On agriculture, with a recension of the text and an English translation by Harrison Boyd Ash

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.

EDITED BY
tT. E. PAGE, C.H., LITT.D.

tE. CAPPS, PH.D., ix.D. fW. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d.

L. A. POST, L.H.D. E. H. WARMINGTON, m.a., f.r.hist.soc.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS
COLUMELLA

ON AGRICULTURE

1

LUCIUS JUNIUS
MODERATUS COLUMELLA

ON AGRICULTURE

IN THREE VOLUMES

I

RES RUSTICA I-IV

WITH A RECENSION OF THE TEXT AND AN
ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

HARRISON BOYD ASH, Ph.D.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OP LATIN, UNI\'ERSITT OF PENNSTLVAKIA

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

MCMLX

Pa

First printed 1941
Reprinted 1948, 1960

Printed in Great Britain

CONTENTS

PAGE

Prefaces ....... vii

Introduction

- Life and Works of Columella . . xiii

Manuscripts and Editions . . . xx

Bibliography ..... xxvii

SiGLA ....... xxxiii

Book I . . . . . . .2

Preface — Writers on Husbandry — Rules for the
Husbandman — Situation and Quality of Land —
Water — Farm Buildings— Master and Tenant —
Farm Overseer, Herdsmen, Shepherds.

Book II 104

Kinds of Land — Ditching and Draining — Tests
of Soil — Ploughing — Care of Oxen in Ploughing —
Seasons for Cultivation — Manuring — Grains —
Seasons for Sowing — Quantity of Seed Required —
Sowing of Legumes, Flax, Hemp, Turnips — Fodder
Crops — Cultivation of Grains and Legumes — Num-
ber of Labourers Required — Quahties of Various
Manures — Times for Manuring — Care of Meadows
— Hay — Reaping and Threshing — Precepts for the
Husbandman on Hohdays.

CONTENTS

Book III 226

Soils Suitable for Vines — Varieties of the Vine —
Advantages of the Vineyard to Husbandmen — Vine
Nurseries — Cuttings — Fruitfulness of Vines —
Choice of Shoots and Cuttings — Qualities of Soil
Required for Vineyards — Preparation of the Soil
— Methods of Planting the Vine — Seasons for
Planting the Vine — Length of Cuttings — Number
of Varieties to be Planted.

Book IV 352

Depth of Trenches for Vine-plants — Supports for
the Vine — Training the Young Vine — Cultivation
and Pruning of the Vine — Pruning of Quicksets
and Cuttings — Methods of Propping — Layering —
Transplanting — Vine Frames of Reeds — Pruning
of Young Vineyards — Restoration of Old Vine-
yards— General Precepts for the Vineyardist — The
Pruning-knife — Training the Vine to the Frame
— Duties of the Vine-dresser — Leaf-pruning —
Grafting — Willow Plantations — Broom — Reeds —
Chestnut-trees.

VI

THE ORIGINAL PREFACE TO
VOL. I

The text here translated, for Books I-II, VI-VII,
X-XI, and De Arboribus, is based on that of
Lundstrom, with some changes in orthography,
punctuation, and capitalization to conform more
nearly to English and American usage. For the
remaining six books the translator has attempted
to construct a reasonably comparable text by the
collation of five important manuscripts with the
latest printed edition, that of Schneider (1794).

The translator is greatly indebted to the Faculty
Research Fund of the University of Pennsylvania
for a grant which made it possible for him to examine
a number of Columella manuscripts abroad and to
purchase photostatic copies of the four major codices.
Grateful acknowledgment is made of the permission
of the Trustees of the Pierpont Morgan Library to
include the readings of the Morgan manuscript of
Columella. The thanks of the writer are due also to
his colleague Axel Johan Uppvall, Professor of
Scandinavian Languages at the University of Penn-
sylvania, for the translation of numerous Swedish
works.

A full index to this work of Columella will be
supplied at the end of the third volimne when
issued.

Harrison Bovd Ash.

University of Pennsylvania
April 10, 1940

PREFATORY NOTE

Owing to the death of Dr. Harrison Boyd Ash of
the University of Pennsylvania shortly after the pub-
lication of the first volume (Books I-IV) of the De
Re Rustica of Columella, the Editors entrusted me
with the remainder of the work.

There has been no complete modern edition of
the text since J. G. Schneider's (Leipzig 1794), but
the principles laid down by Dr. Ash appear to me
to be entirely satisfactory. He describes them
as follows: "The text and manuscript readings
of the present edition, for Books I-H, VI-VH,
X-XI and the De Arboribus, rest substantially
on the work of Lundstrom. For Books ni-\^,
\Tn-IX and XH, the translator has attempted to
construct a critical text in some approximation
to that of Lundstrom by the collation of four
major manuscripts with the text of Schneider."
It was natural to conclude from these words that a
text constructed by Dr. Ash would be available for
the rest of the work, but no traces of the existence
of such a text have been found in America. It has,
therefore, been necessary to undertake the con-
struction of a new text, and I have tried to conform
as far as possible with Dr. Ash's system, using
Lundstrom 's edition for those books which he has
edited and attempting a new text for Books V, VIII,
IX and XII. For this purpose I have been fortunate,
through the good offices of Professor L. A. Post, in
obtaining from America photostats of the four most

PREFATORY NOTE

important MSS. (see p. xx of Vol. I), which fall into
two classes, (a) the two 9th-10th century MSS. and
(6) the two best of the 15th-century MSS. The photo-
stats, which were used by Dr. Ash for his collation
of Books III and IV, were purchased with a grant
provided by the Faculty Research Fund of the
University of Pennsylvania. The only point in
which my text of these books differs from that of
Dr. Ash is that I have not had an opportunity, which
Dr. Ash had, of comparing my text wth that of the
MS. known as Morganeiisis 138, formerly Hamil-
tonensis 184 in the Pierpont Morgan Library in New
York.

For some unexplained reason the text of Book V,
especially Chapter VIII to the end, is in a worse
condition than in any other part of the work, and
there is the further complication that, from Chapter
X to the end, the text, though slightly longer, is
closely identical with that of De Arboribus, Chapter
XVIII to the end. It seems certain that the De
Arboribus is part of an earlier and shorter treatise
which was afterwards superseded by the De Re
Rustica. It is a question how far the text of these
similar chapters in the De Rusiica and the De
Arboribus should be corrected from one another.
There are numerous places in which the text of
Book V is deficient or careless, and these can be
corrected from the De Arboribus, but it also appears
that the author made a good many verbal changesi
as well as inserting new matter. I have, therefore,
refrained from making the two slightly different
versions correspond exactly and have kept the MS.
reading in both treatises where it makes sense — •
very often the same sense in slightly different

PREFATORY NOTE

words — but the fact that there are these two
versions has necessitated a larger apparatus criticus
in these chapters of Book \ than for any other part
of the work.

I have to thank His Grace the Duke of Devonshire
for lending me [M. C. Curtius], L. Junius Moderatus
Columella on Husbandry in Twelve Books and his
Book concerning Trees (London 1745) (a very rare
work) from the Chatsworth Library, and Mademoi-
selle Helfene Rousseau for obtaining for me in Paris
a copy of M. Nisard, Les Agronomes Latins (Paris,
1844), for which I had been searching for many
months.

Edward S. Forster.

Upon the death of Professor Forster, the Editors
of this Library entrusted to me the responsibility
of completing the unfinished project. In the cir-
cumstances this assignment naturally extended to
the making of a thoi'ough examination of every
aspect of the work. The photostats mentioned by
my predecessor in the above lines were in due time
returned to America and were fully utilized in the
process of examination and study. In the checking
between these manuscripts, as well as in the verifi-
cation of references to important earlier editions of
Columella, very substantial assistance was furnished
to me by my wife, which I desire gratefully to ac-
knowledge here. It is to be hoped that the process of
restudying and reviewing has resulted in an improved
product. It is always a serious thing to find your-
self differing with another person on matters of a
scholarly nature ; to handle such materials when left

PREFATORY NOTE

by the hand of one who is no longer able to speak in
defence of his interpretation imposes many a delicate
task. Naturally there are numerous passages in the
text of Columella, and also in the Enghsh version,
which I would have handled somewhat differently
from the manner in which they were treated by my
predecessor if I had been free to shape things de novo.
However, this statement applies rather to materials
involving the factors of taste and judgment than to
those where the essential thought was an issue.

The reader might be reminded of the Biblio-
graphy prepared by the late Professor Ash and
included in \o\. I of this Library. The works per-
taining to Columella that are there cited were
obviously made use of by Professor Forster, as they
were also utilized by me.

Edward H. Heffner.

xu

INTRODUCTION i

Life and Works of Columella

Our knowledge of the personal history of Lucius
Junius Moderatus Columella, and of the dates of
his writings, has been derived almost entirely by
conjecture from those incidental references which
he makes, at various places in his works, to himself
and his contemporaries.^ From these sources we
learn that he was a native of Gades (Cadiz), ^ a
Roman municipium of the province of Baetica in
southern Spain ; and although the date of his birth
is unknown, it is obvious that he was born near the
beginning of the first century of our era.

Columella defines his period loosely by his mention
of Marcus Varro (circa 116-27 b.c.) as a contemporary
of his grandfather.* His time is more clearly
indicated in a reference to Seneca ^ as living in his
day ; so, too, he speaks of Cornelius Celsus ^ (Jl. 1st
cent. A.D.) as a contemporary. He also quotes as

1 Taken in part from H. B. Ash, L. luni Moderali Coin-
mellae Eei Rusticae Liber Decimus : De Cultu Hortorum,
Philadelphia, 1930.

2 Biographers have added but little to the facts first deduced
by FiUppo Beroaldo (1453-150.5), In Libros XIII Columellae
Annotationes, and printed in several of the early editions.
Cf. Barbaret, De Columellae Vita et Scriptis (Nancy, 1887),
p. 9.

3 VIII. 16. 9; X. 185. * I. Praef. 15. ^ III. 3. 3.

» I. 1. 14; III. 1. 8; III. 2. 31; III. 17. 4; IV. 1. 1.
Celsus is thought by Cichorius {Bum. Stud., 1922, pp. 411-
417) to have written his agricultural treatise a.d. 25-26.

INTRODUCTION

authorities of his time several others of whom we
have definite knowledge, as Trebellius,^ Graecinus,^
Julius Atticus,^ Volusius,* and Gallio.^ From these
and other references ® it is clear that Columella was
living during the time of Lucius Annaeus Seneca
{circa 4 b.c.-a.d. 65) and Pliny the Elder (23-79),
by whom he is quoted, and that he was of about the
same age as the former and several years older than
the latter. We have reason to believe, from the
conclusion of Book XII,' that his work was completed
when he was well advanced in years.*

1 V, 1. 2. M. Trebellius, legatus of Vitellius (Tac. Ann. VI.
41. 1), was governor of Syria a.d. 36.

"1.1.14; IV. 3. 6. Julius Graecinus was put to death under
Caligula (Tac. Agr. 4) in 39 or 40.

* IV. 1. 1; IV. 8. 1. Nothing more is known of Julius
Atticus than is found in Columella's scattered references to
him as a contemporary of Celsus. Reitzenstein {De
ScTiptorum Rei Rusticae Libris Deperditis, p. 27) concludes
from this evidence that he was somewhat older than Celsus
and that he wrote in the time of Tiberius.

* I. 7. 3. The Lucius Volusius mentioned by Pliny {N.H.
VII. 49), who died a.d. 56 at the age of ninetv-three; cf.
Tac. Ann. XIII. 30, XIV. 56.

' IX. 16. 2. Gallic, brother of the younger Seneca, died
A.D. 65.

* Collected by Reitzenstein op. cit., pp. 62f. ' XII. 59. 5.

* Reitzenstein (op. cit., p. 31; c/. Becher, op. cit., p. II)
inclines to the view that the works of Columella appeared in
the year 64, and certain)}^ not before 61, basing his argument
on the late date of Seneca's ownership of the Nomentan farm
(III. 3. 3), which, as PUny writes (N.H. XIV. 45, 49) in a.d.
77, was bought by Remmius Palaemon in hisce viginti annis
and sold to Seneca within ten years. Haussner (Die luind-
schriftliche Ueberliefcrung dcs . . . Columella, p. 7), carrying
the question further, places the date of Seneca's purchase
in 62 or 63, the composition of Columella's third book between
that date and the year of Seneca's death (65), and the publi-
cation of the whole work after 65.

INTRODUCTION

The parents of Columella are named nowhere iii
his works, but he speaks often and with the greatest
respect of an uncle, Marcus Columella, ^ an expert
farmer of the Baetic province, in whose company
much of his youth appears to have been spent. The
Pythagorean philosopher, Moderatus of Gades,
mentioned by Plutarch, ^ may have been a relative.

It is likewise uncertain at what time Columella
left his native Spain to take up residence in the
neighbourhood of Rome. But here, in hoc Latio et
Salurnia ierra^ he seems to have spent the greater
part of his life, owning at various times farms at
Carseoli, Ardea, and Albanum, in Latium,^ and a
farm which he called Ceretanum,^ located perhaps
at Caere in Etruria. We have evidence ^ that he
visited Syria and Cilicia at some period in his life ;
and from an inscription '

L. IVNIO L. F. GAL.

MODERATO

COLVMELLAE

TRIB. MIL. LEG. VI. FERRATAE

found at Tarentum we may assume that he was then
in military service, since his native town of Gades

1 II. 15. 4; VII. 2. 4; XII. 21. 4; XII. 40. 2; XII. 43. 5;

et al.

2 Qtiuest. VIII. 7. 1. 3 1. Praef. 20.

* III. 9. 2.

^ III. 3. 3. Cf. Willielm Becher, " Das Caeretanum des L.
lunius Moderatus Columella," Philologisch-historiscke Beitrdge,
Kurt Wachsmuth (1897), pp. 186-191.

* II. 10. 18. Perhaps in a.d. 36, under Trebelliua; cf.
Cichorius, op. cit., pp. 417-422.

' C.I.L. IX. 235 (= Dessau 2923).

INTRODUCTION

belonged to the tribus Galena, which furnished troops
for the LEGIO VI FERRATA, stationed at that
time in Syria. ^ Fi'om this inscription it is generally
believed that Columella died and was buried at
Tarentum.

Columella is known to us by the twelve books of
his Res Rustica and the book De Arboribtis.
Cassiodorus,2 however, mentions sixteen books of his
authorship, a number thought by some ^ to have been
due to an error of transcription, but defended by
others,* who hold the opinion that the larger work is
an expansion of an earlier manual of three or four
books on the same subject, of which only the second,^
De Arboribus, has survived. This view is supported
by the fact that the book on trees deals with the
same subjects that are discussed at greater length
in Books III-V of the Res Rustica. The De Arboribus
appears in the manuscripts and first printed editions
as the third book of the whole work, so that the book
now properly marked as the third stands in the

^ The legion was stationed in Syria in a.d. 23 and remained
there during the rule of Tiberius; cf. H. M. D. Parlier, The
Roman Legions (Oxford, 1928), pp. 119, 129, 267.

^ Div. Led. 28, sad Columella xvi libris per diversas agri-
culturae species eloquens ac facundus ilJabitur, disertis
potius quam imperitis accommodus, ut operis eius studiosi
non solum communi fructu, sed etiam gratissimis epulis
expleantur.

3 Cf. Becher, De Col. Vit. et Scr., p. 58 ; M. L. W. Laistner
in Am. Jour. Phil. LIX. 116.

* Cf. Gesner, Script. Rei Rust., Introd., p. 9; Hiiussner,
op. cit., p. 7 ; Becher, op. cit., p. 29.

* That one book preceded is evident from De. Arb. I. 1,
Quoniam de cultu agrorum abunde primo volumine prae-
cepisse videmur, non intempestiva erit arborum virgulto-
rumque cura.

INTRODUCTION

earliest editions as the fourth, and so on.^ Mention
is made of a work Adversus Astrologos ^ and to a
treatise proposed, but possibly not written, on the
religious ceremonies connected with agriculture.^

The Res Rustica, addressed to a certain Publius
Silvinus,* is the most comprehensive and systematic
of all treatises of Roman writers on agricultural
affairs. The first book contains general directions
regarding the choice of land, the water supply, the
arrangement of farm buildings, and the distribution
of various tasks among the farm staff. The second
deals with agriculture proper, the ploughing and
enrichment of the soil, and the care of various crops.
The third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to the
cultivation, grafting, and pruning of fruit trees and
shrubs, the vine, and the olive. The sixth contains
instructions for selecting, breeding, and rearing
cattle, horses, and mules, together with a discourse
on veterinary medicine. The seventh continues
the subject with reference to smaller domestic
animals, sheep, goats, swine, and dogs. The eighth
has to do with the management of poultry and fish-
ponds. The ninth treats similarly of bees. The
tenth, an experiment in hexameters to satisfy the
request of Gallio and of Silvinus for " a taste of

1 That the book on trees does not belong to the larger work
is evident from the fact that it is not addressed to Silvinus,
as are the other twelve, and from statements in later books of
the Res Rustica giving an exact accounting of the number of
books preceding, e.g. X. Praef. 1 ; VIII. 1. 1 ; XI. 1. 2; XII.
13. I. lucundus, editor of the first Aldino edition (1514), was
the first to set the misplaced De Arboribus at the end, as a thir-
teenth book, and all late*- editors have followed his example.

2 XI. 1. 31. 3 II. 21. 5-6.

* Known only from Columella's numerous references to him,
but obviously a countryman and a neighbour of the author.

INTRODUCTION

metrical composition," ^ deals with gardening, as a
sort of supplement to Vergil's fourth Georgic. It is
evident from a statement in the preface to the whole
work,2 as well as from the conclusion of Book IX ^
and the Preface of Book X,* that the tenth book was
intended to complete the work ; but at the still
insistent urgings of Silvinus ^ there was added an
eleventh book containing a discussion of the duties
of a farm overseer, a Calendarium Rustictim, in which
the times and seasons for various kinds of farm labour
are fixed in connection with the risings and settings
of the stars, and a long chapter on gardening to
supplement the treatise in verse. The twelfth book,
written for the overseer's wife and defining her
special duties, contains recipes for the manufacture
of various kinds of wine and for the pickling and
preserving of vegetables and fruits. That the
twelve books were sent to Silvinus one by one as
they were completed, and that they have been
transmitted to us in the order written, is indicated
by the fact that their opening or closing lines usually
contain some reference to comments on the book
just preceding or to the subject matter of the book
that is to follow.

The De Arboribus, thought to have been addressed
to Eprius Marcellus,® deals with the cultivation and

1 XL 1. 2; cf. IX. 16. 2; X. Praef. I, 3.

« I. Praef. 25-28. » IX. 16. 2. * X. Praef. 1.

« XI. 1. 2.

* This supposition has resulted from a colophon in the
manuscripts, found after a long table of contents following
Bk. XI (XII) : Praeter hos duodecim lihros singulnris eiu.<;
liber ad Eprium Marcellum. P^prius Marcellus was appointed
to a vacant praetorship in 49 a.d., which expired at the end
of a few days or hours (Tac. Ann. XII. 4). He later became
an informer under Nero.

INTRODUCTION

propagation of the vine, the olive, and various trees ;
and, while its subject matter is treated more fully
in the Res Riistica, the work is still of considerable
interest and value in that it throws some light on the
larger and later work, especially on the corrupt
manuscript text of the fifth book.

The works of Columella, though comparatively
neglected since the eighteenth century, have held
an important place in their special field. The author
is cited by his contemporary Pliny among authorities
for his work on natural history .^ The veterinarian
Pelagonius, who wrote before the time of Vegetius
(foiu-th century), often quotes verbatim precepts from
Columella's sixth book ; ^ so often Eumelus, a Greek
writer on the veterinary art.^ Vegetius praises his
facultas dice?idi^ He is much quoted in the fourth-
century De Re Rusiica of Palladius,^ who seems also
to have been inspired by Columella's metrical De
Cultu Hortorum to write his last book, De Insitione,
in verse. Cassiodorus ^ of the sixth century mentions
him as one of the outstanding writers on agriculture,
as also does Isidore ' in the seventh century. The
Hortuhis of Walafrid Strabo {circa 809-849), in 443
hexameters, may owe something to Columella's

1 E.g., Pliny, N.H. VIII. 153; XV. 17-19, 66; XVII.
51-52, 137, 162; XVIII. 70, 303; XIX. 68.

^ Ihm lists seventeen parallel passaf^es in the index of his
Teubner edition of Pelagonius, Artis Veterinariae quae exstant,
p. 241.

' Ihm, op. cit., p. 7.

* Vegetius, Ars Veterinaria, Praef. 2.

■• Becher (op. cit., p. 55) finds twenty-five such citations.

* Div. Lect.2S; see page xii, note 2, above.

' Orig. XVII. 1. 1, Columella, insignia orator, qui totum
corpus disciplinae eiusdcm. complexus est.

INTRODUCTION

versified treatise on gardening.^ He is praised in
the sixteenth century in an epigram of Theodore
Beza ; ^ and in the next century Milton, in his short
treatise On Educatioji, would have the students of
his ideal school devote their thoughts, " after evening
repast till bed-time," first to the Scriptures and next
to " the authors of agriculture, Cato, Varro, and
Columella, for the matter is easy ; and if the language
is difficult, so much the better." " Here," he adds,
" will be an occasion of inciting and enabling them
hereafter to improve the tillage of their country, to
recover bad soil," etc.

Manuscripts and Editions

The manuscripts of Columella fall into two groups.
Oldest and best are :

Cod. Sangermanensis Petropolitanus 207, now CI.
L. F. V. N. 1 (= S), fol. 138, 9th cent., in the State
Library at Leningrad. Written apparently at
Corbie, and taken with a large collection of Corbie
manuscripts to the Abbey of St. Germain des Pres
in Paris during the first half of the seventeenth
century. Removed, with many other valuable
manuscripts, during the French Revolution by the
Russian envoy Dubrowsky to the Imperial Library
in Petrograd.

Cod. Ambromanus L85 sup. (= A), fol. 252, 9th-10th

* Cf. V. Lundstrom, " Walahfrid Strabus och Columella,"
Eranos XXX. 124-127 ; M.Manitius in Philologus XLVIII. 566.
^ Orphea mirata est Rhodope sua fata canentera.
Si modo Vergilii carmina pondus habent.
Tu vero, Tuni, silvestris rura canendo

Post te ipsas urbes in tua rura trahia.
O superi, quales habuit tunc Roma Quirites,
Quum tarn iucundum cerneret agricolam.

INTRODUCTION

cents., in the Ambrosian Library in Milan. Written
in the German Insular hand, probably at Fulda.
Closely related to S.

Added to these are some twenty fifteenth-century
manuscripts, known collectively as R, all related and
thought to be descended, directly or indirectly, from
an ancient manuscript found by Poggio Bracciolini
(1380-1459) and taken by him to Italy. Outstanding
members of this fifteenth-century family are :

Cod. Lanrenlianus plut. 53.32 (= a), fol. 172, in the
Laurentian Library at Florence.

Cod. Brerensis Mediolanns a.d. XV. 4 (= b), folia
not numbered, in the Brera Library, Milan.

Cod. Caesejias Malatestianus plut. 24.2 (= c), fol.
218, in the Malatesta Library at Cesena. Contains
the agricultural works of Cato, Columella, and Varro.

Cod. Laurentianus Conv. Sitppr. 285 (= d), in the
Laurentian Library.

Less important are: Vallicellia7ms E 39 (=g);
Laurentianus plut. 53.24 (=A'); Lipsiensis Bihl.
Comm. rep. I f. 13 (=05 Venetus Marcianus 462
(= vi), which often agrees with 6; Laurentianus plut.
53.27 (=p); Laurentianus plut. 91.6 inf. (= 7)>
often agreeing with c; Valicanus lat. 1525 {=^r);
Laiirentianus-Siroszianus 69 (=:^*); Bononiensis 2523
(=/); Urbino-Vaticanus 260 (=?<); Vaticanus lat.
1526 {^=v); Vaticamis lat. 1524 (=w); Vaticanus
lat. 1527 {=y); Parisinus lat. 6830 A {= a);
Parisinus lat. 6830 B (=o); Parisinus lat. 6830 C
(=w); Mosquensis Demidovianus {= jx), now lost. ^

^ The Codex Mosquensis, seen by Matthaei in the library
of the Demidoffs in Moscow, was destroyed by fire in 1812.
Its readings are preserved in C. F. Matthaei, Lectiones Mos-
quenses, Vol. I, Leipzig, 1779.

INTRODUCTION

All the manuscripts listed above were known and
used by I>undstrom in his editions of Kes Rnstica,
Books I-II,VI-VII, X-XI, and De Arbor ibus, and their
readings are given in his apparatus criiicus.^ Those
to which he and others have attached greatest im-
portance,^ especially S, A, a, b, c, d, were collated by
him or by his associates, Langlet and Stroemberg,
with particular care. His readings of less important
codices are given with correspondingly less fullness.
More than half of the total number of manuscripts
were evaluated and collated by Haussner for his
edition of Book X, De Cultu Hortorum.^ The present
translator has examined a number of the best
manuscripts in their respective libraries, and has
collated S, A, a, c with Schneider's text for Books
III-V, VIII-IX, and XII. In addition he has com-
pared with the texts and apparatuses of Lundstrom
and of Schneider the readings oi Morganensis 138,olini
Haviiltonensis 184 (= M),a beautiful piece of Roman
writing signed and dated by Henriettus Rufinus de
Murialdo in the year 1469 and now in possession
of The Pierpont Morgan Library, New York City.

That the two oldest manuscripts, S and A, are
derived from the same archetype is generally agreed
It is more difficult, however, to determine the re-

^ See p. XX, n. 1. The recent edition of Books VI-VII
includes readings of ten additional MSS. of the R family, and
of three MSS. of the 11th and 14th centuries containing
excerpts from these books.

^ Lundstrom rates a, b, c, d, m, q, s as best of the fifteenth-
century class. Cf. his " P]in Columella-Excerptor aus dem
15. Jahrhundert," Skrijler utgifna af Humanintiska Vetens-
kapssamfundet i Upsala (Upsala, 1894), III. 6. 11; and L.
luni Moderali Columellae opera quae exstant, fasc. 1 (Upsala,
1897), Praef. viii-x. » See p. xxi, n. 1.

INTRODUCTION

lationship of R, the fifteenth-century group, to S
and A. Van Buren ^ thinks the R family to be
descended from A, to which they often bear close
resemblance when S and A differ. The most recent
and thorough treatment of the manuscript tradition
is that of Sobel,^ whose ingenious and carefully
constructed stemma ^ shows, through a series of lost
archetypes, the descent of representative members
of the R class from a common ancestor (Sobel's (3) ;
the relationship of J to jR through a better line of
descent from the same early ancestor ; the descent
of S and A from a common archetype, S inheriting
the better readings through an intermediary copy
of mixed parentage ; and the descent of them all
from an ultimate archetype (Sobel's w) written after
the fifth century. The vexed question as to how and
when the De Arboribus became inserted in the Res
Rustica is likewise discussed by Sobel.^

Columella's works were edited many times in the
century following the introduction of printing,
usually in company with Cato, Varro, and Palladiiis.^
The editio pmiceps, edited by George Merula, was
printed at Venice by Nicolas Jenson, in a collection
of Rei Rusiicae Scriptores, in the year 1472. This was

* A. W. Van Buren, " The Text oi ColumeUa.," Suppl. Papers
of the Am. Sch. of Class. Stud, in Rome, Vol. I, pp. 189-190.

^ Ragnar Sobel, Studia Columelliana Palaeographica et
Critica, Goteborg, 1928.
^ Op. cit., p. 15.

* Op. cit., pp. 15-21. Cf. J. Trotsky, " Studien zur
Ueberlieferungsgeschichte Columellas," Raccolta . . . Ra-
morino (Pubblicazioni della Universita Cattoliea del Sacro
Cuore, Vol. VII, Milano), p. 449f.

* Only the most important editions are here named. For a
full account of the early editions, see Schneider's Rei Rusiicae
Scriptores, Vol. II. 2, pp. 5-15, and Vol. IV. 1, pp. 73-80.

INTRODUCTION

followed by the Bruschian edition, published at
Reggio in 1482. The edition of the \'eronese archi-
tect, lucundas, came from the press of Aldus Manutius
at Venice in 1514. This, the first Aldine edition,
showed a wider acquaintance with the manuscripts,
and restored the twelve books of the Res Rtisiica to
their proper numerical order. A second Aldine
edition, of no additional importance, appeared in
1533. The most noteworthy annotated editions of
the complete works are found in the Scripiores Rei
Rusdcae Veteres Latini of J. M. Gesner, printed at
Leipzig in 1735, reprinted by Ernesti in 1773 with
the readings of the Sangermanensis Ms. ; and in the
Scripiores Rei Rusticae Veteres Latini of .1. G. Schneider,
which appeared at Leipzig during the years 1794-
1796. The edition of Schneider takes account of all
earlier works and is still the most valuable complete
edition that we possess. No modern critical edition
of the entire work of Columella has been produced,
although the eminent Swedish scholar, Vilhelm
Lundstrom, has made a notable start in that direction
with the publication of seven of the thirteen books. ^
The poem on gardening (Book X) has been included
in a few annotated editions of Poetae Latini Minores,
of which Wernsdorf's (1794), reproduced with few
changes in Lemaire's recension {Bihliotheca Classica
Latina, Vol. VII, Paris, 1826), is the best. In more
recent times the tenth book, with text and critical
apparatus only, has been edited separately by

' V. Lundstrom, L. luni Moderati Columellae opera quae
exstant : fasc. 1 (De Arboribus), Upsala, 1897; fasc. 6 (Bk. X),
Upaaia, 1902; fasc. 7 (Bk. XI), Upsala, 1906; fasc. 2 (Bks.
I-II), Goteborg, 1917; tasc. 4 (Bks. Vi-VII), Goteborg,
1940.

INTRODUCTION

Hiiussner,! by Lundstrom, and by Postgate,^ whose
critical apparatus is an abridgement of the manu-
script variants published by Haussner and Lundstrom.
Modern contributors to Columelliana, many of them
pupils of Lundstrom, include in addition to those
above mentioned the names of M. Ahle, P. Kottman,
W. KoUer, R. Pomoell, J. Svennung, T. Kleberg,
G. Nystrom, F. Prix, H. Linde, N. Dahllof, E. Weiss,
C. Brakman, E. Stettner, G. Helmreich, P. G. Krauss,
and Lizzie B. Marshall.

The text and manuscript readings of the present
volume rest, for Books I-II, substantially on the work
of Lundstrom. For Books III-IV, the translator has
attempted to construct a critical text in some approxi-
mation to that of Lundstrom by the collation of four
major manuscripts with the text of Schneider. He
has also added throughout important conjectures
and divergences of reading of other editors and com-
mentators, together with the variants of the Morgan
Ms. Major departures from the respective texts of
Lundstrom and of Schneider are noted. The sigla
of Lundstrom are preserved.

^ J. Haussner, Die handschriftliche Ueberlieferung des L.
Junius Moderatus Columella, mil einer kritischen Ausgabe des
X. Buches, Karlsruhe, 1889.

* J. P. Postgate, Corpus Poelarum Latinorum, London, 1905,
Vol. II, pp. 206-209.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Principal Editions

Editio princeps. Venetiis apud Nicolaum Jensonum,

1472.
Editio secunda. Regii, opera et impensis Bartholo-

maei Bruschii, 1482.
lucundi V'eronensis editio De Re Rusiica, Venetiis

apud Aldum, 1514.
Gesner, J. M., Scriptores Rei Rusticae Veteres Latini,

Leipzig, 1735.
Schneider, J. G., Scriptores Rei Rusticae Veteres Latini,

Vol. II, Leipzig, 1794.
Lundstrom, V., L. luni Moderati Columellae opera

quae exstant : fasc. 1 (De Arb.), Upsala, 1897 ;

fasc. 6 (Bk. X), Upsala, 1902; fasc. 7 (Bk. XI),

Upsala, 1906; fasc. 2 (Bks. I-II), Goteborg, 1917;

fasc. 4 (Bks. VI-VII), Goteborg, 1940.

Manuscripts and Text

Able, M., Sprachliche und kritische Untersuchungen
zu Columella (Diss. Wiirzburg), Munich, 1915.

Brakman, C, " Ad Columellae hbrum decimum,"
Mnemosyne, LX. 107-112.

Haussner, J., Die handschriftliche Ueberlieferung des
L. Junius Moderatus Columella, mit einer kritischen
Ausgabe des X. Buches, Karlsruhe, 1889.

Kleberg, T., " Nagra textkritiska anmarkninger till
Columellas nionde bok," Eranos, XXXV. 22-31.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Langlet, V., " Ad Columellae Codicem Sangerma-

nensem qui vocatur," Eranos, I. 86-94.
Linde, H., Studier till Columellas nionde bok (Diss.),

Goteborg, 1936.
Lundstrom, V., " Ein Columella-Excerptor aus dem

15. Jahrhundert," Skrifter utg'ifna afhlumanistiska

Vetenskapssamfundet i Upsala, III. 6, Upsala,

1894.
Lundstrom, V., " Emendationes in Columellam,"

Eranos, I. 38-47, 86-94, 169-180; II. 49-59;

IV. 181-186; VII. 73-77.
Lundstrom, V., " De nyaste textkritiska bidragen

till Columellas tionde bok," Eranos, VI. 66 — 71.
Pomoell, R., Textkritiska Studier till Columellas

femte bok (Diss.), Goteborg, 1931.
Postgate, J. P., " The Moscow Manuscript of Colu-
mella," Classical Review, XVII. 47.
Schmitt, J. C, " De Codice Sangermanensi,"

Festschrift fur Ludw. Urlichs, Wiirzburg, 1880,

139-162.
Sobel, Ragnar, Studia Columelliana Palaeograpkica et

Critica (Diss.), Goteborg, 1928.
Svennung, J., " De Columella per Palladium emen-

dato," Eranos, XXVI. 145-208.
Trotzky, J., " Studien zur Ueberlieferungsgeschichte

Columellas," Raccolta di Scritti in ono?-e di Felice

Kamorino, Pubblicazioni della Universita Cattolica

del Sacro Cuore (Milan), VII. 449f.
Trotzky, J., " Kritische Beitrage zum 5. Buch von

Columellas De lie Rustica," Melanges Tolstoi, 46-

51, Leningrad Academy of Science, 1928.
Van Buren, A. W., " The Text of Columella,"

Supplementary Papers of the American School of

Classical Studies in Rome, I. 157-190.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Traxslations

Curtius, M. C, L. lunhis yioderatus Columella of
Husbandry in Twelve Books and His Book Concerning
Trees, London, 1745.

DuBois, Louis, L'economie rurale de Columelle,
Bibliotheque Latine-Frangaise, Vol. III. Paris,
1844-1845.

Loffler, Karl, L. Ju7iius Moderatus Columella De Re
Rusiica, ubersetzt durch Heinrich Oesterreicher,
Abt von Schussenried. A late 15th cent, trans-
lation of some early edition, published in Bibliothek
des litter arise hen Verein in Stuttgart, Vols. CCLXIII-
CCLXIV, Tubingen, 1914.

Nisard, M., Les agronomes latins, Caton, Varron,
Columelle, Palladius, Paris. 1844.

Tinajero, Vicente, I^s doce libros de agricultura de
Lucio Junio Moderato Columella, 2 vols., Madrid,
1880.

Miscellaneous

Barbaret, V., De Columellae Vita et Scriptis, Nancy,

1887.
Becher, Wilhelm, De L. hint Moderati Columellae

Vita et Scriptis Leipzig, 1897.
Billiard, RajTnond, La vigne dans I'antiquite, Lyons,

1913.
Bilhard, Raymond, L'agriculture dans I'antiquite

d'apres les Georgiques de Virgile, Paris, 1928.
Brehaut, Ernest, Cato the Censor on Farming, New

York, 1933.
Carl, G., Die Agrarlchre Columellas in soziologischer

Betrachtung (Diss.), Heidelberg, 1925.
Cichoi'ius, Conrad, " Zur Biographie Columellas,"

Romische Studien, 417-422, Leipzig-Berlin, 1922.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dahllof, N., Tempora och modi hos Columella (Diss.),

Goteborg, 1931.
Daubenv, Charles, Lectures on Roman Husbandry,

Oxford, 1857.
Dickson, Adam, The Husbandry of the Ancients,

Edinburgh, 1788.
Frank, Tenney, An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome,

Vol. V, Baltimore, 1940.
Heitland, W. E., Agricola: A Study of Agriculture

and Rustic Life in the Graeco-Roman World

from the Point of \ iew of Labour, Cambridge,

1921.
Hooper, W. D., and H. B. Ash, Cato a?id J'arro De Re

Rtistica (Loeb Classical Library), London, and

Cambridge, Mass., 1934.
Klek, J., and L. Armbruster, Columella und Plinius,

Die Bienenkunde der Romer, P'reiburg, 1921.
Roller, W., Die Tierheilkunde nach Columella (Diss.),

Munich, 1925.
Kottman, P., De Elocutione L. Jvnii Moderati Colu-

mellae, Rottweil, 1903.
Krauss, P. G., Die Quellen des Columella, Munnerstadt,

1907. .
Lundstrom, V., " Smaplock ur Columellas sprak,"

Eranos, XIII. 196-203; XIV. 90-9G ; XV. 201-

207; XVI. 186-190; XVII. 147-150; XXVI.

31-33.
Marshall, Lizzie B., L' horticulture antique et le poeme

de Columelle, Paris, 1918.
Nystrom, G., Variatio Sermonis hos Columella (Diss.),

Goteborg, 1926.
Orth, F., Der Feldbau der Romer, Frankfurt, 1900.
Reitzenstein, R., De Scriptorum Rei Rusticae Libris

Deperditis (Diss.), Berlin, 1884.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Schroeter, W., De Columella Vergilii Imitatore, Jena,
1882.

Semple, Ellen C, " Ancient Mediterranean Agri-
culture," Agricultural History, II (1928). 61-98,
129-156.

Storr-Best, Lloyd, Varro on Farming (Bohn Library),
London, 1912.

Stettner, E., De L. lunio Moderato Columella Vergilii
Imitatore, Triest, 1894.

Weiss, E., De Columella et Varrone Rerum Rusticarum
Scriptoribus, Breslau, 1911.

The titles of many useful reference works on
general agriculture, viticulture, animal husbandry,
veterinary medicine, botany, etc, are omitted alto-
gether or mentioned only in the notes.

SIGLA

.5= Cod. Sangermanensis Petropolitanus 207, now

CI. L. F. V. N. 1 (9th cent.).
A = Cod. Ambrosianus L 85 sup. (9th-10th cents.).
R r= all or the consensus of 15th cent. MSS.
a = Cod. Laurentianus plut. 53. 32.
c = Cod. Caesenas Malatestianus plut. 24. 2.
M= Morganensis 138, formerly Hamiltonensis
184.
vett. edd. = the two earliest editions.

ed. pr. = editio princeps (Jensoniana), Venice,

1472.
Brusch. = editio secunda (Bruschiana), Reggio,
1482.
Aid. = the first Aldine edition, Venice, 1514.
Gesn. = J. M. Gesner, Script. Rei Rust., Leipzig,

1735.
Schn. = J. G. Schneider, Script. Ret Rust., Leipzig,

1794.
Lrmdstrom = V. Lundstrom, L. lun. Mod. Colum.
Lib. I-II, VI- VII, X-XI, De Arb., Upsala-
Goteborg, 1897-1940.

For a full Ust of manuscripts and early editions,
see under Manuscripts and Editions in the Intro-
duction.

xxxui

VOL. I. B

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS
COLUMELLA

ON AGRICULTURE

L. lUNI MODERATI
COLUMELLAE

REI RUSTICAE

LIBER I

PRAEFATIO

Saepenumero civitatis nostrae principes audio cul-
pantes modo agrorum infecunditatem, modo caeli per
multa iam tempora noxiam frugibus intemperiem ;
quosdam etiam praedictas querimonias velut ratione
certa mitigantes, quod existiment ubertate nimia
prioris aevi defatigatum et efFetum ^ solum nequire
pristina benignitate praebere mortalibus alimenta.
2 Quas ego causas, P.^ Silvine, procul a veritate abesse
certum habeo, quod neque fas est existimare rerum^
Naturam, quam primus ille mundi genitor perpetua
fecunditate donavit, quasi quodam morbo sterilitate
adfectam ; neque prudentis est credere Tellurem,
quae divinam et aeternam iuventam sortita com-

^ effectum R. " om. R. ' humi R,

" An Epicurean theory; cf., e.g., Lucretius, II. 1150-1174.
Columella holds to the Aristotelian theory.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS
COLUMELLA

ON AGRICULTURE

BOOK I

PREFACE

Again and again I hear leading men of our state
condemning now the unfruitfulness of the soil, now
the inclemency of the climate for some seasons past,
as harmful to crops ; and some I hear reconciling the
aforesaid complaints, as if on well-founded reasoning,
on the ground that, in their opinion, the soil was
worn out and exhausted by the over-production
of earlier days and can no longer farnish sustenance
to mortals with its old-time benevolence." Such 2
reasons, Publius Silvinus,* I am convinced are far
from the truth ; for it is a sin to suppose that
Nature, endowed -with perennial fertility by the
creator of the universe, is affected with barrenness
as though with some disease ; and it is unbecoming to
a man of good judgment to believe that Earth,
to whose lot was assigned a divine and everlast-
ing youth, and who is called the common mother

' See Introduction p. xiii.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

munis omnium parens dicta sit, quia et cuncta peperit
semper et deinceps paritura sit, velut hominem
consenuisse. Nee post haec reor violentia ^ caeli
nobis ista, sed nostro potius aceidere \itio, qui
rem rusticam pessimo cuique servorum velut carni-
fici noxae dedimus, quam maiorum nostrorum optimus
quisque et optime tractaverat.^

Atque ego satis mirari non possum, quid ita dicendi
cupidi seligant oratorem, cuius imitentur eloquentiam ;
mensurarum et numerorum modimi rimantes placitae
disciplinae consectentur magistrum ; vocis et cantus
modulatorem nee minus corporis gesticulatorem
scrupulosissime requirant saltationis ac musicae
rationis studiosi ; iam qui aedificare velint, fabros
et architectos advocent ; qui navigia mari concredere,
gubernandi peritos ; qui bella moliri, armorum et
militiae gnaros ; et ne singula persequar, ei studio,
quod quis agere velit, consultissimum rectorem
adhibeat ; denique animi sibi quisque formatorem
praeceptoremque virtutis e coetu sapientium arces-
sat : sola res rustica, quae sine dubitatione pi'oxima
et quasi consanguinea sapientiae est, tam discenti-
bus egeat quam magistris. Adhuc enim scholas
rhetorum et, ut dixi, geometrarum musicorimique

' violentia SA, Lundslrom : intemperantia R, plerique edd.
* tractaverit B, plerique edd.

" Cf. Lucretius, V. 826-827, sed quiafinem aliquam pariendi
debet habere, destitit ut midier spatio defessa vetiisto.

' So Pliny (N.H. XVIII. 19-21), who attributes the former
plenty to cultivation of the soil by the hands of generals,
consuls, tribunes, and senators.

BOOK I, PREFACE 2-5

of all things — because she has always brought forth
all thinsrs and is destined to brinff them forth con-
tinuouslv — has gro^vn old in mortal fashion." And,
furthermore, I do not believe that such misfortunes
come upon us as a result of the fury of the elements,
but rather because of our ovm fault ; for the matter
of husbandry, which all the best of our ancestors had
treated with the best of care, we have delivered
over to all the worst of our slaves, as if to a hangman
for punishment.^

As for me, I cannot cease to wonder why those
who Mish to become speakers are so careful in the
choosing of an orator whose eloquence they may
imitate ; those who investigate the science of
surveying and mathematics emulate a master of the
art of their choice ; those who devote themselves
to the study of dancing and music are most scrupulous
in their search for one to teach modulation of the
speaking and singing voice, and no less for an in-
structor in graceful movement of the body ; even
those who wish to build call in joiners and master-
builders ; those who would entrust ships to the sea
send for skilful pilots ; those who make preparations
for war call for men practised in arms and in cam-
paigning ; and, not to go through the list one by one,
for any study which one wishes to pursue he employs
the most expert director ; in short, everyone summons
from the company of the wise a man to mould his
intellect and instruct him in the precepts of virtue ;
but agriculture alone, which is \vithout doubt most
closely related and, as it were, own sister to wisdom,
is as destitute of learners as of teachers. For
that there are to this day schools for rhetoricians
and, as I have said, for mathematicians and musicians,

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

vel, quod magis mirandum est, contemptissimorum
vitiorum officinas, gulosius condiendi cibos et luxuri-
osius fercula ^ struendi, capitumque et capillorum
concinnatores non solum esse audivi, sed et ipse
vidi : agricolationis neque doctores, qui se profite-

6 rentur,2 neque discipulos cognovi. Cum etiam si
praedictarum artium professoribus civitas egeret,
tamen, sicut apud priscos florere posset res publica ^
— nam sine ludicris artibus atque etiam sine causidicis
dim satis felices fuerunt * futuraeque sunt urbes ;
at sine agri cultoribus nee consistere mortales nee
ali posse manifestum est.

7 Quo magis prodigio ^ simile est, quod aceidit, ut
res corporibus nostris vitaeque utilitati maxime
conveniens minimam ^ usque in hoc tempus consum-
mationem haberet idque sperneretur genus ampli-
ficandi relinquendique ' patrimonii, quod omni
crimine caret. Nam cetera diversa et quasi repug-
nantia dissident a iustitia, nisi aequius existimamus
cepisse praedam ex militia, quae nobis nihil sine

8 sanguine et cladibus alienis adfert. An bellum
perosis * maris et negotiationis alea ^ sit optabilior,
ut rupto naturae foedere terrestre animal homo
ventorum et maris obiectus irae fluctibus pendeat ^^

* fericula S, Lundstrom.

* profitentur M.
^ res prima SA ^.

* fuere E, plerique edd.

* prodigio codd., Lundstrom : prodigii vulgo.

* minime Schn. cum PorUedera.
' retinendique R, Aid., Gesn.

* perosis vulgo : per obsessa Lundsirom {cum codicibus, ut
videtur). An . . . optabilior om. M.

» alia SAa.

'" fluctibus pendeat Lwndslrdm {cum duobv^s codd. dett.) :
fluctibus tendere 8 A : se fluctibus pendeat a : fluctibus

6

BOOK I, PREFACE 5-8

or, what is more to be wondered at, training-schools
for the most contemptible vices — the seasoning of
food to promote gluttony and the more extravagant
serving of courses, and dressers of the head and
hair — I have not only heard but have even seen
with my o^vn eyes ; but of agriculture I know neither
self-professed teachers nor pupils. For even if the 6
state were destitute of professors of the afore-
mentioned arts, still the commonwealth could
prosper just as in the times of the ancients — for
\Wthout the theatrical profession and even M^ithout
case-pleaders " cities were once happy enough, and
will again be so ; yet without tillers of the soil it is
obvious that mankind can neither subsist nor be fed.

For this reason, what has come to pass is the more 7
amazing — that the art of the highest importance
to our physical welfare and the needs of life should
have made, even up to our own time, the least
progress ; and that this method of enlarging and
passing on an inheritance, entirely free from guilt,
should be looked upon with scorn. For other
methods, diverse and in conflict as it were, are at
odds with justice ; unless we think it more equitable
to have acquired spoils by the soldier's method,
which profits us nothing without bloodshed and
disaster to others. Or, to those who detest war, 8
can the hazard of the sea and of trade be more
desirable, that man, a terrestrial being, violating
the law of nature and exposing himself to the wrath
of wind and sea, should hang on the waves and always

" In a contemptuous sense, as commonly in the use of
causidicus {e.g. Quintilian, XII. 1. 25).

tenderet (alias in abbr. suprascr.) pendeat M : so fluctibus
audeat credere c, cett. edd.

7

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMFXLA

semperque ritu volucrum longinqui litoris peregrinus
ignotum pererret orbera ? An faeneratio probabilior
9 sit, etiam his invisa quibus succurrere videtur ? Sed
ne caninum ^ quidem, sicut dixere veteres, studium
praestantius locupletissimum quemque adlatrandi et
contra innocentes ac pro nocentibus neglectum a
maioribus, a nobis etiam concessum intra moenia
et in ipso foro latrocinium. An honestins duxerim ^
mercenarii salutatoris mendacissimum aucupium
circumvolitantis limina potentiorum somnumque
regis sui rumoribus augurantis ? Neque enim ro-
ganti, quid agatur intus, respondere sen'i dignantur,

10 An putem fortunatius a catenato repulsum ianitore
saepe nocte sera foribus ingratis adiacere miserri-
moque famulatu per dedecus fascium decus et
imperium, profuso tamen patrimonio, mercari ?
Nam nee gratuita servitute, sed donis rependitur
honor.

Quae si et ipsa et eorum simiHa bonis fugienda
sunt, superest, ut dixi, unum genus liberale et
ingenuum rei familiaris augendae, quod ex agri-

11 colatione contingit. Cuius praecepta si vel temere
ab indoctis, dum tamen agrorum possessoribus,
antiquo more administrarentur, minus iacturae
paterentur res rusticae ; nam industria dominorum

* nee animum S. ^ dixerim R nonnulli.

" The expression is attributed by Sallust (Hist. Fr. 2. 37
Dietsch) to Appius Claudius, censor in 312 B.C., and refers,
of course, to the profession of the snarling causidici; cf. also
Quint. XII. 9. 9. Lactantius [Div. Inst. VI. 18. 26) accuses
even Cicero of canina eloquenlia.

* l.e. at the .salulatio or early morning call.

" The bundles of rods carried by attendants of high officials
as symbols of authority.

8

BOOK I, PREFACE, 8-11

wander ovei* an unkno-wn world in the manner of
birds, a stranger on a distant shore ? Or is usury
more commendable, a thing detested even by those
whom it appears to aid? But certainly no more 9
admirable is the " canine pursuit,"" as the ancients
called it, of barking at every man of outstanding
wealth, and the practice of legal banditry against the
innocent and in defence of the guilty — a fraud de-
spised by our ancestors, but even allowed by us within
the city and in the very forum. Or should I regard
as more honourable the h}q)ocritical fawning of the
man who frequents the levees, for a pi-ice, and hovers
about the thresholds of the mighty,*" di\ining the
sleeping hours of his lord by heai-say ? For the
servants do not deign to reply to his questions as to
what is going on indooi's. Or am I to think it a 10
greater gift of fortune for a man, rebuffed by a
door-keeper in chains, to loiter about those ungrateful
doors, often until late at night, and by the most
demeaning servility to purchase at the price of
dishonour the honour and power of the fasces,'^
though with the dissipation of his own inheritance ?
For it is not with voluntary ser\itude, but with
bribes, that preferments are bought.

If good men are to shun these pursuits and their
kind, there remains, as I have said, one method
of increasing one's substance that befits a man who
is a gentleman and free-born, and this is found in
agriculture. If the precepts of this science were 11
put in practice in the old-fashioned way, even in
imprudent fashion by those without previous in-
struction (pro\ided, however, that they were owners
of the land), the business of husbandry would sustain
smaller loss ; for the diligence that goes >vith pro-

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

cum ignorantiae detrimentis multa pensaret, nee
quorum commodum ageretur, tota vita vellent
imprudentes negotii sui conspici eoque diseendi

12 cupidiores agricolationem pernoscerent. Nunc et
ipsi praedia nostra colere dedignamur et nuUius
momenti ducimus peritissimum quemque vilicum
facere vel, si nescium, carte vigoris experrecti, quo
celerius, quod ignoret,^ addiscat. Sed sive fundum
locuples' mercatus est, e turba pedisequorum lecti-
cariorumque defectissimum annis et viribus in agrum
relegat, cum istud opus non solum scientiam, sed et
viridem aetatem cum robore corporis ad labores
sufFerendos desideret ; sive mediarum facultatum ^
dominus, ex mercenariis ^ aliquem iam recusantem
cotidianum illud tributum, quia vectigali ^ esse non
possit,^ ignarum rei, cui praefuturus est, magistrum
fieri iubet.

13 Quae cum animadvertam, saepe mecum retractans
ac recogitans, quam turpi consensu deserta exole-
verit disciplina ruris, vereor ne flagitiosa et quodam
raodo pudenda ingenuis aut inhonesta sit.* Verum
cum complurimis ' monumentis scriptorum admonear
apud antiques nostros fuisse gloriae curam rustica-

^ ignorat S, Schn.

2 facultatium SA, Lundstrum.

* mercennariis vel mercenariis i? : mercedariis SA ,

* quia vectigali S, Lundslrom : q vectigali A: qui [vel q)
vectigalis R, et vulgo : quia (qui) . . . possit incl. Oesn. et
Schn. veluti glossam.

^ posset SA, Lundslrom.

lo

BOOK I, PREFACE 11-13

prietorship would compensate in large measure the
losses occasioned by lack of knowledge ; and men
whose interests were at stake would not wish to
appear forever ignorant of their own affairs, and for
that reason more zealous to learn, they would gain
a thorough knowledge of husbandry. As it is, we 12
think it beneath us to till our lands with our OAvn
hands, and we consider it of no importance to appoint
as an overseer a man of very great experience or at
least, if he is inexperienced, one who is wide-awake
and active, that he may learn more quickly what he
does not know. But if a rich man purchases a farm,
out of his thi-ong of footmen and litter-bearers he sends
off to the fields the one most bankrupt in years and
strength, whereas such work requires, not only
knowledge, but the age of vigour and physical
strength as Avell, to endure its hardships ; or, if the
OAVTier is of moderate means, out of the number of his
hands for hire he orders someone who now refuses him
the daily tribute money, since the man cannot be a
source of income, to be made a foreman, though he
may know nothing of the work which he is to super-
intend.

When I observe these things, reviewing in my mind 13
and reflecting upon the shameful unanimity with
which rural discipline has been abandoned and
passed out of use, I am fearful lest it may be dis-
graceful and, in a sense, degrading or dishonourable
to men of free birth. But when I am reminded by
the records of many -writers that it was a matter of
pride with our forefathers to give their attention

* pudenda, aut inhonesta videatur ingenuis vulgo.
' pluribiis, Gesn., Schn.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

tionis, ex qua Quinctius Cincinnatus, obsessi consulis
et exercitus liberator, ab aratro vocatus ad dictaturam
venerit ac rursus fascibus depositis, quos festinantius
victor reddiderat quam sumpserat imperator, ad
eosdem iuvencos et quattuor iugerum avitum

14 herediolum redierit, itemque C. Fabricius et Curius
Dentatus, alter Pyrrho finibus Italiae pulso, domitis
alter Sabinis, accepta, quae viritim dividebantur,
captivl agri septem iugera non minus industrie
coluerit, quam fortiter armis quaesierat ; et ne
singulos intempestive nunc persequar, cum tot alios
Romani generis intuear memorabiles duces hoc
semper duplici studio floruisse vel defendendi vel
colendi patrios quaesitosve fines, intellego luxuriae
et deliciis nostris pristinum moreni virilemque vitam

15 displicuisse. Omnes enim, sicut M. Varro iam
temporibus avorum conquestus est, patres familiae
falce et aratro relictis intra murum correpsimus et
in circis potius ac theatris quam in segetibus ac
vinetis ^ manus movemus ; attonitique miramur
gestus efFeminatorum, quod a natura sexum viris

^ sic codices rerentiores et fere omnes ex Varrone, B.R. II.
Praef. 3 : vineis SA, Lundslrom.

" According to tradition, Cincinnatus was called from the
plough to the dictatorship in 458 B.C., to save the Roman
army besieged by the Aequians on Mt. Algidus. He delivered
the consul Minucius and his army, resigned the dictatorship,
and returned to his little farm after holding the office only
sixteen days. Cf. Livy, III. 26-29.

' One iugerum — about three-fifths of an acre.

<^ Consul in 282 and 278 B.C., his noble conduct toward
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, led to the evacuation of Italy by
that king.

BOOK I, PREFACE 13-15

to farming, from which pursuit came Quinctius
Cincinnatus,* summoned from the plough to the
dictatorship to be the deHverer of a beleaguered
consul and his army, and then, again laying down the
power which he relinquished after victory more
hastily than he had assumed it for command, to
return to the same bullocks and his small ancestral
inheritance of four iugera ; * from which pursuit 14
came also GaiuS Fabricius "^ and Curius Dentatus,**
the one after his rout of Pyrrhus from the confines
of Italy, the other after his conquest of the Sabines,
tilling the captured land which they had received
in the distribution of seven iugera to a man, with an
energy not inferior to the bravery in arms with
which they had gained it ; and, not unseasonably
to run through individual cases at this time, when I
observe that so many other renowned captains of
Roman stock were invariably distinguished in this
twofold pursuit of either defending or tilling their
ancestral or acquired estates, I understand that
yesterday's morals and strenuous manner of living
are out of tune with our present extravagance and
devotion to pleasure. For, even as Marcus Varro * 15
complained in the days of our grandfathers, all of us
who are heads of families have quit the sickle and
the plough and have crept within the city-walls ;
and we ply our hands '^ in the circuses and theatres
rather than in the grainfields and vineyards ; and
we gaze in astonished admiration at the posturings
of effeminate males, because they counterfeit by

"* Consul in 290 and 275 B.C. Famous for his frugality and
his conquests over the Samnites, Sabines, Lucanians, and
Pyrrhus, he retired to his farm, refusing all share in the booty.

• Varro, i?.i?. II. Praef. 3.

^ That is, in applauding the performers.

13

i

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

denegatum muliebri motu mentiantur decipiantque

16 oculos spectantium. Mox deinde, ut apti veniamus
ad ganeas, cotidianam cruditatem Laconicis ^ exco-
quimus et exusto sudore sitim quaerimus noctesque
libidinibus et ebrietatibus, dies ludo vel somno
consumimus, ac nosmet ipsos ducimus fortunatos,
quod " nee orientem solem videmus ^ nee occiden-

17 tern." Itaque istam vitam socordem persequitur
valetudo. Nam sic iuvenum corpora fluxa et
resoluta sunt, ut nihil mors mutatura videatur.

At mehercules vera ilia Romuli proles assiduis
venatibus nee minus agrestibus operibus exercitata
firmissimis praevaluit corporibus ac militiam belli,
cum res postulavit, facile sustinuit durata pads
laboribus semperque rusticam plebem praeposuit
urbanae. Ut enim qui in villis ^ intra consaepta
morarentur, quam qui foris terram molirentur,
ignaviores habitos, sic eos, qui sub umbra civitatis
intra moenia desides cunctarentur, quam qui rura
colerent administrarentve opera colonorum,* seg-

18 niores visos. Nundinarum etiam conventus mani-

1 laconicis B plerique, edd. : lactucis A, Lundstrom :
lacticis S.

^ videmus SA, Gesn. : vidimus alii (viderunt Cato apvd
Sen. Epist. 122. 2).

^ qui in villis B plerique : quae inutilis SA : vilis in utiles
qui M.

* administrarentve opera colonorum om. SA, vett. edd.

" The Laconicum, or sweat-chamber, was so called because
thought to have been first used by the Laconians; though

^4

BOOK I, PREFACE 15-18

their womanish motions a sex which nature has
denied to men, and deceive the eyes of the spectators.
And presently, then, that we may come to our 16
gluttonous feasts in proper fettle, we steam out our
daily indigestion in sweat-baths,'* and by drying
out the moisture of our bodies we arouse a thirst ; we
spend our nights in licentiousness and drunken-
ness, our days in gaming or in sleeping, and account
ourselves blessed by fortune in that " we behold
neither the rising of the sun nor its setting."* The 17
consequence is that ill health attends so slothful a
manner of living ; for the bodies of our young men
are so flabby and enervated that death seems likely
to make no change in them.

But, by heaven, that true stock of Romulus,
practised in constant hunting and no less in toiling
in the fields, was distinguished by the greatest
physical strength and, hardened by the labours
of peace, easily endured the hardships of war when
occasion demanded, and always esteemed the
common people of the counti'v more highlv than those
of the city. For as those who kept wathin the confines
of the country houses'^ were accounted more slothful
than those who tilled the ground outside, so those
who spent their time idly within the walls, in the
shelter of the city, were looked upon as more sluggish
than those who tilled the fields or supervised the
labours of the tillers. It is evident, too, that their 18

Herodotus (IV. 75) speaks of it as well known throughout
Greece, and not peculiar to the Spartans. For a description
of this chamber, see Vitruvius, De Arch. V. 10. 5, \ll. 10. 2.

" Cato aj). Sen. Epist. 122. 2.

" I.e. those members of the familia rustica whose duties
kept them indoors or close to the farm buildings.

IS

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

festum est propterea usurpatos, ut nonis tantum-
modo diebus urbanae res agerentur, reliquis ad-
ministrarentur rusticae. Illis enim temporibus, ut
ante iam diximus, proceres civitatis in agris mora-
bantur et, cum consilium publicum desiderabatur, a
villis arcessebantur ^ in senatum ; ex quo, qui eos

19 evocabant, \iatores nominati sunt. Isque mos
dum serv'atus est, perseverantissimo colendorum
agrorum studio veteres illi Sabini Quirites atavique
Romani, quamquam inter ferrum et ignes hosticisque^
incursionibus vastatas fruges largius ^ tamen con-
didere quam nos, quibus diuturna permittente pace
prolatare licuit rem rusticam.

20 Itaque in " hoc Latio et Saturnia terra," ubi di
fructus * agrorum progeniem suam docuerant, ibi
nunc ad hastam locanius, \\t nobis ex transmarinis
provinciis advehatur frumentum, ne fame laboremus,
et vindemias condimus ex insulis Cycladibus ac
regionibus Baeticis Gallicisque. Nee mirum, cum
sit publice concepta et confirmata iam vulgaris
existimatio rem rusticam sordidum opus et id esse
negotium quod nuUius ^ egeat magisterio praeceptove.

21 At ego, cum aut magnitudinem totius rei quasi

^ arcessiebantur S, Lundstrom : arcessabantur A.

2 hosticis iS^. ^ parcius 5x4 .

* cultus R. * nullis S : nullo R.

" The nundinae (ninth day, according to the Roman method
of reckoning) at the end of the eight-day week, was a day of
rest from agricultural labour, set aside for buying and selling
and attention to public and religious affairs in the city;
c/. Varro, R. R. II. Praef. 1 ; Paul, ex Fest. 176 L; Macrob.
8a1. I. 16. 34. " Cf. Cicero, De Sen. 16. 56.

' The authorship of this phrase is attributed to Enniua ; cf.
V. Lundstrom, " Nya Enniusfragment," Eranos, XV. 1-3, and
Warmington, Remains oj Old Latin, II. frag. 26 (L.C.L.).

i6

BOOK I, PREFACE 18-21

market-day ° gatherings were employed for this
purpose — that city affairs might be transacted on
every ninth day only and country affairs on the other
days. For in those times, as we have previously
remarked, the leading men of the state used to pass
their time in the fields and were summoned from
their farms to the senate when advice on matters
of state was wanted ; as a result of which those who
summoned them were called viatores^ or " road-men."
And so long as this custom was preserved, with a 19
most persevering enthusiasm for tilling their lands,
those old Sabine Quirites and our Roman forefathers,
even though exposed to fire and sword, and despite
the devastation of their crops by hostile forays, still
laid by a greater store of crops than do we, who, with
the sufferance of long-continued peace, might have
extended the practice of agriculture.

So, then, in " this Latium and Saturnian land," "^ 20
where the gods had taught their offspring of the
fruits of the fields, we let contracts at auction '^ for
the importation of grain from our provinces beyond
the sea, that we may not suffer hunger; and we lay
up our stores of wine from the Cyclades Islands
and from the districts of Baetica <^ and Gaul. Nor
is it to be wondered at, seeing that the common
notion is now generally entertained and established
that farming is a mean employment and a business
which has no need of direction or of precept. But 21
for my part, when I review the magnitude of the

^ Lit. " at the spear." A spear was stuck in the ground
at the place where an auction was held, originally as a sign
of the sale of plunder taken in battle.

' A district of southern Spain, modem Andalusia. Here
Columella was bom, in the town of Gades (Cadiz).

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quandam vastitatem corporis aut partium eius velut
singulorum membrorum subtilitatem dispicio,^ vereor,
ne supremus ante me dies occupet ^ quam universam
disciplinam ruris possim cognoscere.

22 Nam qui se in hac seientia perfectum volet profiteri,
sit oportet rerum naturae sagacissimus, deelinationum
mundi non ignarus, ut exploratum habeat quid
cuique plagae conveniat, quid repugnet. Siderum
ortus et occasus memoria repetat, ne imbribus
ventisque imminentibus opera incohet laboremque

23 frustretur. Caeli et anni praesentis mores intueatur,
neque enim semper eundem velut ex praeseripto
habitum gerunt, nee omnibus annis eodem vultu
venit aestas aut hiems, nee pluvium semper est ver
aut umidus autumnus ; ^ quae praenoscere sine
lumine animi et sine exquisitissimis diseiplinis non
quemquam posse crediderim. lam ipsa terrae
varietas et cuiusque soli habitus quid nobis neget,

24 quid promittat, paucorum est discemere. Con-
templatio vero cunctarum in ea disciplina partium
quoto * cuique contingit,^ ut et segetum arationum-
que perciperet usum et varias dissimillimasque
terrarum species pernosceret — quarum non nullae
colore, non nullae qualitate fallunt, atque in aliis
regionibus nigra terra, quam pullam vocant, ut in
Campania, est laudabilis, in his ® pinguis lubrica '

^ subtilitatem dispicio (dispitio S) 8 A, Imndslrdm:
numerum recenseo jB, alii.

2 excipiat M.

^ umidum autumnum Lundslrom, cum SA et R plerisque
ut vid.

* quoto Madvig, " forsitan recte " dicit Lundstrom: quanto
SA, Schn., Lundstrom : quando Gesn., cum Aid., sed quanto
vel quoto malnit : quid R.

* contingit 8 A et R plerique, et edd. ante 8chn. : contingerit
M : contigit duo codd. dett., 8chn., Lundstrom.

i8

BOOK I, PREFACE 21-24

entire subject, like the immensity of some great
body, or the minuteness of its several parts, as so
many separate members, I am afraid that my last
day may overtake me before I can comprehend the
entire subject of rural discipline.

For one v^^ho would profess to be a master of this 22
science must have a shrewd insight into the works
of nature ; he must not be ignorant of the variations
of latitude, that he may have ascertained what is
suitable to every region and what is incompatible.
He should tell over in his mind the rising and setting
of the stars, that he may not begin his operations
when rains and winds are threatening, and so bring
his toils to naught. He must observe the behaviour 23
of the current weather and season, for they do not
always wear the same habit as if according to a fixed
rule ; summer and winter do not come every year
with the same countenance ; the spring is not always
rainy or the autumn moist. These matters I cannot
believe that any man can know beforehand without
the light of intelligence and without the most
accurate instruction. Indeed, it is granted to few
to discern what the veiy diversity of land and the
nature of each soil may deny us, or what they may
promise us. Of how many, in fact, is it the lot to 24
survey all parts of this science, so as thoroughly to
understand the practice of cropping and ploughing
and to have an accurate knowledge of the varied and
very unlike types of soil (of which some deceive us by
their colour, some by their texture ; in some lands
the black soil which they call pulla, as in Campania,
is commended ; in others a fat, glutinous soil answers

* his SA, Lundstrom : aliis R, et vulgo.
' lubrica SAR, Lundstrom : rubrica alii.

19

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

melius respondet, quibusdam sicut in Africa Numi-
diaque ^ putres harenae fecunditate vel robustissi-
mum solum vincunt, in Asia Mysiaque densa et

25 glutinosa terra maxime exuberat — atque in his
ipsis haberet cognitum, quid recusaret collis, quid
campestris positio, quid cultus, quid silvestris ager,
quid umidus et graminosus, quid siccus et spur-
cus, rationem quoque dispiceret et in arboribus
vineisque, quarum infinita sunt genera, conserendis
ac tuendis et in pecoribus parandis conservandisque,
quoniam et hanc adscivimus quasi agri culturae
partem, cum separata sit ab agricolatione pastoralis

26 scientia ? Nee ea tamen simplex, quippe aliud
exigit equinum atque aliud bubulum armentum,
aliud pecus ovillum, et in eo ipso dissimilem rationem
postulat Tarentinum atque hirtum; aliud caprinum,
et id ipsum aliter curatur mutilum et raripilum,
aliter cornutum et saetosum, quale est in Cilicia.
Porculatoris vero et subulci diversa professio, di-
versae pastiones, nee eundem glabrae sues densaeque
caeli statum nee eandem educationem cultumve

27 quaerunt. Et ut a pecoribus recedam, quorum in
parte avium cohortalium et apium cura posita est,
quis tanti studii fuit, ut super ista, quae enumera-
vimus, tot nosset ^ species insitionum, tot putatio-
num, tot pomorum holerumque cultus exerceret, tot

* Numidiaqne Lundstrom : numidia codd., et plerique edd. :
Numidiae Schn.
^ nosceret R.

" In Asia Minor, south of the Propontis (Sea of Marmara) ;
now a part of Turkey.

" On the sheep of Tarentum (in southern Italy) see VII. 4,
and Palladius, XII (November) 13. 5. Sheep of this breed
were covered with skins to protect their fine wool; cf. Varro,
R.R. II. 2. 18, and Horace, Od. II. 6. 10.

BOOK I, PREFACE 24-27

better; in some countries, as in Africa and Numidia,
a crumbling, sandy soil surpasses in fertility even
the strongest land ; while in Asia and Mysia <* a stiff
and viscoxis soil is especially productive) ? Of how 25
many is it the lot to have an understanding in the
matter of these soils, as to what crop a hillside will
refuse to yield, what a level situation, what a culti-
vated land, what a wooded land, what a land that is
moist and grassy or diT and blasted ; to discern also
the method of planting and tending trees and vine-
yards, of which there are endless varieties ; and of
acquiring and keeping cattle, since we have admitted
this as a part of agriculture, though the herdsman's
art is distinct from husbandry ? And yet even 26
this is not of one pattern ; for a stud of horses
requires one kind of management ; a herd of cattle
another ; a flock of sheep still another, and of these
the Tarentine breed* demands a different method
from the coarse-wooled ; a still different treatment is
required by the goat kind, and of these the hornless
and thin-haired are cared for in one way, the horned
and shaggy-haired, as in Cilicia,*^ in another way.
Moreover, the business of the swne-breeder and
swineherd is different, their method of feeding is
different ; nor do light-coated and heavv-coated swine
require the same climate, rearing, and care. And, 27
to take mv leave of cattle, as a part of which the
cai-e of farmyard poultry and bees is reckoned, who
has extended his studies so far as to be acquainted,
in addition to the points which I have enumerated,
with the many methods of grafting and pruning ? to
put in practice the cultivation of the many fruits
and vegetables ? to devote his attention to the many

* In the south-eastern part of Asia Minor.

21

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

generibus ficorum sicut rosariis impenderet curam,
cum a plerisque etiam maiora neglegantur,^ quam-
quam et ista iam non minima vectigalia multis esse

28 coeperint?2 Nam prata et salicta, genistaeque et
harundines, quamvis tenuem nihilo minus aliquam
desiderant industriam.

Post hanc tarn multarum tamque multiplicum
rerum praedicationem non me praeterit, si, quem
desideramus agricolam quemque describemus,^ exe-
gero a participibus agrestium operum, tardatum iri *
studia discentium, qui tam variae tamque vastae
scientiae desperatione conterriti nolent^ experiri,

29 quod se consequi posse diffident. Verum tamen,
quod in Oratore iam M. Tullius rectissime dixit, par
est eos, qui generi humano res utilissimas conquirere
et pei-pensas exploratasque memoriae tradere con-
cupierint, cuncta temptare.^ Nee si vel ilia prae-
stantis ingenii vis vel inclitarum artium defecerit
instrumentum, confestim debemus ad otium et
inertiam devolvi, sed quod sapienter speraverimus,''
perseveranter consectari. Summum enim columen ^
adfectantes satis honeste vel in secundo fastigio

30 conspiciemur. An ^ Latiae Musae non solos adytis
suis ^^ Aceium et Vei'gilium recepere, sed eorum et

' negligantur R plerique, edd. ante lundstrom.
^ coeperunt R aliquot, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* describemus codd., veil, edd., Lundstrom : describimus
vulyo.

* tardatum iri omnes post Aid. : tardat ut rei SA et R
plerique : tardi ab rei studio discedent M.

* nolent M, edd. : nollent 8 A et R plerique.
•' tentare R plerique, edd. ante J^undstrom.

' sic codd., Lundstrom : speravimus vulgo ,

* culmen AR, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* Nam Schneider ex Cic. Oral. 1.
»» mn. S.

22

BOOK I, PREFACE 27-30

varieties of figs as well as to rose-gardens, when even
greater things are negldcted by most people even
though they have now begun to be, for many
farmers, not the least part of their revenue ? For 28
meadows and willow-thickets, broom-plants and
reeds, though they require little attention, still
require some.

After this announcement of subjects so many and
so varied, it does not escape me that, if I demand, of
those who are concerned with farm-work, the farmer
whom we seek and shall describe, the enthusiasm of
the learners will be cooled ; for, being disheartened by
the hopelessness of mastering so varied and so vast a
science, they will not wish to try what they distrust
their ability to attain. Nevertheless, as Marcus 29
Tullius has very properly said in his Orator,"' it is
right that those who have an earnest desire to
investigate subjects of the greatest utility for the
human race, and to transmit to posterity their care-
fully weighed findings, should try everything. And
if the force of an outstanding genius or the equip-
ment of celebrated arts is wanting, we should not
immediately relapse into idleness and sloth, but
rather that which we have wisely hoped for we
should steadfastly pursue. For if only we aim at
the topmost peak, it will be honour enough for us
to be seen even on the second summit. Have not the 30
Muses of Latium admitted to their sanctuaries,
not Accius ^ and Vergil alone, but also assigned seats

" Columella expresses the sense, though not the exact word-
ing, of Cicero, Orat. 1-2.

'' A tragic poet of the second century B.C., highly rated
by Quintilian (X. 1. 97). His works survive only in frag-
ments. See Warmington, Remains of Old Latin, II, L.C.L.

23

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

proximis et procul a secundis sacras concessere sedes ?
Nee Brutum aut Caelium Pollionemve eum Messala
et Calvo ^ deterruere ab eloquentiae studio fulmina
ilia Ciceronis. Nam neque ipse Cicero territus
cesserat tonantibus Demostheni Platonique, nee
parens eloquentiae deus ille Maeonius vastissimis
fluminibus facundiae suae posteritatis studia re-

31 stinxerat. Ac ne minoris quidem famae opifices per
tot iam saecula videmus laborem suum destituisse,
qui Protogenen Apellenque cum Parrhasio mirati
sunt, nee pulchritudine lovis Olympii Minervaeque
Phidiacae sequentis aetatis attonitos piguit experiri
Bnaxin, Lysippum, Praxitelen, Polyelitum, quid
efficere aut quousque progredi possent. Sed in
omni genere scientiae et summis admiratio veneratio-

32 que et inferioribus merita laus contigit. Accedit
hue, quod illi, quem nos perfectum esse volumus
agricolam, si quidem artis consummatae non sit,
nee 2 in universa rerum natura sagacitatem Demo-
criti vel Pythagorae fuerit consecutus, et in motibus
astrorum ventorumque Metonis providentiam vel
Eudoxi et Ln pecoris cultu doctrinam Chironis ae

^ Catulo R nonnulli. Aid., Gesn. : Catullo R pauci.
^ sic vulgo : consummatae sit et Lvndstrdm cum vett. edd.
et codd. ut videtur (praeter consummataest S).

' Cf. Cicero, Ad Fam. IX. 21. 1.

' Five famous Roman orators, younger contemporaries of
Cicero.

* Homer.

^ Three celebrated Greek painters of the fourth century B.C.

* I.e. the chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia and
of Athena in the Parthenon.

f Bryaxis, Lysippus and Praxiteles (all of the fourth cent.
B.C.) and Polyclitus (fifth cent, b.c.) were, like Phidias who
overtopped them, distinguished Greek statuaries.

24

BOOK I, PREFACE 30-32

of honour to those next to them and to those far
from second rank? The far-famed fulminations of
Cicero " did not deter from the pursuit of eloquence
Brutus or CaeHus, PolUo or Messala or Calvus ; * for
Cicero himself had not yielded in fright to the thun-
derings of Demosthenes and Plato, and the father of
eloquence, that divine Maeonian," with the mighty
floods of his rhetoric had not quenched the zeal of
those who came after him. And we observe that 31
even artists of lesser fame, who through these
many generations have been admirers of Protogenes
and Apelles and Parrhasius,'^ have not ceased from
their own labours ; and, though stunned by the beauty
of Phidias' Olympian Jove and of his Minerva,*' men
of the succeeding age, Bryaxis, Lysippus, Praxiteles,
and Polyclrtus,/ were not reluctant to try what they
could do or how far they could advance. But in every
branch of knowledge the highest have attained to
admiration and reverence, and those of lesser worth
have received their meed of praise. Added to this 32
is that in the case of the man whom we wish to be
a finished husbandman, even though he be not a man
of consummate skill, though he may not have attained
to the sagacity of a Democritus or a Pythagoras ? in
the nature of the universe, and the foreknowledge
of Meton or Eudoxus ^ in the movements of the stars
and the winds, the learning of Chiron* and MelampusJ

* Democritus (fifth cent, b.c.) and Pythagoras (sixth
cent. B.C.), early Greek philosophers.

* Two Greek astronomers of the fifth and fomth centuries
B.O.

* According to Greek mythology Chiron was a Centaur,
half-man and half-horse, learned in many arts and the tutor
of many mythological heroes.

^ A famous seer and physician of Greek mythology.

25

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Melampodis, et in agrorum solique molitione Tripto-
lemi aut Aristaei prudentiam, multum tamen pro-
fecerit si usu Tremelios Sasernasque et Stolones
33 nostros aequaverit. Potest enim nee subtilissima
nee rursus, quod aiunt, pingui Minerva res agrestls
administrari. Nam illud procul vero est, quod
plerique crediderunt, facillimam esse nee ullius
acuminis rusticationem. De cuius universitate nihil
attinet plura nunc disserere, quoniam ^ quidem
cunctae partes eius destinatis aliquot voluminibus
explicandae sunt, quas ordine suo tunc demum
persequar, cum praefatus fuero quae reor ad uni-
versam disciplinam maxime pertinere.

I. Qui studium agricolationi dederit, antiquissima
sciat haec sibi advocanda : prudentiam rei, facultatem
impendendi, voluntatem agendi. Nam is demum
cultissimum rus habebit, ut ait Tremelius, qui et
colere sciet et poterit et volet. Neque enim scire
aut velle cuiquam satis fuerit sine sumptibus, quos
2 exigunt opera; nee rursus faciendi aut impendendi

^ quoniam Lundstrom : quoniam (in abbr.) vel quom vel
cum codd: : quandoquidem vulgo.

" A mythical character, said to have been the founder
of agriculture and the inventor of the plough (Servius on
Vergil, Georg. I. 163).

^ Son of Apollo and the nymph Cyrene, said to have taught
mankind the management of bees and cattle and the
cultivation of the olive.

' Writers on husbandry, often cited by Varro and Columella :
i.e. Cn. Tremelius Scrofa (c/. Varro, R.R. I. 2. 9-10, II. 4) ; the
26

BOOK 1. 1. 1-2

in the care of cattle and the prudent wisdom of
Triptolemus " or Aristaeus * in the tilling of the
fields and the soil, still he will have made great
progress if he has equalled in practice our own
Tremeliuses and Sasernas and Stolos." For agriculture 33
can be conducted without the greatest mental acute-
ness, but not on the other hand, " by the fat-witted,'' "
to use a frequent expression. For far from the
truth is the belief, held by many, that the busi-
ness of husbandry is extremely easy and requires
no mental keenness. There is no occasion for
further discussion of the subject as a whole at this
point, inasmuch as its several divisions are to be
set forth in the several Books assigned to them,
which I shall carry through, each in its own order,
but only after I have said by way of preface what
I judge to be especially pertinent to the science in
general.

I. One who devotes himself to agriculture should
understand that he must call to his assistance these
most fundamental resources : knowledge of the
subject, means for defraying the expenses, and the
will to do the work. For in the end, as Tremelius
remarks, he will have the best-tilled lands who
has the knowledge, the wherewithal, and the vn\\
to cultivate them. For the knowledge and wilhng-
ness will not suffice anyone without the means which
the tasks require ; on the other hand, the will to 2

two Sasernas, father and son (I. 1. 12; Varro I. 2. 22); and
C. Licinius Stolo (I. 3. 11 ; Varro I. 2. 9).

<* Lit. " fat Minerva." Cf. Cicero, De Amic. 5. 19, pingui
Minerva; Horace, Serm. II. 2. 3, rusticus . . . crassaque
Minerva.

27

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

voluntas profuerit sine arte, quia caput est in omni
negotio nosse quid agendum sit, maximeque in
agri cultura, in qua voluntas facultasque citra scien-
tiam saepe magnara dominis adferunt iacturam, cum
imprudenter facta opera frustrantur impensas.

3 Itaque diligens pater familiae, cui cordi est ex agri
cultu certam sequi rationem rei familiaris augendae,
maxime curabit ut et ^ aetatis suae prudentissimos
agricolas de quaque re consulat et commentarios
antiquorum sedulo scrutetur atque aestimet, quid
eorum quisque senserit, quid praeceperit, an uni-
versa, quae maiores prodiderunt, huius temporis

4 culturae respondeant an aliqua dissonent. Multos
enim iam ^ memorabiles auctor6s coraperi persuasum
habere longo aevi situ qualitatem caeli statumque
mutari, eorumque consultissimum astrologiae pro-
fessorem Hipparchum prodidisse tempus fore, quo
cardines mundi loco moverentur, idque etiam non
spernendus auctor rei rusticae Saserna videtur

5 adcredidisse. Nam eo libro, quem de agri cultura
scriptum reliquit, mutatum caeli situm sic colligit,
quod quae regiones antea propter hiemis adsiduam
violentiam nullam stirpem vitis aut oleae depositam
custodire potuerint, nunc mitigato iam ^ et inte-
pescente pristino frigore largissimis olivitatibus

^ om. R plerique, edd. praeter Lundstrom.
* tain SAa, Lundstrom. * iam om. A.

" A famous Greek astronomer and mathematician, the
inventor of trigonometry, who lived in the second century

B.C.
28

BOOK I. I. 2-5

do or the ability to make the outlay -will be of no use
without knowledge of the art, since the main thing
in every enterprise is to know what has to be done
— and especially so in agriculture, where ■willingness
and means, -without knowledge, frequently bring
great loss to owners when work which has been done
in ignorance brings to naught the expense incurred.
Accordingly, an attentive head of a household, whose
heart is set on pursuing a sure method of increasing
his fortune from the tillage of his land, will take
especial pains to consult on every point the most
experienced farmers of his own time ; he should
study zealously the manuals of the ancients, gauging
the opinions and teachings of each of them, to see
whether the records handed dowTi by his forefathers
are suited in their entirety to the husbandry of his
day or are out of keeping in some respects. For
I have found that many authorities now worthy of
remembrance were convinced that with the long
wasting of the ages, weather and climate undergo
a change ; and that among them the most learned
professional astronomer, Hipparchus,'' has put it
on record that the time will come when the
celestial poles will change position, a statement to
which Saserna, no mean authority on husbandry,
seems to have given credence. For in that book on
agriculture which he has left behind he concludes
that the position of the heavens has changed from
this evidence : that regions Avhich formerly, because
of the unremitting severity of winter, could not
safeguard any shoot of the \ine or the olive planted
in them, now that the earlier coldness has abated
and the weather is becoming more clement, produce
olive harvests and the vintages of Bacchus in the

29

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Liberique vindemiis exuberent. Sed haec sive
falsa seu ^ vera ratio est, litteris astrologiae conceda-
C tur. Cetera non dissimulanda erunt agrorum eultori
praecepta rusticationis, quae cum plurima tradiderint
Poeni ex Africa scriptores, multa tamen ab his falso
prodita coarguunt nostri coloni, sicut Tremelius, qui
querens id ipsum tamen excusat, quod Italiae et
Africae solum caelumque diversae naturae nequeat
eosdem pi'oventus habere. Quaecumque sunt ^
autera, quae ^ propter disciplina * ruris nostrorum
temporum cum priscis discrepat, non deterrere
debent a lectione discentem. Nam multo plura
reperiuntur ^ apud veteres, quae nobis probanda sint,
quam quae repudianda.

7 Magna porro et Graecorum turba est de rusticis
rebus praecipiens, cuius princeps celeberrimus vates
non minimum professioni nostrae contulit Hesiodus
Boeotius. Magis deinde eam iuvere fontibus orti
sapientiae Democritus Abderites, Socraticus Xeno-
phon, Tarentinus Archytas, Peripatetici magister ac

8 discipulus Aristoteles cum Theophrasto. Siculi quo-
que non mediocri cura negotium istud prosecuti
sunt Hieron et Epicharmus, cuius ^ discipulus
Philometor et Attalus. Athenae vero scriptorum
frequentiam pepererunt, e qua ' probatissimi auctores

^ sive R. * sunt o?re. Schn. * quae om. S, Schn.

* disciplina Ursinus (teste Schn.), Lundstrom ciim Cod.
Laurent. 53. 27 : disciplinam SAR, plerique edd.

* repperiuntur SAa, Lundstrom.

* cuius add. Lundstrom : om. SAR.

' e qua Lundstrom : eaquae SA : aeque vel eque R : e
queis vulgo.

" One of the earliest Greek poets, said by Pliny (XVIII.
201) to have been the first writer of agricultural precepts.

3°

BOOK I. I. 5-8

gi'eatest abundance. But whether this theory be
true or false, we must leave it to the writings on
astronomy. Other precepts of husbandly are not to 6
be concealed from the tiller of the soil ; and while
Punic writers from Africa have handed them down
in large numbers, yet many of them are assailed as
erroneous by our farmers, as, for example, by
TremeUus, who, though he brings this very charge,
provides the excuse that tlie soil and the climate of
Italy and of Africa, being of a different nature,
cannot produce the same results. But whatever the
causes by reason of which the agricultural practice
of our times is at variance with the ancient prin-
ciples, they should not discourage the learner from
reading them ; for in the works of the ancients far
more is found to merit our approval than our
rejection.

There is, furthermore, a great throng of Greeks who 7
give instruction on husbandry ; and the first of them,
that most renowned poet, Hesiod ° of Boeotia, has con-
tributed in no small degree to our art. It was then
further assisted by men who have come from the
well-spring of philosophy — Deinocritus of Abdera,
Xenophon the follower of Socrates, Archytas of
Tarentum, and the two Peripatetics, master and
pupil, Aristotle and Theophrastus. Sicilians, too, 8
have pursued that occupation with no ordinary zeal,
Hieron and Epicharmus, whose pupil was even
Attains Philometor.'' Athens assuredly has been the
mother of a host of writers, of whom our most out-

His surviving works include Works and Days, a collection of
agricultural and moral teachings.

^ For a discussion of the names and defence of the text,
c/. V. Lundstrom, " Litteraturhistoriska Bidrag, etc. : 2
Epicharmos och Attalos Philometor," Eranos, XV. 165-171.

31

VOL. I. C

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Chaei'eas, Aristandros, Amphilochus, Euphronius,
Chrestus ^ — Euphronius ^ non, ut multi putant,
Amphipolites, qui et ipse laudabilis habetur agricola,
9 sed indigena soli Attici. Insulae quoque curam
istam celebraverunt, ut testis est Rhodius Epigenes,
Chius Agathocles, Evagon et Anaxipolis Thasii.
Unius quoque de septem Biantis illius populares
Menander et Diodorus in primis sibi vindicaverunt
agricolationis prudentiam. Nee his cessere Milesii
Bacchius et Mnaseas,^ Antigonus Cymaeus, Per-
gamenus Apollonius, Dion Colophonius, Hegesias

10 Maronites. Nam quideni Diophanes Bithynius
Uticensem totum Dionysium, Poeni Magonis inter-
pretem, per multa difFusum volumina sex epitomis
circumscripsit. Et alii tamen obscuriores, quorum
patrias non accepimus, aliquod stipendium nostro
studio contulerunt. Hi sunt Androtion, Aeschrion,
Aristomenes, Athenagoras, Crates, Dadis,* Dionysias,

11 Euphyton, Euphorion. Nee minore fide pro virili
parte tributum nobis intulerunt Lysimachas et
Eubulus, Menestratus, et Plentiphanes,^ Persis et

12 Theophilus. Et ut agricolationem Romana tandem
eivitate donemus (nam adhuc istis auctoribus Graecae

^ Chaerestaeus Varro, R.B. I. 1. 8.

'^ Euphronius Lundstrom praeeuntibus Reitzensteinio, Ursino,
Fontedera : euphrontis SAR : Euphronis vulgo.

^ Mnasias S, Lundstrom : manassias A : manasseas R.

* dadis vel eladis vel cladis R : dandis SA.

* et Plentiphanes Lundstrom : Pleutiphanes vulgo : euanti-
phanes (et om.) SA : alii alia in R.

32

BOOK I. I. 8-12

standing authorities are Chaereas, Aristandrus,
Amphilochus, Euphronius, and Chrestus — Euphronius
being not, as many believe, the Euphronius of Aniphi-
polis (who is himself regarded as a praiseworthy
farmer), but a native of Attica. The islands, too, 9
have honoured the study, as witness Epigenes of
Rhodes, Agathocles of Chios, and Evagon and
AnaxipoUs of Thasos. Menander and Diodorus
also, fellow-countrymen of the renowned Bias, one
of the Seven," were among the first to lay claim to a
knowledge of agriculture. Not inferior to these
are Bacchius and Mnaseas of Miletus, Antigonus of
Cyme, Apollonius of Pergamus, Dion of Colophon,
and Hegesias of Maronea. As a matter of fact, 10
Diophanes of Bithynia epitomized in six abridged
volumes the entire work of Dionysius of Utica, who
translated in many prolix volumes the treatise of the
Carthaginian Mago.** Other writers, too, though
of lesser fame, whose countries we have not
learned, have made some contribution to our
study. Such are Androtion, Aeschrion, Aristo-
menes, Athenagoras, Crates, Dadis, Dionysius.
Euphyton, and Euphorion. And ^vith no less 11
fidelity have Lysimachus and Eubulus, Menestratus
and Plentiphanes, Persis and Theophilus, to the best
of their ability, brought us their tribute. And that 12
we may endow Agriculture at last with Roman
citizenship (for it has belonged thus far to writers

" The Seven Sages of Greece, all belonging to the period
from 620 to 550 e.g. The names are variously given, but
those usually mentioned are : Cleobulus, Periander, Pittacus,
Bias, Thales, Chilon, and Solon.

* Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 1. 10; and see V. Lundstrom,
" Magostudien," Eranos, II. 60-67; J. P. Mahaffy, "The
Work of Mago on Agriculture," Hermathena, VII. 29-35.

33

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

gentis fuit) iani nunc M. Catonem Censorium ilium
memoremus, qui earn latine loqui piinuis instituit,
post hunc duos Sasernas, patrera et filium,^ qui earn
diligentius erudiverunt, ac deinde Scrofam Treme-
lium, qui etiam eloquentem reddidit, et M. Terentium
qui expolivit, mox \ ergilium,^ qui carniinum ^ quoque

13 potentem fecit. Nee postremo quasi paedagogi
eius meminisse dedignemur luli Hygini, verimi tamen
ut Carthaginiensem Magonem rusticationis parentem
maxime veneremur ; nam huius octo et viginti
memorabilia ilia volumina ex senatus consulto in

14 Latinum sermonem conversa sunt. Non minorem
tamen laudem meruerunt nostrorum temporum viri
Cornelius Celsus et lulius Atticus, quippe Cornelius
totum corpus disciplinae quinque libris complexus est,
hie de una specie culturae pertinentis ad vitis singu-
larem librum edidit. Cuius velut discipulus duo
volumina similium praeceptorum de vineis lulius
Graecinus composita facetius et eruditius posteritati
tradenda curavit.

15 Hos igitur, P. Silvine, priusquam cum agricolatione

^ filium et patrem SA. * virgilium R.

* carmine R.

" Regarded by Pliny {N.H. XVII. 199) as the most ancient
and most distinguished husbandmen after Cato.

'' A contemporary of Varro and one of the speakers in
Varro's agricultural treatise.

' Marcus Terentius Varro.

'' A slave whose duty it was to guard his master's children,
escort them to school, and perhaps give some elementary
instruction at home.

' Freedman and librarian of Augustus, and a writer of great
versatility. Two works, dealing with mythology and
astronomy, survive under his name.

34

BOOK I. I. 12-15

of the Greek race), let us now recall that illustrious
Marcus Cato the Censor, who first taught her to
speak in Latin ; after him the two Sasernas," father
and son, who continued her education with greater
care ; then Tremelius Scrofa,'' who gave her eloquence,
and Marcus Terentius,'' who added refinement ; and
presently Vergil, who gave her the power of song as
well. And finally, let us not disdain to mention 13
her paedagogus,^ so to speak, Julius Hyginus,*
though still paying greatest reverence to the Cartha-
ginian Mago as the father of husbandry, inasmuch as
his twenty-eight memorable volumes were trans-
lated into the Latin tongue by senatorial decree.
No less honour, however, is due to men of our own 14
time, Cornelius Celsus/ and Julius Atticus;? for
Cornelius has embraced the whole substance of the
subject in five books, while the latter has pubhshed
just one book on one kind of agriculture, that
concerned with vines. And his pupil, as it were,
Julius Graecinus,^ has taken care that two volumes
of similar instructions on vineyards, composed in a
more elegant and learned style, should be handed
down to posterity.*

These, then, Publius Silvinus, are the men whom 15

f An encyclopaedic writer, who flourished in the time of
Tiberius; called the " Roman Hippocrates " for his great
learning in medicine. Eight books of his medical writings
have come down to us (in L.C.L., 3 vols., by W. Spencer).

" Known from this passage as a contemporary of Colum-
ella, by whom he is often quoted.

'' Father of Julius Agricola, the father-in-law of Tacitus.

' Our meagre knowledge of the Uves and works of agri-
cultural writers (Varro excepted) between the time of Cato and
that of Columella is summed up by R. Reitzenstein in his
dissertation, De Scriptorum Rei Rusticae Libris Deperditis
(Berlin, 1884).

35

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

contrahas, advocate in consilium, nee tamen sic
mente dispositus velut summam totius rei sententiis
eorum consecuturus, quippe ^ eiusmodi scriptorum
monumenta magis instruunt quam faciunt artificem.

16 Usus et experientia dominantur in artibus, neque
est uUa disciplina, in qua non peccando discatur.^
Nam ubi quid perperam administratum cessit ^ im-
prospere, vitatur quod fefellerat, illiuninatque rectam

17 \iam docentis magisterium. Quare nostra praecepta
non consummare scientiam, sed adiuvare promittunt.
Nee statim quisquam compos agricolationis erit his
perlectis rationibus, nisi et obire eas voluerit et per
facultates potuerit. Ideoque haec velut adminicula
studiosis promittimus, non profutura per se sola, sed
cum aliis.

18 Ac ne ista quidem praesidia, ut diximus, non adsi-
duus labor et experientia vilici, non facultates ac
voluntas impendendi tantum pollent quantum vel
una praesentia domini ; quae nisi frequens operibus
intervenerit, ut in exercitu cum abest imperator,
cuncta cessant officia. Maximeque reor hoc signifi-
cantem * Poenum Magonem suorum scriptorum
primordium talibus auspicatum sententiis : " Qui
agrum paravit domum vendat, ne malit urbanum
quam rusticum larem colere ; cui magis cordi fuerit

^ quia R plerique. ^ discitur S.

^ cesserit R aliquot. * significante 8.

" Cf. the maxim of Cato, 4, frons occipitio prior est ; Pliny,
N.H. XVIII. 31 frontemifue domini plus prodesse quam occipit-
ium; and Palladiiis, I. 6. 1, fraesentia domini proveclus est agri.

36

BOOK I. I. 15-18

you are to call into consultation before you make
any contract with agriculture, yet not with any
thought that you will attain perfection in the whole
subject through their maxims; for the treatises of
such writers instruct rather than create the crafts-
man. It is practice and experience that hold 16
supremacy in the crafts, and there is no branch of
learning in which one is not taught by his own
mistakes. For when a venture turns out unsuccess-
fully through wrong management, one avoids the
mistake that he had made, and the instructions of
a teacher cast a light upon the right course. Hence 17
these precepts of ours promise, not to bring the
science to perfection, but to lend a helping hand.
And no man will immediately become a master of
agriculture by the reading of these doctrines, unless
he has the will and the resources to put them into
practice. We set them forth, therefore, in the
nature of supports to those who wish to learn, not
intended to be beneficial by themselves alone, but
in conjunction with other requirements.

And, as I have stated, not even those aids, nor 18
the constant toil and experience of the farm overseer,
nor the means and the willingness to spend money,
avail as much as the mere presence of the master ;*
for if his presence does not frequently attend the
work, all business comes to a standstill, just as in an
army when the commander is absent. And I believe
that Mago the Carthaginian was pointing this out
most particularly when he began his Avritings with
such sentiments as these : " One who has bought
land should sell his town house, so that he will have
no desire to worship the household gods of the city
rather than those of the country ; the man who takes

37

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

urbanum domicilium, rustico praedio non erit opus."

19 Quod ego praeceptum, si posset his temporibus
observari, non immutarem. Nunc quoniam ^ pleros-
que nostrum civilis ambitio saepe evocat ac saepius
detinet evocatos, sequitur ut suburbanum praedium
commodissimum esse putem, quo vel ^ occupato
cotidianus excursus facile post negotia fori contingat.^

20 Nam qui longinqua, ne dicam transmarina rura
mercantur, velut heredibus patrimonio suo et,^ quod
gravius est, vivi cedunt servis suis, quoniam quidem
et illi tam longa dominorum distantia corrumpuntur
et corrupti^ post flagitia, quae commiserunt, sub
exspectatione successorum rapinis magis quam
culturae ^ student.

