The Open court

Xlbe ©pen Court

A MONTHLY MAGAZINE

2)e\>ote& to tbc Science of IReltgion, tbe IRellaion of Science, an& tbe
Bitension of tbe IReligious parliament l^ea

Founded by Edward C. Hegeler,

VOL. XXXIII (No. 3) MARCH, 1919 NO. 754

CONTENTS: •

rAG»

Death (Poem) Paul Carus 129

Andrew Dickson White as I Knew Him. Edward T. Heyn 132

Bolshevism and the Laws of Property. Homer Hoyt 138

American Ideals as Applied to China. Gilbert Reid 140

Byzantium. An Historical Poem. With Letter from Horatio Gates Gibson 145

The Religion of Beauty. F. W. Fitzpatrick 151

Savage Life and Custom. Illustrated. (Continued.) Edward Lawrence . . 157

Paracelsus cus a Theological Writer. With Four Portraits of Paracelsus.

John Maxson Stillman 169

The Talmud on Dreams. Julius J. Price 182

Dreams. T. B. Stork 186

Regarding Christian Origins. Edgar A. Josselyn 189

Book Reviews and Notes 191

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'"T^llIC ()])en Court l*ul)lishing- Companv
announce with profound sorrow the
death, following a ])rolonge(l illness, of

DR. PAUL CARUS,

Editor of The Open Court and Tlie Monisf,
at La Salle, Illinois, on Tuesday, Fehruarv
the eleventh, nineteen hundred and nineteen.
A memoir of the lifework of Dr. Cams
and of the long and faithful service which
he rendered our country and humanity in
general will he found in a subsequent num-
ber of this journal.

The Open Court

A MONTHLY MAGAZINE

Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and
the Extension of the Religious Parliament Idea.

VOL. XXXIII (No. 3) MARCH, 1919 NO. 754

Copyright by The Open Court Publishing Company, I9i9-

DEATH.

0 DEATH, in thee we reach hfe's consummation
In thee we shall find peace ; in thee our woes,
Anxieties and struggles will be past.
Thou art our best, our truest friend ! Thou boldest
The anodyne that cureth every ill.

Thou lookest stern, O Death ; the living fear thee ;

Thy grim, cold countenance inspireth awe,

And creatures shrink from thee as their worst foe.

They know thee not, for they believe that thou

Takest delight in agony and horror,

Disease and pain. The host of all these ills

Precedes thee often, but thou brook'st them not.

'Tis life that is replete with suffering,

Not thou, O refuge of the unfortunate,

For thou com'st as surcease of pain ; thou grantest

Release from torture, and thy sweetest boon

Is peace eternal. So I call thee friend

And will proclaim thy gift as greatest blessing.

Death is the twin of birth : he blotteth out
The past but to provide for life's renewal.
All life on earth is one continuous flow
Which death and birth cut up in single lives
Of individual existences
So as to keep life ever new and fresh.

Oblivious of the day that moulded us.
We enter life with virgin expectations ;
Traditions of parental past are we,
Handing the gain of our expanding souls

130 THE OPEN COURT.

Down so succeeding ages which we build.
The lives of predecessors live in us
.And we continue in the race to come.
Thus in the Eleusinian Mysteries
.\ burning torch was passed from hand to hand.
.And every hand was needed in the chain
To keep the holy flame aglow — the symbol
Of spirit-life, of higher aspirations.

Tis not desirable to eke out life

Into eternity, world without end.

Far better 'tis to live in fresh renewals,

Far better to remain within time's limits.

Our fate 'tis to be born, to grow, to learn,

To tread life's stage: and when our time has come

There is no choice but to depart resigned.

Again and evermore again, life starteth

In each new birth a fresh new consciousness

With larger tasks, new quickened interests.

And with life's worn-out problems all renewed.

But we must work the work while it is day.

For thou, O Death, w'ilt hush life's turbulence

And then the night will come to stay our w^ork.

When we have tasted of the zests of life,
Breathed in the bracing air of comprehension.
Enjoyed the pleasures of accomplishment.
When we have felt the glow of happiness,
The thrill of love, of friendship, of endeavor,
When we have borne the heat of day and sweated
Under the burden of our tasks, we shall.
Wearied of life's long drudgery, be glad
To sink into the arms of sleep, to rest
From all our labors, while our work lives on.
As at the end of day we greet the night.
So we shall tire of duties, pains and joys
And gladly quaff the draught of Lethe's cup.

Wilt thou be kind to me, O Death, then spare me
The time to do my duties, to complete
My lifework ere I die. Let me accomplish
The most important tasks that lie before me,
So when I die I have not lived in vain.

131

P)nt has my purpose grown beyond myself,
I shall be satisfied and welcome thee.

Kinder thou art than thou appearest, Death!

Peace-bringer, healer of life's malady,

Thou lullest us into unconsciousness.

Thine eye, well do I know it, solves the transient

Into mere dust ; but thou discriminatest.

Thou provest all, O just and unbribed judge,

Appli'st the touchstone of eternal worth

And so preservest the enduring gold.

Thou settest free the slave, soothest all anguish,

Grantest an amnesty for trespasses,

Abolishest responsibilities,

Ordainest the cessation of the ills

That harass life. Withal thou simply closest

A chapter in time's fascinating book.

There to remain as we have written it.

And so thou dost no harm. Happy is he

Who neither feareth nor inviteth thee.

I honor thee, great sanctifier Death,

Lord of the realm of no return — High Priest

Of the unchangeable, thou consecratest

Our souls when gathering them unto their fathers

In their eternal home ; I honor thee.

Yet will not seek thee ! I am here to live

And so will bide until the summons come

To enter on my Sabbath eve of life.

But neither shall I shrink from thee, for truly

I see no cause why I should face thee not.

Thou dost not doom me to annihilation.

Thou wipest out my trace of life as little

As any deed can ever be annulled.

Indeed, thou comest to immortalize.

To finish, to complete, to consummate,

To sanctify what I have been and done.

Therefore, I shall be ready at thy call

And deem the common destiny of all

Meet for myself, so when thou beckonest,

Friend Death, grant me thy sw^eet enduring rest.

Paul Carus.

132 THE OPEN LOUKT.

ANDREW DICKSON WHITE AS I KNEW HIM.

I!Y EDWARD T. IIEVX.

SHORTLY before the tessation of hostilities in the world war,
came the death of Andrew Dickson White. It was not granted
him to see the end of the contest with its promise of universal
peace, a cause which he so brilliantly and assiduously advocated.
His lofty but w^ell tempered idealism and his profound scholarship
commanded the greatest respect at home and abroad. A zealous
guardian of his country's rights, he performed his difficult task
as Minister, and subsequently as Ambassador, to the German Em-
pire with admirable success, and with dignity worthy of emulation.

It was in Berlin in 1901 that the writer, entering upon his work
as Correspondent of the Chicago Record, was first privileged to make
the acquaintance of Dr. ^^l^ite. A warm letter of introduction by
Charles Kendall Adams, the President of my Alma Mater, the Uni-
ersity of Wisconsin, undoubtedly contributed greatly to the special
kindness and courtesy with which I was received, for Dr. Adams
was an intimate friend of the American Ambassador, and at one
time closely allied with him in liis historical studies. After Dr.
White's resignation, Adams became his successor as President of
Cornell University. The high regard in which Dr. White held
President Adams can be seen from the following letter which he
wrote me from Bad Plomburg, August 13, 1902, when I informed
him of the death of the former President of the University of
Wisconsin.

"The news of President Adams's death is a grief to me. My
friendship with him began in 1857, when, on arriving as a young
professor at the University of Michigan, I found him in my lecture
room. He was one of my two best students in historical and kin-
dred subjects. He at that time became greatly interested in history,
and showed not merely a tenacious memory, but a power of think-
ing and judging on historical men and questions that interested me
in him.

"( )n my taking a year's leave of absence from that university
in 186.3, I selected him to carry on my classes as an instructor, and
on my departure to take the presidency of Cornell, he succeeded
me in the professorship. His work was admirable from the first;

ANDRKW DICKSON WHITE AS I KNEW IIIM. 133

his published articles in the North American Reviezv and elsewhere,
gained the highest approval, and were translated abroad.

"After some time, when the circumstances of Cornell University
allowed me to do so, I called him, during several successive years,
to give a course of historical lectures to the senior class, and they
were greatly admired.

"When, on my resignation at Cornell, after twenty years of
service, the Trustees requested me to nominate my own successor,
I named him, and. he was elected with virtual unanimity.

"His career at Cornell, in all its most important elements, was
a thorough success. He had a most remarkable gift of choosing
members of the faculty. Every professor whom he nominated
turned out to be of the very best. He had also admirable judgment
in regard to matters of administration. Of his resignation from
his Cornell presidency, it is too early to speak ; but it is only justice
to him to say that both the circumstances which led to it and his
whole course in regard to it were to his credit. Feeling this deeply,
I recommended him to a committee of the Regents of your State
University, who called him, and his career there you know better
than I can. All that I can say is that my observation at my short
visit to Madison during his presidency showed that he was doing
noble work there for the State and, indeed, for the Nation. He,
like myself, was a warm believer in the mission of the great state
universities of the West. He believed, as I did and as James Bryce,
in his remarkable book on America, has stated, that they are among
the greatest, most valuable, and most promising of American crea-
tions. That being the case, he threw himself heartily into the work,
and the great institutions at Ann Arbor, Ithaca, and Madison have
every reason to be grateful to him and to express their gratitude
by proper memorials to him. Cornell has alreadv done so. the
Trustees having secured a fine portrait of him and hung it in the
great reading-room of the University's Library.

"I regret that I must simply send you this hastily dictated
letter ; but I hope that some other person, who has more leisure,
will do better justice to him."

I may say that during the time that Dr. ^^'hite was American
Ambassador in Berlin I saw a good deal of him and I learned to
admire him not only for his great knowledge and splendid grasp
of all matters relating to the diplomatic service, but also for his
fine qualities as a gentleman, his freedom from all narrow prejudices,
and his unfailing kindness. And upon coming into closer relations
with many leading men of atTairs connected with the German

134 THE OPEN COURT.

government, the universities, and German industry. I soon realized
how highly the genial American Ambassador was regarded in all
these circles.

The key-note of Dr. White's success in his diplomatic career
was admirably expressed by John Hay when he wrote of the Am-
bassador upon the occasion of the latter's retirement from the
diplomatic service: "He has the singular felicity of having been
always a fighting man. and having gone through life without a
wound. While fimi in the advocacy of any cause which he espoused,
his methods in bringing his opponents to his point of view were
always conciliatory and marked by consummate tact."

Dr. White, while Minister at Berlin in 1879-1881. had won
the friendship of Baron von Bvilow, then Prussian Minister of
Foreign Affairs, and when he returned to Berlin in 1897 as Ameri-
can Ambassador, a similar friendship sprang up between him and
Prince Bemhard von Bulow, the German Secretary of Foreign
Affairs, who later ( 1900) became Imperial Chancellor. Of the \'on
Billows. Dr. White in his autobiography writes:

"Father and son were amazingly like each other, not only in
personal manner, but in their mode of dealing with public affairs.
\\'ith the multitude of trying questions which pressed upon me as
ambassador during six years, it hardly seemed possible that I should
be still alive were it not for the genial, hearty intercourse, at the
Foreign Office and elsewhere, with Count von Biilow. Sundry
German papers indeed attacked him as yielding too much to me,
and sundry American papers attacked me for yielding too much to
him : both of us exerted ourselves to do the best possible each for
his own country, and at the same time to preserA-e peace and in-
crease good feeling. Occasionally during my walks in the Tiergarten
I met him on his way to parliament, and no matter how pressing
public business might be, he found time to extend his walk and
prolong our discussions."

Dr. White placed great value on these informal discussions.
When the policy of our Government in favor of the open door in
( "liina assumed a definite shape. Dr. \\Miitc handed me the following
memorandum :

"The Imperial Chancellor and the .American Ambassador were
observed, day before yesterday, taking a walk together in the Tier-
garten. and. to all a])pearance. chatting hap])ily in apparent con-
tinuance of the old friendship which existed between Count von
B.iilow's father and Mr. White when the latter was Minister here
twenty years ago. Those who know that, during the past week,

ANDRiaV DICKSON WIII'l'K AS I KXKW IIIM. 135

the Ambassador has ])rcsc-ntccl to the I-'oreij^n f office a new and
more definite memoranchnn from his j^overnment against land-
grabbing in China, may see in this some confirmation of the general
opinion here that Germany inclines to take a friendly attitude
toward the American view."

It was from Prince Herbert liismarck, son of the Iron Chan-
cellor, that the present writer learned how highly Dr. White had
been regarded by his father. Prince Herbert IJismarck stated to
me that not since the days of Motley had there been an American
held in such high esteem by the man of blood and iron, as had
Dr. White. At a later date, when the Ambassador had published
an article on Bismarck (I think in the Century Magazine), a some-
what bitter controversy arose in one of the Hamburg papers, in the
course of which, some of Dr. White's statements with regard to
his relations to Bismarck were challenged. I took occasion to
send him the original text of the article in the Hamburg paper to
Italy where he then was, and received the following reply from
him:

"Arriving in Alassio, I find your kind letter of Xovember 13th.
[1903,] and for the first time see the original text of the article in
the Hamburger Nachrichten.

"I, of course, do not wish to enter into a question of veracity
with one who writes in the spirit shown in this article, but I may
say to you, personally, that, apart possibly from the one trifling
detail, every statement made in my Bismarck article is exact in
every particular.

"The only possibility of mistake is as to the exact 'date of my
first sight of Bismarck. My article was written at Berlin, my diaries
being in America, where they are now. and there is a bare possi-
bility that my memory may have deceived me as to the date, though
I still think that it must have been in 1868.

"It is also barely possible that upon seeing Bismarck and his
family at that time in south middle Germany, I may have jumped
hastily to the conclusion that they were coming from Kissingen.
But apart from those two unimportant details every other state-
ment is exactly and literally conformed to the truth.

"I beg you as a friend not to bring me into any controvers}'
on the matter ; I have no time nor taste for it. When the articles
are gathered in book form. I shall have given them careful revision,
and should I find any mistake anywhere it shall be rectified."

j\Ir. White's Bismarck letter also brings to mind the verv inter-
esting conversation I had with the Ambassador after I had shown

136 THE OPEN COLKT.

him a very illuminating letter which 1 had received from the ^reat
historian of ancient Rome, Thcodor Mommsen. It may still be
recalled that during the Spanish-American War, iNIommsen, although
previously always most friendly to the United States, revealed an
antagonism to our country not unlike that shown in the great war
just over, by certain prominent German professors. Mr. White,
after reading Mommsen's letter then told me with much satisfaction,
how during the Spanish-American War he had induced Mommsen
not to publish a highly sensational article in an English magazine,
in which the historian charged that the United States had become
"a robber power, a piratical power, and that by pouring her incom-
parable resources into military designs she might menace the world's
quiet, and might like Rome carry forays into ever)' continent."

I may say that I was not in Berlin during the Spanish-American
War, but in 1902, when Cuba became free and independent, I wrote
Mommsen as follows : "The enclosed clipping will show you that
the sceptical predictions of the German press that the United
States would not grant independence to Cuba has been proved false
by the establishment of the Cuban Republic." Mommsen's letter
in reply, to which I have already referred, written in excellent
English, contained the following:

"Do you know what the Germans call a Hans in alien Eckcn?
I should certainly get in this not very flattering predicament if I
dared to sit in judgment between the United States and Cuba.
Still I do not hesitate to give my private opinion. The actual
.American imperialism, utilizing the lesson of the South-African
War, allows to Cuba full self-government, reserving political su-
premacy to America. This certainly will be the substance of the
paramount treaty between Cuba and the United States. This final
decision may be very wise, and on the whole, the new form of
the Monroe Doctrine will raise. I should think, no opposition in
Germany, but I cannot find it so extraordinarily generous as you
seem to think."

I recall that Mr. White, while .\mbassador in Berlin, gave a
dinner in honor of his friend the late Frederick W. IIoUs of New
"S'ork. who with him had been one of the American delegates to the
International Peace Conference at the Hague in 1899. A reference
to Dr. Holls in this article has a certain interest at the present time,
for Mr. White can be quoted as authority for the statement that
wliile both Chancellor von Hohenlohe and his Foreign Secretary,
then Count von Biilow, had assured Mr. llolls while on a visit to
T'.crlin, that Germany at the Hague conference would support the

ANDREW DICKSON WTIITIC AS I KXEW III.M. 137

suggestion of the United States for arbitration treaties, it was the
Kaiser who finally prevented the acceptance of the far-reaching plan,
which might possibly have prevented the world war.

