  brocade  were  sometimes  used.  Ambrose, 
Chrysostom,  and  Jerome  protested  against  the  uae 
of  gold-embroidered  garments,  and  the  first  and 
last  also  against  silk.  At  a  later  period  synods 
even  found  it  necessary  to  legislate  against  luxury 
in  grave-clothes,  e.g.,  that  of  Auxerre  in  578.  In 
the  same  century  Gregory  of  Tours  relates  that  a 
kinswoman  of  King  Childebert  was  buried  "with 
great    ornaments    and    much   gold," 

1.  OlDjeotB  which,  however,  were  soon  stolen. 
Pertainlnff  The  indications  thus  given  in  the 
to  the  literature  of  the  period  are  confirmed 
Corpse,  by  numerous  discoveries,  the  largest 
number  of  which  have  been  in  Upper 
Egypt.  Here  the  garments  are  mostly  of  linen,  leffl 
often  of  pure  wool  or  silk.  As  to  mere  omamenta, 
though  Gregory  of  Nyassa  says  that  the  body  of 
his  sister  Macrina  was  stripped  before  burial  of 
rings  and  necklaces,  the  discoveries  show  that  thi» 
was  not  the  common  practise.  On  the  contrary, 
the  number  of  such  objects  found  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  many  bodies  were  more  richly  adorned 
in  death  than  in  life.  Among  them  are  rings,  ear- 
rings, bracelets  and  anklets,  necklaces,  combs  and 
hairpins,  fibulse,  etc.,  made  of  various  materials 
and  frequently  bearing  Christian  emblems,  such 
as  the  monogram  of  Christ,  the  Good  Shepherd, 
the  dove,  fish,  and  cross.  With  these  onuunents 
it  is  easy  to  confuse  the  amulets  sometimes  found. 


since  many  of  them  were  made  in  the  ehape  of 
rings,  braoeletB,  or  pendanU  for  the  neck  (see 
Amulet). 

Where  the  grave-diggera  of  the  catacombs,  or 
the  stone-cutters  who  made  sarcophagi,  designed 
the  space  for  the  corpse,  as  was  often  the  case,  so 
that  its  head  was  higher  than  its  feet,  there  was 
no  need  for  any  support  for  the  head.  But  in 
other  cases  such  supports  were  placed  in  the  tomb, 
the  most  primitive  sort  being  of  one  or  more  stones. 
In  Upper  Egypt  rich  leather  cushions  stuffed  with 
tow  Iiave  been  found,  so  sumptuously 
2*  IWapo-   decorated  as  to  deserve  the  name  of 

ftittonof  works  of  art.  Vessels  of  clay  ser\^ed 
the  Qorpse.  the  same  purj)ose  in  North  Africa. 
Sometimes  supports  were  provided 
for  the  whole  botly— in  North  Africa  a  layer  of 
bcton,  here  and  elsewhere  simple  arrangements 
of  flat  bricks,  in  Catania  perforated  brick  supports 
on  low  feet,  like  benches.  On  sanitary  grounds 
the  grave  was  often  lined  with  unslacked  lime, 
which  was  also  sprinkled  over  the  corpne.  Traces 
of  this  custom  have  been  found  in  the  Roman 
catacombs  and  elsewhere,  as  in  North  Africa, 
The  dead  were  also  laid  in  some  places  on  a  bed 
of  laurel  leaves. 

White  the  Christians  of  the  primitive  age  usu- 
ally contemned  the  use  of  perfumed  oils  and  waters, 
they  used  such  things  for  the  dead  in  considerable 
quAUitities.  The  dead  were  anointed  before  they 
were  dressed  for  burial,  and  then  sprinkled  with 
perfumes  or  rcguJarly  embalmed  with  spices, 
though  this  latter  practise  seems  to  have  been  com- 
paratively rare  in  Rome.  Anything  hke  mummi- 
fying was  still  more  imcommon,  outside  of  Egypt* 
Usually  cloths  wet  with  perfumes  were  laid  upon 
the  body,  especially  the  face,  and  vessels  of  the 
most  diverse  shapes  filled  wth  perfumery  were 
set  near  it.  It  is  practically  certain  that  some  of 
the  vessels  known  m  AmpuUw  (q.v.)  contained 
these  perfumes,  and  others  wine.  As 
3.  Oifta  to  food  and  drink  were  set  out  Cor  the 
the  B«ad.  martyrs  and  other  saints  at  the  com- 
memorative feasts,  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  this  took  place  also  at  burials.  There  is  also 
the  often-discussed  possibility  that  such  vessels 
contained  the  elements  of  the  Eucharist,  or  at 
least  the  consecrated  wine,  in  connection  with  the 
practise  condemned  at  the  Third  Council  of  Car- 
thage and  often  later*  of  making  the  dead  partakers 
in  the  communion. 

Another  class  is  formed  by  the  large  number  of 
domestic  utensils  of  every  sort  which  have  been 
found  in  the  graves.  These  comprise  vessels  of  all 
kinds,  mostly  of  clay  but  sometimes  of  glai^  or 
more  costly  materials,  knives*  forks,  spoons,  wri- 
ting-tablets, styluses,  ink -stands,  hammers,  nails, 
spinning-wheels,  chisels,  and  triols  of  many  different 
kinds.  Other  objects  of  daily  use  pertain  less  to 
mere  utility  than  to  juxury  and  adornment,  A 
varied  collection  of  articles  such  as  served  the 
women  of  those  days  for  the  toilrt  have  been 
discovered  In  and  near  the  tombs  of  the  catacombs, 
made  of  metnl,  mosaic,  ivor>',  glass,  enamel,  and 
mother-ftf-pcarL  The  grave  being  conceived,  in  a 
certain    Hcnse,   as    the    house   or   chamber   of   the 


departed,  there  is  nothing  surprising  in  the  dia* 
CO  very  that  parents,  for  example,  placed  near  the 
bodies  of  the  children  they  had  lost  even  the  trifles 
which  had  been  de^r  to  them  in  life— dolls,  small 
figures  of  men  and  animals,  small  lamps,  Bj>oona, 
etc.,  savings-banks,  and  ivory  letters  of  the  kind 
used  in  the  schools.  E%'en  things  relating  to  the 
amusements  of  gFown*up  people— boards  for  games^ 
dice,  and  the  like — ^are  occasionally  found.  Pieces 
of  money  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Since  there 
is  evidence  that  the  old  pagan  custom  of  providing 
the  dead  with  money  to  pay  Charon  for  the  ferriage 
persisted  among  Christians  in  Greece  and  else- 
where, there  ia  no  doubt  that  at  least  some  of  these 
coins  were  placed  there  from  that  point  of  view, 

b.  The  £3£t«HoTr  After  the  burial  was  finished, 
it  was  a  common  practise  to  fix  in  the  still  wet 
mortar  with  which  the  loculi  and  arcmolia  of  the 
subterranean  cemeteries  were  closed  small  veesels, 
usually  of  glass,  sometimes  shells,  for  the  same 
purpose  as  the  vessels  inside  the  grave.  A  repeated 
renewal  of  these  is  evidenced  by  the 
^1^^"      t^^nit*  ^f  *^"^  Peregrina  (d.  452)  in  the 

-rf^i*^         .  Catacomb  of  San  Giovanni  at  Syra- 
XfiKhte  and  i     .  i  r 

Incense  cuse;  several  gjasses  must  have  been 
broken  and  replaced,  and  there  was 
also  a  clay  censer  still  containing  coals  and  some 
grains  of  incense.  The  lamps  similarly  affixed  to 
theoutsideof  the  graves  were  intende<l  to  be  lighted 
at  the  funeral  and  on  memorial  days*  Semicircular 
niches  were  made  in  the  adjacent  walls  to  hold  them. 
From  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  lamps  burning 
at  the  graves  of  the  martyrs  were  kept  up  with 
special  reverence;  the  oil  from  them  was  credited 
with  miraculous  power,  and  pilgrims  often  took  a 
small  quantity  of  it  home  with  them. 

Many  of  the  objects  mentioned  above  (a,  |  3) 
are  found  embedded   in   the   mortar  outside  the 
graves,  sometimes  as  gifts,  but  in  other  cases  un- 
doubtedly as  means  of  identification  among  the 
thousands  of  graves  in  the  large  cata- 
2.  MATks    combe,  the  majority  of  which  had  no 
ofldenti-    inscriptions,   possibly    owing    to    the 
a^atlon.     poverty  of  the   sur\'ivora.     Some   of 
these  substitutes  for  the  regular  in- 
cised blocks  of  marble  or  other  stone  are  letters, 
numbers,  etc,  embedded  or  scratched  in  or  above 
the  place  where  the  tomb  is  closed;    others  arc 
small    objects    of    great    variety,    rings,    buttons, 
glasses,  bits  of  mosaic,  animals'  teeth,  shells,  coins, 
stones  of  fruit  and  leaves  of  plants,  fixed  in  the 
mortar  before  it  dried. 

In  their  use  of  sepulchral  inscriptions  the  early 
Christians  merely  continued  the  tradition  of  still 
older  civilizations.     Outside  of  the  family  %'aults, 
on  or  over  the  door  of  wliich  the  name  of  the  occu- 
pants or  owners  appeared,  the  inscriptions  were 
placed  on  or  at  least  near  the  graves.     The  most 
peculiar    exception    to    the    general 
8.  Inseiip-  usage  is  formed  by  those  which  have 
tlonB  and    the    inscriptions    inside    the    graves, 
BminUngm.  where  they  can  not  have  been  visible 
to    passers-by.     Karl     Schmidt     dis- 
covered a  number  of  inscribed  gravestones  in  the 
necropolis  of  Antinoe  in  Egypt  which  seemed  tn 
have  been  laid  originally  well  down  in  the  graves. 


0«met6xies 
Oensoa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


492 


pt  the  footi  with  tba  wrttmg  undemeflth.  The 
inacriptiojis  were  either  cut  with  a  chisel  or  other 
sharp  toolf  ecraiehed  with  a  sh&rp  point,  painted 
with  a  brwshf  or  com|>OBed  in  mosaic.  Thcie 
l&scnptiona  oQ^er  moat  trust  worthy  and  striking 
evidence  of  the  mode  of  thought,  faith,  and  hope  of 
the  pnoytive  Ohn^tianSf  especially  in  regard  to 
death,  the  grave,  and  the  resurrection  (see  In- 
ecRiFTioNft-  Painting). 

&>  Tlie  Olkambera  nnd  PassasaB:  In  thaee  the 
presence  has  already  been  noted  of  tables,  benchei, 
and  chairs  for  the  observance  of  the  commemora^ 
tionj  of  the  dead.  The  dlmensioni  of  mich  tables 
as  have  been  discovered  imply  that  the  number  of 
participants  was  smalL  While  such  fitmiture  is 
practically  absent  from  the  Roman  Cataoomba, 
whieie  wood  must  accordingly  have  been  used, 
■ereral  tables  of  more  durable  material  have  been 
fomid  in  North  African  bunal-placee.  The  gal- 
leries and  chambers  of  the  catacombs  also  contained 
receptacles  for  the  materials  used  in  mixing  mortar 
for  closing  up  the  tombs.  Those  wMch  have  been 
preserved,  made  usually  of  cLay,  with  incrustations 
of  mortar  and  lime  still  upon  them»  may  have  been 
used  either  for  this  purpose  or  on  sanitary  grotmda, 
to  counteract  the  effluvia  of  the  place.  Lighting 
arrangements  are  found  here  too^  although  the 
galleries  must  have  been  in  comparative  darkness  ^ 
to  judge  from  the  way  in  which  Jerome  quotes  Ps, 
Iv.  15  and  Vergil,  Mneidt  \L  755  in  connection  with 
the  memory  of  his  visit  to  the  Roman  Catacombs, 
As  the  armmlia  were  frequently  ornamented  with 
paintings  in  their  vaults  and  lunettes,  and  the  loadi 
on  their  exterior  side,  so  also  the  chambers  and  less 
ff«quetitly  the  galleries  of  the  catacombs  were  dec- 
orated in  the  same  way.  No  doubt  the  structures 
above  ground  connected  with  the  cemeteries  were 
painted  in  much  more  numerous  cases  than  the 
scanty  remains  extant  at  the  present  day  would 
lead  one  to  suppose. 

