Quarterly journal of microscopical science

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QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OF ~

MICROSCOPICAL SCLENCE:

EDITED BY

EDWIN LANKESTER, VD Eanes eb s

AND

GEORGE BUSK, F.R.C.S.E, F.R.S., Src. LS.

VOLUME VII.—New SERIEs.

GHith Allustrations on Wood and Stone.

A ;

LONDON:
OHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
1867.

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ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On the SrructurE and Growrx of the Ovarian Ovum in
GasTERosTEUs LEIURUS. By W. H. Ransom, M.D.

(Read at the Meeting of the British Association in Nottingham, 1866.)

which I have been led to adopt co#lusfons at variance with
those generally accepted on the mode of’growth and structure
of the early vertebrate ovum, not to diséuss the whole ques-
tion.

It is remarkable at how early an age the ovaries are found
to contain perfect young ova. Fry of 2” in length, and not
more than one month old, have well-developed ova in their
ovaries, and the young males are even more remarkable in
respect of the early development of the male gland, in which
actively moving spermatozoids are found when the fry are
not above 1” in length.

The germinal vesicle, which is always present in the
earliest recognisable ova, contains, besides the germinal
spots, a delicate translucent colloid mass, which, like a pellet
of thick mucus, supports and gives great resisting power to
the vesicle. From very various and not clearly ascertained
causes, a fine molecular deposit, easily dissolved by weak
solutions of alkaline chlorides, is apt to appear in the colloid
mass.

The germinal spots are embedded on the surface only of
this colloid mass, and lie in contact with the inner surface of
the vesicular wall. They are very sensitive to the influence
of the medium in which they are examined, so much so that
it is extremely difficult to observe them in a_ perfectly
unchanged condition. This can be done, however, by using
the maternal secretions, or by employing only a very small
amount of water, and using all possible speed in the prepara-

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. A

: 4 :
I purpPosE to speak in this ‘yap : 1 some points upon

2 DR. RANSOM, ON GASTEROSTEUS LEIURUS.

tion of the object. ‘They are then seen as circular objects,
perfectly homogeneous and of moderate refractive power.

(See Pl. .I Fig. 1.) They are acted upon by water ina remark-
able manner, varying with the quantity. Thus, if water ap-
proaches the germinal spots only after havi ing had to traverse
a portion of the egg, as happens in unbroken eggs, it slowly
dissolves them, at the same time causing the appearance of
fine granules in the colloid mass. But if water in abundance
acts upon the germinal spots contained in escaped germinal
vesicles, or on the vesicles within very minute oya before
the food yelk is formed, it causes them to become dark-
bordered, variously tailed in shape, vacuoles appearing at the
same time, and does not dissolve them even after very pro-
longed action. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) At the same time it
produces a change in their substance or surface, as a result
of which they are rendered insoluble in 5 or 10 per cent.
solutions of alkaline chlorides, although the spots of freshly
escaped vesicles are rapidly soluble in the same fluids. A
weaker 1 per cent. solution of chloride of sodium acts like
water on the germinal spots of freshly escaped vesicles ; but
after about an hour they resume the round form, and the
idea is thus suggested that they may be capable of contrac-
tions like those seen in white blood-cor puscles.

The disappearance of the germinal spots of vesicles con-
tained in the larger eggs, when exposed to the action of water,
appears to be due to the solvent action of the saline or other
constituents of the yelk carried through by endosmose.

The germinal spots of recently escaped vesicles when acted
on by a 5 per cent. solution of chloride of sodium, flow
together and fuse into a larger drop, and ultimately the large -
drop gets paler, -vacuolates, and vanishes. (See Fig. 4.) I
conceive the spots to be drops of a thick fluid, having a
composition different from all the other structural elements
of the egg, and resembling the other varieties of protoplasm
only in their extreme instability and liability to vacuolate.

The vesicular wall was found to be remarkably stable and
firm; it was dissolved, however, by a weak solution of
ammonia. Were it not for the resistance afforded by this
membrane, the disappearance of the germinal spots m the
osmotic current of water charged with the salts of yelk might
suggest a plausible explanation of the ultimate disappearance
of the germinal vesicle and contents, in the ripe ovarian
ovum.

I will not prolong this paper by describing in detail the
yelk of ovarian ova, but only mention that the primitive yelk
differs in chemical and physical characters from either the

DR. RANSOM, ON GASTEROSTEUS LEIURUS. 3

food, or formative, yelk of ripe eggs, and is remarkable for
its solidity.

The yelk-sac is formed in very young ova, and is separable
in those measuring <4,” in diameter. It is then easily
recognised by the little button-shaped processes or villi
attached to the outer surface of its germinal segment sur-
rounding the micropyle. The finely-dotted structure was made
out in the yelk-sacs of eggs, measuring +4,”. The prevailing
opinion among physiologists seems to be that the yelk-sac 1s
formed at a much later stage of the development of the egg.
That this is not so in osseous fishes is easy to prove ; it remains
to be seen whether they are exceptional in this respect.*

The peculiar structure of the yelk-sac, which is the same
in the youngest ova as in the ripest examined, offered facili-
ties for inquiring into its mode of growth.t

Thus, in young eggs measuring ;4;” in diameter, the yelk
sac had 24,000 dots to the inch, while in ripe eggs measuring
=” but 11,000 dots to the inch were present, the egg
increasing about six times in diameter ; the interval between
the dots but little more than doubling. As the size of the
dots had increased but little it is certain that during growth
there must have been an increase in the number as well as in
the size of the dots, which we may speak of as structural
elements of the yelk sac.

Again, in young eggs about ;4,” to =,” diameter, the
number of buttons on the outer surface is on an average of
five countings 80. In ripe ovarian ova there are on an
average 207 buttons on the outer surface of the yelk-sac. It
is, therefore, not conceivable that the mode of growth which
has hitherto been accepted for cell-walls and yelk-sacs can be

* Owen (‘Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates,’ vol. i,
pp. 593 and 594) speaks of a yelk-membrane, distinct from the dotted sac,
or “Ectosac,” and he refers to figures of Dr. Allen Thomson’s, in-
correctly attributing them to me. I cannot confirm the view thus stated,
and believe the figures to be wrongly interpreted. The “‘ Ectosac ” is a true
yelk-sac. It does not, as Owen states, receive its villi after the escape of
the ovum from the ovisac, nor does the escape take place, as he also seems
to think, before the ovum is ripe. The interesting question of the homo-
logies of the yelk-sac in Vertebrates is probably not yet settled, but the
dotted sac of osseous fishes is certainly homologous with the structureless
yelk-sac of Batrachia, and, like it, is early formed in the ovisac, and lies in
direct contact with the mass which cleaves after impregnation.

+ The membrane may briefly be described as composed of very fine con-
centrically-arranged amine. ach layer is marked by dots arranged alter-
nately so as to mark the angles of lozenge-shaped spaces. In the separate
Jaminz the dots correspond to each other in such a manner that they form
. lines or strie, vertically placed in the substance of the yelk-sac; and
whether examined on the outside or inside of the yelk-sac, are equal in size
and distance from each other. (See Fig. 5.)

4 DR. HICKS, ON FRESH-WATER ALG, ETC.

in action in these ova. No growth by opposition of layers,
either from the inside or outside, either by hardening of an
exudation from, or by conversion of the substance of the
yelk into that of the yelk-sac, can explain the increase in
number and size of the buttons on the outer surface, and of
the dots in the substance of the yelk-sac. There are other diffi-
culties against the acceptance of the usually received view,
which will at once occur to any one who considers the
arrangement of the dots and lamine; but I have said enough,
I think, to justify the inference that the dotted yelk-sac of
osseous fishes grows in some way by interstitial molecular
deposit. This view I am disposed to extend to other analo-
gous tissues, perhaps to the so-called intercellular matrix of
cartilage.

A word or two on the methods which this sort of inquiry
demands. A medium is wanted which separates the different
objects, and is as far as possible without influence on the
optical or other properties of the tissue. But such a medium
is, perhaps, unattainable, as each part of the egg differs from
the other in its reactions to media. On the whole, the best
fluid in which to conduct an examination of this kind isa
weak solution of glycerine, such as is found by experiment
not to alter the aspect of the red blood-corpuscles of the
animal. ‘The plan of staining tissues by carmine suggested
by Dr. Beale is not to be recommended; for the ammonia
rapidly dissolves the germinal vesicle and its contents, and
the acetic acid glycerine obscures the finer markings upon
the yelk-sac, as well as deforms the yelk. Moreover, I may
mention that the gratular formative yelk takes the dye with
greater difficulty than the yelk-sac does, except in very young
ova, and the inner sac, a true germinal matter, does not take
any stain; so that I cannot accept the staining of certain
parts of a structure as satisfactory evidence of the distribu-
tion of germinal matter in the tissue.

On FRESH-WATER ALG&, &c.
By Dr. J. Braxton Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., &c.

My principal motive in remarking on Mr. Archer’s paper
on Palmoglea macrococca was not so much to question the
independent existence of the forms of which he wrote, as to
urge him to direct his unfettered attention to the study of

DR. HICKS, ON FRESH-WATER ALG&, ETC. 5

these forms in their life-history ; and also to rouse the atten-
tion of Algologists to the unstable basis on which the genera
of so many of these lower forms were resting. I am glad to
find that, to a considerable extent, Mr. Archer agrees with
the observations then made, though he appears yet to hold
that there are some plants which can always be recognised by
the eye, although it is difficult to convey the exact appear-
ance by word or drawing. No doubt this is so; but yet it
must be admitted as a very insecure basis on which to stand.

A few points yet remain on which we differ, upon which
I should wish to make a few remarks.

Ist. Admitting that the disposition of the endochrome in a
given cell, found at a certain time, is precisely the same as
that in another found at another time, so that we all at
once recognise it as identical in appearance, yet such con-
stancy and similarity does not prove them to be the same
species or genous, only that at a certain phase of their exist-
ence they always assume the same appearance, and indeed,
for anything we know to the contrary, unless observed very
constantly and under other circumstances, they may have an
essentially different origin. The arrangement of the endo-
chrome is very variable, perhaps more so than any other
feature, during the various periods of growth and division.
Thus it becomes stellate in certain of the segmenting cells of
gonidia of prasiola; in other stages it is quite homogeneous ;
while in its lyngbya stage it is often with many vacuoles.
But numberless examples can be quoted.

2nd. Mr. Archer relies much on the shape of the cell to
distinguish species; but here I must reiterate my remarks,
and ask, if during the processes of growth and division, a
single-celled plant is sometimes oval, at another round, as is
undoubtedly to be found in the segmenting gonidia of the
lichens and mosses, how can he hold it as more than a proof
of its being in a certain stage of its life? With regard to the
resemblance of certain cells, nothing could be more lke the
elongated oval cell of Palmoglaa cylindrocyotis or Brebissonit
than some of the segmentations of gonidia or cladonia. ‘They
were at the time I observed them merely smaller than the
full size of the former. ‘That they arose from cladonia was
clear ; yet, had it been found developing on the ground it
would have been doubtless referred to Palmoglea Brebissonit.
Now it must be admitted, either that the observations were
erroneous, or that the Cladonia gonidium so resembled Palmo-
glea Brebissonii as not to be capable of being distinguished ;
at any rate, at that particular stage of their life. If the latter
is accepted, then what proof have we of the separate exist-

6 DR. HICKS, ON FRESH-WATER ALG#, ETC.

ence of Palmoglea Brebissonii by its form alone? At the
same time I am not disputing the separate existence of these
two plants. If, however, it could be certainly shown that
the cladonia form never conjugated, then it must be admitted
that they were essentially distinct; but in this case our
knowledge is arrived at by the study of the life-history and
not by the appearance. ‘The form of the cells, and the dis-
position of the chlorophyl in Palmoglea Brebissonii through-
out the mass at the period of conjugation, varies much, some
of the cells being scarcely oval, while the length of others
exceeds three or four times their breadth. Mr. Archer also
is disposed to think that I confound chlorophyle-bearing
plants with those having phycophyle; and as a ground for
this, he cannot conceive of one being produced by the other.
In answer to this I may say that there are many instances to
be found; of their mutual exchange so much so as to do
away with the value of this distinction of colour. Instances
may be found repeatedly in Collema, particularly during the
segmentation of the gonidia, and their change into nostoc ;
the transition is gradual in the various periods from the true
chlorophyl to the phycophyle. A distinct change from bright
green to leaden blue may be observed during the segmenta-
tion of the gonidia of the confervoid filaments on barks of
trees, as already slightly alluded to in my paper in ‘ Linnean
Trans.’ on this subject. Many other instances of this occur,
so that it is impossible to lay much stress on this point.
Again, Mr. Archer thinks that the maintenance of the
characters in these simple forms in diverse circumstances and
places as a proof of the fixity of a large number of species
which he quotes, and has a difficulty in imagining how a
Lichen or Moss-gonidium can readily be conceived to change
now into one form, and now into another. But nothing is
easier to conceive than that simple gonidia from many
sources do divide and grow into these forms; that it is the
ordinary law of their growth; and that many of these forms,
apparently somewhat dissimilar in external form and internal
arrangement, can and do spring from the same source, and
that it is their ordinary mode of so doing. If this be received
the rest is simply a matter of observation. If the life-history
shows it, we are bound to accept it, whether according to
preconception or not. And it must not be forgotten that
my observations extended only to a few species, and yet in
them there is considerable variation in form and shape. It
must also be noted that I do not say all the Palmellacee and
kindred forms arise from Cladonia. I only show a great
many do, and also that similar forms spring from mosses

DR. HICKS, ON FRESH-WATER ALG, ETC. 7

upon which I ask, What about the rest? How can they be
considered really distinct, unless you now go over the whole,
and prove them one or the other? I do not absolutely deny
their separate existence, but I do say here is enough evidence
to set us to work again to study the life-history of each; and
certainly, till each one is again worked out, we cannot (not-
withstanding all our affection for our old acquaintances) con-
sider any one as finally placed.

But Mr. Archer relies most (talking of Palmoglea Brebis-
sonii) upon the fact of conjugation as the most certain test
of the fixity of species, believing it as the analogue of
pollen-impregnation, and therefore as showing the maturity of
the cells in which it occurs; any cell therefore conjugating he
looks upon as the perfect form of it. We must doubtless admit
that this process is one of considerable character, and an
important phase of the life of the cell; and also that, traced
downwards, there is something in the analogy to favour this
conclusion which is shared by many. Yet I may ask,
without going into the whole question, looking at the process
itself, have we any direct evidence that it is anything more
than a direct fusion of the contents of two cells? Whilst
admitting the value of the analogy, ought we to ascribe more
value to the act than really appears? What, for instance, is
it in Spirogyra? A process of one cell joins with the process
of another, and their contents thus being able to come into
contact, fuse into one mass. Before the change began it was
impossible to perceive any difference between the two cells.
Further than this, we often find in some species that should
no second filament be near enough, the two adjoining cells
of the same filament conjugate by throwing out processes
round the joint which divides them, and then their contents
fuse. In Palmoglea Brebissonii not the slightest difference
can be perceived between the two cells. Mr. Archer admits
this, though in some few he has noticed a difference between
the conjugating cells, as if an approximation was being made
to the antheridal cell. Still, upon the whole, they are both
apparently similar. Therefore setting aside analogy, but
stating the case as we actually observe it, we cannot but call
it an act of simple fusion of the contents of two cells. Are
we justified in our present state of knowledge in placing so
much importance upon it as to make it a test of the most
perfect condition of the cell? To do so at present would be
arguing somewhat in a circle. For our safe advancement it
seems to me best not so to use it, but merely to note the fact
and the mode in which it occurs, reserving its use as a test
when we have advanced further in knowledge. Some day

8 BARKAS, ON DIATOMACE.

it may take the position Mr. Archer and others have
assigned it.

At present, on the other hand, we know that the contents
of cells fuse readily under certain circumstances; and other
cases may some day be found which may solve the question
where this process and antheridia are plainly found. For
supposing it was ultimately found that Spirogyra has Anthe-
rozoids, then we must agree that conjugation is nothing more
than a vegetative process. ‘This hitherto has not been
noticed ; but we are hardly in a position to say that it will
never be so. Till then we shall, I conceive, advance quicker
if we do not assign conjugation a too definite position.

Finally, Mr. Archer asks, ‘‘ Can a phenomenon which has
been going on for years oad years uncountable, be simply
accidental, Pand devoid of significance?” This question is
scarcely pertinent, because i have never said it was a simple
chance occurence, but have placed it with other vegetative
processes, such as segmentation, &c. As to the antiquity of
the process the same of course may be said of ordinary
growth or cell-division. ‘That conjugation restores the vigour
of the plant enfeebled by frequent division can scarcely be
doubted, and that it is of much value in its life. I do not for
a moment deny, but I do not think that we are yet warranted
in employing it as a test of generic or specific distinction,
because it is very doubtful whether it is an evidence of the
perfectness of the cells in which it occurs, and because we
are still ignorant to what extent it may be found im the lower
tribes; nor are we yet sure that plants, which we know show
it most distinctly, have not at some period of their life the
true antherozoids.

On PievrRosiema, DonxintA, TOXONIDEA, and AMPHI-
proRA. By T. P. Barxas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

(Read before the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, February 8th, 1866.)

Ir is my intention this evening to direct the attention of
the members of the club to four closely allied genera of
diatomacee which have recently been found on that part of
the Northumberland coast which is in close contiguity to the
Mouth of the Tyne. ‘Two of the genera are well known to
microscopists ; one has only recently been discovered and
named by Dr. Donkin, and the other, which was discovered

BARKAS, ON DIATOMACES. 9

by Dr. Donkin, and enrolled by him among the Pleuro-
sigmata, was finally constituted into a new genus, and named
by Mr. Ralfs, Donkinia, in honour of its discoverer.

All the four genera belong to the family Naviculez, in
which family there are already nineteen genera.

I propose to select this evening the following for observa-
tion, Pleurosigma, Toxonidea, Donkinia, and Amphiprora,
as they are nearly related, and bear in many respects a con-
siderable resemblance to each other, in one or more of the
aspects in which they may be viewed.

They are all free forms, and are found on our own coasts ;
some appear to be peculiar to the Northumbrian shores, as up
to the present time they have either not been found at all
in other parts of the kingdom, or found so rarely as to render it
probable they were there asstray frustulesrather than that they
were in their natural habitats. Evidence of this, however,
is only negative, and negative evidence is always doubtful.*

The mode of gathering diatoms from the open sea-shore
adopted by Dr. Donkin, Rey. Mr. Taylor, Mr. Atthey, and
others, has now been before the world for eight years, and
yet nothing approaching the work done by the gentlemen
just named has been accomplished in any other parts of the
kingdom; even the indefatigable Mr. Norman, of Hull, has
not found on the Hull coast any of the Toxonidee, or
Amphiprore, only a few of the Pleurosigmata, and not a
single frustule of Donkinia, the whole of which genera
abound on the Northumberland coast, extending from the
mouth of the Tyne to Alnmouth.

Many of the Pleurosigmata, and some of the Amphiprore
and Donkiniz are found nearly as far up the beach as high-
tide mark, but Toxonidez I have only found near low-tide
margin. The four genera are characterised by having fléxed
median lines, by central and terminal nodules, and by being
more or less strongly striated, the striz in some being very
coarse and broad, and in others so delicate and close as to be
visible only by the highest powers and most careful illumina-
tion.

This evening I propose to bring before you eighteen species
of Pleurosigma ; eight of which are well-known, six of which
are doubtful, and four I have good reason for believing are
new and undescribed. With respect to the doubtful and the
unknown it would be unbecoming to dogmatise, as some of
the forms so closely approximate, and the differences which
form species are so minute as to render the most careful

* Since this paper was read, I have received slides of all the four genera
from both the south and west coasts of England.

10 BARKAS, ON DIATOMACE.

examination necessary before a decision can be arrived at as
to their newness.

I shall be happy to exhibit the new and doubtful forms to
those members of the club who are acquainted with marine
diatomacee, and their opinions will be esteemed a favour.

The Pleurosigmata are characterised by a more or less
naviculoid form when seen on the side view, and linear lan-
ceolate form seen on the front vicw. The front views of the
Pleurosigmata, like the front views of the Toxonidez, are
only seen when the frustules are alive and moving in water,
on which occasions they frequently roll over in such a manner
as to exhibit the front views of the frustules, but of the
thousands of frustules of Pleurosigma and 'Toxonidea which I
have prepared and mounted I do not remember one in which
the front view is exhibited. That is not the case with Don-
kinia and Amphiprora, as by their peculiar conformation
they as frequently when prepared and mounted dry present
their front aspects as those of their sides.

Of the genus Toxonidea, so named by its discoverer in
consequence of the median line resembling a bow, there are
only three known species, T. Gregoriana, T. insignis, and T. un-
dulata ; the two former have been found on the Northumber-
land coast, where they are very numerous, as may be seen by
examining the cabinets of Dr. Donkin, Rey. Mr. Taylor,
Mr. Atthey, or that in my possession ; all the microscopists
named have gathered them from the Northumberland shores
in very great numbers. 7. undulata has not been found in this
neighbourhood, but was obtained by Mr. Norman, of Hull,
from the stomachs of Ascidians got by fishermen off the coast
of Hull.

Pleurosigma and Toxonidea are somewhat similar in the
flexure of their median lines, and yet more closely resemble
each other in the naviculoid forms of their front views.

The frustules of Donkinia are exceedingly abundant on all
parts of the Northumberland coast ; they are obtainable at
the mouth of the Tyne, on the Long sands and Whitley sands,
both near high- tide mark and at the low-water zone; with the
exception of Navicula gr egaria, Cocconeis excentrica, and
Attheya decora, they are the most common local marine forms.

They have flexed median lines similar to the Pieurosigmata,

and recognised by their side aspects only ; their discoverer
ranked them among the Pleurosigmata, ‘from which genus
they differ entirely in their front views, as they do also from
Toxonidee, and more nearly resemble the Amphiprore, the
only difference being the presence of ale in the Amphiprorz
and their absence in the Donkinian frustules.

BARKER, ON A NEW MICROSCOPIC GROWING-STAGE. 11

The diatoms of this genus in consequence of their forms
present when mounted their fronts as frequently as their
sides, as may be seen by reference to any slides containing
specimens of the genus.

Amphiprore are tolerably plentiful, they much resemble
the frustules of Donkinia in their front aspects, as may be
seen by reference to the diagrams, but their side views closely
resemble the common Navicule, the exception being that in
the Naviculz the median lines are in or near the middle of
the frustules, while in the Amphiprore the median lines form
double curves in close contiguity to one of the sides.

The whole of the genera just referred to are marked by
striz of greater or lesser fineness ; some are so coarsely striated
that the lines are visible by means of a lens of low power, say
2rds of an inch, and others are so delicately and closely
striated that the striz are only resolvable by the highest
microscopical power and the most perfect illumination.

Many of the Pleurosigmata, such for example as mari-
num, nubecula, and obtusum, are coarse; lanceolatum and
fasciola are fine ; prolongatum and arcuatum are, with a Ross’
4th, achromatic condenser, and central or other stop, difficult
of resolution, and spectrosum, a new diatom I am unable to
resolve.

The strie of the Toxonidea, are all double oblique ; on the
Pleurosigmata they are double oblique, transverse, and
longitudinal; on the Donkiniz they are the same; on Amphi-
prora alata the strize are transverse, but on Amphiprora
duplex they are absent or invisible to the power atmy command.

The lines on local marine diatomacez vary from 10,000 to
80,000 in an inch, and they form admirable tests for the
higher powers of microscopes. The celebrated test object of
a few years ago, Pleurosigma angulatum, is now exceeded by
the more delicate striz of Pléwrosigma lanceolatum, Toxon-
idea insignis, Donkinia carinatum, and Pleurosigma arcu-
atum.

A New Microscoric Grow1neG STAGE.
By Joun Barxer, M.D. University of Dublin.

(Exhibited at the Dublin Microscopical Club.)

THE advantages of some contrivances for facilitating the
examination of objects from time without disturbance, and
which could be kept as nearly as possible under the same con-
ditions under which they were first observed, has at all times
been a desideratum in microscopic science ; and the pages of

12 BARKER, ON A NEW MICROSCOPIC GROWING-STAGE.

the ‘ Microscopical Journal’ have been usefully occupied in
making known several valuable aids for this purpose; and as
the growing stage lately brought under the notice of the
Dublin Microscopical Club appears to present some advan-
tages over growing slides at present in use, 1 have been
induced to furnish a more ample description of it with an
illustrative diagram. To my view, a growing stage or slide
should possess the following qualities :—1. It should be effi-
cient, and not likely to go out of order, neither flooding the
object and overflowing the stage, or drying up and allowing
the air to get under the cover; (2) it should be easily cleaned ;
(3) it should work well for at least a week, and even then
should be capable of being suppled with fresh water without
disturbing the object ; (4) it should enable the investigator
when, in ordinary microscopic examination with a common
slide and coyer, he may have found something which he may
wish to preserve moist, and observe at on a future occasion to
do so with facility; (5) it should allow of the object being ex-
amined at any time without displacement ; (6) it should permit
the whole of the covering glass to be examined, and it should
not be in the way of any other piece of apparatus ; and lastly, it
should not be costly in price. Now, all these objects seem to me
to be secured in the growing stage under consideration. The
appliance would appear to be peculiarly valuable to those
who would wish to watch the varying changes in microscopic
algz, rhizopods, infusoria, rotifera, or anything requiring to be
kept moist while under investigation, ‘lhe microscopist, in
his usual investigations with an ordinary slide three inches by
one inch, and with a common covering glass, frequently sees
objects which he would wish to keep under notice for several
hours, perhaps days or weeks,: and this he will be enabled to
accomplish by merely placing the slide on this stage, and at
any time transferring it again to the stage of the microscope, or
by putting the growing stage, with slide upon it, onthe stage of
the microscope, the whole of the covering glass can be brought
under inspection, so that no object which had been under the
covering glass can escape observation. I have several rhizo-
pods under notice at present for upwards of a week ; and I
have kept rotifera healthy for, days in this appliance. The
construction of this stage is so simple as to admit of any one
expert in cutting glass to make it in a few hours; and I have
drawn a diagram, to scale which will facilitate its construc-
tion.

A is a piece of stout glass from which is cut a large
segment of a circle, C; B is a small flat bottle about two
inches long, one inch wide, and about a quarter of an inch

2

BARKER, ON A NEW MICROSCOPIC GROWING-STAGE. 13

thick, or less if it can be procured ; this bottle is fastened on
the plate A with cement or marine glue ; K is an oblong
piece of glass a little longer than an inch, and about three
quarters of an inch wide, and of the thickness of ordinary
slides; this is cemented on the front of the bottle, and
through it and the bottle is drilled a small hole, and another
hole, I, is also drilled a little above the latter into the face of the
bottle ; Dand E are two blocks of glass of the same thickness
as the bottle, and which are also cemented to A; FandG
are the ordinary ledges for supporting the slide which is re-
presented with covering glass in dotted lines as resting on
blocks D and E, and close up to K; PS is a thin piece of

SS
BSS
YZ
Z

w/

tale fastened with cement at P, or even loose, and covering
the hole X, and continuing on over the slide so as to rest on
a small portion of the cover. By raising up the end, S, the
slide can easily be placed in situ, and then allowing the tale
to fall gently on the covering.glass, it will convey the water
from the hole in the bottle to the object under the cover, the
upper hole supplying the air to the bottle, which can be filled
when exhausted by putting the finger on the apertures, taking
out the cork, and pouring in fresh water. The stage can be
put on the stage of the microscope with the slide on it, or the
slide can be slipped out on raising the @lc with a needle.
The growing stage is to be kept of a small wooden stand like.”
a reading stand at about an angle of 50°.

14

On some of the Microscopic Errects of the ELEcTRIc
Spark. By R. T. Lewis.

(Read at the Quekett Microscopical Club, September 28th, 1866.)

In the early part of last December I called upon a friend,
who showed me an improved form of induction-coil, which,
from the peculiarity of its construction, was capable of giving
much more brilliant results than instruments of the same
size made in the ordinary way. In the course of a number
of experiments with this coil, my friend held a card in the
path of the sparks between the terminals ; and although these
were several inches apart at the time, every spark passed
through the card, making the well-known raised burr round
each perforation. ‘This done, he tossed the card to me, say-
ing in joke, ‘‘ There, I'll make you a present of that as a
memento.” On reaching home, my microscope being at hand,
I placed the card upon the stage to see what might be the
microscopic peculiarities, if any, of the burrs surrounding the
perforations. My attention was, however, at once arrested
by observing that the shape of the holes themselves was not
circular, as might have been expected, but clearly and sharply
pentagonal* Many holes were filled up by portions of dis-
rupted fibre which had fallen into them; others had been
made in so oblique a direction that their actual shape could
not be very well made out; but the remainder—some thirty in
number—were, as I have stated, five-sided ; and the question
at once arose, to what cause is this peculiarity of shape due?

A number of curtous facts, which were detailed some years
ago in ‘ Recreative Science,’+ and which seemed to bear upon
the subject, led me at first to suppose that the shape of the
holes might possibly be due to the sparks having taken a
definite form from the microscopic shape of the points of the
terminals from which they had been discharged. I therefore
perforated some pieces of paper and card by sparks passed
between the points of two sewing-needles, also between the
ends of pieces of copper-wire simply cut from a length and
without preparation; but in each instance all those holes
which were clear, and through which the sparks had passed
in a direction at right-angles with the surface of the paper,
were, as before, five-sided ; and I afterwards found that the
effect was the same when wires of different metals were used,

* From an inspection of Mr. Lewis's drawings we feel bound to say that
the perforations appear to us more frequently Aezagonal than pentagonal.—

D.
+ Vol. i, p. 188.

LEWIS, ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 15

either pointed or blunt, or even when the sparks were passed
between two smooth brass knobs.

With a view to ascertain whether the texture of the ma-
terial had any influence in determining the shape of the
holes, I next procured specimens of various kinds of paper and
card, and perforated them by sparks from 4 inch to 6 inches
in length, still further varying the experiments by using dif-
ferent induction-coils, and by obtaining the inducing-currents
from the action of batteries of different kinds, in all of which
cases the results tended strongly to confirm the observations
previously made. When sparks of great intensity but small
quantity were employed, the perforations were generally well
defined at their edges, and were made without any indication
of a raised burr being formed on either side of the paper ; and
when many sparks were permitted to pass through the same
hole, it was gradually enlarged by their action, but preserved
its original shape for some time after the heat had begun to
scorch its margin. In common blue-laid or wove post and in
varnished cardboard the continued action of the sparks cal-
cined the fibre, and a quantity of ash remained in the holes,
but the pentagonal shape was well defined in almost every
instance. In thick, white, unglazed paper somewhat less ash
was left; but in highly finished, thick, cream-laid note-paper
no trace of it could be found—the diameter of the holes by
sparks from 2 inches to 5 inches in length being from ,;th
of an inch to ;,th of an inch. Sparks from 4th of an inch
to l inch through cream-laid note-paper gave equally clear
results, especially in those instances where the fewest number
of sparks had passed through, the diameter of the holes being
from th of an inch to ;;';5th of an inch. In the case of
thick card some difficulty was experienced, owing to the very
oblique and sometimes zigzag course which sparks frequently
took in passing through; but the pentagonal form was even
more distinct than in paper, and neither ash nor burr were
present in any instance, the diameter of the holes varying
from ~,th of an inch to z~4,th of an inch.

By way of accumulating the electricity, and obtaining
sparks of much greater “ quantity,” a small Leyden jar was
then included in the circuit, pd the terminal wires respec-
tively connected with its inner ‘and outer coatings. The effect
of these condensed sparks upon card was very violent, a large
raised burr being formed on both sides round every hole,
whilst the disrupted fibre was heaped up in such a way as to
obscure their outline; it was therefore necessary to make
thin transverse sections of the card, in order to ascertain the
a ee area . . .

true shape of the perforations. The continued action of these

a

16 LEWIS, ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.

condensed-discharge sparks rapidly enlarged, and burnt out
the edges of the holes, altogether destroying their original
forms.

Observing that not infrequently sparks deviated from their
direct course, in order to pass through adjacent portions of the
paper which offered them less resistance, I tried some French
insulating paper, but the heat of the sparks here melted
the wax or composition with which the paper was saturated,
so that it not only surrounded the holes in a thickened con-
dition, but there was evidence, in most instances, of its hav-
ing overflowed them, and thus materially interfering with the
shape of their actual margins. The perforation of thin mi-
croscopic glass was not more successful, for in every case the
spark, on striking the surface, coursed along it for a consider-
able distance before passing through, splintering or fusing it
in such a way as to render it impossible to decide what was
the real shape of the perforation.

A Leyden jar was next charged in the ordinary way by
means of a common cylinder machine, and the sparks from it
were caused to pass through a card which was placed between
the knob of the jar and that of the discharger. The disrup-
tive effect of these was very violent, large burrs being raised
over the holes, which entirely prevented their shape from
being seen; thin sections were, however, made with a sharp
microscopic dissecting-knife, and here again the five-sided
character of every hole was clearly made out, notwithstanding
the quantity of loose fibre which was strewed across them.

Of the results of the foregoing experiments I have made
careful drawings, py means of the camera-lucida (Pl. II);
the micrometer scale will be found marked on each
figure. In several instances the outlines of the fibre of the
paper are shown, from which, I think, it will be evident that
the peculiarity of shape is not due to the texture of the
material.

The figures show the effect of induction-sparks of various
lengths ; some that of condensed-discharge induction-sparks ;
while Fig. 6 shows that of discharge-sparks from a Leyden jar
charged with frictional electricity.

It must be borne in mind that in every experiment ex-
cept that with the Leyden jar the paper or card was
held by the hand, and was moved about between the termi-
nals during the passage of a very rapid succession of sparks;
it is therefore most probable that several sparks passed through
the greater number of holes, and, in consequence of the move-
ment of the paper, the majority of these must haye passed
through in a more or less oblique direction. r ‘

LEWIS, ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 7

These and other considerations rendered it very desirable
that some contrivance-should be adopted by which this un-
steadiness might be obviated, and the observer enabled at the
same time to see the precise effect of every individual spark.
This was accomplished by performing the experiments under
the microscope itself, the mode of doing so being as follows :—
Two plates of glass were cut so as to be about half an inch
longer than the stage, and a small hole, about one eighth
of an inch in diameter, was drilled in the centre of one of
them. A copper wire, having one end finely pointed and
turned up at right angles, was then placed between the glass
plates in such a position that the turned end occupied the
centre of the hole, but did not project above the surface ; the
plates were then cemented together with marine glue, thus
forming at the same time an insulating stage and a holder for
one of the terminal wires. ‘The end of a glass-dipping tube,
mounted in the same way as a pair of stage forceps, served
to hold and insulate the other wire, the finely pointed end of
which was bent so as to enable it to be brought into the
centre of the field in a straight line with the end of the wire
in the glass stage, whilst, by the universal motion of its
mounting, the length of the sparks could be easily regulated.
A simple battery after the French pattern, a small induction-
coil capable of giving three quarter inch sparks if required,
and a rheotrope by which the current could be instantly
broken or reversed at will, completed the apparatus, and
rendered it possible to conduct the experiments with perfect
ease and steadiness. ‘The position of the points having been
carefully adjusted, the paper to be operated upon was placed
upon the glass stage, illuminated both by transmitted and
reflected light, and properly focussed, and on making the
circuit the effect of every spark could be seen in a perfect
and most beautiful manner.

It is perhaps unnecessary to state that great care is required
in thus dealing with so energetic an agent as electricity,
which is ever on the alert for opportunities of completing its
circuit by the shortest course through the best conductors,
and which makes no excuses for inadvertence. If the wires

are perfectly insulated from the stage, there need be no fear
of sparks passing from the eye-pieces to the operator’s face ;
but accidents are very liable to happen during manipulation,
from the hands coming in contact with portions of the appa-
ratus, whilst the eyes are attentively engaged at the binocular
and the attention is absorbed by the increasingly interesting
character of the observations.

In repeating the foregoing experiments upon the stage of

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. B

_—

18 LEWIS, ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.

the microscope in the manner described, the observations as
to the five-sided shape of the spark perforations were not only
confirmed, but an explanation was given of the causes of some
variations from that shape which had been previously noticed.
Chief amongst these, it had been observed that certain holes,
whilst sharply angular on one side, were rounded on the
other. Now, in practice it frequently occurred that a spark,
instead of passing through that portion of the paper lying
immediately between the terminal points, would perforate
some adjacent part where the texture probably offered it a
less degree of resistance, so that its path would be represented
by the two sides of a triangle, the angular point of which
being the place of perforation. If, then, the current was
continued, the succeeding sparks followed each other so
rapidly as to present the appearance of a quivering thread of
fire being drawn obliquely through the hole, with the result
that that side of it only which was nearest to the direct line
between the points was abraded, and had its angles rounded
by what may be termed the friction of the stream in endea-
vouring to straighten and thus shorten its course. The same
effect was produced when the paper was moved during the
passage of the sparks, which would continue to pass through
a hole until its distance from the perpendicular line caused
the resistance of the atmosphere to exceed that of the paper,
when a fresh perforation was made. Often, too, when a
number of holes were in the field of view at the same time,
the stream of sparks would fly from one to the other without
apparent cause, in all of which instances the original sym-
metry of form would be more or less destroyed according to
the obliquity of the courses taken ; and it will also have been
anticipated that great irregularities of surface, or the mterpo-
sition of fibres too tough for the spark to break directly
through, would contribute to the occasional production of
exceptional shapes.

During the progress of these experiments it was suggested
to me that some further test should be applied in order that,
if possible, more direct proof might be afforded that the
pentagonal outline of the holes was due to a eorresponding
shape of the spark, and biniodide of mercury was named as
being well suited to the purpose. This beautiful scarlet
powder is of so volatile a nature that a moderate degree of
heat is sufficient to partially decompose it, upon which its
brilliant colour is instantly changed to a dull greenish-yellow.
A small quantity of this powder was accordingly rubbed
down upon paper, and on passing this between the terminals
whilst the coil was in action the perforation of the paper

LEWIS, ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 19

and discoloration of the surrounding powder took place
simultaneously. It was expected that if the spark itself were
actually five-sided, the heat radiated from it would cause the
discoloured space to be of the same shape, and in some few
instances such was the case, but in the majority the condi-
tions were such that no great reliance could be placed upon
the result as a test. The union between the powder and the
paper was merely mechanical, so that its separate particles
were visible when magnified, and were often detached and
made to dance about on the surface by the vibrations caused
by the sparks, in addition to which the smoothest paper pro-
curable was microscopically rough, and its surface was not
improved in this respect by the amount of rubbing required
to work the powder into it. Further attemps were then made
to obtain some impress of the heat of the spark by using
paper which had been saturated with diluted sulphuric acid
and dried. Exposure to heat rapidly carbonizes this, and on
placing it in the path of the sparks the perforations were seen
to be bordered with black almost as soon as made. The
action of the acid had also so far rotted the paper that it
offered comparatively little resistance to the passage of the
sparks, and the pentagonal shape of the holes was conse-
quently much more uniform and sharp than in any previous
experiments. ‘The continuance of the current increased the
size of the holes much more rapidly than had been the case
in former instances ; but although the outline of the scorched
margins for the most part corresponded with that of the holes,
the varying thickness of the paper obviously prevented it
from always extending itself equally in every direction.
Whilst operating upon this paper it was noticed that at the
instant of perforation, and for some few seconds afterwards,
the edges of every hole glowed with great brilliancy ; this
was owing to the heat of the sparks having first carbonized
the paper, and next raised it to a state of incandescence,
until, being entirely consumed, it passed away in a tiny shower
of microscopic sparks; in fact, for the time, a minature
electric light had been produced.

Amongst other substances made use of, the dried leaves of
plants and trees were tried with some success, especially those
of the laurel and plane, whose cuticle presented a compara-
tively smooth surface. Here also scorched borders surrounded
each perforation, their outlines in many instances closely
corresponding with each other in shape. The faded leaf of
the plane tree was rapidly consumed by the continued action
of the sparks, a strong smell being produced, and two bright
red bands being added to the spectrum by its incandescent

20 LEWIS, ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.

particles. Thin laminz of mica resisted attempts to perforate
them by the means at command, the electricity simply spread-
ing itself over the surface in a lambent blue flame. Parch-
ment for the most part allowed sparks to pass through it
without any marked disruptive effects, and where holes were
made the heat caused their edges to shrivel or contract ina
sufficient degree to materially alter their original outlines.
A similar effect was also observed in the case of the membrane
which lines the interior of the egg-shell; and when polished
plates of steel were placed between the terminals their
surfaces were oxidized by the sparks, but the spots thus
produced were neither of distinct nor uniform shape.

As to the results of these experiments, so far as they have
been conducted, they would appear to lead to the following
conclusions :—That the true shape of the perforations made
by the electric spark is pentagonal; that this shape is con-
stant, without regard to the sources from which the electricity
is obtained ; that it is not due to the shape of the extremities
of the terminals or other points from which the sparks are
discharged, nor to the texture of the substance perforated ;
and from these conclusions it might be reasonably inferred
that it is due to the peculiar shape of the spark itself, although
it would perhaps be considered premature at present, and in
the absence of further evidence, to insist upon this as a thing
proved.*

* Supposing the perforations to be six-sided, as they appear to us,
and not five-sided, as Mr. Lewis thinks they are, an explanation is not so
difficult. The shape of the spark itself is, in all probability, that of a
more or less regular g@ylinder, whose section is a circle. The resistance
offered to the passage of the spark by the perforated paper or card, acts at
the point of passage on its cylindrical form in a manner analogous to that
in which equal pressure from all sides acts on a solid cylinder, rendering it
hexagonal; though the spark must not be regarded as anything but a con-
dition of the atmosphere. The cases of the basaltic pillars of the Giant’s
Causeway and of agglomerated soap-bubbles are well-known instances of
this law of pressure.—Ep.

oe

TRANSLATION.

On the SrRuctuRE and Puysiotocy of the RETINA.
By Professor Max ScHuLrTze.

Tue paper of which we here give an abstract has just
appeared in the Jast number of the author’s ‘Archiv f. Mikro-
skop. Anatomie,’ in which it occupies more than 100 pages,
and is illustrated with eight quarto plates. Itis undoubtedly
one of the most interesting and important contributions to our
knowledge of the very difficult structure of which it treats that
has eyer appeared, and it may be taken as giving an almost
exhaustive account of all that is known on the subject,
together with much, more especially in the physiological part
of the subject, altogether new ; and we deeply regret that our
space prevents our giving a more lengthy notice of its con-
tents, or, what would have been very desirable, a complete
trauslation of it.

In his general account of the structure of the retina we do
not perceive that Professor Schultze differs very materially
from most later writers on the subject. What he says re-
specting it may, however, be very briefly stated as follows:

The retina in man is composed of a fibrous or trabecular
framework, composed of connective tissue, and which serves
as a support to the nervous or sentient elements. The fibrous
framework consists of an outer and an inner membrana
limitans, connected together by a network of fibres, the prin-
cipal of which, passing from one limiting membrane to the
other, constitute the “radial fibres of Miiller.”? These are
connected by irregular lateral fibres, so that the whole con-
stitutes, speaking generally, a sort of wide trabecular net-
work; but at two special levels in the retina the fibrous
tissue forms a very close, almost membraniform plexus, the

22 SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA.

outer and thinner of which corresponds with the so-termed
‘intergranular layer,” and the inner in the same manner corre-
sponds with the “molecular layer” or outer part of the
“layer of grey substance.” The membrana limitans externa
in the fully developed organ does not constitute a continuous
expansion, but is perforated with numerous closely placed
openings, like the shelf of a bottle-rack. The membrana limi-
tans interna, properly speaking, is also not a continuous
membrane, but a reticulated tissue composed of the expanded
ends of the radial trabecule or “ fibres of Miller.” This
fibrous framework supports the nervous part of the retina,
which may be subdivided into six, or more properly, perhaps,
seven distinct layers. These layers, proceeding from without
inwards, are—l. The bacillary layer, composed of “ rods ” and
** cones,” placed vertically on the periphery, and each lodged
by its inner extremity in one of the openings in the outer
limitary membrane. 2. The “ outer granule-layer,”’ com-
posed for the most part of granular nucleated cells, connected
with either the “‘ rods ” or “‘ cones,” and traversed by the fila-
ments proceeding from those bodies. 3. The “ intergranular
layer,” which is constituted, as before remarked, in part of a
fine, fibrous, trabecular network, intermixed with which is a
still finer plexus of very delicate nerve-fibres, for the most
part, as it would seem, continuous with the terminal fibrille
of the cone-filaments, and perhaps also in part with the ter-
minations of the rod-filaments, although this has not been as
yet clearly made out. 4. The inner granule-layer, contain-
ing for the most part bipolar ganglion-cells and abundance of
fine nerve-filament’. 5. The “ molecular layer,” which is of
considerable thickness, and, like the “intergranular layer,”
apparently composed of an intricate interlacement of very
delicate nerve-filaments and the fine trabecular network
before mentioned. 6. The “ ganglionic layer,’ constituted
chiefly of large multipolar nerve-cells, each of which on its
inner aspect appears to be connected with a fibrilla of the
optic nerve, and on its outer to give off several processes
which break up into the delicate fibrils contained in the
molecular layer. 7. The layer of “ optic nerve-fibres,”” which
in most animals appear to have no sheath, but to represent
axial filaments.

The author’s researches have been directed more especially
to the distinction between the “ rods” and “cones.” But
his attention has been turned, not so much to their morpho-
logical characters, with respect to which little now remains to
be said, as to their relations to the other retinal elements, so
that he might be able, if possible, to obtain some insight into
their physiological differences. That such differences must

SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA. 23

exist cannot be doubted by any one who regards the unequal
distribution of the two elements in different parts of the
human retina, and remembers that in the most sensitive
part of it, as is well known, “‘ cones” only exist, whilst in
every other part the “‘ rods” far exceed the “ cones”? in
number. But these conditions have hitherto remained un-
explained, as has also the remarkable fact that in the retina
of many animais the “‘ rods ” alone are found, and in others
only “‘cones.”” In the prosecution of his object, therefore,
M. Schultze has found it necessary to examine, not only the
human retina in its various regions, and particularly in the
macula lutea and fovea centralis, but also to investigate all
the varieties of structure exhibited in other animals. And in
order to leave no means untried for arriving at a satisfactory
elucidation of the subject, he has further closely studied the
development of the retina, and particularly that of the bacillary
layer.

The first section of the paper is devoted to the considera-
tion mainly of the bacillary layer in the human subject, whose
general structure is described much in the usualterms. The
observations were made upon the recent human retina pre-
pared with dilute osmic acid, and the beautiful illustrative
figures are stated to have been taken from nature. They are
excellently done, and doubtless accurately represent the
structure as thus prepared. Retinas hardened by immersion
in solutions of osmic acid containing !—, per cent. are
readily split up by means of needles into their lamine parallel
with the radial fibres ; and these products of natural fissure
are clearly, the author thinks, preferable to thin sections.
The principal points to which we shall refer, contained in
this section, are :—(1) The fine longitudinal striation observ-
able in the “cones”? and “ cone-filaments.” (2) That the
space between the “ cone-filaments,” as they cross the outer
granule-layer, is entirely occupied by small, closely crowded
cells, all of which are connected by finer or coarser filaments
with the “rods.” These cells may be regarded, with H.
Miller, as bipolar ganglion-cells. (3) The distinctive char acter-
istics of *‘ cone-filaments,” which are much thicker than those
of the “ rods,” are then detailed, and the differences between
them and the fibrous radial trabeculz pointed out.

The relations of the “rods” and “ cones,” and the dispo-
sition of their filaments in the neighbourhood of and in the
macula lutea, are next described, and particular pains are
taken to render the structure of the retina in the macula and
fovea centralis clear and intelligible, and, as it appears to us,
with complete success.

24 SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA.

The structure of the retina in mammals and other verte-
brates is then compared with that of the human eye regarded
as a typical form. ]

Apes, as is well known, possess a macula lutea, and in
other respects their retina seems to agree very closely with
that of man, even in the comparatively great thickness of the
** cone-fibres.”’

Among the other mammalia a very remarkable and, as it
would seem, hitherto unnoticed diversity, with respect to the
distribution of “ rods” and “ cones,” exists. Whilst most of
our larger domestic animals, especially the sheep, ox, pig,
horse, and dog, present an arrangement of those elements re~
sembling that which is observed in the human subject and in
apes, except, of course, in the absence of the macula lutea, the
cones, according to the author’s observations, are entirely
wanting in bats, the hedgehog, mole, mouse, and guinea-pig.
A sort of intermediate condition is met with in the cat, rabbit,
and rat, in which animals are found either very slender true
“cones,” as in the cat, or merely indications of them, as in
the rabbit. But in any case the “rods ” preponderate so
much that the “cones” among them may readily be over-
looked. According to Ritter, the “cones ” are also wanting
in Balena mysticetus.

In the rat the “ rods ” are the longest and slenderest yet
met with by the author. In the other vertebrate classes the
proportion of “rods ” and “ cones” to each other approaches
nearest to that observed in the mammalian retina in the
osseous fishes. In the ray and shark “rods ” only exist. In
Petromyzon elemehts of one kind only occur in the bacillary
layer ; but whether these be “ cones” or “ rods” is undeter-
mined, nor is it determined whether, as supposed by some,
both elements may not really be present. The osseous fishes
afford excellent materials for the study of the “ cone ”-fibres ;
which at one time M. Schultze regarded as belonging to the
connective-tissue framework of the retina, and to represent in
the outer granule-layer the “ radial fibres of Miiller ” in the
other layers of the retina; but of their nervous nature, as of
the corresponding fibres in the human retina, he is now
thoroughly convinced.

The structure of the retina in birds, reptiles, and amphibia,
differs in a very peculiar manner from that of mammals and
fish. In the bird’s retina the proportion of “cones” to
“rods” is in the reverse proportion to that in the mammalia.
In other words, the retina of the bird,as regards the distribution
of “rods” and “ cones,” approaches that which is observed
in the human macula lutea, inasmuch as the “cones ”’ pre-

SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA. 25

ponderate greatly over the “rods.” The same disposition is
found in the retina of reptiles. In the turtle the arrange-
ment is precisely the same as in birds, whilst in the lizards
the “‘ rods” are wholly wanting, as they would appear to be
also in snakes. An exception, however, to this rule, as re-
gards birds, is afforded in the owl, in several species of
which (S. aluco, noctua, and flammea) the preponderance in
number would seem to be in favour of the “ rods;” and from
this circumstance, as well as owing to the enormous length
of the “rods” in proportion to the “cones,” the mosaic
aspect of the outer surface of the retina in these birds bears
a striking resemblance to that of the bat. And owing to the
same condition also, the owl’s retina is almost ever rywhere
destitute of the colours so characteristic of the membrane in
other birds. And another remarkable circumstance with
respect to the retina in owls is the total absence in it of red
pigment-globules ; and even the few yellow cones become
paler and paler towards the ora serrata, until at length they
are entirely colourless. These facts would seem to point out
that, as the retina of nocturnal mammalia is distinguished by
the total absence of “‘ cones,’ so in the case of the owl the
comparative paucity of the same elements, together with the
pale colour of the few pigment-globules, may also be con-
nected with its nocturnal habits and avoidance of light. It
would, therefore, M. Schultze remarks, be very interesting
to examine fhe, retina of other octane birds, as of the
Caprimulgide, &c.

Another and most characteristic peculiarity of the retina
of birds, some reptiles and amphibia, but more especially of
the first, is the presence in most of the “cones” of a spherical
globule of red or yellow colour, but chiefly yellow, and which
is situated at the junction of the inner and outer segments,
that is to say, at the internal end of the latter, whose whole
diameter is occupied by it, and consequently all the lhght
reaching the outer segment of the cone must pass through
this coloured medium. ‘The author’s observations would
seem to show that the yellow colour predominates in the
more sensitive parts of the retina. At least, this presump-
tion arises from the circumstance that in such birds as the
pigeon, crow, and hawk (although swift-flying birds), which
present a fovea centralis (in the hawk two), the elements in
that part all contain yellow spherules.

The retina of reptiles closely resembles that of birds. In
lizards, according to Leydig, two kinds of elements are dis-
tinguishable—one of a ‘slender form, and furnished with a
deep yellow spherule; and others of a broader conical shape,

a ee ee

26 SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA.

whose apex is coloured with a diffuse yellow pigment. Both
these elements, however, it would seem, according to Schultze,
should be regarded as “cones.” According to H. Miller,
the retina of the chameleon contains only elements of one
kind, which must also be regarded as cones. In the cones of
Anguis fragilis, which have been subjected to osmic acid,
and, apparently, according to Miiller, in the chameleon, a
peculiar differentiation of the contents of the inner segment
of the cones is observable, in the appearance of a conical,
strongly refractive body, the base of which is directed out-
wards, whilst the pointed proximal extremity looks towards
the membrana limitans externa, though it does not actually
reach it.* These bodies were supposed by Miiller to repre-
sent cell-nuclei, but M. Schultze suggests that they are re-
fracting lenses.

Throughout the amphibia a great uniformity exists im the
retinal elements. Amongst numerous colossal “rods” are
lodged a few very minute ‘ cones,” each of which contains a
minute-coloured or colourless spherule.

M. Schultze confirms Henle’s discovery of the presence of
one or more transverse lines in the outer granules, or rather
on those of the outer granules which are connected with the
“rods,” as they are not found on those belonging to the
“cones.” ‘These markings appear to be absent in all other
vertebrates.

A very full account of the structure and relations of the
black pigmentary layer is given, and reasons shown for its
being regarded as an element, not of the choroid, but of the
retina itself. It consists essentially of a layer of cells contain-
ing black pigment, and which send down fine filamentary
processes, like the pile of velvet, to fill up the spaces between
the outer segments of the “ rods” and “‘ cones.”

The paper then proceeds to give an account of the arrange-
ment, &c., of the ‘‘ cones,” which alone constitute the perci-
pient stratum in the macula lutea. It is shown that as the
border of this spot is approached the number of “ rods,” in
proportion to that of the “cones,” gradually and regularly
diminishes, until at last the former cease altogether, whilst at
the same time the “cones ” themselves become longer and
slenderer up to the centre of the macula; the direction, also,
of the cone-fibres becoming more and more oblique as they
radiate, as it were, from the centre of the macula. As is now
well known, the layer of “ cones ”’ is continuous over the so-

* This is probably the “albuminous substance which, in chromic-acid
preparations, retires as an opaque granular mass towards the outer end of the

body of the cones,” noticed by Mr. Hulke (‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ xiii, p. 109).

SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA. PH)

termed fovea centralis. Some very interesting observations
are given on the subject of the relation of the diameter of the
“yods ” and “cones” to the acuteness of vision, &c. ; and
the probability is shown that at the point of junction of the
outer and inner segments of the ‘ rods” and “ cones,” which
differ so much in their refractive properties, and between
which, as pointed out by Krause, even in the perfectly fresh
state so sharp a line of demarcation exists, the ight passing
through the retina to the “rods” suffers reflexion upon the
end of the inner segment, or upon true percipient nervous
point, as it may be termed.

The third section treats of the development of the retina,
and especially of the “ rods” and “ cones,” and it contains
many extremely interesting original observations. ‘The
author’s study seems to have been principally directed to the
development of the eye in the chick. He shows that the
pigment-layer of the retina, or the inner layer of the choroid,
as some deem it, is formed in the outer coat of the primitive
eye-bulb-sac, and that the outer and at first perfectly even
surface of the inner coat of the bulb is in close contact with
the outer. The surface of the inner fold of the primitive bulb-
sac is formed by, or rather represents, the future membrana
limitans externa. The first indication of the formation of the
“yods” and ‘‘ cones” is visible on the previously perfectly
even surface of this membrane in the appearance, about the
tenth day of incubation, upon it of minute hemispherical
elevations, which are, in fact, the rudiments of those elements
into which the elevations gradually grow.

In mammalia the necessary continuous observation is not
so readily made, but sufficient has been ascertained to show
that the development of the retina in them proceeds in the
same way as in the fowl. In fresh embryo calves, in specimens
from fifteen to twenty-five centimeters in length, the membrana
limitans externa was in close contact with the pigment-layer,
and no trace of either “rods” or “ cones” was visible. In
specimens fifteen to twenty centimeters long, hardened by
immersion in “ Miiller’s fluid,” or in a weak solution of
nitric acid, although the nerve-fibre-layer of the retina was
distinct enough, none of the other layers were as yet differen-
tiated from the general substance composed of spindle-shaped
cells having elongated nuclei and processes passing to the outer
and inner membrana limitans.

In embryo sheep, at the time of birth or very nearly so,
“rods” and “cones” were present, but not at an earlier
period. They were, however, shorter, and, above all, much
more delicate, than in the full-grown animal.

|

28 SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA.

It would appear that in the sheep and other mammals the
“rods” are not developed until the differentiation of the
other parts of the retina has advanced some way, nor before
the end of embryonal life; but in some instances, as in the
rabbit and cat, this is seen in a far more striking manner.
Neither of these animals at birth present any trace of “ rods ”
and ‘cones.’ The blindness, therefore, of the new-born
rabbit and kitten does not depend solely upon the closure of
the lids, but is also associated with an undeveloped state of
the retina itself. ‘The “rods” and “ cones” do not appear
to be fully developed before the thirteenth day, when they
are in the same condition as in the calf or lamb at birth.

The development of ‘the ‘‘ rods” and “cones” in man
appears to follow the same course as in the rumimants above
named.

The fourth section relates to the differences between the
“rods ”’ and ‘‘ cones,’ with respect more especially to their
functions. And in it is given a recapitulation of the principal
anatomical facts upon which the physiological conclusions
or suppositions are based, in the following words :

“With the enlargement of our knowledge of the structure and dis-
position of the two elements composing the percipient layer of the
retina—the ‘rods’ and ‘ cones’—arises the question whether we are
thus in a condition to attempt the problem of the hitherto unknown
physiological distinction between them. We hear that, at any rate,
the direction in which the solution of this question is to be sought
may now be indicated with some degree of certainty, and I will en-
deavour briefly to state my views, as follows:

“The anatomical facts upon which we have to rely, shortly recapi-
tulated, are these:

*]. The difference in size andform. This is manifested more parti-
cularly in the so-termed inner segment, which in the ‘ rods’ is always
sharply defined from the outer segment, but which may also be dis-
tinguished as a separate element also in the ‘cones.’ The inner
segments in both the ‘rods’ and ‘ cones,’ in the perfectly fresh con-
dition, consist of an apparently almost structureless substance, but
which very rapidly, after death and in all preservative media, coagu-
lates into a more or less distinctly granular matter. This substance,
to judge from micro-chemical reactions, most nearly resembles
albuminous matter, as, for instance, the protoplasm of young cells.
An essential distinction between the substance of the inner segment
of the ‘rods’ and of the ‘cones’ is manifest in the cireumstance that
solutions of osmic acid of a certain strength produce in that of the
cones a very distinct parallel striation, which, under similar conditions,
Iam unable to perceive in the inner segments of the ‘rods.’ No
universal distinction exists in the absolute diameter of the inner
segments, as, for instance, in the human retina; for although the
cones throughout by far the greater part of the retina are fully twice
as thick as the rods, their inner segments in the fovea centralis are quite
as slender as those of the ‘rods.’ The outer segments or shafts consist
of a more highly refracting substance, which after death coagulates in

SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA. 29

a different manner from that composing the bodies. This substance
does not become granular, like protoplasm, but either hardens into a
homogeneous mass or shrinks and curls up in a peculiar manner, at
the same time cracking, generally transversely, but sometimes also
longitudinally. That an external tunic and contents—a cortex and
central filament—can be distinguished in them I hold to be highly
improbable. The outer segments of the ‘rods’ are cylindrical, though
a very slight attenuation towards the choroid may occur (frog); on
the other hand, the outer segments of the ‘cones’ are of a decidedly
conical form, the apex pointing outwards, and usually terminating
below the summits of the rods.

“2. A very remarkable difference between the ‘rods’ and ‘cones’ is
presented in the filaments proceeding from them to the external gra-
nule-layer. The filaments belonging to the ‘cones’ are of considerable
thickness, which sometimes is as much as 2—5 micro-millimeters ;
they exhibit here and there a delicate longitudinal striation, as if they
were composed of parallel fibrils; and they always break up on the
upper surface of the intergranular layer into an indeterminate num-
ber of extremely delicate fibrils, which are lost in that layer.* The
fibres proceeding from the rods, on the contrary, have a scarcely mea-
surable thickness, and they can only be traced to the surface of the
intergranular layer, where they apparently terminate in a minute
enlargement whose nature is at present obscure. Each filament,
whether belonging to a ‘ cone’ or ‘rod,’ is in some part of its course
connected with a cell—an outer granule—so that the outer granules
may be divided into ‘rod’ and ‘cone-granules,’ of which the latter,
at any rate in the mammalia, are the larger. Both kinds of filaments
present all the characters of nerve-fibres, and much resemble those of
the optic nerve-layer, and, on the other hand, they are manifestly dis-
tinguishable from those of the trabecular framework.

3. At the yellow spot of the human and simian retina ‘cones’
only exist. Close to its periphery, however, ‘rods’ become inter-
posed between them, and at a few millimeters from the middle of the
spot they are present in the number of two to three between each
two ‘ cones,’ a proportion which is continued uninterruptedly up to
the ora serrata. In proportion as they become crowded together at
the macula lutea, their fibres, as well as those of the ‘ rods’ interspersed
among them, assume an oblique direction, radiating, as it were,

* Tn a valuable communication to the Royal Society, read in June, 1866,
on the “ Chameleon’s Retina,” Mr. Hulke states “ that from the inner ends
of the cones fine fibres proceed obliquely from the outer to the inner sur-
face of the retina in a radial direction from the centre of the fovea to the
periphery of the retina.” These fibres connect the cones with the cells of
the outer granule-layer; they next form a thick plexus at the inner surface
of this layer, which he terms the ‘‘ cone-fibre-plexus ;” then traverse the inner
granule-layer, in which they connect themselves with round and roundly oval
cells, and are continued through the medium of the ganglion-cell-like cells of
this layer into the granular (molecular layer, Schultze), where they join the
processes directed outwards from the cells of the ganglioniclayer. ‘“ Thus,”
he says, “they constitute an anatomical path between the cones and optic
nerve-fibres.”

This, if confirmed by future observation, isa most important fact, and one
of great import with relation to the apparently more direct and immediate
communication between the “cones” and optic nerve-fibres than would
seem to obtain with respect to the “rods.”

30 SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA.

from the centre of the macula in a meridional and forward direction,
in order, after a longer or shorter course, to reach the outer granular
layer. ' :

“4. In most mammalia the relative number of ‘ rods’ and ‘cones’
is exactly the same as in man, with the exception, of course, of the
macula lutea. But in many the cones are altogether absent. This is
the case in animals which prefer darkness to light, such as the bat,
hedgehog, mole, mouse, and probably a great many others. In the
rabbit, which, as is well known, in the wild state inhabits subter-
ranean passages, there are, it is true, indications of cones, though
these appear to be in quite a rudimentary state.* The cat has dis-
tinct though slender cones, which are placed wide apart, so that room
is left between them for twice or thrice the number of ‘rods’ than in
the human retina.

“5. Birds have many more ‘cones’ than ‘ rods,’ the former, in fact,
standing to the latter in the inverse proportion to that in which they
occur in the human subject. In both the Jovee centrales of the
falcon ‘ cones’ only exist [as well as in the single fovea centralis in
some other birds|. But the owls almost resemble the bat, their
retina containing but very few cones and an enormous proportionate
number of rods. In their retina scattered ‘cones’ only occur at wide
intervals, and these are so overcrowded by-the very long outer
segments of the ‘rods’ as to be seen with great difficulty.

“6. The ‘cones’ in birds are distinguished by a very remarkable
character. The greater number of them are furnished, at the end of
the inner segment and immediately in front of the point of attach-
ment of the outer segment, with a highly refractive globule, for the
most part of a deep yellow or red colour, anything analogous to which,
so far as is at present known, is wanting in all mammals. The yellow
globules are more numerous than the red. The coloured globules
have a diameter precisely corresponding with that of the base of the
outer segment, so that no light can reach that part without passing
through the globule. The few ‘cones’ which have no coloured globule
contain at the corresponding point a strongly refractive colourless
body, apparently of the same kind. The few : cones’ existing in the
owl’s retina are furhished with pale yellow or colourless globules.
Red globules are entirely wanting in the retina of those birds (Strix
aluco, noctua, and jlammea),.

“7. Among reptiles, in some, as the turtle, the retina appears to
present the same structure as that of birds. Lizards and snakes have
only cones, ind in some instances these contain pigment-globules in
the same situation as in birds (Lacerta, sp. Anguis fragilis), whilst
others are without these coloured elements (chameleon and snakes).

“8. The amphibia (frog, toad, triton, and salamander) have very
thick rods and very minute cones, but in each of the latter is a bright
yellow or colourless globule situated between the outer and inner
segment.

“9. The osseous fishes, so far as researches have hitherto gone,
appear to possess rods and cones like the mammalia; and the latter
are without coloured globules. Cartilaginous fish, on the other hand,
as the ray and dog-fish, are wholly without ‘cones,’ like the bat
among mammalia.

“10. The difference which in mammals and fish is so apparent

* It would be very interesting to examine the hare’s retina, which, though
so closely allied to the rabbit, differs so much from it in its habits.

SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA. 31

in the relative thickness of the ‘rod-’ and ‘ cone-’ filaments, is not
apparent in birds or amphibia. How the case may be in those
reptiles which possess both elements has not yet been ascertained.”

The author then enters upon the question of the physio-
logical relations of the “‘rods” and ‘ cones;” and the fol-
lowing may be taken as a very brief summary of his highly
interesting observations on this point.

The organization of the “ yellow spot,” and of the fovea
centralis, in the human retina, clearly proves that the cones
~ alone are not only sufficient for vision, but also that they
possess certain physiological advantages over the “rods.”
But it is, at the same time, obvious that the “ rods” alone
suffice for the purpose of vision, since the bat and other
mammals are wholly unprovided with “cones.” But these
mammals without cones in the retina prefer the dusk or night
to daylight. The question, consequently, arises, what im-
pression communicated through the retina in the dusk is
useless /—by the solution of which we may be guided to some
conclusion with regard to the peculiar function of the
“cones.”

The visual sense comprises three fundamental impressions,
which have been termed by Aubert “ Lichtsinn, “‘ Farbensinn,”
and “‘ Raumsinn ;” that is to say, ‘ light-sense,” “ colour- .
sense,” and “ space-sense.” It as at once obvious that the
light-sense, or the power simply of perceiving luminosity, in-
cluding [perhaps] quantitative differences in the degree of light,
is a fundamental requirement in any, even the simplest, visual
organ. For this purpose, it is clear that a single termination
of a nerve, or, in other words, in the case of the retina of the
higher animals, a single rod or cone, would suffice. And it
may also be admitted that a number of such visual points,
associated so as to form a single percipient organ, would, in
addition to the simple perception of light, also give the power
of estimating space, and consequently of conveying ideas of
form. These two faculties of the perception of light and of
Space as conveyed by light are inherent in the eyes of all
vertebrates. The “ coneless” retina of the bat, hedgehog, and
mole, does not, in this respect, differ from the “‘ rodless” retina
of snakes and lizards, seeing that the “cones” are, at any
rate, quite as fully percipient of light as the “ rods,” inas-
much as they equally represent the termination of sentient
nerves. It may be assumed that the mere sense of luminosity
is more strongly developed in nocturnal animals, as the bat,
than it is in the sunshine-loving snake; so that the former
would find a sufficiency of light when the latter was in dark-
ness. This would seem to indicate that the “rods” were

~

32 SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA.

more adapted for the simple perception of light than the
“cones.”

We have next to consider the co/our-sense ; that is to say,
the sense by which qualitative differences in light are per-
ceived. ‘To judge from our own experience, which in such a
question can be the only guide, the simplest trials will show
that, as dusk and darkness appr roach, the power of perceiving
colours ceases at a comparatively early stage. In the evening,
though we may see objects well enough, we are quite uncer-
tain as to their absolute or relative colour. We may suppose,
therefore, that an animal which pursues its prey only at night,
and which habitually frequents dark or obscure places, has
no sense of colour, or, at any rate, only needs to distinguish
different degrees of br ightness j in the different colours, as 1s the

case with ourselves in the dusk [or even, in the case of colour-
blindness, sometimes even in the daytime]. If we assume, as
from the theory of Young and Helmholtz we are compelled
to do, that the sense of colour resides in a determinate ana-
tomical substratum, we are justified in concluding that that
particular substratum is wanting in the retina of nocturnal
animals. The conclusion naturally follows, that the “ cones”
may, im all probability, de the terminal nerve-organs of the
colour-sense.

It should be borne in mind, however, that the “ cones”
cannot be regarded as exclusively confined to the perception
of colour. The colour-sense necessarily includes the light-
sense, or is, as it were, superadded to it; and thus we may
conclude that, where the colour-percipient cones are sufficiently
closely ag oregated, they may also suffice for the sense of space,
and thus fulfil all the functions of a retina by themselves
alone. The only question, therefore, as M. Schultze remarks,
that can arise, is as to whether it is probable that the ** cones,”
together with the power of conveying impressions of lumi-
nosity and space, have not in addition that of conveying im-
pressions of colour, and whether we have any reason, in like
manner, to suppose that the “rods” have no such power.

The author then proceeds to show, in reference to the
experiments of Purkinje, Hueck, Helmholtz, Aubert, and
Schelske, that, although the sense of colour exists through-
out the human retina, it is most acute in proportion to the
preponderance or number of the “cones” over the ‘ ‘ rods,”
and that the latter alone are unable to convey impressions of
colour. He also points out that the probabilities that this
function resides in the “ cones”’ is strengthened by the
fibrillated structure of the “cones” and their filaments,
which is in accordance with the well-known theory of colour-

SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA. 33

perception, propounded by Young and Helmholtz, that at
least three different kinds of fibre must be required for this
perception. Each “cone,” therefore, in the mammalia and
fishes, having this compound structure and all being alike,
it would appear to follow that all are equally capable of per-
ceiving every variety of colour. And his argument is still
further strengthened by the consideration that, inasmuch as
all or nearly all the “ cones” in a bird’s retina are furnished
with a coloured spherule, through which all the light reach-
ing the percipient part must pass, it would be absurd to
suppose that they were incapable of receiving impressions of
colour, for which, so far as shown by that circumstance, they
alone would seem to be fitted. Furthermore, it is to be borne
in mind that all the “ cones” in a bird’s eye do not contain
spherules of the same colour, and that some are without any,
whence we may conclude that in all probability the differently
coloured “ cones ” are adapted for the perception of mono-
chromatic light corresponding to that of the spherule con-
tained in them, and that each is not, as in the mammal,
capable of conveying equally impressions of all colours. And
this view is curiously in accordance with the circumstance
that the “‘ cone ”’-filaments in the bird are scarcely thicker
than those of the “rods.” Whether this be the case with
the filaments proceeding from the colourless ‘ cones,” has not
been made out. But it may be that these “‘cones” are adapted
for the reception only of the violet rays, which would, of
course, be absorbed in their passage through the coloured
““ cones.”

The structure of the owl’s retina, in contrast with that of
diurnal birds, may be cited in support of the same argument.
And the author refers to a suggestion of his own, made in a
former paper on the macula lutea,* that the intervention of
the yellow spherule in birds, and of the yellow colour in the
human macula, may serve for the interruption of the more
powerful photo-chemical rays in their passage to the delicate
percipient tissue.t

This part of the paper concludes with a highly interesting
disquisition respecting several other points connected with
the simple visual sense and the estimation of sizes and forms,
&c., for which the reader must consult the original.

* © Ueber den gelben Fleck der Retina,’ &e. Bonn, 1866.

+ Should M. Schultze’s ingenious speculation respecting the use of the
yellow and red spherules in the retina of birds and some sun-loving reptiles
be entertained, it would seem to suggest the propriety of using yellow
glasses to protect the eyes in strong daylight, as on snow or at sea in the
tropics, for instance, instead of blue or violet ones, which transmit only the
very rays which nature seems to be so solicitous to intercept.

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. Cc

34 SCHULTZE, ON THE RETINA.

In his researches on the retina M. Schultze has found the
greatest advantage in the use of a solution containing 1 to =5th
of osmic acid (OsO,); and he recommends that a solution of
that substance containing 1 per cent. should be kept at hand,
which can be diluted at pleasure. Microscopie preparations
made with it he prefers to keep simply in water.

The black colour which is assumed by the preparation, even
within a few minutes of its immersion, is at first uniform
throughout. But subsequently the different parts of the
retina exhibit slight differences, the optic nerve-fibres and
the molecular and intergranular layers exhibiting the deepest
tint. In frogs and fishes the deepest colour is seen in the
outer segments of the “‘ rods.” In this way may be obtained
preparations in which the outer segment is of a deep black
colour, whilst the inner is almost uncoloured, the line of
demarcation between the two being very abruptly defined.
A similar difference is observable also in mammals, but not
so constantly, and under circumstances which cannot at pre-
sent be explained. But the demarcation between the segments
is always well defined, and the author can recommend
no better medium for the examination of the “rods” and
“cones” than‘osmic acid. A special advantage of the osmic-
acid solution is that it hardens the elements of the connective-
tissue framework more slowly than the neryous; and another
is that, except in very strong solutions, it does not produce
granular coagulation either within or without the elementary
parts of the retina.

The obseryer is cautioned against the injurious effects of
osmic acid upon himself, unless great care be taken.

Another medium greatly employed by him is what he terms
** Tod-serum,” or iodized serum, which is used for the immer-
sion of fresh dissections of the eye and other parts—the most
delicate tissues, such as the retina, remaining for a long time
unaltered in it. It is prepared from the amniotic fluid of the
calf, to which a sufficient quantity of tincture of iodine is
added to give it a faint yellow colour. And he has found
that an albuminous fluid of this kind may be kept unaltered
for any length of time ifa very minute quantity of bromine be
added to it. But as bromine acts very powerfully in causing
cells, &c., to contract, the quantity added to the iodized
serum must be less than will remove the whole of the yellow
tint.

[It is not improbable that a few drops of carbolic acid

would answer the same purpose as the bromine, and perhaps
the iodine also.]

REVIEW.

Histoire Naturelle des Annelés marins et d’eau douce. <Anné-
lides et Gephyriens. By ARMAND DE QUATREFAGES.

Tue worms of our seas and fresh waters—variously classi-
fied and arranged by those who have studied them—have
commanded till quite recently but a very poor share of the
attention of the working naturalist. The probable reasons
of this circumstance are to be found in the retiring nature
of these animals, and the comparative obscurity of the
characters which separate them specifically and generically,
as well as the difficulty of tracing their life-histories and
anatomical development. We believe that we are not
exaggerating the true state of the case when we say that
there is not a single work extant, such as is available for
other groups of animals, by which species of Annelida may
be satisfactorily identified—even those occurring in such
limited areas as our own and neighbouring seas. The few
systematic works which are to be had, of which the British
Museum Catalogue published in 1865 may be taken as a
specimen, are simply useless for the purposes of the present
day, owing to insufficiency in details in both descriptions and
figures. On the other hand, the work of M. Malmgren on
the Annelids of the North Sea, and such descriptions of
species and ample drawings as those of Kinberg* and
Ehlers,+ are examples of the manner in which the Annelida
should be treated; and until we get such works from many
different localities the synonymy must remain in its present
shocking condition, very many species which bear the same
name in France, England, Germany, and Scandinavia, being
quite distinct, and those bearing different names being often
identical,

* Eugenie’s Resa, &c., Zoologi, 1857.
+ * Die Borstenwiirmer,’ 1864.

36 REVIEW.

The unfortunate worms have also been greatly ignored
by the anatomist, the labours of Cuvier, Audouin and
Edwards, Claparéde and De Quatrefages, leaving large gaps
to be filled up; while, as regards external morphology,
Professor Huxley * alone has made the attempt to advance
upon Grube’s useful though by no means perfect nomencla-
ture.

Matters being thus, the announcement of a work on the
annuloid animals of the sea and fresh waters by one who has
laboured so successfully during the last twenty years at their
anatomy as M. de Quatrefages, was a subject for great ‘re-
joicing to those interested in the group, and high expectations
were raised. The work has at length appeared, in two vo-
lumes, with twenty illustrative plates. It does not treat of the
whole sub-kingdom Annuloida (Annelés), nor of all worms
which are sometimes classed as Annelida, but only of the
Polycheta appendiculata and Gymnocopa of Grube, to which
M. de Quatrefages restricts the class Annelida, and the
Gephyrea, once regarded as Echinoderms ; the other classes,
embracing the earthworms, leeches, &c., are, we believe, to
be discussed in other volumes by other authors.

We propose in the few following pages briefly to notice the
various chapters of M. de Quatrefages’ work, which we may
at once state contains a vast amount of information, and
numberless valuable facts, never before placed so readily to
the hand of the naturalist. Much, indeed, of the matter is
quite new, and the plates are for the most part very good,
though sometimes over-coloured. While fully acknowledging
the value of the work, we cannot but express some disap-
pointment at the absence of any general views and philoso-
phical exposition of the facts treated of in the first few
chapters. The author appears as a most diligent observer,
but fails to go beyond this. In the systematic portion of the
work he has done great service in characterising all the known
genera and most of the species of Annelida and Gephyrea ; he
has not, however, attempted to reduce the confusion in syno-
nymy directly, and indirectly has added a little to it by not
fully figuring and describing his new species.

In the Introduction the author defends his views on the
classification of the Annuloida, or worms, which he divides
primarily into two parallel series —the monecious and
dicecious—which contain groups presenting analogies to each
other (the moneecious to the diecious groups), but not
affinities strictly so-called. In the following tables we give

* Lectures in ‘ Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1856.

QUATREFAGE’S HISTOIRE NATURELLE. 37

M. de Quatrefages’ classification, and that in Carus’s ‘ Hand-
buch,’ representing the last German view of these animals:

VERS. VERMES.
— —————————E————————
DIOiQUES. MoNnoiQuEs. Annulata.
Annelides. Erythrémes (Oligocheta).
Rotateurs. Gephyrea.
Géphyriens. Chetognatha (Sagitta),
Malacobdelles. Bdelles (Hirudinea).
Miocelés. Turbellariés. Nematelminthes.
Nematoides. Platyelminthes,
Cestoides.

Those groups printed in italics in the left-hand table form
the Annulata of Carus’s arrangement.

It is an unfortunate thing for M. de Quatrefages’ high
estimate of the value of the unison or conjunction of the sexes
as separating characters that Professor Huxley, some years
since, described a small tubicolate Annelid which had the
sexes united. M. de Quatrefages, while admitting this as
rather an awkward hitch in his arrangement, contends that
such an Annelid was only an accidental exception—one of
those curious exceptions which prove the rule. This, we
think, can hardly be maintained in the present very limited
state of our knowledge of the reproductive organs of Annelida,
and prefer such an arrangement as that of Carus, which
should, however, include the Rotifera.

After thus clearing the way, the author proceeds to deal
with the class Annelida as limited above.

His first chapter is devoted to “ external organization,”
the remarks on the general form of the body and its division
into regions being well worth perusal. The division into a
fore part, a hind part, and a middle part—a head, a tail, and
a thorax—exists in Annelids as in all animals of any com-
plexity of organization; it is but faintly indicated in the
errant Annelids whose thorax is not marked off from the tail,
but in the sedentary forms is most obvious. M. de Quatre-
fages gives numerous details of the modifications of these
parts, but hardly seems to recognise the fact that they are
built up by the modification of homologous somites. In his
review of the nomenclature of these various parts, and in
particular those of the cephalic region, it is unfortunate that
he has not noticed in any way the brief but most clear and
philosophical view of the structure of Annelida given by
Professor Huxley in the lectures already referred to. In all
probability, M. de Quatrefages has never seen these lectures,
which have been allowed to remain in comparative obscurity
for more than ten years.

38 REVIEW.

We have not space here to do more than glance at the
morphology of the “ cephalic region,” as expounded by our
author, which is the name he gives to the kopflappen and
mundsegment of Grube taken together. All Annelids possess
this “‘ head,’”’ though in some of the sedentary forms it can
only be distinguished by its appendages, while in the
Errantia it is highly developed. ‘The two parts of the head
already distinguished by Grube and others he re-names, the
first as “ lobe cérébral,”’ “ téte,”’ or ‘‘ caput,” the second as
** anneau buccal” or “ annulus buccalis.” ‘The names given
by Professor Huxley to the same parts are respectively
* prostomium ” and “ peristomium,” names which we cannot
but hope will be in the end generally adopted, as they have
been already to some extent in Germany, since they express
in the neatest form the most important relations of these two
parts of the worm. The nomenclature of the appendages of
the head is, M. de Quatrefages says, unsatisfactory, since
appendages receive the same name in different Annelids
which receive totally different nerves, and vice versé. He
considers that the distribution of the nerves should be
made the criterion of homology in these parts in different
genera, and we believe that he has here found the only
test, save that of embryological relationship, which can be
applied to such parts. The theory of the Annelid’s head
is In many ways analogous to that of the vertebrate skull.

The term “‘antenne”’ is limited by our author to the append-
ages which are placed on the head properly so-called (kop-
flappen, prostomium) ; it is not always easy to ascertain what
appendages are “ placed on”’ the head, but we have a more
tangible definition in this—“ the antenne receive their nerves
directly from the brain itself (pree-oral or supra-cesophageal
ganglia).””

The name “tentacula”’ is reserved for those appendages
which proceed from the buccal ring; these receive their
nerves from the ganglia of the “ connective” or “ accessory
connective ” (pharyngeal commissures).

The term “cirrhi tentaculares” is used to designate the
appendages of the first feet when they assume the characters
of the more strictly cephalic segments; these receive their
nerves from the ventral chain of ganglia.

While these considerations are of value in recognising
equivalent appendages in different genera and families, we
cannot think M. de Quatrefages’ choice of terms at all happy,
since it rather tends to create confusion. Let us compare the
corresponding titles used by different authors.

b

QUATREFAGE’S HISTOIRE NATURELLE. 39

Audouin and Edwards. De Quatrefages.
1. Antenne impaire ou médiane. 1. Antenne médiane.
2. Antennes mitoyennes. 2. Antennes latérales.
3. = externes. 3. Tentacules inférieurs.
4. Cirrhes tentaculaires. ; if supérieurs.
Pe 95 5. Cirrhes tentaculaires.
Grube. Kinberg. Hurley.
1. Tentaculumimpar. 1. Tentaculum. 1, Tentaculum prosto-
2. Tentacula media. 2. Antenne. miale.
3. Tentaculalateralia. 3. Palpi. 2. Cirrhi prostomiales
4, Cirrhi tentaculares. 4. Cirrhi tentaculares, superiores.
5. 5. Cirrhi buccales. 3. Cirrhi prostomiales
inferiores.

4, Cirrhiperistomiales.

Of these it will be seen that the terminology of M. de
Quatrefages is only a modification of that of Audouin
and Edwards. It is an important modification, however,
since he couples the third pair of appendages with the
fourth, whilst the other authors, with the exception of
Kinberg, couple them with the second. Kinberg’s names are
extremely short and useful, but do not express any of the rela-
tions of the parts. Professor Huxley’s names are valuable,
since they serve to enforce the idea that each of these pairs of
appendages correspond to the appendages—the cirrhi—of a
somite. If we are to havea simple nomenclature, short, for use,
we prefer Kinberg’s ; but if by the names given it is desirable
to express the homologies of the parts, those of Professor
Huxley are the best. M. de Quatrefages does not discuss in
any way the structure of the prostomium and peristomium as
consisting of modified somites ; and hence, though on account
of the origin of their nerves he associates with the appendages
of the peristomium, in name, what all other authors appear to
have regarded as one pair of the appendages of the prostomium,
we are at a loss to know whether he really considers the third
pair of appendages, the “‘ palpi”’ of Kinberg, as belonging
morphologically to that portion of the head in front of the
mouth or to that portion around it. The omission of any
attempt to discuss this question of the structure of the
cephalic region is very much to be regretted.

Applying his principle of “‘ antenna” and “tentaculum ”’ to
the sedentary forms, the author shows that in Terebella the
prehensile cirrhi are modified “‘antenne,” as also are the
respiratory fans of Sabella and Serpula, whilst the opercula of
Hermella, &c., arising from the peristomium—the buccal ring
—are the homologues* of the tentacula or peristomial cirrhi.

* M. de Quatrefages says “les analogues;” but here, as elsewhere, we
observe that the terms “ homologue” and “analogue” have not with him

40 REVIEW.

The modifications of the appendages of the feet in the
thoracic and abdominal regions of the body are more care-
fully discussed. The elytra of Aphroditacez are considered
as respiratory organs—certainly not homologous with the
notopodial cirrhi, since in some genera they exist on the same
somite with the notopodial cirrhi, as shown by Audouin and
Edwards. There can, however, be little doubt that there is
a very intimate relation between elytra and cirrhi, both in
structure and function, the absence of cirrhi on those somites
provided with elytra in most Polynoina sufficiently proving
this. The elytra are described by M. de Quatrefages as
composed of two lamella, in the space between which the
fluids from the general cavity of the body circulate, passing
in by a fine aperture in the pedicle of the scale. The cirrhi -
are described as more or less cylindrical and tapering append-
ages, whose function is that of an obscure sense of touch,
similar to that of the “ whiskers” of certain mammifers.
Now, though this description of elytra and cirrhi is true
for general purposes, it does not state the whole case. In
many Polynoina the two lamelle of the elytra are rendered
entirely continuous by a tough, fibrous, intermediate structure,
similar to that which in most cases forms the central portion
of a cirrhus ; no passage is thus left for the circulation of
fluids, and a hard leather-like plate is formed, on the surface
of which are papille, having, to all appearance, a sensory
function. On the other hand, the cirrhi in some Polynoina
(Antinoé nobilis, from the Channel Islands, and the Gastrole-
pidia of Scghmarda) are excavated, and form delicate
bladder-like sacs, communicating with the general cavity of
the body, whilst the foliaceous form and respiratory function
of the cirrhi in Phyllodoce are well known.

The chapter on external form concludes with a minute
description of the various forms of sete and hooklets met
with in the Annelida.

The second chapter, devoted to anatomy and physiology,
is, perhaps, the most valuable in the work, since in it a
résumé is given of those numerous and excellent essays of the
author on various genera of Annelida already published,
whilst there is much additional matter. It would have made
the work more valuable had not the author dwelt so entirely
on his own observations, and noticed more fully those of other
writers. A large portion of this chapter is, we regret to see,
necessarily taken up in controverting the claims and opinions

the same definite sense of structural and functional equivalent which they
have gained in England.

QUATREFAGE’S HISTOIRE NATURELLE. 41

of our late unfortunate countryman, Dr. Williams, of Swansea,
who M. de Quatrefages seems to think is regarded by other
observers as a credible and sound investigator. ‘This we can
assure him is not the case in England. ‘There is, however,
one great merit due to Dr. Williams which ought to be univer-
sally acknowledged, as it is by M. de Quatrefages ; it is that
of having first discovered and appreciated those excretory
ducts to which he applied the name ‘segmental organ.”
When we have given credit for this to Dr. Williams, it is all
we can do for him; for the “segmental organ” appears
really to have worked upon his brain in a most serious
way, and rendered him truly monomaniacal. All the
lower animals, he attempted to show, possessed this “ seg-
mental organ;” it was from this that the generative glands
were developed, &c., andin order to support these statements
he published most extraordinary drawings of dissections
(which happily very few people believe in now), and treated
the most distinguished writers, whose views differed from his,
with contempt or abuse. M. de Quatrefages undoubtedly
drew attention to the nature and functions of the general
cavity of the bodies of Invertebrata before Dr. Williams, and
throughout the researches of the former on the circulation
and respiration of Annelida have precedence over those of the
latter.

The various organs of the Annelida are treated in_this
chapter of 100 pages under the following heads :—1. Tegu-
ments and general muscular system, 2. General cavity of the
body. %. Organs and functions of digestion.—The description
of the exsertile pharynx and its teeth and denticles in various
genera is a specimen of the author’s great attention to details,
and his minute acquaintance with these structures from
personal observation. We cannot, however, agree to the
statement that the pharynx is ever entirely everted in lite by
the Polynoina, which is, indeed, put forward somewhat doubt-
fully ; it seems to be merely owing to a strong convulsive
action of the muscles that this takes place, generally resulting
from such an irritation as causes death ; and we doubt if the
pharynx is ever withdrawn again, since the worm dies almost
directly after its protrusion. 4. Organs and functions of
absorption—Under this heading the author states “ there
are no special organs of absorption.” He assigns this func-
tion to the vessels of the red fluid which are intimately con-
nected with the intestine. 5. Organs and functions of circula-
tion. 6. Organs and functions of respiration Treated separately
as the respiration of the blood (red vascular fluid), and
respiration of the liquid of the general cavity. These two

6 es ee al

nS ee Oe ee

==

--

SESS

a

42 REVIEW.

subjects of circulation and respiration are discussed very
fully. The researches of Milne-Edwards were the first in
elucidating this portion of the anatomy of the Annelida; and
it almost seems to have become specially appropriated to the
investigation of French naturalists. 7. Organs and fune-
tions of secretion—Under this head the abundant secretion
of viscid material from the skin, such as is observed in
Lumbrinereis, Cirrhatulus, Chetopterus, and all tube-build-
ing forms, is briefly discussed. 8. Organs and functions
of innervation—The nervous’ system is described as con-
sisting of a general and a visceral system, the first comprising
the “ brain,” or large bifid supra-cesophageal mass and the
ventral chain of ganglia; the second of a chain or series of
stomato-gastric ganglia, variously modified in the different
genera. 9. Organs of the senses—The sense of touch is very
briefly passed over, very little being said as to the sensitive
papille and hair-like appendages of. some Annelids. The
author inclines to the belief that the Nereides possess the
sense of taste, from the structure of the pharynx, but no
evidence is adduced from other Annelids. The organ of
hearing, first recognised by Grube and Siebold in Arenicola,
is considered by M. de Quatrefages the only well-attested
example of such a structure in Annelida. Carus, however,
in his ‘ Handbuch ’ (1864) regards all Annelids as possessing
such organs. M. de Quatrefages says he has twice observed
some such organ in Eunice sanguinea, but he does not feel
sufficiently certain of its nature. The eye is well developed
in many Angelids, as the researches of Muller, Wagner,
Rathke, Siebold, and chiefly M. de Quatrefages himself,
attest. ‘The curious genera Amphicorine and Polyophthalmus,
the one with eyes at the tail, the other with an eye to each
ring of the body, are refigured and described. 9. Organs
and functions of locomotion.—The explanation offered of
the mode of action of the feet in those Annelids in which
they are developed as locomotory organs is worth notice.
A .very large share of importance is ascribed to the fluid
of the general cavity, in relation to locomotion. It acts
by distending the erectile tissue of the feet, and also stiffens
each part of the body successively in a similar manner, thus
giving a point d’appui to the muscles which are attached to
those parts. 11. Organs and functions of generation.—The
different subjects coming under this head—ovaries, sperma-
tozoa, accessory organs, &c.—are treated at some leneth. The
modifications which the embryo undergoes, andthe subsequent
phenomena of alternating generation, or geneagenesis, as M. —
de Quatrefages calls it, are discussed as far as the facts at

QUATREFAGE’S HISTOIRE NATURELLE, 43

hand will allow. The embryogeny of the Annelida is, mdeed,
a field of study which has been but little entered on, and
which is most urgently in need of workers. M. de Quatre-
fages himself has traced the development of Hermella, and
gives a résumé of his work in this chapter. We may here call
to mind Busch and. Miiller’s arrangement of the different
larval stages of Annelida into Telotrocha, Mesotrocha, Poly-
trocha, and Atrocha, according to the varying development
of the ciliated rings which characterise these larve. Clapa-
réde has lately attempted a more complete classification,
dividing the larve into two large primary groups—Mata-
chete and Perennichete, the first of which is subdivided
into the three groups Gasterotroche, Nototroche, Amphi-
troche; the second into Cephalotroche, Polytroche, Atroche.

M. de Quatrefages does not at all like this classification of
Claparéde’s, since, a Polytrocha becoming an Atrocha in the
course of development, and other similar changes occurring,
his nomenclature will only give rise to confusion. He
further observes very truly that we know very few facts
relating to this subject, the larve of scarcely thirty species
haying been examined. He gives a list of these species, and
references to the papers in which they are described. ‘This
list is really so valuable to any one who wishes to carry on
investigations in this branch of inquiry, that we copy it here
in full.

Apuropitea.—Polynoé cirrata.—Sars, ‘ Wiegm. Archiv,’
1845, i, p. 11.

Polynoé cirrata—Max Miiller, ‘ Miiller’s Archiv,’ 1851,
p. 23. Désor, ‘ Boston Journ. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. vi, p. 12.

Polyno#—Claparéde, ‘ Beobacht. iiber Anat. und Entwick.
Wirbell. Th.,’ p. 80, pl. 8, figs. 7—11.

Eunicea.—Eunice sanguinea.—Koch, “ Kin Worte zur
Entwick. yon Eunice” (¢ N. Deukschr. der Schweiz. Gesch.,’
yol. vil).

Lycormpea.—Nereis diversicolor—Max Schultze, ‘ Ab-
handl. der naturforsk. Gesellsch. zu Halle,’ vol. v, p. 213.

Nereis.—Milne-Edwards, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 3rd ser.,
vol. ii.

Puyiiopocra. — Phyllodoce.— Max Miiller, ‘ Miiller’s
Archiy,’ 1855, p. 17.

SyLiipEA.—Syllis pulligera—Krohn, ‘ Wiegm. Archiv,’
1852, p. 251.

Autolytus prolifer —Krohn, ‘ Wiegm. Archiv,’ 1852, p. 66.
‘ Miiller’s Archiv,’ 1855, p. 489.

Autolytus cornutus—A. Agassiz, ‘Journ. of Boston Soc.,’
vol. vii, 1862, p. 392.

AA REVIEW.

Sacconereis helgolandlica—J. Miiller, ‘ Miiller’s Archiv,’
1855, p. 18. Mac Schultze, loc. cit., fig. 10.

Sacconereis Schultzii—J. Miiller, loc. cit., pF

Cystonereis Edwardsii—Klliker (Koch, loc. cit.).

Exogone naidina.—Mrsted, Wiegm. Archiy,’ 1845, p. 20.

Odontosyllis.—Claparéde, loc. cit., p. 81.

Artorna.— Nerine _longirostris. — Leuckart, ‘ Wiegm.
Archiv,’ 1855, i, pp. 63 and 77. Busch, ‘ Beobacht. iiber
Anat. und Entwick. ein Wirb. Th.,’ pl. 8.

Leucodore ciliata—CErsted, ‘Ann. Dan. Conspectus,’
p- 39, pl. 6. Claparéde, loc. cit., p. 69, pls. 7,8. “ Annélides
voisines de la précédente,” Claparéde, ibid.

Magelona papillicornis —Claparéde, loc. cit.; pee

TELETHUSA.—Arenicola piscatorum.—Max Schultze, ‘ Ab-
handl. naturforsk. Gesellsch. zu Halle,’ vol. v, p. 213.

TEREBELLACEA.— Terebella nebulosa.— Milne-Edwards,
“Ann. des Se. Nat.,’ 3rd set., vol. iii, p. 145 (1845).

Terebella conchilega.—Claparéde, loc. cit., p- 63.

HERMELLACEA.—Hermella alveolata.—Quatrefages, « Ann.
des Se. Nat.,’ 3rd ser., vol. x, 1848, p. 153.

SERPULACEA.—Protula.—Milne-Edwards, loc. cit., p. 161.

Fabricia.—O. Schmidt, ‘N. Beitriige zur Naturg.,’ p. 27.

Spirorbis spirillum.—Pagenstecher, ‘ Zeitschr. fur Wiss.
Zool.,’ 1862, vol. xii, p. 486.

CH#TOPTEREA. — Chetopterus. — J. Miiller, ‘ Miiller’s
Archiv,’ 1846, p. 101. Busch., ‘ Miiller’s Archiv,’ 1847,
p- 187; and ‘ Beobacht.,’ 1851, p- 99. Max Miiller, § Obs.
Anat. de Veym. quib. mar.,’ p- 25, pl. 3; and * Miiller’s
Archiy,’ 1855, p. 1.

We must pass over the pages on the fissiparous re-
production of Annelida, and their growth and death, in
which, as elsewhere, the author dwells chiefly on his own
researches published from time to time in the ¢ Annales des
Sciences Naturelles;’ and, indeed, the whole chapter on
anatomy and physiology is little more than a résumé of those
researches, which, though valuable and good, still are not the
whole of what has been done. The four plates illustrative
of this part of the work are very good for small plates, but
are not quite so numerous as might be wished, nor do they
equal the drawings of Ehlers in execution.

The third chapter is entitled “ Natural History,” and
deals with the habits of Annelida in freedom and captivity.
There are many interesting observations in this short chapter.

The fourth chapter is devoted to geographical distribution.
The author observes that but little is known of the distri-
bution in the world of Anneclids ; but that from the researches

QUATREFAGE’S HISTOIRE NATURELLE. Ai

of Schmarda and Kinberg, it appears that many genera are
cosmopolitan. He dwells upon his notion that the Oligocheta
represent what he calls the true Annelida—the Poly cheta ;
the former being fresh-water and terrestrial forms, the
latter always marine. Holding this view, he is led to doubt
the occurrence of Naids on the sea-shore, such as the Pachy-
drilus and Clitellio arenarius described by Claparéde. He
suggests that a spring running down to the sea might account
for their appearance, but cannot believe that they are marine.
We ourselves, last summer, met with Clitellio arenarius at
low-water mark in the ie of Man, and the circumstances
attending its occurrence were precisely those suggested by
M. de Quartrefages. A small fresh-water spring ran into
the sea at the pomt where Clitellio occurred, and spread
itself over the sands.

In the fifth chapter, on the “‘ History and Zoological Rela-
tions” of the group, the literature of the [omer and the
yarious arrangements of the class which have from time to
time been offered, are discussed from their earliest day. We
cannot here pass in review the systems of all those who haye
attempted to arrange Annelids into natural groups, but we
may compare the divisions of Cuvier, Grube, and M. de
Quatrefages. The latter states that he has chiefly occupied
himself-in limiting the families or small assemblages of
genera, which he considers of fundamental importance,
representing, as they do, the Linnean genera. While Grube,
with Cuvier, embraces in his class Annelida the leeches and
earth-worms, as well as the marine setigerous forms, M. de
Quatrefages, it will be remembered, only allows the latter to
come under this class, separating the other groups as distinct
classes. Other writers, again, have gone so far in the other
direction as to include nearly all worms—the Turbellaria,
Gephyrea, &c.—under this class Annelida. Cuvier took for
the basis of his subdivisions the absence or the presence of
respiratory organs. Savigny neglected this character, and
founded his classification, in the first place, on the absence
or presence of sete, on the structure of these parts, on the
presence or absence of a distinct head, antenne, pharynx,
and jaws. Blainville took above all things the general form
of the body, the similarity or dissimilarity of the rings, the
greater or less complication of their appendages. Audouin
and Edwards applied themselves chiefly to the modifications
of the soft appendages, and regarded considerations drawn
from the respiratory organs as of secondary importance.
Grube occupied himself chiefly with the nature and develop-
ment of the hard parts which arm the feet. M. de Quatre-

46 REVIEW.

fages states that, in arranging his limited groups of Annelids,
he has endeavoured to take all characters into consideration,
and not to be exclusively guided by any one special set of
differentia.

Cuvier—ANNELIDDES. Tubicoles. Dorsibranches. | Abranches. i
(Limivora of (Rapacia of (Oligochata and —

Grube.) Grube.) Discophora of ©

Grube.) :

°
:

=<
Ord, Appendiculata Polycheta. Gymnocopa. Onychophora. Oligocheta. Discoj
(All the marine setigerous (Tomopteris (Peripatus (Harthworms.) (Lee¢
worms.) only.) only.)

Grube.— Class ANNELIDA.

Grube divides his Polycheta thus:

Rapacta, with the families Aphroditea, Amphinomea,
Nephtydea, Glycerea, Phyllodocea, Lycoridea, Amytidea, Eu-
nicea, Ariciea, Syllidea. ‘

Limtvora, with the families Chetopterea, Pherusea,
Maldania, Opheliacea, Telethusa, Terebellacea, Hermellacea,
Serpulacea.

M. de Quatrefages’ class Annelida, the relations of which
to the other groups of his Annelés (Annuloida) may be seen
by the table at the beginning of this article, is thus divided:

Order 1. ERRATIC. Order 2. SEDENTARIZE.

Sub-Order 1. Sub-Order 2. Sub-Order 3. Sub-Order 4.
Krratice aber- Erratic pro- Sedentariw aber- Sedentarie pro-

rantes. ~ prie. rantes. prie.

Fam. Fam. Fam. Fam.

1. Aphroditea. 1. Eunicea. 1. Chetopterea. 1. Tomopteridea.

2. Palmyrea. 2. Lwmbrinereas 2. Clymenea.
3. Amphinomea. 3. Arenicolea.
4, Nephtydea. 4. Ophelea,
5. Nerinea. 5. Aricea.
6. Cirrhatulea. 6. Leucodorea.
7. Chloremea. 7. Hermellea.
8. Nereidea. 8. Pectinairea.
9. Syllidea. 9. Terebellea.
10. Hesionea. 10. Serpulea.

11. Phyllodocea.
12. Glycerea.
13. Polyophthalmea.

This arrangement of the families has much to recommend
it, although there may be greunds for objection here and
there. It is infinitely better, in a systematic work, that small
and numerous groups should be made, than that large and
roughly defined assemblages of genera should be treated as
families. M. de Quatrefages has shown great conscientious-

QUATREFAGE’S HISTOIRE NATURELLE. 4.7

ness in leaving many genera as “incerte sedis,’ rather than
force them into a position which he did not feel sure naturally
was theirs.

We now come to the chief part of the work, the systematic
description of the families, genera, and species. There are
many new genera introduced, and new arrangements of spe-
cies advocated, which we cannot here examine; and, indeed,
they will be best appreciated by a study of the work itself.
M. Claparéde has already criticised some points in the arrange-
ment of genera very fully, which has given rise to a rather
sharp contest in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ of the French Academy.
The family of Syllidea appear to be the great cause of dis-
cussion, which present great difficulties to the naturalist by
their metamorphoses and alternation of generations, the same
species appearing under very different phases. Many new
species are described and figured in the work from the collec-
tion of the museum; and here we must object to the frequent
insufficiency of descriptions and figures. In several cases—
e.g. Polynoé setosissima and Aphrodita talpa—the most cha-
racteristic parts of the worm are not figured, but merely a
general view of the animal is given ; and, moreover, in a large
number of cases no figure at all is given of the worm de-
scribed. This cannot but cause difficulty to other zoologists,
and is much to be regretted. ‘The figures of species, we
notice, moreover, are not infrequently over-coloured—e. g.
Hermione hystrix and Chetopterus Valencinii. With regard
to the Cheetopterus of our coasts, M. de Quatrefages re-names
it without any compunction, though it has been described
and figured most fully in the ‘ Linnean Transactions’ by Dr.
Baird as Chetopterus insignis. ‘The author was, however,
most probably, not aware of this, since these descriptions of
species have been in hand for some years. At the same time,
there is no evidence in the book of any careful bibliographical
research, with a view to reducing the confusion of names at
present existing, or even ayoiding its increase.

The class Gephyrea, which owes its establishment to the
labours of M. de Quatrefages, is treated of in the last 114
pages of the second volume, and in proportion to the size of
the group this part of the work will, perhaps, be more valu-
able to the naturalist than that on the Annelida. This class
of Vermes, at present so little known, is discussed in much
the same manner as the Annelida, through which we have
just passed, and is illustrated in the same way.

Before taking leave of this book we wish again to express
our conviction that it will be found of great value to the
zoologist and anatomist, since it contains nearly all the

48 REVIEW.

author’s original observations rewritten, descriptions of many
new species, and many beautiful figures. At the same time,
we feel that there is ample scope for a more detailed sys-
tematic work, and that the introductory portion is by no
means fully up to the time as a special treatise on the anatomy
of Annelida.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMANY.—Kolliker’s und Siebold’s Zeitschrift. Third
Part, 1866.—* New Infusoria in a Sea Aquarium,” by Dr.
Ferdinand Cohn, of Breslau— After some interesting remarks
of a general character on the structure of Infusoria, Dr. Cohn
proceeds to describe at some length the following species of
Infusoria observed by him :—1. Trachelocerca Phenicopterus,
n.sp. 2. Lacrymaria Lagenula, Clap. and Lachm. Meta-
cystis truncata, nov. gen. et spec. Nassula microstoma, n. sp.
Placus striatus, nov. gen. et spec. Amphileptus Gutta, n. sp.
Lembus velifer, nov. gen. et spec. Anophrys sarcophaga, nov.
gen. et spec. Colpoda pigerrima, n. sp. _ Uronema marinum,
Duj. Pleuronema Citrullus, n. sp. Helicastoma oblongum,
noy. gen. et spec. Loxophyllum rostratum, n. sp. Actino-
tricha saltans, nov. gen. et spec. Stichocheta pediculiformis,
n.sp. Oxytricha scutellum, n. sp. Oxytricha flava, n. sp.;
var. carnea. Oxytricha rubra, Ehr. Trichodina Auerbachii,
n. sp. Acarella Siro, nov. gen. et spec. Cothurnia Pupa,
Eichw. Glyphidium marinum, Fresenius. These numerous
genera and species are figured with great clearness in two
finely executed large folding plates. ‘The paper is an ad-
mirable example of what may be done by a good microscopist
simply working at what lies under his hand—the inhabitants
of an aquarium. Dr. Cohn’s aquarium was set up, he states,
for the purpose of studying marine Alge, and these Infusoria
were accidentally observed.

* On Hemioniscus, a New Genus of Parasitic Isopods,” by
Dr. R. Buchholz.—This very interesting crustacean was ob-
served at Christinasand, in the bottom of a vessel in which a
number of Balani (B. ovularis, Lamk.) had been placed.
They presented at first the appearance of some Annuloid
animal; but their true nature was soon revealed by the use
of the microscope, and their history afterwards traced. Dr.

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. D

50 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Buchholz places Hemioniscus in the family Bopyride (Epi-
caride, Latr.). The anatomy and development of the female
animal are fully described and illustrated by two coloured
plates.

“ On Coscinosphera ciliosa, a new Radiolarian,” by Alex-
ander Stuart, of Petersburg. — This Rhizopod is placed by the
author in Hackel’s family Ethmospheerida, which he divides
into three sub-families :— 1. Coscinospheerida, containing this
new genus Coscinosphera. 2. Heliospheerida, with the ge-
nera Cyrtidosphera, Ethmosphera, Heliosphera. 3. Arach-
nospherida, comprising two genera, Diplosphera and Arach-
nosphera. The characters of this new form are described,
and its affinities discussed at length, and a plate illustrates
the paper.

*“« Apsilus lentiformis, a Rotifer,’ by Elias Meczmikow.—
The energetic author of this paper states that at Giessen, on
the under side of leaves of Nymphea lutea, he met with large
numbers of white lenticular bodies, which, on close exami-
nation, proved to be Rotifers of a kind at present unknown,
The adult female of this remarkable form appears, when ex-
panded, to consist of two nearly equal circular sacs, the an-
terior of which is open, forming the mouth, and is destitute
of any ‘‘ wheel-apparatus ;” 1t possesses at the same time a
mastax, well-marked ‘‘ water-vessels,” and reproductive or-
gans. The young female differs totally from the adult in the
possession of a ciliary apparatus, distinct eyes, and in its free
habit of life The adult male is, as in other Rotifers, quite
unlike the female. He has a broad, ciliated, oral extremity,
provided with eyes, and apparently a large pre-oral ganglion,
whilst his body gradually tapers to a point posteriorly, pro-
vided with a few cilia. The writer in the ‘ Zoological Record
for 1865’ had no paper to report upon from the class Roti-
fera: we congratulate him upon having here a yery inte-
resting one. Herr Mecznikow concludes his paper with some
remarks on the affinities of Rotifera. In his paper “ On Icthy-
dina, &c.,” transiated in the last number of this Journal, it
will be remembered that he advocated the juxtaposition of
the Chetonoti and Rotifers, the one to be called Gastrotricha,
and the other Cephalotricha. At the same time, he appeared
to object to the notion that the Rotifera (Cephalotricha) re- :
presented the larval stage of Annelida. In this paper he
shows the strong resemblance which subsists between many
Gastrotricha and Annelid- larva, and mentions his discovery
at G6ttingen of a Notommata '(Rotifer) which had ventral
cilia, as a proof of the relationship of Chetonoli and Ro-
tifera. The genus Dinophilus, which is closely related to

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 51

Iethydium, bears, he states, a very close resemblance to the
larva of the Annelid Lysidice, which he has observed at
Naples, and which will be more fully described at a future
time with other Annelid-larve. He gives, as his final opinion,
that Dinophilus (and hence, we suppose, the allied groups,
Cephalotricha and Gasterotricha generally) is to be regarded
as a stationary Annelid-larva, bearing the same relation to
Annelida as Appendicularia to the Ascidians—the view ori-
ginally put forward by Professor Huxley in this Journal.

“ On a Fresh-water Crustacean in the Nile,” by Dr. C. B.
Klunzniger.

“On the Kidneys of Tropidonotus natrix and of the Cypri-
noids,’ by O. Gampert.—This is a short paper, with a well-
drawn plate, by a pupil of Professor Frey. A few interesting
notes are given on the structure, dimensions, &c., of the tubuli
and vessels of the kidney in the commonring-snake and carps.

«“ On Cohnheim’s ‘ Compartments’ in the Cross-section of
Muscles,” by A. Koélliker.—This paper relates to the arrange-
ment of muscular tissue in separate bundles, which Dr. Cohn-
heim, in ‘ Virchow’s Archiv’ for 1865, described at some
length, making his observations by freezing the muscle and
cutting it across the fibre, when a mosaic-like disposition be-
comes apparent. Professor Killiker had misunderstood this
structure in 1856, and now returns to its study with the im-
proved instrument of 1866. He concludes, from numerous
considerations adduced, that the muscular bundles possess
really a fasciculate (faserigen) structure, or that the parts
which bind together the sarcous elements in the longitudinal
direction have not the same character as the cross-binding
middle portion and the substance between Cohnheim’s
“compartments ;” also that the muscular columns (muskel-
aulchen) are still further held together, and consist of fibrille
and very scanty intervening substance. In another part of
our Chronicle is an abstract of some notes by Dr .McNamara
on the same subject.

Max Schultze’s Archiv f. Mikr. Anat. Second and Third
Parts, 1866—The bulk of this double number is occupied
by a paper by Professor Schultze ‘‘ On the Retina,” of which
a long notice is given among our translations. The other
memuirs in this number are—

“ Contributions to the Natural History of the Infusoria,”
by Dr. W. Zenker.

“ Description of a Live-box for the observation of Living
Tadpoles and other Animals,” by F. E. Schultze, of Rostock.

“On the Sculpture of Gyrosigma,’ with a plate, by M.
Schiff, of Florence.

)
|
;
{
}
}
:
.

52 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

“On some Amebe living in the Earth, and other Rhizo-
pods” (two plates), by Dr. Richard Greef.

““ Bony Bodies with Special Capsules in the Tooth-pulp”
(with figures), by Dr. Hohl.

“ On the Contractile Tunic of Infusoria,’ by Dr. Schwalbe.

“ On the Influence of Gases on Ciliary Movement,” by Herr
Kuhne.

FRANCE.—Comptes Rendus.— “ The Microscope and Gas-
diffusion.” —Mr. Graham, the Master of the Mint, communi-
cated an account of his researches on the dialysis of gases
to the French Academy a short time since. His latest ex-
periments were made relative to the passage of gases through
thin membranes of india rubber; and believing the india-
rubber sheeting to be perfectly imperforate, he concluded that
the passage of the gas was effected by a chemical union with
the hydrocarbons of the india rubber. M. Flourens, how-
ever, of the French Academy, has examined thin india rubber
with the microscope, and declares that innumerable minute per-
forations are to be traced in it, through which the gas would
pass by capillary transpiration. It is certainly desirable that
further examination of the matter should be made; mean-
while microscopists may congratulate themselyes upon a new
field for their instrument.

Robin’s Journal de ]’Anatomie et de la Physiologie, No.6.
November and December.—This journal appears to be con-
ducted in somewhat the same manner as our own, since it
publishes the transactions of the Micrographic Society of
Paris in addition to other original memoirs and short notes or
reviews. ‘The first paper in the current number (the journal
appears six times in the year) is on—

“* Anatomical Lesions of the Enamel and Dentine,’ by
M. E. Magitot.—In this paper the microscopic structure of
the teeth in caries is very fully figured and described, and
the pathological and physiological bearings of the disease
discussed.

“ On the Lymphatic Vessels, §c.— Additional Note,’’ by Dr.
Belaieff—This is a continuation of the paper which we
noticed in our last Chronicle.