The saddest day for tlie American colony in I'erlin came in
1902 when it was informed that Dr. White would retire from his
ambassadorial post on his seventieth birthday. Americans then
living in the German capital felt that soon they would lose their
best friend, and this sentiment was well expressed by the late Sena-
tor John L. Mitchell of Wisconsin when he wrote me in 1903:
"Air. Vvhite must be greatly missed by Americans in Berlin....,
so gentle, kind, and helpful in every way." The friendly interest
of Americans in Mr. White was admirably expressed by President
Roosevelt when he wrote Mr. White on his seventieth birthday:
"The best is yet to be and certainly, if world-fame, troops of friends,
a consciousness of well-spent years, and a great career filled with
righteous achievement are constituents of happiness, you have every-
thing the heart could wish."

Many former American university and musical students can
still testify to the personal interest which Mr. White took in them
while they were in Berlin. Indeed he always said that he considered
it a pleasure and honor to render them service. Especially American
women students were greatly indebted to him, for it was chiefly
through Mr. White's efforts that the doors of the Berlin and other
German universities were finally opened to American womanhood.

Mr. White was formerly a great admirer of the German uni-
versities and especially of the Berlin University, and it was there-
fore of special interest to me that he wrote in a letter which was
read at the Alumni dinner of Cornell students in New York. Xo-
vember 29, 1916: "Stronger and stronger becomes my belief that
the American universities are now to take the lead in the advanced
education of the world, and that the American people will recognize
this fact, and stand back of these institutions in the epoch-making
days now at hand."

After his retirement from his post, in several messages Mr.
White gave me further proofs of his interest and good will, and I
recall with pleasure his interesting letter in 1909, when I ser\'ed
the American Government in an official capacity in Bohemia. On a
visit to Prague, after I had written Dr. White of this intensely
interesting city, he answered that he would have been much pleased
to again have visited the "Hradschin," the castle where the Bohe-
mian kings once lived, and especially the "Landstube," that part
of the old "Burg" where the famous "defenestration" took place.

138 THE OPEN COURT.

when the two imperial Austrian commissioners Martinitz and Sla-
vata. by an angry crowd were thrown from a high window and had
a very narrow escape from death. The aforesaid reference made
by Dr. \\'hite to an incident in Bohemian history, which, ushering
in the Thirty Years' War, led to the destruction of Bohemian inde-
pendence, is of particular interest just now when Prague is again
the center of attention through the establishment of the Czecho-
slovak Republic.

In 1910 when I went to Catania. Sicily, and while on a beautiful
Thanksgiving day I sojourned in Syracuse, I was reminded of the
introduction which Von Moltke gave to Dr. White when he pre-
sented him to the German Empress : "Mr. White was born in Homer,
he lived in Syracuse, and he was once President in Ithaca." In
the last named American city is Cornell University, and this famous
institution, and a fine statue of Dr. \\'hite now standing before
Goldwin Smith Hall, dedicated in his presence in 1915, are em-
bodiments of his work and of his personal appearance. In his
autobiography Dr. White states, that not in a boastful spirit, but
reverently he had recorded his achievements in the line of educa-
tion, literature, science, politics, and diplomacy, and that he had
sought to fight the good fight and keep the faith. What some of
these achievements were while Dr. White was American Ambassa-
dor in Berlin. I have in a small way attempted to tell in this article.

BOLSHEMSM AXD THE LA\\'S OF PROPERTY.

y.\ HOMER 1I()^■T.

'"T^ITK Russian revolution was a lesson in the anatomy of nations.
i The slender nerve filaments that control the huge corporate
bodies of material wealth and the institutions of Church and State
were laid open before the eyes of the world. This dissection taught
us not only that nations possess a central nervous system, but that
a shock to a vital part of this nervous system will cause the dis-
integration and paralysis of a mighty empire. Chief among these
vital points is the system of distributing wealth, or rather the laws
of ]>roperty and contract which control the distribution of that
wealth. Recent events in Russia have demonstrated that a sudden
shock to the laws of property may shatter the structure of credit
which rests on the foundation of stability in property values, that
it may deaden the nerves of ])usincss enterprise, kill the specializa-

BOLSTIEVISM AND THK LAWS OF I'ROl'KKTY. 139

tion, interdependence and large-scale production which absolutely
rely on mutual confidence, stop the wheels of transportation, and
carry the entire nation centuries backward to the crudities of medi-
eval barter. Business men will not venture on unknown seas
without chart or compass; the spirit of industry dies when the
terror" of plunder, pillage, and violence runs riot through the land.
As industry languishes, and respect for the laws of property dis-
appears, the demoralization is communicated to other stable in-
stitutions like marriage and religion, and they go down before the
savage onrush of the primitive instincts that seek a long-denied
gratification. Idleness, profligacy, and the gamljling spirit attack
the soul of a nation like a dry rot ; world contacts established by
peaceful intercourse are broken ; and the fine gold of civilization,
accumulated by centuries of careful saving, is dissipated in a wild
orgy of revolution.

The very masses of the people who hoped to gain from the
disturbance they created, lose their employment, their small capital,
their peace of mind, their liberties, and their health ; as industries
close their doors, as the fountain of justice becomes polluted, and
as disease, unrestrained by the enforcement of hygienic regulations,
stalks abroad through city and country. The people who pull down
the temple of property, perish like Samson, under the falling col-
umns.

This dismal picture doss not present a moral for the United
States — at least not yet. The laws of private property can-
not be overturned suddenly by a fiat of either people^ or State,
unless the ground has been prepared. As long as the masses of
the people benefit from the continuance of the existing order or as
long as the masses have not much to gain from an equal division
of the country's resources, business men and lawyers can safely
boast of the unvarying stability of the laws of property. But if the
disparity should ever become sufficiently great, the ground underneath
our feet will begin to tremble and the distant roar of the coming del-
uge will be heard. If the concentration of wealth under the legiti-
mate ruks of the game should proceed to the point where a few
toil little and enjoy disproportionately much and where the many
work long and receive disproportionately little, then there will come
into existence a reason for revolution. Then the seeds of Bolshevism
and the I. W. W. will be carried over the land with the speed of
the whirlwind and their crop will come soon and it will be bitter.
The breaking-point is finally reached in every case of growing con-

140 THE OPIiN COURT.

ceiilration of wealth. It was reached in France in 1789; it was
reached in Russia in 1'^/.

Ahhough the menace to us is yet far distant, it behooves us to
take warning and to reheve the growing pressure by reversing the
tendency toward concentration. The gradual restrictions on in-
heritances, the guarantee of better living conditions to labor, shorter
hours and higher pay will not register any violent effect on our
economic or social system. Such reforms will also probably pre-
vent the gradual emergence of two poles — one the pole of concen-
tration of wealth and the other the pole of poverty — that finally
causes the electric shock of revolution.

Since the forces that affect the lives of nations traverse cen-
turies in their course, wise statesmen who have the enduring stability
of our country at heart must be unusually alert to detect the first
germs of the peril that may threaten America in the far distant
future. The adjustment of our legal balance wheel so that it will
maintain the proper equilibrium between labor and capital, will
prevent the formation of a social environment that is favorable to
Bolshevism.

AMERICAN IDEALS AS APPLIED TO CHINA.^

r.V GILBERT REII).

AMERICAN ideals are higher than mere opinions, which too
. often are a distorted shaping of the prejudices of passion.
Our ideals in these days of world war and world catastrophe have
been voiced by the Chief Executive of our nation. Probably the
clearest expression of these ideals was contained in the President's
address of September 27 of last year in Xew York City. This
address ins])ircd hoj^e in all who wish well for humanity. It en-
couraged the sentinicMits of peace in the three enemy countries. It
has been spoken of as a Magna Charta for the world.

As with all of President Wilson's pronouncements there are
apparently mutually contradictory statements representing two sides
to all theorizing. Only one who has been nourished in strict Cal-
vinism and knows how to harmonize the freedom of the human
will with God's sovereignty, is capable of harmonizing all of Presi-

1 We are privileged to publish this article from the pen of Dr. Gilbert
Rcirl, of tlic International Institute of Cliina, who only recently returned from
.SliauKhai. — Ed.

AMERICy\N IDEALS AS API'MRD TO CHI.VA. 141

dent Wilson's utterances, even those of September 27. Some pug-
nacious individuals quote only the part about the villainous char-
acter of the governments of the Central Empires. Others, more
charitable, dwell on the princii)les of universal application, assur-
ing a League of Nations. If difficulty of harmonizing ideas exists
it is because of difficulty of applying general principles to enemy
governments.

There should be no difficulty in applying these general and
good principles to an associate in war so friendly as China, whose
entrance into the war was induced Ijy representatives of our own
government. This application may be an interesting topic for dis-
cussion, as well as informing to not a few of the noble adherents
of the League of Nations.

I. "Shall the military power of any nation or group of nations
be suffered to determine the fortunes of peoples over whom they
have no right to rule except the right of force?"

In 1900. after the barbarism and atrocities of the Boxer up-
rising, all foreign powers proceeded to take the Chinese monarch-
ical government in hand, and in a military way to occupy Peking
and all adjoining towns. These powers, all of them- proceeded to
dictate a humiliating peace, though at that time they insisted on
plenipotentiaries from the old empress dowager, the guilty head
of a sinning government. But all this was eighteen years ago.

'Since 1914 the fortunes of the Chinese people, as also the
present military autocracy of Peking and all north China, have
been gradually and imperceptibly determined by the military power
of Japan, or, if this be too prejudiced a view, by the military power
of the Entente group of nations, with whom the United States has
associated herself.

The question therefore arises : Can China at the close of this
war free herself from military or political power assumed through
favorable opportunities by "any nation or group of nations" during
these last four years? On the principle just cited, no outside nation
has the "right to rule" in any part of China, whether ^Manchuria,
Shantung, the Yang-tze valley, or any other part, or to attempt
that rule, that dictation, that extraterritoriality, by the so-called
"right of force."

Is China to be set free?

2. "Shall strong nations be free to wrong weak nations and
make them subject to their purpose and interest?"

Suppose we trace the wrong done to China from the year
1871 — the year Alsace-Lorraine was made a conquest to Prussia

142 THE OPEN COURT.

and. in part at least, restored to German rule — what a record we
would have. Tongking taken by France from the suzerainty of
China in 1883 : Formosa and Liaotung in Manchuria taken by
Japan in 1895 "through conquest of military power": Kiaochow
leased by China to dcnnany in 1898 (afterward occupied by Japan) ;
Port Arthur and Dalny leased to Russia (afterward occupied by
Japan) ; K wan-chow-wan leased to France, and Weihaiwei and
Kowloon leased to Great Britain, all in the same year, and all in-
stigating the Boxer fanaticism of 1900; and the Legation area of
Peking arranged as a fortress in 1901. the recompense for Chinese
outrages.

All this wrong is merely in territory. Other and perhaps
deeper wrongs are in the general treatment which China has re-
ceived at the hands of "strong nations," especially since this war
of Europe was thrust into China just struggling into a republic.
Take the renewal of opium trade through the British Opium Com-
bine. Take the introduction of morphine into Manchuria and Shan-
tung by the Japanese. Take the twenty-one demands of Japan —
and the insulting ultimatum that went with them. Take the various
forms of dictation, generally denominated "friendly advice." which
the Chinese government has received week after week for the last
year or more, since China was persuaded to imitate the United
States in severing relations with the Imperial German government.
Take the secret compacts connected with Japan's request for Chi-
nese cooperation in intervention in Siberia. Take all the secret
negotiations by loan-mongers of more than one nation, which have
loaded China with burdens grievous to be borne. These are so many
hints as to the way "strong nations" are trying to "subject" China
"to their purpose and interest."

At the peace conference shall China, one of our associates
in war, be freed from the domination of superior force?

3. "Shall peoples be ruled and dominated even in their own
internal aflfairs by arbitrary and irresponsible force or by their own
will and choice?"

This may be taken to mean not arbitrary use of force by for-
eign powers in China, but the "arbitrary and irresponsible force"
of the present recognized government in Peking. That government,
since July, 1917, has been "arbitrary and irresponible." "Military
power" dissolved Parliament, and overthrew President Li Yuan-
hung. p:vcn war on the two Central Empires was declared without
sanction of any legislative body. The legal, constitutional govern-
ment of tlie rci)ul)lic has been asseml)lcd in Canton. It consists of

AMERICAN ll)i:Ar.S AS AI'l'I.IKI) TO CHIXA. 143

progressive men from every province of China. The distinguished
statesman, Dr. Wu Ting-fang, has api)ealcd to the ICntente Allies
and the United States for recognition, but the appeal is other than
that of the Czecho-Slovaks, the Russians, or the Poles.

Will, the peace conference he!]) to set China free from her own
arbitrary rule?

4. "The impartial justice meted out must invoKe no discrimi-
nation between those to whom we wish to be just and those to
whom we do not wish to Ijc just. It must be a justice that plays
no favorites and knows no standard but the ecjual rights of the
several peoples concerned."

This dictum applies to both sides of this great war. It is a
warning to the concjueror ; it is good-cheer, based on fair play, to
those who surrender.

Suppose we apply it to China and to affairs of these nations
in China, what happens? Will Germans be again accorded "equal
opportunity of trade and industry," already vouchsafed by Japan
in agreement with Great Britain, Russia, France, and the United
States, or shall German trade be destroyed? Shall German con-
cessions in railways and mines be restored to Germans or be
allowed the Japanese? Shall the beautiful port of Tsingtao be
held by the Japanese, be handed over to China, or be returned to
Germany, if China herself so permits? Is there to be discrimina-
tion against Germans after the war, even as there has been during
the war, and this not so much by Chinese as by Germany's enemies
in China?

As to China, in comparison with her great rival. Japan, is
American sympathy to go out to the latter more than to the former,
even in matters pertaining to China? Shall our State Department
make arrangements with China about "special interests" in China,
or with Japan? Ought China to be given at the peace conference an
equally high seat with Japan, and will China's rights be determined
by the common action of all?

5. "Xo special or separate interest of any single nation or any
group of nations can be made the basis of any part of the settle-
ment which is not consistent with the common interest of all."

Shall Japan be this "single nation" with "special" interests in
China? Shall Great Britain, France,' Belgium, Italy. Japan, and the
United States, together form a powerful group to direct, reform,
or rejuvenate China, or shall all powers take a hand, whether
China wants such aid or not? Shall the benevolent moulding of
China be even left to the great Anglo-American combination? \\'ill

144 THE OPEN COURT.

it after all be possible for us to see in China the fruition of "the
common interest of all"?

6. "There can be no special selfish economic combinations
within the leajjue and no employment of any form of economic
boycott or exclusion."

Will British or Japanese merchants in China give support to
this principle? The law is good; will victors sustain the law?

7. ".Ml international agreements and treaties of every kind
must be made known in their entirety to the rest of the world."

.Another good principle, but can even a League of Nations
guarantee its observance? Are "the two Central Powers" the only
offenders? If the rule, an eminently sound one. is to be applied
to the Far East, by what pressure can Japan and the present mili-
tary government in Peking be brought to publish their varied agree-
ments since China declared war on Germany and .\ustria-Hungary?
Is the baneful element of secrecy to be limited to "treaties," or shall
it also be forbidden to all contracts in which diplomats concern
themselves? What of secret "conversations"?

8. "Special alliances and economic rivalries and hostilities hare
been the prolific source in the modern world of the plans and pas-
sions that produce war. It would be an insincere as ivell as an
insecure peace that did not exclude them in definite and binding
terms."

Write this in letters of gold. No alliance, no allies. President
Wilson has consistently refrained from saying, "our Allies."

It was economic rivalry that brought the war on to Chinese
soil. Can it be expugned at the peace conference?

In maintaining these high ideals, as well as others. President
Wilson finds the task a hard one just as much with his own country-
men and the strong Allied nations, as with the two Central Em-
pires.

It may be safely asserted that the people of China are with our
President in every one of these ideal principles. Will he be able
to rccij)rocate and help China in the face of opposition from "any
single nation or any group of nations"?

Well-wishers of China as well as the Chinese people are look-
ing to President Wilson to guide the nations and peoples on all the
continents to a sincere and secure peace such as this that is planned
on the basis of true righteousness.

BYZANTIUM. 145

BYZANTIUM.

AN HISTORICAL POEM.

ROLL on, thou Bosphorus, in wrath or play,
Roused by the storm or gilded by the ray;
With thy blue billows, to the boundless sea,
Roll on, like Time, into Eternity.
Thy empire naught shall change — upon thy breast
Guilt hath no record, tyranny no rest.
Roll on, the rock-built city shall decay.
Men sleep in death and kingdoms pass away,
But thou unbowed shalt steal like music by,
Or lift thy Titan head and dare the sky.