(NlKOLAUa  MULLEa.) 
BzBUoaa4PiiT:  J,  TowmheDd^  Cottdogm  of  Book*  Btiaiinff 
io  the  DUjmal  of  B&diu,  New  York,  1887.  On  the  red- 
er^  qUreAtioii  4»tuu]t:  F.  Piper,  Einleiiuna  in  di4  monu- 
meniaiA  Theoiogie,  Gotha.  1867;  J.  Wilpert,  Frincipi^n* 
framn  drr  chri*Uichtn  Archdvlogie,  Freiburgn  1$JK0;  F,  X. 
KrauA,  Ueber  Beffriff,  Umfang  und  QetcMeJUt  der  chritt- 
Ueken  ArchOaiiW,  Ffcibtirg,  1S79;  idem,  Real-ETKifklopA- 
dit  der  diritUichen  Alterthiimer,  2  yqIb.,  lb.  1S80-86;  V. 
Bchultwsir  Arehai>i4jffitdtg  Studixn,  VicanA^  1880;  Die  Kata- 
kemben,  die  aUckri*UicJten  GrobtiAii^n,  Leipuc,  1882; 
R.  GrouAiwt,  Mtiide  aur  Vhiatoins  dem  aiiTcophageM  cArriirn^f 
AthoQi,  1885;  L.  W&gDer,,  Manner*,  Cuskmu  and  Observ- 
anesff,  tendon,  1885;  A.  Hiiwwiicbver,  Da-  eUkhTiatiiche 
OrObpracAjnudts,  Bnirjjwiek,  ISSO;  H.  MiLrucchi,  ^Um^nit 
d*ar^6ologie  t^iiienne,  Faria,  1900;  Neaeidert  Ckrittmn 
CAwcA,  V0li»  i.-Iv^,  eoiifluJc  Index,  n,y.  '*  Buri&l ":  Bcfaaff, 
Christian  Church,  ti.  286^310,  380-385;  Moeller,  Chritti&n 
Churdi,  i.  27&-2S3* 

For  burial  in  Palestine  cooniiU:  T.  Tobler^  GoioathA^ 
pp,  201  rnq^.i  et  poKiimt  St.  Call.  1^1 ;  idem,  ZwH  Backer 
TapoffrGphitr  von  Jeruaa/rm^  it.  227  sctq.,  Bfirlin,  1854; 
J.  N.  Sepp,  Jeruaatcm  und  das  heiliffe  Land,  i.  373  pqq.* 
Be^^Uau&cn,  18T[J:  Sun^ty  of  Western  Palestine,  Loodoa, 
1881  sqq.^  MiUheHtirnj^n  und  Nachrichten  des  deuts^hen 
Pal&aiina-V^rcins,  Leip-iic^  1805  liqq.;  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund  Quarteriy  ti^Satemeni,  piumim;  C.  Mommi?rl, 
Goigotha  umi  das  heiHffe  Grab  ru  Jerusalem,  Ijtijmc,  1900. 
For  Syrian  burial  connult;  F.  E,  C*  Dietricb,  Zwei  sido- 
nitcho  Inschritien,  pp,  11  nqq.,  Marburff,  185S;  C,  J.  M.  de 
Vo^^T  Notice  arck/fiiogiifU€  sur  iss  monuments  encore 
eiistanis  en  Terrs  Sairtte,  Fariii,  1870;  idem,  Syrie  centraU, 
Pttria,  1865-77, 


For  North  Afrlcft  eonaiilti    A,  L.  D«l&ttre,  Inseripivims 

dvMwnnes  j^avtnanl  dm  la  botiUque  de  X}amtms-eI-Karila 
h  Ctsrtha&e,  Coti«caQtinA,  1S33;  jdem^  JLca  Tambmta 
puniques  ds  CartAnj^,  Lyona,  1800;  idem,  Anisj^mtis  ekr^ 
Hsnnes,  Paris.  1900;  R.  M.  Smith  «j^  E.  A,  Porcber.  His- 
lary  uf  the  Recent  EHscoveria  at  Ci/ren*,  London,  1S64; 
N&tJutftCM-Bey,  NoHcf  tur  les  fauiUem  r^4xntem  .  .  .  ,  pp. 
23  nqq.^  48,  Alexandria,  1S75;  idem,  L'AnHcnm  Ale^^sn- 
dHe,  pp,  38  iH]q.,  53-54,  61,  Paria,  iSgS;  Pierre  O^vMilt, 
in  Bikiislhkqus  d'areJMogie  Alricmne,  part  2,  1807; 
8.  Gaell,  RsiJierchm  arehSoiotiiques  en  Aifferiett  Paris,  1S93; 
jdeto*  Les  Monuments  antiques  de  I'Al&^rie,  ib.  1899; 
M,  d«  Botki  Mat^iaux  pmir  servir  it  Vardkiolofis  ds 
rBgVPte  tkrMienne^  St.  Pet^rHburg,  1901. 

For  Ama  AliDor  consult:  J«  T«  Wood,  Ditcev^i^  ai 
Ephetus*  pp.  12  iH^q,,  London^  1S77;  F,  Gumont,  MHanifte 
d'arthS&loeis  mt  d'kisio^  xr.  (1S9&>  245  aqq.;  W.  If.  R«m- 
iay«  CUies  and  Bishopt^  of  Fhfifov^  voh  i.,  pftrtA  1,  2, 
Oxford,  1895-97;  idam^  in  Journal  of  Hdteftie  Studta^ 
pawim. 

On  the  Greek  IfllAndo  consult:  L.  How^  Reisen  avf  den 
ffrisehisdten  in^dn^  m.  145-161,  Stutti^ft,  I&46;  L.  P.  di 
GwoolA.  Cvprus,  New  Yotk,  1877;  C.  Ba,yvt,  Id  BuUetin 
d$  Dorrespi^ndanee  H^iniqm^  JL  347-359,  P^ria.  1878. 

Od  the  CAtacomba  al  Roma  the  Ifterature  ia  etioruiou&. 
The  following  i«  «  netectioti;  G.  E.  de  Rosai,  Roma  sotter- 
ran^a,  3  toIb.,  Rome,  1864-77  (the  one  srtAt  book,  Uigelj 
reproduced  in  English  in  J.  3.  North  cote  and  W.  R.  Browr^-^ 
low^  R^mm  soUerranea,  2  voIa..  LondoQ,  1879.  an  authonnd 
summnry);  with  De  llDHsi'a  monumeDtal  work  should 
be  mentioned  the  periodieai  edited  by  him,  BoUsitino  di 
artheologia  aisHana,  Rome,  1S63  eqq.  (the  repo«itoT7  el 
reports  of  discovery  jwid  decipbeiment);  F.  X.  KniuA, 
R&ma  So^ttetrufsAt,  Freiburg,  1070  (baaed  on  De  Roesj  and 
Northoote  and  Browntow);  B.  d'Agincourt,  HUit^ivt  dt 
Torf  par  Us  monumenis,  6  voln.,  Pari^>  1309-23;  W.  EM* 
tell,  in  E.Z.  Pbtner  et  aL,  Besckreibuntr  dtr  Stadt  Rvm, 
i.  355-413,  Siutcgart,  1^30;  G,  MartU  Archit^um  d«ih 
Roma  sotterroTwa  cristiana,  Rome,  1844;  C.  Maitbund 
Churek  in  ihe  Catacombs,  Londori^  1847;  L.  Peiret.  Lts 
CaiacomSfm  de  Rmne^  5  voIb,,  Paria,  1851-55  (plates  arc 
valuable,  the  text  ii  Ruperseded);  W.  t.  Kip,  CatacoTnhs  of 
Rome,  New  York^  1854:  D.  de  RIobeaioiit.  Les  Cata^ 
ComAM  d$  Romt,  Paris,  1870;  P.  Allard,  Rmnm  mouttrraintf 
Paris,  1S74;  J.  H.  Parker,  Ar^trohgjf  of  Rome.  pai>t«  ix, 
jc,  SLii,,  London*  1877  (a  atiadard  work);  T.  Holler.  Let 
C^tacombes  de  Rome,  Pari.i,  IBSl;  W.  R.  Brownlow. 
Cemetery  of  St.  Frisalia^  nnd  Recent  Distcffveries.  Lobdqn, 
1892;  M,  Armellioi,  L4  Catacombe  ttmuin^  HomBp  ISiSO; 
ideal,  GU  anHdd  cimitm  eristiani  di  Roma  #  d'ii^ioy 
ib,  1893;  R.  Lancianl,  Ruins  and  ExcaroHons  of  Anciemli 
R&me,  Indent  '*  tiemeteriea/'  Boflton.  1897;  A.  Weber,  Die 
ramisaAjm  Katakofr^ten^  Regeni^buri^.  190Q. 

Foropmeterieflin  I  Wjy  outside  liome  oonirult :  G.  E-  Pai- 
quini,  Un  antieo  eimita^.  Sienim.  1831 ;  tdetn,  Relatione  di 
un  antieo  cimitero  ...»  Monti pulciano,  1833;  C.  F.  B^l- 
lermann.  Die  i^i^ten  dtristtichen  BeffrdbnisttAtten^  Ham- 
burg, 1839  (at  Naples);  G.  Bcherillo,  Le  Catatombv  ^ojk>- 
litane,  Naplea,  1870;  F*  Liv^rani,  Le  Catacombe  .  .  ,  di 
Ckiusi.  Blenn&,  1872;  T.  Roller,  Die  Katakomben  w^n  Sfin 
Gennar&  .  .  .  tn  Neopef,  Jena,  1877;  V.  Scbultie.  Dk 
Katakomben  von  Ean  Gennaro,  ib.  1877;  V*  Colnnns, 
Scopcta  di  anttekitit  in  Uapoii,  1876-1897,  Naples,  18&8. 

For  3id1y,  Malta^  And  Sardinia  coQAuIt :  G.  P,  Es^lj;^. 
Description  of  Malta  and  i^ardinia^  pp.  255-20O.  M&lta, 
1838:  A.  A.  Caruana,  Recent  DiscxtPeries  at  Notabiie.  Malts, 
1881;  idem,  A  Htrpogeum  ...  *  ih.  1884;  B.  LuptUi 
Die  Stadt  Sj/raeus  im  Atterdium,  pp.  271,  275,  323- 3 2T. 
8trMburg.  1887;  V,  StraaiutlAH.  iaArckivio  storico  Siciliano. 
%xL  104-188,  Palermo,  1896:  J,  Fahrer.  in  AM  A.  1 
KlaHi>e,  XTt.  C1897>,  part  3;  idem,  FaracAungen  tur  Sicilio 
totterranea,  Munich,  1897  (A  work  ol  the  Hrvt  impnr- 
tancfi). 

For  Enxland:  Caroline  B.  Southey,  CAa  pliers  on  CkwrM- 
pardt,  London,  1870:  E.  E.  Jarrett.  Letatms  tm  tke  Chwfh- 
yt^rd,  ib.  1880;  Mrs.  B.  Holmes,  Londtm  Burial  Grouftd*^ 
ih.  I89fi. 