“ Researches on the Corpuscles of the Pébrine,’ by Dr.
Balbiani.—The author was one of those appointed to investi-
gate the disease of the silkworms for the French Academy.
Certain corpuscles had been noticed as always present in
great numbers in the fluids of the diseased worms, and had
been variously described. Dr. Balbiani has examined them,

and believes them to be Psorosperms—pseudo-navicule of —
some Gregarina. He regards them as vegetadle parasites, |

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 53

and states that he has found them in other insects and also
in Entomostraca. In the same way as most other animal and
vegetable parisites, these corpuscles do not constitute a cause
of danger for the health or even for the life of the individuals
in which they develop themselves; but their excessive
multiplication brings on functional disorders of a serious
nature in the organs which they have invaded. The author
further notes that the egg of a psorospermic Bombyx has an
acid reaction, whilst that of a healthy one has a slightly
alkaline effect ; and he concludes that the psorosperms are in
some way intimately connected with this acid condition. The
Gregarthida seem daily acquiring more importance, extend-
ing their range of victims in every direction, and yet very
little is known of the group.

“The Spiral Lamella of the Helix of the Ear,” by Dr.
Loewenberg.—This is the first part of an extensive essay,
already amounting to forty pages and two plates. The
microscopic structures of the numerous elements of the inner-
most ear are successively described. The paper does not
appear to contain much new matter, but, like that on caries
above mentioned, is a very useful paper to one who works
with the microscope.

“The Micrographic Society of Paris.’”—The statutes of
this society, which is apparently but just founded, are
published in the journal. M. Charles Robin is the president,
M. Balbiani the vice-president. At present it numbers about
thirty members, most of whom appear to be anatomists and
medical men. We wish this society every success, and hope
that it may be productive of some good work, as it seems
likely to be. At the last meeting a paper was read by M.
Kanver “ On the Structure of Subungual Exostosis,”’ which
is an interesting pathological essay. We suspect that the
new society will be almost entirely devoted to the investiga-
tion of human histology.

ENGLAND.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History.
October.—* On New British Hydroida,” by the Rev. T.
Hincks.—The species that are briefly characterised in this
paper will be more fully described and figured in the general
history of the British Hydroid Zoophytes on which Mr.
Hincks is engaged. ‘The species are Coryne vermicularis,
from deep water off Shetland, Campanularia flabellata, which
is set down as a new species at the same time that the C.
gelatinosa of Van Beneden is said to be a synonym of it.
How can this be? This species occurs at Tenby in tide-
pools, and off Scotland. C. gigantea, Lamlash Bay, on shell.
Gonothyrea hyalina, Shetland. Cuspidella (nov. gen.) humilis,

4

54. QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

on the stems of zoophytes, North Wales, Yorkshire, Shet-
land, &c. Sertularia attenuata, North Devon, Yorkshire.
Besides these new species, Mr. Hincks has to record Clava
leptostyla, Agassiz, from Morecambe Bay, and Gonothyrea
gracilis, Sars, from Connemara.

November.— Mr. Hincks describes in this number a new
genus of Sertularian Hydroids— Ophiodes. The single species
O. mirabilis was dredged by Mr. Hincks in Swanage Bay,
Dorset, on weed in shallow water, where it was not un-
common.

** Notule Lichenologice.”—The Rev. W. A. Leighton con-
tinues his papers on Lichens. He is now advocating’ the use
of hydrate of potash in discriminating between species, since
different species give different colours and other reactions
when treated with this agent. He has found it particularly
useful in deciphering the difficult tribe of Cladoniei.

Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.—This is a new perio-
dical, to be published half-yearly, of royal octavo size, and
largely illustrated. It is conducted by Professors Humphry
and Newton of Cambridge, Dr. E. P. Wright of Dublin,
Dr. Turner of Edinburgh, and Mr. Clarke of Trinity
College, Cambridge. It may in-some way be regarded as a
successor to the ‘ Natural History Review,’ which we much
regret has ceased publication, two names at least passing
from the cover of the one to the other. We believe that the
principal reason of the Cambridge professors for entering
into the publieation is to gain for their university, if possible,
a reputation for showing some little regard for biological
science, more especially in its medical aspects. The utter
indifference of Cambridge to the progress of any science that
is not mathematical is, however, too well known, and more
substantial proofs of her interest than a new journal are
required. ‘here are two microscopical papers in this very
excellent magazine, illustrated by numerous plates.

“ On the Structure of the Cornea in Vertebrates,” by Dr.
Lightbody.—-This is a very careful résumé of the work of
previous observers, to which the author has most conscien-
tiously added his own observations, confirmatory or other-
wise. This paper formed part of a thesis presented to the
medical faculty at Edinburgh in 1865, for which a gold medal
was awarded.

““ On the Retina of Amphibia, &c.,” by Dr. Hulke.—There
are some noteworthy remarks on the retina of the chameleon
in this paper, as well as on those of Amphibia. Whilst the
six plates illustrating Dr. Lightbody’s paper are done fairly
well, though wanting in sharpness, those illustrating this paper

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 55

of Dr. Hulke’s are among the roughest pen-and-ink sketches
we ever saw lithographed. How is it that even a new journal,
with every opportunity, such as this is, cannot find an artist
who will produce a plate fit to be compared with those issued
in German periodicals ?

Journal of Botany.—In the September number of this maga-
zine is a paper “ On Pollen-grains as Diagnostic Characters,”
by Professor Gulliver. He shows that a microscopic exa-
mination of the pollen may afford good diagnoses between
closely allied species. Of two plants, standing side by side
in our Flora, the pollen-grains of Ranunculus arvenis are large,
and rough on the surface, while those of R. hirsutus are much
smaller, and smooth on the surface.

Anew distinction also appears in the pollen between Lotus
corniculatus and L. major, the pollen-grains being regularly
larger in the former than in the latter plant. This curious
fact, if confirmed, will be in direct opposition to the conclu-
sion of many eminent botanists, that L. major is “ only a
variety, larger in all its parts,” of L. corniculatus.

«“ On the Frond-cells of Lemna and Wolffia.”—The same
observer, in the December number, states that there is this
remarkable microscopic difference between Wolfia arrhiza
(lately discovered in this country by Dr. Henry Trimen) and
Lemna minor; the latter abounds in raphides, while the
former has none at all.

Medical Times and Gazette. Nov. 17th.— Striped Muscle,”
by C. Macnamara, M.D., Surgeon to the Calcutta Ophthalmic
Hospital When a man comes forward and says, “I have
been working with a =!,th objective,” and speaks of “ twelfths”
and “twentieths” as low powers, his observations cannot fail
to interest the readers of this Journal. We therefore extract
here the greater part of a paper by such an author; at the
same time, we by no means give our sanction to, nor are we
in a position to reject, his statements, which are certainly
remarkable in some ways:

“ During the past ten years I have been working more or
less steadily with one of Ross’s eighth and one sixteenth of
an inch glass, but within the last six months with a Powell
and Lealand’s one fiftieth of an inch, magnifying about 2800
diameters, and with it the observations I have now to detail
have been made. Of the various kinds of muscular tissues,
the mylohyoid of the chameleon affords, probably, the most
beautiful specimens. Dr. Beale’s little favorite, the Ayla
arborea, is not, I fancy, to be had in India; the Hyla verst-
color may, however, be procured, but does not, according to
my experience, afford such perfect specimens as the chame-

56 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

leon. Dr. Cameron, of Monghyr, kindly sent me down six
of these curious creatures some time since. ‘They have one
after the other been killed and injected with Beale’s blue so-
lution, and the subsequent steps he describes in preparing
tissues for examination under the higher powers of the mi-
croscope have been strictly attended to. (Vide Dr. Beale’s
book, ‘ How to Work with the Microscope,’ third edition,

p. 204.) The striped muscle of the Vertebrata is composed
of one or more bundles of fibres, the whole being enclosed in
connective tissue known as the sheath of the muscle. Nu-
merous septa dip into the substance of the muscle from this
sheath, so as to divide it into compartments of an irregular
shape and size. Each of these is filled by a bundle of mus-
cular fibres ; the vessels and nerves ramify in the connective
tissue of the septa, and are thus brought into immediate
contact with the muscular fibres.

“Tf a bundle of muscular fibres is carefully examined under
a low power, it will be found to consist of numerous fibres—
the ‘ultimate fibres of muscle.’ Each ultimate fibre runs
continuously from one end of the fibre to the other end, and
is attached at either extremity to a fibrous structure, which
usually assumes the form of a tendon; consequently the
length of the ultimate fibre depends upon the length of the
muscle, in the case of the sartorious being perhaps upwards
of two ‘feet, and in the stapedius a few lines in length. The
diameter of the ultimate fibre varies according to the degree
of development of its contractile element, as I shall presently
explain. Affer a muscle has been kept in glycerine for a
time we may easily isolate a bundle of these muscular fibres ;
the tissues being gently torn apart, a few ultimate fibres may
be examined under a fiftieth of an inch glass,

“Each ultimate muscular fibre will be found to be encased
in a sheath of homogeneous tissue, called the sarcolemma,
which is very apt to be thrown into perpendicular elevations
and depressions, so that it is a common occurrence to see the
ultimate fibre streaked by dark lines running in the direction
of the length of the fibre, produced by the wrinkled surface
of the sarcolemma. We may also notice elongated masses of
germinal matter (coloured by the carmine we have used in

making the preparation) scattered at pretty regular intervals —

throughout the sarcolemma. They are elongated in the di-
rection of the length of the muscle, and are situated either
above or below, or it may be on either side of the fibre in the
substance of the sarcolemma itself. No doubt it is from these
comparatively large masses of germinal matter that not only
the sarcolemma, but the contractile tissue within it, is formed.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 57

*“With regard to the arrangements of the contents of the
sarcolemma—that is, the essential and characteristic element
of the striped muscle—I may compare it to a ladder of con-
tractile tissue, the steps or ho1izontal bars of the ladder being,
however, spiral bands, whereas its side pieces or perpendi-
cular supports are flat bands running continuously from one
end of the muscle to the other end. The horizontal bars
connect these perpendicular ones, but, as above stated, are
curled upon themselves like a spiral spring.

*« As to the contractile tissue, it appears to me to be a ho-
mogeneous substance, its property being to contract in obe-
dience to the nervous force set in motion either by a voluntary
or a reflex stimulus. I believe the unstriped muscle affords
us one of the least complicated examples of this contractile
tissue to be found in the human subject, and I hold that the
crystalline lens is equally muscle, and probably the most
complex arrangement of contractile tissue to be met with.
By this I mean that I have every reason to suppose the lens
is capable of altering the curvature of its anterior surface in-
dependently of the ciliary muscle. I conceive the bands of
which it is composed are constructed of contractile tissue,
arranged in a peculiar manner, that they may fulfil a special
purpose; but whatever form the contractile tissue may take,
its properties are the same, the disposition of its elements
being adapted to the mechanical purposes for which it is re-
guired. Each primitive fibre of muscle, therefore, is formed
of two parallel bands of this contractile tissue, which run
continuously from one end of the muscle to the other end,
and these parallel bands are united by cross bands, which,
however, are continuous with the side bands, so that, to carry
our simile a step further, we must liken this arrangement,
not to an ordinary ladder—each step or bar being a separate
piece of wood—but suppose that the ladder has been carved
out of a solid mass, the spaces between the bars having been
scooped out of the plank from which we imagine the ladder
to have been made. Lach one of these cross-bars or steps is
arranged as a spiral band. Enclose the whole of this in a
layer of sarcolemma, and we have a primitive fibre; take a
bundle of these and bind them round in connective tissue,
and we have a bundle of muscular fibre; and of a collection
of these, again, the bulk of the muscle is composed.

“The apparent object of this disposition of the contractile
element in muscular fibre is to allow of the contraction of the
muscle in length without any great augmentation in its bulk,
the spaces between the horizontal bars allowing of this, and

58 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

at the same time the spiral arrangement of the cross bands
allows of their elongation and contraction upon themselves

A A, Longitudinal bands; BB, Transverse spiral bands (both coloured by
carmine) ; C C, Interspaces with dark border from shade cast by transverse
bands.

without any stretching or pulling of the delicate substance of
which they are composed.

“That there are open spaces between the horizontal bands
appears to me certain from the appearance of the parts, and
from the fact that the contractile tissue—and, in fact, all the
structures of the body—may be stained with carmine, but
these interspaces never show the slightest appearance of any
colour, their hue in many specimens being exactly similar to
that of the field of the microscope where uo tissue intervenes
between it and the lamp used for illuminating the object.
What, then, is the meaning of the perpendicular and hori-
zontal lines noticed in a specimen of muscular fibre when
examined by a quarter or twelfth of an inch glass? The per-
pendicular lines may be produced either from the line of union
of two primitive fibres or from the creasing of the sarcolemma
or the fibrous case, which encloses a bundle of fibres; but an
isolated primitive fibre, when examined under a high power,
presents no appearance of longitudinal striation, provided its
fibrous case and sarcolemma have been destroyed or rendered
too transparent to be seen. The dark cross lines are caused
by the shadows cast upon the open spaces, or by the approxi-
mation of two horizontal bars; under a high power these
dark spaces may be resolved into two dark lines bordering the
horizontal bands and an interspace of a very much lighter

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 59

colour, which is often, as I have above stated, of the same
hue as the field of the microscope.”

AMERICA.—Silliman’s Journal. ‘On the Structure and
Habits of Authophysa Miilleri (Bory), one of the Sedentary
Monadiform Protozoa,” by H. James-Clark, A.B., B.S.—
We have before had to notice the careful studies of the
author of this paper, who is devoting his energies to the most
detailed study of single species of Infusoria. He observes,
with perhaps a little more enthusiasm than accuracy, that the
microscopes of the present day are to those of the past what
Cuyier’s scalpel was to those of his predecessors, and believes
that a vast deal is yet to be learnt about the Infusoria by the
use of the best glasses opticians can produce. This is possible;

at present, however, we have not heard of a single discovery

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in biological science, acknowledged and confirmed as true,
which may fairly be said to have been made by the use of a
better glass than the 1-inch objective of many years’ standing.
Mr. James-Clark describes the simple organization and habits
of his Infusorian with great care, and really makes use of his
high-power objectives and illuminating apparatus. We do not
feel sure, however, that he would not have seen as much with
a good “‘ quarter,” or at anyrate an eighth. There are scores
of persons in this country who have spent great sums of money
over microscopes, and yet have never made a single observation
worth recording ; and the strangest thing is that these are the
people (with rare exceptions) who possess the “ sixteenths,”
twentieths,”’ and “ fiftieths,’’ made by our great microscope
manufacturers. In Germany, where nearly all the good true
work with the microscope is done, though the beauty of our
English glasses is acknowledged, very few observers have
even seen one of our expensive unused toys; and all is done
by the cheap glasses of Oberhausen, Kelner, &c. Hence we
have not, as a rule, much faith in persons who estimate the
value of their observations by the figure of the magnifying
power of their objectives. Mr. James-Clark, we believe, does
not do this; he is a patient and acute observer, and is doing
good service by his detailed studies of Protozoa.

ee ee ee eee Se

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Ae ES BP ee Ea PT Te

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

I RECEIVED lately a letter from Count Frane Castracane,
in which he desires me to forward to you the following
remarks on the Woodward observations reported in the
‘Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.’ for July, 1866.

“‘T quite agree,” he says in the beginning, “ with Mr. 8.
J. Wioudes ard, that for microphotographical uses one may
obtain nearly the same results with any undecomposed ray of
light which has been transmitted through a solution. of
ammonio-sulphate of copper; and I am equally persuaded of
the usefulness of microscopical objectives ready made to
obtain the coincidence of the action with the visual forms.

The usefulness of a light modified by traversing a coloured
medium has been pointed out on other occasions ; and M.
Bruster has lately suggested to illuminate the microscope with
alcoholic light, eiturated with chlorine of sodium. Such is
the opinion, too, of Dr. Noiterrier (p. 180 and following of
his very useful book ‘La Photographie appliquée aux
Recherches Microscopiques,’ lately published in Paris by
Bailliére et fils.)

From the application of decomposed light to photography,
I expected, mdeed, a great advantage, which I did not
obtain, as I tried to take any microscopical object illuminated
with a violet ray resulting from the sun-light decomposed by
an enormous prism, and sulphuretted carbon, which I had
constructed on purpose. Nevertheless, I cannot but insist
upon the usefulness of illumination with decomposed and
vigorously microchromatie light, which may be obtained
only with a good prism, seeing that the cobalt glass and the
solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper admits with the violet
some part of other rays, so that we can never obtain an abso-
lute correction of the chromatic aberration, which it is known
cannot be obtained by any combination of lenses, no matter
how perfect they may be.

MEMORANDA. 61

A proof amongst others of the efficacy of this illumination
has been to resolve by it very easily the thirty groups of
Nobert’s test-lines, which Mr. Norman of Hull has been so
kind as to lend to me, which experiment has been witnessed,
amongst others, by the well-known director of the Astrono-
mical Observatory of the Roman College, P. Angelo Secchi.

* A considerable augmentation of power in the microscope
for the use of such an illumination would afford an easy way
to decide the question which micrographers are still debating
about the true form of the minute structural details of
diatoms; first among them is the Pleurosigma angulatum,
which earliest microscopists have deservedly chosen to test
the power of their instruments. It is true that the material
improvement which the microscope has obtained these last
fifteen years has superseded this old test object. Still we may
be allowed to observe that the assumed easiness in resolving
the details of pleurosigma must be understood for the oblique,
not for the direct and central illumination, especially when
the preparation is made in Canada balsam.

“Whatever the direction of the light may be, and notwith-
standing the great improvements which the microscopical
objectives have received, the mode of explaining those very
minute forms which adorn the surfaces of diatoms is still at
variance. Schiff, Schultze, Schact, and Hartnach, amid the
German—Wallich, Wenham, and Carpenter amongst the
English, do not agree with themselves on this subject. They
began noticing on pleurosigma some very minute strie which
present themselves in a particular direction under the in-
fluence of an oblique illumination; then, changing the course
of the light, they observed another system of striz. Then the
opinion of some writers who, having noticed successively three
different systems of striz, two oblique and one direct, con-
cluded they ought to be disposed in different planes. But
more perfect objectives by connection and immersion, showing
the three systems of striz simultaneously, caused the first judg-
ment to be rejected, and acknowledged that they were placed
on the same level. The greatest difficulty they met with was
to determine the shape of the areola limited by the different
directions of the stria. Some believed they were square,
assuming that the transversal system of striz was nothing
but an illusion caused by aberration of spheriority. Schact
considers them as hexagons, each side of them being the basis
of a small equilateral triangle. Quekett, following Wenham,
who succeeded in obtaining an image of P. angulatuin,
increased to 15,000, and another of P. formosuin to 35,000
diameters, recognised and described the structure of these

i
i
i
'

62 MEMORANDA.

pleurosigmata as a series of hexagonal spaces by which the
surface of the valves is partitioned.

“Now, Mr. Woodward tells us that Wenham, abandoning
his previous judgment, has acknowledged that the conforma-
tion of the markings is circular. Thus the hexagonal appear-
ance in Wenham’s photographs would be nothing, according
to Jabez Hogg, but ‘an exaggerated imperfection produced
by an error of foix in his lenses.’

“These discordant views of the most celebrated micro-
graphers encouraged me in trying to get a most possibly
accurate idea on the subject, for the which purpose I examined
most carefully the photographs of P. angulatum taken by
myself and by others, too, under different degrees of power,
giving my especial attention to the negatives on glass, which,
it is well known, present a greater nicety of details than
positives. And availing myself of the monochromatic illumi-
nation, which I always employ in testing the most difficult
object, I felt convinced that the hexagonal form is the only
true structural element of the surface of P. angulatum, seeing
that by a direct observation with light decomposed, the strie
present themselves always bended (in zigzag) and never
straight, and that but in three directions—one transverse,
and two oblique.

‘* Besides all this, I must confess that I cannot understand
how an object not perfectly in focus, or excessively magnified,
may produce the illusion of a circular changed in any other
angular form, whilst the contrary, it is obvious, succeeds
whenever the vision of an object is less distinct, say for its
being too far off, or for interposition of mistiness, or for any
other cause.

“This is my simple manner of viewing the thing. However,
I should always be glad if anybody would show me that Iam
mistaken. At any rate I wish they would try the monochro-
matic light, which I feel confident they will find useful to
decide this as well as many other difficult points.”

So far Count Castracane’s letter on the subject. If there
is in my rough translation any technical or other error, I
hope you will correct it——Yours very truly, ProrEssor
JosePH GAzLiarRDI, Cardiff.

Microscope Lamp.—Mr. John Bockett sends us a photo-
graph of his method of mounting and using a microscope
lamp. A pillar upon a foot carries a glass lamp with a
reflector behind it, and a condensing lens in front. The

ee

MEMORANDA. 63

reflector is about three and a half inches in diameter, and the
bull’s-eye condenser about two inches in diameter, and placed
a little within the focus of the reflector. A shade is also
provided. We have long used and recommended the addition
of a silver reflector behind a lamp. It not only economises
light, but for many purposes improves its quality, as objects
may be illuminated almost entirely by the reflected light
when the wick is turned low, and thus the glare of the direct
flame is avoided. Mr. Bockett burns Belmontine, which
gives a whiter hght than parafline.—Jntellectual Observer.

A Mechanical Finger for the Microscope.—This is the name
which Mr. H. L. Smith, of Kenyon College, U.S., has given
to a very ingenious mechanical appliance, which will provea
boon to those microscopists who are engaged in the study of
minute hard structures. Since the mere description of Mr.
Smith’s invention occupies nearly three pages of ‘ Sillimann’s
American Journal of Science’ (No. 123), we must refer our
readers to this source for details. The instrument seems
likely to be extremely useful in delicate manipulation, since
it can be made to move about in every direction over the
stage, and thus to convey minute objects from one part of the
field to another—and this, too, with the greatest precision,
and in the most gradual manner.—Lancet.

Transmission of Slides by Post.—At the meeting of the
Quekett Microscopical Club, held November 23rd, Mr. M. C.
Cooke called attention to this subject, on account of the
large proportion of broken slides which had come under his
observation during the past two years. Sometimes he had
received a dozen slides per week from as many different
individuals, and insufficient packing was the rule, good
packing the exception. Many persons only enveloped their
slide in stiff paper, some in cardboard, and then enclosed
them in their letters: such slides were invariably broken.
Others sent slides in thin cardboard boxes, or wrapped in
cotton-wool or wadding, and afterwards in cardboard: these
were generally broken. Others again enclosed slides between
thin strips of wood with small blocks, or corks at the ends or
angles: these seldom travelled safely. The most successful
mode of packing proved to be, either to enclose the slides (if
more than one) in a small deal box; or, if single, to transmit
them in the black paper cases sold by opticians. If these

G4 MEMORANDA.

cases are folded in a sheet of paper, in such a manner that
about two inches of the paper extends beyond one end of the
case, and the postage stamps are aflixed to this free end,
there will be no risk of damage from the obliterating stamp.
It was suggested that additional security from local stamping
would be given by pasting black paper round that portion of
the package which contained the shde, and the address
written on the free end of the paper. ‘This would be the
only white portion, on which consequently all stamping must
be performed. A number of boxes and other contrivances
for the transmission of slides, and which had passed through
the ordeal of a journey, were exhibited ; some of which, in
their shattered contents, gave evidence of failure.

M. Eulenstein’s Series of Diatomacez.—Those of our readers
who are more especially interested in the study of Diatoms,
will be pleased to learn that M. Th. Eulenstein, of Stutgard,
who is well known as one of the most active investigators of

the subject, has undertaken the publication of two distinct.

series of specimens of Diatomacer. One series will consist
of AUTHENTIC and ORIGINAL Specimens ; and it is intended
to facilitate the identification of the numerous ‘species estab-
lished by foreign authors. The uncertainty of nomenclature
which has pervaded all the writings on this subject since the
works of Ehrenberg and Kiitzing is entirely due to a want of
accurate knowledge of these specimens, which M. Eulenstein
has spared no pains to obtain for the present purpose.
Simultaneously with, but perfectly distinct from this series,
M. Eulenstein intends also to publish another series, which
will form, as it were, a sTanDARD collection of the various
types of the Diatomacee, and will contain typical represen-
tatives of nearly all the known genera, recent and fossil.
Each series, as we learn from the prospectus, will be issued
in five parts, each part containing one hundred species. The
first part of the first-mentioned series wil] consist chiefly of
specimens selected from the herbarium of Professor Kiitzing,
and will explain many critical species established by- that
author in his ‘ Bacillaria’ and < Species Algarum.’ The sub-
sequent parts will contain original specimens illustrating the
works of Ehrenberg, Heilberg, Grunnow, Rabenhorst, and
others. Besides the numerous new and rare forms which
will be found in this series, it will furnish Systematists with
a correct index to many species hitherto misunderstocd, and

1. . eo

MEMORANDA. 65

therefore constitute an indispensable part of a very scientific
collection of Diatoms.

We understand that the specimens will be carefully pre-
pared dry or in balsam, and mounted on thin slides of the
usual dimensions used in this country (3” x 1”); and to each
specimen will be affixed a label with the original name,
locality, &c., whilst a separate list of synonyms, with critical
notes, will be published with Part V.

It is hoped that the First Part of each series will appear in
the early part of, and that the entire publication may be
concluded within the year. ,

The number of collections belonging to the first mentioned
series will necessarily be extremely limited; but it is to be
hoped that the London Microscopic Society will be the de-
pository of one of them. Those of the second series would
appear to be almost indispensable for all real students of the
Diatomacee, and we can only wish that M. Eulenstein may
find that the pains and trouble he has bestowed upon the
formation and dissemination of these collections may be
properly appreciated. .

We have been given to understand that besides Mr.
Pritchard, Dr. L. Beale and Mr. Roper will be ready to
afford any further information respecting M. Eulenstein’s
undertaking that may be required.

[Prospectuses may be obtained, and the Collections ordered,
at Messrs. R. and J. Becx’s, 31, Cornhill, E.C.]

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. E

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat Mricroscopricat Socrnry or Lonpon.
June 18th, 1866.

James GuarsHer, Esq., President, F.R.S., in the chair.

The PrestDENT announced to the Society with deep regret the
recent and almost sudden death of Dr. Greville, of whose labours
in connection with microscopical science he spoke in high terms.

The following paper was read “ On the Surface Fauna of Mid-
Ocean,” by Major Saul Owen, Member of the Royal Micro-
scopical Society, and Associate of King’s College, London. (See
‘Trans.,’ p. 115, vol. xiv.)

Mr. Henry Lex, referring to a recent discussion on the subject,
of Major Owen’s paper before the Linnean Society, said—The
great question that arose on that occasion was with reference to
certain examples found in surface skimmings, which had hitherto
been supposed to exist only at the bottom.

Mr. Jerrertes rose to ask whether these were found beyond
the influence of the Gulf Stream, and thought they might be dead
specimens floating on the surface. Major Owen had mentioned
in his paper that he only found them at night, never by day.
Now, these must have been in possession of full vital powers,
because they were sensible to light, and this fact proved the
possibility that the same examples existed at a depth of two or
three miles as at the surface of very deep oceans. Major Owen
has mentioned that in some places he found specimens to be very
abundant, and in others very scarce. It occurs to me that.another
observer skimming the surface in the same places might meet
with contrary results, as conditions of the air or sea may have
existed which caused the objects to sink down during the day
and to rise at night.

Mr. Browntne thought Major Owen’s suggestion as to ob-
taining the spectra of various animals might be advantageously
worked out. This would, however, require a spectroscope to be
made for the special purpose, as the ordinary spectroscope would

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 67

be almost certain not to yield any spectra at all. Mr. Browning
concluded by offering to place a number of prisms in his posses-
sion at the service of any member desirous of going extensively
into the subject.

Dr. Mann (of Natal), referring to Major Owen’s suggestion
as to the application of the spectroscope to the light from living
organisms, said—The north-eastern side of the Cape (from which
I come) certainly affords a fine field for research into this parti-
eular subject. 1 have there passed over places where I have seen
some dozens of creatures showing greater light than the fire-fly.
We have in south-eastern Africa curious creatures, which crawl
on the ground, and show a prodigious amount of light. They
are not, however, glow-worms, but centipedes. 1 think we have
here a fine field for the application of the spectroscope. I have,
gentlemen, been away from England for some years. When
I went away the spectroscope was unknown; and now I come
home literally to find myself at sea, and therefore you will not
be surprised that, among other matters, I have not taken the
subject up. I think, however, that it affords a fine field for
research, which I will do my best to qualify myself to explore.
The effect obtained from the light on the sea is incredible to
those who have not witnessed the blaze in some of the southern
latitudes. In Natal, which is about twenty-nine and a half
degrees south, we have little phosphorescence, and towards the
Cape we have less; but in the lower latitudes, both east and west
of the Cape, the sea is often one blaze of light.

The Rey. J. B. Reane referred to the researches of Captain
Toynbee, who had made several voyages to India, and made a
eenstant practice of dredging in a manner similar to that which
had been described, and with great success; and some of the Rotalia
he thought approximated more to the form of the nautilus than
any of the drawings which had been produced.

Major Owrn.—I do not think any of the Rotalia are found on
the surface.

The Rey. J. B. Reapr.—lIt is not quite that form. Mr. Reade
concluded by mentioning that he had some magnificent specimens
which were being mounted under the polarized light.

Mr. F. H. Wennam asked Major Owen if he could explain
how the creatures changed their specific gravity so as to rise to
the surface and sink again, or whether it resulted from the varying
temperature of the water.

Major Owen said he had been unable to trace this out, but
suggested the possibility of their being able to expand some small
vesicle to a sufficient degree to enable them to rise. He differed
‘from Dr. Wallich, who said that when the creatures were once at
the bottom of the ocean they could not rise again. If they were
found at the bottom and also on the surface, they must have some
means of rising. They must have some means of rising, because
they did rise at certain times, and he had ascertained that they
were alive when they did so.

68 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dr. Mayw thought that the rising and sinking could not be
caused by the temperature, as that increased as the line was
approached at so even a rate.

The PresipEent, in closing the discussion, proposed a vote of
thanks to Major Owen for his paper (which was unanimously
awarded), and expressed his satisfaction that they would have
the benefit of Dr. Mann’s further investigations into the subject
on his return to Natal, with the additional advantage he would
now possess by having the aid of the spectroscope in so doing.

Major Owen, in responding, said that what he had brought for-
ward must be taken as facts only, as he drew no conclusions from
them. Adyerting to the effect of polarized light upon the speci-
mens, the Major added that he had one prepared in Canada bal-
sam which retained its colour, which they very rarely did. The
smallest chambers were a bright red, and the larger chambers of
a reddish-brown.

The PrestpEnt reported that the application for the Charter
was proceeding satisfactorily, and with every prospect of success.

The meeting then adjourned to Wednesday, 10th October next.

October 10th, 1866.
JamES GuAIsuER, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

Various presents were announced, and the thanks of the Society
returned to their respective donors.

Certificates of thirteen candidates for admission into the Society
were read and ordered to be suspended in the usual manner.

R. Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S., &c., 59, Vauxhall Walk, was
balloted for and duly elected a Fellow of the Society.

The President announced the death of Richard Beck, Esq. He
also produced and read the Charter of Incorporation, and an-
nounced that the next meeting would be a special general one, to
consider and pass the by-laws of the Society as now constituted.

The cordial thanks of the meeting were returned to the Presi-
dent, James Glaisher, Esq., for his exertions on behalf of the
Society in obtaining the Charter.

T. W. Burr, Esq., was presented with a silver inkstand as an
acknowledgment of his valuable and gratuitous services in obtaining
the Charter of Incorporation.

H. J. Slack, Esq., F.G.S., Hon. Sec. R.M.S., read a paper “ On
a Diaphragm Eye-piece for the Microscope.’ (‘ Trans.,’ p. 1.)

At the close of a short discussion on this paper the President
remarked that he had used this eye-piece, and had been able to
take in the whole field; and that on limiting the field in the way
described he found that he saw much better than when the eye
was drowned with the light of the whole field. This apparatus also
had the advantage of enabling them to isolate a square or a

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 69

rhomboidal figure in any part of the field, and it was, of
course, much better to have just enough of light, and not too much.
It was curious, too, to see how the markings of objects changed by
varying the degree of light in the field.

Mr. Jabez Hoge expressed a favorable opinion of the diaphragm
eye-piece.

The PrestpEn? said that at the last meeting he had expressed
a hope that the recess would be productive of successful micro-
scopical investigations, and he now hoped that the Society would
have the benefit of its members’ labours in the session just com-
mencing. Its officers had not been idle, and he had great pleasure
in reporting that the result of constant application on their part
to the object they had in view for some time past was that he now
held in his hand the Charter of Incorporation of the Society.
But, while congratulating the Society in this respect, he had to
lament that the present was the most painful of their meetings
in which he had taken part, inasmuch as in the interval to which
he had just alluded they had lost one of their most dear and
honoured members. Until now he had never missed the face of
Richard Beck from their gatherings, and he could not express the
pain and sorrow he had experienced on hearing of his illness and
death ; and on the occasion of the funeral he had felt constrained
to express, on the part of the members, as well as for himself, the
sincere respect which he was sure they all felt for the memory
of one who had laboured so earnestly for the benefit of their
science and of their Society. Before reading the Charter he
ought to tell the meeting that at the moment when the subject
was first spoken of, Mr. Burr, in the most handsome way, offered
his professional services gratuitously. He had now to read the
Charter. (‘Trans.,’ p. 7.)

At the conclusion of the reading of the document, of which the
above is a copy, the original Charter, under the Great Seal of
England, was passed round the room and examined by the
members.

The PREsIDENT, continuing, remarked that since the grant of
the Charter the Council, as the Secretary had stated, had taken
steps for securing in addition the distinctive title of a Royal Society,
and he hoped to be able to make a satisfactory communication to
the members as to this at their next meeting.

Mr. Loss, referring to the debt which the Society owed to their
President for his great exertions in respect to the Charter just
read, said that several of the members were desirous of securing
to the Society the advantages of Mr. Glaisher’s labours as Presi-
dent during the ensuing year ; but it was found that Mr. Glaisher
could not be re-elected without one of their by-laws being sus-
pended ; he now rose, therefore, to give notice that at the next
meeting the by-laws be suspended in order that, if the members
should think fit, Mr. Glaisher should be re-elected. He felt quite
sure that at the proper time the members would be unanimous in
the expression of their opinion that hitherto they had had no Presi-

70 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

dent who had exerted himself so much or accomplished such good
things for the Society. (Loud cheers.)

The PresipEnt said it had been his wish to retire in the ordinary
course at the end of his present year of office; but at the urgent
solicitation of the Council he had consented to assume the respon-
sibilities of office during another year, if it should please the
members to confer the honour upon him. When he had first
accepted the post he had to remark that his pursuits gave him but
little claim to a reputation as a microscopist, as the result of
many years’ close occupation with the telescope had so unsteadied
his eye that he found himself unable to apply himself to micro-
scopical studies to the extent he wished. He hoped the members
would therefore understand his silence sometimes as President
when important papers were read at their meetings, as he felt it
to be his duty to hold his tongue in cases where, by reason of his
lack of knowledge and experience, he could not speak with so
much authority as would be attached to the utterances of many
of the gentlemen around him. He could, however, give his hearty
assurance that in any other way he would spare no effort in
placing the Society in the important position which its objects
deserved, and he hoped that the next few months would see the
Society occupying, if possible, a still higher rank than that which
had been already attained.

The PreEstpEnt said he rose to perform a most pleasing duty.
When, being in earnest and influenced by a strong desire to
attain success, they met with valuable co-operation, heartily
given, regardless of the time or trouble it cost, the desire was
very natural that they should offer every expression of their
gratitude to those who rendered them such help. He felt that
they had had such help from Mr. Burr, who, when the question of
a Royal Charter was at first suggested, had come forward in the
handsomest manner and given the Society the benefit of his pro-
fessional asssistance without fee or reward, and, from the first
moment of his putting his hand to the work until it was crowned
with success, he had not for an instant swerved from his purpose.
The Council of the Society, knowing, as they did, that the fact of
their having obtained their Charter so soon was mainly due to the
indefatigable labours of Mr. Burr, had determined to offer that
gentleman some slight memento of their gratitude; and he (the
President) felt that in this they were only expressing the wish of
the members as a body. They had accordingly obtained the silver
inkstand now on the table, bearing this inscription :

“Presented to T. W. Burr, Esq., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.MS.,
&c., by the Council and Fellows of the Microscopical Society
of London, in acknowledgment of his professional services in
obtaining the Royal Charter of Incorporation. 10th October,
1866.”

The Prestvent, addressing Mr. Burr, said—I haye only now

2 @el hee

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 71

to ask you, sir, to accept this simple token of the esteem in which
you are held by the Council and Fellows of this Society, and of
their appreciation of the valuable assistance you have rendered so
kindly and continuously. We hope that you will often call back
the pleasure with which we have co-operated together, and that
your children after you may preserve this little token, not alone
for its intrinsic value, but as a record of the feeling of which we
offer it to you as some expression.

Mr. Burr, in responding, said he had never supposed that the
services which he had rendered were to be rewarded by so sub-
stantial and elegant a testimonial. He had only been influenced
by the same earnest desire to attain the Charter which animated
the President and every member of the Council ; but as a profes-
sional man his labours appeared more prominent than those of
other gentlemen. He could truly say that he should have felt
amply rewarded for his part of the work by a simple vote of
thanks. The merits of the Society were quite sufficient in them-
selves, when properly represented, to command the grant of the
Charter and the only thing he could take any credit for was the
personal attention he had given to the matter. He sincerely
congratulated the Society upon the possession of the Charter, and
trusted that it would afford the members a better status in the
scientific world, and give a renewed impetus to their researches.
Personally, he was deeply indebted to them for the very handsome
present, and he trusted that it would continue to be regarded by
his children with the same gratification and pleasure as that with
which he received it.

The Prestpent remarked that, as the next meeting was to be
special, it would afford a favorable opportunity of discussing
certain revisions in the by-laws which were necessary in order to
bring them into accordance with the Charter. For that reason
only, he hoped that at the next meeting a great number of the
members would endeavour to be present ; the Council were also
taking steps to obtain the signatures of every Fellow of the Society,
in a book provided for that purpose. The absence of their old
and well-remembered friend, Mr. Beck, should urge upon the
members the importance of this duty.

In reply to questions, the President said that the attention of the
Council had already been directed to the absence from the Journal
of the Society of a report of the meeting of the

The PrestpENT urged upon the members the desirability of
communicating to the Assistant-Secretary their full names, titles
and addresses, together with the initials of learned societies, &c.
In appealing for the contribution of papers to be read at the
meetings, he referred to the necessity of their being sent in a few
‘weeks before the time they were intended to be read. The
advantages to the writers would be fully equal to those thus con-
ferred upon the Society. Announcement could also be made
from meeting to meeting that particular papers were to be read,
and this would doubtless haye great effect in inducing the attend-

72 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

ance of gentlemen acquainted with and interested in the subjects
of the papers.

Mr. SuFrFrork, in compliance with a request from the chair, re-
ferred to some tin cells which he had described at a previous
meeting of the Society. His difficulty had hitherto been in obtaining
more than one thickness of metal; but Mr. Collins, the optician, of
No. 77, Great Tichfield Street, had taken an interest in the matter,
and had had several different thicknesses of the metal rolled.
The same gentleman had set up a punching machine, and the
plates were now made without the eonical burr, as at first. They
were made of pure metal, and could be had of Mr. Collins at
a very low price.

Mr. Janez Hoge remarked that he had used these plates for
some time with great pleasure and satisfaction. He thought they
were very useful in the formation of cells, as they adhered very
well to marine glue, and they thus got rid of the nuisance of glass
cutting. Of course, these cells would not supersede glass in using
metallic solutions, such as the bichloride of gold.

Mr. Surrouk said he had used such solutions as chloride of
calcium, chloride of sodium, glycerine mixtures, and camphor
water, for two or three years without any change in the cells.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr.. Suffolk for
bringing the subject again before the Society.

The PrestpEnt then appealed to the members for duplicates of
objects; and Mr. Loss, in supporting this request, remarked that,
as the keeper of the cabinet, he regretted to say that there had
never been a year in which so few slides had been contributed to
the Society.

The meeting then adjourned till the 9th of November.

Nov. 14th, 1866.
R. J. Farrants, Esq., in the chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and con-
firmed.

Various presents were announced, and the thanks of the meet-
ing voted to their respective donors.

Certificates of nine candidates for admission into the Society
were read and ordered to be suspended in the usual manner.

Frederick Wm. Gay, Esq., 113, High Holborn; James Wight,
Esq., General Post Office ; John Salmon, Esq., Loughton ; John
Hirst, junr., Esq., Dobcross, Manchester; Andrew Lows, Esq.,
Lowther Street, Carlisle; Frederick George Fitch, Esq., 40, High-
bury New Park; Montagu Burnett, Esq., Alton; Stephen Helme
Esq , 238, Lansdown Road, Dalston; James John Smith, Esq., 56,
Tollington Road; Frederick Henry Leaf, Esq., Burlington Lodge,
Norwood; H. Turberville, Esq., Pilton, Barnstaple; Dr. A.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. oe)

©. Macrae, 41, Warrior Square, St. Leonards’; were balloted for
and duly elected Fellows of the Society. .

Mr. Thwaites, Bishop Auckland, was balloted for and re-elected

Fellow of the Society.

Dr. Braithwaite, and Andrew Lows, Esq., were duly admitted
Fellows of the Society.

The following letter from Mr. Secretary Walpole was read :

“ WHITEHALL;
“1st. Wov., 1866.
“ Sir,

“JT am directed by Mr. Secretary Walpole to inform you,
with reference to your letter of the 25rd of September, that he
has had the honour to submit to the Queen your request that the
Microscopical Society may be permitted to assume the title of
‘Royal,’ and that Her Majesty has been graciously pleased to
accede to your request, and to command that the Society shall be
styled the ‘ Royal Microscopical Society.’

“T am, Siz,
“ Your obedient servant,
“ BELMORE.
“ James GLAIsHER, Esq.,
“ President of the Royal Microscopical Society.”

Mr. Wenham read a paper “ On a New Form of Prism.”

Mr. Richards orally described a tube for prolonging the body of
the microscope, to enable it to view objects on the table.

Resolved unanimously—“ That the thanks of the Society be
returned to F. C. S. Roper, Esq., for his valuable services as one
of the Honorary Secretaries of the Society.”

It was announced that Mr. H. Davies would read a paper at
the next meeting “On two New Species of a Tube-bearing
Rotifer.”

The Society then adjourned to a Special General Meeting.

It was resolved unanimously—“ That By-Law No. 27 be sus-
pended, pro hac vice, to enable Mr. Glashier to be re-elected
President of the Society for the year ensuing.”

The reading of the revised By-Laws was then commenced.

Proposed by Mr. Hoge, seconded by Mr. Ince, and carried
unanimously—‘“ That the Entrance Fee be in future Two Guineas
instead of One Guinea, as heretofore.’ This, however, is not to
affect persons elected or proposed on this evening.

The remaining By-Laws were then read and passed unanimously.

December 12th, 1866.
R. J. Farrants, Esq., in the chair.

The minutes of preceding meetings read and confirmed.
Six presents were announced, and the thanks of the Society
returned to the donors.

74 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Certificates in favour of seven candidates for election into the
Society were read, and ordered to be suspended in the usual
manner.

Dr. Braidwood, Carlisle; Thos. Croak, Esq., Thames Ditton;
C. W. Calthorp, Esq., Alford; Thos. Curties, Esq., 244, High
Holborn; Chas. Davis, Esq., 14, Wimpole Street; Rev. J. H.
Ellis, Thame, Oxon; Dr. Gray, 23, Princes Street, Cavendish
Square; R. T. Lewis, Esq., Lowndes Terrace, Knightsbridge ;
Wm. Maguire, Esq., 35, Queen Square; and W. C. Pickersgill,
Esq., Bexley, were balloted for, and duly elected Fellows of the
Society.

The ‘Becawrsiay communicated to the Society the following
letter from Mr. Carruthers, of the British Museum:

“It would be well that the Fellows of the Microscopical
Society should know that the type specimens of all Greyille’s
Diatomacex, figured in their ‘Transactions,’ are now deposited
here, and that the collection includes not only Greyille’s own
slides, but also those prepared by the late Professor Gregory,
some of which were described and figured also in the ‘ Transac-
tions’ of the Microscopical Society. These, added to the type-
collection of Professor W. Smith, who monographed the British
species, make our collections here invaluable as an authoritative
series of the British Diatomacex.”

The following papers were read :—“ On a new Condenser,” by
Rey. J. B. Reade ; “ On two newSpecies of Tube-bearing Rotifers,”
by H. Davis, Esq.

A series of photographs from Major Woodward, of America,
was exhibited by Mr. How.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to these gentlemen for
the same. 7~ :

“ Wire-Spring Clip for Microscopic Mounting.”—Mr. Jabez

= Hogg exhibited a wire-spring clip for holding
down the covering-glass when preparing micro-
scopic objects. It is shown in the accompanying
figure in use. A clip somewhat similar was de-
vised by Dr. Maddox; this, however, is a decided
improvement, and is made by bending an elastic
brass wire, so that it will open and shut like the
common letter-slip. The cover is pressed down
by the small cork, or, what is better, a thick
pledget of leather (seen in the figure), and held
in its place while cement is applied or allowed to
dry, or Canada balsam allowed to insinuate itself
by capillary attraction. Mr. Jabez Hogg stated that he had
found them extremely useful, and that Mr. Baker is selling them
at a very small price per dozen.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

as |
ot

SUBSCRIBERS TO THE CHARTER FUND OF THE ROYAL
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

Alexander, Gen. J., R.A.,
le

aC. J. H, FLS,

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Lee, Henry, F.G.S......... 2
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76 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,
fad. £ s. d,
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Morrieson, Colonel Robt. 2 2 0 Spicer, Rev. W. W. ...... 1.
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WR.A-Si. chee & 6Er'p

Linnean Society, December Gth, 1866.

At the meeting of the Linnean Society held on the 6th of
December, Sir John Lubbock gave an account of a new genus,
probably constituting the type of a new order in the class
Myriapoda. This addition to the British Fauna is, in many
respects, one of the most interesting that has been received since
that of Poynema natans, described by the same acute observer a
short time since,* which so much startled Entomologists at the time
of its announcement. The new genus is termed Pawropus, in-
dicative of the comparative paucity of its legs in the class to which
it belongs ; and the particular species upon which the generic cha-
racters are based is named Pawropus Huzleyi, but the author
stated that he had also met with a second species, apparently less

* ‘Linn. Trans.,’ xxiv, 1863, p. 135.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. Th

eommon, for which he has proposed the name of P. peduncu-
latus.

The generic characters are :—“ Body composed of ten seg-
ments, including the head; convex with scattered hairs. Nine
pairs of legs. Antenne five-jointed, bifid at the extremity; and
haying three, long, jointed appendages.”

Pauropus Hualeyt, n. sp

The body consists of ten segments, the first two of which com-
prise the head. In form it is slightly tapering in front, each
segment being somewhat narrower as well as shorter than that
which follows it. The two caudal segments somewhat smaller
than the penultimate. The third segment and that immediately
following the head bears one pair of feet, while the fourth, fifth,
sixth, and seventh segments have each two pairs. But these
segments may be regarded as double. The posterior legs are the
longest. Each segment from the third to the seventh inclusive
has on the side margins of the back a pair of strong bristles. The
pair attached to the third segment point forwards, those of the
fourth are at right angles to the body, and the posterior ones
point backwards. Besides these long bristles, the body bears on
each of the larger segments two transverse rows of short stiff
celub-shaped hairs, which are most numerous on the head. The
body is quite white and colourless, except the head and last two
segments, which have a slight tinge of yellow.

Length #;th of an inch.

Hab.—Awmong dead leaves and other decaying vegetable matter,
in hot-beds.

Sir John Lubbock stated that this little active creature was
found by him during the course of the last autumn, and exhibited
to the Entomological Society at their first meeting. It occurs
in considerable numbers among dead leaves and in other accumu-
lations of decaying organic substances. Though not exactly
sociable in its habits, nevertheless the species exhibits none of
that extreme ferocity which characterises the Chilopoda ; it
seems to be very abundant in his garden at High Elms, and it is,
therefore, the more surprising that it should have been so long
overlooked. This, however, he suggests, may arise from its mi-
nute size, small number of legs and general appearance, which
would naturally at first sight cause the creature to be regarded
as a larval or immature form. That it is not such, however, has
been satisfactorily determined for reasons which were fully
stated.

Amongst the most remarkable characters of Pawropus are—

1. The Antenne, which are only five-jointed and bifid at the extremity.
The four basal segments are simple and short, but increasing slightly in
length from the base. The fourth segment bears at its extremity two
branches, each consisting of a single segment. One is slightly longer than
the fourth segment, aud rather thinuer. The other is nearly twice as
long and half as broad. The first bears two very curious appendages con-
sisting of an immense number of rings, the first and last of which are larger

78 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

than the others. The second branch terminates in a similar but longer
appendage. These curious appendages remind one very much of the toy-
snakes, which consist of a number of saucer-like segments united at the
middle. The fourth segment of the antenne also bears hairs at its
extremity, two on one side and one on the other; the latter much the
shorter. Each of the three basal segments supports a pair of rod-like
almost clubbed hairs, which are divided by a number of lines almost like the
curious ringed appendages. These ringed hairs are no doubt connected
with sensation. Between the two appendages of the branch is a small
rounded body which is sessile in P. Hualeyi, and pedunculate in P. pedun-
culatus, so named from that circumstance.

The structure of the mouth appears not exactly to agree with that of either
the chilopods or diplopods (Chilognatha.) 'The mandibles are distinct, some-~
what elongated, and have several teeth at the extremity. Besides these the
other parts of the mouth have not been distinctly made out. Two pointed,
unarmed, jointed appendages, may be supposed to correspond with the first
pair of legs of Lithobius, or they may represent labial palpi; but, at present.
their homology is obscure.

The different views of naturalists respecting the position or
value of the Myriapoda are then stated, and the author gives his
reasons for adhering to the opinion of those who regard them as
forming a distinct Class “separated from the other classes of
Annulosa by characters of at least equal importance with those by
which those classes are distinguished from one another.”

Adverting to the remarkable fact that all Myriapods have at
first three pairs of legs, and three pairs only ; and that the same
is the case among the Acarina, and that it might at first be
supposed that these three pairs represented the six legs of insects,
the author states that there is nevertheless a generai agreement
of opinion that these three pairs do not homologically represent
those of true insects. At the same time the consensus is not so
general as to what they do really represent.

Nevertheless, the fact that centipedes commence life with no
more legs than other Arthropods, and only acquire by degrees
their most obvious characteristic, is very important; and as what
is true of all the species may be reasonably concluded to have
been true of the whole group, we might have inferred @ priori
that, although in the words of Newport, “there are never fewer
than twelve segments and eleven pairs of legs in any genus of
Myriapoda,” still there must have been at one time species
possessing a smaller number of appendages. The genus Pawropus
is, in fact, such a species, and possesses only nine pairs of legs.
It tends, therefore, to a considerable extent to fill up the gap.

With respect to the relations of Pawropus to the already known
groups of Myriapods, it must be admitted that in some im-
portant characteristics Pawropus closely resembles Seutiger. But
the structure of the mandibles and of the legs shows that these
resemblances are only analogical and do not indicate any close
affinity. In fact, the Scutigeride are highly developed Chilopoda,
which Pauropus is not. If, however, the existing Myriapods are
descended from ancestors having a smaller number of segmen g

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 79

and of legs, then we must expect to find that the links by which
we shall eventually be able to connect not only the two great
orders of centipedes together, but also the Myriapods, as a whole
with the other classes of articulata, will possess a small number
of appendages. The Scutigeride do not constitute such a group ;
but Pauropus apparently does.

The differences between Pawropus and the known Chilopods
and Diplopods are then indicated.

From the former the new genus differs chiefly in the antenn®
haying only five segments; in the absence of the powerful second
pair of foot-jaws, and in the circumstance that the generative
panes are probably situated in the anterior part of the

ody.

From the Diplopod or Chilognathous group it differs in the
pairs of legs being all equidistant and placed in distinct pairs.
Moreover in all Diplopods the first three pairs of legs are dis-
tinguished from the rest by being attached to a single apparent
segment, whereas in Pawropus this is only the case with the first
pair. Again, in all Diplopods the legs are equal in size, or if
there be any difference the posterior pairs are rather smaller than
the others, whilst in Pawropus they are decidedly longer. In all
Diplopods, again, the feet terminate in simple claws, which is not
the case in Pauropus. The mouth-parts, though very different from
those of the Chilopods, appear to resemble those of that group
in a rudimentary condition rather than those of the Diplopods.

Lastly, the eyes and antenne are very unlike those of any
Diplopod, or in fact of all known Myriapods, the latter re-
minding us strongly of the types presented in the antenne of certain
crustacea.

The above notice will suffice to show that Pauropus is a most
interesting subject of inquiry, and as it is one from its minute
size and delicate structure eminently requiring skilful micro-
scopical investigation, we have thought the space here devoted to
it well bestowed.

Duettx Microscopican CLUR.
July 19th, 1866.

Mr. W. Archer took occasion to exhibit for the first time to the
Club, and, as definitely ;dentified indeed, he thought, new to Britain,
CEdogoniwm rostellatum (Pringsh.). Thisis one of several monce-
cious species; but it is also characterised by the oogonium not
opening by a pore, or aperture formed in its wall, for the admis-
sion of the spermatozoids, as is usual in this genus, and the only
mode in Bulbochete, but by a cireumscissile dehiscence. From
the cleft so produced an inner membrane projects, which seems
to be itself perforate. These specimens occurred in considerable

—

SSS
————

80 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

quantity in a pond close to Enniskerry. He was able likewise to
exhibit another species, so far as he was aware hitherto unre-
corded in this country, namely, @dogoniwm acrosporum (de Bary).
This occurred exceedingly sparingly; indeed, he had seen only
two or three examples of the fructification. This is of a different
type from the preceding, being a gynandrosporous species ; and
the specimen well showed the dwart male plant and the oogonium.
Mr. Archer also showed in fruit Gdogoniwm echinospermum, as
well as the same (Zdogonium he showed at the meeting of the
Club in July, 1865 (the minutes of which for details please see),
and as to which he felt somewhat in doubt as to its being Gdogo-
nium apophysatum (Pringsheim) or Cidog. setigerum (Vaupell).
But be it as it may, he would here mention that he had taken
this latter plant, quite identical in all its characters, for three
successive years from the same pool, also from one or two adjacent
ones, as well as on the occasion of a visit to the Vartry bed; the
exact spot there he could not recollect, but at all events it is one
which will be completely submerged when the long-delayed Vartry
water-works are completed. These three gynandrosperous forms
(the first new to this country) were in fruit, showing the oogonia
and dwarf male plants (the latter of the structure called “ outer”
by Pringsheim) very beautifully.

Mr. Archer then drew attention to a form of Saprolegniaceous
plant which seemed without doubt to be undescribed.

When at first glance he saw this form, he momentarily thought
he had encountered a true and distinct gynandrosporous type of
fructification in the Saprolegniex, the existence of which, a priori,
one would be disposed to believe likely, and which Pringsheim’s
observatidns, mentioned in his magnificent memoir (‘ Jahrbiicher
fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik,’ Band u, p. 213; ‘ Nachtrige zur
Morphologie der Saprolegnieen’), all but directly prove. As
illustrative of the term “ gynandrosporous,” and as explanatory of
what he thought he had found, Mr. Archer was happy in being
fortunate enough to be able to exhibit the three species of Cido-
gonium on the table, well showing this type of fructification.
Having, however, drawn attention to its nature and peculiarities
during that demonstration, it would be here unnecessary again to
take up the time of the meeting by referring to the points in-
volved. It was besides the less necessary to do so, inasmuch as
in the form now shown, the fructification, upon being more closely
examined, was seen to bear only a superficial resemblance to the
gynandrosporous type, and, as will be seen presently, is truly
monecious, though exhibiting what is seemingly a remarkable
modification of the latter type of fructification.

It may seem, and doubtless it is, a rather lame thing to come
forward and to describe a new species without knowing definitely
to what genus it belongs; but Mr. Archer thought himself justi-
fied in drawing attention to this plant, owing to its seemingly

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 81

very peculiar modification of the monecious type, being in detail
different from that presented by any other form described.

The present plant seems beyond doubt to be a new species, and
to belong to one of the two genera Saprolegnia or Achlya. Gene-
rically considered, Mr. Archer was inclined to regard the present
plant as a species of Saprolegnia. As is well known, the generic
characters in this family depend on the mode of formation and
eyolution of the zoospores ; and perhaps the doubts as regards the
present plant may probably be due to its not having been ex-
amined sufficiently early, after having been taken, to gain a good
insight into the characters presented in that stage. But in the
absence of knowledge derived from having actually seen the
zoospores, the reason for leaning to the genus Saprolegnia was,
that in one instance were observed, in the mass of the plant,
three seeming sporangia evacuated by zoospores, one within the
other, each showing a terminal opening—for so far characteristic
of Saprolegnia.

Setting aside, however, the generic characters drawn from the
mode of evolution of the zoospores, this plant is specifically cha-
racterised (it is believed from any other Saprolegniaceous plant
yet described) by its true fructification in the following manner :

Saprolegnia (?) androgyna, sp. nov.

Oogonia large, barrel-shaped or elliptic, mostly in an uninter-
rupted terminal series, though occasionally interstitial; the
terminal oogonium the oldest in a series, the oogonia thus
showing gradually different degrees of development down to the
basal one, which is the youngest; the lateral male branchlets
(Nebeniiste, Pringsheim), with the exception of those appertaining
to the lowest oogonium of a series, are not derived either from
the principal stem of the plant or from any neighbouring portion
of the general plant, but these are given off from the oogonium
itself, which is immediately beneath the oogonium which is
fertilized by them, and so on down to the basal oogonium of a
Series, to which are given off lateral male branchlets from the
filament or stem itself immediately thereunder; the tube or
eavity of each lateral male branchlet becomes shut off by a
septum formed a short distance above its origin, the portion of
the contents of the branchlets above the septum being the male
element and developed into spermatozoids, that below the septum
retaining its characters and becoming returned back into the
oogonium, whence it originated in time to take part in the forma-
tion, with the remainder of the contents, of the oospores. Oospores
large, about ,1,th of an inch in diameter, mostly numerous, but
very variable in number; sometimes, however, though very rarely,
as few as even one; occasionally exhibiting what appeared to be
a roundish excentric vacuole. The whole plant large and coarse
as compared with other described forms in this family.

If thus, for illustration’s sake, we call the upper (mostly
terminal) oogonium A, that beneath it B, and that beneath the
latter C, and so on down, let us suppose, to G, then oogonium A

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. F

;

82 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 1

is fertilized by the lateral male branchlets emanating from and in
direct continuation with B; the oogonium B is fertilized by the
lateral male branchlets, in the same way, emanating from C, and
so on down to F, which is fertilized by the male branchlets
emanating from G; but G is itself fertilized by the lateral male
branchlets emanating from the supporting stem, for G has no
oogonium beneath. So in the whole chain of oogonia, the oospores
in each, the lowest one excepted, are fertilized by the male
elements derived from the branchlet given off by the oogonium
immediately below; and the terminal oogonium does not, of
course, give off any male branchlets—they would have no duty to
do, no function to perform. The contents of the oogonia, which
in their turn successively give off lateral male branchlets, do not
become formed into oospores until the septa are duly formed in
the branchlets, and until the granular contents beneath such
septa become returned back into the oogonium in time to partici-
pate in the formation of the oogonia. As takes place in other
Saprolegniz, the whole contents become used up to form the
oospores. E

This curious plant, then, Mr. Archer thought, presented an in-
teresting example of a seeming confusion of parts with a mainte-
nance of clear distinctness of function—a male-female or a female-
male, yet male and female elements distinct per se. :

On looking at the plant at first sight, from what has been men-
tioned, it will not appear surprising that it should haye been
momentarily taken as a gynandrosporous form, the lateral male
branchlets, emanating from each oogonium and reaching up to
the oogonium immediately aboye, looking not unlike dwarf male
plants of independent origin seated on each oogonium; but a
closer examination revealed their true nature, and proved that
they were in direct continuation with the oogonium which had
given them off, as it were, like the thumb to a glove. Mr. Archer
had, indeed, at first spent some time in looking, but of course in
vain, for the probable mother-cells of androspores; but this was
when he had seen but a single specimen as yet, which did not
show its true characters so distinctly as the numerous ones which
afterwards presented themselves.

Mr. Archer likewise exhibited some living examples of Sapro-
legnia monoica (Pringsh.) in fruit, showing the oogonia and lateral
male branchlets. He drew attention to the specific characters
distinguishing that form, as wellas to its smaller and more slender
habit, as compared with the new form now for the first time
brought forward.

Rey. E. O’Meara, A.M., exhibited beautiful examples of
Navicula convexa, taken from seaweeds at Rostrevor. He re-
marked on the prudence of searching the same localities again
and again, however seemingly unproductive, for objects of value
will sometimes be sure to reward perseverance. He had himself
frequently made gatherings from this locality, and had never

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 83

taken much of interest, and was therefore agreeably surprised at
obtaining so much value in various ways as on the present occa-
sion, as evidenced by the fine specimens now exhibited.

Dr. Moore showed some examples of an alga which he had
noticed for some time forming a green scum on the surface of the
water in a pan in one of the warm houses in the Botanic Garden.
This production seemed to show three sufliciently well-marked
states or conditions; one in which the individual rounded cells
were combined into a dense, somewhat indefinitely formed cluster,
occasionally presenting the appearance of being hollow in the
centre; again the cells presented themselves as extremely short
linear series of usually four or five cells (what might be called
short filaments—four sometimes in a series, and a fifth at one
side, as it were originating a branch or pseudo-branch); and
again the cells presented themselves individually free, or 1¢ might
be binate, owing to recent self-division. Occasionally certain
cells were to be met with undergoing division in all directions of
space, and sometimes some of the dense masses of cells first
mentioned presented short linear series of cells seemingly
emanating from their circumference. It seemed, therefore, as if
the following might represent the growth so far as the phases of
it to be seen were concerned :—NSingle, nearly orbicular, cell;
binary and quaternary division; repetition of this, and in various
directions of space; more or less densely compact cluster; cir-
cumferential growth; cells at periphery finally taking on growth
in one direction of space only; linear series of cells detached ;
repetition ; and, finally, a breaking up into single cells and, it
might be, zoospores, many similar-looking cells occurring in an
active condition in the water. This production appeared to be
an annual—appearing each season, actively vegetating, and quite
disappearing in no very long space of time. Dr. Moore stated
he would keep a look-out as to this growth in the vessel in which
it occurred, and inform the Club about it on another occasion.

Dr. John Barker exhibited alive the larval form of an un-
recognised dipterous insect, remarkable for the “home” it had
constructed ‘“ without hands.’’ He had found it in the canal near
Dublin. This habitation formed a case of about 54th of an inch
long, ;!;th of an inch wide, and ,),th of an inch deep, and con-
sisted of two elliptic pellucid valves (like a bivalve shell, only
joined at opposite margins), and having coiled thereon a quantity
of the filament of Zygnema, seemingly still in active growth;
these valves were joined together at the broad margins, and were
not closed at the narrower margins (or the ends). Through one
of the openings thus left, the head and anterior portion of the
larva mostly protruded. It did not seem able to leave the case,
but it could turn round in it or retract itself altogether within its
bivalye covering. It was curious to observe the almost concentric
or sometimes spiral arrangement in which the creature had

84. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

adapted the coils of the Zygnema to its case, and to perceive ho
healthily the alga continued to live, not seemingly suffering from
the use to which it had been put. When feeding or moying
about, the insect carried its case much as a caddis-worm would

swaying it backwards and forwards. These specimens continued
to live and move actively for about a week in confinement.

Mr. Archer brought forward Characiwm ornithocephalum
(A. Br.), and what he regarded as Ankistrodesmus convolutus
(Corda), kindly forwarded by Professor Gagliardi from York-
shire.

Mr. Archer took occasion to mention that he had found
Sorastrum spinulosum (Nig.), Kiitz., in a gathering made near
Drogheda; they were somewhat larger, but not so brightl
green, as those he had shown (for the first time in Britain) taken
rom the Rocky Valley, in September, 1865. (See Club minutes
of that date.)

Mr. Tichborne brought before the meeting a slide which repre-
sented and, he might say, explained a phenomenon observed in ~
crystallization. Some chemical salts and many minerals prescoaa
the peculiarity that unfractured surfaces show—an amorphous —
texture perfectly devoid of crystalline structure, yet, when broken
through, were found to consist of exquisite geometrical forms,
which were produced by needles or prisms radiating, from some
axis or point, towards the amorphous circumference. The beau-
tiful and well-known mineral Wavellite may be cited as a speci-
men of this characteristic crystallization, and many specimens
which came under the denomination of botryoidal, mamillated, —
and reniform.

Many of the quinine salts presented the same peculiarity, par- ;
ticularly the chlorate—a salt which Mr. Tichborne has had occa-
sion to experiment with to some extent lately. When a boiling
solution of pure chlorate of quinine is allowed to cool, the solu- —
tion becomes quite milky, not (as might be at first sight supposed) —
from a deposition of minute crystals, but (as the microscope
shows) by the deposition of the salt in the form of oily globules,
which on cooling become vitreous balls; these in a short time
change to fine filiform masses of crystals. As the process con-
tinues, the salt is again deposited upon the periphery of the mass
in an amorphous condition, at the same time becoming crystalline ©
in the interior. The result is, in the case of this salt, most
curious mushroom-shaped masses, perfectly amorphous on the
exterior, but beautifully crystalline inside. The slide exhibited
was procured by allowing the solution of chlorate of quinine to
cool slowly upon the glass, and, when the globules were suffi-
ciently collected, to dry rapidly in an air-pump. By this means
the chlorate was retained in its vitreous condition ; otherwise it
becomes crystalline. It would be observed, that even here the
globules seemed to arrange themselves in a symmetrical form—so

i errs

wilgolk

wn 1 Andee =

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 85

ch so as to produce a rather pretty microscopic object, each
e globule being surrounded by a series of small beads, fourteen
to fifteen in number. The vitreous quinine did not polarize,
whilst the crystalline did.

Dr. John Barker exhibited a form of growing stage or stand,
contrived by him for preservation of any object on an ordinary
“slide under observation, by placing it in connection with a reser-
voir of water, from which the fluid is conducted to the object
under the cover by a slip of tale. This little contrivance, which

obviously presents many advantages, is described and figured in
another page of the present number of this Journal, and seems
to supply a desideratum.

August 16th, 1866.

Rey. E. O’Meara referred to his haying shown, at last meeting
of the Club, some specimens of Navicula conversa gathered at
Rostrevor, county of Down, a locality which, though frequently
searched by him, had never previously yielded results sufficient
to reward the labour.

Upon further examination of this gathering, several interesting
and uncommon Diatomaceous forms were discovered. Some of
these Mr. O’Meara regarded, after careful search through all the
sources of information, to be undescribed. At some future time
he hoped to be able to furnish to the Club a list of the more re-
markable forms found therein, but he would confine himself on
the present occasion to exhibiting one which he proposed to name
Pinnularia plena. }

In a paper by Dr. Greville, published in ‘ Mic. Journ.,’ January,
1859, Mr. O’ Meara had found a form figured and described under
the name of Pinnularia semiplena, which in many features bears
a sufficiently striking resemblance to the present form, so that the
latter may be ultimately identified with it. Nevertheless, upon a
careful comparison of the two forms, such differences of character
presented themselves to notice as to justify Mr. O’Meara for the
present in regarding them as distinct.

The following is Dr. Greville’s description of Pinnularia semi-

lena :—
“i Valves linear-elliptical, sub-acute; cost radiate, distant, very
short in the middle, and becoming gradually longer towards the
_ extremities, leaving an elongate, lozenge-shaped, centrical blank
space. Length, 0024” ; breadth, about 0006"; cost«#,15in ‘001".

Pinnularia plena (O’Meara) may be thus described :—Valves
broadly elliptical, subacute; cost radiate, close, becoming longer
towards the centre, leaving an elliptico-lanceolate central blank
space. Length, 0024”; breadth, 0012”; cost nearly twice as
many in same space as in P. semiplena.

To complete the comparison, Mr. O’Meara observed that, in

86 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

the form described by Dr. Greville, the central blank interspace
seems from the figure to be smooth, traversed by a longitudinal
median line, interrupted at the centre by a well-defined but small
nodule. In P. plena an elevated siliceous band traverses longi-
tudinally the blank interspace, imbedded in which the central
median line may be traced from the extremities towards a central
nodule of very large dimensions. Mr. O’Meara proposed the
specific name plena for this form, as it seemed suitable for the
purpose of denoting the affinity between it and P. sem*plena, as
well as descriptive of its characteristic differences.

Mr. Archer exhibited a plant collected by Dr. E. Perceval
Wright on a recent visit to the Arran Isles. Although Mr.
Archer could not see any very solid distinction between the
genera Hydrocoleum (Kiitz.) and Cthonoblastus (Kiitz.) = Micro-
coleus (Hary.), yet, as regards the identification of the present
form now shown, there did not seem any tangible differences
between it and Hydrocoleum thermale (Kiitz.). This occurred
mixed with a number of other oscillatoriaceous plants, forming a
dense felty coating on rocks. The plant itself formed groups of
Oscillatoria-like filaments included within a hyaline sheath; in
fact, agreeing completely with the form named Hydrocoleum
thermale. But Mr. Archer’s object, in now drawing attention to
it, was to note a curious modification of the oscillatoriaceous
movement evinced by these filaments. As is well known, the
movement of a single free filament of an Oscillatoria consists of
a vibration or spiral twisting, whereas the movement of these
filaments, confined in the common tube, consisted of a gliding up
and down past one another within the tube or sheath. At the
central portion of the sheath the filaments appeared so closely in
contact that their outlines were not very distinguishable, and the
individual motion of each filament, now up, now down, lent a very
curious appearance, deceptively like a circulation of contents in a
longitudinal direction. That it was, however, really a gliding up
and down of the filaments themselves, was abundantly proved by
looking at the place where the filaments projected beyond the
opening of the sheath. Here the filaments were seen slowly
altering the relative proportion of each, which, at any particular
time, extended beyond the opening of the sheath; so that, in this
respect, the aspect of the tuft of projecting filaments was slowly
but constantly changing. The filaments at the free end displayed
little or no oscillatory movement, their efforts being confined to
the back-and-forward motion in and out of the apex of the sheath,
which itself presented a more or less broken and indefinite out-
line. This kind of movement of oscillatoriaceous filaments seemed
sufficiently marked in the present instance to deserve this brief
mention. In touching on the Oscillatoriacew, Mr. Archer thought
it might not be out of place to exhibit Musset’s paper and figures
(‘ Nouvelles Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur les -
Oscillaires’), of which he had recently become possessed, in which

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 87

that author had sought to establish the animal nature of the
Oscillatoriaces, and who, by assuming it as a fact, and drawing
false analogies, seemed to labour under the delusion that he had
proved his case. It might hardly be imagined that this memoir
was written so late as the year 1861!

Mr. Archer likewise exhibited some specimens of a unicellular
Alga which was referable to Niigeli’s genus Synechococcus, but
was not, he thought, previously recorded. It is, indeed, to be
granted that no mode of reproduction, save self-division, having
been observed in the lower forms of Chroococcacese, their tena-
bility as species was open to doubt. But the present, as a form
merely, was even more striking and marked than any described in
the genus, and therefore not less entitled to a record. Nor did it
appear to have been described under any other genus or name.
Kiitzing, had he seen it, would, no doubt, have referred it to his
genus Palmoglea, as he had seemingly included therein several
phycochrome-bearing forms along with chlorophyll-bearing plants.
But none of Kiitzing’s species of Palmogloea would at all accord
with the present plant. It had occurred as yet, so far as Mr.
Archer’s experience, only in one little shallow miniature pool on
the side of Bray Head. Taken, then, as it stands, this seemed
an abundantly distinct production. Mr. Archer would first give
the characters of the genus Synechococcus according to Nageli,
of which the present plant was a very typical example. It is,
however, to be noted, as N igeli himself remarks, that the distinc-
tion between the genera Synechococcus, Gloeothece, and Apha-
nothece, may possibly not be marked by very absolute characters.

Family, Chroococcacee.

Genus, Synechococcus (Nig.).

Generic characters.—Cells elongate, division only in one direc-
tion, with thin walls, single or united into little families in series.

Synechococcus crassus, Sp. nov.—Cells broadly elliptic, about
one half longer than broad ; cell-wall very thin.

This plant is well distin euished from even the largest of Nigel’s
species, S. eruginosus, by its still larger size and by its elliptic
or egg-shaped cells, somewhat narrowing towards the gradually
rounded ends, not cylindrical, with rotundato-truncate ends. In
the present plant the cell-wall is very thin, and seemingly without
any gelatinous investment. Tt would, Mr. Archer thought, be
altogether unnecessary, if not, indeed, absurd, to contrast the form
in question with any other unicellular plant similar in size or
resembling in shape, containing chlorophyll, such as Penium,
Cylindrocystis, &c.; and, due regard being had to the generic
characters, and the form and dimensions of the cells themselves,
Mr. Archer thought that neither was there any danger whatever
that the present plant could be confounded with any of the
related described Chroococcacee. When oceurring in sufficient
quantity on the slide, this plant, presenting, as it does, ina marked
degree, the characteristic bright seruginous green colour of phy-
cochrome, forms an exceedingly pretty object.

ll

88 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. Archer also exhibited a fine gathering, quite pure from
other forms, of Micrasterias Thomasiana (ejus), taken from a
pond adjacent to that in which he had found it first; since then
he had met with this form exceedingly sparingly, hence a copious
gathering was the more welcome.

September 20th, 1866.

Mr. Crowe exhibited an abundant gathering of Stephanosphera
pluvialis and Gonium pectorale, in great beauty and activity,
obtained from the old Bray-Head Station. The latter showed
very varied sizes and states of division, and the whole formed a
very handsome object.

Rev. Eugene O’Meara, A.M., had much satisfaction in bringing ~
before the notice of the Club a most interesting and productive
gathering of diatoms, collected by Dr. E. Perceval Wright whilst
dredging, in from fifteen to thirty fathoms, off the Arran Islands,
in the month of August last. This contained many rare forms,
as well as others which appeared to be new. He (Mr. O’ Meara)
had only received the material a few days ago, and, as was to be
expected from the circumstances under which the gathering was
made, it was very dirty, requiring much care to render it tolerably
clean ; therefore as yet he had been able to give the material only
a cursory examination, and would defer more detailed observation
to some ff&ture time. He thought, however, what he had stated
as to the value of the gathering would be justified by an inspection
of the slide now exhibited.

On the present occasion he would draw attention to one form
only, which he would designate Pinnularia divaricata, and de-
scribed it as follows:—Length of frustule about ‘0057”, breadth
about ‘0035". Side view broadly elliptical; the ends slightly
produced, broad and rounded; the central space large, its outline
resembling the vertebra of a fish. Through this space there runs
a well-marked median line, very fine at the outward extremities,
but becoming broader towards the centre, at some little distance
from which point it terminates ina small bulb. The cost are
arranged concentrically with the apex at both ends for about a
fourth of the length of the frustule, and in the intermediate por-
tion spring from the margin of the central nodule; the central
costa runs at right angles with the longitudinal axis, and those at
either side radiate towards the central costa more and more so as
the distance from this line increases. The coste in the central
portion of the valve are furcate; in some the furcation appears
near the outer margin of the valve, in others near the central
nodule. Some few are bifurcate. Still further it seems worth
of attention that the costz are slightly notched by longitudinal

FROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 89

lines, which, though they furrow them, do not sink so deeply as
to give a moniliform character to the strive.

Dr. M. H. Collis exhibited Vorticella, beautifully showing the
process of gemmation in various stages, from the first faint indi-
cation of a commencing protuberance, the young gemma, up to
the fully formed animal ready to become disengaged from the
parent.

Dr. John Barker showed a Carchesium, forming a beautiful
object; but he drew attention to it chiefly to point out a curious,
‘seemingly parasitic, filamentous growth, fringing the stipes of the
animal, and often forming a more or less dense, ruffle-like, annular
tuft round the stipes, just under the animal. These little fibres
were exceedingly delicate and colourless, and Dr. Barker would
regard them as fungoid.

Mr. Archer ventured to think these delicate filaments might
fall under‘some of Kiitzing’s more slender forms of Leptothrix,
and they seemed to him, at least, although the habitat was seemingly
novel, to be the same thing as the minute filaments or delicate
fibres one sees more or less frequently attached to diatoms and
other various objects in the water.

Mr. A. Andrews exhibited some beautiful slides of crystals of
sulphate of copper, made by Mr. Davis, similar to those figured
and described by him in the ‘ Quart. Journ. Mic. Science,’ N. §.,
No. XIX, July, 1865, p. 210. These formed magnificent objects
when viewed with polarized light.

Mr. Archer brought forward a curious form of Chytridium
(A. Br.), which he believed to be new. He had found it living
upon the joints of Zygnema, and it was seemingly remarkable that
it nearly always attacked the shortest joints. The gathering had
been made by him in Callery Bog. As the form was first noticed
in the company of Dr. J. Barker, and, indeed, was first drawn
attention to by him, he would venture to take the opportunity to
name this very distinct form after that gentleman.

The following may serve as a description :

Genus, Chytridium (Al. Braun).

Chytridium Barkerianum, sp. noy.— Cells much depressed,
three- or four-lobed, the lobes broadly rounded ; upper surface of
the cell concave, bearing at the centre a vertical, hyaline, very
slender, terate, minutely capitate process; the. cell-contents
mainly confined to the centre, leaving the ends of the lobes
empty ; zoospores making their exit through the opened apices of
the lobes.

As regards the affinities and differences of this curious little
species, it would seem that the only forms at all immediately re-_

90 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

lated to it are Chytridium cornutum (Al. Braun) and C. trans-
versum (A. Br.); but the projections or lobes of the former
species are numerous, narrower, and quite irregularly disposed
and yariable in size and form, the general form of the cell itself
being globular—not, as in the present species, the lobes in one
plane and equal in size, and three or four only, and the general
form of the cell itself being depressed; and in the latter species
the minute projections are two, and opposite and minute—not
four, and in the same plane and large. In the present form there
is no rounded body, the sides in top view are concave, and the
whole cell is constituted by the lobes. But the present form is
also distinguished from the species mentioned (and, so far as Mr.
Archer was aware, every other species also) by the possession of
the curious vertical, slender, hyaline process, with the minute
knob at the apex, starting from the centre of the somewhat con-
cave upper surface of the cell. What the nature of this curious
appendage may be it would be hard to guess. The minute knob-
like head, like the stem or process on which it is borne, is hyaline.
Occasionally a free globose body, similar in size and appearance
to this knob or head, was to be seen close beside it, leading to
the idea that it might be detached and renewed. The zoospores
make their exit from the opened ends of the radiating lobes, and
their motion, like that of those of most of these forms, seems but
faint and short-lasting. The cell-contents of the joint of the
Zygnema, on which these Chytridia were established, were always
effete and brown-coloured, and destroyed. As has been remarked,
it was mostly the shortest joints of the Zygnema which were so
attacked by this parasite, but occasionally a long one was so, and
on one occasion five or six were noticed on one very long joint.
Occasionally the attachment and root-like appendages of the

Chytridium could be seen penetrating into the Zygnema-cell, but.

more frequently, on a lateral view, the parasite seemed to be
seated merely superficially thereon, and without any apparent
means of attachment, as happens in other forms of Chytridium.
It might seem, possibly, that after the Chytridium had become
fully grown the root-like appendages might become resorbed.
Mr. Archer ventured to think that this little plant, the most
marked in figure of any of the genus, might not be without
some interest, in case it may be detected elsewhere by other
observers.

QvureKeTt Microscopical Crve.

University College, London.

September 28th.—W. Hislop, Esq., Vice-President, in the chair.
Eight members were elected, and seyeral donations were an-
nounced.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 91

A paper was read by Mr. R. T. Lewis “On some of the Effects
of the Electric Spark.” (See ‘ Journal,’ p. 14.)

October 26th.—Ernest Hart, Esq., President in the chair.

The following resolution, passed by the Committee, was an-
nounced :—‘‘ That the Committee of this Club desire to express
their sense of the loss they have sustained in the death of Mr.
Richard Beck, who was one of the founding members of the
Club, and of whose great services to Microscopic Science and
amiable personal qualities they have a deep appreciation.”

Twenty-eight members were elected, and several donations to
the Cabinet and Library were announced.

The Excursion Committee reported the results of a field-excur-
sion to the Royal Gardens, Kew, on the 6th instant; and a
special vote of thanks to Dr. Hooker was passed, for the privi-
leges so liberally accorded to the members of the Club on that
occasion.

Mr. Highley, F.G.S., read a paper “On Shore Collecting,” in
which he described the dress and implements which he considered
most suited for the purpose, how to search the shore, and what
animals, microscopic or otherwise, were most likely to be found.

A conversazione followed, at which many objects of interest
were exhibited, one of which was a new form of microscope, of
novel construction, by Mr. Cole.

November 23rd.—The President in the chair.

Nineteen members were elected.

A box of slides from W. B. Richardson, Esq., F.R.C.S.1., of
Dublin, as well as several donations from the members, were
announced.

Mr. M. C. Cooke read a short paper “ On the best methods of
transmitting Slides by post.” (See ‘ Journal,’ p. 63.)

Mr. McIntire read a paper “ On the different kinds of Podure,”
in which he described their history and habits, how to mount and
examine their scales, and his experience in breeding them for
microscopic investigation.

Mr. N. E. Green read a paper “On Melicerta,’ being the
result of long and careful inquiry into their habits and structure
under high powers, and in thin glass cells especially contrived for
that purpose.

Both these papers were illustrated by drawings, mounted slides,
and living specimens.

The proceedings closed with a conversazione.

92 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mancnuester Literary AND PutLosopHicaL Socrery.
MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTIONS.
October 8th, 1866.

A. G. Laruam, Esq., President of the Section, in the chair.

Mr. Hurst read a paper “On the Plants springing up spon-
taneously on the fresh turning-up of pasture-land at Knutsford,
Cheshire.”

“On Echinus lividus, iltustrated by specimens frem Round-
stone,’ by Thomas Alcock, M.D.—The author described parti-
cularly the mechanism of the teeth and jaws of the animal, and
showed by a dissection of the parts that the statement made both
by Professor Owen and Professor Rymer Jones that the striated
surfaces of the jaws are used to comminute the food is incorrect,
for the whole of these surfaces is occupied by muscle, and is
altogether outside the pharynx through which the food passes.
He further showed that the food contained in the alimentary canal
consists of very coarse pieces of sea-weed and zoophyte, which
have evidently not been subjected to the action of any triturating
apparatus. He exhibited mounted specimens of the suckers, and
also of the sucker-plates cleaned in potash. He said Professor
Owen quotes Professor Valentin with regard to the Pedicellariz,
and states that there are three forms of them belonging to Echinus
lividus, namely, gemmiform, tridactyle, and ophiocephalous Pedi-
cellarize :—these were exhibited as mounted specimens, and with
them a fourth kind, quite distinct from all three, and the most
remarkable in form; it has long slender jaws like those of a
crocodile, armed, in this species, with one very long terminal
tooth and one tooth on each side not far removed from it. He
remarked that in Echinus sphera all four kinds of Pedicellarize
are found, and agree in their general character with those of
Echinus lividus, though they are sufficiently different to be readily
distinguished, and the fourth kind just mentioned has, besides the
long terminal tooth, a series on each side of six or seven recurved
teeth, suggesting the name sauriocephalous as an appropriate
one for this form. Mounted specimens of the four kinds of
pedicellarixe of Echinus sphera were shown for comparison with
those of Echinus lividus, together with suckers and sucker-plates,
and the buccal membrane mounted entire to show the ophio-
cephalous and gemmiform pedicellariz complete and in their
natural position.

“On the Structure of the Spines of Lchini,” by H. A. Hurst,
Esq.—Notwithstanding the general appreciation by microscopists
of the spines of Echini, the author has been unable to find any
satisfactory account of their structure; and he attributed this to

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 93

the fact that the examination of these objects had been chiefly
confined to their sections, mounted in Canada balsam, which fre-
quently has the effect of making transparent objects too trans-
parent. He recommended for this purpose, however, the use of
Smith and Beck’s semi-paraboloid Lieberkuhn, together with trans-
mitted light—cutting off either means of illumination by a slight
motion of the hand, or using both together; but the readiest
means of ascertaining their real structure he found to be the exami-
nation of unmounted and splintered ends of broken spines by
incident light, a method bringing out details and showing the
connection of parts in a manner superior to any other. It was
with diffidence he dissented from Dr. Carpenter’s views in the
last edition of his work on the microscope; but he begged to pro-
pose the following as more in accordance with the appearances of
structure presented by these spines under the microscope. They
are composed of two substances in outward appearance, though
chemically perhaps the same, one so perfectly homogeneous and
transparent when viewed by transmitted or polarized light that
it cannot be distinguished from the blank field of the miscroscope
—yet, under incident light, so dark and opaque as to appear black.
This substance is frequently traversed by winding anastomizing
channels, which, though only containing air, seem opaque, and
show as solid by transmitted light, the substance they traverse
itself being invisible. He had not satisfactorily made out the
structure of the second substance ; it resembled the pith of plants,
but it was less regularly cellular, and in some spines assumed
a fibrous appearance. It is opaque under transmitted, and
glistening white under incident light. In the following remarks
he called this opaque, and the first-described transparent sub-
stance. The general structure of the spines he had examined
was also twofold in the simpler, as the Amphidotus cordatus, the
centre portion is hollow ; in the more complicated it is composed
of the opaque substance perforated along the length of the spine
by vertical solid tubes of the transparent matter, without any
definite arrangement. These appear to increase only in length ;
hence a section at the apex of the spine shows in the centre a
prolongation of the oldest portion, the thickening of the spine
arising differently, as subsequently explained. The hollow centre
of the Amphidotus cordatus is surrounded by a cellular fretwork
of the transparent matter, while around this is a circle of solid
ribs or pillars of the same, smooth on the exterior of the spine,
but within beautifully hollowed out into what the heralds call an
engrailed outline, the points of which connect it with the inner
layer of cellular fretwork. This framework is occasionally want-
ing, and the engrailed points are simply connected with each other
by a straight inner line of transparent matter. In the more com-
plicated forms he was not satisfied he had ascertained the real
structure, but thought it to be as follows:—The tubes of trans-
parent matter noticed about the central opaque substance, as
they approached towards the circumference of the first season’s

e

94 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

growth, gradually coalesce, and, at a certain distance from the
centre, consolidate into a rib or pillar, which runs from the root
to the apex of the spine, forming a longitudinally furrowed exte-
rior, caused by the centre of each rib projecting slightly. Once
this consolidation of tubes into ribs effected, the growth changes,
the ribs extending eccentrically into plates radiating from the
centre, and separated from each other by a mass of tissue similar
to that at the centre. At the close of the second period of growth
these plates thicken concentrically so as almost to touch each other,
which, however, they do not, leaving a furrow of separation.
They then continue their radiating extension till the end of
another year’s growth, when the concentric thickening into an
outer rib again takes place, and so on in successive years. These
radiating plates are horizontally perforated by circular apertures
bearing a singular resemblance to rivet-holes in boiler-plates, and
appear to have rivets passing through them of the opaque sub-
stance in a fibrous state. Altogether the structure of the spine
may be compared to that of aniron tubular bridge. The thickened
exteriors of these plates are highly coloured, and traversed by
winding, anastomizing channels containing air; in some portions
of the spine, the opaque substance either grows into, or is de-
stroyed and replaced by, the transparent substance, which then
forms a solid mass, perforated by the rivet-holes, now changed into
winding, anastomizing passages. Forms intermediate between the
extremes of complexity and simplicity were those of Echinus sphera
and lividus ; Echinus sphera being chiefly composed of the pith-
like substance, with twenty-five or thirty radiating glassy plates of
a whitish colour; while Lchinus lividus was more solid, the pith-
like substance passing into the solid glassy radiating plates through
portions consisting of this glassy matter, perforated by anasto-
mizing channels.—Mr. Hurst was not able to say whether the
pithy and glassy substances are distinct or not; but while the
cellular matter leaves no trace after the prolonged action of
vinegar, the transparent glassy substance, as well as the exterior
of the spine, appears to be enveloped by a membrane, resisting
the action of vinegar, which curiously converts this solid, opaque,
hard, and brittle spine into a transparent, flexible body, retaining
its original form. By using direct sunlight and a semi-paraboloid
condenser, the glassy matter could be distinctly seen through,
even when viewed as an opaque object, and the arrangement of
the cellular matter ascertained. It is this transparent substance
which is tinged with the beautiful purple hue so well known to
microscopists. Mr. Hurst expressed his disappointment that the
use of polarized light in these observations had led to no result,
and thought its value had been oyer-estimated.

Ou
satisla

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 95

November 13th.
J. SmpEBOTHAM, Esq., in the chair.

The Secretary read q paper, by Mr. G. E. Hunt, “On Mosses
new to Great Britain since the publication of Wilson’s ‘ Byologia
Britannica.’ ”

Mr. Sidebotham exhibited three new British insects—Wotodonta
bicolora, Sesia phitantiformis, and Dianthecia cesia.

Mr. Hurst presented twelve slides of spores of Fungi obtained
by the method recommended by Mr. Sidebotham—that of placing
the Fungi on slips of glass, and allowing the spores to be gradually
shed thereon, thus showing the arrangement of the gills, while
at the same time furnishing an interesting object for microscopic
study.

Mr. Sidebotham suggested that as the higher powers of micro-
scopic object glasses could not be used without great difficulty,
the attention of opticians should be given to the discovery of eye-
pieces of higher magnifying power than those now in general use,
and cited instances of the advantages to be derived from this.

OBITUARY.

CHRISTOPHER JOHNSON,

CuristopHEeR JoHnson, Member of the Microscopical Society of
London,was born at Lancaster July 23rd, 1782,and died at Lancaster
June 21st, 1866. His father, a surgeon in practice at Lancaster, con-
tributed several communications on medical and surgical subjects
to the London medical journals near the close-of the last century.
When a young man, Mr. Johnson devoted himself Jaboriously to
the study of chemical and electrical science. He graduated at
Edinburgh, after a three years’ course of medical instruction at
the Royal Infirmary. He then commenced practice in Settle, in
Yorkshire, where he remained till 1808, when he returned to
Lancaster. In 1813 he published a translation of an essay on
‘Child Murder,’ by Dr. P. A. O. Mahn, of Paris. In 1817 he
translated the whole of ‘Orlando Furioso’ into prose. In 1832
he contributed in the local press a series of sanitary papers with
reference to the impending cholera. He contributed a manual
called ‘The Nurse’ to a series edited by Martin Doyle, 1842.
In 1841 he published several articles on agricultural chemistry
in the local papers. About ten years later, he published others
under the signature of “ A Fireside Farmer,” in which he ex-
plained the views of Dumas and Boussingault, and other physio-
logical chemists. In 1848 he commenced the study of diatoms,
which he followed with unwearied diligence till within a brief
period of his death. In 1849 he translated Menighini’s work
on the animal nature of the Diatomacez, which was published by
the Ray Society. In 1865 he published some papers on the dis-
infecting properties of carbolic acid, the last of which was printed
in the ‘ Lancaster Gazette’ in November, 1865. He was one of
those quiet workers with the microscope who did much for diffusing
a taste for the investigation of minute organisms by his continuous
work at the forms of Diatomacee.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On the Protopuyta* of New ZeALanp. By W. Lauper
Linpsay, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., F.LS., &c.

CoMPARED with what has been already achieved, there
remains, in certain departments of the Flora of New Zealand,
much more yet to be accomplished—much that can probably
only be properly executed by the resident or local botanist,
who can leisurely study living forms on or near the locality of
their growth. Of no groups of plants is this remark so true
as of the Protophyta—the Desmidiacee, Diatomacee, and
Pailmellacee. The first and the last may be said to be almost
or quite unknown; while our knowledge of the Diatomacee
of the New Zealand islands is nearly altogether confined to
my own local and limited collection from the neighbourhood

* I quite concur with Prof. Smith and other systematists in separating
the Dialomacee and Desmidiacee from the Alga, as a distinct order—
Protophyta, which so far corresponds to the Pro/ozoa of the animal kingdom.
There is quite as good ground for the separation in the one case as in the
other; the strongest argument, however, being, I believe, that derived from
the convenience of the student and-classificator rather than that any precise
line of demarcation has been discovered by systematists. Such lines of
demarcation, though plentiful in book classifications as “systems” so-called,
are rarely, if ever, to be found in nature. For instance, as I have elsewhere
shown (“On Arthonice melaspermella,’ ‘Journal of Linnean Society,’
‘ Botany,’ vol. ix, p. 268; “Observations on Otago Lichens and Fungi,”
‘Trans. Royal Society of Edinb.,’ vol. xxiv, p. 434), tlre is no real separa-
tion between lichens and fungi, or hetween lichens and alge, though such a
separation is assumed by all systematists. ‘‘ Natura non facit saltum:? her
divisions are not definable by the ‘‘characters” of the systematist; she
exhibits in both kingdoms a continuily of vuriation whereby variety passes
into species, species into genus, and genus into order. The divisions of the
appa are artificial, arbitrary, provisional, and matters of convenience :
the “species ” of one botanist is not that of another, and what is a species
to-day may become either a variety or perhaps even a genus to-morrow;
every addition to our catalogue of plants—every contribution from new
countries or areas—leads to some modication of existing systems of arrange-
ment and nomenclature.

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. G

98 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND.

of Dunedin, in the province of Otago.* There is here, there-
fore, for the local botanist, not only a most extensive and
varied, but almost untrodden, field of research; and it is
with a view to incite him to cultivate this most promising
field that I venture to offer the following remarks. While
the work of collection is comparatively easy, that of eaamina-
tion is far from being so. All the groups in question
require the laborious care of the skilled microscopist ; and
labourers of such a class are not numerous, either im a new
colony or at home. But there is no reason why collectors
should not be numerous—why they should not supply the
materials for work to the systematist in his cabinet. The
collector, and the examiner or describer, are necessary com-
plements to each other. While the latter seldom has oppor-
tunity to collect over wide areas, he can utilise the materials
supplied by the less skilled travellers who have such oppor-
tunity: so that each has his appropriate and indispensable
place in the advancement of science.

I. Diatomacee.

Considerable numbers are recorded as natives of Australia,
having been there systematically looked for and examined.
My friend Dr. Roberts, of Sydney, has, for instance, long de-
voted himself to the examination of the diatoms of Australia
and its adjoining seas; and the addition of numerous new
and interesting forms has already been the result of his single
labours. But in New Zealand I am aware of no resident
botanist, and no traveller save myself, whe has given himself
even the trouble of limited or superficial collection. In one
of his letters to me (of date June 6th, 1861) Dr. Greville,
however, says, “Some very interesting gatherings of them
have already come from that country ;” but I can find no
trace of any published record thereof. In these circum-
stances, the following list of species, collected by myself in a
very limited area, and under most unfavorable conditions,
may be useful to the local botanist, stimulating and encou-
raging his zeal, perseverance, and industry, by showing what

* “On the Diatomacee of New Zealand,” ‘Journal of Linnean Society,’
‘Botany,’ vol. ix, p. 129. Mr. Carruthers, F.L.S., of the British Museum,
writes me [letter 14th Dec., 1866], “I believe no list of New Zealand dia-
toms has been published except your own. Greville had gatherings from
New Zealand, and had distributed some slides, so that some New Zealand
diatoms were in this way known; but only in this way, I believe.” A
scrutiny of Rabenhorst’s ‘Flora Europea Algarum’ (1864) reveals only
three recorded New Zealand forms; viz., Cocconeis cwlata, Grev.; Navicula
Johnsoniana, Grev., and Hyalosira Beswickii, Norman; whereof the two
former were described in this Journal and the last in Pritchard’s ‘ Infusoria.’

8 a 2

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND. 99

fruits may be expected from more systematic collections over
wider areas, and in different parts of an extensive and varied
colony.

- Enumeration of Freshwater Diatomacee, collected in the
vicinity of Dunedin, Otago, in 1861 :—
Genus 1. Epithemia.
Species 1. gibda, Ehrb.
Occurs also in the Geysers of Iceland and the lakes of
Switzerland.
2. musculus, Kiitz.

3. Westermanni, Ehrb.
Occurs also in Ceylon.

4. Zebra, Ehrb.
5. turgida, Ehrb.
6. Sorex, Kiitz.
Previously found in New Zealand; fresh or brackish
water ; precise locality unknown (Smith).*
Genus 2. Eunotia.
7. gracilis, Sm.
Genus 3. Himantidium.
8. pectinale, Kitz.
Occurs also in France (at 6000 ft. in Auvergne), Italy,
Sweden, Russia, and other parts of Europe (Rabenhorst).
9. bidens, Ehrb.
Genus 4. Meridion.
10. circulare, Grey.
Occurs also in France (at 3000 ft. in Auvergne) and
throughout Europe (Rabenhorst).
11. constrictum, Ralts.
Occurs also in France (at 5577 ft. in Auvergne) and
throughout Europe (Rabenhorst).
Genus 5. Denticula.
12. tenuis, Kiitz.
Occurs also in France and throughout Europe (Rabenhorst).
Genus 6. Odontidium.
13. mutabile, Sm.
» ¢. Fragilaria.
14. capucina, Desm.

* ‘Synopsis of the British Diatomacee, by Prof. Smith: London, 18538
and 1856. Vol. II, preface xxvii.

100 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND.

Genus 8. Nitzschia.

15. parvula, Sm. ? .

Smith describes parvula as marine, but my collection con-
tains no marine forms; so that this diatom, which was con-
sidered as doubtfully referable to parvula by Dr. Greville,
may really prove to be another species.*

16. Amphioxys, Ehrb.
17. minutissima, Sm.
18. spathulata, Bréb.
This also is recorded by Smith and Rabenhorst as marine,
while in Otago it occurred in fresh water, though in lagoons
near the coast, and sometimes flooded by the sea.

Genus 9. Homeocladia.
19. sigmoidea, Sm.
» 10. Synedra.

20. minutissima, Kitz.
21. radians, WKiitz.
A common British form, almost cosmopolite, previously
found in New Zealand (Smith).

22. tenuis, Kiitz.
Occurs in Germany and France, but not British (Pritchard).
Throughout Europe, however, says Rabenhorst, p. 136.

25. delicatissima, Sm.
24. tenera, Sm.
25. Ulna, Ehrb., and var. 3. Sm.

Occurs also in Ceylon.

26. acuta, Ehrb.
Occurs in America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Not
British (Pritchard). ‘Throughout Europe (Rabenhorst).
27. fasciculata, Ag.
Genus 11. Cymatopleura.
28. apiculata, Sm.

In my list of Otago Diatomacew, given in the Linnean
Society’s ‘ Journal,’ vol. ix, p. 152, this genus and species are
erroneously omitted; but the error was corrected by Dr.
Greville in a letter to me of March 5th, 1866. Regarding this
species Mr. Carruthers writes met that it “‘is considered as

* Rabenhorst, ‘Flora Europea Algarum’ (1864), p. 154, describes it
as both freshwater and marine.

+ ‘History of Infusoria,’ 4th ed., 1860. Section on “ Diatomacer,” by
Ralfs.

+ Letter, 14th December, 1566.

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OY NEW ZEALAND. 101

only an apiculate variety of C. Solea. Itis British. But if it be
rightly referred to C. Solea, its distribution is world-wide.”

Genus 12. Trydlionedla.
29. gracilis, Sm.
30. debilis, Rylands. In MSS. inedit. [fide
Greville.*]

Mr. Carruthers+ informs me that T. dedilis “is only a MS.
name for a European species, found as well in Britain. Gru-
now has distributed it under the name of 7’. Sauteriana, and
this, I believe, is the name it is likely to retain. It is not yet
published under any name, although it is well known through
the distributed slides.”

31. angustata, Sm.
32. levidensis, Sm.

Genus 13. Suvrirella.
33. biseriata, Bréb.
Both recent and fossil: throughout Europe, North and
South America, and the Cape (Rabenhorst).
34. linearis, Sm.
85. splendida, Ehrb.
36. tenera, Greg.
ol. ovata, Kiitz.
38. minuta, Bréb.
39. elegans, Ehrb.
Genus 14. Campylodiscus.
40. cribrosus, Sm.
Recorded by Smith as a marine or brackish-water form.
Occurs also in North America.
Genus 15. Diatomelia.
41. Balfouriana, Grey.
» 16. Cyclotella.
42. operculata, Kiitz.
43. Kiitzingiana, 'Thw.?
44, punctata, Sim.
45. minutula, Kiitz. British (Rabenhorst).
> LT. Hyalodiscus.
46. subtilis, Bail.
Occurs at Halifax, Nova Scotia. Neither genus nor species
is British (Pritchard) or European (Rabenhorst).

* Letter, March 5th, 1866.
+ Letter, 14th December, 1866.

102s LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND.

Genus 18. Melosira.

47. subflevilis, Witz.
Occurs also in France (Smith) and throughout Europe
(Rabenhorst).
48. varians, Ag.
49. orichalcea, Mert.
Genus 19. Actinoptychus.
Dr. Greville remarks,* ‘Smith made a blunder, and Ralfs
(in Pritchard’s ‘ Infusoria’) restored the name.”

50. undulatus, Kitz.
Occurs in America (in guano, &e.); not British (Prit-
chard).
Genus 20. Cocconeis.
51. Pediculus, Ehrb.
52. Placentula, Ehrb,

» 21. Achnanthidium.

53. lanceolatum, Bréb.
Occurs also in France (at 3000 feet in Auvergne) (Smith),
and in most parts of Europe (Rabenhorst).
54. lineare, Sm.
55. coarctatum, Bréb.
This and the preceding occur also in France (Smith): the
latter in many parts of Europe (Rabenhorst).
56. trinode, Arn.

.
Genus 22. Achnanthes.

dT. evilis, Kiitz.
Occurs also in France (Smith) and throughout Europe
(Rabenhorst).

Genus 23. Cymébella.
58. cuspidata, Kitz.
Oceurs also in Nova Scotia (Smith).
59. obtusiuscula, Kitz.
Occurs in Europe, but is not British (Pritchard).
60. Helvetica, Kiitz.
61. Lindsayana, Grev.

“Descriptions of new species of Diatoms from the South
Pacific,” ‘Trans. Botan. Society of Edin.,’ vol. viii, p. 234 ;
plate 3, figs. 5—8.

“* Valves lanceolate; slightly contracted beneath the obtuse
apices ; often with nearly equal sides. . . . . A beautiful

* Letter, February 17th, 1866.

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND. 1038

species, varying considerably in size and in relative length
and breadth. Sometimes the sides are conspicuously un-
equal; . . - . but generally the inequality is small and
often scarcely, if at all, perceptible; so that valves might
ass for a Navicula were it not for an indescribable facies
which to the initiated eye proclaims its true position, The
apices are neither capitate nor produced; but a slight con-
traction just beneath them produces a very characteristic
effect. Asis common among species both of Cymbella and
Cocconema, the frustules vary much in length and breadth. In
length they range from 0025” to 0035”, and in breadth the
shortest specimens are often equal to the longest: the average
being about ‘0007.” The striw are about 19 in. ‘001”.”

C. apiculata, which was included in my list of Otago Dia-
tomacee published in the ‘ Linnean Society’s Journal,’ was
an error subsequently rectified by Dr. Greville.* ‘The diatom
in question was really Cymatopleura apiculata, belonging to
the family Surirellee.

Genus 24. Cocconema.

62. lanceolatum, Ehrb.
Occurs also in North America; previously found in New

Zealand (Smith).

‘Genus 25. Amphora.
63. ovalis, Kitz.

,. 26. Gomphonema.
64. constrictum, Ehrb.
65. curvatum, Kitz.
66. cristatum, KRalfs.
67. Augur, Ehrb.

Occurs in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia,
but not British (Pritchard). Throughout Europe (Raben-
horst).

Dr. Greville remarks,+ “‘ May or may not be British. If
it be considered a variety of G. cristatum, it is British. Smith
is doubtful. I have considered it as distinct and not British.”

68. tenellum, Kitz.
69. intricatum, Kiitz.
70. Vibrio, Ehrb.

71. dichotomum, Kitz.
72. equale, Greg.

% Vetter, March 5th, 1866.
+ Letter, February 17th, 1366,

104 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND.

Genus 27. Navicula.
73. levissima, Kitz.
74. Cocconeiformis, Greg.
75. Claviculus, Greg.
Recorded as marine by Smith.

76. elliptica, Kiitz.
77. inflata, Kiitz.
78. pusilla, Sm.
79. crassinervia, Bréb.
80. cryptocephala, Kiitz.
81. affinis, Ehrb.
82. rhomboides, Ehrb.
83. lanceolata, Ag.
84. cuspidata, Kitz. Var. Craticula, Ehrb.
85. scita, Sm.
86. firma, Kitz.

Fossil in Italy (Rabenhorst).

87. tumida, Bréb.
Marine and littoral (Rabenhorst).

Genus 28. Pinnularia.

88. major Sm.
89. viridis, Sm.
A fresh-water form, occurring in Nova Scotia and other
cou ntries; previously found in New Zealand (Smith).

90. acuminata, Sm.

91. peregrina, Ehrb. Marine (Rabenhorst).
92. radiosa, Sm.
93. viridula, Sm.

94. Staureneiformis, Sm.

95. gibba, Ehrb.

96. mesolepta, Ehrb.

97. interrupta, Sm.

98. subcapitata, Greg.

99. borealis, Ehrb.

Occurs also in France (at 4000 ft. in Auvergne), Smith:
and throughout Europe (Rabenhorst).

Genus 29. Stauroneis.

100. constricta, Ehrb.

Occurs in Africa, Chili, and Australia: but not British
(Pritchard). Dr. Greville remarks* :—“‘ I have considered
it distinct. If it be held distinct, it is no¢ British. Smith
quotes it doubtfully under Achnanthidium coarctatum.”

* Letter, Feb. 17th, 1866.

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND. 105

Rabenhorst (p. 108) also records it under A. coarctatum as
British.
101. anceps, Ehrb.
Occurs also in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America (Smith).

102. linearis, Ehrb.
Occurs also in America (Smith).

103. platystoma, Ehrb,
Occurs also in Germany, America, and Asia: but not
British (Pritchard). Switzerland and Southern France
(Rabenhorst).

104. Phenicenteron, Nitz.
Occurs also in Sicily (throughout Europe, Rabenhorst) and
North America (Smith). :

105. gracilis, Ehrb.
Occurs also in North America (Smith).

106. scaphuleformis, Grey.
“‘ Descriptions of New and Rare Diatoms,” ‘ Quart. Jourr.
Mic. Sci.,’ July, 1866, p. 85, Pl. IX, fig. 32.

107. rotundata, Grey.
Ibid., p. 85, Pl. IX, figs. 30, 31.
Genus 30. Mastogloia.

108. lanceolata, Thw.
Marine and littoral (Rabenhorst).

Genus 51. Colletonema.
109. vulgare, Thw.
Occurs also in France (Smith): and throughout Europe
(Rabenhorst).
110. neglectum ? Thw.

The most interesting feature of the foregoing list is the
very large proportion of genera and species that are British.
Of 31 genera, only 1, or 3:22 per cent.; while of 110 species
only 11, or 10 per cent., are not British. ‘The solitary
genus in question is Hyalodiscus: while the species are
H. subtilis, Actinopiychus undulatus, Synedra tenuis, S. acuta,
Cymbella obtusiuscula, C. Lindsayana, Gomphonema augur,
Stauroneis platystoma, 8. scaphuleformis, 8. rotundata, and
Surirella elegans. ‘This proportion (90 per cent.) of British
forms is much larger than what obtains in any other class
of plants collected by me in New Zealand,* and is greater,

* The nearest approximation occurs in the Lichens, 50 per cent. of which

are common to Britain (“ Lichens of Otago, New Zealand,” ‘‘T'rans. Botan.
Society of Edin.,’ vol. viii, p. 357).

106 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND.

perhaps, than we should @ priori have been led to expect
in the circumstances.

A second feature of interest is the large proportion of
forms which are not only common fresh-water species in
Britain, but are cosmopolite, occurring in most different
parts of the world, under great variety of climate, latitude,
and elevation, including the heights of the Himalayas and
Andes. ‘This category embraces, e. g., Synedra radians,
S. Ulna, Stauroneis gracilis, S. anceps, S. Phenicenteron,
Pinnularia viridis, P. borealis, Cocconema lanceolatum, Colle-
tonema vulgare, Epithemia gibba, Navicula claviculus.*

Equally important and even more encouraging to the local
botanist is the fact that a superficial collection, hurriedly
made by a traveller in a most limited area, near a capital
town, contains three new species, viz., Cymbella Lindsayana,
Stauroneis scaphuleformis, and S. rotundata, or 2-72 per cent.
These are necessarily, so far as we yet know, restricted in
their distribution to New Zealand: though the analogy of
other species renders it at least probable that they,will yet be
found to possess a wider range.

Of the 110 species enumerated in the foregoing list, none
are recorded in the latest general catalogue of Diatoms (in
English)—that of Ralfs, in Pritchard’s ‘ Infusoria’ (4th ed.,
1860)—as having been previously found in New Zealand:
while in the earlier ‘ Synopsis’ of Smith (1853 and 1856)
oly three are so recorded, viz., Kpithemia Sorex, Pinnularia
viridis, and Cocconema lanceolatum.

A knowledge of the geographical distribution—of the
nature of the habitats—of the botanical relations of Diatoms
in other parts of the world in which they have been thoroughly
studied—cannot fail to assist the local botanist in his search
for, and examination of, New Zealand forms. Hence no
apology seems necessary for introducing here the following
general observations :

I doubt whether any other group of plants has a wider
geographical range than the Diatomaceze +—whether any will

* Smith’s “ Synopsis,” vol. II., preface, xxvil.

+ It is a well-recognised /aw, admirably discussed by Alph. De Candolle
as regards plants, that “the lower any group of organisms is, the more
widely is it apt to range” (Darwin, ‘Origin of Species,’ 4th ed., 1866,
p. 481); and the late Prof. Gregory, of Edmburgh, who distinguished him-
self during the latter years of his life by his devotion to the theory of the
Diatoms of Scotland, remarks, “These organisms are far less affected by
climate and temperature than larger plants or animals, since many of the
very same species are found in every latitude and in every country...... and
there is absolutely no difference between the exotic and the British forms ”
(* Proceed. Botan. Soc. Edin.,’? 1855, p. 71).

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND. 107

be found, when thoroughly known, to exhibit a greater
number of cosmopolites, a larger proportion of species which
_ are independent of the usual restrictions of climate or lati-
tude, elevation or depth, aqueous or terrestrial growth—or a
wider range in geological time. ‘They are to be found in
every part of the world hitherto explored by man, equally
within the Arctic Circle as under the Line: they occur at
great elevations on the highest mountains of the world, as
well as at great depths in the ocean; in boiling or hot
springs, and in the ashes ejected from active volcanoes ; in
running as well as stagnant, brackish or fresh as well as
salt, water; on the surface of soil of various kinds; on
dung and other decaying organic matters; on lichens, alge,
and other plants. ‘They abound on the Antarctic ice as far
south as 78°S. to such an extent as to give colour to the said
ice and the associated water. Not infrequently they occur
also in the dust of dust-winds, and they may therefore be
looked for in that of those which sweep over New Zealand
from Australia. Indeed it is difficult to say where members
of this cosmopolite family will not be discovered.

Practically, Diatoms- may be divided into two great
groups :—l1. the terrestrial, including fresh-water forms ; and
2, the marine.

Exclusively to the former category belong those which I
collected in Otago, and which are enumerated in the list
hereinbefore given. Members of this group are to be looked
for in the mud and scum of ponds, lakes, ditches, lagoons, or
marshes—especially where the water is stagnant and ovyer-
grown with chlorospermous or confervaceous alge: or on the
surface of rocks or soil over which water constantly trickles,
in damp, shady situations—for instance, in ravines by the
sides of waterfalls, in the dense moist bush. ‘Their collection
is easy ; and their siliceous coats render their beautiful struc-
ture and characters readily preservable. The scum or the
surface of the sand, rock, soil, or water above referred to, has
merely to be scraped with a metallic or other spoon, and the
collect, after filtration from superfluous: water, whether mud,
marl, disintegrated rock, conferyaceous vegetation or mixture
of mosses, hepatic and soil, placed in small phials and
securely corked. In this way my own small collections in
Otago were hurriedly made. In this way collections have
been made in all parts of the world and forwarded to the late
Dr. Greville, so long our first authority in this beautiful but
intricate department of botanical research—who, by this
means, was enabled to contribute, in great measure through
the pages of this Journal, many valuable and original additions
to our knowledge of the Diatomacee.

108 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND.

It is certainly not out of place here also to introduce some
of Dr. Greville’s instructions to myself when about to visit
New Zealand; they cannot fail to be as serviceable to, and
suitable for ener: whether travellers or residents, as they
were tome. ‘ The collecting is a very simple affair,” says
he, ‘the whole apparatus being a small iron spoon, and a few
small, wide-mouthed bottles, half a dozen of which are carried
in the pocket.* . You are quite correct with regard to the
general habitats of diatoms. In skimming the mud trom the
banks of streams, select quiet places ; and “if there are traces
of recent floods it would be of no use, as the diatoms would
be washed away. Moist, gelatinous, slimy surfaces of rocks
(often on vertical precipices and in caves) are very rich in
Diatoms, especially when these occur on sea-shore cliffs.
Short moss, growing in similar situations, on which water is
constantly trickling, is a good trap for diatoms, and a good
handful of it might be taken and merely wrapped in paper.