Alas for proud Byzantium! on her head

The fire may smoulder and the foe may tread,

Yet with heroic look and lovely form

She mocks the deep, unconscious of the storm.

Her footstool is the shore, which hears the moan

Of dying waves — the mountain is her throne.

Her princely minarets, whose spires on high

Gleam with their crescent in the cloudless sky ;

Her temples bathed with all the pomp of day ;

Her domes that backward flash the living ray ;

Her cool kiosks 'round which from granite white

High sparkling fountains catch a rainbow light,

And the dark cypress, sombre and o'ercast.

Which speaks the sleep the longest and the last, —

Each scene around the haughty city throws

A mingled charm of action and repose ;

Each feature breathes of glory wrapt in gloom —

The feast, the shroud, the palace, and the tomb!

Yet thou art fair, and still my soul surveys

A vision of delight, and still I gaze.

Proud city, on the last, when first the beam

Slept on thy temples in its midday dream.

Methinks the genius of thy fatherland

Raised his gray head and clenched his withered hand,

146 THE OPEN COURT.

Exulting in a parent's pride to see

Did Rome, without her gods, revived in thee.

I'^air Queen, unlike thy proud and high compeers,

Thou wert not cradled in the lap of years,

But like celestial Pallas, hymned of old,

Thy sovereign form, inviolate and bold,

Sprang to the zenith of its prime.

And took no favors from the hand of Time.

( )li. every glorious gift of every zone

Was flung before thee on thy virgin throne.

Xo breeze could blow but from thy yielding slaves

Some handmaid ship came riding o'er the waves ;

The costly treasures of the marble isle,

The spice of Ind. the riches of the Nile,

The stores of earth, like streams that seek the sea,

Poured out the tribute of their wealth to thee.

How proud was thy dominion ! States and kings

Slept 'neath the shadow of thine outstretched wings,

And to the mortal eye how more than fair

Were thy peculiar charms, which boasted there

Xo proud Pantheon, flaming in the sun.

To claim for many gods the meed of One,

Xo scene of tranquil grove and babbling stream

For vain philosophy to muse and dream,

Till reason shows a maze without a clue.

And truth seems false and falsehood's self seems true.

Oh no ! upon thy temples gladly bright

The truth revealed shed down its living light ;

Thine was no champion badge of pagan shame,

P>ut that best gift, the cross of Him who came

To lift the guilty spirit from the sod,

To i)oint from earth to Heaven — from man to God!

Alas, that peace so gentle, hope so fair,

Should make but strife and herald but despair.

Oh thine, P>yzantium. thine were bitter tears,

A couch of fever and a throne of fears,

When Passion drugged the bowl and flashed the steel,

When Murder followed in the track of Zeal,

When that Religion, born to guide and bless,

Itself became perverse and merciless,

I'.YZANTIUM.

And factions of the circus and the shrine,

And lords like slaves and slaves like lords were thine.

Then did thy empire sink in slow decay ;

Then were its stately branches torn away ;

And thou, exposed and stripped, were left instead

To bear the lightnings on thy naked head.

Yet wert thou noble — still in vain, in vain.
The Vandal strgve, he could not break the chain ;
The bold Bulgarian cursed thee as he bled ;
The Persian trembled and the pirate fled ;
Twice did the baffled Arab onward press
To drink thy tears of danger and distress ;
Twice did the fiery Frank usurp thy halls,
And twice the Grecian drove him from thy walls ;
And when at last up-sprang thy Tartar foe,
With fire and sword more dread than Dandolo,
Vain was the task, the triumph was not won
Till fraud achieved what treason had begun.

But in that fierce distress, and at thy cry.

Did none assist thee, and did none reply?

No, kings were deaf, and pontiffs in their pride,

Like Levites gazed, and like them turned aside ;

While infidels within Sophia's shrine

Profaned the cup that held the sacred wine,

And worse than base idolators of old.

Proclaimed that Prophet-chief whose books unfold

The deadliest faith that ever framed a spell

To make of Heaven an Earth — of Earth a Hell !

Yet stood there one, erect in might and mind.

Before whom groaned despair and death behind.

Oh, thou last Caesar, greater midst thy tears

Than all thy laureled and renowned compeers !

I see thee yet — I see thee kneeling where

The Patriarch lifts the cup and breathes the prayer;

Now in the tempest of the battle's strife.

Where trumpets drown the shrieks of parting life ;

Now with a thousand wounds upon thy breast

I see thee pillow thy calm head in rest,

And like a glory-circled martyr claim

The wings of death to speed thy soul from shame.

147

148 lilE OPEN COURT.

But thou, fair city, to the Turk bowed down,

Didst lose the brightest jewel in thy crown.

They could not spoil thee of thy sky, thy sea,

Thy mountain belts of strength and majesty;

But the bright Cross, the volumes rescued long,

Sank 'neath the feet of the barbarian throng;

While rose the gorgeous Harem in its sin,

So fair without, so deadly foul within —

That sepulcher, in all except repose.

Where woman strikes the lute and plucks the rose,

Strives to be glad, but feels, despite the will,

The heart, the heart is true to nature still.

Yet for a season did the Moslem's hand

Win for thy state an aspect of command.

Let Syria. Egypt tell, let Persia's shame,

Let haughty Barbarossa's deathless name.

Let Buda speak, let Rhodes, whose knighted brave

Were weak to serve her, impotent to save.

Zeal in the rear and \'alor in the van

Spread far the fiats of thy sage divan,

Till stretched the scepter of thy sway awhile

\'ictorious from the Dnieper to the Nile.

Brief, transitory glory! foul the day,

Foul thy dishonor when in Corinth's bay

'Xeath the rich sun triumphant \^enice spread

Her lion banner as the Moslem fled ;

When proud X'ienna's 'saulting troops were seen.

When Zenta's laurels decked the brave Eugene ;

When the great Shepherd led the Persian van

And Cyrus lived again in Kouli Khan ;

And last, and most when Freedom spurned the yoke.

And tyrants trembled as the Greeks awoke.

That name shall be thy knell, the fostering smile
Of five bright summers on sweet Scio's isle
Hath beamed in vain. Oh, blood is on thy head!
The heartless living and the tombless dead
Invoke their just avengers. Lo, they come!
The Mu.scovite is up. Hark, hark, the drum
Speeds its prophetic summons on the gale!
Thy Sultan trembles and thy sons turn pale.
I'p for the Prophet I Concjuer or die free.

BYZANTIUM. 149

The Balkan make the Turks' Thermopylae.

Up for the Prophet ! No, tlie axe and cord

Suit Moslem hands far licttcr than the sword.

Then bow your heads, your towers are bought and sold,

Prepare the parchment, weigh the bribing gold,

While rings the welkin with the tale of doom,

And faction smiles al)Ove her yawning tomlj.

Now joy to Greece, the genius of her clime
Shall cast her gauntlet at the tyrant Time,
And wake again the valor and the fire
Which rears the trophy and attunes the lyre.
Oh, known how early and beloved how long,
Ye sea-girt isles of battle and of song!
Ye clustering isles that by the ^gean pressed
In sunshine slumber on her dark blue breast !
Land of the brave, athwart whose gloomy night
Breaks the bright dawn and harbinger of light,
May Glory now efface each blot of shame.
May Freedom's torch yet light thy path to fame ;
May Christian truth, in this thy sacred birth.
Add strength to empire, give to wisdom worth.
And with the rich-fraught hopes of coming years
Inspire thy triumphs while it dries thy tears !

Yet joy to Greece, but e'en a brighter star

On Hope's horizon sheds its light afar.

Oh Stamboul! thou who once didst clasp the sign.

What if again Sophia's holy shrine

Should, deaf to creeds of sensual joy and strife.

Reecho to the words whose gift is life?

If down those aisles the billowy music's swell

Should pour the song of Judah, and should tell

Of sinners met in penitence to kneel,

And bless the rapture they have learned to feel ?

Then, though thy fortunes and thy fame decline,

Then, oh ! how more than victory were thine !

Ah, dear Religion, born of Him who smiled
And prayed for pardon while the Jews reviled.
No rose-decked houris, with their songs of glee.
Strew the rich couch, no tyrants strike for thee ;

150 THE OPEN COURT.

Thy holier altar feeds its silent fire
With love, not hate, with reason, not desire.
Welcome in weal or woe. thy sovereign might
Can temi)er sorrow and enrich delight.
Can gild with hope our darkest, gloomiest hours,
Or crown the brimming cup of joy with flowers.
Tiiine is the peace-branch, thine the pure command
Which joins mankind like brothers hand in hand.
And oh, 'tis thine to purge each guilty stain,
Wrench the loose links that form this mortal chain.
Whisper of realms untraveled. paths untrod,
And lead, like Jacob's ladder, up to God!

Tlic following letter was received with the foregoing poem :
To the Editor of The Open Court:

During the summer of the year 1852. there appeared in a newspaper pub-
lished in the provincial town of York in Pennsylvania, a poem of rare merit and
extraordinary beauty — an imitation of Byron at his best, the manuscript of
which in its illiterate defects clearly indicated that the writer thereof was not
the author of the poem. No trace of it could be discovered among the pro-
ductions of ancient or modern poets. Twenty-five years thereafter, the poem
again appeared, this time in a New York journal of high literary character,
accompanied by a letter from a gentleman who had revised its first publication.
and who had first mentioned its existence to the writer of this letter. — and
also by a criticism from a distinguished Princeton professor, who attributed
it to some Philhellene who, inspired like Lord Byron by sympathy for the
Greek in his revolt against the Moslem rule, had gone to Greece to aid her
cause — an Englishman or an American with an English education. Sixteen
years later the poem reappeared in a magazine — Modern Culture, now extinct,
— but as in the other publications seems to have attracted little or no attention,
though the writer hopes that this does not "speak the sleep, the longest and
the last."

With "grim-visaged war rearing its terrible front" on the continents of
Europe and Asia until recently, involving the continent of America and "all
tlie world and the rest of mankind." with Anglican, Greek, and Roman Catho-
lic, disciples of Luther, Calvin, and Knox, with "furious Frank and fiery
Hun." aye Christendom. Israel, and Moslem in deadly conflict, may not the
beautiful poem foreshadow the restoration of Byzantiimi and of Sophia's
lioly shrine, where

"The Patriarch lifted the cup and breathed the prayer."

and of the land where from Sinai's Mount, Moses proclaimed the oracles of
God, and the Son of Man "the Resurrection and the Life"?

The writer has ever had a vague suspicion, conjecture, or surmise that the
author of the poem was the gentleman who was responsible for its first pub-
lication. This supposition is based upon the fact that in the schoolboy days

TFTR RFJ.ir.ION OF ISKAUTY. 151

of the suspect, in youthful debating societies, his favorite theme was classic
Greece, her grand history, and lier esthetic mythrjlogy, and in later years, the
writer heard him deliver an original poem which bore the earmarks of the
same sympathy and train of thought and expression. The reason for conceal-
ment, the writer has failed to divine, for the gentleman was naturally proud
of his literary productions, and surely this would have added to his modest
fame. The writer, long and well as he knew him, never ventured to make the
accusation to him, but he is sure that he could have said to him: "Thou art
the man."

But whosoever may be the author, the writer hopes that tlic poem may be
deemed worthy of republication in your valued magazine, inasmuch as he
thinks that it "makes a few remarks appropriate to the occasion" — the most
momentous crisis in the history of tlie world. Horatio Gates Gibson,

Brig. General U. S.A.

THE RELIGION OF BEAUTY.

BY F. W. FITZPATRTCK.

THE eye is virtually the main doorway to the mind and is un-
doubtedly also one of the most important factors, or instru-
ments, or whatever you want to call them, that can be used in the
process of civilizing, educating, bettering the human kind, the gcnu^
homo. We have evidences of it every day.

We just naturally crave for pleasant or pretty things to look
at, and light is one of them. It is also one of the greatest crime-
preventors known. We are not going to delve into a lot of statis-
tics, for this is not a scientific treatise but just a chat between
friends. But we do know that nearly all crimes are "deeds of
darkness." The philosophy of the thing has been known for ages,
but only in very recent years have we had gumption enough to apply
what we knew. For instance, certain localities in our larger cities
have for years been renowned for their lawlessness and bloody
deeds ; those were dark and dismal streets where travel was most
unsafe after sunset. Policemen in pairs patrolled those beats, ex-
pedients galore were resorted.to to reduce the criminality thereabout,
but murders and the like went merrily on with but slight abatement.
Then some one had a flash of intelligence and a few arc-lights were
installed in those streets and alleys, the ash- and the garbage-man
cleaned them up with greater regularity and. presto, they're as safe
now for night travel as is Broadway or the main thoroughfare of
any city. A bright light and crime are not congenial bedfellows,
one invariably tumbles the other out.

152 THE OPEN COURT.

So with our tenements and the humljler domiciles, the wisest
regulation any city can introduce is that which prescribes a rea-
sonable amount of outdoor window surface for light and air into
every living- or sleeping-room. That regulation has cut down crime
and disease amazingly.

Comparatively few men are attracted to the corner barroom
for the actual drinking they can do there. It's the companionship,
sociability, and. most of all. the bright lights, the cheer, the sparkle,
the pictures, the beauty ( ?) of it all that allures. Provide those
features in some other combination, without the guczUng, and you'll
cut down the bar attendance mightily.

Not so many years ago a manufacturer would establish his
plant at a convenient point, but that was about all he thought of.
Kven if the buildings were half-way respectable the surroundings
were sadly neglected. All around those buildings scrap-heaps ac-
cumulated, the more unsightly the place became, the dirtier, why.
the busier was it supposed to be, the more prosperous its owner.
Indeed the so-called hard-headed business man would have been
ashamed to make a concession to, or expend any money for, what
he termed "silly prettiness." Art and Business couldn't travel to-
gether, the latter looked down upon the former as effeminate, an
evidence of weakness, something to be scorned. Then came the
insurance experts who made at least decency in factories profitable.
They offered lowered premiums if those factories were cleaned up
a bit and the refuse removed. Not that the insurance companies
were doing this in any virtuous or pro bono publico spirit, but siinply
because it would lessen the danger of fire and their consequent
losses. Followed then the pure-food "cranks" who had the author-
ities step in and insist that in at least certain factories extreme
cleanliness must be the rule. And, my. there was a howl of oppo-
sition !

But after a while it was noted by the alert business men that
in those "reformed" factories the operatives did better work, more
of it. and seemed more cheerful. So much so that the keen business
men l)egan to j)ut one and one together, and it dawned upon them
that cleanliness, much daylight and at least half-way decent sur-
roundings were assets instead of msre expenses, that what had
been termed useless extravagance was actually producing a profit.
A few pioneers plunged even farther, they made their workshops
beautiful, cheerful, convenient for the workers. They actually added
frills, rest-rooms, pictures, gardens with real fountains in them and
behf)ld. it all ])roduccd big returns upon the investment. The

THE RELIGION OF BEAUTY. 153

workers felt it, tl-jey came better dressed, cleaner, brighter in mind
and body; more self-respecting and self-reliant they sjjeeded up the
work and evidenced greater loyalty to their employers. To-day
the man who maintains a slipshod, dirty, unattractive factory gen-
erally has an exceedingly poor investment on hand. Art in Business
does pay.

Why, in Cuba they've known that for years, and in the big
cigar factories a good reader is employed to read interesting stories
to the workers. Their work is the better for it.

A man who puts a fresh coat of paint on his house feels an
inch taller when he goes down the street. Take a hobo and wash
him up and dress him in natty raiment and he'll act like a gentle-
man— for a while anyway. When he falls it will be because he's
very far gone in some disease or other and very weak. Isn't drink
a disease?

An old school-teacher was telling me some time ago that in
the old times when he took a village school where the big bullies
had a reputation for manhandling every teacher who had attempted
to preside there, his first move was to whitewash and clean up that
schoolroom, hang up a few chromos in it, put a couple of cans of
flowers in the window, and then invite those bullies to help him
keep the flowers watered and a certain daintiness about. He avers
he never had any trouble, and his physique was not such as to
inspire awe, so he attributes the reform to the power of Art over
Matter !

The civic leagues and societies that get after the authorities
to compel the cleaning up of cities and who offer prizes and other
inducements for well-kept lawns, attractive flower-beds, reformed
back yards, and the like, are doing more real good work to advance
culture, civilization, and Christianity than are the missionaries sent,
at infinitely greater cost, into far distant lands.