ConHult  also:  J.  B,  D.  Crochet,  La  Normamdie  stndtr- 
rain^  ou  Notit^s  sur  dee  cimeHires  romains  ct  des  cvrv- 
tieres  francs,  Dieppe,  1855;  idem,  S'^puUures  gautmsi:t, 
ramaineSt  franqu^  ft  nt^jmindes,  2  TD]e«,  ib.  1857. 

The  original  article  by  MQller,  in  Haudt-Heriog,  RE,  x. 
794-877^4  Jif  a  learned  treatise  sod  should  be  ooncidted  by 
ftdvftiic^  studenta. 


49d 


EELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cemeterlea 
Census 


CENSER  OR  THTJRIBLE:  The  vessel  in  which 
inoenBe  is  biirntMl  thiriug  divixic  service  m  the  East- 
em,  Roman  Calhohe,  and  of  late  years  many 
Anglican  churches.  The  utsual  shape  m  tliat  of  a 
small  metal  bowl,  with  a  bose  on  which  to  stand  it 
when  not  m  use*  and  5ttin^  over  it  a  high  conical 
cover  in  w^hich  are  perforations  to  let  the  smoke  out. 
The  whole  b  carried  by  three  chains,  on  which  the 
cover  slidea  up  and  down,  when  it  is  raised  to 
allow  incense  to  be  thrown  upon  the  live  coals 
contained  in  the  lower  part.  In  connection  with 
the  censer  another  smaller  vessel,  cjilleti  the  incense^ 
boat,  is  used  to  carry  the  supply  of  incense;  as  it« 
name  implies,  it  is  shaped  like  a  smal!  boat,  but 
with  a  lid  and  a  base  on  which  to  stand  it. 

CENSORSHIP  Am>  PROHIBmOH  OF  BOOKS: 

By  censorship  ia  meant  the  proviBion  that  no  pub- 
lication shall  be  iBsued  without  preliminary  exam- 
ination and  penniasion  by  the  authorities,  cither 
ecclesiastical  or  secular.  The  prohibition  of  books 
BB  dangerous  to  religion,  to  morals^  or  to  the  Stat« 
dates  back  to  an  early  period.  Thus  all  works  on 
miigic  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed  by  tke  later 

Roman    Empire,     Oonatantine  issued 

Early       an  etlict  that  the  works  of  Ariua  should 

Instancei.   be  burned,  and  numerous  like  edicts 

against  books  of  other  heretics  fol- 
lowed. Those  who  used  or  possesflied  such  books 
were  threatened  with  death.  The  Church  forbade, 
on  its  own  account,  the  reading  of  pagan  and  he- 
retical books  (Apostolic  ConstiiitiionSf  i.  6,  vi.  16; 
canon  xid,  of  the  Coimcil  of  Carthage ♦  398).  Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages,  both  Church  and  State  ad- 
hered firmly  to  the  same  principles;  a  salient  in- 
stance is  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Constance 
against  the  writings  of  John  Huss  and  its  execution. 
After  the  printing-press  w^as  invented  and  Uiscd 
to  advance  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  measures 
for  its  regulation  were  introduced  by  the  Church, 
which  first  established  a  formal  censorship  of  books^ 
In  a  letter  addressed  to  the  archbishops  of  Cologne, 
Mainz,  Treves,  and  Magdeburg,  Alexander  VI.  or- 
dered (1501)  that  no  book  should  be  printed  with- 
out special  authorization.  The  Lateran  Council 
of  1515  sanctioned  the  constitution  of  Leo  X.,  which 
provided  that  no  book  ihould  be  printed  without 

having  been  examined  in   Rome  by 

Censor-    the  papal  \acar  and  the  master  of  the 

•hip  by  the  sacred  palace,  in  other  countries  by 

Church,     the  bishop  of  the  diocese  or  hia  deputy 

and  the  inquisitor  of  heresies.  Further 
and  more  detailed  legislaticm  followed,  and  the 
Council  of  Trent  decreed  (session  iv.):  '*  It  shall 
not  be  lawful  to  print,  or  cause  to  be  printetl,  any 
books  relating  to  religion  without  the  name  of  the 
author;  neither  shall  any  one  hereafter  sell  any 
such  books^  or  even  retain  them  in  his  possession » 
unless  they  have  been  first  examined  and  approved 
by  the  ordinary*  on  pain  of  anathema  and  the 
pecuniary  fine  imj>osed  by  the  canon  of  the  recent 
Lateran  Council."  On  these  regulations  are  based 
a  number  of  enactments  in  different  dioceses  which 
are  still  in  force.  The  Council  decreed  also  that  no 
theological  book  sliould  be  printed  without  first 
receiving  the  approbation  of  the  bishop  of  the  dio- 


cese; and  this  rule  is  extended  in  the  monastic 
orders  so  far  aa  to  require  the  permission  of  supe- 
riors for  the  publication  of  a  bi^k  on  any  wubjcct. 

The  Council  of  Trent  left  the  further  provision 
concerning  the  whole  subject  to  a  sfiecial  commis- 
sion, which  was  to  report  to  the  pope.  In  accord- 
ance with  its  fiJidinga,  Pius  IV.  promulgated  the 
rule  submitted  to  him  and  a  list  of  prohibited  books 
in  the  constitution  Dominici  gregi^  custodiee  of  Mar, 
2A,  1564.  Extensions  and  expositions  of  this  m- 
,ling  were  isBued  by  Clement  VIIL,  Six- 
Present     t us  V.  ^  Alexander  VI L ,  and  o  t  her  popes. 

Practise,  The  present  practise  is  based  upon  the 
constitution  Sollicita  ac  pravida  of 
Benedict  XIV,  (July  10,  1753).  The  maintenance 
and  extension  of  the  Judex  librorum  jfrohibiiorum 
was  entrusted  to  a  spKicial  standing  committee  of 
cardinals,  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  (see 
Curia)^  which  from  time  to  time  publishes  new 
editions  (the  latest,  Turin,  1895).  There  is  also  an 
Index  librorum  expurgai&mm,  containing  books 
which  are  tolerated  after  the  excision  of  certain 
passages,  and  another  librorum  expurgandorunif  of 
thoee  which  are  still  in  need  of  such  partial  expur- 
gation. The  prohibition  to  read  or  possess  books 
thus  forbidden  is  binding  upon  all  Roman  Catho- 
Ucs>  though  in  special  cases  dispensations  from  it 
may  be  obtained.  The  most  recent  regulation  of 
the  whole  matter  was  made  by  the  bull  Offictarum 
QC  munemm  of  Leo  XIIL,  Jan.  25,  1S97. 

The  State  in  many  cases  for  its  owti  purposes  ap- 
proved the  principle  of  censorship  until  compara- 
tively recent  times.  In  Germany  it  was  abolished 
only  in  184B.  In  England  after  the  Reformation 
the  licensing  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury;  after  Milton^s  famous  on- 
slaught upon  it  in  the  Areopagitica  (1643),  it  came 
to  an  end  by  the  refusal  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1695  to  renew  the  Licensing  Act.  The  Reformed 
Church  of  Germany  maintained  similar  regulations 
In  some  places,  where  the  synodal  form  of  organiza- 
tion prevailed.  Among  the  Lutherans,  the  matter 
was  as  a  riile  left  in  the  hands  of  the  State. 

(E.  Fkiedbero.) 

BtauoamAPnT:  E.  G.  Peig:not.  DicHonnairt  »  ,  .  (Us  prinf 
cipQUj  tivTtt  eondamnf*  au  feu^  PAris.  1 806;  H.  Arndt, 
Dm  hbrit  pr&hibitiM.  Regrennburg,  1855;  J.  Fawler,  Di* 
kir€hlieh0  BUchervtrboU  Vienna,  1&&9:  F.  SachM,  Dim 
Anf&nge  der  BUcher99n*%it  in  Dvutschland,  L«ip»ie,  1870; 
Supj3r€»§ed  and  CfnMwrtd  Book*,  m  Edinburgh  RtvietP,  Vol. 
«£X2iv;,  July.  1871;  T.  WiedamjiTKi,  Dit  kirchliche  BQchtr- 
Mtnsyr  in  der  Ertdi&cuu  Wien,  Vienna,  1873;  F.  H. 
HBUBcb.  J>«r  Indtx  der  iwr6olffn«n  Bucher,  Bonn,  1883  sqq.; 
G,  H.  Putn&m.  C^ntort^ip  of  th«  Church  and  iU  Influ 
,  Literatun,  2  voteu.  1006;  JE,  hi.  642HU&2. 


CENSUS. 

r.  In  th«  Old  Teatminent. 
II.  Jo  tbo  New  TcwUnient. 

The  RoioAn  Geiuiui  of  Citiicnj  (f  1). 

Frovinciftl  Census  to  Ke^ulaie  Tribute  (13). 

Cvm  mad  lleiboiU  of  Roman  C^nAxiB  (ft  3). 

Fteleetinian  Oentus  of  G  a.d,   Quirinjiui  (f  4). 

Luke  y.  2  in  Error.    Jesiitf  not  Born  Under  Qtiiriniut 

(15). 
No  G«nerml  C«iuiu»  Undi^r  Auiputiui  (|  0), 
Solution,  a  Consua  by  Herod.  (|  7). 

Census  ia  a  terra  used  to  deeignate  an  enumera- 
tion of  the  people,  generally  for  purpo«ea  of  taxa- 
tioQ  or  for  service  in  the  arm^. 


0«n«us 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


494 


[L  In  the  Old  Testament:  Of  censuses  of  the 
whole  popidation  there  are  recoxded  in  the  Old 
Testament  ten  cases:  (1-2)  under  Moses  (Ex. 
xxzviii.  26,  cf.  Num.  i.;  Num.  xxvi.);  (3)  under 
David  (II  Sam.  xxiv.  1-9;  see  David);  (4)  under 
Solomon  (II  Chron.  ii.  17-18);  (5)  under  Reho- 
boam  (I  Kings  xii.  21);  (6)  imder  Jehoshaphat 
(II  Chron.  xyii.  14-19);  (7)  imder  Amasiah  (II 
Chron.  xxv.  5-6);  (8)  under  Usziah  (II  Chron. 
xxvi.  12-13);  (9-10)  under  Zerubbabel  (7)  and 
Esra  (Esra  ii.  64,  viii.  1-14).  There  are  other 
enumerations  given,  but  they  concern  merely  the 
strength  of  the  army,  as  in  II  Chron.  xiii.  3. 

XL  In  the  New  Testament:  The  subject  here  is 
of  interest  principally  in  its  relation  to  the  census 
mentioned  Luke  ii.  2  and  Acts  v.  37,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  birth  of  Jesus.] 

Originally  the  Romans  made  a  census  of  Roman 
dtiiens  only,  the  primaiy  object  being  the  adjust- 
ment of  their  quota  in  the  taxes  for  the  costs  of 
war.  This  census  was  intended  to  exhibit  not  only 
the  pecuniary  but  the  total  effective  utility  of  the 
individual  toward  the  State.  So  it 
I.  The      included  attestation  of  personal  dr- 

Roman  cimistances,  capacity  for  service,  civil 
Census  of  and  military,  and  the  moral  worthi- 

Citizens.  ness  of  those  enumerated.  Gradually 
this  census  of  Roman  citisens  lost 
significance.  While  in  earlier  times  it  was  repeated 
eveiy  five  years  in  connection  with  a  religious 
festivity  (lustrum),  during  the  civil  wars  it  lapsed. 
Augustus,  it  is  true,  consistently  with  his  general 
policy  of  bringing  about  an  ostensible  restoration 
of  the  republican  order  (T.  Mommsen,  RUmischea 
StaaUreehi,  ii.  337,  Leipsic,  1893),  adopted  the 
census  anew.  He  put  on  record  that  he  had  thrice 
held  a  complete  census  of  citizens,  viz.,  in  the  years 
29  B.C.,  8  B.C.,  and  14  a.d.  A  census  of  this  kind 
was  made  for  the  last  time  under  the  Emperor 
Vespasian. 