. Springs of water, which form little basins lined with
mud or sand, almost always contain them. In bogs and
morasses, clear spots of water, even a few inches across, are
often rich (the mud).... Where the margins of ponds or
slow streams are lined with conferve or that mixture of slimy
vegetation, half cryptogamous, half pheenogamous, which so
often occurs in such situations, take a handful of it and pre-
serve it en masse.t .... I am afraid that freshwater Alge
tnay not be in good state; but as to Diatoms in any sort of
mess, I am not afraid of them. a

T am aware of no contributions whatever towards a know-
ledge of the Marine Diatoms of New Zealand—of its seas and
coasts; while I believe this category to be the more interest-
ing, inasmuch as a relationship will probably be proved to
exist between living species and those which occur in a fossil
state in the various tertiary or post-tertiary, or other calca-
reous or arenaceous formations of New Zealand—formations
that are largely developed in certain localities, and which
abound in Foraminifera and other minute or microscopic
animal organisms [Protozoa]. ‘The identity or similarity be-
tween existing specics and those imbedded in geological de-
posits, especially of the later ages, has been proved in regard
to the Diatomacez of various other parts of the world.§ Dr.

* Letter of date, June 6th, 1861.

+ Letter of date, June 11th, 1861.

¢ Letter of date, September 15th, 1862.

§ ‘The distribution of fossil forms would appear to be as “extensive in
geological, as that of existing species is at the present, time. They range
from the Silurian to the Tertiary and Recent epoch; the oldest forms (geo-

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND. 109

Hooker, for instance, mentions that various diatoms obtained
by soundings on the Victoria barrier in the antarctic seas at
a depth of 300 fathoms (1800 feet) are identical with fossil
species occurring in Tripoli slate, and in the Phonolite stones
of the Rhine. [ have already explained that none of my
Otago diatoms were marine. For collection of the latter I
had no proper opportunity. Dr. Greville remarks, “ Your
New Zealand list would have been considerably increased if

ou had collected marine species.”* .... “ On the sea-shore,
small tufts of seaweed mixed with zoophytes, &c., such as
are often attached to shells, frequently contain good diatoms.” +
He also recommends, as we have already seen, the explora-
tion of the slimy surfaces of coast cliffs and caves.

Soundings at sea are also frequently very fertile, even far
from land, and at great depths ; the collects varying necessarily
with the nature of the bottom. In this way, and from such a
source, numbers of new and beautiful species have been brought
to light by Dr. Roberts, of Sydney,? viz., species which inhabit
the sea bottom of various parts of the great Pacific and
Southern Oceans, as well as of parts of the Australian coasts.
There is yet another fertile source of marine Diatomacee,
yiz., the stomachs of the various marine animals which feed
on them directly or indirectly—their siliceous coats being in-
destructible by the ordinary processes of digestion in the larger
animals (including birds) which prey on the former: and in the
guano and excreta of the birds in question. When I was pre-
paring for a circumnavigation excursion in 1861, Dr. Greville
called my attention to this subject. “ Itis not unlikely that in
the voyage you may have opportunities of collecting very in-
teresting things. Salpe, &c., always contain diatoms (see
Wallich’s Paper in ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ January,
1860). If you press the small nucleus seen at one end of a
Salpa, the contents escape, and there are the diatoms. Some
Salpe are several inches long, and the nucleus large in pro-
portion. No doubt many novelties remain to be discovered
in materials collected from marine floating animals.” §
Accordingly, solely with a view to the diatoms they might
contain, I carefully collected at various points in the course of
my cireumnavigation—generally far from land (viz., in the
middle of the North Atlantic, in the South Atlantic, in the

logically speaking) being identical in some instances with existing species ”’
(Ehrenberg).

* Letter, dated March 5th, 1866.

+ Letter, dated June 11th, 1861.

+ And partly described in this Journal by Dr. Greville.

§ Letter, dated June 11, 1861.

110 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND.

Southern Ocean southward of Cape Horn) all the Meduse,
Physalie, or more minute marine animalcules which it was
possible for me to obtain. Further, I removed and preserved,
with their contents intact, the stomachs and intestines of a
considerable number and variety of Birds (e.g., Albatross,
various Gulls, Cape Pigeons, Mother Cary’s chickens), and
Fish (e.g., Dolphin, Bonito, Flying Fish) which prey on
these or other marine animal organisms. I also collected
masses of the “ Gulf weed” in the North Atlantic “ Sar-
gasso Sea,” with the crustacea and other marine animals in-
habiting it; besides various other floating alge, with their
parasites, met with at a distance from land. The result, in
Dr. Greville’s hands, so far as concerns the specimens so
collected and brought home, was unexpectedly and excep-
tionally negative.

“The bottles containing matter from the stomach and
intestines of fish and birds, &c., were, I am sorry to say,
perfect blanks. I examined them very carefully, and could
not find a single diatom.”* Other collectors may confidently
expect, however, to be more fortunate. In one of his last
letters tome, Dr. Greville says, “I have good diatoms just
received from the stomachs of Holothurie, Alexandria, and of
limpets from South America.” +

To sum up. As regardsthe New Zealand Diatomacee, it
thus appears, 1. That only a few terrestrial or freshwater
forms are yet known; while 2. Marine species and fossil{ forms

* Letter, dated July 6th, 1863.

+ Letter, dated March 5th, 1866.

{ The only record of fosstd species with which I am acquainted is that
given by the late Dr. Mantell, ia a paper on New Zealand Fossils, in the
* Quarterly Journa! of the Geological Society of London,’ for August, 1850,
vol. vi, p. 832, pl. xxix. There seems, however, to be therein a certain con-
fusion of Diatomacee with what are now regarded as Desmidiacee and
Foraminifera. The so-called ‘ Infusorial earth’ of Taranaki and Canterbury,
referred to by him (which resembles magnesia in appearance, and was
actually exported at one time as Native Carbonate of Magnesia /), was found
to consist mainly of species of the following genera of Diatoms :

ELunotia (EB. ocellata, Ehrb. A British and European existing form,

Rabenhorst).
Nuvicula (N. librile, Ehrb., which occurs—also in the fossil state—in

North America).
Stauroneis (S. Zelandica, Mantell).

Surirella. Pyxidicula. Cocconema.

Synedra. Podosira. Coscinodiscus.
Pinnularia Actinocychus. Baeillaria.
Gomphonema. Melosira (including the old genus Gallionella),

A careful examination by Prof. Rupert Jones of a suite of Tertiary Fora-
miniferous limestones, sandstones, and mudstones, collected by me in the
vicinity of Dunedin, Otago, curiously enough proved negative in its results
—~no Diatomaces whatever having been discovered.

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF NEW ZEALAND. 111]

are altogether or almost unknown. The most promising
lines of research for the local botanist—in addition to the
mere discovery of species—are the inter-relations of the exist-
ing to the fossil flora, and of New Zealand forms to those of
Britain, Australia, and other parts of the world. The botanist
who devotes himself to their examination and description
will doubtless find New Zealand Diatoms possessed of that
common peculiarity or attribute of all New Zealand plants—
as well as of the lower Cryptogams wherever they occur—
variability or inconstancy of character ; and it will try severely
both his patience and skill to define those groups of indi-
viduals which are known to systematists as “ species ”—
groups which appear to me in many genera at least both of
Cryptogams and Phenogams—to have no real existence in
nature. In all probability the large additions which must
remain to be made to the New Zealand Diatomacee will
contain few new species or varieties in proportion to those
which are already known as cosmopolite, or widely diffused
European or British forms, whether living or fossil.

II. Desmidiacee.

Of this large and most interesting family as it is developed
or represented in New Zealand we as yet know nothing;
no species having been, so far as I am aware, hitherto either
collected or described. So little is known of this family be-
yond Europe, where they appear to decrease in number from
north to south, that it is impossible to predict what numbers
or kinds—what genera or species—may be found in New Zea-
land. But the very obscurity which surrounds our know-
ledge of their natural history and geographical distribution
should be a stimulus to their careful study by the local
botanist. With a few exceptions, which occur in brackish
water, but are not peculiar thereto, these beautiful though
minute organisms occur in fresh water. They are supposed
to assist in the clarification or purification of the water in
which they occur, and to constitute the food of various
minute aquatic animalcules. They are to be looked for, it
would appear, if we are to be guided by the character of
their usual habitats in Europe, in clear, still water, chiefly
in the vicinity of peat. In limestone countries or districts
the higher forms are rare. Several species are fossil; and,
like the fossil Diatomaceze, these fossil forms appear either
identical with or closely allied to existing species.

112 ~—s LinDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYYA OF NEW ZEALAND.

III. Palmellacee,

generally speaking, are to be looked for as the first forms
of vegetation which coat with green or otherwise-coloured
moulds or stains the damp-shaded surfaces of rock—or or
stone or wooden constructions of all kinds—coatings which
are frequently associated and apt to be confounded with,
from their resemblance to, various conditions of certain groups
of the lower Lichens and Fungi. To them (Palmellacee) also
are probably due some at least of the ‘coloured rains”
described by travellers in various countries. This class of
organisms is so common that it is likely to be overlooked
by all but the microscopist, to whom it will furnish many
interesting additions to the cryptogamic flora of New Zea-
land: though the proportion of novelties as in the Diatomacex
may not be great, while the number of cosmopolite or widely
diffused forms may be considerable.*

It must be evident, then, that in the department of the
Protophyta alone very extensive and most important additions
may be expected to be made by the labours of specialists—

I. To the catalogue of New Zealand species, recent and

fossil: as well as to our

I]. Knowledge of

a. ‘The variations of these species.
6. Their geographical distribution ; and
c. ‘The inter-relations of living and fossil forms.

In particular, species of Palmella and Protococcus may be
looked for. I found Palmella cruenta, Ag., in Otago.t At
home this species is extremely common, and frequently very
beautiful, occurring about the damp bases of the walls of
buildings, giving the appearance as if some red fluid had been
recently poured over their surface. In similar habitats it is
likely to be found in New Zealand. Forms allied to the
fungus-like P. prodigiosa, which spreads over meat, boiled
vegetables, and other organic substances, with great rapidity,
spotting them as with blood-stains, may be expected. Species
of Protococcus allied to P. nivalis are likely to occur in New
Zealand. In both the genera in question, and in their allies,
the local botanist will doubtless experience much difficulty
in determining what are to be considered forms or varieties
—Stages or states of growth—and what species or types.

* Compare remarks on Alye, in paper on ‘ New or rare Cryptogams from
Otago, New Zealand,” ‘Trans. Botan. Society of Edin.,’ vol. viii, p. 283.

7 “On New or Rare Cryptogams from Otago, New Zealand,” ‘ Trans.
Botan. Society of Edin.’ vol. viii, p. 284.

113

On some New and Rare Diatomacem from the Wrst
Coast oF IRELAND. By Rey. Evcrnse O’MzEara, A.M.,
Rector of Newcastle Lyons, Hazlehatch.

THE matter supplied to me, of which only a small portion
has as yet been searched, was raised in August last, as Dr. E.
Perceval Wright informed me, from depths varying from ten
to thirty fathoms, off the Islands of Arran, in Galway Bay.
Taking into account the number and rarity of the species
found in it, this gathering may be regarded as one of the most
interesting ever made, certainly the most interesting ever made
in Ireland.

Some of the common marine species are met with ; for in-
stance—

Actinoptychus undulatus.

Amphitetras antediluviana
var. (3.

Biddulphia aurita.

Coscinodiscus radiatus.

- minor.
Campylodiscus Ralfsii.
Eupodiscus crassus.
Grammatophora marina.

Navicula didyma.

Nitzchia plana.
Pe LLIE
Pleurosigma decorum.
3 formosum.
3 guadratum.
= strigosum.

Rhabdonema arcuatum.
Stauroneis pulchella.

a serpentina. - xg, Yee AES SE
Bs maculata, Synedra Gallionii.
Isthmia enervis. Tryblionella marginata.

It is a remarkable fact that the above-named species are
relatively few, and the forms belonging to them, generally
speaking, are not of frequent occurrence.

Besides the common forms just enumerated, I have found
a large number of the rarer species described by Donkin,
Gregory, Greville, and Roper, investigators in this depart-
ment of natural science whose discoveries have been made
known since the publication of Smyth’s ‘ Synopsis of British
Diotamacee,’ namely—

Amphiprora maxima, Greg.
Amphora sulcata, Roper.
» robusta, Greg.
» obtusa, Greg.
s arenaria, Donkin.
Cocconeis pinnata, Greg.
#2 pseudomarginata, Greg.
Bs Grantiana, Grev.
- scutellum, var. [3, Roper.
VOL. VII.—NEW SER. H

114 O’MEARA, ON DIATOMACEZ.

Campylodiscus simulans, Greg.

Coscinodiscus concavus, Greg.
nitidus, Greg.

Navicula Hennedyi, Greg.

a estiva, Donkin.
» forcipata, Grev.
9 hyalina, Donkin.
ae nitida, Greg.

" clavata, Greg.

Aa lineata, Donkin.

ys pretexta, Greg.
maxima, Greg.
Pinnularia pandura, var. elongata, Greg.
Fr semiplena, Grey.

As regards the forms included in the foregoing list, I have
no remark to make beyond the record of their occurrence,
except in the case of Campylodiscus simulans and Coscino-
discus nitidus. Scveral frustules of Campylodiscus simulans
have occurred in the gathering, and in-many instances I
have observed the same peculiarity which Dr. Gregory noticed
in the frustules of Campylodiscus bicruciatus, namely, that the
opposite valves are frequently placed at right angles to each
other.

Coscinodiscus nitidus is figured and describedby Dr. Gregory
in his paper on “ New Forms of Diatomacez found in the
Frith of Clyde,” and supposed by him to be the same as a
form previously figured from an imperfect specimen found
in the Glenshira Sand. In the paper on the Clyde forms
Dr. Gregory, having described Coscinodiscus nitidus, proceeds
to say, “‘ This pretty disc was figured without a name from
an imperfect specimen in my last paper on the Glenshira
Sand. (‘Trans. Mic.Soc.’ Vol.V, Pl. I, fig.50.) Having found
it tolerably frequent in Lamlash Bay, I now figure a perfect
example, which, provisionally, I refer to Coscinodiscus.”

This form found in Lamlash Bay occurs frequently in Dr.
Wright’s gathering, and with equal frequency is another
form v ery like it at first inspection, but which, on closer ex-
amination, presents distinctive characters. This latter appears
to me identical with that figured from an imperfect specimen
in the paper on the Glenshira Sand. A careful comparison
of many frustules seems to confirm this opinion. The Clyde
form is accurately described as follows: —* Surface of the dise
marked with distant and irregularly radiate lines of rather
large, round, distant cells or granules. The rays are distinctly

marked towards the margin, but somewhat confused towards

O’MEARA, ON DIATOMACER. 115

the centre. Puncta or granules larger towards the centre than
at the margin.” In the other form the rays are distinctly
marked through the entire length, some of them reaching the
centre, others terminating at some distance from it, and others
extending but a short distance from the margin. The granules
forming the rays are. considerably smaller than those of the
other species referred to, and the central ones are scarcely
larger than those at the margin.

For these reasons I consider the two forms should be re-
garded as distinct species, and Suggest that henceforth the name
Coscinodiscus Gregorianus should be given to the form found
by Dr. Gregory in the Glenshira Sand.

I now proceed to mention a fact deserving of special atten-
tion, namely, this—that Tessella Interrupta, Eupleuria Pul-
chella, and forms belonging to the genera Hyalodiscus and
Omphalopelta, have been met with in this collection, These
species have been discovered in distant parts of the world,
but, so far as I can learn, have not hitherto found a place in
the list of British diatoms.

But the number of forms which, so far as I have been able
to ascertain from the sources of information available to me,
have not been hitherto described, constitutes the most inte-
resting feature of this valuable collection. Some of these I
shall hold over for further examination, and now submit to
your consideration a few of these new forms, with their
descriptive characters.

Navicula Hibernica, n. sp., O’M., PIl..V, fig. 1.—Broadly
elliptical; length 0041, breadth -0024; striz very fine, con-
fined to a narrow marginal band ; parallel to the median line
there is a broad band without striae, linear, interrupted at the
central nodule, constricted towards the ends, and rounded ;
the central portion of the valve is granulated. This pretty
form is closely allied to Navicula indica, Grev., but has not
the mammiform apices nor the lyrate blank space of that
beautiful species.

Navicula pellucida, n. sp., O'M.., fig. 2.—Length -0036,
breadth ‘0013; constricted; strie very fine, confined to a
very narrow marginal band, shorter towards the ends and
the central constriction; the inner part of the valve smooth,
pellucid ; at either side of the median line divided into two
compartments by a longitudinal curved line; in front view
constricted, marked at the centre and ends by bead-like
nodules.

Navicula denticulata, n. sp., O'M., fig. 3.—Length of
valve 0034, breadth -0013; deeply constricted ; striee costate
rather than moniliform, marginal, with a narrow, striate,

116 O’MEAKA, ON DIATOMACE.

longitudinal band close to the median line; the interspaces
blank. Properly this form belongs to the Pinnularie ; but
although the reasons assigned for merging the latter family
in the Navicule seem scarcely satisfactory, I feel disposed to
fall in with the tendency in this direction when the form
presents the general characteristics of the Navicule. This
species bears a striking resemblance to Navicula Egyptiaca,
described by the late lamented Dr. Greville in the last
number of the § Microscopical Journal.’ Navicula denticulata,
howeyer, is distinguished from that just referred to by the
following characters:—It is much shorter and broader, the
marginal strie are longer, the central strie are nearer to the
median line, and continuous instead of being interrupted
towards the central nodule as in the case of Navicula
Egyptiaca.

Navicula Wrightii, n. sp., O’M., fig. 4—Valves broadly
elliptical; length ‘0041, breadth ‘0024; strize fine, marginal ;
there is a broad band at either side of the median line, linear,
interrupted towards the central nodule, slightly constricted as
it approaches the marginal band of striz, and then expand-
ing towards the apex, which is mammiform. This longitu-
dinal band is destitute of striae. On first inspection this form
is liable to be mistaken for Navicula Hennedyi, but it is soon
distinguished from it, not only by its mammiform apices and
the spathulate extremities of the longitudinal median band,
but also by the fact that in the present species this band is
blank, while in Navicula Hennedyi it is striate. A variety of
this species is described in fig. 4 B, much smaller than the
other, and having the sides nearly parallel. Length -0030,
breadth -0014.

Navicula amphoroides, u. sp., O’M., fig. 5—Valve ellip-
tical, narrow; length ‘0032, breadth ‘0014. In this form
the central nodule is depressed, and the median line waved ;
strie moniliform, in the middle approaching the central
nodule, and becoming gradually shorter towards the ex-
tremities.

Pinnularia Arraniensis, n. sp.,O’M., fig. 6.—Valve broadly
elliptical; length -0030, breadth ‘0017; striz coarse, dis-
tinctly costate, not reaching the median line. In some
aspects this form resembles Navicula Smithit and Navicula
estiva, Donk., but differs from the former by its distinctly
costate striz, and from the latter by the coarseness of its
striee, as also by the fact that it is much broader in propor-
tion to its length than N. estiva.

Pinnularia divaricata, n. sp., O’M., fig. 7.—Broadly ellip-
tical, costate ; length ‘0058, breadth ‘0035; the ends slightly

O’MEARA, ON DIATOMACEZ. 117

produced and rounded; the central space large, with an out-
line resembling the vertebra of a fish. Through this space
there runs a well-marked median line, very fine at the out-
ward extremity, and becoming broader towards the centre,
at some little distance from which it terminates in a small
bulb. The costz are arranged concentrically with the apex
at either end for about one third the length of the frustule,
while those in the intermediate portion spring from the
margin of the central nodule. The central costa runs at
right angles with the longitudinal axis, and those at either
side radiate towards it more and more as the distance from
this line increases. The coste in the central part of the valve
are furcate. In some the furcation appears near the outer
margin of the valve, in others near the central nodule; some
few are bifurcate. It is worthy of notice that in some aspects
the coste appear as if they were slightly notched by longi-
tudinal lines, which, though they produce a furrow, do not
sink so deeply as to give a moniliform character to the sculp-
ture of the valve.

Pinnularia constricta, n. sp., O’M., fig. 8.—Valve ellip-
tical ; length :0044, breadth -0014; central nodule depressed ;
costee distant, nearly reaching the median line, except at the
central nodule; in front view constricted, linear.

Pinnularia forficula, n. sp., O'M., fig. 9—Valve broadly
elliptical; length ‘0021, breadth ‘0014. In the middle is a
blank space, curved, constricted at the central nodule, and
towards the apices from each side converging to a point.
The striz are distinctly costate, and longer at the middle
than towards the apex. ‘This form in its outline closely
resembles Navicula Smithii, var. 6, suborbicularis, described
by Gregory in his paper on the Diatomacez of the Clyde,
but is distinguished from it by its costate strie.

Surirella pulcherrima, n. sp.,O’M., fig. 10.— Length -0046,
breadth 0037; broadly elliptical, ends symmetrical and nearly
lanceolate; the border narrow; the central area wide, elliptico-
lanceolate, and striate at the margin; canaliculi about fifteen on
each side, at first narrow, then expanding towards the outward
margin, the narrow part short and robust ; ala conspicuous.

Surirella gracilis, n. sp., O'M., fig. 11—Length -0055,
breadth -0037; ends symmetrical and broadly rounded ;
canaliculi about twenty-four on either side, slightly radiate,
narrow at first, and then expanding towards the outward
margin, the narrow portion long, the expanded part first
rounded and at a short distance from the junction slightly
constricted, and gradually enlarging till it approaches the
margin, where it terminates in a rounded end, separated from

118 KITTON, ON NEW GENERA AND SPECIES,

the next one by a very small space; outer margin finely
striate, as is also the margin of the central area, which is
elliptical; alee not conspicuous.

Remarks on the PusLicaTion of NEw GENERA and SPECIES -
from INsuFFIcrENT MATERIAL. By Mr. F. Kirton.

(Read at the Quekett Microscopical Club, February 22nd, 1867.)

I HAVE the honour this evening of calling your attention to
the growing desire of students of natural history, and more
particularly of microscopical observers, for the discovery and
description of new genera and species, in consequence of
which desire our floras and faunas are encumbered with
names and synomyms, two thirds of which have no claim to
be there at all. This evil has been, and still is, most virulent
amongst the students of the Diatomacez, probably because
the Diatomacee have attracted the attention of a larger
number of microscopic observers than any other class of
minute organisms. Professor Ehrenberg unfortunately adopted
the plan of constituting new genera and species from mere frag-
ments; and however allowable it may be for geologists to
make genera and species of the fragmentary remains of the
organisms of past epochs, it is surely not desirable that recent
forms, occurring as fragments only, or even in small quanti-
ties, should be made into new species.

Ehrenberg, in his ‘ Microgeologie,’ figures a genus which
he names Symbolophora. One species he represents like an
Actinoptychus with a triangular umbilicus; the other is a
fragment, but showing a similar triangular centre. I have
examined a great number of slides prepared from materials
obtained from similar sources as Ehrenberg’s, but have never
succeeded in obtaining a specimen of his perfect figure; the
fragment I suppose to be a portion of Triceratium Marylandi-
cum. This species has an irregularly triangular centre.
A good figure is given in Mr. Brightwell’s paper published in
the ‘Journal of Microscopical Science,’ Vol. IV, Pl. XVII,
fig. 17. It sometimes occurs with the angles acute instead of
rounded.

Ehrenberg’s genera Actinoptychus, Heliopelta, and Ompha-
lopelta, each of which contains a vast number of species,
might all, with a little enlargement of the generic characters,

KITTON, ON NEW GENERA AND SPECIES, 119

be merged into one genus containing some four or five
species.

Another instance of a supposed new species proving to be
otherwise may be mentioned, viz. Actinocyclus triradiatus ;
this the author afterwards found to be only a secondary plate
of Actinocyclus undulatus, Sm., <Actinoptychus senarius of
Ehr. (By some unaccountable oversight of Professor Smith’s,
he has confounded Ehrenberg’s Actinocyclus with his Acti-
noptychus.) The genus Actinoptychus, Ehr., contains the
form with undulate valves, like the Actinocyclus undulatus,
Sm. Actinocyclus, Ehr., contains the discs with radiating
series of granules, and a pseudo-nodule, like Smith’s Hupo-
discus Ralfsii, sparsus, &c.)

A similar case occurred to myself. A friend sent me a
slide of the so-called Bermuda earth (a Miocene deposit
from Bermuda Hundred, New Nottingham, U.S.), in which
he had marked a new species of Heliopelta ; this I found on
examination to be a secondary plate of Heliopelta Metii. It
does not appear to be generally known that the valves of many
species of Diatomacee are composed of thin, siliceous plates, in
some cases similar, in others dissimilar. In Helopelta the
secondary plate is finely striate, similar to a Pleurosigma ; in
Actinoptychus undulatus it is irregularly punctate. The
valves of Actinocyclus( Actinoptychus) triangulatus, Brightwell,
in the ‘ Jour. Mic. Sci.,’ Vol. VIII, Pl. V, fig. 2, will some-
times separate into three similar plates or lacune ; the draw-
ings 2a@ and 2d, are not intended, as there stated, to represent
a frustule undergoing subdivision, but the plates in sitd. The
same phenomenon occurs in the valves of Actinocyclus Ralfsii ;
the secondary plates are hyaline, and marked with very faint
radiating granules, like faint impressions of the primary plate.
I adduce these examples as illustrating the danger of institut-
ing new genera and species from observations made on single
specimens, and these, perhaps, from fossil deposits or dredg-
ings. No new species should be published until a copious
gathering has been obtained, and the form studied in a living
state if possible.

Habitat has also much to do with the appearance of the
diatom. A species in an unfayorable locality will not
secrete the same amount of silex as the same species in a
more favorable locality ; the markings are much fainter, and
the valves thinner; self division goes on, and every new-
formed frustule is less strongly developed than its predecessor,
and thus a gathering appears to contain several new species.

Again, an abnormal frustule may be formed, and if self-
division occurs the departure from the original will be

120 KITTON, ON NEW GENERA AND SPECIES.

repeated, and only when reproduction by means of conjuga-
tion takes place will the normal form be produced. Although
diatoms multiply enormously by self-division, yet this has
its limits—first, by the exhaustion of the spermatic force ;
and, secondly, by the continued decrease in size of the frus-
tule. It must be remembered that each successive frustule is
formed within the parent, and the new-formed frustule does
not increase in size, although it goes on secreting a thicker
siliceous valve. I have some specimens of Surirella ovalis
from Queen’s Park, Edinburgh, in which many of the valves
have a central constriction; this arose from the abnormal
state of the parent frustule. If this form had occurred but
sparingly, and unmixed with the common form—one or two
in a slide—it would probably have been described as a new
species. Contour, that is to say, the outline of a valve, has
very little generic or specific value. I have Triceratium favus
from Sierra Leone of a semicircular form; <Amphitetras
antediluviana from Joppa triangular. Triceratium orbicu-
latum is sometimes so nearly circular that it might be taken
for a Eupodiscus. Surirella fastuosa is frequently so truly
orbicular that it may readily be mistaken for a Campylodiscus.
Stictodiscus often seems to merge into a small Arachnodiscus.
Pleurosigma rigidum occurs on the French coast and the
Mediterranean without the sigmoid flexure, and the median
line central, resembling in outline a Stauroneis.

It would be occupying too much of your time if I were to
enumerate all the species which gradually assume the appear-
ance of other and supposed distinct species. I have, I trust,
sufficiently proved the necessity of the greatest caution in
publishing supposed new genera and species; above all,
avoid doing so from sparse material or unique specimens ;
rest assured that all recent diatoms will some time or other
occur copiously, and then the range of variation will, to some
extent, be seen. It would be far better to throw unique
specimens into the fire than add an imperfectly described
form to the already overburdened floras. It must also be
remembered that a generic character taken from a single
specimen can only belong to that specimen, and must be too
limited to admit other specimens, varying however slightly,
to be relegated to it. When a supposed new form occurs to
an observer the better plan is to endeavour to discover the
points of resemblance to already described forms than those
where it departs from them, and by pursuing this plan more
real benefit will be rendered to future observers than the
addition of fifty new species.

ARCHER, ON SAPROLEGNIES. 121

An anecdote was once related to me of a great botanist (I
think Robert Brown) who, being shown several so-called spe-
cies of exotic plants, remarked that he had seen several of the
supposed species united in one plant in their native habitat.

On Two New Sprciks in SAPROLEGNIER, referable respec-
tively to the genus SAPROLEGNIA (Nees y. Esenb.) and
Acuya (Nees y. Esenb.). By Witiiam ARCHER.

Even at the risk of being, perhaps, considered as some-
what premature in coming forward to describe two new species
in the family Saprolegniez, without being quite satisfied as
to the particular genus to which I assume, from certain data
afforded, that they each respectively belong, I still venture to
do so, masmuch as the reproductive parts offer abundant cha-
racters to establish them as, indeed, distinct, undescribed spe-
cies, although their generic position may remain uncertain.

As is now known, the generic characters in this family
seem to depend on the mode of formation and evolution of
the zoospores, and the specific characters on the conditions
of the sexually developed reproductive organization, and on
the special figure of the oogonia. Hence, unless one be suc-
cessful in finding one of these plants in a sufficiently early
condition to gain a view of the formation of the zoospores,
which ordinarily precedes the true fructification, its generic
position cannot be definitely predicated. On the other hand,
if one see the zoospores only, and thus establish the genus,
but fail to get a view of the conditions of the other type of
fructification, the species to which any particular plant be-
longs must remain undetermined. So far as more modern
research goes, and so far as [ have myself had the fortune to
find any of these plants in a fertile state, it appears to me
that here there exist various forms which, at least, seem to
maintain an identity of conditions, and individually to pre-
sent the same recurring characters. On this point, however,
I dare not as yet speak definitively. The extended experi-
ence of various observers of these productions in their different
stages may be requisite to solve the question. All we can as
yet go upon is experience hitherto. The possibility that
some of these forms may have stages of development which
take place out of water, does not seem to speak against their
individuality. The views of some authors, if hereafter borne

122 ARCHER, ON SAPROLEGNIEX.

out by future observation, that some of these run through
certain early stages upon house-flies, having, as is stated,
actually commenced their growth in their blood, and that
they perfect their development as Saprolegniee only on fall-
ing accidentally into water, would merely show that here an
“alternation of generation” may occur not less surprising
than that which has been already established in other depart-
ments. ‘The same plants—forms which give rise to an eyi-
dently fertilised oospore—again and again present themselves.
These, I should hold, must have descended either directly or
through whatever may be the characteristic intervening stages
from a similar pre-existent plant. This would, at least, appear
to me a more reasonable supposition than that any number of
given germs evolved from the same parent form should, some
of them, develop into one definite form, with a certain set of
conditions, and that others. should develop into some other
equally definite forms with certain other sets of conditions.

Hence, I think, when we meet with certain combinations
of conditions, and certain specialities in figure, of the repro-
ductive organs, not shown by known forms, we are justified
in looking upon such as distinct species. The present forms,
then, in themselves quite distinct, seem to demand a record.

When I met with the first form to which I would draw
attention (Plate VI, fig. 1), I was momentarily under the
impression that I hade ncountered a gynandrosporous type of
fructification in the Saprolegniew. ‘The existence of this type
one might, @ priori, be disposed to believe likely, even were
it not, indeed, all but directly proved by Pringsheim’s ob-
servations.* But a closer inspection speedily proves, not only
that there is here merely a superficial resemblance to the
gynandrosporous type, but also, as will be seen, that the plant
is truly monecious, though presenting what seems to be a
sufficiently noteworthy modification of the structure in other
described moncecious species.

Beyond doubt, the present plant seems to be a very well-
marked new species; but, as before mentioned, from not
seeing the zoospore-condition, its generic location remains
uncertain. However, I should be disposed to regard it as
most probable that this plant, should it be again met with,
may be found to appertain to the genus Saprolegnia. The
reason for leaning to this genus is that, in one instance, in
the mass made by the plant, three seeming sporangia eyacu-
ated by zoospores, one within the other, each showing a ter-

* © Jahrbiicher fiir wissenchaftliche Botanik,’ Band ii, p. 213, “ Nachtrage
zur Morphologie der Saprolegnien.”

ARCHER, ON SAPROLEGNIEX, 123

minal opening, were observed—so far characteristic of Sapro-
legnia.

Setting aside, however, the generic characters, this plant
is specifically characterised (1 believe from every other Sapro-
legniaceous plant yet described) by its true fruit, in the fol-
lowing manner:

Saprolegnia androgyna, sp. Nov. Fig. 1.

Plant monecious ; oogonia large, barrel-shaped or elliptic,
mostly in an uninterrupted terminal series, though occasion-
ally interstitial ; the terminal oogonium the oldest in a series,
the oogonia thus showing gradually different degrees of de-
velopment down to the basal one, which is the youngest ; the
lateral male branches (Nebeniste, Pringsheim), with the ex-
ception of those fertilising the lowest oogonium of a series,
are not derived either from the principal stem of the plant
or from any neighbouring portion of the general plant, but
these are given off from the oogonium itself, which is next
immediately beneath the oogonium which is fertilised by
them, and so on down to the lowest or basal oogonium of a
series, to which last are given off lateral male branchlets from
the original filament or stem immediately thereunder. The
tube or cavity of each lateral male branchlet becomes shut
off by a septum formed a short distance above its origin, the
portion of the contents above the septum being developed into
the male element—that portion of the contents below the
septum retaining its characters, and being returned back into
the oogonium, whence it originated, in time to become em-
ployed, with the remainder of the contents, in the formation
of the oospores. Oospores large, about ,1,th of an inch in
diameter, mostly numerous, but very variable in number,
sometimes, though rarely, as few as even one. They occasion-
ally exhibit what appears to be a roundish excentric vacuole.
The whole plant large and coarse as compared with other
described forms in this family.

If thus, for sake of illustration, we call the upper (mostly
terminal) oogonium A, that beneath it B, that beneath the
latter C, and so on down, let us suppose, to G; then oogo-
nium A is fertilised by the lateral male branchlets emanating
from and in direct continuation with B; the oogonium B is
fertilised by the lateral male branchlets, in the same way,
emanating from C, and so on down to F, which is fertilised
by the male branchlets emanating from G; but G is itself
fertilised by the lateral male branchlets emanating from the
supporting stem, for G has no oogonium beneath. So, of
the whole chain of oogonia, the oospores in each, the lowest
one excepted, are fertilised by the male elements derived from

124 ARCHER, ON SAPROLEGNIEZ.

the branchlet given off by the oogonium immediately below.
The terminal oogonium does not, of course, give off any male
branchlets ; they would have no duty to do, no function to
perform. ‘The contents of the oogonia, which in their turn
successively give off lateral male branchlets, do not become
formed into oospores until the septa, cutting off the upper
portion to become the male element, are duly formed in the
branchlets, nor until the granular contents beneath such septa
become returned back into the oogonium in time to partici-
pate with the remainder of the contents in the formation of
the oospores. As in other Saprolegniee, the whole contents
of each oogonium become used up to form the oospores, what-
ever may be their number. The male branchlets seem to
penetrate the wall of the oogonium at any accidental point.

Thus, this species, whilst it agrees with other moncecious
forms in the character implied, differs from them in presenting
so curious an example of confusion of parts with a mainte-
nance of clear distinctness of function—a male-female or
female-male, yet male and female elements distinct per se. In
this character, then, it differs from every Saprolegniaceous
form described, as well as (with another form, to the figures
of which I shall presently draw attention) in the oogonia
being formed, not solitary and terminating lateral branches,
but in a usually uninterrupted series, mostly terminating a
filament, but sometimes produced at some point along its
length.

On looking at this plant at first sight, from what has been
said, it will not, perhaps, appear surprising that it should
have been momentarily taken as a gynandrosporous form—
the lateral male branchlets emanating from each oogonium,
and reaching up to the oogonium immediately above, looking
not unlike dwarf male plants of separate origin seated on the
outer surface of each oogonium. But a closer examination
reveals their true nature, and proves that these are in direct
continuation with the oogonium giving them off, like the
thumb to a glove. But casually viewed, however, there is no
doubt some amount of resemblance to the gynandrosporous
type, and I even looked for some time for the male element
in another direction, trying to find the mother-cells of andro-
spores; but this was only when I had as yet seen but a
single specimen of the fruit, which did not show its true
structure as clearly as the numerous ones which afterwards
presented themselves.

The second form to which I venture to direct attention is
a dicecious plant (figs. 2—6). Unfortunately, however, as
in the previous instance, I did not meet with it in a stage

ARCHER, ON SAPROLEGNIEZ. 125

sufficiently early to see the evolution of the zoospores, and
thus to determine the genus. Still, combining two indica-
tions furnished from other sources, presently to be mentioned,
the evidence seems sufficiently strong to point to the genus
Achlya as the proper location of this species.

I have mentioned that this form is dicecious, but I had the
good fortune to meet with the empty mother-cells only of the
spermatozoids. Their structure and mode of development,
however, agreed so completely with that part of the fructifi-
cation in Achlya dioica, as figured by Pringsheim, that there
is no need here to give a drawing.* A terminal portion of
one of the tubular filaments of which the plant is com-
posed was divided by transverse septa into several cavities,
two or three times longer than broad; these cavities were
densely filled by empty globular hyaline coats, which had
evidently been evacuated by the eontents. The only differ-
ence from Pringsheim’s figure consisted in these special-
mother-cells being somewhat smaller and more numerous.

Now, whereas in Achlya dioica (Pringsh.) the spermatozoids
are produced by unskinning from a special mother-cell, as
are also the zoospores, so also I.think we may feel justified
in assuming from analogy, inasmuch as the spermatozoids in
the present instance are formed by unskinning from a special
mother-cell, that likewise here too are the zoospores. If so,
this plant would fall under the genus Achlya.

Another indication pointing to the genus Achlya is as
follows:

In this new species, not infrequently just under a terminal
oogonium, the main filament gives off one or two or three
lateral branches in a kind of proliferous manner, and these
are usually of considerably less diameter than that of the
supporting stem. These, at first sight, might be supposed to
look not unlike what might be intended to become lateral
male branchlets (fig. 5), sufficiently puzzling after one has
previously found that the species is a dicecious one. But
when we notice that the oospores are here fully formed, and
yet that this lateral branch still retains its contents and is not
in contact with the oogonium, such a mistake is prevented.
Such a form as that drawn in fig. 6 at once, however, ex-
plains the former case. Here we see the ends of these
become inflated, densely filled with contents, and shut off as
oogonia. In these secondary oogonia I never noticed more
than one oospore, although the first-formed oogonia might con-
tain perhaps as many as eight or ten, though ordinarily fewer.

Now, this proliferous manner of growth is the second cir-

* ‘ Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot., Band ii, t. xxiii, fig. 2.

126 ARCHER, ON SAPROLEGNIEA.

cumstance which points to the genus Achlya. In that genus
the zoospores, besides being the products of a number of
special mother-cells (not, as in Saprolegnia, primordial cells)
formed from the contents of the sporangium, the sporangia
themselves are, moreover, produced, one or more generations
after the first, by being given off laterally at the base of the
first (not terminal as in Saprolegnia, and the new sporangium
being pushed up within its now empty predecessor). Now,
may not this tendency, seeming inherent in Achlya, to put
forth fresh growth laterally, when about to form new spo-
rangia, be again evinced when about to put forth new
oogonia? May not this kind of innovation, so to speak, be
characteristic of the genus Achlya, so far as it is worth?

The following may serve as a description of this plant:

Achlya cornuta, sp. nov. Figs. 2—6.

Plant dicecious ; oogonia large, mostly terminal, often in
an uninterrupted series, the outer wall drawn out into
numerous horn-like extensions of yarying and often consider-
able length, sometimes bifid; the apex of the terminal one
drawn out generally very long, and occasionally the support-
ing filament or stem giving off lateral branches by a kind of
proliferous growth, each of which eventually terminates in
an oogonium of similar character, but usually of smaller size ;
oospores large, one or several in an oogonium; mother-cells
of spermatozoids as in Achlya dioica. I have not been able
to see any openings in the wall of the oogonium; they must
doubtless exist, but the densely arranged cornua render the
examination with this view very difficult. De Bary himself,
in his Aphanomyces stellatus, found the same difficulty from
the same cause. The uppermost oogonium is the oldest or
first formed, the lowest the youngest or last formed, in the
series.

Here, as is seen, the oogonia occur in a continuous series,
several being in succession separated merely by a septum, or
they may be few or even solitary; they mostly terminate a
filament, and rarely occur along its length. In this respect
they differ, so far as I know, from those of other Saprolegniex
recorded, except S. androgyna above described. But, if I am
right, this form not only falls under a distinct genus from that
just described above, but, even if the evidence were in favour
of their belonging to one genus, they are abundantly speci-
fically distinct in that the present plant is diccious, the
former moneecious, and that on a seemingly novel plan.
Moreover, A. cornuta is abundantly distinct, owimg to the
remarkable horn-like extensions, numerous and often long,
and occasionally bifid, which are presented by this form; on

ROLLESTON, ON NUCLEATION OF BLOOD-CELLS. 127

one occasion a curious depressed and equally lobed form of
these cornua presented itself (fig. 4, the second oogonium to
the right near the base). ‘This reminds one somewhat of the
form of the oogonium in (dogonium Itzigsohnii (de Bary) ;
and to those who have seen that plant in fructification the
comparison will at once call to mind the figure of this peculiar
lobed extension. I, of course, mean to institute no further
comparison between them. This new species, too, seems thus
quite distinct from Achlya dioica by the character mentioned.
A. dioica has globular oogonia, destitute of cornua, and are
seemingly always solitary—in fact, so far as they go, quite
like those of Saprolegnia monoica, except that they are
smaller. The projecting cornua call to mind the similar but
smaller ones of Aphanomyces stellatus (de Bary);* but
setting aside the evidence of this plant belonging to the
genus Achlya, all the species of Aphanomyces described are
monecious, that is, furnished with lateral male branchlets
emanating from another part of the filament. As regards
Saprolegnia asterophora (de Bary),t even setting aside, as in
the previous comparisons, the evidence as to the generic
location of this plant in Achlya, it is again well distinguished
by being diecious, whilst Saprolegnia asterophora is, like
Aphanomyces stellatus, monecious. It is, besides, different
from all these forms mentioned by its larger and coarser size,
as well as often producing several oospores in the oogonia,
whilst all the species referred to very rarely produce more
than a single oospore.

Note on the Buioop-corpusciEs of the Two-roED SLOTH,
CuoL@pus pipacrytus. By Prorressor RoLLEsTon.

Mr. H. N. Mosztey, of Exeter College, called my atten-
tion a few days ago to the appearance of nucleation which a
slide of the dried blood-corpuscles of the Two-toed Sloth,
Cholepus didactylus, presented under a quarter-of-an-inch
object-glass of Powell and Lealand’s. I had a short time
before met with a statement in the recently published second
part of Dr. Kiihne’s ‘Lehrbuch der Physiologischen Chemie,’
p. 195,t to the effect that only some mammals, the sloth

* « Jahrbiicher fiir wiss. Bot.,’ Bd. ii, p. 178, t. xix, 1—13.
+ Loc. cit., p. 189, t. xx, 25—27. : y
t ‘Lehrbuch der Physiologischen Chemie,’ von Dr. W, Kithne, p. 195 :—

128 ROLLESTON, ON NUCLEATION OF BLOOD-CELLS.

and the camel, possessed nucleated blood-corpuscles. And
this coincidence determined me to use such means as we had
at our disposal for settling a point as to which all recent
authorities were, as far as my knowledge went, opposed to
Dr. Kiihne.

The employment of a twelfth-of-an-inch object-glass by the
same makers has convinced Mr. Moseley and myself that,
though a certain number of the dried blood-corpuscles of the
sloth do contain one or more nuclei more or less roughly hewn,
and irregularly and eccentrically placed, still the immense
majority of them possess the non-nucleated character ordina-
rily assigned to the mammalian red blood-cell. The large
size of the blood-cells of the two-toed sloth, the largest next
to those of the elephant put on record amongst mammalian
blood-cells by * Mr. Gulliver, may, in more ways than one,
have rendered an examination of them by a low power
amenable to fallacy, and recourse to those of a higher power
necessary. In the smaller corpuscles of the camel neither
power enabled us to detect the presence of nuclei in the
coloured blood-cells.

Bearing in mind Nasse’s observation + as to the compa-
rative frequency of the presence of a large colourless nucleus,
or, in the place of it, of an area of fainter coloration, in the
coloured blood-cells of the pregnant human subject, and
also of the pregnant bitch, I examined the blood from the
uterine veins of a cow which had been killed, in ignorance,
as I was told, towards the end of the period of gestation. But
I was unable to discover any nucleated red corpuscles in the
blood from this source.

It is well known that nucleated red blood-cells have been
observed in the blood of the human subject,t of the horse,§
of the elephant,|| of the paco,{ and of the sheep ;** but it
should also be recollected that round coloured blood-cells, so

“ Gewiss ist es héchst auffallend dass nur das Blut der Saugethiere sich
durch den Mangel dieses Bestandtheils (des Kerns) auszeichnet, dass nur
i (Kameel, Faulthier) unter ihnen ‘kernhaltige Blutkérperchen
esitzen.”

* Hewson’s Works, p. 288.

apy cener's ‘Handworterbuch,’ i, 90, cit. M.-Edwards, ‘Lecons,’ i,
p. 66.
t Nasse, 1. c.; Busk, ‘Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc.,’ 1852; translation of
Kolliker’s ‘ Handbook,’ ii, p. 848, 1854.

§ Wharton Jones, ‘ Phil. Trans.’ for 1846, p. 73.

|| Ibid., and Schulze, ‘ Muller’s Archiv,’ 1839, p. 252; but see Cotti,
‘Zeitschrift fiir Wiss. Zool.,’ vol. v, cit. Kélliker, ‘Mikro. Anat.,’ ii, 2,
583. :

{ Wharton Jones, l.-c.

** Thid.

ROLLESTON, ON NUCLEATION OF BLOOD-CELLS, 129

small as to resemble very closely the normal mammalian
blood, may be found very constantly in the blood of certain
ovipara.* Here, as in so many other cases, the morphological
value of a structural arrangement depends, not upon an in-
variable presence or an invariable absence, but upon the
constancy of its quantitative preponderance. And upon this
principle, whatever other affinities to the sauroids the sloth
may be supposed to possess, the microscopy of its blood can-
not be held to point in that direction. That the red blood-
cell—the carrier of oxygen, and, probably enough, the distri-
butor of heat + generated in the body—should present such
different structural characters in the two classes, Aves and
Mammalia, which are both alike warm-blooded, is a fact of
the greater morphological importance for that it is physiolo-
gically so hard to understand. From the purely anatomical
point of view it may be allowable to suggest that the enor-
mous relative preponderance of the lymphatic and lacteal
gland system in the mammalia may account for the almost
exclusive presence in their blood of the small non-nucleated

red blood-cell.

Since writing the above I have, through the kindness of
T. J. Moore Esq., of the Liverpool Museum, had the oppor-
tunity of examining the blood of an elephant, Elephas Indicus,
which had died a week previously in Mr. Manders’ Mena-
gerie.

In this blood very many nucleated red blood-cells were
visible; but in all observed, with perhaps one exception,
the coloured factor was internally placed, whilst the colourless
formed the envelope. It is, of course, impossible to explain
this arrangement as being a retention in a mammal of the
condition usually met with in ovipara; for in these latter
creatures it is the nucleus which is colourless, whilst the
parts exteriorly to it are coloured. When the elephant’s
blood-cells turned over in the slide, they presented much the
appearance which a figure of a blastodermic vesicle does
when its area pellucida is dumb-bell shaped, the envelope
holding, in many cases, almost as favorable a relation in point
of size to the nucleus, if so it may be called, as the blasto-
dermic vesicle does to its area pellucida. This appearance I
have noted also in the blood of the horse, of the rabbit, and
of the human subject.

* Funke, ‘ Lehrbuch der Physiologie,’ 4th ed., i, p. 213.

+7 Beale, in Todd and Bowman’s ‘ Physiological Anatomy,’ p. 137.
VOL. VII.——-NEW SER. 1

at

_—— 2. ee ~~ eee

ew wee

130 ROLLESTON, ON NUCLEATION OF BLOOD-CELLS,

It is different enough from that described by Dr. Roberts
in the Royal Society’s ‘ Proceedings,’ March 19th, 1863, as
produced in mammalian blood-cells by the action of tannin ;
but, on repeating his experiment, I satisfied myself that the
two sets of cases had this in common, viz., that they show
that the homogeneous coloured mammalian blood-cells may
be separated into two parts—one colourless and the other
coloured—of which the latter shall occupy the smaller area.

I am inclined to think that the elephant’s blood, though
not fresh, still gave better opportunities for judging of the
real nature of the appearance of nucleation than dried slides,
such as those of the sloth’s corpuscles, could give.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMANY. — Archiv f. Mikroskopische Anatomie II,
Heft. 4.—1. The first paper in this number of Schultze’s
‘Archiv’ is by Dr. C. Kupffer, “ On the Development of the
Embryo in the Genus Chironomus.” Adverting to the obser-
vations of Weismann* “On the Development of the Dip-
terous Ovum,” and to Mecznikow’s + ‘‘ Researches on the
Embryology of the Hemiptera,” the author states that his
own observations up to a certain point agree altogether with
those of the former writer, and with those of the latter to a
great extent, although at the same time they tend to show,
when compared with Meckznikow’s statements, that there is
probably a considerable difference between the mode of
origination of the so-termed “ folded layer” (Faltenblatt) in
the Diptera and Hemiptera. Dr. Kupffer’s observations
have satisfied him that no rupture of the germinal membrane
takes place, and consequently that the rotation of the contents
of the ovum around the long axis cannot, as formerly supposed
by Weismann and others, be due to such a rupture.

2. “ On the Structure of the Eye in the Gasteropoda, and on
the development of the parts of the Eye in the Animal Series,”
by V. Hensen.—The author’s observations in the present
paper have been chiefly made on the eye of Pteroceras, of
which an excellent account is given. In a former paper,t
“On the Structure of the Eye in the Cephalopoda,” he had
already pointed out the chief peculiarities in the structure of
the visual organ in the cephalophorous Mollusca, and these
observations haye been confirmed by his more recent re-
searches.

The account of the retina is one of the most interesting
and important parts of the communication, and in this and
his account of the structure of the same part in the Cephalo-
‘ Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zoologie,’ xiii.

Ibid., xvi, p. 128.
Tbid., xv.

+4—+ 3K

132 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

poda will be found all that is known concerning it in the
higher mollusca. ‘The remarkable circumstance that the
bacillar layer forms the innermost stratum of the retina in-
stead of the outermost, as in the Vertebrata, seems to be as
clearly established in the Gasteropoda as in the Cephalopoda.

In the retina of Pteroceras four layers may be dis-
tinguished—the most external 0:005 mm. thick. The
external, which may be termed a ‘“ basal membrane,”
is a homogeneous membrane 0:005 mm. thick. To this
succeeds a layer of fine granular fibrillar nerve-substance,
which is thickest at the bottom of the eye; from this
layer proceed in a radial direction elongated nucleated
cells containing pigment towards their apices ; this layer may
be termed the “layer of retinal cells.” Internally to this
succeeds a layer of clear substance (somewhat granular in the
prepared eyes), which exhibits no trace of cells or nuclei, but
consists of closely packed cylinders, each of which at its inner
end supports a sort of cap of more strongly refractive material ;
this layer corresponds in all respects with the bacillar layer
of the Cephalopoda. ‘The entire retina is surrounded by an
outer coat.

The nerve-layer consists of delicate fibres glued together
by a somewhat granular interstitial substance, the fibrils
being collected into minute indistinctly separate bundles,
which cross each other frequently, but all run parallel with
the surface of the basal membrane.

The cells composing the cellular layer are of several
forms:—1l. Acuminated cells, which become gradually
attenuated as they approach the rods. 2. A second sort are
distinguished as the ‘‘ broad-ended cells,’’ which differ from
the former in the circumstance that they are always broadly
truncated at the end directed towards the “rods.” 3. The
third kind of cells is very peculiarly formed; they are long
delicate filaments, which exhibit at one point a fusiform en-
largement, and close to their junction with the rods again
widen, at the same time that they become occupied with pig-
ment. Closer inspection shows that the fusiform!enlargement
is a nucleus haying strong power of imbibing colouring matter,
and which is surrounded by an enlargement of the fibre
itself. Besides these three forms are found, but much more
sparingly, very slender cells with a minute nucleus. The
bacillar layer consists of cylindrical thick-walled tubes, which
at the bottom of the eye are 0:097 mm. long and 0:001 mm.
thick, and at the periphery 0°054 mm. and 0:010 mm. They
are constituted of a gelatinous substance, which becomes
granular in spirit.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 133

The paper contains an interesting comparison of the
author’s results with respect to the retina with those of
previous writers, as Leydig, Keferstein, Krohn, and Babu-
chin, who have investigated the structure of the eye in
the Mollusca, and concludes with some excellent general
observations on the relations of the eye and its different parts
to the nervous centre, and with a copious table of comparison
of the various parts of the organ of vision in the Vertebrata
and yarious Mollusca, as the Cephalopoda dibranchiata—
Nautilus, Pterotrachea, Helix, Pteroceras, Pecten, and Asterias.

3. “ On the Use of Creosote in the making of Microscopic
Preparations,’ by Prof. Dr. Ludwig Stieda, of Dorpat.—
Acknowledging the value of the method proposed by Mr.
Lockhart Clarke for the preparation of transparent sections
of the organs, and especially of the nervous system, consist-
ing, as is well known, essentially in the immersion of the
sections first in absolute alcohol and afterwards in oil of
turpentine, and then mounting them in Canada balsam, Dr.
Stieda points out some of the inconveniences with which, as
he thinks, this mode of procedure is attended. Amongst
these he enumerates the loss of time attendant on the double
immersion, and the difficulty, while immersing a series of
sections in the alcohol, of preventing their becoming confused.
In order to obyiate these supposed objections he has, he says,
been for some time in the habit of at once treating the
sections with oil of turpentine without any previous dehydra-
tion by alcohol—a modification of the Clarkean method,
which was first proposed by Reissner; but, from what is
said, it is difficult to perceive that it has any advantage over
the original proposal, and, in fact, to be attended in most
cases with a great waste of time.

More recently Rindfleisch has recommended instead of oil
of turpentine the use for the same purpose of oil of cloves.
This oil requires that the preparation need not be immersed
in alcohol for more than about two hours instead of twenty-
four. And one recommendation of it, according to the pro-
poser, is that, as the preparation is rendered transparent
much more quickly than by turpentine, the glass cover may
be more speedily applied, and thus the risk of contraction of
the specimen avoided. According to Dr. Stieda, all the advan-
tages assigned by Rindfleisch to oil of cloves are obtained in
a higher degree by the use of creosote, a medium first pro-
posed by Kutschin in his “ Researches on the Structure of
the Spinal Cord in the Lamprey.”*

Kutschin’s method, after placing the section upon the
slide and remoying the superfluous water, consists in applying

* ‘Diss Inaugural.’ Kasan, 1863.

134 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

to it a drop of creosote, when the section very quickly be-
comes transparent, and in fact almost suddenly, if the pre-
paration had Jain for about half an hour in a mixture of
alcohol and ether. The preparation may then be at once
covered and cemented in the usual way with dammara
varnish. Dr. Stieda, in addition to what Kutschin recom-
mends, puts a drop of a solution of gum dammara or of
Canada balsam upon the preparation before applying the
covering glass. Preparations which have not been immersed
at all in alcohol are rendered transparent socner by creosote
than by oil of cloves.

The author then gives a list of various essential oils with
which he has experimented, dividing them into two groups,
the members of one of which act in the manner of oil of
turpentine, and those of the other like creosote and the oil
of cloves. To the first group belong the oils of turpentine,
wormwood, balsam of copaiba, orange-peel, cubebs, fennel,
milleflower, sassafras, juniper, mint, marjoram, lavender,
cummin, cajeput, cascarilla bark, savine, and lemon; none
of which have any advantage over oil of turpentine. In the
second group of etherial oils, to which that of cloves belongs,
we have those of gualtheria, cassia, cinnamon, star-anise,
bergamotte, cardamoms, coriander, caraway, and rosemary.
He considers it superfluous to make further experiments
with these or other oils, as he finds creosote to answer every
purpose that can be wished for in the speedy rendering of
preparations transparent. The paper concludes with a recipe
for a varnish to enclose wet preparations in glycerine or
other watery fluids—viz., oxide of zine or cimnabar, ac-
cording to the colour that may be desired, is to be well
rubbed up with oil of turpentine, and then added, in the
proportion of a drachm of the oxide or two drachms of the
cinnabar, to an ounce of a thick solution of gum dammara in
turpentine. But what advantage this preparation possesses
over the familiar gold-size, or gold-size with litharge, it is
not very easy to perceive.

4. “A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Anatomical
Structure of the Tactile Hairs,” by M. V. Odenius.—The
greater part of this paper is occupied by an account of the
structure of the peculiar spongy body which is found sur-
rounding the roots of the tactile hairs, and the mode in
which the nervous terminations are distributed; and the
descriptions are illustrated by excellent figures.

5. “ Observations on Ciliated Epithelium,’ by Dr. P.
Marchi, of Florence.—The principal point in this paper is
the confirmation of the observation made by Friedreich, in

vote

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 135

the ciliated epithelial cells of the intestinal canal in Anodonta,
that there is a manifest continuation of the cilia into the
protoplasm of the cell. In researches on this subject the
author recommends a half or one per cent. solution of bi-
chromate of potass, or a half per cent. solution of hyperosmic
acid, and, as colouring matters, aniline or, especially, carmine.

6. “ Researches on the Development of the Urinary and
Sexual Systems,” by Dr. C. Kupffer—A former part of these
researches was given in the first volume of the ‘ Archiy,’
p. 233, and the subject as continued in the present embraces
—1l. The development of the kidneys in the fowl. 2. The
formation of the allantois (?) in osseous fishes; in which,
however, the author’s inquiry seems to have been limited to
Gasterosteus aculeatus and Gobius minutus.

7. “ On the Development of the Tissues in the Tail of the
Tadpole,” by Prof. C. J. Eberth, of Zurich.

8. “ On the Developmental History of the Muscles,’ by the
same.—The chief object of this communication is to show
the correctness of the view first fully established by Eilhard
Schultze, that each transversely striped muscular fibre pro-
ceeds from a single cell. Schultze established this point
from observations on the caudal and other muscles of the
tadpoles of Bombinator igneus and Triton. He found that
the single fibres, which could be traced in the above and a
few other situations from end to end, are for the most part
multinuclear cells, between which, however, lie numerous
uninuclear cells with multiple nucleoli. This fact having
been thus established in the Vertebrata, Prof. Eberth has
endeavoured to show that the muscular fibres in some, at
least, of the Invertebrata present the same conditions. His
observations were made in the embryos and young of several
Arachnida in different stages of development. He found the
muscles of the palpi especially well adapted to his purpose.
In these muscles he fully satisfied himself that each fibre was
the product of a single cell.

9. The shorter communications at the end of the part
contain—l. One by Prof. Neumann, of Konigsberg, ‘‘ On
the Presence of Crystals in the Blood in a Case of Leukemia
formed after death.” —The formation of these crystals com-
menced seyeral hours after the blood was taken from the
body, and on the next day had so increased that a large
number of crystals was found in every drop of the blood.
The crystals in question were very delicate, symmetrical,
colourless, brilliant, slender spicules, which on closer exami-
nation were found to have the form of an elongated octa-
hedron; that is to say, each half represented a four-sided

A a.

136 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

pyramid, whose base was a fattened rhombus. Some which
appeared to be incompletely formed represented merely a
four-sided pyramid with a rounded base. The length of the
perfect crystals varied between 0°016 and 0-075, and the
angles of the optical longitudinal section were between 18°
and 162°. The crystals were insoluble in cold water; in
boiling water they disappeared, but whether by solution or
disintegration the author could not decide, but is inclined to
think the latter, as he never observed any recrystallization
on cooling. Neither alcohol, ether, chloroform, nor glycerine,
even after long exposure, had any effect upon them. Acetic,
tartaric, and phosphoric acids slowly dissolved them, as did
also very weak solutions of soda and potass. The action of
the mineral acids was peculiar ; hydrochloric and nitric acid
in strong solutions dissolved the crystals, which withstood
the same acids in the concentrated form, in which, however,
they became apparently softened, and were usually bent into
an § form, or became orescentic. Strong sulphuric acid de-
stroyed the crystals, which remained unaltered only in a
moderately weak solution. Ammonia dissolved the erystals
very slowly ; they were unaffected by the putrefaction of the
blood even after several weeks. Prof. Neumann is unable
to give any opinion as to the chemical nature of these
crystals, and goes on to cite other instances in which appa-
rently similar products were met with. These are—(!) one
mentioned by Magitot and Charcot in the ‘ Gazette hebdo-
madaire,’ 1860, No. 47, also in a leuceemic individual; (2) a
case by Robin and Charcot; (3) E. Wagner (‘ Archiv d.
Heilkunde,’ iii, p. 379); (4) several cases of apparently
similar crystals in the sputa, by Forster (¢ Atlas d. path.
Anat.,’ taf. xxxiii, fig. 4; and by Friedreich (‘ Virchow’s
Archiv,’ xxx, p. 382), who regarded them as “ tyrosin,”
but evidently erroneously.

2. “On Corpora Amylacea in the Gall-bladder.’’—These
bodies were found in great numbers in the viscid mucus
lining the walls of a gall-bladder, in which were contained
numerous gall-stones. The largest measured no more than
0-028 mm. in diameter, and most were not more than half
that size. Some were round, others egg-shaped ; whilst
some were tri- or quadrangular, with the angles rounded off.

All presented a very distinct concentric lamination, the
number of lamin being usually in proportion to the size of
the body ; and in the centre of the larger ones was a distinct
though small cavity, from which fissures radiated towards
the periphery. The corpuscles all had a shining fatty

aspect, and bright yellow colour. A watery solution of iodine

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 137

produced an immediate change of colour—the yellow hue
passed into at first a pale and afterwards deeper green,
which, on the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, assumed
more of a bluish tinge. Sulphuric acid by itself produced a
ruby-red colour. The bodies in question, therefore, exactly
resemble the so-termed corpora amylacea of the nervous
system, the prostate, and lungs.

3. “ Psorospermia in the Intestinal Epithelium.”—The oc-
currence of Psorospermia in great abundance was observed
in the epithelium of the small intestine of the rabbit in
numerous instances. Though abundance of the Psorospermia
were found free in the intestine, by far the larger number
were contained in the epithelial cells themselves, few of
which, indeed, were observed without them.

Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zoologie. XVI, Heft. 1—The last part of
this excellent journal contains papers on the following
subjects :

1. “* Myological Researches :—\. The Connections between
the Tendons in the Plantar Region in Man and the Mammalia,”
by Dr. F. Eilhard Schultze.

2. “ On Branchipus rubricaudatus, n. sp.,”’ by Dr. Klun-
zinger, of Cosseir.

3. “ On the Development of the Facetied Eyes of Tenebrio
molitor, Linn.,” by Dr. H. Landois and W. Thelen.

4, “ Researches on some American Sipunculide,’ by Dr.
W. Keferstein.

5. “ On the Cochlea of Birds,” by Dr. C. Hasse.

6. “On the Sonorous and Vocal Apparatus of Insects, in its
Anatomico-physiological and Acoustic Relations.”

Of these papers, which are illustrated with not less than
eleven beautifully executed and many of them coloured
plates, the most interesting, in a microscopical point of view,
are those on the development of the eyes in Tenebrio
molitor, and especially that on the sound-apparatus in the
Insecta, of which we hope hereafter to give a full abstract,
the paper itself being too long for insertion in extenso.

The discovery also of a new species of Branchipus is an
interesting circumstance to those who attend to the study of
the Entromostraca.

The species B. rubricaudatus was met with by Dr. Klun-
zinger in rain-water tanks at Cosseir, on the Red Sea, and
the period at which he first observed it was some time after
the winter rain. The Entomostracan occurred in great
abundance, together with Cypride and larve of gnats, the
males and females in about equal number.

The following characters of the new species are given :—

138 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Body elongated, 1th cent. long, transparent, colourless ;
ovisac and rennvael forks of the ial vermilion ; integument
soft, dorsum arched, trunk compressed ; abdomen half the
length of the entire body, terminating in two long, horizontal,
stalked, fimbriated spines. Head rounded behind, and above
having an oval plate, and in the male presenting a frontal
scute produced into a tubular process. First pair of antennze
filiform, reaching as far back as the first pair of feet ; second
pair far forwards on the frontal scute, in the male half as
long as the body, but divided into several segments, and
terminating in two spines, one of which is very long, slender,
and toothed; in front of the second joint a long cirrhus, and
on the remainder of the iength numerous palpal lobes (Tast-
lippchen). In the female the antenne are long, lancet-
shaped, with adpressed hairs (plattbehaart). Simple eyes,
composed of two trapeziform segments. First pair of maxille
large, almost angular beneath, bent inwards ; ; the second leaf-
like, with a slender, angular, internal process supporting a
seta; third pair rudimentary, rounded, with long set on the
outer and anterior sides. Feet nearly all of equal length, with
large branchial leaflets on the outer side, the upper serrated
at the border and oval, and the lower digitate, and with an
upper long, and median short lobe and three small inferior
setigerous ‘Tobules ; ; the inferior terminal lobes of the feet two
in number, the internal wide and the outer slender. Ab-
dominal sexual sac of the first and second segments on each
side with a short cylindrical penis, with a slightly spinous,
somewhat curved spicule on the inner side. Female with a
long cylindrical ovisac terminating in an upwardly curved
spine ; two ovaries on each side, a uterus or egg-receptacle,
vitellarium with its canal; ripe ova large, brown, mulberry-
like, with smooth chitinous shell.

Monatsbericht der Akad. zu Berlin—‘ On the Sap-currents
Rotation and Circulation in the Cells of Plants, with reference
to the question of Contractility.’ By Professor Rr1cHErr.
From a translation by Mr. Dallas, m the ‘Annals and Mag.
Nat. History.’—The result of my investigations may be
summed up in the followmg paragraphs:

1. In all vegetable cells with rotating, circulating, or rotato-
circulating currents, two parts are to be distinguished in the
contents of the cellulose capsule—namely, the central “ cell-
juice” or “cell-fluid” situated between the axis and the
“ mantle-layer ’’ (Mantelschicht) diffused between this and
the cellulose capsule.

2. The * cell-fluid” is colourless, or coloured as in Trades-
cantia virginica, not very tenaciously fluid, and without albu-

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 139

men, but not well known as regards its other chemical
properties ; with respect to the circulation, it is the motionless,
resting part of the cell-contents.

3. To the “mantle-layer” belong the following consti-
tuents:—The “‘ mantle-fluid ” as I have called it; the tena-
ciously fluid substance named “ protoplasm ” by Hugo Mohl;
chlorophyl corpuscles, and other very small solid corpuscles,
the chemical nature of which cannot be ascertained posi-
tively ; the cell-nucleus ; microscopic crystals ; and the pri-
mordial utricle when this is present, which would form the
boundary of the “mantle-layer’” towards the cellulose
capsule.

4, In the Characee the “ mantle-fluid” cannot be over-
looked ; it was, however, erroneously assimilated to the tena-
cious fluid substance of circulating sap-currents, the so-called
protoplasm-currents, and rightly distinguished only by Nageli.
In the cells with circulating sap-currents, it was first detected
by E. Briicke in the stinging-hairs of Urtica wrens ; and it
was observed in all the cells with rotating or circulating sap-
currents examined by me. It is diffused between the cell-juice
and the cellulose capsule, or the primordial utricle when this
is present, is fluid, rich in water, exhibits only a small amount
of albumen, and does not mix with the cell-juice. Its saline
contents and the presence of other organic substances dis-
solved in it cannot be accurately ascertained ; but it may be
taken as a matter of course that it is in chemical reciprocal
action with the other constituents of the mantle-layer.

5. The other constituents of the mantle-layer are bathed by
the mantle-fluid or suspended in it. Amongst the constant
ones, leaving out of consideration the questionable primordial
utricle, are the viscid substance and the chlorophyl and other
small corpuscles. The “ viscid substance ” is strongly albu-
minous, more or less tenacious as regards its state of cohesion,
and presents itself in different and variable arrangement and
form before and during the flow of the sap. Neither the nucleus
nor the microscopic crystals are always to be found. Among
the crystals were observed irregularly stellate ones of un-
known chemical constitution (Hydrocharis morsus rane), and,
in the stinging-hairs, oxalate of lime.

6. In the currents of the vegetable cell only the consti-
tuents of the “ mantle-layer,’” not including the primordial
utricle, take part. But whatever be the causes or forces by
which these phenomena are produced in the constituents of
the “mantle-layer,” their action 1s demonstrably exerted
especially, and exclusively, on the .“ mantle-fluid,” which
has hitherto remained quite unnoticed ; this is thereby set in

140 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

a rotatory streaming motion. The movements of the other
constituents of the mantle-layer (the viscid substances, nu-
cleus, chlorophyl, and other small corpuscles, and micro-
scopic crystals) are induced by the mechanical action of the
rotating mantle-fluid upon them, with the co-operation of
adhesion and, in the case of the viscid substance, of cohesion.
The molecular movements of very small chlorophyl and other
corpuscles visible under favorable circumstances remain
excepted therefrom.

7. The rotatory movement of the mantle-fluid, as also its
direction, is recognised especially from the constituents of
the mantle-layer which float freely in it and are set in motion
by it, namely, the freely moving chlorophyl and other solid
corpuscles, and this both in the cells with rotation and in
those with a so-called circulation. In the Chare and in
Hydrocharis morsus rane the viscid substance is also set in
motion in separated fragments, in the Chare in a globular
form, and the current is then called “‘ rotation.”

8. The rapidity of movement of the freely floating and
rotating substances under otherwise similar circumstances is
secondarily dependent upon their mass, as also upon the in-
fluences of adhesion, which make themselves felt at the limit
of the cell-juice, and still more strikingly at the cellulose
capsule, and during the mutual contact of the floating consti-
tuents. In consequence of the operation of adhesion, it may
also happen that the constituents passively carried on become
momentarily or more permanently quiescent, or eyen acquire
retrograde movements.

9. The mechanical action of the rotating mantle-fluid
reveals itself also by the change of appearance and form of
the viscid substance (“protoplasm”’) both in its freely
swimming state (Hydrocharis) and also especially during its
adherence to the cellulose capsule, whether transitory or
permanent, in the neighbourhood of the nucleus or in some
other favorable spot (Hydrocharis, Urtica urens, Trades-
cantia, &c.). These changes of appearance resemble in exter-
nal aspect the motory forms of contractile tissues; they are,
however, caused by the quite unavoidable action of the rotat-
ing mantle-fluid upon the viscid substance, are often demon-
strably combined with a permanent displacement of the mass,
and cannot be regarded as the effect of molecular movements
of the particles in the substance itself.

10. It is a matter cf course, and will also be established by
direct observations, that the viscid substance diffused upon
and adhering to the cellulose capsule in the vicinity of the
nucleus or in any other spot, when in a favorably tenacious

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 141

state of cohesion, will be drawn out by the mechanical action
of the rotating mantle-fluid into long filaments or cords,
either simple or branched, and either terminating in free
extremities or uniting again in circular or elliptical forms, and
converted by the co-operation of adhesion into a more or less
complicated net, diffused between the cellulose capsule and
the cell-juice. ‘This is the arrangement and configuration of
the viscid substance in the cells of plants with a so-called
circulating or circulo-rotating current ; and this is the founda-
tion of the so-called “ protoplasmic currents” so often spoken
of. When the viscid substance is thus arranged, the free-
swimming granules very easily get into the domain of its
fibres and cords, and may easily disappear entirely from the
open region of the mantle-fluid, and in the struggle between
the influences of the rotating mantle-fluid and of adhesion
perform such vacillating and leaping movements as to remind
one of the so-called ,* granular movement ”’ of contractile
substances. Lastly, in this arrangement the viscid substance
may be set in motion in the region of its fibres and cords, as
is proved by the progression on the fibres of swellings with
imbedded granules or crystals ; but the tenacity of the sub-
stance may be so considerable, and the power of the rotating
fluid so small, that such a movement either does not take
place at all, or not through the whole extent of the net (E.
Briicke).

11. The structure of the ramified and net-like configuration
of the viscid substance depends chiefly upon the degree of
force of the rotating mantle-fluid, the form of the cellulose
capsule, the point of attachment of the viscid mass on the
cellulose capsule, and its relative position to the axis of rcta-
tion of the mantle-fluid, and, lastly, upon its state of cohesion.

12. There is no essential difference between the rotating,
circulating, and rotato-circulating currents of the cells; in all,
the rotating mantle-fluid is to be placed in the foreground ;
in it alone we can recognise the direct influence of the
unknown causes of the currents, and this everywhere acts in
the same way.

13. The other constituents of the ‘ mantle-layer ’’ exposed
to the mechanical infiuence of the rotating mantle-fluid cause
the current of the vegetable cell to vary in outward appear-
ance; they will also, of course, present varying obstacles to
it according to circumstances. Among the phenomena of this
nature I may indicate that in the cavities formed between the
resting masses of the viscid substance the rotating mantle-
fluid may come to perfect rest, and that then molecular move-
ments of free granules are detected in such cavities,—further,

142 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

that in Hydrocharis morsus rane the rotating mantle-fluid
is divided into two regular rotating currents, running down
separated from each other by a distinct piece traversing the
cavity of the cellulose capsule,—and, lastly, that by means
of such impediments at the rounded poles of the cellulose
capsule reflux movements of the currents of the most various
kinds may be produced.

14. Motory phenomena from which the existence of a con-
tractile activity in the viscid substance, or in the other con-
stituents of the cell-contents might be deduced, are entirely
wanting in the plant-cells with currents investigated by me.

15. With regard to the movements of currents in the cells
of plants, the first thing to be done is to discover the causes
by which the rotating movements of the ‘‘ mantle-fluid” are
produced. But no physical or chemical processes by which
this rotating movement might be brought about have hitherto
been detected in the cells of plants. — -

FRANCE—Comtes Rendus.—On the Vibrating Corpuscle
of “ Pébrine,’ considered as an organism producing Alcohol. —
In a recent Chronicle we noticed Dr. Balbiani’s conclusions
with regard to the nature of the corpuscles found freely
floating in the fluids of silkworms attacked with the disease
called pébrine. He maintained that they were psorosperms
or pseudo-navicule of Gregarine, and, further, that they
were vegetable. He appears to have been right in his view
of their vegetable nature ; but any one who has seen a Grega-
rina knows that it cannot be considered as anything but an
animal organism. M. A. Béchamp has removed a quantity
of the fluid from a worm afflicted with these corpuscles,
and placed the fluid in a solution of cane sugar. In the
course of a few weeks alcoholic fermentation was set up, and
was allowed to continue for six months, when all the sugar
was completely converted. At the end of that time the same
corpuscles were still to be found in the fermented sugar, and
M. Béchamp concludes that they are ferment-causing orga-
nisms.

** On the Anatomical Arrangement of the Lymphatics in the
Torpedos, compared with that presented by those of other Pla-
giostomi,” by C. Robin—The organs furnished with lym-
phatics in these animals are (1) the digestive tube; (2) the
pancreas and its duct (the spleen is devoid of them); (8) the
hepatic ducts, the gall-bladder,and ductus choledochus; (4) the
oviducts, deferent canals, and the cloaca, but the ovary and
testicle have none; (5) the peritoneum in front of the kidney ;
(6) the heart and portions of large vessels. The lymphatics of
the different regions of the body above enumerated discharge

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 143

themselves, in the Torpedos, by one or several orifices into
two prismatic triangular reservoirs, with their inner surface
smooth and of serous aspect, and their cavity often traversed
by delicate fibrous bundles. These reservoirs open into the
dilatations which the ven cave present in all the Plagiostomi
before their arrival in Monro’s sinuses. For various reasons,
which he adduces, M. Robin believes that the chief use of
the lymphatics is to charge themselves with the excess of that
portion of the blood-plasma which arrives in the capillaries,
and issues from them at each systole of the ventricles. In
fact, we know that the quantity of lymph flowing is much
greater when there is a considerable efflux of blood to an
organ than when the latter is in a state of repose. M. Robin
has made numerous observations in M. Coste’s great fish
laboratory at Concarneau, on living and fresh fish. He con-
cludes, finally, that the cutaneous and subcutaneous vessels
described by Monro, Hewson, &c., as lymphatics, are veins—
some in the condition of true veins, others in that of venous
sinuses. Beyond these veins it is impossible to inject any
vessel, either by means of mercury or otherwise. The divi-
sion of lymphatics into superficial and deep-seated or visceral,
still adopted by some modern authors, must, consequently, be
abandoned, the former kind of vessels not existing in this
class of vertebrata.

Robin's Journal de l’Anatomie. January and February.—The
current number of this journal contains some very good
papers. M. Robin himself publishes his researches on the
lymphatics of Plagiostomi, with some very beautiful illustra-
tions. We have given a short notice of the paper above.
Besides this there are—

“« Experimenis on the Genesis of Leucocytes and on Sponta-
neous Generation,” by Dr. Onimus.—This appears to be a
paper of very considerable ability, full of experiment and re-
search. ‘The author first shows that in an amorphous
blastema ‘‘anatomical elements ”’ are spontaneously produced.
This production of cellules has, as one of its indispensable
conditions, the phenomena of endosmose and exosmose, and
they are produced more quickly accordingly as the phenomena
of endosmose and exosmose are more rapid. Heat and the
composition of the surrounding solids and liquids have a
marked influence on the genesis of these leucocytes. No
leucocytes, nor any kind of “ anatomical element,” form
themselves in a blastema of which the fibrine has been
coagulated. ‘These statements are inferences from a series of
careful experiments in which celliform bodies were produced
by purely physical processes.

144 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

The author is led from this to experiment further on spon-
taneous generation, and finds that vibriones are not produced
in the white of egg enclosed ina glass tube, although they are
produced when the white of egg is enclosed in an animal
membrane. And from various other considerations he con-
cludes that the development of microscopic organisms in an
organized substance depends, not on the presence of atmo-
spheric germs, but on the conditions necessary for the putre-—
faction of the organic matter, and confesses himself a
supporter of the doctrine of heterogenesis.

The paper below, from the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society,’ leads to other conclusions from similar experiments. —

Micrographic Society of Paris MM. Magnan and Hayem —
publish a valuable paper read to this society, “* On the Inter-—
stitial Tissue of the White Parts of Nervous Centres,” in
which the views of Remak, Valentin, Rokitansky, Virchow,
Kolliker, and Robin, are discussed. :

ENGLAND.—Royal Society's Proceedings. January.—
* On the Formation of ‘ Cells’ in Animal Bodies. By E.
Montgomery, M.D. ‘This paper is one of very great interest,
and hence we give it in full.

I. Observations.—So-called organic “ cells,” chiefly those
of various cancerous tumours, were seen, on the addition of
water, to expand to several times their original size, and at last
to vanish altogether into the surrounding medium. The
“nucleus ” did not always participate in this change, but at
times remained unaltered, whilst the outer constituents of
the “cell” were undergoing this process of expansion. This
curious phenomenon of extreme dilatation is intelligible only
on the supposition that the spherical bodies in question are
in reality globules of a uniformly viscid material, which by
imbibition swells out till at last its viscosity is overcome by
the increasing liquefaction. In embryonic tissues and in
various tumours, single ‘‘ nuclei ’’ were seen, each surrounded
by a shred of granular matter. On the addition of water
there would bulge from one of the margins of the granular
mass a segment of a clear globule, which continued growing
until it had become a full sphere, which ultimately detached
itself, and was carried away by the currents. At other
times no such separate globule would be emitted, but the
entire granular shred would itself gradually assume the
spherical shape, ultimately encompassing the “ nucleus,” and
constituting with the same the most perfect typical “ cell.”
Not only single “nuclei” were found, each surrounded by a
shred, but also clusters of two, four, or more were seen
similarly enclosed by a proportionately large granular mass.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 145

Under these circumstances it sometimes occurred that, on the
addition of water, the whole granular mass of such a cluster
became transformed into a large sphere containing two, four,
or more “ nuclei.’”’ The resulting body was to all appearance
identical with shapes well known under the name of “‘ mother
cells.”” In all these cases the granular shred must have partly
consisted of a viscid material, which, on imbibition, naturally
assumed the spherical shape. Primary globules were sur-
rounded by a secondary globule, and thus the typical “ cell”
was completed under the observer’s eye. In some instances
the globules resulting from the transformation of the granular
mass were at first bright and transparent, the granules having
completely disappeared. They, however, gradually re-formed,
showing at first molecular motion, then crowding more and
more, till at last the whole mass seemed to undergo coagula-
tion. Alternate liquefaction and coagulation of the same
material was found to play an important part in the develop-
ment of “ cells.”’? Masses of certain viscid materials do not,
on imbibition, expand uniformly throughout their entire bulk,
but globules of a definite size are emitted, as many as the
mass will yield. The crystalline lens of many young animals
affords, when treated with water, a beautiful illustration of
this fact. Its homogeneous material is transformed, under
the influence of imbibition, into a vast number of globules of
nearly equal size. Hyaline embryonic tissues display, under
similar conditions, the same phenomenon. Certain inferences
lead one to suspect that this size-limiting property is due to
the crystallizing propensity of some ingredient of these viscid
substances. Blood-corpuscles (human blood-corpuscles at
least) are evidently tiny lumps of a uniformly viscid material.
When broken up into fragments, each fragment assumes the
spherical shape. On slow imbibition, they often emit a clear
sphere, or a segment of one. In various specimens of fetal
blood, each blood-corpuscle was seen to emit as many as two
or even three equal-sized globules, the original corpuscle
being at last no longer distinguishable from its descendants.
This is sufficient proof of the uniformly viscous nature of the
blood-corpuscles. In many cancers the most recently formed
part consists of mere fibres. These after a time become
“ nucleated.” The “nuclei” are at first very elongated, this
being due to the lateral pressure of the still fibrous texture.
But as the mass gradually softens, the ovals expand more and
more into spheres, forming the primary globules, round
which, as has already been shown, a secondary globule is
often seen to shape itself. Chemical differentiation transforms
first one portion of the fibrous mass into viscid material.
VOL. VII.—NEW SER. K

146 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

This at once strives, by imbibition, to assume the globular
shape. The remaining portion may or may not ultimately
undergo similar transformation. Inflamed serous membranes
become often densely “‘nucleated.’”’ In the deeper layers, the
* nuclei” are very elongated. At the surface they are per-
fectly globular, and are detached as minute opaque balls.
These balls are the granulation- or the pus-corpuscles. On
imbibition, one portion of their soft material swells out, en-
compassing the rest, which, when forming a single uniform
globule, goes under the name of granulation-corpuscle—when,
on the other hand, broken up into several granules, consti-
tutes the famous pus-‘ cell.” This is an example of a second
mode of “cell”-formation. Here the secondary globule is
shaped from a portion of the primary mass. In some instances
these “ nuclei” or balls will, when still enclosed within the
surrounding texture, undergo the above-mentioned change
on imbibition; and thus whole rows of granulation- or pus-
corpuscles are seen to form. ‘This second mode of “cell’’-
formation is still more strikingly manifested in epithelial
textures. In the mucous membrane of the nose, for imstance,
the faint oval “‘nuclei”’ of the large scales become during
disintegration more and more distinct and globular. The
surrounding material of the scale gradually liquefies, and the
minute balls, thus liberated, expand by imbibition into
mucus- or pus-corpuscles. It often succeeds in causing them
to form in all perfection whilst they are still contamed within
the scale. In abscesses of the skin the pus-corpuscles are
formed in exactly the same manner. They can often be
watched, fully shaped, still enclosed within the scale. Here,
it would seem, are “ cells”? not the result of life, but rather
of death. The multiple “ nuclei” of pus-corpuscles are not
the result of over-fecundity, but are simply due to the dis-
integration of the non-imbibing portion of those oval or
spherical sharply defined bodies which are themselves so well
known under the name of “nuclei.” The disintegration of
this non-imbibing portion can be traced through all possible
stages, down to the cluster of most irregularly shaped granules
(which, notwithstanding, have been looked upon as the result
of fissiparous division), and has been made to represent the
crowning feature of the cell theory. The same minute balls
found swimming in the serum of a blister were seen, when
treated with water, to disclose single bright sharply defined
“nuclei; when treated with acetic acid, to reveal the most
typical multiple nuclei of pus-cells.

II. Experimental Verification.—In all the above-cited ob-
servations the existence of a viscid imbibing material was

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 147

proved with almost conclusive evidence,—a viscid material
which is capable of forming globules of a definite size, and
which in the living organism actually forms such globules—
shapes, the nature of which has been hitherto mistaken.
After a long search, the substance known under the name of
myeline was found to be the desired material. When to
myeline in its dry amorphous state water is added, slender
tubes are seen to shoot forth from all free margins. These
are sometimes wonderfully like nerve-tubes in appearance.
They are most flexible and plastic. From this curious ten-
dency of shooting forth in a rectilinear direction, it was
inferred that a crystallizing force must be at work. To
counteract this tendency, and to oblige the substance to
crystallize into globules, it was intimately mixed with white
of egg. The result was most perfect. Instead of tubes,
splendid clear globules, layer after layer, were formed, re-
sembling closely those of the crystalline lens formed under
similar conditions. Here was actually found a viscid sub-
stance which, on imbibition, formed globules of a definite
size. The remaining task was comparatively an easy one.
By mixing the myeline with blood-serum, globules were
obtained showing the most lively molecular motion. When
the serum somewhat preponderated, the whole of the globules
seemed, after a while, to undergo coagulation, and appeared
often as beautifully and finely granulated as any real “ cell.”
When this mixture of myeline and serum was spread very
thinly over the glass slide, there often started into existence,
on the addition of water, small primary globules, round each
of which an irregular mass of granular material became
gradually detached from the glass slide. It at last shaped
itself into a secondary globule, enclosing the primary one,
and constituting with it, down to the minutest details, the
most perfect typical ‘ cell.”” In many instances the nucleolus
did not fail; and the narrow white margin, so often mistaken
for a cell-wall, was always present. Beautiful ‘mother cells”
were formed in the same manner. The next endeavour was
to form “ cells” according to the second mode. If the amor-
phous myeline be very thinly spread on the glass slide,
instead of tubes there will form bodies looking like rings.
They are actually double globules, the inner globule being
more transparent than the outer. They correspond to the
inner and outer substance of the above-mentioned tubes.
When these are left to dry, and then again acted upon with
water, one portion will swell out into a clear globule, enclos-
ing the rest as “nucleus.” These “ nuclei” are either large
and single, like those of granulation-corpuscles, or they are

148 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

multiple, exactly like those of pus-cells. Whole layers of
perfect pus-corpuscles are thus formed. But, of course,
more complicated shapes occur as well—among these, for
instance, many such pus-cell-like bodies enclosed within one
large sphere. If, instead of water, serum be added to the
thinly spread myeline, biconcave discs will form, only
generally much larger than blood-corpuscles. “Cells” being
thus merely the physical result of chemical changes, they can
no longer afford a last retreat to those specific forces called
vital. Physiology must aim at being something more than
the study of the functions of a variety of ultimate organic
units ; and pathology will gain new hope in considering that
it is not really condemned to be the interpreter of the many
abnormities to which the mysterious life of myriads of micro-
scopical individuals seemed to be liable.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Jan., 1867.—“‘On the
Organs of Circulation in Helix,” by Charles Robertson, Demon-
strator of Anatomy, Oxford.—The author of this paper has
kindly furnished us with a statement of the important con-
clusions derived from his researches. 1. A perfect injection can
be made from the ventricle, of the arterial, capillary and venous
systems, without any of the injection extravasating into the
cavity of the body, and forming lacune of previous writers.
2. The existence of a capillary system of vessels between the
arteries and veins in all parts of the body. 3. The kidney is
not supplied with venous blood, but with arterial, which is
collected from the posterior portion of the pulmonary
chamber. 4. Injections from the foot or tentacle will, after
a good deal of pressure, find its way into the veins and
capillaries. This does not show that there is any direct com-
munication between the veins and the cavity of the body, for
it often happens when the veins of any of the mammalia are
injected with size and vermilion, the size (but not the vermilion)
will transude through the walls of the veins into the lacteals,
often completely injecting them, and showing their branches
much more completely than by injections from the lacteals
themselves.* Much the same process takes place when
the injection is forced into the cavity of the body; after
a good deal of pressure the minute spaces are much distended
with injection, and it transudes from them through the walls
of the delicate veins, and so fills the venous system.

«< On the Perforate Structure of the Shell of Spirifer cuspi-
datus,” by Wm. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S.—We extract the
following letter entire, which will explain itself :—‘I read

* Todd and Bowman’s ‘ Physiology,’ vol. ii, 1856, p. 473.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 149

with much surprise in your number for August last (p. 144)
the statement, quoted from ‘ Silliman’s American Journal’ for
May, to the effect that Mr. Meek had ascertained the shell of
Spirifer cuspidatus, not only in American specimens referred
to this species, but in an Irish specimen received by him
from Mr. Davidson, to be clearly punctate, contrary to the
decision of Dr. Carpenter.”

My determination of the imperfect character of the shell
of that species was made, some twenty-five years ago, upon
specimens obtained from St. Vincent’s Rocks, near Bristol
(where I was then residing), and authenticated by Mr.
Stutchbury. In my Report to the British Association (1844,
§ 44), I pointed out that the Sp. cuspidatus of the Mountain
Limestone differs from Sp. Walcotti and other Liassic Spiri-
fers in not being perforated,—the absence of the superficial
punctations seen upon the latter not being due (as Professor
Morris had supposed) to the metamorphic condition of the
shell, “since, although the structure of the shell is often
obscured by this action, I possess sections in which it is ex-
tremely well preserved, and in which there is an evident
absence of the perforations.”

The distinction which I then drew between the two groups
of Spirifers characterised respectively by the perforation and
non-perforation of their shells, led Mr. Davidson to a more
careful examination of the internal structure which they
respectively present ; and the differences which he then dis-
covered were such as to lead him to separate these two groups
generically, the designation Spirifera being retained for the
original Sp. striata, cuspidata, and other imperforate species,
whilst the perforated species were remitted to the genus
Spiriferina.

The question as to the real character of Sp. cuspidata
haying thus come to be of no small importance, I have gladly
responded to the suggestion of Mr. Davidson that I should
re-investigate it; and I have commenced with a careful
examination of my original Bristol sections. These again, I
confidently affirm, show not the slightest trace of perforations,
though the structure of the shell is well preserved.

I have obtained from the School of Mines, through Mr.
Etheridge, and from the Museum of Irish Industry and that
of the Geological Survey of Ireland, through Mr. W. H.
Baily, chips of specimens from six different localities, all which
specimens are vouched for by those gentlemen as genuine
Sp. cuspidata. In not one of the sections I have made of
these shells is there the smallest trace of perforations, though
the structure of the shell is well preserved in every instance.

150 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

Further, at the suggestion of Mr. Davidson, I have examined
chips from the shells of the following Carboniferous species,
all of them more or less nearly allied to Sp. cuspidata ; viz.,
Sp.laminosa and Sp. distans, prepared for me by Mr. Etheridge
from the Museum of the School of Mines ; and Sp. subconica,
kindly transmitted by Mr. Carrington from -Derbyshire.
These, like Sp. cuspidata, show no trace whatever of perfora-
tions.

I cannot but believe, therefore, that my original determi-
nation of the imperfect character of the shell of Spirifera
cuspidata remains unshaken by Mr. Meek’s contradiction ;
and I can only suppose either that Mr. Meek (like Professor
King) has mistaken the accidental black points which often
present themselves on the surface of these shells for the
punctations indicative of true perforations, or that (as he
himself suggests) his punctated shell, though resembling Sp.
cuspidata in external appearance, really belongs to a different
genus. I trust that I shall be able, ere long, to clear up this
part of the question, Mr. Davidson having written to request
that Mr. Meek will send me chips of a shell belonging to his
punctated Spirifer, and that Professor Winchell will send me
chips of a shell belonging to his genus Syringothyris. When
I shall have examined these, I shall report to you the results
without delay.—I remain, gentlemen, your obedient servant,
Wiriiam B. CARPENTER.

P.S.—Mr. Davidson permits me to add the following ex
tract from a note which he has written to me after perusing
the above :—‘‘ I have always placed the most implicit reliance
on your admirable observations on the shell-structure of the
Brachiopoda, and therefore, as I am personally concerned,
would not have required the additional confirmation given by
your recent researches ; but I am not sorry that you shouid
have again investigated the matter, as it can but strengthen
the value of your discoveries,—and the more so, as I have
always found this shell-structure to be combined with internal
modifications, so that a perforated species could not be gene-
rically the same as an imperforate one. ‘This has now been
observed in so many instances, that the supposed exceptions
brought forward by Messrs. Meek and King are, no doubt,
the result of incorrect observation. To make this clear to the
public was therefore a matter of some importance, and I am
very glad you have done so.”

March.—* On Hyalonema,”’ by Professor Max Schultze.—
The beautiful ‘Glass Rope,” specimens of which are brought
to this country from Japan, has been the subject of some con-
troversy lately in England; and the microscope has rendered

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 15]

invaluable service in deciding the rights of the discussion.
D. J. E. Gray seeks to prove, in opposition to the opinion of
many naturalists, that Hyalonema'‘is not a sponge, as supposed,
but the axis and product of a polype. In this he is strenu-
ously opposed by Dr. Bowerbank, who maintains, from
microscopic evidence, that Hyalonema is a sponge. Professor
Brandt, of St. Petersburg, classifies Hyalonema with the
polypes, and regards a sponge observed at the extremity of
very many specimens as a parasite. Professor Max Schultze
in this paper maintains that the “glassy ” part of the speci-
mens is produced by the sponge, and that there is a parasitic
polype, which is quite distinct, and that Myalonema is
properly, therefore, a sponge, which frequently has a coral
parasitic on it. The structure of the glassy threads shows
clearly that they are long sponge-spicules ; and on this point
Dr. Bowerbank and Professor Schultze agree. Dr. Bower-
bank, however, declares that there is no parasitic coral, but
that what appears to be such is really a “ cloacal” system
proper to the sponge. Professor Schultze’s observations are,
however, quite decisive on this point, for he has floated out
the polypes themselves from dried specimens, and with the
microscope has detected nematophores in their tissue. He
also adduces other cases in which particular sponges are
always affected with particular parasitic polypes, and gives
a brief account of the microscopic structure of the true
Hyalonema, which is fully figured and detailed in his mono-
graph, ‘ Die Hyalonemen, ein Beitrag zur Naturg. der Spon-
gien, Bonn, 1860. There can be very little doubt but that
the eminent German microscopist has set the question at
rest.

“< On the Young Stages of a few Annelids,’ by Alexander
Agassiz—We have not space now to notice this most inte-
resting communication, of which a succeeding part is pro-
mised. At some future time we may be able to review M.
Agassiz’ observations ; meanwhile we commend them to the
reader’s notice.

Proceedings of the Botanical Congress.—‘‘ On the Structure of
the Seeds of the Solanacee, &c.,” by Tuffen West, F.L.S.
We have been favoured with a copy of this excellent paper
by the author. He gives an interesting series of observations
on the structure of the seed in Solanacee, Atropacee, and
Scrophulariacee, illustrated by two plates, and points out
the affinities indicated between these members of a group of
allied orders which are indicated by these structures.

ITALY.—Mem. della R. Acad. di Torino.—** On the Struc-
ture of the Skin in Stellio Caucasicus,” by Professor F. de

152 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Filippii—In his travels in Georgia and Persia the author
observed this lizard, which he found to be herbivorous, and
to have the power of changing colour under the influence of
light, like the chamelion, but to a less degree. The causes of
change of colour do not appear to be the same; and, more-
over, this lizard turns pale under conditions which cause the
chamelion to turn dark. There are two layers of pigment
observed by M. de Filippi in the skin of Ste//io—a superficial
yellowish-white layer, and a deeper-seated black pigment.
He believes that the change of colour is caused by the injec-
tion of the black pigment into processes of the pigment-
cells, which pass through the yellow layer and come to view
on the surface. The turgescence of a vascular glomerule is
assigned as the cause of this injection of pigment. This
structure, it is obvious, differs sufficiently from that described
in the skin of the chameleon, and from the chromatophores of
Cephalopoda, with which the author contrasts it.

“On two Hydrozoa of the Mediterranean.”—The same
author has published some important remarks on the genus
Eleutheria, and a new genius, Halybothys, which he has
observed in the Mediterranean.

AMERICA. — Silliman’s Journal. November, 1866. —
* On the Animality of the Ciliated Sponges and their Affinity
with the Infusoria flagellata,” by Professor H. James Clark.
—In this paper Professor Clark gives a brief notice of his
views on this subject, which will be more fully explained and
illustrated in the ‘ Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural
History.’ He describes, firstly, the Monas termo of Ehrenberg,
with its flagellum, upper lip, mouth, and contractile vesicle,
and he maintains that it ought to be regarded as a perfect
animal. He then describes a remarkable genus, Codosiga
(one of several new genera he has observed), which has all
the appearance and structure of a Monas attached by a con-
tractile band or stem to a hollow bell or calyx. Four or five
of these are sometimes found attached to a common trunk by
their narrow posterior ends. This form the author considers
as linking Monas to the ciliated sponges. He describes
Grantia botryoides as a tubular structure, in the glairy sub-
stance of which are imbedded and packed together a stratum
of monads, identical almost with those of Codosiga, the only
difference between individuals of the two genera being that
the one has a calyx to which it is attached, the other a spicu-
liferous envelope. He therefore feels warranted in assuming
that the whole group of Spongie ciliate is as intimately
allied with the monociliate Infusoria flagellata as it is possible
for it to be without constituting with the latter a uniform
family.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 1538

Miscellaneous.—A new work on ‘The Theory and Use of
the Microscope’ has just been published by Professor Nageli,
of Munich, and Herr Schwendener. Those interested in the
study of the nematode worms should see Dr. Anton Schnei-
der’s ‘Monograph of the Nematodes,’ published at Berlin.
It is a complete history of the species, anatomy, and develop-
ment of this obscure group, and is most beautifully illus-
trated.

Gregarine in the Hair. —We would caution persons against
accepting as truth the vague statements which have been
made in newspapers lately on this matter. No satisfactory
evidence has yet been offered at all of the existence of Grega-
rine in the hair under any circumstances. We have merely
the statement of a Russian observer, some year or two since,
to rely upon. Further, eggs of Pediculus might, under
certain circumstances, present close resemblance to Grega-
rine. As to the bodies spoken of being Gregarine from the
Pediculus, there is not a shadow of proof. No Gregarine
have yet been figured or described from lice; and it is not
very probable, though possible, that an insect with a haus-
tellate, minutely opening mouth would get affected by these
parasites. In addition to this, no Gregarine are at present
known which are found on free and exposed surfaces, such as
the hair ; if they left the pediculi they would not leave them
as Gregarine. ‘The fact is very few people know what a
Gregarina is, or have ever seen one, and hence the abundant
nonsense which is written about them ; they are becoming
the scape-goats of writers on microscopic organisms—witness
Dr. Balbiani’s paper on the silk-worm disease.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Monochromatic Illumination.—[_ast year, in the October
publication of your most excellent ‘ Journal of Microscopical
Science,’ which is forwarded to me by M. Bailliére, of Paris,
was published a letter from the Signor ab Count Francesco
Castracane to the R. P. Secchi, about a certain mode of illu-
mination, named a monochromatic one, and intended for the

use of the microscope. One month after, a French review —

(the § Cosmos’) gave an account of a communication which
had been made to the Institute about their mode of observing
the microscopic phenomena. At last, in the first number of
your journal for this present year, Mr. Barkas, of Newcastle-
on-Tyne, has spoken also of this, Count Castracane’s new
mode of illumination. On that matter I wrote to these gen-
tlemen, and received from both of them most kind letters.
We have since interchanged some specimens of diatoms, and
to-day I am happy to number these two learned micrographers
amongst my correspondents.

But as to the homogeneous, monochromatic light, its use
for the microscopic student is far from being new. Indeed,
I have employed that light since it has been made known to
me for this use by Amici; that is to say, eleven years since.
However, when I perused the communication of Mr. Barkas
and Count Castracane, my first thought was that a new mode
of illumination was at stake, especially for the most hardly
resolvable tests, and particularly the Nobert lines. I there-
fore begged some explanation from those two gentlemen.

It is certain that, using Amici’s refracting prism, by means
of which light is sufficiently dispersed, one may detect, with
a very feeble objective, what the strongest could not allow to
suspect with the direct white light. With the aid-of such a
prism, I have been able to view the specimens, for which I
am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Barkas, together with
some others, and to determine perfectly the strie of the

om:

MEMORANDA. 155

Pleurosigma angulatum, P. macrum, Nitzschia sigmoidea,
Grammatophora subtilissima, and Surirella gemma.

One must not believe, then, that, in order to attain such a
result, it is necessary to make use of the large heliostal
of M. Foucault, constructed by Dubose, of Paris, or by any
other optician, and which is alluded to by Count Castracane
in his letter to R. P. Secchi. A simple cone in flint, such
as Amici indicated, is far from sufficient for observing micro-
scopical phenomena. Nevertheless, the heliostal of M. Fou-
cault may be used advantageously in order to obtain good
photographic proofs.

The mode of illumination we are occupied with is not, in-
deed, sufficiently known; yet M. Nachet had touched the
matter in the number of July, 1860, of your Journal (p. 208)
in reference to his dark-ground illuminator.

Besides, the use of monochromatic light has been recently
advised in a very good work—‘ La Photographie appliquée
aux Recherches Microscopiques,’ Bailliére, Paris, 1866. But,
as it is easily seen by the title itself, the question is more
especially respecting photographic proofs than to microscopic
researches. Notwithstanding, I invite all micrographers not
to neglect this mighty mode of investigation.

Please to accept, gentlemen, the assurance of my best re-
gards.—Movcuet, Rochefort-sur-Mer.

P.S.—Peu habitué a écrire en anglais, je vous prie d’ex-
cuser mes incorrections, et de les corriger, si vous voulez bien
insérer cette note dans le prochain numéro de votre journal.
Je pourrai, parfois, vous adresser quelques articles concernant
la micrographie.

New Curious Animalcule.—Seeing you have reported in your
Journal No. XX, New Series, the very strange form of
Lang’s Difflugia triangulata?, I thought it would perhaps
interest your readers to have a hint of a new, not less rare
case of these proteform beings, which I have just met with,
examining some water I have lately taken from a rivulet
streaming out from the Gower Peninsula between Swansea
and Oystermouth. The odd fellow I am speaking of was
protruding itself from its tiny shell, not in the ordinary
radical way, as its original name of rhizopod purports, but in
a perfect symmetry with its oval carapace, as to look at first
like two equal difflugie in conjunction, and what was more
astonishing still to me was a hinder expansion of the cara-
pace in the shape of a tail, for what purpose I really could

156 MEMORANDA,

not guess. Looking at it after about an hour I saw it had
just got out of focus, and as I brought it in again, its sarcode
was nearly all drawn within, the carapace showing but a
small stream like a pencil. After awhile I saw it pro-
truding again, but in a much smaller circular compass. I
was thinking at first if it might have some relation with a
Gromia, or the Ameba guttula, as reported by Pritchard,
plate xxii, fig. 6 ; but I am rather inclined to connect it with
Bailey’s exceptional amceboid Pamphagus, since its lorica or
tunic is a good medium betwixt the rough carapace of the
ordinary Difflugia and the soft and delicate silkwork-like of
the Englyphes. If any of your readers have observed a like
animal I should be glad to hear of it more diffusely.

Another very strange form of animalcule | met with in
examining a small bottle which Mr. Archer has been so kind
-as to send me from Ireland, was something like a king crab
(the sword-tail Limulus polyphemus), or rather a minute fac-
simile of the celebrated fossil ‘* Cephalaspis Lyellii,” with the
only difference that its tail was bifurcated, and had two very
delicate feelers or sensorial bristles at its head. But I hope
that Mr. Archer will be able to give a better account of it in
the proceedings of his ‘‘ Dublin Nat. Hist. Society,” if he
has been lucky enough to meet with it.—J. G.

Living (?) Organisms in Chalk.—Strangeasitmay appear, M.A.
Béchamp, one of the most celebrated of French chemists,
alleges that chalk contains an abundance of minute living
cellular organisms, and in proof of this assertion he points to
the known fermenting power of chalk, and offers also micro-
scopic evidence of the presence of these minute bodies. Chalk
is known to contain fossil foraminifera in such large quanti-
ties that 100 grammes would furnish as many as 2,000,000
specimens. But, says M. Béchamp, in addition to these,
chalk undoubtedly contains other organisms more minute
than any of the infusoria, and these, though perhaps millions
of years old, are still living, Take, he says, from the centre
of a piece of chalk a portion of the substance, crush it, and
mix it with pure distilled water, and examine it with a high
microscopic power, and you will see numerous minute bril-
lant points exhibiting a peculiar trembling movement. That
this movement is not what is termed Brownian, M. Béchamp
considered to be proved by the facts:—(1) That these
particles, when isolated, act as powerful ferments ; and (2)
that when analysed they are found to consist solely of carbon,

MEMORANDA. 157

hydrogen, and nitrogen. We must confess that M. Béchamp’s
views startle us, and we should like to see them corroborated.
All microscopists are familiar with peculiar trembling move-
ments of the particles of matter contained in the cavities of
erystals. Further, we should like to know how M. Béchamp
contrived to separate these wonderful organisms, which he
terms microzyma crete, from the organic remains of the sur-
rounding foraminifera. A living organism as old as the
chalk formation is certainly an eighth wonder of the world.—
Lancet.

Note on a Double Earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris—This is
the only example I have ever seen of a double worm, and was
given to me last autumn by my friend Mr. Thomas, who re-
ceived it from a gardener when alive, and soon afterwards
it was placed in spirits of wine. On account of its xtreme
rarity, I have drawn up the following brief account of its
peculiarities.

The rings of the body presented the usual appearance from
the first to the eighty-fifth, when the body divided into two
symmetrical halves (fig. 1), each of which presented the usual
appearance of the terminal part of the body of an ordinary
worm. Each of these lateral appendages commenced by dis-

FIG 2.

tinct and separate rings applied to the eighty-fifth, and not
by its bifurcation mto two parts. A smal] triangular mem-
branous space was thus left on the dorsal and ventral surface
between the junction of three rings. The following are the
dimensions of the body and the number of rings:

Length from the lip to point of bifurcation, 2 inches ; rings,
85. Each lateral appendage, 4th inch; rings, about 109.

On reflecting the skin from the dual surface of the body

158 MEMORANDA.

and appended portions, it was found that the large vessels,
the digestive tract, and nerve-cord, divided at the eighty-fifth
ring, and were symmetrically arranged in each of the lateral
appendages (fig. 2). The generative organs were fully de-
veloped and quite normal; the sete well developed on each
appendage. Hach appendage had a distinct terminal anus.—
Cuar Es Ropertson, Demonstrator of Anatomy, Oxford.

Slides by Post—Having seen the discussion recorded in
the last number of the ‘ Microscopical Journal’ on the sub-
ject of sending slides by post, and haying had bitter experi-
ence of the horrors of the middle passage, I would venture to
offer to microscopists the following plan, which I have never
known to fail. Cut two narrow strips of card-board, and
gum them across the slide on each side of the cover (a, a,
fig. 1), so as to prevent a slide or the side of the box from

touching the cover; roll up four or five slides in paper, and
place them in one of the ordinary postal boxes. The box
should be left bare, and an ordinary parchment label attached

FIC. 2.

ee Te aT

to it by lacing a cord round it, as in fig. 2; on this label
the direction should be written and the stamp affixed.—
T. G. Stokes, Aughnarloy.

Erratum.—In the List of Fellows duly elected on the 12th
of December, 1866, the name of William Maguire, Esq., was
given in this Journal instead of William Moginie, Esq., 35,
Queen Square, W.C.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat Microscoricat Society or Lonpon.

December 12th, 1866.
R. J. Farrawts, Esq., in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding Meeting of Council and of the
Anes General Meeting of November 14th were read and con-

rmed.

Six presents were announced, and thanks returned to the re-
spective donors.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the Society :
—Peter Murray Braidwood, M.D., Infirmary, Carlisle ; Thomas
Crook, Esq., Thames Ditton; Christopher W. Calthrop, Esq.,
Royal Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital, Charing Cross ; Thomas
Curties, Esq., High Holborn ; Charles Davis, Esq., 14, Wimpole
Street; Rey. J. H. Ellis, Brill Parsonage, Thame, Oxon. ; William
J. Gray, M.D., 23, Princes Street, Cavendish Square; R. T. Lewis,
Esq., 1, Lowndes Terrace, Knightsbridge ; William Moginie, Esq.,
35, Queen Square; William Cunliffe Pickersgill, Esq., Blendon
Hall, Bexley.

The following papers were read:—‘ On a New Condenser,” by
the Rev. J. B. Reade. “On Two New Species of Tube-bearing
Rotifers,’ by Mr. H. Davis. (See ‘Trans.,’ p. 13.)

Mr. Janez Hoae believed, with the author of the last paper, that
this was a new species of Rotifer; but he could not quite agree
with him as to the precise mode in which the gelatinous case of
the animal was built up; and certainly he did not think it could
be formed in the same way as that of Melicerta ringens, namely, by
pellets. The author had favoured him with specimens, and he
had closely watched them, without having once seen any attempt
to build or add anything to the cylindrical sheath into which it so
entirely withdraws itself on the approach of danger ; and with
regard to the Rotifer “jerking down a clot of granules,” as de-

160 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

scribed by Mr. Davis, he (Mr. Hogg) rather looked upon this as
the expulsion or rejection of digested food. The transparent cha-
racter of the case led him to the conclusion that it was of the
same nature as that enclosing other groups of Rotifers. In most
of them some two or three eggs could be seen, and therefore it
might rather be looked upon as a receptacle for the ova. Upon
gently pressing out one of the eggs, which are ciliated, it swam off,
and after a little time attached itself to the side of the glass cell.
The young animal was presently hatched, and soon became en-
closed in a similarly transparent sac. The ciliary trockal disc
moved with beautiful regularity, and the two long antenne ex-
tended at right angles to it had a remarkable appearance, and
were certainly long enough to be employed in a building process,
but could not be discovered by him in the act.

The speaker then described to the meeting, by the aid of draw-
ings, changes which he had observed, and modifications of the
shape of the animal, in part resulting from the introduction of
carmine, &c., into the water. -In conclusion, he thought it quite
right to place this Rotifer among the Hezstes.

Mr. Loss was of opinion that the animal differed very* much
from the @eistes, and, aided by the drawings used by the pre-
vious speakers, he described, by making alterations in them as he
proceeded, the result of observations of several specimens with
which Mr. Davis had favoured him. He thought it a very inte-
resting subject for continued examination, and that eventually
the animal would not be classed with the Ccistes.

Mr. Stack thought this rotifer was one of the most remarkable
and interesting he had ever seen; he agreed generally with Mr.
Davis in arranging it provisionally under the head of Weistes, but
he was at the same time of opinion that when the group to which
it belonged had been better examined some new arrangement
would have to be made. If a number of specimens of these ani-
mals were placed in the hands of different observers, and the
animals were—as they usually were—influenced by very varying
humours, there would be seen in the result of such a series of
simultaneous observations a most beautiful diversity and discord-
ance of opinion. As evidence of this, he produced a sketch which
he placed beside Mr. Davis’s drawing, because it exhibited the
creature under so different an aspect that, although both portraits
were correct, they might be supposed to represent different ani-
mals. The new rotifers he found to be very highly ciliated, and,
in addition to the cilia ordinarily engaged in forming the wreath,
and giving rise to the rotatory appearance, there were other rows
of cilia, some of which he had seen engaged in sweeping against
or “ licking” vegetable matter in their vicinity. With Smith and
Beck’s 5th, and careful illumination with Ross’s ;4;th condenser,
the wreath cilia appeared to be as thick as the hairs in a broom.
Mr. Slack concluded by recommending a re-examination of allied
species, as he thought their ciliary apparatus would probably be

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 161

found more complicated than had been supposed. « In subsequent
observations he said that the red pigment of the eyes was seg-
mented in a curious way; probably it disappeared gradually in
old specimens. ;

Mr. Davis, in reply to an observation made by Mr. Hogg, to
the effect that on his applying carmine to the water the animal
had evinced its objection to such treatment by at once closing up
its ease, said he thought it very probable that too much carmine
had been introduced ; he had himself noticed, in several instances,
that directly carmine was placed in the water the animal had
seized upon and begun to deposit upon its case many particles
of the colouring matter.