Perhaps I may be thought to be a bit radical when I say that
Art should be made more or less compulsory. I mean by Art,
Beauty. A little child may and probably will squirm at being
bathed. We know that bathing is necessary, therefore it is ad-
ministered willy-nilly. So in this case, we know that the general
public, much as the little child, rebels, just naturally squirms at
anything intended for its own good. Here's the point: By years
of patient hammering we have gotten our cities to insisting upon
buildings being erected a certain way, so they will neither fall down,
nor burn up with the old-time alacrity ; we've secured the relegation
of soap or other smelly factories to regions where they no longer

154 THE OPEN COURT.

oflfend us : so with boiler and such noisy shops : we're cutting down
the bell-ringing, yelling, and other unnecessary noises in our cities.
Our cars and our noses are being fairly protected, albeit it has
been hard work, for each step was most bitterly opposed, it was
fought for tooth and nail. The broad principle of the greater good
of the many even at the cost of the individual is not very well
understood here. The average American citizen, proud of his lib-
erty and rights, couldn't get it out of his noddle that he ought to be
able to build where and how he pleased upon his own property and
make all the racket he wanted to and be as much of a nuisance as
he might elect. His "personal" liberty stuck out all over him por-
cupine-like. Well, we've done so well for the ears and nose and
j)rogresscd so far for the safety of the rest of our anatomy that,
it seems to me, we ought to give some little thought and attention
to the comfort and pleasure of the eyes as w-ell.

In many cities they've followed Washington's example and
have an Art Commission that passes upon all public work to keep
it in harmony with some established plan of artistic development.
I'm urging that we go further than that. Our Building Departments
carefully examine every plan made for private as well as for public
buildings and prescribe just how the walls shall be for strength.
how high the building may go. what the sanitary details must be.
etc.. etc.. all in the efifort to make our buildings safe and healthful.
The people have become used to such control and direction. Why
not go a step more? There have been many such steps since the
first big fight that was made because the city wanted its sidewalks
alike and the same width and level. Theretofore personal liberty
was such that you walked on brick, stone, plank, or cinders, all in
the same block, and you went up or down steps to the different
levels to which the kind-hearted owners of property built their
sidewalks in an earnest endeavor to have you break your neck.

The city .Art Commissions should have greater power and
should cooperate with the Building Departments and pass on all
plans for all l)uildings, private as well as public. Not that I'm
clamoring for a certain style of architecture, or that greater ex-
pense and elaboration be insisted upon in private buildings, all I
want is that our eyes should not be abused, offended, murdered
any more than we permit our ears and noses to be. Buildings on
any one block should conform to certain major lines, they should
not be allowed to scream at each other, there should be a certain
harmony of color and material, an effort made toward the really
artistic. ;\s it is now buildings are planted down every one differ-

TIIR RFJjniON OF RF.AUTY. 155

ent from the other, a new and sometimes startling creation every
twenty-five feet, for all the world as if a confectioner attempted
a novel confection by sticking together slices of every imaginable
kind, color, sha])e, and previous condition of cake he could lay
hands upon and then wonder at the hodge-podge effect.

Why should we have to look upon buildings that appal us with
their utter ugliness? Why should we put all our efforts into one
class of building? For instance, here in Washington there are
wondrously fine public buildings, marvels of art, but the private
individual is permitted to build any freak construction he wishes
and the uglier it is the better it seems to serve his purpose. In
consequence there are miles and miles of hideous brick rows and,
spite of the beautiful government buildings, the city as a whole is
irreparably marred, spoiled beyond redemption. Everywhere, in
Cleveland as well as Washington, in San Francisco as well as in
New York there are misfits, awful efforts at originality, colors that
swear at one, "designs" that were conceived in sin and brought
forth in terrible travail. In some cities they rule distressingly
crippled beggars off the streets ; by the same token why must we
tolerate advertising signs and such things that literally insult any
sense of beauty we may possess.

It's a big field, there's endless work to be done in it. We need
to cultivate beauty in our homes, in our schools, on our streets,
everywhere in our lives and wherever we are, and we'll be the
better for it all. They say cleanliness is next to godliness and, I
maintain, beauty is first cousin to cleanliness, nay, I do believe
they are twins !

Now, don't get excited, art and beauty do not necessarily mean
the expenditure of great sums of money, building with fine marbles
and gold, dressing in satins and sables. Those words are merely
synonyms for good taste and refinement. I've seen a simple ging-
ham dress that expressed beauty as forcefully as did any elaborate
gown by Worth, and one of the most beautiful bits of architecture
done this year anywhere in the country was a modest little three
thousand dollar bungalow on a far western hill.

Perhaps I haven't made myself quite clear as to what Art is.
At first blush it may seem simple enough to decide, but lexicologists
as well as artists and other recognized authorities have fussed for
years over the term and are fussing still. We find variants of the
term that I think have no place there, distinctions and additions
that have crept in and are almost recognized. To-day you have
to specify and term your art, fine art, useful art, mechanic art.

156 THE OPEN COURT.

Why. even our pugs practise a pugilistic art and we are barbered
by tonsorial artists and dressed by a sartorial one. It is all correct
enough in a general way. There is an art of living, a gastronomical
art. even the art of hatred. And others would disassociate Art from
everything practical making it so that its votaries withdraw them-
selves in a sense from the urgencies of practical life and become
esoteric and ultimately nuisances of the first water.

Some would have Art always purely decorative ; true Art is
the making of everything beautiful as well as useful. A picture
painted without any regard as to its decorative value, the proper
filling of some space, is but a bauble ; a bow on a lady's dress that
has no function, just a "decorative" bow, is. I claim, inartistic,
useless, meaningless. Art is not essentially embellishment ; it is the
function of doing things well, exercising good taste, gratifying the
sight.

The history of the origin and development, growth and decline
of beautiful artistic form constitutes a major portion of the history
of civilization. As regards each particular people, the history of
their efforts to conceive and express absolute perfection, or what is
commonly called Beauty, in form and color, is with the single
exception of the histor}' of their speculative opinions, the most
reliable test of the stage of progress which they have attained ;
nor is it an indication of the abundance of their external resources
or even of their intellectual activity alone, that the history of the
.Art of a people is thus important. It determines their moral, their
religious position, for the inseparable connection between the beauti-
ful and the good is in no way more clearly manifested than in that
fact, that the first inroads of demoralization and social disorder
are invariably indicated by a diminution in the strength and purity
of artistic forms, especially in architecture.

Am I wrong in praying for greater attention to matters artistic,
the popularizing of .Art. making it an every-day, intimate, and
working function ?

We've learned that our religion, whatever it be, is not a Sun-
day dress to be set aside work-days; it's something we must live
to. something to be with us constantly and to guide our every
thought and act. To our religious beliefs, whatever they may be —
and no man is so low as to be without some — let us add (for bur
own material and spiritual welfare, our selfish interests if you wish)

the RKI.IGIOX OF BE.\UTV.

SAVAGE LIFE AND CUSTOM. 157

SAVAGE LIFE AND CUSTOM.

BY EDWAKD LAVVKEN'CE.

IX. CANNIBALISM AND HUMAN SACRIFICES.

WB] must now proceed to give particular attention to those two
remarkable, though quite distinct customs which have been
practised by many savage races in all parts of the world — the
eating of human flesh and the offering of human sacrifices to the
gods or the spirits of the dead.

Cruel and gruesome as such practices must appear at first sight,
we must nevertheless endeavor to cast aside all preconceived ideas.
Even the savage is entitled to any benefit of the doubt which all
of us ought to give when complete knowledge is lacking. We must
also remember that even our own ancestors indulged in such rites
and that there still exist in many of our customs to-day, distinct
traces of those practices.

The early Christians themselves were accused by their so-called
enemies, of killing and eating a child at their sacramental feasts.
Again, in the seventeenth century, Oliver Cromwell, in a diplomatic
message to the Duke of Savoy, charged his Royal Highness with
allowing his troops to dash infants on the rocks and cook and eat
the brains of others !

It may also be called to mind that, during the French Revolu-
tion, Brissot, the Girondin leader, justified cannibalism on the ground
that it was natural, because animals in a state of nature ate one
another !

While the practice of eating human flesh is quite common to
many of the very lowest races, although unknown to others on a
similar plane of culture, the offering of human sacrifices is quite
unknown to these peoples. It is only when man has attained a
higher stage in civilization that the latter rite appears. Thus, for
example, while cannibalism is practised by the Australians and the
nomad tribes of Brazil, it is quite unknown to the Andamanese. and
human sacrifices are unknown to either.

The early Portuguese travelers of the sixteenth century were
the first to bring accounts to Europe of cannibalism in Africa.

Joano Dos Santos in 1586 said that near Tete, on the Zambesi
River, there existed one tribe which kept prisoners in pens and

158

THE OPEN COURT.

killed and ate them in succession. Gruesome reports were also cir-
culated in Europe of like doings in the Congo regions. It was
declared that in those regions tribes existed which ate their enemies
captured in battle ; who fattened and devoured their slaves, and
whose butcher shops were filled with human flesh instead of beef
and mutton.

Fig. 28. CANNIBAL BUTCHER SHOP, AS DEPICTED BY A
SIXTEENTH-CENTURY ARTIST.

(From Regnum Congo, per Philip pum Pigafettam. 1598. — After Huxley.)

The truth of these early accounts has been abundantly con-
firmed by explorers during the last fifty or sixty years. Not only
in Africa, but as I have said, practically all over the world we meet
with cannibal practices in some shape or form.

Cannibalism is rife over the greater part of the Upper Congo

SAVAGE LIFI.: A.VI) CUSTOM. 159

River. The Bangala.s cat all they kill in battle; they remove the
inside, stuff the body with bananas, and roast whole over a fire. It
is said that two men will eat one body in a night. Even a corpse
will be snatched from the grave in order to be eaten. Before
eating a slave, the victim is kept prisoner for three days, his limbs
are broken and he is fastened to a log chin-deep in a pool of water,
to make the flesh tender. With some tribes it is the custom to
decapitate the body, clean it out, cut it up, and cook in large pots.
The head is not eaten, and the teeth are used as ornaments by the
women.

Mr. John H. Weeks, the well-known Baptist missionary, has
given a vivid description of the Bangalas returning from the field
of battle, laden with their human spoil.

He says : "While we were sitting at our tea, the last party of
returning warriors filed past our house, carrying the limbs of those
who had been slain in the fight. Some had human legs over their
shoulders, others had threaded arms through slits in the stomachs
of their dismembered foes, had tied the ends of the arms together
thus forming loops, and through these ghastly loops they had thrust
their own living arms and were carrying them thus with the gory
trunks dangling to and fro. The horrible sight was too much for
us, and retching badly we had to abandon our meal and it was
some days before we could again eat with any relish. The sight
worked on our nerves, and in the night we would start from our
sleep, having seen in our dreams exaggerated processions passing
before us, burdened with the sanguinary loads of slain and dis-
membered bodies."

The Basongo sell slaves and children as food : children will
eat their own parents as soon as they show signs of decrepitude.
One man who accidentally killed his father expressed regret that
he could not eat him, being forbidden by taboo, but he gave the body
to his friends for them to eat.

It is no unusual thing to see women carrying portions of
human flesh in baskets suspended from their heads, to serve as
provisions during a journey.

The Niam-Niam allow women and children to eat human
flesh, but the men themselves must only eat those whom they have
killed in battle.

On the Mubangi River, slaves are kept and fattened for the
butcher. The purchaser feeds them up, kills them, and sells the
meat in small joints, and what remains unsold is smoked. Some
tribes are said to prefer the flesh of women and children to that

160 ' THE OPEN COURT.

of men. One African traveler tells us that he never bought flesh
of any kind in the market for fear it might be human.

.Among the Baluba, only those who are initiated into the secrets
of a certain sect are allowed to eat human flesh, which is done
secretly. Some of the victim's bones are burnt and the cinders
put into a small pot on which a larger pot is placed upside down.
A pin is then attached to the smaller pot and fastened by a cord
to a branch fixed in the ground. The object of this is to imprison
the victim's soul and thus prevent it doing harm to the living.

The Bambala will eat any corpse that is not in the last stage
of decomposition. The body is buried for two days before being
eaten ; a fire kept burning on the grave, the body is then exhumed,
cooked with manioc flour and practically all eaten.

The Fiji Islanders considered every unfortunate wrecked upon
their shores a fit candidate for their cooking-pots. When a canoe
was launched they celebrated the event by a cannibal feast, the man
to be cooked being decked out, and his face painted. After a
battle the bodies of the slain were dragged by ropes tied to their
necks, and in this manner taken to the temple where they were
offered to the gods. Afterward all the bodies were cooked and
divided among the men and the priests. During this time, every
restraint was laid aside. Sometimes the victims were not killed,
but were bound and placed alive in the ovens, and on special occa-
sions were even made to eat part of their own bodies.

The bodies were cut up by means of a bamboo knife, a special
fork with four prongs being used to convey the flesh to the mouth,
it being considered too sacred to be touched by human hands. The
bones of the dead were afterward placed in the branches of a tree.

The savages of the South Seas exercise a discriminating taste,
and show a decided preference for the flesh of John Chinaman to
that of John Bull. They say the Chinaman is a vegetable feeder
and his flesh is therefore sweet to the taste, whereas the white man
is frequently a hard drinker whose flesh is also rendered rank from
the habitual use of tobacco. Consequently the yellow man more
frcfjuently finds his way to the cooking-pot than does his white
brother.

In New Britain portions of the dead are sold to neighboring
tribes, and it is declared that the women are worse cannibals than
the men.

The natives of New Ireland hang up by the neck the bodies
of those killed in battle, washing and scraping them carefully. After
certain ceremonies have been performed the bodies are cut up into

SAVAOK LIFR y\ND CUSTOM. 161

small pieces, wrapped in tough leaves to make them tender and put
into ovens in the ground. I^'our days after the flesh is eaten. Their
own hodies are also rubhed with this "human" food, which now
resembles grease ; so fond are they of its odor, they do not wash
themselves for several days so tliat the smell of the flesh shall not
be lost.

A case is reported from New Guinea where a lad was partly
devoured by a crocodile ; his mother and sister finished what the
crocodile had left, the lad's flesh being eaten raw.

In Australia, when a child was weak, it was fed with the flesh
of an infant brother or sister to make it strong. These Australians
consider that the fat surrounding the kidneys is the most important
for consumption, as it contains the center of life ; the kidney fat
being frequently extracted while the victim is alive.

Sometimes a man killed in a fight will be skinned and eaten.
A burning stick is passed over the body which causes the skin to
peel ofY and leaves the corpse nearly as white as the body of a
white man.

The Cocomas of the Upper Amazon, after eating the body,
ground up the bones which were afterward put into fermented
liquor and drank.

In Nicaragua the head was cut ofif, the body cut up into small
pieces and boiled in earthen pots with salt and garlic and then
eaten by the chiefs with Indian corn. The head was neither cooked
nor eaten, but was placed on a stake in front of a temple.

Lionel Decla, while traveling in Central Africa, unknowingly
dined ofi human flesh on more than one occasion. The natives in
order to test the white man's knowledge, supplied his cook with
human flesh to see if the traveler found it out. Decla made several
meals before he did find it out and relates how he ate the flesh
with great relish and particularly enjoyed the grilled bones which
afterward turned out to be ribs of man and not ribs of beef !

Now comes the question: Why do men eat men? The custom
is not primarily due to hunger, because cannibalism is most rife in
those countries where the food supply is abundant. It is not due
to cruelty, or to the ferocity of the savage, because the cannibal
is usually a "gentleman" and most kindly in disposition, as Robert
Louis Stevenson found by experience. The Congo cannibals are
more advanced socially and far less bloodthirsty than tribes in the
same region which do not dine upon their fellows.

In many instances it was due to revenge — to punish the dead
man and destroy his spirit. Thus in Hayti, the thief was punished

162 THE OPEN COURT.

by being eaten. In Australia white men have frequently been de-
voured because of their cruelty to the natives. In the Xew Hebrides
it was usually a murdered or a detested enemy that was eaten.

In other cases it was to obtain the quahties of the dead. The
Ashantis ate a portion so that their own spirits and courage would
not waste away. In South Australia, only the old men and women
were allowed to partake, in order to obtain fresh vitality.

The eater was polluted by his act and frequently had to undergo
certain rites before he resumed his usual place in the community.
Thus the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia were not allowed
to eat any warm food for sixteen days ; even the spoon, dish, and
kettle must be thrown away four months after the act. Whenever
a man wished to leave the house, he had to do so by a secret door
at the back ; if he left by the usual opening the ghost of the dead
man was ready to pounce down upon him. In Melanesia, while
cutting up a human body, the operator covered his mouth and nose
for fear the spirit of the dead might enter into him and cause him
hurt.