The  census  of  the  Roman  provinces,  introduced 

much  later,  was  quite  distinct  from  this  census 

of  citizens,  the  difference    corresponding  to  that 

between  the  Roman  people  as  conqueror  and  the 

provinces  as  conquered.     Since  in  this  light  the 

provincial  census  was  designed  to  regulate  not  the 

rights  but  the  obligations  of  those  enumerated,  it 

served  only  to  define  military  service 

a.  Provin-  and  tribute.    The  forms  of  the  latter 

cial  Census  in  the  various  provinces  showed  great 

to  Regulate  diversity.    There  was  doubtless  every- 

Tribute.  where  some  sort  of  ground  tax  {tribu- 
tum  soli),  usually  in  the  form  of  a 
definite  tribute,  partly  in  money,  partly  in  natural 
products,  which  could  also  be  levied  as  communal 
tithes,  except  that  if  in  case  of  a  defective  harvest 
the  amount  of  the  requisite  tribute  was  not  realized, 
the  tithes  were  made  good  through  other  taxes. 
The  real-estate  tax  was  everywhere  supplemented 
by  a  personal  tax  {tHbutum  capitis) ,  which  might 
be  levied  as  a  uniform  capitation  tax  for  all,  or 
(as  in  Egypt)  as  a  graduated  poll-tax;  or  as  prop- 
erty or  income  tax.  In  all  forms,  however,  it  was 
let  by  contract  to  tax  farmers.  These  taxes,  which 
in  the  main  came  down  from  the  republican  era, 
were  in  the  earlier  period  regulated  naiily  b^  means 


of  a  census.  But  only  from  the  time  of  the  gov- 
enmient  of  Augustus  were  they  organised  on  a 
more  extensive  basis.  Especially  in  the  provinces 
incorporated  by  OeBsar  and  the  emperors  into  the 
Roman  Empire  were  the  fiscal  relations  thus  regu- 
Uted. 

According  to  literary  records  well  known,  this 
was  done  three  times  in  Gaul  imder  Augustus,  then 
under  Nero  and  Domitian;  in  Syria,  Judea,  and 
Spain  under  Augustus;  among  the  Clitae  under 
Tiberius;  in  Britain  under  Claudius;  in  Dada un- 
der Trajan.  Besides  these  provinces,  the  following 
are  named  in  inscriptions  as  subjected  to  a  census 
in   imperial   times:     Aquitania,   Bel- 

3.  Cases  and  gium,  Lugdunensis,  Lower  Gennany, 
Methods  of  Macedonia,      Thrace,      Paphlagonia, 

Roman  Africa,  and  Biauritania.  In  the  re- 
Census,  publican  era  the  administration  of 
these  provincial  censuses  had  been 
combined  with  the  office  of  provincial  governor; 
but  in  imperial  times  it  was  transferred  to  the 
emperor.  Augustus  personally  executed  this  office 
in  Gaul,  in  other  cases  the  emperor  was  represented 
by  men  of  the  highest  rank;  for  entire  provinces, 
as  a  rule,  persons  of  senatorial  station  were  ap- 
pointed; for  smaller  districts,  knights.  At  the 
outset  in  the  imperial  provinces,  the  census  was 
delegated  only  occasionally  (Mommsen,  ut  sup.,  ii. 
410,  a,  4)  to  the  provincial  governor.  The  essen- 
tial uniformity  of  organization  of  taxes  and  assess- 
ments throughout  the  empire,  such  as  is  proved 
for  the  later  imperial  times  by  the  classic  legal 
sources,  although  no  traces  are  apparent  of  a  sudden 
reorganisation  in  relation  to  the  provinces  under  the 
earlier  period,  was  eariy  anticipated  by  the  census 
regulations  of  Augustus.  As  to  the  detailed  con- 
stitution of  this  provincial  census,  which  later 
became  imiversal,  there  is  still  some  debate;  it  is 
fairly  certain,  however,  that  it  regulated  a  real- 
estate  tax  for  proprietors  and  a  personal  tax  for 
the  landless;  that  it  included  the  taxpayers'  per- 
sonal assessment;  that  its  organization  was  not 
communal  but  provincial;  and  that  the  foimsl 
declaration  took  place  in  the  principal  centers  of 
the  fiscal  districts.  Of  the  interval  between  cen- 
suses there  is  certain  knowledge  only  in  relation  to 
Egypt,  through  the  new  discoveries  of  Egyptian 
papyri  (U.  Wilcken,  Griechiache  Ostraka,  in  Archiv 
fur  Papyrus forschung,  vol.  i.,  1899),  according  to 
which  in  that  country  two  kinds  of  assessments 
{apographai)  were  executed  at  stated  times:  a 
popular  enumeration  every  fourteen  3rears,  and  a 
declaration  of  movable  property  annually. 

In  Palestine,  at  all  events,  a  census  quite  in  the 

Roman  manner  was  executed  in  the  year  6  A.n., 

though  only  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country, 

which  in  that  year  came  under  inomediate  Roman 

jurisdiction.    The  Syrian  legate  Quiri- 

4.  Palestin-  nius  was  at  that  time  entrusted  with 
ian  Census  the  extraordinary  imperial  conmussioD 
of  6  A.D.  of  undertaking  a  census  not  only  in 
Quirinius.    the  newly  annexed  coimtry  but  also 

throughout  Syria  (cf.  also  CIL,  iii., 
supplement,  no.  6687).  The  vehement  opposition 
which  the  regulation  provoked  among  the  Jewish 
population  and  especially  with   a  facticm  whose 


leader  waa  Judas  of  Galilee  (q.v.)  shows  thai  in  that 
form  it  was  new  to  the  region.  This  census,  aa  the 
mention  of  Judas  of  Galilee  implies,  is  referred  to 
in  the  words  of  Acts  v.  37,  *'  in  the  days  of  the  en- 
rolment/' 

More  difficult  of  solution  is  the  other  New  Testa* 
ment  passage,  in  which  mention  is  made  of  a  cen- 
sus decreed  from  Rome  (Luke  ii.  2).  It  is  here 
dietinctly  stated  that  this  census,  commanded  by 
Cffisar  Augustus  for  the  whole  Roman  Empire,  was 
the  first  which  took  place  in  Palestine  (as  decreed 
by  Augustus)  when  Quirinius  was  governor  of 
Syria;  and  that  by  it  Josepli  was  obligateit  to  go 
with  Mary  to  Bethlehem,  his  place  of  enrol  ment  t 
w^here  the  birth  of  Jesus  came  to  pass. 
5.  Luke  ii.  a  From  the  fitartrng-jxiint  of  AcIb  v,  37, 

m  Error,    it  were  most  plausible  to  bring  the 

Jesus  not  birth  of  Christy  according  to  Luke  ii., 
Bom  Under  down  to  tlie  time  of  the  census  of  the 

QuirmiuB.  year  6  a.o.  Tlus  is  antagonized  by 
the  chronology  of  Luke  iii,  23,  also 
by  the  fact  that  both  Matthew  and  Luke  pre- 
suppose the  birth  of  Jesus  during  the  reign  of 
Herod  the  Great,  who  died  in  the  year  4  b.c. 
of  the  Dionysian  era  (see  Herod  and  His  Faicily); 
that  is,  the  birth  of  Christ  would  have  occurred  in 
the  last  preceding  years.  But  in  those  years 
Quirinius  could  not  have  been  governor  of  Syria, 
because  Sentiu8  Saturn  in  us  was  gt)vemor  in  the 
years  8-6  b.c.  (Josephus,  vln^,  XVL  ix,  1),  and 
from  6  B,c.  until  after  Herod's  death  the  governor 
was  Quintilius  Varus  (Josephus,  Anl.,  XVIL  v.  2, 
X.  1 ).  It  has  been  therefore  proposed  on  exegefcieal 
grounds  to  set  aside  the  s}'Tichronisni  t>etween  the 
govemorsliip  of  Quirinius  and  the  birth-  of  Jesus. 
But  these  attempts  are  impossible  artifices.  It 
has  also  been  affirmed  on  the  strength  of  the  later 
governorship  of  Quirinius  in  the  year  fi  a,d.,  that 
he  served  an  earlier  preceding  term  (T.  Moramsen, 
Res  gestw  dim  Auguati,  Berlin,  1865).  But  the 
evidences  of  this  are  quite  uncertain.  And  since 
in  no  case  can  an  earlier  term  of  Quirinius  as  gov- 
ernor coincide  with  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great, 
it  would  not  elucidate  Luke  ii.  2.  If  it  be  assumed 
that  the  census  of  the  year  of  Christ^s  birth  was 
begun  by  Satuniinus,  continued  by  Varus,  and  com- 
pleted by  Quirinius  (Zumpt),  against  this  in  Luke 
ii.  2j  the  governorship  of  Quirinius  ts  evidently 
intended  to  indicate  the  time  when  the  event 
recorded  there  took  place*  and  a  census  by  a 
Roman  officer  in  Judea  before  the  annexation  of 
that  coimtry  jb  improbable.  Accordingly  Zalm 
assumes  that  only  one  Roman  census  took  place 
in  Palestine,  namely,  under  Quirinius,  which  is 
meant  both  in  Luke  it,  and  in  Acts  v.;  save  that 
this  occurred  not  in  the  year  6  A.n. ,  but  in  the  year 
4  B.C.,  several  months  after  the  death  of  Herod. 
But  the  particularity  of  ttie  data  in  Joaephus  con- 
tradicts this  hypothesis,  wliich  at  all  eventj^  does 
not  clear  the  Gospel  of  Luke  of  error.  On  this 
account  it  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  governorship 
of  Quirinius,  Luke  ii.  2,  has  been  erroneously 
transposed  from  the  census  of  the  year  6  to  the 
year  of  Christ's  birth. 