II. Censeo igitur in propinquo agrum mercari, quo
et frequenter dominus veniat et frequentius venturum
se,' quam sit venturus, denuntiet. Sub hoc enim
metu cum familia viUcus erit in officio. Quicquid
vero dabitur occasionis, ruri moretur, quae non sit
mora segnis nee umbratihs. Nam diligentem patrem
familiae decet agri sui particulas omnis et omni
tempore anni frequentius circumire, quo prudentius
naturam ^ soli sive in frondibus et herbis sive iam
maturis frugibus contempletur, nee ignoret quicquid
2 in eo recte fieri poterit. Nam illud vetus est Catonis
agrum pessime mulcari,^ cuius dominus quid in eo

^ quom vel cum R, ut saepe. ^ ut SA : velut R pauci.

' contingant S. * vel Schn. cum Gronovio.

* corruptis SA, et R plerique.

* culturis R aliquot, Schn.

'' se venturum ante Lundstroni.

* natura SA.

"* multari R plerique, et vulgo : mulctari R pauci, veil. edd.

" Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 7.

38

BOOK I. I. 18-11. 2

greater delight in his city residence will have no need
of a country estate"." This precept, if it could be 19
carried out in our times, I would not change. But
as things are, since political ambition often calls
most of us away, and even more often keeps us
away when called, I consequently rate it as most
advantageous to have an estate near town, which
even the busy man may easily visit every day after
his business in the forum is done. For men who 20
purchase lands at a distance, not to mention estates
across the seas, are making over their inheritances
to their slaves, as to their heirs and, worse yet,
while they themselves are still alive ; for it is certain
that slaves are corrupted by reason of the great
remoteness of their masters and, being once corrupted
and in expectation of others to take their places after
the shameful acts which they have committed, they
are more intent on pillage than on farming.

II. I am of the opinion, therefore, that land should
be purchased nearby, so that the owner may visit
it often and announce that his visits will be more
frequent than he really intends them to be ; for
under this apprehension both overseer and labourers
will be at their duties. But whenever the chance
offers, he should stay in the country ; and his stay
should not be an idle one nor one spent in the shade.
For it behooves a careful householder to go around
every little bit of his land quite frequently and at
every season of the year, that he may the more
intelligently observe the nature of the soil, whether in
foliage and grass or in ripened crops, and that he may
not be ignorant of what may properly be done on it.
For it is an old saying of Cato that land is most
grievously maltreated when its master does not direct

39

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

faciendum sit non docet, sed audit vilicum. Qua-
propter vel a maioribus traditum possidenti vel
empturo fundum praecipua cura sit scire, quod
maxime regionis genus probetur, ut vel careat

3 inutili vel mercetur laudabilem. Quod si voto
fortuna subscribit,^ agrum habebimus salubri caelo,
uberi glaeba, parte campestri, parte alia colUbus vel
ad orientem vel ad meridiem molliter devexis ;
terrenisque aliis ^ atque aliis silvestribus et asperis,
nee procul a mari vel navigabili flumine, quo deportari
fructus et per quod merces invehi possint. Campus
in prata et arva saUctaque et harundineta digestus

4 aedificio subiaceat. Colles alii vacui arboribus, ut
solis segetibus serviant ; quae tamen modice siccis
ac pinguibus campis melius quam praecipitibus
locis proveniunt, ideoque etiam celsiores agri fru-
mentarii planitias habere et quam mollissime devexi
ac simillimi debent esse campestri positioni. Alii
deinde colles olivetis vineisque ^ et earum futuris
pedamentis vestiantur, materiam lapidemque, si
necessitas aedificandi coegerit, nee minus pecudibus
pascua praebere possint, tum rivos decurrentes in
prata et hortos et salicta villaeque aquas salientes

5 demittant. Nee absint greges armentorum cetero-
rumque quadrupedum * culta et dumeta pascentium.

^ subriserit vel surriserit R plerique : subscripserit vulgo.

* aliis cultis {deest codd.) Gesn. : aliis ac cultis Schn.
'^ vinetiaque R, plerique edd.

* quadripedum SAa, Lundstrdm.

" Not found in Cato as now extant ; but cf. the sentiment
of Cato, 2, and especially 5. 2, where the overseer is enjoined
not to consider himself wiser than liis master. Pliny {N.H.
XVIII. 36), after citing the instructions of Cato as to the
qualifications for an overseer, considers it sufficient to add

40

BOOK I. 11. 2-5

what is to be done thereon but listens to his overseer."
Therefore, let it be the chief concern of one who owns
a farm inherited from his ancestors, or of one who
intends to buy a place, to know what kind of ground
is most approved, so that he may either be rid of
one that is unprofitable or purchase one that is to
be commended. But if fortune attends our praver,
we shall have a farm in a healthful climate, with
fertile soil, partly level, partly hills with a gentle
eastern or southern slope ; with some parts of the
land cultivated, and other parts wooded and rough ;
not far from the sea or a navigable stream, by which
its products may be earned off and supplies brought
in. The level ground, divided into meadows, arable
land, willow groves, and reed thickets, should be
adjacent to the steading. Let some of the hills
be bare of trees, to serve for grain crops only ; still
these crops thrive better in moderately drv^ and
fertile plains than in steep places, and for that
reason even the higher grainfields should have some
level sections and should be of as gentle a slope as
possible and veiy much like flat land. Again, other
hills should be clad ^\'ith olive groves and vineyards,
and vnth copses to supply props for the latter ; they
should be able to furnish wood and stone, if the need
of building so requires, as well as grazing ground for
herds ; and then they should send down coursing
rivulets into meadows, gardens, and ^villow planta-
tions, and running water for the villa. And let
there be no lack of herds of cattle and of other four-
footed kind to graze over the tilled land and the

that the overseer should possess an intelligence nearly equal
to that of his master, though he should not himself be
conscious of it.

41

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Sed haec positio, quam desideramus, difficilis et
rara paucis contingit ; proxima est huic, quae plurima
ex his habet ; tolerabilis, quae non paucissima.

III. Porcius quidem Cato censebat inspiciendo
agro ^ praecipue duo esse consideranda, salubritatem
caeli et ubertatem loci ; quorum si alterum deesset
ac nihilo minus quis vellet incolere mente esse
captum atque eum ad agnatos et gentiles dedueendum.

2 Neminem enim sanum debere facere sumptus in
cultura sterilis soli, nee rursus pestilent! quamvis
feracissimo pinguique agro dominum ad fructus
pervenire. Nam ubi sit cum Oreo ratio ponenda, ibi
non modo perceptionem fruetuum, sed et vitam
colonorum esse dubiam vel potius mortem quaestu

3 certiorem. Post haec duo principaha subiungebat
ilia non minus intuenda : viam, aquam, vicinum.^
Multum conferre agris iter commodum; primum,
quod est maximum, ipsam praesentiam domini, qui
libentius commeaturus sit, si vexationem viae non
reformidet ; deinde ad invehenda et exportanda
utensilia, quae res frugibus conditis auget pretium

^ sic Lundstrom cum S (m. pr.) et R nonnuUis : censebat in
inspiciendo agro 8 (m. alt.) A et R nonnulli : censebat in
emendo inspiciendo agro cod. Lips. Bibl. Comm. I.f. 13 : c. i. e.
inspiciendoque a. vulgo.

* vicinam R : viam et aquam vicinam vett. edd : v. et a. et
vicinum vulgo.

" The substance of these words is found in Cato I. 2-3 ;
but the passage as a whole bears a closer resemblance to Varro,
R.R. I. 2. 8.

'' A legal expression. Cf. Varro, loc. cit., quorum si alter-
utrum decolat et nihilo m,inu8 quis vult colere, mente est captus
adque agnatos et gentiles est deducendus. Under the Laws of the
Twelve Tables the agnati (blood relatives on the father's side)

42

BOOK I. 11. 5-in. 3

thickets. But such a situation as we desire is hard to
find and, being uncommon, it falls to the lot of few ;
the next best is one which possesses most of these
qualities, and one is passable which lacks the fewest
of them.

III. Porcius Cato, indeed, held the opinion that in
the inspection of farm land two considerations were
of chief importance — the wholesomeness of the
climate, and the fruitfulness of the region ;" and
that if either of these were wanting and one had
the desire none the less to live there, he had lost
his senses and should be turned over to his legal
guardians.^ For no one in his right mind should go
to the expense of cultivating barren soil, and, on the
other hand, in an unhealthful climate, no matter how
fruitful and rich the soil, the owner cannot live to
the harvest ; for where the reckoning must be made
with Orcus,'' not only the han'esting of the crops
but also the life of the husbandmen is uncertain, or
rather death is more certain than gain. After these
two primary considerations he added, as deserving no
less attention, the following : the road, the water,
and the neighbourhood. A handy road contributes
much to the worth of land : first and most important,
the actual presence of the owner, who will come and
go more cheerfully if he does not have to dread
discomfort on the journey ; and secondly its con-
venience for bringing in and carrying out the
necessaries — a factor which increases the value of
stored crops and lessens the expense of bringing

and gentiles (members of the same gens) were legal guardians
in cases of lunacy; cf. Frag. XII Tab. ap. Cicero, De Inv.
II. 50 (148), SI FVRIOSVS ESCIT AGNATVIVI GENTILIVM-
QVE IN EO PECVNIAQVE EIVS POTESTAS ESTO.
« I.e. with Death. Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 4. 3.

43

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

et minuit impensas rerum invectarum, quia minoris

4 adportentur eo, quo facili nisu perveniatur ; nee
non ^ nihil esse etiam parvo vehi, si conductis iumentis
iter facias, quod magis expedit quam tueri propria;
servos quoque, qui secuturi patrem familiae sint,
non aegre iter pedibus ingredi. De bonitate aquae
ita omnibus clarum estut pluribus non sit disserendum.

5 Quis enim dubitet earn maxime probatam haberi,
sine qua nemo nostrum vel prosperae vel adversae
valetudinis vitam prorogat ? De vicini commodo
non est quidem certum, quia ^ non numquam mors
aliaeque nobis eum ^ causae diversae * mutant. Et
ideo quidam respuunt Catonis sententiam ; qui
tamen multum videntur errare. Nam quem ad
niodum sapientis est fortuitos casus magno animo
sustinere, ita dementis est ipsum sibi malam facere
fortunam, quod facit, qui nequam vicinum suis
nummis parat, cum a primis cunabulis, si modo
liberis parentibus est oriundus, audisse potuerit :

ov8' av ySoi'S olwoXolt' ci fxr] yeiTotv KaKo? eir].

6 Quod non solum de bove dicitur, sed ^ de omnibus
partibus rei nostrae familiaris ; adeo quidem ut
multi praetulerint carere penatibus et propter
iniuriam vicinorum sedes suas profugerint. Nisi

^ non om. Schn.

^ quia S, Lundstrom : qui AR : quem edd. vulgo.

^ nobis eum Lundstrom : nobiscum 8AR, cett. edd.

* diversae om. SAa : inc. Schn.

^ sed etiam R aliquot, et vulgo : etiam om. SA, Lundstrom.

" Lundstrom justifies this interpretation of the unanimous

reading nee non nihil of the Mss. ; c/. " Smaplock ur Columellas
sprak : 22. Tredubbel negation," Eranos, XV. 205.

44

BOOK I. III. 3-6

things in, as they are transported at lower cost to
a place which may be reached without great effort ;
and it means a great deal," too, to get transportation 4
at low cost if you make the trip ^vith hired draught-
animals, which is more expedient than looldng after
your own ; furthermore, that the slaves who are to
accompany the master will not be reluctant to begin
the journey on foot. As to the goodness of the water,
the point is so apparent to everyone that it needs no
further discussion ; for who can doubt that water — - 5
^\ithout which none of us, whether of sound or delicate
health, can prolong his life — is most highly esteemed ?
As to the suitability of a neighbour, there is, as a
matter of fact, no fixed rule, since death and various
other circumstances sometimes change him in our
eyes. It is for this reason that some people reject
Cato's opinion, though they appear to be badly mis-
taken. For, as it is the part of a wise man to endvu'e
the blows of fortune with a stout heart, so it is the
mark of a madman to create misfortunes for himself
voluntarily ; and this is what he does who spends
his money in the purchase of a worthless neighbour,
even though he might have heard, from his first days
in the cradle, provided he comes of gentle stock, the
Greek proverb :

Not even an ox would be lost but for an evil
neighbour.*'

And this sajdng applies not only to the ox, but to all 6
parts of our estate ; to such an extent, in fact, that
many have preferred to forsake their household gods
and have quit their homes because of the wrong-
doing of their neighbours ; unless we attribute it to

* Hesiod, Works and Days, 348.

45

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

aliter existimamus diversum orbem gentes universas
petisse relicto patrio solo, Achaeos dice et Hiberos,
Albanos quoque nee minus Siculos et, ut primordia
nostra contingam, Pelasgos, Aborigines, Arcadas,
quam quia malos vicinos ferre non potuerant. Ac ne
tantum de publicis calamitatibus loquar, privates
quoque menioria tradidit et in regionibus Graeciae
et in hac ipsa Hesperia detestabiles fuisse vicinos,
nisi Autolycus ille cuiquam potuit tolerabilis esse
conterminus, aut Aventini mentis incola Palatinis
ullum gaudium finitimis ^ suis Cacus attulit. Malo
enim praeteritorum quam praesentium meminisse,
ne vicinum meum nominem, qui nee arborem ^
prolixiorem stare nostrae regionis nee inviolatum
seminarium nee pedamenta ^ ad nexum vineae nee
eliam peeudes neglegentius pasci sinit. lure igitur,
quantum mea fert opinio, M. Poreius talem pestem
vitare eensuit et in primis futurum agricolam prae-
monuit, ne sua sponte ad eam perveniret.

Nos ad eetera praeeepta illud adicimus, quod
sapiens unus de septem in perpetuum posteritati
pronuntiavit, adhibendum modum mensuramque
rebus, idque ut non solum aliud aeturis, sed et
agrum paraturis dictum intellegatur, ne maiorem,

^ finitissimis S. * ne carbone SA.

* pedamentum vel pedamenti vel pedamenti quicquam R
plerique, edd. ante Lundstrom.

" The master-thief of Greek mythology, son of Hermes
(Mercury) and maternal grandfather of Odysseus. Autolycus
possessed the gift of making himself and his stolen property
invisible or of changed appearance.

* A monster of Roman legend, who stole from Hercules the
46

BOOK I. III. 6-8

some other motive than their inabiUty to put up with
bad neighbours that whole nations (I speak of the
Achaeans and Hiberians, the Albanians, too, and the
Sicilians as well ; and, to touch upon our ovm begin-
nings, the Pelasgians, the Aborigines, and the
Arcadians) abandoned their native soil and sought
out a different part of the world. And not to speak 7
merely of disasters affecting communities at large,
it is a matter of tradition that private indi\iduals
too, both in the countries of Greece and in our own
Hesperia, have been abominable neighbom-s ; unless
anyone could have endured that infamous Auto-
lycus " on an adjoining place, or unless Cacus,^ a
resident of the Aventine mount, brought joy to his
neighbours on the Palatine ! For I prefer to speak
of men of past times rather than of the present, so as
not to call by name a neighbour of my own who does
not allow a tree of any great spread to stand on our
common line ; who does not let a seed-bed go
unhurt, or stakes to support the vines ; who does
not even let the cattle graze undisturbed. Rightly,
then, as far as my opinion goes, did Marcus Porcius
advise the avoidance of such a nuisance and par-
ticularly warn the farmer-to-be not to come near it
of his own free will.

To the other injunctions we add one which one of 8
the Seven Sages '^ deUvered to posterity for all
time : that measui'e and proportion be applied to
all things, and that this be understood as spoken
not only to those who are to embark on some other
enterprise, but also to those who are to acquire land

cattle of Geryon. The story of Cacus is told at great length
bv Vergil, Aen. VIII. 193-2(37.
' ' See I. 1. 9, note.

47

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quam ratio calculorura patitur, eniere velint.^ Nam
hue pertinet praeclai*a nostri poetae sententia :

laudato ingentia rura,
Exiguum colito.

9 Quod vir eruditissimus, ut mea fert opinio, traditum
vetus praeceptum numeris signavit, quippe acutissi-
mam gentem Poenos dixisse convenit imbecilliorem
agrum quam agricolam esse debere, quoniam, cum
sit conluctandum cum eo, si fundus praevaleat, adlidi
dominum. Nee dubium quin minus reddat laxus

10 ager non recte cultus quam angustus eximie. Ideo-
que post reges exactos Lieiniana ilia septena iugera,
quae plebis ^ tribunus viritim diviserat, maiores
quaestus antiquis rettulere,^ quam nunc nobis
praebent amplissima veterata. Tanta M'.^ quidcm
Curius Dentatus, quem paulo ante rettulimus,
prospero ductu parta victoria ob eximiam virtutem
deferente populo praemii nomine quinquaginta soli
iugera supra consularem triumphalemque fortunam
putavit esse, repudiatoque publico munere populari

11 ac plebeia mensura contentus f'uit. Mox etiam cum

^ velint Pontedera, Schneider, Lundstrom : velit SAB, et
alii.

^ plebi Schn.

^ retulere SAR.

■* tanta M'. Lundstrom, praeeunte Madvigio : tanta vel
tantam codd. plerique.

« Vergil, Oeorg. II. 412-413.

" Cf. Palladius I. 6. 8, Fecundior est culta exiguitas quam
magnitudo neglecta.

' The first Roman agrarian law, made by Romulus, allotted
to every citizen two iugera of land (Varro, R.R. I. 10. 12;
c/. Pliny, iV.fl. XVIII. 7). For the seven iugera, cf. Varro,

48

BOOK I. III. 8-II

— not to Avant to buy more than a regard for their
reckonings allows. For this is the meaning of that
famous maxim of our ovm poet :

Admire large farms, but yet a small one till."

This precept, which a most learned man has expressed 9
in verse, is, in my opinion, a heritage from an-
tiquity, inasmuch as it is agreed that the Cartha-
ginians, a very shrewd people, had the saying that
the farm should be weaker than the farmer ; for, as
he must wrestle with it, if the land prove the stronger,
the master is crushed. And there is no doubt that
an extensive field, not properly cultivated, brings in
a smaller return than a httle one tilled -snth exceed-
ing care.'' For this reason those seven iugera of 10
Licinius,'' which the tribune of the plebs distributed
to each man after the expulsion of the kings,
rewarded the ancients AA-ith greater returns than our
very extensive fallow-lands bestow upon us nowa-
days. So great an amount, in fact, did Manius
Curius Dentatus, whom we mentioned a little above,''
regard as a good fortune greater than that of one who
had been consul and had received a triumph, when
after the winning of a \actory under his successful
leadership, the people bestowed upon him, in token
of rcAvard for his unusual ability, fifty iugera of land ;
and, decHning the generosity of the state, he was
content with the portion allotted to his fellow-
citizens and to the common people. Later on, even 11

I. 2. 9, who speaks of such a distribution of land as first made
by the tribune Gaius Licinius 365 years after the expulsion of
the kings; also Pliny, XVIIl. 18. A like distribution by
decree of the senate, after the conquest of Veii (396 B.C.),
is recorded by Livy, V. 30.
" Praef. 14.

49

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

agrorum vastitatem victoriae nostrae et interncciones
hostium fecissent, criminosum tamen senatori fuit
supra quinquaginta iugera possedisse, suaque lege
C. Licinius damnatus est, quod agri modum, quem in
magistratu rogatione tribunicia promulgaverat, immo-
dica possidendi libidine transcendisset, nee magis
quia superbum videbatur tantum loci detinere quam
quia flagitiosius,^ quos hostis profugiendo desolasset
agros, novo more civem Romanum supra vires

12 patrimonii possidendo deserere. Modus ergo, qui
in omnibus rebus, etiam parandis agris habebitur.^
Tantum enim obtinendum est, quanto est opus, ut
emisse videamur quo potiremur,^ non quo oneraremur
ipsi atque aUis fruendum eriperemus more prae-
potentium, qui possident fines gentium, quos ne
circumire quoque * valent, sed proculcandos peeudibus
et vastandos ac populandos ^ feris derelinquunt
aut oGcupatos nexu civium et ergastulis tenent.
Modus autem erit sua cuique voluntas ^ facultasque.

13 Neque enim satis est, ut iam prius dixi, possidere '
velle, si eolere non possis.

^ flagitiosum R aliquot, et vulgo ante Lundstrom.
^ sic SA, et R aliquot, Lundstrom : adhibebitur vel adhibetur
alii.

* poteremur S, Lundstrom.

* quoque codd., vett. edd., Lundstrom : equis quidem vulgo.
^ ac populandos om. SA.

" sic codd., vett. edd., Lundstrom : cuique moderata voluntas
vulgo, sed moderata inc. Schn.
' om. SA.

" Schneider alone reads quingenta, 500.

" The tribune Gaius Licinius Stolo, proposer of the Licinian
Rogations (passed in 367 B.C.) which limited ownership of land
to 500 iugera. Of. Varro, R.R. I. 2. 9 ; Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 17.

' Under the old Roman law of debt the borrower bound
himself, in default of payment, to work out the debt as a

5°

BOOK I. III. 11-13

though our victories and the annihilation of the
enemy had desolated vast stretches of country, it
was still a criminal matter for a senator to have
more than fifty " iugera in his possession. And
Gaius Licinius ^ was condemned under the terms of
his own law when, with an unrestrained passion for
o^\Tiership, he had exceeded the limit of landhold-
ings which he had set up by legislation proposed
when he was a tribune ; and this not only because
it was a mai*k of arrogance to occupy holdings of
such extent, but quite as much for the reason that
it seemed the more scandalous for a Roman citizen,
by extending his ownership in unheard-of fashion
beyond the sufficiency of his inheritance, to leave un-
tilled those lands which the enemy by their flight had
abandoned. Therefore, as in all matters, so too in the 12
acquiring of land, moderation shall be exercised.
For only so much is to be occupied as is needed, that
we may appear to have purchased what we may keep
under control, not to saddle ourselves -with a biu*den
and to deprive others of its use and enjoyment after
the manner of men of enormous wealth who,
possessing entire countries of which they carmot
even make the rounds, either leave them to be
trampled by cattle and wasted and ravaged by
wild beasts, or keep them occupied by citizens
enslaved for debt <^ and by chain-gangs. But every
man's limit will be determined by his own desire
plus his means ; for, as I have said before, the desire 13
for possession does not suffice if you lack the where-
withal for cultivation.

quasi slave (nexiis) of his creditor. Cf. Varro, L.L. VII.
105, Liber qui snas operas in servitutem pro pecunia quadam
debebat, dum solveret, nexus vocatur, ut ab aere obaeratus.

51

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

IV. Sequitur deinceps Caesonianum praeceptum,
quo fertur usus etiam Cato Marcus, agrum esse
revisendum saepius eum, quern velis mercari. Nam
prima inspectione neque vitia neque virtutes abditas
ostendit, quae mox retractantibus facilius apparent.
Inspectionis quoque velut fomiula nobis a maioribus
tradita est agri pinguis ac laeti, de cuius qualitate
dicemus sue loco, cum de generibus terrae disseremus.
In universum tamen quasi testificandum atque
saepius praedicandum habeo, quod primo iam Punico
bello dux inclitissimus M.'^ Atilius Regulus dixisse
memoratur : fundum sicuti ne fecundissimi quidem
soli, cum sit insalubris, ita nee efFeti, si ^ vel salu-
berrimus sit, parandum ; quod Atilius aetatis suae
agricolis maiore cum auctoritate censebat ^ peritus
usu, nam Pupiniae pestilentis simul et exilis agri
cultorem fuisse eum loquuntur ^ histoi-iae. Qua-
propter cum sit sapientis non ubique emere nee aut
ubertatis inlecebris aut deliciarum concinnitate
decipi, sic verum industrii patris familiae est, quicquid
aut emerit aut acceperit, facere fi'uctuosum atque
utile, quoniam et gravioi-is caeli multa remedia
priores tradiderunt, quibus mitigetur pestifera lues,
et in exili terra cultoris prudentia ac diligentia

^ om. SA.

* om. SA.

' censebat R aliquot, Limd^strom : veniebat SAR vett. edd. :
Buadebat Aid., Oesn., Schn.

* locuntur SA, Lundslrom.

' • Unknown. » Cf. Cato, I. 1. « II. 2.

" Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 27.

" A barren tract in Latium, near Tusculuin; cf. Varro,
R.R. I. 9. 5. Valerius Maxiraus (IV. 4. 6) tells us that
Regulus possessed seven iy^era of land in this region.

5?

BOOK I. IV. 1-3

IV. Next in order is the precept of Caesonius,'*
which Marcus Cato * also is said to have employed,
that land which one intends to purchase should be
visited again and again ; for at the first exanaination
it does not reveal the hidden quahties, bad or good,
which are more readily apparent to those who go over
it again soon afterwards. Our ancestors, too, have
handed down to us what may be called a standard
for the appraisal of rich and fertile land, of whose
properties we shall speak in a fitting place, when we
come to the discussion of types of soil.<^ I have,
however, a general rule which should be an attesting
\\itness, so to speak, and should be proclaimed again
and again ; a rule which Marcus Atilius Regulus, a
general of the greatest renown in the first Punic War,
is reported to have laid do'>vn : that as a farm, even
of the richest soil, is not to be purchased if it be
unwholesome, just so we are not to buy a piece of
wom-out land even though it be most wholesome.**
This ad\ice Atilius gave to the husbandmen of his day
with the greater authority as coming from the kjiow-
ledge of experience ; for history relates that he was
once the tiller of a pestilential and lean piece of
ground in Pupinia.* Wherefore, though it may be
the part of a wise man not to buy anywhere and
everywhere and not to be beguiled by either the
allurements of fruitful land or the charm of its
beauty, it is just as truly the part of an industrious
master to render fruitful and profitable any land
that he has acquired by purchase or othen\ise ; for
our predecessors have left to us many means of
relief from a noxious chmate, whereby pernicious
plagues may be alleviated, and even on lean land
the good sense and painstaking of the husbandman

53

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

4 maciem soli vincere potest. Haec autera conse-
quemur,^ si verissimo vati velut oraculo crediderimus
dicenti :

Ventos et proprium ^ cacli praediscere morem
Cura sit ac patrios cultus ^ habitusque locorum
Et quid quaeque ferat regio et quid quaeque
recuset ;

nee content! tamen auctoritate vel priorum vel
praesentium colonorum nostra promiserimus *

5 exemplanovaque temptaverimus experimenta. Quod
etsi per partes non numquam damnosum est, in
surama tamen fit compendiosum, quia nullus ager
sine profectu colitur, si multa temptando ^ possessor
efficit, ut in id formetur, quod maxime praestare ®
possit. Ea res etiam feracissimos agros utiliores
reddit. Itaque nusquam experimentorum varietas
omittenda est, longeque etiam in pingui solo magis
audendum, quoniam nee laborem nee sumptum

6 frustratur effectus. Sed quam ' refert qualis fundus
et quo modo colatur, tam villa qualiter aedificetur
et quam utiliter disponatur. Multos enim deerrasse

^ consequimur SA, Lundstrom.
^ varium codd. Verg.
3 cultusque codd. Verg.

* promiserimus (-is A) SAR, Lmndslrom : praetermiserimus
M, et alii.

* simul attentando R pier i que, vett. edd.. Aid., Oesn. ; simul
ac tentando Schn.

" praestari SA et R pauci dett., Lundstrom.

54

BOOK I. IV. 3-6

can overcome the thinness of the soil. These 4
results we shall attain, moreover, if we pay heed, as to
an oracle, to the truest of poets, who says :

Be it our care to learn betimes the winds and moods

of heaven,
To learn the tillage of our sires and nature of

the place,
What fruits each district does produce and what

it does refuse."

And yet, not content with the authority of either
former or present-day husbandmen, we must hand
doAvn our own experiences and set ourselves to
experiments as yet untried. This practice, though 5
sometimes detrimental in part, nevertheless proves
advantageous on the whole ; because no field is tilled
without profit if the owner, through much experi-
mentation, causes it to be fitted for the use which it
can best serve. Such management also increases
the profit from the most fertile land. Accordingly,
there should be no neglect, anywhere, of experi-
mentation in many forms ; and far greater daring
should be shown on rich soil, because the return
will not render the toil and expense a total loss.
But as the nature of the farm and the method of 6
its cultivation is a matter of importance, even so
is the construction of the farmstead and the con-
venience of its arrangement ; for tradition has it
that many have made mistakes, as is the case of two

" Vergil, Georg. I. 51-53,

' quam Lundstrom cum R plerisque, ac deinceps tarn cum
codicibus omnibus ut videtur : quoniam {vel in abbr.) A et R
nonnulli, cdd. ante. Gesn, : cvl S : cum (quum) . . . turn
Gesn., Schn., fortasse recte.

55

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

memoria prodidit, sicut praestantissimos viros L.
Luculliim et Q. Scaevolam, quorum alter maioris,
alter minus amplas, quam postulavit modus agri,
villas exstruxit, cum utrumque sit contra rem

7 familiarem. DifFusiora enim consaepta non solum
pluris aedificamus, sed etiam impensis maioribus
tuemur ; at minora cum sunt, quam postulat fundus,
dilabitur fructus. Nam et umidae res et siccae,
quas terra progenerat, facile vitiantur, si aut non
sunt aut propter angustias incommoda sunt tecta,

8 quibus inferantur. Pro portione etiam facultatum ^
quam optime pater familiae debet habitare, ut et
libentius rus veniat et degat in eo iucundius. Utique
vero, si etiam matrona comitabitur, cuius ut sexus
ita animus est delicatior, amoenitate ^ aliqua de-
merenda erit, quo patientins moretur cum viro.
Eleganter igitur aedificet agricola nee sit tamen
aedificator, atque areae pedem tantum complectatur,
quod ait Cato, quantum " ne villa fundum quaerat
neve fundus villam." Cuius universum situm qualem
oporteat esse, nunc explicabimus.

9 Quod incohatur ^ aedificium, sicut salubri regione
ita saluberrima parte regionis debet constitui. Nam
circumfusus aer corruptus plurimas adfert corporibus
nostris causas offensarum. Sunt quaedam loca,

1 facultatium SA, Lundstrom.

" delicatior. quaniobrem amoenitate Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* incohatur AaM : inchoatur S et R phrique, edd. omnes.

" Consul in 74 B.o. Enriched by hia campaigns against
Mithridates, he became famous for bis luxury and extrava-
gance. He is said to have introduced the cherry [cerasus)
into Italy from Cerasus in Pontus.

^ A famous jurist, contemporary with Lucullus; cf. Pliny,
N.H. XVIII. 32.

S6

BOOK I. IV. 6-9

very eminent men, Lucius Lucullus " and Quintus
Scaevola,^ of whom the one put up too large a stand
of buildings, the other not large enough to meet
the requirements of his acreage ; though either
error is contrary to the interests of the owner. For 7
not only are we put to excessive expense in erecting
buildings on too large a scale, but also we pay more
for upkeep ; on the other hand, when they are
smaller than the farm requires, its products are
wasted. For both the moist and the dry products
which the earth produces are easily spoiled if there
are no buildings into which they may be carried, or
if such buildings are unsuitable because of their
scantiness. Furthermore, the master should be 8
housed as well as possible in proportion to his means,
so that he may more willingly visit the country
and find more pleasure in staying there. And
especially, if his wife also accompanies him, since
her disposition, like her sex, is daintier, she
must be humoured by amenities of some sort to
make her stay more contentedly with her husband.
The farmer, then, should build handsomely, but
without letting building become his passion, and
he should take in only so large a plot that, as Cato
says, " the buildings may not seek for land, nor the
land for buildings." <^ As to the qualities of a
building site, I shall now speak in general terms.

As a building which is begun should be situated
in a healthful region, so too in the most healthful
part of that region ; for when the surrounding
atmosphere is bad, it is a contributing factor to a
host of physical ills. There are certain places, such

" Cato, 3. 1 ; c/. Varro, R.R. I. 11. 1, and Pliny, loc. cit.

S7

\

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quae solstitiis minus concalescunt, sed frigoribus
hiemis intolerabiliter horrent, sicut Thebas ferunt
Boeotias ; sunt quae tepent hieme, sed aestate
saevissime candent, ut adfirmant Euboicam Chalci-

10 dem. Petatur igitur aer calore et frigore temperatus,
qui fere medios obtinet ^ colles, quod neque depressus
hieme pruinis torpet aut torret aestate vaporibus
neque elatus in summa montium perexiguis ventorum
motibus aut pluviis omni tempore anni saevit. Haec
igitur est medii collis optima positio, loco tamen
ipso pauhim ^ intumescente, ne cum a vertice
torrens imbribus conceptus adfluxerit, fundamenta
convellat.

V. Sit autem vel intra villam vel extrinsecus
inductus fons perennis, Ugnatio pabulumque vicinum.
Si deerit fluens unda, putealis quaeratur in vicino,
quae non sit haustus profundi, non amari saporis aut

2 salsi. Haec quoque si deficiet et spes artior aquae
manantis coegerit, vastae cisternae hominibus pisci-
naeque pecori struantur ; ^ quae tamen pluvialis
aqua salubritati * corporis est accommodatissima, sed
ea sic habetur eximia, si fictiUbus tubis in contectam
cisternam deducitur.^ Huic proxima fluens aqua,
quae ^ montibus oriunda per saxa praeceps devolvitur,
ut est in Gaurano Campaniae ; ' tertia puteahs

^ optinet SA, Lundstrom.

^ paululum A^ et R aliquot, edd. ante Lundstrom,

^ pecoribus instruantur R plerique. Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* quae . . . salubritati] sic codd., vett. edd., Lundstrom :
coUigendae aquae tandem pluviali, quae salubritati Aid.,
Oesn., Schn.

^ deducatur R plerique, edd. ante Lundstrom : deducetur
M.

* ;vqua, quae Lundstrom, : aquae vel aque vel aqua e codd.,
edd.

5S

BOOK I. IV. 9-v. 2

as Thebes in Boeotia is said to be, which are com-
paratively free from heat in midsummer but become
frightful and unbearable with the cold of winter;
there are places which are mild in ^vinter but glow
^vith a most cruel heat in summer, as they say
of Chalcis in Euboea. Let there be sought, then, 10
an atmosphere free from excesses of heat and cold ;
this is usually maintained halfway up a hill, because,
not being in a hollow, it is not numbed with winter's
frosts or baked Avith steaming heat in summer, and,
not being perched on the top of a mountain, it is
not fretted at every season of the year with every
little breeze or rain. The best situation, then, is
halfway up a slope, but on a little eminence, so that
when a toiTent formed by the rains at the summit
pours around it the foundations will not be torn
away.

V. Let there be, moreover, a never- failing spring
either within the steading or brought in from out-
side ; a wood-lot and pasture near by. If running
water is wanting, make a search for a well close by,
to be not too deep for hoisting the water, and not
bitter or brackish in taste. If this too fails, and if 2
scanty hope of veins of water compels it, have large
cisterns built for people and ponds for cattle ; this
rain-water is after all most suitable to the body's
health, and is regarded as uncommonly good if it is
conveyed through earthen pipes into a covered
cistern. Next to this is flowing water which, having
its source in the mountains, comes tumbling down
over rocks as on Mount Gaurus in Campania. The

' ut . . . Campaniae om. 9, in niarg. A. Gaurano Lund-
sfrdm, praeeunte Cliiverio; ac sic maluerunt Gesn. et Schn. :
Guarceno R, edd. vulgo.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

collina vel quae non infima valle reperitur ; deterrima
palustris, quae pigro lapsu repit ; et ^ pestilens, quae
in palude semper consistit. Hie idem tamen umor,
quamvis nocentis naturae, temporibus hiemis edo-
mitus imbribus mitescit ; ex quo caelestis aqua
maxime salubris intellegitur, quod etiam venenati
liquoris eluit perniciem. Sed hanc potui proba-
tissimam diximus. Ceterum ad aestatum temper-
andos calores et amoenitatem loeorum plurimum
conferunt salientes rivi, quos, si conditio loci patietur,
qualescumque, dum tamen ^ dulces, utique perdu-
cendos in villam censeo.

Sin summotus longius a collibus erit amnis et loci
salubritas editiorque situs ripae permittet super-
ponere villam praefluenti,^ cavendum tamen erit, ut
a tergo potius quam prae se flumen habeat et ut
aedificii frons aversa sit ab infestis eius regionis
ventis et amicissimis adversa ; quoniam * plei-ique
amnes aestate vaporatis, hieme frigidis nebulis
caligant, quae nisi vi maiore inspirantium ventorum
summoventur, pecudibus hominibusque conferunt
pestem. Optime autem salubribus, ut dixi, locis ad
orientem vel ad meridiem, gravibus ad septentrionem
villa convertitur. Eademque semper mare recte
conspicit, cum pulsatur ac fluctu respergitur, num-

^ repit, et Lurulstrom : repet 8AR : repit vulgo.
^ dummodo {vel dumodo) E, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* profluenti B plcrique, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* quom vd cum R et multi edd., ut saepe.

" Cf. Palladius, I. 17. 4, nam caelestis aqua ad bibendum
omnibus antefertur. So )Sy most authors rain-water was
considered most wholesome.

" The common advice of all authorities.

,60

BOOK I. V. 2-5

third choice is well-water which is found on a hill-
side or in a valley, if not in its lowest part. Worst 3
of all is swamp-water, which creeps along with
sluggish flow ; and water that always remains
stagnant in a swamp is laden with death. But this
same water, harmful though its nature is, is purified
by the rains of the winter season and loses its
virulence ; from this fact water from the heavens is
known to be most healthful, as it even washes away
the pollution of poisonous water, and we have
stated that this is most approved for drinking." On 4
the other hand, bubbling brooks contribute greatly
to the alleviation of summer heat and to the
attractiveness of places ; and, if local conditions will
allow, I think that they, by all means, should be
conducted into the villa, regardless of the quality of
the water if only it is sweet.

But if the stream is far removed from the hills,
and if the healthfulness of the region and the some-
what elevated position of its banks allow the
placing of the villa above flowing water, care must
still be taken that it have the stream at the rear
rather than in front of it,* and that the front of the
structure face away from the harmful winds peculiar
to the region and towards those that are most
friendly; for most streams reek with mists, hot in
sunmier and cold in winter, and these, unless dis-
persed by the greater force of winds that blow
upon them, are the cause of destruction to man and
beast. It is best, moreover, as I have said, for a 5
villa to face the east or the south in healthful situa-
tions, the north in noxious. A villa is always properly
placed when it overlooks the sea and receives the
shock of the waves and is sprinkled with their spray ;

6i

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quam ex ripa, sed baud paulum summota a litore.

6 Nam praestat a niari longo potius intei'vallo quani
brevi refugisse, quia media sunt spatia gravioris
babtus. Nee paludem quidem vicinam esse oportet
aedificiis nee iunctam mibtarem viam, quod ilia
caloribus noxium virus eructat et infestis aculeis
armata gignit animalia, quae in nos densissimis
examinibus involant, turn etiam nantium serpen-
tiumque pestes hiberna destitutas ^ uligine, caeno et
fermentata colluvie venenatas ^ emittit, ex quibus
saepe contrahuntur caeci morbi, quorum causas ne
medici quidem perspicere queunt ; sed et anni toto
tempore situs atque umor instrumentum rusticum
supellectilemque et inconditos conditosque fructus

7 rorrumpit ; baec autem praetereuntium viatorum
populationibus et adsiduis devertentium hospitiis
infestat rem famiUarem. Propter quae censeo eius
modi vitax-e incommoda villamque nee in via nee a
via procul ^ editiore situ condere, sic ut frons eius

8 ad orientem aequinoctialem directa sit. Nam eius
modi positio medium temperatumque libramentum
ventorum hiemalium et aestivorum tenet, quantoque
fuerit aedificii solum pronius orienti, tanto et aestate
liberius capere perflatus et hiemis procellis minus
infestari et matutino regelari ortu poterit, ut concreti
rores liquescant, quoniam fere pestilens habetur,

^ destituta edd. ante Lunddrom.

^ vere natas Schn.

^ nee a via procul Lundstrom : nee avia procul R yionnulli
deft. : nee avia procul avie c : nee alia procul SAR : nee
alio procul vett. tdd. : nee pestilenti loco, sed procul et Aid.,
Gesn., Schn. : sed alio procul Pontedera, probavit Schn.

" C/. Varro, R.R.I. 12. 1-2.
' /.e. due east.

62

BOOK I. V. 5-8

yet never on the shore but not a Uttle distance
removed from the edge of the Avater. For it is 6
better to move back a considerable distance from the
sea rather than a short way, since the intermediate
space is filled vith a heavier air. And neither
should there be any marsh-land near the buildings,
and no militarA' highway adjoining: for the former
throws off a baneful stench in hot weather and breeds
insects armed v>'ith annoying stings, which attack us
in dense swarms ; then too it sends forth plagues of
swimming and crawling things deprived of their
winter moisture and infected with poison by the
mud and decaying filth, from which are often
contracted mysterious diseases whose causes are
even beyond the understanding of physicians ; " and
at every season of the year rust and dampness play
havoc \nth faiTn implements and equipment, and
with unstored and stored produce ; the highway, more- 7
over, impairs an estate through the depredations of
passing travellers and the constant entertainment
of those who turn in for lodging. For these reasons
my advice is to avoid disadvantages of this sort and
to place the villa neither on a highway nor far from
a highway, at a greater height, and to build it in
such a way that it faces the point where the sun
rises at the time of the equinox.* For a situation of 8
this kind maintains an even and steady balance
between the winds of winter and those of summer ;
and the more the site of the building slopes toward
the east the more freely can it catch the passing
breezes in summer and the less be molested by
the storms of winter, and it can be warmed by the
morning sun so that the frosts ^^^ll melt — since ground
is regarded as well-nigh pestilential when it is in-

<53

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quod est remotum ac sinistrum soli et apricis flatibus ;
quibus si caret, nulla alia vis potest nocturnas pruinas
et quodcumque rubiginis aut spurcitiae resedit
siccare atque detergere. Haec autem cum hominibus
adferunt perniciem, turn ^ et armentis et virentibus
eorumque frugibus.^
9 Sed quisquis aedificare volet in declivibus areis,
exstruere semper ab inferiore parte auspicetur, quia
cum ex depressiore loco fuerint orsa fundamenta,
non solum superficiem suam facile sustinebunt, sed
et pro fultura et substructione fungentur adversus
ea, quae mox, si forte villam prolatare libuerit, ad
superiorem partem ^ applicabuntur, quippe ab imo
praestructa valenter resistent contra ea, quae
10 postmodum superposita incumbant. At si summa
pars clivi fundata propriam molem susceperit,
quicquid ab inferiore mox apposueris, fissum erit
rimosumque. Nam tum cum veteri adstruitur
recens aedificium, quasi surgenti reluctans oneri
cedit, et quod prius exstructum imminebit cedenti,
paulatim degravatum pondere suo praeceps attrahe-
tur. Igitur id structurae vitium, cum primiun statim
fundamenta iaciuntur, evitandum est.

VI. Modus autem membrorumque numerus aptetur
universo consaepto et dividatur in tres partes,
urbanam, rusticam, fructuariam. Urbana rursus

1 tunc SA, Lundstrom.

^ fruciibus B, Aid., Oesn., Schn.

^ ab superiore parte S, Schn.

" Containing the apartments of the landlord, and so called
because built in the city style of architecture. On the whole
matter of farm buildings compare especially Vitruvius, De
Architectura, VI. 6; Varro, B.R. I. 11-13.

64

BOOK I. V. 8"Vi. I

accessible and unfavourably situated nith reference
to the sun and the sun-warmed breezes ; and if it is
cut off from these, no other force can dry up or clear
away the night frosts and any mould or dirt that has
settled there. And these are destructive not only
to men but to cattle and growing crops and their
fruits as well.

But one who desires to erect a building on a 9
sloping site should always begin operations at the
loM'er side ; for when the foundations start from
the less elevated point, they will not only easily
support their own superstructure but vdW also serve
as a buttress and underpinning for any additions
which may later be made to the upper side, if it
should prove desirable to enlarge the villa — for of
course the previous structure below will offer strong
support for any that may be built above and rest on
it afterwards. On the contrary, if the foundation 10
at the upper side of the slope supports a load of its
own, anything that you may later add below will be
full of cracks and chinks ; for when new construction
is added to old, it draws away as if objecting to
the growing burden, and the older structure will
press upon it as it gives way until, gradually over-
powered by its own weight, it will topple in ruins.
Such a structural defect must therefore be avoided
at the start when the foundations are first laid.

VI. The size of the villa and the number of its
parts should be proportioned to the whole inclosure.
and it should be divided into three groups : the
villa urbana"' or manor house, the villa rustica^ or
farmhouse, and the villa fructuaria or storehouse The

'' Properly including quarters for the overseer, slaves, and
livestock.

65

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

in hibernacula ^ et aestiva sic digeratur ut spectent
hiemalis temporis cubicula brumalem orientem,

2 cenationes aequinoctialem occidentem. Rursus
aestiva cubicula ^ spectent meridiem aequinoctialem,
sed cenationes eiusdem temporis prospectent hi-
bernum orientem. Balnearia occidenti aestivo advei'-
tantur, ut sint post meridiem et usque in vesperum
inlustria. Ambulationes meridiano aequinoctiali
subiectae sint, ut et ^ hieme plui'imum solis et aestate

3 minimum recipiant. At in rustica parte magna et
alta culina ponetur,* ut et contignatio careat incendii
periculo et in ea commode familiares omni ^ tempore
anni morari queant. Optime solutis servis cellae
meridiem aequinoctialem spectantes fient ; vinctis
quam saluberrimum subterraneum ergastulum pluri-
mis, sitque id angustis ^ inlustratum fenestris atque
a terra sic editis, ne manu contingi possint.

4 Pecudibus stabula,' quae neque frigore neque
calore infestentur ; domitis armentis duplicia bubilia ^
sint hibema atque aestiva ; ceteris autem pecoribus.
quae intra villam esse convenit, ex parte tecta loca,
ex parte sub divo parietibus altis circumsaepta, ut
ilHc per hiemem, hie per aestatem sine violentia

^ hibema R, et vulgo ante Lundstrom.

^ cubilia R plcrique.

^ et om. Gesn., Schn.

^ ponatur ed. pr.

^ omnes plcrique codd., vett. edd.

^ plurimis idque angustis Gesn., Schn.

' fiant ante stabula add. Aid., fient Gesn., Schn.

* bubula SA, et R plerique, vett. edd.

South-east, " Due west. * Due south.

^ South-east. * North-west.

66

BOOK I. VI. 1-4

manor house should be divided in turn into winter
apartments and summer apartments, in such a
way that the winter bedrooms may face the sunrise
at the winter solstice,'' and the winter dining-room
face the sunset at the equinox. ** The summer bed-
rooms, on the other hand, should look toward the
midday sun at the time of the equinox,"^ but the
dining-rooms of that season should look toward the
rising sun of winter.<^ The baths should face the
setting sun of summer,^ that they may be lighted
from midday up to evening. The promenades should
be exposed to the midday smi at the equinox, so as to
receive both the maximum of sun in winter and the
minimmn in summer. But in the part devoted to
farm uses there will be placed a spacious and high
kitchen, that the rafters may be free from the
danger of fire, and that it may offer a convenient
stopping-place for the slave household at every
season of the year. It will be best that cubicles for
unfettered slaves be built to admit the midday sun
at the equinox ; for those who are in chains there
should be an underground prison, as wholesome as
possible, receiving light through a number of narrow
windows built so high from the ground that they
cannot be reached with the hand.

For cattle there should be stables which will not
be troubled by either heat or cold ; for animals
broken to work, two sets of stalls — one for winter,
another for summer ; and for the other animals
which it is proper to keep within the farmstead
there should be places partly covei*ed, partly open
to the sky, and surrounded with high walls so that the
animals may rest in the one place in winter, in the
other in summer, without being attacked by wild

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

5 ferarum conquiescant. Sed ampla ^ stabula sic ordi-
nentur, ne quis umor influere possit et ut quisque
ibi conceptus fuerit quam celerrime dilabatur, ut
nee fundamenta parietum eorrunipantur nee ungulae

6 pecudum. Lata bubilia esse oportebit pedes decern
vel minime noveni, quae mensui'a et ad procum-
bendum pecori et iugario ad circumeundum laxa
ministeria praebeat. Non altius edita esse prae-
saepia conveniet,^ quam ut bos aut iumentum sine

7 incommodo stans ^ vesci possit. Vilico iuxta
ianuam fiat habitatio, ut intrantiuni exeuntiumque
conspectum habeat, procuratori supra ianuam ob
easdem causas ; et is tamen vilicum observet ex
vicino, sitque utrique proximum horreum, quo con-
feratur omne rusticum instrumentum, et intra id
ipsum clausus locus, quo ferramenta recondantur.

8 Bubulcis pastoribusque celiac ponantur iuxta sua
pecora, ut ad eorum curam sit opportunus excursus.
Onmes tamen quam proxime alter ab altero debent
habitare, ne vilici diversas partes circumeuntis sedu-
litas distendatur et ut inter se diligentiae et negle-
gentiae cuiusque testes sint.

9 Pars autem fructuaria dividitur in cellam oleariam,
torculariarn, cellam vinariam, defrutariam, faenilia
paleariaque et apothecas et horrea, ut ex iis, quae
sunt in piano, custodiam recipiant umidarum rerum
tamquam vini aut olei venalium ; siccae autem * con-

^ omnia edd. ante Lundstivm.

* convenit R, Aid., Oesn., iichn.
^ status SA, Lundstrom.

* res add. Aid., Gesn., Schn.

" Piilladius (I. 21) prescribes a stall eight feet wide and
tii'teen feet long for each pair of oxen. Vitruvius (VI. 6. 2)

68

BOOK I. VI. 4-9

beasts. But stables should be roomy and so 5
arranged that no moisture can flow in and that what-
ever is made there may run off very quickly, to
pi'event the rotting of either the bases of the walls
or the hoofs of the cattle. Ox-stalls should be ten 6
feet wide, or nine at the least — a size which will allow
room for the animal to lie down and for the oxherd to
move around it in performing his duties." The feed-
racks should not be too high for the ox or pack-animal
to feed from without inconvenience while standing.
Quarters should be provided for the overseer along- 7
side the entrance, so that he may have oversight
of all who come in and go out ; and for the steward
over the entrance for the same reason, and also that
he may keep close watch on the overseer ; and near
both of these there should be a storehouse in which
all farm gear may be collected, and within it a closet
for the storing of the iron implements.

Cells for the herdsmen and shepherds should be 8
adjacent to their respective charges, so that they
may conveniently run out to care for them. And yet
all should be quartered as close as possible to one
another, so that the diligence of the overseer may
not be overtaxed in making the rounds of the several
places, and also that they may be witnesses of one
another's industry and negligence.

As to the part devoted to the storage of produce, 9
it is divided into rooms for oil, for presses, for wine,
for the boiling down of must, lofts for hay and chaff,
storerooms, and granaries, that such of them as are
on the ground floor may take care of liquid products
for the market, such as oil and wine ; while dry

gives dimensions of seven feet by ten (minimum) or fifteen
(maximum).

69

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

gerantur tabulatis, ut frumenta, faenum, frondes,

10 paleae ceteraque pabula. Sed ^ granaria, ut dixi,
scalis adeantur et modicis fenestellis aquilonibus
inspirentur. Nam ea caeli positio maxime frigida et
minime umida est, quae utraque perennitatem con-

11 ditis frumentis adferunt. Eadem ratio est in piano
sitae vinariae celiac ; quae summota procul esse
debet a balineis,^ furno, stercilino reliquisque im-
munditiis taetrum odorem spirantibus, nee minus a
cisternis aquisve salientibus, quibus extrahitur umor,
qui vinum corrumpit.

12 Neque me praeterit sedem frumentis optimam
quibusdam videri horrcum camara ^ contectum, cuius
solum terrenum, priusquam consternatur, perfossum
et amurca recenti non salsa niadefactum velut Signi-

13 num opus pilis condensatur. Tum deinde cum exa-
ruit, simili modo pavimenta testacea, quae pro aqua
receperint amurcam mixtam calci et harenae, super-
sternuntur et magna vi paviculis inculcantur atque
expoliuntur ; omnesque parietum et soli iuncturae
testaceis pulvinis fibulantur, quoniam fere cum in
his partibus aedificia rimas egerunt, cava praebent
et latebras subterraneis animalibus. Sed et lacibus
distinguuntur * granaria, ut separatim quaeque legu-

14 mina ponantur. Parietes oblinuntur amurca subacto
luto, cui ^ pro paleis admixta sunt arida oleastri vel,

^ pabulas et SA.

* ab alienis 8 A, et R aliquot : a balneis R nonnulli.

* camera R, edd. ante Schn.

* distiuguntur SA et R nonnulli, Lundstrom.
^ quoi 8A, Lundstrom.

" A kind of flooring consisting of broken tiles, mixed with
mortar, and beaten down with rammers. The name is de-
rived from Signia (mod. Segni), a town of Latium, famous for
its tilea
70

BOOK I. VI. 9-14

products, such as grain, hay, leaves, chaff, and
other fodder, should be stored in lofts. But the 10
granaries, as I have said, should be reached by
ladders and should receive ventilation through small
openings on the north side ; for that exposure is the
coolest and the least humid, and both these con-
siderations contribute to the preservation of stored
grain. The same reason holds true in the placing 11
of the wine-room on the ground floor ; and it should
be far removed from the baths, oven, dunghill, and
other filthy places which give off a foul odour, and
no less so from cisterns and running water, from
which is derived a moisture that spoils the wine.

And I am not unaware that some consider the 12
best place for storing grain to be a granary with a
vaulted ceiling, its earthen floor, before it is covered
over, dug up and soaked with fresh and unsalted lees
of oil and packed do-wn with rammers as is Signian
work." Then, after this has dried thoroughly, it is 13
overlaid in the same way with a pavement of tiles
consisting of lime and sand mixed with oil lees
instead of water, and these are beaten down with
great force by rammers and are smoothed off; and all
joints of walls and floor are bound together Avith a
bolstering * of tile, for usually when buildings develop
cracks in such places they afford holes and hiding-
places for underground animals. But granaries are
also divided into bins to permit the storage of every
kind of legume by itself. The walls are coated with 14
a plastering of clay and oil lees, to which are added,
in place of chaff, the dried leaves of the wild olive

* I.e., a raised border of the flooring, so called from its
resemblance to a pillow or. bolster {pulvinus).

71

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

si ea non sunt, oleae folia. Deinde ^ cum praedictum
tectorium inaruit, rursus amurca respergitur, qua

15 siccata frumentum infertur. Ea res ab noxia cur-
culionum et similium animalium commodissime vide-
tur conditas fruges defendere, quae nisi diligenter
repositae sint, eeleriter ab iis consurauntur. Sed id
genus horrei, quod sci-ipsimus, nisi sicca positione
villae quamvis granuni robustissimum corrumpit
situ ; qui si nullus adsit, possit ^ etiam defossa fru-
menta servare, sicut transmarinis quibusdam pro-
vinciis, ubi puteorum in modum, quos apellant siros,

16 exhausta humus editos a se fructus recipit. Sed nos
in nostris regionibus, quae redundant uligine, magis
illam positionem pensilis horrei et hanc ciu*am pavi-
mentorum et parietum probamus, quoniam, ut ret-
tuli, sic emunita sola et latera horreorum prohibent
curculionem. Quod genus exitii cum incidit, multi
opinantur arceri posse, si exesae fruges in horreo

17 ventilentur et quasi refrigerentur. Id autem falsis-
simum est ; neque enim hoc facto expelluntur
animalia, sed immiscentur totis acervis. Qui si
maneant immoti, summis tantum partibus infesten-
tur,3 quoniam infra mensuram palnii non nascitur
curculio ; longeque praestat id solum, quod iam
vitiatum est, quam totum periculo subicere. Nam

^ dein SA, Lundstrom.

" possit SAR, vett. edd. : possis Schn, in not., Lundstrom :
possunt vulgo.

^ infestantur R, Aid., Oesn., Schn.

" Varro {R.R. I. 57. 2) speaks of the use of pits (siri) in
Cappadocia and Thrace, and of straw-bottomed wells
(putei) in certain sections of Spain. Wheat, he says, has been
known to keep in this way for as long as fifty years, and millet
for more than a hundred ; cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 306. The

72

BOOK I. VI. 14-17

or, if these are wanting, of the oUve. Then, when
the aforesaid plastering has dried, it is again sprinkled
over with oil lees : and when this has dried the grain
is brought in. This seems to be the most advan- 15
tageous method of protecting stored produce from
damage by weevils and like vermin, and if it is not
carefully laid away they quickly destroy it. But
the type of granary just described, unless it be in a
dry section of the steading, causes even the hardest
grain to spoil with mustiness ; and if it were not
for this, it would be possible to keep grain even
buried underground, as in certain districts across
the sea " where the earth, dug out in the manner of
pits, which they call sin, takes back to itself the
fruits which it has produced. But we, living in 16
regions which abound in moisture, approve rather
the granary that stands on supports above the ground
and the attention to pavements and walls as just
mentioned, because, as I have said, the floors and
sides of storerooms so protected keep out the weevil.
Many think that when this kind of pest appears it can
be checked if the damaged grain is winnowed in the
bin and cooled oif, as it were. But this is a most 17
mistaken notion ; for the insects are not driven off
by so doing, but are mixed through the whole mass.
If left imdistvu'bed, only the upper surfi^ce would be
attacked, as the weevil breeds no more than a
palm's breadth below ;* and it is far better to en-
danger only the part already infested than to subject
the whole amount to risk. For it is easy, when

use of the trench " silo " — a word derived ultimately from situs
■ — is well known, of course, to modern farmers.

* Similar statements are made by Varro {loc. cit.), Pliny
(XVIII. 302), and Palladius (I. 19. 3), who cites Columella.

73

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

cum exiget usus/ facile est eo sublato, quod vitiatum
erit, integro inferiore uti. Sed haec, etsi extrin-
secus, non tamen intempestive videor hoc loco
rettulisse.

18 Torcularia praecipue cellaeque oleariae calidae
esse debent, quia commodius omnis liquor vapore
solvitiu- ac frigoribus magnis conficitur ; ^ oleum,
quod minus provenit, si congelatur, fracescit.^ Sed
ut calore naturali est opus, qui contingit * positione
caeli et declinatione, ita non est opus ignibus aut
flammis, quoniam fumo et fuligine sapor olei corrum-
pitur. Propter quod torcular debet a meridiana
parte inlustrari, ne necesse habeamus ignes lucer-
namque adhibere, cum premetur ^ olea.

19 Cortinale, ubi defrutum fiat, nee angustum nee
obscurura sit, ut sine incommodo minister, qui sapam
decoquet, versari possit. Fumarium quoque, quo
materia, si non sit iam pridem caesa, festinato siccetur,
in parte rusticae villae fieri potest iunctum rusticis
balneis. Nam eas quoque refert esse, in quibus

20 familia, sed tamen ® feriis, lavetur; neque enim cor-
poris robori convenit frequens usus earum. Apo-
thecae recte superponentur his locis, unde plerumque
fumus exoritur, quoniam \ana celerius vetustescunt,
quae fumo quodam genere ' praecoquem maturi-
tatem trahunt. Propter quod et aliud tabulatuni

^ usus om. 8 A, vett. edd.

^ magis (R plerique) constringitur M, et Aid., Oesn., Schn.
ex Pallad. I. 20.

^ fracescit scripsi cum Schn. ad loc, Corrigenda et Addenda :
fracesset SAR, vett. edd. : fracescet Aid., Oesn. : fracessit
Lundstrom.

* contigit SA, et R aliquot. * premitur S, Schn.

" tantum Cod. Laurent. 53. 24, plerique edd. ante Lundstrom.

' fumi {M) quodam tenore Aid., Oesn., Schn.

74

BOOK I. vr. 17-20

occasion demands it, to remove the damaged portion
and use the sound grain underneath. But these
latter remarks, though brought in extraneously, I
nevertheless seem to have introduced not imseason-
ably at this point.

The press-rooms especially and the store-rooms for 18
oil '^ should be warm, because every liquid is thinned
^^•ith heat and thickened by great cold ; and if oil
freezes, which seldom happens, it becomes rancid.
But as it is natural heat that is wanted, arising from
the climate and the exposure, there is no need of fire
or flame, as the taste of oil is spoiled by smoke and
soot. For this reason the pressing-room should be
lighted from the southern side, so that we may not
find it necessary to employ fires and lamps when the
olives are being pressed.

The cauldron-room, in which boiled wine is made, 19
should be neither narrow nor dark, so that the atten-
dant who is boiling down the must may move around
^\^thout inconvenience. The smoke-room, too, in
which timber not long cut may be seasoned quickly
can be built in a section of the rural establishment 1
adjoining the baths for the countr}'folk ; for it is |
important also that there be such places in which
the household may bathe — but only on holidays ; for 20
the frequent use of baths is not conducive to physical
vigour. Storerooms for wine ^vill be situated to
advantage over these places from which smoke is
usually rising, for wines age more rapidly when
they are brought to an early maturity by a certain
kind of smoke. For this reason there should be
another loft to which they may be removed, to keep

« Cf. Vitruvius, YL. 6. 3 ; Palladius, I. 20.

75

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

esse debebit, quo amoveantur, ne rursus nimia
suffuniatione ^ medicata sint.

Quod ad \"illae - situm partiumque eius disposi-

21 tionem, satis dictum est. Circa villam deinceps haec
esse oportebit : furnum et pistrinum, quantum
futurus numerus colonorum postulaverit ; piscinas
minime duas, alteram, quae anseribus pecoribusque
serviat, alteram, in qua lupinum. ulmi ^ vimina et
%irgas atque alia quae sunt usibus nostris apta,
maceremus. Stercilina quoque duo sint. unum, quod
nova purgamenta recipiat et in annum conservet,
alterum, ex quo Vetera vehantur, sed utrumque more
piscinarum devexum leni clivo et exstructum pavi-

22 mentatumque ^ solo, ne umorem tramittant. Pluri-
mum enim refert non adsiccato suco ^ fimum Wres
continere et assiduo macerari liquore, ut, si qua
interiecta sint stramentis aut paleis spinarum vel
graminum semina. intereant nee in agrum exportata
segetes herbidas reddant. Ideoque periti rustici.
quicquid ovilibus stabulisque conversum progesse-
runt, superpositis virgis tegunt nee arescere ^ soils
incursu patiuntur vel ' exuri.

23 Area, si competit. ita constituenda est, ut vel a
domino vel certe a procuratore despici possit, eaque

^ sic SAac, vett. edd., Lundslrom : suf&tione vel suflScione
R aJifuot, Aid., Gesn. Schn.

* villae pertinet situm Ursinvs, Gesn., Schn. : villae situm
pertinet J/.

" ulmi om. SA, plerique edd. ante Lund-slrom.

* pavimentatumque scripsit Lund^trom : pavimtuque S:
pavimentumque AB : pavitumque Laurentianus 53. 24,
Lipskn-!-is l.J.\Z : pavimentum que solo ne vetl. edd.
pavitumque solum habeat ne Aid., Oesn., Schn.

* suco om. SA.

* arescere ventis sinunt, aut soils Aid., Gesn., Schn.

76

BOOK I. VI. 20-23

them from becoming tainted, on the other hand, by
too much smoldng.

As for the situation of the villa and the arrange-
ment of its several parts, enough has been said. It 21
A\all be necessary, next, that the villa have the
following near it: an oven and a gristmill, of such
size as may be required by the number of hands that
are to be employed ; at least two ponds, one to serve
for geese and cattle, the other in which we may soak
lupines, elm-withes, t>\igs, and other things which
are adapted to our needs." There should also be
two manure-pits, one to receive the fresh dung and
keep it for a year, and a second from which the old
is hauled ; but both of them should be built shelving
with a gentle slope, in the manner of fish-ponds, and
built up and packed hard with earth so as not to let
the moisture drain aAvay- For it is most important 22
that manure shall retain its sti-ength with no drying
out of its moisture and that it be soaked constantly
with liquids, so that any seeds of bramble or grass
that are mixed in the straw or chaff shall decay, and
not be carried out to the field to fill the crops ^\^th
weeds. And it is for this reason that experienced
farmers, when they carry out any refuse from folds
and stables, throw over it a covering of brush and do
not allow it to diy out or be burned by the beating
of the sun.

The threshing-floor is to be so placed, if possible, 23
that it can be viewed from above by the master, or
at least by the farm-manager. Such a floor is best

" Cf. Varro, B.B. I. 13. 3; Palladius, I. 31.
' vel.add. Lundstrom.

77

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

optima est si lice constrata, quod et celeriter frumenta
deteruntur, non cedente solo pulsibus ungularuni
tribularumque, et eadem eventilata mundiora sunt
lapillisque carent et glaebulis, quas pei* trituram fere
24 terrena remittit area. Huic autemnubilar^ applicari
debet maximeque in Italia propter inconstantiam
caeli, quo conlata semitrita frumenta protegantur, si
subitaneus imber incesserit. Nam in transmarinis
quibusdam regionibus, ubi aestas pluvia caret, super-
vacuum est. Pomaria quoque et hortos oportet
saepto circumdari et esse in propinquo atque in ea
parte, qua possit omnis stercorata colluvies cohortis ^
balneariorumque et oleis expressa amurcae sanies
influere. Nam quoque eius modi laetatur alimentis
et holus et arbor.

VII. His omnibus ita vol acceptis vel compositis,
praecipua cura domini requiritur cum in ceteris rebus
tum maxime in hominibus. Atque hi vel coloni vel
servi sunt soluti aut vincti. Comiter agat cum
colonis facilemque se praebeat, et avarius opus exigat
quam pensiones, quoniam et minus id ofFendit et
tamen in universum magis prodest. Nam ubi sedulo
colitur ager, plerumque compendium, numquam, nisi
si caeli maior vis aut praedonis incessit, detrimentiun
adfert, eoque remissionem colonus petere non audet.
2 Sed nee dominus in unaquaque re, cui ^ colonum
obligaverit, tenax esse iuris sui debet, sicut in diebus

* nubilar SA, Lnjidstrom : nubilarium R, plerique cdd,
2 cohortis B, vett. edd. : chortes SA : chortis Lundstrom :
cortis Aid., Gesn., Sckn.

' cui Ji, Aid., Gesn., lAindstrom : cum SA, cell. edd.

« Described by Varro, R.R. I. 52. 1 ; c/. L.L. V. 21.
" Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 13. 5, where nubilar {nubilarium) is
derived from nvhilare (to be cloudy, i.e. to threaten rain).

78

BOOK I. VI. 2,3-vii. 2

when paved with hard stone, for the reason that the
gi-ain is threshed out quickly, since the ground does
not give under the beating of hoofs and threshing-
sledges," and the mnnowed grain is cleaner and is
free from small stones and clods which a dirt floor
nearly always casts up during the threshing.
Adjoining this there should be a shed * (and especi- 24
ally in Italy, because of the changeableness of the
weather), in which the half-threshed grain may be
stacked under cover if a sudden shower comes up.
In certain districts across the sea, where there is no
rain in sununer, this is unnecessary. The orchards,
too, and the gardens should be fenced all around and
should lie close by, in a place to which there may flow
all manure-laden sewage from barnyard and baths, and
the watery lees squeezed from olives ; for both vege-
tables and trees thrive on nutriment of this sort too.
VII. After all these arrangements have been
acquired or contrived, especial care is demanded of
the master not only in other matters, but most of all
in the matter of the persons in his ser\ice ; and
these are either tenant-farmers or slaves, whether un-
fettered or in chains. He should be civil in dealing
with his tenants, should show himself affable, and
should be more exacting in the matter of work than
of payments, as this gives less offence yet is, generally
speaking, more profitable. For when land is care-
fully tilled it usually brings a profit, and never a
loss, except v.hen it is assailed by unusually severe
weather or by robbers ; and for that reason the
tenant does not venture to ask for reduction of his
rent. But the master should not be insistent on 2
his rights in eveiy particular to which he has bound
his tenant, such as the exact day for payment, or

79

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

pecuniarum vel ^ lignis et ceteris parvis accessiunibus
exigendis, quarum cura maiorem molestiam quam
impensam rusticis adfert ; nee sane est vindicandum
nobis quicquid licet, nam summum ius antiqui
summam putabant crucem. Nee rursus in totum
remittendum, quoniam " vel optima nomina non
apellando fieri mala " faenerator Alfius dixisse

3 verissime fertur. Sed et ipse nostra memoria
veterem consularem virumque opulentissimum P.
Volusium adseverantem audivi felicissimum fundum
esse, qui colonos indigenas haberet et tamquam in
paterna possessione natos iam inde a cmiabulis longa
familiaritate retineret. Ita certe mea fert opinio
rem malam esse frequentem locationem fundi,
peiorem tamen urbanum colonum, qui per famiUam

4 mavult agrum quam per se colere. Saserna dicebat
ab eius modi homine fere pro mercede litem reddi,
propter quod operam dandam esse ut et rusticos et
eosdem assiduos colonos retineamus, cum aut nobis-
met ipsis non licuerit aut per domesticos colere non
expedient ; quod tamen non evenit nisi in his
regionibus quae gravitate caeli solique sterilitate

5 vastantur. Ceterum cum mediocris adest et salu-
britas et terrae bonitas, numquam non ex agro plus
sua cuique cura reddidit quam coloni, numquam non

^ vel Lundstrom : ut codd., cett. edd.

" Cf. Terence, Heaut. 796, ius summum saepe summaat
malitia. The proverb is given by Cicero (De Off. I. 33), sum-
mum ius summu iniuria, with the comment that it was worn
threadbare.

* In the Fasti Romani Consular es the name of Q. Volusius
Saturninus appears under the year 807 A.U.G. ( = A.D. 66).

8o

BOOK I. vii. 2-5

the matter of demanding firewood and other trifling
services in addition, attention to which causes
country-folk more trouble than expense ; in fact, we
should not lay claim to all that the law allows, for
the ancients regarded the extreme of the law as the
extreme of oppression." On the other hand, we
must not neglect our claims altogether ; for, as Alfius
the usurer is reported to have said, and with entire
truth, " Good debts become bad ones if they are
not called". Furthermore, I myself remember
having heard Publius Volusius,* an old man who had
been consul and was very wealthy, declare that
estate most fortunate which had as tenants natives
of the place, and held them, by reason of long
association, even from the cradle, as if born on their
own father's property. So I am decidedly of the
opinion that repeated letting of a place is a bad
thing, but that a worse thing is the farmer who
lives in town and prefers to till the land through
his slaves rather than by his owti hand. Saserna, 4
used to say that from a man of this sort the return \
was usually a lawsuit instead of revenue, and that for '
this reason we should take pains to keep ■with us
tenants who are country-bred and at the same time
diligent farmers, when we are not at liberty to till
the land ourselves or when it is not feasible to
cultivate it vvith our own servants ; though this does
not happen except in districts v>hich are desolated /
by the severity of the climate and the barrenness /
of the soil. But when the climate is moderately 5
healthful and the soil moderately good, a man's
personal supervision never fails to yield a larger
return from his land than does that of a tenant
— never than that of even an overseer, unless the

8i

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

etiam vilici, nisi si maxima vel neglegentia servi vel
rapacitas intervenit. Quae utraque peccata plerum-
que vitio domini vel committi vel foveri nihil dubium
est, cum liceat aut cavere ne talis praeficiatur negotio,

6 aut iam praepositus ut summoveatur curare. In
longinquis tamen fundis, in quos non est facilis
excursus patris familiae, cum omne genus agri tole-
rabilius sit sub liberis colonis quam sub vilicis servis
habere, turn praecipue frumentarium, quem et
minime, sicut vineas aut arbustum, colonus evertere
potest et maxime vexant servi, qui boves elocant
eosdemque et cetera pecora male pascunt nee Indus-
trie terram vertunt longeque plus imputant seminis
iacti, quam quod severint, sed nee quod terrae man-
da verunt sic adiuvant, ut recte ^ proveniat, idque
cum in aream contulerunt, per trituram cotidie

7 minuunt vel fraude vel neglegentia. Nam et ipsi
diripiunt et ab aliis furibus non custodiunt, sed nee
conditum cum fide rationibus inferunt. Ita fit, ut
et actor et familia peccent et ager saepius infametur.
Quare talis generis praedium, si, ut dixi, domini
praesentia cariturum est, censeo locandum.

VIII. Proxima est cura de servis, cui quemque
officio praeponere conveniat quosque et quaUbus
operibus destinare. Igitur praemoneo ne vilicum
ex eo genere servorum, qui corpore placuerunt,

1 adiuvantur haec te A: adiuvantur nee te a : adiiivantur
ut recte R.

82

BOOK I. VII. 5-viii. I

greatest carelessness or greed on the part of tlie
slave stands in the way. There is no doubt that
both these offences are either committed or fostered
through the fault of the master, inasmuch as he has
the authority to prevent such a pei'son from being
placed in charge of his affairs, or to see to it that he is
removed if so placed. On far distant estates, how- 6
ever, which it is not easy for the OA\'ner to visit, it is
better for every kind of land to be under free farmers
than under slave overseers, but this is particulai'ly
true of grain land. To such land a tenant farmer
can do no great harm, as he can to plantations of
vines and trees, while slaves do it tremendous
damage : they let out oxen for hire, and keep them
and other animals poorly fed ; they do not plough
the ground carefully, and they charge up the solving
of far more seed than they have actually sown ; what
they have committed to the earth they do not so
foster that it will make the proper growth ; and
when they have brought it to the threshing-floor,
every day during the threshing they lessen the
amount either by trickery or by carelessness. For
they themselves steal it and do not guai'd against
the thieving of others, and even when it is stored
away they do not enter it honestly in their accounts.
The result is that both manager and hands are
offenders, and that the land pretty often gets a bad
name. Therefore my opinion is that an estate of
this sort should be leased if, as I have said, it cannot
have the presence of the owner.

Vm. The next point is with regard to slaves — over
what duty it is proper to place each and to what sort
of tasks to assign them. So my advice at the start
is not to appoint an overseer from that sort of slaves

83

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

instituamus, ne ex eo quidem ordine, qui iirbanas ac

2 delicatas artes exercuerit. Socors et somniculosiun
genus id mancipiorum,^ otiis, campo, circo, theatris,
aleae, popinae, lupanaribus consuetum, numquani
non easdem ineptias somniat ; quas cum in agri
culturani transtulit, non tantuni in ipso servo quan-
tum in universa re detrinienti dominus capit. Eli-
gendus est rusticis operibus ab infante duratus et
inspectus experimentis. Si tamen is non erit, de iis
praeticiatur qui servitutem laboriosam toleraverunt ;

3 iamque is ^ transcenderit aetatem primae iuventae
nee dum senectutis attigerit, ilia ne et auctoritatem
detrahat ad imperium, quoniam maiores dedignentur
parere adulescentulo, haec ne laboriosissimo suecum-
bat operi. Mediae igitur sit aetatis et firmi i-oboris,
peritus rerum rusticarum aut certe maximae curae,
quo celerius addisoat. Nam non est nostri negotii

4 alterum imperare et alterum docere ; neque enim
recte opus exigere valet, qui quid aut qualiter
faciendiun sit ab subiecto discit. Potest etiam inlit-
teratus, dum modo tenacissimae memoriae, rem satis
commode administrare. Eius modi vilicum Corne-
lius Celsus ait, saepius nummos domino quam librum
adferre, quia nescius litterarum vel ipse minus possit

^ mancupiorum SA, Lundstrom.

^ iamque is plerique edd., sed isque qui iam maluit Schn. in
not.: iamque iis 8: Iamque his .4': iamque qui ad, vetf.
edd. : iam qui A"E.

" Cf. XI. 1. 7.
84

BOOK I. VIII. 1-4

who are physically attractive, and certainly not from
that class which has busied itself with the voluptuous
occupations of the city. This lazy and sleepy-
headed class of servants, accustomed to idling, to the
Campus, the Circus, and the theatres, to gambHng,
to cookshops, to bawdy-houses, never ceases to
dream of these folHes ; and when they carry them
over into their farming, the master suffers not so
much loss in the slave himself as in his whole estate.
A man should be chosen who has been hardened by
fai-m work from his infancy, one who has been tested
by experience." If, however, such a person is not
available, let one be put in charge out of the number
of those who have slaved patiently at hard labour ;
and he should already have passed beyond the time of
young manhood but not yet have arrived at that of
old age, that youth may not lessen his authority to
command, seeing that older men think it beneath
them to take orders from a mere stripling, and that
old age may not break down under the heaviest
labour. He should be, then, of middle age and of
strong physique, skilled in farm operations or at
least very painstaking, so that he may learn the
more readily ; for it is not in keeping with this
business of ours for one man to give orders and
another to give instructions, nor can a man properly
exact work when he is being tutored by an underling
as to what is to be done and in what way. Even an
illiterate person, if only he have a retentive mind,
can manage affairs well enough. Cornelius Celsus
says that an overseer of this sort brings money to
his master oftener than he does his book, because,
not knowing his letters, he is either less able to
falsify accounts or is afraid to do so through a second

85

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

rationes oonfingere vel per alium propter conscien-

5 tiam fraudis timeat.^

Sed qualicumque vilico contubernalis mulier adsig-
nanda est, quae et ^ contineat eum et in quibvusdam
rebus tamen adiuvet ; eidemque actori praecipien-
dum est, ne convictum cum domestico multoque
minus cum extero habeat, Non numquam tamen
eum, quern assidue sedulum et fort em in opei-ibus
administrandis cognoverit, honoris causa mensae
suae die festo dignetur adhibere. Sacrificia, nisi ex

6 praecepto domini, ne fecerit. Haruspices sagasque,
quae utraque genera vana superstitione rudes animos
ad impensas ac deinceps ad flagitia compellunt,
ne admiserit, neque urbem neque ullas nundinas
noverit, nisi emendae vendendaeve pertinentis ad se

7 rei causa. Vilicus enim, quod ait Cato, ambulator
esse non debet ; nee egredi terminos, nisi ut addiscat
aliquam culturam, et hoc si ita in vicino est, ut
remeare ^ possit. Semitas novosque Hmites in agro
fieri ne patiatur, neve hospitem, nisi amicum fami-
liaremque domini necessarium, recepei'it.

8 Ut ab his arcendus, ita exhortandus est ad instru-
mentorum * ferramentorumque curam, ut duphcia,
quam numerus servorum exigit, refecta et reposita
custodiat, ne quid a \'icino petendum sit ; quia plus
in operis servorum quam in pretio rerum eius modi

9 consumitur. Cultam vestitamque familiam magis

^ timere R, edd. ante Gesn.

^ om. SA, et R aliquot.

3 remanere SA, et R pauci : re manere Lmidatrdm.

* instrumenti M, vett. edd., Schn.

" Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 17. 5.

'' This precept and many of those that follow are repeated
nearly word for word in XI. 1. 19-28.

86

BOOK I. VIII. 4-9

party because that would make another aware of the
deception.

But be the overseer what he may, he should be 5
given a woman companion to keep him within
bounds "■ and yet in certain matters to be a help to
him ; and this same overseer should be warned not
to become intimate -vvith a member of the household,
and much less with an outsider, yet at times he may
consider it fitting, as a mark of distinction, to invite to
his table on a holiday one whom he has found to be
constantly busy and vigorous in the performance
of his tasks. ^ He shall offer no sacrifice except by
direction of the master. Soothsayers and witches, 6
two sets of people who incite ignorant minds through
false superstition to spending and then to shameful
practices, he must not admit to the place. He
must have no acquaintance with the city or with the
weekly market, except to make purchases and sales
in connection with his duties. For, as Cato says," 7
an overseer should not be a gadabout ; and he should
not go out of bounds except to learn something new
about farming, and that only if the place is so near
that he can come back. He must allow no foot-paths
or new crosscuts to be made in the farm ; and he
shall entertain no guest except a close friend or kins-
man of his master.

As he must be restrained from these jiractices, so 8
must he be urged to take care of the equipment and
the iron tools, and to keep in repair and stored away
twice as many as the number of slaves requires, so
that there will be no need of borrowing from a
neighbour ; for the loss in slave labour exceeds the
cost of articles of this sort. In the care and clothing 9

« Cato, 5. 2.

8?

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

utiliter quani delicate habeat munitamque diligenter
a vento, frigore pluviaque, quae cuncta prohibentur
pellibus nianicatis, centonibus confectis vel sagis
cueullis. Id si fiat, nullus dies tain intolerabilis est,

10 quo non sub divo moliri aliquid possit. Nee tantum
operis agrestis sit artifex, sed et animi, quantum
servile patitur ingenium, virtutibus instructus, ut
neque remisse neque crudeliter imperet semperque
aliquos ex melioribus foveat, parcat tamen etiam
minus bonis, ita ut potius timeant eius severitatem,
quam crudelitatem detestentur. Id contingere pote-
nt, si maluerit custodire subiectos, ne peccent, quam
neglegentia sua committere, ut puniat delinquentes.

11 Nulla est autem maior vel nequissimi hominis cus-
todia quam operis exaetio, ut iusta reddantur, ut
vilicus semper se repraesentet. Sic enim et magistri
singulorum officiorum sedulo munia sua exsequuntur,^
et ceteri post fatigationem ^ operis quieti ac somno
potius quam deliciis operam dabunt.

12 lam ilia Vetera, sed optimi moris, quae nunc exole-

verunt, utinam possint obtineri : ne conservo minis-

tro quoquam, nisi in re domini, utatur; ne cibum

nisi in conspectu familiae capiat neve alium quam

^ exsequantur SA : exequantur vett. edd. : exequentur
Aid., Oesn., Schn.

2 defatigatiouem Oesn., Schn.

88

BOOK I. VIII. 9-12

of the slave household he should have an eye to
usefulness rather than appearance, taking care to
keep them fortified against wind, cold, and rain, all
of which are warded off ^\^th long-sleeved leather
tunics, garments of patchwork, or hooded cloaks. If
this be done, no weather is so unbearable but that some
work may be done in the open. He should be not 10
only skilled in the tasks of husbandrv', but should also
be endowed, as far as the ser\ile disposition allows,
with sucli qualities of feeUng that he may exercise
authority without laxness and \\athout cruelty, and
always humour some of the better hands, at the
same time being forbearing even \\'ith those of
lesser worth, so that they may rather fear his
sternness than detest his cruelty. This he can
accomplish if he will choose rather to guard his sub-
ordinates from ^^Tongdoing than to bring upon
himself, through his own negligence, the necessity
of punishing offenders. There is, moreover, no 11
better way of keeping watch over even the most
worthless of men than the strict enforcement of
labour, the requirement that the proper tasks be
performed and that the overseer be present at all
times ; for in that case the foremen in charge of
the several operations are zealous in carrying out
their duties, and the others, after their fatiguing toil,
will turn their attention to rest and sleep rather than
to dissipation.

Would that those well-known precepts, old but 12
excellent in morality, which have now passed out of
use, might be held to to-day : That an overseer shall
not employ the services pf a fellow-slave except on
the master's business ; that he shall partake of no
food except in sight of the household, nor of other

89

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

qui ceteris praebetur. Sic enim curabit ut at panis
diligenter confiat ^ et reliqua salubriter apparentur.
Ne extra fines nisi a se missum progredi sinat, sed
nee ipse mittat, nisi magna necessitate cogente.

13 Neve negotietur sibi pecuniamque domini aut ani-
malibus aut rebus aliis promercalibus occupet ; haec
enim negotiatio curam vilici avocat nee umquam
patietm* eum cum rationibus domini paria facere,
sed ubi numeratio exigetur, rem pro nummis osten-
dit. In universum tamen hoc maxime obtinendum
ab eo est, nequid se putet scire quod nesciat, quae-

14 ratque semper addiscere quod ignorat. Nam cum
multum prodest perite quid facere, turn plus obest
perperam fecisse. Unum enim ac solum dominatur
in rusticatione, quicquid exigit ratio culturae, semel
facere, quippe cum emendatur vel imprudentia vel
neglegentia, iam res ipsa decoxit nee in tantum
postmodo exuberat, ut et se amissam restituat et
quaestum temporum praeteritorum resarciat.

15 In ceteris servis haec fere praecepta servanda
sunt, quae me custodisse non paenitet, ut rusticos,
qui modo non incommode se gessissent, saepius quam
urbanos familiarius adloquerer, et cum hac ^ comi-
tate domini levari perpetuum laborem eorum intel-

^ conficiatur vel confitiatur R nonnulli.

^ cum hac Lundstrom, praeeunte Schn. : hac S : hac A :
a U : enim M : cum velt. edd.
90

BOOK I. VIII. 12-15

food than is provided for the rest ; for in so doing he
Avill see to it that the bread is cai-efully made and that
other things are wholesomely prepared. He shall
permit no one to pass beyond the boundaries unless
sent by himself, and he shall send no one except
there is great and pressing need. He shall carry on 13
no business on his own account, nor invest his
master's funds in livestock and other goods for
purchase and sale ; for such trafficking wdll divert the
attention of the overseer and will never alloAv him to
balance his accounts with his master, but, when an
accounting is demanded, he has goods to show instead
of cash. But, generally speaking, this above all else
is to be required of him — that he shall not think that
he knows what he does not know, and that he shall
always be eager to learn what he is ignorant of;
for not only is it very helpful to do a thing skilfully, 14
but even more so is it hurtful to have done it in-
correctly. For there is one and only one controlling
principle in agriculture, namely, to do once and for
all the thing which the method of cultivation re-
quires ; since when ignorance or carelessness has to
be rectified, the matter at stake has already suffered
impairment and never recovers thereafter to such an
extent as to regain what it has lost and to restore the
profit of time that has passed.

In the case of the other slaves, the followinff are, 15
in general, the precepts to be observed, and I do
not regret having held to them myself: to talk
rather familiarly with the country slaves, provided
only that they have not conducted themselves un-
becomingly, more frequently than I would with the
towTi slaves ; and when I perceived that their un-
ending toil was lightened hj such friendliness on the

91

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

legerem, nonnumquam etiam iocarer et plus ipsis
iocari permitterem. lam illud saepe facio, ut quasi
cum peritioribus de aliquibus operibus novis deli-
berem et per hoc cognoscam cuiusque ingenium,
quale quamque sit prudens. Tum etiam Ubentius
eos id opus adgredi video, de quo secum deliberatum

16 et consilio ipsorum susceptum putant. Nam ilia
sollemnia sunt omnibus circumspectis,^ ut ergastuli
mancipia recognoscant,^ ut explorent ^ an diligenter
vincti sint, an ipsae sedes custodiae satis tutae
munitaeque sint, num * vilicus aut alligaverit quem-
piam domino nesciente aut revinxerit. Nam utrum-
que maxime servare debet, ut et quem pater familiae
tali poena multaverit, vilicus nisi eiusdem permissu
compedibus non eximat et quem ipse sua sponte

17 vinxerit, antequam sciat dominus, non resolvat ; tan-
toque curiosior inquisitio patris familiae debet esse
pro tali genere servorum, ne aut in vestiariis aut in
ceteris praebitis iniuriose tractentur, quanto et pluri-
bus subiecti, ut vilicis, ut operum magistris, ut
ergastulariis, magis obnoxii perpetiendis iniuriis, et
rursus saevitia atque avaritia laesi magis timendi

18 sunt. Itaque diligens dominus cum et ab ipsis tum
et ab solutis, quibus maior est fides, quaerit,^ an ex

^ circumseptis SAa, veil. cdd.

* recognoscant SAR : recognoscam Lundsfrom.

* explorent SAR : explorem Lundstrnm.

* num R, cdd. vulgo : numquam SA : num quem Lund-
Strom.

•• quaerat Aid., Oesn., Schn.

92

BOOK I. VIII. 15-18

part of the master, I -would even jest with them at
times and allow them also to j est more freely. Nowa-
days I make it a practice to call them into consultation
on any new work, as if they were more experienced,
and to discover by this means what sort of ability
is possessed by each of them and how intelligent
he is. Furthermore, I observe that they are more
willing to set about a piece of work on which they
think that their opinions have been asked and their
advice followed. Again, it is the estabUshed custom 16
of all men of caution to inspect the inmates of the
workhouse, to find out whether they are carefully
chained, whether the places of confinement are quite
safe and properly guarded, whether the overseer
has put anyone in fetters or removed his shackles
without the master's knowledge. For the overseer
should be most observant of both points — not to
release from shackles anyone whom the head of
the house has subjected to that kind of punish-
ment, except by his leave, and not to free one
whom he himself has chained on his own initiative
until the master knows the circumstances; and IT
the investigation of the householder should be the
more painstaking in the interest of slaves of this
sort, that they may not be treated unjustly in the
matter of clothing or other allowances, inasmuch
as, being liable to a greater number of people, such
as overseers, taskmasters, and jailers, they are
the more liable to unjust punishment, and again,
when smarting under cruelty and greed, they are
more to be feared. Accordingly, a careful master 18
inquires not only of them, but also of those who are
not in bonds, as being more worthy of belief, whether
they are receiving what is due to them under his in-

93

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

sua constitutione iusta percipiant, atque ipse panis
potionisque probitatem ^ gustu suo explorat,^ vestem,
manicas pedumque tegumina recognoscit.^ Saepe
etiam querendi potestatem faciat de iis, qui aut
crudeliter eos aut fraudulenter infestent. Nos qui-
dem aliquando iuste dolentes tarn vindicamus, quam
animadvertimus in eos, qui seditionibus familiam
concitant, qui calumniantur magistros suos ; ac
rursus praemio prosequimur * eos, qui strenue atque

19 industrie se gerunt. Feminis quoque fecundioribus,
quarum in subole certus numerus honorari debet,
otium, nonnumquam et libertatem dedimus, cum
complures natos educassent. Nam cui tres erant
filii, vacatio, cui plures,-' libertas quoque contingebat.

Haec et ^ iustitia et cura patris familiae multum

20 confert augendo patrimonio. Sed et ilia meminerit,
cum e civitate remeaverit, deos penatis adorare ;
deinde, si tempestivum erit, confestim, si minus,
postero die oeulis perlustrare, omnes partes agri
revisere atque aestimare num quid absentia sua de
disciplina et custodia remiserit, num aliqua vitis, num
arbor, num fruges absint ; turn etiam pecus ' et
familiam recenseat fundique instrumentum et
supellectilem. Quae cuncta si per plures annos facere
instituerit, bene moratam disciplinam, cum senectus
advenerit, obtinebit ; nee erit uUa eius aetas annis
ita confecta, ut spernatur a servis.

1 bonitatem R, Aid., Gesn., Schn.

^ exploret R, Aid., Gesn., Schn.

^ recognoscat R plerique. Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* prosequamur SA. * plus SA, Lundstrom.

" enim Aid., Gesn. ' pecudes R.

« Cf. Cato, 2.

94

BOOK I. VIII. 18-20

structions ; he also tests the quaUty of their food
and drink by tasting it himself, and examines their
clothing, their mittens, and their foot-covering. In
addition he should give them frequent opportunities
for making complaint against those persons who treat
them cruelly or dishonestly. In fact, I now and then
avenge those who have just cause for grievance, as
well as punish those who incite the slaves to revolt,
or who slander their taskmasters ; and, on the other
hand, I reward those who conduct themselves with
energy and diligence. To women, too, who are un- 19
usually proUfic, and who ought to be rewarded for
the bearing of a certain number of offspring, I have
granted exemption from work and sometimes even
freedom after they had reared many children.
For to a mother of three sons exemption from work
was granted ; to a mother of more her freedom as
well.

Such justice and consideration on the part of the
master contributes greatly to the increase of his
estate. But he should also bear in mind, first to pay 20
his respects to the household gods as soon as he
returns from town ; " then at once, if time permits,
if not, on the next day, to inspect his lands and re-
visit every part of them and judge whether his
absence has resulted in any relaxation of discipline
and watchfulness, whether any vine, any tree, or any
produce is missing ; at the same time, too, he should
make a new count of stock, slaves, farm-equipment,
and furniture. If he has made it a practice to do all
this for many years, he will maintain a well-ordered
discipline when old age comes ; and whatever his
age, he will never be so wasted with years as to be
despised by his slaves.

95

VOL. I. E

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

IX. Dicendum etiam est,quibusoperibus quemque
habitum corporis aut animi contribuendum putemus.
Magistros pecoribus ^ oportet praeponere sedulos ac
frugalissimos. Ea res utraque plus quam corporis
statura roburque confex't huic negotio, quoniam id
ministerium custodiae diligentis et artis officium

2 est, Bubulco quamvis necessaria non tamen satis
est indoles mentis, nisi eum vastitas vocis et habitus
metuendum pecudibus efficit.^ Sed temperet vires
dementia, quoniam terribilior debet esse quam
saevior, ut et obsequantur eius imperiis et diutius
perennent boves, non confecti vexatione simul
operum verberumque. Sed quae sint magistrorum

3 munia quaeque bubulcorum, suo loco repetam ; nunc
admonuisse satis est nihil in his, in illis plurimum
referre vires et proceritatem. Nam longissimum
quemque aratorem,^ sicut dixi, faciemus, et propter
id, quod paulo ante rettuli, et quod in re rustica nullo
minus opere fatigatur prolixior, quia in arando stivae
paene rectus innititur. Mediastinus qualiscumque
status potest esse, dummodo perpetiendo labori sit

4 idoneus. Vineae non sic altos quemadmodum * latos
et lacertosos viros exigunt, nam hie habitus fossuris
et putaitionibus ceterisque earum culturis magis
apt us. Minus in hoc officio quam in ceteris agrico-

^ operibus Gesn., Schn.
2 effecit SA.

* maiorem SA, et R noimuUi.

* quomodo AaM.

' The bubulcus was, in a restricted sense, as here and often,
a ploughman (= arator) or ox-driver; in the wider sense, as
just below and elsewhere, a herdsman in general charge of the
cattle.

» See Bks. VII. 1-7 and VI. 1-26.

96

BOOK I. IX. 1-4

IX. Something should be said, too, as to what tasks
we think each kind of body or mind should be
assigned. As keepers of the flocks it is proper to
place in charge men who are diligent and very
thrifty. These two qualities are more important for
this task than stature and strength of body, since this
is a responsibility requiring unremitting watchfulness
and skill. Inthecaseof the ploughman," intelligence, 2
though necessary, is still not sufficient unless bigness
of voice and in bearing makes him formidable to the
cattle. Yet he should temper his strength with
gentleness, since he should be more terrifying than
cruel, so that the oxen may obey his commands and at
the same time last longer because they are not worn
out with the hardship of the work combined with
the torment of the lash. But what the duties of
shepherds and herdsmen are, I shall treat again in
their proper places ; * for the present it is sufficient 3
to have called to mind that strength and height are
of no importance in the one, but of the greatest im-
portance in the other. For, as I have said, we shall
make all the taller ones ploughmen, both for the
reason I have just given and because in the work of
the farm there is no task less tiring to a tall man ;
for in ploughing he stands almost erect and rests his
weight on the plough-handle.'^ The common labourer
may be of any height at all, if only he is capable of
enduring hard work. Vineyards require not so much 4
tall men as those who are broad-shouldered and
brawny, for this type is better suited to digging and
pruning and other forms of viticulture. In this de-
partment husbandry is less exacting in the matter of

« Pliny {N.H. XVIII. 179) says that the ploughman does
not steer a straight course unless he stoops to his work.

97

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

latio frugalitatem requirit, quia et in turba et sub
monitore vinitor opus facere debet ae plerumque
velocior animiis est improboi-um hominum/ quem
desiderat huius operis conditio. Non solum enim
fortem, sed et acuminis strenui ministrum postulat,
ideoque vineta plurimum per alligatos excoluntur.

5 Nihil tamen eiusdem agilitatis homo frugi non melius
quam nequam faciet.

Hoc interposui, ne quis existimet in ea me opinione
versarij qua malim per noxios quam per innocentes
rura colere.^ Sed et illud censeo, ne confundantur
opera familiae, sic ut oranes omnia exsequantur.

6 Nam id minime conducit agricolae, seu quia nemo
suum propriura aliquod esse opus credit, seu quia cum
enisus est, non suo sedcommuni officio proficit ideoque
labori multum se subtrahit ; nee tamen viritim male-
factum deprehenditur, quod fit a multis. Propter
quod separandi sunt aratores a vinitoribus et vinitores

7 ab aratoribus '^ iique a "* mediastinis. Classes etiam
non maiores quam denum hominum faciundae, quas
decurias appellaverunt antiqui et maxime proba-
verunt, quod is numeri modus in opere commodissime
ciistodiretur nee praeeuntis monitoris diligentiam

8 multitudo confunderet. Itaque si latior est ager, in
regiones diducendae ^ sunt eae classes dividundum-

^ hominum om. HA. * coll M.

' sic vulgo : aratores (a suprascr. S^) vinitoribus ab aratori-
bus SA : et vinitores ab aratoribus inclusit Schn., monente
Pontedera.

* iique a] et qua SA.

* sic S^ et Schn. cum Gesn., not. : deducendae S^A, Lund-
Strom cum edd. plerisque : dividunde R aliquot.

98

BOOK I. IX. 4-8

honesty than in the others, for the reason that the
vine-dresser should do his work in company with others
and under supervision, and because the unruly are for
the most part possessed of quicker understanding,
which is what the nature of this work requires.
For it demands of the helper that he be not merely
strong but also quick-mtted ; and on this account
vineyards are commonly tended by slaves in fetters.
Still there is nothing that an honest man of equal 5
quickness will not do better than a rogue.