Thus, while the savage may assign various, though to us un-
satisfactory reasons for devouring his own species, it will be obvious
that magical and religious motives are really at the bottom of the
rite. Abhorrent as this horrible and gruesome custom must appear,
it will be allowed that civilization has also its grave defects. As
Robert Louis Stevenson said of the South Sea cannibals, rightly
speaking it is far less hateful to cut a man's flesh when he is dead
than to oppress him while he lives. Weighing all the facts one is,
after all, inclined to agree with Joaquin Miller that civilized life
is a sort of moral cannibalism where souls eat souls, and where
men kill men in order to get their places !

In giving attention to the other sanguinary rite about to be
detailed, we must not forget that any preconception on our part
must necessarily prejudice our judgment.

Human sacrifices are acts which belong to a stage of civiliza-
tion in advance of that found among the very lowest races, although
the sacrifices themselves may be accompanied by cannibalism.

The sacrificial act was an act made either on behalf of an
individual or on behalf of the community at large. It appears to
have had two distinct objects— one to bring prosperity or avert
disaster— and the other, to provide attendants for the dead in the
land of spirits. In order to achieve these supposed results, hun-
dreds and hundreds of victims have been, from time to time, offered
u|) alive.

SAVAr.K lAVK ANIJ CUSTfJM. 163

In many parts, children were offered to the earth-spirits in
order to fertilize the soil and thereby ensure good crops. In other
cases, to avert famine, a child will be offered, as for instance during
a draught in India some years since, a lad was discovered in a temple
near Calcutta, with his throat cut and his eyes staring out of his
head.

In the same country, in order that a journey may prove suc-
cessful, a child was buried alive in a hole up to its shoulders ; loaded
bullocks were then driven over the poor little victim, and in pro-
portion as this trampling was thoroughly done, so was the journey
likely to prove an equally successful one.

It is stated that the Lambadis — a tribe of carriers known all
over southern and western India — up to a recent period carried off
the first person they met ; took him to a lonely spot, where a hole
was dug in the ground and the victim buried up to the neck. A
dough made of flour was then placed on his head and filled with
oil, four wicks were stuck in and set alight. The men and women
formed a circle, danced and sang around the victim until he expired.

A case is also recorded from India where a litigant made a
final appeal to the Privy Council in England, and to ensure success,
caught a harmless lunatic and killed him as a sacrifice in order to
obtain a successful issue to his cause.

In Oceania, in order to bring peace, two women were sacrificed.
The victims arrayed themselves in their best clothing, specially made
for the occasion, and their bodies were then oft'ered upon the altar.
The ears were divided between the two contending chiefs and the
noses among the political sovereigns, and thus was peace ".signed."

To make young braves courageous, the witch-doctor in South
Africa killed a boy and a girl, mixed their blood with that of an
ox, and then used it as a magical potion.

To ensure good crops, the Pawnees formerly sacrificed a young
girl, who had been carefully tended and fed for several months.
At the approach of spring, she was painted half red and half black,
then attached to a gallows, slowly roasted over a fire, and finally
shot to death w^ith arrows. Her heart was then torn out and de-
voured by the chief priest. The still quivering flesh was now cut
into small pieces and taken to the cornfield where a little of her
blood was pressed upon some grains of corn, in order to make the
crops plentiful.

In Africa, as elsewhere, human sacrifices were made to provide
attendants and wives for the deceased in the land of spirits. The
hill-tribes of North East India make raids specially for this pur-

164

THE OPEN COURT.

pose, upon the weak Bengali of the plains, and will kill their cap-
tives at the funeral of their chief in order to provide him with a
retinue in his new world.

The Hawaiians on making an expedition of great magnitude
offered victims to induce the gods to grant them victory by striking
terror in the hearts of their enemies. These victims were either
captives taken in battle or persons who deserved punishment for
ha\ ing broken their sacred laws. W'ar-gods were carried by the

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l-iR. 29.

HEAD OF W./^R-GOD OF THE

SANDWICH ISLANDERS.*

Fig. 30.

SACRIFICIAL DRUM OF THE

ASHANTIS.

(Photos by permission of the Trustees of the Britisli Museum.)

priests on to the field of battle, the body of the god being made of
wood and crowned by this helmet or mask (Fig. 29). All will
agree that the terrible and distorted features of this hideous image
were well calculated to strike panic in the hearts of the enemy.

The gods were kept in or near a palisaded enclosure which was
of considerable extent and of which offenders had the right of

♦Made of hasket-work from the aerial roots of a fig-tree; covered with
string net-work, overlain with beautiful red and yellow feathers. The eyes
arc of niother-of-])earl. The teeth are those of dogs or sharks. Human hair
adorns the top of the head.

SAVACI-: 1,1 FK AXi; CUSTOM, 165

sanctuary. Here dwelt tlie priests and lierc were buried kinj^s and
high chiefs.

During a sacrifice the victims were dragged by the priests into
the presence of the god and slain, and their bodies placed upon the
altar, face downward in front of the idol. Sometimes as many as
twenty persons were killed at one time.

In that land of blood, Ashanti, hundreds of victims were killed
at one time, on the death of important persons. The executions were
announced by the priests beating the celebrated sacrificial drum,
which was ornamented at the sides with human skulls and thigh-
bones (Fig. 30).

To prevent the victims screaming out or cursing their execu-
tioners, long knives or skewers were thrust through their tongues
and cheeks. The executioners rushed forward and lopped off the
right hands of their victims, which they threw at their feet and
then severed the heads from their bodies. The remains of the chief
having been placed in a basket, a man was called forward to assist
in lowering the corpse into the grave. While doing this he received
a severe blow at the back of his head by which he was stunned ;
he was then swiftly gashed in the neck and his body toppled into
the grave on top of the dead chief. The heads of the other victims
were deposited at the side of the corpse.

During the Ashanti harvest festival or "yam custom" which
took place in the autumn, large numbers were also put to death
every year. The festival was attended by all the chiefs under dire
compulsion. Executioners grotesquely adorned and with painted
faces danced and beat time with their long executioner's knives on
human skulls which they carried. Slaves and other persons wdio
were guilty of ofifenses were put to death and their blood placed
in a large brass pan, and mingled with a decoction of vegetable and
animal matter.

When danger threatened, a newly-born child, not more than a
few hours old, would be torn to pieces and its limbs and members
scattered around. If the country feared an invasion, men and
women were sacrificed and their bodies placed along the road by
which the foe must travel. Sometimes the corpses would be ex-
tended cruciform fashion and stakes driven through the bodies.
When the British under Lord Wolseley invaded Ashanti, the vic-
tims were placed along the road leading to the capital. Avith their
severed heads toward their advancing foe. and their feet toward
Coomassie.

The Kondhs of India systematically oflfered sacrifices to the

166 THE OPEN COURT.

earth-spirit to ensure good crops and to obtain immunity from
disease. Children who had not been guilty of any impurity were
purchased to be offered up. They were carefully tended, fed and
clothed at the public expense.

A month before the sacrifice the whole community indulged in
intoxication, danced and feted themselves. On the day before the
offering, a child was stupified with toddy and bound to the bottom
of the sacrificial post. The assembly now danced and addressed
the earth : "O god, we offer the sacrifice to you. Give us good
crops, seasons, and health." Then addressing the victim they cried:
"We bought you with a price and did not seize you. Now we sacri-
fice you according to custom and no sin rests with us." The fol-
lowing day the victim is again made drunk, anointed with oil and
carried in procession round the village. He is then seized and
thrown into a pit, his face pressed downward until he is suffocated
in the mud. The priest cuts off a portion from the body which is
buried near the village idol as an offering to the earth. All the
assembly now help themselves to a portion of the body and carry
their bloody prizes to their villages. The head and face alone are
left untouched.

Another method of sacrifice was to fix the victim to an image
of an elephant's head, rudely carved, which was fixed to the top
of a stout post on which it revolved — the victim being fastened
to the trunk. Amid the shouts and yells of the assembled multitude,
the disk was turned rapidly round, and at a signal given by the
priest the mob rushed forward and amid the shrieks of the little
victim, gashed the flesh from his body as long as life itself lasted.
The remains were then cut down and the skeleton burnt.

Sometimes the victim was dragged through the fields, sur-
rounded by screaming and gesticulating Kondhs who rushed upon
the victim, cut the flesh piecemeal from his body till he expired, then
the remains were burnt and the ashes mixed with new grain to
preserve it.

The following custom is said to be peculiar to the Kondhs of
Jeypore. A stout post was fixed in the ground and at the foot a
grave was dug. To the top of this post the sacrifice was secured
firmly by his hair. Then four men advanced, outstretched his arms
and legs, the body itself being suspended over the grave and facing
the earth. At different intervals the priest hacked the back of the
shrieking victim with his sacrificial knife, and as he did so, repeated
the following prayer :

'T) mighty one. this is your festal day. On account of this

SAVAf)!': MI'K AND CUSTfJM. 167

sacrifice you have given us kingdoms anrl sworrls. 'Jlie sacrifice we
now offer you must eat, and we pray that our battle-axes may be
converted into swords, and if we have any fjuarrcls with other tribes,
give us the victory. I 'reserve us from the tyranny of kings and their
officers."

He then addressed the victim and said:

"That we may enjoy prosperity we ofifer you a sacrifice to
our god, who will immediately eat you, so be not grieved at our slay-
ing you, you were purchased for sixty rupees, therefore no sin is
on our hands but on your parents."

The sacrifice is now decapitated, the body thrown into the
grave, but the head is left attached to the post to be devoured by
wild beasts.

Notwithstanding the efforts of the Indian government, probably
these sacrifices are still practised in secret, and only as recently as
1902 a district magistrate actually received a petition requesting
him to allow a human sacrifice to be performed.

Among the tribes of the Lower Mississippi, when a chief died,
the youngest wife and some hundred men offered themselves as
living sacrifices to the shade of the departed. The temple of sacri-
fice was built like the house of a chief, with the exception that it
had figures of three eagles which looked toward the rising sun.
High walls of mud surrounded this building, and upon the wall,
spikes were placed which held the heads of those killed in battle
or of persons who had been sacrificed to the sun. The center of
this temple contained an altar at the foot of which a fire was kept
burning continually by two old priests. If lightning set one of these
temples on fire, five infants were thrown into the flames to appease
the angered spirits.

When a chief was dead, his household esteemed it a great
honor to follow him hence. Dressing themselves in their best
finery, they repaired to the temple where all the tribe had assembled.
Having sung and danced, a cord of buffalo hair, made with a
running noose, was passed around them. The priest came forward,
and commanding them to join their master in the land of spirits,
strangled them, their bodies being afterward placed in a row in
the temple (Fig. 31).

Such are a few of those ciistoms practised by uncivilized man
which illustrate in a most forcible way that king of all beliefs — the
doctrine of a future life.

While one may well stand horrified at the manner in which
the savage gives expression to that belief, at those rites which to us

168

THE OPEN COURT.

are so gnicsomc and so sanguinary, yet one cannot fail to be moved
deeply by tbeir intensity and reality, and by the "sacrifices" which
primitive man is always ready to make on behalf of his creed. Xo
such "faith" exists in Christendom. That which ice call the doctrine
of a future life is but a flimsy shadow of that serious belief which is
so tenaciously held l)y those poor savages whom we so ignorantly

Fig. 31. IIUAIAX SACRIFICES IN LOL'ISIAXA.

Depicted by an artist in the early part of the eighteenth century.
( I'rom Lafitau, Ma-urs dcs Sanz'Ufics.)

despise. If life itself is real to the savage, death and the beyond
are yet more real. Hence he shapes his life as if death itself and
the continued life beyond counted for more than aught else. It has
been stated, over and over again, that those who went forward to
their slaughter, sang with joy and danced as if their happy time
had come at last, and willingly submitted themselves to the knife

I'ARACKI.SUS AS A TI 1 IlOI.OfWCAI, WKITKK. 169

of the executioner. There are lessons — and they are many — which
civilized man might well learn from his naked brother, and one of
those lessons is, that if faith and creed are to be held at all, they
should he acted as well as believed.

[to bk continued.]

PARACELSUS AS A THEOLOGICAL WRITER.^

r,V JOHN MAXSON STILLMAN,

UNTIL recently little notice has been taken of the very con-
siderable activity of Paracelsus (1493-1541) as a thinker and
writer on theology. To be sure, it was known from very early
records that Paracelsus had written works of this character. Even
the inventory of his personal effects recorded at Salzburg after
his death makes mention of a collection of theological manuscripts
presumably written by himself. So also Conrad Gesner in his Bib-
Uotheca Universalis (1545) says of Paracelsus that he composed
and dedicated to the Abbot of St. Gall, "I know not what theo-
logical works which I believe not to have been published. "-

Moreover there exists on record a receipt signed by Johann
Huser^ at Neuburg, October 10, 1594, for a collection of autograph
manuscripts by Paracelsus upon theological subjects. The collection
includes some twenty-five titles of works. Other lists of his theo-
logical writings are in existence dating from the latter half of the
sixteenth century. In 1618 a publisher, Johann Staricius, issued a
volume containing a few of these theological essays. In his preface
the editor asserts that he knows a place where nearly a cart-load
of the theological manuscripts may be found.*

Of all these manuscripts not one is now known to exist as auto-
graph, though Sudhoff's search through the libraries of Europe has
brought to light collections of copies in the libraries at Leyden,
Gorlitz, and elsewhere, some of these copies dating as early as 1564
to 1567, and many of them bearing titles included in the early list

1 The following is a chapter taken from a book on Paracelsus by Professor
Stillman which we intend to publish soon. — Ed.

2 Netzhammer, Thcophrastiis Paracelsus, p. 53.

3Joh. Huser had just pubHshed the medical, philosophical, and surgical
writings of Paracelsus (Basel, 1589-91).

■* Cf. Netzhammer, op. cit., p. 127.

170 THE OPEN COURT.

of autograj)!! manuscripts as receipted for by Iluser, or in other
early lists.°

These manuscripts borrowed by Huser from the library at Neu-
burg were manifestly intended to be used in the published collection
of his works. That they were not so used is easily explained by
the tenor of the contents of such as have been in part printed or
abstracted by SudhofT." For they are very outspoken and indeed
frankly heretical in their criticisms of many of the institutions and
observances of the Roman Church. Huser was himself a Roman
Catholic, and the publication of the works of Paracelsus by Huser
was undertaken under the patronage and with the support of the
Archbishop of Cologne. Though Paracelsus claimed allegiance to
the Catholic Church and died and was buried at Salzburg as a
Catholic, yet his views were so radical and so severely critical of
many of the essential doctrines of the Church, that their publication
could hardly have been possible under such support and super-
vision. Indeed it is evident that any wide circulation of his writ-
ings would have brought upon him the severest discipline of the
Church. Even the Lutheran clerical party would have had little
sympathy with his point of view. It is quite probable indeed that
Paracelsus himself made no effort to print them but rather avoided
their publication, preferring merely to place them in the hands of
congenial thinkers or to leave them for posterity.

It is certain that the revolt of his contemporary Luther, and
his countryman Zwingli, as well as the critical spirit of Erasmus
exercised a great influence upon Paracelsus — predisposed by nat-
ural temperament to independent and free thinking and criticism
of authority.

It should be kept in mind also that severe criticism of the
orthodox Church, its observances and corruption was quite pre-
valent even before the time of the Protestant Reformation. Thus
in Italy Macchiavelli writing about 1500 thus freely criticizes the
corruption of the Church: "Should we send the Curia to Switzer-
land, the most religious and martial of countries, that experiment
would prove that no piety nor warrior's strength could resist the
l)aj)al corruption and intrigue. .. .The peoples nearest Rome have
least religion. .. .We Italians have to thank the Church and the
priests that wc have become irreligious and corrupt."^

"' For stiitcmciits as to evidence of aiUlicnticity of many of these manu-
scripts, cf. Siullioff, I'crsuch cincr Kritik der Echthcit dcr Paracclsischen
Schriflcii, Vol. II, Introduction.

n I'crsuch etc., Vol. II.

T VV. Dilthey, Arcliii' fiir Gcschichtc dcr Philosophic, Vol. IV, pp. 636-7.

PARACia.SUS AS A Til KOI.DGICAr. WRITER.

171

ALTERIVS NON SIT Q;/I 5W5 ESSE POTEST

AVKE 0LV5 PHILIPPVS

AJB HOHENHEIM,

JeefmnaA' nabilium ^emmj P^RjICELSVS

Qua tntiLS JJeLuim clant Erenuu kamo.
<fcc ocmIos t/2r ore bJit, c-nm plunma Lrtyum
Z>ucendi ^ybiJio per locaJ^sxJ lUr

J. Tintortt a3 Inuum pirvnt

THEOPHRASTVS BOMBAST

DJCTVS PAR.'\CELSV'5

Lujk^ njium ct rrujdiitm. s^uzu L^firo anzt

■Lut/urum
Po/tqwe Cuos- tuftrvJUncnu, Erairm, roaoj
■/Ijcm iju our Jena J'epunbnj tua Juiiujt:
OjtaSi^Jburja nurx cuu-r^ (jUc jaunZ

■F Chauueau Jculpsit.