Still  again,  the  report  in  Luke  ii.  of  a  general  Ro- 
man imperial  census  is  not  historically  warrantable 


according  to  the  Uteral   text.     Disregarding  later 
UQ trustworthy  accounts,  there   are  no  literary  or 
epigraphjc  traces  of  an  imperial  census 
6.  Ko  Gen*  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  such  an 
eral  Census  event  could  not  have  occurred  with- 
Under      out  leaving  some  traces.    And  from 
Augustus,    the  monument  of  Aneyra   it  is  evi- 
dent  that   Augustus  did  not   hold  a 
census   of    Roman  citizens   in  the    period    from  8 
BeC,   to   14  A.D.     Only  in  the  emperor's  financial 
reform  projects  with  reference  to  the  whole  empire, 
and  in  the  assessments  held  by  him  in  many  parts 
of  the  empire^  appears  a  certain  nucleus  of  truth 
for  that  stjitement  in  Luke  ii. 

if  then  in  the  Ught  of  Luke  ii.  the  governorship 
of  Quirinius  and  the  Roman  imperial  census  can  not 
be  verified,  this  report  is  not  to  be  rejected  as  un- 
historical  in  all  other  respects.  That  Herod  at 
that  time  received  orders  from  Augustus  to  under- 
take a  census  in  Ixis  country  is  not  an  impossi- 
bility. Highly  as  Herod  w^as  esteemed  even  by 
the  emperor,  he  nevertheless  remained  the  emper- 
or's subject.  This  is  manifest  from  the  words  of 
Augustus,  that  he  would  henceforth 
7»  Solution  J  treat  him  not  as  liis  friend  but  as  his 
a  Census  subject  (Joseph as,  AtU.,  XVI.  ix.  3); 
by  Herod,  as  hkewise  from  his  rating  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  Syrian  procurators  {AnL, 
XV.  X.  3).  Consequently,  since  the  Jews  of  Pales* 
tine  from  Pomjiey's  time  forth  had  lieen  obliged 
to  pay  tribute  in  various  forms  to  the  Romans, 
Herotl  was  also  bound  to  the  payment  of  tribute 
promptly  after  hh  appointment  as  king  (Appian, 
Betlti  civilia,  v.  75).  It  is,  therefore,  arbitrary  to 
doubt  (Schiirer)  that  he  also  paid  such  dues  con- 
tinually (cf.  Wieseler,  TSK,  187,i.  pp.  *^4l  sqq.). 
Nevertheless  he  was  not  deprived  of  the  right  of 
imposing  and  increasing  taxes  in  his  own  name 
(cf.  Josephus,  .4n^,  XV.  x.  4;  XVIL  ii.  L  xi.  2). 
It  is  accordingly  to  be  assumed  that  he  had  to 
furnish  tribute  to  a  prescribed  amount  at  Rome 
tlie  collection  of  which  was  generally  left  to  him 
out  of  Jewish  revenues.  Where,  however  the 
Roman  interest  required  it,  the  emperor,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  could  intervene  for  raising  the 
necessary  taxes  to  make  up  the  tribute.  This  is 
apparent  from  a  similar  case,  wherein  Augustus 
commanded  Archelaus  to  remit  one-fourth  of  the 
Samaritans'  taxes  (Joseph us,  Ant.,  XVIL  xi.  4). 
It  is  then  conceivable  that  he  commanded  Herod 
to  regulate  the  taxes  necessary  for  the  Roman 
tribute  by  means  of  a  census  by  virtue  of  the  forms 
already  in  vogue.  For  that  Augustus  did  not  at 
that  time  order  a  specifically  Roman  census  in 
Palestine,  but  adhered  to  the  Jewish  practises,  is 
borne  out  by  other  analogies  in  Roman  procedure 
(Tacitus,  Annales,  iv.  72),  by  the  operations  of  the 
Roman  census  of  the  year  6  a.Dv,  and  by  indica- 
tions affortled  by  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  according 
to  which  the  census  in  question  was  decreed  con- 
formably to  Jewish  tribal  enrolments.  [For  reply 
to  above  see  Quirinius*.]  F.  Sieffert. 

BtBUOoftArar;  The  older  literature  on  IL  i«  eiven  in  TSK, 
1852.  pp.  663  aqq.  P.  £.  IJiischke.  Uebtr  den  tw  Zeit  dtr 
Oeburt  Christi  ffeh/dttnen  C«iurut,  BresUu,  1840;  idem, 
Ueber  Hen  Census  und  dU  StsutnfsrfaMung  der  .  .  ,  A'ai«fr« 
m£,   ib.   1847;    C.   Wieieter,  ChronolooiKke  SynopM  der 


Oentral  Amerloa 
Chaloedon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


496 


viifT  Evanadien^  H^rahur^t  1843;  ittenif  Be^d^v  fur 
fidtliffrn  WUrdiffunif  dvF  EvanoelisH^  Gattm,  1800;  irl^m, 
in  T8K,  1S75*  pp.  435  pqq.;  J.  v^n  Gumpaeh,  in  TSK, 
1S52,  pp.  663  sqq.;  A.  W.  Zumpl,  C<min«raallmtM  epi- 
graphiar,  ii.  73-74+  Berlin*  1854;  idem,  Dtu  Gebtirttjohr 
€hri*tl  pp.  20  nqq,,  Leipsie.  1B@9:  Aberlc,  in  TQ,  lg6A, 
pp.  IDS  aqq.,  1868,  pp.  20  Bf]q4  A.  Milcenfeltl,  in  ^IfT, 
laaa.  pp.  40S  pqq.»  laro,  pp.  Ul  •qq,;  H.  GerluOi*  Di* 
rA)iiKA#ri  ^lol^l^  In  Sv^'itn  und  JudM^  pp.  22  P^iq. 
Berlia.  18«5;  T.  Uwin,  Foili  Sfl*ri.  Loiitlon,  ISG6;  H. 
Lutterotb^  Lm  Refentemeni  d#  Qutrt'¥tiu«  m  Jitdt^,  Paring 
1865;  C.  E,  Csupiidit  Chronolof^imch-o^ograj^iMche  Ein^ 
litlung  in  duM  L^xn  Chtittv,  H&mburc,  i860;  J,  Mar- 
qu&rdt,  l2^>ftMJtc40  i^Coalit^erim^n^,  VoL  L.  li,  204  vqa., 
LeipfaD*  J  881 -84;  P,  Schejarg,  Bna  Tod^ahr  d«  .  .  * 
Htnide*  und  das  Ge&url«/aAr  Chritii,  pp.  37  i^qq.,  Mtiaickt 
Xa82;  F.  Riwfl*  Nochimdw  da*  Oeburtmjtjhr  Cftrwli,  Frel- 
btira.  1883;  T.  ZeiiB.  in  A'K^,  1S93,  pp.  633  *qq4  W.  M. 
Ra.tiLiiay,  in  EipawHor,  1897,  pp.  274  (iqq..i  426  nqq.;  idem, 
Wia  Christ  Both  ai  BethUhem*  Loti4Da,  IW&B;  SchQrer, 
GfAc^kAir^  1.  £08  ■qq.,  Eng.  trtuist,,  1.  i,  357,  ii.  SO,  106- 
143;  HiLverrielcl,  in  C£ac#k«il  Revifw,  July,  1900.  pp.  300 
■qq.:  i>B«  iv.  183;  £/J,  iv.  3O04-Q6;  ftlm  the  oomiDcifi- 
t&riefl  on  the  paAjut^tw  in  Luke  aad  Acts,  and  the  workj 
on  the  Lif«  of  Cbridt. 

CEHTRAL  AMERICA*  The  extreme  iouthcm 
portion  of  the  continent  of  North  America^  including 
aeven  independent  states,  a&  fotlows,  enumerated  in 
geographic^  oider  from  north  to  south: 

Area.  Fci|>ijl(i^ 

Squon*  m£le<L  tmn. 

Colony  of  British  Hondurui. , . .    7,562  40,000 

aepubljo  of  GuiitemAlA 46,774  1 .800,000 

He  pubU  oof  Honduras..........  42,6JS8  775  .OCX) 

Republic  of  SaSvadiif .,_.....,     8*130  1 .000,000 

Eepubtia  of  Nicnraxua... ..,,,..   51, £60  400.000 

Republic  of  Co«tAftie^.,_,,,,  33,000  331.000 

Republio  of  Fanama. 31 ,800  3^,000 

The  popuktion  b  overwhelmingly  Indian,  negro, 
and  mixed.  In  Britiah  Honduras  in  1 891  there  were 
only  400  whjtas.  Id  Guatemala  60  per  cent  of  the 
people  or©  Indiana  and  28  per  cent  mixed.  About 
onc^twentieth  of  the  population  of  Salvador  and 
one- fifth  of  that  of  Nicaragua  are  classed  as  white. 
In  Costa  Rica  there  are  S,000  Indians,  and  the 
remainder  is  almost  entirely  Creole.  The  Indians 
in  many  localititis  retain  their  native  language  and 
live  in  almost  primitive  conditions^  where  clashed 
a»  Roman  Catholic  converts  their  relation  to  the 
Church  ig  often  little  more  than  nominal.  But 
few  of  the  colored  population  stilt  persist  in  heath- 
enism. 

The  republic  of  Panama  was  formed  by  revolu- 
tion from  Colombia  in  1Q(J3.  Religious  statist  ies 
for  this  state  are  not  availablei  but  it  may  be  saidj 
in  general,  that  conditions  are  the  same  as  in  the 
reat  of  Central  America  and  the  mother  country 
(see  Colombia)*  The  five  older  Central  American 
republica,  after  the  disruption  from  Spain,  formed 
from  1821  to  1839  the  "  United  States  of  Central 
America."  Their  present  independent  statuj  was 
attained  gradually »  often  after  internal  dissension 
and  warfare.  During  the  revolutionary  and  form- 
ative pjeriod  the  Church  mififered  much.  Its 
property  was  confiscated,  monasteries  were  abol- 
ished, monks  were  banished,  and  the  secular  clergy 
were  jjersecuted.  Poverty  has  also  been  a  heavy 
bunion  to  the  Church,  Ecclesiastical  affairs  were 
n^gtih^ted  by  a  scries  of  concordats  with  Pop© 
Pius  IX,  between  1852  and  1863  (see  Concordats 
AND  Delimiting  Bulls,  VL^  5), 

The  rtMigion  is  everywhere  Roman  Catholic,  but 
toleration  is  now  legally  aasured  in  sdl  states.    The 


diocese  of  Guatemala  was  founded  in  15S4  and  rakd 
to  archiepiscopal  rank  in  1743.  The  euflrapn 
bishoprics  are  Nicaragua  (1534)^  Comayagua  (for 
Honduras,  1561),  San  Salvador  (1842),  and  M 
Josd  of  Costa  Rica  ( 1850).  A  vicsjr  apostolic  list 
resided  at  Belize  in  British  Honduras  since  1S03L 

An  AngUean  diocese  of  Honduras  and  Cestnl 
America  was  f  ound&i  in  1 883.  The  bishop  reddes  at 
BeUze.  G  ua temala  has  approsdmat oly  4,500  Protea- 
tants  representing  English  and  American  chiircbfii 
and  including  a  congregation  of  about  1,000  Germtm 
resident  in  the  capital.  Protestants  in  Hondursi 
number  about  1 ,000  and  in  Costa  Rica  3,200.  Tbey 
are  barely  represented  in  Salvador.  In  NicaragUA 
are  fifteen  **  stations  "  of  the  Moravians. 

All  the  states  bave  public  schools,  colle^  and 
universities,  and  progrev^  is  being  made  in  both 
elementary  and  the  higher  education.  As  mi^t 
be  expected,  however,  the  majority  of  the  pc^uU- 
tion  is  illiterate.  Attendance  at  the  elemeDto^ 
schools  is  compulsory  in  Costa  Hica,  Guatcmflb, 
and  Ho&duras.  Wilhzlu  Qo^n. 

BiBLtooftAPtiT:  In  vener&t:  T.  Chilil*  Sp&niith  Amerum  i2«- 
pi^ieM.  LoEidon,  IB92;  Etn&logyi  C^ntni^Amerimna,  Ua^i 
18§3;  C.  Sapper,  Da*  n6rdiich«  MiUel  AmmikA.  Branm* 
1807^:  idem,  MUietafnt!Hka.  Rtiien  uvd  Studien,  lb,  1102; 
C.  H&ebier,  Die  Rttigion  det  MittUren  Amfhka,  Bdiinitcr, 
1809,  On  BritUh  Hooduras:  A.  R.  G  ibb*,  BHtith  Hitfidmit 
London^  1883^  BriH^  H&ndurtt»  Almafui&,  annofrt,  Be&M 
Ofi  Guatemala:  O.  StoU,  H^imn  und  SchUdtrtuiem  k^ 
Ouaiemaia.  1886;  T.  Bri^brnm,  OwiSetnala,  New  Yoii 
1S87;  A,  C.  MaudAley,  A  Glimpte  a$  QimUmala^  UnAma, 
laOfi;  MtHto?iarifllerwti7^£h«lforirf,  idv.  4l901)I6giqg. 