I have inserted this that no one may think me
obsessed of such a notion as to wish to till my land
with criminals rather than with honest men. But
this too I believe : that the duties of the slaves
should not be confused to the point where all take
a hand in every task. For this is by no means to 6
the advantage of the husbandman, either because
no one regards any particular task as his own or
because, when he does make an effort, he is
performing a service that is not his own but
common to all, and therefore shirks his work to a
great extent ; and yet the fault cannot be fastened
upon any one man because many have a hand in it.
For this reason ploughmen must be distinguished
from vine-dressers, and vine-dressers from plough-
men, and both of these from men of all work.
Furthermore, squads should be formed, not to exceed 7
ten men each, which the ancients called dectiriae and
approved of highly, because that limited number was
most conveniently guarded while at work, and the
size was not disconcerting to the person in charge as he
led the way. Therefoi-e, if the field is of considerable 8
extent, such squads should be distributed over
sections of it and the work should be so apportioned

99

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

que ita opus, ut neque singuli binive sint, quoniam
dispersi non facile custodiuntur ; nee tamen supra
decern, ne rursus, ubi nimia turba sit, id opus ad se
pertinere singuli non existiment. Haec ordinatio
non solum concitat aemulationem, sed et deprehendit
ignavos; nam cum certamine opus excitetur, turn
in cessantes animadversio iusta et sine querela
videtur adhiberi.

Sed nimirum, dum quae maxime providenda sunt
agricolae futuro praecipimus, de salubritate, de via,
de vicino, de aqua, situ villae, fundi modo, colonorum
et servorum generibus, officiorum operumque dis-
tributione tempestive per haec ad ipsum iam terrae
cultura pervenimus, de quo pluribus libro insequente
mox disseremus.

loo

BOOK I. IX. 8-9

that men will not be by ones or twos, because they
are not easily watched when scattered ; and yet they
should number not more than ten, lest, on the other
hand, when the band is too large, each individual
may think that the work does not concern him. This
arrangement not only stimulates rivalr}-^, but also it
discloses the slothful ; for, when a task is enlivened
by competition, punishment inflicted on the laggards
appears just and free from censure.

But surely, in pointing out to the farmer-to-be 9
those matters for which especial provision must be
made — healthfulness, roads, neighbourhood, water,
situation of the homestead, size of the farm,
classes of tenants and slaves, and assignment of duties
and tasks — we have now come properly, through
these steps, to the actual tilling of the soil ; of this we
shall presently treat at greater length in the book
that follows.

lOI

BOOK II

LIBER II

I. Quaeris ex me, P. SiMne, quod ego sine cuncta-
tione non recuso docere, cur priore libro veterem ^
opinionem fere omnium, qui de cultu agrorum locuti
sunt, a principio confestim reppulerim, falsamque
sententiam repudiaverim censentium longo aevi
situ longique iam temporis exercitatione fatigatam

2 et effetam humum consenuisse. Nee te ignoro cum
et aliorum inlustrium scriptorum turn praecipue
Tremeli auctoritatem revereri, qui, cum plurima
rusticarum rerum praecepta simul eleganter et scite
memoriae prodiderit, videlicet inlectus nimio favore
priscorum de simili materia disserentium falso
credidit parentem omnium terram, sicut muliebrem
sexum aetate anili iam confectam, progenerandis
esse fetibus inhabilem. Quod ipse quoque confiterer,

3 si in totum nullae fruges provenirent.^ Nam et
hominis tum demum declaratur sterile senium, non
cum desinit mulier trigeminos aut geminos parere, sed
cum omnino nullum conceptum edere valet. Itaque
transactis iuventae temporibus, etiam si longe vita
superest, partus tamen annis denegatus non resti-

' veterum R, edd. ante Schn.
^ convenirent SA.

I. Praef. 1.
104

BOOK II

I. You ask me, Publius Silviiius, and I have no
hesitation in informing you at once, why in the pre-
ceding book I immediately at the start" rejected the
long-standing opinion of almost all who have dis-
coursed on the subject of agriculture, and repudiated
as mistaken the views of those who hold that the soil,
wearied and exhausted by age-long wasting away
and by cultivation now extending over a long period
of time, has become barren. And I am not unaware 2
that you hold in reverence, not only the authority
of other renowned writers, but particularly that of
Tremelius, who, in handing down to posterity a very
great number of agricultural precepts set forth with
refinement as well as learning, being obviously misled
through too great deference to the ancients who
treat of a like subject, held the mistaken belief that
the earth, the mother of all things, like womankind
now worn out with old age, is incapable of bearing
offspring. This fact I too should admit if no fruits
whatever were being produced ; for the old age of 3
a human being also is pronounced barren, not when
a woman no longer gives birth to triplets and twins,
but only when she is able to conceive and bring
forth no offspring at all. Thus, after the period of
youth is past, even though a long hfe still remains,
still parturition is denied to years and is not re-

105

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

tuitur. At e contrario seu sponte seu quolibet casu
derelicta ^ humus, cum est repetita cultu, magno

4 faenore cessatorum ^ colono respondet. Non ergo
est exiguarum frugum causa terrae vetustas, si modo,
cum semel invasit senectus, regressum non habet
nee revirescere ^ aut repubescere potest ; sed ne
lassitude quidem soli minuit agricolae fructum.
Neque enira prudentis est adduci tamquam in
hominibus nimiae corporis exercitationi * aut oneris
alicuius ponderi,^ sic cultibus et agitationibus agrorum

5 fatigationem succedere. Quid ergo est, inquis,
quod adseverat Tremelius intacta et silvestria loca,
cum primum ceperint ^ cultum, exuberare, mox
deinde non ita respondere labori colonorum? Videt
sine dubio quid eveniat, sed cur id accidat non
pervidet. Neque enim idcirco rudis et modo ex
silvestri habitu in arvum transducta fecundior haberi
terra debet, quod sit requietior et iunior, sed quod
multorum annorum frondibus et herbis, quas suapte
natura progenerabat, velut saginata largioribus
pabulis facilius edendis educandisque frugibus sufficit.

6 At cum perruptae rastris et aratris radices herbarum
ferroque succisa nemora frondibus suis desierunt
alere matrem, quaeque temporibus autumni frutectis

^ destituta R nonnulli deter lores. Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* cessationis M, Aid., Oesn., Schn.
^ reviviscere R aliquot.

* nimia . . . exercitatione ft nonnulli, Aid., Oesn.

* ponderi Schn., Lundslrom: ponderis SA^a: pondere R
plerique, edd. ante Schn.

* ceperint Lundstrom : coeperint 8A et R aliquot, plerique
edd. ; deinde cultu Aid., Gesn.

-io6

BOOK II. I. 3-6

stored. But on the contrary, when the soil, whether
abandoned deliberately or by chance, is cultivated
anew, it repays the farmer with heavy interest for
its periods of idleness. <* The antiquity of the earth, 4
thei-efore, is not the reason for the scantiness of her
fruits — if, I mean, when once old age sets in, it takes
no backward step and has no power to grow vigorous
and young again — but not even the weariness of the
soil lessens its fruits for the farmer. For it is not Uke
a man of intelligence to be persuaded that, as in the
case of human beings exhaustion follows immoderate
physical exertion or the bearing of some heavy
burden, just so does it follow cultivation and activity
on the part of the land. What then, you say, does 5
Tremelius mean by his assertion that virginal and
wooded areas, when they are first cultivated, yield
abundantly, but soon thereafter are not so responsive
to the toil of those who work them ? He observes,
undoubtedly, what occurs, but does not under-
stand thoroughly why it happens. For ground that is
new and but recently taken out of its wooded state
and brought under cultivation should not be regarded
as more fruitful on this account, because it has lain
fallow longer and is younger; but because, in the
leaves and herbage of many years, which it has kept
producing naturally, fattened, so to speak, with more
plentiful nourishment, it more readily satisfies the
requirements for bringing forth crops and supporting
them. But when the roots of the plants, broken by 6
mattocks and ploughs, and when the trees, cut down
by the axe, cease to nourish their mother with their
foUage ; when the leaves which fell from bushes and

" Lundstrom restores the reading of the best manuscripts,
preferred also by Pontedera as cessatorum (^temporumy .

107

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

et arboribiis delapsa folia superiaciebantur, mox
conversa vomeribus et inferiori solo, quod plerumque
est exilius, permixta atque absumpta sunt, sequitur,
ut destituta pristinis alimentis macrescat humus.
7 Non igitur fatigatione, quemadmodum plurimi
crediderunt, nee senio, sed nostra scilicet inertia
minus benigne nobis arva respondent. Licet enim
maiorem fructum percipere, si frequenti et tempestiva
et modica stercoratione ^ terra refoveatur. De cuius
cultu dicturos nos priori volumine polliciti iam nunc
disseremus.

II. Callidissimi rusticarum rerum, Silvine, genera
terreni tria esse dixerunt, campestre, collinum,
montanum. Campum non aequissima situm planitie
nee perlibrata, sed exigue prona, coUem clementer
et molliter adsurgentem, montem ^ sublimem et
asperum, sed nemorosum et herbidum, maxime pro-

2 baverunt. His autem generibus singulis senae
species contribuuntur, soli pinguis vel macri, soluti
vel spissi, umidi vel sicci, quae qualitates inter se
mixtae vicibus et alternatae plurimas efficiunt
agrorum varietates. Eas enumerare non est artificis
agricolae ; neque enim artis officium est per species,
quae sunt innumerabiles, evagari sed ^ ingredi per
genera, quae possunt et cogitatione mentis et ambitu

3 verborum facile copulari. Recurrendum est igitur
ad qualitatum * inter se dissidentium quasi quasdam

^ sterceratione SAa, Lundslrom.

* montem non sublimem Aid., Oesn., Schn.

* et SAa, vett. edd., Lundstrom.

* qualitatium SA et R aliquot, Lundstrom.

" Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 6. 2.
" Cf. Palladius, I. 5. 5.

io8

BOOK II. I. 6-II. 3

trees in the autumn season and which were spread
over her are presently turned under by the plough-
share and mixed >\'ith the subsoil, which is usually
thinner, and are used up, the result is that the soil,
being deprived of its old-time nourishment, grows
lean. It is not, therefore, because of weariness, as 7
very many have believed, nor because of old age,
but manifestly because of our own lack of energy
that our cultivated lands yield us a less generous
return. For we may reap greater harvests if the
earth is qmckened again by frequent, timely, and
moderate manuring. As I promised in the preceding
book to speak of its cultivation, I shall now begin
the discussion.

II. Those who are most experienced in agricultural
affairs have said, Sihinus, that there are three kinds
of terrain — champaign, hilly, and mountainous."
Of champaign land they favoured especially that lying,
not in a perfectly even and level plain, but in a some-
what sloping one ; of hilly land, that with a gentle
and gradual rise ; of mountainous land, the high and
rugged, but wooded and grassy.^ Furthermore, 2
under each of these classes there fall six species of
soil — fat or lean, loose or compact, moist or dry ;
and these qualities, in combination and in alternation
with one another, produce a very great variety of
soils. To enumerate them is not the mark of a skilled
farmer ; for it is not the business of any art to roam
about over the species, which are countless, but to
proceed through the classes, for these can readily
be connected in the imagination and brought within
the compass of words. We must have recourse, then, 3
to certain unions, as we may call them, between
qualities which are at variance with each other —

109

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

coniunctiones, quas Graeci o-L'^vyi'as ivauTinri^Twi',^
nos " discordautium comparationes " tolerabiliter
dixerimus. Atque etiam significandum est ex
omnibus, quae terra progeneret, plura campo magis
quam colle, plura pingui solo quam macro laetari.

4 De siccaneis et riguis non comperimus, utra niimero
vincant, quoniam utrimque paene infinita sunt,^ quae
siocis quaeque umidis locis gaudent ; sed ex his nihil
non melius resoluta humo quam densa provenit.
Quod noster quoque Vergilius, cum et aUas fecundi
arvi laudes rettulisset, adiecit,

et cui putre solum namque hoc imitamur arando.

Neque enim aliud est colere quam resolvere et

5 fermentare terram ; ideoque maximos quaestus
ager praebet idem pinguis ac putris, quia cum
plurimum reddat, minimum poscit, et quod postulat
exiguo labore atque impensa conficitur. Prae-
stantissimum igitur tale solum iure dicatur. Proxi-
mum deinde huic pinguiter densum, quod impensam

6 coloni laboremque magno fetu remuneratur. Tertia
est ratio loci I'igui, quia sine impensa fructum reddere
potest. Hanc primam Cato esse dicebat, qui maxime
reditum pratorum ceterif anteponebat ; sed nos de

7 agitatione terrae nunc loquimur, non de situ. Nullum
deterius habetur genus quam quod est pariter
siccum et densum et macrum, quia cum difficulter

1 Graec. om., spat, relict. R plerique.

* cum {R) utique p. i. sint (R aliquot) Aid., Oesn,

" Vergil, Oeorg. II. 204. * Cf. Cato, 9.

BOOK II. II. 3-7

what the Greeks call o-v^vyt'at evavTtoTyjTwv, and
which we may fairly render " the couplings of
opposites." Furthermore, it must be pointed out that,
of all things which the earth brings forth, more
thrive better on a plain than on a hill, and more in fat
land than in lean. As to dry ground and wet ground, 4
we have not ascertained which of these excels in
number, since there are, in each case, almost
limitless things which thrive in dry places, and the
same in wet areas ; but of this number there is
nothing that does not grow better in loose soil than
in dense. This, too, our own Vergil said when,
after recounting the other good points of a fruitful
field, he added :

and one of crumbling soil ; for this is what we
rival when we plough.**

For cultivation is nothing else than the loosening and
breaking up of the ground ; and on this account a 5
field which is both rich and mellow yields the greatest
returns, because in producing most it demands least,
and what it does require is supplied with trifling
labour and expense. Such a soil may therefore with
justice be called the very best. Next in order to this
is the combination of rich and dense, a soil which re-
wards the expense and toil of the husbandman with
rich increase. Third in rank is a well-watered place, 6
because it can produce fruits without expense. Cato,
who rated the yield of meadow lands far ahead of
other returns, used to say that this kind of land
was first ; * but we are now speaking of land under
cultivation, not of that left untilled. No kind is con- 7
sidered worse than that which is at the same time
dry, stiff, and lean; for not only is it worked with

III

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

tractetur, turn ne tractatum quidem gratiam refert
nee relictum pratis vel pascuis abunde sufficit.
Itaque hie ager sive exereetur seu eessat, colono est
paenitendus ac tamquam pestilens refugiendus.
Nam ille mortem facit, hie taeterrimam eomitem
mortis famem, si tamen Graeeis camenis habemus
fidem elamitantibus :

Xl/JLW 8 OLKTUTTOV BavliLV.

8 Sed nunc potius uberioris soli meminerimus, euius
demonstranda est duplex tractatio, eulti et silvestris.
De silvestri regione in arvorum formam redigenda ^
prills dieemus, quoniam est antiquius faeere agrum
quam eolere. Incultum igitur locum consideremus,
siccus an umidus, nemorosus arboribus an lapidibus
confragosus, iuncone sit et ^ gr amine vestitus an ^

9 filictis * aliisve frutectis impeditus. Si umidus erit,
abundantia uliginis ante siccetur fossis. Earum duo
genera cognovimus, caecarum et patentium. Spissis
atque cretosis regionibus apertae relinquuntur ;
at ubi solutior humus est, aliquae fiunt patentes,
quaedam etiam occaecantur, ita ut in ora ^ hiantium

1 derigenda S : dirigenda A et R aliquot, vett. edd.

^ sic Lundstrom cum codd. plerisque ut videtur : au vd de R
noJinulli, ctlt. edd.

' sic Lundstrom cum Laurentiano 53. 27 : ac 8AR, cett. edd.

* filictis R plerique. Aid., Oesn., Schn. : felictis SA, Lund-
strom : filicibus vett. edd. : salictis R pauci.

BOOK II. II. 7-9

difficulty, but even when worked it makes no recom-
pense, and when left idle it is not altogether adequate
for meadows or for grazing land. Therefore this
type, whether in tillage or fallow, is a soiu*ce of grief
to the husbandman and should be shunned as if it were
plague-ridden ground ; for the one type brings death,
and this brings starvation, that most frightful attend-
ant of death, if we may trust the Grecian Muses,
who cry :

To die of hunger is the bitterest of fates."

But now we shall turn our attention rather to the i
more fertile soil, and our treatment of this is to be set
forth under two heads — land in tillage, and wood-
land. We shall first speak of reducing a wooded area
to an arable state, for the reason that the preparation
of a field comes before its cultivation. As to an uu-
tilled piece of ground, then, let us consider whether
it is dry or damp, shaded with trees or rough and
stony ; whether it is covered with rushes and grass
or encumbered with fern-brakes or other bushy
growth. If it is damp, the superfluous moisture must !
first be drained oiF with ditches. Of these we are
familiar with two kinds — blind and open. In tracts
of hard-packed and chalky soil they are left open ;
but where the groiuid is of looser texture some are
made open and some of them, too, are covered over,
though in such a way as to connect with the

<' Homer, Od. XII. 342.

* in ora Sobel : in eas ora R, vett. edd., Lundstrom : in ea
hora (h expunct.) S : in ea ora A. in patentes ora kiantia
caecarum competant habent Aid., Oesn., Schn.

"3

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

fossarum competant. Sed ^ latius apertas summa
parte declivesque et ad solum coartatas imbricibus
supinis similes facere conveniet ; nam quarum recta
sunt latera, celeriter aquis vitiantur et superioris

10 soli lapsibus replentur. Opertae rursus occaeeari
debebunt sulcis in altitudinem tripedaneam depressis ;
qui cum parte dimidia lapides minutos vel nudam
glaream receperint, aequentur superiecta terra, quae
fuerat efFossa. Vel si nee lapis erit nee glarea,
sarmentis connexus velut funis informabitur in eam
crassitudinem, quam solum fossae possit angustae

11 quasi accommodatam coartatamque capere. Tum
per imum ^ contendetur, ut super calcatis cupressinis
vel pineis aut, si eae non erunt, aliis frondibus terra
contegatur, in principio atque exitu fossae more
pontioulorum birds saxis tantummodo pilarum vice
constitutis et singulis superpositis, ut eius modi
constructio ripam sustineat, ne praecludatur umoris
inlapsus atque exitus.

Nemorosi frutectosique tractus duplex cura est
vel exstirpandis radicitus arboribus et removendis
vel, si rarae sunt, tantum succidendis incendendisque

12 et inarandis. Ac saxosum facile est expedire lectione

^ sed patentes latius Schn. : sed et petentes latius Aid.,
■Qesn.

* humum M.

' The text here translated accepts the emendation of
Ragnar Sobel (" En Columellakonjektur," Apojjhoreia Goto-
burgerusia Vilelmo Lundstrom ObUtta [Gothenburg, 1936],
pp. 169-170), reversing the illogical position of covered and
open ditches as found in moat of the manuscripts and in

114

BOOK II. II. 9-12

mouths of the open ditches.*^ But it will be best
to make open drains wider at the top, and sloping
and narrowing together at the bottom, like inverted
roof-tiles ; for those whose sides are perpendicular
are quickly eroded by water and are filled in by the
shpping of the earth above. The covered ones, on 10
the other hand, are to be blinded by sinking trenches
to a depth of three feet, and then, after they have
received a filling half way up of small stones or clean
gravel, levelling them off by throwing over them the
dirt that was dug out. Or, if stones and gravel are not
available, a sort of cable of entwined brushwood will be
fashioned of such a thickness as the bottom of the
narrow trench may receive when it is fitted, so to speak,
and pressed down close. This ^^^ll then be stretched 11
along the bottom, to be covered over with earth after
cypress or pine foliage — or, failing this, other
boughs — has been trampled down over it; there
being, both at the beginning and at the outlet of the
ditch, two stones set up, merely by way of supports,
with one stone laid on top of them in the fashion of
little bridges, that this sort of structure may hold
the banks in place and prevent the stoppage of water
at inlet and outlet.

There are two methods of handhng a wooded and
bushy stretch of land : either by tearing out the trees
by the roots and removing them or, if they are few,
by simply cutting them down, burning them, and
ploughing them under. It is easy to clear stony 12

Lundstrom's text. Earlier editors read ut in patentes ora
hiantia caecarum competant, " that the gaping mouths of the
blind ditches may connect with those that are open." On the
subject of ditching, cf. Cato, 43. 1, 155; and especially Pliny,
N.H. XYIII. 47, and Palladius, VI. 3.

"5

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

lapidum, quorum si magna est abundantia, velut
quibusdam substructionibus partes agri sunt occu-
pandae, ut reliquae emundentur, vel in altitudinem
sulco depresso lapides obruendi ; quod tamen ita

13 faciendum erit, si suadebit operarum vilitas.^ lunci
et graminis pernicies ^ repastinatio est, filicis ^
frequens exstirpatio, quae vel aratro fieri potest ;
quoniam intra biennium saepius convulsa emoritur,*
celerius etiam, si eodem tempore stercores et lupino
vel faba conseras, ut cum aliquo reditu medearis agri
vitio. Namque constat filicem sationibus et sterco-
ratione facilius interimi.^ Verum et si subinde
nascentem falce decidas, quod vel puerile opus est,
intra praedictum tempus vivacitas eius absumitur.

14 Sed iam expediendi rudis agri rationem ^ sequitur
cultorum novalium cura, de qua mox quid censeam
profitebor, si quae ante discenda sunt, arvorum
studiosis praecepero.

Plurimos antiquorum, qui de rusticis rebus scripse-
runt, memoria repeto quasi confessa nee dubia signa
pinguis ac frumentorum fertilis agri prodidisse
dulcedinem soli propriam, herbarum et arborum

15 proventum, colorem ' nigrum vel cinereum. Nihil
de ceteris ambigo, de colore satis admirari non
possum cum alios tum etiam ^ Cornelium Celsum,
non solum agricolationis sed universae naturae

^ utilitas R aliquot. - pernitiea S, Lunclstrdm.

' felicis iS^, Lundstrom.

* sic lAindstrdin, praeemite Madvig. : convulsae moritur vel
moriuntur codd. et cdd. vulgo, sed convulsa Schneider, Corri-
genda.

^ interemi S^A, Lundstrom.

* ruris agricolationem R plerique, vett. edd.
' colorem om. AR, vett. cdd.

* etiam om. /?, edd. nvU Sclni.

n6

BOOK 11. II. 12-15

ground by gathering up the stones ; and if there is a
great quantity of them, parts of the field must be used
for building them into piles of some sort, so that the
other parts may be cleared off, or the stones will have
to be buried in a deep-dug trench. This should be
done, however, only if the cheapness of labour
makes it advisable. The bane of rushes and grass 13
is repeated grubbing, of the fern it is constant up-
rooting, which may be done also with the plough;
for it dies out within two years' time if torn up re-
peatedly, and even sooner if at the same time you apply
manure and sow with lupines or beans so as to have
some return while remedying the defects of the field.
For it is agreed that the fern is more easily de-
stroyed by sowing and manuring; but even if you
cut it down with the sickle (which is work even a child
could do) as it sprouts out from time to time, within
the aforesaid period its vigour is spent. But now, 14
after a consideration of the clearing of unbroken
ground, comes the management of land newly brought
under cultivation ; and I shall set forth presently my
own views on this, after I have given to those who are
concerned with land in tillage some precepts on
matters which must be learned first.

I recall that very many of the ancients who have
written on agricultural topics have laid down as
acknowledged and unquestioned evidence of fat and
fertile grain-land the natural sweetness of the soil,
its growth of herbage and trees, and its black or
ashy colour. As to the other points I have no doubt ; 15
but in the matter of colour I cannot marvel enough,
not only that other writers but especially that
Cornelius Celsus, a man of discernment not merely in

117

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

prudentem virum, sic et sententia et visu deerrasse,
ut oculis eius tot paludes, tot etiam campi salinarmn
non occurrerent, quibus fere contribuuntur praedicti

16 colores. Nullum enim temere videmus locum, qui
modo pigrum contineat umorem, non eundem vel
nigri vel cinerei coloris, nisi forte in eo fallor ipse,
quod non putem aut in solo limosae paludis et uliginis
amarae aut in maritimis areis salinarum gigni posse
laeta frumenta. Sed est manifestior hie antiquorum
error, quam ut pluribus argumentis convincendus sit.
Non ergo color tamquam certus auctor testis est

17 bonitatis arvorum ; et ideo frumentarius ager, id est
pinguis, magis aliis qualitatibus aestimandus est.
Nam ut fortissimae pecudes diversos et paene
innumerabiles, sic etiam robustissimae terrae pluri-
mos et varios colores sortitae sunt. Itaque con-
siderandum erit, ut solum quod excolere destinamus,

18 pingue sit. Per se tamen id parum est, si dulcedine
caret ; quod utrumque satis expedita nobis ratione
contingit discere. Nam perexigua conspargitur ^
aqua glaeba manuque subigitur, ac si glutinosa est,
quamvis levissimo tactu pressa inhaerescit et

picis in morem ad digitos lentescit habendo,

ut ait Vergilius, eademque inlisa humo non dissipatur,
quae res nos admonet inesse tali materiae naturalem

19 sucum et pinguitudinem. Sed si velis scrobibus

^ conspergitur S^ et R aliquot, edd. ante Lundstrom.

" Georg. 11. 250. Palladius (I. 5. 3) also considers this a test
of fat soil; but Pliny (XVII. 27) remarks that stickiness is
not a true test of fat soil, for potter's clay has the same
quality.

n8

BOOK II. II. 15-19

husbandry but also in nature as a whole, went so far
astray, both in his thinking and in his observation,
that the many marshes and the many stretches of
salt meadows, in which the above-mentioned
colours are usually present, did not attract his
notice. For our casual observations reveal no 16
place, provided it contains stagnant water, which
is not of a black or ashy colour ; unless perhaps I am
myself mistaken in thinking that luxuriant grain
crops cannot be produced in the soil of slimy swamp
and brackish marshland or in a region of salt de-
posits along the seacoast. But this mistake of the
ancients is too apparent to require refutation by
further argument. It is not the colour, then, that is,
so to speak, the infalUble voucher and witness of
goodness of ploughland ; and for that reason grain- 17
land, that is rich land, is to be judged rather by
other qualities. For, as the sturdiest of farm animals
have been allotted different and almost countless
colours, just so the strongest soils have them in veiy
great number and vaiiety. Accordingly, we must
take care that the soil which we intend to cultivate
is rich. Still this of itself is not sufficient if it lacks 18
sweetness ; and we may come to know both qualities
by a very easy method. For a clod is sprinkled with a
little water and kneaded in the hand, and if it is
viscous and cohesive when firmed with the slightest
touch and,

in the manner of pitch is shaped to the fingers in
handling,

as Vergil says," and does not crumble when dashed
to the ground, this test informs us that there is in
such earth a natural moistness and fatness. But when 19

119

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

egestam humum recondere et recalcare, cum aliquo
quasi fermento abundaverit, certum erit esse earn
pinguem ; cum defuerit, exilem ; cum aequaverit,
medioerem, Quamquam ista, quae nunc rettuli,
non tam vera possint ^ videri, si sit pulla terra, quae

20 melius proventu frugum approbatur. Saporem ^
quoque sic ^ dinoscemus : ^ ex ea parte agri, quae
maxime displicebit, effossae glaebae et in fictili vaso
madefactae dulci aqua permisceantur ac more
faeculenti vini diligenter colatae gustu explorentur;
nam qualem traditum ab eis rettulerit umor saporem,
talem esse dicemus eius soli.^ Sed et citra hoc
experimentmn multa sunt, quae et dulcem terram
et frumentis habilem significent, ut iuncus, ut
calamus, ut gramen, ut trifolium, ebulum, rubi, pruni
silvestres et alia complura, quae etiam indagatoribus
aquarum nota non nisi ^ dulcibus terrae venis edu-

21 cantur. Nee contentos esse nos oportet prima specie
summi soli, sed diligenter exploranda est inferioris
materiae qualitas, terrena necne sit. Frumentis
autem sat erit, si aeque bona suberit bipedanea
humus ; arboribus altitude quattuor pedum abunde
est. Haec cum ita exploraverimus, agrum sationibus

' possunt M, Aid., Oesn., Schn.

* Sapore AM., Gesn., Schn.
' sic om. Gesn., Schn.

* dignoscemus, si ex Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* humi M.

* non tamen nisi AR, vett. edd.

° Such a soil test is mentioned also by Vergil (Oeorg. II.
226-237) and Palladius (loc. cit.). Pliny {loc. cit.) rejects
the test as inconclusive.

" Cf. I. Praef. 24.

" On testing by tasting cf. De Arb. 3. 6; Vergil, Georg.
II. 238-247 ; Palladius, loc. cit.

BOOK II. 11. 19-21

you try to put back and tread down in trenches the
earth that has been removed, if there is an excess
as by some sort of leavening, it Avill be a sure sign
that the soil is fat ; if it is insufficient, that it is poor ;
if it makes an even fill, that it is ordinary." And yet
the statements which I have just now made may seem
not so trustworthy in the case of blackish earth
(ptilla),^ which is better tested by its yield of crops.
We shall also make distinctions of taste as follows : 20
from that part of the field which displeases us most,
clods should be dug and soaked in an earthen vessel,
then thoroughly mixed with fresh water and, after
careful straining in the manner of dreggy wine, ex-
amined by tasting ; " for, whatever is the taste trans-
mitted from the clods to the water, such we shall
take to be the taste of that soil. But, apart from
this experiment, there are many signs which show that
ground is sweet and suitable for grain — for example,
the rush, the reed, grass, trefoil, the dwarf-elder,
bramble bushes, wild plums, and many other things
which are well known also to searchers for springs,**
and which are not nourished except by veins of sweet
water in the ground. And we should not be content 21
with the first appearance of surface soil, but should
take pains to investigate the character of what hes
beneath — whether it is earthy or not. It will be
satisfactory for grain, however, if the soil below is
equally good to a depth of two feet ; for trees, a
depth of four feet is sufficient.^ When we have
investigated these points as stated, we shall put our

** For directions as to the ancient methods of locating
water, digging wells, and piping, see Vitruvius, De Arch.
VIII, Chaps. 1 and 5-6, and PaUadius, IX. 8-12.

' Cf. PaUadius, I. 6. 11.

121

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

faciundis expediemus. Is autem non minimum
exuberat, si curiose et scite subigitur. Quare
antiquissimum est formam huius operis conscribere,^
quam velut sectam legemque in proscindendis agris
sequantur agricolae.

22 Igitur in opere boves arte iunctos habere convenit,
quo speciosius ingrediantur sublimes et elatis capiti-
bus ac minus colla eorum labefactentur iugumque
melius aptum cervicibus insidat. Hoc enim genus
iuncturae maxime probatum est. Nam illud, quod
in quibusdam provinciis usurpatur, ut cornibus
inligetur iugum, fere repudiatum est ab omnibus
qui praecepta rusticis conscripserunt, neque immerito.

23 Plus enim queunt pecudes collo et pectore conari
quam cornibus, atque hoc modo tota mole corporis
totoque pondere nituntur ; at illo retractis et resu-
pinis capitibus excruciantur aegreque terrae summam
partem levi admodum vomere sauciant. Et ideo
minoribus aratris moliuntur, quia ^ non valent alte
perfossa novalium terga ^ rescindere ; quod cum fit,
omnibus virentibus plurimum confertur,* nam penitus
arvis sulcatis maiore incremento segetum arborumque

24 fetus grandescunt. Et in hoc igitur a Celso dissentio,
qui reformidans impensam, quae scilicet largior est
in amplioribus armentis,^ censet et exiguis vomeribus
et dentalibus terram subigere, quo minoris formae
bubus id administrari possit; ignorans plus esse

^ conscripsere A ct R plerique.

* quia S, Lundstrom : qui AR, et vulgo.

' terra AR. * confert Aid., Gesn., Schn.

' armentis edd. : argumentia 3AR : iugamentis M.

" Cf. Palladius, II. 3. 1. Pliny, though apparently in agree-
ment with Columella {N.H. XVIII. 177), speaks of yoking by
the head as customary in the Alps (N.H. VIII. 179).

122

BOOK ir. 11. 21-24

fie4d in readiness for planting ; and it yields no
trifling increase if it is worked Avith care and
understanding. For this reason it is a matter of
first importance to put a plan of this kind of work
in writing, that husbandmen may adhere to it as a
pattern and a law in the breaking up of their fields.

To proceed then, it is proper to have oxen closely 22
yoked while at work, so that they ^\i\\ move with a
more stately gait, with lofty bearing and heads held
high ; also that their necks may be galled less, and
that the yoke may sit more closely on their shoulders.
This method of yoking is most approved ; for the
method in use in some provinces — fastening the yoke
to the horns — has been condemned by almost all
who have written precepts for husbandmen, and not
without reason. For cattle can put forth more effort 23
with neck and shoulders than with the horns," and in
this way they exert themselves with the entire bulk
of the body and its whole weight ; but in the other
way, with their heads pulled back and faces turned
upward, they are tortured, and barely scratch the
sm-face of the ground with a vei-y Hght ploughshare.
And it is for this reason that they work with smaller
ploughs, because they are unable to tear up the sur-
face of new ground and dig it deep ; but when this is
done, all groAnng things are greatly benefited, for
when ploughlands are deeply furrowed the fruits
of crops and trees swell with greater increase. On 24
this point, therefore, I disagree with Celsus, who,
shrinking from the expense w^hich is undoubtedly
greater in the case of larger cattle, advises the break-
ing up of land with smal] shares and share-beams,
so that it may be accomplished with oxen of smaller
size ; disregarding the fact that the revenue in fruit-

123

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

reditus in ubcrtate frugum quam impendii, si maiora
mercemur armenta, praesertim in Italia, ubi arbustis
atque oleis consitus ager altius resolvi ac subigi
desiderat, ut et summae radices vitium olearumque
vomeribus rescindantur, quae si maneant, frugibus
obsint, et inferiores penitus subacto solo facilius

25 capiant umoris alimentum. Potest tamen ilia Celsi
ratio Numidiae et Aegypto convenire, ubi plerumque
arboribus viduum solum frumentis seminatur ; atque
eius modi terram pinguibus harenis putrem velut
cinerem solutam quamvis levissimo dente moveri
satis est. Bubuleum autem per proscissum ingredi
oportet alternisque versibus obliquum tenere aratrum
et alternis recto plenoque sulcare, sed ita necubi
crudum solum et immotum relinquat, quod agricolae

26 scamnum vocant ; boves, cum ad arborem venerint,
fortiter retinere ac retardare, ne in radicem maiore
nisu vomis impactus colla commoveat, neve aut
cornu bos ad stipitem vehementius offendat aut
extremo iugo truncum delibet ramumque deplantet.
Voce potius quam verberibus terreat, ultimaque sint
opus recusantibus remedia plagae. Nimiquam sti-
mulo lacessat iuvencum, quae res taetricum ^ calcitro-
sumque eum reddit, non numquam tamen admoneat

^ quae res taetricum scripsi, praeeunte ex parte Lundstrom
(q. r. taetratum) : quae rescae tratum SA : q; reste (vel
recte) tractum R : iuvencumque reste {vel recte) tractum
vett. edd. : quod retrectantem Oesn., Schn., praeeunte Ursino
(q. retractantem).

" The arbustum was a plantation of trees to which vines
were trained.

* Cf. Varro, L.L. V. 1 35, dens, quod eo mordetur terra.

' I.e. a "skip" or "balk." On the matter of ploughs

124

BOOK II. 11. 24-26

fulness of crops outweighs the expense of buying
heavier draught animals, and especially in Italy,
where the land, being planted with vineyards " and
olives, wants to be broken and worked rather deep,
so that the uppermost roots of vines and olives, which
are detrimental to the yield if they are left, may be
cut off by the ploughshares, and that the deeper roots
may receive the nourishment of moisture more
readily when the ground is deeply worked. Still 25
Celsus' method may be suited to Numidia and
Egypt, where, as a rule, the land is destitute of trees
and is sown with grain ; and soil of that sort, crumbling
with fat sands, and like loose ashes, is stirred sufficiently
\nth the lightest plough-point (dens).^ The plough-
man, moreover, must walk upon the broken ground
and in every other furrow must hold his plough slant-
\vise, running alternate fun-ows with the plough up-
right and at its full depth, but in such a way as not
to leave anywhere any solid and unbroken ground,
which farmers call scamnum.*^ When the oxen come 26
to a tree, he must keep them firmly in hand and check
their pace, for fear that the driving of the ploughshare
with too great force against a root may jolt their
necks, and so that an ox may not strike a horn
violently against the bole of the tree, or graze the
trunk or break off a branch with the end of the yoke.
He should keep them in dread of his voice rather than
of his lash, blows being his last resort when they
balk at a task. He should never urge a bullock with
a goad, for this makes him irritable and incUned
to kick ; yet he may urge him on now and then with a

and ploughing, particular!}- with reference to this chapter
and the three following, see Fairfax Harrison, " The Crooked
Plow," Classical Journal XI. 323-332.

"5

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

27 flagello. Seel nee in media parte versurae consistat
detque requiem in summa, ut spe cessandi totum
spatium bos agilius enitatur. Sulcum autem ducere
longiorem quam pedum centum viginti contrai-ium
pecori est, quoniam plus aequo fatigatur ubi hunc

28 modum excessit. Cum ventum erit ad versuram, in
priorem partem iugum propellat et boves inliibeat,
ut colla eorum refrigescant, quae celeriter confla-
grant, si adsidue stringuntur,^ et ex eo tumor ac
deinde ulcera invadunt. Nee minus dolabra quam
vomere bubulcus utatur et praefractas stirpes sum-
masque radices, quibus ager arbusto consitus impli-
catur, omnes refodiat ac persequatur.

III. Boves cum ab opere disiunxerit, substrictos
confricet, manibusque comprimat dorsum et pellem
revellat nee patiatur corpori adhaerere, quia et ^
2 genus morbi maxima est armentis noxium. Colla
subigat merumque faueibus, si aestuaverint, infundat ;
satis autem est singulis vini ^ sextarios praebere.
Sed ante ad praesaepia boves reUgari non expedit,
quam sudare atque anhelare desierint. Cum deinde
tempestive potuerint vesci, non multum nee uni-
versum cibum, sed partibus et paulatim praebere
convenit. Quem cum absumpserint, ad aquam duel

^ si . . . stringuntur scrips i : nisi {ex -nt si?) . . .
stringantur (astringantur M) codd., vett. edd., Lundstrom :
refrigerentur Aid., Gesn., Schn.

- et SAR : id edd. ante Schn. * binos Aid., Oesn., Schn.

" I.e. the part of the neck embraced by the bow of the
yoke.

126

BOOK II. n. 26-111. 3

whip. He should not stop in the middle of the 27
furrow, but should allow a rest at the end of it, so that
the ox will exert himself more energetically the
whole way in the hope of stopping. But to run a
furrow more than one hundred and twenty feet in
length is injurious to a beast, for he is wearied more
than is right when he goes beyond this limit. When 28
the turning-point is reached, the ploughman
should push the yoke forward and hold the oxen back,
to allow their necks to cool off; for these quickly be-
come inflamed if they are constantly bound, and as a
result there arises a swelling and then running sores.
And the ploughman should use the mattock no less
than the ploughshare, and should dig up and hunt
out all the broken stumps and surface roots with
which a field is infested when it is planted with trees
for supporting vines.

III. When the ploughman has unyoked his oxen
after work, he should rub the lower parts that were
bound," knead the upper part* v,i.th his hands, and
pull up the skin and not allow it to cling to the
body ; for this, too, is a kind of ailment very in-
jurious to cattle.*^ He should rub down their necks 2
and pour unmixed wine down their throats if they are
heated ; and it is enough to give a pint of wine to each.
But it is not proper for oxen to be tied to their cribs
before they have stopped sweating and panting.
Then, when they are in proper condition for feeding,
it is best not to give them much feed, and not the
whole amount at once, but to portion it out, a little
at a time. When they have consumed this, they

* Lit., the back (of the neck), pressed by the bar of the yoke.
' An affliction called coriago, " hidebound." Cf. VI. 13. 2-
3, and Vegetius, Vet. IV. 12. 1, for causes and treatment.

127

VOL. 1. y

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

oportet sibiloque adlectari, quo libentius bibant, turn
demum reductos largiore pabulo satiari.

Hactenus de officio bubulci dixisse abunde est.
Sequitur ut tempora quoque subigendi arvi prae-
cipiamus.

IV. Pingues campi, qui diutius continent aquam,
proscindendi sunt anni tempore iam incalescente, cum
omnis herbas ediderint neque adhuc earum semina
maturuerint ; sed tam frequentibus densisque sulcis
arandi sunt, ut vix dinoscatur, in utram partem vomer
actus sit, quoniam sic omnes radices herbarum

2 perruptae necantur. Sed et compluribus iterationi-
bus sic resolvatur vervactum in pulverem, ut vel
nullam vel exiguam desideret occationem,^ cum
seminavimus.2 Nam veteres Romani dixerunt male
subactum agrum, qui satis frugibus occandus sit.

3 Eum porro an recte aretur frequenter explorare
debet agricola, nee tantum visu, qui fallitur non
numquam superfusa terra latentibus scamnis, verum
etiam tactu, qui minus decipitur cum solidi rigoris
admota pertica transversis sulcis inseritur. Ea si
aequaliter ac sine ofFensatione ' penetravit, mani-
festum est totnm solum deinceps esse motum ; sin
autem subeunti durior aliqua pars obstitit, crudum
vervactum esse demonstrat. Hoc cum saepius
bubulci fieri vident, non committunt scamna facere.

1 occasionem SA, et R plerique.

* seminabimus S, vett. edd. : seminaverimus vulgo ante
Lundstrom.

' offensione Aid., Gesn., Schn.

" VervcKlum is defined by Varro {R.R. I. 44. 2) as land that
sometimes rests between crops, while land that is worked
every year is called restibilis. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 76, quod
vere semel aratum est, a temporis argumento vervactum vacatur,

» Cf. Palladiua, II. 3. 2.
128

BOOK II. III. 2-iv. 3

should be led to water and enticed by whistling to
drink more freely, and then at length taken back to
eat their fill of a more generous allowance of fodder.

It is enough to have discussed the duties of the
ploughman up to this point. Our next step is to give
directions also as to the seasons for breaking up
ploughland.

IV. Rich plains which hold water for a considerable
length of time are to be broken at a time of year when
it is gro\ving Avarm, after they have put forth all their
vegetation and while the seeds of this vegetation
have not yet ripened ; but they should be ploughed
■with furroAvs so numerous and close together that it
can hardly be told in what direction the plough-
share has been driven, for in this way all the roots
of the groAvth are broken off and killed. But fallow 2
land ° should be so pulverized by much re-ploughing
that it will require no harrowing, or very little,
after we have put in the seed. For the ancient
Romans said that a field was poorly prepared when
it had to be harrowed after the crop was in the
ground. Fiu-thermore, a farmer should examine it 3
frequently to see whether it is properly ploughed —
and not merely by sight, which is sometimes mis-
taken when earth is scattered over unploughed
skips that lie hidden, but also by touch, which is
deceived the less when a strong and stiff pole is put
to use and pushed into the furrows crosswise. If it
goes in to a uniform depth and without striking
anything, it is clear that all the ground has been
stirred in turn ; but if some harder spot obstructs its
entrance, it shows that there is unbroken fallow.
When ploughmen observe that this is done rather
frequently, they are not guilty of leaving skips.* Wet

139

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Igitur uliginosi campi proscindi debent post Idus

4 mensis Aprilis. Quo tempore cum arati fuerint,
viginti ^ diebus interpositis circa solstitiimi, quod
est nonum vel octavum Kalendas Julias, iteratos esse
oportebit ac deinde circa Septembris Kalendas
tertiatos ; quoniam in id tempus ab aestivo solstitio
convenit inter peritos rei rusticae non esse arandum,
nisi si magnis, ut fit non numquam, subitaneis
imbribus quasi hibernis pluviis terra permaduerit.

5 Quod cum accidit, nihil prohibet quo minus mense
Julio vervacta subigantur. Sed quandoque ^ arabi-
tur, observabimus ne lutosus ager tractetur neve
exiguis nimbis semimadidus, quam terram rustici
variam cariosamque appellant ; ea est cum post
longas siccitates levis pluvia superiorem partem
glaebarimi madefecit, inferiorem non attigit. Nam
quae limosa versantur arva, toto anno desinunt posse
tractari nee sunt habilia sementi aut occationi aut
sationi ; ^ at rursus, quae varia subacta sunt, continuo

6 triennio sterilitate adficiuntur. Medium igitur
temperamentum maxime sequamur in arandis agris,
ut neque suco careant nee abundent uligine ; quippe
nimius umor, ut dixi, limosos lutososque reddit, at
qui siccitatibus aruerunt, expediri probe non possunt.

^ viginti oni. AR, edd. ante Schn.
* quandocumque M, edd. ante Oesn.
r.-] ■ • sarritioni Schn., praeeuntibus Ursino et Pantedera.

' I.e. after April 13th. Cf. Palladius, V (April). 2. 4.
«> June 23rd or 24th.
'^ September Ist.

130

BOOK II. IV. 3-6

champaign lands, then, should be broken after the
Ides of April." When they are ploughed at this 4
time, they should be gone over a second time after the
passing of the twenty days around the solstice —
which falls on the ninth or eighth day before the
Calends of July '' — and then a third time in the
neighbourhood of the Calends of September ; " for it
is agreed among experts in husbandry that no
ploughing should be done from the summer solstice
up to this time, unless, as sometimes happens, the
eai'th is soaked with heavy and sudden showers as if
by winter rains. In this case there is no objection 5
to breaking fallow land in the month of July. But
whenever the ploughing is done, we must be careful
not to let a field be worked when it is muddy or half
soaked from light rains — a condition of soil which
farmers call va7-ia and cariosa ; ** that is, when, after a
long drought, a light rain wets the upper surface
of the clods but does not reach the lower part. For
ploughlands which are turned over when they are
muddy cannot be worked for a whole year, and they
are not fit for sowing or harrowing or planting ; but,
on the other hand, those which are ploughed when
they are varia are visited with barrenness for three
successive years.* Let us, then, above all, follow a 6
middle course in ploughing our lands, that they may
neither be entirely wanting in dampness nor immoder-
ately wet ; for too much moisture, as I have said,
makes them sticky and muddy, while those that are
parched with drought cannot be properly loosened.

<* Cf. Cato, 5. 6. Pliny (N.U. XVII. 3^35), commenting on
Cato's precept, compares carious ground with the rottenness of
wood, as being dry, spongy, full of holes, weak, unfruitful, and
not fit for anything.

" Cf. Palladius, II. 3. 2-3.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Nam vel respuitur duritia soli ^ dens aratri, vel si
qua parte penetravit, non minute difFundit humum,
sed vastos caespites eonvellit ; quibus obiacentibus
impeditum arv'um minus reete potest iterari, quia
ponderibus glaebarum, sicut aliquis ^ obstantibus
fundamentis vomis a sulco repellitur, quo evenit ut in
iteratione quoque scamna fiant et boves iniquitate

7 operis maxime mulcentur. Accedit hue, quod omnis
humus quamvis laetissima tamen inferiorem partem
ieiuniorem habet, eamque attrahunt excitatae maiores
glaebae ; quo evenit ut infecundior materia mixta
pinguiori segetem minus uberem reddat, turn etiam
ratio rustici adgravatur exiguo profectu operis.

8 lusta enim fieri nequeunt, cum induruit ager. Itaque
siccitatibus censeo quod iam proscissum est iterare
pluviamque opperiri, quae madefacta terra faeilem
nobis culturam praebeat. Sed iugerum talis agri
quattuor operis expeditur ; nam commode pro-
scinditur duabus, una iteratur, tertiatur dodrante, in
liram satum * redigitur quadrante operae. Liras
autem rustici vocant easdem porcas, cum sic aratum
est ut inter duos latius distantes sulcos medius

9 cumulus siccam sedem frumentis praebeat. Colles
pinguis soli peracta satione trimestrium * mense
Martio, si vero tepor caeli siccitasque regionis suade-

' soils codd.

* aliquibus R pa-uci, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* statim R pauci, edd. ante Gesn.

* trimestri Aid., Gesn., Schn.

' About three-fifths of an acre.

* Varro says (R.R. I. 29. 3) that the ridges between the fur-
rows are called porcae because that soil produces (porricit)
the grain.

13a

BOOK II. IV. 6-9

For either the point of the plough is rejected by the
hardness of the ground or, if it does enter at some
spot, it does not break the soil into fine particles,
but teai's up huge clods ; and when these lie in the
way, the plough-land is under a handicap and cannot
be properly worked at the second ploughing, because
the ploughshare is thrown out of the furrow by the
weight of the clods as though by some deep-seated
obstructions, with the result that hard skips are left
even in the re-ploughing and that the oxen are
severely injured by the unevenness of the strain.
Added to this is that all ground, though it be never 7
so rich, still has poorer soil underneath, and when
the larger clods are turned up they bring this with
them ; the result being that the less productive soil,
mixed with the richer, grows a less bountiful crop,
and in addition the accounting of the farmer is made
more difficult by the poor progress of his work ; for
the proper tasks cannot be completed when the
ground is hard. For this reason my advice is, in drv 8
weather, to replough ground already broken, and to
wait for rain which, by its soaking of the earth, makes
cultivation easy for us. But a iugerum " of such land
is prepared with four days' labour ; for it is broken
easily in two days, gone over a second time in one,
a third time in three-fourths of a day, and is formed
into ridges and sown in one-fourth of a day. These
ridges, moreover, country folk call porcae * when
the ground is ploughed in such a way that the earth
heaped up between two widely separated furrows
affords a dry bed for the grain. Hillsides where 9
the soil is rich should be broken after the sowing of
the three-months crops is completed, in the month
of March ; or, if the warmth of the climate and the

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

bit, Februario statim proscindendi sunt. Deinde
ab Aprile medio usque in solstitium iterandi, terti-
andique Septembri circa aequinoctium ; ac totidem
operis, quot uliginosi campi, excolitur iugerurri talis
agri.

10 Sed ^ in arando maxime est observandum, semper
ut transversus mons sulcetur. Nam hac ratione
difficultas acclivitatis infringitur, laborque pecudum
at hominum commodissime sic minuitur. Paulum
tamen, quotiensque ^ iterabitur, modo in elatiora,
modo in depressiora clivi obliquum agi sulcum
oportebit, ut in utramque partem rescindamus

11 nee eodem vestigio terram moliamur. Exilis ager
planus, qui aquis abundat, primum aretur ultima
parte mensis Augusti, subinde Septembri sit iteratus
paratusque ad sementim^ circa aequinoctium.
Expeditior autem labor eius modi solo est, eoque *
pauciores impenduntur operae ; nam tres uni iugero
sufficiunt. Item graciles clivi non sunt aestate
arandi, sed circa Septembres Kalendas, quoniam si
ante hoc tempus proscinditur, efFeta et sine suco
humus aestivo sole peruritur nullasque virium re-
liquias habet. Itaque optime inter Kalendas et
Idus Septembris aratur ac subinde iteratur, ut
primis pluviis aequinoctialibus conseri possit ; neque
in lira, sed sub sulco talis ager seminandus est.

V. Prius tamen quam exilem terram iteremus,

^ iugerum. Sed tali agro Schn.

^ quotienscumque edd. ante Lundstrom.

* ad sementim Lundstrom : ac sementi SA et R plerique :
sementi vulgo.

* sic Lundstrom cum codd., ut videtur : eo quod M, et vulgo.

» Sept. Ist. » Sept. 13th.

134

BOOK II. IV. 9-v. I

dryness of the region make it advisable, even in
February. Then between the middle of April and
the solstice they should be gone over a second time,
and a third time in September around the equinox ;
and a iugerum of such ground is prepared with the
same number of days labour as wet champaign
land.

But especial care must be taken in the ploughing 10
always to run the furrow crosswise to the slope ; for
by this method the difficulty of the ascent is mitigated,
and the toil of man and beast is thereby lessened
most handily. Still, whenever it is reworked, the
furroAVs should be run somewhat obliquely, now uphill,
now downhill, so that we may tear up the ground in
both directions and not work it in the same track.
Lean land which lies level and is well watered 11
should be ploughed for the first time during the lat-
ter part of the month of August, then gone over again
a second time in September, and put in readiness for
sowing about the time of the equinox. In ground
of this sort, moreover, the work is easier, and for
this reason fewer days of labour are expended ;
for three days are sufficient for one iugerum. Lean
and sloping ground, likeAvise, is not to be ploughed
in summer, but around the Calends of September ; "
for if it is broken before this time, the earth, being
exhausted and destitute of moisture, is burned by
the summer sun and has no reserves of strength.
Therefore it is best to plough it between the
Calends and the Ides of September,^ and then to work
it again immediately, so that it may be sown during
the first rains of the equinox ; and such land is to be
sown, not in the ridges, but in the furrows.

V. Still, before we give lean land its second

135

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

stercorare conveniet ; nam eo quasi pabulo gliscit.
In campo rarius, in colle spissius, acervi stercoris
instar quinque modiorum disponentur ; atque in
piano pedes intervalli quoquoversus octo, in clivo
duobus minus relinqui sat erit. Sed id nobis decre-
scente luna fieri placet, nam ea res herbis liberat
segetes. lugerum autem desiderat, quod spissius
stercoratur, vehes quattuor et viginti ; quod rarius,

2 duodeviginti. Disiectum deinde protinus fimiim
inarari et obrui ^ convenit, ne solis halitu vires
amittat et ut permixta humus praedicto alimento
pinguescat. Itaque, cum in agro disponentur acervi
stercoris, non debet maior modus eoi-um dissipari,^
quam quem bubulci eodem die possint obruere.

VI. Quoniam sementi tei-ram docuimus praepa-
rare, nunc seminum genera persequamur.^ Prima et
iitilissima sunt hominibus frumenta triticum et semen
adoreum. Tritici genera complura cognovimus,
verum ex iis maxime serendum est, quod robus
dicitur, quoniam et pondere et nitore praestat.

2 Secunda conditio est habenda siliginis, cuius species
in pane praecipua pondere deficitur. Tertium erit
trimestre,* cuius usus agi-icolis gratissimus ; nam iibi
propter aquas aliamve causam matura satio est
omissa, praesidium ab hoc petitur. Id porro^ genus

^ obrui R pauci, et vulgo : adrui codd. pleriquc, Lundstrom.

* dissupari *S'^, lAmdstrom.

* persequeraur edd. ante Lundstrom.

* trimenstre 8, Lundstrom.

' porro cm,. AR, edd. ante Lundstrom.

" 1 modius = about 1 peck.

" One cart-load contained eighty modii; cf. XI. 2. 86 and
Palladius, X. 1. 2.

* For the wheats, see Note on page 461.

136

BOOK II. V. i-vi. 2

ploughing, it will be best to manure it ; for on such
food, so to speak, it grows fat. On level ground
piles of manure, about five modii "■ to the pile, should
be placed farther apart, and on hilly land closer to-
gether : on the level it will suffice to leave an inter-
val of eight feet each way, on a slope two feet less.
My own preference is that this be done when the
moon is waning, for this frees the crops from weeds.
Furthei'more, one iugerum, if manured heavily,
requires twenty-four loads ; '' if lightly, eighteen.
Then the manure, once it is spread, should be 2
ploughed in immediately and covered over, that it
may not lose its strength from the heat of the sun
and that the soil, being mixed with it, may grow
fat on the aforesaid nourishment. And so, when
piles of manure are distributed in a field, the
number of those so scattered should not exceed
what the ploughmen can dig in on the same day.

VI. Inasmuch as we have given directions for the
preparation of the ground for sowing, let us now
treat of the kinds of seed. The seeds of first im-
portance and most useful to mankind are grains of
wheat and emmer.*^ We know of several varieties of
wheat; but of this number that called robus or
" ruddy " is most suitable for sowing, because it is
supei-ior in both weight and brightness. Second 2
place must be given to siligo or winter wheat, which
is of excellent appearance in bread '^ but lacking in
weight. The third shall be the three-months
wheat, the use of which is most gratifying to farmers ;
for when, because of rains or some other reason, an
early sowing has not been made, recourse is had to

^ Because of its whiteness; c/. II. 9. 13, and Pliny, N.H.
X Vni. 86.

137

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

est siliginis. Reliquae tritici species, nisi si quos
multiplex varietas frugum et inanis delectat gloria,

3 supervacuae sunt. Adorei autem plerumque videmus
in usu genera quattuor: far, quod appellatur Clusi-
num, candidi oris ^ et nitidi ; far, quod vocatur
vennuculum rutilum atque alterum candid um, sed
utrumque maioris ponderis quam Clusinum ; semen
trimestre, quod dicitur halicastrum, idque pondere

4 et bonitate est praecipuum. Sed haec genera tritici
et adorei propterea custodienda sunt agricolis,
quoniam raro quisquam ager ita situs est, ut uno
semine contenti esse possimus, interveniente parte
aliqua vel uliginosa vel arida. Triticum autem sicco
loco melius coalescit, adoreum minus infestatur
umore.

VII. Leguminum genera cum sint complura,
maxime grata et in usu hominum videntur faba,
lenticula, pisum, phaselus, cicer, cannabis, milium,
panicum,2 sesama, lupinum, linum etiam et hordeum,
quia ex eo tisana ^ est. Item pabulorum optima sunt
2 Medica et faenum Graecum nee minus vicia ; proxima
deinde cicera et ervum et farrago, quae est ex hordeo.
Sed de his prius disseremus quae nostra causa semi-
nantur, memores antiquissimi praecepti quo monemur

^ sic distinxit LundstrOm : candidioris SR (ex candidoris
corr. A), vett. edd. : candoris Aid., Gesn., Schn. : candidioris
grani et nitidi Pontedera.

■■* panicium SA et M pauci.

* tisana SR plerique, Lundstrom : tisanana A : ptisana B
pauci. Aid., Gesn., Schn. : ptissana vett. edd.

138

BOOK II. VI. 2-vii. 2

this. This, again, is a variety of siligo. The other
kinds of w^heat, except for those who find pleasure in
a great variety of crops and in idle vainglory, are
superfluous. Of emmer, however, we commonly see 3
four varieties in use : the, far which is called Clusian,"
of a white and shiny appearance ; that called vennu-
culum,'' one kind reddish and the other white, but both
of greater weight than the Clusian; the three-
months far, called, halicastrum,'^ which is excellent
both in weight and in goodness. But these kinds of 4
wheat and emmer should be kept by farmers for this
reason, that seldom is any land so situated that we can
content ourselves with one kind of seed, as some
strip which is either swampy or dry cuts through it.
Further, wheat grows better in a dry spot, while
emmer is less harmed by moisture.

VII. Though there are very many kinds of pulse
or legumes, those observed to be most pleasing and
useful to man are the bean, the lentil, the pea, the
cow-pea, the chick-pea, hemp, millet, panic grass,
sesame, lupine, also flax and barley, because from
the last named is made tisana '^ or barley-grits. Like-
wise of the fodder crops the best are Medic clover
and fenugreek, and vetch no less so; and next in 2
order are chickling-vetch, bitter vetch, and mixed
fodder made from barley. But of this number we
shall fii'st discuss those which are sown for our own
sake,*" keeping in mind that very ancient rule in which

<» So called from Clusium, a town of Etniria, now Chiu.si.

* The derivation of the word is not known.

' Or alicastruni, defined by Isidore {Orig. XVII. 3. 9) as
similar to the Greek alica.

^ Greek ■micia.vr], hulled and crushed barley.

* As against fodder plants for animals; cf. II. 10. 24,

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

ut locis frigidis novissime, tepidis celerius. calidis
ocissime ^ metamus.^ Nunc autem proinde ac si
temperatae region! praecepta dabinius.

VIII. Placet nostro poetae adoreum atque etiam
triticum non ante seminare quam occiderint Vergiliae.
Quod ipsum numeris sic edisserit :

At si triticeam in messem robustaque farra
Exercebis hunxum solisque instabis aristis,
Ante tibi Eoae Atlantides abscondantur.

Absconduntur autem altero et tricesimo die post
autumnale aequinoctium, quod fere conficitur Villi
Kal. Octobris ; propter quod intellegi debet tritici
satio dierum sex et quadraginta ab occasu Vergi-
liaruni, qui fit ante diem nonuni Kalendas Novembris
ad brumae tempora. Sic enim servant prudentes
agricolae, ut quindecim diebus prius quam con-
ficiatur bruma, totidemque post earn confectam neque
arent neque vitem aut arborem putent. Nos quoque

^ frigidis ocissime t. c. calidis novissime Schneider ex
Catone 34, praeeunte Pontedera.

^ metamus SA et R pauci, vett. edd. : metamur R nonnulli :
metemur vel metantur vel metam alii : sereremus (alt. re
expunct. M) M et Cod. Bononiensis 2523 : seramus Aid.,
Gesn., Schn. : iaciaraus Lundstrom.

" The translation follows the MSS. and earliest editions,
against seramus " sow " and iaciamus " cast " of more recent
editors. Columella appears to be speaking of the harvest
from the autumn sowing (cf. 9. 6, below; and Palladius, I.
34. 6), in which sowing the order would be reversed.

" I.e. the Pleiades, seven daughters of Atlas, in the constella-
tion Taurus.

' Vergil, Georg. I. 219-221.

'* Sept. 23rd und«r the Julian Reform of 46 B.C. ; but cf.
circa VIII Kal. Oct. (= Sept. 24) in IX. 14. 11.

140

BOOK II. VII. 2-VIII. 2

we are warned to reap '^ in cold places last, in warm
places sooner, and in hot places earliest of all. For
the present, however, we shall give rules applicable
to a temperate region.

VIII. Our poet holds that emmer and even wheat
should not be sown before the setting of the Ver-
giliae,* a rule which he puts in verse as follows :

But if for Avhcat or emmer you plough, intent on

grain alone,
Let Atlas' daughters at dawn be hid before the

planting's done.<^

Now they are " hidden " on the thirty-second day 2
after the autumnal equinox, which usually falls on
the ninth day before the Calends of October ; <* by
which it should be understood that the seed-time of
wheat lasts for forty-six days — from the setting of
the Vergiliae, which occurs on the ninth day before
the November Calends,'^ up to the time of the
winter solstice.^ For wise husbandmen observe
this rule to such an extent that, for fifteen days
before the occurrence of the solstice and a like
number afterwards, they do no ploughing and no
pruning of vine or tree. We, too, do not deny that

' Oct. 24th ; but Nov. 1 1 th according to Plinj', N.H. XVIII.
225. Varro {R.R. I. 28. 2) reckons fifty-seven days between
the setting of the Pleiades and the winter solstice.

f Columella puts the shortest day {bruma) of the year circn
VIII Kal. Ian. (= Dec. 25; cf. IX. 14. 12), and, citmg
Hipparchus, XVI Kal. Ian. (= Dec. 17; cf. XI. 2. 94). But
Columella's calendar is often confused. Some explanation
may be found in his statement in IX. 14. 12, when treating of
bees, that he follows the calendars of Eudoxus and Meton and
the ancient astronomers as adapted to the public sacrifices and
better known to husbandmen than the more exact reckonings
of Hipparchus.

141

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

non abnuimus in agro temperato et minime umido

3 sementem sic fieri debere ; ceterum locis uliginosis
atque exilibus aut frigidis aut etiam opacis plerumqiie
citra ^ Kalendas Octobris seminare convenire,

dum sicca tellure licet, dum nubila pendent,

ut prius convalescant radices frumentoriun quam
hibernis imbribus ant gelicidiis - pruinisve infestentur.
Sed quamvis tempestive sementis confecta erit,
cavebitur tamen ut patentes liras crebrosque sulcos
aquarios, quos non nulli elices vocant, faciamus et
omnem umorem in colliquias ^ atque inde extra

4 segetes derivemus.* Nee ignore quosdam veteres
auctores praecepisse ne seminarentur agri, nisi
cum terra pluviis permaduisset ; quod ego, si
tempestive competat, magis conducere agricolae
non dubito. Sed si, quod evenit non nimiquam,
seri sunt imbres, quamvis sitienti solo recte semen
committitur ; idque etiam in quibusdam provinciis,
ubi status talis caeli est, usui-patur. Nam quod
sicco solo ingestum et inoccatum est, proinde^ ac
si repositum in horreo non corrumpitur ; atque ubi
venit imber, multorum dierum sementis uno die

5 surgit. Tremelius quidem adseverat, prius quam
impluverit, ab avibus aut formicis sata non infestari,
dum aestivis serenitatibus ager aret ; idque etiam
saepius nos experti verum adhuc esse ® comperimus.
Magis apte ' tamen in eius modi agris adoreum

^ circa R aliquot. * gelidis SA et R aliquot, Lundstrom,
' colloquias R : cloacas M.

* dirivemus R aliquot, Lundstrom : diruemue SA.
^ perinde M, et vulgo ante Lundstrom.

• non post esse add. Schn.

' apte omnes post ed. Reg. 1496 : alte vet alter vel alitur
codd,

X43

BOOK II. VIII. 2-5

the soAving should be governed by this rule in land
that is temperate and not at all moist ; but in sections 3
that are wet and lean, or cold, or even shaded, it is
usually proper to sow before the Calends of October,

while the dry earth permits, while clouds are in
suspense,*

so that the roots of the grain may gain strength before
they are attacked by winter rains or cold or frost.
But even though the sowing be finished in good season,
still we must be careful to make wide ridges and fre-
quent water-furrows, which some call dices, and to
turn off all water into drains '' and hence outside the
grain-fields. And I am not unaware that some 4
ancient authorities have left directions that fields
should not be sown except after the ground is well
soaked with rain ; and that this is to the greater ad-
vantage of the farmer, if it comes in due season, I have
no doubt. But if the rains are late, as sometimes
happens, the seed is safely intrusted to ground how-
ever thirsty ; and that is actually the practice in
certain provinces where such weather conditions
exist. For seed that is put into dry ground and
harrowed in, is no more injured than if it were
stored away in a granary ; and when the rain does
come, the sowing of many days' standing sprouts up
in one." Tremelius, in fact, makes the statement 5
that seed sown before the rains begin is not injured
by birds or ants when the soil is parched during the fair
weather of simimer, and I have even tried it rather
frequently and have thus far found it to be true.
However, in land of this sort it is more suitable to sow

Vergil, Georg. I. 214. » Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 179.
" Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 203.

143

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quam triticum seritur, quoniam folliculum, quo
continetur, firmum et durabilem adversus longioris
teinporis umorem habet.

IX. lugerum agri pinguis plerumque modios tritici
quattuor, mediocris quinque postulat ; adorei modios
novem, si est laetum solum, si mediocre, decern desi-
derat. Nam quamvis de mensura minus auctoribus
convenit, hanc tamen videri commodissimam docuit
noster usus ; quern si quis sequi recusat, utatur
praeceptis eorum, qui uberem campum in singula
iugera tritici, quibus ^ et adorei, octo modiis obsereie
praecipiunt atque hac portione mediocribus agris

2 semina praebenda censent. Nobis ne istam quidem,
quam praediximus, mensuram semper placet servari,
quod eam variat aut loci aut temporis aut caeli
conditio ; loci, cum \ el in campis vel coUibus fru-
mentum seritur atque his vel pinguibus vel medio-
cribus vel macris ; temporis, cum autumno aut
etiam ingruente hieme frumenta iacimus, nam prima
sementis rarius serere permittit, novissima spissius
postulat ; caeli, cum aut pluvium aut siccum est,
nam illud idem quod prima sementis, hoc quod ultima

3 desiderat. Omne autem frumentum maxime campo
patente et ad solem prono apricoque et soluto laeta-
tur ; collis enim quamvis granum robustius aliquanto,
minus tamen tritici reddit. Densa cretosaque et
uliginosa humus siliginem et far adoreum non
incommode alit. Hordeum nisi solutum et siccum

4 locum non patitur. Atque ilia vicibus annorum
requietum agitatumque alternis et quam laetissimum

1 tritici quinque, et Aid., Gcsn., Schn.

' I.e. at the rate of about one and two-thirds bushels an
acre.

144

BOOK II. VIII. 5-ix. 4

emmer than wheat, as it has a husk enclosing it which
is tough and resistant to moisture for a longer period.
IX. A iugenim of rich land usually requires four
modii of wheat; " land of medium quality, five; it calls
for nine viodii of emmer if the soil is fertile, and ten if
it is ordinary. For although there is little agreement
among authorities as to the quantity, yet my own
experience has shown that this amount seems best
suited; and anyone who does not care to comply
with this may follow the directions of those \vho
instruct us to sow a rich field with eight modii of wheat
a iugerum, and the same for emmer, and who hold that
seed should be supplied to medium land in this
proportion. My opinion is that not even the amount 2
which I have mentioned above is always to be held to,
for the reason that conditions of place or season or
weather cause it to vary: of place, according as the
grain is sown on level ground or hillsides, and these,
too, either fat or medium or lean ; of season, according
as we cast the seed in autumn or even at the onset of
winter, for the earlier sowing allows a lighter seeding
while the later requires it to be heavier; of weather,
according as it is rainy or dry, for the former requires
the same as the early sowing, and the latter the same
as the late. Further, every sort of grain especially 3
delights in ground that is open and sloping toward
the sun, warm and loose; for though hilly ground
produces a somewhat stronger grain, it yields a
smaller crop of wheat. Soil that is heavy, chalky,
and wet is not unsuited to the growing of winter
wheat and emmer. Barley tolerates no place except
one that is loose and dry. And the first mentioned 4
grains require ground that lies fallow and is worked
by turns in alternate years and that is as rich as

145

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

volunt arvum ; hoc nullam mediocritatem postulat,
nam vel pinguissima vel macerrima humo iacitur.
Ilia post continues imbris, si necessitas exigat,
quamvis adhuc limoso et madente solo sparseris,
iniuriam sustinent; hoc si lutoso commiseris, emori-

5 tur. Siliginis autem vel tritici, si mediocriter cretosus
uhginosusve ager est, etiam paulo plus quam, ut
prius iam dixi, quinque modiis ad sationem opus est.
At si siccus et resolutus locus idemque vel pinguis
vel exilis est, quattuor; quoniam et e contrario
macer tantundem seminis poscit, nam nisi rare

6 conseritur, vanam et minutam spicam facit. At
ubi ex uno semine pluribus culmis fructificavit,^
etiam ex rara segete densam facit. Inter cetera
quoque non ignorare debemus quinta parte seminis
amplius occupari ^ agrum consitum arbusto quam
vacuum et apertum.

Atque adhuc de satione auturanali loquimur ; banc

7 enim potissimam ducimus. Sed est altera, cum
cogit necessitas : jsemestrem ^ vocant agricolae. Ea
locis praegelidis ac nivosis, ubi aestas est umida et
sine vaporibus, recte committitur, ceteris admodum
raro respondet. Quam tamen ipsam celeriter et
utique ante aequinoctium vernum conveniet peragere ;
si vero locorum et caeli conditio patietur, quanto

8 maturius severimus, commodius * proveniet. Neque
enim est ullum, sicut multi crediderunt, natura

^ fruticavit B aliquot. Aid., G&sn., Schii.

' quintam partem {AB) . . . occupare (B pauci) edd. ante
8chn.

^ semestrem S et B aliquot, vett. edd. : semenstrem A
et B aliquot, Lundstrom : triticum semestrem (semenstrem)
vel. t. semestre (semenstre) B cett. : trimestrem AU., Oesn.,
Schn.

* tanto commodius Aid., Gesn. ; tanto incluait Schn.

146

BOOK II. IX. 4-8

possible ; while the last named wants no middling
ground, being sown either in very rich or very poor
soil. Even though you sow the first mentioned in
groimd that is still muddy and wet after continuous
rains, if necessity so demands, it withstands the
injury ; if you commit the last named to miry ground,
it dies. However, if the field is moderately chalky or 5
marshy, you need for a sowing of the white winter
wheat or common wheat somewhat more than the
five modii that I mentioned above. But if the
ground is dry and loose, no matter whether it be rich
or poor, only four ; for, conversely, lean land requires
the same amount of seed, because if it is not sown
thinly it produces a small and empty head. But when 6
it forms a stool of several stalks from one seed it makes
a heavy stand even from a light sowing. Among
other things, too, we should not overlook the fact that
a field planted with trees for supporting vines requires
one fifth more seed than a treeless and open field.

We have been speaking thus far of the autumn
sowing, for this we regard as the most important.
There is another sowing, however, when necessity 7
requires it — what farmers call the " half-month
sowing. ' ' * This is practised to advantage in very cold
and snowy regions where the summer is damp and
free from intense heat, but in other places it very
seldom yields a return. And even in this sowing it
will be better to finish it quickly, and certainly before
the spring equinox ; in fact, if conditions of ground
and of weather allow it, the sooner we sow the better
the result will be. For there is no seed that naturally 8
requires three months, as many have believed, and

" Or, perhaps better, trimestrem (" three-months sowmg ").
Cf. Palladius, I. 6. 16; Pliny, N.U. XVIII. 69.

147

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

trimestre semen, quippe idem iactum autumno
melius respondet. Sed ^ sunt nihilo minus quaedam
aliis potiora, quae sustinent veris tepores, ut siligo
et hordeum Galaticum et halieastrum granumque
fabae Marsicae. Nam cetera robusta frumenta
semper ante hiemem seri debent in regionibus
temperatis.

Solet autem salsam non numquam et amaram
uliginem vomere terra, quae quamvis matura iam
sata manante noxio umore corrumpit et locis calenti-
9 bus 2 sine ulla stirpe seminum areas reddit. Ea
glabreta ^ signis adhibitis notari convenit, ut suo
tempore vitiis eius modi medeamur ; nam ubi vel
uligo vel alia quae* pestis segetem enecat,^ ibi
columbinum stercus vel, si id non est, folia cupressi
convenit spargi et inarari. Sed antiquissimum est
omnem inde umorem facto sulco deducere ; aliter
vana erunt praedicta remedia. Nonnulli pelle
hyaenae satoriam trimodiam vestiunt atque ita ex
ea, cum paulum immorata sunt semina, iaciunt non
10 dubitantes proventura, quae sic sata sint. Quaedam
etiam subterraneae pestes adultas segetes radicibus
subsectis enecant. Id ne fiat, remedio est aquae
mixtus sucus herbae, quam rustici sedum appellant,
nam hoc medicamine una nocte semina macerata
iaciuntur. Quidam cucumeris anguinei umorem ex-

^ Sed om. SA, Schn.

* glabrentibus R pauci, et vulgo ante Schn.

* ea (earn, ea in) glabreta R plerique, et vulgo : earn glaeba
SA : earn (ea in o) gleba ad : earn glaebam Lundstrom.

* alia quae S, Lundstrom : aliquae A : aliqua R, et vulgo.
^ negat SA.

' Cf. II. 6. 3.
X48

BOOK II. IX. 8-10

in fact the same seed will do better when planted in
the autumn. There are, nevertheless, certain seeds
that do better than others in enduring the heat of
spring, such as white wheat (siligoi), Galatian barley,
the three-months emmer," and the grain of the
Marsian bean; for the other hardy grains should
always be sown before winter in temperate localities.
Further, the earth has a way, at times, of emitting
a brackish and bitter ooze which bUghts even full-
grown crops -with its poisonous seepage and in warm
localities leaves patches without even a single stalk
from the seed. It is best that such bare spots be 9
indicated by the use of markers, so that we may take
measures against faults of this kind in due season ;
for in a place where oozy ground or some other
plague kills out the crop it is best that pigeon dung
or, failing that, cypress foliage be scattered and
ploughed in. But the very first thing to do is to
draw off all free water by running a furrow ; otherwise
the aforesaid remedies will be useless. Some people
wrap a three-7noc?/M* sowing measure in the skin of
a hyena and broadcast the seed from it after it has
remained there a while, not doubting that seed sown
in this way \\ill do well.'' Certain underground pests 10
also kill out mature crops by cutting off their roots.
As a remedy against this they use the juice of a
plant which country' people call sedum," mixed with
water ; for the seeds are sown after they have been
soaked in this solution for one night. Some take the
juice squeezed from the wild cucumber and the

' Compare with this paragraph Palladius, X. 3, and especi-
ally sec. 2, Si modium, quo seretur, hyaenae pelle vesiieris, et ibi
aliquamdiu quod serendum est, esse patiaris, sata bene provenire
ftruntur.

' The house-leek.

149

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

pressum et eiusdem tritam radicem diluunt aqua,
similique ratione madefacta semina terrae mandant.
Alii hac eadem aqua vel amurca insulsa, cum coepit
infestari seges, perfundunt sulcos et ita noxia animalia
summovent.

Illud deinceps praecipiendum habeo,^ ut demessis
segetibus iam in area futuro semini consulamus.

11 Nam quod ait Celsus, ubi mediocris est fructus,
optimam quamque spicam legere oportet separatim-
que ex ea semen reponere ; cum rursus amplior
messis provenerit, quicquid exteretur, capisteiio
expurgandum erit, et semper, quod propter magni-
tudinem ac pondus in imo subsederit, ad semen
reservandum. Nam id plurimum prodest, quia
quamvis celerius locis umidis, tamen etiam siccis
frumenta degenerant, nisi cura talis adhibetur.^

12 Neque enim dubiuni est ex robusto semine posse
fieri non robustum ; quod vero protinus ex levi ^
natum sit, numquam robur accipere manifestum est,
ideoque Vergilius cum et alia turn et hoc de seminibus
praeclare sic disseruit :

Vidi lecta diu et multo spectata labore
Degenerare tamen, ni vis humana quotannis
Maxima quaeque manu legeret ; sic omnia fatis
In peius ruere ac retro sublapsa referri.

^ habeto R plerique.

* sic SA^, Lundstrom : adhibeatur R, et wlgo.

* exile R, et vulgo ante Schn.

Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 2. 25, * Oeorg. I. 197-200.

ISO

BOOK II. IX. 10-12

crushed root of the same, dilute it ^vath water, and
after soaking the seeds in the same way they consign
them to the earth." Others sprinkle the furrows with
this same liquid or with unsalted lees of oil, when the
crop begins to be infested, and so drive off the
destructive creatures.

The next direction that I have to offer is that when
the crops have been harvested and are on the thresh-
ing-floor, we should consider the sowing that is to
follow. For, as Celsus remarks, when the harvest 11
is just ordinary we should select all the best heads
and store the seed from them by itself; when, in
turn, there is a more generous yield, everything
that is threshed out should be cleaned with a sieve,
and the grain that settles to the bottom because
of its size and weight should always be kept for seed.
This is a most beneficial measure because, while grain
deteriorates more rapidly in damp places, it also does
so in dry places unless such pains are taken. For 12
there is no doubt that from strong seed there can be
produced seed that has no strength ; but it is
obvious that what is produced continuously from
weak seed can never acquire strength. For that
reason Vergil, in treating of other matters, has also
expressed himself very clearly on the subject of
seeds, as follows ;

Some I have seen deteriorate, though chosen with

great care
And long examination, if with toil of man
The largest were not hand-picked every year.
But so the will of Fate. All things are doomed
To hasten to the worse and, downward turned,
To take a backward course.'*

151

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

13 Granum autem rutilum si, cum est diffissum,^ eundem
colorem interiorem habet, integrum esse non dubi-
tamus ; quod extrinsecus albidum, intus etiam
candidum conspicitur,^ leve ac vanum intellegi debet.
Nee nos tamquam optabilis agricolis fallat siligo,
nam hoe tritici vitiuni est et, quamvis candore
praestet, pondere tamen vincitur. Verum in umido
statu caeli recte provenit et ideo locis manantibus
magis apta est. Nee tamen ea ^ longe nobis aut
magna difficultate requirenda est, nam omne triticum
solo uliginoso post tertiam sationem convertitur in
siliginem.

14 Proximus est his frumentis usus hordei, quod
rustici hexastichum, quidam etiam cantherinum
appellant, quoniam et omnia animalia, quae ruri
sunt, melius quam triticum pascit et hominem
salubrius quam malum triticum,* nee aliud in egenis
rebus magis inopiam defendit. Seritur soluta sicca-
que terra et vel praevalida vel exili, quia constat
arva segetibus eius macescere ; ^ propter quod
pinguissimo agro, cuius nimiis ® viril)us noceri non
possit, aut macro, cui nihil aliud, committitur.

15 Altero sulco seminari debet post aequinoctium, media
fere sementi, si laeto solo, si gracili, maturlus.
lugerum quinque modios occupabit.' Idque ubi

* ditfusum AR.

^ sic Lundstrom cum codd. : conspi'.itur candidum vulgo,

* ea om. SA.

* alt. pascit (oibat M) post triticum add, R.

* marcescere A^R pauci, Lundstrom : manascere A^ :
manescere S.

* nimis SAa, Schti., Lundstrom.

BOOK II. IX. 13-15

Further, if a red grain, when cut in two, shows the 13
same colour throughout, we ha\e no doubt that it is
sound ; but one that is whitish outside and is also seen
to be white inside, that should be set down as light
and lacking in substance. And let us not be misled
into thinking that siligo is desirable for farmers ; for
this is a degenerate kind of wheat, and though
superior in whiteness, it is inferior in weight. It
does well, however, in a humid climate, and for that
reason is better suited to springy places. Still we
need not go a great distance or to great pains to find
it ; for in wet ground every kind of wheat turns into
siligo after the third sowing.

Next to these grains in utility is that vainety of 14
barley which country people call hexastichum ; " some
also call it cantherinum * because it is a better food
than wheat for all animals that belong on a farm, and
is more wholesome for humans than is bad wheat ; and
in times of scarcity there is nothing better in guarding
against want. It is sown in loose, dry ground, either
very rich or poor, because it is agreed that land is
weakened by crops of it ; for this reason it is com-
mitted to a very fertile field, whose excessive strength
cannot be impaired, or to a lean one to which nothing
else is entrusted. The seed should be cast at the 15
second ploughing, after the equinox, about the middle
of seed-time if the soil is rich, and earlier if it is poor.
One iugenim will take five modii of seed. And when

■ I.e. " six-rowed " barley.

* " horse-barley," from cantherius, a gelding (Varro, R.R.
11. 7. 15).

' modii occni)a.hunt Aid., Oesn.,Schn.; sed modils occupabit
mnluit Schn. in twt., ex PalUid., Sept. 4.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

paulum maturuerit, festinantius quam uUum aliud
frumentum demetendum erit; nam et fragili culmo
et nulla vestitum palea granum eius celeriter decidit,
isdemque ^ de ^ causis faciUus teritur quam cetera.
Sed cum eius messem sustuleris, optimum est novalia
pati anno cessare ; si minus, stereore saturare et
omne virus, quod adhuc inest terrae, propulsare.

16 Alterum quoque genus hordei est, quod alii distichum,
Galaticum nonnulli vocant, ponderis et candoris
eximii, adeo ut tritico mixtum egregia cibaria familiae
praebeat. Seritur quam pinguissimis, sed frigidis
locis circa Martium mensem ; melius tamen respondet
si dementia hiemis permittit, cum seminatur circa
Idus lanuarias. lugerum sex modios postulat.

17 Inter frumenta etiarn panicum ac milium ponenda
sunt, quamvis iam leguminibus ea conti'ibuevim,
nam multis regionibus cibariis eorum coloni susti-
nentur.^ Levem solutamque humum desiderant,
nee in sabuloso solo, sed in harena quoque proveniunt,
modo umido caelo vel riguo solo ; nam siccum

18 cretosumque reformidant. Ante ver seri * non
possunt, quoniam teporibus maxime laetantur;
ultima tamen parte Martii mensis commodissime
terrae committuntur. Nee impensa gravi rationem '^
cultoris onerant, quippe sextariis fere quattuor
lugerum implent; frequentem tamen exigunt sar-

^ hisdemque vel his denique li plerique.

'^ de om. Sa. ^ sustinerentur A.

* versari A^R, vett. edd. ' sationem vd sartionem R.

" " two-rowed."

" The Sarmatians, says Pliny {N.H. XVIII. 100). lived
chiefly on millet porridge, made with mare's milk or with blood
drawn from the thigli of a horse ; while the Ethiopians knew
of no other grains than millet and barley. Panic was used by

?54

BOOK II. IX. 15-18

this has ripened somewhat it should be harvested
with more haste than any other grains, for, ha\'ing
brittle straw and grain that has no covering of chaff,
it shatters quickly ; and for the same reason it is more
easily threshed than other grains. But when you
have taken off a crop of it, it is best to let the ground
lie fallow for a year ; or if not, to saturate it with
manure and drive out all the poison that still remains
in the land. There is also a second variety of barley 16
which some call distichum " and others Galatian, of
extraordinary weight and whiteness, so much so that
when mixed with wheat it makes excellent food for
the household. It is so\\'n about the month of March
in ground that is very rich but cold ; it does better,
however, if a mild winter allows it, when sown around
the middle of January. One iugerum calls for six
modii.

Panic and millet also should be counted among 17
grain crops, even though I have already listed them
among the legumes, for in many countries the
peasants subsist on food made from them.* They
require a light, loose soil, and thrive not only in
gravelly ground but also in sand, if only the climate
is moist or the ground well watered ; for they have a
great dread of drj' and chalky ground. They cannot 18
be so^vn before spring, for they are fond of warm
weather above all ; but they are intrusted to the earth
to best advantage in the latter part of March. They
do not burden the farmer's budget with a heavy
expense, as about four sextarii are enough for a
iugerum ; and yet they demand repeated hoeing and

the people of Gaul and Aquitania, by the people of Italy
beyond the Po, and was held in highest esteem by the nations
of Pontus [ibid. 101).

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

tionem ^ et runcationem, ut herbis liberentur. Ea
cum spicas ediderunt, prius quam semina hient
aestibus,^ manu carpuntur, et suspensa in sole cum
adsiccuerunt,^ reconduntur atque ita reposita peren-
19 nant diutius quam cetera. Panis ex milio conficitur,
qui antequam refrigescat, sine fastidio potest absumi.
Panicum pinsitum "* et evoliitum furfure, sed milium'
quoque pultem quamvis in copia ® niaxime cum
lacte ' non fastidiendam praebet.

X. Quoniam de frumentis abunde praecepimus, de
leguminibus deinceps disseremus.^ Lupini prima
ratio est, quod et minimum operarum absumit et
vilissime emitur et maxime ex iis, quae seruntur,
iuvat agrum. Nam vineis iam ' emaciaHs et arvis
optimum stercus praebet ac vel effeto solo provenit
vel repositum in granario patitur aevum. Boves per
hiemem coctum maceratumque probe alit ; famem
quoque, si sterilitas annorum incessit, hominibus
2 commode propulsat. Spargitur statim ex area,
atque id solum omnium leguminum non desiderat
requiem in horreo,^" sive Septembri mense ante
aequinoctium seu protinus a Kalendis Octobribus
crudis novalibus ingeras ; et qualitercumque obruas,
sustinet coloni neglegentiam. Teporem tamen
autumni desiderat, ut celeriter confirmetur, nam si

^ sarritionem plerique edd. ante Lvndstrdm.

* aestibus om. SA.

^ sic SA3I, Lund-strom : ad(as)siocavenint vel ad(a8)9ic-
caverint R plerique : assiccaverint vett. cdd. : assiccata fuerint
Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* pinsatum R plerique.

* sed et milium Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* quavis in copia Schn., praeeunte Pontedera : quavis inopia
Aid., Gesn.

' maxime cum lacte om, S {in marg. man. alt.) A,

156

BOOK II. IX-. i8-x. 2

weeding to make them free of weeds. When they
have formed their heads, before the seeds crack open
with the heat, they are gathered by hand, hung in
the sun, and stored away after they have dried ; and
when stored in this fashion they keep longer than
other grains. Bread is made of millet, and it may 19
be eaten without distaste before it cools. Panic,
Avhen ground and freed from bran, and millet as well,
makes a porridge which, especially with milk, is not to
be despised even in time of plenty.

X. Inasmuch as we have given sufficient instruc-
tions about grains, we shall next discuss the legumes.
First consideration belongs to the lupine, as it requires
the least labour, costs least, and of all crops that are
sown is most beneficial to the land. For it affords
an excellent fertilizer for worn-out vineyards and
ploughlands ; it flourishes even in exhausted soil ;
and it endures age when laid away in the granary.
When softened by boiling it is good fodder for cattle
during the winter; in the case of humans, too, it
serves to ward off famine if years of crop failures
come upon them. It is broadcast direct from the 2
threshing-floor, and it is the only one of all the
legumes which does not require a rest in the bin,
whether you sow it in unbroken fallow in the month
of September before the equinox or immediately
after the Calends of October ; and whatever way you
cover it, it withstands the carelessness of the farmer.
Still it needs the mild temperature of autumn to
become quickly established, for if it has not taken

* sic S, Lundslrom : disseramus AR, et vulgo.
' iam 07)1. SA. ^^ in horreo om. SA.

157

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

non ante hiemem convaluit,^ frigoribus adfligitur.

3 Reliquum quod semini superest, in tabulatum, quo
fumus pervenit, optime reponas,^ quoniam si umor
invasit, vermes gignit ; qui simul atque oscilla
lupinorum adederunt,^ reliqua pars enasci non
potest. Id, ut dixi, exilem amat terram et rubricam

4 praecipue, nam cretam reformidat limosoque non
exit agro. lugerum decern modios * occupat. Ab
hoc recte phaselus terrae mandabitur vel in vetereto ^
vel melius pingui et restibili agro, nee amplius
quattuor modiis iugerum obseretur.* Similis quoque
ratio est pisi, quod tamen facilem et solutam terram
desiderat tepidumque locum et caelum frequentis
umoris. Eadem mensura iugerum vel modio minus
quam phaselum licet obserere primo tempore
sementis ab aequinoctio autumnali.'

6 Fabae pinguissimus locus vel stercoratus destine-
tur ^ et si veteretum erit in valle situm, quod a
superiore parte sucum accipit. Prius autem iacie-
mus ^ semina, deinde proscindemus terram pro-
scissamque in liram revocabimus occabimusque, quo
altius largiore humo contegatur; nam id plurimum
refert, ut radices enatorum seminum penitus de-

6 mersae sint. Sin autem proximae messis occu-
pandum erit restibile, desectis stramentis quattuor

^ convaluerit R plerique, edd. ante Lundstrom ; sed convaluit
maluit Schn.

* reponis Aid., Gesn., Schn.

' aediderunt A : edederunt vel ediderunt {vett. edd.) R
plerique : ederunt R pauci. Aid., Oesn.

* modios (modios X J/) i? pauci, vett. edd. : modis S^A :
modiis R plerique, Lundstrom : modii occupant Aid., Gesn.,
Schn.

* veterio SAM : vervacto Aid., Gesn.

* observetur A : obseritur R, edd. ante Schn.
' autumni SA ^.

BOOK II. X. 2-6

a strong hold before winter it is greatly injured by
the cold. It will be best to put away your left-over 3
seed in a loft where smoke can reach it, for if
dampness gets into it, it breeds worms ; and when
they have once eaten away the embryo of the lupine
seed, the other part cannot germinate. The lupine
likes lean ground, as I have said, and especially
reddish soil; it has an intense dislike of chalky 4
ground and does not come up at all in a miry field.
One iugerum takes ten modii. Next after this it will
be proper to commit to the earth the kidney bean,
either in old fallow ground, or better in rich ground
that is tilled every year ; the sowing of one iugerum
will require not more than four modii. The same may
be said of the pea, which desires, however, an easy
and loose soil, a warm situation, and a climate
where it often rains. The same quantity may be
sown to the iugerum as in the case of the kidney
bean, or one modius less, at the beginning of seed-
time after the autumnal equinox.

A spot that is naturally very fertile or well manured 5
should be set aside for the common bean, and old
fallow lying in a valley and receiving moisture from
the higher ground. First, however, we shall cast the
seed, then furrow the ground, and after furrowing
reduce it to ridges and harrow it, to provide a deeper
and more abundant covering of loose earth ; for it is
of the greatest importance that the roots of the
sprouting seed be sunk deep. But if we must use 6
restored land that has just borne a crop, after cutting
the straw we shall distribute twenty-four loads of

* destinatur j4i?, edd. ante Lundstrom,

• iactemua R plerique : alemus SA.

159

VOL. I. G

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

et viginti vehes stercoris in iugerum disponemus
dissipabimusque ^ et similiter, cum semen crudo solo
ingesserimus, inarabimus imporcitumque ^ occa-
bimus ; ^ quamvis sint, qui negent locis fi-igidis
oportere occari fabam, quia exstantes glaebae a
gelicidiis adhuc earn teneram vindicent et aliquem

7 teporem frigore laboranti praebeant. Sunt etiara
qui putent in arvis banc eandem vice stercoris fungi ;
quod sic ego interpretor, ut existimem non sationibus
eius pinguescere humum, sed minus banc quam
cetera semina vim terrae consumere. Nam certum
habeo frumentis utilioi'em agrum esse, qui nihil quam

8 qui istam spicam * proximo anno tulerit. Iugerum
agri, ut Tremelio quattuor, ut nobis videtur, fabae
sex occupant modii,^ si solum pingue sit, si mediocre,
paulo amplius ; eaque nee macrum nee nebulosum
locum patitur, densa tamen humo saepe commode
respondet. Media sementi pars seri et pars ultima
debet, quae septimontialis satio dicitur ; tempestiva
frequentius, non numquam tamen sera melior est.

9 Post brumam parum recte seritur, pessime vere ;
quamvis sit etiam trimestris faba, quae mense Febru-
ario seratur, quinta parte amplius quam matura, sed

^ dissipavimusque ;S'^a.

^ inporcitumque A^, Lundstrom : im(in)porcatumq ; vel
importatunq ; R : imporcatumque edd. vulgo.

* occupabimus A.

* siliquam Aid., Gesn., Schn.

' modiis SA : modiis vd modii si R pattci : modios vel
modios si R plerigue.

<• Varro {R.R. I. 23. 3), for example, speaks of the use of the
field Lean for green manuring before the pods have formed.

* A sowing made at about the time of the festival of the
Seven Hills [Septirnontium), celebrated in December before the

i6o

BOOK II. X. 6-9

manure to the iugerum and spread it; and just as
before, when we have scattered the seed on the
unbroken ground, we shall plough it in, form ridges,
and harrow, though there are some who say that
beans should not be harrowed in cold regions because
the projecting clods shelter them from the frosts
while they are still yoimg and provide some warmth
when they are suffering from the cold. There are 7
people, too, who think that in cultivated land this
same plant takes the place of manure" — a belief which
I take as meaning, not that the ground is enriched
by the sowing of it, but that it uses up the strength
of the soil less than other crops. For I am con-
vinced that land which has borne no crop is better
suited for grain than one which bore a crop of this
legume the preceding year. A iugerum of land 8
requires four viodii of beans, as Tremelius thinks,
but six, in my opinion, if the ground is rich, and
somewhat more if it is just ordinary; and it does
not tolerate lean ground or a foggy situation, though
it often does well on heavy soil. It should be sown,
part at the middle of seed-time, and part at the end
— the sowing called " septimontial." * The early
sowing is more common, though the late one is some-
times better. There is little use in sowing it after the 9
winter solstice, and the very worst time is spring ;
although there is also a three-months bean which
may be sown in February, using one-fifth more than
for the early variety, but which yields scanty straw

solstice; c/. Varro, L.L. VI. 34, and Palladius, XIII (Dec. 1).
The festival celebrated, not the union of the Seven Hills of
complete Rome, but a much earlier union of the three spurs
of the Palatine, the three spurs of the Esquiline, and the
lower ground of the Subura.

i6i

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

exiguas paleas nee multam siliquam facit. Veteres
itaque rusticos plerumque dicentes audio malle se

10 maturae ^ fabalia quam fructum trimestris. Sed
quoeumque tempore anni seretur, opera danda erit,
ut quantum destinaverimus in sationem, tantum
quinta decima luna, si tamen ea non transcurret eo
die solis radios, quod Graeci dTroKporcrtv ^ vocant, si
minus, quarta decima utique adhuc lunae crescente
lumine spargatur, etiam si confestim totum semen
operiri non poterit. Nihil enim nocebitur ei nocturnis
roribus aliisve ex causis, dum a pecore et avibus

1 1 vindicetur. Priseis autem rusticis nee minus Vergilio
prius amurca vel nitro macerari earn et ita seri
placuit,

laetior ^ ut fetus siliquis fallacibus esset

et quamvis igni exiguo properata maderent.*

Nos quoque sic medicatam comperimus, cum ad
maturitatem perducta sit, minus a curculione infes-
tari. Sed et illud, quod deinceps dicturi sumus,

12 experti praeeipimus.^ Silente luna fabam vellito
ante lucem ; deinde cum in area exaruerit, confestim,
prius quam luna incrementum capiat, excussam
refrigeratamque in granarium conferto. Sic condita
a curculionibus erit innoxia, maximeque ex legumini-
bus ea sine iumentis teri, sine vento purgari expedi-

^ matura B, edd. ante Schn.

* Oraec. om., spat, relict., R plerique.

' laetior SAR : grandior M, codd. Verg.

* maderet S, Schn.

* praecepimus vel praecipiemus R plerique.

' Vergil, Oeorg. I. 195-196.

' Palladius (VII. 3. 2) gives similar directions for the pulling
of beans luna minuente, when the moon is waning. In connec-

162

BOOK II. X. 9-12

and not many pods. And so I hear the old-time
farmers commonly remark that they would rather
have the bean straw of the early sowing than the
beans of the three-months variety. But, whatever 10
the season of sowing, we must take care that the
quantity allotted for seed be broadcast on the
fifteenth day of the moon, provided only she does
not on that day traverse the rays of the sun — what the
Greeks call diroKpovaL^ or "waning"; otherwise
that it be sown in any case on the fourteenth day,
while the light of the moon is still waxing, even
though the whole amount of seed cannot be covered
immediately. For no harm will come to it from
nightly dews or other causes, if only it be protected
from cattle and birds. The ancient husbandmen, 11
moreover, and Vergil too, held that it should first be
soaked in oil lees or in nitre, and then sown.

That the deceptive pods might have a larger fruit,
Then* seeds soon softened by even a little heat."