PARACELSUS BY TINTORETTO (?).^
Engraved by F. Chauveaii.

* May be by an artist of about 1520-25, when Paracelsus was in the Vene-
tian wars. Tintoretto was born 1518.

172 THE OPEN COURT.

So also Savonarola, the great Dominican monk — writing in
1493. the year of the birth of Paracelsus: "Go to Rome and through-
out all Christendom: in the houses of the great prelates and the
great lords, they busy themselves with nothing but poetry and
rhetoric. Go and see, you will find them with humanistic books
in their hands ; — it will appear as if they knew how to guide souls
by \ irgil, Horace, and Cicero. With Aristotle, Plato, \'irgil, and
Petrarch they feed their ears and do not trouble themselves about
the salvation of souls. Why do they not teach instead of so many
books, that one in which is contained the law and the life." The
prelates, said Savonarola, are sunk into ambition, shamelessness,
and luxury, and the princes — ''their palaces and courts are the
refuge of all beasts and monsters of the earth, asylums for all ras-
cals and criminals. These stream thither because they find there
opportunity and incitement to give free rein to all their boundless
desires and evil passions. . . .and what is worse, there also may be
seen churchmen who join in the same accord."^

Whatever stimulus may have been given to the unorthodox
theology of Paracelsus by the Protestant Reformation, it is evident
that he was not less critical and unsympathetic toward the Lutheran
interpretation than toward the Catholic. This is evidenced by many
passages in his writings wherein he refers to the Protestant leaders
of his day as false prophets, etc.

"Those who stand with the Pope consider him a living saint,
those who stand with Arianus" also hold him for a righteous man,
those who hold with Zwingli likewise consider him a righteous man.
those who stand with Luther hold him to be a true prophet. Thus
the people are deceived. Every fool praises his own motley. He
who depends on the Pope rests on the sand, he who depends on
Zwingli depends on hollow ground, he who depends upon Luther
depends on a reed. They all hold themselves each above the other,
and denounce one another as Antichrists, heathens, and heretics,
and are but four pairs of breeches from one cloth. It is with
them as with a tree that has been twice grafted and bears white
and yellow pears. Whoever opposes them and speaks the truth,
he must die. How many thousands have they strangled and caused
to be strangled in recent years."'"

"They pray in the temples — but their prayer is not acceptable

" Cf. Paulsen: Gcscliiclite dcs gclclirtcn Unicrrichts, 2d ed., Vol. I, pp.
10-11.

" I)otil)ilcss .'\riiis, founder of the Ariaii heresy.

'"Sudhoff. I'crsuclt etc., Vol. II. p. 411.

PARACia.SUS AS A TllVJ )\J )(,\(.\\. WKITF.R. 173

lo God, for it means nothing, and they are altogether, — Papists,
Lutherans, Baptists, ZwingHans: — they all boast that they are of
the Holy Ghost, that they are founded on the Gospel. Therefore
they cry 'I am right, — the right is with me, I declare the word of
God, here is Christ and his word as I tell it you, — follow me, I am
he who brings you the Gospel.' Sec what an abomination among
Philistines this is."'*

More specifically may be judged tlic extent of his departure
from the doctrines of his own Church in such ])assages as the
following:

"It is vain — the daily churchgoing and all the genuflection,
bowing and observances of church rules by clericals and the wordly,
■ — none excepted. — all a vain work with no fruits, — the will and
service of the Devil, — opposed to Christ and the Holy Trinity.
The reasons? — the Church is called in Latin CathoUca and is the
spirit of all true believers, and their coming together is in the
Holy Spirit. These are all in the faith, that is in the fides cathoUca,
and it has no place of worship. But Ecclesia is a wall" [i. e., the true
Church is in the spirit, the corrupt Church worships in walled build-
ings].

Continuing, he condemns public prayers in the churches, church-
festivals ("a dance of devils") — "God wishes a humble and contrite
heart and no devilish holiday observances, offerings, or displavs."
Fasting in the "walled churches'" is an invention of the Devil. The
giving of alms in the churches "does not serve toward eternal
blessedness." and the giving of alms in the Catholic churches comes
only from credulity and from no love from the neighbor 'nor for
the neighbor. Pilgrimages, dispensations, "running to the saints"
are all in vain and have no merit. The monastic orders, the re-
ligious orders of knighthood and the like are inventions of the
Devil and maintained in his honor. Spreading the faith bv the
sword is from the Devil.

"Who can presume to consecrate and bless the earth? It is
God's earth, blessed to. bring forth fruit; the water is blessed by
God to quench thirst, to breed fish, to water the earth, not to
sprinkle to banish the Devil as holy water."'-

Similar points of view are found expressed in his printed
works though naturally with less of detail in his criticism.

Thus from the Paramiruni : "God will only have the heart.
not ceremonies. . . .For every man is with God a neighbor and has

" Schubert-Sudhoff, Paracehusforschiingcn, Heft II, p. 153.
12 Sudhoff, Versuch etc., Vol. II, pp. 338ff.

174

THE OPEN COURT.

full power to take up his affairs with God. But if a man gives
this power out of his hands and does not keep what God has given

♦ ALTERIVS ]AO]/l SIT ♦ qj/1 SVV5 ES5E POTEST^

/* AVRZQU ^THEOPHRASTI A f\R ^'HOHtNi: ■

PARACELSUS THREE YEARS BEFORE HIS DEATH.*

him, but surrenders it to another and seeks it again from that
other, then he falls into ceremonies and depends upon despair.

* This portrait and the one following are by Augustin Hirschvogel (c.
1503-1569), engraved after sketches from life. The signature reproduced
underneatli reads : "Theophrastus von Hohcnhcim, der Heiligen Schrift und
beider Arzneien Doctor."

PARACKI.SUS AS A Til KfM/KHCAl, WKITKR.

175

For every ceremony is the way of despair. ... For if we have
anything to receive from God it is our hearts he sees and not the
ceremonies. If he has given us anything, he does not wish that
we should employ it in ceremonies but in our work. For he gives
it for no other purpose but that we should love God with all our
heart and our might, and soul, and that we should help our neighbor.

PARACELSUS IN HIS LAST YEAR.

If that which he has given us helps toward that, all ceremonies will
be forgotten. "^^

That such expressions as the above are not to be harmonized
with the doctrines of the Church to which he claimed allegiance
would appear obvious. The Rev. Raymund Netzhammer of the
Benedictine order, one of the recent biographers of Paracelsus,
thus expresses himself upon this point:
13 Op. fol., I, 114-115, "Paramirum."

170 THE OPEN COURT.

"Far more in the domain of theology than even in medicine,
does Paracelsus, who sometimes calls himself Doctor of Sacred
Scrii)ture, seem to recognize no authority, but to consider his own
thinking and philosophizing as authoritative for him. That with
this princij)le of free investigation, denying every authority, even
that of the Church, he departed from the foundations of Catholic
doctrine every well-informed person knows. But not only by this
principle as such, but still more through its practical development
did he separate himself from the faith of his fathers: he combatted
the hierarchical establishment of the Church, the power of the keys,
its monastic orders, its ceremonies, its public prayers and devotions.
He rejected preaching among Christians, who should teach them-
selves from the Scriptures, and banished the apostles and preachers
to the heathen .... It must, however, not be denied, but on the
contrary emphasized that Theophrastus possessed a very high,
though unfortunately too mystical a concept of many doctrines
and sacraments, as for instance of hereditary sin, of baptism with
its inextinguishable symbols, and notably also of the communion.
Baptism and communion are for him the two principal roads which
lead to Heaven."^*

The question as to his orthodoxy has been viewed differently
by his biographers. His editor Huser mildly defends his Catholi-
cism. "Some are inclined to hold him in suspicion on account of
his religion, because in various places he speaks in opposition to
certain abuses: in my opinion this is unjust, for, as concerns his faith,
it is well known that he did not separate frorn the holy Catholic
and Roman Church, but remained in obedience to it. as the Arch-
bishopric and City of Salzburg can bear witness, where he died in
the year 1541. a Catholic and Christian and was honorably in-
terred."

Schubert and Sudhoff summarize the results of their studies
into the life and character of Paracelsus thus:

"If we consider his attitude toward the religious parties of the
time, we may perhaps find that in the years before 1531 he felt
some inclination toward the Reformation of Luther and Zwingli.
perhaps only in so far as he presumed in them who had broken
in matters of faith with ancient tradition, a greater sympathy also
with his reform ideas in the domain of medicine and natural
science. .. .Later — after the year LS31 — there is no further talk
of sparing the Protestants. On the contrary, if he also combatted
the Roman hierarchy, the external forms of worship and other
1* Nctzhammcr, op. cil., pp. 128-9.

PARACELSUS AS A THEOLOGICAL WRITER. 177

ceremonials, he yet rejects all dissenting relif(ious ];arties as 'sects,'
almost even more violently."''^'

Though none of the theological papers of Paracelsus was pub-
lished during his life, so far as is known, yet his views were more
or less known, either from manuscript copies, or from his free
oral expressions, and evidently brought upon him the displeasure
and disapproval of Catholic authorities. Evidence as to this appears
in a manuscript among the collection examined by SudhofT and pub-
lished in large part in his volume on the manuscripts of Paracelsus.

The extract translated below is so eminently characteristic of
his point of view in theological matters and so well illustrates his
relation at the time to the orthodox theology, that it forms one
of the most interesting expressions of his spiritual experience.

"Your daily disputations and sharp attacks upon me on account
of my truth-speaking, namely, that I have sometimes and several
times in taverns, inns, and roadhouses spoken against useless church-
going, luxurious festivals, vain praying and fasting, giving of alms,
offerings, tithes,. . . .confession, partaking of the sacrament, and all
other priestly rules and observances, and have accused me of
drunkenness on account of this, because this has taken place in
the taverns, and the taverns are held to be inappropriate places for
the truth ; — and that you call me a corner-preacher ; — Why do you
do this to me at this time, when you were silent and well pleased
when in the taverns I advised people to give offerings to you and
to follow you and not speak against you? If that was proper in the
inns and was of service to you, — then let it please you now that the
truth is spoken in the inns. For then in the inns I was a believer
in you, but now I am a believer in Christ and no longer in you.
And if I came into the inns with you, then I would say to these
same people, 'Guard yourselves against false prophets and deceivers
who are sent by the Devil.' I would never again speak of giving
to you, but of taking away from you, the usurped power which
you have long exercised through the Devil's power. . . .Also you say
of me that I have just sense enough to reason with peasants. . . .
You say I should go amongst the doctors at Lowen [Louvain].
Paris, Vienna, Ingolstadt, Cologne, where I should. have real per-
sons under my eyes, not peasants, not tradesmen, but masters of
theology. Know then my answer to this : to those will come their
own equals. If it be not I, it will be another, but my teaching and
my witnessing for Christ will come forth and overcome them.
Christ never came to Rome, yet Rome is His vicar ; St. Peter never
15 Schubert-Sudhofif, op. cit.. Heft II, pp. 152-3.

178 THE OPEN COUKT.

came to Cologne, yet he is her patron saint, and if in the end I do not
come that is not my fanlt. For the teaching is not mine, it is from
Christ. He will send a Netherlands messenger if I cannot speak
the language, and to those of \'ienna and Ingolstadt he will send
their countrymen, and the truth will be born amongst them and
through them will come to light and not through me. And when
I am dead the doctrine will live on, for it is of Christ, who dieth
not. And if I were at Louvain and at Paris it is not me they would
punish, — upon which you count, — they would but punish Christ and
not me. Yet I believe that my speaking to-day will be heard by
them as well as if I had spoken in their presence. For Christ does
not let his word be lost at any time. Nor does he let it lie hidden,
it must go forward. It is not for one alone, it must be spread
abroad. Everything must be opened to it.

"You complain much and loudly that I have made the peasants
contumacious, so that they never make offerings and care little for
you or not at all. Consider, — if my speech were from the Devil,
they would follow you and not me. But as they follow me and
not you believe no else than that the Holy Spirit is in them which
teaches them to recognize your character, trickery, and great false-
hoods. For I have not invented anything myself. — what I have
said that is from the Holy Ghost. It is the Gospel. .. .and has
been the Gospel from the time of Christ till this day. But your
trickery is more ancient — from Cain and from the old hypocrites and
bishops. The new [Gospel] is true, the old false. The new con-
demns the old, not the old the new. Were the Old Testament
from which you take all your deceptions fully good and true, Christ
would not have renewed it again."'®

The doctrines of theology which Paracelsus accepted appear
not only from the above strong statement but consistently from
numerous extracts throughout his works to be his own literal inter-
pretation of the teachings of Christ. He asked for no intermediate
authority to interpret to him their meaning, and entertained no
doubts as to the correctness of his own rendering. That he was
deeply impressed with the spirit of the teachings of Christ often
shows itself, particularly in its practical relation to the service of
man toward his fellow. Love and helpfulness for the neighbor,
the poor, and the sick are frequent themes of his appeals.

Among the manuscripts which Sudhoff has reproduced is a
sermon containing an autobiographical fragment, manifestly written

1" SiidhofF, Versuch etc., Vol. II, pp. Zii^. "Dc scptem punctis Idolatriae
Christianae."

PARACii;r.su.s as a TirKor.oorcAL writer. 179

in his later years, which is retrospective and introspective, and so
completely in accord with the known facts of the life of Paracelsus,
that it hears the strongest possihle internal evidence of genuineness.
The manuscript is at Leyden and is a copy made between 1590 and
1610. Copies of somewhat later date exist also in Copenhagen,
Salzburg and the British Museum, the latter in a Latin version.

For the estimation of the personality and mental experiences
of Paracelsus, it is too important to be omitted.

"As I have undertaken to write of the blessed life of Christian
faith, it has not seemed proper to attempt to portray that without
this introduction. .. .Therefore I have undertaken to write this
preface to the blessed life of Christian experience that I may excuse
my delay in writing this book, as I began working upon it in the
twentieth year [1520]. Why I have so long postponed and delayed
has not happened without reasons. One of these is that youth
should not come forward before its proper time, as nothing should
appear before its time, but should await the determined hour
toward which we all progress. For another reason, not only my
youth, but that other matters of my profession have prevented me,
namely that astronomy, medicine, and works in philosophy had to
be described, that is to say, that which concerns the Light of
Nature, so that I had to leave for a later harvest the Sacred
Writings ; — that they might be well ripened, they have been postponed
to the end and the lessser things completed first. These are two
reasons that have strongly influenced me. But not only from these
causes has the delay arisen, but much more from this that I was
raised and grew up in great poverty so that my resources have not
permitted me to act according to my desires.

"And even when I had nearly finished there arose in my affairs
public and private, much opposition which has lain on my shoulders
alone, and there has been no one to hold back and shield for me.
For very strange kinds of people have persecuted and accused me
and hindered me and discredited me, so that I have had little repu-
tation among men but rather contempt. For my tongue is not built
for chattering but for work and for the truth. That is the reason
that I have not counted for much with the logicians and dialecticians
in medicine, philosophy, and astronomy. Also their pomp and dis-
play and fine speeches for princes and the rich, — I have been noth-
ing like that, and have therefore been forsaken. So also has greatly
tormented me the winning of my bread [dcr Pfliig mciner Nahning].
For the world is not to be gained by astronomy, as it has little value
except for itself, nor by medicine, as it has not power over all

180

THE OPEN COURT.