CEOLFRID,  chdlfrxd,  SAIIfT:  Abbot  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow;  b,  of  noble  parents  in  Nofthmn- 
bria  e.  642;  d,  at  Langres,  France,  while  on  bis 
way  to  Rome,  Sept.  24,  716.  He  became  nrnodt 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  was  msjiie  prior  bj 
Benedict  Biscop  (q,v,)  of  his  new  abbey  of  St. 
Peter  at  Wearmouth,  which  was  begim  in  6'^: 
accompanied  Biscop  to  Rome  in  678;  bpcame 
abbot  of  hii  second  monatstery  foimded  at  Jajroff 
in  681  or  682  (where  be  had  B^e  among  his  pupib), 
and  in  688  abbot  of  both  Wearmouth  and  Jonow, 
He  was  a  good  manager  and  increased  and  enriched 
his  monasteries,  at  the  same  time  makiag  them 
centers  of  learning  and  industry.  He  took  special 
pains  to  learn  the  Roman  methods  of  reading  ami 
singing  the  services  and  influenced  the  Irijsh  ia 
Scotland  to  adopt  the  Roman  data  for  Easter. 

BiDLiooftAflTT^  Bcde^  HiMioria.  ahhatum;  »l0O  ti%iL  «frf.T 
IT.  18»  V,  2 J  (wh«r«  Ceolfrid*s  Ifttier  to  Naiton  [N«ln»iil 
king  of  tlie  Picts,  on  the  tUmtrr  dincdtioin,  is  pivenK^-  2*^ 
&|60  the  anQrtyroovifi  ffutoria  ahbatum,  by  a  moult  tif  W«u^ 
mouth,  contemporary  with  Ceolfnd,  in  PJumtner'?*  ^^ 
i.  388-i04:  W.  Bright.  Eiuiy  Eno^Uh  Churdt  ffi^i^i 
pp,  308-300,  Oxford,  1S07« 

CERDO  (CERDOIT):  A  Syrian  Gnostie,  wk 
according  to  Irenieua  (T.  xxvii,  1 ,  IIL  iv.  3)  ai|d 
Eiwebius  {Ch-on.,  ed.  Sehoene,  i.  168),  lived  ia 
Rome  in  the  time  of  the  bishop  Hyginus  (c.  1^ 
140),  Epiphanius  (xli.  I)  connects  binJ  ^^^ 
Satuminus*  He  ia  of  importance  chiefly  as  ha\iB| 
been  the  teacher  of  Marcion  (q.v.).    G.  KfltJoEE. 

CERXHTHUS:  Gnostic  teacher  of  .Asia  ^GnoT, 
about  ItW  A.D.  According  to  Irenmus  (L  3fTvi.  i^ 
he  taught  that  the  worid  was  not  created  by  tba 
first  God,  but  by  a  subordinate  power.    Jesus  wAi 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Central  America 
OhiUcedoii 


a  son  of  Joseph  and  Marj",  but  was  wiser  and  more 
righteoiiB  than  other  mi'n.  After  his  baptism  the 
^irit  of  the  all-sublime  ptiwcr  of  God  deawmled 
upon  him  in  tlie  form  of  a  dove.  From  now  on  he 
preached  the  unitnown  Father  and  performed 
miracles.  Finally  the  **  Christ  "  forsook  liiin,  but 
"  Jesus "  euffered  and  rose  again,  whereas  the 
spiritual  Christ  did  not  suffer.  Johi>  directed  liia 
Gospel  especially  against  Cerinthus  (III.  xi.  l),and 
in  proof  of  the  aversion  wliich  the  ajiostle  felt 
toward  this  heretic  Ircnseus  (11 L  iii.  4)  telk  a  story 
from  Polycarp  that  the  two  met  onee  in  the  batlis 
Ebl  Ephe^ua,  whereupon  the  apostle  fled,  "  lest 
Prc'Q  the  bath-house  fall  down  because  C^rinthus 
is  inside."  In  the  main  the  stor>'  is  credible,  but 
the  later  story  (cf.  Epiphanius,  /ftrr.,  xxviii.  and 
others)  of  the  Judaism  of  Cerinthus  is  an  invention. 
The  assertion  of  the  Roman  Caius  that  Cerinthus 
ifi  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  is  certainly  erro- 
neous, G,  KRfOER. 

Biblioorai'hy:  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Zur  Queihnkritik  de»  Epi- 
pkaniuM,  pp.  115-122.  Viennm,  1866;  A.  H ilgpnf dd,  KeUrr- 
gmckkhU  dt*  UrchrUtenhimt,  pp.  411-421,  Lcip»jc,  1884; 
A.  Haraack.  DogmenottMckiefiU,  i.  234-235.  Freiburg,  1894. 
EbiS.  tmnaL,  iii.  14-10,  Boaton,  1807;  T.  Zahti,  Ge^iehichte 
ds»  neututamentlichen  Kanotu,  2  voU.,  Erlnneeii.  lSSS-92; 
KrOgcr*  Huiorv,  p.  68  and  literature  given  ther*. 

CESAIlINI»oh^^"eQ-rI'm*,  GTOtlAHO  (JUIIAH  CE- 
SARIKI) :  Cardinal.  He  belonged  to  a  distingui.shed 
family  of  Rome  and  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
curia  as  a  humanist  and  teaclier  of  law  at  Padua. 
Po{.ie  Martin  V.  made  Mm  cardinal  (1426)  and 
Eugenius  IV.  promoted  him  to  cardinal  bishop  of 
Frascati*  His  knowledge  of  law  and  ability  as  a 
diplomatisjt  fitted  him  for  delicate  missione.  The 
Hussite  question  was  entrusted  to  liim  and  he  en- 
tered Bohemia  with  a  crusading  array^  but  the  army 
waa  defeated  and  the  cardinal  fletl  ignominiously 
(1431),  From  1431  to  1438  he  presidetl  at  the 
Council  of  Basel  with  marked  ability  *  In  1 4^*8  and 
1439  he  was  active  in  Fenrara  and  Florence,  and 
shortly  aft^*r  went  to  Hungary  to  incite  King 
Vladislav  to  war  against  the  Turks.  He  suceeetled, 
and  war  broke  out  iu  1443,  but  Vladislav  was 
defeated  and  slain  at  Varna,  Nov.  10,  1444,  and 
Cesarini  nltm  perished  while  trying  to  escape; 
he  was  probably  assassinated  and  robbed  while 
en^deavoring  to  cross  the  Danube. 

Paul  Tschackert. 
Bkbuoobapitt:  The  oJdcr  accounts  are  in  A.  CHncon,  %'\tm 
.  .  ,  pontificum  tt  ,  ^  ,  carditmlium,  ii.  Sfil  »ciq.,  4  vol*., 
Rome,  1677;  and  £.  BallUAi,  Afitcviianea.  vol.  iii^,  4  vol«.^ 
Lucca,  1761-64.  Consult  also:  F,  von  Bejtold*  KAnig 
SiomurvJ  und  die  ReichMkrit>0€  CFet^i^  die  Hutiten.  3  part*, 
Uunieh,  1872-77;  Creifrhton,  Papacy,  ii.  16^-1 65»  104 
•qq.;  Hefele.  Conftiten0e*c/iidiif,  veil.  vli.  paeaiiii;  KL, 
iii.  2ft- 28. 

CHAD,  SAIHT.    See  Ceadda,  Saint. 

CHADERTON^  LAURENCE:     Puritan;    b.  near 

Oldham    (8   m.   n.e.   of   Manchester),   Lancashire^ 

Sept  14,  1536  or  1538;   d.  at  Cambridge  Nov.  13, 

^640.     He  studied  at  Christ *a  College,  Cambridge 

■B.A.,  1567;    B.D,,  1578;    D,D.,  1613),  and  there 

*  At  the  Council  of  Battel  C«sarini'a  attitiide  toward    tha 
Hi]»sit«i  waa  hijthly  ooneiltatury;  and  he  urged  a  tliurough 
frJlormation  of  er<!:leai:iuiti{<al   abuses  as  the   only  Aafegtiard 
B^piost  further  flcluniis.— A.  H.  N. 
II.— 32 


embraced  the  Protestant  religion,  for  which  his 
father  threatened  to  disinherit  him.  He  tieeame 
fellow%  dean,  tutor,  and  lecturer  of  his  college,  and 
as  afternoon  lecturer  of  St,  Clement's  Church, 
Cambridge,  for  nearly  fifty  years  aequireti  fame 
as  a  preacher  and  exertetl  a  far-reaching  influence. 
When  Sir  Walter  Mildmay  founded  Emmanuel 
College  in  1584  he  insisted  on  Chaderton's  becoming 
master,  and  the  latter  filled  the  office  T^-ith  much 
ability  imd  success  till  1622,  when  he  resigned. 
From  159S  to  1640  he  was  prebendary  of  Lincoln. 
Though  a  Puritan  he  was  moderate  in  viewa  and 
conciliatory  in  manners.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference  (q.v.)»  and  waa  one  of 
the  Cambridge  committee  of  Bible  tranelators. 
He  appears  to  have  published  nothing  except  an 
anonymous  tract,  De  fustifi^^ionef  and  a  single 
Bcrraon, 

Biulioqraphy:  W.  Dillingham.  Vita  Chadertoni,  ed.  J.  Dil- 
lin«liain,  Cambridirc.  1700,  Eng,  transL  by  E.  S.  Scliuck- 
burgh,  ib.  1884;    IJNB,  ix.  430-432. 

CHADWICK,  JOHI?  WHITE:  American  Uni- 
tarian; b.  at  Marblehead,  Maes.,  Oct.  19,  1840; 
(L  in  Brooklyn  Dec.  11,  1904.  His  father  was  a 
seafaring  man,  and  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker. But  in  1S57  he  entered  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Bridgewater,  Mass,,  and  while  there 
determined  to  become  a  minister.  From  the  Nor- 
mal School  he  passed  to  Phillips  Exeter  Academy 
and  the  Di\inity  School  of  Harvard  University, 
from  which  latter  institution  he  was  graduated  in 
1864*  He  was  immediately  asked  to  supply  for 
three  months  the  pulpit  of  the  Second  Unitarian 
Church  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  but  made  so  favorable 
an  impression  that  his  relation  became  a  permanent 
one  and  he  was  its  pastor  at  the  time  of  his  death* 
Besides  being  well  known  as  a  preacher  and  lec- 
turer and  highly  esteemed  as  a  man,  he  won  dis- 
tinction as  an  author  both  in  prose  and  poetry. 
He  described  himself  as  a  *'  radical  Unitarian/'  but 
he  was  heard  with  respect  by  those  who  most 
differed  from  him.  Besides  many  other  contributions 
to  the  press,  he  pnbhshed:  Life  of  Xathnniei  Aka^an- 
der  Staples  (Boston,  1870) ;  .4  Book  of  Poerm  (1876, 
now  in  its  10th  ed.);  The  Bible  of  To-day  (New- 
York,  1878) ;  The  Faith  of  Reason,  a  Series  of  Dis^ 
courses  on  Lending  Topics  of  Religion  (Boston,  1879, 
2d  ed.,  1880);  Sotne  Aspects  of  Religion  (New  York, 
1879);  Belief  and  Life  {1881);  The  Man  Jesus 
(Boston,  1881,  2d  ed.,  1882);  Origin  and  DesHny 
(1883);  In  Nazareth  Town  :  a  Christmas  Fantxtsy, 
and  Othrr  Poems  (1883);  A  Daring  FaUh  (1885); 
Th^  Good  F<?icc«,  poems  (Troy,  N.  Y.,  1885); 
Charlt's  Robert  Darwin  (Boston,  1889);  Evotulian 
and  Social  Reform  (1890);  Evolution  of  Architecture 
(New  York,  1891);  Evohdion  as  Related  to  Cititen- 
ship  (1892);  George  William  Curtis:  an  Address 
(1893) :  The  Old  and  the  New  Unitarian  Belief  (Boa- 
ton,  1894);  Theodore  Parker  (1900);  WiUiom  EUery 
Channing  (1903);   and  Later  Poems  (1905). 