January 9th, 1867.
R. J. Farrants, Esq., in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read,

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the Society :
—Colonel J. H. Hudson, Royal Clothing Factory, Pimlico; R.
Barrett, Esq., Wallingford; P. Matthews, Exsq., 17, Lower Berke-
ley Street, Portman Square ; S. Piper, Esq., 19, Lansdown Road,
Dalston; F. Blankley, Esq., 23, Belitha Villas, Barnsbury; M.
Theodore Eulenstein, Stutgard; Thomas Shepheard, Esq., 12,
Bridge Street Row, Chester.

Dr. BowerBank presented a work “On the British Spongiadee.”’

The following papers were read :—‘‘On a Portable Cabinet,
and on a New Slide for Opaque Objects,” by S. Piper, Esq. “On
a New Portable Microscope,” by Newton Tomkins, Esq. “On
the Crystallization of the Sulphates of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel,”
by R. Thomas, Esq. ; communicated by Mr. Ladd.

The Chairman announced the list of officers proposed _by the
Council for election at the ensuing general meeting. This list
coincided with the list of officers elected. (See ‘Trans.,’ p. 23.)

In reading this list, the Chairman observed that one of the
Honorary Secretaries of the Society, Mr. Blenkins, had been com-

elled, by pressure of other engagements, to relinquish the post
he had held in connection with the Society for many years past.
The announcement that the Council had passed a unanimous
vote of thanks to that gentleman on his retirement was received
with approval by the meeting. The Chairman pointed out also
that the list was merely a suggested one on the part of the
Council, and that it would be quite competent for members to
move the election of other persons than those whose names were
now submitted.

At the conclusion of the reading of Mr. Piper’s paper, specimens
of the cabinets were passed round the room, and a slight discussion

VOL. VII.— NEW SER. L

162 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

arose upon one or two alterations suggested by those present;
but Mr. Piper remarked that he had already experimented in the
direction indicated by some of the speakers, and found that
the cabinets made in the form and of the materials of those now
introduced were the most useful and practicable that could be
made. One objection, as to the slightness of the card-board ma-
terial of which the cabinets were made, he disposed of in a very
summary manner, by throwing one of the trays which had been
handed round the room upon the floor, and jumping violently
upon it several times. This experimentum crucis, as the Chairman
remarked, was decisive; and on the tray being handed round
again quite intact and unharmed in any way, the inventor was
loudly cheered.

Mr. J. Newton Tomxrys, F'.R.C.S., read a paper describing a
travelling or pocket microscope invented by Mr. William Moginie.
(See ‘Trans.,’ p. 20.) One of the microscopes, and the various useful
contrivances it embodied, was exhibited, and Mr. Tomkins re-
marked that by its aid he had been able to distinguish the sharp
and delicate markings of some of the highest test objects. Asa
student’s microscope, he considered the instrument to be beyond
all praise; but he thought it would also be a boon to micro-
scopists generally, especially to those who devoted attention to
microscopic studies in the field.

Mr. Varztry also warmly eulogised the instrument and its
belongings. A new arrangement of a dipping-bottle used in
searching ponds had particularly attracted his attention. In this
case the bottle was screwed firmly to the end of the telescopic
rod, so as to enable it to be used as a kind of scoop or ladle in
places where, from the nature of the object searched for, it could
not be otherwise secured.

Dr. BowErBank, who was received with great cheering, said
he could not refrain from expressing the great pleasure he felt at
being present once more at a meeting of the Society—a pleasure
which he had been compelled to deny himself of late in conse-
quence of the state of his health; but finding himself in London
to-day, he had been unable to resist the temptation of attending
the meeting: His pleasure on the occasion had been much en-
hanced by haying seen the beautiful little instrument which Mr.
Tomkins had just described. He thought it a beginning of a
movement in the right direction, as highly finished instruments
were not within the reach of every one, and even those who pos-
sessed such were not disposed to carry them into the field; and
therefore the instrument before the meeting met a want which
had too long been unsupplied. “I have watched the proceedings
of the Society,” continued Dr. Bowerbank, “through its publica-
tions, and I see how young and ardent members have arisen
in our ranks, and how the microscope of this Society, instead
being, as formerly, a mere toy, is becoming a real working tool
in the hands of scientific men. The papers made public through

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 163

the Society are highly valuable as records of patient research and
investigation, and I feel that we, who have laboured much in vears
past in bringing the microscope to its present efficient condition,
are amply repaid by the gratification we experience in seeing the
instrument used to such good purpose by the young and ardent
philosophers who now carry forward the fame of our favorite
science. As to our instruments themselves, our microscopes have
obtained a leading position in Europe, and I sincerely trust that
there will continue to arise among us members who will ever
maintain the high character of our countrymen as microscopic
observers.”

On Dr. Bowerbank resuming his seat, the Chairman rose and
said—I take this opportunity of offering you the best thanks of
the Society for your valuable work presented to the Library, ‘ On
the British Spongiade;’ and on its being pointed out that the
yolume presented was one of twenty copies only which contained
portraits of the author, Dr. Bowerbank remarked that the photo-
graph represented him with a microscope on the table by his side,
and it might be interesting to the members to know that the in-
strument there shown was the first one to which the ploughed
sliding apparatus was attached; the lever stage was also the first
oue made. This microscope had been in constant use during the
last twenty-five or thirty years, and it was still in good condition;
the lever stage was just as easy and smooth, and as fine in its
adjustment as it had ever been.

r. Roper? Tuomas read a paper, “ On the Crystallization of
the Sulphates of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel.” (See ‘ Trans.,’ p. 19.)

The CHaizMay, on announcing that the Anniversary Meeting of
the Society would be held on the 13th of February, again called
attention to the desirability of securing the autographs of every -
Fellow of the Society in the book which had been provided for
the purpose.

March 13th, 1867.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and confirmed.
A paper “On Gregariniform Parasites of Borlasia,” by Dr.
McIntosh, was read. (See ‘ Trans.,’ p. 38.)
Mr. Jasez Hoae, F.LS., said the general distribution of these
Gregariniform bodies seems in the present day to have led toa
general but erroneous opinion with regard to their being found in
hair; and this circumstance will, perhaps, afford an opportunity
for now saying a few words on the subject. Mr. Ray Lankester
has enlightened us with some excellent papers on Gregarine, which
may be found in the Society’s ‘Transactions.’ They seem, as Dr.
McIntosh has stated, to be discovered in salt-water animals, and
I have myself found them in many fishes. In short, they appear
to be a part of the sarcode covering of the muscular tissues

164 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

of animals. You will remember that a correspondent of the
‘Times’ stated in that journal that he had found these bodies in —
the muscular tissues of some slaughtered cattle which had been —
infected with the cattle plague, and this was mentioned as a new —
discovery. But all who are acquainted with microscopic subjects
know that they have been made out for years, and have puzzled
all microscopic observers as to their origin and purpose in the ani-
mal economy. These bodies appear, as I have stated, to be a part
of some degeneration of sarcode, or of the muscular tissue itself;
and there we seem to be either at an issue or a stand-still as to
what more can be made of the matter. But as regards the ques-
tion whether these bodies have been discovered in “ chignons,”’

this seems to have been alla myth. Dr. Tilbury Fox, a yery able _
investigator in these matters, having wade a careful examination
of numbers of the hairs used as materials in the manufacture of
chignons, could not discover anything of the kind; and how such
an idea could have got abroad seems as difficult to account for
as those extraordinary paragraphs in the ‘Times’ from time to
time, copied from ‘ Galignani’ and other foreign sources, and which
never could have found their way into a journal of any scientific
pretensions. But I may tell you that Mr. Norman, who is highly
qualified to inquire into these matters, has during the last few
weeks made hundreds of investigations, without having once dis-
covered anything approaching to a body of the kind in any of the
hairs used in this particular manufacture. He called on a whole-
sale dealer—and you may judge of the extent of his business when
I tell you that he informed Mr. Norman that the late outery
against chignons had caused a falling off of several hundred pounds
in his monthly returns—he went through the whole stock of this
dealer, and never once found anything of the kind. The only in-
stance met with by Mr. Norman was in dirty and ill- prepared
hairs, where he met with a few of the so-called “nit-cases,” or
pediculi shells; but these were, of course, in all instances, empty.
Dr. Tilbury Fox, too, states that he has only seen in hair of Ger-
man origin a species of “ mildew” fungus, which might give rise,
if implanted on the surface of weak persons, to the disease called

“ringworm.” We may therefore conclude that the story about
gregarines in hair is totally devoid of truth.

Mr. Ly cr, F.L.S.—I may mention that the letter to the news-
papers was written by two young men by way of hoax.

‘A vote of thanks to Dr. McIntosh for his paper was passed.

A paper by Mr. W. U. Whitney, “On the Change which ac-
companies the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole, &c.,” was read.
This paper was illustrated by a series of remarkably beautiful
drawings on a large scale.

Mr. Jazez Hoce spoke in yery high terms of Mr. Whitney’s
exhaustive and elaborate paper, and the novel mode in which he
had worked out the subject. Mr. Hogg continued—The great
and new feature in Mr. Whitney’s paper appears to be the novel

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 165

method employed in the removal of the integument or skin
which covers and conceals the vessels of the ell, thereby dis-
closing the circulatory system and its true affinities. This is a
point which has hitherto not been so well understood, for even
Dr. Carpenter does not appear to have worked out this question,
and all we know of the affinities of the circulatory and respiratory
systems of the animal is from the elaborate paper of M. Milne-
Edwards. That very nearly approaches the truth as to the various
systems; but even M. Milne-Edwards has not gone so far as
Mr. Whitney, to whom is really due the merit of having disco-
yered the true affinity of the two systems. There is no doubt he
has entirely cleared up the point. It no longer, I think, admits of
being put as Dr. Carpenter puts it, m‘his work on the micro-
scope, where he says—‘ If Mr. Whitney’ s account of the circula-
tion in the tadpole be the correct one,” &c.; there can be no
reasonable doubt of the correctness of these observations, and
none, | am sure, can be entertained by any who has heard him
this evening, and seen his beautiful illustrations. Mr. Hogg then
proceeded to suggest that a point as to the efferent and afferent
vessels might be cleared up by means of the micro-spectroscope.
He thought it quite within the scope of the instrument, by the
absorption-bands, to show the blood in the two systems, and the
way in which the arterial and venous capillaries change places.
However, since it so nearly coincided with the systemic plan in
the higher animals, he had no doubt of the correctness of Mr.
Whitney’s observations, which present us with a very complete
account of the circulation in the more perfect as well as in the
transitional state of the tadpole.

A vote of thanks was then passed to Mr. Whitney for his paper,
and the meeting adjourned to Wednesday, 24th April, when it
was announced that the soirée of the Society will take place,

LIST OF BOOKS PRESENTED TO, OR PURCHASED BY, THE
ea MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY DURING THE
AR 1866,

Presented by
_ Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Nos. 97, 98,

99, 100, 101 and 102, 103, 104, 105, 106,107, 108 Purchased.
Intellectual Observer, Nos. 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,

55, 56, 57, 58, 59 : . The Editor.
Household Magazine, No. 1 < Dittot
Photographic Journal, Nos. 164, 165, 166, 167, 168,

169, 170, 171, 172 Ditto.
Popular Science Review, Nos. 18, 19, 20, 21 Ditto.

The Canadian Journal of Science andl Art, Nos. 59, 60,
61,62". : eDitto:

166 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Nos. $4, 85,
86, 87, 88 . ,

Journal of the Linnean Society, Nos. 36, and 33, 34

Natural History Transactions of Northumberland and

The Society.
Ditto.

Durham, Parts I and IL Ditto.
Proceedings of the Academy of "Natural Science of
Philadelphia, Nos. 1 to 5 The Academy.

Circular No. 6, War Department, Washington . United States Government.

Works of Robert Brown, vol. I Purchased.
(Luvres d’Histoire Naturelle—Bonnet, 18 volumes Dr. Millar.
The Anatomy of Vegetables—Nehemiah Grew Ditto.

Papers by Isaac Lea, LL.D., on New Species of Unio-
nide - ;

Recent Memoirs on the Cetacea

Transactions of Linnean Society, Voi. 25 .

La Sarcini de l'Estemac, par Dr. W. Saringar.

Ditto, Dutch, the original work .

Histoire de la Mouche commune de nos Appartements,
avec planches, 1790

Observations on the Medicinal Leech, by Dr. J. R.

Acad. of Nat. Science, Philadelphia.

Purchased.
The Society.

} Presented.

F. C.S. Roper, Esq.

Johnson . . Ditto.
Verhandlunger Zoologisch- botanischen Gessellschaft in

Wien. Presented.
Patent Office Report, United States, Vols. 1 and 2, 1862.
Bulletin ?Annuaire de ? Académie ‘Royale de Belgique

3 vols. . The Society.
Monograph of the British Spongiade, 2 vols. Dr. Bowerbank.
Monograph of the British Spongiade, Vol. 2, by Dr.

Bowerbank Purchased.
Du Cholera Asiatique. Dr. Pacini The Author.
Results of the Micro-chemical Examination of Extract

of Flesh, by H. Dean and H. B. Brady . Ditto.
The Entomologist, No. 34 Ditto.
British Journal of Dental Science, 15 numbers The Editor.

The Journal of the Society of Arts, 23 numbers 3

Observations and Experiments with the Microscope on
the effect of various Chemical Agents on the Blood,
by Thomas Sharman Ralph, M. RCS:

QveEKetT Microscoprcat CLvB.

December 28th, 1866.

The Society.

The Author.

Ervest Hart, Esq., President, in the Chair.

A paper was read by Mr. Cooke, “On the Progress of Micro-
scopical Science in 1866,” in w hich his remarks were classed
under three heads :—1. The establishment of new Societies, and
increased vigour in old ones. 2. The mechanical improvements
in microscopes, microscopical apparatus, and manipulation. 3.
The contributions to microscopical literature. Under each of
these heads numerous details were given.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 167

The questions deposited in the Question-box, comprising a
yariety of subjects, were read and discussed.
Fourteen members were elected.

January 4th, 1867.

The first soirée of this Society was given in the noble library
and hall of University College, the use of which was liberally
granted for the occasion by the Council of the College. Notwith-
standing the yery severe frost, there was a numerous attendance
of members and their friends. About 120 microscopes and ob-
jects were exhibited by the members and the well-known makers,
although the objects of interest were not entirely confined to mi-
croscopes only. Numerous diagrams were suspended on the walls,
amongst which may be noted a curious collection of paintings of
floral subjects, the work of native Indian artists; also a series of
beautifully executed diagrams, kindly lent for the occasion by
Her Majesty’s Board of Inland Revenue. The Graphotyping
Company displayed various specimens of their process of engray-
ing. Mr. King exhibited salmon-hatching, and some parasites
found on the gills of the adult salmon. Mr. James How afforded
muchamusement by exhibiting the induction-coil in connection with
Giessler’s tubes. Not the least interesting object in the rooms
was the microscope constructed by Professor Quekett at the age
of sixteen years, “‘ made up of materials furnished by a common
roasting jack, a lady’s old-fashioned parasol, and pieces of brass
purchased at a neighbouring marine-store dealer’s, and hammered
out by himself.” This was lent by Mr. Stone, of the College of
Surgeons. There were also many interesting diagrams lent by the
Council of the Royal College of Surgeons and by Dr. Carpenter.

January 25th, 1867.
Artuur E. Duruam, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.

A paper was read by Mr. N. Burgess, “ On the Cuticle of
Plants, and the best means of Separating and Mounting it.’’ Hav-
ing given considerable attention to this subject, his experience
had taught him that the best method to effect separation was by
maceration for a few weeks, after which he floated the cuticles on
to a glass slide and put them away until required. A discussion
followed, in which Mr. Slade recommended the use of nitric acid.
A discussion likewise took place relative to the source whence the
hairs are obtained commonly called “hair of larva of Dermestes.”

Ten members were elected.

168 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

February 22nd, 1867.
Artuur E. DurHam, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair.

A paper by Mr. F. Kitton, of Norwich, was read, “On the
Publication of New Genera on Insufficient Data,’”’ which will be
found on p. 118.

Seven members were elected.

The proceedings terminated with a conyersazione.

Oxtp CHANGE MicroscoricaL Soctrery.

This Society, which was formed in the establishment of Messrs.
Leaf, Sons, & Co., in April last, consists of about eighty or ninety
members, under the Presidency of Charles Leaf, Esq., F.L.S., &e.,
one of the firm, gave its first soirée on Monday, February 25th,
at Willis’s Rooms.

It was attended by a numerous and fashionable company, about
800 ladies and gentlemen being present, all of whom seemed
highly gratified with the variety of entertainment provided. Of
course, the chief feature of the soirée was the microscopes, up-
wards of 120 of which were exhibited; Fellows of the Royal
Microscopical Society, Members of the Quekett Microscopical
Club, the Old Change Microscopical Society, and Messrs. R. and J.
Beck, Browning, Baker, Bailey, Collins, Crouch, How, Ladd,
Murray and Heath, Powell and Lealand, Ross, Robbins, Salmon
and Steward, all furnishing their quota.

The microscopes were arranged on six tables, and (with R. and
J. Beck’s hexagonal stand as a centre) occupied the entire length
of the room. The monotony of the tables was very pleasingly
relieved by a large and beautiful collection of camellias, azaleas,
callias, pelargoniums, and other plants.

The objects exhibited were so many and so yaried that it is
almost impossible to enumerate; but amongst them were the
Lophossus crystallinus by the President and E. G. Lobb, Esq. ;
Conochilus Volvox by Dr. Millar, F.L.S.; Euplectilla aspergillura,
Hyalonema mirabilis, and a collection of calcareous sponges,
British and fossil, and recent sponges from various countries, by
Charles Tyler, Esq., F.L.S., &c. A series of Atlantic soundings,
and a large collection of corals, fossils, geological specimens, &c.,
by Robert Etheridge, Esq., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey.
Volvox globator, by W. R. May, Esq. Recent Polycystina, &c.,
by Major Owen, F.L.S., &e. Asparagin, by W. M. Bywater, Esq.,
Secretary of the Quekett Microscopical Club. The gall fly, by
T. G. Watson, Esq. Pigment-cells of the pelargonium, &c., by

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 169

N. Burgess, Esq., in a microscope giving a field of twenty-four
inches’ diameter.

Professor Smith, of Kenyon College, U.S., exhibited Tolle’s
New Binocular Eye-piece, giving binocular effect with a monocular
microscope ; also a Mechanical Finger, by which the most minute
objects may be picked up and deposited upon a slide.

The Old Change Society exhibited Stephanoceros Eichhornii,
_ yarious Hydras, circulation in the ova of salmon, and polarization
with high powers. Amongst the makers of microscopes Messrs.
Powell and Lealand exhibited circulation in Valesneria spiralis,
Volvox globator, portrait of Princess of Wales in beetle’s eye;
T. Ross, leaf of cactus, scales of fern, the palate of a limpet,
with Slack’s new diaphragm eye-piece, by which a beautiful effect
was obtained; C. Collins, ova of toad, young snails (alive), Xe. ;
J. H. Steward, circulation in frog’s foot, selections of diatoms,
&c.; Murray and Heath, ova of lobster, young prawns, &c.;
C. Baker, a variety of objects, and a new field microscope
designed by Mr. Moginie; W. Ladd, sulphates of iron, nickel, &e.

In an adjoining room Mr. How exhibited Dr. Maddox’s series
of photo-micrographs with the oxyhydrogen light, the induction
coil, and Giessler’s vacuum tubes; and Dr. Millar, F.L.S., the
magnesium lamp.

Jn,another room was shown Wyld’s magneto machine by Mr.
Ladd; folios of water-colour drawings from the collections of
W. Leaf, Esq., and the President ; Roman and Medieval antiqui-
ties from the Library of the Corporation of London; autographs,
ancient keys, &c., by Deputy Charles Reed, F.S.A.; several rare
engravings, by D. N. Chambers, Esq., F.S.A., &e.

Frank Buckland, Esq., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, exhibited
the process of salmon hatching.

Mr. King, parasites from the gills of salmon ova from Malham
Tarn, impregnated on the 7th November and hatched on the 8rd
January ; the egg with the eyes, fish one day old, double trout,
trout with fungoid disease, circulation in the salmon, and aquaria.

During the evening the Old Change Choral Society performed
a selection of glees, and Mr. Rogers several solos; Mr. Aeschmann
solos on the violoncello, and Miss Weatherhead and others solos
on the grand piano.

Amongst the company present were Dr. Beale, F.R.S. ; Charles
Brooke, Esq., F.R.S.; Dr. Down; R. Farrants, Esq., F.R.C.S. ;
Jabez Hogg, Esq., F.L.S., Hon. Sec., Royal Microscopical Society ;
Dr. Lankester, F.R.S., &e.; Henry Lee, Esq., F.R.M.S.; Professor
Morriss; Deputy Charles Reed, F.S.A.; Henry J. Slack, Esq.,
Hon. Sec., R.M.S.; F. H. Wenham, Esq., F.R.M.S. ; Tuffen West,
Ksq., F.LS., &e.

170 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Oxrorp MicroscopicaL Socrecy.
November 27th, 1866.

Mr. Robertson exhibited some beautiful injections of Helix
pomatia—the Roman or edible snail. He stated that, after more
than two hundred attempts, he had succeeded in demonstrating
what was, to the best of his belief, as yet unknown to comparative
anatomists—the existence, viz., in this animal, of a completely
closed capillary system, differing in no respect from the same
system in the higher animals. These capillaries were most
strikingly displayed in the crop, the intestine, and the mantle.
In some of the preparations the distribution of the arteries was
shown and explained to the Society. In one specimen, in parti-
cular, the minute branches of anastomosis between the arteries
and veins on the wall of the pulmonary chamber were very clearly
defined. He has thus proved that the pre-existing notion of a
lacunar circulation in these animals is a mistaken one; the mis-
take having, as he supposes, arisen principally from the way in
which the operation of injection has hitherto been performed
(it being the custom to introduce the injecting-pipe into the foot
or tentacle, whereas his own successful injections were made from
the heart), partly also from the improper consistence of the
injecting fluid employed.

Mr. Robertson next drew attention to a glass trough made in
one piece, without any joint, and devised by himself for the pur-
pose of receiving dissections to be photographed. The dissection
is first stitched on talc, with a piece of blue paper behind it, and
then placed in spirit in the trough. Owing to the absence of any
joint in the trough, the light is admitted equally on all sides,
and a perfect image of the object can, with a little careful mani-
pulation on the part of the photographer, be thus produced.
Several photographs of dissections taken in this way by an Oxford
photographer were likewise exhibited.

Dusuin Microscorican Criup.

October 18th, 1866.

Mr. Archer exhibited a very minute new species of Cosmarium, ©
with its zygospore, gathered at Kilbride, near Blessington, county
of Wicklow. ‘This little form he had taken on previous occasions,
but never before conjugated. As the mature plant itself is one
of exceeding simplicity and very minute, it is hence liable perhaps
to be overlooked, or at least regarded as possibly but some simple
Palmellaceous cell. Nevertheless, Mr. Archer had always felt it

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 171

was a thing distinct, a good and true species of Cosmarium, but
hesitated to describe it, inasmuch as this—a mere very minute
elliptic cell—would doubtless with difficulty be received as a species
distinct from every other little elliptic cell; he felt that it might
be hard to convey to others, either by description or a figure, the
characteristics of this little humble production as these presented
themselves to himself, sufficiently evident as he might think
them. Hence he was now the more pleased to find this plant
conjugated, and to perceive that its zygospore could never be
mistaken, in its outer characters, quite irrespective of its dimen-
sions, for that described for any other species.

The following may serve as a description:

Cosmarium (Corda).

Cosmariwm lobatosporum, sp. nov.

Frond very minute; nearly twice as long as broad; general
form elliptic ; ends rounded; constriction an extremely shallow
and very gentle narrowing. Zygospore rounded, somewhat
irregularly lobed ; the lobes surmounted by one or two minute
pellucid conical and pointed spines or mucrones ; cell-wall reddish.
Length of cell +3,5", breadth 3,5", diameter of zygospore about
soo» including spines.

Devoid, however, as this little form, in the unconjugated state,
may be of any very striking or tangible characters for descriptive
purposes, yet Mr. Archer thought he might venture on saying
that it would appear to him a mere waste of words to contrast it
with any other minute elongate cell not desmidian. Amongst
Desmidiex, Mr. Archer thought that perhaps the form most likely
to be confounded with this might be Peniwm Mooreanum (ejus).
(See ‘ Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc.,’ n. s., Vol. IV, p. 179, Pl. VI, figs.
34 to 44), and he exhibited the figures in illustration. But the
latter is notably broader in proportion to its length, and is larger,
and quite without any narrowing at the middle; in fact, it is
barrel-shaped, except as to the ends being however rounded (not
truncate). Further, the arrangement of the endochrome is quite
different; in Peniwm Mooreanum the chlorophyll is in longitudinal
“ fillets,”’ that is, deposited in longitudinal plates, radiating from
the axis of the cell; in the present plant it is scattered with a
central granule in each segment. In a word, they belong to two
seemingly well-marked genera. But even regarded specifically,
besides what has been alluded to, see the remarkable differences
in the zygospore of each. It seems not at all necessary to con-
trast this new form with any others at all approaching, such as
Cosmarium Cucurbita, well distinguished by its considerably
greater size and its punctate cell-wall and grooye-like constric-
tion, or with any species of Mesoteenium or Cylindrocystis. But
above and beyond what has been mentioned, this new form differs
from every other desmidian whose conjugated state is known, by
the remarkable more or less lobed character of the zygospore, the
lobes or projections surmounted by the short conical spines. At

172 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

first sight, under alow power, this might possibly call to mind
certain examples of that irregularly figured plant Polyedrium
Lobulatum (Nag.), or (less likely) that seemingly more rare plant
Sorastrum spinulosum (Niig.) ; but a moment’s inspection under a
higher power reveals that it is something altogether different
from both. A goodly number of examples being present of this
new form, both the mature and empty cells and of partially formed
zygospores, all doubt was speedily set aside as to this little
Cosmarium being a new and distinct species, not perhaps after all
more marked by its peculiar zygospore, than, simple as it is, by
the mature form itself, when carefully studied and contrasted with
its allies,

Dr. Moore exhibited Closteriwm Pritchardianum (Arch.) from
the tank in the warm house watered from the “ Tolka,’’ in the
Botanic garden. It had since become conjugated, maintaining all
the characters originally described for it. It had produced a
stratum over the leaves of Owvirandra fenestralis detrimental to
the latter. Indeed, Dr. Moore stated that unfortunately this
plant was very prone to become choked up more or less by various
growths ; last year an CEdogonium had seated itself upon it, much
to its injury.

Rey. E. O’Meara exhibited and described a number of new
species of Diatomaces which he had discovered in the rich
gathering made by Dr. E. Perceval Wright off the Arran Islands.
These he named Navicula Hibernica, N. pellucida, N. denticulata,
N. Wrightii, N. Amphiodes, Pinnularia Arraniensis, P. constricta,
P. forficula. Descriptions of these, with figures, will appear in
the ‘ Quart. Journ. Mic. Science.’ (See p. 113.)

Mr. Archer exhibited, new to Britain, Hormospora transversalis
(Breb.), which he had taken at Kilbride, county of Wicklow. This
exceedingly elegant little filament seemed, with us at least, to be
very rare; he had never before encountered it, and in the present
gathering it was extremely sparing. With a reference to de
Brébisson’s paper and figure (‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’
3 ser., tome 1. Bot., p. 25, t. 1, fig. 2) it would be here unnecessary
to describe the plant. But Mr. Archer thought it might perhaps
be worth while to draw more particular attention to the fact of
the self-division of the individual elongate cells taking place in
the longitudinal direction, than de Brébisson seems to do. It
seems a singular occurrence amongst these simple cellular struc-
tures, the self-division taking place in elongate cells otherwise
than transversely, that is, through the shorter diameter. Here
the sharp line formed by separation of the parent cell-wall by a
suture could be seen, and the opposite apices of the cells thus
oftentimes presented an acute angle, formed by the extremities of
the sharply-defined margins of the parent cell-wall,—adding to the
beauty of the plant.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 173

Mr. Archer likewise exhibited fine specimens of the various
stages of conjugation in Closterium lineatum, showing its remark-
able double zygospore; these formed exceedingly striking and
handsome objects. It was worthy to note the seeming indi-
vidualisation of the halves of the parent cells which took place, so
that although self-division had not set in, these halves may be
regarded as physiologically two distinct cells. In the early stage
two canals are formed, of course side by side, within which the
two spores are formed, the adjacent surfaces becoming more or
less flat-sided by mutual pressure. Nothing could be more exact
than the fine figure of the mature pair of zygospores and mode of
attachment of the parent fronds than that given in Ralf’s
‘British Desmidiee.’

November 15th, 1866.

Dr. John Barker exhibited a specimen of drcella dentata of
seemingly exceptionally pellucid character, thus showing the
pretty dotted markings and undulate outline to advantage.

Mr. Archer, in continuation, exhibited a series of rhizopodous
forms from fresh water, some of which had not yet been recorded
in Ireland, and one he thought he felt justified in considering the
type of anew genus. With a view to make the exhibition of the
series now shown somewhat more explanatory and generally
interesting, Mr. Archer endeavoured to give a résumé of the system
of classification of the Rhizopoda adopted by Dr. Carpenter, who
divides them into three groups, founding, seemingly naturally
enough, his distinctions on the characters presented by the Pseu-
dopodia ; thatis, the Lobosa, or those with lobose finger-like pseu-
dopodia, e. g., Amceba, Difflugia; the Radiolaria, or those with
exceedingly slender filiform pseudopodia, occasionally somewhat
branched ; e. g., Actinophrys, Cyphoderia, Euglypha, in neither of
which groups the pseudopodia become naturally fused on contact ;
and, lastly, the Reticularia, or those with slender pseudopodia,
which, on contact, become fused or mutally incorporated, often-
times in a reticulose manner, frequently irregularly branched, and
here and there notably expanded, e. g., Gromia, Foraminifera at
large.

The examples now exhibited were altogether confined to the
two former groups.—The Lobosa were represented by various
Difflugiz and Arcelle. Here, again, Mr. Archer would venture
to delay one moment to mention that the more frequently these
creatures presented themselves to him, the more it seemed to
force itself upon him that they were not things convertible, but
that the same forms again and again turned up; also when cases
of “conjugation” were met with, which, at certain periods, does
not seem a very rare phenomenon, it still always took place the
same species with the same species, within each particular genus.

174 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Amongst the Difflugian (Lobose) forms which here presented
themselves was that exceedingly well-marked and withal very
pretty species Diflugia triangulata (Lang). The figure given by
Mr. M. H. Lang (‘ Quart. Journal of Microscopical Science,’ No.
XX, October 1865, p. 285) is abundantly graphic, in order to
recognise the animal at a glance.

Mr. Archer likewise showed some other interesting forms be-
longing to the Radiolaria in Carpenter’s sense, one altogether new,
and besides which several others seemingly more or less uncom-
mon, or, at least, for the first time recorded as Irish, were pre-
sented. In this rich gathering those which seemed to be common
were Euglypha alveolata, Actinophrys sol, and A. EHichhornii, ot
which latter there was on the table a fine specimen which had
engulphed three Stentors, proportionately not very moderate mor-
sels. Of those not before recorded in Ireland, although possibly
not uncommon in suitable localities, there were several distinct
and well-marked forms. Two of these were Zrinema acinus
(Dujardin), and Cyphoderia margaritacea (Schlumberger).

One of those now exhibited seems to be absolutely new; it
appears to find, however, its closest affinity in the genus Pseudo-
difflugia (Schlumberger) ; specimens of forms seemingly referable
to the latter genus, as time did not now permit, Mr. Archer
hoped to be able to present at the next meeting of the Club.
Of the new form he hoped that a figure would shortly appear
in the ‘Microscopical Journal ;’ hence it would be unnecessary
to give any details here.

This new form, however, seems to be distinguished from every
freshwater rhizopod by haying at each opposite extremity of the
test a distinct rather wide aperture, furnished with a short, well-
marked neck. From each of these opposite apertures there issues
a dense compact tuft of slender filiform occasionally branched
pseudopodia. For this genus Mr. Archer would propose the name
Amphitrema.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright regarded the exhibition that evening
by Mr. Archer of so many forms of fresh-water Rhizopods as one
of great interest. He had had abundant opportunity of examin-
ing many specimens of the form, for which Mr. Archer had very
properly constituted a new genus, Amphitrema. He was aware that
in supporting Mr. Archer’s views on this subject he was venturing
on very debateable grounds. Some, as Dr. Wallich, reasoned that
because the animal forming the test may be of the same nature in
a certain number of forms, it mattered not what shape, or what
size, or what material the test should be composed of; all the forms
having such an animal should be included in the same genus.
Now, while such reasoning is, doubtless, to a certain extent cor-
rect, and while Dr. Wright did not find it hard to believe that all
the Rhizopodal forms had a common descent from single Ameeboid
form, still he believed it to be advisable, and in keeping with

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. bly 3

modern ideas of classification, to take certain well-marked differ-
ences—which must in most instances be arbitrarily selected—and
to place the animals possessing these differences into groups by
themselves. It was not of much consequence whether these
groups received the name of genera or species, as long as these
differences were sufficiently constant to be easily recognised. In
the case of Amphitrema, although the test was something of the
same nature as that met with in some species of Difflugia, and
although the animal itself did not appear to differ essentially from
some other actinophryan testaceous Rhizopods, still, finding it
always provided with two orifices for the emission of its pseudo-
pods, and those pseudopods of a radiolarian type, entitled it, Dr.
Wright thought, to generic distinction, and this opinion would
not be altered by the even strong probability of its being a tran-
sitional form between an amceban and an actinophryan, so covered
with a chitinoid test, and loaded with mineral matter, that, except
through these two openings, it was unable to protrude its pseudo-
pods. Dr. Wright had also found Cyphoderia margaritacea(Schlumb.)
in a gathering from the Castle grounds at Parsonstown. The
general resemblance that this form bears to Lagynis baltica of
Schultze, as figured by Carpenter, was very great; but Dr. Wright,
haying seen a specimen, was not prepared to regard Schultze’s
species as only a variety of Schlumberger’s. At the same time, he
agreed with Dr. Wallich that there was no occasion for the sepa-
ration of Cyphoderia from Dujardin’s genus Euglypha.

The Rey. E.O’ Meara exhibited two new species of Surirel!la, which
he named S. pulcherrima and S. gracilis, descriptions and figures of
which will hereafter appear in this Journal.

December 20th, 1866.

Dr. John Barker exhibited the larval state of a small dipterous
insect, affording another pretty instance of “homes without
hands.” The larva was in great part enveloped in a compressed
quadrangular case, expanding towards the posterior end, elliptic
in section; the aperture elliptic, semi-trumpet-shaped, everted
and a little flattened. Through this the larva protruded its head
and three pair of legs, which were long, and, with the exception
of the first pair, which were short and ended in a forceps, were
armed with long and slightly curved, unequal hooks. By means
of its legs the creature crawled along the bottom and sides of the
vessel, carrying the case swinging obliquely above. The two
valve-like sides of the case approximated towards the base, so as
to present a slit ; it seemed composed of structureless chitine, with
a few hairs on its surface. It was about 3,” in length, and 7,”
broad at the base. The larva, after it had been in confinement

176 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

about a fortnight, anchored itself by a sort of byssus to the sides
of the vessel. First, a mucous substance was deposited on the
glass at four different points; then four sets of cords (about fifty
in each) united these attachments, two to the long axis of the
mouth of the case, and two to the angles of the base. The animal
lay much shortened, with its head curved round, its legs close
together, entirely within the case. This larval form was found
abundantly in December instant, in bog pools, on the west side
of Carrick Mountain, near Wicklow.

Dr. Moore showed the hairs of Jsonandra gutta (gutta-percha
plant), and drew attention to their structure.

The Rey. E. O’Meara exhibited several new species of Dia-
tomacez, descriptions and figures of which are intended to appear
in this Journal; these he respectively named Cocconeis clavigera,
Rhaphoneis suborbicularis, R. hispida, and R. Jonesii.

Mr. Archer drew attention to, and exhibited specimens of, a
minute unicellular chlorophyllaceous plant, certainly one he had
never seen before; and, though great diversity showed itself as
regards the individual cells, they had all a common character, so
that at a glance they might be recognised as one and the same
thing.

Viewed so far as regards outward form only, this plant might
be regarded as falling under Nageli’s genus Polyedrium; but it
differs so greatly therefrom in its mode of growth that it could
not be referred at all to that genus. It forms polyhedral cells of
varying sizes, and of the most varied number of angles, sometimes
even subrotund and cornute. In all the specimens each angle or
extension seemed to be terminated in a kind of knob-like, hyaline
tubercle—as it were a kind of thickening of the cell-wall; and b
certain of these tubercles the cells often mutually cohered to
the number of two, three, or four together.

It will thus be seen that the external form points to the genus
Polyecrium, with no described speeies of which it could, howeyer,
be at all confounded, even thus only externally viewed.

But in Polyedrium the mode of increase is by a brood of small
young Polyedria, indefinite in number, being formed by a break-
ing up of the entire cell-contents of the parent Polyedrium. These
escape by the bursting of the parent cell-wall, and seem by de-
grees to assume the form of the parent.

In the present plant, on the other hand, the cells increase by
transverse division—one old cell into two—and they often cohere
by a kind of fusion at the knob-like extremities of certain of the
prominences, reminding us somewhat of the indeed stiJl more
regular manner in which the frustules of Diatoma, for instance,
hang on together.

Now, this must necessarily place this plant away from Polye-
drium. Pending a knowledge of the genus Trochiscia (Kiitz.), it

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 177

might be premature to say that in that genus it should find its
place, inasmuch as Kiitzing has not given any details as to the
mode of growth in any of the four plants he describes (‘Species
Algarum,’ p. 162). May this plant possibly be Zrochiscia mul-
tangularis (Kiitz.), l.c.? A thought strikes one here—might it be
just possible that Kiitzing, in describing some of his forms, may
have had some partially or fully developed zygospore of some
Desmidian before him? The plant now exhibited was, at least,
no zygospore, as its mode of growth, if not its form, wholly pre-
cludes.

Dr. Ryan showed the pollen of Monstera deliciosa, forming a
pretty object under reflected light.

Dr. Moore gave some particulars of the plant itself, referring to
its leaves with natural apertures and its edible fruit.

Mr. Archer, in continuation of the exhibition by him at the
previous meeting, brought forward some additional rhizopodous
forms, some not before recorded, he believed, in this country,
as well as an additional one, which he thought must be considered
the type of a new genus amongst Radiolarian species.

Amongst the described Lobosa probably one sufficiently note-
worthy, though, perhaps, not uncommon, was Difflugia tuberculata.

Amongst seemingly undescribed Lobosa was a form, in cha-
racter of test, most nearly related to Difflugia triangulata (Lang),
but of quite a distinct figure. As in that species there were no
foreign adherent particles whatever, and the pellucid test showed
similar markings, but smaller, comparable to “broken ashler-
work in building.” This seems to be a kind of test to which
Dr. Wallich, in his yery interesting, though Mr. Archer ventured
to think not conclusive paper, does not allude. All his forms of
Diffilugia (setting aside of course Arcella, which he would include
in the same genus) are more or less coated by foreign particles.
Nor does he allude 6 the peculiar reticulated markings com-
parable to “ broken ashler-work” on any more or less denuded
specimens. Hence this character of test, it may be presumed, must
be rare, or at least local, as his collections were made so largely and
from so very wide sources.

This new form differs from Difflugia triangulata in not being at
all triangular or lobed, but in broad view regularly balloon-shaped
or pyriform, slightly drawn out into a somewhat wide neck-like
extension and compressed ; round a lateral line or centre of the
narrow side projects a more or less broad /ee/, which thus forms a
border when the broader view is towards the observer; this keel
bears just the same markings as the rest of the test. The whole
is thus not unlike the form of a pocket-flask, with a wide neck,
plus the keel. This keel is not continued on to the aperture, which
is round and smooth and without a lip, but it usually becomes
narrowed off where the gradually sloped off body becomes con-
tracted into the sub-cylindrical neck-like portion. For this form

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. M

178 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. Archer would venture to propose the name Diflugia cari-
nata.

Passing on to other types, Mr. Archer was happy at being able
to show two distinct but related forms, which time did not permit
to bring forward at last meeting, and which so far as he could make
out seemed referable to the genus Pseudodifflugia (Schlumberger)
(‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ 3 sér., tome ii, p. 256).
This genus seems to form a very distinct type, and to judge from
his paper alluded to, not apparently met with by Dr. Wallich.
These seem to be rhizopods with Radiolarian (Carpenter) pseudo-
podia and with tests apparently comparable to those of Difflugia.
These he would not here delay by dilating upon, but hoped to give
an idea of them by figure on another occasion.

The new form was very distinct indeed from any of the fore-
going, and, perhaps, might be regarded, along with Acanthocystis
turfacea (Carter), as possessing more affinity with certain marine
forms than any other hitherto recorded as being found in fresh
water.

Before, however, passing on to mention and to show a specimen
of this new form, Mr. Archer took occasion to exhibit examples
of the species just alluded to, Acanthocystis turfacea (Carter),
never before, as identified, exhibited in Ireland. He also showed
Carter’s figure (‘ Annals of Natural History,’ 3rd ser., vol. xiii,
p. 36, pl. II, fig. 25, and 3rd ser., vol. xii, p. 262). This is an
organism not very rare with us in suitable localities, but never,
seemingly, plentiful. It is rare to get a good view of the very
long and slender pseudopods ; but there can be no doubt of the
general correctness of Carter’s description. The spicules, however,
are described by Carter as crescentitorm—they seem rather to be
short bacillar, and to be held together by some common bond,
flatly arranged in one stratum round the periphery ; and thus held
together the whole acquires the character, more or less, of an inte-
gument of some tenacity, projected from which are the peculiar
shaped spines, and through which emanate the filiform pseudo-
podia.—So far as one could venture to judge, Carter seems to be
quite right in supposing Acanthocystis to be quite another thing
from Actinophrys brevichirris (Perty).

To pass on to the new form Mr. Archer desired to exhibit,
this might be most briefly defined by saying it represented an
Actinophrys plus spicula. The sarcode body possessed, immersed
and entangled in the outer region, beyond all computation densely
numerous, very slender, elongate, pellucid spicules, acute at both
ends, and lying in every possible direction. In the central por-
tion of the body were contained one or several hollow globular
clusters of somewhat large rounded chlorophyll granules; the
pseudopods numerous, exceedingly slender, very long, and fine.
As this remarkable form would require a figure to convey a just
idea of its character, Mr. Archer would here refrain from any
further attempt at description for the present. Should, how-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 179

ever, this turn out truly a new type, he would venture to pro-
pose a new generic title, Raphidiophrys, and call this curious
form Raphidiophrys viridis.

Mr. Archer further drew attention to a new form in the genus
Achlya (Nees vy. Esenb.) dicecious, the oogonia curiously and
densely cornute, which he called A. cornuta; a figure of which,
and more detailed reference, appears in the present number of
this Journal.

Mr. Archer exhibited (for the first time in Ireland) that charm-
ing rotiferon, Conochilus volvox. This seems to have been fre-
quently enough taken in England, and, though now seemingly for
the first time recorded in Ireland, Professor Greene, of Cork, had
informed Mr. Archer that he had before taken this handsome
species.

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TyNE Mecuanics’ Institution Fine Arts’
EXHIBITION.

Conversazione and Microscopical Soirée.

There were upwards of two dozen microscopes, with a number
of interesting objects to be seen through them. In so numerous
a collection it is impossible, with the limited space at our com-
mand, to go through the whole seriatim; and yet, at the risk of
laying ourselves open to the charge of being invidious, we cannot
refrain from making reference to two or three of the number, as
being novel and unique. In addition to those to which reference
will be found made in Mr. Barkas’s lecture below, we may men-
tion several objects exhibited by Messrs. Mawson and Swan, one
more especially showing the beautiful and interesting effect pro-
duced by crystals under the polarized light. Perhaps the most
wonderful—as it was certainly the most novel—object in the
whole exhibition, was that of an ordinary photograph of Shak-
speare, as seen through the eye of a beetle. The latter was thus
shown to be a series of lenses, each not more than 51,th part of
an inch in diameter. The microscope is converted into a tele-
scope, the eye of the beetle forming the object-glass, the effect
being that, on looking through the ordinary eye-piece of the
instrument, the photograph is multiplied by as many times as
there are lenses of the beetle’s eye within the focus of vision, the
whole of the figures being exactly equidistant from each other.
It was exhibited by Mr. John Brown, sen., and, it is needless to
state, was a source not only of attraction, but of wonder and
admiration, to the many who had the privilege of seeing it. Mr.
J. Davison exhibited a fresh-water hydra, a very curious object,
one peculiarity about it being that it cannot be destroyed by any
process of cutting, &c.; the only effect of that being that, instead

180 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

of destroying them, their number is increased. We must not
omit to mention a very fine variety of injected preparations, by
A. B. Stirling, Esq., of Edinburgh, and exhibited by Mr. Craggs.
One remark more, and that is with respect to the instrument ex-
hibited by Mr. J. Martin, a working mechanician, of South
Shields, who, having turned his attention to microscopes, stands
perhaps alone in the district as an amateur manufacturer of
microscopes, which approach, either in point of finish or useful-
ness, those produced by many of the most practical manufac-
turers. The exhibition was, altogether, of the most interesting
description, the “ wonders of the microscope ”’ being largely added
to by the specimens presented for inspection. Between the parts
of the concert,

Mr. T. P. Barkas proceeded to give some “ Observations on
the Microscope as an Educational Agent and Instrument of
Scientific Research,” of which the following is an abstract :—
“The eye saw that which it brought with it, the power of seeing,”
was true, not only in relation to the zsthetical aspect, but also to
the optical. Aisthetically and optically, no two persons saw ex-
ternal objects alike. The optical, however, more closely approxi-
mated than the psychological; yet in relation to the merely
optical, “the eye only saw that which it brought with it, the
power of seeing,” and without the aid of our telescopes and micro-
scopes, worlds, systems, and existences with which we were now
generally familiar, and which were far more varied and numerous
than those within reach of our unaided vision, would be entirely
unknown to us. Mr. Barkas then proceeded to explain the
leading properties of light, and showed that the difficulties in
relation to the manufacture of optical instruments which Sir
Isaac Newton, Wollaston, and others thought insuperable,
namely, those of achromatic and spherical aberration, had been
almost if not entirely overcome; and we had now microscopes
nearly as free from imperfection as was the human eye itself.
The eye, however, displayed that peculiar characteristic of all the
Almighty’s works—it exhibited the largest results with the
smallest means, and did, by a modification of one lens, what eight
lenses were required to accomplish in our favourite optical instru-
ment. He then proceeded to trace the history of the microscope,
commencing with the Assyrian lens, discovered by Layard, three
thousand years old, from the date of which till 1590 little progress
was made in microscopical manufacture. No microscope really
worthy of the name was made until 1660, and even in 1821 no
microscope was achromatic. Since that period, Brewster, Airy,
Coddington, and others, aided by the practical experience of
Rosse, Powell, and Leland, Smith and Beck, and others, had
brought the microscope to perfection. Mr. Barkas then drew
the attention of the audience to several of the specimens which
had been exhibited on the tables that evening, more especially
the objects selected from the vegetable world, the first in order

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 181

being some living marine diatomacee from the sea-shore near
Tynemouth, the most remarkable of which were the Bacillaria
eursoria, which shot backwards and forwards under the microscope
like troops moying on parade. Notice was also made of the
yoloux globator, a constant attraction at microscopical soirées ;
erystals of fluoride of silicium, closely resembling diatoms; also
to several low forms of animal life. He also alluded to some
fossil teeth and fossil jaws from the Northumberland coal
measures, exhibited by Mr. Craggs. One local naturalist, Mr.
Atthey, he said, had devoted much time to the investigation of
the fauna and flora of our local coal-fields, and that gentleman
was considered to have probably the best collection of carboniferous
fossils in existence. ‘he wonderful specimens of diatoms, fora-
menitfera, &c., from the bottom of the Atlantic and other oceans,
and exhibited by Mr. Hobkirk, next claimed the attention of and
astonished the audience, and the more so as some of the specimens
had been brought up in connection with the soundings for the
Atlantic cable. After going through several other of the speci-
mens seriatim, the lecturer proceeded to say that the microscope
was eclectic, and suited all tastes. To the natural philosopher it
was one of his greatest boons; and to the most uninquiring,
stolid mind, it presented phases of life and passages of natural
beauty, of vital and mechanical harmony, that even the most
stoical could not refrain from admiring. To the physician it ex-
hibited crystals, cells, and structures which revealed to his expe-
rienced eye and mind the seat of disease in a manner no other
process of inquiry would so thoroughly recognise. To the chemist
it showed under the polarized light the properties of his prepara-
tions, which no other means would enable him to detect. To the
natural philosopher it opened up forms of skill, beauty, and
variety, in every department of nature, which the most romantic,
fertile, and ideal mind never dreamt of; peopling every hedge-
row and pool with myriad wonders, showing the results of the
vital processes that were at work in every living mechanism,
culling from the refuse and slime of oceans forms of beauty and
diversities of light that transfigured this world into the palace of
an enchanter, touching our eyes as with the wand of a magician,
and opening them to visions of beauty and treasures more dazzling
and gorgeous than the enchanted palace opened by the genii to
Aladdin, making us feel that everywhere we walked on holy
ground, everywhere were imprints of the Divine fingers on objects
too minute to be seen by the unassisted eye of man, and yet under
a Great Father’s care—He who had seen it good to expend
mechanical skill and boundless design upon the flinty shells of
innumerable myriads of vegetables, that until very recently had
never been seen by the eye of man. All nature literally teemed
with life, the result of the Divine outworking. The microscope
made or revealed all nature as vocal with praise to its Divine
Artificer. What more appropriate could be brought into the

182 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

family circle? Amidst the drifting storms of winter and the
burning heats of summer, in sickness and in health, in riches and
in poverty, the microscope was the endless medium of amusement
and instruction. If he were asked what was the most useful
single object, as a stimulus to the study of the works of God, that
could be put into the hands of an intelligent, observing young
person, he would without hesitation answer—the microscope.

‘ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Nore on “ ASTERIDIA” occurring in PENIUM DIGITUS
(Bréb.). By Witiiam ARCHER.

Some time ago I made a gathering of some minute alge
from a pool near Enniskerry, on the road going towards
Lough Bray. Amongst these a number of globular, densely
spined bodies, with green contents, conspicuously presented
themselves. The spines densely covering these were very
numerous, very slender throughout, and acute. The bodies
themselves were mostly to be found distributed in pairs
over the field of view. These might easily be taken for so
many zygospores of some desmidian ; but much as such a
structure resembled a possible zygospore, these bodies were
not like that known of any species of the family Desmidiee,
nor was there any evidence in the gathering that they might
actually be zygospores of any form not yet known in the
conjugated state.

Hence, but for an observation made by me on a previous
occasion, the source of these curious bodies would have been
not a little puzzling.

In a gathering which I had made in the previous year,
not, however, from the same locality, I took a quantity of
the common desmidian, Penium digitus (Bréb.), and a con-
siderable number of them showed, some individuals one, the
majority two, and a few three, quite identical stellate bodies
in the interior of each cell; these seemed to me evidently
to have been formed at the expense of the individual Penium
in which they occurred. Some of the Penia showed their
cell-contents partially absorbed, and the remainder dead and
brown, whilst others did not exhibit a trace of the original
contents, but contained the (generally) two spinous bodies,
green and vigorous, one in each half of the old cell-cavity
of the Penium, the outer wail of which still enveloped them.
But afterwards these bodies might be found abundantly
without the encompassing old membrane of the Penium, and
usually distributed in pairs over the field. (Pl. VILI, fig. 4.)

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. N

184 ARCHER, ON ASTERIDIA.

Now, although in the second instance (the first here men-
tioned) in which I had found these curious-looking spinous
or stellate bodies I was unable to trace them back to a
Penium, their identity in appearance in every way, and the
fact of their having been found distributed in pairs (as if
left behind by the dissolved or decayed outer membrane of
a Penium) seems most strongly to indicate that both were
one and the same thing, and, in fact, that in both instances
these spinous bodies owed their origin to Penium digitus.

These bodies are, in fact, the ‘‘ Asteridia’”’ of the Penium,
to adopt Shadbolt’s and 'Thwaites’ term as applied to the
still enigmatical stellate or spinous bodies occurring within
the cells of other Conjugate, and, like such similar bodies,
these, too, must be regarded, I apprehend, as parasitic
growths. These are, indeed, altogether unlike the smooth
rounded or irregularly shaped, opaque, brownish, spore-like
bodies often seen in various species of Desmidiz, whose nature
continues equally problematical. The latter, indeed, may
be possibly related to Chytridium (Al. Br.) or to Pythium
(Pringsh.).

In the same gathering I presently noticed likewise a num-
ber of slightly smaller green and smooth cells, in some of
which a directly transverse well-marked light line could be
seen, indicating a commencing self-division. A few such
bodies were seen loosely invested by a colourless coat, which
coat was externally covered by slender spines; these loose
external coats stood off somewhat from the inner spherical,
smoothly bounded bodies ; the latter afterwards made an exit
by a large rent in the spinous outer coat.

Now, Pringsheim records a similar condition in certain
** Asteridia”’ in a Spirogyra,* and I have myself seen the
same slipping out by a rent-in the spinous outer coat of the
Asteridia in a Mesocarpus, and the commencing self-division.
Therefore, be the true nature of the so-called Asteridia (Shad-
bold, Thwaites) what it may, there can be little doubt but that
the bodies I describe belonging to Peniwm digitus are of one
and the same nature.

Thwaites + and Pringsheim{t seem to hold that these
bodies are not at all formed at the expense of the contents of
the cell of the Confervoid in which they occur, and yet they
both seem to regard them as of truly parasitic nature. If the
former view be correct, they could not be parasites in the

* “Zur Kritik und Geschichte der Untersuchungen iiber das Algen-
Geschlecht,’ p. 46.

+ ‘Annals of Natural History,’ vol. xvii, p. 262.

~ Loe. cit., p. 47.

ae ae

ARCHER, ON ASTERIDIA. 185

strict sense of the word. But here, in the case in question,
though these Asteridia were with green contents, like
the other forms hitherto noticed, the fact of the original
contents of the Penium seeming to have become in most
instances all absorbed, or, if not all absorbed, the residue
becoming quite effete and brown, seems to speak for their
actual parasitic nature.

It is true that Itzigsohn has sought to establish that these
** Asteridia,” as well as the very different bodies he calls
“ Spermatospheria,” are not parasitic, but to be regarded as
forming a part of the fructification of the plants in which
they occur; that they, in fact, represent the male element, and
that their contents exert a fertilising influence on the re-
mainder of the contents of the original cell in which they
occur ; nay, he even circumstantially explains the process by
assuming that the spines are tubules through which permeate
whatever the influence may be which is supposed to
emanate from the “ Asteridium” to the remainder of the
contents of the original cell—a curious fertilisation truly,
which in Penium digitus kills what it acts upon. This fancy
seems to find a kind of parallel in Hassal’s somewhat similar
assumption, that the nucleus in Spirogyra is the male organ,
the fertilisation of the parietal contents being assumed by him
to be effected in some unexplained way through the agency of
the protoplasmic threads radiating therefrom.* But these as-
sumptions need nowadays, I should think, no refutation ;
Pringsheim has long demolished several of Itzigsohn’s hypothe-
ses. The fact is that, while imagination has been largely drawn
upon to find a reproductive process in Conjugate, the true
one has been overlooked and been regarded as simply a
fortuitous or insignificant act. Because the process of conjuga-
tion is so common and so simple, it is ignored, though the
many grades and phases, in the various types which it pre-
sents, speak loudly, as it seems to me, for an acknowledgment
of its true significance.

Although, then, this crude nete possesses no yalue in
assisting to throw a further light upon these problematic
structures, yet perhaps it may not be considered altogether
without interest, for the following three reasons :—(1) That
their strictly parasitic nature in this instance seems to be
rendered very probable by reason of the destruction of the
Penium during their formation; (2) zs being the first instance
(so far as 1 am aware) of the occurrence of “ Asteridia” in
the Desmidiee ; and (3) as being of a form and size not
before noted in any of the various Asteridia recorded (fig. 4).

* British Fresh-water Alge,’ Intr., p. 6. |

186 ARCHER, ON SPIROTENIA.

So marked, indeed, in appearance are the present examples,
and, looking at the same time upon Asteridia in general as
parasitic growths, the idea becomes suggested that there may
be distinct and constant forms amongst them, and that collec-
tively they ought to form a distinct genus. This suggestion
I venture only to throw out; its confirmation or refutation
will depend, of course, on time and on a great number of in-
dependent observations.

On the ConsuGation of SpP1IROTMNIA CONDENSATA (Bréb.)
and of SpirormNIA TRUNCATA (Arch.). By Wrti1am
ARCHER.

THE two minute unicellular algee which form the subject
of the following brief communication belong to a genus—
Spiroteenia (Bréb.)—comprising several well-marked forms.

Most of these species are rare. In certain localities, how-
ever, the first species now in question, Spirotenia condensata
(Bréb.), is common; the other, Spirotenia truncata (mihi),
belongs to the most rare, having been, so far as I am aware,
found only by myself, and that in but one locality (“‘ Feather-
Bed” Mountain). But it is not to be understood, as regards
Spirotenia condensata, that any waters may present this
pretty species, for it must be sought for in suitable situations ;
then, indeed, it is frequently encountered.

But often as S. condensata presents itself to notice, dis-
tributed, as it appears to be, in Europe, and familiarised, as
we cannot fail to be, with this the commonest and at the
same time the most beautiful representative of its genus,
both it and its congeners, have hitherto resolutely refused to
reveal to us its mode of fructification or reproduction. Yet
all the species are very constant to their characteristics, and
one could not resist the feeling, as regards them, unlike, per-
haps, many of the simple plants, that they must prove to be
truly sue generis.

It is true, indeed, that @ priori we would be justified in
assuming that the mode of reproduction in this genus, like
that of Spirogyra, &c., when found, would be seen to be by
conjugation, and hence the genus has been by most authors
referred to the Desmidiacee ; nevertheless, pending a know-
ledge of the actual process from direct observation, the true
’ position of the genus has remained hitherto in doubt. Thus

ARCHER, ON SPIROTENIA. 187

only the other day, in Reinsch’s lately published work on
‘The Freshwater Alge of Franconia,* it is stated by that
writer—‘‘ The position of the Spirotenize in the system is
still very uncertain; they belong, with Eremosphera, most
probably to the Palmellacez.” Again, in de Bary’s work on
the Conjugate, as regards this genus, he states—‘ On account
of the fructification being unknown, the position of the entire
genus is not quite certain.” +

That this genus should be relegated to the Desmidiacez
will, I think, be considered proven from the following de-
scription of the conjugated state, as it differently presents
itself in two distinct species, now for the first time recorded,
and this notwithstanding Reinsch’s views expressed on the
conjugation in Palmoglcea,t a genus he still retains, notwith-
standing de Bary’s beautiful researches.§

Before, however, proceeding to describe the conjugation of
S. condensata, it would seem to me to be desirable to draw
attention to the seemingly noteworthy fact that in this species
the nucleus is parietal, not central. It forms a somewhat
large elevation, rounded on one side and straight on the
other, the convex side projecting into the cavity of the cell
and gradually sloping off all round, and its flat side towards
the wall; it is ordinarily placed equidistantly from either end
of the Spirotenia. It has imbedded in the very centre a
minute, light-coloured, distinctly marked nucleolus. The
broad spiral band of endochrome, in making its revolutions,
twice underlies the body of the nucleus, which fact will con-
vey an idea of the extent of space covered by its flat side.
The nucleolus always occupies a position just over the vacant
interval between the two parts of the spiral band which
underlies the nucleus, thus the more readily disclosing itself
to view, as there is there no chlorophyll-mass intervening to
obscure or hide it.

The figure described for the nucleus is, of course, that
presented by it when seen from the side; when seen from
above or below it naturally offers a rounded outline, and
might then be readily taken as a globular and central
nucleus.

It must be noted, however, that this characteristic of the
nucleus is plainly to be seen only in specimens kept for some
time in the house; in such examples the band of endochrome
becomes much more sharply defined, with a smooth edge, like

* ‘Die Algenflora des mittleren Theiles von Franken,’ p. 203.
- + Untersuchungen iiber die Familie der Conjugaten,’ p. 75.
¢ Reinsch, op. cit., p. 202.
§ De Bary, op. cit., p. 30.

188 ARCHER, ON SPIROTENIA.

a little ribbon—those granules, which ordinarily are more or
less scattered, and which thus tend in a certain degree to
obscure the actual characteristic spiral arrangement of the
endochrome, seem then to be absent—then the nucleus and
its nucleolus come out to view in perfection. Indeed, it is
hardly possible to see a more elegant object than a favorable
specimen of this handsome species, which shows the nucleus
in side view and the light so shed from the condenser as to
fully illuminate the whole cavity and clearly to display its
characteristic and beautiful arrangement.

I have not yet been able to detect a nucleus in any other
species of Spiroteenia; perhaps, as in S. condensata, it re-
quires favorable circumstances to reveal it. I am, however,
the more desirous to draw attention to it as it exists in the
species under consideration, inasmuch as it forms a seemingly
noteworthy exception to other Desmidiacez in this regard.
In all other species in which the nucleus can be seen it is
orbicular and central; nor does de Bary, in his work on the
Conjugate, draw attention to the peculiarity i in this species
which I have pointed out—nay, his figure* leads to the idea
that he regarded the nucleus as central ; but this may, indeed,
arise from his having seen and drawn it either from aboye or
below, and not from the side, which, as I have shown, would
be deceptive.

Another reason which causes me to think it-advisable that
attention should be drawn to the form and position of the
nucleus in this species is the possibility that observers might
imagine, upon casually viewing an example, that it perhaps
represented nothing but a detached joint of a Spirogyra.
Such a mistake, indeed,» I could hardly imagine possible
when sufficiently closely examined ; but even if it de possible,
I think, due regard being had to the circumstance that the
nucleus in Spirotenia condensata is semiorbicular and parietal,
whilst in Spirogyra it is equally compressed and central,
ought at once to preclude the chance of any confusion.

‘To pass on to the conjugated state.

When I first examined the gathering, in which this species
occurred more than usually copiously, my attention was at-
tracted by the number of cells lying side by side over the
field of view in parallel pairs. Under such circumstances it
is always well not to lose sight of the specimens of whatever
species may be so encountered, as it betokens impending con-
jugation ; accordingly I placed these aside for further ob-
servation. Nor was there any disappointment in this case.

The following is the process:

* Op. cit., t. v, fig. 12.

ARCHER, ON SPIROTANIA. 189

Shortly the cell-contents of each opposite parent-cell so
lying side by side become separated into two portions, which
by degrees become more and more contracted into a shorter
and shorter elliptic mass. As the contraction of each half of
the contents of each cell advances, the spiral arrangement
becomes more and more obliterated, until finally there is little
or no trace left of the original spiral band. (Pl. VIII, fig. 5.)

It is to be regretted that the observation is here insofar in-
complete that I can give no record of what becomes of the
nucleus during this process. Even though it became divided
along with the separation of the cell-contents into two por-
tions, and were there actually a new nucleus in each half, it
could not be indeed now seen, as the green contents become
so much more densely packed than when, as a spiral band,
they occupied the whole cavity of the parent-cell.

The outer wall of the parent-cell, now enclosing the two
elliptic masses of contents, is still to be seen (fig. 5); it is
thin, and hardly presents a double contour. By degrees it
seems to get more and more faint, vanishing finally, probably
by solution.

Now begins the conjugation. Each elliptic mass derived
from one of the parent-cells passes over and becomes conju-
gated by complete fusion with the corresponding opposite
portions derived from the other parent-cell (fig. 6). That is, al-
though the two portions of each original parent-cell may now
be regarded as physiologically distinct sister-cells, being in fact
daughter-cells without a special wall, they do not conjugate
with each other, but with the respective halves or daughter-
cells opposite to them. In other words, regarding the original
parent-cells as placed side by side vertically, the upper half
of the contents of the left-hand cell becomes conjugated with
the upper half of the contents of the right-hand cell, whilst
simultaneously therewith the lower half of the contents of
the left-hand cell becomes conjugated with the lower half of
the contents of the right-hand cell. Consequently, in every
ease of conjugation in this plant there are two zygospores
formed, the four masses having become mutually amalga-
mated into two.

At an early stage each zygospore becomes surrounded by
a halo of mucus, which by degrees seems to become more
and more dense and more definitely bounded. Each nascent
zygospore, at first of a more or less irregular figure-of-eight
shape, finally wholly coalesces to a spherical form; and each
then acquires a definite, smoothly bounded cell-wall, the
contents being densely granular (fig. 7).

Now, if observation ceased here we should have but an

190 ARCHER, ON SPIROTENIA.

inadequate and imperfect idea of the ultimate characteristics
of these pretty and singular zygospores. On keeping the
specimens it was found that they were not destined to re-
main, like the zygospores of some species, absolutely smooth,
and without external decoration. Presently there begins to
arise what seems to be a kind of border of short linear spines,
when an optical section, as it were, is brought into focus (fig. 8).
But a more close examination shows that this is not a cover-
ing of spines, but the beginning or basis of a honeycomb-like
structure all over the surface of the zygospore, and the spine-
like lines are merely the angles of the cells of the ‘ honey-
comb” structure, a little thicker than their walls. By de-
grees this honeycomb structure rises and enlarges; its cells
become deeper and deeper; then the walls of the cells of the
“honeycomb” become a little rounded externally, and each
zygospore is complete (figs. 9, 10).

By focussing an empty cell-wall of a zygospore, one can see
down into the cavities or “cells” of the “honeycomb” structure
at that part of the globe nearest to the observer, and by de-
grees more and more obliquely as they pass round to the
circumference, where they are, of course, as in the zygospore
retaining its contents, seen sideways (fig. 11). By describing
this remarkable structure as “ honeycombed,” I do not mean
to infer that the cells, or cavities, or interspaces, are always
hexagonal; they are, indeed, more or less irregular, being
three, four, five, or six-sided.

Thus, the conjugated state of this most marked species
presents two noteworthy characteristics—one the doubly
formed, as it were twin, zygospores; the other the remark-
able “‘ honeycomb” structure externally decorating them. The
doubly formed or twin zygospores have their parallel in a
very few instances only, such as Closterium lineatum (Ehr.),
and Closterium Ehrenbergii (Menegh.). In these the conju-
gation of the parent pair of cells gives rise to two spores, not
one only, as in by far the overwhelming majority of instances.
But, though so far agreeing with the species mentioned, there
are differences of detail, as is seen, proper to the species now
in question.

In the second circumstance, the “‘ honeycomb” structure,
this plant is, so far as I know, absolutely unique.

Indeed, these zygospores could not possibly in themselves
be mistaken for any other unicellular vegetable form that I
know of, if examined with any degree of attention. Viewed |
under a moderate power, there is just a possibility of the
curious “asteridium” recorded by me, appertaining to Pe-
nium digitus being confounded with it (fig. 4). The densely

ARCHER, ON SPIROTAENIA. 191

arranged short, linear spines of that structure form to the eye
a kind of border, which momentarily might be thought to re-
semble the border produced by the honeycomb structure on
the zygospores of Spirotenia condensata ; and the bodies them-
selves are, moreover, much about the same size. The prevalent
occurrence in pairs, too, of the former, after the original wall
of the Penium has disappeared, might help to lend them a
further resemblance. But I need hardly insist on their wide
distinctions when carefully viewed, yet it is, perhaps, not
quite out of place to draw attention to these very different
structures simultaneously.

As regards the second species of Spiroteenia which it has
been my good fortune to find conjugated, Spirotenia truncata
(mihi),* 1 regret that I cannot give any account of the early
stages of the process. I am only in a position to offer a
figure of the fully formed zygospore. Here, as in by far the
most of the Desmidiew, there is one spore only formed. It
is, however, of a novel form, so much so as that I feel satis-
fied it could not be mistaken for that of any other species
whatever yet known, nor for any other described unicellular
structure. The zygospore here is equally lobate, the lobes or
projections being of a triangular or conical outline, the apices
subacute ; there are no spines; the tint of the cell-membrane
appears to be of a kind of straw colour, and the contents
seem to form a globose mass in the centre, leaving the
angular lobes void. The four empty halves of the pair of
parent-cells seem to remain loosely appended, each pair dia-
metrically opposite tothe other, the zygospore between (fig. 12).

As regards the plant itself in the unconjugated state, I
might mention that the cells seemed to be somewhat more

minute than when I saw it on the first occasion; also the
spiral band was rather more narrow and definitely margined,
and sometimes appeared to branch or subdivide, and the
enveloping gelatinous envelope was less marked. The
latter circumstances might, perhaps, be accounted for, as in
S. condensata, by the gathering in which they were detected
being for some time in the house. But though the spiral
band was more sharply defined, and any scattered granules
likely to impede the view into the interior of the cavity of the
cell were likewise fewer than when I previously had seen
this species, I was yet unable to perceive a nucleus satisfac-
torily. The narrow truncate extremities and the character-
istic little space in each, now with one, still darkish granule,

* ‘Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Dublin,’ vol. in, p. 83,
e ii, figs. 29—31; also ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, N.S&.,
ol. II, Pl. XII, figs. 29—31.

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. 9

————

192 ARCHER, ON SPIROTANIA,

were there as before, which, combined with the solitary band
of endochrome and the cylindrical figure, tapering towards
the ends, rendered it without doubt that it was one and the
same plant. I was much pleased, therefore, to find this very
distinct species a second time after so long an interval,
especially in the conjugated state, forming, indeed, the second
known instance of conjugation in the genus.

I have alluded to the recent work of Reinsch, in which he
denies to “ Palmoglea macrococca’’ (Kiitz.)—more properly,
surely, regarded as a species of Mesoteenium—a place amongst
Desmidiacee, and this because he believes the plan of conju-
gation in that plant to hold a middle place between that of a
typical Desmidian and the Zygnemacee. He holds that each
parent-membrane of the conjugating cells of Mesotenium
(which, notwithstanding the heterogeneous and incongruous
character of Kiitzing’s genus Palmogleea, he stills calls by
the latter name) actually takes a share in the formation of
the zygospore itself, nay, even that the two coalesce so as to
form its special membrane, and that hence it cannot be placed
with Desmidiacez on the one hand nor with Zygnemacez on
the other. At least, then, a place in the Desmidiacee could
not be refused to Spirotenia condensata nor to S. truncata on
the same grounds. Here, manifestly, the parent-membranes
take no share in the formation of the zygospore, not even so
much as to form a connecting canal, as in Spirogyra or
Zygnemacee generally. But, though it may be in a measure
apart from the subject proper of this communication, I can-
not refrain from expressing my conyiction that Reinsch is in
error in the view he expresses as regards the process of con-
jugation in Mesotenium (Palmogl@a macrococea, Kitz.). I
venture to say that here the membranes of the parent-cells do
not take a part in the formation of the zygospore, but that
during the conjugation they are gradually thrown off, and
probably become dissolved and help to increase the surround-
ing gelatinous matter. They, in fact, come away, leaving the
contents to become mutually fused, quite as they do in Penium
or in Cylindrocystis, only they are more fugitive. See on
this point De Bary’s figures* in Mesotenium as well as
Cylindrocystis, which genera, along with some others, as
well as some as yet uncertain forms, “make up the old imcon-
gruous genus Palmogloa (Kiitz.). I venture to think that
Reinsch, the next time he examines some of these plants

* «Untersuchungen, &c.,” t. vii; also my own communication, ‘ Proceed-
ings of the Natural History Society of Dublin,’ vol. iv, p. 12, pl. i, figs. 8—
14, Mesoteninm, and 35—44, Penium ; also ‘ Quarterly Journal of “Micro-
scopical Science,’ Vol. LV, N. S., p. 109, Pl. VI.

GEDGE, ON MOTOR NERVE. 193

during conjugation, will be readily able to satisfy himself on
this point.

That, as in other Desmidiez, the new growth, in Spirote-
nia during self-division, is produced between the two older
halves, seems evidenced by the blunt extremities as seen after
division, and by the varying position of the nucleus as regards
the extremities. he genus Spirotenia, in fact, seems as truly
to belong to Desmidiacez as do Penium, Cylindrocystis, or
Mesotenium ; the place, in fact, which has been assigned to
this genus so long, even though it were but provisionally,
seems to be its legitimate position, sustained as that view is
by the fact, now here for the first time recorded in two
species, that its fructification takes place by conjugation.

ANOTHER INTERPRETATION Of Dr. Moxon’s Dtscvorry.
By J. Grpce, M.R.C.S.

In the number of this Journal for October, 1866, Dr. Moxon
brought forward a valuable paper on the distribution of the
antennal nerve in a Culex larva. The value of this paper,
to my mind, however, consisted in the accurate account and
delineation he gave us of what he saw. With Dr. Moxon’s
observations I find no fault, but with his conclusions I can-
not agree. On these latter I had hoped that some more able
and better-known observer than myself would have come
forward and given his opinion; but asthe last number of the
Journal was silent, I feel bound to show that consent to his
views is not universal—that his observation may bear another
interpretation.

Dr. Moxon supports Kiihne’s views on the termination of
motor nerves, and he seems to consider his observation on
this dipterous larva quite aconvincing fact, which will prove
for ever the disputed point concerning the peripheral termi-
nation of motor nerves. He thus states his conclusions :—

“The nervous contents of the neurilemma are, then, con-
tinuous with a pellucid material disposed along the same side of
the fibre, between the sarcous substances and the neurilemma.”’

Though here Dr. Moxon only mentions the “ pellucid
material,” elsewhere he tells us of certain “‘ nuclei in the
space between the edge of the sarcous substance and the
sarcolemma.” And he ends his paper by saying that this
single “ proof” (é. e. the observation of an insect larva) is

.
|

194 GEDGE, ON MOTOR NERVE.

sufficient, for “no one can doubt that muscle and nerve,
universally identical in their construction, have an equally
universal identity in their manner of connection.”

Dr. Moxon, then, believes that the nerves of insects are
formed on a similar plan to those of the higher animals, but
his admirable drawing shows that he is no more able to prove
this fact than other observers.

His nerve-trunks are represented as homogeneous in struc-
ture ; still, it appears he believes them to be bundles of fibres.
Again, his ganglion is a mere mass of ganglion-corpuscles ;
but he is bound to believe that every one of these corpuscles
has fibres in connection with it, as we find to be the case in
the higher animals. In my own observations on the minute
anatomy of insects, I cannot claim to be in advance of Dr.
Moxon. In Hymenoptera I have traced the nerves from the -
ganglionic columns, branching and rebranching again and
again, have followed extremely small branches into and
through the ganglia of the sympathetic system, but never
have I been able to see what I believe to be actual nerve-
fibres, or to detect any relation between the fine nerves and
the ganglion-cells, except that of contiguity. Still, from the
fact of the nerve-trunks branching in an exactly similar man-
ner to what we observe in higher animals, I feel sure that
these nerves are made up of fibres which probably never
branch, except at their terminal distribution. And I have no
doubt that the ganglion-corpuscles, so similar in appearance
to those of the frog, though differing considerably in size and
texture, have nerve-fibres connected with them ; but though
I have been able to demonstrate this connection in the frog,
I have been unable to see any similar arrangement in the
msect.

Now, it is to me surprising that any one who cannot see
that the nerve-trunks are bundles of nerve-fibres, but only
define the outline of their sheath, should know when he is
looking at a nerve-fibre. It is true that Dr. Moxon never
speaks of a nerve-fibre; he is careful not to commit himself.
And so he only makes use of the collective or general term—
nerve. But it is impossible that Dr. Moxon can believe in
the sudden termination at one point of a whole bundle of
nerve-fibres, and therefore I take it for granted that he uses
nerve in the sense of nerve-fibre.

The nuclei and the “pellucid material” are said to be
within the sarcolemma, and are represented in the drawing
between the muscular fibre and its puckered sheath. These
nuclei are so accurately delineated, that I was at once able to
recognise them as nuclei with which I was familiar; but I

GEDGE, ON MOTOR NERVE. 195

have never seen them within the sarcolemma. Neither have
I ever seen the sarcolemma become puckered around a con-
tracted muscular fibre. Sometimes a fibre shrinks within its
sheath, and has a wavy appearance ; but then the sarcolemma
may be seen tightly strained, spanning across the concavities
of its undulating margin. The sheath described by Dr.
Moxon as the sarcolemma is in reality the fascia of the
antennal muscle.

Fascize, composed of a connective tissue, do exist in the
muscles of insects. Let any observer obtain a pupa of one
of the Sphingide for instance, and this he can do without
waiting until the spring.* Then, having removed the upper
half of the abdominal part of the pupa, and cleaned away the
fat from it, he will see four dorsal segment-muscles. Soak
these in water, or, better still, in glycerine containing two or
three drops of acetic acid to the ounce, or prepare them with
a slightly alkaline solution of carmine. The objection, how-
ever, to this latter method in this particular, is that the time
required for soaking is sufficient to allow the fluid to drive
the air out of the trachea, and then the nuclei, which by this
method I am always able to demonstrate at regular intervals
along the tracheal sheath, would lead to confusion and mis-
understanding. When prepared, detach one of these muscles
from its anterior and posterior attachment, and it will be
found to separate at once into a number of distinct fasciculi.
These contain a variable number of muscular fibres bound
together by extremely delicate tissue, corresponding in posi-
tion to the connective tissue of higher animals. Beneath this
delicate investment, but outside the sarcolemma of the con-
tained fibres, nuclei precisely similar to those described by
Dr. Moxon may be demonstrated. The tissue which invests
these fibres and glues them together, though here it has no
certain structure, is, I believe, true connective tissue, modified
in structure only in proportion to the modifications observable
in other tissues. Every muscle in the insect, and every fas-
ciculus, whatever the number of contained fibres, has its
fascia.

These nuclei, though they lie along the edge of the muscu-
lar fibres, are often very numerous, and, if carefully examined,
may be seen to be on different planes. Why they should
generally be visible only along the edge of the muscular fibres
is not easy to see, but doubtless it arises in part from the
difficulty of seeing them when they are backed by the muscle,
and partly in consequence of these gibbous nuclei being dis-
posed in an almost diffluent medium, the slightest pressure

* This paper was written in the beginning of January.

196 GEDGE, ON MOTOR NERVE.

slides them over the sides of the fibres. Now, although I
have at present been unable to prove that these nuclei belong
to nerve-fibres, still for some time past I have believed them
to be, and Dr. Moxon’s observation has done much towards
strengthening my opinion.

The soft, almost pulpy, texture, or, more correctly, con-
sistence, of the tissues in insects compared with those of the
higher animals shows them to be unfitted for tracking the
course of nerye-fibres. The muscular tissue is modified in
proportion to the modification in the connective and nervous
tissue. No one can fail on comparison to see the great dif-
ference between the muscular fibre of a vertebrate animal
and that of an insect, though at first sight the transverse
markings on each are apt to mislead. The difference in sub-
stance of the garglion-cells is also considerable. Often on the
slightest pressure these cells take a distinctly polygonal form
from mutual pressure, while in the higher animals they
always remain nearly spherical.

Those who have not made up their minds as to the termi-
nation of nerve-fibres, but stand as lookers-on at this con-
troversy, ought to be careful how they receive those observa-
tions which from time to time appear. When a man comes
forward and declares “‘ I have found the termination of a
motor nerve,” it behoves us to look carefully into his method
of research. Now, it is well known that Kiihne and his
disciples, who declare that they have seen nerve-ends, go the
right way to work to produce such appearances. Nitric acid
of the strength Kiihne uses it is quite sufficient to destroy
the capillary nerve-fibres of Beale. That these capillary nerve-
fibres do exist, I have the strongest evidence, for, by following
Dr. Beale’s delicate method of preparation, I have demon-
strated these nerve-fibres most perfectly ; so perfectly, indeed,
that I could not convince myself, until I had showed my
preparations to Dr. Beale, that these decided nerve-fibres
were the fibres unseen by Kiihne, but vaguely declared by
him to be fibrous tissue—a mistake he could not possibly have
made had he been acquainted with the appearance of fibrous
tissue when thus prepared.

Some, then, by rough usage destroy the finer nerves of the
higher animals, while others think they have found the ter-
mination of individual nerve-fibres in animals where the
nerve-fibres themselves have not yet been demonstrated.
These, then, are the points in which I differ from Dr.
Moxon:

1. The tissue known as connective tissue does exist in
insects.

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF ICELAND. 197

2. The antennal muscle has a fascia composed of this
tissue, and this sheath Dr. Moxon has called the sarcolemma.

3. The antennal nerve has a similar investment, known as
the neurilemma.

4. The neurilemma of the antennal nerve is continuous
with the fascia of the antennal muscle.

do. The antennal nerve is a bundle of nerve-fibres.

6. The nerve-fibres which are undefined within the neuri-
lemma remain undefined after they have left that sheath.

7. The ‘ pellucid material” is the mass of nerve-fibres.

8. The individual fibres, after they have left this pellucid
mass, have not been demonstrated.

9. The nuclei are probably the nuclei of nerve-fibres.

10. The antennal nerve breaks up and is distributed with-
in the muscle-fascia, but not within the sarcolemma.

On the Provoruyta of IckLAND. By W. Lauper Linpsay,
M.D., F.R.S. Edin., &c.

WHEN we consider the geographical position of Iceland,
the extent of its traffic with Britain and Scandinavia, the
abundance of the localities which it contains affording suitable
habitats for such forms of vegetation, it is not a little remark-
to find its Flora extremely defective in some of its depart-
ments, and notably so in that of the Protophyta and the lower
or Chlorospermous Alge.

Iceland has been for years in constant and regular com-
munication by steam (during the spring, summer, and
autumn months, at least) with Denmark and Britain.* The
island belongs to Denmark, a country which possesses most
zealous and accomplished naturalists; it has been repeatedly
visited by Scandinavian, French, and other continental
men of science ; and has been the field of at least one Natural
History Expedition, the fruits whereof have been published
in a series of magnificent volumes.t It is now one of the
fashionable summer excursion-fields of British naturalists
and tourists, who have during the last ten years published

* “Tceland a new Field for Tourists,” ‘ Perthshire Advertiser,’ Aug. 2nd
and 9th, 1860.

7 ‘ Voyage en Islande et au Groenland executé pendant les années 1835 et
1836 sur la Corvette La Recherche ; publié par ordre du Roi sous la diree-
tion de M. Pau) Gaimard, Président de la Commission Scientifique
d’Islande et de Groenland.’ 6 vols. folio, with an atlas, Paris, 1540.

198 LINDSAY, ON THE FPROTOPHYTA OF ICELAND.

many works of travel in Iceland, containing sections or
chapters devoted to its natural history;* and it has been
visited by British botanists of such distinction as the late Sir
W. J. Hooker, of Kew, and the present Professor Charles
Babington, of Cambridge. Its geology and mineralogy have
been the subjects of some elaborate treatises ; its birds and
their eggs have had several zealous students and collectors ; -
not a few travellers have made superficial gatherings of phe-
nogamous plants; but our knowledge of the groups of Cryp-
togams here referred to is meagre and unsatisfactory in the
extreme. I propose here to show how meagre, especially for
the information of British naturalist-tourists, in the hopes
that they may be stimulated to undertake at least what is the
comparatively easy work of collection.+

I. Diatomacee.

In a ‘ Flora of Iceland,’ { which I published in 1861, and
which included all plants up to that date recorded as having
been collected in that most interesting island, only one
Diatom was mentioned ; and even yet I am enabled to sub-
join a total list (which follows) of only ten species, some of
which, moreover, are fossil :

1. Isthmia nervosa, Kitz. (I. obliquata, Ag., in my ‘ Flora,’
p- 36). Occurs also on the coast of Denmark, England, and
Portugal.

2. Amphora Libyca, Ehrb. Libya, America, and some
parts of Central Europe.

3. A. Semen, Ehrb.

4, Navicula equalis, Ehrb. Occurs also in other parts of
Northern Europe.

5. N. constricta, Ehrb. Fossil.

6. Stauroneis aspera, Ehrb. Occurs in various parts of
Europe, from Spitzbergen and Norway toCorsica and Sardinia.

7. S. Liostauron, Ehrb.

8. Grammatophora Islandica, Ehrb. On the coasts.

* Since my own visit in 1860, works of travel have been published almost
annually by British tourists of the “ Alpine Club” class (e.g. by Syming-
ton, Forbes, Metcalfe, Gould, Shepherd). None of these, however,
are so scientific and of such permanent value as a German work published
by two of my compagnons de voyage of 1860, Professor Zirkel, of Lemberg,
Galicia, and Dr. Preyer, of Berlin, viz., ‘‘ Reisenach Island im Sommer 1860,”
Leipzig, 1862.

+ Many remarks on the subject of collection, especially of the Diatomacee,
will be found in my previous paper, “On the Protophyta of New Zealand,”
in this Journal, April, 1867, p. 97.

+ ‘Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,’ July, 1861, and ‘ Transact.
Botanical Socicty of Edin.,’ vol. vii, p. 114.

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF ICELAND. 199

9. Campylodiscus Kiitzingii, Bail.
10. Eunotia bidens, Ehrb.* Fossil in Oldenburg (Prussia).

There can be no doubt that this is a terribly inadequate
representation of the Diatoms of a country, which cannot fail
to be rich in them. Quite recently, while examining some
fragments of a Conferva from the hot springs of Laugarness,
near Reykjavik, Dr. McNab found species of at least six dif-
ferent genera (viz., Cymbella, Epithemia, Stauroneis, Pinnu-
laria, Synedra, and Gomphonema);+ and he remarks on their
identity in many cases with Scottish forms that inhabit cold
waters. From the same hot spring I brought home, in 1860,
specimens of Conferve, which I sent to Dr. Greville, and
which must have abounded more or less in Diatoms; but I
never heard the result of his examination, if he did examine
them at all. In Iceland, thermal waters of all degrees of
temperature abound ; and they are characterised by the large
amount of silica they hold in solution, and by the extent of their
siliceous deposits.t The abundance of Diatoms in the thermal
waters of Central and Southern Europe warrants us in ex-
pecting large additions to the Icelandic Diatomacez from this
source alone. But rivers and streams, shallow lakes and
extensive marshes, also abound—habitats which are generally
fertile in Diatoms in other parts of Northern Europe, and of
the world generally. Moreover Diatoms occur in the ejecta
(dust, ashes, sand) of the voleanoes—extinct or active—of
Southern Europe and other parts of the world, and these
ejecta are abundant in Iceland. The Palagonite and other tufts

* The list of species here given is cited as Icelandic on the faith of Dr.
Rabenhorst’s ‘ Flora Europea Algarum Aque Dulcis et Submarine,’ Leipzig,
1864-5, which comprises the Diatomacee and the Phycochromacee (the latter
including the Chroococcacea, the equivaient of the Palmellacee of the older
authors, and the lower Chlorospermous Alga, viz. Oscillariacee, Nostochucea,
Rivulariacee, Scytonemaceea, and Sirosiphonacee). The work is a most
comprehensive one, exhibiting great labour in compilation, and probably
representing fairly, as it professes to do, the present state of our knowledge
of the distribution of these organisms in Europe. It is impossible, how-
ever, to place implicit confidence in his citations of localities ; for, in regard,
at least, to Scottish species, he has fallen into several important errors. For
instance, he records Lismore (Carmichael) as in Iceland; and Braemar,
Killiecrankie, Cumbrae, and the Frith of Clyde, as in England !

+ “ Notice of some Diatomace from Iceland,” ‘ Proceed, Botan. Society
of Edin.,’ February 14th, 1867.

+ This is shown by the results of analyses of the hot-spring waters and
deposits brought home by me in 1860, as published in my paper ‘‘ On the
Eruption in May, 1860, of the Kétlugjé volcano, Iceland,” ‘Edin, New
Philosophical Journal,’ January, 1861, p. 18. Vide also ‘ Contributions to
the Natural History of Volcanic Phenomena and Products in Iceland,”
* Proceed. Royal Society of Edin.,’ December 17th, 1860, vol. iv, p. 387.

200 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF ICELAND.

ot Southern Europe also contain fossilised Diatoms, and
these rocks are also very largely distributed in Iceland.* It
is unnecessary further to indicate the probable habitats of
Diatoms in Iceland. Sufficient has been said to show that
there are few portions of Northern Europe more likely to
prove prolific in Diatomaceous vegetation when this shall
have been duly studied. There cannot fail to occur in Iceland
a proportion at least of those Diatoms, which have been found
commonly and widely distributed throughout Europe, or im
Northern Europe, or in the North-Sea bed ; along with others
of a more northern type or distribution. I see no reason to
doubt, indeed, that the Diatomacez alone yet tobe detected in
Iceland will exceed in number the whole of its d/ge@, marie
and freshwater, as given in my ‘ Flora’ of 1861. The re-
sult+ of my very superficial gatherings from a most limited
area In New Zealand (110 species of freshwater forms alone,
all new to the New Zealand Flora) ought to encourage even
tourists to undertake the work of collection, for in New Zea-
land, as in Iceland, I was myself but a passing traveller.?

II. Desmidiacee.
III. Palmellacee (Chroococcacee of Rabenhorst).

I know of no record of either Desmidiacee or Palmellacee
proper in Iceland, except the following solitary representative
of the latter—Aphanocapsa Grevillei, Hass. (Coccochloris
Grevillei, var. botryoides, Hass., of my ‘ Flora,’ p. 36)—which
occurs throughout Germany, Holland, and England; while
the following very short list includes all the—

IV. Chlorospermous Alge.
I have found on record—

1. Nostochacee.

1. Nostoc§ commune, Vauch.
Occurs throughout Europe.

* Palagonite tuff is regarded by geologists as of aqueous origin, and
partly, at least, a mud deposit of thermal waters. Remarks on volcanic
tuffs and various so-called “ infusorial earths,” in relation to their Diatoma-
ceous contents, will be found in my paper on Kotlugja, p. 20.

+ As it is recorded in the last number of this Journal, p. 97.

{ It should be a further source of encouragement to tourists that a
hasty and superficial collection of Zichens made by myself in 1860 from a
most limited area around Reykjavik exceeded in the number of species the
whole catalogue of the Icelandic Lichens as known up to that time; while
it also added many species to the said catalogue. (Vide “ Contributions to
the Lichen-Flora of Northern Europe ;” ‘Journal of Linnean Society,’
** Botany,” vol. ix, p. 393.)

§ Some recent writers transfer this genus or some of its species, which

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA GCF ICELAND. 201

2. N. verrucosum, L.
Throughout Europe, North America, and New Zealand.

3. N. lichenoides, Ag.
Throughout Europe.

2. Oscillariacee.
1. Oscillaria ( Oscillatoria of older authors).
O. tenuis, Ag. Distributed throughout Europe ; occurring
at Plombiéres, Aix, and Dax, in thermal waters.

2. Phormidium vulgare, Kutz., var. myo-
chroum, Witz.
(Oscillatoria, autumnals, Ag, of my ‘Flora,’ p. 36.)
Throughout Europe.
3. Chthonoblastus repens, Kiitz.
(Microcoleus, Harv., of my ‘ Flora,’ p. 36.) Throughout
Europe.
3. Rivulariacee.
1. Zonotrichia atra, Lyngb.
(Rivularia, Roth, of my ‘ Flora,’ p. 36.) Marine; coasts
throughout Europe.
2. Gloiotrichia angulosa, Roth.
(Raphidia Hass., of my ‘Flora, p. 36.) ‘Throughout
Europe.

Certain genera of the Nostochacee are widely distributed,
aud are very abundant in the Arctic regions and other parts
of the world. They frequently give a “predominant tint to
large masses of water ; for faeces! in lakes in moun-
tainous countries such as Scotland and Switzerland.

Some genera or species of the Oscillariacee are cosmopolite.*
‘They mostly inhabit fresh water, or grow on moist or wet
shady rocks, such as those about waterfalls or springs, in
ravines or gorges—in localities, that 1s, which are also fre-
quented by Hepatice. 'The commoner forms constitute a slime
on the rocks or surfaces on which they occur. They are also
partly marine, the marine forms being the largest. One of
the marine genera is of very peculiar habit, forming. a scum
on the surface of the sea for many miles. Some species also
give a peculiar tint to large masses of fresh water, as the
Nostochacee do; they are common in hot springs. Sometimes,
like certain Lichens, they are found on bleaching bones.

in Europe alone amount to about sixty, to the Licheus. The absence of
apothecia and spores is, however, a serious obstacle to its ranking as a Lichen-
genus.

* The genus Oscillaria occurs in latitude 75° 49’ north.

202 LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF ICELAND.

Occasionally, their altitudinal range is considerable, as they
ascend to 17,000 or 18,000 feet on the Himalayas.

The Confervacee are an immense tribe, whose genera or
species are more or less plentiful ina great variety of habitats
in all parts of the world. The lower or smaller forms have
generally the widest geographical range, and ascend to the
greatest altitudes (17,000 to 18,000 feet on the Himalayas).
They abound on the Antarctic Islands. Confervacee occur
equally in salt, brackish, and fresh water; in hot springs; on
soil and rocks however bare, when sufficiently moist and
shaded; and on various aquatic plants. Generally speaking,
the branched marine species are the larger, but some of those
which occur in mountain streams are also very long and fila-
mentous. Not infrequently, the freshwater forms occur on
the surface of stagnant water in masses so dense and so
closely packed that they have obtained and deserve the name
of “ water-flannel”’ or “‘ water-paper.” A similar mass, which
sometimes resembles a coarse textile or felted fabric or paper,
appears occasionally on flooded ground. Some genera or
species contain, like various higher (Rhodospermous) Alge,
considerable quantities of calcareous matter, which obscures
or complicates their botanical character.

The Batrachospermee constitute a small group of delicate
and beautiful forms. The typical genera and species are
mostly confined to the northern hemisphere, though some
are cosmopolite or are very widely diffused. Certain species,
as in the Confervacee, contain a considerable amount of cal-
careous matter. ‘The species of the genus Batrachospermum are
natives of fresh water, with the exception of one, which in-
habits the sea.

Of the Stphonee, some genera and species affect sandy
shores, others rocks above or below high-water mark,’ or
exposed only to the sea-spray; others, again, inhabit deep
water. Some are confined to warm, but others to cold, cli-
mates. ‘The Vaucherie are widely distributed, occurring both
in the southern (Kerguelen’s Land, New Zealand), and
northern, hemispheres. They frequently abound in pools
about waterfalls, and on damp soil or mud. Like so many
of the lower Algz, they exhibit a wonderful power of resisting
extremes of temperature.

We have seen, then, that many of the Chlorospermous Alge
are ubiquitous—that they abound in Arctic and Antarctic, as
well as temperate and tropical, climates—that they ascend to
great elevations—that they occur in waters of all kinds and
temperatures, as well as in a great variety of other habitats.
Moreover, Rabenhorst’s and other works show how plentiful

LINDSAY, ON THE PROTOPHYTA OF ICELAND. 203

they are throughout Europe, including Scandinavia and
Britain ; and yet so recently as 1861 the Flora of Iceland
contained, and apparently still contains, only three species of
Nostoc representing the Nostochacee ; three species of the
Oscillariacee ; two of the Rivulariacee ; three of the Zygnema-
cee; nine of the Confervacee ; and none of the Siphonee,
Batrachosphermee, or Hydrodictyee.*

I feel assured that these figures represent only the merest
fraction of the Chlorospermous Alge of Iceland, and that, in-
deed, this department of the Icelandic Flora remains as yet
virtually unexplored.

The freshwater Alge are, however, much more difficult to
preserve in a proper condition for determination than the
Diatomacex, whose siliceous skeletons or cases effectually
protect them for all time. The freshwater Algee, and espe-
cially the Confervacee, I brought from Iceland in 1860 were
found, on unpacking them at no long interval, in a state quite
unsuited for identification by the most experienced algolo-
gists; and similar was my experience in regard to my New
Zealand collections of the same group of organisms in 1861.7
These delicate groups of Alge should, indeed, either be exa-
mined on the spot, or be preserved with special care. No
doubt it is owing to this difficulty in preserving them that so
little, comparatively, is known of this interesting and large
group of Alge in such countries as Iceland and New Zea-
land.

My < Flora’ of 1861 further shows that the Fungi—espe-
cially the lower orders—are almost equally comparatively
unknown in Iceland ; and to a certain extent the remarks just
made in regard to difficulty of preservation, and the desira-
bility of study on the spot, in the living or fresh condition of
the plants, apply equally to the Icelandic Fungi. ‘The result
of my New Zealand collections in 1861 was that, as in the
case of the Chlorospermous Algz, there was a large proportion
of genera and species unfit for determination. +

* Among the immense number of species constituting his Phycochromacee,
Rabenhorst so lately as 1865 gives not a single Icelandic citation!
+ “On New Zealand Algae.” ‘ Trans. Botan. Society of Edin.,’ vol. vill,

p. 420.
t “On New Zealand Fungi.” ‘Trans. Botan. Society of Edin.,’ vol. ix,
p. 13.

204

On a LARVAL Form of Ixsecr.
By C. Tomes, Esq.

Wer have received a very interesting communication
from Mr. C. Tomes, on the subject of a larval form of
insect, referable, in all probability, to the genus Hydroptila,
which is remarkable for the curious and beautiful cocoon it
forms of a silky material, covered on the exterior with por-
tions of a Conferva arranged in a remarkable manner. A
brief notice of apparently the same object, was given to the
Dublin Microscopical Club by Dr. John Barker, as reported
in our January number.

Mr. Tomes’s paper was, unfortunately, put into our hands
too late for insertion in the present number, but will appear
with full illustrations by Mr. Tuffen West in our next.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMAN Y.—Zeitschrift f. wiss. Zoologie. Vol. xvii, Part
2—]. “On the Occluding Apparatus of the Trachee in Insects,”
by Dr. H. Landois, and W. 'Thelen.—The first writer who
pointed out the existence of a special apparatus for the closure
of the tracheze was Burmeister,* who described and figured it as
found in the larva of Oxyetes nasicornis. As the apparatus in
question in this insect is placed very close to the stigma, Bur-
meister concluded that it served for the closure of that part
itself. But the authors of the present paper show that, in most
instanees, the occluding apparatus is quite independent of the
stigma, and destined solely to the closure of the trachea. More
lately three papers have appeared on this subject :—1. By L.
Landois,t who describes the apparatus in question in the
Pediculine ; 2. by H. Landois,{ who studied it in the Lepi-
doptera ; and 3. by W. Thelen,§ whose subject was Tenebrio
molitor.

The parts composing the closing apparatus are—

1. The bow (Verschlussbiigel).

2. The lever or axis (Verschlusshegel, or Kegel).
3. The ligament.

4, The muscle.

The first three parts constitute a sort of frame-work sur-
rounding the commencement of the trachea, and they are
articulated together. The “ bow,” usually of a crescentic
form, constitutes the firm basis of the apparatus ; and it sur-
rounds about one half of the tube. The remaining portion is
surrounded by a thin membranous ligament, which is drawn
towards the ‘‘ bow” in a variety of ways, and thus effects
the closure of the tube. In some cases this approximation is
effected by means of a simple chitinous rod connate with

* © Handbuch der Entomology,’ theil i, p. 171.

+ L. Landois, ‘ Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool,’ xv, part 4.
+ ‘Archiv. f. Anatom., &c.,’ 1866, p. 43.

§ Ibid., p. 391.

206 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

the ‘ligament.’ In other cases a rectangularly bent ‘‘lever ”’
acts upon the ligament, and thus causes the occlusion of the
tube. In the Coleoptera there are either one or two levers of
this kind. And the same arrangement is also found in the
Hymenoptera.

The contraction of the muscle acting upon the lever or
rod, as the case may be, approximates the “ ligament’’ to
the “ bow,” and thus closes the apparatus. On the cessation
of the contraction the parts regain their former position by
their elasticity.

An apparatus of the above kind is found, according to the
authors, in all insects. But in some, as among the Neurop-
tera—in Agrion, Libellula, &c.—it is reduced to a minimum, It
is very manifest, even in minute species, as in the Pediculinz
and Pulicide. In many cases it is so much developed as to
constitute a sort of larynx, and as such may serve as a vocal
organ. .

The solid chitinous parts are always connected in such a
way, that in a state of quiescence the tracheal tube remains
open, and gives free entrance and exit to the air through the
stigma. Muscular action is necessary to close the apparatus.
This is effected in all cases by a single muscle, which differs
in different species in the greater or less number of its fibrille.
One end of the muscle is always attached to the extremity of
the lever or levers, whilst the other is usually mserted into
the occluding apparatus itself, that is to say, in the “ bow ;”
but in some cases in the hypodermis close to the stigma, in
which case there is provision of thin vibratile membranes.

The authors then proceed to point out that a closing appa-
ratus of some kind to the tracheze must be required in all
insects, inasmuch as the movement of the air in the trachee
can only be effected by the movements of the body or
muscles, &c., which, were the exit of the air at all times free,
would have as great a tendency to expel it through the
stigma, or even a greater than to force it onwards into the
minute ramifications of the tracheal system.

The remainder of the paper, which occupies nearly thirty
pages, and is illustrated by beautiful figures, is taken up with
a description of the modifications presented by the occluding
apparatus in various insects.

1. Among the CoLroprera in Cicendula campestris,
Geotrupes vernalis, Meloe proscarabeus, Curculio nebulosa,
Melolontha vulgaris, Hydrophilus piceus, Lamia textor,
Lucanus cervus.

2. Among the LrpipopreRA in Pieris rahe, Vanessa
urtice, Cossus ligniperda, Pygera bucephala.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE, 207

3. Hymenoptera, Bombus terrestris, Apis mellifica, and
the Entomospheces.

4. Diptera, Musca vomitoria, Pulex canis.

5. Nrvuroprera, in which, as before remarked, the appa-
ratus is less developed than in any other order of insects,
its condition is described in Panorpa communis.

6. In the Bucs we find Cimez lectularia, Pentatoma bacca-
rum.

7. OrruorpTera, Periplaneta orientalis.

Il. “ On the occurrence in the encysted condition of
Distoma squamula, Rud., in the Brown Frog,” by Dr. Ernst
Zeller.—In certain districts, and in the author’s observation
especially in the neighbourhood of Tubingen, the integu-
ments of the frog are found to be studded with numerous
little nodules, which do not seem to have been hitherto
noticed or explained. When present they may vary in
number from thirty or forty to several hundreds, and they are
scattered all over the body, but are especially frequent in the
hinder extremities, in the membrane between the toes, and
on the abdomen. ‘They project manifestly above the surface,
and are about the size of a common pin’s head, and of a
whitish colour, though sometimes brownish or blackish.
They are lodged in the substance of the corium, and consist
of a firm connective-tissue capsule which contains the colour-
ing matter, and of a minute cyst lodged in this capsule.

The cyst, which is easily enucleated, is spherical and
about 0°58mm. in diameter, of a white colour, and semi-
transparent. It contains a convoluted Distoma.

The anatomy of the worm is then described, and it is shown
to be distinct from’all the encysted Distomata hitherto met with
in the frog, viz., Distomum crystallinum, Rud., Distoma
diffuso-calciferum, Gastald, Distoma acervicalceferum, Gast.,
Distoma tetracystis, Gast. All of which, besides their dif-
fering in anatomical structure, are lodged beneath the integu-
ment.

The author has satisfied himself that it is identical in the
mature state with Distomum squamula of Rudolphi, which is
found in the intestine of the J/tis.

III. “ On the Embryonal Development of Asellus Aqua-
ticus,” by Dr. Anton Dohrn.—This is a very long and elabo-
rate memoir, illustrated with figures showing (1) the develop-
ment of the embryo in the ovum of Asellus aquaticus, and
(2) that of the internal organs—liver, dorsal vessel, stomach,
and intestine.

IV. ‘* A Contribution on the subject of the Structure of the
Thyroid Gland,” by Dr. Peremeschko, of Casan.— The struc-

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. P

208 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

ture of the thyroid gland, he says, still remains in some measure
a subject of dispute. In the writings of anatomists the most
contradictory views. are met with respecting the essential
elements of the organ, namely, the vesicles ; and especially
are the opinions of enquirers divided with regard to the
secretion of the gland, viz., the so-termed colloid substance ;
some regarding this as a normal product, and others as a patho-
logical one. The size of the vesicles, which depend upon the
greater or less accumulation within them of the colloid
substance, is regarded by many as a diagnostic character of a
normal or pathological condition of the organ. These and
similar differences of opinion have induced the author to
think that it would be useful to submit the structure of the
gland to further comparative investigation. With this view
he has examined it im man, dog, cat, rabbit, hedgehog,
mouse, rat, sheep, ox, calf, pig, jackal, fowls antl raven; in
all of which the structure of the gland is the same, consisting,
as is known, of vesicles which constitute the essential element,
connective tissue, blood, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.

As regards the structure of the vesicles, the author has
never been able to perceive any membrana propria, as described
by Kdlliker, and denied by Frey, Hessling, ‘and others ; ;
whilst some assert that the membrana propria is lined with
an epithelium, the existence of which is disputed by others,
as Eulenberg and Ecker.

Though unable to find any membrana propria, Dr. Pere-
meschko has satisfied himself of the presence of an epithelial
lining, which rests immediately upon the surrounding homo-
geneous, membranous layer, formed of condensed connective
tissue. The epithelial cells are firmly attached to each
other, and but loosely to the connective tissue layer, so that
in some instances the entire vesicle may, as it were, be enu-
cleated. He finds the vesicles to increase in size in proportion
to age, and consequently that what has in some instances been
regarded as a pathological enlargement, may have been
merely due to the advanced age of the animal.

The paper is a very interesting contribution to our _know-
ledge of the thyroid gland.

wast Contributions « on the Anatomy and Classipeeiee of the
Holothuriade,’”’ by Emil Senka.—After a short but very com-
prehensive account of the anatomical structure of the Holothu-
riadz, which leaves little to be desired, the greater part of this
very valuable paper is occupied with a sy stematic classifica-
tion and description of the species contained in the rich
collection brought together by Professor Keferstein, in the
Zoological Museum of “Gottingen ; ; and the still richer stores of

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 209

the Museum of Cambridge, U.S., which had been furnished.
to the author by Professor Agassiz.

The paper is one of the most valuable memoirs on the
subject that has ever appeared. The observations respecting
the calcareous deposits in the integument, some of which are
stated to be formed of that form of carbonate of lime termed
arragonite, will be found highly interesting to microscopists.

Max Schultze’s Archiv fur Mikr. Anatomie,—Vol. III, 1st and
2nd Parts.—We have to notice the two parts of our valued
contemporary issued for the first part of the present year.
The papers in the first number are the following :

1. * Researches on the Physiology of the Phycochromacee
and Floridee,’ by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, of Breslau.

2. “ Researches on Microphotography,” by Dr. Berthold
Benecke, of Konigsberg.

3. * On the Sculpture of the Siliceous Shell in Grammato-
phora,” by M. Schiff, of Florence.

4. “ On the Structure of the Liver of Vertebrate Animals,”
by Dr. Ewald Hering.

5. “On the Epithelium of the Macule acustice of Men,” by
Dr. Odenius.

6. “ Note on a Yellow Injection-fluid,” by Prof. Hoyer, of
Warsaw.

Dr. Cohn, in his paper, which is one of considerable ex-
tent, has made use of the spectrum in examining the colour-
ing matters; and his researches on that account, as also from
their relation to the movements of low organisms, and his
other observations elsewhere noted, will interest our readers.
Dr. Cohn thus gives his results in extenso at the conclusion
of his essay:

(1) The verdigris colouring matter of the Phycochromacesx
—namely, the Phycochrome of Nageli—is a compound body,
consisting of a green matter known as chlorophyll, which is
insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether, and of a
blue matter to be called Cohn’s phycocyan, which is soluble
in water, and insoluble in alcohol and ether. (‘This latter
must not be confused with the phykokyan of Kiitzing, which
is synonymous with the phycochrome of Nageli; neither with
the phycocyan of Nageli, which corresponds with the blueish-
green modification of phycochrome.)

(2) In the living cells both colouring matters are inti-
mately connected and form a mixed colour, phycochrom. In
consequence of the changed osmotic relations which take
place on the death of the cells, the phycocyan is dissolved in
the water which penetrates by endosmosis, and then appears

210 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

by dialysis as'a blue fluid, whilst the chlorophyll remains in
the cells.

(3) The most characteristic properties of the aqueous solu-
tions of phycocyan are, Ist (spectrum), their lively fluores-
cence in carmine is destroyed by heat and by very many
reagents ; 2nd, their separation into water and colouring-
matter in the capillary spaces of filtering-paper; 3rd, their
dimness and colourlessness on being boiled; fur chenmores
phycocyan is precipitated from its solution as a blue jelly on
the addition of alcohol, acids, and metallic salts, and as a
colourless one by potash and ammonia.

(4) The purple-red or violet phycochromacee contain phy-
cochreme, which is composed of chlorophyll and a purple,
but generally (not apparently different) blue modification of
phycocyan, which easily turns into a verdigris-coloured sub-
stance.

(5) The red-brown colouring-matter of the Floridee—
namely, the rhodophyll of Cohn—is also a compound body,
consisting of Cohn’s chlorophyll and phycoerythrin, neither
of which are analogous to Kiitzing’s phykoerythrin (which
is rhodophyll), or ‘to Nageli’s phy coerythrin (which is a
purple modification of phycochrome).

(6) Further, rhodophyll, which is undivided in the living
Floridez-cells, becomes split up into its two component parts
after death by the endosmotical passage of water; in which
case the green chlorophyll remains in the cells, whilst the
red phy coerythrin is taken away by dialysis in a watery
solution. This exhibits a lively fluorescence in the yellow
part of the spectrum (Rosanoff), or the green part (Rytiphlea,
Cramer), and is acted upon by boiling, alcohol, acids and
bases in the same manner as phycocyan. It has not yet been
determined exactly how the purple modification of phycocyan
and phycoerythrin differ.

(7) ‘The near relationship of phycocyan and phycoerythrin,
on the one side, and that of the two bodies which are formed
of these and chlorophyll (namely, phycochrome and rhodo-
phyll), on the other, is confirmed by the fact that phyco-
chrome is present in the Floridez, whilst rhodophyll is present
in their nearest allies, namely, Bangia, Chantrausia, Batra-
chospermum, and Lemania, Ww hich, although belonging to the
Floridee, include verdigris- coloured species as well as red,
and thus point to a nearer relationship between Phy cochro-
macez and Floridee. ‘This is strengthened by a fact in the
history of their development, namely, the want of vibrating
cilia, and the consequent self-moyement of their reproductive
cells.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 211

(8) The old ideas concerning the vibratory movement of
the antherozoids in the Floridez arose most likely from con-
fusing them with the zoospores of epiphytic Chytridia.

(9) Two principal types are united in the Algz, which,
commencing with their lowest homologous forms, differ more
and more in their higher stages of development, and are most
easily characterised by the presence or want of swarm-cells,
which are moved by flagella or vibratory cilia. ‘The first
order commences with the Chroococcacee, to which the Bac-
teria and Oscillariz, and to which the Vibriones belong, as
also Nostocacee, Rivularie, Scytoneme ; thus finishing with
Lyngbya and Lirosiphon; Bangia belongs to the Floridee,
and, through the Collemacez, is connected with Lichens (As-
comycetes). ‘The propagation-cells of all of them are with-
out organs of movement; the colouring-matter, as a rule, is
not pure green, but generally composed of chlorophyll and
another separable body.

The second order begins with the Protococcacee, includes
the Chlorosporez, Phzeosporeze, Fucacez, and finishes by
connecting itself with the Mosses through the Characez. In
this division, in which either the whole or only the asexual,
or only the male reproducing-cells are provided with whips
(flagellatee) or cilia (ciliate), the colouring-matter is either
a pure chlorophyll or else a red or brown modification of that
body.

(10) Since among the colouring-matters of those Alge which
are not green in colour, phycochrome and rhodophyll both
contain a large amount of chlorophyll in their composition ;
and since also the brown colouring-matter of the diatoms
Pheospores and Fucaceze, as well as the scarlet oil (heemato-
chrome) of chlorospores, seem merely to be modifications of
chlorophyll, we may say that chlorophyll is the means of
carrying on the process of assimilation in all developing

lants.

(11) The movement of the Oscillariz depends on three
facts :—Ist. A steady but changeable rotation around the long
axis of the plant. 2nd. The power of being able to push
itself variably backwards and forwards. 3rd. The power of
being able to bend, to stretch, and to twist, or, in one word,
its flexibility.

(12) The reason of the rotation has not yet been disco-
vered. The forward motion seems, as in the wheels of a
carriage, to come from the revyolying movement through
pressure on the substance which supports the Oscillaria, be-
cause the Oscillaria, as a rule, are never able to move forwards,
except when they have some surface for support, such as a

212 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

foreign body, their own threads, or the surface of the water,
and also because they are generally not able to swim freely
through the water.

(13) The property to bend and twist themselves, which,
combined with rotation, seems to give them a pendulum-like
movement, depends upon the contractility of the cells, which
shorten a little on the concavity of the bend, and stretch a
little on the opposite side. The contractility is so great in
Beggiatoa mirabilis that it produces vermicular waves, and
gives peristaltic movement to the threads.

(14) Certain Oscillarie—namely, Beggiatoa—give rise in
water, perhaps through the decomposition of sulphuric salts,
to free sulphuretted hydrogen. Since this class of Algze alone
thrives in hot and strongly salted waters, it appears probable
that the first organisms which were present in the sea of
high temperature which covered the earth were Oscillarie,
or rather Chroococcacee.