Wcr hocJi^ckrc niJ ticfsm/i/a naCun. n /».«'/

henkmn, betderjrtzaieicn '/)or^r

i2'

loi oirJtant ■mtmfmncttaciL: -nyitn

jtU Ptflili7rtx,Sd'!«g,Fi>lknd/uche,
JlufsaLy-tmi Zigifrfci Verruclit,
Sati^t nire krmMeit tnmchertrc
t&r iT^ehcile itr htchgtlare
'iitt txtrfrin lUr Mtltre/,
So chfser m iler^irezrnef
ft r vnJ naci /Mm h finer hm ,
I'iT Ihm hierm dinjrns teaam
Jtuffcs ianmhvtmTtupJf^nt,
Htfitlb p/ fha , !ichnm,»ch nan
Encdicke <lerKwi/?niaihm all,
Jtjffhrmch, alya-^TtpiJgmttn fall

TOO if\idSSd(t/hjtmon. ai
ihmJjefiaUiT, /151A insculfi

ooNDrrvR mc pHiLippvf; the

OPHiA5TV5 TNSIGNIS ^fEDICIKfli
DOCTOR, QVl DIRA nXAVVU<ERA
LEPRAM.POEAGRAMHl-DRDPISIM.
AIIAQV'E IKyAKABIIIA CORPORIS
CONTAOA MDUFrCA AHIE S-VST\xrr,
.AC BONA. S\A IN PAVPEKES DISTKIBVtDA
COLbOCANDAgVE ROfKOBAVIT. AKNO M O

Ob era Kilgn ScWiffiJhiitre,
lArJc auifimn htchen gnitg frthm -
Dan aiuseim tc/ iierhaJirt/SnKn

Jits -mm rOmlv^ErJn i/t ,
iOu/t J,e/?rD<x^hr zaUcr fhif.
Vich var tr ft ait drr fchKanzr ha/f.
Die mm Vm huchage at mgunft .
Auch thilcfyhisch firm httgiadic,
Dowf <he Tnntcin tnJer hnckc
Vm deet.Dtrzu the grclm mecatt
Kit erfeu, smien kemen all
JxtHher vnim rttes Cfslc
Vfr vi!r nmfctchcm nchc fim Mc .
J^t afl sein^c den armev^eie^ ,
Cjcr^ebjlm /erz <Ut emgtehn

:?5

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_ Fhilosophische vndBiblischeSprud>eTheophra/ii .

<2j>ait lalcnhieeht itlmnMr/mller fir/u:H.',^cn UntEem . Qtt p/U.frtlinme^haauDewemfhlaefienamewgt

__yffi^irt- gain svjrven Qatj SiesTcvfeh aler fiitit em^it
♦ Jchigtmi icUaefgaan. 'mtfhiJa, daxiu allnxJUirr Mfprfi- Jasjch ttcher wir.e^

I tQ.l.-)< vc V iu laeiaE.'iftfir hhe, r»V er mric mc* fenacb a-Jjer erjen'aifmprzteii, vtid»<rie fienui wot,
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r~huh i^Drr mrnsch vem veiie gebtren lebee em harz e ■Leit.vniiii rat itrnJie^^eirc aafiere em b/m vnifcic »b ert
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JP«i. J, .MirhhrlcT, mrb Jtt
OlcTO. n.iefir ieiner lebbmfmer, vndheiurfMt mfilhcr

emJte mje nor baben mUs,

--,■- -, , , — rjintr fhrh vH fiHer leben mrJS

Jannl mUbn utirfhriexftfijt nr JuUareM . SeJegnnfiJci lot £e lOelc vberimdea ._/<

wrjfcf i-itrjehen. •
leira m ziel bate, vnjjeh itauca mufi .
leiex Btr rfn» I/rrrrt/ttrien inr/s/Arioi »iri

nETPOy MOPEAAOY.

EUoif raxSfiimm Gfo0^«oi HafcixiXe
"liiK^va -rill (JuOTu! J/M^f (yuy TOp»<roXi

K ax -oaXmiSv Te x(Woy (U<<u; xcfu^uinyASjjvii.
I,lft/iru< 7 ocinulj av iri troiSt? iSk^v .

Tif t'zxu^ £Ma; , ii/ ^«ta ^t/iie hnpSi^soA m.

Tiii fxsiBaf flaO^UK, yupti xtveftumi, ijiwW,

TiiiuaCMtfiiOjcK^uaUKtuttfx/a Hpit ,

Wi t iimam!y<,,m<~jX, 7'iniiptr»aTi larOifi,
He cii iiar ivmtf.uiti'iri 6MS/>i&~' .

GILLH PrNAYT^UCSS©

^Twcm ytienr^raeKr ccntnr^arevivT^mon

CimTaraceffiim ccntfieii effyiem. ■
Trj/ca tetace tuant qttor^uef cAirt^tvimtaiB

(^rtwn:^erTrjMnus eentmet vmts /ramo ■
Alter J^rr^ca ^^ylnae^r^vroi^e er*

JjlgemoAi^uas ju tSijtirfit yes .
TlEus eJct^TrtrJcntari Ascera tertK^ ,.

'£.xee&ftc_potnjr*ndrrc tnr^JiC .
•S-ifue Ttutntart hoc tenir Cae^/ha &ai ,

n^rjfc^ns /snfu enemermre £es

IMus et~£tTi^fTc jun^jm-ere rtemfet

yi (fer/us v^jG fa tuuT^cj!,

BROADSIDE ON PARACELSUS (before 1606).
Engraved by Balthasar Jeniclicn after originals by 1 lirschvogcl.

PARACKI.SdS AS A TUE()].()(:]C.\]. WKITKU. 181

diseases, nor by philosophy [i. c, natural pliilosophy| Hkewise, as
it is held in contempt, but by tradesmen's wealth and courtly man-
ners. That has been a cross to me and still is to this day.

"Nor has all this been the least:. . . .^fhe other [reason] is so
great that I can hardly describe it, — that is the greatest cause which
has hindered me from writing, — that I have not been considered a
true Christian, — that has troubled me severely. For because I am
a creature of God. redeemed by His blood and through it have
received food and drink in the new birth, — that has seemed suffi-
cient to me to make me a true Christian.

"But there has arisen against me another crowd and faction
who say, 'Thou as a layman, as a peasant, as a common man,
shouldst not speak of such things as pertain to the Sacred Scrip-
tures, but shouldst listen to us — to what we tell you and hold to that,
and shouldst listen to no others nor read anything except us alone !'
I was thus forced into a delay, — I hardly dared to stir, for they
were powerful in this world, — I had to endure it as one who must
lie under the stairs.

"But nevertheless when I read the cornerstone of Christendom
and heard the preaching and disputations of the others (it was
like a miller and a coal-heaver against each other), it became
necessary for me and manifest that I should accept rather the
truth than lies, rather righteousness than unrighteousness, rather
light than darkness, rather Christ than Satan. When I perceived
the difference I let the opposition go without contradiction and
accepted for myself the Christian cornerstone. As I then found
that in the layman, in the common man, in the peasant (which
name they employ when they would abuse their opponents most
scornfully), the perfection of the blessed Christian life most abides,
and not at all in those others, then I began to write of the truth
of the life of Christ. When I had then finished the writing and
concluded with much hope, there broke out the division of the
kingdom of this world as it now is [i. e., the Reformation?]. So
I d:layed and took pause — postponed it till another autumn and
harvest. It has now seemed good to me to make an end, and so
to close with these books, the fruits of the seed which has been
with me from the beginning.

"Therefore I have included in one work the relation of Chris-
tians to the blessed life and likewise the relation of Christians to
the unblessed life. .. .Those in the unblessed life are great, are
arrogant, — they own the world, it is theirs, — they are the children
of the light of the world. But the blessed — they have not the

182 THE OPEN COURT.

world — but they have their kingdom which is not of this world
but of the Eternal, and with the Eternal : where two of the blessed
life are together, there is Christ the third. Those are the riches
that they have in this world. And although those who have opposed
me have greatly hindered me. they have not suspected what has
lain in my pen ; — I have kept my mouth closed, that the storm and
the thunderbolt should not strike me to earth. Thereby I have
brought it forward till this day and have not troubled myself about
them, but have held companionship with the common people of
whom they are ashamed and ha\c myself therefore been despised.
This has been my preparation for this work."'"

THE TAOIUD OX DREA^FS.

I'.V JL'LIL'S J. PRICK.

THE human mind has at all times sought to arrive at some ex-
planation of what on the surface appears mysterious or wonder-
ful. Man through the centuries of his development has endeavored
to account for these strange phenomena of his sleeping hours that
we call dreams.^ The suspension of the will-power clothes the ideas
with reality ; and, as a result, one man acts many parts.^ The phe-
nomenon of dreams has not only occupied the minds of the super-
stitious, but it has engaged the careful attention and earnest study
of the scientist'' as well as the scholar.* by reason of its points of
contact"' with other mental conditions.'"' A scientific study of dreams
proves that there is a similitude between the suspension of the
higher mental activities known as the dreaming state, and the in-
stinctive state of human development observed in the lower orders
of human and animal life.

T)Ut though these phenomena might seem to the average man
of to-day to be but a "state of mind."" yet we find that even such

'■ Siulhoff, J'crsitcli etc.. Vol. II, pp. 406-408.

1 Plutarch, De flacitis philosophorum, V, 2, pp. 904f.

- Xenoplion, Cyrop., VIII, 21 ; cf. also Cicero, Dc diviii., I, 30-63.

3 Aristotle, De hisomniis, II.

* .T^^schyhis, Prom., 485 f.

^ Hcsiod, Theog., 211; also Euripides, I ph. Taur., 1262.

" Maimonides however rcpardcd dreams as a form of prophecy; see Guide
of the Perplexed, tr. by M. Friedlander, p. 240.

T Cf. Odyssey, XIX. 562f. tr. by Butcher and Lang.

Tin-: TALMUD ON DREAMS. 183

a cyclopedic work as the Tulmiul has endeavorcfl to give an ex-
planation of tlie observed facts. Let us then Ijriefly see what the
Rabbis have to say on the siiljject.

In one passage we lind that the Rabbis are of the opinion that
we dream at night what we think in the daytime. Rabbi Jonathan
said:** "It is the thoughts of his heart during the day which appear
to a man in a dream ; for it is said : 'As for thee, O King, thy thoughts
come into thy mind upon thy bed' (Dan. ii. 29)." Rava observed:
"It must be so ; for they never show to a man a golden tree or an
elephant passing through the eye of a needle," inasmuch as man
never thinks of these.

The expression, "thoughts of his heart," sounds like an antici-
pation of the Freudian theory of "wish-fulfilment." Is Professor
Freud acquainted with this interpretation of dreams in the Talmud,
and, if so, may he not possibly have been unconsciously influenced
thereby ?

A further utterance of the kind we have referred to is to be
found in several other passages of the Talmud, one of which reads
as follows:" "Caesar said to Rabbi Joshua ben Chananyah [who is
supposed to have been a contemporary of Trajan] : 'You say that
you are exceedingly wise ; tell me what I shall see in my dream.'
He replied : 'You shall dream that the Persians will make you work
for them, spoil you, and make you tend cattle with a golden crosier.'
He thought of it the whole day and saw it at night." The Talmud
has still another passage, as proof of the above, in the following:
"Shevur, the king of Persia [perhaps this is none other than Sapor'°
who took A'alerian prisoner] , once said to Samuel the Babylonian :
'You say that you are exceedingly wise ; tell me what I shall see in
my dreams ?'^^ He replied : 'You shall see the Romans come and
take you prisoner and compel you to grind date-kernels with golden
grinders.' He thought of it the whole day and saw it at night."

In another instance we find that the Rabbis are of the opinion
that it is not the dreams but the interpretation that we give of
dreams that is really realized.^- Thus Rabbi Beris related of the
aged Rabbi Benaab that "one day he went to all the twenty-four
interpreters at Jerusalem to tell them his dream. Each gave a
different interpretation and each was fulfilled — which, says the

8 Berachoth, 55b. ° Berachotli, 56a.

10 Meyer's Ancient History, Part II, p. 149, note 1.

" Berachoth, 56a.

12 Cf. Apuleius, Mctam., IV, 910; ibid., II, 125.

184 THE OPEN COUKT.

rabiji, coiihrms the sayinjjj that it is the interpretation and not the
dream that is reahzed."'"'

The Rabbis give various interpretations of the jjhenomena sup-
posed to have been seen in dreams. In one case I find that the
Rabl)is state: "If one dreams that he is excommunicated he requires
ten tnen to absolve him."'* Another passage reads as follows:
"Among the four wise men.'' he that secth Rabbi Yochanan ben
Xuri in a dream may hope to be a sin-eschewing man; if Rabbi
l-lleizer ben Azaryah. he may hope to be a great and rich man ; if
Rabbi Ishmael, he may hope to l)e a wise man ; if Rabbi Akiba. let
him appreiiend misfortune."

The Rabbis also give an interpretation of the meaning of
various animals seen in a dream. For example, we read: "He that
seeth a goose"' in a dream may hope for wisdom: for it is said:
AVisdom crieth in the streets' (Prov. i. 20) [and so do;s a goose].
rr?!; Nnni will be made the head of a seat of learning.'" At this
Rabbi .\shi remarked : 'I had such a dream and was thus promoted.' "

In another passage we read as follows: "If one sees a dog in
a dream, let him when awake say: 'Rut against any of the children
of Israel shall not a dog move his tongue' (Ex. xi. 7), before he
is anticipated by the text: 'Th?y are greedy dogs' (Is. Ivi. 11). If
he sees a lion in a dream let him when awake say: 'The lion hath
roared, who will not fear?" (Amos iii. 8), before he is anticipated
by the text: 'The lion is come u]) from his thicket' (Jer. iv. 7).
If he sees a bullock in a dream, let him when awake say: 'His glory
is like the firstling of his bullock' (Dent, xxxiii. 17), before he is
anticipated by the text: 'If an ox gore a man' (Ex. xxi. 28)."'*

In two cases we find that dreams'" accurately foretold events
that were to occur in the lives of several of the Rabbis.-" "Ben
Damah, the son of Rabbi Ishmael's sister, said to his uncle: 'I have
seen in a dream both my cheeks drop off.' The latter replird: Two
Roman military bands have resolved to do thee mischief, but they
died!' P.ar Kappora said to Rabbi Judah-han-Xasi : T have seen
in a dream my nose drop off.' The Rabbi replied: 'Some one's
anger against thee has been subdued.' 'I have seen in a dream
both my hands cut off.' He rejilicd : 'Thou wilt be spared manual

'3 Berachoth, 55b. '* Nedarim, 8a.

If' Avoth d'Rav. Nathan, Cliap. XLI. "' Rcrachotli. 57a.

'■'The words given in Hebrew are untranslatable, but tboir import can
easily be ascertained by reference to a lexicon.

'"Berachoth, 56b. '» Cf. Pliitarcli, / '//. Pclop., XXI.

2«Cf. ^schylus, Bum., 104, and Pindar, Frag. 108 (Bcrgk).

Till': T.\l..\Ii;i) ox DKICAMS. 185

labor.'"-' Another example is found in the following f|Uotation :
"Rahl)i Yochanan hen Zakai saw in a dream, the night following
the Day of Atonement, that his sister's son would lose one thou-
sand seven hundred denars in the course of a year.-- Tie therefore
asked them again and again for sums of money to he given to the
poor, till, on the eve of the next Day of Atonement seventeen denars
remained with them of the sum they were destined to lose.-"' On
that very day the government of Csesar demanded seventeen denars
of them. Rabbi Yochanan told them that they need not fear lest
more should be exacted from them. 'And how dost thou know it?'
they asked.-* He told them of his dream u^hich had induced him
to make them distribute the doomed money in charity. 'But why,'
they asked, 'didst thou not tell us of it before?' 'I wanted you,'
said he, 'to give the money from a pure motive.' "

Various counsels are given by the Rabbis as to what is to be
done in the case of a dream being forgotten or left uninterpreted.
The following would take place when a dream was forgotten,
according to the interpretation of Mar Zutra and Rabbi Ashi :
"Whosoever has had a dream and cannot call it to mind, let him
stand before the priests when they spread out their hands to bless
the people, and say : 'Lord of the Universe, I am Thine and my
dreams are Thine ; I have dreamed a dream and know not what
it is ; wh-ther I have dreamed about myself, whether my neighbors
have dreamed about me, or whether I have dreamed about others ;
if the dreams be good, strengthen and confirm them, like the
dreams of Joseph ; if they require healing, heal them as the bitter
waters were by Moses, as Miriam was healed of leprosy. Hezekiah
of his illness, and the waters of Jericho by Elisha. and as Thou
didst turn the curse of the wicked Balaam into a blessing, so turn
all my dreams into good.' "-' On the other hand, if a man had
dreamed, and his dream was interpreted as of ill omen, the Rabbis
prescribed as follows. Rabbi Chanan said : "A man should not
despair of mercy, even when the master of dreams has told him that
he should die to-morrow ; for it is said : 'In the multitude of dreams,
and many vanities and words, fear but God' (Eccles. v. 7).""-''

While the Rabbis at various times stated that dreams were of
comparatively small significance, and in many cases that little atten-

21 Berachoth, S6b.

22 Cf. Plato, Crito, 44b; also Herodotus, III, 124, and Plutarch, Cimon
XVIII, p. 490.

23 Cf. Iliad, XXIII, 65 ; also Odyssey, IV, 796f, and XIX, 536f.

24 Bava Bathra. 10a.

25 Berachoth, 55b. 2c Berachoth, 10b.

186 THE OPEN COL-RT.

tion was to be paid to them, yet I have found Oiie instance where
the Rabbis urge the interpretation of dreams. For according to
Rabbi Chisda a dream not interpreted is Hke a letter not read, [of
no consequence, says Rashi. for all depends upon the interpreta-
tion] ; if so. Joseph was guilty of deliberate murder. Rabbi Chisda
further said: "Neither a good dream nor a bad dream is wholly
realized" : again. "A bad dream is better than a good dream ; for
a bad dream is neutralized by the sadness it causes, and a good
dream is realized by the joy it brings."-^

We s e then that although some Rabbis regarded dreams as
of no consequence, yet some.-** on the other hand, were able to
foretell future events'-" as well as ward off hardships that were to
come upon them. Although dreams in general are made little of,
vet people""' from the earliest times" to the present day have believed
in them as something more than the result of a full stomach or a
cherished thought.