CHAITAHYA,  chai"ta-nf'a:  Brahman  formu- 
laforof  the  doctrine  of  B^kiA-;i.    See  India*  L,3,  f  3. 

CHALCEDOlf,  kal'se-don:  A  city  of  Bithynia, 
on  the  Bosporus,  near  Constantinople,  the  scene 
of  the  Fourth  Generd    (Council    (451),    at    which 


Olutldea 
OliamberlAia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


496 


EutyehianiBm  wae   condeiniied    and  the  so-called 
Oreed  of  C halcyon  adopted.     See  CasawrouooYf 

IV;    EUTYCBIANISM. 

CHALDEA.     See  Babylonia,  VT,  7, 

CHALDEAN  CHKISTIAnS.     See  Nxbtoiuan^. 

CHALICE,     See  VESfiELB,  Baceed»  $  1. 

CEALLONER,  RICHAKD :  EngUsh  Roman  Cath- 
oKc  prelate;  b.  at  Lewes  (50  na.  s.  of  London), 
Suaaex,  Sept.  20,  1691;  d.  in  London  Jan.  12,  178 L 
His  father  was  a  Protestantr  but  died  soon  after 
his  son's  birth,  and  the  latter  was  brought  up  by 
Botnan  Catholics  and  embraoed  their  religion  at 
about  the  age  of  thirteen.  Iq  1704  he  was  sent  to 
Douai  and  remained  there  as  student ,  professor, 
ftnd  viee-president  for  twenty-six  years  (B.D,, 
1719;  D,D.,  1727;  ordained  priest  1716).  In  1730 
he  joined  the  London  mission,  and  in  1741  was  con^ 
Meerated  coadjutor  to  Dr,  Benjamin  Petre,  vicar 
apostolic  of  the  London  district;  he  became  vicar 
apostolic  on  Dr.  Petrels  death  in  175S.  He  was  a 
learned  and  pious  man,  and  performe<l  his  duties 
with  faithfulness  and  ability,  in  the  midst  of  peise^ 
cution  from  the  penal  laws  and  the  fanaticism  of 
the  English  popiUacc.  He  wrote  upward  of  forty 
different  works,  controversial,  devotional,  histor- 
ical, etc.  His  Memoirs  of  Misgionary  Priests  .  .  . 
and  of  other  Catholies  .  .  .  thai  have  suffered  death 
in  England  on  reiigwtts  acamnt^  from  the  ^ear  1577 
lo  i6S4  (2  vols.,  London,  1741-42;  many  later  eds.) 
Is  the  HomsJi  Catholic  "Book  of  Martyrs";  Tfm 
Garden  of  the  Saul  (1740)  is  still  the  moat  popular 
prayer-book  with  English  Koman  Catholics;  and 
The  Rheima  New  TestaTnent  and  £^  Drntaif  Bible ^ 
wUh  annotations  (5  vols,,  London,  1749-50;  3d 
ed,,  rev^ised,  1752),  prepared  by  Challoner  and 
under  his  direction,  is  the  best-known  version  of 
the  Douai  Bible,  His  Lift  was  written  by  J.  Bar- 
nard (London,  17S4),  and  by  Dr.  John  Milner 
(in  the  5th  ed.  of  his  Grounds  of  the  Old  Reli0onf 
1798), 

BlBLioonAFiiY:  J.  B&rtiArd,  Lije  of  ,  .  .  R.  Challoner, 
London^  17S4;  John  Milncir.  Bruf  Ac^suni  of  th£  Lift  ef 
Hiehard  ChaiUm^,  prcSied  to  the  Mh  ed.  of  Cb»l loner's 
GrouTvit  of  th»  Old  Rdiffion,  ib.  t70«;  J.  Gillow,  Biblif>- 
graphieat  Bidionary  of  En4iiish  CathoHcSt  i.  447-457+  Lon- 
don (lS85n   DS'B,  U.  440-443, 

CHALMERS,  JAMES:  London  Missionary  So- 
ciety missionary  i  b.  at  ArdriBhatg,  Ar^leshire, 
Scotland  (45  ra.  w.  by  n,  from  Glasgow),  Aug.  4, 
1841;  d.  at  Risk  Point,  Goariban  Island,  Gulf  of 
Papua,  New  Guinea,  April  8,  190L  Converted  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  soon  after  called  to  the 
foreign  mi^on  held  and  after  study  at  Cheshunt 
College  and  at  Highgate,  an  institution  conducted 
by  the  London  Mijjsionary  Society,  he  was  sent  by 
that  Society  to  Raratongtv,  one  of  the  group  of  C^ok 
Islands  in  the  Soiithem  Pacific,  where  he  arrived 
in  1867.  The  island  had  been  partially  Christianized, 
but  he  did  a  good  work  in  education  and  evan- 
^ehzation.  In  1877  he  removed  to  New  Guinea, 
where  he  encountered  cannibalB  and  did  a  memo- 
rable work  at  the  constant  risk  of  life.  It  was  on 
-one  of  these  many  journeys  that  be  was  killed.  He 
takes  hie  place  beside  Wilhams  and  Patterson  as  a 
^missionary  hero  m  the  South  Seas, 


EiBuocHAPirr:  Ctmsuit  hii  awn  JHoneer  Life  and  Wiirk  m 
Nmn  Crutnea.  lS77-iS94,  London  1S&5:  AQd  tht  bk«t%- 
phie*  by  W.  Bohson.  ib.  190 1;  G,  Ubiwx.  ib.  1902,  moA 
IL  Lovett,  ib.  1902  (the  l&st-o&EDed  oontakuux  Ch>lzDdm*« 
AutobioffT^phj/  and  Ltttera), 

CHALMERS,  THOMAS :    The  leader  of  the  FVe* 
Church  of  Scotland;    b.  in  East  Anstruther,  Fif  ^ 
shire,  Mar.  17,  1780;  d.  in  Edinburgh  May  30,  18*"7. 
The  family  to  whicb  he  belonged  was  compo^     ^ 
middle-class  people  of  the  strictest  type  of  C^al- 
vixusm ;  and  hence  in  his  opening  years,  he  recezir^^^sd 
thorough  indoctrination.     He  entered  St.  Andre -^m 
University  when  only  eleven  years  old»  and  oc:»aD- 
fined  his  attention  almost  exdusively  to  matk^ie- 
matics,  but  did  not  give  up  his  original  intentk^xi 
of    becoming    a    preacher,    and    accord in^y  T»^ag 
lioensed   by   the  presbytery  of  St.  Andrews  Jajc, 
1 799.     Hia  eharaete  r  early  developed  in  to  maturL  ^y. 
Instead  of  beginning  his  professional  work,  he  cc^n- 
tinned    the    study    of    mathematics    and    natixs^al 
sdence;  and  during  the  winter  of  1802-03  be  acl:«d 
as  assistant  to  the  profossor  of  mathematics  at    St. 
Andrews.     He  showed  an  extraordinary  psDwer     to 
awaken  enthusiasm  in  almost  any  topic  he  t<3ok 
up;    although  it  was  this  very  fact  which  at  tliat 
time  cost  him  his  place,  the  authorities  dislikliig 
the  novelty  of  his  methods.     He  settled  as  miaister 
of  Kilmeny,  nine  miles  fmm  St.  Andrews^  May, 
1803,  and  in  the  following  winter,  while  preactiing 
regularly,  opened  voluntary  and  independent  cla-sses 
in  mathematics  at  the  university,  which  were  tartly 
attended,  although  vigoroualy  discouraged  by   the 
authorities.     He    was    a    faithful    pastor  at    IsM- 
meny,    and    his    preaching   attracted 

UiniBtry    wide  attention,  but  his  heart  waa  noi 
at  in  his  work.     He  was  trammeled  b^ 

Kilmcny.  the  prevailing  moderatism,  which  put 
culture  above  piety,  and  state  support 
above  independence.  In  18DS  evidence  of  tht 
trend  of  his  thinking  appeared  in  his  inquiry  ink 
the  Extent  and  StahUity  of  Xotional  Re^o/vrttt. 
The  supply  of  man's  physical  and  social  needs 
was  uppermost  in  his  mind.  In  the  midst  d  sutb 
work  he  was  visited  with  severe  domestic  flfflio 
tioDs,  and  a  prions  illness  brought  him  to  death's 
door;  but  he  recovered  aft4Jr  a  year,  EJavid  Brew- 
ster asked  him  to  contribute  to  his  Edinburgh 
Encyclopedia.  He  at  first  chose  "  Trigpnometiy/' 
but  at  length  took  **  Christianity "  (separately 
published,  1813).  And  as  he  examined  the  doc- 
trines of  this  religion,  and  went  deeper  into  its 
mysteries,  he  realized  its  importance,  and  by  study- 
ing about  Cliristianity  he  became  a  Oiristian,  The 
parishionera  quickly  became  aware  that  he  bad 
really  not  so  much  resumed  his  work  among  tbera 
as  begun  it.  His  whole  soul  was  on  fire,  and  ms 
culture  wa^  now  used  to  make  the  saving  tmth  d 
saving  jmwer.  He  cut  loose  from  the  mooriii|s  of 
modcratism,  and  became  a  decided  EvangpliKil- 
His  eloquence  was  expended  in  new  channeis,  ^^ 
with  great  r^ults. 

In  July,  1S15,  he  was  formally  admittal  w 
minister  of  the  Tron  Church,  Glasgow.  In  IS  16 
he  delivereii  on  weekniays  the  famous  series  of  seven 
Discourses  on  the  Chn&tian  RevclaMon,  Vie]£^  i^ 
Conneciion  toitk  Afodem  Astronomy.  In  Sept., 
IB  19,  hf}  removed  from  the  Tron  parish  to  th^t  d 