We, too, have learned that seed so treated is less
infested by weevils after it has reached maturity.
And what we are about to say next, we offer as a
precept from OAvn experience : Gather beans 12
in the dark of the moon,** before dawn ; and when
they have dried on the threshing-floor, immediately,
before the moon begins its waxing, beat them out,
cool them, and carry them into the granary. When
stored in this way they will not be harmed by weevils.
And this one, especially, of the legumes, can be very
easily threshed without the use of cattle, and cleaned

tion with this and much of the moon lore that follows, see
Eugene Tavenner, " The Roman Farmer and the Moon,"
Trans. Am. Phil. Assn. XLIX. 67-82.

163

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

13 tissime sic poterit. Modicus ^ fasciculorum numerus
resolutus in extrema parte areae colligetur,^ quern
per longissimum eius mediumque spatium tres vel
quattuor homines promoveant pedibus et baculis
furcisve ^ contundant ; * deinde cum ad alteram
partem areae pervenerint, in acervum culmos

14 regerant. Nam semina excussa in area iacebunt,^
superque ea paulatim eodem modo reliqui fasciculi
excutientur, ac durissimae quidem acus reiectae
separataeque erunt a cudentibus, minutae vero,
quae de siliquis cum faba resederint,® aliter secer-
nentur. Nam cum acervus paleis granisque mixtus
in unum fuerit congestus, paulatim ex eo ventilabris
per longius spatium iactetur, quo pacto ' palea, quae
levior est, citra decidet, faba, quae longius emitti-
tur, pura eo perveniet, quo ventilator earn iaculabitur.

15 Lentim modo semediata ^ luna usque in duode-
cimam solo tenui et resoluto vel pingui, sed ® sicco
maxime loco seri convenit ; nam in flore facile luxuria
et umore corrumpitur. Quae ut celeriter prodeat
et ingrandescat, ante quam seritur,^" fimo arido
permisceri debet, et cum ita quatriduo ^^ aut quinque
diebus requieverit, spargi. Sationes eius duas
servamus, alteram maturam per mediam sementim,

16 seriorem alteram mense Februario. lugerum agri

1 modius SA.

* collocetur R aliquot, cdd. ante Lundsfrom.
' furcillisve R aliqiwt, Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* contundat SA. * iacebant SA.

* resederunt R, edd. ante Schn.

' facto Gesn., Schn., praeeunte Ursino.

* sic Lundstrom : lenti modo semediata SA : Lentem
Bemente (Lentis sementem 31) media crescente R, et vulgo :
Lentim modo a dimidiata Schn.

* sic Lundstrom : pingius et SA : pinguis sed a : pingui et
R, et vulgo. ^' seratur Aid., Gesn., Schn.

164

BOOK II. X. 12-16

without the aid of wind, as follows: Have a moderate 13
number of loose sheaves brought together at one end
of the threshing-floor, and let three or four men push
them along with their feet through the middle of the
floor the longest way, and beat them with sticks or
forks ; then, when they reach the other end of the
floor, let them throw the stalks again into a pile.
For the seeds that have been beaten out will lie on 14
the floor, and the other bundles will be threshed out
on top of them, little by little, in the same manner.
For the hardest chaff Avill be knocked off and
separated by the beaters, but the fine chaff which
has fallen from the pods along with the beans will
be separated in another way : that is, when the mix-
ture of chaff and seeds has been heaped together in
one pile, let it be tossed some distance away, a little
at a time, by winnowing-fans ; and by this means the
chaff, being lighter, will fall short, and the beans,
which are thrown farther, will come clean to the spot
where the Avinnower throws them.

The lentil is properly sown only from the time of 15
the half-moon up to her twelfth day, in ground that
is lean and loose, or fat, but above all in a place that
is dry ; for when in flower it is easily damaged
by rankness and moisture. To make it come out
quickly and make a good growth, it should be mixed
with dried manure before sowing, and then broadcast
after it has remained thus for four or five days. Our
practice is to make two sowings, the early one in the
middle of seedtime, and the later in the month of
February. A little more than one modius covers a 16

^^ quattuor vel quatuor vel IIII R plerique : quatuor Aid.,
Oesn.

165

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

paulo plus quam modius occupat. Ea ne curculioni-
bus absumatur — nam etiam dum est in siliqua exestur
— curandum ^ erit, ut cum extrita sit, in aquam
demittatur et ab inani, quae protinus innatat,
separetur solida ; turn in sole siccetur et radice silphi
trita cum aceto adspargatur defriceturque ^ atque
ita rursus in sole siccata et mox refrigerata reconda-
tur, si maior est modus, in horrto, si minor, in vasis
oleariis salsamentariisque ; quae repleta cum con-
festim gypsata sunt, quandoque in usus prompseri-
mus, integram lentim ^ reperiemus. Potest tamen
etiam citra istam medicationem cineri mixta commode
servari.

17 Lini semen, nisi si * magnus est eius in ea regione,
quam colis, proventus et pretium proritat, serendum
non est; agris enim praecipue noxium est. Itaque
pinguissimum locum et modice umidum poscit.
Seritur a Kalendis Octobribus in ortum Aquilae, qui
est VII Idus Decembris. lugerum agri octo modiis
obseritur. Non nullis placet macro solo et quam
spississimum semen eius committi, quo termius ^
linum proveniat. Idem etiam, si laeto solo seratur
mense Februario, decern modios in iugerum iaci
oportere dicunt.

18 Sesama, quae rigantur, maturius, quae carent
umore, ab aequinoctio autumnali serenda sunt in

^ extercorandum R : editur curandum 31.
' oleo post defricetur add. Schn. ex Catone 116.

* lentem R aliquot, cdd. ante Lundstrom,

* si om. R, edd. ante Schn.

* tenuius Schn., Lundstrom : tenui ut SA^ : tenue A*R, et
vuigo.

« Identified by Columella (VI. 17. 7; cf. XII. 7. 4, 59. 4)
with laserpitium, laserwort. Pliny (N.H. XIX. 38-46) gives
a long account of the history and uses of the plant.

i66

BOOK II. X. 16-18

iugerum of ground. To keep it from being destroyed
by weevils — for they eat it even when it is in the pod
— care must be taken that, as soon as it is threshed
out, it be sunk in water, and that the sound grains
be separated from the empty, which come at once to
the surface ; then that it be dried in the sun, sprinkled
and rubbed -svith the bruised root of silphium "^ mixed
with vinegar, and again dried in the sun ; and
presently, after cooling, that it be stored away — in
the bin if the amount is rather large, or in olive jars
and salt-fish jars if there is not much of it. If these
are sealed with gypsum immediately upon being
filled, we shall find the lentil sound whenever we take
it out for use. Still, it can be kept satisfactorily with-
out such treatment if mixed with ashes.

Flax-seed should not be so^vTl unless it yields a heavy 17
crop and brings a good price in the region where you
farm ; for it is particularly hurtful to land. For this
reason it requires a soil which is very rich and
moderately moist. It is sown from the first of
October to the rising of Aquila, which falls on the
seventh day before the Ides of December.* A
iugerum of land is sown Avith eight modii of it. Some
hold that it should be so\^Tl in poor land, and very
thickly, so that the flax may grow with a more
slender stem. The same people also say that if it is
sown in rich ground in February, ten modii should be
broadcast to the iugerum.

Sesame"^ is to be sown earlier on well-watered 18
ground, and from the autumnal equinox to the Ides

> Dec. 7tb,

* Perhaps to be identified with the gingili- or gingelly-
plant.

167

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Idus Octobres. Putre solum, quod Campani puUum
vocant, plerumque desiderant; non deterius tamen
etiam pinguibus harenis vel congesticia humo pro-
veniunt, tantumque seminis quantum milium pani-
cumque, interdum etiam duobus sextariis amplius
in iugerum spargitur. Sed hoc idem semen Ciliciae
Syriaeque regionibus ipse vidi mense lunio lulioque
conseri et per autumnum, cum permaturuit, tolli.^

19 Cicer aut ^ cicercula, quae piso est similis, mense
lanuario aut Februario seri debet laeto loco caelo
umido ; quibusdam tamen ^ Italiae locis ante Ka-
lendas Novembris seritur. Tres modii iugerum
implent. Nee ullum legumen minus agro nocet, sed
raro respondet, quoniam nee siccitates nee austros
in flore sustinet ; quae utraque incommoda fere eo

20 tempore anni sunt, quo deflorescit. Cicer, quod
arietillum * vocatur, itemque alterius generis, quod
Punicum, seri mense Martio toto potest caelo umido,
loco quam laetissimo ; nam etiam id tex'ram laedit
atque ideo improbatur a callidioribus agricolis.
Quod tamen si seri debeat, pridie macerandum erit,
ut celerius enascatur. lugero inodii tres abunde
sunt.

21 Cannabis solum pingue stercoratumque et riguum
vel planum atque umidum et alte subactum deposcit.
In quadratum pedem seruntur grana sex eius

1 coUigi M : et per . . . tolli om. SA.

* Cicer aut oin. R plerique. Aid., Gesn., Schn.
' tamen om. SA.

* arietiUum Lundstrom cum codd. : arietinum vulgo.

• Oct. 15th.

* Congesticia, earth brought together from different places ;
cf. II. 1.5. 4-5; Palladius X. 7; Theophrastus, De Caus. Plant.
III. 25.

i68

BOOK II. X. 1 8-2 1

of October * on ground that lacks moisture. It
usually requires a loamy soil, such as the Cam-
panians call pullum ; still it thrives no less well even
in rich sand or in mixed ground.* The same quantity
of seed is sown to the iugerum as of millet and panic,
sometimes even two sextarii " more. But I have
seen this same seed sown in the months of June and
July in districts of Cilicia and Syria, and harvested
during the autumn, when it was fully ripe.

The chick-pea or the chickling-vetch, which has a 19
resemblance to the pea, should be sown in January
or February in rich soil if the weather is moist ;
though in some sections of Italy the sowing is made
before the first of November. Three vwdii are
sufficient for one iugerum. No legume is less hurtful
to land ; but it seldom does well, because, when in
bloom, it cannot endure dry weather or south •^^^nds ;
and both these drawbacks iisually attend the season
when it drops its blossoms.** The chick-pea which is 20
called arietillum,^ and also one of another variety,
called Punicum, may be sown during the whole
month of March, if the weather is moist, in the
most fertile soil ; indeed, this kind is harmful to land
and for that reason is not approved by the more
expert farmers. If it must be sown, however, it
should be soaked a day ahead to hasten its germina-
tion. Three modii are enough for one iugerum.

Hemp demands a rich, manured, well-watered soil, 21
or one that is level, moist, and deeply worked. Six
grains of this seed to the square foot are planted at

* 1 sextarius = about 1 pint.

* Cf. Palladius II (Jan.), 5.

* Pliny says {N.H. XVIII. 124) that it is so called because
of its resemblance to the head of a ram {aries),

169

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

seminis Arcturo exoriente, quod est ultimo mense
Februario, circa sextum aut quintum Kalendas
Martias ; nee tamen usque in aequinoctium vernum,
si sit pluvius caeli status, improbe seretur.

22 Ab his leguminibus ratio est habenda napi ^
raporumque,^ nam utraque rusticos implent. Magis
tamen utilia rapa sunt, quia et maiore incremento
proveniunt et non hominem solum, verum etiam
boves pascunt, praecipue in Gallia, ubi hiberna
cibaria praedictis pecudibus id holus praebet. Solum
putre et solutum res utraque desiderat nee densa

23 nascitur humo. Sed rapa campis et locis umidis
laetantur, napus devexam amat et siccam tenuique
propiorem terram ; itaque glareosis sabulosisque
arvis melior exit,^ locique proprietas utriusque semen
commutat ; namque in alio solo rapa biennio sata
convertuntur in napum, in alio napus raporum accipit
speciem. Riguis locis utrumque recte ab solstitio
seritur, siccis ultima parte mensis Augusti vel prima
Septembris. Subactum solum pluribus iterationibus
aratri vel rastri largoque stercore satiatum postulant ;

24 nam id plurimum refert, non solum quod melius ea
proveniunt, sed quod etiam post fructum eorum sic
tractatum etiam * solum segetes opimas facit. lu-

^ naporum R, edd. ante Schn., qui naporum legit, napi
defendit in not.

^ raparumque Lundstrom, cum SA et R aliquot ut videtur.

' raelioreacit M.

* etiam om. edd. ante Lundstrom,

" I.e. Feb. 24th or 25th.

> Cf. Palladius, VIII. 2. 2. Pliny remarks that the Greeks
(N.H. XVIII. 129) and medical men {N.H. XIX. 75) dis-
tinguished between " male " (round) and " female " (elongated)
turnips or navews, the original sex and change of nature
being determinable by thickness of sowing and quality of soil.

170

BOOK II. X. 21-24

the rising of Arcturus, which means toward the end
of February, about the sixth or fifth day before the
Calends of March ; " and yet no harm \vill be done
in planting it up to the spring equinox if the weather
is rainy.

After these legumes consideration must be given 22
to the navew and the turnip, as both of them are filling
food for country people. The turnips, however, ai-e
more profitable, because they yield a greater increase
and serve as food, not only for mankind, but also
for cattle, especially in Gaul, where this vegetable
provides winter fodder for the aforesaid animals.
Both require a loamy, loose soil, and do not grow
in heavy ground. Turnips, however, Uke level and 23
moist places, while the navew prefers ground that is
sloping and dry with more of a tendency to leanness ;
and so it grows better in gravelly and sandy lands.
The nature of the situation changes the seed of both :
thus, turnips sown in one soil are changed into navews
in two years' time, while in the other the navew like-
wise takes on the appearance of the turnip.'' In well-
watered situations both are properly sown after
the summer solstice, in dry places at the end of
August or the early part of September." They
demand a soil that is well prepared by repeated
working with the plough or mattock and generously
manured ; for this is of the greatest importance, not 24
only because they themselves make a better showing
but also because, after they are harvested, soil so
treated produces luxuriant crops of grain. One

« Columella speaks also (XI. 3. 16 and 59) of a spring
sowing, in February, for a summer crop, though the sowing in
August was to be preferred.

171

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

gerum agri non amplius quattuor sextariis raporum
seminis obserendum est ; quarta parte amplius
napi ^ spargendum, quia ^ non in ventrem latescit,
sed tenuein radicem deorsvim agit.

At que haec hominum causa serenda censemus, ilia
deinde pecudum pabulorum genera complura, sicut
Medieam, viciam, farraginem quoque hordeaceam
et avenam, faenum Graecuni nee minus ervum et
ciceram ; nam cetera neque enumerare et minus
serere dignamur, excepta tamen cytiso, de qua
dicemus ^ in iis libris, quos de generibus surculorum

25 conscripsimus. Sed ex iis, quae placent, eximia est
herba Medica, quod semel seritur, decern annis
omnibus deinde recte quater,* interdum etiam sexiens
demetitur, quod agrum stercorat, quod omne emacia-
tum armentum ex ea pinguescit, quod aegrotanti
pecori remedium est, quod iugerum eius toto anno

26 tribus equis abunde sufficit. Seritur ut deinceps
praecipiemus. Locum, in quo Medieam proximo
vere saturus es, proscindito circa Kalendas Octobris
et eum tota hieme putrescere sinito ; deinde Kalendis
Februariis diligenter iterato et lapides omnes eligito ^
glaebasque ofFringito ; postea circa Martium mensem
tertiato et occato. Cum sic terram subegeris, in
morem horti areas latas pedum denum, longas

^ napis AR, omnes ante Gesn.

* qui AR, vett. edd.

* diximus M.

* Medica. quod cum semel seritur, decern annis durat;
quod per annum deinde recte quater Aid., Oesn., Schn.

^ eligito SAR, vett. edd., Schn. : elegito Lundstrom : egerito
Aid., Oesn.

■ Medic clover or lucern (alfalfa) is said to have come to
Italy from Greece, wbere it was introduced from Media at the

172

BOOK II. X. 24-26

iugerum of ground should be sown with not more than
four sextarii of turnip seed ; of the navew, one-fourth
more is to be scattered, because it does not widen
out into a globular shape but pushes its slender root
straight down.

The above plantings are to be made, in our opinion,
for the sake of man, and then come several kinds of
cattle fodder, such as Medic clover," vetch, mixed
fodder of barley and oats, fenugreek, and also
bitter vetch and chick-pea; for we do not think it
worth while to enumerate the rest, and still less to
sow them, excepting only the cytisus [shrub-clover]
of which we shall speak in those books ^ which we have
in writing on the various kinds of young shoots. But
of those which find favour the Medic plant is out-
standing for several reasons : one seeding affords, for
all of ten years thereafter, four harvestings regularly
and sometimes six ; it improves the soil ; lean cattle
of every kind grow fat on it ; it has medicinal value for
an ailing beast ; and one iugerum of it provides
abundant fodder for three horses for an entire year.
It is sown as we shall next direct. In the place where
you are to sow Medic the following spring, break the
ground about the first of October and allow it to
mellow during the entire winter ; then, at the begin-
ning of February, work it again carefully, remove
all stones, and break up the clods ; after that, some-
time in the month of March, plough it a third time
and harrow it. When you have prepared the ground
in this fashion, make divisions as you would in a

time of the Persian Wars with King Darius (Pliny, N.H.
XVIII. 144).

* The cultivation of cytisus is discussed in V. 12 and De
Arb. 28; it is tree-medick.

173

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODE.RATUS COLUMELLA

pedum quinquagenum facito, ut per semitas aqua
ministrari possit aditusque utraque parte runcantibus

27 pateat. Deinde vetus stercus inieito, atque ita
mense ultimo Aprili serito tantum, quantum ut
singuli cyathi seminis locum oceupent decem pedum
longum et quinque latum. Quod ubi feceris, ligneis
rastris — id enim multum confert — statim iacta semina
obruantur; nam celerrime sole aduruntur. Post
sationem ferro tangi locus non debet ; atque, ut
dixi, ligneis rastris sariendus et identidem runcandus
est, ne alterius generis herba invalidam Medicam

28 perimat.^ Tai'dius messim ^ primam eius facere
oportebit, cum iam seminum aliquam partem eiecerit.
Postea quam voles teneram, cum prosiluerit, deseces
licet et iumentis praebeas, sed inter initia parcius,
dum consuescant, ne novitas pabuli noceat ; inflat
enim et multum creat sanguinem. Cum secueris
autem, saepius eam rigato ; paucos deinde post dies,
ubi coeperit fruticare,^ omnis alterius generis herbas
eruncato. Sic culta sexiens anno * demeti poterit et
permanebit annis decem.

29 Viciae autem duae sationes sunt: prima, qua^
pabuli causa circa aequinoctium autumnale serimuB
septem modios eius in unum iugerum ; secunda, qua
sex modios mense lanuario vel etiam serius iacimus
semini progenerando. Utraque satio potest cruda
terra fieri, sed melius proscissa; idque genus prae-

* peremat S^A, LuTulslrom : perveniat M.

* messem R aliquot, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* fructificare AR.

* sexiea in anno R aliquot, edd. ante Lundstrom.
' qua omnes post Ursinum : quam codd.

' 1 cyathus = about one-twelfth of a pint.

J74

BOOK II. X. 26-29

garden, ten feet wide and fifty feet long, to allow
water to be supplied by way of the foot-paths and
to provide a means of access on both sides for the
weeders. Then spread old manure over it, and 27
at the end of April sow at the rate of one cyathus "
of seed to a space ten feet long and five wide. When
you have done so, the seed should be covered at once
with wooden rakes — a matter of great importance —
for the seed is very soon burned by the sun. After
the seed is sown, the place should not be touched with
iron; and so, as I have said, it must be hoed with
wooden implements and repeatedly freed of weeds,
so that no other kind of growth may kill out the weak
Medic. It will be best to make the first cutting 28
rather late, after it has dropped some of its seed.
Thereafter, when it has started up, you may cut it as
tender as you please and feed it to stock, but some-
what sparingly at first, until they become accustomed
to it, so that the novelty of the fodder may not harm
them ; for it causes bloating and greatly increases
the blood supply. After cutting, water it rather
frequently ; then, a few days later, when it begins to
send out new shoots, weed out all other kinds of
growth. If cared for in this way, it can be cut six
times a year and will last for ten years. **

Of vetch, however, there are two sowings : the first 29
about the time of the autumnal equinox, for the
purpose of forage, in which we sow seven viodii to the
iugerum ; the second in the month of January or even
later, when we scatter six viodii for the production of
seed. Both sowings may be made on untilled land,
but with better results on broken ground ; and this

^ Pliny (loc. cit.) gives it more than thirty years of life.

175

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

30 cipue non amat rores, cum seritur. Itaque post
secundam diei horam vel tertiam spargendum est,
cum iam omnis umor sole ventove detersus est,
neque amplius proici debet, quam quod eodem die
possit operiri ; nam si nox incessit, quantulocumque
umore, prius quam obruatur, corrumpitur. Obser-
vandum erit ne ante quintam et vicesimam lunam
terrae mandetm* ; aliter satae fei'e limacem nocere
comperimus.

31 Farraginem in restibili stercoratissimo loco et
altero sulco serere convenit. Ea fit optima, cum
cantherini hordei decem modiis iugerum oljseritur
circa aequinoctium autumnale, sed impendentibus
pluviis, ut consita rigataque imbribus celeriter prodeat
et confirmetur ante hiemis violentiam. Nam frigori-
bus cum alia pabula defecerunt, ea bubus ceterisque
pecudibus optime desecta praebetur, et si depascere
saepius voles, usque in mensem Maium sufficit.

32 Quod si etiam semen voles ex ea percipere, a Ka-
lendis Martiis pecora depellenda et ab omni noxa
defendenda est, ut sit idonea frugibus. Similis
ratio ^ avenae est, quae autumno sata partim ^
caeditur in faenum vel pabulum dum adhuc viret,
partim semini custoditur.^

33 Faenum Graecum, quod siliquam vocant rustici,
duo tempora sationum habet, quorum alterum est
Septembris mensis, cum pabuli causa seritur, isdem

* satio R, edd. ante Sdm.

^ quae autumno sata partim {sed qua autumno sata partim
in marg. A man. alt.) om. et post viret inserunl SA.

* partim semini custoditur om. SA.

'^ Farrago is defined by Varro {R.R. I. 31. 5) as a mixture of
barley, vetch, and legumes for green feed; c/. Pliny, A'.^.
XVIII. 142.

176

BOOK II. X. 29-33

species especially does not like dew at the time of
sowing. For this reason it must be broadcast after 30
the second or third hour of the day, when all
moisture has been dried up by sun or wind, and no
more should be scattered than can be covered in the
same day ; for, if night comes on before it is covered,
the least moisture spoils it. Care must be taken
not to put it in the ground before the twenty-fifth day
of the moon ; otherwise we usually find that the slug
damages the crop.

Mixed forage " should be sown in land that is 31
worked every year, very heavily manured, and t\\ice
ploughed. It turns out best when sown with ten
modii of horse-barley to the iugerum about the
autumnal equinox ; but when rains are threatening,
so that, being watered by showers after sowing, it
may come up quickly and gather strength before the
severe weather of winter. For in cold weather,
when other forage has failed, this provides excellent
cut fodder for oxen and other animals ; and if you
care to graze it frequently, it holds out even up to the
month of May. If, however, you wish also to take 32
seed from it, cattle must be kept off after the first of
March, and it must be protected from every kind of
harm so as to be capable of bearing seed. The same
method is applied to oats : they are sovm in the
autumn; some are cut for hay or for fodder while
still green ; and some are set apart for seed.

Fenugreek, which country people call siliqua,'' has 33
two seasons for sowing : one of them in the month of
September, when it is sovm for fodder, on the same

* The texts of Pliny (N.H. XVIII. 140) read silicia, with
variants silica and sicilia. Pliny's siliqua is carob.

177

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

diebus, quibus vicia circa acquinoctium, alteram autem
mensis lanuarii ultimi vel primi Februarii, cum in
semen ^ seminatur ; sed hac satione iugerum sex
modiis, ilia septem occupamus. Utraque cruda
terra non incommode fit, daturque opera ut spisse
aretur, nee tamen alte, nam si plus quattuor digitis
adobrutum est semen eius, non facile prodit ; propter
quod non nulli prius quam serant, minimis aratris
proscindunt atque ita iaciunt semina et sarculis
adobruunt.^

34 Ervum autem laetatur loco macro nee umido, quia
luxuria plerumque corrumpitur. Potest autumno
seri nee minus post brumam lanuarii parte novissima
vel toto Februario, dum ante Kalendas Martias, quern
mensem universum negant agricolae huic legumini
convenire, quod eo tempore satum pecori sit noxium
et praecipue bubus, quos pabulo suo cerebrosos
reddat. Quinque modiis iugerum obseritur.

35 Cicera bubus ervi loco fresa datur in Hispania
Baetica ; quae cum suspensa mola divisa est, paulum
aqua maceratur, dum lentescat,^ atque ita mixta
paleis succretis * pecori praebetur. Sed ervi duo-
decim librae satisfaciunt uni iugo, cicerae sedecim.
Eadem hominibus non inutilis neque iniucunda est ;
sapori certe nihilo differt a cicercula, colore tantum
discernitur, nam est obsoletior et nigro propior.

^ semen SAR, Lundstrom : mesdem R duo delt., et vulgo.
' adruunt S, Lundstrom : adfruunt A.
' inlentescat Aid., Lundstrom, cum codd. ut videtur.
* sic Lundstrom, cum codd. ut videtur : subtritis vulgo.

' Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 139. * Andalusia.

^173

BOOK II. X. 33-35

days as vetch, near the time of the equinox ; the
other, however, at the end of January or early in
February, when it is sown for seed ; though we use
six modii to the iitgerum for the latter sowing, and
seven for the former. Both sowings are made not
without advantage before the ground is prepared,
and care is taken that it be ploughed closely but not
deeply, for if the seed is covered more than four
fingers deep it does not easily come up ; and for this
reason some people break the ground with the
smallest ploughs before sowing, and then scatter the
seed and cover it with light hoes.

Bitter vetch, on the other hand, thrives on soil that 34
is lean but not moist, because it is usually spoiled by
rankness. It may be sown in autumn and equally
well after the winter solstice, in the latter part of
January or all of February, if only before the first
day of March. This whole month, farmers say, is
not suited to this legume, because when sown at this
time it is harmful to cattle, and especially to oxen,
in which it causes brain-madness when they eat it."
It is sown five modii to the iugerutn.

Crushed chickling-vetch instead of bitter vetch is 35
given to oxen in Hispania Baetica * : after being
broken by a suspended <= millstone it is soaked for a
time in water, until it becomes soft, and in this
condition, mixed with sifted chaff, it is fed to cattle.
But twelve pounds of bitter vetch are sufficient for
one yoke, and sixteen of chick-pea. This same
chick-pea is not unsuited to human use, and
is not unpleasant; in taste, at least, it differs not
at all from the chickling-vetch, being distinguished
merely by its colour, for it is more dirty-looking

' I.e. set for coarse grinding.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Seritur primo vel altero sulco mense Martio, ita ut
postulat soli laetitia, quod eadem quattuor modiis,
non numquam et tribus, interdum etiam duobus ac
semodio iugerum occupat.

XI. Quoniam quando quidque serendum sit perse-
cuti sumus, nunc quem ad modum quotque operis
singula eorum, quae rettulimus, colenda sint de-
monstrabimus. Peracta sementi sequens cura est
sartionis ; de qua non convenit inter auctores.
Quidam negant earn ^ quicquam proficere, quod
frumenti radices sarculo detegantur, aliquae etiara
succidantur ac, si frigora incesserint post sartionem,
gelu frumenta enecentur ; satius autem esse ea

2 tempestive runcari et purgari. Pluribus tamen
sariri placet, sed neque eodem modo neque isdem
temporibus usque quaque fieri ; nam in agris siccis
et apricis, simul ac primum sartionem pati queant
segetes, debere eas permota terra adobrui, ut
fruticare ^ possint. Quod ipsum ante hiemem fieri
oportere, deinde post hiemem iterari ; in locis autem
frigidis et palustribus plerumque transacta hieme
sariri nee adobrui, sed plana sartione terram permo-

3 veri. Multis tamen nos regionibus aptam esse
hiemalem sartionem comperiraus dumtaxat ubi et
siccitas caeli et tepores permittunt, sed nee istud
ubique fieri censemus, verum incolarum consuetudine
uti. Sunt enim regionum propria munera, sicut
Aegypti et Africae, quibus agricola ^ post sementim

^ earn om. 3A. * fructificare AR.

' agricolatio R.

;89

BOOK II. X. 35-xi. 3

and nearer black. It is sown at the first or second
ploughing in the month of March, according as the
richness of the soil requires, and the same considera-
tion determines the amount — four modii, sometimes
three, sometimes even two and a half to the mgerum.
XI. Since we have treated of the time at which
each sowing should be made, we shall now show what
method of cultivation is to be employed, and the
number of days' labour required for each of the crops
mentioned. After the sowing is finished, the next
matter is that of hoeing, a point on which authorities
are not agreed. Some say that this is of no advan-
tage, because the roots of the grain are uncovered by
the hoe and some of them are even cut off, and, if the
weather is cold after the hoeing, the grain is killed
by frost; but that it is better that weeding and
cleaning be done at the proper season. Still there
are many who believe in hoeing, but that it should
not be done everywhere in the same way and at the
same time ; thus, in dry and sunny fields, as soon
as the crops can stand hoeing, they should be covered
with well-stirred soil to enable them to bush out ;
and this should be done before winter, and then
repeated after winter is past ; while in cold and
swampy places, usually after winter is over, they
should be hoed without being covered over but
having the earth thoroughly stirred by level hoeing.
Nevertheless we find that winter hoeing is suited to
many regions, but only where dryness and warmth
of climate permit, though we think it best not to
practice even this everywhere but to conform to the
ways of those who live in the neighbourhood. For
countries have their own peculiar advantages, such
as those of Egypt and Africa, where the farmer does

i8i

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

ante messem segetem non attingit, quoniam caeli
conditio et terrae bonitas ea est ut vix ulla herba
exeat nisi ex semine iacto, sive quia rari sunt imbres
seu quia qualitas humi sic se cultoribus praebet,

4 In iis autem locis, ubi desideratur sartio, non ante
sunt attingendae segetes, etiam si caeli status
permittat,^ quam cum sata sulcos contexerint.
Triticumque et adoreum, cum quattuor fibras habere
coeperint, hordeum, cum quinque, faba et cetera
legumina, cum quattuor digitis a terra exstiterint,
recte sarientur, excepto tamen lupino, cuius semini
contraria est sartio, quoniam imam radicem habet,
quae sive ferro succisa est seu vulnerata, totus

5 frutex emoritur. Quod etiam si non fieret, super-
vacuus tamen esset ^ cultus, cum sola haec res adeo
non infestetur herbis, ut ipsa herbas perimat. At
quae ^ aliae segetes vel umidae moveri possunt,
melius tamen siccae sariuntur, quia sic tractatae
non infestantur rubigine ; hordeum vero nisi siccissi-

6 mum tangi non debet. Fabam multi ne sariendam
quidem putant, quod et manibus, cum maturuerit,
ducta secernatur a cetera runcatione * et internatae
herbae faeno reserventur. Cuius opinionis etiam
Cornelius Celsus est, qui inter ceteras dotes eius ^
leguminis hanc quoque enumerat, quod sublata
faba faenum ex eodem loco secari posse dicat. Sed
mihi videtur pessimi agricolae committere ut satis

^ permittat S, Limdstrom : permittit AE, et vulgo.

* esset ac, Ursinus, Gesn., Schn. : erat SA, Lundstrom :
erit R, vett. edd.

^ At quae Lundstrdm : atque codd., Schn. : at aliae segetes,
quae vtilgo.

* runca 8A^, Lundstrom.

* eius om, R, edd. ante Schn.

I83

BOOK II. XI. 3-6

not touch his crop from the sowing until the reaping,
for cHmatic conditions and the quality of the soil are
such that scarcely any plant comes up except from
seed that is sown ; either because of the scarcity of
rain or because the character of the soil so lends
itself to those who cultivate it.*^ Moreover, in those 4
regions where hoeing is desirable, the crops are not
to be touched before the growth has covered the
furrows, even if the condition of the weather should
allow it. It will be proper to hoe wheat and emmer as
soon as they have put forth four blades, barley when
it has five, and beans and other legumes when they
stand four fingers above ground — with the exception,
however, of the lupine, as hoeing is hurtful to its
seedlings ; for it has a single root, and if this is cut
or injured by an iron tool, the whole plant dies.
And even if this were not the case, cultivation would 5
still be unnecessary, for this one plant is so far from
being troubled by weeds as actually to destroy them
on its own account. Now other crops which may be
worked when wet, are nevertheless hoed with better
results when dry, because, when handled in this way,
they are not attacked by rust ; but barley must not
be touched except when perfectly dry. Many people 6
think that beans should not be hoed at all, because,
being puUed by hand when ripe, they may be
separated from the other growth, and the grass that
grows among them may be saved for hay. This is
also the opinion of Cornelius Celsus, who counts this
too among the other virtues of this legume when he
says that after the beans are removed a cutting of
hay may be taken from the same spot. But to me
it seems the mark of a very poor farmer to allow grass

• Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 186.

x83

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

herba proveniat ; frugibus enim plurimum detra-

7 hitur, si relinquitur runcatio.'^ Neque ^ est rustici
prudentis magis pabulis studere pecudum quam
cibis honiinum, cum praesertim liceat ilia quoque
cultu pratorum consequi ; adeoque fabam sariendam
censeo, ut existimem debere etiam ter sariri. Nam
sic cultam comperimus non solum multiplicare
fructum, sed et ^ exiguam portionem in valvulis
habere fresaeque eius et expurgatae medium paene
tam plenum esse quam integrae, quoniam vix minua-

8 tur mensura detractis putaminibus. Atque in totum,
sicut ante iam diximus, hiberna sartio plurimum
iuvat diebus serenis ac siccis post brumam confectam
mense lanuario, si gelicidia non sint. Ea porro sic
debet fieri, ne radices satorum laedantur et ut potius
adobruantur cumulisque exaggerentur,* ut latius se
frutex culmi ^ difFundat. Id prima sartione fecisse
proderit, secunda oberit, quia cum pullulare ® desiit '

9 frumentum, putrescit si adobrutum ^ est. Nihil
itaque amplius in iteratione quam remolliri ^ terra
debet aequaliter; eamque transacto aequinoctio
verno statim peragi oportet intra dies viginti, ante
quam seges in articulum eat, quoniam serius sarta
corrumpitur insequentibus aestivis siccitatibus et
caloribus. Subiungenda deinde est sartioni runcatio
curandumque ne florentem segetem tangamus, sed

10 aut ante ^° aut mox cum defloruerit. Omne autem

• runca 6^4, Lundstrom.

• neque enim R, edd. ante Lundstrom.

' et om. AR, edd. ante Schn. * exaggerantur codd.
' humi if, edd. ante Lundstrom.

• paululum SA : paulum a.
' desit iS'^, Lundstrom.

• adrutum SA, Lundstrom.

• sic Schn. : remoliri Lundstrom, et vulgo.

184

BOOK 11. XI. 6-9

to grow among his crops, for it detracts greatly from
the yield if weeding is neglected. And it is no mark 7
of a wise husbandman to be more concerned with
fodder for cattle than with food for man, especially
when he may obtain the former as well by cultivation
of his meadows. I am so strongly in favour of hoeing
beans as to think that they should actually be hoed
three times. For Ave find that when cultivated in
this way they not only multiply their yield but also
have but little pod in proportion, and that a measure
of them when shelled and cleaned is almost as full
as before they were shelled, as the amount is scarcely
diminished by the removal of the outer coverings.
And in general, as we have said before, winter hoeing 8
is of very great benefit on clear and dry days after the
solstice is past, in the month of January, if there are
no frosts. It should be done, besides, in such a way
that the roots of the plants will not be damaged, but
rather covered over and hilled up, so that the offshoots
of the main stem may spread out farther. It will be
beneficial to do this at the first hoeing, but harmful
at the second, because grain rots if it is covered after
it has ceased to send out shoots. Therefore nothing 9
more should be done at the second hoeing than to
loosen the ground evenly ; and this should be done
immediately after the vernal equinox is past, within
twenty days, before the plant forms a joint, for when
it is hoed later it is destroyed by the dry weather and
heat of the ensuing summer. To the hoeing must be
added the weeding, and we must take care not to
touch a grain-field when it is in bloom, but either
beforehand or soon after the blossoms have fallen.

^^ antea R plerique, edd. ante Lundstrom.

185

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

frumentum et hordeum, quicquid denique non
duplici semine est, spicam a tertio ad quartum nodum
emittit et, cum totam edidit, octo diebus deflorescit
ac deinde grandescit diebus quadraginta, quibus post
florem ad maturitatem venit. Rursus quae duplici
semine sunt, ut faba, pisum, lenticula, diebus quadra-
ginta florent simulque grandescunt.

XII. Et ut iam percenseamus, quot operis in aream
perducantur ea, quae terrae credidimus, tritici modii
quattuor vel quinque bubulcorum operas occupant
quattuor, occatoris unam, sartoris duas primum et
unam cum iterum sariuntur, runcatoris unam, mes-
soris unam et dimidiam ; in totum summam operarum
decem et dimidiam. Siliginis modii quinque totidem
operas desiderant. Seminis ^ modii novem vel
decem totidem operas quot tritici modii quinque

2 postulant. Hordei modii quinque bubulci operas
tres exigunt, occatoriam unam, sartoi'iam unam et
dimidiam, messoriam unam : summam operarum
sex et dimidiam. Fabae modii quattuor vel sex in
vetereto duas operas bubulcorum detinent, at in
restibili unam; occantur sesquiopera, sariuntur
sesquiopera et una opera ^ iterum, tertium ^ sariuntur
una opera, metuntur una : summa fit operarum octo

3 vel septem. Viciae modii sex vel septem in vetereto
bubulcorum duas operas volunt, in restibili unam,

^ Seminis S : si seminis AR : Sesamii vd Sesami vulgo ante
Schn. ; eed Pontedera adorei proposuit.

* sariuntur s. e. u. opera Lundstrom : sariuntur sex una
opera E plerique; om. SA : sarriuntur sesquiopera, iterum
sarriuntur una opera, et tertio una vulgo.

' tertium add. Lundstrom.

* I.e., in modern botanical usage, dicotyledonous.

* The amount of seed required for sowing one iugerum;
cf. II. 9. 1.

1 86

BOOK II. XI. lo-xii. 3

Now all grain and barley, in short everything that 10
is not of double seed," sends out an ear from the third
to the fourth joint ; and when it has pushed out the
entire spike it casts its bloom within eight days, and
then continues to grow until it reaches maturity forty
days after its flowering. On the other hand, those
that are of double seed, such as beans, peas, and
lentils, bloom in forty days and increase in growth for
the same length of time.

XII. And now to reckon up the number of days'
labour required to bring to the threshing-floor what
we have committed to the earth, four or five modii of
common wheat * take up four days' work of the
ploughmen, one of the harrower, two of the hoer for
the first hoeing and one for the second, one of the
weeder, and one and a half of the reaper — a total of
ten and one-half days of labour. Five modii of winter
wheat require the same number of days. Nine or ten
modii of emmer <^ call for as many days' work as five
»joc?M of common wheat. Five worf« of barley require 2
three days' labour of the ploughman, one day of
harrowing, one and a half of hoeing, and one of
reaping — six and a half days in all. Four or six modii
of beans use up two days' work of the ploughmen in
old fallow ground, but one in land under cultivation ;
they are harrowed in a day and a half, hoed in a day
and a half, hoed a second time in one day and a third
time in one day, and harvested in one day — the total
amounting to seven or eight days. Six or seven modii 3
of vetch want two days' labour of the ploughmen in
old fallow, and one in ground that is kept under

" Semen adoreum, in combination or singly; cf. 11. 6. 1, II.
9.1.

187

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

item occantur una opera, metiintur una: sumina fit
operarum quattuor.^ Ervi modii quinque totidem
operis conseruntur, occantur una, item singulis
sariuntur, runcantur, metuntur; quae cuncta sex
operas occupant. Siliquae modii sex vel septem
totidem operis obruuntur, metuntur una. Phaseoli
modii quattuor obruuntur totidem operis, occantur

4 una, metuntur una. Cicerae vel cicerculae modii
quattuor operas bubulcorum tres postulant, occantur
una opera, runcantur una, velluntur una: summa
fit sex operarum. Lentis sesquimodius totidem
operis ^ obruitur,^ occatur una, saritur duabus,
runcatur una, vellitur una : summa fit operarum octo.
Lupini modii decem obruuntur una, occantur una,
metuntur una. Milii sextarii quattuor totidemque
panici bubulcorum operas occupant quattuor,
occantur operis tribus, sariuntur tribus ; quot operis

5 carpantur, incertum est. Ciceris modii tres operis
totidem seminantur, occantur duabus, sariuntur una,
runcantur una, velluntur tribus : summa fit undecim
operarum. Lini decem modii vel octo quattuor
iugis conseruntur, occantur tribus,^ runcantur una,
velluntur tribus : summa fit undecim operarum.
Sesami sextarii sex tribus iugis a proscissione col-
untur,^ occantur * operis quattuor, sariuntur quattuor

* aic codd., Lundstrvm : vel trium add. Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* operas li, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* obruitur add. Madvig, Lundstrdm ; om. 8A, vett. edd. :
desiderat E, Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* operis tribus Aid., Gesn. Schn.

' coluntur R, edd. : tolluntur SA, Lundstrom.

* post occantur verba tribus runcantur una velluntur tribus
summa fit e sententia antecedente repetunt SA, teste Lundstrom :
occantur operis tribus, s. q., e. s. i. d., runcantur una, velluntur
duabus. Summa fit Schn. praeeunte Pontedera.

BOOK II. XII. 3-5

cultivation ; this likewise is harrowed in one day, and
harvested in one day — the total amounting to [three
or] four days' work. Five modii of bitter vetch are
sown in the same number of days, harrowed in one
day, and also hoed, weeded, and harvested in one day
each — the total making up six days. Six or seven
modii of fenugreek " are put in the ground with the
same number of days' labour, and are harvested in
one day. Four 7nodii of cow-peas are put under
ground in the same number of days, are harrowed in
one day, and harvested in one. Four modii of 4
chickling-vetch or of the small chick-pea require three
days' work of the ploughmen; they are harrowed in
one day, weeded in one, and pulled in one — the total
amounting to six days of work. A modius and a half of
lentil is covered in the same number of days, harrowed
in one, hoed in two, weeded in one, and pulled in one
— the total coming to eight days' work. Ten modii
of lupine are covered in one day, harrowed in one,
and harvested in one. Four sextarii of millet and the
same amount of panic take up four days' labour of the
ploughmen, are harrowed in three days, and hoed in
three ; the number of days for gathering is not fixed.
Three modii of the chick-pea are sown in the same 5
number of days, harrowed in two days, hoed in one,
weeded in one, and pulled in three— a total of
eleven days' work. Eight or ten modii of flaxseed are
sown with four days' ploughing, harrowed with three
days' work, weeded with one, and pulled with three —
the total amounting to eleven days' work. Six sextarii
of sesame are cared for with three days' ploughing
after the first breaking of the ground, four days of

" Siliqua; cf. II. 10. 33.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

et sariuntur iterum duabus, metuntur duabus :

6 summa fit operarum quindecim. Cannabis seritur,
ut supra docuimus, sed incertum est quantam im-
pensam curamque desideret. At Medica obruitur
non aratro, sed, ut dixi, ligneis rastellis. lugerum
agri eius occant duo,^ sarit unus, metit unus.^

7 Hac consummatione operarum eolligitur posse
agrum ducentorum iugerum subigi duobus iugis
bovum 3 totidemque bubulcis et sex mediastinis, si
tamen vacet arboribus. At ubi * sit arbustum,
tamen^ eundem modum Saserna ti'ibus hominibus
adiectis adseverat probe satis excoli. Quae nos
ratio docet sufl[icere posse iugum bovum tritici
centum viginti quinque modiis totidemque legu-
minum, ut sit in assem * autumnalis satio modiorum
ducentorum quinquaginta, et posthac nihilo minus
conserantur ' trimestrium modii * quinque et septua-

8 ginta. Hoc deinde sic probatur. Semina, quae
quarto sulco seruntur in iugeribus viginti quinque,
desiderant bubulcorum operas centum decem et
quinque ; nam proscinditur is agri modus, quamvis
durissimi, quinquaginta operis, iteratur quinque et

9 viginti, tertiatur et conseritur quadraginta. Cetera *
legumina occupant operas sexaginta, id est menses
duos. Pluviales quoque et feriarum computantur,
quibus non aratur, dies quinque et quadraginta;
item peracta sementi, quibus requiescunt, dies

^ occantur duabus R : occatur duabus M, Aid., Gesn.

* sarit una metit una B : sarritur una, metitur una M,
Aid., Qesn.

^ sic SA, Lundsirom : bourn R, et vulgo,

* si Aid., Oesn., Schn.

' tamen om. SA, edd. ante Lundatrom.

* asse Vrainua, Schn.

190

BOOK II. xn. 5-9

harrowing, four of hoeing and two at the second
hoeing, and two days of harvesting — a total of fifteen
days. Hemp is sown as we have directed above, but 6
the amount of expense and attention required is not
fixed. Medic, however, is put in the ground, not with
the plough, but, as I have said, with small wooden
rakes. One itigerum of this is harrowed by two men,
hoed by one, and harvested by one.

From this summing up of the days of labour required 7
it is concluded that two hundred iugera of land can be
worked with two yoke of oxen, the same number of
ploughmen, and six common labourers, pro\'ided it
be free of trees ; but the same amount, when it is
planted with trees, Saserna says can be satisfactorily
cultivated with three additional men. This calcula-
tion shows us that one yoke of oxen can meet the
requirements of one hundred and twenty-five modii of
wheat and the same of legumes, so that the autumn
sowing may total two hundred and fifty modii, and
even after that seventy-five modii of three-months
crops may still be sown. The proof of this is as 8
follows : Seeds that are sown at the fourth ploughing
require, for twenty-five iugera, one hundred and
fifteen days' labour of the ploughmen ; for such a
plot of ground, however hard, is broken in fifty
days, re-ploughed in twenty-five, ploughed a third
time and then sown in forty days. Other legumes 9
require sixty days, that is, two months. Forty-five
days also are allowed for rainy weather and holidays,
on which no ploughing is done ; likewise thirty days
after the sowing is finished, in which there is a period

' conseram iS : conserant A et E plerique : conserat Aid.,
Gesn., Schn.

* modios Aid., Gesn., Schn. * Cetera om,. Schn.

191
VOL. I. H

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

triginta. Sic in asse fiunt octo menses et dies decern.
Supersunt tamen de anno tres reliqui menses et dies
quinque et vii^-inti, quos absumamus ^ aut in satione
trimestrium aut in vecturis faeni et pabulorum et
stercoris aliorimique utensilium.

XIII. Sed ex iis, quae rettuli, seminibus idem
Saserna putat aliis stercorari et iuvari agros, aliis
rursus peruri et emaciari ; stercorari lupino, faba, vicia,
ervilia, lenti, cicercula, piso. De lupino nihil dubito
atque etiam de pabulari vicia, si tamen earn viridem
desectam confestim aratrum subsequatiu- et, quod
falx reliquerit, prius quam inarescat,^ vomis rescin-

2 dat atque obruat ; id enim cedit pro stercore. Nam
si radices eius desecto pabulo relictae inaruerunt,-''
sucum omnem solo auferent vimque terrae absu-
ment ; quod etiam in faba ceterisque leguminibus,
quibus terra gliscere videtur, verisimile est accidere,
ut nisi protinus sublata messe * eorum proscinditur,^
nihil iis segetibus, quae deinceps in eo loco seminari

3 debent, profuturum sit. Ac de iis quoque legumini-
bus, quae velluntur, Tremelius obesse ait maxime ^
solo virus ' ciceris et lini, alterum quia sit salsae,^
alterum quia sit ^ fervidae naturae, quod etiam
Vergilius significat dicendo :

Urit enim lini campum seges, urit avenae,
Urunt Lethaeo perfusa papavera somno.

^ absumimus R plerique.

' macrescat vel marcescat R j^lcrique.

' inaruerunt SA, Lundstrom : inaruerint R, el vnlgo.

■• messes *S'^4.

* proscinditur cocld., Luwlstmm : proscindatur vuUjo.

* maxime ait R. ' virtus A.

* densae S: dens (e suprascr. man. rec.) A. * sit om. S.

" Geonj. I. 77-78.
192

BOOK II. xn. 9-xni. 3

of rest. Thus the total amounts to eight months and
ten days. Still there are left of the year three months
and twenty-five days, which we may spend either
in sowing three-months crops or in the hauling of
hay, forage, manure, and of other useful things.

XIII. But of the crops that I have mentioned, the
same Saserna thinks that land is fertilized and
improved by some, and, on the other hand, that it is
burned out and wasted by others ; that it is fertilized
by lupine, beans, vetch, bitter vetch, lentils, the
small chickpea, and peas. As to the lupine I have
no doubt, nor yet as to vetch when it is sown for
fodder, provided, however, that after being cut green
it be followed up immediately by the plough, and
that the ploughshare cut up and bury, before it dries
out, what is left by the sickle ; for this takes the place
of manure. For if the roots are left to dry out after 2
the fodder is cut, they will draw all the moisture out
of the soil and use up the strength of the land ; and it
is probable that this happens also in the case of beans
and other legumes by which the ground appears to
be enriched ; so tliat, unless the ground is broken up
at once after a crop of them has been taken off, it will
be of no benefit to the crops which are to be planted
in that spot thereafter. Of those legumes, too, which 3
are harvested by pulling, Tremelius says that the
poisons of the chickpea and of flax are most harmful
to the soil, the one because it is of a salty nature, the
other because of its burning qualities ; and Vergil,
too, points this out when he says :

A field is burned by crops of flax, is burned by

crops of oats.
Is burned by crops of poppies with Lethaean

slumber steeped."

193

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Neque enim dubium, quin et his seminibus infestetur
fkger sicut et ^ milio et panico. Sed omni solo, quod
praedictorum leguminum segetibus fatiscit, una
praesens mediciiaa est, ut stercore adiuves et absump-
tas vires hoc velut pabulo refoveas, nee tantum
propter semina, quae sulcis aratri committuntur,
verum etiam propter arbores ac virgulta, quae
maiorem in rnodum laetantur eius modi alimento.
Quare si est, ut videtur, agricoUs utihssimum, dih-
gentius de eo dicendura existimo, cum priscis auctori-
bus, quam\is non omissa res,^ levi tamen admodum
cura sit prodita.

XIV. Tria igitur genera stercoris ^ sunt praecipue,*
quod ex avibus, quod ex hominibus, quod ex pecudi-
bus confit. Avium primum habetur quod ex coliun-
bariis egeritur, deinde quod galhnae ceteraeque
volucres edunt, exceptis tamen palustribus aut
nantibus, ut anatis ^ et anseris ; nam id noxium
quoque est. Maxime tamen ^ columbinum probamus,
quod modice sparsum terram fermentare comperi-
mus ; secundum deinde, quod homines faciunt, bi et
ahis villae purgamentis immisceatur, quoniam per
se ' naturae est fcrventioris et idcirco terram perurit.
Aptior est tamen surculis hominis urina, quam sex
mensibus passus veterascere ^ si vitibus aut pomorum
arborib'.is adhibeas, nullo alio magis fructus exu-
berat : nee solum ea res maiorem faciet * proventum.

* etiam Aid., Oesn., tichn.
~ noa cmiies sares SA.

^ stercoria genera R.

* praecipua jG pauci, et vulgo ante Schn.

* anetis SA, Lundstrom. * autem S.
' per se vulgo additur ; om. codd. ct Schn.

* veterescere Lund;;tr6in cum codd. ut videtur.

* facit II aliquot. Aid., Gesn., Schu.

194

BOOK II. XIII. 3-xiv. 2

For there is no doubt that a field is impaired by
seeding it with these, just as it is by millet and panic.
But for all ground that is exhausted by cropping the
aforesaid legumes there is one remedy at hand,
namely, to come to its aid with manure, and with this
sustenance, so to speak, to restore the strength that
has been taken from it ; and this not only for the 4
sake of seed which is committed to the ploughed
furrow, but also for trees and bushes, which thrive in
greater measure on this kind of nourishment. Where-
fore, if manuring is of the greatest advantage to the
farmer, as it appears to be, I believe that it should be
discussed ^\ith unusual care, inasmuch as this subject,
though not overlooked by the ancient authorities,"
has nevertheless been given very slight attention.

XIV. There are, then, mainly, three kinds of
manure : that produced by birds, by humankind, and
by cattle. Of bird dung that is considered first which
is gathered from dove-cotes, and next is that which
comes from hens and other fowl, excepting neverthe-
less marsh birds or swimming fowl, such as ducks and
geese ; for that is actually harmful. Still we especi-
ally commend pigeon dung, because we find that a
moderate spreading of it causes the earth to ferment ;
and second to this is human excrement, if it is mixed 2
with other refuse of the farmstead, for by itself it is
naturally rather hot and for that reason it burns the
ground. Better suited to young shoots, however, is
human urine ; and if you let it age for six months and
then apply it to vines or fruit trees, there is nothing
that makes them bear more abundantly ; and not
only will this treatment produce a larger crop but also

» Cf. Cato, 36; Varro, R.R. I. 38. Of later authorities
c/. Pliny, N.H. XVII. 50-57, and PaUadius, I. 33.

195

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

sed etiam saporem et odorem vini ^ pomorumque

3 reddit meliorem. Potest et vetus amurca, quae
salem non habet, perniixta huic commode frugiferas
arbores et praecipue oleas rigare, nam per se quoque
adhibita multum iuvat. Sed usus utriusque maxime
per hiemem est et adhuc vera ante aestivos vapores,^

4 dum etiam vites et arbores ablaqueatae sunt. Ter-
tium locum obtinet pecudum stercus atque in eo
quoque discrimen est ; nam optimum existimatur,
quod asinus facit, quia id animal lentissime mandit ^
ideoque facilius concoquit et bene confectum atque
idoneum protinus arvo fimum reddit. Post haec,
quae diximus, ovillum et ab hoc caprinum ^ est, mox
ceterorum iumentorum ^ armentorumque. Deter-

5 rimum ex omnibus suillum habetur. Quin etiam
satis proficit ^ cineris et favillae,' frutex vero lupini
succisus optimi stercoris vim praebet. Nee ignoro
quoddam esse ruris genus, in quo neque pecora
neque aves haberi possint ; at tamen inertis est

6 rustici eo quoque loco defici stercore. Licet enim
quamlibet frondem, licet e vepribus et e viis ^ com-
pitisque ^ congesta colligere, licet filicem ^" sine
iniuria vicini, etiam cum officio decidere et permiscere

1 vitis SA. ^ aestiuus tempores A.

^ mandat A.

* quae diximus . . . caprinum om. SA.
^ ceterum dum in iumentorum SA.

* proficit Lundstrom : profuit B, edd. plerique : prodicitur
S : prodicit A.

' cineris usus et favillae Ursinus, Oesn., Schn.

* et e viis om. R.

" compitisque Aid. : conpitique *S^^ : compitibusque R.
^^ felicem S^Aa, Lmidstrom.

196

BOOK II. XIV. 2-6

it improves the flavour and the bouquet of the wine
and the fruit. Also old oil lees, unsalted and mixed 3
with this, can be used to advantage in watering
fruit-bearing trees, and especially olives ; for even
when applied alone the lees are very beneficial. But
both of them are used chiefly during the winter and
even in spring, before the heat of summer, while the
ground is kept open around the vines and the trees."
The dung of cattle holds third place, and in this too 4
there is a difference ; for what the ass produces is con-
sidered best, because that animal chews very slowly
and for that reason digests his food more easily, and he
gives in return a manure that is well prepared and
ready for the field immediately. After those that
we have mentioned comes sheep dung, next is goat
dung, and then that of other cattle and draught-
animals. The dung of swine is considered the poorest
of all. Moreover, the use of ashes and cinders is 5
reasonably beneficial, while cut lupine plants pro-
vide the strength of the best manure. And I am
not unaware that there is a certain kind of countryside
in which neither cattle nor fowl can be kept ; but even
in such a place it is the mark of a slothful husbandman
to be destitute of fertilizer. For he may store up any 6
sort of leaves ; he may gather any accumulated
matter from bramble patches and from highways and
byways ; he may cut down his neighbour's fernbrakes
without doing him harm, or even as a favour, and mix

" An operation formerly described by the convenient word
" ablaqueation." Cf. Palladius, II. 1, lanuario mense locis
temperatis ablaqueandae sunt viies, qtiod Itali excodicare apellant,
id est circa vitis codicem dolabra terram diligenter aperire, et
purgatis omnibxis velut lacus effwere, ut solis teporibus et imbribus
provocentur ; Isidore, Orig. XVII. 5. 31.

197

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

cum purgamentis cohortis, licet depressa fossa,
qualem stercori reponendo primo volumine fieri
praecepimus, cinerem caeiiumque cloacarum et
culmos ceteraque, quae everruntur, in unum con-
gerere. Sed eodem medio loco robustam materiem
defigere convenit, namque ea res serpentem noxiam ^

7 latere in stercore prohibet. Haec ubi \iduus pecudi-
bus ager. Nam ubi greges quadrupedum versantur,
quaedam cotidie, ut culina et caprile, quaedam
pluviis diebus, ut bubilia et ovilia, debent eraundari.
Ac si tantum frumentarius ager est, nihil refert
genera stercoris separare ; ^ sin autem surculo et
segetibus atque etiam pratis fundus est dispositus,
generatim quoque ^ reponendum est, sicut caprarum
et avium. Pteliqua deinde in praedictum locum con-
cavum egerenda * et adsiduo^ humore ^ satianda
sunt, ut herbarum semina culmis ceterisque rebus

8 immixta putrescant. Aestivis deinde mensibus non
aliter ac si repastines, totum stercilinum rastris
permisceri oportet, quo facilius putrescat et sit arvis
idoneum. Parum autem diligentis existimo esse
agricolas, apud quos minores singulae pecudes
tricenis diebus minus quam singulas itemque maiores
denas vehes stercoris efficiunt totidemque singuli
homines, qui non solum ea purgamenta, quae ipsi
corporibus edunt, sed et quae coUuvies cohortis et

^ serpentum noxam Aid., Gesn.
^ separari R, Aid., Gesn., Schn.
" quodque Ursinus, Schn.

* egerenda R, Lundstrom : erigenda SA, vett. edd. : con-
gerenda vulgo.

* adsiboum morea (more A) SA^.

» I. 6. 21-22.

" So Varro. R.Ji. I. 38. 3 ; Pliny, N.H. XVII. 57.

198

BOOi: II. XIV. 6-8

them with the cleanings from his iuclosure ; he may
sink a trench such as, in my first book," I directed to be
made for the storage of manure, and may heap to-
gether in one pile his ashes, sewer filth, straw, and
other dirt that is swept out. But it is well to fasten a
piece of oak wood in the middle of that same place,
for tliis keeps the harmful serpent from hiding in the
manure.'' All this of land which is bereft of cattle ; 7
for where herds of four-footed animals are kept, there
are some places, such as the kitchen and the goat-
sheds, which should be cleaned every day, and others,
like the ox-stalls and sheepfolds, which are to be
cleaned on rainy days. And if the ground is used
merely for gi-ain, it is of no importance to keep the
different kinds of manure apart ; but if the farm is
laid out for a niu-sery, for grainfields, and also for
meadows, the manure too must be stored separately,
as that of goats and of birds. Then the rest of the
refuse should be gathered into the hollowed-out place
before mentioned, and it should be constantly
satm-ated with moisture, so that the weed seeds mixed
with the chaff and other matter may rot. Then 8
during the summer months the whole dunghill should
be thoroughly stirred with rakes, just as if you Avere
loosening the ground, so that it may decay more
readily and be fit for the land. Moreover, I coasider
those farmers lacking in industry who have from each
of the smaller animals less than one load ' of manure
in thirty days, and likewise ten loads from each of the
larger ones ; and the same amount from each person,
for they can gather and heap together not only the
waste matter from their own bodies, but also the dirt

' Columella, XI. 2. 86, speaks of one load (vehis) of manure
as containing 80 modii ( = about 20 bushels).

199

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

aedificii cotidie gignit, contrahere et congerere
9 possunt. Illud quoque praecipiendum habeo, stercus
omne, quod tempestive repositum anno requieverit,
segetibus esse ^ maxime utile, nam et vires adhiie
solidas habet et herbas non creat ; quanto autem
vetustius sit, minus prodesse, quoniam minus valeat.
Itaque pratis quam recentissimum debere iniei, quod
plus herbarum progeneret ; idque mense Februario
luna crescente fieri oportere, nam ea quoque res ^
aliquantum faeni fructum adiuvat. De cetero usu
stercoris, qualis in quaque re debeat esse, turn
dicemus, cum singula persequemur.

XV. Interim qui frumentis arva praeparare volet,
si autumno sementem facturus est, mense Septembri,
si vere, qualibet hiemis parte modicos acervos luna
decrescente disponat,^ ita ut plani loci iugerum
duodeviginti,^clivosi quattuor et viginti vehes stercoris
teneant ; et ut paulo prius dixi, non antea dissipet
2 cumulos, quam erit saturus.^ Si tamen aliqua
causa eum ^ tempestivam stercorationem facere
prohibuerit, secunda ratio est, ante quam sariat,'
more seminantis ex aviariis pulverem stercoris per
segetem spargere ; si et is non erit, caprinum manu
iacere atque ita terram sarculis permiscere. Ea res
laetas segetes reddit. Nee ignorare colonos oportere
reor,^ sicuti refrigescere agrum, qui non stercoretur,
ita peruri, si nimium stercoretur, magisque conducere

^ repositum . . . esse om. SA. ^ res om. SA.

^ disputat SA.

* duo et viginti R : duodecim Gesn.

^ arturus SA : araturus Schn., pmeeunte Pontedcra.

* eum om. E, edd. plerique.
' sarias R : seras Schn.

* oportere (reor s. re scr. man. alt. S) SAR : oportet edd.
aide Lunddirdm.

200

BOOK II. XIV. 8-xv. 2

which the yard and the buildings produce every day.
I have also this further direction to give, that all 9
manure is most beneficial to crops when it has been
stored in proper season and has rested for a year, for
it still has its strength unimpaired and does not
produce weeds ; moreover, that the older it is, the less
beneficial, because it has less sti-ength. For this
reason it should be spread on meadoAvs while as fresh
as possible, because it produces more grass ; and
this should be done in the month of February, while
the moon is waxing, as this also contributes some-
what to the hay crop. As to the other use of manure,
what sort is suitable for the several kinds of crops, we
shall speak when we treat of them individually.

XV. Meanwhile, one who wishes to prepare his
fields for grain should distribute manure in piles of
moderate size while the moon is waning — in the
month of September if he intends to sow in the
autumn, at any time of winter if he is to sow in the
spring — at the rate of eighteen loads to the iugerum
on level ground and twenty-four on hilly land ; and,
as I said a little earlier," he should not spread these
heaps until he is ready to sow. Yet if anything 2
keeps him from applying manux'e at the proper time, a
second method is, before hoeing, to scatter over the
grainfield the pulverized droppings from the bird
houses in the manner of one casting seed ; and if there
is none of this, to broadcast goat dung by hand and
then stir the ground thoroughly with hoes. This
produces luxuriant crops. And I tliink that husband-
men should not be unacquainted yvi\\\ the fact that as
land grows cold when it is not manured, so it is
burned if manured too heavily ; and that it is of

" Chap. 5 of this book.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

agricolae frequenter id potius quam inimodice facere.

3 Nee dubium quia aquosus ager maiorem eius copiam,
siccus minorem desideret, alter quod adsiduis lunori-
bus rigens hoc adhibito regelatur, alter quod per se
tepens siccitatibus hoc ^ adsunipto largioribus ^
torretur ; ^ propter quod nee deesse ei talem mater-

4 iem nee superesse oportet. Si tamen nullum genus
stercoris suppetet, multum proderit fecisse quod
Marcum Columellam patruum meum, doctissimum
at diligentissimum agricolam, saepe numero usurpasse
memoria repeto, ut sabulosis * locis cretam ingereret,
cretosis ac nimium densis sabulum, atque ita non
solum segetes laetas excitaret verum etiam pul-

5 cherrimas vineas efficeret. Nam idem negabat
stercus vitibus ingerendum, quod saporem viRi
corrumperet, melioremque censebat esse materiam
vindemiis exuberandis congesticiam vel de vepribus
vel denique aliam quamUbet arcessitam et advectam
humum. lam vero et ego reor, si deficiatur omnibus
rebus agricola, lupini certe praesidium expeditis-
simum non deesse ; quod cum exili loco ^ circa Idus
Septembris sparserit et inaraverit idque tempestive
vomere vel ligone succiderit, vim optimae stercora-

6 tionis exhibebit. Succidi autem lupinum sabulosis
locis oportet, cum secundum florem, lubricosis,''
cum tertium egerit. Illic, dum tenerum est, con-

1 ad hoc SA.

^ largiore R, el vulgo ante Lundsirom.

^ tolleretur SA.

* pabulosis SA.

* sola SA : solo Schn.

" lubricosis SA, Lundstrom : rubricosis R, et vulgo.
202

BOOK 11. XV. 2-6

greater advantage to the farmer to do this fre-
quently rather than lavishly. And there is no doubt 3
that wet land requires a greater quantity of it, and
dry land less— the one because, being chilled by con-
stant moisture, it is warmed when manure is applied,
and the other because, being naturally warm, it is
parched by the increased aridity when this is added ;
for which reason such dressing should be neither
deficient nor over-sufficient. If, however, no kind of 4
manure is available, it \n\\ be very helpful to follow
the practice which I remember my uncle, Marcus
Columella, a very learned and painstaking farmer,
frequently employed : that is, to heap clay on
gravelly ground, and gravel on ground that was
clayey and too stiff, and in this way to grow not only
luxuriant crops of grain but also very fine vineyards.
For this same authority used to say that dung 5
should not be applied to vines, because it spoiled the
flavour of the wine ; and he thought that a better
dressing for making a heavy vintage was humus,
either that which accumulates around bramble-
thickets, or in fact any earth obtained elsewhere and
brought in. But my opinion nowadays is that if the
farmer is destitute of everything, at any rate there is
no lack of lupine, that very ready aid ; and if he will
scatter this on lean ground about the middle of
September, plough it in, and at the proper time cut it
up with the ploughshare or the mattock, it will have
the effect of the best manure. The lupine should be 6
cut, moreover, in gravelly ground when it is in the
second flower, and in sticky soils when it is in its third."
In the former case it is turned under while it is tender,

" Pliny, in describing the lupine, says {N.H. XVIII. 133)
that it blooms three times.

203

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

vertitur, ut celeriter ipsum putrescat permisceaturque
gracili solo ; hie iam robustius, quod solidioris
glaebas diutius sustineat et suspendat, ut eae solibus
aestivis vaporatae resolvantur.

XVI. Atque haec arator exsequi poterit, si non
soliun quae rettuli genera pabulorum providerit,
verum etiam copiam faeni, quo melius armenta
tueatur, sine quibus terram commode moliri difficile
est ; et ideo necessarius ei cultus est etiam prati,
cui veteres Romani primas in agricolatione tribuerunt.

2 Nomen quoque indiderunt ab eo, quod protinus esset
paratum nee magnum laborem desideraret. Marcus
quidem Porcius et ilia commemoravit, quod nee
tempestatibus adfligeretur ut aliae partes ruris
minimeque ^ sumptus egens per omnis annos prae-
beret reditum neque eum simplicem, cum etiam in

3 pabulo non minus redderet quam in faeno. Eius
igitur animadvertimus duo genera, quorum alterum
est siceaneum, alterum riguum. Laeto pinguique
campo non desideratur ^ influens rivus, meliusque
habetur faenum, quod suapte natura sucoso gignitur
solo, quam quod inrigatum aquis elicitur ; ^ quae
tamen sunt necessariae, si macies terrae postulat.
Nam et in densa et I'esoluta humo, quam vis exili,
pratum fieri potest, cum facultas inrigandi datur.

4 Ac nee campus concavae positionis esse neque collis
praeruptae debet : ille ne collectam diutius contineat

1 minimique vulgo ante Lundstrom.
^ desideretur 8 A.

' suapte (suate A) natur aquia et eligitur {cetera verba otn.)
SA.

" So also Varro, R.R. I. 7. 10; Pliny, N.H. XVIII. 29;
Isidore, Grig. XV. 3.

* Cato. But the passage is lost.

204

BOOK II. .\v. 6-xvi. 4

so that it may rot quickly and be mixed with the thin
soil ; in the latter ease when it has grown stronger,
so that it may hold up the more solid clods longer and
keep them suspended, to be broken down Avhen heated
by the suinmer sun.

XVI. These things the ploughman will be able to
accomplish if he makes provision not only for the
varieties of forage crops which I have mentioned,
but also for a supply of hay for the better maintenance
of his cattle, without which it is difficult to work the
land to advantage ; and on that account the tending
of a meadow is also required of him. To the meadow
the ancient Romans assigned the leading role in
agriculture, and to it also they gave its name {pratum) 2
from the fact that it was immediately " ready
[parattim) " and did not require a great amount of toil.
Marcus Porcius,* indeed, called to mind also the
following considerations : that it is not damaged by
storms like the other divisions of the farm, and that,
though needing very little outlay, it yields a return
year after year — and that not a single return, because
it pays no less in pasturage than in hay. We take 3
notice, then, of two kinds of meadows, the diy and the
watered.*^ In level ground that is rich and fat there is
no need of an inflowing stream, and hay which grows
naturally on a moist soil is considered superior to that
enticed by irrigation ; though such watering is
necessary if the leanness of the soil demands it. For
a meadow can be laid down both in stiff and in loose
soil, however poor, if the opportunity for irrigation
is offered. And it should not be a plain that slopes 4
inward, nor a hill with a steep pitch — the former that
it may not hold too long the water which settles

" Cato, 8. 1.

205

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

aquam, hie ne statim praecipitem fundat. Potest
tamen mediocriter acclivis, si aiit pinguis est aut

5 riguus agar, pratum fieri. At planities maxinie talis
probatur, quae exigue prona non patitiir diutius
imbres aut inflnentis rivos immorari, sed ut ^ quis earn
supervenit umor, lente prorepit.^ Itaque si palus in
aliqua parte subsidens restagnat, sulcis derivanda est,
quippe ^ aquarum abundantia atque penuria gramini-
bus aeque est exitio.

XVII. Cultus autem pratorum magis curae quam
laboris est. Primum ne stirpes aut spinas * vali-
diorisve ^ incrementi herbas inesse patiamur, atque
alias ante hiemem per autumnum exstirpemus, ut
rubos, virgulta, iuncos, alias sic vellamus, ut ^ intuba
ac solstitialis spinas ; ac ' neque suem velimus
impasci, quoniam rostro sufFodiat et cespites excitet,
neque pecora maiora, nisi cum siccissimum solum
est, quia udo demerguntur ungulae ^ et atterunt

2 scinduntque radices herbarum. Turn deinde as-
periora ® et pendula loca mense Februario luna
crescente fimo iuvanda sunt, omnesque lapides et si
qua obiacent falcibus obnoxia colligi debent ac
longius exportari summittique pro natura locorum
aut temperius aut serius. Sunt etiam quaedam prata
situ vetustatis obducta, quibus mederi solent agri-

^ sed ut] aut si B, edd. ante Schn.
^ proripit ^R, Lundstrom.
' qui et SA.

* cineras SA.

^ validiorisque R, rdd. ante Lundstrom.

* sic vellamus ut Lundstrom : sigilla /// mus u (t suprascr.
man. rec.) 8 : sigillam usu A : si vellamus ut R : per ver
evellamus Aid., Gesn., Schn.

' intuba solstitialis ac {cett. verba am.) SA.

* demcrgunt ungulas R, et vulgo ante Lundslrom.

2o6

BOOK II. XVI. 4-.v\-ii. 2

there, the latter that it may not immediatelv pour it
off in a torrent. However, if the ground has a gentle
slope and is either rich or moist, a meadow may be
laid down. But the place most approved is an even 5
surface which, having a slight slope, does not allow
rain or inflowing rivulets to stand too long ; but when
any moisture reaches it, it gradually drains off. And
so if there is in any part of it a low and boggy place
where water stands, it must be drained with ditches ;
for an oversupply and an undersupply of water are
equally destructive to grass.

XVII. The keeping up of meadows is, moreover,
a matter of care rather than of labour. In the first
place, we must not allow shrubs or thorn bushes or
Aveeds of rather vigorous growth to remain in them,
but before winter and throughout autumn we must
root out some of them, such as bramble-bushes,
thickets, and rushes, and pull up others like endive
and midsummer thorns ; and we should not permit
swine to feed on them, as they root them up with their
snouts and tear up the sod, nor larger animals except
when the ground is very dry, because their hoofs,
sinking into the wet ground, bruise and cut the grass
roots. Then also the more rugged and elevated 2
sections should be enriched with manure in the month
of February, while the moon is waxing ; and all stones
and any harmful objects that may lie in the way of the
sickle should be gathered up and carried some
distance away, and then, sooner or later, according
to the nattu-e of the place, the meadows should be let
alone to grow to hay. There are also some meadows
covered with the mould of long neglect, and the old-

• naperiora R pauci : aspriora SA, Lundstrom : macriora
R aliquot, et vulgo.

207

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

colae veteres ^ vel eraso musco seminibusqiie de
tabulate superiectis vel ingesto stercore ; quorum
neutrum tantum prodest quantum si cinerem saepius
ingeras. Ea res museum enecat. At tamen pigriora
sunt ista remedia, cum sit efficacissimum de integro
locum exarare. Sed haec, si prata accessimus,^
facere debemus ; sin autem nova fuerint instituenda
vel antiqua renovanda — nam multa sunt, ut dixi,
quae neglegentia exolescant et fiant sterilia, eaque
expedit interdum etiam fi'umenti causa exarare,
quia talis ager post longam desidiam laetas segetes
adfert — igitur eiim locum, quemprato destinaverimus,
aestate proscissum subactumque protinus ^ per
autumnum rapis vel napo vel etiam faba conseremus ;
insequente deinde anno, frumento. Tertio dili-
genter arabimus omnesque validiores herbas et
rubos et arbores, quae interveniunt, radicitus *
exstirpabimus, nisi si ^ fructus arbusti id facere nos
prohibuerit. Deinde viciam permixtam seminibus
faeni seremus, tum glaebas sarculis resolvemus et
inducta crate coaequabimus grumosque, quos ad
versuram plerumque tractae faciunt crates, disicia-
mus 6 ita, necubi ferramentum faenisecis possit
ofFendere. Sed eam viciam non convenit ante
desecare, quam permaturuerit et aliqua semina
subiacenti solo iecerit. Tum faenisecas eam oportet
recidei-e ac deinde rigari,'' si fuerit facultas aquae et

^ veteres Lund.str6m : veteri codd., el vulgo.

* adcessimus SA, Lundstrom : cepimus R plerique : accepi-
mus Gefsn., Schn. : coepimus vel cepimus vett. edd.

^ protinus SA, Lwidstrom : sepius R : saepius celt. edd.

* interveniunt radicibus SA, Schn. * si om. SA.

" disiciamus Lundstrom., prareunte PonUdera : assicamus
vel adsiccamus codd. plerique : dispiciemus R duo dett. :
despiciemus vett. edd. : dissipabimus vulgo.

208

BOOK II. x\-ii. 2-5

time farmers have a way of restoring them by
scraping off the moss and broadcasting seed from the
hayloft, or by applying manure ; neither of which is so
effective as the frequent application of ashes. This
last treatment kills the moss completely. Still 3
these remedies are rather slow, whereas the most
effective measure is to plough the spot all over again.
The above are measures that we should take if we
have taken over meadows ready-made ; but if new
ones are to be established or old ones restored — for
there are many, as I have said, which run down and
become barren through neglect, and it is expedient to
plough them up now and then for a gi-ain crop,
because such land after long idleness px'oduces lux-
uriant crops — we shall break up in the summer such 4
land as we have set apart for a meadow, work it con-
tinuously throughout the autumn, and seed it with
turnips or navews or even beans ; then the following
year, wiih grain. In the third year we shall plough
thoroughly and dig out by the roots all the stouter
growth, brambles and trees, that stand in the way,
unless the fruitfulness of the set trees keeps us from
so doing. Next we shall sow vetch mixed with hay-
seed, then break the clods ^^^th hoes and level the
surface by drawing a brushwood drag over it, and
scatter the heaps of earth which the drags usually
form at the turnings, so that the mower's scythe may
not strike against anything. But it is not advisable 5
to cut this vetch until it is entirely ripe and has shed
some seed on the ground beneath it. Then the
mowers should cut it down, and the ground should
next be irrigated if there is a supply of water, but

' faenisecas e. o. r. a. d. rigari Lundstrom: alii alia.

209

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

si tamen terra densior est ; nam in resoluta humo non
expedit inducere maiorem vim rivorum, prius quam
conspissatum fuerit ^ et herbis coUigatum soliim,^
quoniam impetus aquarum proluit terram nudatisque

6 radicibus gramina non patitur coalescere. Propter
quod ne pecora quidem oportet teneris adhuc et
subsidentibus pratis immittere, sed quotiens herba
prosiluerit, falcibus desecare ; nam pecudes, ut ante
iam dixi, molli solo infigunt ungulas atque inter-
ruptas non sinunt herbarum^ radices serpere et
condensari. Altero tamen anno minora pecora post
faenisicia permittemus admitti, si modo siceitas et

7 conditio * loci patietur. Tertio deinde cum pratum
solidius ac durius erit, poterit etiam maiores recipere
pecudes. Sed in totum curandum est, ut secundum
Favonii exortum mense Februario circa Idus im-
mixtis seminibus faeni macriora loca et utique cel-
siora stercorentur. Nam editior clivus praebet etiam
subiectis aHmentum, cum superveniens imber aut
manu rivus ^ perductus sucum stercoris in inferiorem
partem secum trahit. Atque ideo fere prudentes
agricolae etiam in aratis collem magis quam vallem
stercorant, quoniam, ut dixi, pluviae semper omnera
pinguiorem materiam in ima deducunt.

XVIII. Faenum autem demetitur optime ante

^ fuerit om. SA, edd. ante Lundstrom.

^ sic Lundstrom : conspissatum et herbis colligatum sit
solum vulgo.

^ herbarum om. SA.

* conducio S : conductio A.

* rivos SA et R plerique, Lundstrom.

2IO

BOOK 11. xvii. 5-xvni. i

only in case the ground is rather heavy ; for in loose
soil it is not wise to let in too heavy a flow of water
before the ground is packed and bound together by
vegetation, because the force of the water washes
away the soil and, by exposing the roots, does not
allow the grass to gain a foothold. It is for this reason 6
that one should not even turn his herds into meadows
that are still soft and settling, but should cut the grass
with sickles whenever it shoots up ; for, as I have said
before, cattle plant their hoofs in the soft ground and,
cutting off" the grass roots, do not allow them to
spread and form a dense growth. In the second
year, however, we shall allow the smaller animals to
be turned in after the haymaking, if only dry weather
and the condition of the ground will permit it. Then 7
in the third year, when the meadow is quite solid
and firm, it will be in condition to receive even the
larger cattle. But, in general, care must be taken
that after the rising of Favonius " in February, about
the middle of the month, the poorer spots and es-
pecially the higher places be given a coating of
manure in which hayseed is mixed ; for the more
elevated slope supplies nourishment to the land that
lies below when a pouring rain or u hand-conducted
rivulet carries the liquid manure along with its own
waters to the part below. And it is for this reason
that wise farmers, even in ploughed land, manure a
hillside more heavily than a valley, because, as I have
stated, the rains are forever carrying all the richer
matter down to the lowland.

XVIII. It is best, moreover, that hay be cut before

" Favonius, also called Zephyrus, was the gentle west wind,
a harbinger of spring. Cf. VIII. 11. 7, cum Favonii spirare
coeperunt, id est ab Idibus Februariis ante Martium mensem.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quam inarescat ; ^ nam et largius percipitur et
iucundiorem cibum pecudibus praebet. Est autem
modus in siccando, ut neque peraridum neque rursus
viride colligatur, alterum quod omnem sucum si
amisit, stramenti vicem obtinet, alterum si nimium
retinuit, in tabulate putrescit ac saepe, cum con-
caluit,^ ignem creat et incendium. Non numquam
etiam, cum faenum cecidimus, imber oppressit;
quod si pei-maduit, inutile est udum movere, melius-

2 que patiemur superiorem partem sole siccari. Tunc
demum convertemus et utrimque ^ siccatum coarta-
bimus in strigam atque ita manipulos vinciemus. Nee
omnino cunctabimur, quo minus sub tectum con-
geratur, vel si non competet, ut aut * in \'i]lam faenum
portetur aut in manipulum colligatur,^ certe quic-
quid ad eum modum, quem ^ debet, siccatum erit, in
metas exstrui conveniet easque ipsas in angustissimos

3 vertices exacui. Sic enim commodissime faenum
defendetur ' a pluviis, quae etiam si non sint, non
alienum tamen est praedictas metas facere, ut si
quis umor herbis inest, exsudet atque ^ excoquatur
in acervis. Propter quod prudentes agricolae quam-
vis iam inlatum tecto non ante componunt, quam per
paucos dies temere congestum in se concoqui et
defervescere patiantur. Sed iam faenisicia inse-
quitur cura messis, quam ut recte possimus percipere,
prius instrumenta praeparanda sunt, quibus fruges
coguntur.

^ arescat SA. ^ caluit SAc.

^ siccari . . . utrimque om. SA : utrimque Ursinus :
utrunque R.

* aut 0771. Schn.

^ manipulos colligatura Schn.

* quo Aid., Gesn., Schn.

' defenditur R, edd. ante Lundstrom.

212

BOOK II. xvm. 1-3

it begins to wither, as a greater quantity of it is har-
vested and it affords a more agreeable food for cattle.
But a middle course should be followed in the curing,
that it be gathered neither when very dry nor, on the
other hand, while still green— in the one case because
it is no better than straw if it has lost all its sap, and in
the other because, if it has kept too much of it, it rots
in the loft and often, when it becomes heated, it
breeds fire and starts a blaze. Sometimes, too, when
we have cut our hay a rain surprises us ; and if the hay
is soaked through it is useless to move it while wet,
but better to let the upper side of it dry out in the
sun. Only then shall we turn it, and, when it is dry on 2
both sides, we shall bring it together in windrows
and then bind it up in bundles. And above all we
shall lose no time in putting it under cover ; or, if it is
not convenient for the hay to be carried to the farm-
stead or tied into bundles, it will be well at any rate
that all of it that had been dried out to the proper
extent be built up into cocks and that these be topped
off with very sharp peaks. For by this method hay 3
is very conveniently protected from rains ; and even
if there is no rain, it is still not amiss to build the afore-
said cocks, so that any moisture remaining in the hay
may sweat and dry out in the piles. For this reason
wise husbandmen, even in the case of hay brought
under cover, do not store it away until they have
allowed it to heat and cool for a few days in a loose
pile. But now after the haymaking comes attention
to the grain harvest ; and that we may properly gather
it, we must first put in readiness the implements with
which the crops are harvested.

^ exsudet atque om. 8 A.

213

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

XIX. Area quoque si terrena erit , ut sit ad trituram
satis habilis, primum radatur, deinde confodiatur/
permixtis paleis cum amurca, quae salem non accepit,
et rigetur ; '^ nam ea res a populatione murum formi-
carumque frumenta defendit. Tum aequata pavi-
culis velmolarilapide condensetur et rursus superiectis
paleis inculcetur atque ita solibus siceanda relin-
quatur. Sunt tamen, qui prati subiacentem Favonio ^
partem triturae destinant areamque demessa faba
et iniecta ^ expoliunt ; nam dum a peeudibus legu-
mina proculcantur, etiam herbae ungulis atteruntur,
atque ita glabrescit et fit idonea frumentis ^ area.

XX. Sed cum matura fuerit seges, ante quam
torreatur vaporibus aestivi sideris, qui sunt vastis-
simi per exortum ^ Caniculae, celeriter demetatur ; '
nam dispendiosa est cunctatio, primum quod avibus
praedam ceterisque animalibus praebet, deinde quod
grana et ipsae spicae culmis arentibus et aristis
celeriter decidunt. Si vero procellae ventorum aut
turbines incesserunt,^ maior pars ad terram defluit ;
propter ^ quae recrastinari non debet, sed aequaliter
flaventibus iam satis, ante quam ex toto grana
indurescant, cuxn rubicundum colorem traxerunt,

^ conliciatur HA.

* et rigetur SA el R aliquot : extricetur Lundslroin : ex-
tringetur R plerique, vett. edd. : aspergatur Ursinus : irrigetur
Hchoettgen, et inaluit Gesn. : extergatur vulgo,

^ prati aubiacentem Favonio Lundstrom, praeeunte Schn. in
not. : pratis obiacentem fabonio (h in v mut. 8) SA : pratis
obiacente favonio R : potius adiacentium fabalium vulgo.

* lecta R, et vulgo ante Schn.
^ trituris Aid., Gesn., Schn.

* oituin R, et vulgo ante Lundstrom.
' demetur SA.

* iiicesserint R, edd. ante Lundstrom.

* propter ovi. SA.

214

BOOK 11. XIX. i-xx. 2

XIX. The threshing-floor, too, if it is of earth, to be
satisfactorily prepared for threshing should first be
scraped, then dug thoroughly, with an admixture of
chaff and oil lees which have not been salted, and
moistened; for such treatment protects the grain
from the ravages of mice and ants. Then, after
being smoothed down, it should be packed hard
with rammers or with a millstone, and, again strewn
with chaff, it should be tramped down and left in
this condition to be dried by the sun. There are
people, however, who set aside for the threshing a
piece of meadow land which is exposed to the west
wind, and smooth off a threshing-place by cutting
beans and throwing them on it ; for while the
legumes are being trampled out by the cattle the
vegetation also is worn away by their hoofs, and
in this way the place becomes bare and makes a
suitable threshing-floor for grain.

XX. But when the grain is ripe it should be quickly
harvested befoi-e it can be parched by the heat of the
summer sun, which is most severe at the rising of the
Dog-star ; " for delay is costly — in the first place be-
cause it affords plunder for birds and other creatures,
and, secondly, because the kernels and even the heads
themselves quickly fall as the stalks and beards
wither. And if wind-storms or cyclones strike it,
the greater part of it is lost on the ground ; for
which reason there should be no delay, but when the
crop is even golden yellow, before the grains have
entirely hardened and after they have taken on a
reddish colour, the harvest should be gathered, so

" XL 2. 53, Septimo Kal. Augustas (= July 2t>) Cankula
ajiparet.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

messis facienda est, ut potius in area et in acervo
quani in agro grandescant frumenta. Constat enim,
si tenipestive decisa sint, postea capere increnientum.

3 Sunt autem metendi genera complura. Multi
falcibus veruculatis atque lis vel rostratis ^ vel denti-
culatis medium culmum secant, multi mergis, alii
pectinibus spicam ipsam legunt, idque in rara segete
facillimum, in densa difiicillimum est.

Quod si falcibus seges cum parte culmi demessa sit,
protinus in acervum vel in nubilar - congeritur et
subinde opportunius solibus^ torrefacta proteritur,

4 Sin autem spicae tantummodo recisae sunt, possunt
in horreum conferri et dcinde per hiemem vel
baculis excuti vel exteri pecudibus. At si competit
ut in area teratur frumentum, nihil dubium est quin
equis melius quam bubus ea res conficiatur et, si
pauca iuga sunt, adicere tribulam et traheam *
possis, quae res utraque culmos facillime comminuit.
Ipsae autem spicae melius fustibus cuduntur ^

5 vannisque expurgantur. At ubi paleis immixta sunt
frumenta, vento separantur. Ad eam rem Favonius
habetur eximius, qui levis aequalisque aestivis mensi-
bus perflat ; quem tamen opperiri lenti est agricolae,

1 rostratis ac : nostratibus SAR, vett. ecld.

'^ nubilarium Aid., Gesn., Schn. ^ solidibus SA.

■* traheam Lundstrom : trahere SAR : traliam vulgo.

^ cuduntur SA, Schn. : tunduntur R, Lundstrum, et vulgo.

" Cf. Columella on olives (XII. 52. 18) : Plerique agricolae
crediderunt, si sub tecto haca deponalur, oleum in tabulato
grayulescere; quod tarn falsutn est quam in area frumenta
crescere.

* Commentators are uncertain as to the nature and use
of these implements. Festus (111 L) defines mergae as foi-ka
for lifting grain ; so called because in the hands of the reaper
they plunge into the grain just as diving birds (mergi) dive

2l6

BOOK II. XX. 2-5

that the grain may grow larger on the floor "■ and in
the stack rather than in the field. For it is an
estabhshed fact that, if cut at the proper time, it makes
some growth afterwards. There are, fm-thermore, 3
several methods of reaping : many cut the straw in
the middle with cradle-scythes, and these either
bill-shaped or toothed ; many gather the heads only
with forks, and others with combs ^ — an operation
which is very easy in a thin crop, but very difficult
in a thick one.

But if the grain, with a part of the straw, is cut
with sickles, it is at once gathered into a pile or
carried into the shed,^ and then after repeated drying
in the sun, as opportunity offers, it is threshed. If, 4
however, the heads only are cut off they may be
carried into the granary and then, during the winter,
be beaten out with flails or trodden out by cattle.
But if it is convenient to have the grain threshed on
the floor, there is no doubt that this woi'k is better
done ^Wth horses than with oxen ; and if you have few
teams you may hitch to them a threshing-sledge and
a drag, either of which very easily breaks up the
straw. It is better, however, that the heads them-
selves be beaten with flails and winnowed with fans.
But when the grain is mixed with the chaff it is cleaned 5
by the wind. The west wind is considered excellent
for this purpose, as it blows gently and evenly in the
summer months ; but to wait for it is the mark of a

(mergunt) in pursuit of food. Others conjecture a sharp V-
shaped contrivance which the user pushed before him in such
a way as to catch and tear off the heads of the grain. The
" comb " (pecten) is regarded by some as a rake; by others
as an iron implement with comb-Uke teeth, used to clip off the
heads of the standing grain. Cf. Varro, R.B. I. 50 ; Pliny,
N.H. XVIII. 296-297. " Cf. I. 6. 24, with note.

217

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quia saepe,^ dum expectatur, sacva nos hiems de-
prendit. Itaqiie in area detrita frumenta sic sunt
aggeranda ut omni Hatu possint cxcerni. At si
compluribus diebus undique silebit aura, vannis ^
expurgentur, ne post nimiam ventorum segnitiem
vasta tempestas inritum faciat totius anni laborem.
0 Pura deinde frumenta, si in annos reconduntur,
reteri ^ debent, nam quanto sunt expolitiora, minus
a eurculionibus exeduntur ; sin protinus usui desti-
nantur, nihil attinet repoliri, satisque est in umbra
refrigerari at ita granario inferri. Leguminum
quoque non alia cura est quam reliquorum frumen-
torum, nam ea quoque vel * statim absumuntur vel
conduntur. Atque hoc supremum est aratoris emolu-
mentum percipiendorum seminum quae terrae
crediderit.^

XXI. Sed cum tam otii quam negotii rationem
reddere maiores nostri censuerunt, nos quoque
monendos esse agricolas existimamus, quae feriis
facere quaeque non facere debeant. Sunt enim,
ut ait poeta, quae

festis exercere diebus *
F'as et iura sinunt : rivos deducere nulla
Religio vetuit, segeti praetendere saepem,
Insidias avibus moliri, incendere vepres
Balantumque gregem fluvio mersare salubri.

* saepe oto. li et edd. ante Schn. ^ manibus SA.

* reteri R, Lundslrom : reperiri S : r^pperiri A : repurgari
Aid., Oesn., Schn. : repoliri Pmitedrra.

* Post vel verba manifeste exciderunt SAR : absumuntur
statim vel inserit Bononiensis 2523: statim absumuntur
vel Aid., et deinceps omnes praeter Lundstrom, qui lacunam
iiidiccit.

^ crediderit lynndstrom : ceciderit SA : erediderat R, cett.
(dd.

* exercere festis diebus SA.
2l8

BOOK II. XX. 5-.\xi. I

dilatory farmer, for often, while we are waiting, a
raging storm surprises us. Therefore the threshed
grain should be heaped on the threshing-floor in such
a way that it can be winnowed with any gentle wind.
But if the air is quiet in every quarter for many days,
the grain should be cleaned with winnowing-fans, for
fear that after excessive stillness of the winds a mighty
storm may bring to naught the toil of an entire year.
Then the pure grain, if it is being laid away for a (
term of years, should be threshed again, for the better
it is scoured the less it is preyed upon by weevils ;
but if it is intended for immediate use, there is no need
of a second cleaning and it is sufficient that it be cooled
in the shade and so carried to the gi-anary. The
handling of legumes, too, differs not at all from that
of other grains, for they also are either consumed at
once or stored away. And this is the crowning reward
of the husbandman — reaping the harvest of the seed
that he has entrusted to the earth.

XXI. But inasmuch as our ancestors saw fit to
render an account of their leisure hours as well as
of their times of non-leisure," I also believe that
farmers should be advised of what they should do on
holidays and what they should leave undone. For
here are things which, as the poet says,

Divine and human laws let be performed on festive

days :
No sacred law forbids to fetch the irrigating rills,
A hedge along the field to stretch, for birds a

snare to lay.
And briars to burn, and bleating flocks to dip in

wholesome stream.*

" Cicero remarks {Pro Plancio, 27) that this was a dictum of
Cato in his Origines. " Vergil, Georg. I. 2G8-272.

219

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUiMELLA

2 Quamquam pontifices negant segetem feriis saepiri
debere ; vetant quoque lanarum causa lavari ^
oves nisi si ^ propter medicinam. Vergilius quod ^
liceat feriis flumine abluere gregem praecipit et
idcirco adicit " fluvio mersare salubri," id est salu-
tari ; * sunt eiiim vitia, (|uorum causa pecus utile

3 sit lavare. Feriis autem ritus maiorum etiam ilia
permittit : far pinsere,^ faces incidere, candelas
sebare, vineam conductam colere, piscinas, lacus,
fossas veteres tergere et purgare, prata sicilire,
stercora aequare, faenum in tabulata componere,
fructus oliveti conductos cogere, mala, pira, ficos pan-
dere, caseum facere, arbores serendi causa collo vel
mulo clitellario adferre ; sed iuncto advehere non per-
mittitur nee adportatas ^ serere neque terram aperire

4 neque arborem conlucare, sed ne sementem quidem
administrare, nisi prius catulo feceris, nee faenum
secare aut vincire aut vehere ; ac ne vindemiam quidem
cogi per religiones pontificum feriis licet nee ovis
tondere, nisi si catulo feceris. Defrutum quoque
facere et vinum defrutare licet. Uvas itemque
olivas conditu '^ legere licet. Pellibus oves vestiri

^ lavare SA. - ai oin. R, edd. ante Lundstrom.

^ qui Gesn., Schn.

* id est salutari om. R aliquot. Aid., Gesn., Schn.
^ faro (farao A) instare SA.

' adportatas Warmington : adportata vel apportata R,
edd. : adportare SA.

' conditni R plerique. Aid , Gesn., Schn.

" The ancient authorities frequently speak, for example,
of dipping sheep as a preventive of scab.

* Cf. Cato, 2. 4.

" Sicilire is defined by Varro (R.R. I. 49. 2) as cutting with
a sickle the tufts of grass which the mowers have passed over.

'' Not the regular pruning (putatio), but the removal of
superfluous foliage to admit the light [conlucare, sublucare).
220

BOOK 11. XXI. 2-4

And yet the pontiffs assert that a grain-field should 2
not be fenced on holidays ; they also forbid the wash-
ing of sheep for the good of the fleece, except as a
curative measure. Vergil is instructing us as to the
lawfulness of washing the flock in a river on holidays,
and for that reason he adds " to dip in wholesome
stream " — that is, in a healing stream ; for there are
ailments because of which it is expedient to bathe
the cattle.*^ Furthermore, the religious observances 3
of our forefathers permit these tasks also on holidays : ^
the braying of spelt ; the cutting of torches ; the
dipping of candles ; the tilhng of a leased vineyard ;
the clearing out and cleaning of fish-ponds, cisterns,
and old ditches ; the sickling <^ of meadows ; the
spreading of manure ; the storing of hay in the loft ;
the gathering of the fruits of a leased olive-grove ; the
spreading of apples, pears, and figs to dry ; the making
of cheese ; the carrying of trees for planting, either
on our own shoulders or with a pack mule. But it is
not permitted to haul them with a yoked animal, nor
to plant them after they are transported, nor to open
the ground, nor to thin a tree ; <* and not to assist 4
in the sowing either unless you have first sacrificed a
puppy, nor to cut hay or bind it or haul it ; and it is not
permissible either by the ordinances of the pi'iests
for the vintage to be gathered on feast days, nor to
shear sheep, unless you have sacrificed a puppy. It is
also lawful to make boiled must and to boil wine. To
gather grapes and olives for preserving is likewise
lawful. It is not lawful to clothe sheep with skins.*

• Certain breeds of fine-wooled sheep were jacketed
with skins to keep their fleeces free from dirt, etc. ; Varro,
E.H. II. 2. 18; Pliny, .V.^. VIII. 47. Cohimella devotes a
chapter {VII. 4) to the care of these delicate animals.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

non licet. In horto quicquid holeriim causa facias,
omne licet. Feriis publicis hominem mortuum

5 sepeliri ^ non licet. M. Porcius Cato mulis, eqiiis,
asinis nuUas esse ferias ait, idemque boves permittit
coniungere lignorum et frumentorum advehendorum
causa. Nos apud pontifices legimus feriis tantuiit
denicaUbus ^ mulos iungere non licere, ceteris licere.