DREA^IS.

P.V T. B. STORK.

APROPOS of Professor Freud's "Interpretation of Dreams,"
> which for the last few years has called forth considerable dis-
cussion. T would like to call attention to a theory of dreams pub-
lished some years ago, whether strictly new and original I know not,
but which seems at least simpler and less open to the charge of
being fantastic.

According to this view, dreams arc what niiglU l)c called blind
perceptions ;. that is. they are the efforts of our perceptive faculty
to form an intelligible p.rception with defective materials. An
example will best illustrate the idea.

We are all familiar with the story of the dreamer who dreamed
ihat he had enlisted in the army, was guilty of some grave offense
for which he was condemned to death, and was just about to be

-■ ncniclwth, 55a.

2s Cf. Pausanias, IX, xxxix. 5f, wlierc we arc told tliat the oracles of
Trophonins and /Esculapius were drcam-oraclcs wliere the sick slept, seeking
means of cure, and wliere those who desired to know future events went to
(jhtain it tlirnngh dreams.

"" Xenophon. writing al)oiit tlie retreat of the 10.000, states that he con-
stantly depended on dreams. Cf. liis Hip Inarch., I, 1 ; also Cyncgct., I, If.

''o Hippocrates, I, 63.3, Dc iusoniiiUs; cf. also Artemidorus, Oiicir, passim.

3i///«rf, II. 322f.

DREAMS. 187

sliot. The sound of the guns of the execution awakened him and
he heard the sound of a door slamming with a loud bang; this not
only aroused him from his slumber, but was the active cause of his
dream, which he had dreamed in the interval elapsing between the
first sound of the slamming door and his actual awakening: of this
the explanation is quite easy and satisfactory.

The auditory nerves of the slumberer had conveyed to his con-
sciousness a loud sound ; it had intruded, so to speak, on a con-
sciousness empty of all other sensations, and the perceptive faculty
working in an automatic way had endeavored to form a rational
perception of the sound, but with no other material than the sen-
sation of the sound itself. This was impossible. In order to form
a rational perception of the sound and make it intelligible, it was
absolutely essential to have other sensations, other material, to build
up the perception, and in the absence of any real sensations, the
perceptive faculty called upon memory and from its store of past
sensations, drew the materials that were wanting, supplied guns as
the source of the sound and accounted for the guns by the rest of
the events of the enlistment, misbehavior, etc., these latter not
being perhaps essential to the immediate perception of the sound,
but required by the sensations or material, the guns etc., invented to
make the perception of the sound possible. A rational perception
of a sound all by itself is impossible for the mind, it cannot perceive
in the philosophical sense a sound by itself with nothing but a sound,
no sensation from any other organ of perception, accompanying it.
Yet, on the other hand, there is a sensation of sound presented to
consciousness, real, persistent, that will not be denied or set aside,
and so the perceptive faculty must do something with it, must form
an intelligible perception containing it, and so for want of any other
material, it catches up from memory any odd or end that will help
make it rational, much as a woman might take up from her work-
table any piece of finery or stuff to complete a garment. It is a
sudden, 'almost instantaneous operation that flashes through the
consciousness during the short time between the slumberer's hear-
ing the noise and his awakening to full consciousness.

Here undoubtedly is the source of one large class of dreams ;
that is. of dreams caused by some external irritation of the senses,
and is it not quite likely, reasoning from analogy, that the dreams
of a different class, those which are not directly traceable to any
external irritation of the senses, may be caused by other less obvious
internal irritations, obscure nerve-excitements transmitted by the
bodily organs when not in a normal condition? There is a storv

188 TIIK OIMIN roLKT.

of a woman who had a dream that her hushand was being executed ;
she awoke with a sensation of horror at the dreadful occurrence.
Xot long after she was taken with an attack of smallpox ; it is rea-
sonable to supi)Osc that, some prognosticating symptom of the dis-
ease making itself felt in her sleei)ing consciousness and insisting
upon being perceived, there occurred the resultant dream of her
husband's peril.

Dr. Maudsley in his work on Dreams gives an instance of his
own experience much to the same effect, viz., that he dreamed he
was dissecting a subject when it suddenly revived ; his horror and
mortification were nothing more than the suffering from an intes-
tinal disturbance which introduced into his consciousness such a
sensation of pain that the percei)tive faculty had to accept and per-
ceive it to the above effect.

The theory will take a greater appearance of completeness if
we contrast, for the moment, the blind perception of our dreaming
with the true perception of our waking reality; the former built
up by some single real sensation, to which other artificial sensations
have been added from memory's store in order to make it possible
to combine the real sensation into a rational perception ; the latter
a congeries of real sensations unified and rationalized into a true
perception by the mysterious and hidden operation of the percep-
tive faculty — "apperception," Kant has called it. thus distinguishing
it as the active work of the ego. from the more passive reception of
sensations in consciousness. For example. I have a perception of
myself walking along the street in a great city ; innumerable sensa-
tions go to make up this perception, the absence of any one of
which would render the perception defective, either wholly or
partially unintelligible. Among the chief of these sensations — I
will not presume to name them all. perhaps that is impossible — are:
first, the sensation of sight ; I sec the street, the houses, the pavement,
they all are sending sensations to my consciousness ; there is a sen-
sation of hearing; the sound of my footfalls on the pavement;
many other sounds of less prominence announce the presence of
surrounding objects; there is a sensation of feeling; I experience
under my feet the resistance of the pavement to their touch ; and
further, there is another, less definite and not so easily recognized,
a feeling of the muscular contraction taking place in my limbs as
I exert them in the act of walking. Shut out any one of these and
the perceptive faculty is at a loss to form its perception ; it becomes
puzzled. Assume that only the mu.scular contraction of the limbs
renders a sensation in consciousness: I see and hear nothing, and

MISCELLANEOUS. 189

the perceptive faculty is compelled to make a perception out of this
alone. What could it do? How could it render it intelligible? If
I had already had a perception made out of real sensations and were
merely closing my eyes and ears to everything transmitted through
them, I could recall the sensations just experienced and by means
of my memory complete a true and full perception of what was
suggested by the single real sensation. The action would be very
similar to that posited as taking place in dreams, with the difference
that here I consciously recall and rehabilitate at the suggestion of
the single sensation all the rest. Thus I get my perception, blind,
it is true, in that with the exception of feeling, all the other sensa-
tions are merely invented, artificial or imaginary, yet nevertheless
intelligible, a copy of the actual perception which by an act of con-
scious will I have made, impossible by closing my eyes and ears to
the other sensations of which it was composed.

MISCELLANEOUS.

REGARDING CHRISTIAN ORIGINS.

BY EDGAR A. JOSSELYN.

A number of interesting articles have appeared in The Open Court on the
origin of Christianity, aboirt which there seems to be a rapidly growing interest
among students of the history of religion. So much new information has been
recently published about the early centuries of our era, that we are obliged to
revise our idea of them, and give more serious attention to the "Christ myth"
claim. Your contributors, however, while advancing strong arguments against
various theories, do not appear to give consideration to two very important
phases in the question, the combination of politics and religion in the early
Roman Empire, and the strong hold that the dramatic elements of the ancient
Greek mysteries had upon the people. Other writers ignore the same points,
especially the first. Both points strengthen the Christ myth theory.

At the beginning of the Christian era the Roman emperors were deified
and an acceptance of this deification was forced upon the empire. Apparently
a unified religion was sought, corresponding to the unified political world that
had been achieved. There was not such entire tolerance as Gibbon represents.
To those who would not accept the deification of the emperors there was in-
tolerance. The Jews resisted. We know that Philo of Alexandria went to
Rome in 40 A. D. to persuade the emperor Gains to abstain from claiming
divine honor of the Jews. A Jewish religious revolt arose that ultimately led
to the destruction of the Temple in 70 A. D. As is usual with religious wars
the offense was not so much a difference in belief as resistance to the estab-

190 THE OPEN COURT.

lished government, either Church or State. It is evident that it was considered
desirable to have a uniform religion in the empire, and this idea is found out-
side as well as inside governmental circles. Philosophy and religion were
deeply discussed, especially at .Alexandria. We are told that "in the first cen-
turies of Christianity, the religion of Persia was more studied and less under-
stood than it had ever been before. The real object aimed at, in studying the
old religion, was to form a new one." Christianity ultimately became a fusion
of many elements, without any really new etliics, without any wholly new
dogmas, but with one supreme feature, entirely new to the Roman world, a
unified, established, intolerant, ruling Church, reproducing on a large scale
what had existed in earlier times among the Egyptians, Jews, and other
Orientals. The fusion is well described in Dr. Carus's Pleroma and Gilbert
Sadler's Origin and Meaning of Christianity. The dogmas were principally
Greek. Ethics, as of old (especially as in China), came from the "Mount."
The Church establishment as a form of government was essentially Roman.
Monotheism, or at least a modified monotheism, was of course adopted, as
consistent with the aims and ideals of the movement. It should be noted that
where other governing religions have been forcibly imposed on peoples, they
have been monotheisms, as in the case of the Egyptian Aten, fourteen cen-
turies before Christ, Judaism, and Mohammedanism. The fact that the new
growth was largely outside of government circles might explain the persecu-
tions. But Christianity was not alone in the race for supremacy. Mithraism
made a mighty effort for control and nearly succeeded, but was overthrown
and absorbed by Christianity which adopted its observance of Sunday and
Cliristmas.

The second pliase of the question, that of the influence of the Greek
religious drama, presents an entirely different side of the subject. Most writers
agree that Christianity is a Greek religion. The resurrection myth, appearing
as the Osiris myth in Egj'pt, that of Attis, Adonis, and Mithra in various parts
of western Asia, and as that of Dionysos and others in Greece, seems to be
as old as mankind, and to represent one of the foundation stones of religion.
Moreover its appeal was to the community rather than the individual, was in-
tuitional rather than intellectual in character, and was essentially dramatic.
Jane Harrison, in her Ancient Art and Ritual, shows that art, especially drama,
was derived from ritual. She also points out that it was a democrat, Peisis-
tratos, who revived and favored the ancient ritual in the sixth century B. C.
Both Miss Harrison and Gilbert Murray trace the development of Greek
religion from the ancient Cyprian and Greek myths to the antliropomorphic
Olympian gods, after which came the academic philosophies of Plato and
Aristotle, which doubtless did not appeal to the people. Meanwhile in the
centuries just before the Christian era the cult of Osiris was revived in Eg>-pt,
and we know that Egyptian influence, especially in art, spread through the
Greek world after Alexander's conquests. Gerald Massey in Ancient Egyft
the Light of the World provides an Egyptian origin for nearly every Christian
dogma. Now the essence of the Osiris and similar myths, — the resurrection
or rebirth, — reflected the spirit of the times. The Roman Empire itself repre-
sented a birth of a new western world. There was a great drama taking
place before the eyes of the people in the unfolding of a new era. It is also
true that civilization was breaking down as well as starting on a new road,
and a reversion of thought to primitive type would be natural. The masses

MISCEIJ.AM'.OUS. 191

could easily welcome a new cult imposed on terms which gave them back the
old myth that they instinctively loved. Meanwhile in the centuries since the
old religion was most revered in Greece, there had come a change in man's
attitude toward mankind. Man was now the measure of all things. The gods
had already been made man-like, now man was to be god-like. The new mys-
tery drama was to be in terms of men, not bulls and rams. However, the
individual was still to be reborn by rites of initiation, — not of the mysteries,
but of baptism, the ceremony that counted so much in earliest Christianity.
It was no salvation on easy terms or any terms that the Greek world was
seeking, but the old rebirth in new terms. In the Eucharist is found the same
dramatic idea derived from other sources. In the ceremony of the mass the
ancient mystery drama was re-enacted in a new guise.

BOOK REVIEWS AND NOTES.

The Book of the Kindred Sayings (Sanyutta-Nikaya) : Part I (Sagatha-
Vagga). Translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids, assisted by Suriyagoda Su-
mangala Thera. London: The Oxford University Press [1917]. Pp.
xvi, 321. Price, cloth, 10s. net.
This translation, published for the Pali Text Society, contains the first
eleven books of the "Classified Collection" {Sanyutta Nikaya) of the "Dia-
logues" (Sutta Pitaka), the second group of the canonical texts of early Bud-
dhism. The text followed is of course that of the Pali edition published by
Leon Feer, 1884ff, of which we now have the first volume in English. There
seems to be hope that the rest of these suttas will appear shortly. As we
learn from the Preface, the volume before us was finished as early as July,
1916, but war prices of paper and printing threatened to delay the publication
quite indefinitely. Then it was decided to proceed with the work regardless
of financial considerations, a course for which the Society certainly deserves
much credit. The second volume is announced as following closely behind.

Of these eleven books, the Sagatha Vagga, or section "with verses" as they
are called, up to now only two were available to Western students in complete
translations, the "Mara Suttas" and the "Suttas of Sisters," of which Pro-
fessor Windisch gave a German version in his Mara und Buddha, Leipsic,
1895. Besides, the "Suttas of Sisters" were rendered into English by Mrs.
Rhys Davids before, in her Psalms of the Early Buddhists, Part I (1909),
Appendix. Of quotations of course there are many in books dealing with
early Buddhism, having on the whole the effect of making the darkness cover-
ing other parts only more visible. So we are glad to see at last the Sagatha
Vagga made accessible in its entirety also to others than Pali scholars.

The impression the book creates as a whole is well summarized by the
translator in the following (p. vii) :

"Mythical and folk-lore drapery are wrapped about many of the sayings
here ascribed to the Buddha. And in nearly all of them, if any represent
genuine prose utterances, they have become deflected in the prism of memorial-
izing verse, and to that extent artificial. Nevertheless, the matter of them is
of the stamp of the oldest doctrine known to us, and from them a fairly com-

192 THE OPEN COURT.

plete synopsis of the ancient Dliamma niiglit be compiled. And short and
terse as are the presentations of both saying and episode, they contribute not
a little to body out our somewhat vague outline of India's greatest son, so that
we receive successive impressions of his great good sense, his willingness to
adapt his sayings to the individual inquirer, his keen intuition, his humor and
smiling irony, his courage and dignity, his catholic and tender compassion for
all creatures."

Mrs. Rhys Davids has preserved the metrical form wherever she found
it used in the original — disdaining "to scrape the gilt off the gold." However,
she has added literal translations in foot-notes in instances where the standards
of scholarship seemed to demand it. Of her spirited verse renderings we
offer the following as a specimen (p. 110) :

"A man may spoil another, just so far
As it may serve his ends, but when he's spoiled
By others he, despoiled, spoils yet again.
So long as evil's fruit is not matured,
The fool doth fancy 'now's the hour, the chance!'
But when the deed bears fruit, he fareth ill.
The slayer gets a slayer in his turn ;
The conqueror gets one who conquers him ;
Th' abuser wins abuse, th' annoyer, fret.
Thus by the evolution of the deed,
A man who spoils is spoiled in his turn."

The Inde.x contains, besides a list of names and subjects, a list of Pali
words paraphrased from Buddhaghosa's commentary on the Sanyutta Nikaya,
the Sarattappakasini, wliich will be welcome to the student of the original,
especially since the commentary itself exists in printed form only in Singha-
lese cliaracters. This commentary also goes to make up a large part of ex-
planations and elucidations of the text offered in the foot-notes.

In 1914 Dr. Carus published a volume of verse entitled Truth, and Other
Poems in which appeared his poem "Death." Our readers will understand and
appreciate the spirit in which we reprint it in this issue.

"BEST BOOK ON BUDDHISM"

THE GOSPEL OF BUDDHA

By DR. PAUL CARUS.
New illustrated pocket edition.

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ESSAYS IN SCIENTIFIC SYNTHESIS

BY
EUGENIC RIGNANO

254 pages

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A Budget of Paradoxes

By AUGUSTUS DE MORGAN

2 volumes, cloth $2.50 a volume

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LIBRARY IDEALS

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HENRY EDUARD LEGLER

78 pages Cloth, $1.50

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The

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By Ludwig Noire

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CULTURAL REALITY

By FLORIAN ZNANIECKI, Ph.D.

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in the University of Chicago

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