The only other article which we can notice from this num-
ber is that of Dr. Hering on the Liver.

The substance of this paper was communicated in parts to
the Academy of Vienna. The author concludes that the liver
in Reptiles, Fishes, and Birds is to be regarded as a reticu-
larly arranged, tubular gland. The liver of mammals differs
in this, that there is nothing whatever to be seen of an ulti-
mate tubular structure. All the oft-repeated assertions of
the presence of a tubular structure must be regarded as
erroneous. Dr. Hering regards Beale’s researches, which
tend to prove a tubular structure in the liver of the pig, as
erroneous, in consequence of a destructive method of pre-
paration. ‘The view lately put forward, according to which
the gall-vessels are regarded as a special system of capillaries,
which, like blood-capillaries, have a special membrane form-
ing their walls, external to which the liver-cells lie, is also,
according to Dr. Hering’s observations on eleven different
mammals, erroneous. The analogy between the structure of
the liver and other secreting glands consists in this, that
there, as here, gland-cells encompass the gland-ducts, so that
the latter are everywhere separated from the blood-capillaries
by interposed gland-cells. The liver is distinguished from
other glands by the relatively large layer intervening between
blood-yessels and gland-epithelium. The paper occupies
twenty-five pages, and enters very fully into details, a coloured
plate accompanying it.

Second Part.—The bulk of this number is occupied by a
paper on epithelial and gland-cells, which is illustrated with
seven large folding plates, and by a continuation of his re-

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 2138

_ searches on the retina by the illustrious editor. The papers
are as follow:

1. “ Epithelial and Gland-cells,” by Franz Eilhard Schulze.

2. “ On Secreting-cells in the Integument of Limazx,’ by
Max Schultze.

3. “ On Hyalonema,” by Max Schultze.

4. “On the Rods and Cones of the Retina,’ by Max
Schultze.

5. “ On a Theory of Colour-perception,” by Dr. W. Zenker.

6. ‘On the Peripheral Ending of Motor Nerves,” by Dr.
W. Moxon.

The paper by Herr Franz Schulze appears to be a very
elaborate and detailed essay on the epithelial cells of Fishes,
Amphibia, Reptiles, and Mammalia, and the plates are very
beautifully executed. We cannot, however, here give his
results, as they are spread widely over the whole paper.

Prof. Schultze’s paper on Limaz is a short description,
called forth by the preceding paper, of the gland-cells in the
slug, which secrete the enormous quantity of mucous matter
noticeable in these molluscs.

Dr. Pietro Marchi, of Florence, who has been making ob-
servations on this structure, is investigating its homologue in
other snails, and will publish a paper on the subject shortly.

Prof. Schultze’s paper on Hyalonema is a translation of
that which he recently published in English, in the ‘ Annals
and Magazine of Natural History,’ and which we have pre-
viously noticed.

Dr. Zenker’s paper is one dealing with optical and phy-
sical laws, as wellas with anatomical structure. He discusses
the relation of the wave-lengths of light of various colours
to the perception of colour, and gives as his chief result
that this sense is not so much to be regarded as dependent
on the time of vibration of the light, as on the position of the
incident rays in relation to the elements of the retina.

The number concludes with a brief abstract of Dr. Moxon’s
paper, published in the January number of our Journal.

- FRANCE.—Annales des Sciences Naturelles.—‘* The Re-
production of Aphides.” In our Chronicle of October, 1866,
we noticed Dr. Balbiani’s paper “ On the Reproduction of
Aphides,” in which he maintained their hermaphroditism,
and described a hitherto unrecognised “ testis.” During the
same period Herr Mecznikow, a most brilliant and trust-
worthy observer, was studying the reproduction and deve-
lopment of Aphis, and has published his conclusions in
the ‘ Zeitschrift,’ which are very similar to those of Huxley,
excepting that he regards a green mass developed in the

214: QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Aphis as a secondary rather than as a primary vitellus. It
is this green mass which has led Dr. Balbiani so far astray ;
it is this which he has regarded as the testis, and in which
he has seen, as he thinks, spermatozoa. M. Claparéde, find-
ing that there was so great a difference between the two
latest observers on this subject, at once set to work to see
which he could best agree with, and made a series of ob-
servations on the Aphis of the rose at Naples. He believes
that Herr Mecznikow is entirely right, and that Dr. Balbiani
has been deceived by the presence of parasitic Mucedinez in
the green secondary vitellus, which he has regarded as
spermatozoa. M. Claparede found such Mucedinez in
some, but not all of the Aphides he studied at Naples. It
is very remarkable that Dr. Balbiani, who has but just been
writing on the parasitic nature of the silkworm disease
(wrongly, perhaps, considering the parasites as psorospermic),
should not have recognised-in his so-called spermatozoa
—vegetable parasites —especially as he himself remarks
on the similarity existing between the two. One argument
against Dr. Balbiani’s views, which appears to us a very
strong one, is not adduced by M. Claparéde. He states
himself that this green secondary vitellus, which he calls a
testis, is developed to an equal extent in both those Aphides,
which reproduce without the action of the male, and those
which are simply females, and require the assistance of male
Aphides; also that it exists equally in both sexes, and
that the testis of the normal male Aphis does not arise from
it by any process of modification, and that an ordinary testis
is a very different thing from this testis. So different a thing,
we think, that we do not hesitate to call it, with MM. Mecz-
nikow and Claparéde, by another name, and can but feel
surprise that a fecundating function (involving the assump-
tion of heautandry) could ever have been ascribed to it.

At the conclusion of M. Claparéde’s very courteous demo-
lition of Dr. Balbiani’s views in the ‘Annales,’ is a short
rejoinder from that author, in which he asks for a suspension
of opinion till the full publication of his memoir and draw-
ings.

Robin’s Journal de l’'Anat. May and June, 1867.— On the
Structure of the Suprarenal Capsule of Man and of some
animals,” by Dr. Grandry, of Liége. This is the first part
of a detailed description of these organs—illustrated with
two well-drawn plates.

“* Studies on the Psorospermic Disease of Silk-worms,” by
M. Balbiani.—M. Balbiani has the credit of having been
amongst the first to show that the fatal silk-worm disease

—

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 215

results from the presence of innumerable parasitic corpuscular
bodies. In the present memoir he describes them and ex-
periments with them, and figures them very admirably in a
plate. Why M. Balbiani calls them “ Psorospermic ”’ requires
explanation. ‘The psorosperms of fish have been identified
(perhaps hastily) with the pseudo-navicule of Gregarine.
Gregarineé are undoubtedly animals, therefore psorosperms
are also of animal nature. But M. Balbiani says the silk-
worm corpuscles are both vegetable and psorospermic, and
M. Béchamp has shown that they act as vegetable ferments
—hence either they are not psorosperms, or psorosperms are
vegetable, and not connected with Gregarine at all. The
latter is the view which M. Balbiani has elsewhere taken,
and lke M. Ch. Robin, whose pupil he is, ranks the Psoro-
sperms amongst vegetable parasites—not connecting them
with Gregarine at all. A much less questionable view of
the corpuscles of the silk-worm disease is that they are para-
sitic Mucediniez—similar to those mistaken by M. Balbiani
(according to M. Claparéde) for sperm cells in the vitellus of
Aphides. It is not at all improbable that the identity of
psorosperms and pseudo-navicule has been accepted on too
slight grounds.

ENGLAND.—tThe Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.
The second number of this half-yearly magazine has appeared
and contains a good set of papers. Those on microscopical
matters are

1. Dr. Ransom, “ On the Movements of the Ova of Fishes.”

2. Dr. Bennett, “ On the origin of Hyaline Corpuscles.”

3. Dr. Strethill Wright, “On British Zoophytes and
Protozoa.

4. Professor Krause, of Gottingen, ‘‘ On the Termination
of the Nerves in the Conjunctiva.”

The first of these we have already noticed and abstracted
when it was read at Nottingham, during the meeting of the
British Association. It was not, however, as stated in the
journal under notice, read before the Physiological Section
of the Association, for such a section does not exist and has
not existed.

Dr. Hughes Bennett’s paper is a communication of not
more than twenty lines with two woodcuts. He mentions
that in examining some ovarian cysts of a woman who died
in his clinical ward, he observed “ groups of the well-known
hyaline corpuscles of organic fluids” starting out under
pressure from the masses of epithelial cells, and hence he
concludes that undoubtedly the diaphanous corpuscles are
given off under certain circumstances from cells. He curtly

216 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

remarks ‘‘ how far the observation now detailed may serve to
explain the production of cell-walls rising from a nucleus,
like the glass from the dial of a watch, as originally described
by Schwann, further investigation can alone determine.”

The species of Zoophytes and Protozoa noticed by Dr.
Wright are the following—Stomobrachium octocostatum
(Forbes). Acanthobrachia inconspicua, noy. gen. spec.,
T.8. W. Atractylis bitentaculata, nov. sp. Atractylis
quadritentaculata, noy. sp. Coryne ferox, nov. sp. Boderia
Turneri, nov. gen. et spec.,a Rhizopod. With regard to
this last form the author makes some interesting remarks.
He describes a method of reproduction in it by a breaking up
into pseudo-navicule similar to that occurring in Grega-
rine, and he believes that such a method of reproduction is
common among Ameebe. In both Amcebe and Gregarine
he is disposed to view the nucleus as a true ovum, and
compares the fission into pseudo-navicule to the fissure stage
in the ova of higher animals. In the Gregarinee and Rhizo-
pod this is the final process of egg-development—the divided
elements separating to form a swarm of unicellular indi-
viduals, whilst in higher animals they remain together to
constitute a multicellular organism. This view of the case
of course assumes the “cell” as an archetypal existence, and
is rather premature. The exact structure of the pseudo-
navicule of Gregarine and their homologues in Amebe must
be clearly ascertained, and all question as to the male element
in these animals settled, before any such theory can be
received. Has it yet been shown that certain pseudo-
navicule are not males, and others females, in their repro-
ductive function ?

Professor Krause, of Gottingen, makes a few%short remarks
on Dr. Lightbody’s very excellent essay which appeared in
the first number of the new Journal. He says that the bodies
described by Dr. Lightbody as nerve ganglion-cells in the con-
junctiva were recognised by him in 1858 as the terminal
bodies of nerves. They are club-shaped and similar to
Pacinian bodies, and exist in all eyes, and in various mucous
membranes, as those of the lips, tongue, generative organs, &c.

Annals and Magazineffof [Natural History. April.—< Note
on the Excavating Sponges; with descriptions of four new
species,” by Albany Hancock, F.L.S. Mr. Hancock defends
his views on Cliona published in 1849, against the objections
raised by Dr. Bowerbank. The most important matter in the
discussion appears to be whether Chiona bores at all or only
inhabits galleries previously excayated by “ lithodomous
Annelids,” as maintained by Dr. Bowerbank. This boring

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 217

Annelid is certainly a very useful deus ex machind, but since
he has never been seen, nor anything like him, the appeal to
his powers is rather an unsatisfactory way of accounting for
a phenomenon. No Annelid has at present been described
which bores a gallery in shells or limestones, with the single
exception of a vague reference by some authors to such a
habit in a species of Leucodore. Mr. Hancock further con-
tends that the dendritic form of the Cliona-galleries is unlike
anything done by worms. The connection between the
Foraminifera and Spongiade through the excavating Clione
is of considerable importance. Mr. Hancock points out the
great similarity of the form of the sarcode substance in the
one and the other, and alludes to the genus Carpenteria, a
Foraminifera which exhibits spicules as further illustrating
their relationship—Cliona celata, Gorgonioides, Northumbrica,
vastifica, corallinoides, gracilis, Howsei, Alderi, lobata,
vermifera, Mazatlanensis, globulifera, and Carpenteri are de-
scribed and their characteristic spicula figured—the last four
being new foreign species.

‘* Remarks on the Falces and Mazxille of Spiders,’ by
John Blackwall, F.L.S. “ Much careful investigation is yet
required,” says the eminent arachnologist, ‘‘ to complete our
knowledge of the various minute appendages connected with
the external organs of spiders and of the purposes to which
they are subservient.” Miss Staveley recently described in the
Annals a row of minute teeth on the outer margin of the
maxille of numerous species of spiders which induced Mr.
Blackwell to examine the species of Mygalide, in the expec-
tation of finding a somewhat different arrangement. ‘The
inferior surface of the base of these organs were found to be
thus armed in Mygale, Cteniza, and Atypus. Figures of
these structures are given. The late Mr. Richard Beck
accumulated some valuable microscopic observations on
spiders and acari, which might perhaps be published with
advantage.

June.—‘ Notes on Pelonaia corrugata,’ by W.Carmichael
McIntosh, M.D., F.L.S.—This paper contains a description
of the anatomy of this interesting tunicate molluscoid, illus-
trated with a good plate. Dr. McIntosh communicated a
short description of the same animal to Section D at Notting-
ham, when he considered the creature as new.

“On the Dentition of the Common Mole,” by C. Spence
Bate, F.R.S.—The investigation of the early condition of the
teeth of mammalia is most important as bearing on the homo-
logies of those teeth; and in such researches the microscope
has necessarily to be largely used. Mr. Bate’s observations

218 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

on fcetal and young moles lead him to confirm the dental
formula given on other grounds by Professor Owen. It is
not, however, at all clear that such a view is the right one,
for Mr. Bate’s observations would serve to prove that the so-
called canine of the upper jaw is an incisor.

AMERICA.—Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of
New York. 1866——We have to notice a paper on ‘‘ The
Young Stages of a few Annelids,” by Mr. Alexander Agassiz,
the first part of which we mentioned in our last Chronicle, by
mistake, as appearing originally in the English ‘ Annals of
Natural History,’ the fact being that that excellent journal
had merely reprinted the paper. Mr. Agassiz remarks, in the
first place, upon the importance of knowing how and where
to look for the embryonic forms of various marine animals.
They must not be sought by the side of their parents, but
along the shore in the scum thrown up by the waves, or
amongst the gleanings gathered by a fine gauze hand-net in
surface-dredging. Young Annelids, Echinoderms, &c., thus
obtained may be kept and watched through their development.

The first form described is a Planaria (perhaps Pl. angulata,
Miller). By his observations on this species Mr. Agassiz
has given most important service to the systematist. It appears
that the young Planarié exhibit a body distinctly articulated,
and of a rounded somewhat cylindrical form which they gra-
dually lose by a retrograde sort of development (as in many
Crustacea and Arachnida), and become the flat, undivided
animals which are so often compared to the naked Gastero-
pods.

In Nareda, a Nemertean genus, a somewhat similar and
remarkable development is described, Loven’s annelid-larva
being identified with this form. These two cases of develop-
ment of Turbellarians are of peculiar interest in that they
differ from those described by Miller, Busch, Gegenbaur,
Leuckart, and Pagenstecher—in not being instances of
metamorphosis, but of regular, continuous development. Mr.
Agassiz remarks that in Echnioderms, as in Turbellarians, we
find closely allied genera undergoing a widely different de-
velopment, and that an additional resemblance between the
two groups is thereby furnished.

Spirobis spirillum is the next marine worm, the develop-
ment of which Mr. Agassiz notes. He finds this species in
America, as here, abundantly attached to Fucus, and has some
important remarks to make upon the development of the
tentacles. He observes that the nomadic life of this species
is not more than eight or ten hours, and that after fixing
itself in a small tube, development of the anterior part of the

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 219

body goes on, whilst the posterior part remains comparatively
quiescent.

Polydora spirillum is he remarks very easy to obtain for
examination and to trace. His observations on this worm
are of importance, as clearing up a confusion existing as to
its relation to Leucodore of Johnston, which M. de Quatre-
fages has done much to increase. The Leucodore of Johnston
is the Polydora of Bosc; whilst what Claparéde mistook for
Leucodore of Johnston, as also has De Quatrefages, is really
a species of Nerine of Johnston, not having the characteristic
bristles of the fifth segment seen in both Polydora of Bosc
and Leucodore of Johnston. It further is evident from these
researches that Nerine, Spio, and Polydore are most closely
allied, and ought not to be widely separated from each other
in different families, as is done by M. de Quatrefages.

The young stages of Phyllodoce maculata, Cirsted, are the
last described in this paper. ‘They thrived very readily in
confinement, and enabled Mr. Agassiz to confirm and supple-
ment to some extent Max Miiller’s observations on the same
genus.

The paper concludes with some observations on the types
of development in annelids. While considering Claparéde’s
division the best that has been yet proposed, Mr. Agassiz
considers that it must share the fate of Busch’s, Miiller’s, and
Schultze’s classifications, since our knowledge of the young
forms of annelids is at present so very limited. 'The presence
of temporary bristles is a good criterion for one division, but
the negative character of their absence alone is objectionable.

Two larve are figured which the author cannot refer to
their adult forms, and which belong to the group J/etachete
of Claparede. One is remarkable as being very possibly the
young form of a Turbellarian worm, though itself provided
with bristles and having a segmented character. The other
is remarkable as being parasitic on the interior of the cara-
pace of lobsters, and possessing most characteristic serrulate
bristles. Mr. O. C. Marsh showed Mr. Agassiz a series of
fossil annelids, which, it is of great interest to note, were all
provided with bundles of the large, rough sete found as
temporary characters in living embryonic annelids.

MISCELLANEOUS.—Reagents——Cohnheim and Kolli-
ker strongly recommend the use of chloride of gold for demon-
strating various points in histology. ‘Tissues which have been
soaked for some time in a weak solution of it, and afterwards
exposed to light, are found to exhibit certain parts, e. g., nerve-
fibres, connective tissue, corpuscles, and cells in general,
stained of a bluish, violet, or reddish colour, while other

220 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

parts, é.g., intercellular substance, &c., are untouched. The
fresh tissue should be covered with a little of a solution, from
one to two per cent. of chloride of gold in distilled water,
and allowed to stand until it assumes a straw-yellow colour.
It should then be washed and placed in very dilute acetic
acid (one to two per cent.). The colour will in the course of
some hours gradually develope itself. As a general rule
what silver salts stain gold does not, and vice versd. Hyper-
osmic acid is difficult to obtain, and dangerous, though it
appears to be of great use as a reagent. Vanadic acid has
been proposed as a substitute.

“ Structure of the Iris.”—A. Gruenhagen reviews the
anatomical evidence advanced as to the existence of a dilatator
pupille muscle, and concludes by denying its existence in
man and animals. He appears completely to have overlooked
the observations of Joseph Lister published in this Journal in
1853, in which such muscular fibres were described (Henle’s
: Zeitschrift,’ vol. xxvi).

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Pleurosigma angulatum.—It is a difficult question to decide,
and one which has not yet been determined with complete
certainty, as to whether the small spaces or areole which the
striee of Pleurosigma angulatum present are concave and their
contour in relief, or, on the other hand, whether the edges
form furrows, and their spaces projections. I know that
distinguished observers have maintained the two propositions,
but, as far as I am concerned, I believe that there exist
neither depressions nor elevations on the valves of P. angu-
latum ; it is uniformly an optical illusion, produced by the
shadow which the strie cast when viewed in a certain way,
and which, in my opinion, are not straight lines, but lines
slightly broken. The appearance of a hollow or.of a relief
is particularly due to this circumstance, that the strie are
discontinuous ; and what tends to confirm the opinion which
I offer, that on the valves of this diatom neither hollows nor
projections really occur, is, that according as the focus is
changed, the areole appear at one time dark with clear out-
lines, at another time clear with dark outlines. This is
exactly the effect which is produced if a micrometer is ex-
amined and the focus of the lens varied.—Movucnuet, Roche-
fort-sur-mer.

Collins’ Mounting and Collecting-cases—Mr. Collins, of Great
Tichfield Street, has introduced a very complete mounting-
case, which must prove useful to microscopists, especially so
to those who devote a great deal of attention to the prepara-
tion of specimens. It contains a Shadbolt’s turn-table, brass
table, spirit-lamp, pipettes, spring clips, wooden clips,
tweezers, tin cells, balsam, marine glue, asphalte, turps, gold
size, thin glass covers, class slips, and five extra bottles.
Another box, more particularly adapted for anatomical pur-
poses, includes a neat injecting apparatus.

Mounting-cases are too often of an expensive character.
We therefore call particular attention to Mr. Collins’, as it
is compact in all its arrangements, and sold at a moderate
price. It is by such aids as these ‘that the working micro-
scopist is enabled to pursue his investigations with saying of
time and increased satisfaction to himself.

229 MEMORANDA.

Mr. Collins has also brought out a cheap and portable col-
lecting-case, consisting of a neat
japanned case, with sling-strap for
the shoulder, and containing three
good-sized bottles, four test-tubes,
net, and dipping-tubes. A dip-
ping-bottle, made to screw on to
the same stick as the net, is also
made part of the kit. Another
kind is made to fit into a morocco
satchel, which allows of space
: for botanical specimens. ‘This
COLLINS COLLECTING ‘CASE is a. very desirable addition to

the adjuvanta of the micrescopist.

On Cleaning ;Diatoms.—There is often considerable diffi-
culty in cleaning the diatoms contained in guano sufficiently
to render it possible to mount the frustules without the
troublesome process of selection, The methods of Bailey
and of Edwards are partially successful, but they injure
the frustules a good deal, and leave amorphous matter
in the slides. The following plan has been found very
successful in several instances, and is worthy of further
trial:—Take a beaker of six or eight ounces capacity, put
into it not more than two teaspoonfuls of guano, and
fill it up within an inch of the top with a saturated solu-
tion of carbonate of soda. Boil it for half an hour, wash the
sediment well, pour off the last water very close, and pour in
two ounces of hydrochloric acid. Boil for an hour, wash
well, pour off the last water very close, and treat the sedi-
ment with an ounce of strong sulphuric acid, let the acid act
for about ten minutes, and then add cautiously some bicar-
bonate of soda, either in solution or suspension in warm
water, and shake well during the effervescence, taking care
that the fluid does not overflow the edge of the beaker.
Wash well, pour in with great caution two ounces of nitric
acid, and when the effervescence has subsided add one or
two pinches of chlorate of potash, and boil for an hour, or
until the sediment has become white. If this does not take
place in an hour, it might be well to commence the process
anew ; but so far as the method has been tried, it has never
failed. ‘Chen w ash, and use the ordinary methods for sepa-
rating the diatoms according to their specific gravities ; that
of Okeden, as described in Pritchard, is the simplest and
best. ‘This process may seem to occupy a great deal of time,

MEMORANDA. 223

and to be very troublesome; but such is not the case, for if
the beaker be placed in a metal bath containing a strong so-
lution of chloride of lime, or of common salt, and then placed
over the lamp or fire, it will not require continuous watching,
and the vessel need only be examined once or twice.—T. G.
Stokes, Aughnacloy.

A Telescope Lamp.—Messrs. Murray & Heath exhibited at
the last meeting of the Royal Microscopical Society a
telescope lamp. The lamp consists of three tubes sliding in one
another, the oil or paraffin vessel being contained in the inner
tube. Spiral guides being cut in each of the tubes, the height

erenyT

SET
UN TM

of the lamp is regulated to the greatest nicety by simply turn-
ing one tube in the other, the guides preventing all chance of
slipping. The advantages are compactness, and the absence
of the stand and bar usually used for raising and lowering
the lamp, which enables the lamp to be used on all sides, and
allows of its being brought much closer to the microscope
when desired.
VOL. VII.—NEW SER. Q

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat Mrcoroscorioau Socrery.

THE annual-soiree of the Society was held on the 26th of
April, at King’s College, when the attendance was unusually
large, and comprehended many distinguished visitors, who were
received by the President, James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S.

About three hundred microscopes were exhibited; and Mr.
Baines lent an interesting series of views of scenes visited by him
in his Australian and African explorations, which were shown by
Mr. Wylley, with a gas microscope. One representing that remark-
able plant, the Welwitzia mirabilis, with its long, green, ribbon-
like leaves and red flowers, attracted much attention.

Mr. F. Buckland exhibited a series of objects relating to fish
and fish hatching.

Among the microscopic objects were many of unusual interest.
Dr. Carpenter brought a beautiful set of slides and drawings
illustrating the development of the Comatula.

May 8th, 1867.

THE PRESIDENT (JaMES GLAISHER, Esq., F.R.S.), in putting
the minutes of the last ordinary meeting, alluded in gratulatory
terms to the recent soirée of the Society, one of the most notice-
able and attractive features of which was the large increase in the
number of interesting objects exhibited by the Fellows.

The Rev. J. B. Reape read a paper by J. B. SHEPPARD,
M.R.C.S.E., “On an Example of the Production of a Colour
possessing remarkable qualities by the Action of Monads (or some
other Microscopic Organisms) upon Organised Substances.”
(See ‘ Trans.,’ p. 64.)

On the conclusion of this paper,

Mr. Brownine described, by the aid of a coloured diagram, the
appearance of the fluid inthespectrum. (See ‘ Trans.,’ p. 71.)

Mr. Stack remarked that he had never met with anything
exactly like the fluid described by Mr. Reade; but some three or
four years since he had noticed a pond at Hampstead, the water
in which presented a clotted appearance yery much like blood.
These clots were composed of millions of small bodies, identical
with the common Stentor niger. When examined by direct light
they were of a blood-red, but by transmitted light they were
purple ; probably the fluid they contained resembled that described
by Mr. Reade.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 225

Upon the motion of the President the thanks of the Society
were unanimously voted to the Rev. J. B. Reade, Mr. Sheppard,
and Mr. Browning, for the preceding communications.

Mr. Loss read a paper “On Two New Lamps for the Micro-
scope.” (See ‘Trans.,’ p. 72.)

The PrestpEnT said that anything practical and simple was
always a great assistance to microscopists, and it gave him great
pleasure to have an opportunity of recommending appliances
which combined these requisites. He felt sure that the meeting
would agree with him in thanking Mr. Lobb for bringing these
lamps to their notice.

Dr. Lionet Beate read a paper ‘‘On Nutrition considered
from a Microscopic point of view.” (See ‘Trans.,’ p. 75.

At its conclusion the President remarked that it generally hap-
pened that a thoughtful paper, such as this, required attention and
study on the part of the members to enable them to discuss it pro-
perly, and he had often felt regret at having to call upon the mem-
bers to discuss papers of this kind at the moment they were placed
beforethem. He often wished that they could print and circulate
the papers beforehand, so that they could be “taken as read”’ at
the meeting, and more time left for discussion. He much re-
gretted that they were not likely to have an opportunity of dis-
cussing this most interesting paper at present, but he hoped tzat
the members would think it over very attentively, and ona future
occasion perhaps other papers would re-introduce the subject.
He would only now ask the meeting to give its warmest thanks
to Dr. Beale.

Dr. Lionet Beatz read a paper “ On the Germinal Vesicle of
the Ovarian Ova of the Stickleback.” (See ‘Trans.,’ p. 85.)

The PresrpEnvT reiterated the thanks of the members to Dr.
Beale, and expressed his regret that there was not time for dis-
cussion.

The following gentlemen were declared to have been unani-
mously elected Fellows of the Society :—

George Feddes Forbes, Esq., Surgeon Major, Bombay Army ;
John Lampray, Esq., F.R.G.S., 16, Camden Square; Thos.
Charters White, Esq., 32, Belgrave Road; and the Rev. Benj.
Whitelock, Groombridge, Sussex.

Mr. Coxutys, of Great Tichfield Street, exhibited a complete
mounting-case, and a cheap and portable collecting-case.

QurexetTt MicroscoricaL Cus.
March 22nd, 1867.
Ernest Harr, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Mr. C. A. Watkins read a paper on “ Yeast and other Fer-
ments,” in the course of which he called attention to the similarity
of the chemical operations of all the ferments, whether they be
living organisms, as yeast, or substances derived from organic

226 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

sources, as albumen, casein, diastase, &c., and urged the neces-
sity of considering those operations together, rather than sepa-
rating them into those which are the results of organic growth
and those which appear to be simply chemical actions.

The President announced the arrangements which had been
made for the ‘‘ Exchange of slides,” and also for “ Field Excur-
sions during the season 1867.”

Various questions which had been deposited in the question
box were then read and discussed.

Ten members were elected.

April 26th, 1867.
Ernest Hart, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Dr. Halifax gave a lengthened and interesting description of
his method for obtaining sections of insects, soft vegetable tissues,
&c. (as described in vol. vi, ‘Q.J.M.S.,’ page 170), and exhibited
his contrivances for making cells in cement, stoneware, and
other materials, most suitable for mounting sections of any kind
or shape.

Mr. Higgins read a paper:on “Otolites or Ear Bones of
Fishes,” and in drawing attention to the different medium in
which air-breathing animals live from that inhabited by those
living in water, he submitted that the adaptation of their
organisation to the conditions of their existence is nowhere
more clearly marked than in their organs of hearing. In the
mammalia the complexity of structure in these organs is much
greater than in lower orders, and probably enables them to dis-
tinguish in a greater degree the modulations of sound. In air-
breathing animals the auditory organs may be said to consist
mainly of the ossicula auditus and the cochlea, with an external
ear, the use of the latter being to receive and collect the vibra-
tions of sound. In fish an auditory organ of this description
would be a very great inconvenience, because water conveys
sound so much more readily than air, that the effect of a small
sound would produce the sensation of stunning. True fish are
therefore deprived of the external ear, except in some members of
the Ray family and the sharks, where there is a small process
which occupies the position of an ear. In almost all other fish
the whole of the auditory organs are contained in the otochrones,
which are two holes, one on either side of the head. The internal
surfaces of the bones of the head of fish are covered with
cartilage, and the semicircular canals, though not large, are not
more than half the size of the holes through which they pass, and
they are delicately suspended in the middle of them by means of
a number of fine threads, the object of this probably being to
lessen the shocks which loud sounds might otherwise produce.
There are very distinct differences observed in different families
of fish. (Instances were given of various modifications in form,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 227

and diagrams, illustrative of the anterior, external, and posterior
portions, were exhibited.) The sacculus consists of one large sac,
and the superior otolite occupies this position, although in two
specimens of the wolf fish he had found that it oceupied different
positions, and from this circumstance he judged that it might
have the power of moving about from side to side. Amongst the
Cyprinide (or carp family) the otolites occupy a different
position ; here they are all placed in contact inferiorly, forming
a chain of bones. From the lower sac two tubes pass through
the base of the skull, and open through the anterior portion of
the saccula. These saccula are the only true representatives of
the ossicula auditus in the mammalia, according to the opinion of
most writers upon the subject, but his own belief was that no
fish have any true representatives of it, but that this is only an
excessive development of the otochrones. The otolites them-
selves are found to consist of carbonate and sulphate of lime,
with a very small quantity of animal matter, but whether to call
it a kind of condensed sarcode, or to consider it the same com-
position as the Foraminifera, or as that of the oyster-shell, has
not been satisfactorily determined. By comparison and examina-
tion of these objects he had in many instances been able to
identify species, and in many other instances he could identify
genera, and he thought this was more than could be said of the
fins or any other parts of a fish. He might mention that out of
about 4000 specimens which he had examined only one instance
had been found in which the species could not be identified, and
this one was a common form which had, from some cause, become
abnormal in shape and cartilaginous in structure. Specimens are
occasionally found in which they are wanting on one side of the
fish. He had not examined the true structure of the granules,
but in their original forms they present the appearance of
rhombic crystals. In the tertiary formations we meet with a
very large quantity of specimens in a fossil state, and in the
Crag formation all the examples found are identified with species
now found on the shores of Great Britain in the present day ;
they all belong to the cod family. Those discovered in the for-
mations of the Isle of Wight are found to be identical with
species now found in the Carribean Sea, showing that when the
strata were deposited there must have been a tropical fauna
existing here. (A large and valuable collection of specimens of
the auditory organs of various families of fish was exhibited.)
Eight members were elected.

May 24th, 1867.
Ervest Harv, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Mr. M. C. Cooke read a short paper on “ Nachet’s Principle of
Binocular Construction,” which he illustrated with diagrams.

The President read a paper on “The Structure of the Ciliary
Muscle and its Influence in Accommodation of the Bye,’ in the

228 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

course of which he said—‘I would not have brought forward a
subject so dry and technical, were it not for the fact that the
structure of the iris and the ciliary muscle is not alone interesting
to the histologist, but it is one of those instances in which thé
microscope may be brought to bear upon physiological studies ;
and it seems to me that if we can in any way give the work thus
a more practical turn, so as to bring it out of the range of mere
amusement, it will be a very useful thing. I wish to direct
attention more particularly to the action of these muscles in
accommodating the eyes for objects near and far. It is, perhaps,
unnecessary to say that what is meant by the accommodative
action of the eye is its power of adaptation to the various dis-
tances of objects. It is difficult to see objects near and far at the
same time distinctly ; it is a matter of very familiar experiment,
and it is quite evident that some change does take place in the
eye itself, either in the shape of the eye or in some other way,
but how that change is effected is and has been a matter of con-
siderable doubt, and explanations of it have been offered both by
anatomists and by physicists. Helmholtz says that the change
consists in an alteration in the shape of the lens, that it is
pressed upon laterally at its peripheral edges, and that it bulges
in consequence and is rendered thus more convex, and that in
this way it accommodates itself to the various distances of objects.
lt is precisely upon that point that I want my paper to bear.
“The ciliary muscle is attached at the junction of the cornea
with the sclerotic coat, and is a membrane spreading out in a
fan-like form, and passing into the choroid and the ciliary pro-
cesses. If you look at this diagram of horizontal section of the
eye, you will see that there is no very obvious way in which this
muscle can act in the manner described, for since it never gets
into any contact with the lens it is difficult to see how the contrac-
tion of this muscle can make the lens more convex by pressure.
The difficulty, then, was to make the anatomical structure of the
ciliary muscle (which requires a 1 inch power for its examination)
coincide with the physical theory of Helmholtz. The lens is
clear and structureless, and if such a change takes place in its
form, it must be by the external action of some muscles such as
these. Then came Miiller, who made a number of observations
which showed sphinctral or circular muscular fibres which he
considers can have that action. In the sections and drawings he
shows the cut ends of fibres, and these, it is asserted, are true
sphinctral fibres encircling the lens as a compressor. I have
myself examined a considerable number of sections under 4, 4,
and +}; objectives, but in no case have I been able to detect the
existence of anything which I can consider a sphinctral muscle.
Mr. Lockhart Clarke also has made a careful examination of
them, but could detect nothing of the sort. Cut ends were
visible, but they were not the ends of a series of fibres having a
circular course, if they be the ends of muscular fibres at all. In
man the ciliary muscle is formed of soft, unstriped fibres, so that

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 229

it cannot be easily ‘distinguished from muscles of ordinary
elastic tissue, but it is open for any one to say that they are the
ends of real muscular fibres. It is, therefore, necessary to resort
to other specimens; and in birds we find that the muscle is
striated and beautifully striped, so that in them there is no
mistake, and it cannot be taken for anything but what itis. I
have made a number of sections, of which I present a series here
to-night, to verity these my statements. By tinting with carmine,
it is perfectly easy to see where there is muscular fibre, and
amongst the whole of the specimens examined there is not one
which contains a single circular or sphinctral muscular fibre. It
is open to say that the muscle of a fowl is not arranged in a way
similar to that of man, but if we find that in birds there
absolutely is nothing of the kind, and in man there is only that
which can be even guessed at, it therefore appears as if the thing
had but an imaginary existence. If, however, in this way we
throw doubt upon that accepted theory of the effect upon the
lens, of the circular fibres of the ciliary muscle, if this be a true
objection—and it is one merely destructive of fact without giving
us in its place a constructive theory—the matter is not left where
we should wish to leave it. In the bird nothing can be more
clear than that the fibres of this muscle pass into the cornea
from the sclerotica, and that they terminate in the cornea almost
en masse. I have here some specimens in which the whole ring
of muscular fibres is shown to terminate in the cornea, and I
have also some drawings made by Mr. Ruffle from the prepara-
tion, showing what he saw; and although he shows only one part
of the truth, he shows just that very portion that I am pointing
out now. As he saw it, the whole of this anterior portion is
inserted into a ring surrounding the cornea. Well, then, you
see if you have in the bird a great mass of muscular fibre, passing
from the sclerotic into the cornea, you get at once a hint that the
old physical theory (that which was replaced by this theory under
consideration), that the curvature of the cornea was changed, gets
some support. Helmholtz says that he can detect no change in the
shape of the cornea, and in the face of this Iam not going to set up
any theory. Some time ago I took out the eye of an ostrich, for
disease—one of the ostriches at the Zoological Gardens—and I gave
it to Dr. Lawson, who published a paper on it in the ‘ Popular Sci-
ence Review, showing the corneal insertion of the muscle. But
leaving the optical part of the subject, I wish to say that by con-
tinuing inquiries as to the structure of the iris in birds, seals,
and creatures which see both above and under water, and in whose
case great power of adaptation is possessed in order to enable
them to see in different media, there is ground for believing that
great alteration may be made in the present theory of accom-
modation simply by microscopic research. In the whole of the
bird tribe this circular ciliary muscle is entirely absent, and in
the case of oxen, pigs, and in man, there is, I hold, no proof what-
ever of the existence of a sphincter muscle either. Whilst carry-

200 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

ing out these investigations I came upon rather an interesting —
structure connected with the iris, and which has not before been
described; I call it the “posterior pillars of the iris.” Its
attachments, where it runs into the anterior choroidal membrane,
are by true tendinous fibres, and at their moment of origin they
have a beautiful tree-like form. The preparations under the
microscope show this. I have also here a preparation of the nerves
of the iris, a fine plexus of nerves terminating in a true circle, and
covering the whole surface of the iris iike a fine network, which
T have never before, I believe, seen in this country. Probably
with a paper so technical many of the members present may not
have felt sufficiently interested, but I shall be happy to show any
one these preparations who takes an interest in them, or to afford
them further information on the subject.
Ten members were elected.

Dusiin MicroscopicaL Crus.
17th January, 1867.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright (who was unable to attend) sent for
exhibition, under Dr. Barker’s microscope, a specimen of
Staurastrum tumidum from “ Callery Bog,” which (just at the
boundary of the very dense and conspicuous gelatinous inyest-
ment, in itself characteristic of this species) was surrounded by a
number of minute round green cells, each of these seemingly sup-
ported on a very delicate linear stipes, reaching to the body of
the Staurastrum. The radiant lines so often apparent in the
thick gelatine investing the Staurastrum rendered it sometimes
difficult to distinguish between them and the very delicate stipes
of these bodies. They do not appear to be parasitic, as the
Staurastrum was quite healthy and intact. The rounded cells
eventually became detached and moved away as zoospores.

Mr. Archer had found, from the same locality, and on the same
occasion, several instances of the same species (Stawrastrum
twmidum), as well as some other Desmids, being the bearers of
this curious little plant. Sometimes, as in Dr. Wright’s speci-
men above described, they cover the whole outer surface; at
other times they were much fewer, and even only two or three
upon a single desmidian: perhaps many of the green cells may
have already disappeared from the latter as zoospores. There
could be little doubt but that the present little alga, be its true
affinity and nature what it may, was the same as that “ pin-like
parasitic growth ” alluded to and figured by Dr. Wallich (‘ Ann.
Nat. Hist.’, 1860, Plate VIII, fig. 5) as attached to a joint of
Streptonema trilobatum. As to its aflinities—temporarily admit-
ting its right toa location like other forms which have not yet
revealed any mode of reproduction except that by zoospores—its
structure seems to point to Dictyospherium (Nag.). Dietyo-
spherium Ehrenbergianum (Nag.) 1s composed of elliptic cells

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 2a)

supported on an extremely delicate stipes, which becomes itself
dichotomously divided with every self-division of the elliptic cells,
the aggregate family forming a group of a more or less rounded
figure, and the dichotomously branching stipes radiating from
a common centre or starting-point, where once stood the primary
cell of the family. The cells are themselves ultimately set free
as zoospores. Two other species of Dictyospherium are distin-
guished from the first found form, D. Ehrenbergianum, by the
yery different form of the cells and much greater size. Now the
plant at present exhibited agrees with D. Ehrenbergianum (Nag.)
by the cells being supported on a slender linear stipes and by
being set free as zoospores. It differs therefore (generically ?)
by the stipes not being forked or branched, and by these being
attached (not to each other starting from a common centre), but
independently to various other alge (Desmidiez). The cells here
are round, not elliptic as in the plant mentioned. It is perhaps
just possible that the figure of “ Phycastrum pilosum (Nag.)’’ as
given by Nageli might represent a Staurastrum haying attached
thereto some such similar but smaller growth, although by Nageli
regarded as spines appertaining to the Desmid itself.

Dr. Jobn Barker exhibited a minute unicellular production
which he would provisionally refer to the genus Chytrydium.
This consisted of a very slender, fusiform, colourless, usually
arcuately curved cell, acute at the basal, somewhat truncate at
the apical extremity, immersed in the external gelatinous invest-
ment (from which this organism may possibly for a time have
derived its nutriment), and sometimes seemingly in contact
with the filament itself, of Didymoprium Grevillii. Numbers of
these fringed several of the filaments of that desmidian, round
which they curved, and though, doubtless, to be regarded as para-
sitic, these seemed to remain attached for days or weeks without
causing any very appreciable injury to the joints, although finally
some had become effete and brown. No rootlike attachment, as
in some species of Chytridium could be noticed. Some of these
showed their contents separated into a number of minute rounded
portions arranged within these very slender cells in a single file ;
but no discharge of zoospores had been seen.

Mr. Archer showed Chytridiwm endogenum (A. Braun) inhabiting
the interior of an effete Closteriwm lunula, partly with contents,
partly evacuated by the zoospores, and well showing the charac-
teristic neck of this species partially and fully protruded through
the outer wall of the host-Closterium.

Dr. Moore showed some Scytonemez lately gathered in the
West at Chilomore Lake ; two forms very distinct of Sirosiphon
(one S. ocellatum) and of Scytonema. Without authentic speci-
mens it would be most difficult to arrive at a satisfactory deter-
mination of the species as named by authors, although the dis-
tinctness of the forms themselves now shown, and as they usually

resent themselves, is very evident.

Dr. M. H. Collis exhibited specimens of cheloid tumour stained

232 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

with carmine solution after the manner of Professor Beale. He
also showed some sections of epithelioma of the tongue with
polarised light. In these sections it was observed that the healthy
muscular fibres polarised the light, while the diseased parts did
not do so. Dr. Collis accounted for this by the greater density of
the sound parts. It is well known that cancerous and similar
morbid cells of large size are of great tenacity. In fact, it would
appear as if the proper substance which should have formed a
healthy cell went to form this much larger and diseased cell;
consequently the latter is found to be more perishable, more easily
acted on by chemical re-agents, and less dense. Dr. Collis believed
that in doubtful cases this additional means of diagnosis would be
of some value.

Rey. E. O’Meara drew attention to and pointed out the charac-
teristic marks uf several new Diatomacee discovered by him in
the late gathermg made by Dr. E. Perceval Wright off Arran
Islands. These were named by him Coscinodiscus fasciolatus,
Stauroneis rhombica, and Cocconeis concifera, descriptions of which
will appear in this Journal. i

21st February, 1867.

Dr. John Barker drew attention to a minute rhizopodous form
which seems to present a new generic type. This was extremely
minute, non-testaceous, broadly-subelliptie in outline, givin
origin, at the extremities, to a somewhat crowded, slightly branched
tuft of slender filiform pseudopodia. These tufts did not emanate
from directly opposite points, but somewhat obliquely as regards
each other. A comparatively large, not exactly central, amber-
coloured oil-like globule was immersed in the substance of the
body, the rest of which was colourless, exhibiting little of strue-
ture or other differentiations. The pseudopodia were very slow
and sluggish in their movement or change. Thus it might be
seen that this organism might be defined, so to speak, as repre-
senting a non-testaceous Amphitrema (Arch.), bearing a relation-
ship to that form somewhat comparable to that of Plagiophrys to
Pseudodifflugia (Scilamb.).

Dr. Moore showed a Cthonoblastus (Kiitz.) = Microcoleus
(Harv.), taken in the botanic garden, and adverted to the relation-
ship of that genus to Oscillatoria.

Mr. Woodworth showed a number of photographs of polari-
scopic objects (crytals) taken most successfully, and showing all
the characters of striation, &c., evinced by these objects in a very
delicate manner.

Dr. Frazer mentioned another instance which had occurred to
him of a singular mistake on the part of the uninitiated in taking
portions of the pulp of an orange for intestinal worms. A gentle-
man had forwarded to him what turned out to be some shreds of
the membrane of the cells of the pulp of an orange, and who had

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 233

persuaded himself that he had actually seen the reputed worms
moving about.

Dr. Alexander Dickson exhibited some very interesting pre-
parations, showing in various stages of development the pair of
curious root-like temporary appendages, emanating from the base
of the suspensor in Tropcolum.

21st March, 1867.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited the spicules of Hyalonema
and Euplectella, and pointed out their resemblances and differ-
ences, comparing them also with examples of known sponges.

Dr. Collis showed a section of a bony tumour as an opaque
object ; the concentrically arranged layers and wide cavities, very
like Haversian canals, of this porous substance, could be well
seen, as well as certain grooves in which blood-vessels had lain.
It differed from true bone in the irregular arrangement of these
canals and in their varying size, also in the lacune being almost
absent, and the canaliculi very small. The tumour from which
these sections were made was of thirty vears’ growth.

Mr. Crowe showed fine specimens of Eidogonium tumidulum, well
showing the antheridia and nascent oogonia.

Rev. E. O'Meara exhibited specimens of a Diatom, the type of a
new genus, which he named Ptychodiscus, and the species Pty-
chodiscus lineatus, from the Arran gathering; a description and
figure of which is to appear in this Journal.

Dr, John Barker exhibited a parasitic growth on Didymoprium
Grevillii, which appeared somewhat akin to that he drew atten-
tion to at the January meeting ; but in this instance the filaments
were not curved but erect and straight, and gave off slender and
numerous branches at the apex. The stem, so to call it, was
rather thinner at the base than at the summit, and seemed to hold
imbedded in it a single series of colourless globular bodies.
When two or several of these growths occurred near each other
the branches of one often leaned towards those of a neighbour,
and they became mutually entangled.

Mr. Archer showed specimens and drawings of the various
stages of the development and of the perfect zygospore of Spirotenia
condensata (Bréb.), especially interesting as being the first recorded
instance of the fructification in this pretty species (the position
of the genus remaining hence doubtful) as well as presenting the
characteristic of being externally surrounded not by spines of any
fashion, but by a honeycomb-like structure. The zygospores are
moreover double or twin, each pair of parent conjugating cells,
by a preparatory separation of the contents into two portions,
giving origin to a pair of zygospores, in which respect there is a
parallelism in Closteriwm Ehrenbergii and Closterium lineatum.
Inasmuch as a detailed account of the conjugation and of the
zygospores, with figures, appears in the present number of this
Journal, it becomes unnecessary to enlarge upon them here.

234. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. Archer showed in the same gathering, but not nearly so
numerous, conjugated examples of Penium closterioides. The
zygospore of this fine species has hitherto been unknown. It is,
however, what might be @ priori predicated for it, a broadly elliptic,
thick-walled, smooth zygospore, and placed between the shortly
deciduous empty parent cells.

Mr. Stoney submitted to the Club reasons which appeared
to him, in the present state of science, to require the general
adoption by scientific men of the subdivisions of the metre in
estimating micrometrical magnitudes. He observed, too, that
all confusion and inconvenience arising from the use of fractions
may be avoided by a very simple extension of the nomenclature
of the metrical system, which he thought himself justified in
recommending to the Club, from the assistance he had himself
received from it.

The following table contains what little is needed to enable
microscopists to determine the values of their present scales in
parts ofa metre. :

The Metre is defined by the Act which has legalised the use of
metrical weights and measures in the British dominions, as equal
to 39°37079 inches, which is almost exactly 16 millimetres short
of 40 inches. Hence

The Decimetre—the Hand-breadth or Palm—which is th of a
metre = 1°6 millimetres less than 4 inches.

The Centimetre, which is 735th or j520f a metre = 1°6 Vth-
metres less than 4,ths of an inch.

The Millimetre, which is zg45th or 35s of a metre = th ofan
inch, with sufficient exactness tor ordinary microscopical purposes.
(An inch = 25°4 millimetres almost exactly.)

| | | A centimetre divided into millimetres.
WAC

Four tenths of an inch.

The Fourth-metre, which is =545 5th or +4:0f a metre = 54,th
of an inch.

The Fifth-metre, which is +57/5g9th or qys of a metre = =,5th
of an inch.

The Sixth-metre, which is z55459 9th or yy. of a metre =

ees
sstpoth of an inch.

The Seventh-metre, which comes next, is a measure almost too
small for microscopical purposes, since the wave-lengths of light
range between 4 and 8 VIIth metres.

Every microscopist should habituate himself to estimate the
sizes of objects when viewed under the several powers with which
he is accustomed to work. For this purpose, it is ‘well to deter-

‘mine the diameter of each field of view, and also to fix on the

memory the appearance with each lens of objects of the standard

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 235

sizes—a Fourth-metre, a Fifth-metre, and a Sixth-metre across.
After this has been once for all done, it is wonderful with what
precision eye-estimates of size can, after a little practice, be made :
the eye quickly coming to be able with ease to hit off within a
tenth of any of the standard measures.

At present microscopists comparatively seldom resort to mea-
sures ; and, when stated to one another, they are apt to require
separate attention to appreciate them. If a better system were
introduced, it is probable that, estimations being made and under-
stood without effort, they wouldsoon come to be made habitually,
and so contribute very much to scientific accuracy.

The following measures will serve as examples :—

The colourless discs in blood are about 8 VIth-metres across in
vertebrates, and about 10 in reptiles.

The red discs are about 2 VIth-metres across in the musk-deer,
the animal in which the smallest have been found; 8 VIth-metres
in man ; 6 by 12 VIth-metres in the crow ; 7 by 12 VIth-metres in
the hen; 14 by 23 VIth-metres in frogs; and 77 VIth-metres,
which is nearly 8 Vth-metres in the proteus, the reptile in which
the largest have been observed.

A Vth-metre, then, is a little more than the diameter of a disc
of human blood. It is of so convenient an intermediate size in
reference te microscopical magnitudes that it will be found a good
plan to make a practice of registering all determinations in this
measure, so as to have nothing but numbers to write down.
Thus, for example :—

Vth-metres.
Diameter of Volvoz globator...... =80- (which may be read 8 1Vth-metres.)
Red dises of human blood ......... = 0°8 (to be read “ 8 VIth-metres.’’)

GES OfftOPs: <5. ...020<2s05 1:4 by 2°3 (to be read “‘14 VIth-metres by 23.’’)
Cilia have been observed ranging

in length from ............ from 5 to 0°2 (from 5 Vth-metres to 2 VIth-metres

—a range analagous to one from
5 feet to about two inches.)
The closest interval between the
lines on mother-of- pearl i is about 03 (3 VIth-metres.)
The length of lacuna in human

bone varies from.................. 1to1‘8 (from 10 to 18 VIth-metres.)

Breadth of ditto from............ 0:3 t00°6 (from 3 to 6 VIth-metres.)

The interval (according to Prof. W. Smith) between the mark-
ings on—

Pleurosigma formosum...... (diag.) = 0:07 (7 VIIth-metres.)
5 strigile ... ...(trans.) = 0°07—(to be read “rather less than 7
VIIth-metres.)
% Balticeum...... (trans.) = 0°06+(rather more'than 6 VIIth-metres.)
is attenuatum...(trans.) = 0°06-+-(Ditto.)
a hippocampus (trans.) = 0-06+(Ditto.)
a9 strigosum ...... (diag.) = 0°06—(rather less than 6 VIIth-metres.)
= quadratum (Nav. an-
gulata, Soll.) (diag,) = 0°06 —( Ditto.)
is elongatum (Nav. Le
ata, Soll.) ...(diag.) = 0°05+(rather more than 5 VIIth-metres.)
os lacustra ...... (trans.) = 005+ (Ditto.)

236 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Pleurosigma angulatum (Nav. stri-
gosa, Soll.) ...(diag.) = 0°05—(less than 5 VIIth-metres.)
a esteiart ...... (diag.) = 0°05—(Ditto.)
i fasciola (Cerat. fas-
ctola, Soll....(trans.) = 0°04 (4 VIIth-metres.)
Navicula rhomboides ...... (trans.) = 0°03 (3 VIIth-metres.)
Nitschia sigmoidea (Nav. sig-

moided, Soll.) ............ (trans.) = 0-03 (Ditto.)

It is of interest to compare these measures of test objects with
the lengths of waves of light.

The wave-lengths of violet, indigo, and blue rays, range from a
little below 0-04 to 0:05 ; those of green and yellow rays between
0:05 and 0°06 ; and orange and red rays from 0:06 to nearly 00°8 ;
rays longer than 0:07 being, however, found only in light directly
from the sun or other intense source.

It appears, then, that the foregoing test objects are as minute
as the wave-lengths of visible light. Indeed, if the determina-
tions can be depended on, the last two are even somewhat
smaller than the shortest visible vibrations. This, if it can be
established, is a very unexpected fact. The best way of testing
it would perhaps be by one of the finer of Nobert’s scales, If
any member of the Club have such a scale he may convert its
measures into metrical measures, by allowing 2°256 millimetres
(which is the same as 225-6 Vth-metres) for each line or twelfth
part of the obsolete Paris inch made use of by Nobert.

If, as appears to follow from theory, light of wave-lengths
longer than the intervals between markings is inoperative, it would
appear that it must be positively mischievous, by producing a
haze of brightness through which the markings are to be diml
made out. Accordingly, in scrutinising strix separated by an
interval of 0:07, such as those of Pleurosigma formosum, the full
light of the lamp may perhaps be used with advantage ; but in
examining such markings as those of P. hippocampus, with an
interval of 0:06, it would appear that the red rays at least should
be cut off; and that, when the object is so small as the markings
of P. angulatum, Wiz. 0-05 and under, none but blue, violet, and
indigo rays shouid be permitted to pass. There seems to be
Some ground for hoping that by this treatment these difficult
objects will become more manageable. Blue shades have some-
times been used by microscopists, but, apparently, without
knowing why or under what circumstances they are of service.
Glasses coloured blue by cobalt have the disadvantage that they
transmit red rays, and on this account the ammonio-sulphate of
copper*, which allows only rays of high refrangibility to pass, will
probably be found a much better absorbing medium.

* This invaluable absorbing medium is prepared in a few minutes by dis-
solving a little sulphate of copper in water, and adding liquid ammonia
until the white bulky precipitate, which first forms, is redissolved. Ifa
dilute solution be wanted, water is to be added, which causes a dark preci-
pitate, and then ammonia, until the precipitate is nearly dissolved. The
concentrated solution in a watch glass, or a dilute solution in a tube closed
by plate glass ends, will be found to answer.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 237

From the foregoing considerations it seems natural to conclude
that details too minute to be seen, may perhaps be made out by
photography, and especially by those photographic processes
which employ almost exclusively rays beyond the violet, rays
ranging in wave-lengths from 0:03 to 0:04. The well-known
photographic experiment of Mr. Wenham on the honeycombed
markings of Plewrosigma angulatum seems to verify this anticipa-
tion.

But whether these particular expectations shall come to any-
thing or not, the circumstance that subjects well worth inquiry
are continually presenting themselves, when we use a convenient
set of measures, will surely be held sufficient to recommend
their adoption by every member of the Club.

MancHeEster LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SocrIEryY.

MICROSCOPICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.
January 7th, 1867.
A. G. Laruam, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

The President exhibited mounted specimens of Foraminifera
from Dogs Bay, Roundstone, and from Berwick Bay, and he re-
marked on some differences in the character of the two deposits.
He pointed out that in the Dogs Bay sand the prevailing forms
are Truncatulina and Miliolina, while in the Berwick Bay dredg-
ing they are Dentalina and Biloculina. He also remarked on the
great difference in the quality of the shell of Truncatulina from
these two localities, those from Dogs Bay being delicate and
hyaline, while those from Berwick Bay are opaque and very thick
and strong.

The following paper, “ On Polymorphina tubulosa,” was read
by Dr. Alcock.

In the course of examinations of the Dogs Bay sand I have col-
lected great numbers of detached branches of Polymorphinatubulosa,
a form of foraminifer which is not likely ever to be found perfect
in shore sand. I have, however, met with several fine specimens
of it with only the tips of the branches broken away; but the
most interesting examples are some which are more damaged, and
show several structural features difficult, if not impossible, to be
seen in perfect specimens. The main body of the shell of Poly-
morphina tubulosa has the form of Professor Williamson’s P.
communis, and appears to be identical with it, this form only, so
far as I have seen, taking on the peculiar final development cha-
racteristic of P. tubulosa. It consists in the mature state of the
rounded shell of P. communis more or less concealed by several
covered passages commencing at the mouth and taking a direction
towards the base of the shell. These passages have their arched

238 PROCEEDINGS OF SOUIETIES.

walls developed into tubular prolongations, extending in all direec-
tions, and soon dividing irregularly into small branches, which, in
one or two instances in the specimens shown will be found to
anastomose ; they are either closed at their tips, as a small glass
tube might be closed in the flame of a blowpipe, or they expand
into little cauliflower-like excrescences, which are also apparently
closed. The shell composing the parts just described is very
delicate and thin compared with that forming the rounded nucleus,
and its outer surface is frosted with smail glassy projections of an
irregularly squared figure, like imperfectly formed crystals, It is
evident that this is a hastily deposited shell-covering on the sar-
code developed since the last regular chamber of the shell was
formed, and which, instead of collecting itself into a definite shape
to produce a chamber similar to the others, had been surprised,
as it were, while fully expanded by the calcifying process, which
consequently gives us a petrified representation of the ordinary
appearance of this external sarcode, with its pseudopodia pro-
truded, the probable suddenness of the process being illustrated
by the cauliflower excrescences which terminate many of the
branches, and which have resulted from the contraction of the
extremely fine terminal filaments of sarcode. It would appear
that this is the final act in the life of the Polymorphina, its en-
feebled vital power being insufficient to gather together the sar-
code for the formation of another regular chamber, and therefore,
properly speaking, the shell is fully formed and perfect before
this last addition is made to it. There is evidence, however, in
the specimens I have now to show, that the animal must have
lived for a considerable time in a full-grown state before it thus
terminated its existence, by producing a permanent likeness of its
living self. These specimens have their arched coverings, with
the branches proceeding from them, more or less broken away, so
as to expose the floor beneath them, which consists of parts of the
strong outer wall of the rounded nucleus, and which in all the
cases examined presents the same peculiar appearance. It is
riddled through with many large holes sometimes nearly circular,
but oftener oval or kidney-shaped, and so numerous as to open a
very free communication between the external sarcode and that in
the interior of the shell. It is not unusual to find Polymorphinas
of a different type from these with a few small round holes in their
outer walls, but they are scattered irregularly, are few in number,
and have no evident relation either with one another or with any
structural peculiarity of the animal; whereas in the present case
they are invariably contained within the area of the floor of the
covered passages, and are so numerous and encroach so much on
each other that in some parts they leave only narrow isthmuses
of the original shell-wall between them, and the larger holes have
every appearance of having been formed by the union of several
smaller ones. It is evident from a consideration of their character
that they have been produced by the removal of shell-material
previously deposited, and this gives them a physiological interest,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 239

for though it is natural to suppose that a creature which has the
poser of precipitating carbonate of lime on its surface would also
have the power of removing portions of it by solution or absorp-
tion if required, the Foraminifera are so structureless that we
should hesitate to attribute to them this function without clear
and positive proof.

In order to follow the successive changes in the latter part of
the life of this Polymorphina, as they are illustrated in the speci-
mens before you, the large rounded shells of P. communis should
be first noticed, in which no opening is perceptible excepting the
mouth, showing that at this stage the numerous large holes which
are afterwards formed have no existence. The great thickness of
the outer walls compared with that of the internal parts of the
shell shows that the animal must have existed for a considerable
time in this condition, during which the surface has been strength-
ened by repeated deposits of calcareous matter from its coating of
external sarcode, and the smoothness and evenness of this surface
shows that the coating was at that time spread uniformly over
the whole of it. But broken specimens of P. tubulosa show that
a change in the disposition of the external sarcode has been after-
wards made, for in these it is found to have collected itself into
two or three irregular bands, always commencing by one end at
the mouth and extending towards the base of the shell, an arrange-
ment clearly mapped out by the remains of its ultimately formed
shell-covering, fragments of which are seen still attached to the
surface of the smooth rounded nucleus,

The next event in the life of this Polymorphina is the formation
of those numerous openings through the thick shell-walls, the
observation of which in the specimens before you has chiefly led
me to introduce them to your notice. These show, by their defi-
nite position and the evidence they give of their progressive for-
mation, that when the external sarcode has once taken the form
of bands it remains permanently in that state, and that these
bands hold a fixed position on the parts of the shell where they
were first placed. Among the specimens shown are some which
only differ from ordinary shells of P. communis in being remark-
ably smooth on the surface and in having numerous large holes
arranged in several rows radiating from the mouth towards the
base of the shell, exactly as in undoubted specimens of P. tubulosa,
but they are without the slightest trace of the external arched
coverings and tubular branches. These might at first sight be set
down as very much rolled and worn specimens of the ordinary P.
tubulosa, but there is no evidence in the Dogs Bay sand of other
kinds of Foraminifera being worn to the extent which would be
necessary to produce such a result, and the suggestion is uncalled
for in this particular case, since it is evident that at one part of
the life of the animal its shell must have presented the appearance
of these specimens, unless it could be admitted that the holes are
formed after the production of the shell-covering on the expanded
pseudopodia. But this last is clearly a single act, and its plan is

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. R

240 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

evidently not such as would be adopted if the protection of sar-
code were the object in view, the subdivision into many projeeting
branches most delicate and fragile at their points exposing it as
much as possible to every injury, and therefore presenting a form
and arrangement not at all likely to promote the comfort and
convenience of the animal if it were to exist long in that state ; and
when to this we add that the pseudopodia, which are the means
by which the Foraminifera communicate with the external world,
are sheathed by their shell-covering so as to be incapable of
action, and moreover that every part of the animal becomes com-
pletely enclosed, the conclusion seems ineyitable that this is not
a condition in which it passes any considerable portion of its life,
but that it is, as already suggested, merely the closing and final
act. The holes through the thick shell, however, present a dif-
ferent history ; they show by the quantity of shell-material removed
and by the way in which separate holes have run together, that
time has been spent in their formation, and they have also a clear
and intelligible use in the economy of the animal, this being to
open free communications between the internal and external sar-
code. As to the process by which the shell-matter is removed, it
seems impossible under the circumstances to suppose it done in
any other way than by absorption by the sarcode in contact with
it. Among the specimens shown is one of P. tubulosa which has
been completely broken open, and shows that the process of
absorption is not confined to the outer walls, but that the inner
partitions, which at first formed parts of the walls of the separate
chambers, are also in great part removed, throwing the whole of
the interior into one large irregular cavity.

The quantity of carbonate of lime deposited at once in the
covering of the external sarcode and its pseudopodia is so con-
siderable that some unusual source might naturally be looked for
to supply it, and this is apparently found in the shell-material re-
dissolved by the process just described, which must eventually
lead to the sarcode being excessively charged with mineral matter
and may be considered a sufficient reason for the final catas-
trophe ; and if the view here given of the later stages of the life
of Polymorphina tubulosa be correct, it adds another point of inte-
rest by showing that the deposit of shell-material, in this one case
at least, is more of a chemical than a vital act.

ZOOPHY'TOLOGY.

AMONGST numerous specimens of Polyzoa and Sertularians,
chiefly from the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, with which
we have been lately favoured by Mrs. Gatty and by Miss E.
Gore, are many new species, which we hope to be able in
due course to describe. On the present occasion we give
four of these.

I. Class—Potyzoa.
Sub-Order 1. CuEmostomara.

Fam. 1. BicELLartaD#, Busk.

Gen. Bugula, Ok.
B. cucullata,n. sp. Pl. XXXVI, figs. 1—6.

Cells biserial, elongate, subpyriform ; aperture occupying about two thirds
of the length of the cell; a short spine at each upper angle, and a smaller
one on the outer margin a little way below the angle; ovicell very shallow,
eucullate, or saucer-shaped ; avicularia sparse, affixed usually on the outer
side of the cell.

Hab. Australia, Miss Gore ; Western Australia, Mrs. Gatty.

The polyzoary of this pretty species is white. It appears
to attain several inches in height, the branches being short
and fan-shaped. In general habit and mode of growth it
closely resembles B. avicularia, from which, in fact, it is dis-
tinguished chiefly by the peculiar saucer-shaped form of the
ovicell, and the extreme rarity of the avicularia, which organs,
however, are, as usual in the family, of the capitate form.

Fam, 2. FirusTripz.
Gen. Chaunosia, n. gen.*
Cells sejunct, attached apparently only by long tubular fibres.
C. hirtissima, n. sp. ?

Cells ovate, elongate, suberect, very convex behind ; aperture occupying
the whole front of the cell; mouth at the summit, cresentric above, border
simple; margin of the aperture and the entire surface of the cell behind

* yavvos, larus.

242 ZOOPHYTOLOGY.

covered with numerous long spines, many of which are bi- or trifurcate?
polyzoary composed of narrow ligulate, or subcylindrical, irregularly dichoto-
mous, lax branches ; ovicells
Diachoris hirtissima? Heller, ‘ Verhand. d. k. k. bot. zool. Ge-

sellsch. in Wien.,’ xvii, 1867, p. 18. Pl. i, figs. 6, 7.

Hab. Cape of Good Hope, Dr. Rubidge.

This is a very curious form, and we are not sure that it is
not identical with a species recently described by Prof. Cam.
Heller, from the Adriatic. But as we have not been able to
perceive the six connecting links of the cells characteristic of
the genus Diachoris, in our specimen, we have thought it
better for the present to regard the two as distinct. Prof.
Heller figures and describes the connecting-tubes in his Dia-
choris hirtissima so clearly that he cannot have been mistaken
in seeing them. At the same time, the general resemblance of
his species with ours is so striking that it is almost impossible
to believe that they can be distinct. Should the mode of
intercellular connection be as he states it, there can be no
doubt that Chaunosia (yavvoc, laxus) must be merged in Dia-
choris.

Sub-Order 2. Cyciostomara.

Fam. Drastororip%, Busk. (‘Crag Polyzoa,’ p. 113.)

Gen. Tennysonia, n. gen.

Polyzoary arising from a rather thick central base (substipitate) ; lobate,
stelliform; lobes curved, with a median angle; tubes wholly immersed ;
orifices disposed in straight lines, extending from the median angle to the
denticulate margin of the lobes; interspaces cancellous.

Hab. Cape of Good Hope, parasitic upon Oxchopora tubulosa. Dr.
Rubidge (Mrs. Gatty).

This is an extremely beautiful form, which is provisionally
referred to the family Diastoporide, in which it appears to
be most closely allied to Discoporella, Gray (as defined in
‘Crag Polyzoa,’ p.115). In that genus, however, the poly-
zoary is normally sessile or adnate, and of a disciform shape,
sometimes rising into more or less of a cone, and the tubes
are not wholly immersed, but have their notched or toothed
mouths usually considerably exserted. In Defrancia, which
is closely allied to Discoporella, the orifices of the immersed
tubes are placed on elevated ridges, radiating more or less
regularly from the centre of the discoid polyzoary, the inter-
stices being sometimes cancellous, as they are in some species
of Discoporella.

The polyzoary of Tennysonia, which is represented of the
size of nature in fig. 10, is of a pale rose tint, and semitrans-
parent, whence it has a very elegant appearance. The gene-
ric name is given to this species at the express desire of Mrs.

ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 243

Gatty, to whom we have on many occasions been deeply
indebted for interesting additions to the number of species,
more especially of polyzoa. We presume her intention is to
combine the name of our great poet with certainly one of the
most beautiful objects in the class to which Tennysonia
belongs.
Sub-Kingdom CHLENTERATA.
Class AcTINOZzOA. Order AsTEROIDA.

Fam. CoRNULARIAD, n. fam.
Gen.* Cornularia, Lamk.
C. australis, n. sp. Pl. XXXVI, figs. 7, 8.
Cells smooth, or slightly wrinkled only at base; white.

Hab. Australia, Wiss EB. Gore.

The only original figures of Cornularia with which I am
acquainted are those by Cavolini (‘ Mem. terza,’ pl. ix, figs.
11, 12); for that given by Lamouroux (‘ Exposit.,’ pl. lxxviul,
fig. 4) is a bad copy of Cavolini’s fig. 12, in which the trans-
verse wrinkling of the cell-walls is omitted, although this
condition enters into the specific character, whilst Blainville’s
figure (‘ Actinol.,’ pl. Ixxxiu, fig. 4), though slightly altered
in position, is evidently merely a copy from Cayolini. Fig.
11 of Cavolini represents the cells of the natural size, spread-
ing over the surface of a Balanus; and in his description
(loc. cit., p. 250), under the name of Tubolara cornocopia,
(Tubularia cornucopie, Pallas), he states that it is found
upon pebbles and Balani, though he observes that Pallas,
who appears to have been the first to notice the species,
had met with it dry on other marine productions. It 1s pos-
sible, therefore, that Cornularia cornucopie, as it ought to
be named, may occur on fuci as well as upon hard bodies at
the bottom of the sea. Cavolini’s admirable description of
the genus has left scarcely anything to be added by subse-
quent observers, and his figures suffice to show the distinct-
ness of Pallas’s species from that we have described above.
The differences, so far as they can be determined from the
scanty means at present in our power, seem to consist in the
smooth, even, white walls of the cell in Cornularia australis,
which in C. cornucopie are more or less wrinkled (‘ per
totam longitudinem rugis annulosi), and, according to Cavo-
lini, of an orange colour (‘un colore che si accosta a quello
dell’ arancio’’) (lutei, Pallas). We have also been informed
by Prof. Allman, who is well acquainted with the Mediter-
ranean species, that C. australis is distinct from it.

ZOOPHY TOLOGY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXXVI.

Fig.
1— 6.—Bugula cucullata.
7— 9.—Cornularia australis.
10, 11.—Tennysonia stellata.

12—16.—Chaunosia hirtissima.

AGOPHY TOLO GY.

Plate XXXVI.

W West imp.

eo West del. et lith.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On New Forms of Diaromacem, from Drepeines off the
Arran Istanps, Co. Gatway. By the Rev. Eugene
O’Meara. Second Series.

In my first communication on this subject I ventured to
express my opinion that a more careful examination of the
material would lead to the discovery of other new and in-
teresting forms, and I have now the gratification to inform
you that my anticipations have been fully verified. I have
been engaged from time to time, as opportunity was
afforded, in examining the material, with most satisfactory
results. Some few of the forms recently discovered I shall
now submit to your notice.

Coscinodiscus fasciculatus, n. sp., O’M., Pl. VII, fig. 1,
x 600.—Diameter ‘0033. Valve areolate, the areole or cellules
arranged in parallel bundles, about sixteen in number. Each
bundle contains nine parallel moniliform lines; the central
line reaches from the centre to the circumference, the next
lines on either side of the same length, each successive pair
terminating at a greater distance from the centre.

This form is exceedingly rare; only one specimen has as
yet come under my notice, and this an imperfect one, but
still sufficient to indicate the characteristics. It i is, therefore,
not without some misgiving I venture to notice it, although
the marked peculiarities of it, as I consider, justify me in
doing so.

In respect to the fasciculate arrangement of the areola,
there is a great similarity between this species and Coscino-
discus symmetricus and C. Normanni. ‘The areole, how-
ever, are smaller than in the former species, and larger than
in the latter.

Eupodiscus eccentricus, u. sp., O'M., fig 2, x 800.—Dia-
meter about ‘0014. Surface of the valve distinctly areolate.
The areole, which are larger towards the centre than towards
the circumference, are arranged eccentrically. ‘There is a mar-
ginal blank space, in which the processes, about twenty in
number, are placed at equal distances.

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. 8

|

246 O’MEARA, ON NEW FORMS OF DIATOMACEA.

Stauroneis rhombica, n. sp., O’M.., fig. 3, x 600.—Length of
the valve ‘0017, greatest breadth ‘0012; rhomboido-elliptical,
with narrow lanceolate apices. Strie very fine, punctate,
and parallel; stauros narrow, the transverse limb of uniform
breadth, and equal in length to half the breadth of the
valve.

Stauroneis costata, n. sp., O’M., fig. 4, x 600.—Length
of the valve ‘0021, breadth ‘0009. Narrow elliptical, rounded
at the ends. Strie distinctly costate, and gently waved, the
transverse limb of the stauros short, and of equal breadth
throughout.

Cocconeis clavigera, nu. sp., O’M., fig. 5, x 600.—Valve
broadly elliptical ; length ‘0014, breadth 0011. Strie costate ;
the coste radiate, club-shaped, very fine at the median line,
and gradually expanding towards the margin, not reaching
the margin.

Cocconeis Wrightii, n. sp., O’M., fig. 6, x 800.—Valve
broadly elliptical; length ‘0017, breadth 0012. A narrow
border is closely studded with slightly elongated cellules.
The central nodule is expanded in the form of two crescents,
touching at their convex centres, and radiating towards
the apices. Strie moniliform, arranged in curves nearly
parallel with the limbs of the crescent-like expansions of the
central nodule.

Cocconeis Portii, n. sp., O'M., fig. 7, x 800.—Valve very
minute ; length ‘0009, breadth -0007 ; broadly elliptical, with
a narrow border. Strie radiate, punctate. The puncta very
minute at the median line, and gradually enlarging towards
the outer margin. The median line broad.

Rhaphoneis liburnica, yar., fig. 8, x 600.—Valve broadly
elliptical ; length -0018. Striz radiate; the cellules, which
are not more than six in the longest stria, appear slightly
projecting above the surface of the valve, are quadrangular
at the base, narrower and rounded towards the top; raphe
narrow elliptical; valve without border; margin striated.
At first I was disposed to regard this form as a distinct
species, but on consideration preferred to refer it to Raphoneis
hiburnica, Grunow. ‘The specific description of R. liburnica
given by that author agrees with the general characters of
this form, but the hispid appearance of the cellules and
their quadrangular figure at the base entitle it to be regarded
as a variety.

Rhaphoneis suborbicalaris, n. sp., O'M., fig. 9, x 600.—
Valve nearly orbicular ; length '0022, breadth ‘0019 ; divided
into compartments by short coste, eight on one side, nine on
the other, alternately disposed. The spaces between the

O’MEARA, ON NEW FORMS OF DIATOMACEA. 247

coste filled up by three lines of puncte, the two outer lines
reaching the central vacant space or rhaphe, the intermediate
line much shorter. ‘This species, in its general characters,
very much resembles a form figured by Grunow, and with
hesitation regarded by him as a variety of Cocconeis Grevillii.
The absence of a median line and central nodule, as well as
the presence of a distinct raphe, mark the present form as
belonging to the genus Rhaphoneis. The form figured by
Grunow is narrow elliptical ; mine is nearly orbicular. These
differences notwithstanding, I am disposed to think that
Grunow’s form and mine are at most but varieties of the
same species.

Rhaphoneis Jonesii, n. sp., O'M., fig. 10, x 600.—Valve
broadly elliptical ; length ‘0018, breadth -0014. Strie radiate,
moniliform; cellules close, compressed, very large at the
margin, and gradually decreasing in size towards the raphe,
which is narrow and elliptical.

Rhaphoneis Moorii,n. sp., O’M., fig. 11,°x *600.—Valve
broadly elliptical ; length ‘0016, breadth ‘0011. Striz radiate
moniliform cellules of the same size throughout, raphe
narrow. At first inspection of the figures it might appear
that this form is identical with the preceding, but on con-
sideration the differences are so great as to warrant me in
regarding them as distinct species. The raphe in the
former, though narrow, is wider than in the present. ‘The
former has a distinct border, this has none; but the most
marked difference is to be found in the character of the
strie ; in the case of R. Moorii the cellules which form the
strie are all of nearly the same size, round, and distant;
whereas in the case of R. Jonesii the cellules are so close as
to give a costate appearance to the strie; they are also
flattened, and decrease in size from the margin towards the
raphe.

Rhaphoneis Archeri, n. sp., O'M., fig. 12, x 600.—Valve
elliptical. Strize slightly radiate, distinctly costate, distant ;
raphe lanceolate. A form described by Grunow, and
by him called Rhaphoneis scutelloides, so far as the figure is
concerned, so closely resembles the present that at first [
was disposed to regard mine as identical with it, but from
the description there is no doubt it is distinct. The strie of
R. scutelloides are described by Grunow as “ indistincté
puncte ;” in R. Archeri they are distinctly costate.

248

An Account of a 'TRicHOPpTEROUS LARVA.
By C. 8. Tomes, B.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

(Pl. IX.)

DurinaG the early part of the summer of 1866 the larvee
which I propose to describe were noticed in the midst of a
mass of Confervee growing in a pond at Hampstead. Several
specimens were at that time kept under observation, but were
not then described, as I hoped to succeed in tracing them to
their adult form. As I have little hope of again obtaining
specimens, the pond having since been drained, i now venture
to offer a brief account of them, there being, so far as I have
been able to ascertain, no careful description as yet published.

In the January number of this Journal it is mentioned
that somewhat later in the summer of 1866 Dr. John Barker
exhibited before the Dublin Microscopical Club a larval ferm
in many respects similar to that now under consideration.
The larva, however, exhibited by him is spoken of as “ Dip-
terous,” whilst that which I now propose to describe is
clearly referable to the order Trichoptera, a difference which
renders it possible that the creatures may not be identical, and,
in any case, for the purposes of identification, makes a careful
description of that which has fallen under my notice desirable.

The larva is nearly 4th of an inch in length, of elongated
form, and a pale greyish-yellow colour; it is covered, more
especially about the head and legs, with long hairs. On the
head and thorax are a few brown spots, disposed with some
regularity. The head and thoracic segments, which in the
usual position of the larva are protruded from the slit-shaped
opening at either end of the case, are protected above by
hard plates, whilst the abdominal segments (with the excep-
tion of the expanded caudal segment) are covered by soft
integument. (Plate IX.)

The antenne are very small; the labrum presents no
marked peculiarity ; the maxillary palpi, as in other allied
larvee, are not distinctly recognised, but the maxille carry
appendages which are probably sensory and represent them.
The mandibles are strong, and are shaped somewhat like the
blade of a pair of nail scissors. ‘The labinm carries distinct
palpi.

The second and third pairs of legs are about one quarter
the length of the body, the first pair being shorter and
stouter. Mr. ‘luffen West has suggested that the crustacean-
like form of the limbs (which is most marked in the first pair),

TOMES, ON A TRICHOPTEROUS LARVA. 249

certain of the joints being greatly expanded and abruptly cut
off at their point of junction with the succeeding joint, may
adapt them to separate filaments of Conferva at their joints,

so as to preserve the integrity of the cells. Whether this be
so, fresh observation of living specimens alone can decide ;
I have not observed the limbs so used, though I have often
seen filaments bitten across by the strong mandibles, the legs
being employed to gather together and hold a bundle of
filaments which were sorted over by the mouth. The legs
are fringed with fine hairs, which doubtless greatly increase
their efficacy as swimming organs, and are terminated by
long hooks.

The abdominal segments are much larger than the thoracic ;
none of them carry appendages, nor are there any external
branchie.

The caudal segment is expanded and flattened, so as to
form a quadrangular plate, the terminal corners of which are
each armed with a hook; it is by means of these hooks that
the larva retains its hold of the case.

The case is of; oblong form, with rounded ends forming
slit-shaped openings; it is much flattened from side to side,
and is about three times as long as it is broad. It is formed
of closely woven, silky fibres, and perfectly translucent.
Upon the outer surface of the sides, which are slightly con-
vex, is a layer formed by concentrically arranged filaments of
Conferva, entirely concealing the inner silky case, except for
a small space at the centre of each side, where the Conferva
is less closely coiled.

The general direction of the filaments is parallel to the
outline of the case; diagrammatically, the arrangement of the
individual filaments may be represented by two letters J placed

thus f. And herein lies the clue to the manner in which

the Conferva is applied—the larva, which is represented in
the accompanying figure in its habitual position, with the
head and legs protruded from the slit-shaped opening at either
end of the case, never voluntarily quits its shelter ; and if
removed from it, manifests the greatest anxiety to regain it.
Hence the filaments of Confervee are all applied to the outer
surface of the silky case (to which they are attached by nu-
merous threads) by the larva working always from one end.
Now, the larva cannot reach from either end much further
than to the middle of the case ; ; accordingly, we find the ends
of the majority of the filaments near that point; the filament
is carried in a U-shaped curve to the end of the case, returns
down the other side, and terminates at a point nearly opposite

250 TOMES, ON A TRICHOPTEROUS LARVA,

to that at which it began. When the case has attained a
certain size much shorter filaments are employed, and these
are arranged in more open curves across the ends, thus
lengthening the case without increasing its breadth.

The Conferva remained green, and appeared to flourish
perfectly in its new situation ; the separation of the filaments
haying been always at the joints, as Mr. Tuffen West pointed
out, there were no injured cells to decompose on the larva
case. The larve swam about easily, seemingly but little
encumbered by the cases, which were held with the flat sides
vertical.

Whilst in my possession the larve manifested the most

ceaseless activity, sorting over and biting off filaments of Con-
ferva; after working for a time at one ‘end, they would sud-
denly bend upon themselves, pass down the inside of the case,
and resume their task at the opposite end. They were, as far
as I could tell, strictly herbivorous. Eventually the ends of
the case were closed up, and it was attached to some stick
or plant near the surface of the water; unfortunately, none
of my specimens survived beyond this stage; I have, how-
ever, found the empty cases gnawed through near one end,
but have failed in discovering the adult form.

There can, nevertheless, be but little doubt that this larva .
belongs to the genus Hydroptila ; the case which it forms
corresponds in essential particulars with those described by
M. Jules Pictet,* in the following terms as peculiar to this
genus, ‘* qui vivent dans les étuis applatis, en forme de rein,
ouverts par deux fentes, composés d’une soie solide.” The
larva does not, however, correspond exactly with any deserip-
tion there given, nor does the case precisely resemble in form
any there figured ; that which it approaches most nearly being
a larva the perfect form of which was not known.

The larva of H. pulchricornis resembles that now under
consideration in general form, and in the possession of the
hooked caudal plate ; saat differs in havi ing scale-lke append-
ages on the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th abdominal segments, in
havi ing shorter legs of uniform leng eth, and in the form of its
case, which is kidney- shaped.

The larva of H. flavicornis bears a closer resemblance, but
constructs a case terminated at one end by a point.

The larva of H. Brunneicornis is not, as far as I can ascer-
tain, certainly known. ‘These larve are described as making
little addition to the exterior of their silky cases besides a
few grains of sand, which would not require any very

* ©Recherches pour servir & ! Histoire et & ? Anatomie des Phryganeides.’

TATEM, ON NEW SPECIES OF MICROSCOPIC ANIMALS, 251

methodical arrangement ; and although it is well known that
Phryganea larve may, in the absence of their proper mate-
rials, be forced to use others, I am still inclined to regard the
presence of the layer of Conferva as a distinctive character ;
for there are few other materials accessible to these aquatic
larvee which possess the phiancy requisite for the arrangement
adopted, and it appears to me to be in the highest degree im-
probable that a larva which, under other circumstances, might
have used other materials, should have, out of this Conferva,
constructed a case displaying such exquisite symmetry.

One other supposition requires notice. It is possible that
some of the larval forms of Hydroptila which have been de-
scribed as forming a simple silky case might have afterwards
adapted a layer of Conferva to its outer surface. An examina-
tion of the central parts of the sides of the case before us,
suggests that the silky case was constructed up to a certain size
before any Conferva was applied to its outer surface. I have
not been fortunate enough to see any specimen in so early a
stage, but I can speak positively as to the contemporaneous
addition of silk and Conferva in the more advanced stage.
And from the analogy of the construction of the cases of other
Phryganeide, it seems unlikely that the manufacture of the
silky case should, to any considerable extent, precede the ad-
dition of the Conferva to its outer surface ; and Iam inclined
to think that the few irregularly disposed filaments which
may be observed at the centre of each side mark the period
at which the contemporaneous addition of the two materials
commenced.

In conclusion, I beg to thankfully acknowledge my obliga-
tion to Professor Westwood, to whom I described the speci-
mens, for kindly aiding me from his large store of entomolo-
gical knowledge.

New Spectres of Microscopic ANIMALS.
. By T. G. Tate.

I.—Chetonotus longicaudatus (mihi) is by no means un-
common in some of the ponds in the neighbourhood of
Reading, and is altogether an elegant creature in its propor-
tions and movements, and, as seen in the cage, stealing
through the various patches of decaying vegetable matter,
on which it feeds, remarkably resembles some of the viverrine
animals. The body is smooth, elongated, and but little

Ee

252 TATEM, ON NEW SPECIES OF MICROSCOPIC ANIMALS,

dilated at the posterior extremity above the foot ; the neck
encircled by a ruff of reflexed sete ; head slightly trifoliate ;
eyes two, obsolete, but distinguishable as obscure puncte ;
mouth infundibuliform, suctorial ; esophagus straight, longi-
tudinally plicate (obvious enough when observed in the act
of swallowing comparatively large masses of decaying vege-
table matter); stomach an elongated cone, terminating in a
short rectum and anus, opening just above and between the
toes, which are very long and annulate; rotatory organ
circular, abdominal, as in the other species of the genus ;
length ~; to ;4,. The figure which accompanies this is
x 380. (Plate X.)

II.—The ponds and ditches of this neighbourhood afford,
in greater or less profusion, two of the three known species
of Stephanops, viz. S. mutica and S. lamellaris ; more rarely,
however, a fourth and undescribed species may be met with.
Its range is a very limited one, even in this locality, one
pool only, that in the King’s Meadow, near this town,
furnishing it in any numbers ; but one specimen, so far as I
yet know, having been obtained from any other. It is a
remarkable form, and, though small (;4,,), would not, if
widely distributed, be readily overlooked by any micro-
scopist.

The Stephanops longispinatus (mihi) is less active than
either of the other two species known to me, swimming
with a slow deliberate movement through the water, lowering
its long dorsal spine to clear obstructions, and exhibiting
none of the restless energy of either S. mutica or S. lamel-
laris. The lorica is oval, as seen in the dorsal view,
expanding in front into a hood, which is narrower and deeper
than in the other species; eyes two, frontal and widely
separated; dorsal spine very long, articulated to the lorica
by a ball-and-socket joint, erectile; foot of three joints,
spined on either side, and terminating in short toes ; rotary
organ a wreath of short cilia within the hood; jaws of
wesophageal bulb single-toothed ; stomach apparently with
several constrictions. Neither ovary nor contractile vesicle
has been detected by me, haying probably been over-
looked.

I11.—Occasional visits to Hastings have supplied me with
a Cothurnia, which, though it may scarcely be accepted as a
distinct species, must certainly be regarded as a notable
variety of Cothurnia maritima. But one locality affords it,
namely, a ditch of brackish water which extends for some
distance by the side of the road leading from St. Leonards
to Bexhill. But little if any difference can be observed
between the animals of this and the ordinary form of.

WOODWARD, ON MONOCHROMATIC ILLUMINATION. 253

Cothurnia maritima. It is the lorica which alone diverges
from the usual type, and which is, as shown by the drawing,
longer, narrower at the upper part, and deeply notched on
either side, in one or other of which the animal rests when
extended.

The range of infusorial variability is at present but little
defined—its extent, perhaps, scarcely suspected by micro-
scopists; we are, therefore, but too much disposed to confer
names upon and create species out of mere varieties. The
Cothurnia maritima I figure, however, is certainly so re-
markable a variety that I think it may legitimately enough
be named Corthunia maritima, var. incisa.

The visitor to Hastings and St. Leonards will find the
ditch J refer to, more particularly the broad end of it furthest
from St. Leonards, a productive locality. Not only can a
good gathering of Diatoms be obtained from it, such as
Pleurosigma elongatum, P. angulatum, P. balticum, Amphi-
prora alata, Achnanthes brevipes, Surrirella striatula,Epithemia
constricta, &c., but it abounds in many interesting forms of
infusorial life—amongst them, Tintinnus Cothurnia, a Baltic
species (which I now, I believe, for the first time record as
Bnitish also), Vorticella convallaria, Carchesium polypinum,
Vaginicola valvata, Ameba crassa? Cothurnia maritima, with
its variety, the C. incisa (mihi), &c.

On Monocuromatic Intumrination. By J. J. Woopwarp,
Brevet Lieut.-Colonel, Assist.-“Surgeon, U. 8. Army, in
charge of Medical Microscopical Sections, Army Medical
Museum.

Sryce 1865 I have been in the habit of using monochro-
matic (violet) light, not only for photo-micrography in my
own hands and those of my able assistant, Dr. Edward
Curtis, Assist.-Surgeon and Brevet-Major, U.S. Army, but
also for all microscopic work requiring the sharpest defini-
tion, as, for example, the examination of the finest Diatomacea,
the Nobert’s lines, &c.

I obtain the violet light by passing the direct ight of the
sun through a saturated solution of sulphate of copper in
aqua ammonia, as originally suggested by Von Baer, in his
‘ Hinleitung in die Hohere Optik,’ p. 48, the solution being
held in a plate-glass cell, with parallel sides, and about the
}th of an inch apart. ‘The light thus obtained is concentrated

254 WOODWARD, ON MONOCHROMATIC ILLUMINATION,

by the ordinary achromatic condenser, and the objects viewed
preferably by objectives specially constructed for the violet
ray, such as have been made for the branch of the Army
Medical Museum at Washington, under my charge, by Mr.
Wm. Wales, of Fort Lee, New Jersey. I find, however,
that for ordinary achromatic objectives of high power, such
as the jth, =4th, and ~,th of Messrs. Powell and Lealand,
of London, or the No. 11 immersion lens of Mons. E.
Hartnack, of Paris, the special correction may be dispensed
with, and good results obtained, which, however, in my
opinion, do not exceed the performance of a Wales ith
properly amplified. With any of these lenses thus illumi-
nated, the 29th and 380th bands of Nobert’s lines can be
satisfactorily resolved; perhaps for this object the th of
Messrs. Powell and Lealand does best, but they are all very
nearly alike. Since reading the papers of Count Castracane
and others (‘ Microscopical Journal,’ 1864, p. 249; 1867,
p- 60, &e., &c.), Lhave carefully tried the violet ray obtained
by a prism, but find that, although it possesses essentially the
same qualities as that obtained in Von Baer’s method, the
loss of hght and the trouble of manipulation render it
inferior for practical purposes. (Plate X.)

Passing by the difficulty of manipulation—which might,
perhaps, be overcome by proper mechanical contrivances—I
limit myself here strictly to the question of loss of light.

Besides the loss of light from reflection at the surface of
the prism, there is a certain definite loss due to the disper-
sion of the beam, a diminution which increases with the
index of refraction of the prism, and also directly as the
distance. Of course, therefore, the prism should be placed
at as short a distance from the lower aperture of the achro-
matic condenser as will permit suflicient dispersion to give a
violet beam adequate to the homogeneous illumination of the
instrument. I found, with a large flint-glass prism in my
possession, that about eight inches’ distance was necessary
for this purpose. ‘The results were very satisfactory to the
eye, although with high powers I soon satisfied myself that
the light was not so great as I had been in the habit of
obtaining by transmitting the solar pencil through the am-
monio-sulphate cell. To obtain a definite photographic
comparison, I resorted to the following simple experiment.

The solar ,rays were reflected by a plane mirror upon the
prism, which was placed just outside the shutter of a
darkened room. The arrangement was such as to throw the
violet ray of the spectrum up a blackened tube into the dark
room. At eight inches from the prism the violet light was
intercepted by a concave amplifier, the mounting of which

WOODWARD, ON MONOCHROMATIC ILLUMINATION, 255

closed the end of the blackened tube. ‘The object of this
lens was to increase the dispersion, and so to increase the
time of exposure necessary to produce a decided impression
on the sensitive plate. At two feet from the lens was the
plate-holder. In front of the sensitive plate was a slider
with an aperture, so arranged that two small areas of the
plate could be exposed successively. The field being evenly
illuminated, one of the areas was exposed for twenty-five
seconds, when the plate was covered ; an assistant removed
the prism, slid in the ammonio-sulphate cell, and altered the
position of the mirror, so as to throw the sunlight through
the cell upon the concave amplifier as before. An even
illumination having been obtained, the second area in the
sensitive plate was exposed twenty-five seconds. On develop-
ment it was found that the part of the plate illuminated by
the ammonio-sulphate was several times blacker than the
part illuminated with the prism. Using this sensitive plate
as a negative, I obtained the print which I enclose, in which,
of course, the lightest area corresponds to the darkest area
in the original plate. My reason for using the amplifier to
disperse the rays in both instances was that the exposure
must otherwise have been instantaneous, and the slightest
variation in time would have vitiated the results.

From a careful comparison of the two modes of illumina-
tion, and from the photographic experiment, | am compelled
to conclude that the ammonio-sulphate cell offers greater
practical advantages for the purposes of photo-micrography
than the prism, the small quantity of the other rays which
are transmitted by the ammonio-sulphate not interfering in
the least with the results.

As, however, Count Castracane may be more skilful in
his manipulation of the prism than I have been, I herewith
transmit a photograph of Pl. angulatum, taken by myself
with the Wales 1th and amplifier, magnified 2544 diameters ;
one by my friend Dr. Curtis, by the same lens, with the
same power ; one by the latter aii the Powell and Lealand’s
+th, magnified 2544 diameters; and enlargements of the
two latter to 19,050 diameters. These photographs I beg
you to transmit to Count Castracane, whose address I do not
know (though I have endeavoured to obtain it through Dr.
Maddox), with assurances of my highest consideration, and
with the request that he will send me paper proofs of his
own best photographs of the same object as obtained by the
prism.

By so doing you will confer a lasting obligation upon one
who is anxious only to get at the tr ath in Giga interesting
optical question.

TRANSLATIONS.

The Laws of the MovEMENTs ia MicroscopicaL PLANtTs and
Animas whilst under the INvuurncr of Licur. By
Professor F. Coun.

(Translated from a German pamphlet sent by Dr. Cohn.)

By microscopical animals Professor Cohn means only the
Infusoria, and especially those mouthless genera of Infusoria
which are provided with cilia. Those which are proyided
with mouths (Stomatoda of Siebold) bear in their definite
motions, which are correlated with their taking up solid
nourishment, a marked differentiating character. By micro-
scopical plants only those genera are understood which are
possessed of an independent power of migration, or of a de-
velopmental condition in which this is'the case. Both classes
taken together are to be termed merely “ microscopical
organisms.”

In the researches, of which this is a summary, the question
as to the primary cause of the movement, or the moving
power, is not in any way at issue. Of whatever kind the
power may be that puts a body in motion, it is easily seen
that this movement may be made in every possible direction.
If microscopical organisms exhibit in their movement a defi-
nite direction, then there must be some special cause which
appoints the direction of the movement. ‘This cause of the
direction of the movements is light.

In colourless microscopical organisms light has no influ-
ence, and no appointed direction of movement is to be ob-
served; these organisms appear to move in every possible
direction.

In Diatoms and Oscillaria, one of which contains a brown
(pheophyll) and the other a greenish colouring (phyco-
chrome) matter, the influence of the light makes itself so far
appreciable that they prefer the light to the dark, and there-
fore seek the surface in large numbers. A further influence
upon the direction of their movements has not yet been
shown. Upon an equally lighted surface the Oscillaria
develop radially on every side from the dark central en-
tanglement of threads, and grow equally over every side of

COHN, ON MICROSCOPICAL PLANTS. 207

the glass vessel. In the same manner diatoms are found in
every part of an aquarium, on the surface of the soil as well
as on the walls, but are never met with in its deeper and
darker parts.

Numerous experiments with green microscopical organisms,
especially with Euglena, gave the following results :—If a
drop of water, which is thickly and equally filled with micro-
scopic or ganizations, be placed upon a glass slide, it will be
seen, before many minutes, that many of the organisms will
betake themselves to that portion of the drop which is turned
towards the window, or even towards that part of the sky
which is most lightened. ‘They crowd around this side,
which we may call the window side, and give the drop a
deep green edge, whilst the rest of the drop is quite colour-
less and free from Euglene ; and, indeed, they place them-
selves together, so that their heads lie parallel one to another
towards the light, and their bodies are directed perpendicu-
larly to the edge of the window. ‘They cannot remove them-
selves from this position, but gradually dry up as the edge
becomes evaporated.

If, conversely, the drop be now turned, so that that which
was formerly the window side is now turned z away from the
window and directed towards the room, and so that the
former room-side forms the window-side, an instantaneous
struggle in the whole of the organisms will be seen for the
purpose of turning themselves round. The foremost soon
turn round and swim towards the new window edge, and the
back ones follow one after the other. After two or three
minutes, more or less, as they are free to move, the organisms
are again at the window edge. This experiment can be
repeated as often as one likes; the result is the same whether
the drop lies on a dark ground or is lighted from beneath
through the diaphragm.

If the drop be placed on the microscope stand, so that the
half which is turned towards the window les on a dark
ground, and, on the contrary, that which is turned away
from the window be lighted from underneath by the reflector,
then it will be seen that the organisms swim towards the
window edge, although the other half of the drop seems to
receive more light, seeing that it is lighted from above and
underneath at the same time. And even when the light
which comes from above is weakened by placing a semi-
transparent body between it and the object—such as a thin
piece of horn or oil paper—the objects will always go towards
the window edge, and do this even when the full light of
the reflector is thrown at the same time upon them from

299 COHN, ON tHE MOVEMENTS

underneath. But if the window side of the drop be entirely
shaded by an opaque body, then the organisms pass away
from the window edge and go to the room rside. If the light
from above be entirely impeded, aud the drop be only lighted
from underneath by the reflector, the organisms will assume
no particular position, but exhibit disorderly movements
equally throughout the drop. The same takes place if the drop
has been some time completely in the dark; but if, on the
contrary, when the light which comes from above is shut off,
only a part of the drop be lighted from underneath by means
of the reflector (through the apposition of a diaphragm which
is smaller than the drop) all the organisms will swim towards
the lighted point. If, for example, this point is in the
middle of the drop, they will leave the edges and will crowd
together in the middle of the drop.

If a basin be filled with water which contains numerous
green organisms, they will congregate at the window side;
but if this be shaded by an opaque plate being placed upen
it, they will go away from the window side and collect
towards the opposite side; and, indeed, they will often place
themselves in a dark green line, obliquely through the
surface of the water, on the boundary of the shadow which
the plate has thrown.

From the experiments that have hitherto been mentioned
one might come to the conclusion that it is the intensity of
the light that rules the moyements of the green organisms,
and that they prefer the window side to the room side because
it is strongly lighted. If so, it must be at once granted that
a sensibility exists in these animals which can perceive the
inexpressibly small difference of brightness between the two
edges in a drop of only one millimétre. But in this way we
could not explain the reason of the powerlessness of the ight
from underneath transmitted by the refiector, compared
with the light falling from aboye, and still less the reason for
their preferring the window edge, when the light is palpably
weakened by a semitransparent body, to the light which is
given by the reflector when working with all its intensity,
and is therefore the stronger.

Further researches have proved that it is not the intensity,
but the direction of rays of light, which governs the move-
ment of microscopical organisms. All the above experiments
were made in a room w here the light fell on one side, and
the drop was flat, and which only” caused one direction of
movement. In sucha case the organisms always move them- |
selves towards that edge which is “turned to the source of the
light. But in open air, where the light falls on every side,

OF MICROSCOPICAL PLANTS. 209

no movement towards the edges takes place. In a tall vessel
of water, which is lighted by the daylight coming from above,
as usual, the organisms move upwards towards the surface of
the water, and in the same way in ponds in the open air;
on the other hand, by lighting only one side in a room, they
go to the upper edge, which is the nearest to the window,
and which is turned towards the source of the light.

If, on the contrary, we allow the light to fall underneath,
or from a point in the side of a cylindrical vessel of water,
in the organisms in the first case will move downwards and
the latter sidew ays towards the source of light.

As soon as the light from above is moved aw ay the
organisms may be mov red to any point by reflected light ; for
example, in a flat drop on a glass slip, when the rays fall
parallel from underneath, they move equally downwards to-
wards the bottom of the drop. By placing the reflector in
an oblique position they are made to move towards the cor-
responding edge of the drop. If the reflector of the micro-
scope presents a definite image of the crossbars of the window
on the object-plate the green organisms arrange themselves
accordingly, leaving the darker crossbars empty, and covering
those liquid parts which correspond to the glass, thus giving
a negative picture of the window on the object-plate.

From these and a great number of analogous experiments
the following conclusions are drawn:

(1) The direction of the movements of green microscopical
organisms is determined by the direction of the rays of light
which fall upon them. ‘The organisms move towards the
source of light, exactly contrary, as if it were to the direction
of the rays of light themselves. They are, as well as we can
express it, attracted rectilineally by the source of ight. Ap-
parent exceptions to this rule are brought about simply by
the form of the drop or mass of water in which the organisms
are.

(2) These green organisms exhibit a polar relation to light;
they place themselves always so that one half of the body,
which is generally characterised by the want of chlorophyll,
as well as by the attachment of cilia (which is called the
head), is turned towards the source of light, and the opposite
green half of the body (tail) is turned away from the source
of light. When the light is shut off no particular position is
assumed.

(3) All movements of green organisms are accompanied
by a rotation of their bodies round the longitudinal axis pass-
ing through the head and tail. Whilst in the dark the organ-
isms can turn from left to right, as well as from right to left,

260 COHN, ON MICROSCOPICAL PLANTS.

and often change these directions; but a definite direction of
rotation is given to them by the light. In Euglena and some
other organisms this is a contrary course to that of the hands
of a watch, but the same as the rotation of the earth.

(4) Experiments with coloured glass show that only the
more highly refractive actinic rays induce this direction of
movement ; the less refractive rays, which have no chemical
activity, are simply negative in action, as in the absence of
light. "The organisms are attracted most strongly by the blue
rays, whilst the red are the same as total darkness. Thus,
for example, if half the field be lighted by blue, and the other
half by red light, the organisms will all go to the blue, al-
though it be turned away ; from the w indow: -edge.

(5) By far the majority of green organisms follow the laws
here laid down. There are, how ever, great numbers of ex-
ceptional forms which turn away from the source of light by
a backward motion. In these organisms the rotation along
the longitudinal axes is reversed, and there is a point, sooner
or later, where they suddenly stop in their backward move-
ment and stand still for some time, and then, by changing
the direction of rotation, go over again tow ards the source of
light.

(6) 1f we consider these facts concerning the movements of
organisms which possess a green and a colourless half in con
nection with the property of chlorophyll to effect, through
the agency of actinic rays, certain chemical actions—in par-
ticular the decomposition of carbonic acid and the separation
of oxygen—it appears probable that all these phenomena of
movement, as far as concerns their direction being caused by
‘light, depend upon the chemical activity of these bodies. We
can, in fact, imitate, by pure chemical processes, with the
help of what may be called an artificial Euglena (namely,
a fusiform fragment of chalk, half of which is covered with
a resinous cement, and eres is placed in diluted sul-
phuric acid), many of the phenomena recorded above.
The splinter of chalk develops oxygen on its uncovered half,
and is thereby projected by the backward impulse in the
direction of the covered end, and is caused to rotate.

261

Description of a Live-nox for the OBSERVATION of Livina
Tappoes and other ANtmats. By F. E. Scuunrze, of
Rostock.

(From the ‘Archiv. f. Mikroskop. Anatomie,’ IT, p. 378.)

In the first part of Vol. xxxv of Virchow’s ‘ Archiy’
(January, 1866) doubts were expressed by A. Béttcher, of
Dorpat, with respect to the spontaneity of the changes in
form and place of the so-termed contractile cells, his doubts
having arisen from a strict scrutiny into the method hitherto
followed in the investigation of the motile phenomena of
cells, and especially of the effects of the so-termed “ wet
chamber ;” and he has suggested the possibility “that the
amezeboid motions, as they are exhibited on the stage of the
microscope, may be caused by external influences independent
of the vitality of the cells.”

In order to meet an objection of the same kind, v. Reck-
linghausen* had already investigated and described the
motile connective-tissue-cells in the tail of the living Tadpole.
Having been for some time past engaged in the observation
of these movements in uninjured, living animals, I am able
in all essential points to confirm vy. Recklinghausen’s state-
ments ; and will here confine myself to a brief description of
an apparatus adapted to the convenient observation of the
changes in form and place of the connective-tissue-cells in
the actually living state, which I have employed for a long
time, and which is equally well adapted for other researches
in living vertebrate animals.

Glass slides of some thickness are provided with pecu-
liarly formed depressions opening on the upper surface, and
having for their object the reception of the thicker part
of the body of the animal to be examined, and its retention
surrounded with water. ‘The deeper depression intended for
the admission of the trunk of the animal may be continuous,
with a shallower one for the reception of the tail when that
part is of any thickness, and it is desired to examine it with-
out pressure. The shape and size of the hollow must, ot
course, correspond with those of the object. For the Tadpole
of the Newt I have found a hollow constructed, as shown in
the accompanying figures, very suitable.

Fig. 1, representing the bearer as seen from above, and

* “Ueber Hiter-und Bindegewebskorperchen,” Virch. ‘ Archiv.,’ xxxviil,
pp. 174 and 175.
VOL. VII.— NEW SER. av

262 SCHULTZE, ON A LIVE -BOX.

fig. 2 a longitudinal section. It is particularly advantageous
to bevel off, beneath, that end of the cell at which the head of
the animal is placed, whose movements are thus effectually
prevented. The caudal extremity, in order to ensure its
lying flat in the shallow part of the excavation, must be
slightly twisted at the base; a proceeding, however, which

TA EMS he

ae FIC.2 a

does not appear much to incommode the animal. It will be
as well to have several cells of the kind of different forms in
readiness. At any rate, the deeper part of the hollow should
be much shorter when it is intended for the Frog-tadpole
than in the case of the Newt’s, for which latter again the
part for the reception of the tail should be somewhat
shallower, or entirely omitted; and, on this account, the
hinder wall of the excavation should be made very sloping or
somewhat rounded, so that the flat tail may rest directly on
the even surface of the slide. In the case of young fishes the
hollow should be still narrower and shallower, and in this
case it is advisable to bevel off the whole of the hinder
border.

As the grinding out of a hollow of this kind in a thick
piece of glass would be attended with difficulty, and conse-
quently with considerable expense, I have always constructed
the apparatus of three flat pieces of glass. The lower of these,
as seen in fig. 2, is nothing more than a common slide, and
upon this, as a basis, the two others, in which the requisite
incisions have been made, are affixed by means of Canada
balsam [or marine glue]. The dotted transverse line in fig. 1
shows the point of junction of these two pieces. When used
the hollow is filled with water, into which the animal is
introduced, with its head beneath the anterior border, and
the tail in the shallow depression at the other end, or on the
surface of the glass, as the case may be, the whole being
covered with thin glass in the usual way.

263

Conrrisutions to the Natura History of the INFusortia.
By Dr. W. ZENKER.

(Schultze’s ‘ Arch. f. Mikrosk. Anatomie,’ IT, p. 332.)
(Abstract. )

1. On the Pulsating Vesicle—The pulsating, or, as it is
more usually though less characteristically termed, contractile
vesicle, is one of those points in the anatomy of the Infusoria
which has been the subject of the greatest controversy among
zoologists. It is one of the most generally existing and
most remarkable organs of the infusorian body, in most cases
occurring singly, though in many two or more are found.*
Ata “ae ae ‘point in Age body may be noticed a vesicle with
clear reddish contents, which, with a rhythmical recurrence,
first gradually enlarges, and abs suddenly contracts, so as
entirely to disappear. The rhythm of these usually very dis-
tinct pulsations may be rapid or slow. In some Infusoria,
as, for instance, Actinophrys Eichhornit, it varies so that in
that species it is frequently very tedious to await the contrac-
tion of the vesicle. On each occasion the contents of the
vesicle which have been derived from the tissue of the body
are expelled from it; and the question arises whether they
are driven inwardly—that is to say, into the other parts of
the animal—or outwardly into the surrounding water. In
the former case it would be, as first asserted by Wiegmann
in 1855, a circulatory, and in the latter an excretory organ.

To the advocates of the latter view Ehrenberg especially
belongs, who was of opinion that the secretion might be
seminal. ‘This opinion, which was suggested perhaps by the
enormous power of multiplication of the Infusoria, and was
taken to be opposed to the doctrine of equivocal generation,
should be regarded as long since exploded, and especially
since it has been shown beyond doubt that the reproduction
of the Infusoria is preceded by conjugation. Such a circum-
stance would be incomprehensible had impregnation been
effected so conveniently at every moment, and from the ear-
liest period of life. In favour of the same view, Oscar Schmidt
(‘ Froriep n. Notigen,’ 1849) adduced the first confirmatory
observation in Bursaria leucas of the actual existence of an

* Amongst examples in which the number of vesicles is most numerous
may be cited Amphileptus anser, Ehr., in which from ten to fifty pulsating
vesicles are placed in two longitudinal series, extending from one end of
the body to the other. The successive pulsations are alternate from before
backwards.

264 DR. ZENKER, ON INFUSORIA.

opening directed outwards, and consequently of the evacuation
of the contents of the vesicle into the surrounding water.
His description is clear and distinct, and as convincing as the
sight of the thing itself, which, with proper microscopical
appliances, it must be confessed, is not difficult.

Nevertheless, since the appearance of the important works
of Stein, Lieberkuhn, and of Claparéde and Lackmann, the
opposite view has obtained almost universal acceptance,
Oscar Schmidt’s observation having been regarded as based
upon an optical delusion.

The controversy would appear to have been definitively
settled by an observation of Claparede in a non- ciliated ani-
mal, Actinophrys Eichhornii (‘ Mill. Arch., 1854). This
observation showed that simultaneously with the sudden eol-
lapse of the projecting vesicle no movement was perceptible
in the minute particles suspended in the surrounding water ;
whence it was concluded that the contents must have been
expelled, not in an outward but in an inward direction, and
the pulsating vesicle was consequently proved to be a cireu-
latory organ.

I am in a condition, however, to show that this generally
accepted view is incorrect. It is said also that Lachmann, in
the last days of his life, expressed himself in favour of my
opinion.

In the first place, then, it is not true that the evacuation
of the pulsating vesicle in an outward direction must neces-
sarily produce any visible movement in surrounding sus-
pended particles. It is quite correct to say that a movement
would be produced were the contents of the vesicle com-
pressed air, or were the expulsive force very great. But as
the vesicle contains water, which is virtually incompressible,
and upon which no great degree of pressure is exerted, the
impulse which would be given by the expansion of the con-
tained fluid on the contiguous parts is entirely wanting. An
opening is suddenly formed in the delicate outer membrane
in consequence of which the vesicle collapses, so that the
contained fluid simply occupies the same space as before.
The sole movements undergone by the water contained in

the vesicle is due to its being forced through the more or less
narrow orifice, in order to diffuse itself on all sides, and fill
up the vacuum arising from the moderately slow collapse of
the membrane. The motion of the fluid is consequently
limited te the space previously occupied by the pulsatiug
vesicle itself; and it is merely a sort of vortex, and always

very feeble. Consequently it is only in extremely minute

DR. ZENKER, ON INFUSORIA. 265

and very closely contiguous particles that a trifling move-
ment can possibly take place.

And this in accordance with what I have observed. In
making the observation, it is necessary to choose for its sub-
ject, amongst those on the stage, an Actinophrys in which
the pulsating vesicle 1s seen in pr ofile, and at the same time
turned slightly upwards. In this position the whole of the
vesicle is sure to be visible, whilst when viewed exactly in
profile, a considerable portion of it may, of course, frequently
be overlapped. If the systole and diastole are now watched,
it will be seen that immediately before the systole an opening
is formed in the outer membrane, and always at the same
spot, and that during the collapse of the wall, the free borders
of the opening quiver in an outward direction.

From this observation, the correctness of which can hardly
be impugned upon the ground of its resting upon “ optical
delusion,” it is directly proved that the contents of the vesicle
are expelled by the systole into the exterior water.

Assiduous observation will readily convince any one of the
simple nature of the way in which the opening of the vesicle
takes place. The orifice, that is to say, 2s nothing more than
@ slit, which is always reopened at the same spot, simply for
the reason that the cicatrix, as it may be termed, of the pre-
vious rupture always remains the weakest part. After the
collapse of the vesicle, a short period elapses before any in-
dication whatever of it is again visible. As it must be as-
sumed that the secretion of fluid into the vesicle is pretty
nearly continuous, we must suppose that its outward flow is
for a certain time unimpeded. ‘Lhe vesicle does not fill again
until the fissure is entirely and firmly closed. If the site of
the fissure be now brought accurately into focus, it will be
clearly seen that the wall of the vesicle is at that spot very
thin, but at some distance from it much thicker; and hs
difference of thickness becomes more and more apparent as
the vesicle continues to expand. But I have never been able
to perceive any manifestly elastic extension, as in caoutchouc
The observer at once feels that the vesicle will rupture at the
thinnest part when the expansion has reached a further stage,
as actually takes place, as above described.