Hoc loco certum habeo quosdam, cum solemnis
festorum percensuerim,^ desideratiiros lustrationum
ceterorumque sacrificiorum, quae pro frugibus fiunt,

6 morem priscis usurpatum. Nee ego abnuo docendi
curam, sed differo in eum librum, quem componere in
animo est, cum agricolationis totam disciplinam
praescripsero. Finem interim praesentis disputa-
tionis faciam dicturus exordio sequente, quae de
vlneis arbustisque prodidere veteres auctores quaeque
ipse mox oomperi.

^ sepeliro vel sepellire R plerique.

* denicalibus R pauci deft. : dentalibus M : devivalibus S :
denihalibnn A : dominicalibus R plerique.
' percensuerint *Si^.

" But Columella omits Cato's exception, " unless they fall
on family festivals " ; cf. Cato, 138, Mulis, equis, asinis feriae
nullae, nisi si injamilia sunt.

'' Holidays celebrated by the family in honour of its
deceased members; cf. Paul. Fest. 61 L, Denicales feriae
colebantur, cum hnminis morlvi causa familia purgahatur.
Graeci enim veKw mortuum dicunt; and Fest. 282 L,

BOOK II. XXI. 4-6

Anything that you may do in your garden for the good
of your vegetables is lawful. It is not lawful to bury
a dead person on public feast days. Marcus Porcius
Cato says that there are no holidays for mules,
horses, and asses ; " the same authority permits the
yoking of oxen for the purpose of hauling wood and
grain. We ourselves have read in the books of the
pontiffs that only on the holidays called Denicales^
is it imlawful to have mules in harness, but on other
holidays it is lawful.

I am well aware that at this point, after my survey
of the observances of feast days, some people will
miss the customs observed by the ancients in the
matter of purificatory ceremonies and other offerings
which are made for the good of the crops. <^ And I
am not declining the task of offering this instruction,
but am postponing it for that book <^ which I intend
to put together after I have written precepts on the
whole science of agriculture. Meanwhile I shall
bring the present discussion to an end, having in
mind to tell in the next book what ancient authori-
ties have handed down on the subject of vineyards
and of tree-plantations, and what I myself have since
discovered.

Privataeferiae vocanlur sacrorum propriorum, velut dies natales,
operationis, denecales. See also Cicero, De Leg. 2. 55, and
Cincius ap. Gellius XVI. 4. 4.

« Cf. Cato 141 ; Vergil, Georg. I. 338 f.

<* This proposed volume, if ever written, has been lost.

223
I

BOOK III

LIBER III

I. " Ilactenus arvorum cultus," ut ait praestantis-
simus poeta. Nihil enim prohibet nos, Publi Silvine,
de iisdem ^ rebus dicturos celeberrimi carminis
auspicari ^ principio.^ Sequitur arborum cura, quae
pars rei rusticae vel maxima est. Earum species
diversae et multiformes sunt : quippe varii generis,
sicut auctor idem refert,

nullis hominum cogentibus ipsae
Sponte sua veniunt ;

2 multae * etiam nostra manu satae procedunt. Sed
quae non ope humana gignuntur, silvestres ac ferae,
sui cuiusque ^ ingenii poma vel semina gerunt ; at
quibus labor adhibetur, magis aptae sunt frugibus.

De eo igitur prius genere dicendum ® est quod
nobis alimenta praebet. Idque tripertito ' dividitur.
Nam ex surculo vel arbor procedit, ut olea ; vel
frutex, ut palma campestris ; vel tertium * quiddam ®
quod nee arborem nee fruticem proprie dixerimus,

1 iadem SA : hisdem c.

^ aut spicari A.

^ principio Ursinus, Schn. : principia SAacM, Aid., Gesn.

•* multa Ac : el deinde sata vett. edd.

' cuique SAac.

' discendum SA.

' tripertito SAa : tripartite cM, et vulgo.

* tertius SAac : tercius M. * quidam a3I.

226

BOOK III

I. " Thus far of the tillage of the land," as says
that most excellent poet." For, Publius Silvinus,
as we are about to speak on the same topics, there
is nothing to keep us from beginning under good
omens with the opening words of that most re-
nowned poem. There follows the management of
trees, which is a most important part of rural
husbandry. They are diverse in kind, and of many
shapes ; for trees of various sorts, as the same author
relates,

of their OMn will come forth,
By mortals not constrained ; *

and many, too, grow from seed planted by our own
hand.<^ But those that are propagated without
human aid, the wild and untamed, bear fruits or
seeds according to their several natures ; while those
on which labour is spent are fitted for a greater yield.
I must speak first, then, of that kind which sup-
plies us with food. And of this there is a threefold
division : for from a small shoot there comes forth
either a tree, as the olive ; or a shrub, as the palm
of the plains ; or a third something which we can
properly call neither tree nor shrub, as is the vine.

" Vergil, Ge<yrg. II. 1. » Georg. II. 10-11.

• Cf. Qeorg, II. 14, Pars autem posito surgunt de seviine.

227

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

3 ut est vitis. Hanc nos ceteris stirpibus iure prae-
ponimus, non tantum fructus dulcedine, sed etiam
facilitate per quam omni paene regione et omnl
declinatione mundi, nisi tamen glaciali vel prae-
fervida, curae mortalium respondet, tamque felix
cainpis quam collibus provenit, et in densa non minus
quam in resoluta, saepe etiam gracili ; atque pingui

4 et macra,^ siccaque et uliginosa. Tum sola maxime
utramque ^ patitur intemperiem caeli vel sub axe
frigido, vel aestuoso procellosoque. Refert tamen
cuius generis aut quo habitu vitem pro regionis
statu colere censeas. Neque enim omni caelo solove
cultus idem, neque est unum stirpis eius genus :
quodque praecipuum est ex omnibus non facile
dictu ^ est, cum suum cuique regioni magis aut minus

5 aptum esse * doceat usus. Exploratum tamen
habebit prudens agricola genus vitis habile campo,
quod nebulas pruinamque sine noxa perfert ; colli,
rjuod siccitatem ventosque patitur. Pingui et uberi
dabit agro gracilem vitem, nee natura nimis fecun-
dam ; macro feracem ; terrae densae vehementem,
multaque materia frondentem ; resoluto et laeto
solo, rari sarmenti. Humido loco sciet non recte
mandari fructus ^ teneri et amplioris acini,^ sed
callosi ' et angusti frequentisque vinacei ; ^ sicco
recte contribui diversae quoque ® naturae semina.

6 Sed et post haec non ignorabit dominus loci, plus

^ et macra Schn. : macria (et om.) S : matria (et om.) A :
materia ac (et om.) M : terra (et om.) vulgo.

2 utramque edd. ante Schn. : utrumque a : utrunque M :
utcumque SAc, Schn. ^ dictum ScAI, veil. edd.

* aptum esse edd. : apud se SAaclI.

^ fructum SAac, velt. edd. * acinis 8A.

' calli S : galli AacM. * vinaceis ac.

" quoque om. SAac.

228

BOOK III. I. 3-6

This last we rightly set above all other woody-plants, 3
not only for the sweetness of its fruits, but also be-
cause of the readiness with which in nearly every
countiy and every climate, except, however, the icy
cold or burning hot, it responds to human care ; it
thrives on plain as well as hillside, in compact soil
no less than in loose, often also in thin land, in fat
ground and lean, in dry ground and wet ; and it 4
alone has the greatest endurance of both sorts of
intemperate weather — either under a cold sky or
one that is hot and stormy. Nevertheless an im-
portant consideration is the variety and the habit
of the vine which you propose to cultivate, in
relation to the conditions of the region. For its
cultivation is not the same in every climate and in
every soil, nor is there only one variety of that
plant ; and which kind is best of all is not easy to
say, since experience teaches that to every region
its own variety is more or less suited. Still the wise 5
farmer will have discovered by test that the kind of
vine proper for level country' is one which endures
mists and frosts without injury; for a hillside,
one which withstands drought and wind. He will
assign to fat and fertile land a vine that is slender
and not too productive by nature ; to lean land, a
prolific vine ; to heavy soil, a vigorous vine that puts
forth much wood and foliage ; to loose and rich soil,
one that has few canes. He will know that it is
not proper to commit to a moist place a vine with
thin-skinned fruit and unusually large grapes, but
one whose fruit is tough-skinned, small, and full of
seeds ; and that plants of a different nature are
properly entrusted to a dry site. But in addition 6
to this the proprietor of the place will not be un-

229

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

posse qualitatem caeli frigidam vel calidam, siccam
vel roscidam, grandinosam ventosamque vel placi-

7 dam, serenam vel nebulosam : ^ frigidaeque aut
nebulosae duorum generum vites aptabit, seu
praecoques, quarum maturitas frugimi praecurrit
hiemem ; seu flrmi durique acini, quarum inter
caUgines uvae deflorescunt, et mox gelicidiis ac
pruinis, ut aliarum ^ caloribus, mitescunt. Ventoso
quoque et tumultuoso statu caeli fidenter easdem
tenaces ac duri acini committet. Rursus calido
teneriores uberioresque concredet. Sicco destinabit
eas quae pluviis aut continuis roribus putrescunt ;
roscido, quae siccitatibus laborant ; grandinoso quae
foliis duris latisque sunt, quo melius protegant
fructum. Nam placida et serena regio nullam non
recipit; coramodissime tamen eam, cuius vel uvae
vel acini celeriter decidunt.

8 At ^ si voto est eligendus vineis locus et status caeli,
sicut censet verissime Celsus, optimum est solima nee
densum nimis nee resolutum, soluto tamen pi-opius ;
nee exile nee laetissimum, proximum tamen uberi;
nee campestre nee praeceps, simile tamen edito
campo ; nee siccum nee uliginosum, modice tamen
roscidum ; quod fontibus non in summo non in pro-
fundo terrae scaturiat, sed ut vicinum radicibus

9 umorem sumministret — euraque nee amarum nee
salsum, ne saporem vini corrumpat, et incrementa

nubilosam M. * alie M : aliae Aid., Qean.

* ac SAaM.

230

BOOK III. 1. 6-9

aware that the natui-e of the cHmate — cold or warm,
drv' or moist, subject to hail and wind or calm, clear
or foggy — is a more potent influence. To cold or 7
foggy conditions he will adapt two varieties of
vine, either the early ripe, whose fruits mature
before cold weather, or those with firm and hard
berries, whose clusters drop their blossoms during
the foggy season and are presently ripened by
freezing weather and frosts, as those of other grapes
are ripened by warmth. To a windy and unsettled
climate also he will boldly commit the same hardy
\dnes and those of the hard-berried variety. On
the other hand, he will entrust to a warm chmate
the more delicate and heavier-bearing sorts. For
a dry chmate he will select such as are rotted by
rains or continual dews ; for a de\\'y one, those that
suffer in dry weather; for one subject to hailstorms,
those that have tough and broad leaves for the
better protection of the fruit. A calm and clear-
skied region does not refuse to admit any kind of
vine, though most suitably one whose clusters or
berries fall quickly.

But if your own wishes are to be considered in 8
the selection of site and climate for your \ineyards,
the best soil, as Celsus very rightly beUeves, is
neither too compact nor loose, but closer to the
loose type ; neither poor nor excessively rich, but
nearest to the fertile kind; neither flat nor steep,
but like plain-land with a rise ; neither diy nor
wet, but moderately moist ; one which does not
abound in springs, either on the sm*face or in the
depths of the earth, but which supplies the roots
with moisture close at hand— and that neither bitter 9
nor brackish, lest it spoil the flavour of the wine

231

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

virentium veluti quadam scabra rubigine ^ coerceat,
si modo credimus Vergilio dicenti,

Salsa autem tellus, et quae perhibetur ^ amara,
Frugibus infelix ; ea nee mansuescit arando,
Nee Baccho genus aut pomis sua nomina servat.

10 Caelum porro neque nivale ^ vinea, sicut praedixi,
nee rursus aestuosum * desiderat, calido tamen
potius quam ft-igido laetatur ; imbribus magis quam
serenitatibus oft'enditur; et solo sicco quam nimis
pluvioso ^ est amicior ; perflatu modico lenique ®
gaudet, procellis obnoxia est. Atque haec maxima
probabilis est caeli et soli qualitas.

II. Vitis autem vel ad escam vel ad defusionem'
deponitur. Ad escam non expedit instituere vineta,
nisi cum tam suburbanus est ager, ut ratio postulet
inconditmn fruetum mercantibus velut pomum ven-
dere. Quae cum talis est conditio, maxime praeco-
ques et duracinae, tum denique Purpureae et Bumasti,
DactyUque et Rhodiae, Libycae quoque et Cerauniae ;

^ tubicine a.
^ prohibetwr aM.

^ nivale 8a, vett. edd. : in valle c : neque vale A : hyemale M :
glaciale vulgo.

* aestivosum A, vett. edd. : estivosum ac.

^ pluvioso SA, vett. edd. : pluvio a<:,M, Aid., Gesn., Schn.

^ per flatum odii colonique A.

' sic 8 A, Schn. : ad effusionem ac3I, et vulgo.

<• Georg. II. 238-240.

* Duracinae : Pliny suggests (N.H. XIV. 14) that the name
was derived from the toughness of the skin.

" So called from the round and swelling appearance of their
clusters {of. fiaaros, breast, and ^ov- indicating largeness).
Varro, R.R. II. 5. 4, refers to this grape as bumamma (cow's
udder); cf. Pliny, N.H. XIV. 15, tument vero mammarum

232

BOOK III. I. 9-II. I

and check the growth of the vines' greenery with a
kind of scaly rust, if only we believe Vergil when
he says,

Unkind to crops is salty ground, and what is

bitter called ;
It is not tamed by ploughman's toil, nor does

it keep unstained
The good repute of Bacchus' child and other

fruits' fair name.*^

Furthermore, as I have said before, a vineyard does 10
not want an icy climate nor, on the other hand, one
that is burning hot, though it thrives better in
warm weather than in cold. It is harmed more
by rain than by clear weather, and is more kindly
disposed to a dry soil than to one that is subject
to too much rain. It delights in moderate and
gentle breezes, but is liable to injury from squalls.
And this is the character of climate and soil that is
most commendable.

II. Fm-ther, the grape is planted either for eating
or for the pouring forth of its juice. It is not
profitable to establish vineyards for food unless
the plot is so close to a city that conditions warrant
the selling of the raw grapes to marketers, as we
do other fruit. When this is the case, the early
ripe and hard-berried * varieties are especially
to be planted, and then the Purple and the
Bumast (full-breasted),'^ the Dactyl (date-shaped) <*
and the Rhodian, and the Libyan and the Cerau-

modo Bumnsti; and ibid. 40, Purpureae, cognomine Buina.ni-
mine.

^ Cf. Pliny, N.H, XIV. 15, praelongis Dactyli porriguntur
acinis.

233

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

2 nee solum quae iucunditate saporis, veruni etiam quae
specie commendari possint,^ conseri debent, ut Ste-
phanitae, ut Tripedaneae, ut Unciariae, ut Cydonitae ;
item quarum uvae tempoi'ibus hiemis durabiles vasis
conduntur, ut Venuculae, ut nuper in hos usus

3 exploratae Numisianae. At ubi vino consulimus,
vitis eligitur, quae et in fructu valet et in materia,
quod alterum ad reditus coloni, alterum ad diuturni-

4 tatem stirpis plurimum confert. Sed ea tmn prae-
cipua est, si nee nimis ^ celeriter frondet, et primo
quoque tempore deflorescit, nee nimis ^ tarda
mitescit ; quin etiam pruinas et caliginem et car-
bunculum facile propulsat, eademque nee imbribus

5 putrescit,* nee siccitatibus abolescit. Talis nobis
eligatur vel mediocriter fecunda, si modo is locus
habetur, in quo gustus nobilis pretiosusque fluit ;
nam si sordidus aut vilis est, feracissimam quamque
serere conducit, ut multiplicatione frugum reditus

6 augeatur. Fere autem omni statu locorum cam-
pestria largius vinum sed iucundius adferunt collina ;
quae tamen ipsa modico statu caeli magis exuberant
Aquiloni prona, sed ^ sunt generosiora sub Austro.

^ possunt S. ' minus SAc, vett. edd. ' minus c.

* harescit SA. ° pronas et SAa.

" Isidore {Orig. XVII. 5. 17) 8a3^s that they were so named
because of their fiery red colour (c/. Kepawog, lightning).

*" From ori(})avos, crown. So called, says Pliny {N.H. XIV.
42), because the leaves run between the berries, to resemble
a coronet.

" The name is derived from the size of the vine; Pliny,
N.H. XrV. 41.

■* Called Unciales by Pliny [loc. cit.), from the weight of their
grapes.

' From their quince-like flavour ; or from Cydonia in Crete.

234

BOOK III. II. 2-6

nian ; '^ and not only those that can be recommended 2
for agreeableness of flavoui*, but also those whose
appearance can commend them, such as the
Stephanitan (coronaiy),'' the Tripedanean (three-foot
kind),'' the Unciai-ian (ounce-weight),"^ and the
Cydonitan (quince-grape) ; '^ likewise those vines
whose grapes keep well in winter and are stored
in jars, as the Venuculan,/ and the Numisian,
which has recently been proved for this purpose.
But when our interest is in the wine, a vine is 3
selected which is both heavy in yield and strong
in wood, because the one contributes greatly to
the income of the husbandman, and the other to
the durability of the stock. But such a vine is 4
especially good if it does not put forth leaves too
quickly, if also it casts its flowers very early in the
season and does not ripen too slowly ; moreover, if
it easily withstands frosts and fog and blight, does
not rot in rainy weather, and does not shrivel up in
times of drought. A vine of this sort, though only 5
moderately fruitful, should be our choice, if only we
have a piece of ground where the flavour of the wine
is distinguished and costly ; for if it is of poor quality
or low in price, it is best to plant the most prolific
vines, so that our revenues may be increased by the
greater quantity of the yield. Moreover, in nearly 6
every type of place chainpaign slopes produce the
larger quantity of wine, but hill lands the better
flavoured ; and in a temperate cUmate hills that
slope to the north are more productive, while those
>vith a southern exposure yield a superior quahty.

f Also called Sirculan; sec. 27, below, and Pliny, N.H.
XIV. 34. On their preserving qualities see XII. 45. 1 ; Pliny,
loc. cit. ; Horace, Serm. II. 4. 71.

235

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

7 Nee dubium, quin sit ea nonnullarum vitium natura,
ut pro looorum situ bonitate vini modo vincant modo
superentur.^ Solae traduntur Amineae excepto
caeli statu nimis frigido ubicumque sint, etiam si
degenerent, sibi comparatae, niagis aut minus probi
gustus vina praebere, et ceteras omnis sapore

8 praecedere. Eae ^ cum sint unius nominis, non
unam speciem gerunt. Duas germanas cognovimus,
quarum minor ocius et melius deflorescit, habilis
arbori nee non iugo : illie pinguem terram, hie
medioerem desiderat, longeque praecedit maiorem,

9 quia et imbres et ventos fortius patitur. Nam maior
eeleriter in flore corrumpitur, et magis in iugis
quam in arboribus. Ideoque non est ^ vineis apta,
vix etiam arbusto, nisi praepingui et vivida * terra ;
nam nee medioeri valet, multoque minus in exili.
Prolixarum frequentia materiarum foliorumque et
uvarum et aeinorum ^ magnitudine dignoscitur,
internodiis quoque rarior. Largis fructibus a minora
superatur, gustu non vineitur. Et hae qiiidem utrae-

^ sic veil, edd., Schn. : vincat (vincant a) modo superetur
SAacM, Aid., Gesn.
2 Ea SAacM.

* est in Aac, vett. edd.

* vivida SAacM, Schn. in not., Sobel : uivida vel humida
plerique.

^ et aeinorum oni. SA.

" Highly praised by all authorities; but see especially
Chap. 9, below, and Pliny, N.H. XIV. 21-22. Isidore (Orig.
XVII. 5. 18) says that it is called Aminean quasi sine mineo,
id est sine rubore, producing a white wine.

236

BOOK III. ir. 7-9

And there is no doubt that the nature of some 7
vines is such that in the quality of their wine they
sometimes excel, sometimes are excelled, according
to their situation. The Aminean varieties " alone,
except where the climate is exceedingly cold, and
even if they decline in quality in comparison with their
best, are said to provide Avines of more or less true
taste and to surpass all other varieties in flavour.
Though they bear one name, they are not of the same 8
appearance. We know of two " sister " vines, of
which the smaller is earlier and better in casting
its blossoms and may be trained to tree and trellis *"
alike. On the tree it requires rich ground ; on the
trellis, ordinary soil. And it far surpasses the larger
variety by reason of its sturdier endurance of rain
and wind. For the larger sort is quickly spoiled in 9
the blossom, and more so on trellises than on trees ;
and on this account it is not suitable for vineyards,
and hardly fit for an arbustum '^ except in ground
that is very rich and vigorous ; for it does not thrive
in ordinary ground, and much less so in lean ground.
It is distinguished by its great amount of rank woody
groAvth and the large size of its leaves, clusters, and
berries; it is also longer fi-om joint to joint. In
quantity of fruit it is surpassed by the smaller
variety ; it is not outdone in flavour. And both

* Lit. "yoke" (iugurn), defined by Varro (R.R. I. 8. 1)
as the support fastened cross-wise to the upright props
{pedamenta), thus forming a frame or trellis.

' Vinea denotes the vineyard proper, in which the vines were
either allowed to trail along the ground or were supported
by frames or trained to stand upright beside props; De Arb.
4. 1. The arbustum was a plantation of lopped-off trees (pre-
ferably poplar, elm, and ash), upon which the vines were
trained and festooned from tree to tree; see V. 6, De Arb. 16.

237

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

10 que Ainineae. ^'erum et aliae duae geminae ab eo
quod duplices uvas exigunt, cognomen trahunt ^
austerioris ^ vini, sed aeque perennis. Duarum ^
minor vulgo notissima, quippe Campaniae celeberri-
mos Vesuvii colles Surrentinosque vestit. Hilaris
inter aestivos Favonii flatus Austris adfligitur.

11 Ceteris itaque partibus Italiae non tarn vineis quam
arbusto est idonea, cum praedictis regionibus com-
modissime iugum sustineat. Materiam fructumque,
nisi quod duplicem, non absimilem minori germanae
gerit, sicut maior gemina maiori * germanae ; quae
tarn en nminor hoc melior est, quod fecundior etiam
mediocri solo, nam illam nisi praepingui non respon-

12 dere iam dictum est. Lanatam quoque Amineam
quidam maxime probant, quae hoc vocabulum non
ideo usurpat, quod sola ex omnibus Amineis, verum
quod praecipue canescit lanugine. Sane boni vini,
sed lenioris ^ quam superiores, crebram quoque
materiam fundit ; atque ideo propter pampini
densitatem saepe parum ^ recte deflorescit, eadem-

13 que matiu-o fructu celeriter putrescit. Super hunc
numerum, quem rettulimus, singularis habetur
Aminea maiori geminae ' non dissimilis, prima specie

^ cognomen trahunt 8A : gemelle vocantur a3I : exigunt
gemelle vocantur cognomen trahunt c : geminae, quae a. e.
q. d. u. exigunt, gemellae vocantur, austerioris etc. Aid.,
Gesn.

^ austeris SA, Sobel.

* duarum SAacM : earum edd. : quarum Sobel.

* maiori defenderunt Gesn. et Schn. : minori SAacM, cett.
edd.

' levioris Aid., Gesn. * parum saepe SAacM.

' gemine 31, edd. : germane Sc : germanae a : germinae A.

" Modern Sorrento.

" I.e. is trained to the trellis {iugum).

23»

BOOK III. II. 9-13

of these, to be sure, are Amineau vines. But there 10
are two other vines, called " twins," which derive
their name from their producing of double clusters ;
they yield a harsher wine, but keep equally well.
The smaller of the two is everj'Avhere very well
known, because it covers those most famous slopes
of Vesuvius and of Surrentum " in Campania. It
is sprightly amid the western breezes of summer,
but downcast in southern winds ; and so in other 11
sections of Italy it is suitable, not so much for vine-
yards, as for the arbustum, although in the regions
above mentioned it bears the yoke ^ very well. It
produces wood and fruit — except for its double
clusters — not unlike the smaller " sister " vine,
just as the larger " twin " is like the larger " sister " ;
but the smaller vine is the better in that it is more
fruitful even in ordinary soil, for I have already
said that the other does not yield except in very
rich ground. Some also approve very highly the 12
" woolly " Aminean, which acquires this epithet
not from the fact that it alone, of all the Aminean
varieties, is hoary Mith down, but because it is
especially so. A producer of exceedingly good wine,
though mellower than those above mentioned, it
also makes a rank gro\\'th ; and for this reason,
because of the compactness of its foliage, it often does
not cast its blossoms perfectly, and it also rots quickly
after the fruit has matured. In addition to the 13
number that we have mentioned, there is included
a " single " <^ Aminean not milike the larger " twin " —

' Seemingly a vine with single clusters, in contrast to the
double-clustered " twin " (sec. 10, above). But singularis
habetur may mean "there is held to be of outstanding
merit."

239

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

pampini et trunci, sed vini sapore aliquanto inferior,
quamvis generosissimis sit proxima,^ praeferenda
etiam propriis virtutibus. Nam et feracior ^ et
flora melius exuitur, spissasque et albidas uvas ac
tumidioris acini gerit, gracili arvo non desciscit, atque

14 ideo inter uberrimas vites numeratur. Nomentanae
vini nobilitate subsequuntur Amineas, fecunditate
vero etiam praeveniunt ; quippe cum se frequenter
impleant et id, quod ediderunt, optime tueantur.^
Sed earum quoque feracior est minor, cuius et folium
parcius scinditur, et materia non ita rubet ut maioris,
a quo colore rubellanae ^ nuncupantur. Eaedemque
faeciniae, quod plus quam ceterae faecis adferunt.

15 Idtamen incommodum repensant uvarum multitudine,
quas et in iugo sed et in arbore melius exhibent.
Ventos et imbres valenter sufferunt, celeriter deflores-
cunt, et ideo citius ^ mitescunt, omnis incommodi
patientes praeter caloris. Nam quia minuti acini et
durae cutis uvas habent, aestibus contrahuntur.
Pinguique ^ ai-vo maxime gaudent, quod ubertatem
aliquam natura gracilibus ' et exilibus uvis praebere

16 valet. Frigidum ac roscidum solum et caelum**
commodissime sustinent Eugeniae, dum sunt in
Albano colle, nam mutato loco vix nomini suo

1 proximo SA : proxime Aid. : proximae Gesn.

^ feracior est edd. : est om. codd.

3 tueantur M : tuentur SAac.

* rubellanae SAa : rubellane c : rubellianae M, et vulgo.

^ cito SAa.

" Pinguique SAacM : Pingui edd.

' gracilibus om. S : gracili et A.

" et caelum om. SAa.

240

BOOK III. II. 13-16

a vine of first rank in the appearance of leafy shoots
and stock, but somewhat inferior in the flavour of its
wine ; though even so it ranks next to the most
outstanding varieties and is even to be preferred
for quaUties of its own. For it is n:iore fruitful, it is
better in casting its flowers, it bears compact light-
coloured clusters of plumper grapes, it does not
degenerate in poor land, and consequently it is
counted among the most profitable \'ines. The 14
Nomentan vines " follow close after the Amineans
in excellence of wine, but in productivity they even
take the lead ; and naturally so, since they are often
loaded full and keep exceedingly well what they
have produced. But of these, too, the smaller is
the more prolific ; its leaf is not so deeply cleft,
and its wood is not so red as that of the larger
variety — from which colour the vines are called
ruhdlanae. These vines are also called faeciniae
from the fact that they make more dregs {faeces)
than other varieties. Still they make up for this 15
disadvantage in the gi'eater number of their clusters,
which they produce even on a trellis but better on
a tree. They endure ^vinds and rains valiantly, drop
their flowers early, and therefore ripen sooner.
They bear up under every adversity except that of
heat ; for, having small-berried and tough-skinned
clusters, they shrivel in high temperatures. They
delight most of all in rich land, which can add some
fullness to clusters that are naturally scanty and
small. The Eugenians endure a cold, dewy ground 16
and climate very well as long as they remain on the
Alban hills ; for in a changed situation they hardly

" From Xomeiitum, an ancient Sabiue town, now Men-
tana; c/. Pliny, A\H. XIV. 23.

241

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

respondent ; nee minus Allobrogicae, quarum vini

17 iucunditas cum regione mutatur. Magis etiam
dotibus ti-es Apianae ^ commendantur, omnes feraces
iugoque et arboribus satis idoneae, generosior tamen
una, quae nudis foliis est. Nam duae lanatae quam-
vis frondibus et palmitum pari facie fluxurae qualitate
sunt dispariles, cum tardius altera recipiat ^ cariem

18 vetustatis. Pingui solo feracissimae, mediocri quo-
que fecundae ; praecoquis fructus, ideoque frigidis
locis aptissimae ; vini dulcis, sed capiti nervisque,
venisque ^ non aptae.* Nisi mature lectae pluviis
ventisque et apibus adferunt praedam, quarum
vocabulo propter banc populationem cognominantur.
Atque hae pretiosi gustus celeberrimae.

19 Possunt tamen etiam secundae notae vites pro-
ventu et ubertate commendari, qualis est Biturica,
qualis basilica,^ quarum minorem coccolobin ® vocant
Hispani, longe omnium primis utraeque proximae.
Nam et vetustatem vinum earum patitur, et ad

20 bonitatem aliquam per annos venit. lam vero ipsae
fecunditate praestant omnibus, quas ante rettuli,
tum etiam patientia ; quippe turbines imbresque
fortissime sustinent, et commode fluunt, nee deficiunt
macro solo. Frigora melius quam umores sustinent,
umores commodius quam siccitates, nee caloribus

^ appianae SA : appiane acM.

* recipiat M : recipiet SA : recipit ac.
^ venisque om. SA .

* apti Ursinus.

* balisca S : basilisca Aa.

* coccolobin Sobel : coccolovin S : coccoloum Aa : cocco-
lubem c : coccolleum M : cocolubem edd.

et5y€./7;s, " well-born "; c/. Pliny, N.H. XIV. 25.
Ibid. 26.

242

BOOK III. II. 16-20

answer to their own name." The same is true of the
AUobrogian *" vines : the agreeableness of their
\vines is affected by a change of region. The three 17
Apian " also are recommended for their great
quaUties ; all of them fruitful and quite suitable
for the trellis and for trees, though the one vith
bare leaves is superior. For the two lanate varieties,
though of like appearance as to leaves and branches,
differ in the quality of their juice, as one of them
is slower in acquiring flatness of taste from long
keeping. They are very prolific in rich ground, 18
and fruitful also in average soil ; their fruit ripens
early, and for that reason they are very well suited
for cold localities; they yield a sweet \vine, but are
not good for the head, sinews, and veins. If they
are not gathered at the proper time they become
the prey of rains, A\'inds, and bees ; and it is because
of this plundering that they are surnamed from the
word meaning " bees " (apes). And these are the
vines most renoA\iied for their precious flavours.

There are, nevertheless, vines of second quality 19
which can be commended for their groA^'th and
fruitfulness, such as the Bituric ^ and the Basilic,
the smaller of which the Spaniards call coccolobis,^
— both of them by far the closest to the very best ;
for their wine stands long keeping and attains some
degree of excellence with age. And in fact they 20
surpass in productiveness all that I have mentioned
above, and also in hardiness ; for they \\ithstand
storms and rain with the greatest fortitude, they
have a good amount of juice, and do not fail in lean
ground. They endure cold better than wetness,
and wetness better than dryness, and yet they are

« Ibid. 24. " Ibid. 27. • Ibid. 30.

243

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

21 tamen contristantur. Visula ^ delude ab his et
minor Argitis terrae mediocritate laetantur ; nam
in pingui nimiis viribus luxuriant ; in niacra tenues
et vacuae fructu veniunt ; amiciores iugo quam
arboribus, sed Argitis etiam in sublimibus fertilis

22 vastis materiis et uvis exuberat. Humillimis tabu-
latis aptior Visula brevem materiam, durum folium
et latum exigit, cuius amplitudine ^ fructus suos
optime adversus grandinem tuetur; qui tamen nisi
primo quoque tempore maturi legantur, ad terram
decidunt ; humoribus etiam priusquam defluant,

23 putrescunt. Sunt et Helvolae, quas non nulli varias
appellant, neque purpureae neque nigrae, ab helvo,^
nisi fallor, colore vocitatae. Melior est nigrior
abundantia vini, sed haec sapore pretiosior. Color
acinorum in neutra conspicitur aequalis. Utraque ^
candidi musti alterna vice annorum plus aut minus
adferunt.^ Melius arborem, sed et iugum commode
vestiunt. Mediocri quoque solo fecundae, sicut
Pretiae minor et maior. Sed eae ® generositate vini
magis comraendantur, et frequentibus materiis

24 frondent et cito maturescunt. Albuelis ' utilior,
ut ait Celsus, in colle quam in campo ; in arbore
quam in iugo ; in summa arbore quam in ima ; ^

^ vis ulla ac : visullae SA : Vissule M : Visulae edd. ante.
Oesn.

2 altitudinem Aac : altitudine M.

' ab helvo om. a : ab herbo c : ab albo AM,

* aequalis atque utraque AacM.

* auferunt SA.

' eae edd. : haec, et deinde commendatur SA : sed et ac :
sed et haec M.

' aldi uelis SA : alius uel his (bis a) ac : alia est his M.

* in minima ac : in anima A.

" Pliny, N.H. XIV. 28.
244

BOOK III. n. 20-24

not bothered by heat. Next after these are the 21
Visula "■ and the smaller Argitis,* which thrive in
ground of middling quality ; for they make a rank
gro'\\i;h in rich ground because of their excessive
vigour, while in lean ground they grow spindling
and are devoid of fruit. They have a greater fond-
ness for the trellis than for trees, though the Argitis
is productive even on high supports and makes a
luxuriant growth of wood and grape clusters. The 22
A'isula, better suited to very low frames, makes little
wood but tough and broad leaves, whose size affords
the fruit very good protection against hail ; but if
this is not gathered as soon as it is ripe, it falls to
the ground ; and in wet weather it rots even before
it falls off. There are also the Helvolans," which 23
some call variae (variegated) ; they are neither purple
nor black, and get their name, if I mistake not, from
their dun (hehus) shade. The one which is more
nearly black is the better as to quantity of ^^ine,
while the other is more highly prized in the matter
of flavour. In neither of them does the colour of
the berries appear to be unifoi-m. Both \ield white
must in greater or smaller quantity ever}'^ year.
They make a better covering on a tree, though doing
well on a trellis. They are productive also in mediocre
soil, as are the smaller and larger Pretians.*^ But
the latter are commended more highly for the
quality of their wdne, and they put forth much wood
and foUage and ripen quickly. The Albuelis,*^ as 24
Celsus says, is more profitable on a hill than on a
plain ; on a tree than on a trellis ; and at the top

* Vergil, Georg. II. 99-100. Argitisque minor, cui non certa-
verit ulla I Aut tantum fiuere aut todde^n durarc per annos.
0 Pliny, N.H. XIV. 29. " Ibid. 31.

245

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

ferax et materiae frequentis et uvae. Nam quae
Graeculae vites sunt,ut Mareoticae,Thasiae, Psithiae,
Sophortiae, sicut habent probabilem gustum, ita
nostris regionibus et raritate uvarum et acinorum
exiguitate minus fluunt. Inerticula tamen nigra,
quam quidam Graeci amethyston ^ appellant, potest
in secunda quasi tribu esse, quod et boni vini est
et innoxia,^ unde etiam nomen traxit, quod iners
habetm* in tentandis nervis, quamvis gustu non sit
hebes.^

25 Tertium gradum facit earum Celsus, quae fecun-
ditate sola commendantur : ut tres Helvenacae,*
quarum duae maiores nequaquam minori bonitate
et abundantia musti pares habentur. Earum altera,
quam Galliarum incolae marcum ^ vocant, mediocris
vini; et altera quam longam appellant, eandemque
canam,^ sordidi vini nee tam largi quam ex numero

26 uvarum prima specie promittit. Minima et optima e
tribus facillime folio dinoscitur, nam rotundissimum
omnium id gerit ; atque est laudabilis, quod siccitates
maxime perfei't; quod frigora sustinet, dum tamen

^ amethyston omnes post Beroalduni : amarcion SA :
amaricion c : amarition 31, vett. edd. : amarciem a.
^ quod et . . . innoxia om. SA.
3 habilia SAaM.

* helvenace /(/ : hennacae (-e a)SAa : henirace c : Hel-
venaciae vulgo.

* marcum SAacM, Sclin. in not., Sobel : emarcum cett.
Deinde mediocris vineia [SAa) defendit Sobel.

* canam Sobel : cauam SAac : canaram 31 : avaram edd.

" a-tiidvaros, " not drunken." Cf. the amethyst as a sup-
posed remedy against drunkenness. On the name and
quality of the vine, cf. Pliny, N.H. XIV. 31. and Isidore, Orig.
XVII. 5. 24.

246

BOOK III. II. 24-26

of the tree than at the lower part. It produces
much wood and many clusters. For those Greekling
vines — such as the Mareotic, the Thasian, the
Psithian, and the Sophortian — though they have an
agreeable taste, still in our localities they yield
little juice because of the looseness of the bunches
and the small size of the berries. Nevertheless
the black Inerticulan, which certain Greeks call
amethystos,°' may be placed in the second tribe, so
to speak, because it makes good wine and is harm-
less; from this fact, too, it takes its name, because
it is considered inactive (iners) in its effect on the
sinews, although not dull in taste.

Celsus makes a third class of those vines which 25
are commended for fruitfulness alone, such as the
three Helvenacans,* of which the two larger are
considered by no means equal to the smaller in the
quality and quantity of their must. One of them,
which people who live in Gaul call marcus,'^ produces
ordinary wine ; and the other, which they designate
as the " long vine " and also the " white vine," yields
a wine of low grade and of no such quantity as the
number of its clusters promises at first glance. The 26
smallest and best of the three is very readily re-
cognized by its leaf, for it bears the roundest leaf
of all of them ; and it is praiseworthy because it
endures drought best of all, because it bears cold

* Cf. Pliny, N.H. XIV. 32-33.

* Sobel (Stud. Colum., 47^8) points out the long standing
error of editors and lexicographers in reading emarcum,
without MS. authority, as a " Gallic " word. Rejecting also
Schneider's interpretation of the word as Fr. inarc, Sobel, com-
paring modern " Alexander " apples, " Victoria " plums,
" Williams " pears, etc., proposes the familiar Roman
praenomen to produce " Marcus " grapes.

247

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

sine imbribus sit ; quod non nullis locis etiam vimim
eius in vetustatem diffunditur ; quod praecipue sola
macerrimum quoque solum fertilitate sua com-

27 mendat. Ut Spionia ^ dapsilis nausto sed ^ ampli-
tudine magis uvarum quam numero fertilis, ut Hor-
conia,^ ut Murgentina eademque Pompeiana, ut
Numisiana, ut Venucula eademque Scii*pula * atque
Sticula,^ ut nigra Fregellana, ut Merica,^ ut Rhaetica,
ut omnium quas cognovimus copiosissima Arcelaca

28 maior, a multis Argitis ' falso existimata. Nam has
nuper mihi cognitas, Pergulanam ^ dico et Irtiolam
Fereolamque, non facile adseverem quo gradu
habendae sint ; quod etsi satis fecundas scio, nondimi
tamen de bonitate vini, quod adferunt, iudicare potui.
Unam etiam praecoquem vitem nobis ante hoc
tempus incognitam Graeca consuetudine Dracontion
vocitari comperimus, quae fecunditate iucunditateve
Arcelacae Basilicaeque et Bituricae comparari possit,

29 generositate vini Amineae. Multa praeterea genera
sunt vitium, quarum nee numerum nee appellationes

1 scipionia /Sitf : scipioni ad apsilis A : scipioni adapsilis a:
spioni allapsilis c : At spionia plerigtie edd. ante Schn.

^ musto sed c, vett. edd. : niustos eed SAa : musto et M, et
vulgo.

' horconia Sobel : holconia S : holcani aut A : holcoma a :
holcama cM : holgonia aut veil. edd. : oleaginia vulgo.

* scuritula a : sartula c : fertula M : ecircitula Pontedera :
Pompeiana . . . scirpuia om. SA.

* rabucula SAa : rubicula cM.
" mettica SAaM : atthica c.

248

BOOK III. 11. 26-29

if only it is free from rain, because in some regions
its wine is racked off for long keeping, and especially
because it alone gives a good name to even the
poorest of soil by reason of its o^vn fertility. [Celsus 27
includes also] such as the Spionian, rich in must but
fruitful in the size rather than the number of its
clusters ; such as the Horconian,« the Murgentine,"
which is the same as the Pompeian, the Numisian,
the Venuculan, also called Scirpulan and Sticulan ; *
such as the black Fragellan, the Merican, the
Rhaetian, and that most prolific of all vines within
our acquaintance, the greater Arcelacan," wrongly
considered by many to be the Argitis. For as to 28
those that have recently come to my knowledge —
I mean the Pergulan, the Irtiolan, and the Fereolan —
I could not easily declare with certainty in what
class they are to be considered ; for, though I know
that they are passably fruitful, I have not been able
as yet to pass judgment on the quality of the wine
that they produce. We have discovered also that
there is an early-ripe vine, hitherto unknown to us
and called Dracontion after the Greek fashion, which
may be compared in fruitfulness and agreeableness
to the Arcelacan, the Basihc, and the Bituric vines,
and in its high quahty to the Aminean. There are, 29
besides, many sorts of vines of which we can relate

" Cf. Pliny, N.H. XIV. 35.

" Pliny, N.H. XIV. 34.

•^ Not mentioned as such by other writers.

argillis SA.

nuper gulanam (mihi cognitas per- om.) SA.

249

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

cum certa fide referre possumus. Neque enim,^ ut
ait poeta,

numero comprendere ^ refert ;
Quem qui scire velit, Lib3^ci velit aequoris idem
Discere ^ quam multae Zephyro turbentur *
harenae :

30 quippe universae regiones regionumque paene singu-
lae partes habent propria vitium genera, quae con-
suetudine sua denominant ;^ quaedam etiam stirpes
cum locis vocabula mutaverunt ; quaedam propter
mutationem locorum, sicut supra diximus, etiam
qualitate sua decesserunt, ita ut dinosci non possint.
Ideoque in hac ipsa Italia, ne dicam in tarn diftuso
terrarum orbe, vicinae ® nationes nominibus earum

31 discrepant, variantque vocabula. Quare prudentis
magistri est eius modi nomenclationis aucupio, quo
potiri nequeat,' studiosos non demorari ; sed illud in
totum praecipere, quod et Celsus ait et ante eum
Marcus Cato, nullum genus vitium conserendum esse
nisi fama, nullum diutius conservandum nisi experi-
niento,^ probatum. Atque ubi multa invitabunt
regionis commoda, ut nobilem vitem conseramus,
generosam requiremus, inquit lulius Graecinus ;
ubi nihil erit aut non multum quod ^ proritet, fera-
citatem potius sequemur, quae non eadem portione

^ enim om. SA, Sobel.

* numero comprendere 31, Verg. edd. : numero compre-
hendere a, edd. : numerum comprehendere (comprehende
refert S, comprehendere fert A) SAc, Sobel.

3 dicere SAacM.

* turbentur Sobel, Verg. edd. : turbent' S : turbem A :
versentur a^M, edd.

° denominant SAacM : Dominant edd.

* etiam post vicinae add. vulgo : om. SAacM, vett. edd.
' nequeat SAacM, vett. edd. : nequeant vulgo.

* experimendo SA. * quo SA.
250

BOOK III. II. 29-31

neither the number nor the names with assurance.
And, indeed, as the poet says,"

to know their number is of no concern.
One who would know of this might also wish to

learn
How many grains of Libyan sand by western

breeze are stirred.

For all countries and almost all separate districts 30
of those countries have their peculiar types of vines,
which they designate according to their own fashion ;
some vine-stocks also have changed their names along
with the places where they are grown ; and some,
as I said above, have so far departed from their
peculiar character, through a change of place, as to
be unrecognizable. And so in our own Italy, not
to speak of the whole far-flung world, neighbouring
peoples disagree in the names of vines, and their
designations vary. Therefore it is a mark of the wise 31
teacher not to retard his students with quibbling
over a list of names of a sort which it is impossible
to master, but in general to lay down as a precept
what Celsus says, and Marcus Cato before him — that
no kind of vine should be planted except that approved
by common report, and that none should be kept
for any length of time unless proved by test. And
where the many advantages of a particular region
invite us to plant a superior vine, we shall search
out one of good origin, says Julius Graecinus; where
there is nothing at all or not much to encourage us,
we shall look rather for fruitfulness, which is not ex-
celled in worth to the same degree that it excels

« Vergil, Georg. II. 104-106.

251

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

32 vincitur pretio quani vincit abundantia. Seel tie
hac sententia, quamquam et ipse paulo ante idem
censuerim, quid tanien arcanius iudicem, suo loco
mox dicam. Propositum est enim docere qua
ratione vineae pariter feraces et pretiosae fluxurae
possint constitui.

III. Nunc prius quam de satione vitium disseram,
non alienum puto velut quoddam fundamentum
iacere disputationi futurae, ut ante perpensum et
exploratum habeamus an locupletet patrem faniiliae
vinearum cultus. Est enim paene adhuc super-
vacuum de his conserendis praecipere, dum quod
prius est, nondum concedatur an omnino sint ha-
bendae. Idque adeo plurimi dubitent, ut multi
refugiant et reformident talem positionem ruris,
atque optabiliorem pratorum possessionem pascu-
2 orumque vel silvae caeduae iudicent ; nam de arbusto
etiam inter auctores non exigua pugna fuit, abnuente
Saserna genus id ruris, Tremelio maxime probante.
Sed et banc sententiam suo loco aestimabimus.^
Interim studiosi agricolationis hoc primum docendi
sunt, uberrimum esse reditum vinearum. Atque ut
omittam veterem illam felicitatem arvorum,^ quibus
et ante iam Cato Marcus, et mox Varro Terentius,
prodidit singula iugera vinearum sescenas urnas vini
praebuisse — id enim maxime adseverat in pi'imo
libro rerum rusticarum Varro — nee una regione

^ estimavimus jS : extimabimus ac : existimabimus IJ.
2 arborum SA^.

" I.e. the lower quality of the prohfic vine is more than
offset by the quantity of its yield. * I.e. the arbustum.

' Varro, R.R. I. 2. 7, quoting Cato, Origines.

" 1 urna = ^ amphora = about 3.42 U.S. (2.85 Brit.)
gallons.

252

BOOK III. II. 31-111. 2

in abundance of yield." But as for this opinion, 32
though I myself was of the same mind not long ago,
I shall soon tell in the proper place what my more
private judgment is. For it is my purpose to teach
the method by which vineyards may be managed so
as to be at the same time fruitful and productive ofi^
a wine that will bring a good price.

III. Now, before discoursing on the planting of
vines, I think it not out of place to lay down, as a "*
sort of foundation for the coming discussion, the
principle that we would have carefully weighed and
investigated in advance whether viticulture will
enrich the proprietor ; for it is well-nigh purpose-
less as yet to give directions for planting vines,
as long as the prior question is not yet affirmatively
answered — whether vines should be kept at all.
And most people would be doubtful on this point,
to such an extent that many would avoid and dread
such an ordering of their land, and would consider
it preferable to o^vn meadows and pastures, or wood-
land for cutting ; for in the matter of ground planted 2
with trees for the suppoi't of vines * there has been
no little dispute even among authorities, Saserna
being unfavourable to this kind of land, and Tremelius
approving it most highly. But we shall make an
appraisal of this opinion in its proper place. Mean-
while those devoted to the study of agriculture must
be informed of one thing first of all — that the return
from vineyards is a very rich one. And to pass over
the old-time fertility of the land, of whiter. Marcus
Cato long ago, and Terentius Varro '^ more recently,
recorded that each iugerum of vineyard yielded six
hundred urnae <* of wine — for Varro so declares most
emphatically in the first book of his Res Rusticae —

253

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUxMELLA

provenire solitum, verum et in Faventino ^ agro

3 et in Galileo, qui nunc Piceno contribuitur ; his certe
temporibus Noraentana regio celeberrima fama est
inlustris, et praecipue quam possidet Seneca, vir
excellentis ingenii atque doctrinae, cuius in praediis
vinearum iugera singula cuUeos octonos reddidisse
plerumque, compertum est. Nam ilia videntur
prodigialiter in nostris Ceretanis accidisse, ut aliqua
vitis apud te excederet uvarum numerum duorum
milium et apud me octingenae ^ stirpes insitae intra
biennium septenos culleos peraequarent ; ut primae
vineae centenas amphoras iugeratim praeberent, cum
prata et pascua et silvae, si centenos sestertios in
singula iugera efficiant, optime domino consulere

4 videantur. Nam frumenta maiore ^ quidem parte *
Italiae quando cum quarto responderint, vix memi-
nisse possumus.^ Cur ergo res infamis est ? Non
quidem suo sed hominum inquit vitio Graecinus :
primum, quod in explorandis seminibus nemo adhibet
diligentiam, et ideo pessimi generis plerique vineta
conserunt ; deinde sata non ita nutriunt, ut ante

^ florentino Sa : flor. expunct. et faventino in marg. A.

* octingenae SAcM : ottingene a : octogenae vulgo.
^ maiorem 8Aa, Sobel.

■* partem SA, Sobel.

* possimus S [in possumus con.) A, Sobel.

" Mod. Faenza.

* A strip of land running along the Adriatic coast of Italy.
' Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher.

" 1 culleus = 20 amphorae ^ ahont 137 U.S. (114 Brit.)
gallons.

• See Introd., p. xi.

f Perhaps the two iugera of grafted vines mentioned in
III. 9. 6. For the varying number of vines planted to the
iugerum, see V. 3.

254

BOOK III. III. 2-4

and that this was the customary yield not in one
district alone but also in the country around Faventia"
and in the Ager Gallicus,'' which is now annexed to
Picenum ; in our own times, at any rate, the 3
neighbourhood of Nomentum is illumined by a most
distinguished reputation ; and especially that part
owned by Seneca, <^ a man of outstanding genius
and erudition, on whose estates it is learned that
every iugerum of vineyard has yielded commonly
eight ciiUei.^ For the things that happened in our
Ceretanum ^ seem to have been in the nature of a
prodigy, in that a certain vine on your place ex-
ceeded the number of two thousand clusters, and
■with me, that eight hundred grafted stocks of less
than two years ^ yielded seven cullei, or that first-
class vineyards produced a hundred amphorae ? to
the iugerum, when meadows, pastures, and wood-
land seem to do very well by the owner if they bring
in a hundred sesterces'' for every iugerum. For we 4
can hardly recall a time when grain crops, through-
out at least the greater part of Italy, returned a
yield of four for one.' Why, then, is viticulture in
disrepute ? Not, indeed, through its own fault, but
because of human failings, says Graecinus ; in the
first place because no one takes pains in searching
after cuttings, and for that reason most people plant
vine3^ards of the worst sort ; and then they do not
nourish their vines, once planted, in such a way as

" 1 amphora — about 6-84 U.S. (5-70 Brit.) gallons.

* 1 sestertius = about 4 cents.

' Varro, in the preceding century, speaks {R.R. I. 44. 1-2)
of grain yields of 10 for 1 {cum decimo) in some parts of Italy,
of 15 for 1 {C2im quinto decimo) at some places in Etruria, and
of reported yields of a hundredfold (cum cenlet-imo) around
Syl'aris in Italy and at certain places in Syria and Africa.

VOL. I. K

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

convalescant ac prosiliant, quam retorrescant ; sed

5 et si forte adoleverint, neglegenter colunt. lam
illud a principio nihil referre censent, quem locum
conserant ; immo etiam seligunt ^ deterrimam partem
agrorum, tamquam sola sit huic stirpi maxime terra
idonea, quae nihil aliud ferre possit. Sed ne ponendi
quidem rationem aut perspiciunt, aut perspectam
exsequuntur. Turn etiam dotem, id est instru-
mentum, raro vineis praeparant ; cum ea res, si
omissa sit, plurimas operas nee minus arcam patris

6 familiae semper exhauriat. Fructum vero plerique
quam uberrimum praesentem consectantur, nee
provident futuro tempori, sed quasi plane in diem
vivant, sic imperant vitibus, et eas ita multis palmi-
tibus onerant, ut posteritati non consulant. Haec
omnia vel certe plurima ex his cum commiserunt,
quidvis malunt quam suam culpam confiteri ; que-
runturque non respondere sibi vineta, quae vel per
avaritiam vel inscientiam ^ vel per neglegentiam

7 perdiderunt. At si qui ^ cum scientia sociaverint ^
diligentiam, non, ut ego existimo, quadragenas
vel certe tricenas,^ sed ut Graecinus, minimum
computans licet, inquit, amphoras vicenas percipient ^

' sedeligunt ;S', Sobel.

^ inscientiam c3I, vett. edd. : in scientia a : inscientia quae
perdiderunt SA^ : inscitia vulgo.
" quis SAac : om. M.

* sociaverit SAcM, vett. edd.

* sic Gesn., Schn. : tricenas ve! quadragenas certe ante
Gesn. : tricenas v. c. ducenas iSA : tricenas vel ducenas
(decenas cM) certe acM.

* percipiant SA'^ : percipiunt a : percipiet M.

256

BOOK III. III. 4-7

to let them gain strength and shoot out before they
wither ; and if they do happen to grow, they are care-
less in the matter of cultivation. Even at the verv' 5
start they think that it makes no difference what
kind of ground they plant ; or rather they pick out
the very worst section of their lands, as though
such ground alone were particularly fit for this
plant because incapable of producing anvthing else.
Either they do not understand even the method of
setting them or else they fail to put it into prac-
tice when they do imderstand it. Then too, they
seldom have the dowry ° — that is, the equipment —
in readiness for their vineyards ; though this, if neg-
lected, uses up many days of toil and puts a constant
drain on the coffers of the proprietor. Most people, 6
in fact, strive for the richest possible yield at the
earliest moment ; they make no provision for the time
to come, but, as if living merely from day to day,
they put such demands upon their vines and load
them so heavily with young shoots as to show no
regard for succeeding generations. After commit-
ting all these acts, or at any rate most of them,
they would rather do anvthing at all than admit
their o\vn guilt ; and they complain that their vine-
yards do not yield them a return — vineyards which
they themselves have ruined through greed, or
ignorance, or neglect. But any who combine 7
painstaking care with scientific knowledge receive,
not forty, or at least thirty according to my reckon-
ing, but, as Graecinus says, though setting the
lowest estimate, twenty amphorae from every iugertctn,

' An expression borrowed from the marriage custom of
providing a portion for the bride; for the vine was
proverbially " wedded " to its supporting tree.

257

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

ex singulis iugeribus, omnis istos, qui faenum suum
et holera amplexantur, incremento patrimonii facile
superabunt. Nee in hoc errat ; quippe ut diligens
ratiocinator ^ calculo posito videt id ^ genus agrico-

8 lationis maxime rei familiari conducere. Nam ut
amplissimas impensas vineae poscant, non tamen
excedunt septem iugei-a unius operam vinitoris,
quern vulgus quidem parvi aeris, vel de lapide noxium
posse comparari putat ; sed ego plurimorum opinioni
dissentiens pretiosum vinitorem in primis esse censeo.
Isque licet sit ^ emptus sex, vel potius sestertiis octo
milibus, cum ipsum solum septem * iugerum totidem
milibus nummorum partum, vineasque cum sua
dote, id est cum pedamentis et viminibus, binis
miUbus in singula iugera positas duco, fit tamen ^
in assem consummatum pretium sestertiorum viginti

9 novem milium. Hue accedunt semisses usurarum
sestertia tria milia et quadringenti octoginta nummi
biennii temporis, quo velut infantia vinearum cessat a
fructu. Fit in assem summa sortis et usurarum
triginta duorum milium quadringentorum octoginta
nummorum. Quod quasi nomen si ut faenerator
cum debitore ita rusticus cum vineis suis fecerit,
eius summae ut in perpetuum praedictam usuram
semissium dominus constituat, percipere ^ debet in
annos singulos mille nongentos ' quinquaginta sester-
tios nummos ; qua computatione vincit tamen reditus
septem iugerum, secundum opinionem Graecini,
usuram triginta duorum milium quadringentorum

' lUligenter ratiocinatior SA^ : diligenter ratiocinatio Sobel.

''■ videre et id SA^ : videt et id c.

■* sit licet SAa.

^ septem edd. : octo SAacM, veil. edd.

* tamen l^AacM, vetl. edd. : tum mlgo,

^ praecipere c. ' noningcntos ac.

258

BOOK III. III. 7-9

they will easily outdo in the increase of their an-
cestral estates all those Avho hold fast to their hay
and pot-herbs. And he is not mistaken in this ; for,
like a careful accoimtant, he sees, when his calcula-
tions are made, that this kind of husbandry is of the
greatest advantage to his estate. For, admitting 8
that vineyards demand a very generous outlay, still
seven iugera require the labour of not more than one
vinedresser, upon whom people in general set a low
value, thinking that even some malefactor may be
acquired from the auction-block;'' but I, disagree-
ing with the opinion of the majority, consider a high-
priced vinedresser of first importance. And suppos-
ing his purchase price to be 6000 or, better, 8000
sesterces, w'hen I estimate the seven iugera of ground
as acqviired for just as many thousands of sesterces,''
and that the vineyards with their dowry — that is,
with stakes and withes — are set out for 2000
sesterces per iugerum, still the total cost, reckoned
to the last farthing, amounts to 29,000 sesterces.
Added to this is interest at six per cent, per annum, 9
amounting to 3480 sesterces for the two-year period
when the vineyards, in their infancy as it were, are
delayed in bearing. The sum total of principal and
interest comes to 32,480 sesterces. And if the husband-
man would enter this amount as a debt against his
vineyards just as a moneylender does with a debtor,
so that the owner may realize the aforementioned
six per cent, interest on that total as a perpetual
annuity, he should take in 1950 sesterces every year.
By this reckoning the return from seven iugera, even
according to the estimate of Graecinus, exceeds the

° Lit. the stone, or stone platform, at which slave auctions
were held. * I.e. 7000.

259

LUCIUS JUNIUS iMODERATUS COLUMELLA

10 octoginta nummorum. Qiiippe ut deten-imi generis
sint vineae, tamen si cultae, singulos utique culleos
vini singula earum iugera peraequabunt ; utque
trecentis nummis quadragenae urnae veneant,^ quod
minimum pretium est annonae, consummant tamen
septem cullei sestertia duo milia et centum nummos :

11 ea porro summa excedit usuram semissium. Atque
hie calculus quem posuimus, Graecini rationem
continet. Sed nos exstirpanda vineta censemus,
quorum singula iugera minus quam ternos culleos
praebent. Et adhuc tamen sic computavimus, quasi
nullae sint viviradices, quae de pastinato eximantur;
cum sola ea res omnem impensam terreni pretio
suo liberet, si modo non provincialis sed Italicus ager

12 est. Neque id cuiquam ^ dubium esse debet, cum
et nostram et lulii Attici rationem dispexerit.^ Nos
iam * enim vicena milia malleorum per vineae iugerum
inter ordines pangimus. Ille minus quattuor milibus
deponit : cuius ut vincat ratio, nullus tamen vel
iniquissimus locus non maiorem quaestum reddet

13 quam acceperit impensam; siquidem, ut cultoris
neglegentia sex milia seminum intereant,^ reliqua ta-
men decern milia tribus milibus nummorum libenter
et cum lucro redemptorum erunt.^ Quae summa
tertia parte superat duo milia sestertiorum, quanti
constare iugerum vinearum praediximus ; quamquam
nostra cura in tantum iam processit, ut non inviti

^ teneant c.

'•^ cuiquam om. SA, sed add. in marg. A.

'■' dispexerit SAacM, et plerique : dispunxerit Schn.

* iam om. SA^. * ingerunt acM, et in marg. A,

* redemptorum erunt SA'^, Schn. : redemptor emerit
A'^acM, et plerique.

" Rooted cuttings. '' See Chap. 6, sec. 3, below.

260

BOOK III. HI. 9-13

interest on 32,480 sesterces. For, assuming that the 10
vineyards are of the very worst sort, still, if taken
care of, they will yield certainly one culleus of wine
to the iugerum ; and even though every forty urns
are sold for 300 sesterces, which is the lowest market
price, nevertheless seven cullei make a total of 2100
sesterces — a sum far in excess of the interest at six
per cent. And these figures, as we have given 11
them, take account of the calculations of Graecinus.
But our own opinion is that vineyards which yield
less than three cullei to the iugerum should be rooted
out. And, even so, we have made our calculations
up to this point as if there were no quicksets " to be
taken from the trenched ground; though this item
alone, at a favourable price, would clear the entire
cost of the land, if only the land belongs, not to the
provinces, but to Italy. And no one should be 12
skeptical of this statement when he distinguishes
between my method and that of Julius Atticus ;
for I am now planting between the rows 20,000
mallet-shoots * to every iugerum of vineyard, while
he sets out four thousand fewer." Assuming that
his way is the better one, still no ground, even
the most unfavourable, will fail to yield a return
exceeding the expense incurred ; since, even though 13
6000 of the plants die through the carelessness of
the vinedresser, still the remaining 10,000 will be
purchased by contract-vineyardists, cheerfully and
at a profit, for 3000 sesterces. This sum exceeds
by one third the 2000 sesterces which we have
named above as the cost of planting one iugerum
of vines, and yet our own management has now
progressed to the point where husbandmen are not

" Cf. Chap. 16, sec. 3, below.

261

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

sestertiis sescenis ^ nummis singula ^ milia vivirti-

14 dicis a me rustici mercentur. Sed vix istud alius
praestiterit. Nam nee quisquam nobis facile credi-
derit tantam in agellis esse nostris abundantiam
vini quantam tu, Silvine, novisti. Mediocre itaque
vulgatumque pretium viviradicis posui, quo celerius
nuUo dissentiente perduci possent in nostram senten-
tiam, qui propter ignorantiam genus hoc agricola-

15 tionis reformidant. Sive ergo pastinationis reditus
seu futurarum spes vindemiarum cohortari nos debet
ad positionem vinearum. Quas quoniam docuimus
rationis esse conserere, nunc institutionis earum
praecepta dabimus.

IV. Cui vineta facere cordi est, praecipue caveat
ne alienae potius curae quam suae credere velit,
neve mercetur viviradicem. Sed genus surculi ^
probatissiraum domi conserat, faciatque vitiarium
ex quo possit agrum vineis vestire. Nam quae
peregrina * ex divei'sa regione semina transferuntur,
minus sunt familiaria nostro solo quam vemacula;
eoque velut alienigena refonxiidant mutatam caeli
2.1ocique positionem. Sed nee certam generositatis
fidem pollicentur, cum sit incertum, an is, qui con-
seruerit ea, diligenter exploratum probatumque
genus surculi deposuerit. Quamobrem biennii spa-
tium longum esse minime existimandum est, intra

* sescenis S : sexcenis Aac : sexenis M : sexcentis vulgo.
^ singulis SAa, vett. edd. : singuli c.
■■* surculis *S' {alt. a expunct.) A.

262

BOOK III. III. 13-1V. 2

averse to purchasing quicksets from me at a price
of six hundred sesterces a thousand. But anyone 14
else ^vill hardly go beyond the above-named figure ;
for no one w\\\ readily take our word for it that there
is such a quantity of wine upon our small pieces of
ground as you, Silvinus, know to be the case. For
that reason I have (|uoted the average and customary
price of quicksets, so that those who, through want
of knowledge, avoid this branch of husbandry, may
be brought over more quickly to my opinion with
no dissenting vote. Therefore either the revenue 15
from ground prepared for planting or the hope of
vintages to come should encourage us in the plant-
ing of vines. And now that we have shown that it
is consistent with good business to plant them, we
shall offer directions for putting them in order.

IV. One who has it at heart to make plantations of
\nnes should guard especially against the willingness
to entrust them to another's care in preference to
his ov/n ; and he should not buy quicksets. But he
should plant at home shoots of the sort most ap-
proved, and should make a nursery of vines from
which he may clothe his land with vineyards. For
foreign cuttings, transplanted from a different locality,
are less at home in our soil than are the native
varieties, and for that reason, being strangers, so
to speak, they dread a change of climate and
situation ; and also they offer no definite assurance 2
of quahty, seeing that it is uncertain whether the
one who has planted them has set out shoots of a
carefully tested and approved variety. Therefore
a period of two years must be considered the mini-

* perenna (peregryna in marg. A) SA.

263

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quod utique tempestivitas seminum respondet ;
cum semper, ut dixi, plurimum rettulerit exquisiti
generis stirpem deposuisse. Post haec deinde
meminerit accurate locum vineis eligere ; de quo cum
iudicaverit, maximam diligentiam sciat adhibendam
pastinationi. Quam cum peregerit, non minore
cura vitem conserat, et cum posuerit ^ summa sedu-
litate culturae serviat; id enim quasi caput et
columen est impensarum, quoniam in eo consistit,
melius an sequius terrae mandaverit paterfamilias
pecuniam quam ^ in otio tractare. Igitur unum
quodque eorum quae ^ proposui, suo iam persequar
ordine.

V. Vitiarium neque ieiuna terra neque uliginosa
faciendum est, sucosa tamen ac mediocri potius
quam pingui ; tametsi fex'e omnes auctores huic rei
laetissimum locum destinaverunt. Quod ego minime
reor esse pro agricola ; nam depositae stirpes *
valido solo, quamvis celeriter comprehendant atque
prosiliant, tamen cum sunt viviradices factae, si in
peius ^ transferantur, retorrescunt nee adolescere
queunt. Prudentis autem coloni est ex deterioi'i
terra potius in raeliorem, quam ex meliore in de-
teriorem transferre. Propter quod mediocritas in
electione loci maxime probatur, quoniam in confinio
boni malique posita est. Sive enim postmodum
necessitas postulaverit ^ tempestiva semina ieiuno

^ seruerlt ac3I, et in marg. A.

^ quam om. SAacM, velt. ecld.

^ quod 8.

* spinae SA^.

'" si in peius] si impetus SA : sint priusquam c, edd. ante
Gesn. : et fractae sunt priusquam in rruirg. A : et fractae
priusquam M.

* postulat SA^ : postularit A'^a.

264

BOOK III. IV. 2-V. 2

mum time within which the quality of the cuttings can
certainly show itself; though, as I have said, it has
always been of the greatest importance to set out
stock of carefully selected origin. Next after this 3
he should remember to make a careful choice of a
site for his vineyards ; and when he has come to a
decision on this point he should know that the greatest
pains must be employed in trenching the ground.
After he has finished the trenching he should use no
less care in the planting of the vine, and after the
planting he should attend with greatest diligence
to the matter of cultivation ; for this is, so to speak,
the chief and cro\\Tiing point of the investment,
since on it rests the decision as to whether it has
been better or worse for the proprietor to commit
his money to the soil rather than to employ it in
idleness. Therefore I shall discuss in their proper
order each of those matters which I have proposed.

V. A vine-nursery should be established in ground
that is neither hungry nor wet, but moist and of
medium quality rather than fat ; though nearly all
authorities have designated a very fertile soil for
this purpose. This I consider as not at all to the
advantage of the husbandman ; for even though
the cuttings quickly take root and shoot up when
planted in strong soil, yet if transferred to poorer
soil when they become quicksets, they wither and
cannot grow to maturity. Moreover, it is the mark 2
of a wise husbandman to transplant from poorer
ground to better rather than from better to poorer.
For this reason an intermediate quality is most ap-
proved in the choice of a site, because it stands on
the border line between good and bad. For if
necessity afterwards demands the setting of the

265

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

solo committere, non magnam sentient ^ differentiam,
cum ex mediocri materia '^ in exilem translata sunt ;
sive laetior agar consei-endus est, longe celerius in
ubertate coalescunt. Rursus tenuissimo solo viti-
arium facere minime rationis est, quoniam malle-
olorum pars maior deperit, et quae superest, tarde
fit idonea translation!. Ergo mediocris et modice
siccus ager vitiario ^ est aptissimus ; isque bipalio
prius subigi debet, quae est altitudo pastinationis,^
cum in duos pedes et semissem convertitur humus ;
ac deinde tripedaneis reUctis spatiis, per quae semina
excolantur, in singulis ordinibus, qui ducenos quadra-
genos pedes obtinent,^ sesceni ^ malleoli pangendi
sunt. Is numerus consummat per totum iugerum
seminum milia quattuor et viginti.' Verum hanc
curam praevenit inquisitio et electio malleolorum.
Nam ut saepe iam rettuli, quasi fundamentum est
praedictae rei, probatissimum genus stirpis deponere.
VI. Sed electio dupliciter facienda est ; non enim
solum fecundam esse matrem satis est, ex qua semina
petuntur, sed adhibenda ratio est subtilior, ut ex his
partibus trunci sumantur, quae et genitales sunt et
maxime fertiles. Vitis autem fecunda, cuius pro-

' sentiunt SAac, vett. edd.

^ materia SAacM, veil. edd. : terra vnlgo.

^ seminari SA, sed vitiario in niarg. A.

* pastionis S.

^ optinie (optinent in marg. A) SAa.

^ sexoeni ac, et in marg. A : sexeni M : septeni SA : sex-
centeni plerique edd. : octogeni Schn.

' milia quattuor (quatuor ac) et viginti SAacM, plerique
edd. : millia tria et ducenta Schn.

" The bipaliwm had a cross-bar fitted to the handle at some
distance above the blade, which allowed the spade to be pushed

266

BOOK III. V. 2-vi. 2

young plants at the proper time in lean ground,
they will be conscious of no great change when
transferred from mediocre to poor soil ; or if a more
fertile field is to be planted, they gain strength far
more quickly in the rich ground. On the other hand, 3
it is not at all consistent ^v^th reason to make a nursery
of vines in the very poorest ground, since the majority
of the slips die, and such as do survive are slow in
becoming fit for transplanting. A piece of average
and moderately dry ground, then, is best suited
for the nursery ; and it should first be worked with
the trenching-spade," which equals the depth of the
trenching when the ground is turned up to two and
one-half feet. Then, leaving three-foot spaces for
the cultivation of the plants, 600 cuttings are to be
set in each of the rows which measure 240 feet.
This number makes a total of 24,000 plants to the 4
iugerum.^ But the examination and choice of
shoots takes precedence of this care. For, as I have
often said before, the planting of the most approved
kind of stock is the foundation, so to speak, of the
aforesaid matter.

VI. But the choice must be made with two con-
siderations in mind ; for it is not enough merely that
the mother vine from which the cuttings are sought
should be prolific, but a more discriminating method
must be employed, that they may be taken from
those parts of her body which are both generative
and especially fruitful. Moreover, the prolific vine 2

by the foot two spits deep — twice the depth of the ordinary
spade {pala).

* The iugerum would thus measure 240 X 120 feet (V. 2. 3),
and the cuttings would be set about five inches apart in the
row.

267

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

geniem studemus summittere, non tantum debet eo
aestimari, quod uvas compluris exigit, potest enim
trunci vastitate id accidere et frequentia ^ palmitum ;
nee tamen earn feracem dixerim, cuius singulae
uvae ^ in singulis sarmentis conspiciuntur. Sed si
per unumquemque pampinum maior numerus uvaruni
dependet ; si ex singulis gemmis compluribus materiis
cum fructu germinat ; si denique etiam e dure
\'irgam ^ aliquibus * racemis citat ; si etiam nepotum
fructu' gravida est; ea sine dubitatione ferax
3 destinari debet legendo malleolo. Malleolus autem
novellus est palmes innatus prioris anni flagello,
cognominatusque ad similitudinem,^ quod in ea
parte, qua ' deciditur ex vetere sai-mento, prominens
utrimque mallei speciem praebet. Hunc ex fe-
cundissima stirpe ^ legendum censemus omni tempore
quo vineae putantur, ac super terram gemmis tribus
vel quattuor extantibus diligenter obruendum loco
modice umido non uliginoso; dum tamen anti-
quissimum sit considerare ne vitis, ex qua is sumitur,
ancipitem floris habeat eventum, ne difficulter
acinus ^ ingrandescat, ne aut praecoquem '" aut serae
maturitatis fructum adferat. Nam ilia voluci'ibus,

' accidere frequentis SA^. ^ vite c.

'■' etiam rue dura virgo SA : etiam in dura virga a,

" aliquis SA.

^ nee totum fructum <S'.4.

* a similitudine rei acM, el vulgo ante Schn.
' qua S, Schn. : quae A, et vulgo : que acM.

* statione SA. ' acinis SAc.
'" praecoquis SAc : percoquis a.

268

BOOK III. VI. 2-3

whose offspring we wish to rear should not be
valued merely because it puts forth grape clusters
in great quantity, for this may be due to the large
size of the stock and the great number of fruiting
canes ; " though I should not call that a fruitful vine
where only one cluster is seen to each cane. But
if a larger number of clusters hang upon every young
shoot ; if from every eye on its many mature branches
it sprouts out with fruit ; if, finally, it also puts out
from its firm wood a green shoot with some clusters ;
if, too, it is heavy ^vith the fruit of its secondary
shoots ; ^ such a vine, fruitful beyond doubt, should
be marked out for the gathering of mallet-shoots.
The mallet-shoot, moreover, is a young shoot grow-
ing out of a cane of the year before ; it is named
according to its resemblance, because, projecting
on both sides in that part where it is cut from the
old branch, it has the appearance of a mallet. Our
opinion is that this should be taken from the most
prolific stock every time that the vines are pruned,
and carefully planted, with three or four eyes
sho\\ing above ground, in soil that is moderately
moist but not wet ; if only it be our first considera-
tion that the vine from which the shoot is taken be
not uncertain in its flowering, that its berries have
no difficulty in growing big, and that it bear fruit
which is neither early nor too late in ripening. For
the former is damaged by birds, and the latter by

" Cf. V. 6. 29; Festus, 246 L, "palmites" vitium sarmenta
appeUantur, quod in moduvi palmarum hnma7mrmti virgulas
quasi digitos edunt ; Isidore, Orig. XVII. 5. 9.

'' Nepoiea, laterals or secondary shoots, lit. "grand-
children " of the flagcllum or cane in the order flagellum-
pamfinus-nefos, springing from the axil of the fampinus or
leaf-stalk.

269

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

4 haec etiam tempestatibus hiemis inf'estatur. Tale
porro genus non una ^ comprobatur v'indemia ; potest
enim vel anni proventu vel aliis de causis etiam
naturaliter infecunda vitis semel exuberare. Sed
ubi plurium ^ velut emeritis annorum stipendiis fides
surculo constitit, nihil dubitandum est de fecunditate.
Nee tamen ultra quadriennium talis extenditur
inquisitio ; id enim tempus fere \arentium generosi-
tatem declarat,^ quo sol in eandem partem signifei'i
per eosdem * numeros redit, per quos cursus sui
principium ceperat.^ Quem circuitum meatus
dierum integrorum raille quadringentorum sexa-
ginta unius anoKaTcia-Taa-Lv ^ vocant studiosi reruni
caelestium.

VII. Sed certum habeo, P. Silvine, iamdudura te
taciturn requirere cuius generis sit ista fecunda vitis,
quam nos tam accurate describimus, anne ' de his
aliqua significetur, quae vulgo nunc ® habentur
feracissimae. Plurimi namque Bituricam, multi
Spioniam, quidam Basilicam, non nulli Arcelacam

2 laudibus efferunt. Nos quoque ^ haec genera testi-
monio nostro non fraudamus,^" sunt enim largissimi
vini ; sed proposuimus docere vineas eius modi
eonserere, quae nee minus uberes fructus praedictis
generibus adferant, et sint pretiosi saporis, velut

^ non una] naturae SA.

* plurium Aid., Schn. : plurimis SAa, Gesn. : pluribus cM.
' desiderat a.

* signiferi per eosdem] eignifer eosdem SA : signi per
eosdem acM.

^ coeperat A, et vulgo %nte Schn.

^ grace, om. spat, relict. acM, deinde id est (in ahbr.)
reversionem vocant a.

' ac ne A, Aid., Gesn. : ne a. * non cM, Aid., Gesn.

* efferunt. Nos quoque om. SA,

270

BOOK III. VI. 3 VII. 2

wintry storms as well. Moreover, such a kind of 4
vine is not proved by one vintage ; for even a vine
that is naturally unfruitful may produce an abundant
yield a single time, either because of the bountiful-
ness of the year or for other reasons. But when
confidence in the shp has been established by the
completion of several years of campaigning, as it were,
there can be no doubt as to its fruitfulness. Yet
such an examination is not carried beyond a period
of four years ; for the quality of plants usually
becomes manifest in that period of time during v/hich
the sun returns to the same division of the zodiac
through the same signs by which it began its
circuit — a periodical course of fourteen hundred
and sixty-one entire days, which students of celestial
matters call dTroKarao-Taeris."

VII. But I am sure, Publius Silvinus, that you have
long been inquiring in your own mind to what
variety that fruitful vine belongs which we are at
such pains to describe — whether one of those which
are commonly regarded as most prolific nowadays
is meant. For very many people are high in their
praise of the Bituric, many of the Spionian, some of
the Basilic, and several of the Arcelacan. We, too, 2
do not deprive these varieties of our approbation,
for they yield a very great quantity of wine ; but
we have resolved to teach the planting of vines of a
sort that ^\ill produce fruit in no less abundance
than the above-mentioned varieties, and that have

" apocat a stasis, meaning the " restoration " of a previous
condition.

1' sic acM : non fraudamus om. SA : non fraudamus tcsti-
monio nostro vulgo.

271

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Aminei, vel certe non procul ab eo gustu. Cui
nostrae sententiae scio paene omnium agricolarum
diversam esse opinionem, quae de Amineis inve-
terata longo iam tempore convaluit, tamquam
natali ^ et ingenita sterilitate laborantibus : quo
magis nobis ex alto repetita compluribus exemplis
firmanda ratio est, quae desidia nee minus impru-
dentia colonorum damnata, et velut ignorantiae
tenebris occaecata luce veritatis caruit. Quare non
intempestivum est nos ad ea praeverti, quae videntur
hunc publicum errorem corrigere posse. ^

VIII. Igitur si rerum naturam, Publi Silvine, velut
acrioribus mentis oculis intueri velimus, reperiemus ^
parem legem fecunditatis earn * dixisse virentibus,
atque hominibus ceterisque animalibus ; nee sic
aliis nationibus regionibusve proprias tribuisse dotes
ut aliis in totum similia munera denegaret. Qui-
busdam gentibus numerosam progenerandi ^ sobolem
dedit, ut Aegyptiis et Afris, quibus gemini partus
familiares ac paene sollemnes sunt ; sed et Italici
generis esse voluit eximiae fecunditatis Albanas
Curiatiae * familiae trigeminorum matres. Ger-

^ naturali c.

^ quae spectandae sint qualitas in eo solo quod vineis
destinaveris post posse inserunl SAc, et in rubr. M.
' reperiamus 8 : repperiamus A.

* eadem A.

^ gcnerandi 8 A, vett. edd.

* Curiatiae edd. : aequitiae SA : equitiae cu-M.

" Pliny {N.H. VII. 33) mentions several cases of multiple
births, including the famous sets of triplets, the Roman
Horatii and the Alban Curiatii (Livy, I. 24-26). A woman
in the Peloponnesus, he says, four times gave birth to quintu-

272

BOOK III. VII. 2-viii. 2

a rich flavour like that of the Anoinean, or at least
not far from that taste. I am aware that the belief
of nearly all agriculturists is at variance ^^ith my
way of thinking ; a belief which, as regards Aminean
vines, has become deep-rooted and has gained
strength through length of time, as though they
suffered from a native and inborn unfruitfulness.
For this reason there is greater necessity on our part 3
of fortifying with many examples a method recalled
from times past — a method which, being condemned
through the slothfulness as well as the indiscretion
of husbandmen and obscured, as it were, by the
darkness of ignorance, has been deprived of the
light of truth. The time is not unsuitable, then,
lor us to turn our attention first to considerations
which seem able to correct this general misunder-
standing.

Vm. Therefore, Publius Silvinus, if we will look
at nature through the keener eyes of the mind, so to
speak, we shall find that she has established an
equable law of fertility for all green things even as for
human beings and other living creatures ; and that
she has not so bestowed special endowments upon
some nations or regions as to deny like gifts altogether
to others. To some peoples she has granted the gift
of producing numerous progeny, as to the Egyptians
and Africans, with whom the birth of twins is common
and almost an annual occurrence ; but of Italian
stock, too, she has willed that there be women of
extraordinary fertility — Alban women of the Curia-
tian family, mothers of three children at one birth."

plets, while an Egyptian woman produced septiiplets. The
fertility of the Egyptians is attributed to their drinking of the
waters of the fetifer (fertilizing) Nile.

273

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

maniam decoravit altissimorum hominum exercitibus ;
sed et alias gentes non in totum fraudavit praecipuae
staturae viris. Nam et Cicero ^ testis est Romanum
fuisse civem Naevium Pollionem pede ^ longiorem
quam quemquam longissimum ; et nuper ipsi videre
potuimus in apparatu pompae Circensium ludorum
ludaeae gentis hominem proceriorem celsissimo

3 Germano. Transeo ad pecudes. Armentis sublimi-
bus insignis Mevania est, Liguria parvis; sed et
Mevaniae bos humilis et Liguriae non numquam
taurus eminentis ^ staturae conspicitur. India perhi-
betur molibus ferarunn mirabilis ; pares tamen in
hac terra vastitate beluas progenerari quis neget,
cum intra moenia nostra natos animadvertamus

4 elephantos ? Sed ad genera frugum redeo. Mysiam
Libyamque largis aiunt abundare frumentis, nee
tamen Apulos Campanosque agros opimis * defici
segetibiis ; Tmolon et Corj^con flore croceo,^ ludaeam
et Arabiam pretiosis odoribus inlustrem haberi ; sed
nee nostram civitatem praedictis egere stirpibus,
quippe compluribus locis urbis iam casiam frondentem
conspicimus, iam tuream plantam, florentisque •

5 hortos myrrha et croco. His tamen exemplis nimi-

1 M. Tullius Cicero vulgo : M. Tullius deest codd., vett. edd.

" peclem SAcM.

' eminenti SA.

^ optimis SA, vett. edd.

^ florc croceo Aac, vett. edd., Gcsn. : flore roceo S : florere
croco Schn. et alii.

* tam maturae (-e a) arapliatam frontisque (florcntesque
o) SAa.

274

BOOK III. VIII. 2-5

She has adorned Germany with armies of exceedingly 2
tall men ; but she has not wholly deprived other
nations of men of exceptional stature. For Cicero
bears witness that there was once a Roman citizen,
Naevius PoUio," who was a foot taller than the tallest
of other men ; and recently we ourselves might have
seen, among the exhibits of the procession at the
games in the Circus, a man of the Jewish race who was
of greater stature than the tallest German. I pass 3
to cattle. Mevania ^ is famous for its herds of tall
cattle, Ligui'ia for small ; but an ox of low stature
is seen now and then in Mevania, and a bull of
towering proportions in Liguria. India is said to
excite astonishment for the hugeness of its wild
animals ; yet who will deny that beasts of equally
vast size are bred in this land, when we consider that
elephants are brought forth within our own walls ?
But I return to various kinds of crops. They say 4
that Mysia and Libya produce enormous quantities
of grain, but that the fields of Apulia and Campania
are not wanting in rich crops ; that Tmolus and
Corycus " are considered famous for the saffron-
flower, and Judea and Arabia for their precious
scents ; but that our own community is not destitute
of the aforesaid plants, for in many sections of the
city we see at one time cassia putting forth its leaves,
again the franldncense plant, and gardens blooming
with myrrh and saffron. Surely these examples 5

" Cf. Pliny, N.H. VII. 74. It has been conjectured that
the source of the story is a lost work of Cicero, De Admirandis,
mentioned by Pliny, N.H. XXXI. 12.

* Modern Bevagna in Umbria, a region long famous for its
huge white cattle.

'^ Tmolus, a mountain in Phrygia ; cf. Vergil, Georg. I. 56.
Corycus, a town and promontory in Cilicia.

275

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

lum admonemui', curae mortalium obsequentissimam
esse Italiam, quae paene totius orbis fi-uges adhibito
studio colonorum ferre didicerit ; quo minus addu-
bitemus ^ de eo fructu, qui velut ^ indigena peculi-
arisque et vernaculus est huius soli. Neque^enim
dubium est * Massici Surrentinique et Albani, atque
Caecubi agri vites omnium, quas terra sustinet,
nobilitate ^ vini principes esse.

IX. Fecunditas ab his forsitan desideretur ; sed et
haec adiuvari potest cultoris industria. Nam si, ut ^
paulo ante rettuli, benignissima rerimi omnium parens
natura quasque gentis atque terras ita muneribus
propriis ditavit, ut tamen ceteras non in universum
similibus dotibus fraudaret, cur earn dubitemus
etiam in vitibus praedictam legem servasse } Ut
quamvis earum genus aliquod praecipue fecundum
esse voluerit, tamquam Bituricum aut Basilicum,^
non tamen sic Amineum sterile reddiderit ut ex
multis milibus eius ne paucissimae quidem vites
f'ecundae, tamquam in Italicis hominibus Albanae
2 illae soroi'es, reperiri possint. Id ^ autem cum sit
verisimile,* tum etiam verum esse nos docuit experi-
mentum, cum et in Ardeatino agro, quern multis
temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in Carseolano
itemque in ^^ Albano generis Aminei vites notatas ^^

* addubitemus acM, Brusch., Sobel : adubitemus A (a in
ras.) S: dubitemus Schn.: addubitamus Aid., Gesn.

2 velut acM, edd. : vel SA, Sobel.

* Neque om. SAa. * est om. SAaM.

5 nobilitate M : quia (non c) nobilitate ac : non vilitate S :
non utilitate A : in nobilitate edd.

' Aic vulgo : nam sicut acM : nisi aut SA.
'' valiscum SAac. * ita SA.

* sint avari simile SA,
'" in oiii. SA, Sobel.

276

BOOK III. VIII. 5-ix. 2

remind us that Italy is most responsive to care
bestowed by mankind, in that she has learned to
produce the fruits of almost the entire world when
her husbandmen have applied themselves to the
task. Therefore our doubts should be lessened as
to that fruit which is a native, as it were, belonging
to and born of our soil. For there is no doubt
that, of all the vines that the earth sustains, those
of the Massic, Surrentine, Alban, and Caecuban
lands hold first place in the excellence of their wine.
IX. The fruitfulness of these vines may leave
something to be desired, but even this may be aided
by diligence on the part of the vine-dresser. For,
as I said a little before, if nature, that most bounteous
parent of all things, has endowed every people and
land with their own peculiar gifts, though in such a
way as not to deprive others entirely of like endow-
ments, why should we doubt that she has observed
the aforesaid rule also in the case of vines ? So that,
although she has willed that some varieties be
especially prolific, such as the Bituric and Basilic, yet
she has not made the Aminean variety so barren that,
of many thousands of them, there may not be
found at least a very few fruitful vines, just as those
Alban sisters among the humankind of Italy. Not 2
only would this be highly probable, but what is
more, experience has taught us the truthfulness of
it ; for on my place at Ardea, which I owned many
years ago, and also on my estates at Carseoli and
Alba," I had marked vines of the Aminean variety,

" Ardea, Carseoli, and Alba were ancient towns of Latium.

^^ notattis Sa, Sobel;- guamlectione7nprobavU Schn.: notatis
A : notas cM : huiusmodi notae vulgo.

277

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

habuerirnus, mimeri) qiiidern perpaucas, verum ita
fertiles ut in iugo singulae ternas urnas praeberent,
in pergulis autem singulae denas aniphoras perae-

3 quarent. Nee incredibilis debet in Amineis haec
videri fecunditas.^ Nam quemadmodum Terentius
Varro, et ante eum Marcus Cato posset - adfirmare,
sescenas ^ urnas priscis cultoribus singula vinearum
iugera fudisse, si fecunditas Amineis defuisset, quas
plerumque solas antiqui noverant ? Nisi si putamus
ea quae nuper ac modo plane * longinquis regionibus
arcessita ^ notitiae nostrae sunt tradita, Biturici
generis aut Basilici vineta eos coluisse, cum vetus-
tissimas quasque vineas adhuc existimemus Amineas.

4 Si quis ergo tales, quales paulo ante possedisse me
rettuli, Amineas pluribus vindemiis exploratas notet,
ut ex his malleolos feracissimos eligat, possit is
pariter generosas vineas et uberes efficere. Nihil
enim dubium est quin ipsa natura subolem matri
similem esse voluerit. Unde etiam pastor ille in
Bucolicis ait,

Sic canibus catulos similes, sic matribus haedos
Noram.^

5 Unde sacrorum certaminum studiosi pernicissimarum
r^uadrigarum ' semina diligenti observatione custo-
diunt, et spem futurarum victoriarum concipiunt
propagata subole generosi armenti. Nos quoque

^ videri fecunditas SAacM : fecuuditas videri vulgo.
^ posset SAac : possent viilgo.

^ sescenas scripsi {cf. III. 3. 2) : sexenas M : sexcentenas
a, edd. : septenas SAc.

* plane edd. : palaeae S : paleae (-e ac) AacM.
^ accersita SAacM.

* Norani nm. SAac, velt. edd.

' quadrigenarum SA : om. c.

278

BOOK III. IX. 2-5

very few in number, to be sure, but so fruitful
that on a trellis each of them yielded three uniae,
while on pergolas they produced ten amphorae to
each ^^ne. And this fruitfulness in Aminean vines 3
should not seem beyond belief. For how could
Terentius Varro, and Marcus Cato before him, main-
tain that every iugerum of vineyard yielded the
old-time husbandmen six hundred urnae of wine," if
fruitfulness was wanting in the Amineans — the only
vines, for the most part, with which the ancients
were acquainted ? Unless, despite our belief up to
this time that our most ancient vines are the
Amineans, we are to suppose that they cultivated
vineyards of the Bituric or Basilic varieties, vines
which, being but recently indeed imported from
far distant countries, have just come to our notice.
Therefore if anyone would, for several vintages, 4
search out and mark such Aminean vines as I have
said were in my possession not long ago, so as to take
from them the most fertile cuttings, he could produce
vineyards of equal excellence and productiveness.
For there is no doubt that nature herself has de-
creed that the offspring shall resemble the mother.
Hence it is, too, that the shepherd in the Bucolics
says.

So whelps like dogs ; so kids, I knew,

Were like unto their dams.''

And hence those who contend in the sacred games 5
protect with watchful care the progeny of their
swiftest race-horses, and upon the multiplying of
offspring of noble stock they base their hope of
future \'ictories. We too, for a reason like theirs

" Cf. Chap. 3, sec. 2, above. " Vergil, Ed. I. 23.

279

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

pari ratione velut Olympionicarum equariini, ita
feracissimarum Aminearum seminibus electis largae
vindemiae spem capiamus. Neque est quod tem-
poris tarditas quemquam ^ deterreat ; nam quidquid

6 morae est, in exploratione surculi absumitur. Cete-
rum cum fecunditas vitis comprobata est, celerrime
insitionibus ad maximam numerum perducitur.
Eius rei testimonium tu praecipue, Silvine,- perhibei'e
nobis potes, cum pulchre memineris, a me duo
iugera vinearum intra tempus biennii ex una prae-
coque vite, quam in Ceretano ^ tuo possides, insitione

7 facta consummata. Quemnam igitur existimas vi-
tium numerum intra tantundem temporis interseri
posse duorum iugerum malleolis, cum sint ipsa duo
iugera unius vitis progenies ? Quare si, ut dixi,
laborem et curam velimus adhibere, facile praedicta
ratione tam feraces Aminei generis vineas constitue-
mus, quam Biturici aut Basilici : tantum rettulerit,*
ut in transferendis seminibus similem statum caeli
locique et ipsius vitis habitum observemus ; quoniam ^
plerumque degenerat surculus, si aut situs agri aut
aeris qualitas repugnat, aut etiam si ex arbore in

8 iugum defertur. Itaque de frigidis in frigida, de
calidis in similia, de vineis ^ in vineas transferemus.
Magis tamen ex frigido statu stirps ' Aminea potest
calidum sustinere, quam ex calido frigidum ; quo-
niam cum omne vitis genus turn maxime praedictum

^ tarditas quam quemquam c.

2 iSilvine SAacM : Publi Silvino edd.

* cereno (ta suprascr. A) SA : cerretano ac.

* rettulit A. ^ cum acM, vctt. edd.

* vinetis SAacM. ' stirpis ac : status stirpis SA.

" By grafting scions of the proved vine on a large number
of unproved stocks.

280

BOOK III. IX. 5-8

in selecting the progeny of victorious Olympic
mares, should base our hope of a bountiful vintage
upon the selection of progeny of the most fruitful
Amineans. And there is no reason why the tedious-
ness of the time required should discourage anyone ;
for any delay that occurs is taken up in the testing
of the shoot. But when the fruitfulness of the 6
vine has been proved, it is very quickly raised to a
very large number by ingrafting." You especially,
Silvinus, can bear me out in this, since you will
readily recall that I completed the planting of
two iugera of vineyard within two years time by
making grafts fi-om one early- ripe vine belonging
to you on your place at Caere.* What number 7
of vines, then, do you think could be grafted
within the same length of time with shoots taken
from two iugera, when these two iugera are them-
selves the offspring of one vine ? Therefore, as I
have said, if we will exercise industry and care we
shall easily, by the aforesaid method, establish
vineyards of Aminean vines as fruitful as those of the
Bituric or Basilic varieties : only it will be of import-
ance, in transplanting the sets, to give heed to like
conditions of climate and situation and to the habit of
the vine itself; since a cutting is usually impaired in
quality if the situation of the ground or climatic
conditions are distasteful to it, or even if it is trans-
ferred from tree to trellis. Accordingly, we shall 8
transplant from cold places to cold, from warm to the
like, and from open vineyards to open vineyards.
Yet Aminean stock can better endure the change
from a cold to a warm situation than from a warm to a
cold; because every kind of vine, and especially that

* See Chap. 3, sec, 3, above.

281

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

naturaliter laetatur tepore potius quam frigore.

9 Sed et qualitas soli plurinium iuvat, ut ex macro aut
medioci'i transducatur in melius. Nam quod adsue-
tum est pingui, nullo modo maeiem terrae patitur,
nisi saepius stercores. Atque haec de cura eligendi
malleoli praecepimus ; nunc illud propiie specialiter,^
ut non solum fecundissima ^ vite, sed et vitis ^ parte
feracissima semina eligantur.

X. Feracissima autem semina sunt, non ut veteres
auctores crediderunt,* extrema pars eius,^ quod caput
vitis appellant, id est, ultimura et productissimum
flagellum; nam in eo quoque falluntur agricolae.
Sed erroris est causa prima species et numerus
uvarum, qui plerumque conspicitur ^ in ' productissimo
sarmento. Quae res nos decipere non ** debet ; id
enim accidit non palmitis ingenita fertilitate, sed
loci opportunitate, quia reliquas trunci partes umor
omnis et alimentum quod a solo ministratur, transcur-

2 rit, dum ad ultimum perveniat. Naturali enim
spiritu omne alimentum virentis quasi quaedam anima
per meduUam trunci veluti siphonem,^ quam diabeten
vocant mechanici, trahitur in summum ; quo cum
pervenerit,^'^ ibi consistit, atque consumitur, Unde
etiam materiae vehementissimae reperiuntur aut

1 specialiter inclusit Gesn. veluti glossam: spectabitiir
Ursiniis.
- ex ante feeundissima acM, et vulgo ; om. SA, Sobel.

* sed et vitis SAac, veil, edd., Sobel : sed e vitis M : sed
etiam e vitis vulgo.

* crediderunt SAac, Brusch. : tradiderunt M, phrique cett.
edd.

'=> est SAa : om. cM. * confiuitur S.

' in om. SA, dtinde prudentissimo A. * non om. SAc.

^ per {om. SAacM, vett. edd.) siphonem vulgo : si fous SA,
ad si fonnem corr. A.
1" pervenit SA^.

282

BOOK III. IX. 8-x. 2

just mentioned, has a natural fondness for warmth
rather than cold. But the quality of the soil, too, is 9
of very great assistance, so that the transfer should
be made from lean or ordinary ground to a better sort ;
for a vine which has been accustomed to rich soil can
in no way endure lean ground unless you manure it
rather frequently. And these precepts we have
given, in general, as to care in the choice of cuttings ;
next it is proper to advise in particular that slips
be selected, not only from the most prolific \"ine,
but also from the most fruitful part of that vine.

X. Now, the most fruitful cuttings are not, as
ancient authorities supposed, the extreme part of the
vine — what they call its head, that is, the outermost
and most extended shoot ; for in this also husbandmen
are mistaken. But the reason for this misapprehen-
sion lies in the prime appearance of the shoot and
in the number of clusters very often seen on the
longest branch. But we should not be deceived in
this matter; for it comes about, not through the
natural fertility of that branch, but through favour-
ableness of location; because all the moisture and
nourishment that is supplied by the soil courses
through the other portions of the stem until it
arrives at the tip. For by natural respiration all 2
the nourishment of a green plant is dra\\Ti, as a sort of
vital breath, into the highest point, passing through
the pith of the stem as though through a siphon,
which mechanics call diabetes ; " and when it arrives
at that point, it halts there and is consumed. Hence
it is that the most \igorous growth is found either in

" So cailed, no doubt, because the liquid pas.ses through
(8ia + Palvoj) the outstretched legs of the siphon.