490 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


QhaldMt 
Ohmmbei 


LberlAla 


St.  John's,  in  oxder  that  he  might,  in  a  newly 
constituted  parish,  have  an  opportunity  of  testing 
the  practicability  in  a  large  city  of  the  old  Scottish 
scheme  of  providing  for  the  poor.    In 
In         the  parish  there  were  two  thousand 
Glasgow,    families.    These   he  distributed   into 
twenty-five  divisions;   and  over  each 
such  district  he  put  an  elder  and  a  deacon — ^the 
former  to  attend  to  their  spiritual,  the  latter  to 
their  temporal  needs.    Two  commodious  school- 
houses  were  built;    four  competent  teachers  were 
employed,  and  by  school-fees  of  two  and  three 
shillings  each   a   quarter,  seven  hundred  children 
were  educated;  while  on  Sunday  the  forty  or  fifty 
local  schools    supplied  religious  instruction.    Dr. 
Chalmers  not  only  presided  over  all  this  83rstem 
of  work,  but  made  himself  familiar  with  all  the 
details,  even  visiting  personally  every  two  years 
each  family  of  the  parish,  and  holding  evening 
meetings.    He  also  assumed  complete  charge  of 
the  poor;  and  by  thorough  system,  and  consequent 
weeding-out  of  unworthy  cases,  he  reduced  the 
cost  of  maintaining  them  from  fourteen  hundred 
to  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  per  annum. 
This  eflficient  system,  however,  in  1837  was  given 
up;  and  the  "  English  "  plan  of  compulsory  assess- 
ments,  which   requires   much    less   trouble,   and 
probably  does  much  less  good,  was  substituted. 
In   Nov.,   1823,  Dr.   Chalmers  became    professor 
of  moral  philosophy  in  St.  Andrews  University, 
and  in  Nov.,  1828,  professor  of  theology  in  Edin- 
burgh.   In  1833  he  issued  his  Bridgewater  Treatise, 
On  theAdaptaHon  of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and 
Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man,    This  work  made 
a  great  sensation;   and  his  biographer,  Rev.  Will- 
iam Hanna,  says  that,  in  consequence,  he  received 
"  literary  honors  such  as  were  never  united  pre- 
viously in  the  person  of  any  Scottish  ecclesiastic." 
In  1834  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  and  soon  after  one  of  its  vice-presi- 
dents, in  the  same  year  a  corresponding  member  of 
the  Institute  of  France;   and  in  1835  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
Up  to  this  time  he  had  taken  little  part  in  church 
government;  from  then  on  he  was  destined  to  have 
more  to  do  with  it  than  any  other  man  of  the  century. 
The  friction  between  Church  and  State  in  Scotland 
was  rapidly  producing  trouble.  The  attempt  to  settle 
ministers  who  were  obnoxious  to  the  congregations 
was  the  commonest  complaint.*    The  historic  case 
is  that  of  Mamoch.     Here  only  one 
The  Organ-  person  in  the  parish  signed  the  call; 
ization  of  and  yet  the  presbytery  of  Strathbogie 
the  Free    decided ,  by  a  vote  of  seven  to  three,  to 
Church,     proceed  with  the  ordination,  and  did, 
although  these  seven  were  suspended. 
In  so  doing  they  were  upheld  by  the  civil  authority, 
which  annulled  their  suspension.     But  this  case 
was  only  an  aggravation  of  a  common  ill.     Matters 
became  so  serious  in  all  parts  of  Scotland  that  a 
convocation  was  held  in  Nov.,  1842,  to  consider  the 
matter;  and  a  large  number  of  ministers  resolved 
that,  if  relief  was  not  afforded,  they  would  with- 

*  The  point  »t  issue  was  lay  patronage,  British  law  having 
conferred  upon  landowners  the  right  to  nominate  to  pae- 
toratee  in  their  possessions. — A.  H.  N. 


draw  from  the  Establishment.  No  help  came; 
and  accordingly,  on  May  18,  1843,  four  hundred 
and  seventy  clergymen  withdrew  from  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  and  constituted  themselves  into 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  electing  Dr.  Chal- 
mers as  their  first  moderator.  He  had  foreseen 
the  separation,  and  drawn  up  a  scheme  for  the 
support  of  the  outgoing  ministers.  But,  after  he 
had  safely  piloted  the  new  church  through  the 
stormy  waters,  he  gave  himself  up  more  exclu- 
sively to  professional  work,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  New  College,  Edinburgh,  of  which 
he  was  principal,  and  to  the  composition  of  his 
Institutes  of  Theology.    He  died  suddenly. 

Dr.   Chalmers  is   to-day  a  molding  influence. 
All  the  churches  of  Scotland  imite  to  do  him  rev- 
erence.   He  was  a  greater  worker  than  writer, 
and  a  greater  man  than  either.    It  was  surely 
enough  honor  for  one  life  to  inspire  spiritual  life 
throughout  an  entire  land;    and  as  the  tireless 
and  practical  reformer,  as  the  Christian  philan- 
thropist, and,  above  all,  as  the  founder  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  he  will  live. 
Biblioorapbt:  The  principal  Life  is    by  his    son-in-law, 
W.  Hanna.  Memoir9  of  tha  Life  and  WriHiyfM  of  Thamae 
ChaSmtr;   4   vols..  Edinburgh,   184^-52.    Consult   also: 
A.  J.  Sbrmington],  Thonuu  Chalmert,  the  Man,  hie  Timee, 
and  hie  Work,  Ardrossan,  1878;   D.  Eraser,  Thomae  Chal- 
mere,  London,  1881;    J.  L.  Watson,  The  Life  of  Thomae 
Chalmere,  Edinburgh.  1881;   J.  Dodds,  Thomae  Chalmere, 
ib.  1892;    W.  G.  Blaikie.  Thomae  Chalmere,  ib.  1806  (in 
Famoue  Scote  Seriee);    Mrs.  Oliphant,  Thomeu  Chalmere, 
Preacher,    PhUoeopher,    and   Siateeman,    London,    1896; 
DNB,  ix,  449-454. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  JACOB:  Reformed  (Dutch) 
missionary;  b.  at  Sharon,  Conn.,  Apr.  13,  1835;  d. 
at  Madanapaili,  Madras,  India,  March  2,  1908.  He 
was  educated  at  Western  Reserve  College,  O.  (B.A.y 
1856),  the  Reformed  Theological  Seminary,  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  New  York.  In  1859  he  went  as  a  medical 
missionary  to  the  Arcot  Mission,  Madras,  and  was 
stationed  successively  at  Palmaner,  Madras  (1860- 
1863),  and  at  Madanapaili,  Madras  (1863-1901). 
From  1891  he  was  lector  in  Biblical  languages  and 
prophecy  and  acting  principal  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  in  the  Arcot  Mission,  Palmaner.  He  was 
chairman  of  a  committee  for  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Telugu,  1873-94;  member  of  the  Telugu 
Revision  Committee  of  the  Madras  Tract  Society  in 
1873-80,  and  in  1878  was  elected  vice-president 
of  the  American  Tract  Society  for  India.  In  1901 
he  was  first  moderator  of  the  South  India  United 
Church  Synod,  and  since  engaged  in  literary  work 
in  Tamil  and  Telugu.  He  translated  the  liturgy 
of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  into  Telugu  (Ma- 
dras, 1873),  and  also  prepared  a  Telugu  version  of 
the  Hymns  for  Public  and  Social  Worship  (1884), 
as  well  as  other  devotional  works  in  the  same  lan- 
guage. His  English  works  include:  The  Bible  Tested 
(New  York,  1878);  Native  Churches  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Societies  (Madras,  1879);  The  Religions 
o/<Ae Orient (aifton Springs,  N.Y.,  1896);  IntheTiger 
Jungle  (Cliicago,  1896);  The  Cobra's  Den,  and  Other 
Stories  of  Missionary  Work  Among  the  Telugus 
of  India  (1900);  and  The  Kingdom  in  India,  with 
mtroductory  biographical  sketch  by  Henry  N.  Cobb 
(1908). 


OlutmberlAia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


600 


CHAMBERLAIN,    LEANDER    TROWBRmGE: 

American  Presbyterian;  b.  at  West  Brookfield, 
Mafls.,  Sept.  26,  1837.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1863,  and  from  1863  to  1867  was  attached  to  the 
Pacific  Squadron  of  the  United  States  Navy.  Dur- 
ing this  period  he  made  explorations  in  the  Inca 
ci\dlization  of  ancient  Peru.  He  studied  theology 
at  Andover  1867-69,  and  was  pastor  of  the  New 
England  Ck>ngregational  Chiu*ch,  Chicago,  1869-76, 
of  the  Broadway  Ck>ngregational  Church,  Norwich, 
Conn.,  1876-83,  and  of  the  Classon  Avenue  Presby- 
terian Church,  Brooklyn,  1883-90.  Since  1890  he  has 
had  no  charge.  He  was  the  first  United  States  repre- 
sentative secretaiy  of  the  McCall  Mission  of  France,  a 
delegate  to  the  Centennial  of  Sunday-schools  in  Lon- 
don in  1880,  and  a  delegate  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  United  States  to  the  Pan-Presbyterian 
Council  in  the  same  city  in  1888,  a  founder  of  the 
Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  United  States  Evangelical  Alliance 
to  the  General  Conference  of  Evangelical  Alliances 
in  Florence,  Italy,  in  1891.  He  is  also  president 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  for  the  United  States, 
of  the  Philafrican  Liberator's  League,  and  of  the 
Thessalonica  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Institute, 
liaoedonia;  secretary  and  treasiirer  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Christian  Union;  vice-chairman 
of  the  national  conu^ittee  on  arbitration  between 
the  United  States  and  other  countries;  custodian 
and  patron  of  the  collection  of  gems  in  the  National 
Museum,  Washington;  and  curator  of  Eocene  mol- 
lusca  in  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Phila- 
delphia. In  theology  he  is  a  Calvinistic  Pres- 
byterian. He  has  written:  A  Short  History  of  the 
English  Bible  (Norwich,  Conn.,  1881);  Citizen's 
Manual  (New  York,  1898);  The  State,  Its  Origin, 
Nature,  and  Functions  (1898);  The  Colonial  Polio/ 
of  the  United  States  (1899);  Patriotism  and  the 
Moral  Law  (1900);  Evolutionary  Philosophy  (1901); 
Oovemment  not  Founded  in  Force  (1904);  The  Suf- 
frage and  Majority  Rule  (1904);  and  The  True 
Doctrine  of  Prayer  (1906). 

CHAMBERS,     TALBOT     WILSON:    Reformed 
(Dutch);    b.  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Feb.  25,   1819;   d. 


in  New  York  Feb.  3,  1896.  He  was  graduated  at 
Eutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1834.  He 
studied  at  New  Brunswick  and  Princeton  Theo- 
logical seminaries,  became  minister  of  the  Second 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  of  Raritan,  at  Somer- 
ville,  N.  J.,  1839,  and  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
Collegiate  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  of  New  York 
in  1849  and  continued  there  till  his  death.  He  was 
a  leader  in  his  denomination,  was  president  of  its 
General  Synod  in  1863,  and  for  the  eight  years 
preceding  his  death  was  president  of  its  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions;  he  was  one  of  the  organizers  of 
the  Presbyterian  Alliance  (q.v.)  and  chosen  its 
president  in  1892  and  expected  to  preside  over  its 
sixth  general  council  (1896).  He  was  a  mem- 
ber (from  1881)  and  president  (from  1892)  of  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  American  Tract 
Society;  chairman  of  the  Conmiittee  on  Ver- 
sions of  the  American  Bible  Society;  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Old  Testament  company  of  the 
American  Bible  Revision  Committee,  being  the 
only  pastor  in  the  Old  Testament  company.  Be- 
sides many  sermons,  addresses,  and  miscellaneous 
articles,  he  published:  The  Noon  Prayer  Meeting, 
FuUon  Street,  New  York  (New  York,  1858);  Mem- 
oir of  the  Hon.  Theodore  Frelinghuysen  (1863); 
The  Psalter :  a  Witness  to  the  Divine  Origin  of  the 
Bible,  Vedder  lectiues  at  New  Brunswick,  1876 
( 1876) ;  and  A  Companion  to  the  Revised  Old  Testament 
(1885).  He  was  editor' of  The  Presbyterian  and 
Reformed  Review  and  of  the  eariier  Princeton  Re- 
view :  translated  and  edited  Schmoller  on  the  Book 
of  Amos  and  prepared  the  Book  of  Zechariah  for 
the  Schaff-Lange  commentary  (1874);  edited  the 
American  edition  of  Meyer's  commentary  on  I 
and  II  Corinthians  (1884),  and  the  homilies  of 
Chrysostom  on  the  same  books  for  The  Post- 
Nicene  Fathers,  vol.  xii.  (1889);  suggested  and 
with  the  Rev.  Frank  Hugh  Foster  contributed 
to  the  Concise  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowl- 
edge (1889),  edited  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Macauley 
Jackson. 

Biblioorapht:  £.  B.  Coe,  Commemorative  Diaoourt,  New 
York,  1896. 


END   OP  VOL.  XL