In the true ciliated Infusoria a higher degree of organiza-
tion is observable, although the process is essentially the
same. Among this class, the species selected by Oscar
Schmidt (Bursaria leucas and Paramecium Aur elia) afford
particularly favorable subjects for observation, owing to the
circumstance that they may be held captive fora considerable

266 DR. ZENKER, ON INFUSORIA.

time by a thin covering class, without being destroyed. In
them also it may be seen that a number (S—8) of serpen-
tine canals radiate from the pulsating vesicle, the gra-
dually finer and finer branches of which canals may be traced
over both sides of the surface of the body. ‘These canals
were regarded by Wiegmann, and afterwards by Von Siebold,
as the conduits of an oscillating, blood-circulation, be-
cause they observed them to become distended with fluid im-
mediately after the systole of the vesicle itself, And this
phenomenon, it must be confessed, very readily led to the
impression that the wovement of the fluid was from the
vesicle towards the canals.

Nevertheless, if a Bursaria leucas be laid upon its side, in
such a position that the pulsating vesicle is viewed at its
greatest distance from the axis of the body, it will be plainly
seen to lie immediately beneath the outer membrane, and that
at each systole it contracts in an outward direction. And the
same condition, with fewer exceptions, as, for instance, in
the Vorticellz, obtains in all other Infusoria. But im no case
can the contained fluid be seen to retire towards the interior
of the body; we are compelled, therefore, to assume the ex-
istence of an external orifice.

This orifice becomes visible when the animal is so turned
that the vesicle appears to lie in the axis of the body, and
consequently when it is in a position to be looked into either
from the outer or the inner aspect. Under these circum-
stances, there will be seen in the centre of the spherical
vesicle a smaller circle, with sharply defined borders, which
are best seen in oblique illumination, the circlet itself pre-
senting a bluish-grey colour. Thus it remains during the
whole diastole ; at the moment of the completion of which its
colour suddenly changes into the same palish-red hue as the
rest of the vesicle; and from this moment the vesicle col-
lapses.

The orifice consequently in this case is constantly existent :
but by careful adjustment of the microscope an extremely
delicate viscous substance will be perceived by which the
orifice during the diastole is covered, and, as it were, plastered
over. I have often witnessed the rupture of this substance com-
mencing on each side, before the collapse of the vesicle, and the
assumption of the red colour by the orifice.

The presence of this cement renders the simple nature of
the proceeding perfectly clear, During the diastole the flow
of fluid brought by the vessels compresses the surrounding
substance uniformly in every direction. The further the

DR. ZENKER, ON INFUSORIA. 267

substance is compelled to retreat, the more is the membrane,
formed by the viscous cement which is adherent to it,
stretched until suddenly it gives way and is torn across from
side to side. At the same time the parts resume their former
position ; that is to say, the sides of the vesicle come together
and remain invisible as long as it is open, that is, until the
cemented material has again blocked up the orifice. The
closure of the vesicle causes that of the adducent vessels,
because the surrounding substance at the periphery, even of
a still enlarged vesicle when forced to accommodate itself to
that of a contracted one, must be compressed, and conse-
quently must lose all vacuities. The consequence of this is
that the vessels in their turn become distended by the fluid
which is poured uninterruptedly into them from their capillary
ramifications. In any case they are obstructed, as is obvious
from the violence and want of absolute simultaneousness
observable in their outflow when it takes place.

The change of colour above noticed indicates simply the
presence or absence of the occluding mucus over the orifice.
The pulsation may be altogether prevented by keeping the
animal a little while in only a thin film of water beneath the
covering glass, whose pressure at length puts a stop to all
movement. Under these circumstances the vesicle remains
about two thirds to three quarters full, the radiating vessels
also remain constantly open, as well as does the “external
orifice. Consequently in such a case there is no possibility of
the existence of an oscillatory circulation, but, on the con-
trary, of a continuous uniform excretion.

Thus, in both instances, we find that the closure of the
vesicle is effected by a cementing substance which replaces,
as it were, the sphincter muscles, by which a similar function
is fulfilled in more highly organized animals. One would be
tempted to regard this material as of an analogous nature in
both cases, that is, an amorphous protoplasm, to adopt an ex-
pression of Max Schultze’s, and which is certainly correctly
applied in the case of Actinophri ys. In the ciliated infusoria
however, it appears to me more correct to regard the substance
in question as a true product of secretion, since. particularly
with the great Spirostomum ambiguum, it is easily seen how
frequently mucoid excretions from the substance of the body
are collected in the very large pulsating vesicle, and how these
are again expelled from it. After seeing this animal it is
incredible that the existence of an external orifice should
have been so long a matter of doubt.

The existence of an external orifice to the vesicle, and the
circumstance that its contents are entirely evacuated out-

268 DR. ZENKER, ON INFUSORIA.

wardly, at once upsets the theory that its function is that of a
circulatory organ or heart. But the question then arises,
What is the nature of the fluid which is thus continually got
rid of? It is perfectly transparent, and appears of a very pale
reddish colour. The last circumstance may probably have
been one reason why zoologists have regarded the fluid as
spermatic or as blood. So far as I know, Oscar Schmidt was
the first to observe that the water close to the infusorium was
also of a reddish hue, owing to the contrast with the bluish
colour of the animalcule. ‘There appears to be no reason,
therefore, to suppose that the fluid is anything more than
plain water; no doubt with respect to this can be entertained
when we consider the enormous quantity in which it is
excreted. It is possible, however, that it may occasionally
contain minute quantities of albuminous compounds (as in
the instance of Spirostomum ambiguum just cited).

Water alone could be excreted in such large quantities
without injury to the organism. ‘The infusoria are capable of
continually taking in larg ge quantities of water spontaneously
by the mouth; and the cay ity of the body is also entirely
filled with it. In like manner they are surrounded with
water on all sides, which may possibly find admittance
through the skin, even leaving out of question the canals.
In any case it is important to arrive at a clear notion of the
various possibilities of the case, since in this phenomenon we
are concerned with the most active change of matter that

takes place in the body of the infusoria.

In the rhizopoda, many of which are likewise furnished
with a pulsating vesicle, there can be no doubt that the
external surface, or some part of it, must be the site of imbi-
bition, since these creatures have no mouth. And a similar
instance is afforded by the Opalina, astomatous infusoria
which occur so abundantly in the rectum of the frog, and
which are furnished with whole series of pulsating vesicles.
On the other hand it may perhaps be assumed that where the
outer membrane is of a harder consistence it is rendered unfit
for the function of absorption. Such would be the case, for
instance, in the mantle of the Vorticelle and Acinete, in which
instance it would appear pretty certain that the water finds
entrance only through the mouth or some analogous organ.

It is at any rate evident, from the wide distribution and
fine ramification of the radiating vessels in Bursaria leucas,
that the water is collected from every part of the walls of the
body, and consequently that it pervades the entire body of
the Eanes which, to express it in a few words, consists
merely of an envelope surrounding the large cavity into which

DR. ZENKER, ON INFUSORIA. 269

water is constantly entering in active currents. Although
this distribution of the vessels is apparent, only a few Infusoria
with thé equal distinctness (Paramecium aurelia, Nassula
elegans), nevertheless indications of the existence of similar
capillary vessels are manifest in other instances (Spirostomum
ambiguum) ; and this leads to the supposition that the same
disposition exists in other ciliated Infusoria.

All that has been above adduced with respect to this pro-
cess leads to the conclusion that it is of a respiratory nature,
as suggested by Spallanzani and Dujardin (‘ Hist. des Inf.,’
p- 109). Whether the water be introduced through the
mouth or integument, it is impossible that it should pervade
the body of the animal through such a fine capillary network
without it leaving something behind which, from analogy,
cau only be the oxygen contained with water. Thus we
have a respiratory apparatus which may be compared with
the branchie of fish or other animals. In every apparatus of
this kind especial provision must be made for the expulsion
of the water which has been used, and this object is answered
by the contractile vesicle. But a difference exists between
this kind of respiration and that which is effected by branchie,
in the circumstance that, in the latter case, the current of
water is introduced by mechanical means, and remains on the
surface, the oxygen only penetrating into the interior ; whilst
in the case of the Infusoria the whole of the water enters, and
pervades the substance of the body throughout. It may also
be said that there is no visible mechanical appliance, unless
it be assumed that the current set in motion by the oval cilia
is sufficiently powerful to carry the water through the tissues
of the body, and that afterwards expelled by the pulsating
vesicle. In such instances as Actinophry, more especially,
this theory would leave us completely in the lurch; conse-
quently the propulsive force must be simply of a chemical
nature, and in order to illustrate the notion I entertain of
the process I would propose the following hypothesis :—
“That the oxygenated water is more powerfully attracted by
the tissues than when it is deprived of its oxygen.” This
being admitted, the reason why the de-oxygenated water is
always impelled by the oxygenated ; and why one is always
taken in, and the other expelled is at once apparent.

I am reluctant to propose such an hypothesis without
having subjected its correctness to the proof of experiment ;
but this I have hitherto found it impossible to carry out. In
order to establish it,it would be necessary to institute similar
conditions experimentally. This might be done, for instance,
if a cylinder of carbon were filled with pure water and placed

270 DR. ZENKER, ON INFUSORTA.

in water containing sulphuric acid. It might then be pre-
suined that so long as the acidulated water was absorbed the
pure water would be pushed forwards until the absorptive
power of the carbon was exhausted.

And here I cannot conclude without noticing the remark-
able action exerted by the water upon the substance of the
body, when deprived of protection by the removal of the ex-
ternal membrane. The projecting particles visibly become
more or less swollen, until suddenly the entire substance
bursts asunder, in consequence of which the detached parti-
cles are widely dispersed. The subjacent particles, being
thus exposed to the action of the water, are in a similar manner
disintegrated and dispersed, and so on until the whole animal
is dissolved. Thus we must suppose that in this case also
water is continuously absorbed from without, and excreted
towards the interior; but the normal canal for this no
longer exists, owing to which the elementary particles of
the substance of the tissue are at first distended as far as
their elasticity will allow. When this limit is passed they
burst asunder, whilst their now unfettered elastic force
expels the water they contained, by which they are them-
selves dissipated, and all the above described’ phenomena
follow. ‘The nucleus retains its form longer than the other
parts of the organism, but is also finally disintegrated. Thus
respiration may be said to exist even in this case, though to
a less extent, in which respect it corresponds with whi it may
be observed in the embryonic stage, as in the dAcinete, for
instance, in which the pulsating vesicle has a much slower
rhythm than in the parent animal.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMANY.—Zeitschrift f. Wissensch. Zoologie. —Vol.
xvii, Part III. July, 1867.

1. “ On the Development of the Tissue of the Membranous
Cochlea,” by Dr. C. Hasse, of Gottingen.

2. Supplementary Remarks on the Anatomy of the
Cochlea in Birds,’ by the same.

The former of these communications gives the results of
an inyestigation into the development of the tissues of the
Membranous Cochlea, undertaken with the view of com-
pleting and establishing those which had been arrived at by
the author in two previous memoirs, one entitled “ De
Cochled Avium,” and the other, which has appeared in the
present volume of the ‘ Zeitschrift ’ (p. 56), “‘ Die Schnecke der
Vogel.’ Wr. Hasse also considers that his researches may
give a further stimulus to the study of a subject which, in
his opinion, affords the prospect of an abundant harvest of
discovery. |

His inquiry has been confined entirely to the development
of the Cochlea in the chick, but he considers that the results
will be found equally applicable to the same part in man
and other animals.

The researches were made in sections, partly of the iso-
lated membranous Cochlea, and partly of the same part
remaining in its chamber or case. In order to isolate the
Cochlea, the brain is to be removed and the inner wall of
the cranium exposed, when the situation of the Cochlea will
be readily recognised by its shining appearance through the
walls. The surrounding tissues being then carefully torn
away under the microscope, by means of a fine knife or
needles, the Cochlea is easily detached. It is then placed in
strong alcohol till hardened and thin transverse sections of it
can be made.

272 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

Details are given respecting the development of—(1) the
Cartilage ; (2) the Tegmentum ; (3) the Membrana basilaris,
upon w hich the author lays great stress; (4) of the ner-
yous elements. Parts whose dey elopment still requires fur-
ther investigation are—(l) The Tigmental cells; (2) those
of the triangular cartilage ; (5) of the denticulate cells; (4)
of the Papilla spirals.

The second paper is chiefly devoted to an account of the
minute structure of the Cochlear ganglion and the terminal
filaments of the Acoustic nerve.

3. ** On some Tropical Larval Forms,’ by Dr. C. Sem-
per, of Wurzburg.—Shortly before the “Author’s departure
for the Philippine Islands in the year 1858, his attention
was directed by Prof. Behn, of Kiel, to a minute marine
animal which that observer had met with in his vo yage round
the world in very various regions of the tropical seas. This
was a cylindrical creature about 6mm long, and characterised
by a longitudinal tract of cilia running from one end to the
other.

Dr. Semper noticed this apparetitly larval form for the
first time somewhere about 42° S.L. near the Cape, as the
ship was passing through a broad shoal as it were, of the
most various kinds of oceanic creatures, brought by the warm
Mozambique current flowing out of the Indian Ocean. The
next occasion upon which he fell in with it was in the Straits
of Sunda and on the South Coast of Java.

The body presents the form of a cylindrical sac open at
each end, and having thick walls whose colour gives the
creature a beautiful striped or banded aspect. The oral
opening, which is always in front when the animal swims,
leads into a short sort of infundibuliform pharynx, from the
lower end of which six wide mesenteric bands proceed
through the ciliated abdominal cavity to the posterior end of
the body. The anal orifice is of the same size as the oral. The
integument contains very numerous nematocysts of two kinds,
one “Of an elongated ov al form, and the other of slender clavate
shape. The ciliated band, consisting of closely approximated
cirrhi, can be reclined to either side, but in the active state
stands erect. It is situated along the middle of a yellowish-
brown flattened elevation of corresponding length.

From the above particulars the author concluded, without
doubt, that the creature must be the larva of an Actinia.

But at the same time he met with another smaller larva,
which, instead of a ciliated longitudinal band, was furnished
with a circlet of cilia like that of an Annelid larva. He made no
notes respecting the conformation of its stomach or ventral

~

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE, 273

cavity. In its integument, however, were situated numerous
thread-capsules which, in form and size, as well as in the
structure of the extruded urticating thread, corresponded
with those of the above-described creature.

The author is inclined to believe, though by no means
regarding it proved, that the larva with the longitudinal
band of cilia, may represent only a further stage of deve-
lopment of that with the ciliated circlet, chiefly from the
circumstance that the urticating capsules are alike, organs
that have never yet been observed in any true Annelid
larva.

With respect to the presence of thread cells, he remarks
that until within a brief period no one would for a moment
have doubted that both these forms belonged to the Celente-
rata, which alone were supposed to be furnished with those
organs. There can, however, now be no doubt, from exten-
sive observations both in terrestrial and aquatic forms, that
in the Molidina, Diphylldia, certain Cephalopoda among
the mollusca, in the Planaria among Annulosa, animals are
found which also possess urticating capsules, sometimes in
the integument, sometimes in special glandular sacculi. And
more recently, Keferstein has even described a Sipunculidan
furnished with them.

The description of these larval forms is followed by a long
and interesting disquisition as to the value of the various
classifications of the lower animals, as regards more especially
the Celenterata and the various forms assembled by Cuvier
under the Radiata or Zoophyta, with which, as is well
known, together with the distinct group of the Echinodermata,
he included also the Sponges, Bryozoa, and the forms now
placed in the Celenterata.

4. “ On Solenogorgia tubulosa,”’ n. gen., by Carl Genth.—
Tn the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ 3rd ser.,
vol. x, Dr. Gray notices two new species of Alcyonari, to
one of which that observer has given thename of Solenocaulon
tortuosum. ‘The author is in some doubt whether the form .
he describes may not be identical with this species ; but since
Dr. Gray does not enter into any particulars regarding its
minute structure, by which alone the question could be fully
determined, Herr Genth considers it better to regard his as
a distinct genus, to which he has given the above name. His
specimens were brought by Dr. Semper from the Philippine
Islands.

The growth consists of a main stem, which divides into
irregular dichotomous branches. Both stem and branches
are hollow, and at the points where the main branches spring

274 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

from the trunk are openings leading into this internal canal,
which constitutes, as it were, a continuous canal-system. The
canals open in spoon-shaped slits at the extremities of the
branches. The canal seems to be formed by the union of the
borders of an originally simple flattened lamella or riband.

The polype- cells are circular, and are placed in rows,
which are so disposed that the middle line of each branch is
left free. ‘The cells are often closely crowded in these rows,
especially at the upper part of the stem and at the ends of
the branches.

The species is thus characterised :—Stem somewhat
flattened, slightly flexible, solid, pervaded by nutritive
canals. Branches and ramules furnished with lateral flat
appendices, which, except at their commencement and end,
are so grown together that the branches and ramules appear
to be hollow. Polypes disposed in two series, which leave
the underside and middle line of the branches and ramules
above, free. Each polype is seated in a more or less well-
defined eight-rayed disc or cup. ‘The interior of the entire
cenecium, pervaded by nutritive canals, with the exception
of an ill-defined slender axis which is found in the branches.
The spicula, except in this axis, free. An imperfectly deve-
loped horny substance occurs in places in the central parts of
the whole coencecium.

The systematic position of this new and curious genus, he
says, is obviously among the Gorgonide, and in the family
of the Briareacew of M. M. Edwards.

5. On the Ganglion-cells of the Spinal Chord,” by
Friedrich Jolly—The author’s observations were prompted
principally with a view of examining the results arrived at
by Fromman,* and by Deiters.+ And they were instituted
chiefly on the cells of the anterior cornua of the chord; which
on account of their greater size afford the best characters for
observation.

“It is of the greatest importance,” he observes, “in an
inquiry of this nature, to examine the chords of. various
animals besides man, inasmuch as the cells even from corre-
sponding parts differ enormously. As regards the human
subject the chord of the newly born infant is to be pre-
ferred.” Here follows the mode of preparation recommended
by Deiters (1. c. p. 1—26). The author considers that sections
of hardened pr eparations are almost inapplicable for the study
of the ganglion cells, owing to the changes produced in those

* Vireh. ‘Arch.,’? Bd. xxxi, Heft 2, and Bd. xxxii, Heft 2.
+ ‘ Unters. ib. Gelirn und Riickenmark des Menschen und der Sauge-
thiere. Braun:chweig, 1865.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 275

delicate bodies by the chemical reagents employed. The
cells should be as much as possible isolated, and this can be
done by judicious maceration in weak solutions of chromic
acid =!,, 25, 75 grain to the ounce of water, or of +, 1, 2
grains of chromate of potass.

Acknowledging the perfect correctness of Dr. Beale’s and of
Deiters’s figures and descriptions of the fibrillated appearance
of the ganglion cells, he observes that this appearance, which
Dr. Beale ascribes to the existence of peculiar currents per-
vading the cell during life, and which is described by From-
mann as indicating the composition of the cell to be mainly
of a plexus of fibrils proceeding from the nucleus and
nucleolus, the author regards as altogether artificial, and to
be due in part to corrugation and in part to coagulation of
the cell substance.

6. “ On the male of Psyche helix (Helicinella) together
with Remarks on the Parthenogenesis of the Psychide,” by
Prof. C. Claus, of Marburg.—The object of this paper,
which contains a very compendious history and literature
of the subject of parthenogenesis in the Tineide and
Bombycide, is to prove that the male of Psyche helix
does really exist, and to give a description of it, which
is illustrated by beautiful figures. The author consequently
concludes that even in that species,—in which, as is well
known, parthenogenesis was supposed, more than in any
other, to be the only mode of reproduction,—the concurrence
of the sexes, at any rate occasionally, intervenes.

7. ‘On the Formation, Structure, and Systematic Value of
the Egg-shell in Birds,” by Dr. R. ,Blasius.—This memoir
was prepared in accordance with a wish expressed by the
author’s father, that Landois’ ‘ Histological Researches on
the Eggs of various species of Birds’ might be extended to
other species, with the view of ascertaining the systematic or
classificatory value afforded in the minute structure of the
shell.

In proceeding with this task, the author commences with
the minute structure of the different parts of the oviduct,
which is preceded by a copious historical and critical account
of previous writings on the subject. He then gives an ac-
count of the histology and development of the egg-shell in
the fowl and pigeon, concluding with the systematic value of
the results.

With respect to the third subject, or to the value of the
systematic characters derivable from the microscopic investi-
gation of the shell,—to which, as is well known, M. Landois
attached very great importance,—Dr. R. Blasius remarks that

276 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

in order to judge of this value, three preliminary questions
must be answered: _

1. Whether the structure of the shell in the same egg is
uniform throughout.

2. Whether the histological composition of the shell is
eonstant in one and the same species. And

3. Whether constant differences can be discerned between
nearly allied species.

The general conclusions at which he arrives, after extended
researches, which are admirably detailed in the paper before
us, seem to be that the intimate structure of the egg-shell
possesses scarcely any greater systematic value than do the
external macroscopic characters; and consequently, that
oology, even with this addition, stands just where it did, as
regards systematic ornithology.

8. ‘ Observations on a former Communication by Landois,”’
(Zeitsch. f. w. Zool. Bd. xvii, pp. 375), by Professor V.
Siebold.—These observations, by Professor V. Siebold, have
reference to M. Landois’ assertion that in the eggs of insects
—or, rather, it should be said, im the embryo—of insects,
while still within the egg, there are no distinct indications of
the future sex, which, according to him, is determined after
the escape of the embryo from the egg, by differences in the
food with which it is nourished. ‘This extraordinary statement
is apparently supported by experiments which M. Landois
made with bees, and consisting in the removal of the egg which
had been laid in a ‘*‘ drone-cell”’ into the cell of a “‘ worker,”
and vice versd, in consequence of which he states that the sexes
were developed also, apparently in accordance with the
change of locality, and, as he supposes, of food; being ap-
parently ignorant of the fact that up to the sixth day, at
least, of the life of the maggot, before which time the sexual
organisation is manifest, both workers and drones are fed
upon the same food. Professor V. Siebold expresses con-
siderable doubts as to the correctness of the results arrived at
in these experiments, and adduces numerous instances in
other insects which tend to show that M. Landois’ hypothesis
strongly requires further evidence in support of it before so
strange an anomaly can be admitted into science.

And in this view, V. Siebold is briefly followed in the next
article.

9. “On the Law of Development of the Sexes in Insects,”
by Dr. Kleine, whose observations, however, are limited to
the question of sex in bees only; with regard to which
insects he considers that M. Landois is but imperfectly in-
formed, whatever value may attach to his observations in
other parts of Entomology.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE, 204

Archiv fur Microskop, Anatomie (Max Schulize’s). Part III.

1867.
1. “On the Genesis of the Spermatozoa,’ by Von la
Valette St. George.—This is the second part of a memoir
by a very careful microscopist—the first part of which
appeared in the first number of the ‘ Archiv’ (1865), together
with one on the same subject, by F. Schweigger-Seidel, of
which we gave a brief notice at the time. In this paper the
author discusses the views of Schweigger-Seidel and Kolliker,
and gives figures of the development of the spermatozoon of
man, the dog, the mouse, the guinea-pig, the rabbit, the green-
water frog, the speckled salamander, the earwig, the house-
cricket, and two gasteropods.

2. * On the Structure and Development of the Labyrin-
thule,” by Professor L. Cienkowski.—The organism to which
the author has applied the name Labyrinthula, was found by
him at Odessa beneath the marine alge which encrust the
piles of the harbour of that town. It presented resemblances
to the Fadenplasmodium described by him in ‘ Pringsheim’s
Jahrbuch,’ vol. 11, p. 408; but he has made a careful study
of it, and ‘considers it the type of a new group of organisms.
Three plates, one of which is coloured, illustrate this paper.
The Labyrinthule are minute, orange- [leu ed bodies, form-
ing reticulated threads which enclose spindel-shaped bodies.
Cienkowski sums up their peculiarities of structure and
development thus:

(1) They present masses of cells which enclose a nucleus,
aud which increase in number by division, and possess a cer-
tain degree of contractility, and which now and then are
covered with a cortical substance.

(2) These cells exude a fibrous substance, which forms a
stiffand tree-like network, forming a branching frame-work.

(3) The cells leave the mass and glide in different direc-
tions along the framework to the periphery of the mass. The
Labyrinthula cells can only continue their peregrinations when
supported by this line of threads.

(4) The moving cells unite in a new mass and become
cysts, in which each cell is surrounded by a hard covering,
the whole being held together by a rind-like substance.

(5) After some time four small granules are formed from
each cyst, which most likely become young Labyrinthula
cells.

The author says he would leave the further examination of
the development of Labyrinthula to future researches. For
the first step this must be sufficient to show that these pecu-
liar organisms bear no relation to any known group of beings

VOL, VII.—NEW SER. U

2738 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

of either of the organic kingdoms. They cannot be classed
with the sponges Rhizopoda, Grengarine, or ciliated Infusoria,
or with the Algze and Fungi. ‘There is nothing even by
which we can finda connection between the Labyrinthule and
the Alge, or other allied Flagellata; for the framework of
Labyrinthula, as its development shows, is to be considered
as an exudation of cells—as a peculiar fibrous, jelly-like
formation, Supported by this we are led to the Palmellace,
Conjugate, and Flagellate, where we can see such forma-
tions, but where the giving out of the jelly-lke substance is
confined to certain portions of the surface of the cells, whereby
single or star-like points are formed, to which the separated
cells remain sticking. We find numerous examples of this
in the Anthophysa, Doxococus, Colacium, and the like.
These complex organisms, the production of the separation of
many cells, could be compared with the network of Labyrin-
thule, although the cells in this case remain fixed, and never
move on the framework. ;

It would be possible to compare the Labyrinthule to some
kinds of compound diatoms which are covered with a gela-
tinous substance: for example, Bacillaria paradoxa ; but then
the cells of the diatom, and the fusiform bodies of the
Labyrinthula differ so widely in structure and development,
that no comparison is admissible.

3. “On Clathrulina, @ new Actinophrys genus.” by Prof.
L. Cienkowski—This is a very beautiful stalked form. Its
development and structure are described and illustrated in a
neatly drawn plate.

4. “On the Origin and Development of Bacterium termo
Duj,” by Joh. Liiders, of Kiel.

5. * Remarks ou the preceding Paper,’ by Professor Dr.
Hensen, of Kiel.

The first of these communications is, it appears, by a lady.
She has before this,in Von Mohl’s ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’
1866, p. 83, endeavoured to show that certain Fungi and the
Vibriones have a most intimate relationship. ‘This opinion
has been strongly opposed by Professor Hallier in a paper
published in the ‘ Archiv’ (1866), p. 67, which we noticed in
this Chronicle.

Frau Liiders in this paper endeavours to show that many
vibrio-forms may be produced by growing various moulds.
She gives figures of vibrio-forms from Botrytis acinorum,
grown in flesh-water, from Mucor mucedo grown in pure
spring-water, from Penicillium glaucum, grown in pure water
and other liquids. The history of the Vibriones, Bacteria,
and the yarious forms of the lower fungi, varying, as they do,

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 279

according to the “‘ nidus ”’ in which they are developed, is a
highly important field of research. Professor Hallier’s work,
‘Die. Pflanzlichen Parasiten des menschlichen Korpers,’
published at Leipzig in 1856, is one of the latest on the sub-
ject. In English we have nothing written which is well up
to the time. The study of these forms by cultivating them
under the field of the microscope is of great importance,
bearing so largely as it does on the possible variations of
species and their origin.

6. “A Contribution to the Knowledge of Miescher’s Sacculi,”
by Professor W. Manz, of Frieburg.

7. “On the Structure of -the Connective Tissue of the
Eyelid, ” by Dr. Ludwig Stieda, Professor in Dorpat, illus-
axated with half a plate.

8. “ A Gas Chamber for Microscopical Purposes,” by Dr.
S. Stricker.—The author feeling the great importance of such

researches as those of Recklinghausen on the action of car-
bonic acid on blood, and of Kiihne on the action of gases on
the cilia of the ova of Anodonte (Max Schultze’s Archiv,
Bd. I, p. 157, and p. 373), has devised a small instrument to
place on the stage of the microscope, by means of which a
smail object may conveniently and efficiently be subjected to
the action of a gas. A woodcut of the instrument is given—
which may be more fully described hereafter.

9. “Remarks on the Structure and Development of the
Retina,” by Max Schultze.

10. “ On the Action of Quinine on Protoplasmic Move-
ments,” by Dr. C. Binz.—Inquiries of this nature are of
very great importance, and tend directly towards the explana-
tion of vital phenomena. More of this kind of work might
be done by English microscopists. Dr. Binz has studied the
action of quinine on the movements of Vorticella campanula,
Actinophrys Eichornii, and Ameba diffluens, of the white
blood-corpuscle, and of the currents in 7radescantia virginica.
He has also made some experiments with morphia and
strychnine. ‘The writings of Max Schultze and of Kiihne on
Protoplasm are referred to and discussed.

11. ‘* Spongological Note,” by Oscar Schmidt.

12. “A Reclamation, touching the formed Sarcode (‘ geformte
Sarcode’),” by Oscar Schmidt.

13. “* On Actinophrys Eichornu, and on a new fresh-water
Rhizopod,” by Dr. Richard Greef.

14. “ On the Terminal Organs of the Optic Nerves in the
Eyes of Annulosa,’ by Max Schultze—This is a brief note
discussing the conclusions of Leydig in his beautiful illus-
trations of the nervous system of f Annulosa lately published.

280 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

ENGLAND.—Space compels us to curtail the chronicle
very greatly this quarter. We shall notice the French and
English journals in January, as also some papers read at
Dundee, in addition to the one here abstracted.

British Association— The Anatomy of the Thysanura,” by
Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S, He remarked that the Thysanura,
though extremely numerous, and in many cases very pretty
litle creatures, had attracted but little attention, owing, per-
haps, to their great delicacy and the consequent difficulty of
preserving them in a satisfactory condition. Under any
decaying log of wood, under damp leaves, in long grass—in
short, in almost any damp situation, the Thysanura form no
small proportion of the population. Like other insects, they
have six legs, but they never acquire wings. ‘The tail is
provided with two long appendages which are bent forward
under the body, and thus form a spring, by means of which
the animal is enabled to jump with great activity. A Smyn-
thurus, for instance, measuring one tenth of an inch in
diameter, will easily jump up twelve inches in the air. This,
however, is due mainly, not to muscular power, but to the
elasticity of the sprig. The muscles draw the spring forward
and bring it under a small latch or catch. Directly this is
relaxed the elasticity of the body jerks the spring back, and
throws the creature upwards and forwards. ‘The author
described in detail the muscles by which the spring is moved.
Another remarkable peculiarity in the Thysanura is the pre-
sence, on the first abdominal ring, of a process which acts as
a sucker in the Poduride, and in Smynthurus gives rise to
two long filaments which serve the same purpose. ‘he
author described the arrangement of the muscles by which
this curious apparatus is moved. He then described the
digestive and respiratory organs, and pointed out that Smyn-
thurus and Papirius, though very nearly allied in external
character, differ entirely in their method of respiration, the
latter genus being almost or entirely deficient in trachee.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE,

Experiments on the Poison of the Cobra-di-Capella,—The
melancholy accident which so lately happened with the cobra-
di-capella induced me to make some experiments and observa-
tions upon the action of the reptile’s poison, and they have
proved so eminently interesting that Iam induced to send
you an epitome of them.

I have to state, then, that when a person is mortally bitten
by the cobra-di-capella, molecules of living “ germinal” mat-
ter are thrown into the blood, and speedily grow into cells,
and as rapidly multiply, so that in a few hours millions upon
millions are produced at the expense, as far as I can at pre-
sent see, of the oxygen absorbed into the blood during inspi-
ration; hence the gradual increase and ultimate extinction
of combustion and chemical change in every other part of the
body, followed by coldness, sleepiness, insensibility, slow
breathing, and death.

The cells which thus render in so short a time the blood
unfit to support life, are circular, with a diameter on the
average =, of an inch. ‘They contain a nearly round
nucleus of ,.,, of an inch in breadth, which, when further
magnified, is seen to contain other still more minute sphe-
rules of living ‘‘ germinal” matter. In addition to this, the
application of magenta reyeals a minute coloured spot at
some part of the circumference of the cell. This, besides
its size, distinguishes it from the white, pus, or lymph
corpuscle.

Thus, then, it would seem that, as the vegetable cell
requires for its growth inorganic food and the liberation of
oxygen, so the animal cell requires for its growth organic
food and the absorption of oxygen. Its food is present in the
blood, and it meets the oxygen in the lungs; thus, the whole
blood becomes disorganized, and nothing is found after death
but dark fluid blood, the fluidity indicating its loss of fibrine,
the dark colour its want of oxygen, which it readily absorbs:
on exposure after death. sian

282 MEMORANDA.

Let it not be thought that microscopic particles are unable
to produce such great and rapid changes. It is well known,

and I have frequently timed it with my class, that a tea-
spoonful of human saliva will, when shaken with a like
quantity of decoction of starch, convert the whole of the
latter into sugar ina little less than one minute. If ptyaline,
the active principle of saliva, exerts this power at most in a
few minutes, then surely the active principle of the secretion
of the serpent’s poison-gland may exert an infinitely greater
power in as many hours.

It results, then, that a person dies slowly asphyxiated by
deprivation of oxygen, in whatever other way the poison may
also act, and so far as the ordinary examination of the blood
goes, the post-mortem appearances are similar to those seen
after drowning and suffocation.

I have many reasons for believing that the materies morbi
of cholera is a nearly allied animal poison. If so, may we
not hope to know something definite of the poisons of hydro-
phobia, smallpox, scarlet fever, and, indeed, of all zymotic
diseases ?

MEMORANDA, 283

Twill not take up your space further, as I intend to discuss
the whole subject, which abounds with matter of the deepest
importance to physiology and medicine, as critically as pos-
sible in my lectures at the University, which recommence
next week, when I hope also to show the presence of the
poison of our Australian snakes in the blood of bitten and
inoculated animals, and to make some experiments on the
possibility of saying life—Grorcr B. Hatrorp, Australia,

On the Action of Monads in producing Colouring Matter.—
Will you allow me to make a few remarks on Mr. Shep-
pard’s paper on the action of monads in producing a colour-
ing matter! It appears to me that a mystery has been here
conjured up quite unnecessarily, and that, in searching for
a hidden cause to explain the phenomenon of his coloured
liquid, Mr. Sheppard has overlooked the simple and obvious
one. The pool whence Mr. Sheppard obtained his colour-
producing matter was, he states, formed by a clear spring,
rising in a rocky basin; and the olive-brown growth Teak
he collected was “just such a coating as promised Oscilla-
torie.”’ He also says, he observed with the microscope a
filament of Batrachospermum (p. 69). Now, it is a well-
known fact, that the Oscillariz and their allied forms contain
very pean able colouring matters when alive, and without
any artificial addition of albuminous matters. ‘These colour-
ing matters are soluble in water, and when the plants or
parts of them die (as they were made to do by Mr. Shep-
pard’s treatment), the water in which they are placed be-
comes stained with the colour. I have not the slightest
doubt that Mr. Sheppard’s mysterious fluid is a solution of
one of these colouring matters. ‘The colouring matters of
the lower alge have been studied by both Kutzing and
Niageli, but most recently by Cohn, = abstract of whose
researches appears in your last issue (p. 209 of the Journal).
The Rey. J. B. Reade (p. 68 of the hee dona in a letter
quoted by Mr. Sheppard, says that he learnt from Mr. Sorby,
“that a German naturalist had just lately discovered a mono-
chromatic solution, ‘ the result of decaying alge ;’”? and Mr.
Sheppard gives reasons for supposing that his and the Ger-
man’s colour are not the same. The fact, however, is, that
Mr. Sorby referred to Cohn’s paper, to which I had drawn
his attention ; and Mr. Reade must altogether have misunder-
stood what was said. Cohn describes two colouring matters,
both of which are fluorescent, and therefore, in a certain

284. MEMORANDA.

sense, dichroic; and neither of these are “the result of de-
caying,” but are contained by living alge. Mr. Sorby agrees
with me (in a letter received a few days since) that Mr.
Sheppard’s colouring matter is identical with that which
Cohn calls “ phycocyan,” and which is found in plants
allied to Batrachospermum. It is hardly necessary for me
here to quote the account of this substance given in your
last Quarterly Chronicle. It agrees with Mr. Sheppard’s
substance, in forming a pale blue solution in water (with a
strong carmine fluorescence), from which it frequently pre-
cipitates as a jelly. Dr. Cohn gives a drawing of the spec-
trum of Phycocyan, which I have compared with Mr. Brown-
ing’s drawing, and I have found them to agree, though
Cohn has used a prism of greater dispersive power than that
made by Mr. Browning. There can be no doubt in the
mind of an unprejudiced observer that this is the history of
Mr. Sheppard’s coloured solution, which does away with its
mystery without lessening its real interest. I may just say
that the red colour of Protococcus, &c., is a very different
body, being a scarlet monochromatic oil known as hemato-
ehrome.—E. Ray LAnKestEr, Christ Church, Oxford.

Corethra plumicornis—In the brief summary (‘ Trans-
actions,’ p. 99) of the principal points of interest appertain-
ing to the structure of this transparent creature, the author
has not deemed it advisable to complicate the narrative by
references to the labours of other observers. Any one, how-
ever, who may wish to prosecute the study of its anatomy
will find that the microscope has not been idle in recording
the wonders of its organization. In the ‘ Popular Science
Review’ for October, 1865, Mr. Edwin Ray Lankester
published an excellent paper on the subject, while on the
Continent Leydig, of Tubingen, has written largely on the
nervous system and on the structure of the heart (** Anatom-
isches und Histologisches tiber die Larve yon Corethra
plumicornis,” in Siebold and Kélliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift,’ B. 3,
S. 435). A monograph by Karsch, ‘De Corethra plumi-
cornis metamorphosi,’ may likewise be advantageously con-
sulted. But the most elaborate account of its anatomy and
general history is given in an admirable paper by Dr. August
Weismann, “ Die Metamorphose der Corethra plumicornis,”
in Siebold and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift? for October, 1866
Bd. 16, 8. 45. sia

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Royat Microscorican Socrery.
King’s College, June 12th, 1867.

Ar this, the last monthly meeting prior to the recess, the chair
was taken by Dr. Arthur Farre, F.R.S., V.P.R.M.S., in the
absence of the President, James Glaisher, F.R.S.

The chairman congratulated the meeting upon the fact of there
being on the list of candidates for election, as Fellows of the
Society, the names of fifteen gentlemen to be balloted for, besides
several others whose names were announced for suspension; and
on the passing of the usual vote of thanks to Major Owen, F.L.S.,
for a series of slides presented to the Society, he referred to a
suggestion he had made several years previously to the effect that
each Fellow of the Society should make a rule to present to it at
least six slides once a year. Mr. Browning, F.R.A.S., exhibited
an enlarged spectrum of the dichroic fluid shown by the Rey.
J. B. Reade, M.A., F.R.S., at the last meeting of the Society,
upon which a discussion ensued, in which Mr. Browning, Mr.
Hogg, the Rey. J. B. Reade, and others, took part.

A paper was read “On Nachet’s Stereo-pseudoscopic Micro-
scope,’ and “On the Angle of Aperture best suited for Stereoscopic
Effects,” by Dr. Carpenter.

Dr. Carpenter also described a Dissecting Microscope by
Nachet.

A unanimous vote of thanks was passed to Dr. Carpenter for
his communications; and Mr. Wenham, Mr. Gray, and Mr. Slack
made a few observations upon various points, to which the author
replied.

Professor T. Rymer Jones gave a very interesting description
of the larva of Corethra plumicornis, and exhibited a series of
coloured drawings to illustrate its structure. A unanimous vote
of thanks was passed to Prof. Rymer Jones for his communica-
tion.

A paper was read “ On a Parasite found in the nerves of the
Haddock,” by Dr. Maddox, communicated by G. Busk, Esq., F.R.S.

The following gentlemen were duly elected Fellows of the
Society :—Sir Thomas Beauchamp, Bt., Langley Park, Norwich ;
Dr. Bastian, $1, Avenue Road, Regent’s Park ; Dr. Barker, 14,
Eaton Place, Brighton; Richard Chaplin, Esq., Admiralty,

286 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Somerset House; Latimer Clark, Esq., Sydenham Hill; Henry
Holmes Dobson, Esq., 19, Brompton Square; Daniel Hanbury,
Esq., Plough Court, Lombard Street; Wm. Hartree, Esq., Lewis-
ham Road, Greenwich; Geo. Augustus Ibbetson, Esq., 30, Caven-
dish Square; Jos. Ince, Esq., 26, St. George’s Place, Hyde Park
Corner; Jno. Jeftryes Oakley, Esq., 182, Piccadilly ; Sir Geo.
Rendlesham Prescott, Bart., Windsor Cavalry Barrack; Jas.
Robey, Esq., Newcastle-on-Tyne; Wm. Hy. Spencer, Esq., Mer-
ton House, Belsize Park ; Charles Stewart, Esq.,86, Kennington
Park Road; Rev. Douglas C. Timins, Hatfield Park, Watford ;
Jno. Hopkins Walters, Esq., Kingston-on-Thames ; Robt. Owen
White, Esq., The Priory, Lewisham.

At the next meeting of the Society, announced for October
9th, a paper will be read by Dr. Guy “On the Sublimation of
the Alkaloids.”

Although the Council would in the ordinary course of
things have enjoyed, as they deserved, the repose of a recess,
we find that has not been the case during the interval which has
occurred since the last meeting. The President and Secretaries
have been most indefatigable in their determination to secure
better accommodation for the Society, and they have been so
fortunate as to obtain, through the courtesy of the authorities of
King’s College, an excellent apartment, which will henceforth
constitute the Library, Reading, and Microscopical Room of the
Society, and will be open for the use of the Fellows daily. An
Assistant Secretary is in attendance, and gives a certain portion
of each day from 11 to 4, as well as certain evenings, to the work
of the Society, so that we may say the requirements of the
microscopist will for the future be combined in some respects
with the comforts and conveniences of a club-room. The Secre-
taries have most laboriously occupied themselves in the work of
improvement. The fittings are neat and convenient. The Library
presents an entirely altered and renovated appearance, and many
valuable additions have been made to it, rendering it more worthy
of a learned body holding the position of the Royal Microscopical
Society. Mr. Peters’s valuable present to the Society, the
“‘ writing machine,” can be not only seen but used by any Fellow
who will give himself the time and trouble to master its difficul-
ties ; the microscopes now bid fair to be made useful; indeed,
the member would be very fastidious who cannot thoroughly
appreciate or feel satisfied with the earnest endeavours of all con-
cerned in the work of improvement since they Jast met at King’s
College.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 287

QuEKkeTr Microscorican Curves.
June 28th, 1867.
Mr, Ernest Hart, President, in the Chair.

A Paper was read by Dr. Braithwaite, F.L.S., on “ The organi-
zation of Mosses,” which he prefaced with some remarks on the
writers on Bryology, and afterwards described the distinctive
character of the spores, stems, leaves, reproductive organs,
development of the fruit, Sporangium, &c., as well as the habitats
of mosses, mode of collecting, examination, preservation, and
uses. He concluded his interesting paper by expressing a hope
that this little sketch might have the effect of directing the atten-
tion of some persons present to a new field of study which he was
sure would amply repay those who entered upon it. At the
conyersazione which followed an opportunity was afforded the
members of viewing under the microscopes carefully prepared
specimens of the spore, prothallium, antheridia of male flowers,
cell structure and capsules showing the modifications of the peri-
stome.

Four members were elected.

July 26th, 1867,
Mr. Ernest Harr, President, in the Chair,

This being the AyNuan Grnerat Merrtine of the Club, the
following Report of the Committee was read :—

Report of the Committee.

“The completion of the second year of the Quekett Microscopical
Club is an occasion on which the Committee and members may
fairly reciprocate congratulations on the steady advance that has
been made towards the attainment of the various objects, for the
promotion of which the Society was originally formed. Expe-
rienced microscopists and students of kindred tastes have now
regular and frequent opportunities of meeting, to discuss those
special subjects in which they are mutually interested, and fre-
quent field excursions under experienced guides, to well-known
localities around the metropolis, afford to the members generally,
yaluable facilities for becoming more intimately acquainted with
the haunts and habits of those living organisms which form the
subjects of their study or serve to recreate their leisure hours.

“ Your Committee desire especially to draw your attention to the
very favourable circumstances under which the Club continues to
hold its meetings in this noble room, and to inform you that it is
wholly due to the well-known liberality of the Council of Univer-

288 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

sity College that we are permitted to assemble within these walls
free of aJl charge for rent. The Committee have felt it their
pleasing duty to express most cordial thanks for the privilege so
generously extended to the members of the Club.

“The interests of the Club have been considerably promoted by
the support and sympathy of our President and Vice-Presidents ;
and it is due to our worthy President to state that he kindly
allowed himself to be put in nomination for the Presidency, at a
time when the action of the Committee was considerably embar-
rassed by the lamented and unexpected decease of the gentleman
who had been previously nominated for that office.

“During the past year the following Papers have been read,
many of them haying been illustrated by means of living or
mounted specimens.

“ Papers read 1866-7.

“The President, on ‘The Minute Structure of the Iris and Ciliary Muscle.’
Mr. Bockett, on ‘A new form of Lamp carrying its own Reflector.’
Dr. R. Braithwaite, on ‘The Organization of Mosses.? Mr. Burgess,
on ‘Mounting Botanical Objects; on ‘Cuticles of Plants.’ Mr.
Cooke, on ‘ Transmission of Specimens by Post; on ‘The Progress
of Microscopical Science in 1866 ;’ on ‘ Nachet’s Principle of Binocu-
lar Construction.” Dr. Tilbury Fox, on ‘Human Vegetable Para-
sites.’ Mr. N. 8. Green, on ‘ Melicerta.’ Dr, Hallifax, on ‘ Making
Sections of Insects” Mr. Higgins, on ‘ Otoliths of Fishes.’ Mr.
Highley, on ‘Shore Collecting.” Mr. F. Kitton, on ‘The Publica-
tion of New Genera on Insufficient Material.’ Mr. R. T. Lewis, on
‘Some of the Microscopical Effects of the Electric Spark. Mr. 8. J.
McIntire, on ‘The different kinds of Podure” Mr. C. A. Watkins,
on ‘Yeast and other Ferments,’

“Your Committee, in common with many members of the Club
have felt that great advantages would accrue to the members
generally, if the Transactions of our meetings were recorded in a
fuller and more permanent manner than has hitherto been done.
They have accordingly deyoted much time and attention to the
consideration of the several suggestions which have been submitted
to them, but up to the present time they have failed to make such
arrangements as they deem would be for the general good of the
Club. They entertain, however, the hope that the time is not far
distant when satisfactory arrangements may be effected. In the
mean time it is very gratifying to the Committee to be able to
announce, that in November last Mr. R. T. Lewis kindly volun-
teered to undertake the onerous duties of Reporter to the Club,
and since that period, thanks to his ready pen, and willingness to
sacrifice considerable time, exceedingly copious and accurate
Reports of our Proceedings have been secured to us.

“ One of the features of our recent meetings is the Question-box,
which has been placed on the table for the reception of questions
relating to microscopic science; such questions, when read to the

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 289°

meetings on convenient occasions, have generally elicited satis-
factory replies.

“ Subsequent to our last annual meeting, numerous Field Excur-
sions have been made, and the season 1866 was brought to a
satisfactory termination in October last, by a visit to the Royal
Gardens, Kew, where, by the kindness of Dr. Hooker, our mem-
bers were permitted to range freely over that delightful place, and
make highly interesting collections. For the present season the
Excursion Committee issued the following list of suitable places
to which excursions were recommended, and the attendances at
those which the weather has permitted to take place, indicate no
abatement in the interest hitherto exhibited.

Excursions, 1867.

“April 13th, Hampstead; 27th, Wandsworth. May 11th,
Esher ; 25th, Chiselhurst. June 8th, Keston ; 26th, Excursionists’
Annual Dinner. July 13th, Lea Bridge; 27, Grays, Essex.
August 10th, North Woolwich Marshes; 24th, Kew (Towing-
path). September 7th, Grand Junction Canal.

“The Library of Books of Reference has been extended by dona-
tions from the President, Drs. Lankester, Tilbury Fox, and W.
J. Gray, and Messrs. Bockett, Bywater, Cooke, Curties, Hard-
wicke, and Highley, and from the Publisher of ‘Science Gossip,’
the Publisher of the ‘ Naturalist’s Note Book,’ and the Editor of
the ‘ Naturalist’s Circular,’ as well as by purchase of an entire
set of the ‘ Microscopical Journal and Transactions,’ and other
works of a kindred character. A commodious oaken bookcase has
also been secured to the Club, for the safe keeping and proper
working of its growing Library.

“Through the liberality of members and other gentlemen, 140
slides of interesting objects have been added to our cabinet,
making the total number 263.

“The duties of Librarian and Curator have been kindly dis-
charged by Messrs. Reeves and Ruffle, who, by their valuable as-
sistance on the evenings of our meetings, have greatly facilitated
the distribution of the books and slides to the members.

“Tt is gratifying to the Committee to observe that one of the
original objects for which the Club was formed, viz. the exchange
of specimens, has now become a recognised feature, and scarcely
a meeting takes place without many interesting specimens being
freely distributed amongst the members. In furtherance of this
object, and to afford still greater facilities for the exchange of
slides, a Sub-Committee has been formed, and they will be glad
to receive, through the Secretary or otherwise, any slides for ex-
change, subject to the Rules (page 28) which it has been thought
desirable to adopt, and which have been already sent to every
member.

“ During the last winter Mr. Suffolk has again enabled the Club

290 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

to offer to young microscopists the great advantage of class in-
struction in the management and use of the microscope. The
patience and success with which the course of instruction was
carried out during the winter of 1865-6 have been, if possible,
surpassed during the winter 1866-7. The Committee feel they
would be ill-discharging their duty were they to omit to express
to Mr. Suffolk the warmest thanks of the Club for his continued
efforts to promote its usefulness.

“Encouraged by the support which the Club has hitherto re-
ceived from microscopists generally, your Committee ventured, on
the 4th of January last, to give a Soiree to the members and their
friends. Unfortunately, a frost of almost unparalleled severity
prevailed, which rendered locomotion of all kinds nearly imprac-
ticable ; but notwithstanding this great impediment to success,
there was a large attendance of ladies and gentlemen on the
occasion.

“Since the last Annual General Meeting, 130 gentlemen have
enrolled themselves as members of the Club, and during the same
period 12 names have been removed from the hst of members in
consequence of death or other causes, leaving the present number
of members at 273.

“ Such is a brief epitome of the history of the second year of the
Quekett Microscopical Club, by which it will be seen how far the
objects for which it was formed have been attained, and how
much may be done to advance the cause of science, whilst seeking
new and boundless fields of enjoyment. In conclusion, your
Committee desire to impress upon members the conviction, that
as the usefulness of the Club and the small amount of subscrip-
tion are made known to their respective circles of friends, the
number of members cannot fail to be considerably augmented.”

The Treasurer’s Report, showing a satisfactory balance-sheet
was read.

The members then proceeded to the election of Officers for the
ensuing year.

The PrestpEnt.—The Scrutineers are now finishing their
work, and I beg permission to take my leave of you before I am
formally extinct ; for a very few minutes more will put an end to
my official existence. I value very highly the honour you did me
in offering me the distinguished post of President, and that, for
the most part, without a personal knowledge of me, or even of my
fitness for the oflice. But, whatever may have been expected of
me, I hope I have been able in some measure to fulfil those anti-
cipations. For my own part, I have endeavoured to do my duty
to the Club as far as I could. The President of a Society of this
kind is, however, in truth one of its most unimportant members :
he is to it what a monarch is to a limited monarchy, a sort of
State puppet to perform the nation’s will. I hope 1 have been
able to perform those duties satisfactorily. I have some reason
to believe, from the kind receptions which you haye given me,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 291

that you are so satisfied; and this has been to mea matter of
great gratification. But what has been to me another real source
of gratification is the remarkable success which has attended the
operations of the year. It has been said that to deserve success
is better than to win it; yet there is a pleasure in winning which,
at the time at least, is as great as in deserving, and success de-
served, but not won, has its own bitterness. ‘The success which -
has attended this Club is, I believe, entirely deserved. It aims
at doing more than it seems todo. It pretends only to bea
Club for the purpose of reunion and work in an unpretending
way ; but if we look back upon the past proceedings of this Club,
at the papers which have been read, and at the work accom-
plished, we shall see great cause for congratulation at the solid
and serious work done. The list of papers certainly will bear
comparison with that of any other Microscopic Society. We
have had some papers which will continue to be remembered, and
to exercise an influence upon our minds. Dr. Tilbury Fox’s
paper upon “ Parasites” opened up a great variety of questions
in relation to the causation of disease in men, plants, and animals,
which have yet to be solved, and the answers to which must be
sought in the work of the Club, and few more profitable inquiries
exist than those which seek to trace and to analyse the prevalence
of microscopic forms at periods of epidemic disease, and attempt
by patient observation to connect the one with the other, whether
merely correlated or otherwise. And I may observe that this is
just the kind of work in which the greater number of members
appear likely to engage ; for, so far as I have observed, their bias
seems to be to work amongst the lower organisms. I may also
mention Mr. Lewis’s suggestive paper on “The Microscopic
Effects of the Electric Spark; Mr. Highley’s, on “Shore Col-
lecting ;”” Mr. McIntyre’s, on “ Podurz,”’ a paper of particular
interest; and Mr. Green’s, on “ Melicerta.”’ Mr. Cooke’s ‘‘ Re-
trospective View of Microscopic Progress’ ought to be in the
hands of every member; nor should I omit to notice Dr. Braith-
waite’s exhaustive memoir on the “ Organisation of Mosses.” The
enumeration of these valuable papers makes me the more regret
that there is no official mode of recording the transactions of the
Club. Iwas offered, some time since, an exchange of Proceed-
ings with a Brussels Microscopie Society, but we had none to
offer in return. If we had transactions to exchange, we should
have a means of communication with other Societies, and this
might be the means also of maintaining a high standard of papers ;
for if it were known that publicity were to be given to their work,
members would be induced to do their utmost to bring forward
their best efforts. But on this point I am glad to be able
to announce that a Sub-Committee has been this day nomi-
nated to go into this question, and to ascertain what can be
done in it; and I hope it will fall to the lot of some future Pre-
sident to detail satisfactory results. J do not intend to review all
the work of the past year; that has been referred to in the

292 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Report, from which it will be seen that all the various branches
are working satisfactorily. I must also congratulate you upon
the state of your funds, and upon the fact of an addition of
130 members during this year, bringing up the total number to
nearly 300 in the two years, which is about the number that the
Secretary suggested to my budding ambition as being what we
might hope to attain, and which might be considered as a proof
of unequivocal success. It is a success which leads me to hope
that the next President may be able also to congratulate the
Society upon an increase of 130 more members at the end of the
ensuing year. This accession to our numbers is not merely a
nominal increase; it has brought us an important increase of
members attending our now extensive meetings, and we see the
same faces again and again at different meetings, so that we can-
not regard it as a mere nominal success. You may have a Society,
you may have a large subscription list, great objects, and an ex-
cellent Council; but you must not forget that to have these
alone will not constitute a success, unless the members are a
working body, unless the papers produced haye an interest for
the members, and the members have an inward feeling of pleasure
in coming here to hear the papers. I hope that the members will
continue to take a more active and a more personal interest in
the subjects discussed, and I think I can see that there is that
interest growing. There may be in a young Society some difl-
culties at first, and the members may feel some diffidence at
speaking and working together at first; but it is essential that
such feelings should vanish. We look on the “ Question Box” as
a means of bringing members more into communication with one
another, by bringing out subjects in which some feel personally
interested, and by which that interest may be communicated to
others. Unless this is accomplished, we do not fulfil our objects ;
we are not in the course of a successful career. As regards the
papers read—if I may make one remark by way of criticism,
using this only opportunity of drawing your attention to it—I
think I see—l may be wrong—-but I think I see a tendency to
exaggerate the importance of the study of external form, shape,
and structure, and to prefer these to the higher forms of micro-
scopic work, the investigation of development of that structure,
and the meaning of that which is studied. It may be only the
accident of the character of the Club, but it seems to me that
with many of the members the besetting temptation is to mistake
the means for the end. There is, I know, a great pleasure in the
mere manipulation in the preparation of objects, the making thin
sections, putting them up in new solutions, getting forms rare
and beautiful. These are all legitimate objects, but they have a
tendency to tempt us away from the higher werk of the micro-
scope, which is not that of mere amusement, and does not consist
merely in the collection of rare and beautiful objects. It should
be remembered that the microscope is an instrument of research,
and not a mere toy, and it is its real use which ought rather to

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 293

be cultivated by this Club. Amusement and research are not by
any means incompatible, and I should be the last to suppose that
there is no benefit to be derived by working in the way I have
referred to, for the contemplation of minute organisms is in itself
a means of intellectual recreation, and, indeed, deserves to be
classed amongst the higher kinds of mental cultivation. But the
true microscopist—the man whom Quekett would have delighted
to honour—is he who looks through form and structure to dis-
cover uses and laws, who is never contented with endeavouring
to ascertain what are the relations of a structure merely as a
means of systematizing; because I hold that the mere study of
systems is again but a means to an end, so that there also I seem
to see a frequent waste of powers which, had they been directed
otherwise, might have led to far greater results. I should name
as typical microscopists such men as Schwann and Schleiden, who
looked into matter with a view to discover its inmost nature, to
reveal to us all the secrets of structure and function. Those who
indulge in microscopy, and ally to it physiology and pathology,
may truly feel that they are pursuing a path most worthy of the
human intellect. This kind of study is allied to the work of the
astronomer, who seizes upon objects alike invisible to the unaided
eye, to derive therefrom a rule of law and a perception of order,
and to deduce principles which shall lead us to a perfect com-
prehension of the laws of the universe; so also may the micro-
scopist discover principles which, when we apply them to science,
may be useful not only in medicine, but in mechanics and applied
sciences. Ihave always felt that in those first great truths which
Schwann and Schleiden disclosed to us, that first central fact of
a cell structure and what we may call the laws of cell growth,
there was disclosed to us a fact as great as any of those which
Newton’s physical science disclosed to the physicist. We have
learnt to regard this as a kind of unit, out of which, from infinite
variations, the great variety of material forms are created, and to
recognise the cell as a first form of created structure, whilst in it
we seem to have reached the first elemental condition of matter
in which we can recognise laws. We may never penetrate so far
as to recognise the source of force, but we can trace the changes
by correlation from one phase to another. We can observe the
great forces, gravitation, and chemical action, acting in a mere
initial and elementary condition; indeed, we may view all these
great forces chained within the limits of the microscopical cell.
There we can watch their action upon as grand a scale within the
thousandth of an inch as when heaving throughout vast masses
of matter, and we there recognise the primal forces employed and
all the laws which govern them.

The physician, the physiologist and the pathologist find in the
microscope another sense by which to investigate the tissues whose
secrets are yet more than half unknown. The naturalist, whether
zoologist or botanist, learns by its aid to see “all nature in the
smallest things.” We can admire the endless beauties and varie-

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. x

294 . PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

ties of form; we can gratify the wsthetic sense; and the love of
the marvellous even by the unscientific and untaught cultivation
of its use as amateurs. But let us seek here to put it to its
highest uses, to cultivate its highest objects, to learn its noblest
lessons.

I hope I have not dwelt unduly upon this point, but I may be
permitted to conclude by expressing my great gratification at the
working of the Society ; and in congratulating its members I may
express the hope that its future success may be even greater than
it has been in the past.

The Scrutineers having handed in their Report, the following
gentlemen were declared elected as officers for the ensuing

ear :—
x President—Arthur E. Durham, F.L.S. Vice-Presidents—
Tilbury Fox, M.D.; Ernest Hart; William Hislop, F.R.A.S. ;
John K. Lord, F.L.S.

Treasurer—Robert Hardwicke, F.L.S. Secretary—Witham
M. Bywater. j

Committee—W. J. Arnold; N. Burgess; 8S. J. McIntyre;
J. Slade.

Mr. M. C. Cooke was elected Honorary Secretary for Foreign
Correspondence.

. Nine members were elected.

August 23rd, 1867.
Mr. Arrygur E. Durnam, President, in the Chair.

Mr. R. T. Lewis read a Paper “ On a Microscopical examina-
tion of Mermis nigrescens.’ In the course of which he gave a
lucid and interesting account of the appearance of this hair-worm
in large numbers on the morning following the night of June
2nd, when a heavy thunderstorm passed over the Southern Coun-
ties. They were found suspended from the leaves of apple-trees
and shrubs. Sudden appearances of immense numbers ef them
took place in the years 1781, 1832, and 1845, on each occasion in
the month of June, and immediately after thunderstorms with
heavy rainfall. Their appearance on June 15th, 1845, has been
described at great length by the Rev. L. Jenkyns in his “ Obser-
vations on Natural History.” Mr. Lewis’s paper entered very
minutely into the microscopical structure of the worm, and was
illustrated by coloured diagrams and by specimens prepared to
show the chief points of interest, which were exhibited under
microscopes in the room.

Twelve members were elected.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

)
So
Or

Dustin Mrcroscorican Crus.
18th April, 1867.

Mr. Crowe showed some hairs from the nest of the larva of a
species of Oiketicus, from Australia. These hairs, of which the
felt-like wall of the nest, some inches in length, was constructed,
formed a curious object. They were cylindrical, general form
clavate towards the extremity, but armed there by a number of
thorn or spine-like prolongations, poimting towards the ex-
tremity of the hair.

Dr. Collis exhibited crystals of cholesterine and epithelial
scales from an encysted tumour; also sections of cancer-tissue,
stained with carmine, and explained the process.

Mr. Archer exhibited fine conjugated examples of Closteriwm
rostratum, showing the well-known characteristic form of this
pretty zygospore.

Rey. E. O'Meara showed several new diatoms from the Arran
gathering—one the type of a new genus, named Wrightia, after
Dr. E. Perceval Wright. Full descriptions, accompanied by Mr.
O’Meara’s drawings of the form, will appear in this Journal.

Dr. Reynolds showed, under the polariscope, some crystals of
Santonine, forming a very fine and gorgeous object.

Mr. Dawson exhibited some remarkably fine and vigorous spe-
cimens of Bacillaria paradoxa; these were in full and active
movement, and the ever fitful changes of position of the frustules
were well shown.

Mr. Archer showed two forms of freshwater Radiolarian Rhi-
zopoda, both seemingly new and noteworthy. One of these apper-
tained to Actinophrys; it was remarkable, owing to a peculiar
differentiation of the body into two sharply marked distinct
strata, differently characterised in colour and structure. Though
a greatly more minute animal, this differentiation is still more
marked than that shown by Actinophrys Eichhornii—The other
form might be compared to an Actinophrys enclosed within a per-
forated hollow globe, and emitting its pseudopodia through the
apertures, but it really seems to possess a greater aflinity with
certain marine forms, and, leaving out of view the want of the “ yel-
low cells,’’ to find its nearest allies amongst the Ethmospherida,
close to Heliosphera. As a figure of these forms would, however,
conyey an idea of their nature far more readily than a hasty
description, Mr. Archer would defer any more extended allusion
to them till another opportunity.—He was able again to exhibit
examples of the curious form he lately brought forward under
the name of Raphidiophrys viridis (Minutes of 20th Dec., 1866) ;

296 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

these were taken from the same locality as before. It was, he
thought, interesting to find this remarkable freshwater form again
in spring, it having been first met with in autumn of last year.
Mr. Archer ventured to think that the exhibition of these three
seemingly remarkable forms of freshwater rhizopods, side by side,
would not be thought without interest; and, in bringing them
forward, he ventured to enter into some detail in endeavouring to
point out their peculiarities, as they seemed to him; and this he
was the better enabled to do by simultaneously drawing attention
to some of the commoner forms which happily presented them-
selves—if his remarks might have been thought prolix, at least
the objects themselves had the claim of novelty.

Dr. A. Dickson showed preparations from the stomatic region
of the epidermis in Taxus and Sciadapitys. In Taxus the epidermis
cells around and between the stomata appear as if flatly tubercu-
lated on their free surface. This apparent tuberculation, how-
ever, is due to bulging of the cell-wall from within. There is
thus, as it were, an elegant repoussée pattern on the surface of
the epidermis. In Sciadapitys Dr. Dickson found this “ repoussée”
bulging to be much exaggerated, so that, instead of exhibiting a
comparatively flat tuberculatum, the surface was expanded into
hollow spine-like papilli.

16th May, 1867.

Mr. Archer showed a variety of Desmidiew conjugated. These
zygospores were some of them only rarely seen, some never
before.

Amongst them was the zygospore of Micrasterias rotata. This
is large and orbicular, and is beset with rather large and long,
but not very numerous, subulate spines, thus unlike the zygo-
spore of Micrasterias denticulata (see ‘ British Desmidiez,’ plate
vii, fig. 1,f, g) the more ornate form having the less ornate zygo-
spore. Numerous examples always presented the same charac-
teristics, and as these slender, tapering, pointed spines were
proportionately quite as long, if not, indeed, a little longer than
the more elaborate branched spines of JL denticulata, it could
hardly be assumed that the branches had not yet begun to deve-
lope themselves. It is thus interesting to observe the individual-
ity seen in the parent forms of these two distinet, but no doubt
closely related species, still further expressed and maintained in
the zygospores. The zygospore of this species had not yet, so
far as Mr. Archer was aware, been recorded.

Desmidium Swartzii was also conjugated. This seems, although
a very common, oftentimes abundant, species, to show the con-
jugated condition but rarely. The present specimens were quite

like that so graphically figured in ‘ British Desmidiex’ (pl. iv, |

fig. f). But Mr. Archer’s object in drawing particular attention

|

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 297

to it on the present occasion was to urge that Ralfs was in error
in his description of the example from which his figure was taken
(‘ British Desmidiez,’ p. 62). Ralfs supposed the appearance
presented to be that of the contents of each cell of a solitary
filament haying become massed together in the cavity of each,
without any actual conjugation having taken place. Alex. Braun,
supposing, too, that this was hardly what had taken place in the
specimen figured by Ralfs, suggests that it might represent a
filament bearing the spores, but which had been detached from
its companion filament, such as we see frequently in Zygnema,
&e. (‘ Rejuvenesence in Nature,’ p. 296). This, however, is not
the case, neither is Ralfs correct in supposing these spores to
have been produced simply by the consolidation of the contents
of the joints of a solitary filament. MRalfs’ figure, Mr. Archer
had now no doubt, represented identically the same condition as
that now exhibited, and he had as little doubt but that in both
instances two filaments, not one only, were concerned in the
process. The species conjugates in a manner quite comparable
to that of Zygnema by mutual tubular processes, and the zygo-
spores are formed not in the cells of one of the parent filaments,
but in the transverse intervening space. So short, however, are
the intervening processes uniting the opposite conjugating joints,
and so closely approximated are their flat sides, and they adhere
so intimately, that the whole is very deceptively like a single
filament only, as Ralfs supposed, and the figure is indeed a most
excellent likeness of the appearance presented. The true con-
dition is correctly depicted by Wallich in a Bengal form (‘ Ann.
Nat. Hist., 1860, pl. vii, fig. 4), where the filaments do not,
however, approximate so closely during conjugation as those of
D. Swartzii.

Mr. Archer was likewise able to bring forward on the present
occasion the zygospores of Xanthidium fasciculatum, of Closterium
juncidum, of Closterium lineatum, and Closterium acutum, each
presenting their own marked and characteristic form.

He was likewise able to present two forms not hitherto met with
in Ireland—Docidium baculum (Bréb.) and Euastrum circulare,
var. 3 (Ralfs). As to the former (D. baculum), although it is
said by Ralfs to be rather common in Wales, yet it almost looked
as if it wasnot going to turn up in this island, its place seemingly
being taken by the frequent Docidiwm Ehrenbergit ; yet here was
a gathering made near Carrig Mountain in which it occurred
pretty abundantly. As to the other form not hitherto met with
here Euas. circulare, var. (3 Ralfs = Euvas. sinuosum (Lenormand),
it seems quite a distinct thing from Fwas. circulare (Hass.).
This was the first time Mr. Archer had ever seen any of the
forms included by Ralfs under Hassal’s name, Euvastrum circulare,
yet a glance showed it was very distinct indeed from any of the
commoner related forms, and not only so, but he felt pretty well
satisfied that the forms a, B, y, were themselves distinct from one
another. Only a very few specimens turned up from a bog near

298 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Carrig Mountain. For the present, therefore, Mr. Archer felt
he must regard this form not as Huastrum circulare (Hass.), nor
as any variety of that form, but as Ewastrum sinuosum (Lenor-
mand).

Mr. Andrews showed crystals of sulphate of iron.

Dr. Frazer exhibited curious little globules obtained from coal
ash by Mr. Dancer, and found in furnace dust; they formed a
remarkable object.

Dr. Moore showed Wonormia intricata from the Botanic
Garden.

Rey. E. O’Meara showed a new Pinnularia from Arran, which
will appear with a figure in this Journal.

Mr. Archer again showed a sample of that elegant rotiferon,
Conochilus volvox, taken from the “ Rocky Valley.” On the pre-
vious occasion that he had found this fine species the specimens
were met with near Carrig Mountain.

June 20th, 1867.

Dr. Moore exhibited the elaters of Marchantia, elucidating there-
by the exceptional but not unprecedented occurrence of spiral fibre
in the cells of Cryptogamic plants, and pointing out at same time
that an acquaintance with such objects was necessary to those
whose researches were mainly confined to aquatic organisms, as
not unfrequently these bodies may be found presenting themselves
in water at the risk of being mistaken for something independent.

Dr. J. Barker exhibited hairs of shrew-mouse.

Rey. E. O’Meara exhibited a new Triceratium from the Arran
gathering; also a peculiar five-sided form of Amphitetras antedi-
luviana, thus proving that the number of sides is really a charac-
ter of but slight value or importance. Figures of the forms
shown by him will appear in this Journal.

Mr. Archer showed a minute alga new to Britain, Cosmocladium
Saxonicum, de Bary. This had been taken by him on a recent
hurried visit to North Wales, and was found in a pool close by a
little lake called Lake Elsie, near Bettws-y-Coed. He referred to
de Bary’s account of this little plant, and exhibited his figure
from the ‘ Flora’ (No. 21, 1865). This is so accurate that there
could be no doubt whatever as to the identity of the present
plant with that of de Bary, being alike in form of cells, ar-
rangement of contents, nature of stipes—all. There may, how-
ever, be a question that this plant is actually distinct from
Cosmocladiam pulchellum (Bréb.), for the differences may be but
seeming, owing to de Brébisson having most probably mistaken

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 299

the parallel pair of slender stipes for a single broad band-like
one. If he has really done so, the distinctions then would be
reduced mainly to de Brebisson’s plant being attached (by the
stipes) to Conferve, whilst de Bary’s is free; the central point
of the colony having been formerly occupied by the primary or
original cell. It seems strange that de Bary does not allude at
all in his paper to the resemblance of Cosmocladium to Nageli’s
genus Dictyospherium. Mr. Archer would refer to it, however,
not as indicating a real affinity, for de Bary had no doubt proved
Cosmocladium to belong to Desmidiex, while there could be little
doubt Dictyospherium did not. But there is still sufficient
resemblance to justify a simultaneous allusion to them. In
Dictyospherium (of which three species are known) the cells
(differently figured according to the species) are supported on
dichotomously branched slender stipes, originally starting from
a common centre. Simultaneously with the division of the peri-
pheral cells of the group, a new branching of the stipes takes
place, so that each ultimate branch is surmounted by a cell. In
D. Ehrenbergianum the stipes are exceedingly slender and deli-
cate, more pronounced and coarser in D. reniforme (Bulnheim),
and most so in a species Mr. Archer had brought forward,
D. constrictum (ejus), and described in Minutes of October 19th,
1865. But, apart from the Desmidian character of the cells
themselves in Cosmocladium, the genus Dictyospherium is dis-
tinguished by the stipes being single and filiform, not double
and expanded intermediately, and the cells both intermediate and
terminal. Still, apart as these two genera must be placed, their
outward resemblance to one another justifies this brief allusion
to them. The cells in both grow in families or colonies (Stécke,
de Bary), in both they are supported on stipes, the stipes in both
exceedingly slender, delicate and colourless, seemingly in both a
more dense filiform development of similar gelatine to that which
encompasses the aggregate family ; and moreover in one species,
Dictyospherium constrictum, Arch., the cells are notably con-
stricted. Hence there is some probability that they might be
confounded by observers, or referred to one and the same genus.
But apart from the differences of stipes and habit of growth
above alluded to, see de Bary’s paper (1. c.) for indubitable proof
of the position of Cosmocladium in the Family Desmidiese—both
forms, if distinct, representing a Cosmarium mounted on astipes
whilst the new growths in Dictyospherium is by simple division
into like daughter-cells, and the genus must seemingly take its
place in Palmellacez, near Mischococcus (Niig.).

Dr. Richardson exhibited the various stops he had contrived to be
fitted under the stage of the microscope for viewing the markings
on diatoms, but as there was no stand present to which he could
adjust them, he was obliged to defer showing them in use.

Mr. Archer showed the circulation of the cell-contents in
Nitella, a trite but always a highly curious spectacle.

300 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Reaping Microscoprcan Socrery.

Tue members of this Society, which has now been established
for more than six years, gave their third soirée on the 2nd April
last. The members and their friends, amounting to about 400,
amongst whom were included the élite of the Society of the place,
assembled in the Town Hall soon after 7 p.m. About thirty
microscopes were distributed round the room, and Mr. Baker,
the well-known optician of High Holborn, had also kindiy sent
down half-a-dozen of his capital instruments, including one or
two of his new and convenient portable field microscopes, which
attracted considerable attention. The objects were of the usual
popular kinds, and a large proportion of them had been prepared
by the members themselves. In the course of the evening a
short oral address was delivered by the President of the Society,
Capt. Lang. He said—

Ladies and Gentlemen,—On me devolves the grateful task of
welcoming you to this third soirée of the Reading Microscopical
Society, in the name of the members generally. We are much
pleased and gratified at meeting such a large assemblage of our
friends here this evening, not only because of course we are
delighted to see them, but because their presence shows us con-
clusively that these sorts of semi-scientific meetings are now
appreciated in this town. Soon after I came to reside amongst
you, now some eight years ago, two or three of us banded our-
selves together to form a small Microscopical Club, but there
were not wanting persons who told us that our project would
never succeed, that all scientific associations of whatever kind
were utter failures in Reading, and that ours would be no excep-
tion to the general rule. Now, I am glad to say that these
croakers have proved false prophets, for our small club has
gradually swelled into a considerable society, numbering as it
does now some twenty-five ordinary members, and thirty-four
honorary members. We are much indebted to these latter ladies
and gentlemen for joining us, and so indeed should you all be, as
it is by means of their small annual subscriptions that we are
enabled to give occasional entertainments of this kind to our and
their general friends ; but I hope to see these honorary members,
in future, more frequently at our ordinary meetings. I am sure
the benefit would be mutual, for as they must be more or less
interested in natural history pursuits, we should doubtless gain
occasional information from them, whilst, probably, they would
learn something from us as to the microscopical anatomy of the
vegetable and animal world. As to our ordinary members, I
think I may fairly say that we now boast of several thcroughly
good working microscopists—gent]lemen who in the course of their
investigations stumble every now and then on minute forms of life
hitherto unknown to science, and gentlemen who can prepare and

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 301

preserve objects for the microscope as well as the best professional
mounters in London. In corroboration of the first part of this
statement, I may tell you that we have lately been rather amused
by reading in a recent number of a scientific journal a descrip-
tion by the eminent naturalist, Mr. Gosse, of a supposed new
Dinocharis, to which he has given a specific name in honour of
its supposed discoverer, but with which little creature we have
been perfectly well acquainted for the last four or five years, and
possess drawings of it made as far back as that period; whilst in
this very month’s ‘Intellectual Observer’ Mr. Slack, another
microscopist, announces, as a discovery, that Vaginicola valvata,
hitherto supposed to be confined to a marine habitat, is to be
found also in fresh water! Why, ladies and gentlemen, we
could have informed Mr. Slack of this fact years ago, and could
send him as many specimens as he might wish for, from the
ponds and ditches of this neighbourhood! As to the latter part
of my statement, I need only say that I know at least of one
gentleman who thinks it a very easy matter to dissect out the
gizzard of a flea, skin it, clean it, lay it out so as to show its
structure, and then mount it permanently as an object for his
cabinet, whilst many of us find no difficulty in extracting the
teeth of small slugs or snails, cleaning, and mounting them for
the microscope.

At our last soirée the objects under the microscopes were
arranged on a systematic plan. We attempted to show you the

radual growth of both vegetable and animal, from the primitive
cell to the higher organism. To do this we were obliged to
exhibit objects which, though intrinsically interesting, were not
yery striking to the eyes. On this occasion we pursue another
plan. Each member will exhibit such objects as he thinks will
be most pleasing to his friends ; they will therefore be of a prettier
and more popular kind; but it must be remembered that each
specimen must have a history of its own, and I am sure that
every member will be delighted to give an outline of that history
to those who are not satisfied with the mere gratification of the
eye, but would wish to know something of the nature of the
object he is looking at. Under some of the microscopes are
placed a few of the more interesting species of Infusoria and
other minute aquatic creatures that crowd in countless myriads
the pools and ditches of our meadows, and I am sure that those
persons who have never seen them before this evening will leave
this hall, after having done so, with a higher sense of the inexhaus-
tibility of nature and of the creative power, if I may use the
expression, of the Almighty. (Captain Lang then cited several
well-known cases, proving the practical use of the microscope in
the every day affairs of life, and in continuation said)—

Probably many of you ladies have read with interest the dis-
cussions that have been going the round of the papers relative
to the parasitic gregarines of the present fashionable chignon.
For my own part I consider the whole matter a gross exaggera-

302 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

tion, but if any lady here wears a chignon and would wish to
test its purity, one of our instruments shall be at her service this
evening for that purpose. The pores of the skin, examined under
the microscope, appear as deep cavities; in these extraneous matter
collects, vulgarly called dirt, and if it is not removed by ablution, a
suitable soil is soon formed for the minute fungus, which grows
and spreads over the skin precisely in the same way as the lichen
spreads over the trunk and limbs of the tree.

In passing round the hall I am sure you will all be struck
with the beautiful series of drawings exhibited here this evening
by two of our members, Mr. Tatem and Mr. Clayton. They
are peculiarly interesting and instructive, for it must be re-
marked that they are not mere enlarged diagrams, but that they
have been carefully drawn from the animals themselves as they
appeared under the microscope by means of the camera lucida,
so that their outline, and the number of times they are stated
to be magnified, must be correct, whilst you will doubtless admire
and appreciate the artistic skill which these gentlemen haye
displayed in finishing them off.

And now, ladies and gentlemen, I have only to say that we
all hope that you will spend an amusing and instructive evening
in examining the objects under the instruments, which will be
changed at frequent intervals.

The President’s address was listened to with marked attention,
after which the company dispersed to examine the objects and
the beautiful collection of drawings alluded to; and after passing
a pleasant and interesting evening, and partaking of the refresh-
ments hospitably offered to them, departed about ten o’clock to
their homes.

Microscorican Srcrion oF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Orpinary Merertine, 25th March, 1867.

On the Microscopicat Examination of Coat Asu or Dust
Srom the FuvE of a FuRNACE, illustrated by the Microscope.
By J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

WHEN coal is burnt in a furnace to which atmospheric air has
free access, a portion is converted into gaseous and volatile
matter; and the incombustible substance which remains is the
ash. The amount of ash in coals from different localities is
very variable ; it is said to range from 1 to 35 per cent.
The ash or dust which is the subject of this paper was collected
from the flue of my steam boiler furnace, in which common engine
coal is used as fuel. This coal leaves a considerable amount of
incombustible matter. A specimen of the dust is now before
you ; it is of a reddish-brown colour, and free from soot or car-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 3803

bonaceous particles.* When this dust is examined under the
microscope with a power of forty or fifty diameters, it is found
to consist of ferruginous matter and crystallised substances, some
particles transparent, others white and red. It contains also a
number of curious-looking objects, which vary considerably in
size and colour. The majority of these bodies are spherical, and
when separated from the irregularly shaped particles forming the
bulk of the dust they become interesting objects for the micro-
scope. I shall confine my remarks more especially to these
globular bodies. Some of these are as perfect in form as the most
carefully turned billiard balls, and have a brilliant polish. The
various colours which these globules exhibit give additional interest
to theirexamination. Some are transparent crystal spheres, others
are opaque white, many are yellow and brown, and variegated
like polished agates or carnelian of different shades. The most
abundant of the highly polished balls are black ; there are others
which look like rusty cannon balls—some of these have an aper-
ture in them like a bomb shell, and many are perforated in all
directions. To obtain these objects the dust should be washed
in a bowl and all the lightest particles allowed to float away ; the
remainder consists of fragmentary crystalline and ferruginous
substances ; mixed with these are the polished balls described,
which, under the microscope, by a brilliant reflected light, look
like little gems. To separate the spherical bodies from the irre-
gular ones it is only necessary to sprinkle some of this material
on an inclined glass plate, and by gentle vibration the balls roll
down, and can thus be collected. Having satisfied ourselves with
the examination under the microscope, it is natural that we
should desire to know more about these novel objects. What is
their elementary constitution? Why are they spherical ? How do
they get into the flue? I have not attempted a chemical analysis
of these minute bodies, many of which are less than the 100th part
of an inch in diameter. I can only therefore offer an opinion as to
their probable constitution, judging from what is known of the
chemical analysis of coal ash, and from the appearance they present
under the microscope. Referring to the chemical analysis of coal
ash, we find that it sometimes contains silica, magnesia, alumina,
sesqui-oxide of iron, lime, soda, potash, sulphate of calcium,
anhydrous sulphuric acid, anhydrous phosphoric acid, sulphur, and
sometimes traces of copper and lead. The vegetable origin of
coal is now generally admitted, and doubtless some of the sub-
stances I have just named have been taken up by the coal plants,
whilst other portions may have collected in the locality where
the coal was formed. As this is not immediately connected with
our present inquiry, I proceed to speculate as to the constitution
of these globular bodies. The transparent spheres I imagine to
be silicates of soda or potash ; the opaque white are most likely
silicate of soda of potash combined with lime and alumina; the
yellow and brown are silicates coloured by iron in different pro-

* My attention was drawn to this subject by Mr. Johnson, of Wigan, in
November, 1860.

304 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

portions. The black globules are not all alike in composition ;
some of these are silicates coloured by carbon, others are iron
balls coated externally with a silicate. Many of these rusty cannon
balls are probably ferrous oxide formed by the action of heat on
the iron pyrites in the coal. There are also balls of black mag-
netic oxide; the perforated shells are probably ferrous sulphides.
The globular form of these bodies suggests that they have been
thrown off in scintillations, such as are seen during the combus-
tion of iron in oxygen gas, and whilst in a fluid state they assume
a spheroidal form. They are carried by the draught into the flue,
and being of greater specific gravity than the carbonaceous matter
forming the smoke, they fall before the current of air has reached
the chimney. Some of the dust has been a considerable time
in the flue, exposed to the intensely heated circulating flame ;
the reducing action of this would probably convert some of the
oxide into metalliciron. Many of these balls have the appearance
of reduced oxides. The flue dust contains a larger amount of
ferruginous matter than can be accounted for by the analysis of
coal ash. I think the surplus may be regarded as representing
the wear and tear of the iron work about the furnace, such as fire
bars, boiler plates, &c. The brick work and cement about the
boiler and flues may also supply some of the silica, alumina,
and iron for these balls, numbers of which are merely thin
shells. The movements of these objects, caused by the approach
of a magnet under the stage of the microscope, are somewhat
amusing, and it is at times startling to see the crystalline objects,
both spherical and irregular, exhibit magnetic attraction: pro-
bably they contain particles of iron imbedded in them; if they
do not, may we not imagine that there is some magnetic com-
pound in which the crystalline matter predominates? When
we consider the accidental condition under which this matter has
combined, it is just possible that some new molecular arrangement
or combination of elements may have taken place. It is very
probable that many of these polished balls are much more complex
in their elementary constitution than I have stated. They are in
fact a kind of glass, and many of them merely bulbs. Pelouze
states that glass is probably an indefinite mixture of definite sili-
cates. Glass, containing small quantities of ferrous oxides and
sodie sulphates, when exposed to sunlight becomes yellow, and
possibly some of these balls may have changed in colour since they
came from the flue. Hydrochloric and nitric acid exert very little
action on the ferruginous globes: this may be due in some mea-
sure to the high temperature at which the oxides have been
formed ; in other cases they are no doubt protected by an external
coating of some silicate. It would require much time and patience
to collect a sufficient number of each kind of these minute objects
for a chemical analysis; but the spectroscope might probably
assist in revealing their constitution. When time permits I hope
to resume the subject.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE JI,

Illustrating Dr. Ransom’s paper on the Structure and Growth
of the Ovarian Ovum in Gasterosteus lewurus.

Fig
1.—Free germinal vesicles, its spots unchanged by the medium in which
it is examined.
2.—a. Free germinal vesicle, of which the spots are changed by the action .
of water.
b. A similar vesicle, of which the wall is raised at one part, showing
the colloid mass.
3.—Free germinal spots acted on by water. Examined by a higher power.
a. Vacuoles.
4,—a, a. Germinal spots fusing together in a5 p. c. solution of chloride of
sodium.
6. Large pale drop, the result of such fusion.
c. Vacuoles.
5. Diagram to illustrate the structure of the yelk-sac.
a. Button-shaped villus.
b. Dotted outer surface.
ce, Cut edge.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II,

Illustrating Mr. Lewis’s paper on the Microscopic Effects of
the Electric Spark.

Fig.
ere by electric sparks from an induction-coil through coarse
blue-laid post paper.
a. Scorched margin.
b, Perforation.
ec. Disrupted fibres.
2.—Perforations by same through thick card.
3,—Ditto through varnished card.
4.—Ditto through thick cream-laid note-paper.
5.—Ditto through insulating waxed paper.
6,—Leyden-jar sparks through thick card.
7.—Induction-coil sparks through thin microscope glass.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES III & IV,

Illustrating the Notice of Professor Max Schultze’s paper on
the Structure and Physiology of the Retina.

PLATE III.
Fig.
1.— Diagrammatic view of a section of the retina through the macula lutea
and fovea centralis magnified about 110 diam,

z. The optic nerve layer.

h. Layer of ganglion-cells.

g. The molecular layer.

J: Tuner granule layer.

a—d. Outer granule layer; the outer part of which contains the

rod and cone granules, and the inner is almost entirely fibrous.

a. The membrana limitans externa.

b—c. Layer of “rods” and_“ cones.”

p. Pigment.

The layers from a to z are accurately copied from a section through
a normal human retina, whose relief, however, towards the vitreous
humour was altered in consequence of the commencement of the
formation of a plica centralis, which, as is well known, makes its
appearance at the macula lutea very soon after death. But the
figure, as it stands, represents the macula lutea without the plica,
and, consequently, in the condition which it would present during
life. The bacillary layer was also very well preserved in the same
preparation, so that in this respect also the figure very fairly repre-
sents the natural condition; but the pigment was no longer attached
to the percipient elements, and, consequently, in order to complete the
figure, that part has been introduced from other preparations. Under
these circumstances, also, the representation of the cones in the
fovea as it is here given has, of course, been taken from other speci-
mens. Although in the one first mentioned, as well as in several
others, in which the central plica was already formed, it was pos-
sible to determine the increased length of the cones in the fovea, as
compared with those in the immediate vicinity of it, still, owing to
the absence of the pigmentary layer, no criterion was afforded of
the absolute length of the cones in the living state. But this is
afforded in the preparation represented in Fig. 2.

2.—Represents a section throngh the macula lutea and fovea centralis,
taken from an eye hardened in Miiller’s fluid, and which had been
extirpated in consequence of staphyloma. x 180 diam. and drawn
with the camera lucida. Letters as above.

The inner layers of the retina are not represented in detail, as they
were in a state of advanced atrophy. The cones were quite perfect,
and remained in close connection with the pigmentary layer in which
they were ensheathed at the choroidal extremity.

PLATE IV.

Diagrammatic representations of the two kinds of tissue of which the retina
of mammals, and especially that of man, is composed. x about 500
diam.

Fig.

1-The connective-tissue framework of the retina.
A, A. Membrana limitans externa.
e, e. Radial trabecular fibres, with their nuclei é, é.
1, 7. M. limitans interna.

Coarser and finer membranous and fibrous bands connect the
radial fibres together, especially in meridional lines, so that the
retina may be split into foliaceous sections more readily in a meri-
dional direction than in any other. The closed fibrous plexuses are
those corresponding to the intergranular layer d and the molecular
layer g.

2.—The nervous elements of the retina, commencing at the periphery with
the rods 4 and the cones c, whose outer segments, however, do not
appear to be continuous with the inner, but simply in a relation of
contiguity. To these succeed the elements of the outer granule-
layer, consisting of the rod- and cone-filaments; the latter furnished
with nucleated enlargements J’ and c’, corresponding with the granules.
In the intergranular layer d may be noticed an inextricable plexus
of extremely delicate nervous filaments, which are prolonged on the
inner aspect into the radial nerve-fibres of the inner granule-layer,
which are again furnished with nucleated enlargements, with respect
to which it has not yet been determined whether they do not (at any
rate, in mammals and man) contribute in one direction or another to
the multiplication of the fibres. The straight radial direction of the
nerve-fibres is next interrupted by a plexus of extremely delicate
fibrille, which, together with that formed by the spongeiform con-
nective tissue, constitute the molecular layer of the retina, which may
be regarded as resembling the grey substance of the brain, and into
which enter, from the inner aspect, the extremely fine ramifications
of the processes of the ganglion-cells %, 4, which, again, are in con-
nection with the fibres of the optic-nerve-layer 7,7. But, here, the
possibility must be regarded, that some of the innumerable and
excessively delicate fibrillee of the optic nerve, which exist together
with the coarser ones, in the optic-nerve layer of the retina, may not
alto enter the molecular layer, without the intervention of ganglion-
cells.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V,

Illustrating Rev. Eugene O’Meara’s paper on New Diatoms
from Island of Arran, County Galway.

Fig.
1.—WNavicula Hibernica.
re denticulata.

9.— ,, ss front view.
3— ,, pellucida.

38.— ,, i front view.
4— ,, Wrightit.

46.— ,, a variety of same.
5 amphorotdes.
6.—Pinnularia Arraniensis.

7.— ~ divaricata.

8.— = constricta.

86.— ,, e front view.
9.— si Sorficula.

10.—Surirella pulcherrima.
L— os gracilis.

All x 460.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI,

Illustrating Mr. Archer’s paper on Saprolegniee.
Fig.

1.—Chain of four oogonia in Saprolegnia androgyna, sp. nov., show-
ing the lateral male branchlets emanating from the oogonia ;
the two upper oogonia with fully formed oospores, the lowest
but one showing the contents commencing to become formed
into primordial cells (Befruchtungskugel, Pringsh.)—the future
oospores; the lowest oogonium with the granular contents
dense, but unchanged.

2.—A single terminal oogonium of Achlya cornuta, sp. nov.; its granu-
lar contents not yet commenced to be formed into a primordial
cell or cells.

3 & 4.—Series of oogonia, the first smaller and with one oospore each, the
latter larger, with a greater (variable) number; to right of
middle oogonium is seen a curious depressed lobate form assumed
by one of the extensions, instead of the usual tapering cornua.

5.—Shows the development of a lateral branch just under an oogonium ;
and—

6.—Three such branches, two of which have become shut off at their
extremities and developed each an oogonium, each with a single
oospore.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX,

Illustrating Mr. 'Tomes’s paper on a Larval form of Insect
and its Case.
Fig.
1.—Larva in its case, of the natural size.
2.—The same, magnified twenty diameters.

3.— Larva removed from its case; Pr., prothorax ; MSx., mesothorax ; MTX.,
metathorax. 1, 2, 3, &c. = abdominal somites.

4.—Side view of head; a@., antenna; /é., labrum; m., mandible; mz.,
maxilla; 7., labium.

5.—Head from above; the same letters as in the last figure.
6.—Antenna.

7.—Maxilla ; dotted lines indicate base of the palp, which was too indis-
tinctly visible to be drawn.

8.—Labial palp.

9.—First thoracic limb.
10.—Portion of same more magnified.
11.—Second thoracic limb.
12.—Last abdominal segment from above.
13.—Hook representing the last abdominal limb.
14.—Portion of the case more magnified.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X,

Upper half, illustrating Mr. Woodward’s paper on Mono-
chromatic Illumination.
Fig.
1.—Shows the relative amount of chemical or photogenic power of violet
light obtained—
a,—by the prism ;
b,—by the ammonio-sulphate of copper.

Lower half, illustrating Mr. Tatem’s paper on New Micro-
scopic Animals.
Fig.
1.—Chetonotus longicaudatus, n. sp.
2.— Stephanops.
3.—Cothurnia.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII,

Illustrating Rey. Eugene O’Meara’s second paper on New
Diatoms from Island of Arran, Co. Galway.

Fig.
1.—Coscinodiscus fasciculatus, X 600.
2.—Eupodiscus eccentricus, X 800.
3.—Stauroneis rhombica, x 600.

4.— : costata, x 600.
5.—Cocconeis clavigera, X 600.

6— ,, Wrightii, x 800.

7— 5 Portii, x 800.

8.— Rhaphoneis liburnica, var., X 600.

I.— os suborbicularis, X 600.
10.— ae Jonesti, X 600.
J1.— Pe Moorii, x 600.

12.— xy Archeri, x 600.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII,

Illustrating Mr. W. Archer’s papers on “ Asteridia,” on the
Conjugation of Spiroteenia, &c.

(All the figures x 300, except fig. 12 x 400.)
Fic. ;

1.—Sterile filament of a species of Mougeotia (de Bary, non Agardh) =
Zygogonium leve (Kiitz.) = Mougeotia levis (Kitz.), Arch.

2.— Portion of a pair of conjugated filaments of same, showing the zygo-
spores formed out of the total contents of each parent cell, and
massed together in the inflated transverse tube, no septum shutting
the latter off as a special chamber being formed.

3.—Portion of a pair of conjugated filaments of same.

4.—A cell of Penium digitus (Bréb.), containing two Asteridia, seemingly
formed at the expense of a portion of the original contents of the
Penium, the residue effete and brown coloured.

5.—Pair of cells of Spirotenia condensata about to conjugate, the contents
of each formed into two elliptic masses.

6.—Conjugation advancing, the outer membrane of the pair of parent cells
having disappeared.

7.—The pair of zygospores become round and smoothly defined.

8.—The pair of zygospores, each showing the commencement of the
‘honeycomb ”-like extern] structure, and each surrounded by
mucus definitely bounded.

9.—A pair of zygospores fully formed, an optical section (or equator) in
focus.

10.—The same focussed a little up.
11.—An empty zygospore to show the honeycomb external decoration.
12.—Zygospore of Spirotenia truncata (Arch.). (xX 400.)

INDEX: 'T'O

JOURNAL.

VOL. VII, NEW SERIES.

A.

Alge, on freshwater, by J. B. Hicks, 4.

Amphiprora, 8.

Anatomy and Physiology, Journal of,
54.

Animalcule, new curious, 155.
Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 213.
Annals and Magazine of Natural His-
tory, 53, 148, 216.
» of the Lyceum of Natural
History of New York, 218.
Annelids, review of book on, by A. de
Quatrefages, 35.
on the young stages of a
few, by Alexander Agassiz, 131,
218.
Apsilus lentiformis, a rotifer, by Elias
Mecznikow, 50.
Archer, W., on two new species of
Saprolegnieze, 121.

= note on Asteridia occurring
in Penium digitus, 183.
oi on the conjugation of Spi-

rotenia condensata and truacata,
186.
Asteridia, note on, occurring in Penium
digitus, by W. Archer, 183.
Anthophysa Milleri, by H. James
Clark, 59.

B.

Balbiani, researches on the corpuscles
of the Pébrine, 52.

Barkas, T. P., on diatoms, 8.

Baxter, John, on a new microscopic
growing-stage, 11.

Birds, on the formation of the egg-
shell of, by R. Blasius, 275.

Blood-corpuscles, on, of the two-toed
sloth, by Prof. Rolleston, 127.

a Congress, proceedings of,

51.

Botany, Journal of, £5.

Buchholz, R. on Hermioniscus, 49.

Busk, Prof. G., on Zoophytology, 241.
VOL. VII. NEW SER.

C.

Carpenter, Wm. B., on the structure
of the shell of Spirifer cuspidatus,
148.

Cells, on the formation of so-called,
in animal bodies, by E. Mont-
gomery, M.D., 144.

Chalk, living organisms in, 156.
Cienkowski, on the structure and de-
velopment of Labyrinthule, 277.
Cobra-di-capella, experiments on the

poison of, 284.
Cocconeis clavigera, 246.
re Portii, 246.

=F Wrightii, 246.

Cohn, F., infusoria in sea aquarium,

49.

~ on the influence of light on
microscopic plants and animals,
256.

Cohnheim’s compartments in the cross-
section of muscles, by Kolliker, 51.

Cornea in vertebrates, on the struc-
ture of the, by Dr. Lightbody, 54.

Corpora amylacea in the gall-bladder,
136.

Coscinodiscus fasciculatus, 245.

3 nitidus, 114.

Coscinosphara ciliosa, by A. Stuart,
50.

Creosote, on the use of, in making
microscopic preparations, by R.
Ludwig Stieda, 133.

Crystals in the blood in a case of
leukemia, by Prof. Neuman, 135.

Cyprinoids, by O. Gampert, 51.

DD:

Diatomacee from West Coast of
Treland, by Rev. Eugene O’Meara,
AM NS.

“f from dredgings off the
Arran Islands, by the Rev. Eugene
O'Meara, 245.

Diatoms, on, by T. P. Barkas, 8.

y

306 INDEX TO

Diatoms, on cleaning, 222.

Donkinia, 8.

Dublin Microscopical Club, proceed-
ings of, 79, 170, 230, 298.

KE.

Electric spark, microscopic effects of,
by R. 'T. Lewis, 14.

Epithelium, ciliated, observation on,
by P. Marchi, 134.

Eulenstein’s series of Diatomace, 64.

Eupodiscus eccentricus, 245.

F,

Finger, mechanical, for the micro-
scope, 63.

G.

Gampert, C., on Cyprinoids, 51.

Gas diffusion and the microscope, 52.

Gasteropoda, on the structure of the
eye in, by V. Hensen, 13].

Gasterosteus Leiurus, on the structure
and growth of the ovarian ovum in,
by W. Ransom, M.D., 1.

Gedge, J., another interpretation of
Dr. Moxon’s discovery, 193.

Genera and species, remarks on the
publication of, without sufficient
material, by F. Kitton, 118.

Gephyrea, review of work on, by A.
de Quatrefages, 35.

Gregarinz in the hair, 153.

Be

Helix, on the organs of circulation in,
by Charles Robertson, 148.

Hermioniscus, new parasitic crus-
tacean, by Dr. R. Buchholtz, 49.

Hicks, J. B., on freshwater alow, 4.

Hydroida, on new British, by T.
Hincks, 53.

iB

Illumination, monochromatic, 154.
4 by J.J.
Woodward, 252.
Infusoria in sea aquarium, by F, Cohn,
49,
Infusoria, on, by Dr. Zenker, 263.
Iris, structure of the, 220.

JOURNAL.

J.

Johnson, Christopher, 96.
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,
215.
K.

Kitton, F., remarks on the publica-
tion of new genera and species with
insufficient material, 118.

Kolliker, A., on Cohnheim’s compart-
ments in the cross-section of mus-
cles, 51.

Kolliker’s Zeitschrift, 49, 187, 205,
271.

L.

Labyrinthule, on the structure and
development of, by Prof. L. Cien-
kowski, 277.

Lamella, the spiral, of the helix of
the ear, by Dr. Loewenberg, 53.

Lamp, a telescope, 223.
ss microscope, 62.

Landois, Dr. H., on the trachee of
insects, 205.

Larval, tropical forms, by Dr. C. Sem-
per, of Wurzburg, 272.

», form of insect, on a, by C.
Tomes, Esq., 204.

Lemna and Wolffia, on the frond-cells
of, by Prof. Gulliver, 55.

Leucocystes, experiments on the
genesis of, by Dr. Onimus, 143.

Lewis, R. T., on the microscopic
effects of the electric spark, 14.

Light, influence of, on the move-
ments of microscopic plants and
animals, by Prof. F. Cohn, 255.

Lindsay, W. Lauder, on the Proto-
phyta of New Zealand, 97.

4 »» on the Protophyta

of Iceland, 197.

Linnean Society, proceedings of, 76.

Live-box, on a, by C. F. Schultze,
260.

Loewenberg, on the spiral lamella of
the helix of the ear, 53.

London Microscopical Society, Royal,
proceedings of, 66, 159, 224, 288.
Lumbricus terrestris, note on a double

earthworm, 157.

M.

Macnamara, C., on striped muscles
by}

INDEX TO

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 92, 237, 305.

‘Medical Times and Gazette, 55.

Micrographic Society of Paris, 83,
144.

Microscopic animals, new species of,

~ by T. G. Tatem, 250.

Mole, on the dentition of the com-
mon, by C. Spence Bate, F.R.S
217.

Monads, on the action of, in producing
colouring matter, 286.

Monatsbericht der Akad. zu Berlin,
138.

Montgomery, E., on the formation of
so-called cells in animal bodies, 144.

Mounting and collecting cases, Col-
lins’s, 221.

Moxon’s, Dr., aeeony: by J. Gedge,
M.R.CS.,

Muscle, itl ‘by C. Macnamara,
55.

» onthe developmental history

of, by C. T. Eberth, 135.

N.

Navicula amphoroides, 116.
. denticulata, 115.
Pa Hibernica, 115.
»» pellucida, 115.
on Wrightii, 116.
Nerves, on the termination of, in the
conjunctiva, 215.
Neweastle-on-Tyne Mechanics’ Insti-
tution, 179.

O.
Old Change Microscopical Society,
68

O’Meara, Eugene, on some new and
rare Diatomacee, 113.
on new forms of
Diatomacee, 245.
Oxford Microscopical Society, 170.

P.

Pébrine, researches on the corpuscles
of the, by Dr. Balbiani, 52.
on the vibrating corpuscle
of, by M. A. Bechamp, 142,
Phycochromacez, researches on the
physiology of the, 209.

JOURNAL.

307

Pinnularia Arraniensis, 116.
a constricta, 117.
* divaricata, 116.
= Jorficula, 117.
Pleurosigma, 8.
angulatum, 221.
Pollen- grains as diagnostic characters,
by Prof, Gulliver, 55.
Protophyta of New Zealand, by W.
Lauder Lindsay, M.D., 97.
Protophyta, on the, of “Iceland, by
Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.RS,,
197.
Psorospermia in the intestinal ephi-
thelium, 137.
Psyche helix, by Prof. C. Claus, 275

Q.

Quatrefages, A de, review of his
* Annelids and Gephyrea,” 35.

Quekett Microscopical Club, 91, 166,
225, 290.

iit

Ransom, W. H., on the structure and
growth of the ovarian ovum in Gas-
terosteus leuirus, 1.

Raphoneis Archeri, 247.

Jonesii, 247.
liburnica, 246.
Morit, 247.
suborbicularis, 246.

Reading Microscopical Society, pro-
ceedings of, 303.

Reagents, 219.

Retina of amphibia, on the, by Dr.
Hulke, 54.

»» on the structure and physio-
logy of, by Max Schultze, 21.

Robin’s Journal de l’ Anatomie et Phy-
siologie, 52, 143, 214.

Rolleston, Prof., on the blood-corpus-
cles of the two-toed sloth, 127.

Royal Society’s proceedings, 144.

8.

Sap currents in the cells of plants, by
Prof. Reichert, 138.
Saprolegniez on two new species, by
W. Archer, 121.
Schultze, E. F., on a live-box, 260.
Schultze, Max, on the structure and
physiology of the retina, 21.
; Archiv, 51, 131, 209, 277.
Silliman’s Journal, 59, 152.

308

Silkworms, studies on the psorosper-
mic disease of, by M. Balbiani, 214.

Slides, transmission of, by post, 63,
158.

Sloth, on the blood-corpuscles of, by
Prof. Rolleston, 127.

Solanacere, on the structure of the
seeds of the, by Tuffen West, F.L.S.,
152:

Solenogorgia tubulosa, by Carl Geuth,
273.

Sonorous and vocal apparatus of in-
sects, on the, 137.

Spiders, on the falces and maxille of,
by John Blackwall, F.L.S., 217.
Spinal cord, on the ganglion-cells of,

by Friedrich Jolly, 274.

Spirifer cuspidatus, on the perforate
structure of the shell of, by Wm.
B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., 148.

Spirotenia condensata, on the conju-
gation of, by William Archer, 186.

Sponges, ciliated, on the animality
of, by Prof. H. James Clark, 152.

= on excavating, by A. Han-
cock, F.L.S., 216.

Stage, on a new microscope growipg-,
by John Baxter, M.D., 11.

Stauroneis costata, 246.

e rhombica, 246

Stellio Caucasicus, on the structure of
the skin in, by Prof. F. de Fillipi,
iol:

Stuart, A., on Coscinosphera ciliosa,
50.

Surirella gracilis, 117.

2 pulcherrima, 117.

INDEX TO JOURNAL,

T.

Tactile hairs, on the anatomical strue-
ture of the, by M. V. Odenius, 134.

Tatem, T. G., on new species of
microscopical animals, 250.

Tomes, C. S., an account of Tri-
chopterus larva, 248.

Torpedo, on the anatomical arrange-
ment of the lymphatics in the, by
C. Robin, 142.

Toxonidea, 8.

‘Trachez in insects, on the occluding
apparatus of the, by Dr. H. Lan-
dois and W. Thelen, 205.

Trichopterus larva, by C. S Tomes,
B.A., 248.

Turin Academy, 151.

U.

Urinary and sexual systems, by Dr.
C. Kupfer, 135.

WW.

Woodward, J. J., on monochromatic
illumination, 252.

Z.

Zenker, Dr., on Infusoria, 263.

Zeitschrift, Kolliker’s, 49, 137, 205,
oF fs

Zoophytology, by Prof. Busk, F.R.S.,
241.

ERRATA.

In line 29, page 65, for “wall,” read “ well.”

” 29, ”

with.’’

68, the word “‘ not” must precede the word “ unimportant.”
69, for “ vibrious,” ead “ vibrios.”’
69, before “nitric acid,” insert the words “experiment

69, insert a “comma” after “ Ehrenberg.”
71, for “transmitted,” read “ reflected.”

PRINTED BY J. EF, ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL

MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

PRED

NEW SERIES.

VOLUME XV.

LONDON:
JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
1867.

7 2
Cust
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Ki Fan
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= at
one en 0 T>i} »

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY OF LONDON.

Description of a Diaparacm Eye-prece for the Micro-
scope. By Henry J. Strack, F.G.S., Hon. Sec. Mic. Soc.

(Read October 10th, 1866.)

In yiewing small objects by transmitted light, it frequently
happens that distinct vision is impaired, and the eye inju-
riously affected by the large size of the surrounding luminous
field. If we may compare the objects to an engraving, and
the rest of the luminous field to a white margin, we ‘shall
find that different objects require a different portion of mar-
gin for their most pleasant and efficient display.

With a given intensity of illuminating power, it is evident
that the quantity of light affecting the eye will depend upon
the size of the space “from which the light proceeds, and it
will be frequently found that the whole aperture of an eye-
piece admits far too much light when the intensity is nicely
proportioned to the requirements of the object. It is there-
fore desirable to have a ready means of cutting off the super-
fluous light by reducing the size of the luminous field, and,
as objects vary, not only in size, but in their relative propor-
tions of length and breadth, it is further desirable that the
field should be susceptible of corresponding changes.

Having these objects in view, the writer requested Mr.
Ross to adjust four moveable shutters, so that an A eye-piece
might be susceptible of all the changes in the form and size
of its field that different objects would require. This has
been accomplished in the eye-piece now shown to the society.
The new diaphragm stops are placed immediately over the
ordinary round stop of the A eye-piece, and they are worked
by four milled heads conveniently situated on the flange of
the eye-piece, and slightly projecting beyond it. Each of

VOL. XV. a

2 Suack, on a Diaphragm Eye-piece for the Microscope.

these milled heads moves one shutter, which is capable of
closing half the field. By combining the movements of the
four shutters in various w ays, it is easy to form a series of
symmetrical apertures s bounded by straight lines, and of any
dimensions required. Unsymmetrical apertures can also be
formed, but they are usually very disagreeable to the eye,
and ought therefore to be avoided.

Astronomers have long been acquainted with the advantage
of restricting their field when looking at luminous objects ‘of
large size, and the solar eye-piece of Mr. Dawes is a contri-
vance having this end view; but so far as the writer is aware,
microscopists have not been in possession of any analogous
imstrument.

The only objection to the general application of this
diaphragm stop to A eye-pieces, in the form now shown, is
that it shghtly diminishes the full size of the field. This
arises from the writer having required that the shutters should
meet when drawn out to their full extent. To accomplish
this the shutters are rather broader than the ordinary stop.
If kept within the dimensions of that stop they would pro-
bably do all that is required, as experiment shows that the eye
is incommoded when the field is very small.

The diaphragm stop is most needed in the examination of
small objects sufficiently opaque to require a very intense
light for their display by transparent illumination ; but other
objects, such as diatoms and butterfly scales, are improved in
appearance, and have their markings made more striking
when the extent of the luminous margin surrounding them is
nicely adjusted to their special requirements.

The diaphragm stop may also be used as an indicator, as
it affords a ready means of isolating one out of many objects
that may be on a slide.

The writer believes that it will be found of much use in
protecting the eyes of microscopists, which are more liable to
injury from excess of light than from any other cause (bad
glasses excepted) incidental to their pursuits.

On a DovusLE HemispHERICAL ConDENSER for the Micro-
scopE. By the Rev. J. B. Reapsg, F.R.S,

Tue hemispherical condenser, consisting of a single lens
with suitable diaphragms, was described to the Society in
May, 1861; and at the Exhibition in 1862 it received
“honorable mention” by the appoimted jury. This con-
denser was proposed as a cheap and not inefficient substitute
for more expensive apparatus, inasmuch as it enabled my
4-inch object-glass to bring out with great distinctness the
markings on Pleurosigma angulatum and other similar tests.
This fact was proved by ocular demonstration to Mr. Ross,
whose skill had overcome the optical difficulties in producing
a large angle of aperture ; but my assertion of its power was
at first received with a smile of doubt.

The single hemisphere has only a small angle of illumina-
tion when the pencils converge from near the margin of the
lens to the object. Hence the value of its application to
deep powers was questioned by many, though, so far as my
own experience goes, the 1th and ;';th are not beyond the
scope of its illumination. Still, something like fact may be
required—to use the language of objectors unskilled in its
manipulation—in order to put the single lens through all its
paces with all the powers. That the work can be done, but
done with difficulty, is, perhaps, somewhat less than the merit
which an inventor aims at, for, like poetry of a certain kind,
if the sense does not stare you in the face no one cares for it.

The felt want, then, is greater obliquity of the illuminating
pencil. With the single “ kettledrum,” the angle of illumi-
nation is rather less than 90°, and we all allow that this is
too small for the easy exhibition of the more difficult tests.
In the coarser lined objects the shadows are easily obtained
when the pencils of illumination have a comparatively small
angle; but where the lines and markings are extremely thin
the angle must be nearly doubled, that the shadows may be
well defined and sufficiently intense.

I propose to obtain this greater obliquity by placing a
smaller hemisphere upon the larger one, and then the two
kettledrums, turned to fifths, may be made to play upon any
scale. For practical purposes it is near enough the mark to
say that one lens, when: placed upon another, adds its own
obliquity to the obliquity of the rays which fall upon it.
Neglecting, therefore, the smaller effects due to thickness and
density, it is certain, as a matter of fact, and proved by

4 Reape, on a Double Hemispherical Condenser’.

measurement, that the illuminating pencils, after passing
through the two hemispheres, may be made to fall upon the
test objects at an angle of more than 150°, and thus produce
illumination on a dark field even with the +;th. This ~
obliquity, no doubt, increases the facility of dealing with
such close fine lines as those of the Amician test and the
Macrum. To check the latter has been described as “a most
blinding and heart-rending and brain-softening test ;”’ but
by using the double hemisphere, with the ;4th and C eye-
piece, the lines and dots may be counted w ith ease. It is also
not very difficult to make the whole battery of powers, from
the ;:th to the 4-inch, available for the exposition of these
tests. A 4-inch of exquisite workmanship, now in my pos-
session, readily checks the Rhomboides, and a 4th checks
both this test and the Macrum. These powers were presented
to me by my friend Mr. Wray, a Fellow of the Astronomical
Society, who has devoted many years to the difficult task of
annihilating the secondary spectrum in telescopic object-
glasses of large dimensions, and I have witnessed his success
with the highest gratification.

The want of achromatism in the double kettledrum is not
injurious ; on the contrary, the dispersion is beneficial rather
than otherwise when the deep powers are used. With these
the illumination is virtually monochromatic, and we may use
at pleasure the red, yellow, or blue ray, by slightly altering
the distance of the condenser. The blue ray, being the most
refracted, and therefore falling on the test limes with greater
obliquity, is decidedly the most effective on N. rhomboides.
The pure light of a bright white cloud reflected from the
plain mirror shows this very clearly. Webster’s condenser,
somewhat similar to mine, and consisting of two lenses
partially achromatized, is, in its present state, not more
effective than my single hemisphere. Mr. Highley, who
makes them, is now enlar: ging the angle of aperture, and thus
extending the application of the condenser.