28-,

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

3 in capite vitis aut in crure vicino radicibus. Sed et
hae steriles,^ quae e duro citantur,^ ac duplici ex
causa robustae ^ sunt, quod a fetu vacant, quodque
ex proximo terrae integro atque inlibato suco
aluntur; et illae fertiles ac firmae, quia e tenero
prorepunt, et quidquid, ut supra dixi, ad eas ali-
menti pervenit, individuum est. Mediae sunt macer-
rimae, quia transcurrit hinc parte aliqua interceptus,

4 illinc ad * se tractus umor. Non debet igitur ultimum
flagellum quasi fecundum observari, etiam si pluri-
mum adferat, siquidem loci ubertate in fructum
cogitur ; sed id sarnientum quod media \ite situm,
nee importuna quidem parte deficit, ac numeroso
fetu benignitatem suam ostendit. Hie surculus
translatus rarius degenerat, quoniam ex deteriore
statu meliorem sortitur ; sive enim pastinato de-
ponitur, sive trunco inseritur, largioribus satiatur *

5 alimentis quam prius, cum esset in egeno. Itaque
custodiemus ut e * praedictis locis, quos umeros
rustici vocant, semina legamus, ea tamen quae
attulisse ' fructum antea ^ animadverterimus.* Nam
si fetu vacua sint, quamvis laudabilem partem vitis
nihil censemus ad feracitatem conferre malleolo.
Quare vitiosissima est eorum agricolarum opinio, qui

' stirpes cM, edd. ante Schn.
^ duro utantur (e 07n.) SA.

* probate acM : probatae edd. ante Schn.

* a c, edd: ante Schn. : in lineas etractus a.
° largioribus satiatur orn. SA.

* e SA : a acM, AH., Gesn. : ex Schn.

' ea quae tamen tuli.sse (utilisse A) SA : ea om. cM, edd,
onli Schn. : tamen om. a.

* antea om. SAaM.

" animadverteraus SA.

' Lit. " leg."

BOOK III. X. 2-5

the head of the vine or in the main stem '^ close to the
roots. More than that, the latter shoots, those that 3
spring from the hard wood, are sterile, and yet they
have a two-fold reason for their vigour, in that they
do not bear fruit, and because they derive their
nourishment from the full and undiminished flow of
sap next to the ground ; and the former are fruitful
and strong because they sprout from young wood,
and because, as I stated above, any nourishment that
comes to them is not shared with others. The inter-
mediate shoots are the leanest because the sap
hastens past them, being partially cut off below and
dra\\Ti to itself above. Therefore the leading shoot 4
should not be regarded as fruitful even though it may
bear much fruit, since it is forced into bearing by the
fertility of its situation ; but that branch should be
considered fruitful which, situated in the middle of
the vine, does not fail in even that unfavourable place
but displays its bounteousness through numerous
offspring. Such a shoot, when transplanted, seldom
degenerates, since it passes from a worse to a better
lot ; for whether set out in trenched ground, or
grafted on a stock, it is fed fat with nourishment
in greater abundance than before, when it was on
scant rations. Accordingly, we shall take pains 5
to select propagating shoots from the places just
mentioned, which country people call timeri,'^ but such
canes as we shall have previously observed to have
borne fruit. For if they are destitute of fruit, our
opinion is that this part of the vine, much as it is to be
commended, contributes nothing to the fruitfulness
of the cutting. It is, therefore, a very mistaken
notion that is held by those farmers who believe that

" I.e. " shoulders." Cf. De Arb. 3. 1, 2U. i.

285

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

minirmim referre credunt quot ^ uvas sarmentum
habuerit, dum et^ ex vite fertili legatur et non ex
duro trunco enatum, quod pampinarium vocant.

6 Haec autem opinio, quae orta est ex inscientia ^
seminum eligendorum, primum parum fecundas
vineas, deinde etiam nimis steriles reddit. Quis
enirn omnino iam per tarn longam seriem annorum
agi-icolae malleolum legenti ^ praecepit ea, quae
paulo ante rettulimus ? Immo quis non imprudentis-
simum quemque, et eum qui nihil aliud operis facere
valeat, huic negotio delegat ? Itaque ex hac consue-
tudine veniunt imprudentissimi ad rem maxime
necessariara, deinde etiam infirmissimi ; nam inuti-
lissimus ^ quisque, ut dixi, qui nullum alium laborem

7 ferre queat, huic officio applicatur. Is porro etiam
si quam scientiam eligendi malleoli habet, earn
propter infirmitatem dissimulat, ac superponit ; et
ut numerum, quem vilicus imperavit, explere possit,
nihil curiose nihil religiose administrat. Unumque
est ei propositum, peragere laboris sui pensum ; cum
tamen, ut et sciat, et quod sciat ^ exsequatur, hoc
solum praeceptum a magistris accipit,' ne pampi-

1 quod SAac.

" et SA, Sobel ; om. acM, edd.

* inscientia SAcM, veil. edd. : scientia a : inscitia vulgo.

* agricolae m. legenti AcM, et vulgo : agricola m. legentibua
Sa, Schn.

* infirmissimi nam inutilissimus ScM : infirmissimam
inultissimus a : ad rem . . . infirmissimi om., deinde nam
inutilissimus A : infirmissimi. Nam et inutilissimus Aid.,

Gesn. : in firmissimam inutilissimus vett. edd. : infirmissimus
et inutilissimus Schn.

* sciat SAacM : scit vulgo.

' accipit SAac, vett. edd. : accepit M, Aid., Gesn. : acceperit
Vrnaus, Schn.

286

BOOK III. X. 5-7

it makes very little difference how many clusters a
branch may have borne, if only it is taken from a
fruitful vine and is not one that sprouted from the
hard wood of the stock, — what they call pampi-
narium.'^

This notion, however, arising from ignorance in the 6
matter of selecting cuttings, causes vineyards to
have, first, too little fruitfulness, and then too
much barrenness. For who, indeed, over what is
now a long span of years, has laid down for the
farmer, as he was selecting his cuttings, these precepts
which we have just now set forth? More than that,
who does not assign to this occupation whoever is
least intelUgent, and one who is not strong enough
to perform any other task? As a result of this
practice the men who are most lacking in intelligence
enter into an occupation that is especially indis-
pensable, and also those most lacking in strength ;
for, as I have said, it is the least useful fellow, one
who can do no other work, who is put to this task.*
Such a person, moreover, even if he has some know- 7
ledge of the selection of shoots, conceals that know-
ledge and lays it aside because of his lack of strength ;
and that he may have the full number which the over-
seer has ordered, he does nothing carefully, nothing
conscientiously. The one tiling that he keeps before
him is to get done with the task that is set ; when,
even though he may both know and carry out what
he knows, he receives from his masters one precept

" A leaf-branch, or stock-branch. Cf. V. 6. 29 ; and Pliny,
N .H. XVII. 181, Sic duo genera palmitum : quod e duro exit
materiamque in proximum annum, promittit, paTupinarium
vacatur aut, ubi supra cicatricem est, fructuarium ; alterum
ex anniculo palmite semper fructuarium.

* Cf. l.Praef. 12; 1.9. 4-5.

287

VOL. I. L

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELI-A

uariam virgam deplantet, cetera omnia ut seminibus
contribuat.

8 Nos autem primo ^ rationem secuti, nunc etiam
longi temporis experimentum, non aliud semen
eligimus, nee frugiferum esse ducimus nisi quod
in parte genitali fructum attulerit. Nam illud
quidem, quod loco sterili laetum robustumque sine
fetu ^ processit, fallacem fecunditatis imaginem

9 praefert,^ nee ullam generandi vim possidet. Id
procul dubio verum esse ratio nos admonet, si modo,
ut in corporibus nostris propria sunt officia cuiusque
membri, sic et frugiferarum * stirpium partibus
propria munia. Videmus hominibus inspiratam velut
aurigam rectricemque membrorum animam, sen-
susque iniectos ^ ad ea discernanda, quae tactu,
quaeque naribus auribusque et oculis indagantur ; ^
pedes ad gressum compositos, bracchia ad complexum.
Ac ne per omnes vices ministeriorum vagetur inso-
lenter oratio, nihil aures agere valent quod est
oculorum, nihil oculi quod ' aurium ; nee generandi

10 quidem data est facultas manibus aut plantis. Sed
quod hominibus ignotum voluit esse genitor uni-
versi,^ ventre protexit, ut divina praedita ratio ne
rerum aeterna ^ opifex, quasi quibusdam secretis
corporis in arcano atque operto sacra ilia spiritus

' primo SAacM : primum vulgo.
^ fructu ac.

* praebet a, vett. edd. : prebet M.

* membris propria sunt ofBcia et frugiferarum S : officia.
Et frugiferarum (cuiusq. membri sic propria sunt officia
suprascr.) A.

* sensus in lectos SAa.

* indignantur a.

' oculorum, nihil oculi quod om. SA.

* universis S, Sobel.

BOOK III. X. 7-IO

alone — not to break off the stock-branch but to add
everything else to the supply of cuttings.

But we, having at first taken reason as a guide, 8
and now a long period of experimentation as well,
choose no shoot, and consider none to be fruitful,
except one that has borne fruit in the generative
part of the vine. For one that has come forth in
a barren place, luxuriant and strong but destitute
of offspring, offers a deceptive appearance of fruit-
fulness but possesses no generative power. Common 9
sense teaches us that this is undoubtedly ti-ue, if only,
as in our own bodies every member has its peculiar
functions, so too the parts of fruit-bearing stocks
have their proper duties. We know that human
beings have a soul breathed into them as a charioteer
and guide of their members, and that senses were
implanted in them for the perception of those im-
pressions which are discovered by touch, by smell, by
hearing, and by seeing ; that feet were devised for
walking and arms for embracing. And that my
discourse may not wander without restraint over all
the relations of sensory functions, the ears can effect
nothing that belongs to the eyes, and the eyes nothing
that belongs to the ears ; nor, indeed, is the power of
procreation bestowed upon the hands or the feet.
But the father of the universe concealed in the belly 10
that which he willed should be unknown to mankind,
in order that the eternal creatress " of things, en-
dowed with divine understanding, might mingle in
certain hidden parts of the body, as it were, in mystery

« I.e. Nature ; cf. I. Praef. 2 ; Pliny, N.H. XXXI. 1.

• aeterna SA, vett. edd., Sobel : eterna acM : aeternus
vulgo.

LUCIUS JUiMIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

elementa cum terrenis primordiis ^ misceret, atque
hanc 2 animantis machinae ^ speciem effingeret.

11 Hac lege pecudes ac virgulta pvogeniiit; hac vitium
genera figuravit, quibus eadem ipsa mater ac parens
primum radices velut quaedam fundamenta iecit, ut
iis quasi pedibus insisterent.* Truncum deinde
superposuit velut quandam staturam corporis et
habitus ; mox ramis diffudit quasi brachiis ; turn
caules et ^ pampinos elicuit velut palmas, eorumque
alios fructu donavit, alios fronde sola vestivit ad
protegendos tutandosque partus.

12 Ex his igitur, ut supra diximus, si non ipsa membra
genitalia conceptu atque fetu gravida sed tamquam
tegmina et umbracula eorum, quae fructibus vidua
simt, legerimus, umbrae scilicet non vindemiae

13 laboraverimus.^ Quid ergo est? Cur quamvis non
sit e duro pampinus sed e tenero natus, si tamen
orb us est, etiam in futurum quasi sterilis damnatur a
nobis ? Modo enim disputatio nostra colhgebat
unicuique corporis parti proprium esse attributum
officium, quod scilicet ei convenit ; ut malleolo
quoque, qui opportuno loco natus est, fecunditatis

14 vis adsit, etiam si interim cesset a partu. Nee ego
abnuerim hoc me instituisse argumentari ; sed et
illud maxime profiteor, palmitem quamvis frugifera
parte enatum, si fructum non attulerit, ne vim quidem

^ primordii S, Sobel.

* hanc edd. : hoc cocld., Sobel.

^ raacine A : imagine, et deinde specie S : imagine (specie)
Sobel.

* insisteret SAacM.

* caules et om. SAa : et am. cM.

* laboraviraus Aa.

" Cf. Cicero, Tusc. Disp. I. 18. 42, 1. 20. 47.
290

BOOK III. X. 10-14

and concealment, those sacred elements of the soul
with terrestrial principles," and fashion this sort of
living machine. By this law she produced cattle and 11
trees ; by this she fashioned the various kinds of
vines, for which this same mother and parent first
laid, as it were, certain foundations of roots upon
which they might stand, as upon feet. Then upon
these she placed the trunk, corresponding in a A^ay
to the upright carriage and appearance of a body ;
in the next place she caused it to spread out with
branches as if with arms ; and then she drew forth
stems and shoots corresponding to hands, of which
she endowed some with fruit and clothed others with
leaves alone for the protection and safe-keeping of
their progeny.

If, then, from these vines, as I have said above, we 12
select, not those parts which are capable of conception
and heavy with young, but their coverings and sun-
shades, so to speak, which are destitute of fruit, our
toil will certainly have been spent for shade and not
for a harvest of grapes. What, then, is my point ? 13
Why, if a shoot is destitute of offspring, even though
it be sprung, not from hard wood, but from young,
do we condemn it as sure to be barren also in time
to come ? Just now, indeed, our reasoning inferred
that every part of the body has assigned to it a
pecuhar function which is manifestly appropriate to
that part ; so that a vine shoot, too, if sprung from
a favourable place, may have in it the power of
fruitfulness even though it be remiss in bearing for
a time. I would not deny that I have taken it 14
upon myself to prove this point ; but I declare most
emphatically that a rod, even though sprung from a
fruit-bearing part of the vine, does not even possess

291

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

fecunditatis habere. Nee hoc ilU sententiae re-
pugnat.^ Nam et homines quosdam non posse
generare, quamvis omni ^ membrorum numero
constante, manifestum est ; ne sit incredibile, si
genitaU loco virija nata fructu careat, carituram
quoque ^ fetu.

15 Itaque ut ad consuetxidinem agricolarum revertar,
eiusmodi surculos, qui nihil attulerint,^ spadones
appellant ; quod non facerent, nisi suspicarentur
inhabiles frugibus. Quae et ipsa appellatio rationem
mihi subiecit non eligendi malleolos quamvis pro-
babili parte vitis enatos, si fructum non tulissent,
quamquam et hos ipsos ^ sciam non in totum sterili-
tate affectos. Nam confiteor pampinarios quoque,
cum e duro processerint,^ tempore anni sequentis
adquirere fecunditatem, et ideo in resecem summitti,

16 ut progenerare possit. Verum eiusmodi partum
comperimus non tam ipsius resecis quam materni
esse muneris. Nam quia inhaeret stirpi suae, quae
est natura ferax, mixtus adhuc parentis dementis,'
et fecundis ^ partus ® seminibus ac velut altricis
uberibus eductus, paulatim fructum ferre condiscit.
At quae citra naturae quandam pubertatem immatura

' repugnant Aa : ropiignet c.

* omni SAa : omnium cM, edd.

^ sic codd., vett. edd. : quoque esse fetu vulgo.

* tulerint 8 A.

* ipsos om. AacM.

* processerint acM, vett. edd. {cf. /F. 21. 3): e duroto
cesserint (ceserint S) SA : prorepserint vulgo.

' dementis SacM, vett. edd., Sobel : elimentis A : alimentis
vulgo.

* fecundis (foecundis vett. edd.) SAa, Sobel : foecundi cM,
et vulgo.

* partus SaM, et vulgo : pivstus Ac, vett. edd., Sobel.

292

BOOK III. X. 14-16

the power of productiveness if it has not itself borne
fruit. And this statement is not at variance with
the former opinion. For it is evident that some men
are incapable of procreation even though they have
the full number of members ; so that it should not
be beyond belief that a cane sprung from a genera-
tive place, if devoid of fruit at present, will be
devoid of progeny in the future also.

And so, to return to the usage of the farmers, they 15
give the name spadones or eunuchs " to that sort of
shoots which have produced nothing ; which they
would not do if they did not suppose them to be
incapable of bearing. It is this very appellation that
suggested to me a reason for not choosing mallet-
shoots,^ even though they were sprung from an
approved part of the vine, if they had not borne fruit ;
although I understand that even these are not entirely
affected with barrenness. For I admit that stock-
shoots '^ too, though they have come out of the hard
wood, acquire fruitfulness the following season ;
and for that reason they are reduced to a single
spur,*^ so that it may have strength for bearing
fruit. But we find that offspring of this sort owes 16
not so much to the spur itself as to the munificence of
the mother vine. For because it clings to its own
stock, which is naturally fruitful, still mingling with
the elements of its parent,^ born of prolific seed and
reared, so to speak, at the breasts of a nurse, it learns
little by little to produce fruit. But when a slip is
torn from the stock prematurely and unseasonably,

" Cf. Isidore, Orig. XVII. 5. 6, Spadones sunt surculi
fruge carentes, ex ipsa appellatione, quod sint i7i}mbiles fructu
et sterilitate affecii; Pliny, N.H. XIII. 38.

* See III. 6. 3. « See III. 10. 5.

" Cf. IV. 21. 3. « Cf. Chap. 10, sec. 10, above.

293

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

atque intempestiva planta direpta trunco vel terrae
vel etiam stirpi recisae inseritur, quasi puerilis aetas
ne ad coitum quidem nedum ad conceptum habilis,
vim generandi vel in totum perdit, vel certe minuit.

17 Quare magnopere censeo in eligendis seminibus
adhibere curam, ut e ^ fructuosa parte ^ vitis palmites
legamus eos qui futuram feeunditatem iam dato ^
fructu promittunt ; nee tamen contenti simus singu-
lis uvis, maximeque probemus eos * qui numerosissi-
mis fetibus conspiciuntur. An non ^ opilionem
laudabimus ex ea matre subolem propagantem, quae
geminos enixa sit ; et caprarium summittentem fetus
earum pecudum, quae trigemino partu commen-
dantur ? Videlicet quia sperat ^ parentum fecundi-

18 tati responsuram. Et nos sequemur in vitibus banc
ipsam rationem, tanto quidem magis quod com-
pertum habemus naturali quadam malignitate de-
sciscere interdum quamvis diligenter probata semina ;
idque nobis poeta velut surdis veritatis inculcet
dicendo,'

Vidi leeta diu, et ^ multo spectata labore
Degenerare tamen, ni vis Humana quotannis
Maxima quaeque manu legeret. Sic omnia fatis
In peius ruere, ac retro sublapsa referri.

^ uti acM, et vulgo ante Schn. ^ curam . . . parte om. S.
^ toto cM, et vulgo ante Schn. * eos om. SAacM.
^ non om. SAac, veit. edd.

• sic Pontedera, Schn. : speret SA : speret et a : semper et
c : semper M : quasi semper sit cett. edd.

' incolcet diligendo SA : indulget dicendo c.

* Vidi lecta diu, et] videlicet adiuvet A.

' Here a general term including any propagative portion of
a plant, true seeds, cuttings, quicksets, layers, etc. (except
buddings and grafts).

294

BOOK III. X. 16-18

without regard to a certain maturity required by
nature, and is either planted in the ground or even
grafted on a shortened stock, just as the age of
childhood is capable not even of coition and much
less of conception, so it either suffers complete loss
of its generative po^ver or at any rate has less of it.
Therefore I think that we should take especial care, 17
in the choice of cuttings, to select from a fruitful part
of the \dne those shoots which, by having already pro-
duced fruit, give promise of future productiveness ;
and yet we should not be satisfied with single clusters,
but should especially approve those shoots which
are conspicuous for the greatest number of offspring.
Or shall Ave not commend the shepherd who multi-
plies the progeny of a dam that has borne tAvins, and
the goatherd who breeds the young of those animals
which are noted for bearing three at one birth ? For
he hopes, of course, that the offspring will match the
productiveness of their parents. In the matter of 18
vines we also shall follow this very method, and the
more so because we have found out that seeds,'' even
though carefully tested, sometimes degenerate
through some natural malignity ; and this the poet
would impress upon us, as if we were deaf to the
truth, in saying,

Some seeds I've seen, though chosen with time
and care,

Degenerate still, unless wdth human hand

The largest were selected ever}' year.

But so it is ; it is the will of fate

That all things backward turn, all things de-
teriorate.*

* Vergil, Gewg. I. 197-200.

295

LUCIUS JUNIUS iMODERATUS COLUMELLA

Quod non tnntum de seminibus leguminum, sed in
tota agricolationis ratione ^ dictum esse intellegendum

19 est. Si modo longi temporis observatione comperi-
mus, quod certe comperimus, eum malleolum, qui
quattuor uvas tulerit, deputatum et in terram de-
positum, a fecunditate materna sic degenerare ut
interdum singulis, non numquam etiam binis uvis

20 minus adferat ; in quantum autem censemus de-
fecturos ^ eos, qui binos aut fere singulos fetus in
matre tulerint, cum etiam feracissimi translationem
saepe reformident ? ^ Itaque huius rationis demon-
stratorem magis esse me quam inventorem, libenter
profiteor, ne quis existimet fraudari maiores nostros
laude merita. Nam id ipsum sensisse * eos non
dubium est, quamvis nullo alio scripto proditum,
exceptis quos rettulimus numeros ^ Vergili, et sic ^
tamen ut de seminibus leguminum praecipiatur.

21 Cur enim aut e duro natam virgam, aut etiam ex
fecundo nialleolo, quern ipsi probassent, decisam
sagittam repudiabant, si nihil interesse ducebant
ex quo loco semina legerentur? Num ' quia vim
fecunditatis certis quasi membris inesse non dubi-
tabant, idcirco pampinarium et sagittam velut
inutiles ad deponendimi prudentissime damna-
verunt? Quod si ita est, nihil dubium est multo

^ agricolatione spatione SA : in totam agricolationis
rationem M, et tmlgo ante Schn. : in tota agricolationis
satione Sobel.

- despecturos SAc, vett. edd.

' formident SAa, vett. edd.

* censiiisse 31, Aid., Gesn.

^ numeros (S', Schn. : nnmeris A : metria acM : quae r.
metris plerique edd.

* hie ac, edd. ante Schn.

' Nunc 8 AcM, Aid., Gesn,

296

BOOK III. X. 18-21

It is to be understood that this was said, not merely
of the seeds of legumes, but of the whole matter of
agriculture. If only we have discovered by a long 19
period of observation, as we certainly have dis-
covered, that a shoot which has borne four clusters,
when it is cut off and put into the ground, degenerates
so far from the fruitfulness of the parent stock as to
produce sometimes one, occasionally even two clusters
fcAver than before, to what extent do we think that 20
they will fall short which have produced two clusters
or usually one on the parent stock, when even the
most fruitful shoots often dread transplanting ? And
so I gladly profess myself a demonstrator of this
method, rather than its inventor, lest anyone should
think that our ancestors are unjustly deprived of the
praise that is their due. For there is no doubt that
they knew of it, even though it has been handed
down in no writing except those lines of Vergil which
we have quoted, and yet in such a way as to give
directions for the seed of legumes.*^ For why did they 21
reject the rod sprung from the hard wood, or even the
" arrow"* cut from the fruitful mallet-shoot which
they had approved, if they considered that it made no
difference from what place the cuttings were
gathered ? Was it because they had no doubt that
the power of fruitfulness was present in certain mem-
bers, so to speak, that they very wisely condemned
the stock shoot and the arrow as useless for plant-
ing ? If this is the case, there is no doubt that

" Columella seems to refer to his previous quotation of
Vergil {Georg. I. 197-200) in II. 9. 12.

* The arrow is defined in Chap. 17, sec. 2, of this book;
cf. Isidore, Orig. XVII. 5. 7, Sa^ittam rustici vocant novissimam
partem surctdi sive qui longius recessit a matre et quasi prosili-
vit, seu quia acuminis tenuitate teli speciem praefert.

297

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

magis ab his improbatum esse etiam ilium palmitem,
22 qui frugifero loco natus fructum non attulisset. Nam
si sagittam, id est superiorem partem malleoli,
vituperandam censebant, cum esset eadem pars
surculi frugiferi, quanto magis vel ex optima ^ vitis
parte natiim flagellum, si est sterile, improbatum ab
his ratio ipsa declarat ? Nisi tamen, quod est ab-
surdum, crediderunt eum ^ translatum et abscissum
a sua stirpe, destitutumque materno alimento, frugi-
ferum, qui in ^ ipsa matre nequam fuisset.* Atque
haec et forsitan pluribus dicta sint ^ quam exigebat
ratio veritatis ; minus tamen multis quam postulabat
prave detorta et inveterata opinio rusticorum.

XI. Nunc ad reliquum ordinem propositae disputa-
tionis redeo. Sequitur hanc eligendi malleoh curam
pastinationis officium, si tamen ante de qualitate
soli constiterit. Nam earn quoque plurimum et
bonitati et largitati frugum conferre, nihil dubium
est. Ac prius quam ipsum solum ^ perspiciamus, illud
antiquissimum censemus, rudem potius eligendum
agrum, si sit facultas, quam ubi fuerit seges aut
2 arbustum. Nam de vinetis quae longo situ exole-
verunt, inter omnes auctores constitit pessima esse si

* opima c3I.

* eum a3I, Sobel : cum c, vett. edd. : earn SA : id vulgo.

■* qui in scripsi: quia in Sobel: frugifero quin SAac vett.
edd. : frugiferoq ; in M : frugiferum, quod in vulgo.

* fuisse SAacM, Sobel.

* sint SA : sunt acM, et vulgo.

* solum om. Aac, et omnes ante Schn.

" This special preparation of the ground, called pastinatio,
consisted of deep digging or trenching. Ground so prepared
was called pastinatum, pastinatio or pastinum. Palladius
(II. 10. 1), like Columella below (Chap. 13), speaks of three
kinds of trenching : complete trenching of the ground,

2Q8

BOOK III. X. 2I-XI. 2

they disapproved far more of that cane which,
though sprung from a bearing part, had borne no fruit.
For if they thought that the arrow — that is, the 22
uppermost part of a mallet-cutting — was deserv-
ing of censure even though it was a part of a bearing
shoot, how much more does mere common sense
show that they would have disapproved of a slip,
if it is sterile, even though it be sprung from the best
part of the vine ? Unless — and this is absurd — they
believed that one which had been worthless on the
mother vine would be fruitful when transplanted
and cut off from its stock and deprived of its maternal
sustenance. It may be that this has been told at
greater length than a statement of the truth re-
quired ; but even so, in fewer words than were
demanded by the badly distorted and deep-rooted
notion of country people.

XI. I now return to what remains of the topics
proposed for systematic discussion. The business
of preparing the ground "■ comes next, after this
attention to the choice of cuttings, provided, how-
ever, that agreement has been reached before-
hand as to the quality of the soil. For there is no
doubt that this, too, contributes in very great meas-
ure to the goodness and abundance of the fruit. And
before considering the soil itself, we think it a matter
of very first importance that land hitherto untilled,
if we have such, should be chosen in preference to
that upon which there has been a crop of grain or
a plantation of trees and vines. As to vineyards 2
which have become worthless through long neglect,
it is agreed by all authorities that they are worst of

trenching in long strips or furrows (sulci), and trenching in
short strips or planting-holes (aerobes),

299

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

reserere velimus, quod et inferius solum plurimis ^
radicibus sit impeditum ac velut irretituni, et adhuc
non amiserit virus et cai-iem illam vetustatis, quibus
hebetata quasi aliquibus venenis humus torpeat.^

3 Quam ob eausam silvestris ager praecipue est eli-
gendus, qui etiam si frutectis aut arboribus obsessus
est, facile extricatur, quod suapte natura quae-
cumque gignuntur, non penitus nee in profundum
radices agunt, sed per summam ^ terrae dispergunt
atque deducunt ; quibus ferro recisis atque exstirpa-
tis, parum ^ quod superest inferioris soli rastris licet
efFodere et in fermentum congerere atque componere.
Si tainen rudis terra non sit, proximum ^ est vacuum
arboribus arvum. Si nee hoc est, rarissimum
arbustum vel olivetum, melius tamen vetus olivetum ^

4 quod non fuerit maritum, vineis destinatur. Ultima
est, ut dixi, conditio restibilis \ineae. Nam si
necessitas facere cogit, prius quidquid est residuae
vltis exstirpari debet ; deinde totum solum sicco '
fimo, aut si id non sit, alterius generis quam recentis-
simo stercorari, atque ita converti, et diligentissime
refossae ^ omnes radices in summum regeri atque
comburi ; tum ^ rursus vel stercore vetusto, quia non
gignit herbas, vel de vepribus egesta humo pasti-

5 natum large contegi. At ubi pura novalia et ab

^ plurimis SAc : pluribus aAI, edd.

* torreat SA.

* suramam Aac, vett. edd. : sumrna <S'J/ : summum vulgo.

* parum M, edd. vulgo : purum SAac, Schn.

* componere : si tamen rudis terra non sit. proximum
Schn.

* melius . . . olivetum {in marg. M) 07n. a. Aid., Oesn.
' sicco om. SAa.

* refossae Schn. : refossas SAacM, et vulgo.

* tum acM, vett. edd. : tunc vulgo : comburitur (tuni oin.)
SA.

300

BOOK III. XI. 2-5

all if we wish to replant them, because the lower
soil is imprisoned in a tangle of many roots, as if
caught in a net, and has not yet lost that infection
and rottenness of old age by which the earth is
deadened and numbed as if by some poison or
other." For this reason a piece of wild land is an 3
especially good choice, and even if occupied with
bushes or trees it is easily cleared, because all things
that spring up naturally do not push their roots far
nor to a great depth, but spread and extend them
through the surface soil ; and when they are cut off
with the axe and are rooted out, the little that
remains in the lower soil may be dug up with
mattocks and brought together and heaped up for
fermentation. But if you should have no unbroken
ground, the next choice is ploughed land that is
free of trees. Failing this, there is allotted to
vineyards a plantation of trees and vines standing
very far apart, or an olive grove — but preferably
old olive trees which have not been wedded to
vines. Last of all, as I have said, is the renewing 4
of a worn-out vineyard. Now if circumstances
make this necessary, all remaining parts of the
vines should first be rooted out ; then all the
ground should be fertilized with dry dung or, if this
is not available, with the freshest manure of another
sort ; and so it should be turned over, and all the
unearthed roots must be very carefully brought to
the surface and burned ; and then again the dug
ground should be covered generously either with old
manure, because that does not produce weeds, or with
earth brought from the bramble thickets. But M'here 5

" In De Arb. 3. 5, Columella advises against the replanting
of old vineyard ground until after it has rested ten years.

301

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

arboribus sunt libera, consideranduni est ante quam
pastinemus, surcularis necne sit terra ; idque facillime
exploratur per stii"pes, quae sua sponte proveniunt.
Neque enim est ullum tam viduum solum virgultis
ut non aliquos surculos progeneret, tamquam piros
silvestres et prunes, vel rubos certe ; nam haee
quamvis genera spinarum sint, solent tamen fortia

6 et laeta et gravida fructu consurgere. Igitur si
non retorrida nee scabra, sed levia et nitida, et
prolixa fecundaque viderimus, eam intellegemus ^
esse terram surcularem.

Sed hoc in totum ad ^ illud, quod vineis praecipue
est idoneum, proprie considerandum, ut prius rettuli,
si facilis est humus et modice resoluta, quam dixi-
mus ^ pullam vocitari ; nee quia sola ea, sed quia sit

7 habilis maxime vinetis. Quis enim vel mediocris
agricola nesciat etiam durissimum tofum vel car-
bunculum, simulatque sit confractus^ et in summo
regestus,^ tempestatibus et gelu nee minus aestivis
putrescere caloribus ac resolvi ; eumque ® pulcherrime
radices vitium per aestatem refrigerare, sucumque
retinere ; quae res alendo surculo sunt accommo-
datissimae ? Simili quoque de causa probari solutam
glaream calculosumque agrum et mobilem lapidem ?
si tamen haec pingui glebae permixta sunt, nam

8 eadem ieiuna maxime culpantur. Est autem, ut

' ^ intelligemus M, et vulyo : intellegimus SA : intelligimua
ac.

^ totum ad illud SAacM, et vulgo : totum : at illud Schn.

^ dicimus SAac, vett. edd.

* simulatque sit contractus scripsi : simulatque situm
confractum SA : simul atque si sint confracti ac, vett. edd. :
simulatque sunt confracti M, Aid., Gesn., Schn.

^ bummua regestus SA : summo regesti acM, et vulyo.

302

BOOK III. XI. 5-8

there is clean fallow, free from trees, we must consider
before working it whether or not the land is suitable
for young vine-shoots ; and this is most easily dis-
covered through the sprouts that come up of their
own accord. For there is no soil so destitute of
shrubs as not to produce some shoots, such as
wild pears and plums or at least brambles ; for even
though these are varieties of thorns, still it is their
common habit to grow up strong and thrifty and
heavy with fruit. Therefore, if we observe that they 6
are not shrivelled and scaly, but smooth and bright,
tall and prolific, then we shall know that the ground
is suitable for young shoots.

But in the matter of what is especially suited to
vines, this point in general deserves special con-
sideration, as I have stated before, if the soil is
easily worked and moderately loose in texture —
what we have said is called pulla ; not because such
soil alone is proper for vineyards, but because it is
especially so. For who, though he be but an 7
ordinary farmer, does not know that even the hard-
est tufa or toph-stone, once it is broken in pieces
and thrown up on the surface, is softened and loosened
by storms and cold no less than by summer's heat ;
and that during hot weather it is very effective in
cooling the roots of the vines and in holding moisture
— conditions most suitable for the nourishing of the
young shoot ? And that for a Uke reason free gravel,
pebbly ground, and loose stones are approved.'' on
condition, however, that they are mixed with fat
soil, for they meet with the greatest disapproval in
lean ground. Moreover, the flint-stone also, in my 8

* euinque SAacM, vett. edd. : eosque Aid., Gesn., Schn.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

mea quoque fert opinio, vineis amicus etiam silex,
cui ^ superpositum est modicum terrenum, quia
frigidus et tenax umoris per ortum caniculae non
patitur - sitire radices. Hyginus quidem secutus
Tremelium praecipue montium ima, quae a verti-
cibus defluentem humum receperint,^ vel etiam
valles quae fluminum alluvie et inundationibus
concreverint, aptas esse vineis adseverat, me non
9 dissentiente. Cretosa humus utilis habetur viti :
nam per se ipsa creta, qua utuntur figuli, quam-
que nonnulli argillam vocant, inimicissima est ;
nee minus ieiunus sabulo, et quidquid, ut ait lulius
Atticus, retorridum surculum facit, id autem solum
vel uliginosum est vel salsum, amarum ^ etiam, vel
siticulosmn et peraridum. Nigrum tamen et rutilum
sabulonem, qui sit vividae ^ terrae permixtus, pro-
baverunt antiqui ; nam carbunculosum agrum, nisi
stercore adiuves, macres vineas efficere dixerunt.
10 Gravis est rubrica, ut idem Atticus ait, et ad compre-
hendendum i*adicibus iniqua. Sed alit eadem vitem,
cum tenuit, verum est in opere difficilior, quod neque
umentem fodere possis, quod sit glutinosissima, nee
nimium siccam, quia ultra modum praedura.

XII. Sed ne nunc per infinitas terreni species
evagemur, non intempestive commemorabimus ^
luli Graecini conscriptam velut formulam, ad quam
posita est aestimatio terrae ' vinealis. Idem enim

^ cum SAacM. ^ patiatur SAa, vett. edd.

^ reciperent SAacM.

* vel salsum vel amarum acM, Gesn. ; deinde etiam om. c.
= vividae *S'^, Schn. : humide acM, et humidae vulgo.

* commemoravimus SAa : connumeravimus c.

' aestimatio terrae scripsi : estimatio {pr. est om.) referre
terrae S : imitatio referre (refferre A) terre Aac : mutatio fere
terre M : limitatio terrae Aid., Gesn., et Schn., qui ad quam

BOOK III. XI. 8-xn. i

opinion, is friendly to vineyards when it is moder-
ately well covered with earth, because, being cold and
retentive of moisture, it does not allow the roots to
thirst during the rising of the Dog-star. Hyginus
indeed, following Tremelius, asserts that the bases of
mountains, which have received the soil that washes
down from their summits, or even valley lands that
have been formed by the soil deposits of rivers and
floods, are especially suited for vineyards ; and I do
not disagree. Clayey soil is considered serviceable 9
for the vine : but, by itself, the clay which potters
use, and which some call argilla,'^ is most unfriendly ;
and no less so is hungry gravel and, as Julius Atticus
says, everything that makes a shrivelled shoot — that
being soil which is either wet or salty, or sour too,
or thirsty and extremely dry. Still the ancients
approved black and reddish sand when mixed witli
vigorous earth ; for they said that ground containing
red toph-stone, unless aided with manure, produced
puny vines. Ruddle, as the same Atticus says, is 10
heavy and does not offer roots an easy hold.
But the same soil is nourishing to the vine when once
it has obtained a hold, though it is more difficult to
work, since you cannot dig it when wet because it is
very sticky, nor when too dry because it is hard
beyond measure.

XII. But that we may not now wander through
the endless varieties of soil, it will be not out of
place to call to mind a standard rule, as it were, of
Julius Graecinus which has been laid down for the ap-
praisal of land suitable for vineyards. For that same
" CJ. dpyiXXos, from dpyijs, white.

aestimatio referetur terrae vinealis in nota coniecit et in
Corrigend. in Comment, ad quam iusta aestimatio scripsit.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Graeeinus sic ait : Esse aliquam terram calidam vel
frigidam, umidam vel siccam, raram vel densam,
levem aut gravem, pinguem aut macram ; sed neque
nimium ealidum solum posse tolerare vitem, quia
inurat, neque praegelidum, quoniam velut stupentes
et congelatas radices nimio frigore moveri non sinat ;
quae turn demum se promunt, cum modico tepore ^

2 evocantur : umorem terrae iusto maiorem putre-
facere deposita semina ; rursus ninoiam siccitatem
destituere plantas naturali alimento, aut in totum
necare, aut scabras et retorridas facere : perdensam
humum caelestis aquas non sorbere, nee facile per-
flari, facillime perrumpi, et praebere rimas, quibus
sol ad radices stirpium penetret ; eandemque ^ velut
conclausa et coartata semina comprimere atque

3 strangulare : raram supra modum velut per infundi-
bulum transmittere imbres, et sole ac vento penitus
siccari atque exarescere : ^ gravem terram vix ulla
cultura vinci, levem vix ulla sustineri : pinguissimam
et laetissimam luxuria, macram ac tenuem ieiunio
laborare. Opus est, inquit, inter has tarn diversas
inaequalitates magno temperamento, quod in corpori-
bus quoque nostris desideratur, quorum bona valetudo
calidi et frigidi, umidi et aridi, densi et rari certo et

4 quasi examinato * modo continetur.^ Nee tamen hoc
temperamentum in terra, quae vineis destinetur,
pari momento libratum esse debere ait, sed in alteram

^ tepore iS : tempore Aac.

^ eandemque M, Ursinua, Schn. : eademque SAac, et
plerique.

' exarescere SAacM : exolescere vett. edd. el Schn., qui kanc
lectionem deferulit.

* examinati <S'^ : continuato a.

^ contineatur SAa.

306

BOOK III. XII. 1-4

Graecinus speaks as follows : That some land is hot
or cold, damp or dry, loose or compact, light or heavy,
fat or lean ; but that soil which is excessively hot
cannot support the vine, because it burns it, nor
can the very cold soil, because it allows no action of
the roots when they are benumbed and chilled, as
it were, by excessive cold, — for they extend them-
selves only when they are drawn out by moderate
warmth : that soil of more than the proper moisture 2
causes rotting of the plants that are set, while, on
the other hand, excessive dryness deprives the
plants of their natural sustenance and either kills
them entirely or makes them scaly and shrivelled :
that very compact ground does not absorb the rains,
does not readily allow the circulation of air, is very
easily broken through, and affords cracks through
which the sun penetrates to the roots of the plants ;
and the same binds and chokes the plants, which are,
so to speak, imprisoned and confined : that soil 3
which is immoderately loose allows rains to pass
through it as through a funnel, and is then com-
pletely dried out and parched by sun and wind :
that heavy ground can hardly be subdued by any cul-
tivation, while light ground can hardly be kept up by
any : that the fattest and most fertile soil suffers from
rankness of growth, the lean and poor soil from
barrenness. There is need, he says, of much
intermixture among these so different extremes, as
is requisite also in our own bodies, whose well-being
depends on a fixed and, so to speak, balanced propor-
tion of the hot and the cold, the moist and the dry,
the compact and the loose. And yet, in the case 4
of land which is designed for vineyards, he says that
this proportion should not be placed in equipoise but

307

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

partem propensius ; ut calidior terra sit quaxn frigi-
dior, siccior quam umidior, rarior quam densior, et
si qua sunt his similia, ad quae contemplationem

5 suam dirigat, qui vineas instituet. Quae cuncta,
sicut ego reor, magis prosunt, cum sufFragatur etiam
status caeli : cuius quam regionem ^ spectare debeant
vineae, vetus est dissensio, Saserna maxime pro-
bante solis ortum, mox deinde meridiem, tum
occasum ; Tremelio Scrofa praecipuam positionem
meridianam censente ; Vergilio de industria occasum
sic repudiante,^

Neve tibi ad solem vergant vineta cadentem ;

Democrito et Magone laudantibus caeli plagam
septentrionalem, quia existiment ei subiectas fera-
cissimas fieri vineas, quae tamen bonitate vini

6 superentur. Nobis in universum praecipere optimum
visum est ut in locis frigidis meridiano vineta subi-
ciantur, tepidis orienti advertantur ; si tamen non
infestabuntur Austris Eurisque,^ velut orae maritimae
in Baetica. Sin autem rcgiones praedictis ventis *
fuerint obnoxiae, melius Aquiloni vel Favonio com-
mittentur ; nam ferventibus provinciis, ut Aegypto
et Numidia, uni septentrioni rectius opponentur.
Quibus omnibus diligenter exploratis, tum demum
pastinationem suscipiemus.

^ regionem quam SAacM.

- rcpudiantem SAac.

^ aeris quae (que a) SAa.

* praedicti sunt is (liis A) SA.

Oeorg. II. 298,

308

BOOK III. XII. 4-6

should incline more in one direction or the other,
so that the land may be i-ather warm than cold, rather
dry than wet, rather loose than compact, and so on in
any like matters to which one who plants vineyards
should direct a careful gaze. All of this, in mv 5
opinion, is of greater advantage when climatic con-
ditions also are favourable : and in this matter there
is long-standing disagreement as to what quarter
of the heavens the vineyards should face, Saserna
favouring the east especially, and next to that the
south, and then the west ; Tremelius Scrofa thinking
a southern exposure superior to all others, Vergil
explicitly rejecting the west in the words.

Nor slope your vineyards toward the setting
sun;"

and Democritus and Mago commending the northern
quarter of the heavens, because they think that
vineyards exposed to it become the most productive,
even though they may be surpassed in the quality
of their wine. To us it has seemed best to direct in 6
general that vineyards have, in cold regions, a
southern exposure, and that in warm ones they face
the east ; on condition, however, that they are not
harassed by the south and south-east winds, as are the
maritime coasts of Baetica. If, however, your tracts
are subject to the aforementioned winds, it will be
better to entrust them to the north or the west wind ;
but in hot provinces, such as Egypt and Numidia, they
will be exposed more properly to the north alone.
And now that all these matters have been carefully
examined, we shall take up at last the trenching of
the ground.*

" See III. 11. l,note.

3°9

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

XIII. Eius autem ratio cum Italici generis futuris
agricolis turn etiam provincialibus tradenda est;
quoniam in longinquis et remotis fere regionibus
istud genus vertendi et subigendi agri minime
usurpatur, sed aut scrobibus aut sulcis plerumque

2 vineae conseruntur.^ Quibus autem ^ mos est scro-
bibus deponere, fere per tres longitudinis, perque
duos pedes in altitudinem cavato solo, quantum
latitudo ferramenti patitur, malleolos utrimque iuxta
latera fossarum consternunt, et adversis scrobium ^
frontibus curvatos erigunt ; duabusque gemmis supra
terram eminere passi * reposita humo cetera coae-
quant : quae faciunt in eadem linea intermissis
totidem pediun scamnis, dum peragant ordinem.

3 Turn deinde relicto spatio, prout cuique mos est
vineas colenti ° vel aratro vel bidente, sequentem
ordinem instituunt. Et si fossore tantvun terra
versetur, minimum est quinque pedum interordin-
ium, septem maximum; sin bubus et aratro, mini-
mum est septem pedum, satis amplum decem.

4 Nonnulli tamen omnem vitem per denos pedes in
quincuncem disponunt, ut more novalium terra
transversis adversisque sulcis proscindatur. Id genus
vineti non conducit agricolae, nisi ubi laetissimo solo
vitis amplo incremento consurgit. At qui pastina-
tionis impensam reformidant, sed aliqua tamen

^ Post conseruntur omnes hahent Scrobibus vineta sic
ponuntur, quae ex lemniate orta Schneider inclusit.

* autem (aut A) SAacM, vett. edd. : vitem Aid., Oesn.,
Schn.

^ scrobum SAnc.

* passim ac, vett. edd.

5 colenti SAcM, et plerique : colendi a, Ursinus, Schn.

310

BOOK III. XIII. 1-4

XIII. Now the method of doing this must be
handed down, not only to future husbandmen of the
Italian race, but also to those from the provinces ; for
in countries that are far distant and quite remote
this particular way of turning and subduing a field is
very little practised, but the vines are set for the most
part either in planting-holes or in furrows. Those, 2
moreover, whose habit it is to set the vine in planting-
holes, after excavating the earth for about three feet
in length and two in depth — to as great a width as that
of the iron spade permits, lay the shoots on both sides
along the walls of the ditches and bend them to stand
erect at the opposite ends of the holes ; and then,
allowing two eyes to project above ground, they
replace the earth about it and level off the rest. This
they do in the same line, leaving undug skips of the
same number of feet, until they come to the end of
the row. Then leaving a space, according to each 3
man's habit of cultivating with either plough or two-
pronged mattock, they set the next row. And if the
earth is merely turned by a spade-man, the minimum
distance between roAvs is five feet, and seven is the
maximum; but if with oxen and plough, the mini-
mum is seven feet, while ten is large enough. Yet 4
some set all their vines at ten-foot intervals, in the form
of a quincunx," so that the ground may be broken up
by diagonal and cross ploughing in the manner of
fallow land. This sort of vineyard is not to the advan-
tage of the farmer except where, in very fertile soil,
the vine is of large gro\\i;h. But those who dread the
expense of trenching the ground, and yet wish to

" An arrangement in blocks of five, like the cinque on a
die. In this way any five in the same position form a square,
with the fifth in the centre. See Chap. 15, sees. 1-2, below.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

parte pastinationem imitari student, paribus alternis
omissis spatiis ^ senum pedum latitudinis sulcos
dirigunt,^ fodiuntque et exaltant in tres pedes, ac per
latera fossavum vitem vel malleolum disponunt.

5 Avarius quidam dupondio et dodrante altum sulcum,
latum pedum quinque faeiunt ; deinde ter tanto
amplius spatium crudum relinquunt, atque ita
sequentem sulcum infindunt.^ Quos cum per defini-
tum vineis ^ locum fecerunt, in lateribus sulcoriun
viviradices vel decisos quam recentissimos palmites
novellos erigunt, consitis complm'ibus inter ordinaria
semina malleolis, quos postea quam convaluerint
crudo solo quod omissum est transversis scrobibus
propagent, atque ordinent \'ineam paribus intervallis.
Sed eae, quas rettulimus, vinearum sationes, pro
natura et benignitate cuiusque regionis aut usur-
pandae aut repudiandae sunt nobis.

6 Nunc pastinandi agri propositum est rationem
tradere. Ac primum omnium ut ^ sive arbustum sive
silvestrem locum vineis destinaverimus, omnis frutex
atque arbor erui et summoveri debet, ne postea
fossorem moretur, neve iam pastinatum solum
iacentibus molibus imprimatur et exportantium

7 ramos atque truncos ingressu proculcetur. Neque
enim parum refert suspensissimum esse pastinatum
et, si fieri possit, vestigio quoque inviolatum ; ut
mota aequaliter humus novelli seminis radicibus,

^ sic SAacM, et plerique : spatiis omissis Schn.

* derigunt SAc : derigant a.

* infindunt SAaM, Sohel : infundunt c, vett. edd. : in-
fodiunt Aid., Gesn. Schn.

* vineis SAacM : vinetis edd. omnes.

* sic Schn. : omne ut S : ut omnem Aac, vett. edd. : ut
omne M : Ac primum ex omni sive arbustivo, sive silvestri
loco, quem vineis Aid., Oesn.

3*2

BOOK III. Mil. 4-7

imitate that trenching in some measure, run straight
furrows to a width of six feet, leaving alternate
strips of equal ^\•idth ; then they dig the furrows
and deepen them to three feet, and place the vines
or shoots along the sides of the hollows. Some, 5
with greater sa\ing of expense, make a furrow two and
three-fourths feet deep and five feet wide ; then,
leaving three times as much unbroken ground, they
cut the next furrow. When they have done this
throughout the whole plot set aside for vines, they set
upright in the sides of the furrows either quicksets
or young vine-branches as freshly cut as possible,
putting in among the plants set in the regular rows
a great number of cuttings which, after they have
gained strength, they may propagate in cross-trenches
in the groimd which was left unbroken, and so ar-
range their vineyards in rows at equal distances.
But these methods of planting vineyards, as we have
given them, are ours to employ or reject according
to the nature and favourableness of each region.

It is now my intention to hand down the method 6
of trenching a piece of ground. And first of all,
when we have marked out a site for vineyards,
whether it be a plantation of trees or natural wood-
land, every bush and tree should be rooted out and
removed, so as not to be a hindrance to the digger
thereafter, and that the ground already trenched
may not be pressed do'w'n by heavy masses lying upon
it and trodden doA^Ti by the coming and going of those
who carry off the branches and tree trunks. For it is of 7
no little importance that trenched ground be in a very
loose state and, if possible, not \'iolated even by a foot-
print; so that the earth, being evenly stirred, may
give way gently to the roots of the young plant in

3^3

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quamcumque in partem prorepserint, molliter cedat,
nee incrementa duritia sua reverberet, sed tenero
velut in nutritio sinu recipiat, et caelestes admittat
imbres eosque alendis seminibus dispenset, ac suis
omnibus partibus ad educandam prolem novam
conspiret.

8 Campestris loeus alte duos pedes et semissem info-
diendus est, acclivis regio tres ; praeruptior vero
collis vel in quattuor pedes vertendus, quia cum a
superiore parte in inferiorem detrahitur humus,
vix iustum pastinationi praebet regestum, nisi multo
editiorem ripam quam in piano feceris. Rvu-sus
depressis vallibus minus alte duobus pedibus deponi
vineam non placet. Nam praestat non conserere
quam in summa terra suspendere ; nisi si tamen
scaturigo ^ palustris obvia sit,^ sicut in agro Raven-
nate, plus quam sesquipedem prohibeat infodere.

9 Primum autem praedicti operis exordium est, non ut
huius temporis plerique faciunt agricolae, sulcum
paulatim exaltare et ita secundo vel tertio gradu
pervenire ad destinatam pastinationis altitudinem;
sed protinus aequaliter linea posita rectis ^ lateribus
perpetuam fossam educere et post tergum motam
humum componere, atque in tantum deprimere,

10 donee altitudinis mensuram datam ceperit.* Turn
per omne spatium gradus aequaliter movenda linea
est; obtinendumque ut eadem latitudo in imo
reddatur quae coepta est in summo. Opus est
autem perito ac vigilante exactore, qui ripam erigi

1 nisi 81 {om. ac) tamen scaturigo (scaturrigo SA) SAae,
vett. edd. : nisi tamen si scaturigo i¥, Aid., Oesn. : nisi si
statim uligo Schn.

" sit (fit A ) codd,, vett. edd, : om. vulgo.

^ erectis acM.

* coeperit SA.

BOOK III. XIII. 7-IO

whatever direction they creep out, not repelling their
gro%\-th by its hardness, but taking them into its
tender nourishing bosom, as it were, admitting the
rains of heaven and dispensing them for the sustenance
of the plants, and acting ^^'ith all its members in har-
mony for the rearing of its new offspring.

A level field should be dug two and one-half feet 8
deep, a sloping region three feet ; but a steeper hill
should be turned to a depth of four feet, because
when earth is carried down from a higher to a lower
place, the amount thro^\^l back is barely suificient
for trenching unless you make the bank much higher
than on level ground. On the other hand, in
sunken valleys it is not proper to set the vine less than
two feet deep. For it is better not to plant it at all
than to leave it suspended on the surface of the
earth ; except, however, when marshy ground stands
in the wav, as in the district about Ravenna, and
prevents digging deeper than a foot and a half. It 9
is, moreover, a first principle of the aforesaid opera-
tion not to deepen the furrow little by little, as is the
practice of most farmers of our time, and so by a sec-
ond or third gradation to arrive at the intended
depth of trencliing; but, running a line evenly
forward, to extend a continuous trench \\'ith
perpendicular sides and to pile the earth together
behind you as it is removed, and to sink the trench
dowTi until it has reached the prescribed measure of
depth. Then the line must be moved evenly over the 10
whole extent of the gradation ; and you must see to
it that the width is made the same at the bottom
as it was started at the top. There is need, too, of
an experienced and watchful overseer to give
orders that the bank be made plumb and the furrow

3^5

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

iubeat, sulcumque vacuari, ac totum spatium crudi
soli cum emota iam terra committi, sicut praecepi
priore ^ libro, cum arandi rationem traderem, monen-
do - necubi scamna omittantur, et quod est durum

11 summis glaebis obtegatur. Sed huic operi exigendo
quasi quandam machinam commenti maiores nostri
regulam fabricaverunt, in cuius latere virgula promi-
nens ad earn altitudinem, qua deprimi sulcum
oportet, contingit summam ripae partem. Id genus
mensurae ciconiam vocant rustici. Sed ea quoque
fraudem recipit, quoniam plurimmn interest utrum
eam pronam an rectam ponas. Nos itaque huic
machinae quasdam partes adiecimus, quae con-
tendentium litem disputationemque dirimei'ent.

12 Nam duas regulas eius latitudinis, qua ^ pastinator
sulcum facturus est, in speciein Graecae litterae X ^
decussavimus,^ atque ita mediae parti, qua regulae
eommittuntur, antiquam illam ciconiam infiximus,
ut tamquam suppositae basi ad perpendiculum
normata insisteret ; deinde transversae, quae est in

^ priore codd., superiore edd.

^ monendo om. 8A, vett. edd. : movendo ac.

^ qua om. SAac.

* grecae chi littere (X in marg.) S : X om. AacM.

* decusabimus 8Anc : densavimus M.

<" II. 2. 25, 4. 3.

* " Middle " as the meaning here of latus (side) is defended by
Gesuer and accepted generally by other commentators.

' This measuring device is not mentioned by other writers,
though Isidore (Orig. XX. 15. 3) says that the Spaniards gave
the name ciconia to a well sweep {tolleno) because the motion of
the sweep, in drawing water, resembled the actions of the
stork. PaUadius (II. 10. 4) speaks of the use of the virga
alone as a measure of the depth of trenched ground. It
appears that the ancient ciconia here mentioned was in the
form of the letter T, standing, like a stork, on one leg ; though

316

BOOK III. XIII. 10-12

cleared, and that all the ground not yet thrown
up be added to the earth ah-eady moved; just as I
directed in the preceding book,** Avhen I was handing
down the methods of ploughing, in my warning that
no ridges or skips should be left anywhere and that
there should be no hard part covered over with
surface clods. But our ancestors, devising a cer- 11
tain kind of instrument for the measuring of this work,
have fashioned a straight bar and on the side * of it a
small rod which, when reaching down to the depth to
which the furrow should be sunk, touches the upper-
most part of the bank. This sort of measuring device
farmers call ciconia or stork.*^ But this too is open to
fraud, because it makes a very great difference
whether you place it slantwise or in an upright
position. For this reason we have added certain
parts to this contrivance, to do away with quarrels
and disputes of contending parties. For we have 12
fastened '^ two pieces crosswise in the form of the
Greek letter X and of a spread equal to the width to
which the trencher intends to make his ditch, and to
the middle point, where the pieces are joined, we have
fastened that old-fashioned ciconia in such a way as
to stand at a right angle to it as upon a sub-base;
then upon the transverse rod, which is on the side,

commentators disagree as to whether, in use, it was placed
upright, inverted, or on its side. Columella's improvement,
by the addition of X-shaped cross-pieces (his stella), has also
puzzled the commentators : some attach these pieces, at the
point of intersection, to the base of the T and on the same
plane ; others think of the X as being in a horizontal position,
i.e. lying flat on the ditch-bottom, with the T standing at right
angles to it. The latter explanation seems the more probable,
if text and translation are correct.

'^ decussare = to make a decussis, Roman numeral ten.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

latere, virgulae fabrilem libellam superposuimus.^
Sic compositum organum cum in suleum demissum
est, litem domini et eonductoris sine iniuria diducit.^
13 Nam Stella, quam diximus Graecae litterae faciem
obtinere, pariter imae fossae solum metitur atque
perlibrat, quia sive pronum seu resupiniun est,
positione machinae deprehenditur ; quippe prae-
dictae virgulae superposita libella alterutrum ostendit
nee patitur exactorem operis decipi. Sic permensum
et perlibratum opus in similitudinem vervacti semper
procedit ; tantumque spatii linea promota occupatur
quantum efFosus ^ sulcus longitudinis ac latitudinis
obtinet. Atque id genus praeparandi soli proba-
tissimum est.

XIV. Sequitur opus \'ineae conserendae, quae vel
vere vel autumno tempestive deponitur : vere melius,
si aut pluvius aut frigidus status caeli est, aut ager
pinguis, aut campestris et uliginosa planities ; rursus
autumno, si sicca, si calida est aeris qualitas, si exilis
atque aridus campus, si macer praeruptusve collis.
Vernaeque positionis dies fere quadraginta sunt ab
Idibus Februariis usque in aequinoctium ; rursus
autumnalis ab Idibus Octob. in Kalendas Decembres.
2 Sationis autem duo genera, malleoli vel viviradicis,
quod utrumque ab agricolis usurpatur; et in pro-
vinciis magis malleoli, neque enim seminariis student

1 supposuimus ac.

* deducit S^AcM, et omnes ante Gesn.

^ et fiisus SAax^ : efhisus M.

" The line and plummet, sometimes suspended from the apex
of a triangular frame, formed a simple level (libella).

" I.e., the new land, when so trenched in successive strips of
the same dimensions, comes gradually to resemble a field that
is kept in cultivation, though temporarily out of production.

BOOK III. XIII. I2-XIV. 2

we have fastened a workman's plumb-line." When
the instrument so constructed is let down into the
trench, it settles all dispute between master and
contractor without injustice to either. For the star, 13
which we have said has the appearance of the Greek
letter, measures the ground at the bottom of the
trench and at the same time tests its exact level,
because, if there is any slope downward or up-
ward, it is detected by the position of the instrument ;
for the plumb-Hne that is placed on the afore-
mentioned rod shows the one or the other and does
not allow the overseer of the work to be deceived.
The work so measured and levelled off progresses
always towards a likeness to tilled fallow ; and as
the line is moved ahead, as much space is taken
up as is occupied by the length and breadth of the
trench that has been dug.^ And this method of
preparing ground is most approved.

XIV. There follows the task of planting the vine ;
it is properly set out either in spring or in autumn ;
preferably in the spring if the weather is rainy or cold,
or if the land is either fat or flat and wet plain ; in
autumn, on the other hand, if the atmosphere is dry
or warm, if it is a poor and dry plain or a lean and steep
hill. There are about forty days of the spring plant-
ing, from the Ides of February '^ up to the equinox ;
and of the autumn planting, from the Ides of
October to the Calends of December.** Moreover, 2
there are two kinds of planting, with cuttings or
with quicksets, both of which are in use by fanners;
and in the provinces more use is made of the cutting,
for they do not concern themselves with nurseries

' Feb. 13. * Oct. 15-Dec. 1.

VOL. I. M

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

nee usum habent faciendae viviradieis. Hane sat-
ionem culfores Italiae plerique iure improbaverunt,

3 quoniam plurimis dotibus praestat vivii'adix : nam
minus interit, ciim et calorem et frigus, eetei'asque
tempestates propter firmitatem facilius sustineat ;
deinde adolescit maturius. Ex quo ^ evenit ut
celerius quoque sit tempestiva edendis fructibus ;
turn etiam nihil dubium est saepius ^ translatam.^
Potest tamen malleolus protinus in vicem viviradieis
conseri soluta et facili terra ; ceterum densa et gravis
utique vitem desiderat.

XV. Seritur ergo prius emundata inoccataque et
aequata pastinatione, macro solo quinis pedibus inter
ordines omissis, mediocri senis. In pingui vero
septenum pedum spatia danda sunt, quo largiora
vacent intervalla per quae frequentes prolixaeque
materiae diffundantur. Haec in quincuncem vinea-
rum metatio expeditissima ratione conficitur : quippe
linea per totidem pedes, quot destinaveris interor-
diniorum spatiis, purpura vel quolibet alio conspicuo
colore insuitur ; eaque sic denotata per repastinatum*
intenditur, et iuxta purpuram calamus defigitur.^

2 Atque ita paribus spatiis ordines diriguntur. Quod
deinde cum est factum, fossor insequitur, scrobemque
alternis omissis in ordinem spatiis a calamo ad
proximum calamum non minus altum quam duo
pedes et semissem planis locis refodit, acclivibus in

1 ex quo AI, Aid., Oesn., Schn. : quod SAac, veil. edd.

* saepius om. a.

^ translatam Ursinus : translatum codd., et vulgo.

* repastinationem c. ^ deficitur SA.

" Because the quickset, having an established root system,
is planted in a greater variety of soils than is the rootless
cutting. » Of. Palladius, III. 9. 10.

320

BOOK III. XIV. 2-XV. 3

and have no experience in the making of quicksets.
This kind of planting has been disapproved with
good reason by most vinedressers of Italy, because
the quickset is superior in very many particulars :
for it is less likely to die, since, because of its strength, 3
it has a readier endurance of heat and cold and other
kinds of weather ; and, in the next place, it reaches
maturity earlier. The result is that it also comes
more quickly into condition to bear fruit ; and besides,
there is no doubt that it is more generally trans-
planted." Still, a cutting may be set immediately in
loose and light ground, in place of a quickset ; but
ground that is compact and heavy certainly requires
a rooted vine.

XV. The planting, then, is made preferably in pre-
pared ground that is well cleaned and harrowed and
levelled off, leaving five feet between the rows in
lean ground, and six feet in medium soil. But in fat
soil intervals of seven feet must be allowed, so as
to leave greater space of open ground over which
the numerous and far-reaching branches of firm
wood may spread themselves. This laying-out of
vineyards in quincunx arrangement is accomplished
by a very quick method : for a line is stitched with
purple or some other striking colour at intervals of the
same number of feet as you have determined upon for
the distance between rows; and when so marked it
is stretched along the dug ground, and a reed
is thrust in beside each bit of purple. In this way the 2
rows are equally spaced.* When this has been
done, the digger follows and, leaving spaces by turns
along the rows, he digs a trench from one reed to the
next, not less than two and one-half feet deep
on the level, two and three-fourths feet on sloping

321

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

dupondium ^ et dodrantem, praecipitibus etiam in tres
pedes. In hanc mensuram serobibus dcpressis
viviradices ita deponuntur ut a media scrobe singulae
in diversum sternantur, et contrariis frontibus fos-

3 sarum ad ealamos erigantur. Satoris autem officiiun
est, primum quani recentissimam, et si fieri possit,
eodem momento quo serere velit, de seminario
transferre plantam diligenter exemptam et integram ;
deinde earn velut veteranam vitem totam exputare,
et ad unam materiam firmissimani redigere, nodosque
et cicatrices adlevare ; si quae etiam radices, quod
maxime cavendum est ne fiat in eximendo, labora-
verint,^ eas amputare ; sic deinde curvatam deponere
ne duarum vitium radices implicentur. Id enim
vitare facile est per imum solum iuxta diversa latera
fossarum dispositis paucis lapidibus, qui singuli ^

4 non excedant quinquelibrale pondus. Hi videntur,
ut Mago prodit, et aquas hiemis et vapores aestatis
propulsare radicibus : quem secutus Vergilius tutari
semina et muniri * sic praecipit :

Aut lapidera bibulum aut squalentes infode conchas.

et pauIo post :

lamque reperti
Qui saxo super atque ingentis ^ pondere testae
Urgerent : ® hoc effusos munimen ad imbres,
Hoc ubi liiulca siti findit canis aestifer arva.

^ dipondium c : dlpundium SA : clipundium o.

^ lavovcrint SA : levaverint c, velt. edd.

' singulis Aac. * munire SAaM,

^ ingenti 8 : repertis (reperti a) qui super atque incentis
(vincentis c, in gentis a) Aac.

" teste urgerct 31 : testa urgetur S : testa re urgetur A :
testa reurgetur ac ; deinde et fusos SAac.

" Cf. De Arb. 4. 4 and Paliadius, III. 10. 2-3.
* Georg. II. 348. <^ Ibid. 350-353.

322

BOOK III. XV. 2-4

land, and even three feet in steep places. After the
trenches are put down to this depth, the quicksets
are set in such a way that they are laid flat, each by
itself and in opposite directions from the middle
of the trench, and raised upright alongside the reeds
at opposite ends of the ditches. But the planter's 3
duty is, first, to transfer the plant from the nursery
in as fresh condition as possible, and, if this can be
done, at the very moment that he wishes to plant
it — removing it carefully and without mutilation ;
then to prune it all over like an old vine, reducing
it to one very strong cane of firm wood and
smoothing off the knots and scars ; also, if any
roots have been injured^and especial care must
be taken that this does not happen in removing
the vine — to cut them off; and then to set out
the plant, bending it in such a way that the roots
of two vines may not be intertwined. For this is easy
to avoid by placing along the bottom, close to the
opposite sides of the trenches, a few stones whose
weight should not exceed five pounds each,* These 4
seem, as Mago records, to ward off the winter's
wetness and the summer's heat from the vine roots.
Vergil, agreeing with Mago, teaches the safeguarding
and strengthening of young plants in these words :

With them you bury scaly shells or moisture-
drinking stone.*

and, a little later.

And some are found who cover them with rock

or heavy tile,
Thus offering shelter 'gainst the driving rains,

and shelter, too.
When sultry Dog-star splits the fields that lie
agape with thirst.*

323

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

5 Idemque Poenus aiictor probat vinacea permixta
stercori depositis seminibus in scrobe admovere,^
quod ilia provocent et eliciant novas radiculas :
hoc per hiemem fi'igentem et umidam ^ scrobibus
inferre calorem tempestivum,^ ac per aestatem viren-
tibus alimentum et umorem praebere.* Si vero
solum cui vitis ^ committitur, videtur exile, longius
arcessitam pinguem humum scrobibus inferre censet :
quod an expediat, regionis annona operarumque ratio
nos docebit.

XVI. Exigue umidum pastinatum sationi convenit ;
melius tamen vel arido quam lutoso semen com-
mittitur. Idque cum supra summam scrobem com-
pluribus internodiis productum est, quod de cacu-
mine superest, duabus gemmis tantum supra terram
relictis amputatur, et ingesta humo scrobis com-
pletur.* Coaequato deinceps ' pastinato malleolus
ordinariis vitibus interserendus ; * eumque sat erit
medio spatio, quod vacat inter vites, per unam lineam

2 depangere.^ Sic enim melius et ipse convalescet,!*'
et ordinariis seminibus modice vacuum solum ad
culturam praebebitur. In eadem deinde linea, in
qua viviradix obtinebit ordinem suum, praesidii

^ sic Schn. : in scrobem admovere 31 : scrobe an movere
S : scrobeam (strobeam a) movere Aac : scrobem vires movere
Aid., Gesn.

2 et humidam M : ut humidam vulgo : ut (et ac) humum
SAac, vett. edd.

^ tempestivum M, et vulgo : tempestate SAac : calorem :
tempestate ac, vett. edd.

* praebeat (prebeat Sa) SAac, vett. edd.

* civitatis SAac.

* eompletur Aid., Gesn. : completus codd., Schn.

' sic. codd.. Aid., Gesn. : coaequatur; deinceps Schn. :
scrobibus completis coaequato. Deinceps vett. edd.

* est add. vulgo ; om. codd.

324

BOOK III. XV. 5-xvi. 2

The same Carthaginian author approves an applica- 5
tion of grape-husks mixed witJi dung when the
plants are set in the trench, on the ground that they
encourage and draw out new rootlets ; saying that this
gives a suitable warmth to the trenches during the
cold and wet weather of Avinter, and supplies the
growing plants with nourishment and moisture in
summer. But if the ground to which the vine is com-
mitted seems to be lean, his advice is that rich soil
be brought from some distance and put into the
trenches. Whether this is profitable the annual
yield of the region and an estimate of the labour
involved will teach us.

XVI. Trenched ground is suitable for planting
when it is slightly moist ; and yet it is better to
commit the plant to it even when diy than when it
is muddy. And when the plant extends several
joints above the upper edge of the trench, that part
of the top which projects above is cut off, leaving
only two eyes above ground, and the trench is filled
by throwing the earth into it. Then, after the
trenched ground is levelled off, the mallet-cutting is
to be planted between the rows of vines. It vnW be
sufficient to set this in a single line in the centre of
the space that lies vacant between the vines ; for in 2
this way the cutting itself wnW regain its strength
the better, and the ground will be left moderately
free for the cultivation of the plants in the rows.
Then, in the same line in which the quickset is
arrayed, five mallet-shoots are to be set for each

* depangere M, et vulgo : depingere SAac, vett. edd.
i« convalescit codd.

325

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

causa, quorum ex numero propagari l possit in
locum demortuae vitis, quinque malleoli pangendi
sunt per spatium pedale ; isque pes ita medio interor-
dinio sumitur ut ab utraque vite ^ paribus intervallis
distet.^ Tali consitioni lulius Atticus abunde putat
esse malleolorum sedecim milia. Nos tamen plus
quattuor milibus conserimus, quia neglegentia cul-
tox-um magna pars deperit, et interitu seminum
cetera, quae virent, rarescunt.

XVII. De positione surculi non minima disputatio
fuit inter auctores. Quidam totum flagellum, sicut
erat matri detractum, crediderunt sationi convenire ; *
idque per gemmas quinas vel etiam senas partiti,
complures taleolas terrae mandaverunt. Quod ego
minime probo ; magisque assentior his auctoribus
qui negavei'unt esse idoneam frugibus superiorem
partem materiae, solamque eam quae est iuncta cum
vetere sarmento probaverunt. Ceterum omnem
sagittam repudiaverunt. Sagittam rustici vocant
novissimam partem surculi, sive quia longius recessit
a matre, et quasi emicuit atque prosiluit, seu ^
quia cacumine attenuata praedicti teli speciem gerit,
Hanc ergo prudentissimi agricolae negaverunt
conseri debere, nee tamen sententiae suae rationem
nobis prodiderunt ; videlicet quia ipsis in re rustica
multum callentibus prompta erat et ante oculos

^ propagari Gesn., Schn. : propagare codd.

* vite S, Schn. : parte Aid., Gesn. : om. AacM, vdt. edd.
^ distet SAacM : distent edd.

* convenire M : convenirent SAac.

* seu SAcM : sive a, et vulcjo.

" Isidore (Oruj. XVII. 5. 7) defines sagitta in the same terms ;
but Pliny has a dift'erent explanation (N.H. XVII. 156),
tertiutn genus adiectum etiamnum expeditius sine calce, quod

326

BOOK III. XVI. 2-x\ii. 3

foot of space, as reserves from whose number it
may be possible to set a slip in place of a vine that
has died ; and this foot is taken from the middle space
between the rows in such a way as to be equally dis-
tant from the vines on either side. Julius Atticus
considers 16,000 cuttings enough for this kind of
planting. But we plant 4000 more, because a large
number of them are lost through the carelessness
of the vinedressers, while the rest, that do thrive,
are thinned out by the deaths of the young plants.

XVII. On the matter of setting the shoot there
has been no little dispute among authorities. Some
have held that the whole rod, just as it was pulled
from the parent vine, is proper for planting ; and
dividing this into sections with five or even six eyes
each, they committed the several slips to the earth.
This I by no means approve, agreeing rather with
those authorities who have said that the upper part
of the branch is not suitable for bearing fruit, and
who gave their approval rather to that part wliich is
joined to the old branch. But they wholly rejected
the " arrow." Farmers give the name " ai*row "to
the extreme portion of a shoot, either because it has
withdrawn farther from its mother and has, so to
speak, shot out and darted away from her, or
because, being drawn out into a point, it bears a
resemblance to the aforesaid missile.'* Our wisest I
husbandmen have said, then, that the arrow should
not be planted, and yet they have failed to give us
the reason for their opinion ; obviously because to
those men of much experience in agricultural alFairs
that reason was obvious and almost laid bare before

sagittae vocantur, cum intorti panguntur, iidem cum recisi nee
intorti, trigtmmts.

2^1

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

paene exposita. Omnis enim fecundas pampinus
intra qiiintam aut sextam gemmam fructu exuberat,
reliqua parte quamvis longissima vel cessat vel
perexiguos ostendit racemos. Quam ob causam
sterilitas cacuminis iure ab antiquis incusata est.
Malleolus autem sic ab iisdem pangebatur ut novello
4 sarmento pars aliqua veteris haereret. Sed banc
positionem damnavit ^ usus. Nam quicquid ex
vetere materia relictum erat, depressum atque
obrutum eeleriter umore putrescebat, proximasque
radices teneras et vixdum prorepentes ^ vitio suo
enecabat ; ^ quod cum acciderat, superior pars
seminis retorrescebat. Mox lulius Atticus et Cor-
nelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi auctores,
patrem atque filium Sasernam secuti, quicquid
residui fuit ex vetere palma per ipsam commissuram,
qua nascitur materia nova, raserunt,* atque ita cum
suo capitulo sarmentum depresserunt.

XVIII. Sed lulius Atticus praetorto capite et re-
curvato, ne pastinum ^ effugiat, praedictum semen
demersit. Pastinum autem vocant agricolae ferra-
mentum bifurcum, quo semina panguntur. Unde
etiam repastinari dictae sunt vineae veteres quae
refodiebantur, haec enim propria appellatio restibilis
vineti erat ; nunc antiquitatis imprudens consuetudo

^ damnabit Ac.

^ prorepentes edd. : properentis SA : proparentis acM.

^ enecabat M : enecarat ac, et corr. ex enegarat S :
enacarat A.

* raserunt SAac, vett. edd. : resecuerunt vulgo.

^ pastinum Ald.,Oesn., Schn.: pastinatum SAacM, vett.
edd.

" Here = the- thick end or butt of the mallet-cutting, like
the " head " of a mallet.

328

BOOK III. XVII. 3-x\'iii. I

the eyes, for every fruiting cane bears in abundance
within the limits of the fifth or sixth bud ; while in the
remaining portion, however great its length, it is
either entirely lacking in fruit or displays very
small clusters. For this reason the barrenness of the
tip was justly censured by the ancients. Moreover,
the mallet-shoot was so planted by these same ancients
that some part of the old branch remained fixed to
the new. But experience has condemned this kind 4
of planting. For all that was left of the old wood
quickly rotted wdth the moisture after it was set and
covered with earth, and by the damage to itself it
killed the tender I'oots lying next to it and scarcely
creeping out as yet ; and when this happened, the
upper part of the plant would wither. Afterwards
Julius Atticus and Cornelius Celsus, the most dis-
tinguished authorities of our time, following the
example of the Sasernas, father and son, smoothed
off every remaining bit of the old branch at the very
joint where the new wood begins, and so they set
the slip, tip and all.

XVIII, But Julius Atticus pressed the aforesaid
plant into the ground with its head'' twisted and
bent so that it might not slip away from the trench-
fork. The name pastinum or trench-fork, by the
way, is given by farmers to that two-pronged imple-
ment of iron with which the plants are set.'' Hence
even old vineyards which were turned by the spade
for a second time were said to be " repastinated,"
this term belonging properly to a vineyard that
was restored ; but modern custom, ignorant of
ancient usage, applies the term " repastinated " to

» Cf. Isidore. Orig. XX. 14. 8.

329

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quicquid emoti soli vineis praeparatur, repastinatum
vocat. Sed redeamus ^ ad propositum.

2 Vitiosa est, ut mea fert opinio, lulii Attici satio,
quae contortis capitibus malleolum recipit ; eiusque
rei vitandae non una ratio ^ est. Primum quod nulla
stirps ante quam deponatur vexata et infracta melius
provenit quam quae Integra et in\iolata sine iniuria
deposita est ; deinde quicquid reeurvum et sursum
versus spectans ^ demersum est, cum tempestivum
eximitur, in modum hami repugnat obluctanti fossori,
et velut uncus infixus solo, ante quam extrahatur,
praerumpitur. Nam fragilis est ea parte materia,
qua torta et recurvata, cum deponeretur, ceperat
vitium ; propter quod praefractam maiorem partem

3 radicum amittit. Sed ut incommoda ista praeteream,
certe illud, quod est inimicissimum, dissimulare
nequeo ; nam paulo ante, cum de summa parte
sarmenti disputarem, quam sagittam dixeram voci-
tari, colligebam fere intra quintam vel sextam
gemmam, quae sint proximae veteri sarmento,

4 fructum edi.* Haiic ergo fecundam partem con-
sumit, qui contorquet malleolum ; quoniam et ea
pars, quae duplicatur, tres gemmas vel quattuor
obtinet, et reliqui duo vel tres fruccuarii oculi penitus
in terram deprimuntur,^ mersique non materias sed
radices creant. Ita evenit ut ^ quod in sagitta non

^ redeamus M, edd. : om. SAac, et inclusit Schn.

* ut narratio Aac.

' apectans M, et vulgo : spectant SA : apectat ac, vett, edd.

33°

BOOK III. XVIII. 1-4

any ground that is stirred and prepared for vineyards.
But let us return to the subject before us.

Quite wrong, in my opinion, is the method of 2
planting employed by Julius Atticus, which allows
mallet-cuttings ^\ith bent and t^\isted heads ; and
there is more than one reason for avoiding this
practice : in the first place, because no stem which is
damaged and broken before it is put into the ground
thrives better than one that is planted whole without
suffering any injury; and in the second place, any-
thing that is curved back and tending upward
at the time of planting resists the efforts of the
digger, in the manner of a hook, when the time comes
for taking it up, and like a barb fixed in the ground
it is broken off before it can be pulled out. For the
wood is brittle in that section where it received injury
when twisted and bent at the time of planting, and
for this reason it loses the majority of its roots, which
are broken off. But, even though I pass over 3
these disadvantages, surely I cannot conceal a
point that is most hurtful ; for a short time ago,
while speaking of the uppermost part of the shoot,
which I said was called the arrow, I observed that
fruit is generally put forth Avithin the limits of
the fifth or sixth eye nearest to the old branch.
Therefore one who bends the shoot destroys this 4
productive part ; because that part which is doubled
over contains three or four eyes, and the remaining
two or three fruit-bearing eyes are pressed deep into
the earth, and when so buried they produce, not wood,
but roots. Thus it comes about that, what we

* fnictum edi Schn. ex coniect. Oesn. : fructu medii SAac :
fructus medii M, edd. ante Schn.

* deprimantur SAacM. ^ ut edd. : sed SAacM.

33^

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

serenda ^ vitaverimus id sequamur in eiusmodi mal-
leolo, quern necesse est longiorem facere ^ si volumus
detortum depangere. Nee dubium qiiin gemmae
cacumini proximae, quae sunt infecundae, in eo
relinquantur, ex quibus pampini pullulant ^ vel
steriles ^ vel cei'te minus feraces, quos rustici vocant
racemarios. Quid quod plurimum interest ut mal-
leolus, qui deponitur, ea parte qua est a matre decisus,
coalescat, et celeriter cicatricem ducat ? Nam si id
factum non est, velut per fistulam ita per apertam
vitis medullam nimius umor trahitur, idemque
truncum cavat; unde formicis aliisque animalibus,
quae putrefaciunt crura vitium, latebrae praebentur.
Hoc autem evenit retortis seminibus ; cum enim
per exemptionem imae partes eorum praefractae
sunt, apertae medullae deponuntur; atque inrepenti-
bus aquis praedictisque animalibus celeriter senes-
cunt. Quare pangendi o})tima est ratio recti mal-
leoli, cuius imum caput, cum consertum est bifurco
pastini, angustis faucibus ferramenti facile continetur
ac deprimitur ; idque sarmentum sic demersum ^
citius coalescit. Nam et radices e capita, qua recisum
est, emittit, eaeque cum accreverunt cicatricem
obducunt, et alioquin plaga ipsa deorsum spectans
non tantum recipit umorem quantum ilia quae
reflexa et resupina more infundibuli per medullam
transmittit quicquid aquarum caelestium superfluxit.^

1 sic Schn. cum Pontedera: in salictam conseranda (-o ^)
SA : in salictam (-a) conserando ac : in salicto conserendo M ,
et mdgo ante Schn.

^ sic codfd : facere longiorem edd.

^ pampinus (panpinus SA) puUat (expullat c, expullulat M)
codd.

* sterilis et deinde feracis (ferax M) SAacM.

* demersum SAacM : depressum edd. vulgo.

BOOK III. xvin. 4-6

have avoided in not planting the arrow, v.e comply
with in the case of a mallet-cutting of this sort, which
we must make longer if we wish to plant it twisted.
Nor is there any doubt that the buds next to the tip,
which are unfruitful, are left on it ; from which sprout
young shoots, either barren or at least less fruitful,
which farmers call racemarii. And furthermore, it 5
is of the greatest importance that a cutting which is
set in the ground should heal over and quickly form
a callus at the point where it is cut from the mother
vine. For, if this does not happen, excessive
moisture is dra-\\Ti up through the open pith of the
vine, as though through a tube, and makes the stock
hollow ; and the result is that hiding-places are
provided for ants and other creatures that cause
the lower part of the vine-stalk to rot. And this
also happens when plants are bent back ; for when
their lower sections are broken in taking them up,
they are planted with the pith exposed ; and when
water and the aforementioned animals creep into
them, they soon waste away. Therefore the best 6
method is to plant a straight cutting, whose butt
end, when caught in the two prongs of the trench-
ing-fork, is easily held in the narrow jaws of the
implement and so thrust into the ground ; and a
cutting that is set in this way heals over sooner.
For it puts out roots from the butt, where it was
cut off, and these cover the callus as they grow ;
and, besides, the wound itself, looking downwards,
does not admit as much moisture as the one which,
being bent back and facing upwards, conveys through
its pith, as though through a funnel, all the rains that
fall upon it.

* superfluit cM, et vulgo ante Schn.

333

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

XIX. Longitude, quae debeat esse malleoli, parum
certa est, quoniam sive crebras gemmas habet,
brevior faciendus est ; seu raras, longior. Ac tamen ^
nee maior pede nee dodrante minor esse debet :
hie ne per summam ^ terrae sitiat aestatibus ; ille
ne depressus altius cum adoleverit, exemptionera
difficilem praebeat. Sed haec in piano. Nam in
clivosis, ubi terra decurrit, potest palmipedalis

2 deponi. Vallis et uliginosi campi situs patitur ^
etiam trigemmem, qui est paulo minor dodrante,
longior utique semipede. Isque non ab eo trigem-
mis dictus est quod omnino trium oculorum est, cum
fere circa plagam, qua matri abscisus est, plenus sit
germinum ; * sed quod his exceptis quibus est frequens
in ipso capite tres deinceps articulos totidemque
gemmas habet. Super cetera illud quoque sive
malleohmi sive viviradicem serentem praemoneo, ne
semina exarescant, immodicum ventum solemque
vitare, qui uterque non incommode arcetur obiectu

3 vestis aut cuiuslibet densi teguminis.^ Verumtamen
praestat eligere sationi silentis vel cei-te placidi
spiritus diem. Nam sol umbraculis facile depellitur.

Sed illud etiam, quod nondum tradidimus, ante
quam disputationi clausulam imponamus, dicendum
est : uniusne ® an plurium generum vites habendae
sint, eaeque ' separatae ac distinctae specialiter, an

1 Ac tamen SAac : Attamen M, edd.

* summam SAacM, vett. edd. : summa Aid., Gesn., Schn.

^ situ sentitur Aac : situs seritur M : situ serimus vulgo
anfe Schn.

* germinum SAacM : gemmarum edd.

* teguminis SAaM : tegminis c, et vulgo,

* uniusne S, Schn. : ne Aa : ut c : utrum M : om. cett. edd,
' eaeque M, et vulgo : aeque SA, vett, edd, : que a : ut

quare c.

334

BOOK III. XIX. 1-3

XIX. The length that a cutting should have is not
absolutely fixed, since it should be made shorter if its
eyes are close together, or longer if they are far apart.
Still, it should be not more than a foot nor less than
nine inches in length : lest in the latter case, being
at the surface of the earth, it dry out in hot weather ;
while in the former case, if set too deep, it may make
removal difficult after it has made some grovrth. But
the above applies to planting in level ground. For
on hillsides, where the land falls off rapidly, it
may be set to a depth of a foot and a palm. A
situation in a valley or a wet plain allows even a
cutting of three buds, which is a little less than nine
inches but in any case more than half a foot in length.
And this cutting is called " three-budded," not from
the fact that it consists of three eyes in all — since it is
usually full of sprouts about the wound where it was
cut from its mother — but because, apart from those
buds with which it is crowded at the butt, it has three
joints in succession and the same number of buds.
In addition, I offer this advice also to one who is
planting either the cutting or the rooted vine — to
avoid excessive wind and sun, lest the plants dry out ;
and both of these are warded off without incon-
venience by throwing a garment or any sort of thick
covering around the plants. However, it is better to
choose for the planting a day when the air is still or at
least stirring but lightly. For the sun is easily kept
off by canopies.

But, before putting an end to this discussion, we
must speak of a matter which we have not yet
touched upon — whether vines of one or several
kinds are to be kept, and whether these are to be
separated and kept apart, sort by sort, or jumbled

335

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

confusae et mixtae catervatim. Prius disseremus
de eo (|Uod piimum proposuimus.

XX. Prudeiitis igitur agricolae est vitem, quam
praecipue probaverit, nulla interveniente alterius
notae ^ stirpe conserere, numerumque quam maxi-
mum eius semper augere. Sed et ^ providentis est
diversa quoque genera deponere. Neque enim
umquam sic mitis ac temperatus est annus, ut nuUo
incommodo vexet aliquod vitis genus : sive ^ siccus
est, id quod umore proficit,* contristatur ; seu plu-
vius, quod siccitatibus gaudet ; seu frigidus et
pruinosus, quod non est patiens uredinis ; seu fer-
vens,^ quod vaporem non sustinet. Ac ne nunc mille
tempestatum iniurias persequar, semper est aliquid
quod vineas ofFendat. Igitur si unum genus severi-
mus, cum id accident quod ei noxium est, tota
vindemia privabimur ; neque enim ullum erit sub-
sidium, cui diversarum notarum stirpes non fuerint.*
At ' si varii generis vineta fecerimus, aliquid ex iis
inviolatum erit quod fructum perferat. Nee tamen
ea causa nos debet compellere ad multas vitium
varietates : sed quod iudicaverimus eximium genus,
id quantae possimus ® multitudinis efficiamus ; quod
deinde proximum a primo ; tum quod est tertiae
notae vel quartae quoque. Eatenus velut athle-
tarum ^ quodam contenti simus tetradio ; ^"^ satis est

^ nota SAac. ^ et S, Schn. : om. reliqui.

' enim add. vulgo : deest codd.

* quod (h)umore proficit Aid., Gesn. Schn. : om. SAa, et
umore proficit om. c3I.

* perurens S.

" diversarum , . . fuerint om. SAac, vctt. edd. : cui . . .
fuerint om. M.

"> kd SA : et c : Quod Schn.

* possimus SAaM, Sobel : possumus vulgo.

BOOK III. XIX. 3-xx. 3

together and intermingled, one with another. We
shall deal first with the question first proposed.

XX. It is, then, the part of a wise farmer to
plant that vine which he especially approves, with no
shoot of any other sort standing between, and always
to increase the number of that vine as far as possible.
But it is also the part of a man of foresight to set out
different kinds as well. For there is never a year
so mild and temperate as not to inflict some injury
upon some variety of the vine : if it is dry, that kind
which thrives on moisture is damaged; if rainy, that
which delights in dry weather ; if cold and frosty,
that which cannot endure blighting cold ; or if hot,
that which cannot bear heat. And, not to run 2
through, at this time, a thousand rigours of the
weather, there is always something to work harm
to vineyards. Therefore, if we plant but one kind,
when that thing happens which is hurtful to that
kind, we shall be deprived of the whole vintage ;
for he who is without plants of different sorts will
have no reserve supply. But if we make plantings 3
of various kinds of vines, some of them will escape
injury to produce a yield. And yet this reason should
not force us to many varieties of vines : but what we
have judged to be an extraordinary variety, that we
should produce in as great numbers as possible ;
then that which is next to the first choice, and after
that the kind which is of third or even fourth rank.
So far let us be content with a sort of quartet, so to
speak, of champion vines ; for it is quite enough to

' athletarum Schn. : letarum SacM : laetarum A : lec-
tanim vulgo.

^" sic Gesn., Schn. : tetradeo vett. edd. : tetartaeo Aid. :
conten simus tetra deo S : contempsimus tetradeo AacJil.

337

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

enim per quattuor vel summura quinque genera
vindemiae fortunam opperiri.

4 De altero, quod mox proposueram, nihil dubito
quin per species digerendae vites disponendaeque
sint in proprios hortos, semitis ac decumanis dis-
tinguendae : non quod aut ipse potuerim ^ a meis
familiaribus hoc obtinere, aut ante me quisquam
eorum, qui ^ quam maxime id probaverit,^ efFecerit.
Est enim omnium rusticorum operum difficillimum,
quia et summam diligentiam legendis desiderat
seminibus, et in his •* discernendis maxima ^ plerum-
que felicitate et prudentia opus est ; sed interdum,
quod ait divinus auctor Plato, rei nos pulchritudo
trahit vel ea consectandi, quae propter infirmitatem

5 commortalis ® naturae consequi nequeamus. Istud
tamen, si aetas suppetat et scientia facultasque cum
voluntate congruant, non aegerrime perficiemus ; '
quamvis non minimo ^ aetatis spatio perseverandum
sit, ut magnus numerus per aliquot annos discernatur.
Neque enim omne tempiis permittit eius rei iudicium ;
nam vites, quae propter similitudinem coloris aut
trunci flagellorumve uvae ^ dinosci nequeunt,
maturo fructu foliisque declarantur. Quam tamen
diligentiam nisi per ipsum patrem familiae exhiberi

6 posse non adfirmaverim ; nam credidisse vilico vel

* potueram codd., et plerique ante Schn.

^ q.ui om. codd. ' probabit codd., vett. edd.

* in bis Schn. : nihis S : nibil Aac : non nihil M, et vulgo.
^ in quo maxima 31, Aid., Gesn.

' conmortales SAa. ' perficiamus SAac.

* sic SAac, Schn. : non (ron AI) omnino minimo M, et vulgo.

* flagellorum uvae Sobel : f . vaenue SA : f. venue ac : f.
hieme 31 : flagellorumve edd.

• Cf. Palladius, III. 9. 11.
33^

BOOK III. XX. 3-6

await the luck of the vintage with four varieties, or
five at the most."

As for the other point, which I had next proposed, 4
I have no doubt that vines should be separated accord-
ing to their species and set in their proper plots, and
marked off by foot-paths and boundary lines ;** not that
I myself have been able to obtain this of my house-
hold, or that any one of those before me accomplished
it, however much he may have approved. For this
is the inost difficult of the farmer's tasks, because it
requires the utmost care in the selection of plants,
and in separating them there is need, for the most
part, of the greatest good fortune combined with
wisdom. But sometimes, as the divine author Plato
says, the beauty of a thing attracts us to the pursuit
even of those ends to which, because of the frailty
of human nature, we cannot attain. And yet if our 5
years suffice, and if our knowledge and means are
in accord with our desires, we shall accomplish the
task without great difficulty ; though we must persist
for more than a brief portion of our lives, so that a
large number may be classified over a period of several
years. For not every period of time permits a decision
in this matter, seeing that vines which cannot be
distinguished because of their likeness in colour or
stock or shoots or berry make themselves known
by the ripening of their fruit and by their foliage.
Nevertheless, I would not say that this care can be
employed by anyone except the head of the family ;
for it is folly to intrust it to an overseer or vine- (3

^ Palladius (Zoc. ci<.) speaks to the same effect. Fliny{N.H.
XVII. 169) gives directions as to the size of the various plots
and the widths of intervening roads or paths. Cf. also
Columella, IV. 18.

339

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

etiam vinitori,^ socordia ^ est, cum, quod longe sit
facilius, adhuc perpaucissimis agricolis contigerit ut
nigri vini stirpe careant, quamvis color uvae possit
vel ab imprudentissimo deprehendi.

XXI. Ilia tamen una mihi ratio suppetit, celerrime
quod proposuimus efficiendi, si sint veteranae vineae,
ut separatim surculis ^ cuiusque generis singulos
hortos inseramus : sic paucis annis multa nos milia
malleolorum * ex insitis percepturos, atque ita
discreta semina per regiones consituros nihil dubito.

2 Eius porro faciendae rei nos utilitas multis de causis
compellere potest : et ut a levioribus incipiam,
primum, quod ad omnem rationem^ vitae non solum
agricolationis sed cuiusque disciplinae prudentem
delectant impensius ea, quae propriis generibus
distinguuntur, quam quae passim velut abiecta et

3 quodam acervo confusa sunt: deinde quod vel
alienissimus rusticae vitae, si in agrum tempestive ^
veniat, summa cum voluptate naturae benignitatem
miretur, cum istinc Bituricae fructibus opimis, hinc
paribus Helvolae respondeant ; "^ illinc Arcelacacursus,*

^ vilici( villici c) vel etiam vinitoris SAac, et [sc. diligentiae)
Sobd.

^ socordia a : socordio SA : secordi c : secordis M, Aid.,
Oesn. : socordis Schn. : socordiae Sobel.

' separatim surculis Ur sinus, Schn. : separarum (sepera-
torum a, seperate 31, seperare c) surculorum SAacM :
separatorum surculorum Aid., Gesn. : separatoa sulconim
vett. edd.

* malleolum SA : raalleorum insitis acM.

' ad omnem (omne A) rationem (ratione Ac) SAacM, et
vulgo : in omni ratione Schn.

340

BOOK III. XX. 6-xxi. 3

dresser, since — what would be easier by far — it has
been the lot of very few farmers as yet to be free from
stock that produces black \nne, though the colour
of the grape may be detected even by the most
inexperienced person.

XXI. Nevertheless, one method suggests itself to
me of accomplishing very quickly what we have pro-
posed : that, if we have old vineyards, we should in-
graft individual plots with slips of every sort, each
kind by itself. Thus I have no doubt that within
a few years we shall obtain many thousands of cut-
tings from the grafted vines, and that we shall set in
separate blocks the plants so distinguished from one
another. Moreover, the advantage of doing this 2
may urge us on for many reasons : in the first place,
to begin with the less impoi'tant, because in respect
to every concern of life, not only in farming but in
every branch of study, the wise man delights more
in those things which are separated into their proper
kinds than in those which are thrown helter-skelter,
so to speak, and jumbled together into a common
heap : and in the second place, because even the 3
man who is quite unversed in country life, if he
should enter a field at the proper time, would marvel
most pleasurably at the benevolence of nature, when
on the one side the Bituric vines with their rich fruits
correspond to the Helvolans, with like fruit, on the
other side ; when the Arcelacans turn his course to

^ tempestive SAac, vett. edd. : tempestive consitum M, et
vulgo.

' opimis (opinis SA) hie paribus heluo respondent SAacM :
opimae hinc pares lis helvolae respondeant vulgo.

* arcelaca cursus Sobel : arcela ciirsus SAac : arcelane
cursus M : arcellae, rursus Aid., Gesn. : arcelacae, rursus
Schn.

341

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

illinc Spioniae Basilicaeve convertant,^ quibus
alma tellus annua vice velut aeterno quodam puerperio
laeta mortalibus ^ distenta musto demittit ^ ubera.
Inter quae patre favente Libero fetis * palmitibus vel
generis albi vel flaventis ac rutili vel purpureo nitore
micantis, undique versicoloribus pomis gravidus
collucet Autumnus. Sed haec quamvis plurimum
delectent,^ utilitas tamen vincit voluptateni. Nam
et pater familiae libentius ad spectaculum rei suae,
quanto est ea luculentior, descendit ; et, quod de
sacro numine poeta dicit,

Et quocumque deus ciiTum caput egit honestum,

verum quocumque domini praesentia et oculi ^
frequenter accessere, in ea parte maiorem in modum
fructus exuberat. Sed omitto illud, quod indescrip-
tis etiam vitibus contingere potest ; ilia quae sunt
maxime spectanda, persequar.

Diversae notae stirpes nee pariter deflorescunt nee
ad maturitatem simul perveniunt. Quam ob causam,
qui separata generibus vineta non habet, patiatur
alterum incommodum necesse est, ut aut serum '
fructum cum praecoque elevet,^ quae res mox
acorem facit ; aut si maturitatem serotini expectet,*

^ convertant SAacM, vett. edd., Sobel : conveniant vulgo.

* leta (laeta edd.) mortalibus M, et vulgo : laeta mortis IS :
laetam ortibus (h supra o scr.) A : letam ortibus (hortibus a)
ac : laeta in hortis Sobel.

^ demit S : distamusto demit Aa : dicta musto demit c.

* foetis vulgo : petis SAacM, vett. edd.
^ delectant Aac.

* praesentia et oculi Sobd : present! et oculi SAac : prae-
sente et oculos M : praesentis oculi edd.

' serum om. SAac, vett. edd.

* preco quae lebat SA : percoque elebat a.

* expectes SAac.