The diaphragm- cap, properly constructed for one, two, or
three apertures, as in the case of the single hemisphere, may
be removed to the top of the second hemisphere, unless the
fineness of the lines under examination require the condenser
to be very close to the object. In this case a diaphragm of
tin-foil or of thin brass properly pierced may be placed
between the two hemispheres ; tin-foil has an advantage in
its very easy management. By looking down the body of the
microscope, when the eye-piece is removed, and examining
the dimensions of the discs of light, it is seen, at a glance,
whether one or other of the apertures require to be more or

Reape, on @ Double Hemispherical Condenser. 5

less deeply cut. In the one case the little lappet of tin-foil
can be so doubled as to shorten the aperture, and in the other
it may be cut deeper and thrown further back. To obtain
these very slight but not slightly important variations, and
in a moment, is an advantage which minute observers will
readily recognise. It corresponds, in fact, to the gentle
strengthening or diminishing the gas-lights when the pair of
achromatic prisms is dexterously arranged by our friend Mr.
Tomkins, in order to give to rectangular lines the force of
illumination indicated by their thickness. Mr. Tomkins, to
take the Rhomboides as an example, after placing it perpen-
dicularly as to the major axis of the stage, proceeds to bring
out the transverse lines with the one prism, and then, shut-
ting off its ight, acts on the longitudinal lines with the other.
The same admirable method of working may be adopted in
the case of the kettledrums by placing a ‘bull’s- eye condenser
in front of the lamp. By a little alteration in the position
and height of this lens, the upper aperture, or that at right
angles to it, may be easily and separately used for the inde-
pendent aes of the transverse or longitudinal lines ;
the two pencils of light are then worked together, as through
the two prisms, for ae final resolution of ae aoe

In my own condenser a slit has been made in the brass-
work between the lenses for the insertion of the thin brass
diaphragms without the removal of the condenser, an arrange-
ment with which the Waterhouse diaphragms in photographic
combinations has made us familiar. With respect to these
diaphragms, I have made a new arrangement which gives
immediate and ready command over the length of the V
apertures, and therefore over the power of ne illuminating
pencil for rectilineal tests. The method is this—on the sur-
face of the lower hemisphere place a circular diaphragm,
having apertures at right angles to each other, and extending
from the circumference to within a quarter of an inch from
the centre. On another circular diaphragm of the same size
draw diameters at right angles to each other, also draw lines
from the extremity of one diameter to the two extremities of
the other, and with a pair of scissors cut off the two lunes,
thus forming a right angle upon a semicircle. This rectan-
gular diaphragm is placed in the slit of the tube between the
condensers, so that the vertex of the right angle divides the
space between the two long V apertures of the lower dia-
phragm. When pushed home it nearly shuts up the apertures
of fac fixed diaphragm; but by gently drawing it out, and
moving it a little sideways, if necessary, we can obtain with
the utmost nicety just that length of either aperture which

6 Reape, on a Double Hemispherical Condenser.

the test lines under examination require. It is absolutely
necessary to have this entire command over the length of the
apertures and the strength of the illuminating rays, and
this is one method, among others, which might suggest them-
selves to different observers , for securing this control. ‘Two
narrow strips of brass having small V apertures may also be
conveniently used for the independent regulation of the two
lower and larger apertures, over which they should be moved
by a fine adjustment. The two hemispheres themselves
are, as it were, the mere raw material ; the secret of success
lies in the proper management of the condensed and conver-
gent pencils. In the diaphragm-cap the apertures are always
of one and the same size, and hence arises the only practical
difficulty in using it for the most delicate tests. By the present
arrangement the precise amount of light from either aperture
is obtained at once.

As cheapness is the order of the day, I may state that the

cost of the material for these diaphragms i is “ three a penny.”
I cut the apertures with a pair of scissors, and after filing the
edges, when necessary, I blacken them with oxide of copper.
A few crystals of sulphate of copper must be dissolved to
saturation in two measures of strong nitric acid and one
measure of water. The diaphragm, raised to a temperature
of about 300° over a spirit lamp, is dipped in the solution
and immediately dried over the flame. On rubbing the
frost-like surface with a small brush a clean and permanent
black stain remains.

No light can fall upon the upper hemisphere but that
which passes through the apertures of the diaphragm on the
lower; and as the apertures are generally about yoths of an
inch deep, while the diameter of the lens itself is one inch
aud three quarters, it is evident that the outer portion of the
hemisphere is alone called mto use. ‘There is, however, a
limiting circle, beyond which parallel rays of light are not
transmitted to the upper hemisphere. It may be an improve-
ment to bring this portion into play, and Mr. Ross is con-
structing a condenser of three lenses, in which every ray that
falls upon the first lens will be available for illuminating the
object.

What I have aimed at in the double kettledrum is a dis-
tinct and well-defined pencil of light, falling at mght angles
on the lines of the object, and.at “the necessary obliquity for
resolution and definition ; and I trust that my experiments
will not be considered fruitless. I have often used the hemi-
spherical combination with much pleasure and satisfaction,
and, at the request of the Council, I now place it before this
Royal Society.

“I

Cuarter and Byr-Laws of the Royat Microscoptcat Society.

Objects of the Society—The Royal Microscopical Society
was founded in 1889, and incorporated by Royal Charter,
1866, for the promotion and diffusion of improvements in
the optical and mechanical construction, and in the mode of
application, of the Microscope :—

For the communication and discussion of observations and
discoveries tending to such improvements, or relating to
subjects of Microscopical observation :—

For the exhibition of new or interesting Microscopical
objects and preparations, and for the formation of an arranged
collection of such objects :—

For affording the opportunity and means of submitting
difficult and obscure Microscopical phenomena to the test of
instruments of different powers and constructions :—

For the establishment of a Library of standard Micro-
graphical Works.

Royal Charter of Incorporation to the Microscopical Society
of London.

Victoria, by the grace of God, of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith,
To ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME GREETING:
Whereas James Scott Bowerbank, Doctor of Laws, Fellow
of the Royal Society; Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, Master
of Arts, Fellow of the Royal Society; Nathaniel Bagshaw
Ward, Fellow of the Royal Society; and others of our loving
subjects, did, in the year 1839, establish a Society by the
name of “THE Microscoricat Society or Lonpon,” for the
advancement of Microscopical Science :

AND WHEREAS it has been represented to us that the same
Society has, since its establishment, sedulously pursued such
its proposed object, by the researches of its members, and the
collection and discussion of observations, and by the publica-
tion of its transactions from time to time, which have con-
tributed to the progress of Microscopical knowledge :

AND WHEREAS distinguished individuals in foreign coun-
tries, as well as British subjects, have availed themselves of
the facilities offered by the same Society for communicating
important discoveries, greatly extending Microscopical know-
ledge; and the great and general interest now felt in those
branches of Science, whereof the Microscope is an important

8 Charter of the Royal Microscopical Society.

instrument of investigation, has been greatly promoted and
fostered by this Society :

AND WHEREAS the same Society has, in aid of its objects,
acquired a considerable and important Library ef Scientific
Works, a large collection of Microscopic objects, and several
valuable Microscopes, to which fresh accessions are con-
stantly being made; and the said Society has hitherto been
supported by donations and annual and other subscriptions
and contributions to its funds, and has therefrom purchased
and is possessed of a considerable amount of stock in the
public funds :

AND WHEREAS, in order to secure the property of the said
Society, to extend its operations, and to give it a more per-
manent establishment among the scientific institutions of our
kingdom, we have been besought to grant to James Glaisher,
Fellow of the Royal Society, the present President of the
said Society, and to those who now are or shall hereafter
become members of the said Society, our Royal Charter of
Incorporation for the purposes aforesaid :

Now know ye tuar We, being desirous of encouraging a
design so laudable and salutary, ‘of our especial grace, certain
knowledge, and mere motion, have willed, granted, and de-
clared, and do by these presents, for us, our heirs and suc-
cessors, will, grant, and declare, that the said James Glaisher,
and such other of our loving subjects as now are members
of the said Society, or shall from time to time be elected
Fellows thereof, according to such regulations or bye-laws as
shall be hereafter framed or enacted: and their successors,
shall for ever hereafter be by virtue of these presents one
body politic and corporate, by the name of ‘The Micro-
scopical Society of London ;” and for the purposes aforesaid,
and by the name aforesaid, shall have perpetual succession
and a common seal, with full power and authority to alter,
vary, break, and renew the same at their discretion, and by
the same name to sue and be sued, implead and be impleaded,
answer and be answered, unto aril in every court of us, our
heirs and successors, and be for ever able and capable in the
law to purchase, receive, possess, hold and enjoy, to them
and their successors, any goods and chattels whatsoever, and
also to be able and capable i in the law (notwithstanding the
Statute of Mortmain) to take, purchase, hold, and enjoy to
them and their successors a hall or house, and any such
messuages, lands, tenements, or hereditaments whatsoever as
may be necessary or expedient for carrying out the purposes
of the Society, the yearly value of which, including the site
of the said hall or house, shall not exceed in the whole the

oo

Charter of the Royal Microscopical Society. 9

sum of £1000, computing the same respectively at the time
of the purchase or acquisition thereof, and to act in all the
concerns of the said body politic and corporate as effectually,
to all intents and purposes, as any other of our liege subjects,
or any other body politic or corporate in our said kingdom,
not being under any disability, might do in their respective
concerns.

And we do hereby grant our special licence and authority
unto all and every person and persons, bodies politic and
corporate (otherwise competent), to grant, sell, alien, and
convey in mortmain unto and to the use of the said body
politic and corporate and their successors any messuages,
lands, tenements, or hereditaments not exceeding such annual
value as aforesaid.

And our will and pleasure is, and we further grant and
declare, that there shall be a General Meeting or General
Meetings of the Fellows of the said Society to be held from
time to time as hereinafter mentioned, and that there shall
be a Council to direct and manage the concerns of the said
body politic and corporate, and that the General Meetings
and the Council shall have the entire direction and manage-
ment of the same in the manner and subject to the regula-
tions hereinafter mentioned.

And we do hereby also will, grant, and declare that there
shall be a President, Vice-Pr Aan a Treasurer, and Secre-

taries of the said body politic and corporate, and that the

Council shall consist of the President, Vice-Presidents, Trea-
surer, Secretaries, and not more than twelve nor less than
eight other Fellows of the said Society.

And we do hereby further will and declare that the said
James Glaisher shall be the first President of the said body
politic and corporate, and the other persons now being the
Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries, and Members of
the Council shall be first Members of the Council, and shall
continue such until the election of officers shall be made in
pursuance of these presents.

And we do hereby further will and declare that it shall be
lawful for the Fellows of the said body politic and corporate
hereby established to hold a General Meeting once in the year
or oftener, for the purposes hereinafter mentioned; namely,
that the President, Vice-Presidents, the Treasurer, the Secre-
taries, and other Members of the Council, shall be chosen at
such General Meeting, and that the General Meetings shall
from time to time make and establish such bye-laws, and
vary and alter or revoke the same, as they shall deem to be
useful and necessary for the regulation of the said body politic

VOL. XV. b

10 Charter of the Royal Microscopical Society.

and corporate, for the admission of Fellows and of Honorary
and Foreign Members, and for the fixing the number of the
Vice-Presidents and Officers, and for the management of the
proceedings, and the estates, goods, and business of the said
body politic and corporate, so that such bye-laws be not
repugnant to these presents, or to the laws and statutes of this
our realm; and shall and may also enter into any resolution
and make any regulation respecting the affairs of the said
body politic and corporate that may be necessary and proper :

And we do further will and declare that’ the General
Meetings shall take place at such time as may be fixed by the
said Council, and that the present regulations of the said
Society, so far as they are not inconsistent with these pre-
sents, shall continue in force until the same shall be altered
by a General Meeting.

And we further will, grant, and declare that the Council
shall have the sole management of the income and funds of
the said body politic and corporate, and the appointment of
librarian, curator, and such other officers, attendants, and
servants as the Council shall think necessary or useful, as also
the entire management and superintendence of all the other
affairs of the said Society, and shall and may, but not incon-
sistently with or contrary to the provisions of this our Charter,
or any existing bye-law, or the laws and statutes of this our
realm, do all such acts and deeds as shall appear to them
necessary for carrying into effect the objects and views of the
said body politic and corporate.

PRovyipepD aLways, and we do will and declare, that the
Council shall, from time to time, render to a General Meeting
a full account of their proceedings, and that every Fellow of
the Society may at all reasonable times, to be fixed by the
said Council, see and examine the accounts of the receipts
and payments of the said body politic and corporate.

And we further will, grant, and declare that the whole pro-
perty of the said body politic and corporate shall be vested,
and we do hereby vest the same, solely and absolutely in the
Vellows thereof; and that they shall have full power and
authority to sell, alienate, charge, and otherwise dispose of
the same as they shall think proper : but that no sale, mort-
gage, incumbrance, or other dispositiou of any messuages,
lands, tenements, or hereditaments belonging to the said body
politic and corporate shall be made except with the appro-
bation and concurrence of a General Meeting.

AND WE LASTLY DECLARE it to be our Royal will and plea-
sure that no resolution or bye-law shall, on any account or
pretence whatsoever, be made by the said body politic and

Charter of the Royal Microscopical Society. 1]

corporate, in opposition to the general scope, true intent, and
meaning of this our Charter, or the Laws or Statutes of our
Realm: And that if any such rule or bye-law shall be made,
the same shall be absolutely null and void to all intents,
effects, constructions, and purposes whatsoever.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF we have caused these our Letters
to be made Patent.
WITNEss OURSELF, at our Palace at Westminster,
this twenty-eighth day of August, in the thirtieth
year of our reign.

By Her Masesty’s ComManp.
CARDEW.

>

»

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY OF LONDON.

On Two NEW Species of the Genus CictstEs, Class
RotiFERA. By Henry Davis, F.R.M.S.

(Read December 12th, 1866.)

Tue hitherto undescribed species of tubiculous Rotifera
which I have to introduce, furnish further proof—if such be
needei—that the generally accepted classification of these
aniy.als is unsatisfactory in the extreme. In the present
im tance there would almost seem to be a special arrange-
aent for the purpose of excluding some interesting creatures

J. —possessing in every sense a “local habitation,” but no
“name ”’—from enjoying the advantages of acknowledged
relationship with their greater and more famous compeers.

Mr. Gosse has recently proposed to subdivide the class in
a manner not only more natural and less arbitrary than that
complained of, but having the further advantage, in its com-
prehensiveness, of admitting as well-defined species the new
rotifers in which I am particularly interested. He proposes
to make a family to be called Melicertade, and in this he
would include two genera, Melicerta and Megalotrocha, de-
grading some of the present genera to form species of Melicerta,
and others to constitute three species of Megalotrocha. The
first-named genus would embrace nearly all the solitary
individuals among the tube-dwellers, and the latter those few
which are aggregated by the adhesion of their gelatinous
eases. ‘lo the genus Melicerta, as thus constituted, fain
would I add two species—WM. longicornis and M. intermedius ;
but unfortunately the admirable arrangement quoted has been
introduced in so quiet and unobtrusive a manner, in the
pages of a popular journal, that there is some reason for
fearing it may not be generally adopted, at least for some
time; and this fact determines me to find for the strangers
the least inconvenient place—possibly a temporary one—with

VOL. XV. c

14 Davis, on the genus Gcistes.

the family Qécistina, as propounded by Ehrenberg and in-
dorsed by Williamson and Pritchard.

Genus CECISTES.

CE. intermedius (n. sp.).—Sheath granulate; pale at the
base, growing dark and opaque towards the open extremity ;
narrow ; tapering slightly downwards. The simple trochal
dise ovoid in outline, and its cilia interrupted in the dorsal
aspect. Beneath the oral aperture a ciliated protuberance,
on each side of which is a setiferous tubercle. Length of
case =!,”; animal about ;.”. (PI. I, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.)

This species is plainly a connecting link between @. erys-
tallinus and Limnias ceratophilli, having the single trochal
disc of one and the tapering tube of the other; yet a strict
reading of artificial characteristics would undoubtedly exclude
it from either genus, and justify me in absurdly makmg
another on purpose for it. Limnias requires the mature
animal to have a “ two-lobed rotary organ,” and C&cistes a
single lobe, but a “cylindrical case.” In my difficulty I
apply for advice to our highest authority in these matters,
and am recommended to “ call it CEcistes, but note its resem-
blance to Limnias.”

CE. longicornis (n. sp.).—Sheath solitary ; rarely contiguous,
and imperfectly conglomerate ; floccose; generally unsymme-
trical and opaque. Animalcule with two long antenne termi-
nated by retractile sete ; thickly ciliated “ chin.” Length of
case -1,” ; animal about +,” ; antenne =1,”. (Figs. 5, 6,7, 8.)

There are also two varieties of this species, one resembling
it in every particular with the exception of the antenne,
which are replaced by setiferous tubercles, as in &. intermedius
and in Limnias; the other variety has a more cylindrical
case, which is slightly annulated, and transparent even when
grown in turbid water.

I find these creatures in ponds near Leytonstone, growing
on leaves of the water ranunculus and other aquatic plants.
Eyen minute filaments of Conferve are often studded with
their nest-like cases. (. longicornis is by far the smallest of
the tube-dwellers ; its brown, fluffy, and irregularly formed
sheath is scarcely noticeable under a low power, and to this
circumstance I attribute the fact of its being hitherto over-
looked. The body of the animal, when the disc is retracted,
is somewhat oviform, gradually attenuated to a highly elastic,
deeply corrugated foot-tail. Outside the integument are four
fine lines indicating segments of a delicate carapace; these

Davis, on the genus Ecistes. 15

lines form one broad central annulation and two narrow rings
near the head; to one, apparently the strongest, are attached
the long antenne. ‘The trochal disc at its base seems hinged
in each lateral aspect ; the movements of these curious hinges
are best seen when the animal is slowly expanding, then the
ciliary wreath has a waved and oblong outline. In the
ventral aspect, outside the rotary organ and beneath the
ciliary frill, is an arcuate process forming the cheek of the
buccal cavity or “funnel,” and below this the ciliated pro-
jection, termed the “chin” when applied by Gosse to
Limnias, or the “ additional” and “ fifth lobe”’ to Melicerta
by Wilhamson.*

Atoms of carmine are greedily swallowed by healthy
specimens; and the whole course of the red particles is
easily watched from their entrance into the buccal funnel
and the mastax, through the curved and undulating csopha-
gus into the stomach, to their discharge (apparently unal-
tered) from the everted anus.

On treating the animal with solution of potash the foot,
antenne, and rotary organ, are immediately dissolved, but
the integument and the mastax remain unaltered. The latter
is pretty plainly constructed on the plan of Limnias, as
figured by Mr. Gosse in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions ;’
but the required number of teeth—three to each ramus—is,
I think, greatly exceeded ; three teeth are very distinct, and,
I fancy, a fourth and fifth; but as they gradually grow
fainter as they recede from the joint of the rami, it becomes
exceedingly difficult to determine the exact number. Mr.
Gosse’s figure shows a faint striation on the surface of each
ramus, parallel with the three teeth, and extending beyond
them, and it is quite possible that I may have confounded a
similar striation with the teeth, for the exceedingly minute
size of the gizzard in Q. longcornis precludes all hope of
trustworthy observation on it with the moderately high
powers at my command.

Whatever may be the function of the ciliated “chin” in
other species, it appears to me in these to be intimately con-
nected with the formation of the tube; for on several occa-
sions I have noticed minute particles of the extraneous matter
in suspension drawn across and from the buccal aperture,
and directed by the cilia over the chin intoa slight depression
beneath it; the granules were not rotated nor formed into

* Mr. Slack believes that he has detected an unusually complicated
ciliation of the trochal disc in @. longicornis. Certainly his skilful handling
of a Beck’s gsth, with this object and a fine condenser, warrants me in
accepting his opinion with the greatest respect.

16 Pirer, on a Portable Slide Cabinet.

pellets, but they simply collected in a spot agreeing with the
position of the pellet-cup in Melicerta. There was evidently
a viscid excretion at the spot which held the extraneous
matters loosely together in a clot; in about half a minute
the rotifer would jerk down, leave the floccose deposit on the
edge of its case, then rise immediately and repeat the process.
On mixing a little carmine with the water, the process became
very striking ; an irregular crimson edge to the tube was made
under my own eyes, and, on leaving a number of specimens
of both species in a zoophyte trough, charged with carmine,
for forty-eight hours, I was gratified to find that a few had
continued building, and made red tops of different sizes to
their habitations ; nearly one fourth of the entire structure in
two instances were composed of the mixture of the red atoms
and gelatinous excretion. One infant rotifer, whose first
efforts at building I had distinctly marked, seemed to have
made his entire nest of the glowing pigment. ‘The carmine
apparently stimulates the creatures to activity, but certainly
kills them in a day or two. I have mounted, in Deane’s
gelatine, some of the red-topped cases, constructed as
described, and I offer them as confirmatory evidence of the
reliable character of what I advance. They tend to show, not
only that Melicerta enjoys no monopoly in the building trade,
but that all rotifers inhabiting opaque encrusted tubes may
reasonably be suspected of constructing them piecemeal, and
in the same manner.

Finally, returning for a moment to the sheath of C. longi-
cornis, I would note its great internal elasticity, as shown
especially at the aperture. It always embraces the animal,
expanding or contracting in its movements in rising and re-
treating, and to such an extent that when the rotifer, greatly
alarmed, shrinks down to a mere ball at the bottom of the
sheath, there is generally a coalescence and perfect closing
of the orifice.

On a PortaBLE Stipe Capinet and a Form of SiipeE for
Opaque InLumrination. By SAMUEL PiPER, Old Change
Microscopical Society.

(Read January 9th, 1867.)

THE Portable Horizontal Slide Cabinet is composed of any
number of flat cardboard trays, divided into six or more

Pirer, on a Portable Slide Cabinet. 17

compartments, each holding a single slide in a horizontal
position.

The trays are enclosed in a strong millboard box, the front
of which is made to fall down, so as to permit the trays to be
readily withdrawn. When closed, an elastic band renders
the whole firm and secure.

It may be made of any desired capacity. Specimens are
placed on the table capable of receiving from six to two
hundred and fifty slides. ‘The smallest is well adapted to
contain a “half-dozen series” of anatomical or other subjects;
and its great strength, combined with lightness, makes it
peculiarly available for transmission through the post.

The one figured above is, however, that to which I would
more particularly call your attention, being of a convenient
size, and suitable for carrying in the pocket. It contains six
trays, and will therefore hold three dozen slides.

Amongst the advantages which may be derived from the
use of these cabinets I will mention the convenience of dis-
playing at one view the entire collection of slides, and the
facility thus afforded for the selection of any required speci-
men without the troublesome search and difficulty of
removal frequently experienced with the old form of box, in
which the slides are dropped (out of sight) into perpen-
dicular grooves. It also prevents the possibility of the covers
becoming detached by shaking about in transit, which is im-
portant when it is required to convey a rare or valuable
collection.

The trays, being all of uniform size, may be transferred
from one cabinet to another of larger or smaller dimensions

18 Piper, on a Form of Slide for Opaque Illumination.

without necessitating the disturbance of the slides. In eddie
tion to its portability, it possesses the merit of cheapness,
durability, and neatness of appearance.

It may be obtained in its various forms from all the lead-
ing microscope makers in London.

On a Form of Sipe for Opaque ILLUMINATION.

I would also beg to offer to your consideration a form of
slide which meets a want frequently felt in mounting opaque
objects for the binocular microscope, so that they may be ex-
amined without the intervention of a glass cover, and, at the
same time, to have adequate protection against the intrusion
of dust or other foreign matter when not in use.

It is especially adapted for botanical or geological speci-
mens, and for objects of considerable thickness requiring a
deep cell.

It consists of the usual mahogany slide, with the addition
of a thin circular dise of bone or other convenient material,
which is attached on one side of the central cavity by means

A, Mahogany slide; 3, central cavity; c, covering disc (turned
aside), bearing descriptive label; D, pivot on which the cover
rotates.

of a split metal rivet, the ends of which are turned outwards,
on the underside, before the black paper and cardboard
bottom are applied ; this rivet acts as a pivot, on which the
cover rotates, so that it can be instantly turned aside for the
display of the object, and as readily replaced when the slide
is returned to the cabinet. ‘The cover is also available for
the application of the label bearing the name and description,
and can be applied in a few minutes, at an increased cost of
about twopence per dozen upon the price of the ordinary
slides.

By substituting a thin glass instead of the cardboard
bottom it may be used for Lieberkihn illumination.

19

On the CRYSTALLIZATION of the SULPHATES oF Iron,
Cosat, and NickeLt. By Rosperr Tuomas.

(Read January 9th, 1867.)

THE object in view, in crystallizing the salts of the mag-
netic metals, being to ascertain whether there is any relation
between the magnetic principle in those metals and the action
which takes place in the crystallization of their salts, ex-
periments have been made with a less number of atoms of
water than are usually found in the natural crystals of these
salts, and the results of these experiments are here submitted
as indications of the possibility that some such relations
exist.

Faraday has shown* that a crystal of sulphate of iron “ is
compounded of superposed flat crystals or plates, and that
the magne-crystallic axis goes directly across these.” After
many trials, the writer has been able to get these “ plates”
to form on the “slide,” which may be done as follows :—
Take a concentrated solution of sulphate of iron, with a small
quantity of sugar to prevent oxidation of the film of iron.
Drive off the water as rapidly as possible with a ‘‘ Bunsen’s
burner ” or “ spirit-lamp,”’ and when nearly dry the “ plates ””
will form, and, if carefully watched, their formation may be
seen even by the unaided eye. Then place the slide quickly
at a higher temperature, and further crystallization of the
plates will be arrested. When perfectly dry, the slide should
be kept at a temperature of about 65° Fahr.; but these pro-
cesses (even when great care is taken) are influenced much
by thé state of the atmosphere. If it be too moist, the
foliation (seen in the specimens) will proceed from all points
of the ‘ plates.”” The slide should then be placed at a higher
temperature, when the foliations will proceed only from each
pole, or from the ends of the longest diameter of the plates,
and curve backwards towards the opposite pole, exhibiting
the same configurations as iron filings when arranged round
the magnet, the crystalline force appearing to flow in the
direction of the magne-crystallic axis described by Faraday.

Specimens of the crystals of the salts of cobalt and nickel
are also shown, which clearly indicate that they all have the
same mode of formation as, but less definitely marked than,
those of iron. And if the relationship to which reference has
been made should be found to exist, this less perfect crystal-

* Series xxii, § 2546.

20 Tom«ins, on a Travelling Microscope.

lization of the salts named would naturally follow from the
fact of the metals themselves being less magnetic.

Norr.—My friend Mr. Thomas having having presented me with some
crystallized specimens of sulphate of iron, cobalt, and nickel, of great
novelty and beauty, I solicited him to write a short description of what
they were intended to illustrate, and also his method of producing them,
thinking it would be interesting to the Fellows of the Royal Microscopical
Society.

In his letter to me he says, ‘‘If any one can offer a better explanation I
shall be gratified. In trying to produce specimens there will be many
failures, and it will require a considerable amount of practice and patience
to produce similar results.’—W, Lapp, 11 and 12, Beak Street, W.

On a TRAVELLING Microscope.
By J. Newton Tomxins; F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.

(Read Janvary 9th, 1867.)

I am desirous of bringing before the notice of the Society a
new microscope stand which possesses many points of merit,
and is quite novel in some of its arrangements. The aim has
been to combine lightness and extreme portability with
steadiness and efficiency of work, while the essential element
of cheapness has not been lost sight of. The whole apparatus
is contained in a sling case, similar to that used for race-
glasses, and weighs somewhat under two pounds; it has
been appropriately called the ‘* Travelling Microscope,” from
its manifest capabilities. The compound body is firmly
attached to the front leg of the tripod stand, the two other
legs are supported on capstan-bar joints (to be tightened at
pleasure should they work loose), which fold up when not in
use. The tripod forms an exact equilateral triangle, with the
view of ensuring the greatest possible steadiness, and the feet
are shod with cork in order to diminish vibration, as well as to
prevent the instrument from slipping on a smooth table. The
tube, which allows of elongation to an extent of eight inches,
slides in a jacket lined with cloth, and the coarse adjustment
is gained by this sliding motion; the fine adjustment is
effected by means of a tangent screw of fifty threads to the
inch, which is placed conveniently behind the body, and
worked by a milled head acting on a spring contained in the
upright which supports the body. This portion of the instru-
ment works smoothly and satisfactorily.

The stage is formed of a simple brass plate, with spring

Tomkins, on a Travelling Microscope. 21

clips to hold the slides; but should greater accuracy be desired,
a mechanical stage capable of affording traversing movements
in two directions can be added. Beneath the stage, and
secured by brass pins working in slots, room is found for
a Varley’s live-box. The nose-piece is furnished with the
Society’s universal screw, thus being adapted for most modern
object-glasses.

By way of utilising the limited space to the utmost, the
legs permit of being detached by help of bayonet-catches,
and contain, severally, dipping tube, forceps, and two dissect-

ing needles. A small case, placed near at hand, holds a glass
slide with ledge, and a reserve of thin covering glasses. ‘The
optical portions of the microscope, viz. the object-glass, eye-
piece, and mirror, are of the usual description. The fishing
apparatus that I use with this instrument is simple, but very
effective. The rod is the common landing-net rod of the
angler ; into this is fixed a gun-metal ring, which carries a
bottle provided with a screw, and which may be obtained of
any chemist. A small net, a metal spoon (indispensable
when hunting for diatoms), and one or two gutta-percha
bottles, preferable to glass because lighter and not liable
to breakage, complete the equipment.

This microscope especially recommends itself to the atten-
tion of field-naturalists, since every one who has made the

22 Anniversary Meeting.

Protophytes and Protozoa his study is aware how difficu., the
not impossible, it is to bring home many of these delica
organizations from any distance in a living state. Of this
class may be mentioned some of the more tender of the
oceanic Hydrozoa, the free-swimming larve of the Crustacean
family, the Antheridia and Antherozoids of the ferns, and
innumerable others.

The naturalist who may be possessed of an instrument
like that herein described will now be enabled to prosecute
his researches under the most favorable circumstances, and to
select from his gatherings of the day only those portions
suitable for future examination.

The whole merit of this arrangement is due to Mr. Moginie,
of Mr. Baker’s establishment, a member of our Society ; it is
only after many trials that he has succeeded in bringing the
“‘ Travelling Microscope ” to its present effective form.

I am not exactly aware of the price at which Mr. Baker
will supply these instruments, but believe that it will not
exceed £3, including one eye-piece, but exclusive of the object-
glass.

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
ANNIVERSARY MEETING.

February 13th, 1867.

JAMES GLAISHER, Esq., President, in the Chair.

After the usual routine business,

Walter Kerr, Esq., Cedar Road, Fulham Road; Oliver
Codrington, Esq., Surgeon, 68th Light Infantry; John
James Hamilton Humphreys, Esq., 16, Torrington Square ;
were balloted for and duly elected Fellows of the Society.

A report from the Auditors of the Treasurer’s accounts
was read.

It was resolved—“ That the President’s address be printed
without delay.”

The meeting then proceeded to ballot for Officers and
Council for the year ensuing.

At the close of the ballot the scrutineers made their

Anniversary Meeting. 23

cliprt, when the following gentlemen were declared duly
a.ectid:

President.—James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S.

Vice- Presidents.

Charles Brooke, Esq., F.R.S. Arthur Farre, M.D., F.R.S.
R. J. Farrants, Esq., F.R.C.S. | Rev. J. B. Reade, M.A., F.R.S.

Treasurer.—C. J. H. Allen, Esq., F.L.S.

Hon. Secretaries.

Jabez Hogg, Esq., F.L.S. | H. J. Slack, Esq., F.G.S.

Couneil.

Geo. E. Blenkins, Esq., F.R.C.S. | Ellis G. Lobb, Esq.

W. L. Freestone, Esq. R. Mestayer, Esq.

James Hilton, Esq. John Millar, Esq., F.L.S.
Robert Hudson, Esq., F.R.S. Major S. R. J. Owen, F.L.S.
Wm. Henry Ince, Esq., F.L.S.. | F. C. S. Roper, Esq., F.L.S.
Henry Lee, Esq., F.L.S. F. H. Wenham, Esq.

The thanks of the meeting were then voted to the Pre-
sident, Secretaries, Treasurer, and Council, for their services
on behalf of the Society during the past year.

Report of the Cabinet of Objects during the past year.

Number of objects in the Cabinet on February 14th,
1866 .
Presented by Colonel Samuel Hennall, March, 1866,

twelve slides of Diatomaceze 12
Presented by Major Owen, June, 1866, one slide of
Foraminifera ; 1

Presented by Thomas Shearman ‘Ralph, Esq. , of Mel-
bourne, January, 1867, twelve slides of Blood-

spherules. . ; 3 : : 5 cP ee
Total quantity of objects now in the Cabinet . . 1414

Exuis G. Lozs.

Auditors’ Report.

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The PRESIDENT’s ADDREss for the year 1866-1867.
By James GuaIsHER, Esq., F.RS., &c.

Tue year 1866-7 will be memorable in the annals of the
Microscopical Society, as that in which a Royal Charter was
obtained for its incorporation, in which Her Most Gracious
Majesty Queen Victoria was pleased to signify her dis-
tinguished appreciation of its objects, by commanding it to
assume the title “ Royal,” and in which H.R.H. the Prince
of Wales conferred upon it the honour of becoming its
patron.

During the past year the general condition of the Society
has been one of prosperity: its members have augmented,
its meetings have been well attended. Many subjects of
interest have been brought forward in the papers that have
been read before it; the discussions thereupon have elicited
much information of general interest and value.

The number of new Fellows elected during the year has
been 51; the number lost by death and by resignation, 6.

In advyerting to the loss this Society has sustained during
the past year through the death of its members, I have to
mention Dr. Ansell, Richard Beck, Dr. Lee, Dr. Hinxman ;
and the loss to Microscopy in general, though not a member
of this Society, of Dr. Greville.

Tuomas ANSELL was a very diligent student both in London
and Edinburgh. He graduated at the University of St.
Andrew’s, and obtained the diploma of the Royal College of
Surgeons of England. After this he made a voyage to China,
and on his return settled at Bow, where he steadily pursued
his profession and obtained a high position. He was elected
twenty-five years ago one of the Examiners of the Society of
Apothecaries ; and six years since he was unanimously chosen
Chairman of the Board, and continued in this position till
his death. Under the recent Act, he was elected Officer of
Health for Bow, in Middlesex ; and in the performance of the
duties of that office he was distinguished for his zeal, and it
was whilst in their discharge, at the outbreak of cholera in
his district, in July, 1866, he died of that disease.

He was an ardent lover of Natural History, and a good
observer ; he was not an original contributor to Microscopical

26 The President’s Address.

Science, though he readily comprehended, and almost instar
appropriated, everything which was new and valuable.

His fine library and microscopical museum bear testimony ~
to his judgment and taste. He was an able practitioner, a —
good anatomist, and possessed an ample knowledge of general
physics.

RicHarpd Brck was born in October, 1827, at the then
residence of his parents, Tokenhouse Yard, London; his
father being a partner in the well-known firm of Lister and
Beck, wine-merchants. As is often the case with men who
distinguish themselves in particular pursuits, Richard Beck
did not in his boyhood evince much aptitude for the ordinary
routine of scholastic teaching. He is described as more fond
of play than of books, and his manifestations of talent and
ability were in the direction of mechanical pursuits. This
inclination was judiciously fostered in a school at York
where he finished his education. At this time (1841) his
parents perceiving that the manufacture of the microscope
was likely to rise in commercial importance, made arrange-
ments that Richard Beck should learn the business by serving
for three years under Mr. Smith, an excellent workman
engaged in carrying out the views of Mr. J oseph Lister and
other distinguished members of this Society. Previous to
this period much had been accomplished by Mr. Pritchard,
Mr. Powell, and Mr. Ross; the two latter having greatly
distinguished themselves by giving practical effect to the
optical principles made known by Mr. Lister in 1829; but
both in methods of manufacture and in many important de-
tails of construction there was still much to be desjred and
accomplished, and it was mainly through the skill and the
exertions of Richard Beck that the well-known firm of Smith
and Beck, formed in 1847, took such an important. position
in the microscopic world, and, by maintaing an honorable
rivalry with the other great makers, effectively contributed
to bring the English microscope to its present degree of
optical and mechanical perfection.

Important improvements in the mechanical stage and
in methods of illumination owe their origin to Richard
Beck, and when Mr. Wenham devised his admirable
arrangements for binocular vision, they were promptly
carried out under his skilful supervision. In devising
microscopic apparatus adapted for special investigations,
Richard Beck exhibited great ingenuity; and when the ideas
of other inventors were communicated to him, he usually
endeavoured, and frequently with success, to improve upon
them before giving them practical effect. As a microscopic

The President’s Address. Py

server he took a high place, as numerous communications
this Society abundantly show. He was slow in forming
_ conclusions, very searching in investigation, unwilling to
take anything for granted without submitting it to careful
verification, and very open-hearted and generous in com-
municating to others the facts which he had ascertained, and
the conclusions to which he had arrived. As a manufacturer,
he brought a high degree of natural intelligence and a culti-
vated understanding to bear upon mechanical pursuits, never
allowing the requirements of trade to overpower his zeal in
the cause of science, or his commercial connection with the
microscope to interfere with his appreciation of it as an in-
strument of research. In addition to the production of first-
class instruments, the firm of which he was a member intro-
duced at various times constructions devised by himself to
meet the wants of a less rich class of students, such as the
** Educational Microscope,” the “‘ Universal Microscope,”
and the “ Popular Microscope.” In 1865 Mr. Beck pub-
lished a ‘‘ Treatise on the Construction, Proper Use, and
Capabilities of Smith, Beck, and Beck’s Achromatic Micro-
scope,’ in which many valuable suggestions are contained.
This work is illustrated by some of the best plates of micro-
scopic objects that have been produced, several being from
his own drawings. ‘The frontispiece gives representations of
the Podura scale as seen with powers from 80 to 1300, and
presenting those appearances which microscopists have ac-
cepted as tests of the true correction of their objectives, and
of their methods of illumination. As a member of this
Society, Richard Beck rendered constant and valuable service
by contributing to its ‘Transactions’ and taking part in its
discussions. Great grief and pain were felt by his numerous
friends and acquaintances when his valuable life terminated,
at the early age of thirty-nine, on the 20th of September
last, through a disease of the heart, first contracted when
suffering from rheumatic fever at school, and which had been
suddenly aggravated six months previous to his decease.
He was buried in the graveyard attached to the Friends’
Meeting-house at Stoke Newington, and your President, ac-
companied by several members of the Council, attended on
the occasion to manifest the respect due to him for his many
excellences of character, and for his numerous services to
Microscopical Science.

JoHn Lez, LL.D, F.R.S., of Hartwell House near
Aylesbury, who died on the 25th February last, was elected
amember of this Society in 1841, but never took any active part
in microscopical pursuits. His attention was chiefly devoted

28 The President’s Address.

to astronomy, and he founded one of the best private obser-
vatories in the country. He was elected to the office of
President of the Royal Astronomical Society a few years since.
By those engaged in his favorite study, as well as by many
devoted to other branches of science, he will long be remem-
bered for the encouragement and assistance he was at all
times willing to afford.

Ropert Kay GRevitxe, F.R.S.E., although not amember
of this Society, has contributed so many valuable papers to
our ‘ Transactions,’ and was so well known asa distinguished
cryptogamic botanist, that his loss cannot be passed over in
silence. He was born at Bishop Auckland, in Durham, in
1794, and died at his house at Murrayfield, near Edinburgh,
in June last, after a few days’ illness. From an early age he
had been devoted to botanical pursuits; and though he
entered the medical profession, he devoted himself entirely
to his favourite study as soon as he came into possession
of independent means. In 1824 the University of Glasgow
conferred on him the degree of LL.D. Uniting great
energy of character with a quick discernment of the minute
distinctions which characterise a large proportion of the
Cryptogamic series of plants, he at the same time possessed
such artistic skill, that few could rival the exquisite drawings,
especially of the microscopic plants, which were procured by
his pencil. His earlier well-known works, the ‘Scottish
Cryptogamic Flora,’ and the ‘ Algw Britannice,’ published
between 1823 and 1830, although containing some micro-
Scopic species, and illustrated by microscopic dissections,
were chiefly devoted to a description and delineation of higher
tribes of cryptogams, and are still unrivalled for the beauty
and correctness of the drawings which illustrate the species.
Jn the death, however, of his friend Dr. Gregory, he
devoted himself almost entirely to the study of the beautiful
siliceous frustules of the class of Diatomacea, to which he had
been attracted by the illustrations of the papers at various
times contributed to our own and other societies by that
author; and since 1857 he has contributed twenty-nine papers
on this branch of study to our ‘ Transactions’ and ‘J ournal,’
besides contributions to the ‘Annals of Natural History,’ the
‘Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,’ and ‘Transactions of
the Botanical Society of Edinburgh.’ Hedevotedhimself more
especially to the delineation and description of forms hitherto
unnoticed ; and though some may consider that many of
these will prove on further examination mere varieties, and
not entitled to rank as distinct species, and that his labours
would have had more scientific value if employed in the con-

The President’s Address. 29

solidation rather than the extension of an already over-
burdened nomenclature, none can fail to admire the beauty of
the drawings which accompany his papers, or to wonder at
the perseverance which, at threescore years and ten, enabled
him to examine critically hundreds of slides to select those
forms which had not previously been illustrated.

Mr. Jos—ErH Gratton belonged to a very valuable class of
men—those who, being engaged in commerce, devote their
money and leisure time to scientific pursuits. He took
interest in microscopical investigations, and manifested a
liberal disposition by freely showing, with other objects of
interest, those which his foreign transactions enabled him to
obtain abroad.

Passing from subjects of painful association, it is gratifying
to revert to the favorable position occupied by the Society,
as the number of new Fellows added in the year, over the
number lost by death and resignation, amount to no less than
forty-five.

I will now briefly advert to the subjects which have been
brought under our notice since my last address. An inquiry
into the whole microscopic work of the past year would far
exceed the limit of this address; and indeed my long illness,
and consequent absence from the meetings of the Society
during the last four months, places it beyond my power. I
must therefore limit myself to a brief notice—to a few points
only.

At the first meeting of the Society in the year, viz., on
March 14, a valuable paper was read by H.C. Bastian, M.A.,
* On the so-called Pacchionian Bodies.” In this paper those
bodies were shown to be in no way glandular in their com-
position, as was formerly supposed, but to be composed of
precisely the same elements as entered into the formation of
the arachnoid, of the visceral layer of which, they were local
hypertrophies, or circumscribed outgrowths. Their various

forms were described, and the situations in which they were
encountered in their different stages of growth were accounted
for. It was maintained, in opposition to some other observers,
that these growths invariably sprang from the visceral, and
never from the so-called parietal layer of the arachnoid. The
causes leading to their development were considered, and also
the questions as to whether such growths were to be regarded
as normal or pathological formations. And, lastly, it was
shown that the Pacchionian bodies were not growths, abso-
lutely peculiar in kind; that they could be classed with
similar growths occurring on other organs of the body ; and
VOL. Xv. d

80 The President’s Address.

that their increased development was not usually a matter of
much pathological significance.

With regard to matters relating to the practical adaptation
to the microscope, or improvement in apparatus, we haye to
notice Dr. Maddox’s “Slide-clip” for holding on glass covers,
either at the time of mounting or during temporary observa-
tions. This contrivance is simply made from a piece of brass
wire.

At a subsequent meeting, a different form was explained by
Mr. J. Hogg, as manufactured at a very small cost per dozen
by Mr. Baker. One of the prongs of this clip is armed with
a small disc of cork, and the opposite one is turned in the
form of an open ring, through which the proper position and
arrangement of the object may be seen. ‘These clips will
unquestionably be found to be of great service in mounting
objects, and maintaining a pressure till the object is dry
or the medium properly set.

Next in order, is a form of adjustable diaphragm by Mr.
S. Kineard. This consists of a very thin piece of vulcanized
india-rubber tube set in a brass mounting so as to admit of its
being twisted. In this operation every portion of the cir-
cumference of the tube, midway between the ends, gradually
approaches towards the axis, and forms a variable aperture
sufficiently uniform in outline. But the possible objection to
this may be that the aperture is too far below the condensing
lens, thus making it produce as much an effect of reduction
of light as of diminished aperture.

Among other instrumental objects that have been brought
before us is an ingenious leaf-holder and reyolving disc-
holder, by Mr. Smith, and an adjustable diaphragm eye-piece
by our Secretary, Mr. Slack: this was devised for the pur-
pose of limiting the extent of the luminous field, so as to suit
the shape of any object through which it was desirable to
transmit a strong light. By shutting out all extraneous or
useless light, and admitting that only which comes from the
object or part of the object under view, it is evident that we
can see delicate structures far more correctly and comfortably
than when surrounded with a large field of bright light that
almost blinds us. This diaphragm can be arranged so as to
enclose an object of irregular figure, and it will also serve as a
pointer, as the aperture may contain only that portion of the
object required for demonstration : the arrangement is neatly
fitted into an ordinary eye-piece, and in no way interferes
with its general use.

The most important improvement in the year relates to
new forms of binocular microscope, by means of which the

The President’s Address. 31

whole of the aperture of the object-glass may be obtained in
each eye with the highest powers. The first plan for this
purpose was brought before us by Messrs. Powell and
Lealand, the second by Mr. Wenham: neither of them is
intended to produce the peculiar stereoscopic effect resulting
from the combination of two views of the same subject taken
at different angles, but they have been devised to secure the
physical convenience of using both eyes at the same time.
To obtain an image by the whole aperture of the object-
glass in each tube, Messrs. Powell and Lealand interposed an
inclined disc of glass with parallel sides, so that one set of
rays from the object are transmitted direct through it, while
another portion of the light is reflected by the glass surface,
and again reflected into the second tube; or, in other words,
one portion of the light proceeds through the glass disc up one
tube, while another portion reflected from it, suffers a second re-
flection from a rectangular prism, and is directed up the other
tube. Considerable success is obtained by this method. Messrs.
Powell and Lealand are able to display by it both sets of lines
on the Pleurosigma rhomboides with only an infinitesimal
loss of definition, yet the difference in brightness between
the two images—one formed by transmitted, and the other
by reflected light—is considerable. Mr. Wenham, noticing
this great difference between the amount of light sent to
each eye, called attention to the fact that at an angle
of 45°, only 53°66 out of 1000 incident rays, or about
qsth part, could be reflected from a glass surface; and to
obtain a more equal illumination, he devised the highly
ingenious combination of prisms described and figured in
the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Society, as reported in the ‘ Quar-
terly Journal of Microscopic Science’ for July, 1866. Mr.
Wenham’s remarkable manipulative skill enabled him to
realise to a very important extent all the results he anticipated,
but our leading professional artists consider his plan difficult
of execution, and have not yet made the new combination of
prisms for sale. .

This is to be regretted, because there can be no doubt of
the merit of his invention, and it seems to offer the best mode
of ayoiding the bad effects of a too exclusive use of a single
eye, which, as is well known, tends to derange its power of
focussing consentaneously with the other eye. It is also
probable that in the prolonged examination of objects, better
vision would be obtained by two eyes than one, as the organ
of vision would be less fatigued.

Mr. Wenham in his paper embodied several plans in which
the reflection was obtained from two contact surfaces, by

32 The President's Address.

which means the luminosity of the reflected image was greatly
increased, and a more equal illumination transmitted to each
eye.

The arrangement exhibited and recommended by the
inventor does not differ materially in form and outline from
his well-known form of binocular prism, and fits into the
same space in the common double tube: the addition of
another triangular prism in contact with the first reflecting
surface allows direct rays to pass straight through into the
eye-piece, while the others are reflected obliquely as usual.
The plan is apparently simple ; but the objection raised against
it is, that the difficulties of construction are so great that the
inyentor only is capable of making them. It is to be hoped
that this assertion is unfounded.

A somewhat different plan has been carried out by Mr.
Ahrens, in which the principle of two combined reflections
is still made available as in Mr. Wenham’s; but as the di-
rect rays are thrown out of the axis, two new bodies would be
required for its application. The several plans for obtainmg
the whole aperture in each eye so quickly following upon
Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s arrangement, shows that an
effect not depending upon a solitary condition may still afford
ample scope for inventive ingenuity ; but it is candidly ad-
mitted that combining an object ‘with its own identically
reflected image will give no stereoscopic relief, and conse-
quently afford but little assistance in defining the projections
and depressions of organic structure; yet it remains to be
proved whether in carrying the now habitual use of two eyes
in observations with the low powers, on to the more trying
investigations with the highest, may not afford relief, and
enable some observers to continue the use of the instrument
beyond the time which sometimes compels them to lay aside
the microscope, from the distress and injury to sight ocea-
sioned by employing one eye only for too long a period
beyond its powers of endurance.

Mr. Piper has brought before us an economical and
conyenient cardboard cabinet for objects, and a mode of
making a slide with a movable cover for the preservation of
objects which it is desired to view, without the interposition
of a covering glass. It must be admitted that it is much
better, when pecareble to examine objects as nearly as
possible in their natural state, and these slides may assist in
the preservation of many objects without the flattening and
distortion incident to the usual mode of preparation.

Mr. How has brought before us a useful and economical
substitute for a mechanical stage, which he has attached to his

The President’s Address. 33

new cheap microscope. Its action is like that of the mag-
netic stage, but the requisite adhesion is obtained by suitably
placed springs, which oppose a convenient resistance, and do
not seem likely to get out of order.

A simple adapter has been devised by Mr. Richards; it
consists of a tube which passes through the stage of the
microscope, and is sufficiently long to reach within focussing
distance of the bottom of the stand, thus enabling an observer
to view objects on a level with the base of the instrument,
or to perform manipulations on the table.

A paper was read by the Rey. J. B. Reade, describing
some improvements on his former “ Kettledrum Illuminator.”
By superposing another somewhat smaller hemispherical
lens, he is thus enabled to extend the angular aperture of the
illuminating pencil to its utmost limits, and the large area of
the lenses gives a great quantity of light. By the addition of
ingeniously contriv ved shifting aper tures and stops of various
forms, he is enabled to throw light on the object from every
angle, either in one or in sey eral directions together, or to
entirely obscure the central rays for viewing objects with
dark-field illumination. This contrivance of Mr. Reade’s
affords a very slanting ulumination, and its want of achro-
maticity is stated by him not to interfere with the particular
purposes for which it was designed.

To obtain oblique illuminations in two directions for the
display of the Plewrosigma rhomboides, Mr. Newtou Tomkins
has employed two prisms and two sources of light, arranged
at right angles to each other, with excellent effect.

At our Iast meeting a new form of field microscope, con-
structed by Mr. Baker, was described by Mr. Newton Tom-
kins. This appears far to exceed, both in portability and
simplicity, anything that has yet been produced. ‘Two of
the legs are jomted from a position near the eye-piece of the
instrument. ‘The body itself virtually forms the greater part
of the length of the third leg, and is thus set at a very
suitable angle of observation. ‘The arrangement is remark-
able for extreme steadiness, and the stage and mirror, being
low, make the instrument very handy for manipulation.

The legs are removable for the purpose of containing tubes
and other apparatus. ‘These advantages, together with the
low price at which the microscope is manufactur ed, are good
reasons why its employment should become universal.

This instrument seems to be an improvement on one of
somewhat similar construction exhibited by Mr. Highley at
the last soirée of this Society.

The art of making photo-micrographs with very high

a

34 The President’s Address.

powers has been brought to great perfection by Captain
Edward Curtis, assistant- -surgeon U.S. Army. Dr. Maddox
published in the ‘Intellectual Observer’ for July a deserip-
tion, accompanied with illustrations copied from the original
of Captain Curtis’s photographs of the Pleurosigma angu-
latum, one being taken with an American objective of 1th
focal length, and another with a —th of Powell and Lealand,
the former being worked to an equal power with the latter
by means of an ‘achromatic concave amplifier used instead of
an eye-piece. In these photographs, hexagonal markings
appear with powers of 2344 and 2540 diameters, and nearly
circular markings with magnification of 19050 diameters.

In the August number of the ‘ Intellectual Observer,’ Dr.
Maddox published a description of the process employed,
from which it appeared that Captain Curtis used a Silber-
mann’s heliostat, and that the light was transmitted through
a cell containing a saturated solution of ammonia-sulphate of
copper, and thus rendered approximately monochromatic.

At one of our recent meetings, Mr. How exhibited, by
request of Dr. Maddox, a beautiful series of Captain Curtis’ s
photo-micrographs obtained with various powers.

It is impossible not to admire the truly scientific and
disinterested spirit which led Dr. Maddox to bring what
might be considered rival work before the English public.
But while assigning a very high degree of merit to the pro-
ductions of Captain Curtis, it is only just to remark that in
many cases, where his labours and those of Dr. Maddox haye
taken parallel lines, the high reputation of the latter has on
the whole been fully maintained.

In the application of the microscope to natural history
investigation during the past year, much worthy of notice
has been achieved, if no very remarkable discoveries have
been made. One paper, though properly belonging to an
earlier period, was only made known to the English student
by a translation which appeared in the ‘ Annals of Natural
History’ for March, 1866 ; and it is now alluded to on account
of the important lesson which it teaches of the necessity of
examining the delicate structures of soft creatures without
disturbing their normal condition. Professor Schjédte de-
monstrates in this paper that the Jouse (pediculus) has a
suctorial, and not a biting mouth, as was often stated. He
found that the common practice of flattening the organs of
this creature under glass gave rise to completely false
appearances, and that it was only by surveying the parts in
their natural condition that the true structure could be
ascertained.

—

The President’s Address. 35

One of our Fellows, Mr. Davis, has recently brought before
us some highly interesting and novel rotifiers, which he has
placed provisionally in the genus Aicistes ; and from the dis-
cussion that ensued when his paper was read, it is evident
that there is a very useful field for microscopic work in the
re-examination of the ciliary apparatus of rotifiers with the
best means of illumination, and with the highest powers that
can be brought to bear without necessitating a compression
of the animals to such an extent as would introduce appear-
ances as fallacious as those which Professor Schjédte has
dissipated in the case of the louse.

A paper, published in Germany,* by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn,
of Breslau, on a series of interesting forms of Infusoria which
appeared in a marine aquarium, ought to stimulate English
observers, who have excellent opportunities for adding to our
knowledge of the microscopic life of our coasts.

Fresh-water infusoria have been studied much more
attentively than their marine relations ; but Professor Cohn’s
paper shows how much may be done with a marine aquarium
only twelve inches high and twenty inches in diameter.

The question of illuminatory apparatus still exercises the
skill of inventors and constructors. Achromatic condensers of
various sizes and combinations are now before the public,
and attention has been called to the different effects which
result from various proportions in which the central and
peripheral rays bear to each other. Combinations of larger
lenses with longer focal lengths may be made to work with
the same angle of aperture as smaller lenses with shorter
focal lengths; and it is evident that the central rays are a
constant quantity, while the peripheral rays may be increased
by larger and suitably made combinations.

An achromatic condenser intended for research into un-
known structures should have one stop in which the peri-
pheral and central rays bear such proportion to each other as
to facilitate the penetration of the object-glasses, and at the
same time not to involve too great a sacrifice of surface
vision.

The quantities known as penetration and resolution stand
in necessary contrast to each other ; but as a due proportion
of angle of aperture to focal length secures a useful combina-
tion of the two properties in object-glasses, so a due propor-
tion of the slanting and direct rays brought to a focus by a
a condenser will help to preserve the balance required for
most natural history investigations.

* © Zeitschr. f. Wissensch. Zool.,’ Bd, xvi, Heft 1866.

36 ‘The President’s Address.

An achromatic condenser, made by Mr. Ross, with a large-
angled =3;ths, possesses in a high degree the properties alluded
to in these remarks; though Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s
large-angled condenser must be preferred when difficult
surface markings are to be displayed.

Professor Smith, of Kenyon College, U.S., whose name is
well known to English microscopists, is now in this country ;
and he has brought with him a series of remarkably beautiful
drawings of diatoms in a live state, illustrating new views of
their structure and mode of propagation. These it is hoped
he will be able to show at the next meeting of this Society,
and to add explanations of the curious and important results
at which he has arrived. English observers have, in too
many cases, confined their attention to dry and dead valves
of the diatoms ; but it may be expected that Professor Smith’s
researches will excite renewed attention to the living forms.

Professor Smith has likewise brought with him a binocular
eye-piece adapted for use with a single-tube microscope,
which is considered by those who have tried it in this country
to give much better results than had been previously obtained
by a similar construction. He has also devised a mechanical
finger, which is described in ‘ Silliman’s Journal,’ No. 123. In
this instrument a movable arm readily attached to the
microscope carries a bristle, which can be made to touch and
hift up any minute object seen under a moderate power on a
glass slide. As soon as the mechanical finger has caught the
object, it is raised, and a clean slide placed on the stage. The
bristle carrying its minute burden is then brought into focus,
and made to deposit it on the centre of the slide. With this
little instrument very minute objects can be sorted and
arranged with great ease.

Last year, illuminators for opaque objects under high
powers were brought before the Society by Messrs. Powell
and Lealand, and Richard Beck. They were both founded
upon plans originally tried by Professor Smith, who did not
like their performance, and he is now able to show us the
form of metallic reflector which he recommends, and which
affords better results. Mr. Smith, of Bow, has likewise de-
vised an arrangement slightly differing from that of Professor
Smith, which is well spoken of.

One pleasing feature of our times is the formation of
scientific societies in connection with great mercantile
houses. Foremost amongst these, in point of date, excellent
management, and important success, is the Old *Change
Microscopical Society, formed in the establishment of Messrs.
Leaf. Your President and Council, appreciating the service

The President’s Address. 37

to science that may be rendered by societies of this descrip-
tion, have had much pleasure in opening friendly relations
with the Old Change Society ; and they hope, when you are
better accommodated with rooms in which the instruments and
collections of this Society can be made accessible, that some
arrangements may be made by which a closer connection may
be established with the Old Change Society and with similar
bodies.

In inviting you to make renewed efforts for the successful
application of the microscope to the vast range of questions
which it is able to elucidate, I would remark that, as know-
ledge advances, the minute structure of every object belong-
ing to the animal, the vegetable, or the mineral world be-
comes of more importance to the student, because he possesses
additional means for its correct interpretation.

The bodily eye may see; but if the mental eye does not
perceive, no information is gained. Hence,while improvements
in the structure of the microscope and of its various appli-
ances should be zealously promoted, it is even of greater con-
sequence that the mind should be trained to understand the
appearances which optical art is able to reveal.

Without scientific knowledge, the eye may be pleased with
beauties and wonderful markings made visible by the aid of
the microscope; but who is there who would not wish that
the result of the devotion of his time, his money, and appli-
cation to the microscope should result in an increase of
knowledge ?

The most common cause of failure with the microscope
results from the want of sufficiently accurate and scientific
knowledge to ensure the correct appreciation and interpreta-
tion of what is seen. ‘There is no purpose of importance to
which the microscope can be directed without a demand
arising for several kinds of scientific knowledge.

The elements at least of physics and chemistry are indis-
pensable in many forms of microscopic research ; and if orga-
nised beings, or portions thereof, are the subjects of investi-
gation, physiology and its kindred sciences become equally
necessary. We cannot, therefore, effectually promote the use
of the microscope without encouraging the study of a large
group of physical sciences. I would particularly recommend
that young observers make themselves acquainted with what
has already been done, and acquire an elementary knowledge
of physics, that microscopic researches may be advanced by
their labours.

It fortunately happens that the acquisition of this know-
ledge, for the most part, does not need a master; the best

38 MclIntosu, on the Gregariniform Parasite of Borlasia.

training results from one’s own industry, one’s own researches,
leading the observer to be self-dependent, and capable of
forming an independent judgment. It is, however, a matter
of the profoundest regret that the important departments of
human knowledge to which I have alluded should be
neglected in the majority of our schools; and it is also a
matter of deep regret that, in proportion to the size of our
towns and the magnitude of our population, there should be
extremely few institutions in which the elements of scientific
instruction can be obtained, and that there should be an equal
scarcity of public libraries in which the best works can be
consulted.

In conclusion, it is gratifying to revert to the favorable
position occupied by the Society; and though at present the
Council are unable to announce an immediate success in their
efforts to obtain suitable apartments for the transaction of its
business, fresh applications on its behalf will be made to the
Government; and it is felt that, as Her Majesty has com-
manded the Society to be called Royal, and as His Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales has become its patron, its
claims to receive accommodation, similar to that accorded to
other Societies, are of the strongest kind.

On the GREGARINIFORM PARAsiIvTE of Borwasta.
By W. C. McIntosu, M.D., F.1.S.

(Communicated by G. Busx, F.R.S., F.R.MLS.)
(Read March 13th, 1867.)

K6LLIKER, in his contributions to the genus Gregarina,
L. Duf.,* described in 1848 a gregariniform parasite of his
Nemertes delineatus (Polia delineata, D. Ch.) under the name
of Gregarina Nemertis, which he had found in great numbers
in the general cavity of the annelid. At least, he explains in
a foot-note that his Darm is not the “ Riissel” of Quatre-
fages, but the Darm of Rathke; and since Quatrefages avers
that Rathke considered the so-called proboscis as an organ of
touch, it may be supposed the general cavity or cavities of
the worm are here implied. He describes the structure of
the parasite minutely, as having a spindle- or club-shaped
body, furnished at its somewhat broader end with a knob

* * Zeitschrift f. wiss. Zool.,’ Bd. i, pp. 1 and Q, taf. i, fig. 4.

McInrtosu, on the Gregariniform Parasite of Borlasia. 39

carried out into a blunt point, and the membranous and
structureless investment containing a number of minute
granules, a nucleus and nucleolus. . He adds that their
motion is not very vivacious, but he has seen them moving in
a straight line, and undergoing certain inflexions of the body.
According to the next author, Frey and Leuckart also
observed similar bodies in Nemertes. Max 8. Schultze* gives
a drawing and description of a very similar form which he
found in Planaria torva. He notes the greater translucency
of the ends of the parasite, and says that he has not observed
a copulation of two individuals to form a cyst and pseudo-
navicule, but figures some of the latter from a cyst which he
supposes to belong to this species; he makes no further
remarks on their habits. The late Dr. G. Johnston mentions
the occurrence of these bodies in his Borlasia olivacea, though
he misinterpreted their nature, for he describes them as
follows :+—* When pressing a portion of the body” (of the
Borlasia) “ between the plates of glass, I have occasionally
seen some bodies escape, of a curved fusiform shape, acute at
both ends, and marked towards one of them with a pale
circular spot. They have shown no signs of life, nor can I
say what they are, though it has occurred to me that they
may be embryo young, and that the worms may, in fact, be
ovo-viviparous.”’

Whilst examining the structure of some Nemertians at present
classed as different species of Borlasia, these curious grega-
riniform bodies have frequently occurred. In Borlasia octo-
culata and olivacea (which species, however, are not to be
distinguished anatomically), and in long examples trans-
mitted alive from South Devon by the kindness of Mr. Parfitt,
and called by him Lineus lactea, after Col. Montagu’s MSS.,
the ova and parasites were abundant, especially in the last
mentioned.

Towards the posterior end of the examples from Devon
these gregariniform bodies occurred in swarms, and they
were identical in all respects with those got in the Scotch speci-
mens of the red and green varieties (Pl. II, figs. 1 and 2). They
consist of elongated sacs filled with minutely granular con-
tents, and having each a single, large, pale nucleus, measuring
from = !,;th of an inch upwards, according to the bulk of the
specimen. The nucleus shows slight markings when the
parasite is first extruded, but a distinct nucleolus is not very
apparent. In perfect specimens the snout is pale, very

* «Beitriige zur Naturgeschichte der Turbellarien,’ p. 70, tab. vii, figs.
18—22.

+ Catalogue of British Worms,’ edited by Dr. Baird, Appendix, p. 290.

40 MclInvtosn, on the Gregariniform Parasite of Borlasia.

faintly granular (not quite diaphanous), bluntly rounded, and
marked by a slight swelling of the body at its base, from
which swelling the snout gently tapers. ‘here is no trace of
rough points or other means for adhering. Sometimes, as
when the investment had received injury, the surrounding
water seemed to pass inwards and separate at certain parts
the contained granules from the sheath, a fact which shows
a certain degree of cohesion in the contents in sit7/.

A favorable opportunity of examining the parasites was
afforded by the spontaneous rupture of some of the annelids.
‘They may then be seen projecting from the granular paren-
chyma throughout their entire length, with the exception of
the snout, by which they adhere. Indeed, this may often be
seen in the perfect annelid, as the waves of the fluid in the
general cavities bend hither and thither the free bodies of the
gregarine. After remaining for some time in the previously
mentioned position (under pressure), a few separate them-
selves, and move through the salt water with a slow gliding
motion like that of a diatome. On careful scrutiny the
contour of the snout in a moving specimen is observed now
and then to alter; this motion is not due to currents between
the glasses, and it moves through mucus in the same
manner. After remaining eight or ten hours in water (salt)
all motion ceases, and in some the body becomes altered,
assuming a club-shaped appearance, as seen in fig. 3. At the
same time the clear portion at the snout is almost obliterated
by encroachment of the granules.

Under pressure certain ova that accompany the gregarini-
form bodies are often extruded from the posterior end of the
two first-mentioned worms. In one example of the greenish
variety (Borlasia olivacea) they were emitted in August last
in the form of an elongated cordon, held together by a slightly
granular gelatinous matrix (fig. 6), the cord being rather
more than the breadth of two ova, and the latter loosely
scattered in the tissue. In the same specimen a mass of ova
of a rounded form, enveloped in the same hyaline granular
tissue, was subsequently discharged. These ova (fig. 5)
measured about ;1th of an inch in diameter, and each con-
tained an embryo that, for some time after the extrusion of
the egg, made very evident movements. They have two
coats, an inner, faintly (concentrically) striated under pres-
sure, and an external, without markings. The contained
embryo is finely granular, and has a large pale nucleus; its
various postures are seen in the outline (fig. 6). When an
ovum is ruptured between the glasses the contents spread
abroad as a vast number of dancing granules.

McInvosu, on the Gregariniform Parasite of Borlasia. 41

These ova are altogether different from the ova of the
Borlasia itself, which have large capsules, each with a neck
ending in a long slender microscopic thread, the contents
undeveloped, and otherwise totally dissimilar, and deposited
in a large mass of consistent gelatinous substance, as first de-
scribed by E. Désor.* It is curious, however, that the para-
sitic ova should be provided with a similar coating when
extruded under pressure, and this coating is seen connecting
the ova within the body of the worm towards its posterior
end. The appearance of the contained embryo is much in
favour of its identity with the gregariniform bodies, though
as yet I have not seen a perfect bond fide birth. ‘These ova,
too, occurred in greatest plenty in August, whereas both
Désor and I have found the ova of the Borlasia deposited
towards the end of January. Kolliker does not specially
mention the ova of his G. Nemertis. Max Schultze mentions
and figures what he calls entire spheroidal forms, which
differ from the ova above mentioned in being simple cells
without thickened coats, and may or may not be in relation
to the gregariniform bodies.

The small bodies shown in fig. 4 were extruded with the
parasitic gregarine in great numbers ; they were generally of
an ovoid or pyriform shape, a few being circular, and con-
tained many clear granules. The diameter of these structures
was about —,!,,th of an inch, or rather more, whereas a speci-
men of a stray gregariniform parasite from the same annelid
measured -1,th of an inch; therefore they do not seem to be
cysts formed after the conjunction of two gregarine.

Occasionally one of the parasites is observed in a degene-
rating condition, forming an ovoid body in which the bent and
atrophied gregarina is scarcely distinguishable.

The large number of these gregariniform bodies, in some
examples of the Borlasie, must give them a position of im-
portance—whether beneficial or prejudicial—in the economy
of the annelids.

* ‘Miiller’s Archiv’ for 1848, p. 511, pl. xviii, &c. I have not yet seen
the American version.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY.

On the CHANGES which accompany the MetamMorpuosis of the
TADPOLE, in reference especially to the RESPIRATORY and
Saneuirerous Systems. By W. U. Wuirney, Esq.,

M.R.C.S., &c. &c.
(Read March 13th, 1867.)

In a paper read on the 13th June, 1861, I had the honour
of submitting to the members of this Society a description of
the general sanguiferous system in the tadpole, the tracing of
which was rendered more complete and satisfactory with the
aid of the binocular microscope, at that time a recent inven-
tion. ;

Those investigations, and the subsequent ones, were made
with the admirable microscope possessed by my friend Mr.
Fitzgerald, and to his manipulative skill, not less than to the
goodness of his instrument, I am largely indebted.

A more extended inquiry has had the advantage (1) of
correcting an anatomical and physiological error into which I
had unconsciously fallen, the cause, nature, and correction of
which were explained in a communication to ‘ The Intellec-
tual Observer’ for May, 1863; and (2) of directing investi-
gation to the anatomical changes, in reference especially to
the respiratory and sanguiferous systems, which accompany
the metamorphosis of the tadpole from the form and functions
of the fish to the shape and habitudes of the reptile.

The fact that one creature possesses not less than three sets
of respiratory organs, two of which are successively developed
and then annihilated, could not fail to excite curiosity,
though the difficulty of tracing the steps of the process by
which these transitionary changes are accomplished appears to
have been generally felt. The writer of the article, “ Batra-
chia,” in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ says, “‘ the change
or conversion from external to internal gills is not satisfacto-
rily described by physiological observers.” And this state-

VOL. XV. €

44 Wuutney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole.

ment, it must be confessed, appears to be applicable even to
that accomplished and excellent authority, the late Dr.
Thomas Williams, author of the article ‘ Respiration”? in
the supplementary volume of ‘ ‘Todd’s Encyclopedia.’

The tadpole furnishes a remarkably interesting example of
gill structure and function, because the tadpole gills 7m tran-
situ exemplify in turn the simplest and the most elaborate
forms which these organs of aquatic respiration eyer present.
As a general definition, a gill may be said to be a prolonga-
tion of surface externally, supplied with blood-yessels, and
adapted by its form and position for exposure to an aqueous
medium. On the other hand, a dung is a prolongation of
surface internally, forming a pulmonary cayity or sac adapted
to recelve air.

The tadpole is furnished with ¢wo sets of gills, the external
and the internal, and these are intimately connected. ‘The
vascular anatomy of this connection, upon which depends
the change whereby the respiratory function is transferred
from the outer to the inner gills, consequent on the atrophy
of the former, simultaneously with the development of the
latter organs, does not, as I have said, appear to be satisfac-
torily explained.

The first indication of the external gills is seen in the stage of
development represented in fig. 1, Pl. 11, in which a slight pro-
minence, seen just at the junction of the head with the body,
denotes the point at which the developing gill will protrude.
In a few hours more the prominence grows into a tubercular
like swelling, and we may even now begin to trace the motion
of the blood in these incipient gills. M. Milne Edwards, in
his large work on ‘ Physiology,’ vol. ii, p. 206, quoting
Rusconi, says that it is only after birth that the blood begins
to circulate in the outer gills. But the writer has seen
examples in which these gills were protruded, with a visible
vigorous circulation in them, while the tadpole was still
within the capsule of the egg. When hatched, the form of
the gill is still more conspicuous, and in twenty-four hours
after birth (fig. 2) the comb shape of the organ and the
circulation within it are clearly exhibited. ‘The outer or
rather outermost skin at this period is a thin but opaque
lamellated covering, which is gradually removed, and partly
by the mechanical action of the water, which seems to wash
away the thin lamelle of scurf-like epidermic scales from the
true skin beneath. ‘Thus are revealed successively the trans-
parent coat of the eye, of the external gills, and, by degrees,
of the rest of the body. And thus the internal organs become
hourly more perceptible, until in the course of two or three

Wuitney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole. 45.

weeks from date of birth, the entire skin, freed from those °
pigmentary scales, attains its highest degree of transparency,
and heart, and gills, liver, intestines, and blood-vessels, are
seen in all the brilliancy of life and motion, and with as much
clearness as if we were looking at them through an integu-
ment of glass.

To return to the external gills. On the fourth or fifth day
after birth, and after the young tadpole is freed from the
remnants of the gelatinous mass he has been feeding on, and
has begun to live on vegetable diet, the external gills reach
their highest point of development. In this condition they
appear to the naked eye (fig. 3) on either side asa pair of
depending, slender filaments, delicately frmged. The length
of the filaments differs in different instances. The example
here figured was drawn from one of a batch of tadpoles, all
remarkable for the length to which these filaments had
grown, and equally remarkable, therefore, for their grace and
beauty. On examining with the microscope we find these
gills projected through an opening or fissure, situated on
either side below the head, corresponding to the operculum in
fishes. With the aid of the glass we resolve each filament,
with its fringe, into a transparent, comb-shaped case (fig. 4, a),
containing within it an arterial and venous system, to be
presently described. The fringe (to follow our simile) corre-
sponds exactly with the teeth of a comb, and, like them,
consists of processes (about six), all proceeding at right
angles from one side of the filament or back of the comb.
The filaments on either side are traceable inwards through
the fissure, where they become immediately and closely con-
nected with a ded or cluster of small digital-like processes,
some of which may be seen (at an early stage) just projecting
through the operculum fissure. These beds or tufts are, in
fact, the internal gills in their incipient, undeveloped state
(fig. 4, 5).

The next perceptible change is a shortening of the
filaments, with a corresponding retraction of the processes,
which appear to be drawing inwards through the operculum.
At the end of the first week, under favorable circumstances
of temperature and light, the external gills are found to be
fast disappearing, while just prior to their complete removal
we may note a change in the form of the tadpole. ‘The con-
traction below the head (fig. 3) is obliterated by a filling out
in this direction, so that the tapering shape is exchanged for
a square or rather rounded form (fig. 5). At this stage
the body of the tadpole is daily becoming more transparent ;
but not until the external gills have nearly disappeared is the

46 Wuuirney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole.

' skin sufficiently clear of pigment to afford us a glimpse of the
heart and other internal organs. The motion of the heart is
detectable, but its shape, at present, is indefinite, and the
blood-vessels are imperceptible. Hence the difficulty of
tracing the vascular connection of the outer gills with the
heart and inner gills ; for upon this ‘‘ the change or conver-
sion from external to internal gills” evidently depends.
Hitherto I have not succeeded in obtaining, either by
artifice or chance, a tadpole at this stage sufficiently trans-
parent to exhibit to the eye this vascular connection.
Nevertheless, by a demonstration of the vascular system of
the internal gills, effected at a little later period, we may
obtain, I think, a satisfactory key to the comprehension of
that which exists, at the stage we are speaking of, in refer-
ence to the owfer gills. But the reader will presently judge
for himself of the merits of this conclusion. The righ/ external
gill shortens, is retracted, and disappears, sooner than the
left one. The gill is not simply retracted within the fissure,
but there is an absolute shrinking, withering, and ultimate
absorption of its substance. When this right gijl has shrunk
within the fissure the latter is closed completely, so that the
gill chamber on that side is shut up. The remnant of the
gill, tucked in, as it were, is still perceptible, as represented
in fig.6,c. In a few days this remnant is reduced to a bit of
shapeless substance, as seen in fig. 12, Pl. IV, d, which, ina few
hours, is entirely removed. On the left side the process of re-
traction is slower. A small protrusion of deft gill may be seen
for a day or two after the mght one has disappeared; and
when the left is absorbed the operculum on that side is found
to remain open as the aperture of exit for the water that
bathes the internal gills. The permanent form of the oper-
culum is seen in fig. 6. I have alluded to the changes of
form which the body of the tadpole undergoes during the
period in which the external gills shrink and disappear
(figs. 3&5). This change accompanies the first stage of
development in the second set of respiratory organs—the
internal gills. Fig. 4 represents the tufts of digit-like pro-
cesses composing the inner gills in their first stage, while the
outer gills are yet in full development. This figure is com-
posed chiefly from some dissected preparations made by my
friend Mr. Archer, after immersing the tadpole for a few days
in a weak solution of chromic acid. In this very early stage
the opacity of the skin renders it impossible to see the inci-
pient tufts composing the inner gills while the tadpole is alive;
hence the value of Mr. Archer’s preparations as exhibiting
the form and position of the tufts at this period; but they

Wuirtney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole. 47

cannot, of course, exhibit their vascularity. Fig. 6 represents
them with the digit-like processes larger and longer, while
the outer gills are shrinking and shortening.

Soon, however, we are able to find some specimens trans-
parent enough to show these tufts in what may be considered
their second stage of development. Fig. 12, Pl. IV, represents
the inéernal gill, with the circulation in the tufts, as seen at this
more advanced period. Each digit contains a single blood-
vessel, which travels to the extremity on one side, loops at
the end, and returns along the other. With a half-inch glass
the blood-current in these loops is distinctly visible.

Tadpoles well fed and well supplied with fresh water,
plenty of light and air, and kept in a warm temperature, will
at this stage grow rapidly, while the skin now attains its
highest degree of transparency. At this middle period of the
metamorphosis the :n¢ernal gills undergo a further develop-
ment, enlarge, and present, under the microscope, one of the
most brilliant and dazzling specimens of living vascularity
that can be seen. The change from the second stage of de-
velopment (fig. 12) to this, the perfect condition of the gill, is
highly interesting and beautiful. To trace and define dis-
tinctly the anatomical] nature of this change is not easy ; but,
when discovered, our admiration is challenged by the beauti-
ful simplicity of the means employed.

Each cluster or tuft of the digit-like processes, seen in the
incipient condition of the inner gills (fig. 4) is divisible into
three double rows. In the second stage of their development
the three double rows are not only clearly apart, but have
between them red lines (fig. 12) indicating the trunks of blood-
vessels, which in this stage are in process of enlargement.
But on examining one of these gills a few days later, when
it has reached the third or period of complete development,
the eye is dazzled with a brilliant but confused display of
dancing globules; and a maze of rapid crimson currents,
running in various directions, is seen in place of the cluster
or tuft of single loops of blood-vessel perceptible a day or two
before. It is clear that the gill has undergone a remarkable
change ; and if we get rid of the dazzle and confusion caused
by the maze of currents, by examining a dead tadpole (having
first removed the skin that covers the gill—or what is better
as a preliminary, having immersed the tadpole in chromic
acid according to Mr. Archer’s plan), we shall find that the
three double rows of digit-like processes with their simple
loops of blood-vessel, have become elaborated into three rows
of crests, each with a cauliflower-looking surface, as seen in
fig 7,e. Thus we arrive at the form, but to understand the

48 Wuuirney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole.

vascular system of the perfect gill we must return to the
living subject.

The brilliant but perplexing maze of blood-vessels which
the fully developed gill presents in the ordinary mode of
looking at it is, in fact, the vascular plexus of which the
crests are mainly composed. If we select a very transparent
pe and examine a portion of the crest surface with a
2 or + inch power, we find the blood-vessels assuming such
shapes as are represented in fig. 8. These shapes afford an
explanation of the change from tufts to crests, as far, at least,
as the vessels are concerned; for it is easy to perceive that
when the blood and the impetus of the heart and arteries
are withdrawn from the external gills (by their destruction),
and expended upon the looped vessels of the digit-like pro-
cesses, how each simple loop becomes extended into the
tortuous and plexiform shapes observed, thus largely multi-
plying the vascular surface exposed to the aerating medium.
We have now to examine the course and connections of the
large trunks which convey the blood to and from the internal
gills.

It was not until it occurred to me to remove in the living
subject the integument in front of the. gill that I succeeded
in obtaining a clear view of its vascular system. I had pre-
viously examined a large number of very transparent tadpoles
by simply looking through the skin, yet found it impossible
to obtain a clear and satisfactory view of the blood-vessels of
-the inner gill. But by removing the integument in front of
the gill, so “that the latter may be laid bare whale the circula-
tion is still vigorous, a most ‘brilliant and beautiful sight is
presented, and the observer is astonished that the little film
he has removed (albeit apparently quite transparent) effec-
tually obscured the simple and beautiful piece of mechanism
now before him. ‘This operation can be performed without
pain. One drop of chloroform effectually destroys the sensi-
bility of the tadpole without damaging the force of the circu-
lation. I have seen the latter continue, with very little re-
duction of force, for two hours, under the influence of one
drop of chloroform. Should any sign of sensibility return, it
may be immediately quenched by touching the body with a
camel-hair brush dipped in the chloroform.

This dissection, to be successful, is a delicate and difficult
affair. Difficult, because, on the one hand, by incising ever
so little too deep, some of the vessels are wounded, and the
consequent hemorrhage empties the arteries and obscures
them ; while, on the other, if we do not remove enough of
the fine tissue between the skin and the vascular plexus, we

Wuirtney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole. 49

cannot obtain a clear view of the latter. With much care
and pains and many trials, I cannot boast of having accom-
plished this task perfectly more than three or four times. On
these fortunate occasions, however, the vessels were com-
pletely unveiled and uninjured, and the entire plan of their
distribution and connections clearly displayed.

Each internal gill (by which expression I mean the entire
branchial organ on either side) may be said to consist of car-
tilaginous.arches (fig. 13, Pl. IV, a), witha piece of additional
framework (4) of a solidly triangular form, stretching beyond
the arches, and composed of semitransparent, gelatinous look-
ing material. ‘These parts, forming the framework of the
organ, support upon their upper surface the three rows of
crests with their vascular network, and the main arterial and
venous trunks which lie parallel with and between them.
The vascular system displayed by laying bare (in the manner
already mentioned) the internal gill, is seen in fig. 13. The
three systemic arteries (A, B, C) arising, right and left, from
the truncus arteriosus, enter each gill on its cardiac side, and
then follow the course of the crests, lying in close proximity
to them. ‘The upper of these branchial arteries runs along
on the outside of the upper crest; and if the operator has
succeeded in clearly exposing the vessel without injury, he
will detect a branch (c¢) leaving the trunk and passing into
the network of the crest, whence a returning vessel (d) may
be traced carrying back the blood across the branchial
artery, and conveying it to another vessel lying close to and
taking the same course as the artery itself. Carrying the eye
along the latter vessel we find, at a short distance from the
first of these crest branches, a second (e), which leaves the
main trunk and enters the crest, whence a corresponding re-
turning vessel conveys the blood across the arterial trunk
into the vessel lying beside it, as in the former instance. A
succession of these branches (each taking a similar course)
may be traced from one end of the crest to the other. But it
is now to be observed that the trunk from which these arte-
rial branches spring diminishes in size as it proceeds in its
course (like the gill artery in fishes), while the vessel run-
ning parallel to it and receiving the stream as it returns from
the crest enlarges in the same degree.* ‘Thus, the artery or
afferent vessel which brings the blood ¢o the gill is large at
its entrance, but gradually diminishes and dwindles to a

* The latter corresponds to the branchial veiz in the gill of the fish; only
the arrangement of vessels differs in the two cases, inasmuch as in the
tadpole the arterial and venous currents flow in the same direction, while in
the fish they travel in oppostte directions.

50 Wuutney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole.

point at the opposite end of the crest; while the venous or
efferent vessel, beginning as a mere ‘radical, gradually en-
larges, and thus becomes the trunk that conveys the blood
out of the gill to its ultimate destination. Calling this vessel
the upper branchial vein as long as it remains in contact with
the gill, we subsequently change its name when it leaves the
gill and winds upwards for distribution to the head, and then
designate it the cephalic artery. The middle branchial artery
and vein proceed in like manner in connection with the
middle crest, and the lower artery and vein in connection,
with the lower crest. The middle and lower venous trunks,
having reached the extremity of the crests, curve downwards
and inwards, and then leave the gill. The former trunk,
converging towards the spine, meets its fellow, and with it
forms the ventral aorta. ‘The latter gives origm to the pul-
monary artery, and supplies also the integuments of the
neck.

We must now return to the external gills, for the sake of
offering an explanation of the vascular change which accom-
panies “(and apparently causes) the shrinking and ultimate
disappearance of those organs, while, concurrently, we observe
the progressive development of the internal gills.

It is evident that the three arterial trunks arising from the
heart convey the blood to the outer gills for aeration during
the period that these organs are in full development and play.
It is evident, also, that during the same period the incipient
inner gills exist in the form of small tufts (fig. 4), which at a
little later period may, as I have said, be seen with the blood
traversing the single loop of blood-vessels contained in each of
the digit-like processes composing these tufts (fig. 12). Asin
the tadpole we can distinctly see the pulmonary vessels in the
incipient lung of the future frog, so we cannot doubt that
this loop of blood-vessel (however small) exists in the gill tuft
in the first stage (fig. 4). I have already shown how the
loop becomes the crest, and how the latter is conneeted with
the large branchial vessels (page 49). For the same reason
that I infer the existence of the loop in the first stage of the
tuft, I infer also the existence of its vascular connection with
the main trunks er branchial vessels which are then con-
yeying the blood to the outer gills; and as, at a later period,
the blood-vessel loop is visible, so, at a little later period, the
vascular connection with the main trunks is also demon-
strable. Hence, if it be granted that the visible vascular
connection is but the enlarged development of the incipient
state, I think we may understand “the change or conver-
sion from external to internal gills” with the aid of the

Wuirney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole. 51

accompanying fig. 14. I would first observe that in the
post-mortem preparation (fig. 4) there is an obvious conti-
nuity of structure between the bed of inner tufts and the
outer gills. This observation prepares us for understanding
the vascular connection between them. In accordance, then,
with what soon becomes visible, we feel assured that the
three systemic vessels A, B, C, in their course to the outer
gills, run at the base of the three double rows into which the
inner gill-tufts are divided (fig. 14, in which a few tufts
in one row only are represented, for the sake of simplifi-
cation). As soon as the arteries arrive at the projecting
external gills, they become visible, are seen to run along on
one side, and supply each division of the gill with a branch,
‘which, having reached the extremity, forms a loop, by which
the blood returns on the opposite side by a corresponding
vein that travels parallel to the artery. With a $rds power
several small communicating branches may be seen between
the vessels, perhaps as a proviso in case of accidental obstruc-
tion to the main current. Now, it follows from the previous
considerations that the branchial arteries, in their course to
the external gills, become connected with the gill-tufts of the
inner gills in the following manner :—Incipient twigs, given
off from the main trunk, and represented by the dotted lines
e,f, g, h, pass into the adjoining digit-like processes, each
forming a loop by which the current returns, and then, leay-
ing the digit, passes into the incipient upper branchial vein
(1), which is thus filled by the aggregate of these tributaries.
By close observation you may detect this vein in its early
stage (before the disappearance of the outer gills) as a thin red
line, taking the curved sweep of the future large vessel (the
cephalic artery) into which it becomes developed. In lke
manner the middle and lower branchial arteries must be con-
nected with the second and third double rows of tufts, whence
the blood returns to fill the incipient trunks which, at a later
stage, supply the remainder of the body.

Admitting this to be the correct explanation of the vascular
connection between the incipient inner tufts and the full-
grown outer gills, it follows that in proportion as the tufts
develope, and derive to themselves a correspondingly larger
quantity of blood, so the outer gills, being in the same degree
deprived of the latter, will have their function superseded,
while their delicate and feeble structure shrinks, and ulti-
mately disappears under the gradual abstraction of the vital
fluid. We may note the change of form with increase of
size in the tadpole’s body that accompany the simultaneous

2 Watrney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole.

or

absorption of the ewternal with the commencing development
of the internal gills (fig. 5).

With the disappearance of the outer gills, those vascular
changes by which the inner gills attain their full growth and
maturity are rapidly developed. ‘These we have already
traced. It now remains to follow, as closely as we can, the
vascular arrangements by which the ier gills, having
accomplished their function as the tadpole’s second set of
respiratory organs, are, in their turn, to be removed and
succeeded by the true reptilian organs of respiratioa—the
lungs of the frog.

Each branchial artery, on entering the inner gill, communi-
cates directly with the corresponding branchial vein by a very
fine twig, which is, in fact, the radical of the venous trunk
(fig. 13, f). This trunk, it must be remembered, gradually
enlarges as it receives into it the newly aerated blood conveyed
from the crests by the cross. branches. Now, if we examine
the gill in a very transparent subject at the period when the
fore legs are about to protrude, or make a successful removal
of the integument covering it, we shall find that the fine
connecting twig has, in each instance, enlarged to a channel of
the same calibre as the artery itself (fig. 9, Pl. II). Hence, in
the case of the upper pair of branchial vessels, more blood
begins to flow continuously from the gill artery into the efferent,
or cephalic trunk, without traversing the gill-crests ; in the
second pair, into the trunk which forms the aorta; while in
the third a large part of the current passes at once into the
developing pulmonary artery and growing lungs. All this
time the blood is, of course, exposed to the aerating influence
of the water with which the gill is always bathed, but cannot
be so thoroughly aerated as when (in the early stage of tad-
pole life) the entire current traverses the fine plexus of which
the crests are composed. Thus, the blood begins to assume
the mixed quality which distinguishes creatures of the rep-
tilian type.

At a yet later period (when the legs are protruded) we find
an obvious diminution in the size of the inner gills, for the
proportion of blood which then flows continuously into the
systemic circulation and pulmonary arteries hourly increases,
while that which yet finds its way into the crests diminishes
in the same ratio. With the advent of the extremities the
creature instinctively seeks to breathe in air rather than in
water ; and so little of real gill function remains that, if tad-
poles at this stage are confined in a bottle of water, they are
very apt to die from drowning unless a piece of cork be

Wuirney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole. 53

placed on the water, whereon the tadpole can mount and
breathe the air.

Curious and beautiful is the final stage of the metamor-
phosis, when the waning tadpole and incipient frog coexist,
and are actually seen together in the same subject (fig. 10).
The dwindling gills and the shrinking tail—the last remnants
of the tadpole form—are yet seen, in company with the
coloured, spotted skin, the newly formed and slender legs,
the flat head, the wide and toothless mouth, and the crouching
attitude of the ali but perfect reptile.*

By the process now described, the three systemic arteries
(fig. 13) become continuous with the corresponding efferent
trunks that convey the blood for distribution through the
body, while, simultaneously, the vital fluid is being abstracted
from the special trunks belonging to the gill and its vascular
crests. These, with the gill structure connected with and
dependent upon them, being thus deprived of their blood,
shrink, become absorbed, and so disappear. Such appears
to be the beautifully simple mechanism by which the transi-
tion in the type of the respiratory function from fish to
reptile is accomplished.

We have now to consider the third set of respiratory
organs, the /ungs. When examined in the young, newly
formed frog, they are found to have arrived at organic and
functional completeness; but they coevist Gn an incipient
form) with the gills of the tadpole, and pass through their
gradations of development simultaneously with those phases
of maturity, decline, and decay, in the gill organs, which have
been described. If we take a tadpole a few days old, when
the outer gills are fully developed, and immerse it for another
few days in a weak solution of chromic acid (Mr. Archer’s
method), we may, by placing the tadpole under a dissecting
microscope, and with the aid of a needle and camel-hair
brush, then remove the integuments, disclose the tufts of the
inner gills, and by carefully getting rid of a prominent roll of
intestine that occupies the upper part of the abdomen, succeed
in revealing the incipient lungs. ‘These are situated behind
the gut and close to the spine, and appear as a pair of minute
tubular sacs, united at their upper and open extremities
(fig. 4). It is much easier to describe than to perform this
little operation; but that it has been achieved is amply proved

* With the loss of the izzer gill, the teeth and fringed lip possessed by the
tadpole also disappear, because the /abial artery, which supplies these organs
with blood, has its origin in the gill, and proceeds directly upwards to the
mouth. Simultaneously, therefore, with the loss of the gill, the oral ap-
pendages proper to thie fish are also removed.

54 Waurrney, on the Metamorphosis of the Tadpole.

by the several very interesting preparations which my friend
Mr. Archer has successfully made. The chromic acid renders
the tissues friable, so that they can be readily peeled away.

During the period of the tadpole’s transparency a part of
each lung is usually perceptible, and may be seen, on looking
through either side of the abdomen, as a transparent, saceu-
lated bladder of air. On one occasion I met with an example
in which the tadpole exhibited the lungs, through the back,
in a very beautiful and unusual manner. ‘They were lying
side by side, close to the spine, and, to the naked eye, looked
like a double row of brilliant globules, glistening like quick-
silver. (Fig. 11 represents them as seen under the micro-
scope.) This singular display was due to a temporary shifting
of the bowels, w hereby the lungs were distinctly brought
into view; for on looking at the same tadpole on the follow-
ing day I found that the bowels had changed their position,
and then the lungs were concealed. Fig. 7 represents the
lungs in a tadpole at about the middle period of the meta-
morphosis, showing the progressive development and elonga-
tion of the tubular sacs.

When the last vestiges of the tadpole form—the remnants
of the tail and gills—have disappeared, the lungs, though
small and extremely delicate, are found to present a perfect
miniature of what they afterwards become in the full-grown
frog. Of all the sights to be seen in tracing the metamor-
phosis of the tadpole, the most splendid is that of the crimson
gill with its vital current in vigorous circulation. Next to
that, as something beautiful to see, is the appearance presented
by the dung of the young frog with its circulation in vigorous
movement. ‘To obtain this sight the lungs should be full of
air, and the heart vigorously beating. ‘These conditions,
however, are seldom easy to attain. Put the young frog into
a wine-glass, and drop upon him a single drop of chloroform.
This suffices to extinguish sensibility. ‘Then lay him on the
back on a piece of cork, and fix him with small pins passed
through the web of each foot. Remove the skin of the
abdomen with a fine pair of sharp scissors and forceps. Turn
aside the intestines from the deft side, and thus expose the left
lung, which may now be seen as a glistening, transparent
sac, containing air-bubbles. With a fine camel-hair pencil
the lung may now be turned out, so as to enable the operator
to see a large part of it by transmitted light. Unpin the frog
and place him on a slip of glass, and then transmit the light
through the everted portion of lung. Remember that the
lung is very elastic, and is emptied and collapsed by very
slight pressure. T here fore, to sueceed with this experiment,

Ray Lanxester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis. 55

the lung should be touched as little as possible, and in the
lightest manner, with the brush. If the heart is acting feeb/y
you will see simply a transparent sac, shaped according to
the quantity of air-bubbles it may happen to contain, but void
of red vascularity and circulation, as in the /eft lung of fig. 15.
But should the operator succeed in getting the lung well
placed, full of air, and have the heart still beating vigorously,
he will see before him a brilliant picture of crimson network,
alive with the dance and dazzle of blood-globules, in rapid
chase of one another through this delicate and living lacework
which lines the chamber of the lung (fig. 15). The trunk
of the pulmonary artery is conspicuous on the one side as the
channel which brings the blood to the lung, and the ramifi-
cations of which constitute the fine network aforesaid, while
the pulmonary vein on the other side returns the aerated
blood te the heart. ‘The internal surface of the lung becomes,
in the older frog, developed into numerous shallow cells, the
boundaries of which correspond to the polygonal facets pre-
sented by the external surface.

Fig. 16 is the drawing of a dissection made to exhibit the
trunks of the systemic arteries in the frog, with the origins of
the pulmonary arteries and the course of the pulmonary
veins, in the full-grown reptile.

Permit me, in conclusion, to thank you for the gracious
and liberal manner in which you have enabled me to present
the results of my humble labours on this interesting subject
to the members of this society.

On the Structure of the Tooru in ZipHius SOWERBIENSIS
(MicrorTerRon SowErBiENsIs, Eschricht), and on some
Foss, Ceracean TrretH. By E. Ray LANnxKESTER,
F.R.M.S. of Christ Church, Oxford.

(Read May 8th, 1867.)

Ir it be true that “ differences in structural arrangement
which exist without our being able to see why they should
exist possess a morphological value which rises in direct
proportion with their physiological obscurity,”* the teeth of
the Ziphioid Cetaceans have a very considerable claim en the
interest and attention of zoologists. The “reason why” a
Cetacean should have two powerful teeth in its lower jaw—
apparently incapable of biting, or curved over the top of its

* Professor Rolleston, ‘Trans. Zool. Society,’ vol. v. part 4, p. Sil

56 Ray Lanxester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis.

snout so as to prevent the opening of the mouth beyond a
very limited extent, as in Ziphius (Dolichodon) Layardi,
lately described by Dr. Gray, is certainly at present ob-
scure ; still more difficult is the explanation if, as it appears,
the males only have these massive teeth. That these teeth,
or rather one tooth of a certain Ziphioid, and probably also
those of others, present marked differences in structural
arrangement, distinguishing them from the teeth of other
Cetacea, I hope to show in the following pages.

As far as I have been able to ascertain from the writings
of Van Beneden, Gervais, Duvernoy, and others, no descrip-
tion has yet been published of the dental tissues of any one
of the Rhynchoceti, excepting a brief notice of the small
pointed denticles in a species of Hyperoddon, given by Pro-
fessor Owen* in his ‘ Odontography,’ from which it does not
appear that there is any close analogy between Hyperoddon
and Ziphius (Micropteron) in regard to the teeth; and, in-
deed, they have a very different position and time of appear-
ance in the two forms.

The synonymy of genera and species in the Rhynchoceti
is likely to cause some confusion, and I shall therefore make
use of the generic and specific terms approved by Professor
Huxley in a very concise memoir on a fossil Ziphius, pub-
lished in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,’
1864, p. 395.

The lower jaw and the larger part of the skull of the male
specimen of the rare species Ziphius (Micropteron) Sowerbi-
ensis, which was thrown ashore in Elginshire in 1800, and
was engraved in Sowerby’s ‘ British Miscellany,’ 1806, p. 1,
pl. i, is preserved in the Oxford University Museum, having
been purchased by Dr. Buckland at the sale of Sowerby’s
museum, and presented by him to the Anatomical Museum
of Christchurch, whence it was transferred with the rest of
the collection to the University building.

I have been allowed to figure and describe the microscopic
and other sections which have been made from the right lower-
jaw tooth of this specimen, and Mr. Tuffen West has also had
one of three sections entrusted to him for comparison with my
drawings whilst engaged in the work of engraving them.

A history of the Oxford specimen, as also a full biblio-
graphy of the various memoirs which have appeared upon
the anatomical and zoological relations of this animal, will be
found in the ‘ British Museum Catalogue of Seals and
Whales,’ 1866, p. 350.

* See also Vrolik’s figures in his Memoir on Hyperoddon. Natural His-
tory Society, Haarlem, 1848.

Ray Lankester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis. 57

The lower jaw exhibits two large teeth very deeply im-
planted in their sockets, of a curved or somewhat claw-like
form, very much compressed laterally, and fixed so that the
curve is directed backwards instead of forwards, as is usual
with teeth having the general form of canines.

External characters of the tooth—In Pl. V, fig. 1, one of
the teeth is drawn of the natural size; the line a, 6, indicates
the direction of the horizontal line of the alveolus when the
tooth is in its natural position in the jaw. The lateral com-
pression of the tooth is seen from fig. 3, which is half of a
transverse section taken at a. The whole exterior surface,
with the exception of the small conical crown, is very rough,
irregular, and knotted, having a somewhat resinous lustre
and a yellowish colour. ‘This external tissue is, as in other
teeth, “cement.” The small conical crown which seems to
rise out of the cement like a nipple is in one of the two
teeth very sharply marked off from the rest of the tooth by
the presence of a crack between it and the yellow nodu-
liferous cement. Its surface has the peculiar vitreous lustre
characteristic of dentine, and is white. That tooth which has
not been cut is heavy for its size, and appears to be solid and
compact throughout.*

Longitudinal section of the tooth—In Pl. V, fig. 2, the
longitudinal section of the tooth is drawn to a certain extent
diagrammatically, the small remnant of a pulp-cavity being
introduced from the opposite half of the section. The true
nature of the various layers exhibited was ascertained by
microscopical examination of three cross sections cut at about
the point a, and one sixth of an inch lower (PI. V, fig. 1,
and Pl. V, fig. 3) from the other half of the specimen.

The great thickness of cement is very remarkable (c),
completely enveloping the small cap of true dentine (d),
with the exception of its projecting point. The cement
forms the outer wall of all the rest of the tooth, being con-
tinued round the calcified pulp-cavity, into which it projects
very largely in a curiously irregular manner in some places.

The small cap of dentine (d) is very clearly marked off
from the rest of the tooth in the section by the bright
vitreous lustre it has acquired in the polishing to which the
specimen has been submitted. This small conical cap, hardly
more than half an inch in length, appears to be all the true
dentine developed in the tooth, with the exception of a very
thin layer extending between the cement and calcified pulp
about halfway down the tooth, which is, however, for the
most part composed of a structureless ‘‘ globular ”’ mass of

* Sowerby in his description characterises the tecth as “ boney.”

58 Ray Lanxester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis.

calcareous material. The exceedingly small development of
dentine is one of the most noticeable peculiarities presented
by this tooth. The pulp-cavity is throughout occupied by a
very dense vascular form of osteo-dentine, excepting a small
elongated space which is left within the terminal cap of true
dentine. This position for a residual pulp-cavity is, I be-
lieve, quite unprecedented ; in other Cetacean teeth, in the
tusks of Jrichechus and Sirenia, which have their pulp-
cavity to a large extent occupied by osteo-dentine, the re-
sidual pulp-cavity is always at the base instead of at the
crown of the tooth. To the naked eye the osteo-dentine
filling the pulp-cavity in the Micropteron tooth presents in
the longitudinal section a cracked irregular structure.
Fissures run longitudinally through parts of the material,
and ridges of a lighter colour and denser appearance than
the surrounding parts traverse the surface in irregularly
longitudinal and oblique directions. The fissures appear to
be caused by the canals of the osteo-dentine; the denser
ridges by the lacunar but hard “ globular ”’ matter into which
the tissue surrounding the canals is in many parts converted.
The points to be noted in the naked-eye appearances of the
tooth and its section are—the minute size of the conical cap
of dentine, its being imbedded in the surrounding cement,
the thickness and irregular disposition of the cement, the
position of the residual pulp-cavity, and the excessive de-
velopment of dense globular matter in the dentine and also
in the osteo-dentine filling the pulp-cavity.

Microscopic characters of the dental tissues.— Plate V,
fig. 1, represents a portion of a transverse section of the
tooth from near a (Pl. V, fig. 2), prepared by Mr. Topping,
whilst Pl. VI, fig. 2, is a smaller portion of a section taken a
very little lower down. The most striking feature in both is
the very large development of opaque, apparently structure-
less material separating the cement from the dentine of the
tooth.* It is very sharply marked off from the cement, but
on the other side shades off into the dentine (or perhaps
osteo-dentine in some parts of the tooth), of which it is really
but a part. Both this globular matter and the cement pre-
sent large circular and longitudinal fissures which were
vascular canals. In fig. 1 the dentine is seen to merge into
the osteo-dentine surrounding the two circular canals; in
fig. 2 it is cut off from the osteo-dentine by a fissure and
deposits of globular matter, and has a very much more

* The dentine of the narwhal’s tusk (Afonodon) exhibits this same opacity

—due to imperfect calcification—in a striking manner. It is also observ-
able in many other large teeth, but less markedly.

Ray Lanxester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis. 59

limited development, the section in fig. 2 being taken further
away from the terminal cap of dentine than that in fig. 1.
Cement (Pl. VI, fig. 3).— The lacune of the cement are
disposed in regular concentric series (figs. 1, 2, c), abound-
ing more along certain planes than others, thus giving
the structure a banded character. At various parts of the
periphery the formation of nodular protuberances gives an
irregular character to their arrangement. They are rounded
and very irregular in form, with but small though very
numerous diverging canaliculi: their size is very great,
varying from the ~1,th to the +;,th of an inch and less.
They are less numerous than in the cachalot or porpoise,
and of larger size. ‘The ultimate ramuscules of the canaliculi
could be seen, by some care in the lighting and focussing of
the object, to enclose square or polygonal spaces of struc-
tureless material of an average diameter of >;);5th of an
inch. In some parts the canaliculi united to form small,
much elongated lacune (fig. 3, a), this variation in the
structure having apparently some connection with the pro-
duction of the cement into a surface-ridge or tuberosity.
Globular matier and deniine.—The parts of the opaque
stratum of globular matter nearest the cement presented no
structure excepting an indistinct botryoidal character, visible
with a low magnifying power. ‘This was more distinct nearer
the dentine (fig. 1, 2, gy), where variations in the opacity
of the layer disclosed such a disposition. The amorphous
matter at length shades off into the dentine, as seen in Plate VI,
fiz. 4, numerous distinct, minute, “interglobular spaces ”’ be-
coming more and more distinct as one recedes from the opaque
stratum and their number diminishes. ‘The “ interglobular
spaces,” sometimes known as “ dentinal cells ” (not of Owen),
have no very definite form, but are simply minute transverse
lacune intercepting the light, and by their superabundance
contributing to the opacity of the amorphous stratum of
globular matter. They had an average breadth of =;;5th
of aninch. ‘The dentinal tubes have nothing remarkable in
their character. ‘They are rather coarse, though finer than
in many Cetacean teeth, or than those of the walrus tusk,
and communicate frequently with one another near their
peripheral origin or rather emersion from the opaque stratum.
Osteo-dentine and globular matter.—The osteo-dentine
and the globular matter which in many cases surround the
periphery of an osteo-dentinal canal or cavity and its tubules,
in intimate character do not differ materially from the similar
parts just described. The canals of the osteo-dentine are
numerous and large, appearing in section as circular, fusi-
VOL. XV. f

60 Ray Lanxesrer, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis.

form, or much elongated, narrow cavities. The dentinal
tubules of one canal do not anastomose to any large extent
with those of other neighbouring canals, in many cases a wall
of opaque globular matter enclosing each. The tubules of
some of the osteo-dentinal canals are very few in number,
and have an irregular tortuous distribution, the canal, when
in section in such cases, resembling a very large multiramose
bone lacuna.

Comparison with other teeth—In no other Cetacean teeth
is the dentine developed to so small an extent, and the cement
and osteo-dentine so largely concerned, in forming the mass of
the tooth. In the large conoid teeth of the cachalot the
dentine occupies a very much greater space in the tooth, the
osteo-dentine is sparsely developed, and a certain amount of
basal pulp-cavity is left, while the cement, though forming
a thick layer on the tooth, is comparatively small in amount.
In Hyperoddon the small pointed teeth are stated by Professor
Owen to be tipped with enamel, which does not appear to be
the case in Micropteron. In the Porpoises and Grampuses
the dentine has a large development, and osteo-dentine, when
present, bears but a very small proportion to it.

Purpose of the teeth—The teeth of Micropteron are not worn
at the crown, and are obviously not used for biting, since they
are not opposed by any part of the upper jaw. They are said to
be sexual characteristics, Eschricht considering the toothless
Delphinus micropterus (Cuvier) to be the female of the bident
Micropteron Sowerbiensis.* ‘These teeth, then, obviously have
their true function aborted, degraded from the class of “ func-
tions of animal life” to that of ‘‘ functions of vegetable life ;”
and with this we may expect a corresponding degradation in
structure, resulting in the production of a tooth of less
specialised character, and less differentiated from the rudi-
mentary structure of a developing tooth. ‘This, I think, can
be shown to be the case with the tooth described above.
Cement is not a structure belonging specially to teeth; it is
merely bone such as exists throughout the body. Osteo-
dentine is a less differentiated structure than true dentine,
being formed by a conversion of the substance of the pulp
instead of at its periphery, and retaining certain elements of
the pulp in its canals and cavities ; moreover osteo-dentine is
developed in many teeth (e. g. human) only as the result of
age and decrepitude, or as a pathological product; in others,

* The female stranded at Ostend is said to have had “a few” small
denticles concealed in the anterior part of the lower jaw. It is not at all
improbable that the male, when young, has many teeth, one only of which on
each side is developed.

Ray Lanxester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis. 61

which are of large size (e. g. the tusks of the walrus), merely
as a packing or strengthening for the hollow pulp-cavity.
Osteo-dentine is therefore of low physiological importance.
Dentine and enamel are the special tissues of the tooth, pre-
sent the greatest amount of differentiation, and are formed
under the most special conditions, and probably with the
greatest expenditure of force.

The tooth of Micropteron has only the small terminal cap
formed of this special tooth structure, resembling in this a
foetal human tooth, and, indeed, were such a tooth, minus its
enamel, arrested in its development at this stage, its vascular
pulp allowed to convert itself into osteo-dentine, and the sur-
rounding tooth sac subsequently ossitied into cement,we should
have a miniature representative of the Micropteron tooth.

The large development of opaque globular matter in the
dentine and osteo-dentine of the Micropteron tooth is also
significant of low organisation. ‘The opacity is caused by
the large number of interspaces left between globular and
botryoidal masses of calcareous salts deposited in the forma-
tion of the tooth, that is to say, it is due to imperfect calcifi-
cation. This appearance is frequent in human embryonic
teeth,* and is occasionally to be met with to a small extent in
those of the adult and in very many mammalian teeth. It is,
however, in the human subject corrected as development pro-
ceeds, the interspaces being filled up. In Micropteron it is
not so; the rudimentary calcification is allowed to persist.

For these reasons, then, I think it may be urged that we
have in the teeth of Micropteron Sowerbiensis a rudimentary
structure corresponding with a degraded function.

Teeth of other recent Ziphioids (Dolichodon).—I had the
good fortune to see the skull of the Ziphius (Dolichodon)
Layardi described by Dr. Gray, at the British Museum,
before it was packed to be returned to Cape Town, whence
it came. The great curved teeth, one in each ramus of the
lower jaw, as in Micropteron, are even more laterally com-
pressed and flattened than in that genus; their length exceeded
a foot, while their width was about two inches. The exterior
surface was smoother than in the Oxford Cetacean, but of the
same yellow colour characteristic of cement. I looked
anxiously for a projecting tip of dentine as in Micropieron,
and at the crown of each tooth, on the inner side, was a very
small nob or nipple of brighter appearance than the sur-
rounding surface, evidently corresponding with the dentinal
cap of Micropteron. This protuberance is I find noticed by
Dr. Gray in his catalogue of seals and whales, where a small
figure of this very remarkable skull is given. Though, in the

* Tomes.

LS ee

62 Ray Lanxester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis.

absence of any sections, certainty 1s impossible, there can, I
think, be little doubt that the structure of the tooth of
Layard’s Ziphius agrees with that of Sowerby’s, and assuredly
the small projecting caps of dentine are identical. Some
zoologists are inclined to regard the strange overlapping
teeth of Dolichodon Layardi as deformities. Dr. Gray, how-
ever, does not incline to this opinion. ‘The two teeth are
almost exactly alike, and very regular and definite in form,
and certainly have not the aspect of abnormal growths.
Whether deformities or not, their function is in the highest
degree obscure; and, supposing that they have grown to an
abnormal size, their essential composition and form is pro-
bably unaltered.

Berardius. The figures given of the teeth of the tetrodont
Ziphioid Berardius by Duvernoy appear to indicate a nipple-
shaped termination to a broad flattened tooth—as in Micro-
pteron.* :

A second male specimen of Sowerby’s Micropteron has
recently been cast ashore in Ireland, and the skull is pre-
served. It is desirable that the teeth of these specimens
should be examined, as also those of the other ziphioids in
various museums, both by simple and microscopic sections.

Fossil ziphioid teeth from the Red Crag. ‘The woodcut,
fig. 1, represents a remarkable compressed claw-like body

FIG-2

Reduced to one half the natural size.

from the Red Crag ; three other specimens similar to it are in

* Since this paper was read I have seen the first part of a paper by M.
Fischer in the * Nouvelles Archives du Muséum,’ 1867,’ 3rd vol., “On the
Cetuceans of the genus Zivhius.? He does not appear to have examined
the structure of the tooth 1m any of the species he quotes, but I hope may
be induced now to ascertain if the structure here described is common to
the Ziphioids in his charge.

' Ray Lanxester, on the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis. 63
the collection of Mr. Whincop, of Woodbridge. When cut
longitudinally an appearance like that of ‘‘ pudding-stone ” (a
simile used by Cuvier when describing the osteo-dentine of
the walrus) was shown, accompanied with numerous longi-
tudinal fissures. In Pl. VI, fig. 4,a portion of this same body
cut transversely and mounted for microscopic examination is
drawn. Figs. 5 and 6 represent two of the maltiramose
canals more highly magnified. No other structure than these
bodies, and a homogeneous iron-stained matrix, could be made
out. The claw-like fossil is very probably the osteo-dentinal
core of a tooth of some one of the Rhynchoceti, the rostra of
which are so abundant in the crag.

Reduced to one half the natural size.

The structure of the ziphioid tooth, as ascertained from
the Micropteron Sowerbiensis, throws some light on the nature
of the tooth called Balenodon, by Professor Owen. Ina paper
published in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society °F
1865, p. 231, I mentioned that Professor Van Beneden had
obtained specimens from the Antwerp crag, which he identi-
fies with our crag Balenodon, and considers as ziphioid. The
Balenodon teeth, such as that drawn in fig. 2, are very much

64. SueEpparD, 0n Colour in Organised Substances.

rolled and truncated at each end. In section they show a
core of osteo-dentine with very thick walls of cement. They
are much rounder and bulkier teeth than those of the recent
Micropteron. Some specimens show anteriorly fragments of
a brighter denser substance, which I believe are the remains
of the dentinal cap or nipple characteristic of ziphioid teeth.
The infiltration of mineral matter in varying quantities into
the differently constituted tissues of the tooth would readily
cause their separation, and the double rolling and deposi-
tion to which these crag mammalian remains have for
the most part been subjected, would be very efficient in
breaking off the small tip of the tooth. Figs. 3 and 4 represent
of half the natural size two very large Cetacean teeth which I
obtained some time since from the Red Crag. ‘The first
(fig. 3) is in section, and appears to have preserved a small
cap of dentine surmounting the osteo-dentine and cement,
which form the bulk of this very large tooth.* Fig. 4 is
probably not the tooth of a ziphioid at all, but is remarkable
for its large size.