342

BOOK III. XXI. 3-5

the one side and the Spionians or BasiHcans to the
other side, whereby the fostering earth each year,
as if delighting in never-ending parturition," extends
to mortals her breasts distended with new wine.
Meanwliile, as father Bacchus is propitious to the
pregnant vine-branches, either of the white or yellow
variety, and of the rudd}^ kind or that which gleams
with purple sheen, on every hand Autumnus glows,
laden with his fruits of changing hue. But though 4
all these give the greatest dehght, still profit prevails
over pleasure. For the head of the household comes
down the more willingly to feast his eyes upon his
wealth in proportion to its splendour; and, as the
poet says of the sacred deity,

Wheresoever the god has turned his goodly head,''

truly, wherever the person and eyes of the master
are frequent visitors, there the fruit abounds in
greater ineasure.*^ But, dismissing this statement,
which is applicable also to vines not grouped accord-
ing to their kinds, I shall proceed with those matters
which are most deserving of notice.

Vine-plants of different kinds do not east their 5
blossoms at the same time, nor do they reach the
time of ripening together. For this reason, the man
who does not have his vineyards divided according
to their kinds must suffer one or the other of these
disadvantages : either he must gather the late fruit
along with the early ripe, which soon causes sourness ;
or, if he awaits the ripening of the late fruit, he may

« C/. X. 145, 157.

" Vergil, Gcorg. II. 392. The god is Bacchus.
' Cf. IV. 18. 1 ; PalJadius, I. 6. 1, Praesentia domini provedus
est agri.

343

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

amittat vindemiam praecoquem, quae ^ plerumque
populationibus volucrum plu\'iisque aut ventis laces-

6 sita dilabitur. Si vero interiectionibus capere cuius-
que generis fructum aveat, primum necesse est ut
neglegentiae vdndemiatorum aleam ^ subeat ; neque
enim singulis totidein antistitores possit dare,^ qui
observent quique praecipiant ne acerbae uvae *
demetantui-.

Deinde etiam quarum vitium maturitas competit,
cum diversae notae sint, melioris gustus ab deteriore
corrumpitur^confususque in unum multarum sapor
vetustatis impatiens fit. Atque ideo necessitas cogit
agricolam musti annonam expei'iri,^ cum plurimum
pretio accedat si venditio vel in annum vel in aestatem

7 certe difFerri possit. lam ilia generum separatio
summam commoditatem habet, quod vinitor cuique
facilius suam ^ putationem reddet, cum scit cuius
notae sit hortus quem deputat : ' idque in consemineis
vineis observari difficile est, quia maior pars puta-
tionis per id tempus administratur quo vitis neque
folium notabile gerit. Ac ^ multum interest pluresne
an pauciores materias pro natura cuiusque stirpis
vinitor summittat, prolixisne flagellis incitet an

1 quae om. SAacM,

* interiectionibus . . . aleam] sic vulgo, sed Aid. el Oesn.
interiectibus habent et neglegentiae omittunt : interiectionibus
fructum capere (carpare in carpere mut. 8) genus suerit
(genusuerit A, gensuerit in censuerit mut. S, suerit om. a)
primum neglegentiae (negligentie ac) vindemiatoris (vindem-
miatoris a) alaeam (aliam n, alacam c) SAac : interiectibus
fructum capere genus vetuit primum negligentiam vindemia-
toris alaeam M.

^ antistitores possit dare Sobel : antistiores possit dare
clare a) SAacM : antistes dare potest vulgo.

* post uvae vulgo add. cum maturis, in uncis Schn. : om.
SAacM, Sobel.

344

BOOK III. XXI. 5-7

lose the early vintage, which, being assailed by the
plunderings of birds and by rains or winds, usually
comes to ruin. But if he should wish to gather the 6
fruit of each Idnd at intervals of time, he must first
take the risk of carelessness on the part of the
vintagers ; for it would be impossible to assign the same
number of overseers, one to each man, to watch over
them and give orders that the sour grapes shall not
be gathered.

Moreover, when vines of different kinds ripen at
the same time, the taste of the better kind is spoiled
by the worse, and the flavour of many, when blended
into one, becomes intolerant of age. And so
necessity forces the farmer to market his wine
when it is new, though it would bring a better
price if the selling could be put off for a year, or at
least until summer. Now the separating of varieties, 7
mentioned above, has a very great advantage, in that
the vinedresser can more readily give each its proper
pruning when he knows the particular sort in that
plot which he is pruning ; and this is a difficult
practice to observe in vineyards that are planted
with many sorts of vines, because the greater part of
the pruning is done dui-ing the time when the vine
is not even bearing distinctive foliage. And it makes
a great difference, according to the nature of each
stock, whether the vinedresser allows the growth of
more or fewer canes, whether he is encouraging the
groAvth of the vine by leaving long shoots or re-

' expedire Aid., Gesn,

* sic SAac, vett. edd. : suam cuique facilius vulgo.
' disputat a : deputet Aid., Gesn.

* Ac SAacM : At vulgo.

345

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

8 angusta putatione vitem coerceat. Quin etiam quam
caeli partem spectet genus quodque vineti plurimum
refert. Neque enim omne ^ calido statu, nee rursus
frigido laetatm*; sed est proprietas in surculis, ut
alii meridiano axe convalescant, quia sint calori
aptiores;- alii septentrionem desiderent, quia contri-
stentur ^ aestu ; quidam temperamento laetentur

9 orientis vel occidentis. Has differentias servat pro
situ et positione locorum, qui genera per hortos
separat. Illam quoque non exiguam sequitur utili-
tatem, quod et laborem vindemiae minorem patitur
et sumptum. Nam ut quaeque virescere * incipiunt,
tempestive leguntur, et quae nondum maturitatem

10 ceperunt uvae, sine dispendio differuntur; nee
pariter vetus ^ atque tempestivus fruetus praecipitat
vindemiam, cogitque pluris operas quantocumque
pretio conducere. lam et illud magnae dotis est,
posse gustum cuiusque generis non mixtum sed vere
merum condere, ac separatim reponere, sive est ille
Bituricus seu Basilicus seu Spionicus.® Quae genera
cum sic diffusa sunt, quia nihil intervenit diversae
naturae quod repugnet perpetuitati,' nobilitantur,
neque enim post annos quindecim vel paulo plures

^ omni SAac, edd. ante Gesn.

^ 8in<t) calori <(apti>ores coniecit L. A. Post: sincalori-
ores S : in sicaloriores A : nisi calidiores ac : om. M : sunt
caiidiores velt. edd. : rigore vitiantur Aid., Gesn., Schn. : num
sint caloris avidiores ?

3 contristentur i^Aac, edd. ante Schn. : contristantur Schn. :
quia sint . . . contristentur om. M.

* sic scripsi: ut que quae virescere {ex viresgere corr.) S :
ut quae quirescere A : ut que vinescere a : ut que quiescere c :
ut quaeque restire M : ut quaeque maturescere Schn. : ut
quae maturescere Aid., Gesn.

* vetus SAacM : vietus Schn.

' apiniosus SA : spinosus acM,

BOOK III. XXI. 7-IO

tarding it by close pruning. Moreover, it is of very 8
great importance what quarter of the heavens every
kind of vineyard faces. For not every kind thrives
in a hot situation nor, on the other hand, in a cold
one; but it is a peculiarity inherent in young
vines that some thrive exposed to the south because
they are better adapted to warmth, while others
want a northern exposure because they are damaged
by heat ; and certain kinds delight in the moderate
temperature of an eastern or western exposure.
One who separates the various sorts by sections has 9
regard to these differences as to situation and setting.
He also gains no small advantage in that he is put
to less labour and expense for the vintage ; for the
grapes are gathered at the proper time, as each
variety begins to grow ripe," and those that have
not yet reached maturity are left until a later time
without loss ; nor does the simultaneous ageing and 10
ripening of fruit precipitate the vintage and force
the hiring of more workmen, however great the cost.
Now this also is a great advantage, to be able to
preserve the flavour of every variety — not blended,
but true and genuine — and to put it away by itself
Avhether it be Biturican or Basilican or Spionian.
These varieties, when racked off in this fashion,
attain the rank of nobility, because nothing of a
different sort enters in to counteract their keeping
qualities ; for even after fifteen years or a little

" For Columella's method of determining the ripeness
of grapes, see XI. 2. 67-69.

' perpetuitati Schn. : per vetnstatem vel perpetuitate
Ursinus : perpetua ta.men SAa : perpetuo tamen c : per
potus tamen vidgo.

347

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

deprehendi potest ^ ignobilitas in gustu ; quoniam
fere omne vinum earn qualitatem sortitum est ut
U vetustate acquirat bonitatem. Quare, ut dicere
instituimus, iitilissima est generum dispositio; quam
si tamen obtinere non possis, secunda est ratio, ut
diversae notae non alias conseras vites quam quae
saporem consimilem fructiunque maturitatis eiusdem
praebeant. Potes ^ etiam, si te cura pomorum tangit,
ultimis ordinibus in ea vineti fine qua subiacet sep-
tentrionibus, ne cum increverint obumbrent, cacumina
ficorum pirorumve et malorum depangere, quae vel
inseras interposito biennii spatio, vel si generosa sint,
adulta transferas. Haetenus ^ de positione vinearum.
Superest pars antiquissima, ut praecipiamus etiam
cultus earum, de quibus sequenti volumine pluribus
disseremus.

^ possit SAac.

^ Potes etiam 31, et maluit Schn. : Posset iam SAac : Potes
lam vulgo.

* Haetenus S, Schn, : Haec A, et vulgo : hoc a : hec c :
Nunc 31.

348

BOOK III. XXI. lo-ii

longer no trace of inferiority can be detected in
their flavour, because almost every wine has the
property of acquiring excellence with age. There- 11
fore, as we proposed to show, the orderly distribution
of varieties is of the greatest advantage ; and yet,
if you cannot effect such an arrangement, the next
best method is to plant no vines of different sorts
except those which have a similar flavour and pro-
duce fruit that reaches maturity at the same time.
Furthermore, if you are interested in fruit trees,
you may set the tops of fig or pear or apple trees at
the very ends of the rows on that side of the vineyard
which lies to the north, so that they may not shade it
when they grow up ; and after two years' time you
may graft them or, if they are of superior quality,
you may transplant them as mature trees. So much
for the planting of vineyards.

There still remains that part of most impor-
tance— that we give directions also for their cultiva-
tion, and of this we shall treat at length in the book
that follows.

349

BOOK IV

VOL. I.

LIBER IV

I. Cum de vineis conserendis librum a me scriptum,
Publi Silvine, compluribus agricolationis studiosis
relegisses,^ quosdam repertos esse ais,^ qui cetera
quidem nostra praecepta laudassent, unum tamen
atque alterum reprehendissent : quippe seminibus
vineaticis nimium me profundos censuisse fieri
scrobes adiecto dodrante super altitudinem bipe-
daneam, quam Celsus et Atticus prodiderant ;
singulasque viviradices singulis adminiculis parum
prudenter contribuisse, cum permiserint idem illi
auctores minore sumptu geminis materiis unius
seminis^ diductis duo continua per ordinem vestire
pedamenta.

Quae utraque reprehensio * ambiguam ^ magis

2 habet aestimationem quam veram. Etenim, ut
quod prius proposui prius refellam, si contenti
bipedanea scrobe futuri sumus, quid ita certsemus
altius pastinare tam humili mensura vitem posituri ?
Dieet aliquis, " ut sit inferior tenera subiaeens terra,
quae non areeat, nee duritie sua repellat novas

3 irrepentes radiculas." Istud quidem contingere *

^ relegisse SAac : relegissem M. * ais oni. SAacM.

* m. u. 8. oin. AacM et omnes ante Schn. : deinde deductis
AacM, vett. edd.

* reprehensio S, Schn. : om. AacM, plerique edd.

' ambiguam cM, edd. ante Schn. : abiaram SA : abieram a :
avaram Schn. Post ambiguam inserunt cM nisi antiquitus
ita did Bolitum erat.

BOOK IV

I. You say, Publius Silvinus, that when you had
read over to several students of agriculture the
book which I have written on the planting of vine-
yards, some persons were found who, indeed, had
praise for the rest of our teachings, though they
criticized one or two : in that I advised the making
of excessively deep trenches for vine plants by adding
three-fourths of a foot to the two-foot depth which
Celsus and Atticus had recorded ; and that I had
shown little wisdom in assigning each quickset to its
individual support when those same authors allowed
them, at less expense, to clothe two successive props
in the same row with the branches of one vine separ-
ated into two parts.

Both these objections are based upon false reason-
ing rather than true judgment. For, to refute first 2
what I first proposed, if we are to be content with a
tivo-foot trench, why are we of such a mind as to
work the ground deeper when we intend to set the
vines at so shallow a depth .'' Some one will say,
" So that there may be a lower layer of soft ground
underneath which will not, by its hardness, check
the young creeping rootlets or thrust them back."
It is possible, indeed, to accomplish that end also if the 3

* continere Aac.

353

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

potest etiam, si ager bipalio moveatur et deprimatur
scrobis in regesto, quod est fermentatum plus
dupondio semisse ; nam semper in piano efFosa et
regesta ^ humus tumidior ^ est quam gi-adus soli
crudi. Nee ^ sane positio seminum praealtum sibi

4 cubile substerni desiderat ; verum abunde est semipe-
daneam consitis resolutam vitibus tei'ram subiacere,*
quae velut hospital! atque etiam matei'no sinu recipiat
incrementa virentium. Exemplum eius rei capia-
mus ^ in arbusto, ubi cum scrobes defodimus, admo-

5 dum exiguum ^ pulveris viviradici subicimus. Verior
igitur causa est depressius pastinandi, quoniam iugata
vineta melius consurgunt altioribus demersa ' scro-
bibus. Nam bipedanei vix etiam provincialibus
agricolis approbari possint,^ apud quos humili statu
vitis plerumque iuxta terram coercetur ; cum quae
iugo destinetur,* altiore fundamento stabilienda sit,
quando si ^^ modo scandit excelsius, plus alimenti

6 terraeque desiderat. Et ideo in maritandis arboribus
nemo minorem tripedanea scrobem vitibus comparat.
Ceterum ilia parum prudens ^^ agricolarum studio :
praecipua esse ^^ commoda hmiiilis positionis, quod et

^ etfosa et regesta scripsi (cf. XI. 3. 10), praeeunte Schn.,
not. : refuses sed egesta SAa : refuses sed et gesta c : infusius
egesta M : refusius egesta vulyo.

^ humus dior (clior c) SAc3I : humidior a. ' quam S.

* subiacere cM, vett. edd. : subiaceret SAa : subiicere vulgo.

* capimus S. * exigui SAac, edd. ante ScJui.

' demeTsa. scripsi : demessaS: dimissa ^ac: demissa If , efW.
® possint 8Aac : possunt M, edd.

* destinetur 8AacM, vett. edd. : destinatur Aid., Gesn., Schn.
1° sic scripsi cum Schn., nx)t. : si modo quando SAa, vett.

edd. : et {om. c) si modo (quando oin.) c, et vulgo : si quo qfi 31.

11 prudena SAacM, vett. edd., Sobel : prosunt Aid., Gesn.,
Schn.

^^ esse SAa, Sobel : esset c : om. 31, Aid., Gesn., Schn.

354

BOOK IV. I. 3-6

ground is stirred \\-ith the trenching-spade " and the
trench sunk in the upturned earth, which is swollen
to more than two feet and a half;* for always, in
level ground, earth that is throA\'n out and then back
again swells higher than the level of the unbroken
ground. And surely the setting of plants does not
require that a very deep bed be spread beneath them ;
but it is sufficient that half a foot of loose earth lie 4
beneath the planted vines, that it may. so to speak,
receive the increase of the growing plants into its
hospitable — I might say even maternal — bosom. Let
us take an instance of this in the arbustum*^ where,
after digging planting-holes, we throw a verj^ small
bit of dust under the quickset. There is, then, a 5
truer reason for trenching the ground deeper, in that
" yoked " "^ vineyards grow up better when planted
in deeper holes. P'or two-foot holes could hardly
be approved even by farmers in the provinces,
with whom a vine is usually of low stature and kept
close to the ground ; while one that is intended for
the yoke (trellis) must be steadied by a deeper
foundation, since if it merely climbs higher, it demands
more nourishment and more earth. And on this 6
account, in wedding vines to trees, no one prepares
a planting-hole less than three feet deep for the
vines. But it is with little insight into the interests
of husbandmen, that he remarks that there are
peculiar advantages in shallow planting, in that

" I.e., to a depth of about two feet. Cf. III. 5. 3, note ;
XL 3. 11; DeArb. 1.5.

* As prescribed for level ground. On the various depths of
trenching and the proportionate swelling of the earth, see,
e.g., III. 13. 8, XI. 3. 10.

' See III. 2. 9, not«.

•* I.e. vines trained to iuga (yokes). See III. 2. 8, note.

355

LUCIUS JUNIUS xMODERATUS COLUMELLA

celeriter adolescant semina quae non fatigentur ^
miilto soli pressa pondere, fiantque uberiora quae
leviter suspensa sint. Nam utraque ista luli Attici
ratio convincitur exemplo arbustivae positionis, quae
scilicet multo validiorem fertilioremque stirpem
reddit ; quod non faceret,^ si laborarent altius
demersa semina. Quid quod pastinati ^ humus,
dum est recens soluta laxataque, velut fermento
quodam intumescit ? cum deinde non longissimam
cepit vetustatem, condensata subsidit,^ ac velut
innatantes radices vitium summo solo destituit ?
Hoc autem minus accidit nostrae sationi, in qua
maiore mensura vitis demittitur. Nam quod in
profundo semina frigore laborare dicuntur, nos
quoque non diffitemur. Sed non ^ est dupondii et
dodrantis altitudo, quae istud efficere possit ; cum
praesertim, quod paulo ante rettulimus, depressior
arbustivae vitis satio tamen effugiat praedictum
incommodimn.

II. Alterum illud, quod minori impensa" duos palos
imius seminis flagellis censent ' maritari, falsissimum
est.^ Sive enim caput ipsum demortuum est, duo
viduantur statuniina, et mox viviradices totidem
substituendae sunt, quae numero suo rationem
cultoris onerant : sive tenuit,^ et ut saepe evenit,

1 fatigantur AacM, et vulgo ante Schn.

2 faceret SAaM, Sobel : facerent vulgo; deinde si non
laborarent Aac, et vulgo ante Schn.

^ pastinati SAacM, Sobel : repastinata vulgo.

* subsidet J-/: subsidii *S^ac, vett. edd.

* non mn. SAa, vett. edd.

* impensa M : pensa SAac.

' fingellis censet JH : flagelliscent (SJac.

* falsum est M, edd. ante Schn. : est om. SAac.

* tenuit S, Sobel : lenuit {ut vid.) Aa : leniit c : vivit edd.

356

BOOK rV^ I. 6-II. I

plants grow up quickly when they are not wearied
and pressed do\vn by a great weight of soil, and that
plants which are lightly supported become more pro-
ductive. Por both these arguments of Julius Atticus
are overthrown by the case of planting beside
trees, which obviously makes the vine much stronger
and more fruitful ; which would not be the case if
the plants were suffering from being sunk too deep.
What answer is there to this — that the soil of a 7
trenched plot, while it is newly broken up and loos-
ened, swells up as though by some process of leaven-
ing.'' and then, when it has taken on no great length
of age, it is packed, and settles, and leaves the roots
of the vines swimming,** so to speak, on the surface
of the ground ? But this does not happen to my way
of planting, in which the vine is put down to a greater
depth. Now, as to the argument that deep-set plants
are said to suffer from cold, this too we do not
deny. But a depth of two and three-fourths feet is 8
not such that it can produce that effect ; especially
since, as we said a little before, the vine, though
planted deeper beside a tree, still escapes the
aforesaid discomfort.

II. The other point, their belief that two stakes are
wedded with the shoots of one plant at less expense,
is most falsely taken. For if the actual root dies, two
props are bereft, and presently there must be a substi-
tution of the same number of quicksets, which, by their
number, burden the accounts of the vinedresser ; or,
if it takes hold and, as often happens, is of a black

" Cf. Quintilian, X. 7. 28, innatans ilia verborum facilitas
in alliLm reducctur, siciit mstici vroximas vitis radices amputatU,
quae illam in summum solum ducant, ut inferiores penitus
descendendo firmentur.

357

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

vel iiigri est generis vel parum fertilis, non in uno sed
in pluribus pedamentis fructus claudicat. Quam-
quam etiam generosae stirpis vitem sic in duos palos
divisam rerum rusticarum prudentiores existimant

2 minus fertilem fore, quia cratem factura sit. Et
idcirco veteres vineas mergis propagare potius quara
totas sternere idem ipse Atticus praecipit ; quoniam
mergi raox facile radicentur,'^ ita ut quaeque vitis
suis radicibus tamquam propriis fundamentis innita-
tui*. Haec autem, quae toto est prostrata coi-pore
cum inferius solum quasi cancellavit atque irretivit,
cratem facit et pluribus radicibus inter se conexis
angitur,^ nee aliter quam si multis palmitibus gravata

3 deficit. Quare per omnia praetulerim duobus potius
seminibus depositis, quam unico periclitari, nee id
velut compendium consectari, quod in utramque
partem longe maius adferre possit dispendium. Sed
iam prioris libri disputatio repetit a nobis promissum
sequentis exordium.

III. In omni genere impensarum, sicut ait Grae-
cinus, plerique nova opera fortius auspicantur quam
tuentur perfecta. Quidam, inquit, ab inchoate
domos exstruunt, nee peraedificatis cultum adhibent.
Nonnulli strenue fabricant navigia, nee consummata
perinde instruunt armamentis ministrisque. Quos-
dam emacitas in armentis, quosdam exercet in
2 comparandis mancipiis : de tuendis ^ nulla cura

^ radicentur Sobel : radicantur wlgo : redigentur SAac :
redigantur M.

^ anigitur S : an igitur AacM.

' sic Schn. : mancipi isdem tiiendis S : m. de emptuendis
A : m. intuendis a : mancipiis : sed iisdem tuendis cM,
plerique edd.

' I.e., whether the plant dies, or lives aa an inferior vine.

BOOK IV. II. i-in. 2

sort or not sufficiently productive, the fruit falls
short, not on one prop alone, but on more than one.
And men of more than ordinary insight into agri-
cultural affairs think that even a vine of noble stock,
when it is so divided upon two stakes, will be less
fruitful because it is sure to form a mat of inter-
twined roots. For this reason the very same Atticus 2
directs us to propagate old vineyards by layers
rather than by spreading the whole vines flat,
because layers soon and easily strike root so that
each vine rests upon its own roots as though upon
proper foundations. But a vine that has its whole
body laid flat, by making a sort of lattice-work and
entanglement of roots in the soil beneath, forms a
mat and is choked by the intertwining of over-many
roots, and it fails just as if it were burdened with
many branches. Therefore I should prefer, on every 3
account, to risk the setting of tAvo plants rather
than one, and not to pursue as gain a course which,
considered from either side," may bring far greater
loss. But now the argument of the previous book
demands of us the beginning of the next as pro-
mised.

III. In every sort of costly enterprise, just as Grae-
cinus says, most men enter upon new works with more
vigour than they maintain them when finished.
Some, he remarks, erect houses from the very founda-
tion, and then fail to bestow care upon the finished
buildings. Some are active in the building of ships,
but do not fit them out accordingly with gear and
crews when they are completed. Some have a fond-
ness for the buying of cattle, and some for acquiring
slaves ; but they are moved by no concern over the
keeping of them. Many also, by their inconstancy, 2

359

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

tangit. Multi etiam beneficia quae in amicos
contulerunt, levitate destruunt. Ac ne ista, Silvine,
miremur, liberos suos nonnulli nuptiis votisque
quaesitos avare nutriunt, nee disciplinis aut ceteris
corporis excolunt instrumentis. Quid his colligitur?
Scilicet plerumque siniili genere peccari etiam ab
agricolis, qui pulcherrime positas vineas, antequam

3 pubescant, variis ex causis destituunt : alii sumptum
annuum refugientes, et hunc primum reditum certissi-
mumexistimantes, impendere nihil ; quasi plane fuerit
necesse vineas facere, quas mox avaritia desererent.
Nonnulli magna potius quam culta vineta possidere
pulchrum esse ducunt.^ Cognovi iam plurimos, qui
persuasum haberent agrum bonis ac malis rationibus

4 colendum. At ego, cum omne genus ruris, nisi
diligenti ^ cura sciteque exerceatur, fructuosum ^
esse non posse iudicem, tum vel maxime vineas.
Res enim est tenera, infirma, iniuriae maxime impa-
tiens, quae plerumque nimia laboret * ubertate ;
consumitur enim, si modum non adhibeas,^ fecundi-
tate sua. Cum tamen aliquatenus se confirmavit et
veluti iuvenile robur accepit, neglegentiam sustinet.

5 Novella vero, dum adolescit, nisi omnia iusta perce-
perit, ad ultimam redigitur ® maciem, et sic intabescit
ut nullis deinceps impensis recreari possit. Igitur

1 dicunt 8AcM.

* diligentis SA.

' fructui SAa, vett. edd.

* nimio (enimio a) labore et acM : nimio labore et ubertate
consumitur peritque vulgo ante Schn.

* habeas SAa.

* reducitur acM.

360

BOOK IV. HI. 2-5

undo the kindnesses that they have done to their
friends. And that we may not wonder at these
statements, Silvinus, some men are niggardly in
the nurture of their children — objects of their
marriage ties and solemn prayers^ — and do not
look to their improvement through the training of
the mind or through the general furnishings of
the body. What is the inference from all this ?
Obviously that errors of like nature are commonly
made by husbandmen also, who for various reasons
abandon their most beautifully planted vineyards
before they reach the age of bearing, some shrinking 3
from the yearly expense and thinking it the first and
surest income to have no outgo at all ; as if they were
under an absolute necessity of making vineyards,
only to quit them presently because of their greed.
Some consider it a fine thing to have extensive rather
than well-tended vineyards. I have known a very
great number also who were convinced that their land
must be cultivated, whether by good methods or bad.
But my judgment would be, not only that every kind 4
of land cannot be pi'ofitable unless it is worked skil-
fully and ■with painstaking care, but that this is especi-
ally true of vineyards. For the vine is a tender thing,
weak, and exceedingly intolerant of ill treatment,
and it commonly suffers from over-productiveness ;
for, unless you place a limit upon it, it is exhausted
by its own fertility. And yet when it has strength-
ened itself somcAvhat and has, as it were, taken on
the vigour of youth, it endures neglect. But a newly 5
planted vine, unless it receives every proper care
while it is growing up, is reduced to extreme emacia-
tion, and it pines away to such a degree that it
can never be restored by any expenditure thereafter.

361

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

summa cura ponenda sunt quasi fundamenta, et ut
membra infantium a primo statim die consitionis
formanda ; quod nisi fecerimus, omnis impensa in
cassum recidat, nee praetermissa cuiusque rei
tempestivitas revocari queat.

Experto mihi crede, Silvine, bene positam vineam
bonique generis et bono cultore numquam non cum
magno faenore gratiam reddidisse. Idque non
solum ratione sed etiam exemplo nobis idem Grae-
cinus declarat eo libro, quem de vineis scripsit,^ cum
refert ex patre suo saepe se audire solitum, Paridium
quendam Veterensem vicinum suum duas filias et
vineis consitum habuisse fundum ; cuius partem
tertiam nubenti maiori filiae dedisse in dotem, ac
nihilo minus aeque magnos fructus ex duabus parti-
bus eiusdem fundi percipere solitum ; minorem
deinde filiam nuptum collocasse in dimidia parte
reliqui agri, nee sic ex pristino reditu detraxisse.
Quod quid convincit ? Melius ^ scilicet postea
cultam esse tertiam illam fundi partem quam antea
universam.^

IV. Et nos igitur, Publi,* magno animo vineas
ponamus, ac maiore studio colamus. Quarum con-
sitionis sola ilia commodissima ratio est, quam priore
tradidimus exordio, ut facta in pastinato scrobe
vitis a media fere parte sulci prostematur, et ad

^ eo libro . . . scripsit om. SA.

^ eonvicit (convincit c) nisi melius acM : quo quid coniicit ?
nisi melius vulgo ante Schn.
' uni versa sunt SA.
* Silvine add. Aid., Gesn., Schn. : om. SAacM.

' III. 15. 2.

362

BOOK IV. III. 5-iv. 1

Therefore the foundations, so to speak, must be laid
with the greatest care, and from the very first day of
its planting it must be moulded into shape, just as
the bodies of young children must be shaped ; and
if we have failed to do this, the whole outlay comes
to naught, and once neglected the proper time for
each operation cannot be recalled.

Believe it from my experience, Silvinus, that a vine-
yard well planted, of good kind, and under the care
of a good \dne-dresser, has never failed to make
recompense with big interest. And the same Grae- (
cinus makes this clear to us, not only by argument but
also by example, in that book which he wrote on the
subject of vineyards. He relates that he often used
to hear his father say that a certain Paridius
Veterensis, his neighbour, had two daughters, and
also a farm planted with vineyards ; that he pre-
sented one-third of this farm to the older daughter
as a dower when she married, and that, none the
less, he used to take equally large yields from the
remaining two-thirds of the farm ; that he next mar-
ried off the younger daughter with a half portion of
the land that was left, and, even so, took away noth-
ing from its old-time revenue. What does this
prove ? ^Vhy, obviously, that that one third of the
farm was better tended afterward than the whole
farm had been before.

IV. And so, Publius, let us plant our vineyards
with great resolve, and tend them with greater zeal.
And the most convenient method of planting them
is that one alone which we proposed in the pre-
ceding book:" that, after making a planting-hole
in prepared ground, the vine be laid flat from about
the middle point of the trench, and that its firm

3^3

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

frontem eius ab imo usque recta materies exigatur
calamoque applicetur; id enim praecipue observan-
dum est, ne similis sit alveo scrobis, sed ut expressis
angulis velut ad perpendiculum frontes eius diri-

2 gantur. Nam vitis supina et velut recumbens ^ in
alveo deposita, postea quum ^ ablaqueatur, vulneribus
obnoxia est. Nam dum exaltai-e fortius orbem
ablaqueationis fossor studet, obliquam vitem pie-
rum que sauciat et non numquam praecidit. Memi-
nerimus ergo usque ab imo scrobis solo rectum
adminiculo sarmentum applicare et ita in summum
perducere. Turn cetera, ut priore libro prae-
cepimus. Ac deinde ^ duabus gemmis super extanti-
bus terram coaequare. Deinde malleolo inter oi-dines
posito crebris fossionibus ^ pastinatum resolvere

3 atque in pulverem redigere. Sic enim optime et
viviradices et reliqua semina, quae deposuerimus,
convalescent, simul ac ^ tenera humus nullis herbis
irrepentibus umorem stirpibus praebuerit, nee duritia
soli novellas adhuc plantas velut arto ^ vinculo com-
presserit.

y. Numerus autem vertendi soli bidentibus, ut
verum fatear, definiendus non est, cum quanto

^ et velut recumbens om. SA.

^ quum Gesn., Schn. : quam SAacM.

* Ac deinde] et 8A, vett. edd.

* positionibus (fossionibus suprascr. S) SA.
^ si mollis ac acM, et vulgo ante Schn.

* arcto M, et vulgo : alto SA : arto alto a : areeto c.

364

BOOK IV. IV. i-v. I

wood be raised straight up from the very bottom
along the end of the trench and fastened to a reed.
For especial care must be taken that the planting-hole
be not trough-shaped, but that its ends be drawn up
straight, as though to a plumb-line, with cleai*-cut
angles. For a vine that lies slantwise and is set 2
in a trough in a leaning posture, so to speak, is
subject to damage thereafter when the ground is
loosened around it ; " for the digger, in his eagerness
to deepen the circle of loosened ground, usually
wounds a vine that is aslant, and sometimes he cuts
it off.* We shall remember, then, to fasten the sprig
straight up to its prop from the very bottom of the
hole, and so bring it to the surface. Then in other
matters, to do as we directed in the preceding
book; and next, leaving two eyes standing above
ground, to level off the surface. Then, after planting
the mallet-cutting between the rows, to loosen the
trenched ground anew by frequent digging and re-
duce it to powder. For it is in this way that quick- 3
sets and other plants that we have set out will best
gain strength, when once the softened earth supplies
moisture to the roots without allowing weeds to
creep in, and when the hardness of the soil does not
choke the still tender plants as though with close-
fitting bonds.

V. Moreover, to confess the truth, no limit should
be set to the number of times that the ground is to be
turned by the hoes, since it is agreed that the more

" The operation of loosening the soil about the roots of a
plant, to admit air and moisture, is summed up in the con-
venient, though now obsolete, word " ablaqueation." C/.
II. 14. 3, note a.

» So PaUadius, II. 10. 3.

365

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

crebrior sit, plus prodesse fossionem conveniat. Sed
quoniam impensarum ratio modum postulat, satis
plerisque^ visum est, ex Calendis Martiis usque in
Octobres tricesimo ^ quoque die novella vineta
confodere, omnesque herbas et praeeipue gramina
exstirpare, quae nisi manu eliguntur et in summum
reiciuntur, quantulacumque parte adobruta sunt,
reviviscunt, et vitium semina ita perurunt, ut scabra
atque retorrida effieiant.

VI. Ea porro, sive malleolos ^ seu viviradices
deposuimus, optimum est ab initio sic foi*mare, ut
frequenti pampinatione supervacua detrahamus ; *
nee patiamur plus quam ^ in unam materiam vires
et omne alimentum conferre. Primo tamen bini
pampini summittuntur, ut sit alter subsidio si alter

2 forte deciderit. Cum deinde paulum induruere *
virgae, turn singulae ' detrahuntur. Ac ne quae
relictae sunt procellis ventorum decutiantur, molli
et laxo vinculo adsurgentes subsequi conveniet, dum
claviculis suis quasi quibusdam manibus adminicula

3 comprehendant. Hoc si operai'um penuria facere
prohibebit ^ in malleolo, quem et ipsum pampinare

^ plerique SAc.

^ triceasTmo SA : trigesimo ac3I.

* malleolo SAac : malleolo seu viviradice vulgo ante Schn.

* detrahamur Sa : detramur A : detrahantur M, et tnilgo
ante ISchji.

* quam om, Schn,

* induere {sed corr. A) SAc.

' sic SAacM, vett. edd. : deteriores singulae Aid., Oesn.,
Schn.

* prohibebit SAcM : probibet a, edd.

" March let.
366

BOOK IV. V. i-vi. 3

frequent it is, the more beneficial is the digging.
But, since consideration for expenses demands some
limit, it has seemed sufficient to most people to dig
newly planted vineyards every thirtieth day from the
Calends of March " up to October, and to root out all
weeds and especially grasses ; for these, unless pulled
out by hand and thrown on the surface, return to life
when any least part of them is covered with earth,
and so scald the vine-plants as to make them scaly
and shrivelled.

VI. Furthermore, whether we have planted cut-
tings or quicksets, it is best to train the vines
from the beginning in such a way as to remove
superfluous growth by frequent leaf-pruning, not
allowing them to bestow their strength and all
their nourishment upon more than one branch of
firm wood.* Yet two shoots are allowed to grow at
first, that one may be a reserve if the other should
happen to die. Later, when the green branches have 2
hardened somewhat, one of each pair is removed.
And that those which are left may not be beaten off
by squalls of wind, it will be best to follow them up,
as they grow, with a soft and loose band, until they
catch hold of their props with their tendrils as though
with hands.*' If shortage of workmen prevents the 3
carrying out of this kind of labour in the case of the

* Palladius, VI. (May) 2, gives similar instructions for the
trimming away of useless foliage {panipinatio), and adds, like
Columella (IV. 7. 1), that the task should be performed at a
time when the young twigs snap easily with pressure of the
fingers. Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 31. 2 ; Col. IV. 27. 6, 28. 1, with
note.

' Cf. Cicero, De Sen. 15. 52, Vitis quidem, qiiae natura caduca
est et, nisifuLta est,fertur ad terrain, eadem, ut se erigat claviculia
auis quasi nianibus, quicquid est nacta, complect itur.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUxMELLA

censemus, at certe in ordinariis vitibus utique obti-
nendum est, ne pluribus flagellis emacientur, nisi si
propaginibus futuris prospiciemus ; ^ sed ut singulis
materiis serviant, quarum incrementa elicere debe-
bimus,^ applicato longiore adminiculo, per quod
proprepant in tantum ut sequentis anni iuguni

4 exsuperent et in fructum curvari possint. Ad quam
mensuram cum increverint, cacumina infringenda
sunt, ut potius crassitudine convalescant quam super-
vacua longitudine attenuentur. Idem tamen sarmen-
tum, quod in materiam summittimus, ab imo usque
in tres pedes et semissem pampinabimus,^ et omnes
eius intra id spatium nepotes enatos saepius de-

5 cerpemus.^ Quicquid deinde supra germinaverit,
intactum relinqui oportebit.^ Magis enim conve-
niet ® proximo autumno falce deputari superiorem
partem quam aestivo tempore pampinari, quoniam ex
eo loco, unde nepotem ademeris, confestim alteram
fundit ; quo enato, nullus relinquitur oculus in ipsa
materia qui sequenti anno cum fruotu germinet.

VII. Omnis autem pampinationis ea ' est tempesti-
vitas, dum adeo teneri palmites sunt, ut levi tactu
digiti decutiantur. Nam si vehementius indxiru-

^ efficiemus SAa.

^ eligere debebimus (debemua a) SAacAI, Aid, : elicere
debemus Schn.

2 ab imo . . . pampinabimus om. SA,

* discerpemus (des- a) SAa.

^ intractu relicto portavit SA.

* conveniet acM : convenit Gesn., Schn. : om. SA,
' ea om. S, add. man. alt. A.

" Columella appears to use nepos to mean both " water-
sprouts " or " stock-shoots," sprouting from unfruitful

368

BOOK IV. vr. 3-vii. i

cutting — and we advise the pruning of this also —
at any rate it must be brought about without fail in
the case of vines planted in rows that they are not
sapped of their strength by too many shoots, unless
we are looking forward to future propagation by
layers ; but that they devote themselves each to
one cane, whose growth we should encourage by
applying a prop of greater length, along which
they may creep up to such a height as to rise above
the frame of the following year and to be bent over
for bearing. When they have grown up to this 4
height, their tops should be broken off, so that
they may rather grow in thickness and strength
than make a slender growth of useless length.
However, we will leaf-prune this same stem,
which we let grow into firm wood, up to three and
one-half feet from the bottom, and will frequently
pull off all the stock-shoots that sprout from it
within this space. Anything that sprouts forth then 5
above that point shall be left untouched. For it will
be better that the upper part be cut away with
the pruning-knife the following autumn than that
superfluous shoots be removed in summer time, since
from that spot from which you have taken the second-
ary shoot " it immediately puts forth a second ; and
when this has sprouted, there remains in the firm
wood no eye to sprout and produce fruit the follow-
ing year.

VII. But the proper time for removing all super-
fluous growth is while the shoots are so tender that
they may be struck off by a light touch of the finger.
For if they have hardened to a greater degree, they

wood, and " secondary shoots " or " laterals " growing out
of fruiting canes.

369

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

erunt,^ aut maiore nisu convellendi sunt aut fake
deputandi, quod utrumque vitandum est : alterum,
quia lacerat matrem, si revellere coneris ; alterum,
quia sauciat, quod in viridi et adhuc stirpe immatura
fieri noxium est. Neque enim eatenus plaga con-
stitit 2 qua vestigium fecit acies ; sed aestivis caloribus
falee vulnus penitus impressum ^ latius inareseit ita
ut * non minimam partem de ipso matris corpore
necet.^ Atque ideo si iam caulibus duris falcem
adhiberi necesse est, paulum ab ipsa matre reci-
dendum ® est, et velut reseces relinquendi sunt, qui
caloris excipiant iniuriam eatenus qua nascuntur a
latere palmites ; ultra enim non serpit vaporis vio-
lentia. In malleolo similis ratio est pampinandi et
in longitudinem eliciendi ' materiam, si eo velimus
anniculo uti, quod ego saepe feci. Sed si propositum
est utique recidere, ut bimo potius utamur, cum ad
unum pampinum iam redegeris et is ipse excesserit
pedalem longitudinem, decacimiinare conveniet, ut
in cervicem ® potius confirmetur et sit robustior.
Atque haec positorum seminum prima cultura est.

\'III. Sequens deinde tempus, ut prodidit Celsus,
et Atticus, quos iure maxime nostra aetas probavit,
ampliorem curam deposcit. Nam post Idus Octobris,

^ sic SAaM : indiu-uerint c, et vulgo.

^ constitit SAacM, vett. edd. : consistit vulgo.

^ impressum et latius SAcu: : i. in latum M.

* ita ut] aut SA : ut om. a. * enecet 31, et vulgo.

* id paulum . . . reddendum ac, vett. edd. ; ii paulum
. . . recidendi (est om.) Aid., Oesn.'j [ii] paulum . . .
edendum (recedendum in Corrig.) Schn. : id (ii) paulum . . .
resices om. SA.

' eligendi AacM, vett. edd.

* inter vitem SAac : in cervice M.

• See IV. 21. 3.

370

BOOK IV. VII. i-viii. I

must either be pulled off with a greater effort or cut
away with the pruning-knife, both of which are to be
avoided : the one, because it tears the parent vine if
you try to pull them off; the other, because it wounds
the vine, which is a harmful thing to do in a stem that
is green and not yet mature. For the injury does 2
not stop at the exact spot where the edge of the knife
made its mark ; but in the heat of summer a wound
deeply imprinted by the knife dries up to a greater
breadth, with the result that it kills more than a small
part of the very body of the mother. And for this
reason, if it is necessary that the knife be applied
to stems that have already hardened, the cut must
be made at a little distance from the mother vine,
and spur-like ends " must be left to take upon them-
selves the injury of the heat up to the place where the
shoots sprout from her side ; for the heat's energy
creeps no farther. In the case of the cutting there 3
is a similar method of pruning and of encouraging
length of wood, if we wish to use a cutting of one year,
which I have often done. But if it is your fixed inten-
tion to cut it off, so as to use it rather when it is two
years old, when you have now reduced it to one shoot
and that shoot has exceeded one foot in length, it
will be proper to lop off its head, that it may be
strengthened rather up to the neck and have more
vigour. And this is the first step in the cultivation of
plants after they are set.

VIII. The period next following, as Celsus has re-
corded, and Atticus too — men whom our age has
especially and rightfully approved — demands greater
care. For after the Ides of October,* before the

* Oct. 15th. Compare with this chapter Palladius, XI
(Oct.). 5.

371

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

prius quam frigora invadant,'^ vitis ablaqueanda est.
Quod opus adapertas ostendit aestivas radiculas,
easque prudens ^ agricola ferro decidit.^ Nam si
passus est convalescere, inferiores deficiunt, atque
evenit ut vinea summa parte terreni radices Jigat,
quae et frigore infestentur et caloribus maiorem in
modum aestuent ac vehementer sitire matrem Cani-
culae ortu * cogant. Quare quicquid intra sesqui-
pedem natum est, cum ablaqueaveris, recidendum
est. Sed huius non eadem ratio est amputandi quae
traditur in superiore parte vitis. Nam minime
adlevanda ^ plaga est, minimeque applicandum ®
ferramentum ipsi matri ; quoniam si iuxta truncum
radicem praecideris, aut ex cicatrice plures enascen-
tur, aut ' hiemalis, quae consistit in lacusculis ^
ablaqueationis aqua, brumae congelationibus nova
vulnera peruret et ad medullam penetrabit. Quod *
ne fiat, recedere ^^ ab ipso codice instar unius digiti
spatio conveniet, atque ita ^^ radiculas praecidere ;
quae sic ademptae non amplius puUulant, et a cetera
noxa truncum defendunt. Hoc opere consummato,
si est hiems in ea regione placida, patens vitis re-
linquenda est ; sin violentior hoc ^^ facere nos pro-

^ iuvadunt M, Schn.

* aesque frondcs (frundens A) SA.

* cecidit SAa : excidit M.

* Caniculae ortu Sobel : ac niculae ortu 8 : agniculae
ortu A : canicule in ortu M : canicule vehementer ortu c : in
ortu caniculae a, edd.

^ adlevanda edd. : ablaqueanda SA : allaqueanda a :
oblaqueanda cM.

* adlevandum S : ad levandum A.
' pube nascentur ut iS'^4.

* quae . . . lacusculis om. SAac : ex pluviis post quae
add. edd.

* penetrabit, quod edd.

372

BOOK IV. viii. 1-3

coming of cold weather, the vine must be abla-
queated." This operation lays bare the summer
rootlets, and the wise husbandman cuts these off
with a knife. For if he allows them to grow strong,
the lower roots waste away ; and the result is that the
vine puts out its roots at the ver}^ surface of the earth,
to be injured by the cold and burned to a greater
degree by the heat, and to force a \-iolent thirst upon
the mother vine at the rising of the Dog Star. For 2
this reason, when you ablaqueate the vine, anything
that has sprouted out of it within a foot and a half
must be cut off. But the method of this root-pruning
is not the same as that proposed for the upper part of
the vine. For the wound is not to be smoothed off,
and by no means is the knife to be apphed to the
mother herself; because, if you cut away a root close
to the stock, either more roots will spring from the
scar, or the rains of winter which stand in hollows in the
loosened soil will gall the fresh wounds by freezing in
midwinter and will penetrate to the very pith.* That
this may not happen, it will be proper to keep a dis-
tance of about one finger's breadth from the stock
itself, and so to trim off the small roots ; when they
are removed in this manner, they sprout out no more
and protect the stem from fm'ther injury. When this 3
work is finished, the vine should be left exposed if the
winter is mild in that region ; but if a more severe

« Cf. IV. 4. 2, note, » Cf. De Arb. 5. 3.

1" recidere Aac, edd- ante Gesn. : reciderere 21.

11 ita om. SAcJil.

1* hoc M : hie SAac : id edd.

373

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

hibet, ante Idus Decembris praedicti lacusculi coae-
quandi sunt. Si vero etiam praegelida frigora
regionis eius suspecta erunt, aliquid fimi, vel, si ^
est commodius, columbini stercoris, aut in hunc
usum praeparatae veteris urinae senos sextarios,
antequam vitem adobruas, radicibus ^ superfundes.
4 Sed ablaqueare omnibus autuninis oportebit primo
quinquennio, dum vitis convalescat : ubi vero truncus
adoleverit, fere triennio intermittendus est eius
operis labor. Nam et minus ferro crura vitium
laeduntur,^ nee tam celeriter radiculae inveterate iam
codice enascuntur.*

IX. Ablaqueationem deinde sequitur talis putatio,
ut ex praecepto veterum auctorum vitis ad unam
virgulam revocetur, duabus gemnsis iuxta terram
relictis. Quae putatio non debet secundum arti-
culum fieri, ne reformidet oculus ; sed medio fere
internodio ea plaga obliqua falce fit, ne, si transversa
fuerit cicatrix, caelestem superincidentem ^ aquam

2 contineat. Sed nee ad eam partem, qua est gemma,
verum ad posteriorem declinatur, ut in terram ^
potius devexa quam in germen delacrimet. Namque
defluens ^ umor caecat oculum nee patitur crescere.^

X. Putandi autem duo sunt tempora : * melius
autem, ut ait Mago, vernum, antequam surculus
progerminet, quoniam umoris plenus facilem plagam

^ quod cM, Schn. * radicis SA.

* laedantur SA. * enascantur A.

* supercidentem SAacM. * interdum SAacM.
' depluens 8 A, Schn.

* crescere SAaM : frondescere c, edd.

* genera 8.

374

BOOK IV. viii. 3-x. I

\\'inter prevents our doing this, the above-mentioned
hollows must be levelled off before the Ides of Decem-
ber." In fact, if there is a suspicion of extremely cold
Vv'eather for that region, you will spread some stable-
dung or, if more convenient, some pigeon dung
over the roots before you bury the vine ; or you will
pour over them six sextarii of stale urine previously
made ready for such use. But it will be necessaiy to 4
ablaqueate the vine every autumn for the first five
years, until it grows strong. However, when the
main stem has come to maturity, this task may be
omitted for about three-year intervals ; for the lower
parts * of the vine receive less injury from the iron,
and small roots do not shoot out so rapidly, now that
the stock has become old.

IX. Ablaqueation is then followed by pruning, in
such a manner that the vine is reduced to one small
rod, according to the directions of ancient authorities,
leaving two eyes close to the ground. This pruning
should not be done next to the joint, lest the eye
be checked in its growth ; but an oblique cut is
made with the knife about midway between the joints,
lest, if it be crosswise, the scar may hold the rain that
falls upon it. But the slope is made, not toward the 2
side where the bud is, but to the opposite side, so
that it may shed its tears upon the ground rather
than upon the bud. For the sap that flows down from
it blinds the eye and does not allow it to grow."^

X. There are two seasons for pruning ; but the
better time, as Mago says, is in the spring, before
the shoot puts forth its buds, because, being full of

Dec. 13th. * Lit. the legs,

' Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVII. 192.

375

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

et levem et aequalem accipit, nee falci repugnat.
Hunc autem seeuti sunt Celsus et Atticus. Nobis
neque angusta putatione coercenda semina videntur,
nisi si admodum invalida sunt ; neque utique verno

2 recidenda. Sed primo quidem anno, quo sunt posita,
frequentibus ^ fossionibus omnibus mensibus dum
frondent ac pampinationibus adiuvanda sunt, ut
robur accipiant, nee plus quam uni materiae serviant.
Quam ut educaverint, autumno vel vere, si magis
competit,^ adradenda, et nepotibus, quos pampinator ^
in superiore parte omiserat, liberanda censemus,
atque ita in iugum imponenda. Ea enim levis
et recta sine cicatrice vinea est quae se primi
anni flagello supra iugum extulit, quod tamen
apud paucos agricolas et raro contingit; ideoque
praedicti auctores primitias vitis resecare cen-

3 suerunt.* Sed nee utique verna omnibus regionibus
melior putatio est : nam ubi caelum frigidum est, ea
sine dubio eligenda est ; ubi vero aprica loca sunt,
mollesque hiemes, optima et maxime naturalis est
autumnalis, quo tempore divina quadam lege et
aeterna fructum cum fronde stirpes deponunt.

XL Hoc facere, sive viviradicem sive malleolum
conseveris, censeo. Nam illam veterem opinionem
damnavit usus non esse ferro tangendos ^ anniculos
malleolos quoniam reformident. Quod frustra Ver-
gilius et Saserna Stolonesque et Catones timuerunt ;
qui non solum in eo errabant, quod primi anni capil-

^ frequentius SA.

* competit edd. : competent (con- SA) SAacM.
^ pampinatione SAa, vett. edd.

* consuerunt A : consueverunt ac.

* tangendos vulgo : frangendos SAacM.

» Oeorg. II. 362-370. » Cato, 33. 2.

BOOK IV. X. i-xi. I

sap, it allows an easy, smooth, and even cut, and does
not resist the knife. Celsus and Atticus, moreover,
have followed his method. To us it seems that plants
should not be held back by close pruning unless they
are very weak, and that at least they should not
be cut in the spring. But, to be sm-e, in the first year 2
that they are set out they should be aided, every
month Avhile they are in leaf, by frequent digging
and by leaf-pruning, so that they may gain strength
and support not more than one branch of firm wood.
And when they have reared this they should be
trimmed clean, in our opinion, in the autumn, or in
the spring if it is more convenient, and freed from
secondary shoots ■which the leaf-pruner had left on
the upper part ; and so they should be placed upon
the frame. For it is the smooth and straight vine,
without a scar, that overtops the frame with a rod
of the first year. This happens, however, with
few farmers, and seldom ; and for that reason the
aforementioned authors thought it best to cut off the
first shoots of the \ine. But in any case, spring prun- 3
ing is not preferable in ail regions : for where the
climate is cold, that time of pruning is doubtless to be
chosen ; but in regions that are sunny, where winters
are mild, the best and most natural pruning is that of
autumn, at which season, by some divine and eternal
law, plants drop both fruit and foliage.

XL This, I beheve, is the thing to do, whether you
have planted a quickset or a cutting. For experience
has condemned that long-standing belief that year-old
cuttings should not be touched with the knife because
they have a dread of it. This was a matter on which
Vergil " and Saserna and the Stolos and the Catos *
had groundless fears ; and they were mistaken, not

377

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

lamenta seminum intacta patiebantur, sed et post
biennium cum viviradix recidenda erat, omnem
superficiem amputabant solo tenus iuxta ipsum

2 articulum, ut e duro pullularet. Nos autem magister
artium docuit usus, primi anni malleolorum formare
incrementa, nee pati vitem supervaeuis frondibus
luxuriantem silvescere ; nee rursus in tantum coer-
cere, quantum antiqui praecipiebant,! ut totam super-

3 fieiem amputemus. Nam id quidem ^ maxime con-
trariiun est : primum quod eum ad terram decideris,
semina, velut intolerabili adfeeta vulnere, pleraque
intereunt ; nonnuUa etiam, quae pertinaeiter vixe-
runt, minus fecundas materias adferunt, siquidem e
duro quae pullulant omnium confessione pampinaria

4 saepissime fructu carent. Media igitur ratio se-
quenda est, ut neque solo tenus malleolum recidamus,
nee rursus in longiorem materiam provocemus ; sed
adnodato superioris anni pollice, iuxta ^ ipsam
commissuram veteris sarmenti unam vel duas gemmas
relinquemus ex quibus germinet.

XII. Putationem sequitur iam pedandae vineae
cura. Verum hie annus nondum vehementem palum
aut ridicam * desiderat ; notatum est enim a me
plerumque teneram vineam melius adminiculo modico
quam vehementi palo adquiescere. Itaque aut

^ praecipiendo Sobel : praecipienrla SA.

* ration! post quidem add. Schn. ; om. Sj

* iuxta 8Aa, velt. edd. : supra c, A

.- , om. SAacM.

supra c, Aid., Oesn., Schn.
super M.
* rigidam S.

BOOK IV. XI. i-xn. i

merely on this point, in that they allowed the first
year's foliage of plants to go untouched, but also
after two years, when the quickset was to be cut back,
they lopped off all the upper part right down to the
ground, close to the very joint, so that it might make
new gi-owth from the hard wood. But experience, the 2
master of arts, has taught us to regulate the growth
of first-year cuttings and not to allow a vine to run
wild with a rank growth of useless leafage ; and, on
the other hand, not to hold it back to the extent that
the ancients directed, to the point of lopping oif all
the upper part. In fact, this method is most harmful ; 3
in the first place because, when you cut to the ground,
most plants die, being visited, as it were, by an un-
bearable wound ; while some of them also, which have
a more stubborn hold on life, produce less fruitful
wood — seeing that, by the admission of everyone,
shoots which sprout from the hard wood are very
often destitute of fruit. Therefore a middle course is 4
to be followed ; namely, that we neither cut back a
cutting to the ground nor, on the other hand, draw
it out into a woody branch of excessive length;
but, trimming off the sprouts from the spur" of the
year before, we shall leave, close to the crotch where
the old branches were joined, one or two buds from
which it may send out shoots.

XII. Attention to the propping of the vine follows
the pruning. But the present, or first, year does not
yet require a strong prop or stake ; for it has been my
observ^ation that, for the most part, a young vine is
better satisfied with a support of moderate size than
with a stout prop. And so we shall attach each young

" Lit. " thumb," from the resemblance of the stub to that
member.

379

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

veteres, ne novae radicem agant, harundines binas
singulis vitibus applicabimus/ aut si regionis con-
ditio permittit, de vepribus hastilia, quibus adnec-
tantur singulae transversae perticae in unam partem

2 ordinis — quod genus iugi cantherium vocant rustici.
Plurimuni id refert esse quod paulum infra cur-
vationem vitis prorepens pampinus statim appre-
hendat, et in transversa potius se fundat quam in
edita, ventosque facilius sustineat subnixus ^ can-
therio. Idque iugum intra quartum pedem convenit
adlevari, dum se vinea corroboret.

XIII. Impedationem deinde sequitur alligator,
cuius officivun est ut rectani vitem producat in iugum.
Quae sive iuxta palum est posita, ut quibusdam
placuit auctoribus,^ observare debebit, qui adnectit,
ne in alliganda materia flexum pali, si forte curvus
est, sequendum putet; nam ea res uncam vitem
facit : sive, ut Attico et nonnuUis aliis agricolis visum
est, inter vitem et palum spatium relinquitur,*
quod nee mihi displicet, recta harundo adiungenda
stirpi est, et ita per crebra retinacula in iugum
perducenda. Vinculi genus quale sit, quo religantur

2 semina, plurimum ^ refert. Nam dum novella vinea
est, quam mollissimo nectenda est ; quia si viminibus
salicis aut ulmi ligaveris, increscens vitis se ipsa
praecidit.^ Optima est ergo genista, vel paludibus
desectus iuncus, aut ulva ; non pessime tamen in

^ sic acM, edd. mite Schn. : harum singulis binas (vinas A)
adplicavimus singulis viticulis (vitulicus A) SA : arundines
singulis viticulis applicabimus Schn.

^ subnexus SA.

^ ut . . . auctoribus om. SAu, vett. edd.

* relinquendum est a.

^ plurima seminum SA : plurimum semina a.

" procidit SAa.

380

BOOK IV. XII. i-xiii. 2

vine either to two old reeds, lest new ones strike root ;
or, if local conditions allow it, to brier canes, to which
single cross-bars may be tied along one side of the
row — a kind of frame which farmers call a can- 2
terius or " horse." " It is of the greatest impor-
tance that this be such that the young vine-shoot, as
it creeps forth, shall immediately grasp it a little below
the point of its bending and spread out on the cross-
bars rather than on the uprights, and so, resting upon
the " horse," may more easily bear up against the
winds. And it is proper that this frame should be
raised up to less than four feet, until the vine becomes
strong.

XIII. Then, after the propping, comes the binder,
whose task it is to train the vine upright to the frame.
And if the vine is set close to the stake, as has pleased
some authorities, the man w'ho ties it will have to guard
against the notion that, in fastening the firm wood, he
must follow the curve in the stake if it happens to be
bent, for that makes a crooked vine ; or, if space is
left between the vines and the stake, as has seemed
best to Atticus and some other husbandmen and is
not displeasing to me, a straight reed must be joined
to the stock, and so by numerous bindings the vine
is to be guided up to the frame. What sort of bands
they are with which the plants are tied, is of the great-
est importance. For while the vine is young, it must 2
be tied with the very softest kind ; because, if you
bind with withes of willow or elm, the growing vine
cuts itself. The best, then, is broom, or the rush that
is cut in marshy places, or sedge ; and yet the leaves

" Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVII. 165, Simplici iugo constat porrecto
ordine quern canteriutn appellant.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

umbra siccata faciunt in liunc usum harundinum
quoque folia.

XIV. Sed et malleolorum similis cura agenda est,
ut ad unam aut duas gemmas deputati autumno vel
vere, prius quam germinent, iugentur.i lis, ut dixi,
cantherius propius ^ a terra quam vitibus ordinariis
summittendus est; neque enim editior esse debet
pedali altitudine, ut sit quern teneri adhuc pampini
capreoUs suis illigent nee ^ ventis explantentur.
Insequitur deinde fossor, qui crebris bidentibus

2 aequaliter et minute * soli terga comminuat.^ Hanc
planam fossuram maxime nos probamus. Nam ilia,
quam in Hispania hibernam appellant, cum terra
vitibus detrahitur, et in media spatia interordiniorum
confertur, supervacua nobis videtur, quia iam prae-
cessit autumnalis ablaqueatio, quae et ® nudavit
summas et ad inferiores radiculas ' ti*ansmisit hiber-
nos imbres. Numerus autem fossionis aut idem
debet esse ^ qui primi anni, aut una minus ; nam *
utique frequenter solum exercendum est, dum id
incremento suo vites inumbrent, nee patiantur her-

3 bam subcrescere. Pampinationis eadem debet esse
ratio huius anni atque prioris. Adhuc enim com-
pescenda quasi pueritia seminum est, nee plus quam
in unum flagellum est summittenda; tanto quidem

^ vincientur cM.

* proprius SAa.

' nee SAa : ne cM, edd.

* minute cM : minuti SAa : minutim edd.
^ convertat a : convertit M : convertant c.

* et SAacM ; om. Schn.

'' ad inferioris pervenit radiculas SAacM; et deinde trans-
misit . . . imbres om. SAa : ad inferiores pervenit radiculas,
et hibernos transmisit imbres vvlgo ante Schn.

* debet esse SAacM : esse debet edd.

382

!

BOOK IV. XIII. 2-viv. 3

of reeds also, when dried in the shade, do not serve
badly for this purpose.

XIV. But like attention should be given to cuttings,
that after being cut back to one or two eyes in the
autumn or in spring, before the time of budding,
they shall be fastened to the frame. For these, as I
have said, the " horse " must be placed closer to
the ground than for matui'e vines in rows ; for it
should be not more than one foot in height, so as
to be of such a sort that the still tender shoots may
grasp it with their tendrils " and not be rooted out
by the winds. Then follows the digger, to break
up the surface soil evenly and finely with many
strokes of the two-pronged hoe. This level digging
we especially favour. For what they call the 2
" winter digging " in Spain — when earth is removed
from the vines and brought into the space between
the rows — seems to us unnecessary, because it has
been already preceded by the autumn ablaqueation,
which has exposed the upper rootlets and carried the
winter rains to the roots below. Again, the number
of diggings should be the same as of the first year, or
less by one ; for the ground is in special need of fre-
quent working until the vines shade it with their
growth and do not allow weeds to grow beneath them.
The same method of leaf-pruning should hold for this 3
year as for the year before. For the childhood of the
plants, so to speak, must still be held in check and the
plant allowed to grow to not more than one shoot ;

" Capreoli. Cf. Varro, R.R. I. 31. 4, where the word is de-
rived from capio (grasp) ; also Isidore, Orig. XVII. 5. 11, Cap-
reoli dicti quod, rapiant arbores.

" minus nam 07«. SAa, vett. edd.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

magis, quod tenera aetas eius non sustinet et fetu
et materiis onerari.

XV. Sed cum annicula mensiumque sex ad vin-
demiam perducta est, sublato fructu protinus fre-
quentanda est, et praesidiarii malleoli propagandi
sunt, qui in hunc usum fuerant depositi; vel, si ne
hi quidem sunt, ex ordinaria vite in alterum paliun
mergus est attrahendus. Nam plurimum interest
adhuc nova consitione pedamen omne vestiri ; nee
mox vineam turn subseri, cum fructus capiendus est.

2 Mergi genus est, ubi supra terram iuxta suum ad-
miniculum vitis curvatur, atque ex alto scrobe sub-
mersa perducitur ad vacantem palum : turn ex arcu
vehementer citat materiam, quae protinus applicata

3 suo pedamento ad iugum evocatur. Sequente
deinde anno insecatur superior pars curvaturae usque
ad medullam, ne totas vires matris propagatum
flagellum in se trahat, et ut paulatim condiscat suis
radicibus ali. Bima deinde praeciditur proxime
palmam quae ex arcu summissa est. Et id quod a
matre abscisum recessit, confestim alte circiunfoditur,
et scrobiculo facto ad imum solum praeciditur,^
adobruiturque, ut et radices deorsum agat, nee ex
propinquo neglegenter in summa terra resectum ^

4 progerminet. Tempus autem non aliud magis

^ praeducitur c. ^ resecta SAac3I, vett. edd.

" I.e. missing vines must be replaced.

*■ The mergus, "layer," was so called because, without being
separated from the nurse vine, it " dives " (jnergit) into the
ground and then reappears, like a diving bird (mergus). Cf.
Palladius, III. 16. 1, Ilergum dicimus, quoties velut arcus supra
terram relinquitur, alia parte vitis infossa.

" I.e. the bend under ground.

■^ Closer to the parent vine.

384

BOOK IV. XIV. 3-xv. 4

the more so, in fact, because its tender age does not
endure the burden of both offspring and woody
branches.

XV. But when the vineyard, at the age of one year
and six months, is brought to the vintage, it must be
recruited to full strength "■ immediately after the fruit
has been removed, and reserve cuttings which were
planted for this purpose must be set in the gaps ; or, if
these also are wanting, a layer * must be led from a
vine in the row to another stake. For it is of the utmost
importance up to this time that every prop be clothed
with a new planting, and that the vineyard shall not
be in a state of replanting later, when it is time to be
taking its fruits. There is one kind of layer where the 2
vine is bent above ground close to its support, and so,
being carried underground by adeep trench, is brought
out beside a vacant stake ; then from the " bow " '^ it
puts forth a vigorous shoot of firm wood, which is im-
mediately attached to its prop and brought up to the
cross-bar. Then in the following year a cut is made 3
in the upper part of the bend,'' as far as the pith, that
the rod under propagation may not draw into itself
all the strength of the mother vine, and that it
may learn little by little to take its nourishment
from its own roots. Next, when two years old, it
is chopped off close to the branch which has been
caused to spring up from the bow. And what is
cut away and separated from the mother vine,
immediately has the ground dug deep about it ; then
a small hole is made, and it is cut off at the very
lowest point and covered with earth, so that it may
drive its roots doAvnwards and not sprout out near
the top of the ground by being carelessly cut at
the surface. Moreover, there is no time better 4

385

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

idoneum est hunc mergum amputandi quam ab Idib.
Octob. in Idus Novemb., ut hibernis mensibus suas
radices confirmet. Nam si vera id fecerimus, quo
gemmare palmites incipiunt, matris alimentis subito
destitutus ^ languescit.

XVI. Eadem ratio est in transferendo maJleolo.
Nam secundo autumno, si caeli et loci qualitas patitur,
commodissime post Idus Octobris exemptus con-
seritur : ^ sin autem aliqua terrae vel aeris repugnat
iniuria, tempestivitas eius in proximum ver difFertur.
Neque diutius in vineis relinquendus est, ne soli ^
vires absumat et ordinaria semina infestet : quae
quanto celerius liberata sunt consortio viviradicum,
tanto facilius convalescunt. At in seminario licet
trimam atque etiam quadrimam vitem resectam vel
anguste putatam custodire, quia non consulitur
vindemiae. Cum mensem tricesimum excessit posita
vinea, id est tertio autumno, vehementioribus
statuminibus statim impedanda * est, idque ^ non ut
libet aut fortuito faciendvun. Nam sive prope
truncum deponitur ® palus, pedali tamen spatio
recedendum' est, ne aut premat aut radicem vulneret,
et ut fossor tamen ab omni parte semina circumfodiat.
Isque palus sic ponendus est, ut frigorum et Aquilo-
num excipiat violentiam, vitemque protegat; sive
medio interordinio pangetur, vel deponendus ^ est
vel, prius paxillo perforato solo, altius adigcndas,^

^ destituta SAOfC, vett. edd.

2 consequetur SA, vett. edd. * nee socii SA.

* inpedienda SA : impedienda M : impendanda c.
' ita SA : itaque a/^.

* deponitur SAa, vett. edd. : defigitur cAI, et vulgo.

' recedendum Aid., Gesn., Schn. : recidendus SAacM, vett.
edd.

8 deponendus SAaM, vett. edd. : defodiendus c, et vulgo.

* adfrigendus (fr expunct.) A : adfigendus 8 : affigendus a.
386

BOOK IV. XV. 4-xvi. 3

suited for the amputation of this layer than from the
Ides of October to the Ides of November ,« so that
it may strengthen its roots during the winter months.
For, if we do this in the spring, when the branches
are beginning to bud, it droops as a result of being
suddenly robbed of its mother's nourishment.

XVI. The same method holds in transplanting the
cutting. For in the second autumn, if conditions of
weather and situation permit, it is taken up and
planted to best advantage after the Ides of October ;
but if some harmful quality of soil or of air opposes
this, the time of its planting is postponed to the next
spring. And it should be left no longer in the vine-
yards, lest it use up the strength of the soil and impair
the plants in the rows ; the sooner they are relieved
of the partnership of quicksets, the more readily do
they gain strength. But in a nurserv one may keep
a vine for three or even four years, if it is cut back or
closely pruned, because no thought is taken of a vin-
tage. When the planted vineyard has passed its
thirtieth month, that is in the third autumn, it must
be propped at once with stronger supports ; and this
is not to be done just as you please or in haphazard
fashion. For if the stake is set near the vine stock,
still it must be left one foot away so that it will not
press upon or injure the root, yet so that the digger
may work around the plants on every side. And this
stake must be so placed as to receive the fury of the
colds and of the north winds and so protect the vine ;
or if it is placed midway between the rows, it must be
either pushed well down or driven to a greater depth
bv first making a hole in the ground with a small
stake, so that it may more easily support both the

» Oct. loth to Nov. 13th.

387

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quo faciliiis et iugum et fructum sustineat. Nam
quanto pvopius truncum ridica statuitur, etiam leviter
defixa stabilior est ; quoniam contingens ^ vitem mutua
vice sustinetur et sustinet, Statuminibus deinde
firmiora iuga sunt illiganda,^ eaque vel saligneis
perticis vel compluribus quasi fasciculis harundinum
conectuntur, ut rigorem habeant nee pandentur ^
onere fruetuum. Nam binae iam materiae singulis
seminibus summittendae erunt ; nisi si tamen graci-
litas vitis alicuius angustiorem putationem desidera-
bit cuius unus palmes atque idem paucorum oculorum
erit relinquendus.

XVII. Perticarum iugum fortius minusque operosum
est.* Harundines pluribus operis iugantur, quoniam
et pluribus locis nectuntur. Eaeque inter se con-
versis cacuminibus vinciendae sunt, ut aequalis
crassitudo totius iugi sit ; nam si cacumina in unum
competunt, imbecillitas eius partis gravata pondere
iam maturum fructum prosternit, et canibus ferisque
reddit obnoxium. At cum iugum in fascem pluribus
harundinibus alterna cacuminum vice ordinatum est,
fere quinquennii praebet usuni.

Neque enim alia est ^ ratio putationis aut ceterae
culturae quam quae primi biennii. Nam et autum-
nalis ablaqueatio sedulo facienda, nee minus vacan-
tibus palis propagines applicandae ; hoc enim opus
numquam intermittendum est, quin omnibus in-

1 constringens SAa, veil. edd.

* illiganda acM, vett. edd. : inligamenda S : inligamenta
A : alliganda vulgo.

^ pandantur SAacM, edd. ante Oesn.

* Sic ex variis scripsi : perticarum Warmington ; perticum
SA ; perticae ac3I : fortius SAa ; firmiua cM : operosum est
ac3I ; onerosu est S; oneum sum est A : Perticae iugum
firmius faciunt {deest SAacM) minusque operosum vulgo.

388

BOOK IV. XVI. 3-xvii. 2

trellis and the fruit. For the closer a prop is set to
the stock, even when lightly fixed in the ground, the
steadier it is ; since, by standing close to the vine, it
both supports and is supported in turn. Then stronger 4
cross-bars are to be bound to the standards ; and
these are made either of willow rods or of several
reeds tied in some sort of bundles to give them
stiffness, so that they may not be bent by the weight
of the fruit. For now two firm wood branches must
be allowed to grow on each plant ; unless, however,
the slenderness of some vine requires a closer pruning,
in which case only one branch is to be left and that
containing few eyes.

XVII. A frame of rods is stronger and requires less
work. Reeds are put together with greater labour,
because they are tied in several places. And these
must be bound with their tops turned, one opposite to
another, so that the whole frame may be of equal
thickness ; for if the tops come together, the weakness
of that part, when burdened with weight, throws the
fruit to the ground just as it ripens and exposes it to
dogs and wild animals. But when a frame is duly 2
constructed of several reeds tied in bundles, with their
tops in alternating order, it gives about five years of
service.

Nor, indeed, is the method of pruning or other
culture different from that of the first two years.
For ablaqueation ** must be carefully done in the
autumn, and new layers must be applied to the vacant
props none the less ; for this work must never be
discontinued but should be renewed every year.

« Cf. IV. 4. 2, note.

' alia est acM, om. SA : est alia vulgo.

389

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

3 staiiretur i annis. Neque enim ea quae seruntur a
nobis, immortalia esse possunt ; ac tamen aeternitati
eorum sic consulimus ut demortuis seminibus alia
substituamus, nee ad occidionem universum genus
perduci patiamur ^ complurium annorum neglegentia.
Quin etiam crebrae fossiones dandae, quamvis possit
una ^ detrahi culturae prioris anni. Pampinationes
quoque saepe adhibendae ; neque enim satis est
semel aut iteruni tota aestate viti detrahere frondem

4 supervacuam. Praecipue autem decutienda sunt
omnia quae infra trunci caput egerminaverunt.
Item si oculi singuli sub iugo binos pampinos emise-
rint, quamvis largum fructum* ostendant, detrahendi
sunt singuli palmites, quo laetior, quae superest
materia, consurgat et reliquum melius educet
fructum.

Post quadragesimum et alterum mensem percepta ^
vindemia sic instituenda est putatio ut summissis

5 pluribus flagellis vitis in stellam dividatur. Sed
putatoris officium est pedali fere spatio citra * iugum
vitem compescere, ut e capite, quicquid teneri est,
per bracchia emissum provocetur, et per iugum
inflexum praecipitetur ad eam mensuram quae
terram non possit "^ eontingere. Sed modus pro
viribus trunci servandus est, ne plures palmites
summittantur quam quibus vitis sufficere queat.
Fere autem praedicta aetas laeto solo truncoque tres

* insaturetur SAa.

^ patiamur acM : patimur SA, edd.
^ possit una SAacM : una possit edd.

* largum fructum {fructus *S'^) SAacM : largos fructus edd.
^ perfecta acM, edd. ante Schn.

* contra SAaM : circa edd. ante Schn.
' possint SA.

390

BOOK IV. xvii. 3-5

Surely those things that are planted by our hands 3
cannot be immortal ; and yet we take such thought
for their permanence that we set other plants in place
of those that have died, and do not allow the whole
genus to be brought to destruction through many
years of neglect. Moreover, frequent diggings '^ must
be given, although one may be subtracted from the
number of the first year's cultivation. Leaf-pruning
also must be practised often ; for it does not suffice
to remove excess leafage from the vine only once or
twice in a whole summer. And especially must 4
eveiything be broken off which has sprouted out below
the head of the main stem. Likewise if any single
eyes just below the frame should put out two shoots,
even though they give evidence of an abundance of
fruit, one branch must be pulled oft' from each, so that
the remaining branch of strong wood may make more
vigorous growth and better nourish the fruit that
is left.

After the forty-second month, when the vintage
has been gathered, the pruning must be so managed,
by allowing the growth of more shoots, that the vine
may be spread out in the form of a star.* But it is 5
the duty of the pruner to check the vine at a distance
of about one foot short of the cross-bar, so that any
tender growth that is sent out from the head may be
dra^^Tl out in the form of arms and that, after being
bent over the frame, it may be dropped down to a
length which cannot reach the ground. But a limit
must be observed in proportion to the strength of the
stock, that no more branches may be allowed to grow
than the vine is able to support. And in general,
when the soil is fertile and the stock thrifty, the afore-

" Cf. IV. 28. 2. ' See IV. 26. 3.

391

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

materias, raro quattuor desiderat, quae per totidem

6 partes ab alligatore dividi debent. Nihil enim refert
iugum in stellam decussari atque diduci,^ nisi et
palmites adiunguntur.^ Quam tamen formam non
omnes agricolae probaverunt ; nam niulti simplici
ordine fuere contenti. Verum stabilior est vinea, et
oneri sai-mentorum et fructui ferendo, quae ex
utraque parte iugo divincta pari libramento velut
ancoris quibusdam distenditur.^ Turn etiam per
plura bracchia materias diffundit, et faeilius eas
explicat undique subnixa,^ quam quae in simplici

7 cantherio frequentibus palmitibus stipatur. Potest
tamen, si vel parum late disposita vinea ^ vel parum
fructuosa caelumque non turbidum nee procellosmn
habeat, uno iugo eontenta " esse. Nam ubi magna
vis et incursus est pluviarum procellarumque, ubi
frequentibus aquis vitis labefactatur, ubi praecipitibus
clivis velut pendens plura ' praesidia desiderat ; ibi

8 quasi quadrato firmanda ^ est agmine. Calidis vero
et siccioribus locis in omnem partem iugum porrigen-
dum est, ut prorepentes undique pampini iungantur,
et condensati camerae ^ more, terram sitientem
obumbrent. Contra pluviis et frigidis et pruinosis
regionibus simplices ordines instituendi ; nam et sic
faeilius insolatur humus, et fructus percoquitur,
perflatumque salubriorem habet ; fossores quoque

1 deduci acM : did SA.

* adiunguntur SAacM : adiugentur vulgo.

^ distenditur SAacM, vett. edd. : distinetur vulgo.

* vindemia quae subnexa SA.

* vineta SAac, vett. edd. * contentus SAac, vett. edd.
' plura SAa, vett. edd. : plurima cM, et vulgo.

* firmanda SAa : circumfirmanda vulgo : est agmine
firmanda cM.

* camare SAc.

392

BOOK IV. xvii. 5-8

said age requires three firm wood branches, rarely
four, which should be separated by the binder into as
many different parts. For it is of no use that the 6
frame is given ci'oss-pieces and made in the shape of
a star unless fruit-bearing branches are joined to it.
This arrangement, however, has not met the approval
of all husbandmen ; for many have been satisfied
with a plain straight line. But that vine is more
stable, both for supporting the burden of young
branches and for bearing its fruit, which, being bound
to the frame on both sides, is spread out in even
balance as if with a kind of anchors. Then too a \ine
that is supported on every side spreads its woody
branches over more arms and extends them more
easily than one which is crowded with many fruiting
canes on a simple " horse." However, if a vine is 7
not of wide spread or not very fruitful, and if it is in
a climate that is not turbulent and stormy, it may be
satisfied with a single frame. For where there is great
violence and onslaught of rains and storms, where
the vine is loosened by frequent downpours, where
it hangs, as it were, on steep hillsides and requires a
great many reinforcments, there it must be sup-
ported on every side, so to speak, by troops in square
formation. But in warm and drier places the frame 8
must be extended in every direction, so that the shoots,
as they creep forth on every side, may be joined and,
being matted together in the fashion of an arched
roof, may shade the thirsty earth. On the contrary,
in rainy and cold and frosty districts plain straight
row^s are to be put up ; for in that way the ground
is more readily warmed by the sun, and the fruit
is thoroughly I'ipened and has a more wholesome
ventilation ; also the diggers ply their hoes with

393

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

libeiius et aptius iactant bidentes, meliusque per-
spicitur a custodibus fructus et commodius legitur a
vindemiatore.^

XVIII. Sed quoquo modo^ vinetaplacueritordinare,
centenae stirpes per singulos hortos semitis distin-
guantur: vel, ut quibusdam placet, in semiiugera
omnis modus dirimatur. Quae distinctio ^ praeter
illud commodum, quod plus solis et venti vitibas
praebet, turn etiam oculos et vestigia domini, res
agro saluberrimas, facilius admittit, certamque
aestimationem in exigendis operibus praebet ; neque
enim falli possumus per paria intervalla ^ iugeribus
divisis. Quin etiam ipsa hortulorum descriptio
quanto est minoribus modulis concisa, fatigationem
veluti minuit, exstimulatque ^ eos qui opera moliun-
tur, et ad festinandum invitat ; nam fere vastitas
instantis laboris animos debilitat. Non nihil etiam
prodest vires et proventum cuiusque partis vinearum
nosse, ut aestimemus quae magis aut minus colenda
sit.^ Vindemiatoribus ' quoque hae semitae et
iugum pedamentaque sarcientibus opportunam laxi-
tatem praebent, per quam vel fructus vel statumina
portentur.

XIX. De positione iugi, quatenus a terra levandum
sit, hoc dixisse abunde est: humillimam esse quat-
tuor pedum, celsissimam septem. Quae tamen in
novellis seminibus vitanda est ; neque enim haec
prima constitutio vinearum esse debet, sed per

1 vindemitore SA.

^ quoquo modo S : quomodo Aa, in abbr. cM : quoquo
Schn. : quando alii.

2 distinctior SAac. * inter bella SA.

^ exstimulatque Schn. : extimulque SA ; et simulat c : et
simul a, plerique edd. : et M.
* sit SAacM : sint Gesn., Schn.

394

BOOK IV. XVII. 8-xix. I

greater freedom and precision, and the fruit is
better examined by the overseer and more easily
gathered by the vintager.

XVIII. But in whatever way it pleases you to
arrange your vineyards, let them be set off by foot-
paths into individual plots of one hundred vines each ;
or, as pleases some, have the whole extent of the vine-
yard broken up into divisions of half a J uge7-um. This
separation, apart from the advantage that it affords
more sun and wind for the vines, also allows easier
access for the eyes and feet of the proprietor —
things most beneficial to the vines — and it pro-
vides a definite gauge in the exaction of labour ; for
we cannot be deceived when the Jjigera are divided
at equal intervals. Furthermore, the marking out 2
of small plots in itself lessens the fatigue, as it were,
in proportion to the smallness of the sections into
which it is cut, and it goads on those who are per-
forming the work and encourages them to hasten the
task ; for as a rule the immensity of impending work
weakens their spirit. Also it is of some advantage to
know the strength and the yield of each part of
the vineyards, so that we may judge what part is in
need of more or of less cultivation. These footpaths
also provide for the vintagers and for those who repair
the frames and props convenient room for the carrying
of fruit or supports.

XIX. As for the placing of the frame, how far it
should be raised above the ground, it is sufficient to
say that the lowest is four feet and the highest seven.
This last, however, is to be avoided in the case of
young plants ; for this regulation should not apply

' vindemitoribus SAa.

395

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

annorum longam seriem ad hanc altitudinem vitis

2 perducenda est, Ceterum quanto est umidius
solum et caelum, placidioresque ^ venti, tanto est
altius attollendum iugum. Nam laetitia vitium
patitur se celsius evagari,^ fructusque summotus a
terra minus putrescit : et hoc uno modo perflatur
ventis, qui nebulam et rorem pestiferum celeriter
adsiccant, multumque ad deflorescendum et ad

3 bonitatem vini conferunt. Rursus exilis terra et
acclivis torrensque aestu, vel quae vehementibus
procellis obnoxia est, humilius iugum poscit. At si
cuncta competunt voto, iusta est altitudo vineae
pedum quinque ; nee tamen dubium, quin tanto
melioris saporis praebeat mustum, quanto in editiora
iuga consurgat.^

XX, Pedatam vineam iugatamque sequitur alli-
gatoris cura, cui antiquissimum esse debet, ut supra
dixi, rectam conservare stirpem nee flexum * ridicae
persequi, ne pravitas statuminis ^ ad similitudinem
2 sui vitem configuret. Id non solum ad speciem
plurimum refert, sed ad firmitatem et ubertatem,^
perpetuitatemque. Nam rectus truncus similem
sui medullam gerit, per quam velut quodam itinere
sine flexu atque impedimento facilius terrae matris
alimenta meant ' et ad summum perveniunt ; at

^ placidioresque Gesn., Schn. : humidioresque acM, edd.
ante Oesn. : umidiores quae SA.

* partitur se (sae S) celsius evaciri SA : patitur celsius
evocari Schn.

' quin vites . . , praebeant , . . consurgunt vulgo : vitas
deest SAacM : preheat acM ; praebeant SA : consurgat cM ;
consurgant SA.

* plexum SA, et deinde radice ScM.

^ statuminis scripsi : statuminis nisi M : statum nisi a :
statu insidii SA : statumis insidi c : statuminum edd.

BOOK IV. XIX. i-xx. 2

to vineyards at the start, but the vine must be
carried to this height after a long succession of years.
But the moister the soil and climate, and the gentler 2
the Avinds, the higher must the frames be raised.
For the luxuriance of the vines allows them to spread
themselves at a greater height, and the fruit is less
inclined to rot when well removed from the earth ;
and by this method alone there is thorough ventilation
by the winds, which quickly dry up the fog and pesti-
lential dew, and contribute much to the casting of the
flowers and the goodness of the wne. On the other 3
hand, land that is poor and sloping and parched with
heat, or that is subject to violent storms, calls for a
lower frame. But if all circumstances answer to
your desire, the proper height for a vine is five
feet ; and yet there is no doubt that the vine yields
wine of better flavour in proportion to the height of
the frames to which it raises itself.

XX. After the vineyard is staked and yoked, there
follows the work of the binder, whose first concern
should be, as I remarked above, to keep the vine-
stock straight and not to let it follow the curve of the
prop, lest the crookedness of the support form a
vine after its own likeness. This is of the greatest
importance, not only to its appearance, but also to
its strength, productiveness, and durabihty. For a 2
straight stem bears pith like itself, through which, as
by a sort of road without a turn or obstruction, the
nourishinent of mother earth more easily makes its
way and ari-ives at the very top ; but vines that are

6 libertatein SA.

' in eant c : manant SAa.

397

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quae curvae ^ sunt et ^ clistortae, non aequaliter
alliduntur ^ inliibentibus nodis, et ipso flexu cursum
terreni umoris veluti salebris ^ retardante. Quare
cum ad summum palum recta vitis extenta est,
capistro constringitur, ne fetu gravata subsidat
curveturque. Turn ex eo loco quod proximum iugo
ligatum est, bracchia disponuntur in diversas partes,^
palmaeque superpositae deorsum versus circulo
cui-\'antur, atque ^ id quod iugo dependet, fructu
impletur ; rursus "^ curvatura iuxta ^ vinculum mater-
iam exprimit. Quidam earn partem, quam nos
praecipitamus, supra iugum porrigunt et crebris
viminibus innexis continent ; quos ego minime pro-
bandos puto. Nam dependentibus palmitibus neque
pluviae neque pruinae " grandinesve tantum nocent
quantum religatis et quasi tempestatibus oppositis.
Idem tamen palmites priusquam fructus mitescant,
variantibus adhuc et acerbis uvis, religari debent,
quo minus roribus queant putrescere aut ventis
ferisve vastentur. Iuxta decumanum atque semitas
palmites intrinsecus flectendi sunt, ne praetereuntium
incursu laedantur. Et hac quidem ratione tempestiva
vitis perducitur ad iugum. Nam quae vel infirma
vel brevis est, ad duas gemmas recidenda est, quo

^ curvae om. SAa.

^ et om. SAa.

^ alligantur acM, edd. ante Gesn. : num. alliciunt (eliciunt) ?

* salubris Sc : salubus A.

' diversis parti bus (partis Aa) AacM.

^ -sic S : cireuatur atque A : curvantur atque ac3I : cur-
vantur vinculo {deest codd.) itaque vnlgo.

' rursusque cM, et vvlgo.

" iuncta SAc.

' neque ruinae (pluviae neque om.) SA : palmitibus . . .
pruinae om. a.

398

BOOK IV. XX. 2-5

bent and misshapen do not offer equally smooth paths,*^
because knots obstruct, and the bend itself, like
rough places in a road, checks the passage of moisture
from the earth. Therefore when the vine is drawn 3
straight up to the top of the stake, it is fastened with a
band so that, when weighed down with its offspring,
it may not sag and become bent. Then from that
point where that which is nearest to the frame is
tied, its arms are arranged in different directions,
and the branches which are placed upon the frame
are bent downward in a curve, and what hangs from
the frame is filled with fruit ; on the other hand, the
bend puts forth firm wood next to the band. Some 4
spread out upon the frame that part which we bend
down, and hold it fast by tying it with withes closely
set ; but I consider these not at all worthy of approval.
For rains and frosts and hail do not harm hanging
branches as much as those which are bound and, so
to speak, exposed to stormy weather. Still, those
same branches should be tied before the fruit mellows,
while the grapes are still of different colours and
sour, so that they may be less likely to rot with the
dews or to be pillaged by winds or wild beasts.
Along the main path and the bypaths the branches 5
should be bent inward, that they may not be injured
by brushing against those who pass by. And by this
method certainly the vine is brought to the frame at
the proper time. For a vine that is weak or short
must be cut back to two eyes, so that it may put

" The translation attempts to preserve the figure in some
measure; but the text {nllidunhir) seems doubtful. Gesner"s
interpretation, accepted by Schneider and perhaps correct, is
that the flow of sap in the vine is compared, in allidtmtur, to
the beating of waves on a shore.

399

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

vehementiorem fundat materiam quae ^ protinus
emicet in iugum.

XXI. Quinquennis vineae non alia est putatio quam
ut figuretur quemadmodum supra institui dicere,
neve supervagetur ; sed ut caput trunci pedali fere
spatio sit inferius iugo, quaternisque bracchiis, quae
duramenta quidam vocant, dividatur in totidem
partes. Haec bracchia sat erit interim ^ singulis
palmitibus in fructum summitti, donee vineae iusti
sint roboris. Cum aliquot deinde annis quasi
iuvenilem aetatem eeperint, quot palmites relinqui

2 debeant incertum est. Nam loci laetitia plures,
exilitas pauciores desiderat ; siquidem luxuriosa
vitis, nisi fructu compescitur, male deflorescit et in
materiam frondemque effunditur ; infirma rursus,
cum onerata est, affligitur.^ Itaque pingui terra
singulis bracchiis licebit bina iniungere flagella, nee
tamen numerosius * onerare, quam ut una vitis octo
serviat palmitibus, nisi si admodum nimia ubertas
plures postulabit ; ilia enim pergulae magis quam
vineae figuram obtinet quae supra hunc modum

3 materiis distenditur. Nee debemus committere, ut
bracchia pleniora trunco sint ; verum adsidue, cum
modo a lateribus eorum flagella licuerit summittere,
amputanda erunt superiora duramenta, ne iugum
excedant ; sed novellis palmis semper vitis renovetur.
Quae si satis excreverint, iugo superponantur ;
sin aliqua earum vel perfracta ^ vel parum procera

^ quo SA. ^ interius SAaM. * adfligatur 8 A.

* numcrius SA. * praefracta Schn.

400

BOOK IV. XX. 5-xxi. 3

forth more vigorous wood which may immediately
shoot up to the frame.

XXI. There is no other pruning for a vine five years
old than that it shall be shaped as I have undertaken
to describe above, and that it shall not spread too
far ; but that the head of the stock shall be about one
foot below the frame and that, with its four arms,
which some call duramenta, or " hardened branches,"
it shall be spread out into a corresponding number of
spaces. It ^^ill suffice for a time that these arms be re-
duced to one fruiting branch each, until the vines are of
proper strength. Then, some years later, when they
have entered the juvenile stage, so to speak, it is
uncertain how many branches should be left. For 2
richness of situation requires more, and leanness
fewer; since, indeed, a vine of rank groAvth, unless
it is checked by bearing, casts its blossoms badly
and runs to wood and foliage ; while a weak vine, on
the contrary, is impaired when burdened >\ith fruit.
And so in rich ground it will be permissible to impose
two rods upon each arm, but not to burden them
with a number beyond the point where one vine sup-
ports eight rods, unless its very excessive fruit ful-
ness shall demand more ; for the vine which is
extended with firm wood beyond this limit has the
appearance of an arbour rather than of a vine. And 3
we should not allow the arms to be larger than the
stock ; but when presently the growth of lateral
shoots from them is permitted, the upper hard canes
must be constantly cut away so that they may not
go beyond the frame ; but the vine should always be
renewed with young branches. These laterals, if
they have made sufficient gro^vth, should be placed
upon the frame ; but if one of them is broken or not

401

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

fuerit, locumque idoneum obtinebit unde vitis anno
sequent! revocari ^ debeat, in pollicem tondeatur,
queni quidam ciistodem, alii reseeem, nonnulli
praesidiarium appellant, id est, sarmentum gemmarum
duamm vel trium, ex quo cuni processere frugiferae ^
materiae, quicquid est supra vetusti bracchii am-
putatur, et ita ex novello palmite vitis pullulascit.'
Atque haec ratio bene institutarum vinearum in
perpetuum custodienda erit.

XXII. Si vero aliter formatas acceperimus,'* et iam^
multorum annorum neglegentia supervenerit ^ iugum,
considerandum erit cuius longitudinis sint duramina
quae excedant ' praedictam mensuram. Nam si
duorum pedum aut paulo amplius fuerint, poterit
adhuc xmiversa vinea sub iugum mitti, si tamen palus
trunco est applicitus ; is enim a vite summovetur et in
medio spatio duorum ordinum ad lineam pangitur;
transversa deinde vitis ad statumen perducitur,
atque ita iugo subicitur. At si duramenta eius
longius excesserunt,^ ut in quartum aut etiam in
quintum statumen prorepserint, maiore sumptu
restituitur ; ' mergis namque, qui ^•^ nobis maxime
placent, propagata celerrime provenit. Hoc tamen
si vetus et exesa est superficies trunci ; at si robusta et

* revocari SAaM, vetf. edd. : renovari c, et vulgo.
^ fructiferae cM, Aid., Gesn.

' pullulascit vulgo : puUescit SAa, vett. edd. : pululescit c :
om. M.

* vineas post acceperimus suppl. Gesn., Schn. ; deest codd.,
vett. edd.. Aid.

* et iam S, Sobel : et AacM, et vulgo.

* supervenerit codd., vett. edd.. Aid. : supervenerint Gesn,,
Schn.

' excedant SAacM, vett. edd. : excedunt vulgo. Deinde
supra dictum acM.

* excesserunt SAc, vett. edd. : excesserint alii.

402

BOOK IV. XXI. 3-xxii. 3

of sufficient length, and if it occupies a suitable place
from which the viae should be renewed'' the following
year, let it be cut down to a thumb {pollex), which
some call custos or " keeper," others resex or " cut-
back," and se\era\ praesidiarium or " reserve " — that
is, a stub of two or three eyes, from which all of the
old arm above is cut off after the fruit-bearing wood
has come forth ; and so the vine sprouts out again
from the young branch. And this management of
well-established vineyards must be constantly ob-
served.

XXII. If, hoAvever, we have taken vineyards trained
by another system, and if many years of neglect have
now covered the frames, we shall have to consider
the length of the old hardened branches that exceed
the aforesaid measure. For if they are two feet
long or a trifle more, the entire vine may still be put
under the frame, provided that the supporting stake
is close to the trunk ; for it is moved away from
the vine and set exactly in the centre of the space
between the two rows, and then the vine is carried
across to the prop and so brought under the frame.
But if its hardened branches have grown to a greater
length, so that they have crept out to the fourth
or even to the fifth prop, it is restored at greater
expense ; for when propagated by layers — a method
which pleases us most — it comes forward very quickly.
This, however, if the surface of the trunk is old and ;
decayed; ** but if it is strong and sound, it requires

" revocari, in a technical sense. Cf. Palladiua, III. 12. 4.

* Cf. Palladius, III. 16.

* restituitur SA, vett. edd. : restituentur acM, Aid., Gesn. :
restituetur Schti.

^' mergis. his namque, quod vulgo ante Schn.

403

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

integra, minorem operam desiderat. Quippe hiberno
tempore ablaqueata fimo satiatur angusteque de-
putatui", et inter quartum ac tertium pedem a terra
viridissima parte corticis acuto mucrone ferramenti
vulneratur. Frequentibus deinde fossuris terra per-
miscetur, ut incitari vitis possit, et ab ea maxime
parte, quae vulnerata est, pampinum fundere.

4 Plerumque autem gei'men de cicatrice procedit, quod
sive longius prosiluerit,^ in flagellum summittitur :
sive brevius, in pollicem : sive admodum exiguum, in
furunculum. Is ex quolibet vel minimo capillamento
fieri potest. Nam ubi unius aut alterius folii pam-
pinus prorepsit e duro, dummodo ad maturitatem
perveniat, sequente vere si non adnodatus neque
adrasus est, vehementem fundit materiam ; quae cum
convaluit et quasi bracchium fecit, licet turn super-
vagatam partem duramenti recidere, et ita reliquam

5 iugo subicere. Multi sequentes compendiimi tem-
poi'is, tales \ineas supra quartum pedem detruncant,
nihil reformidantes eiusmodi resectionem ; quoniam
fere plurimarum stirpium natura sic se commodat ut
iuxta cicatricem novellis frondibus repullescant. Sed
haec quidem ratio minime nobis placet, siquidem
vastior plaga nisi habeat superpositam valentem
materiam, quae ^ possit inolescere, solis halitu
torretur ; mox deinde roribus et imbribus putrescit.

6 Ac tamen ^ cum est utique vinea recidenda, prius
ablaqueare, deinde paulum infra terram convenit
amputare, ut superiecta humus vim solis arceat et e

* prosiluit SAacM.

^ quae vel que codd. : qua vulgo.

^ ac tamen codd. : Hac tamen vett. edd. : attamen vulgo.

» Cf. Palladius, XII. 3.
404

BOOK IV. XXII. 3-6

less labour; for, having the soil loosened about its
roots in the winter time, it is satiated with dung
and closely pruned, and between the third and fourth
foot from the ground it is wounded with the sharp
point of an iron implement in the greenest part of the
bark. Then the earth is thoroughly mixed by frequent
digging, that the vine may be stimulated and that it
may have the strength to put out a shoot especially
from that place where it was wounded.'* Generally, 4
moreover, a bud grows from the scar, and if it shoots
out to considerable length it is allowed to grow for a
cane ; if rather short, for a thumb ; and if very small,
for a knurl. This last may be formed from any fibrous
growth, even the smallest. For when a twig of
one or two leaves has come out of the hard wood,
provided only it comes to maturity, it puts forth a
vigorous branch of firm wood the following spring, if it
is not trimmed away or rubbed off; and when this has
grown strong and has formed a sort of arm, you may
then cut back that part of the old branch that has
spread too far, and so bring under the frame that
part which is left. Many, aiming at the saving of 5
time, chop off such vines above the fourth foot, having
no fear of cutting them back in this way ; since, as a
rule, the nature of most stocks is so adapted that they
sprout out with new leaves close to the scar. But this
method is not at all pleasing to us, because a larger
wound, unless it has vigorous wood above which may
close in, is parched by the heat of the sun ; and then
presently it rots with the dews and the rains. Never- 6
theless, when a vine must in any case be cut down, it is
best first to loosen the dirt about it and then to make
the amputation a little below ground, so that the
soil above may ward off the violence of the sun and

405

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

radicibus novellos prorumpentes caules transmittat,
qui possint vel sua maritare statumina, vel siqua sunt

7 vidua in propinquo, propaginibus vestire. Haec
autem ita fieri debebunt, si vineae altius positae nee
in summo labantes radices habebunt, et si boni
generis erunt. Namque aliter incassum dependitur ^
opera, quoniam degeneres etiam renovatae pi'istinum
servabunt ingenium ; at quae ^ summa parte terrae
vix adhaerebunt, deficient ^ ante quam convalescant.

8 Altera ergo vinea fructuosis potius surculis inserenda
erit, altera funditus exstirpanda et reserenda, si
modo soli bonitas suadebit. Cuius cum vitio con-
senuit, nullo modo restituendam censemus. Loci
porro vitia sunt, quae fere ad internecionem vineta
perducunt, macies et sterilitas terrae, salsa vel amara
uligo, praeceps et praerupta positio, nimium opaca
et soli aversa vallis, harenosus etiam tofus, vel plus
iusto ieiunus sabulo, nee minus terreno carens ac
nuda glarea, et siqua est proprietas simiUs quae vitem

9 non alit. Ceterum si vacat his et horum similibus
incommodis, potest ea ratione fieri restibilis vinea,
quam priore libro praecepimus. Ilia rursus mali
generis vineta, quae quamvis robusta sint,* propter
sterilitatem fructu carent, ut diximus, emendantur
insitione facta, de qua suo loco disseremus ^ cum ad
earn disputationem pervenerimus.

* dependitur M, edd. : dependetur ac : dependents SA.
^ atque codd., edd. ante Pontedera.

^ et (eae Gesn.) ante deficient add. omnes; deest SAacM,

* sunt SA.

* emendantur . . . disseremus om. SA.

" Chap. 29, below.

406

BOOK IV. XXII. 6-9

give passage to the young stems that spi'ing from
the roots, that they may be able either to wed their
own props or to bedeck with their offspring any mate-
less props that are near by. However, this should be 7
done in this way on condition that the vines are rather
deeply planted and do not have roots gliding along
on the surface, and if they are of good stock. For
otherwise the labour is spent to no purpose, because
low-grade vines, even when renewed, will retain their
former character; while those that barely cling to
the surface of the earth will fail before they can recover
strength. The one vine, then, will have to be grafted 8
rather with fruitful shoots, and the other completely
rooted out and replanted, provided the goodness of the
soil makes it advisable. When a vineyard has wasted
away because of the bad quality of soil, we believe
that it is in no way worthy of being restored. Further-
more, the bad qualities of a place which usually bring
vineyards to destruction are meanness and barren-
ness of soil, salty or sour marshland, a steep and
rugged situation, a valley that is too dark and not
exposed to the sun, also sandy tufa, or gravel that is
unduly hungry, and also gravel that is bare and
destitute of earthy matter, and anything of like
nature which does not nourish the vine. But if it is 9
free from these disadvantages and their like, a vine-
yard may be restored by the method which we
advised in the preceding book. On the other hand,
those vineyards of bad stock which, even though of
vigorous growth, are destitute of fruit because of
barrenness, are improved, as we have stated, by
grafting; and we shall treat of this in its proper
place " when we have come to that subject of
discussion.

407

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

XXIII. Nunc qiiia^ parum videniur de putatione
vinearum locuti, maxima necessariam partem pro-
positi operis diligentius persequemur. Placet ergo,^
si mitis ac temperata permittit in ea regione, quam
colimus, caeli dementia facta vindemia secundum
Idus Octobris auspicari putationem : cum tamen
aequinoctiales pluviae praecesserint et sarmenta
iustam maturitatem ceperint ; nam siccitas seriorem

2 putationem facit. Sin autem caeli status frigidus et
pruinosus hiemis \iolentiam denuntiat, in Idus
Febr. hanc curam difFeremus. Atque id licebit
facere si erit exiguus possessionis modus. Nam ubi
ruris vastitas electionem nobis temporis negat,
valentissimam quamque partem vineti frigoribus,
macerrimam vere vel autumno ; quin etiam per
brumam meridiano axi oppositas vites, aquiloni per

3 ver et ^ autumnum deputari conveniet. Nee dubium
quin sit horum virgultorum natura talis * ut quanto
maturius detonsa sint, plus materiae, quanto serius,
plus fructus adferant.

XXIV. Quandoque igitur vinitor hoc opus obibit,
tria praecipue custodiat : primum ut quam maxime
fructui consulat ; deinde ut in annum sequentem quam
laetissimas iam hinc eligat ^ materias ; tum etiam,
ut quam longissimam perennitatem stirpi adquirat.
Nam quicquid ex his omittitur, magnum adfert

2 domino dispendium. Vitis autem cum sit ^ per
quattuor divisa partes, totidem caeli regiones aspicit.

^ quia SAac, veil. edd. : quoniam 31, et vulgo.

^ igitur cM.

^ ververet A : verberat a : aquiloni bus vere vel autumno M.

* naturalis SA. ^ eligat om. SAa.

* sint SAa.

" Oct. 15th. » Feb. 13th.

408

BOOK IV. xxiii. i-xxiv. 2

XXIII. Now, since we seem not to have said enough
about the pruning of vineyards, we shall set forth
with greater care that most necessary part of the
work proposed. It is proper, if a gentle and temper-
ate mildness of climate permits it in that region
which we are cultivating, to begin the pruning after
the Ides of October," when the vintage is finished :
on condition, however, that the equinoctial rains have
come before and that the branches have arrived at
their proper maturity ; for dry weather makes the 2
pruning later. If, however, the cold and frosty
state of the weather gives notice of a severe winter,
we shall postpone this matter to the Ides of February.*
And it will be permissible to do this if the measure
of our holding is small. For where a vast extent of
land denies us the choice of time, it will be proper
that the strongest part of the vineyard be pruned
in cold weather, and the weakest part in spring or
autumn ; indeed vines with a southern exposure may
be pruned even during the winter solstice, and those
exposed to the north wind during spring and autumn.
And there is no doubt that the nature of these plants 3
is such that the earlier they are trimmed, the more
wood they produce, and the later, the more fruit.

XXIV. Therefore, at whatever time the vine-dresser
shall enter upon this work, he should especially
observe three things : first, to make fruit his
chief consideration ; next, to choose from the very
start the most fruitful wood for the following year;
and then, also, to make the vine-stock survive
through as many years as possible. For any one of
these that is neglected brings great loss to the
owner. Moreover, when the vine is trained out into 2
four parts, it faces the same number of quarters of

409

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Quae declinationes cum contrarias inter se qualitates
habeant, variam quoque postulant ordinationem pi*o
conditione suae positionis ^ in partibus vitium.
Jtritur ea bracchia, quae septentrionibus obiecta
sunt, paucissimas plagas accipere debent, at magis
si putabuntur ^ ingruentibus ^ iam frigoribus, quibus
cicatrices inuruntur. Itaque una tantummodo ma-
teria iugo proxima, et unus infra eam custos erit
summittendus qui vitem mox in annum renovet. At
e contrai-io per meridiem plures palmites summit-
tantur, qui laborantem matrem fervoribus aestivis
opacent nee patiantur ante maturitatem fructum
inarescere.* Orientis atque occidentis baud sane
magna est in putatione differentia, quoniam solem
pari horarum numero sub utroque axe vitis ^ accipit.
Modus itaque materiarum is erit quem dictabit humi
atque ipsius stirpis laetitia.

Haec in universum ; ilia per partes custodienda
sunt. Nam ut ab ima vite quasi a quibusdam
fundamentis incipiam, semper circa crus dolabella
dimovenda ^ terra est. Et si suboles, quam rustici
suffraginem vocant, radicibus adhaeret, diligenter
explantanda ferroque adlevanda est, ut hibernas
aquas respuat ; nam praestat ex vulnere postea
subolem ' repullescentem vellere quam nodosam et

1 positionia S, Schn. : compositionis Aa, vett. edd. : con-
stitutionis cM, alii; et deinde a parte.
- putabantur SA : putantur vctt. edd.
^ ingredientibus »S'^, t'ett. edd., Sobel.

* fructum humu (humu A) legere SA : fructum humore
legere a : humorem inarescere M : humor urescere c.

* axe vitis M : axi vitis ac : exivit is S : exiutas A.

'* dimovenda M, et vulgo : demovenda SAac, vett. edd.

' vukiere postea subolem a : Postea sobolem (ut hibernas

410

BOOK IV. xxiv. 2-4

the heavens. And since these different directions
possess qualities that are contrary to one another,
they also require a different arrangement in the
parts of the vine according to the circumstances of
their situation. Therefore those arms which are
exposed to the north should receive the fewest
wounds, and the more so if they are pruned at the
onset of cold weather, by which the scars are blasted.
And so only one firm wood branch next to the frame 3
is to be allowed to grow, and one reserve branch
below it to renew the vine presently for a year. But,
conversely, more rods should be set apart for growth
toward the south, to shade their mother as she
suffers from the summer heat and not allow the fruit
to wither before it comes to maturity. In the
pruning of the east and west sides there is no very
great difference, because the vines receive the sun
for an equal number of hours in each quarter. The 4
limit, therefore, of firm wood branches will be that
which the fertility of the ground and of the stem
itself shall prescribe.

The above must be observed in general, and the
following in particular. For, to begin at the lowest
part of the vine, as at the foundation, so to speak,
the earth around the shank should always be laid
open with a small mattock. And if any offspring
which country people call a stiffrago or " sucker,"
clings to the roots, it must be carefully pulled up
and cut off smoothly with the knife, so that it may
repel the rains of winter ; for it is better to tear
off a shoot that sprouts forth afterward from the

... ex viilnere om. et post vellere insert.) c3I : postea
vellere om. SA : vulnere sobolem (postea om.) edd.

411

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

scabram plagam relinquere. Hoc enim modo cele-
riter cicatricem ducit, illo cavatur atque putrescit.
Pei'curatis deinde quasi pedibus crura ipsa truncique
circumspiciendi sunt, ne aut pampinarius palmes
innatus ^ aut verrucae similis furunculus relinquatur :
nisi si iugum ^ super secta ^ vitis desiderabit ab
inferiore parte revocari. Si vero trunci pars senecta *
solis adflatu peraruit, aut aquis noxiisque ^ animali-
bus, quae per medullas inrepunt, cavata vitis est,
dolabella conveniet expurgare quicquid emortuum
est ; deinde falce radi ^ vivo tenus, ut a viridi cortice
ducat cicatricem. Neque est difficile mox adlevatas
plagas terra, quam prius amurca madefeceris, linere.
Nam et teredinem formicamque prohibet, solem
etiam et pluvias arcet eiusmodi litura ; propter quae
celerius coalescit et fructum viridem conservat.
Cortex quoque aridus fissusque per summa trunci
dependens, corpore tenus delibrandus est ; quod et
melius vitis quasi sordibus liberata convalescit et
minus vino faecis adfert. lam vero muscus, qui more
compedis crura ' vitium devincta comprimit, situque
et * veterno macerat, ferro destringendus et era-
dendus est. Atque haec in ima parte * vitis. Nee
minus ea, quae in capite servanda sint, deinceps
praecipiantur.

* innatus Aa, Sobel : inantus S : intus natus c : internatus
M, edd.

^ iugum SAacM, vett. edd., Sobel : iugo vulgo.
^ super secta vett. edd., Sobel : supersecta SAa : super
recta M : superiecta c, et vulgo.

* senecta SAc : senectia a : pars {in abbr.) enecta M :
secta edd.

* noxiisque SAacM : noxiisve edd.

* radi SAM, vett. edd. : radici c : tradi a : eradi vulgo.
' umore (humorem a) consedit cura (crura a) SAa.

* et om. SA. * crate SA.
412

BOOK IV. XXIV. 4-7

wound than to leave a cut that is knotty and rough.
For by the one method it quickly forms a callus,
and by the other it becomes hollow and rots.
Then, after care has been taken of the feet, so to 5
speak, the legs themselves and the trunks must be
examined to see that no sprouting leafy shoot or
wart-like knob is left ; unless the vine, being cut
off above the frame, shall require renewal from the
lower part. But if the old part of the trunk is
dried out by the sun's blast, or if the vine is
hollowed out by rains and by harmful animals which
creep in through the pith, it will be proper to clear
away with the mattock any part of it that is dead ;
and then that it be pared down to the quick with
the pruning-knife, so that it may form a callus from
the green bark. And it is not a difficult matter, 6
soon after the wounds are smoothed off, to daub them
with earth which you have first moistened with oil
lees. For a daubing of this sort keeps out the wood-
borer and the ant, and also keeps off the sun and the
rains ; and because of this the wound grows together
more quickly and keeps the fruit green. Also the
dry and shaggy bark hanging along the upper parts
of the trunk must be peeled off down to the body ; "
because a vine, when rid of its rags, so to speak,
thrives better and imparts less of dregs to the wine.
Moreover, the moss which binds and compresses the
legs of the vines in the manner of shackles, and
softens them with its mouldiness and old dirt, must
be stripped off and scraped away with the iron.
This, then, for the lower part of the vine. And 7
likewise those directions must next be given which
are to be observed with reference to the head.

" I.e. the sound bark.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

Plagae, quas in duro vitis accipit, obliquae rotundae-
que fieri debent, nam citius coalescunt,! et quamdiu
cicatricem non obduxerunt,^ commodius aquara
fundunt ; ^ transversae plus umoris et recipiunt et
continent. Earn culpam maxime vinitor fugito.
Sarmenta lata, Vetera, male nata, contorta, deorsum
spectantia decidito ; * novella et fruetuaria recta
summittito. Bracchia tenera et viridia servato ;
arida et Vetera falce amputate. Ungues custodum

8 annotinos resecato. In quattuor ferme pedes supra
terram vitem elatam totidem bracchiis componito,
quorum singula spectent ^ decussati iugi partes.
Tuni^ vel unum flagellum si macrior vitis erit, vel
duo si plenior,' bracchio cuique summittito, eaque

9 iugo superposita praecipitato. Sed meminisse oporte-
bit ne in eadem linea unoque latere bracchii
duas materias pluresve patiamur. Namque id
maxime vitem infestat, ubi non omnis pars bracchii
pari vice laborat, neque * aequa portione sucum proli
suae dispensat sed ab uno latere exsugitur; quo fit
ut ea vena, cuius omnis umor absumitur, velut icta
fulgure arescat.

10 Vocatur ® etiam f'ocaneus palmes, qui solet in

^ convalescunt a. Aid., Gesn. : convalescent cM.
^ obduxerint aM.
' fundent M.

* decidito SA, vett. fdd. : recidito acM, et vulgo.

' spectent vulgo : spectant ScM, vett. edd. : om. Aa.

* singulis post turn add. tichn. : om. SAacM.
'' plenior SAacM. et vulgo : pinguior Schn.

** neque Schn. : atque (at exjmnct. a) acM, el vulgo : quae
SA.

4 = 4

BOOK IV. XXIV. 7-IO

The wounds which a vine receives in its hard wood
should be made slantwise and rounded, for they grow
together more quickly and, as long as they have not
formed a scar, they shed water to better advantage ;
while crosswise cuts receive and hold more moisture.
Let the vine-dresser especially avoid this fault.
Let him cut off branches that are far extended, old,
badly formed, crooked, and turning downward ; and
let him permit the growth of those that are young
and fruitful and straight. I>et him preserve the young
and tender arms, and remove the old and withered
with the pruning-hook. Let him trim off the tips " of
the reserve stubs when they are one year old. When 8
the vine has been raised to about four feet above
the ground, let him arrange it in the same number of
arms, each facing in the direction of one cross-piece
of the frame. Then let him allow the growth of
one rod to each arm if the vine is rather slender, or two
if it is more stocky ; and, having placed them upon
the frame, let him cause them to hang down. But 9
we must bear it in mind not to allow two or more
branches of firm wood to be in the same line and on
one side of the arm. For it is especially injiu-ious to
the vine when every part of the arm does not exert
itself equally, and when it does not dispense its
juice to its offspring in equal portions, but is drained
on one side only ; whereby it comes about that that
vein whose moisture is entirely taken away withers
as though struck by lightning.

There is also a shoot, called the " throat-shoot " 10

" Lit. the nails (of the " thumbs "), for the stubs have been
cut slantwise (Chap. 9, above).

* vocatur M : ocatur a : videtur SAc.

415

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

bifurco medius ^ prorepere ; et idcirco eum praedicto
vocabulo rustici appellant, quod inter duo bracchia,
qua se dividit vitis, enatus velut fauces obsidet, atque
utriusque duramenti trahens alimenta praeripit.
Hunc ergo tamquam aemulum diligenter idem
amputant et adnodant priusquam corroboretur.
Si tamen ita praevaluit ut alterutrum bracchium
adflixerit,^ id quod imbecillius est tollitur et ipse

11 focaneus summittitur. Reciso enim bracchio,
aequaliter utrique parti vires mater sumministrat.
Igitur caput vitis pede ^ infra iugum constituito,
unde * se pandant quattuor, ut dixi, bracchia, in
quibus quotannis vitis renovetur, amputatis veteribus
et summissis novis palmis, quarum dilectus ^ scite
faciendus est. Nam ubi magna materiarum facultas
est, putator custodire debet ne aut proximas duro,
id est a trunco et capite vitis, relinquat, aut rursus
extremas. Nam illae minimum vindemiae conferunt,
quoniam exiguum fructum praebent, similes scilicet
pampinariis ; hae vitem exhauriunt, quia nimio fetu
onerant et usque in alterum ac tertium palum, quod

12 vitiosum esse diximus, se extendunt.^ Quare medio
in bracchio commodissime palmae summittentur,

* melius SAa. * adfixerit SA.

* pedes acAI : pedum SA : pendens Aid.

* constet retunde SA.

* dilectus SAac : delectus M, et vvlgo.

" se extendunt vulgo : extendunt (se om.) cM, vett. edd. :
ostendunt (se om.) SAa.

" Rustic dialect for fa%icaneus. Cf. Palladius, III. 12, 2,
Focaneus etiam, qui inter duo bracchia medius nascitur, debet

416

BOOK IV. XXIV. 10-12

(J'ocaneus)," M'hich usually comes out at the centre
of the fork ; and farmers call it by the aforesaid
name because, sprouting out between the two arms
where the vine divides itself, it obstructs the fauces
or throat, so to speak, and forestalls both of the
hardened branches by drawing off their nourishment.
Therefore these same farmers are careful to cut off
and trim away this rival, as it were, before it gains
strength. If, however, it has already become so
strong as to have impaired one arm or the other, the
weaker arm is removed and the throat-shoot is allowed
to grow. For when the arm is cut off, the mother 11
vine bestows her strength equally upon both parts.
Therefore let the pruner establish the head of the
vine one foot below the frame, from which, as I
have said, there may extend the four arms by
which the vine is renewed yearly by cutting away
the old branches and allowing the growth of new
ones, the choice of which must be made with skill.
For where there is a great abundance of woody
branches, the pruner should guard against leaving
either those that are next to the hard wood (that
is, from the stock and head of the vine), or on
the other hand, those at the ends. For the former
contribute very little to the vintage, since they
yield scanty fruit, being, in fact, like leaf-branches ;
while the latter exhaust the vine, because they
burden it with too much fruit and extend them-
selves as far as the second or third stake, which
we have declared to be wrong. Therefore branches 12
will be let grow to best advantage on the middle

abradi ; qui si pinguitudine sua bracchium quodcumque proxi-
mum debilitaverit, illi deciso ipse succedat.

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quae nee spem videmiae destituant nee emacient
stirpem suam. Non nulli fructus avidius eliciunt,
extrema et media flagella summittendo, nee minus
proximum duro sarmentum in custodem resecando ;
quod faciendum, nisi permittentibus soli et trunci
viribus, minime censeo. Nam ita se induunt uvis
ut nequeant maturitatem capere ^ si benignitas

13 terrae atque ipsius trunci laetitia non adsit. Subsi-
diarius idemque custos in pollicem resecari non
debet,^ cum palmae, ex quibus proximi fructus
sperantur, idoneo loco sitae sunt ; nam ubi ligaveris
eas, et in terram spectantes deflexeris, infra vinculum

14 materias exprimes. At si longius, quam ritus
agricolarum permittit, a capite vitis emicuerit, et
bracchiis in aliena iugorum compluvia perrepserit,
custodem validum et quam maximum ^ iuxta truncum
duorum articulorum * vel trium relinquemus, ex quo
quasi pollice proximo anno citata materia formetur in
bracchium ; ut ^ sic recisa vitis ac revocata intra ^
iugum contineatur.

15 Sed in summittendo custode haec maxime sunt
observanda. Primum ne resupina ' caelum sed
prona potius plaga terram spectet ; sic enim et

^ facere SAa : de curere c.
2 debent SAacM.
^ maxime SAa.
* particulorum SAa.
^ ut om. SA : et acM.

^ revocata in SAa, vett. edd. : renovata intra vulgo : reno-
vata sed in c : renovata secundum (in abbr.) M.
'' pro munere supina SA : primum supina a.

" So called from the resemblance of the cross-bars of the trel-
lis, with their four-sided opening, to the square opening of the
compluvium in the Roman house roof. Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVII.

418

BOOK IV. XXIV. 12-15

of the arm, that they may neither disappoint the
hope of a vintage nor cause the wasting of their
own stem. Some men are more greedy in enticing
the fruit by allowing the growth of terminal and
medial shoots, and also by cutting the sprig next
to the hard wood into a reserve stub ; a thing which
I believe should not be done in any circumstances
unless strength of soil and stock permit it. For they
cover themselves with grapes to such an extent
that they cannot reach maturity if friendliness of
the land and a thrifty condition of the stock itself are
not present. The subsidiary branch, which is the 13
same as the reserve stub, should not be cut back into
a spur when the rods from which the next fruits are
expected are situated in a suitable place ; for when
you have bound them and bent them to look down-
ward towards the earth, you will force the growth of
hard wood below the binding. But if the vine has 14
sprung out from the head to a greater length than the
practice of husbandmen allows, and has crept out
with its arms to the roof-like "■ trellises that belong to
other vines, we shall leave close to the main stem a
strong reserve rod, and the largest possible, of two or
three joints, from which, as from a spur, firm wood
may be quickly fashioned into an arm the following
year; so that the vine, cut back and restored in this
way, may be kept within the frame.

But in setting aside a reserve stub for growth the 15
following points must be especially observed. First,
that the wound shall not face upward toward the
heavens, but rather that it slope downward toward the
earth ; for in this way it is both protected from the

166, Compluviata copiosior vino est, dicta a cavis aedium com-
pluviis.

419

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

gelicidiis ipsa se protegit, et ab sole obmnbratur.
Deinde ne sagittae sed ungulae similis ^ fiat resectio ;
nam ilia celerius et latius emoritur, haec tardius et
angustius reformidat. Quodque etiam usurpari vitio •
sissime animadverto, maxime vitandum est ; nam
dum serviunt decori, quo sit brevior custos et similis

16 pollici, iuxta articulum sarmentum recidunt. Id
autem plurimum ofRcit, quoniam secundum plagam
posita gemma pruinis et frigore tum deinde aestu
laborat. Optimum est igitur medio fei'e internodio
subsidiarium tondere ^ palmitem, devexamque re-
sectionem facere post gemmam, ne, ut antea ^
diximus, superlacrimet * et gemmantem caecet

17 oculum. SiresecisfacultasnoneritjCircumspiciendus
est furunculus, qui, quamvis angustissime praecisus
in modum verrucae, proximo vere materiam exigat,
quam vel in bracchium vel in fructum ^ remittamus.
Si neque is reperitur,* saucianda ferro est atque
exulceranda vitis in ea parte qua pampinum studemus
elicere.'

lam vero ipsos palmites, quos vindemiae prae-
paramus, claviculis ac nepotibus liberandos magno-

18 pere censeo. Sed in iis recidendis alia conditio est,
atque alia in iis quae procedunt e trunco. Nam

1 sed ungulae similis SA : sed nee (seu a : sed ne cM)
ungulae (cM : ungules a) quidem (deest SAacM) similis
Schn. : sed ungulis quidem similis Aid., Qesn. : sed nee (vel
ne) ungulae similis vett. cdd.

2 tendere SAa : contendere c.

' antea SA : ante iam acM : iam {incluait Schn.) antea
(ante Aid.) Aid., Gesn., Schn. : ante vett. edd.
* super lacrimam Aa.

' fructum SAac : fructu il : fructuarium edd.
' reperitur ScM : repperitur Aa : reperiatur edd.
' eligere Aac.

420

BOOK IV. XXIV. 15-18

frosts and shaded from the sun. Secondly, that the
cut shall not be made like an arrow-point but hoof-
shaped " rather ; for the former dies more quickly
and over a wider area, while the latter is checked
more slowly and within narrower limits. There is
also a practice which I observe to be employed,
and very wrongly, which should be especially avoided ;
for in their attention to graceful appearance, so that
the reserve stub may be shorter and like a thumb,
they cut the branch close to the joint. But this is 16
very detrimental, because the bud, being placed
next to the wound, suffers from frost and cold, and
afterwards from heat also. The best plan, then, is
to clip the subsidiary branch about midway between
the joints and to make a sloping cut behind the bud,
so that, as I have already said,* its tears may not
drop upon the budding eye and blind it. If there is 17
no opportunity for a cut branch, we must look about
for a knob which, even though cut very close in
the manner of a wart, may put forth a firm wood
branch the following spring, which we may leave either
for an arm or for fruit. If such a knob is not to be
found, the vine must be wounded with the knife and
caused to form a " sore " in that place where we wish to
draw out a shoot.

Now I strongly believe that those branches which
we are making ready for bearing should be freed
of tendrils and secondary shoots. But one method 18
is employed in cutting these away, and another in
removing those that come out of the main stem. For

" An oblique cut is to be made clear through, thus giving
the stub the appearance of a horse's hoof, with its flat surface
not round but of oblong shape.

* Cf. IV. 9. 2.

421

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

quicquid est, quod e duro prominet, vehementius
applicata falce adnodatur et eraditur, quo celerius
obducat ^ cicatricem ; rursus quicquid e tenero
processit, sicut nepos, parcius detondetur, quoniam
fere coniunctam gerit ab latere gemmam, cui eon-
sulendum est ne falce destringatur. Pressius enim
si adnodes applicato ferro, aut tota toUitur aut
Gonvulneratur ; propter quod palmes, quem mox in
germinatione citaverit, imbecillus ac minus fructuosus
erit, turn etiam magis obnoxius ventis, scilicet quia ^

19 infirmus de cicatrice prorepserit. Ipsius autem
materiae, quam summittimus, longitudini modum
difficile est imponere. Plerique tamen in tantum
provocant ut curvata et praecipitata per iugum ne
queat terram contingere. Nos subtilius dispicienda
ilia censemus : primum vitis habitum, nam si robusta
est ampliores naaterias sustinet ; ^ deinde soli quoque
pinguitudinem, quae nisi adest, quamvis validissimam
vitem celeriter necabimus ^ procerioribus emaciatam

20 flagellis. Sed longi palmites non mensura verum
gemmarum numero aestimantur. Nam ubi maiora
sunt spatia inter articulos, licet eo usque materiam
producere dum paene terram contingat ; nihilo
minus enim paucis frondescet pampinis. At ubi
spissa internodia frequentesque oculi sunt, quamvis
breve sarmentum multis palmitibus virescit, ac ^

^ obdurat SA. * quia SAacM : qui Schn.

* sustineat SA.

* necavimus S : negavimus A : notabimus M.
^ ac SAacM : et edd.

422

BOOK IV. X.XIV. 18-20

anything that sprouts from mature wood is cut away
and trimmed close by a more vigorous apphcation
of the pruning-hook, so that it may form a scar
more quickly ; while, on the contrary, anything that
comes from young wood, such as the secondary shoot,
is cut away wdth greater caution because it usually
has a bud close beside it, and care must be taken
that this is not grazed with the knife. For if, in
applying the knife, you trim too closely, the bud is
either taken away altogether or wounded severely ;
and because of this the branch which it presently
puts forth in sprouting will be feeble and less fruitful
and also more liable to injury by the winds, obviously
because it will be weak when it comes forth from
the scar. Furthermore, it is difficult to set a limit to 19
the length of the woody branch which we allow to
grow ; yet most people draw it out to a length such
that, when bent and falling down over the frame,
it cannot touch the ground. We believe that the
following points should be investigated more closely :
first, the condition of the vine, for if it is strong
it sustains a greater number of woody branches ;
and next, the richness of the soil, for if this
quality is not present we shall quickly kill even the
strongest vine if it is wasted away by rods that are
too long. But long branches are valued, not for 20
their length, but for the number of their eyes. For
where there are rather considerable spaces between
the joints, it is permissible to extend the wood to the
point where it almost touches the ground, for never-
theless it will put forth but few leaves and shoots ;
but where the segments are short and eyes are found
at close intervals, the branch, though short, is green
with many sprouts and luxuriant with numerous off-

423

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

niimeroso fetu exuberat. Quare modus talis generis
necessario maxime est adhibendus, ne procerioribus
fructuariis oneretur at ut consideret vinitor proximi

21 anni magna necne fuerit vindemia. Nam post
largos fructus parcendum est vitibus, et ideo anguste
putandum ; post exiguos, imperandum. Super cetera
illud etiam censemus, ut duris tenuissimisque et
acutissimis ferramentis totum istud opus exsequamur.
Obtusa enim et hebes et mollis falx putatorem mora-
tur, eoque minus operis efficit et plus laboris adfert
vinitori; nam sive ciu'vatur acies, quod accidit molli,
sive tardius penetrat, quod evenit in retuso et crasso
ferramento, maiore nisu est opus. Tum etiam plagae
asperae atque inaequales vites lacerant ; neque enim

22 uno sed saepius repetito ictu res transigitur. Quo
plerumque fit ut quod praecidi debeat praefringatur,!
et sic vitis laniata scabrataque putrescat umoribus,
nee plagae consanentur. Quare magnopere monen-
dus putator est, ut prolixet aciem ferramenti, et
quantum possit novaculae similem reddat. Nee
ignoret in quaque re, qua parte falcis utendum sit;
nam plurimos per hanc inscitiam vastare vineta
comperi.

XXV. Est autem sic disposita vinitoriae falcis
figura, ut capulo pars proxima, quae rectam gerit
aciem, culter ob similitudinem nominetur ; quae

^ praefingatur SAc : perfringatur aM,
424

BOOK IV. XXIV. 20-xxv. i

spring. Therefore it is necessary that a limit be set
to such a sort especially, that it may not be burdened
by fruiting branches of excessive length, and that
the vine-dresser may take into account whether or
not the vintage of the previous year was abundant.
For after a large yield the vines must be spared, and 21
for that reason they should be closely pruned ; but
after a scanty yield they must be urged. In addition
to the other directions we are of this opinion also,
that we should carry out the entire operation with the
thinnest and sharpest of hard iron tools. For a knife
that is blunt and dull and soft delays the pruner, and
for that reason he accomplishes less work and causes
more labour for the vine-dresser ; for if the edge is
curled over, which happens to soft iron, or if it pene-
trates too slowly, as is the case with a blunted and
thick tool, greater effort is needed. Then, too, ragged
and uneven wounds tear the vines ; for the matter
is not finished with a single stroke but by strokes
often repeated. And so the usual result is that what 22
should be cut off is broken off, and that in this way
the vine, being mangled and jagged, is rotted with
moisture and its wounds do not heal. Therefore the
pruner should be expressly reminded to draw out
the edge of his implement and to make it as razor-
like as possible. And he should not be ignorant as
to what part of the pruning-hook should be used in
each operation ; for I have learned that a great
many men make havoc of vineyards through lack
of knowledge on this point.

XXV. Now the shape of the vine-dresser's knife is
so designed that the part next to the haft, which
has a straight edge, is called the culter or " knife "
because of the similarity. The part that is curved is

425

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

flectitur, sinus ; quae a flexu procurrit, scalprum ;
quae deinde adunca est, rostrum appellatur; cui
superposita semiformis lunae species securis dicitur ;
eiusque velut apex pronus imniinens mucro vocatur.
Ilarum partium quaeque suis muneribus fungitur, si

2 modo vinitor gnarus est iis utendi. Nam cum in
adversum pressa manu desecare quid debet, cultro
utitur; cum retrahere, sinu; cum adlevare, scalpro;
cum incavare,^ rostro ; cum ictu caedere, securi;
cum in angusto aliquid expurgare, mucrone. Maior
autem pars operis in vlnea ductim ^ potius quam
caesim ^ facienda est ; nam ea plaga quae sic efficitur,
uno vestigio adlevatur, prius enim putator applicat

3 ferrum, atque ita quae destinavit praecidit. Qui
caesim vitem petit, si frustratus est, quod saepe
evenit, pluribus ictibus stirpem vulnerat. Tutior
igitur et utilior putatio est, quae, ut rettuli, ductu
falcis non ictu conficitur.

XXVI, Hac peracta, sequitur, ut ante iam diximus,
adminiculandae iugandaeque vineae cura, cui stabi-
liendae melior est ridica palo, neque ea quaelibet ;
nam est praecipua cuneis fissa olea,* quercus et suber,
ac si qua sunt similia robora. Tertium obtinet locum

^ incavare edd. : incuuarre a : incure SAc : incidere in
marg. M.

^ due A : ducit cM : in duo a.

* cresin S : chres in (chrea siiprascr. man. alt.) A : cresim
c : diresin M : in tres a.

* olea gotum S : oleam gotum A : oleam totum a : olean-
gotum c : oleragotum M.

' Cf. IV. 12. 1.

* With this chapter cf. Varro, R.R. I. 8; Pliny, N.H. XVII.
164-166, 174.

426

BOOK IV. XXV. i-xxvi. I

called the sinus or " bend " ; that which runs on from
the curve is the scalpruin or " paring-edge " ; the hook
which comes next is called the rostrum or " beak,"
and the figure of the half-moon above it is called the
securis or " hatchet " ; and the spike-like part which
projects straight forward from it is called the
mucro or " point." Each of these parts performs
its own peculiar tasks, if only the vine-dresser is skil-
ful in using them. For when he is to cut something
with a thrust of the hand away from him, he uses
the culter ; when he is to draw it toward him, he uses
the si?ius ; when he wishes to smoothe something,
he uses the scalprum, or, to hollow it out, the rostrum ;
when he is to cut something with a blow, he uses
the securis ; and when he wants to clear away some-
thing in a narrow place, he makes use of the vmcro.
But the greater part of the work in a vineyard must
be done by dra^ving the knife toward you rather than
by hacking ; for the wound which is made in this way
is smoothed with one impression, since the pruner
first puts the knife in place and so cuts off what he
has intended to cut. One who attacks the vine by
chopping, if he misses his aim, as often happens,
wounds the stock with many blows. Therefore that
pruning is safer and more advantageous which, as I
have said, is accomplished by the dramng of the
knife and not by striking.

XXVI. When this is finished there follows, as I have
said before," the matter of propping and trellising the
vineyard.* And for giving firmness to this the stake
is better than the pole, and that not any stake you
please ; for chief of all is the olive tree split with
wedges, the oak and the cork tree, and any other
wood of Uke strength. The romad prop holds third

427

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

pedamen teres, idque maxime probatur ex iunipiro,
turn ex lauru et cupressu. Recte etiam faciunt ad
rem silvestres pinus,i atque et sabuci ^ probabiles ^
usu statuminis.* Haec eorumque similia pedamenta
post putationem retractanda sunt, partesque eorum

2 putres dedolandae acuendaeque ; ^ atque alia con-
vertenda, quae sinceritatem ^ habent ; alia summo-
venda, quae vel cariosa vel iusto breviora sunt,
eorumque in \icem idonea reponenda, iacentia
statuenda, declinata corrigenda. lugo, si non erit
opus novo, sarturae recentia vincula inserantur. Si
restituendum videbitur, antequam vitis palo appli-
cetur, perticis vel harundinibus conectatur, ac turn
demum, sicut in novella praecepimus, vitem iuxta
caput infraque bracchia colligemus ' cum ridica ;
idque facere non oportebit omnibus annis eodem
loco, ne vinculum incidat et truncum strangulet.

3 Bracchia deinde sub stella quadripartite ® locabimus,
tenerosque palmites super iugum ligabimus nihil
repugnantes naturae, sed ut quisquis obsequetur,
leviter curvabitur, ne deflexus frangatur neve iam
tumentes gemmae detergeantur. Atque ubi duae
materiae per unam partem iugi mittentur, media
pertica interveniat, diremptaeque palmae per iugorura

^ pinus edd. : abuius S : ab huius AacM : sabinas Sobel.

* sambuci cM, edd.
' probabilis SAac.

* usu statum in his A : usu tantuin in his acM, probabilis
usus. Tamen in his haec vulgo ante Schn.

•' acuendaeque om. AacM, edd. ante Schn.

* sinceritatera cM, edd. ante Schn. : ceritatem SAa :
proceritatem Schn.

' infr^ique . . . colligemus om. c, vett. edd. : colligemus
vitem cum ridica a3I : vitem iuxta caput post colligemus
repet. SA.

* quadripertito SAa.

428

BOOK IV. XXVI. 1-3

place ; and that is most approved which is made of
juniper, and also of lam-el and cypress. Also forest
pines do well for this pm-pose, and elders too are
acceptable in the capacity of supports. These
props and their like must be gone over again after
the pruning, and the decayed parts must be hewn
away and sharpened ; and some, if they are sound, 2
are to be reversed, while others, which are either
rotten or shorter than is proper, must be removed
and replaced with suitable props ; those that are
lying flat must be set up, and those that lean are to
be straightened. As for the frame, if there is no
need of a new one, have fresh bindings worked into
the mending of it. If it seems to need rebuilding,
let it be tied together with poles or reeds before
the vine is attached to its prop, and then, as I have
directed in the case of a newly planted vine," we
should bind the vine to the stake, close to the head
and below the arms ; and this tying should not be
done every year in the same place, lest the band cut
into the stock and choke it. Then we will arrange 3
the arms in four directions, below the star,** and bind
the tender fruiting branches upon the frame, not
forcing them contrary to their nature ; but according
as each branch will submit, it will be bent slightly,
so as not to be broken in the bending and that the
buds already swelling may not be rubbed off. And
when two mature branches are extended along one
part of the frame, let a bar come between them ; and
let the separated vine-shoots run out over the quad-
rangular openings "^ of the frames, and, as if plunging

« Cf. IV. 12-13.

' Of the frame, i.e. the X formed by the intersecting cross-
bars (IV. 17. 6).

' See IV. 24. 14, with note.

429

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

compluvia decurrant, et velut mersae cacuminibus
in terrain despiciant. Id ut scite fiat, meminerit
alligator ne torqueat sarmentum sed tantum inflexum
devinciat ; et ut omnis materia, quae nondum ^
potest praecipitari, iugo superponatur, ut potius
innixa pertieae, quam e vinculo dependeat. Saepe
enim notavi per imprudentiam rusticos subicere iugo
palmam, et ita colligare ut solo vimine suspendant;^
quae vinea cum accipit pampini et uvarum pondus,
infringitur.

XXVII. Sic deinde ordinata vineta festinabimus
emundare, sarmentisque et calamentis ^ liberare.
Quae sicco tamen solo ^ legenda simt, ne lutosa
humus inculcata maiorem fossori laborem praebeat,
qui protinus adhuc ^ silentibus vineis inducendus ® est.
Nam si palmis incientibus ' progemmantibusque
fossorem immiseris, magnam partem vindemiae
decusserit. Igitur antequam germinent, per di-
vortium veris et ^ hiemis quam altissime fodiendae
vineae sunt, quo laetius atque hilarius puUulent ;
eaeque ubi se frondibus ^ vestierint, teneris caulibus
necdum adultis modus adhibendus ^^ est. Idemque
vinitor, qui ante ferro, nunc manu deputet,^ umbras-

1 nondum Schn. : mundo SA : modo aM, Pontedera, Oesn. :
mihi c : nihil edd. ante Gesn.

^ suspendant Schn. : suspendeat SacM vett. edd. : sus-
pendae at A : suppendeat Aid., Gesn.

' calametis S, et tnilgo ante Schn. : calamitis A.

* loco SAcM.

* ad hue id cM : ad id ut SA : ad id a.

* indicendus SA ; indulgendus acM.

' incientibus Schn. cum Pontedera : initientibus S :
inicientibus A : incipientibus acM, et plerique.

* et SAa : ac il/ : om. c : atque vulgo.

' sic codd. : et uvis post frondibus add. edd.

430

BOOK IV. XXVI. 3-xxvii. 2

downward, let them look upon the ground with then*
tips. That this may be done skilfully, the binder must 4
remember not to twist the young branch but merely
to bend it down and tie it ; and he must bear in
mind that every mature branch which cannot yet
be bent down to earth is to be placed upon the
frame, so that it may rather rest upon a bar than
hang from its binding. For I have often observed
that farmers, through want of foresight, place a
fruiting branch under the frame and tie it in such a
way as to let it hang merely by a withe ; and when
this vine receives the weight of its shoots and
grapes, it is broken down.

XXVII. When our vineyards are so put in order,
we shall next hasten to clean them and to rid them of
the pruned tAvigs and deadwood. However, these
must be gathered when the ground is dry, lest
the earth, being trampled when muddy, make the task
harder for the digger, who is to be brought in im-
mediately while the vines are still dormant. For if
you send the digger in when the fruiting branches
are swelling and putting forth buds, he will knock off
a large part of the vintage. Therefore vineyards
are to be dug as deep as possible during the time
when spring begins and ^A-inter ends, before the buds
come, that they may sprout out more luxuriantly
and joyfully ; and when they have bedecked
themselves with leaves, a limit must be set to the
young shoots before they are full grown. And let 2
the same vine-dresser who made use of the knife
before, now prune with his hand, and let him hold the

^^ habendus.*S^, vett. edd.

^^ deputet ac3I : decutet SA : decutiet edd.

431

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

que compescat, ac supervacuos pampinos deturbet ; ^
nam id plurimum refert non inscite facere, siquidem
vel magis pampinatio quam putatio vitibus consulit.
Nam ilia quamvis multum iuvat, sauciat tamen et
resecat ; haec clementius sine vulnere medetur, et
anni sequentis expeditiorem putationem facit. Tum
etiam vitem minus cicatricosam reddit, quoniam id
ex quo viride et tenerum decerptum ^ est, celeriter
consanescit. Super haec materiae, quae fructum
habent, melius convalescunt, et uvae commodius
insolatae percoquuntur.

Quare prudentis est ac maxime callentis vinitoris
aestimare ac dispicere quibus locis in annum debeat
materias summittere ; nee orbos tantum detrahere
palmites, verum etiam frugiferos, si supra modum se
numerus eorum profuderit ; siquidem evenit ut
quidam oculi trigeminis palmis egerminent, quibus
binos detrahere oportet, quo commodius singulos
alumnos educent. Est enim sapientis rustici repu-
tare, num maiore fructu vitis se induerit, quam ut
perferre eum possit. Itaque non solum frondem
supervacuam volet ^ decerpere, quod semper faci-
endum est, verum interdum partem aliquam fetus
decutere, ut ubere suo gravatam vitem levet. Idque
faciet variis de causis pampinator industrius, etiam
si non erit maior fructus, quam ut maturescere queat ;
si aut * continuis superioribus annis dapsili pro-

^ compescat . . . deturbet SAacM, vett. tdd. : com-
pescet . . . deturbabit wlgo.
^ deceptum SAM : decertum a.
^ volet SAacM ; debet vulgo.
* si aut SA (= aut si) Sobel : si autem acM, edd.

' Cf.DeArb.n.

BOOK IV. xxvii. 2-6

shade in check and pull off superfluous foliage ; and
it is of the utmost importance not to do this unskil-
fully, since the removal of excess leafage is even
more beneficial to vines than is pruning. For though
the one is of great advantage, still it wounds and
checks the vines ; while the other heals them more
gently, without a wound, and makes the next year's
pruning easier. Then too it produces a vine that is 3
freer from scars, because that from which a green
and tender thing is plucked soon heals over. In
addition, the mature branches which have fruit
make a better recovery, and the grapes, being more
completely exposed to the sun, are thoroughly
ripened."

Therefore it is the part of an intelligent vine- 4
dresser, and one especially expert, to take stock and
consider in what places he should allow the growth
of firm wood for the year, and to remove not only
the branches that are destitute of buds, but fruitful
branches as well, if their number has gone beyond
proper bounds ; since it happens that some eyes put
forth three shoots, of which you must remove two, that
the eyes may better rear one nursling apiece. For 5
it is the business of a wise husbandman to consider
whether the vine has bedecked itself with a greater
quantity of fruit than it can carry to maturity.
Accordingly he will ^ish, not only to pick off super-
fluous foUage, which should always be done, but
sometimes to shake off a part of the fruit so as to
lighten a vine that is overburdened by its own
productiveness. And a diligent vine-trimmer Avill
do this for various reasons, even if there is no more
fruit than is able to ripen ; or if it is right that 6
a vine, fettered by heavy bearing in previous years

433

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

ventu religatam vitem requiescere ^ ac refici par
erit,^ si ^ futurae materiae consulendum. Nam
cacumina flagellorum confringere ^ luxuriae compri-
mendae causa, vel dura parte trunci sitos ^ pampinos
summovere, nisi ad renovandam vitem unus atque
alter servandus est, turn e capite quicquid inter
bracchia viret explantare, atque eos qui per ipsa
duramenta steriles ^ nequiquam matrem opacant,
palmites detergere, cuiuslibet vel pueri est officium.
XXVIII. Tempus autem pampinationis antequam
florem \T.tis ostendat, maxime est eligendum, sed et
postea licet eandem repetere. Medium igitur eorum
dierima spatium, quo acini formantur, xinearum nobis
aditum negat, quippe florentem fructum movere non
expedit. Pubescentem vero, et quasi adolescentem
convenit religare, foliisque omnibus nudare, tum et
crebris fossionibus implere ; nam fit uberior pulvera-
tionibus.' Nee infitior plerosque ante me rusti-
carum rerum magistros tribus fossuris contentos

^ dapsili (dapsilis aM, dacili SA) proventu (probentur
SAM, probantur a) religatam vitem requiescere SAacM,
Sobd : d. p. fatigata (fatigatam Cod. Laurent. 53. 27, teste
Sobel) vitis fuerit, requiescere mdgo.

* paruerit SA : par fuerit Sobel : patitur a.

* si SAacM, vett. edd., Sobel : et sic mdgo.

* definge SA : defringe a.

^ satos c : si post SAa : siccos M.
^ steriles 31, edd. : similes SAac.

' pulverationi c : pulveratione M : nudare . . . pulvera-
tionibus 07n. SA.

' I.e. the stripping o2 by hand of useless leaves and twigs
(pampini), an operation described just above and frequently
mentioned {e.g. Chap. 6, above; De Arb. 11. 2), and called
pampinatio, as distinguished from putatio or pruning with

434

BOOK IV. xwii. 6-xxvnr. 2

without interruption, should now rest and recover
itself, if provision is to be made for the mature
wood of the future. For to break off the tips of
the rods for the purpose of checking rank growth,
or to remove twigs that are situated on the hard
part of the stock, unless it is necessary to preserve
one or two for renewing the vine ; as also to pull
off every green shoot that comes out of the head
and between the arms, and to strip away those sterile
shoots which all along the mature wood shade the
mother vine to no purpose, is a proper task for anyone
at all, even for a child.

XX\^III. But the time for vine-trimming " must be
chosen, preferably, before the vine shows its flower,
though it is permissible to repeat the operation after-
wards. Therefore the intervening period of days,
when the berries are being formed, refuses us en-
trance to the vineyard, because it is not expedient
to disturb the fruit when it is in the blossom. But when
the fruit is passing from childhood and is in the
adolescent stage, so to speak, it is proper to bind it
and strip it of all leaves, and also to make it plump
by frequent diggings ; for fruit is made more plenti-
ful by pulverizing the soil.* And I do not deny
that most teachers of husbandry before me were

a knife. With this sentence compare Pliny, K.H. XVII.
190, Pamjiinatio verna in confesso est ab Idibus Maiis, intra
dies X, vlique antequam fiorere incipiat. . . . De sequente
variant sententiae. Cum defloruit aliqui pampinandum putant,
alii sub ipsa maturitate.

* Pulveratio meant the working of the ground about the vme
when it was dry, reducing it to powder, and raising clouds of
dust to settle on the leaves and fruit as a protection against
sun and fog; cf. XI. 2. 60; De Arb. 12. 1; Pliny, N.H.
XVII. 49.

435

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

fuisse ; ex quibus Graecinus, qui sic refert : potest
videri satis esse constitutam vineam ter fodere.
Celsus quoque et Atticus consentiunt tres esse motus
in vite seu potius in omni surculo naturales : unum,
quo germinet ; alterum, quo floreat ; ^ tertium, quo
maturescat. Hos ergo motus censent fossionibus
concitari. Non enim natura quod vult satis efficit,
nisi earn labore ^ cum studio iuveris. Atque haec
colendarum vinearum cura finitur vindemia.

XXIX. Redeo nunc ad earn partem disputationis,
qua sum professus vitium inserendarum tuenda-
rumque insitionum praecepta. Tempus inserendi
lulius Atticus tradidit ex Kalendis Novembribus in
Kalendas lunias, quoad posse custodiri surculum
sine germine adfirmat. Eoque debemus intellegere
nullam partem anni excipi, si sit sarmenti silentis
facultas. Id porro in aliis stirpium generibus, quae
fiimioris et sucosioris libri sunt, posse fieri sane
concesserim. In vitibus nimis temere tot mensium ^
rusticis insitionem permissam dissimulare non est
fidei meae : nee quia ignorem * brumae temporibus
aliquando insitam vitem comprehendere. Sed non
quid in uno vel altero experimento casu fiat, verum
quid certa ratione plerumque proveniat^ discentibus
praecipere debemus.* Etenim si exiguo numero
periclitandum sit, in quo maior cura temeritati

^ confloreat SA.

* laborem SA.
^ mensum SA.

* nee quia ignorem a : nee qui nigriorem SAc : licet
quidem ignorem {ex igriorem ut vid. ) M : non quod ignorem
vvlgo.

^ permiscere (permittere a) debeamua SAac, Sobel.

Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVII. 188-189.
436

BOOK IV. XXVIII. 2-xxix. 2

content with three diggings ; " among whom is
Graecinus, who speaks as follows: " It may seem
sufficient to dig an established vineyard three times."
Celsus, too, and Atticus agree that there are three
natural impulses in a vine, or rather in every branch :
one which makes it sprout, another which makes it
bloom, and the third which makes it ripen. These
impulses, then, they think are stimulated by dig-
gings : for nature does not sufficiently accomplish
her purpose unless you diligently give her the
benefit of your efforts. And this attention to the
cultivating of vineyards comes to an end with the
vintage.

XXIX. I return now to that part of my discussion
in which I promised directions for the grafting of
vines and protecting the grafts. Julius Atticus has
said that the time for grafting is from the Calends
of November to the Calends of June, up to which
time he asserts that a scion can be kept without
sprouting. And by that we should understand that
no part of the year is excepted if we have a supply of
dormant twigs. Furthermore, I would freely grant
that this could be done in other kinds of stock that
have stronger and sappier bark. In the case of 2
vines, one thing it is not in keeping with my hon-
esty to conceal — that it is exceedingly rash to allow
husbandmen to graft during so many months ;
not that I am unaware that a vine grafted in the
dead of winter sometimes takes hold. But we
should instruct learners, not what may come about
by chance in one or two experiments, but what com-
monly occurs under a definite system. For if the
risk is to be taken with a small number, in whose
case greater care makes amends for rashness, I can

437

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

3 medetur, possum aliquatenus conivere ; ^ cum vero
vastitas operis etiam diligentissimi agricolae curam
distendit,- omnem scrupulum summovere debemus.
Est enim contrarium, quod Atticus praecipit. Nam
idem per brumam negat recte putari vineam ; quae
res quamvis minus laedat vitem, merito tamen fieri
prohibetur, quod frigoribus omnis surculus rigore
torpet, nee propter gelicidia corticem movet, ut

4 cicatricem consanet. Atque idem Atticus non
prohibet eodem ipso tempore inserere, quod tum et
totius obtruncatione vitis et cum eiusdem resec-
tionis fissura praecipit fieri. Verior itaque ratio est
inserendi tepentibus iam diebus post hiemem, cum
et gemma se et ^ cortex naturaliter movet, nee frigus
ingruit, quod possit aut surculum insitum aut fissurae

5 plagam inurere. Permiserim * tamen festinantibus
autumno vitem inserere, quia non dissimilis est eius
aeris qualitas vernae. Sed quocumque quis tempore
destinaverit inserere, non aliam sciat esse curam
surculis explorandis, quam quae tradita est priore
libro, cum de malleolis eligendis praecepimus.
Quos ubi generosos et fecundos et quam maturissimos
viti detraxerit, diem quoque tepidum silentemque

6 a ventis eligat. Tum consideret surculum teretem
solidique corporis, nee fungosae medullae, crebris
etiam gemmis et brevibus internodiis. Nam pluri-

^ conivere c : convenire a, et vulgo ante Schn. : meri con-
tueri SA : om. M : connivere Schn.

^ distendit (discendit a, discendi c) atque impedit (impendit
c) acM.

* gemmas et AacM, et vulgo ante Schn. ; et deinde corticem
M, ante Schn.

* permiserit SA : permisceri cM.

" III. 6. * cambium -layer.

438

BOOK IV. XXIX. 2-6

wink at it to a certain extent ; but when the ex- 3
tensiveness of tlie operation divides the attention
of even the most careful husbandman, we ought to
remove every uncertainty. There is, indeed, a con-
tradiction in what Atticus directs. For he says that
it is not right to prune a vineyard during the middle
of winter ; and although this does less injury to the
vine, still it is forbidden to be done, with good reason,
because in cold weather every branch is numb with the
cold, and because in its frozen condition it produces
no impulse in the bark to heal the scar. And 4
yet this same Atticus does not forbid grafting at the
very same time, and he directs that it should then
be done by cutting off the head of the whole vine
and making a cleft at the point of this cutting.
Therefore the more proper way of grafting is at the
end of winter, when the days are now growing warm,
when both bud and bark are stirred by nature, and
when there is no attack of cold weather that may
sear either the grafted scion or the wound made
by the cleft. Nevertheless I would allow those 5
who are in haste, to graft the vine in the autumn,
because the temperature of the air at that season is
not unlike that of spring. But at whatever time one
intends to graft, let him know that attention to the
choosing of scions is not different from that which
was prescribed in the preceding book when we gave
directions for the selection of cuttings.** When he has
pulled from the vine scions which are of good stock,
fruitful, and as well ripened as possible, let him also
choose a day that is warm and free from winds.
Then let him look for a scion that is round and of 6
firm body, not of spongy pith,* and also with numer-
ous eyes and short joints. For it is of the greatest

439

VOL. 1. Q

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

mum interest non esse longum sarmentum, quod
inseratur; et rursus plures oculos, quibus egerminet,
inesse. Itaque si sunt longa internodia, necesse
erit ^ ad unam vel summum duas gemmas recidere
surculum, ne proceriorem faciamus quam ^ ut
tempestates et ^ ventos et imbres * immobilis pati
possit.

7 Inseritur autem vitis vel recisa vel Integra perforata
terebra ; sed ilia frequentior et paene omnibus
agricolis cognita insitio ; haec rarior et paucis usur-
pata. De ea igitur prius disseram, quae magis in

8 consuetudine est. Reciditur vitis plerumque supra
terram, nonnumquam tamen et infra, quo loco
maxime ^ solida est atque enodis. Cum iuxta *
terram insita est, surculus adobruitur cacumine
tenus ; at cum editior a terra est, fissura diligenter
subacto luto linitur et ' superposito musco ligatur,
quod et calores et pluvias arceat. Temperatur ita
surculus, ut calamo non absimilis sit. Purgamentum
habeas ad fissuram,^ sub qua nodus in vite desideratur,
qui quasi alliget eam fissuram, nee rimam patiatur

9 ultra procedere. Is nodus etiam si quattuor digitis a
resectione abfuerit,^ inligari tamen eum, priusquam
vitis findatur, conveniet, ne, cum scalpro factum

* erit 8Aa : esse c : est 31, edd.
^ ne . . . quam om. SA.

* et om. SAa.

* et imbres oin. SA.

* maxime SAac, veil. edd. : magis M, et vulgo.

* iuxta codd., et plerique : supra Schn.
' et codd. : atque vulgo.

* u. c. n. a. sit. Purgamentum habeas a. f. Sobel : u. c. n. a.
est purgamentum habens ad fissuram (affisuram a) SAa : u. c.
non ut coagmentum fissuram (fixuram c) cM : u. c. non
absimilis coagmentet fissuram edd.

* resectionibus fuerit SAac.
440

BOOK IV. XXIX. 6-9

importance that the twig which is ingrafted be not
long; and also that there be many eyes on it, from
which it may put forth shoots. And so, if the joints
are long, it ^vill be necessary to shorten the scion
to one or at most two eyes, lest we make it so long
that it cannot endure the storms and winds and rains
without being disturbed.

Now when a vine is grafted it is either cut off or left 7
whole and bored through with an auger ; " but the for-
mer is the more usual graft and is known to almost
all farmers, Avhile the latter is less common and is
employed by few. Therefore I shall discuss first the
method which is more in use. The vine is gener- 8
ally cut above ground, though sometimes below, in
the place where it is most solid and free from
knots. When it is grafted close to the ground, the
graft is covered with earth to its very top ; but when
the graft is higher above ground, the cleft is carefully
daubed with kneaded clay and bound with an over-
laying of moss to ward offbeat and rains. The scion
is so shaped as to be not unlike a reed pen. The
piece that is pared off you should hold against the
cleft ; ^ and under this cleft there is need of a node
in the vine, to bind it together, as it were, and not
allow the crack to advance beyond that point. Even 9
if this node is four finger-breadths distant from the
point of cutting, still it will be proper that it be bound
before the vine is split, lest the wound spread wider

" With the instructions that follow compare Cato's chapter
(41) on vine-grafting; also Pliny, N.H. XVII. 115-117, and
Palladius, IV. 1.

* Sobel (Stud. Colum., pp. 11-18) explains that the paring
is to be used as a wedge to hold the cleft open while the scion
is being inserted.

441

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

fuerit iter surculo, plus iusto plaga hiet. Calamus
autem ^ non amplius tribus digitis debet allevari,
atque ^ is ex ea parte, qua raditur, ut sit levis.
Eaque rasura ita deducitur, ut medullam contingat
uno latere, atque altero paulo ultra corticem de-
stringatur, figureturque in speciem cunei, sic ut ab
ima parte acutus ^ surculus, latere altero sit tenuior,
atque altero plenior; perque tenuiorem partem
insertus eo latere artetur quo est plenior, et utrimque
contingat fissiuram. Nam nisi cortex cortici sic
applicatur,* ut nuUo loco transluceat, nequit coales-
cere.^

10 Vinculi genus ad insitionem non unum est. Alii
viminibus obstringunt; nonnulli circumdant libro
fissuram ; plurimi ligant iunco, quod est aptissimum.
Nam \'imen, cum inaruit, penetrat et insecat corti-
cem. Propter quod molliora vincula magis proba-
mus, quae cum circumvenere truncum, adactis
harundineis cuneolis artantur. Sed antiquissimum
est, et ante haec ablaqueari vitem, radicesque
summas vel suboles amputari ; et post haec adobrui
truncum. Isque cum comprehendit, aliam rursus

11 exigit curam: nam saepius pampinandus est, cum
germinat, frequentiusque detrahendae suboles quae
a lateribus radicibusque prorepunt. Tum quod ex
Insito profundit ® subligandum, ne vento surculus

^ autem] ut rarior (non 07n.) SA : adradi Schn.

* aequaliter vulgo ante Schn.
" artus SA.

* applicetur M, et vulgo : appellatur A.

^ nequid patiatur coalescere SA : nequid coalescere
patiatur a : nequid coalescere c.
® profudit SA.

" Thus forming an unsymmetrical wedge. By medulla is
meant the cambium-layer.

442

BOOK IV. XXIX. 9-1 1

than it should when a way is made for the graft with
the knife. Moreover, the pen-shaped scion should
be tapered not more than three fingers, and so that
it may be smooth on the side where it is shaved.
And this shaving is carried so far as to reach the pith
on one side, and on the other side to be pared down a
Uttle farther than the bark ; " and to be fashioned
in the form of a wedge, so that the scion may be sharp
at its lowest point, thinner on one side and thicker
on the other, and that, when inserted by the thinner
side, it may be pressed close on that side which is
thicker and may touch the cleft on both sides. For,
unless bark is fitted to bark in such a way that the
light shows through at no point, it cannot grow
together.

There is more than one kind of band for grafting. 10
Some bind the cleft with willow withes ; some wrap
it with inner bark ; very many tie it with rush, which
is most suitable. For the willow withe, when it has
dried, penetrates and cuts into the bark. For this
reason we give higher approval to softer bindings
which, after being wrapped around the stock, are
drawn tight by forcing in small wedges of reed. But it
is of very first importance that the ground be loosened
around the vine beforehand, and that the surface
roots and suckers be cut away ; and afterwards that
the stock be covered with earth. And when the
stock has taken hold of the graft, it again requires
care of a different sort: for, when it buds, it must 11
be stripped oftener of superfluous growth, and the
suckers which sprout from the sides and roots must
be pulled off more frequently. Furthermore, any-
thing that it puts forth from the place of ingraft-
ment must be tied up, lest the scion should be

443

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

motus ^ labefactetur aut explantetur tener pampinus.
Qui cum excrevit, nepotibus orbandiis ^ est, nisi si
propter penuriam et calvitium loci summittuntur ^ in
propagines. Autumnus deinde falcem maturis pabni-
tibus admovet. Sed putationis insitis ^ custoditur
ea ratio, ut ubi nulla desideratur propago unus
surculus evocetur in iugum ; alter ita recidatur ut
adaequetur plaga trunco, sic tamen ne quid radatur

12 e duro. Pampinandum non aliter est quam in
novella viviradice ; putandum vero sic ut usque in
quartum annum parcius imperetur, dum plaga trunci
ducat ^ cicatricem. Atque haec per fissuram insi-
tarum est ordinatio.

13 Ilia sic ^ per terebrationem : primum ex vicino
fructuosissimam ' considerare vitem, ex qua velut
traducem inhaerentem matri palmitem attrahas, et
per foramen transmittas. Haec enim tutior ^ et
certior est insitio, quoniam, etsi proximo vere non
comprehendit, sequente certe, cum increvit, coniungi
cogitur ; et mox a matre reciditur, atque ipsa super-
ficies insitae vitis usque ad receptum surculum ob-

14 truncatur. Huius traducis si non est facultas, tum
detractum viti quam recentissimum eligitur sarmen-
tum, et leviter circurarasum, ut cortex tantum detra-
hatur, aptatur ^ foramini, atque ita luto circumlinitur

^ motus om. SA, veil, edd. ^ ordinandus SA.

* summittuntur S : summittur A : summitur a : sumitur
c, cdd. ante Oesn. : submittitur M, Oesn., Schn.

* insitis om. vett. edd., Schn.
' ducit S : duel A.

" Ita SAacM, Sobel : In ilia autem, quae fit wJgo.
' oportet post fruct. add. vulgo ; om. SAacM,

* putatior SA, Sobd. * artatur SA.

» Of. Pliny, N.H. XVII. 116; Palladius, III. 17. 7.

444

BOOK IV. XXIX. 11-14

loosened when moved by the wind, or the tender
shoot be pulled out. And when this shoot has in-
creased in size it must be deprived of its secondary
shoots, unless because of the poverty or baldness of
the place they are reserved for layers. Then autumn
applies the pruning-knife to the matured branches.
But the following method of pruning is observed in
grafted vines — that, where there is no desire for a
layer, one shoot is brought up to the frame ; and
a second is cut back to such an extent that the wound
is flush with the stock, though in such a way that
nothing is pared from the hard wood. Excess foliage 12
must be removed just as in the case of the young
quickset ; but the pruning is to be done in such a way
that demands are put upon it very sparingly up to the
fourth year, until the wound of the trunk forms a scar.
This, then, is the method of procedure in cleft -grafting.

The procedure by terebration or boring is as fol- 13
lows : " first, to take note of the most fruitful vine in
the vicinity, from which you may draw over a traverse
branch, so to speak, still clinging to its parent vine,
and pass it through the hole. For this is a safer and
surer way of grafting because, even though it does not
take hold the next spring, at any rate it is forced to
be united in the spring following, when it has grown
larger ; and presently it is cut loose from its mother,
and the upper part of the grafted vine is lopped off
close to the place where the scion was admitted. If 14
there is no opportunity for such a traverse branch,
then a twig is selected — one taken as fresh as
possible from the vine — and, being lightly pared all
around in such a way that the bark alone is removed,
it is fitted to the hole ; and then the vine is cut back
and daubed over with clay, that the whole stock

445

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

resecta vitis, ut totus truncus alieni generis viti ^
serviat. Quod quidem non ^ fit in traduce, qui a '
materno sustinetur ubere dum inolescat.

15 Sed aliud est ferramentum quo priores vitem
perforabant, aliud quod ipse usu nunc magis aptum
comperi. Nam antiqua terebra, quam solam veteres
agricolae noverant, scobem faciebat perurebatque
earn partem quam perforaverat. Deusta porro raro
revirescebat, vel cum priore coalescebat,* et insitus ^
surculus comprehendebat. Tum etiam scobis num-
quam sic eximebatur ut non inhaereret foramini ;
ea porro interventu suo prohibebat corpus surculi

16 corpori vitis applicari. Nos terebram, quam Galli-
cam dicimus, ad hanc insitionem commenti longe
habiliorem utilioremque comperimus. Nam sic ex-
cavat truncum ne foramen inurat, quippe non scobem
sed ramenta ^ facit ; quibus exemptis plaga levis
relinquitur, quae facilius omni parte sedentem
surculum contingat, nulla interveniente lanugine

17 quam excitabat antiqua terebra. [Igitur secundum
vernum aequinoctium perfectam vitium insitionem
habeto, locisque aridis et siccis nigram vitem inserito,
humidis albam.] Neque est ulla eius propagandi

^ alieni generis viti (vitis c) c3I, Aid., Gesn. : alie in genere
vitis a : alienigenis surculis ScJin. : vitis ut . . . viti] vitis
ultratus surculus SA.

^ non om. 8 A.

^ qua SAa : qui (a om.) cM.

* Deusta . . . coalescebat] sic edd. : deusta (devineta <5,
de vineta A ) porro cum prore (rore S, parte a) convalescebat
SAa. Post scobem habent faciebat raro revirescebat et
perurebat earn partem quam perforaverat deusta. Porro et
insitus surculus comprehendebat cM.

* coalesc, in eaque {duo verba om. codd.) nee (et codd.)
insitus vulgo.

* ramenta edd. : rasamenta ac3I : tramenta SA.

446

BOOK IV. xxi.x. 14-17

may devote itself to a vine of different origin.
However, this is not done in the case of a traverse
shoot, which is nourished at its mother's breast until
it grows into the other vine.

But there is one type of iron tool with which our 15
ancestors used to bore through the vine," and a
different sort which I myself have now found by ex-
perience to be more suitable. For the ancient gim-
let— the only kind that old-time farmers knew —
would make sawdust and would burn the place which
it perforated. Moreover, it was seldom that the
burned part would revive or unite with the former
and that the grafted scion would take hold. Then,
too, the sawdust was never so completely removed
that some did not remain in the hole ; and this, by its
intervention, kept the body of the scion from being
closely joined to the body of the vine. We, having 16
devised what we call the " Gallic auger " * for this kind
of grafting, have found it far more suitable and prac-
tical. For it hollows out the stock in such a way as
not to burn the hole, because it does not make dust
but shavings ; and when these are removed a smooth
wound is left, which can more easily touch the seated
scion on every side, since there is no interference of
that woolly matter which the ancient gimlet produced.
[Therefore see to it that the grafting of your vines is 17
finished immediately after the vernal equinox ; and
graft the black vine in places that are parched and
dry, the white vine in wet places.]'^ [And there is no

" C/.Cato, 41.3-4.

^ Cf. De Arb. 8. 4; Pliny, loc. cit. ; Palladius, loc. cit.

' The passage is bracketed by Schneider as irrelevant at this
point, perhaps having crept in from De Arb. {loc. cit.), where
an almost identical statement follows the description of the
Gallic wimble.

447

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

necessitas, si modo tam mediocris est crassitude
trunci ut incrementum insiti ^ plagam possit contin-
gere ; ^ nisi tamen vacuus locus demortui capitis
vitem reposcit. Quod cum ita est, alter ex duobus
surculis mergitur, alter eductus ad iugum in fructum
summittitur. Neque inutile est ex ea vite, quam
nierseris, enascentes in arcu propaginis pampinos
educare, quos possis mox, si ita competet,^ vel
propagare vel ad fructum relinquere.

XXX. Quoniam constituendis * colendisque vineis,
quae videbantur utiliter praecipi posse, disseruimus,
pedaminum iugorumque et viminum prospiciendorum
tradenda ratio est. Haec enim quasi quaedam dotes
vineis ante praeparantur. Quibus si deficitur agri-
cola, causam faciendi vineta non habet, cum omnia,
quae sunt necessaria, extra fundum quaerenda sint ;
nee emptionis tantum, sicut ait Atticus, pretium
onerat vilici ^ rationem, sed est etiam comparatio
molestissima. Convehenda sunt enim tempore ini-
quissimo hiberno.^ Quare salices viminales atque
harundineta vulgaresque silvae, vel consulto consitae
castaneis, prius faciendae ' sunt. Salicum vimi-
naUum ^ Atticus putat singula iugera sufficere
posse * quinis et vicenis iugeribus ligandae vineae,

^ insita SAa.

^ contegere M, edd. ante Schn.

' competit cM.

* constituendisque, deinde colendisque om, SAa.

^ vilici Sobel : vitici S : vici Aa : rustici cM : vitis edd.
•* hibemi SAacM.
' facienda Ac, edd.

* Salicum viminalium Schn. : licet viminalibus S, vett.
edd. : licet ut (in M, ut in c) viminalibus Aa : Viminalium
(Salicum om.) ut (om. codd.) Atticus vulgo.

' posse SAacM, vett. edd. : possunt vulgo.

448

BOOK IV. XXIX. 17-XXX. 2

need of propagating this if only the stock is of so
moderate a thickness that the growth of a grafted
scion can cover the wound on all sides ; unless, how-
ever, the place left vacant in a vine whose head is
dead demands a replacement. When this is the case,
one of the two shoots is turned down for a layer, and
the other is carried up to the frame and set apart for
fruit. And it is not without advantage to rear shoots
from the vine which you have layered, as they sprout
from the arched part of the layer, which, if it so hap-
pens, you may either use for further layers or leave
for fruit.] «

XXX. Inasmuch as we have discussed those matters
which it seemed could be taught to advantage for
the establishing and cultivating of vineyards, a method
must be set down for the provision of props, frames,
and withes. For these are prepared beforehand,
as dowries, so to speak, for the vineyards. And if
the farmer is destitute of these, he has no reason for
making vineyards, since everything that is needed will
have to be sought outside the farm ; and, just as
Atticus says, not only does the cost of purchase put a
burden upon the accounts of the overseer, but also the
procuring of them is a very great annoyance. For :
they must be brought together at a most inconvenient
season — in winter. Therefore osier-willows and reed
thickets must be provided beforehand, and also
ordinary woods or woods purposely planted with
chestnut trees. Atticus thinks that one iugerum of
osier-willows may suffice for binding twenty-five iugera

" This passage, printed as it stands in the manuscripts
and editions, is obviously out of place. It appears to belong,
as Schneider points out, at the beginjiing of Sec. 12 of this
chapter, after the words radatur e duro.

449

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

harundineti singula iugera vicenis iugandis ; castaneti
iugerum totidem palandis, quot harundineti iugandis.
Salicem vel riguus ager vel uliginis abundans ^
optime, nee incommode tamen alit planus et pinguis.
Atque is debet converti bipaUo ; ita enim praecipiunt
veteres, in duos pedes ^ et semissem pastinare salicto
destinatum solum. Nee refert cuius generis vLtnen
seras, dum sit lentissimum. Putant tamen tria esse
genera praecipue Graecae, Gallicae, Sabinae saUcis,^
quam plurimi vocant Amerinam. Graeca flavi
coloris est ; Gallica obsoleti purpurei, et tenuissimi
viminis ; * Amerina saUx gracilem virgam et rutilam
gerit. Atque hae vel cacuminibus vel taleis de-
ponuntur. Perticae cacuminum modicae plenitu-
dinis,^ quae tamen dupondiarii orbiculi crassitudinem
non excedat,^ optime panguntur eousque dum ad
soHdum demittantur. Taleae sesquipedales terreno
immersae paulum obruuntur. Riguus locus spatia
laxiora desiderat, eaque senum pedum per quin-
cuncem recte faciunt ; siccaneus spissiora, sic ut sit
facilis accessus colentibus ea. Quinum pedum inter-
ordinia esse abunde est, ut tamen in ipsa linea con-
sitionis alterna vacuis intermissis bipedaneis spatiis
consistant semina. Satio est eorum priusquam

' uliginis abundans (habundans a) SAacM : uliginosus edd.

^ pedes vulgo : om. SAacM.

^ salicis post praecipue ponunt edd.

* viminis codd., plerique edd. : om. Schn.

'•" plenitudinis edd. : planitudinis SAacM.

* excedat a, Schn. : exedat SA : excedant cM, el plerique.

° So Pliny, N.H. XVII. 143.
" Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVI. 177.

450

BOOK IV. XXX. 2-6

of vineyard,'' and one iugerum of reed thicket
for framing twenty ; and that a iugerum planted with
chestnut trees is enough to provide as many props as
a ewgerwjnofreeds can furnish with cross-rails. Ground 3
that is either well watered or abounding in marsh-
land is best for nourishing the willow, and yet level
and rich ground is not unsuitable. And this ground
should be turned with the double spade ; for the
ancients direct us to trench ground intended for a
willow-bed to a depth of two and one-half feet. And
it makes no difference what kind of osier you plant,
if only it is very pliant. Still they think that there 4
are chiefly three kinds of willows : ^ the Greek, the
Galhc, and the Sabine, which most people call the
Amerine. The Greek is of a yellow colour; the
Gallic of a dingy purple, and with very slender
switches ; and the Amerine has a slim and reddish
rod. And either top-shoots or truncheons of these
are planted. Top rods of moderate stoutness, which,
however, should not exceed the thickness of a circular
two-pound weight,*^ are best planted if they are put
down as far as solid ground. Truncheons of one and 5
one-half feet are stuck into the earth and covered over
with a little of it. A well-watered spot requires wider
spaces, and spaces of six feet in the quincunx arrange-
ment do very well ; a place that is normally dry needs
closer planting, but in such a way as to give easy access
to those who cultivate it. In this case it is satisfactory
that the distance between rows be five feet, yet so
that the plants may stand at two-foot intervals in the
line of planting, alternating with empty spaces be-
tween. The time for planting them is before they 6

' Probably in the form of a rod or bar, an old Roman unit
of weight.

451

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

germinent, dum silent virgae, quas arboribus detrahi ^
siccas convenit. Nam ^ roscidas si recideris, parum
commode ^ proveniunt ; ideoque * pluvii dies in
exputanda salice vitantur. Fodienda ^ sunt primo
triennio salicta crebrius, ut novella vineta. Cum
deinde convaluerint, tribus fossuris contenta sunt ;

7 aliter culta celeriter deficiunt. Nam quamvis adhi-
beatur cura, plurimae salices intereunt. Quarum
in locum ^ ex pi'opinquo mergi ' propagari debent,
curvatis et defossis cacuminibus,® quibus restituatur
quicquid intercidit. Anniculus deinde mergus de-
cidatur a stirpe, ut suis radicibus tamquam vitis ali
possit.

XXXI. Perarida loca, quae genus id virgultorum
non recipiunt, genistam postulant. Eius cum sit
satis firmum tum etiam lentissimum est vinculum.
Seritur autem semine, quod cum est natum, vel
defertur bima viviradix, vel reUcta cum id tempus
excessit, omnibus annis more segetis iuxta terram
demeti potest. Cetera vincula, qualia sunt ex rubo,
maiorem operam sed in egeno tamen necessariam

2 exigunt. Perticalis fere salix eundem agrum, quern
viminalis, desiderat ; melior tamen riguo provenit.
Atque ea taleis conseritur, et cum germinavit, ad
imam perticam summittitur, crebroque foditur atque
exherbatur nee minus quam vinea pampinatur, ut
in longitudinem ramorum ^ potius quam in lati-

^ detrahit 8Aa.

2 Nam cM, edd. : At a : a,b SA, Sobel.
^ commode SAa, Sobel: prospere commode (commodeque
M)cM : prospere vulgo.

* ideoque SAa : itaque vett. edd. : ideo vulgo.

^ facienda SAa, vett. edd. * loco Aac, edd. ante Schn.

' raergis SAacM, Aid., Oesn.

'^ iic vulgo : curvata et defoasa cacumina SAacM, vett. edd,

452

BOOK IV. XXX. 6-xxxi. 2

bud, while the sHps are dormant, and it is best that
thev be taken from the trees when they are diy. For
if you cut them off when they are wet with dew, they
do not grow properly ; and for this reason rainy days
are avoided in lopping off the willows. Willow copses
are to be dug more frequently during the first three
years, as are new vineyards. Later, when they have
gained strength, they are satisfied with three diggings ;
under any other cultivation they quickly run out.
For, even though care is taken, very many Avillows
die. In their place layers should be propagated
from a near-by plant, by bending down and burying
its leaders, so that anything that has died may be
replaced with these. Then when the layer is a year
old, let it be cut loose from its stock, that it may be
fed by its own roots just like a vine.

XXXI. Very dry places, w-hich do not admit copses
of this sort, require broom. A band of this material
not only has suflicient strength, but also it is very
pliant. The plant is raised from seed, and when it has
sprouted, it is either transplanted as a quickset when
two years old ; or, if left where sown after that time
has passed, it may be cut close to the ground every
year in the manner of standing grain. Other bindings,
such as those made of bramble, require greater labour,
but still a necessary labour in poor soil. Willow for
poles requires about the same land as that for withes ;
nevertheless it thrives better in well-watered ground.
And it is planted in the form of truncheons ; and when
it has sprouted it is made to grow as a single shaft, and
is frequently cultivated and weeded ; and excess foli-
age is removed no less than in the vine, that it may be
encouraged to length rather than spread of branches.

* ramorum om. SA.

453

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

tudinem evocetur. Sic culta quarto demum anno
caeditur. Nam quae vinculis praeparatur, potest
annieula praecidi ad semissem supra ^ duos pedes, ut
e truneo fruticet et in bracchia velut humilis vinea
disponatur ; si tamen sieeior fuerit ager, bima potius
resecabitur.

XXXII. Harundo minus alto^ pastinato, melius
tamen bipalio seritur. Ea cum sit vivacissima nee
recuset ullum locum, prosperius resoluto quam denso ;
umido, quam sicco ; vallibus, quam clivis ; ^ fluminum
ripis, et limitibus ac vepribus * commodius quam
mediis agris deponitur. Seritur bulbus radicis, et
talea calami ; nee minus toto prosternitur corpore.
Bulbus tripedaneis intervacantibiis spatiis obrutus
anno celerius maturam perticam praebet. Talea et
tota harundo serius praedicto tempore evenit. Sed
sive recisa in dupondium et semissem talea, sive
totae harundines prostratae deponentm*,^ exstent
earum cacumina ; ^ quod si obruta sunt, totae
putrescunt. Sed cultus harundineti ' primo trien-
nio non alius est quam ceteris. Cum deinde con-
senuit, repastinandum est. Ea est autem senectus,
cum vel exaruit situ et inertia plurium annorum, vel
ita densatum est, ut gracilis et cannae similis harundo
prodeat. Sed illud de integro refodi debet ; hoc

1 super SAa.

- alto SAacM : alte edd., deinde pastinatur Aid., Oesn.

* clivis edd., : dumis SAacM.

* vepribus ScM, vett. edd. : veperibus a : veribus A :
vepretis vulgo.

* deponentur cM, vett. edd. : deponeretur S.4.a : deponan-
tur vulgo.

* oportet post cacumina add. vulgo.

' harundineti scripsi : hanindinetis vel arundinetia codd.,
edd.

454

BOOK I\'. XXXI. 2-xxxii. 4

When so cared for it is cut finally in its fourth year.
For the willow which is prepared for bindings may 3
be cut off when it is one year old, at about two and a
half feet above ground, so that it may send out
branches from the trunk and be arranged in arms like
a low vine ; but if the ground has been rather dry, it
will be cut back preferably at the age of two years.

XXXIL The reed " is planted in ground that is not
worked so deep, though it is better to plant it with
the two-foot spade. Although it is very hardy and
does not refuse any situation, it succeeds better when
put in loose soil than in compact ; better in a damp
place than in a dry one ; better in valleys than on
hillsides ; and on river banks and in bordei's and
thickets better than in midfield. Its bulbous root 2
is planted, as also truncheons of the cane ; and
again the whole reed is laid flat in the ground.
The bulb, when buried with three-foot spaces be-
tween, yields a full-grown stalk in less than a year.
The truncheon and the whole reed are longer than
the aforementioned time in coming to maturity.
But whether truncheons of two and one-half feet
are planted, or entire reeds laid flat, their tops
should extend above ground ; because, if they are
entirely buried, they rot completely. But the culture 3
of the reed thicket, for the first three years, is not
different from that of the other thickets. Later,
when it has become old, the ground must be trenched
again. And this is its old age, when it has either
dried up completely because of many years of
decadence and sloth, or has become so crowded that
the reeds grow up slender and cane-like. But in 4
the former case it should be dug up again from the

» Cf. Pliny, N.H. XVIT. 144-146.

455

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

potest intercidi et dirarari,^ quod opus rustici castra-
tioneni ^ vocant. Quae tamen refectio ^ harundineti
caeca est, quia non apparet in ten-a quid aut tollen-
dum sit aut relinquendum ; tolerabilius tamen
harundo castratur antequam caeditur, quatenus velut
indices calami * demonstx-ant quid eruendum sit.

5 Tempus repastinandi et conserendi est priusquam
oculi harundinum egerminent. Caeditur deinde post
brumam ; nam usque in id tempus incrementum
capit, ac tum compescitur,^ cum obriguit hiberno
frigore. Fodiendum quotiens et vineta ; sed macies
eius cinere vel alio stercore iuvanda est, propter quod
caesum plerique incendunt harundinetum.

XXXIII. Castanea I'oboribus proxima est, et ideo
stabiliendis vineis habilis. Tum in repastinato nux
posita celeriter emicat, et post quinquennium caesa
more salicis ^ recreatur, atque ' in palum formata
fere usque in alteram caesionem perennat. Ea
pullam terram et resolutam desiderat ; sabulonem
imiidum vel refractum tofum non respuit ; opaco et
septentrionali clivo laetatur ; spissum solum et

2 rubricosum ^ reformidat. Seritur ab Novembri mense
per totam hiemem sicca terra et repastinata in
altitudinem dupondii et semissis. Nuces ^ in ordinem
semipedalibus ; ordines autem quinum pedum spatiis

^ dirarari SA, Sobel : disrarari aM, el vulgo : disrari c.
^ castrationem M, Aid., Oesn. : stipatiotlem SAac, vett. edd.,
Schn., Sobel.

" refectio SAaM, Sobel : refodio c : resectio edd.

* velut indices calami SAac : indices velut calami M :
calami velut indices vulgo.

^ conficitur Aac : conficitur compescitur M.

* salicis SAa : salicti cM, edd.
' neque 8 A, Schn.

* solum et rubricosum om. SA : et rubricosum om. a.

BOOK IV. XXXII. 4-XXXI11. 2

beginning ; in the latter it may be cut out and
thinned — an operation which farmers call castratio."
However, this repairing of a reed thicket is done
blindly, because it is not apparent on the surface
what should be removed or what should be left ; still
the reed suffers castration better before the time of
cutting, since the small canes, like pointers, show what
is to be plucked out. The time for redigging and 5
planting is before the eyes of the reed sprout. Then
the time for cutting is after the winter solstice ; for it
makes growi;h up to that time, and is then checked
when stiffened by the winter cold. The reed plot
must be dug as often as the vineyard ; but its leanness
must be relieved with ashes or other fertilizer, and for
this reason most people burn it over after it is cut.

XXXIII. The chestnut tree * is next best to the
oaks, and for this reason it is suitable for supporting
vines. Its nut, too, when planted in prepared ground,
quickly springs up ; and when cut down, after five
years, it renews itself in the manner of the wllow, and
when made into a stake it lasts usually to the next
cutting. It likes a black and loose soil ; does not re-
fuse a damp, gravelly soil or crumbling tufa ; delights
in a shady slope ^\'ith a northern exposure ; and fears a
heavy soil that is full of red ochre. It is planted from 2
the month of November throughout the whole winter,
in ground that is dry and worked to a depth of two feet
and a half. The nuts are placed in a row, half a foot
apart ; and the rows are separated by five-foot inter-

" Cf. Cato, 33. 2; Pliny, X.H. XVI. 206, XVII. 144, et al.
» Cf. Pliny XVII. 147-150.

' nuce SA : nucem cM : crucem a.

457

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

dirimuntur. In altitudinem dodrantis castanea de-
pressis sulcis committitur. Qui ubi nucibus sunt
consiti, priusquam complanentur, breves harundines
ab latere castaneai'um panguntur, ut per hos sationis

3 indices tutius fodi et runcari possint. Simul atque
semina stilaverint,^ etiam bima transferri queunt,
intervelluntur, ac bini pedes arbusculis vacui relin-
quuntur, ne densitas plantas emaciet. Spissius ^
autem propter varies casus deponitur : nam interdum
priusquam enascatur, aut siccitatibus nux inarescit,
aut aquarum abundantia putrescit; interdum sub-
terraneis animalibus sicuti muribus ^ et talpis in-
festatur. Propter quae saepe novella castaneta *
ealvescunt ; atque ubi frequentanda sunt, melius
ex vicino, si competit, mergi more pertica declinata

4 propagatur, quam exempta reseritur. Haec enira
velut immota sua sede vehementer gemiinat ; at
quae radicibus exempta et deposita est, biennio
reformidat. Propter quod compertum est commodius
nucibus quam viviradicibus eiusmodi silvas institui.
Spatia huiusce sationis, quae supra scripta sunt,
capita castanearum recipiunt MMDCCCLXXX, cuius
summae, sicut ait Atticus, ex facili iugera singula
praebebunt statuminum duodena milia. Etenim
taleae propius stirpem recisae quadrifidas ^ plerumque,
ac deinde secundae taleae eiusdem arboris bifidas ®
ridicas sumministrant ; quod genus fissilis adminiculi

^ stilaverint Schn. : stillaverint SAa, et plerique : distil-
laverit c : destilaverunt M.

^ ipsius SAa : spissus c. Deinde semen post autem add.
vulgo, om. codd.

^ sicuti muribus om. SA.

* castanieta SAac.

* quadripedas SAc.

4S8

BOOK IV. XXXIII. 2-4

vals. The chestnut is committed to furrows sunk to
a depth of three-fourths of a foot ; and when these
furrows are planted ^^^th nuts, and before they are
levelled off, short reeds are set beside the chestnuts,
so that, with these markers of the planting, they may
be dug and weeded with greater safety. As soon as 3
the plants have formed a stem — and they may be
transplanted when two years old — they are thinned
out ; and two feet of room is left free for the young
saplings, lest crowding weaken the plants. The
planting is closer, moreover, because of various
mishaps: for the nut is sometimes dried up by
droughts before it springs forth, or it decays from
excessive wetness; and sometimes it is destroyed
by underground animals, such as mice and moles.
For these reasons young plantations of chestnut often 4
grow up in thin numbers; and when it is necessary
to increase them, it is better that a near-by sapling,
if such a one is suitable, be bent over and propagated
in the manner of a layer, than that it be taken up and
replanted. For such a sapUng, being undisturbed
at its base, sends out shoots vigorously ; but one that
is torn out by the roots and transplanted is retarded
for two years thereafter. On this account it has been
found more advantageous to start trees of this sort
from nuts rather than from quicksets. The spaces
allotted to this planting, as described above, admit
2880 chestnut trees ; of which total, as Atticus says,
every iugerum of land \vill easily yield 12000 props.
For the lengths cut closest to the stump generally
supply four stakes when split, and then the second
cuts of the same tree yield two ; and this sort of spUt

' vi fluvias SA : bifluvias a.

459

LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COLUMELLA

manet diutius quam teres palus. Cultus idem est
positionis fossionisque ^ qui vineae. Supputari debet
bima, quin etiam trima ; nam bis ferro repetenda est
veris ^ principio, ut incitetm- eius proceritas. Potest
etiam quercus simili ratione seri ; verum biennio
tardius quam eastanea deciditur. Propter quod
ratio postulat tempus potius lucrari, nisi si dumosi
glareosique montes, atque ea genera terrae, quae
supra diximus, glandem magis quam castaneam
postulabunt.

Haec de vineis Italicis vinearumque instrumentis,
quantum reor, non inutiliter et abunde disserui:
mox agricolarum provincialium vineaticos nee minus
nostratis et Gallici arbusti cultus traditurus.

^ fossionis positionisque vulgo, sed inclti^it Schn. : positionis
qui 8 Ac : positionis fossionis qui a : fossionis qui M.
^ verni SAacM.

460

BOOK IV. XXXIII. 4-6

prop lasts longer than the round pole. The manage- 5
ment of setting and digging is the same as that of
the vineyard. It should be pruned lightly when two
years old, and again when three ; for twice in early
spring it must be attacked with the knife, that its
upward gro-wth may be hastened. The oak also
may be planted in like manner ; but it is cut down
two years later than the chestnut. For this reason
common sense requires that we profit rather by the
gain in time, unless it happens that brush-covered
and stony mountains, and the kinds of soil which we
mentioned above, demand the acorn rather than the
chestnut.

These matters concerning Italian vineyards and 6
vineyard equipment I have discussed, so I believe,
fully and not A\1thout profit. I intend presently to
give an account of \iticulture among our provincial
farmers, also of the management of the arbustum both
in our own country and in Gaul.

NOTE

Triticum is wheat in general; often common wheat and two
other varieties; siligo is usually common wheat, but some-
times club- wheat; far and adoreum are both emmer- wheat
(two-grained wheat).

461

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Athenaeus: Deipnosophistae. C. B. Gulick. 7 Vols.
St. B^vsil: Letters. R. J. Deferrari. 4 Vols.
Callimachus: Fraoments. C. a. Trypanis.
Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams, and Lycophron. A. W.

Mair; Aratus. G. R. Mair.
Clement of Alexandria. Rev. G. W. Bulterworth.

COLLUTHtJS. Cf. OpPIAN.

Daphnis and Chloe. Thornley's Translation revised by

J. M. Edmonds; and Parthenius. S. Gaselee.
Demosthenes I.: Olynthiacs, Philippics and Minor Ora-
tions. I.-XVII. and XX. J. H. Vince.
Demosthenes II.: De Corona and De Falsa Leo.vtione.

C. A. Vince and J. H. Vince.
Demosthenes III.: Meidias, Androtion, Aristocrates,

Timocrates and Aristogeiton, I. and II. J. H. Vince.
Demosthenes IV.-VI.: Private Orations and In Neaeram.

A. T. Murraj'.
Demosthenes VII. : Funeral Speech, Erotic Essay, Exordia

and Letters. N. W. and N. J. DeWitt.
Dio Cassius: Roman History. E. Cary. 9 Vols.
Dio Chry'sostom. J. W. Cohoon and H. Lamar Crosby. 5 Vols.
DiODORUS SicuLUS. 12 Vols. Vols. I.-VI. C. H. Oldfather.

Vol. VII. C. L. Sherman, Vols. IX. and X. R. M. Geer.

Vol. XI. F. Walton.
Diogenes Laeritius. R. D. Hicks. 2 Vols.
DiONYsius OF Halicarnassus : Roman Antiquities. Spel-

man's translation revised by E. Cary. 7 Vols.
Epictetus. W. a. Oldfather. 2 Vols.
Euripides. A. S. Way. 4 Vols. Verse trans.
EusEBius: Ecclesiastical History'. Kirsopp Lake and

J. E. L. Oulton. 2 Vols.
Galen : On the Natural Faculties. A. J. Brock.
The Greek Anthology. W. R. Paton. 5 Vols.
Greek Elegy' and Iambus with the Anacreontea. J. M.

Edmonds. 2 Vols.

6

The Greek Bccolic Poets (Theocritus, Bion, Moschus).

J. M. Edmonds.
Greek Mathematical Works. Ivor Thomas. 2 Vols.
Herodes. Cf. Theophrastus : Characters.
Herodotus. A. D. Godley. 4 Vols.

Hesiod and The Homeric Hymns. H. G. Evelyn White.
Hippocrates and the Fragments of Heracleitus. W. H. S.

Jones and E. T. Withington. 4 Vols.

HoMEB: Iliad. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.

Homer: Odyssey. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.

IsAEUs. E. W. Forster.

Isocrates. George Norlin and LaRue Van Hook. 3 Vols.

St. John Damascene: Barlaam and Ioasaph. Rev. G. R.

Woodward and Harold Mattingly.
JosEPHUS. H. St. J. Thackeray and Ralph Marcus. 9 Vols.

Vols. I.-VII.
Julian. Wilmer Cave Wright. 3 Vols.
LuciAN. 8 Vols. Vols. I.-V. A. M. Harmon. Vol. VI. K.

Kilburn.
Lycophron. Cf. Cai.limachus.
Lyra Graeca. J. M. Edmonds. 3 Vols.
Lysias. W. R. M. Lamb.
Manetho. W. G. Waddell: Ptolemy: Tetrabiblos. F. E.

Robbins.
Marcus Aurelius. C. R. Haines.
Menander. F. G. Allinson.
Minor Attic Orators (Antiphon, Andocides, Lycubgus,

Demades, Dinarchus, Hypebeides). K. J. Maidment and

J. O. Burrt. 2 Vols.
NONNOS: DiONYSiACA. W. H. D. Rouse. 3 Vols
Oppian, Colluthus, Tryphiodorus. a. \^'. Mair.
Papybi. Non-Litebary Selections. A. S. Hunt and C. C.

Edgar. 2 Vols. Litebaby Selections (Poetry). D. L.

Page.
Pabthenitjs. Cf. Daphnis and Chloe.
Pausanias: Descbiption of Greece. W. H. S. Jones. 4

Vols, and Companion Vol. arranged by R. E. Wycherley.
Philo. 10 Vols. Vols. I.-V.; F. H. Colson and Rev. G. H.

Whitaker. Vols. VI.-IX.; F. H. Colson.
Philo : two supplementary Vols. {Translation only.) Ralph

Marcus.
Philostbatus : The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. F. C.

Conybeare. 'J Vols.
Philostbatus: Imagines; Callistbatus : Descriptions. A.

Fairbanks.

6

PniLOSTRATUS and EuNAPius: Lives of the Sophists. Wilmer

Cave Wright.
PiNDAK. Sir J. E. Sandys.
Plato : Chakmides, Alcibiades, Hipparchus, The Loveus,

Theages, Minos and Epin^omis. W. R. JI. Lamb.
Plato: Cratvlus, Parmenides, Gre.\ter Hippias, Lesser

HiPPiAS. H. N. Fowler.
Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus.

H. N. Fowler.
Plato: Laches, Protagoras, Meno, Euthydemus. W. R. M.

Lamb.
Plato: Laws. Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.
Plato: Lysis, Symposium, Gorgias. W. R. M. Lamb.
Plato: Republic. Paul Shorey. 2 Vols.
Plato: Statesman, Philebus. H.N. Fowler; Ion. \V. R. M.

Lamb.
Plato: Theaetetus and Sophist. H. N. Fowler.
Plato: Timaeus, Critias, Clitopho, Menexenus, Epistuxae.

Rev. R. G. Bury.
PLTJT.A.RCH: MORALIA. 15 Vols. Vols. I.-V. F. C. Babbitt.

Vol. VI. W. C. Helmbold. Vol. VII. P. H. De Lacy and

B. Einarson. Vol. IX. E. L. Minar, Jr., F. H. Sandbach,
W. C. Helmbold. Vol. X. H. X. Fowler. Vol. XII. H.
Cherniss and W. C. Helmbold.

Plutarch: The Parallel Lives. B. Perrin. 11 Vols.

PoLYBius. W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.

Procopius: History of the Wars. H. B. Dewing. 7 Vols.

Ptolemy: Tetrabiblos. Cf. Manetho.

QuTNTUS Smyrnaeus. A. S. Way. Verse trans.

Sextus Empiricus. Rev. R. G. Bury. 4 Vols.

Sophocles. F. Storr, 2 Vols. Verse trans.

Strabo: Geography. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols.

Theophrastus : Characters. J. M. Edmonds. Herodes,

etc. A. D. Knox.
Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants. Sir Arthur Hort,

Bart. 2 Vols.
Thucydides. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols.
Tryphiodorus. Cf. Oppian.

Xenophon: Cyropaedia. Walter Miller. 2 Vols.
Xenophon: Hellenica, Anabasis, Apology, and Symposium.

C. L. Brownson and O. J. Todd. 3 Vols.

Xenophon : Memorabilia and Oeconomicus. E. C. Marchant.
Xenophon: Scripta Minora. E. C. Marchant.

IN PREPARATION

Greek Authors

Aristotle: History of Animals. A. L. Peck.
Plotxkus: a. H. Armstrong.

Latin Authors

Babrius and Phaedrus. Bon E. Porry.

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