On an EXAMPLE of the Propuction of a Colour possessing
REMARKABLE QuatitTiEs by the Action of MonaDs (or
some other Microscopic Organism) upon ORGANISED SUB-
sTaANCES. By J. B. SuHepparp, M.R.CS.E.

(Communicated by the Rev. J. B. Reapz, F.R.S., F.R.MS., &e.)
(Read May 8th, 1867.)

I witt relate, as shortly as I can, the steps by which I
became acquainted with the properties of the coloured liquid
in the “ thousand-grain bottle.”’+ The history is as follows:
—On April 19th I went with two archeological friends for a
long ramble through West Kent. Our route lay through
that district where the greensand crops. out from under the
chalk escarpment between Ashford and Maidstone. About

* The chief interest of this specimen is in the preservation on its surface
of a large amount of the fine sandy deposit in which it was imbedded, pre-
viously to its deposition in the Red Crag, it being like all the other Rhynchoceti,
Carcharodons, &c.,of the Red Crag—already a fossil when the Red Crag sea and
mollusea were existing. This fact has been unaccountably overlooked by
some geologists, who wish to show that the Red and Coralline Crag were
contemporaneous, or nearly so, with the Lower and Middle Antwerp Crags,
where similar Cetacean remains occur in an unrolled condition, the Cetacea
&c., having dived during that period, not during the Red Crag.

+ Shown at the Soirée of the Royal Microscopical Society, by the Rev.
J. B. Reade, April 24th.

SHEPPARD, 0n Colour in Organised Substances. 65

midway we came to a clear spring rising in a rocky basin
(Kentish rag, carbonate of lime), and on all the submerged
stones in the basin there was a dark olive-brown coating,
covering every surface with a velvet-like film, and thick
enough to be scraped off in an unbroken sheet—just such a
coating, in fact, as promised oscillatoriz and diatoms.

My companions being archeologists, and not microscopists,
in deference to their tastes I had forborne to take any appa-
ratus or receivers for collections, having on other occasions
bored them by wasting time, as they thought, about pond-
edges and spring-heads. Having no bottles, I begged from
my friend a piece of paper—a part of the wrapper of his
sandwiches—and to this piece of paper, greasy and glazed
with some sort of size, is partly due the result which I am
about to communicate.

The specimen in the paper was placed in an india-rubber
tobacco pouch, and remained undisturbed for twenty-four
hours before I opened the parcel to separate a piece for mi-
croscopical examination. As soon as the parcel was taken
from the pouch, I noticed that the paper was stained here
and there with hues of red, blue, and purple, and (the paper
being removed) in the wet mass within I saw small clots of
red jelly, exactly counterfeiting recently coagulated blood.
I selected a clot and put it on a slide, whilst the rest of the
mass was laid in a glass of clear water. This mass consisted
of interwoven oscillatorie and other confervoidee, with na-
vicula-shaped diatoms pervading the texture, and, excepting
the clots, presenting nothing that is not to be found on the
stones of every wall. The specimen on the slide was remark-
able. The colour, before placing the glass on the stage, was
opaque red, looking like a small quantity of vermilion mixed
with water; but when held up to the light the red disap-~
peared, and a pale transparent blue took its place.

Under the microscope (1l-inch, “‘ B’’) the clot appeared of
a pale blueish-grey, quite transparent and structureless ; but
entangled in this now grey-looking jelly were several bodies
which I took to be ova. In form they were pointed-oval—
almost kite-shaped—buff as to colour, and moderately opaque.
Each example contained a small collection of reddish and
brownish cells, with one, or at most two, larger spherical,
colourless globules—perhaps vacuoles.

After examining two or three of the clots, and finding in
each some of these ova, I concluded that in some manner
they contributed to the formation of the red colour ; and from
farther experience I feel certain that but for the dirty piece
of paper and these bodies this interesting subject would never

66 SuepparD, on Colour in Organised Substances.

have presented itself to me. I may mention that these egg-
shaped bodies, surrounded by a gelatinous or albuminous
envelope, are distinguished by the possession of an undoubt-
edly flexible, easily ruptured coat, and by a general dotting
all over the surface, when seen by oblique light. But after
the first day these bodies were absent, and with them the
clots and the colour, this latter being entirely transferred to
the water in which the mass was placed. In a note of the
27th ult. you say that the question, ‘‘ Whence the colour?”
is in every mouth. I have not been inattentive to this point,
as you know. Having no doubt that the colour was due to
the presence of some substance dissolved in the liquid, and
not to any organisms suspended in it, I was anxious to ascer-
tain what the liquid did hold in solution. Boiled im a test-
tube, the colour faded, and a flocculent precipitate was pro-
duced. Bichloride of mercury destroyed the colour and
procured the precipitate, as also did nitric acid. From these
tests, of which you were an eye-witness, it was certain that
albumen was present; and the disappearance of the colour
when this albumen was thus artificially coagulated seemed to
indicate that solwble albumen was a necessary ingredient in
the process. We have not far to look for the source of this
albumen, for the mass abounded with slimy clots (limpid,
changing to red), each of which enveloped a number of the
above ova.

The “thousand-grain”’ bottle exhibited at the microscopical
soireé contained the solution of these albuminous clots, and
the colours, both of the clots and the solution, seemed from
my observations to be inseparable from the agency of the
monads and the oscellatorize of the confervoid mass. Hence,
in my first note (April 22), I expressed strongly the opinion
that ‘the colour is due to some form of albumen under the
influence of some form of life ; as long as the life continues,
the phenomena of the colour continue, and when it ceases
they cease.”

This was the upshot of my first journey, and, to make my
story continuous, I will here insert your letter on the subject,
which describes some facts observed by yourself, and also the
very interesting spectroscope phenomena, communicated by
Messrs. Sorby and Browning.

‘* BISHOPSBOURNE Rectory, CANTERBURY;

“© April 27, 1867.
“ My DEAR SHEPPARD,—Accept my best thanks for your
interesting account of the coloured solution. It was carefully
examined by my friends in London at our Microscopical

SHEPPARD, on Colour in Organised Substances. 67

Soireé, and was very naturally supposed to be a new solution,
either of iodine, aniline, or some curious chemical compound
resembling the ‘ chameleon mineral.’ But the beautiful
lambent blue by transmitted light, and the deep carnelian
red by reflected light, was an effect they were not prepared
for. When I gave it aname, perhaps for the amusement of
our lady visitors, who were fascinated with the play of colour,
aname withal, perhaps, not very far beside the mark, and
called it ‘ polychromatic infusorial water,’ a clue was given to
its origin, though its nature remained a mystery. You are,
therefore, earnestly requested to continue your researches till
you can ‘render a reason.’ I stated that at present you con-
sider it to be some form of albumen connected with some form
of life ; and I gave the substance of your story to those who
had not an opportunity of reading it.

“Upon examining the solution with the spectroscope,
Browning said that it gave the most curious spectrum he
had ever seen,and Sorby highly values it as being the only blue
solution in his class C (of which the blood spectrum is the
type) that gives a dark band in the red rays ; and he wishes
to have a sample of the confervoid mass for further experi-
ment. You may therefore be congratulated upon having
recorded a new fact of special interest to microscopists. In
addition to your statement I was able to add, from my own
examination of the solution, that the process of filtering left
a delicate pink stain upon the paper, without materially
weakening the colour or colours of the solution; and on
evaporating a filtered drop to dryness, and examining it
under a high power on a dark ground, I was convinced that
the life you speak of is due to the infinitesimally minute
monad. ‘This supposition was, curiously enough, confirmed
yesterday at Browning’s, when we witnessed the voluntary
motion of these atoms, ‘ nature’s invisible police,’ under the
spectroscope.

“But the question was still in every mouth, ‘Whence the
colour?? Intusoria, which are themselves coloured, are
known and described by all observers. Ehrenberg, Carpenter,
Hogg, &c., describe the red protococcus, or snow plant, the
Palmeila cruenta, ‘ of the colour and general appearance of
coagulated blood” the Hematococcus sanguineus, and the
Astasia hematodes. The latter, Hogg says, ‘is a kind of
erimson-coloured animalcule, —~th of an inch in length, that
exist im enormous numbers, and give the waters in which
they live the appearance of their bodies.’ But these do not
give a permanent stain to the water, nor is there any recorded
instance of the marvellous variety of colour which your solu-

68 SnuepparD, on Colour in Organised Substances.

tion possesses. It happens, however, curiously enough, that
in a subsequent conversation with Sorby, Tlearnt that a
German naturalist has just lately discovered a monochromatic
solution, ‘the result of decaying alge,’ and of this Sorby
promises to send me the particulars.

“Your solution, at all events, is new both to him and to
English observers generally ; and we hope that your second
visit to the scene of action will enable you to prepare a special
communication for our next microscopical meeting.

** Believe, &e.,
od: 2 B. Reape.”

A week after my first visit I again visited the spring for a
farther supply of the film ; this, collected in bottles, was now
properly cared for secundem artem, and great disappointment
followed ; the velvet film remained olive brown, and the water
remained colourless, save that now and then a vermilion
deposit appeared capriciously, now here, now there, at the
_ bottom of the containing dish. ‘This vermilion behaved very
oddly ; no sooner was a piece of the substance drawn to the
surface than the colour, before i intense red, quite disappeared,
and more strangely hea the Vessel was slaed to diffuse the
dye; the colour all vanished, and instead of the water becom-
ing red, the red became water.

Of course the next step was to compare the circumstances
of the first and second collections in order to ascertain why
the former yielded spontaneously such a rich crop of results,
whilst the latter remained barren, notwithstanding my care-
ful husbandry.

The circumstances differed in unimportant particulars ;
the first specimen contained the ova already described, and
was wrapped in paper impregnated by organic (animal) mat-

r; the second was kept from contact with all foreign sub-
stances—but not a single ovum, with its slimy envelope, could
be found. Hoping to learn the law of the transformation of
the water into blood, I imitated, as nearly as I could, the
circumstances of the first collection ; but neither india-rubber,
ammonia, nor tobacco, was efficient to provoke the colour. I
then tried glazed paper resembling that first used, but not, like
it, greasy or strained. This produced a pale tinge of colour ;
but, pale as it was, it was sufficient to indicate that there was
a something in the mass which was capable of calling forth
colour when it met with a suitable vehicle.

I was proceeding to carry out experiments founded on this
idea, when I saw an article in the ‘ Edinburgh Review’ for
April discussing M. Pasteur’s book ‘ On Spontaneous Genera-

SHEPPARD, on Colour in Organised Substances. 69

tion.” In the review I found that M. Pasteur stated that
certain monads and vibrious (our liquid contains them) had
the property of changing the colours of nitrogenous and some
other substances brought into contact with them under favor-
able conditions.

Now, given the monads, what evidence have we already
to confirm M. Pasteur’s opinion; greasy paper with some
kind of size; sized paper, but without grease ; and the slimy
envelope of the eggs which your own nitric acid on a single
drop proved to be albuminous, all developed colour when
either of the above-mentioned substances was brought into
contact with the confervoid mass. I should mention that on
one occasion a filament of Batrachospermum seemed to supply
the albuminous vehicle and the colour.

On the 3rd of May, having found, as above described, that
soluble albumen, or some similar organic substance, was
necessary to the production of the colour, I placed some of
the film of my second gathering in contact with white of egg
diluted with a little water ; the ingredients, after remaining
together for a night, developed a glassful of, as one might
have believed, magenta dye, and the dye thus obtained has
the peculiarities of the already exhibited solution ; it possesses
the same epipolar property, throwing back from its surface
all the red and yellow rays, and transmitting the blue and
violet.

The globular bottle, viewed by reflected light, looks like a
ball of red carnelian, and the contained liquid seems totally
opaque; but, by transmitted light, it is transparent and
brightly tinted of a blue and violet colour.

I need only further remark that Ehrenberg Eidmann (who
is quoted in the ‘ Edinburgh’) and Pasteur seem to have
overlooked the most striking quality of the new organic dye-
stuff, viz., its poly chromatism.

Decaying alge, which have been mentioned as capable of
staining water, cannot be considered the cause of the develop-
ment of our colour, inasmuch as I find that the fresh-gathered
ferment (as I may call it) is more active than the stale, and
farther decay of the organic materials involves decay of the
colour, so that, as soon as decomposition begins (five to seven
days), ‘this grows paler, and when it is complete the colouring
agent is powerless, decay having produced only a dirty fetid
liquid, white with floating flakes.

Note.—The vile smell which belongs to the film is not the
result of decomposition, it is most pungent at the moment of
gathering, and even on the hill-side it is almost unbearable.

70 SHepparD, on Colour in Organised Substances.

I am by no means sure that it is harmless—it certainly pro-
duces headache and sickness; to such an extent is this the
case that experiments with the substance cannot be carried on
in the house. I may ask, and not without reason, has the
change the organisms produce in organic fluids, in their con-
sistency as well as their colour, any relation to the alteration
of the physical qualities of the blood in typhus? Here 1s a
ferment which in a few hours is capable of producing a total
disorganisation of the fluid to which it is added, and the film
is composed of materials which abound in the foul undrained
localities whence fever is never absent, and in the impure
water of town wells. I hope before long to be able to give
you more information ad hoc.

The solution of coloured albumen obeys all the chemical
laws to which albumen itself is obedient, but it becomes much
less tenaceous—ropy after it has acquired the colour.

Reaction of the film upon various organie substances.

Darkness assists the changes, and is almost necessary for
the production of them.

Soluble albumen.—Albumen at the bottom of a glass, film
dropped on it, and water above, action commences instantly,
and colour of any intensity can be obtained.

Coagulated albumen.— No action; partially coagulated ;
action In inverse proportion to the completeness of the coagu-
lation.

Starch.—Action slow, but continuous; colour has a pre-
ponderance of blue.

Gluten.—Action rapid at first, then production of colour
soon ceases, but fermentation with copious evolution of gas
continues.

Gelatine.—Patent gelatine swollen and softened by cold
water—no action in twenty-four hours.

Cooked beef fat-—Action tardy, but a good colour; appears
at last showing the different tints in different aspects very
well.

Coloured fluid poured upon soluble albumen.—The coloured
liquid has not yet propagated the fermentation (for want of a
better name) when added to fresh albumen where care has
been taken to exclude all pieces of the film. The film
coagulates albumen in a* partial manner; when dropped into
diluted white of egg it produces threads of very opaque, very

* Not meaning incompletely, but as if selecting some parts for coagula-
tion and avoiding them.

Brownine, on the Spectra of the Dichroic Fluid. 71

firm coagulum, these threads leading down from the surface
where contact first begins to the film lying at the bottom of
the glass. When the film is dipped into undiluted albumen
it appears to become coated with an imperfect coagulum, and
when this has happened I have in no instance seen any chro-
matic change take place.

Notes on the Specrra of the DicHroic Fiurp described in
the above paper. By Joun Brownina, F.R.AS.

TuE spectrum of the fluid seen by transmitted ight, which
shows it as a blueish purple, is somewhat remarkable as being
the only blue fluid, Mr. Sorby has found to give particular
bands. The chief characteristics of this spectrum, represented
in diagram 1, may be briefly described thus :—Commencing
at the least refrangible or red end of the spectrum, we find it
cuts pretty sharply a short piece of the extreme red. Then
we have a strong absorption band also in the red, correspond-
ing to 2+ of the twelve lines given by Sorby’s standard inter-

ference spectrum.* ‘Ten lines of this interference spectrum
I have drawn underneath spectrum 1.

A second absorption band in the green commences at line
4, and tones off gradually into the spectrum just beyond
line 5.

After the preceding paper had been read it occurred to me
that it would be a matter of much interest if a spectrum of
the fluid viewed by transmitted light could be produced.

* Mr. Sorby’s scale, just referred to, is an interference spectrum, pro-
duced by a plate of quartz 043 inch thick, cut parallel to the principal axis
of the erystal, and placed between two Nicol’s prisms. In this spectrum
the whoie visible space is divided into twelve divisions. These are counted
from the red and towards the blue. The sodium line, as shown in the dia-
gram, corresponds to three anda half. Mr. Sorby has very kindly presented
me wit! an exact duplicate of his own standard spectrum, from which I am
enabled to prepare others, which will give exactly similar re-~!ts.

72 New Microscope Lamps.

This proved a matter of some difficulty, but I effected it at
last by filling a glass vessel three inches across, and the same
depth, with the fluid, and then condensing the hight on the
surface of the fluid by means of a large condensing lens. The
micro-spectroscope was placed at an angle of 90° to the con-
denser. If placed opposite to it, only a continuous spectrum
of the lamp flame is perceived, the absorption spectrum,
which is much fainter than the spectrum viewed by trans-
mitted light, being masked by its intensity.

The liquid viewed by this strong reflector is of a fine
carnelian red. In figure 2, I have represented the spectrum.
It will be seen that it differs considerably from the first
spectrum, |. A much larger portion of the red end of the
spectrum is absorbed, but not so sharply as in spectrum 1.
The strong band in the red is shifted towards the more
refrangible end of the spectrum, cutting out the edge of the
red, some of the orange, and most of the yellow. The second
absorption band is wanting, but the greater part of the light
of the spectrum is absorbed from a point between the 4th and
Oth lines, and all the hight is absorbed at the 7th. ‘The part of
the spectrum which should be yellow has a strong tinge of
olive green. Of course the diagram represents very imper-
fectly the beautiful and curious appearances which the spectra
present in colour. The Rey. J. B. Reade was with me when
I made the experiments I have described, and kindly verified
the results I obtained.

On Two New Lamps for the Microscope.
By Etxis G. Loss, F.R.MS.

(Read May 8th, 1867.)

Tue lamp which I now bring before your notice is, I
think, a great improvement upon most of its predecessors.
Three things are decidedly essential in a lamp to the working
microscopist: 1. A reservoir that shall not interfere with the
proper use of the bull’s-eye condenser. 2. A small brilliant
white flame. 3. That it shall be so portable as to be carried
about with ease. These three requisites are combined in the
lamp now before you. The reservoir for the spirit (camphine
being used), although apparently small, still holds a suffi-
cient quantity for four hours’ consumption. You will per-

New Microscope Lamps. 73

ceive it is so shaped that the bull’s eye can be placed in any
direction, and as near to the flame as may be desired. Mi-
croscopists know how requisite this is when a strong light is
required for the black ground illumination, for the polari-
scope, or for opaque objects.

Many microscopists have complained of difficulties in ob-
taining and preserving good camphine. It may be purchased
at Deanes’, the furnishing ironmongers, King William Street,
London Bridge, in half-gallon cans. If the camphine is only
required for one microscope lamp, its consumption will be
slow, and its deterioration may be prevented by purchasing
one can at a time, bottling off three pints in pint bottles well
filled, tightly corked, and kept cork downwards in a dark
place. The fourth pint may be put into quarter-pint stoppered
bottles, also kept in the dark, brought into successive use,
and replenished from a pint bottle when all are exhausted.
By this means the spirit will keep for any time, and always
yield a brilliant flame. It is well not to put more spirit in
the lamp than is required for immediate use; and the wick
must be cut perfectly level.

Mr. Lobb then called attention to the small brilliant white
flame afforded by this lamp, and pointed out the means by
which a current of air was carried in the centre of the flame
through the circular wick. To illustrate the portability of
this lamp, he observed—‘‘ The chimney can be put in one
pocket, the reservoir, which unscrews and receives a cap at
the top to keep the spirit from oozing, can be placed in the
waistcoat pocket, and the remaining portion of the lamp will
go into the coat pocket. The lamp, being patented, can only
be obtained of Mr. Young, in Queen Street.

I have also to bring to your notice another lamp, the in-
genious contrivance of one of our own Fellows, Mr. Piper,
the inventor of the portable horizontal slide cabinet. This
lamp is contained in a small box with a sliding hd. When
required for use, the stem of the lamp is screwed into the
box-lid, and the lamp is affixed to the stem by a clip, which
enables it to be adjusted to any height. The dimensions of
the various parts, and the neat way in which they all pack
into a small compass, make this an excellent travelling lamp,
and it has the additional merit of very moderate price, ten
shillings and sixpence.

74

Ir1s DiapHRAGM proving the circular form whether expanding
or contracting. By J. H. Brown, Esq.

ALTHOUGH my new form of diaphragm is at first sight
somewhat complex, it is in reality extremely simple. A
glance at the diaphragm will give a better idea of its con-
struction than any amount of written description. It essen-
tially consists of a number of triangular blades (4), each fur-
nished with two axes, one of which works in a hole in the

brass plate (4). The other works in the shot in the brass
plate (B). The blades expand or contract the aperture of the
diaphragm by giving a rotatory movement to either of the
brass plates, whilst the other remains stationary. The blades
being thus moved simultaneously, and their edges ‘next
the aperture curved, they form an opening very nearly
circular.

The first diaphragm I made of this pattern contained six-
teen blades, but I find twelve or even less are sufficient.

~“
ol

On Nvurrition, from a Microscopicat Point of Virw. By
Lionet S. Beare, M.B., F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal
College of Physicians, Physician to King’s College Hos-
pital, Professor of Physiology and of General and Morbid
Anatomy in King’s College, London, Honorary Fellow of
King’s College, Fellow of the Medical Society of Sweden,
&e., &e., &e.

(Read May 8th, 1867.)

There are many questions of great general interest and im-
portance which, perhaps, from not falling exactly within the
range of subjects prescribed for consideration in any one indi-
vidual society, are scarcely ever discussed or alluded to, but
which, nevertheless, belong to many departments of science.
Of these, nutrition seems to be one. Neither the physicist,
chemist, microscopist, comparative anatomist, botanist, nor
medical practitioner, can proceed far in his inquiries without
referring to the process of nutrition, and asking what is the
exact nature of this operation by which things are enabled to
grow and multiply. Strange as it may appear, this, like
some other elementary matters which one would think natu-
rally formed one of the first steps in the study of natural know-
ledge, is very imperfectly understood, and observers are not
by any means agreed as to what nutrition is or is not. I believe
that this arises in some measure from the circumstance that
the subject has not yet been fairly studied from a microscopical
stand-point.

As the conclusions advanced in my paper have been en-
tirely deduced from the results of microscopical observations,
many of which have been already given in detail in memoirs
published in our ‘ Transactions’ some years since*—as infer-
ences derived from microscopical observation ought to be at
least as interesting to observers as mere descriptions of ob-
servations—and as there is no Physiological Society in Lon-
don, nor, considering the great number of societies, does it
seem desirable that there should be one, I shall venture to ask
the attention of the Fellows of our Society to an attempt to
ascertain the nature of the nutritive process, and to define
exactly what nutrition is.

The more I work the more strongly I become convinced

* Trans. Mic. Soc. and Journal, 1861 to 1865.
VOL, XV. Y

76 Dr. Beare, on Nutrition.

that there exists a sharp and well-defined difference between
living and non-living things. And in spite of all that has
been advanced to the contrary during the past ten years, it
seems to me certain that matter which is alive is in a condi-’
tion essentially different from non-living matter. I shall
endeavour to show that living matter alone is nourished, and
that no non-living thing yet discovered experiences nutrition,

We shall see that the act of nutrition involves much more
than the mere addition of new particles of matter to a mass
which already exists, as some have held. Growth resulting
from nutrition is so very different in its essential nature from
every kind of increase resulting from deposition or aggrega-
tion, that it seems to me wrong to apply the word “ growth”
to the process of increase in these two cases, and if the term
is to be employed at all, I think it ought to be restricted to
living things only. Here, however, at the outset, I find my-
self distinctly at issue with one whose opinions on such
questions are entitled to our respect. At the same time I
cannot help feeling that if the author had observed more for
himself,and trusted less to the arbitrary dicta and inconclusive
statements of others upon elementary questions of the highest
importance, but which have been very imperfectly worked
eut, he would have been led to adopt conclusions strangely
at variance with the doctrines to which he has, I venture to
think, prematurely committed himself. After affirming that
the increase in size of the plant, like the crystal, is effected
by continuously integrating surrounding like elements with
itself, Mr. Herbert Spencer says* that the food of an animal
is ‘a portion of the environing matter that contams some
compound atoms like some of the compound atoms constitu-
ting its tissues.”. If such be so, the peculiar substances of
which white fibrous tissue, yellow elastic tissue, muscle,
nerve, epithelium, &c., consist, ought to be present in the
white and yolk of an egg before these have undergone conyer-
sion into the chick ; but we know that not one of these things
can be detected, and, in short, that development and growth
are processes essentially and absolutely different from the
mere deposition in a solid form of particles previously held in
solution in a fluid. In growth the substances dissolved in
the fluid pabulum are completely altered in composition and
properties. Their elements are entirely re-arranged, | If
the elements of the dissolved crystalline matter were torn
asunder and.then reunited in a different way, so as to
produce a new substance when deposited in a solid form,
crystallisation would in this one particular accord with

* « The Principles of Biology,’ vol. 1, p. 108.

Dr. Beare, on Nutrition. 77

growth; but there is not even this resemblance. A crystal,then,
does not grow. The fungus-like (!) accumulation of carbon
that takes place on the wick of an unsnuffed candle is not
growth. The deposition of geological strata, the genesis of
celestial bodies, are not examples of growth. J think that if
Mr. Herbert Spencer would carefully study a growing micro-
scopic fungus he would modify his views concerning the
nature of growth, and admit that there is an essential differ-
ence between growth and the above physical phenomena,
From what has been stated in many physiological works the
student would be led to conclude that the fisswe or formed
matter to be nourished, selected from a mixed fluid, in con-
sequence of some sort of affinity, certain constituents adapted
for its nutrition at once, and that those substances passed
from a state of solution to the condition of tissue. But no
instance is known in which any lifeless substance takes up
another lifeless substance differing from it in composition, and
converts this last into matter like itself, as occurs for ex-
ample when a simple gelatin-yielding texture increases in
amount although it is surrounded only by an albuminous
material in which no trace of gelatin-yielding substances can
be detected.

In the hope of ascertaining the essential nature of the
nutrient process we must not limit ourselves to the considera-
tion of the phenomena occurring in the fully-formed organisms
of man and vertebrate animals, in which the nutrient blood
plays so important a part; but we must extend our observa-
tion to plants and the lower organisms, which consist of ex-
tremely minute independent masses of matter in a peculiar
state of being. Many facts lead us to conclude that nutri-
tion in its essential nature is the same in all cases ; and what-
ever meaning be assigned to the term it ought to apply
equally to the lowest simplest forms and the highest and
most complex.

A simple living organism may take up a quantity of nu-
trient matter and increase in weight. Having reached a
certain size portions may be detached, and each of these, after
absorbing nutrient matter, grow and give rise to others. In
this case the nutrient pabulum is converted into living matter,
and as a result of nutrition there is an enormous gain in
weight. But, on the other hand, living bodies may take up a
considerable quantity of nutrient matter without altering in
weight, and indeed some, in spite of being well supplied with
nourishment, may actually lose in weight. In other words,
the new matter taken up may exactly compensate for old
material which is removed, or more than compensate for

78 Dr. Beare, on Nutrition.

this: or the process of removal may proceed faster than the
process ofnutrition. It is, therefore, obvious that nutrition
cannot be held to mean the mere addition of new matter to a
living body.

Suppose we now consider what actually occurs when simple
living matter, like an ameeba, or a white blood-corpuscle, or a
pus-corpuscle,is nourished, Matter either in a state of solution
or capable of being readily dissolved passes into the matter of
which the living body is composed. Some of the constituents
become part of the living body, while others are given off.
The living body then increases in size. It is nourished and
grows. In other instances, as in many of the lower vege-
table organisms, and in the cells of the higher, a coloured
material or matter having some peculiar properties is formed
while the process of nutrition is proceeding. Now, this
matter did not exist in the pabulum, nor was it to be detected
in the living matter which absorbed the pabulum, but it
results from the death of the living matter under certain con-
ditions. In this case, then, the pabulum is first changed into
living matter, and the living matter into the coloured or
other formed material. In some instances this formed
material accumulates in the elementary part itself, as in the
case of starch in vegetable cells and fat in animal cells,
and there is a gain in weight. In other cases the formed
material passes away from the germinal matter as fast as it is
produced, dissolved in fluid or in a gaseous state, and no
alteration in weight occurs, although a large quantity of
nutrient matter is taken up. Usually, of the formed material
produced, part accumulates on the surface of the germinal
matter and part escapes. Consider what occurs in the
nutrition of ordinary yeast. A layer of cellulose matter which
increases by the addition of new layers to its imner surface is
formed externally. Within this is the transparent hving or
germinal matter. When such a particle is nourished the
pabulum passes through the cellulose wall into the germinal
matter, and thus the substance increases; but at the same
time some of the germinal matter becomes converted into new
cellulose, which is added to that already existing, and alcohol,
water, and carbonic acid, which escape. ‘The germinal matter
differs from the pabulum, and both differs in physical cha-
racters and chemical composition and properties from the
cellulose envelope. We cannot make the cellulose or the ger-
minal matter from the pabulum, nor can the pabulum be obtained,
as it was before, from either of the above substances. How
different are all these processes from the mere addition of
matter previously held in solution, as occurs in the formation

Dr. Beare, on Nutrition. 79

of a concretion, or a crystal, which increases by the superpo-
sition of layer upon layer !

I propose now to refer briefly to the process of nutrition
as it occurs in man and the higher animals. It has been said
that the life of the Mody is the blood, and it has been surmised
that from this fluidjjMe tissues derive not only the elements
of their nutrition, but their /ife or the properties which we
call by that name. It is, however, more probable that the
blood contains only nutrient pabulum adapted for the nutri-
tion of the tissues, which, like all nutrient matter, is lifeless,
not living. The actual nutrition, the conversion of the pabulum
that was in the blood into tissue, is due to actions which
occur outside the vessels containing the passive nutrient
blood. As little supported by facts as the opinion above
alluded to is the doctrine that arterial blood takes special
part in the nutrition of tissues, although a student reading
any of our text books would be led to believe that the highly
nutritive properties of arterial blood had been proved beyond
all question, and that every tissue to be nourished must have
its nutritive artery. The very active nutrition going on in
the lower animals and plants under conditions not favorable
to free oxidation, and the fact that in man and the higher
animals during the early periods of life when nutritive acti-
vity is most remarkable, the blood is not so highly oxygenated
as at a later time when the nutritive operations are compara-
tively slowly carried on, seem to show the fallacy of such a
view.

Every one knows that food nourishes the body, and that
the tissues are nourished by the blood, and it is generally
believed that a high state of nutrition depends upon a liberal
diet. At the same time, however, we know that the degree
of nutrition exhibited by the body is not dependent merely
upon the quantity or quality of the food introduced into the
stomach, absorbed and converted into blood, but upon many
other circumstances. In one individual much of the food
may be excreted in an altered form soon after it has been in-
troduced into the system, while in another a large proportion
may be converted into tissue. This difference is determined
not by the pabulum, but by the living material which is
destined to take this up, and which is concerned in the for-
mation of tissue. Some men and some animals soon become
fat upon a diet which to others would be extremely low ;
while certain individuals cannot be made fat, although sup-
plied with abundance of the choicest food. We must also
bear in mind that every tissue does not share in the increased
nutrition, and although we often talk familiarly of the in-

80 Dr. Beare, on Nutrition.

creased or diminished nutritition of the body, we refer really
to an increase or diminution of the adipose tissue, and, but
to a less extent, of the muscular tissue. At the same time we
know that every tissue in the body is nourished from the
earliest period of its existence ; but of all the tissues when
the organism is fully developed the adipose and muscular are
most influenced by altered diet. It may be said that the
elementary parts of these tissues exhibit greater variation in
activity than those of other textures. Im some men and ani-
mals it would appear that the elementary parts of adipose
tissue take up in proportion a larger share of nutrient matter
than those of other tissues; while, on the other hand, the
elementary parts of the glandular excretory organs are, in
other individuals, the most active. ‘The elements which in
the first would become an integral part of the body, as fat
and other tissues, would in the last escape as carbonic acid,
water, and other substances, in the excretions. It is not
possible to say why one set of tissues should be most active
in one individual, and another set in another individual, any
more than we can explain why a particular kind of food,
which is most easily assimilated by one person or animal,
would be useless or injurious to another.

As there are in the body many different tissues to be nou-
rished, and many different substances in the blood which
may nourish them, it is necessary to consider what particular
constituents of the blood are principally concerned in the
nutrition of the different textures. The opinion seems to
have been very generally entertained that certain substances
in the blood were destined for the nutrition of particular
tissues, while other textures selected from the fiuid consti-
tuents are of a different character; for instance, it has been
supposed that the red blood-corpuscles were specially con-
cerned in the nutrition of the nervous and muscular tissues,
while the white blood-corpuscles nourished the fibrous tex-
tures—that fat selected fatty matter from the blood, muscle
fibrinous material, and so on.

In a paper which I communicated to this Society in 1864,
I endeavoured to show that the blood, like the tissues, might
be looked upon as composed of germinal or living matter, and
formed material. The white blood-corpuscles and smaller
corpuscles of similar character, which could be detected in
the blood, being composed of germinal matter; while the red
blood-corpuscles, the albumen, and some other constituents,
were to be regarded as formed material, being composed of
non-living matter, possessing peculiar characters, properties,
and chemical composition, but resulting from changes taking

Dr. Beare, on Nutrition, 81

place in pre-existing germinal matter. ‘The white blood-
corpuscles, therefore, are themselves composed of living mat-
ter, which is nourished, and they cannot as white dlood-
corpuscles contribute to the nutrition of any tissues whatever.
With regard to thegred blood-corpuscles, it seems to me pro-
bable that they 7 highly important part in equalising
the temperature iMfall parts of the body, taking away heat
from parts whose temperature is above the normal standard,
and contributing heat to textures which are colder than they
should be. At the same time it must be borne in mind that
the red blood-corpuscles themselves are gradually undergoing
disintegration ; and although it seems most probable that the
constituents resulting from their decay are eliminated from
the body in the ey of urinary, biliary , and other excremen-
titious matters, it is not unlikely that some of the products
may take part in nutrition.

Upon the whole, however, it seems probable that the con-
stituents which form the pabulum of the tissues are those
which are contained in the serum of the blood; and it is im-
possible to conceive how minute quantities of pabulum prone
to undergo rapid change could be more perfectly and equally
distributed to the textures, without its composition being
materially changed, than in the thin layers which each red
blood-corpuscle carries upon its surface, and smears, as it
were, upon the walls of the capillary vessel distributed to the
tissue. The arrangement is such as to reduce to a minimum
the chances of alteration in the composition of the nutrient
fluid as it traverses the vessels in different parts of the body.

From a careful consideration of the facts, I cannot help
drawing the inference that the serum is the pabulum; that
the red-blood corpuscles are concerned in its distribution,
and in preventing changes in the composition of the great
mass of the blood, as certain constituents are removed from
it or poured into it; and that the white blood-corpuscles are
masses of germinal matter concerned in the formation of the
serum, as well as of the red blood-corpuscles. In support of
this view, I would venture to call attention to the following
points :

1st. That fibrous tissue, bone, cartilage, muscular and
nervous textures—the two last as perfect and, as far as we
can make out, far more delicate, elaborate, and beautiful than
any of the tissues of vertebrate animals—are formed, and with
wonderful rapidity, 1 in many of the lower creatures quite des-
titute of a nutrient fluid containing bodies corresponding to
the red blood-corpuscles of the vertebrate blood ; and that in
all these cases the nutrient fluid is clear, transparent, colour-

82 Dr. Brae, on Nutrition.

less, and contains a substance closely allied to the albumen
of serum, if not identical with it. Different plants and ani-
mals produce from the very same fluid, and apparently under
similar conditions, very different substances ; and the different
kinds of germinal matter in the body of one of the higher
animals produce formed matters differing widely in structure,
chemical composition, and properties.

2nd. ‘That in man and the higher animals the development
of the tissues corresponds to the period of life when the blood
is not remarkable for the number or perfection of its red
blood-corpuscles.

drd. That certain morbid growths appear and increase
rapidly in cases in which the blood has for some time con-
tained a small proportion of red blood-corpuscles.

It seems, therefore, probable that the substances taking
part in the nutrition of all the different textures of the body
are furnished by the albuminous matter of the serum, and
that the production of muscle, nerve, fibrous tissue, &c., de-
pends not so much upon the characters of the pabulum as
upon the converting powers of the germinal or living matter
which appropriates this. The substances formed by germinal
matter depend upon its vital powers and the conditions under
which these cease to be manifested, rather than upon the
presence of particular substances in the pabulum itself. Dif-
ferent kinds of germinal matter have power to rearrange the
elements of the pabulum supplied to them im different ways,
so that one kind of germinal matter produces muscle, another
nerve, another fibrous tissue, and so on; each of these tis-
sues, and, of ¢ourse, the pabulum itself, containing oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and some other elements,—but
combined in a different manner.

Although the opinion is still entertained by many ana-
tomists that tissue—as, for example, the intercellular sub-
stance of cartilage—is deposited directly from the blood, no
one has explamed by what means the composition of the
pabulum becomes so altered as it passes through the walls of
the vessels to be distributed between the masses of germinal
matter. On the other hand, the facts advanced by me several
years ago in fayour of the view that every kind of formed
material passes through the state or stage of germinal matter
have not been overthrown. The existence of germinal matter
before the production of formed material; the continuity of
the germinal matter with the formed material in tissues in
process of development; the circumstance of no case being
known in which formed material is produced without germinal
matter ; and the demonstration that fluids will pass through a

Dr. Beater, on Nutrition. 83

comparatively thick layer of formed material, and reach the
germinal matter in the course of a few seconds, forced upon
me the conviction that pabulum invariably passes to the ger-
minal matter, and@it, or at least some of its constituents,
undergo conversiofnto this living substance, and acquire
its properties and Powers,—portions of the germinal matter
from time to time losing their properties, and undergoing
conversion into formed material. So that pabulum invariably
becomes germinal matter, and the germinal matter, not the
pabulum, is converted into formed material. I have been
accustomed to state these facts in the following simple man-
ner :—Calling the germinal matter which was derived from
pre-existing germinal matter a, the pabulum 6, and the
formed material resulting from changes in the germinal mat-
ter c, I say 6 becomes a, and a becomes converted into ¢,
but 4 can never be converted into ¢ except by the agency,
and, in fact, by passing through the condition, of a.

So far, then, it would seem that in the process of nutrition
pabulum passes into living germinal matter, and is converted
into this substance. The formed material or tissue which, in
many cases, constitutes the chief increase in weight and bulk,
has all passed through the state of germinal matter. The for-
mation of this germinal matter from the pabulum is therefore
the important part of the process.

It is most interesting to inquire by what means the soluble
pabulum is caused to pass into the germinal matter. It is,
I think, impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to
explain the facts by physics or chemistry. And no form of
attraction or affinity that we are acquainted with accounts for
the passage of pabulum towards and into the germinal matter.
‘The question is one upon which I have ventured to specu-
late. ‘The tendency which every mass of germinal matter
exhibits to divide into smaller portions, each part appearing
to move away from other portions, suggests the idea of there
being some centrifugal force in operation. ‘This moving away
of particles from a centre will necessarily create a tendency
of particles around to move towards the centre; I think,
therefore, that the nutrient pabulum is, as it were, drawn in
by centripetal currents, excited by the centrifugal movements
of the particles of the living germinal matter. How it is that
vitality gives to matter the power of moying away from
centres I cannot even attempt to speculate upon. That
this is so, general facts, open to the observation of all, as well
as the wonderful phenomena seen with the aid of the highest
powers of our microscopes, abundantly testify.

The point in which every nutritive operation differs essen-

84 Dr. Beare, on Nutrition.

tially from every other known change is this: the composi-
tion and properties of the nutrient. matter are completely
altered, its elements are entirely rearranged, so that com-
pounds which may be detected in the nutrient matter are no
longer present when this has been taken up by the matter to
be nourished. ‘The only matter capable of effecting such
changes as these is living matter, and it is very remarkable
that when this matter ceases to live, we do n6t detect
amongst the compounds formed at its death substances pre-
viously present in the pabulum, but new bodies altogether,
and these often vary according to the circumstances under
which the matter dies.

Desirous as I am to yield all that can be yielded to those
who maintain that there are no vital powers distinct from
ordinary force, I might say that a particle of soft transparent
matter, called by some living, which came from a pre-exist-
ing par rticle, effected, silently and in a moment, without appa-
ratus, with little loss of material, at a temperature of 60° or
lower, changes in matter, some of which can be imitated in
the laboratory i in the course of days or weeks by the aid of a
highly skilled chemist, furnished with complex apparatus and
the means of producing a very high temperature and intense
chemical action, with an enormous waste of material. It is,
therefore, quite obvious that an independent, scientific man
must, for the present, hold that the operations by which
changes are effected in substances by living matter, are in
their nature essentially different from those which man is
obliged to employ to bring about changes of a similar kind
out of the body; and until we are taught what the agent or
operator in the living matter really is, it is better to call it
vital power than to deny its existence altogether.

It seems to me childish, rather than philosophical, on the
part of any one to reassert in these days that nutrition is merely
a chemical operation, unless he can imitate by chemical means
the essential phenomena which take place when any living
thing is nourished. The passage of a fluid through a tissue
by Ww eh its structure is preser ved is not nutr ode or the in-
troduction of preservative fluids into dead tissues would be a
nutritive operation. A fluid may hold in solution certain
substances which are separated from it as it traverses the
tissue, thus adding to its weight and altering its properties,
as occurs when calcareous and other slightly soluble sub-
stances are deposited in the soft matrix of bone, teeth, shell,
and other textures. ‘This is a process which can be made to
take place in lifeless matter, and has been adduced in support
of the doctrine that the tissues of plants and animals are

Dr. Beare, on the Ovarian Ova of the Stickleback. 85

formed by physical and chemical agencies only ; but it is not
nutrition. Those who advance such arguments confuse the
process of deposition of insoluble salts in a material pre-
viously formed, wjfh the actual formation of the material
itself out of substa of a totally different composition.

Nutrition then, Pthink, involves the conversion of lifeless
pabulum into living germinal matter, and comprises these
distinct phenomena :

1. The contact of the soluble pabulum with the germinal
matter.

2. The separation of the elements of the nutrient substance
from their state of combination.

3. The rearrangement of the elements, and the conversion
of some of thése into new germinal matter.

Nutrition is impossible unless living germinal matter be
present, and in every case in which it is known to occur new
germinal matter is produced. Nutrition is a vital process,
its occurrence is positive evidence of vitality, and nothing
like it has ever yet been effected by human ingenuity.

On the Germixnat Matrer of the Ovarian Ova of the
SrickLeBack. By Dr. LionexS. Bra xe, F.R.S., Fellow
of the Royal College of Physicians, Physician to King’s
College Hospital, &c.

Plate VII.

In a paper “ On the Structure and Growth of the Ovarian
Ova of the Stickleback,” read before the British Association,
and published in the January number of the ‘ Microscopical
Journal,’ Dr. Ransom states that “the plan of staining tis-
sues by carmine, as suggested by Dr. Beale, is not to be re-
commended; for the ammonia rapidly dissolves the germinal
yesicle and its contents.” This remark made me feel very anxi-
ous to study ova prepared by the process of investigation
condemned by my friend ; and I take the earliest opportunity
of communicating the results to the Society. It is a source
of regret to me that I had not prepared some ova for Dr.
Ransom’s examination before he expressed himself so de-
cidedly against the mode of investigation from which I have
derived great advantages. I feel sure from his remarks that
the process has not been properly carried out by him.

I shall not occupy time by recounting in detail the new

86 Dkr. Bean, on the Ovarian Ova of the Stickleback.

facts in connection with the structure of the germinal vesicle
and the development of the ovarian ova learnt by the process
of investigation I have pursued, but content myself with re-
ferring to the drawings in Plate VII, and the descriptions
underneath them.

In conclusion, I will only observe that the ammonia does
not dissolve either the germinal vesicle or its contents; and
I fear that when my friend sees the drawings he will be in-
clined to reply that, so far from exhibiting solvent properties,
the fluid has precipitated particles from the contents of the
germinal vesicle, and has actually formed things which do
not exist in the natural state. I will not, however, now
discuss this matter.

The best results are obtained by diluting the carmine fluid I
have recommended with a little water and spirit of wine. I
have already stated that, for special inquiries, the staining
fluids will be i improved by slight modifications, which will sug-
gest themselves to any ‘observer after a few careful experl-
ments. So,also,some things are stained most easily at ordinary
temperatures, others at a “temperature of 100°; but it would
be tedious beyond measure to give detailed directions for
each individual object. If the experimenter considers the
principles upon which the success of the process depends, I
think he will find little difficulty in carrying it out. Like
many other operations, practice is required before the best
results are obtained, and most who anticipate complete suc-
cess upon the first trial will, I fear, be disappointed in this
as in most other scientific investigations.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY.

Some Remarks on the Parasites found in the NERVES,
&c., of the Common Happock, Morrhua eglefinus. By
R. L. Mappox, M.D.

(Communicated by G. Busx, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.MLS., &.)
(Read June 12th, 1867.)

AttHoucH the “spheroidal bodies,” the subject of the
present communication, were discovered and partially de-
scribed by Monro secundus, much more fully investigated by
Professor Sharpey in 1836, who was in the habit of men-
tioning them in his lectures at the University College, and
subsequently by Mr. H. Goodsir, whose paper “On the
Anatomy and Development of the Cystic Entozoa,” read
before the York meeting of the British Association, 1844,
was published in ‘ Goodsir’s Anatomical and Pathological
Observations, 1845; still, from the interest that attaches to
all knowledge of Parasitic life, whether vegetable or animal,
from the scarcity of the last-named work, as well as from the
difficulty attending the correct investigation of the structure
and relationship of these peculiar creatures, I am induced to
offer the accompanying notice as a further elucidation of their
organization, with some general remarks. ‘To my friend
Professor Aitken, of the Victoria Hospital, Netley, I am
indebted for calling my attention more particularly to these
bodies, as a subject worth more extended examination.

Dr. Monro, secundus, found peculiar ‘‘ spheroidal bodies”
existing on the surfaces of the brain and nerves of the Gadide,
which are known to be encysted entozoa containing a living
parasite, similar to Distoma. I have noticed them chieflyjon
the nerves, and more particularly on the caudal nerves,
extending in some fish of about fourteen inches long, to two
and a half inches upwards from the tail. On making an
incision along the caudal extremity over the spinal column of
the common haddock, and carefully dissecting back the
muscles, the series of nerves as they pass out from the spinal

VOL. XV.

88 Mappox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock.

cord are found studded with flattened bead-shaped bodies
plainly visible to the unaided eye. Removing a portion of
one of these nodulated nerves, placing it in water under the
microscope if the fish have not been too long dead, these
“‘ spheroidal bodies” of Monro are seen to be cysts, generally
imbedded in and displacing the nerve structure, and con-
taining a spinous parasite bent up, which in many cases can
be seen to execute partial movements of revolution on an axis
at right angles to itslength. After removing the surrounding
nerve fibres and exposing the cyst to more complete view, it
is seen to contain besides the animal, a grumous fluid and
numerous oily-looking globules, set in motion by the moye-
ments of the parasite.

The cyst seems to be composed of a more or less compact
substance, brownish in colour, especially by transmitted light,
and lined by a softer but somewhat brittle substance, inter-
nally having, as seen through the walls of the cyst, fissures in
every direction. The cysts are of a very variable size; some
of the smaller not more than the =+,th of an inch, others
much larger, but the average may be taken as ;3,ths of an
inch, more or less ovoid and flattened; some are, asin Pl. VIII,
fig. 6, double ; that is to say, when two cysts by the growth of
the creature and expansion of the walls have met, the ad-
joining walls are removed, and the two cysts form but one
cavity, and, as in the sketch, contain two parasites. This
appearance is not very common. I have met with it twice.
On careful examination of the cysts, both im stu and removed,
I could find no aperture, nor under compression did the
cysts rupture more easily in one direction than in another.
These cysts are described by Mr. Goodsir as similar to the
cysts of Cysticercus, as also to the cysts of Trichina spiralis
Gymnorrhyncus horridus and a small Filaria inhabiting the
livers of some fish. ‘‘ The cysts of all these worms have
similar structures to those of Cysticercus, namely, an external
membrane composed of compressed cellular tissue, and an
internal membrane containing absorbing cells, through which
the contained animal obtains nourishment.” Mr. Goodsir
cites the encysted Gymnorrhyncus found in the liver of the
sunfish as an example,—the “inner membrane of the cyst
containing absorbent cells is covered anteriorly with a very
thin layer only of the external membrane, so that it is enabled
to absorb the nourishment from the external textures in great
abundance, which thus enables the animal to move forward
as well as obtain a supply of food.’”’ Mr. Goodsir states that
“* Professor Owen, in the description of a microscopic entozoon
infesting the muscles of the human body, considered the cysts

Manpox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock. 89

to be only ‘condensed textures of the infested being.’” — Dr.
Knox, “that it belongs especially to the parasite.’ Mr.
Goodsir’s brother, as regards the parasite in the liver of the
sunfish, says, “‘ May we not suppose them to be part of the
original ovum, within which the animal. was formed, and
within which it passes its term of existence.” The special
cyst of the Distoma in the nerves of the haddock, is described
in the article from which the above remarks are quoted, as
consisting of “ three tunics: an external, which appears to be
derived from the areolar texture of the infested animal, a
middle and internal belonging to the parasite ;” ‘ the second
tunic is a fine transparent membrane which lines the first,
and has in its turn its internal surface covered by an epi-
thelial layer, which is the third tunic of the cyst. The
epithelia are flat, irregular in shape, and somewhat opaque.
The third or internal layer, formed by them, breaks up under
the glass plates, so as to present rents or fissures passing in
various directions over it.”

I have not been able to satisfy myself of the correctness of
these particulars, but rather regard the cysts as the results of
a secretion from the surface of the parasite, in fact as Von
Siebold describes for the Cercarie. ‘‘ After a Cercaria has
' been for some time in the water, first creeping and then
swimming about with manifest restlessness, it gathers itself
up into a ball and emits from its whole surface a mucous
secretion, which soon hardens, and since inside of this mucous
mass the worm, coiled up into a little ball, turns round
without stopping, invests it as it were in an eggshell.’’*
The secretion in the present case I believe to arise chiefly
from the lower part of the body, for I have found in several
specimens removed from the cysts a grumous granular matter
exuded and adherent to this portion, and forming a layer at
the surface of the body of some thickness ; also on wiping
over the surface of the animal in water with a fine camel-hair
pencil under the erecting microscope, a considerable amount
of finely granular substance can sometimes be remarked.
Moreover, I cannot detect any distinct tunics in the cyst, nor
any epithelial structure as such, with nuclei coloured by
carmine, or by maceration, liquor potasse, &c. &c.

The outer portion seems to be of a condensed mucous or
almost chitinous material, of a variable thickness and lined
by a more or less transparent friable substance which, on the
growth of the parasite in its expansion, splits up into
irregular plates of some substance, having fissures that reach
to the inner surface of the external or more condensed part.
* Von Siebold on Worms, 1856-7. Pub. by The Sydenham Society, p. 20.

90 Mappox, on Parasites oj the Common Haddock.

I should regard the cyst as passive, not endowed with growth
or conversion of material, but sufficiently porous to admit
pabulum through its surfaces; and it seems probable the
creature is also capable of reabsorbing this deposited matter,
as in the case of the removal of the walls of closely adjoining
cysts, figure 6, which, we could hardly expect without some
trace, if the cysts contained an external tunic of the fibrous
and elastic tissues of the mfested animal. Although the
larger number of these cysts is placed in the very structure
of the nerve, the component fibres and vessels, &e., seem to
be uninjured, the expansion and growth of the parasite
appear to have been most gradual. I could find no change
pathologically, nor can we say if there had been any effect
in the physiological relations of the surrounding parts. I
saw no wasting of the structures, and the only difference
noticed was in some of the neighbouring muscles; they
appeared here and there to be somewhat discoloured, yellower
than the rest, a fine granular substance investing the fibres
and fasciculi, though the intimate structure was quite as
perfect as in the normal tissue. I cannot say whether any
portion of the interior of the cyst should be regarded as the
remains of ecdysis. Insome, loose particles are found, which
may be excreta.

On rupturing the largest of the cysts, containing the
entozoon alive, with the dissecting needles, a small quantity
of viscid fluid with variable sized oily-looking globules
escapes, and with it the parasite ; almost immediately if this
be done in water or any saline liquid, or weak glycerine, I
have noticed the creatures retain much of the form in which
they emerged, andremain more or less permanently contracted:
but in warm saliva, for the intimation of which Iam indebted
to my friend Professor Aitken, the animal often moves some-
what freely about with a slow graceful motion, and the
internal textures are very much less obscured than in other
media, which do not render them too transparent for distinc-
tion. I have watched one specimen alive in this medium for
seven hours, how much longer it remained living I can’t say, as
I left it to retire for the night, but the next morning at eight
o’clock there were no signs of life. The general aspect of the
creature is elongated, roundish, rather narrower posteriorly
and somewhat leech-like, about ;!4,th to 5!,3,th of an inch in
length, the entire surface of the body covered with minute
spines set backwards, but more particularly, as pointed out by
Mr. Goodsir, evident on the entire dorsal aspect. It is pro-
vided with an anterior or oval disc, and a central one situated
about the junction of the first and second third of the body.

Manpox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock. 9]

In the interior is noticed a large, dark-looking sac, occupying
a great portion of the inside of the creature, extending along
the two lower thirds in a sigmoid or partially curved direc-
tion, and terminating at a distinct posterior outlet; looking
almost black by transmitted light, and by reflected light of
a dead white; the contents of this sacare made up of minute
globules of a highly refractive character, and I believe of an
also albuminous matter enclosing air. Within the sac, in the
living creature, these minute globules may be seen in irre-
gular motion, and occasionally a portion is emitted at the
outlet. Whether this is to be regarded by some as a respira-
tory sac or urinary apparatus, or whether it belongs to the
digestive system I am not certain, or whether it is not con-
yertible at some future stage of the creatures existence into
some important and defined organ, is doubtful. It exists
more or less in all, though in the most minute examined it 1s
exceedingly trivial. The large circular disc at the anterior
extremity of the creature has numerous fibres or folds,
circular and radiating, with an aperture that varies from
a circle to a sharp elipsoid, which, from analogy in the
other distoma, we may regard as a mouth,—though, from the
density of the superposed structures, I have never fairly seen
an cesophageal tube,—I have noticed only, as in the fig. 4,
indications of such being present. Below the anterior disc
on either side of the body, are small irregularly placed
cellular bodies; I have counted sixteen on one side, but
could not make out the same number distinctly on the other
side, made up of nucleated cells, or if we regard the cell as a
single structure, with about eight or more nuclei. These were
not noticed in any specimen before staining some of the
creatures by Dr. Beale’s plan, when they were quickly re-
cognised and are figured in fig. 4, those the lowest in the
body are the most distinct, the largest and most nucleated in
their structure. Are they unimpregnated ova, or yelk glands ¢
These bodies are best seen on the dorsal aspect, though in
no single case haye I found them symmetrical, the parasite
dying in some contrary position, though placed as such in
the figure, which is made up in one or two of its internal
organs from an extended series of observations on various
examples. (My best specimen I lost from slightly warming
the mounted slide, the glycerme appearing to act on the
delicate sarcode structure of these bodies as a solvent. ‘This
is named as a caution to others.) Situated move centrally
are two tubes which appear to be united below the anterior
disc by a cross branch, of which, however, I am not absolutely
certain, the parts being much obscured; as they extend

92 Manpox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock.

downwards, they are distinctly nucleated (like the biliary
tubes of some insects), as figured, and at the lower parts
join and apparently end by one tube posteriorly, but whether
in a blind extremity or in conjunction with the large
sac, I will not assert, though disposed to believe the latter.
Are these tubes a portion of the digestive canal, or hereafter
to become ovaries? At the centre of the upper part of the
middle third is a second disc, which on tracing inwards
appears to have an aperture with a short tortuous canal, or an
oblique passage, that terminates in a strong pouch, regarded
as the uterus, which generally contains several large globules
and some very minute; its walls are rugose, thick, cellular
when seen on end, and have both circular (which are very
marked) and elongated fibres in its walls. On a side view it
often appears divided by these into little square areas. I
could not find any satisfactory connection of the sacculated
end of this organ with any other, nor indeed of its mouth or
neck. The walls of the dise have circular and radiating folds
or fibres, the radiating in some cases very distinct, vide
fig. 4.

Mr. Goodsir described and figured a small anterior pore in
front of the acetabulum. May this pore not be the mouth of
an erected short tube, which, when drawn back into the neck
of the sac would give the appearance corresponding to Mr.
Goodsir’s description, but in other dispositions of the parts,
to a small orifice beneath the disc. I could not satisfy myself
on these points, though am inclined to view it as now stated
(fig. 8).

Slightly below this organ and to one side are seen, in large
specimens, five other bodies, two small, two large, and one
intermediate, but more resembling the former; they appear
to me as connected. The intermediate one is circular, some-
what different in aspect from the others, and contains highly
refracting bodies; the next smaller in size is a cell with a
segmented arrangement of about five nucleated structures.
I could not trace in any specimens the exact attachment of
this organ to the lowest of the sixteen nucleated cells before
described, but think such exists ; below this, the next small
circular body is more solid, the divisions are broken up into
a greater number, and evidently some change appears to have
been effected in it ;—beneath this are two ° much larger and
more compact oval or roundish bodies, very distinct, the
upper one generally the larger of the two: they are con-
nected together by bands, whether ducts or not I could not
determine. Speaking of these bodies, Mr. Goodsir writes,
“The two larger globular masses are very constant, and as

Manppox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock. 93

well as the two smaller contain a mass of particles apparently
nucleated. From the two larger I have only been able to see
faint traces of what appeared to be ducts, passing im the
direction of the smaller masses and towards the neck of the
pyriform sac. Whether these convoluted bodies be ovaries or
convoluted oviducts, and the pyriform sac a uterus, or
whether the former be testes and the latter the female organ,
as in the arrangement discovered in the other distomas, or
whether they be reproductive organs at all, I have failed in
satisfying myself, in consequence of the delicacy of their
texture and the comparatively dense integument of this part
of the animal.” Thus it appears he did not notice the double
row of small globular bodies. We have now the large oblong
albuminous (?) sac crossing the body and terminating below,
whilst at the lower third, situated rather to one side, is
a curious and constant organ much denser in the larger than
in the smaller animals. It is an elongated body slightly
curved on itself at its upper part, containing a central canal,
in which in living specimens can be seen minute particles in
motion ; the sides of the upper half consist of highly refrac-
tive parts, apparently set at an angle to the canal, the upper
end being united by a cord or duet to the two large circular
bodies; the lower part of the organ is surrounded by circular
fibres, a few Jongitudinal also being visible. At this part is
a peculiar twisted arrangement, of which I could not deter-
mine the real nature ; traced further downwards the widened
contorted portion appears to terminate in a funnel-shaped
cavity, this having a distinct exit to the side and near
the outlet of the large dark sac,—vide fig. 4. In some
positions I noticed a small projecting body near its centre,
which I am led to suppose connects this at about its middle,
with either the tubes of the globular bodies, or of the terminal
duct of the convoluted nucleated tubes. Is this both a male
organ and oviduct combined,—the minute particles seminal
matter, the upper part of it the testis, the medium size cir-
cular body a seminiferous receptacle, the two large globular
bodies ovisacs, containing fecundated ova, and the two smaller
globular bodies as receptacles of the sixteen, more or less,
yelk masses, preparatory to impregnation? There are still
to be described four rapidly vibrating or pulsating points, at
the lower third of the body, as in the fig. 4, indicated by
the letters p.o, they are seen as narrow, bright, rapidly
quivering lines in one position. When examined with a
power of 445 diameters they appear jth of an inch in
length, and in another aspect as a small circular spot. The
pulsations were not equal, some being quicker at one than

94 Mappox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock.

at the other spot—p. o’. pulsating much faster than the
Opposite p. o’. Iam not aware of these being noticed by
former observers. They were shown to others. I expect
they are valvular folds, and connected with some arrange-
ment of vessels, of which I could only find faint indications
here and there, and which may belong to the vascular system,
the trunks of which, Mr. Goodsir States, are most apparent at
the lower third of the body.

The large oval or globular masses removed from the
interior of the animal by the dissecting needles, and placed
in the compressorium showed a distinctly cellular or seg-
mented structure. The lower or male (?) organ removed, gave
under compression little more than mere outline. The twisted
condition the creatures often die in, and the apparently dis-
turbed position of the internal organs with their delicate struc-
ture, add a considerable difficulty in distinctly ascertaining the
exact relations of the various parts. It is by examining a large
number of specimens, which I have done, that we shall
possibly arrive at anything like a correct description. In
the integument, both cireular and longitudinal fibres and
very numerous nuclei are evident, and throughout the whole
interior of the body, in many cases, a kind of loculated
appearance, probably from sarcode bands passing in yarious
directions presented itself.

In the glutinous textures covering the brain I found only
two parasites, none in the brain or spinal cord or canal, none
in the textures of the eye, one on the optic nerve; and
between the optic lobes, forming a depression in one of
them, was a small brownish-looking spot, which, when
examined, showed groups of, and single, yellowish-looking
bodies of variable size, but no distinct structure: they ap-
peared to be scattered in the nerve substance.

According to the opinion of many the encysted entozoa are
regarded as immature parasites, or in their pupa condition,
and doubtless this may be the case ; but how far the peculiar
creature under consideration has deviated or passed to a
higher grade, and become partially sexually mature, I cannot
say, but venture to hazard the following suggestion :—That
we have here, as in other Distoma, a hermaphrodite creature,
which, in its progress towards a reciprocal sexual maturity,
yet carries on self-impregnation, so that, at the death of its
host, and thus within a moderate time, (I have seen them
alive in fish more than forty-eight hours dead, probably three
days,) of its own death, impregnated ova may be set free to
again become, perhaps, Monostomum embryos to pass through
a Cercarial stage, or the lowest phase of a Trematode life.

Mappox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock. 95

Whether these ovoid globular bodies should be regarded as
- “ sporularia,’’ in which “ sporule ” are developed, using these
terms, as Von Siebold, to mean germs, which are not only de-
void of the ordinary constituents of an ov um, as vitelline mem-
brane, yelk, germinal vesicle, and the so-called germinal
spot, but in which the further development of the germ-body is
not preceded by those conditions, (1 mean that of * impregna-
tion”? by means of special seminal matter produced in a
testis,) which are essential to the development of true ova de-
veloped within an ovarium, I cannot decide. In a paper
translated by Mr. Dallas, in ‘Annals and Magazine of
Nat. Mist.,’ No. cii, 1866, there occurs this passage from
Professor R. Leuckart, in speaking of the trematode worms:
«There are trematoda, the embryos of which even attain sexual
maturity in: their Rhabditist-form, and only become parasitic
again in their progeny—trematoda, consequently the history
of which preseuts us with no simple alternation of the con-
ditions of life, but with an alternate sequence of free and
parasitic generations. And, what is more wonderful, both
these generations are sexually developed, both are produced from
ova. There, therefore, we have nothing to do with an ordi-
nary alternation of generations such as occurs, for example,
in the Distomez, but with a process hitherto almost unheard
of in the animal kingdom, and which calls for our considera-
tion the more, because we are accustomed to regard the
sexual development of an animal not merely as the sign of
its perfect maturity, but also as the criterion of specific indi-
viduality.”

The view of self-impregnation has been held by some, but
Dr. Cobbold thinks erroneously, for he says—‘* Having
found two of the flukes (Distoma conjunctum, Cobbold)
sexually combined, a fact of great significance in relation to
the probably erroneous notion entertained by some, that the
hermaphrodite flukes are capable of self-impregnation ;”
still, as this only proves the one form of congress, to my own
mind it does not present any serious difficulty, seeing that
almost every day fresh ideas, through increased knowledge,
are adding to the peculiarities of the ‘‘ ways and means” by
which the deviations from the ordinary paths of develop-
_ ment are effected, to yet carry forward the one grand end—
the continuation of the species. Indeed, to me it almost
seems less extraordinary that in the hermaphrodite, which is
itself a deviation, we should have the power of direct develop-
ment up to at least a certain form, if not to the full nature
of the highest phase of the creature’s existence; thus might
it not be that the type for self-impregnation, allowing it to

96 Mappox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock.

exist, rather carries forward the animal under some lower form
of being (according to the admitted view, that the present
form has to pass to a higher stage before reciprocal congrega-
tion), provided it cannot, under its present circumstances,
reach the higher mode of maturity than that it should perish.
Singular, indeed, is the progressive series of stages in the
“alternation of generations” or of “ germination,” * aga-
mogenesis,” when the offspring is to deviate, both by its
appearance and its progeny, from its parents, and at last,
after such transitional-forms, arrive at that perfection when
the result of reciprocal sexual impact is the genuine ovum of
the specific type,—or that the young should be like to great-
grandparents at one period, and at other stages have no
relationship by similarity of external figure. Is this singu-
larity not greater than herm aphroditic self-impregnation ?
No one may have outwardly witnessed the act of self-impreg-
nation, but, if the means of passage for the male influence
exist inter nally , we have no more than an inward self-
impression which exists in a reciprocal external condition in
other creatures, and which can be effectually practised by
artificial methods, as in fish-hatching. The question is, do
we really know the import or exact nature of the organs we
figure as existing in the interior of many small beings? How
various the terms employed, how questionable if strictly
correct. We have our yelk-forming glands, our testes, our
gemmarium, our ovaries, our oviducts, our excretory, urinary,
or respiratory, or, in fact, any other apparatus that suits our
views ; therefore we may err, however much we may strive in
truth, ‘for wisdom will always have a microscope in her
hand;” still, when we look “into the life of things,” we
cannot limit the rules or restrict the powers impressed on
certain animals by the Great Originator, or contrast His
creative powers, however much they offend or oppose our
accommodating hypotheses ; our ignorance is here the boun-
dary, and certainly must not be a substitute for our imaginary
knowledge.

It is doubtful if we are even now able to state correctly all
the generic relations of this genus, of the order Sterelmintha,
family 'Trematoda, found in the cod, haddock, and whiting.
I at first looked on these ovoid bodies as proceeds of diges-
tion, retained to be expelled eventually, and this through the
alteration produced in their appearance in various media in
which they were examined, the same acting in a similar
manner on the little quantity of granular material found in
the middle pyriform sac of some; but by using saliva I
obtained a better mode of examining these bodies.

Mappox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock. 97

On turning to Dr. Cobbold’s valuable work on Entozoa,
at p. 36 is figured a Distoma, the “ Gasterostoma gracilescens
(Wagener), from the intestines of the angler, Lophius pisca-
torius, magnified 60 diam.,” very like the subject of the
present article, in a more advanced condition. Indeed, I
think, as we shall presently see, it is more than probable
that this is one of the higher phases of Distoma neuronaia
Monroti in its free state of Gasterostoma—Dr. Cobbold
writes, ‘‘ In this smgular genus the ventral sucker seems
to have taken the position usually assigned to the oval
opening, whilst the latter is placed lower down, towards the
centre of the body. The digestive ceca also disappear,
leaving only a short stomachal cavity, which reminds one of
the same viscus in the imperfectly organised sporocysts or
rediez. ‘The yelk-forming glands exhibit conspicuous, round,
secreting cells, the testes also being largely developed. I
have also noticed two other small bodies, one of which
probably represents the ovary or germ stock, whilst the other
may be referred to the receptaculum seminis, or posterior
seminal vesicle of Von Siebold. This connection between
these several organs is not seen in this specimen, but their
relative position is well shown. When the species first
came under my observation I naturally followed Rudolphi,
who described this Trematode as a Distoma (Distoma graci-
lescens, Rudolphi). I remember seeking most diligently for
the digestive tubes, being greatly puzzled, not merely by
their absence, but also by the character and position of an
organ which we now well know to be the sheath of the intro-
mittent appendage. The uterus also terminates in its imme-
diate vicinity, opening externally by a common outlet. The
anatomy of this genus has been pretty fully illustrated by
Von Siebold. According to Molin, the excretory, water-
vascular organ (or respiratory apparatus, as he interro-
gatively puts it) consists (in Gasterostoma fimbriatum) of a
broad central tube, occupying the entire length of the body.
In connection with this tube he did not discern any branches,
but he represents it as a simple sac, opening externally at the
caudal extremity.”

Now, referring to Couch’s excellent work on ‘ Fishes,’
vol. i1, 1863, p. 129, art. ‘‘ Lophius piscatorius,”’ he says,
“the angler sometimes seeks its prey at mid-water,—a fisher-
man had hooked a codfish, and while drawing it up he felt
a heavier weight had attached itself to his line; this proved
to be an angler. How indiscriminately these fishes feed on
each other appears from the fact that, in the stomach of an
angler which measured two feet and a half in length, was

oa

98 Mappox, on Parasites of the Common Haddock.

found a codfish that measured two feet; and in the latter
were the skeletons of two whitings, within which again were
other small fish.”” As similar parasites, as previously noticed,
are found in the cod, haddock, and whiting, it is possible
that in the angler the Distoma neuronaia Monroii finds its
perfect habitat, unless again through the angler it still passes
to some larger predatory fish—I hardly think to the seal or
birds. The food of the haddock is chiefly shell-fish. Couch
recommends naturalists to search in them for interesting
species—he having found twelve separate species among a mul-
titude of univalve and bivalve shells. Perhaps here begins the
earliest stage of the parasite, so imperfectly noticed in this
article, but which I hope to have shown presents much
interesting matter for future research.

Norr.—From Dr. Sharpey’s letter to Mr. Goodsir, as pub-
lished in the ‘ Anatomical and Pathological Observations :?
*“When in Berlin some years ago, the late Professor Ru-
dolphi remarked to me in conversation, that he thought it
not unlikely the little bodies discovered by Dr. Monro (second)
on the nerves of the cod, haddock, and other allied fish,
would turn out on examination to be entozoa: and he sug-
gested that I should take an opportunity of inquiring into
the point, on my return to Scotland. Accordingly, in the
autumn of 1856, I examined these bodies in the haddock or
whiting, I really forget which, but I think it was the former,
and found that each of them was a little cyst, containing a
distoma, which could be easily turned out from its enclosure
alive.’ The specimens I examined were from the membranes
of the brain. This observation was made in Edinburgh, and, on
going to London soon after, I mentioned the fact to Mr.
Owen; and I have been accustomed to take notice of it in
my lectures ever since, suggesting at the same time that it
would be well to search for these or for analogous parasites
in the nerves of other animals, as it was not likely that the
Gadus tribe of fishes should be the only example.” * * * *
** Rudolphi, as far as I know, never examined the structure
of the spheroidal bodies of Monro; and the only notice of
them I have met with in his writings (to which he did not
refer me) isin his ‘ Historia Naturalis Entozoorum,’ vol. ii.
Part 2, page 227, where, under the head of “ Dubious En-
tozoa,” he enumerates an object described and figured by
J. Rathke, under the name of ‘* Hydatula Gadorum,” which
that observer found in the pia mater of the Gadus morrhua
and G. virens, often in great numbers, and which appeared
to be a vesicle containing a worm. The nature of the para-

Rymer Jones, on Corethra plumicornis. 99

site was doubtful, but supposed in some degree to resemble
that of a cysticercus, and hence the name applied to it by
Rathke ; but Rudolphi denies that it is a cysticercus, though
he does not know to what genus to refer it, he adds ‘an
Cucullanus.’ (?)”’

On the Structure and Metamorrpnuosis of the Larva of
CoRETHRA PLUMICcORNIS. By Professor T. RymMrr
Jonzes, F.R.S., F.R.M.S., &c.

(Read June 12th, 1867.)

Havine towards the close of last summer met with a
pond in my vicinity well stocked with the larve of the
Corethra plumicormis, objects so tempting to the microsco-
pist, both on account of their marvellous transparency and
the facility with which they may be obtained for observation,
I was induced, preparatory to a more minute investigation
of their structure, to map out, as it were, the grosser features
of their anatomy, and thus obtain a kind of chart, the minor
details of which could be filled up as opportunities presented
themselves, and for this purpose sketched under the camera
the main outlines of their economy. As the season again
approaches when these larve are procurable, from the study
of which so much information may be reasonably expected
‘relative to the economy and metamorphoses of the Culicide.
I have thought that it might possibly facilitate the explora-
tion of other observers in this interesting field of study were
I to place the drawings thus made at the disposal of any
members of the Society who may feel an interest in the
‘subject.

There are indeed many points of high physiological im-
portance susceptible of solution, by a careful examination of
this insect in its different stages of growth, which in other
species would seem hopelessly beyond research, owing to
their dark hue and the general opacity of their integuments,
whereas the glass larva, as it is not unfrequently called,
seems eminently constructed for the purpose of courting our
observation, insomuch that it might almost be regarded as
purposely intended for inspection; one of those peep-holes
left by Providence, through which a glimpse may be obtained
of the elaborate machinery of creation.

It would be a waste of time, before an audience, to every
member of which the larva in question is no doubt a familiar

100 Rymer Jones, on Corethra plumicornis.

object, to dwell upon the general form and appearance of this
elegant but ferocious creature,—the symmetry of its shape,
the vivacity of its movements, the fan-shaped plume beneath
its armed tail, which, like a fin, propels it through the water,
its pike-like voracity, or the ruthlessness with which it makes
an onslaught on its prey; and yet the descriptions of it,
given even by modern entomologists, are lamentably meagre,
and give but a feeble idea either of its carnivorous propensi-
ties or its formidable armature. Its mouth presents a ter-
rible apparatus, composed of numerous pieces, the homologies
of which might furnish interesting subject for discussion. In
their disposition they remind us of the foot-jaws of some of
the Branchiopod Crustaceans (such as Chirocephalus), and in
like manner are equally instruments of progression, and
weapons for the capture of prey. ‘The anterior pair, articu-
lated to the apex of the snout, are of great strength, and are
moved by powerful muscles, distinctly seen through the
transparent covering of the head. At their extremities they
bear fan-like tufts of stiff sete, that, when expanded, form
powerful oars, the downward strokes of which, when ener-
getically made, have a marked effect in aiding the progress
of the animal through the water. More frequently, how-
ever, their movements are of a gentler character, and only
serve to cause the influx of a constant stream towards the
mouth, the effect of which extends toa considerable distance,
attracting, like a little Maelstrém, the smaller animals that
come within its vortex.

The second pair of these oral appendages presents a very
different structure. They are composed of numerous narrow
lamin, much resembling, in their arrangement, the plates
of whalebone in a whale’s mouth, and indeed they perform
a very similar office. These plates, represented in the draw-
ing (Pl. IX) in a collapsed condition, can be spread out like
the walls of a tent, so as to enclose as in a net whatever small
animals may be brought within their expanse by the intrant
current above alluded to.

The third pair consists of two elegantly-shaped instruments
wherewith the creature adjusts, as with a pair of hands, the
position of the imprisoned victim, so as to pass it easily along
the fatal road, and hand it to the embrace of

The fourth pair, which in function at least must be com-
pared to palpi. These pieces are of large dimensions, fur-
nished at their extremities with sentient vibrisse, that remind
us of the whiskers of a cat, and with a terminal tuft of greater
strength and thickness, whereby the prey is seized and passed
backward to the gaping jaws.

RyMeEr Jones, on Corethra plumicornis. 101

These last consist of two pairs of crushers, the maxille
and the mandibles, both armed with formidable fangs, while,
to complete the deadly apparatus, spikes of different shapes
surround the immediate margin of the mouth.

The internal digestive organs are not less remarkable than
the complicated machinery described above.

The commencement of the alimentary canal presents a
spacious crop, the walls of which are very strong and mus-
cular; to this succeeds a gizzard, armed internally with
teeth, arranged in densely-crowded phalanx—from this a
tube of remarkable slenderness and of considerable length
leads to the true ventriculus, the walls of which are glandular
and minutely sacculated. ‘To the pyloric extremity are
attached four (so called) hepatic vessels, while the intestine
is simple and slightly dilated towards its extremity. On
placing one of these larve between the plates of the com-
pressor, and pressing it moderately, a very curious phenome-
non presents itself. The muscular walls of the crop, thrown
into violent action, tear away the gizzard and its slender
tubular prolongation, and becoming suddenly everted, pro-
trude from the mouth, having, in this condition, very much
the appearance of the unfolded proboscis of an Annelidan ; a
resemblance much enhanced by the denuded teeth of the
gizzard, that protrude from the extremity of the everted
crop, which latter continues for a long while to exhibit peris-
taltic movements ; while the crushed and mangled bodies of
the swallowed monoculi, upon which these larve principally
subsist, are cast into the surrounding water, and testify to
the efficiency of the curiously-formed apparatus.

In these diaphanous larvee, the action of the heart is very
beautifully exhibited: the contractions of its various cham-
bers succeed each other consecutively, with an apparent
energy of purpose that reminds the observer rather of the
untiring pumping of a steam-engine, than of those rythmical
undulating movements which we should expect to witness in
a viscus haying walls so thin and transparent, and at the
same time so isolated. It is therefore by no means surprising
that the dorsal vessel should be provided with a largely-
developed system of ganglionic nervous centres, the existence
and distribution of which are plainly traceable when using
the higher powers of the microscope. These consist of nume-
rous minute corpuscles, closely resembling in their appearance
Paccionean bodies, and are distinctly perceptible in the
vicinity of each compartment of the dorsal vessel, to which
they are connected by slender filaments. These minute
ganglia are usually disposed in groups, varying from three to

102 Rymer Jones, on Corethra plumicornis.

five in number, suspended in the cellulosity surrounding the
heart.

But perhaps the most characteristic feature in the economy
of these larve is the existence of four remarkable organs,
situated—two of them in the thoracic region and two near
the centre of the posterior half of the body. These strange-
looking masses, conspicuous from their jet-black colour, are
placed in pairs, and uniformly occupy the same situations
corresponding with the centre of gravity, or rather of flotation
of the two halves of the animal to which they respectively
belong. In form they are more or less kidney-shaped, and
are to all appearance completely isolated and unattached to
the surrounding structures. On crushing these kidney-shaped
bodies beneath the compressorium, they are found to be filled
with air, by the compression or rarefaction of which the
creature is enabled to rise or sink in the surrounding water,
without apparent effort, just as a Gold-fish rises or descends
by means of its swimming-oladder. ‘There is no visible
outlet for the air thus confined in their interior, and the most
rigid scrutiny only shows a few delicate air-vessels of extreme
tenuity, in their immediate vicinity. Each of these air-sacs
consists of several coats; of these the outermost, when feebly
magnified, seems of a uniform hue of jet-black ; but appears
under higher powers to be made up of numerous distinct
spots of black pigment, separated by considerable interspaces,
so as to give the organ a reticulated appearance; and it is
only when this black pigment has been removed, together
with a dull opaque membrane, whereon the black patches
rest, that the real air-sac is displayed. When thus denuded,
the true wall of the air-sac appears to be composed of a dense
membrane, possessing great refractive power; the effect of
which upon transmitted light is extraordinary. When highly
magnified, it is found to be entirely composed of numerous
coils of a delicate fibre, similar to that which maintains the
permeability of the trachez of ordinary insects, arranged in
several superimposed layers, and having the appearance of
being closed on all sides. It is not until the larva thus con-
stituted has arrived at its full size that the appearances
described become complicated, by intermixture with organs
belonging to the pupa condition of the insect. At this period,
however, the rudiments of future limbs begin to show them-
selves under the form of transparent vesicles, which, as they
enlarge, crowd the thoracic region of the body.

The change from the larva to the pupa condition involves
several remarkable phenomena. The air-sacs, situated both in
the thoracic region and in the hinder portion, burst and un-

“a

RyMER Jones, on Corethra plumicornis. L03

fold themselves into an elaborate tracheal system; and a pair
of ear-shaped tubes, of which not the slightest trace could
hitherto be discerned, make their appearance upon the dorsal
aspect of the thorax; two long trachez seem to be thus simul-
taneously produced, occupying the two sides of the body and
constituting the main trunks, from which large branches are
given off, to supply in front the head, the eyes, and the
nascent limbs; while posteriorly they spread in rich profusion
over the now conspicuous ovaries, and terminate by ramifying
largely through the thin lamelle that constitute the caudal
appendages. The very act of this strange metamorphosis I
have not been able to witness under the microscope, owing
to the impossibility of predicating the exact period of its
occurrence—but there is reason to believe that it takes place
suddenly, and occupies but a short time in its completion:
In individuals subjected to microscopic examination within a
very brief period after their assumption of the pupa state, the
places originally filled by the air-sacs of the larva are found
to be occupied by the tattered remnants of their external
coats, clearly indicated by ragged membranes, covered with
patches of black pigment, in the immediate vicinity of which
I have invariably met with numerous air-bubbles, extrava-
sated as it were into the cellular tissue, as though forced out
by some leakage during the violent disruption of the air-sac.

I hope on a future occasion to lay before the Society a
series of drawings, illustrative of the minuter details con-
nected with this interesting process; and, in case any of our
members should be induced to devote a portion of their time
to an investigation fraught with many difficulties, will at
present merely say a few words which may probably serve to
facilitate their operations, and save them much probation in
the expensive school of experience. In their fresh condition
these larve are, from their very transparency, almost invi-
sible ; and such is the translucency of their tissues, that these
latter are with great difficulty distinguishable. To remedy
this inconvenience, I have tried the effect of dyeing them
with carmine and magenta, and of preserving them in a
variety of solutions, but with no satisfactory result. So im-
patient are they of endosmotic action, that they will not bear
the slightest increase or diminution in the density of the
surrounding fluid—at the touch of glycerine or syrup (how-
ever much diluted) they shrink up into a shapeless heap, and
by the weakest spirit are converted into masses of distortion.
At last, driven almost to despair by their perversity under
every mode of treatment, I was tempted to enclose them,
while still alive, in cells filled with their native element—

VOL. Xv. i

:

pure water—and at once seal them up with a margin of gold-
size. In this condition I found that they would live for
several hours, and thus exhibit in perfection the action of
the heart, and the ganglionic bodies appended to its walls,
When this had ceased, I was enabled to study them for days
together, and found, to my great gratification, that they only
improve by keeping. Slowly their muscles assume a slight
degree of opacity, and shrinking, as by a sort of rigor moriis,
leave spaces through which the minutest details of their ana-
tomy are distinctly perceptible. The most delicate mem-
branes, by a similar process, are rendered sufficiently opaque
to be plainly visible, and the vesicles of the nascent limbs, in
specimens approaching the pupa condition, become clear and
distinct. The nervous apparatus, constituting the ventral
series of ganglia, forms a very beautiful object: in specimens
thus preserved—the outer sheath, the structure of the ganglia,
the composition of the internodal cords, together with the
origin and course of the nerves, are all displayed in a most
satisfactory manner, even the cross-markings of the muscular
fibres are recognisable with the utmost distinctness. I have
here one or two specimens of these larve thus prepared,
au naturel, which, although they have been upwards of a
year in their present condition, will, I doubt not, when
placed beneath the microscope, fully serve to recommend the
process I have adopted. There is one precaution necessary
in making these preparations, which, trivial as it may seem,
will be found of much practical importance. In order to
delineate specimens thus put up, while in the microscope, by
means of the camera lucida, it is essential that the depth of
the cells in which they are placed should be just such as to
press sufficiently upon the enclosed larva to hold it steady
while in a vertical position, otherwise it sinks in the sur-
rounding fluid, and is continually subject to displacement.
The manner in which I have succeeded in overcoming this
difficulty is very simple. The cells that I employ are discs
of thin sheet-lead, cut out with a circular punch, and per-
forated in the centre by another punch of smaller diameter.
These discs, when cemented to a glass slide with gold-size,
are easily rubbed upon a wet hone to the exact thickness
* required, and the object so mounted retained in its place by
the pressure of the glass, will be found to be as steady and
manageable as if placed in Canada balsam.

104 RyMeEr Jones, on Corethra plumicornis.

105

On NacHE?’s STEREO-PSEUDOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MIcRoscoPE,
and on Nacuet’s SterEoscopic MAGNIFIER; with
Remarks on the ANGLE of APERTURE best adapted to
SterEoscopic Vision. By W. B. Carpenter, Esq.,
M.D., F.R.S., &c.

(Read June 12th, 1867.)

Nachet’s Stereo-Pseudoscopio Binocular Microscope. —
An ingenious modification of Mr. Wenham’s arrangement
has been introduced by MM. Nachet, which has the attri-

Fig. 1,

Arrangement of Prisms in Nachet’s Stereo-pseudoscopic Binocular :—
1, for Stereoscopic ; 2, for Pseudoscopic, effect.

bute, altogether peculiar to itself, of giving to the image
either its true Steoreoscopic projection, or a Pseudoscopic
** conversion of relief,” at the will of the observer. This is ac-
complished by the use of two prisms, one of them (Fig. 1, 4)
placed over the cone of rays proceed- Fig. 2

ing upwards from the objective, and
the other (Bat the base of the secondary
or additional body, which is here placed
on the right (Fig. 2). The prism a
has its upper and ‘lower surfaces paral-
lel; one of its lateral faces inclines at
an angle of 45°, whilst the other is ver-
tical. When this is placed in the
position 1, so that its inclined surface
lies over the left half (1) of the cone ot
rays, these rays, entering the prism per-
pendicularly (or nearly so) to its infe-
rior plane surface, undergo total reflec-
tion at its oblique face, and, being thus
turned into the horizontal direction,
emerge through the vertical surface at :
right angles to it. They then enter the Nachet’s Stereo-pseudo-
vertical face of the second prism B; and _ scopic Microscope.

106 Dr. Carpenter, on Stereoscopic Binoculars.

after suffering reflexion within it, are transmitted upwards
into the right-hand body, 7”, passing out of the prism
perpendicularly to the plane of emersion, which has such
an inclination that the right-hand or secondary body
(xr, Fig. 2) may diverge from the left or principal body at a
suitable angle. On the other hand, the right half (r) of the
cone of rays passes upwards, without essential interruption,
through the two parallel surfaces of the prism 4, into the
left-hand body (/’), and is thus crossed by the others in the
interior of the prism. But if the prism a be pushed over
towards the right (by pressing the button a, Fig. 2), so as
to leave the Jeff half of the objective uncovered, as
shown in position 2, Fig. 1, that half (2) of the cone of rays
will go on without any interruption into the /eft-hand body
(U’), whilst the right half (7) will be reflected by the oblique
face of the prism into the horizontal direction, will emerge
at its vertical face, and, being received by the second prism,
B, will be directed by it into the right-hand body (7’). The
adjustment for the distance between the axes of the eyes is
made by turning the milled-head 4 (Fig. 2), which, by
means of a screw-movement, acts upon a movable chariot
that carries the prism 8 and the secondary body Rr, the base
of which is implanted upon it. Now, in the first; position,
the two halves of the cone of rays being made to cross into
the opposite bodies, true Stereoscopic relief is given to the
image formed by their recombination, just as in the ordinary
arrangement. But when, in the second position, each half
of the cone passes into the body of its own side, so that the
reversal of the images produced by the Microscope itself is no
longer corrected by the crossing of the two pencils separated
by the prism a, a Pseudoscopic effect, or ‘ conversion of
relief,” is produced, the projections of the surface of the
object being represented as hollows, and its concavities
turned into convexities. The suddenness with which this
conversion is brought about, without any alteration in the
position either of the object or of the observer, is a pheno-
menon which no intelligent person can witness without
interest, whilst it has a very special value for those who
study the Physiology and Psychology of Binocular yision.*

* The result of the numerous applications which the Author has made
of this instrument to a great variety of Microscopic objects, has led to a
confirmation of the principle of Pseudoscopic vision which he has stated
elsewhere—viz. that the readiness with which the conversion is effected
depends on the readiness of the mind to apprehend the converted form. Where,
as in the case of the saucer-like discs of the Arachnoidiscus, the real and

the converted forms are equally familiar, the “conversion” either of the
convex exterior or of the concave interior into the semblance of the other

Dr. CarPenteR, on Stereoscopic Binoculars. 107

Asan ordinary working instrument, however, this improved
Nachet Binocular can scarcely be said to possess any point
of superiority to the Wenham; whilst it must be regarded
as inferior in the following particulars :—First, that as the
uninterrupted half of the cone of rays (when the interposed
prism is adjusted for Stereoscopic vision) has to pass through
the two plane surfaces of the prism, a certain loss of light
and deterioration of the picture are necessarily involved ;
whilst, as the interrupted half of the cone of rays has to pass
through four surfaces, the picture formed by it is yet more
unfavorably affected ; and second, that as power of motion must
be given to both prisms—to 4, for the reversal of the images,
and to B for the adjustment of the distance between the two
bodies—a greater liability to derangement results than in
the simpler construction of Mr. Wenham.*

Nachet’s Binocular Magnifier.—Though the Author can
testify to the fidelity of the effect of relief obtainable by

Nachet’s Binocular Magnifier, adapted to Beck’s Dissecting
Microscope.

the Binocular arrangement adapted by Mr. R. Beck

is made both suddenly and completely. In more complex and less familiar
forms, on the other hand, the conversion frequently requires time ; being
often partial in the first instance, and only gradually becoming complete.
And there are some objects which resist conversion altogether, the only
effect being a confusion of the two images. 7

* This arrangement, like Mr. Wenham’s, can be adapted to any existing
Microscope; and it seems peculiarly suitable to those of French or German
construction, in which the body is much shorter than in the ordinary English
models. For in the application of the Wenham arrangement to a short
Microscope, the requisite distance between the eye-glasses of its two bodies

108 Dr. CarPENTER, on Stereoscopic Binoculars.

to his Dissecting Microscope,* he has found its utility to
be practically limited by the narrowness of its field of
view, by its deficiency of light and of magnifying power,
and by the inconvenience of the manner in which the eyes
have to be applied to it. An arrangement greatly superior
in all these particulars having been recently worked out by
MM. Nachet, the Author has combined the Optical part of
their Dissecting Microscope with Mr. R. Beck’s Stand, and
finds every reason to be satisfied with the result ; the solidity
of the Stand giving great firmness, whilst the size of the stage-
plate affords ample room for the hands to rest upon it. The
Objective in Nachet’s arrangement is an Achromatic combi-
nation of three pairs, having a clear aperture of nearly 3-4ths
of an inch, and a power about equal to that of a single lens
of one-inch focus; and immediately over this is a pair of
prisms, each resembling a, Fig. 1,, having their inclined
surfaces opposed to each other, so as to divide the pencil of
rays passing upwards from the Objective into two halves.
These are reflected horizontally, the one to the right and the
other to the left; each to be received by a lateral prism cor-
responding to B, and to be reflected upwards to its own Eye,
at such a slight divergence from the perpendiculars as to give
a natural convergence to the axes when the eyes are applied
to the Eye-tubes, superposed on the lateral prisms—the dis-
tance between these and the central prisms being made
capable of variation, as in the Compound Binocuiar of the
same makers. ‘The magnifying power of this instrument may
be augmented to 35 or 40 diameters, by inserting’ a concave
lens into each Eye-piece, which converts the combination into
the likeness (as originally suggested by Professor Briicke, of
Vienna) of a Galilean Telescope (or Opera-glass) ; and this ar-
rangement has the additional advantage of increasing the dis-
tance between the object and the object-glass, so as to give
more room for the use of dissecting instruments.

To all who are engaged in investigations requiring very
minute and delicate Dissection, the author can most strongly
recommend MM. Nachet’s instrument. No one who has not
had experience of it can estimate the immense advantage
given by the Stereoscopic view, not merely in appreciating
the solid form of the object under dissection, but also in
precisely estimating the relation of the instrument to it in

can only be obtained by making those bodies diverge at an angle so wide as
to produce great discomfort in the use of the instrument, from the neces-
sity of maintaining an unusual degree of convergence between the axes o.
the eyes.

* ‘Transactions of the Microscopical Society,’ N. S., vol. xii, p. 3.

Dr. CarrEentER, on Stereoscopic Binoculars. 109

the vertical direction. This is especially important when
horizontal sections are being made with fine scissors; since
the course of the section can thus be so regulated to pass
through the plane desired, with an exactness totally un-
attainable by the use of any Monocular Magnifier.

On the Angle of Aperture best suited for Stereoscopic Vision.
—The Stereoscopic Binocular is put to its most advantageous
use when applied either to opaque objects of whose solid
forms we are desirous of gaining an exact appreciation, or to
transparent objects which have such a thickness as to make
the accurate distinction between their nearer and their more
remote planes a matter of importance. That its best and
truest effects can only be attained by Objectives not exceeding
40° of angular aperture, may be shown both theoretically and
practically. Taking the average distance between the pupils
of the two Eyes as the base of a triangle, and any point of
an Object placed at the ordinary reading-distance as its apex,
the vertical angle enclosed between its two sides will be from
12°to 15° ; which, in other words, is the angle of divergence
between the rays proceeding from any point of an Object at
the ordinary reading-distance to the two Eyes respectively.
This angle, therefore, represents that at which the two pic-
tures of an object should be taken in the Photographic
Camera, in order to produce the effect of ordinary Binocular
vision without exaggeration; and it is the one which is
adopted by Portrait-photographers, who have found by expe-
rience that a smaller angle makes the image formed by the
combination of the pictures appear too flat, whilst a larger
angle exaggerates its projection. Now, in applying this
principle to the Microscope, we have to treat the two lateral
halves (1, R, fig. 4) of the Objective as the two separate
lenses of a double Portrait Camera, and to consider at what
angle each half should be entered by
the rays passing through it to form
its picture. ‘To any one acquainted
with the principles of Optics, it must
be obvious that the picture formed
by each half of the Objective must
be (so to speak) an average or gene-
ral resultant of the dissimilar pic-
tures formed by its different parts.
Thus, if we could divide the lateral
halves or Semi-lenses L, R, of the
Objective by vertical lines into the
three bands afc and a’ J’ c’, and could stop off the two
corresponding bands on either side, so as only to allow

Fig. 4.

110 Dr. Carpenter, on Stereoscopic Binoculars.

the light to pass through the remaining pair, we should find
that the two pictures we should receive of the object would
vary sensibly, according as they are formed by the bands
aa’, bb’, or ec’. For, supposing the pictures taken through
the bands 5 8’ to be sufficiently dissimilar in their perspective
projections to give, when combined in the Microscope, a
sufficient but unexaggerated Stereoscopic relief, those taken
through the bands aa’ on either side of the centre would be
no more dissimilar than two portraits taken at a very small
angle between the Cameras, and their combination would
very inadequately bring out the effect of relief; whilst, on
the other hand, the two pictures taken through the extreme
lateral slips c c’ would differ as widely as portraits taken at
too great an angle of divergence between the Cameras, and
their bomionne fi6n would exaggerate the actual relief of the
object. Now, in each of the bands 6 J’, a spot v v’ may be
found by mathematical computation, which may be desig-
nated the visual centre of the whole Semi-lens; that is, the
spot which, if all the rest of the Semi-lens were stopped off,
would form a picture most nearly corresponding to that given
by the whole of it. This having been determined, it is easy
to ascertain what should be the angle of aperture (0 p q>
fig. 5) of the entire Lens, in order “that the angles v p v’
between the “ visual centres ” of its two halves should be 15°.
The investigation of this question having been kindly under-
taken for the Author by his friend Prof. Hirst, the conclu-
sion at which he has arrived is, that the angle of aperture of
Fie. § the entire Lens should be about
iE 366°. This, which he gives as
an approximate result only (the
requisite data for a complete Ma-
thematical solution of the ques-
tion not having yet been ob-
tained), harmonises most remark-
ably with the result of experi-
mental observations made upon
objects of known shape, with
Objectives of different angular
apertures.

When spherical objects, such
as the globular forms of Polycys-
tina or the pollen-grains of the
Malvacee, are placed* under a
Stereoscopic Binocular, provided
with an Objective of one half or four-tenths of an inch focus,
having an angular aperture of 80° or 90°, the effect of
projection is so greatly exaggerated, that ‘the side next

Dr. Carpenter, on Stereoscopie Binoculars. lll

the eye, instead of resembling a hemisphere, looks like
the small end of an egg. If, then, the aperture of such
an Objective be reduced to 60° by a diaphragm placed
behind its back lens, the exaggeration is diminished,
though not removed; the hemispherical surface now
looking like the large end of an egg. But if the aper-
ture be further reduced to 40° by the same means, it is at
once seen that the hemispheres turned towards the eye are
truly represented ; the effect of projection being quite ade-
quate, without being in the least exaggerated Hence it may
be confidently affirmed—alike on theoretical and on practical
grounds—that when an Objective of wider angle than 40° is
used with the Stereoscopic Binocular, the object viewed by
it is represented in exaggerated relief, so that its apparent
form must be more or less distorted.

There are other substantial reasons, moreover, why Objec-
tives of limited angle of aperture should be preferred (save in
particular cases) for use with the Stereoscopic Binocular. As
the special value of this instrument is to convey to the mind a
notion of the solid forms of objects, and of the relations of their
parts to each other, not merely on the same but on different
planes, it is obvious that those Objectives are most suitable to
produce this effect, which possess the greatest amount of pene-
tration or focal depth; that is, which show most distinctly,
not merely what is precisely in the focal plane, but what lies
nearer to or more remote from the Objective. Now, as
increase of the angle of aperture is necessarily attended with
diminution of penetrating power, an Objective of 60° or 80°
of aperture, though exhibiting minute surface-details which
an Objective of 40° cannot show, is much inferior in suit-
ability to convey a true conception of the general form of
any object, the parts of which project considerably above the
focal plane or recede below it.*

The Author would further draw attention to two important
advantages he has found the Stereoscopic Binocular to
possess, his own experience on these points being fully

* In accordance with these principles, the Author has caused Messrs.
Powell and Lealand to construct for him an Objective of half-inch focus
with an angular aperture of 40°; and he has found it to answer most
admirably for the purpose for which it was intended—the examination of
Opaque objects with the Stereoscopic Binocular. For not only are these
represented in their true forms, but the relations of their different parts
are seen with a completeness not otherwise attainable. Aud an Objective
so constructed has this great advantage over one whose originally larger
aperture has been reduced by a diaphragm—that the distance between its
fropt lens and the object is so much greater, as to admit far more con-
veiiently of side illumination.

112 Dr. Carpenter, on Stereoscopic Binoculars.

confirmed by that of others. In the first place, the pene-
trating power or focal depth of the Binocular is greatly
superior to that of the Monocular Microscope ; so that an
object whose surface presents considerable mequalities, is
very much more distinctly seen with the former than with
the latter. The difference may in part be attributed to the
practical reduction in the Angle of aperture of the Objective,
which is produced by the division of the cone of rays trans-
mitted through it into two halves ; so that the picture received
through each half of an Objective of 60° is formed by rays
diverging at an angle of only 30°. But that this Optical
explanation does not go far to account for the fact, is easily
proved by the simple experiment of looking at the object in
the first instance through each eye separately (the prism
being in place), and then with both eyes together; the dis-
tinctness of the parts which lie above and beneath the focal
plane being found to be much greater when the two pictures
are combined, than it is in either of them separately.

In the absence of any Optical explanation of the greater
range of focal depth thus showed to be possessed by the
Stereoscopic Binocular, the Author is inclined to attribute it
to an allowance for the relative distances of the parts which
seems to be unconsciously made by the Mind of the observer,
when the solid image is shaped out in it by the combination
of the two pictures. This seems the more likely from the
second fact to be now mentioned, namely, that when the Bino-
cular is employed upon objects suited to its powers, the pro-
longed use of it is attended with very much less fatigue than is
that of the Monocular Microscope. This, again, may be
in some degree attributed to the division of the work
between the two eyes; but the Author is satisfied that unless
there is a feeling of discomfort in the eye itself, the sense of
fatigue is rather mental than visual, and that it proceeds from
the constructive effort which the Observer has to make, who
aims at realising the solid form of the object he is examining,
by an interpretation based on the flat picture of it presented
by his vision, aided only by the use of the Focal Adjustment,
which enables him to determine what are its near and what
its remote parts, and to form an estimate of their difference
of distance. Now, a great part of this constructive effort is
saved by the use of the Binocular, which at once brings before
the Mind’s eye the solid image of the object, and thus gives
to the Observer a conception of its form usually more com-
plete and accurate than he could derive from any amount of
study of a Monocular picture.*

* Tt has happened to the Author to be frequently called on to explain

Dr. CarPentTER, on Stereoscopic Binoculars. 113

the advantages of the Binocular to the Continental (especially German)
savans who have not made themselves acquainted with the instrument.
And he has been struck with finding that when he exhibited to them objects
with which they had previously become familiar by careful study, and of
whose solid forms they had already attained an accurate conception, they
perceived no advantage in the Stereoscopic combination ; seeing such objects
with it (visually) just as they had been previously accustomed to see them
(mentally) without it. But when he has exhibited to them suitable objects
with which they had zot been previously familiarised, and has caused them
to look at these in the first instance mozocularly, and then stereoscopically,
he has never failed to satisfy them of the value of the latter method, except
when some visual imperfection has prevented them from properly appre-
ciating it. He may mention that he has found the wing of a small Butterfly,
having an undulating surface, on which the scales are set at various angles
instead of having the usual imbricated arrangement, a peculiarly appropriate
object for this demonstration ; the general inequality of its surface, and the
individual obliquities of its scales, being at once shown by the Binocular,
with a force and completeness which could not be obtained by the most
prolonged and careful Monocular study.

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W.C_M. del. Tuffen West sc.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL
SOCIETY OF LONDON.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II,

Illustrating Dr. McIntosh’s paper on the Gregariniform
Parasite of Borlasia.
Fig.

1.—The gregariniform parasite from Borlasia octoculata. Xx 200 diam,

2.—Do. do. from one of the long examples from Devon. xX 350 diam.

3.—Outline of one of the parasites after prolonged immersion in water.

4,—Curious structures extruded with the parasites under pressure from
B. octoculata. x 350 diam,

5.—Parasitic ovum. x 350 diam.

6.—Gelatinous cord, with ova iz sit, x 180 diam.

eans 9

aaa eS

Trond Mec Soe VAL V NOG

Gk. in

WU Whitney del. T West se

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES III & IV,

Illustrating Mr. Whitney’s paper on the Metamorphosis
of the Tadpole.

PLATE III.
Fig.

1.—The young tadpole (enlarged view) within the capsule of the egg.

2.—The tadpole (enlarged view) twenty-four hours after birth, exhibiting
nostrils, mouth, suckers, and external gills.

3.—The tadpole, life size, as seen by the naked eye, on the fourth or fifth
day after birth, with the outer gills in full development.

4.—The young tadpole (enlarged view), exhibiting the ozéer gills, with the
digital-like tufts of the incipient izzer gills, and the pair of minute
tubes below the heart, which are the incipient lungs of the future

frog. :
5 —The tadpole, life size, as seen by the naked eye, when the outer gills
are disappearing.
6.—The tadpole (enlarged view) with the outer gills nearly removed; the
operculum closed on the right side, but permanently open on the left ;
the digital tufts enlarging.
7.—Exhibits the crests of the izner gills in the more advanced stage, and
the progressive development of the /ungs at the same period.
8.—Simple loop of blood-vessel as seen in the second stage of the inner
gill (fig. 12), and the tortuous shapes afterwards seen in the crests
of the third stage.
9.—Enlargement of the vessel connecting the afferent and efferent trunks
of the inner gill.
10 —“ The waning tadpole and incipient frog.”
11.—View of the lungs as seen on one occasion through the back of a tad-
pole.

PLATE IV.

12.—Internal gill of the tadpole, in its second stage.
13.—Internal gill, fully developed, exhibiting the crests and vascular system.

14.—The vascular connection of the external with the incipient internal

ills.
15,—Exhibite the lungs of the young frog, with the right lung in a state of
vascular injection.
16.—The heart, systemic arteries, pulmonary arteries and veins, and Inngs
in the full-grown frog. In the right hand figure the heart is turned
up to show the junction of the pulmonary veins, and their point of
entrance into the left auricle.

te

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICRO-
SCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES V & V1,

Illustrating E. Ray Lankester’s paper on the Structure of
the Tooth in Ziphius Sowerbiensis (Micropteron Sower-
biensis, Eschricht), and on some Fossil Cetacean Teeth.

PLATE V.
Fig.
1.—Part of a transverse section of the upper part of the tooth of Microp-
teron Sowerbiensis, in the University Museum, Oxford, c, Cement ;
g, globular matter, with interglobular spaces ; d, dentine ; 0-d, osteo-
dentine.

2.—Portion of another section, a little nearer the base ; letters as before,

3.—Cement of the same tooth; natural size of lacunee, stoth—y5,th of
an inch. @, Small longitudinal lacune.

4.—Dentinal tubules emerging from the opaque globular mass, with its
interglobular spaces or dentinal cells.

PLATE VI.

1.—Tooth of Micropteron Sowerbiensis, natural size. 4 B, Line of the
alveolus.

2.—Longitudinal section of the same. 4, Line of microscopic sections ;

d, dentine; o-d, osteo-dentine ; g, globular matter; c, cement.
3.—Half of a transverse section; letters as before.
4.—Osteo-dentine of a fossil tooth.

5, 6.—Osteo-dentinal cavities of fig. 4 in section ; natural size, 3.th—y5th
inch.

pR Lankester del. Tuffen West sc.

PRAY ET Re
garda pi ; ay “a

£

ie, 3 a

TRANS. MIC. SOC. VOL. XV. N.S. PL. VI.

OVARIAN OVA.—STICKLEBACK.

SHOWING GERMINAL MATTER COLOURED WITH CARMINE.

Free germinal vesicle, of which the wall
is raised at one part, showing the ‘colloid
mass.’ After Dr Ransom.

Ovarian ovum, with large germinal
vesicle. The yolk cracked and form-
ing fissures radiating Coy

7 x

Hig. 5.

Germinal spots, with new centres (nucleoli)
. 3 - within them, and more minute germinal spots
nal spots from a ruptured germinal vesicle. in the intervals between them. x 550,
The cyum was 7; inch in diameter, and

the germinal vesicle 535-

Supposed section of germinal
‘ vesicle, showing germinal
minal vesicle, showing ger- Most minute ovarian ova under- matter throughout.

nal spots all over the surface. going development, in the midst of
X% 210. a delicate tissue with cells. ap
: x

Globules of yolk, with germinal matter Extremely small germinal spots.
(nuclei). Advanced ovarian bi x 1700.
x 216.

1000th inch 1 1 * 215,

Z 7 re, ee een ee I tee x 1700.
B., April, 1867.]

[HARRISONS TMPT.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL MICROSCO-
PICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX,

Illustrating Professor Rymer Jones’s paper on the Structure
and Metamorphosis of the Larva of Corethra plumicornis.

Fig.
1.—Larva of Corethra plumicornis representing the general arrangement
of the viscera, aud the position of the air-vesicles, sketched under the
compressor, and magnified sixty diameters.

2.—Pupa of Corethra plumicornis as seen under the compressor shortly
after its change from the larva condition. The air-vesicles have
disappeared, the anterior pair having been converted into the respi-
ratory tubes—O’ 0’. The now largely developed tracheal system
seems to be entirely derived from the disruption of the two pairs of
air-vesicles, the lacerated remains of which may be seen scattered
throughout the cavity of the body and adhering in the shape of
small patches of black pigment to the walls of the lateral traches.
The ganglionic nervous system of the dorsal vessel is largely developed,
and the masses composing the ventral series of ganglia of great pro-
portionate dimensions. From the opacity of the thoracic region it
was impossible to see whether any changes had occurred in the con-
dition of the proventriculus and muscular gizzard.

3.—Represents the head and apparatus of jaws of the larva of Corethra
plumicornis as seen under the compressor, magnified about 200
diameters. The proventriculus is inverted and protruded from the
mouth together with the muscular gizzard f, and the narrow tube g,
whereby the latter viscus originally communicated with the ventricular
portion of the alimentary canal ; a nervous plexus, and a few gan-
glionic centres are seen in the muscular walls of the proventriculus.
The same letters of reference indicate corresponding parts in all the
three figures.

1.—Ist pair of oral appendages.

2.—2nd pair of ditto
3 —38rd pair of ditto
4,—4th pair of ditto

_ 5.—=5th pair of ditto

PLATE IX.—continued.

6.—6th pair of oral appendages.

7.—Auxiliary spikes, situated beneath the mouth.
a.—Encephalic masses of the nervous system.
6.—Conglomeration of eyes.

c.—Ocellus detached from the principal organs of vision.
d.—Ventral chain of nervous ganglia.

e.— Proventriculus.

f—Gizzard.

g-—Slender canal leading from the gizzard to
h.—Ventricular portion of alimentary canal.
i.—Pylorus and insertion of

k.—Hepatic cecal tubes.

/.—Small intestine.

m.— Large intestine.

n.— Anal aperture.

o.— Air-vesicles, subsequently converted into 0’ dorsal respiratory tubes,
and

p.—Tracheal system.
g.—Dorsal vessel, to the different compartments of which are appended
r.—Nervous ganglia of the heart.

s.—Rudimentary ovaries.

¢.—Nerves and ganglionic masses in the muscular walls of the proventri-
culus.

INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS.

VOLUME XV.

A.

Acistes, on two new species of the
genus, by Henry Davis, F.R.M.S., 13.

Address of the President for 1$66-
67, by James Glaisher, 25.

Anniversary Meeting of Royal Micro-
scopical Society, 22.

Auditors’ report, 24.

B.

Beale, Lionel S., on nutrition from

a microscopical point of view, 75.
< a on the germinal

matter of the ovarian ova of the
stickleback, 85.

Binocular microscopes, by W. B. Car-
penter, M.D., 105.

Brown, J. H., on an iris diaphragm,
74.

Browning, John, notes on the spectra
of a dichroic fluid, 71.

Bye-Laws and Charter of the Royal
Microscopical Society, 7.

C.

Carpenter on binocular microscopes,
105.

Cetacean teeth, on some fossil, by EK.
Ray Lankester, F.R.M.S., 59.

Charter and Bye-Laws of the Royal
Microscopical Society, 7.

Colour in organised substances, by
J. B. Sheppard, M.R.C.S.E., 64.
Condenser, double hemispherical, for
the microscope, by the Rev. J. B.

Reade, F.R.S., 2.

Corethra plumicornis, on the metamor-
phosis of the larva of, by Prof.
Rymer Jones, 99.

VOL. XV.

Crystallisation of the sulphates of
iron, cobalt, and nickel, by Robert
Thomas, 19.

D.

Davis, Henry, on two new species of
the genus Aicistes, 15.

Diaphragm eye-piece for the micro-
scope, by Henry J. Slack, 1.

Dichroic fluid, notes on the spectra of
a, by John Browning, F.R.A.S., 71.

G.

Germinal matter of the ovarian ova of
the Stickleback, by L. S. Beale,
M.B., F.R.S., 75.

Glaisher, James, President’s address,
Ob:

Gregariniform parasite of Borlasia, by
W.C. McIntosh, M.D., F.L.S., 38.

H.

Haddock, remarks on the parasites in
the nerves of the common, by R.
L. Maddox, 87.

if

Iris diaphragm proving the circular
form whether expanding or con-
tracting, by J. H. Brown, Esq., 74.

J.

Jones, Rymer, on the metamorphosis
of the larva of Corethra plumicornis,

99.
L.
Lamps for the microscope, on two
new, by Ellis G. Lobb, Y.R.M.S.,
72.

k

116

Lankester, E. Ray, on some fossil
cetacean teeth, 55.

Lobb, Ellis G., on two new lamps for
the microscope, 72.

M.

Maddox, R. L., on the parasites in
nerves of the common haddock, 87.

McIntosh, W. C., on the gregarini-
form parasite of Borlasia, 38.

N.

Nutrition, on, from a microscopical
point of view, by S. Beale, M.B.,
&e., 75.

O.

Opaque illumination, on a form of
slide for, by Samuel Piper, 18.

iP:

Parasites, on, found in the nerves of
the common haddock, by R. L.
Maddox, M.D., 87.

Piper, Samuel, on a portable slide
cabinet and form of slide for opaque
illumination, 16.

Portable slide cabinet, on a, by Samuel
Piper, 16.

INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS.

)

R.

Reade, J. B., on a double hemispheri-
cal condenser for the microscope,
2.

Ss.

Sheppard, J. B., on colour in organ-
ised substances, 64.

Slack, H. J., on diaphragm eye-piece
for the microscope, 1.

Slide, on form of, for opaque illumi-
nation, by Samuel Piper, 18.

Sulphates of iron, cobalt, and nickel,
on the crystallisation of, by Robert
Thomas, 19.

rT:

Tadpole, on the changes which accom-
pany the metamorphosis of the, by
W. U. Whitney, Esq., M.R.C.S.,
&e. &e., 43.

Thomas, Robert, on the crystallisation
of the sulphates of iron, cobalt, and
nickel, 19.

Tomkins, J. Newton, on a travelling
microscope, 20.

Travelling microscope, on a, by J.
Newton Tomkins, F.R.C.S., F.S.S.,
F.R.MLS., 20.

Z.

Ziphius Sowerbiensis, on the structure
of the tooth of, by E. Ray Lankes-
ter, F.R.MLS., 55.

i a
PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

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